CHAPTER
11

TERRAIN
ASSOCIATION

Failure to
make use of the vast amounts of information presented by the map and available
to the eye on the ground reduces the chances for success in land navigation.
The soldier who has repeatedly practiced the skills of identifying and discriminating
among the many types of terrain and other features knows how these features
are mapped. He can begin to visualize the shape of the land by studying the
map, estimate distances, and perform quick resection from the many landmarks
he sees is the one who will be at the right place to help defeat the enemy on
the battlefield. This chapter tells how to orient a map with and without a compass,
how to find locations on a map as well as on the ground, how to study the terrain,
and how to move on the ground using terrain association and dead reckoning.

The first step for a navigator
in the field is orienting the map. A map is oriented when it is in a horizontal
position with its north and south corresponding to the north and south on the
ground. Some orienting techniques follow:

a. Using a Compass.
When orienting a map with a compass, remember that the compass measures magnetic
azimuths. Since the magnetic arrow points to magnetic north, pay special attention
to the declination diagram. There are two techniques used.

(1) First
Technique. Determine the direction of the declination and its value
from the declination diagram.

(a) With the
map in a horizontal position, take the straightedge on the left side of
the compass and place it alongside the north-south grid line with the
cover of the compass pointing toward the top of the map. This procedure
places the fixed black index line of the compass parallel to north-south
grid lines of the map.

(b) Keeping
the compass aligned as directed above, rotate the map and compass together
until the magnetic arrow is below the fixed black index line on the compass.
At this time, the map is close to being oriented.

(c) Rotate
the map and compass in the direction of the declination diagram.

(d) If the
magnetic north arrow on the map is to the left of the grid north, check
the compass reading to see if it equals the G-M angle given in the declination
diagram. The map is then oriented (Figure 11-1).

Figure
11-1. Map oriented with 11 degrees west declination.

(e) If the
magnetic north is to the right of grid north, check the compass reading
to see if it equals 360 degrees minus the G-M angle (Figure
11-2).

Figure
11-2. Map oriented with 21 degrees east declination.

(2) Second
Technique. Determine the direction of the declination and its value
from the declination diagram.

(a) Using any
north-south grid line on the map as a base, draw a magnetic azimuth equal
to the G-M angle given in the declination diagram with the protractor.

(b) If the
declination is easterly (right), the drawn line is equal to the value
of the G-M angle. Then align the straightedge, which is on the left side
of the compass, alongside the drawn line on the map. Rotate the map and
compass until the magnetic arrow of the compass is below the fixed black
index line. The map is now oriented (Figure 11-3).

Figure
11-3. Map oriented with 15 degrees east declination.

(c) If the
declination is westerly (left), the drawn line will equal 360 degrees
minus the value of the G-M angle. Then align the straightedge, which is
on the left side of the compass, alongside the drawn line on the map.
Rotate the map and compass until the magnetic arrow of the compass is
below the fixed black index line. The map is now oriented (Figure
11-4).

Figure
11-4. Map oriented with 10 degrees west declination.

NOTE:

1. Once the
map is oriented, magnetic azimuths are determined using the compass.
Do not move the map from its oriented position since any change in its
position moves it out of line with the magnetic north. [See paragraph
11-6b(1).]

2. Special
care should be taken whenever orienting your map with a compass. A small
mistake can cause you to navigate in the wrong direction.

b. Using Terrain
Association. A map can be oriented by terrain association when a compass
is not available or when the user has to make many quick references as he
moves across country. Using this method requires careful examination of the
map and the ground, and the user must know his approximate location (Figure
11-5). Orienting by this method is discussed in detail in paragraph
11-3.

Figure
11-5. Terrain association.

c. Using Field-Expedient
Methods. When a compass is not available and there are no recognizable
terrain features, a map may be oriented by any of the field-expedient methods
described in paragraph 9-5. Also see Figure
11-6.

The key to success in land
navigation is to know your location at all times. With this basic knowledge,
you can decide what direction and what distance to travel.

a. Known Position.
Most important of all is the initial location of the user before starting
any movement in the field. If movement takes place without establishing the
initial location, everything that is done in the field from there on is a
gamble. Determine the initial location by referring to the last known position,
by grid coordinates and terrain association, or by locating and orienting
your position on the map and ground.

b. Known Point/Known
Distance (Polar Plot). This location can be determined by knowing the
starting point, the azimuth to the desired objective, and the distance to
it.

The technique of moving
by terrain association is more forgiving of mistakes and far less time-consuming
than dead reckoning. It best suits those situations that call for movement from
one area to another. Errors made using terrain association are easily corrected
because you are comparing what you expected to see from the map to what you
do see on the ground. Errors are anticipated and will not go unchecked. You
can easily make adjustments based upon what you encounter. Periodic position-fixing
through either plotted or estimated resection will also make it possible to
correct your movements, call for fire, or call in the locations of enemy targets
or any other information of tactical or logistical importance.

a. Matching
the Terrain to the Map by Examining Terrain Features. By observing the
contour lines in detail, the five major terrain features (hilltop, valley,
ridge, depression, and saddle) should be determined. This is a simple task
in an area where the observer has ample view of the terrain in all directions.
One-by-one, match the terrain features depicted on the map with the same features
on the ground. In restricted terrain, this procedure becomes harder; however,
constantly check the map as you move since it is the determining factor (Figure
11-5).

b. Comparing
the Vegetation Depicted on the Map. When comparing the vegetation, a topographic
map should be used to make a comparison of the clearings that appear on the
map with the ones on the ground. The user must be familiar with the different
symbols, such as vineyards, plantations, and orchards that appear on the legend.
The age of the map is an important factor when comparing vegetation. Some
important vegetation features were likely to be different when the map was
made. Another important factor about vegetation is that it can change overnight
by natural accidents or by man (forest fires, clearing of land for new developments,
farming, and so forth).

c. Masking by
the Vegetation. Camouflage the important landforms using vegetation. Use
of camouflage makes it harder for the navigator to use terrain association.

d. Using the
Hydrography. Inland bodies of water can help during terrain association.
The shape and size of lakes in conjunction with the size and direction of
flow of the rivers and streams are valuable help.

e. Using Man-made
Features. Man-made features are an important factor during terrain association.
The user must be familiar with the symbols shown in the legend representing
those features. The direction of buildings, roads, bridges, high-tension lines,
and so forth make the terrain inspection a lot easier; however, the age of
the map must be considered because man-made features appear and disappear
constantly.

f. Examining
the Same Piece of Terrain During the Different Seasons of the Year. In
those areas of the world where the seasons are distinctive, a detailed examination
of the terrain should be made during each of the seasons. The same piece of
land does not present the same characteristics during both spring and winter.

(1) During winter,
the snow packs the vegetation, delineating the land, making the terrain
features appear as clear as they are shown by the contour lines on the map.
Ridges, valleys, and saddles are very distinctive.

(2) During spring,
the vegetation begins to reappear and grow. New vegetation causes a gradual
change of the land to the point that the foliage conceals the terrain features
and makes the terrain hard to recognize.

(3) During summer
months, the effects are similar to those in the spring.

(4) Fall makes
the land appear different with its change of color and gradual loss of vegetation.

(5) During the
rainy season, the vegetation is green and thick, and the streams and ponds
look like small rivers and lakes. In scarcely vegetated areas, the erosion
changes the shape of the land.

(6) During a
period of drought, the vegetation dries out and becomes vulnerable to forest
fires that change the terrain whenever they occur. Also during this season,
the water levels of streams and lakes drop, adding new dimensions and shape
to the existing mapped areas.

g. Following
an Example of Terrain Association. Your location is hilltop 514 in the
lower center of the map in Figure 11-7.

Figure
11-7. Example of terrain association.

(1) To
The North. The contour lines indicate that the hill slopes down
for about 190 meters, and that it leads into a small valley containing
an intermittent stream. On the other side of the stream as you continue
with your northerly inspection, the terrain starts a gradual ascent, indicating
a hilltop partially covered with vegetation, until an unimproved road is
reached. This road runs along a gradual ridgeline with north-west direction.
Then the contour line spacings become narrow, indicating a steeper grade
that leads to a narrow valley containing a small intermittent stream. As
you continue up, you find a small but prominent ridge with a clearing. The
contour lines once again show a steeper grade leading to a moderate valley
containing an intermittent stream running in a south-east direction.

(2) To
The East. There is a clearing of the terrain as it slopes down to
Schley Pond. An ample valley is clearly seen on the right side of the pond,
as indicated by the "U" and "V" shape of the contour lines. This valley
contains some swamp areas and there is a long ridgeline on the north portion
of the valley.

(3) To
The South. The terrain gently slopes downward until a clear area
is reached. It continues in a downward direction to an intermittent stream
running south-east in a small valley. There is also an improved road running
in the same direction as the valley. At the intersection of the roads as
you face south, there is a clearing of about 120 meters on the ridge. At
the bottom of it, a stream runs from Schley Pond in a south-west direction
through an ample valley fed by two intermittent streams. As you continue,
a steep, vegetated hill is found with a clearing on its top, followed by
a small saddle and another hilltop.

(4) To
The West. First, you see a small, clear valley. It is followed by
a general ridgeline running north-west in which an unimproved road is located
just before a hilltop. Continuing on a westerly direction, you will find
a series of alternate valleys and ridges.

Military cross-country navigation
is intellectually demanding because it is imperative that the unit, crew, or
vehicle survive and successfully complete the move in order to accomplish its
mission. However, the unnecessary use of a difficult route makes navigation
too complicated, creates more noise when proceeding over it, causes wear and
tear on equipment and personnel, increases the need for and needlessly complicate
recovery operations, and wastes scarce time. On receipt of a tactical mission,
the leader begins his troop-leading procedures and makes a tentative plan. He
bases the tentative plan on a good terrain analysis. He analyzes the considerations
covered in the following mnemonics OCOKA and METT-T.

a. OCOKA.
The terrain should be analyzed for observation and fields of fire, cover and
concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of approach.

(1) Observation
and Fields of Fire. The purpose of observation is to see the enemy
(or various landmarks) but not be seen by him. Anything that can be seen
can be hit. Therefore, a field of fire is an area that a weapon or a group
of weapons can cover effectively with fire from a given position.

(2) Cover
and Concealment. Cover is shelter or protection (from enemy fire)
either natural or artificial. Always try to use covered routes and seek
cover for each halt, no matter how brief it is planned to be. Unfortunately,
two factors interfere with obtaining constant cover. One is time and the
other is terrain. Concealment is protection from observation or surveillance,
including concealment from enemy air observation. Before, trees provided
good concealment, but with modern thermal and infrared imaging equipment,
trees are not always effective. When you are moving, concealment is generally
secondary; therefore, select routes and positions that do not allow covered
or concealed enemy near you.

(3) Obstacles.
Obstacles are any obstructions that stop, delay, or divert movement. Obstacles
can be natural (rivers, swamps, cliffs, or mountains) or they may be artificial
(barbed wire entanglements, pits, concrete or metal antimechanized traps).
They can be ready-made or constructed in the field. Always consider any
possible obstacles along your movement route and, if possible, try to keep
obstacles between the enemy and yourself.

(4) Key
Terrain. Key terrain is any locality or area that the seizure or
retention of affords a marked advantage to either combatant. Urban areas
that are often seen by higher headquarters as being key terrain because
they are used to control routes. On the other hand, an urban area that is
destroyed may be an obstacle instead. High ground can be key because it
dominates an area with good observation and fields of fire. In an open area,
a draw or wadi (dry streambed located in an arid area) may provide the only
cover for many kilometers, thereby becoming key. You should always attempt
to locate any area near you that could be even remotely considered as key
terrain.

(5) Avenues
of Approach. These are access routes. They may be the routes you
can use to get to the enemy or the routes they can use to get to you. Basically,
an identifiable route that approaches a position or location is an avenue
of approach to that location. They are often terrain corridors such as valleys
or wide, open areas.

b . METT-T.
Tactical factors other than the military aspects of terrain must also
be considered in conjunction with terrain during movement planning and execution
as well. These additional considerations are mission, enemy, terrain and weather,
troops, and time available.

(1) Mission.
This refers to the specific task assigned to a unit or individual. It is
the duty or task together with the purpose that clearly indicates the action
to be taken and the reason for it but not how to do it. Training exercises
should stress the importance of a thorough map reconnaissance to evaluate
the terrain. This allows the leader to confirm his tentative plan, basing
his decision on the terrain's effect on his mission.

(a) Marches
by foot or vehicle are used to move troops from one location to another.
Soldiers must get to the right place, at the right time, and in good fighting
condition. The normal rate for an 8-hour foot march is 4 kmph. However,
the rate of march may vary, depending on the following factors:

Distance.

Time allowed.

Likelihood of
enemy contact.

Terrain.

Weather.

Physical condition
of soldiers.

Equipment/weight
to be carried.

A motor march
requires little or no walking by the soldiers, but the factors affecting
the rate of march still apply.

(b) Patrol
missions are used to conduct combat or reconnaissance operations. Without
detailed planning and a thorough map reconnaissance, any patrol mission
may not succeed. During the map reconnaissance, the mission leader determines
a primary and alternate route to and from the objectives.

(c) Movement
to contact is conducted whenever an element is moving toward the enemy
but is not in contact with the enemy. The lead element must orient its
movement on the objective by conducting a map reconnaissance, determining
the location of the objective on both the map and the ground, and selecting
the route to be taken.

(d) Delays
and withdrawals are conducted to slow the enemy down without becoming
decisively engaged, or to assume another mission. To be effective, the
element leader must know where he is to move and the route to be taken.

(2) Enemy.
This refers to the strength, status of training, disposition (locations),
doctrine, capabilities, equipment (including night vision devices), and
probable courses of action that impact upon both the planning and execution
of the mission, including a movement.

(3) Terrain
and Weather. Observation and fields of fire influence the placement
of positions and crew-served weapons. The leader conducts a map reconnaissance
to determine key terrain, obstacles, cover and concealment, and likely avenues
of approach.

(a) Key terrain
is any area whose control affords a marked advantage to the force holding
it. Some types of key terrain are high ground, bridges, towns, and road
junctions.

(b) Obstacles
are natural or man-made terrain features that stop, slow down, or divert
movement. Consideration of obstacles is influenced by the unit's mission.
An obstacle may be an advantage or disadvantage, depending upon the direction
of attack or defense. Obstacles can be found by conducting a thorough
map reconnaissance and study of recent aerial photographs.

(c) Cover and
concealment are determined for both friendly and enemy forces. Concealment
is protection from observation; cover is protection from the effects of
fire. Most terrain features that offer cover also provide concealment
from ground observation. There are areas that provide no concealment from
enemy observation. These danger areas may be large or small open fields,
roads, or streams. During the leader's map reconnaissance, he determines
any obvious danger areas and, if possible, adjusts his route.

(d) Avenues
of approach are routes by which a unit may reach an objective or key terrain.
To be considered an AA, a route must provide enough width for the deployment
of the size force for which it is being considered. The AAs are also considered
for the subordinate enemy force. For example, a company determines likely
AAs for an enemy platoon; a platoon determines likely AAs for an enemy
squad. Likely AAs may be either ridges, valleys, or by air. By examining
the terrain, the leader determines the likely enemy AAs based on the tactical
situation.

(e) Weather
has little effect on dismounted land navigation. Rain and snow could possibly
slow down the rate of march, that is all. But during mounted land navigation,
the navigator must know the effect of weather on his vehicle. (See Chapter
12 for mounted land navigation.)

(4) Troops.
Consideration of your own troops is equally important. The size and type
of the unit to be moved and its capabilities, physical condition, status
of training, and types of equipment assigned all affect the selection of
routes, positions, fire plans, and the various decisions to be made during
movement. On ideal terrain such as relatively level ground with little or
no woods, a platoon can defend a front of up to 400 meters. The leader must
conduct a thorough map reconnaissance and terrain analysis of the area his
unit is to defend. Heavily wooded areas or very hilly areas may reduce the
front a platoon can defend. The size of the unit must also be taken into
consideration when planning a movement to contact. During movement, the
unit must retain its ability to maneuver. A small draw or stream may reduce
the unit's maneuverability but provide excellent concealment. All of these
factors must be considered.

(a) Types of
equipment that may be needed by the unit can be determined by a map reconnaissance.
For example, if the unit must cross a large stream during its movement
to the objective, ropes may be needed for safety lines.

(b) Physical
capabilities of the soldiers must be considered when selecting a route.
Crossing a large swampy area may present no problem to a physically fit
unit, but to a unit that has not been physically conditioned, the swampy
area may slow or completely stop its movement.

(5) Time
Available. At times, the unit may have little time to reach an objective
or to move from one point to another. The leader must conduct a map reconnaissance
to determine the quickest route to the objective; this is not always a straight
route. From point A to point B on the map may appear to be 1,000 meters,
but if the route is across a large ridge, the distance will be greater.
Another route from point A to B may be 1,500 meters but on flat terrain.
In this case, the quickest route would be across the flat terrain; however,
concealment and cover may be lost.

One key to success in tactical
missions is the ability to move undetected to the objective. There are four
steps to land navigation. Being given an objective and the requirement to move
there, you must know where you are, plan the route, stay on the route, and recognize
the objective.

a. Know Where
You Are (Step 1). You must know where you are on the map and on the ground
at all times and in every possible way. This includes knowing where you are
relative to

Your directional orientation.

The direction and
distances to your objective.

Other landmarks and
features.

Any impassable terrain,
the enemy, and danger areas.

Both the advantages
and disadvantages presented by the terrain between you and your objective.

This step is accomplished
by knowing how to read a map, recognize and identify specific terrain and
other features; determine and estimate direction; pace, measure, and estimate
distances, and both plot and estimate a position by resection.

b. Plan the
Route (Step 2). Depending upon the size of the unit and the length and
type of movement to be conducted, several factors should be considered in
selecting a good route or routes to be followed. These include

Travel time.

Travel distance.

Maneuver room needed.

Trafficability.

Load-bearing capacities
of the soil.

Energy expenditure
by troops.

The factors of METT-T.

Tactical aspects of
terrain (OCOKA).

Ease of logistical
support.

Potential for surprising
the enemy.

Availability of control
and coordination features.

Availability of good
checkpoints and steering marks.

In other words, the route
must be the result of careful map study and should address the requirements
of the mission, tactical situation, and time available. It must also provide
for ease of movement and navigation.

(1) Three route-selection
criteria that are important for small-unit movements are cover, concealment,
and the availability of reliable checkpoint features. The latter is weighted
even more heavily when selecting the route for a night operation. The degree
of visibility and ease of recognition (visual effect) are the key to the
proper selection of these features.

(2) The best
checkpoints are linear features that cross the route. Examples include perennial
streams, hard-top roads, ridges, valleys, railroads, and power transmission
lines. Next, it is best to select features that represent elevation changes
of at least two contour intervals such as hills, depressions, spurs, and
draws. Primary reliance upon cultural features and vegetation is cautioned
against because they are most likely to have changed since the map was last
revised.

(3) Checkpoints
located at places where changes in direction are made mark your decision
points. Be especially alert to see and recognize these features
during movement. During preparation and planning, it is especially important
to review the route and anticipate where mistakes are most likely to be
made so they can be avoided.

(4) Following
a valley floor or proceeding near (not on) the crest of a ridgeline generally
offers easy movement, good navigation checkpoints, and sufficient cover
and concealment. It is best to follow terrain features whenever you can
not to fight them.

(5) A lost or
a late arriving unit, or a tired unit that is tasked with an unnecessarily
difficult move, does not contribute to the accomplishment of a mission.
On the other hand, the unit that moves too quickly and carelessly into a
destructive ambush or leaves itself open to air strikes also have little
effect. Careful planning and study are required each time a movement route
is to be selected.

c. Stay on the
Route (Step 3). In order to know that you are still on the correct route,
you must be able to compare the evidence you encounter as you move according
to the plan you developed on the map when you selected your route. This may
include watching your compass reading (dead reckoning) or recognizing various
checkpoints or landmarks from the map in their anticipated positions and sequences
as you pass them (terrain association). A better way is to use a combination
of both.

d. Recognize
the Objective (Step 4). The destination is rarely a highly recognizable
feature such as a dominant hilltop or road junction. Such locations as this
are seldom missed by the most inexperienced navigators and are often dangerous
places for soldiers to occupy. The relatively small, obscure places are most
likely to be the destinations.

(1) Just how
does a soldier travel over unfamiliar terrain for moderate to great distances
and know when he reaches the destination? One minor error, when many are
possible, can cause the target to be missed.

(2) The answer
is simple. Select a checkpoint (reasonably close to the destination) that
is not so difficult to find or recognize. Then plan a short, fine-tuned
last leg from the new expanded objective to the final destination.
For example, you may be able to plan and execute the move as a series of
sequenced movements from one checkpoint or landmark to another using both
the terrain and a compass to keep you on the correct course. Finally, after
arriving at the last checkpoint, you might follow a specific compass azimuth
and pace off the relatively short, known distance to the final, pinpoint
destination. This procedure is called point navigation. A short
movement out from a unit position to an observation post or to a coordination
point may also be accomplished in the same manner.

Staying on the route is
accomplished through the use of one or two navigation techniques dead reckoning
and terrain association. These methods are discussed in detail below.

a. Moving by
Dead Reckoning. Dead reckoning consists of two fundamental steps. The
first is the use of a protractor and graphic scales to determine the direction
and distance from one point to another on a map. The second step is the use
of a compass and some means of measuring distance to apply this information
on the ground. In other words, it begins with the determination of a polar
coordinate on a map and ends with the act of finding it on the ground.

(1) Dead reckoning
along a given route is the application of the same process used by a mapmaker
as he establishes a measured line of reference upon which to construct the
framework of his map. Therefore, triangulation exercises (either resection
or intersection) can be easily undertaken by the navigator at any time to
either determine or confirm precise locations along or near his route. Between
these position-fixes, establish your location by measuring or estimating
the distance traveled along the azimuth being followed from the previous
known point. You might use pacing, a vehicle odometer, or the application
of elapsed time for this purpose, depending upon the situation.

(2) Most dead
reckoned movements do not consist of single straight-line distances because
you cannot ignore the tactical and navigational aspects of the terrain,
enemy situation, natural and man-made obstacles, time, and safety factors.
Another reason most dead reckoning movements are not single straight-line
distances is because compasses and pace-counts are imprecise measures. Error
from them compounds over distance; therefore, you could soon be far afield
from your intended route even if you performed the procedures correctly.
The only way to counteract this phenomenon is to reconfirm your location
by terrain association or resection. Routes planned for dead reckoning generally
consist of a series of straight-line distances between several checkpoints
with perhaps some travel running on or parallel to roads or trails.

(3) There are
two advantages to dead reckoning. First, dead reckoning is easy to teach
and to learn. Second, it can be a highly accurate way of moving from one
point to another if done carefully over short distances, even where few
external cues are present to guide the movements.

(4) During daylight,
across open country, along a specified magnetic azimuth, never walk with
the compass in the open position and in front of you. Because the compass
will not stay steady or level, it does not give an accurate reading when
held or used this way. Begin at the start point and face with the compass
in the proper direction, then sight in on a landmark that is located on
the correct azimuth to be followed. Close the compass and proceed to that
landmark. Repeat the process as many times as necessary to complete the
straight-line segment of the route.

(5) The landmarks
selected for this purpose are called steering marks, and their selection
is crucial to success in dead reckoning. Steering marks should never be
determined from a map study. They are selected as the march progresses and
are commonly on or near the highest points that you can see along the azimuth
line that you are following when they are selected. They may be uniquely
shaped trees, rocks, hilltops, posts, towers, and buildings anything that
can be easily identified. If you do not see a good steering mark to the
front, you might use a back azimuth to some feature behind you until a good
steering mark appears out in front. Characteristics of a good steering mark
are:

(a) It must
have some characteristics about it, such as color, shade of color, size,
or shape (preferably all four), that will assure you that it will continue
to be recognized as you approach it.

(b) If several
easily distinguished objects appear along your line of march, the best
steering mark is the most distant object. This procedure enables you to
travel farther with fewer references to the compass. If you have many
options, select the highest object. A higher mark is not as easily lost
to sight as is a lower mark that blends into the background as you approach
it. A steering mark should be continuously visible as you move toward
it.

(c) Steering
marks selected at night must have even more unique shapes than those selected
during daylight. As darkness approaches, colors disappear and objects
appear as black or gray silhouettes. Instead of seeing shapes, you begin
to see only the general outlines that may appear to change as you move
and see the objects from slightly different angles.

(6) Dead reckoning
without natural steering marks is used when the area through which you are
traveling is devoid of features, or when visibility is poor. At night, it
may be necessary to send a member of the unit out in front of your position
to create your own steering mark in order to proceed. His position should
be as far out as possible to reduce the number of chances for error as you
move. Arm-and-hand signals or a radio may be used in placing him on the
correct azimuth. After he has been properly located, move forward to his
position and repeat the process until some steering marks can be identified
or until you reach your objective.

(7) When handling
obstacles/detours on the route, follow these guidelines:

(a) When an
obstacle forces you to leave your original line of march and take up a
parallel one, always return to the original line as soon as the terrain
or situation permits.

(b) To turn
clockwise (right) 90 degrees, you must add 90 degrees to your original
azimuth. To turn counterclockwise (left) 90 degrees from your current
direction, you must subtract 90 degrees from your present azimuth.

(c) When making
a detour, be certain that only paces taken toward the final destination
are counted as part of your forward progress. They should not be confused
with the local pacing that takes place perpendicular to the route in order
to avoid the problem area and in returning to the original line of march
after the obstacle has been passed.

(8) Sometimes
a steering mark on your azimuth of travel can be seen across a swamp or
some other obstacle to which you can simply walk out around. Dead reckoning
can then begin at that point. If there is no obvious steering mark to be
seen across the obstacle, perhaps one can be located to the rear. Compute
a back azimuth to this point and later sight back to it once the obstacle
has been passed in order to get back on track.

(9) You can use
the deliberate offset technique. Highly accurate distance estimates and
precision compass work may not be required if the destination or an intermediate
checkpoint is located on or near a large linear feature that runs nearly
perpendicular to your direction of travel. Examples include roads or highways,
railroads, power transmission lines, ridges, or streams. In these cases,
you should apply a deliberate error (offset) of about 10 degrees to the
azimuth you planned to follow and then move, using the lensatic compass
as a guide, in that direction until you encounter the linear feature. You
will know exactly which way to turn (left or right) to find your destination
or checkpoint, depending upon which way you planned your deliberate offset.

(10) Because
no one can move along a given azimuth with absolute precision, it is better
to plan a few extra steps than to begin an aimless search for the objective
once you reach the linear feature. If you introduce your own mistake, you
will certainly know how to correct it. This method will also cope with minor
compass errors and the slight variations that always occur in the earth's
magnetic field.

(11) There are
disadvantages to dead reckoning. The farther you travel by dead reckoning
without confirming your position in relation to the terrain and other features,
the more errors you will accumulate in your movements. Therefore, you should
confirm and correct your estimated position whenever you encounter a known
feature on the ground that is also on the map. Periodically, you should
accomplish a resection triangulation using two or more known points to pinpoint
and correct your position on the map. Pace counts or any type of distance
measurement should begin anew each time your position is confirmed on the
map.

(a) It is dangerous
to select a single steering mark, such as a distant mountaintop, and then
move blindly toward it. What will you do if you must suddenly call for
fire support or a medical evacuation? You must periodically use resection
and terrain association techniques to pinpoint your location along the
way.

(b) Steering
marks can be farther apart in open country, thereby making navigation
more accurate. In areas of dense vegetation, however, where there is little
relief, during darkness, or in fog, your steering marks must be close
together. This, of course, introduces more chance for error.

(c) Finally,
dead reckoning is time-consuming and demands constant attention to the
compass. Errors accumulate easily and quickly. Every fold in the ground
and detours as small as a single tree or boulder also complicate the measurement
of distance.

b. Moving by
Terrain Association. The technique of moving by terrain association is
more forgiving of mistakes and far less time-consuming than dead reckoning.
It best suits those situations that call for movement from one area to another.
Once an error has been made in dead reckoning, you are off the track. Errors
made using terrain association are easily corrected, however, because you
are comparing what you expected to see from the map to what you do see on
the ground. Errors are anticipated and will not go unchecked. You can easily
make adjustments based upon what you encounter. After all, you do not find
the neighborhood grocery store by dead reckoning you adjust your movements
according to the familiar landmarks you encounter along the way (Figure
11-8). Periodic position-fixing through either plotted or estimated resection
will also make it possible to correct your movements, call for fire, or call
in the locations of enemy targets or any other information of tactical or
logistical importance.

Figure
11-8. Terrain association navigation.

(1)
Identifying and Locating Selected Features. Being able
to identify and locate the selected features, both on the map and on the
ground, are essential to the success in moving by terrain association. The
following rules may prove helpful.

(a) Be certain
the map is properly oriented when moving along the route and use the terrain
and other features as guides. The orientation of the map must match the
terrain or it can cause confusion.

(b) To locate
and identify features being used to guide the movement, look for the steepness
and shape of the slopes, the relative elevations of the various features,
and the directional orientations in relation to your position and to the
position of the other features you can see.

(c) Make use
of the additional cues provided by hydrography, culture, and vegetation.
All the information you can gather will assist you in making the move.
The ultimate test and the best practice for this movement technique is
to go out in the field and use it. The use of terrain, other natural features,
and any man-made objects that appear both on the map and on the ground
must be practiced at every opportunity. There is no other way to learn
or retain this skill.

(2) Using
Handrails, Catching Features, and Navigational Attack Points. First,
because it is difficult to dead reckon without error over long distances
with your compass, the alert navigator can often gain assistance from the
terrain.

(a) Handrails
are linear features like roads or highways, railroads, power transmission
lines, ridgelines, or streams that run roughly parallel to your direction
of travel. Instead of using precision compass work, you can rough compass
without the use of steering marks for as long as the feature travels with
you on your right or left. It acts as a handrail to guide the way.

(b) Second,
when you reach the point where either your route or the handrail changes
direction, you must be aware that it is time to go your separate ways.
Some prominent feature located near this point is selected to provide
this warning. This is called a catching feature; it can also be
used to tell you when you have gone too far.

(c) Third,
the catching feature may also be your navigational attack point;
this point is the place where area navigation ends and point navigation
begins. From this last easily identified checkpoint, the navigator moves
cautiously and precisely along a given azimuth for a specified distance
to locate the final objective. The selection of this navigational attack
point is important. A distance of 500 meters or less is most desirable.

(3) Recognizing
the Disadvantages of Terrain Association. The major disadvantage
to navigation by terrain association is that you must be able to interpret
the map and analyze the world around you. Recognition of terrain and other
features, the ability to determine and estimate direction and distance,
and knowing how to do quick-in-the-head position fixing are skills that
are more difficult to teach, learn, and retain than those required for dead
reckoning.

c. Combination
of Techniques. Actually, the most successful navigation is obtained by
combining the techniques described above. Constant orientation of the map
and continuous observation of the terrain in conjunction with compass-read
azimuths, and distance traveled on the ground compared with map distance,
used together make reaching a destination more certain. One should not depend
entirely on compass navigation or map navigation; either or both could be
lost or destroyed.

Darkness presents its own
characteristics for land navigation because of limited or no visibility. However,
the techniques and principles are the same as that used for day navigation.
The success in nighttime land navigation depends on rehearsals during the planning
phase before the movement, such as detailed analysis of the map to determine
the type of terrain in which the navigation is going to take place and the predetermination
of azimuths and distances. Night vision devices (Appendix
H) can greatly enhance night navigation.

a. The basic technique
used for nighttime land navigation is dead reckoning with several compasses
recommended. The point man is in front of the navigator but just a few steps
away for easy control of the azimuth. Smaller steps are taken during night
navigation, so remember, the pace count is different. It is recommended that
a pace count obtained by using a predetermined 100-meter pace course be used
at night.

b. Navigation using
the stars is recommended in some areas; however, a thorough knowledge of constellations
and location of stars is needed (paragraph
9-5c). The four cardinal directions can also be obtained at night by using
the same technique described for the shadow-tip method. Just use the moon
instead of the sun. In this case, the moon has to be bright enough to cast
a shadow.

CHAPTER
12

MOUNTED
LAND NAVIGATION

A vehicle commander should
be able to navigate from one point on the ground to another with or without
a compass. If separated from his unit and given an azimuth and distance from
their position to his, he should be able to reach the unit and continue the
mission. To move effectively while mounted, he must know the principles of mounted
navigation.

The principles of land navigation
while mounted are basically the same as while dismounted. The major difference
is the speed of travel. Walking between two points may take one hour, but riding
the same distance may only take 15 minutes. To be effective at mounted land
navigation, the travel speed must be considered.

The duties of a navigator
are so important and exacting that he should not be given any other duties.
The leader should never try to be the navigator, since his normal responsibilities
are heavy, and one or the other job would suffer.

a. Assembling
Equipment. The navigator must gather all the equipment that will help
him perform his job (maps, pencils, and so forth). He must do this before
the mission starts.

b. Servicing
Equipment. It is the navigator's duty to make sure that all the equipment
he may use or require is working.

c. Recording
Data for Precise Locations. During movement, the navigator must make sure
that the correct direction and distance are recorded and followed. Grid coordinates
of locations must be recorded and plotted.

d. Supplying
Data to Subordinate Leaders. During movement, any change in direction
or distance must be given to the subordinate leaders in sufficient time to
allow them to react.

e. Maintaining
Liaison with the Commander. The commander normally selects the route that
he desires to use. The navigator is responsible for following that route;
however, there may be times when the route must be changed during a tactical
operation. For this reason, the navigator must maintain constant communication
with the commander. The navigator must inform the commander when checkpoints
are reached, when a change in direction of movement is required, and how much
distance is traveled.

When preparing to move, the
effects of terrain on navigating mounted vehicles must be determined. You will
cover great distances very quickly, and you must develop the ability to estimate
the distance you have traveled. Remember that 0.1 mile is roughly 160 meters,
and 1 mile is about 1,600 meters or 1.6 kms. Having a mobility advantage helps
while navigating. Mobility makes it much easier if you get disoriented to move
to a point where you can reorient yourself.

a. Consider
Vehicle Capabilities. When determining a route to be used when mounted,
consider the capabilities of the vehicles to be used. Most military vehicles
are limited in the degree of slope they can climb and the type of terrain
they can negotiate. Swamps, thickly wooded areas, or deep streams may present
no problems to dismounted soldiers, but the same terrain may completely stop
mounted soldiers. The navigator must consider this when selecting a route.

(1) Most vehicles
will knock down a tree. The bigger the vehicle, the bigger the tree it can
knock down. Vehicles cannot knock down several trees at once. It is best
to find paths between trees that are wide enough for your vehicle. Military
vehicles are designed to climb 60 percent slopes on a dry, firm surface
(Figure 12-1).

Figure 12-1. Tracked vehicle capabilities.

(2) You can easily
determine approximate slope; just look at the route you have selected. If
there is a contour line in any 100 meters of map distance on that route,
it is a 10 percent slope. If there are two contour lines, it is 20 percent,
and so forth. If there are four contour lines in any 100 meters, look for
another route.

(3) Side slope
is even more important than the slope you can climb. Normally, a 30 percent
slope is the maximum in good weather. If you traverse a side slope, do it
slowly and without turns. Rocks, stumps, or sharp turns can cause you to
throw the downhill track under the vehicle, which would mean a big recovery
task.

(4) For tactical
reasons, you will often want to move in draws or valleys because they give
you cover. However, side slopes force you to move slowly.

NOTE:

The
above figures are true for a 10-meter or a 20-foot contour interval. If
the map has a different contour interval, just adjust the arithmetic.
For instance, with one contour line in 100 meters, a 20-meter interval
would give a 20 percent slope.

b. Know the
Effects of Weather on Vehicle Movement. Weather can halt mounted movement.
Snow and ice are obvious dangers, but more significant is the effect of rain
and snow on soil load-bearing ability. Cross-country vehicles may be restricted
to road movement in heavy rain. If it has rained recently, adjust your route
to avoid flooded or muddy areas. A mired vehicle only hinders combat capability.

c. Prepare Before
Movement. Locate the start point and finish point on the map. Determine
the map's grid azimuth from start point to finish point and convert it to
a magnetic azimuth. Determine the distance between the start point and finish
point or any intermediate points on the map and make a thorough map reconnaissance
of that area.

This is currently the most
widely used method of navigation. The navigator plans his route so that he moves
from terrain feature to terrain feature. An automobile driver in a city uses
this technique as he moves along a street or series of streets, guiding on intersections
or features such as stores and parks. Like the driver, the navigator selects
routes or streets between key points or intersections. These routes
must be capable of sustaining the travel of the vehicle or vehicles, should
be relatively direct, and should be easy to follow. In a typical move, the navigator
determines his location, determines the location of his objective, notes the
position of both on his map, and then selects a route between the two. After
examining the terrain, he adjusts the route by the following actions:

b. Consider
Ease of Movement. Use the easiest possible route and bypass difficult
terrain. Remember that a difficult route is harder to follow, is noisier,
causes more wear and tear (and possible recovery problems), and takes more
time. Tactical surprise is achieved by doing the unexpected. Try to select
an axis or corridor instead of a specific route. Make sure you have enough
maneuver room for the vehicles (Figure 12-2).

Figure 12-2. Primary route.

c. Use Terrain
Features as Checkpoints. These checkpoints must be easily recognizable
in the light and weather conditions and at the speed at which you will move.
You should be able to find a terrain feature from your location that can be
recognized from almost anywhere and used as a guide. An example is checkpoint
2, the church, and checkpoint 3, the orchard, in Figure
12-2.

(1) The best
checkpoints are linear features that cross your route. Use streams, rivers,
hard-top roads, ridges, valleys, and railroads.

(2) The next
best checkpoints are elevation changes, such as hills, depressions, spurs,
and draws. Look for two contour lines of change. You will not be able to
spot less than two lines of change while mounted.

(3) In wooded
terrain, try to locate checkpoints at no more than 1,000-meter intervals.
In open terrain, you may go to about 5,000 meters.

d. Follow Terrain
Features. Movement and navigation along a valley floor or near (not necessarily
on) the crest of a ridgeline is easiest.

e. Determine
Directions. Break the route down into smaller segments and determine the
rough directions that will be followed. You do not need to use the compass;
just use the main points of direction (north, northeast, east, and so forth).
Before moving, note the location of the sun and locate north. Locate changes
of direction, if any, at the checkpoints picked.

f. Determine
Distance. Get the total distance to be traveled and the approximate distance
between checkpoints. Plan to use the vehicle odometer to keep track of distance
traveled. Use the pace-count method and keep a record of the distance traveled.
When using a pace count, convert from map distance to ground distance by adding
the conversion factors of 20 percent for cross-country movement.

g. Make Notes.
Mental notes are usually adequate. Try to imagine what the route is like
and remember it.

h. Plan to Avoid
Errors. Restudy the route selected. Try to determine where errors are
most apt to occur and how to avoid any trouble.

i. Use a Logbook.
When the routes have been selected and the navigator has divided the distance
to be traveled into legs, prepare a logbook. The logbook is an informal record
of the distance and azimuth of each leg, with notes to aid the navigator in
following the correct route. The notes list easily identifiable terrain features
at or near the point where the direction of movement changes (Figure
12-3).

Dead reckoning is moving
a set distance along a set line. Generally, it involves moving so many meters
along a set line, usually an azimuth in degrees. There is no accurate method
of determining a direction in a moving vehicle. A magnetic vehicle-heading reference
unit may be available in a few years; for now, use a compass.

a. With Steering
Marks. This procedure is the same for vehicle travel as on foot.

(1) The navigator
dismounts from the vehicle and moves away from the vehicle (at least 18
meters).

(2) He sets the
azimuth on the compass and picks a steering mark (rock, tree, hilltop) in
the direction on that azimuth (Figure 12-4).

(3) He remounts
and has the driver identify the steering mark and proceeds to it in as straight
a line as possible.

(4) On arrival
at the steering mark or on any changes in direction, he repeats the first
three steps above for the next leg of travel.

Figure 12-4. Determining an azimuth, dismounted.

b. Without Steering
Marks. This procedure is used only on flat, featureless terrain.

(1) The navigator
dismounts from the vehicle, which is oriented in the direction of travel,
and moves at least 18 meters to the front of the vehicle.

(2) He faces
the vehicle and reads the azimuth to the vehicle. By adding or subtracting
180�, he determines the forward azimuth (direction of travel).

(3) On order
from the navigator, the driver drives on a straight line to the navigator.

(4) The navigator
remounts the vehicle, holds the compass as it will be held while the vehicle
is moving, and reads the azimuth in the direction of travel.

(5) The compass
will swing off the azimuth determined and pick up a constant deviation.
For instance, say the azimuth was 75� while you were away from the vehicle.
When you remounted and your driver drove straight forward, your compass
showed 67�. You have a deviation of -8�. All you need to do is maintain
that 67� compass heading to travel on a 75� magnetic heading.

(6) At night,
the same technique can be used. From the map, determine the azimuth you
are to travel. Convert the grid azimuth to a magnetic azimuth. Line the
vehicle up on that azimuth, then move well in front of it. Be sure it is
aligned correctly. Then mount, have the driver move slowly forward, and
note the deviation. If the vehicle has a turret, the above procedure works
unless you traverse the turret; this changes the deviation.

(7) The distance
factor in dead reckoning is easy. Just determine the map distance to travel
and add 20 percent to convert to ground distance. Use your vehicle odometer
to be sure you travel the proper distance.

Another method, if you have
a vehicle with a stabilized turret, is to align the turret on the azimuth you
wish to travel, then switch the turret stabilization system on. The gun tube
remains pointed at your destination no matter which way you turn the vehicle.
This technique has been proven; it works. It is not harmful to the stabilization
system. It is subject to stabilization drift, so use it for no more than 5,000
meters before resetting.

NOTE:

If
you have to take the turret off-line to engage a target, you will have
to start all over, re-do the entire process.

Some mounted situations may
call for you to combine and use both methods. Just remember the characteristics
of each.

a. Terrain association
is fast, is error-tolerant, and is best under most circumstances. It can be
used day or night if you are proficient in it.

b. Dead reckoning
is very accurate if you do everything correctly. You must be very precise.
It is also slow, but it works on very flat terrain.

c. You frequently
will combine both. You may use dead reckoning to travel across a large, flat
area to a ridge, then use terrain association for the rest of the move.

d. You must be
able to use both methods. You should remember that your probable errors, in
order of frequency, will be

Failure to determine
distance(s) to be traveled.

Failure to travel
the proper distance.

Failure to properly
plot or locate the objective.

Failure to select
easily recognized checkpoints or landmarks.

Failure to consider
the ease of movement factor.

CHAPTER
13

NAVIGATION
IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF TERRAIN

The information, concepts,
and skills already presented will help you to navigate anywhere in the world;
however, there are some special considerations and helpful hints that may assist
you in various special environments. The following information is not doctrine.

About 5 percent of the earth's
land surface is covered by deserts (Figure 13-1). Deserts
are large arid areas with little or no rainfall during the year. There are three
types of deserts mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or dune deserts. All types
of forces can be deployed in the desert. Armor and mechanized infantry forces
are especially suitable to desert combat except in rough mountainous terrain
where light infantry may be required. Airborne, air assault, and motorized forces
can also be advantageously employed to exploit the vast distances characteristic
of desert warfare.

Figure 13-1. Deserts.

a. Desert Regions.
In desert regions, terrain varies from nearly flat to lava beds and salt marshes.
Mountain deserts contain scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains.
Table 13-1 lists some of the world's major desert regions
and their locations.

Table 13-1. Major desert regions.

(1) Finding the
way in a desert presents some degree of difficulty for a person who has
never been exposed to this environment. Desert navigators have learned their
way through generations of experience.

(2) Normally,
desert people are nomadic, constantly moving in caravans. Navigating becomes
second nature to them. Temperature in the tropical deserts reaches an average
of 110° to 115° during the day, so most navigation takes place
at night using the stars. Most deserts have some prevailing winds during
the seasons. Such winds arrange the sand dunes in a specific pattern that
gives the navigator the opportunity to determine the four cardinal directions.
He may also use the sun's shadow-tip method.

(3) A sense of
direction can be obtained by watching desert animals on their way to and
from water holes (oases). Water, navigation, and survival are closely related
in desert areas. Most deserts have pigeons or doves, and their drinking
habits are important to the navigator. As a rule, these birds never drink
in the morning or during the day, making their evening flights the most
important. When returning from the oases, their bodies are heavier from
drinking and their flight is accompanied by a louder flapping of their wings.

(4) Visibility
is also an important factor in the desert, especially in judging distance.
The absence of trees or other features prevents comparison between the horizon
and the skyline.

b. Interpretation
and Analysis. Many desert maps are inaccurate, which makes up-to-date
air, aerial photo, and ground reconnaissance necessary. In desert mountain
areas contour intervals are generally large, so many of the intermediate relief
features are not shown.

(1) The desert
normally permits observation and fire to maximum ranges. The terrain is
generally wide open and the exceptionally clear atmosphere offers excellent
long-range visibility. Combine this with a powerful sun and low cloud density
and you have nearly unlimited light and visual clarity, which often contribute
to gross underestimations of ranges. Errors of up to 200 or 300 percent
are not uncommon. However, visibility conditions may be severely affected
by sandstorms and mirages (heat shimmer caused by air rising from the extremely
hot daytime desert surface), especially if the observer is looking into
the sun through magnifying optical instruments.

(2) Cover can
be provided only by terrain feature masking because of the lack of heavy
vegetation and man-made objects. It only takes a few meters of relief to
provide cover. Concealment in the desert is related to the following factors:

(a) Shape.
In order not to be observed by the enemy, attempt to alter the standard
shapes of vehicles so they and their shadows are not instantly recognized.

(b) Shine.
Shine or glitter is often the first thing that attracts the observer's
eye to movement many kilometers away. It must be eliminated.

(c) Color
and texture. All equipment should either be pattern painted or mudded
to blend in with the terrain.

(d) Light
and noise. Light and noise discipline are essential because sound
and light travel great distances in the desert.

(e) Heat.
Modern heat image technology makes shielding heat sources an important
consideration when trying to hide from the enemy. This technology is especially
important during night stops.

(f) Movement.
Movement itself creates a great deal of noise and dust, but a rapid execution
using all the advantages the topography offers can help conceal it.

c. Navigation.
When operating in the broad basins between mountain ranges or on rocky plateau
deserts, there are frequently many terrain features to guide your movement
by. But, observing these known features over great distances may provide a
false sense of security in determining your precise location unless you frequently
confirm your location by resection or referencing close-in terrain features.
It is not uncommon to develop errors of several kilometers when casually estimating
a position in this manner. Obviously, this can create many problems when attempting
to locate a small checkpoint or objective, calling for CAS, reporting operational
or intelligence information, or meeting CSS requirements.

(1) When operating
in an area with few visual cues, such as in a sandy or dune desert, or restricted
visibility by a sandstorm or darkness, you must proceed by dead reckoning.
The four steps and two techniques for navigation presented earlier remain
valid in the desert. However, understanding the special conditions found
there are extremely helpful as you apply them.

(2) Tactical
mobility and speed are key to successful desert operations. Obstacles and
areas such as lava beds or salt marshes, which preclude surface movements,
do exist. But most deserts permit two-dimensional movement by ground forces
similar to that of a naval task force at sea. Speed of execution is essential.
Everyone moves farther and faster on the desert. Special navigation aids
sometimes used in the desert include:

(a) Sun
compass. It can be used on moving vehicles and sextants. It requires
accurate timekeeping. However, the deviation on a magnetic compass that
is caused by the metal and electronics in the vehicle is usually less
than +10°.

(b) Gyro
compass. The gun azimuth stabilizer is in fact a gyro compass. If
used on fairly flat ground, it is useful for maintaining direction over
limited distances.

(c) Fires.
Planned tracer fire or mortar and artillery concentrations (preferably
smoke during the day and illumination at night) provide useful checks
on estimated locations.

(d) Prepositioned
lights. This method consists of placing two or more searchlights far
apart, behind the line of contact, beyond enemy artillery range, and concealed
from enemy ground observation. Units in the area can determine their own
locations through resection, using the vertical beams of the lights. These
lights must be moved on a time schedule known to all friendly units.

(3) One final
note on desert navigation is that the sand, hard-baked ground, rocky surfaces,
thorny vegetation, and heat generally found in the desert impose far greater
demands for maintenance than you would plan for in temperate regions. It
may also take longer to perform that maintenance.

Mountains are generally understood
to be larger than hills. Rarely do mountains occur individually; in most cases,
they are found in elongated ranges or circular groups. When they are linked
together, they constitute a mountain system (Figure 13-2).
Light forces (infantry, airborne, and air assault forces) can operate effectively
in mountainous regions because they are not terrain limited. Heavy forces must
operate in passes and valleys that are negotiable by vehicle.

b. Minor Systems.
Some other systems are in Antarctica, Hawaii, Japan, New Zealand, and
Oceania. Mountain systems are characterized by high, inaccessible peaks and
steep slopes. Depending on the altitude, they may be snow covered. Prominent
ridges and large valleys are also found. Navigating in this type of terrain
is not difficult providing you make a careful examination of the map and the
terrain.

c. Climate.
Because of the elevations, it is always colder (3° to 5° per
300-meter gain in altitude) and wetter than you might expect. Wind speeds
can increase the effects of the cold even more. Sudden severe storms and fog
are encountered regularly. Below the tree line, vegetation is heavy because
of the extra rainfall and the fact that the land is rarely cleared for farming.

(1) Reduced mobility,
compartmented terrain, and the effects of rapidly changing weather increase
the importance of air, ground, aerial photo, and map reconnaissance. Since
mountain maps often use large contour intevals, microrelief interpretation
and detailed terrain analysis require special emphasis.

(2) At first
glance, some mountainous terrain may not appear to offer adequate cover
and concealment; however, you can improve the situation. When moving, use
rock outcroppings, boulders, and heavy vegetation for cover and concealment;
use terrain features to mask maneuvers. Use harsh weather, which often obscures
observation, to enhance concealment.

(3) Since there
are only a few routing options, all-round security must be of primary concern.
Natural obstacles are everywhere, and the enemy can easily construct more.

e. Navigation.
Existing roads and trails offer the best routes for movement. Off-road
movement may enhance security provided there is detailed reconnaissance, photo
intelligence, or information from local inhabitants to ensure the route is
negotiable. Again, the four steps and two techniques for navigation presented
earlier remain valid in the mountains. Nevertheless, understanding the special
conditions and the terrain will help you navigate. Other techniques that are
sometimes helpful in mountains are:

(1) Aspect
of Slope. To determine the aspect of slope, take a compass reading
along an imaginary line that runs straight down the slope. It should cut
through each of the contour lines at about a 90° angle. By checking
the map and knowing the direction of slope where you are located, you will
be able to keep track of your location, and it will help guide your cross-country
movement even when visibility is poor.

(2) Use
of an Altimeter. Employment of an altimeter with calibrations on
the scale down to 10 or 20 meters is helpful to land navigators moving in
areas where radical changes in elevation exist. An altimeter is a type of
barometer that gauges air pressure, except it measures on an adjustable
scale marked in feet or meters of elevation rather than in inches or centimeters
of mercury. Careful use of the altimeter helps to pinpoint your position
on a map through a unique type of resection. Instead of finding your position
by using two different directional values, you use one directional value
and one elevation value.

These large geographic regions
are found within the tropics near the equator (Central America, along the Amazon
River, South-Eastern Asia and adjacent islands, and vast areas in the middle
of Africa and India) (Figure 13-3). Jungles are characterized
as rainy, humid areas with heavy layers of tangled, impenetrable vegetation.
Jungles contain many species of wildlife (tigers, monkeys, parrots, snakes,
alligators, and so forth). The jungle is also a paradise for insects, which
are the worst enemy of the navigator because some insects carry diseases (malaria,
yellow fever, cholera, and so forth). While navigating in these areas, very
little terrain association can be accomplished because of the heavy foliage.
Dead reckoning is one of the methods used in these areas. A lost navigator in
the jungle can eventually find his way back to civilization by following any
body of water with a downstream flow. However, not every civilization found
is of a friendly nature.

Figure 13-3. Jungles and savannas.

a. Operations.
Operations in jungles tend to be isolated actions by small forces because
of the difficulties encountered in moving and in maintaining contact between
units. Divisions can move cross-country slowly; but, aggressive reconnaissance,
meticulous intelligence collection, and detailed coordination are required
to concentrate forces in this way. More commonly, large forces operate along
roads or natural avenues of movement, as was the case in the mountains. Patrolling
and other surveillance operations are especially important to ensure security
of larger forces in the close terrain of jungles.

(1) Short fields
of observation and fire, and thick vegetation make maintaining contact with
the enemy difficult. The same factors reduce the effectiveness of indirect
fire and make jungle combat primarily a fight between infantry forces. Support
by air and mechanized forces can be decisive at times, but it will not always
be available or effective.

(2) Jungles are
characterized by high temperatures, heavy rains, high humidity, and an abundance
of vegetation. The climate varies with location. Close to the equator, all
seasons are nearly alike with heavy rains all year. Farther from the equator
(India and Southeast Asia), there are distinct wet (monsoon) and dry seasons.
Both zones have high temperatures (averaging 75 to 95+ degrees Fahrenheit),
heavy rainfall (as much as 400+ inches annually, and high humidity (90 percent)
all year.

(3) In temperate
climates, it is the areas of vegetation that are most likely to be altered
and incorrectly portrayed on a map. In jungle areas, the vegetation grows
so rapidly that it is more likely to be cleared and make these areas be
shown incorrectly.

b. Interpretation
and Analysis. The jungle environment includes dense forests, grasslands,
swamps, and cultivated areas. Forests are classified as primary and secondary
based upon the terrain and vegetation. Primary forests include tropical rain
forests and deciduous forests. Secondary forests are found at the edges of
both rain forests and deciduous forests and in areas where jungles have been
cleared and abandoned. These places are typically overgrown with weeds, grasses,
thorns, ferns, canes, and shrubs. Movement is especially slow and difficult.
The extremely thick vegetation reaches a height of 2 meters and severely limits
observation to only a few meters.

(1) Tropical
rain forests consist mostly of large trees whose branches spread and lock
together to form canopies. These canopies, which can exist at two and three
different levels, may form as low as 10 meters from the ground. They prevent
direct sunlight from reaching the ground, causing a lack of undergrowth
on the jungle floor. Extensive above-ground root systems and hanging vines
are common and make vehicular travel difficult; foot movement is easier.
Ground observation is limited to about 50 meters and air observation is
nearly impossible.

(2) Deciduous
forests are in semitropical zones that have both wet and dry seasons. In
the wet season, trees are fully leaved; in the dry season, much of the folliage
dies. Trees are usually less dense than in rain forests, which allows more
sunlight to filter to the ground. This procedure produces thick undergrowth.
During the wet season, air and ground observation is limited and movement
is difficult. During the dry season, both improve.

(3) Swamps are
common to all low, jungle areas where there is poor drainage. When navigating
in a swampy area, a careful analysis of map and ground should be taken before
any movement. The soldiers should travel in small numbers with only the
equipment required for their mission, keeping in mind that they are going
to be immersed in water part of the time. The usual technique used in swamp
navigation is dead reckoning. There are two basic types of swamps mangrove
and palm. Mangrove swamps are found in coastal areas wherever tides influence
water flow. Mangrove is a shrub-like tree that grows 1 to 5 meters high.
These trees have a tangled root system, both above and below the waterline,
which restricts movement either by foot or small boat. Observation on the
ground and from the air is poor, but concealment is excellent.

(4) Grassy plains
or savannas are generally located away from the equator but within the tropics.
These vast land areas are characterized by flatlands with a different type
of vegetation than jungles. They consist mainly of grasses (ranging from
1 to more than 12 feet in height), shrubs, and isolated trees. The most
difficult areas to navigate are the ones surrounded by tall grass (elephant
grass); however, vehicles can negotiate here better than in some areas.
There are few or no natural features to navigate by, making dead reckoning
or navigation by stars the only technique for movement (Figure
13-3). Depending on the height of the grass, ground observation may
vary from poor to good. Concealment from air observation is poor for both
soldiers and vehicles.

(5) Bamboo stands
are common throughout the tropics. They should be bypassed whenever possible.
They are formidable obstacles for vehicles, and soldier movement through
them is slow, exhausting, and noisy.

(6) Cultivated
areas exist in jungles also. They range from large, well-planned, well-managed
farms and plantations to small tracts, cultivated by farmers. The three
general types of cultivated areas are rice paddies, plantations, and small
farms.

c. Navigation.
Areas such as jungles are generally not accurately mapped because heavy
vegetation makes aerial surveys difficult. The ability to observe terrain
features, near or far, is extremely limited. The navigator must rely heavily
upon his compass and the dead reckoning technique when moving in the jungle.
Navigation is further complicated by the inability to make straight-line movements.
Terrain analysis, constant use of the compass, and an accurate pace count
are essential to navigation in this environment.

(1) Rates of
movement and pace counts are particularly important to jungle navigators.
The most common error is to overestimate the distance traveled. The distances
below can be used as a rough guide for the maximum distances that might
be traveled in various types of terrain during one hour in daylight.

Table 13-3. Guide for maximum distance.

(2) Special navigation
strategies that are helpful in jungles include:

(a) Personal
pace table. You should either make a mental or written personal pace table
that includes your average pace count per 100 meters for each of the types
of terrain through which you are likely to navigate.

(b) Resection
using indirect fire. Call for mortar or artillery fire (airbursts of white
phosphorous or illumination) on two widely separated grids that are not
on terrain features like the one you are occupying and are a safe distance
from your estimated location. Directions to the airbursts sometimes must
be determined by sound.

(c) Modified
area/point navigation. Even when making primary use of the compass for
dead reckoning, you are frequently able to area navigate to an expanded
objective, which is easily identified by terrain association. Then, simply
develop a short, point-navigation leg to your final destination.

Arctic terrain includes those
areas that experience extended periods of below freezing temperatures. In these
areas, the ground is generally covered with ice or snow during the winter season.
Although frozen ground and ice can improve trafficability, a deep accumulation
of snow can reduce it. Vehicles and personnel require special equipment and
care under these adverse conditions.

a. Operations.
Both the terrain and the type and size of unit operations vary greatly
in arctic areas. In open terrain, armored and mechanized forces will be effective
although they will have to plan and train for the special conditions. In broken
terrain, forests, and mountains, light forces will predominate as usual. However,
foot movement can take up to five times as long as it might under warmer conditions.

b. Interpretation
and Analysis. Both the terrain and cultural features you may confront
in winter may vary to any extreme, as can the weather. The common factor is
an extended period of below-freezing temperatures. The terrain may be plains,
plateaus, hills, or mountains. The climate will be cold, but the weather will
vary greatly from place to place. Most arctic terrain experiences snow, but
some claim impressive accumulations each season, such as the lake-effected
snow belts off Lake Ontario near Fort Drum, New York. Other areas have many
cold days with sunshine and clear nights, and little snow accumulation.

(1) In areas
with distinct local relief and scattered trees or forests, the absence of
foliage makes movement by terrain association easier; observation and fields
of fire are greatly enhanced except during snowstorms. But in relatively
flat, open areas covered with snow (especially in bright sunlight), the
resulting lack of contrast may interfere with your being able to read the
land. With foliage gone, concealment (both from the ground and from the
air) is greatly reduced. As in desert areas, you must make better use of
the terrain to conceal your movements.

(2) Frozen streams
and swamps may no longer be obstacles, and thus identification of avenues
of approach may be difficult in winter. However, the concept as to what
is key terrain is not likely to be affected.

c. Navigation.
Special skills may be required in arctic terrain, such as the proper use
of winter clothing, skis, and snowshoes; but this does not affect your navigation
strategies. There are no special techniques for navigating in arctic terrain.
Just be aware of the advantages and disadvantages that may present themselves
and make the most of your opportunities while applying the four steps and
two techniques for land navigation.

(1) Remember,
the highest caliber of leadership is required to ensure that all necessary
tasks are performed, that security is maintained, and that soldiers and
their equipment are protected from the physical effects of very low temperatures.
There is a great temptation to do less than a thorough job at whatever the
task may be when you are very cold.

(2) Night navigation
may be particularly enhanced when operating in arctic terrain. Moonlight
and starlight on a clear night reflect off the snow, thus enabling you to
employ daytime terrain association techniques with little difficulty. Even
cloudy winter nights are often brighter than clear moonlit summer nights
when the ground is dark and covered with foliage. Movements with complete
light discipline (no black-out drives) can often be executed. On the other
hand, areas with severe winter climates experience lengthy periods of darkness
each day, which may be accompanied by driving snow and limited visibility.

The world continues to become
more urbanized each year; therefore, it is unlikely that all fighting will be
done in rural settings. Major urban areas represent the power and wealth of
a particular country in the form of industrial bases, transportation complexes,
economic institutions, and political and cultural centers. Therefore, it may
be necessary to secure and neutralize them. When navigating in urban places,
it is man-made features, such as roads, railroads, bridges, and buildings that
become important, while terrain and vegetation become less useful.

a. Interpretation
and Analysis. Military operations on urbanized terrain require detailed
planning that provides for decentralized execution. As a result of the rapid
growth and changes occurring in many urban areas, the military topographic
map is likely to be outdated. Supplemental use of commercially produced city
maps may be helpful, or an up-to-date sketch can be made.

(1) Urbanized
terrain normally offers many AAs for mounted maneuver well forward of and
leading to urban centers. In the proximity of these built-up areas, however,
such approach routes generally become choked by urban sprawl and perhaps
by the nature of adjacent natural terrain. Dismounted forces then make the
most of available cover by moving through buildings and underground systems,
along edges of streets, and over rooftops. Urban areas tend to separate
and isolate units, requiring the small-unit leader to take the initiative
and demonstrate his skill in order to prevail.

(2) The urban
condition of an area creates many obstacles, and the destruction of many
buildings and bridges as combat power is applied during a battle further
limits your freedom of movement. Cover and concealment are plentiful, but
observation and fields of fire are greatly restricted.

b. Navigation.
Navigation in urban areas can be confusing, but there are often many cues
that will present themselves as you proceed. They include streets and street
signs; building styles and sizes; the urban geography of industrial, warehousing,
residential housing, and market districts; man-made transportation features
other than streets and roads (rail and trolley lines); and the terrain features
and hydrographic features located within the built-up area. Strategies for
staying on the route in an urban area include:

(1) Process
Route Descriptions. Write down or memorize the route through an
urban area as a step-by-step process. For example, "Go three blocks north,
turn left (west) on a wide divided boulevard until you go over a river bridge.
Turn right (north) along the west bank of the river, and. . . "

(2) Conceptual
Understandings of the Urban Area. While studying the map and operating
in a built-up area, work hard to develop an understanding (mental map) of
the entire area. This advantage will allow you to navigate over multiple
routes to any location. It will also preclude your getting lost whenever
you miss a turn or are forced off the planned route by obstacles or the
tactical situation.

(3) Resection.
Whenever you have a vantage point to two or more known features portrayed
on the map, do not hesitate to use either estimated or plotted resection
to pinpoint your position. These opportunities are often plentiful in an
urban setting.

CHAPTER
14

UNIT SUSTAINMENT

Land navigation is a skill
that is highly perishable. The soldier must continually make use of the skills
he has acquired to remain proficient in them. The institution is responsible
for instruction in the basic techniques of land navigation. The institution
tests these skills each time a soldier attends a leadership course. However,
it is the unit's responsibility to develop a program to maintain proficiency
in these skills between institution courses. The unit sustainment program provides
training that builds on and reinforces the skills the soldier learned in the
institution. It should use the building-block approach to training: basic map
reading instruction or review, instruction on land navigation skills, dead reckoning
training, dead reckoning practice, terrain association training, terrain association
practice, land navigation testing, and building of leader skills. These leader
skills should include following a route selected by the commander and planning
and following a route selected by the leader. The unit trainer should be able
to set up a sustainment program, a train-the-trainer program, and a land navigation
course for his unit's use. It is recommended that units develop a program similar
to the one outlined in this chapter. Complete lesson outlines and training plans
are available by writing to Commander, 29th Infantry Regiment, ATTN: ATSH-INB-A,
Fort Benning, GA 31905-5595.

The purpose of setting up
a sustainment program in the unit is to provide soldiers with training that
reinforces and builds on the training that they have received in the institution.
All soldiers should receive this training at least twice a year. The program
also provides the unit with a means of identifying the areas in which the soldiers
need additional training.

a. Training
Guidance. The unit commander must first determine the levels of proficiency
and problems that his unit has in land navigation. This determination can
be done through after-action reports from the unit's rotations to NTC/JRTC,
ARTEP final reports, feedback from his subordinates, personal observation,
and annual training. Once the unit commander decides where his training time
should be concentrated, he can issue his training guidance to his subordinate
leaders. He also directs his staff to provide training sites, resources, and
time for the units to train land navigation. It is recommended that land navigation
be trained separately, not just included as a subtask in tactical training.

b. Certification.
The unit commander must also provide his subordinate commanders with a means
of certifying training. The unit staff must provide subject matter experts
to ensure the training meets the standards decided upon by the unit commander.
Instructors should be certified to instruct, and courses should be certified
before the unit uses it.

c. Program Development.
The sustainment program should meet the requirements of all of the unit's
soldiers. It should address all skills from basic map reading to leaders'
planning and executing a route. The program should cover the following:

Diagnostic examination.

Map reading instruction/review.

Land navigation skills
training.

Dead reckoning training/practice.

Terrain association
training/practice.

Land navigation written/field
examination.

Leaders' training
and testing.

The sustainment program
should be developed and then maintained in the unit's training files. The
program should be developed in training modules so that it can be used as
a whole program or used separately by individual modules. It should be designed
so the commander can decide which training modules he will use, depending
on the proficiency of the unit. The unit commander need only use those modules
that fit his training plan.

The purpose of a train the
trainer program in the unit is to develop trainers capable of providing soldiers
with the confidence and skills necessary to accomplish all assigned land navigation
tasks.

a. Development
of the Program. The unit commander should appoint a cadre of officers
and NCOs to act as primary and alternate instructors for land navigation training.
Use the training modules the unit has developed and have these soldiers go
through each module of training until they can demonstrate expertise. Determine
which instructors conduct each module of training and have them practice until
they are fully prepared to give the training. These instructors act as training
cadre for the entire unit. They train their peers to instruct the subordinate
units, and they certify each unit's training.

b. Conduct of
Training. Conduct training at the lowest level possible. Leaders must
be included in all training to keep unit integrity intact.

The unit commander provides
specific guidance on what he requires in the development of a land navigation
course. It depends upon the unit's mission, training plan, and tasks to be trained.
There are basic guidelines to use when setting up a course.

a. Determine
the Standards. The unit commander determines the standards for the course.
Recommended standards are as follows:

(1) Distance
between points: no less than 300 meters; no more than 1,200 meters.

(2) Total distance
of lanes: no less than 2,700 meters; no more than 11,000 meters.

(3) Total number
of position stakes: no less than seven for each lane; no more than nine
for each lane.

(4) Time allowed:
no less than three hours; no more than four hours.

b. Decide on
the Terrain. The unit should use terrain that is similar to terrain they
will be using in tactical exercises. Terrain should be different each time
training is conducted; the training area for a dismounted course needs to
be at least 25 square kilometers. Mounted courses require twice as much terrain
so that vehicles are not too close to each other.

c. Perform a
Map and Ground Reconnaissance. Check the terrain to determine position
stake locations, look for hazards, and to develop training briefings.

(1) Plot the
locations of your position stakes on a 1:50,000-scale map.

(2) Fabricate
or order position stakes.

(3) Request support
from the local engineer or field artillery unit to survey the position stakes
in.

(4) Survey the
position stakes in and emplace them.

(5) Certify the
course by having your SMEs negotiate each lane of the course.

(6) Prepare course
requirement sheets and print them.

(7) Complete
a risk assessment of the training area.

(8) Begin teaching.

This sequence can be used
to develop any type of land navigation course. The difference in each course
depends on the commander's guidance.