One image for teaching English as a second or foreign
language (ESL/EFL) is that of a tapestry. The tapestry is woven from
many strands, such as the characteristics of the teacher, the learner,
the setting, and the relevant languages (i.e., English and the native
languages of the learners and the teacher). For the instructional loom
to produce a large, strong, beautiful, colorful tapestry, all of these
strands must be interwoven in positive ways. For example, the
instructor's teaching style must address the learning style of the
learner, the learner must be motivated, and the setting must provide
resources and values that strongly support the teaching of the language.
However, if the strands are not woven together effectively, the
instructional loom is likely to produce something small, weak, ragged,
and pale—not recognizable as a tapestry at all.

In addition to the four strands mentioned above—teacher,
learner, setting, and relevant languages—other important strands exist
in the tapestry. In a practical sense, one of the most crucial of these
strands consists of the four primary skills of listening, reading,
speaking, and writing. This strand also includes associated or related
skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax,
meaning, and usage. The skill strand of the tapestry leads to optimal
ESL/EFL communication when the skills are interwoven during instruction.
This is known as the integrated-skill approach.

If this weaving together does not occur, the strand
consists merely of discrete, segregated skills—parallel threads that do
not touch, support, or interact with each other. This is sometimes known
as the segregated-skill approach. Another title for this mode of
instruction is the language-based approach, because the language itself
is the focus of instruction (language for language's sake). In this
approach, the emphasis is not on learning for authentic communication.

By examining
segregated-skill instruction, we can see the advantages of integrating
the skills and move toward improving teaching for English language
learners.

Segregated-Skill Instruction

In
the segregated-skill approach, the mastery of discrete language skills
such as reading and speaking is seen as the key to successful learning,
and language learning is typically separate from content learning
(Mohan, 1986). This is contrary to the integrated way that people use
language skills in normal communication, and it clashes with the
direction in which language teaching experts have been moving in recent
years.

Skill segregation is reflected in traditional ESL/EFL
programs that offer classes focusing on segregated language skills. Why
do they offer such classes? Perhaps teachers and administrators think it
is logistically easier to present courses on writing divorced from
speaking, or on listening isolated from reading. They may believe that
it is instructionally impossible to concentrate on more than one skill
at a time.

Even if it were possible to fully develop one or two
skills in the absence of all the others, such an approach would not
ensure adequate preparation for later success in academic communication,
career-related language use, or everyday interaction in the language. An
extreme example is the grammar-translation method, which teaches
students to analyze grammar and to translate (usually in writing) from
one language to another. This method restricts language learning to a
very narrow, noncommunicative range that does not prepare students to
use the language in everyday life.

Frequently, segregated-skill ESL/EFL classes present
instruction in terms of skill-linked learning strategies: reading
strategies, listening strategies, speaking strategies, and writing
strategies (see Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). Learning strategies are
strategies that students employ, most often consciously, to improve
their learning. Examples are guessing meaning based on context, breaking
a sentence or word down into parts to understand the meaning, and
practicing the language with someone else.

Very frequently, experts demonstrate strategies as
though they were linked to only one particular skill, such as reading or
writing (e.g., Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). However, it can be confusing or
misleading to believe that a given strategy is associated with only one
specific language skill. Many strategies, such as paying selective
attention, self-evaluating, asking questions, analyzing, synthesizing,
planning, and predicting, are applicable across skill areas (see Oxford,
1990). Common strategies help weave the skills together. Teaching
students to improve their learning strategies in one skill area can
often enhance performance in all language skills (Oxford, 1996).

Fortunately, in many instances where an ESL or EFL
course is labeled by a single skill, the segregation of language skills
might be only partial or even illusory. If the teacher is creative, a
course bearing a discrete-skill title might actually involve multiple,
integrated skills. For example, in a course on intermediate reading, the
teacher probably gives all of the directions orally in English, thus
causing students to use their listening ability to understand the
assignment. In this course, students might discuss their readings, thus
employing speaking and listening skills and certain associated skills,
such as pronunciation, syntax, and social usage. Students might be asked
to summarize or analyze readings in written form, thus activating their
writing skills. In a real sense, then, some courses that are labeled
according to one specific skill might actually reflect an
integrated-skill approach after all.

The same can be said for ESL/EFL textbooks. A particular
series might highlight certain skills in one book or another, but all
the language skills might nevertheless be present in the tasks in each
book. In this way, students have the benefit of practicing all the
language skills in an integrated, natural, communicative way, even if
one skill is the main focus of a given volume.

In contrast to segregated-skill
instruction, both actual and apparent, there are at least two forms of
instruction that are clearly oriented toward integrating the skills.

Two Forms
of Integrated-Skill Instruction

Two
types of integrated-skill instruction are content-based language
instruction and task-based instruction. The first of these emphasizes
learning content through language, while the second stresses doing tasks
that require communicative language use. Both of these benefit from a
diverse range of materials, textbooks, and technologies for the ESL or
EFL classroom.

Content-Based Instruction.
In content-based instruction, students practice all the language skills
in a highly integrated, communicative fashion while learning content
such as science, mathematics, and social studies. Content-based language
instruction is valuable at all levels of proficiency, but the nature of
the content might differ by proficiency level. For beginners, the
content often involves basic social and interpersonal communication
skills, but past the beginning level, the content can become
increasingly academic and complex. The Cognitive Academic Language
Learning Approach (CALLA), created by Chamot and O'Malley (1994) shows
how language learning strategies can be integrated into the simultaneous
learning of content and language.

At least three general models of content-based language
instruction exist: theme-based, adjunct, and sheltered (Scarcella &
Oxford, 1992). The theme-based model integrates the language skills into
the study of a theme (e.g., urban violence, cross-cultural differences
in marriage practices, natural wonders of the world, or a broad topic
such as change). The theme must be very interesting to students and must
allow a wide variety of language skills to be practiced, always in the
service of communicating about the theme. This is the most useful and
widespread form of content-based instruction today, and it is found in
many innovative ESL and EFL textbooks. In the adjunct model, language
and content courses are taught separately but are carefully coordinated.
In the sheltered model, the subject matter is taught in simplified
English tailored to students' English proficiency level.

Task-Based Instruction.
In task-based instruction, students participate in communicative tasks
in English. Tasks are defined as activities that can stand alone as
fundamental units and that require comprehending, producing,
manipulating, or interacting in authentic language while attention is
principally paid to meaning rather than form (Nunan, 1989).

The task-based model is beginning
to influence the measurement of learning strategies, not just the
teaching of ESL and EFL. In task-based instruction, basic pair work and
group work are often used to increase student interaction and
collaboration. For instance, students work together to write and edit a
class newspaper, develop a television commercial, enact scenes from a
play, or take part in other joint tasks. More structured cooperative
learning formats can also be used in task-based instruction. Task-based
instruction is relevant to all levels of language proficiency, but the
nature of the task varies from one level to the other. Tasks become
increasingly complex at higher proficiency levels. For instance,
beginners might be asked to introduce each other and share one item of
information about each other. More advanced students might do more
intricate and demanding tasks, such as taking a public opinion poll at
school, the university, or a shopping mall.

Advantages
of the Integrated-Skill Approach

The
integrated-skill approach, as contrasted with the purely segregated
approach, exposes English language learners to authentic language and
challenges them to interact naturally in the language. Learners rapidly
gain a true picture of the richness and complexity of the English
language as employed for communication. Moreover, this approach stresses
that English is not just an object of academic interest nor merely a key
to passing an examination; instead, English becomes a real means of
interaction and sharing among people. This approach allows teachers to
track students' progress in multiple skills at the same time.
Integrating the language skills also promotes the learning of real
content, not just the dissection of language forms. Finally, the
integrated-skill approach, whether found in content-based or task-based
language instruction or some hybrid form, can be highly motivating to
students of all ages and backgrounds.

Integrating
the Language Skills

In order to
integrate the language skills in ESL/EFL instruction, teachers should
consider taking these steps:

Learn more
about the various ways to integrate language skills in the classroom
(e.g., content-based, task-based, or a combination).

Reflect on
their current approach and evaluate the extent to which the skills
are integrated.

Choose
instructional materials, textbooks, and technologies that promote
the integration of listening, reading, speaking, and writing, as
well as the associated skills of syntax, vocabulary, and so on.

Even if a
given course is labeled according to just one skill, remember that
it is possible to integrate the other language skills through
appropriate tasks.

Teach
language learning strategies and emphasize that a given strategy can
often enhance performance in multiple skills.

Conclusion

With careful
reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills
and strengthen the tapestry of language teaching and learning. When the
tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively for
communication.

A full-length
version of this article appeared in
ESL Magazine, Vol. 6, No. 1, January/February 2001.

This
digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education,
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of
Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do
not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.

EDO-FL-01-05

Questions
for Self-reflection or Group Discussion

In what
instructional activities do you find segregated-skills instruction to be
effective in improving language and literacy skills?

Have you tried
theme based language instruction? What themes catch learners’
interests? Do they sometimes choose the theme?

How can theme
based instruction be planned to correlate with skills as measured in
CASAS?

Do you often
simplify and tailor the English to students’ English proficiency level,
as in the sheltered model?

What is your
experience with task-based instruction? In what ways have you found
this kind of instruction to be helpful in improving students’ language
and literacy skills?

The author
lists advantages of integrated skills approach. Have you found other
advantages?