B. quintana is a fastidious, aerobic, Gram-negative, rod-shaped (bacillus) bacterium. The infection caused by this microorganism, trench fever, was first documented in soldiers during World War I, but has now been seen Europe, Asia, and North Africa, its primary vector is known to be Pediculus humanus variety corporis, also known as the human body louse.[7] It was first isolated in axenic culture by J.W. Vinson in 1960, from a patient in Mexico City, he then followed Koch's postulates, infecting volunteers with the bacterium, showing consistent symptoms and clinical manifestations of trench fever. The medium best for growing this bacterium is blood-enriched in an atmosphere containing 5% carbon dioxide.[3]

Humans are the only known animal host for this bacterium in vivo, it infects endothelial cells and can infect erythrocytes by binding and entering with a large vacuole. Once inside, they begin to proliferate and cause nuclear atypia (intraerythrocytic B.quintana colonization).[8] This leads to apoptosis being suppressed, proinflammatory cytokines are released, and vascular proliferation increases. All of these processes result in patients possessing systemic symptoms (chills, fever, diaphoresis), bacteremia, and lymphatic enlargement. A major role in B. quintana infection is its lipopolysaccharide covering which is an antagonist of the toll-like receptor 4.[9] The reason this infection might persist is because this organism also results in monocytes overproducing interleukin-10 (IL-10), thus weakening the immune response. B. quintana also induces lesions seen in bacillary angiomatosis that protrude into vascular lumina, often occluding blood flow. The enhanced growth of these cells is believed to be due to the secretion of angiogenic factors, thus inducing neovascularization. Release of an icosahedral particle, 40 nm in length, has been detected in cultures of B. quintana's close relative, B. henselae. This particle contains a 14-kb linear DNA segment, but its function in Bartonella pathophysiology is still unknown;[10] in trench fever or B. quintana-induced endocarditis patients, bacillary angiomatosis lesions are also seen. Notably, endocarditis is a new manifestation of the infection, not seen in World War I troops.

B. quintana infection has subsequently been seen in every continent except Antarctica. Local infections have been associated with risk factors such as poverty, alcoholism, and homelessness. Serological evidence of B. quintana infection showed, of hospitalized homeless patients, 16% were infected, as opposed to 1.8% of nonhospitalized homeless persons, and 0% of blood donors at large.[11] Lice have been demonstrated, as of recently, to be the key component in transmitting B. quintana.[12][13] This has been attributed to living in unsanitary conditions and crowded areas, where the risk of coming into contact with other individuals carrying B. quintana and ectoparasites (body lice) is increased. Also noteworthy, the increasing migration worldwide may also play a role in spreading trench fever, from areas where it is endemic to susceptible populations in urban areas. Recent concern is the possibility of the emergence of new strains of B. quintana through horizontal gene transfer, which could result in the acquisition of other virulence factors.[7]

The clinical manifestations of B. quintana infection are highly variable. The incubation period is now known to be 5–20 days, as opposed to original thought which was 3–38 days, the infection can start as an acute onset of a febrile episode, relapsing febrile episodes, or as a persistent typhoidal illness; commonly seen are maculopapular rashes, conjunctivitis, headache, and myalgias, with splenomegaly being less common. Most patients present with pain in the lower legs (shins), sore muscles of the legs and back, and hyperaesthesia of the shins. Rarely is B. quintana infection fatal, unless endocarditis develops and goes untreated. Weight loss, and thrombocytopenia are sometimes also seen. Recovery can take up to a month.

Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxon

Bacteria
–
Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria a

Proteobacteria
–
The Proteobacteria are a major phylum of Gram-negative bacteria. The name of the phylum has never been published as no type genus has been proposed. They include a variety of pathogens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, Yersinia. Others are free-living, and include many of the responsible for nitrogen fixation. Carl Woese estab

1.
Proteobacteria

Alphaproteobacteria
–
Alphaproteobacteria is a class of bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. Its members are diverse and possess few commonalities, but nevertheless share a common ancestor. Like all Proteobacteria, its members are Gram-negative and some of its intracellular parasitic members lack peptidoglycan and are consequently gram variable. Moreover, the class in

1.
Alphaproteobacteria

Rhizobiales
–
The Rhizobiales are an order of Gram-negative Alphaproteobacteria. The rhizobia, which fix nitrogen and are symbiotic with plant roots, the four families Bradyrhizobiaceae, Hyphomicrobiaceae, Phyllobacteriaceae, and Rhizobiaceae contain at least six genera of nitrogen-fixing, legume-nodulating, microsymbiotic bacteria. Examples are the genera Brady

1.
Rhizobiales

Bartonellaceae
–
Bartonella is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. It is the genus in the family Bartonellaceae. Facultative intracellular parasites, Bartonella species can infect people, but are considered especially important as opportunistic pathogens. Bartonella species are transmitted by such as ticks, fleas, sand flies. At least eight Bartonella species or sub

1.
Bartonella

Bartonella
–
Bartonella is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. It is the genus in the family Bartonellaceae. Facultative intracellular parasites, Bartonella species can infect people, but are considered especially important as opportunistic pathogens. Bartonella species are transmitted by such as ticks, fleas, sand flies. At least eight Bartonella species or sub

1.
Bartonella

Binomial nomenclature
–
Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of nami

1.
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature.

Synonym (taxonomy)
–
For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy,

1.
The Latin Caudata and Greek Urodela both mean "tailed" and have been used as a scientific name at the rank of order for the salamanders (as opposed to the tail-less frogs). Thus they are synonyms.

2.
The common dandelion Taraxacum officinale sensu lato is an extremely widespread group of apomictic lineages, and some scientists apply the "biological species concept" to divide it into many distinct species; other scientists regard all the names for those independent species as synonyms.

Microorganism
–
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also cont

4.
Louis Pasteur showed that Spallanzani's findings held even if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out

Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europ

3.
A medieval T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah — Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth), and Africa to Cham (Ham)

4.
Early modern depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical Europa of the 8th century BC.

World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts i

Genome
–
In modern molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism. The genome includes both the genes, the noncoding DNA and the material of the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The term genome was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, the Oxford Dictionary suggests the name is a bl

1.
An image of the 46 chromosomes making up the diploid genome of a human male. (The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.)

Gram-negative
–
Gram-negative bacteria are a group of bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner cytoplasmic cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane. Gram-negative

Bacillus (shape)
–
A bacillus is a rod-shaped bacterium. Bacilli are found in different taxonomic groups of bacteria. However, the name Bacillus, capitalized and italicized, refers to a genus of bacteria. The name Bacilli, capitalized but not italicized, can refer to a less specific taxonomic group of bacteria that includes two orders, one of which contains the genus

1.
Bacteria display a large diversity of cell morphologies and arrangements.

Body louse
–
The body louse is a louse that infests humans. The condition of being infested with lice, body lice. Body lice are vectors for the transmission of the human diseases Epidemic typhus, Trench fever, Pediculus humanus humanus is indistinguishable in appearance from Pediculus humanus capitis but will interbreed only under laboratory conditions. In thei

1.
Body louse

Endothelial cells
–
It is a thin layer of simple squamous cells called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells in contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire system, from the heart to the smallest capillaries. These cells have unique functions in vascular biology and these functions include fluid filtration, such a

1.
Diagram showing the location of endothelial cells

2.
Endothelial cells, which form the tunica intima, or innermost layer of the vessel, encircle an erythrocyte (E).

3.
Endothelium lines the inner wall of vessels, shown here.

Erythrocytes
–
RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or gills of fish, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the bodys capillaries. The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, a biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. In humans, mature red cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a nucle

2.
There is an immense size variation in vertebrate erythrocytes, as well as a correlation between cell and nucleus size. Mammalian erythrocytes, which do not contain nuclei, are considerably smaller than those of most other vertebrates.

3.
Mature erythrocytes of birds have a nucleus, however in the blood of adult females of penguin Pygoscelis papua enucleated red blood cells (B) have been observed, but with very low frequency.

Angiogenic
–
Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels. The first vessels in the embryo form through vasculogenesis, after which angiogenesis is responsible for most, if not all, blood vessel growth during development. Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development, as well as

Icosahedral
–
In geometry, a regular icosahedron is a convex polyhedron with 20 faces,30 edges and 12 vertices. It is one of the five Platonic solids, and also the one with the most sides and it has five equilateral triangular faces meeting at each vertex. It is represented by its Schläfli symbol, or sometimes by its vertex figure as 3.3.3.3.3 or 35 and it is th

Ectoparasites
–
In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples

Horizontal gene transfer
–
Horizontal gene transfer or lateral gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring. HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms and it often involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids. Most thinking in genetics

1.
Current tree of life showing vertical and horizontal gene transfers.

Incubation period
–
Incubation period is the time elapsed between exposure to a pathogenic organism, a chemical, or radiation, and when symptoms and signs are first apparent. In a typical infectious disease, incubation period signifies the period taken by the organism to reach a threshold necessary to produce symptoms in the host. Which is shorter depends on the disea

1.
In some diseases, as depicted in this diagram, latent period is shorter than incubation period. A person can transmit infection without showing any signs of the disease. Such infection is called subclinical infection.

Immunofluorescence
–
Immunofluorescence is a technique used for light microscopy with a fluorescence microscope and is used primarily on microbiological samples. The specific region an antibody recognizes on an antigen is called an epitope, there have been efforts in epitope mapping since many antibodies can bind the same epitope and levels of binding between antibodie

1.
Photomicrograph of a histological section of human skin prepared for direct immunofluorescence using an anti-IgA antibody. The skin is from a patient with Henoch-Schonlein purpura: IgA deposits are found in the walls of small superficial capillaries (yellow arrows). The pale wavy green area on top is the epidermis, the bottom fibrous area is the dermis.

2.
Photomicrograph of a histological section of human skin prepared for direct immunofluorescence using an anti-IgG antibody. The skin is from a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and shows IgG deposit at two different places: The first is a band-like deposit along the epidermal basement membrane ("lupus band test" is positive). The second is within the nuclei of the epidermal cells (anti-nuclear antibodies).

Citrate synthase
–
The enzyme citrate synthase exists in nearly all living cells and stands as a pace-making enzyme in the first step of the citric acid cycle. Citrate synthase is localized within cells in the mitochondrial matrix. It is synthesized using cytoplasmic ribosomes, then transported into the mitochondrial matrix, citrate synthase is commonly used as a qua

PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the

1.
PubMed

Rickettsiales
–
The Rickettsiales, also called rickettsias, are an order of small proteobacteria. Most of those described survive only as endosymbionts of other cells, some are notable pathogens, including Rickettsia, which causes a variety of diseases in humans. On the other end of the scale, genetic studies support the theory according to which mitochondria. Som

1.
Rickettsias

Rickettsia rickettsii
–
Rickettsia rickettsii is a gram-negative, intracellular, coccobacillus bacterium that is around 0.8 to 2.0 micrometers long. R. rickettsi is the agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. R. rickettsii is one of the most pathogenic Rickettsia strains known to humans and affects a large majority of the Western Hemisphere, Rocky Mountain spotted fever fi

1.
Rickettsia rickettsii

2.
Early-stage lesions of RMSF

Rickettsia sibirica

1.
Inoculation eschar on popliteal area and discrete maculopapular elements in patient with lymphangitis infected with Rickettsia sibirica mongolitimonae

Mite
–
Mites, along with ticks, are small arthropods belonging to the subclass Acari and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology, in soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of or

Orientia tsutsugamushi
–
Orientia tsutsugamushi is the causative organism of scrub typhus, and the natural vector and reservoir is probably trombiculid mites. The organism is an intracellular pathogen, which needs to infect eukaryotic cells in order to multiply. The envelope is similar to that of Gram negative bacteria, but it is not easily stained with Gram stain, genetic

1.
Orientia

Flea
–
Fleas are small flightless insects that form the order Siphonaptera. As external parasites of mammals and birds, they live by consuming the blood of their hosts, adults are up to about 3 mm long and usually brown. Bodies flattened sideways enable them to move through their hosts fur or feathers and they lack wings, and have mouthparts adapted for p

Anaplasma phagocytophilum
–
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a gram-negative bacterium that is unusual in its tropism to neutrophils. It causes anaplasmosis in sheep and cattle, also known as fever and pasture fever. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative, obligate bacterium of neutrophils and it causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis, which is a tick-borne rickettsial dise

Ehrlichia chaffeensis
–
Ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligate intracellular gram-negative species of rickettsiales bacteria. It is a zoonotic pathogen transmitted to humans by the lone star tick and it is the causative agent of human monocytic ehrlichiosis. ATP production in the rickettsia is biochemically identical to that in mammalian mitochondria, human monocytic ehrlic

1.
Ehrlichia chaffeensis

Brucellaceae

1.
Brucellaceae

Brucella abortus

1.
Brucella

Bartonella henselae
–
Bartonella henselae, formerly Rochalimæa, is a proteobacterium that can cause bacteremia, endocarditis, bacillary angiomatosis, and peliosis hepatis. It is also the agent of cat-scratch disease which, as the name suggests. The disease is characterized by lymphadenopathy and fever, peliosis hepatis caused by B. henselae can occur alone or develop wi

Neisseriaceae
–
The Neisseriaceae are a family of Proteobacteria, within the Neisseriales order. As a group, the Neisseriaceae are strictly aerobic and Gram-negative, occur mainly in pairs, bacteria of Medical Importance in Todars Online Textbook of Bacteriology. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Ryan KJ, Ray CG

1.
Neisseriaceae

Maltose
–
Maltose, also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α bond, formed from a condensation reaction. The isomer isomaltose has two glucose molecules linked through an α bond, maltose is the second member of an important biochemical series of glucose chains. Maltose is the disaccharide produ

1.
Maltose syrup

2.
α-Maltose

3.
Chemistry

Neisseria meningitidis
–
The bacterium is referred to as a coccus because it is round, and more specifically, diplococcus because of its tendency to form pairs. About 10% of adults are carriers of the bacteria in their nasopharynx, as an exclusively human pathogen it is the main cause of bacterial meningitis in children and young adults, causing developmental impairment an

1.
The growth of Neisseria meningitidis colonies on New York City Medium Agar

2.
Neisseria meningitidis

Neisseria gonorrhoeae
–
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as gonococci, or gonococcus, is a species of Gram-negative coffee bean-shaped diplococci bacteria responsible for the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea. N. gonorrhoeae was first described by Albert Neisser in 1879, Neisseria species are fastidious Gram-negative cocci that require nutrient supplementation to

1.
The growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae colonies on New York City medium agar, a specialised and selective media for Gonococci

2.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate

2.
Bacteria
–
Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea

3.
Proteobacteria
–
The Proteobacteria are a major phylum of Gram-negative bacteria. The name of the phylum has never been published as no type genus has been proposed. They include a variety of pathogens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, Yersinia. Others are free-living, and include many of the responsible for nitrogen fixation. Carl Woese established this grouping in 1987, calling it informally the purple bacteria, the Alphaproteobacteria grow at very low levels of nutrients and have unusual morphology such as stalks and buds. They include agriculturally important bacteria capable of inducing nitrogen fixation in symbiosis with plants, the type order is the Caulobacterales, comprising stalk-forming bacteria such as Caulobacter. The Betaproteobacteria are highly diverse and contain chemolithoautotrophs, photoautotrophs. The type order is the Burkholderiales, comprising a range of metabolic diversity. The Gammaproteobacteria are the largest class in terms of species with validly published names, the type order is the Pseudomonadales, which include the genera Pseudomonas and the nitrogen-fixing Azotobacter. The Deltaproteobacteria include bacteria that are predators on other bacteria and are important contributors to the side of the sulfur cycle. The type order is the Myxococcales, which includes organisms with self-organising abilities such as Myxococcus spp, the Epsilonproteobacteria are often slender, Gram-negative rods that are helical or curved. The type order is the Campylobacterales, which includes important food pathogens such as Campylobacter spp, the type order is the Oligoflexales, which contains the genus Oligoflexus. The Acidithiobacillia contain only sulfur-oxidising autotrophs, the type order is the Acidithiobacillales, which includes economically important organisms used in the mining industry such as Acidithiobacillus spp. All Proteobacteria are Gram-negative, though some may stain Gram-positive or Gram-variable in practice, many move about using flagella, but some are nonmotile or rely on bacterial gliding. The last include the Myxobacteriales, an order of bacteria that can aggregate to form fruiting bodies. Also, a variety in the types of metabolism exists. Most members are facultatively or obligately anaerobic, Chemolithoautotrophic, and heterotrophic, a variety of genera, which are not closely related to each other, convert energy from light through photosynthesis. Proteobacteria are associated with the imbalance of microbiota of the reproductive tract of women

Proteobacteria
–
Proteobacteria

4.
Alphaproteobacteria
–
Alphaproteobacteria is a class of bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. Its members are diverse and possess few commonalities, but nevertheless share a common ancestor. Like all Proteobacteria, its members are Gram-negative and some of its intracellular parasitic members lack peptidoglycan and are consequently gram variable. Moreover, the class includes the protomitochondrion, the bacterium that was engulfed by the ancestor and gave rise to the mitochondria. A species of technological interest is Rhizobium radiobacter, scientists use this species to transfer foreign DNA into plant genomes. There is some disagreement on the phylogeny of the orders, especially for the location of the Pelagibacterales and this issue stems form the large difference in gene content and the large difference in GC-richness between members of several order. Specifically, Pelagibacterales, Rickettsiales and Holosporales contains species with AT-rich genomes and it has been argued that it could be a case of convergent evolution that would result in an artefactual clustering. The basal group is Magnetococcidae, which is composed by a diversity of magnetotactic bacteria. The Rickettsidae is composed of the intracellular Rickettsiales and the free-living Pelagibacterales, the Caulobacteridae is composed of the Holosporales, Rhodospirillales, Sphingomonadales, Rhodobacterales, Caulobacterales, Kiloniellales, Kordiimonadales, Parvularculales and Sneathiellales. These molecular signatures provide novel means for the circumscription of these taxonomic groups, alphaproteobacteria at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings Bacterial Phylogeny Webpage, Alpha Proteobacteria

6.
Bartonellaceae
–
Bartonella is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. It is the genus in the family Bartonellaceae. Facultative intracellular parasites, Bartonella species can infect people, but are considered especially important as opportunistic pathogens. Bartonella species are transmitted by such as ticks, fleas, sand flies. At least eight Bartonella species or subspecies are known to infect humans, Bartonella henselae is the organism responsible for cat scratch disease. Bartonella species have been infecting humans for thousands of years, as demonstrated by Bartonella quintana DNA in a 4000-year-old tooth, the genus is named for Alberto Leonardo Barton Thompson, a Peruvian scientist born in Argentina. The currently accepted model explaining the infection cycle holds that the vectors are blood-sucking arthropods. Immediately after infection, the bacteria colonize a primary niche, the endothelial cells, every five days, some of the Bartonella bacteria in the endothelial cells are released into the blood stream, where they infect erythrocytes. The bacteria then invade a phagosomal membrane inside the erythrocytes, where they multiply until they reach a population density. At this point, they wait until they are taken up with the erythrocytes by a blood-sucking arthropod. Recent studies have shown a correlation between tick exposure and bartonellosis, including human bartonellosis. Bartonella bacteria are associated with disease, but a study in 2010 concluded. A history of a scratch or bite is not necessary for disease transmission. All current Bartonella species identified in canines are human pathogens, Bartonella infections are remarkable in the wide range of symptoms they can produce. The course of the diseases and the underlying pathologies are highly variable, treatment is dependent on which species or strain of Bartonella is found in a given patient. Immunocompromised patients should be treated with antibiotics because they are susceptible to systemic disease. Drugs of particular effectiveness include trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin, B. henselae is generally resistant to penicillin, amoxicillin, homeless intravenous drug users are at high risk for Bartonella infections, particularly B. elizabethae. B. elizabethae seropositivity rates in population range from 12. 5% in Los Angeles, to 33% in Baltimore, Maryland, 46% in New York City

Bartonellaceae
–
Bartonella

7.
Bartonella
–
Bartonella is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. It is the genus in the family Bartonellaceae. Facultative intracellular parasites, Bartonella species can infect people, but are considered especially important as opportunistic pathogens. Bartonella species are transmitted by such as ticks, fleas, sand flies. At least eight Bartonella species or subspecies are known to infect humans, Bartonella henselae is the organism responsible for cat scratch disease. Bartonella species have been infecting humans for thousands of years, as demonstrated by Bartonella quintana DNA in a 4000-year-old tooth, the genus is named for Alberto Leonardo Barton Thompson, a Peruvian scientist born in Argentina. The currently accepted model explaining the infection cycle holds that the vectors are blood-sucking arthropods. Immediately after infection, the bacteria colonize a primary niche, the endothelial cells, every five days, some of the Bartonella bacteria in the endothelial cells are released into the blood stream, where they infect erythrocytes. The bacteria then invade a phagosomal membrane inside the erythrocytes, where they multiply until they reach a population density. At this point, they wait until they are taken up with the erythrocytes by a blood-sucking arthropod. Recent studies have shown a correlation between tick exposure and bartonellosis, including human bartonellosis. Bartonella bacteria are associated with disease, but a study in 2010 concluded. A history of a scratch or bite is not necessary for disease transmission. All current Bartonella species identified in canines are human pathogens, Bartonella infections are remarkable in the wide range of symptoms they can produce. The course of the diseases and the underlying pathologies are highly variable, treatment is dependent on which species or strain of Bartonella is found in a given patient. Immunocompromised patients should be treated with antibiotics because they are susceptible to systemic disease. Drugs of particular effectiveness include trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin, B. henselae is generally resistant to penicillin, amoxicillin, homeless intravenous drug users are at high risk for Bartonella infections, particularly B. elizabethae. B. elizabethae seropositivity rates in population range from 12. 5% in Los Angeles, to 33% in Baltimore, Maryland, 46% in New York City

Bartonella
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Bartonella

8.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name

Binomial nomenclature
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Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature.

9.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms

Synonym (taxonomy)
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The Latin Caudata and Greek Urodela both mean "tailed" and have been used as a scientific name at the rank of order for the salamanders (as opposed to the tail-less frogs). Thus they are synonyms.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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The common dandelion Taraxacum officinale sensu lato is an extremely widespread group of apomictic lineages, and some scientists apply the "biological species concept" to divide it into many distinct species; other scientists regard all the names for those independent species as synonyms.

10.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century

11.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa

Europe
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Reconstruction of Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
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A medieval T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah — Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth), and Africa to Cham (Ham)
Europe
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Early modern depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical Europa of the 8th century BC.

12.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

13.
Genome
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In modern molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism. The genome includes both the genes, the noncoding DNA and the material of the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The term genome was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, the Oxford Dictionary suggests the name is a blend of the words gene and chromosome. However, see omics for a thorough discussion. A few related -ome words already existed—such as biome, rhizome, Some organisms have multiple copies of chromosomes, diploid, triploid, tetraploid and so on. In classical genetics, in a sexually reproducing organism the gamete has half the number of chromosomes of the somatic cell, the halving of the genetic material in gametes is accomplished by the segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Additionally, the genome can comprise non-chromosomal genetic elements such as viruses, plasmids, even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as a genome sequence may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals. Colloquially, the genetic makeup is sometimes used to signify the genome of a particular individual or organism. Both the number of pairs and the number of genes vary widely from one species to another. The only exception in humans is found in red blood cells which become enucleated during development. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent was the first to establish the complete sequence of a viral RNA-genome. The next year Fred Sanger completed the first DNA-genome sequence, Phage Φ-X174, the first genome sequence for an archaeon, Methanococcus jannaschii, was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research. The development of new technologies has made it easier and cheaper to do sequencing. The US National Institutes of Health maintains one of several databases of genomic information. Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for rice, a mouse, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the fish. In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the genome of a Neanderthal. The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130, new sequencing technologies, such as massive parallel sequencing have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by Manteia Predictive Medicine. A major step toward that goal was the completion in 2007 of the genome of James D. Watson

Genome
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An image of the 46 chromosomes making up the diploid genome of a human male. (The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.)

14.
Gram-negative
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Gram-negative bacteria are a group of bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner cytoplasmic cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane. Gram-negative bacteria are spread worldwide, in all environments that support life. Several classes of antibiotics target gram-negative bacteria specifically, including aminoglycosides, historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based on Gram staining, Firmacutes, Gracillicutes, Mollicutes and Mendocutes. Since 1987, the monophyly of the bacteria has been disproven with molecular studies. However some authors, such as Cavalier-Smith still treat them as a monophyletic taxon, bacteria are traditionally divided into the two groups, gram-positive and gram-negative, based on their Gram stain retention. These groups are thought of as lineages, with gram-negative bacteria more closely related to one another than to gram-positive bacteria. While this is true, the classification system breaks down in some cases. A given bacterias Gram stain result, bacterial membrane organization, as such, the Gram stain cannot be reliably used to assess familial relationships of bacteria. That said, Gram staining does often give information about the composition of the cell membrane. Of these two distinct groups of prokaryotic organisms, monoderm prokaryotes are indicated to be ancestral. In addition, a number of taxa that are either part of the phylum Firmicutes or branches in its proximity are also found to possess a diderm cell structure. Other notable groups of bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, green sulfur. Medically relevant gram-negative cocci include the four types that cause a sexually transmitted disease, a meningitis, medically relevant gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems, primarily urinary problems, transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from bacterium to another, the other two being conjugation and transduction. In transformation, the material passes through the intervening medium. One of the unique characteristics of gram-negative bacteria is the structure of the bacterial outer membrane. The outer leaflet of this comprises a complex lipopolysaccharide whose lipid portion acts as an endotoxin

15.
Bacillus (shape)
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A bacillus is a rod-shaped bacterium. Bacilli are found in different taxonomic groups of bacteria. However, the name Bacillus, capitalized and italicized, refers to a genus of bacteria. The name Bacilli, capitalized but not italicized, can refer to a less specific taxonomic group of bacteria that includes two orders, one of which contains the genus Bacillus. When the word is formatted with a lowercase and not italicized, bacillus, it will most likely be referring to shape, the shape bacillus can also be called rods. Bacilli usually divide in the plane and are solitary, but can combine to form diplobacilli, streptobacilli. Diplobacilli, Two bacilli arranged side by side each other. Coccobacillus, Oval and similar to coccus, there is no connection between the shape of a bacterium and its color in the Gram staining. MacConkey agar can be used to distinguish among Gram negative bacilli such as E. coli and salmonella

Bacillus (shape)
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Bacteria display a large diversity of cell morphologies and arrangements.

16.
Body louse
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The body louse is a louse that infests humans. The condition of being infested with lice, body lice. Body lice are vectors for the transmission of the human diseases Epidemic typhus, Trench fever, Pediculus humanus humanus is indistinguishable in appearance from Pediculus humanus capitis but will interbreed only under laboratory conditions. In their natural state, they occupy different habitats and do not usually meet, in particular, body lice have evolved to attach their eggs to clothes, whereas head lice attach their eggs to the base of hairs. The life cycle of the body consists of three stages, egg, nymph, and adult. They are generally easy to see in the seams of a persons clothing, particularly around the waistline. They are oval and usually yellow to white in color, Body lice nits may take 1–2 weeks to hatch. A nymph is a louse that hatches from the nit. A nymph looks like an adult body louse, but is smaller, nymphs mature into adults about 9–12 days after hatching. To live, it must feed on blood, the adult body louse is about the size of a sesame seed, has six legs, and is tan to greyish-white. To live, lice must feed on blood, if separated from their hosts, lice die. The body louse diverged from the head louse at around 100,000 years ago, Body lice were first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. The human body louse had its genome sequenced in 2010, list of parasites Body and head lice on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

Body louse
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Body louse

17.
Endothelial cells
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It is a thin layer of simple squamous cells called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells in contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire system, from the heart to the smallest capillaries. These cells have unique functions in vascular biology and these functions include fluid filtration, such as in the glomerulus of the kidney, blood vessel tone, hemostasis, neutrophil recruitment, and hormone trafficking. Endothelium of the surfaces of the heart chambers is called endocardium. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer. In straight sections of a vessel, vascular endothelial cells typically align. Many considered the endothelium a specialized epithelial tissue, excessive or prolonged increases in permeability of the endothelial monolayer, as in cases of chronic inflammation, may lead to tissue edema/swelling. The most prevailing mechanism of endothelial dysfunction is an increase in reactive oxygen species, the signalling protein ERK5 is essential for maintaining normal endothelial cell function

18.
Erythrocytes
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RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or gills of fish, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the bodys capillaries. The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, a biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. In humans, mature red cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin, they can be viewed as sacks of hemoglobin. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second in human adults, the cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100–120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 60 seconds, approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells. Nearly half of the volume is red blood cells. Red blood cells are known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids. Packed red blood cells are red blood cells that have donated, processed. Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells, red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish, they live in very cold water. While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome, oxygen can easily diffuse through the red blood cells cell membrane. Myoglobin, a related to hemoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle cells. The color of red cells is due to the heme group of hemoglobin. However, blood can appear bluish when seen through the vessel wall, pulse oximetry takes advantage of the hemoglobin color change to directly measure the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques. Hemoglobin also has a high affinity for carbon monoxide, forming carboxyhemoglobin which is a very bright red in color. Flushed, confused patients with a reading of 100% on pulse oximetry are sometimes found to be suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning. The red blood cells of mammals are typically shaped as disks, flattened and depressed in the center, with a dumbbell-shaped cross section

Erythrocytes
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Scanning electron micrograph of human red blood cells (ca. 6–8 μm in diameter)
Erythrocytes
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There is an immense size variation in vertebrate erythrocytes, as well as a correlation between cell and nucleus size. Mammalian erythrocytes, which do not contain nuclei, are considerably smaller than those of most other vertebrates.
Erythrocytes
–
Mature erythrocytes of birds have a nucleus, however in the blood of adult females of penguin Pygoscelis papua enucleated red blood cells (B) have been observed, but with very low frequency.
Erythrocytes
–
Scanning electron micrograph of blood cells. From left to right: human erythrocyte, thrombocyte (platelet), leukocyte.

19.
Angiogenic
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Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels. The first vessels in the embryo form through vasculogenesis, after which angiogenesis is responsible for most, if not all, blood vessel growth during development. Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing and in the formation of granulation tissue. However, it is also a step in the transition of tumors from a benign state to a malignant one. Sprouting angiogenesis was the first identified form of angiogenesis and it occurs in several well-characterized stages. First, biological signals known as growth factors activate receptors on endothelial cells present in pre-existing blood vessels. Second, the endothelial cells begin to release enzymes called proteases that degrade the basement membrane to allow endothelial cells to escape from the original vessel walls. The endothelial cells then proliferate into the matrix and form solid sprouts connecting neighboring vessels. As sprouts extend toward the source of the stimulus, endothelial cells migrate in tandem. These sprouts then form loops to become a full-fledged vessel lumen as cells migrate to the site of angiogenesis, sprouting occurs at a rate of several millimeters per day, and enables new vessels to grow across gaps in the vasculature. It is markedly different from splitting angiogenesis because it forms new vessels as opposed to splitting existing vessels. By intussusception, also known as splitting angiogenesis, a new vessel is created by splitting of an existing blood vessel in two. Intussusception was first observed in neonatal rats, in this type of vessel formation, the capillary wall extends into the lumen to split a single vessel in two. There are four phases of intussusceptive angiogenesis, first, the two opposing capillary walls establish a zone of contact. Second, the endothelial cell junctions are reorganized and the vessel bilayer is perforated to allow growth factors, third, a core is formed between the 2 new vessels at the zone of contact that is filled with pericytes and myofibroblasts. These cells begin laying collagen fibers into the core to provide a matrix for growth of the vessel lumen. Finally, the core is fleshed out with no alterations to the basic structure, intussusception is important because it is a reorganization of existing cells. It allows a vast increase in the number of capillaries without an increase in the number of endothelial cells

Angiogenic
–
Not to be confused with vasculogenesis.
Angiogenic
–
Without angiogenesis a tumor cannot grow beyond a limited size

20.
Icosahedral
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In geometry, a regular icosahedron is a convex polyhedron with 20 faces,30 edges and 12 vertices. It is one of the five Platonic solids, and also the one with the most sides and it has five equilateral triangular faces meeting at each vertex. It is represented by its Schläfli symbol, or sometimes by its vertex figure as 3.3.3.3.3 or 35 and it is the dual of the dodecahedron, which is represented by, having three pentagonal faces around each vertex. A regular icosahedron is a pentagonal bipyramid and a biaugmented pentagonal antiprism in any of six orientations. The name comes from Greek εἴκοσι, meaning twenty, and ἕδρα, the plural can be either icosahedrons or icosahedra. The surface area A and the volume V of a regular icosahedron of edge length a are, note that these vertices form five sets of three concentric, mutually orthogonal golden rectangles, whose edges form Borromean rings. If the original icosahedron has edge length 1, its dual dodecahedron has edge length √5 − 1/2 = 1/ϕ = ϕ −1, the 12 edges of a regular octahedron can be subdivided in the golden ratio so that the resulting vertices define a regular icosahedron. The locations of the vertices of a regular icosahedron can be described using spherical coordinates, if two vertices are taken to be at the north and south poles, then the other ten vertices are at latitude ±arctan ≈ ±26. 57°. These ten vertices are at evenly spaced longitudes, alternating between north and south latitudes and this projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane, an icosahedron has 43,380 distinct nets. To color the icosahedron, such that no two adjacent faces have the color, requires at least 3 colors. A problem dating back to the ancient Greeks is to determine which of two shapes has larger volume, an icosahedron inscribed in a sphere, or a dodecahedron inscribed in the same sphere, the problem was solved by Hero, Pappus, and Fibonacci, among others. Apollonius of Perga discovered the result that the ratio of volumes of these two shapes is the same as the ratio of their surface areas. Both volumes have formulas involving the golden ratio, but taken to different powers, as it turns out, the icosahedron occupies less of the spheres volume than the dodecahedron. The following construction of the icosahedron avoids tedious computations in the number field ℚ necessary in more elementary approaches, the existence of the icosahedron amounts to the existence of six equiangular lines in ℝ3. Indeed, intersecting such a system of lines with a Euclidean sphere centered at their common intersection yields the twelve vertices of a regular icosahedron as can easily be checked. Conversely, supposing the existence of an icosahedron, lines defined by its six pairs of opposite vertices form an equiangular system. In order to such an equiangular system, we start with this 6 ×6 square matrix

21.
Ectoparasites
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In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms, unlike predators, parasites typically do not kill their host, are generally much smaller than their host, and will often live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are special cases of consumer-resource interactions, Parasites show a high degree of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species, and fleas, parasitism differs from the parasitoid relationship in that parasitoids generally kill their hosts. Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and impairment of secondary sex characteristics, Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, e. g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission. Although parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a continuum of types of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category, in many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate harm to the host. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, coined in English in 1611, the word parasitism comes from the Greek παρά + σιτισμός feeding, fattening. Parasites are classified based on their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles, an obligate parasite is totally dependent on the host to complete its life cycle, while a facultative parasite is not. A direct parasite has one host while an indirect parasite has multiple hosts. For indirect parasites, there always be a definitive host. Parasites that live on the outside of the host, either on the skin or the outgrowths of the skin, are called ectoparasites and those that live inside the host are called endoparasites. Endoparasites can exist in one of two forms, intercellular parasites or intracellular parasites, intracellular parasites, such as protozoa, bacteria or viruses, tend to rely on a third organism, which is generally known as the carrier or vector. The vector does the job of transmitting them to the host, an example of this interaction is the transmission of malaria, caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium, to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito. Those parasites living in a position, being half-ectoparasites and half-endoparasites, are called mesoparasites. An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite and this relationship is also sometimes referred to as hyperparasitism, exemplified by a protozoan living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog. Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants, termites, and bumblebees, an extreme example of social parasitism is the ant species of Tetramorium inquilinum of the Alps, which spend their whole lives on the back of Tetramorium host ants. With tiny and deprecated bodies they have evolved for one single task, if they fall off, they most likely would not have the strength to climb back on top of another ant, and eventually they will die

22.
Horizontal gene transfer
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Horizontal gene transfer or lateral gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring. HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms and it often involves temperate bacteriophages and plasmids. Most thinking in genetics has focused upon vertical transfer, but horizontal gene transfer is important, artificial horizontal gene transfer is a form of genetic engineering. Inter-bacterial gene transfer was first described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of resistance between different species of bacteria. In the mid-1980s, Syvanen predicted that lateral gene transfer existed, had biological significance, as Jian, Rivera and Lake put it, Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes. The phenomenon appears to have had significance for unicellular eukaryotes as well. As Bapteste et al. observe, additional evidence suggests that gene transfer might also be an important evolutionary mechanism in protist evolution, there is some evidence that even higher plants and animals have been affected and this has raised concerns for safety. Grafting of one plant to another can transfer chloroplasts, mitochondrial DNA, some Lepidoptera have been genetically modified by horizontal gene transfer from the wasp bracovirus. Bites from the insect Reduviidae can, via a parasite, infect humans with the trypanosomal Chagas disease and it has been suggested that lateral gene transfer to humans from bacteria may play a role in cancer. Richardson and Palmer state, Horizontal gene transfer has played a role in bacterial evolution and is fairly common in certain unicellular eukaryotes. However, the prevalence and importance of HGT in the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes remain unclear, some have argued that the process may be a hidden hazard of genetic engineering as it could allow transgenic DNA to spread from species to species. There are several mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer, Transformation, the alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake. This process is common in bacteria, but less so in eukaryotes. Transformation is often used in laboratories to insert genes into bacteria for experiments or for industrial or medical applications. See also molecular biology and biotechnology, transduction, the process in which bacterial DNA is moved from one bacterium to another by a virus. Bacterial conjugation, a process involves the transfer of DNA via a plasmid from a donor cell to a recombinant recipient cell during cell-to-cell contact. Gene transfer agents, virus-like elements encoded by the host that are found in the alphaproteobacteria order Rhodobacterales. A transposon is a segment of DNA that can sometimes pick up a resistance gene and insert it into a plasmid or chromosome

23.
Incubation period
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Incubation period is the time elapsed between exposure to a pathogenic organism, a chemical, or radiation, and when symptoms and signs are first apparent. In a typical infectious disease, incubation period signifies the period taken by the organism to reach a threshold necessary to produce symptoms in the host. Which is shorter depends on the disease, a person may be a carrier of a disease, such as Streptococcus in the throat, without exhibiting any symptoms. Depending on the disease, the person may or may not be contagious during the incubation period, during clinical latency, an infection is subclinical. With respect to viral infections, in clinical latency the virus is actively replicating and this is in contrast to viral latency, a form of dormancy in which the virus does not replicate. An example of latency is HIV infection. HIV may at first have no symptoms and show no signs of AIDS, despite HIV replicating in the lymphatic system, the terms intrinsic incubation period and extrinsic incubation period are used in vector-borne diseases. The intrinsic incubation period is the time taken by an organism to complete its development in the definitive host, the extrinsic incubation period is the time taken by an organism to complete its development in the intermediate host. For example, once ingested by a mosquito, malaria parasites must undergo development within the mosquito before they are infectious to humans, the time required for development in the mosquito ranges from 10 to 28 days, depending on the parasite species and the temperature. This is the incubation period of that parasite. If a female mosquito does not survive longer than the incubation period. After a mosquito successfully transfers the parasite to a human body via a bite, the time between the injection of the parasite into the human and the development of the first symptoms of malaria is its intrinsic incubation period. When possible, it is best to express the mean and the 10th and 90th percentiles, the values below are arranged roughly in ascending order, although in some cases the mean had to be inferred. For many conditions, incubation periods are longer in adults than they are in children or infants, gestation period Prodrome Quarantine Window period, the time between infection and when lab tests can identify the infection. The window period may be longer or shorter than the incubation period

Incubation period
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In some diseases, as depicted in this diagram, latent period is shorter than incubation period. A person can transmit infection without showing any signs of the disease. Such infection is called subclinical infection.

24.
Immunofluorescence
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Immunofluorescence is a technique used for light microscopy with a fluorescence microscope and is used primarily on microbiological samples. The specific region an antibody recognizes on an antigen is called an epitope, there have been efforts in epitope mapping since many antibodies can bind the same epitope and levels of binding between antibodies that recognize the same epitope can vary. Additionally, the binding of the fluorophore to the antibody itself cannot interfere with the specificity of the antibody or the binding capacity of its antigen. Immunofluorescence is a used example of immunostaining and is a specific example of immunohistochemistry. This technique primarily makes use of fluorophores to visualise the location of the antibodies and this technique can even be used to visualize structures such as intermediate-sized filaments. If the topology of a membrane has yet to be determined. Immunofluorescence can be used in combination with other, non-antibody methods of fluorescent staining, for example, several microscope designs can be used for analysis of immunofluorescence samples, the simplest is the epifluorescence microscope, and the confocal microscope is also widely used. Various super-resolution microscope designs that are capable of higher resolution can also be used. To make fluorochrome-labeled antibodies, a fluorochrome must be conjugated to the antibody, likewise, an antigen can also be conjugated to the antibody with a fluorescent probe in a technique called fluorescent antigen technique. Staining procedures can apply to both fixed antigen in the cytoplasm or to surface antigens on live cells, called membrane immunofluorescence. It is also possible to label the complement of the complex with a fluorescent probe. In addition to the element to which fluorescence probes are attached, the following descriptions will focus primarily on these classes in terms of conjugated antibodies. There are two classes of immunofluorescence techniques, primary and secondary, primary immunofluorescence uses a single, primary antibody, chemically linked to a fluorophore. The primary antibody recognizes the molecule and binds to a specific region called the epitope. The attached fluorophore can be detected via fluorescent microscopy, which, depending on the messenger used, direct immunofluorescence, although somewhat less common, has notable advantages over the secondary procedure. The direct attachment of the messenger to the antibody reduces the number of steps in the procedure, saving time and this also limits the possibility of antibody cross-reactivity and possible mistakes throughout the process. However, some disadvantages do exist in this method, direct immunofluorescence also requires the use of much more primary antibody, which is extremely expensive, sometimes running up to $400. 00/mL. Multiple secondary antibodies can bind a single primary antibody and this provides signal amplification by increasing the number of fluorophore molecules per antigen

Immunofluorescence
–
Photomicrograph of a histological section of human skin prepared for direct immunofluorescence using an anti-IgA antibody. The skin is from a patient with Henoch-Schonlein purpura: IgA deposits are found in the walls of small superficial capillaries (yellow arrows). The pale wavy green area on top is the epidermis, the bottom fibrous area is the dermis.
Immunofluorescence
–
Photomicrograph of a histological section of human skin prepared for direct immunofluorescence using an anti-IgG antibody. The skin is from a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and shows IgG deposit at two different places: The first is a band-like deposit along the epidermal basement membrane ("lupus band test" is positive). The second is within the nuclei of the epidermal cells (anti-nuclear antibodies).
Immunofluorescence
–
A fluorescent stain for actin in the smooth muscle of the skin.

25.
Citrate synthase
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The enzyme citrate synthase exists in nearly all living cells and stands as a pace-making enzyme in the first step of the citric acid cycle. Citrate synthase is localized within cells in the mitochondrial matrix. It is synthesized using cytoplasmic ribosomes, then transported into the mitochondrial matrix, citrate synthase is commonly used as a quantitative enzyme marker for the presence of intact mitochondria. Oxaloacetate is the first substrate to bind to the enzyme and this induces the enzyme to change its conformation, and creates a binding site for the acetyl-CoA. Only when this citroyl-CoA has formed will another conformational change cause thioester hydrolysis and this ensures that the energy released from the thioester bond cleavage will drive the condensation. Citrate synthases 437 amino acid residues are organized into two subunits, each consisting of 20 alpha-helices. Between these two subunits, a single cleft exists containing the active site, two binding sites can be found therein, one reserved for citrate or oxaloacetate and the other for Coenzyme A. The active site contains three key residues, His274, His320, and Asp375 that are selective in their interactions with substrates. The images to the display the tertiary structure of citrate synthase in its opened and closed form. The enzyme changes from opened to closed with the addition of one of its substrates, citrate synthase has three key amino acids in its active site which catalyze the conversion of acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate into citrate and H−SCoA in an aldol condensation reaction. This nucleophilic addition results in the formation of citroyl−CoA, at this point, a water molecule is deprotonated by the epsilon nitrogen atom of His-320 and hydrolysis is initiated. One of the lone pairs nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl carbon of citroyl−CoA. This forms an intermediate and results in the ejection of −SCoA as the carbonyl reforms. The −SCoA is protonated to form HSCoA, finally, the hydroxyl added to the carbonyl in the previous step is deprotonated and citrate is formed. The enzyme is inhibited by high ratios of ATP, ADP, acetyl-CoA, CoA, and NADH, NAD, as high concentrations of ATP, acetyl-CoA and it is also inhibited by succinyl-CoA, which resembles Acetyl-coA and acts as a uncompetitive inhibitor. Citrate inhibits the reaction and is an example of product inhibition, the inhibition of citrate synthase by acetyl-CoA analogues has also been well documented and has been used to prove the existence of a single active site. These experiments have revealed that this single site alternates between two forms, which participate in ligase and hydrolase activity respectively and this protein may use the morpheein model of allosteric regulation. Citrate synthase at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings

Citrate synthase

26.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed

27.
Rickettsiales
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The Rickettsiales, also called rickettsias, are an order of small proteobacteria. Most of those described survive only as endosymbionts of other cells, some are notable pathogens, including Rickettsia, which causes a variety of diseases in humans. On the other end of the scale, genetic studies support the theory according to which mitochondria. Some have also speculated that viruses might have developed from them, the Rickettsiales are among the most mysterious groups of Proteobacteria, owing largely to difficulties in cultivating them. The group includes all obligate endosymbiont bacteria, however, a number of species have been removed, such as Coxiella burnetii, the cause of Q fever. The Rickettsiales has an order the Pelagibacterales, which is composed of free living bacteria with extremely streamlined genomes. The relation between the two order is retained in the subclass, the Rickettsidae, which include the Rickettsiales, the Pelagibacteriales and the extinct protomitochondrion

Rickettsiales
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Rickettsias

28.
Rickettsia rickettsii
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Rickettsia rickettsii is a gram-negative, intracellular, coccobacillus bacterium that is around 0.8 to 2.0 micrometers long. R. rickettsi is the agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. R. rickettsii is one of the most pathogenic Rickettsia strains known to humans and affects a large majority of the Western Hemisphere, Rocky Mountain spotted fever first emerged in the Idaho Valley in 1896. At that time, not much information was known about the disease, the first clinical description of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever was reported in 1899 by Edward E. Maxey. Howard Ricketts, a professor of pathology at the University of Chicago in 1902, was the first to identify. At this time, the trademark rash now began to emerge in the western Montana area. His research entailed interviewing victims of the disease and collecting and studying infected animals and he was also known to inject himself with pathogens to measure their effects. Unfortunately, his research was cut short after his death from an insect bite. S. Burt Wolbach is credited for the first detailed description of the agent that causes R. rickettsii in 1919. He clearly recognized it as a bacterium which was seen most frequently in endothelial cells. The most common hosts for the R. rickettsii bacteria are ticks, ticks that carry R. rickettsia fall into the family of Ixodidae ticks, also known as hard bodied ticks. Ticks are vectors, reservoirs and amplifiers of this disease, there are currently three known tick specifics that commonly carry R. rickettsii. American dog tick Rocky Mountain Wood Tick Brown dog tick, ticks can contract R. rickettsii by many means. Once a tick becomes infected with this pathogen, they are infected for life, in addition, an infected male tick can transmit the organism to an uninfected female during mating. Once infected, the tick can transmit the infection to her offspring. Due to its confinement in the midgut and small intestine, Rickettsia rickettsii can be transmitted to mammals, transmission to mammals can occur in multiple ways. One way of contraction is through the contact of infected host feces to an uninfected host, if infected host feces comes into contact with an open skin wound, it is possible for the disease to be transmitted. Additionally, an uninfected host can become infected with R. rickettsii when eating food that contains the feces of the infected vector, another way of contraction is by the bite of an infected tick

29.
Mite
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Mites, along with ticks, are small arthropods belonging to the subclass Acari and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology, in soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups and they have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size, go largely unnoticed. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals. It is estimated that 48,200 species of mites have been described, mites occupy a wide range of ecological niches. For example, Oribatida mites are important decomposers and occur in many habitats and they eat a wide variety of material including living and dead plant and fungal material, lichens and carrion, some are even predatory, though no species of Oribatida mite are parasites. Many mites which have well studied are parasitic on plants. One family of mites Pyroglyphidae, or nest mites, live primarily in the nests of birds and these mites are largely parasitic and consume blood, skin and keratin. Dust mites, which feed mostly on dead skin and hair shed from humans instead of consuming them from the organism directly, insects may also be infested by parasitic mites. Examples are Varroa destructor, which attaches to the body of the bee, and Acarapis woodi. There are hundreds of species of associated with other bee species. They attach to the bees in a variety of ways, for example, Trigona corvina workers have been found with mites attached to the outer face of their hind tibiae. Some are thought to be parasites, while others are beneficial symbionts, mites also parasitize some ant species, such as Eciton burchellii. Some of the plant pests include the spider mites, thread-footed mites. Among the species that attack animals are members of the sarcoptic mange mites, demodex mites are parasites that live in or near the hair follicles of mammals, including humans. Acari are mites, except for the three families of ticks, mites also hold the record speed, for its length, Paratarsotomus macropalpis is the fastest animal on Earth. The majority of species are harmless to humans, but a few species of mites can colonize humans directly, act as vectors for disease transmission. Mites which colonize human skin are the cause of several types of skin rashes, such as grain itch, grocers itch

30.
Orientia tsutsugamushi
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Orientia tsutsugamushi is the causative organism of scrub typhus, and the natural vector and reservoir is probably trombiculid mites. The organism is an intracellular pathogen, which needs to infect eukaryotic cells in order to multiply. The envelope is similar to that of Gram negative bacteria, but it is not easily stained with Gram stain, genetic methods have revealed even greater complexity than had been previously described. Infection with one serotype does not confer immunity to other serotypes, repeated infection in the same individual is therefore possible, and this complicates vaccine design. The bacterium was initially categorised in the genus Rickettsia, but is now classed in a genus, Orientia. It is 0.5 µm wide and 1.2 to 3.0 µm long, the organism is highly virulent and should only be handled in a laboratory with biosafety level 3 facilities. O. tsutsugamushi is sensitive in vitro to doxycycline, rifampicin and azithromycin and it is innately resistant to all β-lactam antibiotics because it lacks a classical peptidoglycan cell wall. Aminoglycosides are also ineffective in human infection because the organism is intracellular, there are currently no licensed scrub typhus vaccines available. It is now known there is enormous antigenic variation in Orientia tsutsugamushi strains. Any scrub typhus vaccine should give protection to all the strains present locally, a vaccine developed for one locality may not be protective in another locality, because of antigenic variation. This complexity continues to hamper efforts to produce a viable vaccine

Orientia tsutsugamushi
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Orientia

31.
Flea
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Fleas are small flightless insects that form the order Siphonaptera. As external parasites of mammals and birds, they live by consuming the blood of their hosts, adults are up to about 3 mm long and usually brown. Bodies flattened sideways enable them to move through their hosts fur or feathers and they lack wings, and have mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood and hind legs adapted for jumping. The latter enable them to leap a distance of some 50 times their body length, larvae are worm-like with no limbs, they have chewing mouthparts and feed on organic debris. Over 2,500 species of fleas have been described worldwide, the Siphonaptera are most closely related to the snow scorpionflies, placing them within the endopterygote insect order Mecoptera. Fleas arose in the early Cretaceous, most likely as ectoparasites of mammals and marsupials, each species of flea is more or less a specialist on its host animal species, many species never breed on any other host, though some are less selective. The oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is a vector of Yersinia pestis, the disease was spread by rodents such as the black rat, which were bitten by fleas that then infected humans. Major outbreaks included the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death, both of which killed a sizeable fraction of the worlds population. Fleas appear in human culture in such forms as flea circuses, poems like John Donnes erotic The Flea, works of music such as by Modest Mussorgsky. Flea legs end in strong claws that are designed to grasp a host, unlike other insects, fleas do not possess compound eyes but instead only have simple eyespots with a single biconvex lens, some species lack eyes altogether. Their bodies are compressed, permitting easy movement through the hairs or feathers on the hosts body. The flea body is covered with hard plates called sclerites and these sclerites are covered with many hairs and short spines directed backward, which also assist its movements on the host. The tough body is able to withstand great pressure, likely an adaptation to survive attempts to eliminate them by scratching, fleas lay tiny, white, oval eggs. The larvae are small and pale, have bristles covering their bodies, lack eyes. The larvae feed on organic matter, especially the feces of mature fleas, adults feed only on fresh blood. Immediately before the jump, muscles contract and deform the resilin pad, to prevent premature release of energy or motions of the leg, the flea employs a catch mechanism. Early in the jump, the tendon of the primary jumping muscle passes slightly behind the coxa-trochanter joint, generating a torque which holds the joint closed with the leg close to the body. To trigger jumping, another muscle pulls the tendon forward until it passes the joint axis, generating the opposite torque to extend the leg, the actual take off has been shown by high-speed video to be from the tibiae and tarsi rather than from the trochantera

Flea
Flea
–
A Cat flea under an optical microscope, x35
Flea
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Hooke's drawing of a flea in Micrographia
Flea
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Flea bites on the back of a human

32.
Anaplasma phagocytophilum
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Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a gram-negative bacterium that is unusual in its tropism to neutrophils. It causes anaplasmosis in sheep and cattle, also known as fever and pasture fever. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative, obligate bacterium of neutrophils and it causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis, which is a tick-borne rickettsial disease. Because this bacterium invades neutrophils, it has a unique adaptation, anaplasma phagocytophilum is a small, obligate, intracellular bacterium with a Gram-negative cell wall. It is 0. 2–1.0 μm and lacks a lipopolysaccharide biosynthetic machinery, the bacterium first resides in an early endosome, where it acquires nutrients for binary fission and grows into small groups called morulae. This bacterium prefers to grow within myeloid or granulocytic cells, anaplasma phagocytophilum causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis. This disease was first identified in 1990, although this pathogen was known to cause veterinary disease since 1932, since 1990, incidence of this disease has increased, and it is now recognized in Europe. This disease was first identified due to a Wisconsin patient who died with a severe illness two weeks after a tick bite. During the last stage of the infection, a group of bacteria were seen within the neutrophils in the blood. Other symptoms include fever, headache, absence of skin rash, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, the disease is multisystemic, but the most severe changes are anaemia and leukopenia. This organism causes lameness which can be confused with symptoms of Lyme disease and it is a vector borne zoonotic disease whose morula can be visualized within neutrophils from the peripheral blood and synovial fluid. It can cause lethargy, ataxia, loss of appetite, anaplasma phagocytophilum binds to fucosylated and sialylated scaffold proteins on neutrophil and granulocyte surfaces. A type IV secretion apparatus is known to help in the transfer of molecules between the bacterium and the host, the most studied ligand is PSGL-1. The bacterium adheres to PSGL-1 through 44-kDa major surface protein-2, after the bacterium enters the cell, the endosome stops maturation and does not accumulate markers of late endosomes or phagolysosomes. Because of this, the vacuole does not become acidified or fused to lysosomes, a. phagocytophilum then divides until cell lysis or when the bacteria leave to infect other cells. This bacterium has the ability to affect neutrophils by altering the function of the host cell and it can survive the first encounter with the host cell by detoxifying superoxide produced by neutrophil phagocyte oxidase assembly. It also disrupts normal neutrophil function, such as cell adhesion, transmigration, motility, degranulation, respiratory burst. It causes an increase in the secretion of IL-8, a chemoattractant that increases the phagocytosis of neutrophils, the purpose of this is to increase bacterial dissemination into the neutrophil

33.
Ehrlichia chaffeensis
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Ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligate intracellular gram-negative species of rickettsiales bacteria. It is a zoonotic pathogen transmitted to humans by the lone star tick and it is the causative agent of human monocytic ehrlichiosis. ATP production in the rickettsia is biochemically identical to that in mammalian mitochondria, human monocytic ehrlichiosis caused by E. chaffeensis is known to spread through tick infection primarily in the southern, southcentral and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. In recent years the lone star tick has expanded its range up the East Coast to New England and it is named for Fort Chaffee where the bacteria was first discovered in blood samples of infected patients. E. chaffeensis is maintained in nature through a complex zoonotic relationship, the white-tailed deer is known to be the main competent reservoir for E. chaffeensis and the lone star tick is the principal vector for human transmission. There is some evidence that other organisms may serve as reservoirs for the bacteria such as goats, domestic dogs, raccoons. E. chaffeensis can be transmitted to non-infected tick larvae feeding on the blood from an infected host. The infection is then maintained and can be transmitted to an organism or humans at the nymphal stage. Adult ticks can maintain the infection or be infected from feeding on the blood of a reservoir organism. Transovarial transmission is not known to occur so eggs and unfed larvae are not believed to be infected, E. chaffeensis causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis and is known to infect monocytes. It has also known to infect other cell types such as lymphocytes, atypical lymphocytes, myelocytes, and neutrophils. E. chaffeensis has also shown to infect canines both naturally and articifially. Symptoms in canine infections are hard to differentiate between E. chaffeensis infection and Ehrlichia canis, which is the species of Ehrlichia that most commonly affects canines, patients display early symptoms within 1 to 2 weeks after tick infection. Early symptoms include fever, headache, malaise, low-back pain, some patients may also have myalgias, arthralgias, and an estimated 10–40% of patients may develop coughing, pharyngitis, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and changes in mental status. A variety of procedures have been used to detect E. chaffeensis in humans, most commonly serologic testing and PCR amplification are used. E. chaffeensis is susceptible to tetracyclines, doxycycline treatment is suggested for any patients presenting symptoms of an Ehrlichia infection during the appropriate season and potential tick exposure

Ehrlichia chaffeensis
–
Ehrlichia chaffeensis

34.
Bartonella henselae
–
Bartonella henselae, formerly Rochalimæa, is a proteobacterium that can cause bacteremia, endocarditis, bacillary angiomatosis, and peliosis hepatis. It is also the agent of cat-scratch disease which, as the name suggests. The disease is characterized by lymphadenopathy and fever, peliosis hepatis caused by B. henselae can occur alone or develop with cutaneous bacillary angiomatosis or bacteremia. Patients with peliosis hepatis present with symptoms, fever, chills. This systemic disease is seen in patients infected with HIV. B. henselae is a member of the Bartonella genus, one of the most common types of bacteria in the world and it infects the host cell by sticking to it using trimeric autotransporter adhesins. The presence of bacteria can be detected by Warthin-Starry stain, or by a silver stain technique performed on infected tissue. B. henselae is a Gram-negative rod and it can be cultured in a lysis-centrifugation blood culture. The diagnosis is made after a patient history and physical is taken. A hallmark of the process includes history of contact with a cat. The specific name henselae honors Oklahoman microbiologist Diane Marie Hensel, who collected numerous strains, type strain of Bartonella henselae at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

Bartonella henselae
–
Bartolae

35.
Bartonella bacilliformis
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Bartonella bacilliformis is a proteobacterium, Gram negative aerobic, pleomorphic, flagellated, motile, coccobacillary, 2–3 μm long,0. 2–0.5 μm wide, and a facultative intracellular bacterium. The bacterium was discovered by Peruvian microbiologist Alberto Barton in 1905, Barton originally identified them as endoglobular structures, which actually were the bacteria living inside red blood cells. Until 1993, the Bartonella genus contained only one species, there are now more than 23 identified species, Bartonella bacilliformis is found only in Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. It is endemic in some areas of Peru, with outbreaks of the disease occurring in new epidemic areas, the bacterium is transmitted by sandflies of the genus Lutzomyia. For its isolation, special cultures are required, containing complemental soy agar, proteases, peptones, some amino acids. The optimum growing temperature is 19–29 °C, colonies grow in Columbia blood agar supplemented with 10% defibrinated bovine blood incubated at 19–25 °C for 2 weeks. As the sandflies bite, the bacteria are inoculated into the capillaries and this phase is a potentially life-threatening infection, and it is associated with high fever, anemia, and transient immunosuppression. The acute phase typically lasts two to four weeks, peripheral blood smears show anisomacrocytosis with many coccobacilli adhered to red blood cells. Thrombocytopenia is also seen and can be severe, neurological involvement is sometimes seen and the prognosis in this case is poor. The most feared complications are super-infections, mainly by enterobacteria such as Salmonella, or parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii, when the bacterium invades endothelial cells, it produces the chronic manifestation of the disease known as verruga peruana. This phase consists of a skin eruption with raised, reddish-purple nodules. Visualization of the bacteria is possible using silver stain on biopsies, Bartonella bacilliformis is the etiologic agent of Carrions disease or Oroya fever, and verruga peruana or Peruvian wart. The acute phase of the disease is a disease characterized by massive invasion of Bartonella to human red blood cells and consequently acute hemolysis. If the infection is not treated, the fatality rate is 40 to 85% Patients in this phase of the infection can be complicated by overwhelming infections, primarily by enterobacteria. The chronic phase is characterized by benign eruptive lesions that are pruritic and bleeding, Bartonella can be isolated from blood cultures and secretion of the lesions in people from endemic areas. Before the antibiotic era, the treatment for the acute phase was blood transfusion, but the effectiveness of this treatment was poor. Later, with the discovering of new antibiotics, penicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, however, because of the risk of overwhelming infections by enterobacteria, quinolones are preferred. So, the drug of choice is ciprofloxacin, in the chronic phase, the treatment used traditionally has been streptomycin for 10 days

Bartonella bacilliformis
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thin blood film

36.
Neisseriaceae
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The Neisseriaceae are a family of Proteobacteria, within the Neisseriales order. As a group, the Neisseriaceae are strictly aerobic and Gram-negative, occur mainly in pairs, bacteria of Medical Importance in Todars Online Textbook of Bacteriology. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Ryan KJ, Ray CG

Neisseriaceae
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Neisseriaceae

37.
Maltose
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Maltose, also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α bond, formed from a condensation reaction. The isomer isomaltose has two glucose molecules linked through an α bond, maltose is the second member of an important biochemical series of glucose chains. Maltose is the disaccharide produced when amylase breaks down starch and it is found in germinating seeds as they break down their starch stores to use for food, which is why it was named after malt. It is also produced when glucose is caramelized, maltose was discovered by Irish chemist and brewer Cornelius OSullivan in 1872. Its name comes from malt, from Old English mealt, of Germanic origin, and the suffix –ose, maltose is a biomolecule that belongs to the group of carbohydrates within the division of biomolecules into the three main groups, carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen C, O, H and are either polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones, as a group, they are generally divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar subunits. Maltose is an oligosaccharide, specifically a disaccharide, formed by the union of two glucose units, glucose is classified as a hexose because it is composed of six carbons. The link is characterized as α due to the O-glycosidic bond to the anomeric carbon being in the plane from the CH 2OH substituent in the same ring. If the O-glycosidic bond to the carbon was in the same plane as the CH 2OH substituent, it would be classified as a β bond. Due to O-glycosidic link, maltose is a disaccharide that can reduce Fehlings reagent, furthermore, maltose can be obtained by hydrolysis of glycogen or starch, polymers of linked maltoses in position α and branching in position α. These are very abundant and form a number of branches. Amylase enzymes produce maltose and limit dextrin and these can be further degraded by maltase enzyme to hydrolyze maltoses as glucoses and they are ready to be degrade and obtain energy in form of ATP. An isomer of maltose is isomaltose and this is similar to maltose but instead of bonds in position α, the linkage is formed in position α, therefore, glycogen branching is defined by isomaltose. maltose, isomaltose is also a reducing sugar. Maltose has the ability to reduce the Fehling’s solution, due to its free aldehyde, the aldehyde group is oxidized giving a positive result, which means that the maltose is a reducing sugar. Maltose in aqueous solution exhibit mutarotation, due to its anomeric carbon which can form α and β isomers, in aqueous solutions, it is in equilibrium between its α and β forms. It is sometimes water-soluble and sometimes crystalline, homopolysaccharides of glucose are broken down by maltase and isomaltase to produce glucose. The lack of the Sucrase-Isomaltase enzyme, one of the four integral glycoproteins and this congenital disorder is most prominent in infancy but can develop later in life. It is caused by an autosomal mutation

Maltose
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Maltose syrup
Maltose
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α-Maltose
Maltose
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Chemistry

38.
Neisseria meningitidis
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The bacterium is referred to as a coccus because it is round, and more specifically, diplococcus because of its tendency to form pairs. About 10% of adults are carriers of the bacteria in their nasopharynx, as an exclusively human pathogen it is the main cause of bacterial meningitis in children and young adults, causing developmental impairment and death in about 10% of cases. It causes the form of bacterial meningitis known to occur epidemically, mainly Africa. It occurs worldwide in both epidemic and endemic form, N. meningitidis is spread through saliva and respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, chewing on toys and even freshwater. It infects the cell by sticking to it with long thin extensions called pili, meningococcus can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease. It initially produces general symptoms like fatigue, fever, and headache and can progress to neck stiffness, coma. Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis are easily confused with those caused by bacteria, such as Hemophilus influenzae. Suspicion of meningitis is an emergency and immediate medical assessment is recommended. Current guidance in the United Kingdom is that if a case of meningitis or septicaemia is suspected intravenous antibiotics should be given. This means that laboratory tests may be likely to confirm the presence of Neisseria meningitidis as the antibiotics will dramatically lower the number of bacteria in the body. The UK guidance is based on the idea that the ability to identify the bacteria is outweighed by reduced chance of death. Septicaemia caused by Neisseria meningitidis has received less public attention than meningococcal meningitis even though septicaemia has been linked to infant deaths. Meningococcal septicaemia typically causes a rash, that does not lose its color when pressed with a glass. This means the condition may be ignored by those not aware of the significance of the rash, septicaemia carries an approximate 50% mortality rate over a few hours from initial onset. N. meningitidis is a Gram-negative bacterium since it has an outer and inner membranes with a layer of peptidoglycan in between. It tests positive for the cytochrome c oxidase. N. meningitidis is a part of the normal flora in the nasopharynx of up to 5–15% of adults. It colonizes and infects only humans, and has never been isolated from other animals and this is thought to stem from the bacteriums inability to get iron sources other than human transferrin and lactoferrin

Neisseria meningitidis
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The growth of Neisseria meningitidis colonies on New York City Medium Agar
Neisseria meningitidis
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Neisseria meningitidis

39.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as gonococci, or gonococcus, is a species of Gram-negative coffee bean-shaped diplococci bacteria responsible for the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea. N. gonorrhoeae was first described by Albert Neisser in 1879, Neisseria species are fastidious Gram-negative cocci that require nutrient supplementation to grow in laboratory cultures. To be specific, they grow on agar with carbon dioxide. These cocci are facultatively intracellular and typically appear in pairs, in the shape of coffee beans, of the 11 species of Neisseria that colonize humans, only two are pathogens. N. gonorrhoeae is the agent of gonorrhea and is transmitted via sexual contact. Further testing to differentiate the species includes testing for oxidase and the carbohydrates maltose, sucrose, N. gonorrhoeae possess many dynamic polymeric protein filaments called type IV pili, which allow the bacteria to adhere and move along surfaces. The bacterial movement is mediated by twitching motility powered by the extension and retraction of the type IV pilus, pili extend and attach to a substrate that signals the pilus to retract, dragging the cell forward. N. gonorrhoeae is able to pull 100,000 times its own weight, the pulling of type IV pilus is powered by a set of ATPases proteins, Pil F and Pil T. The type IV pilus in N. gonorrhoeae adhesive properties also play a role in microcolony aggregation, N. gonorrhoeae is naturally competent for DNA exchange, which is also dependent on type IV pilus dynamics, specifically proteins Pil Q and Pil T. These processes allow for the DNA of N. gonorrhoeae to acquire or spread new genes, especially dangerous from the aspect of healthcare is the ability to conjugate, since this can lead to antibiotic resistance. N. gonorrhoeae has surface proteins called Opa proteins, which bind to receptors on immune cells, in so doing, N. gonorrhoeae is able to prevent an immune response. The host is unable to develop an immunological memory against N. gonorrhoeae – which means that future reinfection is possible. The many permutations of proteins make it more difficult for immune cells to recognize N. gonorrhoeae. The genomes of several strains of N. gonorrhoeae have been sequenced, most of them are about 2.1 Mb in size and encode 2,100 to 2,600 proteins. For instance, strain NCCP11945 consists of one circular chromosome encoding 2,662 predicted ORFs, the estimated coding density over the entire genome is 87%, and the average G+C content is 52. 4%, values that are similar to those of strain FA1090. The NCCP11945 genome encodes 54 tRNAs and four copies of 16S-23S-5S rRNA operons, N. gonorrhoeae is transmitted from person to person during sexual relations. Traditionally, the bacteria was thought to move attached to spermatozoon, a recent study suggests that rather than “surf” on wiggling sperm, N. gonorrhoeae bacteria uses hairlike structures called pili to anchor onto proteins in the sperm and move through coital liquid. It can also be transmitted to the fetus in utero and afterward become apparent as a neonatal infection, symptoms of infection with N. gonorrhoeae differ, depending on the site of infection

Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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The growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae colonies on New York City medium agar, a specialised and selective media for Gonococci
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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Neisseria gonorrhoeae