If meteoritic material comes from specific regions of the asteroid belt, then the asteroids in such regions should have the chemical and mineralogical composition observed in the meteorites. The surface mineralogical composition of asteroids, in principle, can be determined directly by observations from Earth of the fraction of sunlight they reflect (albedo) and the spectrum of the reflected light (reflectance spectrum). A number of processes conspired, however, to make the association of certain asteroids with the various meteorite groups much more difficult than might be expected.

Opposite hemispheres of the asteroid Eros, shown in a pair of mosaics made from images taken by the U.S. Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Shoemaker spacecraft on February 23, 2000, from orbit around the asteroid.John Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory/NASA

Although no two asteroidal reflectance spectra are exactly alike in detail, most asteroids fall into one of two general groups, the S class and the C class. S class asteroids (e.g., Gaspra and Ida, observed by the Galileo spacecraft, and Eros, visited by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft) have moderate albedos and contain mixtures of olivine, pyroxene, and metallic iron. These are the same minerals found in ordinary chondrites, but they also are present in a number of other meteorite types. The C class asteroids (e.g., Mathilde, observed by NEAR Shoemaker) have low albedos, and their more featureless spectra indicate the presence of light-absorbing materials, although at least half have a spectral feature associated with iron-bearing hydrous silicates. It is plausible to consider the C class asteroids as candidate sources for certain groups of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Their low albedos and spectral evidence of hydrous silicates, however, make them unlikely sources of ordinary chondrites.

When the S class asteroids were considered in more detail, there were difficulties in identifying them all as sources of ordinary chondrites. Largely because of their apparent range of mineralogies—specifically their ratios of olivine to pyroxene—the S class asteroids have been divided into seven subclasses. The asteroids in the S(IV) subclass seemed to have mineralogies that best matched those of the ordinary chondrites. This was supported by measurements made by an X-ray spectrometer on board NEAR Shoemaker of the elemental composition of the surface of Eros, an S(IV) asteroid. With the notable exception of a low sulfur content, the composition of Eros was found to be consistent with that of an ordinary chondrite. However, the spectra of the surfaces of S-class asteroids did not match those of ordinary chondrites. The discrepancy was resolved only in 2010 when the Japanese spacecraft Hayabusa returned to Earth from the S(IV) asteroid Itokawa with over 1,500 particles of dust that had surfaces characteristic of an S-class asteroid but on the inside were identical in composition to ordinary chondrites. The Hayabusa results showed that the surfaces of asteroids were changed by a set of processes collectively called space weathering that were responsible for both the low sulfur measurement of Eros and the mismatch between the spectra of chondrites and S-class asteroids.

Important component processes of space weathering are the impacts of meteorites and micrometeorites and the impingement of energetic solar wind particles, solar radiation, and galactic cosmic rays on surface materials. Over time these processes act to modify the chemical and physical surface properties of airless bodies such as Mercury, the Moon and some other planetary satellites, and asteroids and comets. Space weathering can be seen in comparisons of younger surfaces around craters with older terrains on Eros by NEAR Shoemaker and on Gaspra and Ida by Galileo.

Space weathering must also affect the spectra of the asteroidal sources of the other meteorite groups. Nevertheless, a number of more-or-less-convincing associations between groups of meteorites and types of asteroids have been made. It has been proposed that the CV and CO groups of carbonaceous chondrites come from the K class asteroids. As mentioned above, Vesta is the source of the howardite-eucrite-diogenite association, and a number of lines of evidence, including spectral measurements, point to Vesta’s being the source of the mesosiderites. The most likely source of the iron meteorites is the M class of asteroids, but enstatite chondrites and mesosiderites have also been linked to them. The pallasites may come from A class asteroids. For additional discussion of asteroid classes and their compositions, seeasteroid: Composition.

The ages of meteorites and their components

When the planets and asteroids formed, they contained a number of different radioactive isotopes, or radionuclides. Radionuclides decay at characteristic rates. The time it takes for half of the atoms of a quantity of a radionuclide to decay, the half-life, is a common way of representing its decay rate. Many radionuclides have half-lives that are similar to or longer than the age of the solar system; for this reason they are often called long-lived radionuclides. As a result of their longevity, they are still present in meteorites and on Earth, and they are commonly used for dating rocks and meteorites.

Scientists typically determine the age of a rock or meteorite by using the isochron method. For purposes of illustration, consider the rubidium-strontium decay system. In this system, the radioactive parent rubidium-87 (87Rb) decays to the stable daughter isotope strontium-87 (87Sr). The half-life for 87Rb decay is 48.8 billion years. Strontium has a number of other stable isotopes, including strontium-86 (86Sr), which is often used as a reference. When a rock forms, the minerals within it have identical strontium isotopic compositions (e.g., 87Sr/86Sr ratios) but often have different rubidium/strontium ratios (e.g., 87Rb/86Sr ratios). In this case, as 87Rb decays, the 87Sr/86Sr ratios in the minerals all increase with time but at different rates—the 87Sr/86Sr ratios increase more rapidly in minerals with higher initial 87Rb/86Sr ratios. If the minerals’ 87Sr/86Sr ratios as they exist now are plotted on a graph against their 87Rb/86Sr ratios, the data points form a straight line, called an isochron. The slope of the line is proportional to the time since the minerals formed, and the point where the line intercepts the 87Sr/86Sr axis (i.e., when 87Rb/86Sr is zero) gives the initial ratio when the minerals formed.

In this illustration, the minerals within a single rock are used to date it, and the line on the graph is called an internal isochron. The same principle can be applied if one uses numerous rocks that formed at the same time and place but had different initial 87Rb/86Sr ratios. The result is called a whole-rock isochron. In practice, an isochron is ambiguous in that it dates the time either when the minerals or rocks formed or when they were last heated and the strontium isotopes in them rehomogenized. Consequently, other evidence about a rock or suite of rocks is needed to determine what the isochron is actually dating. If the data points for minerals or rocks do not fall on a line, it indicates that the system has been disturbed and cannot be used for dating. Shock is the most common cause of disturbed systems in meteorites.

In addition to the long-lived radionuclides, a number of short-lived radionuclides were present in the early solar system. Most of these have half-lives of only a few million years or less. They will have decayed away long ago and cannot be used to obtain absolute ages directly. However, their original abundances in some objects can still be determined by the isochron method. By comparing the original abundances of a short-lived radionuclide in different objects, scientists can determine their relative ages. If one or more of these objects also have had their absolute ages determined by using long-lived radionuclides, the relative ages can be converted into absolute ones. Trying to establish absolute ages for relative ages that have been determined from various short-lived radionuclides has been the focus of much modern research, but it has proved to be difficult. This is because the short-lived radionuclides typically behave chemically quite differently from one another and from the long-lived isotopes. Nevertheless, given the antiquity of meteorites, scientists have developed a remarkably accurate picture of the timing of events in the early solar system.

The oldest objects in meteorites, with ages of approximately 4,567,000,000 years, are refractory inclusions. With a few exceptions, those are also the objects with the highest abundances of short-lived radionuclides. The absolute ages of chondrules have not been accurately measured. The abundances of the short-lived radionuclide aluminum-26 in chondrules from ordinary and carbonaceouschondrites have been interpreted to indicate that they formed over an extended period from 1 million to at least 3 and perhaps as long as 10 million years after the refractory inclusions. There is some debate, however, over whether these ages, particularly the later ones, really date when chondrules formed or, rather, date when their isotopes were reset by later processes. Metamorphism in the ordinary chondrites ended between 5 and 55 million years after refractory inclusions formed, and in enstatite chondrites between 9 and 34 million years after. This age span probably reflects both the size of the chondrite parent bodies and how deeply within their parent bodies the meteoritic materials were located. Larger bodies cool more slowly, as do more deeply buried regions of a body.

The formation ages of ordinary and enstatite chondrites are uncertain, but, given the age ranges established for the end of metamorphism, they can be no more than five and nine million years after the formation of refractory inclusions, respectively. There is some evidence that enstatite chondrites formed about two million years after refractory inclusions. The formation ages of carbonaceous chondrites are also not known, but dating of minerals produced during their alteration by liquid water indicates they must have formed within three–seven million years, and possibly less than one million years, after the formation of refractory inclusions. The crystallization ages of achondrites from their magmas range from about 4,558,000,000 to roughly 4,399,000,000 years. There is some indication that the parent body of the HED meteorites, Vesta, started melting about 4,565,000,000 years ago. Iron and stony iron meteorites crystallized within 10–20 million years of refractory inclusions, while relatively recent evidence suggests that metal-silicate differentiation of their parent asteroids occurred less than 1.5 million years after the formation of refractory inclusions. This again demonstrates the rapidity with which many asteroids melted, differentiated, and solidified.

The time it takes for a meteoroid to reach Earth from the asteroid belt is an important constraint when trying to identify the mechanism or mechanisms responsible for delivering meteoroids to Earth. The time cannot be measured directly, but an indication of it can be found from cosmic-ray exposure ages of meteorites. This age measures how long a meteorite existed as a small meteoroid (less than a few metres across) in space or near the surface (within a few metres) within a larger body.

High-energy galactic cosmic rays—primarily protons—have a range of penetration on the order of a few metres in meteoroidal material. Any meteoroid of smaller dimensions will be irradiated throughout by this proton bombardment. The high-energy protons knock protons and neutrons out of the atomic nuclei of various elements present in the meteoroid (seespallation). As a consequence, a large number of otherwise rare isotopic species, both stable and radioactive, are produced. They include the stable noble gas isotopes helium-3, neon-21, argon-38, and krypton-83 and various short- and moderately long-lived radioactive isotopes, including beryllium-10 (half-life 1.6 × 106 years), aluminium-26 (7.3 × 105 years), chlorine-36 (3 × 105 years), calcium-41 (105 years), manganese-53 (3.7 × 106 years), and krypton-81 (2.1 × 105 years). The concentration of the radioactive isotopes can be used to monitor the cosmic-ray bombardment rate, and the accumulation of the stable species (e.g., neon-21) measures the total time since this bombardment began—i.e., the time since the meteoroid was excavated by collisions from an object that was large enough to shield it from cosmic rays.

The vast majority of meteorites have exposure ages that are greater than one million years. For chondritic meteorites, the number of meteorites with a given cosmic-ray exposure age drops off quite quickly as the age increases. Most ordinary chondrites have exposure ages of less than 50 million years, and most carbonaceous chondrites less than 20 million years. Achondrites have ages that cluster between 20 and 30 million years. Iron meteorites have a much broader range of exposure ages, which extend up to about two billion years. There are often peaks in the exposure age distributions of meteorite groups; these probably reflect major impact events that disrupted larger bodies.

The ranges of exposure ages relate both to the dynamic evolution of meteoroid orbits and to the collisional lifetime of the meteoroids. The almost total absence of meteorites with exposure ages of less than a million years suggests that meteoroid orbits cannot become Earth-crossing in much less than a million years. Numerical simulations on computers are consistent with this, but they also predict that orbital lifetimes should fall off much faster than do the cosmic-ray exposure ages. This has prompted the suggestion that meteorites spend a significant fraction of their time as small meteoroids migrating within the asteroid belt until their orbits intersect a resonance—i.e., a region in the belt where they experience strong gravitational perturbations by the planets, particularly Jupiter—that puts the meteoroids in Earth-crossing orbits. The general drop-off in the frequency of meteorites with older exposure ages and the upper limit for most stony meteorites of 50 million years are consistent with estimates that half of any given meteoroid population is eliminated by collisions in 5–10 million years. The longer exposure ages of iron meteorites suggest that their greater strength allows them to survive longer in space. (For a detailed discussion of the resonance mechanisms that eject meteoroids from the asteroid belt, seemeteor and meteoroid: Directing meteoroids to Earth.

Meteorites and the formation of the early solar system

As mentioned above, scientists study meteorites for insights into the events that took place surrounding the birth and early evolution of the solar system. They know from astronomical observations that all stars form by gravitational collapse of dense regions in interstellar molecular clouds. This is almost certainly how the solar nebula formed, and the presence of preserved circumstellar and interstellar material in meteorites is consistent with this idea. Less clear is what precipitated the gravitational collapse of the region of the molecular cloud that became the solar system.

Gravitational collapse can occur spontaneously—i.e., through random fluctuations of density. Another possibility, however, is suggested by the finding in meteorites (particularly in their refractory inclusions) of short-lived radionuclides that were present at formation (as opposed to the later production of radionuclides by recent cosmic-ray irradiation). The shortest-lived of the radionuclides found to date, calcium-41, has a half-life of only about 100,000 years. This radionuclide must have been made and incorporated into refractory inclusions within just a few half-lives (less than a million years), or its abundance would have been too low to detect. This is remarkably short by astronomical standards. Because the other short-lived radionuclides have longer half-lives, they do not put such stringent time constraints on the interval between their synthesis and formation of refractory inclusions. Nevertheless, the absolute and relative abundances of the short-lived radionuclides can be compared with the values predicted for likely sources of the radionuclides.

One potential source of radionuclides is nucleosynthesis in stars ending their lives in catastrophic explosions called supernovas and in a class of dying stars known as asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars. Both supernovas and AGB stars produce massive fast-moving winds (flows of matter) that are rich in short-lived radionuclides. Numerical simulations show that under some conditions, when these winds hit an interstellar molecular cloud that cannot collapse spontaneously, they compress it to the point that it becomes gravitationally unstable and collapses. The simulations also show that some of the wind material with its complement of short-lived radionuclides is mixed into the collapsing cloud. Thus, in this scenario, the radionuclides are fingerprints of the stellar wind responsible for triggering the collapse of the molecular cloud that evolved into the Sun and the planets.

An alternative explanation for the short-lived radionuclides in meteorites has not been ruled out—their synthesis in the solar nebula by intense radiation from an early active Sun. This concept has proved somewhat less successful than the stellar-wind idea at explaining the absolute and relative abundances of the short-lived radionuclides. Nevertheless, no model incorporating either of these explanations has been completely successful in this regard.

After collapse was initiated, the first solids known to have formed in the solar nebula were the refractory inclusions, which apparently were made in relatively short-lived heating events about 4,567,000,000 years ago. The gradation of planetary compositions from dry, rocky, metal-rich Mercury to gas-rich Jupiter and its icy moons suggests that there was a temperature gradient in the inner solar system (see alsosolar system: Differentiation into inner and outer planets). Astrophysical models predict such gradients, although the absolute value of the gradient varies with the conditions assumed for a given model. One of many ideas for producing the refractory inclusions is that they formed in convection currents circulating at the edge of the hottest region of the inner nebula.

The ambient environment in the asteroid belt at the time the asteroids were being assembled must have been thermally a rather tranquil one. The fact that presolar material is preserved in meteorites argues against widespread heating of the asteroidal region, as do the presence of water-bearing minerals and the relatively high content of volatile elements in many chondrites. Again, this is consistent with most current astrophysical models. Despite the evidence for an overall low temperature in this region of the solar system, the abundance of chondrules in all chondritic meteorites except the CI chondrites attests to local transient episodes of very high temperatures.

If chondrules were relatively rare in meteorites, their formation could be regarded as of secondary importance in the early solar system. Chondrules and their fragments, however, make up most of the mass of the most abundant class of meteorites, the ordinary chondrites, and a major portion of other chondrites, which indicates that their formation must have been of central importance. Even if the parent bodies of ordinary chondrites formed only within a restricted region of the asteroid belt adjacent to the major resonance that is thought to put chondritic material into Earth-crossing orbits (seemeteor and meteoroid: Directing meteoroids to Earth), this region still represents about 10 percent of the asteroid belt. It also is likely that the parent asteroids of other chondrule-bearing meteorites formed outside this region, even though they may be in that region today.

Ideas abound for how chondrules formed—e.g., electrical discharges, shock waves, collisions between molten asteroids, and outflows associated with the early active Sun—but none has gained general acceptance. The ages of chondrules are crucial to distinguishing between some of these ideas. If they really formed over a period of 1–10 million years after refractory inclusions, this would be problematic for certain models. Fewer problems would arise if it turned out that the measured ages of most chondrules reflect when they were reheated or altered in their parent body.

Asteroidal bodies began to form perhaps as early as one million years after refractory inclusions. Certainly, within 5–10 million years they were being heated, aqueously altered, and melted. Volcanic activity on some asteroidal bodies, presumably the larger ones, continued for as long as about 170 million years. The process responsible for this heating remains to be clearly identified. The short-lived radioactive isotopes aluminum-26 and iron-60 appear to be the most likely heat sources, but heat from electric currents induced by early solar activity and from the release of gravitational potential energy as asteroids formed also may have contributed.

Asteroid-sized bodies presumably were forming not just in the asteroid belt but everywhere in the solar system. Concurrently, they would have begun aggregating into larger bodies in a process that eventually produced the rocky inner planets. This process was remarkably rapid. The Moon probably formed by an impact of a Mars-sized body with the growing Earth (seeMoon: Origin and evolution). The oldest Moon rocks that have been dated are about 4.44 billion years old, but there is evidence that the Moon actually formed within 30 million years of the refractory inclusions. Similarly, the oldest meteoritic material from Mars is about 4.5 billion years old, but there is evidence that Mars itself formed about 13 million years after the refractory inclusions. Thus, within as little as 30 million years of the appearance of the first solids, the aggregation process that started with tiny particles had produced the rocky inner planets.

In order for asteroids to have formed and developed at all on the timescale of a few million years, theoretical calculations suggest that the density of matter required was more like that in the regions occupied by the giant planets. The quantity of material observed in the asteroid belt today, however, is quite small, perhaps as little as 1/10,000 of that originally present. Some natural process must have removed almost all the material in this region of the solar system after the formation of the asteroidal bodies.

Although the details are not yet fully understood, it seems most likely that the formation of the giant planets, particularly Jupiter, quickly resulted in the evacuation of most of the matter from this region of the solar system (seeasteroid: Origin and evolution of the asteroids). The mineralogical and chemical record in meteorites is not compatible with their ever having been part of a planet even as large as the Moon. This implies that Jupiter formed rapidly, before bodies in the asteroid belt had grown to become full-fledged planets. In the period before Jupiter approached its present mass, the asteroids would have moved in nearly circular orbits. During the final formation of Jupiter (and Saturn), the changing mass distribution in the outer solar system caused waves of resonant gravitational perturbations to sweep through the asteroid belt, increasing the eccentricities and inclinations of the asteroids to the moderate values observed today. Given what is known of the ages of asteroids and given the upper limit to the size of the present-day asteroids, this means that proto-Jupiter within about one million years of the formation of the solar system had already begun to capture the massive quantities of hydrogen and helium from the solar nebula that constitute most of the giant planet today. Such rapid growth of Jupiter apparently required a more complex formation mechanism than that for the rocky planets (seeJupiter: Origin of the Jovian system).

The foregoing scenario of early solar system evolution is likely to be wrong in some, and perhaps many, of the details. Nevertheless, without the samples of asteroids and primitive solar system materials provided by meteorites, there would be little observational basis at all for formulating models of this kind. For good reason, meteorites have been dubbed “poor man’s space probes.” Until spacecraft missions bring back a variety of samples from asteroids and comets, the most precise and detailed data for the evolution of the solar system will come from meteorites.