Acquiescence response – yeah-sayers – always agrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response

Nay-sayers – always disagrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response

Construction of items

Clearly stated

Bias decreased

Sensitive information – respect subject

Worded so that subjects can respond to questions

Short sentences – ask only 1 question at a time; positive statements

Avoid leading questions; focus on research objectives and questions

Use closed-ended questions with socially unacceptable topics

Do not assume subjects are well informed about topic

Impersonal wording of items without "I"

Mutually exclusive item choices

Observational methods

Gathering data through visual, auditory, tactile and other senses

Phenomenon

Characteristics of individuals

Verbal & nonverbal communication behavior

Activities

Skill attainment and performance

Environmental characteristics

Steps in observation

Decide what to observe

Determine how to conduct observation to ensure every variable observed in same manner

Orient and provide written instructions to observers

Validate accuracy and consistency of observation techniques

Observational Methods

Unstructured observations

No planning – spontaneous

Observer freedom

Risk loss of objectivity

Requires excellent memory & interpersonal skills

Structured observations

Define what is to be observed

Define how observations will be made, recorded, and coded

Recording structured observations

Categories – detailed description of behavior or characteristics of category created in advance of observation; all possibilities are included in categories; exhausted all behavioral observations and recorded

Checklists – listing of categories; tally frequency and duration of behavior observed; all behaviors may or may not be categorized = non exhaustive

Non-participant observations – observer and subject do not interact; can be overt or covert

Timing of observations

Time sampling – making an observation for a specified length of time at pre-determined intervals (eg observe for 5 minutes every 15 minutes or observe for 5 minutes 3 randomly selected times each hour)