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1 Gender preference and age at arrival among Asian immigrant women to the US Ben Ost a and Eva Dziadula b a Department of Economics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 601 South Morgan UH718 M/C144 Chicago, IL 60607, United States. b Department of Economics, University of Notre Dame, 447 Flanner Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States. Abstract: We examine gender preference assimilation by comparing fertility patterns of Asian immigrants according to their age of arrival. Past work has shown that U.S. natives appear to value mixed sex composition whereas families in many Asian countries exhibit a strong son preference. We find that Asian immigrants who arrive to the US late in life show evidence of son preference since they are much more likely to have additional children if their first two children are girls. Asian immigrants who arrive early in life, however, exhibit a fertility pattern quite close to that of U.S. natives. Our results are suggestive of complete assimilation of gender preferences for immigrants who arrive as children, and very little gender preference assimilation for immigrants who arrive at later ages. Keywords: immigration, son-preference, assimilation, fertility JEL Classification: J13: Fertility; Family Planning; Son Preference J15: Immigrants; Assimilation J16: Economics of Gender; Gender Discrimination; Mothers F22: Immigration

2 I. Introduction In this study, we provide evidence suggesting that immigrants culturally assimilate in terms of their preference for sons. Son preference is strongly exhibited in Asia and the missing girls phenomenon has been established in the existing literature (China: Ebenstein, 2007; India: Jha et al., 2006) 1. In contrast, U.S. parents appear to have a preference for a mixed gender composition of their children. They are more likely to have additional children when their first two children are of the same gender, as opposed to being different genders (Angrist and Evans, 1998). While some work has found evidence of son preference among Asian immigrants in the U.S. (Almond et al., 2013; Abrevaya, 2009), no previous work has examined how son preference varies among first generation immigrants according to age at arrival. We show that Asian immigrants who arrive to the U.S. as children exhibit reproductive behavior similar to that of the U.S. born. In contrast, Asian immigrants who arrive as teenagers have reproductive behavior that more closely matches the behavior of those in their native countries, and of immigrants who arrived at much later ages. This pattern highlights that critical periods of development may lead to non-linear cultural assimilation patterns, a finding consistent with evidence on other forms of assimilation (Bleakley and Hoyt, 2010). As in any study of assimilation, it is not possible to definitively rule out the possibility that age at arrival is correlated with unobservable factors (such as discount rates) that promote both immigration at a late age and a preference for sons. That said, our results are robust to a 1 For historical perspective of the cultural preference see, among others, Ebenstein (2007), Almond et al. (2013). The total fertility rate in China has decreased from 6 to 2 children per mother and in India from 6 to 2.7 (Ebenstein, 2007). Despite the decreasing fertility, the male to female ratio at birth, especially at higher parity, has been rising. 1

3 variety of observable controls, so to the extent that observables are of similar importance as unobservables, our results are unlikely to be explained by differences in unobservable characteristics. II. Data We use Census data combined with ACS data to examine the relationship between gender preference and age at arrival. We restrict the analysis sample to female immigrants from East and Southeast Asia 2 who have at least two children and estimate models that relate future childbearing to current children s sex composition. 3 The data allow us to identify the parents age, place of birth, year of arrival, as well as the sex and ages of children still living in the household. While the large sample sizes make these data ideal for studying immigrant populations, the fact that we only observe children who are still living in the household complicates the analysis of fertility. We follow Angrist and Evans (1998) and restrict the sample to women aged 21 to 35 to minimize the risk of including mothers whose older children are no longer living at home. 4 Table 1 shows basic descriptive statistics for the sample, split by the sex composition of the first two children. Although our analysis focuses on Asian immigrants, since we are 2 Immigrants from China and India represent about 40% of our sample. The other countries of birth are: Korea, Japan, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and Nepal. 3 We focus on female immigrants for brevity, but the results are similar (though somewhat noisier) when studying male immigrants. We focus on women rather than men because fertility is more accurately measured for women than for men in our data since women are more likely to be living with their children than men. 4 Our results are not sensitive to the exact restriction made and are similar if we restrict the analysis to women whose second child is at least eight at the time of survey, to allow ample time for the decision of whether to have a third child. In our sample, the vast majority of mothers with three children had the third child within eight years of the second child. Our results are also robust to more (or less) conservative restrictions on the minimum age of the second child. 2

4 measuring the degree of assimilation in the U.S., Panel A shows descriptive statistics for U.S. born mothers as well. Given that the sex composition of one s children is randomly assigned, it is not surprising that among U.S. born mothers, predetermined characteristics appear to be nearly identical across mothers with two boys, two girls or one girl and one boy. Consistent with past work, we observe that U.S. born mothers are much more likely to have a third child if their first two children are of the same sex compared to if they are of different sexes. While the gender composition of one s children is plausibly randomly assigned for most natives in the United States, the possibility of sex selective abortion suggests that gender composition could be non-random for some immigrants, especially for higher parity children (Almond and Edmund, 2008). That said, Panel B shows no evidence of differences in predetermined characteristics according to the sex composition of the first two children. Furthermore, as with the U.S. born sample, the ratio of families with two boys to mothers with two girls is quite close to the natural rate 5. 5 The natural rate is 1.05 boys to every 1 girl so considerably more families are expected to have 2 sons than 2 daughters naturally. Though we find no evidence that sex selective abortion introduces non-random sex composition for our sample, it is worth noting that sex selective abortion could not bias our estimates unless our basic premise regarding gender preference assimilation is correct. If there were no assimilation of gender preferences, sex selective abortion could not create the appearance of assimilation since there would be no difference in the sex selective abortion rates of Asian immigrants that arrive earlier vs. later. 3

5 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Panel A: Sex composition of first two children US born mothers Sons Daughters Mix Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD At least three children Number of children Age Age at first birth Less than High school High school Some college Undergraduate Graduate Total income in $10, Observations 502, , ,528 Panel B: Sex composition of first two children Asian mothers Sons Daughters Mix Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD At least three children Number of children Age Age at first birth Age at arrival Age at arrival of spouse Less than High school High school Some college Undergraduate Graduate Total income in $10, Observations 12,557 11,521 24,234 4

6 III. Results As a first step, we examine the raw differences in the probability of having a third child between Asian immigrants whose first two children are both boys, both girls or mixed sexes. Specifically, for each age at arrival, we compare the fraction of immigrants who have a third child, split by the sex composition of their children. Figure 1 plots these differences, collapsing the data into 5-year age-at-arrival bins to reduce noise. These differences are constructed so that positive numbers show a higher probability of having a third child relative to mothers with two boys. Figure 1: Mother s assimilation The probability of having a third child relative to mothers with two sons Mother's age at arrival Sex of first two children Boy & Girl Girl & Girl Note: Figure 1 plots the differences in the probability of having a third child between Asian mothers with two girls and Asian mothers with two boys (circles) and also between Asian mothers with a boy and a girl and Asian mothers with two boys (triangles). We collapse the data into 5-year age-at-arrival bins and show 95% confidence intervals. Figure 1 reveals several interesting results. First, among mothers who arrive to the United States after age fifteen, we observe a clear preference for sons: mothers with two girls are much more likely to have a third child compared to mothers with two boys, and there is little 5

7 difference between mothers with one boy and one girl compared to mothers with two boys. As shown in Table 1, U.S. natives have nearly the opposite pattern, with little difference between mothers with two boys and two girls, but mothers with one boy and one girl being much less likely to have a third child. Figure 1 also shows that mothers who arrive before age fifteen exhibit very different gender preference. There are small differences between those who have two girls and those who have two boys, whereas mothers who have one boy and one girl are considerably less likely to have a third child compared to those who have two boys. Thus, Asian immigrant mothers who arrive as children exhibit gender preferences that are much more similar to those of U.S. natives. While suggestive, it is possible that the patterns documented in Figure 1 are attributable to other factors (e.g. cohort effects) so we turn to a regression analysis to more rigorously examine this assimilation. The regression explores the extent of son preference by examining the impact of the sex composition of one s first two children on whether an immigrant has a third child. We estimate Y i = α + S i δ + γ $ A + γ i % A % + S i i A i θ $ + S i A % i θ % + X i β + ε i (1) where Y i is an indicator for whether the family has a third child, S i is a set of indicators for the sex composition of the first two children, A i is age at arrival and X i is a set of covariates. 6 When studying the impact of sex composition, we leave the two boys indicator as the omitted group and we are primarily interested in the coefficients on two girls and one boy and one girl. The primary coefficients of interest are in the θ vectors and show how the relationship between sex composition and future fertility depend on age at arrival. While equation (1) shows 6 The average marginal effects are similar when the model is estimated as a probit instead of as a linear probability model. 6

8 age at arrival modeled as a quadratic, the results are robust to using other functional forms. Our models control for year-of-arrival fixed effects, country fixed effects and a variety of other individual characteristics that help rule out the possibility that the fertility differences by age at arrival simply reflect changing immigrant cohort composition. Table 2 presents the results for Asian mothers from estimating equation (1) with various controls. The first column of Table 2 presents the raw differences between the probabilities of having a third birth among Asian mothers depending on the sex composition of their first two children. Overall, Asian immigrant mothers demonstrate a clear preference for sons since compared to having two boys, they are 5 percentage points more likely to have a third child when the first two children are girls and 2.3 percentage points less likely to have a third child when the first two children are of mixed sex. The second column interacts the sex composition variables with a quadratic in age at arrival. Consistent with the graphical analysis, as age at arrival increases, gender preference increases. Interestingly, the main effect for the two girls indicator is near zero suggesting that Asian immigrants who arrive at age zero are predicted to have no gender preference on that dimension. The main effect for the mixed sex indicator suggests that Asian immigrants who arrive at age zero are predicted to have a strong preference for mixed sex composition, analogous to the preferences documented among US born mothers. The main age of arrival coefficient suggest that women who arrive later generally have lower fertility rates compared to women who arrive earlier, but this result says nothing about gender preference as it captures the probability of a third child, regardless of the sex composition of the first two children. 7

9 Table 2: Mother s probability of having a third child (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Mix *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ( ) (0.0223) (0.0223) (0.0222) (0.0222) (0.0206) (0.0210) Daughters *** ( ) (0.0269) (0.0269) (0.0265) (0.0267) (0.0246) (0.0249) Mix * * * * ** * * Age at arrival ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Mix * Age at arrival squared ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Daughters* ** ** ** ** ** *** Age at arrival ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Daughters* * * ** ** ** *** Age at arrival squared ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Age at arrival *** *** ** ** *** *** ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Age at arrival squared *** *** *** *** *** *** ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Age FE No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year of arrival FE No No No Yes No No No Birth country FE No No No Yes No No No Year of arrival* Birth country FE No No No No Yes Yes Yes Age at 1st birth No No No No No Yes Yes Education indicator No No No No No Yes Yes Income No No No No No Yes Yes N 48,312 48,312 48,312 48,312 48,312 48,312 44,033 Note: Heteroskedastic robust standard errors in parentheses, * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < Data combine Census and ACS. The dependent variable is a binary indicator of whether a third child was born. Having two sons is the omitted category of the gender composition of the first two children indicators. Columns 3 and 4 add controls for year of arrival fixed effects, age fixed effects and country of origin fixed effects. Note that these specifications are identified because our data include repeated cross sections to break the colinearity between age of arrival, age and year of arrival. The coefficients on the main effects and the interaction terms are all robust to the inclusion of these controls, suggesting that the assimilation patterns are not explainable by cohort effects or correlations between home country gender preference and age at arrival. Since gender preferences have changed over time in country-specific ways, column 5 adds controls for country-by-year-of-arrival fixed effects and the results are robust to this control. 8

10 Column 6 explores whether the assimilation pattern is explainable by differences in the timing of first birth, education or family income. Theoretically, each of these covariates is potentially an outcome of assimilation and thus controlling for these variables could be considered over-controlling. For example, if arriving at an earlier age leads to mothers obtaining more education, which leads to less gender preference, we would certainly not want to control for this effect as it is one channel through which the assimilation process occurs. On the other hand, controls such as education may be viewed as proxies for predetermined unobservable characteristics that are appropriate to control for. As such, we explore how our estimates change when controlling for these endogenous covariates with the understanding that this analysis is imperfect. In practice, column 6 shows that when we control for these potentially endogenous covariates, the coefficients on the main effects and interaction terms are fairly stable. Column 7 estimates the same model on a sample restricted to women whose second child was born prior to arrival to the US to ensure that third child fertility decisions are being made entirely in the US and the results are robust to this restriction. 7 IV. Discussion Though the fertility patterns we document are striking, there are several potential reasons that these patterns could reflect factors other than assimilation. First, it may be that immigrants who arrive as children are unobservably different than immigrants who arrive at later ages since 7 In results not shown, we performed the same analysis for Asian immigrant fathers. The assimilation coefficients for Asian fathers are the same sign as those for mothers, but the point estimates are smaller and they are not statistically significant. We do not view these results as evidence that Asian men fail to assimilate, but rather view the estimates as too imprecise to make a strong conclusion either way. Importantly, because we only observe children that are currently living in the household, there is good reason to believe that there is more measurement error in measuring child composition for male immigrants than for female immigrants and this fact alone could plausibly explain the smaller estimates for men. 9

11 the latter group made a conscious decision to emigrate while the former group did not. Second, it is possible that return migration is correlated with both age at arrival and gender preference, generating the appearance of assimilation when none exists. The latter issue is unlikely to explain our results both because return migration is relatively rare among Asian immigrants (Pew Research Center, 2013), and because if return migrants are those whose culture does not match the US, this biases estimates in the opposite direction of our finding. In addition to being of direct interest, gender preference has implications for overall fertility rates since parents aiming for a specific sex will tend to have more children than parents content with any sex composition. The assimilation patterns that we document, however, have no clear implication for total fertility because Asian immigrants who arrive as children lose their preference for sons but develop a preference for mixed sexes. As such, assimilated immigrants whose first two children are of the same sex end up having more children than they would have otherwise had, whereas assimilated immigrants whose first two children are of different sexes end up having fewer children than they would have otherwise had. While we cannot definitively establish whether age of arrival is completely exogenous, regardless of whether the relationship can be interpreted causally, we view documenting the basic relationship between age of arrival and fertility patterns as a useful first step towards understanding the assimilation of gender preference in the United States. 8 8 Past work examining assimilation across immigrant generations (e.g. Almond et al. (2013)) similarly cannot rule out the possibility that earlier immigrant generations differ unobservably in ways not attributable to their immigrant status. Since first generation immigrants chose to immigrate whereas second generation immigrants made no such choice, one might expect that their underlying discount rates or other characteristics may differ. 10

12 Works Cited Abrevaya, Jason. (2009). "Are There Missing Girls in the United States? Evidence from Birth Data." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(2): Almond, D., Edlund, L., & Milligan, K. (2013). Son preference and the persistence of culture: evidence from South and East Asian Immigrants to Canada. Population and Development Review, 39(1), Almond, D., Edlund, L. (2008). Son-biased Sex Ratios in the 2000 United States Census. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the United States of America. Vol. 105, No. 15, pp Angrist, J. and Evans, W. (1988). Children and their Parent s Labor Supply: Evidence from Exogenous Variation in Family Size. American Economic Review, 88, Bleakley, Hoyt, and Aimee Chin "Age at Arrival, English Proficiency, and Social Assimilation among US Immigrants." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(1): Bullock, J. G., & Ha, S. E. (2011). Mediation analysis is harder than it looks. Cambridge handbook of experimental political science, Ebenstein, Avraham Y. (2007). Fertility Choices and Sex Selection in Asia: Analysis and Policy. Available at SSRN (2007) Jha, P., Kumar, R., Vasa, P., Dhingra, N., Thiruchelvam, D., & Moineddin, R. (2006). Low male-to-female sex ratio of children born in India: national survey of 1 1 million households. The Lancet, 367(9506), Pew Research Center (2013), The Rise of Asian Americans. Updated edition April 4,

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