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The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), a.k.a. the caribou in North America, inhabits a large stretch of the Northern Hemisphere. Fourteen subspecies are currently recognized, several of which live isolated from the other subspecies. The wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus) lives in Finland and Russia, and it is the only subspecies inhabiting the European Union. Wild forest reindeer were once an important game animal in Finland. However, intensive hunting led to their extinction, first in Sweden, and later, at the turn of the 19thand 20thcenturies, also in Finland. During the 1950s, the subspecies made a comeback, when a new population formed naturally in northeastern Finland, made up of individuals that migrated over the border from Russia.

Wild forest reindeer stag

The global reindeer/caribou population is in decline and the species is considered Vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. However, each subspecies also has its own population status, and the wild forest reindeer was classified as Near Threatened in the 2010 Red List of Finnish species. The subspecies is under pressure from human actions such as traffic, habitat change, and snowmobiling. Large carnivores also exert a great deal of predation pressure in certain areas. Finland has conservation obligations, as it is the only country in Europe where the subspecies lives.

2016 saw the beginning of an ambitious EU LIFE project for reintroducing and breeding wild forest reindeer to parts of its former habitats in two Finnish national parks (Seitseminen and Lauhanvuori). The project involved building two reintroduction enclosures, after which wild forest reindeer males (stags) and females (does) were housed in the enclosures. Some of the individuals were caught from the wild, while the rest were brought in from various zoos. More individuals will be brought in over the course of the reintroduction scheme. This will enable keeping the genetic diversity of the breeding and reintroduced populations at high enough levels. The reindeer will be fed lichen and reindeer fodder, to supplement what the individuals are able to forage from nature. The first calves were born in the enclosures last spring (2018). Currently the reindeer still live in the enclosures, but the project goal is to release the first individuals during 2019. They will still be given supplemental food e.g. in the case of a harsh winter.

Wild forest reindeer living in the reintroduction enclosures are given supplemental food.

Widescale mammal reintroduction projects often encounter surprising situations. The birth of five wild forest reindeer calves into the reintroduction enclosures during the spring/summer of 2018 was one such event. Not because the calves were born, but because each of them is most likely a male (their gender has not been 100% determined yet). More males than females are born in reindeer/caribou populations, because they form small groups with one stag and several does. However, chance dealt an unexpected hand in the small reintroduction populations, resulting in several males and no females. Three additional does were brought into the enclosures in October 2018 to deal with this surprise.

Calves born in the reintroduction enclosures during summer 2018.

The project is also committed to restoring several forest and peatland areas suitable for wild forest reindeer. Another task is to ensure that wild forest reindeer and the semidomesticated form of mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) do not meet in the wild. Both are subspecies of the reindeer/caribou. Semidoemsticated reindeer live in North Finland, where they are cared for by the reindeer herding industry. Reindeer/caribou subspecies can reproduce with each other, which is why the genome of the wild forest reindeer must be kept clean. Otherwise we risk mixing the genomes of the two subspecies.

During the fall rutting season, wild forest reindeer form small herds with one mature stag and several does and their different-aged calves. After the rut, these herds migrate towards their wintering grounds, where several herds congregate.

More information is available on the project website. The life of wild forest reindeer can be followed via a camera set up by WWF Finland (live footage especially during summer). Best recordings from last summer are available on the YouTube site of WWF Finland (text in Finnish, but videos have no sound).

Come spring (late winter), the forests are bustling. Cavity-dwelling animals search for tree crevices and holes in which to lay their eggs and raise their offspring. Tree cavities provide a stable environment for successful nesting.

Natural cavities are usually found in old wide trees, where the inner temperature of such cavities remains more stable than outside temperatures.

Only one problem remains. Cavities usually form in old or, at the least, decomposing trees, but forestry practices simplify forest cover composition. Fewer trees surpass forestry practice recommendation ages, so our forests have less large aging trees in which fungi can spread. More tree cavities are desperately needed. Nest boxes are our solution to this problem. The idea is simple: anyone can build a nest box and hang it on their own land (or somebody else’s with permission). This has helped boost the populations of certain cavity-nesters such as pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) and great tits (Parus major).

It would be nice to think that we have solved the cavity problem, or that the problem will be solved if we raise the number of nest boxes to sufficient levels. But it’s not that simple. Several researchers have studied the functionality of nest boxes over the years. The microhabitats of tree cavities and nest boxes differ from each other in relation to temperature and moisture. Wroclaw University researchers were the most recent group to prove this distinction, but they also demonstrated that these functional differences drive the marsh tit (Poecile palustris) to choose natural cavities over nest boxes. Their study was conducted in two forests; the other had an unlimited number of tree cavities, while nest boxes were the only nesting option in the other forest. The marsh tits preferred natural cavities with thick walls buffering the holes from outside temperatures. And birds are not the only species that have been shown to prefer natural cavities, for example certain bats and the common brushtail possum (Trichosurusvulpecula) will settle in natural cavities due to their more stable microclimates.

Nest box temperatures in the Wroclaw study fluctuated significantly more than the inner temperatures of tree cavities. Nest box temperature also changed at the same rate as outside temperatures. Nest box temperatures can therefore rise to dangerous levels during the summer, to where chicks are at higher risk of dying from excessive heat compared to broods in tree cavities. During the winter, nest box temperatures drop to lower levels than cavity temperatures, decreasing the shelter effect that many small birds utilize to survive the harsh cold.

Nest boxes also average lower air moisture levels compared to natural cavities. This may hinder mold from growing in the nest boxes, but concurrently lower moisture may encourage wasps (Vespidae) and tree bumblebees (Bombus hypnorum) to settle in nest boxes, making them inaccessible for birds. Fleas (Siphonaptera) may also increase in dry and warm conditions, so the number of competitors and ectoparasites may increase.

To cap, nest boxes and natural cavities do not replace each other from a structural point of view and not all species will nest in boxes. The majority of nest boxes are so-called standard models, i.e. they are copies of each other in terms of dimensions and flight hole diameter. In real life, a standard model nest box is only accepted by a limited number of cavity dwellers. It is therefore imperative to conserve aging and decomposing trees, as their cavities are never of standard shape or size. If nothing else, decomposing trees in our yards should be conserved; trees can always be cut to a height that ensures they are of no danger to nearby buildings or people. Such standing dead wood is very rare in current heavily managed forests. With a standing birch dead wood tree it is even possible to attract the picky willow tit (Poecile montanus) to your yard.

The next best alternative is to ensure the structural heterogeneity of nest boxes, i.e. build boxes that are also suitable for species such as the common redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), owls (Strigidae), treecreepers (Certhiasp.), and even certain mammals such as flying squirrels (Pteromys volans). This may require a little more trial and error, but it is the only way of maximizing the nesting alternatives in managed forests. Ideas for nest box designs abound online, Pinterest for example has a huge selection of box models. However, it is important to follow nest box construction instructions issued e.g. by the BTO and Audubon Society or these general safety instructions, to make sure that the boxes are as safe as possible for birds. Nest box positioning is also important; foliage has a protective effect, and the microhabitat of nest boxes positioned under foliage therefore remains more stable than in sun-exposed areas.

Blue tits often utilize nest boxes.

Adding insulating materials to nest boxes is one way of adding to the inventiveness of nest box construction. To mimic the microclimates of natural cavities, a team of Australian researchers recently compared nest boxes that had been fitted with three types of insulating or heat-reflecting materials. Nest box temperatures remained most stable around the clock in nest boxes insulated with polystyrene foam. The inner temperature of one polystyrene-fitted nest box was nearly six degrees Celsius less than outside temperatures. Nighttime inner temperatures were also higher in the polystyrene nest boxes compared to non-insulated boxes when a heat-producing pillow was placed in the insulated and non-insulated nest boxes, to mimic the effect of birds spending the night in the boxes. The Australian study showed insulation had a more significant effect on nest box temperatures than nest box placement in a shady or sunny location. However, for the environment and breathability, it is probably better to use some type of natural fiber insulation in nest boxes. Also, insulated nest boxes are not enough to fill the void created by the disappearance of natural tree cavities, as the study showed that the temperature fluctuation of even the polystyrene-fitted nest boxes was greater that of natural cavities.

The cool morning air has strewn the lawn with small dewdrops. The green is bathed in flickering mist and shining dewdrops. Soon the green is filled with the sibilant sound of golf balls and walking golfers, but for a while, the course still belongs to someone else.

Keimola Golf, located in Vantaa (in the Helsinki metropolis area in Finland), is a true paradise for birds and amphibians. Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), and horned grebe (Podiceps auritus) pairs nest in the largest water hazard. In addition, the black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) nests nearby. The number of horned grebes has declined worldwide, and the species is considered vulnerable in Finland. The Finnish population has decreased from 3000 to 6000 nesting pairs in the 1980s to the present 1200–1700 nesting pairs.

On the other hand, all Finnish amphibian species, except one, can be found living in one of the smallest water hazards of Keimola Golf. Only the Northern crested newt (Triturus cristatus) does not occur there. The Northern crested newt is critically endangered in Finland, and can only be found in a few places in eastern Finland. In spring, the common frog (Rana temporaria), the moor frog (Rana arvalis), and the common toad (Bufo bufo) croak vigorously. The smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris) does not croak, but mating males bring tropical colors into an otherwise brownish landscape.

By Midsummer, golf courses are swarming. On dry land, golfers enjoy their sport in warm summer weather, while hatched ducklings and tadpoles are concurrently going through growth spurts around the water hazards. Golf courses provide lots of nutrition for ducklings and tadpoles. Water hazards, as most wetlands, are habitats for several invertebrates, such as mosquito (Culicidae), nematocera (Nematocera), and trichoptera larvae, as well as for phyto- and zooplankton. Amphibians prefer open and sunny wetlands because higher temperatures escalate tadpole development. Ducklings, on the other hand, prefer wetlands with luxuriant shoreline vegetation (for example club rushes and sedges). Vegetation provides cover against predation.

Golf courses are oases for wetland-associated species, especially in urban environments, where most wetlands are isolated from each other. For numerous species, water hazards and golf greens offer nearly free access between wetlands and other habitats. Golf courses are currently not planned to consider nature and its needs. What if nature were taken into account during planning, with at least a 10% effort? Keimola Golf’s extraordinary biodiversity has arisen through chance. Waterfowl diversity is due to an island left in the middle of the largest water hazard. The island has some ten trees and bushes. The whooper swan and common goldeneye nest on this island.

Both national and international designers have planned Finnish golf courses. Keimola Golf was planned in Great Britain. More and more, architects plan golf courses by initially outlining the routes, after which the planning is continued on-site concurrently while the course is being constructed. This method enables taking nature into account during the planning process.

Architects could pay attention to small things that benefit animal and plant species when planning water hazards and groves. For example, bushes and shoreline vegetation could be left next to the shoreline that is not close to the green. This has been done at Keimola Golf. Paying attention to such small details does not even cause additional costs. Furthermore, most golfers enjoy the sport because they can be outside and “enjoy” nature. If nature were actually taken into account during planning, golfers could actually play their sport “in the wild”.

Ducklings grow rapidly. In just a couple of months, an egg becomes a bird with feathers that enable flying thousands of kilometres. Growing feathers requires a lot of protein. Where do ducklings get the protein?

Ducklings can reach their food using different methods.

If you have ever visited a wetland, you may have noticed a lot of invertebrates, for example mosquitoes and dragonflies. Many invertebrates flying around the wetlands actually lay their eggs in water. The larvae will develop in the water and emerge when ready to fly. Often these flying invertebrates rest on wetland vegetation. Swimming and flying invertebrates are duck food.

Mosquito larvae in various phases of their development. Larvae develop in water and emerge as flying invertebrates.

Wetlands are occupied by many kinds of aquatic invertebrates from small zooplankton to large beetles. They are all duck food, but ducks also help them disperse from one pond to another: invertebrates and their propagules can be carried over long distances in duck feathers or intestines.

What type of food a duck consumes depends on the duck species. Ducks are specialised to eat various types of nutrition, and for example the size of the lamellar (teeth like structures used for filtering or straining food) in the bills differs between species. Diving and dabbling ducks have diverging ways of reaching their food. Diving ducks, even their small ducklings, dive under water and can utilise swimming and benthic aquatic invertebrates.

Duck bill lamellar (tooth-like structure on the sides of a bill) density differs between species. Lamellar are used to sieve food.

Females should find good foraging spots for their broods. Broods can move long distances from the nesting site to find proper food patches. Most European ducks breed in the boreal zone, but many lakes lack enough invertebrate food for ducklings. Thus many of the lakes are empty of duck broods.

The common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), a diving duck, is associated with boreal lakes with large numbers of free-swimming aquatic invertebrates (e.g. dytiscidae) and large emerging invertebrates (caddisflies and mayflies). Of these, mayfly larva live in the bottom of the wetlands.

Dytiscidae are diving beetles.

Of the dabbling ducks, the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), common teal (A. crecca) and Eurasian wigeon (Mareca penelope) are sympatric species with a shared niche. However, the habitat use of their broods differ. While mallard broods prefer lakes with luxuriant vegetation and large emerging invertebrates, teal broods utilise lakes with smaller emerging invertebrates, such as flies (diptera). Flies are abundant especially in newly created wetlands and flowages, and teals are considered pioneering species.

Productive wetlands can be full of small invertebrates such as copepodas, cladocerans and isopodas.

Adult wigeons are vegetarians, and also appear to prefer lakes with luxuriant vegetation during the brood stage, but small flies are also important for them. Beavers are important for mallards and wigeons in the boreal landscape: lakes that typically lack luxuriant vegetation can establish large and shallow well-vegetated areas during the beaver flood. Thus beavers can provide habitat enhancement. Without them less lakes would be available in the boreal landscape for wigeons and mallards.

In a remote country lived a rich mire species community. But that was once upon a time, when Finland was a land of mires. Nowadays, only fragmented pieces are left in the southern region, while large natural mires can still be found in Lapland. Nevertheless, only one third of historical levels remain. Most mireswere dried due to farming and forestry. Ditches were dug to gather water from ca. 6 million hectares of mires. This affected the hydrology and further the ecology of these wet ecosystems. Several plant and animal species are adapted to mires, and have thus suffered from habitat loss and fragmentation. For example, forest grouse and bean geese (Anser fabalis) utilize mires during their breeding period. Due to ditching, mires stop producing their ecosystem services, because berry production and game bird populations (these are cultural and provisioning ecosystem services), decrease, and thus the recreational values of the areas lessen.

Finland has about 10 million hectares of dried mires, more than half of which have been utilized by forestry. However, about a fifth of this area does not produce wood well enough for it to be profitable. After several centuries of mire destruction, a change is now in the air. Finnish mires are being restored with increasing effort. For example, in 2017 Metsähallitus (the Park and Forest Service) began an EU-funded project called Hydrology LIFE. The project aims to safeguard not just mires, but also small water bodies and important bird lakes in 103 Natura 2000 areas. The project restores and protects mires.

Mire hydrology can be restored by blocking ditches.

Hydrology is the most important issue to consider when restoring a mire. Blocking ditches leads to changes in water balance, and eventually to active peat formation, which is basically the definition of a mire. After the ditches are blocked, water levels normally rise rapidly to correspond with the natural situation. However, actual peatland processes return at a much slower speed. Forest vegetation is slowly replaced by mire vegetation, starting from the ditches. The processes take a long time, so whether or not the original mire ecosystem returns is yet to be seen. It is also possible that we are actually just creating new mire types.

Elimyssalo nature conservation area in Eastern Finland consists of various peatland types. The area is an important calving place for wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus).

Peatland-forest ecotones are key environments for forest grouse, but unfortunately these areas are becoming very rare. The willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) has suffered from mire fragmentation in Finland. Ptarmigan habitats are fragmented especially in Southern Finland, and thus there are small populations living far from each other. Luckily, local people are usually interested in peatland restoration that helps species such as the willow ptarmigan. Several good examples exist of how ptarmigans have accepted restored peatlands. The Finnish Association for Nature Conservation has a project “SuoMaa”, which began in 2016, and targets protecting and restoring taiga nature. One of the aims is to restore peatlands to support and enlarge a ptarmigan breeding peatland network and create connections between strong and threatened populations.

A few decades ago the whoopers swan (Cygnus cygnus) was an endangered and rare species in Finland. It only bred in remote lakes and people rarely saw them. The population increase of whooper swans after protection is one of the success stories in Finnish nature conservation. Nowadays the swans can be heard gaggling all around Finland. The whooper swan is a large bird, and it thus consumes a lot of vegetation. Water horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile) is one of its favourites.

The whooper swan population has increased greatly, and their gaggling can be heard widely in Finland.

Certain other species also prefer water horsetails. For example, wigeon (Mareca penelope) broods forage within the horsetail growths searching for emerging invertebrates. A study published earlier this year showed that the water horsetail is disappearing from Finnish and Swedish lakes. The reasons for this pattern are unknown, but one possible explanation could be increased grazing pressure. Whooper swans effectively utilize horsetails, and swan grazing was therefore suspected to be influencing the disappearance of the horsetail. Wigeon populations have concurrently shown a worrying decrease.

A recently published study conducted of 60 Finnish and Swedish lakes utilized vegetation and waterbird data gathered in the early 1990s and in 2016. The study area widely covers the boreal, reaching from southern Sweden to Finnish Lapland. The whooper swan population increased strongly during the study period. Researchers studied whether whooper swans’ grazing on water horsetail is causing the negative trend in the wigeon population. Pair counts were used to indicate waterbird communities, and thus any changes caused during the brood time were not shown.

Whooper swans are grazers that have to consume a great deal of vegetation to survive.

The study showed that whooper swans strongly preferred lakes with horsetails during the 1990s, but this connections is not seen anymore. While the number of swan-occupied lakes has increased, the number of horsetail lakes has decreased dramatically. However, it appears that swans and disappearing horsetails do not associate, because the horsetail has also been from lakes where swans don’t occur. The horsetail has increased in some swan-occupied lakes.

The number of lakes used by wigeon has decreased, but swans are apparently not causing this. Wigeon loss has not been stronger on lakes occupied by swans. Quite the opposite, as wigeons and swans appear to positively correlate. Even though wigeons prefer horsetail lakes, their disappearance is not associated with the horsetail loss occurring in the study lakes, which suggests that wigeons can also utilize other lake types. On the other hand, the researchers note that this study did not considered the critical brood time, when the foraging opportunities among the horsetail growths are especially important. Thus it may still be possible that wigeons are affected by horsetail loss, but this effect only appears during the brood time.