External interventions in local society took place in very different ways in early medieval Europe. Their intensity depended, to a large degree, on the extent of claims made by central authorities and other powers, such as lay aristocrats or heads of religious institutions. In the early ninth century, for example, Frankish rulers of the Carolingian family attempted to control everyday life even within local society – a remarkable and far-reaching intention. The new norms written down for this purpose in capitularies, conciliar records and episcopal statutes are

Intervention in Egypt contrasted
dramatically with recent campaigns in Africa and Afghanistan. It
involved the largest expeditionary force despatched by Britain since the
Crimean War and achieved a decisive outcome in less than two months,
that is, from the passing of a vote of credit by the House of Commons
for an expeditionary force (27 July 1882) to the crushing victory at

15
THE INTERVENTION OF THE STATE
I
The great drama of the clearances had been played out between the landowners and
the people with occasional interventions from external forces of law and order. With
the passage of the Crofters’ Act in 1886, however, social and economic conditions
and relations in the western Highlands and islands could never be the same again.
The state had become a major factor in influencing the future development of the
region both through statute law, which established in 1886 new controls on the
relationship between landlord and tenant

scattered land holdings in many regions, even those lords who were involved in macro-politics might be neighbours in small settlements, allowing us to see them both as outsiders to local society and as insiders.
The following two chapters treat the question of how outside interventions influenced local practices. In this chapter we will discuss the ways in which secular office holders, especially lower office holders, were present and how they acted within local society. Chapter 7 will change the perspective: in it, we will focus on other kinds of outside intervention

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3 Civic culture, voluntarism
and council intervention
Across the nineteenth century, Manchester city council’s participation in housing
was restricted to occasional byelaws, producing health reports and providing
paving, street lighting and a clean water supply. By the end of the century it was
gradually getting directly involved by reconditioning properties, limited slum
clearance and building a small number of flats and cottages. However, although
the case for municipal action in housing policy was being made, the council

4
Racial violence and
state intervention in
the South African economy
The white group in South Africa can say,
with Louis XIV of France, “l’état c’est
moi”! — R. F. Hoernlé 1
In the aftermath of the Anglo-Boer War, whites in South Africa pursued
two strategies that distinguished state formation from the path followed
in the USA. They constructed a centralized state and authorized state ofﬁcials to intervene extensively into the economy. With the American Civil
War foremost in mind, British and Afrikaner representatives at the negotiations leading to post

This article presents an account of the involvement of forensic anthropology in the
investigation of human rights abuses in the modern era, and the difficulties it faces with
respect to lack of adequate funding, volatile settings, the presence of unexploded
ordnance, corruption in governmental agencies and a lack of good will, absence of support
for NGOs and the curtailment of formal judicial proceedings to effect transitional
justice. Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Spain, Mexico and the Northern Triangle are provided as
regional examples of the problems encountered when attempting to conduct forensic
anthropological investigations to locate mass graves, retrieve victims and obtain proper
identifications. Interventions by various organisations are highlighted to illustrate
their assistance to forensic and non-forensic individuals through technical support,
training and mentoring in the areas of crime-scene management and identification
techniques. Interventions in mass-grave processing when state agencies have failed, the
importance of DNA banks and information from family members and witnesses are also
presented.

International interventions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, that ultimately brought the war to
a standstill, emphasised recovering and identifying the missing as chief among the goals
of post-war repair and reconstruction, aiming to unite a heavily divided country. Still,
local actors keep,showing that unity is far from achieved and it is not a goal for all
those involved. This paper examines the various actors that have taken up the task of
locating and identifying the missing in order to examine their incentives as well as any
competing agendas for participating in the process. These efforts cannot be understood
without examining their impact both at the time and now, and we look at the biopolitics of
the process and utilisation of the dead within. Due to the vastness and complexity of this
process, instead of a conclusion, additional questions will be opened required for the
process to keep moving forward.

Britain is often revered for its extensive experience of waging ‘small wars’. Its long imperial history is littered with high profile counter-insurgency campaigns, thus marking it out as the world's most seasoned practitioners of this type of warfare. Britain's ‘small wars’ ranged from fighting Communist insurgents in the bamboo-laden Malayan jungle, marauding Mau Mau gangs in Kenyan game reserves, Irish republican terrorists in the back alleys and rural hamlets of Northern Ireland, and Taliban fighters in Afghanistan's Helmand province. This is the first book to detail the tactical and operational dynamics of Britain's small wars, arguing that the military's use of force was more heavily constrained by wider strategic and political considerations than previously admitted. Outlining the civil-military strategy followed by the British in Palestine, Malaya, Kenya, Cyprus, Aden, Northern Ireland, Iraq and Afghanistan, Defending the Realm argues that Britain's small wars have been shaped by a relative decline in British power, amidst dramatic fluctuations in the international system, just as much as the actions of military commanders and civilian officials ‘on the spot’ or those formulating government policy in London. Written from a theoretically-informed perspective, grounded in rich archival sources, oral testimonies and a reappraisal of the literature on counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism, Defending the Realm is the definitive account of the politics of Britain's small wars. It will be of interest to political scientists and historians, as well as scholars, students, soldiers and politicians who wish to gain a more critically informed perspective of the political trappings of war.

The Victorian era, encompassing the latter six decades of the nineteenth century,
was a period by which significant areas of the British Isles had become
industrialised and urbanised. Both processes exacerbated the extent of impairing
conditions, ranging from industrial injury through the prevalence of
debilitating physiological illnesses. Disability and the Victorians: attitudes,
interventions, legacies brings together the work of eleven scholars and focuses
on the history of disability and, while showcasing the work of a diverse
gathering of historians, also gives a flavour of how disability history engages
the work of scholars from other disciplines and how they, in turn, enhance
historical thought and understanding. Equally, while the focus is on the
Victorian era, a time during which society changed significantly, both at the
bottom and from the top, it was also a time in which patterns developed that
were to have an enduring influence. Therefore, a taste of that enduring
influence is presented in chapters that suggest the resilience of Victorian
thought and practices in the modern era. Consequently, an underlying aim is to
encourage readers to take a broad view, both of ‘disability’ and of Victorian
influences and values.