He was nominated as Minister of Marine in the Bloc des gauches cabinet of Émile Combes (June 1902 to January 1905), but his administration was severely criticized, notably by Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan and other naval experts. During the great sailors strike at Marseille in 1904 he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent controversy resulted, in the course of which Pelletan's indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common subject for ill-natured caricatures.

As French Navy minister, Camille Pelletan will be highly criticized, the Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, USN (1854-1942) wrote in his book, "From midshipman to rear admiral", edited in 1919, concerning the French navy minister Camille Pelletan:

Instead of being a friend of the people, as so many French people thought, Camille Pelletan by his course was more dangerous to them than all the German spies in France put together. Camille Pelletan's course did more to break down the defense of the French Republic than a half a million German troops could have done.[1]

French politician
–
The politics of France take place with the framework of a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be an indivisible, secular, democratic, the constitution provides for a separation of powers and proclaims Frances attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of

Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radic

1.
Radical Party Parti radical

Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the ar

1.
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."

Second French Empire
–
The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government.

Journalist
–
A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news wit

Franco-Prussian War
–
The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the Fre

4.
Map of German and French armies near their common border on 31 July 1870

Radical Party (France)
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radic

1.
Radical Party Parti radical

Communards
–
The Communards were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and Frances defeat. The working class of Paris were feeling ostracized after the decadence of the Second Empire, the Prussians besieged Paris in September 1870, causing suffering among Parisians. The poor ate cat or rat mea

French legislative election, 1881
–
The 1881 general election was held on 21 August and 4 September 1881. This election marked the collapse of the right compared to the 1877 election and it was a great success for the followers of Léon Gambetta, whom President Jules Grévy appointed premier two months after the election. His government only lasted 73 days, however, before falling over

Chamber of Deputies (France)
–
1875–1940 during the French Third Republic, the Chamber of Deputies was the legislative assembly of the French Parliament, elected by universal suffrage. When reunited with the French Senate at Versailles, the French Parliament was called the National Assembly, created by the Charter of 1814 and replacing the Corps législatif, which existed under t

10th arrondissement of Paris
–
The 10th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated on the bank of the River Seine, the arrondissement contains two of Pariss six main railway stations, the Gare du Nord and the Gare de lEst. Built during the 19th century, these two termini are among the busiest in Europe, the 10th arrondissemen

1.
The town hall of the 10th arrondissement (rue du Faubourg Saint-Martin).

French legislative election, 1893
–
The 1893 general election was held on 20 August and 3 September 1893. The Republicans were victorious and gained a majority, and President Sadi Carnot invited Jean Casimir-Perier to form a government. Casimir-Perier was elected to the presidency on 24 June 1894, following the assassination of President Carnot by the Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo

French legislative election, 1898
–
The 1898 general election was held on 8 and 22 May 1898. The election was dominated by the Dreyfus Affair, and saw several notable supporters of Dreyfus lose their seats, twenty-two professed anti-Semites were also elected, including Édouard Drumont. Overall, however, the saw the defeat of Méline and his supporters

Dreyfus Affair
–
The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, the major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. The scandal began in December 1894, with the convic

4.
Photograph of the bordereau dated 13 October 1894. The original disappeared in 1940

Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan
–
Jean Marie Antoine Louis de Lanessan was a French statesman and naturalist. He then completed his studies, taking his doctorate in 1872, in 1891 he was made civil and military governor of French Indochina, where his administration, which led to open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely criticized. Nevertheless, he consolidated French influen

1.
Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan.

Marseille
–
Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture

French Senate
–
The Senate is the upper house of the Parliament of France, presided over by a president. Indirectly elected by elected officials, it represents territorial collectivities of the Republic, the Senate enjoys less prominence than the lower house, the directly elected National Assembly, debates in the Senate tend to be less tense and generally receive

2.
Senate Sénat

3.
The Palais du Luxembourg

Gaston Doumergue
–
Pierre-Paul-Henri-Gaston Doumergue was a French politician of the Third Republic. Doumergue came from a Protestant family and was a freemason, beginning as a Radical, he turned more towards the political right in his old age. He served as Prime Minister from 9 December 1913 to 2 June 1914 and he was elected the thirteenth President of France on 13

Family tree
–
A family tree, or pedigree chart, is a chart representing family relationships in a conventional tree structure. The more detailed family trees used in medicine and social work are known as genograms, genealogical data can be represented in several formats, for example as a pedigree or ancestry chart. Family trees are presented with the oldest gene

1.
Example of a family tree, showing three generations of the Kennedy Family

Georges Bonnet
–
Georges-Étienne Bonnet was a French politician and leading figure in the Radical Party. Bonnet was born in Bassillac, Dordogne, the son of a lawyer and he studied law and political science at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques and Sorbonne, and then went to work as an auditeur at the Conseil détat. In 1911, he launched a career after marrying

1.
Georges Bonnet in Washington in 1937

Henri Fantin-Latour
–
Henri Fantin-Latour was a French painter and lithographer best known for his flower paintings and group portraits of Parisian artists and writers. He was born Ignace Henri Jean Théodore Fantin-Latour in Grenoble, Isère, as a youth, he received drawing lessons from his father, who was an artist. In 1850 he entered the Ecole de Dessin, where he studi

Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have

1.
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition

Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transition

1.
Screenshot 2012

Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library netw

1.
GND screenshot

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
French politician
–
The politics of France take place with the framework of a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be an indivisible, secular, democratic, the constitution provides for a separation of powers and proclaims Frances attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789. The political system of France consists of a branch, a legislative branch. Executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government, the Government consists of the Prime Minister and ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and is responsible to Parliament, Parliament comprises the National Assembly and the Senate. It passes statutes and votes on the budget, it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament, former presidents of the Republic also are members of the Council. The independent judiciary is based upon civil law system which evolved from the Napoleonic codes, the French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies. However, its administrative subdivisions—regions, departments and communes—have various legal functions, France was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community, later the European Union. As such, France has transferred part of its sovereignty to European institutions, the French government therefore has to abide by European treaties, directives and regulations. A popular referendum approved the constitution of the French Fifth Republic in 1958, greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency, France has a semi-presidential system of government. As a consequence, the President is the pre-eminent figure in French politics and he appoints the Prime Minister, though he may not de jure dismiss him, if the Prime Minister is from the same political side, he can, in practice, have him resign on demand. He appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries, when parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as cohabitation. Before 2002, Cohabitation was more common, because the term of the President was seven years, now that the term of the President has been shortened to five years, and that the elections are separated by only a few months, this is less likely to happen. Nicolas Sarkozy became President on 16 May 2007, succeeding Jacques Chirac, francois Hollande became President in 2012, succeeding Nicolas Sarkozy. The government is led by the Prime Minister, and is made up of junior and senior ministers and it has at its disposal the civil service, government agencies, and the armed forces. The government is responsible to Parliament, and the National Assembly may pass a motion of censure and this, in practice, forces the government to be from the same political party or coalition as the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral, this is known as the questions au gouvernement, in addition, ministers attend meetings of the houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament, since the Assembly is usually politically allied to the ministers, such legislation is, in general, the Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his government on a law, under article 49-3 of the Constitution

French politician
–
The National Assembly sits in the Palais Bourbon, by the Seine.
French politician
–
France
French politician
–
The Senate's amphitheater.
French politician
–
The Conseil d'État sits in the Palais Royal.

2.
Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radical Party upholds the principles of private property, the Radicals were originally a left-wing group, but with the emergence of the French Section of the Workers International in 1905, the Radicals shifted towards the political centre. In 1972 the left wing of the party split off to form the centre-left Radical Party of the Left, since then, the Radical Party has affiliated with the centre-right, becoming one of the founder parties of the Union for French Democracy in 1978. In 2002 the party split from the UDF and affiliated with the UMP, during the 7th term of the European Parliament, along with the UMP, three Radical MEPs sat with the European Peoples Party Group. During the 8th European Parliament, the single Radical MEP Dominique Riquet sits with the Alliance of Liberals, after the collapse of Napoleon Is empire in 1815, a reactionary Bourbon Restoration took place. The Republicans constituted the left-wing opposition, but they were also named Radicals and it was systematically used during the July Monarchy because the law forbade parties to define themselves as Republican. The conservative turn of the July Monarchy reinforced the audience of the radical opposition, some politicians such as Alexandre Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc formulated a Radical doctrine. They advocated democratic reforms as a vehicle of social progress and they defended the small private property against the socialist projects and the great landowners. The Radicals took a part in the 1848 Revolution and the foundation of the Second Republic. For a few months, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin was Interior Minister in the provisional government, however, the conservatives won the 1848 legislative election, the first election by universal suffrage. The repression of the June 1848 workers demonstrations disappointed the left-wing supporters of the new regime, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin obtained only 5% of votes at the December 1848 presidential election, which was won by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who established the Second Empire after the 1851 coup. From opposition, Radicals criticized personal power and the attacks on freedoms, after the collapse of the Second Empire following the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the Third Republic was proclaimed in September 1870. The Orléanist and Legitimist monarchists together won the first elections in February 1871, eventually the Republicans won the 1876 elections, leading to the firm establishment of the Republic. The Radicals defined the uncompromising part of the Republican Left, in this, Radicals formed the far-left opposition to the moderate Republican governments. In the 1890s, Léon Bourgeois renewed the Radical doctrine, including social reforms such as the income tax. After the Dreyfus Affair, Radicals joined forces with other Republicans, the first congress of the Radical Party was held in June 1901. Delegates represented 476 election committees,215 editorial boards of Radical newspapers,155 Masonic lodges, the existence of a national party immediately changed the political scene

Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party
–
Radical Party Parti radical

3.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)

4.
Second French Empire
–
The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government. He had so often, while in prison or in exile and his answer was to organize a system of government based on the principles of the Napoleonic Idea. This meant that the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great Napoleon I of France, the anti-parliamentary French Constitution of 1852 instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852, was largely a repetition of that of 1848. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by universal suffrage and this new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of Brumaire. The press was subjected to a system of cautionnements and avertissements, in order to counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the lycées, for seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites, up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist, from then till 1860 it was reduced to five members, Darimon, Émile Ollivier, Hénon, Jules Favre and Ernest Picard. On 2 December 1851 Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic and he thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions and the extension of his mandate for 10 years were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted an implausible 92 percent support. A new constitution was enacted in January 1852 which made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, however, he was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as soon as he signed the new document into law, in response to officially-inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a second referendum in November, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the yes votes were manufactured out of thin air, the empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. The constitution concentrated so much power in his hands that the only changes were to replace the word president with the word emperor

Second French Empire
–
Napoléon III
Second French Empire
–
Flag
Second French Empire
–
The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris, on December 2, 1852.

5.
Journalist
–
A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger

6.
Franco-Prussian War
–
The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France. The German forces were superior in numbers, had training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railroads. The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, the causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and this new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, in Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia, many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern princes candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems, other historians, notably French historian Pierre Milza, dispute this. According to Milza, the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity, the Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull, gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt he had just received a slap. Napoleons new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, a crowd of 15–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government, the southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers, some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made, universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, however, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented

7.
Radical Party (France)
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radical Party upholds the principles of private property, the Radicals were originally a left-wing group, but with the emergence of the French Section of the Workers International in 1905, the Radicals shifted towards the political centre. In 1972 the left wing of the party split off to form the centre-left Radical Party of the Left, since then, the Radical Party has affiliated with the centre-right, becoming one of the founder parties of the Union for French Democracy in 1978. In 2002 the party split from the UDF and affiliated with the UMP, during the 7th term of the European Parliament, along with the UMP, three Radical MEPs sat with the European Peoples Party Group. During the 8th European Parliament, the single Radical MEP Dominique Riquet sits with the Alliance of Liberals, after the collapse of Napoleon Is empire in 1815, a reactionary Bourbon Restoration took place. The Republicans constituted the left-wing opposition, but they were also named Radicals and it was systematically used during the July Monarchy because the law forbade parties to define themselves as Republican. The conservative turn of the July Monarchy reinforced the audience of the radical opposition, some politicians such as Alexandre Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc formulated a Radical doctrine. They advocated democratic reforms as a vehicle of social progress and they defended the small private property against the socialist projects and the great landowners. The Radicals took a part in the 1848 Revolution and the foundation of the Second Republic. For a few months, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin was Interior Minister in the provisional government, however, the conservatives won the 1848 legislative election, the first election by universal suffrage. The repression of the June 1848 workers demonstrations disappointed the left-wing supporters of the new regime, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin obtained only 5% of votes at the December 1848 presidential election, which was won by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who established the Second Empire after the 1851 coup. From opposition, Radicals criticized personal power and the attacks on freedoms, after the collapse of the Second Empire following the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the Third Republic was proclaimed in September 1870. The Orléanist and Legitimist monarchists together won the first elections in February 1871, eventually the Republicans won the 1876 elections, leading to the firm establishment of the Republic. The Radicals defined the uncompromising part of the Republican Left, in this, Radicals formed the far-left opposition to the moderate Republican governments. In the 1890s, Léon Bourgeois renewed the Radical doctrine, including social reforms such as the income tax. After the Dreyfus Affair, Radicals joined forces with other Republicans, the first congress of the Radical Party was held in June 1901. Delegates represented 476 election committees,215 editorial boards of Radical newspapers,155 Masonic lodges, the existence of a national party immediately changed the political scene

Radical Party (France)
–
Radical Party Parti radical

8.
Communards
–
The Communards were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and Frances defeat. The working class of Paris were feeling ostracized after the decadence of the Second Empire, the Prussians besieged Paris in September 1870, causing suffering among Parisians. The poor ate cat or rat meat or went hungry, out of resentment from this situation grew radical and socialist political clubs and newspapers. While Paris was occupied, socialist groups tried twice to overthrow the provisional government, in January 1871, Otto von Bismarck and the French minister of foreign affairs, Jules Favre, decided that France would hold national elections. Adolphe Thiers, who had been loyal to the Second Empire, was elected head of the newly monarchist republic, during the war, the capital had moved from Paris to Bordeaux. When the war ended, the government declined to back to Paris. In the early morning of March 18, the government stationed in Versailles sent military forces into Paris to collect a reserve of cannons, the detachment was still gathering the munitions when the Parisians awoke, and soon the soldiers were surrounded. In the chaos that followed, the soldiers killed two of their own, and by the end of the day, they were mainly sided with the Parisians. Insurgents now controlled the city, and they declared a new government called the Paris Commune, Thiers refused to bargain with the Communards, despite their attempts to do so. He taught newly released French soldiers the evils of the Communards as the government prepared for a battle, starting on May 21 and continuing through May 28, soldiers chased the National Guard members who sided with the Communards through the streets. Around 18,000 Parisians were killed,25,000 were imprisoned, the violence of Bloody Week became a rallying cry for the working classes, politicians would later proudly brag about their participation with the Commune. After Bloody Week, the government asked for an inquest into the causes of the uprising, the inquest concluded that the main cause of the insurrection was a lack of belief in God, and that this problem had to be corrected immediately. It was decided that a revival was needed, and a key part of this was deporting 4,500 Communards to New Caledonia. There was a goal in this, as the government also hoped that the Communards would civilize the native Kanak people on the island. The government hoped that being exposed to the order of nature would return the Communards to the side of good, New Caledonia had become a French colony in 1853, but just ten years later it still only had 350 European colonists. After 1863, New Caledonia became the destination of convicts transported from France after French Guiana was deemed too unhealthy for people of European descent. Thereafter, convicts from France made up the largest number of arriving residents, during the busiest time of deportation, there were estimated to be about 50,000 total people on the island. There were four main sites on the island, one of which

Communards
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Communards at the boulevard Voltaire
Communards
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Communards at the rue de Castiglione
Communards
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The Commune arrested by Ignorance and Reaction
Communards
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Executed National Guards

9.
French legislative election, 1881
–
The 1881 general election was held on 21 August and 4 September 1881. This election marked the collapse of the right compared to the 1877 election and it was a great success for the followers of Léon Gambetta, whom President Jules Grévy appointed premier two months after the election. His government only lasted 73 days, however, before falling over the issue of electoral reform and this led to three short-lived minority governments, until Jules Ferry was able to form a second government in February 1883 with the support of Gambettas Republican Union

French legislative election, 1881
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All 545 seats to the Chamber of Deputies 273 seats needed for a majority
French legislative election, 1881
French legislative election, 1881

10.
Chamber of Deputies (France)
–
1875–1940 during the French Third Republic, the Chamber of Deputies was the legislative assembly of the French Parliament, elected by universal suffrage. When reunited with the French Senate at Versailles, the French Parliament was called the National Assembly, created by the Charter of 1814 and replacing the Corps législatif, which existed under the First French Empire, the Chamber of Deputies was composed of individuals elected by census suffrage. Its role was to discuss laws and, most importantly, to vote taxes, according to the Charter, deputies were elected for five years, with one-fifth renewed each year. Deputies needed to be 40 years old and to pay 1000 francs in direct contributions, government ministers could be chosen from among the deputies, and this resulted in giving the Restoration government a slight, albeit minor, parliamentary and liberal character. This body was dissolved upon the entry of Coalition troops into Paris on 7 July, for the period 1815–1816, the Ultra-royalist chamber was referred to as the Chambre introuvable. The Chamber of Deputies was elected by census suffrage according to the Charter of 1830, the political life of the July Monarchy was defined by the split within the Chamber of Deputies between the progressive movement and the conservative wing. Although both parties traded power in the stages, by 1840 the conservative members around François Guizot had seized control. From 1830, deputies were elected for five years and they needed to be 30 years old and to pay 500 francs in direct contributions. In 1852, the Chamber of Deputies retook the name Corps législatif

Chamber of Deputies (France)
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The Chamber of Deputies of France at the Palais Bourbon in 1841.

11.
10th arrondissement of Paris
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The 10th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated on the bank of the River Seine, the arrondissement contains two of Pariss six main railway stations, the Gare du Nord and the Gare de lEst. Built during the 19th century, these two termini are among the busiest in Europe, the 10th arrondissement also contains a large portion of the Canal Saint-Martin, linking the northeastern parts of Paris with the River Seine. The land area of the arrondissement is 2.892 km2, the 10th arrondissement is often referred to as lEntrepôt. Today, the arrondissement remains dense in both population and business activity, with 89,612 inhabitants and 71,962 jobs at last census in 1999. Due to its large Turkish minority, the 10th arrondissement is often called La Petite Turquie

12.
French legislative election, 1893
–
The 1893 general election was held on 20 August and 3 September 1893. The Republicans were victorious and gained a majority, and President Sadi Carnot invited Jean Casimir-Perier to form a government. Casimir-Perier was elected to the presidency on 24 June 1894, following the assassination of President Carnot by the Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio, in January 1895, however, he resigned, and was replaced by Félix Faure, again with the support of the Right

French legislative election, 1893
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All 581 seats to the Chamber of Deputies 291 seats needed for a majority
French legislative election, 1893
French legislative election, 1893
French legislative election, 1893

13.
French legislative election, 1898
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The 1898 general election was held on 8 and 22 May 1898. The election was dominated by the Dreyfus Affair, and saw several notable supporters of Dreyfus lose their seats, twenty-two professed anti-Semites were also elected, including Édouard Drumont. Overall, however, the saw the defeat of Méline and his supporters

French legislative election, 1898
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All 585 seats to the Chamber of Deputies 293 seats needed for a majority
French legislative election, 1898
French legislative election, 1898
French legislative election, 1898

14.
Dreyfus Affair
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The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, the major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. The scandal began in December 1894, with the conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterházy after a trial lasting two days. The Army then accused Dreyfus with additional charges based on falsified documents, activists put pressure on the government to reopen the case. In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial, the new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against Dreyfus were demonstrated to be baseless, in 1906 Dreyfus was exonerated and reinstated as a major in the French Army. He served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, the affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps, the pro-Army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards and the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalization, the museum created an online platform in 2006 dedicated to the Dreyfus Affair, giving the public access to these documents. After a closed trial, he was guilty of treason. He was deported to Devils Island, at that time, the opinion of the French political class was unanimously unfavourable towards Dreyfus. Certain of the injustice of the sentence, the family of the Captain, through his brother Mathieu, meanwhile Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage, found evidence in March 1896 indicating that the real traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterházy. The General Staff, however, refused to reconsider its judgment, in July 1897 his family contacted the President of the Senate Auguste Scheurer-Kestner to draw attention to the tenuousness of the evidence against Dreyfus. Scheurer-Kestner reported three months later that he was convinced of the innocence of Dreyfus and also persuaded Georges Clemenceau, in the same month, Mathieu Dreyfus complained to the Ministry of War against Walsin-Esterházy. A Dreyfusard declaration that rallied many intellectuals to Dreyfus cause, France became increasingly divided over the case, and the issue continued to be hotly debated until the end of the century. Antisemitic riots erupted in more than twenty French cities, There were several deaths in Algiers. The Republic was shaken, which prompted a sense that the Dreyfus Affair had to be resolved to restore calm, despite increasingly robust evidence to the contrary, Dreyfus was convicted again and sentenced to ten years of hard labour, though the sentence was commuted due to extenuating circumstances. Exhausted by his deportation for four years, Dreyfus accepted the presidential pardon granted by President Émile Loubet

Dreyfus Affair
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Alfred Dreyfus
Dreyfus Affair
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Board game of the Dreyfus Affair.
Dreyfus Affair
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General Raoul Le Mouton de Boisdeffre architect of the military alliance with Russia
Dreyfus Affair
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Photograph of the bordereau dated 13 October 1894. The original disappeared in 1940

15.
Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan
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Jean Marie Antoine Louis de Lanessan was a French statesman and naturalist. He then completed his studies, taking his doctorate in 1872, in 1891 he was made civil and military governor of French Indochina, where his administration, which led to open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely criticized. Nevertheless, he consolidated French influence in Annam and Cambodia, and he was recalled in 1894, and published an apology for his administration in the following year. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected and he was political director of the Siècle, and president of the French Colonization Society, and wrote, besides the books already mentioned, various works on political and biological questions. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh

Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan
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Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan.

16.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice

17.
French Senate
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The Senate is the upper house of the Parliament of France, presided over by a president. Indirectly elected by elected officials, it represents territorial collectivities of the Republic, the Senate enjoys less prominence than the lower house, the directly elected National Assembly, debates in the Senate tend to be less tense and generally receive less media coverage. Frances first experience with a house was under the Directory from 1795 to 1799. With the Restoration in 1814, a new Chamber of Peers was created, at first it contained hereditary peers, but following the July Revolution of 1830, it became a body to which one was appointed for life. The Second Republic returned to a system after 1848, but soon after the establishment of the Second French Empire in 1852. In the Fourth Republic, the Senate was replaced by the Council of the Republic, with the new constitution of the Fifth Republic enforced on 4 October 1958, the older name of Senate was restored. In 2011, the Socialist Party won control of the French Senate for the first time since the foundation of the French Fifth Republic, in 2014, the centre-right Gaullists and its allies won back the control of the Senate. Until September 2004, the Senate had 321 senators, each elected to a nine-year term and that month, the term was reduced to six years, while the number of senators progressively increased to 348 in 2011, in order to reflect the countrys population growth. Senators were elected in every three years, this was also changed to one-half of their number every three years. Senators are elected indirectly by approximately 150,000 officials, including regional councilors, department councilors, mayors, city councilors in large towns, however, 90% of the electors are delegates appointed by councilors. This system introduces a bias in the composition of the Senate favoring rural areas, the Senate has also been accused of being a refuge for politicians that have lost their seats in the National Assembly. The senators elect a President from among their members, the current incumbent is Gérard Larcher. This happened twice for Alain Poher—once at the resignation of Charles de Gaulle, under the Constitution, the Senate has nearly the same powers as the National Assembly. Bills may be submitted by the administration or by either house of Parliament, because both houses may amend the bill, it may take several readings to reach an agreement between the National Assembly and the Senate. This does not happen frequently, usually the two eventually agree on the bill, or the administration decides to withdraw it. The power to pass a vote of censure, or vote of no confidence, is limited, as was the case in the Fourth Republics constitution, new cabinets do not have to receive a vote of confidence. Also, a vote of censure can occur only after 10 percent of the sign a petition, if rejected. If the petition gets the support, a vote of censure must gain an absolute majority of all members

18.
Gaston Doumergue
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Pierre-Paul-Henri-Gaston Doumergue was a French politician of the Third Republic. Doumergue came from a Protestant family and was a freemason, beginning as a Radical, he turned more towards the political right in his old age. He served as Prime Minister from 9 December 1913 to 2 June 1914 and he was elected the thirteenth President of France on 13 June 1924, the only Protestant to hold that office. He served until 13 June 1931, and again was Prime Minister in a national unity government. This government lasted from 6 February to 8 November 1934 and he was widely regarded as one of the most popular French Presidents, particularly after highly controversial Alexandre Millerand, who was his predecessor. Doumergue was single when elected, and became the first President of France to marry in office, louis Malvy succeeds Renoult as Minister of the Interior. Raoul Péret succeeds Malvy as Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts,20 March 1914 – Armand Gauthier de lAude succeeds Monis as Minister of Marine. Paul Marchandeau succeeds Sarraut as Minister of the Interior, louis Rollin succeeds Laval as Minister of Colonies. 15 October 1934 – Henri Lémery succeeds Chéron as Minister of Justice

19.
Family tree
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A family tree, or pedigree chart, is a chart representing family relationships in a conventional tree structure. The more detailed family trees used in medicine and social work are known as genograms, genealogical data can be represented in several formats, for example as a pedigree or ancestry chart. Family trees are presented with the oldest generations at the top. An ancestry chart, which is a showing the ancestors of an individual, will more closely resemble a tree in shape. In some ancestry charts, a appears on the left. A descendancy chart, which all the descendants of an individual will be narrowest at the top. Family trees can have many themes, one might encompass all direct descendants of a single figure, or all known ancestors of a living person. Another might include all members of a particular surname, yet another approach is to construct a tree including all holders of a certain office, such as kings of Germany. This relies on dynastic marriage to hold together the links between dynasties, the image of the tree probably originated with one in medieval art of the Tree of Jesse, used to illustrate the Genealogy of Christ in terms of a prophecy of Isaiah. Fan charts depict paternal and maternal ancestors, however, because a parent must be born before their child is born, a person cannot be their own ancestor, and thus there are no loops, so ancestry forms a directed acyclic graph. The graphs of matrilineal descent and patrilineal descent are trees however, assuming no common ancestor, an ancestry chart is a perfect binary tree, as each person has exactly one mother and one father, for two parents, these thus have a regular structure. A descendancy chart, on the hand, does not in general have a regular structure, as a person can have any number of children. The longest family tree in the world is that of the Chinese philosopher and educator Confucius, the tree spans more than 80 generations from him, and includes more than 2 million members. An international effort involving more than 450 branches around the world was started in 1998 to retrace, a new edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed in September 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, to coincide with the 2560th anniversary of the birth of the Chinese thinker. This latest edition is expected to include some 1.3 million living members who are scattered around the world today, the 1999 edition of the Guinness Book of Records recorded the Lurie family in the longest lineage category as oldest-known living family in the world today. In Europe, the pedigree of Niall Noígíallach would be contender for the longest, the author Pete Frame is notable for having produced family trees of rock bands. In this instance, the entries represent membership of certain groups, several books have been produced with his family trees, which in turn have led to a BBC television series about them, including interviews from the bands depicted in the trees

20.
Georges Bonnet
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Georges-Étienne Bonnet was a French politician and leading figure in the Radical Party. Bonnet was born in Bassillac, Dordogne, the son of a lawyer and he studied law and political science at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques and Sorbonne, and then went to work as an auditeur at the Conseil détat. In 1911, he launched a career after marrying Odette Pelletan. Many privately mocked Bonnet for the way in which his wife dominated him, the moniker Madame Soutien-Georges directed towards her was a French pun on the word for brassiere and was both a reference to Bonnet and to the size of her breasts. In 1914, Bonnet joined the French Army and in 1918 served as director of demobilization, during his service in World War I, Bonnet was a much-decorated soldier who won the Croix de guerre medal for bravery under fire. In 1919, Bonnet served as a secretary to the French delegation at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and wrote a book, Lettres á un Bourgeois de 1914, Bonnet served in the Chamber of Deputies from 1924 to 1928 and again from 1929 to 1940. He was appointed undersecretary of state in 1925, the first in a series of ministerial positions throughout the 1920s and 1930s. During his time as in the Chamber, Bonnet was regarded as a expert in financial. As a minister, Bonnet had a reputation for work, always well prepared in parliamentary debates. In 1932, Bonnet headed the French delegation at the Lausanne Conference, during the Lausanne Conference, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, commenting on Bonnets abilities, asked, Why isnt he in the Cabinet. In 1933, Bonnet was a prominent member of the French delegation to the London Conference, in 1936, Bonnet emerged as the leader of 18 Radical deputies who objected to their partys participation in the Front Populaire. As a result, the French Premier Léon Blum effectively exiled Bonnet in January 1937 by appointing him Ambassador to the United States, even though Bonnet did not speak English. Upon hearing of Bonnets appointment, the American Ambassador to France, William Christian Bullitt, Jr. wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt about Bonnet and he is extremely intelligent and competent on economic and financial matters, but hes not a man of character. You may remember that he led the French delegation to the London economic conference where he led the attacks against you. Despite his short stay in the United States and his inability to speak English, Bonnet thereafter, on 28 June 1937, Bonnet returned to France when the Premier Camille Chautemps appointed him Finance Minister. Bonnets first major act as Finance Minister was to oversee the devaluation of the franc, as Finance Minister, Bonnet imposed sharp cuts in military spending. Throughout his career, Bonnet was noted as an advocate of sacred egoism, Bonnet regarded himself as a realist, and his thinking on foreign policy tended to be colored in equal measure by pragmatism and insularity. Bonnets cuts in military spending led to a clash with War Minister Édouard Daladier, Daladier persuaded the Cabinet to rescind the most severe cuts to the French Army budget, pointing out that in the current international climate, the Army needed more funding, not less

Georges Bonnet
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Georges Bonnet in Washington in 1937

21.
Henri Fantin-Latour
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Henri Fantin-Latour was a French painter and lithographer best known for his flower paintings and group portraits of Parisian artists and writers. He was born Ignace Henri Jean Théodore Fantin-Latour in Grenoble, Isère, as a youth, he received drawing lessons from his father, who was an artist. In 1850 he entered the Ecole de Dessin, where he studied with Lecoq de Boisbaudran, after studying at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris from 1854, he devoted much time to copying the works of the old masters in the Musée du Louvre. Although Fantin-Latour befriended several of the artists who would later be associated with Impressionism, including Whistler and Manet. Whistler brought attention to Fantin in England, where his still-lifes sold so well that they were unknown in France during his lifetime. In addition to his paintings, Fantin-Latour created imaginative lithographs inspired by the music of some of the great classical composers. And he has asked her whether she had seen the painting by Fantin-Latour which had recently been exhibited. His first major UK gallery exhibition in 40 years took place at the Bowes Museum in April 2011, Musée du Luxembourg presented a retrospective exhibition of his work in 2016-7 entitled À fleur de peau. The painting A basket of roses was used as the cover of New Orders album Power, the art of Henri Fantin-Latour, his life and work, London, Dranes ltd. Lucie-Smith, Edward, Henri Fantin-Latour, New York, Rizzoli,1977, poulet, Anne L. & Murphy, A. R. Corot to Braque, French Paintings from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, The Museum,1979. ISBN 0-87846-134-5 Rosenblum, Robert, Paintings in the Musée dOrsay, New York, Stewart, ISBN 1-55670-099-7 Henri-Fantin-Latour. org 273 works by Henri Fantin-Latour Henri Fantin-Latour, Still Life,1867, watercolor, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections

22.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival

23.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

24.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format