The previous two chapters examined the fishermen, the fishery employees and the
characteristics of their households. This chapter will examine the fishing craft and fishing gear
with which they exploit marine living resources. The main sources of data are the two marine
fishery censuses and the statistics on Thai fishing vessels in various years, which provide data
on registered boats and gear.

Fishing craft in the censuses are classified into unpowered boats, outboard-powered
boats and inboard-powered boats of various gross tonnage. Inboard-powered boats of less than
10 GT are considered small-scale. Unpowered and outboard-powered boats are used in subsistence
small-scale fishery, whereas inboard-powered boats of more than 10 GT are used in larger-scale,
commercial fishing.

In the 1985 registration statistics, boats were classified by length (in metres), but, by
1995, they were classified by gross tonnage as well. The registered boats included both
outboard-and inboard-powered boats, but the registration forms had no entry on boat type,
which makes it impossible to know the proportion of each type of boat. The process of registration
involves registration of the boat with the Harbour Department (Ministry of Transportation) for
the navigation certificate and application for a fishing gear license from the Department of
Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives. Among the fishing gear, trawls
(both otter boards and pair trawls) and seines play an important role in commercial fishing,
while gill nets (for shrimp, crab and the like), push nets and squid cast nets are the dominant
gear for small-scale fishing. However, a considerable number of fishing boats that operate with
gill nets, push nets, hooks and lines, traps and other equipment are not registered with the
Department of Fisheries and they are unpowered and outboard-powered boats (Somsak
Chullasorn, 1988, p. 76). In addition, it is believed that inboard-powered fishing boats of high
gross tonnage have been both under-recorded in the census and under-registered year on year
(personal communication, Ruangrai Tokrisna and Somsak Chullasorn, July 1998). Indeed, the
irony is that, though the census statistics are more realistic than the registration statistics, they
are collected every ten years, whereas the registration statistics are compiled annually. Another
peculiarity is that fishing boats can be registered in any coastal province, regardless of the
province of residence of their owners. This makes comparison of changes by province meaningless.

The next section explores the changes in fishing craft in the 1985 and 1995 marine
fishery censuses, focusing more closely on the changes in unpowered and outboard-powered
boats. These changes concern primarily the small-scale fisherfolk living along the coast who
are engaged in catching fish within the marine coastal zone and who should be definitely more
interested in integrated coastal zone management programmes than those engaged in large-scale
commercial fishing.

Census-recorded fishing craft

As fishing boats have been examined quite extensively in relation to the changes in the
number of fishermen and fishery employees, the findings from the censuses will be only
summarized here. Countrywide, the number of fishing vessels increased by only two percent
between 1985 and 1995, from 53,265 to 54,538. Both in 1985 and in 1995, Zone IV and V
had the largest number (roughly 16,000–17,000 each), while each of the remaining zones had a
little less than half the number in either Zone IV or Zone V (Table 2.5).

In terms of changes in number by zone, Zone V saw the highest increase, 15 percent,
followed by Zone IV (four percent), whereas the other zones saw a decline. The decline was most
pronounced in Zone II (-11 percent) and Zone I (-9 percent), and slight in Zone III (-3 percent).

When changes are examined by type of craft, one finds that countrywide the number of
outboard-powered boats, which was a little over half of all fishing vessels in 1985, increased by
28 percent, so that by 1995 they amounted to almost 70 percent of all the boats. The increase in
outboard-powered fishing boats was accompanied by a spectacular decline in unpowered boats
(-65 percent) and a 10-percent decline in inboard-powered boats (Figure 4.1)

Unpowered craft

Figure 4.2 focuses on the changes in the number of unpowered boats and shows that a
decline occurred in every coastal zone and that the rate of decline was highest in Zone I,
followed closely by Zones III, I and V. In these four zones, the decline was very high (70–80
percent), while in Zone IV it was less than 50 percent. As the overall number of fisherfolk did
not decline between the two censuses, the decline in the number of unpowered boats points to a
process of modernization in which small-scale fisherfolk changed their craft from unpowered to
outboard-powered ones. By 1995, there were only 2,826 unpowered fishing boats in Thailand,
roughly 40 percent of which were in Zone V (Phangnga) and another 40 percent in Zone IV
(Songkhla). The rest were in Zone I (about nine percent, mostly in Chanthaburi), Zone II (six
percent, mostly in Samut Songkhram and Samut Sakhon), and Zone III (five percent, mostly in
Chumphon). Thus, despite the decline, there were still sizeable numbers of very small-scale,
subsistence fisherfolk engaged in near-shore marine capture fishery in Zone IV and V.

Outboard-powered craft

For the whole country, the number of outboard-powered fishing boats increased from
28,386 in 1985 to 36,430 in 1995, a 28-percent increase. Table 2.5 and Figure 4.2 show that in
1985, the largest number of them was to be found in Zone IV (Nakhon Si Thammarat and
Songkhla), and almost as many in Zone V (mostly in Phangnga), and then Zones III (Surat
Thani), I (Chanthaburi) and II (Phetchaburi and Samut Prakan). In 1995, the largest number of
them was in Zones V (Phangnga), with Zone IV (Songkhla) a close second. Their number in the
remaining zones was not high, and the ranking in descending order was again Zones III (Surat
Thani), I (Chanthaburi) and II (Phetchaburi, Samut Songkhram and Samut Prakan). These data
indicate that small-scale fishing activities further ashore were still prominent, particularly in
Zones V and IV. There was a definite trend toward a very rapid growth in small-scale fishery
using outboard-powered boats in Zone V, a moderate growth in Zones I and IV, but very slight
growth in Zones III and II.

Inboard-powered craft

Regarding inboard-powered craft, they numbered 16,982 in 1985, but had declined to
15,282 by 1995. Table 2.5 and Figure 4.3 show that the largest number of them was to be found
in Zone II, but in 1985 the provinces with the largest number were Chon Buri and Phetchaburi
(about 1,100 each), whereas in 1995 they were Chon Buri and Samut Sakhon (almost 900 each),
Samut Prakan and Phetchaburi (about 800 each) and Samut Songkhram (about 700). Though
Zone II as a whole saw a decline of about six percent, three of its provinces saw an increase,
namely Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram and Samut Prakan.

Zone I had the second largest number of inboard-powered fishing boats: 3,652 in 1985
and 2,929 in 1995. In both years, Trat had the largest number, followed by Rayong. Zone IV
ranked third both in 1985 and in 1995 (3,483 and 2,841, respectively, mostly to be found in
Songkhla and Nakhon Si Thammarat provinces).

Zones III and V ranked fourth and last both in 1985 and in 1995. In Zone III, inboard-powered
boats were mostly to be found in Prachuap Khiri Khan in 1985, but in Chumphon by
1995. In Zone V, the largest number was in Satun both in 1985 and 1995.

In summary, both in the 1985 and 1995 censuses, the largest numbers of inboard-powered
boats were to be found in Zones II, I, IV, III and V, in descending order. The data
further show that, though the number of inboard-powered craft declined between 1985 and
1995, it did so at the highest rates in Zones I and IV (almost 20 percent), at low rates in Zones
II and III (less than 10 percent), and even increased by about five percent in Zone V.

The changes in unpowered, outboard-powered and inboard-powered boats indicate that
though fishing activities in Zones IV and V have been dominated by small-scale operations
using outboard-powered and unpowered boats, there is a trend, especially in Zone V, toward
commercial operations using inboard-powered boats. Zones II, I and, to a lesser extent, IV have
always engaged in commercial operations, but there is a trend toward a rapid decline in Zone I,
most likely because of the growth in industries and aquaculture. The decline in the number of
inboard-powered boats also occurred in Zone II, but at a slower rate. Given that the number of
fisherfolk and level of aquaculture activities in that zone also declined, it means that a proportion of
fisherfolk moved to the light-industry and service sectors, and the rest are commercial operators
owning several inboard-powered boats each. The decline of commercial operations in Zone IV
may be associated with the growth in aquaculture and tourism, as well as with the possibility
that commercial-size inboard-powered boats declined in number but increased in tonnage.

So far inboard-powered boats have been compared by year and by zone only in terms of
changes in number. Table 4.1 and Figure 4.4 show the number and changes in small-scale and
commercial inboard-powered boats for the country as a whole. Those of less than 10 GT are
classified as small-scale; those of 10 GT and over are classified as commercial. The decline in
the total number of inboard-powered boats is accounted for by the decline in small-scale boats.
The increase in the number of boats of 10 GT and over indicates a higher catch capacity for
commercial inboard-powered boats as a whole.

Table 4.1 and Figure 4.5 show that the number of inboard-powered boats of less than 10
GT declined in every coastal zone, while Figure 4.6. (derived from Table 4.1) shows that the number
of commercial inboard-powered boats of more than 10 GT increased in every zone except Zone I.
We have seen that areas under coastal aquaculture in Zone II increased between the two censuses.
Thus it is not surprising to find that both small-scale commercial and large-scale commercial
boats in Zone II declined. In Zone I, the decline in the number of small-scale commercial boats
corresponds to an increase in the number of large-scale commercial boats, indicating a very rapid
increase of large-scale commercial operations. In Zones III and IV, the decline in the number of
small-scale commercial boats was not compensated for to the same extent by an increase in the
number of boats of 10 GT and over, because of the growth of aquaculture and tourism in these two
zones. Zone V seems to be the only zone with an overall growth in both small-scale and large-scale
(commercial) fishing activities and in coastal aquaculture, despite the growth in tourism.

Table 4.2 and Figure 4.7 show that among commercial inboard-powered fishing boats
(those of 10 GT and over), the great majority were medium-sized (10–49 GT), but that the
number of large-scale vessels (of 50 GT and over) was increasing very rapidly.

Figures 4.8 and 4.9, also derived from Table 4.2, show that in Zones I and IV the
number of medium-sized boats declined and that of large-scale craft increased, but less rapidly
than in other zones. In Zones II, III and V, there was a small increase in medium-scale and a
high increase in large-scale commercial boats. The increase of boats of 50 GT and over both in
number and in rate was most impressive in Zones II and V, indicating rapid commercialization
of fishing activities using boats of large gross tonnage.

Fishing boats in registration statistics

Table 4.3 shows the number of fishing boats registered from 1985 to 1995 on a yearly
basis, together with the annual rate of change. The changes were very irregular from one year to
the next. They ranged from 0.9 percent in 1987 to 35 percent in 1989 and showed declines of-0.3
percent in 1986 to -15.7 percent in 1991. The phenomenal increase of 35 percent in 1989
was due to an amnesty granted in an attempt to encourage registration. The success of this
attempt was apparently short-lived, as the number of registrations in the following years tended
to decline (Figure 4.10). A second amnesty was granted in 1997, and even though the statistics
for that year are not yet published, it is of little doubt that they will show another spectacular
increase in registration. This begs the question of the best way to improve registration statistics.
We believe that granting an amnesty is detrimental to the ultimate aim of regulating the number
and size of fishing boats. With the prospect of yet another amnesty, more fishing boats are likely
to be built and operate illegally until the next amnesty. Encouraging owners of outboard-powered
fishing boats to register their vessels may have to include such measures as tax exemptions,
lower diesel and benzene prices, and better access to BAAC credit. For owners of inboard-powered
fishing boats to register and be truthful about the gross tonnage of their vessels will be
difficult, as the higher the tonnage, the higher the tax and other related costs (such as the cost of
a mechanic required by law to maintain the engine, or the fees charged by fish landing piers).
The number of fishing boats and their capacity influence, to a large extent, the rate of depletion
of living marine resources. Therefore, they need to be studied and analysed separately, with the
double aim of assessing their real number by type and size in order to regulate them, and of
relating them both to fishery management and integrated coastal zone management.

Comparison of census and registration statistics on fishing boats

Table 4.4 presents the number of outboard- and inboard-powered fishing boats recorded
and registered in 1985 and 1995. For the whole country, the number of boats registered was
roughly one third of the number of boats listed by the censuses. The comparison by zone shows
that Zone II was the only zone where the registered number came anywhere close to the census
numbers both in 1985 and in 1995 (Figures 4.11 and 4.12). This is perhaps because it is the
oldest fishing zone and fisherfolk there have come to see registration as an obligation. As for the
other zones, there was no regular pattern. For example, in 1985, the number of registered boats
in Zone IV was 35 percent of the census-recorded boats, but 22 percent only in 1995. In Zone V,
the percentages were more or less the same (21 percent in 1985 and 24 percent in 1995). Could
this be due to the increase in outboard-powered fishing boats in Zones IV and V? If such were
the case, the number of fishing boats as a percentage of the recorded boats in both zones should
be the lowest in 1985 and lower in 1995, since most outboard-powered fishing boats are to be
found in these zones. This is not supported by the data and no satisfactory explanation can be
offered at this point.

Table 4.5 presents data only for 1995, because the census that year classified fishing
boats by type and size, which the 1985 census did not. It reveals that countrywide, registered
boats represented about one third of the boats recorded in the census (Figure 4.13). Small-scale
fishing boats (of less than 10 GT, including both outboard- and inboard-powered boats) were
grossly under-recorded (Figure 4.14). In addition, the census under-recorded the commercial-scale
boats, especially those of 50 GT and over (Figures 4.15 and 4.16). This finding supports
Dr Ruangrai Tokrisna's previously noted opinion and can be explained by assuming that the
larger-scale boats were out in the high seas during the census period. The implication is that in
reality the level of commercialization must be greater than that revealed by the census.

This section starts with an examination of registered boats classified by fishing gear
to see the type of gear used by most of the boats. Follows a comparison by coastal zone of the
changes in fishing methods, using the data from the 1985 and 1995 censuses. The comparison
uses data on inboard-powered boats only, because the 1985 census tabulated only the number
of inboard-powered boats by fishing gear. Since the 1995 census provides data that can be used
to tabulate both outboard- and inboard-powered boats by fishing gear, the last part focuses on
the census data for 1995, comparing all fishing boats by type and gross tonnage in terms of
fishing gear.

Fishing gear used by registered boats

Table 4.6 presents the annual statistics on registered fishing boats classified by fishing
gear for the whole country from 1985 to 1995. It shows that, for large-scale fishery, the most
popular fishing method is the otter board trawl: it was used by 44 percent of the boats registered
in 1985 and by 37 percent of the boats registered in 1995. The second most popular fishing
method is by shrimp gill net, which is used in small-scale fishery: it was used by 18 percent and
12 percent of the boats registered in 1985 and 1995, respectively. Pair trawl comes third, with
eight percent and nine percent for the same years.

By 1995, the relative popularity of the various fishing gear altered somewhat. Though
otter board trawl was still the most popular type by far, its use had declined by nine percent since
1985. During the same period, the use of pair trawl increased by 29 percent and that of shrimp
gill net declined by 24 percent. Shrimp gill nets still ranked second in terms of popularity, but
their use by registered boats had declined by almost 30 percent. Other fishing methods that
rapidly became more popular over the years were squid cast nets, crab gill nets and anchovy
purse seines. The use of Thai purse seines also increased, but the rate of increase was not high.

The decline in popularity of the otter board trawl and the growing popularity of the
pair trawl may be due to the fact that pair trawls can be used to catch both demersal and pelagic
species, whereas otter board trawls are used only for demersal fish. The decline in shrimp gill
net use and the increase in crab gill net use may be due to a greater demand for crabmeat for
export and the fact that the demand for shrimp for export can be met by shrimp culture. The
trend toward an increase in the use of anchovy purse seines may be due to larger stocks of
anchovies because of the depletion of the bigger fish that feed on them. Or else, it is due to the
higher demand for anchovies, which would be met easily as they can be caught day and night.

The annual statistics show that the boats that took the most advantage of the amnesty
were those using push nets: the number of registered boats using this method increased by 827
percent, from 52 in 1988 to 482 in 1989. As it is one of the most destructive fishing practices, it
is no surprise that the owners would want to see its use legalized. The other two types that
benefited from the amnesty were boats using otter board trawls and pair trawls. Registration of
otter board trawls increased by 81 percent, from 5,776 in 1988 to 10,438 in 1989. Registration
of pair trawls increased by 94 percent, from 1,132 in 1988 to 2,193 in 1989 (Figure 4.17). These
are the very gear that, according to FAO recommendations, should be reduced in number (Boonlert
Phasuk, 1994, p. 113). It is further noted that all these fishing methods are used in large-scale
fishery, and that the registration of all boats using methods associated with small-scale fishery
was not affected at all by the amnesty. The implication is that the amnesty unintentionally
encouraged and legalized fishing methods that very effectively exploit the already depleting
fishery resources.

Methods used by inboard-powered fishing boats according to the censuses

Since the 1985 marine fishery census tabulates fishing gear only with inboard-powered
fishing boats, it is possible to gauge the change in fishing methods that took place between 1985
and 1995 only among such boats. The data presented provide information at the national and
zonal levels regarding the most popular fishing methods and how their popularity
changed over time. Tables 4.7 and 4.8 should be examined together, as Table 4.7 presents data
on large-scale fishing gear and Table 4.8 provides data on fishing methods associated with
small-scale fishing activities.

In 1985, the most popular fishing methods countrywide were, in descending order:
otter board trawl, crab gill net, shrimp gill net, push net, squid cast net with light, and pair
trawl. By 1995, squid cast nets with light, pair trawls and traps became more important, to the
point that the ranking changed to otter board trawl, squid cast net with light, pair trawl, crab
gill net, push net and trap. In both years, the use of otter board trawls was the most popular
method by far. Their number was of around 6,000 in 1985 and almost 5,000 in 1995, whereas
the number of the second most popular method in both years was no more than 1,500.

Among the fishing methods associated with large-scale fishing, only pair trawl, Thai
purse seine and anchovy purse seine increased in use countrywide, as did squid cast net with
light, and traps, for small-scale fishery (Figure 4.18).

The examination of popularity and changes in fishing methods by zone yields the
following information:

Zone I: In 1985, the three methods used by most inboard-powered boats were, in ranking
order, otter board trawl, crab gill net, and trap. By 1995, the ranking had changed to crab gill net
and otter board trawl in roughly equal numbers, followed by trap. The methods that were not used
much in 1985, but grew nonetheless, were shrimp gill net and anchovy purse seine (Figure 4.18.1).

Zone II: In 1985, the three methods most employed were otter board trawl, pair trawl, and
crab gill net. By 1995, otter board trawl and pair trawl were still the most popular, followed by push
net. Of these three methods, the use of otter board trawl declined by 13 percent, but that of pair trawl
and push net increased by half and by 14 percent respectively. Other methods that were not in
significant use in 1985, but grew over the years, were trap and anchovy purse seine (Figure 4.18.2).

Zone III: In 1985, the three most popular methods were squid cast net with light, push
net and otter board trawl. By 1995, they were still the most popular, but if the use of squid cast
net with light increased by 54 percent, that of push net and otter board trawl declined by almost
40 percent and 17 percent respectively. The other methods that were used increasingly over the
years were trap, Thai purse seine and anchovy purse seine (Figure 4.18.3).

Zone IV: Otter board trawl, shrimp gill net and hook and line were the three most
popular methods employed by inboard-powered boats in 1985. By 1995, otter board trawl was
still the most popular, followed by push net, and then by crab gill net and pair trawl in roughly
equal numbers. Another method that was not popular in 1985 but has been picking up is Thai
purse seine (Figure 4.18.4).

Zone V: The three most popular methods in 1985 were otter board trawl, shrimp gill
net and push net. By 1995, the first two maintained their ranking, but push net had been
outranked by Thai purse seine. Besides Thai purse seine, the methods that showed meaningful
growth by 1995 were gill nets other than shrimp and crab gill nets, and squid cast net with light
(Figure 4.18.5).

In short, the most popular fishing method used by inboard-powered fishing boats in
Zone I was otter board trawl in 1985, but crab gill net in 1995. In Zone II, the most popular
method in 1985 was otter board trawl and pair trawl in 1995. In Zone III, the most popular
method throughout was squid cast net with light, as was otter board trawl in Zone IV. In Zone V,
there was a tie-in all along between otter board trawl and shrimp gill net. There was a trend
toward increasing use of shrimp gill nets and anchovy purse seines in Zone I, of traps and
anchovy purse seines in Zone II, of traps, anchovy purse seines and Thai purse seines in Zone
III, of crab gill nets and Thai purse seines in Zone IV, and of gill nets other than shrimp and crab
gill nets, as well as squid cast nets with light, in Zone V.

Methods used by all fishing boats recorded in the 1995 census

The previous section could not provide any information on the fishing methods of
boats that were not inboard-powered. Table 4.9 is the result of an attempt to bridge this gap, by
cross-tabulating main fishing methods and boat types and sizes for the year 1995. The table uses
the census definition of small-scale and commercial fishing and provides detailed information
on the type of gear used by unpowered boats, outboard-powered boats and inboard-powered
boats of less than 10 GT, 10–49 GT and 50 GT and over.

The data reveal that the SEAFDEC guidelines on small-scale and large-scale fishing
activities roughly coincide with the census classification, with some exceptions. The use of gear
by each type and size of fishing boat as recorded in the 1995 marine fishery census is summarized
in the following paragraphs.

Unpowered boats: The majority of the 2 826 boats used lift nets (17.6 percent) and
traps (17.1 percent), especially crab portable lift nets and crab traps. They also used shrimp gill
nets (14.8 percent). The three types of fishing gear accounted for 49.5 percent of the fishing
gear used by unpowered boats in 1995.

Outboard-powered boats: There were 36 430 boats in this category. They were very
versatile, using several types of fishing gear. However, the majority of them used shrimp gill
nets (23.3 percent), crab gill nets (15.9 percent) and traps (13 percent), especially crab traps and
squid traps. Together they accounted for 52.2 percent of the fishing gear used by outboard-powered
boats. Other methods used were push nets (6.7 percent), several kinds of gill nets
besides shrimp and crab gill nets, such as mullet gill nets (five percent) and mackerel gill nets
(four percent), as well as hook and line (4.8 percent).

Inboard-powered boats of less than 10 GT: There were 6 925 boats of this category in
1995. The majority of them used three types of fishing gear: otter board trawls (19 percent), crab
gill nets (15.7 percent) and shrimp gill nets (14.2 percent). Other types of gear that were quite
popular were traps (12.2 percent), especially squid traps and crab traps, squid cast nets with
light (9.9 percent) and push nets (5.3 percent).

A number of fishing gear were used by both outboard-and inboard-powered boats
under 10 GT, such as shrimp and crab gill nets, traps (squid and crab) and push nets. The
question then is whether the fisherfolk using outboard-powered boats and those using small
inboard-powered boats shared their fishing grounds or competed for them. The answer must be
that there was a battle and the small inboard-powered boats lost, as the previous findings were
that outboard-powered boats increased in all coastal zones whereas inboard-powered boats of
less than 10 GT declined across all the zones. Inboard-powered fishing boats of more than 10
GT, especially those of 50 GT and over, also increased in all but Zone I. These findings indicate
a process of polarization of fishing boats: coastal fishing activities tend to be dominated by
outboard-powered boats and commercial fishing operations by boats of 50 GT and over. In
terms of fishing gear, there seems to be a converging trend for certain gear types, as will be
pointed out later.

Inboard-powered boats of 10–49 GT: There were 6 550 boats of this type, whose most
popular fishing gear were otter board trawls, used by 42 percent of the boats. They also used
squid cast nets (13.5 percent) and pair trawls (11.6 percent). These three types of gear accounted
for about 67 percent of the gear employed by these boats.

Inboard-powered boats of 50 GT and over: There were 1 807 boats of this size in 1995
and the most popular fishing gear were otter board trawls (44.3 percent), pair trawls (29.2
percent) and Thai purse seines (11.5 percent). Together, they accounted for 85 percent of the
gear employed. Other gear used were luring purse seines (3.6 percent), push nets (2.6 percent)
and bonito purse seines (two percent).

As mentioned earlier, the SEAFDEC classification (based on type of gear) and the
census classification (based on boat type and gross tonnage) roughly coincide. For example,
trawls were used exclusively by inboard-powered boats, whereas traps were used almost exclusively
by unpowered, outboard-and inboard-powered boats of less than 10 GT. However, some notable
exceptions are squid cast nets and bamboo stake traps. According to the SEAFDEC guideline,
the former belong to small-scale and the latter to large-scale fishery. The census data reveal that
the largest number of boats using squid cast nets were inboard-powered boats of 10–49 GT
(totalling 883), followed by inboard-powered boats of less then 10 GT (totalling 684) and
outboard-powered boats (totalling 144). The same data also show that the majority of bamboo
stake traps were employed by outboard-powered fishing boats (123 out of a total of 177). This is
perhaps due to the use of small traditional bamboo stake traps called mora in the southern
coastal provinces. Push nets are not included in the SEAFDEC guideline, but the data show that
they can be used by both outboard- and inboard-powered boats of all sizes. Thus, while there is
a process of polarization of fishing boats as previously mentioned, there seems on the other
hand to be a process of convergence over the use of some types of fishing gear. This may be due
to increasing demand for squid leading to bigger sizes and higher efficiency for squid cast nets,
and to the lesser popularity of bamboo stake traps in large-scale fishing. One methodological
implication is that the SEAFDEC classification may need to be periodically revised.

There is another methodological issue worth mentioning at this point, regarding trawlers
and push nets. There have been a number of ministerial regulations to limit the current number
and new entry of fishing craft and gear, particularly to reduce the use of trawls and to phase out
push nets. Boonlert Phasuk (1994, pp. 111–122) claims that even though a large number of
fishery regulations could not be enforced effectively, there were some achievements, the most
significant of which was the ability to limit entry into fishing activities. This claim is based on
the decline in registration of trawlers and pushnetters. Such a decline is open to question. To
reiterate, when comparing fishing boats in the census and in the registration, one finds that the
registration figures as a whole are about one third those of the census and that the under-registration
of outboard-powered boats is extremely high. The pushnetters registered in 1995
numbered 634, while the census put their number at 3 591, most of them outboard-powered
boats (Tables 4.6 and 4.9). The registered number represents only 17 percent of the census
number, indicating that pushnetters may not have declined in reality. As for the trawlers, the
registration statistics are closer to the census statistics. Nonetheless, when the changes in the
number of otter board trawlers and pair trawlers are considered together, one finds that between
1985 and 1995, the combined registered number declined by only 3.6 percent, from 8 186 to 7
897 (Table 4.6). Thus, it can be concluded that to assess the implementation of regulations
concerning fishing boats one cannot go by registration statistics, at least until the registration
system is improved to reflect reality in full, rather than one third of it.

Summary and discussion

Between the 1985 and 1995 marine fishery censuses, the number of fishing boats in
Thailand increased by only two percent. Outboard-powered boats, which comprised the
majority of boats, increased moderately in number, whereas the number of unpowered boats
declined spectacularly and that of inboard-powered boats declined to some extent. The increasing
dominance of outboard-powered boats in coastal fishing activities was most likely the result of
modernization.

The comparison by coastal zone indicates that, though fishing in Zones IV and V was
dominated by small-scale operations using both outboard-powered and unpowered boats, there
was a trend, especially in Zone V, toward commercial operations using inboard-powered boats.
Zones II, I and, to a lesser extent, Zone IV engaged in commercial operations, but there was a
trend toward a rapid decline in Zone I, most likely because of the rapid growth in industries and
aquaculture. A decline in the number of inboard-powered boats in Zone II also occurred, albeit
at a slower rate. Because the number of fisherfolk and coastal aquaculture in Zone II also
declined, the data indicate that a proportion of the fisherfolk moved out of fishing activities and
into the light-industry and service sectors and the rest were commercial operators owning
several inboard-powered boats each. The decline of commercial operations in Zone IV may be
due to the growth in both aquaculture and tourism, as well as to the possibility that, despite their
decline in number, inboard-powered fishing boats increased in tonnage.

The comparison of inboard-powered boats in terms of changes in gross tonnage revealed
that a decline in their number occurred among small-scale boats (under 10 GT) in every coastal
zone. The boats of more than 10 GT increased in number in every coastal zone except Zone I. Of
the boats of more than 10 GT, the great majority were in the 10–49 GT bracket, but the number
of large-sized boats (of 50 GT and over) was increasing very rapidly. Such an increase was
particularly spectacular in Zones II and V, indicating a rapid intensification of commercial
fishing activities. Considered together with the change in coastal fishing increasingly dominated
by outboard-powered boats, there seemed to be a process of polarization between coastal
fishing activities and deep-sea commercial fishing operations.

The number of fishing boats in the registration statistics was about one third of the
number recorded in the censuses. The annual registration rates between 1985 and 1995 tended to
show negative or slow positive growth, except in 1989 when an amnesty was granted. As only
boats using trawls and push nets made the most use of the amnesty, we believe that there
should not be any more amnesty, because it unintentionally encourages the use of fishing
gear that can most effectively exploit already depleting fishery resources.

Regarding the changes in fishing gear, the registration statistics show that otter board
trawl is the most popular types of fishing gear in Thailand. In both 1985 and 1995, the second
and third most popular gear were shrimp gill net and pair trawl. By 1995, the relative popularity
of these three types of gear had altered somewhat. Though otter board trawls were still the most
popular by far, they were used by a smaller proportion of fishing boats. This was also the case for
shrimp gill nets, whereas a higher proportion of fishing boats used pair trawls. Other fishing
gear that became rapidly more popular over the years were long lines and squid cast nets, crab gill
nets and anchovy purse seines. The use of Thai purse seines also increased, but not at a high rate.

According to the census statistics on the changes of fishing gear used by inboard-powered
fishing boats in 1985 and 1995, the most popular fishing method countrywide was also
by otter board trawl. In 1985, the most frequently used fishing methods were, in descending
order: (1) otter board trawl, (2) crab gill net, (3) shrimp gill net, (4) push net, (5) squid cast net
and (6) trap. By 1995, squid cast net, pair trawl and trap had become more important. Among
the fishing methods associated with large-scale fishery, only the use of pair trawl, Thai purse
seine and anchovy purse seine increased countrywide. Among those associated with small-scale
fishing activities, so did squid cast net and trap.

Comparison by zone of change in the use of fishing gear by inboard-powered fishing
boats revealed that there had been a change only in Zones I and II. In Zone I, the most popular
method was otter board trawl in 1985, but it was crab gill net by 1995. In Zone II, the most
frequently used method was otter board trawl in 1985, but it was pair trawl by 1995. In Zone III,
the favourite method was squid cast net. In Zone IV, it was otter board trawl. In Zone V, otter
board trawl and shrimp gill net were the most popular methods. There was a perceptible trend
toward increasing use of shrimp gill nets and anchovy purse seines in Zone I, of traps and
anchovy purse seines in Zone II, of traps, anchovy purse seines and Thai purse seines in Zone
III, of crab gill nets and Thai purse seines in Zone IV, and of gill nets other than shrimp and crab
gill nets, as well as squid cast nets, in Zone V.

The above findings from the censuses pertain to changes in the fishing methods of
inboard-powered boats, as other types of boats were not classified by fishing gear in the 1985
census. To find out what fishing methods unpowered and inboard-powered boats used, the 1995
census data on fishing boats by type and size were examined in terms of fishing gear. It was
found that unpowered boats mostly used lift nets and traps, especially crab portable lift nets and
crab traps, but shrimp gill nets were also used. The majority of outboard-powered boats used
shrimp gill nets, crab gill nets and traps, in that order. Inboard-powered boats of less than 10 GT
mainly used otter board trawls, crab gill nets and shrimp gill nets, in descending order of
importance. Inboard-powered boats of 10–49 GT mostly used otter board trawls, squid cast nets
and pair trawls, while those of 50 GT and over mostly used otter board trawls, pair trawls and
Thai purse seines.

It was found that the SEAFDEC guideline for small-scale and large-scale fishing
activities (based on fishing gear) and the census classification (based on boat type and size)
roughly coincided. However, some discrepancies were noted regarding squid cast nets and
bamboo stake traps. These may be due to increasing demand for squid resulting in improvements
in the size and efficiency of squid cast nets and to the declining popularity of bamboo
stake traps among large-scale fishing operations. The methodological implication is that the
SEAFDEC classification may need to be periodically revised to keep up with the changes in size
and efficiency of fishing gear.

Another methodological issue raised was the validity of assessing the implementation
of regulations by using the registration statistics on fishing gear. Two findings from this chapter
were that the registration statistics were about one third of the census statistics and that small-scale
fishing boats (outboard- and inboard-powered of less than 10 GT) were grossly under-registered.
Thus, an evaluation based on registration statistics claiming that the number of
trawlers and pushnetters is under control may be misleading. Until registration statistics are
improved to more closely reflect the reality, they should not be used for any kind of assessment
of policy implementation.

Registration statistics on fishing boats and gear need to be improved forthwith, for the
important reason that an accurate database updated annually is needed for planning marine
capture operations. In addition, in any coastal zone management programme, information on
small-scale coastal fisherfolk is needed, as they will be the main partners in the programme.
However, the registration data, as we have found, grossly under-records outboard-powered boats,
the type of boat which is used mostly and increasingly in coastal fishing activities.

The present study has focused on the changes in population and coastal resources, in
the number of fishermen, fishery employees and their households, as well as in fishing craft and
gear. It has given the background for and overall profile of changes in the fishery sector of the
economy between 1985 and 1995. All along, small-scale fisherfolk were part of the picture and
the changes affecting them in various ways were revealed in comparison with large-scale commercial
operators. Although it cannot be denied that the study has provided a wealth of useful
information, the findings on the various changes do not add up to a full picture of small-scale
fisherfolk. Given that the latter are to be the main partners in any kind of coastal zone management
programme, a field study of fishing communities is required to focus on them. Such a field
study will be able to piece together the various aspects of changes previously examined separately
in the above study.