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Preface Most students study calculus for its use as a tool in areas functions leads to some nontrivial applications of the Chain other than mathematics. They desire information about why Rule and enlarges the scope of applications of the derivative. calculus is important, and where and how it can be applied. I In Chapter4testvalues are used to determine intervals in kept these facts in mind as I wrote this text. In particular, which derivatives are positive or negative. This pedagogical when introducing new concepts I often refer to problems device is also employed to help obtain graphs of rational that are familiar to students and that require methods of functions. calculus for solutions. Numerous examples and exercises Chapters 5 and 6, on properties and applications of defi- have been designed to further motivate student interest, not nite integrals, include exercises on numerical integration only in the mathematical or physical sciences, but in other that require reference to graphs to approximate areas, vol- disciplines as well. Figures are frequently used to bridge the umes, work, and force exerted by a liquid. gap between the statement of a problem and its solution. Inverse functions are discussed in the first section of In addition to achieving a good balance between theory Chapter 7 and are used in Section 7. 3 to define the natural-and applications, my primary objective was to write a book exponential function as the inverse of the natural log- that can be read and understood by college freshmen. In each arithmic function. section I have striven for accuracy and clarity of exposition, Chapters 8- 10 contain material on transcendental func- together with a presentation that makes the transition from tions, techniques of integration, and improper integrals. precalculus mathematics to calculus as smooth as possible. Infinite series are presented in a precise manner in Chapter The comments that follow highlight some of the features II. Chapter 12 consists of a detailed study of conic sections. of this text. Chapters 13-15 deal with curves, vectors and vector- A review of the trigonometric functions is contained in valued functions. There are many examples and exercises the last section of Chapter I. It was placed there, instead of pertaining to parametric and polar equations, and a strong in an appendix, to alert students to the fact that trigonometry emphasis is placed on geometric and applied aspects of is, indeed, a prerequisite for calculus, as indicated by the vectors. title of the chapter. Tests for symmetry are also introduced Functions of several variables are discussed at length in early, so that they can be used throughout the text. Chapter 16. The relevance of level curves and surfaces to In Chapter 2 limits involving the sine and cosine func- practical situations is illustrated in examples and exercises. tions are considered after limits of algebraic functions, and The approach to increments and differentials is motivated by thus are readily available for use in obtaining derivative for- analogous single variable concepts. The definition of direc- mulas in Chapter 3. The early introduction of trigonometric tional derivative does not require the use of direction angles ;;;

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iv Prefaceof a line, and considerable stress is given to the gradient of versity of Georgia; Stanley M. Lukawecki, Clemson Uni-a function. The study of maxima and minima includes an versity; Louise E. Moser, California State University,examination of boundary extrema. The final section, on Hayward; Norman K. Nystrom, American River College;Lagrange multipliers, includes a proof that indicates David A. Petrie, Cypress College; William Robinson, Ven-the geometric nature of why the method is valid. tura College; JohnT. Scheick, Ohio State University; Jon W. Properties and applications of multiple integrals are con- Scott, Montgomery College; Monty J. Strauss, Texas Techsidered in Chapter 17. University; Richard G. Vinson, University of South Ala- Vector fields are discussed in Chapter 18, and special bama; Loyd Wilcox, Golden West College; and T. J.attention is given to conservative fields. The physical sig- Worosz, Metropolitan State College, Denver.nificance of divergence and curl is brought out by using the I also wish to express my gratitude to Christian C.theorems of Gauss and Stokes. The last two sections con- Braunschweiger of Marquette University, who provided an-tain results on Jacobians and change of variables in multiple swers for exercises; Thomas A. Bronikowski of Marquetteintegrals. University, who authored the student supplement containing Chapter 19, on differential equations, includes two sepa- detailed solutions for one-third of the exercises; Stephen B.rate sections on applications. Rodi of Austin Community College, who developed a com- There is a review section at the end of each chapter con- plete solutions manual; Michael B. Gregory of the U niver-sisting of a list of important topics and pertinent exercises. sity of North Dakota, who supplied a number of challengingThe review exercises are similar to those that appear exercises; and Christopher L. Morgan, California State U ni-throughout the text and may be used by students to prepare versity at Hayward, and Howard Pyron, University of Mis-for examinations. Answers to odd-numbered exercises are souri at Rolla, who prepared the computer graphics. Specialgiven at the end of the text. Instructors may obtain an answer thanks are due to Stephen J. Merrill of Marquette Universitybooklet for the even-numbered exercises from the publisher. for suggesting several interesting examples, including one Portions of this text are based on material that appears in that indicates how infinite sequences and series may be em-my book Calculus withAnalyticGeometry, Second Edition. ployed to study the time course of an epidemic, and anotherThis second edition is available for courses where a later that illustrates the use of exponential functions in the field ofintroduction of the trigonometric functions is desired. radiation therapy. I wish to thank the following individuals, who received I am grateful for the valuable assistance of the staff ofall, or parts of, the manuscript and offered many helpful PWS Publishers. In particular, Mary LeQuesne and Joesuggestions: Alfred Andrew, Georgia Institute of Technol- Power were very helpful with exercise sets; Kathi Townesogy; Jan F. Andrus, University of New Orleans; Robert M. did a superlative job as copy editor; and David Pallai, whoBrooks, University of Utah; Dennis R. Dunniger, Michigan supervised the production of this large project, was a con-State University; Daniel Drucker, Wayne State University; stant source of information and advice.Joseph M. Egar, Cleveland State University; Ronald D. In addition to all of the persons named here, I express myFerguson, San Antonio State College; Stuart Goldenberg, sincere appreciation to the many unnamed students andCalifornia Polytechnic State University; Theodore Guinn, teachers who have helped shape my views on how calculusUniversity of New Mexico; Joe A. Guthrie, University of should be presented in the classroom.Texas, El Paso; David Hoff, Indiana University; AdamHulin, University of New Orleans; W. D. Lichtenstein, Uni- Earl W. Swokowski

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Introduction:What is Calculus? Calculus was invented in the seventeenth century to provide a tool for solving problems involving motion. The subject matter of geometry, algebra, and trigonometry is applicable to objects which move at constant speeds; how- ever, methods introduced in calculus are required to study the orbits of planets, to calculate the flight of a rocket, to predict the path of a charged particle through an electromagnetic field and, for that matter, to deal with all aspects of motion. In order to discuss objects in motion it is essential first to define what is meant by velocity and acceleration. Roughly speaking, the velocity of an object is a measure of the rate at which the distance traveled changes with respect to time. Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which velocity changes. Velocity may vary considerably, as is evident from the motion of a drag-strip racer or the descent of a space capsule as it reenters the Earths atmosphere. In order to give precise meanings to the notions of velocity and acceleration it is necessary to use one of the fundamental concepts of calculus, the derivative. Although calculus was introduced to help solve problems in physics, it has been applied to many different fields. One of the reasons for its versatility is the fact that the derivative is useful in the study of rates of change of many entities other than objects in motion. For example, a chemist may use derivatives to forecast the outcome of various chemical reactions. A biologist may employ it in the investigation of the rate of growth of bacteria in a culture. An electrical engineer uses the derivative to describe the change in current in an electrical circuit. Economists have applied it to problems involving corporate profits and losses. The derivative is also used to find tangent lines to curves. Although this has some independent geometric interest, the significance of tangent lines is of major importance in physical problems. For example, if a particle moves along a curve, then the tangent line indicates the direction of motion. If we restrict our attention to a sufficiently small portion of the curve, then in a ix

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X Introduction: What is Calculus? certain sense the tangent line may be used to approximate the position of the particle. Many problems involving maximum and minimum values may be attacked with the aid of the derivative. Some typical questions that can be answered are: At what angle of elevation should a projectile be fired in order to achieve its maximum range? If a tin can is to hold one gallon of a liquid, what dimensions require the least amount of tin? At what point between two light sources will the illumination be greatest? How can certain corporations maximize their revenue? How can a manufacturer minimize the cost of producing a given article? Another fundamental concept of calculus is known as the definite integral. It, too, has many applications in the sciences. A physicist uses it to find the work required to stretch or compress a spring. An engineer may use it to find the center of mass or moment of inertia of a solid. The definite integral can be used by a biologist to calculate the flow of blood through an arteriole. An economist may employ it to estimate depreciation of equipment in a manufacturing plant. Mathematicians use definite integrals to investigate such concepts as areas of surfaces, volumes of geometric solids, and lengths of curves. All the examples we have listed, and many more, will be discussed in detail as we progress through this book. There is literally no end to the applications of calculus. Indeed, in the future perhaps you, the reader, will discover new uses for this important branch of mathematics. The derivative and the definite integral are defined in terms of certain limiting processes. The notion of limit is the initial idea which separates calculus from the more elementary branches of mathematics. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) discovered the connection between derivatives and integrals. Because of this, and their other contributions to the subject, they are credited with the invention of calculus. Many other mathematicians have added a great deal to its develop- ment. The preceding discussion has not answered the question "What is calculus?" Actually, there is no simple answer. Calculus could be called the study of limits, derivatives, and integrals; however, this statement is meaning- less if definitions of the terms are unknown. Although we have given a few examples to illustrate what can be accomplished with derivatives and inte- grals, neither of these concepts has been given any meaning. Defining them will be one of the principal objectives of our early work in this text.

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Prerequisites for CalculusThis chapter contains topics necessary for the study of attention to one of the most important concepts incalculus. After a brief review of real numbers, coordinate mathematics-the notion of function.systems, and graphs in two dimensions, we turn our J.J Real Numbers Real numbers are used considerably in precalculus mathematics, and we will assume familiarity with the fundamental properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents and radicals. Throughout this chapter, unless otherwise specified, lower-case letters a, b, c, ... denote real numbers. The positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... may be obtained by adding the real number 1 successively to itself. The integers consist of all positive and negative integers together with the real number 0. A rational number is a real number that can be expressed as a quotient ajb, where a and bare integers and b -1= 0. Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational. The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is irrational. This real number is denoted by n and the notation n ~ 3.1416 is used to indicate that n is ap- proximately equal to 3.1416. Another example of an irrational number is .)2. Real numbers may be represented by nonterminating decimals. For example, the decimal representation for the rational number 7434/2310 is found by long division to be 3.2181818 ... , where the digits I and 8 repeat indefinitely. Rational numbers may always be represented by repeating decimals. Decimal representations for irrational numbers may also be obtained; however, they are non terminating and nonrepeating. It is possible to associate real numbers with points on a line lin such a way that to each real number a there corresponds one and only one point, and I

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2 1 Prerequisites for Calculus conversely, to each point Pthere corresponds precisely one real number. Such an association between two sets is referred to as a one-to-one correspondence. We first choose an arbitrary point 0, called the origin, and associate with it the real number 0. Points associated with the integers are then determined by considering successive line segments of equal length on either side of 0 as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The points corresponding to rational numbers such as 253 and -tare obtained by subdividing the equal line segments. Points associated with certain irrational numbers, such as fi, can be found by geometric construction. For other irrational numbers such as rc, no con- struction is possible. However, the point corresponding to n can be approxi- mated to any degree of accuracy by locating successively the points corres- ponding to 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, .... It can be shown that to every irrational number there corresponds a unique point on I and, con- versely, every point that is not associated with a rational number corresponds to an irrational number. 0 B A • -3 • -2 ~~r • 0 17; .,fi ; 1f • 4 ; b • • a 1 3 23 -2 2 5 FIGURE 1.1 The number a that is associated with a point A on I is called the coordinate of A. An assignment of coordinates to points on I is called a coordinate system for /, and I is called a coordinate line, or a real line. A direction can be assigned to I by taking the positive direction to the right and the negative direction to the left. The positive direction is noted by placing an arrowhead on I as shown in Figure 1.1. The real numbers which correspond to points to the right of 0 in Figure 1.1 are called positive real numbers, whereas those which correspond to points to the left of 0 are negative real numbers. The real number 0 is neither positive nor negative. The collection of positive real numbers is closed relative to addition and multiplication; that is, if a and b are positive, then so is the sum a + band the product ab. If a and bare real numbers, and a - b is positive, we say that a is greater than h and write a > b. An equivalent statement is h is less than a, written b < a. The symbols > or < are called inequality signs and expressions such as a > b or b < a are called inequalities. From the manner in which we con- structed the coordinate line I in Figure 1.1, we see that if A and B are points with coordinates a and b, respectively, then a > b (orb < a) if and only if A lies to the right of B. Since a - 0 = a, it follows that a > 0 if and only if a is positive. Similarly, a < 0 means that a is negative. The following properties of inequalities can be proved. If a > b and b > c, then a > c. If a > b, then a + c > b + c. (J.J) If a > b and c > 0, then ac > be. If a > b and c < 0, then ac < be. Analogous properties for" less than" can also be established.

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Real Numbers 1.1 3 The symbol a ~ b, which is read a is greater than or equal to h, means that either a > bora = b. The symbol a < b < c means that a < band b < c, inwhichcasewesaythathishetweenaandc. Thenotationsa :s; b,a < b :s; c, a :s; b < c, a :s; b :s; c, and so on, have similar meanings. Another property, called completeness, is needed to characterize the real numbers. This property will be discussed in Chapter 11. If a is a real number, then it is the coordinate of some point A on a co- ordinate line /, and the symbol Ia I is used to denote the number of units (or 1-41=4 141=4 distance) between A and the origin, without regard to direction. Referring ,------"-...~ to Figure 1.2 we see that for the point with coordinate -4 we have I -41 = 4. + I I I + I I I + I• Similarly, 141 = 4. In general, if a is negative we change its sign to find Ia I,-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 I whereas if a is nonnegative then Ia I = a. The nonnegative number Ia I is FIGURE 1.2 called the absolute value of a. The following definition of absolute value summarizes our remarks. if a~ 0 Definition (1.2) lal = { a -a if a< 0 Example 1 Find 131, 1-31,101, IJ2- 21, and 12- fll. Solution Since 3, 2 - J2, and 0 are nonnegative, we have 131 = 3, 12 - J21 = 2 - J2, and I0 I = 0. Since -3 and J2 - 2 are negative, we use the formula Ia I = -a of Definition (1.2) to obtain 1-31 = -( -3) = 3 and IJ2- 21 = -<J2- 2) = 2- J2. • The following three general properties of absolute values may be established. (1.3) lal = 1-al, labl = lallbl, -lal ;S; a ;S; lal It can also be shown that if b is any positive real number, then Ia I < b if and only if - b < a < b (1.4) Ia I > b if and only if a > b or a < - b Ia I = b if and only if a = b or a = -b. It follows from the first and third properties stated in (1.4) that Ia I :s; b if and only if -b :s; a :s; b. The Triangle Inequality (1 .5) Ia + bl ;S; lal + lbl

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4 1 Prerequisites for Calculus Proof From (1.3), -lal ~a~ lal and -lbl ~ b ~ lbl. Adding corresponding sides we obtain -(lal + lbi) ~a+ b~ lal + lbl. Using the remark preceding this theorem gives us the desired conclusion. D 5= 17-21= 12-71 We shall use the concept of absolute value to define the distance between ~ any two points on a coordinate line. Let us begin by noting that the distance I I I I + I I I I + I• between the points with coordinates 2 and 7 shown in Figure 1.3 equals -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 5 units on /. This distance is the difference, 7 - 2, obtained by subtracting FIGURE 1.3 the smaller coordinate from the larger. If we employ absolute values, then, since 17 - 21 = 12 - 71, it is unnecessary to be concerned about the order of subtraction. We shall use this as our motivation for the next definition. Definition (1.6) Let a and b be the coordinates of two points A and B, respectively, on a coordinate line 1. The distance between A and B, denoted by d(A,B), is defined by d(A, B) = lb- al. The number d(A, B) is also called the length of the line segment AB. Observe that, since d(B, A)= Ia- bl and lb- al = Ia- bl, we may write d(A, B) = d(B, A). Also note that the distance between the origin 0 and the point A is d(O, A)= Ia- Ol = Ia I, which agrees with the geometric interpretation of absolute value illustrated in Figure 1.2. Example 2 If A, B, C, and D have coordinates -5, -3, 1, and 6, respectively, find d(A, B), d(C, B), d(O, A), and d(C, D). A B OC D Solution The points are indicated in Figure 1.4. l•ltllttlllltl. By Definition (1.6), -5 -3 0 1 6 1 FIGURE 1.4 d(A, B) = I - 3 - (- 5) I = I - 3 + 51 = 121 = 2. d(C, B)= 1-3- 11 = 1-41 = 4. d(O, A)= l-5- 01 =I-51= 5. d( C, D) = 16 - 11 = 151 = 5. •

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Real Numbers 1.1 5 The concept of absolute value has uses other than that of finding distances between points. Generally, it is employed whenever one is interested in the magnitude or numerical value of a real number without regard to its sign. In order to shorten explanations it is sometimes convenient to use the notation and terminology of sets. A set may be thought of as a collection of objects of some type. The objects are called elements of the set. Throughout our work ~will denote the set of real numbers. If Sis a set, then a E S means that a is an element of S, whereas a ¢ S signifies that a is not an element of S. If every element of a set Sis also an element of a set T, then Sis called a subset ofT. Two sets Sand Tare said to be equal, written S = T, if Sand Tcontain precisely the same elements. The notation S #- T means that Sand Tare not equal. If Sand Tare sets, their unionS u T consists of the elements which are either in S, in T, or in both S and T. The intersection S n T consists of the elements which the sets have in common. If the elements of a set Shave a certain property, tpen we write S = {x : ... } where the property describing the arbitrary element x is stated in the space after the colon. For example, {x: x > 3} may be used to represent the set of all real numbers greater than 3. Of major importance in calculus are certain subsets of~ called intervals. If a < b, tpe symbol (a, b) is sometimes used for all re!!l numbers between a and b. This set is called an open interval. Thus we have: (1.7) (a, b) = { x: a < x < b}. The numbers a and b are called the endpoints of the interval. The graphofa set Sofreal numbers is defined as the points on a coordinate ( ) line that correspond to the numbers inS. In particular, the graph of the open a b interval (a, b) consists of all points between the points corresponding to a and b. In Figure 1.5 we have sketched the graphs of a general open interval (a, b) ( I ) and the special open intervals (- 1, 3) and (2, 4). The parentheses in the figure -1 0 3 indicate that the endpoints of the intervals are not to be included. For convenience, we shall use the terms interval and graph of an interval inter- ( ) changeably. 0 2 4 If we wish to include an endpoint of an interval, a bracket is used insteadFIGURE 1.5 Open intervals (a, b), (-I, 3), of a parenthesis. If a < b, then closed intervals, denoted by [a, b], and half-and (2, 4) open intervals, denoted by [a, b) or (a, b], are defined as follows. [a, b] = { x: a ~ x ~ b} (1.8) [a, b) = {x: a ~ x < b} (a, b] = {x: a< x ~ b} Typical graphs are sketched in Figure 1.6, where a bracket indicates that the corresponding endpoint is part of the graph. [ 3 [ ) ( 3 a b a b a b FIGURE 1.6

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6 1 Prerequisites for Calculus In future discussions of intervals, whenever the magnitudes of a and b are not stated explicitly it will always be assumed that a < b. If an interval is a subset of another interval I it is called a subinterval of/. For example, the closed interval [2, 3] is a subinterval of [0, 5]. We shall sometimes employ the following infinite intervals. (a, oo) = {x: x >a} [a,oo) = {x:x ~a} (1.9) (-oo,a) = {x:x <a} (-oo,a] = {x:x ~a} (-oo,oo)=IR For example, (1, oo) represents all real numbers greater than 1. The symbol oo denotes" infinity" and is merely a notational device. It is not to be interpreted as representing a real number. As indicated in this section, we frequently make use of letters to denote arbitrary elements of a set. For example, we may use x to denote a real numbei, although no particular real number is specified. A letter that is used to represent any element of a given set is sometimes called a variable. Through- out this text, unless otherwise specified, variables will represent real numbers. The domain of a variable is the set of real numbers represented by the variable. To illustrate, given the expression JX, we note that in order to obtain a real number we must have x ~ 0, and hence in this case the domain of x is assumed to be the set of nonnegative real numbers. Similarly, when working with the expression 1/(x - 2) we must exclude x = 2 (Why?), and con- sequently we take the domain of x as the set of all real numbers different from 2. It is often necessary to consider inequalities that involve variables, such as x2 - 3 < 2x + 4. If certain numbers such as 4 or 5 are substituted for x, we obtain the false statements 13 < 12 or 22 < 14, respectively. Other numbers such as 1 or 2 produce the true statements -2 < 6 or 1 < 8, respectively. In general, if we are given an inequality in x and if a true statement is obtained when x is replaced by a real number a, then a is called a solution of the inequality. Thus 1 and 2 are soluti9ns of the inequality x 2 - 3 < 2x + 4, whereas 4 and 5 are not solutions. To solve an inequality means to find all solutions. We say that two inequalities are equivalent if they have exactly the same solutions. A standard method for solving an inequality is to replace it with a chain of equivalent inequalities, terminating in one for which the solutions are obvious. The main tools used in applying this method are properties such as those listed in (1.1), (1.3), and (1.4). For example, ifx represents a real number, then adding the same expression in x to both sides leads to an equivalent inequality. We may multiply both sides of an inequality by an expression containing x if we are certain that the expression is positive for all values of x under consideration. If we multiply both sides of an inequality by an expres- sion that is always negative, such as -7 - x 2 , then the inequality sign is reversed.

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Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions 1.2 923 - 3x 17-- <1 2 - I 24 13- llxl ~ 41 ~lf0ll5b1llf0) Natural length25 125x- 81 > 7 26 12x+11<027 3x 2 + 5x- 2 < 0 28 2x 2 - 9x + 7 < 029 2x 2 + 9x + 4 ~ 0 30 x 2 - !Ox::::; 200 FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 37 I31 2 < 100 32 5+Jx<1 X 38 Boyles Law for a certain gas states that pv = 200, where p denotes the pressure (lb/in. 2) and v denotes the volume 3x + 2 3 2 (in. 3 ). If 25 ::::; v ::::; 50, what is the corresponding range for33 - - < 0 34 - - > - - 2x- 7- x-9 x+2 p?35 The relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius 39 If a baseball is thrown straight upward from level ground temperature scales is given by C = (~)(F - 32). If 60 ::::; with an initial velocity of 72 ft/sec, its altitude s (in feet) F ::::; 80, express the corresponding range for C in terms after t seconds is given by s = -16t 2 + 72t. For what of an inequality. values oft will the ball be at least 32 feet above the ground?36 In the study of electricity, Ohms Law states that if R 40 The period T (sec) of a simple pendulum of length l (em) denotes the resistance of an object (in ohms), E the is given by T = 2n$g, where g is a physical constant. potential difference across the object (in volts), and I If, for the pendulum in a grandfather clock, g = 980 and the current that flows through it (in amperes), then 98 ::::; l ::::; 100, what is the corresponding range for T? R = E/1 (see figure). If the voltage is 110, what values of the resistance will result in a current that does not exceed 41 Prove that Ia- bl ~ Ia I- lbl. 10amperes? (Hint: Write lal = l(a- b)+ hi andapply(l.5).) 42 If n is any positive integer and a 1 , a 2 , ••• , an are real Resistance R numbers, prove that Iat+ a2 + .. ·+ani::::; latl + la2l + .. ·+I ani· ~urrent/ (Hint: By (1.5), Iat + a2 + ... +ani::::; latl + la2 + ... +ani.) 43 If 0 < a < b, or if a < b < 0, prove that {1/a) > (1/b ). Voltage£ 44 If 0 < a < b, prove that a2 < b2 • Why is the restriction 0 < a necessary? FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 36 45 If a < b and c < d, prove that a + c < b + d.37 According to Hookes Law, the force F (in pounds) 46 If a < band c < d, is it always true that ac < bd? Explain. required to stretch a certain spring x inches beyond its 47 Prove (1.3). natural length is given by F = (4.5)x (see figure). If 10::::; F::::; 18, what is the corresponding range for x? 48 Prove (1.4). J.2 Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions In Section 1.1 we discussed how coordinates may be assigned to points on a line. Coordinate systems can also be introduced in planes by means of ordered pairs. The term ordered pair refers to two real numbers, where one

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10 1 Prerequisites for Calculus is designated as the "first" number and the other as the "second." The symbol (a, b) is used to denote the ordered pair consisting of the real numbers a and b where a is first and b is second. There are many uses for ordered pairs. They were used in Section 1.1 to denote open intervals. In this section they will represent points in a plane. Although ordered pairs are employed in different situations, there is little chance for confusion, since it should always be clear from the discussion whether the symbol (a, b) represents an interval, a point, or some other mathematical object. We consider two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) equal, and write (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b =d. This implies, in particular, that (a, b) =F (b, a) if a # b. The set of all ordered pairs will be denoted by IR x IR. A rectangular, or Cartesian,* coordinate system may be introduced in a plane by considering two perpendicular coordinate lines in the plane which intersect in the origin 0 on each line. Unless specified otherwise, the same unit of length is chosen on each line. Usually one of the lines is horizontal with positive direction to the right, and the other line is vertical with positive y direction upward, as indicated by the arrowheads in Figure 1.8. The two I lines are called coordinate axes and the point 0 is called the origin. The hori- 1(a, b) -------,-- zontal line is often referred to as the x-axis and the vertical line as they-axis, PI and they are labeled x and y, respectively. The plane is then called a co- II I I I ordinate plane or, with the preceding notation for coordinate axes, and xy- I plane. In certain applications different labels such as d, t, etc., are used for the I coordinate lines. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called -4 -3 -2 the first, second, third, and fourth quadrants and labeled I, II, III, and IV, respectively, as shown in (i) of Figure 1.8. III IV Each point Pin an xy-plane may be assigned a unique ordered pair. If vertical and horizontal lines through P intersect the x- and y-axes at points with coordinates a and b, respectively (see (i) of Figure 1.8), then Pis assigned (i) the ordered pair (a, b). The number a is called the x-coordinate (or abscissa) of P, and b is called they-coordinate (or ordinate) of P. We sometimes say that P has coordinates (a, b). Conversely, every ordered pair (a, b) determines y (4, 6) a point Pin the xy-plane with coordinates a and b. Specifically, Pis the point 6 • of intersection of lines perpendicular to the x-axis and y-axis at the points 5 having coordinates a and b, respectively. This establishes a one-to-one 4 correspondence between the set of all points in the xy-plane and the set of all (-5, 3) (5, 3) • 3 • ordered pairs. It is sometimes convenient to refer to the point (a, b) meaning 2 the point with x-coordinate a andy-coordinate b. The symbol P(a, b) will (-4, 0) denote the point P with coordinates (a, b). To plot a point P(a, b) means to locate, in a coordinate plane, the point P with coordinates (a, b). This point -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 X is represented by a dot in the appropriate position, as illustrated in (ii) of Figure 1.8. -2 The next statement provides a formula for finding the distance d(P, Q) -3 • (5, -3) between two points P and Q in a coordinate plane. •(-6, -4) -4 (ii) * The term "Cartesian" is used in honor of the French mathematician and philosopher FIGURE 1.8 Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who was one of the first to employ such coordinate systems.

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12 1 Prerequisites for Calculus It follows that the x-coordinate of M is also (x 1 + x 2 )/2. It can be shown in similar fashion that they-coordinate of M is (y 1 + Y2)/2. Moreover, these formulas hold for all positions of P 1 and P 2 . This gives us the following result. Midpoint Formula (1.11) Example 2 Find the midpoint M of the line segment from P 1( - 2, 3) to P 2 (4, -2). Plot the points P 1 , P 2 , M and verify that d(P" M) = d(P 2 , M). Solution Applying the Midpoint Formula (1.11), the coordinates of M are ( -2 2+ 4 , 3 + ( -2)) or ( 1, ~) . 2 2 y The three points P 1 , P 2 , and Mare plotted in Figure 1.11. Using the Distance Formula we obtain P 1 (-2, 3) d(P 1 , M) = j(-2- V + (3- !) 2 = J9 + (1}-) = j61;2 d(P2, M) = j(4- 1? + ( -2- !) 2 = J9 + eJ) = fo/2 X Hence d(P 1 , M) = d(P 2 , M). • If W is a set of ordered pairs, then we may consider the point P(x, y) in a coordinate plane which corresponds to the ordered pair (x, y) in W. The graph of W is the set of all points that correspond to the ordered pairs in W. FIGURE 1.11 The phrase" sketch the graph W" means to illustrate the significant features of the graph geometrically on a coordinate plane. y Example 3 Sketch the graph of W = {(x, y): lxl s 2, IYI s 1}. 3 Solution The indicated inequalities are equivalent to -2 s x s 2 and 2 - 1 s y s 1. Hence the graph of W consists of all points within and on the boundary of the rectangular region shown in Figure 1.12. • Example 4 Sketch the graph of W = {(x, y): y = 2x- 1}. {(x, y): lx I ,;;; 2, IY I ,;;; 1} -2 Solution We begin by finding points with coordinates of the form (x, y) where the ordered pair (x, y) is in W. It is convenient to list these coordinates FIGURE 1.12 in the following tabular form, where for each real number x the corresponding value for y is 2x - 1.

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Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions 1.2 13 y (3, 5) X ~-2 -1 0 2 3 y -5 -3 -1 3 5 After plotting, it appears that the points with these coordinates all lie on a line and we sketch the graph (see Figure 1.13). Ordinarily the few points we have plotted would not be enough to illustrate the graph; however, in this elementary case we can be reasonably sure that the graph is a line. In the next X section we will prove that our conjecture is correct. • {(x, y): y = 2x -1} The x-coordinates of points at which a graph intersects the x-axis are called the x-intercepts of the graph. Similarly, they-coordinates of points at which a graph intercepts they-axis are called they-intercepts. In Figure 1.13, there is one x-intercept 1/2 and one y-intercept - 1.FIGURE /.13 It is impossible to sketch the entire graph in Example 4 since x may be assigned values which are numerically as large as desired. Nevertheless, we often call a drawing of the type given in Figure 1.13 the graph of W or a sketch of the graph where it is understood that the drawing is only a device for visualizing the actual graph and the line does not terminate as shown in the figure. In general, the sketch of a graph should illustrate enough of the graph so that the remaining parts are evident. The graph in Example 4 is determined by the equation y = 2x - 1 in the sense that for every real number x, the equation can be used to find a number y such that (x, y) is in W. Given an equation in x andy, we say that an ordered pair (a, b) is a solution of the equation if equality is obtained when a is sub- stituted for x and b for y. For example, (2, 3) is a solution of y = 2x - 1 since substitution of 2 for x and 3 for y leads to 3 = 4 - 1, or 3 = 3. Two equations in x andy are said to be equivalent if they have exactly the same solutions. The solutions of an equation in x and y determine a set S of ordered pairs, and we define the graph of the equation as the graph of S. Notice that the solutions of the equation y = 2x - 1 are the pairs (a, b) such that b = 2a - 1, and hence the solutions are identical with the set W given in Example 4. Consequently the graph of the equation y = 2x - 1 is the same as the graph of W (see Figure I.i3). For some of the equations we shall encounter in this chapter the technique used for sketching the graph will consist of plotting a sufficient number of points until some pattern emerges, and then sketching the graph accordingly. This is obviously a crude (and often inaccurate) way to arrive at the graph; however, it is a method often employed in el~mentary courses. As we progress through this text, techniques will be introduced that will enable us to sketch accurate graphs without plotting many points. Example 5 Sketch the graph of the equation y = x 2 • Solution To obtain the graph, it is necessary to plot more points than in the previous example. Increasing successive x-coordinates by t, we obtain the following table. X -3 ! -2 -~ -1 t 0 t ~ 2 ! 3 y 9 ll 4 4 *0 *

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14 1 Prerequisites for Calculus Larger numerical values of x produce even larger values of y. For example, the points (4, 16), (5, 25), and (6, 36) are on the graph, as are ( -4, 16), (- 5, 25), and (- 6, 36). Plotting the points given by the table and drawing a smooth curve through these points gives us the sketch in Figure 1.14, where we have labeled several points. • The graph in Example 5 is called a parabola. The lowest point (0, 0) is called the vertex of the parabola and we say that the parabola opens upward. If the graph were inverted, as would be the case for y = - x 2 , then the para- bola opens downward. They-axis is called the axis of the parabola. Parabolas and their properties will be discussed in detail in Chapter 12, where it will be shown that the graph of every equation of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c, FIGURE 1.14 with a =f. 0, is a parabola whose axis is parallel to they-axis. Parabolas may also open to the right or to the left (cf. Example 6). If the coordinate plane in Figure 1.14 is folded along they-axis, then the graph which lies in the left half of the plane coincides with that in the right half. We say that the graph is symmetric with respect to they-axis. As in (i) of Figure 1.15, a graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis provided that the point ( -x, y) is on the graph whenever (x, y) is on the graph. Similarly, as in (ii) of Figure 1.15, a graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if, whenever a point (x, y) is on the graph, then (x, - y) is also on the graph. In this case if we fold the coordinate plane along the x-axis, the part of the graph which lies above the x-axis will coincide with the part which lies below. Another type of symmetry which certain graphs possess is called symmetry with respect to the origin. In this situation, whenever a point (x, y) is on the graph, then (- x, - y) is also on the graph, as illustrated in (iii) of Figure 1.15. y y ~ X X (i) y-axis (ii) x-axis (iii) origin FIGURE 1.15 Symmetries The following tests are useful for investigating these three types of symmetry for graphs of equations in x and y. Tests for Symmetry (1.12) (i) The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to they-axis if substitution of- x for x leads to an equivalent equation. (ii) The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if substitution of - y for y leads to an equivalent equation. (iii) The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the origin if the simultaneous substitution of -x for x and - y for y leads to an equivalent equation.

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Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions 1.2 15 If, in the equation of Example 5, we substitute - x for x, we obtain y = ( -x) 2 , which is equivalent toy= x 2 • Hence, by Test (i), the graph is sym- metric with respect to the y-axis. If symmetry with respect to an axis exists, then it is sufficient to determine the graph in half of the coordinate plane, since the remainder of the graph is a mirror image, or reflection, of that half. Example 6 Sketch the graph of i = x. Solution Since substitution of - y for y does not change the equation, the graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis. (See Symmetry Test (ii).) It is sufficient, therefore, to plot points with nonnegative y-coordinates and then reflect through the x-axis. Since i = x, they-coordinates of points x above the x-axis are given by y = Jx. Coordinates of some points on the graph are tabulated below. A portion of the graph is sketched in Figure 1.16. The graph is a parabola that opens to the right, with its vertex at the origin. In this case the x-axis is the axis of the parabola.FIGURE 1.16 X 0 2 3 4 9 y 0 j2j323 • Example 7 Sketch the graph of the equation 4y = x 3 . Solution If we substitute - x for x and - y for y, then 4(- y) = ( -x) 3 or -4y = -x 3 • Multiplying both sides by -1, we see that the last equation has the same solutions as the given equation 4y = x 3 . Hence, from Symmetry Test (iii), the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. The following table lists some points on the graph. X 0 I 2 t 2 5 2 By symmetry (or substitution) we see that the points ( -1, -!), ( -2, -2),FIGURE 1.17 etc., are on the graph. Plotting points leads to the graph in Figure 1.17. • If C(h, k) is a point in a coordinate plane, then a circle with center C and radius r > 0 may be defined as the collection of all points in the plane that are r units from C. As shown in (i) of Figure 1.18, a point P(x, y) is on the circle if and only if d( C, P) = r or, by the Distance Formula, if and only if j(x - h) 2 + (y - k) 2 = r. The equivalent equation (1.13) (x - h)z + (y - k)z = ,z

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/6 1 Prerequisites for Calculus y is an equation of a circle of radius rand center C(h, k). If h = 0 and k = 0, this equation reduces to x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , which is an equation of a circle of radius r with center at the origin (see (ii) of Figure 1.18). If r = l, the graph of (1.13) is called a unit circle. X Example 8 Find an equation of the circle with center C(- 2, 3) which passes through the point D( 4, 5). (i) (x- h)2 + (y- k)2 = ,2 Solution Since Dis on the circle, the radius r is d(C, D). By the Distance Formula, y r = j(-2- 4) 2 + (3- 5) 2 = )36+4 =flO. Using ( 1.13) with h = - 2 and k = 3, we obtain (x + 2) 2 + (y - 3? = 40, (-r, 0) (r, 0) x or x2 + y 2 + 4x - 6y - 27 = 0. • Squaring terms in (1.13) and simplifying, we obtain an equation of the (ii) x2 + y2 = ,2 form FIGURE 1.18 x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0 where a, b, and c are real numbers. Conversely, if we begin with such an equation, it is always possible, by completing the squares in x andy, to obtain an equation of the form (x - h) 2 + (y - k) 2 = d. The method will be illustrated in Example 9. If d > 0, the graph is a circle with center (h, k) and radius r = Jd. If d = 0, then, since (x - h) 2 :::::: 0 and (y - k) 2 :::::: 0, the only solution of the equation is (h, k), and hence the graph consists of only one point. Finally, if d < 0, the equation has no real solutions and there is no graph. Example 9 Find the center and radius of the circle with equation x2 + y2 - 4x + 6y - 3 = 0. Solution We begin by arranging the equation as follows: (x 2 - 4x) + (y 2 + 6y) = 3. Next we complete the squares by adding appropriate numbers within the parentheses. Of course, to obtain equivalent equations we must add the numbers to both sides of the equation. In order to complete the square for an expression of the form x 2 + ax, we add the square of half the coefficient of x, that is, (a/2) 2 , to both sides of the equation. Similarly, for y 2 + by, we add

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18 1 Prerequisites for Calculus ].3 Lines The following concept is fundamental to the study of lines. All lines referred to are considered to be in some fixed coordinate plane. Definition (1.14) Let I be a line that is not parallel to they-axis, and let P 1(x 1 , y 1) and P 2 (x 2 , Y2) be distinct points on l. The slope m of lis given by y If I is parallel to the y-axis, then the slope is not defined. Typical points P 1 and P 2 on a line I are shown in Figure 1.19. The numerator Y2 - y 1 in the formula for m measures the vertical change in direction in proceeding from P 1 toP 2 and may be positive, negative, or zero. The denominator x 2 - x 1 measures the amount of horizontal change in going from P 1 to P 2 , and it may be positive or negative, but never zero, because I is not parallel to they-axis. ( i) Positive slope In finding the slope of a line it is immaterial which point is labeled P 1 and which is labeled P 2 , since y Consequently, we may as well assume that the points are labeled so that x 1 < x 2 , as in Figure 1.19. In this event x 2 - x 1 > 0, and hence the slope is positive, negative, or zero, depending on whether Y2 > y 1 , y 2 < y 1 , or X y 2 = y 1 • The slope of the line shown in (i) of Figure 1.19 is positive, whereas the slope of the line shown in (ii) of the figure is negative. A horizontal line is a line that is parallel to the x-axis. Note that a line is (ii) Negative slope horizontal if and only if its slope is 0. A vertical line is a line that is parallel to they-axis. The slope of a vertical line is undefined. FIGURE 1.19 It is important to note that the definition of slope is independent of the two points that are chosen on I, for if other points P1(xt- y1) and P~(x~, y~) y are used, then as in Figure 1.20, the triangle with vertices P~, P;, and P3(x;, y~) is similar to the triangle with vertices Pt. P 2 , and P 3 (x 2 , y 1 ). Since the ratios of corresponding sides are equal it follows that Y2 - Yt Y~ - it x2 - x1 x~ - x1 Example 1 Sketch the lines through the following pairs of points and find X their slopes. (a) A( -1, 4) and B(3, 2) (b) A(2, 5) and B( -2, -1) FIGURE 1.20 (c) A(4, 3) and B( -2, 3) (d) A(4, -1) and B(4, 4).

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20 1 Prerequisites for Calculus y Some typical solutions of the equation are (a, - 2), (a, 1), and (a, 3). Evidently, y=b all solutions of the equation consist of pairs of the form (a, y), where y may (0, b) have any value and a is fixed. It follows that the graph of x = a is a line parallel to the y-axis with x-intercept a, as illustrated in Figure 1.22. This proves (i). Part (ii) is proved in similar fashion. D (a, 0) X Let us next find an equation of a line I through a point P 1 (x 1 , y 1 ) with slope m (only one such line exists). If P(x, y) is any point with x =F x 1 , then P x=a is on I if and only if the slope of the line through P 1 and Pis m; that is, Y- Yt ---=m. FIGURE 1.22 x- x 1 This equation may be written in the form Note that (xl> yd is also a solution of the last equation and hence the points on I are precisely the points which correspond to the solutions. This equation for I is referred to as the Point-Slope Form. Our discussion may be summarized as follows: Point-Slope Form (1.16) An equation for the line through the point P(x 1 , y 1 ) with slope m is Example 2 Find an equation of the line through the points A(1, 7) and B( -3, 2). Solution By Definition (1.14) the slope m of the line is 7- 2 5 m= = -. 1 - ( -3) 4 Using the coordinates of A in the Point-Slope Form (1.16) gives us y- 7 = i(x- 1) which is equivalent to 4y- 28 = 5x- 5 or 5x- 4y + 23 = 0. The same equation would have been obtained if the coordinates of point B had been substituted in (1.16). • The Point-Slope Form may be rewritten as y = mx - mx 1 + y 1 , which is of the form y=mx+b

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Lines 1.3 21 with b = - mx 1 + y 1 • The real number b is they-intercept of the graph, as may be seen by setting x = 0. Since the equation y = mx + b displays the slope m andy-intercept b of l, it is called the Slope-Intercept Form "for the equation of a line. Conversely, if we start withy = mx + b, we may write y - b = m(x - 0). Comparing with the Point-Slope Form, we see that the graph is a line with slope m and passing through the point (0, b). This gives us the next result.Slope-Intercept Form (1.17) The graph of the equation y = mx + b is a line having slope m and y-intercept b. The work we have done shows that every line is the graph of an equation of the form ax+ by+ c = 0 where a, b, and care real numbers, and a and bare not both zero. We call such an equation a linear equation in x andy. Let us show, conversely, that the graph of ax + by + c = 0, where a and b are not both zero is always a line. On the one hand, if b # 0, we may solve for y, obtaining which, by the Slope-Intercept Form, is an equation of a line with slope - ajb and y-intercept - cjb. On the other hand, if b = 0 but a # 0, then we may solve for x, obtaining x = - cja, which is the equation of a vertical line with x-intercept - cja. This establishes the following important theorem. Theorem (1.18) The graph of a linear equation ax + by + c = 0 is a line and, conversely, every line is the graph of a linear equation. y For simplicity, we shall use the terminology the line ax + by + c = 0 instead of the more accurate phrase the line with equation ax + by + c = 0. Example 3 Sketch the graph of 2x - 5y = 8. Solution From Theorem (1.18) the graph is a line, and hence it is sufficient to find two points on the graph. Let us find the x- andy-intercepts. Substitut- ing y = 0 in the given equation, we obtain the x-intercept 4. Substituting FIGURE 1.23 x = 0, we see that they-intercept is -!.This leads to the graph in Figure 1.23.

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22 1 Prerequisites for Calculus Another method of solution is to express the given equation in Slope- Intercept Form. To do this we begin by isolating the term involving y on one side of the equals sign, obtaining 5y = 2x- 8. Next, dividing both sides by 5 gives us y=sx+ 2 (-8) 5 which is in the form y = mx + b. Hence, the slope ism = ~and they-intercept is b = -l We may then sketch a line through the point (0, -!) with slope~. • The following theorem can be proved geometrically. Theorem (1 .19) Two non vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope. We shall use this fact in the next example. Example 4 Find an equation of a line through the point (5, - 7) that is parallel to the line 6x + 3y - 4 = 0. Solution Let us express the given equation in Slope-Intercept Form. We begin by writing 3y = -6x +4 and then divide both sides by 3, obtaining y = -2x + 4. The last equation is in Slope-Intercept Form with m = -2, and hence the slope is -2. Since parallel lines have the same slope, the required line also has slope -2. Applying the Point-Slope Form gives us y +7= -2(x - 5). This is equivalent to y +7= - 2x + 10 or 2x +y - 3 = 0. • The next result specifies conditions for perpendicular lines. Theorem (1.20) Two lines with slopes m1 and m 2 are perpendicular if and only if mlm2 = -1.

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Lines 1.3 23 y Proof For simplicity, let us consider the special case where the lines intersect at the origin 0, as illustrated in Figure 1.24. In this case equations of the lines are y = m1 x and y = m 2 x. If, as in the figure, we choose points A(x 1, m 1x 1) and B(x 2 , m 2 x 2 ) different from 0 on the lines, then the lines are perpendicular if and only if angle AOB is a right angle. Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to triangle AOB, this is equivalent to the condition [d(A, B)] 2 = [d(O, B)] 2 + [d(O, A)] 2 or, by the Distance Formula, FIGURE 1.24 (m2x2 - m1xd 2 + (x 2 - x 1) 2 = (m 2 x 2) 2 + x~ + (m 1x 1) 2 + xf, Squaring the indicated terms and simplifying gives us Dividing both sides by - 2x 1 x 2 we see that the lines are perpendicular if and only if m 1m2 + 1 = 0, or m1m2 = -1. The same type of proof may be given if the lines intersect at any point (a, b)(see Exercise 42). D A convenient way to remember the conditions for perpendicularity is to note that m1 and m 2 must be negative reciprocals of one another, that is, m 1 = -1/m 2 and m 2 = -1/m 1. Example 5 Find an equation for the perpendicular bisector of the line segment from A(l, 7) to B(- 3, 2). Solution By the Midpoint Formula (1.11), the midpoint M of the segment AB is ( -1, 1). Since the slope of AB is i (see Example 2), it follows from Theorem ( 1.20) that the slope of the perpendicular bisector is - ~. Applying the Point-Slope Form, 9 4 y-- = -- (x + 1). 2 5 Multiplying both sides by 10 and simplifying leads to 8x + lOy - 37 = 0. • 1.3 ExercisesIn Exercises 1-4 plot the points A and B and find the slope of 6 Show that A(2, 3), B(5, -1), C(O, -6), and D( -6, 2) arethe line through A and B. vertices of a trapezoid. 1 A( -4, 6), B( -1, 18) 2 A(6, -2), B( -3, 5) 7 Prove that the points A(6, 15), B(11, 12), C( -1, -8), and3 A(-1, -3),B(-1,2) 4 A( -3, 4), B(2, 4) D(- 6, - 5) are vertices of a rectangle.5 Show that A(- 3, 1), B(5, 3), C(3, 0), and D(- 5, - 2) are 8 Prove that the points A(l, 4), B(6. -4), and C( -15, -6) vertices of a parallelogram. are vertices of a right triangle.

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24 I Prerequisites for Calculus 9 If three consecutive vertices of a parallelogram are and sketch the graph of each line. A( -1, -3), 8(4, 2), and C( -7, 5), find the fourth vertex. 25 3x- 4y + 8= 0 26 2y- 5x = I10 Let A(x~> y 1 ), 8(x 2 , y 2 ), C(x 3 , y 3 ), and D(x 4 , y 4 ) denote 27 X+ 2y = 0 28 8x = I - 4y the vertices of an arbitrary quadrilateral. Prove that the line segments joining midpoints of adjacent sides form a 29 y=4 30 x+2=!y parallelogram. 31 5x + 4y = 20 32 y=OIn Exercises 11-24 find an equation for the line satisfying the 33 X= 3y + 7 34 x-y=Ogiven conditions. 35 Find a real number k such that the point P(- I, 2) is onII Through A(2, -6 ), slope ! the line kx + 2y - 7 = 0.12 Slope - 3, y-intercept 5 36 Find a real number k such that the line 5x + ky - 3 =0 has y-intcrcept - 5.13 Through A(- 5, -7), 8(3, - 4) 37 If a line I has nonzero x- andy-intercepts a and b, respec-14 x-intercept -4, y-intercept 8 tively, prove that an equation for I is (xja) + (yjb) = I.15 Through A(8, - 2), y-intercept - 3 (This is called the intercept form for the equation of a line.) Express the equation 4x - 2y = 6 in intercept16 Slope 6, x-intercept -2 form.17 Through A( I 0, - 6), parallel to (a) they-axis; (b) the x-axis. 38 Prove that an equation of the line through P 1(x 1,;· 1 )18 Through A( -5, 1), perpendicular to (a) the y-axis; (b) and P2 (x 2 , y 2 ) is the x-axis.19 Through A(7, - 3), perpendicular to the line with equation 2x- 5y = 8. (This is called the two-point form for the equation of a line.) Usc the two-point form to find an equation of the20 Through ( -i, -!), parallel to the line with equation line through A(7, -I) and 8(4, 6). X+ 3y = J. 39 Find all values of r such that the slope of the line through21 Given A(3, -I) and 8(- 2, 6), find an equation for the the points (r, 4) and (I, 3 - 2r) is less than 5. perpendicular bisector of the line segment A8. 40 Find all values of 1 such that the slope of the line through22 Find an equation for the line which bisects the second and (1, 31 + 1) and (I - 21, 1) is greater than 4. fourth quadrants. 41 Six years ago a house was purchased for $59,000. This23 Find equations for the altitudes of the triangle with year it is appraised at $95,000. Assuming that the value vertices A(- 3, 2), 8(5, 4), C(3, - 8), and find the point increased by the same amount each year, find an equation at which they intersect. that specifics the value at any time after the purchase date.24 Find equations for the medians of the triangle in Exercise When was the house worth $73,000? 23, and find their point of intersection. 42 Complete the proof of Theorem (I .20) by considering the case where the lines intersect at any point (a, b).In Exercises 25-34 use the Slope-Intercept Form (1.17) tofind the slope andy-intercept of the line with the given equation ]. 4 Functions The notion of correspondence is encountered frequently in everyday life. For example, to each book in a library there corresponds the number of pages in the book. As another example, to each human being there corresponds a birth date. To cite a third example, if the temperature of the air is recorded

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Functions 1.4 25 throughout a day, then at each instant of time there is a corresponding temperature. These examples of correspondences involve two sets X and Y. In our first example, X denotes the set of books in a library and Y the set of positive integers. For each book x in X there corresponds a positive integer y, namely the number of pages in the book. Our examples also indicate that to each x in X there corresponds one and only one yin Y; that is, y is unique for a given x. However, the same element of Y may correspond to different elements of X. For example, two different books may have the same number of pages, two different people may have the same birthday, and so on. In most of our work X and Y will be sets of real numbers. To illustrate, let X andY both denote the set IR of real numbers, and to each real number x let us assign its square x 2 • Thus, to 3 we assign 9, to - 5 we assign 25, and to y2 the number 2. This gives us a correspondence from IR to R All the examples of correspondences we have given are functions, as defined below. Definition (1.21) A function/from a set X to a set Y is a correspondence that assigns to each element x of X a unique element y of Y. The element y is called the image of x under f and is denoted by f (x ). The set X is called the domain of the function. The range of the function consists of all images of ele- ments of X. The symbol f(x) used for the element associated with xis read "f of x." Sometimes f(x) is called the value off at x. y Functions may be represented pictorially by diagrams of the type shown in Figure 1.25. The curved arrows indicate that the elements f(x), f(w), f(z), andf(a) of Yare associated with the elements x, w, z, and a, respectively, of X. We might imagine a whole family of arrows of this type, where each arrow connects an element of X to some specific element of Y. Although the sets X and Y have been pictured as having no elements in common, this is not required by Definition (1.21). As a matter of fact, we often take X = Y. It is important to note that with each x in X there is associated precisely one image f(x); however, different elements such as wand z in Figure 1.25 may have the same image in Y.FIGURE 1.25 If the sets X and Y of Definition (1.21) are intervals, or other sets of real numbers, then instead of using points within regions to represent elements, as in Figure 1.25, we may use two coordinate lines land l. This technique is illustrated in Figure 1.26, where two images for a function fare represented graphically. X a X f(x) f(a) Y l FIGURE 1.26

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26 1 Prerequisites for Calculus Beginning students are sometimes confused by the symbols f and f(x) in Definition (1.21). Remember that f is used to represent the function. It is neither in X nor in Y. However, f(x) is an element of Y, namely the element which f assigns to x. Two functions f and g from X to Y are said to be equal, and we write f = g, provided f(x) = g(x) for every x in X. For example, if g(x) = (!}(2x 2 - 6) + 3 and f(x) = x 2 for all x in IR, then g =f. Example I Let f be the function with domain IR such that f(x) = x 2 for every x in R Find f( -6), f(j3), and f(a +b), where a, bare real numbers. What is the range off? Solution Values of f(or images under f) may be found by substituting for x in the equation f(x) = x 2 . Thus f( -6) = ( -6) 2 = 36, and f(a +b)= (a+ b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + V If T denotes the range off, then by Definition (1.21) T consists of all numbers of the form f(a) where a is in R Hence T is the set of all squares a2 , where a is a real number. Since the square of any real number is non- negative, Tis contained in the set of all nonnegative real numbers. Moreover, every nonnegative real number cis an image under f, since f(.jC) = (.jC) 2 = c. Hence the range off is the set of all nonnegative real numbers. • To describe a function f it is necessary to specify the image f(x) of each element x of the domain. A common method for doing this is to use an equation, as in Example 1. In this case, the symbol used for the variable is immaterial. Thus, expressions such as f(x) = x 2 , f(s) = s 2 , and f(t) = t 2 all define the same function f. This is true because if a is any number in the domain off, then the image a 2 is obtained no matter which expression is employed. Occasionally one of the notations X~ Y, f: X ~ Y or f: x ~ f(x) is used to signify thatfis a function from X to Y. It is not unusual in this event to say fmaps X into Yor fmaps x intof(x). Iffis the function in Example 1, thenfmaps x into x 2 and we may writef: x ~ x 2 . Many formulas that occur in mathematics and the sciences determine functions. As an illustration, the formula A = nr 2 for the area A of a circle of radius r associates with each positive real number r a unique value of A and hence determines a functionfwherej(r) = nr 2 • The letter r, which represents an arbitrary number from the domain off, is often called an independent variable. The letter A, which represents a number from the range off, is called a dependent variable, since its value depends on the number assigned tor. When two variables rand A are related in this manner, it is customary

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Functions 1.4 27 to use the phrase A is a function of r. To cite another example, if an auto- mobile travels at a uniform rate of 50 miles per hour, then the distance d (miles) traveled in time t (hours) is given by d = 50t "and we say that dis a function oft. We have seen that different elements in the domain of a function may have the same image. If images are always different, then the function is called one-to-one.Definition (1.22) A function/from X to Y is a one-to-one function if, whenever a ¥- bin X, thenf(a) # j(b) in Y. Iff is one-to-one, then each f(x) in the range is the image of precisely one x in X. The function illustrated in Figure 1.25 is not one-to-one since two different elements wand z of X have the same image in Y. If the range ofjis Y and f is one-to-one, then sets X and Y are said to be in one-to-one corres- pondence. In this case each element of Yis the image of precisely one element of X. The association between real numbers and points on a coordinate line is an example of a one-to-one correspondence. Example 2 (a) If f(x) = 3x + 2, where x is real, prove that f is one-to-one. (b) If g(x) = x2 + 5, where xis real, prove that g is not one-to-one. Solution (a) If a # b, then 3a ¥- 3b and hence 3a + 2 # 3b + 2, or f(a) # f(b). Hence f is one-to-one by Definition (1.22). (b) The function g is not one-to-one since different numbers in the domain may have the same image. For example, although -I # 1, both g( -1) and g(l) are equal to 6. • ~ Iff is a function from X to X and if f(x) = x for every x, that is, every element x maps into itself, thenfis called the identity function on X. A function jis a constant function if there is some (fixed) element c such thatj(x) = c for every x in the domain. If a constant function is represented by a diagram of the type shown in Figure 1.25, then every arrow from X terminates at the same point in Y. In the remainder of our work, unless specified otherwise, the phrase f is a function will mean that the domain and range are sets of real numbers. If a function is defined by means of some expression as in Examples 1 or 2, and the domain X is not stated explicitly, then X is considered to be the totality of real numbers for which the given expression is meaningful. To illustrate, if f(x) = JX!(x - I), then the domain is assumed to be the set of nonnegative real numbers different from 1. (Why?) If xis the domain we sometimes say that f is defined at x, or thatf(x) exists. If a set Sis contained in the domain we often say that/is defined on S. The terminology fis undefined at x means that x is not in the domain off

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28 1 Prerequisites for Calculus The concept of ordered pair can be used to obtain an alternate approach to functions. We first observe that a function f from X to Y determines the following set W of ordered pairs: W = {(x, f(x)): xis in X}. Thus W is the totality of ordered pairs for which the first number is in X and the second number is the image of the first. In Example 1, where f(x) = x 2 , W consists of all pairs of the form (x, x 2 ) where x is any real number. It is important to note that for each x there is exactly one ordered pair (x, y) in W having x in the first position. Conversely, if we begin with a set W of ordered pairs such that each x in X appears exactly once in the first position of an ordered pair, and numbers from Y appear in the second position, then W determines a function from X to Y. Specifically, for any x in X there is a unique pair (x, y) in W, and by letting y correspond to x, we obtain a function from X to Y. It follows from the preceding discussion that the following statement could also be used as a definition of function. We prefer, however, to think of it as an alternative approach to this concept. Alternative Definition (1.23) A function with domain X is a set W of ordered pairs such that, for each x in X, there is exactly one ordered pair (x, y) in W having x in the first position. Y = f(x) If/is a function, we may use a graph to exhibit the variation of/(x) as x varies through the domain off By definition, the graph of a function/ is the set of all points (x,j(x)) in a coordinate plane, where xis in the domain off Thus, the graph of/is the same as the graph of the equation y = f(x), and if P(a, b) is on the graph, then they-coordinate b is the functional valuef(a), as illustrated in Figure 1.27. It is important to note that, since there is a unique .f(a) for each a in the domain, there is only one point on the graph with x- a X coordinate a. Thus, every rerticalline intersects the graph of a function in at most one point. Consequently, for graphs of functions it is impossible to obtain a sketch such as that shown in Figure 1.16 where some vertical lines FIGURE 1.27 Graph of a function f intersect the graph in more than one point. The x-intercepts of the graph of a function fare the solutions of the equationf(x) = 0. These numbers are called the zeros of the function. The y-intercept of the graph is ./(0), if it exists. y Example 3 Sketch the graph off if f(x) = ~. Solution The domain off consists of all real numbers x such that x 2: 1. f(x) = t vx-=--1 (Why?) The following table lists some points (x,f(x)) on the graph. X 2 3 4 5 6 X (1, 0) f(x) 0 Plotting points leads to the sketch shown in Figure 1.28. Note that the x- FIGURE 1.28 intercept is 1, and there is no y-intercept. •

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Functions 1.4 29 y Example 4 Sketch the graph off if f(x) = 3 - x 2 . Solution We list coordinates (x,J(x)) of some points on the graph off in tabular form, as follows: X -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 X .f(x) -6 -1 2 3 2 -1 -6 f(x) = 3 -x 2 The x-intercepts are the solutions of the equation f(x) = 0, that is, of 3 - x 2 = 0. These are ± J3.The y-intercept is f(O) = 3. Plotting the points given by the table and using the x-intercepts leads to the sketch in Figure 1.29. •FIGURE 1.29 The solution to Example 4 could have been shortened by observing that, since 3 - ( -x) 2 = 3 - x 2 , the graph of y = 3 - x 2 is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. y Example 5 Sketch the graph off if f(x) = Ix 1. Solution If x ;?: 0, then f(x) = x and hence the part of the graph to the right of the y-axis is identical to the graph of y = x, which is a line through the origin with slope 1. If x < 0, then by Definition (1.2),J(x) = lxl = -x, and hence the part ofthe graph to the left of they-axis is the same as the graph of y = - x. The graph is sketched in Figure 1.30. • X Example 6 Sketch the graph off if f(x) = 1/x. Solution The domain off is the set of all nonzero real numbers. If x isFIGURE 1.30 positive, so is f(x), and hence no part of the graph lies in quadrant IV. Quadrant II is also excluded, since if x < 0 then f(x) < 0. If x is close to zero, they-coordinate 1/x is very large numerically. As x increases through positive values, 1/x decreases and is close to zero when x is large. Similarly, if we let x take on numerically large negative values, they-coordinate 1/x is y close to zero. Using these remarks and plotting several points gives us the sketch in Figure 1.31. The graph of J, or equivalently, of the equation y = 1/x, is symmetric with respect to the origin. This may be verified by using (iii) of (1.12). • Example 7 Describe the graph of a constant function. X Solution If f(x) = c, where cis a real number, then the graph off is the same as the graph of the equation y = c and hence is a horizontal line with y-intercept c. • Sometimes functions are described in terms of more than one expression,FIGURE 1.31 as in the next examples.

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30 1 Prerequisites for Calculus y Example 8 Sketch the graph of the function f that is defined as follows: 2x +3 ifx < 0 f(x)= {x2 ifO~x<2 1 if X~ 2. X Solution If x < 0, then f(x) = 2x + 3. This means that if x is negative, the expression 2x + 3 should be used to find functional values. Consequently, if x < 0, then the graph of f coincides with the line y = 2x + 3 and we sketch that portion of the graph to the left of they-axis as indicated in Figure 1.32. If 0 ~ x < 2, we use x 2 to find functional values off, and therefore this FIGURE 1.32 part of the graph off coincides with the graph of the equation y = x 2 (see Figure 1.14). We then sketch the part of the graph off between x = 0 and x = 2 as indicated in Figure 1.32. Finally, if x ~ 2, the graph of f coincides with the constant function having values equal to l. That part of the graph is the horizontal half-line illustrated in Figure 1.32. • Example 9 If x is any real number, then there exist consecutive integers n and n + 1 such that n ~ x < n + l. Let f be the function from IR to IR defined as follows: If n ~ x < n + l, then f(x) = n. Sketch the graph of f. Solution The x- andy-coordinates of points on the graph may be listed as follows: y Values of x f(x) - - - -2:<;;x<-l -l:<;;x<O O:<;;x<l l:<;;x<2 -2 -I 0 1 - X 2:<;;x<3 2 -FIGURE 1.33 Since .f is a constant function whenever x is between successive integers, the corresponding part of the graph is a segment of a horizontal line. Part of the graph is sketched in Figure 1.33. • The symbol [x] is often used to denote the largest integer z such that z ~ x. For example [1.6] = 1, [j5] = 2, [n] = 3, and [ -3.5] = -4. Using this notation, thefunctionjofExample9maybedefined by.f(x) = [x]. It is customary to refer to f as the greatest integer function.

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32 1 Prerequisites for CalculusIf [x] denotes values of the greatest integer function, sketch the 70 Find a formula which expresses the area A of an equi-graph off in Exercises 61 and 62. lateral triangle as a function of the lengths of a side.61 (a) f(x) = [2x] (b) f(x) = 2[x] 71 Express the perimeter P of a square as a function of its62 (a) f(x) = [ -x] (b) f(x) = - [x] area A.63 Explain why the graph of the equation x 2 + y2 = I is 72 Express the surface area S of a sphere as a function of not the graph of a function. its volume V.64 (a) Define a function f whose graph is the upper half of a 73 A hot-air balloon is released at I :00 P.M. and rises vertically circle with center at the origin and radius 1. at a rate of 2 meters per second. An observation point is (b) Define a function f whose graph is the lower half of a situated 100 meters from a point on the ground directly circle with center at the origin and radius I. below the balloon (see figure). If t denotes the time (in seconds) after I: 00 P.M., express the distance dbetween the65 Prove that a function f is one-to-one if and only if every balloon and the observation point as a function oft. horizontal line intersects the graph off in at most one point.66 Refer to the remarks preceding Exercises 27-36 and prove that (a) the graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (b) the graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin. dl I I / I / I I I I I I I67 Find a formula that expresses the radius r of a circle as a I I function of its circumference C. If the circumference of I I any circle is increased by 12 inches, determine how much I I I I the radius increases. Observation 1 I68 Find a formula that expresses the volume of a cube as a point I ._______ I ----- function of its surface area. Find the volume if the surface area is 36 square inches. r-lOOm--j69 An open box is to be made from a rectangular piece of FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 73 cardboard having dimensions 20 inches by 30 inches by cutting out identical squares of area x 2 from each corner and turning up the sides (see figure). Express the volume V 74 Two ships leave port at 9:00A.M., one sailing south at a of the box as a function o x. rate of 16 mph and the other west at a rate of 20 mph (see figure).lf t denotes the time (in hours) after 9:00A.M., express the distance d between the ships as a function oft. - - 20mph <9~-------- .. Port r --....,.. I , I ..... I a,,,,~" FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 74 75 A company sells running shoes to dealers at a rate of $20 per pair if less than 50 pairs are ordered. If 50 or more pairs are ordered (up to 600), the price per pair is reduced at a rate of 2 cents times the number ordered. Let A denote the amount of money received when x pairs are ordered. FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 69 Express A as a function of x.

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Combinations of Functions 1.5 33]. 5 Combinations of Functions In calculus and its applications it is common to encounter functions that are defined in terms of sums, differences, products, and quotients of various expressions. For example, if h(x) = x 2 + JSX+l, then we may regard h(x) as a sum of values of the simpler functions f and g defined by f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = JSX+l. It is natural to refer to the function has the sum off and g. More generally, iff and g are any functions and D is the intersection of their domains, then the sum off and g is the function s defined by s(x) = f(x) + g(x) where x is in D. It is convenient to denote s by the symbol f + g. Since f and g are functions, not numbers, the + used between f and g is not to be considered as addition of real numbers. It is used to indicate that the image of x under f + gisf(x) + g(x), that is, (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x). Similarly, the difference!- g and the productfg off and g are defined by (f- g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) and (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) where xis in D. Finally, the quotientf/g offby g is given by (£)(x) = g f(x) g(x) where xis in D and g(x) =F 0. Example I If f(x) =~and g(x) = 3x + 1, find the sum, difference, and product off and g, and the quotient off by g. Solution The domain off is the closed interval [- 2, 2] and the domain of g is IR. Consequently, the intersection of their domains is [- 2, 2] and the required functions are given by (f + g)(x) = J4- x 2 + (3x + 1), -2::::;; x::::;; 2 (f- g)(x) = J4- x 2 - (3x + 1), -2::::;; x::::;; 2 (fg)(x) = ~(3x + 1), -2::::;; x::::;; 2 (fjg)(x) = J4- x 2 /(3x + 1), -2::::;; x::::;; 2, x =F -t. • If g is a constant function such that g(x) = c for every x, and iff is any function, then cf will denote the product of g and f; that is, (cf)(x) = cf(x) for all x in the domain of f. To illustrate, iff is the function of Example 1, then we have (cf)(x) = cJ4- x 2 , -2::::;; x::::;; 2. Among the most important functions in mathematics are those defined as follows.

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34 I Prerequisites for Calculus Definition (1.24) A function f is a polynomial function if where the coefficients a 0 , a 1 , .•• , an are real numbers and the exponents are nonnegative integers. The expression to the right of the equal sign in Definition (1.24) is called a polynomial in x (with real coefficients) and each akxk is called a term of the polynomial. We often use the phrase the polynomial.f(x) when referring to expressions of this type. If an -::/= 0, then an is called the leading coefficient of f(x) and we say thatf(orf(x)) has degree n. If a polynomial function/has degree 0, thenj(x) = c, where c -::/= 0, and hence f is a constant function. If a coefficient a; is zero we often abbreviate ( 1.24) by deleting the term a;xi. If all the coefficients of a polynomial are zero it is called the zero polynomial and is denoted by 0. It is customary not to assign a degree to the zero polynomial. If.f(x) is a polynomial of degree 1, then f(x) = ax + b, where a -::/= 0. From Section 1.3, the graph off is a straight line and, accordingly,/is called a linear function. Any polynomial f(x) of degree 2 may be written f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a -::/= 0. In this case f is called a quadratic function. The graph off or, equivalently, of the equation y = ax 2 + bx + c, is a parabola. A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions. Thus q is rational if, for every x in its domain, f(x) q(x) = h(x) where f(x) and h(x) are polynomials. The domain of a polynomial function is IR, whereas the domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers except the zeros of the polynomial in the denominator. A function f is called algebraic if it can be expressed in terms of sums, differences, products, quotients, or roots of polynomial functions. For example, if f(x) = 5x4 - 2,jx + x(xz + 5). Jx3 + JX then f is an algebraic function. Functions that are not algebraic are termed transcendental. The trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions considered later in this book are examples of transcendental functions. We shall conclude this section by describing an important method of using two functions f and g to obtain a third function. Suppose X, Y, and Z

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Combinations of Functions 1.5 35 are sets of real numbers. Let f be a function from X to Y, and g a function from Y to Z. In terms of the arrow notation we have x~y.;z that is,/ maps X into Y and g maps Y into Z. A function from X to Z may be defined in a natural way. For every x in X, lhe numberf(x) is in Y. Since the domain of g is Y, we may then find the image of/(x) under g. Of course, this element of Z is written as g(f(x)). By associating g(f(x)) with x, we obtain a function from X to Z called the composite function of g byf This is illustrated geometrically in Figure 1.34 where we have represented tne domain X off on a coordinate line /, the domain Y of g (and the range of f) on a coordinate line /,and the range of g on a coordinate line /". The dashes indicate the correspondence defined from X to Z. We sometimes use an operation symbol o and denote the latter function g of The next definition summarizes this discussion. ~ ~..... -..,...,..--------- ..... ................. ,, ,, ~ x X ~ f(x) Y / ~-~~-· g(f(x)) Z I" FIGURE 1.34Definition (1.25) Iff is a function from X to Y and g is a function from Y to Z, then the composite function g of is the function from X to Z defined by (g of) (x) = g(f(x)), for every x in X. Actually, it is not essential that the domain of g be all of Y but merely that it contain the range of f. In certain cases we may wish to restrict x to some subset of X so that f(x) is in the domain of g. This is illustrated in the next example. Example 2 If f(x) = = 5x + Jx, find (go f)(x). x - 2 and g(x) Solution Using the definitions of go f, f, and g, (go f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x - 2) =5(x-2)+~ =5x-10+~. The domain X off is the set of all real numbers; however, the last equality implies that (go f)(x) is a real number only if x;;::: 2. Thus, when working with the composite function g of it is necessary to restrict x to the interval [2, oo). •

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The Trigonometric Functions 1.6 3723 Using the terminology of Exercise 27 in Section 1.4, 26 Show that there exist an infinite number of rational prove that (a) the product of two odd functions is even; functions f and g such that f + g = fg. (b) the product of two even functions is even; and (c) the 27 If f(x) is a polynomial, and if the coefficients of all odd product of an even function and an odd function is odd. powers of x are 0, show that f is an even function.24 Which parts of Exercise 23 are true if the word "product" 28 If f(x) is a polynomial, and if the coefficients of all even is replaced by "sum"? powers of x are 0, sh(lw that .f is an odd function.25 Prove that every function with domain IR1 can be written as the sum of an even function and an odd function. J. 6 The Trigonometric Functions An angle eis often regarded as the set of all points on two rays, or half-lines, /1 and /2 , having the same initial point 0. If A and Bare points on /1 and /2 , respectively (see Figure 1.35), then we may refer to angle AOB. For trigono- metric purposes it is convenient to regard angle AOB as generated by starting with the fixed ray /1 and rotating it about 0, in a plane, to a position specified 0 by ray /2 . We call/ 1 the initial side, /2 the terminal side, and 0 the vertex of FIGURE 1.35 the angle. The amount or direction of rotation is not restricted in any way, that is, we may let /1 make several rotations in either direction about 0 before coming to the position /2 . Thus, different angles may have the same initial y and terminal sides. If a rectangular coordinate system is introduced, then the standard position of an angle is obtained by taking the vertex at the origin and letting / 1 coincide with the positive x-axis (see Figure 1.36). If / 1 is rotated in a counterclockwise direction to position /2 , then the angle is considered positive; whereas if /1 is rotated in a clockwise direction, the angle is negative. 0 X We sometimes specify the direction of rotation by using a curved arrow, as illustrated in Figure 1.36. The magnitude of an angle may be expressed in terms of either degrees or radians. An angle of degree measure 1o is obtained by 1/360 of a complete FIGURE /.36 revolution in the counterclockwise direction. In calculus, the most important unit of angular measure is the radian. In order to define radian measure, let us consider a unit circle U with center at the origin of a rectangular system, and let 8 be an angle in standard position. We regard 8 as generated by rotating the positive x-axis about 0. As the x-axis rotates to the terminal side of e, its point of intersection with u travels a certain distance t before y arriving at its final position P(x, y), as illustrated in Figure 1.37. * If t is considered positive for a counterclockwise rotation and negative for a clockwise rotation, then a natural way of assigning a measure to e is to use A (1, 0) the number t. When this is done, we say that() is an angle oft radians and we write 8 = t or 8 = t radians. Note that it is customary to let 8 denote either X the angle or the angular measure of the angle. According to the preceding discussion, if 8 = 1, then 8 is an angle that subtends an arc of unit length on the unit circle U. The notation e = -7.5 * Distances along curves, or arc length, will be defined, using concepts of calculus, in FIGURE /.37 IJ = t radians Section 6.7.

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38 1 Prerequisites for Calculus means that() is the angle generated by a clockwise rotation in which the point of intersection of the x-axis with the unit circle U travels 7.5 units. Since the circumference of U is 2n, we see that if() = n/2, then () is obtained by of a ± complete revolution in the counterclockwise direction. Similarly, if() = -n/4, then () is generated by -§- of a revolution in the clockwise direction. These angles, measured in radians, are sketched in Figure 1.38. y y y y / ,.- / /- I I (J =-7.5 I I X X I I u ,_ -/ / u,_ FIGURE 1.38 If an angle in standard position is generated by ! of a complete counter- clockwise rotation, then the degree measure is 180° and the radian measure is n. This gives us the basic relation 180° = n radians. Equivalent formulas are 1° = 1~0 radians and 1 radian = ( 180) n 0 0 Thus, to change degrees to radians, multiply by n/180. To change radians to degrees, multiply by 180/n. The following table gives the relationships between the radian and degree measures of several common angles. Radians 0 rr/6 rr/4 rr/3 rr/2 2rr/3 3rr/4 Srr/6 rr By long division we obtain the following: 1o ~ 0.01745 radians; 1 radian ~ 57.296°. Example 1 (a) Find the radian measure of() if() = -150° and if() = 225°. (b) Find the degree measure of() if() = 7nj4 and if() = -nj3. Solution (a) Since there are n/180 radians in each degree, the number of radians in - 150° can be found by multiplying - 150 by n/180. Thus, -150° = -150(~) 180 = - 5n radians 6 ° Similarly, 225° = 225 (t ~O) = 5 radians. :

48.
The Trigonometric Functions 1.6 39 (b) The number of degrees in 1 radian is 180/n:. Consequently, to find the number of degrees in 7n:/4 radians, we multiply by 180/n:, obtaining 7n: radians . = 4 (180) = 315°. 7n: --;- 4 In like manner, - 3 rad1ans = - 3 (180) = n: n: --;- -60 0 . • The radian measure of an angle can be found by using a circle of any radius. In the following discussion, the terminology central angle of a circle refers to an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle. Suppose that () is y a central angle of a circle of radius r, and that () subtends an arc of lengths, where 0 ::;; s < 2nr. To find the radian measure of(), let us place () in standard position on a rectangular coordinate system and superimpose a unit circle U, as shown in Figure 1.39. If tis the length of arc subtended by ()on U, then by definition we may write () = t. From plane geometry, the ratio of the arcs in Figure 1.39 is the same as the ratio of the radii; that is, t 1 s - =- or t =-. s r rFIGURE /.39 Substituting () for t gives us the following result. Theorem (1.26) If a central angle() of a circle of radius r subtends an arc of lengths, then the radian measure of() is given by s () = -. r The radian measure of an angle is independent of the size of the circle. For example, if the radius of tpe circle is r = 4 em and the arc subtended by a central angle() is 8 em, then using() = s/r, the radian measure is () = 8 em= 2. 4cm If the radius of the circle is 4 km and the subtended arc is 8 km, then () = 8 km = 2. 4km These calculations indicate that the radian measure of an angle is dimen- sionless and hence may be regarded as a real number. Indeed, it is for this reason that we usually employ the notation () = t instead of() = t radians. There are two standard techniques for introducing the trigonometric functions-one through the use of a unit circle, and the other by means of

49.
40 1 Prerequisites for Calculus right triangles. Both lead to the same result. We shall begin with the unit circle approach. Descriptions of trigonometric functions in terms of right triangles are stated in ( 1.32). Given any real number t, let edenote the angle (in standard position) of radian measure t. The point P(x, y) at which the terminal side of e intersects the unit circle U (see Figure 1.37) will be called the point on U that corresponds tot. The coordinates of P(x, y) may be used to define the six trigonometric or (circular) functions. These functions are referred to as the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions, and are designated by the symbols sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, and esc, respectively. If tis a real number, then the real number that the sine function associates with t will be denoted by either sin (t) or sin t, and similarly for the other five functions. Definition (1.27) If t is any real number and P(x, y) is the point on the unit circle U that corresponds to t, then the trigonometric functions are given by 1 sin t = y esc t =- (if y i 0) y 1 COSt= X sect =- (if X -# 0) X tan t = ~ X (if X -# 0) cot t =- (if y i 0). X y Example 2 Find the values of the trigonometric functions at (a) t = 0 (b) t = n/4 (c) t = n/2. Solution The points P(x, y) corresponding to the given values of t are plotted in Figure 1.40. y y y P(O, 1) P(l, 0) X X X u (i) t =0 (ii) t = rr/4 (iii) t = 1f /2 FIGURE 1.40 Thus, fort = 0 we let x = 1 andy = 0 in Definition (1.27), obtaining the values in the first line of the following table. Note that since y = 0, esc 0 and cot 0 are undefined, as indicated by the dashes in the table.

50.
The Trigonometric Functions 1.6 41 Part (b) may be solved by taking x = .Ji/2 andy= .j2;2 in Definition (1.27). Finally, for (c), let x = 0 andy = 1 in the definition. sin t cost tan t esc t sect cot t 0 0 I 0 7t j2 j2 - j2 j2 4 2 2 7t - 2 0 0 • Values corresponding to t = rc/6 and t = rc/3 will be determined in Example 3. By using methods developed later in this text, values for every real number t may be approximated to any degree of accuracy. It will be assumed that the reader knows how to use trigonometric tables (see Appendix III) or a calculator to approximate values of the trigonometric functions. If, in Definition (1.27), P(x, y) is in quadrant I, then x and yare both positive, and hence all values of the trigonometric functions are positive. If P(x, y) is in quadrant II, then x is negative, y is positive, and hence sin t and esc t are positive, whereas the other four functions are negative. Similar remarks can be made for the remaining quadrants. The domain of the sine and cosine functions is IR. However, in the definitions of tan t and sec t, x appears iti the denominator, and hence we must exclude the points P(x, y) on they-axis, that is, P(O, 1) and P(O, -1). It follows that the domain of the tangent and secant functions consists of all numbers t except those of the form (rc/2) + nrc, where n is an integer. Similarly, for the cotangent and cosecant functions we must exclude all numbers of the form t = nrc, where n is an integer. Since lxl :s; 1 and IYI :s; 1 for all points P(x,y) on the unit circle U, we see that - 1 :s; sin t :s; 1 and - 1 :s; cos t :s; 1. It will follow from our work in Chapter 2 that sin t and cos t take on every value between - 1 and l. It can also be shown that the range of the tangent and cotangent functions is IR, and that the range of the cosecant and secant functions is (-oo, -l] u [1, oo). Since the circumference of the unit circle U is 2rc, the same point P(x, y) is obtained for t + 2rcn, where n is any integer. Hence the values of the trigonometric functions repeat in successive intervals of length 2rc. A function f with domain X is said to be periodic if there exists a positive real number y k such that f(t + k) = f(t) for every t in X. Geometrically, this means that the graph off repeats itself as x-coordinates of points vary over successive intervals oflength k. If a least such positive real number k exists, it is called the period of f It can be shown that the sine, cosine, cosecant, and secant X functions have period 2rc, whereas the tangent and cotangent functions have period rc. Graphs of the trigonometric functions will be discussed later in the text. If P(x, y) is the point on U corresponding to t, then as illustrated in Figure 1.41, P(x, - y) corresponds to - t. Consequently, sin (- t) = - y = -sin t and cos (- t) = x = cos t. Similarly, tan (- t) = -tan t. This givesFIGURE 1.41 us the following formulas for negatives: (1.28) sin ( -t) = -sin t cos(-t) =cost tan ( -t) = -tan t

52.
The Trigonometric Functions 1.6 43 In certain applications it is convenient to change the domain of a trigono- metric function from a subset of IR to a set of angles. This may be accomplished by means of the following definition. Definition (1.30) If e is an angle and if the radian measure of e is t, then the value of a trigonometric function at() is its value at the real number t. It follows from Definition (1.30) that sine = sin t, cos e = cos t, etc., where t is the radian measure of e. To make the unit of angular measure y clear, we shall use the degree symbol and write sin 65°, tan 150°, etc., whenever the angle is measured in degrees. Numerals without any symbol attached, such as cos 3 and esc (rr/6), will indicate that radian measure is being used. This is not in conflict with our previous work, where, for example, cos 3 meant the value of the cosine function at the real number 3, since by definition X the cosine of an angle of measure 3 radians is identical with the cosine of the real number 3. Let e be an angle in standard position and let Q(a, b) be an arbitrary point on the terminal side of e, as illustrated in Figure 1.42. The next theorem specifies how the coordinates of the point Q may be used to determine theFIGURE 1.42 values of the trigonometric functions of e.* Theorem (1.31) Let e be an angle in standard position on a rectangular coordinate system and let Q(a, b) be any point other than 0 on the terminal side of e. If d(O, Q) = r, then . sm e =- b csce=b r (if b # 0) r a r cos e =- r sece=- (if a# 0) a b a tan e =- (if a # 0) cote= b (if b # 0). a Note that if r = 1, then Theorem (1.31) reduces to (1.27), with a= x, b = y, and e = t. For acute angles, values of the trigonometric functions can be inter- preted as ratios of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. Recall that a triangle is called a right triangle if one of its angles is a right angle. If e is an acute angle, then it can be regarded as an angle of a right triangle and we may *For a proof see E. W. Swokowski, Fundamentals of Algebra and Trigonometry, Fifth Edition (Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt, 1981).

53.
44 1 Prerequisites for Calculus y refer to the lengths of the hypotenuse, the opposite side, and the adjacent side in the usual way. For convenience, we shall use hyp, opp, and adj, respectively, Q (adj, opp) to denote these numbers. Let us introduce a rectangular coordinate system as in Figure 1.43. Referring to the figure, we see that the lengths of the adjacent side and the opposite side for ()are the x-coordinate andy-coordinate, respectively, of a X point Q on the terminal side of fJ. By Theorem (1.31) we have the following. FIGURE 1.43 . ll opp esc fJ = hypRight Triangle Trigonometry (1.32) Sill u =- hyp opp adj sec f) = hyp cos f) = hyp adj d tan f)= opp cot f)=~ adj opp These formulas are very important in work with right triangles. The next example illustrates how they may be used. Example 3 Find the values of sin fJ, cos fJ, and tan fJ for the following values of f): Solution Let us consider an equilateral triangle having sides of length 2. The median from one vertex to the opposite side bisects the angle at that vertex, as illustrated in (i) of Figure 1.44. By the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of this median is J3. Using the colored triangle and (1.32), we obtain the following. (a) sin 60° = J3 2 6 0 cos 0 = 1 2 tan 60° = J3 = 1 j3 (b) sin 30° = ~, cos 30° = J3 tan30° =- =- 1 J3 2 J3 3 ~fol (c) To find the functional values for f) = 45°, let us consider an isosceles ~ right triangle whose two equal sides have length 1, as illustrated in (ii) of Figure 1.44. Thus, . 1 12 (ii) FIGURE 1.44 sill 45° = - vi2 = _v_" = 2 cos 45° •

58.
Limits and Continuity of FunctionsThe concept of limit of a function is one of the funda- complexity of the definition, it is easy to develop anmental ideas that distinguishes calculus from areas of intuitive feeling for limits. With this in mind, themathematics such as algebra or geometry. It is not discussion in the first section is not rigorous. Theeasy to master the formal notion of limit. Indeed, it is mathematically precise description oflimit of a functionusually necessary for the beginner to study the definition will be presented in Section 2.2. The remainder of themany times, looking at it from various points of view, chapter contains important theorems and concepts per-before the meaning becomes clear. In spite of the taining to limits. 2.] Introduction In calculus and its applications we are often interested in the values f(x) of a function f when x is very close to a number a, but not necessarily equal to a. As a matter of fact, in many instances the number a is not in the domain of f; that is,f(a) is undefined. Roughly speaking, we ask the following question: As x gets closer and closer to a (but x ¥- a), does f(x) get closer and closer to some number L? If the answer is yes, we say that the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, equals L, and we use the following limit notation: (2.1) lim f(x) = L. Let us consider a geometric illustration of a limit. The tangent line I at a point P on a circle may be defined as the line which has only the point P in common with the circle, as illustrated in (i) of Figure 2.1. This definition cannot be extended to arbitrary graphs, since a tangent line may intersect a graph several times, as shown in (ii) of Figure 2.1. 49

59.
50 2 Limits and Continuity of Functions y X (i) (ii) FIGURE 2.1 To define the tangent line l at a point P on the graph of an equation it is sufficient to state the slope m of l, since this completely determines the line. To arrive at m we begin by choosing any other point Q on the graph and considering the line through P and Q, as in (i) of Figure 2.2. A line of this type y y a X X a X X ( i) (ii) FIGURE 2.2 is called a secant line for the graph. Next, we study the variation of this secant line as Q gets closer and closer to P, as illustrated by the dashes in (ii) of Figure 2.2. It appears that if Q is close to P, then the slope mPQ of the secant line should be close to the slope of l. For this reason, if the slope mPQ has a limiting value as Q approaches P, we define this value as the slope m of the tangent line/. If a is the x-coordinate of P and xis the x-coordinate of Q (see (i) of Figure 2.2), then for many graphs the phrase" Q approaches P" may be replaced by "x approaches a." This leads to the following definition of the slope of a tangent line: (2.2) It is important to observe that x =F a throughout this limiting process. Indeed, if we let x = a, then P = Q and mPQ does not exist!

60.
Introduction 2.1 51 Example 1 If a is any real number, use (2.2) to find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = x 2 at the point P(a, a 2 ). Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point G.£). Solution The graph of y = x 2 and typical points P(a, a 2 ) and Q(x, x 2 ) are illustrated in Figure 2.3. By Definition (1.14), the slope mPQ of the secant line through P and Q is Applying (2.2), the slope m of the tangent line at P isFIGURE 2.3 . . x2- a2 m = ltmmPQ = ltm--- x~a x-+a X- a To find the limit, it is necessary to change the form of the indicated fraction. Since x #- a in the limiting process it follows that x - a #- 0, and hence we may proceed as follows: . x2 a 2 1 (x + a)(x - a) 1 ( . . m = Itm - = tm = tm x + a). x-+a X - a x-+a (x - a) x-+a As x gets closer and closer to a, the expression x + a gets close to a + a, or 2a. Consequently m = 2a. Since the slope of the tangent line at the point (~, £) is the special case in which a = ~ we have m = 2a = 2G) = 3. Using the Point-Slope Form (1.16), an equation of the tangent line is y - £= 3(x - ~). This equation simplifies to 12x - 4y - 9 = 0. • The preceding discussion and example lack precision because of the haziness of the phrases "very close" and "closer and closer." This will be remedied in the next section when a formal definition of limit is stated. In the remainder of this section we shall continue in an intuitive manner. As a simple illustration of the limit notation (2.1) suppose f(x) = t (3x - 1) and consider a = 4. Although 4 is in the domain of the function f, we are primarily interested in values of f(x) when xis close to 4, but not necessarily equal to 4. The following are some typical values: f(3.9) = 5.35 /(4.1) = 5.65 /(3.99) = 5.485 !(4.01) = 5.515 /(3.999) = 5.4985 /(4.001) = 5.5015 /(3.9999) = 5.49985 /(4.0001) = 5.50015 /(3.99999) = 5.499985 /(4.00001) = 5.500015

61.
52 2 Limits and Continuity of Functions It appears that the closer xis to 4, the closer f(x) is to 5.5. This can also be verified by observing that if x is close to 4, then 3x - 1 is close to 11, and hence !(3x - 1) is close to 5.5. Consequently we write lim !(3x - 1) = 5.5. x-4 In this illustration the number 4 could actually have been substituted for x, thereby obtaining 5.5. The next two examples show that it is not always possible to find the limit L in (2.1) by merely substituting a for x. x-9 Example 2 If[(x) = Jx _ 3 , find :i~ .f(x). Solution The number 9 is not in the domain of .f since the denominator Jx - 3 is zero for this value of x. However, writing j(x) = X - 9 = (Jx - 3)(-/X + 3) Jx-3 Jx-3 it is evident that for all nonnegative values of x, except x = 9, we have f(x) = Jx + 3. Thus, the closer x is to 9 (but x ¥- 9), the closer .f(x) is to J9 + 3, or 6. Using the limit notation (2.1) and the fact that x ¥- 9, lim x-9 Jx- X- 9 = lim 3 x-9 cJx + 3) = 6. • 2x 2 - 5x + 2 Example 3 If f(x) = 5 2 _ 7X _ 6 , find x-2 f(x). lim X Solution Note that 2 is not in the domain off since 0/0 is obtained when 2 is substituted for x. Factoring the numerator and denominator gives us f(x) = (x - 2)(2x - 1). (x - 2)(5x + 3) Thus, if x ¥- 2, the values off(x) are the same as those of (2x - 1)/(5x + 3). It follows that if xis close to 2 (but x ¥- 2), thenf (x) is close to (4 - 1)/(1 0 + 3) or 133 • Thus it appears that . 2x 2 - 5x +2 . (x - 2)(2x - 1) lim 2 l!m------ = x-25x -7x- 6 x- 2 (x- 2)(5x + 3) 2x- I 3 =lim--=-. x-2 5x + 3 13 • The preceding examples demonstrate that algebraic manipulations can sometimes be used to simplify the task of finding limits. In other cases a considerable amount of ingenuity is necessary to determine whether or not a limit exists. This will be especially true when limits of trigonometric,

62.
Introduction 2.1 53 exponential, and logarithmic functions are discussed. For example, it will be shown in Section 2.5 that . sm x l1m--= 1. x-0 X This important formula cannot be obtained algebraically. The function/ defined by f(x) = 1/x provides an illustration in which no limit exists as x approaches 0. If x is assigned values closer and closer to 0 (but x # 0), f(x) increases without bound numerically, as illustrated in Figure 1.31. W.e shall have more to say about this function in Example 2 of the next section. 2.1 ExercisesIn Exercises 1-16 use algebraic simplifications to help find the 21 y = 3x + 2, P(l, 5) 22 y= Jx, P(4, 2)limits, if they exist. 23 y = 1/x, P(2, 1) 24 y=x- 2 ,P(2,i) x2 - 4