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5 CONTENTS Articles, Essays & Notes THE UNCONSTITUTIONAL PROSECUTION OF THE TALIBAN UNDER THE MILITARY COMMISSIONS ACT 1 Commander Syed N. Ahmad, JAGC, USN THE CONTINUING FALLOUT FROM CRAWFORD: IMPLICATIONS FOR MILITARY JUSTICE PRACTITIONERS 31 Lieutenant Commander David M. Gonzalez, JAGC, USN BUILDING THE GLOBAL MARITIME SECURITY NETWORK: A MULTINATIONAL LEGAL STRUCTURE TO COMBAT TRANSNATIONAL THREATS 73 Lieutenant Commander Jon D. Peppetti, JAGC, USN INTERDICTION ON THE HIGH SEAS: THE ROLE AND AUTHORITY OF A MASTER IN THE BOARDING AND SEARCHING OF HIS SHIP BY FOREIGN WARSHIPS 157 Commander David G. Wilson, JAGC, USN THE MILITARY COMMISSIONS ACT OF 2006: AN UNNECESSARY SCHEME FOR SECOND-CLASS JUSTICE OR AN ESSENTIAL MEANS TO PROSECUTE PERSONS WHO WOULD OTHERWISE ESCAPE ACCOUNTABILITY 213 Benjamin V. Madison, III THE NEGLECTED DEBATE OVER SEXUAL ASSAULT POLICY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 311 Lieutenant Keith B. Lofland, JAGC, USN FEDERAL COURT DEVELOPMENTS IN MILITARY PERSONNEL LAW: PROTECTING SERVICE MEMBERS 337 John A. Wickham LIGHTNING BUT NO THUNDER: THE NEED FOR CLARITY IN MILITARY COURTS REGARDING THE DEFINITION OF MENTAL RETARDATION IN CAPITAL CASES AND FOR PROCEDURES IN IMPLEMENTING ATKINS v. VIRGINIA 359 Lieutenant Jessica Hudson, JAGC, USN, ENS Kyle Fralick, JAGC, USN, and First Lieutenant John A. Sautter, USMC

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7 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA THE UNCONSTITUTIONAL PROSECUTION OF THE TALIBAN UNDER THE MILITARY COMMISSIONS ACT Commander Syed N. Ahmad, JAGC, USN * We further our mission of destroying the enemy by propagandizing his troops, by treating his captured soldiers with consideration, and by caring for those of his wounded who fall into our hands. If we fail in these respects, we strengthen the solidarity of the enemy. 1 This article addresses one aspect of the Military Commissions Act of 2006 (hereinafter MCA) 2 : the constitutionality of declaring members of the * Syed N. Ahmad, Commander, Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Navy. The author appreciates the outstanding instruction provided by Professor Gary D. Solis, Georgetown University Law Center, for whose course this article was originally submitted as a paper, the patience shown by the article s editor, LCDR Dave Lee, the translation assistance of Pierre-Thomas Taponier, and, most important, the never-ending forgiveness shown by my wife as I tried to enhance my original paper into this article. The views expressed (and any errors made) in this article are the author's and are not attributable to the U.S. government. The author s positions and opinions do not represent the views of the U.S. Navy, Defense Department, or any other U.S. governmental agency. 1 MAO TSE-TUNG, ON GUERRILLA WARFARE 93 (Samuel B. Griffith trans., Frederick A. Praeger 1961) (1937). 2 Military Commissions Act of 2006, Pub. L. No , 120 Stat (2007). Outside the scope of this article are a number of other issues involving the MCA which are of arguable legality and wisdom, and which warrant further research (other than the already anticipated issues involving coerced statements, ex post facto offenses, and habeas corpus). Jurisdiction The status of members of Al Qaeda. Currently, they, like the Taliban, are listed as a group as unlawful enemy combatants in the MCA. This may be too simplistic however. Arguably, as the conflict with Al Qaeda has changed from a non-armed conflict to an international armed conflict to a non-international armed conflict within Afghanistan and Iraq, so too has the status of various members of Al Qaeda captured during each type of conflict -- common criminals, protected persons, possibly (but factually unlikely) prisoners of war, unlawful combatants, and individuals protected under Common Article 3. Use of commissions for resident aliens. 10 U.S.C. 948a(3), 948c (treating resident and nonresident aliens the same). M. E. Bowman, National Security and the Fourth and Fifth Amendments, in NATIONAL SECURITY LAW 1059, 1068 n.55 (John Norton Moore & Robert F. Turner eds., 2005) ("A line of cases beginning with Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957), make clear that the Constitution does travel with U.S. citizens with respect to governmental actions. As for aliens, a substantial connection to the United States would be required for similar treatment."); cf. Neal K. Katyal & Laurence H. Tribe, Waging War, Deciding Guilt: Trying the Military Tribunals, 1

8 Naval Law Review LV 111 YALE L.J. 1259, (2002) (questioning whether equal protection violated when aliens in general are subject to military commissions, but U.S. citizens are not). Procedural Rules Application of customary international law in the commissions. 10 U.S.C. 948b(g). Although the MCA prohibits the use of the Geneva Conventions as a basis of rights in court, the act is silent as to whether customary international law may be an alternate source of rights. In fact, Rule for Military Commission 201(a)(3) and Military Commission Rule of Evidence 201A(b) leave open the possibility that international law may, in fact, be used. MANUAL FOR MILITARY COMMISSIONS II- 12, III-4 (2007). As many provisions of the Geneva Conventions have become customary international law, if not principles of jus cogens, any effort to exclude the conventions, without excluding customary international law, may be ineffective. David Glazier, Full and Fair By What Measure?: Identifying the International Law Regulating Military Commission Procedure, 24 B.U. INT'L L.J. 55, 59 (2006) ( Even if the MCA is construed to foreclose further litigation over [Common Article 3] or the full Geneva Conventions, there may be room for the potential judicial application of international human rights law ("IHRL") or customary law of war provisions. ); cf. Carlos Manuel Vazquez, Agora: Military Commissions Act of 2006: The Military Commissions Act, the Geneva Conventions, and the Courts: A Critical Guide, 101 AM. J. INT L L. 71, 98 (2007) ( [T]he ambiguities in the provisions of the [MCA] that arguably curtail judicial enforcement of the Geneva Conventions should be resolved, to the extent possible, in such a way as to preserve the judicial role in enforcing those important treaties. ). But see Memorandum from Jay S. Bybee, U.S. Dep t of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, to Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, & William J. Haynes, General Counsel to the Dep t of Def., Application of Treaties and Laws to Al Qaeda and Taliban Detainees, (Jan. 22, 2002), reprinted in THE TORTURE PAPERS 81, (Karen J. Greenberg & Joshua L. Dratel, eds., 2005) (customary international law does not constitute federal law). Potential closure of the hearing for national security purposes. 10 U.S.C. 949d(d). The accused shall be present for all proceedings, unless he causes a disruption, the members are deliberating, or it is an ex parte session (the latter two, the public would have no right to witness). It appears that if an issue of national security arises before the members in open court, the accused who is alleged to be an enemy combatant will be entitled to be present. It is an issue, however, whether the decision to allow the accused to be present will or should open the door to allowing the public and press to be present as well. See Katherine Flanagan-Hyde, Note, The Public's Right of Access to the Military Tribunals and Trials of Enemy Combatants, 48 ARIZ. L. REV. 585, 613 (2007) ( [T]he public's right of access to trials of terror detainees will be implicated if trials proceed under the recently enacted modified military commission procedures. ). Moreover, it is unclear whether Rule for Military Commissions 804(a), which permits the exclusion of the accused for national security related in camera and ex parte sessions, is broader than 10 U.S.C. 949d(d). Definition of Offenses Failure to punish crimes against peace. Article 6 of the Nuremberg Tribunal Charter permitted the punishment of crimes against peace: "The following acts, or any of them, are crimes coming within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal for which there shall be individual responsibility: Crimes against Peace: namely, planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements, or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of the foregoing..." DOCUMENTS ON THE LAWS OF WAR 177 (Adam Roberts & Richard Guelff eds., 3d ed. 2000) [hereinafter LAWS OF WAR]. Although Osama Bin Laden declared war on the United States, the MCA does not attempt to punish crimes against peace. Osama Bin Laden, Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of Two 2

9 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA Taliban unlawful enemy combatants subject to punishment by a military commission. 3 This article argues that the declaration that detained Taliban 4 are unlawful enemy combatants is in violation of the law of war, and, as a result, Congress exceeded its authority under Article I, section 8, clause 10 of the U.S. Constitution 5 by subjecting members of the Taliban to trial by a military commission. In Part I, this article provides a background on the issues. Part II discusses the meaning of the term lawful enemy combatant. Part III discusses the nature of conflict between the United States and the Taliban. Parts IV and V demonstrates that the Taliban are prisoners of war under both the Geneva Conventions and customary international law. Part VI discusses the inapplicability of commissions for prisoners of war. Part VII discusses the constitutional issue. Part VIII concludes the article. Holy Places (Aug. 23, 1996), Offenses of terrorism and material support to terrorism under the law of war. 10 U.S.C. 950v(b)(24)-(25). Although terrorism is routinely condemned, there is no international definition for it. John F. Murphy, The Control of International Terrorism, in NATIONAL SECURITY LAW, supra, at 457, 458 (2005) ("[T]here is at present no generally accepted definition of 'international terrorism,' as demonstrated by the cliché, '[o]ne man's terrorism is another man's heroism.'"). In fact, Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court does not list terrorism or material support to terrorism in its list of crimes that violate the laws and customs of international armed conflict. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 8, Jul. 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90, As a result, it is arguable as to whether terrorism is a law of war violation (it is clearly a criminal offense however). Offense of conspiracy. 10 U.S.C. 950v(b)(28). There are two issues associated with conspiracy. To begin with, conspiracy might not be an offense under the law of war. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 126 S. Ct. 2749, (2006) (Stevens, J.). Moreover, the MCA inexplicably adds an additional requirement to its offense of conspiracy by requiring the accused to commit the overt act himself (a requirement not present in the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 81, Conspiracy, which permits the overt act to be committed by any co-conspirator). It is unclear whether the law of war requires this, or whether it even requires an overt act. Cf. 21 U.S.C. 846 (conspiracy for drug offenses); United States v. Shabani, 513 U.S. 10, 11 (1994) (no overt act required for conspiracy charge under 846) U.S.C. 948a(1)(i), 948c. 4 This article addresses only members of the Taliban captured between October 7, 2001 (the start of combat operations) and December 22, 2001 (the control of Afghanistan by Afghan leadership under the Bonn Accords), S.C. Res. 1383, 2, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1383 (Dec. 6, 2001). Any members of the Taliban captured after the control of Afghan leadership are not prisoners of war, as there is no longer an international armed conflict in effect. Instead, it is a Common Article 3 conflict (a noninternational armed conflict). 5 U.S. CONST. art. I, 8, cl. 10 (Congress shall have power [t]o define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ). 3

10 Naval Law Review LV I. BACKGROUND The Taliban began as a small group of religious students, primarily of Pashtun ethnicity, in Afghanistan in early In Pushto [(the language of Pashtuns)] the word taliban generally denotes students studying in deeni madaris (religious institutions). 7 The military structure of the Taliban is shrouded in... secrecy. 8 At least before September 11, 2001, the political and military leader was Mullah Mohammed Omar. 9 Under him, there was a chief of general staff and then chiefs of staff for the army and air force. 10 There was a military shura (council), which was a loose body that planned strategy and implemented tactical decisions; however, it appears to have had no strategic decisionmaking or enforcement authority. 11 There were at least four army divisions and an armoured division...[with a] regular Taliban army [that] has never numbered more than 25,000 to 30,000 men It is not entirely clear, but it appears that 30% of this number includes Pakistani madrassa students, who... served for short periods of time before returning home and sending back fresh recruits. 13 The army did consist in part of professional and trained soldiers drawn from the former communist army. These Pashtun tank drivers, gunners, pilots and mechanics... serve in the armies of whoever controls Kabul. 14 Although there is no clear military structure with a hierarchy of officers and commanders, members have been disciplined for infractions such as looting. 15 It appears that the Taliban ultimately have elements of both a regular army (including tanks, armored fighting vehicles, fighter aircraft, transport helicopters, etc.) 16 and a lashkar or 6 PETER MARSDEN, THE TALIBAN, WAR, RELIGION AND THE NEW ORDER IN AFGHANISTAN (1998). 7 KAMAL MATINUDDIN, THE TALIBAN PHENOMENON 12 (1999) ( Talib is an Arabic word, the literal meaning of which is one who is seeking something for himself. It is derived from the word talab, meaning desire. In Urdu it is generally affixed with another word to clarify what is being sought... [h]ence the Urdu word Talib-e-ilm is a person in search of knowledge i.e., a student. ). 8 AHMED RASHID, TALIBAN, ISLAM, OIL AND THE NEW GREAT GAME IN CENTRAL ASIA 99 (2001). 9 Id. at 5, Id. at Hekmat Karzai, Strengthening Security in Contemporary Afghanistan: Coping with the Taliban, in BUILDING A NEW AFGHANISTAN 56, 61 (Robert I. Rotberg ed., 2007). 12 RASHID, supra note 8, at Id. at Id. The author refers to these soldiers as mercenaries. Although this may be true in a colloquial sense, these individuals would not be considered mercenaries under international law because they are nationals and/or residents of Afghanistan and they do not receive any salary in excess of that paid to the regular armed forces. 15 Id. at Anthony Davis, How the Taliban Became a Military Force, in FUNDAMENTALISM REBORN? AFGHANISTAN AND THE TALIBAN 43, 48 (William Maley ed., 1998). 4

11 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA traditional militia force, which has long historical antecedents amongst the Pashtun tribes. 17 Although the Taliban did not use traditional organized military tactics, they nonetheless fought other militias in trying to control Afghanistan. 18 Moreover, it does not appear that all members of the Taliban wore a fixed distinctive sign, but some apparently did they wore distinctive white turbans When discussing surrender with opposing militias, they would use their Taliban flag (pure white with religious writing in green) to approach. 20 By September 11, 2001, the Taliban ruled approximately ninety percent of Afghanistan; however, the Taliban were not recognized by the United States as the legitimate government of Afghanistan (and in fact, only three countries recognized them as such). 21 The Northern Alliance held control over the remaining ten percent of Afghanistan, and held Afghanistan's seat in the United Nations General Assembly. 22 On September 11, 2001, the United States was attacked by members of Al Qaeda, who used four hijacked airplanes as weapons. The leadership of Al Qaeda was located in Afghanistan in an area under the control of the Taliban. Although there is significant evidence that indicates a close relationship between the two groups, it appeared that Al Qaeda was an independent actor. 23 The United States demanded that the Taliban turn over members of Al Qaeda. 24 The Taliban refused, unless proof was provided of Al Qaeda s involvement and turnover could be provided to a third country. 25 In light of the Taliban s refusal, 17 RASHID, supra note 8, at 100. John C. Yoo & James C. Ho, The Status of Terrorists, 44 VA. J. INT'L L. 207, 219 (2003) ("At best, it appears that Taliban fighters are members of a militia. Indeed, the Central Intelligence Agency has recognized that Afghanistan has no national military, but rather a number of tribal militias factionalized among various groups."). 18 MATINUDDIN, supra note 7, at (detailing Taliban s military campaign from 1994 to 1997). 19 MARSDEN, supra note 6, at MATINUDDIN, supra note 7, at BARRY CARTER ET AL., INTERNATIONAL LAW 69 (2003). 22 Id. 23 Despite conflicting statements among different U.S. officials, the most convincing evidence that the two were separate entities, at least before 7 October, comes from President Bush, who, when he demanded Bin Laden and other terrorist members, made no such demand for the Taliban leadership. Sean D. Murphy, Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law, 96 AM. J. INT L L. 237, 243 (2002). It is hard to imagine that if Al Qaeda were part of the Taliban, the Taliban leadership would have been excused from any demands against it in response to the horrific attacks on September 11th. 24 Id.. 25 Id. at

12 Naval Law Review LV on October 7, 2001, the United States initiated combat operations against the Taliban and Al Qaeda in Afghanistan as a legitimate exercise of self-defense. 26 During the combat operations, the United States captured a number of individuals, who were later transferred for detention at the U.S. naval base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Of the approximately five hundred detainees (including members of Al Qaeda, Taliban, and other groups) whose status was initially reviewed, about 110 were originally suspected of being exclusively members of the Taliban (as opposed to members of, or associated with, Al Qaeda). 27 On November 13, 2001, the President issued a military order that authorized the trial of members of Al Qaeda by military commission. 28 The Taliban were not discussed in this order. Later, on February 7, 2002, the President determined that the provisions of [the Geneva Conventions (hereinafter Geneva) 29 ] will apply to our present conflict with the Taliban... Based on the facts supplied by the Department of Defense and the recommendation of the Department of Justice, [the President] determine[d, 26 Letter from John D. Negroponte, Permanent Representative of the United States to the United Nations, to President of the Security Council, U.N. Doc. S/2001/946 (Oct. 7, 2001), 27 U.S. Dep't of Defense documents concerning Combatant Status Review Tribunal (CSRT) Procedures for Enemy Combatants Detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba, available at The exact figures of those found to be exclusively Taliban and those that are still detained as of May 23, 2007 were unavailable. 28 Military Order, 66 Fed. Reg (Nov. 16, 2001). 29 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in the Field, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3114, 75 U.N.T.S. 31; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3217, 75 U.N.T.S. 85; Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 [hereinafter GC III]; Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3516, 75 U.N.T.S These are the four treaties that make up what is commonly known as the Geneva Conventions. Every state is a now party to the Geneva Conventions. Press Release, International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Conventions of 1949 Achieve Universal Acceptance (Aug. 21, 2006), available at ?opendocument. Only two states were not parties to the Convention as of 7 October 2001: Nauru and Marshall Islands. Both countries have done so, as have two states created since 7 October 2001, Montenegro and Timor-Leste. One might assert that Niue is not a party to the Geneva Conventions, and therefore, the conventions are not universal. This is incorrect. Niue has a free association with New Zealand, that is, it is protected by New Zealand generally for external and defense matters. In fact, they have no military and they are not a member of the United Nations. Government of Niue website, As Niue is not considered a "state" in international law, its failure to be a party to the Geneva Conventions is irrelevant. Although the Cook Islands have the same status as Niue as a free association with New Zealand, and the Cook Islands are a party to the Geneva Conventions, they are not required to be -- the Cook Islands ratification is of no legal significance on the universal acceptance issue. 6

13 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA however,] that the Taliban detainees are unlawful combatants and, therefore, do not qualify as prisoners of war under Article 4 of Geneva. 30 In Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against the government's effort to try an alleged member of Al Qaeda by military commission. 31 In response to the Hamdan decision, Congress enacted the MCA, which authorizes the trial by military commission of members of the Taliban (and Al Qaeda). II. LAWFUL ENEMY COMBATANTS UNDER THE MCA ARE PRISONERS OF WAR The MCA utilizes the following definitions to describe those subject to its jurisdiction: The term "unlawful enemy combatant" means "(i) a person who has engaged in hostilities or who has purposefully and materially supported hostilities against the United States or its co-belligerents who is not a lawful enemy combatant (including a person who is part of the Taliban, al Qaeda, or associated forces)"... The term "lawful enemy combatant" means a person who is "(A) a member of the regular forces of a State party engaged in hostilities against the United States..." 32 There is, however, no definition of the term "enemy combatant" in the law of war. 33 The term "combatant" has been used since in various 30 Sean D. Murphy, Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law, 98 AM. J. INT L L. 820, (2004) (quoting Memorandum from President George W. Bush to the Vice President, the Secretaries of State and Defense, the Attorney General, and Other Officials 1-2 (Feb. 7, 2002)). 31 The Court did not have the issue of the legality of trials for members of the Taliban before it, and, naturally, therefore, it did not address it. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 126 S. Ct (2006) U.S.C. 948a. 33 According to two prominent, current sources, the term "enemy combatant" was used in the original 1864 Geneva Convention: "Commanders-in-Chief may hand over immediately to the enemy outposts enemy combatants wounded during an engagement, when circumstances allow and subject to the agreement of both parties." International Committee of the Red Cross, Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. Geneva, Aug.22, 1864, art. 6, available at (last visited on May 23, 2007); THE LAWS OF ARMED CONFLICTS (Dietrich Schindler & Jiri Toman eds., 2004) (citing 3 EDWARD HERTSLET, THE MAP OF EUROPE BY TREATY , at (1875)). This appears to be incorrect. The French language text is the authentic text. THE LAWS OF ARMED CONFLICTS, supra, at 365. The French text does not use the term combattants." "Les combattants" was the French word for combatants, as evidenced by its use in the Additional Articles Relating to the Condition of the 7

14 Naval Law Review LV agreements, including Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) of 8 June 1977 (hereinafter AP I), which in essence defines a combatant as one who has "the right to participate directly in hostilities." 35 Upon capture, such combatants are considered to be prisoners of war under AP I. The modifiers "lawful" or "unlawful" have not been used in law of war agreements; instead they, along with "enemy," were first used by the Supreme Court: By universal agreement and practice, the law of war draws a distinction between the armed forces and the peaceful populations of belligerent nations and also between those who are lawful and unlawful combatants. Lawful combatants are subject to capture and detention as prisoners of war by opposing military forces. Unlawful combatants are likewise subject to capture and detention, but in addition they are subject to trial and punishment by military tribunals for acts which render their belligerency unlawful. The spy who secretly and without uniform passes the military lines of a belligerent in time of war, seeking to gather military information and communicate it to the enemy, or an enemy combatant who without uniform comes secretly through the lines for the purpose of waging war by destruction of life or property, are familiar examples of belligerents who are generally deemed not to be entitled to the status of prisoners of war, but to be offenders against the law of war subject to trial and punishment by military tribunals. 36 It is understandable that the modifier "enemy" would be used in a domestic context (both by the Supreme Court and Congress), where one side is in fact labeled as the "enemy," as opposed to the international context, where each side considers the other the enemy. In addition, the modifiers "lawful" and "unlawful" are useful to describe those protected by the law of war as a prisoner of war and those who are not so protected. This presumably was the Supreme Court and Congress' basis to use such terms. Wounded in War, art. 6, Oct. 20, 1868, 22 Stat. 946, 948 (U.S. only party; not ratified by any state) [hereinafter 1868 Geneva Convention]. The U.S. translation of the original convention is more accurate, using instead the term "enemy soldiers." Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded on the Field of Battle, art. 6, Aug. 22, 1864, 22 Stat. 940, 944, 1 Bevans 7, "The appreciation of these circumstances is entrusted to the humanity of all the combatants." 1868 Geneva Convention, supra note 33, art. 6, 22 Stat. at Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), art. 43, June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3, 23 [hereinafter AP I]. 36 Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, (1942) (footnotes omitted). 8

15 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA In order to analyze these newly defined MCA concepts of lawful and unlawful enemy combatant, a "translation" into law of war terminology is helpful. First, a captured lawful enemy combatant should be considered the same as an enemy prisoner of war: in fact, the MCA uses some of the same standards to determine who is a lawful enemy combatant that the law of war uses to determine who is entitled to prisoner of war status. 37 Second, it follows that a captured unlawful enemy combatant should be considered the same as one who does not qualify for prisoner of war protections. The next step is to determine the law that applies to the conflict in which these individuals were detained. III. THE UNITED STATES AND TALIBAN WERE ENGAGED IN AN INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT The United States and Afghanistan are parties to the Geneva Conventions. 38 The Geneva Conventions, Common Article 2 apply "to all cases of... armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties... The Convention shall also apply to all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party, even if the said occupation meets with no armed resistance." 39 Such international armed conflict includes war and any other difference between two or more States[, which leads] to the intervention of members of the armed forces [or other individuals who meet the conditions under GC III, Article 4]. 40 In light of the presence of U.S.C. 948a (2006); GC III, supra note 29, art. 4, 6 U.S.T. at , 75 U.N.T.S. at The MCA provides lawful status to members of the armed forces of a Party, even if the government is not recognized by the United States, in compliance with GC III, article 4, subparagraphs (A)(1) and 4(A)(3). It also provides protections for militia, volunteer corps or organized resistance movements belonging to a Party in the conflict if they meet four conditions listed in GC III, article 4(A)(2). However, the MCA is silent as to the status for members of militia and volunteer corps forming part of the armed forces; in other words, it does not address the requirement in GC III, article 4(A)(1), to afford such individuals prisoner of war status, as will be discussed. Moreover, the MCA is silent as to the protections for persons who accompany the armed forces, members of crews, and inhabitants who take up arms to resist invading forces (levée en masse), for whom GC III, article 4, subparagraphs (A)(4)-(A)(6), provide protection as prisoners of war. The MCA is also silent on individuals captured during occupation or individuals who are interned, who are both discussed in GC III, article 4(B). 38 LAWS OF WAR, supra note 2, at 355, GC III, supra note 29, art. 2, 6 U.S.T. at 3318, 75 U.N.T.S. at 136. Within the Geneva Conventions, the 12 articles that are part of all four treaties are called the Common Articles. For convenience s sake, citations to the common articles will normally only be to GC III. 40 JEAN DE PREUX ET AL., COMMENTARY III GENEVA CONVENTION RELATIVE TO THE TREATMENT OF PRISONERS OF WAR 23 (Jean S. Pictet ed., A.P. de Heney trans., International Committee of the Red Cross 1960). There is a similar commentary for each of the other three Geneva Conventions. These commentaries, however, are not part of the Geneva Convention s preparatory work. Instead, 9

16 Naval Law Review LV U.S. troops in Afghanistan, who conducted combat operations against the Taliban, it is clear that the U.S. and the Taliban were engaged in a Common Article 2, international armed conflict. This requires the application of all the Geneva Conventions. One might argue that the United States was acting on behalf of the Northern Alliance in its internal conflict against the Taliban, and as a result, it was not engaged in an international armed conflict with Afghanistan (or the Taliban). 41 This is generally not recognized as valid under the law of war, but instead, such a situation would normally be recognized as both an intra-state and an inter-state conflict. 42 The parties belonging to the state are engaged in the intra-state conflict. If a state intervenes on one side in a civil war, it is considered to be in an inter-state conflict with the other side. Article 2's requirements are to be read broadly: "By its general character, this paragraph deprives belligerents, in advance, of the pretexts they might in theory put forward for evading their obligations." 43 Moreover, as a factual matter, the United States did not consider itself involved in an internal armed conflict with the Taliban. Such conflicts are referred to as Common Article 3, or noninternational armed, conflicts. In his February 7 determination, the President stated that common Article 3 of Geneva does not apply to... Taliban detainees, because, among other reasons, the relevant conflicts are international in scope and common Article 3 applies only to armed conflict not of an international character. 44 Therefore, the United States operations were part of an international armed conflict. 45 The next question to resolve is the status of the participants in this armed conflict. IV. DETAINED TALIBAN ARE PRISONERS OF WAR (I.E. LAWFUL ENEMY COMBATANTS) UNDER THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS The President of the United States asserted that the Taliban do not qualify for protections as prisoners of war. Initially, the rationale was that the Geneva Conventions did not apply at all to the conflict, but on February 7, 2002, the position was clarified: "Although [the United States] never recognized the the commentaries are the personal work of its authors[,] who were closely associated with the discussions of the Diplomatic Conference of Id. at W. Hays Parks, Special Forces' Wear of Non-Standard Uniforms, 4 CHI. J. INT'L L. 493, 506 (2003) ( Until the collapse of the Taliban regime in December 2001, a strong case could be made that this was an internal conflict between non-state actors in a failed state. ). 42 YORAM DINSTEIN, THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES UNDER THE LAW OF INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT (2004). 43 PREUX ET AL., supra note 40, at Murphy, supra note 30, at DINSTEIN, supra note 42, at

17 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA Taliban as the legitimate Afghan government, Afghanistan is a party to the Convention, and the President has determined that the Taliban are covered by the Convention. Under the terms of the Geneva Convention, however, the Taliban detainees do not qualify as POWs." 46 As the White House Press Secretary explained further, the reason for the lack of status was that the Taliban apparently did not meet the requirements of the Geneva Conventions: Afghanistan is a party to the Geneva Convention. Although the United States does not recognize the Taliban as a legitimate Afghani government, the President determined that the Taliban members are covered under the treaty because Afghanistan is a party to the Convention. Under Article 4 of the Geneva Convention, however, Taliban detainees are not entitled to POW status. To qualify as POWs under Article 4, al Qaeda and Taliban detainees would have to have satisfied four conditions: They would have to be part of a military hierarchy; they would have to have worn uniforms or other distinctive signs visible at a distance; they would have to have carried arms openly; and they would have to have conducted their military operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. The Taliban have not effectively distinguished themselves from the civilian population of Afghanistan. Moreover, they have not conducted their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. Instead, they have knowingly adopted and provided support to the unlawful terrorist objectives of the al-qaeda. 47 In essence, the requirements for other militias and volunteer corps belonging to a Party were placed onto the requirements for the armed forces, and for militias and volunteer corps forming part of the armed forces. In enacting the MCA, Congress has reaffirmed the President s treatment of members of the Taliban with respect to their prisoner of war status. The President and Congress are incorrect, however, in their application of the law of war for three reasons: First, the Taliban appear to be the armed forces of a Party; second, the four conditions do not apply to the armed forces; and third, if there is any doubt on the matter, it must be decided through a GC III, Article 5 tribunal. First, as discussed early, the Taliban had an army. It included elements that were more along the lines of a militia, but maintained a basic warfighting structure overall leader, chief of staff, divisions of soldiers. These should be considered the regular armed forces of Afghanistan (in which case, the lack of recognition of the Taliban as the ruling government is not relevant, in light of 46 Press Release, White House, Fact Sheet on Status of Detainees at Guantanamo (Feb. 7, 2002), available at 47 Ari Fleischer, Statement by the Press Secretary on the Geneva Conventions (May 7, 2003), available at 11

18 Naval Law Review LV GC III, article 4(A)(3)). 48 Moreover, even if one considers them to be a militia or volunteer corps, they clearly formed part of the armed forces as there would be no other regular army of which to speak. The question of whether they were part of the forces is a question of domestic, that is, Afghani law. 49 Second, the four conditions do not apply to the armed forces of a Party (or militia or volunteer corps forming part of such armed forces). A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. 50 The plain meaning of Article 4 makes clear that the four conditions only applies to other militia and volunteer corps belonging to the Party (that is, those not forming part of the armed forces). The four conditions are not listed for the armed forces, or militia and volunteer corps forming part of the armed forces. The preparatory work 51 of the Geneva Conventions confirms that the four conditions were not meant to apply to the armed forces. There was originally a proposal to apply the four conditions to the armed forces. The Soviet delegate, General Slavin, noted that such an application of the four conditions would be contrary to the 1907 Hague Convention and he successfully persuaded the other members of the working group to eliminate any requirement 48 GC III, supra note 29, art. 4, 6 U.S.T. at , 75 U.N.T.S. at HOWARD S. LEVIE, PRISONERS OF WAR IN INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT 36 (1978). A state cannot use domestic law, however, to violate the requirements of the law of war. Id. 50 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, May 23, 1969, art. 31, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, 340 [hereinafter Vienna Convention]; see SIR IAN SINCLAIR, THE VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES 127 (2d ed. 1984) ( When the Court can give effect to a provision of a treaty by giving to the words used in it their natural and ordinary meaning, it may not interpret the words by seeking to give them some other meaning. ) (quoting Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, 1950 I.C.J. 4, 8 (Mar. 3)). Technically, the Vienna Convention does not apply because the Geneva Conventions predate it (and not all states, including the United States, are parties to the Vienna Convention). Vienna Convention, supra, art. 4, 1155 U.N.T.S. at 334. Nonetheless, Article 4 indicates that those rules in customary international law that coincide with the rules agreed upon in the Vienna Convention still apply. Articles of the Vienna Convention constitute a general expression of the principles of customary international law relating to treaty interpretation. SINCLAIR, supra, at 153; see also LORD MCNAIR, THE LAW OF TREATIES (1961) (discussing pre-vienna Convention rules of interpretation); ANTHONY AUST, MODERN TREATY LAW AND PRACTICE (2000) (discussing current rules of interpretation). 51 Preparatory work are a proper means of interpretation. Vienna Convention, supra note 50, art. 32, 1155 U.N.T.S. at 340 ( Recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion, in order to confirm the meaning resulting from the application of article 31, or to determine the meaning when the interpretation according to article 31: (a) Leaves the meaning ambiguous or obscure; or (b) Leads to a result which is manifestly absurd or unreasonable. ); see SINCLAIR, supra note 50, at ( there can be little doubt that [] recourse [to travaux préparatoires or preparatory work] is permissible in carefully controlled circumstances. ). 12

19 2008 Unconstitutional Prosecution of the Taliban Under the MCA for the members of the armed forces to satisfy the four conditions in the final (later ratified) text of the Geneva Conventions. 52 Finally, if there is any doubt as to the status of the detained individuals, they are entitled to have a tribunal determine their status, in accordance with GC III, Article Although the Taliban detainees have undergone a hearing called the Combatant Status Review Tribunal (hereinafter CSRT), CSRT merely determines whether the detainee is an enemy combatant or not; it does not address whether he is a lawful combatant or whether he is entitled to the protections of GC III, Article Proper Article 5 hearings would clarify the various factual issues that exist such as whether members of the Taliban were part of an armed forces, wore a fixed insignia, carried arms openly, complied with the law of war, were part of a militia, were under the command of a superior officer, etc. These facts could conclusively resolve any doubts about the status of the Taliban as prisoners of war. Nonetheless, as the Article 5 default is "prisoner of war," the Taliban needed to be treated as prisoners of war until a proper tribunal determines otherwise. 55 V. DETAINED TALIBAN ARE PRISONERS OF WAR UNDER CUSTOMARY INTERNATIONAL LAW 52 2-A FINAL RECORD OF THE DIPLOMATIC CONFERENCE OF GENEVA OF , One prominent commentator asserted that the failure to list the four factors with the regular armed forces "does not mean that mere membership in the regular armed forces will automatically entitle an individual who is captured to prisoner-of-war status if his activities prior to and at the time of capture have not met these requirements." LEVIE, supra note 49, at His justification was that the Soviet delegate to the Geneva Conventions had "appeared to argue" that the four conditions were not required for members of the armed forces, and he believed the Soviet delegate s argument was not widely accepted at the time he wrote. Despite the commentator's assertion, it appears that the Soviet delegate's view was the one widely accepted in 1949, let alone in 1977 when the commentator wrote, and it is the one that must be accepted even now. 53 "The present Convention shall apply to the persons referred to in Article 4 from the time they fall into the power of the enemy and until their final release and repatriation. Should any doubt arise as to whether persons, having committed a belligerent act and having fallen into the hands of the enemy, belong to any of the categories enumerated in Article 4, such persons shall enjoy the protections of the present Convention until such time as their status has been determined by a competent tribunal." GC III, supra note 29, art. 5, 6 U.S.T. at , 75 U.N.T.S. at Press Release, Dep't of Def., Combatant Status Review Tribunal Order Issued (July 7, 2004), available at Secretary of the Navy, Implementation of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Procedures for Enemy Combatants Detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba (July 29, 2004), available at Deputy Sec'y of Def., Implementation of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Procedures for Enemy Combatants Detained at U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay, Cuba (July 14, 2006), available at 55 Joseph Blocher, Comment, Combatant Status Review Tribunals: Flawed Answers to the Wrong Question, 116 YALE L.J. 667, 673 (2006). 13

20 Naval Law Review LV One might argue that "[i]t has long been understood that regular, professional 'armed forces' must comply with the four traditional conditions of lawful combat under the customary laws of war, and that the terms of articles 4(A)(1) and (3) of [GC III] do not abrogate customary law." 56 The typical reference to the customary laws of war is the 1874 Brussels Declaration and the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions. This is incorrect. A. Brussels Declaration and Hague Conventions In 1874, fifteen delegates met in Brussels to examine a draft of an international agreement concerning the laws and customs of war submitted to them by the Russian Government (hereinafter 1874 Brussels Declaration). 57 It was never ratified, but its provisions were influential in later developments in the law of war. The French text is the authentic text. 58 Article 9 states as follows: Les lois, les droits et les devoirs de la guerre ne s'appliquent pas seulement à l'armée, mais encore aux milices et aux corps de volontaires réunissant les conditions suivantes It then lists four conditions that must be met. 60 An accurate translation of the French text above is as follows: The laws, rights, and duties of war does not apply only to the army, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions... The translation normally provided, however, is slightly different: The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions There are two differences between the translations. First, the French uses the singular for the army and not the plural, as does the translation provided by this article; the common translation inexplicably uses the plural. Second, it is clearer that the four conditions do not literally apply to the army, under the article s translation; 56 Yoo & Ho, supra note 17, at ; Memorandum from Jay S. Bybee, U.S. Dep t of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, to Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, Status of Taliban Forces Under Article 4 of the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, at 4 (Feb. 7, 2002) (available at 57 THE LAWS OF ARMED CONFLICTS, supra note 33, at Id. 59 ACTES DE LA CONFERENCE DE BRUXELLES DE 1874, at To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates; 2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a distance; 3. To carry arms openly; and 4. To conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. THE LAWS OF ARMED CONFLICTS, supra note Id. 14

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