Contents

Fort George was built by the British Army after Jay's Treaty (1796) required Britain to withdraw from Fort Niagara, the new fort was completed in 1802 and became the headquarters for the British Army and the local militia. Major General Sir Isaac Brock served here during the War of 1812, until he was killed in the Battle of Queenston Heights on October 13, 1812 while trying to regain the heights. (That goal was achieved after his death by troops under Major-General Roger Hale Sheaffe.)[2]

During the Battle of Fort George the fort was taken by American forces in May 1813 after a two-day bombardment by cannon from Fort Niagara and the American Fleet, followed by a fierce battle. Most of the buildings were destroyed. Brigadier General John Vincent ordered the troops to evacuate the fort to minimize the number of casualties.[3][4] Afterwards, the Americans built their own fortifications here [5] and used the fort as a base to invade Upper Canada, they were repelled at the Battles of Stoney Creek and Beaver Dams. The fort was retaken by the British Army in December 1813 after U.S. forces abandoned the British side of the river. It was then left to fall into ruins and was eventually abandoned.[6]

The fortification was used by the Canadian Army as a military training base during the First World War and through the Second World War under the name Camp Niagara, the military left the grounds in 1966.[7]

The site was reconstructed in the 1930s and is now staffed by costumed interpreters, it is a National Historic Site of Canada, maintained by Parks Canada with operating hours varying as appropriate to the season.[8] The staff maintains the image of the fort as it was during the early 19th century, with period costumes, exhibits, and displays of that time, they train summer students in the infantry tactics and firing drills of the 41st regiment from the War of 1812. They also have the 41st Fife and Drum Corps which provides an example of how the fife and drums were used.

Reenactors from both the United States and Canada meet on and near the grounds of the fort and reenact the battle that took place in May 1813, this has taken place since 1984 and has grown from a small group of 300 "troops" to over 1800.

The grounds surrounding the fort and the commons adjacent to the fort provided the site for the 8th World Scout Jamboree held in August 1955.

Fort George National Historic Site is one of a handful of sites managed under the administrative name "Niagara National Historic Sites" by Parks Canada, within the National Park System.

The television show The Girly Ghosthunters paid a visit to the fort to investigate any paranormal activity that was allegedly documented there, the episode was shown as the second, of thirteen, episodes of the show in 2005.

1.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development

National Historic Sites of Canada
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Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick; its designation in 1914 marked the beginning of the emerging system of National Historic Sites
National Historic Sites of Canada
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The celebrations of Quebec City 's tricentennial in 1908 acted as a catalyst for federal efforts to designate and preserve historic sites.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Prince of Wales Fort in Churchill, Manitoba was one of the first two sites designated in Western Canada.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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The initial focus of the program was strictly on commemoration rather than preservation or restoration. The ruins of the Fortress of Louisbourg were designated in 1920, but efforts to restore the fortress did not commence until 1961.

2.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805

3.
Palisade
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A palisade—sometimes called a stakewall or a paling—is typically a fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Typical construction consisted of small or mid-sized tree trunks aligned vertically, the trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were driven into the ground and sometimes reinforced with additional construction. The height of a palisade ranged from around a metre to as high as 3-4 m, as a defensive structure, palisades were often used in conjunction with earthworks. Palisades were an excellent option for small forts or other hastily constructed fortifications, since they were made of wood, they could often be quickly and easily built from readily available materials. They proved to be effective protection for short-term conflicts and were a deterrent against small forces. However, because they were wooden constructions they were vulnerable to fire. Often, a palisade would be constructed around a castle as a wall until a permanent stone wall could be erected. They were frequently used in New France, both the Greeks and Romans created palisades to protect their military camps. The Roman historian Livy describes the Greek method as being inferior to that of the Romans during the Second Macedonian War, the Greek stakes were too large to be easily carried and were spaced too far apart. This made it easy for enemies to them and create a large enough gap in which to enter. In contrast, the Romans used smaller and easier to carry stakes which were placed closer together, many settlements of the native Mississippian culture of the Midwestern United States also made use of palisades. The most prominent example is the Cahokia Mounds site in Collinsville, a wooden stockade with a series of watchtowers or bastions at regular intervals formed a 2-mile-long enclosure around Monks Mound and the Grand Plaza. Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade during excavation of the area and indications that it was several times. The stockade seems to have separated Cahokias main ceremonial precinct from other parts of the city, the English settlements in Jamestown, Virginia and Plymouth, Massachusetts were originally fortified towns surrounded by palisades. In the late century, when milled lumber was not available or practical. The walls were made of vertical half timbers, the outside, rounded half with its still on faced Adirondack weather. Typically, the cracks between the logs were filled with moss and sometimes covered with small sticks. Inside, the cracks were covered with narrow wooden battens and it also presented a more finished look inside

4.
Battle of Stoney Creek
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The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought on 6 June 1813 during the War of 1812 near present-day Stoney Creek, Ontario. British units made an attack on an American encampment. On 27 May, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, forcing the British defenders of Fort George into a hasty retreat, the Americans under the overall leadership of General Henry Dearborn, who was elderly and ill, were slow to pursue. A brigade under Brigadier General William H, Winder first followed up Vincent, but Winder decided that Vincents forces were too strong to engage, and halted at the Forty Mile Creek. Another brigade joined him, commanded by Brigadier General John Chandler, who was the senior and their combined force, numbering 3,400, advanced to Stoney Creek, where they encamped on 5 June. The two generals set up their headquarters at the Gage Farm, Vincent sent his Deputy Assistant Adjutant General, Lieutenant Colonel John Harvey, to reconnoitre the American position. A British column of five companies from the 1/8th Regiment of Foot, although Vincent accompanied the column, he placed Harvey in command. At this point, the story of Billy Green comes to light, Billy Green was a 19-year-old local resident who had witnessed the advance of the Americans from the top of the Niagara Escarpment earlier in the day. Billys brother-in-law, Isaac Corman, had briefly captured by the Americans. In order to be able to pass through the American lines and he gave his word of honour that he would not divulge this to the British army. He kept his word, but did reveal the word to Billy Green, who rode his brother-in-laws horse part way, here, he revealed the password to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. He was provided with a sword and uniform and used his knowledge of the terrain to guide the British to the American position, Billy Green was present at the battle. However, it has suggested that the password was actually obtained by Lieutenant Colonel Harvey. According to an account given after the war by Frederick Snider, pretending to be the American officer of the day making Grand Rounds, he approached the sentry and when challenged, came close to the sentrys ear as if to whisper the countersign. But with bayonet secreted in hand, he grabbed the surprised sentry by the throat, with the bayonet at his throat, the sentry gave up the password. This suggestion illustrates the incomplete research into aspects of the Battle of Stoney Creek. Snider gave this account not long before his death in 1877, Snider was confusing Harvey with Colonel Murray, June 1813 with December 1813 and Stoney Creek with Youngstown near Fort Niagara. Snider makes several obvious errors, such as the British General St. Vincent was found days after wandering about in the woods nearly dead of hunger

5.
Parks Canada
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Parks Canada, also known as the Parks Canada Agency, is an agency of the Government of Canada run by a chief executive who answers to the Minister of the Environment. Parks Canada manages 38 National Parks, three National Marine Conservation Areas,171 National Historic Sites, and one National Landmark, the agency also administers lands and waters set aside as potential national parklands, including eight National Park Reserves and one National Marine Conservation Area Reserve. The Canadian Register of Historic Places is supported and managed by Parks Canada, in collaboration with provincial and territorial governments, the agency is also the working arm of the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board, which recommends National Historic Sites, Events, and Persons. Parks Canada was established on May 19,1911, as the Dominion Parks Branch under the Department of the Interior, the services activities are regulated under the provisions of the Canada National Parks Act, which was enacted in 1930, and amended in 2000. To mark the 150th anniversary of Confederation in 2017, Parks Canada is offering free passes to national parks, the Parks Canada Agency was established as a separate service entity in 1998, and falls under the responsibility of Environment Canada. Before 2003, Parks Canada fell under the jurisdiction of the Department of Canadian Heritage, from 1979 to 1994, Parks Canada was part of the Department of Environment, and before it was part of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, and the Department of the Interior. With the organizational shifts and political leadership in Canada, the priorities of Parks Canada have shifted over the years more towards conservation, starting in the 1960s, Parks Canada has also moved to decentralize its operations. S. C. Marie Canal, Saint-Ours Canal, Chambly Canal, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue Canal, Carillon Canal, Lachine Canal, the Department of Canadian Heritage, which runs federal Museums and more cultural affairs, falls under the control of the Minister of Heritage. They are designated under section 18 of the Canada National Parks Act and have the authority of peace officers and they carry firearms and have access to other use of force options. The Minister may also designate provincial and local enforcement officers under section 19 of the Act for the purpose of enforcing laws within the specified parks and these officers have the power of peace officers only in relation to the Act. In May 2012, it was reported that Park Wardens may be designated to enforce certain wildlife acts administered by Environment Canada. Should the designations go ahead it would only be for Park Wardens that are stationed near existing migratory bird sanctuaries, historical Analysis of Parks Canada and Banff National Park, 1968–1995 List of legislation for which Parks Canada is responsible Lothian, W. F. A History of Canadas National Parks Volumes I-IV Lothian, W. F, a Brief History of Canadas National Parks Lothian, W. F. Histoire des parcs nationaux du Canada Volumes I-IV Lothian, W. F, a Century of Parks Canada, 1911–2011, Free eBook Parks Canada article in the Canadian Encyclopedia National Parks of Canada Electronic Library

Parks Canada
Parks Canada
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Parks Canada

6.
Virtual Museum of Canada
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The Virtual Museum of Canada is Canadas national virtual museum. With a directory of over 3,000 Canadian heritage institutions and a database of over 600 virtual exhibits, the VMC includes virtual exhibits, educational resources for teachers, and over 900,000 images. The resources are bilingual, available in both French and English, the Virtual Museum of Canada provides an online environment for Canadian communities to tell their stories and preserve their history. One way that this is achieved is through the VMC Investment Programs, the Virtual Exhibits Investment Program is geared to medium- to large-sized institutions. The other offering is the Community Memories Program, which is an investment program designed for smaller Canadian community museums, media related to Virtual Museum of Canada at Wikimedia Commons Official website Official website

Virtual Museum of Canada
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Logo of the Virtual Museum of Canada, a Canadian Heritage initiative.

7.
War of 1812 Campaigns
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The following is a synopsis of the land campaigns of the War of 1812. This campaign includes all operations in the Canada-US border region except the battle of Chippewa, the invasion and conquest of western Canada was a major objective of the United States in the War of 1812. In the first phase of the war along the border in 1812, Fort Mackinac fell, Fort Dearborn was evacuated, and Fort Detroit surrendered without a fight. American attempts to invade Canada across the Niagara Peninsula and toward Montreal failed completely. Brig. Gen. William Henry Harrisons move to recapture Detroit was repulsed, meanwhile, in April 1813, Maj. Gen. Henry Dearborns expedition captured Fort Toronto and partially burned York, capital of Upper Canada. On 27 May, Brig. Gen. Jacob Brown repelled a British assault on Sacketts Harbor, an American force led by Col. Winfield Scott seized Fort George and the town of Queenston across the Niagara, but the British regained control of this area in December 1813. A two-pronged American drive on Montreal from Sacketts Harbor and Plattsburg, commodore Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British fleet on Lake Erie, opening the way for Harrisons victory at the Thames River, which reestablished American control over the Detroit Area. A Campaign Streamer, which was embroidered Canada,18 June 1812 –17 February 1815 was awarded for this campaign, an American advance from Plattsburg in March 1814, led by Maj. Gen. Scotts well-trained troops broke the line with a skillfully executed charge. British losses were 137 killed and 304 wounded, American,48 killed and 227 wounded, after Chippewa, Browns force advanced to Queenstown, but soon abandoned a proposed attack on Forts George and Niagara when Chaunceys fleet failed to cooperate in the operation. Instead, on 24–25 July 1814, Brown moved back to the Chippewa preparatory to a march along Lundys Lane to the west end of Lake Ontario. Unknown to Brown, the British had concentrated about 2,200 troops in the vicinity of Lundys Lane and 1,500 more in Forts George and Niagara. The ensuing battle, which involved all of Browns force and some 3,000 British, was fiercely fought. The Americans retired to the Chippewa unmolested, but the battle terminated Browns invasion of Canada, British siege of Fort Erie failed to drive the Americans from that outpost on Canadian soil, but on 5 November they withdrew voluntarily. Commodore Thomas Macdonoughs victory over the British fleet on Lake Champlain compelled Sir George Prevost, Governor General of Canada, to call off his attack on Plattsburg with 11,000 troops. After the surrender of Napoleon, the British dispatched Maj. Gen. Robert Ross from France on 27 June 1814, with 4,000 veterans to raid key points on the American coast. Ross landed at the mouth of the Patuxent River in Maryland with Washington as his objective on 19 August and marched as far as Upper Marlboro, in spite of a considerable advantage in numbers and position, the Americans were easily routed by Ross force. British losses were about 249 killed and wounded, the Americans lost about 100 killed and wounded, British detachments entered the city and burned the Capitol and other public buildings in what was later announced as retaliation for the American destruction at York

War of 1812 Campaigns
War of 1812 Campaigns
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Location map of the War of 1812

8.
Fort Mississauga
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Fort Mississauga National Historic Site is a fort on the shore of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of the Niagara River in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The fort today consists of a brick tower and historic star–shaped earthworks. The all–brick fort was built from 1814–1816 during the War of 1812 and it was built on a foundation of brick and stone salvaged from rubble left after retreating United States forces burned the nearby town of Newark in December,1813. It would help in the defence of Upper Canada the following year, as part of a network that included Fort George, Navy Hall. However, the fort wouldnt be completed until after the war, source, http, //www. eighteentwelve. ca/. q=eng/Topic/25 Before the fort was built, the site was used by at least three Native American tribes, the Neutral, Seneca, and Mississauga. In 1804, a lighthouse was erected at the site, which had known as Mississauga Point. This was the first lighthouse on the Great Lakes, but was dismantled in 1814 to make way for Fort Mississauga, a golf course was laid out nearby in the late 1870s. Today, Niagara-on-the-Lake Golf Course surrounds the site, but public access is permitted via a path, with a warning to look out for golfers. The path starts at the corner of Front and Simcoe streets, the block house is the only building of the original fort to survive with all other buildings destroyed or dismantled. The interior of the blockhouse is closed, but has wooden staircases leading to some upper windows, the Museum is affiliated with, CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada

9.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions

10.
Bruce Peninsula National Park
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Bruce Peninsula National Park is a national park on the Bruce Peninsula in Ontario, Canada. The park offers opportunities for outdoor activities, including hiking, camping. The park has trails ranging in difficulty from easy to expert, the park was the subject of a short film in 2011s National Parks Project, directed by Daniel Cockburn and scored by John K. Samson, Christine Fellows and Sandro Perri. It forms the backbone of the Bruce Peninsula and shapes the northern boundary of most of the park, the rock of the escarpment is very old. Approximately 400 million years ago, this area was covered by a tropical sea teeming with life in the form of plant-like animals, crustaceans, living corals. It would have looked much like the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, when the sea began to dry up, the minerals dissolved in it became more and more concentrated. Magnesium in the water was absorbed into the limestone, which became a softer, slightly different sort of rock. The harder dolomite limestone stones forms much of the rock of the escarpment cliffs along Bruce Peninsula National Parks Georgian Bay shoreline, as at Niagara Falls, the dolomite caprock erodes more slowly than the rock below it, creating the sculptured cliffs for which the area is famous. Since the last Ice Age, water levels in the region have undergone great changes, softer limestone has been eroded away by water action, leaving magnificent overhanging cliffs at various points along the shore. These are the big attraction of the Cyprus Lake trails, where erosion has cut more deeply, caves have been formed, such as the famed Grotto on the shore between the Marr Lake and Georgian Bay Trails. Great blocks of dolomite, undercut by wave action, have tumbled from the cliffs above and can be seen below the surface of the deep. The park has a climate with cool summers and mild winters. In the northern parts of the Peninsula, the climate is among the most temperate in Canada, the climate of park is influenced by both Georgian Bay and Lake Huron, which significantly moderate temperatures. As a result, they tend to prolong milder temperatures in the fall, summers are warm, with an average temperature of 16.8 °C while winters are cool, averaging −6.7 °C. Summers are dominated by hot, humid air masses from the Pacific Ocean, in winter, Pacific air masses predominate, bringing in warm and humid air although cold, dry air from the Arctic highs can occur, bringing in colder and drier conditions. Warm air masses coming from the Gulf of Mexico are rare during winter but are responsible for bringing January and February thaws, spring and fall are characterized by complex weather patterns with contrasting and rapidly changing influences from the different regional air masses. The park receives 900 mm of precipitation per year and this is evenly distributed throughout the year with fall being the wettest. Precipitation is slightly lower than inland areas due to the influence that the narrow peninsula has when air masses travel over it compared to more interior locations

Bruce Peninsula National Park
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The Grotto
Bruce Peninsula National Park
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The "Grotto" at Bruce Peninsula National Park
Bruce Peninsula National Park
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A cliff on the Bruce Trail
Bruce Peninsula National Park
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On the shore of Georgian Bay

11.
Fathom Five National Marine Park
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The many shipwrecks make the park a popular scuba diving destination, and glass bottom boat tours leave Tobermory regularly, allowing tourists to see the shipwrecks without having to get wet. Many visitors camp at nearby Bruce Peninsula National Park and use the park as a base to explore Fathom Five, the Save Ontario Shipwrecks Ohio chapter explored an Ontario wreck in Fathom Five Park in 1986. Established in 1987, the park represented a departure for the national park system. Despite its unique name, it is categorized as an NMCA, in 2006, a new visitors centre opened to serve Fathom Five National Marine Park and the Bruce Peninsula National Park. Designed by Andrew Frontini of Shore Tilbe Irwin + Partners, the CAD $7.82 million centre, approached by a boardwalk, features a centre, reception area, exhibit hall. A 20-metre viewing tower was constructed to provide visitors with aerial views of the surrounding park. The centre was designed with sustainability in mind, receiving $224,000 from the Federal House in Order initiative for implementation of innovative greenhouse gas reduction technology. National Parks of Canada List of National Parks of Canada Sweepstakes Official site Fathom Five Natural History and Cultural Heritage Website

Fathom Five National Marine Park
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Flowerpot Island

12.
Georgian Bay Islands National Park
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Georgian Bay Islands National Park consists of 63 small islands or parts of islands in Georgian Bay, near Port Severn, Ontario. The total park area is approximately 13.5 km2, prior to the creation of Fathom Five National Marine Park, Flowerpot Island was also a part of the park. The islands blend the exposed rocks and pines of the Canadian Shield with the forests found further south. The park can only be reached by boat, there are limited camping facilities on the largest island, the park provides habitat for 33 species of reptiles and amphibians, including the threatened eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake. Some of the isolated islands provide nesting areas for colonies of gulls. The park is part of the Georgian Bay Littoral Biosphere Reserve, Beausoleil Island is the largest island in the park and it offers island tent camping, overnight and day docking, heritage education programs, and hiking trails. Wheelchair accessible sites and reserved campsites are available at the Cedar Spring campground on Beausoleil Island. National Parks of Canada List of National Parks of Canada Official Site

Georgian Bay Islands National Park
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Cedar Springs, Beausoleil Island

13.
Point Pelee National Park
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Point Pelee National Park is a national park in Essex County in southwestern Ontario, Canada where it extends into Lake Erie. The word pelée is French for bald, Point Pelee consists of a peninsula of land, mainly of marsh and woodland habitats, that tapers to a sharp point as it extends into Lake Erie. Middle Island, also part of Point Pelee National Park, was acquired in 2000 and is just north of the Canada–United States border in Lake Erie. Point Pelee is the southernmost point of mainland Canada, and is located on a foundation of sand, silt. This spit of land is more than seven kilometres long by 4.5 kilometres wide at its northern base. Established in 1918, Point Pelee was the first national park in Canada to be established for conservation and it was designated as a Ramsar site on 27 May 1987. Aboriginal people lived on Point Pelee for many years before European colonization, the largest archaeological site found at Point Pelee is thought to have been occupied between AD700 and 900. In 1790, Deputy Indian Agent Alexander McKee negotiated a treaty with Aboriginal communities that ceded a tract of land. The Caldwell First Nation Chippewa people, who inhabited Point Pelee, were not signatories of that treaty, however, the Crown did not realize this, and their land was ceded nonetheless. Subsequently, they were forced off their land, and Point Pelee remains unceded aboriginal land and this has been publicly acknowledged by the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Point Pelee was made a park in 1918 at the urging of birdwatchers and hunters. Commercial fishing continued in the park until 1969, Point Pelee was the only Canadian national park to allow hunting until duck hunting was ended in 1989. It forms the southernmost point in mainland Canada and is part of a bird and butterfly migration corridor over Lake Erie via Point Pelee, over 360 bird species have been recorded in the park. The peak time for bird migration is spring, especially May, many birdwatchers from North America and abroad visit the park in spring, often staying in the nearby town of Leamington. One attraction, apart from the numbers and variety of bird passing through on migration, is the opportunity to see more northerly breeding species such as blackpoll warbler before they move on. In March 2006, high winds washed away the sand point, in October 2007 the level of lake Erie dropped enough to reveal the point again extending at least half a mile out into the water and at least 25 feet wide with a winding curve shape to it. Located in the parts of the St. Lawrence Lowlands. With an area of only 1,564 hectares, it is Canadas smallest national park and this sandspit is dominated by till plains which was formed during the last ice age during the advance and retreat of the Wisconsonian ice on a submerged limestone ridge

Point Pelee National Park
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Boardwalk in April
Point Pelee National Park
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Point Pelee looking south.
Point Pelee National Park
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Point Pelee looking South in April 2008
Point Pelee National Park
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Point Pelee looking north.

14.
French River (Ontario)
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The French River is a river in Central Ontario, Canada. It flows 110 kilometres from Lake Nipissing west to Georgian Bay, the river largely follows the boundary between the Parry Sound District and the Sudbury District, and in most contexts is considered the dividing line between Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The French River was designated a Canadian Heritage River in 1986, the French River flows through typical Canadian Shield country, in many places exposing rugged glaciated rock but also through heavily forested areas on the upper portion. The mouth of the river contains countless islands and numerous channels which vary from narrow, enclosed steep-walled gorges, falls and rapids, other explorers who later followed this route included Simon Fraser, Alexander Mackenzie and David Thompson. Together with the Ottawa and Mattawa Rivers, the French River formed part of the highway from Montreal to Lake Superior in the days of the fur trade. It remained a major canoe route until about 1820, around 1855, the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada provided newfound access to the area and the Georgian Bay. This led to increased exploration and interest for fishing and logging during the era of the Industrial Revolution, after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, there was a boom in logging along with the creation of Lumber barons in the Great Lakes. The French River was ripe for the picking with its inexhaustible supply of timber. Near the end of the 19th century, logging became the primary activity in the area and it was later settled as a summer tourist and recreation area. For this reason, the French River was designated a Canadian Heritage River in 1985, there are 230 undeveloped back-country campsites available in the park along the river. French River continues to attract vacationers and cottage owners who enjoy the water, rocky shores

French River (Ontario)
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Recollet Falls of the French River near Hwy. 69
French River (Ontario)
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Main lakes

15.
Frontenac Provincial Park
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Frontenac Provincial Park is located near the town of Sydenham, north of the city of Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The Government of Ontario has classified Frontenac Provincial Park as an environment park. The park lies on the Frontenac Axis, an extension of the Canadian Shield, which connects to the Adirondack Mountains, and consists of mixed forest, lakes, wetlands. Recreational opportunities include hiking, canoeing, and backcountry camping, wilderness courses are offered to teach wilderness skills in a semi-wilderness setting. Historically, the park provided important resources for local communities through the logging and mining industries, Frontenac Provincial Park is home to a native population of grey wolves. Other animals that call the home are American black bear, red fox, mink, northern river otter, white-tailed deer, porcupine. Frontenac contains many hiking trails totaling about 160 kilometres in length, Arab Lake Gorge Trail is a short,1. 5-kilometre trail that traverses the Arab Lake Gorge. Doe Lake Trail is three kilometres in length and it goes from South Otter Lake to Doe Lake and back. A highlight of the trail is the abandoned Kemp Mine, Slide Lake Loop measures 21 kilometres in length and encircles Slide Lake and parts of Buck Lake. Official website Friends of Frontenac Provincial Park

16.
Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park
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Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park is a remote park in northeastern Ontario, Canada, near Lake Temagami. It is one of the provincial parks located in the Temagami area. This park encompasses Smoothwater Lake, Makobe Lake, the Ishpatina Ridge, Maple Mountain and it lies within the Eastern forest-boreal transition ecoregion. It is well known for its protection of some of the last remaining stands of old growth forest in Ontario, as a wilderness park, there are few services offered to visitors but it is ideal for backcountry canoeing, nature exploration and wildlife viewing. Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park includes many waterfalls, such as Helen Falls, list of Ontario parks Ontario Parks - Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater site Friends of Temagami

Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park
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Moon over Florence Lake

17.
Sandbanks Provincial Park
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Sandbanks Provincial Park is a provincial park located on Lake Ontario in Prince Edward County near Picton, Ontario, Canada. It is noted for its sand dunes and beaches. It also has the worlds largest fresh water sand bar and dune system, Sandbanks is run by the government of Ontario, with areas for different types of recreation. Some parts of the beach had been bought or settled before the designation of the area as a provincial park, naturists have used the beaches for nude bathing for many years. Sandbanks Provincial Park and surrounding beaches are visited by hundreds of thousands of tourists each year, the majority of the tourists come from Ottawa, Toronto, Kingston, New York State, Quebec, and other regions of Southern Ontario. County Road 12 in Prince Edward County, stretching from The Outlet, Ontario to Bloomfield, Ontario, the Sandbanks area of the road was somewhat considerable pasture for cattle. By the mid-1850s, the area was changing dramatically, farmers cut down 200+ year-old trees to clear the land. They built buildings and roads, and in an effort to free up the land to grow crops, the removal of the dunes natural vegetation meant that there was no longer plants to keep the dunes/sand from shifting across the landscape, burying everything in its path. By the 1880s, considerable roadwork was necessary, in fact, the West Lake road had to be moved three times in a period of 50 years, as the sand kept on burying it. In 1911 they tried to plant White Willow to stop the sand, currently, the shifting sand is under control. Sandbanks stands in for Sable Island in the 2002 made-for-television film Touching Wild Horses and it also appears in the films Fly Away Home and Resident Evil, Afterlife. This is also where the video for the 1985 song Wave Babies by Honeymoon Suite was filmed. Official website Friends of Sandbanks Provincial Park

Sandbanks Provincial Park
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Sandbanks Provincial Park

18.
Sleeping Giant Provincial Park
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The nearest communities are Pass Lake, located at the northern entrance to the park, and Dorion, located 35 kilometres NW, both in the township of Shuniah. The seasonal community of Silver Islet is located on the tip of the peninsula. The primary feature of the park is the Sleeping Giant, which is most visible from the city of Thunder Bay. The eastern portion of the park is lowlands, while the western half is composed of cliffs, valleys. At its eastern edge, it will touch the future Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area, the Sibley Peninsula is 52 kilometres long and 10 kilometres wide. It projects into Lake Superior from the shore, separating Thunder Bay to the west. The peninsula can be separated into two physiographic areas—highlands and lowlands, the highlands dominate the western half of the peninsula, and rise to 380 metres above the surface of Lake Superior. The lowlands of the portion of the peninsula rise to only 75 metres. The varied terrain and the effect of Lake Superior on the peninsulas microclimates provide habitats for a variety of plants. Plants found in the park include 23 species of orchids including bog adders-mouth and small round-leaved orchid, wildlife found in the park includes a wide variety of mammals. The most dominant species are white tailed deer and black bears, close to 200 species of birds have been recorded at the park, and about 75 species are known to nest in the park. The park is home to a few species of amphibians and reptiles. Sleeping Giant Provincial Park offers numerous recreational activities, the park has more than 100 kilometres of trails, the longest being the 40 kilometres Kabeyun Trail. Summer programs include guided walks and group campfires, and films at the park amphitheater. Other activities include boating, fishing, and cycling, the park grooms 50 kilometres of cross-country ski trails in the winter. The park has camp grounds more than 240 camp sites. The main camp ground is at Marie Louise Lake, which has 200 camp sites,85 of which are electric, an additional 40 camp sites are located through the park along its interior trails. The park has an area and beach, and boat ramps, as well as indoor washroom and shower facilities

19.
List of protected areas of Ontario
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This is a list of protected areas of Ontario that are administered by Government of Ontario. Ontario Parks and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry are the bodies responsible for managing these protected areas. Natural Environment Class Parks, Parks to protect provincially significant recreational landscapes and representative ecosystems, nature Reserve Class Parks, Parks to protect notable and provincially significant natural habitats, landforms and ecosystems for intrinsic value, scientific research and biodiversity purposes. Recreation Class Parks, Parks to provide a variety of recreation opportunities in natural surroundings. Waterway Class Parks, Parks to protect recreational water routes and provincially significant terrestrial, wilderness Class Parks, Parks to protect large areas for nature, and provide low-impact recreation. Visitors must travel through these parks by foot only, Conservation Reserves, Areas containing significant natural and cultural features, and provide opportunities compatible traditional activities such as fishing, hunting, and trapping. Scientific research and environmental monitoring also occurs, wilderness Areas, Areas preserved to maintain their natural state, and protect flora and fauna. Research and educational activities can occur, dedicated Protected Areas, Areas identified by First Nations and the Government of Ontario through community-based land use planning in the Far North area of the province. These areas protect the ecology and boreal environment of the region. List of botanical gardens in Canada List of Canadian protected areas General Ontarios parks, provincial Parks and Conservation Reserves Act,2006. Specific Ontario Parks official site Parks Canada official site

20.
Boyd Conservation Area
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Boyd Conservation Area is a suburban land preserve owned and operated by the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority. It also overlaps a life science Area of Natural and Scientific Interest of the same name and it is a moderate-size park that offers facilities for numerous outdoor activities. The park is situated in the Humber River valley, in Vaughan, public operations run between late April and early October, and are funded in part by nominal fees to access the park. Optionally, individuals or families may acquire a membership, which access to a number of parks operated by the Conservation Authority. A little known fact concerning the park is that, upon its creation, bocce courts, volleyball and basketball courts, soccer fields, and childrens playgrounds are found within the park for the benefit of families and youth groups. Bird watching and nature hiking are very popular, outdoor musical concerts are also frequent in Boyd Conservation Area throughout the summer, partly due to the sheltered outdoor sites. The Boyd staff uniform consists of blue shirts bearing the TRCA crest, dark blue work pants, steel-toed boots. The Boyd Staff have consistently received positive reviews on their service from patrons to the park. Boyd Park is affiliated with the Kortright Centre and all full-time Boyd staff take up work at Kortright over the winter season, due to limited funding, Boyd only retains a few full-time staff. The rest of their staff is made up of summer students, Toronto and Region Conservation Authority - Boyd Conservation Area

Boyd Conservation Area
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Boyd Conservation Area

21.
Claireville Conservation Area
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The Claireville Conservation Area is a suburban conservation area located on the border of Peel Region and Toronto in Ontario, Canada. The major part of the area is located in Brampton, the park is a 343 hectare parcel of conservation land located on the west branch of the Humber River. It is one of the largest tracts of land owned by the Toronto, Claireville contains significant natural and cultural heritage features, and has recreation, tourism and educational facilities and programs. The Area was acquired in 1957 to construct a control dam. In 2003, in partnership with HSBC Bank, a contributor to the TRCA foundation,150 volunteers planted over 850 new trees and shrubs in the area, creating 7.5 hectares of forest. The TRCA has declared an early 20th-century farmhouse in the part of Claireville as a heritage property. The park is a favorite with local dog owners, bird watchers, the landscape of the park is diverse. Its characteristic features are numerous creeks and ravines, flat plains, a multi-year natural area enhancement plan has been developed for Claireville. The park is home to the coyote, wood duck, chimney crayfish, deer, muskrat. The parks varied landscape can be admired from many vantage points, dozens of bird species can be seen. Some use the park as a stop on their migratory route, the seasonal species include yellow perch and amphibians. There have been sightings of a white deer. These are not albino deer, but rather a product of a gene in some species of deer. In this case it is a white, white-tail deer and these white deer can vary in their percentage of white, with freckles or mottling in many patterns. They sometimes have deformed feet and ankles but otherwise exist within the herd as normal deer, offspring can be of normal colouring or sometimes demonstrate the recessive gene. Parking is available at the east and north gates, and at the HSBC forest area, the south gate is located on Gorewood Dr, while the east gate is on Regional Road 50 just north of Steeles Avenue. The north entrance is located at the intersection of McVean Dr. the northern most area of the park is the HSBC forest, it is located on McVean Dr.1 km north of Regional Road 107. The Etobicoke Field Studies Centre is located in the corner of Claireville

Claireville Conservation Area
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West Humber River in Claireville Conservation Area
Claireville Conservation Area
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Claireville Wetlands
Claireville Conservation Area
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Bobolink
Claireville Conservation Area
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Bridge crossing on West Humber River

22.
Heber Down Conservation Area
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Heber Down Conservation Area is located in Whitby, Ontario and is owned and operated by Central Lake Ontario Conservation Authority. It is located within the Lynde Creek drainage basin, it is a part of the provincially significant Heber Down Wetland Complex, the area is composed of two types of broad terrain units, a valley formed by the creek and the Glacial Lake Iroquois beach. The area provides such recreational activities as hiking, mountain biking, picnicking, the sandy and gravelly Glacial Lake Iroquois beach is a remnant of the Wisconsin glaciation. It was deposited by Lake Iroquois, the precursor to Lake Ontario, as the lake was shrinking, a line of beach deposits was receding as well, resulting in deposition of sand over the layers of silt and clay that were deposited when the lake was deeper. Following the final recession of the lake, the sand layers were soaked by rainfall. Due to impervious layers underneath, high water resulted in formation of large areas of swamps. Eastern parts of the area are occupied by treed swamps and thicket swamps under the power transmission lines. The western portions of the area are characterized by the steeply incised valley of the Lynde Creek, at places where it cuts across the sandy Lake Iroquois beach, groundwater seeps occur, providing an ecological niche for plants growing on the valleys walls. In the late 19th and early 20th century, a deep gully, local inhabitants interpreted the noises produced by the thieves and horses in a superstitious way, they assumed that the Devil was holding court there. Hence, the gully was named Devils Den, during the 1910s, the Canadian Northern Railway constructed a new line to provide passenger service from Toronto to Trenton. A bridge over the Devils Den was completed in March 1910, while the bridge itself has been demolished, remains of cement abutments and piers that served as a foundation of the bridge can still be found in the area

Heber Down Conservation Area
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A stairway descending into Devil's Den gully.
Heber Down Conservation Area
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An observation platform on the Glacial Lake Iroquois beach.

23.
Kortright Centre for Conservation
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Kortright Centre for Conservation, or simply Kortright Centre, is a suburban conservation area in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada in the northern part of the Greater Toronto Area. It is between Rutherford Road to the south and Major Mackenzie Drive to the north and it is located 38 km northwest of downtown Toronto, about 4 km west of Highway 400. The area in which it is located is predominantly forested in its western and northern extent, the Humber River is situated in the west and the Cold Creek and Harris Creek are to the north. The 325 hectare Kortright Centre, which opened in 1979, is operated by the Toronto and it is named after Dr. Francis Kortright, an engineer, businessman, author and dedicated conservationist. The forest consists of trees to the north and east, especially northeast of the main attraction and the centre and maple trees to the south. The attractions include horse riding 50 m to the east not far from the parking lots, a field which is used only for horses is to the north. Inside the main attraction, there is a shop and in the east is a theatre showing films that discuss the endangerment of forests in the Toronto area. The access to the leading to the syrup shacks is located at the west exit. The newly constructed Earth Rangers Centre is situated about 500 m south of the building and is situated in the southwest, the Centre houses Earth Rangers, a non-profit organization focused on providing environmental education to youth in the Greater Toronto Area. The Centre is between Pine Valley Drive and Kortright Centre, Maple syrup samples are given to the public at the pioneer site. The Maple Syrup Festival also features wagon rides, face painting, balloon animals, the distance of the trail is about 400 to 500 m west by southwest. Kortright Centre for Conservation Kortright Centre for Conservation - official site

Kortright Centre for Conservation
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Birds taking flight from a pond at the Kortright Centre
Kortright Centre for Conservation
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Maple syrup being prepared at the Kortright Centre.

24.
Mer Bleue Conservation Area
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The Mer Bleue Conservation Area is a 33.43 km2 protected area east of Ottawa in Eastern Ontario, Canada. Its main feature is a bog that is situated in an ancient channel of the Ottawa River and is a remarkable boreal-like ecosystem normally not found this far south. Stunted black spruce, tamarack, bog rosemary, blueberry, the area provides habitat for a large number of species, including beaver, muskrat, waterfowl, and the rare spotted turtle. A1.2 km boardwalk allows visitors to explore a section of the bog, there are hiking trails that follow raised areas along the edges of the bog and cross-country skiing trails for use in winter. The conservation area is managed by the National Capital Commission, the value of this unique wetland was not always recognized. During World War II, the Royal Canadian Air Force used this area for bombing practice, now, this area has been designated as a Wetland of International Significance under the Ramsar Convention since October 1995. The name Mer Bleue is thought to describe the appearance when it is covered in morning fog. Europeans began farming in the surrounding the bog in the 1830s. In the mid-1950s, the government of Canada expropriated the farmland. Today, the bog is reserved mainly for recreational and scientific purposes, Mer Bleue is located in the western end of the southern melt water channel of the post-glacial Ottawa River. This channel was eroded into the floor of the Champlain Sea, bedrock topography consists of two north north-east/south south-west trending ridges. Surficial material consists of glacial till, thick marine clay. Peat deposits in the bog proper are up to 6 metres thick, there are two sand ridges that extend from the west towards the center of the conservation area. These two parallel ridges divide the bog in three sections, the hydrological features at this site are most unusual. Being a domed bog, water enters the bog mainly from natural precipitation creating oligotrophic conditions, the periphery of the bog is encircled by a mineral-enriched lagg that maintains a base water level for the bog. Drainage is poor due to underlying clay deposits as well as numerous beaver dams, water eventually drains slowly both westward into Greens Creek and eastward into Bear Brook. However, water levels remain at or near the surface of the bog for most of the year, saline ground-water sources are found under the organic overburden. Mer Bleue is a boreal peatland, a type of ecosystem that is found in the boreal forest to the north

Mer Bleue Conservation Area
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Pond with part of boardwalk in background
Mer Bleue Conservation Area
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Peat bog of Mer Bleue Conservation Area

25.
Rattlesnake Point (Canada)
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Rattlesnake Point is an eco-tourism area located in Milton, Ontario, Canada and is owned and operated by Conservation Halton. It is a scouting area. As urban sprawl continues to increase in Southern Ontario, new housing developments in Milton have begun to encroach upon Rattlesnake Point, Rattlesnake point is often visited by cyclists, hikers and climbers due to the array of beautiful caves and cliffs. Rattlesnake Point receives its name from the path cut by glaciers along the edges of the Niagara Escarpment. The Rattlesnake Point Conservation Area was established as an area in 1961 by the Halton Region Conservation Authority. It is a destination for hikers, backpackers, cyclists. The parks ten kilometres of cliff edge and forest trails connect with the Bruce Trail, the conservation area also has facilities for organized and family camping with 18 group campsites. Access to the Bruce Trail at Rattlesnake Point is available at several locations, other hiking and biking launch spots include Lowville, Kelso and Kilbride. Outdoor enthusiasts can connect to the long Lake Ontario Waterfront Trail and this hill was also used in the 2011 Mens Nationals Road Race took place in the conservation area. The limestone cliffs are popular with climbers and are fitted with bolts for top-rope anchors. Sport climbing routes are available towards the edge of the cliffs. To protect the ancient cedars that dot the area, there is a ban on slinging trees, Conservation Halton, Rattlesnake Point Rattlesnake Point, Photos and Updated Information

Rattlesnake Point (Canada)
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View from the Niagara Escarpment near Rattlesnake Point
Rattlesnake Point (Canada)
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Limestone cliffs of Rattlesnake Point.

26.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005

UNESCO
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UNESCO offices in Brasília
UNESCO
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UNESCO
UNESCO
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UNESCO Institute for Water Education in Delft
UNESCO
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The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.

27.
Wasaga Beach Provincial Park
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Wasaga Beach is a town in Simcoe County, Ontario, Canada. The town is situated along a long sandy beach on Nottawasaga Bay in Georgian Bay. The beaches are part of the Ontario Parkss Wasaga Beach Provincial Park, in late 2016, the town released its Downtown Development Master Plan, a 20 year strategy for significant redevelopment of the tourist area and adding a downtown to the business area. In the meantime, the plans to spruce up its building with new paint and murals in spring 2017. Wasaga Beach and the area was inhabited by the Huron people for centuries before they were dispersed in 1650 by the French-allied Algonquin people. The word Nottawasaga is of Algonquin origin, nottawa means Iroquois and saga means mouth of the river, the word Nottawasaga was used by Algonquin scouts as a warning if they saw Iroquois raiding parties approaching their villages. In the early 1800s, Upper Canada was drawn into a struggle between Great Britain and the United States, lumbering was the main industry for the remainder of the 19th century. Logs crowded the river and the bay, floating down to feed local saw mills, Wasaga Beachs unsuitable sandy soil contributed to the late European settlement of the area, as the lack of suitable farming land made it unattractive to settlers. In the 1820s the first sign of settlement in the area began as John Goessman surveyed Flos Township, in 1826, land was being sold for four shillings an acre. Though unsuitable for farming, the Wasaga Beach area had an abundance of trees, in the late 1830s and throughout the rest of the century the logging industry would play an important role in the development of the area. During the 1900s, families began to discover the beauty of the area, during the 1940s, while stationed at a nearby military base, servicemen from across Canada visited Wasaga Beachs amusement park, and they made Wasaga Beach known across the country. After the war, Wasaga Beach continued to be a place for cottages and day trips. The town was referred to as the northern border of Flos Sunnidale. The first municipal reference occurred when a designation of Local Improvement District emerged in 1947, in 1949, Wasaga Beach progressed to the status of a Police Village in the Township of Sunnidale, and the Police Village graduated to Incorporated Village status in 1951. The incorporation of the Town of Wasaga Beach became effective January 1,1974, the permanent population stood at 4,034, a dramatic increase from 1965, when only 500 people called Wasaga Beach home. Today the town has 20,665 full-time residents and 16,000 seasonal, on November 30,2007, a major fire destroyed 90 per cent of the buildings along the street mall in the Beach One area. About 17 seasonal businesses were said to have affected, including bikini shops, ice cream parlours, a restaurant, a motel. Nearly 100 firefighters from surrounding areas battled the blaze for hours, the Toronto Star later reported that Twenty-one businesses in eight buildings overlooking Georgian Bay were destroyed, causing an estimated $5 million in damages

Wasaga Beach Provincial Park
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Wasaga Beach
Wasaga Beach Provincial Park
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Main Street Mall as it appeared in August 2000. Fire destroyed most of the buildings in November 2007.
Wasaga Beach Provincial Park
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Beach 1 (the main beach) looking west with Beaches 2 and 3 in the distance.
Wasaga Beach Provincial Park
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Aerial view of Wasaga Beach from the southwest, 2013.

28.
Central Experimental Farm
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The Central Experimental Farm, commonly known as the Experimental Farm, is an agricultural facility, working farm, and research centre of the Research Branch of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. As the name indicates, this farm is located in and now surrounded by the City of Ottawa, Ontario. The 4 square kilometres farm is a National Historic Site of Canada, the CEF original intent was to perform scientific research for improvement in agricultural methods and crops. While such research is still being conducted, the atmosphere of the CEF has become an important place of recreation and education for the residents of Ottawa. Furthermore, over the several other departments and agencies have encroached onto the CEF property, such as Natural Resources Canada, National Defence. The CEF is bordered by the Rideau Canal to the east, Prince of Wales Drive to the South-East, Baseline Road to the south, and Merivale and Fisher Roads to the west, and Carling Avenue to the north. The Victorian era was a time of great interest in the advancement of sciences and many nations built zoos, observatories, botanical gardens. The CEF started out with 188 hectares, chosen because of their proximity to Parliament Hill, over the next few years the site was prepared by improving the land, building the facilities, and planting the Arboretum and forest belt. Early research projects focused only on entomology, botany, and horticulture, Fuller, Charles D. Sutherland, Joseph Charles Gustave Brault Thomas Seaton Scott and Thomas Fuller adopted the Neo-Gothic style. David Ewart embraced the Scottish baronial style, in 1887-1888, William John Beckett, a contractor, served as foreman during the building of the residences, offices and barns. In 1889, livestock was introduced to the CEF, Chief Dominion Architect David Ewart designed the Dominion Observatory, Carling Avenue in 1902, Chief Astronomers Residence,1909, and the Geodetic Survey Building,1914. Chief Dominion Architect Edgar Lewis Horwood designed the Cereal and Agrostology Building, 1915-16, Agricultural Building,1915, Chief Dominion Architect Richard Cotsman Wright designed a number of buildings including, the Poultry Office Building,1920, and the Botanical Laboratory Building, 1924–25. John Bethune Roper designed the Administration Building, Carling Avenue,1934, William James Abra designed the Biological Building,1935. Over the years the scope of research grew and changed, prompting a need to increase the farms lands, from 1940-47, building 136, operated as a high frequency Naval Radio Station -CFF which frequently intercepted enemy transmissions. In 1983, the museum was created in the former Dairy Barn. The Federal Heritage Buildings Review Office recognized or classified a number of CEF buildings on the Register of the Government of Canada Heritage Buildings between 1984-1997, the Cereal Barn Building 76 was classified in 1984. The Victoria Memorial Museum was classified in 1986, the Main Dairy Barn Building 88 was classified in 1987. In 1988, the Botanical Laboratory / Horticulture Building 74 and the Sheep Showcase / Small Dairy Barn Building 95 were recognized, the Nutrition Building 59 was recognized in 1992

29.
Dundurn Castle
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Dundurn Castle is a historic neoclassical mansion on York Boulevard in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The 18, 000-square-foot house took three years and $175,000 to build, and was completed in 1835, the forty room castle featured the latest conveniences of gas lighting and running water. It is currently owned by the City of Hamilton, which purchased it in 1900 for $50,000, the City has spent nearly $3 million renovating the site to make it open to the public. The rooms have been restored to the year 1855 when its owner Sir Allan Napier MacNab, costumed interpreters guide visitors through the home, illustrating daily life from the 1850s. The Duchess of Cornwall, a descendant of Sir Allan MacNab, is the Royal Patron of Dundurn Castle, Dundurn Castle, a Regency house, was completed in 1835 by architect Robert Charles Wetherell. Once built, Dundurn Castle became famous all over the country for its grand entertainments, Sir John A. Macdonald and King Edward VII are among those who have been entertained there. Sir Allan MacNab, later minister of the united Province of Canada between 1854 and 1856, hired architect Robert Wetherall and construction of this stately home was completed in 1835. The City of Hamilton acquired it in 1900 and, in the late 1960s and it is now designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. A Strathspey for bagpipes was composed in honour of Dundurn Castle, the park includes Hamilton Military Museum, which is housed in an outbuilding which was relocated when York Street was widened as York Boulevard in the 1970s. Displays include the War of 1812, the Rebellions of 1837, the Boer War, World War I, World War II, artifacts include uniforms, medals, weapons, photographs and other military memorabilia. The museum also features a library with materials about Canadian military history, Dundurn Castle operates as a civic museum, and its grounds house other attractions. Dundurn Park and its green spaces are favourites for wedding portraits. The Cockpit Theatre occasionally housed outdoor events and dramas, a large German artillery piece, booty from the First World War, was removed from the southeastern part of the park in the mid-1980s. Until about 1990, it housed an aviary which was moved to the Westdale neighbourhood, the former covered pavilion offered picnickers protection from the cold, but in the last few years a walled garden was put in its place. The gates at the front entrance of the park came from England. In 1931, parts of the gates were removed and taken to the Chedoke Golf Club, Dundurn Park has its own folly, just east of the castle. Urban legend has it that many underground tunnels were built, leading from the Castle to various parts of the estate, Sir Allan Napier MacNab was originally buried in 1862 on the Dundurn Park grounds between Dundurn Castle and Castle Dean on the corner of Locke Street and Tecumseh Street. In 1909, his body was removed and taken to Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in west Hamilton and his grave was unmarked until 1967, when the Canadian Club of Hamilton placed a bench and grave marker

30.
Rideau Canal
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The Rideau Canal, also known unofficially as the Rideau Waterway, connects the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, on the Ottawa River to the city of Kingston, Ontario, on Lake Ontario. It is 202 kilometres in length, the name Rideau, French for curtain, is derived from the curtain-like appearance of the Rideau Rivers twin waterfalls where they join the Ottawa River. The canal system uses sections of two rivers, the Rideau and the Cataraqui, as well as several lakes, the Rideau Canal is operated by Parks Canada. The canal was opened in 1832 as a precaution in case of war with the United States and it remains in use today primarily for pleasure boating, with most of its original structures intact, operated by Parks Canada. The locks on the open for navigation in mid-May and close in mid-October. It is the oldest continuously operated system in North America. Lawrence River, which would have severed the lifeline between Montreal and Kingston, the British built a number of other canals as well as a number of forts to impede and deter any future American invasions of Canadian territory. The initial purpose of the Rideau Canal was military, as it was intended to provide a secure supply, westward from Montreal, travel would proceed along the Ottawa River to Bytown, then southwest via the canal to Kingston and out into Lake Ontario. The objective was to bypass the stretch of the St. Lawrence bordering New York, the canal also served a commercial purpose. The Rideau Canal was easier to navigate than the St. Lawrence River because of the series of rapids between Montreal and Kingston, as a result, the Rideau Canal became a busy commercial artery from Montreal to the Great Lakes. However, by 1849, the rapids of the St. Lawrence had been tamed by a series of locks, the construction of the canal was supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers. Colonel John By decided to create a canal system instead of constructing new channels. This was an approach as it required fewer workers, was more cost effective. The canal work started in the fall of 1826, and it was completed by the spring of 1832, the final cost of the canals construction was £822,804 by the time all the costs, including land acquisitions costs, were accounted for. Given the unexpected cost overruns, John By was recalled to London and was retired with no accolades or recognition for the tremendous accomplishment hed achieved, once the canal was constructed, no further military engagements took place between Canada and the United States. Although the Rideau Canal never had to be used as a supply route. Tens of thousands of immigrants from the British Isles travelled the Rideau in this period, hundreds of barge loads of goods were shipped each year along the Rideau, allowing Montreal to compete commercially in the 1830s and 40s with New York as a major North American port. In 1841, for instance, there were 19 steamboats,3 self-propelled barges and 157 unpowered or tow barges using the Rideau Canal, as many as one thousand of the workers died from malaria, other diseases and accidents

31.
Greenbelt (Ottawa)
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The Greenbelt is a 203.5 square kilometres crescent of land within the present-day boundaries of the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, in which real estate development is strictly controlled. It begins at Shirleys Bay in the west and extends to Greens Creek in the east,149.5 square kilometres of the greenbelt is owned and managed by the National Capital Commission and the rest is held by other federal government departments and private interests. The greenbelt was proposed by Jacques Gréber in 1950 as part of his plan for Ottawa. Its original purpose included the prevention of urban sprawl, as well as to open space for the future development of farms, natural areas. At the time, the greenbelt was intended to circumscribe an area large enough for the accommodation of some 500,000 persons, the inner limit was chosen by considering what area could be economically provided with municipal services. As a result, the Greenbelt no longer surrounds Ottawa, today, land cover within the current Greenbelt comprises mainly forest, wetland, and fields - all with mixed use for recreation, conservation, farming, research, forestry. It also includes limited urban development, including government buildings and the Ottawa/Macdonald-Cartier International Airport, to date, the Ottawa Greenbelt is among the largest urban parks in the world. The Greenbelts success in curbing urban sprawl is difficult to measure because it is not known what the city would have looked like without it, as Ottawa had a population of 859,704 in 2005, it has clearly grown beyond what Gréber planned that the greenbelt should hold. Greenbelt detractors commonly reference the city of Kanata, which lies just to the west of the greenbelt. Proponents, however, point out that Kanata was planned as a separate, other areas of major development beyond the greenbelt are historical towns in their own right which grew outside the planning area of Ottawa. Half a century later, it is hard to know whether the greenbelt delayed the popularity of these towns as bedroom communities, more recently, Barrhaven in the southwest and new developments in the southeast are developing quickly beyond the greenbelt. The City of Ottawa is undergoing an Official Plan Review which, among other things, all views expressed in White Paper are those of the City of Ottawa and not those of the National Capital Commission which owns and operates the Greenbelt. The City of Ottawa has identified more than 13,700 acres of the Greenbelt, worth about $1.6 billion, that could be developed, then Environment Minister Jim Prentice, opposed development in what he considered an important part of the citys heritage. Prentice vowed to fight any such move, 45°28′00″N 75°34′35″W Hornets Nest soccer fields –11 soccer fields and an air-supported dome for indoor soccer. 45°26′35″N 75°34′35″W Pine View Golf Course – 36-hole public golf course 45°25′50″N 75°35′50″W Mer Bleue Conservation Area –33 km² sphagnum peat bog. There are some 20 km of walking trails, including a 1.2 km boardwalk, stunted black spruce, tamarack, together with bog rosemary, blueberry, and cottongrass, are some of the unusual species that have adapted to the acidic waters of the bog. The Mer Bleue bog got its name from the morning fogs that make it appear as a blue sea. 45°24′00″N 75°30′00″W Pine Grove Forest –12 km² of mixed-use forest for hiking, wildlife reserve, and forestry

32.
Rouge Park
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Since 2011, Parks Canada has been working to nationalize and nearly double the size of the original Rouge Park. In the coming years, Parks Canada is planning to add several new trails, education and orientation centres and improved signage and interpretive panels and displays throughout the park. Parks Canada has also introduced dozens of new programs to the park, including Learn-to-Camp, Learn-to-Hike, fire side chats. Once fully established, the park will span 79.1 km2, Rouge National Urban Park is located in the Rouge River, Petticoat Creek and Duffins Creek watersheds. The Rouge River remains the healthiest river that flows through the City of Toronto, the original park consisted of approximately 40 square kilometres of parkland in Toronto, Markham and Pickering. As Rouge National Urban Park becomes fully operational, former Rouge Park lands will transfer to Parks Canada, most remaining Rouge Park lands are expected to transfer to Parks Canada in 2017. Once fully established, Rouge National Urban Park will be the largest urban protected area in North America.1 km2 in the end of the park in the City of Markham. On May 15,2015 the Rouge National Urban Park Act came into force, the park is open with free admission to visitors 365 days per year, though there are camping fees. In Toronto, the park is accessible by public transportation by TTC, water from glaciers melting 12,000 years ago formed ancestral Lake Ontario, which covered this entire area. A large ice lobe, roughly 20 metres thick, blocked the lake from draining eastward, the ice lobe finally retreated, draining the lake to the St Lawrence River and forming the Great Lakes as we see them today. Glaciation occurred when average temperatures were only 2 -5 °C lower than present. The small decrease to the former temperatures caused big changes to the landscape, changes in average annual temperatures now may seem small, but they could cause major changes to the natural environment in the near future. Outcrops of rock formed during the last glacial period found in Rouge National Urban Park are important to geologists studying seismic activity, faults are visible indicating significant earthquake activity between 80,000 and 13,000 years ago. The human history of Rouge National Urban Park goes back over 10,000 years, palaeolithic nomadic hunters, Iroquoian farmers, early European explorers, and the multicultural suburban population that one can see around the park today are all part of this history. Since humans began living in the area of the present Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowlands in Ontario, many groups of people made the lands and this route was created by Indigenous Peoples, and later used by early European traders, explorers and settlers. The Rouge River route is not currently marked for the general public, the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail was designated by the Historical Sites and Monuments Board of Canada in 1969. Bead Hill National Historic Site Bead Hill is a site of an intact 17th century Seneca village and was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1991. The site includes the remains of an Archaic campsite, dating about 3,000 years old, minimal excavations have been carried out, and the site includes a naturally protected midden, which is thought to contain a wealth of material

33.
Name of Canada
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The name of Canada has been in use since the founding of the French colony of Canada in the 16th century. The name originates from a Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata for settlement, village and it is pronounced /ˈkænədə/ in English, in standard Quebec French. In Inuktitut, one of the languages of the territory of Nunavut. The first French colony of Canada, which formed one of several colonies within New France, was set up along the Saint Lawrence River, later the area became two British colonies, called Upper Canada and Lower Canada until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was officially adopted for the new Dominion, the name Canada is now generally accepted as originating from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata or canada, meaning village or settlement. Related translations include land or town, with subsequent terminologies meaning cluster of dwellings or collection of huts and this explanation is historically documented in Jacques Cartiers Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI. Although the Laurentian language, which was spoken by the inhabitants of St, the word kaná, ta still means town in Mohawk, and related cognates include ganataje and iennekanandaa in the Onondaga and Seneca languages respectively. While the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian origin for the name Canada is now widely accepted, an alternative explanation favoured by philologist Marshall Elliott linked the name to the Spanish word cañada, meaning glen or valley. The known Portuguese presence in modern Canadian territory, meanwhile, was located in Newfoundland, neither region is located anywhere near Iroquoian territory, and the name Canada does not appear on any Spanish or Portuguese maps of the North American coast that predate Cartiers visit. No name for the Bay of Chaleur is attested at all in Spanish sources from that period, while the name for Newfoundland attested in Portuguese sources is Tierra de los Baccalaos. Elliotts valley theory, conversely, was that the Spanish gave their name for the area directly to Cartier, additional theories have attributed the name Canada to a word in an unspecified aboriginal language for mouth of the country in reference to the Gulf of St. No historian or linguist has ever analyzed this explanation as anything more than an obvious joke, the demonym Canadien or Canadian used to refer exclusively to the aboriginal groups who were native to the territory. Its use was extended over time to the French settlers of New France, by the mid 1500s, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada. Canada became the name of a colony in New France that stretched along the St. Lawrence River, the terms Canada and New France were often used interchangeably during the colonial period. After the British conquest of New France in 1763, the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec, some reports from the 1840s suggest that in that era, the word Canada was commonly pronounced Kaugh-na-daugh rather than its more contemporary pronunciation. Upper and Lower Canada were merged into one colony, the Province of Canada, in 1841, the former colonies were then known as Canada East and Canada West, and a single legislature was established with equal representation from each. Underpopulated Canada West opposed demands by Canada East for representation by population, the single colony remained governed in this way until 1 July 1867, often with coalition governments. A new capital city was being built at Ottawa, chosen in 1857 by Queen Victoria, there appears to have been little discussion, though other names were suggested

Name of Canada
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A peace monument on Belle Isle between the Dominion of Canada and the United States of America (1941)
Name of Canada
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A map of North America ca. 1566, one of the first to include the name "Canada" (top right).
Name of Canada
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An 1851 Province of Canada postage stamp, the 3 pence beaver ("Threepenny Beaver")
Name of Canada
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Front page of a copy of the Constitution Act of 1867

34.
Former colonies and territories in Canada
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A number of states and polities formerly claimed colonies and territories in Canada prior to the evolution of the current provinces and territories under the federal system. The colonization of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th century, France relinquished nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War to the British Empire. Britains imperial government over a century later then ceded the land to Canadian control in 1867 after confederation, since then, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999. The Mikmaq in todays Maritimes were governed as seven districts with their own district chiefs. To the west around the Great Lakes Council of Three Fires was formed in 796 CE according to oral history, the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, was united in 1142 CE according to their oral traditions. There was also the four or possibly five tribes of the Huron Confederacy, the Iron Confederacy of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of mixed Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux people. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and peoples of the Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively dense populations, some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities. Vinland – Markland – Helluland are the given to three lands possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in the Eiríks saga rauða. LAnse aux Meadows – settlement Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas the Portuguese Crown claimed it had rights in the Atlantic waters visited by explorer John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, in 1501 and 1502 Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real explored present day Newfoundland claiming the land in the name of Portuguese Empire. The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of Francis I of France. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived the winter, in 1604, the first year round permanent settlement was founded by Samuel de Champlain at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie Française which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men of whom 20 died from lack of food, the Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, New France. British America – – List of Hudsons Bay Company trading posts St and this was in response to intelligence that the Russians had begun to explore the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part of New Spain. Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel at Nootka Sound – The first colony in British Columbia, in 1799, Tsar Paul I proclaimed Russian title and established the Russian American Companys trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the creation of Russian America. The stated southward limit of Russian claims was 51 degrees north latitude, though no Russian settlements were established in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions frequented the North Coast. Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and a dominion after the Constitution Act of 1867, originally three provinces of British North America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada united to form the new nation. Full independence came with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Canada Act in 1982, since 1867, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999

Former colonies and territories in Canada
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Pre-Columbian distribution of North American language families

35.
Territorial evolution of Canada
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The Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1,1867, when the British colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were merged to form a single Dominion within the British Empire. Canada continued to expand across North America as other British colonies joined with or were ceded to Canada, eventually growing from four provinces to ten provinces, politically, Canada gained increasing independence in the 20th century, eventually becoming a fully sovereign state in 1982. The Northwest Territories have been made up of districts, but one of these. Because of this status, it is handled separately from the NWT on this list. After 1905 it no longer had any special status, and it was dissolved in 1999 when Nunavut was created. The maps used on this page, for simplicity, use the version of the borders of Labrador. For much of its history, Canada claimed Labrador extended only along the coast and it is Newfoundlands claim that is used. Matthews, Geoffrey J. Historical atlas of Canada, Volume 1, maps, 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada

Territorial evolution of Canada
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July 1, 1867
Territorial evolution of Canada
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Animation of the evolution of the borders and names of Canada's provinces and territories

36.
History of Canadian women
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The history of Canadian women covers half the population, but until recent years only comprised a tiny fraction of the historiography. In the 1660s the French government sent about 850 young women called Kings Daughters and they quickly found husbands among the predominantly male settlers, as well as a new life for themselves. They came mostly from families in the Paris area, Normandy. A handful were ex-prostitutes, but only one is known to have practiced that trade in Canada, as farm wives with very good nutrition and high birth rates they played a major role in establishing family life and enabling rapid demographic growth. They had about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in France, landry says, Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to the abundance of meat, fish, and pure water, the good food conservation conditions during the winter. Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade and they worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widowed, and took over their husbands roles, a handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right. The elite young women were trained in intelligent philanthropy and civic responsibility and they seldom connected with the reform impulses of the middle class women, and for and were paternalistic in their views of the needs of working-class women. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled, an important exception came with Roman Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France of The popular religiosity of the Counter Reformation, in the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers. In the first half of the century, about 2-3% of Québecs young women became nuns, there were 6600 in 1901. In Québec in 1917,32 different teaching orders operated 586 boarding schools for girls, at that time there was no public education for girls in Québec beyond elementary school. Hospitals were another specially, the first of which was founded in 1701, in 1936, the nuns of Québec operated 150 institutions, with 30,000 beds to care for the long-term sick, the homeless, and orphans. On a smaller scale, Catholic orders of nuns operated similar institutions in other provinces, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s combined declericalization with the dramatic reforms of Vatican II. There was a change in the role of nuns. Many left the convent while very few young women entered, the Provincial government took over the nuns traditional role as provider of many of Quebecs educational and social services

History of Canadian women
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Portrait of Adelaide Hunter Hoodless, a Canadian advocate for the welfare of women and children. Photograph taken c. 1895.
History of Canadian women
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One group of King's Daughters arrives at Quebec, 1667
History of Canadian women
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Léa Roback (1903 – 2000) was a Canadian trade union organizer, social activist, pacifist, and feminist from Quebec
History of Canadian women
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Henrietta Edwards (1849 – 1931) was a Canadian women's rights activist and reformer from Quebec. She was a member of the The Famous Five.

37.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years

38.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest

39.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign

40.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province

Newfoundland and Labrador
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Churchill Falls in Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Flag
Newfoundland and Labrador
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The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct. It is represented in museum, historical and archeological records.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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L'Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, site of a Norse colony

41.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south

42.
Yukon
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Yukon is the smallest and westernmost of Canadas three federal territories. The territory has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, Whitehorse is the territorial capital and Yukons only city. The territory was split from the Northwest Territories in 1898 and was named the Yukon Territory, though officially bilingual, the Yukon Government also recognizes First Nations languages. At 5,959 m, Yukons Mount Logan, in Kluane National Park and Reserve, is the highest mountain in Canada, most of Yukon has a subarctic climate, characterized by long cold winters and brief warm summers. The Arctic Ocean coast has a tundra climate, notable rivers include the Yukon River, after which the territory was named, as well as the Pelly, Stewart, Peel, White and Tatshenshini rivers. Long before the arrival of Europeans, central and southern Yukon was populated by First Nations people, sites of archeological significance in Yukon hold some of the earliest evidence of the presence of human occupation in North America. The sites safeguard the history of the first people and the earliest First Nations of the Yukon, the volcanic eruption of Mount Churchill in approximately 800 AD in what is now the U. S. Coastal and inland First Nations had extensive trading networks, European incursions into the area only began early in the 19th century with the fur trade, followed by missionaries. By the 1870s and 1880s gold miners began to arrive and this drove a population increase that justified the establishment of a police force, just in time for the start of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897. The increased population coming with the gold led to the separation of the Yukon district from the Northwest Territories. Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea and its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon Basin and the Mackenzie River drainage basin to the east in the Mackenzie mountains. Most of the territory is in the watershed of its namesake, the southern Yukon is dotted with a large number of large, long and narrow glacier-fed alpine lakes, most of which flow into the Yukon River system. The larger lakes include Teslin Lake, Atlin Lake, Tagish Lake, Marsh Lake, Lake Laberge, Kusawa Lake, bennett Lake on the Klondike Gold Rush trail is a lake flowing into Nares Lake, with the greater part of its area within Yukon. Canadas highest point, Mount Logan, is in the territorys southwest, Mount Logan and a large part of the Yukons southwest are in Kluane National Park and Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other national parks include Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park in the north, other watersheds include the Mackenzie River, the Peel Watershed and the Alsek–Tatshenshini, and a number of rivers flowing directly into the Beaufort Sea. The two main Yukon rivers flowing into the Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories are the Liard River in the southeast, notable widespread tree species within Yukon are the black spruce and white spruce. Many trees are stunted because of the growing season and severe climate. The capital, Whitehorse, is also the largest city, with about three-quarters of the population, the second largest is Dawson City, which was the capital until 1952

43.
Law of Canada
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The legal system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of private law, both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and these generally include interprovincial transport as well as interprovincial trade and commerce. Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, Canadas constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid. The Constitution Act,1982 stipulates that Canadas constitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to that act, and any amendment to any of those acts. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in their rulings, the Constitution Act,1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce, banking, the federal government also has the residual power to make laws necessary for Canadas peace, order and good government. Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, municipalities, education, and property, the Constitution Act,1867 also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges. It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any provincial or federal law, Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act,1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which level of government may legitimately enact legislation. Laws passed by the government are initially announced in the Canada Gazette. Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published in the Annual Statutes of Canada, from time to time, the federal government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada. The most recent federal consolidation was in 1985, laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are announced in a gazette, published annually. All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition, equally, courts have power under the provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity. As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of stare decisis, lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are bound. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British Columbia court, nonetheless, decisions made by a provinces highest court are often considered as persuasive even though they are not binding on other provinces. Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the country with a single ruling. S, law than English law in these areas

Law of Canada
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Cover of the Constitution Act, 1867
Law of Canada
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Copies of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Law of Canada
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Canadian Criminal Cases collection

44.
Constitution of Canada
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The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty

45.
Monarchy of Canada
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The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canadas federal structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive, legislature, and judiciary in the federal, the Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and, as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada. The current Canadian monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II, as such, Elizabeths son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent. Although the person of the sovereign is shared with 15 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each countrys monarchy is separate. However, the Queen is the member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. While some powers are only by the sovereign, most of the monarchs operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his or her representative. In each of Canadas provinces, the monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor, as the territories are not sovereign, they do not have a viceroy. As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent, Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world. The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony, hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor general on behalf of the Privy Council. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. This is because, in law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, in 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada, including in relation to succession, the latter was deemed by the Cabinet in 1947 to be part of Canadian law, as is the Bill of Rights 1689, according to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Department of External Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within Canadian law, certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts

46.
Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime

47.
Parliament of Canada
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The Parliament of Canada is the federal legislative branch of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario. The body consists of the Canadian monarch, represented by a viceroy, the general, an upper house, the Senate, and a lower house. Each element has its own officers and organization, by constitutional convention, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament, the Senate and Crown rarely opposing its will. The Senate reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint and the monarch or viceroy provides the necessary Royal Assent to make bills into law. The governor general also summons parliament, while either the viceroy or monarch can prorogue or dissolve parliament, either will read the Throne Speech. The most recent parliament, summoned by Governor General David Johnston in 2015, is the 42nd since Confederation in 1867, the Parliament of Canada is composed of three parts, the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons. Each has a role, but work in conjunction within the legislative process. Only those who sit in the House of Commons are called members of parliament, though legislatively less powerful, senators take higher positions in the national order of precedence. No individual may serve in more than one chamber of parliament at the same time, the sovereigns place in the legislature, formally called the Queen-in-Parliament, is defined by the Constitution Act,1867, and various conventions. All federal bills begin with the phrase Now, therefore, Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. And, as such, the Crown is immune from acts of parliament unless expressed otherwise in the act itself. As both the monarch and his or her representatives are traditionally barred from the House of Commons, any parliamentary ceremonies in which they are involved take place in the Senate chamber. The upper and lower houses do, however, each contain a mace, which indicate the authority of the Queen-in-Parliament, following the burning of the Centre Block on 3 February 1916, the City of London, England, donated a replacement, which is still used today. The temporary mace, made of wood, and used until the new one arrived from the United Kingdom in 1917, is carried into the Senate each 3 February. The Senates 1. 6-metre-long mace comprises brass and gold, senators served for life until 1965, when a constitutional amendment imposed a mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators may, however, resign their seats prior to that mark, the Senate is divided equally amongst four geographic regions,24 for Ontario,24 for Quebec,24 for the Maritimes, and 24 for the Western provinces. Newfoundland and Labrador, which became a Canadian province in 1949, is represented by six senators, further, Canadas three territories—the Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut—are allocated one senator each. The elected component of the Canadian parliament is the House of Commons, with each member chosen by a plurality of voters in each of the countrys federal electoral districts

48.
Prime Minister of Canada
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Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable, a privilege maintained for life. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions, the prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. There are no age or citizenship restrictions on the position of prime minister itself, while there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister, two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and that convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election, Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majestys pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term, once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime ministers party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, if, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. This option was last entertained in 1925, however, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Caucuses may choose to follow rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote. Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime ministers will in extreme, for transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister, all of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime ministers annual salary of CAD$170,400. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name, of the first eight premiers of Canada, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, the written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title, The Right Honourable, Prime Minister of Canada

49.
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
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The Prime Minister of Canada is an official who serves as the primary minister of the Crown, chair of the Cabinet, and thus head of government of Canada. Officially, the minister is appointed by the Governor General of Canada, but by constitutional convention. Normally, this is the leader of the party caucus with the greatest number of seats in the house, but, if that leader lacks support of the majority, the governor general can appoint another leader who has that support or may dissolve parliament and call a new election. By constitutional convention, a prime minister holds a seat in parliament and, since the early 20th century, the prime ministership is part of Canadas constitutional convention tradition. The office was modelled after that which existed in Britain at the time, sir John A. Macdonald was commissioned by the Viscount Monck on May 24,1867 to form the first government of the Canadian Confederation. On July 1,1867, the first ministry assumed office. The date for which a prime minister begins his or her term has been determined by the date that he or she is sworn into his or her portfolio, however, since 1957, the incoming prime minister has sworn an oath as prime minister. Before 1920, prime ministers resignations were accepted immediately by the governor general, since 1920, the outgoing prime minister has only formally resigned when the new government is ready to be formed. Some sources, including the Parliament of Canada, apply this convention as far back as 1917, as of April 2017, there are seven living former Prime Ministers of Canada, the oldest being John Turner. The most recent former Prime Minister to die was Pierre Trudeau, John A. Macdonald and John Thompson are the only serving Prime Ministers to have died in office. Canadas Prime Ministers, Governors General and Fathers of Confederation

List of Prime Ministers of Canada
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Canada's Prime Ministers during its first century.
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
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1 (1 of 2)
List of Prime Ministers of Canada
List of Prime Ministers of Canada

50.
Court system of Canada
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Some of the courts are federal in nature while others are provincial or territorial. The Canadian constitution gives the government the exclusive right to legislate criminal law while the provinces have exclusive control over civil law. The provinces have jurisdiction over the administration of justice in their territory, almost all cases, whether criminal or civil, start in provincial courts and may be eventually appealed to higher level courts. The federal government appoints and pays for both the judges of the courts and the judges of the superior and appellate level courts of each province. The provincial governments are responsible for appointing judges of the provincial courts. Provincial administrative tribunals also comprise part of provincial courts and this intricate interweaving of federal and provincial powers is typical of the Canadian constitution. Very generally speaking, Canadas court system is a four-level hierarchy as shown below from highest to lowest in terms of legal authority. Each court is bound by the rulings of the courts above them, however, Civil courts in Quebec, in particular, are under no obligation to apply judicial precedent—the principle of stare decisis—which is the general rule elsewhere in Canada. This is because Quebecs civil law is codified, while civil law in the other nine provinces grew out of the English common law. There are two terms used in describing the Canadian court structure which can be confusing, and clear definitions are useful at the outset, the first is the term provincial court, which has two quite different meanings, depending on context. 92 of the Constitution Act,1867 and this head of power gives the Provinces the power to regulate. The Constitution, Maintenance, and Organization of Provincial Courts, both of Civil and of Criminal Jurisdiction, and including Procedure in Civil Matters in those Courts. All courts created by a Province, from the claims court or municipal by-law court. However, there is a limited meaning to the term. The Provincial Court of a province may also have a limited civil jurisdiction, over small claims. The exact scope of the jurisdiction of a Provincial Court will depend on the laws enacted by the particular province, Provincial Courts in this sense are courts of limited statutory jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as inferior courts. To distinguish between the two meanings of the term, capitalization is used, a reference to a provincial court normally is a reference to the broad meaning of the term, any court created by the Province. A reference to Provincial Court normally is referring to the court of limited statutory jurisdiction

Court system of Canada
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Canadian court system (Source Canadian Department of Justice)

51.
Municipal government in Canada
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In Canada, municipal government is a type of local council authority that provides local services, facilities, safety and infrastructure for communities. Canada has three levels of government, federal, provincial and municipal, according to Section 92 of the Constitution Act,1867, In each Province the Legislature may exclusively make Laws in relation to. There are about 3,700 municipal governments in Canada, technically the municipal government is not sanctioned in the Constitution but may be established pursuant to provincial/territorial authority. Like many Canadian political institutions, municipal government has its roots in the system of government in England. Famously, the city of Winchester was given its charter in 1185, and the granting of freedoms became endorsed in Magna Carta, the first formal municipality in Canada was the city of Saint John in New Brunswick, which received royal approval in 1785. For municipal government, this began an almost 50-year hiatus of receiving approval from the government, in 1835, the British parliament passed the Municipal Corporations Act, which specified how municipalities were to function and be elected. The ideas from this law were transferred to Canada by Lord Durham, in late 1840 to early 1841 the governments of what was Canada at the time enacted various acts which established municipal government in all areas of the country. It delegated authority to the governments so they could raise taxes. It also established a hierarchy of types of governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages. Changes to the boundaries of new governments could be made by petitioning the provincial Municipal Board or by requesting a change through the legislature. By the early 20th century, Canada was deeply involved in a period of municipal reform. As such, the idea that a larger municipality should have more councillors was the same as having a board of directors for a larger company. Between the 1920s and the 1960s the municipalities received increased funding from their provincial government parents and this was partly due to the Great Depression, but further discussion about reform reared its head in the 1970s. The arguments over municipal government reform continue, seen in the recent City of Toronto Act 1997 dispute, Municipal governments are subdivisions of their province. While the municipality has autonomy on most decisions, all passed by that municipal government are subject to change by the provincial government at any time. An example of a municipal government structure can be found in New Brunswick. In some provinces, several municipalities in an area are also part of an upper tier of municipal government. Depending on the province, this second tier may be called a county, regional municipality, in Nova Scotia, three municipalities are designated as regional municipalities

Municipal government in Canada
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Municipal government funding sources, 2005

52.
Foreign relations of Canada
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The foreign relations of Canada are Canadas relations with other governments and peoples. Canadas most important relationship, being the largest trading relationship in the world, is with the United States, the British North American colonies which today constitute modern Canada had little control over their foreign affairs until the achievement of responsible government in the late 1840s. Up to that time, wars, negotiations and treaties were carried out by the British government to settle disputes concerning the colonies over fishing and boundaries and to promote trade. Notable examples from the period include the Nootka Convention, the War of 1812, the Rush–Bagot Treaty, the Treaty of 1818, the Webster–Ashburton Treaty. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 signaled an important change in relations between Britain and its North American colonies, soon after Confederation, the first prime minister Sir John A. Macdonald appointed Sir John Rose as his lobbyist in London. When Alexander Mackenzie became prime minister, he sent George Brown to represent Canada in Washington during British-American trade talks, after the Conservative Party came back to power in 1878, the government sent Alexander Galt to London, as well as to France and Spain. Although the British government was concerned about this nascent Canadian diplomacy, a trade commissioner was appointed to Australia in 1894. As High Commissioner, Charles Tupper helped negotiate an agreement with France in 1893, meanwhile, in 1882 the province of Quebec made its first of many forays into the international community by sending a representative, Hector Fabre to Paris in 1882. Canadas responses to events elsewhere were limited at this time. During 1878 tensions between Britain and Russia, for example, Canada constructed a few limited defences but did little else, by the time of the British campaign in Sudan of 1884–85, however, Canada was expected to contribute troops. Since Ottawa was reluctant to become involved, the Governor General of Canada privately raised 386 voyageurs at Britains expense to help British forces on the Nile river, by 1885, many Canadians offered to volunteer as part of a potential Canadian force, however the government declined to act. This stood in sharp contrast to Australia, which raised and paid for its own troops, the first Canadian commercial representative abroad was John Short Larke. Larke became Canadas first trade commissioner following a trade delegation to Australia led by Canadas first Minister of Trade and Commerce. The Canadian judges refused to sign the award as a protest, due to Canadas important contributions to the British war effort in 1914–18, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden insisted that Canada be treated as a separate signatory to the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920 Canada became a member of the League of Nations. It was elected to the League Council in 1927 and it did not play a leading role, and generally opposed sanctions or military action by the League. The League was virtually defunct by 1939, in 1923, Canada independently signed the Halibut Treaty with the United States at Mackenzie Kings insistence – the first time Canada signed a treaty without the British also signing it. In 1925, the government appointed a permanent diplomat to Geneva to deal with the League of Nations, in the 1930s, the Mackenzie King government strongly supported the appeasement policy of the Chamberlain government in London toward Nazi Germany

53.
Law enforcement in Canada
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Law enforcement in Canada are public-sector police forces that are associated with and commissioned to the three levels of government, municipal, provincial, and federal. Most urban areas have given the authority by the provinces to maintain their own police force. In addition, many First Nations Reserves have their own police forces established through agreements between the governing native band, province and the federal government. Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador maintain their own provincial police forces—the Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, smaller municipalities often contract police service from the provincial policing authority, while larger ones maintain their own forces. Newfoundlands provincial police force is responsible for the provinces larger urban areas. The other seven provinces and the three territories contract police services to the RCMP/GRC and it also serves as the local police in all areas outside of Ontario and Quebec that do not have an established local police force, mostly in rural areas. Thus, the RCMP/GRC is the police force of any sort in some areas of the country. There are also a few police forces with some of the powers usually reserved for governmental forces. The Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway and Via Rail each have their own police force, any railway in Canada, under Federal jurisdiction, can request that a Superior Court judge appoint police officers under the Railway Safety Act. The duties of private railway police are to prevent crimes against the company and protection of goods, materials and they work to protect the public, rail personnel, and property owned or administered by the railways. The regular public police maintain authority and jurisdiction for all criminal offences, some hospitals, universities, transit commissions, power authorities and other agencies employ special constables. The local police chief has statutory and Common Law authority and responsibility for the jurisdiction policed, the duties of private special constables are determined by their employers and have authorities limited by statutes under which they operate. All persons and companies have access to public police, the National Defence Act does not bestow the authority to the Minister of Defence to appoint Police Officers. Section 156 of the National Defence Act does allow the Minister to confer Peace Officer Status to Specially Appointed Military Police Members and they have the power to arrest anyone who is subject to the Code of Service Discipline, regardless of position or rank under the National Defence Act. If in fact a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, MP has the power to arrest and charge the offender, military or civilian, MP also have the power to enforce the Provincial Highway Traffic Act on military bases in Canada. In 2011, there were 69,438 active/sworn police officers in Canada and this number was expected to exceed 70,000 by the end of 2012. Canadian police strength reached a peak in 1975, when there were 206 officers per 100,000 people, although the current number reflects a significant rise in the total police strength in the country, Canada still utilizes fewer police than Wales. Provincially, Saskatchewan had the highest number at 207 officers per 100,000, the lowest numbers were in Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador and Alberta

Law enforcement in Canada
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< 176

54.
Politics of Canada
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The politics of Canada function within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a monarchy, in which the Monarch is head of state. The country has a multi-party system in many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of. Such members, in the government caucus, and junior or lower-profile members of opposition caucuses, are known as backbenchers, backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National-Defence Committee. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their own influence over the political process, far-right politics has never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Thus in 1931, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving recognition to the autonomy of Canada. Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain continued to make the decision on criminal appeals until 1933. Name Canada Type of government Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy, National holiday Canada Day, July 1. Constitution Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation, suffrage Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two adult citizens in Canada cannot vote, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer, the Governor General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to constitutional convention. Citizens residing outside of Canada for a greater than 5 years are excluded from voting beginning 2015. Description of national flag A red maple leaf centred on a Canadian pale, head of state Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada. Viceroy David Lloyd Johnston, Governor General of Canada, head of government Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. Cabinet Ministers chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by the Governor General to lead various ministries and agencies, the Governor General is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, though it is traditionally approximately five years. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the Governor General to become Prime Minister, the bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts, the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons. Currently, the Senate, which is described as providing regional representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister to serve until age 75. It was created with equal representation from each of Ontario, Quebec, the Maritime region, however, it is currently the product of various specific exceptions, additions and compromises, meaning that regional equality is not observed, nor is representation-by-population. The normal number of senators can be exceeded by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, the House of Commons currently has 338 members elected in single-member districts in a plurality voting system, meaning that members must attain only a plurality rather than a majority

55.
Geography of Canada
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The geography of Canada describes the geographic features of Canada, the worlds second largest country in total area. Greenland is to the northeast, off the southern coast of Newfoundland lies Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W longitude to the North Pole, however, this claim is contested. While the magnetic North Pole lies within the Canadian Arctic territorial claim as of 2011, covering 9,984,670 km2 or 3,855,100 sq mi, Canada is slightly less than three-fifths as large as Russia and slightly smaller than Europe. The northernmost settlement in Canada—and in the world—is Canadian Forces Station Alert on the tip of Ellesmere Island at 82°30′N 62°19′W. The climate varies from temperate on the west coast of British Columbia to a climate in the north. Extreme northern Canada can have snow for most of the year with a Polar climate, landlocked areas tend to have a warm summer continental climate zone with the exception of Southwestern Ontario which has a hot summer humid continental climate. Parts of Western Canada have a climate, and parts of Vancouver Island can even be classified as cool summer Mediterranean climate. Temperature extremes in Canada range from 45.0 °C in Midale and Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan on July 5,1937 to −63.0 °C in Snag, Yukon on Monday, February 3,1947. Canada covers 9,984,670 km29,984,670 km2, Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the worlds longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres. The physical geography of Canada is widely varied, the Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River where lowlands host much of Canadas population. The Appalachian mountain range extends from Alabama through the Gaspé Peninsula and it also runs through parts of southern Quebec. The Appalachian mountains are an old and eroded range of mountains, notable mountains in the Appalachians include Mount Jacques-Cartier (Quebec,1,268 m or 4,160 ft and Mount Carleton. Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich endemic flora, the southern parts of Quebec and Ontario, in the section of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence basin, is another particularly rich sedimentary plain. Most of this forest has been cut down through agriculture and logging operations, in this part of Canada the Gulf of St. Lawrence is one of the worlds largest estuary. While the relief of these lowlands is particularly flat and regular, the most notable are Montreals Mount Royal and Mont Saint-Hilaire. These hills are known for a great richness in precious minerals, the northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, as well as most of Labrador, are located on a vast rock base known as the Canadian Shield. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for production, particularly in northern Quebec. The shield also encloses an area of wetlands, the Hudson Bay lowlands, some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains

Geography of Canada
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Arctic tundra covers parts of extreme northern Canada.
Geography of Canada
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Geography of Canada
Geography of Canada
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A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, including the Arctic, the Coast Mountains and Saint Elias Mountains. The relatively flat Prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.
Geography of Canada
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The Horseshoe Falls in Niagara Falls, Ontario, one of the world's most voluminous waterfalls, a major source of hydroelectric power, and a tourist destination.

56.
Pacific Northwest
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The Pacific Northwest, sometimes referred to as Cascadia, is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Though no agreed boundary exists, a common conception includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide, thus including Idaho, Western Montana, narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the history, geography, society. The Northwest Coast is the region of the Pacific Northwest. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The border — in two sections, along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia — has had an effect on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, definitions of the Pacific Northwest region vary, and there is no commonly agreed-upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common conception of the Pacific Northwest includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader definitions of the region may include the U. S. state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, the portion of the state of California. Definitions based on the historic Oregon Country reach east to the Continental Divide, thus including all of Idaho and parts of western Montana. Sometimes the Pacific Northwest is defined as being the Northwestern United States, often these definitions are made by government agencies whose scope is limited to the United States. Some definitions include, in addition to Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, western Montana, the coast of northern California, the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of indigenous peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by scholars as a major coastal migration route in the settlement of the Americas by late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Other evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon, however, despite such research, the coastal migration hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Due in part to the richness of Pacific Northwest Coast and river fisheries, in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, the indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, had a diversity of cultures and societies. Some areas were home to mobile and egalitarian societies, others, especially along major rivers such as the Columbia and Fraser, had very complex, affluent, sedentary societies rivaling those of the coast. In British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit and Haida erected large, throughout the Pacific Northwest, thousands of indigenous people live, and some continue to practice their rich cultural traditions, organizing their societies around cedar and salmon

57.
Western Canada
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The capital cities of the four western provinces, from West to East, are, Victoria, Edmonton, Regina and Winnipeg. Except for Winnipeg, which is the largest city in Manitoba, Manitoba established as a province of Canada in 1870, following the enacting of the Manitoba Act. Saskatchewan, Established as province in 1905, with the implementation of the Saskatchewan Act, Alberta, In 1905, the same year as Saskatchewan, Alberta also was established as province. Just like Saskatchewan had the Saskatchewan Act, Alberta had the Alberta Act and this represents 31. 5% of Canadas population. While Vancouver serves as the largest metropolitan area in Western Canada, the following is a list of these areas and their populations as of 2011. Western Canada consists of the four westernmost provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan. It covers 2.9 million square kilometres – almost 29% of Canada’s land area, British Columbia adjoins the Pacific Ocean to the west, while Manitoba has a coastline on Hudson Bay in its northeast of the province. Both Alberta and Saskatchewan are landlocked between British Columbia and Manitoba, the Canadian Prairies are part of a vast sedimentary plain covering much of Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southwestern Manitoba. The prairies form a significant portion of the area of Western Canada. The plains generally describes the expanses of flat, arable agricultural land which sustain extensive grain farming operations in the southern part of the provinces. Despite this, some such as the Cypress Hills and Alberta Badlands are quite hilly. In Alberta and British Columbia, the Canadian Cordillera is bounded by the Rocky Mountains to the east, the Canadian Rockies are part of a major continental divide that extends north and south through western North America and western South America. The continental divide also defines much of the border between Alberta and British Columbia, the Columbia and the Fraser Rivers have their headwaters in the Canadian Rockies and are the second- and third-largest rivers, respectively, to drain to the west coast of North America. To the west of their headwaters, across the Rocky Mountain Trench, is a belt of mountains. The coast of British Columbia enjoys an oceanic climate because of the influence of the Pacific Ocean. Winters are typically wet and summers relatively dry and these areas enjoy the mildest winter weather in all of Canada, as temperatures rarely fall much below the freezing mark. The mountainous Interior of the province is drier and has colder winters, Alberta has a dry continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold Arctic weather systems from the north, winters are generally quite cold, though some areas can experience a phenomenon known as the chinook wind, wherein warm winds raise the winter temperatures temporarily

Western Canada
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Edmonton is the largest provincial capital city by population in western Canada.
Western Canada
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Western Canada, defined geographically
Western Canada
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Calgary is the largest municipality by population in western Canada.
Western Canada
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Vancouver is the largest census metropolitan area by population in western Canada.

58.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms

59.
Canadian Prairies
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The Canadian Prairies is a region in western Canada, which may correspond to several different definitions, natural or political. Notably, the Prairie provinces or simply the Prairies comprise the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, in a more restricted sense, the term may also refer only to the areas of those provinces covered by prairie, their portions of the physiographic region known as the Interior Plains. Prairie also covers portions of northeastern British Columbia, though that province is not included in the region in a political sense. Northern short grasslands in southeastern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan, northern tall grasslands in southern Manitoba, and Aspen parkland, which covers central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba. The Prairie starts from north of Edmonton, it covers the three provinces east to the Manitoba-Minnesota border, the Canadian prairies typically experience about 12 to 15 in of annual precipitation in the semi-arid areas while they experience 16 to 20 in in the continental regions. Manitoba is generally the coldest and most humid of the three prairie provinces, the area is also prone to thunderstorms in the spring and summer. Some of these storms, especially further south, are enough for tornadoes. The plains comprise both prairies and forests while, with the exception of Arctic tundra along the Hudson Bay, three main grassland types occur in the Canadian prairies, tallgrass prairie, mixed grass prairie, and fescue prairie. Each has a geographic distribution and characteristic mix of plant species. All but a fraction of one percent of the tallgrass prairie has been converted to cropland, what remains occurs on the 6,000 km2 plain centred in the Red River Valley in Manitoba. Mixed prairie is more common and is part of the dry plains that extend from Canada south to the U. S. state of Texas. More than half of the native grassland in the Canadian prairies is mixed. Though widespread in southern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, because of extensive cattle grazing, fescue prairie occurs in the moister regions, occupying the northern extent of the prairies in central and southwestern Alberta and west-central Saskatchewan. The southwestern Canadian prairies, supporting brown and black soil types, are semi-arid and highly prone to frequent, the zones around the cities of Regina and immediately east of Calgary are also very dry. Most heavy precipitation quickly dissipates by the time it passes Cheadle on its way heading east, in an average year, southern Saskatchewan receives between 30–51 cm of precipitation, with the majority falling between April and June. Frost from October to April limits the growing season for certain crops, the eastern section of the Canadian prairies in Manitoba is well watered with several large lakes such as Lake Winnipeg and several large rivers. The area also gets reasonable amounts of precipitation, the middle sections of Alberta and Saskatchewan are also wetter than the south and have better farmland, despite having a shorter frost-free season. The areas around Edmonton and Saskatoon are especially notable as good farmland, both lie in the northern area of the Pallisers Triangle, and are within aspen parkland a transitional prairie ecozone

Canadian Prairies
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Farm on the prairies near Hartney, Manitoba
Canadian Prairies
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Native grasslands in southern Saskatchewan
Canadian Prairies
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Gimli, Manitoba is located on Lake Winnipeg, a very large fresh water lake in the eastern prairies.
Canadian Prairies
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A canola field in the Qu'Appelle Valley in Southern Saskatchewan.

60.
Northern Canada
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Northern Canada, colloquially the North, is the vast northernmost region of Canada variously defined by geography and politics. Politically, the term refers to three territories of Canada, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, similarly, the Far North may refer to the Canadian Arctic, the portion of Canada north of the Arctic Circle and lies east of Alaska and west of Greenland. This area covers about 39 percent of Canadas total land area, for some purposes, Northern Canada may also include Northern Quebec and Northern Labrador. These reckonings somewhat depend on the concept of nordicity, a measure of so-called northernness that other Arctic territories share. Canada is the northernmost country in the Americas and roughly 80% of its 35 million inhabitants are concentrated along its border with the United States. Combined with the fact that all of the country experiences severely cold winters along with short and relatively cool summers. Due to the concentration of its population along the border. Southern Canada is therefore considered to be a region only when it is contrasted against or viewed from the North, as a social rather than political region, the Canadian north is often subdivided into two distinct regions based on climate, the near north and the far north. The different climates of these two regions result in different vegetation, and therefore very different economies, settlement patterns. The near north or subarctic is mostly synonymous with the Canadian boreal forest and this area has traditionally been home to the Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic, that is the First Nations, who were hunters of moose, freshwater fishers and trappers. This region was involved in the North American fur trade during its peak importance. The area was part of Ruperts Land or the North-Western Territory under the nominal control of the Hudsons Bay Company from 1670–1869. The HBCs claim was purchased by the Canadian government in 1869 and this opened the region to non-Native settlement, as well as to forestry, mining, and oil and gas drilling. Today several million people live in the north, around 15% of the Canadian total. The far north is synonymous with the north of the tree line. This area is home to the various sub-groups of the Inuit and these are people who have traditionally relied mostly on hunting marine mammals and caribou, mainly barren-ground caribou, as well as fish and migratory birds. This area was somewhat involved in the fur trade, but was influenced by the whaling industry. Very few non-Aboriginal people have settled in areas, and the residents of the far north represent less than 1% of Canadas total population

61.
The Maritimes
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine

62.
Atlantic Canada
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The population of the four Atlantic provinces in 2016 was about 2,300,000 on half a million km2. The provinces combined had an approximate GDP of $110.308 billion in 2011, the first Premier of Newfoundland, Joey Smallwood, coined the term Atlantic Canada when Newfoundland joined the Dominion of Canada in 1949. Today Atlantic Canada is a distinct region of Canada, with the original founding cultures of Celtic, English and French remaining strong. Although Quebec has physical Atlantic coasts on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Ungava Bay,2016 census figures for Metropolitan Areas and Population Centres in Atlantic Canada. The list includes communities above 15,000, by Metropolitan Area population, or 10,000 by Population Centre population

Atlantic Canada
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Map of Atlantic Canada

63.
Great Lakes
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Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the worlds surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles, and the volume is 5,439 cubic miles. Due to their sea-like characteristics the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas, Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis, the lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the regions biodiversity, though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, the lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the area of the entire basin is about the size of the UK. Lake Michigan is the one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U. S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes, Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, New York and Wisconsins jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. This designation, however, is not universal and those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as the lower lakes, because they are farther south. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as down south, vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered upbound even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations, the St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, the St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean

Great Lakes
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Satellite image of the Great Lakes, April 24, 2000, with lake names added
Great Lakes
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Terra MODIS image of the Great Lakes, January 27, 2005, showing ice beginning to build up around the shores of each of the lakes, with snow on the ground.
Great Lakes
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Photograph of Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron plus the Finger Lakes of upstate New York, June 14, 2012, taken aboard the International Space Station, with lake names added
Great Lakes
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Toronto on Lake Ontario is in the eastern section of the Great Lakes Megalopolis

64.
Economy of Canada
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Canada has the 10th or 15th-largest economy in the world, is one of the worlds wealthiest nations, and is a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and Group of Seven. As with other developed nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canadas most important. Canada also has a manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing, Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. With the exception of a few big island nations in the Caribbean, as a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, the Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social. Canada has a private to public property ratio of 60,40, today Canada closely resembles the U. S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production. As of February 2013, Canadas national unemployment rate stood at 7. 0%, in May 2010, provincial unemployment rates varied from a low of 5. 0% in Saskatchewan to a high of 13. 8% in Newfoundland and Labrador. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the worlds largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining accounted for about 58% of Canadas total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009, in 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canadas GDP. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports, Canadas combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006. Approximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields and they are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, several of Canadas largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canadas largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, the reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society

65.
Banking in Canada
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Released in October 2010, Global Finance magazine put Royal Bank of Canada at number 10 among the worlds safest banks and Toronto-Dominion Bank at number 15. Canada’s banks, also called chartered banks, have over 8,000 branches, Banking in Canada began to migrate in earnest from colonial overseas banking operations to a local banking system with the founding of the Bank of Montreal in 1817. Other banks soon followed and began business, and after an approval process began unregulated banking business. These institutions issued their own currency until amendments in the Dominion Notes Act allowed federal and provincial governments to begin to introduce their own notes starting in 1866. Official Canadian currency took the form of the Canadian dollar in 1871, the establishment of the Bank of Canada in 1935 was also an important milestone in banking and monetary governance. Despite various loss events, the big five banks have thus far proven to be safe, for example, in securities prospectuses the Royal Bank of Canada says it has paid a common share dividend in every year since 1870, the year after it received its banking charter. According to the Department of Finance, two regional banks failed in the mid-1980s, the only such failures since 1923, which is the year Home Bank failed. There were no bank failures during the Great Depression compared to 9000+ in the US, in the 1980s and 1990s, the largest banks acquired almost all significant trust and brokerage companies in Canada. They also started their own fund and insurance businesses. As a result, Canadian banks broadened out to become supermarkets of financial services, after large bank mergers were ruled out by the federal government, some Canadian banks turned to international expansion, particularly in various U. S. markets such as banking and brokerage. Two other notable developments in Canadian banking were the launch of ING Bank of Canada, between July and September 2016, three new domestic Schedule 1 banks have begun operating in Canada with an additional fourth bank poised to announce its commencement in the following month. When the fourth bank begins operations, it will be almost a 15% increase in domestic banks from 27 to 31, the new banks have identified niches compared to the wider reach of the Big Five. Wealth One Bank of Canada aims to service the countrys growing Chinese Canadian population with full Mandarin, exchange Bank of Canada deals exclusively in foreign currency services on a wholesale level to financial institutions and businesses. UNI Financial Corp. was formed as Caisses populaires acadiennes become the first Canadian credit union to obtain a bank charter. These second tier organizations are largely Canadian domestic banking organizations, insurance companies in Canada have also created deposit-taking bank subsidiaries. In fiscal 2007, RBCs Canadian segment called Personal Financial Services had revenue of only CAD$5,082 million of a revenue of CAD$22,462 million. Canadian retail operations of the Big Five comprise other activities that do not need to be operated from a regulated bank and these other activities include mutual funds, insurance, credit cards, and brokerage activities. In addition, they have large international subsidiaries, *Marketing brands are shown rather than division names

66.
Telecommunications in Canada
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Present-day Telecommunications in Canada include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage. In the past, telecommunications included telegraphy available through Canadian Pacific, stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use CB through a special agreement with the government of Chile. Some codes beginning with VE and VF are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters, in 1868 Montreal Telegraph began facing competition from the newly established Dominion Telegraph Company. In 1882, Canadian Pacific transmitted its first commercial telegram over telegraph lines they had erected alongside its tracks, great North Western Telegraph, facing bankruptcy, was taken over in 1915 by Canadian Northern. By the end of World War II, Canadians communicated by telephone, in 1967 the CP and CN networks were merged to form CNCP Telecommunications. As of 1951, approximately 7000 messages were sent daily from the United States to Canada, the agreement was complicated by the fact that some Canadian destinations were served by only one of the two networks

Telecommunications in Canada
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The logo of Bell Canada, the nation's largest telephone company.

67.
Fishing industry in Canada
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Canada has one of the worlds most valuable commercial fishing industries, worth more than CAD $5 billion a year and providing more than 120,000 jobs to Canadians. It is the mainstay of approximately 1,500 communities in rural and coastal Canada. The Manitoba commercial fishing industry that comprises over 3,600 fishers who produce 25 percent of Canadas freshwater catch, lake Winnipeg is the biggest contributor of commercially landed fish species. Of the 13 fish species harvested, pickerel, Sauger, lake whitefish, northern pike. Others include white sucker, tullibee, carp, burbot, lake sturgeon, Goldeye, agriculture and Agri-foodCanada, Canadas Fish and Seafood Industry, The SALMON Economy

68.
Oil reserves in Canada
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Oil reserves in Canada were estimated at 172 billion barrels as of the start of 2015. This figure includes the oil reserves that are estimated by government regulators to be economically producible at current prices using current technology. According to this figure, Canadas reserves are only to Venezuela. Over 95% of these reserves are in the oil deposits in the province of Alberta. Alberta contains nearly all of Canadas oil sands and much of its oil reserves. The balance is concentrated in other provinces and territories. Saskatchewan and offshore areas of Newfoundland in particular have substantial oil production, Alberta has 39% of Canadas remaining conventional oil reserves, offshore Newfoundland 28% and Saskatchewan 27%, but if oil sands are included, Albertas share is over 98%. Canada has a sophisticated energy industry and is both an importer and exporter of oil and refined products. In 2006, in addition to producing 1.2 billion barrels, Canada imported 440 million barrels, consumed 800 million barrels itself, the excess of exports over imports was 400 million barrels. Over 99% of Canadian oil exports are sent to the United States, instead, it must be mined, heated, or diluted with solvents to allow it to be produced, and must be upgraded to lighter oil to be usable by refineries. Historically known as bituminous sands or sometimes as tar sands, the deposits were exposed as major rivers cut through the formations to reveal the bitumen in the river banks. The ERCB estimates that by 2017 oil sands production will make up 88% of Albertas predicted oil production of 3.4 million barrels per day, analysts estimate that a price of $30 to $40 per barrel is required to make new oil sands production profitable. In recent years prices have exceeded those levels and the Alberta government expects $116 billion worth of new oil sands projects to be undertaken between 2008 and 2017. However the biggest constraint on oil development is a serious labor and housing shortage in Alberta as a whole. According to Statistics Canada, by September,2006 unemployment rates in Alberta had fallen to low levels. Another hurdle has been Canadas capacity to increase its export pipelines. The National Energy Board indicated that exporters faced pipeline apportionment in 2007. However, surging crude oil prices sparked a jump in applications for oil pipelines in 2007, up until 2010 Canada was the only major oil producer in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development to have an increase in oil production in recent years

69.
Toronto Stock Exchange
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Toronto Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges. It is the ninth largest exchange in the world by market capitalization, based in Toronto, it is owned by and operated as a subsidiary of the TMX Group for the trading of senior equities. A broad range of businesses from Canada and abroad are represented on the exchange, in addition to conventional securities, the exchange lists various exchange-traded funds, split share corporations, income trusts and investment funds. More mining and oil and gas companies are listed on Toronto Stock Exchange than any other stock exchange, the Toronto Stock Exchange likely descended from the Association of Brokers, a group formed by Toronto businessmen on July 26,1852. No records of the transactions have survived. On October 25,1861, twenty-four men gathered at the Masonic Hall to create the Toronto Stock Exchange, the exchange was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1878. The TSX grew continuously in size and in shares traded, save for a period in 1914 when the exchange was shut down for fear of financial panic due to World War I. In 1934, the Toronto Stock Exchange merged with its key competitor, the merged markets kept the Toronto Stock Exchange name. The TSX opened its new trading floor and headquarters in an Art Deco building on Bay Street in 1937, in 1977, the TSX introduced CATS, an automated trading system, and began to use it for the quotation of less liquid equities. In 1983, the TSX vacated its Art Deco headquarters on Bay Street, the old TSX building later became the Design Exchange, a museum and education centre. On April 23,1997, the TSXs trading floor closed, making it the second-largest stock exchange in North America to choose a floorless, in 1999, the Toronto Stock Exchange announced the appointment of Barbara G. Stymiest to the position of President & Chief Executive Officer. Through a realignment plan, Toronto Stock Exchange became Canadas sole exchange for the trading of senior equities, the Canadian Dealing Network, Winnipeg Stock Exchange, and equities portion of the Montreal Exchange later merged with CDNX. In 2000, the Toronto Stock Exchange became a for-profit company, in 2001, the Toronto Stock Exchange acquired the Canadian Venture Exchange, which was renamed the TSX Venture Exchange in 2002, this resulted in the creation of a parent to the TSX, the TSX Group. This ended 123 years of the usage of TSE as a Canadian stock exchange, on May 11,2007, the S&P/TSX Composite, the main index of the Toronto Stock Exchange, traded above the 14,000 point level for the first time ever. On December 17,2008, the TSX for the first time in history was closed for a trading day due to a technical glitch.9 trillion. Xavier Rolet, who is CEO of the LSE Group, would head the new enlarged company, based on data from December 30,2010 the new stock exchange would have been the second largest in the world with a market cap 48% greater than the Nasdaq. 8 of the 15 board members of the entity will be appointed by LSE. The provisional name for the group would be LTMX Group plc

70.
Taxation in Canada
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Taxation in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and the various provincial and territorial legislatures. The powers of taxation are circumscribed by ss.53 and 54, and 125, which state, Since the 1930 Supreme Court of Canada ruling in Lawson v. In order for a tax to be imposed, it must meet the requirements of s.53 of the Constitution Act,1867. In 620 Connaught Ltd. v. Canada, the Westbank framework was qualified to require a relationship between the charge and the scheme itself and this has resulted in situations where an imposition can be characterized as neither a valid regulatory charge nor a valid tax. In Confédération des syndicats nationaux v, Federal taxes are collected by the Canada Revenue Agency. Under tax collection agreements, the CRA collects and remits to the provinces, provincial personal income taxes on behalf of all provinces except Quebec, Corporate taxes on behalf of all provinces except Quebec and Alberta. That portion of the Harmonized Sales Tax that is in excess of the federal Goods and Services Tax rate, the Agence du Revenu du Québec collects the GST in Quebec on behalf of the federal government, and remits it to Ottawa. The Parliament of Canada entered the field with the passage of the Business Profits War Tax Act,1916 and it was replaced in 1917 by the Income War Tax Act,1917. Similar taxes were imposed by the provinces in the following years, from 1850, municipal councils in Ontario possessed authority to levy taxes on income, where such amount was greater than the value of a taxpayers personal property. The personal property limitation was removed with the passage of the Assessment Act in 1904, by 1936, some 200 councils ranging in size from Toronto to Blenheim Township were collecting such taxes. Toronto levied personal income taxes until 1936, and corporate income taxes until 1944, from 1855 to 1870, and once more from 1939, income tax was imposed on residents of Quebec City. In 1935, an income tax was imposed on the income of individuals resident or doing business in Montreal. Similar income taxes were imposed in Sherbrooke from 1886 to 1912, in Sorel from 1889. In Prince Edward Island, Summerside had a tax from 1870 to 1880. While Nova Scotia permitted municipal income tax in 1835, Halifax was the first municipality to one in 1849. New Brunswick allowed the collection of taxes in 1831. However, serious enforcement did not begin until 1849, but it was only in 1908 when all municipalities in the Province were required to collect it, the federal government charges the bulk of income taxes with the provinces charging a somewhat lower percentage, except in Quebec. Income taxes throughout Canada are progressive with the high income residents paying a higher percentage than the low income residents, Alberta has a flat-rate provincial income tax

71.
Education in Canada
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Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province, Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Within the provinces under the ministry of education, there are district school boards administering the educational programs, in some provinces early leaving exemptions can be granted under certain circumstances at 14. Canada generally has 190 school days in the year, officially starting from September to the end of June, in British Columbia secondary schools, there are 172 school days during a school year. In Alberta, high school students get an additional four weeks off to accommodate for exam break, classes typically end on the 15th of those two months. Elementary, secondary, and post-secondary education in Canada is a provincial responsibility, some educational fields are supported at various levels by federal departments. Vocational training can be subsidized by the Learning branch of Human Resources, in many places, publicly funded high school courses are offered to the adult population. Nonetheless, more than 51% of Canadians have a college degree, the majority of schools, at 67%, are co-educational. Canada spends about 5. 4% of its GDP on education, the country invests heavily in tertiary education. Recent reports suggest that from 2006 the tuition fees of Canadian universities have increased by 40 percent, although these classes are offered, most appear to be limited by the area or region in which students reside. Furthermore, subjects that typically get assessed assume greater importance than non-assessed subjects or facets of the curriculum, the students in the Canadian school system receive a variety of classes that are offered to them. The system is set up to meet the needs of the individual student. The Constitution of Canada provides constitutional protections for some types of publicly funded religious-based and language-based school systems, the provision did originally apply to Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Newfoundland and Labrador, since these provinces did have pre-existing separate schools. This constitutional provision was repealed in Quebec by an amendment in 1997. The constitutional provision continues to apply to Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta, there is a similar federal statutory provision which applies to the Northwest Territories. In practice, this means that there are publicly funded English schools in Quebec, and publicly funded French schools in the other provinces. Quebec students must attend a French school up until the end of school unless one of their parents qualifies as a rights-holder under s.23 of the Charter. Most education programs in Canada begin in kindergarten or grade one and go to grade twelve, except in Quebec, after completion of a secondary school diploma, students may go on to post-secondary studies

Education in Canada
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1950 Canadian School Train. Pupils attend classes at Nemegos near Chapleau, Ontario.
Education in Canada
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Education in Canada
Education in Canada
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Canadian university enrollment in various subjects - 2005/2006

72.
Crime in Canada
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Under the Canadian constitution, the power to establish criminal law and rules of investigation is vested in the federal Parliament. Laws and sentencing guidelines are uniform throughout the country, but provinces vary in their level of enforcement, there were 2,452,787 crimes reported in 2006, 48% were property-related crimes and 12. 6% were violent crimes. At a rate of 7,518 reported incidents per 100,000 people, the rate in 2006. The crime rate has been in decline since 1991. The province with the lowest crime rate in 2006 for the third year was Ontario with 5,689 per 100,000. The province with the highest crime rate for the 9th straight year was Saskatchewan with 13,711 per 100,000, regina is the city with the highest crime rate followed by its provincial counterpart Saskatoon. Quebec City, Trois-Rivières, and Saguenay have the lowest crime rates of any city and are all located in Quebec, winnipeg has had the highest violent crime rate since 2009 and still held it in 2012. For years native Canadian women have been victims of assault and murder disproportionately often. The three northern territories have higher per capita crime rates than any province, as evidenced by the crime map above right, Saskatchewan has a higher crime rate than the other Canadian provinces, but lower than the territories. The number of murders dropped to 594 in 2007,12 fewer than the previous year, one-third of the 2007 murders were stabbings and another third were by firearm. In 2007, there were 190 stabbings and 188 shootings, handguns were used in two-thirds of all firearm murders. Seventy-four youths were accused of murder, down 11 from the previous year, about eighty-four percent of murders were done by someone known to the victim. Male victims of homicide were most likely to be killed by an acquaintance, someone known to them through a criminal relationship, female victims of homicide were most frequently killed by a current or former intimate partner, or another family member. The province with the highest crime rate was Manitoba while the lowest crime rates occurred in Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland, Police reported criminal violence is thought to be an undercount of actual violence rates. Thus, approximately five years, Statistics Canada conducts a survey of victimization in Canada. Winnipeg has been the Murder Capital of Canada 20 times since homicide rates have been available in 1981, crime statistics vary considerably through different parts of Canada. In general, the provinces have the lowest violent crime rates while the western provinces have higher rates. Of the provinces, Manitoba and Saskatchewan have the highest violent crime rates, the chart below also shows that Saskatchewan has the highest assault rate, and that Manitoba has the highest sexual assault rate, robbery rate and homicide rate of any Canadian province

73.
Demographics of Canada
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This article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada. The Canada 2016 Census had a population count of 35,151,728 individuals. Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016, percentages therefore add up to more than 100%. The most common response was Canadian, Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born. The number of people belonging to minority groups will double. All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada. Statistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the Employment Equity Act, Statistics Canada states the Employment Equity Act defines visible minorities as persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. All statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census, note, Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal All statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census. Language used most often at work, English,78. 3% French,21. 7% Non-official languages, 2% Languages by language used most often at home, among these, 67% of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011. The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no affiliation at 24%. Among these, 39% of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011

74.
Canadians
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Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural, for most Canadians, several of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada, Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Canadian independence from the United Kingdom grew gradually over the course of years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Canadas nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom, legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development. As of 2010, Canadians make up 0. 5% of the total population, having relied upon immigration for population growth. Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants, and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country. Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent. Aboriginal peoples, according to the 2011 Canadian Census, numbered at 1,400,685 or 4. 3% of the countrys 33,476,688 population. The French originally settled New France, in present-day Quebec and Ontario, approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture. This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, after the War of 1812, British, Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Ruperts Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America and these new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia. Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries are often referred to as old stock Canadians. Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, from the mid- to late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted Home Children from Britain. Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves. Canada was now receiving a number of European immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles

75.
Languages of Canada
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A multitude of languages are used in Canada. According to the 2011 census, English and French are the mother tongues of 56. 9% and 21. 3% of Canadians respectively,85. 6% of Canadians have working knowledge of English while 30. 1% have a working knowledge of French. New Brunswick is the only Canadian province that has both English and French as its official languages to the extent, with constitutional entrenchment. Similar constitutional protections are in place in Manitoba, many Canadians believe that the relationship between the English and French languages is the central or defining aspect of the Canadian experience. Canada’s linguistic diversity extends beyond the two official languages, in all,20. 0% of Canadas population reported speaking a language other than English or French at home. Finally, the number of people reporting sign languages as the languages spoken at home was nearly 25,000 people, Canada is also home to many indigenous languages. Taken together, these are spoken by less than one percent of the population, about. 6% Canadians report an Aboriginal language as their mother tongue. The following table details the population of each province and territory, with summary national totals, source, Statistics Canada,2011 Census Population by language spoken most often and regularly at home, age groups, for Canada, provinces and territories. The percentage of the population speaking English, French or both languages most often at home has declined since 1986, the decline has been greatest for French, the proportion of the population who speak neither English nor French in the home has increased. The table below shows the percentage of the total Canadian population who speak Canadas official languages most often at home from 1971–2006. In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec and Nunavut, and most Canadians can speak English. While English is not the language in Quebec,36. 1% of Québécois can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44%, only 3. 2% of Canadas English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal. More Canadians know how to speak English than speak it at home, of these, about 6.1 million or 85% resided in Quebec. Outside Quebec, the largest French-speaking populations are found in New Brunswick, overall, 22% of people in Canada declare French to be their mother language, while one in three Canadians speak French and 70% are unilingual Anglophones. Smaller indigenous French-speaking communities exist in other provinces. For example, a community exists on Newfoundlands Port au Port Peninsula. The percentage of the population who speak French both by mother tongue and home language has decreased over the past three decades

Languages of Canada
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Language used most often at home 1981–2006.
Languages of Canada
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QWERTY US Canadian French
Languages of Canada
Languages of Canada

76.
Religion in Canada
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Religion in Canada encompasses a wide range of groups and beliefs. Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with the Catholic Church having the most adherents, Christians, representing 67. 3% of the population, are followed by people having no religion with 23. 9% of the total population. Islam is the second largest religion in Canada, practised by 3. 2% of the population, rates of religious adherence are steadily decreasing. The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms refers to God, however, Canada has no official religion, and support for religious pluralism and freedom of religion is an important part of Canadas political culture. Before the European colonization Aboriginal religions were largely animistic, including a reverence for spirits. The French colonization beginning in the 17th century established a Roman Catholic francophone population in Acadia and in New France later Lower Canada, now Nova Scotia and it has been followed by a British colonization that brought Anglicans and other Protestants to Upper Canada, now Ontario. With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian, the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, but still believe in God. The practice of religion is now considered a private matter throughout society. Canada today has no church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. While the Canadian governments official ties to religion, specifically Christianity are few, the national anthem in both official languages also refers to God. Some religious schools are government-funded as per Section Twenty-nine of the Canadian Charter of Rights, Canada is a Commonwealth realm in which the head of state is shared with 15 other countries. As such Canada follows the United Kingdoms succession laws for its monarch which bar Roman Catholics from inheriting the throne, within Canada, the Queens title includes the phrases By the Grace of God and Defender of the Faith. Christmas and Easter are nationwide holidays, and while Jews, Muslims, in 1957, the Parliament declared Thanksgiving a day of general thanksgiving to almighty God for the bountiful harvest with which Canada has been blessed. There was a battle in the late 20th century to have religious garb accepted throughout Canadian society. Eventually the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Armed Forces, representing one out of three Canadians, the Roman Catholic Church in Canada is by far the countrys largest single denomination. Secularization has been growing since the 1960s, in 2011,23. 9% declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16. 5% in 2001. In recent years there have been substantial rises in non-Christian religions in Canada, from the 1991 to 2011, Islam grew by 316%, Hinduism 217%, Sikhism 209%, and Buddhism 124%. The growth of non-Christian religions expressed as a percentage of Canadas population rose from 4% in 1991 to 8% in 2011. 5% of Christians to non-Christians, in 20 years

Religion in Canada
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Centre Block of the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa showing Christmas decorations
Religion in Canada
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Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, Gabriel Sagard, 1632.
Religion in Canada
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St. Paul's Church, Halifax, Nova Scotia, the oldest Anglican church in Canada still standing, built in 1750
Religion in Canada
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Inauguration of United Church at Mutual Street Arena, Toronto, on June 10, 1925

77.
Population of Canada
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The historical growth of Canadas population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new country, Canada has been predisposed to be a very open society with regards to immigration. Canadians comprise about 0. 5% of the total population. The 2016 Canadian census counted a population of 35,151,728. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, despite the fact that Canadas population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canadas north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region. Scholars vary on the size of the aboriginal population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canadas Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians early interactions with First Nations, roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot, who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the population within the limits of Canada at the time. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, Aboriginal peoples numbered at 1,400,685, the European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high, the women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, Canadians had a diet for their time. The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America and it was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talons census there were 3,215 people in New France, the census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were established along the Saint Lawrence River. Mainly due to increase and modest immigration from Northwest France the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730, during the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth

Population of Canada
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Distribution of the population in Canada for the years 1851, 1871, 1901, 1921 and 1941
Population of Canada
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Historical population of Canada since confederation, 1867–2009

78.
Culture of Canada
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The culture of Canada is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canadas history, its culture has influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canadas immigrant populations have incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture. The population has also influenced by American culture because of a shared language, proximity. Canada is often characterized as being progressive, diverse. Canadas federal government has often described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canadas culture draws from its range of constituent nationalities. Canadians identify with the institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the National park system. The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions and it has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. For tens of thousands of years, Canada was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples from a variety of different cultures, although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. Combined with late economic development in many regions, this comparably nonbelligerent early history allowed Aboriginal Canadians to have an influence on the national culture. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an part of Canadian language. Many places in Canada, both features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning village or settlement, the name of Canadas capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term adawe meaning to trade. The French originally settled New France along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of French Canadian culture. The British conquest of New France during the century brought 70,000 Francophones under British rule, creating a need for compromise. The migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution brought American colonial influences, following the War of 1812 a large wave of Irish, Scottish and English settlers arrived in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive, Canada until the 1940s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and political identities, and to some extent aboriginal

79.
Canadian folklore
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Canadian folklore is the traditional material that Canadians pass down from generation to generation, either as oral literature or by custom or practice. It includes songs, legends, jokes, rhymes, proverbs, weather lore, superstitions, the largest bodies of folklore in Canada belong to the aboriginal and French-Canadian cultures. English-Canadian folklore and the folklore of recent immigrant groups have added to the countrys folk, the classic definitions of folklore were created by Europeans such as William Thoms, who coined the term in 1846 to refer to manners, customs of the olden times. The study of folklore grew out of the European concept of folk, often understood to mean common and this definition falls short of capturing the formal aspect of much aboriginal tradition. Even 19th century folklorists collecting and attempting to translate aboriginal oral literature recognized the challenge of bridging the culture gap. The myriad voices of nature are dumb to you, but to them they are full of life, among many aboriginal cultures, storytelling was normally restricted to the long winter evenings. Aboriginal folklore and mythology are sometimes collected and studied according to families, such as Algonquian, Athabaskan, Iroquoian, Kutenai, Salishan, Siouan. Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas can vary, some broad themes can be identified in aboriginal Canadian mythology. Creation myths are among the most sacred to aboriginal cultures, Haida myths of the Raven, a celestial being, explain the creation of the sun. The Haida word for Raven means the one who is going to order things, one creation myth from the Northeastern Woodlands tribes describes the creation of North America, or Turtle Island, by Muskrat and Turtle. Myths about the origins of landscape features, such as mountains, supernatural beings are prominent in many myths about the origin of places, animals, and other natural phenomena. Nanabozho is the spirit and hero of Ojibwa mythology. Glooscap, a giant gifted with powers, is the hero. Supernatural experiences by ordinary mortals are found in other myths, for example, the Chippewa have myths explaining the first corn and the first robin, triggered by a boys vision. Some myths explain the origins of sacred rituals or objects, such as lodges, wampum. Cryptids, or mythical beasts, exist in some aboriginal folklore, bigfoot, or Sasquatch, the Wendigo, and Ogopogo are popular examples. French-Canadian folklore has its roots in the folklore of France, with stock characters such as Ti-Jean. Other popular heroes of French-Canadian folklore were created in New France, such as the exploits of the hunter Dalbec, the earliest French-Canadian folksong celebrates the adventures of Jean Cadieux

80.
Canadian online media
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Canadian online media is content aimed at a Canadian audience through the medium of the Internet. Presently, online media can be accessed by computers, smart-phones, gaming consoles, Smart TVs, MP3 players, large media companies are increasingly on the move to start up online platforms for news and television content. The exponential growth of Canadians’ dependency on online content for entertainment, however, it has proven slow for Canadian online media to catch up with the constant increase of American online media. Regardless of medium, entertainment and information hubs are not solely focusing on satisfying the audience they have, as information is increasingly going digital, the Newspaper Audience Databank claims online readership for most Canadian newspapers have surpassed the numbers in print readership. However, there is lack of evidence that newspapers are coming to an end in Canada. For some of Canada’s larger newspapers, readership has increased in both print and online formats, after The Globe and Mail’s redesign, they claim to have fueled a 10. 2% increase in both their print and online readers. Highlights from a 2010 study conducted by NADbank revealed the national newspaper readership remains high, though the migration from print to online newspapers is still ongoing, print editions are still the most popular amongst Canadians. Many news writers are beginning to have an active Twitter presence to communicate with their audiences, large newspapers are urging writers to have a public persona on blogs or Twitter. Instant connection is becoming more substantial, as journalists are encouraged to interact with the public, Alfred Hermida of the University of British Columbia asserts that participatory journalism reinforces the public sphere, while news specialization ironically undermines it. Openfile. ca was a newspaper that concentrated on community-powered news. Launched in May 2010, OpenFile aimed to promote citizen journalism by enabling anyone to suggest a story to cover, stories were also geotagged to improve accessibility to citizens who wanted stories in their immediate neighbourhoods. By 2012, the site saw about 400,000 unique visitors per month, as of 2014, the Openfile website simply states, on hiatus. Rabble. ca, another online-only news site, is a organization that publishes a mixture of original content. In 2008, they created rabbletv in an effort to out their multi-media presence. The Canoe Network is a news site in Canada with a network of French and English news content, as well as sub-divisions of a job-listing site, TV programs, e-commerce. In the digital age, large media conglomerates are taking the opportunity to broaden their audiences by pushing to start up their own online platforms for multimedia content. Rogers, one of Canada’s largest communication companies, made the move in 2009 to create its version of Hulu. com, the concept was to provide free television programs in pursuance of promoting online content in Canada. It has also noted as a way to secure Canada’s future in broadcasting

Canadian online media
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Photo capture of tweettheresults.ca

81.
Theatre of Canada
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Canadas contemporary theatre reflects a rich diversity of regional and cultural identities. Since the late 1960s, there has been an effort to develop the voice of the Canadian playwright. David Fennario Herman Voaden George F. Théâtre de Neptune was the first European theatre production in North America, the tradition of English theatre in Canada, also started at Annapolis Royal. The tradition at Fort Anne, Nova Scotia, was to produce a play in honour of the Prince of Wales birthday, paul Mascarene translated Molières La Misanthrope and then staged at least two productions of the work during the winter of 1743-1744. The second performance on 20 January 1744 had also coincided with celebrations in the colony to mark the birthday of Frederick, the text of the first three acts is contained in the Mascarene papers, British Library. And four years after the Mascarene production, on 20 January 1748, Major Phillips, unfortunately, the Boston News Letter fails to indicate the title of the play. In 1774, with various British officers, he staged the first production of Molière at his home in Montreal, other Garrison performances were private shows put on for troops, publicly performed by officers, which helped bridge theatre and war during its initial stages of development. It was welcomed by the populaces and distracted soldiers from war, before 1825, the Hayes House Hotel on Dalhousie Square, Montreal, had a theatre that staged German Orchestras and held Viennese dances. After it burned it down, John Molson built the Theatre Royal in 1825, presenting Shakespeare and it sat 1,000 guests and was also used for circuses and concerts. Edmund Kean and Charles Dickens both performed there before it was demolished in 1844 to make way for the Bonsecours Market, in the West, the GRAND theatre is build in 1912 in Calgary by the visionary Sir James Lougheed. The Grand was the home of many arts organizations in Calgary, the first theatre, opera, ballet, symphony concerts. This theatre was the centre of social, cultural, and political life in Calgary until the early 1960s, the Grand Theatre has been saved from demolition in 2004 by the company Theatre Junction and its director Mark Lawes. From 1929, Martha Allan founded the Montreal Repertory Theatre and later co-founded the Dominion Drama Festival and she almost single-handedly laid the groundwork for the development of the professional modern Canadian theatre scene. In 1971 a group of Canadian playwrights issued the Gaspé Manifesto as a call for at least one-half of the programing at publicly subsidized theatres to be Canadian content, the numerical goal was not achieved, but the following years saw an increase in Canadian content stage productions. Elizabeth Rex 2000 Timothy Findley I, Claudia 2001 Kristen Thomson Incendies 2003 Wajdi Mouawad Half Life 2005 John Mighton Cul-de-Sac 2005 Daniel MacIvor blood, northwest of Armstrong is the Caravan Farm Theatre, a professional outdoor theatre company. Chemainus hosts the annual Chemainus Festival, the heritage village of Fort Steele includes the Wild Horse Theatre, which produces a historic revue starring professional actors during the summer months. Gabriola Island is home to the Gabriola Theatre Festival, which produces twelve shows over one weekend in August, kamloops is home to Western Canada Theatre. North Vancouver has Presentation House Theatre and Centennial Theatre, Prince George is the home of Theatre North West

82.
Arms of Canada
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It is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version. The maple leaves in the shield, blazoned proper, were originally drawn vert but were redrawn gules in 1957, the shield design forms the monarchs royal standard and is also found on the Canadian Red Ensign. The Flag of the Governor General of Canada, which used the shield over the Union Flag. The arms are embossed on the cover of any citizens Canadian passport, in order to legally signify, prior to Confederation in 1867, the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom served in Canada as the symbol of royal authority. Arms had not been granted to any of the colonies in British North America, apart from 17th-century grants to Nova Scotia, the year after Confederation, arms were granted by Royal Warrant on 6 May to Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. That is why it was in this form Canada was represented on the first Red Ensign carried by Canadian troops at Vimy Ridge in 1917 and this eventually resulted in a shield with nine quarterings, an arrangement that had never been approved by the monarch. Nine quarterings on a shield was considered too complex for a national symbol, the decision was settled by 1920, and the committee conferred with the College of Arms in London, only to face resistance to the use of the Royal Arms from the Garter King of Arms. The new layout closely reflected the arms of the United Kingdom with the addition of leaves in the base. The proclamation also established red and white as the colours of Canada. In 1931, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster, Canada and these are the coat of arms of the Queen of Canada. While unsuccessful in this first attempt, Hicks continued his campaign and was joined by a number of other amateur and these letters patent carried the shield from the royal arms along with the annulus behind the shield bearing the motto of the Order of Canada—Desiderantes meliorem patriam. As soon as royal approval was forthcoming, the achievement was redesigned for use by the federal government within the Federal Identity Program. The present design of the arms of Canada was drawn by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, the arms of Canada are the arms of the sovereign and signify national sovereignty and ownership. It is also present on all denominations of Canadian banknotes, as well as the 50¢ coin. Since 1962, a banner of the arms, defaced with a variant of the Queens cypher, has formed the standard for Canada. Since, six additional standards for use by members of the Canadian Royal Family have been created. The revised 1957 and 1994 Arms of Canada are both protected official government symbols used to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program. The full achievement of the coat of arms has been used by the Canadian government on occasion on a red flag

Arms of Canada
Arms of Canada
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Arms of Her Majesty in Right of Canada (Armoiries de Sa Majesté la Reine du chef du Canada)
Arms of Canada
Arms of Canada
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Arms of Canada on Currie Hall, Royal Military College of Canada

83.
Canadian royal symbols
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Canadian royal symbols are the visual and auditory identifiers of the Canadian monarchy, including the viceroys, in the countrys federal and provincial jurisdictions. These may specifically distinguish organizations that derive their authority from the Crown, establishments with royal associations, some representations were discarded during and after the 1970s, within an evolving Canadian identity, while others were created over the same time and continue to be up to the present. Today, symbols of the monarchy can be seen in military badges, provincial and national coats of arms, royal prefixes, monuments, the first verifiable use of a royal symbol in Canada was when Jacques Cartier raised the Royal Arms of France on the Gaspé Peninsula in 1534. Since then, some icons were created for use uniquely in the Canadas—mostly coats of arms, but, only after the First World War did growing Canadian nationalism lead to changes in the appearance and meaning to Canadians of royal symbols. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign him or herself, being described as the expression of the Crown in Canada. Through the 1800s, effigies and pictures of the monarch—Queen Victoria, especially—came to be symbolic of the wider British Empire, as with other royal symbols, though, the general domestic meaning of the sovereigns portrait altered through the 20th century. The Royal Cypher is also regarded as a logo of the monarch. In Canada, the cypher has come to be indicative of the full sovereignty. Coins were one of the first objects to bear the image of the sovereign in what is today Canada. After 1640, French colonists employed the Louis dor until the transfer of New France to the British in 1763, after, British sovereigns and coppers were used, sometimes long after the end of the reign of the monarch appearing on the coin. The first coins minted specifically for the Province of Canada came in 1858 and had on their obverse the image of Queen Victoria, as did the first coins of the Dominion of Canada. Since then, the reigning sovereigns image has remained on Canadian coins, the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on current Canadian coins was rendered by Susannah Blunt. Stamps previously issued in other British North American colonies showed images of crowns and, into the late 1800s, the monarchs of Canada been portrayed by Canadian and European artists in paint, sculpture, and photography. Prior to her tour of Canada as queen in 1959, Elizabeth requested that a Canadian photographer take her pre-tour pictures. Then, in 1973, Onnig Cavoukian, also from Toronto, Rideau Hall photographer John Evans captured the sovereign on film in 1977, during her Silver Jubilee stay in Ottawa, Evans portrayed the Queen following her return from opening parliament. More recently, photographic portraits of Queen Elizabeth II were made in 2002, as part of her Golden Jubilee celebrations, and in 2005, charles Pachter created the painting The Queen on a Moose, which depicts exactly what the title describes and has become a Canadian cultural image. An official painted portrait of Queen Elizabeth II was created in 1976 and another by Scarborough, Ontario, the painting was on 25 June installed in the ballroom at Rideau Hall. More formal and enduring are the sculptures of some of Canadas monarchs, in the role of the state personified, the monarch has worn clothing symbolic of the country and his or her distinct role in it

Canadian royal symbols
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A 2006 Canadian silver dollar displaying the Victoria Cross and effigy of Queen Elizabeth II
Canadian royal symbols
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The sovereign's standard, used by Queen Elizabeth II when acting specifically as Queen of Canada, both inside the country and abroad
Canadian royal symbols
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A 1954 Canadian stamp bearing an image of Elizabeth II
Canadian royal symbols
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Hanging in a Canadian courthouse, a large portrait of Queen Elizabeth II with Prince Philip

84.
Canadian heraldry
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Canadian heraldry is the cultural tradition and style of coats of arms and other heraldic achievements in both modern and historic Canada. It includes national, provincial, and civic arms, noble and personal arms, ecclesiastical heraldry, heraldic displays as corporate logos, a unique system of cadency is used for daughters inheriting arms, and a special symbol for United Empire Loyalists. For the West Coast peoples this would be done with carvings on poles, carvings integrated into longhouses and smaller wooden objects like boxes, masks. For Plains people the Plains hide painting tradition painted images onto tipis, shields, from the beginning of the settlement of Canada until the Treaty of Paris in 1763, armorial bearings were largely either brought from France or awarded by the French crown. A notable exception is the Coat of Arms of Nova Scotia, awarded in 1625 by Charles I, in use until 1868, the original was later rediscovered, and replaced the 1868 version in 1929. The present-day Coat of Arms of Newfoundland and Labrador was granted to a private shortly after that of Nova Scotia. The Coat of Arms of the Hudsons Bay Company was first used in 1671, upon ratification of the Treaty of Paris, the British Crown confirmed the French awards of arms. Between 1763 and 1867, the year of Canadian Confederation, there is evidence of much heraldic activity. After Confederation, however, heraldry in Canada became more widespread, including grants of arms to the provinces, various institutions, municipalities. In the immediate period, arms were granted to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario. In the period between the Treaty of Paris and Confederation, the Arms of the United Kingdom had served as the emblem of authority within Canada. From 1763 until 1988, heraldry in Canada was under the authority of the College of Arms in London, in the late 1980s, the Queen issued Letters Patent creating the Canadian Heraldic Authority. This process was quite lengthy—and costly, in addition, the heralds in Britain could sometimes be unfamiliar with Canadian history and symbols. In time, many Canadians with an interest in heraldry began calling for an office that would offer armorial bearings designed by, as early as 1967, plans were reportedly in the works to transfer overview of heraldry from the College of Arms in the UK to Canada. The push for a wholly Canadian heraldic system came largely from the Heraldry Society of Canada almost from its inception, mr. Crombie had his department organise a meeting in Ottawa the following year, to which many national and international heraldic experts were invited. The meeting concluded with a recommendation to government that an Authority be created. As a result, Canada became the first Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom to have its own heraldic authority, Canada also provides full equality to women in terms of inheriting and transmitting arms. Additionally, all armigers within Canada may file for protection of their grant of arms under the Trade-Marks Act

86.
Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)
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To be designated, an event must have occurred at least 40 years previous, events that continue into the more recent past are evaluated on the basis of what occurred at least 40 years ago. As of March 2017, there were 473 designated Events of National Historic Significance, there are related federal designations for National Historic Sites and National Historic Persons. Events, Sites, and Persons are each marked by a federal plaque. The Welland Canal is an Event, while the Rideau Canal is a Site, the cairn and plaque to John Macdonell does not refer to a National Historic Person, but is erected because his home, Glengarry House, is a National Historic Site. Similarly, the plaque to John Guy officially marks not a Person, Events have been designated in all 10 provinces and three territories, as well as foreign countries, Belgium, China, France, Italy, Netherlands, South Korea, United Kingdom, United States. As of March 2017 there were 473 National Historic Events, heritage Minutes List of years in Canada List of Events of National Historic Significance

Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)
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The years of triumphs and tribulations of the Montreal Canadiens, seen here during the 1912-3 season, were designated the Club de hockey Canadien National Historic Event in 2008

87.
Heritage Minutes
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Heritage Minutes, formerly known as Historica Minutes, History by the Minute, is a series of sixty-second short films, each illustrating an important moment in Canadian history. The Minutes integrate Canadian history, folklore and myths into dramatic storylines, like the Canada Vignettes of the 1970s, the Minutes themselves have become a part of Canadian culture and been the subject of academic studies as well as parody. The Minutes were first introduced on March 31,1991, as part of a history quiz show hosted by Wayne Rostad. Originally distributed to schools, they appeared frequently on Canadian television and in cinemas before movies and were available online. Radio minutes have also been made, the thirteen original short films were broken up and run between shows on CBC Television and CTV Network. The continued broadcast of the Minutes and the production of new ones was pioneered by Charles Bronfmans CRB Foundation, Canada Post Power Broadcasting, and they were devised, developed and largely narrated by noted Canadian broadcaster Patrick Watson, while the producer of the series was Robert Guy Scully. In 2009 The Historica Foundation of Canada merged with The Dominion Institute to become The Historica-Dominion Institute a national charitable organization, in September 2013, the organization changed its name to Historica Canada. While the foundations have not paid networks to air Minutes, in the years they have paid to have them run in cinema theaters across the country. In 2012, two new Heritage Minutes were created on the War of 1812, in anticipation of the wars bicentenary, then in 2014 two Minutes were released on Sir John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier, that had been filmed in and around Toronto in September 2013. To honour the centenary of the start of the First World War two Minutes were released, one on the Winnipeg Falcons in 2014 and one on Canadian Nursing Sisters in early 2015. In September 2015, to commemorate the 35th anniversary of Terry Foxs run to conquer cancer, february 2016 saw the release of a Minute on Viola Desmond, a trailblazing black female entrepreneur from Halifax who spoke out against racial discrimination in Nova Scotia. On the 21st of June,2016, the 20th anniversary of National Aboriginal Day, the first tells the story of Chanie Charlie Wenjack, whose death sparked the first inquest into the treatment of Indigenous children in Canadian residential schools. The second, Naskumituwin, highlights the making of Treaty 9 from the perspective of historical witness George Spence, there are plans to come out with two every year until Canadas 150th birthday in 2017. A2012 Ipsos Reid poll of 3,900 Canadians selected the five most popular Minutes, tied for first place was the episodes on Jackie Robinson and Halifax Explosion, followed by Jennie Kidd Trout, Winnie-the-Pooh and Laura Secord. On October 19,2016, Historica Canada released another Heritage Minute that shows a story about an Inuit artist named Kenojuak Ashevak. It is also the first Heritage minute that is narrated on not just its official languages but also a third language, not all of the Heritage Minutes episodes have actually aired. 85 of them are available for viewing online, however, an episode on Canadian Peacekeepers in Cyprus is not available online through Historica Canada, the Comedy Network has aired short parodies titled Sacrilege Moments. Canadian rapper Classified parodied the Heritage Minute in his video for the song O Canada

Heritage Minutes
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An 1885 Robert Harris painting, A Meeting of the School Trustees, depicted in the 1998 Heritage Minute episode "Rural Teacher", on the benefits of pedagogy.

88.
History of Canadian sports
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Some sports, especially hockey, lacrosse and curling enjoy an international reputation as particularly Canadian. Canadian sports attract large numbers of participants and huge audiences, hockey, team sports often involved informal gambling. More formal bigger-stakes wagering and prize competitions were characteristic especially of horse racing and boxing, in the 21st century the major team sports are hockey, baseball, softball, football, and basketball. Women, once shunted aside, are now competing in most of these sports. Such problems stand in contrast to the values of sports including personal health, teamwork, striving for responsibility, loyalty, equality, winning, pleasure. Immigrants brought along their favourite sports, often adapting them to the snowy environment, the influence of the games of the First Nations can be seen especially in the evolution of lacrosse. British officers, soldiers, and royal officials, and indeed ordinary British immigrants as well, transplanted such games as football, rugby, curling, paraschak, identifies two approaches to the history of Native American sports. On the one hand, there is the history of First Nation athletes playing within the Euro-American mainstream culture, important topics include the issues of racism, exploitation, and ethnocentric distortion. Secondly there is the history of the sports played among the natives, the different tribes played toboggan, snowshoe, and canoe races as well as archery, wrestling, spear throwing and running events. They provided entertainment for the community and a way to sharpen essential survival skills, including the ability to endure pain and hardship. The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s, often originating in horse racing at British military garrisons, curling in Scottish settlements, perhaps the first athletic celebrities were the Canadian scullers who won several international championships. Much of Canadian historiography on sports education deals with the linkage between sports education and the construction of a national identity, hudon examines the history of sports education from 1870 to 1940 in Quebecs classic schools for boys from ages 11 to 18. He finds an impact of religious pedagogy on sports education, arguing that it promoted a Catholic spirituality with masculine undertones, in Anglophone Canada a strong influence came from the ideals of English author and reformer Thomas Hughes, especially as exemplified in Tom Browns Schooldays. Hughess notions that sportsmanship exemplified moral education and provided training for citizenship, have had a influence on the Canadian sport community. Despite commercialism and the celebration of high-performance athletes, the Hughesian principles of Christian socialism continues to influence sports programs for youth. Canadians in the 19th century came to believe themselves possessed of a unique character, due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice hockey, outside the arena Canadians express the national characteristics of being peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream their lungs out at ice hockey games, cheering the speed, ferocity, the advantage of the larger cities was the potential availability of a large paying crowd, the problem was providing cheap transportation for people not living close by

History of Canadian sports
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Summer Olympic sports

89.
History of Alberta
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What is today the province of Alberta, Canada has a history and prehistory stretching back thousands of years. Recorded or written history begins with the arrival of Europeans, the rich soil was ideal for growing wheat, and the coming of the railroads in the late 19th century led a to large-scale migration of farmers from Eastern Canada, the United States, and Europe. Wheat remains important, but the farms are larger and the rural population much smaller. Alberta has urbanized and its base has expanded from the export of wheat. The ancestors of todays First Nations in Alberta arrived in the area at least 8,000 years BC, more northerly tribes, like the Woodland Cree and the Chipewyan also hunted, trapped, and fished for other types of game in the aspen parkland and boreal forest regions. Later, the mixture of native peoples with French fur traders created a new cultural group. The Métis established themselves to the east of Alberta, but after being displaced by white settlement, following the arrival of outside European observers it is possible to reconstruct a rough narrative history of the nations of what later became Alberta. Using later-recorded oral histories as well as archaeological and linguistic evidence, in both cases the evidentiary base is thin, however. It is believed that at least some parts of the Great Plains were depopulated by a period of the drought during the Medieval Warm Period. The area was repopulated once the drought subsided, by peoples from a number of language families. The Numic languages are from the Uto-Aztecan language family and came to the Plains from the southwest, algonquian speakers are originally from the northeast. The Siouxan peoples speak a family of different from both of the above, and are from southeast. There are also small offshoots of the Na-Dene languages from the far northwest found on the Plains, the smallest unit of organization for both Plains and Subarctic people was what the European-Canadian explorers called a lodge. A lodge was a family or other close-knit group who slept together in the same teepee or other dwelling. Lodges travelled together in groups which anthropologists call bands, in the case of the Blackfoot during the historic era this would include 10 to 30 lodges, or roughly 80 to 240 persons. The band was the unit of organization on the Plains for both hunting and warfare. Bands were loose associations that could be formed and dissolved depending on circumstances, which gave their member lodges much freedom, but also less certainty. Therefore, people would also be bound to others in variety of other groups, such as common descent, common language and religion

History of Alberta
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A fur trader in Fort Chipewyan in the 1890s
History of Alberta
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Fort Edmonton; painting by Paul Kane (1810–1871), 1849–56.
History of Alberta
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North-West Mounted Police Lancer, 1875.
History of Alberta
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Crowds in Edmonton mark the creation of the Province of Alberta, 1 September 1905

90.
History of Ontario
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The History of Ontario covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited both by Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes, a French explorer Étienne Brûlé explored part of the area in 1610–12. Permanent French settlement was hampered by their hostilities with the Iroquois five leagues, the British established trading posts on Hudson Bay in the late 17th century and began a struggle for domination of Ontario. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War by awarding nearly all of Frances North American possessions to Britain, the region was annexed to Quebec in 1774. The first European settlements were in 1782–1784 when 5,000 American loyalists entered what is now Ontario following the American Revolution, from 1783 to 1796, Britain granted them 200 acres of land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canadas first Lieutenant-Governor in 1793, American troops in the War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River but were defeated and pushed back by British forces, local militia and Native American forces. The Americans gained control of Lake Erie at the Battle of Lake Erie, the British had to flee on foot, and the American William Henry Harrison caught up and decisively defeated them at the Battle of the Thames. The Americans also killed Tecumseh, leader of the anti-American First Nations military force, during the Battle of York Americans occupied the Town of York in 1813. After losing their general Zebulon Pike and having a time holding the town. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Britain and this deliberate immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. However, many arriving newcomers from Europe found frontier life difficult, population growth far exceeded emigration in the decades that would follow. Canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, Ontarios numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into the interior and supplied water power for development. Canals were capital-intensive infrastructure projects that facilitated trade, the Oswego Canal, built in New York 1825–1829, was a vital commercial link in the Great Lakes–Atlantic seaway. It linked into Ontarios Welland Canal in 1829, the newly fashioned Oswego–Welland line offered an alternative route to the St. Lawrence River and Europe, as opposed to the Erie Canal which terminated in New York City. Opponents called it the Family Compact, but its members avoided the term, in the religious sphere, a key leader was John Strachan, the Anglican bishop of Toronto. Strachan was opposed by Methodist leader Egerton Ryerson, the Family Compact consisted of English gentry who arrived before 1800, and the sons of United Empire Loyalists, who were exiles who fled the American revolution. The term family was metaphorical, for they generally were not related by blood or marriage, there were no elections and the leadership controlled appointments, so local officials were generally allies of the leaders. The Family Compact looked for the model to Britain, where landed aristocrats held power

History of Ontario
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A poster from 1878 encouraging immigration to Ontario
History of Ontario
History of Ontario
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Celebrating V-E Day in Ottawa in 1945.

91.
History of Quebec
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Quebec has played a special role in French history, the modern province occupies much of the land where French settlers founded the colony of Canada in the 17th and 18th centuries. The population is predominantly French-speaking and Roman Catholic, with a large Anglophone minority, the political alienation of the Francophones from the Anglophones has been a persistent theme since the late 19th century. Tensions were especially high during the First World War, historically, British merchants and financiers controlled the economy, and dominated Montreal. The Catholic Church, in cooperation with the landowners, led a highly traditional social structure in rural. Much of that changed during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, Quebecs separatists, calling for an independent nation, gained strength, but were narrowly defeated in two referenda. Quebec imposed increasingly stringent laws favouring the French language, many Anglophones left, aboriginal settlements were located across the area of present-day Quebec before the arrival of Europeans. In the northernmost areas of the province, Inuit communities can be found, other aboriginal communities belong to the following First Nations, The aboriginal cultures of present-day Quebec are diverse, with their own languages, way of life, economies, and religious beliefs. Before contact with Europeans, they did not have a written language, today around three-quarters of Quebecs aboriginal populations lives in small communities scattered throughout the rural areas of the province, with some living on reserves. Jacques Cartier sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City at the site of Stadacona. Linguists and archaeologists have determined these people were distinct from the Iroquoian nations encountered by later French and Europeans and their language was Laurentian, one of the Iroquoian family. By the late 16th century, they had disappeared from the St. Lawrence Valley, existing archaeological evidence attests to a human presence on the current territory of Quebec sometime around 10,000 BC. Paleo-American populations preceded the arrival of the Algonquian and Iroquois people in southern Quebec about 10,000 years ago, the Paleoindian period was followed by the Archaic, a time when major changes occurred in the landscape and the settlement of the territory of Quebec. With the end of glaciation, the territory increased in size. Migrations became rarer and moving around became a seasonal activity necessary for hunting, fishing or gathering, the nomadic populations of the Archaic period were better established and were very familiar with the resources of their territories. They adapted to their surroundings and experienced a degree of population growth, aboriginal peoples used a greater variety of local material, developed new techniques, such as polishing stone, and devised increasingly specialized tools, such as knives, awls, fish hooks, and nets. Agriculture appeared experimentally toward the 8th century and it was only in the 14th century that it was fully mastered in the Saint Lawrence River valley. The Iroquoians cultivated corn, marrow, sunflowers, and beans, in 1508, only 16 years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, Thomas Auber, who was likely part of a fishing trip near Newfoundland, brought back a few Amerindians to France. This indicates that in the early 16th century, French navigators ventured in the gulf of the St. Lawrence, along with the Basques and the Spaniards who did the same

History of Quebec
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View of Montreal from Mount Royal, 1902.
History of Quebec
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1592-1594: A map of New France made by cartographers Jan Doetecom, Petrus Plancius, and Cornelis Claesz.
History of Quebec
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1612: A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain.
History of Quebec
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1730: New France, also referred to as Canada on the map.

92.
History of Nova Scotia
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For military history, see Military history of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is a Canadian province located in Canadas Maritimes. The region was occupied by Mikmaq. During the first 150 years of European settlement, the colony was made up of Catholic Acadians. This time period involved six wars in which the Mikmaq along with the French, during Father Le Loutres War, the capital was moved from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia to the newly established Halifax, Nova Scotia. The warfare ended with the Burying the Hatchet Ceremony, after the colonial wars, New England Planters and Foreign Protestants settled Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, the colony was settled by Loyalists, during the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became self-governing in 1848 and joined the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The colonial history of Nova Scotia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine, in 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. Johns Island became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. Johns Island became a separate colony, Nova Scotia included present-day New Brunswick until that province was established in 1784. The oldest evidence of humans in Nova Scotia indicates the Paleo-Indians were the first, natives are believed to have been present in the area between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago. The Mikmaq are a First Nations people, indigenous to the Maritime Provinces, míkmaw is the singular form of Míkmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mikmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, however, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including smallpox and alcoholism, there had been large population losses in the previous century. At the time of contact with the French they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St, Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mikmaq name for this peninsula, Gespedeg. They were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst, with the complete loss by France during the Seven Years War of its North American territories, the Mi’kmaq lost their primary ally. The Mi’kmaq continued to suffer a collapse and with the influx of Planters in the 1760s and Loyalists in the 1780s. Later on the Mikmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated Beothuk tribe became extinct, giovanni Cabotos voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the Bardi family banking firm of Florence. With financing secure and patent issued by Henry VII to Caboto, upon landing on 24 June 1497, Caboto raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church. After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks discovering the coast, Cabotos expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian Alwyn Ruddock who worked on Caboto and his era for 35 years suggested Fr, Nova Scotia was further explored by the Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland

93.
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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The first brief European contact with Newfoundland and Labrador came about 1000 AD when the Vikings briefly settled in LAnse aux Meadows. Around 1500 AD, European explorers and fishermen from England, Portugal, France, fishing expeditions came seasonally, the first small permanent settlements appeared around 1630 AD. Catholic-Protestant religious tensions were high but mellowed after 1860, the British colony voted against joining Canada in 1869 and became an independent dominion in the early 20th century. Fishing was always the dominant industry, but the collapsed in the Great Depression of the 1930s. Prosperity and self-confidence returned during the Second World War, and after intense debate the people voted to join Canada in 1949, poverty and emigration have remained significant themes in Newfoundland history, despite efforts to modernize after 1949. Most efforts failed, and the collapse of the cod fishing industry was a terrific blow in the 1990s. The oil boom in the 00s has revived the economy, human habitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back about 9000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition. They were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset Culture the Lnu, or Mikmaq and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador, the first European contact with North America was that of the medieval Norse sailing from Greenland. For several years after 1000 AD they lived in a village on the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula, remnants and artifacts of the occupation can still be seen at LAnse aux Meadows, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The island was inhabited by the Beothuks and later the Mikmaq, from the late 15th Century, European explorers like John Cabot, João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar Corte-Real, Jacques Cartier and others began exploration. John Cabot, commissioned by King Henry VII of England, landed on the North East coast of North America in 1497, the exact location of his landing is unknown but the 500th anniversary of his landing was commemorated in Bonavista, Newfoundland. The 1497 voyage has generated debate among historians, with various points in Newfoundland. Fishing vessels with Basque, English, Portuguese, French and Spanish crews started to make seasonal expeditions, Basque vessels had been fishing cod shoals off Newfoundlands coasts since the beginning of the 16th century, and their crews used the natural harbour at Placentia. French fishers also began to use the area, a settlement was founded at Placentia at some point during the early 16th Century. From 1616, English Proprietary Governors were also appointed, to establish settlements on the island. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cupers Cove, other settlements were Bristols Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon which became a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638, explorers soon realized that the waters around Newfoundland had the best fishing in the North Atlantic. By 1620,300 fishing boats worked the Grand Bank, employing some 10,000 sailors and they dried and salted the cod on the coast and sold it to Spain and Portugal

History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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Plaque commemorating Gilbert's founding of the British Empire
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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James Cook in 1763-4 made a survey of Newfoundland's Northern Peninsula and in 1775 created this map.
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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1897 Newfoundland postage stamp, the first in the world to feature mining.
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
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Robert Bond, prime minister 1900–1909

94.
History of Yukon
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Yukon is one of Canadas three territories in the countrys extreme northwest. Its history of habitation dates back to the Ice Age. In the 18th century, Russian explorers began trade with the First Nations people along the Alaskan coast, the famous Klondike Gold Rush began after gold was discovered near Dawson City in 1896. As a result of the influx of people looking for gold, it was made a territory in 1898. The second major event in the Yukons history is the construction of the Alaska Highway during the Second World War, eventually Whitehorse became the largest city in the Yukon, and then the capital in 1953. Disputed evidence of the oldest remains of human inhabitation in North America have been found in the Yukon. A large number of apparently human-modified animal bones were discovered in the Old Crow area in the northern Yukon that have dated to 25. The central and northern Yukon were not glaciated, as they were part of Beringia, at about 800, a large volcanic eruption in Mount Churchill near the Alaska border blanketed the southern Yukon with ash. That layer of ash can still be seen along the Klondike Highway, Yukon First Nations stories speak of all the animals and fish dying as a result. After that, the hunting technology saw the replacement of atlatls with bows and arrows, estimates of population of Yukon at the beginning of the XIX century strongly differ. Historians earlier assumed that there lived 8000 people in the territory, from 7000 to 8000 people, other estimates show that by 1830th year the number of indigenous people made 4700 people. The main part of the territory of modern Yukon was occupied by various Athabaskan tribes, in the north, in basins of Peel River and Porcupine River there lived Kutchin or as they call themselves Gwitchin Indians. On middle reach of Yukon River, on border with Alaska there lived Hän - relative Indians to them, northern Tutchone occupied the most part of the central Yukon, in basins of the Pelly River and the Stewart River, and Southern Tutchone - southwest of Yukon. In the southeast, in a basin of Liard River there lived Kaska Indians, in the south, near lakes in upper courses of Yukon there lived relative to them Tagish. In the southwest, in riverheads of the White River there lived Upper Tanana, besides Athabaskan, on the Arctic coast of modern Yukon, including Herschel Island, there lived Inuit. And in the south, down the Teslin River there lived continental Tlingit whose language together with Athabaskan languages is included into Na-Dene language family, covered with snow Mount Saint Elias in the extreme southwest of Yukon was unsettled. European incursions into what became the Yukon started in the first half of the 19th century with the fur trade. Hudsons Bay Company explorers and traders from Mackenzie River trading posts used two different routes to enter Yukon and created trading posts along the way

History of Yukon
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Tlingit women and children.
History of Yukon
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Forty Mile Historic Site from the Yukon River.
History of Yukon
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Gold mining on Bonanza Creek.
History of Yukon
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Bonanza Creek

95.
History of the Northwest Territories
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When Europeans settlers began to divide the continent, the Northwest Territories included much of the sparsely populated regions of what is now western Canada. Over time, the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba were formed out of the territories, in 1898, the Yukon territory became a separate entity and in 1999 Nunavut was formed from the eastern section. Long before the Europeans arrived, Inuit and First Nations peoples inhabited the area which became the Northwest Territories. Native Inuit included the Mackenzie, Copper, Caribou and Central nations, there were also many nations when the Europeans first arrived, among them the Yellow-Knife, Chipewyan, Sekani, Beaver, Nahanni, Dogrib and Slavey. Martin Frobishers expeditions in the 1570s were the first recorded visits to the Northwest Territories by a European, in 1610, Henry Hudson, while looking for the Northwest Passage, landed briefly on the western shore of the bay that bears his name. His discovery opened the interior of the continent to further exploration, other early explorers include Luke Foxe, John Davis, Robert Bylot, Thomas Button, George Weymouth, Thomas James and William Baffin. In 1670, King Charles II granted a charter to the Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading into Hudsons Bay and it included the Hudsons Bay watershed. By the 1700s, European trade in the Northwest Territories was dominated by two fur-trading companies, the Hudsons Bay Company, based in London, England, and the North West Company based in Montréal. Fur trade explorer Peter Pond lead the way through the Methye Portage into the vast territory of the Northwest where the rivers flowed North rather than East. In 1771, Samuel Hearne was the first European to reach the shore of the Arctic Ocean by a route via the Coppermine River. Further west and eighteen years later, in 1789, Alexander Mackenzie reached the Arctic Ocean, the river he navigated to get there now bears his name. York Factory served as the Hudsons Bay Companys headquarters, the HBC depended on the furs coming to York Factory. The North West Company competed with the HBC by traveling throughout the territory obtaining furs as they did so, some of these trader explorers kept journals and had them published. Public interest developed as a result, as the Europeans increased their presence, they involved the First Nations as guides and suppliers of furs. They brought to York Factory the furs of the western tribes, the Cree, Chipewyan, Beaver and Yellowknives obtained firearms. With this new advantage, they dominated their Athapaskan neighbors, i. e. the Slavey, Sekani, in the early 1800s, perhaps 1810, the Northwest Company established a post at Tulita at the junction of the Mackenzie and Great Bear Rivers. Sir John Franklin used the fort as a base for his expeditions, the site changed several times but the community of Tulita is located on the original site today. Franklins Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822 had as its goal the exploration of the northern coast of Canada, the British expedition was organised by the Royal Navy as part of its attempt to discover and map the Northwest Passage

History of the Northwest Territories
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Work crew building gravel loading platforms, Alaska Highway, 1943.
History of the Northwest Territories
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The water divides of North America

96.
History of Nunavut
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The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland described in Norse sagas, the materials were collected in five seasons of excavation at Cape Banfield. Scholars have determined these are evidence of European traders and possibly settlers on Baffin Island not later than 1000 CE and they seem to indicate prolonged contact, possibly up to 1450. So you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, the written historical accounts of Nunavut begin in 1576, with an account by an English explorer. Martin Frobisher, while leading an expedition to find the Northwest Passage, the ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit. Other explorers in search of the elusive Northwest Passage followed in the 17th century, including Henry Hudson, William Baffin, cornwallis and Ellesmere Islands feature in the history of the Cold War in the 1950s. The first group of people were relocated in 1953 from Inukjuak, Quebec and from Pond Inlet and they were promised homes and game to hunt, but the relocated people discovered no buildings and very little familiar wildlife. They also had to endure weeks of 24-hour darkness during the winter, eventually, the Inuit learned the local beluga whale migration routes and were able to survive in the area, hunting over a range of 18,000 km² each year. In 1993, the Canadian government held hearings to investigate the relocation program, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued a report entitled The High Arctic Relocation, A Report on the 1953-55 Relocation. The government paid $10 million CAD to the survivors and their families, having lost most traditional skills and purpose, its Inuit residents are now to a large degree dependent on government support. The whole story is told in Melanie McGraths The Long Exile, leading up to the 1970s, there was some discussion of splitting the Northwest Territories into two separate jurisdictions in order to better reflect the demographic character of the territory. In 1966, a commission of inquiry on Northwest Territories government reported. In 1976 as part of the land claims negotiations between the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and the government, the division of the Northwest Territories was discussed. The land claims agreement was decided in September 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut in a referendum. On July 9,1993, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act and the Nunavut Act were passed by the Canadian Parliament, building Nunavut, A Story of Inuit SelfGovernment. A Short History of the Canadian North, from Sea To Sea Enterprises,2011

History of Nunavut
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Core topics

97.
History of Fredericton
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This article is about the history of Fredericton, New Brunswick. The area of the present-day City of Fredericton was first used for farming by the Mikmaq. Maize was a primary crop they grew in the area, interestingly, in a sense, the site of Fredericton served as a sort of capital for Aboriginals in the area. Aucpaque, the village of the Aboriginals in the area, was located a few kilometres up river from the site of present-day Fredericton. The first European contact in the area was by the French in the late 17th Century, in 1692, he built a fort on the north side of the Saint John River, at the mouth of the Nashwaak River. For a period, Fort Nashwaak served as the capital of the French colony of Acadia, Acadian Governor Villebon, and the location of the Capital of Acadia at Fort Nashwaak on the St. John River, became a source of torment for the settlers of New England. Within weeks of an attack launched from Fort Nashwaak on Pemaquid, Maine, in 1696, an expedition under command of Major Benjamin Church set out to destroy Fort Nashwaak. Villebon had been alerted and prepared his defences, on 18 October, the British troops arrived opposite the fort, landed three cannons, and assembled earthworks on the south bank of the Nashwaak River. There was an exchange of fire for two days, with the advantage going to the better-sited French guns. The New Englanders were defeated, with 8 soldiers killed and 17 wounded, the French sustained losses of one killed and two wounded. After de Villebons death in 1700 and a flood, the fort was abandoned. The Fredericton area was first permanently settled and named Pointe-Sainte-Anne in 1732 by Acadians fleeing Nova Scotia after the British took over the territory and their townsite was on the south side of the river, approximately a mile upriver from Fort Nashwaak. Annes Point during the Expulsion of the Acadians, burning the settlement to the ground in the St. John River Campaign, a 1762 settlement attempt by the British was unsuccessful due to hostility of local Acadian and Aboriginal populations. These settlers ended up building a community down river at what it today the town of Maugerville, however, three fur traders managed to permanently settle there in 1768. The founding of the City of Fredericton dates from 1783, when the United Empire Loyalists settled in Ste, Annes Point after the American Revolution. At the time of the Loyalist settlement, St. Annes Point was occupied by three families. About 2,000 Loyalists settled in the area of present-day Fredericton including several army regiments, the first winter was harsh with early and severe snowfalls. Bedding was in short supply and many perished during that winter of 1783/84

History of Fredericton
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The Old Arts Building at the University of New Brunswick. Built in 1829, it is the oldest university building still in use in Canada.

98.
History of Halifax (former city)
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Halifax, Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by the Mikmaq Peoples. The first European settlers to arrive in the future Halifax region were French, in the early 1600s, the British settled Halifax in 1749, which sparked Father Le Loutres War. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian, and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Bedford, Dartmouth, and Lawrencetown. St. Margarets Bay first got settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, all of these regions were amalgamated into the Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996. While all of the regions of HRM developed separately over the last 250 years, the City of Halifax was an incorporated city in Nova Scotia, Canada, which was established as the Town of Halifax in 1749, and incorporated as a city in 1842. The city was the capital of Nova Scotia and shire town of Halifax County and it was also the largest city in Atlantic Canada. The Town of Halifax was founded by the Kingdom of Great Britain under the direction of the Board of Trade under the command of Governor Edward Cornwallis in 1749, the British founding of Halifax initiated Father Le Loutres War. During the war, Mikmaq and Acadians raided the capital region 13 times, Halifax was founded below a drumlin that would later be named Citadel Hill. The outpost was named in honour of George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, in its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, before changes in artillery that could range out into the harbour. After a protracted struggle between residents and the Viceroys of Nova Scotia, the City of Halifax was incorporated in 1842, the area is administered as two separate community planning areas by the regional government for development, Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax. It forms a significant part of the Halifax urban area, residents of the former city are called Haligonians. The Halifax area has been territory of the Mikmaq since time immemorial, before contact they called the area around the Halifax Harbour Jipugtug, meaning Great Harbour. There is evidence that bands would spend the summer on the shores of the Bedford Basin, examples of Mikmaq habitation and burial sites have been found from Point Pleasant Park to the north and south mainland. Despite the Conquest of Acadia in 1710, no attempts were made by Great Britain to colonize Nova Scotia, aside from its presence at Annapolis Royal. The peninsula was dominated by Catholic Acadians and Mikmaq residents, the British founded Halifax in order to counter the influence of the Fortress of Louisbourg after returning the fortress to French control as part of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The first European settlement in the HRM was an Acadian community at present-day Lawrencetown and these Acadians joined the Acadian Exodus when the British established themselves on Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the British Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War

History of Halifax (former city)
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Downtown Halifax
History of Halifax (former city)
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1749 sketch of Halifax from the top of a masthead.
History of Halifax (former city)
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Plaque to Raid on Dartmouth (1749) and the blockhouse that was built in response (1750), Father Le Loutre's War, Dartmouth Heritage Museum

99.
History of Ottawa
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By 1914, Ottawas population had surpassed 100,000 and today it is the capital of a G7 country whose metropolitan population exceeds one million. The origin of the name Ottawa is derived from the Algonquin word adawe, the word refers to the Indigenous Peoples who used the river to trade, hunt, fish, camp, harvest plants, ceremonies, and for other traditional uses. The first maps made of the area started to name the river after these peoples. For centuries, Algonquin people have portaged through the waterways of both the Ottawa River and the Rideau River while passing through the area. French explorer Étienne Brûlé was credited as the first European to see the Chaudière Falls in 1610, no permanent settlement occurred in the area until 1800 when Philemon Wright founded his village near the falls, on the north shore of the Ottawa River. Lt. Colonel John By was an officer of the Royal Engineers commissioned by the British Government in 1826 to superintend the construction of the Rideau Canal. The founding was marked by a sod turning, and a letter from Dalhousie which authorized Colonel By to divide up the town into lots. The town developed into a site for the timber, and later sawed lumber trade, causing growth so that in 1854, Bytown was created a city and its present more appropriate name, Ottawa was conferred. Shortly afterward, Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the capital of Canada, also at this time, increased export sales led it to connect by rail to facilitate shipment to markets especially in the United States. In the early 1900s the lumber industry waned as both supply and demand lessened, growth continued in the 20th century, and by the 1960s, the Greber Plan transformed the capitals appearance and removed much of the old industrial infrastructure. In 2001, the city amalgamated all areas in the former region, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around 10,000 years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The Algonquin people who called the Ottawa River the Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River maintained a route along the Ottawa River for a relatively short time. The word Ottawa is in relation to the Ottawa people, the First Nation who hunted, camped, traded, and traveled in the area, and also lived far to the west along Georgian Bay and Lake Huron. When Étienne Brûlé in 1610 became the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, followed by Samuel de Champlain in 1613, written records show that by 1613 the Algonquins were in control of the Ottawa Valley and the surrounding areas to the west and north. At left is an extract from a map created in 1632 by Samuel de Champlain of the reaches of New France. It shows a portion of the Ottawa River route he took in 1616, with numbers used to indicate sites he visited, significant rapids and aboriginal encampments. Champlain wrote about both the Rideau Falls on the part of the early future town, and the Chaudière Falls in the west. Chaudière was, and still is impassable by any water traffic, so there were portage paths around it on trips from the mouth of the Ottawa River to the lands of the interior, Nicholas Gatineau also traded using the nearby Gatineau River

History of Ottawa
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Champlain's Depiction of 1616 Settlements
History of Ottawa
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Entrance of the Rideau Canal in 1839 where it meets the Ottawa River. In 1826, eight locks were constructed by the Royal Engineers with labour provided by the new Irish and French settlers. The building in the foreground is today called the Bytown Museum. On the right is Parliament Hill at the time named "Barrack Hill".
History of Ottawa
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View of Parliament Hill and Chaudière Falls, Ottawa, ca. 1859. The hill is the second high landmass jutting into the Ottawa River on the right. It still contains barracks here, its last year with them, for construction of the Parliament Builds is about to begin. The Union Bridge is in the foreground, but its main span has been replaced, after many years of ferry service only, with a steel suspension bridge.
History of Ottawa
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Old Ottawa Post Office. Sappers Bridge (left), Dufferin Bridge(right) over the Rideau Canal, 1890s. Today the War Memorial stands where the post office stood, with a new post office (now also old) on Sparks Street. The two bridges were replaced by the Plaza Bridge (Ottawa), and filled in. The centre block of the parliament buildings was replaced after a 1916 fire.

100.
History of Quebec City
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Quebec City, capital of the province of Quebec, Canada, is one of the oldest European settlements in North America. Quebec City was founded by the French explorer and navigator Samuel de Champlain in 1608, commencing a string of French colonies along the St. Lawrence River, creating a region named le Canada. Prior to the arrival of the French, the location that would become Quebec City was the home of a small Iroquois village called Stadacona. Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, was the first European to ascend the St. Lawrence Gulf, jacques Cartier and his crew spent a harsh winter near Stadacona during his second voyage in 1535. The word Kebec is an Algonquin word meaning where the river narrows, by the time Champlain came to this site, the Iroquois population had disappeared and been replaced by Innu and Algonquins. Champlain and his crew built a fort which they called lhabitation within only a few days of their arrival. This early fort and trading post exists today as a site in Old Quebec. After the settlement of Port Royal in Acadia, the colonization effort by the French occurred in 1608. Samuel de Champlain built lHabitation to house 28 people, however, the first winter proved formidable, and 20 of 28 men died. By 1615, the first four arrived in Quebec. Among the first successful French settlers were Marie Rollet and her husband, Louis Hebert, the first French child born in Quebec was Helene Desportes, in 1620, to Pierre Desportes and Francoise Langlois, whose father was a member of the Hundred Associates. The population of Quebec City arrived at 100 in 1627, less than a dozen of whom were women, however, with the invasion of Quebec by David Kirke and his brothers in 1628, Champlain returned to France with approximately 60 out of 80 settlers. When the French returned to Quebec in 1632, they constructed a city based on the framework of a traditional French ville in which the 17th century city was a reflection of its society, Quebec remained an outpost until well into the 1650s. As in other locations throughout New France, the population could be split into the colonial elites, including clergy and government officials, the craftsmen and artisans, and the engagés. The city contained only about thirty homes in 1650, and one hundred by 1663, Jean Bourdon, the first engineer and surveyor of New France, helped plan the city, almost from his arrival in 1634. However, despite attempts to utilize urban planning, the city outgrew its planned area. Population continually increased, with the city boasting 1300 inhabitants by 1681, the city quickly experienced overcrowding, especially in the lower town, which contained two-thirds of the population of the city by 1700. The numbers became more evenly distributed by 1744, with the town housing only a third of the population

History of Quebec City
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Seigneurial plan of Quebec City about 1860
History of Quebec City
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Champlain's Habitation c. 1608
History of Quebec City
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Quebec City in 1700

101.
History of Saskatoon
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As of 1882 this area was a part of the provisional district named Saskatchewan, North-West Territories. The plan for the Temperance Colony soon failed as the group was unable to obtain a block of land within the community. Nonetheless, John Lake is commonly identified as the founder of Saskatoon, a public school, in 1885, several houses on 11th Street East were used as military hospitals during the North-West Rebellion. One house, the Marr Residence, is currently a site run by the Meewasin Valley Authority. The first school, Victoria School, opened for classes at the corner of 11th Street and this small school, now called the Little Stone Schoolhouse, now sits on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan. In 1901, Saskatoons population hit 113, a third settlement, Riversdale, also began just southwest of Saskatoon. 1903 saw a boom for Saskatoon with the encampment of Barr colonists on their way to the Brittania colony. A town charter for the west side of the river was obtained in 1903, April 1904 saw the collapse of the rail bridge due to spring melt and ice on the South Saskatchewan River. The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway system survey proposed Hanley as its northern terminal between Regina and Prince Albert, Saskatoons Board of Trade sent delegates from Saskatoon to Ottawa to discuss the river crossing and proposed city bridges. The QLL&SR bridge was rebuilt in 1905, and again after a train fell through it in March 1914, it was demolished in 1965 to make way for the Senator Sid Buckwold Bridge and the Idylwyld Freeway. In 1906 Saskatoon became a city with a population of 4,500, which included the communities of Saskatoon, Riversdale, and Nutana. Following the formation of the Province of Saskatchewan September 1,1905, premier Hon. Walter Scott focused on the creation of a provincial university, moose Jaw, Prince Albert, Saskatoon, Regina, QuAppelle, Indian Head and Battleford were all under consideration for this location. President Walter Murray and the Board of University Governors voted in favour of Saskatoon on April 7,1907,1907 saw the completion of the Traffic Bridge, as well as the CPR Bridge and Grand Trunk Pacific GTP Railway Bridge. The geographical barrier, South Saskatchewan River between Nutana and West Saskatoon was overcome with the building of the Traffic Bridge, which opened in 1907, the physical barrier of the CNR rail yards isolated Riversdale and Saskatoon. Road underpasses below the line were built at 19th and 23rd Streets. From the end of the Louis Riel Rebellion to 1913, Saskatoon was celebrating boom years, the main contributing factors of the exponential growth were, Temperance colony settlement of the late 19th century. Economic surge created by the Barr colonists 1903, Saskatoon becoming western Canadas railway network hub. Acquisition of the University of Saskatchewan, after World War I, the Dirty Thirties and Depression years saw migration away from bankrupt farms and towards a hope of employment in the cities

History of Saskatoon
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Saskatoon Population
History of Saskatoon
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Land Annexation by Decade
History of Saskatoon
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Saskatoon Heritage Society Protected Buildings Irvine House Nutana
History of Saskatoon
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Saskatoon Heritage Society Protected Buildings Bell House Nutana

102.
History of Vancouver
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Vancouver is a city in British Columbia, Canada. The presence of people in what is now called the Lower Mainland of British Columbia dates from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago when the glaciers of the last ice age began to disappear. The area, known to the First Nations as Sólh Téméxw, the first Europeans to explore the area were Spanish Captain José María Narváez in 1791, and British naval Captain George Vancouver in 1792. The area was not settled by Europeans until almost a century later, the city grew rapidly following completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway transcontinental line from Eastern Canada, allowing for continuous rail service in the late 1880s. Chinese settlers were increasingly a presence in the area following completion of the CPR, subsequent waves of immigration were initially of Europeans moving west, and later, with the advent of global air travel, from Asia and many other parts of the world. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are the inhabitants of what is now known as Vancouver. The city falls within the territory of three Coast Salish peoples known as, Squamish, Tsliel-waututh and Xwméthkwyiem. On the southern shores of Vancouver along the Fraser River, Xwméthkwyiem live with their main community. In the False Creek and Burrard Inlet area, Squamish currently live on numerous villages in North Vancouver, with their territory also apart of Howe Sound, further down the Burrard Inlet, Tsleil-Waututh have their main community. Xwméthkwyiem and Tsleil-Waututh historically spoke a dialect of Halkomelem language, whereas Squamish language was separate. Their language was closely connected to their Shishalh neighbors at Sechelt. Historically the area of where Vancouver is now was all resource gathering places for food or materials, the Musqueam have been living continuously at their main winter village, Xwméthkwyiem, at the mouth of the Fraser River, for 4,000 years. Vancouvers ecosystem, with its abundant plant and animal life, provides a wealth of food, Tsleil-Waututh were said to also be settled on Burrard Inlet at the time of George Vancouvers arrival in 1792. The largest villages were at Xwemelchstn, near the mouth of the Capilano River and roughly beneath where the foot of the present Lions Gate Bridge is today. X̱wáýx̱way was a village in Stanley Park. The foundation of a Catholic mission at the village, called Eslha7an, the Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast had achieved a very high level of cultural complexity for a food gathering base. As Bruce Macdonald notes in Vancouver, a history, Their economic system encouraged hard work, the accumulation of wealth and status. Winter villages, in what is now known as Vancouver, were composed of large plankhouses made of Western Red Cedar wood, gatherings called potlatches were common in the summer and winter months when the spirit powers were active

History of Vancouver
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The Gassy Jack statue in Gastown. The mound on which the barrel-pedestal stands is reputed to cover the stump of the original maple tree that stood adjacent to his saloon's porch, and which is the namesake of Maple Tree Square.
History of Vancouver
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A statue of Captain Vancouver, outside Vancouver City Hall
History of Vancouver
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The first train to arrive in Vancouver on the transcontinental railway in 1887.
History of Vancouver
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Cordova Street, looking east from Cambie Street (circa 1890s).

103.
History of Winnipeg
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The history of Winnipeg comprises its initial population by Aboriginal peoples through its settlement by Europeans to the present day. The first forts were built on the site in the 1700s, Winnipeg was incorporated as a city in 1873 and experienced a population boom after the completion of the railway through the city. After the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 the city entered a period of decline that ended with the advent of the Second World War, the current City of Winnipeg was created by a unicity amalgamation in 1971. Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine River and the Red River, known as The Forks, the general area was populated for thousands of years by First Nations. The rivers provided transportation far and wide and linked many peoples-such as the Assiniboine, Ojibway, Anishinaabe, Mandan, Sioux, Cree, Lakota, ancient mounds were once made near the waterways, similar to that of the mound builders of the south. Lake Winnipeg was considered to be a sea, with important river links to the mountains out west, the Great Lakes to the east. The Red River linked ancient northern and southern peoples along the Missouri, the first maps of some areas were made on birch bark by the Ojibway, which helped fur traders find their way along the rivers and lakes. In 1738 Sieur Louis Damours de Louvières built Fort Rouge on the Assiniboine River for Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, the fort seems to have had a primary purpose as a depot and was abandoned by 1749. A new commandant of the French western forts, Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, spent the winter of 1752–1753 at the Forks, trading posts were built near Fort Rouge by Bruce and Boyer in 1780 and by Alexander Henry the younger in 1803, as was Fort Gibraltar in 1807. The name Winnipeg is named after Lake Winnipeg to the north, the first farming in Manitoba appeared to be along the Red River, near Lockport, Manitoba, where maize and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans. The first aboriginal fur traders in the area would have been trading with the Hudsons Bay Company forts to the northeast, or with the North West Company forts to the south and east. The Hudsons Bay Company and British colonialists laid claim to the area of Ruperts Land in the late 1600s. This entire Hudson Bay drainage basin included the now known as Winnipeg. Fur traders working with and trading with the Hudsons Bay Company would have traveled and lived along the major rivers, the first French officer arrived in the area in 1738. Sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site, the French traded in the area for several decades before Hudson Bay traders arrived. The first English traders visited the area about the year 1767, Fort Gibraltar was built by the North West Company in 1809. The Red River Settlement was founded in 1812 and the construction of Fort Douglas was overseen by Miles Macdonell, Lord Selkirks Governor of Assiniboia, in 1813 -14. Lord Selkirk died prematurely of tuberculosis in 1820 and in 1821, the Hudsons Bay Company then relocated its operations from Fort Douglas to Fort Gibraltar, located on the present day site of The Forks National Historic Site in Winnipeg

History of Winnipeg
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King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visit Winnipeg in 1939
History of Winnipeg
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Upper Fort Garry in the early 1870s.
History of Winnipeg
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A busy day in 1921, Portage ave, Winnipeg, Manitoba.
History of Winnipeg
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Crowd gathered outside old City Hall during the Winnipeg General Strike, June 21, 1919

104.
Military history of Mexico
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Wars between prehispanic peoples marked the beginning of Mexicos military history, the most notable of these fought in the form of a flower war. After the Spanish conquest of Mexico in the 16th century, indigenous tribes were defeated by Spain, Mexicos struggle for independence began primarily in the 19th century, and was marked by internal conflict of early rulers after defeating the Spanish in 1821. The Mexican–American War in the mid 19th century ended in the defeat of Mexican forces, and the loss of two-fifths of the national territory. In the remainder of the 19th century, a series of conflicts began in Mexico, as the War of the Reform, key military campaigns in the early 20th century include the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War. These two conflicts, respectively, overthrew the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz and challenged the largely anticlerical nature of the post-Revolutionary governments, Mexico stood among the Allies of World War II and was one of two Latin American nations to send combat troops to serve in the Second World War. During the age before Spanish conquest of Mexico, several wars ensued between the Aztecs and several native tribes. Alliances between the Aztec state and Texcoco had become central to these pre colonial wars, several of these conflicts were evolved to an organized warfare, known as the Flower wars. In the Flower wars the primary objective was to injure or capture the enemy, prisoners-of-war were ritually sacrificed to Aztec gods. Cannibalism was also a feature to this type of warfare. Perhaps the most famous of the Native Mexican states is the Aztec Empire, in the 13th and 14th centuries, around Lake Texcoco in the Anahuac Valley, the most powerful of these city states were Culhuacan to the south, and Azcapotzalco to the west. Between them, they controlled the whole Lake Texcoco area, the Aztecs hired themselves out as mercenaries in wars between the Nahuas, breaking the balance of power between city states. Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan formed a Triple Alliance that came to dominate the Valley of Mexico, Tenochtitlan, the traditional capital of the Aztec Empire, gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. It should be noted that the Chichimeca, a range of nomadic groups that inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, were never conquered by the Aztecs. In 1519, the civilizations of Mexico were invaded by Spain. Francisco Hernández de Córdoba explored the shores of southeast Mexico in 1517, the most important of the early Conquistadores was Hernán Cortés, who entered the country in 1519 from a native coastal town which he renamed Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In a series of wars and counter-rebellions over the two centuries, Spain would expand and consolidate its Mexican territories. The Aztecs, the dominant empire in Mexico, believed that Quetzalcoatl would return on in Ce-Acatl or one-reed year, the Pre-Columbian calendar was divided into 52 year periods or cycles. Every 52nd year was a Ce-Acatl, the year 1467 was such a year, on their arrival in the new world, the Aztecs thought the Spanish conquerors had been sent by the gods, so they initially offered little resistance to the advances of the conquerors

Military history of Mexico
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The Battle of Chapultepec is one of the more memorable battles of the Mexican-American War.
Military history of Mexico
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The Republic of Texas, lost to the United States due to the Texas Annexation.
Military history of Mexico
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Ignacio Zaragoza
Military history of Mexico
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Benito Juárez

105.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.