A Short History of
GPO

As part of its 125th anniversary commemoration in 1986, GPO
published a
series of historical articles in its employee newsletter, the New
Typeline. The articles, by GPO Historian/Curator Daniel R.
MacGilvray,
focused on the Public Printers and how they responded to the
social and
economic forces impacting GPO and the printing industry between
1861 and
1980. Those paper publications included graphics, which this Web
reprint does not.

This ten part New Typeline series was reprinted in
Administrative Notes, in 1986-1987.
Citations to the
specific
New Typeline and Administrative
Notes issues are listed at the end of this series.

Long Time Coming, GPO

The second in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

In world history, the year 1789 is remembered for the beginning
of the French Revolution.
That was also a year of peaceful beginnings in these United
States following the American
Revolution. It saw our first Presidential election and General
George Washington chosen for
our highest office. The first Congress of the United States
under our new Constitution met in
New York City on March 4, 1789. President Washington delivered
the first inaugural address on
April 30. On September 9, the House of Representatives
recommended the Bill of Rights for
adoption by the States. The first executive departments were
formed: the Department of State,
the War Department, and the Treasury Department. The Office of
Postmaster General was
created. The Federal Judiciary Act was passed providing for the
organization of our Supreme
Court; and on September 26, John Jay became Chief Justice of
these United States.

During that momentous year, the first mention of public printing
occurs in a House
recommendation that proposals be invited for "printing the laws
and other proceedings" of the
new Congress. By May, printers' petitions were being received
asking to "be employed in the
printing for Congress." Indeed, the House Journals for the first
and second sessions were done by
New York printers Francis Childs and John Swaine. The Senate's
printing was done by John
Fenno. The Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House
were directed by a joint
committee to have printed "600 copies of the acts of Congress and
700 copies of the journals."
When Congress moved to Philadelphia in 1790, printers Childs &
Swaine, and John Fenno,
moved with them. There they were joined by Philadelphia printer
Samuel H. Smith. Together,
their firms produced the bulk of congressional printing from 1793
to 1800.

An act of 1794 contained an appropriation for public printing.
It provided "For the expenses of
firewood, stationery, and printing work, and all other contingent
expenses of the two houses of
Congress, ten thousand dollars." For the same purposes, the act
provided $2,261.67 to the
Secretary of State; $4,000 to the Treasury Department; and $800
to the War Department.

When Congress moved to the new capital of Washington in 1800,
printers followed. President
Thomas Jefferson encouraged printer Samuel H. Smith to make the
move from Philadelphia. In
1801 Smith was printing reports of congressional debates in his
Washington newspaper, the
National Intelligencer. Three times a week the paper
appeared.
Its stenographers took notes in
Congress and asked speakers to review them prior to publication.
Lateness of reports was
common. In December 1801 a proposal was made in the House by
Virginia's Representative
John Randolph to appoint a printer to the House. After lively
debate, this was defeated and the
work was left to enterprising local printers.

Not until 1818 were the shortcomings of local printing
addressed. Congress appointed a joint
committee to "consider and report whether any further provisions
of law are necessary to insure
dispatch, accuracy, and neatness in the printing done for the two
Houses of Congress. In 1819
the committee issued a report over the names of New Jersey
Senator James J. Wilson and
Pennsylvania Representative Thomas J. Rogers. It asked that
Congress consider "the
establishment of a national printing office (with a bindery and
stationery annexed), which should
execute the work of Congress while in session, and that of the
various Departments of
Government during the recess and should do all the binding, and
furnish the stationery, for the
Departments, as well as for Congress . . . The committee of
opinion that such an establishment,
under the superintendence of a man of activity, integrity, and
discretion, would be likely to
produce promptitude, uniformity, accuracy, and elegance in the
execution of the public printing .
. ." However, the time for reform was not propitious. Instead of
a Government Printing Office
and a Public Printer, the hasty resolution of March 3, 1819,
provided that the House and Senate
should elect their own printers, instruct how the work should be
done, and say what price would
be paid.

The practice of electing House and Senate printers was to last
until 1861. Between 1819 and
1846 these printers included Gales & Seaton, Duff Green, Blair &
Rives, Thomas Allen, and
Ritchie & Heiss. With the introduction of power presses, these
firms were able to take
advantage of Government rates slow to change. One firm, Blair &
Rives, did so well that in 5
years it purchased its rented building, bought townhouses
(including Blair House), and acquired
country estates. In 1840, the House appointed a Select Committee
on Public Printing and asked
it to report on prices considered just and reasonable, the
propriety of separating Government
printing from newspaper publishers, and the practicality of a
national printing office. One result
of this investigation was a House bill which asked: "That there
shall be erected . . . on some
suitable spot in the city of Washington, to be selected by the
President of the United States, a
building of brick, suitable and convenient for a printing office,
in which all the printing for
Congress, and for the Executive Departments, and for the Post
Office Department, shall be
performed." Again, the bill did not pass, and Congress moved
instead to a system in which
printing should be done by the lowest bidder.

Another result of the investigation begun in 1840 was a joint
resolution of August 3, 1846,
which called for advertising in local papers at the beginning of
the last session of Congress and
requesting sealed bids for Senate and House printing during the
next Congress. The first local
printers to undertake the contract were Cornnelius Wendell and
Charles Van. Benthuysen.
They took the contract at low rates, filled it, but lost money.
The printing costs to the
Government during the period 1846 to 1852 nevertheless amounted
to $3,462,655.12, which was
almost as much as had been expended between 1819 and 1846.

This expense of printing for Congress gave rise to the act of
August 26, 1852, which repealed
the law of 1846. It provided "That there shall be a
Superintendent of the Public Printing, who
shall hold his office for the term of two years, who shall
receive for his services a salary of $2,500
per annum, and who shall give bond with two sureties to be
approved by the Secretary of the
Interior, in the penalty of $20,000, for the faithful discharge
of his duties under law. The said
Superintendent shall be a practical printer, versed in the
various branches of the arts of printing
and bookbinding, and he shall not be interested, directly or
indirectly, in any contract for printing
and book binding, and he shall not be interested, directly or
indirectly, in any contract for
printing for Congress or for any department or bureau of the
Government of the United States."

A well-known citizen of Washington, DC, was selected by
President Millard Fillmore in 1852 to
serve as the first Superintendent of Public Printing. He was
John T. Towers, a practicing printer
who had learned his trade in the office of Duff Green, printer
to the Senate in 1830. He later
worked as a foreman for Thomas Allen, also a printer to the
Senate. At the time of his
appointment, Mr. Towers owned his own book and job printing firm.
A committed trade
unionist, he noted: "As far back as 1832, in the city of New
York, I was a member of the first
trades union in America, pledged to maintain the 10-hour system,
and the principles sustained by
me then as a journeyman printer have been and ever will be
sustained by me as an employer."
Mr. Towers served as Superintendent during 1852 and 1853. He
went on to become mayor of
Washington, DC, and died in 1857. Three more Superintendents
followed prior to the creation
of the Government Printing Office. They were: A.G. Seaman,
1853-57; General George W.
Bowman, 1857-59; and John Heart, 1859-61. Meanwhile, the
practice of electing House and
Senate printers continued, but with oversight from the
Superintendent of Public Printing.

The new system was not without abuses; and in January 1860,
three congressional committees
were investigating all phases of public printing and binding.
Fixed rates were a part of the
problem. Advancing technology enabled some firms to take
advantage of the rates. The election
of House and Senate printers was considered a political plum, and
majority parties received
generous donations as a result. The elected House and Senate
printers in turn farmed out jobs
to working printers for a percentage of the profits. Binding,
engraving, and paper purchases
were similarly farmed out for a cut, and political donations were
expected. The Select
Committee on Public Printing reported overcharges to the
Government of $750,000.

The uproar produced a reform bill sponsored by Ohio
Representative John A. Gurley, a former
newspaperman, and chairman of the select committee. The bill
called for the establishment of a
Government Printing Office. After vigorous debate in the House,
on May 31, 1860, H.R. 22 was
passed, 120 to 56. The Senate went on to pass it on June 16,
1860, 31 to 14. To implement the
bill, on June 23, 1860, Joint Resolution No. 25, authorizing the
establishment of the GPO, was
signed into law by President James Buchanan. It said that the
Superintendent of Public Printing
was "authorized and directed to have executed the printing and
binding authorized by the Senate
and House of Representatives, the executive and judicial
departments, and the Court of Claims,
and, to enable him to carry out the provision of this act, and he
hereby authorized to contract for
the erection or purchase of the necessary buildings, machinery,
and materials for that purpose."

Thus, on the eve of the Civil War, the greatest crisis to be
faced by Americans since 1776, the
time finally arrived for the realization of an idea often
mentioned in the past. The United States
Government Printing Office was about to be born.

"Our Doors Swing Open"

The third in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

On the day that Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President,
March 4, 1861, the United States Government Printing Office
opened its doors on H Street at North Capitol. The area was
farmland gradually giving way to roads and buildings. Nearby
Tiber Creek overflowed in wet weather, producing swamp and
puddles, and gave rise to the neighborhood's nickname,
"Swampoodle."

Opposite the GPO was a notorious saloon operated by "Spud"
Williams. Frequented by printers, it displayed a sign, "Show Up
Room, When Congress Meets." Whiskey went for 8 cents a shot and
was distilled locally for the saloon during the Civil War.

An approaching visitor first caught sight of the tall
chimney of the Engine House where a 40-horsepower engine supplied
steam heat for the four-story main building. Press rollers were
also manufactured here. A nearby Machine Shop housed a mechanic
well known for his practical knowledge of machinery and his
genius for invention. Stables were where the horses were kept
when not transporting paper and finished printing. A Store House
received and held paper. Some 40,000 reams of paper came in and
went out of this building each year, each ream weighing from 45
to 50 pounds, containing 480 sheets of standard printing paper,
24" x 38".

The main building had been designed by Edward Clark, the
Capitol Architect, in 1856, and had first opened for business on
November 16, 1857, when it had been owned by Cornelius Wendell,
Printer to the Senate. On the first floor was a Wetting Room
with
troughs and equipment used for
dampening paper prior to use, along with a hydraulic press to
smooth it out. Here, too, was the Ink Room where lampblack and
oil were mixed and clean ink rollers kept. However, it was the
Press Room that commanded attention, with 23 Adams bed and platen
presses as well as 3 Napier cylinder presses, all steam powered,
moving with great regularity, tossing off nearly printed sheets.
As many as 210 reams, or 100.000 sheets, were often printed here
in a single day.

On the second floor, a visitor found the walnut finished office
of the Superintendent of Public Printing, with furniture of the
period, a marble top walnut chiffonier, mahogany sofa, velvet
carpet, etc. A walnut bookcase caught the eye, with its examples
of finer Government printing, such as the Annual Message of
the
President to Congress, the Annual Report of the Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, the Report on the Exploration of the
River Colorado of the West, and others. Adjoining this was
the
Business Office, where accounting took place. Nearby was the
Proof-Reading Room, where printed copy was carefully scanned to
eliminate error.

The largest area of the second floor was occupied by the
Composing Room, a spacious hall with 60 windows admitting needed
light, but with gas fixtures for night illumination. There were
93 double stands, and the tools of the trade, including 160
composing sticks, 19 imposing stones, and 35,000 pounds of small
pica. An enclosed area was set aside for executive printing,
where work of a confidential nature took place without fear of
premature leaks to newspapers.

The third floor was devoted to the Bindery. In a large Folding
Room, 200 young women were seated at tables where they rapidly
folded printed sheets by hand. An Executive Binding Room
contained two powerful cutting machines for trimming the edges
of books, shears for cutting pasteboard, gas furnaces for heating
gilding stamps, and many other useful tools. Adjoining this was
the Ruling Room, where ruling machines applied faint red or blue
lines to the many blank books used in the Federal Government.

The fourth floor was a vast Store Room for printed books
waiting to be bound. Above it, on the roof, flew two American
flags, one at each end of the building.

Over all of this, and some 350 employees, presided the newly
appointed Superintendent of Public Printing, John D. Defrees. He
was described by Dr. John B. Ellis as "a plainly dressed, quiet
mannered man; a printer by trade." Actually, he was a great deal
more.

Born on November 8, 1810, in Sparta, TN, John Dougherty Defrees
had a father hostile to slavery. To get away from it, the family
moved to Piqua, OH, in 1818. At 14, John was apprenticed to
learn press-work and typesetting. At 17, he was on the road as a
journey man printer working in Xenia and Cincinnati, OH, and in
Louisville, KY. At 21 with his brother Joseph, he established a
newspaper in South Bend, IN. Two years later, he sold his
interest and was licensed by the Supreme Court of Indiana to
practice law. As an Indiana State Senator, he helped get a
charter for a small college on St. Mary's Lake; this was to
become the University of Notre Dame. In 1845, he purchased the
Indiana State Journal
in
Indianapolis, hired such antislavery writers as Henry Ward
Beecher (the father of Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle
Tom's Cabin). Defrees soon became known as the most
fearless,
caustic, and brilliant political editor in the West.

He was active in the liberal wing of the Whig Party, and was a
delegate to Whig and later National Republican Conventions in
1848, 1852, and 1856. Many Republicans sought his advice and
political support, including Abraham Lincoln. So it was not
surprising when on March 23, 1861, President Lincoln appointed
him as Superintendent of Public Printing to the newly opened U.S.
Government Printing Office.

Superintendent Defrees served through the Civil War years, and
later in various capacities. His annual report for 1861 noted
savings in excess of $60,000 over pre-GPO costs. His report of
1862 echoes the Civil War as he said, "The present struggle for
the existence of the Government has greatly increased the
quantity of blanks and blank books required, especially by the
War, Navy, and Treasury Departments."

In 1863, Lincoln responded to a request from his friend and
advisor, visiting the Government Printing Office on October 24 at
about 3 p.m. In typical Presidential fashion he walked through
the plant accompanied by his appointee. In a letter, Defrees
recounted an incident which happened.

"A poor girl in the employment of the GPO had a brother
impressed into the rebel service, and was taken prisoner by our
forces. He desired to take the oath of allegiance, and to be
liberated. She sought an interview with the President who wrote
the note asking me to inquire into the facts, which I did, and
the young man was liberated on the President's order."

On February 7 of 1864, the Superintendent sent a letter of
advice to President Lincoln. It asked, "Now, why not send a
message to Congress recommending the passage of a joint
resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution forever
prohibiting slavery in the States and territories?" Lincoln's
prompt reply of February 8 said, "Our own friends have this under
consideration now, and will do as much without a Message as with
it."

It was also in 1864 that Washington, DC came under a threat of
Southern invasion as General Jubal Early's forces approached
within 5 miles of the Capital. GPO employees were a part of what
was known as the Interior Department Regiment. Printers made up
Company F and bindery workers filled Company G. Hours were set
aside for drill and instruction; and GPO was guarded at night.
With the
imminent threat, GPO volunteers took up defensive positions.
When General Grant's forces repulsed the attack, printers and
binders returned to work. These were the first of many veterans
to play a role in our Nation's history and the history of the
Government Printing Office.

The year 1865 was tumultuous. It saw General Sherman's forces
march through the South to the sea, Lincoln's second inaugural on
March 4, General Lee's surrender at Appomattox, the assassination
of President Lincoln, and the new Presidency of Andrew Johnson.
President Johnson chose a new Superintendent of Public Printing,
the man who had commissioned the four-story building on H Street
and North Capitol, Cornelius Wendell. The post-Civil War period
was underway.

Era of Reconstruction

The fourth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

The dozen years following 1865 are often referred to as
"Reconstruction Years" in America's history because they
witnessed a recovery from the destruction of the Civil War, as
well as intense political arguments on reconstruction policies.
For the Government Printing Office, "reconstruction" took a
special form between 1865 and 1882. Repeated requests from our
Superintendents of Public Printing, Congressional Printers, and
Public Printers, gradually secured funds from Congress: in 1865
for a four-story addition at the west end of the main building;
in 1871 for another four-story addition fronting on North
Capitol
Street; and in 1879 for a four-story fireproof building south of
the main building. GPO also purchased a lot on H Street during
1880-81 and put up a stable and a second four-story fireproof
extension west of the North Capitol Street section.

Behind this "reconstruction" was an ongoing concern reflected in
annual reports citing needs for adequate work space and safety.
Typical was the concern voiced in 1869: "The building now
occupied by the Government Printing Office has,
under the increase of its business, become insufficient for its
proper accommodation. Indeed, it is impossible now to crowd
within its walls sufficient machinery and operatives to keep up
with the demands made upon its resources, especially in the
binding department . . . The buildings now used for the storing
of large quantities of paper necessarily kept on hand are
insufficient, inconvenient, unsuitable, and unsafe, and should
be discontinued in their use for that purpose." Supporting
arguments were marshaled from Edward Clark, Architect of the
Capitol, who toured GPO in 1870 and stated in a letter that
"prudence demands that measures
should be taken to procure additional capacity, and that all
heavy loads possible should be placed on the ground floor." Mr.
Clark also helped in our reconstruction by providing a plan for
outside fire
escapes for which Congress appropriated $3,000 in 1878. These
were described as "of brick and iron, and are very substantial,
so that, should a fire occur in defiance of every possible
precaution, they would afford additional and ample means of
escape." It was in 1880 that fire extinguisher were acquired and
workers instructed in their use. The theme of safety was already
being woven into the fabric of GPO.

The most noteworthy event of the peacetime years 1865-1882 was
the
acquisition by the Government Printing Office of the
responsibility for the Congressional Record. During the early
part of the century, reporting the debates and proceedings of
Congress had been conducted by a variety of enterprising
newspapers. One of these, the Congressional Globe,
lasted
longer than the others. It began reporting debates in 1831 as a
semiweekly owned by Francis P. Blair, a Kentucky native and an
ardent Andrew Jackson supporter.

[Picture in the Typline edition, not included here - GPO's
second Superintendent of Public Printing Cornelius Wendel,
who served from September 1, 1866 to February 28, 1867.]

He took another Kentuckian as partner, John C. Rives, a
clerk at the Treasury. The Globe went weekly in 1833
and
persisted with varying ownership to the 1870's. Costly to
Congress, and subject to criticism in rival newspapers, its
printing contract expired on March 4, 1871. Congress gave itself
time to reconsider the matter and extended the contract for one
year, at a cost of $400,000. This contrasted with the entire
1861 through 1871 cost of $744,117! Congress had the joint
Committee on Printing advertise a proposed 6-year contract in 9
major cities for 4 successive weeks. After evaluating the bids
submitted, Congress passed an amendment saying, "That until a
contract is made, the debates shall be printed by the
Congressional Printer, under the direction of the Joint Committee
on
Printing on the part of the Senate." The House voted favorably on
the matter, and the JCP provided the new name, Congressional
Record.

[Picture, not included here - Almon M. Clapp served as GPO's
Congressional Printer
from April 15, 1869 to July 31, 18 76. At that time, the title was changed
to Public Printer and Clapp served in that role until May 30,
1877].

The first GPO produced issue of the Record appeared on March 5,
1873, in quarto form. Congressional Printer Almon M. Clapp
noted, "The change in the form and style of this publication from
that previously followed by the Globe was induced by a
desire to secure comeliness, convenience, and
economy for the work . . . The facilities of the Office are so
extensive, that prompt publication of the proceedings and debates
of any day's session, no matter how extensive or voluminous, will
be assured the following morning without a peradventure, if the
copy thereof is promptly furnished the Printer." Even though
the Record was entirely handset (and would be until
1904), a
standard of overnight publication was proudly maintained.

It was during the post-Civil War years that the pattern of a
Presidentially appointed Public Printer finally emerged.
President Andrew Johnson appointed Cornelius Wendell as
Superintendent of Public Printing; and he served GPO from
September 1, 1866, to February 28, 1867. During his brief term,
he averted a major printers' strike and instituted an 8-hour day
and a 6-day week. Meanwhile, on February 22, 1867, a Congress at
odds with President Johnson decided to elect GPO's top official,
make him an officer of the Senate, and call him Congressional
Printer. The Senate then went on to elect John D. Defrees, who
served from March 1, 1867, to April 14, 1869. While serving as
Congressional Printer, Defrees secured for GPO printing and
binding for the Patent Office and the Commissioner of Customs.
He was followed in the electoral process by Almon M. Clapp, a
Connecticut native with many years of
printing experience. Taking his post as Congressional Printer
on April 15, 1869, he was to see Congress change its mind after
the departure of President Johnson. In July of 1876, Congress
repealed its earlier legislation and specified a Presidential
appointment for GPO's top officer, with advice and consent of the
Senate, and a title of Public Printer. On August 1, 1876,
President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Almon M. Clapp as the first
Public Printer of the United States. He was followed by a
familiar figure' John D. Defrees, who was appointed by President
Rutherford B. Hayes on June 1, 1877, as the second Public Printer
of the United States. Defrees served until the spring of 1882.
The pattern of Presidential appointment was now firmly
established.

Advances in printing technology did not go unnoticed by GPO's
Public Printers and their predecessors. Indeed, by contracting
for special equipment they were to contribute to an ever-
improving
state-of-the-art. In 1878, Public Printer Defrees wisely
observed,
"Improvements in machinery for the more rapid and economical
manufacture of newspapers and books are constantly being made,
and those who do not use them work to great disadvantage." One of
his predecessors, Superintendent of Public Printing Wendell, had
in 1866 secured for GPO the marvel of its day, a Bullock
Perfecting Press. This was the first automatic, reel-fed
rotary press which worked from stereotype plates, and printed on
both sides of the paper. It had two printing and two impression
cylinders. The paper was fed from the reel and was cut into
sheets before it reached the impression. The sheets were then
carried through the press by tapes and mechanical fingers. In an
hour, the press could deliver 10,000 flat sheets printed on both
sides.

Defrees, himself, took a similar step in 1878 by contracting for
the manufacture by Cottrell & Babcock of a specially designed
Two-Revolution Cylinder Press. On the arrival of the first two
of
three, he reported to Congress: "Seeing no reason why the
Government Printing Office should not avail itself of some of
these improvements, two large presses, on which to print the
Confessional Record and other work when not needed for
that
publication, have been put into it. More work can be done on
these presses than can be done on 12 Adams presses and by the
employment of one-third of the number of employees required by
those presses."

By 1882, GPO was on the eve of another revolutionary
technological change. Noted under disbursements in the annual
report for that year was the following: "Electrical plant,
consisting of two dynamos, lamps, and all other necessary
fixtures and labor, $3,839.69." GPO was entering the "Age of
Electricity!"

"Age of Electricity"

The fifth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

Interestingly, in 1882 the Government Printing Office's first two
dynamos and related equipment were charged to the "account of the
Congressional Record." Earlier introduction of new
technology,
such as the Bullock perfecting press of 1866, and Cottrell &
Babcock's two revolution cylinder presses of 1878, were
sanctioned by the Joint Committee on Printing to enhance
production of the
Congressional Record. Not surprisingly, Public Printer Sterling
P. Rounds noted in 1884: "The Edison system of electric light,
which was introduced in the Record room by my predecessor
(Defreees), has been extended to the press and document rooms,
with very
gratifying results. The light produced is cheaper than gas, far
superior in all respects, and is much preferred by the employees.
Connection has also been made between the electric light engine
and the press room, so that in case of accident to the main
engine there would not be a suspension of work in the press
room."

By 1895, Public Printer Thomas E. Benedict was faced with the
increasing need to shift from steam powered presses to electrical
power. He decided not to try to expand the existing electrical
lighting plant, but instead to request a new one. He made his
case as follows: "Electricity applied to machinery has been found
to be not only very economical, but a great advantage and
convenience. Its easy adaptation to the varying speeds required
by printing machinery, its safety, and the ease with which it may
be produced and controlled are all points in its favor. The
belt-power system in use here was a continuous one, and when one
machine was in operation every belt and pulley was set in motion,
with consequent danger of fire from friction. Direct electrical
power will permit the independent operation of any machine,
either day or night, and will also allow machines to be placed in
any part of the building without regard to lines of shafting.
Besides these advantages, full protection is secured from any
general stopping of machinery such as frequently occurred under
the belt system." Progress was rapid; and, in 1896 Public
Printer Benedict was able to say, "The Government Printing
Office power and lighting plant is now for the first time such as
will prevent interruption of its work by reason of the failure of
any single source of power or lighting supply."

A great deal of work by Public Printers focused on the buildings
acquired in 1861, additions to them, modifications of them, and
plans and justifications for new buildings. Of the structures
that stood on the site bounded by H and North Capitol Streets,
and Massachusetts and New Jersey Avenues, between 1861 and 1902,
none survive. The oldest building still standing is located on
the northwest comer of North Capitol and G Streets. Its
foundation was dug beginning in 1899; and it was completed in
1903. The cost of the land, obtained through condemnation
proceedings, was $190,028.06. The cost of construction was
$2,429,000. A local architect, James G. Hill, was chosen; and
the preparation of plans and construction was supervised by
Captain John S. Sewell, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Assigned
to H. K. Collins, Chief Engineer of the Government Printing
Office, was the task of "planning, installing, and operating
the steam power, the plumbing, ventilating, steam heating, and
cold drinking water systems." Entrusted to the Chief
Electrician, W H. Tapley, was the "duty of planning, installing,
and operating the clerical system by
which the motive power and lighting of the new and old buildings"
were to be operated.

The building was described as follows: "The new building fronts
175.3 feet on North Capitol Street, and extends 408 feet on G
Street.
The basement walls are of brick, and the exterior walls of red
brick, with red sandstone and terra cotta trimmings. The outer
walls of the court and the inner walls of the building are of
whiteface brick, and all stairway and elevator walls and toilet
rooms are of white-enameled brick. The building rises from the
surface of the ground seven full stories, exclusive of basement
and
attic. The floor space is equal to 377,200 square feet, or about
10 1/2 acres . . . . Adjoining the basement is a fireproof vault
for the storage of stereotype and election plates. Its
dimensions
are 175 by 20 feet on North Capitol Street, and 408 by 20 feet on
G Street. It is located under the west pavement of the former
street and the north pavement of the latter. It is estimated it
has a storage capacity for 2,000,000 plates.

"The first floor of the building is occupied by the press and
roller divisions; the second floor by a portion of the folding
division and the supervising and clerical force of the office;
the third floor by the folding division; the fourth floor by the
bindery; the fifth and sixth floors by typographical and proof
divisions; and the seventh floor by the divisions devoted to job
work, and the electrotype and stereotype foundry . . . . A
pneumatic tube system for the rapid transmission of copy and
proof
to the various portions of the office has been installed, and is
in successful operation . . . . In the loft of the building are
located ventilating fans, operated by electricity, and the
machinery for operating the carriers in the pneumatic tubes, the
power being also furnished by electric motors. Provision has
been made for eight elevators for passenger service, four freight
elevators, one sidewalk elevator, and two form elevators.

"The power, heat, and light for the old and new buildings is
furnished from a plant which is remarkable for its efficiency
and economy. It extends from Jackson Alley, in the north to
G Street on the south. The steam is furnished from eight
boilers of Scotch marine type, of 300 horsepower each, supplied
with appliances for saving and reusing heat, and these furnish
steam for operating four cross-compound condensing engines direct
connected to electric generators. One of the engines is of 200
horsepower, one of 450 horsepower, and two of 800 horsepower
each. The economy of fuel in the production of power, heat,
and light by this plant is cause for marvel in the minds of
experienced operators of motive power. With one minor exception
each piece of machinery in
both buildings is operated by a separate electric motor, and
electric currents fire furnished day and night for more than
10,000 lights.

"The most important consideration connected with the new
building is that it is fireproof from basement to attic. The
frame is of open-hearth steel, the window casing of iron,
and brick and porous terra cotta protect columns, girders, and
beams from expansion, fire. The structure is so substantial that
heavy printing presses and other machinery are operated on
the seventh floor without apparent vibration. A novel and useful
feature of the new building
is a plant for the supply of drinking water, without the
accompaniment of ice, to all the operatives. Seventy-five
drinking fountains are placed in convenient locations,
supplied from tanks of filtered water in the basement, and the
temperature of the water reduced to a palatable degree by
passage through an ammonia plant."

The men who brought the Government Printing office into the
"electronic age" were three remarkable Public Printers: Sterling
P. Rounds, from Illinois; Thomas E. Benedict, from New York; and
Frank W. Palmer, from Illinois.

President Chester A. Arthur appointed Public Printer Rounds on
April 15, 1882. He served the Government Printing Office until
his resignation on September 12, 1886. At the
time of his appointment, the Nation
was still reacting to the previous year's
assassination of President James A. Garfield by a disappointed
office
seeker. This sad event gave great impetus to civil service
reform legislation. On January 16, 1883, the Pendleton Act was
passed
which provided for a three-man bipartisan Civil Service
Commission to draw up and administer competitive examinations
for Federal jobs. Although covering only one-tenth of Federal
employees, this
was an important beginning which Public Printer Rounds
implemented in the Government Printing Office. He noted the
change in December, 1883: "The custom was for each Foreman to
appoint or discharge at will; there was no record aside from the
payroll, and it was simply impossible for the head of the office
to know who was in his employ except as shown on the payrolls. I
adopted the rule that the Public Printer, being responsible for
the work of the office, should make all the appointments." A
daily record of employees by states was introduced, along with a
weekly report showing "appointments, resignations, deaths,
transfers, etc.:' and made available to the Public Printer. As a
result, said Rounds, "I confidently believe that the shorter
hours of service, and better pay than prevails in outside
offices, together with due care in selection and appointments,
has resulted in making the force now employed in the Government
Printing Office of such skill and efficiency as was never
exceeded, if equaled, in any other printing establishment in the
world."

Public Printer Rounds was an energetic innovator. The problem of
a mob scene on one payday per month was met by dividing the
payroll into three sections and paying those listed on the
3rd, 8th, and 13th workday of each month. He renewed old wooden
floors and installed new toilets. He abolished the older system
of wetting and making ready calendared paper in favor of the more
popular method of working dry paper that kept its gloss and
finish. In the area of fire safety, he secured pumps, hoses,
buckets, and fire escapes for the wooden buildings, as well as
conducted regular fire drills. He recommended and obtained from
Congress 15 days paid annual leave for employees, where there had
been none. He also introduced, "A more comprehensive system of
accounts, whereby a perfect record is made of every transaction.
By opening new books and adopting an improved system of auditing,
checks, and counterchecks, there is not a single transaction that
is not fully shown, and there is a voucher for every item"

President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas E. Benedict to
succeed Rounds on September 13, 1886. He served to May 6, 1889,
and was later reappointed by President Cleveland on May 3, 1894,
and served then to March 30, 1897. During his first term, with a
work force of about 2,200, Public Printer Benedict recommended 30
days paid annual leave for employees, and secured it from
Congress in 1888. He began the practice of having annual reports
of division chiefs. He promoted the use of
electrotyping and stereotyping in place of letterpress work. He
noted
craft workers were petitioning Congress for better wages, and
went
on record saying, "rates of wages as fixed by law are
now insufficient." He also supported premium pay for nightwork,
noting, "The rule allowing such extra pay is now universal in the
printing trade." When he returned for a second term in 1894, it
was to find a work force of about 3,600; and he set about
implementing a reduction in force. Some 700 employees received a
notice which read: "Being satisfied that the best interests of
the public service and the efficient performance of the work of
the GPO necessitates a reduction in the number of employees, it
becomes my duty to direct the foreman of printing to inform you
that your services would not be required after the day of this
notice. Cashier will settle any balance of wages due you at the
earliest possible moment convenient with the duties of his desk."
This step prompted many workers to petition Congress for an
extension of Civil Service. President Cleveland did just that on
August 1, 1895, with an amendment on August 22, and "GPO Rules"
were published, saying: "any male citizen of the United States
not under 21 and any female citizen not under 18 may be examined
for positions in the GPO." By 1896, Mr. Benedict felt new
employees selected from certified lists were working as well as
those previously appointed by Public Printers.

Perhaps the most significant event to occur during the Benedict
years, was the passage by Congress of the Printing Act of 1895.
Long overdue, and a topic of need stressed by early Public
Printers,
codification finally took place. For the first time the
apprentice system was recognized in law: "The Public Printer may
employ any such number of apprentices, not to exceed 25 at any
one time, as in his judgment will be consistent with the
economical service of the office." But the real thrust of the Act
was best described in the New York Daily Tribune for December 6,
1894: "Under its operation the cost of the public printing and
binding will be materially reduced and a system established which
will result not only in a more intelligent distribution of
Government publications, but in placing copies of all of them in
depositories throughout the country where they will be convenient
of access to persons who may desire to consult them. The bill
also provides for the distribution among public libraries and
other depositories of the vast accumulation of old
documents numbering nearly 1 million volumes which now occupy
valuable space in the Capitol and elsewhere in
Washington, and against further accumulations of the same sort."
The Act also called for the appointment of a Superintendent of
Documents who would "receive and care for all surplus documents
in the possession of Government offices; assort and catalog them;
supervise their distribution and sale; catalog and index monthly
and annually all documents published; in fine, to render
accessible to librarian and the public generally the vast store
of Government publications." Mr. Benedict was quick to appoint
the first Superintendent of Documents on March 26, 1895, a man
"with superior practical ability and literary attainments," Mr.
Francis A. Crandall, from Buffalo, NY, "a gentleman whose
recommendations for the position were of the highest, and who
possessed an additional qualification, viz, that he would have
nothing to unlearn in order to carry out the evident intention of
Congress to secure better methods and greater efficiency in the
distribution of public documents."
With Public Printer Benedict's departure in 1897, the Government
Printing Office was approaching the new century electrified,
under Civil Service, with a mandate in the new Printing Act of
1895, and with a Superintendent of Documents charged with getting
Government publications into America's libraries and into the
hands of its citizens.

The Public Printer who was to take the Government Printing Office
into
the Twentieth Century was appointed by President Benjamin
Harrison on May 7, 1889. Frank W. Palmer served to May 2, 1894,
and was later reappointed by President William McKinley on March
31,
1897, and again served to September 8, 1905.
During his first term, Palmer argued mightily in behalf of a new
fireproof main building. But it was the 1893 collapse of Ford's
Theatre that threatened many people in Washington, including some
in Congress, and a great many in the wooden buildings of the
Government Printing Office. Public Printers Benedict and Palmer
stood as one on this issue, and Congress began to listen. It
was also
in 1893 that Congress gave up its long tradition of hand scribed
bills, in favor of printing from type. On December 12, 1893,
Public Law No. 1, of the 53d Congress, 2d session, became the
first of many acts to be so printed.

When Public Printer Palmer returned for a second term in 1897, it
was to renew the struggle for the building; and by 1898, Congress
appropriated money for the purchase of land. The Spanish
American
War came and went that same year, and provided the
Government Printing Office with a new crop of veterans. The
Document Division drew upon its 3 Years of experience to
reorganize
into six sections: Bookkeeping and Correspondence; Sales;
Catalog;
Library; Mail; and Stock. In 1899, Congress appropriated funds
for
equality of pay among printers, pressmen, and book binders; so
that
all might be paid 50 cents an hour, or $4 for an 8 hour day.
Other crafts petitioned Congress, and on July 1, 1900, the same
rate was granted to blacksmiths, carpenters, electricians,
electrotypers, leather parers, machinists, plumbers, saw
grinders, steam fitters, and stereotypers. Other pay increases
that
year allowed $3.50 a day for painters; and for women, $2.50 a day
for directresses, $2 a day for gold workers, numberers, press
feeders, sewers, and folders. It was from these workers that the
initiative came for a "sick room" on the third floor of the old
building. They provided a cot, blanket, and a small supply of
donated medicine. The Government Printing Office provided the
room, and in 1905 the first Medical Director, a former GPO
employee. Before Mr. Palmer ended his term in 1905, he reported:
"In June 1904, contracts were made by the Public Printer with
the Mergenthaler Linotype Co. for the purchase of 46 double
magazine typesetting machines, at a cost of $3,600 each, and with
the
Lanston Monotype Co. for 28 typesetting machines, at a cost of
$3,150 each." This stride into hot metal technology engendered
uneasiness
among many employees, who feared machines would be used to
replace them. They made their concern known to Congress, and on
September 9, 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt relieved Mr.
Palmer of the position he had held for over 13 years. But the
future was arriving, and Public Printer Palmer had glimpsed it in
1901 when he observed, "in the event that the use of electric
automobiles should prove more practicable than horses and wagons
for transporting the products of the GPO the supply of the
necessary electric currents for charging the automobiles could be
furnished from the power plant of the new building." The "Age of
the Auto" was getting underway.

The Age of the Auto

The sixth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

In 1901 a Public Printer suggested that automobiles might "prove
more practicable than horses
and wagons for transporting the products of GPO." Five years
later, on January 26, 1906, another
Public Printer made headlines: "Finds Horses too
Expensive.
Public Printer at Washington May
Substitute Automobiles." The newspaper article went on
to say:
"He will confer with the
President about it and will endeavor to get Congress to
appropriate for the purchase of the
vehicles." It remained for a later Public Printer to finally
report in 1912: "The purchase and
installation of charging panels and charging circuits in the new
garage to accommodate the
automobiles cost $1,289.56. During this fiscal year six electric
trucks were purchased at a cost of
$17,373. A greater part of the old traffic equipment was sold,
six horses and two trucks being
kept. During the first six months that these automobiles were in
service the total cost of the
combined garage, delivery, and stable sections was $18,145.60,
indicating an estimated saving per
annum of $12,196.90 over the cost of operating the delivery and
stable sections in the previous
year." Eleven years of effort, spanning the careers of four
Public Printers, were needed to bring
the Government Printing Office into the "Age of the Auto."

The men who guided the Government Printing Office into the
"automobile age" were four
unusual Public Printers: Charles A. Stillings, from
Massachusetts; John S. Leech, from Illinois;
Samuel B. Donnelly, from New York; and Cornelius Ford, from New
Jersey.

President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Public Printer Stillings
on November 1, 1905; and he
served the Government Printing Office until his suspension by the
President on February 5, 1908.
Seldom has a Public Printer been such a center of controversy and
national publicity.

Stilling's background reveals his ambition. He began working in
his father's printing office in
Boston at the age of 14. He dropped out of high school at 16 to
learn the business, and was
steadily advanced by his father, E. B. Stillings, a prominent
figure in the Grand Army of the
Republic. Setting out on his own for Washington, DC, he soon
became manager of the Printers'
Board of Trade. Subsequently, he took a similar position in New
York City. While there, a
friend told him of the resignation of Public Printer Palmer, and
remarked, "That's a position you
ought to have." Stillings agreed, and made an appointment to
meet President Roosevelt at
Oyster Bay, NY. The President was impressed by his enthusiasm
and knowledge of printing. He
made some inquiries about this 200-pound, 34-year-old man.
Endorsements were forthcoming:
from Massachusetts Senators Winthrop M. Crane and Henry C. Lodge,
as well as from numerous
large printing firms. As a 32nd degree Scottish Rite Mason, and
a member of the Mystic Shrine,
Stillings did not lack in fraternal support.

While awaiting confirmation, headlines appeared in The New York
Sun for November 16,
1905: "Printing Office Scandal. Effort To Defeat
Confirmation of
Stillings. Oscar J. Ricketts,
Late Acting Public Printer, Leads The Opposition, The Basis of
Which Is Alleged To Be the
'Open Shop' Proclivities of Mr. Stillings.
Confirmation took
place without incident. However,
the new Public Printer was to be followed by one storm cloud
after another. During his term,
Americans were to hear more about the Government Printing Office
than at any previous time in
its history.

The person most responsible for bringing a spotlight of
publicity to the Government Printing
Office was President Theodore Roosevelt. Not only did he appoint
Public Printer Stillings, but
he gave him an order that brought him into the limelight. The
Associated Press reported it on
August 24, 1906: "President Roosevelt has endorsed the Carnegie
spelling reform movement. He
issued orders today to Public Printer Stillings that hereafter
all messages from the President and
all other documents emanating from the White House shall be
printed in accordance with the
recommendation of the spelling reform committee headed by Brander
Matthews, professor of
English in Columbia University. This committee has published a
list of 300 words in which the
spelling is reformed. This list contains such words as 'thru'
and 'tho' as the spelling for 'through'
and 'though.'"

The press had a field day with the "reform spelling crusade" and
editorials and cartoons
abounded. The Supreme Court entered the fray and directed that
its opinions should be printed
in the old style. Finally, Congress had the last word when
Representative Charles B. Landis of
Indiana, Chairman of the House Committee on Printing, introduced
a resolution on December
13, 1906: "Resolved, That it is the sense of the House that
hereafter in the printing of House
documents or other publications used by law or ordered by
Congress, or either branch thereof, or
emanating from any executive department or bureau of the
Government, the House printer
should observe and adhere to the standard of orthography
prescribed in generally accepted
dictionaries of the English language. The motion passed
unanimously. The President let the
Public Printer and the Nation know that the old style was
reinstated.

No sooner had this cloud burst, than another one appeared on the
horizon. On May 30, 1907,
Public Printer Stillings authorized a "reduction in force" and
announced the dismissal of 204
employees, half of whom were journeyman bookbinders, and half of
whom were women, mostly
sewers and goldworkers. This action, the Public Printer said,
was necessitated by changes in
printing and binding regulations which caused a falling off of
work. A special dispatch to the
Rochester Chronicle of April 30, 1907, described the resulting
impact: "Many pathetic scenes
followed the receipt of the dreaded yellow envelopes by the
women. A number of them could
not refrain from shedding tears, while a few became hysterical.
Several of them had worked in
the printing office for years."

The Public Printer brought on another storm by insisting on
physical examinations for the
elderly workers at the Government Printing Office. This is
reflected in a news item for
September 31, 1907: "The women employed in the Government
Printing Office, especially those
in the bindery, have entered the fight to have Public Printer
Stillings deposed. Their grievance is
a reduction of wages. One thing to which they object is the
physical examination ordered by
Stillings. Many of them are widows of Civil War soldiers and
they know that they cannot hop,
skip and jump in competition with boys and young men. They also
object to the rigid
surveillance to which they are subjected."

Other acts of the Public Printer alienated women in the
workforce. One which received a great
deal of publicity was the removal of mirrors from work areas.
One woman explained their need
to a reporter, on April 27, 1907: "Yes, we had our own mirrors
and they were necessary. In the
main dressing room of each of the floors where the women work
there is one mirror, but what
could a hundred or more girls do before one mirror when everybody
wants to leave as soon as
the Government has had our day's work? Under the old order it
took each of us but a moment
to see how we looked and we could go out on the street feeling
that we were presentable. From
half past 4 o'clock until 6 each day is the only time we have in
which to do our modest shopping,
and it is a race to get to the stores before they close. Mr.
Stillings evidently believes we should
leave this building all frowsied up and looking disreputable.
Well, we'll fool him, anyhow, for he
cannot prevent our carrying little pocket mirrors and the shops
will have a run on that article."

Needless to say, the trade unions were also provoked. A
headline in The Boston American for
March 15, 1907, read: "Strike Threatened at U.S. Print
Shop. The article went on to say:
"Because they claim Public Printer Stillings is trying to
supplant them with apprentices and
unskilled men, the small army of stereotypers and electrotypers
at the great government print
shop are threatening a strike. At a special meeting a delegation
was named to wait on Stillings
and present their grievances." On July 22, 1907, the same
newspaper reported: "Resolutions
denouncing in vigorous terms Stillings' recent order fining
proofreaders for overlooking errors
were forwarded today to President Roosevelt and laid before the
Department of Justice by
Columbia Typographical Union No. 1. On October 17, 1907, the
Central Labor Union of the
District of Columbia passed resolutions "asking President
Roosevelt to remove Charles A.
Stillings from office."

Public Printer Stillings viewed things differently from his
critics. He expressed himself on June
24. 1907, before a Washington, DC gathering of photoengravers and
electrotypers. A reporter
noted: "Mr. Stillings said an effort was being made to place the
Government Printing Office on a
plane with the best printing establishments in the world. He
described how he had found a
more or less disorganized force of workmen in many lines; how he
had made an attempt to place
at the head of several departments experts in their several
lines; how he had met with some
opposition; how he had been misunderstood in some ways, but how
at last it was becoming
apparent that the Government Printing Office is not only abreast
with the best establishments of
its kind in the world, but the idea was beginning to appear that
the true aim is to make it the
model printing house of the world."

However, the controversies which swirled around Public Printer
Stillings prompted his
suspension by President Roosevelt on February 5, 1908, and a
subsequent investigation. The
resulting Rossiter Report of February 29, 1908, was critical of
expenditures relating to "cost,
audit, and inventory systems," along with purchase of supplies
and furniture amounting to
$138,110. Criticism was also made of failure to properly train
workers in the efficient use of new
typesetting machines. Worker morale was found to be low. The
report's conclusion stated that
the Public Printer "had not been a good judge of men, but at the
same time could not be accused
of any intentional wrongdoing."

President Roosevelt also appointed Public Printer Leech on June
9, 1908. He served the
Government Printing Office during a period of transition for 6
months, until November 30, 1908.
A veteran of the Government Printing Office, the new Public
Printer had learned his trade in
Indiana working for The Pantagraph. He came to Washington DC in
1889 as a compositor, later
serving as a proofreader and foreman. When appointed by the
President, he was serving as
Public Printer of the recently acquired Philippines. As an
honorary member of the Columbia
Typographical Union, he had twice represented their members at
meetings of the International.
One of the first areas he examined as Public Printer was that of
wages paid in the Government
Printing Office. He authorized increases for linotype and
monotype operators, as well as
printers, bookbinders, proofreaders, and other occupations
requiring special skill.

During his brief administration, Public Printer Leech
implemented a new system of accounting.
The annual report for 1906 said of it: "By the accounting system
is shown monthly the total cost
of operation, daily the amount of wages earned, and at any moment
the amount of purchases, the
total expenditures to date, and the outstanding obligations."
The system was considered to be of
"comparative simplicity" and "logical arrangement." However, the
workload proved too heavy for
the Public Printer, and his doctor ordered him to rest. On
December 1, 1908, he resigned.
During his last day at the Government Printing Office, more than
1,000 employees met with him
to wish him well.

President Roosevelt's third appointee to the Government Printing
Office, on December 1, 1908,
was Public Printer Donnelly, a former president of the
International Typographical Union. He
served through the term of Roosevelt's successor, President
William H. Taft, until June 25, 1913.
The new Public Printer had been previously appointed by the
President to a number of special
commissions, and was well known to him. One of the Public
Printer's early suggestions, made in
his annual report for 1909, related to the eighth (or attic)
floor of the new building. He
observed: "The majority of employees of the Government Printing
Office partake of the noonday
meal in the workrooms in which they are employed. Food is
carried into the workrooms in large
quantities and distributed from convenient points This method is
unhealthful and insanitary,
increases the difficulty of keeping the office clean, and
attracts insects destructive to certain
classes of material." He went on to request authority to
construct skylights in the roof and to use
the area as a lunchroom. The Public Printer also set about
securing new business. He was able
to report on December 5, 1910: "In February we undertook the
work of printing the postal
cards. On this work many difficulties were met with,
particularly owing to paper and mechanical
troubles. At the date of the submission of this report, however,
the work is up-to-date. The
Government Printing Office printed in the month of October
156,834,000 cards." For the entire
fiscal year 1911, he reported production of 1,280,895,840 postal
cards! This particular legacy of
Public Printer Donnelly is still a vital part of the Government
Printing Office which in 1986
installed a new No. 8 Roland Man 5-color offset press for the
printing of postal cards and
passports.

One unusual, but painfully significant, episode occurred in
1911. During the construction of a
wall for the garage, the Civil Service Commission certified six
bricklayers and one laborer for
work on the project. After a few days on the job, the
bricklayers let it be known that they
wanted the laborer, a black man, removed from the project. When
this was not done, they
walked out. The Civil Service Commission then certified six new
bricklayers, who happened to
be black men. Some vociferous criticism was leveled at the
Public Printer for refusing to dismiss
the laborer, and for replacing the bricklayers who had left. The
Public Printer clearly expressed
himself on this matter, and was quoted by The Reformer (Richmond,
VA), on November 11,
1911: "I am loyal to union principles when they stand for
protection and for fair play to all
concerned. Negro bricklayers work side by side with white
bricklayers in the Washington and
other Navy yards. I cannot see why in the case of the work to be
done at the Government
Printing Office, the white bricklayers should expect an exception
to be made in their favor.
There are 400 Negro employees in the Government Printing Office.
Colored persons work in the
various departments side-by-side with other employees in harmony
and with great efficiency. I
wish to declare with all emphasis that any employee of this
department who tries to precipitate
the devilish stricture of race prejudice will be immediately
dismissed and will not again be
employed!"

Public Printer Donnelly's concern for the employees showed
itself in still another farsighted
way. He reported to Congress in 1911: "There are employed in the
Government Printing Office
more than 250 persons above the age of 65, and it would be of
advantage to the Government to
provide for the retirement of those who have given to the public
service the best years of their
lives and who may be unable to perform an average day's work.
This could be equitably
accomplished through the adoption of a plan which would in effect
amount to an annuity to each
employee upon arriving at the age of retirement or upon becoming
disabled. The basis of such
annuities should be length of service and the salary or wage
received during their employment,
which in the case of those who have been in the service for many
years would meet their
ordinary requirements during the remainder of their lives. Such
a plan would result in saving a
large proportion of the amount that it is conceded generally is
now lost through the
superannuation of employees, and would at the same time be an act
of justice to the individual
and a recognition of long and faithful service." Not until 1920
did the Civil Service Employees'
Retirement Act take effect; and Public Printer Donnelly helped
sow the seeds.

On June 26, 1913, newly elected President Woodrow Wilson
appointed a friend known to him
in New Jersey, Public Printer Ford, president of the State
Federation of Labor. He served the
Government Printing Office and the Nation through the trying days
of World War I, until April
4, 1921. One of his first acts was to obtain from President
Wilson an executive order which
allowed him to appoint a private secretary. He chose Joseph P.
O'Lone, who had been treasurer
of the New Jersey State Federation of Labor, and was prominent in
the Knights of Columbus.
The Public Printer then put his stamp of approval on the annual
report of 1913. In it, his closing
words addressed the wage question: "In conclusion I would
recommend that the wages of
compositors and bookbinders, now at 50 cents per hour, be
increased to 55 cents per hour, also
that bookbinder machine operators be increased from 55 cents to
60 cents per hour. It is
estimated that the sum of $83,000 will be required to meet the
increase in salary should this rate
be granted by Congress." He was to repeat this same request in
annual reports for 1914, 1915,
1916, and 1917. In his final report for 1920, he pointed out
with some exasperation: "For the
past two or three years only by promises of his utmost endeavor
with Congress for relief has the
Public Printer been enabled to retain sufficient efficient
employees on the legislative rolls to take
care of the ever increasing demands of Congress, the departments,
and the general public.
Within the past year the office has lost by resignation the
services of many of its best paid and
most efficient employees, and the good of the service impels this
appeal to the Congress for a
proper adjustment of these rolls ... Owing to the seriousness of
the situation it is urgently
recommended that Congress take favorable action so that the
salary and wage rate in the
Government Printing Office will compare with the salary and wage
rate paid in commercial
establishments doing similar work."

Initially, Public Printer Ford set about promoting a number of
health and safety measures. His
annual report for 1914 mentions: "A 'rest room' has been
installed on the fifth floor of the new
building for women employees who may become exhausted during
working hours. The room is
under the supervision of the medical and sanitary officer. I
consider it a very humane and
necessary adjunct to the office." In 1915 he reported:
"Realizing that the health of employees in
the linotype section was being endangered by fumes and noxious
gases arising from melted metal
in the linotype pots, I installed a ventilating system in that
section at a cost of $398. The
installation of this system has resulted in a very material
change for the better in the atmosphere
of the room and the general working conditions." He also noted
that: "All faucets were removed
from drinking fountains throughout the buildings and replaced
with bubbling fountains, at a cost
$946.75; this replacement was a decided advance in sanitation."
Public Printer Ford felt vacations
were an important source of rest and renewal for employees. He
expressed considerable
satisfaction at a legal opinion on the subject: "A decision of
the comptroller, dated February 15,
1915, definitely decided that employees of this office are
entitled to leave of absence with pay for
30 working days each year. The decision was fair and just and in
full conformity with law."

Meanwhile, World War I had begun in Europe; and it was to have a
major impact on the
Government Printing Office. On the eve of America's involvement,
in 1916, the value of the
fiscal year's printing and binding (excluding that for the
Superintendent of Documents) was
$6,201,864.42. During the record breaking fiscal year of 1919,
this product amounted to
$12,774,712.34. The entry of the United States into the "Great
War" produced a rush of orders
in 1911. The Public Printer listed some of them: "Registration
cards, 25,000,000; certificates of
registration, 18,000,000; Manual of Courts-Martial, 100,000;
Small-Arms Firing Manual, 100,000;
Manual of Guard Duty, 100,000; Infantry Drill Regulations,
90,000; Liberty Bond posters in two
colors, 1,000,000, with delivery in three days; Boy Scout posters
in several colors, 4,000,000 with
deliveries in a few days time; bulletin on home gardening,
1,000,000; and many other large
quantities of bulletins on home economies."

The War's impact altered the life at the Government Printing
Office. In 1918, the Public
Printer reported: "The number of women employed in the office now
is far in excess of previous
years; they have been assigned to many branches of work
heretofore filled by men only, and show
a willing desire to carry it through." Three 8-hour shifts made
hectic the chores of maintenance
workers: "The employees engaged in the upkeep of buildings and
plant worked under
considerable difficulty on account of the office being in
operation almost constantly, and it being
necessary that their work conflict as little as possible with
productive operations." There were
also security
measures: "Secret and confidential publications, of which there
were very many, were handled
throughout the office under strict and ironclad regulations,
preventing any premature publicity or
any breach of the confidence of departmental officials." A peak
of employment was reached in
October 1918 when "the number of employees was 5,307." Despite
this, there was considerable
employee turnover: "The general average number of separations
from the service has been
approximately 200 per month, the two principal reasons given
being those of better compensation
in other places and draft into military and naval service."
Finally, the end came; and the Public
Printer observed: "The signing of the armistice on November 11,
1918, found this office in full
swing on the largest output in its history. With practically all
divisions running on three eight-hour schedules, the value of product was amounting to about one
and a quarter million dollars a
month."

With peace came a profound political change. War weary
Americans elected with 16,152,200
votes a down home printer, Warren G. Harding, who owned and
worked in a small newspaper,
The Star, in Marion, OH. That "Printer" President when in the
White House turned to the Joint
Committee on Printing for a new Public Printer. One was
forthcoming who was to prove
"President Harding's Legacy" to the Government Printing Office.

President Harding's Legacy

The seventh in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

Strange are the ways of politics, Presidents, and printing.
Since 1861, newly elected Presidents
have chosen new Public Printers, or sometimes reappointed
incumbents. The election of 1920
brought to America's highest office a printer by trade, a
politician by choice, and a very trusting
human being by nature. Warren G. Harding's taste for printer's
ink began during the summer of
1876 in the small town of Caledonia in Marion County, OH. He was
a lanky 12-year-old used to
farm chores. With a young friend he ventured into the office of
the Caledonia Argus. There,
both boys became "printer's devils," sweeping the floor, running
errands, feeding the presses,
washing rollers, and distributing type into California job cases.
Later that summer, when Hi
Henry's Circus came to town, the editor got two free tickets.
His "devils" threatened to strike
unless taken care of. The good-natured owner, Will Warner,
turned over the tickets and the
boys were off to the circus. Towards the end of summer, perched
atop a printshop stool, each
boy began to set type in the time-honored fashion. One day, a
lawyer brought in a brief that had
to be set, printed, and ready the following day. The 12-year-old
Harding worked into the night
with Warner and completed the job. Before Warren went home, the
old editor put into his hand
a gift, a thin piece of steel, 21/2 inches long, a 13-em make up
rule, the traditional symbol of a
full-fledged printer. The boy was to cherish this memento for
the rest of his life: while working
at his own newspaper, The Star, as Ohio State Senator and
Lieutenant Governor, as U.S.
Senator, and as President of the United States.

Perhaps it was President Harding's wish for sound advice that
prompted him to turn to the
Joint Committee on Printing. In any case, its Chairman, Utah's
Senator Reed Smoot, suggested
the name of George H. Carter, Clerk of the Joint Committee on
Printing. This good advice was
taken by the trusting President who appointed Public Printer
Carter on March 31, 1921. Shortly
after he was sworn in on April 5, 1921, a large photograph of the
President as a working printer
was presented to the Public Printer. Handwritten beneath it was
this inscription: "To George H.
Carter, with the greetings and good wishes of one printer and
public servant to another.
Sincerely, Warren G. Harding." This photo held a special place of
honor in the Public Printer's
office from 1921 to 1934.

President Harding's appointee was a 47-year-old attorney, a
Wisconsin native, who, like the
President, had learned to set type and operate a job press while
a young man in Iowa. He had
been a member of the Newswriters' Branch of the International
Typographical Union, but had
eventually turned to law as a career. For the past 12 years, he
had worked diligently for the
Joint Committee on Printing. The Committee members thought very
highly of attorney Carter.
On receiving his letter of resignation, April 4, 1921, they
entered a revealing minute in their
records: "In accepting the resignation of Mr. George H. Carter
after a service of twelve years as
Clerk to the Joint Committee on Printing, the Committee desires
to record in its minutes its
deep regret in losing the services and cooperation of so capable
and courteous an official. The
Committee also records its appreciation of the fact that Mr.
Carter's qualities have received
substantial recognition through his appointment as Public
Printer, a position in which his fine
personal characteristics, his executive ability, his eminent good
judgment and his unflagging
industry are sure to bring him the success which all the members
of the Committee wish for him
in abundant measure."

The newly appointed Public Printer spoke of his mandate, in his
first annual report for 1921: ". .
. the President simply but impressively instructed me to operate
the 'big shop' on a strictly
business basis, to stop waste and extravagances in the printing
and binding as far as was within
the power of the Public Printer, and to place the personnel of
the office above all suspicion as to
honesty and integrity." Carter was a man whose 12 years with the
Joint Committee on Printing
had provided him with unique insight into the workings of the
Government Printing Office. He
was now steward to the needs for Congressional printing and the
lives of some 4,000 employees.

Finding unexpended funds of $2.4 million available, the Public
Printer decided to have the attic
level of Building 1 repaired. He noted, "The roof was badly
cracked in numerous places, thus
occasioning many leaks, which constantly endangered the million
dollars worth of typesetting
machinery on the seventh floor." The GPO Superintendent of
Buildings, Major Walter R. Metz,
prepared plans which were submitted to the Joint Committee on
Printing. They heartily
approved. The outcome was the creation of "quarters for a
much-needed photoengraving plant, a
better location for metal and storage rooms, an adequate
cafeteria, and suitable rest and
recreation rooms for the employees."

The employees responded by taking responsibility for the
operation of the cafeteria and the
carrying on of recreational activities. The annual report for
1922 records: "All the expenses of
the cafeteria, including foodstuffs and wages, and of the
recreation rooms, are paid by the
association, the Government Printing Office providing only the
space, fixed equipment, heat,
light, and power ... Included in the equipment purchased by the
employees with their own funds
are two fine pianos, one a $1,600 concert grand, numerous
cafeteria accessories and
replacements, and paraphernalia for four complete bowling alleys.
The association which
manages these affairs is called the 'GPO Cafeteria and Recreation
Association.' It was organized
by voluntary contributions of $1 or $2 each by employees to a
common fund for the purpose of
securing a working capital to operate the cafeteria. In this way
$4,497.75 was raised with much
readiness and enthusiasm ... Every employee is entitled to the
privileges of the cafeteria and the
rest and recreation rooms whether or not he is a member of the
association."

One of the outstanding printing challenges which came to the
Government Printing Office
during the Harding years was the printing in record time of the
Report and Minutes of the
Conference on the Limitation of Armament. After the bitter
experience of World War I,
President Harding and other statesmen wanted to cut back on huge
appropriations for military
hardware. The President gave his full endorsement to a naval
arms reduction conference held in
Washington, DC, November 12, 1921, to February 6, 1922. The
outcome was a genuine
reduction, with nine treaties being drafted and signed, and
Senate ratification for all of them.
The report which helped make this possible was printed by the
employees of the Government
Printing Office. Public Printer Carter recalled: "This document
made 910 printed pages, every
line of which was set by the Government Printing Office in 20
hours. The first form of the fifty-
seven 16-page signatures reached the pressroom at 10:30 a.m., and
1,500 complete copies were
sent to the bindery by 5:30 p.m. of the same day. Paperbound
copies were delivered to the
President and Congress at 9:00 a.m. the following morning or 40
hours after the manuscript copy
was received by the office. The printing was done on 23
automatically fed presses, which turned
out 185,820 impressions, requiring 6,650 pounds of paper for the
3,260 copies issued." High
praise came in a letter to the Public Printer from Secretary of
State Charles Evans Hughes: "I
question whether any other printing establishment in any country
could have performed the work
done by the Government Printing Office, especially in
consideration of the high standard of
printing that was sustained throughout ... I trust you will
accept my most cordial thanks for your
assistance, and I wish you would also say to all the employees of
your office how much their
efficiency and unselfish devotion to duty added to the success of
our labors during the
conference."

Steps were taken by Public Printer Carter to restore the
apprenticeship program which had
been discontinued for more than 35 years. The Civil Service
Commission was sent a plan for
examining and appointing apprentices. The Printing Act of 1895
had limited their number to 25;
and the Public Printer suggested that this number should be
revised upwards. Efforts were also
made, as in previous postwar periods, to help veterans. The
Public Printer observed that he was
"heartily cooperating with the Federal Board for Vocational
Education and the Veterans' Bureau
in affording an opportunity for war veterans to receive
vocational training in this office." He went
on to speak of the veterans then employed by the Government
Printing Office: "20 veterans of
the Civil War, 124 of the Spanish War, and 289 of the World
War--a total of 433." This was in a
workforce of 4,096 as of June 30, 1921. The Public Printer also
commented on the effects of the
new Civil Service Employees' Retirement Act of 1920. As of July
1, 1921, "the total number of
retirements was 179, of whom 123 retired at the age of 65, and 56
at 70 years ... It is apparent
already that even the maximum retirement pension of $720 a year,
which only 70 out of 179
received, is in many cases grossly inadequate compensation for
employees who have devoted
most of their lives to faithful service of the Government."

The new Public Printer expressed pride in GPO's medical
facility, "the first emergency hospital
equipped by any Government establishment in Washington for the
humane care of employees
who may be injured or suddenly become sick in the service." He
added, "On account of the
overcrowded condition of the present small emergency room, an
additional hospital room is
being constructed especially for the treatment of women
employees. This room will be equipped
with every convenience of a hospital ward, including shower bath,
and provided with three
additional beds for patients."

Like some of his concerned predecessors, Public Printer Carter
was sensitive to the need for
adequate wages. He singled out the Public Documents Division:
"It is extremely unfortunate that
the pay authorized by Congress for these indexers and cataloguers
has been insufficient to obtain
enough help for a number of years to keep this highly important
work up to date. I have
therefore made a special recommendation, through the Bureau of
the Budget, that the number
and salaries of cataloguers be increased so as to secure adequate
and competent help to expedite
the work of preparing catalogues for the use of the Government
itself and the libraries of the
country. This work is practically six years behind the
requirements of the law, due to the inability
of this office to obtain enough cataloguers at the prevailing low
salaries." He also noted the good
work being carried on by the Building Division, which then
consisted of "an engineering section
with 65 employees, machine section with 36 employees, electrical
section with 75 employees,
buildings section with 25 employees, carpenter and paint section
with 25 employees, sanitary
section with 70 employees, and watch section with 60 employees."
He cited some of their
productivity: "the general machine shop of the plant handled
12,500 jobs during the year,
covering work of every description in the machine trade from
ordinary adjusting to practically
rebuilding printing-press machinery. The carpenter shop
completed 12,986 jobs, including the use
of 57,769 feet of new lumber ... The electrical section handled a
total of 19,242 jobs, including all
kinds of electrical repair work, from changing of lights and
repairing motors to large installations.
The engineering section completed 18,243 jobs, including
steam-fitting, plumbing, air lines,
pneumatic tubes, and general engineering work." He was pleased to
share with the Joint
Committee on Printing the pride he felt for workers in the
Government Printing Office, as well
as his concern for their betterment.

Congress responded positively to Public Printer Carter's request
for resuming the apprentice
program in 1922 and expanding it in 1923. On its reintroduction,
162 young men throughout the
United States took qualifying Civil Service examinations. A
total of 118 passed and 25 were
selected. Courses "were carefully prepared for the instruction
of apprentices to qualify them as
printers, pressmen, bookbinders, electrotypers, stereotypers, and
machinists, each course covering
a period of four years of intensive study and work." Congress
accepted the Public Printer's
request to be allowed to increase the number of apprentices. In
an act of February 23, 1923, it
authorized the training of 200 young persons for the skilled
trades. Of the first class, 20
completed the 4 years and heard the Public Printer say with
pride: "for the first time in nearly 40
years, the Government Printing Office was able to fill journeymen
positions with qualified
apprentices of its own training." The Class of 1933 captured the
feelings of many apprentices
when in its yearbook was expressed an "Appreciation" to the
Public Printer, the Deputy Public
Printer, and all concerned with their training: "To Mr. Carter,
for his efforts in making possible
our training through the establishment of the apprentice school,
for his intense devotion to the
cause of youth, and for his persistence in championing good
citizenship among those studying the
various crafts; to Mr. Greene, for his excellent supervision of
the activities of this school; to our
instructors, for their painstaking efforts to make of us capable
craftsmen; and to the members of
the alumni and other journeymen of the office whose encouragement
and assistance have been of
great value." The Public Printer followed his tradition that
year of personally presenting
graduation certificates in Harding Hall while the Government
Printing Office Orchestra played in
the background. Over the intervening years hundreds of young
people have passed through these
programs and become key employees who carry on the work of the
Government Printing Office.
From their ranks have come four Assistant Public Printers and
three Deputy Public Printers.

Public Printer Carter was active in the international community
of printers. One consequence
of this was visitors from abroad. These included Herr Franz
Helmberger, Director of the
German Government Printing Office; Kikuichiro Sakai, Chief
Engineer of the Japanese Imperial
Government Printing Bureau; and the Hon. Ezequiel Salcedo,
Director of the Government
Printing Office of Mexico. The Public Printer reported on his
firsthand investigations overseas,
in 1923: "Besides inspecting many printing and machinery works in
England, Denmark, Germany,
Sweden, and Switzerland, study was made of the famous Imprimerie
Nationale in Paris (the
French Government printing office), and the well-equipped
printing works of the
Czechoslovakian Government in Prague and of the Austrian
Government in Vienna."

Such international visits had benefits for each party. The
Public Printer spoke of such a
dividend: "One of the results of the investigation was the
procurement by the Public Printer of
the English method of nickeling stereotype plates. The
Government Printing Office is now
making nickeled stereos at less expense than it cost to produce
the too-extensively used
electrotype plates." Herr Helmberger was asked to address
Government Printing Office
apprentices in 1929, and revealed part of the Public Printer's
impact: "I feel at home at this time,
talking to you, young men, apprentices, neophytes in that
greatest of all arts--printing. It is hard
for me to realize that you are not really my own class of
apprentices in the Reichsdruckerei in
Berlin. In this connection, I wish to pay a just debt to your
own Mr. Carter. It was he who was
the real cause of my taking up the work of training apprentices
in our office some five years
since. During the early days of our acquaintanceship in Berlin
it was his enthusiasm on the
subject of training young men as general all-round printers that
inspired me to again take up the
work, after the lapse of some 20 years, during which time we had
no apprentices ... I am
confident, if you do your part here, you will be able to go on,
either in the service of your
Government or in commercial life, without ever bringing discredit
to the craft or to our patron
saint, Gutenberg. And so now I leave you with that ancient of
benedictions, 'Gott grusz die
Kunst' (God bless the Craft)."

The hazardous state of the old buildings was also very much on
Public Printer Carter's mind.
He touched upon it in every annual report. Perhaps he summed up
his concern best in 1922: "I
can not allow this opportunity to pass without again warning
Congress of this peril to the lives of
more than 4,000 employees in a fire that would quickly destroy
the world's greatest printing plant.
Modern firefighting apparatus has been installed in various parts
of the building, numerous fire
alarms and escapes provided, and suitable fire drills arranged,
but even with these precautions it
is doubtful if all the employees could escape from the flames
that would sweep through the old
building like a tinder box." Some progress became possible with
the passage of the Public
Buildings Act in 1926, which authorized $50 million for the
erection of Government buildings.
The Chairman of the Building Commission happened to be the
Chairman of the Joint
Committee on Printing, Senator Reed Smoot of Utah. He approved
the Public Printer's request
of $1,250 million for a fireproof addition to the new main
building. Situated on the west side of
Building 1 and fronting on G Street for 112 feet, Building 2
conformed in style and height to the
main building. A garage was also included. Excavation began on
November 22, 1928, and by
January 1, 1932, the new quarters were being occupied.

To every Public Printer is given an opportunity to leave his
impress on the style used in
Government publications. This stems from an act of Congress
passed on June 25, 1864, which
provided: "The forms and style in which the printing or binding
ordered by any of the
departments shall be executed, the materials and size of type to
be used shall be determined by
the Superintendent of Public Printing, having proper regard to
economy, workmanship, and the
purpose for which the work is needed." To this end, since 1894
and through 1984, editions of
Style Manuals with information and rules on uniformity of
Government printing have been
produced. Public Printer Carter noted in 1922 that 9 years had
elapsed since the last revision of
the Government Printing Office Style Manual. He observed that
during those years, "the style of
Government printing had seriously deteriorated in the meantime
through lack of uniformity and
careless disregard of the rules for good printing." The Public
Printer set out to remedy this; and
he created "a board of revision, consisting of seven of the best
qualified craftsmen of the
Government Printing Office." A complete revision was made and
presented in manuscript to the
Public Printer. He reviewed it and in turn submitted it to the
Chairman of the Joint Committee
on Printing. With the Committee's seal of approval, printing
followed, and "The revised manual
was adopted as the style to be followed by all departments and
establishments of the Government
on and after February 15, 1922."

Public Printer Carter kept a watchful eye on the Style Manual,
which underwent minor revisions
in 1923, 1924, 1926, 1928, and 1929. He decided a new approach
was needed to secure the
cooperation of agencies in using what was really a "U.S.
Government Publications Style Manual."
To this end, "the Public Printer invited the heads of several
Government departments and
establishments to appoint representatives on an advisory board to
cooperate with the permanent
Style Board of the Government Printing Office in a complete
revision of the Manual. In
acceptance of this invitation, the Secretary of State, the
Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of
Agriculture, the Secretary of the Interior, and the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution kindly
designated especially competent representatives to cooperate with
the board of the Government
Printing Office." The two boards "worked diligently for many
months in assembling data,
studying authorities, formulating rules, and making decisions for
this comprehensive Manual
which, it is hoped, will materially improve the style of
Government printing, as well as effect
necessary economies in copy editing and authors' alterations."

The success of the comprehensive revision issued March 1, 1933,
exceeded all expectations.
The Style Manual drew world attention. In London, The Caxton
Magazine wrote: "If the United
States Government Printing Office can produce such a thorough and
exhaustive guide as the one
under review, surely some of the printing trade organizations in
this country could equally well
compile one that would meet with general acceptance." From
Berlin, the Secretary for the
International Bureau of the Federations of Master Printers wrote:
"This useful book will be very
helpful for my bureau, as it not only contains a wealth of
information about the English language
but also comparative tables of weights, measures, and
typographical measurements used in
different countries of the world." So popular and well accepted
was the newly revised Style
Manual that on August 10, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt
issued an Executive Order
requiring that for all draft Executive Orders and proclamations,
the punctuation, use of capital
letters, orthography, and other questions of style, "shall
conform to the most recent edition of
the 'Style Manual of the Government Printing Office.' "

To further enhance the usefulness of the Style Manual, Public
Printer Carter commissioned a
foreign language supplement of 166 pages of "transliterations,
syllabications, and other
information useful in the printing of more than 50 foreign
languages." This was published during
1934 and proved equally popular. Under Public Printer Carter,
the Style Manual became the
touchstone for Government agencies concerned with better
publications, as well as winning
national and international recognition. This was fortunate, as
the decade of the 1930's was one
in which a great number of Americans began to seek out Government
publications as useful and
readable sources of much needed information.

A landmark change in the depository library program occurred
during the Carter years. When
the program came to the Government Printing Office in 1895, from
the Department of the
Interior, until 1922, all publications deemed appropriate by the
Superintendent of Documents
were sent to all depository libraries. In the case of small
public libraries, this was a considerable
burden. The new Public Printer proposed in 1921 that Congress
allow the depository libraries to
select publications. Congress agreed; and on March 20, 1922,
Public Act 171 provided "that no
part of the appropriation for the Office of the Superintendent of
Documents shall be used to
supply to depository libraries any documents, books, or other
printed matter not requested by
such libraries." To implement this, Superintendent of Documents
Alton P. Tisdel sent to
depositories a "Classified list of United States public documents
for selection by depository
libraries, July 1, 1922." For the very first time, libraries
were able to tailor their selections to the
needs of their communities--a practice which continues to this
day.

Another step into the future involved improving job mobility for
women. Public Printer Carter
reported in 1922: "Special consideration has been given to the
status of women employees,
inasmuch as there are about 900 in the service of the Government
Printing Office, comprising
more than 22 percent of the entire force. Little or no
recognition had been accorded the ability
and industry of women workers in this office during all the past
years. I therefore determined
that, as far as it lies within my power, women employees should
be granted the same opportunity
and equal reward for service as the men who had heretofore
monopolized all the supervisory and
better paid positions in the plant. Accordingly, for the first
time in the history of the office
several thoroughly competent women workers were advanced to
suitable supervisory positions,
which they continue to fill with credit to themselves and to the
Government."

The Public Printer's concern for quality control was manifested
in the creation of a testing
section on February 1, 1922. He said of it: "This section has
been equipped with the best and
latest devices for the testing of paper and other materials used
in the production of printing and
binding. The section is in charge of one of the most efficient
industrial engineers in the country,
who has been given full authority to inspect and test all the
products and stores of the
Government Printing Office, and to engage in such other research
work as may be deemed
necessary from time to time to promote the best interests of the
public service. With the
organization of the testing section, new regulations were put
into effect for the receipt, testing,
and inspection of all materials, machinery, cuts, illustrations,
paper, etc. These regulations
provided a complete and thorough system for the inspection and
testing of everything produced
or used in the operation of this great establishment." This was
an area of the Government
Printing Office whose research results and special publications
were sought after by printers at
home and abroad.

Public Printer Carter worked mightily to improve wages at the
Government Printing Office. He
argued the necessity for good pay in 1923, noting: "With the
present wage scale as fixed by law it
has been impossible to retain some of the best workers or to
attract enough other properly
skilled men to fill their places. During the year 269 printers,
including 108 linotype operators, 64
compositors, 32 monotype keyboard operators, and 44 proof readers
left the service of the
Government Printing Office, some of them going reluctantly to
accept higher wages offered
elsewhere." He mentioned doing what he could where he could.
"As far as it is within the power
of the Public Printer, an effort has been made to readjust wages
in the Government Printing
Office to meet present conditions. In fact, during the last two
years the compensation of 1,399
employees has been increased by $269,417 per annum. The rate of
pay for approximately 35
percent of the employees--that is, pressmen, bookbinders, and
printers--is definitely fixed by law
and cannot be changed except by act of Congress."

Carter boldly recommended a collective bargaining wage bill, a
decade before the historic
Wagner-Connery Act of 1935. Amazingly, he was able to report in
1923: "Near the close of the
last session of Congress a law (Public, No. 276, approved June 7,
1924) was enacted authorizing
the Public Printer to regulate and fix rates of pay for employees
and officers of the Government
Printing Office under certain conditions as to negotiation with
the trades affected and right of
appeal to the Joint Committee on Printing for final decision.
The new wage law, known as the
Kiess Act, accords with recommendations made by the Public
Printer in his annual report for
1923 ... Much credit is due to the Senate and House Printing
Committees for the success of their
endeavor to end the ancient practice of Congress to fix the pay
of printers, pressmen, and
bookbinders at long and irregular intervals, and to establish
instead the modern plan of collective
wage bargaining for the various trades employed in the Government
Printing Office. The Kiess
Act is the first formal recognition by Congress of the right of
collective wage bargaining and
arbitration with Government employees. The law establishes also
the principle of a minimum
wage for certain trades. The Act may therefore be deemed a
landmark in labor legislation."

Wage negotiations followed between committees representing labor
and management. But with
good will on both sides and with the active participation of the
Public Printer, agreements were
reached. These were submitted to the Joint Committee on Printing
which gave its prompt and
unanimous approval. The pay of 3,800 employees was adjusted
upwards. Afterwards, at a mass
meeting of 3,000 employees in Harding Hall on December 31, 1924,
the Public Printer was
presented with the following resolutions of thanks:

"Resolved, That we the employees of the
Government Printing
Office, hereby extend to the
Public Printer, Hon. George H. Carter, our felicitations and best
wishes for the new year;

"Resolved further, That in meeting assembled we
hereby desire to
express our appreciation and
thanks for the increase in compensation accomplished by
termination of the wage adjustments,
which result was made possible by the spirit of fairness in which
the Public Printer met the
committees of the various groups concerned;

"Resolved further, That we are not unmindful of
the interest
shown by the Public Printer in the
welfare of the employees of the office, as is evidenced by the
establishment of a cafeteria and
recreation hall, and the general betterment of working
conditions, the office being now
conducted under unexcelled sanitary and healthful regulations;

"Resolved further, That these resolutions be suitably engrossed
and presented to the Public
Printer, and copies thereof be transmitted to the Joint Committee
on Printing and the press."

Major changes took place in the lives of Government Printing
Office employees as a result of
the "Great Depression" and the war clouds which loomed in Europe
and Asia. To combat the
depression, a series of Economic Acts were passed by Congress
during 1932 and 1933. "Under
the Economy Act of June 30, 1932, the Public Printer exercised
the option of adopting a 5-day
(40 hours) work week for the Government Printing Office, with a
reduction of one-eleventh in
the pay of employees which had been at the rate of 48 hours for a
44-hour work week under the
Saturday half holiday law ... Another fiscal complication has
resulted in restoration by the 1933
Economy Act of leave with pay which had been reduced from 30 to
15 days by the Economy Act
of 1932 and suspended for the fiscal year 1933." Thus, economic
crisis and Congressional
legislation brought the Government Printing Office a 5-day week
and reduced leave to 15 days.
Another 1933 measure impacted on married couples. "As required
by law in effecting reductions
of personnel, married employees in the class to be reduced were
first considered if the husband
or wife was also in the service of the United States or the
District of Columbia. In such cases,
married couples were permitted to decide which one would resign
from the Government service.
During June, July and August, 111 married employees of the
Government Printing Office were
thus separated from service, and 122 other married employees were
permitted to retain their
positions in the Government Printing Office through the
separation of the wife or husband from
some other branch of the Government Service."

With the economic troubles came another profound political
change. During the national
elections of 1932, worried and angry Americans elected with
22,809,638 votes a confident
sounding New York Governor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to be
President of the United States.
When in the White House, he began searching for the best minds of
his generation. Eventually,
in 1934, he found one to be his new Public Printer and to face
with him the "Years of Challenge"
which lay ahead.

THE YEARS OF CHALLENGE

The eighth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

During the First World War, an American soldier stationed in St.
Aignan, France, was reading
the Stars and Stripes. He noticed a small announcement saying
that experienced printers were
needed by the weekly newspaper. The 28-year-old sergeant applied
for a job; and in April of
1918 he found himself serving in Paris as supervisor of
mechanical production for the Stars and
Stripes.

At that time, the newspaper had a circulation of 550,000 copies.
It was published with the help
of 200 soldier-printers at the Paris printing plant of the London
Daily Mail. The Sergeant was
soon also looking after distribution, mailing, and record
keeping. A coworker said of him, "He
handled any amount of detail and never got rattled. He can't
throw 'em too fast, but he can field
'em all."

On the newspaper's first anniversary, a humorous poem was
published mentioning the sergeant
by name. One verse ran as follows:

"Mail, wrapping, typing, couriers--
his duties are a score,
Whenever we can think of it we'll give him twenty more;
I often wonder how one man can handle such a batch--
When does this great executive get time to stop and
scratch?
Nothing neglected, nothing slack
In the department
Giegengack."

Fifteen years later, during the depths of the "Great
Depression," on June 27, 1934, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed as Public Printer of the United
States the former sergeant who
had helped produce the Stars and Stripes, Augustus E. Giegengack.

President Roosevelt's appointee was born in Manhattan on April
19, 1890. His father was a
German liquor dealer who owned a small cafe. His mother was
Irish and the daughter of a
London printer. She had worked for printers before coming to the
United States. "Gus," as he
liked to be called, was one of nine children. At the age of 15
he was working as a bookkeeper
for the American News Company. His mother advised him that a
better living was to be made in
printing. The very next year he became an apprentice in the
composing room of the New York
Commercial, a financial daily. By age 18 he was an apprentice
linotype operator and joined the
International Typographical Union, Local No. 6, then the largest
of the printing unions. During
his journeyman years, Gus worked for the New York World, the
Hudson County Observer, and
various other print shops. At age 25 he was serving as foreman
for a printing plant in Brooklyn
which produced mail-order catalogs. He was making $50 a week and
supervising 300 employees.

Following his service during the First World War, Gus returned
to civilian life. He began by
working as foreman of the composing room of the DeVinne Press
which published the Century
and St. Nicholas magazines. He became a half-owner of the
Burkhardt Linotype Company, and
partner in a firm which printed technical publications for
McGraw-Hill. He married a Brooklyn
schoolteacher, Margaret Morrison, and got elected President of
the Typographical Association of
New York, and of the International Association of Printing House
Craftsmen.

Upon the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Gus began to take
steps to get himself considered
for the position of Public Printer. He became active in New
York's Rockville Center Democratic
Club and got the organization to write in January 1933 to the
President-elect advocating his
selection, saying he was "a faithful worker of this club." He
got the club to invite a friend of the
President, the new United States Postmaster General, James A.
Farley, to a testimonial dinner,
with Gus as chairman. The Postmaster General got the distinct
impression that Gus was a
seasoned politician and an influential Democrat.

Next, Gus founded a small organization and had a letterhead
printed which read: "A.E.
Giegengack for Public Printer, Graphic Arts Committee. Organized
to secure the appointment
of A.E. Giegengack as Public Printer of the United States." With
these, he solicited backing
from printing groups and well-known people. Eventually, he
succeeded in getting letters from
over 200 respondents, including the Typographers Association of
New York, the International
Association of Printing House Craftsmen, and the International
Typographical Union, Local No.
66. These endorsements were brought together in a large red and
gold bound volume which
bore the title, "A.E. Giegengack for Public Printer.
Endorsements." This was presented to the
Postmaster General who passed it along to President Roosevelt.
It had the desired effect. On
July 2, 1934, Augustus E. Giegengack was sworn into Office, and
on January 18, 1935, the Senate
confirmed him as Public Printer of the United States.

To the newly appointed Public Printer fell the task of
introducing and seeing through the press
the 1934 annual report of his predecessor, George H. Carter. In
the introduction he noted that
30 percent of the area occupied by employees, equipment, and
property was housed in old
buildings. He stated, "Too strong emphasis cannot be placed on
the serious danger to the lives
of employees from fire hazard, possible structural collapse of
heavily loaded old wooden frame
buildings, and from the use of antiquated elevators in these old
buildings... These conditions have
reached a state of emergency where the Government should not
further delay the demolition of
dangerous buildings. They should be replaced with a modern
building to safeguard the lives of
employees and to provide the space needed to meet present urgent
needs for future normal
growth." The introduction was signed. "A.E. Giegengack, Public
Printer."

The following year, in a similar introduction under the heading,
"New Building Project," the
Public Printer was able to record: "With the hearty support of
the chairman and members of the
Joint Committee on Printing and the Director of the Procurement
Division of the Treasury
Department, an initial appropriation of $2,000,000, with a total
limit cost not to exceed
$5,885,000... for necessary land and construction of annex
buildings for the Government Printing
Office, including rights of way, furniture, moving expenses,
rental of temporary quarters during
construction, railroad sidings, alternatives to existing
buildings, all necessary tunnels connecting
proposed and existing buildings, demolition of existing
structures, and all necessary mechanical
equipment."

Progress was swift. In his 1936 report, the Public Printer said
that floor plans for a three-story
GPO warehouse (Building 4) had been approved by him on October
29, 1935, and a contract
awarded on October 2, 1936. Demolition of old buildings on the
site began October 12th and
excavation started on November 9th.

In his report for 1938, the Public Printer was able to say: "The
warehouse was completed and
turned over to the Public Printer on February 4, 1938. It is a
three-story and basement building
of reinforced concrete, 467 feet long by 87 feet 6 inches wide.
The load capacity of all floors is
500 pounds per square foot. There is a total new floor area of
129,139 square feet, of which
approximately 100,000 square feet are being used for storage
purposes." The cost of the site was
$184,367, and of the building, $1,264,000. "Approximately 700
carloads of paper of 40,000
pounds each, making a total of 28,000,000 pounds, can be stored
in the warehouse at one time ...
In addition to the two railroad tracks on the third floor of the
building there is also on this floor
air-conditioning equipment for controlling humidity and
temperature in the Postal Card and
Money Order Section of the Presswork Division, which is located
on the second floor. Ordinarily
locomotives do not enter the building. However, provision for
exhausting the smoke made by the
locomotives that do enter is provided through a series of
propeller fans in the roof."

He pointed out with pride, "The warehouse is equipped with four
freight elevators, each 7,500
pounds capacity, serving all floors from the basement to the
third floor, with two larger elevators,
each of 15,000 pounds capacity, which serve all floors and the
underground tunnel which passes
under North Capitol Street and will connect the warehouse with
the new building now being built
on the corner of North Capitol and H Streets, NW. The floor of
the tunnel is approximately 30
feet below street level, it being necessary to pass under a large
storm sewer in North Capitol
Street. The tunnel has two lanes, thus allowing electric trucks,
tractors, and trailers to operate as
frequently as necessary in both directions at once without
interference."

Not quite so swift was the progress on the new eight-story
structure to replace the original old
building where GPO had first opened its doors on March 4, 1861.
The bids for construction
exceeded the money available. However, the Public Printer proved
persuasive with the new 75th
Congress; and they increased the total limit from $5,885,000 to
$7,700,000. The contract was
finally awarded on May 27, 1938. The cost of the site was
$214,368, and of the building,
$5,026,000. The old building began to come down on June 27th;
and excavation commenced
shortly thereafter. By February 1940, Building 3 was completed;
and moving in had started to a
net floor area of 481,975 square feet.

Thus it was that on the eve of the Second World War, a major
concern of Public Printers and
employees for some 80 years had at last been met. For the very
first time, everyone in the
Government Printing Office worked in solid buildings that were
not firetraps. This achievement
of Public Printer Giegengack and all who assisted him came at the
precise moment in history
when the Government Printing Office and the Nation were to face
their greatest challenge.

Among the many significant acts of Public Printer Giegengack
during the 1930's, perhaps none
was to have so wide and lasting an influence as his effort to
create a Typography and Design
Division. This began in 1935 with the selection of Frank H.
Mortimer as GPO's first Director of
Typography. It was followed by a reorganization of the Layout
Section of the Planning Division,
"for the purpose of modernizing and improving the appearance of
Government publications with
the intent to create a greater demand therefor by the public."

The twofold thrust of this move was to assist agencies in making
their publications more
attractive and to reduce costs to them. The first objective was
quickly achieved, especially with
National Park Service publications. A typical letter of 1938
noting the change read as follows:
"May I offer my congratulations on the excellence of the booklet
you have just prepared on
Death Valley National Monument. This booklet, unlike many
Government works, is elegantly
developed, has excellent typography, and the photographs are of
the finest, particularly the
cover."

The second objective involved obtaining a reduction in cost
through changes in makeup and
typographic detail. Four measures were followed: (1) "reducing
the number of operations
required for composition and makeup;" (2) "simplifying presswork
and bindery operations;" (3)
"adaptation of style and format to Government Printing Office
production facilities;" (4)
"employing a style for halftones that eliminates extra hand work
in the engraving section." The
bottom line was stressed by the Public Printer in 1939. He was
able to point out two costs. The
first was the total charges per page per thousand copies:
1937--$2.11; 1938--$1.51; 1939--$0.93.
The second was the total charges per thousand copies:
1937--$80.34; 1938--$52.97; 1939--$27.01.
For over half a century the work of employees in Typography and
Design has brought letters of
praise to the Government Printing Office and won awards for the
excellent design of
Government publications.

When the Public Printer came to the Government Printing Office,
he was surprised to find only
one veterans organization. This was the United Veterans of
American Wars which consisted of
Unit No. 1 (white) and Unit No. 2 (black--the "Col. Charles Young
Unit"). During 1934, the
Public Printer was instrumental in organizing the Government
Printing Office American Legion
Post No. 33 (male), and in 1935, the American Legion Auxiliary
(female--wives, mothers, sisters
of veterans). Also, about this time, he encouraged formation of
Government Printing Office Post
No. 3874, Veterans of Foreign Wars. All the veterans groups were
active in civic and patriotic
functions. By 1937, the new Legion Post numbered 434, making it
one of the largest posts in the
District of Columbia. It was able to field a fully uniformed
Government Printing Office Band.
On September 21, 1937, led by their charter member, Public
Printer Giegengack, the Post and
the Band marched in a great American Legion parade down New
York's Fifth Avenue. The Post
also sponsored a free family picnic at Chapel Point, MD on July
24, 1939, and invited all
Government Printing Office employees.

The 1930's saw woven into the fabric of the Government Printing
Office many of the patterns
that later employees would take for granted. Group Life
Insurance began on May 1, 1931. This
was designed to pay death and disability claims. By 1939 there
were 5,010 units of insurance in
force amounting to $5,187,057. This was followed on May 1, 1935,
with the introduction of
Group Hospitalization. By 1939 some 1,629 people were members;
and they paid 65 cents a
month which provided 21 days hospital care and a 10 percent
discount beyond the 21 days. A
member could select any participating District Hospital. The
1930's were also the period which
saw a charter granted on August 20, 1935, for a Government
Printing Office Federal Credit
Union. By 1939 it had 2,972 members holding shares worth
$192,483.28, and outstanding loans
of $159,652.37. Interest charged was 1 percent a month on unpaid
balances.

Another major push for greater safety at the Government Printing
Office took place in 1939.
At the Public Printer's direction, an Executive Advisory Safety
Committee was formed. It was
chaired by the Medical Director and made up of the
Superintendents of Platemaking, Binding,
Composition, Presswork, Stores, the Mechanical Superintendent,
and the Chief of Delivery. It
was charged with: (1) coordinating safety practices in the
trades; (2) establishing shop safety
committees; (3) preparing for the approval of the Public Printer
necessary safety rules and
regulations; (4) recommending methods for promoting
safety-mindedness; (5) keeping records to
conform with the Department of Labor's Division of Labor
Standards; and (6) assisting and
cooperating with the Interdepartmental Safety Conference.

The key to the success of this effort was the creation of "shop
safety committees." These
consisted of the Medical Director, the foreman of the section,
and a section employee elected by
fellow workers. A shop safety committee's duties were: (1) to
inspect the section; (2) to
investigate the cause of accidents and take steps to eliminate
them; (3) to provide safety
instruction to new employees or those needing such instruction;
(4) to report on the condition
and use of safety equipment; and (5) to recommend new procedures
and equipment to prevent
accidents. In 1940, general elections were held throughout the
Government Printing Office; and
60 workers were elected as employee representatives on the shop
safety committees. Shop
committee reports were forwarded to the Public Printer through
the division superintendents.

As always, Government Printing Office employees did their best
to help others less fortunate
than themselves. In a typical year, 1939, employees contributed
$3,455 to the Red Cross, $22,201
to the Community Chest, and $2,262 to the Infantile Paralysis
Fund. Other charitable and relief
funds were also helped. In these endeavors, employees were
"sincerely commended by the Public
Printer."

By far the most important achievement of the Government Printing
Office during the 1930's
was to assist in bringing about the revival of the American
economy and to help millions of
unemployed citizens. This was done through the printing of
forms, pamphlets, posters, and
books, requested by Federal agencies, Congress, the Supreme
Court, and the President. It was
also done by means of the unique distribution mechanism devised
by Congress and carried on by
the Government Printing Office: the Federal Depository Library
Program, administered by the
Superintendent of Documents. Daily this program was responsible
for sending out to hundreds
of libraries throughout the States the vital information which
would make a difference in the lives
of our people.

On Sunday, December 7, 1941, Japanese naval and air forces made
a surprise attack on the
United States fleet based at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. That same
day attacks were also launched
on the Philippines, Guam, Midway Island, Hong Kong, and
Singapore. On December 8,
Congress declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and
Italy declared war on the
United States, which then acknowledged a state of war with those
nations.

The lives of countless Americans, and of Government Printing
Office employees in particular,
were profoundly affected. In 1940, on the eve of the Second
World War, the Government
Printing Office was housed in four fireproof buildings having a
total floor area of 1,374,281
square feet, or 3 1/2 acres. Mechanical equipment included 126
slug-casting typesetting
machines, 100 Monotype keyboards, 130 Monotype casting machines,
202 presses of all types, and
245 heavy machines used in the Bindery. Only a portion of the
machinery was new; but all
machines were in good working order.

War-related orders began to flood the Government Printing
Office. By the end of fiscal year
1941, the Selective Service had received 144,515,061 pieces of
printing costing $286,164.62.

The Treasury Department undertook a savings bond and stamp
program which required 10
million advertising folders, 931,000 four-color posters, and 20
million stamp albums.

It was apparent to the Public Printer as early as 1940 that the
printing industry as a whole
would need to be called upon to meet America's requirements in
the event of war. With great
foresight, Public Printer Giegengack called a conference of
leaders in the graphic arts industry
and met with them during the last week of March 1941. They
discussed the threatening
possibilities and agreed that a backup of commercial procurement
would be the best course to
follow. The Joint Committee on Printing concurred and issued
supplemental rules and
regulations on the purchase of printing under existing provisions
of the new War Powers Act.

A central aim of the Public Printer at the outset of the war was
to get the employees of the
Government Printing Office organized and trained to control
commercial production, the
scheduling of operations, and the assignment of equipment and
paper, all as if the work were
actually being done on North Capitol Street. This is described
in his 1947 report, "Public
Printing in War and Peace." "The 'partnership' between the
Government and the industry resulted
from meetings and conferences with leaders from principal
printing centers. The Public Printer
was not content with consulting only those who could come to
Washington; he went out into the
field to give the widest possible circulation to his proposed
program. For example, he met in
Chicago with the representatives from 17 Midwestern States for
the purpose of outlining his plan.
The groups appealed to become evangelists in turn. The Graphic
Arts Association of Illinois, the
Southern Master Printers Federation, the Associated Printers and
Lithographers of St. Louis, the
Typothetae-Franklin Association of Detroit, and the Graphic Arts
Industry, Inc. (of Minnesota)
collaborated in the preparation and distribution of a brochure on
the subject of commercial
cooperation in Government printing. An informal advisory
committee of about 50 members,
comprising printing trade association executives and other trade
leaders resident in some 35 cities
throughout the United States, was organized."

The World War II years were hard on presses and on workers. The
Public Printer saw a
peacetime volume in 1939 of 6,599,935,832 printed copies with
total charges of $18,238,045.10
soar in 1945 to 22,869,414,943 printed copies with total charges
of $77,309,497.53. The "Big
Shop" worked around the clock. An example of the impact of a
rush job may be seen in "War
Department General Order 29," announcing the death and mourning
of President Franklin D.
Roosevelt in April 1945. "Copy of the order, to be printed on a
black-bordered page 5 7/8 x 9,
was received at the Government Printing Office at 11:30 a.m.,
April 13. Type was set, proof
submitted, and okayed proofs returned by the department at 12:35
p.m. In less than an hour 64
plates were processed in the foundry; the first 16 of these were
imposed on the press by 1:40
p.m., and all by 2:35 p.m. Four presses were used for the run.
At 2:10 p.m. the first lot reached
the bindery, where they were drilled with 3 holes and tied in
packages of 500, and at 2:30 p.m.
1,000 copies were delivered to the department. Successive
deliveries were made during the next
three hours: 20,000 at 3:30 p.m., 70,000 at 4:30 p.m., and the
remaining 134,000 at 5:30 p.m. The
order required 1,010 pounds of paper and made 450 packages,
filling 25 cartons. The entire
quantity of 225,000 copies was printed and delivered within 5
hours."

A unique partnership of public and private printers helped
America defeat its enemies.
Workers from the Government Printing Office took part on the home
front and on the
battlefront to bring about a victory. In the Public Printer's
1944 Christmas letter to employees in
the armed services, Gus said: "Don't hesitate to let those with
whom you are associated in the
service know that you are an employee of the Government Printing
Office, as this Office has
established a work record of which you, as an employee, can be
justly proud. Your coworkers
have printed and bound some of the most stupendous jobs in
extremely short time. For fear of
divulging military information I will not mention the names of
any publications, but you in the
field have seen the imprint of the Government Printing Office in
all stages of the fight from the
Training Manuals in camp to the bombing tables used over Berlin
and Tokyo. Look for the
imprint on all of your printed material."

Our people in the service responded with letters of their own
from overseas to the Public
Printer on North Capitol Street. Typical are some of the
following: From John D. Griggs, Rdm
3c., "In my line of work (Radar) I see much material printed at
the Government Printing Office.
It is with pride I inform my shipmates I worked there before
entering the Navy. Though my
period of employment there was short I can sincerely say I
enjoyed every minute of it, and I hope
to be able to return to work there when peace has again come to
our Nation." From T.Sgt.
Charles A. Bohlen, Jr. AC, "Things like your letter and the Xmas
package can do more for
morale than any other thing I know of. It's wonderful the way
the G.P.O. is backing all the
drives, such as the Mile of Dimes, A.R.C., and other
organizations. That whole office is really on
the ball, and always has been as long as I can remember." From
Cpl. Eugene Washington, in
New Guinea, "I received your letter. You don't know how it makes
a fellow feel when he is a
long way from home and someone has not forgotten the boys
overseas. There are some of the
boys in my company who used to be employed at the G.P.O. and they
all thought it was a
wonderful letter. We all miss the Office so very much and hope
some day to come back to our
jobs and loved ones and friends."

Of the 2,495 employees who left the Government Printing Office
to serve in the Armed Forces,
63 gave their lives, and 139 were disabled and received
disability compensation. As servicemen
and women began to return, the Public Printer established the
position of Veterans' Coordinator.
He said of it in his 1947 annual report: "Our object was to
insure a central and definite authority
and source of assistance for veterans, with personalized service
to each of them upon return to
duty; to provide aid to veterans in channeling their problems
through the proper line and staff
divisions of the Office, and to render assistance in matters
calling for contact with the Veterans'
Administration or other Federal agencies... Administration of our
veterans' policy is in the hands
of officials who are themselves veterans and active members of
veterans' organizations...
Administrative and supervisory officials of the Office have been
made familiar with our policy in
order that they may cooperate; and they are cooperating." By
1947, 1,622 veterans of the Second
World War had returned to work at the Government Printing Office.

The Printing Industry of America, Inc., and Joint Committee on
Printing Chairman Senator
Carl Hayden, nominated Public Printer Giegengack to the Medal for
Merit Board, in recognition
of service rendered during the Second World War. The award was
made by President Harry S.
Truman on June 24, 1947. The citation read: "The President of
the United States of America
awards this Certificate of Merit to Augustus Edward Giegengack
for outstanding fidelity and
meritorious conduct in aid of the war effort against the common
enemies of the United States
and its Allies in World War II." To this, the Public Printer
responded: "Although this certificate
carries my name as the recipient of the award, I feel that I
merely hold it in custody for the 7,000
employees of the Government Printing Office, and I am proud to
accept it in their behalf. Their
efforts made the award possible. It was they who made up the
task force which accomplished the
objective. Their share in the honor is greater than mine and my
chief satisfaction today is that I
have received this recognition as their representative."

The Public Printer observed a shift in printing press technology
growing out of the war years.
In December 1945 he noted: "The progress made in the quality of
offset printing which resulted
during the war because of the urgent need for overnight
production of many wartime jobs, has
been so marked that the further growth of this method of
production appears inevitable. Many
of the overnight and otherwise rush war requests for printing
could not have been met had not
the offset method been employed. Offset printing demands have
far exceeded the capacities of
the Office despite the addition of several new presses to our
equipment ... Printing by the offset
process has enabled the Government Printing Office to make
quicker deliveries of rush jobs and,
at the same time, has resulted in savings in man-hours as well as
reducing the cost of jobs to the
departments and agencies. Consequently, continued increase in
printing by the offset method is
desirable." The immediate postwar years witnessed ongoing
research and development of offset
printing at the Government Printing Office.

On March 9, 1948, the Public Printer sent his letter of
resignation to President Truman. He
explained: "I take this action because my duty to my family
demands that I increase my income
substantially above the salary fixed by Congress under a law
passed 20 years ago... The
Government Printing Office is a great organization and is doing a
real job for the taxpayer. I
leave it with reluctance and with sincere thanks to you for the
opportunity you have given me to
be of service and for your cooperation and support." The
President replied the same day with a
letter that began, "Dear Gus," and accepted the resignation
effective March 9, 1948. He pointed
out: "You have held the position longer than any other Public
Printer. I know that in the future
you will be able to view with a great deal of personal
satisfaction your career in the public
service. From my own experience in the Senate as a Member of the
Committee on Printing and
as Chairman of the Special Committee to Investigate the National
Defense Program, I am well
aware of the confidence the members had in you as a loyal,
efficient public servant who had the
respect and support of the Committees and of the entire printing
industry."

So ended an era which saw America move from national to
international concerns, and the
Government Printing Office begin to shift from hot metal to
offset printing. Public Printer
Giegengack and the workers who had helped end the "Great
Depression" and helped to win the
Second World War had met the test of "The Years of Challenge" and
entered "The Atomic Age."

The Atomic Age

The nineth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

The men who led the Government Printing Office into the "atomic
age" were four vigorous
Public Printers: John J. Deviny, a Washingtonian; Raymond
Blattenberger, a Philadelphian;
James L. Harrison, born in Greer, SC; and Adolphus N. Spence II,
a native of Alexandria, VA.

In 1948, President Harry S. Truman appointed Public Printer
Deviny on March 15. He was
confirmed by the Senate on April 30, and sworn in by DC Municipal
Court of Appeals judge
Andrew M. Hood on May 6 in the Public Printer's office.

Born June 19, 1882, the future Public Printer lived in the
neighborhood of the Government
Printing Office and was a graduate of nearby Gonzaga High School.
He also graduated from
Josephinum College in Columbus, OH, and later from the Washington
College of Law in the
Nation's Capital. His work career began at the Bureau of
Engraving as an apprentice
platemaker. There he spent his journeyman years and rose to
Production Manager during World
War I. In 1925, he left to become Director of Research and
Publicity for the Miller Saw
Trimmer Company of Pittsburgh, PA. During the Roosevelt years,
he served as National Code
Director for the Relief Printing Industry, and as judicial member
of the Appeals Council for the
Social Security Board's Bureau of Old Age Insurance. Early in
his career, in 1919, he was
cofounder of the Craftsmen's Movement, and served two terms as
President of the International
Association of Printing House Craftsmen. Well-versed in law, he
was a member of the Bar of
the Supreme Court and the DC Court of Appeals.

After his swearing in before the assembled members of the Joint
Committee on Printing,
officers of local and international unions, representatives of
printing trade groups, and others, he
observed: "I hope and expect to carry on the very successful
policies and methods developed by
my distinguished predecessor. It shall be my aim to continue the
production of public printing
and binding in the most efficient, expeditious, and economical
manner and to adopt new and
improved methods as they can be developed. In this endeavor I
shall need the full cooperation
of the GPO's 6,500 loyal and competent employees. Since they
have never failed in this before I
have every reason for believing that I shall have such
cooperation now."

John J. Deviny already had 7 years of experience as Deputy
Public Printer when he was chosen
to succeed Augustus E. Giegengack in 1948. With great
understanding he pursued policies and
procedures that were well-established. This meant that he
regularly met with the Joint
Committee on Printing to review the purchase of quantities of
paper. It also meant that he met
with trade union representatives during periods of wage
negotiations. Very successfully he
carried on the day-to-day operations of Public Printer. When he
finally retired on February 28,
1953, at the age of 70, it was with 41 years of Government
service. Reflecting on his youthful
beginnings as a platemaker, he remarked: "Back in my apprentice
days, I would have traded my
chance of becoming Public Printer for 10 cents."

The Korean War occurred during his term and with it an upsurge
of Defense printing. Related
to this was a concern with civil defense which touched the lives
of employees. The Production
Manager reported in 1953: "Civil Defense shelter areas have been
marked off in the four central
buildings and the day force joined in a city-wide Government
buildings alert on December 12,
1952. All employees reached shelter without incident in less
than 5 minutes, the goal set by
Federal Civil Defense. Night employees have all been led to the
shelter areas provided for them
and will participate in the next city-wide alert."

The ongoing concern with safety was reflected in the report of
the Superintendent of Binding
for 1953: "I am happy to report that the lost time accidents in
the Bindery for the year just ended
shows a decrease of nineteen percent. We will make every effort
to show a greater decrease in
accidents with an eye to their complete elimination in the coming
year. The Bindery uses many
potentially dangerous machines. We must be ever vigilant and
alert, we must constantly check
our machinery for new safety devices, and we must be sure that
all safety features and rules are
followed to the letter. Supervisors have been cautioned to see
that their Sections follow safety
regulations." The Medical Director observed some preventive
measures: "The health service for
the Office of Civil Defense Program is now in progress.
Approximately 50 people on the day
shift have been trained in first-aid. Classes for the night
shifts will commence in the fall and a
number of employees will also be trained in light rescue work by
the Federal Civil Defense
Administration."

Other tasks went along as usual. There were improvements, as
the Foreman of the Main Press
Section observed in 1953: "The new and modern lighting system in
use in Main Press for the last
six months has proven very satisfactory, especially on the night
shifts, as the system enables the
pressmen and supervisors to see the work clearly without shadows,
having also tendency to help
produce a better grade of printing with less eye strain. There
were also visitors, as the Foreman
of the Main Press Section noted that same year: "In the past
fiscal year, we have had several
visitors from abroad and also from our own country connected with
the art of printing. In each
instance, we were pleased with their remarks as to production,
quality of work, cleanliness of our
pressroom, and the orderly manner in which our method of
procedure is handled."

One of the more lasting contributions of the Deviny years was
the addition of three Cottrell
presses. In 1953, the Production Manager expressed his pleasure
with the result: "In 1949 when
authority for the purchase of 3 new presses for the production of
the Congressional Record was
requested by the Public Printer from the Joint Committee on
Printing certain economics in
production were anticipated. Our experience with these machines
to date indicates that the
savings over the years will greatly exceed original estimates.
This is made possible by the savings
on income-tax printing which alone is exceeding our original
yearly estimate of economics." But
if the Deviny years were undramatic in their pattern of gradual
improvements, there was
excitement on the horizon.

Occasionally, a new Public Printer takes office amid winds of
change. Public Printer
Blattenberger was swept into the Government Printing Office
during a raging storm. To his
great credit, he rode it out and guided the Office into more
peaceful waters.

The fall of 1952 had witnessed the first Presidential election
in two decades which brought a
Republican into the White House: former Supreme Commander of the
Allied Expeditionary
Force in Western Europe, General Dwight D. Eisenhower. The new
President looked for
successful men in the business community to direct Government
agencies. He found one in
Raymond Blattenberger. Born in Philadelphia on January 19, 1892,
he had begun working as a
press feeder at the age of 14. In 1917 he joined the Edward
Stern Printing Company, of that
city, and rose to become executive vice-president. He was also a
founder of the Printing Industry
of America, Inc.

No sooner had Public Printer Blattenberger gone on the payroll
April 28, 1953, than his phone
started ringing. Surely he would want to fire a lot of people
and appoint the caller, or the
caller's son, or friend, or brother, to a fine job with the
Government Printing Office? The new
Public Printer chose not to be hasty. Although his Deputy Public
Printer, Philip L. Cole,
happened to be a Democrat, and even though a very prominent
Republican Senator from
Indiana had a friend who wanted Mr. Cole's position, the Public
Printer showed he had a mind
of his own.

He told a reporter on August 8, 1953: "They don't like me
because I won't take out certain key
people. But what I'm trying to do is cut costs, to run an
efficient shop as economically as
possible. That's what I understood I was to do when the
President appointed me. I didn't seek
the job and I didn't want it. Now that I've got it, I'm going to
concentrate first on saving money.
When I came into this shop I had to have someone who knew
something about it. Mr. Cole has
made a career of the GPO. He's been here almost 30 years and is
eligible for retirement in
September."

Needless to say, this did not endear the Public Printer to the
Senator from Indiana, who
happened to be Chairman of the Senate Rules Committee which had
recommended his
confirmation. Nor did the appointment of his Superintendent of
Documents, Roy B. Eastin, Jr.,
to the position of Executive Assistant to the Public Printer, win
friends, except at the
Government Printing Office. Rumors flew that Mr. Eastin was the
nephew of former
Democratic Vice President Alben W. Barkley, and a Democrat to
boot. Mr. Eastin told the
same reporter: "I am not a relative of Mr. Barkley. I am not a
Democrat. I have never attended
a Democratic meeting. If anyone says I'm a Democrat, I'll sue."

The Public Printer stuck to his guns-and to a long-standing GPO
tradition that says Public
Printers have a "Big Shop" to look after, and not a political
plum tree to shake. It was not
surprising, however, that by so doing Public Printer
Blattenberger made some powerful enemies.
It was not long before a very well-publicized Wisconsin Senator
was directing his attention to the
Government Printing Office.

This turn of events began on August 10, 1953, in a closed-door
session of the Government
Operations subcommittee which questioned ten witnesses. The
subcommittee was down to two,
some being out of town, and three Democrats having resigned in
protest of the methods of
Chairman Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (Republican-Wisconsin). With
his colleague, Senator
Everett M. Dirksen (Republican-Illinois), a bookbinder's
political beliefs were questioned. The
bookbinder had brought his own attorney and answered all
questions.

Later, Public Printer Blattenberger and Deputy Public Printer
Cole were called in for
questioning. Senator Dirksen commented to a reporter on this:
"We are now quite certain that a
substantial amount of confidential and secret and top secret work
has been processed and
published in the main Government Printing Office. We spent the
whole time exploring the
possibility of any persons so inclined of purloining a secret
document and transmitting it to hands
where they should not be." The reporter asked of both Senators
if there was any evidence that
any documents had actually been improperly removed? "I can't
answer that," replied Senator
McCarthy. "It is the wrong time to ask," echoed Senator Dirksen.

Shortly thereafter, on October 5, 1953, the Public Printer
touched on these events as he
addressed a convention of the Printing Industry of America: "I
have been on this job as Public
Printer just about five months, and in many ways it seems more
than five years. In fact, it seems
so long that I have difficulty remembering those happy carefree
days when I attended meetings
such as this as the representative of a private printing firm.
At that time, I thought there were
many problems facing my firm, myself, and the printing industry,
but now I look upon those days
as the 'good old days.'

"As you know, I have been busy, among other things, in placing
the Government Printing Office
under tight security regulations and checking into the
backgrounds of the employees in search of
possible Communists and other security risks. I want to say
right here and now that my
experience has been that the vast majority of Government
employees are loyal, hardworking
citizens who, as a group, are greatly abused. It is indeed
unfortunate that the great body of our
public servants must suffer because of the actions of a tiny
minority.

"I must confess that my respect for the Government employee has
greatly increased in the last
five months. The Government has done a great deal in the way of
training its own key people,
and in my estimation, it will need to do even more in this
direction in the future. The
Government lags far behind industry in the payment of salaries to
key supervisors and officials,
and with conditions as they are, it will soon be virtually
impossible to get people in private life to
give up their private jobs to come to Washington to work for the
Government."

The Public Printer had ample opportunity to work with people at
the Government Printing
Office and on Capitol Hill. Together, they were able to achieve
through modernization a 5
percent reduction in the cost of printing--the first such in 20
years. That was in 1954. The
following year there was added good news: "Increases have been
given to all craftsmen and a 7 1/2 percent upward adjustment has been made in the salary of all
administrative employees." At the
end of his term in 1961, Public Printer Blattenberger and his
team of administrators had been
able to return $13 million dollars to the United States Treasury.
A revolving fund had been
established and a business-type budget made a part of the fabric
of the Government Printing
Office. Offset and letterpress divisions had been reorganized,
and faster, more efficient
equipment installed. Having come into office with winds of
change, and noting the election of
President John F. Kennedy, the Public Printer raised his sail and
resigned on January 20, 1961.
At a Harding Hall Testimonial Dinner on February 8, 1961, he was
given a fond farewell.

During 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Public Printer
Harrison on March 15. He
was confirmed by the Senate on the next day; and he was sworn in
on March 17, Saint Patrick's
Day.

Born June 3, 1906, the Public Printer passed his youth in Greer,
SC, and Gastonia, NC. His
father was supervisor in a textile factory. Majoring in
journalism, young Harrison had as his
hobbies both photography and printing. When he came to
Washington, DC, at the age of 22, his
first work was as a draftsman at Fort Belvoir. Later, he started
as a clerk with a grocery chain
and soon became a manager. In the 1930's, he worked for the
Census Bureau as a mapmaker,
then as supervisor for the agricultural census. In 1938, he was
a Monopoly Investigator for the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. During the Second World
War he served with the
Office of Price Administration. His experience as a Government
administrator was brought to
the attention of Senator Carl Hayden who was looking for a new
staff director for the Joint
Committee on Printing. In 1949, Harrison was chosen and served
for 12 years in that capacity
before being appointed to be Public Printer of the United States.

James L. Harrison brought with him a dozen years of invaluable
experience with the Joint
Committee on Printing. He had known the two previous Public
Printers quite well and was
acquainted with many of the problems relating to the Government
Printing Office which had
been discussed in Committee meetings. He had a good sense of
where the Government Printing
Office was going, as well as where the Committee wanted it to go.
To this knowledge, he was
soon to add insight of his own.

Ongoing modernization of printing equipment and procedures runs
like a theme through the
history of the Office. Not surprisingly, Public Printer Harrison
carried this forward with the
installation in 1967 of the Linotron system. It produced page
photocomposition at high speed
under control of a magnetic tape which was computer generated.
Exposed film pages were
treated in an automatic film processor which used chemicals to
reverse the image into a film
negative suitable for offset platemaking. It was the heart of a
system of keyboards, photo units,
input and output converters, which was placed in production on
October 2, 1967, and later
augmented.

Such technical modernization coupled with internal
reorganizations helped the Public Printer to
raise the volume of annual business from $97 million when he
began his term, to over $203
million when he ended it. His accomplishments were recognized
widely and he was the recipient
of awards. In 1962, the White House called upon him to carry
greetings from President Kennedy
to the Second Asian Printers' Conference held in Kyoto, Japan.
During 1965 and 1968, he
carried President Johnson's greetings to the Third Asian
Printers' Conference held in Manila,
Philippine Republic, and to the Fourth Asian Printers' Conference
held in Taipei, Taiwan. In a
tribute to his abilities, one writer said of him in 1970: "He has
deliberately fashioned channels of
communication directly into his office--channels available to
every employee. Never in the
history of the GPO has the agency head been so accessible."

It was his concern for modernization that led Public Printer
Harrison to seriously consider a
new site and modern structure for the Government Printing Office.
With support from the Joint
Committee on Printing, an area of Bolling Air Force Base in
Anacostia was inspected-but the Air
Force decided not to relinquish the property. Next, on March 2,
1966. joint Committee
Chairman Carl Hayden authorized $2 1/2 million to be available from
the General Services
Administration "for necessary expenses, for site selection and
general plans and designs of
buildings for the Government Printing Office, pursuant to the
Public Building Act of 1959."
Committee members present voted 4 to 1 and "approved the proposal
of the Public Printer that a
portion of the National Training School property be used as a
relocation site for the Government
Printing Office." This, too, became unavailable. A third site
was then considered, some 82 acres
of Penn Central Railroad land off the Beltway at the John Hansen
Highway. When land values
suddenly rose, that possibility also vanished. The final site
considered was located between T
Street and Rhode Island Avenue, NE, adjacent to what is now the
Rhode Island Avenue Metro
Stop.

The Public Printer spelled out his reasoning for the move in a
letter to District of Columbia
Commissioner Walter E. Washington:

"Our output consists of finished printing, blank paper, scrap
paper, documents, and the usual
waste materials. Recently we surveyed truck traffic here and
learned that in excess of 200 trucks
were handled in a 24-hour period--chiefly during peak traffic
periods. Conducting such an
activity in the heart of a crowded urban location is
inconvenient, costly, and difficult.

"But this is only a minor part of our problem. Only half of the
18 to 20 freight carloads of
paper can be accommodated at our warehouse across North Capitol
Street from the main
building.
The Washington Terminal track elevation is at our third floor
level. Here skids of paper are
offloaded and dropped to interim storage locations by elevator.
When ready for use, they are
again elevator-dropped to the sub-basement of this warehouse,
power-trucked through a tunnel
under North Capitol Street and again raised by elevator as many
as six floors to production
areas.

"The other half of our rail paper receipts must be taken 17
miles away in Franconia, Virginia,
where warehouse space is rented from General Services
Administration. After being unloaded
and temporarily warehoused there, the paper is reshipped by
contract motor carrier in order to
place it in the Government Printing Office proper where it, too,
is yo-yoed until it arrives at the
floor level where it is needed.

"Our paper inventory averaged from 50 to 60 million pounds last
year. Obviously, repeated
handling and rehandling this enormous amount of paper causes a
great deal of unnecessary
expense."

Despite the many reasons for it, opposition to the proposed move
mounted. District of
Columbia officials saw a possible loss of jobs. Many employees
set in their ways were reluctant
to see a change. Columbia Typographical Union No. 101 went on
record against the move.
Suddenly, the Public Printer announced that he intended to retire
in March 1970, and would
leave the matter to his successor. Somewhat wearily, he told the
members of the Joint
Committee on Printing that "the Government Printing Office was a
manufacturing concern and
he was not envious of the man who would be selected."

On February 18, 1970, President Richard M. Nixon appointed
Public Printer Spence. He was
confirmed on March 13 and liked to recall that he was sworn in on
April 1, "April Fool's Day."

Born November 24, 1916, Spence worked during his teens as an
apprentice in a small print
shop. He was journeyman at age 18 and went on to work in a wide
variety of commercial and
governmental printing and binding operations. During 1942, he
was commissioned in the Navy
and served 2 years with Admiral Halsey as his Photo Intelligence
Officer in the South Pacific.
He was awarded the Bronze Star with Combat V, the Navy Unit
Commendation, and the World
War II Victory Medal. The years 1945-46 found him
Officer-in-Charge of establishing and
operating the Naval School of Printers and Lithographers.
Afterwards, he worked with the
Department of the Navy in organizing a central service to manage
its publications and printing
program. He shaped this into the Navy Publications and Printing
Service with 36 offices
worldwide. He was then asked to consolidate printing services
for the Defense Department,
where he implemented a uniform scale of prices for in-house
production, a standard system of
cost accounting, and production control. He became a recognized
authority on modern printing
management and graphic communications techniques before being
chosen as Public Printer.

Public Printer Spence wasted no time in addressing what had
become a newsworthy issue. His
first press release of April 1, 1970, spoke of establishing
"immediately an Office of Congressional
and Community Affairs," which he said would be responsive to
Congress, the local community,
and the press. He went on to say that the Joint Committee on
Printing had recently conducted
an extensive Federal Printing Study. "Out of this has come a
major decision to place the impetus
in Government on the commercial procurement of printing... So.
before I make any decision on
new or improved facilities, I feel that we must determine what
effect increasing the percentage of
printing done commercially will have on GPO's operations." In a
second press release, on April
3, 1970, he added, "Before any change is made in the location, or
the size, and in fact, of the
concept of this office, I am arranging that a study be made
jointly by the Industry and
Government, of the requirements of this office."

The next problem the Public Printer addressed was a thorny one.
During the weeks preceding
his being sworn in, a major shift had occurred in labor
relations. As the 1970 Annual Report put
it: "The point at contention was revision of the formula used for
nearly 23 years to determine
craft wages. Activism took the form of composing craftsmen
refusing overtime work at the
outset. As steps were taken by the Office to buy composition
from commercial sources in order
to meet Congressional requirements, a full-scale 'sick-out' among
compositors developed. Pickets
and sympathizers appeared at GPO's entrances. The incidents were
brought to an early end after
a personal appeal by the Public Printer who pledged a complete
review of the existing wage
formula." One observer of these dramatic events vividly recalled
the throngs of marching workers
carrying informational signs to the Capitol steps, and returning
for a mass meeting which filled to
overflowing the basement of nearby Saint Aloysius Church. There,
like a scene out of Frank
Capra's film, "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington," a small balding man
entered the basement, waded
through the crowd, and spoke to the workers. He told them he was
their new Public Printer,
Nick Spence, and he would appreciate it if they would give him a
hearing. Quiet descended. He
told them he knew they were angry, perhaps rightfully so. But,
he was new on the job as Public
Printer and would like them to give him an opportunity to bring
to their concerns his fullest
consideration. Now, would they join their Public Printer in
walking back over North Capitol
Street to the Government Printing Office and helping to get out
the Congressional Record? A
roar of cheers went up and the compositors and their coworkers,
every one. escorted "their"
Public Printer back into the Office.

Almost at once the new Public Printer set about restructuring
the internal management
organization of the Government Printing Office. As he did so,
and positions became available,
he recruited from Naval printing colleagues who brought an
enthusiastic perspective to getting
tasks accomplished. On December 15, 1970, he announced a major
reorganization which was to
have lasting effects. It involved the appointment of two
Assistant Public Printers, for Operations
and for Management/Administration, with a regrouping of functions
in a chain of command
structure. It also involved having the following report directly
to the Public Printer: the Special
Assistant for Systems Analysis, the General Counsel, the
Assistant for Community Affairs, the
Director of Equal Employment Opportunity, and the Director of
Audits. Considerable
reorganization took place in almost all other areas. The central
purpose was that "Changes were
made to bring into usage modern managerial and systems approaches
and to bring related
activities under common supervision." This was to prove to be a
far-reaching contribution of the
Public Printer.

On June 8, 1970, speaking before the 84th annual convention of
the Printing Industries of
America, Public Printer Spence announced the make-up of the new
Government-Industry Study
Group. It consisted of eight well-known printing industry people
and four representatives from
Government. The group's charge was twofold: (1) "To determine
what production now done at
the GPO is susceptible to commercial procurement;" and (2) "to
align the GPO equipment,
production methods, and physical plant to do best that work which
must be done in-house." The
outcome of this effort was a report of March 15, 1972, entitled:
"Report to the Public Printer by
the Joint Government-Industry Study Group." Some 41
recommendations were made covering
eight key areas: (1) Space; (2) Equipment; (3) Materials
Handling; (4) Procurement-General; (5)
Procurement-Specific Items; (6) Procedures; (7) Organization &
Training; (8) Public Documents
Department. This report was also to have a far-reaching effect
as a point of departure for future
plans and developments.

Tragically, the sudden and unexpected death of Public Printer
Spence on January 11, 1972, did
not allow him opportunity to guide his many far-sighted efforts
to their fullest realization. But,
as one writer wisely observed in the 1972 annual report: "Having
served less than two years as
head of this agency, Mr. Spence had made his professionalism and
personality felt in every
operation of the Government Printing Office. He brought a new
management style to the
Government Printing Office and while he fell before many of the
programs he had instituted
reached fruition, his redefinition of management and production
objectives will serve the
Government Printing Office well in the years ahead."

Between 1948 and 1972, many changes had taken place in the
Government Printing Office.
One, which began in a small way with a new type of machine which
itself kept changing, was to
give its name to the coming era, "The Computer Age."

The Computer Age

The tenth in a series of articles
commemorating GPO's
125th Anniversary, by Daniel R. MacGilvray.

The two men who guided the Government Printing Office into "the
computer age" and new
technologies were concerned Public Printers of Irish background:
Thomas F. McCormick, from
Massachusetts; and John J. Boyle, from Pennsylvania. Because
Public Printer McCormick quickly
chose his Production Manager, John J. Boyle, to be Deputy Public
Printer, both were to work
together to bring technological change into the Government
Printing Office.

It was on January 16, 1973, during the trial of the Watergate
defendants, that President Richard
M. Nixon appointed Public Printer McCormick. The Senate
Committee on Rules and
Administration held its hearing on the nominee January 31. He
was then confirmed by the
Senate on February 8; and he was sworn in at the Government
Printing Office March 1, 1973.

Thomas Francis McCormick was born February 20, 1929, in Gardner,
MA. He attended
schools in his hometown, and went on to Worcester, MA, where he
graduated from Holy Cross
College with a B.S. "cum laude" in business administration.
Following this, he served as a
commissioned officer in the U.S. Navy from June 1950 to July
1953. While there, he graduated
from Naval Intelligence School and served as Division Officer,
Deck Watch Officer, Air
Controller on an escort carrier, and Intelligence Officer of a
Tactical Air Control Squadron.
Released as a lieutenant (jg.), he began his business career with
the General Electric Company as
a Financial Management Trainee. He served in a wide variety of
corporate positions and, in
December 1967, was appointed General Manager of the Maqua
Company, a 400-employee, $6.5
million dollar printing firm owned by General Electric. Two
facets of his business experience
were especially noted during the hearing on his nomination:
"Expansion of a training and
development program for personnel from minority groups leading to
the development of
journeymen status personnel and improvement in the minority
employment percentage;" as well
as his being deeply involved "in the fields of computer and
electronic technology, both of which
are currently bringing about many changes in the printing
industry."

Problems were in the air even as Public Printer McCormick
approached his confirmation. At
the hearing, Committee Chairman Howard W. Cannon of Nevada
observed, "I have received a
letter from Senator Javits on this matter, and it contains a lot
of complaints that have been filed
with him, letters of complaint against the Government Printing
Office, so if Mr. McCormick is
confirmed as the Public Printer, I shall send these over to him,
and let him respond to them, and
see if he can correct whatever conditions brought about those
complaints." Some of the
problems were mentioned to Senator Cannon in a letter from the
President of the Special
Libraries Association: "The Association's Government Information
Service Committee reports
that complaints have been received from individual members across
the country regarding GPO
delays and errors in handling orders, claims and credits,
subscription problems, recent material
being out of print, quality of indexing in the Monthly
Catalog,
and the availability of depository
libraries as well as bookstore services." As if this were not
enough to warn away a nominee from
the post Senator Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. of Connecticut described
as "a very difficult job, and a
thankless one," another critic was heard. The Executive Director
of the Information Industry
Association went on record regarding involvement with the new
space-saving technology of
microforms: "We feel that microform technology has a great deal
to offer the government in the
dissemination of government information. We encourage the Public
Printer to begin
experimenting with applications appropriate to specific areas of
government materials. But we
do not believe the Government Printing Office should
microrepublish anything it has already
published in paper, nor do we believe it should republish in
paper anything it has already
published on film." These, and other problems would be addressed
by the Public Printer and the
employees of the Government Printing Office in days to come.

The "computer revolution" at the Government Printing Office was
already underway when
Public Printer McCormick took the helm in 1973. Indeed, the
first annual report to mention
"electronic printing" had been published 10 years earlier and
noted: "On March 11, 1963, two
Linofilm keyboards and a photo unit were placed in experimental
production. Seven operators
were placed in training in maintenance at the factory. Some
480,000 ems of composition were
keyboarded and processed on the photo unit by the end of the
fiscal year." Behind this simple
statement lay a model agreement between labor and management for
the retraining of hot metal
workers in the new technology without loss of status or salary.

By 1973 the Linotron system, installed in 1967, was rolling on.
A superintendent of the
Electronic Photocomposition Division singled out a particularly
outstanding job: "Linotron
photocomposition for the U.S. Patent Office totaled 299,135 pages
for fiscal year 1973. This
total includes 280,299 pages of Patent Specifications,
16,086
pages of Official Gazette, and 2,750
pages for the Annual Index of Patents. An average
production of
5,700 pages per week or 1,140
pages per day was required to accomplish this workload."

Meanwhile, in 1973, the new Data Systems Service, which had
pioneered a decade earlier in
computer applications as a part of Finance and Accounts,
announced that it had processed 61,316
computer jobs, had completed 120 new computer programs and had
275 more in process, along
with many other computer related tasks. Its workforce numbered
142, including 28 computer
programmers.

Later, when the Public Printer was succeeded by his Deputy on
November 1, 1977, the total
conversion of the daily Federal Register from hot metal to
photocomposition was taking place.
On January 9, 1978, the first issue entirely printed from
photocomposed text was produced. At
about the same time, the entire text of the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR), approximately
70,500 pages in 141 volumes, was converted to an electronic data
base. Besides these milestones,
another was noted: "The Linofilm machines were removed from
service after 15 years of
productive use, having been made excess to our needs by the
acquisition of more advanced
equipment." This was reported by the then Superintendent,
Electronic Photocomposition
Division, Joseph E. Jenifer. New technology was being replaced
by still newer technology.

Another "revolution" had been slowly taking place at the
Government Printing Office. It
involved the upward mobility of men and women of differing ethnic
backgrounds, and some with
physical handicaps. This social change was accelerated during
the administration of President
Lyndon B. Johnson who felt the Federal Government was not moving
quickly enough. His policy
was reaffirmed on August 8, 1969, by President Richard M. Nixon
who signed into law Executive
order No. 11478 which outlined areas of responsibility for
affirmative action to achieve equal
employment opportunity. The Government Printing Office already
had a "Plan of Action" which
it now revised to "insure equal opportunity in employment to all
qualified persons; to prohibit
discrimination in employment because of race, color, religion,
sex, or national origin; and to
promote full utilization of work force. The 'Plan of Action'
establishes and implements
procedures for recruitment, maximum utilization, training,
promotion, and supervisory
performance which will help make a reality of this policy."

An outgrowth of this effort was the appointment of the first
Equal Opportunity Officer and the
beginning of EEO counseling services. Shortly thereafter, in
1971, the first Federal Women's
Program Coordinator was appointed; and in 1973 a Spanish Program
Coordinator also became a
part of EEO. Many special employee educational programs were
sponsored by EEO to help
implement the "Plan of Action' and to convey awareness of
opportunities for upward mobility at
the Government Printing Office. Good community relations were
also a part of EEO's mission.
A memorable manifestation of this took place in 1973 when the EEO
staff took part for the first
time in a joint effort with the GPO Cafeteria, Recreation, and
Welfare Association to sponsor "A
Community Children's Day" for some 350 local children. This was
to become a traditional part
of GPO's annual Christmas Program.

Public Printer McCormick lost no time in addressing the problem
areas cited at his hearing by
Senators Cannon and Weicker, Jr. For the most part, these fell
under the management of the
Assistant Public Printer (Superintendent of Documents). They
involved the Depository Library
Program and the Documents Sales Service. The heart of the matter
was a lack of modernization
in the face of an increasing demand for services.

For a starter, the appropriation of funds for Documents which in
fiscal year 1972 had been
$14,829,900 was boosted in 1973 to $29,762,000. The number of
full-time employees went from
700 in 1972 to 1,247 in 1973. Review of the proposal to sell and
distribute publications in
microform was begun. An "office-excellence" program was started
which involved renovation and
new furnishings. Bookstore site selection criteria were
developed and new fixtures secured.
Design studies were undertaken aimed at an automated order
processing system. Steps were
taken to automate production of the Monthly Catalog.
Data
Systems Service joined in support
of these efforts and brought the computer to bear in the creation
of a Publications Reference
File on-line and in microfiche. Stenciled mail lists were
automated. The Depository Library
Council to the Public Printer, consisting of 15 documents
librarians, was formalized. This was
done "in response to the need for contributions from the library
community in the effective
implementation of the Depository Library Program, and the need
for a consulting source on such
subjects as micropublishing and legislation." The capstone was a
Systems Task Force established
by the Public Printer "to promote a total, integrated, automated
administrative/operational system
capable of handling incoming mail, order taking, order
processing, order dispatching, subscription
services, deposit accounting, bookstore operations and sales
analysis, along with their related
financial activities and inventory data and controls."

To further implement these and other changes, on July 20, 1975,
Public Printer McCormick
appointed his Director of Materials Management, Carl A. LaBarre,
as the new Superintendent of
Documents. A retired Navy captain, with a "can do" reputation,
the new Superintendent brought
a wealth of experience in managing large, complicated activities.

Another key appointment by the Public Printer was his prompt
selection of a new Deputy
Public Printer. On July 24, 1973, he chose John Joseph Boyle, a
native of Honesdale, PA, where
he had been born January 25, 1919. As a young man he had worked
in a job shop and on a rural
weekly newspaper. During World War II he served in the U.S.
Army's First Armored Division in
the North African Campaign. He was captured in North Africa and
spent 2 1/2 years in German
prison camps. Following the war, he worked in the composing room
of a city daily and in a large
printing plant. His GPO career began in 1952 as Proofreader. He
was then 33 years old. From
there he was chosen as Technical Assistant to the Superintendent
of Composition. He gained
valuable experience as the Production Manager's representative on
the Scheduling Committee
where he obtained a broad picture of the production capabilities
of the Government Printing
Office. He became Superintendent of Photocomposition Division.
He was next made Deputy
Production Manager and then Production Manager with total
responsibility for management of
production operations. It was at this point in his 21-year GPO
career of ever widening
experience that he was chosen for the Office's number two
position.

During the McCormick years, not only were problems being
addressed but employees noticed
many visible changes. Congestion in the main buildings was
relieved by leasing space elsewhere.
In 1974, the Library, Depository Distribution, and Statutory
Stock Distribution Divisions were
moved to Alexandria, VA. The following year, the 4th and 5th
floors of Union Center Plaza
were leased and occupied by Documents Sales, Documents Support,
and Data Systems Divisions,
along with the Superintendent of Documents. Sales documents
storage was moved to a 180,000
square foot warehouse in Laurel, MD that same year. The Systems
Task Force achieved the
consolidation of mail operations from 13 different locations in
1974 to one modern facility on the
ground floor of Building 1. And the passing of an era was noted
in 1977 when the oldest press in
the Government Printing Office, "GPO No, 1," was retired. It was
a web press purchased in 1897
from R. Hoe and Company for $15,940 and had been in continuous
use until 1974. Fortunately,
it found a home in Fairfield, NJ at the Horowitz Museum of
Bookbinding and Graphic Arts.

One of the smoothest transitions in GPO's history took place
following the election of President
James E. Carter. On September 28, 1977, the President announced
accepting Public Printer
McCormick's resignation and his nomination of John J. Boyle as
Public Printer. A hearing was
held October 19 and 26, and on October 27 the Senate confirmed
the new Public Printer. Mr.
McCormick noted that he had resigned "to accommodate the
transition to the new
administration." He also said, "I encouraged Jack Boyle to become
an active candidate for the
job, and I am pleased that he is President Carter's choice to
become the 17th Public Printer of
the United States. I am very proud of the accomplishments of the
Government Printing Office
during the past four years, and it is with great sadness that I
leave the fine people of the Office."
On November 1, 1977, Public Printer Boyle was sworn in by a GPO
employee, the Reverend
Floyd H. Gayles, of Personnel Service.

At his hearing, the future Public Printer shared some of his
concerns: "I plan to devote a major
portion of my management effort to reducing the cost of Federal
printing by applying new
technologies and increasing the productivity through better work
methods, better tools, better
training, and decreased administrative costs. I will continue to
make the Government Printing
Office a leader in the use of new technologies.

"I will strive for resolving the labor problems and improving
the working conditions for all
employees by improving our communications and dispelling fears of
being out of a job because of
technological improvements.

"We presently have an affirmative action plan for improving the
promotional opportunities of
our minority employees and women which I support and will strive
to improve. The GPO has
made many advances in the improvement of the position of
minorities and women as well as our
handicapped employees, but work remains to be done and we will
not rest on past performance.

"The Depository Library Program has been improved considerably
in recent years, and I believe
in complete support of this program because of its importance to
the Government and the public
in the dissemination of information."

One besetting question of new technology with which the Public
Printer grappled amid a welter
of conflicting advice concerned the use of microforms in Sales
and in the Depository Library
Program. Logically, this new technology promised savings to
taxpayers and to the Government
Printing Office. The community of Depository Librarians was
quick to perceive this and
advocated microform use through its representatives on the
Depository Library Council to the
Public Printer and through various Government Document Roundtable
groups. To gain further
advice, Public Printer Boyle authorized the formation of the
Public Printer's Council on
Micropublishing, with a membership from public and private
sectors. After listening carefully
and considering all ramifications of the microform question, and
with the backing of the Joint
Committee on Printing, the Public Printer proceeded to utilize
microfiche for Sales and the
Depository Library Program. One result of this was revealed by
Superintendent of Documents
LaBarre in 1979: "During this reporting period there has been a
total of 20,500 documents
converted to microfiche for a total of 5.7 million copies
distributed to Depository Libraries."

During the Boyle years computerization continued. 1977 saw the
construction of new plant
facilities for the Electronic Photocomposition Division. Some
50,000 square feet encompassing
most of the 7th floor of Building 1 was transformed by GPO work
crews. That same year
journeymen from the Composing Room took 13,142 hours of training
programs. The following
year the number of video keyboard operators tripled; and all were
obtained through internal
training classes. An Interactive Page Makeup System was
installed in 1978 which allowed an
operator to arrange text matter in complex page formats on a
video screen. After a page was
completed it was automatically merged with the rest of the text
data for the job. A report in
1979 noted, "The proportion of Congressional work diverted from
metal-type to
photocomposition processes increased sharply during the year.
The bulk of committee hearings
are now being photocomposed, and all Congressional bills have
been converted to electronic
processing."

When Public Printer Boyle chose to retire on February 29, 1980,
a Presidential election was in
prospect. At the Government Printing Office there was a general
feeling of moving into "the
computer age" and of being wisely guided. Jobs might change, but
workers would not be fired
because of new technology. Conditions seemed to be improving
quickly in some areas, too slowly
in other. More employees were hopeful than discouraged. Little
did anyone realize that "a time
of turmoil" was approaching.