Symposium IV

​​What exceptional capabilities are needed for prospering in the 21st century?

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​About the conference

​Keynote speakers>>>​Andreas Demetriou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus​ "Cycles of intellectual development through the life-span: The interplay of mental processing factors with insight and wisdom." ​Jarkko Hautamäki, University of Helsinki, Finland, Centre for Educational Assessment"PISA in the light of theories of adult development - comparing PISA with Piaget and some neo-Piagetian theories."

Presentations

​Concept of change, progress, development and hierarchy in development - some reflections and bits of thought

​Eeva Kallio, University of Jyväskylä

What do we mean by the concepts of change, progress, development and hierarchy? Without doubt in developmental psychology these concepts are the most important ones. We may speak of change over time as a change from some state, phase or stage to another one, the latter being always higher than the previous one. Thus we see development as hierarchical. The three selected concepts –change, progress, and development – are closely related, though there are some differences in meaning between them. In developmental psychology, it is in principle supposed that something qualitatively new will emerge during human life-span (though regression is also possible, but optimal state is progression). With all these terms there is paradoxical thought of something that changes and yet remains the same at the same time. Close to the concepts of change, progress and development are terms “metamorphosis” and “transformation”. Whatever term is used, there is assumption of emergence something qualitatively new, which presuppose, in a value-loaded sense, a change towards something “better”: something that has developed more matured, is normatively more valuable than something that had existed before. In presupposition of something better emerging, we come in the field of hierarchies: some stages or levels are seen more valuable than others. . Hierarchies of this kind are very common in modern developmental psychology. However, it is not new idea. In the intellectual history, concept of hierarchy has been long-standing one, with long historical background. in my presentation, I would like to critically ponder these concepts and their historical and philosophical background. >>>

Stages, Seasons, Stories, Specific life events, Psychometrics and Scans: Five positive adult development paradigms and their links to the social sciences

Oliver Robinson, University of Greenwich

There are a number of recognisable paradigmatic approaches to studying how positive change occurs over the adult lifespan, which can be broadly categorised into five. This talk describes the heritage of each approach, its contemporary proponents, and how each can contribute to the idea and practice of positive development and positive ageing across the social sciences.The first school of theory is stage theory in the neo-Piagetian tradition propounded by the likes of Kohlberg and Commons, which provides an orthogenetic approach to describing age-independent ideal stages through which various streams of development, such as moral, emotional and cognitive development, pass. The second school is the ‘seasons’ approach exemplified by Erikson and Levinson, and more recently Arnett, which describes soft phases of adult life that are pinned to life events and age, and positive development outcomes that are relative to each season. The third approach is the life story approach, exemplified by Dan McAdams and his Foley Centre for the Study of Lives, and by James Birren with his work on guided autobiography. This school explores how change in adult development is retrospectively constructed within personal narratives, and the role that has on enhancing wellbeing and health. The fourth approach is the ‘specific life event’ approach, which focuses on the challenges of major life events and transitions in adult life, such as the transition to parenthood, menopause, or the retirement transition, and how positive outcomes can be maximised through these transitions. The final school is the ‘psychometics and scans’ school, propounded by the likes of Warner Schaie or Lorraine Tyler, which focuses on cognitive ability measured using IQ tests, and brain structure assessed with MRI scans. It indexes quantitative age profiles in cognitive abilities and brain structure, and how these can be positively influenced by interventions such as exercise and diet.

All of these paradigms are complementary, and have an important but different role to play in understand positive adult development and ageing. Historical, contemporary and potential future links between the five paradigms and other social sciences will be described, including links with gerontology, sociology, political science, nursing studies and education. >>>

The generality of development stages and transformations: Comparing meaning-making and logic reasoning

Adult development theories bring to the fore questions regarding their generality in terms of stage structure and change dynamic. Piaget’s development stage theory of logical complexity fulfill “strong” generality criteria such as fixed stage sequentiality on increasing complexity levels and higher stage structures integrating earlier ones. Adult development theories differ in generality claims e.g. regarding their relative emphasize on e.g. cognition, emotion, moral and values. From a neo-Piagetian perspective core generality aspects seem to concern on one hand logical reasoning and on the other hand meaning-making. This raises questions of how these aspects are related to each other in terms of stage structures and transformations.

The aim is to discern generality features in adult stage development by comparing stage structures and stage transformations regarding logical reasoning and meaning-making. This is done by a “thought experiment” regarding the correspondence between Kegan’s constructivist and Common’s behaviorist development stage models, both inspired by Piaget’s theory.

The comparison indicates that generality claims of both models can be argued for without one of them being necessarily subordinated the other one. Both models are interpreted as differing but partly overlapping subject-object structures of coherence as well as involved in transformative thesis-antithesis-synthesis processes. But in spite of their Piagetian roots they have taken different directions concerning a) focusing the study object from “inside” or “outside“ b) using a quantitative or a qualitative data approach and c) conceiving the form in relation to the content in development. Methodological, theoretical and epistemological considerations related to these differences are discussed as well as a need to contextualize adult development in terms of human action and developmental space in contemporary postindustrial societal conditions. >>>

The revolution that is passing us by: Data Mining as a pathway to new discoveries and predictions in Adult Development Research.

Data mining is the art and science of algorithms that make sense of data, leading to new discoveries, knowledge and predictions. Traditional data analysis techniques, such as correlations, linear and logistic regression, analysis of variance and structural equation modelling, are important tools in the understanding of the world, but are based on assumptions that are not always met. Data mining techniques, especially machine learning models, can handle any kind of variable (nominal, dichotomous, ordinal, interval and ratio), does not make any assumption regarding normality, linearity or independence, and can be applied in a broad set of problems. From among the data mining techniques available, this presentation will focus on the supervised learning models, i.e. models that construct maps from predictor variables to output variables in order to predict the behavior of a system of relations based solely on the joint observations of their values. Classification trees, random forests and adaptive boosting are the models that will be presented in the study of adult development. These models are relevant in the discovery of which exceptional capabilities are needed for prospering in the 21st century, providing a set of probabilistic tools for adult development researchers. Data mining is a revolution in terms of data analysis, and may lead empirical, quantitative adult development research to a new level.

What are the competencies needed for human flourishing in the near future? This question sets the scene for Embracing Complexity, Becoming Simplicity. Leaning heavily on the systems thinking of integral theorist Ken Wilber, the presentation suggests that human beings need two interdependent skills for flourishing in the further reaches of 21st century. These skills are called, respectively, ”embracing complexity” and ”becoming simplicity”. Adopting these skills is both a cognitive and practical-life-skills developmental task that helps us answer to what psychologist Robert Kegan called the mental demands of modern life. To answer these demands requires the ability to navigate, understand and embrace the complexity of life’s many dimensions and perspectives. This process is the quintessential project of an intelligent, prospering adult of the 21st century. It requires at least a theoretical grasp of what is commonly referred to as integral thinking, or holonic AQAL theory. It means, simply put: not leaving anything essential out when approaching a topic of one’s choice. Becoming simplicity is an added, but also an essential skill after one has embraced the complexity of being human in these (post-post)modern times. The becoming of simplicity of the other side of complexity (to paraphrase psychologist Fritz Perls) is the ability to recognize, prioritize and live as what is essential in this precious, unique and fleeting life of ours, becoming not only who we are but also who we, in our essential becoming, could be.

Modernism as the dominant idea of man of twentieth century is stuck in a tunnel which it has dug for itself. This metaphor stands firstly for the artificial narrowing of man and society, established by the term “homo oeconomicus”.

While modern empirical-scientific and postmodern qualitative-typological approaches, appear to have run against a tunnel wall, the metaphor secondly refers to a twenty-first century "light at the end of the tunnel" the old scientific paradigms, after the self-inflicted end of grand theories, fail to orient towards.

Niglas argues for a widening and an extension of this dichotomized methodological realm, to create a continuum that also integrates artistic methods. The creation of art is more than just another merely qualitative method, because it includes the artist and recipient in a self-transforming re-constructive process. This is ground-breaking for the complex tasks of a well-developed and still evolving society of the twenty-first century.

An historical overview has been chosen in order to support a visual-art related approach taken in this paper. This approach looks first at the philosophical foundations of our rational-scientific image of man. Using examples, the paper then shows how artistic work has already contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of man since the early Enlightenment through its illustrations of complementary aspects of the social processes. Art is thus on the other end of the tunnel, its manifestations expressing a way out of the confinement of a society which continues to be limited by its early Enlightenment origins.

Subject areas of contemporary art's questioning of societal challenges are illustrated through selected works of art. A reflection of art is identified as an integral part of an extended and adolescent cultivation (of the idea) of man (Menschenbildung).

Order of Hierarchical Complexity Scores for the WAIS-IV Verbal Subtests

Shuling Julie Chen & Michael Lamport Commons

Verbal comprehension index scale is one of the four subscales of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) (Wechsler, 2008). It contains three core subtests (similarities, vocabulary, information) and one supplemental subtest (comprehension). The verbal test score has been shown to strongly predict the WAIS-IV full scale score (Wildman & Wildman, 1977). The purpose of this study is to show the relationship between Intelligence Quotient (IQ) verbal subtests and their corresponding order of hierarchical complexity developmental stage scores based on the Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC). The MHC is a non-mentalistic model of developmental stages at which an individual is performing while completing a task. It specifies 16 orders of hierarchical complexity and their corresponding stages. The stages of the MHC have been shown to predict human’s “smartness” in the colloquial sense using the Laundry and the Balance Beam instruments (Commons, Goodheart, Pekker, Dawson, Draney, & Adams, 2008). The three of the verbal core subtests scoring scheme were scored for their Order of Hierarchical Complexity. The Hierarchical Complexity Scoring System (HCSS) was employed to score the sample answers of the verbal comprehension index scale provided in the WAIS-IV administration and scoring manual. Results showed that the best sample answers of the verbal comprehension index scale only went from primary order (order 7) to the systematic order (order 11) of the MHC. In contrast, the developmental stages of the MHC go beyond the systematic order, up to meta-crossparadigmatic order (order 15). The limitation of the WAIS-IV is inferred as it failed to test intelligence beyond the systematic stage. >>>

Synchrony in Development in Mathematics, Logic and Science, Forming a Single Domain

Michael Lamport Commons and Andrew Michael Richarson

The study used the Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) to test the theory that different skills in development would develop in synchrony, allowing an individual to solve tasks from various domains using the same mental structure for each task. The MHC instruments used were the algebra, balance beam, infinity and laundry instruments.The instruments can be categorized as either belonging the to mathematical (algebra & infinity), logical (laundry), or physical science (balance beam) areas. In order to conclude how related the performances were, four analyses were carryed out. First, we ran an overall Rasch analysis of all the items from all the instruments. The Rasch analysis confirmed that the items were performing as predicted by the MHC. Second, we report regression analysis assessing how well the Order of Hierarchical Complexity (OHC) of the items predicted the difficulty of the items in terms of their Rasch scores. The linear regression showed that hierarchical complexity was able to strongly predict the stage of performance of all the items from all of the instruments; r(250) = .955, p<0.0001. Third, a principal components analysis was carried out with the person Rasch scores for each instrument. The analysis showed that person scores on each instrument loaded on the first factor. All the factor scores on the first factor were over .9. There were only very low loadings on the second factor. Finally, we ran a stepwise regression to test the effects of hierachical complexity and traditional horizontal complexity variables: a) Place in order; b) Number of calculations needed; c) Size of the numbers; and d) the causal variable position on task. In each case the MHC accounted for a large amount of variance with r values of (r(46) = .735, p = .000) for balance beam; (r(37) = .943, p = .000) for algebra, (r(109) = .830, p = .000) for laundry, and (r(50) = .830, p = .000) for the infinity instrument. >>>

Exploring the relation between conceptions of truth and certainty and the development of reflective judgment in adulthood

Matthew Rich-Tolsma & Theo L. Dawson: Lectica, Inc.

A large amount has been written on the development of reflective judgement in the last several decades—from Dewey’s notion of reflective thinking (1933), through more clearly developmental research such as that of Perry (1970) and King and Kitchener (1994), and more recently, research in the field of personal epistemology (e.g. Hofer and Pintrich, 2002). A review of this literature reveals an implied relationship between developmental level and conceptions of truth and certainty, and the development of reflective judgment; however, to the best of our knowledge, the nature and workings of this relationship has not been empirically interrogated. This paper draws on a sample of performances (n=296) in the Lectical Reflective Judgment Assessment™ (LRJA), one of a suite of adult developmental assessments developed by Lectica®, Inc. Scores on these assessments are calibrated to the Lectical™ Scale, which is a content independent “ruler” of hierarchical complexity built upon Fischer’s (1980) skill scale. Performances in this sample where grouped into three distinct developmental zones each of which fell within Level 11 (which corresponds approximately to Systematic thought in Common’s model of hierarchical complexity or Abstract Systems in Fischer’s Skill Scale) on the Lectical Scale; for ease of reference these zones are labelled 11:1 (transition into level 11, n=88); 11:2 (elaborated level 11, n=143); and 11:3 (highly elaborated level 11, n=65). In addition to providing a content independent lectical score the LRJA also captures information concerning the presence or absence of a number of specific conceptions of truth and certainty, which were coded using a set of non-hierarchical drop down menus. This paper explores the relationship between these conceptions and the development of reflective judgment on the Lectical Scale. The conceptions investigated concerned apparent beliefs regarding certainty; truth (developing, objective, and situated); facts (experiential and scientific), and the nature of reality (external and personal). Statistical analyses revealed a number of interesting possible relationships between different conceptions and between specific concepetions and developmental levels. This paper uses this analysis as an empirical starting point for constructing a narrative concerning these relationships, and attempts to bring this narrative into relationship with the scholarly discourse on the topic of reflective judgment.

TYPE OF DILEMMA AND CARE REASONING IN WORK-RELATED MORAL CONFLICTS

Soile Juujärvi and Kaija Pesso, Laurea University of Applied Sciences Liisa Myyry, University of Helsinki

Virtually all adults in modern societies are engaged with the world of work that provides multiple challenges for moral functioning. Advanced moral problem-solving is essential for producing high-quality work in many jobs. Employees need to enlarge their perspectives and assume responsibility for decisions that have long-term effects for the welfare of other people and the environment (Blasi, 2009). Nevertheless, few studies have investigated what kind of moral issues people actually encounter in their working lives (Waters, Bird & Chant, 1986; Dukerich & al, 2000; Power & Lundsten, 2005). By contrast, researchers have typically pre-determined which issues are ethically relevant and thus worthy of study by hypothetical dilemmas or vignettes as methods (see Loe, Ferrell & Mansfield, 2000; Dierck de Casterlé & al., 2008).

The present study investigated the nature of work-based moral conflicts and the care-based moral reasoning behind them. One-hundred and thirty students from a university of applied sciences were interviewed using the Ethic of Care Interview (Skoe, 1993) including work-based real life conflict and classified according to Wark & Krebs’s (1996) typology. The distribution of moral conflicts was as follows: helping 26%, transgression 22%, social pressure 16%, loyalty 12%, and temptation 9%. Furthermore, two new categories were established: upholding rules, 13%, and internal pressure, 2%. Social pressure and helping dilemmas invoked higher care reasoning than antisocial, especially temptation dilemmas, and they were reported by participants who were the most advanced in care development. Implications of the dilemma types for working life morality are discussed.

In first decade of this century, European governments realised that the economic wellbeing of the region depends on innovation within a knowledge economy, an approach first formalised in e.g. the Lisbon agreement in 2000. Following incentives of the various governments, educational institutes are developing specific educational options for ‘excellent’ students, using varying definitions of excellence (e.g. the Dutch Sirius Programme, 2008). In the same period, the International Baccalaureate adopted the IB Learner Profile translating its mission statement into a set of ten learning outcomes aimed at the 21st century (www.ibo.org/programmes/profile). These learning outcomes include dispositions that have proven difficult to assess, such as integrity, open-mindedness to different perspectives and innovation, curiosity and the willingness to learn. The current study aims to uncover the range of conceptions of excellence and to link it to conceptions on teaching (Van Rossum & Hamer, 2010) and the learning outcomes comprising the IB Learner Profile. In 2013, 26 leading Dutch educators and business executives shared their views on characteristics of excellence in students and high potential employees and what kind of education would foster excellence. At the same time some 50 university bachelor students described their views on what characterises excellent students and their expectations of honours programs. The data are analysed using a phenomenographic methodology with the aim to examine the conceptions of excellence and views on teaching for excellence in both groups and to explore possible links to models of epistemological development (van Rossum & Hamer, 2010) and to the ten learning outcomes as defined in the IB Learner Profile.

We know from decades of empirical research in adult development that leaders at more advanced stages of development are more effective than their counterparts in carrying out a variety of leaderships’ tasks, but also that few leaders have these advanced level of leadership (Joiner & Josephs 2007; Torbert 1987). But are leaders up to the task of handling complex issues at work? Knowing that the complexity and speed of change requires higher levels of adult development it seems obvious that there is a need for supporting managers to develop their level of development and maybe recruit leaders with a higher level of development. There is a need for research focusing on the link between adult ego development in leaders and transformational leadership (McCauley, Drath, Palus, O´Connor&Baker 2006), and studies on leader-follower interaction.

The aim of this study is firstly to examine the correlation between leadership behaviors, value systems and complexity, and secondly if the correlation between self report and subordinates evaluation of leadership are higher for individuals with more advanced levels of value systems and/or levels of leadership.

Participants are managers in 4 Scandinavian organizations in different market segments including municipalities. The mangers are invited to answer a basic web survey including three instruments: a value system questionnaire (Sjölander et al.2013); Developmental Leadership Questionnaire which is a hierarchical test based on the theory of transformational leadership and it measures leadership behaviors through a self-evaluation and a 360 test where subordinates evaluate leadership of the manager; and a complexity test. Some managers do only the self-evaluation and some a full 360 feedback test. The study is carried out in the spring 2014 and preliminary results will be presented

How to fix a screw with a hammer? – Explanatory co-existence and the western framework of Magic, Religion and Science

Oliver Kress, Vienna, Austria

Magic, Religion and Science is what western psychologists and anthropologists recognise when they look onto the diversity of human thought and explanatory co-existence. Complementary to the concept of ontogenesis a second concept of explanation can be deduced from the principles of Piaget`s genetic epistemology and the fact that humans are mammals achieving two polarities: dualistic – non-dualistic as well as indirect need-satisfying actions (concept of souls) – direct need-satisfying actions (denial of the concept of souls). This model describes four fields of cognitive potentiality on the individual and on the cultural level. Not only the three modes of thought Magic, Religion and Science common in western science but also a fourth mode of thought (non-dualistic and denial of the concept of souls e.g. Buddhism, Taoism) can be defined. This conclusion raises the question, if western scientists overlooked a complete cognitive continent, while being fascinated by the success of western thought, and if a new tool can help us to fix a screw. >>>

The Transition to Ultramodern Society: Rethinking politics, stage, and source of information

Michael Lamport Commons and Charu Tara Tuladhar

The paper discusses three major themes in the development of ultra modernism. The first theme is understanding the three main sources of knowledge: Analytic, experiential, and empirical. These three main sources of knowledge each have their purpose. However, there is a huge difference in the degree of trustworthiness of these three sources of information. It argues that in a non-ultra modern society, individuals are self-deceptive because they rely on experiential knowledge instead of empirical knowledge. The second theme is the importance of eliminating composite variables in research. Modern scientists, although empirical, use composite variables to build accounts. However, these composite variables do not describe actual empirical events nor the relationship among those events as described by contingencies. The third theme is that ultramodernism requires one to construct general models in science, including behavioral science, social science and medical science using analytical knowledge and empirical tests of those models. These sciences rarely use general models. The best general models consist of sets of mathematical axioms, mathematical definitions, and theorems that describe the properties of how events in the world interact. The tests of those models should have predictions with r’s of about .9, generally ranging up to .94. General models hold across entire fields. They do not have much content and do not vary in their fundamental character with culture. The models have actual direct or indirect measures of variables. They have good scale properties that do not include composite variables. However, relationships among the variables may generate useful composite variables. The variables cannot be decomposed into simpler variables. Based on these three themes, the paper proposes that ultramodernism requires one to give up experiential knowledge and apply analytic knowledge to their experiential knowledge.

Why There Are Upper Limits to The Stage Of Development On Ones Best Task And Best Domain

The Model of Hierarchical Complexity explains differences in the rate of stage change as a function of age resulting in different terminal stages during adulthood. The explanation is based on what is known about Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and stage. Adult stages of performance are normally distributed with a mean of formal stage 10 and roughly one standard deviation equaling one stage (Commons, Goodheart, Pekker, et al, 2008; Commons, Li, Richardson, et al, in press). Stage and IQ are quite related (See Kuhn, 1976 for a review). Most people suggest an interactionist view for what determines IQ. Herrnstein and Murray (1994) estimated an r of .7 for genetic causation of IQ. For the younger sample, Kuhn (1986) found Mental Age (MA) and total score on the Piagetian tasks had an r = .69 (p < .001). In this sample, the r = .49 (p < .001) between age and Piagetian score and in the older sample had an r = .51, p < .001. There have been no explanations about what sets the terminal developmental stage or intelligence level. A few longitudinal studies of stages of development may help explain this (Gibbs & Lieberman, 1987). In three cohorts ranging in age 10 to 32, Mstages was correlated better with log2 age, r(18) = 0.88328 than with age, r(18)= 0.8569 supporting that stage is best represented as a function of log2age. This may explain why terminal stage is so different. To look at the rate of stage change with respect to time, the derivative of stage of a person’s performance with respect to time, d(NStage)/dt = K. The question that remains is whether K is a constant or some function of age or something else. Although stage is always increasing, life runs out before one gets to the next stage because K is probably a constant. >>>

The Order of Hierarchical Complexity (OHC, the apriori difficulty of the items) was measured with two interrelated vignettes using helper-person and empathy instruments within the social domain. The OHC of the items was shown to predict how good performance was: Empathy, r(20) = 0.850, p < 0.0001; Helper-person, r(20) = 0.948, p < 0.0001; Counselor patient, r(19) = 0.868, p < 0.0001. Domain may be operationally defined by only a single factor. If so, the Rasch person difficulty scores of the participants in the two social domain instruments maybe correlated. The person difficulty scores represent how good a person was at dealing with the difficulty of vignettes in each instrument. A previous study showed that there was high correlation between how well people did (Rasch person difficulty scores) on math-science-logic domain instruments, r(23) = 0.98 p < 0.0001. Hence, we expected similar results in the two instruments within the social domain for which we had such data. Two separate vignettes were designed for the study: a) helper-person and b) empathy. The two vignettes were linked into one 45 minutes survey and posted on survey monkey. The analysis showed high correlation, r(7) = 0.967, p < 0.0001. This indicated that participants performed at the same behavioral developmental stage across all instruments of the social domain. Thus, the result implies that OHC is domain specific. Although the idea of domain specific development is not new (Kegan, 1982; 1994), empirical identification of a social domain using the Model of Hierarchical Complexity would help to explain why people who exhibit behavior of a high order of hierarchical complexity in one domain may fail at relatively low stage tasks when they come from a domain in which they are not skilled. >>>

Various models exist for evaluating increases in the quality and complexity of learning outcomes, but they all differ in their approaches to measuring this progress. Hence this presentation aims to investigate the hierarchy and progression of learning outcomes presented in two well-known assessment models and one lesser known model.

The first model is Bloom’s taxonomy (1956), which is built on classification work of educational objectives and test exercises. The second model is SOLO-taxonomy (1982), which has its roots in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and it measures structure of the learning outcomes. The third is the Steps for Better Thinking –model (2006), which is grounded in neo-Piagetian theory and is used to measure open-ended problem solving performance.

The different theoretical backgrounds of these models call for a closer analysis of how the complexity and hierarchy of learning outcomes have been evaluated in each model. Analytical comparison of these models demonstrated that in each model complexity increases as the levels go up, but the examined hierarchy of these levels varies between models. For example, the SOLO-taxonomy includes transition levels between main levels, whereas the two other models don’t have such levels. Despite these differences, increases in all these models in the integrative elements in the higher levels of learning seem to be the common factor.

Results of the comparison indicate that the progression and hierarchy of learning outcomes remain ambiguous and unclear. Hence empirical testing with real data should be done in order to investigate how these models are related to each other and further clarify the possible common factors between models.

Is "Inclusion" in over Germany's future educationalists' heads?

Alexander Leuthold, University of Erfurt

Germany signed the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006. In line with this Convention parents in Germany have the right to demand that children with disabilities will not be excluded from any educational opportunity or institution regardless of the kind and severity of their disability. Germany committed to rebuilding the school system in such a way that inclusion is granted. Thus the term „inclusion“ dominates the educational sciences (probably not only) in Germany.

The presentation shows preliminary results of an ongoing case study aiming at carving out stage related theoretical conceptualizations of the term „inclusion“. In a second step these will be reflected on the background of the requirements which arise from Germany’s policy of education and from the scientific discourse.

The case study refers to approximately 100 students enrolled in different BA/MA programs of (special) education at the University of Erfurt, Germany. The students were asked to participate in a sentence completion test so as to determine their level of ego development according to Cook-Greuter (1999). They were also asked to provide a written explanation of their comprehension of the term „inclusion“ and its implications. The students’ compositions are being analyzed according to the grounded theory approach as presented by Corbin and Strauss (2008). >>>

Are students and teachers up to the developmental challenge of teaching and learning the exceptional capabilities needed to address the complex issues of our time? Issues such as moving towards a sustainable development of society are typically quite complex and ill-structured. In order for higher education to provide opportunities for intellectual growth and development among students, a key issue besides complex thinking is to acknowledge the different epistemological beliefs of teachers and students, such as conceptions of teaching and learning, that may influence the teaching and learning experience and so the quality of the learning outcome.

We will present a newly constructed epistemological beliefs questionnaire, concerning views on knowledge and learning. The questionnaire consists of 6 domains (a good study book, discussions, application of knowledge, responsibility for learning, understanding, good teaching), with 6 items in each domain, which are rated and ranked. The questionnaire is based on adult developmental theory (e.g. van Rossum & Hamer, 2010), where the developmental trajectory goes from a view of knowledge as being true or false and provided by the teacher as authority, to a view that emphasizes the constructed and contextual nature of knowledge – allowing teachers to adapt the teaching to the context and the student’s developmental level.

In the spring of 2014, this questionnaire and a previously developed value system questionnaire will be sent to all teachers at Jönköping University (JU). The epistemological beliefs questionnaire is to be analysed with multivariate methods such as a multivariate pattern recognition method and factor analysis. Previous analyses of the value system questionnaire, using corresponding methods, have resulted in an identification of several developmental stages of values, and the epistemological beliefs questionnaire is expected to yield a similar result. Results from the two questionnaires will be compared in order to investigate the relationship between values and epistemological assumptions >>>

Business students' ethical competence in universities of applied sciences

While ethical issues in business are under great scrutiny it is also essential to know what kind of ethical competence business students achieve during their studies. Research show that business students’ value more highly achievement and power than social science students, who give more regard on values concerning concern for others (e.g. justice and equality) than business students (Verkasalo, Daun & Niit, 1994; Myyry & Helkama, 2001). Further, value priorities relate to moral competence: among business students power values were negatively related to complex moral thinking (Lan et al. 2007). Business students also seem to prefer lower levels of moral reasoning than students from other majors (McNeel, 1994). Some claim (Carpendale & Krebs, 1992; 1995) that business context reflect the moral order of less complex morality where individuals make moral judgments without considering others’ rights or welfare but prefer instrumental egoism and simple exchange. In this study we ask 1) what is the level of moral reasoning (justice and care) of business students compared to nursing students in a university of applied sciences? And 2) how do business students conceptualize a professional ethical dilemma?As a data we have 218 business students and 145 nursing students who filled out a measure of justice moral reasoning (Rest, 1979), and 38 business students compared to 45 nursing students who have been interviewed by an ethics of care interview (Skoe, 1993). Moreover, we addressed the interviewed business students a professional ethical dilemma which is analyzed qualitatively by content analysis. Results show that business students obtained lower scores both in justice reasoning and care reasoning than nursing students, although the differences were not very large. The Implications of the results to business ethics education and students’ ethical competence are discussed further in the paper. >>>

An important question for those who teach and train graduate students is to what extent higher level competencies are being acquired. One way to think of ‘higher level competencies’ is in terms of their hierarchical complexity. It would be expected that, at a minimum, graduate students would show reasoning in narrations and/or in dilemma-solving contexts, that would be scored as systematic. At that order of complexity, individuals will take into consideration multiple variables as causes of an outcome. In earlier, preliminary work, using two different ways of measuring student behavior (essays in one case; dilemmas in another case), we have shown that graduate students in a Master’s level counselor training program do, at least in some parts of essays, and for some students, show systematic order reasoning. Some showed reasoning beyond systematic (that is, metasystematic), which represents more expanded capabilities. This work has also shown a relationship of higher stage responses with students’ grade point average in graduate level work. These earlier findings were based on a relatively small sample size and looked only at student grades. In the current paper, a much larger sample of graduate students was asked to complete the counselor-patient instrument, to assess the order of reasoning complexity of graduate students. The instrument presents vignettes that have been designed to represent the five orders of complexity. It results in scores for each individual that indicate whether their likely reasoning stage is concrete, abstract, formal, systematic or metasystematic. These stage scores will be related to both students’ grades, and measures of counseling skills obtained independently by their graduate program. This strategy should allow at least a preliminary examination of whether measures of hierarchical complexity are related only to “cognitive” outcomes, or whether they might be related to other kinds of outcomes as well. >>>

Developmental Behavior Analytic Therapy

Charu Tara Tuladhar and Michael Lamport Commons

Developmental Behavior Analytic Therapy (DBAT) is the first behavioral therapy with developmental underpinnings. The foundation of this therapy is the theory that developmental stages and value of consequences of a behavior interact to predict an individual's behavior, and also suggests that behavioral problems affect both behavioral developmental stage and value of consequences. DBAT is different from other contemporary or behavioral analytic therapies, as it integrates a developmental stage model, the Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC), into its working. The therapy aims to help individuals with behavioral problems change only specific problem behaviors that consequently help them to lead more satisfying lives because the biological susceptibility to overall behavioral problems is a given. It is suggested that this therapy be used as an adjunct to conventional therapies that specialize in helping individuals cope with behavioral problems. The core principles of this therapy require the DBA to form a strong alliance with the advisee, intervene in a work or home setting, set boundaries, allow DBA induced and real world contingencies to work on attaining the target behavior, raise developmental stage at which the advisee behaves, change value of outcome behavior and combine DBAT with other therapies/interventions known to work well for the specific problem the advisee may be suffering from. The procedures are categorized into three broad steps: 1) Building an alliance; 2) Presteps in intervention; and 3) Intervention. These procedures were practiced on six participants (Male = 4, Female = 2) obtained through convenient sampling. After the intervention, five of the advisees successfully achieved their target behaviors and also moved up at least one MHC stage in their problem behaviors. The positive results yielded from our small sample suggest potential benefit and success of this therapy. >>>

Happiness is in the eye of the beholder: Psychological development predicts different forms of wellbeing

Andres Fossas, Harvard Extension School, Harvard University

Despite strong theoretical associations between adult psychological development and wellbeing, conclusive empirical findings have yet to be reported. A comparison of previous studies reveals the use of different developmental measures as well as different understandings of wellbeing. The current study refines some of these discrepancies and explores the development/wellbeing relationship by using a highly rigorous developmental measure – the Subject-Object Interview – and assessing wellbeing along both quantitative and qualitative dimensions. Adult participants (n = 35) were recruited non-randomly to increase the probability of a balanced distribution across Kegan’s three primary stages of adult development (stages 3, 4, and 5). Quantitative findings revealed a curvilinear relationship between development and wellbeing (both hedonic and eudaimonic), such that participants near the 4th stage (self-authoring) reported greater wellbeing than those closer to the 3rd (socialized) or 5th (self-transforming) stage. The qualitative findings suggest that each of Kegan’s three stages is associated with a discrete conceptualization of well-being. Combined, these preliminary results suggest that: (1) an adult’s qualitative conceptualization of wellbeing may transform systematically as they develop; (2) quantitative measures of wellbeing prevalent in the literature may be emphasizing only one out of several possible qualitative conceptualizations of well-being; (3) the possibility that wellbeing changes qualitatively, rather than quantitatively, with development is largely unaddressed in the wellbeing literature.

Prison theatre refers to theatrical productions carried out by prisoners in co-operation with theatre professionals. In Finland, prison theatre is piloted by a non-governmental association Taittuu ry, and their concept includes the whole production of a theatre performance, from preparing a script with the prisoners to bringing it into professional theatre stage. In previous studies (e.g. Harkins et al. 2011, Blacker, Watson and Beech 2008, Stallone 1993, Moller 2013 and Cogan and Paulson 1998) it has been found that participation in prison theatre has a wide range of positive effects, from improvement in self-esteem to a decrease in aggressive behavior. In this study, we expand the study of the impact of prison theatre from prisoners to prison guards. We study the impact of prison theatre by interviewing prisoners (N=8) who have taken part in prison theatre productions and prison guards (N=12) who work in the partaking prisons. Preliminary results suggest that the prisoners report positive emotions and personal changes, even if they choose not to express them directly. The interviews also show a number of factors that have made prison theatre a particularly strong experience for participants. Our results in this respect are very much in line with previous studies. Prison guards’ evaluations of the impact of prison theatre on prisoners and the working community were varied. In future research on prison theatre the impact on daily life in the prison as a whole should be taken into account.

Integration as psychological term and as experiential practice: mindfulness and taiji training

Eeva Kallio, Finnish Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyväskylä

Aim of this presentation is to describe my learning process of Chinese martial arts form taiji as an experiential phenomenon, and second, to interpret these experiences using two psychological models, namely with models of integrative action/thinking and mindfulness. The experiential viewpoint is based on my autobiographical memoirs and experiences of the learning process during 13 years of training. My subjective conclusion of the most important feature of this process is the ability to integrate bodily experiences with intellect and reason. The integration of the rational mind with bodily sensations can be understood as transformation in which verbal and non-verbal impressions are embedded together. Secondly, I discuss how mindfulness is connected to taiji training and how it can also be seen as developmental phenomenon. >>>