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Timelines 1500-1600

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This file is devoted to presenting basic Timeline information
for website readers. The items are often sketchy, and some have
been extracted from other websites managed by Dan Byrnes. These
Timelines will be added to intermittently, as new data and new
e-mail arrives. Book titles will be entered according to the
timeframes they treat. -Ed

Below is given a table on various book titles we have collected on the topic of the rise of Capitalism from somewhat after the beginning of the Crusades to the Holy Land.

The Crusades can be seen as failed exercises in colonisation, prior to military failure. And they failed, and mostly in Italy, techniques of financial management were refined which lead to what we today call Capitalism.

On which, we particularly recommend several titles in overview ...

Christopher Hibbert, The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici. London, Penguin, 1974/1979.

Charles Massey, The Australian Merino: The Story of a Nation. Edn 2. Sydney, Random House Australia, 2007., pp. 14-15. Massy here mentions both Spain and Italy as centres of wool trades. A noted Italian wool trader was Signor Francesco Pegolotti (who worked for the bankers Bardi), who left extensive price lists of the Fourteenth Century of value to historians. Given that he wrote in Australia, Massy is surprisingly helpful on the development of Capitalism in Europe.

Raymond De Roover, Money Banking and Credit in Medieval Bruges: Italian Merchant Bankers, Lombards and Money Changers: A Study in the Origins of Banking. Cambridge Masschusetts, The Medieval Academy of America, 1948. PhD thesis. Raymond De Roover, 'The story of the Albergi Company of Florence, l302-l348', Business History Review, 1958. Raymond Roover, The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 1397-1494. Beard Books, 1999/2008.

From 1500 to 1600

1441: Portuguese mariner Dom Henrique (Henry the Navigator/Sailor) departs Portugal to search for sub-Saharan African "kingdoms of gold". By now, Spaniards and Portugeuse (Iberians) were already familiar with the place of slaves from Africa in their countries due to the Moorish occupation of Spain. Africans had also been used in the sugar culture around the Mediterranean Sea, and after Madeira (1419 [Henry the Navigator] if not earlier) and the Azores (1427-1431 if not earlier) were discovered by the Portuguese, slaves were used there. Dom Henrique landed on the coast of West Africa but found no gold, though he did find other trade goods. Two of his captains captured 12 Africans, men, women and children, who were taken to Portugal to demonstrate to the king that it ewas cheaper to get slaves directly from West Africa than to buy them from Arabic or other middlemen. Dom Henrique offered to give the Pope two black slaves. The Pope granted permission to the Portuguese to conduct a slave trade on the West African coast. Perhaps more outrageously, the Pope granted complete absolution in advance to anyone who would die in battle on the African West Coast. This did something to end the long Arabic monopoly of slave-supply in the Saharan region.

1444: First African slaves are brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania. During 1444-1445, Portuguese made their first contacts with sub-Saharan Africa.

1448: For the first time in Africa, leaders in Mali and Songhay exchanged about 1000 slaves with the Portugeuse in return for horses, silk and silver. Such slaves were probably used as domestics, in the Mediterranean sugar industry, and at Azores and Madeira. Black slaves were also sold to Spain and Italy.

1471: Portuguese make their early contact with the West African Gold Coast.

1481-1482: Portuguese begin building Elmina Castle (the mine) on the Gold Coast.

1488: Mariner Bartholomew Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope.

1490: First Portuguese missionaries go to the Congo, in Africa.

1494: The Pope makes the Treaty of Tordesillas which grants world territory east of the Tordesillas line through Brazil to Portugal and the west to Spain. (There was some associated quibbling about territory which was later adjusted to give Brazil to Portugal.) This also gave the Portuguese a monopoly of the slave trade from the West African coast. Spain meantime had free access to the Caribbean and South and Central America. It was unfortunate for Africans that the Spanish and Portuguese found that Africans were hardier workers than AmerIndians.

1500: Sugar plantations are established on the island of Sao Tome some 200 miles from the coast of West Afirca.

Portugal after 1492 - when Columbus had discovered the Caribbean
- by about 1510 - begins to develop aspirations of breaking the
monopoly of Moslem traders on the spice trade to Europe. (The
legend exists that by 1536, Portuguese mariners had discovered
Botany Bay at what is now, Sydney, Australia - see Kenneth
McIntyre, The Secret Discovery of Australia, a discovery
which was lost to history.) (By 1505, geopolitically, an important
strategic hot spot was the entrance to the Red Sea - Aden - where
Moslem trading ships sailed. The entrance to the Red Sea was also
important to Moslems, since Indian Moslems sailed from Western
Indian ports into the Red Sea and up to ports from where they
travelled to Mecca. So the entrance to the Red Sea was important to
Moslems for both religious and commercial reasons.

Meanwhile, as part of the operation of the Spice Trade, Moslem
mariners had sailed as far south-east as the Spice Islands, or, the
Malacca Straits, from where they could also deal with mariners from
China (Canton).)

1500: By now and due to the printing press, mariners are able to
use printed seacharts for improved navigation.

1500 India: Fleeing king of Jaunpur dies in Bengal; Governor of
Delhi revolts but is imprisoned; Cabral comes with 13 ships
to Calicut, gets in way of a conflict, so bombards Calicut in
return for assurances. Political rivalry in Malawa.

1500: 9 March: Six months after Da Gama has returned, Pedro
Alvarez Cabral sails from Portugal with thirteen ships and 1200 men
for India.

1501-1524AD: Reign of Ismail, first Safavid Shah of Persia.

1500-1502: World exploration: The Portuguese Corte-Real brothers
sail about Labrador and Newfoundland. Did they are even
earlier-working Portuguese survey other areas of the eastern North
American coast?
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1502: Portugal: Cartographers produce a fine map of the world
(now known as The Canino Map) which becomes prized by the Duke of
Ferrara in Italy, who is a map collector and fascinated by the
discovery work of the Spanish and Portuguese. The Duke employs
Alberto Cantino as an agent to find a copy of this map from Lisbon.
The map shows part of the coast of South America, including Brazil
which was discovered only in 1500 by Cabral, plus the West Indies
islands, known as "The Antilles of the King of Spain", and
northwest of them, the Florida peninsula, which was not
"discovered" by Spain till 1513 (?).
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

In 1502 Gama went again to India with 20 ships, when he also
tried to gain the submission of some African chiefs - by harsh
methods. In 1524 he went back to India as a Viceroy but soon died.
All this vindicated the discovery voyages of Bartholomew Diaz from
1487, suggesting that a large ocean lay east beyond the Cape of
Good Hope. At that time, ideas existed that a Great Southland existed south
of Asia, called Jav La Grande. It did exist. It is now
called Australia, but it was missed by the Hispanics, and "discovered"
by the English in 1770.

1502 Europe-India: Papal Bull views Portugal's king as a
"lord of trade" to India, Persia, Bijapur. Da Gama begins his third
voyage of trade/discovery.

1503-1505: World exploration: Little-known voyage by French
mariner inspired by Da Gama's voyage, backed by local merchants and
shippers, Jean Binot Paulmier de Gonneville, from Honfleur in
Normandy for the East. He got to an unknown tropical land and
brought back a son, Essomericq, of the local king, who had a son
who remained in France. The facts remain unknown. One possible
destination named is Madagascar.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1503 India: First European fortress in India is Turumumpara, for
Albuquerque.

1503: Portuguese sailors first reach Table Bay, South Africa,
and later use it as a refreshment base.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1503 India: Sikander transfers the capital of Empire from Delhi
to Agra; battles of succession in Kandesh.

1503: The Spanish and the Portuguese begin to transport slaves from Western Africa to replace Native Americans who'd been worked in Caribbean and other New World mines.

1505: Portugal after 1492 - when Columbus had discovered the
Caribbean - by about 1510 - begins to develop aspirations of
breaking the monopoly of Moslem traders on the spice trade to
Europe. (The legend exists that by 1536, Portuguese mariners had
discovered Botany Bay at what is now, Sydney, Australia - see
Kenneth McIntyre, The Secret Discovery of Australia, a
discovery which was lost to history.)
(By 1505, geopolitically, an important strategic hot spot was the
entrance to the Red Sea - Aden - where Moslem trading ships sailed,
human traffic re the pilgrimage to Mecca not unrelated. The
entrance to the Red Sea was also important to Moslems, since Indian
Moslems sailed from Western Indian ports into the Red Sea and up to
ports from where they travelled to Mecca, and returned. So the
entrance to the Red Sea was important to Moslems for both religious
and commercial reasons.

Meanwhile, as part of the operation of the Spice Trade,
Moslem mariners had sailed as far south-east as the Spice Islands,
also to the Maldive Islands, or, to the Malacca Straits, from where
they could also deal with mariners from China (Canton).)

1505: Portugal: Francisco de Almeida is made viceroy of
Portuguese territory in India and sails with fleet of 21 ships to
enlarge Portugal's chain of forts on Indian soil. Almeida's son
Lourenco leads an expedition to the Maldives and Ceylon/Sri Lanka,
a move which brings retaliation from the sultanate of Egypt and
other Moslem states. In 1508, Lourenco's ships are trapped by an
Egyptian fleet off Chaul on the central Western Indian coast.
Lourencos is killed. His father in revenge destroys an Egyptian
fleet and its local allies off Diu of Northwestern India. Later
Almeida is then (in 1509) replaced in India by Afonso de
Albuquerque. Almeida ends killed by South Africans near Table
Mountain.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1505: European Ludovico Varthema sails in the East.

On the Order of Christ in Portugal:
An early master of the Order of Christ was Henry the
Navigator (died 1460). Later, the heir of the King of Portugal,
John II Capet, The Perfect (died 1495) was his wife's brother, also
his cousin, Manuel Duke Beja, who was Master of the Order of
Christ at the time. The (otherwise unexplained ) revenues of
the Order of Christ at this time funded the Portuguese explorations
of Africa. The Portuguese from 1505 via the Order of Christ
explored the western coasts of Africa. At the same time, Almeida
went to Cochin to invade Moslem trading areas, after earlier
Portuguese voyages to the east of 1500.

1507 (and 1516): A world map - Carta Marear - A Portuguese
Navigational Sea-chart of the Known Earth and Oceans - is drawn
by German-born cosmographer Martin Waldeseemuller (c.1470-1518),
the first ever to call a continent "America", and the first to
chart latitude and longitude "with precision". The map is first
owned by Nuremburg astronomer and geographer Johannes Schoner
(1477-1547), later thought lost, but is found in 1901 in Castle of
Wolfegg in Southern Germany. It remained there in obscurity till
2001, when US Library of Congress bought it from Prince Johannes
Waldburg-Wolfegg for $10 million. The map clearly shows the west
coast of North America from modern Canada (near Vancouver Island)
to the equator (Ecuador). This map's depiction of Florida and
Caribbean seems to have been influenced by two earlier charts, the
Cantino of 1502 (Alberto Cantino is agent of Duke Ercoli d'Este of
Ferrara) and the Caviero Map on 1505. These maps also show the
Great Bahamas Bank, but the Caviero also shows the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico, which is not on the Cantino. Menzies in 1421
thinks all these maps were influenced by an even earlier map -
Chinese in origin.
(Item from Gavin Menzies, 1421, The Year China Discovered the
World. 2002 - hardcover edition)

1508: Maritime history: Voyages of Pinson and de Solis.

1510: First black slaves are shipped to Spanish colonies in South America via Spain. This was with the permission of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. Spain had developed a centre for slave dealing at Lisbon, the government slave agency (Casa dos Escravos) sold about 1200 slaves between 1511-1513.

1510: May: Albuquerque is ejected by Moslems from his fort at
Goa, India. He retakes it later in 1510, and then has ambition to
take the Straits of Malacca (actions of 1511). As a conqueror he is
"soaringly imaginative".
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1510: Invention of the watch in Nuremberg.

1511: Portuguese become first Europeans to set foot on
(Indonesian archipelago) Banda Islands, spice islands, They do not
return until 1529 when Portuguese trader, Capt. Garcia, lands
troops on the Banda Island, principal island named Neira. The
islands are so small they are in gunshot of each other, except for
Run. There are stories of cannibalism and head-hunters.
Previously, spices had reached the west from Venice, and before
that, Constantinople, and before that, Arab mariners in the Indian
Ocean. Now, the Venetian monopoly on the European spice market is
broken.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1511: Maritime history: Albuquerque captures Malacca/Malacca
Straits. That is, Melaka in what is now Malaysia.

1512: Arrives at Malacca a former apothecary (chemist) of the
Portuguese court, sent by Albuquerque (who dies 1515) to examine on
the medicinal properties of spices, Tome Pires. (Estensen,
"Discovery, p. 45) Pires travels to Java and elsewhere in Indonesia
and finally wrote Suma Orientale, (forgotten till 1937) a
compendium for his King Manuel on economics and geography from
Egypt east to Irian Jaya (West New Guinea). He recommended Timor
for sandalwood. Pires was later sent as head of Portugal's first
mission to China, where he was imprisoned. Absurd legends develop
that Sumatra is "an island of gold".
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1512: Maritime history: Abreu and Serrao reach Moluccas (Malacca
Straits) of Indonesia. Albuquerque in April 1512 sends to King of
Portugal a locally-made pilot's map of Java, Indonesia got by
Francisco Rodrigues. Later in 1512 Albuquerque sends Rodrigues
under command of Antonio de Abreu with three ships and 120 men
exploring further east of Melaka, to pre-empt likely Spanish moves.
These Portuguese maybe got as far east as Mindanao in the
Philippines. Rodrigues finally produces a book of navigational
rules, tables and procedures, 26 charts of coastlines from Europe
to China and 69 panoramic drawings depicting the northern Indonesia
islands. (See Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land.

1513: Scottish Battle of Flodden.

1513: Maritime history: The Spaniard Balboa crosses the Isthmus
of Panama. (Site roughly of present-day Panama Canal). (The area
later remained vital in the views of English promoters of
colonisation, since if it could be taken from the Spanish, it would
provide an ideal foothold for further English activity in the
Caribbean region, and against the Spanish, as happened much
later.)

1516: First settlement of Timor island, Indonesia, by Portuguese.

1516: Benin in Africa decides to restrict the "export" of male slaves, fearing a labour shortage.

1517: Martin Luther nails his 95 revolutionary theses to
the door of Wittenberg University Church.

1518: Origin of the Spanish asiento [contract giving the holder an exclusive right to supply slaves for the Spanish New World]: King Charles I of Spain with papal sanction authorizes the supply to Spanish America of 4000 Africans as bond-labourers. The contract (Asiento de negros) for this was awarded to one of hs favourites. Between 11-15 million Africans are estimated to have been sent to the New World under the terms of the asiento.
(Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 2, The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America. New York, Verso, 2002., pp. 8-9)

1519: Maritime history: Mariner Magellan sails from Spain.
Mariner J. de Alburquerque sails from Portugal. Mendoca is sent
from Lisbon as captain of a 14-ship fleet sailing from Lison to the
East.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1519: Herman Cortes begins conquest of the Aztecs of
Mexico. He takes their capital in 1521.

1519: Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire,
has a population of 200,000.

Bernal Diaz del Castillo, lieut for Cortes, said of Aztec
cities, "We were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments
they tell of in the legend of Amadis, on account of the great
towers and temples and buildings rising from the water, and all
built of masonry. And some of our soldiers asked whether the things
that we saw were not a dream."
(It is estimated that the indigenous population of Mexico shrinks
from 25 million to one million in the first century of Spanish
rule.)

1520-1618: Smallpox is introduced by the Spanish to Mexico, only
three months after Cortes has laid siege to the Aztec capitol. The
result is that the population is reduced from 20 million to 1.8
million. Later, South American suffers from waves of measles,
typhus and influenza. The indigenous populations are reduced by up
to 95 per cent according to some estimates.

1520 Mexico: Hernan Cortes as he advances on
Tenochtitlan is regarded as a god by the Aztecs, that is as
an avatar of their supreme god, Quetzalcoatl.

1520-1566AD: Reign of Sulayman the Magnificent; Ottoman empire
at its peak.

1521: Died 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, in the Philippines,
where he attempted to convert local natives at gunpoint. He is
killed by natives using iron-pointed bamboo spears and
scimitars.
Magellan's crew once sold a cargo of 26 tons of cloves for 10,000
times its original cost - a good example of the mercantilist's
hopes of buying cheap and selling dear. Magellan by now has
discovered Tierra del Fuego, but it is not known for a century that
the area is an island, not part of a major land mass.

1521-1522: New Zealand: Possible deposition of The Ruapuke
wreck, reputed to be a New Zealand version of Australia's
mahogany ship enigma at Warnambool. As referred to by K.G McIntyre
in The Secret Discovery of Australia (pp. 281-284 of the
original hardback edition) as possibly the second of Cristavao de
Mendonca's caravels to come to grief in his venture of 1521-22.
Evidence cited includes the Tamil Bell and the Wellington Helmet.
Since the publication of Gavin Menzies' book 1421 on the
claimed world-discovery trip of the Chinese, it is suggested that
the Tamil Bell might be an artefact left by the Chinese, who were
familiar with Ceylon at the time.

1521-1522: Ferdinand Magellan begins his expedition to
make the first circumnavigation of the world.

1521: Magellan rounds Cape Horn, on his way to the Moluccas
Islands, Indonesia, which were far further west than he had
imagined.

1522: African workers appear in the Caribbean, either as bond servants or slaves. Perhaps brought by the Portuguese, who could trade in slaves, as the Spanish were not permitted to do so.

1522: Maritime history: Voyage of Cristovao de Mendonca
with three ships leaving Malacca for a voyage south from the west
coast of Sumatra. He returns with one ship only. (Legends exist
that one or more of ships visited some coastline of Australia.)
Later he is appointed governor of island of Hormuz in Persian Gulf
region.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1524: Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazano arrives in
France to report on his New World discoveries, which include (what
is later seen as) New York's bay.

1524: (Reported 30 July 2002: Mexico City: A manuscript dated 23
September 1524 has been found at Mexico's National Library of
Anthropology and History, detailing the takeover of Mexico by
Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortes.

1525: April: Spain: A fleet of seven ships under Garcia Jofre de
Loaisa sails from La Coruna in Northern Spain. Flagship is Santa
Maria de la Victoria. Sailing the Atlantic for Straits of
Magellan and into the Pacific. One ship was wrecked on a shore.
Another disappeared entirely. Another sailed home. Four ships got
into the Pacific but never saw each other again. One ship got to
the Philippines, where the crew was killed or enslaved. The
flagship got to Tidore, where crew fought the Portuguese for eight
years. In 1527, Charles V directed Cortes as governor of New Spain
(Mexico), to send three ships to find Loaisa's ships or men. This
1527 expedition was commanded by Alvaro Saavedra de Ceron, to be
lost near the Marshall Islands in the Pacific. Saavedra attempted
to return home to Mexico via the north coast of New Guinea, he
died, and his crew returned to Tidore.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1525: The Portuguese governor of the Moluccas sends from the
Indonesian island Ternate an expedition (for gold or for diplomatic
explorations) led by Diogo de Rocha and pilot Gomes de Sequeira.
They possibly reached the western Caroline Islands before homing to
Ternate. Sequeira later sailed the Arafura Sea and possibly sighted
the islands today known as Bathurst, Melville and Croker, the
Coburg Peninsula, Wessel Island and Prince of Wales Island. If so,
he was the first European discoverer of North-Western
Australia.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1525: Maritime history: Two voyages of Gomes de Sequeira.

1526: Founding of the Mogul Dynasty in India.

1526: Europeans by now have sighted the northern coasts of New
Guinea. Spaniard Capt. Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron who believes there
exists an Island of Gold somewhere southwest of New Guinea in 1528
tries to find an eastward route (from the Malaccas?) across the
Pacific (to Mexico?). Headwinds forced him back. He died at sea in
1529.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1527: Bristol merchant Robert Thorne, an English trader in
Seville, Spain, writes secretly to King Henry VIII that it is
possible to reach the Eastern spice islands via the North
Pole.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1529: World exploration: French brothers Jean and Raoul
Parmentier sail from Dieppe in ships Pensee and Sacre
and reach Sumatra, where they die of fever. Their pilot Pierre
Crignon returns home with charts etc. Crignon's reports may have
helped inspire a 1540 French map by Jean Mallard which shows a
large promontory, Terre Australle, lying south of Malacca.
Another member of the Parmentier expedition was Jean Rotz who in
1542 produced a world map noting Java La Grande (a French
term), with an imaginary picture of "Australia". In 1544, a French
mariner distrusted in his own lifetime, Jean Fontenau, claimed to
have seen La Grande Jave. He married a Portuguese woman and
was also known as Jean Alfonse - and thought that La Grande
Jave extended south to near the South Pole. In any case, the
Parmentier voyage seems to be the key to rising notions of the
existence of Java La Grande as it was depicted in a series
of maps produced in Dieppe, France.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1532: The Spanish arrive into Inca territory of South America.
Within 50 years, about five million Inca have died. But
mysteriously, this had been a tragedy long foretold. The Inca
believed their ancestors had arrived from the stars
(constellations). The stars then were their real home; the Inca
supposedly were besotted by astrology. The Inca custom of child
sacrifice with victims taken from various of their tribes was then
a way of sending messengers "home". Views have arisen that various
"cultural codings" used by the Inca were derived from older
civilisations, perhaps as old as 13,000 years ago. About 1432 or
so, the early Inca produced a prophecy that the Inca would fall
after five rulers had been at their head, then all would fall.
Disasters on earth would reflect disasters in the heavens, such as
"heavenly disconnections". Such prophecies were so precise that it
might well be asked: why did the Inca then bother to build an
empire?
Some information/views here taken from TV documentaries various as
screened in Australia after new research by archaeologists around
Year 2000 or so.

1532: First direct shipment occurs of slaves from Africa to the Americas.

1534: England splits with the Church of Rome.

Circa 1535:

Pizzaro an outright murderer: Australian researchers
using refined new technology have examined a fragment of a letter
with a beeswax seal written by a Jesuit in Inca territory, to find
a date for the writing of the letter. A mystery of conquest may now
be solved - Pizzaro and his few troops overwhelmed the Incas by the
simple expedient of murdering their emperor and his general.
(Reported in Australia 13 October 1999)
Pizarro is illiterate, but "experienced". In 1528 he sails along
Inca coastlines to reconnoitre. He arrived in middle of a civil
war. The Sapa Inca had been Huayna Capal, to 1525, he had two sons,
Atahuallpa and Huascar, and Huascar lost the battle which broke
out, Pizarro murders Atahuallpa. (Notes - the Incas were at Machu
Picu.)
(Reader's Digest, The Last Two Million Years, p. 203) ...
When Pizarro murders Atahuallpa, he also "eliminates" the
4000-strong leadership of the Inca Empire, from 1530. A TV
documentary on Australian SBS on 29-7-2001, says that in the
Spanish new world, the Pizzaros and the Orianas were two related
large families who became deadly enemies in the New World over gold
(?).

1535: Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec. The first European to reach the area was Jacques Cartier on 2 October, 1535. Cartier visited the villages of Hochelaga and Stadacona, and noted others in the valley which he did not name. (From GeneaNet newsletter Sep 2010.)

1536: Further on the destruction of the Inca Empire: From about
1432, the Incas had developed an astronomical/astrological system
which allowed belief also in a dire prediction about the demise of
what became their empire, more or less a self-fulfilling prophecy,
after five rulers had exercised power. Disasters on earth would
echo disasters in the skies/heavens, in conformity with the
formula, "as above- so below". The time of disaster coincided with
a conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter. As to disaster, the Inca
Empire had a population of more than five million. Within 50 years
of the arrival of the Spanish from 1532, five million Incas had
died. But the tragedy had been long foretold, and during the
lead-up to their demise, the Incas had tried to stave off or
forestall disaster by engaging in child sacrifice (every fourth
year, and/or at an annual solstice,. the victims aged 7-12), in a
deliberate effort to rearrange earthly patterns so that the
heavenly patterns became more congenial.
The idea was that the children, carefully selected from tribes
which had their origins in certain constellations, would return as
messengers to their heavenly home to plead for a rearrangement of
circumstances on earth. In which case, human sacrifice was a
ritual-of-last-resort. As to such beliefs, the questions arise:
were the Incas here exercising an old belief system shared by other
civilizations? Such as might have been exercised at Sumer? A belief
system spread by maritime contact? From how long ago?
It also seems that this belief system was the major asset enabling
the Inca Empire to grow and enjoy (or coerce) the co-operation of
the diverse peoples in its mountainous territories.

1536: Spaniard Hernando de Grijalva, possibly on orders from
Cortes, after going to Mexico from Peru, on returning home decides
to turn his ship into the Pacific. Arises an obscure story, that
his ship ran short of water and provisions, was blocked by strong
northeasterly winds, his crew mutinied, killed Grijalva, and headed
for the Moluccas. They were shipwrecked off New Guinea and probably
killed except for a few survivors who were ransomed by some
Portuguese.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1537: Spanish Conquistadors searching for "legendary El
Dorado" reach Columbia and loot the burial places of Indian priests
and chiefs, also ransacking gilt-lined temples and palaces. This is
in the Great Lakes region of Columbia, location of the ancient Sinu
sanctuaries. Today (March 2001), a tomb-looting indigenous tribe
continue the looting, the Guaqueros, their chief named Jaunito.
These looters either sell artefacts, or if no buyer can be found,
melt them down. There is a legal artefact-manager in the country,
the Gold Museum in Bogota - which evidently cannot stamp out
looting. (From an article by Francois Guenet in The Australian
Magazine, 3-4 March, 2001).

1537: Maritime history: Pedro Nunes discovers the Loxodrome.

1538: Appearance in Spain of The Asiento (Asiento des Negros), a kind of official agency to engage in the slave trade, a monopoly contract for slave supply to colonies. One early holder of the Asiento was a courtier to the Spanish king, King Charles V, the Fleming, Laurens de Goumenot, who was given a right to transport 4000 Negroes to Hispaniola (Haiti), Jamaica and Puerto Rico, slaves whom he obtained from the Portuguese. de Goumenot however did not have the capital required, so he sub-contracted (or soold h is right) his right to some Genoese traders for 25,000 ducats. The Genoese reorganised links with the Portuguese on the West Coast of Africa. One result was that it was not unknown for an African king dealing with the Portuguese to sell his own citizens or to undertake military slaving raids against his neighbours to find victims for the slave trade.

1538: Flemish cartographer Gerard Mercator publishes his map of
the world. He adopts the view of Magellan, that about the area of
Tierra del Fuego is a large land mass, a southern continent of
unknown extent, terra incognita.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1539: Maritime history: Orellan's voyage down the Amazon
River.

1540: Execution for treason of Thomas Cromwell, earlier
chief adviser to King Henry VIII of England.

1540: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado takes 2000 men into the
deserts north of Mexico in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola,
which legendarily had palaces and temples filled with gold and
silver. In the present-day New Mexico. What was found was a humble
Zuni Indian settlement.

1541: Dies in the Spanish New World: Francisco Pizzaro
(c1471-1541). Discoverer and conqueror of Peru. He accompanied
Balboa on discovery of the Pacific Ocean. In 1522 Pizzaro dreamed
dreams of conquest to the south, and he sailed down the west coast
of South America. He returned to Seville in Spain by 1828 and by
1829 was made governor and captain-general of New Castile. (The
South American coast he had seen). Pizzaro is joined by his brother
Hernando. Pizzaro in 1541 is assassinated by followers of his
Spanish enemy, Diego de Almagro. Half-brother of Francisco was
Gonzalo Pizzaro (C1505-1548), In 1539, an ex-miner at Potosi mines,
Gonzalo becomes governor of Quito, later governor of Peru. He was
executed by an enemy on 26 June 1546.

1541AD: Hungary: After the Turkish occupation of Buda in 1541,
the region of the Great Plain becomes part of the great Ottoman
Empire which stretches over three continents.

1542: France: Jean Rotz produces a manuscript, Boke of
Idrography on hydrography and marine sciences, earliest of the
major works of the Dieppe school of maps. Rotz, of Scots descent
(Ross), presented his book to Francis I, but got no position at
court, so he went to England to present it to Henry VIII, to be
rewarded with post of Royal Hydrographer till Henry's death in
1547. Rotz had sailed to Guinea (West Africa) and Brazil in 1539.
He may also have sailed with the Parmentiers to Sumatra in
1529-1530. In 1529 he seems to have been in the Western
Pacific.

1542: Spanish Mexico: A fleet of six ships under Ruy Lopez de
Villalobos leaves port of Navidad with orders from the King of
Spain to colonise The Islands of the West, that is, the
Philippines, and to seek gold, spices and other trade goods. Voyage
across the Pacific took three months. Villalobos spent a year
trying to found a colony about Mindanao but failed and resorted to
the Moluccas where he died of fever. Spain did not try the
Philippines again till 1565.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1543: Copernicus suggests the earth is not the centre of the
universe and thus shocks the Catholic Church.

1546: The Compass improved: The Spanish improved on the
Chinese invention of the compass by installing it within a set of
gimbals. Gimbals invented by the Chinese about 100BC. (Source:
James/Thorpe).

1546-1601: Life of Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, who produced
systematic star maps.

1547: Death of Hernan/Hernando Cortes, Spanish conqueror of
Mexico. He studied law, began at Hispaniola (Santo Domingo), as a
farmer. In 1511 he went with Diego Velasquez on expedition to Cuba.
In 1519, Cortes went to Yucatan, later to Tabasco. There he found a
mistress, Dona Marina (Malintzin) who gave him a son, Martin.
Cortes then founded Veracruz, then went inland at a time when
nation of Tiaxcala is at war with Aztec ruler Montezuma of Mexico.
Cortes entered Mexico City on 8 November 1519, and killed
Montezuma. By 1521, Cortes had caused the fall of the Aztec Empire.
Cortes returned to Spain and was made captain-general (of Mexico).
Cortes' enemies grew, but Cortes did explore Lower California about
1535. Later he explored Honduras. Cortes again returned to Spain
and died near Seville in 1547. See M. Collis, Cortes and Montezuma.
1955.Encyclopedia Britannica item

1549-1551AD: Mission of Jesuit St. Francis Xavier to Japan.

From 1550: Islam spreads to Indonesia.

1500-1550: (From a website reviewing book on climate change by
H. H. Lamb, Climate History and the Modern World): After a
generally warmer interlude between 1500 and 1550, northern Europe
turns much colder... there appears The Little Ice Age, which
reached a peak in the 16th and 17th centuries, experienced
temperatures that were as much as 1.5°C colder than the 20th
century. Great hurricanes arose in the North Atlantic. (A gale
whose winds exceeded the speeds of any modern tempest destroyed the
Spanish Armada and changed history. Traces of this era of cold
persisted until the mid-19th century.)

1550: Portuguese settlement of Nova Scotia. (Canada)

22 April, 1550: The first encounter between Europeans and South
American Indians/Brazil, as recorded by Pero Vaz de Caminha,
an official scribe for a Portuguese flotilla that accidentally
arrived on the coast of Brazil, off-course for a voyage to India.
The Indians were given a red beret, a linen hood and a black hat.
In return, the Indians gave a headdress of bird feathers, a
necklace of white beads. Not so long later, the Portuguese enslaved
the Indians. At the time of first contact, there were about five
million Indians in 1400 tribes speaking 1300 languages. In April
2000, a 500th anniversary was observed at Porto Seguro, a small
coastal town. Today, DNA research reveals that about 45 million
Brazilians, about a third of the population, share some indigenous
DNA levels. Brazil still has about 30 pockets of Amazon jungle
where so-called Stone Age tribes live, of about 100-300 people.
Land rights remain a serious issue for Brazil's indigenous
people.

1551AD: Bayinnaung inherits the Burmese throne and overruns
Thailand.

1553: On 23 June 1553 sets sails the voyage under Englishman
Richard Chancellor, adopted son of Henry Sidney, for The
Mystery, Company and Fellowship of Merchant Adventurers for the
Discovery of Unknown Lands, Chancellor on ship Edward
Bonaventure. Also sailing with two other ships, Bona Esperanza, and
Confidentia. Also sailing is Sir High Willoughby. The ships reach
Barents Sea, and end 300 miles inside the Arctic Circle, worried by
pack ice. Some of the ships crew had written wills dated January
1554. Willoughby and his men froze to death. Chancellor had gone
into the White Sea near today's Archangel, and gone overland to
Moscow. Chancellor meets Grand Duke of Russia, Ivan Vasilivich,
also Emperor, who is impressed enough to grant trade rights, which
thus begins the English Muscovy Company.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

In 1553 and 1555 Englishman Richard Eden publishes his
Treatise of the New India and Decades of the New World or West
India. There arose by 1555 a "fruitful co-operation" in Elton
p. 334, of merchants, sailors and moneyed gentry including a few
members of court and council. from 1551 the first trade contacts
grew with Africa. See 1551.

1558: From Brussels, Oliver Brunel advertises that he has
travelled on the coasts of northern Russia, and might soon find a
North-East Passage to the Indies. He would soon take a Russian ship
to the spice islands. (This might reduce a year's sailing time?)
This information caused great pain to London merchants, so they
denounced Brunel to the Russians as a spy and he is imprisoned for
12 years.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1559: First cultivation of tobacco starts in Spain.

1559: Queen Elizabeth I sends aid to Scottish lords to drive
French from Scotland.

1561: Dieppe Map by Desliens displays Portuguese flags on
Java La Grande, and the same in 1566 and 1567.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1561-1562: The French Wars of Religion: "Throughout France,
members of the rival creeds (Catholic and Huguenot) attacked each
other, killing, burning, raping, torturing, and looting. The
atrocities were as outrageous as they were cruel. In a frenzy of
Protestant iconoclasm, churches were desecrated and their clergy
hunted down like vermin; one Huguenot captain wore a necklace of
priests' ears while the infamous Baron des Adrets made Catholic
prisoners leap to their death from a high tower. Even the dead were
attacked; at Orleans a Reformist mob burnt the heart of poor
Francois II and threw Joan of Arc's statue into the river. The
Counter-Reformation was not yet in evidence so Papist fanatics were
rare but nonetheless Catholics were goaded into fury. At Tours two
hundred Huguenots were drowned in the Loire while the bodies of
those slaughtered at Sens came floating down to Paris. That grim
old soldier Blaise de Montluc made Protestant captives jump from
the battlements and remarked with satisfaction that all knew where
he had passed by the trees which bore his livery - a hanged
Huguenot; on one occasion he strangled a pastor with his own
hands." As Pascal said a hundred years later, "Men never do evil so
completely and cheerfully as they do from religious
conviction."
From: Desmond Seward, The First Bourbon: Henri IV, King of
France and Navarre. London, Constable, 1971., p. 143

1562: Maritime history: Legazpi sails in Philippines area.

1563: Stress of urbanisation: French parliament begs the king to
prohibit vehicles from the streets of Paris.

1563: Spanish navigator Juan Fernandez amazes his associates by
sailing from Callao, Peru to Valparaiso, Chile in 30 days instead
of the usual 90. Then sailing west into the Pacific he discovered a
number of islands which now bear his name. He was possibly trying
to find any eastern coast of any Great Southland. By legend he got
to New Zealand but this seem highly unlikely.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1565: April: Spain tries again (after 1542), to found a colony
of the Philippines. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi leaves from Acapulco in
Mexico and founds colony on Cebu with three ships and 300 men.
Spanish administration six years later was transferred to Cebu on
Luzon Island. With this 1565 expedition was Miguel de Urdaneta, now
a monk, who had been asked to help establish a useful return route
home from the Philippines. Sensibly, Urdaneta wanted to go about
new Guinea to establish its proximity to any Great South Land, then
to possibly examine just where the Great Southland lay. This went
far beyond Legazpi's brief to found a colony and establish a route
home. On 1 June 1565, Urdaneta (died 1568) sailed from Cebu and
went north, overshooting on the West North American coast, then
south, which brought him to California, then to the port of Navidad
of Mexico.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1566: Maritime history: Mendana's first voyage.

1567: November: The viceroy of Peru permits controversial
mathematician, scientist and adventurer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
to take two ships from Callao to settle "the great southern
continent". Sarmiento captains one ship but has to answer also to a
26-year-old, Alvaro de Mendana, a nephew of the viceroy. Both
however belief in lands of gold to the west. After 80 days sail
they found an island, possibly Nui of today's Tuvalu. By early 1568
they were at the Solomon Islands, where the local people resented
them, so the expedition went to today's Honiara on Guadalcanal,
where it was again resented, so it went to San Cristobal. It
finally returned home dismal with failure. Young Mendana however is
convinced he has found outlying islands of the Great South Land. He
tried again in 1595.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1568: Spain: Muslims are forcibly converted to Catholicism in
Spain.

1570: Geographer and mapmaker Abraham Ortelius publishes his
world map and following Mercator depicts an unknown great southern
land, modifying its name from terra incognita to Terra
Australis Nondum Cognita, or Southern Land Not Yet Known.
1570: Ortelius produces a world map which shows New Guinea as
separate from the conjectural land south of it called Terra
Australis. Cornelis de Jode's map of 1593, Speculum Orbis
Terrae shows much the same re New Guinea. But in 1594, Plancius
on his map shows New Guinea joined to the Great South Land.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1571: The Battle of Lepanto; 117 Turkish galleys taken
and 80 lost, only 12 Christian vessels are lost.

1571: Foundation by Spanish of city Manila, the
Philippines.

1572: France: 3000 Protestants are killed in St Bartholomew's
Day Massacre in Paris, one of the bloodiest incidents of a series
of religious wars.

1572: Mapmaker Ortelius issues his atlas, which amongst other
legends speaks of King Solomon's ships sailing for (mythical)
Ophir, where they gather 420 talents of gold.

13 December 1577: Francis Drake begins a world voyage from
Plymouth, England, in Golden Hind.

1577: Francis Drake leaves England on his world voyage.

Where did English mariner Sir Francis Drake make his
Pacific landfall (Nova Albion?) on North American land. Did he
leave a "Drake was here" plate at Campbell Cove, Bodega Head,
California in the summer of June 1579 as he repaired his ship,
Golden Hind? In 1997, writer Brian Kelleher of Cupertino
began asking questions about such a site. Or was the landing spot
at a Marin County Bay, or on the Oregon coast? Researchers
including archaeologist Dr. Kent Lightfoot, at University of
California may follow up Kelleher's suggestions. Drake's five-ship
expedition was the second attempt to circumnavigate the world,
following up Magellan. From the western Pacific coast, Drake sailed
to Indonesia, then across the Indian Ocean, around Cape of Good
Hope and home to England. (Reported 10 July 1999)

1579: More maritime history mystery: Fresh controversy
arises over whether history should be rewritten with the case of
English pirate Francis Drake, and the Golden Hind voyage:
did Drake discover Alaska? A new book, The Secret Voyage of Sir
Francis Drake, by Samuel Bawlf argues that Drake was forbidden
from publicly reporting his discovery due to fear of the Spanish
becoming aware of English moves. Working from study of maps and
Drake's mention of a "frozen zone" where natives shivered in their
furs and snow scarcely melted even in summer, Bawlf argues for a
thorough rewrite of the history of Elizabethan discoveries. The
English he said had an ambitious plan to find the North-West
Passage and found an empire in the Pacific. Part of the problem is
lack of information on Drake's whereabouts in the summer of 1579, a
question long and hotly debated on the US' western coasts. Bawlf, a
Canadian geographer, believes Drake spilled details to his personal
map-maker, Abraham Ortelius, who is said to have invented the
atlas. Bawlf feels that a map showing four non-existent islands off
the coast of California are the shapes of actual islands further
north, including Vancouver Island. Sceptics are reportedly
unconvinced, and some sceptics still believe that Drake went no
further north on these West American coasts than Mexico. (Reported
16 August 2003)

1580: Spain annexes Portugal.

1580: Crowns of Spain and Portugal are united.

1580: English merchants back a voyage into the Arctic (Kara
Sea), to find any near-Russia North-East Passage to the East,
perhaps by "a river near China".
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1582: As France suffers a civil war, historian and cartographer
Lancelot du Voisin, Seigneur de La Popellinere, translates the
Latin of Hondius' atlas and argues in a treatise, Les Tres
Monde, that the French can still catch up with the discoveries
of Portugal and Spain by settling The Great Southland. No one takes
any notice.

1583: Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten proceeds to the
East Indies, and later writes five big books of "fables" which
happen to contain information of great interest to merchants. He
returns home in 1592, the year in which Plancius published his
"world map" based on the work of Abraham Ortelius and Gerard
Mercator.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1583: Sir Humphrey Gilbert founds first English colony in North
America at St John's, Newfoundland.

1586-1587: Under threat from Indians, English colonists sail
from Roanoke Island, North Carolina, dismally ending the
first English settlement in America. English colonists had come
ashore on Roanoke Island, attempting to establish the first
permanent English settlement in the New World. It now seems that
the colonists were confronted with the region's worst drought in
700 years, which caused mass starvation and made for tense and
aggravated relations with Native Americans. By 1590, the ill-fated
settlers had vanished with little trace.

1587: Mapmaker Rumold Mercator, son of Gerard, issues his map of
the world which amends the name of the so-called Great Southern
Land to terra australis, which his father had called
terra incognita. This imagined land encircles the entire
Southern Hemisphere. It supposedly has various regions, some of
which are Maletur, Lucach and Beach - thought to be either
gold-producing or overflowing with interesting spices. These odd
words and ideas are due to poor translations of words used by Marco
Polo for his descriptions of today's Malaysia and Indochina. Beach
was taken to be southwest of the Straits of Magellan.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1589: Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris make
expedition of 150 ships and 18,000 men to Portugal.

1591: London merchants petition Queen Elizabeth I for a licence
to trade to the East Indies, then choose expedition commander,
James Lancaster, who had captained a ship Edward
Bonaventure earlier against The Spanish Armada. In late 1591
Lancaster sets sail with Edward Bonaventure, Penelope
and Merchant Royal. The expedition is a failure.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1592: Dutch mapmaker Pieter Plancius publishes a large world map
which seems to be based on information from Portuguese hydrographer
Bathrolomeu Lasso. Also in 1592, Dutch merchant brothers Cornelis
and Frederick Houtman visit Lisbon as agents for Dutch trading
houses and are caught trying to steal secret Portuguese maps of
trading routes to the East. They were imprisoned for three years
but returned home with 25 of Lasso's nautical charts which they
presumably used on their later voyages East.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1593: Cornelius de Jode issues a map depicting New Guinea, with
the belief that south of New Guinea is the great "Austral land", so
large it may form a fifth part of the world. By 1597, Cornelius
Wytflet in his atlas with a factually-uninspired guess suggests
that the Austral land begins at two or three degrees below the
equator.

1594: Paris has population of 180,000 in 1594, two years
before the invention of the water closet, which meant a reason for
the import from China of toilet paper, invented there 1000 years
before.

1594: A Dutch fleet, the first of three, leaves Texel for the
Spice Islands under William Barents who thus became an
arctic explorer. Voyage of the associated mariner Cornelis Nay, of
the second Dutch fleet, led to Northern Russia once being called
"New Holland", and he renamed the Kara Sea. By 1595, the second
Dutch expedition was also blocked by ice. A third Dutch fleet
sailed in 1596 under William Barents and Capt. Jacob van
Heemskerck, to be trapped in ice. Barents died.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1594: Appearance of a manuscript, 1594, mentioning that African slaves dig for precious metals, presumably ore and gold, in a Spanish colony in the America. The Latin title is, "Nigritae in Scrutandis Venis Metallicis ab Hispanis", c. 1594.

1595: Netherlands: Cornelis and Frederick de Houtman return to
Amsterdam from their map-thieving visit to Portugal just as
adventurer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, who had been some 14 years
in the Portuguese East, published on his travels, partly basing on
the work of a cosmographer for the Spanish Crown, Luis Teixeira. A
group of Amsterdam merchants are willing to form a consortium to
trade with the East Indies. In spring 1595 they sent four ships
under Cornelis de Houtman about Cape of Good Hope, to Goa, then the
Indonesian Islands, returning in mid-1597. Other companies formed
and other Dutch voyages followed.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1595: Spring, The Dutchman Cornelius Houtman, a spy by
temperament, leads an expedition to the East, in command of ships
including Mauritius and Amsterdam. To Cape Verde
Islands. Crew discipline frays badly. To the wealthy port of Bantam
in Java, Indonesia.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1595: Spaniard Mendana sails with four ships from the Peruvian
port of Paita for the Solomon Islands which he has visited 30 years
previous, again trying his dream of colonising the Great South Land
and finding its gold. He has 280 soldiers and sailors plus 378 men,
women and children colonists. Chief pilot of the expedition is
Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, a Portuguese navigator aged about 30.
This expedition discovers the Marquesas Islands, then misses its
mark and gets to the Solomons, though not near to Guadalcanal and
other areas already settled by Spanish. Mendana tried a colony at
Santa Cruz. Matters failed, the survivors went to Manila. Quiros
meantime had adopted Mendana's dream of finding terra
australis and spends near a decade seeking support from the
Pope and the King of Spain for a new expedition. Quiros' next
expedition did sail 1605-1606.

1595: World exploration - Maritime history: Houtman
becomes the first Dutchman active in the East Indies. Second voyage
for Mendana.

1550++: On the development of attitudes of whites to blacks, regarding the rise of slavery, see also W. D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro,1550-1812. (Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1, Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York, Verso, 2002.)

1550: Islam begins its spread to Indonesia.

1550: Portuguese settlement of Nova Scotia. (Canada)

1550: Portuguese settlement in Nova Scotia, first European
settlement in North America. (McIntyre, Secret Discovery of
Australia, pp. 215-216.)

An English heritage - essay section

Dampier and the earlier eastern travels of Ralph
Fitch:

This section began with an overview of England's trading in the
sixteenth century. This overview sees events not in terms of any
point of view relating to the seat of power, London, it seeks to
concentrate information found on the fringes of what became an
empire. By 1640, one of those fringes, seen only faintly in the
eyes of the Anglo-Dutch financier, Sir William Courteen Senior, was
Australia, or, terra australis incognita.
(Material used for the preparation of this chapter include: E. G.
R. Taylor, Tudor Geography, 1485-1583. London, Methuen,
1930. R. G. Lang, 'Social Origins and Social Aspirations of
Jacobean London Merchants', Economic History Review, 2,
V, 27, 1974., pp. 28-47. Thomas S. Willan, Studies in
Elizabethan Foreign Trade. Manchester University Press, 1959.
Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English
Privateering during the Spanish War, 1585-1603. Cambridge at
the University Press, 1964. J. H. Parry, The Age of
Reconnaissance. New York, Mentor/New American Library, 1963.
Ramkrishna Mukherjee, The Rise and Fall of the East India
Company: A Sociological Appraisal. Bombay, Popular Prakashan,
1973., pp. 62-64. Citations on Ralph Fitch include: Robert
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political
Conflict, and London's Overseas Traders, 1550-1653. Cambridge
University Press, 1993., p. 20, pp. 168ff. Kenneth R. Andrews,
Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the
Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1984., pp. 168ff. Information on Michael Lok's
family is found in James A. Williamson, The Age of Drake.
London, Adam and Charles Black, 1938., pp. 153-159; Who's Who
/Shakespeare, pp. 153ff. . P. W. Hasler, The History of
Parliament: The House of Commons, 1558-1603. Vol. 1, 2, 3.
London, The History of Parliament Trust, 1981., p. 485. James A.
Williamson, The Age of Drake. London, Adam and Charles
Black, 1938., pp. 28ff. Alderman William Lok of London was a player
in the Spanish trade by the 1560s, and he evidently gave Michael
his entre to trade. Hasler, The History of Parliament, Vol.
3, p. 350, entry for Sir John I Savile, MP, d.1607. On Sir
Christopher Hatton, p. 109 of Who's Who /Shakespeare. G. R.
Elton, England Under the Tudors. London, Methuen, 1955.
DNB entry on Anthony Jenkinson. W. Foster, England's
Quest of Eastern Trade. London, 1933., on Fitch, pp. 79-109.
Jonathan Israel, (Ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the
Glorious Revolution and its World Impact. London, Cambridge
University Press, 1991. Ian R. Christie, British `non-elite'
MPs, 1715-1820. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995. Sir John
Clapham, The Bank of England: A History. Two Vols. Cambridge
University Press, 1944. A. Jessopp, (Ed.), Roger North, The
Lives of the Norths. Vols. 1-3. London, Greg International
Publishers Ltd., 1972., Vol. 3, p. 180. Oskar H. K. Spate, The
Pacific Since Magellan. Canberra, Australian National
University Press, 1979-1988. Vol. 1, The Spanish Lake. Vol. 2,
Monopolists and Freebooters. (1983) Vol. 3, Paradise Found and
Lost. (1988). H. R. Fox Bourne, English Merchants: Memoirs in
Illustration of the Progress of British Commerce. London,
Chatto and Windus, 1886. Ian Bruce Watson, Foundation for
Empire: English Private Trade in India, 1659-1760. New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House, 1980. In following merchant careers, the
maritime history of English expansionism, and links between
aristocrats and merchants, I have relied on some of the following
titles, especially for genealogical material, apart from Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution. Joyce Lorimer (Ed.), English
and Irish Settlement on the River Amazon, 1555-1646. London,
The Hakluyt Society, 1989. Theodore K. Rabb, Enterprise and
Empire: Merchant and Gentry Investment in the Expansion of England,
1575-1630. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press,
1967. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter
Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1730. London, Jonathan
Cape, 1973.)

But it is not easy to implant Courteen's career in a narrative
of Seventeenth Century English commercial history. To set the
scene, it is convenient to outline a different view of the origin
of Capitalism, modern capitalism which utilises a scientific
outlook... and a view which did not occur to Karl Marx. The
proposition is: that as a prerequisite, modern capitalism required
exercise of the institution of slavery. This implies, that the
study of economics, today, has been divorced from the history of
the development of slavery, especially in respect of the price of
the input of labour. Economics, as a matter of study, world-wide,
remains a dismal science since the historians of
economics-as-a-discipline have overlooked an ubiquitous economic
institution - slavery. Failure to examine this matter is partly the
result of historians paying insufficient attention to linkages
between the trading history of the East India Company, the
development of the Company's repertoires of financial
sophistication, and Englishmen involved in various ways in
slavery.

Though it is difficult to illustrate, it can be demonstrated,
genealogically, that many Englishmen, and/or their families, and/or
their associates were involved in both East India trade, and
various sets of activities linked closely to... slavery. Often, in
terms of individual commercial careers, an individual man, and his
associates or relatives were involved in either/both kind of
trade.
(Here I have in mind works such as: Robert Brenner, Merchants
and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's
Overseas Traders, 1550-1653. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1993. Theodore K. Rabb, Enterprise and Empire: Merchant
and Gentry Investment in the Expansion of England, 1575-1630.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1967. E. G. R.
Taylor, Tudor Geography, 1485-1583. London, Methuen, 1930.
Lists of merchant names are also found in R. W. K. Hinton, The
Eastland Trade and the Common Weal in the Seventeenth Century.
Cambridge University Press, 1959.)

Such a proposition might tend to harrass histories which treat
slavery and East India trade separately. It is rather as though the
very activity of studying economic history (as a numbers game) has
distracted economists and historians from genealogical matters
which were noticed by both academic and popularistic English
historians working until about 1939, or, World War Two... the
extent of the linkages between business activity and family careers
in English commercial life, and following, the history of English
expansionism, that is, maritime life, from about 1540. Willan's
work treated this, for example, but the themes became lost.
(Thomas S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade.
Manchester University Press, 1959.) Perhaps, in the 1950s and 60s,
British sensibilities about empire were too torn-up by loss of
Empire for objective work to be done on the origins of that
Empire?)

Willan's work on Elizabethan foreign trade in particular claims
that many London-based cloth exporters became interested in
"Barbary trade", in particular in importing sugar. But it is
not explained if the sugar in question was grown in Morocco (using
Negro slave labour?), or had come through Arabic trade routes from,
say, India (Bengal)? Nevertheless, there arose a complex set of
linkages between aristocratic families and merchants interested in
foreign trade and in promoting marine endeavour. From the 1580s, it
becomes notable how many English aristocratic families had a twin
interest - in their family members promoting trade (including
maritime endeavour), particularly in respect of Caribbean sugar
islands, and in governing (or, suppressing) Ireland.

This book began with such observations along such lines, and so
I have abandoned more modern perspectives on the rise of English
trade in search of what arises when the preoccupations of earlier
writers are re-explored. Where these preoccupations are linked to
genealogical inquiry, the reader will find that the lists placed in
these files of English merchants interested in Barbary, or Moroccan
trade, especially in sugar, will name some names which have
genealogical persistence in narratives of English commercial life -
sometimes, persistence for centuries. There is another point. I
assume that where families became interested in maritime endeavour,
this resulted in later generations retaining information and
documents, telling stories, passing on a set of traditions. Much of
these traditions became the cultural heritage of Anglo-Australia.
But a heritage somewhat misunderstood.

An argument as to Capitalism begins thus:

Origins of modern capitalism in sugar and slavery:

Medieval sugar industries are noted on Malta, Rhodes, Crete and
Cyprus. Later, sugar production arose in the Canary Islands (we
have already noted the interest of the English Hawkins' in the
Canary Islands from 1562 if not earlier) and Madeira, involving
Negro labour. Those production areas were overtaken by Brazilian
and West Indian production.
(Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in
Modern History. New York, Viking, 1985., p. 36. On the
importers of sugar to England from Antwerp by 1556 and later, see
Thomas S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p.
95., p. 159, being William Garrard, John Hopkins, Sir Thomas White,
Edward Jackman and others, some of them noted cloth exporters.
William Chester and John Gardener were two pioneers of sugar
refining in England.)

Mintz, a very insightful writer on the marketing of sugar to
Europe, is nevertheless surprised by mention from K. G. Davies, the
historian of the English Royal Africa Company, of sugar production
on Java and in Bengal. With the history of sugar and its role in
the history of the enslavement of Africans, one problem is to
decide why Europeans did not import sugar in bulk from Bengal,
India, and preferred to take it from islands in the Atlantic or
Caribbean? Presumably, from the origins of the English East India
Company, 1600, sugar was not in ship management terms a
cost-effective cargo to return to England from India?

It is here that Willan's failure to mention the actual source of
Moroccan sugar becomes intriguing. Encyclopedias may convey: Sugar
was cultivated in India between 500-350BC, but its use did not
reach Persia till about 500AD. Its use was shifted west by the
Islamic movement.

Should Mintz have read Willan and placed more pressure on
available histories of English merchant families? As we will find,
the lists given here of London-based merchants and politicians set
up reverberations which had long genealogical persistence. This
concentration on genealogy removes romance from the history of
improvements in navigation and exploration, and enhances
appreciation of that history in terms of commercial life - so that
we find how sea lanes twisted and turned until finally, Australia
grew into the consciousness of the world. Not so far, actually,
from the supposed origin of sugar-cane - Irian Jaya/West Papua New
Guinea. It is possible that Dutch East India Company interests had
thought that too much dependence on Eastern sources for sugar was
too dangerous, unprofitable, that the supply line was too thin, and
that it was better to deal with the Americas and the West Indies
for sugar. In turn, perhaps the British agreed with the Dutch in
this?
(Mintz, Sweetness, p. 235.)

It is useful to place at the head of the list, Elizabeth I's
famous favourite, Leicester, or, Dudley. Leicester's main interest
seems to have been in allowing English merchants to step into a
power vacuum once the Portuguese had been forced to quit Morocco.
English mariners sailed also to "the Guinea coast". Naturally, some
English commercial tendencies entwined with Portuguese interests,
during and while England became a larger maritime power. Here,
then, the list:

English merchants and others interested in Barbary (Morocco)
trade, 1540-1680

Robert Dudley (1534-1584/88), Earl Leicester.
(Taylor, Tudor Geography, p. 26. Lorimer, (Ed.),
Amazon, pp. 28ff. Willan, Elizabethan Foreign Trade,
p. 172, p. 184, p. 225. Ida Lee, 'The First Sightings of
Australia by the English', Journal of the Royal Australian
Historical Society, Vol. XX, Part V, 1934, pp. 273-280. Note:
Issues of Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society
between 1930-1936 are studded with articles on world navigators of
various eras from various countries.)

London Salter and sugar importer, Robert How. Privateer George
Henley of Somerset.
(Noted in Willan, Elizabethan Foreign Trade. Henley is noted
in Brenner, Merchants and Revolution.)

Gerard Gore the Elder, a Portugal trader, with sons becoming
early members of the East India Company. (Long later, the
pastoralists Macansh of Queensland, Australia, would be
descendants). London Lord Mayor Sir John Gore (died 1636), and
London alderman c.1641 William Gore. John Swinnerton, a factor in
Morocco, dealing in cloth-sugar for Gores by the 1580s.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 385. Burke's
Peerage and Baronetage for Temple of Stowe, p. 2393. Burke's
Landed Gentry for Elwes of Roxby. Willan, Elizabethan
Foreign Trade, p. 213. R. G. Lang, `Jacobean London
Merchants'. The Australian connection: Macansh: See L. M.
Mowle, A Genealogical History of Pioneer Families of
Australia. Fifth edition. Sydney, Rigby, 1978., p. 106.)

By the late 1630s, London customs farmer, Sir Nicholas Crispe
(1599-1666), the founder of the English slave depot and refreshment
base for East India shipping on the African coast, Kormantin, whose
faction sought a royally-backed monopoly on Moroccan trade.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 174. K. G. Davies,
Royal Africa Company, p. 9.)

Crispe's faction was resisted by Maurice Thompson (Thomson), who
is treated at length in later chapters, as are Thomson's probable
allies in resisting Crispe, the Anglo-Dutch entrepreneur, Sir
William Courteen Snr. (1572-1636) plus Samuel Bonnell.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 12, pp. 170ff.)

About 1650, John Penn, "an old Morocco hand", the grandfather of
the founder of Pennsylvania, William Penn.
(Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p. 171.)

A noted figure in seventeenth century power struggles over the
proprietorship of English Caribbean islands, Francis Willoughby
(1613-1666), fifth Baron Willoughby of Parham, in 1660 a grantee of
the "Morocco Company".
(Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter
Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1730. London, Jonathan
Cape, 1973., p. 50.)

Some of these names are referred to in earlier files, other
names will ring through following chapters.

If we might consider Barbados here from 1625-1628, we might also
briefly consider sugar imports into Britain, rather than "gold and
slaves", since the economic inter-linkages involved in trade in
cloth and sugar required long-term investment in genuinely
productive capacity. But here we can also notice, that in the way
they treat European-Asian trade between 1600 and 1900, economic
historians mostly treat commodity gathering (such as pepper or tea)
and exchanges of partly or fully-finished goods, plus bullion.
Topics treated less effectively are the military and other costs of
protecting trade routes, the costs of maintaining distribution
pathways once cargoes reached European ports, and the interests of
European consumers, down to the housewife sprinkling spices on a
newly-baked cake. What genealogical inquiry does, is press us to
ask more questions about the English families involved in trade -
down to their social history, and the way they shared their history
with their contemporaries.

In Mintz's book on the history of the consumerism of sugar is
given a revised appreciation of the origins of modern capitalism,
in terms of a capitalism that relies on scientifically
predictable outcomes. This is an origin of capitalism that
escaped the attention of Karl Marx, who was little interested in
science and technology; but an origin of capitalism that fits well
the history of technology and science, generally - including the
history of sugar-growing and the history of the rise of navigation.
As the history of Barbados shows for the English case, this
capitalism began in the early seventeenth century, and relied on
slavery.
(In Rabb, Enterprise and Empire, p. 111, it is noted that
London alderman Thomas Cordell (died 1612) was Master of Mercers, a
director of the Spanish, East India and Levant companies, an
investor in privateering, in Ireland and in Virginia, "and a
pioneer in sugar refining in England".
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 18; Rabb,
Enterprise, p. 111; Andrews, Elizabethan
Privateering, pp. 76ff.)

In this sense, there is traceable one of the distinguishing
characteristics of modern capitalism, which is - the capitalist's
resentment at paying workers a living wage - call this matter,
equity - although capitalists surely appreciate a
profit. This resentment existed, and exists, because of
early-modern capitalism's reliance on slavery in the Caribbean.
Particularly, the resentment of the English capitalist.

This form of capitalism, criticised by Karl Marx, and memorably
identified by Tawney in Religion and the Rise of Capitalism,
was of course translated to the first British colony in Australia,
after forms of semi-slavery, convictism, had been planted
there.
(R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism: A Historical
Study. Ringwood, Victoria, Pelican, 1966.)

Yet any forms of semi-slavery in Australia, convictism, were
distinct from the slavery of Negroes at the time, from 1788,
because of the legislation backing convict transportation to
Australia. European Australia escaped the worst excesses of
slavery, although to 1830, many notable figures influencing life in
the colony of New South Wales had exposure to slavery as seen in
the Caribbean, as an inspection of Australian Dictionary of
Biography quickly reveals.

The distinguishing characteristics of this form of Capitalism,
as outlined by Mintz, included:
(1) concerted investment at the outset in property and productive
facilities;
(2) regular production by a trained work force;
(3) regularly applied accountancy;
(4) with production, some reliance on a scientifically predictable
outcome relating to rates of production and a capacity to make
reliable future projections;
(5) a growing market for product.

Given the period, from 1600, people's views of physical time,
"agricultural time" and a changing human sense of time should also
be measured. Europeans began to rely on time measured into various
packets, as by a clock, as historians of the Industrial Revolution
generally point out. Mintz sees all these necessary characteristics
evident earlier than the Industrial Revolution in so-called
agricultural operations, sugar plantations of the Caribbean,
decades before they were seen in the factories, the "dark satanic
mills", of England's industrial revolution, which required new
working practices.

In particular, where the sense of time, and the production of a
predictable outcome are concerned, Mintz draws attention to the way
sugar slurries were crystallised. This was a heat-using and
seasonal process where timing was crucial. As a post-agricultural
phase of production, it was managed for longer than all-night
sessions by skilled slaves. The process was crucial, since it
reprocessed much of the year's production. If this process was not
successful, the plantations year became a financial disaster.

It was to this part of the "capitalistic production process"
that the best of the science-of-the-day could be applied. So in
this sense, the sugar industry rapidly absorbed new science and
technology and harnessed them to old-fashioned forms of labour,
including the use of slavery. With all this, the history of a small
Caribbean island, never before inhabited till whites arrived,
Barbados, allows us to see how sophisticated urban financiers,
writers and commentators, the managers of royal monopolies, small
planters, ship managers, all worked to apply science to redevelop
an agricultural pursuit, producing... anew variant of Capitalism. Capitalism, for
example, as still seen in agrarian Virginia after the American
Revolution in the income flows of a founder of the modern United
States, Thomas Jefferson.

As the English East India Company grew from 1600, and expanded
operations in India, Bengal sugar was not profitable-enough a cargo
at the time, and was only consumed by the upper classes of Europe.
Gradually, the consumption of sugar was democratised. My argument
above is owed to Mintz's excellent book, to which I would add
several points.
(1) Genealogically, many descendants can be identified, of
Englishmen involved in this elaboration of slave-based capitalism
in the seventeenth-century Caribbean - including Duncan Campbell
(1726-1803) the subject of a later portion of this series of books.
Including, William Bligh "of the Bounty".
(2) In English economic history, what historians have missed is a
recurrent flip-flop of capital between "slavers", or, those
involved in the sugar industry, and men usually seen as involved
with the English East India Company. Usually, historians see
England's slave-based enterprises as distinct from East India
Company business, and so they treat the two sorts of enterprises
separately. This is chimerical, as I will demonstrate.

The nexus of this recurrent "flip flop of capital" between these
large-scale, capitalistic enterprises, sugar-slavery and East India
business, was the City of London, or rather, the dealings of
financiers in the City. Genealogy can be helpful with illustrating
how this happened. The history of Barbados helps us to unfold these
dismal aspects of modern capitalism.
(In outlining Mintz's perceptions here, I have relied also on
material in the following titles in respect of relevant English
history. James A. Williamson, The Age of Drake. London,
1938. On West Indian privateering, Kenneth R. Andrews,
Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering during the
Spanish War, 1585-1603. Cambridge, England, 1964. Theodore K.
Rabb, Enterprise and Empire: Merchant and Gentry Investment in
the Expansion of England, 1575-1630. Cambridge Massachusetts,
1967. Here, Rabb, especially, has lists of over 6000 persons
investing in overseas commercial ventures about the 1630s. Dunn
finds some interesting names are not on this list, such as Thomas
Modyford. Also helpful is Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 11, p.
58. On English anti-Spanish activity see Arthur Percival Newton,
The Colonising Activities of the English Puritans: The Last
Phase of the Elizabethan Struggle with Spain. New Haven,
Connecticut, 1914.)

An early question to be answered, necessarily, is: Why did
England's East India traders not deal in sugar from Bengal after
1630 or so? Initially, after 1600, the English East India Company
found it difficult to gain hegemony in India's eastern ports. By
the time the English could have exported Bengal sugar, England was
so committed to Caribbean interests that there was little point.
The turning point took effect from the 1640s, when Barbados was
turned over from more diversified agriculture to sugar - and
slavery - as Cromwell's power took hold at home. And it was between
the 1650s and 1718 that the transportation of English convicts came
to be intensified - with felons sent to work in areas where slavery
of Negroes was already common. That is partly how the
transportation of English convicts came to be linked with slavery.
Later, economies devoted to tobacco production were dependent on
slavery.

Sugar cane originated in western New Guinea (although, there is
a botanists' debate about this). Gradually, the use of sugar made
its way west, and sugar was produced in Bengal, as Europeans noted.
The English found it uneconomic to import Bengal sugar. By 1660,
the English found it profitable to ship sugar from the Caribbean.
By the time of Cromwell's Western Design, the 1650s, England's East
India traders still had relatively little experience in investing
in sugar-based enterprise. What, if anything, changed this
situation? It also seems, that from about 1627, the first West
Indian ventures in sugar were supported by Dutch capital, with the
English following Dutch inspiration.
(Mintz, Sweetness, p. 53.)

Most reviews of world exploration, and especially of the
explorers of Australia and the Pacific, avoid questions of the
development of the slave trade. In this book however, specific
links between England's first notable mariners, the East India
Company and English slaving interests are explored due to
necessities arising from a review of the career of the "first
English explorer of Australia", William Dampier.

For centuries, European Mercantilists preferred to deal with
large and thriving populations, with industrious peoples inhabiting
regions rich in resources, such as India or Indonesia, and later,
China. Thinly-populated Australia could not be seen this way.
Australia's low population density is one reason - perhaps the main
reason - why Australia was settled so late in world history. When
Dampier after 1700 reported negatively on the prospects of
north-western Australia, he implicitly encouraged Mercantilists,
from any European power, to ignore the mysterious Australian
continent. But why was Dampier, mostly regarded as a "pirate" of
the Caribbean, or South America, ever in the Australasian region in
the first place?

How Dampier followed up Ralph Fitch:

After 1700, when Dampier went to "the East", and on his way
reporting negatively on north-western Australia, he retraced the
steps of an Englishman working in the 1580s, Ralph Fitch.
(C. R. N. Routh, Who's Who in History. England: 1485-1603.
Vol. Two. London, Basil Blackwood, 1964. On matters genealogical in
general here, see variously: John Burke and John Bernard Burke,
A Genealogical and Heraldic History of Extinct and Dormant
Baronetcies of England, Ireland and Scotland. Second edition.
London, John Russell Smith. [Facsimile of the 1964 edition].
Hereafter, Burke's Extinct Baronetcies. Vicary Gibbs, (Ed.),
The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great
Britain and the United Kingdom. [Extinct, extant or dormant].
London, St. Catherine's Press, 1910. [Hereafter, and as usual form
of citation, GEC, Peerage, given name of title(s), or
surname(s), page references] W. A. Shaw, The Knights of
England. Two Vols. London, Heraldry Today, 1971. Burke's, A
Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry. London,
Edn. 18., Burke's Peerage Ltd. Patrick Montague-Smith, (Ed.),
Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage. (Australasian edition)
London, Debrett's Peerage, 1980. Also, Charles Kidd and David
Williamson, (Eds.), Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage.
London, Macmillan's/Debrett's Peerage Ltd., 1985. R. G. Lang,
`Social Origins and Social Aspirations of Jacobean London
Merchants', Economic History Review, 2, V, 27, 1974.,
pp. 28-47.)

Ralph Fitch in his own day was racing to compete with the Dutch,
and so Fitch was a kind of economic espionage agent. Dampier in his
own day was assisting England's "New" East India Company as it
tried to infringe on the operations of the "Old" East India
Company, which had begun operations in 1599-1600. In this, Dampier
stepped out of his usual role of "pirate" and more resembled Fitch,
a scout for London's merchant interests. One historian, Routh,
considers Fitch one of the greatest of England's merchant
adventurers. If so, we would be unwise to overlook Fitch. So we
need now to consider first some of the active promoters of London's
commercial life, for they did much to inspire maritime activity and
exploration.

In the 1690s, before William Dampier travelled East to scout
areas that the Old (English) East India Company had not yet
exploited successfully, or where the company had experienced
difficulty in maintaining its influence, the reasons for his
mission fulfilled a long heritage of commercial infighting in the
City of London that can be traced back to Tudor times. Many Lords
Mayors and aldermen of London were shrewd traders. The
intermarriages between them, or their children or relatives, and
members of the English aristocracy, have been traced in
insufficient detail, and so it is necessary to mention genealogical
groupings of noted figures in London's life from era to era. A
notable person in the narrative, mentioned earlier, is Anne
Boleyn, the executed wife of Henry VIII. The lives of the
genealogical cast of characters demonstrate all the themes needing
to be discussed, from the development of slavery, to the English
government of Ireland, to the increasingly sophisticated financial
powers of the East India Company and the City of London. Various
connections between Englishmen and English institutions, and Dutch
interests, of course culminated in 1688 with the installation of
William III of England as King of England.
As noted in an earlier file: the wife of London Lord Mayor Geoffrey
Boleyn (died 1463) was Ann Hoo, the daughter of Thomas Hoo, first
Baron Hoo. Hoods titles became extinct. Ann's sister Eleanor
married one James Carew, but it remains impossible to connect him
with the name Carew as connected to Sir Francis Drake.
(GEC, Peerage, Hoo, pp. 561ff.)

Abigail Cokayne who married John Carey (1608-1677) second Earl
Dover.
(GEC, Peerage, Rochford, p. 52; Hunsdon, p. 630.)
Abigail's father was Sir William Cokayne (1561-1626), Lord Mayor
(1619-1620), son of a prominent merchant tailor, married to a
second wife, Mary Morris, promoter of the ill-fated Cokayne
project. He was responsible for the Corporation of the City of
London for their lands in Ireland; so he was the technical founder
of Londonderry. His daughters married several aristocrats, his son
Charles became first Viscount Cullen.
(Rabb, Enterprise, p. 206. Hasler, History of
Parliament, Vol. 2, p. 345. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, on "Cokayne's Project", p. 59, p. 78, p. 87. GEC,
Peerage, Cullen, p. 561; Campden, p. 516; Leeds, p. 509;
Kilmorey, p. 261; Lindsey, p. 20; Holdernesse, p. 534; Nottingham,
p. 789.)

In 1614, James I appointed Cokayne controller of the king's
Merchant Adventurers, a company with a monopoly to sell dressed and
dyed cloth to the Baltic. "Cokayne's Project" was designed to steal
such trade from the Dutch, but it folded. Cokayne was also
interested in Nova Scotia.

Howard had licences to export woolen cloths and in 1598 to trade
with Guinea. His titles became extinct. Charles' father, the first
Baron Howard of Effingham, William (1510-1572/73), Lord High
Admiral (1553-1557) is said to have been greatly instrumental in
Elizabeth I gaining her throne.
(Who's Who /Shakespeare, p. 224. GEC, Peerage,
Dudley, p. 482; Effingham, p. 9. Bath, p. 19. Nottingham, p. 782.
Information on an earlier period can be found in Gordon
Connell-Smith, Forerunners of Drake: A Study of the English
Trade with Spain in the early Tudor Period. London, Longmans
Green and Co., 1954.)
Mary Cokayne (1598-1650) the sister of Abigail above, and wife of
third Baron Howard of Effingham, Charles Howard, the son of Charles
Howard and Catherine Carey above. (1579-1642);
(Hasler, History of Parliament, Vol. 3, p. 343. GEC,
Peerage, Nottingham, p. 788; Effingham, p. 10.)

The privateer Sir Richard Leveson, who married a daughter of
Mary Cokayne above; (He was son of the vice-admiral of Wales.
(Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p. 29.)

The republican hanged for his views, Algernon Sydney
(1640-1683), an ancestor of Thomas Townshend, first Viscount
Sydney, a major planner of Britain's first convict colony at
Sydney, Australia.
(Alan Atkinson, The Europeans in Australia. Vol. 1, The
Beginning. Melbourne, Oxford University Press, 1997. Here, Algernon
Sydney is noted as an ancestor of Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, p.
51.)

James Hay, ambassador, much in favour with Charles I, first Earl
Carlisle (1580-1636), "proprietor of the Caribbean".
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 30. Also, Arthur P. Newton,
(Ed.), The European Nations in the West Indies, 1493-1688.
London, Black, 1933. Robert M. Bliss, Revolution and Empire:
English Politics and the American Colonies in the Seventeenth
Century. Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1990., p. 33
and p. 67.
This earl of Carlisle spent 400,000 pounds in his lifetime, died
debt-entangled, and left nothing for his heirs. Charles I made him
a proprietor of the Caribbean Islands.
(GEC, Peerage, Carlisle, pp. 32ff; Denny, p. 187; Norwich,
p. 769.
Hay eloped with his second wife, Lucy Percy (1599-1660), daughter
of Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland. Agnes Strickland,
Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest.
Vol. V. Anne of Denmark queen-consort of James the First, King of
Great Britain and Ireland. Bath, Cedric Chivers Ltd., 1972. Also,
Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman
Conquest. Mary II, Queen-Regent of Great Britain and Ireland,
consort of William III. Vol. VII. Bath, Cedric Chivers Ltd., 1972.;
Vol. 5, p. 284. Who's Who /Shakespeare. Richard S. Dunn,
Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English
West Indies, 1624-1730. London, Jonathan Cape, 1973. maps, p.
49 and Note 10; pp. 50, 55. Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts,
1603-1660. The Oxford History of England. Oxford University
Press, 1959., p. 326.)
This earl Carlisle's commercial associates were Marmaduke Roydon,
William Perkins and Alexander Bannister, of whom little is known.
His son by Honora Denny, James Hay (1605-1660), second earl
Carlisle, by 1639 had hereditary rights to Barbados, but his line
became extinct.

The daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham (1532-1590) and Ursula St
Barbe, Frances Walsingham (1567-1631), who became the wife
successively of Richard De Burgh, first Earl St Albans, Philip
Sydney (1554-1586), promoter of International Protestantism, first
Earl Leicester and Robert Devereux (1566-1600).
(On Walsingham and Ursula St Barbe: GEC, Peerage,
Clanricarde, p. 231; Nottingham, p. 235; Essex, p. 142; Burke's
Extinct Baronetcies for Worsley, p. 580. Hasler, History
of Parliament, Vol. 3, p. 574, calls Ursula "shadowy to
posterity", and it is difficult to find if her father is named
Henry or John.)
( Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 30. Also, Arthur P.
Newton, (Ed.), The European Nations in the West Indies,
1493-1688. London, Black, 1933. Robert M. Bliss, Revolution
and Empire: English Politics and the American Colonies in the
Seventeenth Century. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
1990., p. 33 and p. 67. This earl of Carlisle spent 400,000 pounds
in his lifetime, died debt-entangled, and left nothing for his
heirs. Charles I made him a proprietor of the Caribbean
Islands.
(GEC, Peerage, Carlisle, pp. 32ff; Denny, p. 187; Norwich,
p. 769. Hay eloped with his second wife, Lucy Percy (1599-1660),
daughter of Henry Percy, third Earl of Northumberland. Agnes
Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman
Conquest. Vol. V. Anne of Denmark queen-consort of James the
First, King of Great Britain and Ireland. Bath, Cedric Chivers
Ltd., 1972. Also, Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of
England from the Norman Conquest. Mary II, Queen-Regent of
Great Britain and Ireland, consort of William III. Vol. VII. Bath,
Cedric Chivers Ltd., 1972.; Vol. 5, p. 284. Who's Who
/Shakespeare. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of
the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1730.
London, Jonathan Cape, 1973. maps, p. 49 and Note 10; pp. 50, 55.
Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660. The Oxford
History of England. Oxford University Press, 1959., p. 326.)

Ursula St Barbe evidently inherited Walsingham's premises in
Seething Lane, London. (The Seething Lane site had earlier been
"headquarters" of the navy in the time of Sir William Winter, noted
in earlier files.) So that Frances inherited the site.

Later Robert Devereux (1590-1646) was born there, as his
grandmother was Frances. This Seething Lane address, probably the
one becoming No. 33, evidently stayed with the St Barbe family, for
after the 1770s, No. 33 Seething Lane was the address of the whaler
and convict contractor interested in the Pacific, John St Barbe, of
whom we hear more later. Unfortunately, the St Barbe genealogy is
broken between 1710-1770, so it is impossible to unequivocally
explore this possibility.

Robert Rich, first earl Warwick, (1559-1618), whose son Robert
(1587-1658), the second Earl of Warwick was to become an
extraordinarily influential figure in promoting both privateering
provocation of the Spanish, and Caribbean and North American trade.
(Their forebear First Baron Rich is noted in earlier files
here.)

The privateer George Carey (1541-1616), who married Lettice a
daughter of the first Earl of Warwick, above. He was once to be
treasurer in Ireland. He invested money in voyages by Sir Humphrey
Gilbert and Thomas Cavendish.
(Hasler, History of Parliament, on Careys, Vol. 1, p.
546.)

And Anne Boleyn (1500-1536), the beheaded wife of Henry VIII,
the mother of Elizabeth I. The implications are that Elizabeth I
was surrounded by relatives, including a great number of
aristocrats, who were powerfully interested in provoking the
Spanish, expanding English trade internationally, in creating
colonies and developing sea power, and as a corollary, ensuring
that Ireland remained no threat to England, since it would remain
occupied by England. In this, Elizabeth had few choices, she could
not deny such people, and in many ways, histories of English sea
power which emphasise the maritime exploits of Hawkins, Drake and
Raleigh, under-emphasise these thematic aspects seen in and around
the genealogy of the Boleyn family. What the great Boleyn family
did was help to create a model for activity, in society generally,
that became a Puritan-dominated social movement in England,
particularly for families from England's south-western areas,
especially Devon and Somerset, the areas from which Drake and
Raleigh and many of their comrades were recruited. A poem written
long-later celebrates such adventurism:

Drake he's in his hammock till the great Armadas come,
(Capten, art tha sleepin' there below?,
Slung between the round shot, listenin' for the drum,
An' dreamin' arl the time o' Plymouth Hoe.
Call him on the deep sea, call him up the Sound,
Call him when ye sail to meet the foe;
Where the old trade's plyin' and the old flag flyin',
They shall find him ware an' wakin', as they found him long
ago!
(I am grateful to Michael Sharkey for drawing this anti-Spanish
poem to my attention. Drake's Drum. Third and fourth
stanzas. From, Henry Newbolt, Poems: Old and New. London,
John Murray, 1917.)

This social movement was powerfully anti-Catholic, and it helped
set the seeds for the development of English capitalism, inasmuch
as modern historians' associations between Puritanism and the rise
of capitalism remain useful commentary.
(R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism.)

This was also, incidentally, Shakespeare's England, but the
focus in what follows will be on the fringes of a developing
empire. This social movement ended in giving to the world - the
continent of Australia.

The London backers of Ralph Fitch's travels:

London Lord Mayor, Sir Edward Osborne (1530-1592), was a
co-founder of the Spanish Company and the Levant Company. He was
born a first son in 1530, and was commercially active by 1577. His
father was Richard Osborne of Kent, spouse of Jane Broughton, and
Edward's own spouses were firstly Anne Hewett, and secondly
Margaret Chapman (by 15 September 1588). Osborne was a clothworker
who became a financier and international merchant, earlier an
apprentice of his father-in-law, Lord Mayor Sir William Hewett.
(GEC, Peerage, Leeds, p. 507. Alfred C. Wood, A History
of the Levant Company. London, Frank Cass, 1964.)

Osborne traded with Spain and Portugal, also the Levant, and
re-exported cloth to the Baltic. In 1575 he and Richard Staper sent
agents to Turkey to reconnoiter before signing a treaty. Osborne
also became governor of the Levant Company, and he and Richard
Staper personally financed the travels of Ralph Fitch and John
Newbury to the East when England was first considering developing
international trade by sea, not by overland routes.

It has been noted, in the context of Osborne helping to finance
Fitch's travels, "It was apparently Fitch's report, on his return,
that led the Levant Company merchants to seek the inclusion of the
overland route to the East in their renewed monopoly charter of
1592".
(Routh, Who's Who in History, pp. 435ff on Ralph Fitch and
John Newbury. Hasler, History of Parliament, Vol. 3, p. 157
for Sir Edward Osborne (1530?-1592), London Lord Mayor in 1583, who
helped finance Fitch's activities. W. Foster, England's Quest of
Eastern Trade. London, 1933., on Fitch, pp. 79-109. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, pp. 20ff. Also, there was a Thomas
Fitch, active by 1641, intended to be deputy-governor of the
Puritan-inspired Providence Island operation intended to harass the
Spanish. (Providence Island was off the Nicaraguan coast). (Newton,
Colonising Puritans, pp. 304ff).

So, by about 1581, England had set up four merchants, only, to
trade to Turkey, but soon London saw to the origin of the Levant
Company, incorporated in 1592 as the Turkey Company, involving
twelve merchants. Meanwhile, Elizabeth I became a leading
shareholder of the Venice Company.

Another Lord Mayor (in 1590), and a Puritan, Sir John Hart (died
1604) was a grocer, moneylender, a member of the Levant and Muscovy
companies.
( Michael Lok's brother John was with the Guinea expedition of
1554. Loks, engaged in the Levant trade, were disappointed by
Barbary piracy and so became interested in any plans to find
north-west passage to Cathay. Michael Lok became a member of the
Muscovy Company (founded in 1555), and in 1574 with the patronage
of the first Earl of Warwick helped promote Frobisher's voyage,
inspired by Sebastian Cabot's earlier voyages; but Frobisher's
failures led to Lok's ruination. Zacariah, an MP who died in 1603,
son of Michael Lok, was in the service of Henry Carey, first Baron
Hunsdon, noted elsewhere here.)

Hart's spouse was Anne Haynes, his father was Ralph Hart.
(Burke's Extinct Baronetcies for Bolles, p. 69.) Hart was
often governor of the Muscovy Company between 1583 and 1600. He was
a friend of Humphrey Smith of the Grocer's Company, of which he was
a member. As a Puritan, Hart hoped in his will to be "of the
elect". By 1602 he was an investor in the East India Company.
(Hasler, History of Parliament, Vol. 2, p. 264. Burke's
Extinct for Bolles, p. 69.)
(Hart worshipped at St Dionis Backchurch, London. From 1583, he and
Richard Staper helped Fitch's travels. (GEC, Peerage, Leeds,
p. 507. Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 18, p. 72.
Hasler, History of Parliament, Vol. 2, p. 264, Vol 3, pp.
156ff.)

In all, the linkages between merchants of the Levant and Muscovy
companies were genealogically complex, a factor which flowed into
the character of the East India Company from 1600. And so it seems,
that the East India Company was greatly influenced by merchants who
were already experienced in conducting the international trades of
their day. Ralph Fitch's travels should be seen in this light - he
was intended to expand horizons for London's international traders
- many of whom were intermarried.

Fearing the Portuguese maritime hegemony at the Cape of Good
Hope, the Levant Company in February 1583 sent men out via
Syria and the Persian Gulf to find what could be bought and sold in
Asia, and to visit Akbar, the great Mogul emperor of India. The
travellers included Ralph Fitch and a jeweller, John Newberry
(Newbury), Leeds, and Storey. (John Newberry (Newbury), via
Aleppo, of the Turkey Company, was active by 1580 (Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 20.). A jeweller, Leeds, and
Storey, who went to India, were arrested by the Portuguese as
heretics and were given to the Inquisition at Goa, but they escaped
with help of a English Jesuit. A related story is that an English
priest in India (Goa) sent information back to his father, a London
merchant, and that this information helped stimulate trade
interests.

They escaped anyway with help from an English Jesuit. Some of
these English however did manage to inspect the Mogul splendour of
northern India. During 1584, Fitch went down the Hughli River of
Bengal, then to Chittagong (present-day East Pakistan), then by
boat to Pegu in Burma, then to Rangoon, then to Chiengmai in
northern Siam. These were all territories which possessed little
naval power, or, if they possessed it, they did not emphasise it, a
situation which would continue.

1583: Edmund Fenton of the Muscovy Company (who had
married Thomasine, daughter of Benjamin Gonson the naval
administrator of England) was also active by 1583, and he visited
the Moluccas and the Spice Islands, although Houtman for the Dutch
was the first European to exploit Sumatra successfully. Fenton made
a voyage partly of discovery, partly of plunder, with the backing
of the first Earl of Leicester, Sir Philip Sydney (1554-1586 who
was married to Frances daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham) and
Secretary of State, William Cecil (1521-1598), Lord Burghley.

The Muscovy Company as a body had provided a large direct
investment. Fenton's supporters included Thomas Pullyson, William
Towerson, Thomas Aldersey, Thomas Starkey (all Spanish Company
directors) plus Sir George Barne (died 1593), a founding Spanish
Company director and a co-founder of the Turkey Company. (Barne's
father was deep in the Spanish trade from the 1560s.
(On Barne, Governor of the Muscovy Company in 1580 and 1583:
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 18-20, p. 63. Burke's
Extinct Baronetcies for Garrard, p. 214, and , p. 446.
Hasler, History of Parliament, Vol. 3, p. 571 for his
daughter's marriage to Walsingham. Conyers Read, Mr Secretary
Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth. Vol. 3, Oxford
University Press at the Clarendon Press., pp. 425ff. Valerie Hope,
My Lord Mayor: Eight Hundred Years of London's Mayoralty.
London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson in association with the Corporation
of the City of London, 1989.)

Also, Martin Calthorpe, and the powerful trade overseer Sir John
"Customer" Smythe (1558-1625), Sir Richard Martin (Turkey Company
founders) and Thomas Cordell, a co-founder of the Venice Company.
Also, Robert Sadler was a co-founder of the Venice Company.
( The third governor of the Levant Company, from 1600, was Sir
Thomas Smith, whom I cannot well identify genealogically.)
(Wood, Levant Company, Appendix IV). Some confusion exists
on the genealogy for Smythe (one individual has dates 1556-1608),
which is unfortunate as his family was notable in customs
collection. Sadler was a co-founder of the Venice Company. As
privateer-merchant of the Levant Company of the 1590s, Sadler
backed ventures by Drake and Fenton; Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, pp. 20-21. Rabb, Enterprise, p. 112.)

It is difficult not to see Fitch's and Fenton's travels as
coordinated in London. Making a thorough survey, Fitch had moved on
to Malacca near Singapura, or, the later Singapore, and noted the
vital strategic role of the Straits of Malacca. Then he turned
back, going to Pegu, then Ceylon, up the west coast of India to
Cochin, then to Goa, then Basra, Babylon, Mosul, Aleppo, and back
to London. (Newberry meantime on his way home died in the Punjab
area.) In all, Fitch was away eight years. Except for the mention
of Ceylon, it would appear that Fitch mostly used local,
coast-hugging ships. Over a century later, William Dampier visited
some of those same areas, merely tacking the north of Western
Australia (and the Philippines) on to Fitch's list of more southern
South-East Asian destinations. Fitch had thought some the countries
he saw were much wealthier than his own, which was doubtless
correct. Pegu was bigger than London! More importantly, it is said,
Fitch's information was sifted by merchants and led later to the
creation of the East India Company. Long later, Imperial Britain
ruled many of the areas Fitch had visited.

Fitch's backers had assumed land power, but were interested in
developing sea power. After 1700, Dampier's backers urbanely
assumed sea-power. In 110 years, the balance had changed
dramatically, due to Caribbean sugar island and South Sea English
piracy, and the more sedate operations of the East India Company.
Unfortunately, historians who have tended to treat English piracy -
which via the careers of Drake and Raleigh becomes part of
the history of English navigation, and of the exploration of the
Pacific - separately from the apparently more sedate operations of
the East India Company. But when both topics are treated together,
it is then one realises how regularly capital was flip-flopped
between Caribbean (or African-slaving interests) and East India
interests. This happened in the intimacies of the City of London,
with merchants who are readily identifiable, genealogically
involved.

Captain Robert Jenkins, the Jenkins of "the war of Jenkins'
ear", an "East India captain" taking slaves from Madagascar to the
Malabar Coast of India. Was he perhaps the first captain to ship
coerced labour between Southern Africa and India on a large
scale?

Royal Africa Company investor, Sir Benjamin Bathurst. (He was
governor of the East India Company 1688-1689 and treasurer to
Princess Anne of Denmark.
(GEC, Peerage, Bathurst of Battlesden, p. 28. K. G. Davies,
Royal Africa Company.)

George Berkeley, ninth Baron Berkeley, first Earl Berkeley
(1627-1698), probably an investor in the Royal Africa
Company, was on the committee of the East India Company 1660
till his death. He was once Master of Trinity House and as a peer
declared for William III.
(Amongst Berkeley's later genealogical linkages were the first of
the Scots tobacco merchants and bankers, Coutts, in the nineteenth
century, and the bankers Grenfell. Also, Admiral Sir George
Cranfield Berkeley (1753-1818), who sailed with James Cook about
Canada.)
(GEC, Peerage, Berkeley, p. 139 and table, p. 146;
Burlington, p. 431; Tankerville, p. 633. K. G. Davies, Royal
Africa Company.)

Further notes on merchant history of the English-speaking
world since 1550:

Further views on English trade:

Oddly enough, of all the merchant-expansionist groups, the
aspiring exploiters of the Amazon area are the most revealing in
terms of merchant-aristocracy linkages, genealogically. Another
reason to emphasise genealogical connections is in view of a
peculiar English reticence about discussion of engagement in trade,
which used to surface in debates between English historians. By
1926, H. R. Wagner had expressed a view that England's "orgy of
piracy" had engendered "a profound disdain" amongst the gentry for
legitimate [ie, commercial] activity, after Elizabethan times. By
1967, Theodore Rabb as a student of merchants thought Wagner seemed
wrong. We can agree here with K. R. Andrews' thesis, that
privateering played a vital role in the formative years of
England's expansion, as "resoundingly" confirmed [by Rabb's
work].
(Rabb, Enterprise, p. 80, Note 106. Andrews, Elizabethan
Privateering, variously.)

It often appears that Wagner's view has won the day in English
historiography - and it is taken that aristocracy had little direct
engagement in English trade. So, I have taken pains to discover
genealogical connections between English aristocracy, commercial
adventurers, and the upper echelons of England's commercial sector,
particularly the Lords Mayor and aldermen of London, plus
financiers and other notable names.

Computerisation of data of course is helpful. Before 1967,
working on merchants, Rabb had originally intended to treat
genealogical data, but as his project was already complex, he
ceased work on family relationships.
(Rabb, Enterprise, p. 97, Note 131. Rabb, discusses his
methodology as he began using computerised techniques, p. 133; also
see p. 102 and p. 210.)

This meant that scholars have had to wait for Brenner's work
(published 1992-1993) for more than an inkling on the networks
focused in London, of family relationships, commercial
relationships and activity, and the involvements of aristocrats or
members of their families. Rabb himself notes the striking
attachment of commercial men to the Middle Temple, London.
Attention can be drawn to just one parish in London, St Dunstan's
in the East, since my own genealogical research suggests that a
great many names had links to that parish, which was a stronghold
of radical-Puritan commercial, and maritime, endeavour.

Rabb also notes that the phrase applied to the evolution of the
British Empire, a phrase sometimes applied to the argument about
Britain's reasons for settling Australia, that the Empire was
developed in a "fit of absence of mind", was first used by J. R.
Seeley in The Expansion of England. (London, 1883.) (An
argument against any view of Australia being settled in a
fit of absence of mind is found in Atkinson, The Europeans in
Australia.
(Alan Atkinson, The Europeans in Australia, Vol. 1,
variously.)

Rabb and Andrews seem correct, Wagner wrong, but as Brenner
shows, the greater problem is in organising information on merchant
groupings, family networks, and then merchant linkages to
aristocratic families. Meanwhile, Rabb says a plague in 1603
"virtually brought London's trade to a standstill"; in the first
decade of reign of James I was an economic boom, and, the
foundation of the Virginia Company in 1606 proved a watershed once
peace with Spain presented other and less-threatening implications.
From 1601, Parliament saw battles over royal monopolies, and again
in 1604. Should all comers have privileges in foreign trade, should
trade be open to all upon payment of a fee, or not? Sir Edwin
Sandys opted to promote free trade, and made an attack on the "200
families" which by Stuart times more or less ruled the English
economy.
(Ramkrishna Mukherjee, The Rise and Fall of the East India
Company: A Sociological Appraisal. Bombay, Popular Prakashan,
1973., p. 73.)
(Here, we should note that by the 1960s, it was thought by English
Marxists that between Stuart times and the 1960s, the number of
families "ruling England" had grown to 400 or more). So, I have
opted to simply trace linkages and let the reader make up their own
mind.

In 1601, London men sought to find a north-west passage to sell
more English woolens in colder areas, especially, China.
(A. N. Ryan, `"A New Passage to Cataia": The Northwest Passage
in Early Modern English History', pp. 299-317 in John B.
Hattendorf, (Ed.), Maritime History Vol. 1: The Age of
Discovery. Malabar, Florida, Krieger Pub. Co., 1996.)

Many trading scenarios arose due to lack of Indian/Asian demand
for European manufactures including woolens. Dunn suggests that
between 1560 and 1630, it is probable that English merchants put
more investment money into privateering than any other enterprise,
including the East India Company, but of course, in 1559, the
Spanish had refused to surrender their "right" to exclude
foreigners from the Indies, about which England failed to agree, so
disagreements took place away from home. About 1604, English
privateers captured hundreds of enemy ships and took home about
100,000 pounds in sugar, hides, logwood, indigo, silver, gold and
pearls.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 10-11.)

Amazon adventurers:

With any genealogical unity notable amongst and between
England's notable traders, explorers, mariners and colonists from
before 1600, we find that cloth traders and their associates were
conspicuous - although, somewhat under-rated in maritime history.
Logwood, as the English called it, sometimes called redwood, was a
source of dyes for the cloth trade. It was gained from
near-Caribbean areas where the English had less influence than the
Spanish and Portuguese. The earliest English exploration of the
Amazon River area took place between 1553-1608; the first English
and Irish settlements were made there, 1604-1620.

Some of the names of interest in the context of English
expansionism generally were: Sebastian Cabot, who warned of
Portuguese interest in the area by 1553; Hakluyt the commentator on
English maritime expansionism; Sir Walter Raleigh, inspired by
tales of gold, by 1595, and his backers Myddleton.
(GEC, Peerage, Dacre, p. 12. Who's Who /Shakespeare,
p. 201. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p. 26. A. L.
Rowse, Raleigh and the Throckmortons. London, Macmillan,
1962., pp. 129ff notes Raleigh, and also that the Throckmortons had
been in the service of the Earls of Warwick, who captured the
loyalty of many large families. Newton, Colonising Puritans,
p. 67: Fulke Greville (1554-1628), the first Lord Brooke, naval
treasurer, was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Raleigh and
interested in his colonisation schemes. Brooke also published
Sidney's political tract, Arcadia. (On Brooke: Who's Who
/Shakespeare, p. 98, GEC, Peerage, Brooke, pp. 331ff;
Willoughby, p. 690). Lorimer (Ed.), Amazon, p., 293 notes
Raleigh's son, Carew (1605-1666). Backers of Raleigh or others of
Raleigh's circle included Hugh Middleton (1580-1627, brother of
Thomas below), Sir George Carey, keeper of the Privy Purse Henry
Seckford, the great London merchant and privateer, Lord Mayor
Thomas Myddleton (1556-1631), Lord Charles Howard the Lord High
Admiral of England, Baron Effingham. Raleigh was a half-brother of
Sir Humphrey Gilbert; Raleigh's father was a privateer, and Raleigh
began his career working with a London merchant-privateer, Alderman
Watts. Raleigh's cousin, Charles Champernowne was a privateer.
Michael J. G. Stanford, `The Raleghs take to the Sea',
The Mariner's Mirror, Vol. 48, No. 1, February 1962., pp.
18-35. On the Myddletons and their families, Who's Who
/Shakespeare, p. 164; Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering,
pp. 113ff. Lord Mayor Thomas Myddleton, a Puritan, had a brother,
Robert, who was an MP and an East India Company investor. Thomas
traded from the Elbe River in cloth, mercery, sugar and spices, and
reported to Sir Francis Walsingham on customs farms matters. He was
in partnership with Raleigh, Drake and Hawkins, and had a sugar
refinery in Mincing Lane.).

(Matters do not confine themselves just to the name Myddleton.
The founder of the Spanish Company was Sir Richard Saltonstall
(1577-1601). His daughter Elizabeth married Levant Company
merchant, Peter Wyche (died 1643), and their daughter Jane married
John Granville, first Earl Bath. The Wyches form a separate and
interesting line in matters commercial (see Wood as historian of
the Levant Company). Elizabeth's sister Hester Saltonstall married
Sir Thomas Myddleton, her brother, Sir Samuel was an MP and
"colonist", and yet another sister married Thomas' brother, the MP
and merchant, Robert Myddleton.)
John Ley, died 1604;
(Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, pp. 20ff, p. 149. GEC,
Peerage, Marlborough, pp. 488ff.)
Robert Dudley, who married Anne Cavendish of a mariner family, (He
was the illegitimate son of Robert Dudley by lover Douglas
Sheffield. Robert in being married to Anne was brother-in-law of
Thomas Cavendish, mariner and MP, and perhaps, brother- in-law of
the writer on navigation, Richard Hakluyt, 1552-1616.
GEC, Peerage, Northumberland, pp. 722ff. Lorimer, (Ed.),
Amazon, pp. 28-29 and p. 30, Note 2. Andrews, Elizabethan
Privateering, p. 68. Gwenyth Dyke, `The Finance of a
Sixteenth Century Navigator, Thomas Cavendish of Trimly in
Suffolk' , Mariner's Mirror, Vol. 44, 1958., pp.
108-115. Who's Who /Shakespeare, p. 42.), the grandson of
John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland; Sir Thomas Roe (1581-1644)
visited Guiana in 1610-1611.
(Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 38. Roe's father was Robert, of
Low Leyton, Essex, son of Thomas Roe, merchant tailor, Lord Mayor
of London in 1568. A family member, William Roe, was Lord Mayor in
1590, Henry Roe was likewise in 1607, Lord Mayor. In May 1609, an
Oxfordshire gentleman, Robert Harcourt, had links to Edward Gifford
and Edward Harvey when he became interested in the Amazon area.
(K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An
Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge
University Press, 1989., pp. 86-87, p. 147.)
Roe was an associate of Arundel; Mary F. S. Hervey, The Life,
Correspondence and Collections of Thomas Howard, Earl of
Arundel. Cambridge University Press, 1921. Kraus Reprint, New
York, 1969., Chapter 20. Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 26.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 300.

Sir Thomas Roe had commercial links with Emanuel Exall, John
Rizelye, William Stannarde, John Wightman, Peter Sohier and Robert
Smith. Roe explored the swamps of Wiapoco and Cuyuni with several
Virginia pioneers.

Roe, also an emissary to the Mogul Emperor, was a protégé of the
sister of Charles I, the Electress of the Palatinate, Elizabeth. By
1636-1637 Roe wanted a voluntary war in the West Indies.)

Roger North's backers included his eldest brother; Ludovic
Stuart (1574-1624) the second Duke of Lennox), the earls of Arundel
(being Thomas Howard (1585-1646) Earl 14 Arundel, the earls of
Warwick, Dorset (being Treasurer Thomas Sackville (1536-1608) Earl1
Dorset, whose mother Winifred was daughter of Lord Mayor Brydges);
and Clanricarde (being Richard De Burgh (1572-1635), fourth Earl
Clanricarde, who married Frances the daughter of Sir Francis
Walsingham and Ursula St. Barbe); and "the great part of the
council", or, the Lord Chancellor, the Earl of Pembroke,
Southampton, Hamilton, and the Marquis of Buckingham.

Thomas Warner accompanied North to areas of Spanish hegemony,
Guiana. In 1618, Arundel with the Earl of Warwick proposed a scheme
to colonize Guiana/the Amazon River.

By 1635, John and Samuel Warner were in the Virginia tobacco and
provisioning trade. Thomas Warner was about 1622-1625 backed
commercially in London by Ralph Merrifield (an associate of the
Earl of Carlisle), who was interested in the West Indies.)
Peter Courteen of Cologne (1581-1631) a brother of Sir William
Courteen Senior;
(This Peter Courteen (1581-1731) of Cologne, son of tailor William
Courteen and Margaret Casiere, was unmarried. Kenneth R. Andrews,
The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1530-1630. London,
Yale University Press, 1978., p. 233, pp. 244ff.)
Sir Nathaniel Rich (1585-1636), was second-in-command in commercial
matters for the second Earl of Warwick. Sir Thomas Somerset
(1579-1649) Viscount Somerset.
(Colonist Sir Nathaniel Rich (1585-1636). He was a grandson of
illegitimate descent of Richard, first Baron Rich. Lorimer, (Ed.),
Amazon, p. 195, Note 1. Newton, Colonising Puritans,
p. 242 and disputing the content of the DNB entry.

Nathaniel's brother Robert was wrecked with Somers on Bermuda.
Nathaniel, knighted in 1617, was an investor in the Bermuda Company
in 1615, the Virginia Company in 1619, in the New England Company
in 1620, and the Providence Island Company in 1630. His own
DNB entry.)
(Later, by 1626-1627 arose the Guiana Company.
(Robert, first Earl Warwick (1559-1619), married Penelope Devereux
and Frances Wray; and (Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, pp. 192ff),
had a 1619 patent to go the Amazon/ Waiapoco area as an adventurer
with the Earl of Arundel, Edward Cecil, Dorset, Clanricarde, Jo.
Danvers and Thomas Cheek. This Earl Warwick was the most powerful
landowner in Essex.
(Hasler, History of Parliament, for Careys, Vol. 1, p. 546.
GEC, Peerage, Holland, pp. 539ff; Warwick, pp. 404ff;
Newhaven, p. 539. See also, Robin Law, `The First Scottish
Guinea Company, 1634-1639', The Scottish Historical
Review, Vol. LXXVI, No. 202, October 1997., pp. 185-202.)

(Soon after Sir Walter Raleigh's first voyage to the Guianas in
1595, the English explorer Captain Charles Leigh attempted to start
a settlement on the Waiapoco (Oyapock) River, now the border
between Brazil and French Guiana).
(Thomas Roe, an English explorer of Amazonia, later an emissary to
the Moghuls of India. See Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts,
1603-1660. The Oxford History of England. Oxford University
Press, 1959., pp. 335ff.)

From 1609, various English syndicates had been interested in
Guiana, and in 1619, Roger North was backed by the "great
colonizing connection" around Rich, second Earl of Warwick, and
raised money. The 1619 Guiana venture required some 60,000 pounds.
Massive follow-up funds however did not appear.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 109, p. 125.)

The Amazon Company of 1619 organized by the Earl of Warwick and
Captain Roger North put men at the head of the Amazon delta. The
Spanish however did not agree. That led to the later first
permanent English settlement in the West Indies. Left alone after
the failure of the Amazon venture was (Sir) Thomas Warner, son of
an old, landed but non-wealthy East Anglian family.

But we are here considering two different strands of commercial
endeavour, eastern/Asian and southern, in that the first East India
Company investors (1599-1601) were commercial men who did not want
the co-operation of "gentlemen", that is, aristocrats. As the East
India Company began, following up on the travels of Ralph Fitch,
the "gentlemen", some as listed above, were attempting to exploit
the Amazon area. In fact, more genealogical unity can be found
concerning Amazon adventurers between 1580-1630 than concerning the
first East India Company merchants; not that English histories
necessarily give this impression.

Many of the descendants of England's "Amazon adventurers"
maintained their interest in the Caribbean and nearby areas,
including Virginia. They often expressed anti-Spanish sentiments,
they elaborated their interests through layers of merchant, not
aristocratic, connections. Interests in slavery were maintained.
And strangely enough, they often left the East India Company alone,
sans "gentlemen".

The descendants of the Amazon adventurers dealt with the East
India Company by linkages in the City of London, by financial
intermediation. This is partly how it occurred that there was more
regular "flip-flop" of capital between slaving and East India
Company interests than historians have thought. And how is the
proof of this provided? By tracing the long Seventeenth Century
infight between certain English aristocratic interests, and their
commercial underlings over control of the Caribbean. This history
is greatly dogged by the distractions of the English Civil War, and
of matters Cromwellian, as well as by narratives of conflict with
French, Dutch or Spanish interests. In retracing matters, the
mysterious image of "the Great Southland", and the rather neglected
role of the investments of the Anglo-Dutch merchants, Courteens,
need new explanation. (Some of the history of the English interest
in producing sugar has been outlined earlier in these files.)

On the origin of the English East India Company:

The East India Company first began operations in 1600 in
England, "lured by spices and peppers". The earliest voyages were
to the islands of the Far East, not India, but later, English
interest concentrated at Surat, India, partly to avoid annoying the
Spanish-occupied territories. The Dutch meanwhile pushed on to the
Moluccas and Java. By 1600, the Dutch with their monopoly of the
pepper-trade had annoyed England by sharply increasing the price of
their product - Londoners reacted by chartering their East India
Company, so it is said.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 101.)

Historians disagree even here. From 1599, it is also
said, the legend is incorrect, that England was annoyed as the
Dutch raised their pepper price from 3/- to 8/6d per pound. Foster
for example feels the English East India Company were more
interested in exporting woolens.
(Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China,
1800-1842. Cambridge University Press, 1951.)

Why English woolens would be needed in tropical and
semi-tropical countries is an interesting question. (?) But more
interesting is why England needed dye for cloth, and spices and
pepper for the improvement of a bland diet? The role of Englishmen
in the cloth industries is paramount, as shows in collections of
genealogies.

The East India Company established itself to take over the
commerce of the Levant Company men in far eastern commodities by
developing a direct sea-route with India and the East Indies
via the Cape of Good Hope. Some of the same group were
trying to pry open the valuable import markets of the Portuguese
empire in South America.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 19.)

Just which men were involved in which scenarios is crucial to
an argument. In 1599, under the auspices of Merchant
Adventurers (who were little interested in shipping woolens), an
association was formed, with 101 shares, asking the queen for a
warrant to fit out three ships, a charter of privileges and
permission to export bullion. But might this break the peace with
Spain and Portugal? The queen was persuaded to send an agent,
merchant John Mildenhall, on an embassy to the Great Mogul,
via Constantinople. He did not arrive till at Agra, and he
got home overland by 1607 - with permission for the English
to trade.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, pp. 65-67.)

The first meeting of East India Company Adventurers was held in
London, 24 September, 1599. The trade of members was to be on an
individual basis, with no joint stock. These were Levant Company
merchants who had their own offices. Seven of the original fifteen
East India Company directors were Levant men. The first governor of
the East India Company was Sir Thomas Smythe, whose family
unfortunately remains difficult to trace genealogically.
(His son was also Sir Thomas III Smythe, who had a son-in-law,
Alderman Robert Johnson, a governor of the Bermuda Company.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 98ff. Thomas III was
of the East India and Muscovy companies, and was in 1632 governor
of the Bermuda Company.)

However, seven of the original 24 directors of the East India
Company of the charter of 31 December, 1600, were Levant
merchants.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 21, p. 86.
Encyclopedia Britannica of 1928.)

Between 1601-1605, Levant Company charter officers included
Andrew Bayning, John Bate, Thomas Cordell and Richard Staper. Other
noted merchants were Arthur Jackson, Sir Robert Lee, Robert Bowyer,
Richard Wyche and Lawrence Greene.
(See Wood, Levant Company, for various lists.)

After 1600 the East India Company had 125 shareholders
(including Elizabeth I), with a capital of 72,000 pounds, but the
Company wished to avoid dealing with "gentlemen", that is,
aristocrats. They wanted more bourgeois involvements. This was
wise, since aristocrats had been involved in much other trading to
1600, and it is possible that it was the Levant merchants who
wished to exclude aristocrats where possible from the East India
Company. At the time, this reflected one kind of radical view. By
31 December, 1600, the Company had obtained a royal charter, and
now proposed voyages. The captain of the first venture was Sir
Edward Michelbourne. One of the first East India Company traders
after 1600 was James Lancaster. One interesting figure from 1598
was the Aleppo merchant, William Clarke.
(On Edward Clarke as a commercial explorer with Anthony Jenkinson;
Jenkinson's DNB entry. Burke's Peerage and
Baronetage, Jenkinson.)

One of the original Company men of 1599-1600 was Thomas
Alabaster, a Spanish merchant of the 1580s who by 1601 was the East
India Company accountant. In 1600, Thomas Mun was a factor of
William Garraway [Garway?], sometime a merchant in Italy.
(K. N. Chaudhuri, The English East India Company: The Study of
an Early Joint-stock Company, 1600-1640. London, Frank Cass,
1965., p. 75. See also, P. J. Thomas, Mercantilism and East
India Trade. London, Frank Cass and Co., 1963. (Orig., 1926.)
S. A. Kahn, The East India Trade in the Seventeenth Century.
London, 1923. W. H. Moreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb.
London, 1923. J. C. Appleby, `Thomas Mun's West Indies Venture,
1602-1605', Historical Research: The Bulletin of the
Institution of Historical Research, Vol. 67, No. 162, February,
1994., pp. 101-107.)

(For the first Company voyage, Alabaster sent Captain Baker and
Robert Pope to the west country to get bullion - bullion obtained
by piracy - and some money from Calais and Rouen in France.)
(K. N. Chaudhuri, An Early Joint-stock Company, 1600-1640,
p. 126. On trade in an earlier era, see James A. Williamson,
Maritime Enterprise, 1485-1558. Oxford at the Clarendon
Press, 1913.)

The East India Company's first fleet left with four ships from
the Thames under Captain James Lancaster, in February 1601, for a
voyage of two years. There was a second voyage in 1604 under
commander Henry Middleton, to go to Bantam in Java where Lancaster
had left some factors; Middleton was also to try Banda and
Amboina.

The first East India Company ships were Red Dragon,
Hector, Ascension and Susan, sailing for Java
and Sumatra in 1601.
(The East India Company's "first fleet" of four ships left the
Thames under Captain James Lancaster, in February 1601, for voyages
of two years. A second voyage in 1604 sailed under commander Henry
Middleton, to go to Bantam in Java where Lancaster had left some
factors, Middleton also to try Banda and Amboina. In 1606 the
returning interloper/pirate Sir Edward Michelbourne had warned the
Company that English at Surat could expect trouble from the
Portuguese. Middleton later fought the Portuguese; so did Capt.
Thomas Best of Voyage 10.)

Trade in pepper and spices was envisaged, competition with the
Dutch became severe; and the Dutch by 1623 drove out the English
except from Bantam, at Java.
(Bal Krishna, Commercial Relations Between India and England,
160-1757. 1924.)

However, by 1607 the English were lodged at Surat and were
dealing with the Mogul emperor. The English had new stations at
Madras, 1639, Bombay, 1662 and the Calcutta area, 1686. The English
traded also with ports of the Persian Gulf and the southern Red
Sea. England needed pepper from the East Indies and saltpetre (for
gunpowder manufacture) from northern India, silk, cotton, indigo,
drugs of all kinds.

A useful "merchant list" for comparative purposes for 1600 and
later includes the names Ralph Freeman of the Levant Company,
William Hawkins the slaver (and naval administrator) with an
assistant Captain Keeling, Abraham Cartwright of the Levant
Company, Paul Bayning (1588-1629), first Viscount Grandison, of the
Venice Company; Anthony Jenkinson of the Muscovy Company, William
Salter of the Levant Company, John Smith the "founder" of the
colony of Virginia, and John Dee as an adviser on navigation. Plus
Sir Walter Raleigh, mariner.
(Freeman from 1624 was part of the Rich/Earl Warwick faction,
controllers of the Virginia Company. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 79, p. 103.)
(The father of first Viscount Bayning, Alderman Paul Bayning (died
1616) of St. Olave's Hart Street, London, was a privateer, one of
four Venice merchants who combined with the merger of the Grocers
Company and Turkey Company into the Levant Company. Alderman Paul's
ship Susan was commanded by Captain James Lancaster.
See Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 18; GEC,
Peerage, Bayning, pp. 35ff; Grandison, p. 75; Dacre, p. 13;
Pembroke, p. 420ff; Cleveland, p. 280. Andrews, Elizabethan
Privateering, pp. 108ff.

The Bayning descendants and their linkages included Thomas
Lennard (1654-1662) Baron15 Dacre, married to Elizabeth Bayning
with progress to the Barons Teynham; the Viscounts Clare; and an
exotic specimen in commercial life, a "customs farmer", Barbara
Villiers (1641-1709), Duchess Cleveland, whose sons began the line
of the Dukes of Grafton.
(GEC, Peerage, Cleveland, pp. 280ff.)

Item:
Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery.
London, Allen Lane, 1976. (Here, Hawkins is indexed but Sir William
Winter is not indexed.) Ch 1 says, to 1603, and for Tudor times the
cloth merchants who backed maritime endeavour were pro-Spanish;
matters changed with the 1551-152 cloth slump, and in 1552 arose
some English hopes of finding a north-east passage to fabled Cathay
(China).

22 April, 1550: The first encounter between Europeans and South
American Indians/Brazil, as recorded by Pero Vaz de Caminha,
an official scribe for a Portuguese flotilla that accidentally
arrived on the coast of Brazil, off-course for a voyage to India.
The Indians were given a red beret, a linen hood and a black hat.
In return, the Indians gave a headdress of bird feathers, a
necklace of white beads. Not so long later, the Portuguese enslaved
the Indians. At the time of first contact, there were about five
million Indians in 1400 tribes speaking 1300 languages. In April
2000, a 500th anniversary was observed at Porto Seguro, a small
coastal town. Today, DNA research reveals that about 45 million
Brazilians, about a third of the population, share some indigenous
DNA levels. Brazil still has about 30 pockets of Amazon jungle
where so-called Stone Age tribes live, of about 100-300 people.
Land rights remain a serious issue for Brazil's indigenous
people.

1551: And earlier: Already under Henry VIII, Hawkins makes made
several voyages to Liberia [Grain Coast], gets pepper, ivory but no
gold. Whyndham's syndicate (now also with Sir George Barnes) has
idea re Gold Coast, with Portuguese pilot Antonio Pinteado (sic).
Whyndham sails with 140 men including young Martin Frobisher (a
kinsman of Sir John Yorke), and only 40 survived.

1551-1552: Thomas Wyndham sails to Barbary Coast, the Atlantic
coast of Morocco, in 1553 to Guinea Coast into Benin Bay; he died
on his last voyage, but his crew brought back enough gold to
enrapture London.

1549-1551AD: Mission of Jesuit St. Francis Xavier to Japan.

1551-1552-1603: Kennedy writes that to 1603, more so in Tudor
times, the cloth merchants who backed maritime endeavour were
pro-Spanish, matters had changed with the 1551-1552 cloth slump,
and in 1552 arose some English hopes of finding a north-east
passage. See Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval
Mastery. London, Allen Lane, 1976.

1552: Birth near Budleigh, Salterton Bay, of Sir Walter Raleigh
(1552-1618). Son of Walter Raleigh of Fardell and Catherine,
daughter of Sir Philip Champernowne of Modbury. See 1578:

1552: (Lord/Earl) Northumberland forms joint-stock company to
carry out John Dee's plan re north-west passage. Northumberland's
company which included 200 "capitalists" sent out an expedition led
by Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor. Willoughby died with
all his crew trying to winter on the coast of Lapland, but
Chancellor entered the White Sea, found village of Archangel,
established contact with Czar/Ivan the Terrible.

1551: And earlier: Already under Henry VIII, Hawkins makes made
several voyages to Liberia [Grain Coast], gets pepper, ivory but no
gold. Whyndham's syndicate (now also with Sir George Barnes) has
idea re Gold Coast, with Portuguese pilot Antonio Pinteado (sic).
Whyndham sails with 140 men including young Martin Frobisher a
kinsman of Sir John Yorke, and only 40 survived.

1551: From 1551, Thomas Gresham restored financial stability to
the royal purse. As the crown's financial agent, he required
merchant adventurers to give him in Antwerp a large part of
proceeds in foreign currency, from cloth sales, to be repaid in
sterling at a fixed rate of exchange, which was usually more than
what was available in Antwerp. The crown then had source of
short-term loans, and this also forced up the price of sterling on
the international market. This system remained in use for 20 years.
In 1558 the English crown raised customs rates to increase revenue.
Merchants in return were given gained extra privileges, including
the hampering of non-English merchants in London, the Hanse men,
Italian and Flemish merchants.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 55-56.

1551: English syndicate of merchants, with Sir John Lutterell,
and Henry Ostrich equip ship for Morocco, area frequented by both
Portuguese and Spanish. Ostrich is Sebastien Cabot's son-in-law.
Promoters suffer disaster. Fever rages in London. Lutterell,
Ostrich and others died as did other members of syndicate.
New-found captain is Thomas Whyndham, a naval officer and
vice-admiral of a fleet employed by Protector Somerset in Scottish
campaign of 1547. Whyndham trades at Santa Cruz, so in 1552 another
voyage backed by Sir John Yorke, Sir William Gerard, Sir Thomas
Wroth, Francis Lambert, with three ships. Wyndham also to Canary
Islands, but found no new commerce.

The early 1550s: William Winter is far too busy with
conspiracies to deal with, eg., Muscovy or Levant companies.

1553: On 23 June 1553 sets sails the voyage under Englishman
Richard Chancellor, adopted son of Henry Sidney, for The
Mystery, Company and Fellowship of Merchant Adventurers for the
Discovery of Unknown Lands. Chancellor on ship Edward
Bonaventure. Also two other ships, Bona Esperanza, and
Confidentia. Also sailing is Sir High Willoughby. The ships reach
Barents Sea, and end 300 miles inside the Arctic Circle, worried by
pack ice. Some of the ships crew had written wills dated January
1554. Willoughby and his men froze to death. Chancellor had gone
into the White Sea near today's Archangel, and gone overland to
Moscow. Chancellor meets Grand Duke of Russia, Ivan Vasilivich,
also Emperor, who is impressed enough to grant trade rights, which
thus begins the English Muscovy Company.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1553: In 1553, Capt. Thomas Windham and Antonio Anes Pinteado
(from Oporto, Portugal), with three ships and 140 men to sail to
Brazil, Guinea Coast - Gold Coast, went to Benin for Guinea pepper,
Windham died.
W. Walton Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From
the earliest times to the commencement of the Twentieth Century.
London, John Murray, 1915., p. 60.

1553: On 23 June 1553 sets sails the voyage under Englishman
Richard Chancellor, adopted son of Henry Sidney, for The
Mystery, Company and Fellowship of Merchant Adventurers for the
Discovery of Unknown Lands. Chancellor on ship Edward
Bonaventure. Also two other ships, Bona Esperanza, and
Confidentia. Also sailing is Sir Hugh Willoughby. The ships
reach Barents Sea, and end 300 miles inside the Arctic Circle,
worried by pack ice. Some of the ships' crew had written wills
dated January 1554. Willoughby and his men froze to death.
Chancellor had gone into the White Sea near today's Archangel, and
gone overland to Moscow. Chancellor meets Grand Duke of Russia,
Ivan Vasilivich, also Emperor, who is impressed enough to grant
trade rights, which thus begins the English Muscovy Company.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1553: Lord High Admiral (1553-1557), William Howard
(1510-1572-1573), son of Thomas Howard, second Duke of Norfolk, and
mother, Agnes Tilney, wife 2; he married Katherine Boughton wife1,
then to Margaret Gamage, wife2.
GEC in The Peerage says it was "to him above all other
Englishmen" that Elizabeth 1 owed her throne.
GEC, Peerage, Effingham, p. 9.

1553: 3rd February: Sir Thomas Wyatt and Kentish men march from
Deptford to London, and entered Southwark where they wait till 6
February but cannot enter London. Wyatt is aged 23; his
fellow-conspirator Winter, commands a fleet which brings him
ordnance to his headquarters.Cassell's History of England, p. 359). From websites on the
Hawkins and Winter families cited elsewhere.

To 1553: English voyages to Morocco. Chancellor-Willoughby
voyages for a north-east passage of 1553. First steps in English
expansionism. Developing connection of Spanish-Morocco trades,
latter taps sources of sugar and gold. Trade pioneers begin to
import sugar to England, then refine it. Some voyages began in
1551-1552, eg., ship Bark Anchor as reported by Hakluyt.
Aboard is Richard Chancellor.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 12-13.

1553: Decay of English Levant trade and rise of the Muscovy Co's
Persian links. William Jenkinson initiates overland route with
Persia for the Muscovy Co., through Ottoman Empire, dealing with
Suliman in Aleppo.

1553: Some men in both the Merchant Adventurers earlier
exporting cloth, and the new rising trades were Edward Jackman,
Francis Bowyer, William Allen and William Garrard. in 1553 began
some merchant syndicates seeking direct trade with Guinea, and here
were involved some Spanish merchants who were developing the
Morocco trade.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 14.

1553: Anthony Jenkinson: is at Aleppo, gets licence to trade
from Suliman the Great.

1553: A voyage allowed by Northumberland (sailed a month after
Edward VI succeeded Queen Mary). Two of Whyndham's ships are loaned
by Navy. 1553 circa, Whyndham dies. Northumberland now ambitious to
go to Asia via North-West Passage. Some backers include: Sir
George Barnes, Sir William Gerard and Sir John Yorke already in
Africa trade; Sir Andrew Judde, Rowland Hayward and Miles Mordeyne,
who promoted later Africa voyages; Marquis Winchester, Earls of
Arundel, Bedford and Pembroke, Lord William Howard the Lord Admiral
and Sir William Cecil, plus Sir Thomas Gresham acting for a govt
interest; all in a joint-stock company. Gov. of this Co. is
Sebastian Cabot "for life". He knew English cloth needed a market
in cold climates, not China and the Moluccas.
Williamson, Age of Drake, pp. 14-19.

1553: Winter took part in Dudley's plot to place a Protestant
queen, Jane Grey (1537-beheaded 12 Feb. 1554, for nine days queen
of England 6 July 1553 ).

1553: 3rd February: Sir Thomas Wyatt and some Kentish men march
from Deptford to London, and entered Southwark where they wait till
6 February but cannot enter London. Wyatt is aged 23; his
fellow-conspirator Winter, commanded a fleet which brought him
ordnance to his headquarters.
(Cassell's History of England, p.359). From websites on the
Hawkins and Winter families cited elsewhere.

1553: In the first year of the reign of Philip and Mary (1553),
William Hawkins' partner, a naval officer, Thomas Wyndham of
Norfolk, and Antonio Anes Pinteado, a Portuguese sailed to Guinea
and Benin and although Wyndham died on his first voyage to Gold
Coast; his ships brought back gold, pepper and ivory.

"The first voyage (for William Winter) was to Guinea and Benin -
In the year of our Lord 1533, the twelfth day of August, sailed
from Portsmouth, two goodly ships, the "Primrose" and the "Lion"
with a pinnace called the "Moon." Thus sailing forward on their
voyage, they came to the Islands of Canary, continuing their course
from thence until they arrived at the island of St. Nicholas where
they victualled themselves. From hence, following on their course,
they came at length to the first land of the country of Guinea,
where they fell with the great river of Sestos where they might for
their merchandise have laden their ships with the grains of that
country, which is a very hot fruit and much like unto a fig as it
groweth on the trees. For as figs are full of small seeds, so is
the said fruit full of grains which are loose within the cod,
having in the midst thereof a hole on every side. This kind of
spice is much used in cold countries". ("The first voyage to Guinea
and Benin" - Anonymous report Hakluyt's "Voyages").
Per Winter family website.

1553: 3rd February: Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Kentish men march
from Deptford to London, and entered Southwark where they wait till
6 February but cannot enter London. Wyatt is aged 23; his
fellow-conspirator Winter, commanded a fleet which brought him
ordnance to his headquarters. (Cassell's History of England,
p. 359).
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1554: In 1554 Capt. John Lok sails from the Thames with three
ships to Cape Coast and Kormantin. W. Walton Claridge, A History of
the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From the earliest times to the
commencement of the Twentieth Century. London, John Murray, 1915.,
p. 64.

1554: Another venture for gold and ivory to Africa by John Lok
(sic).

1554: Englishman Capt. John Lok sails from the Thames with three
ships to Cape Coast and Kormantin. See W. Walton Claridge, A
History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From the earliest times to
the commencement of the Twentieth Century. London, John Murray,
1915., pp. 60-64.
1554: Martin Frobisher voyages with John Lok, captured by Negroes
and given to the Portuguese at Elmina, later sent to Europe and
released.

1553-1555: London men interested in opening a direct route to
the far East, and in 1555 the Muscovy Co. charter claimed right to
control all voyages of discovery to east by way of any north-east
or north-west passages. See 1556.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 20.

1553-1555: Muscovy Co. established for discovering a north-east
passage. this evolved into the Muscovy Company of 1555. Muscovy Co.
idea to open a route for gold and spices of the Far East, free from
Portuguese interference. new direct trade with Russia for furs and
naval stores. (Interference for Mediterranean trade from rise of
Turkish and Barbary naval power.
T. S. Willan, `Trade between England and Russia in the second
half of the C16th, HER, 63, 1948., pp. 308-309.

1553-1555: Russia Co. is formed, two years later receives
monopoly. First English company to employ joint-stock and own ships
corporately. Co's captain Chancellour (sic) laid the foundation of
its trade.
Ramkrishna Mukherjee, The Rise and Fall of the East India
Company: A Sociological Appraisal. Bombay, Popular Prakashan,
1973. [Also, New York, 1974]., p. 25 and p. 41.

1554: In England, in October, English trade effort by Sir John
Yorke, Sir George Barnes, Thomas Lok, Anthony Hickman (traded to
Canary Islands and maintained factors there), Edward Castlyn
(traded to Canary Islands and maintained factors there), sent
another expedition to the Gold Coast (maybe had no official
authorization). A second Gold Coast expedition for John Lok as
representative of City and Court interests . John Lok (son of Sir
William Lok, merchant and alderman of London) has brothers Thomas
and Michael. John Lok returns in 1555 with good lading plus 400 lbs
of gold.
Williamson, The Age of Drake, pp. 28ff.

1554: 20 February: Conspiracy: A group is sent to the Tower:
William Winter, Sir Nicholas Throckmorton (one-time Elizabeth's
ambassador in France) and William Thomas. The conspirators wanted
Courtenay, a Yorkist heir descended from Sir William Courtney who
married Catherine Plantagenet, daughter of Edward IV and Elizabeth
Woodville, to marry Elizabeth. on 7 April, 1544 the Lord Mayor
found against Throckmorton, Crofts, Arnold, Carew, Pickering,
Rogers, Winter and Warner who were charged with conspiring with
Wyatt, Harper and others in London on 16 November 1553, with
seizing the Tower and levying war against the queen to deprive her
of her royal title (KB. 329 R.2 Controlment Rolls of the Courts of
the King's Bench). Winter, Warner, Rogers and Arnold were never
brought to trial. Winter was pardoned on 10 November 1544. The Duke
of Suffolk was tried and executed, so was his brother Thomas Grey.
Sir Thomas Wyatt, Anne Boleyn's cousin was executed on 15 March,
1553. Winter was sentenced to death but pardoned in November 1554;
he retained his Surveyorship of the Navy and even escorted Philip
II on his return to Spain.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1554: Michael Lok's brother John was with the Guinea expedition
of 1554. Loks, engaged in the Levant trade, were disappointed by
Barbary piracy and so became interested in a north-west passage to
Cathay. Michael Lok became a member of the Muscovy Company (founded
in 1555), and in 1574 with the patronage of the first Earl of
Warwick helped promote Frobisher's voyage, inspired by Sebastian
Cabot's earlier voyages; but Frobisher's failures led to Lok's
ruination. Zacariah, an MP who died in 1603, son of Michael Lok,
was in the service of Henry Carey, first Baron Hunsdon.
Mariner Sir Martin Frobisher (1553-1594), a nephew of John Yorke,
Russia merchant and an originator of the English Guinea trade.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 20. Taylor, Tudor
Geography, p. 37.)

1554: 20 February: Conspiracy: A group is sent to the Tower:
William Winter, Sir Nicholas Throckmorton (one-time Elizabeth's
ambassador in France) and William Thomas. The conspirators wanted
Courtenay, a Yorkist heir descended from Sir William Courtney who
married Catherine Plantagenet, daughter of Edward IV and Elizabeth
Woodville, to marry Elizabeth. on 7 April, 1544 the Lord Mayor
found against Throckmorton, Crofts, Arnold, Carew, Pickering,
Rogers, Winter and Warner who were charged with conspiring with
Wyatt, Harper and others in London on 16 November 1553, with
seizing the Tower and levying war against the queen to deprive her
of her royal title (KB. 329 R.2 Controlment Rolls of the Courts of
the King's Bench). Winter, Warner, Rogers and Arnold were never
brought to trial. Winter was pardoned on 10 November 1544. The Duke
of Suffolk was tried and executed; so was his brother Thomas Grey.
Sir Thomas Wyatt, Anne Boleyn's cousin was executed on 15 March,
1553. Winter was sentenced to death but pardoned in November 1554;
he retained his Surveyorship of the Navy and even escorted Philip
II on his return to Spain.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1555: Sailed for the Guinea Coast, Englishman Capt. William
Towrson (Towerson), Towrson in 1556, three ships on a second try,
with one John Davis. In 1558 is Towrson's third voyage with four
ships.

1555: The English Muscovy Co. continued the trade with Persia,
sending six voyages 1557-1579 till the Turks cut the Persia-Russia
route in 1580.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 13.

1555: Creation of the Muscovy Co. charter; 22 of the men named
were part of the 34 merchants interested in the 1558 voyage to
Guinea. Many of the 1550s Merchant Adventurers were leaders in the
Muscovy, Morocco and Guinea ventures of the 1550s.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 14.

1555: Muscovy Co. continues to trade with Persia, sending six
voyages 1557-1579 till the Turks cut the Persia-Russia route in
1580.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 13.
1555: Chancellor gets home in 1554 and in 1555 the Muscovy Co.
forms to take advantage of new contacts. Chancellor later voyages
with Stephen Borough to disaster. Chancellor fails to return in
1557, but England had found an outlet for its cloth trade, and
could now break the Hanse's monopoly on shipping timber, cordage,
and pitch as maritime supplies. (See 1566 re Sir Humphrey
Gilbert.)
G. R. Elton, Tudors, pp. 331ff.
1555: Russia Co. successful in negotiating agreements with Russian
Tsar, by White Sea route, see re Anthony Jenkinson in 1557. Co.
sent an employee to Persia and Bokhara. Further rights in area
granted in 1567.
Mukherjee, Rise and Fall of the East India Company, pp.
25ff.

1555: Sails Capt. William Towrson (Towerson), for the Guinea
Coast. Towrson in 1556, three ships on a second try, with one John
Davis. In 1558 is Towrson's third voyage with four ships. W. Walton
Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From the
earliest times to the commencement of the Twentieth Century.
London, John Murray, 1915., pp. 64-73.

In 1553 and 1555 Englishman Richard Eden publishes his
Treatise of the New India and Decades of the New World or West
India. There arose by 1555 a "fruitful co-operation" in Elton
p. 334, of merchants, sailors and moneyed gentry including a few
members of court and council. from 1551 the first trade contacts
grew with Africa. See 1551.

1556: Portuguese establish a trading factory at Macao,
China.

1556: Agricola's De Re Metallica synthesizes knowledge of
metals.

1556: Stephen Borough; Explorer for the Muscovy Co. And his more
famous brother, William. In 1556 the Muscovy Co. sent Stephen to
Russia, following up Chancellor's earlier visits. Stephen's
daughter married into the Huguenot family of London alderman John
Vassal, which family later became noted as planters/slavers in the
Caribbean. This John Vassal was connected with the ship
Mayflower, the famed ship bringing New England colonists to
America; his daughter married Peter Andrews, said to be captain of
Mayflower. Vassal fitted one or two of his own ships to
fight against the Spanish Armada. He was later with the Virginia
Company.
Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p. 58, p. 193, Note 22.; J. C.
Brandon, Genealogies of Barbados Families, conveyed by email
by Chris Codrington.
Taylor, Tudor Geography, variously. Brenner, Merchants
and Revolution, p. 20, p. 134ff. Andrews, Ships, Money and
Politics, p. 58. Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 26.

1556: In 1556-1557 the Muscovy Co. sent out first Stephen
Borough then Anthony Jenkinson to test for north-east passages. In
the 1550s, Martin Frobisher, who is a nephew of Muscovy Co. leader
John Yorke, participates in first voyage or so to the Guinea trade.
In 1576-1578, Frobisher led three ventures to establish trade
routes to the Indies by way of a northwest passage with license
from Muscovy Co. Frobisher's voyages had both court and merchant
backing re Russia, Spanish and Morocco trades.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 20.

1558: From Brussels, Oliver Brunel advertises that he has
travelled on the coasts of northern Russia, and might soon find a
North-East Passage to the Indies. He would soon take a Russian ship
to the spice islands. (This might reduce a year's sailing time?)
This information caused great pain to London merchants, so they
denounced Brunel to the Russians as a spy and he is imprisoned for
12 years.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1558 and later: By Elizabeth's reign (from 1558) English ships
were unloaded at the English factory at San Lucar de la Barrameda
(the only port allowed to trade with the Americas from 1492-1717)
and Cadiz. English merchants from London, Southampton, Bristol and
the West Country resided in Seville where the Casa de las Indias
was situated. The English in Spain became hispanized and the
Spanish in England anglicised; the English family of Castlyns or
Castelyn were perhaps of Spanish origin. Hugh Tipton, an important
English merchant in Seville, was John Hawkins's agent to whom he
sent cargoes.
(According to Spanish sources, John Hawkins was even knighted by
Philip II whom he served when he was king of England and referred
to him as his master during the Ridolfi Plot. (?)

1558: Calais falls from English control.

1558: Sir William Winter was in the fleet under Edward Fiennes
de Clinton, earl of Lincoln, which burned Conquet in 1558. In 1559
he has instructions to sail north with 14 royal ships taking
artillery and supplies to Berwick and to deal with the French. He
kept his fleet intact.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1558: Anthony Wilkinson of the Russia Co. goes into Persia for
trade. [Could this be a misprint in a book re Anthony
Jenkinson?]

1558: January 1558, William Towerson set out on a third voyage
from England. His squadron has two navy ships, evidence the Lord
Admiral had connived at such business. Towerson had gone first to
Gold Coast, and he and others built trade on success with that.
Some fell out of the business; Portugal claimed rights in the area,
rights which Towerson did not respect.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 31.

1558: Sir William Winter was in the fleet under Edward Fiennes
de Clinton, earl of Lincoln, which burned Conquet in 1558. In 1559
he has instructions to sail north with 14 royal ships taking
artillery and supplies to Berwick and to deal with the French. He
kept his fleet intact.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1559: 16 December: Expectation of a French invasion, Admiral Sir
William Winter is with fleet to lie in the Firth of Forth, with
instructions to observe the French. He sailed from Gillingham, Kent
with 14 vessels with orders to proceed to the Firth of Forth to
watch for the French and if attacked to sink and destroy. He left
Queenborough on the 27th December and sailed from there in January
1560 when the fleet was driven into Lowestoft, Suffolk by a gale
and kept there for a fortnight. It sailed north on 15 January 1560
and was driven back into the Humber but on 20 January 1560 sailed
to Berwick, along the coast to Fife near Kinghorn and in front of
Burntisland was garrisoned by the French, who attacked Winter, who
captured the Forth and cut off French communications and sent a
message to Norfolk (Dom. MSS, Rolls House 16.12.1559). (25.1.1560
Scotch MSS, Rolls House).
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1559: 16 December: Expectation of a French invasion, Admiral Sir
William Winter is with fleet to lie in the Firth of Forth, with
instructions to observe the French. He sailed from Gillingham, Kent
with 14 vessels with orders to proceed to the Firth of Forth to
watch for the French and if attacked to sink and destroy. He left
Queenborough on the 27th December and sailed from there in January
1560 when the fleet was driven into Lowestoft, Suffolk by a gale
and kept there for a fortnight. It sailed north on 15 January 1560
and was driven back into the Humber but on 20 January 1560 sailed
to Berwick, along the coast to Fife near Kinghorn and in front of
Burntisland was garrisoned by the French, who attacked Winter, who
captured the Forth and cut off French communications and sent a
message to Norfolk
(Dom. MSS, Rolls House 16.12.1559). (25.1.1560 Scotch MSS, Rolls
House).
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1559: First cultivation of tobacco starts in Spain.

1559AD: Henry II of France is killed in a jousting accident.
Succeeded by his son Francis II died 1560. Arises the rivalry of
the Guises and the Bourbon (who are Protestants) in French
political life.

1560: Active from 1560, John Dee. Not a mariner, but interested
in colonisation. By 1560, "the English by contrast, so far from
being at that time the heirs to generations of sea-goers, were
newcomers to ocean trade and shipping".
From Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. London, Macmillan,
1962., p. 1.

1560: Soon after 1560 John Hawkins moved to London and formed a
syndicate of merchants and officials including alderman Sir Lionel
Ducket and Sir Thomas Lodge, who were already engaged in Gold Coast
trade, and Benjamin Gonson (death date not identified yet) and Sir
William Winter (who dies the next year). This syndicate period may
mark the time when a rather unexpected nexus of interest developed
- between "naval men" and merchant-slavers.

1561: A company of English Guinea merchant adventurers includes
Sir William Gerard, William Winter, Benjamin Gonson, Antony Hickman
and Edward Castelin - and they sent out John Lok in ship "Minion".
This syndicate sent two ships out in 1562 only to be harrassed by
the Portuguese, and by now, Kormantin is already a focus point on
African coast. A a minor English expedition sailed in 1563.
See W. Walton Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti:
From the earliest times to the commencement of the Twentieth
Century. London, John Murray, 1915., pp. 73-75.

1561: Richard Eden, geographer, "cosmographer" and promoter of
colonisation. In 1561, Eden published The Art of Navigation.
(In 1563, English sailors made a second voyage to Florida.) Eden
had close links with Cabot above, Richard Chancellor and Stephen
Borough. A friend of Sir John Cheke, Eden also knew the Spanish
historian of Peru, Zarate. Eden dedicated a book to Northumberland,
given the Earl/Duke's interest in a voyage to Cathay. (Little is
known of Eden's family here.)
Taylor, Tudor Geography, p. 20. Williamson, Age of
Drake, p. 43.

1561: Bristol merchant John Frampton trades to Cadiz and Lisbon,
then overland to Malaga to buy wines. The Inquisition searches his
ship. Frampton was pirated and a decade later still petitioned the
admiralty for redress.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 45.

1561: By 1561-1562, Thomas Cobham, the brother of a peer, guilty
of various piracies and has shown religious prejudice by murdering
a friar. Martin Frobisher conducts similar piracies about now.
Williamson, Age of Drake, pp. 42ff.

By 1561, John Hawkins had links with a member of an important
Canarian family of Genoese descent in Tenerife named Pedro de Ponte
from whom he got information about the African and American trade
and Hawkins's pilot, Juan Martinez, was Sevillian. The Canaries
were free to English merchants under a treaty and there was a
factory of the Company of English Merchants trading with Spain.

1561: Gold Coast venturers include treasurer of Navy Benjamin
Gonson and secretary of Navy, Sir William Winter, who had use of
four navy ships. The queen finds the equipment and £500 for
vittles. Merchants paid the crews,cargo, repairs, undertook to hand
on one-third of the profits. John Lok makes another voyage in
1561.
A formal charter party for an African voyage by Queen's ship
Minion is found in Landsdowne ms 113, ff9-17, see
Williamson, Age of Drake, pp. 34-35.

On Sir William Winter see website:
http://www.pillagoda.freewire.co.uk/ADMIRAL.htm

1561-1562: The French Wars of Religion: "Throughout France,
members of the rival creeds (Catholic and Huguenot) attacked each
other, killing, burning, raping, torturing, and looting. The
atrocities were as outrageous as they were cruel. In a frenzy of
Protestant iconoclasm, churches were desecrated and their clergy
hunted down like vermin; one Huguenot captain wore a necklace of
priests' ears while the infamous Baron des Adrets made Catholic
prisoners leap to their death from a high tower. Even the dead were
attacked; at Orleans a Reformist mob burnt the heart of poor
Francois II and threw Joan of Arc's statue into the river. The
Counter-Reformation was not yet in evidence so Papist fanatics were
rare but nonetheless Catholics were goaded into fury.

At Tours two
hundred Huguenots were drowned in the Loire while the bodies of
those slaughtered at Sens came floating down to Paris. That grim
old soldier Blaise de Montluc made Protestant captives jump from
the battlements and remarked with satisfaction that all knew where
he had passed by the trees which bore his livery - a hanged
Huguenot; on one occasion he strangled a pastor with his own
hands." As Pascal said a hundred years later, "Men never do evil so
completely and cheerfully as they do from religious
conviction."
From: Desmond Seward, The First Bourbon: Henri IV, King of
France and Navarre. London, Constable, 1971., p. 143

1562: Maritime history: Legaspi sails in Philippines area.

1562: Capt. John Hawkins has on his own account three ships in
1562. In 1562-1563, England passes an Act legalizing the purchase
of slaves. From W. Walton Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and
Ashanti.

1562 from 1530: (H. R. Fox Bourne, English Merchants:
Memoirs, p. 136, old Master William Hawkins of Plymouth, 1530,
1531, 1532, with ship Paul of Plymouth, 250 tons to coasts
of Brazil, coast of Guinea, to Brazil to sell to the Indians, his
sons William Hawkins a merchant and shipowner in London and John, a
"naval hero'. He began the slave trade with three ships outfitted from
London, one backer being Alderman Duckett, got 300 slaves from
Sierra Leone, in 1562, later used one of the largest ships
available in England, later a slave partner with Sir Francis
Drake.

1562: Re Hawkins: The African coast was a favourite haunt of
French pirates and privateers (mainly Huguenots, who were the
finest sailors) who lurked amongst the islands and ravaged the
coasts of Senegal and the Spanish West Indies. The difference
between a pirate and a privateer was that the latter had Letters of
Marque from a monarch or a government licensing them to do what
pirates did illegally. William Winter was a privateer who raided
the African coast with Letters of Marque from Elizabeth I. English
privateers were first licensed by Henry VIII to seize French goods
carried under the Spanish flag whereupon Charles V seized all
English goods in Flanders and suspended trade with England.
Huguenots seamen from Rouen and Dieppe, La Rochelle and Bay of
Biscay practised piracy and raided the Caribbean. Under the
provisions of the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in 1559 everything
below Tropic of Cancer was considered fair game for corsairs.

1562: John Hawkins, reputed to "begin the English slave trade",
(but see an earlier Hawkins of the 1530s entering that trade), with
three ships outfitted from London, one backer being London Alderman
Duckett. Hawkins gets 300 slaves from Sierra Leone, in 1562, and
later uses one of the largest ships available in England. Later
Hawkins becomes partner in slaving with Sir Francis Drake.

1562: [John] Hawkins sails from Plymouth in October 1562 to the
Canaries, his chief ally amongst the Spanish there being one Pedro
de Ponte. Thence Cape Verde, while Ponte dealt with Hispaniola
(Jamaica). Hawkins got about 400 slaves, some from Portuguese
ships. In April 1563 Hawkins got to north of Hispaniolo, Puerto de
Plata, then to La Isabela, bartering slaves for goods, pearls,
hides and sugars, some gold.
1562: Frenchman Jean Ribault leads an expedition to Florida in
1562. About now, Elizabeth I wanted Thomas Stukely to go to Florida
with Ribault, but Stukeley found Channel privateering more
lucrative. Another Frenchman, a Huguenot, Rene de Laudonniere,
sailed for Florida in 1564 with approval of French government.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 47, p. 60.

1562: First slave trading English venture in 1562, under John
Hawkins (son of William earlier trading to Brazils, sailing from
Plymouth. (Walvin cites The First Voyage of John Hawkins,
1562-1563, in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal
Navigations... [12 Vols.] Glasgow, 1904.)
Elton says Hawkins has ideas of peacefully invading Spanish
monopoly. He made a final profit of 60 per cent on a round-trip. By
time he returns, relations between Spain and England are
deteriorating.
James Walvin, Black Ivory: A History of British Slavery.
London, Harper Collins, 1992., p. 303, p. 341.

1562: John Hawkins, reputed to have "began the English slave
trade", (but see an earlier Hawkins of the 1530s entering that
trade), with three ships outfitted from London, one backer being
London Lord Mayor Duckett.
Merchant adventurer Sir Lionel Duckett; He had three daughters with
dowry of 5000 pounds in Tudor money. Fox-Bourne, Merchant
Memoirs. Duckett's staff worked with copper and silver, and in
cloth manufacturing. Duckett had a company with Cecil, and the
Earls of Pembroke, to construct waterworks to drain mines. Taylor,
Tudor Geography, p. 107. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 81.

1562: Hawkins got 300 slaves from Sierra Leone, in 1562, and
later used one of the largest ships available in England. Later
Hawkins becomes partner in slaving with Sir Francis Drake.

1562: [John] Hawkins sails from Plymouth in October 1562 to the
Canaries, his chief ally amongst the Spanish there being one Pedro
de Ponte. Thence Cape Verde, while Ponte dealt with Hispaniola
(Jamaica). Hawkins got about 400 slaves, some from Portuguese
ships. In April 1563 Hawkins got to north of Hispaniolo, Puerto de
Plata, then to La Isabela, bartering slaves for goods, pearls,
hides and sugars, some gold.
1562: Frenchman Jean Ribault leads an expedition to Florida in
1562. About now, Elizabeth I wanted Thomas Stukely to go to Florida
with Ribault, but Stukeley found Channel privateering more
lucrative. Another Frenchman, a Huguenot, Rene de Laudonniere,
sailed for Florida in 1564 with approval of French government.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 47, p. 60.

1562: Voyage of Legaspi in Philippines.

1562: First slave trading English venture in 1562, under John
Hawkins (son of William earlier trading to Brazils, sailing from
Plymouth. (Walvin cites The First Voyage of John Hawkins,
1562-1563, in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal
Navigations... (12 Vols.) Glasgow, 1904.)
Elton says Hawkins has ideas of peacefully invading Spanish
monopoly. He made a final profit of 60 per cent on a round-trip. By
time he returns, relations between Spain and England are
deteriorating.
James Walvin, Black Ivory: A History of British Slavery.
London, Harper Collins, 1992., p. 303, p. 341.

1563: Stress of urbanisation: French parliament begs the king to
prohibit vehicles from the streets of Paris.

1563: England: Anthony Jenkinson makes another trip to Russia,
at Moscow by 20 August, 1563, one of his companions then is Edward
Clarke who went home with Jenkinson's letters. Then from London
came a second expedition to Russia of May 1564 with Thomas
Alcock.

1563: William's brother George Winter (Clerk of Ships, died
1580) of Dyrham, Gloucestershire (which he purchased from Sir
Walter Dennys in 1571 (13 Elizabeth I) is mentioned in an order
from Elizabeth dated 16 July 1563 to Lord Clinton, Lord High
Admiral asking him to deliver certain stores to George Winter
"Clerk of our Ships" (Add. MSS Vol. 5752) a position he held until
he died in 1582.

1564: Death of Michelangelo and birth of English playwright,
William Shakespeare. Note: Michelangelo: The received wisdom
that he is a homosexual is dismissed. From a book review, September
1999. See James Beck, Three Worlds of Michelangelo. Norton,
1999.

1564: King of Moluccas Islands, Indonesia, cedes his territorial
rights to king of Portugal. Portuguese now link Indian Ocean trade
to the New World via Philippines.

1565: Philippines: An expedition from New Spain commanded by
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, establishes a first Spanish settlement in
Sebu, Manila, on the island of Luzon, is occupied in 1571, partly
to gain a link to existing trade with China. From J. H. Parry,
The European Reconnaissance: Selected Documents. London,
Macmillan, 1968., p. 255

1565: Francis Drake sails with John Lovell on a slaving
voyage from Guinea to South America.

1566: Invention of the full stop, as a punctuation mark, by
Aldus Manutius the Younger, author of a punctuation handbook,
Interpungendi ratio. He was grandson of the Venetian printer
who invented "the paperback book".

1566: Elizabeth I has financial stake in John Hawkins' second
voyage of plunder undertaken in defiance of views of the
Spanish.

1566: John Lovell follows in Hawkins' maritime footsteps, but
finds Spanish ports closed to him, and he is remembered only as he
had Francis Drake (born c.1540) with him. Drake's father a chaplain
at Chatam dockyard. (This John Hawkins born in 1532).

1566: On 9 November 1566 John Lovell, on his way to the Indies
sailed to Cape Verde with four ships Paul, Salomon,
Pasco and Swallow, seized a Portuguese vessel with
negroes, wax, ivory and other merchandise. In February 1567 he
captured a ship with a cargo of sugar and negroes, close to
Santiago, capital of the Cape Verde Islands, killing some of the
crew, as well as a ship from Lisbon bound for Brazil and two more
off the Island of Maio.

1567: By now, Dutch ships from West Friesland and Zeeland have
anchored in Spanish Havana, Cuba. Gradually, the Dutch became
interested in the following commodities from the West Coast of
Africa, the West Indies and the Amazon-Orinoco area: palm oil,
balsam oil, gums, white incense or mastix, orange dye called
annatto, Brazil wood, other aromatic woods, pearls, gold and
silver, salt, animal hides, tobacco, sugar, ginger, canafistula,
sarsparilla, cochineal, dyewoods, cacao. indigo, Goslinga, The
Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, p.
54.

1567: Francis Drake commands Judith 50-tons on the third
slaving voyage of his kinsman, John Hawkins, on which voyage, only
Drake's and Hawkins' ship escape from an encounter with Spanish at
San Juan de Ulua. In following years, Drake becomes most successful
of the English corsairs annoying the Spanish main.
(Encyclopedia Britannica entry, Drake).

1567: Hawkins equips his third fleet, in which voyages Elizabeth
I has shares.

1568: England: William Cecil (Burghley) effectively becomes
chairman of joint-stock company managing about a third of the
slaving voyages of John Hawkins. The Earls of Leicester and
Pembroke also heavy investors, but most profit of the third
Hawkins' voyage was booty is recaptured by the Spaniards in Sept.
1568 at San Juan de Ullao. He has much trade with the Canary
Islands.Who's Who / Shakespeare, p. 110. See also G. R. Elton,
Tudor England.

1568: Civil war in France.

1568: December 1568 Spanish ships take borrowed Genoese money to
pay the army in Netherlands of Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duke of
Alba, scattered by Huguenot pirates, find refuge in the ports of
Fowey, Plymouth and Southampton. William Hawkins, mayor of Plymouth
(John's brother) helped to unload treasure there which Elizabeth
promptly seized, saying she would borrow the money from the Genoese
herself. Philip retaliated by seizing all English ships and sailors
in Spanish ports, Elizabeth threw all Spaniards and Flemings in
London into prisons and seized their goods, far more valuable than
the original Spanish cargo.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1568: December 1568 Spanish ships take borrowed Genoese money to
pay the army in Netherlands of Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duke of
Alba, scattered by Huguenot pirates, find refuge in the ports of
Fowey, Plymouth and Southampton. William Hawkins, mayor of Plymouth
(John's brother) helped to unload treasure there which Elizabeth
promptly seized, saying she would borrow the money from the Genoese
herself. Philip retaliated by seizing all English ships and sailors
in Spanish ports, Elizabeth threw all Spaniards and Flemings in
London into prisons and seized their goods, far more valuable than
the original Spanish cargo.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1568: Cecil Burghley effectively became chairman of the
joint-stock company managing about a third of the slaving voyages
of John Hawkins. The Earls of Leicester and Pembroke also heavy
investors, but most profit of the third Hawkins' voyage was booty
was recaptured by the Spaniards in Sept. 1568 at San Juan de Ullao.
He had much trade with the Canary Islands.Who's Who / Shakespeare, p. 110. See also G. R. Elton,
Tudor England.

1569: January, Hawkins returns from his third voyage slaving and
later sent out as a privateer. In 1569 Walter Raleigh gained war
experience when men of Devon raised a body of horse for service
under Coligny.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 102.

1569: By 1569 the Portuguese conception of shape of Australia
had found its way to the "international" maps of Mercator, and
Spaniards such as Mendana, and by 1569, Mercator had changed his
mind about what lay south of Java, adopting the Dauphin map
propositions.
McIntyre, Secret Discovery of Australia, p. 53, p. 133.

1569: And earlier, Hawkins' third voyage. Much capital invested
including some from Elizabeth who loans two ships. Drake was on
Judith. Origins here of Drake's revenge against the Spanish.
John Oxenham on this voyage, hanged at Lima. Hawkins' right hand
man was sailor Robert Barrett, burnt alive in market-place at
Seville.
A. L. Rowse, Elizabethan Garland, pp. 99ff.

1569: January, Hawkins returns from his third voyage slaving and
later sent out as a privateer. In 1569 Walter Raleigh gained war
experience when men of Devon raised a body of horse for service
under Coligny.
Williamson, Age of Drake, p. 102.

1569: The English lose the cloth staple at Antwerp, the
Netherlands were occupied by Spanish under Alba and the trade in
Mediterranean centred in Seville. Cecil established a new centre in
Germany that year and William Winter in command of 7 of the Queen's
ships, convoyed fleet of merchantmen to Hamburg taking cloth,
spices sugar, pepper, hides, dyes and wines captured by the Channel
rovers.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1569: And earlier, Hawkins' third voyage. Much capital invested
including some from Elizabeth who loans two ships. Drake was on
Judith. Origins here of Drake's revenge against the Spanish.
John Oxenham on this voyage, hanged at Lima. Hawkins' right hand
man was sailor Robert Barrett, burnt alive in market-place at
Seville.
A. L. Rowse, Elizabethan Garland, pp. 99ff.

1569: A small number of merchants in 1589 proposed a voyage to
Far East by way of Cape Good Hope, using ships Susan,
Merchant Royal and Edward Bonaventure, owned by Paul
Bayning and Thomas Cordell, of Venice Co., men also in Spanish
trade and leading privateers, these ships plus one other were used
in "pathbreaking" voyage of James Lancaster to India Ocean in
1591-1592. (Brenner, p. 21.)

1570: Japan: Nagasaki is opened to western trade.

1570: August: Huguenot Pourtholt, lying at Plymouth, offers
Admiral Winter ten chests of money if he would "but wink at an
attack on the Spaniards." Huguenot traders from La Rochelle sell
salt and wine, buying gunpowder with the proceeds, use Plymouth as
a base of operations for their piracy as well as a market for their
goods. There is an entry in Cecil's diary of an agreement by the
Huguenot leader to deliver salt and wine to the value of £10,000.
(Murdin 766).
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1571: In 1571 William Winter attacked Tenerife (Simancas Trans.
1571, p. 339.) William Winter (probably Sir William's son and not
the Admiral himself who was now getting too old for such
adventures) was taken prisoner by the Spanish in the Canaries and
nearly brought before the Inquisition but escaped in time. Sir
William Winter was involved in the slave and Guinea trade with John
Hawkins with whom he later fell out.
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1571: The Battle of Lepanto; 117 Turkish galleys taken
and 80 lost, only 12 Christian vessels were lost.

1571: Foundation by Spanish of city Manila, the
Philippines.

March 1571: With Cecil's connivance, John Hawkins (who had
briefly served Philip II when he was king of England) went to the
Spanish ambassador, Gerau de Spes, an avowed enemy of the English,
to offer his fleet at Plymouth. Hawkins' confidential servant and
friend George Fitzwilliam, who had sailed with him from Plymouth on 18
October 1564 on his second slaving voyage, had been captured in San
Juan de Ulua with 29 other English seamen in 1569 and sent to a
Spanish prison in Seville but released in 1570 after he had a
letter sent by Hugh Tipton, a prominent English businessman in the
city. Fitzwilliam, a relative of Jane Dormer, duchess of Feria (the
childhood playmate of Edward VI) had a hand in uncovering the
Ridolfi Plot. As Hawkins' agent, he offered ships to Philip II to
help put Mary on English throne. A plan arose to assassinate
Elizabeth and install Mary. When Fitzwilliam returned to England
with letters from the Duke of Feria (who died shortly afterwards)
and his son to Hawkins, he was sent from Plymouth to London to
Cecil (created Lord Burghley in February 1571) with a letter. Three
days after Hawkins wrote, the Duke of Norfolk was sent to the
Tower. The bishop of Ross was told he no longer had diplomatic
immunity as Mary's ambassador and confessed everything.
The duke was executed on 2 June 1572 and his son Philip, earl of
Arundel died imprisoned in the Tower. (There were spies and counter
spies, agents and double-agents in Walsingham's, Burghley's and
Philip II's spy networks - the king of Spain spun such a
complicated web that no one has ever been able to disentangle it.
The Spanish spies used milk or lemon juice as invisible ink to
write messages in codes and ciphers which showed up when the paper
was heated.)
From websites on the Hawkins and Winter families cited
elsewhere.

1571AD: Turks conquer Cyprus.

1572: France: St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, as Guise faction
slaughters the Protestant factions of Paris.

1572: England: May 1572, Drake with two ships sets off from
Plymouth to attack Spanish with 75 men. He tries to take "Darien".
Gets some $40,000 of Spanish silver.

1572: News of Mendana's discoveries in Pacific reach
England.
1572: Anthony Jenkinson ceases travelling. He married in 1567
Judith Mersh, daughter of London merchant John Mersh, governor of
the Company of Merchant Adventurers and of a company trading to
Netherlands, who is related to Sir Thomas Gresham.

1573-1620 Reign of emperor Wan Li in China: period of great
paintings and porcelain-making; imperial kilns at Jingde produce
vast quantities of "china" [ceramics].

1573: Walter Devereux *1541-1576), first Earl of Essex, unsuccessfully tries to plant an English colony in Ulster, Ireland, enviages Ireland as "England's Indies" and predicted that England would have to restrict emigration to Ireland as the Spanish had restricted emigrants to the Indies [the New World] Yet another English "colonist" of the Irish was Robert Dudley (1532-1588) the first Earl of Leicester. (In about 1155 the English had benefited from a papal assignment of their "lordship" over Ireland,before the time of William the Conqueror. As early as 1315 in the matter of land-holding, England with occupying Ireland had held traditional Irish tribal Brehon Law in contempt whilst denying the Irish recourse to English law. In 1315-1317, and since arguments had gone on since 1277, the Irish responded with military action against the English, helped by forces from Scotland.)
(Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1, Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York, Verso, 2002, pp. 31-45.)

Olde Wives Tales from Olde England

Life in the 1500s: some interesting things to ponder...
submitted "from the Net"

Lead cups were used to drink ale or whiskey. The combination
would sometimes knock them out for a couple of days. Someone
walking along the road would take them for dead and prepare them
for burial. They were laid out on the kitchen table for a couple of
days and the family would gather around and eat and drink and wait
and see if they would wake up. Hence the custom of holding a
"wake."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

England is old and small, and they started running out of places
to bury people. So, they would dig up coffins and would take their
bones to a house and reuse the grave. In reopening these coffins,
one out of 25 coffins were found to have scratch marks on the
inside and they realized they had been burying people alive. So
they thought they would tie a string on their wrist and lead it
through the coffin and up through the ground and tie it to a bell.
Someone would have to sit out in the graveyard all night to listen
for the bell. Hence on the "graveyard shift" they would know that
someone was "saved by the bell" or he was a "dead ringer."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Most people got married in June because they took their yearly
bath in May and were still smelling pretty good by June. However,
they were starting to smell, so brides carried a bouquet of flowers
to hide the b.o.

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Baths equaled a big tub filled with hot water. The man of the
house had the privilege of the nice clean water, then all the other
sons and men, then the women and finally the children. Last of all
the babies. By then the water was so dirty you could actually lose
someone in it. Hence the saying "Don't throw the baby out with the
bath water."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Houses had thatched roofs. Thick straw, piled high, with no wood
underneath. It was the only place for animals to get warm, so all
the pets... dogs, cats and other small animals, mice, rats, bugs
lived in the roof. When it rained it became slippery and sometimes
the animals would slip and fall off the roof. Hence the saying,
"It's raining cats and dogs."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

There was nothing to stop things from falling into the house.
This posed a real problem in the bedroom where bugs and other
droppings could really mess up your nice clean bed. So, they found
if they made beds with big posts and hung a sheet over the top, it
addressed that problem. Hence those beautiful big four-poster beds
with canopies. I wonder if this is where we get the saying "Good
night and don't let the bed bugs bite..."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

The floor was dirt. Only the wealthy had something other than
dirt, hence the saying "dirt poor." The wealthy had slate floors
which would get slippery in the winter when wet. So they spread
thresh on the floor to help keep their footing. As the winter wore
on they kept adding more thresh until when you opened the door it
would all start slipping outside. A piece of wood was placed at the
entry way, hence a "thresh hold."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

They cooked in the kitchen in a big kettle that always hung over
the fire. Every day they lit the fire and added things to the pot.
They mostly ate vegetables and didn't get much meat. They would eat
the stew for dinner leaving leftovers in the pot to get cold
overnight and then start over the next day. Sometimes the stew had
food in it that had been in there for a month. Hence the rhyme:
peas porridge hot, peas porridge cold, peas porridge in the pot
nine days old."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Sometimes they could obtain pork and would feel really special
when that happened. When company came over, they would bring out
some bacon and hang it to show it off. It was a sign of wealth and
that a man "could really bring home the bacon." They would cut off
a little to share with guests and would all sit around and "chew
the fat."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Those with money had plates made of pewter. Food with a high
acid content caused some of the lead to leach onto the food. This
happened most often with tomatoes, so they stopped eating
tomatoes... for 400 years.

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Most people didn't have pewter plates, but had trenchers - a
piece of wood with the middle scooped out like a bowl. Trenchers
were never washed and a lot of times worms got into the wood. After
eating off wormy trenchers, folk would get "trench mouth."

~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$~**~**~$ ~**~**~$
~**~

Bread was divided according to status. Workers got the burnt
bottom of the loaf, the family got the middle, and guests got the
top, or the "upper crust".

More olde wive's tales from the Net - Where some expressions
came from

In English pubs, ale is ordered by pints and quarts. So in old
England, when customers got unruly, the bartender would yell at
them to mind their own pints and quarts and settle down. It's where
we get the phrase "mind your P's and Q's."

Many years ago in England, pub frequenters had a whistle baked
into the rim or handle of their ceramic cups. When they needed a
refill, they used the whistle to get some service. "Wet your
whistle," is the phrase inspired by this practice.

In Shakespeare's time, mattresses were secured on bed frames by
ropes...when you pulled on the ropes the mattress tightened, making
the bed firmer to sleep on. That's where the phrase, "good night,
sleep tight" came from.

The phrase "rule of thumb" is derived from an old English law
which stated that you couldn't beat your wife with anything wider
than your thumb.

English traders from 1575-1600 - continued

Reference item: C16th: A good treatment of the impact of Spanish
silver on European economies and other useful overviews are given
in Fernand Brandel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean
World in the Age of Philip II. Vol. 1. (Translated by Sian
Reynolds) Sydney, Perennial Library, Harper and Row, 1960. (Post
Crusades)

1551-1552-1603: Kennedy writes that to 1603, more so in Tudor
times, the cloth merchants who backed maritime endeavour were
pro-Spanish, matters had changed with the 1551-1552 cloth slump,
and in 1552 arose some English hopes of finding a north-east
passage. See Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval
Mastery. London, Allen Lane, 1976.

1575: Philippines: Spaniards of Manila engage and defeat a fleet
of Chinese pirates who had damaged the coast of Fukien and the
result is an invitation to talk to Chinese officials, to the envy
of the Portuguese who had never received such an invitation. Though
little came of this, really. See C. R. Boxer, South China in the
Sixteenth Century. London, Hakluyt Society, 1953. From J. H.
Parry, The European Reconnaissance: Selected Documents.
London, Macmillan, 1968., pp. 255-256.

1572: Birth of Anglo-Dutch merchant, Sir William Courteen
(1572-1636). Goslinga writes: "The De Moor-Courteen House was an
Anglo-Dutch company begun by William Courteen, a Fleming, who had
lived in Zeeland before going to live in England. In London he
developed a thriving trade which maintained connection in Zeeland.
He became a great merchant, and his company soon enjoyed a
remarkable position in the commercial world of the early
seventeenth century. ... The Dutch were the preponderant partners
in the company, and the books were kept at Middelburg." ...
"Despite its association with the Groenewegen settlement in the
Caribbean, the De Moor-Courteen House was to become far better
known as the sponsor (with largely Dutch money) of the 1625
expedition to Barbados under Captain John Powell... a personal
friend of Groenwegen, who continued a semi-official function as
factor of the De Moor-Courteen House till the death in 1644 of Jan
de Moor. Then Groenwegen became a servant of the Dutch West India
Company.
Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast,
1580-1680, pp. 414-415ff.

1576: More to come

1577: Francis Drake leaves England on his world voyage.

Where did English mariner Sir Francis Drake make his
Pacific landfall (Nova Albion?) on North American land. Did he
leave a "Drake was here" plate at Campbell Cove, Bodega Head,
California in the summer of June 1579 as he repaired his ship,
Golden Hind? In 1997, writer Brian Kelleher of Cupertino
began asking questions about such a site. Or was the landing spot
at a Marin County Bay, or on the Oregon coast? Researchers
including archaeologist Dr. Kent Lightfoot, at University of
California may follow up Kelleher's suggestions. Drake's five-ship
expedition was the second attempt to circumnavigate the world,
following up Magellan. From the western Pacific coast, Drake sailed
to Indonesia, then across the Indian Ocean, around Cape of Good
Hope and home to England. (Reported 10 July 1999)

13 December 1577: Francis Drake begins a world voyage from
Plymouth, England, in Golden Hind.

1587-1629: Reign of Shah Abbas I (the Great) of Persia; he
consolidates and expands territories.

1578: Blois van Treslong, famous Dutch sea-beggar, tries as
early as now to interest merchants in a company especially to
conquer the Spanish silver fleet. Goslinga, The Dutch in the
Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, p. 49.

1579: Netherlands proclaim independence from Spain.

1579: More maritime history mystery: Fresh controversy
arises over whether history should be rewritten with the case of
English pirate Francis Drake, and the Golden Hind voyage:
did Drake discover Alaska? A new book, The Secret Voyage of Sir
Francis Drake, by Samuel Bawlf argues that Drake was forbidden
from publicly reporting his discovery due to fear of the Spanish
becoming aware of English moves. Working from study of maps and
Drake's mention of a "frozen zone" where natives shivered in their
furs and snow scarcely melted even in summer, Bawlf argues for a
thorough rewrite of the history of Elizabethan discoveries. The
English he said had an ambitious plan to find the North-West
Passage and found an empire in the Pacific. Part of the problem is
lack of information on Drake's whereabouts in the summer of 1579, a
question long and hotly debated on the US' western coasts. Bawlf, a
Canadian, believes Drake spilled details to his personal map-maker,
Abraham Ortelius, who is said to have invented the atlas. Bawlf
feels that a map showing four non-existent islands off the coast of
California are the shapes of actual islands further north,
including Vancouver Island. Sceptics are reportedly unconvinced,
and some sceptics still believe that Drake went no further north on
these West American coasts than Mexico. (Reported 16 August
2003)

1580: English merchants back a voyage into the Arctic (Kara
Sea), to find any near-Russia North-East Passage to the East,
perhaps by "a river near China".
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1580: After 1580, when Spain controlled the main sources of
black merchandise within her realm, her government included these
asientos on a much more regular basis. As a majority of the
slave centres were located in West Africa, the Portuguese
asentistas were the only people of that nation who willingly
accepted Spanish domination. - Asiento chronology -

1580: English merchants back a voyage into the Arctic (Kara
Sea), to find any near-Russia North-East Passage to the East,
perhaps by a river near China.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1580: Some great English Merchant Adventurers who joined the
Levant Co. were Richard Saltonstall, Middletons, Batemans, Ferrars,
Henry Andrews. By about 1580, the Muscovy Company was led by Sir
George Barne. Rowland Heywood tried for a north-east passage,
sending a voyage led by Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman.

In 1581, Elizabeth granted charters to English companies trading
to Spain and Portugal, the Eastland Co. to the Baltic, Levant Co.
to Turkey and Raleigh planning a company in Virginia ended in
disaster and finally the EICo chartered.

1582AD: Japan: Oda assassinated by Akechi Mitsuhide. Akechi was
killed by a farmer. Oda's close follower Toyotomi Hideyoshi keeps
the campaign and completes it in 1590. He never took the title of
Shogun. He made a clear distinction between samurais and other
classes. He monopolized foreign trade, confiscated the arms of the
peasantry, drawing a sharp line between them and the samurai.

1582: Introduction of Gregorian Calendar in Italy.

1582: Reference item:
Elizabeth Story Donno, (Ed.), An Elizabethan in 1582: The Diary
of Richard Madox, Fellow of All Souls. London, The Hakluyt
Society, 1976.

Reference item: W. Walton Claridge, A History of the Gold
Coast and Ashanti: From the earliest times to the commencement of
the Twentieth Century. London, John Murray, 1915.

1583: Sir Humphrey Gilbert founds first English colony in North
America at St John's, Newfoundland.

1583: Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten proceeds to the East
Indies, and later writes five big books of fables which happen to
contain information of great interest to merchants. He returns home
in 1592, the year in which Plancius published his "world map" based
on the work of Abraham Ortelius and Gerard Mercator.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

On the English family, Fenner, as a family of privateers see
also, Kenneth. R. Andrews, 'Thomas Fenner and the Guinea Trade,
1564', The Mariner's Mirror., 1952, pp. 312-314. In 1584
Fenner went to see with pirate John Challice to plunder Portuguese
shipping. One Thomas Fenner is a vice-admiral in England's
expeditions of 1585-1587.

1585: Sir Walter Raleigh establishes the first English colony in
Virginia. Raleigh's third attempt, "the famous lost colony of
Roanoke" in 1587 with Gov. John White fell into difficulties re
supplies in the year of the Spanish armada, but the second was more
significant, in 1585, led by Sir Richard Grenville and Ralph Lane,
eventually settled on Roanoke Island, Sir Francis Drake soon
appeared there after raiding the Spanish.

1586: Japan: Tenshoo shoonen shisetsu (Tenshoo Boy Missions)
went to Europe and came back in 1590.

1586: Under threat from Indians, English colonists sail from
Roanoke Island, North Carolina, dismally ending first
English settlement in America.

1587: English colonists come ashore on Roanoke Island,
attempting to establish the first permanent English settlement in
the New World. It now seems that the colonists were confronted with
the region's worst drought in 700 years, which caused mass
starvation and made for aggravated tense relations with Native
Americans. By 1590, the ill-fated settlers had vanished with little
trace.

1587: At least three Dutch ships visit Brazilian port. Goslinga,
The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680,
pp. 79ff.

1587: Elizabeth authorizes Drake to take four of her ships and
16 privately owned ones to Spain, where he attacked Cadiz, Lisbon,
and off the Azores took a Portuguese galleon worth a prize of
140,000 pounds, of which 40,000 pounds went to Eliz (who had come
into her reign with very little money). (See Neville Williams,
Elizabeth 1: Queen of England. London, Sphere, 1971.)

1587: Raleigh's third attempt, "the famous lost colony of
Roanoke" in 1587 with Gov. John White fell into difficulties re
supplies in the year of the Spanish armada, but the second was more
significant, in 1585, led by Sir Richard Grenville and Ralph Lane,
eventually settled on Roanoke Island. Sir Francis Drake soon
appeared there after raiding the Spanish. (Ver Steeg, The
Formative Years, pp. 20-21.)

1588++: Dutchmen Steven van der Haghen is to become one of the
founders of Dutch navigation to the East Indies - and is
considering a new ship design - the flute or fluit - as
built at Hoorn, which makes navigation in the Mediterranean and on
the African West Coast more profitable. Goslinga, The Dutch in
the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, p. 49.

1588: Elizabeth I gives a charter to some Merchants of Exeter to
trade to Senegal and Gambia. See W. Walton Claridge, A History of
the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From the earliest times to the
commencement of the Twentieth Century. London, John Murray, 1915.,
pp. 79-80.

1589: Japan: Persecution of Christians

1589: Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris make
expedition of 150 ships and 18,000 men to Portugal.

1591: London merchants petition Queen Elizabeth I for a licence
to trade to the East Indies, then choose expedition commander,
James Lancaster, who had captained a ship Edward Bonaventure
earlier against The Spanish Armada. In late 1591 Lancaster sets
sail with Edward Bonaventure, Penelope and
Merchant Royal. The expedition is a failure.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1591: London merchants petition Queen Elizabeth I for a licence
to trade to the East Indies, then choose expedition commander,
James Lancaster, who had captained a ship Edward
Bonaventure earlier against The Spanish Armada. In late 1591
Lancaster sets sail with Edward Bonaventure, Penelope
and Merchant Royal. The expedition is a failure.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1592-1597: Japan: Hideyoshi attempts to invade Korea, as the
first step to conquer the world (China), but fails. (Diverts
Samurai energies into Korean campaigns)

1593: Dutch mariner Barent Erikszoon is to become
partly-responsible for opening Dutch trade on African West Coast.
He had made voyages to Brazil with Portuguese, but struck trouble
when he visited Portugal's centre, Principe, an island of the
African West Coast. From Enkhuizen he organises a company to
exploit West African trade. Erikszoon is closely followed by
merchant-sailor Simon Taey, then Dirck Veldmuis - who did not
return from his trip, as killed by the French. In 1593, Cornelis
Freeksz Vrijer returned safely from Angola. In 1594, Cornelis
Houtman made an exploratory expedition to trade with the area. By
1598 there are 25-30 Dutch merchantmen going to West Africa. Such
early Dutch companies often had limited aims, sometimes intended
for one voyage only. (In 1593, The Spanish capture ten Dutch ships
along the coast of New Andalusia.) Goslinga, The Dutch in the
Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, p. 51.

Circa 1593: John Spence, b.1550 Lord Mayor of London 1593
John Spencer, elected in 1594.
(Item, per Peter Western)

1594: Paris has population of 180,000 in 1594, two years
before the invention of the water closet, which meant a reason for
the import from China of toilet paper, invented there 1000 years
before.

1594: A Dutch fleet, the first of three, leaves Texel for the
spice islands under William Barents who thus became an
arctic explorer. Voyage of the associated mariner Cornelis Nay, of
the second Dutch fleet, led to Northern Russia once being called
"New Holland", and he renamed the Kara Sea. By 1595, the second
Dutch expedition was also blocked by ice. A third Dutch fleet
sailed in 1596 under William Barents and Capt. Jacob van
Heemskerck, to be trapped in ice. Barents died.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1594 Circa: Before the first Dutch arctic voyage, nine Amsterdam
merchants meet in secret to discuss voyages to the East by the
Portuguese route, the sale of pepper then controlled by a group of
Fugger bankers, and in 1594 six Dutch merchants formed a Far Lands
Company (Plancius invested in it), then settled to collecting
information, as the brothers Cornelis and Frederik (sic) de Houtman
had been sent to Portugal to collect what information they could,
esp. on Moluccan spices; they returned in early 1594 after
successful business-espionage, see Linschoten (sic) (Ton Vermeulen,
Notes from European Voyaging towards Australia, pp. 34-35,
edited by Hardy and Frost.)

1594: A Dutch fleet the first of three leaves Texel for the
spice islands under William Barents who thus became an arctic
explorer. The mariner Cornelis Nay, of the second Dutch fleet, led
to Northern Russia once being called "New Holland", and he renamed
the Kara Sea. By 1595, the second Dutch expedition was also blocked
by ice. A third Dutch fleet sailed in 1596 under William Barents
and Capt. Jacob van Heemskerck, to be trapped in ice. Barents
died.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1595: Maritime history: Houtman becomes the first
Dutchman in the East Indies. Second voyage for Mendana.

1595: Spring, The Dutchman Cornelius Houtman, a spy by
temperament, leads an expedition to the East, in command of ships
including Mauritius and Amsterdam. To Cape Verde
Islands. Crew discipline frays badly. To the wealthy port of Bantam
in Java, Indonesia.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1595: Soon after Sir Walter Raleigh's first voyage to the
Guianas in 1595, the English explorer Captain Charles Leigh
attempted to start a settlement on the Waiapoco (Oyapock) River,
now the border between Brazil and French Guiana.

Year 1595: Treating Drake and piracy, variously.

1566: Elizabeth had a financial stake in John Hawkins' second
voyage of plunder in 1566 undertaken in defiance of views of the
Spanish. (See Neville Williams, Elizabeth 1: Queen of
England. London. Sphere, 1971.)

1595: Dutch establish trade in Western Java.

1595: A well-known asiento was that given by Phillip II
for the Caribbean to the Portuguese Pedro Gomez Reynal in 1595,
agreeing for an annual delivery of 4250 slaves per year for nine
years, for the Antilles, New Spain, Honduras, Rio Hacha, Margarita
and Venezuela, possibly also Brazil. Gomez paid the crown 900,000
ducats for this concession. Demand for slave labour was such that
other asientos were made. The figures in these contexts on
numbers of slaves used does not include slaves in the hands of
English, French and Dutch slave traders. (Goslinga, Dutch in the
Caribbean, p. 339) - Asiento chronology -

1596++: The visionary de Moucheron, a protégé of Prince Maurits,
interested in both the East and West Indies, hoping to create a
chain of trade from Brazil to Africa, is destined to become one of
the two most important founders of the Dutch colonial empire. In
1596 he unsuccessfully tried to place a castle on the West African
coast, Elmina, to compete with the Portuguese trade port, Mina, In
1596, Pieter van der Haghen of Rotterdam planned an expedition to
the West Indies, in a year when some ships from Guinea brought some
Negroes (and some Portuguese pilots) back to Middelburg - and
notably, a burgomaster, Ten Haeff, complained they had been
deprived "of their natural liberty". A fresh Dutch trading
expedition followed this Middelburg matter. Another merchant about
now, Johan van der Veken, got licences to trade with Guinea, Peru,
and the West Indies. Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on
the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, pp. 52-55.

1596: About the time Raleigh (1596) publishes his book, The
Discoverie of the Large and Beautiful Empire of Guiana, the
Dutch have a trading post called Fort Orange about 20 miles up the
Amazon, and seven miles further up, Fort Nassau. Gerrit Bicker by
1597 was one Dutch mariner wanting to go to the Amazon-Orinoco
area. Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild
Coast, 1580-1680, p. 56.

1597: Cartographers Gerard and Cornelis de Jode produce their
atlas, Speculum Orbis Terrae. For unknown reasons, and long
before Europeans know of the Australian mainland, at bottom right
an illustration to this depicts as one of the world's animals a
strange long-necked marsupial-type female animal with a pouch at
its chest which carries two of its young. Remarkably like an
Australian kangaroo! Was this animal pure imagination or is the
illustration based on any actual report?
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1597: Scotland: The Scots Poor Law is amended to make vagrants and their children into "workers" at a time when vagrants (hard to believe) make up about ten per cent of the population. They become subject to a court sentence of lifetime servitude to private employers. This provision is intensified and made more punitive in 1605. Mining interests found such provisions very useful as a method of "recruiting" miners.
(Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1, Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York, Verso, 2002., p. 218)

1598-1621: A London hosier and tobacco dealer active by 1598 was
Thomas Claiborne, eldest son of Thomas Claiborne and Grace
Bellingham. (Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 121, p.
157, p. 596). It was apparently his brother, William, the surveyor
of Virginia, who traded furs with the Susquehannock Indians and
later backed the Kent Island project. William had some links with
William Cloberry in London, who had influence as an English
Secretary of State for Scotland and became a partner with Sir
William Alexander's attempt to settle the matter of the
proprietorship of Nova Scotia. The Kent Island project was intended
to help provide provisions for Nova Scotia. Help with this plan had
come also from a City of London trader and financier, John de la
Barre. Maurice Thomson was also interested in promoting Kent
Island. Regarding the Providence Island Company, by May 1638,
William Claiborne was granted a commission to found a new
settlement on the island of Ruatan off the coast of Honduras, which
till 1642 was called Rich Island, when the Spanish overwhelmed it.
(Maurice Thomson was also involved here). Brenner (p. 596) says
Claiborne himself also kept a covetous eye on Maryland).

1621: Miles Standish and crew enter the inner harbour of Boston
in September.

1598: France: Edict of Nantes.

1598: One date for first documented minutes of a Masonic
Lodge in the British Isles.

24 September, 1599: London. About eighty English merchants meet
to discuss the formation of an English East India Company.
Including, Richard Staper (Levant Co), Thomas Smythe (Levant Co),
Sir John Hart, Richard Cockayne, Lord Mayor Sir Stephen Soane,
James Lancaster mariner, John Davis mariner, Francis Pretty a
friend of Thomas Cavendish, some of a crew of Sir Francis Drake,
William Baffin arctic explorer, and brothers John, Henry and David
Middleton. Another meeting follows on 16 October, 1599. Also, on 23
September, 1600. The crucial document permitting the East India
Company to operate for the next 15 years was signed by Elizabeth I
on 31 December, 1600.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: Dutchman Jacob van Neck returns to Amsterdam from voyage
to the East with great wealth and spices from Bantam for his
merchant masters.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: Netherlands, Merchants of Rotterdam and Zeeland confront
Amsterdam by sending their own fleet to the East for spices.
Amsterdam ordered its operators to toughen trade conditions. This
attitude was resisted by attorney-general of Holland Johan van
Oldebarnvelt, who realised the need for an organised monopoly,
which by 20 March 1602 became the Dutch East India Company. (VOC,
or Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, run by a council of 17
men).
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: Netherlands: Dutch traders now have bases in the Spice
Islands region, at Bantam, Jacatra and Gresik on the coasts of Java
coast, Patani and Johore on the Malay Peninsula, Amboina, Banda and
Ternate of the Moluccas, obtaining trading rights from local rulers
who often were Moslems.
(Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South
Land)

1599: March: Dutchman Jacob van Heemskerk, who had some
years earlier tried and failed to find an Arctic Route to the East
Indies, arrives at Banda Islands in the Moluccas to trade for
spices. On the way, Heemskerk had named Mauritius. On the Banda
Islands, Heemskerk left behind 22 Dutchmen to stockpile nutmeg and
wait for the next Dutch ship. Heemskerk arrived home in 1600 with
much nutmeg. (These 22 were later murdered by local people.)
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: The very first meeting of EICo Adventurers was London 24
September, 1599, trade of members on an individual basis, no joint
stock. (Bankey Bihari Misra, The Central Administration of the
East India Company, 1773-1834. Manchester Univ. Press. 1959.,
p. 407. copy NSW State Public Library.)

1599: Robert Savage an English merchant a Baltic mast
contractor. (Albion, Forests and Sea Power, p. 195. See 1540
previous on timber.)

1599: In 1599, under auspices of Merchant Adventurers, an
association formed, 101 shares, asking the queen for a warrant to
fit out three ships, a charter of privileges and export bullion.
but might this break the peace with Spain and Portugal? the Queen
was persuaded to send an agent, merchant John Mildenhall, on an
embassy to the Great Mogul via Constantinople, he did not arrive
till 1603 at Agra, got home overland by 1607 with permission for
the English to trade. (From Mukherjee, p. 65.)

1599: Dutchman Jacob van Neck returns to Amsterdam from voyage
to the East with great wealth and spices from Bantam for his
merchant masters.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: March: Dutchman Jacob van Heemskerk, who had some years
earlier tried and failed to find an Arctic Route to the East
Indies, arrives at Banda Islands in the Moluccas to trade for
spices. On the way, Heemskerk had named Mauritius. On the Banda
Islands, Heemskerk left behind 22 Dutchmen to stockpile nutmeg and
wait for the next Dutch ship. Heemskerk arrived home in 1600 with
much nutmeg. (These 22 were later murdered by local people.)
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1599: Netherlands, Merchants of Rotterdam and Zeeland confront
Amsterdam by sending their own fleet to the East for spices.
Amsterdam ordered its operators to toughen trade conditions. This
attitude was resisted by attorney-general of Holland Johan van
Oldebarnvelt, who realised the need for an organised monopoly,
which by 20 March 1602 became the Dutch East India Company. (VOC,
or Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, run by a council of 17
men).
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

24 September, 1599: London. About eighty English merchants meet
to discuss the formation of an English East India Company.
Including, Richard Staper (Levant Co), Thomas Smythe (Levant Co),
Sir John Hart, Richard Cockayne, Lord Mayor Sir Stephen Soane,
James Lancaster mariner, John Davis mariner, Francis Pretty a
friend of Thomas Cavendish, some of a crew of Sir Francis Drake,
William Baffin arctic explorer, and brothers John, Henry and David
Middleton. Another meeting follows on 16 October, 1599. Also, on 23
September, 1600. The crucial document permitting the East India
Company to operate for the next 15 years was signed by Elizabeth I
on 31 December, 1600.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1600: Formation of English East India Company.

1600: Active about 1600, Lord Mayor of London, Ralph Freeman, of
the East India and Levant companies, who in 1620 reputedly "paid"
the East India Company for the entire trade of the Russia
Company.
( Freeman from 1624 was associated with the Rich faction by then in
control on the Virginia Company.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 73-79, p. 103.)

1600: Raleigh becomes governor of Jersey. In 1600 he sits as MP
for Penzance in Elizabeth's last Parliament.

On 20 March, 1602 was founded the Dutch East India Company
(VOC). By 1605 the Dutch had the main Spice Islands but were driven
out in 1606 by a Spanish expedition from the Philippines.
(Glen Barclay, A History of the Pacific: From the Stone Age to
the Present Day. London, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1978., p.
32.)

The VOC had at the top a board of 17 merchants, and was a
corporation with a modern style, not joint-stock, but permanent
capital, and its policies finally led to violence.
(Ton Vermeulen, `The Dutch Entry into the East Indies', pp.
33-46 in John Hardy and Alan Frost, (Eds)., European Voyaging
Towards Australia. Canberra, Australian Academy of the
Humanities, Occasional Paper No. 8, 1990., p. 37. Mukherjee,
Rise and Fall / East India Co, pp. 111ff.)

1600S: Reference item: Chris and Carolyn Caldicott, The Spice
Routes: Chronicles and Recipes from around the World. Fances
Lincoln, 2001.

1600s: Residents of Persia and India begin eating and drinking
opium mixtures for recreational use. Portuguese merchants carrying
cargoes of Indian opium through Macao direct its trade flow into
China.
From website based on book: Opium: A History, by Martin
Booth Simon and Schuster, Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com

1605:Reference item: Victor von Klarwill, (Ed.), The Fugger
News-Letters, Being a Selection of Unpublished Letters from the
Correspondents of the House of Fugger during the Years
1568-1605. (Authorized translation by Pauline de Chary) New
York/London, GP Putnam's Sons, The Knickerbocker Press, 1925.

Reference item:

See: Chris and Carolyn Caldicott, The Spice Routes:
Chronicles and Recipes from around the World. Fances Lincoln,
2001.

1602: Spain has had seven years of plague and famine and expels 275,000 Christianized Moors over six years beginning in 1602.
(Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 2, The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America. New York, Verso, 2002., p. 5)

1600: C16th generally: Roland Fletcher, Assoc. Professor of
Archaeology, Sydney University, thinks that one million people
lived around Angkor Wat in the C16th. Similar-size
populations lived in Edo (now Tokyo), Beijing, Sian (now Xi'an),
Sukhothai in Thailand, and Pagan in what is now Burma.

1600++: tobacco and coffee consumption skyrockets in Europe.

1600s in Europe: The Tulip Craze, one of the oddest of
financial bubbles known.

Circa 1600: Abbas I (reigns from 1587 to 1629) introduces
reforms in Persia and expands territories.

1600: Charles E. Nowell, The Great Discoveries and the First
Colonial Empires. Ithaca, 1954.*

February 1601: Lancaster's five East India Company ships proceed
down the Thames River. The crowd would not be repeated in size till
1610 when Nathaniel Courthope sailed for the East. Among the 1601
ships are Susan, Hector, Ascension, Red
Dragon. The ships reached Table Bay by 9 September 1601, later
to Madagascar. The Nicobar Islands. By 5 June 1602 to Achin, a port
of Sumatra. When Lancaster arrived, he saw ships already there from
Gujarat, Bengal, Calicut, and the Malay Peninsula. Lancaster
departed Achin after various adventures in November 1602. Lancaster
left for England in February 1603, arriving home in September 1603,
when London had been victim to plague. There followed another
English East India Co. voyage under Henry Middleton, with ships
Susan, Hector, Ascension, Red
Dragon.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1601: Raleigh helps suppress the rebellion of Essex and presides
at execution of Essex as captain of the guard.

1601: Maritime history: Eredia claims to have discovered Nuca
Antara.

Circa 1601: France: With all these distractions
the King did not neglect his cares of state. He and Sully laboured
to increase the Royal revenues. It is impossible to exaggerate the
nightmare complexity of the Ancien Regime taxation system
with its crazy mosaic of regional and social variations in
assessment and imposition, its host of levies, dues and tariffs,
ordinary and extraordinary, direct and indirect, sometimes nominal,
sometimes crushing and frequently self-defeating, and its
hydra-headed multitude of exemptions, the whole administered by a
battening host of greedy officials; Dallington shuddered at 'the
infinite number in all France, upon why they lie, as thick as the
Grasshoppers in Egypt'. Why this chaotic system could not be
simplified was of course a question of fundamental law; the rights
of those who levied taxes had to be protected no less than the
rights of those who were exempt from them, official posts being
sacrosanct. All that Henri and Sully could hope to do was try to
work this fantastically cumbersome and antiquated engine: it was a
question of oil rather than spare parts, let alone new
machinery.
They had first to combat the now almost traditional practices of
embezzlement and plain theft which devoured the greater part of the
revenue, and to force those who collected monies due to the King to
pay them into his treasury. Much of the Royal income from indirect
taxes reached him through the agency of 'farmers' whom the
impossible system made indispensable; at least they had an
incentive to extract the maximum from the unfortunate taxpayer. By
cutting their percentage Sully made an immediate profit without
impairing the tax farmers' greedy industry. Unlawful exemptions
were set aside and corrupt assessments readjusted."
...Sir George Carew (the English ambassador) wrote: "When Sully
first came to the managing of the revenues, he found... all things
out of order, full of robbery, of officers full of confusion, no
treasure, no munition, no furniture for the king's houses and the
crown indebted three hundred million (that is, three hundred
million pounds sterling). Since that time, in February 1608, he had
acquitted one hundred and thirty millions of that debt, redeeming
the most part of the revenues of the crown that were mortgaged;
that he had brought good store of treasure into the Bastille,
filled most of the arsenals with munition, ... but only by reducing
that to the king's coffers which was embezzled by
under-officers."
From Desmond Seward, The First Bourbon: Henri IV, King of France
and Navarre. London, Constable, 1971., p. 143.

February 1601: Lancaster's five East India Company ships proceed
down the Thames River. The crowd would not be repeated in size till
1610 when Nathaniel Courthope sailed for the East. Among the 1601
ships are Susan, Hector, Ascension, Red
Dragon. The ships reached Table Bay by 9 September 1601, later
to Madagascar. The Nicobar Islands. By 5 June 1602 to Achin, a port
of Sumatra. When Lancaster arrived, he saw ships already there from
Gujarat, Bengal, Calicut, and the Malay Peninsula. Lancaster
departed Achin after various adventures in November 1602. Lancaster
left for England in February 1603, arriving home in September 1603,
when London had been victim to plague. There followed another
English East India Co. voyage under Henry Middleton, with ships
Susan, Hector, Ascension, Red
Dragon.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1601: England enacts a new Poor Law.

1602: The new Dutch East India Company (VOC), quickly sends
three ships under Sebald de Weert and Wybrand van Warwyck for Java,
Sumatra, Ceylon and the spice islands. Warwyck was to visit China
coasts and establish trading bases. The Dutch eventually got a
world monopoly on the supply of cloves and in theory, on nutmeg
also. This was soon abridged by a new fleet of English to the spice
islands.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1602: 20 March: Organisation by attorney-general of Holland,
Johan van Oldebarnvelt, who realised the need for an organised
monopoly, which became the Dutch East India Company. (VOC, or
Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, run by a council of 17
men).
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1602: Formation of Dutch East India Company.

1602: Lawrence Hyde about 1602 is railing in England against the
system of monopolies.

1602: Bartholomew Gosnold charts the coast of lower Maine and
Massachusetts, and gives names to Cape Cod and Martha's
Vineyard.
See K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The
Role of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South
Carolina Press, 1988.

1602: Raleigh sells his Irish estates to Richard Boyle. Raleigh
finds he disagrees with James I re conflict with Spain, and is also
expelled from Durham House. is dismissed from captaincy of guard,
deprived of his monopolies and of government of Jersey.

1602: The new Dutch East India Company (VOC), quickly sends
three ships under Sebald de Weert and Wybrand van Warwyck for Java,
Sumatra, Ceylon and the spice islands. Warwyck was to visit China
coasts and establish trading bases. The Dutch eventually got a
world monopoly on the supply of cloves and in theory, on nutmeg
also. This was soon abridged by a new fleet of English to the spice
islands.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1602: 20 March: Organisation by attorney-general of Holland,
Johan van Oldebarnvelt, who realised the need for an organised
monopoly, which became the Dutch East India Company. (VOC, or
Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, run by a council of 17
men).
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1602: By 1602-1604 in Guinea trade are Charles Leigh and his
brother Oliph (sic). Charles Howard/Nottingham deals with
shipowning merchants Robert and William Bragg who also handle war
business. Allied to Cecil were Sir Thomas Myddleton and Sir Richard
Hawkins; also in Cecil's circles Thomas Alabaster an Anglo-Iberian
trader of Seville. Myddleton has a partner, Nicholas Farrar.
See Andrews, Chapter five of the Spanish Caribbean, pp. 110
ff.

1603: Japan: Tokugawa Shogunate, Edo Period.

1603: Japan: Tokugawa Shogunate begins. In 1633, Japanese
are forbidden to travel overseas.

1603: London's Globe Theatre is razed during a production of
Shakespeare's Henry IV.

1603: England: Raleigh on 19 July 1603 is committed to Tower of
London, unsuccessfully tries suicide, on trial by November 1603,
facing an unfair attorney-general Sir Edward Coke and sentenced to
death. Raleigh is sent to the Tower to 19 March, 1616. His estate
is confiscated from Raleigh's son by James I and only part
repaid.

1603: Mariner Martin Pring on ship Speedwell re-surveys
the areas of lower Maine and Massachusetts surveyed by Bartholomew
Gosnold in 1602 and sails up Piscataqua River. Samuel de Champlain
operates from short-lived French settlement of St. Croix at border
of Maine/New Brunswick, sketches the coast north to Cape Cod (area
also surveyed by George Weymouth). These surveys excite little real
interest although some London and Plymouth merchants formed a
trading-colonizing company that took the name of Raleigh's
ill-fated settlement of Virginia.
Verbatim from K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United
States: The Role of America's Seas and Waterways.. University
of South Carolina Press, 1988.

Between 1604-1606, one of King James I's court was Sir Edward
Michelbourne, one of the founders of the East India Company.
However, James I also licenced one English and one Scots courtier
to make their own voyages to the East, against the interests of the
infant Company. Michelbourne became an interloper, as he'd fallen
foul of the Company in London by not paying his dues. By 1604,
Michelbourne had obtained from James a license to make an
independent voyage to Asia, to China and Japan, in violation of the
earlier royal charter, and he cruised as a pirate for two years; he
returned to England in 1606 and shortly died. The East India
Company desired but did not gain redress for the damage he'd done
their reputation till 1609. (Later, Charles I when he backed
Courteen's endeavours behaved much as James I had - distrustfully).
(The East India Company "recalled" earlier distributing some 70,000
pounds in bribes to win a new charter, about or after 1604.)
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, pp. 71-79.)

1604: 5 December: James I has permitted an expedition by Sir
Edward Michelbourne to the East Indies with Tiger and
Tiger's Whelp departing Isle of Wight on 5 December, 1604,
and with aboard the highly-experienced John Davis, who had sailed
with James Lancaster. Davis had been bad-mouthed by Lancaster to
the East India Company re dealings at Achin concerning Davis' views
on availability of pepper at Achin, and prices. On this voyage,
Michelbourne behaved like an unprincipled pirate in regard to local
and Dutch shipping. A Japanese pirate junk which had already worked
the coasts of China and Cambodia, Borneo, quietened Michelbourne
down - and killed John Davis. Michelborne had to shoot cannon
through the interior of his own ship to get rid of the Japanese.
Michelbourne got home to England in 1606.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1604: The Dutch later become aware that Englishman Charles Leigh
had maintained the first English colony on the Wiapoco River by
1604. By 1600 the Dutch were on the Xingu River with two forts.
Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast,
1580-1680, p. 76.
Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast,
1580-1680, p. 76.

1604: In 1604, James I licensed Sir Edward Michelborne to trade
in China and elsewhere in the east. In 1609 (in an example of the
unreliability of monarchs) James was persuaded to allow the
establishment of a Scottish East India Company, which infringed the
charters of the East India, the Levant and the Russia Companies.
Some companies were forced to buy out their rivals.

1604: By 1604 in the English Caribbean trade are new men John
Eldred and Richard Hall, talking to Sir Robert Cecil in 1604 of
such trade, some Dutch names given, some Genoese, John Williams of
London, Edward Savage a London merchant a go-between, Charles
Howard earl of Nottingham and Lord High Admiral 1585-1619 is a
political ally of Sir Robt Cecil and a privateer too.

1605: First Dutch sightings of Australia. Torres sails in
Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea.

1604+: The first French East India Company was founded in 1604 -
with letters patent granted by Louis XIII, but this effort was
still-born. (See Mukherjee's book here on French activity.) In
1623, Coen, "the real founder of the Dutch eastern empire",
tortured and killed ten Englishmen at Amboyna, the Spice Islands,
ousting the English except from Bantam at Java. This soured
English-Dutch relations and also, as a shifting of focus, led
England to concentrate on the Indian mainland. The English
remembered the Amboyna incident bitterly for generations.
(On Coen, see Om Prakash, The Dutch Factories in India,
1617-1623: A Collection of Dutch East India Company Documents
pertaining to India. New Delhi, Manoharial Publishers,
1984.)

1605: Time of troubles in Russia.

In 1606, as returning interloper, Michelbourne had warned the
Company that the English at Surat could expect trouble from the
Portuguese (Middleton later fought the Portuguese; so did Captain
Thomas Best of Company Voyage 10). With the English East India
Company, 1607, Voyage 3, Captain Keeling and his second-in-command,
Captain William Hawkins, had orders to open trade at Surat, or Red
Sea ports, before going to the Archipelago. Hawkins here was
ex the Levant Company and spoke Turkish (it is hard to align
the career of this Hawkins with what we find on the other Hawkins'
of Plymouth, treated earlier in these files.) James I meantime had
written to the King at Surat. (There was at one time a Captain
Keeling with a Lt. William Hawkins on Hector.)
(Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient,
1600-1800.)

Otherwise, in 1606, James I also with one charter established
the London and Plymouth Companies, giving them grants extending 200
miles inland of "America". In early 1607, three ships under the
command of Captain Christopher Newport (ex Mediterranean and
Asia trades) carried 100 men and four boys to the Chesapeake.
(Here, Sir Thomas Smith/Smythe, the leading merchant of the
Virginia Company of London, was the same man also interested in the
East India Company). Another Virginia Company investor was George
Calvert (1578-1632), Lord Baltimore, a Catholic whose title had
been granted by James I. Calvert had been the king's principal
secretary of state but resigned, and he also invested in the New
England Company.
(Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 21-22, pp. 42ff.)

In 1606, a few days before Christmas, sailed from London the
ships Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery
to begin the American colonisation.
(R. Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, p. 3.)

The third East India Company voyage was in 1607, sailing for the
Red Sea. The Company's fourth voyage was commanded by Alexander
Sharpie (who receives uncommon little attention from historians).
In January 1608, Sir Edward Michelbourne led an independent
interloping voyage and found Surat unsafe. In 1608, William Hawkins
(was he of the noted Plymouth family?) went to Surat, then to Agra,
the Mogul Imperial capital, for permission to open trade on the
Indian sub-continent. The Portuguese were represented at the Mogul
Court by Jesuits, who succeeded in having Hawkins expelled in 1611.
So the English East India Company's first bid to move into India
ended in failure. Another move was made by Best in 1612. Later
followed Sir Thomas Roe's visit to the Moguls.

From 1607 the English East India Company ceases using its own
ships and begins to charter ships.
Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 95.

Following this commercial decision, a list of notables with
links to both the Virginia Company and also the East India Company
would include:
Thomas Dyke (active 1617), interested in the 1612 voyage for a
north-west passage, investor in the East India, Virginia and
Bermuda companies;
Newton, Colonising Puritans, variously.
John Dyke, of the Rich/Earl Warwick faction controlling the
Virginia Company by 1624, owner of some privateering ships used by
the second Earl of Warwick, and a deputy-governor of the Providence
Island Company;
Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 63.
The dissident Sir Edwin Sandys (1561-1629), MP, of the Rich faction
of the Virginia Company as its treasurer 1619-1621, also East India
Company investor;
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 70-100. Who's Who
/Shakespeare, pp. 214ff.

These data have been years in compilation. Their trend is to
follow the changing shapes of the British Empire.

1604: 5 December: James I has permitted an expedition by Sir
Edward Michelbourne to the East Indies with Tiger and
Tiger's Whelp departing Isle of Wight on 5 December, 1604,
and with aboard the highly-experienced John Davis, who had sailed
with James Lancaster. Davis had been bad-mouthed by Lancaster to
the East India Company re dealings at Achin concerning Davis' views
on availability of pepper at Achin, and prices. On this voyage,
Michelbourne behaved like an unprincipled pirate in regard to local
and Dutch shipping. A Japanese pirate junk which had already worked
the coasts of China and Cambodia, Borneo, quietened Michelbourne
down - and killed John Davis. Michelborne had to shoot cannon
through the interior of his own ship to get rid of the Japanese.
Michelbourne got home to England in 1606.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606 Spring: Middleton arrives back to England after voyage to
the East Indies/spice islands of the Moluccas, with little cargo
due to the depradations of not the Dutch or Portuguese, but
Englishman ("gentleman adventurer") Sir Edward Michelborne.
Michelborne had earlier sweet-talked James I, who scarcely grasped
the issues about trade, and the necessity for a properly-backed
monopoly against the powers of the Portuguese and Dutch, into
permitting a Michelbourne expedition to the East Indies with
Tiger and Tiger's Whelp departing Isle of Wight on 5
December, 1604.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606: Ships chartered by Elizabeth I are instructed to purchase
the finest Indian opium and transport it back to England.
From website based on book: Opium: A History, by Martin
Booth Simon and Schuster, Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com

1606: Sir Edward Michelbourne arrives home to England from his
piratical voyages to the spice islands to retire to disgrace.
Meantime the English East India Company realised that after sending
three fleets to the East Indies, and about 1200 men, they had lost
800 lives, mostly by disease. The Dutch were about sending 14
fleets made of 65 ships. So the English East India Co. decided to
send out a Turkish-speaking Englishman, William Hawkins to
negotiate with the Mogul Emperor of India, Jehangir, from 1607.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: Under William Keeling, third expedition of ships of
English East India Co. to spice islands, with instructions to keep
ahead of the Dutch, with £17,600 of gold bullion and only £7000
worth of English-produced goods. Also sailing is David Middleton,
captain of a small ship, Consent (at Table Bay by 24 July
1607), who knew Gabriel Towerson, who had been left at Bantam in
the spice islands by David's brother Henry in 1604. David Middleton
sailed for the Celebes Islands, where he bought cloves (and slaves)
and sailed for England. Middleton spent £3000 and reaped more than
£36,000.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606: Privateer Christopher Newport: An East India Company
investor, he commands the Virginia Company voyage of 1606.

1606: Execution of some Gunpowder plotters including descendants
of Sir William Winter, earlier a noted naval administrator.
On the Gunpowder Plot, see website: (broken link?)
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/news/1998_04/wintour1.htm

1606: Sir Edwin Sandys (1561-1629), associated with the Virginia
Company as treasurer 1619-1621, also active with the Somers Island
Company (1606-1621) and a member of the East India Company. His
brother George (died 1644) was a treasurer of the Virginia Company,
his sister had a daughter who married a governor of Virginia, Sir
Francis Wyatt.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 70-100. Hasler,
History of Parliament, Vol. 3, pp. 339ff. Who's Who
/Shakespeare, pp. 214ff.)

1606: Sir Edward Michelbourne arrives home to England from his
piratical voyages to the Indonesian spice islands to retire to
disgrace. Meantime the English East India Company realised that
after sending three fleets to the East Indies, and about 1200 men,
they had lost 800 lives, mostly by disease. The Dutch were about
sending 14 fleets made of 65 ships. So the English East India Co.
decided to send out a Turkish-speaking Englishman, William Hawkins
to negotiate with the Mogul Emperor of India, Jehangir, from 1607
for larger adventures.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606: Sir Edward Michelbourne arrives home to England from his
piratical voyages to the Indonesian spice islands to retire to
disgrace. Meantime the English East India Company realised that
after sending three fleets to the East Indies, and about 1200 men,
they had lost 800 lives, mostly by disease. The Dutch were about
sending 14 fleets made of 65 ships. So the English East India Co.
decided to send out a Turkish-speaking Englishman, William Hawkins
to negotiate with the Mogul Emperor of India, Jehangir, from 1607
for larger adventures.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606 Spring: Middleton arrives back to England after voyage to
the East Indies/spice islands of the Moluccas, with little cargo
due to the depradations of not the Dutch or Portuguese, but of
Englishman ("gentleman adventurer") Sir Edward Michelborne.
Michelborne had earlier sweet-talked James I, who scarcely grasped
the issues about trade, and the necessity for a properly-backed
monopoly against the powers of the Portuguese and Dutch, into
permitting a Michelbourne expedition to the East Indies with
Tiger and Tiger's Whelp departing Isle of Wight on 5
December 1604.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1606: The voyage of Don Diego de Prado y Tovar through
Torres Strait. The earliest documented account of the European
discovery of Australia. Prado's 32-page manuscript was not produced
till 1614-1615 after Prado returned to Spain, to become a monk of
St. Basil in Madrid. Prado was second-in-command for the expedition
led by Fernandez de Quiros, a Portuguese, to discover The Great
South Land and to convert the heathen. Prado had been on
Quiros' ship but changed to the second ship, captained by Luis Vaez
de Torres at Vanuatu (which Prado called Australia del Spiritu
Sancto). The two ships were storm-separated, Torres went
through what is now the strait named for him, Quiros sailed for
South America, forced to do so by a mutinying crew. The Prado
manuscript came to light when the British sacked Manila in the
1760s. The Spanish had deliberately suppressed news of existence of
Torres Strait to harass their commercial rivals. Torres Strait
however was named by the British hydrographer of the later
eighteenth century, Alexander Dalrymple. (From Sydney
Morning Herald, 16 August 1997)

1607: English colony of Virginia founded in America.

1607: William Hawkins is sent on ship Hector by English
East India Company to negotiate with Mogul Emperor of India,
Jehangir for creation of an English factory on India's western
coast at Surat. Hawkins had the bad luck to encounter the Indian
owner of a ship that had earlier been pirated by Sir Edward
Michelbourne. But Hawkins had luck in getting on well personally
with Jehangir (a binge drinker and opium taker), speaking in
Turkish. Hawkins became a member of the Mogul inner court, and
ended up married to an Armenian woman. Hawkins finally died on his
way home and his Armenian widow married East India trader Gabriel
Towerson, who took her back to the East. (Towerson once kidnapped a
Negro named Coree of the Table Bay area, took him back to London,
to be met by Sir Thomas Smythe. Coree was cheered up by a present
of some chain mail, which he often wore, then taken back to South
Africa.)
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: Dutchman Jan Pieterszoon Coen sails to the East
Indies/spice islands. Early in his career, Coen finds some Dutchmen
there have been massacred, possibly with English planning. Coen
sails for East Indies again in 1612.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: William Hawkins is sent on ship Hector by English
East India Company to negotiate with Mogul Emperor of India,
Jehangir for creation of an English factory on India's
western coast at Surat. Hawkins had the bad luck to encounter the
Indian owner of a ship that had earlier been pirated by Sir Edward
Michelbourne. But Hawkins had luck in getting on well personally
with Jehangir (a binge drinker and opium taker), speaking in
Turkish. Hawkins became a member of the Mogul inner court, and
ended up married to an Armenian woman. Hawkins finally died on his
way home and his Armenian widow married East India trader Gabriel
Towerson, who took her back to the East. (Towerson once kidnapped a
Negro named Coree of the Table Bay area, took him back to London,
to be met by Sir Thomas Smythe. Coree was cheered up by a present
of some chain mail, which he often wore, then taken back to South
Africa.)
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: Under William Keeling, third expedition of ships of
English East India Co. to spice islands, with instructions to keep
ahead of the Dutch, with £17,600 of gold bullion and only £7000
worth of English-produced goods. Also sailing is David Middleton,
captain of a small ship, Consent (at Table Bay by 24 July
1607), who knew Gabriel Towerson, who had been left at Bantam in
the spice islands by David's brother Henry in 1604. David Middleton
sailed for the Celebes Islands, where he bought cloves (and slaves)
and sailed for England. Middleton spent £3000 and reaped more than
£36,000.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: English colony of Virginia founded.

1608: Christmas: William Keeling's ships in the spice islands
sail home for England via the Banda Islands, only to be
interrupted by arriving Dutch ships. Even more Dutch ships on a
seriously commercial-military mission under Peter Verhoef, with
1000 Dutch fighting men and Japanese mercenaries. Verhoef proposed
to build a fort on Neira Island, to defend the Dutch from the
Portuguese, which locals found outrageous. This fort was built on
the foundations of an old fort abandoned by the Portuguese about
100 years earlier. A massacre followed, perhaps co-organised by
Keeling. The Bandanese massacred 42 Dutchmen. Dutch command went to
Simon Hoen who demanded revenges, but signed a peace treaty by 10
August 1609 which gave Neira to Dutch power. But the Dutch ended
killed by the locals including dyak head-hunters), so that when
David Middleton arrived, he had great complexity to deal with.
Encouraged by Middleton, the islanders killed even more Dutch. In
London after Middleton got home, the East India Co. directors began
to look at maps and the island of Run.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1608: By 1608, reports are that Henry Hudson (an Englishman) has
sailed to within ten degrees of the North Pole. He has also touched
the eastern coast of Greenland. English merchants are interested,
the Dutch also. Hudson arrived in Amsterdam in 1608 to meet the
Dutch East India Co., to have his navigation theory questioned by
Petrus Plancius. The seventeen of the Dutch East India Co. failed
to accept Hudson's plan, so Hudson was approached by the French
(King Henry IV) via dissident Dutchman Isaac Lemaire. The
Dutch found out and recalled Hudson for an expedition for 1609.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1609: August: Crew on Henry Hudson's ship Half Moon see
the shores of Chesapeake Bay. later Hudson got to Coney Island at
the mouth of the Hudson River. (The Hudson River had been
discovered 85 years before by Giovanni da Verrazano in the service
of the French, searching for a way to the East Indies.) Hudson's
findings (eg about Manhattan Island) generate different views in
Holland versus England. The Dutch are not interested, the
English were.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1609: England makes a "plantation" of six counties of Ulster, Ireland. (Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1, Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York, Verso, 2002., p. 31.)

1610: David B. Quinn, England and the Discovery of
America. New York, 1974.* Also, Set Fair for Roanoke.
Chapel Hill, 1984.*

Notes on merchant history of the English-speaking world since
1550:

Virginia to 1749: how it grew out of Amazon ventures:

Virginia. A word applied to tobacco. The name comes from
Virgin, from the Virgin Queen, England's unmarried Queen Elizabeth.
The area's name first referred to parts of North America not held
by the Spanish or the French. Raleigh's piratical English colony on
Roanake Island had failed, but England tried again, slightly north,
with a venture sponsored by The London Company, or, the Virginia
Company.
(On the merchants behind the first Virginia Company, Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, pp. 98ff.)

James I in 1606 with one charter established the London and
Plymouth Companies, granting them land extending 200 miles inland
of the Virginian coast.
(A few days before Christmas 1606, sailed from London the ships the
Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery to
begin the American colonisation; Davis, Rise of the English
Shipping Industry, p. 3. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, pp. 93-94. C. M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of
American History. Four Vols. New Haven, 1934-1936.)

In early 1607, three ships and 144 men under the command of
Captain Christopher Newport, ex the Mediterranean and Asia
trade, carried 100 men and four boys to the Chesapeake Bay. They
entered the bay in April 1607, landing on Cape Henry. The new
colony elected local councillors, selected a peninsula up the James
River, and established there on 31 May, 1607, the first permanent
English settlement, called Jamestown, the first of some 13 British
colonies-to-be. Richmond is the capital of Virginia, today. Norfolk
is the next largest city. The coastal plain or Tidewater region was
flat and swampy enough to be called Dismal Swamp. It is cut by four
large tidal rivers, the Potomac, the Rappahanock, The York and the
James, which empty into Chesapeake Bay. By 1697 the best Tidewater
lands had been taken up and some soils were found exhausted; so
began the settling of the Piedmont.

At the western end the Tidewater rises and provides the
Piedmont, which stretches south to the North Carolina boundary.
Rising abruptly in the piedmont is the Blue Ridge, and between the
Blue Ridge and the Appalachian plateau further west is the
Shenandoah Valley, which has provided one of the world's memorable
songs inspired by great rivers, songs that are often wide and
sweeping, reflective, pensive if not outrightly melancholy.

As troubles reigned in Virginia, the numbers of newcomers were
cut to only 38 by the end of 1607. The Virginian colonists held
out, however, and more supplies plus additional settlers arrived in
January and October 1608. A new charter of May 1609 abolished the
original 1606 patent and a local governor with near-dictatorial
powers was appointed. A large expedition, nine ships, sailed from
England in May 1609 under Sir Thomas Gates as deputy-governor.
(On the English discovery of Bermuda, Dunn, Sugar and
Slaves, p. 14. As a comparative view, (Brenner, Merchants
and Revolution, p. 59) in 1609 there were 176 traders active in
the unregulated trade with Spain.)

Two ships were lost in the Bermudas, the others arrived in May
1610 to find the people at Jamestown had barely survived "the
starving winter". More settlers arrived however.

James I thought tobacco smoking horrible, loathsome to the eye,
hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to lungs, and
he blasted it anonymously in a pamphlet, A Covnter [sic] Blaste
to Tobacco by R.B. anno 1604.
(Richard B. Tennant, The American Cigarette Industry. Yale
University Press, 1950., p. 116.)
Aware of lung cancer, modern medicine would agree with him. As
early as 1610 the Virginia Company experienced trouble in covering
the expenses of voyages, since many investors had defaulted on the
second and third payment of their stocks. By 1612 it had to use
lotteries to keep solvent. In 1611 Sir Thomas Dale was given
authority in Virginia. In 1612 a third and final charter was given
to the Virginia Company over the Bermuda Islands. This charter was
more liberal in that each person transporting himself to Virginia
would be granted 50 acres, and the company also set up subsidiary,
private joint-stock companies to settle larger areas. And so,
agriculture.

From 1612, John Rolfe tried tobacco planting using a Trinidad
variety which found favour with the English. He married the Indian
princess Pocahontas and thereby obtained some eight years of peace
with the Indians of the area.
(In 1616, as a convert to Christianity, the wife of John Rolfe, and
mother of a son, with several other Indians, Pocahontas sailed to
London and was presented as a princess to the king and queen. She
intended to return home in 1617 but took ill and died at Gravesend
to be buried there. She was one of a line of indigenous people to
visit England, including, from the Pacific, Tahitians and
Australian Aboriginals. For example, Aboriginals Bennelong with
Governor Arthur Phillip, Mydidie with Sir Joseph Banks. Like
Pocahontas, several of these indigenes died in England, although
Bennelong returned to Sydney. On John Smith and Pocahontas, see Ch.
4 in Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters: Europe and the native
Caribbean, 1492-1797. London, Methuen, 1986.)

The new governor became Thomas West, Lord De La Warre. ( Thomas
West (1577-1618), Lord De La Warre.
Following sections reply heavily on Robert Bliss, Revolution and
Empire.)

1608: Christmas: William Keeling's ships in the spice islands
sail home for England via the Banda Islands, only to be
interrupted by arriving Dutch ships. Even more Dutch ships on a
seriously commercial-military mission under Peter Verhoef, with
1000 Dutch fighting men and Japanese mercenaries. Verhoef proposed
to build a fort on Neira Island, to defend the Dutch from the
Portuguese, which locals found outrageous. This fort was built on
the foundations of an old fort abandoned by the Portuguese about
100 years earlier. A massacre followed, perhaps co-organised by
Keeling. The Bandanese massacred 42 Dutchmen. Dutch command went to
Simon Hoen who demanded revenges, but signed a peace treaty by 10
August 1609 which gave Neira to Dutch power. But the Dutch ended
killed by the locals including dyak head-hunters), so that when
David Middleton arrived, he had great complexity to deal with.
Encouraged by Middleton, the islanders killed even more Dutch. In
London after Middleton got home, the East India Co. directors began
to look at maps and the island of Run.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1607: The Plymouth Company of England, the second Virginia Co.
group, focuses attention on New England. They sent an expedition
under George Popham to Sagahadoc (modern Popham Beach), to Maine,
the Kennebec River. Their ship is 30-tonner Virginia, built
by Digby, and not, as sometimes said, the first vessel built in
America, as about seven ships earlier built by Spanish or French
had preceded her. Virginia sails between England and her colony for
another 20 years.

1608: By 1608, reports are that Henry Hudson (an Englishman) has
sailed to within ten degrees of the North Pole. He has also touched
the eastern coast of Greenland. English merchants are interested,
the Dutch also. Hudson arrived in Amsterdam in 1608 to meet the
Dutch East India Co., to have his navigation theory questioned by
Petrus Plancius. The seventeen of the Dutch East India Co. failed
to accept Hudson's plan, so Hudson was approached by the French
(King Henry IV) via dissident Dutchman Isaac Lemaire. The
Dutch found out and recalled Hudson for an expedition for 1609.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1608: Champlain founds Quebec for France in Canada.

1608: Death of London merchant John I Smythe.
(Hasler, The House of Commons, 1558-1603, p. 403).

1609: August: Henry Hudson's ship Half Moon sees the
shores of Chesapeake Bay. later Hudson gets to Coney Island at the
mouth of the Hudson River. (The Hudson River had been discovered 85
years before by Giovanni da Verrazano in the service of the French,
searching for a way to the East Indies.) Hudson's findings (eg
about Manhattan Island) generate different views in Holland
versus England. The Dutch are not interested, the English
are.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1609: 12 September, English explorer Henry Hudson on Half
Moon has discovered Delawere Bay, then sails into the New York
river that now bears his name. The Dutch meantime are interested in
furs from Indians on the Hudson River and in 1613 they make a post
below Albany for such trade.

13 November 1609: Mariner Nathaniel Courthope is hired by East
India Company to go to the spice islands, especially the Island of
Run. Courthope is the hero of Milton's book as follows.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

30 December 1609: James I sees the departure of the New East
India Co. fleet from Deptford. Ships are Trades Increase,
Peppercorn and Darling. At a dinner, James I slips a
great gold honorary chain around neck of EICo chairman Sir Thomas
Smythe. Fleet actually sails in April 1610 under Sir Henry
Middleton.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1611: The Dutch establish an outpost in Africa - Maure or Fort
Nassau - and their first governor on the Gold Coast is Jacob
Adriaenszoon Clantius. The climate of the area in the next few
years took 1000 Dutch lives. Goslinga, The Dutch in the
Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, p. 75.

1611: English establish factory at Masulipatam, India.

1611: England by 1611 had engaged the first killing of a
"Greenland whale". Early English whalers included Thomas Edge and
Marmaduke of Hull; William Baffin's name was attached to Baffin
Bay. In 1618 arose the Scottish East India and the Greenland
companies, but the Dutch companies for such ventures were larger
than the English companies. The English whalers sailed from Leith,
Yarmouth (sent by soap manufacturers), but whaling declined during
the Civil War. (By 1671, George Turfry and Co. were whaling, but
the industry seemed on its last legs, attempts to re-establish it
failing. (Gordon Jackson, The British Whaling Trade. London,
Adam and Charles Black, 1978).

1611: Dies Henry Hudson, after a futile search for the
North-West Passage. His crew mutinies, and set him adrift in an
open boat to freeze. The mutineers who returned home were found not
guilty of mutiny.

1612: Sir John Davies (1569-1626) considers English colonization in Ireland and writes A Discovery of the True Causes why Ireland was never entirely Subdued .... Davies was Solicitor-General 1603-1606 for James I in Ireland,and was later Attorney-General for England. Davies surveyed the history of England's interests in Ireland from 1160 to the plantation of Ulster in 1609.
(Cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1, Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York, Verso, 2002., p. 44. See also, Hans S. Pawlisch, Sir John Davies and the Conquest of Ireland. Cambridge, 1985.)

1612: In 1612 the Mayor of Bristol is Thomas Povey, entertaining
Queen Anne (of Denmark) when she visited his city. (Agnes
Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 5, p. 147,
p. 155, p. 162). Reasons connected with the origin of English
chattel slavery will mean the name Povey is repeated.

1612: Jurist Hugo Grotius publishes his book Mare Librum: A
Discourse on the right which the Hollanders claim of trade to
India.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1613: The Dutch make extra efforts to control their imports from
the Guianas and to colonize there, but are destroyed by Spaniards
from Trinidad. But by 1615, the Dutch returned to Cayenne on the
Waipoco and on the Amazon. Theodore Claessen of Amsterdam placed
280 colonists at Cayenne, but these people went to Surinam. Of
these people, Capt Aert Adriaenszoon Groenwegen (who had been in
the service of the Anglo-Dutch house of Sir William Courteen
Senior) became rather "romantically mysterious". Groenwegen later
served the Spaniards as a factor on the Orinoco, but then went to
Zeeland, and met promoter-burgomaster Jan de Moor of Flushing. de
Moor found the official support of the States of Holland and
recruited Pieter Lodewijksz and his son Jan Pietersz, just returned
from the Guianas planting tobacco, for work on the Wild
Coast/Amazon area. Plus a fleet of three ships under Michiel
Geleynsse, to make a colony on the Wiapoco. These were not the only
Dutch endeavours about now.
Groenewegen's work was funded by Jan de Moor "in co-operation" with
William Courteen. Groenwegen left Flushing in 1616. Goslinga,
The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680,
pp. 79ff.

1613: Thomas Argall in ship Treasurer sails to Mount
Desert on Maine Coast, America, to thwart French efforts there to
plant a colony.

1614: Whaling history: John Smith has an expedition to discover
more of the whaling fishery off the coast of Maine, New England,
reporting a great number of whales and the richness of the cod
resources. Full-time American whaling probably stemmed from 1640
with the English of Nantucket Island. Although the Indians of the
outer Long Island area of New York had earlier been whalers. 1614
is a marker year for the "first chartered commerce" of New
York.
K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role
of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South Carolina
Press, 1988., p. 229.

1614: A small English ship under Richard Welden moves amongst
the spice islands, dealing with English already there including
John Jourdain.

1614: Dutch establish colony of New Amsterdam, (later New
York).

1614: John Smith of the colony of Virginia sails along the coast
of New England to Cape Cod . Stocks of fish are found, sold to
Spanish or English for £1500, a large profit for the times.

1615: Coffee is introduced to Europe.

14 May 1615: Armed conflict breaks out between Dutch and English
in the spice islands.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1615: England: James I requires glass to be made only with
coal.

1615: Sir Thomas Roe goes as official ambassador of James I to
the Mogul Court, Delhi, India.

1615: By 27 June, 1615 the East India Company agent at Firando,
Japan, is Mr. Wickham, who wanted to buy tea from Macao. (Misra, p.
19).

1615: Edward Wright, a little-known navigator and mathematician,
dies 1615. Wright knew the navigator John Davis. Wright lectured on
navigation for the East India Company, and had gone with George
Clifford Lord Cumberland to the Azores.Who's Who/ Shakespeare, p. 274.

1616: June: The Dutch commonwealth is fully liberated. Goslinga,
The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680,
p. 75.

1616: Groenewegen's work in 1616 was funded by Jan de Moor "in
co-operation" with William Courteen. Groenwegen left Flushing in
1616 with three ships, and founded a settlement 20 miles up the
Essequibo River, using an abandoned Portuguese fort; and he married
the daughter of an Indian chief, to rule his colony for nearly 50,
dying in 1664 aged 83, a wealthy man. Goslinga, The Dutch in the
Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, pp. 79ff.

1616: John Smith of Virginia publishes book, Description of
New England (an early pitch for real estate development). This
helps to promote a series of new New England settlements, such as
Plymouth in 1620, established by Pilgrims.

1616-1617: Raleigh obtains freedom from the Tower, where he has
been occupied writing, with "discreditable means". He promises
James I to find a gold mine in Guinea without bothering the
Spanish, despite warning of Spanish ambassador, and James I agrees,
though if Raleigh commits piracy he will be executed when he
returns. Raleigh sails on 17 March, 1617, ill-equipped, and reaches
mouth of Orinoco River by 31 December, 1617. Raleigh is ill and
remains at Trinidad. He sends on Lawrence Keymis and his son Walter
Raleigh, and a cousin of Walter. They encounter Spanish and Walter
Jnr is killed. Keymis suicided when reproached by Raleigh Snr. for
this outcome. When Raleigh returned home the king's threat is made
good and Raleigh is executed 29 October, 1618.
(Encyclopedia Britannica, entry on Raleigh.).

23 December, 1616: Arrives at Run, a small spice island
(an atoll) in the Indian Ocean, English ship Swan Capt.
Nathaniel Courthope. James I has ordered that the ship reach their
destination in secret. (The spice trade can bring profits in London
of up to 60,0000 per cent.) (From: Giles Milton, Nathaniel's
Nutmeg, Or, The True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader
who Changes the Course of History. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.

1616: Governor of Virginia Sir Thomas Dale arrives back in
London with Indian woman, Pocahontas. Dale's next work for English
expansionists is to go to the spice islands, where he arrives about
January 1619 with a new East India Company fleet.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1616: Nathaniel Courthope leaves his East India Company job as
factor at Sukadana and returns to Bantam in the spice islands.
Where he meets EICo merchant John Jourdain, who is from Lyme Regis
in Dorset, England.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

October 1616, John Jourdain gives Nathaniel Courthope use of two
ships in the spice islands, Swan (Master John Davis) and
Defence to make for the Island of Run. Courthope begins to
make fortifications.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

November 1617: Spice Islands, English ship Speedwell
meets three Dutch vessels which humiliate Speedwell. By now,
English feel tired of Dutch using physical force.

23 December, 1616: Arrives at Run, a small spice island
in the Indian Ocean, English ship Swan Capt. Nathaniel
Courthope. James I has ordered that the ship reach their
destination in secret. (The spice trade can bring profits in London
of up to 60,0000 per cent.) (From: Giles Milton, Nathaniel's
Nutmeg, Or, The True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader
who Changed the Course of History. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.

In 1620 came the abandonment of the charter of the Amazon
Company. By February 1621, Sir Nathaniel Rich had wanted to see the
establishment of a West India Company.
(Sir Nathaniel Rich, (1585-1636), knighted in 1617, was the senior
business manager for the second Earl of Warwick, with Maurice
Thomson evidently reporting to him. Nathaniel was grandson by
illegitimate descent of Richard, first Baron Rich. Nathaniel's
father Richard (died 1610) had been a Virginia colonist. DNB
entry for Nathaniel Rich. Newton, Colonising Puritans, p.
242. Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 195, Note 1.)

From 1618 erupted a squabble between the Sandys/Smythe factions
for the role of treasurer of the Virginia Company.
(Here, the present writer would agree more with Brenner's analysis
than with Bliss' analysis. The solution to the problem with the
Virginia Company lay in finding a mode of government which fitted a
plantation production system novel to the English; not, as was the
Sandys plan, of finding ways to transplant English community life
in a new environment. It rather seems as if Rich, the puritan Earl
of Warwick realised more astutely than many others that an
individualistic Puritanism that discriminated less against common
folk - colonists - could solve this problem more easily).

1618: English merchants in search of slaves establish a fort on
James Island at mouth of River Gambia, West African coast.

1618: In 1618 James I commutes a sentence of death to
transportation because the convicted person was a carpenter, and
carpenters were needed in Virginia. If this commutation was mercy,
it was mercy instituting a regime long to be corrupted in the
history of British colonialism.

1618: Sir William St. John, active circa 1618, of the
Guinea Company. (St John is active from 1618 in the Guinea Company,
and saw some developments which culminated in the company selling
Kormantin on the West African Coast to the English East India
Company in 1657.
Sir Percival Griffiths, A Licence to Trade: The History of the
English Chartered Companies. London, Ernest Benn, 1974.)

In 1618, Rich/Earl Warwick sent his ship Treasurer to
plunder the Spanish West Indies; then he sought to use Virginia as
a base for similar pirating. However, by 1620, Sir Edwin Sandys
(1561-1629) and his circle intervened in this, and brought
information to the Privy Council and the Spanish ambassador.
(Relevant here is Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, Chapter
IV, The New-Merchant Leadership of the Colonial Trades.)

How far the colonising faction led by Warwick should be regarded
as "aristocratic" or "commercial" remains unclear. Answering to
Warwick in commercial matters from 1619, it appears, was his
kinsman Sir Nathaniel Rich. (Newton regards Nathaniel Rich as the
business head of the Warwick faction.) And some opponents of Sandys
included an East India Company officer and alderman, Morris Abbot,
a Levant Company officer Christopher Barron, and some top Merchant
Adventurers including William Essington, William Palmer and Edward
Palmer.
(Sir Nathaniel Rich is noted thus in Bliss, Revolution and
Empire, pp. 10-16.)

Sir Thomas Smythe led another anti-Sandys faction of merchants
including Sir John Wolstenholme and Sir William Russell, both
leading crown financiers, plus merchants Hugh Hamersley, alderman
Robert Johnson, Nicholas Leate, Anthony Abdy, John Dyke, Humphrey
Slaney, Robert Bateman, Thomas Styles, Richard Edwards (all Levant
Men), William Canning and Humphrey Handford (of the French trade
and an importer of European wares).
(On the rivalry between the camps of Sandys and Sir Thomas Smith,
see Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp. 10-16.

In 1619, Sandys supplanted Smith as treasurer of the Virginia
Company. In the Sandys camp were Wriothesley, Earl Southampton,
Lord Cavendish (William Cavendish (1551-1625), first Baron
Cavendish, first Earl Devonshire), and John and Nicholas Ferrar.
Sandys saw "direct links between power and freedom, company profits
and colonial prosperity". Lord Cavendish also had one-eighth of the
Bermudas. It might also be noted that Frances, sister of Lord
Cavendish, married William Maynard, first Baron Maynard, son of
secretary of the treasury for Lord Burghley, Sir Henry Maynard.
Frances' brother Charles, an auditor of the Exchequer, married
Essex Corsellis, daughter of a colleague of Maurice Thomson, Zegar
Corsellis, a Dutch financier name. In later generations, Cavendish
women married Charles Lord Rich and Robert Lord Rich.
(GEC, Peerage, Maynard, p. 599. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 621.)

The "Rich faction", the faction of the second earl of Warwick,
remained extremely active, although the extent to which it owed its
Virginian interests to its earlier Amazon interests is debatable,
and has not yet been traced in detail by historians. In 1618 the
second Earl of Warwick had become an original member of the Guinea
Company, newly-incorporated to engage in profitable trade in
Negroes.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, pp. 34-36.)

In 1618 the ship Treasurer Capt Daniel Elfrith was fitted
with a Savoy Commission as a man-o-war; she carried the
first shipment of Negroes ever sold in Virginia, and her arrival
provided Warwick's enemies in Virginia with reasons to attack. They
accused him of piracy, though Elfrith said the Negroes been
obtained properly.
(Here, Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 36, notes with irony
that the same man, Warwick, who introduced Negroes slaves into
British America also introduced the charter of Massachusetts, later
the foremost abolitionist state.)

At the time of the ship money dispute, the value of the Rich
navy was so great that Warwick obtained a commission modelled on
the lines of Queen Elizabeth's commission to the anti-Spanish
privateer, George Clifford (1558-1605), the thirteenth Lord
Clifford, and third Earl of Cumberland , who according to Newton in
European Nations in the West Indies had been "more prominent
than any other English nobleman as a leader of corsairs; since 1587
he had organised and fitted out at his own expense no less than
eleven expeditions against Spanish commerce", with his twelfth
attempt being his last.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, pp. 37ff. R. G. Marsden,
`Early Prize Law', English Historical Review, April,
1910. Arthur Percival Newton, (Ed.), The European Nations in the
West Indies, 1493-1688. London, Black, 1933., p. 115. Andrews,
Elizabethan Privateering, p. 70. GEC, Peerage,
Cumberland, p. 568; Clifford, pp. 294ff. Some of Cumberland's
commercial associates were Thomas Cordell (Mercers, and Levant
Co.), William Garraway, Sir John Hart, Paul Bayning, John
Watts.)

1618++: So, the anti-Sandys faction included Smythe and the
Rich/Warwick factions. There was a tendency to first destroy the
Virginia Company in order to save it, and at the time, James I's
treasurer was Sir Lionel Cranfield.
(Lionel (1574-75-1645), first Earl Middlesex, was early in his
career, to 1622, a merchant adventurer. Rabb, Enterprise, p.
21, Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 68. GEC,
Peerage, Middlesex, pp. 689ff.)

The pro-Sandys faction from 1618, the year of the "Great
Charter" of the Virginia Company included William, first Baron
Cavendish, and Wriothesley, Earl Southampton, plus brothers John
and Nicholas Ferrar.

Squabbling over Virginia, and with company reforms of 1618, Sir
Edwin Sandys' "gentry party" battled Sir Thomas Smythe's "merchant
party" for the position of treasurer of the Virginia Company.
(Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp. 10-16. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, pp. 99-100.)

Sandys' gentry party from 1618 ousted the Smythe faction, but
still found it hard to keep Virginia supplied financially. London
merchants withdrew from Virginian adventures, till 1623 when they
joined forces to regain control of tobacco handling. Just who
gained that control is difficult to find, but by 1617, Virginia was
shipping 50,000 pounds weight of tobacco per year, and her planters
were developing a boom mentality. By 1638, Virginia exported two
million pounds of tobacco.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 113.)

Dissolution of the Virginia Company:

In 1619, the Earl of Warwick took a prominent part in financing
Roger North's Guiana expedition, and in 1620 he was granted a seat
on the council of the revived Plymouth Company for New England, and
went to its meetings. As to linkages between Puritans, Warwick/Rich
was a neighbour of Sir John Bourchier, whose daughter Elizabeth had
recently married Oliver Cromwell. Warwick as organiser of the
Guiana Company had wanted to settle there some of the separatists
of Robinson's congregation at Leyden, but the dissolution of the
Guiana Company meant that Company looked to North Virginia instead,
hence the sailing of the Mayflower in August 1620. (The
captain of the Mayflower seems to have been Capt. Peter
Andrews, who engaged in Virginia and West Indies tobacco planting.
Andrews was brother-in-law of the ship's owner, Samuel Vassall)
( Vassall was a Presbyterian City man and a navy commissioner who
married a daughter of the London-Levant merchant, Abraham
Cartwright. He was once interested with Pym in suppressing an Irish
rebellion. He refused to pay ship money, was a wholesale clothier,
imported eastern currants and silks, and also tobacco, flax and
hemp. With Mathew Cradock he became a co-founder of the
Massachusetts Bay Company. Vassall probably owned the
Mayflower, taking the original Puritan Fathers to America.
William Vassall was a Massachusetts Bay colonist.
Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, pp. 59-60, p. 193, Note
22. Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 151ff.)

(It was later, by 13 January, 1630 that Warwick obtained for the
Mayflower puritans a grant of the second Plymouth
patent.)

Robert Rich, second Earl of Warwick, was the eldest son of
Robert (1559/60-1618-19), the first Earl Warwick and third Baron
Rich, and great-grandson of Richard, first Baron Rich, chancellor
of the Court of Augmentations to Henry VIII, founder of the family
fortunes, a Puritan and a contemporary of John Preston.
(Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, pp. 192ff. GEC, Peerage,
Holland, pp. 538ff; Newhaven, p. 539.)

The Rich family were anti-Spanish and therefore distasteful to
James I. The second Earl of Warwick continued the earlier
privateering expeditions of his forebears; in 1614 he became one of
the original members of the Somers Isles Company. In 1618 he had 14
shares in the Somers Isle Company and one of the divisions of the
Islands was called Warwick Tribe (sic, a peculiar appellation). In
1616 he and his father fitted out two ships with a Savoy Commission
to rove in the East Indies. In fact, the second Earl of Warwick,
and his commercial associates busily united the themes of
anti-Spanish activity, interest in Virginia, and trade in the zones
desired by the English East India Company. The anti-Spanish
vehemence of Warwick's day lasted long in English cultural life,
and was once expressed once Australia had been settled, by the
Enderby whalers, by way of fantasies about attacking parts of the
western coasts of South America. On one album of English folk songs
can be found two anti-Spanish lyrics:

Take this scone to wear this horn, it was the crest when you
were born,
Your father's father wore it and your father wore it too...
Hal-an-Tow, jolly rumble-o, We were up, long before the day-o.
To welcome in the summer, to welcome in the May-o.
The summer is a comin' and the winter's gone away-o.
What happened to the Spaniards, that makes a greater boast
though?
Why they shall eat the feathered goose, and we shall eat the
roast-o.
Hal-an-Tow. Jolly rumble-o. We were up, long before the day-o.

And again:

And now I will tell of brave Elliott, the first youth that
enters the ring,
and so proudly rejoice I to tell it, ... he fought for his country
and king.
When the Spaniards besieged Gibraltar t'was Elliott defended the
place,
and he soon caused their plans for to alter, some died, others fell
in disgrace...
(From (1) Hal-an-Tow and (2) Earsdon Sword Dance
Song, sung by The Watersons, Frost and Fire: A Calendar of
Ceremonial Folk Songs. Topic Records, UK. 12T136.

The Earl of Warwick's Savoy commission was obtained for
considerable money from Scarnafissi, the agent of Charles Emmanuel
I, who was then on a money-seeking mission to England. In the East,
the Rich ships took a Mogul ship worth £100,000, which was
recaptured by an East India Company ship; there followed a long
dispute with the Company, though while it proceeded, Rich was
"constantly at the Company", borrowing stock ordnance and stores
for his ships.

1619: The first Negroes (about 20) arrived in Virginia in 1619 in a Dutch
ship. Some think they were already "enslaved" but it is hard to know exactly what word to use to describe their formal status as workers at the time. Initially, most Negroes were indentured, not enslaved, but
later, atrocious legislation by Europeans successively eroded any
ideas or sentiments protecting the rights of Negroes so as to
justify slavery, where human beings were owned as property. The
local assembly, the House of Burgesses, became the first of its
kind in the New World. By 1619 the urge on American soil for self
government asserted itself very quickly, and by 1641 the colony was
well established.

Regroupings in London of Virginia merchant factions:

One early Virginia Company investor was a magnate of the Levant
and East India companies, Sir Thomas Smythe, whose plantation
efforts were unsuccessful.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 97-98, p. 154.

Sir Thomas Smythe in 1623 became governor of the Bermuda
Company, to be succeeded in that role by his son-in-law, alderman
Robert Johnson.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 98; Newton,
Colonising Puritans, p. 70).

Regrettably, confusion still exists about the genealogy of Sir
Thomas Smythe. Here, however, arises a further genealogical mystery
concerning a Lord Mayor of London about 1518, Sir Thomas Mirfyn.
The implications are as follows - Mirfyn's possible longer
descendancy via a son Edward and a daughter Frances involves
the later names Palavicino, Cromwells, Earls Fauconberg, the later
Edens, the eighth Marquis Tweeddale, other Cromwellians, second
Baron Ashburton (that is, Baring), and Barringtons of the Rich
faction. If the same Sir Thomas Mirfyn had a daughter Joan who
married Lord Mayor Andrew Judd, then Mirfyn's shorter or other
descendancy would include names such as customs receiver,
"Customer" Smythe (died 1591), Knightleys as republicans, Lord
Mayor Rowland Hayward, Roper/Lords Teynham; and perhaps some
members of the Rich faction.)

By 1616, Smythe, a London alderman, had been sometime governor
of the East India, Muscovy, French and Somers Islands companies.
His son-in-law was Robert Johnson, a director of the Levant and
East India companies who became a governor of the Bermuda Company.
Smythe became one of the leading merchants of the Virginia Company
of London, but he remained interested also in the East India
Company.
(The Rich family, Earls Warwick, had a large interest in Bermuda;
and the second Earl of Warwick became governor of the Bermuda
Company in 1628. Alison Olson, Making The Empire Work: London
and American Interest Groups, 1690-1790. London, Harvard
University Press, London. 1992., p. 17.)

Sir Horatio Palavicino (1540-1600) was an Elizabethan financier
from a Genoese family who died a remarkably wealthy English
commoner. By 1592 he had tried to corner the world supply of pepper
(does anyone ask if this had relation to reasons for the
establishment of either the English or Dutch East India companies?)
He had children by his wife Anne Hoftman, who as widow married the
Royalist, Sir Oliver Cromwell (died 1626). Several of Cromwell's
children by his first wife, Elizabeth Bromley, married Palavicino's
children. Sir Horatio lived in the notable parish, St Dunstan's,
Tower Ward.
Lawrence Stone, An Elizabethan: Sir Horatio Palavicino.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1956.)

Another of the "Virginia Magazine" was Sir John Wolstenholme, a
leading London financier and a customs farmer as well as East India
Company director. Other Virginia investors included William
Essington, a leading Merchant Adventurer who was a son-in-law of
the Merchant Adventurer, Sir Thomas Hayes, a Lord Mayor of London;
William Canning, a noted Merchant Adventurer, was also
deputy-governor of the Bermuda Company and several times master of
the Ironmongers. (Ironmongery became important items of trade on
the African slave coasts).
(Another noted Virginia Company investor was George Calvert
(1578-1632), Lord Baltimore, a Catholic with a title granted by
James I. Calvert had been the king's principal secretary of state
but resigned; he also invested in the Virginia Company and the New
England Company, and spent money on a Newfoundland colony, Avalon.
Later his son Cecilius acquired land which became the colony of
Maryland. Clarence L. Ver Steeg, The Formative Years,
1607-1763. London, Macmillan, 1965., pp. 21-23, pp. 42ff. GEC,
Peerage, Baltimore, p. 393.)

With the arrival in London of James I after the death of
Elizabeth I, earlier English interest in anti-Spanish privateering
abated somewhat, but interest in Amazon adventures was retained,
especially by the first and/or the second Earl Warwick. The
descendants of Amazon adventurers gradually developed an interest
in Caribbean plantations, which also allowed them to retain an
anti-Spanish spirit. Meanwhile, seven or more Levant Company
merchants had helped establish the East India Company in 1599-1600,
and that grouping had little interest in the Caribbean, or
anti-Spanish activity. But from about 1618, some figures interested
in Amazon adventures firmed their interest in Virginian
business.

1619: At the Virginia Company Court meeting, April 28, the
treasurer says that His Majesty has sent a man suspected of deer
stealing to Virginia. The same year the King sent another 50 people
to Virginia. Roderick Cameron says that 1619 seems to be the
earliest actual recording of transportation to a colony, "a hundred
dissolute persons" being sent to Virginia by order of James I.
(Roderick Cameron, Australia: History and Horizons. London,
Weidenfeld and Nicolson., pp. 48ff).

January 1619: Spice Islands: Former Gov of Virginia Sir Thomas
Dale arrives about January 1619 with a new East India Company fleet
for the spice islands.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1620: In 1620, the aldermen of London want 100 street children
sent to Virginia, and get their way without protest. The tradition
arises of people being "disappeared", especially in Middlesex. In
1620, Sir Thomas Smith is allowed to ship 20 people to the Somers
Islands (Bermuda).

1620: The Mayflower sailed for North America (Cape Cod)
in September 1620, landing at Plymouth; the settlement is annexed
to Massachusetts in 1691.

18 October 1620, Spice Islands, Islanders of Great Banda rise up
against the Dutch and turmoil results. Courthope wonders if they
will come to his aid against the Dutch. But the Dutch (Jan Coen)
end killing Courthope about the 20th October. The Dutch end
renaming Jakarta as "Batavia". Coen becomes Gov-General of Dutch
East Indies.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1620: From 1620, Scottish colonisation of Nova Scotia gives a
small stimulus to trade. To end of king's reign, a slump, blamed on
a shortage of specie, mistaking effect for cause, as Davies notes.
Throughout his reign, James is in debt, unsound national finances
rebound on business fortunes, James rarely repays money he borrows,
and inflicts losses on individuals, and since he has no money with
which to reward his followers, he often grants monopolies or
permits them to accept bribes in order that others can gain
monopolies - to 1625

1620: (Wood on Bentham, p. 330), The City of London "sent a
swarm of 100 children to America".

In 1620, James I had stepped in to stop the Rich faction using
Virginia and the Somers Islands (Bermuda) as bases for privateering
against the Spanish in the West Indies. Later the king made the
Rich faction abandon their efforts with Guiana. (Charles 1 gained
the throne of England on 27 March, 1625.) In 1621 James 1 revoked
the lottery funding the Virginia Company and in 1621-1622, James 1
tried unsuccessfully to back the Smythe faction in the battle for
the position of treasurer of the Virginia Company. By 1623, when
Sandys' faction thought they had convinced the king their views on
the government of Virginia were sound, the king amazed them when in
1624 there was declared a vacancy of the Virginia Company charter,
and with some involvement from Sir Nathaniel Rich, control of the
company was given to Lord President Mandeville.
(Viscount Mandeville, first Earl Mandeville, sometime treasurer,
Henry Montagu (1563-1642). His family turned part Whiggish; his son
Edward was anti-ship money, a Cromwellian peer, although he later
assisted the Restoration. GEC, Peerage, Manchester, p. 365;
North, p. 657. The new governor of Virginia was Sir Francis Wyatt
(a descendant of the Wyatt plotters early in the career of
Elizabeth I), who had married a niece of Sir Edwin Sandys).

Charles I when he examined the Virginia Company situation dealt
with two Sandys supporters, the Earl of Dorset and William, first
Baron Cavendish.
(Earl Dorset, This was Richard Sackville (1589-1624)), third earl
of Dorset, an investor in the Virginia Company by 1609.
(Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 194, Note 5).

He was married to Anne Clifford, daughter of the anti-Spanish
"privateer", George Clifford, third Earl Cumberland. Anne Clifford
also married the anti-Spanish Philip Herbert, fourth Earl Pembroke,
who was also interested in the Virginia Company, and was patron of
Sir William Courteen Snr. in squabbles over the development of
England's Caribbean interests. The first Earl of Dorset, sometime
treasurer, Thomas Sackville (1536-1608), was of the descendants of
Lord Mayor Geoffrey Boleyn.
(GEC, Peerage, Dorset, p. 422.)

Thus, the third earl of Dorset, as consulted on "colonisation"
represented, as it were, two powerful families who had been
affronted by Henry VIII's treatment of his wives; the Parrs and the
Boleyns. )
Baron Cavendish: In 1624, (Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 113), Virginia had only 1000 colonists. On 1
March, 1624, the House of Commons' motion regarding seizure of
departing East India Company ships, became part of the
Smith/Smythe/Sandys squabble. Treasurer Cranfield had backed
Sandys' opponents. The Commons gave some backing to Sandys and his
gentry men trying to retain control of the Virginia Company.
Maurice Thomson et al, were led by Smythe and backed by the
Rich faction, the Earl of Warwick. At first, Charles and Cranfield
had backed the merchants in their fight with Sandys; by 1624,
Charles and Cranfield had destroyed Sandys tobacco monopoly,
dissolved the old Virginia Company, and reconstituted it with
merchants plus the Rich faction.

Behind the whole squabble seems a view taken in England, that
one was either for or against the right of the individual in
Virginia to own property, manage resources and make a profit in
ways new to traditional English life and politics. Sandys lost the
battle because his assumptions, while "democratic" enough in some
ways to disaffect the king, were not well-fitted to the system of
production which at the time was stimulating a boom mentality. What
the king wanted finally was sufficient control over trade and
profits, and so he conceded some ground on questions of colonial
government, resulting in Virginia's new independent House of
Assembly.)

Also as part of developing trends, in 1620 the City of London
sent "a swarm of 100 children" to Virginia; street children.
(F. L. W. Wood, `Jeremy Bentham versus New South Wales',
Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol.
XIX, Part 6, 1933.. pp. 329-351; here, p. 330. Ver Steeg, The
Formative Years, p. 24, pp. 35-37. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 273.)

In this, London's aldermen got their way without protest. The
tradition was arising, of people being "disappeared", especially
from Middlesex. So, in the American colonies, by 1619, after the
struggle between the Smythe/Sandys factions for control of the
Jamestown settlement at Virginia, instructions were received for
the formation of a local government, the House of Burgesses, which
became more democratic in ideas than anything in England or Europe
(as Ver Steeg notes). But the need for labour led a demand for
slave, convict and indentured labour that would also mean that over
time, that any nascent sense of "democracy" was to be corrupted by
equations of rights to citizenship with rights arising from
property ownership; meaning that citizenship would be offered to
fewer European individuals, and denied to those of other races.
(This theme is traced with some feeling in James Michener's novel,
Chesapeake, although Michener there makes little mention of
transported convicts. Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp.
32-33.)

How colonisation provoked the transportation of
offenders:

In 1620, Sir Thomas Smith (Smythe?) had been allowed to ship 20
people to the Somers Islands (Bermuda). (Within a few decades, the
term "being Babadosed" came to mean being kidnapped to work on
Barbados. Long later, the term was "Shanghaied"). By the
1640s, many younger people on Barbados had arrived after being
kidnapped. Later, other new inhabitants included London thieves and
whores, Scottish and Irish soldiers captured in Cromwell's
campaigns. Cromwell did much to encourage the transportation of
people deemed undesirable, but not before certain trends had
earlier been set by the second Earl of Warwick, his associates, and
those who answered to them. Between 1623-1624 the newly-organised
Dorchester Company was granted permission by the Council of New
England to fish and trade. By 1626 the company - with some members
prominent Puritans - had established a settlement at Salem,
promoting the idea of a Bible Commonwealth.
( By 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company was formed with a charter
from the Crown. Some Levant Company men investing in Massachusetts
Bay Colony included Francis Flyer, Matthew Craddock, Samuel
Vassall, Nathan Wright, men already active in America trade. It is
difficult not to see them co-operating with "the Rich faction". The
Massachusetts Bay Company members were merchants, some fishing men
of the Dorchester Company, some London merchants and some Puritan
gentry. (In 1630, some seventeen English ships sailed for
Massachusetts, with 1000 persons plus provisions and animal
stock).)

Renewed anti-Spanish feeling after the Sandys/Smythe
squabble:

Puritanism remained a strong theme in politics. In 1628-1629
were parliamentary confrontations with the crown over
unparliamentary taxation, forced loans, arbitrary imprisonment, and
Arminianism and persecution of Puritans. A political opposition
grouped around the Earl of Warwick, Lord Saye and Sele, and Sir
Nathaniel Rich and their colonizing ventures.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 148ff.

It would appear that Brenner is the first historian to strongly
link the second Earl of Warwick with the formerly unreported extent
of the trading engaged by Maurice Thomson and Thomson's associates.
To date, it seems arguable that the significance of the Earl of
Warwick's commercial efforts have been understated. On Warwick and
some of his aristocratic-investor connections.
See also, Joyce Lorimer, (Ed.), English and Irish Settlement on
the River Amazon, pp. 194ff. It is given in Arthur Percival
Newton, The European Nations in the West Indies, 1493-1688.
London, A&C Black, 1933., pp. 172ff, that Warwick's efforts
should be associated with English efforts seen in the Virginia
Company, North's unsuccessful settlement of the Amazons, and the
settlement of the American New England - as well as with the
anti-Spanish Providence Island Company. Warwick was greatly
responsible for the promotion of the English use of chattel slavery
- and this is said far too seldom by historians.)

Warwick was probably encouraged by conflict with Spain, as it is
almost as though having won his part of the Sandys/Smythe squabble,
the Earl of Warwick wished to renew his anti-Spanish fervour, fully
aware that English commercial shipping would now sweep wider from
Africa, across the Atlantic to the Caribbean and Virginia, and
north on the Canadian coasts.

From 1625, England was to be at war with Spain, then with
France. One of England's responses was to promote privateering
again, in a context where proposals for the establishment of an
English West India Company as well as for improvements to the navy
were common. "A group of MPs associated with the second Earl of
Warwick, Robert Rich", became vocal. Warwick was a "privateering
magnate" and "was to lead the Providence Company in a private war
with Spain".
(Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, pp. 36-37. [Bliss,
Revolution and Empire, p. 39] has Winthrop at Massachusetts
believing by 1640 that the Providence Island Company had lost
£120,000. Bliss writes, by the early 1640s, "Meanwhile,
parliamentary leaders like the Earl of Warwick were as aware as
anyone of the potential for sugar to fuel the sinews of war.")

Andrews in Ships, Money and Politics writes, Warwick was
"the only great shipowning aristocrat of his time, patron and chief
entrepreneur of westward colonization, especially in the West
Indies and the Somers Islands"... Is this remark significant? "The
only other peer with a considerable interest in shipping [was] the
Earl of Carlisle..." However, it remains difficult to find ship men
or traders associating with Carlisle. As he worked to "plant" the
Caribees, Carlisle relied even more than Warwick did, on merchant
backing. Carlisle's clique of merchants being led by Marmaduke
Roydon.
Arthur Percival Newton, The European Nations in the West
Indies, p. 156, p. 183. There is little information however on
Roydon's family history or career, and his associates seem
surprisingly few.

Later regarding Barbados, the associates of the Earl of Carlisle
(family name Hay) were such as Peter Hay, James Holdip. Carlisle's
backers included Marmaduke Roydon, William Perkins, Alexander
Bannister. The Barbados experience acclimatised English people to
managing chattel slavery.
Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 33.

These men Hay had kinsmen, Sir James Hay and Sir Archibald Hay
who helped shore up the influence of the Earl of Carlisle, re rent
collections. The new governor, Henry Huncks, threatened Peter Hay
with physical violence. But the Hays did however understand
colonial reluctance to undertake trade regulation if there was a
share in colonial government a la issues later rising with
the outbreak of the American Revolution].)

There seems however to be little evidence that Carlisle was
interested in maritime activity before he developed ambitions to
dominate the English efforts in the Caribbean. In fact, little is
found in books on the merchants Carlisle used, and his commercial
activities, as distinct from his political influences, remain
rather blank to the historian. And further, Carlisle's interests
cannot be properly understood without reference to Courteen's
investments on Barbados - and much else. Perhaps, Carlisle was
constrained to use shipping deployed by merchants whose greater
loyalty was to the Earl of Warwick?

In 1628 the second Earl of Warwick took over the governership of
the Bermuda Company to make it a Puritan project. By 21 June, 1628,
Digges and Rich had again put forward a plan for a West Indies
company; Rich had a bill pre-written. An associated idea was to
"breed up mariners". Similar plans were expressed in late January
1629. (In August 1628 the Dutchman Piet Heyn (sic) reportedly took
a Spanish treasure fleet for £1,200,000.)
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 267-268.)

1620++: Nova Scotia has been given attention by Scots colonists
in 1620, but in 1629, Britain had abandoned her efforts on Nova
Scotia as part of Charles I' peace plan with France. (Otherwise,
Englishmen regularly entertained fantasies of sending convicts to
Nova Scotia until after 1788). (Davies, Early Stuarts, p.
326.) Also in 1620s, James I grants land between Middle of New
Jersey Coast and Newfoundland plus monopoly of offshore fishing to
Sir Ferdinando Gorges and others in Council for New England.

June 1621: Dutch States-General charter the new Dutch West India
Company to trade to South Africa, America, West Indies, Far
East.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1621: William Claiborne, a colonist of Virginia, born circa 1587
in Cliburne, Westmoreland, England (died 1677 in Virginia) was
possibly a son of E. W. Claiborne (Cliburne); his mother was Grace
Bellingham. [Dictionary of American Biography, 1928]. In
June 1621 he was appointed surveyor of the colony of Virginia;
later, secretary of the colony, then treasurer. He was given much
land, disliked Catholics, and dealt with the London firm Cloberry
and Co. Claiborne obtained a semi-monopoly of a large trade
territory by 1631 per William Alexander, secretary of state for
Scotland. This led to troubles with Lord Baltimore regarding
Maryland, as Claiborne by then was a partner with Robert Ingle.
Baltimore would not recognise such Scots-based claims. (See
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 185). William
Claiborne by 1638-1642 was associated with the Providence Island
Company which intended to harass the Spanish, and also with the
founding of an English colony at Ruatan, Honduras. (A relevant
title here is J. H. Claiborne, William Claiborne of
Virginia. 1917.
A descendant, Colonel Leonard Claiborne died in 1694 at Carlisle
Bay, Jamaica, a son of one William Claiborne. Presumably there will
be extensive material on the Claibornes of Virginia. Leonard
Claiborne, son of Colonel William Claiborne of Virginia, settled in
Jamaica where he was a colonel in the militia of St. Elizabeth's,
killed in a repulse of the French in 1694 at Carlisle Bay. By his
wife Martha he is supposed to have had two daughters, Katherine and
Elizabeth. Elizabeth remains unknown. Catherine is supposed to have
married Apt John Campbell of Inverary, Argyleshire, (Black River,
Jamaica) who had gone to "Darien" and on his return to Jamaica was
one of the custos of St. Elizabeth's. The published sources
available to Dorman do not indicate if Campbell and Katherine
Claiborne-Campbell had children; it seems they did not.

1622: In 1622 arose the first association of an English ship and
Australia, on 25 May, 1622 when the East Indiaman Tryal
Capt. John Brooke wrecked on a reef north of the Monte Bello
Islands. Brooke had been relying on a 1620 southern route
recommended by Capt. Humphrey Fitzherbert of the ship Royal
Exchange, who had used the southern route to the Indies but
seen no "South Land". Brooke sighted land near North West Cape but
misunderstood Fitzherbert's directions and wrecked, losing 92 lives
and much treasure. (In June 1681 the English ship London
Capt. John Daniel came in sight of the coast of New Holland, making
a sketch of Wallabi group that was later used as a chart by
Alexander Dalrymple the East India hydrographer [and rival to Capt.
James Cook]). The next major sighting of an Australian coast was
made by William Dampier.

1602: W. L. Marvin, The American Merchant Marine,
1602-1902. 1902. *

1623: R. M. Baynes, History of Staten Island from its
Discovery. 1887. *

In 1623, Buckingham and Charles had returned from their
mission to Spain, determined to end the Spanish match. Their stance
seemed to open ways for a rise in anti-Spanish feeling generally.
Buckingham and Charles wanted to resurrect the careers of the
anti-Spanish Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton...
(This was Thomas Wriothesley, (1607-1667) fourth Earl Southampton;
or his father, Henry, (1573-1624), third earl, an investor in the
Virginia and East India companies, also interested in finding the
north-west passage. The third earl was a backer of the Sandys
faction in the Sandys/Smythe squabble over the treasuryship of the
Virginia Company.)

....and the Earl of Oxford, lately imprisoned by James. They
welcomed William Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele, and also the second
Earl of Warwick. (Another figure to be mentioned is the great
Puritan minister, John Preston, linked to Calvinist ministry, who
had tutored the Earl of Warwick's son). Also with close ties of
friendship to Lord Saye was the puritan Sir Richard Knightley
(1593-1639).
(One of Knightley's wives was Anna Courteen, daughter of Sir
William Courteen Senior. Knightley's cousin Sir Valentine Knightley
was a member of the Virginia Company. Newton, Colonising
Puritans, p. 69. Burke's Peerage and Baronetage for
Knightly. Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 261.)

As Saye became an ally of Buckingham, there was also alliance
with the parliamentary opposition. Buckingham even managed to
recruit "the mighty earl of Pembroke", who hated Buckingham.
(Philip Herbert (1584-1649/1650), fourth Earl Pembroke, whose first
wife was Susan De Vere and second, Anne Clifford. This fourth earl
was given a grant of Barbados but he lost it to Earl Carlisle; by
1627-1628 he held this grant in trusteeship for Courteen Senior (as
noted in DNB , entry for Courteen).

Pembroke in 1645 was Commissioner of Admiralty. In 1637 Pembroke
with others was given a grant of the province of Newfoundland,
which area became "a nursery of seamen". He was in the Virginia
Company by 1609, East India Company by 1611, North West Passage
Company by 1612 and was privateering by 1625. He and his brother
were councillors for Virginia. He or his father appear to have been
patrons of Courteen's early attempts to settle Barbados; whether he
was double-crossed by the Earl of Carlisle remains unclear.
Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, p. 516. Who's Who
/Shakespeare, p. 188. Lorimer (Ed.), Amazon, p. 291,
Note 2. GEC, Peerage, Carnarvon, p. 44; Pembroke, p. 415;
Oxford, p. 253; Dorset, p. 424; Clifford, p. 295. One of this
earl's daughters, Mary, married Sir John Sydenham, Bart,
(1642-1696) (Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, p. 516.). He was
of the same family line as Elizabeth Sydenham, the second wife of
privateer, Sir Francis Drake.)

A secretary of state, and a Buckingham protégé, was Sir Edward
Conway, who tried to turn James to an anti-Spanish position and to
recover the Palatinate. There was arising, a joint Anglo-Dutch move
against Spain in the Caribbean, which may also have come to the
notice of the Anglo-Dutch merchant, Sir William Courteen
senior.

By 1623, writes Davies, James 1 was economically weak, with
little credit given him for the good years. He restricted and
disorganised trade by adding burdens, a rationalisation being that
extra trade would result from peace with Spain. Earlier in James
I's reign there had been new enterprises such as the East India
Company and the Russia Company, and developments such as Scottish
colonisation in Nova Scotia. Too little however was ever reported
of Maurice Thomson till Brenner published his research.
(Here, one should also see Newton, Colonising Puritans.)

The extraordinary range of trading engaged by Maurice Thomson
(agent for the second Earl of Warwick) and his associates is all
the more remarkable if a brief tour is made of the fringes of
English settlement and interest patterns of the decades 1600-1640,
since it is helpful if the aspirations of a wide range of merchants
is known as England expanded.

By Charles' proclamation of 13 May, 1625, Charles rejected
Sandys' views on the government of Virginia as smacking too much of
"popular government".
(Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp. 19-24.)

In short, from 1618, the Sandys faction's views on the
management of Virginia were brought undone by bad luck, the
outcomes of earlier problems, and too much leaning to popular
government. (One suspects the king realised that those with the
most powerful grip on rising tobacco production, and import,
including the Rich faction, had the political views he could live
with more comfortably!) Sandys' faction between 1618-1622 sent over
3500 colonists to Virginia, mostly young men, but their policy of
diversifying the economy and discouraging tobacco planting
failed.

It appears to the present writer that the level of tobacco
profits from 1618, problems on the ground in Virginia, plus
disputes over how to govern Virginia - popularly, or within the
confines of some kind of royal charter - blasted the Sandys
faction. The extent of Charles' enthusiasm for controlling the
tobacco trade is not explained in Bliss's political analysis - but
till April 1623, Charles had favoured his father's outlook on
managing Virginia - and the views of the Sandys faction. It seems
then that the Earl of Warwick with the help of Sir Nathaniel Rich
and later, Maurice Thomson, created means of dominating trade to
Virginia - perhaps at the cost of abandoning their anti-Spanish
prejudice, and not without the aid of some Dutch capitalists.

By 1624, the Virginia Company's charter was dissolved and
declared vacant, and the Crown took over the colony. Charles I had
stepped in and Virginia (along with the Bermudas, (the Somers
Islands) and New England, became England's first royal colony. The
Sandys faction, or the "old Virginia Company" meantime, consisted
of customs farmer Sir John Wolstenholme, George Sandys, Sir John
Danvers, Sir Robert Killigrew, Sir Thomas Roe, Sir Robert Heath,
Sir John Zouch, the Ferrar brothers John and Nicholas, Heneage
Finch, Gabriel Barber and Sir Dudley Digges.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 132.)

This faction had little interest in the Caribbean, which was
also part of their undoing, since their commercial enemies were
linking business between West Indian islands and Virginia. On 15
July, 1624 a new commission was issued by James I to "the merchant
party" and also to members of the Rich faction. If there had been
linkages between the Rich/Warwick faction, and Sandys'
gentry/merchants faction, they were probably cast more in terms of
Puritan affiliation, where religious viewpoint helped shape views
on the government of colonies, than in terms of more traditional or
gentry politics.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, pp. 30ff.)

From 1623-1628 the affairs of the Somers Island Co.
been going from bad to worse. The Governor. in 1622 was John
Bernard, sent out to inspect Capt. Butler's proceedings, but
Bernard died, and his successor was John Harrison, a nominee of the
Sandys faction, who only held office in 1623. He was succeeded by
Capt. Henry Woodhouse (1623-1626); Woodhouse was succeeded by Capt.
Philip Bell qv, one of the Warwick/Rich faction. The company's
agents were accused in England of monopolistic practices, as they
sold dear to planters for necessities and bought cheap. There was
conflict with a Barnstaple merchant, John Delbridge, who wanted a
right to trade to the islands without paying high license duties
required.)

What hampers many historians' treatments of the era is failure
to recognise the role of Puritan nobles in what is termed, the
anti-Sandys merchant faction.
(The Virginia Company was dissolved by the Crown, and in 15 July
1624 a new commission issued by James I to the merchant party and
Rich faction, 41 members including Sir Baptist Hicks, Sir James
Cambell and Sir Ralph Freeman, and, plus ten commissioners who were
leading officers in the government of James I. But with the death
of James I, this new commission was abrogated and Charles I never
re-established it. So many of the City's merchants withdrew from
trade with Virginia, except for some remaining, including Samuel
Vassall and Matthew Craddock, plus Humphrey Slaney who traded with
his son-in-law William Cloberry. Some others remaining were Edward
Bennett (Levant), Nathan Wright (Levant), Benjamin Whetcomb (sic)
(Levant), Anthony Pennyston (Levant), Richard Chambers (Levant),
and Wm. Tristram (Merchant Adventurer).
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 92, p. 103, p.
216.

These were some of the merchants involved by the time William
Claiborne in Virginia was promoting the Kent Island project. And
so, a newer generation of Levant Company men, different to those
first involved with the creation of the East India Company, were
becoming interested in North American trade.)

Meanwhile, Warwick's chief business manager, Sir Nathaniel Rich,
was understudied by a man who seems more like a merchant banker
than a merchant with a great many associates, Maurice Thomson.

( Scattered material on Maurice Thomson surfaces in various
books, but he has never been treated comprehensively.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 120ff.

When the Virginia Company was dissolved in 1624, William Tucker
and Maurice Thomson were partners and brothers-in-law, and were
leading Virginia development. Another brother-in-law of Tucker was
William Felgate. By 1626, Maurice Thomson had returned to London to
organise trade for Virginia, which suggests he had earlier lived in
Virginia. Given his timing, one suspects that Thomson had astutely
gauged the extent to which Puritan ideology would continue to
remain an ally of the production system developing in
Virginia.)

It is still not entirely clear that either Sir Nathaniel Rich or
the powerful and puritan second earl of Warwick were fully involved
in all the schemes in which Maurice Thomson became involved,
yet, the schemes had a seamlessness of interest and push about them
which suggests a continued high-level and successful inspiration,
presumably from Warwick.

Following the settling of the Smythe-Sandys squabbling, a group
newly-emerging in Virginian affairs had 41 or more members,
including Sir Baptist Hicks, Sir James Cambell (Lord Mayor of
London in 1629 and no relation to any Campbells of the extended
Campbell family discussed here, who started on Jamaica in 1700).
And Sir Ralph Freeman.
(Sir James Cambell; Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, pp. 98ff.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 89-90.)

There were also ten commissioners who were leading officers in
the government of James I, but with the death of James I, this new
commission was abrogated, and Charles I never re-established
it.

London merchants by the mid-1620s found that Charles (son of
James I) and Buckingham were willing to confront London's Merchant
Adventurers in order to try to find new sources of merchant or
financial support. The Earl of Carlisle was a dependent of
Buckingham, and as proprietor of the Caribbean, Carlisle became an
unexpected winner in colonisation stakes, since neither he nor his
kin had ever had any interest in maritime activity. (In early 1624,
Buckingham did not scruple to stop an outgoing East India Company
ship and get from the Company some £10,000 for himself and an extra
£10,000 for the king.)
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 216.

On 1 March, 1624 came a House of Commons' motion regarding the
seizure of departing East India Company ships, and such matters
became part of the squabble between the Smythe and Sandys factions.
When the Commons backed Sandys and his gentry men as they tried to
retain control of the Virginia Company, this meant that they moved
against Maurice Thomson's interests, which meant they moved against
the interests of Robert Rich the second Earl of Warwick, and/or
those of Sir Thomas Smythe. The treasurer, Cranfield, had backed
Sandys' opponents. The king and Cranfield had backed the Sandys
party of merchants, but by 1624, Sandys' tobacco monopoly was
destroyed, the "old" Virginia Company was dissolved, and it was
reconstituted with merchants including associates of the Rich
faction.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 252.)

London's America merchants in the City became disconcerted by
the stance adopted by the Commons, as they could not deal with
America on a monopoly basis, as free trade was to become the rule.
Brenner feels it would have been worse for Virginia if the monopoly
style of trade had been continued to there, as it would have bled
the colonists dry. Sir Francis Bacon suggested that noblemen and
gentlemen would be more useful for the Virginia trade as they'd be
more inclined to bear a loss than merchants who wanted quick gains.
But the nobles were "not interested"; they invested on average a
mere £35 each at one time in Virginia. Some gentry did back the
"hundreds", or plantation deals, including Wriothesley, Earl of
Southampton and Sir Richard Berkeley, but these were short-term
operations. Finally it was seen that new Virginia capital came not
from gentry or the greater merchants, so American trade was
infiltrated by merchants from lesser backgrounds, including "mere
mariners".
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 79, pp. 104-108, pp.
114ff, pp. 116-118.)

So, many of the City's earlier-involved merchants withdrew from
Virginia/America trade. Some men remaining in American trade in the
1620s included Samuel Vassall (a name to be known also on Jamaica)
and Matthew Craddock, plus Humphrey Slaney, who traded with his
son-in-law William Cloberry. Some other investors remaining were
Edward Bennett (Levant Company), Nathan Wright (Levant Company),
Benjamin Whetcomb (sic) (Levant Company), Anthony Pennyston
(Levant), Richard Chambers (Levant), and William Tristram (Merchant
Adventurer).
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 92, p. 103, p.
136.

1623: About 1623-1624 the newly-organised Dorchester Company is
granted rights by the Council of New England to fish and trade; in
1626 this company, which included Puritans, established a
settlement at Salem . Notions had arisen to create a "Bible
Commonwealth". (Clarence L. Ver Steeg, The Formative Years,
1607-1763. London, Macmillan, 1965., p. 35).

1623: Sir Peter Proby, Lord Mayor of London and knighted in
1623. (See K. G. Davies, The Royal African Company. London,
Longmans, 1960. (First published in 1957.) Note: Davies' book is
unusual in that many names for reference are given only in the
index. It appears that Davies or his editors wished that many names
would not be placed in his text (?). (On Proby's descendancies, see
GEC, Peerage for Rockingham; Burke's Extinct
Baronetcies, p. 429.) Among Proby's descendants are included:
Thomas Watson Wentworth (1693-1750) first Marquis Rockingham; and
William Proby, active 1705, a Whig and an operator for the New East
India Company at Surat, India.

1623: A ship named New Netherland sails from Texel with
Dutch settler families for the Hudson River area of North
America.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1624: In 1624 the founding father of St. Kitt's (St. Christopher
in the Caribbean) was Sir Thomas Warner, a Suffolk man a friend of
John Winthrop the founder of Massachusetts. Warner had tried and
failed in Guiana, then tried again at St. Kitts, which he occupied
in 1624. His situation was risky for six years; when the French
arrived in 1625 he was so weak he agreed to share the island with
them. (Large numbers of Caribbean Indians were massacred one night
in their hammocks). The English-French were all attacked in 1629 by
the Spanish. Some English held on. When the Earl of Carlisle became
Lord Proprietor of islands in the Caribbean he appointed Warner
governor of St. Kitts. There was later an Edward Warner a Lt-Gov of
Nevis. (Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the
Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1730. London,
Jonathan Cape, 1973., p. 119).

1624: Virginia Company's charter stemming from 1607 declared
vacant in 1624, Charles I had stepped in and Virginia (along with
the Bermudas, (the Somers Islands) and New England, became
England's first royal colony, and the local assembly, the House of
Burgesses, became the first in the New World. and by 1619 the
instinct on American soil for self government asserted itself very
quickly, and by 1641 the colony was well established.

1624: The story from 1624-1627 about the Anglo-Dutch financier
Sir William Courteen (died 1666) varies, but it seems he was
double-crossed. By 1625 Sir Charles Courteen had noted that an
English ship (said by some to have been connected to Warner
mentioned above) had touched at Barbados, found it uninhabited, and
possessed it in the King's name. Courteens later sent out ships and
soon had up to 1800 people on the island, maintained by their
employers. Courteens had begun useful cotton and tobacco
plantations but the proprietorship of the island went into dispute
whilst the slowness of Courteen's supplies threatened famine - a
case of starving-in-Paradise, as later happened with the first
British settlers at Sydney, Australia. Barbados however survived
and by 1640 was exporting profitably, tobacco, cotton and indigo,
not without the help of coerced labour.
(On Thomas Warner establishing Barbados in 1625, see C. P. Lucas,
Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. 2, The
West Indies, Second Edn, Oxford. 1905., cited in Lillian M. Penson,
The Colonial Agents of the British West Indies: A Study in
Colonial Administration Mainly in the Eighteenth Century. 1924.
London, Frank Cass and Co., reprint 1971., p. 8).

1625: The Dutch found New Amsterdam, later New York by
1664.

1625: Charles I had risen to the throne on 27 March, 1625, after
the end of the reign of James 1 (1603-1625, (James VI of Scotland).
James of course had hardened the penal laws against Catholics. The
response was a great Catholic uprising, a plan to blow up James I
and the Parliament on November 5, 1605, the plot (involving 36
barrels of gunpowder) being discovered and giving rise to the
legend of Guy Fawkes. (Davies, The Early Stuarts, p. 48, p.
337).

1625: (G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 33, p. 48, accession
of Charles I in 27 March, 1625, after end of reign of James 1.
Ireland, chronology, see James 1 (1603-1625), as James VI of
Scotland, finally became King of England, stiffened the penal laws
against Catholics, and a response was a great Catholic uprising, a
plan to blow up James I and the Parliament on 5 November, 1605.
Plot discovered, hence the legend of Guy Fawkes, and 36 barrels of
gunpowder discovered. Attitude of James I: James I personally loved
peace, but he misunderstood the situation in Europe, he despised
the Dutch because from the point of view of divine right of kings,
they were "rebels".

1625-1627 Barbados: After 1625, Barbados suffered from early
mismanagement. Sir William Courteen a wealthy Anglo-Dutch merchant,
already experienced in the Caribbean trade, gets together a
syndicate sponsoring first settlement in 1627, sending two
shiploads colonists under command of John and Henry Powell.
Courteen syndicate sank about 10,000 pounds into the venture,
hoping for similar returns as the backers of privateers got in the
1590s. (Notes, Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 50). But as Dunn
writes, unhappily for Courteen, an influential courtier, Earl of
Carlisle, challenged Courteen's control of the island [in 1627]
[although Dunn does not say what those grounds for argument were],
and both Carlisle and Courteen had royal patents for Barbados and
both sent out governors, settlers, supplies, and both their agents
were banished for seized, one governor was executed, Carlisle did
very little to advertise the island, Carlisle expected to
distribute land to settlers who paid to set themselves up, nearly
40,000 acres went to 250 colonists from 1628 to 1630, some grants
very generous, Gov Hawley had no arable land left after ten years,
eg to Edward Oistin (a fishing village remains on Barbados named
Oistin), William Hilliard (who later sold half share of an estate
to Thomas Modyford for 7000 pounds, but many grants of 30-50 acres
to the poorer folk, (Notes, Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp 49ff,
p. 81). Modyford was a kinsman of the duke of Albemarle and a son
of a Mayor of Exeter, and he came to Barbados as a young man in
1647 with money, connections and losing the fight in the civil war,
he could pay 1000 pounds down and pay 6000 in next three years,
operating with his brother in law, Thomas Kendall a London
merchant, and Modyford soon muscled in on local politics., in 1660
he engineered himself with the Commonwealth as a governor of
Barbados, but as he took office, Charles II restored, so he
reverted to royalism but later lost his govship of Barbados, see
1664. (Sir William Courteen, Financier, death 1636.)
See Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient,
1600-1800. Minneapolis, Univ. Minnesota Press, 1976.

Active circa1630s: Italian banker Flavio CHIGI of
Siena.

1625: On Martin Noell: Martin Noell became influential in West
Indies business. He was also a friend of William Courteen, the
financier who had done much from 1625 to create the original
establishment on Barbados. Noell appears to have been married to a
Miss Thurloe as Thurloe was a brother-in-law of Noell. I assume
this is the same Sir Martin Noel referred to in Pares, Merchants
and Planters. Noell became a well-known financier and he acted as
an agent for Shaftesbury, for Barbados. (Shaftesbury's brother
George married a daughter of a London sugar baker, Mr. Oldfield -
Shaftesbury remained interested in sugar and Barbados from 1646).
Fraser, Cromwell, p. 534, suggests Noell was knighted by
Charles II, but died bankrupt. There was a Thomas Noell, a planter
of Barbados. I have assumed Thomas was a brother with the other
Noell names; but this is not a known fact. There was also a John
Povey, Virginia Merchant, who worked with Nehemiah Blakiston,
1699-1721 as agents; their banker was Micajah Perry. The planter
name John Randolph, resident in Virginia, also arises in that
context. Martin Noell, Jnr, active by 1647, is noted in Pares,
Merchants and Planters. On Nehemiah Blakiston: Blakiston was
a collector of customs duties on the Potomac and a leader of
Charles County, Maryland. He was active by 1689. [A useful title
would be Bernard C. Steiner, 'The Protestant Revolution in
Maryland'. Report, American Historical Association, Annual
Report for 1897, Washington, DC 1898., pp. 289ff].

The English historian, Brenner, has only recently outlined the
career of a conspicuously successful seventeenth century London
merchant, an early "expansionist" of the first founding of the
British Empire, Maurice Thomson. [K. G. Davies mentions Thomson
only briefly in Royal African Company]. Thomson seems almost
the business manager of the extraordinarily energetic Puritan
noble, Robert Rich (1587-1658), the second Earl of Warwick. In
fact, Warwick's business manager was his kinsman, Sir Nathaniel
Rich (1585-1636), so it is possible that Thomson answered to Sir
Nathaniel Rich. Whatever the organisational details, Thomson and
his brothers enjoyed remarkable commercial careers that have been
insufficiently acknowledged in the earlier history of English
colonisation.

1625: (G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 337), Sir Charles
Courteen noted that an English ship had touched at Barbados, found
it uninhabited, and possessed it in the King's name. Courteen soon
sent out ships and soon had up to 1800 people on the island,
maintained by their employer. Courteen began cotton and tobacco
plantations. the proprietorship of the island went into dispute,
Davies does not say how or why, and slowness of Courteen's supplies
threatened famine. and the island survived, and by 1640 was
exporting profitably, tobacco, cotton and indigo. Thomas Warner is
establishing Barbados in 1625, (see C. P. Lucas, Historical
Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. 2, The West Indies,
Second Edn, Oxford. 1905, cited in Penson, Colonial Agents,
p.8.

1626: In 1626, George Villiers in his essay On Plantations had
vainly - and a little surprisingly - emphasised the shame of taking
"scum of people" to plantations, which they "only spoiled".
(Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, pp. 45-47). It appears
Charles made an arrangement with the Earl of Carlisle (family name
Hay) concerning proprietorship of certain Caribbean Islands
including Barbados. The reverberations were to mean many years of
political conflict (as to English arrangements that is) in the
Caribbean Islands.

1627: More to come

1628: England: Harvey publishes a description of the circulation
of the blood.

1628: Sir William Courteen Senior (died 1636). He once devised a
plan to settle Australia but failed to act.)
(Jan Rogozinski, A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the
Arawak and the Carib to the Present. New York, Facts on File,
c.1992., p. 68. George Mackaness, 'Some Proposals for
Establishing Colonies in the South Seas', Journal of the
Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. 24, Part 5, 1943.,
pp. 261-280 with Sir John Callender's proposal given pp. 271ff.
Newton, Colonising Puritans, variously. DNB entries,
various. Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 125, pp.
171ff. Williamson, Caribee Islands. Kenneth R. Andrews,
Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the
Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1984., pp. 278ff, pp. 301ff. On Courteens, see
Shafaat Ahmad Khan, The East India Trade in the Seventeenth
Century (in its Political and Economic Aspects). London, 1923.
Ian B. Watson, `The Establishment of English Commerce in
North-Western India in the Early Seventeenth Century',
Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. 13, No. 3,
1976., pp. 375ff. Griffiths, A Licence to Trade, pp. 82ff.
Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient,
1600-1800. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, c.
1976., pp. 39ff. Also, Holden Furber, `The United Company of
Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies, 1783-1796',
ECHR, 10, (2), November 1940., pp. 138-147. Holden Furber,
John Company at Work. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University
Press, 1948. Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p. 183,
Note 69. On Courteen's descendants, GEC, Peerage, Kent, p.
176; Hereford, p. 480; Maynard, p. 602; Valentia, p. 207.)

1628: By 1628, Barbados is already a thriving English colony,
planting tobacco. In 1628 the Courteen House sent out more
settlers, expanding the colony to 1600 people, "to strong for the
Spaniards to challenge". Goslinga finds that the obscure history of
the colonization of the Lesser Antilles is compounded by the fact
that James I made his grants to rights to the Caribbean orally.
Charles I later confirmed such grants with written documents, but
was confused in designations to the Earl of Carlisle and the Earl
of Pembroke. He writes, p. 259, "The Dutch firm of the Courteens
also appears to have played a part in the general intrigue that
renders inscrutable this entire episode". Goslinga, The Dutch in
the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580-1680, pp. 212ff.

1628: Earl Warwick takes over governorship of Bermuda Co.
to make it a puritan project, in 1629 many of similar view backed
the Providence Island Co, to be theirs exclusively, and in 1629 the
Earl of Warwick, Sir Nath Rich, Lord Saye and Sele, another puritan
the Earl of Lincoln, patronized the Mass Bay Co. so these puritan
ports siphoned off religious exiles. large link up, finally, of
merchants and puritans, each influencing the other.
(Brenner, p. 273)

Unexpectedly, Digges and Morris Abbot and his
archbishop brother about the time parliament dissolved in 1629,
went to the side of the crown, Abbott as Gov of EICo probably tried
to help the Levant Co. top men from further radicalising, and
cooled the EICo, so annoying the colonising nobles, so the
opposition nobles Lord Saye, earl of Warwick and Lord Brook
launched March 1629 an attack on the elite merchant leadership of
the EICo, to promote their own alliances, which consisted of some
of their own smaller investors. The battle went on for years.

1628: North America: On 9 March 1628 the Earl of Warwick makes a
grant of land in Massachusetts to establish the New England Company
(first governor is Matthew Craddock of Levant Co., and operator of
Mystic River), an unincorporated predecessor of the Massachusetts
Bay Co. Warwick had got the land in 1623 from the Council for New
England, of which he was president in 1628, and he gave it to
Dorchester Company people, and East Anglian gentlemen. (Brenner, p.
276.)

21 June, 1628: England: Digges and Rich again put forward idea
for an English West India company; Rich had a bill pre-written.
Part of an idea is to "breed up mariners". Similar plans in late
January 1629. In August 1628 the Dutchman Piet Heyn (sic)
reportedly took a Spanish treasure fleet for £1,200,000. (Brenner,
p. 267).

1629: The Dutch form a West India Company. See W. Walton
Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From the
earliest times to the commencement of the Twentieth Century.
London, John Murray, 1915., p. 89.

1629: The English East India Company in London checks its books
and is horrified to find it is more than £300,000 in the red.
Clerical cost-cutting results.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books,
1999/2000.)

1629: Colony of Massachusetts founded. In 1629, a new settlement
at Salem includes six master shipbuilders.

1629: England: As early as 1629, a grant is made re the
Carolinas, but no serious attempt to colonize till 1663, with eight
proprietors, being Earl of Clarendon, Duke of Albemarle, Sir John
Berkeley, Sir George Carteret, Earl of Craven, John Colleton, Sir
Anthony Ashley Cooper (later Earl of Shaftesbury), and Sir William
Berkeley. King only gave the Carolinas as this coalition was too
strong to deny. most of these proprietors had other colonial
interests, Colleton with Barbados, Sir Wm Berkeley as Gov. of
Virginia, Carteret and John Berkeley involved with New Jersey.
Carolina suitable for baronial estates. The Carolina system once
the disgruntled Barbadians came provided a specialized plantation
agriculture, promoted slave labour, reduced the flexibility of the
existing local social system, articles of Carolina government drawn
up by Ashley Cooper with help of John Locke, based on political
ideas already outmoded in England itself. (Ver Steeg, The
Formative Years, pp. 119-121.)

So, American puritan ports siphoned off religious exiles (and
later, undesirables). There emerged a large network, finally, of
merchants, puritans and nobles, each influencing the other, and
most of them influencing trade.
(Titles consulted for this section include: Joyce Lorimer, (Ed.),
English and Irish Settlement on the River Amazon, 1550-1646.
London, The Hakluyt Society, 1989. Kenneth R. Andrews, The
Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder, 1530-1630. London, Yale
University Press, 1978. See Chapter on Hawkins and the slave trade,
Robert M. Bliss, Revolution and Empire: English Politics and the
American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century. Manchester,
Manchester University Press. 1990. Kenneth R. Andrews, Ships,
Money and Politics: Seafaring and Naval Enterprise in the Reign of
Charles I. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991. With
some information on William Courteen, see R. H. Major, FSA,
Early Voyages to Terra Australis, Now Called Australia: A
Collection of Documents, and Extracts from Early Manuscript Maps,
Illustrative of the History of Discovery on the Coasts of that Vast
Island, from the beginning of the Sixteenth Century to the time of
Captain Cook. London, For the Hakluyt Society, No. 25.
M.DCC.LIX. First published in 1859. J. A. Doyle, The English in
America: The Puritan Colonies. Part 1. New York, Ames Press,
1969. (Orig. published in 1887). Arthur Percival Newton, The
European Nations in the West Indies.)

(In the late 1620s and early 1630s, a few Levant-East India
Company men also dominated the Russia Trade, being Hamersley, Job
Harby, William Bladwell and Henry Garway.)
(W. R. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish
and Irish Joint-stock Companies to 1720. Three Vols. Cambridge,
1910-1912.)

Once again with the plan for a West Indies Company, the idea was
to keep fifty ships stationed, and fifty as back-up. The Venetian
ambassador thought any such plan would only keep the Dutch and
English at each others' throats. Soon, by 1630, the Bermuda Company
would be joined by John Pym, Rudyerd, Lord Saye, Lord Brook (either
Fulke Greville or Robert Greville; Fulke the first Baron Brooke,
Robert his cousin, second Baron Brooke), and Sir Richard Knightley
- all of whom began to deal with Maurice Thomson and Thomson's many
associates.

By 1634 there were 175 men trading with Virginia; by 1640 there
were 330.
Here, Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, Chapter IV, The
New-Merchant Class Leadership of the Colonial Trades, is
particularly interesting. On debts, Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 129.

(And planter debts were to become a matter for comment.) By
1640, America trade was in great contrast to the East India
Company's style of operation. In Virginia, a distinction between
merchant and planter became blurred as planters dealt in trade,
also as merchant-councilors appeared. A large name in the American
trade continued - Maurice Thomson. Thomson was born around 1600,
the eldest of five sons of a Hertfordshire family, father
Robert.
On Thomson, see Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p. 6,
pp. 57ff, p. 91, p. 183, pp. 195ff.

By 1623, Maurice Thomson had been in Virginia for six years. He
had settled there in 1617, then became master of a 320 ton ship in
which he took passengers and provisions for the Virginia Company
and the Virginia colonists. He obtained a Virginia estate of 150
acres, and in 1623 his three brothers, George, William and Paul
joined him in Virginia, with their brother-in-law, William Tucker,
who covered costs. (Tucker had married a Thomson sister.) And in
view of the many kinds of trade engaged by Thomson's associates, it
may be more appropriate to view Thomson as something other than a
merchant. He was more a prototype for a merchant banker with a
determination to promote colonisation. He helped expand various
forms of commerce - many of them later dependent on slavery.
Perhaps the fullest account of the mutuality of the interests of
the Earl of Warwick and Maurice Thomson is given in Kenneth R.
Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics: Seafaring and Naval
Enterprise in the Reign of Charles I. Sydney, Cambridge
University Press, 1991., p. 6, p. 13, pp. 36-37, pp. 146ff.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 1255ff treats Maurice
Thomson's earlier career.

Sir William Courteen and the struggle for control of
Barbados: the Earl of Carlisle and proprietary rights to the
Caribbean:

NB: To the end of this chapter is a chronologised listing
of the merchant associates of Maurice Thomson, the "merchant
banker" who worked consistently for decades to promote the
colonising interests of the second Earl of Warwick.

At this point in the narrative must be entered
information on two more careers not fully detailed in history books
- those of Hay, first Earl of Carlisle, and Sir William Courteen
Senior. The Carlisle genealogy is short. Sir James Hay of Kingask,
wife unknown, had a son, James Hay (1580-1636), first Earl of
Carlisle, who married first Honora Denny (died 1614) who had a
fortune; and secondly Lucy Percy (1599-1660) the daughter of the
anti-Spanish Henry Percy, third Earl Northumberland.
(Henry Percy, third Earl Northumberland (1564-1632); GEC,
Peerage, Halifax, p. 243; Northumberland, p. 734 and Note H;
Romney, p. 83; Percy, p . 465.)

Honora Denny had a son, James (1605-1660), second Earl of
Carlisle who married Margaret Russell (died 1676). The second
earl's title became extinct.
(GEC, Peerage, Carlisle, p. 32; Denny, p. 187; Norwich, pp.
768-769; Manchester, p. 371. On Lucy Percy" Strickland, Lives of
the Queens Of England, Vol. 5, p. 284. Lucy's sister Dorothy
(died 1659) married the second Earl of Leicester, Robert Sydney
(1595-1677). Robert's father was a member of the Virginia Company,
the East India Company and the North West Passage Company. )
Who's Who of /Shakespeare, p. 39. Margaret Russell was
daughter of Francis Russell (1593-1641), fourth Earl of Bedford,
and Catherine Brydges (died 1656).)

James, first Earl Carlisle, became a favourite of Buckingham. It
has been said that the Rich family (Earls Warwick) and the
Hay/Carlisle family had bad blood due to a feud between members in
Paris in 1624, and long squabbles over proprietary rights in the
Caribbean do seem to bear out the existence of such enmity.

Sir William Courteen Senior (1572-1636) was the son of an émigré
tailor, William, who had married Margaret Casiere. William's sister
was Margaret, who married John, first Earl of Bridgwater. Another
of Margaret Casiere's sons was Sir Charles Courteen. Sir William, a
financier, married firstly a Dutchwoman with a fortune, named
Cromling; and secondly, Hester Tryon. Tryon's son Sir Peter,
Baronet (active 1623) married Jane Stanhope (died 1683) the
daughter of Sir John Stanhope
(Jane Stanhope married as second wife to Francis Annesley, first
Viscount Valentia. GEC, Peerage, Valentia, p. 207.)

Sir Peter's brother was the financier Sir William II Courteen,
(died 1666), who married Catherine Egerton, daughter of John
Egerton (1646-1701 and a First Lord of Trade, 1695-1699) the third
Earl of Bridgewater.
(The third earl married as second wife, Jane Paulet, daughter of
Charles Paulet, sixth Marquis Winchester. GEC, Peerage,
Egerton of Tatton, p. 16 and note A; Bridgwater, p. 313.)

As noted in an earlier chapter, a daughter Anna of Hester Tryon
married Sir Richard Knightley; and another daughter Mary (died
1643) married the MP, Henry Grey, Earl of Kent.
(GEC, Peerage, Kent, p. 176.)

The Courteen genealogy is imperfect. At Cologne was an unmarried
Peter Courteen, merchant (1581-1631), but it is uncertain where to
place him in the family.

The career of merchant Sir William Courteen Senior:

The capitalist settler of Barbados, Sir William Courteen Senior,
was "an Anglo-Dutch financier finally bankrupted by his
involvements with the Dutch East India Company".
(Titles generally useful for the preparation of this file included:
Griffiths, A Licence to Trade; Furber, Rival;
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution; , Ian B. Watson,
Foundation. W. K. Hinton, `The Mercantile System in the
Time of Thomas Mun', Economic History Review, Second
Series, VII, 1955., pp. 277. D. C. Coleman, `Naval Dockyards
under the Later Stuarts', Economic History Review,
Second Series, VI, 1953-1954., p. 134. S. A. Khan, The East
India Trade in the Seventeenth Century. London, 1923. P. J.
Thomas, Mercantilism and the East India Trade. London, 1926.
W. H. Moreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb. London, 1923.)

Furber writes, Courteen had married a wealthy Dutch woman,
Cromling (presumably a widow of a man well-connected with the Dutch
East India Company?).
(Arthur Percival Newton, The European Nations in the West
Indies, p. 157. Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p.
43, 51, pp. 200-201.)
(Griffiths, A Licence to Trade, pp. 82ff.)

Sir John Coke, as it happened in April 1625, set out a program
for privately financed (£361,200) anti-Spanish piracy in the West
Indies. Coke's plan seemed to be a project backed by the Earl of
Warwick. Secretary Heath had a similar idea for attacking the West
Indies by April 1625. Courteen was probably aware of such
stirrings. It was at about this point that Warner "discovered"
Barbados. But firstly...
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 257.)

It is possible that Courteens in the City of London had perhaps
been given some expansionist inspiration after 1615-1617, since
about 1617, the king allowed "the Cockayne project", promoted by
George Cockayne, a plan which was protested in parliament as a
pocket-liner. The project collapsed.
(Cokayne's project is noted in an earlier file.)

One source says the crown extracted £20,000 per year for
granting a charter for the Merchant Adventurers, but treasurer
Cranfield instead accepted a lump sum of £80,000 plus bribes and
gifts to courtiers. By 1620, trade was in doldrums and calls for
free trade (as from Sir Edwin Sandys) were growing. There were
strong attacks on merchant privileges. Parliament in 1621 blasted
all merchant companies. The issue, of course, was the promotion of
royal monopolies and their restricting affect on traders with less
respectable backing; monopoly versus free trade.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 211.)

Early on, the Courteens traded to Portugal; and with Spain in
the salt trade. Courteens were creditors of the English king, and
they also had many connections with illicit trade of the time.
(Peter (died 1631) the brother of Sir William Courteen Senior is
named in Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean, pp. 233-244ff.
Peter at Cologne apparently co-managed the European departments of
Courteens as Anglo-Dutch merchants.)

Their training was in contemporary commerce, possibly in the
cloth trade, in Haarlem. In time, Courteen's body of "adventurers"
included influential personalities at the English court. These
"influentials" tend never to be named, but it appears that through
them, Courteen developed an association with the king.

By 1621, the East India Company was again criticized for
exporting bullion. On 3 May, 1621 James I forbade the various
company charters from being examined by parliament. A trade crisis
peaked in 1622. Parliament did not dent the merchant companies till
1624, especially not the Merchant Adventurers. Some free-trade
leaders were Sir Edward Sandys, Sir Edward Coke, Sir Dudley Digges
and Sir Robert Phelips (sic), who also opposed the crown on issues
of foreign policy and free speech. They entered into alliance with
the Duke of Buckingham and Prince Charles (that is, the later
Charles II), and they wanted a new (anti) Spanish foreign policy.
Buckingham helped turn the tide. The Merchant Adventurers was
opened up to new, fee-paying wholesalers. It seems unlikely such
men would have ventured an anti-Spanish policy unless such a
prejudice had not been heightened by the "Rich faction".

Some Merchant Adventurers of the old school were Sir John
Savile, plus Sir Humphrey May, steward of the Duchy of Lancaster,
Sir Francis Nethersole, diplomat to Germany, Sir Heneage Finch the
recorder of London and a royal appointee, Sir Henry Mildmay the
master of the Jewel House. The general hope rose of freeing up the
Guinea and Muscovy companies, plus the Eastland Company with its
monopoly on importing naval stores. (In time, American traders
would become interested in naval stores.)
(Robert G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power: The Timber Problems of
the Royal Navy, 1652-1862. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1926.
Incidentally, the sign used in North American colonies to designate
timber set aside for British naval purposes in the eighteenth
century was a broad arrow, meaning, naval property. This is the
genesis of the "broad arrow" seen on the clothes of convicts around
Sydney after 1788.)

There were to consider, the New England Company's newly-granted
monopoly of fishing offshore England, and free fishing on the North
American coast. The Commons upheld Sir Edwin Sandys, and Sandys'
gentry party conducted its bitter fight with some of the City's
great merchant leaders in the East India and Virginia companies.
Sandys quarrelled with the Virginia trader Sir Thomas Smythe from
1618.

Oddly enough, by 1626, relatively early in colonisation
business, George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, in his essay
On Plantations vainly emphasised the shame of taking "scum
of people" to plantations, which they only spoiled.
(Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, pp. 45-47. Davies, Early
Stuarts, p. 340.)

It was an interesting remark, an objection to what became an
English tradition lasting centuries, using colonies as genealogical
sumps. Davies records, about 60,000 people left England, one third
for New England, and between 1630 and 1643, nearly 200 ships
carried 20,000 men women and children at an estimated cost of
£200,000 - many emigrants being unwilling to submit to a "hateful
government".
(Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, pp. 45-47. On the "pouring"
of lower-class Englishmen onto Caribbean Islands by the Earl of
Carlisle, see A. P. Newton, The European Nations in the West
Indies, pp. 156-157. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 340.
Villiers (1592-1628, assassinated), Lord High Admiral,
anti-Spanish, first honorary governor of the Guiana Company,
married Katherine Manners, daughter of the sixth earl of Rutland.
Roger Lockyer, Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of
George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592-1628. London,
Longmans, 1981. Joyce Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 85. GEC,
Peerage, Chichester, p. 194; Denbigh, p. 178; Grandison, p.
76; Ros, p. 111; Buckingham, pp. 392ff. The sixth Earl of Rutland,
Admiralty Lord Francis Manners (died 1632) was an investor in the
East India Company and also took part in the 1620 Amazon adventure.
GEC, Peerage, Rutland, pp. 261ff; Lennox, p. 610; Antrim, p.
175; Suffolk, p. 465.)

Republican-minded and anti-Spanish, Fiennes was eager for the
settlement of Providence Island. He was a Presbyterian enemy of
James I and Charles I, and interested in colonisation from about
1629. He led the Oxfordshire resistance to ship money, and once
obtained land on the Connecticut River from the second Earl of
Warwick; John Winthrop later helped govern that area.)

Also part of a newly growing network was the great Puritan
minister, John Preston, linked to Calvinist ministry, who had
tutored the Earl of Warwick's son, and who also had ties to Lord
Saye, and the puritan Richard Knightley. Buckingham even managed to
recruit the "mighty earl of Pembroke", who had hated Buckingham. A
secretary of state and a Buckingham protégé was Sir Edward Conway,
who attempted to turn James to an anti-Spanish position and to
recover the Palatinate. A joint Anglo-Dutch move against Spain in
the Caribbean was also mooted, although it is uncertain if Courteen
was part of this. Certainly, the second Earl of Warwick was in an
anti-Spanish mood.

Merchants and terra australis incognita:

Attention however now needs to be diverted further to a little
known twist in the story of English interest in terra australis
incognita, which might have been settled by "the Courteen
Association" headed by Sir William Courteen Senior. What is
extraordinary is that Courteen (or he and his association) had
sufficient capital after they met Thomas Warner, the "discoverer"
of Barbados, to sink £10,000 into the island from 1625, and to also
manage shipping to the East in a way that remained a thorn in the
side of the East India Company - prior to the spectacular Courteen
bankruptcy.

"The program of trade and colonization launched by the new
merchants' East Indian interloping association found its origin in
Sir William Courteen's interloping and colonial projects of the
1630s, as well as those of Arundel, Rupert and Southampton." They
wanted to pursue Courteen's plans for the Far East, and also settle
areas off Eastern Africa, or, Madagascar. So, in 1645, they sent
Capt. John Smart to Madagascar. Some of these projecters were
Maurice Thomson and his relatives, plus some of Courteen Senior's
associates. And so an argument presents itself, that English
interest shown in terra australis from 1625 was part of a grand
commercial vision perceived by Sir William Courteen, or, the
inheritors of his visions. These inheritors tended to be East India
"interlopers". If memory of this persisted in London's commercial
circles, it helps explain why the East India Company of 1786 was so
negative to ideas of colonizing eastern Australia!

The English find Barbados:

In contrast with Virginia, Barbados in the West Indies, 166
square miles in size, had a "soft" founding, or origin, partly as
it was originally uninhabited. Barbados' settlement is oddly
similar to the founding of Britain's convict colony in Australia in
1788, respecting the number of people involved at least. Some
1420-1530 people were initially part of the First Fleet complement
to Australia.
(Figures vary. See Mollie Gillen, The Founders of Australia: A
Biographical Dictionary of the First Fleet. Sydney, Library of
Australian History, 1989. Furber, Rival, pp. 69ff. A London
researcher, Gillian Hughes, has advised me thus: Calendar of
State XC9452, Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the
Reign of Charles I. 1625-1626, State Paper Dept., PRO, Edited
by John Bruce, London, 1858., p. 206.)

Courteens involved a similar number of people in developing
Barbados as were sent to New South Wales on the First Fleet.

In London, Courteen, Anglo-Dutch financier, was informed that an
English ship had touched at Barbados, which was found to be
uninhabited, and so had been claimed in the king's name. It is not
yet clear when or why Courteen Senior first began to seem
influential in London. Furber provides this... Sir William Courteen
Senior was the son of an emigre Protestant clothier, and brother of
an even lesser-known Sir Charles Courteen. There were two men named
William Courteen, father and son, and it is not impossible that
some historians have confused the biography of one with the other.
William Senior died in 1636; Sir William Courteen the younger died
in 1666.

By the mid-1620s, Courteen had many interests in Amsterdam and
"along the wild coast of South America". Between 1610-1620, the
Courteens of Middleburg used Trinidad for "illicit trade" in
tobacco and were attempting to build a network of trade routes to
the interior of South America. In 1619 Courteen Senior was involved
in proceedings in the Star Chamber, accused of transporting
"secretly seven millions of gold" from England. He was discharged
about July 1620 with a fine of 20,000 l. for the "unlawful
transporting of coin", with a general pardon of past offences.
(Letter from Gillian Hughes, 27 September, 1993, after she had
searched information from 1619 to 1636 for the present writer.)

By 1625, "Sir Wm. freely lends his money for supply of the
King's instant occasions, and that without interest of the old
debt". Courteen's terra australis aspirations may not have been
unrelated to the money Courteen had loaned to Charles I in 1625?.
(While Courteen's links, if any, to the Dutch East India Company
are never mentioned).

In 1625? We find, Item 33: Petition of Sir Wm. Courteen to
the King:

"the lands in the South part of the world called Terra Australis
Incognita, are not yet traded to by the King's subjects. The
petitioner desires to discover the same and plant colonies therein.
He prays therefore for a grant of all such lands with power to
discover the same and erect colonies."

On the same original page as this is also mention of a case of
concern over enriching the Kingdom, increasing shipping and
employing the idle... (Employing the idle was to be a long-standing
English pre-occupation, but it should be noted, "idle" came to mean
not slothful, but insubordinate). Courteen had first wanted to
settle "Australia", but could not, so he settled Barbados. We also
find he invested in the Dutch East India Company, which "finally
sent him bankrupt".
(Griffiths, A Licence to Trade, pp. 82ff. Furber,
Rival, variously.)

We find, Courteen had been intriguing against the English East
India Company since the late 1620s. It is generally unheard in
Australia that Courteen wanted to settle terra australis
incognita. Where this is mentioned, the information is hedged
about with various other controversies about the discovery of
Australia.
(Kenneth Gordon McIntyre, The Secret Discovery of Australia:
Portuguese Ventures 250 Years before Capt. Cook. Revised.
Sydney, Pan, 1977. For a modern view here on the origin of the
"Papal Line", Oskar H. K. Spate, The Spanish Lake. Vol. 1 of The
Pacific Since Magellan. Canberra, Australian National
University Press. 1979-1988. [Vol. 2, Monopolists and Freebooters;
Vol. 3.)

Various stories are told about Barbados and Warner. In one
story, in 1622, Warner became interested in establishing a West
Indies colony. He found capital from London merchant, Ralph
Merrifield, and became interested in "undercover" West Indian
trade. Warner got to St. Kitts by 1624.
(Arthur Percival Newton, The European Nations in the West
Indies, 1493-1688. London, A&C Black, 1933., p. 143 on
Warner and Courteen, p. 155.)

Another story has it that Capt. John Powell, sailing for
Courteens, chanced on Barbados, uninhabited, and found that the
island was rich in dye woods (known as logwood) used in the English
textile trades. Powell claimed Barbados for James I and England,
and then called at St Christopher (a haven for freebooters) to
visit Thomas Warner, who had earlier been involved in Amazon
adventures. (Some reports have it that Warner established Barbados
from 1625, with little mention of Powell).
(C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies.
The West Indies. Vol. Two. Second Edn., Oxford, 1905., as cited in
Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 8.)

By 1624, anyway, the founding father of St Kitt's (St
Christopher's) became Sir Thomas Warner, a Suffolk Man and a friend
of John Winthrop (the founder of Massachusetts).
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 50-51.

One early Courteen arrival on Barbados was Henry Winthrop, a
"scapegrace second son" of the founder of Massachusetts John
Winthrop, for £100 a year, but Winthrop's father very suspicious of
such poor tobaccos coming from Barbados - Winthrop at one point
switched loyalty from Courteen to Carlisle and one of 12
magistrates on island, but ended back in England. About 1630, an
early arrival on Barbados, trying tobacco planting, was Henry
Winthrop, a scapegrace second son of the founder of Massachusetts,
John Winthrop. (One of Winthrop's motives for founding
Massachusetts was to find better opportunities for his children;
Winthrop had links in London with influential people such as some
of the family of Emmanuel Downing (the Downings intermarried with
the Winthrop family).

1624, circa: About 1624, Joshua Downing was a
Commissioner of the Navy. Only a generation or two earlier, the
Hawkins/Gonson family, with Hawkins as slavers, had helped managed
the navy.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 50-51. On Winthrop connections,
see entries in American Dictionary of Biography. An early
Leeward sugar planter was Samuel Winthrop of the same New England
family, arrived in the Caribee by 1647, aged 20, who settled at
Antigua. He was ruined by the French in 1666.)

Warner had tried and failed in Guiana, then tried again at St
Kitts, which he occupied in 1624. Warner then returned to England
(about a forty-day voyage) to find further merchant backing for a
St Kitt's project; he returned to St Kitts by January 1624. When
the French arrived there in 1625, Warner was so weak he agreed to
share with them (large numbers of Caribbean Indians were massacred
one night in their hammocks). All were attacked in 1629 by the
Spanish - although some English held on. About then the Courteen
Brothers, Sir William and Sir Charles of London and Middleburg were
active. By 1624, before they decided on settling Barbados,
Courteens had wanted to settle terra australis and promoted
this Antipodean idea to James I.
(I am indebted to Edward Linn of Sydney for initial discussions
about Courteen.)

Also interested here was Sir James Lancaster.
(On Lancaster: Griffiths, A Licence to Trade, p. 73 on Ralph
Fitch and variously; Furber, Rival, p. 39. Lancaster's first
voyage was form 1591, before the East India Company was
formed.)

However, in another confusing story, the Earl of Carlisle, Lord
Proprietor of the English Caribbean, made Warner governor of St
Kitts. (There was later an Edward Warner a Lt.-Governor of
Nevis.)
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 119. Newton, Colonising
Puritans, pp. 29ff. G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 337.
1631: Massachusetts Bay Colony was administered by Gov. Winthrop
and Lt.-Gov. Thomas Dudley. Ver Steeg, The Formative Years,
p. 13, p. 41.)

Some say that before Warner had returned to St. Christopher by
January 1624, having obtained financial support from Ralph
Merrifield (who is heard of relatively little). Warner evidently
did obtain the ear of the Courteen Brothers. By September 1625,
Warner had again returned to England and with Ralph Merrifield
obtained from the crown some letters Patent for the colony of St
Christopher, and for the colonisation of Nevis, Barbados, and
Montserrat. In 1625, Capt John Powell in William and John, with 30
settlers financed by Sir William Courteen, made the first permanent
English settlement at Barbados, in which matter, it is said, one of
Courteen's patrons was William Herbert, fourth Earl of Pembroke,
(1584-1649/50). Merrifield and Warner meanwhile had gained the
patronage of James Hay, first Earl of Carlisle. In what looks like
a doublecross, in 1626 Carlisle obtained a grant of rights to the
government of the whole of the Caribbean Isles. The Courteens,
meantime, had begun cotton and tobacco plantations.

Courteen Senior will interest the historian of Barbados, of the
Caribbean, or of slavery, since he was largely responsible for
settling Barbados, the colonisation of which induced England to
use, (rather than sell people into, as Hawkins did before 1600),
the institution of chattel slavery.
(On the Asiento or, a highly capitalistic European
organisation for the regular supply of slaves, circa 1518 with King
of Portugal for supply of black slaves, and later developments, see
pp. 62ff and pp. 226ff. of Arthur Percival Newton, The European
Nations in the West Indies, 1493-1688, 1933, and p. 197, p.
209. Not till the 1650s did English planters rely on London-based
capital, not capital from Middleburg or France.)

Courteen will interest the historian of the English East India
Company since he interfered with the Company. And he will also
interest the Australian historian, since Courteen Senior (and
perhaps also, Sir James Lancaster), once with royal assistance from
James I, planned to settle terra australis incognita, in
ways which raise the bogey of discussion of the very sovereignty of
Australia. Australians usually ignore information about such
matters. The background to many scenarios is "Amazonian", as noted
earlier.
(Even earlier, there had been a proposal that Francis Drake settle
terra australis and be made life governor there. However,
one has no clear idea if those listening to the Drake proposal had
any later-arising links to anyone associated with Courteen.

Notably, Raleigh had predicted that the area would have a thin
population - a view which influenced later Mercantilist views on
the region. Raleigh wrote: "for if the title of occupiers be good
in land unpeopled, why should it be bad accounted in a country
peopled over thinly? Should one family or one thousand hold
possession of all the southern undiscovered continent, because they
had seated themselves in Nova Guiana, or about the straits of
Magellan?"
(From, A Discourse of War in General, Sir Walter Raleigh,
Kt, The Works of... Vol. 8. New York, Burt Franklin. Orig. 1829.,
p. 255.)

In yet another version of stories... Courteen had already gained
experience in Caribbean trade, and he formed the syndicate
sponsoring the first settlement of Barbados in 1627, sending two
shiploads of colonists under the command of John and Henry Powell.
The Courteen syndicate invested £10,000 in the venture, hoping for
returns comparable to the returns made by the backers of the
privateers of the 1590s.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 50.)

Historians have consulted four lists of nearly 2000 people going
to Barbados before 1640. The earliest list records 74 settlers with
Capt John Powell in the ship Peter in 1627. Another count
gives Courteens sending out Powell's brother, Henry, plus 80
colonists, from February 1627. There were no women in that party,
and only six of this same party were still on Barbados eleven years
later when there were 764 landholders. In contrast to the
intentions of the Earl of Carlisle, who invested relatively less on
Barbados, Sir William Courteen did not grant his original people
any land; he had paid them wages and wanted to take all the
results. By 1629, Courteens had up to 1800 people on Barbados.
(Arthur P. Newton, (Ed.), The European Nations in the West
Indies, 1493-1688. London, Black, 1933., on Barbados, and Sir
William Courteen, pp. 142, 145, 155, 156.)

In the period in question, further conflict had broken out in
London as parliament sought to limit the power of the king, James
1. It had become convenient to seek the impeachment of George
Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham. James' financial situation had
not improved and he remained uneasy; by 1629 the royal debt was
over one million pounds. It was about then that James 1 backed a
rival to the East India Company, the Courteen Association, which
from about 1625 abandoned the idea of colonising terra
australis in favour of settling Barbados. Meanwhile, it seems
that due to the actions of the Earl of Carlisle, what Courteen
finally obtained as return from royalty was a bad title to
Barbados.

Cartographic arguments:

It rather seems, what the British government later did for
Sydney and New South Wales, Australia, just one firm, Courteens,
did for Barbados. What of terra australis incognita in
Courteen's day? This remains complicated. A proper view of the
series of discoveries of Australia by European navigators entails
discussion of the "Papal Line", which by fiat of Catholic or
Vatican hegemony once divided the world into two spheres of
interest subject to the Spanish and Portuguese; a proposition of
course that England never accepted. So it might here be suggested,
that an inability to fit the financial biography of Courteen Senior
into nationalistic history, during an historical period involved
with changes in English views of royal authority, goes hand in hand
with an inability to fit Courteen's interest in terra
australis into the Anglicized history of the discovery and
settlement of Australasia. The people who might most be inclined to
agree with this proposition might be cartographers?

An Australian historian, George Collingridge, tried to discuss
these cartographic issues after 1859, but his views were chewed up
in a separate controversy about Capt. Cook and the creation of maps
of New Holland, or, New South Wales.
(Macintyre, Secret Discovery, pp. 3ff, p. 196. In his first
volume of a trilogy, The Pacific Since Magellan. (Canberra,
Australian National University Press, 1983.), Spate treats the
"Spanish Lake" and (p. 56) illustrates the anti-meridian of the
Papal line.
(Here, Spate, p. 27 discusses the Treaty of Tordesillas; and, p.
29, the Peak of Darien. On Balboa and "Darien", see Spate, Vol. 1,
p. 32-34. In his second volume, Spate treats Dampier, pp. 160ff. In
this second volume, Spate treats the Pacific Since Magellan,
Monopolists and Freebooters, the Dutch, Priests and Pearlers, the
Buccaneers, William Dampier; Anson sailing against Manila, Peru and
California.)

(It is no accident that the present north-south eastern border
of Western Australia coincides roughly with the "Papal Line",
which, today, means these issues have vague connection to questions
concerning sovereignty over Australia, and today's (1997) related
issues of indigenous land rights).

Macintyre in his Secret Discovery of Australia mentions
that Joseph Banks tried in 1811 to refer to this matter as he was
writing an introduction to Matthew Flinders' book on his
circumnavigation of Australia. Banks alluded to Holland's
once-existing (theoretical?) right to colonise Australia, or parts
thereof. Probably because of the hegemony then in European affairs
exercised by Napoleon, especially over Holland, Robert Peel
suppressed Banks' views so effectively, Banks withdrew in disgust
and forgot about introducing Flinders' book.

Whatever, a historians' dispute on cartographic matters began in
1859. George Collingridge produced The Discovery of Australia: A
Critical, Documentary and Historic Investigation concerning the
Priority of Discovery in Australasia by Europeans before the
Arrival of Lt. James Cook in the "Endeavour" in the year 1770.
(Sydney, Hayes Bros., 1895. Also by George Collingridge, `The
Early Discovery of Australia', Journal and Proceedings of
the Royal Geographic Society of Australasia. Sydney, NSW,
1893.) Here, the preface makes reference to R. H. Major, Early
Voyages to Terra Australis. London? 1859.)

A dissident historian, Major, had noted incorrectly, that
Harley, the first Earl of Oxford and Mortimer (this might be Edward
Russell, Lord High Admiral, Treasurer of the Navy, (1652-1727) Earl
of Orford) when backing Dampier's voyage to Australia, had owned a
copy of the Dauphin Map.
(Collingridge, p. 167: Earl Orford: His own DNB entry. GEC,
Peerage, Orford, p. 78. Orford married his cousin, a
daughter of William Russell, first Duke of Bedford and was second
son of his father, and brother of the fifth Earl of Bedford and
first Duke of Bedford.
Dampier on Jamaica worked for Helyars of Somerset, who were
military compatriots of Modyford on Jamaica, who is mentioned
variously in the essay. Collingridge's Discovery informs,
(p. 270), in 1621 a treaty between the Dutch and English was
signed, including provisions on trade to the Spice Islands. "It
prevented war for a time, but did not put an end to the disputes or
animosities of the rival English and Dutch Companies, which
culminated in the well-known massacre of the English at Amboina
(sic) in 1622." In all, Collingridge here seems confused between
Earls Orford (Russell, then Walpoles), and Harley the first Earl of
Oxford and Mortimer; not an earl of Oxford, as McIntyre states in
his book, Secret Discovery. (This is discussed in a later
file in more detail.)

However, it might be reasonable all the same to suggest that
when Courteen or his men were looking at existing maps, wondering
where terra australis incognita might be, they would have
been aware of the existence of the Portuguese settlement at Timor
(begun from 1514), rather south of the Spice Islands and the
Straits of Malacca. Whether or not Dampier knew of a "Dauphin Map"
or not, or cartographic arguments, it would be hardly surprising
that Timor and nearby areas were on Dampier's itinerary.)

... The English notwithstanding continued to send out ships to
[near?] the Australasian regions and in 1624 a petition for the
`privilege of erecting colonies' in Terra Australis was
presented to King James the First, by Sir William Courteen." (James
1 did not favour colonies or colonisation). But I can find no
supportive information that Harley, even though he was a Whig, took
any role in promoting Dampier's voyage!
(Collingridge then quoted from E. A. Petherick's publication,
The Torch, March 1888, page 89.)

Collingridge, however, wrote further, (p. 270): "In the last
year of his [James'] reign however, an eminent London merchant -
probably the most enterprising English merchant of his time - Sir
William Courteen, desiring to extend his trade to the Terra
Australis, petitioned the king for the privilege of erecting
colonies therein. Sir William, who was joint owner of more than
twenty burden, employing four of five thousand seamen, already
carried on an extensive trade on his own account to Portugal,
Spain, Guinea, and the West Indies." The following is a copy of his
petition now printed [by Collingridge?] for the first time:

'"... extract, (pp. 270-271) ..."that all the lands in ye
South parts of ye world called Terra Australis, incognita,
extending Eastwards and Westwards from ye Straights of LeMaire
together with all ye adjacente Islands [etc] are yet
undiscovered... Your petr ... humbly desires yr Maj to bee pleased
to grante to him, his heirs and assigns all ye said lands, islands
& territories, with power to discover ye same, to erecte
Colonies & a plantation there..."

Petherick added the following:
"Having lent large sums of money to the King, Sir William Courteen
had some claim upon His Majesty's consideration. But it does not
appear that `All ye said lands & territories' were granted to
him. He appears to have been satisfied with a bad title to the
island of Barbados, where he sent (in 1626) fifty settlers, who
built a fort (1627) and remained there till it was taken from them
(1628). He then sent eighty men to the island and re-took it in the
name of the [fourth] Earl of Pembroke. However, whichever story is
attended to, it is still not clear, what interest the fourth Earl
of Pembroke had in the Caribbean, except that Pembroke's interests
were eclipsed by royalty's favouring of the courtier, the Earl of
Carlisle. Sir William Courteen Junior died in 1666, having earlier
inherited claim to his father's title to a Caribbean
proprietorship. That proprietorship, as hinted at above, was not
deemed a good one, and was apparently disallowed in 1660.
(The following may be relevant. There is also a Hakluyt Society
publication, Late Tudor and Early Stuart Geography. And a
publication of 1644, being "The Association" [Courteen's?]
The East India Trade Stated, Anon, 1644, embodying some
notes by a Capt. of John Weddell's fleet and noting events about
1637. Courteen (Jnr.?) also developed a case for trading to China,
Canton.)

The entire matter has never been researched fully, but the
implications of English dispute about the proprietorship of the
Caribbean preoccupied matters from about 1630 to 1700, most of the
century.

Discovering specific problems with the first Courteen title to
Barbados is not easy. Some of the matters about which ignorance
have reigned here may be due to any of the following:
(a) Some possible suppression in England of information on the
struggle between Courteen versus the Earl of Carlisle for
control of Barbados, with a little-known role for the Earl of
Pembroke;
(b) An inability by scholars to accurately trace which explorers
used or updated various maps, over various centuries, as Australia
was "discovered";
(c) Secrecy of a national security nature which was endemic to all
European nations with commercial fleets and an interest in
improving navigation; (d) Distractions provided by the histories of
pirates, the juvenile delinquents of maritime history;
(e) Losses of information by shipwreck;
(f) Perhaps, some suppression also of the history of the way
England began using slavery in the Caribbean?
These are all linked questions.

Both Carlisle and Courteen had royal patents for Barbados and
both sent out governors, settlers, supplies; both found their
agents were banished or seized. One governor was executed. But when
the Earl of Carlisle became "Lord Proprietor" of the Caribbean, he
made Warner governor of St Kitts.
(Later, Charles I authorized a courtier, Endymion Porter, to fit
out privateers for the Red Sea. There would be formed the Courteen
Association, led by "a leading capitalist", Sir William Courteen
Jnr., to trade in India where the East India Company had not gone.
But this new company sent debased money to India and the East India
Company suffered further loss of reputation. The king, in return
for withdrawing the annoying patent, managed to extract a "loan" of
£20,000 from the East India Company. Holden Furber, Rival
Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600-1800. Minneapolis,
University of Minnesota Press, 1976., p. 39.)
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 119. In about 1641 the
profligate Hay, Earl of Carlisle, eloped with Lady Lucy Percy ("A
Venus rising from a sea of jet"); Lady Percy was acting at the
instigation of the infamous Countess of Somerset: Agnes Strickland,
Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 5, p. 284.)

But as Dunn writes, unhappily for Courteen, the Earl of Carlisle
challenged Courteen's control of the island (although Dunn does not
say what the grounds for the challenge were).
(A. P. Newton, European Nations, p. 156, writes of the
"tortuous court intrigues" by which Warner's patron, James Hay,
Earl of Carlisle, by 1629 had established his claims to a royal
patent on Caribbean Islands, with the claims of Courteen and also
the Earl of Pembroke entirely set aside. Carlisle's only interest
was the easy profit of the absentee landlord, and otherwise he kept
matters in the hands of his merchant associate, Marmaduke Roydon,
of whom little is known.)

Carlisle did little to advertise the island, and expected merely
to distribute land to settlers who paid to set themselves up. Up to
nearly 40,000 acres went to 250 colonists from 1628 to 1630.

The granting of "the West Indies" to the Earl of Carlisle came
under the terms of a proprietary patent of 1627. One link with
Carlisle was Thomas Littleton, who in turn linked with Edward
Thomas via Anthony Hilton's syndicate for the Leeward Islands.
Hilton had obtained a licence from Carlisle, and began on Nevis in
1628, there linked with Edward Thomson, who was possibly a relative
of Maurice Thomson (of the Rich faction in London - one Edward
Thomson, ex-St. Kitts, was often a partner with Maurice). In
1627, having established his proprietorship, of all Caribbean
Isles, Carlisle compelled partners to re-purchase from him and to
pay for the right to export tobacco customs-free for ten years. In
1628 Carlisle obtained a redrawn grant.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 92, p. 128.)

The elite merchants and the puritan colonising nobles were two
groups both damaged when Charles in 1627 granted the West Indies
proprietary colony to Buckingham's follower, the Earl of
Carlisle.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 265-270.)

On 17 April, 1627, Charles I meanwhile authorized the Earl of
Warwick with a commission to plunder or colonize the king of
Spain's possessions in Europe, Africa and the Americas. Buckingham
via his spy Sir James Bagg tried to have Warwick's ship, intended
to take the treasure fleet off Brazil, prevented from leaving
Plymouth. The ship sailed, but Warwick was attacked by a superior
Spanish force and barely escaped; this particular expedition was a
complete failure. When, due to Carlisle's interventions, the
proprietorship of Barbados came into dispute, the slowness of
Courteen's supply lines threatened famine.
(In 1637, Peter and John Hay sailed to the Caribbean to help
enforce the rights of the creditors of the Earl of Carlisle. But we
are not told if any such creditors had any prior links with
Courteen or Courteen associates; Bliss, Revolution and
Empire, p. 33. Peter Hay had kinsmen Sir James Hay and Sir
Archibald Hay who helped shore up the influence of the earl of
Carlisle island as rents were collected. The new governor, Henry
Huncks, once threatened Peter Hay with physical violence.
Interestingly, the Hays however did understand colonial reluctance
to bear with trade regulation if there was no share in colonial
government - of course, such issues flared dramatically with the
later outbreak of the American Revolution. In 1636, a servant ship
with Thomas Anthony as supercargo carried 56 Irishmen and women
from Kinsale to Barbados. The ship was originally bound for
Virginia, but the servants had heard wages were more liberal on
Caribbean islands. There were two other ships that year from
Kinsale. Servants fetched 500 pounds weight of tobacco each. Their
employers were?

By 1636, Carlisle's men included Peter Hay and James Holdip,
while the merchant syndicate backing Carlisle included Marmaduke
Roydon, William Perkins and Alexander Bannister. One aspect of
Carlisle's proprietorship (he died 1636) was that he leased 10,000
acres of perhaps the best land in Barbados in St. George's Valley
to his London syndicate - Roydon, Perkins, Bannister.
(See Ligon's map of Barbados. Notes, Dunn, Sugar and Slaves,
p. 49, Note 10, p. 50, pp. 55-57.)

Barbados' people however survived, and by 1640, after changing
from diversified agriculture to using more rationalized, larger
holdings, plantation-style, Barbados was profitably exporting
tobacco, cotton and indigo. By 1645, the Barbados settlers would
buy 1000 slaves in a year.
(Mintz, Sweetness, p. 53.)

Here, we are certain the complexities of the day have to be
invoked. An Indian historian, Mukherjee, records Charles I as being
in constant need of money, apparently the reason Charles backed the
formation of Carlisle's association as a rival to Sir William
Courteen. Mukherjee also suggests that a group led by William
Courteen Junior also remained an irritant of the East India
Company, if not a rival to it, with a result that the East India
Company "fell into a state of disorganisation, from which it did
not recover till 1657". Mukherjee strangely does not elaborate on
this "disorganisation".
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 79. More specifically (see
John Bruce, Annals of the Honourable East India Company.
London, Court of Directors of the East India Company, 1810. Vol.
1), p. 346, the Courteen Association wished to exploit a convention
between Goa and Surat with a view to using Portuguese ports, an
option not open to the English East India Company; pp. 337-362 on a
royal licence for the Courteen Association, between 1636-1637 and
later, as Courteen Senior died and his son inherited his projects.
On the revocation for permissions given to the Courteen
Association. (Bruce, Annals, Vol. 1, p. 362.)

But in 1627, when the English arrived on Barbados with ten
Negroes and 32 Indians, chattel slavery was still a strange idea to
"the narrowly ethnocentric English". These English gathered various
tropical plants and seeds, including sugar-cane, from a Dutch
outpost at Surinam, and 32 Indians helped them plant and cultivate.
Dating the arrival of sugar on Barbados remains difficult, but it
was found over time that the Negro was a more tractable worker than
the Indian.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 61-71.)

Control over Barbados and Providence Island:

Due to its location, control over Barbados was crucial in the
strategic matter of exerting naval and commercial power in the
Caribbean.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 92, p. 156.)

The Providence Island Company was founded in late 1629 as an
offshoot of the Bermuda Company, with Capt Philip Bell under the
patronage of the second Earl of Warwick; and it was the only major
company chartered in or for the Americas after 1625. (Providence
Island was off the Nicaraguan Coast.) In 1641, one Owen Rowe, a
London silk merchant, became deputy-governor of the Bermuda
Company; he was a relative of Susanna Rowe, the second wife of Earl
of Warwick.
(Susanna Rowe was daughter of London Lord Mayor Henry Rowe who was
active by 1607. GEC, Peerage, Warwick, p. 411. There may
have been a link to Lord Mayor in 1568, Sir Thomas Rowe. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 155. Merchant Owen Rowe was
involved in Virginia trade and the Massachusetts Bay Company. In
1641 he became deputy-governor of the Bermuda Company. He was of
the radical parish of St. Stephen's, Coleman Street. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, pp. 281, pp. 527-530.)

Once told of the discovery of Providence Island, Warwick had
formed a joint-stock company to exploit it, members being
non-merchant nobles and godly gentry... Such as William Fiennes,
"Lord Saye and Sele), Lord Brook (either Fulke Greville or Robert
Greville, Fulke the first Baron Brooke, Robert his cousin, second
Baron Brooke), and the radical John Pym.
(In 1636 the Company made "a private war" on Spain and wanted to
move from Providence Island to form a new settlement on a Central
American mainland. Later, Maurice Thomson dealt with the Providence
Island Company.)

Further anti-Spanish activity:

By an enlarged commission of April 1627 the second Earl Warwick
was authorized to invade or possess any of the dominions of the
king of Spain or the archdukes of Europe, Africa or America. The
court party disapproved, and adventures were mostly allowed due to
the preparation for the Rochell expedition. Warwick with help from
some London merchants fitted a fleet of eight ships and tried to
capture the Brazil fleet. This failed; the ships barely escaped
capture and ended losing money. In 1628 and 1629 Warwick sent out
more ships which did take prizes from Spaniards and Genoese, but
legal disputes arose. Other ships Warwick despatched were Earl
of Warwick and Somers Island.
(Cited in this context is a letter from Capt. Bell. Rich led his
own clan plus a group of powerful London merchants (whom Newton
does not name), with Brooke and Lord Say and Sele aiding unions
forming between Puritan Lords and commercial men.)

On 28 April, 1629, Sir Nathaniel Rich, an active member of the
Somers Isle Company got from Captain Bell a letter, describing
difficulties and faction fights. Bell was being blamed and could
not defend himself, but Bell mentioned two ships, Earl of
Warwick Capt. Daniel Elfrith and Somers Islands, now
returning home. Elfrith had not taken his own ship as he had no
crew. Capt Cammock had been left with 30 men on an island, St
Andreas; there was mention of an island Catalina and (a mythical
island), Fonceta (sic), of which Elfrith knew, or, Bell had sent
Elfrith to discover it. (Bell it seems was marrying Elfrith's
daughter). Bell wanted the Earl of Warwick to get a patent for
Fonceta.

Carlisle by 1629 meantime had the upper hand over Barbados and
became recognized as lord proprietor of all the English Caribees,
the Leewards Islands as well as Barbados. In 1629, in a dramatic
anti-Spanish move that might have been reported more forcefully in
history, given its linkages between expansionism, trade and
concerted aggression, a company of high-level English puritans
including the Earl of Warwick, John Pym, first Lord Brooke, Fulke
Greville and William Fiennes, first Viscount Saye and Sele sent
colonists to occupy Providence Island, off the Nicaraguan
Coast.
(Fulke Greville (1554-1628), first Baron Brooke, naval treasurer,
Chancellor of the Exchequer, published Sydney's radical book,
Arcadia. He was murdered by a servant. GEC, Peerage,
Brooke, pp. 331ff; Willoughby, p. 690. Who's Who
/Shakespeare, p. 98. There was also a Sir Fulke Greville
(1575-1632) of Newton, of Thorpe Latimer who married Margaret or
Mary Copley. He was a friend of Raleigh. Newton, Colonising
Puritans; GEC, Peerage, Brooke, p. 333.)

Providence was to be a staging ground for raids against the
Isthmus of Panama (the area of the Peak of Darien). In 1631 this
same company sponsored another privateering base at Tortuga, off
the coast of Hispaniola. All this would have continued the earlier
Elizabethan "war" with Spain with typical English puritan
vehemence.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 12. That vehemence should not be
underestimated. The "Five Knights case" prior to the Civil War
involved Warwick, Saye, Rich, Pym, Rudyerd and Digges. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 265.)

As Lord of the English Caribbean, Carlisle was "an indolent
absentee proprietor", interested only in collecting quit rents. He
died in 1636 with a debt-entangled estate and his proprietary
rights over Barbados came into dispute. In the 1630s, all effective
government of Barbados went to Carlisle's governor, Henry Hawley,
who levied poll taxes on the inhabitants. Hawley called a Barbados
Assembly meeting in 1639, but remained largely a petty despot.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 49ff.)

The murmurs of discontent expressed, and some of the issues
raised, were of the kind which much later would fuel the American
Revolution. For England, Barbados became an early-warning situation
about many trends that were to be influential. (And in 1629, as
Charles I made peace with France, England abandoned her efforts
with Nova Scotia, where Scots enterprise had faltered).
(Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 326. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 252.)

It is from this point, however, that detail in history books
fades, and confusions set in. Broadly, it does appear that Charles
I profited from Carlisle's interest, while Charles also owed money
to Courteen.

Essay by Dan Byrnes

Enter Willoughby of Parham:

In Penson's confused book on Caribbean developments, (for 17
February, 1646-1647) it is recorded mysteriously that "the
authority of the proprietor of the Caribbean Islands was
represented by the earl of Carlisle's lessee", Francis, fifth Baron
Willoughby of Parham.
(Lillian M. Penson, The Colonial Agents of the British West
Indies: A Study in Colonial Administration mainly in the Eighteenth
Century. Orig. 1924. London, Frank Cass and Co., reprint 1971.,
pp. 21-22.

A pioneer of colonialism, fifth Baron Willoughby of Parham
(1613/1614-1666), remarks Harlow, had an easily-provoked temper. He
helped develop Carolina, the settlement of Surinam in 1651-1663 and
first promoted planters being sent to Santa Lucia. "Lord Willoughby
did more to extend the British Empire in West Indian regions that
any other man of his time.", which cost him more than £50,000. He
left colonial property to his daughters Frances, Lady Brereton, and
Elizabeth, a later Countess of Ranelagh. Willoughby sided with
Parliament in the Civil War, then the Royalists.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, index. GEC, Peerage,
Ranelagh, p. 733; Wimbledon, p. 743, Note b; Winchilsea, p. 778;
Willoughby, pp. 703ff; Coningsby p. 396; Dunn, Sugar and
Slaves, p. 50. See also various listings for Finch in
DNB. Interesting genealogy on the Willoughby line concerning
the Muscovy Company is available in Josef Hamel, England and
Russia; comprising The Voyages of John Tradescant The Elder, Sir
Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancellor, Nelson and others, to the
White Sea. London, Richard Bentley, 1854. (Translated by John
Studdy Leigh))

Willoughby gained his authority from Charles, Prince of Wales in
1647. (The Earl of Marlborough may also have had a role here, but
if so, this also has not been well explained). Willoughby got from
the Earl of Carlisle a 21-year lease of the Caribee Islands, with a
post of Lt-General. He was also appointed by Charles II as governor
of Barbados.
(With the Restoration of 1660, Willoughby was again confirmed in
his "possession" of the Caribees. He had a plantation named Parham
at Surinam, which he had colonized in 1651, and later with Lawrence
Hyde he was granted a patent over Surinam of 2 June, 1663.)

At some point, Carlisle and associated merchants despatched to
St Kitts some emigrants, stores and ordnance (said to be from
Scotland), and the first English colony in the Caribbean was
launched. Courteen, not to be outdone, obtained the patronage of
Lord Treasurer, James Ley, Earl of Marlborough, for the colony at
Barbados, apparently unsuccessfully. But in 1627, a wholesale grant
covering many islands had been bestowed on the lord chamberlain,
Philip, Earl of Montgomery (the fourth Earl of Pembroke) and
confusion resulted.
(This was James Ley, brother of John the Amazon explorer. The third
Earl Marlborough continued the family's preoccupations with
Caribbean adventures.)

To make matters worse, reports on Barbados' history have not
been associated with reports on the Courteen bankruptcy, which was
due to investment or involvements in the Dutch East India Company.
Pembroke's grant of Barbados was revoked in 1629.

Little information exists on the Earl of Pembroke's role, but it
is said that in 1627, Pembroke had failed to enforce his own claims
in the Caribee against the claims of the Earl of Carlisle, and
about 1643, Pembroke failed in a bid to colonise Tobago, Trinidad
and Margarita, so Pembroke then gave all his rights (not including
those over Barbados, which stayed with the Earl of Carlisle) to the
second Earl of Warwick - which resulted in an intensification of
rivalry between Warwick and the heirs of Carlisle. Warwick tried to
settle plantations on Tobago and Trinidad at his own expense, but
was unsuccessful, largely due to manpower problems resulting from
the civil war. (During the civil war, Pembroke, as with Warwick,
took the parliamentary side). At some point, the Courteen Brothers
bankrupted, (that is, Sir William Courteen Senior) with their debts
apparently linked to Dutch East India Company men. Remarkably,
their debts were bought by the Earls of Bridgwater, the Egertons,
seemingly for "family reasons". As a purchase of debts, this
transaction seems unique in English seventeenth century history.
John Egerton the first Earl Bridgwater had married Margaret the
sister of Sir William Courteen Senior; and William Courteen Junior
married Catherine Egerton, daughter of John Egerton, third Earl
Bridgwater.
(GEC, Peerage, Bridgwater, pp. 311ff; Brackley, p. 272;
Derby, p. 212; Exeter, p. 219; Bolingbroke, p. 204. DNB for
Courteen Senior.

The third Earl of Bridgwater had taken up Courteen Senior's
debts by about 1640. John Egerton (1579-1649), first Earl
Bridgwater and second Viscount Brackley was the son of Thomas
Egerton (1540-1617) Lord Chancellor and the first Viscount Brackley
and Elizabeth Ravenscroft, and had married Frances Stanley
(1583-1635) (daughter of the fifth Earl Derby Ferdinando Stanley
and Alice Spencer of the Spencers of Althorp) and Margaret Courteen
(sister of Sir William Courteen Snr). The first wife of John
Egerton (1623-1686) second Earl Bridgwater was Elizabeth Cavendish.
John, third Earl Bridgwater married as first wife, Elizabeth
Cranfield (1647-169), a descendant of Lionel; Cranfield,
ex-merchant and first Earl Middlesex, the Treasurer for Charles I
(Rabb, Enterprise, p. 219). Part of the later extended family was
Anthony Ashley Cooper (1621-1683), first Earl Shaftesbury, often
mistakenly regarded as the founder of the Whig Party. By the 1640s,
Anthony Ashley Cooper [some claim he invented the Whig party] was
an investor on Barbados, but one biographer claims Cooper's role as
a commercial promoter or entrepreneur has been overstated.

In May 1646 some Courteen factors at the Madagascar colony
planted in 1645 had coated a batch of brass pagodas in gold, to the
later "infinite embarrassment" of the East India Company in India.
Specimens were sent home to embarrass the Courteens and their
dishonesty. It is said, William Courteen Junior after his Weddell
disasters had recouped money by marrying Catherine, the daughter of
Earl Bridgwater, and he fled "penniless" to the continent in
1646.
(Meanwhile, many merchant names mentioned here, some found in
Brenner's Merchants and Revolution, can be cross-checked
with names listed variously in Rabb's book, Enterprise and
Empire. Maurice Thomson here becomes a partner with William
Courteen Jnr.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 110, p. 173.)

Maurice Thomson had already got into the business, and built a
virtual empire in two decades.
(James Williamson, The Caribee Islands Under The Proprietary
Patents. Oxford, 1926., cited in Dunn, Sugar and Slaves,
p. 13.)

With the English settlement of the West Indies dominated by the
earls of Carlisle, proprietors failed to invest and simply milked
by way of taxes and impositions. Only the Bermuda Company and the
Providence Island Company could function effectively with gentry
control and finance, but they also became outposts in the 1630s of
Puritanism, and had been backed by the colonising faction of the
second earl of Warwick.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, variously.)

Presumably, the Earl of Egerton had saved his son-in-law,
William Courteen Junior, by buying the Courteen debts. Inevitably,
purchasing such debts involved Egerton/Bridgwater in fracas with
the Carlisle interest over the Caribbean. It is from here one that
might begin to discern more clearly the linkages which developed,
between slaving interests and East India Company interests, which
have gone too unremarked.
(Furber, Rival, p. 39. K. G. Davies, Royal Africa
Company, index. Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 26-27.) On
the manipulators of Caribbean politics, Povey and Modyford, see
Bliss, Revolution and Empire, [on Cordell, p. 48] p. 39, pp.
66-67, pp. 76ff, pp. 98ff, p. 143.)

Courteen Junior's backers included John Dike, Thomas Ferrars,
Humphrey Onby, and Thomas Briggs, and perhaps Peter Courteen at
Cologne. In Andrews' book, Ships, Money and Politics, is a
list of men in the Barbary trade overthrown by Courteen the
Younger, who were associates of Maurice Thomson.
(Andrews, Ships, Money and Politics, p. 183, Note 69.
Brenner, Merchants and Revolution.)

They were William Cloberry Senior and Junior, Oliver Cloberry
Junior, George Fletcher, Humphrey Slaney Snr. And Jnr., John
Fletcher, Thomas Fletcher, William Geere, Henry Janson, Samuel
Crispe, Ellis Crispe, John Wood, Edward Russell, Robert Blake
Junior. Several of these traded to North America.

The story of the Courteen/Bridgwater debts has remained
unresearched, but these debts seem significant in the history of
slavery, in terms of the role of slavery in the development of
capitalism (English capitalism, at least). What is not clear is
whether the arrangement kept Bridgwater in touch, financially or
otherwise, with the Dutch East India Company in a way still unknown
to nationalistic history? After the Egerton-Bridgwater
interventions in the Courteen disasters, some questions appearing
become involved with some history of English infighting in the
Caribbean in the seventeenth century. And those questions become
involved with many family outcomes of English civil war - and some
of those family outcomes became involved with the institution of
slavery.

In 1631, a new joint-stock East India Company had been formed.
In December 1635, Charles I had granted a charter to Courteen
Senior and his associates, a licence to trade from the coast of
Africa to the Far East, on the grounds that the East India Company
had "neglected the interests of England" and broken some conditions
of its privileges. Sir William Courteen Junior was fated to
continue his father's projects. Sometime in 1635, Sir John
Penington wrote to the Council that,
"There is a great rumour there that Sir William Courteen is setting
out ships for the South Seas, and that Capt Weddall goes chief
commander of them: others say that he is stayed by a letter from
the King to go along with our Custos Maris". Courteen appears to
have been the treasurer for these "fishing adventurers".

But in August 1635 Capt John Weddell and Nathaniel Mountney, a
former member of the East India Company's council at Surat, arrived
home bringing news of a "truce". Both had grievances and turned to
Sir William Courteen Senior as a way of furthering their own
eastern ambitions.
(K. G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, index. Furber,
Rival, p. 39, pp. 69ff. On Weddell here, see also, Austin
Coates, Macao and the British, 1637-1842: Prelude to Hong
Kong. Oxford University Press, 1988. Coates however makes no
mention of Courteen.)

Sir William Courteen and another influential courtier plus
another merchant who sometimes lent money to the king had put up a
scheme to trade with Portuguese settlements in India, justifying
the plan by alleging that the East India Company had neglected to
establish fortified factories or seats of trade, to which the
King's subjects could resort with safety. By 12 December 1635 this
syndicate obtained a license to trade to all areas in the east not
exploited by East India Company, and it also hoped to find a
north-west passage. The syndicate claimed that the East India
Company had failed to fortify, and so had forfeited strategic
positions.

So, in 1635 Charles issued letters of patent to the Courteen
association for a voyage to the east, assuring the East India
Company that the association would not engage in trade in the
Company's jurisdiction. Courteen's Association got up four vessels,
poached East India Company's naval and mercantile servants as
officers and supercargoes, and sent them east under Capt. Wendell
(Weddell), says Griffiths.
(Sir Percival Griffiths, A Licence To Trade: The History of the
English Chartered Companies. London, Ernest Benn, 1974.)

Two Courteen Association vessels plundered a dhow in the Red Sea
and since the Moguls did not distinguish between rival Englishers,
the President and Council at Surat were imprisoned. There was a
fine of Rs 1,70,000, and English were obliged to take an oath not
to further molest Mogul shipping.

By September 1635 the East India Company directors had stopped a
payment on a man named Clement, suspicious of his private trade. At
this time, Clement was also privateering with Maurice Thomson in
the West Indies. Also involved meanwhile with Courteen was John
Fowke, a little known Levant merchant, a man who squabbled with the
East India Company for thirty years. Fowke was a partner with
William Cloberry, yet another associate of Maurice Thomson.
Cloberry was also a promoter of the Kent Island project. This
network of merchants evidently fitted out their ship Dragon
for Courteen's use in the East as part of an interloping fleet of
1635-1636.

Also in 1635, one of the most powerful of Charles I's courtiers,
Endymion Porter (1587-1649), attempted to follow suit (in the
East), with London men including Thomas Kynnaston the cashier to
the government financier, Sir Abraham Dawes
(Dawes was treasurer of the Earl of Arundel's Madagascar scheme of
1639. Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 170, p.
299.)

Two ex-employees of the East India Company were John Weddell and
Nathaniel Mountney, who offered to trade to Goa, Malabar, China and
Japan, contacting Endymion Porter via Sir William Monson and
secretary Francis Windebank.
(An admiral, Sir William Monson, is noted in GEC, Peerage,
Monson of Bellinguard, p. 67.)

The final partnership apparently involved Bonnell, Kynnaston,
Porter, but was backed by Courteen, as well as by Paul Pindar (so
also, it appears, by Sir Peter Pindar). Paul Pindar put in up to
£36,000, and John Talbot, the Earl of Shrewsbury (probably the 8th
Earl?) put in about £2500.
(W. R. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish
and Irish Joint-stock Companies to 1720. Three Vols.,
Cambridge, 1910-1912, Vol., 2. Pindar is noted in the DNB
entry for Sir William Courteen Senior. On Bonnell: Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 170.)

Samuel Bonnell had been an agent for Courteen Senior, who now
conceived ambitions to exploit the Convention of Goa, which had
opened up the Indo-Portuguese markets to the English. Porter sent
two ships, the Samaritan and the Roebuck, under
William Cobb, licenced to pirate on anyone not in amity with
England. Roebuck plundered two Red Sea ships, so East India
Company men who had noting to do with these insults were
imprisoned, and/or forced to make reparation. It is probable that
Courteen was linked to Cobb's endeavour. It is said, that with the
truce with the Portuguese, some Englishmen wanted to break with the
East India Company monopoly and become interlopers; "chief of them
was Sir William Courteen", who troubled the Company's Surat
factors.
(Furber, Rival, p. 69.)

After Sir William Senior's death in 1636, his son William and
associates received a new charter of June 1637.
(K. G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, index. Furber,
Rival.)

A first Courteen Junior expedition was sent in spring 1636,
equipped at a cost of £120,000 and sent out under Captain Weddell
with Mountney as supercargo. The voyage was a success, but they had
also did the East India Company's reputation harm. Basically, it
seems Courteen and his associates were generally interested in
acquiring areas not yet touched by the East India Company. Here
with English colonialism is noted the continual tussle between the
old versus the new, with the new constantly reworking the
fringes of older-exploited areas, till finally, English colonialism
moved east, to China and Australia, beyond to Fiji. Piracy also
acted (or was used?) as a spearhead at times. And so, the Courteen
and other private traders assailing the East India Company were, so
to speak, expanding the areas first explored by Ralph Fitch and his
companions in the 1580s. It was this expansiveness of English
traders, expressed as old versus new, which was finally to
dominate not so much actual English interest in Australasia, as
certain oddities in the writing of the history of English interest
in Australasia - and the Pacific - as we will find with the work of
William Dampier in due course.

As we found earlier, Courteen had secured "privileges" regarding
Terra Australis Incognita (although Collingridge differs
here). The Courteen Association's plans cited latitudes and
longitudes. The Courteen plan was to sail basically north of New
Guinea, east, to examine "Magellan's islands" and the Straits of
Lemair. Courteen's men evidently suspected that an interesting area
of land existed south of New Guinea, or south of known areas of the
Indonesian archipelago. (A region known to some as Java
Le-Grande.
(McIntyre, Secret Discovery of Australia, p. 50 and
elsewhere.)

Even by 1650, the East India Company was accused of not being
far-seeing enough regarding land possibly lying south of New
Guinea.) By about 1637, Courteens also developed a case for trading
to China and/or Japan.
(By 1637, Peter Hay was trying to collect proprietary rents for
Carlisle. There would be a depression in England 1640-1650, a
stimulus to exploitation in colonies as power struggles both in
London and on island-colonies, not to speak of conflict with the
French, Dutch and Spanish, and chattel slavery, which all led to
conflict and turbulence in the Caribbean, making it a place of
uncertainty and suffering amid natural beauty.)

(Meanwhile, from the early 1630s, some noted London pepper
dealers became Daniel Harvey (of a Levant Company background) and a
deputy-governor of the East India Company, Alderman Clitherow, Sir
James Cambell (sic) and other Eastland merchants, plus John
Langham.
(The Cambell family (who were not Scots Campbells Argyll or
Breadalbane) are mysterious in that they rose from nowhere and died
away after several generations. They became closely connected with
the commercial name Abdy via a marriage of Abigail Cambell
to London alderman Sir Anthony Abdy .
(Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, Abdy, p. 1; Burke's
Extinct Baronetcies, pp. 98ff).

Family members included: London merchant and Lord Mayor Sir
Thomas Cambell (1535-1613) married to Alice Bugle; his son Sir
Robert Cambell London alderman; and Sir Robert's son, alderman and
Levant Company merchant Robert; one of the Abdys also married Mary
Corsellis. A Cambell daughter also married London Lord Mayor
Christopher Clitherow. One Miss Corsellis also married Sir (Bart)
Thomas Cambell of Clay Hall (died 1665).)

In 1639-1640 the East India Company sent pepper to the Levant,
then to Venice and Leghorn, selling the balance of stock to the
King, who sold it at a loss, as [but the connection is unstated];
the King was then helping to back the Courteen Association... Here,
information tends to read as though the English king had exercised
some long-standing but little-commented royal semi-monopoly on the
English pepper market).

What it means is hard to say, unless the information below is
helpful.

In 1640 a fourth East India Company joint-stock was made; the
third joint-stock had foundered in the troubles with the Civil War.
Charles issued a more comprehensive patent to Courteen's son, and
promised to revoke the licence if the East India Company could
raise new and substantial stock, but the Company could not raise
such stock. Charles I in 1640 bilked the East India Company of an
advance of its pepper stock, valued at £63,000. Charles never
repaid this money.
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, pp. 35-36.)

After Courteen Senior died, his son William took on East India
ventures hoping to receive half-profits; Endymion Porter got one
quarter, and Kynnaston, Captain John Weddell (finally drowned at
sea) and Nathaniel Mountney got the balance. Charles I had been
secretly bribed with £10,000, and he granted the full royal patent
in June 1637 to Courteen Junior and his associates - the Courteen
Association. The group seems to have had no official title however,
and it turned out a miserable failure. About this time, also,
another interloping voyage set off for Madagascar, which the East
India Company had used for years as a stopover.

Matters on the West African coast need attention. A name of
interest is Sir William St John.
(Sir Percival Griffiths, A Licence To Trade, pp. 62ff.)

In 1618, this man and thirty others were incorporated as "a
Company of Adventurers of London trading into the ports of Africa".
Known as the Guinea Company, they could not raise fresh capital, so
they granted licences to private traders, who can be referred to as
interlopers. One prominent interloper here was Sir Nicholas Crispe,
who is said to have built the first permanent English settlement at
Kormantin. In 1631, Crispe and his partners were issued with a
patent giving them a monopoly for 31 years of trade on the entire
west coast of Africa, and prohibiting all others importing Africa
goods into England. In 1649 a formal protest was lodged against
this company with the Council of State. A need for forts was seen,
(infrastructure cost), and a monopoly was renewed till 1651, though
limited to about Sierra Leone and Kormantin. Thus, the patentees
survived the Puritans. But finances worsened, so in 1657 they sold
Kormantin to the East India Company, which was glad of the calling
point.
(On Kormantin: Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, variously. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 163ff, p. 174. K. G. Davies,
Royal Africa Company, p. 9.)

Crispe had been active in the Africa trade from 1625. On 22
November, 1632, Charles 1 gave Crispe and five others an exclusive
right to trade to the Guinea coast, for 31 years patent. Crispe got
redwood from Guinea and had a sole importation right. The wealth
Crisp got from slaving and other business in 1640 enabled him to
contract for two large customs farms, "the great and the petty
farm", and on that security he and his backers gave the king use of
£253,000. Crispe was knighted on 1 January, 1639-1640. Remaining a
loyalist during the civil war, Crispe in that time had fifteen
ships at sea. He had a house in Bread Street, many puritan
relatives; he again farmed the customs. He advanced £1500 for the
re-conquest of Ireland, and welcomed the return of Charles II. In
May 1661 his son obtained post of collector of customs for the port
of London. He was notable in developing brick-making. His
great-grandson Sir Charles Crisp died in 1740.

Between 1655 and 1665 one Thomas Crispe was in dispute with
Denmark over land near Cape Coast Castle. In 1662 the Royal
Adventurers Trading into Africa had one determination - to oust the
Dutch in the slave trade.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, pp. 63, p. 332.)

They were the third English-Africa Company, and took over a
former English East India Company base, Cape Coast Castle, a few
miles east of a Dutch station, Elmina, on the Gold Coast. One of
Crispe's backers was that powerful and also under-rated commercial
name of the seventeenth century - Maurice Thomson. Crispe's
depositions stated that in 1649 he was the chief factor on the Gold
Coast for Rowland Wilson, Maurice Thomson, John Wood and Thomas
Walter, whom he called The Guinea Company (of London).

The original site of Cape Coast Castle, said Crispe, had been
given to English, then taken by the Swedes. It was re-taken by the
English in Crispe's time on the coast.
(K. G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 40-41, 215,
282.)

That is, Thomas Crispe claimed he'd established what became the
prime English slaving depot. He once deposed that he had bought the
site of Cape Coast Castle for goods worth £64 (in the small coastal
kingdom of Fetu). That is, he claimed he'd bought freehold. (James
Island had been occupied since 1651 by the Courlanders. or, men in
service of Duke of Courland. Later it passed into English
hands).
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 119.)

Meanwhile, the English East India Company had not fully
colonised Madagascar, disliking the expense, in contrast to the
Dutch taste for creating fortifications.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 170-172. Porter, a
groom of the royal bedchamber, entered the service of Buckingham
and married Olivia Boteler, a niece of Buckingham. Porter's
descendancy includes tenth Baron Teynham; GEC, Peerage,
Teynham, pp. 684-687; Strangford, p. 359. Roger Lockyer,
Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers,
First Duke of Buckingham, 1592-1628. London, Longman, 1981., p.
74.)

(In 1637, Prince Rupert had wanted part of Madagascar, but he
went instead to fight in Europe.) In May 1638 the government gave a
trade monopoly to Morocco to a group led by Sir Nicholas Crispe,
who already had the Guinea patent. Hostility erupted, and a leading
opponent of the Morocco patent was William Courteen with Samuel
Bonnell, plus Nathaniel Andrews; and Thomas and Nathaniel would
link with more interloping against the East India Company. Oliver
Cloberry was also against the Crispe-Morocco deal, and Cloberry was
trying with Maurice Thomson to horn in on Guinea trade. Courteen
for his part wanted Morocco and Guinea products for trade in the
east.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 174.)

By June 1638 the English Crown is going to war with Scotland,
trying to mend its fences with the City, renewing its charter,
which cost the City its Irish lands, plus £12,000. The crown also
aided the Merchant Adventurers, but in 1639 the Courteen project
was halted. Courteen was ordered to send only ships to bring back
what he had sent out. The City was reluctant to help with war with
Scotland.
(Meanwhile, on Barbados by 1638 was Thomas Verney, son of Sir
Edmund Verney (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 12). On St. Kitts
in 1639 arrived penniless one Phance Beecher, a kinsman of the
clerk of the Privy Council, regarded as a trashy, saucy upstart,
who later led "a rebellion" against Governor Warner. Dunn, Sugar
and Slaves, p. 120.)

By 1639, of course, a chief of the interlopers working against
the East India Company is Sir William Courteen, who "troubled the
Surat factors" working for the East India Company. Courteen's men
at Surat had found themselves "hampered" by being held responsible
for some misdeeds committed by "other English", but the East India
Company had the same view of the misdeeds committed by men of the
Courteen association. Earlier, Methwold of the Company presidency
at Surat had been imprisoned for two months respecting piracy by
two English ships in the Arabian Sea - one of those ships had
audaciously been flying the colours of England's royal navy. One
employer of one such ship was certainly in Courteen's employ (it is
thought).
(William Methwold (1633-1638), was bred in Norfolk and come to
Bantam by 1616 and been apprenticed to a London merchant nine
years, and spent five years in Middleburg. He became fluent in
French and Dutch. From 1633 he was the East India Company president
at Surat; he concluded a treaty with the Portuguese Viceroy at Goa
in January 1635. Methwold had had to deal with the effects of an
early 1630s famine and the effects of English interlopers. He was
taken on as an East India Company factor, from 1618 to 1623 he was
agent at Masulipatam. He had to return to England 1622-1623
regarding charges of private trading, and did some writing. He was
first Englishman to visit a diamond mine. In 1633 he was deputy
sword-bearer to Mayor of London, then was asked to go out as
President at Surat. When he came home in 1639 he was a director and
later deputy-governor of the East India Company till he died in
1653.
On Courteen: Furber, Rival, pp. 67-69.

Charles I had given a patent to a group of merchants headed by
Courteen and a royal favourite, courtier Endymion Porter, to trade
where the East India Company had not yet established factories.

It has been suspected that the king had remained annoyed, the
East India Company in 1628 had not let him become an adventurer.
(It will be remembered, that the first Company had formally
decided, it would not deal with "gentlemen", that is, the
aristocratic capitalists of the early 1600s). Weddell and Mountney
sent ships east again in 1639, with much richer cargoes, worth
perhaps £150,000, but their ships foundered (Methwold barely
survived). Courteen's men's behaviour had been quite obnoxious in
China and at Golconda. Courteens however managed to send out one or
two ships per year; their factors at Surat and elsewhere drove up
prices, their fortunes at home slid due to recklessness abroad and
Civil War at home.

By early 1639, a leading government financier was Philip
Burlamachi, who found the East India Company short of new capital
for a new issue. Perhaps linked to Courteen's plans, a new company
for joint stock for eastern trade was appearing.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 289.)

By 1639, the East India Company at Surat owned a few country
ships (regional traders only, not necessarily beholden to Company
authority), and they in various ways saved the Company money. In
early 1639 the East India Company was appalled as the Earl of
Arundel with the king's backing wanted to get to the east; his plan
resembled the Earl of Southampton's venture to settle Mauritius.
And that idea simply revived an abandoned project of Prince
Rupert.
(Earl Arundel: This was Thomas Howard (1585-1646), fourteenth Earl
Arundel, Earl Norfolk. Mary F. S. Hervey, The Life,
Correspondence and Collections of Thomas Howard, Earl of
Arundel. Cambridge University Press, 1921. Kraus Reprint, New
York, 1969; genealogical tables. Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p.
194, Note 3. GEC, Peerage, Arundel, p. 255; Norfolk, pp.
624ff.)

The fourth Earl of Southampton had a similar plan for a colony
on Mauritius. This Earl of Southampton was Thomas Wriothesley
(1607-1667) also Earl2 Chichester; his third wife was Frances
Seymour, who appears in the descent of Sir Francis Walsingham and
Ursula St Barbe.

Charles I called a halt to plans for Mauritius in 1639 in
response to calls from the East India Company, but he could not
back anything up, so Courteen Junior proceeded, though Courteen was
in deep financial trouble. This apparently meant that by the early
1640s, Courteen was drawn into linkage with Maurice Thomson.
Thomson may have been drawn into such eastern business via
Gregory Clement, who by 1631 was in trouble for interloping against
the East India Company.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, 134.)

Brenner finds direct evidence that by 1641-1642, Thomson and his
partners was working with Courteen. For example, Jeremy Blackman
was captain of ship William owned by Richard Bateson, Simon
Turgis and Thomas Cox - sent out by Courteen.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 175.)

Notes on "the Courteen debts" and on Maurice Thomson,
business manager for the Earl of Warwick:

By 1642 Courteen Junior was bankrupt and he repaired to the
Continent, leaving his East India Company matters in hands of his
partners. Brenner divides these partners into four categories:
(1) the remarkably busy Maurice Thomson, William Pennoyer, Robert
Thomson, Edward Thomson, Richard Bateson, Jeremy Blackman, Martin
Noel, Nathan Wright Samuel Moyer, Thomas Andrews and his son
Nathaniel;
(2) Foreign merchants in London who were friends of Courteens,
including Joas Godschalk, John La Mott, Derrick Hoast, Adam
Laurence, Waldegrave Lodovicke and John Rushout.
(Notes on Godschalk's family background are contained at the end of
this file.)
(3) John Fowke;
(4) New recruits from the merchant community including John
Dethick, Stephen Eastwicke a haberdasher, James Russell of the
Spanish trade and the Merchant Adventurers, a Southwark sea captain
William Ryder, plus a west country merchant, Thomas Boone.

(Some of these names turn up in a 20-man 1649 list on
Adventurers in a "Second General Voyage", which included Nicholas
Corsellis (who had married Maurice Thomson's daughter and who dealt
in lead with Thomas Deacon). There were also in the 1649 list of
Courteen's men, names including: James Houblon, John Casier,
William Boene and Ahaseurus Regemont (whose widow married Jeremy
Blackman).

Between 1642-1645, Maurice Thomson was linked with the Earl of
Warwick and William Pennoyer with Capt Jackson's second raid on the
Spanish West Indies. By 1640, Thomson was linked George Snelling
and Edward Thomas, also Samuel Vassall and William Felgate, in
Virginia and with West Indies tobacco and provisioning business. In
1647-1648, Brenner reports, men in the Guinea gold trade, owners of
a ship Star, were Maurice Thomson, Rowland Wilson Senior,
Rowland Wilson Jnr, John Wood and Thomas Walter.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 192.)

In the 1640s, Maurice Thomson and the second Earl of Warwick
became involved with the Guinea Company.
(GEC, Peerage, Warwick, p. 406. Davies, Royal Africa
Company, index, Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, pp.
441-442. See his son's DNB entry, his own DNB entry,
and DNB for his father.)

About 1645-1647 arose an ambitious plan to settle the Indian
Malabar coast with an investment of £80,000; and in 1645 Maurice
Thomson led interlopers and sent an expedition with Capt. John
Smart, to settle the east coast of Africa to create a provisioning
base for eastern shipping; and also to produce sugar, indigo,
cotton, tobacco, much like Barbados, which they themselves "owned".
Smart went to St Augustine Bay, Madagascar, with 140 colonists
(Mauritius and Assada were also in view). But illness among other
matters Smart forced to withdraw. The interlopers also wanted their
port to handle trade of the Indian subcontinent, and had retained
Courteen's long-held idea of integrating regular trade with Guinea
with regular trade to the East; they were already active with West
Indian and slave trade, and wished to use African gold to pay for
Eastern trade.

The Assada project was attempted under Colonel Robert Hunt, a
protégé of Lord Brook, (probably the second Baron Brooke). In 1636,
Hunt replaced Philip Bell as governor of Providence Island.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 12, Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 299. It was probably the "republican" Robert
Greville (died 1642-1643) second Baron Brooke. The records seem
unclear as to which Baron Brooke was involved. Also see Kenyon,
Civil Wars, p. 253. Newton, Colonising Puritans, p.
66. GEC, Peerage, Brooke, p. 333.)

They also began a second project on Pulo Run, an island in the
East Indies seized by the Dutch but legally owned by the
English.

By then the English East India Company was on the verge of
dissolution, and Parliament, since the King would not control the
Courteen Association, had acceded to the request of Maurice
Thomson, alderman Thomas Andrews, Samuel Moyer and James Russell
for liberty to trade to the East, in April 1645. It was decided by
March 1647 not to renew the old East India Company charter. The
Company had to re-finance and mount a "Second General Voyage". By
that time, new merchants had been interloping privately in the
east, presumably profitably.

The Company's Second General Voyage involved sixteen special
directors, with £1000 each in the venture, including Thomas
Andrews, Nathan Wright, Maurice Thomson, Samuel Moyer, Jeremy
Blackman and Capt. William Ryder, who all faced old-stock men of
the East India Company. This arrangement lasted till 1649.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 176ff.)

Scattered Courteen ships still sailed to the east, which might
have been stopped by an Act of Parliament in 1647-1650.
(Furber, Rival, p. 75.)

But in 1648, fortunately for the East India Company, Courteen
Jnr. was short of money, and he gave up the struggle. Still, in
1649 some of Courteen's associates proposed to form a settlement at
Assada an island off coast of Madagascar, to extend operations to
India, thus infringing on East India Company trade. A long wrangle
ensued.
(Griffiths, Licence to Trade, variously.)

1629: On 4 June, 1629 the Dutch ship Batavia goes down
off the coast of Western Australia, leaving her legacy of bizarre
tales of shipwreck followed by mutiny, murder, rape and
retribution. (Also leaving today's Aboriginals of the area with a
rare genetic anomaly originating in Holland which was being
examined by scientists in 1991-1992).

1629: In 1629, Britain abandoned her pretensions on Nova Scotia,
when Charles I made peace with France. (See Godfrey Davies, The
Early Stuarts, 1603-1660. The Oxford History of England. OUP.
1959).

1629: Nova Scotia had been given attention by Scots colonists in
1620, but in 1629, Britain has abandoned her efforts on Nova Scotia
as part of Charles I' peace plan with France. (Otherwise,
Englishmen regularly entertain fantasies of sending convicts to
Nova Scotia until after 1788). (Davies, Early Stuarts, p.
326.)

In 1630 Samuel Vassall failed to settle South Carolina, helping
Huguenots, in territory granted to Sir Robert Heath. Emigrants for
there were mistakenly landed in Virginia. Vassall often worked with
Richard Bateson and Edward Wood, who were Maurice Thomson's
privateering partners. Also linked was Richard Cranely, a Levant
man, an American sea captain who worked Virginia and the West
Indies with one Mr. Thomson (possibly the "founder" of Nevis,
Edward Thomson); plus Nathan Wright, a Levant Company man trading
with New England and an interloper in both the Greenland and
Newfoundland trades, before he began with America in the late
1630s.)

Between 1600 and 1630 then, it appears that the following
happened: by about 1624, the Warwick circle, and some privateers,
entered conflict with Sir Thomas Smythe and City magnates, who led
the Virginia Company and East India Company, plus other operations.
This conflict encouraged the lesser Sandys faction. Rich's circle
otherwise sent out two vessels to the Red Sea with a privateering
commission from the Duke of Savoy, and attempted to plunder a great
ship belonging to the queen mother of the Great Mogul.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 100.)

The East India Company had just secured trade privileges from
the Moguls and were worried. Several Company ships interrupted
Rich's vessel and so bad feeling developed between Rich and the
East India Company. Then Smythe and his friends frustrated
Warwick's attempts to have his protégé, Nathaniel Butler, appointed
governor of Bermuda. Smythe's son married Warwick's sister,
Isabella.
(Isabella Rich; GEC, Peerage, Holland, pp. 538ff, Newhaven,
p. 539.) ... of which Smythe Senior disapproved.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 216. Isabella Rich;
GEC, Peerage, Holland, pp. 538ff, Newhaven, p. 539.)

By the 1630s, a new group or generation of Levant traders,
whether or not they remained interested in the East India Company,
were also becoming interested in Virginia/American trade, though
not necessarily in Caribbean or West Indian trade. This disposition
in trading groups would probably have remained, had not Thomas
Warner discovered Barbados, the matter which prompted Sir William
Courteen Senior to invest in settling Barbados.
On Caribbean dealings between Warner and Maurice Thomson, Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, p. 127.

1620: Puritans, the Mayflower and other
matters:

The Puritans' Mayflower had sailed in September 1620,
landing at Plymouth, an area later annexed to Massachusetts, in
1691, after failing to find Virginia. The Scottish colonisation of
Nova Scotia about the same time gave some stimulus to English trade
(as we shall see, via Maurice Thomson's interests), but
Britain in 1629 abandoned her efforts on Nova Scotia, when Charles
I made peace with France. Meanwhile, in 1620 occurred the first
known exploration of the African interior, up the Gambia River. A
factory was established at the river mouth and later a fort was
acquired at James Island. The English probably also visited Sierra
Leone and Sherbro River.

An Englishman on one such expedition is said to have been
offered slaves, but he magnanimously declined to deal in human
beings. Unfortunately, things changed, although it should be
emphasised, when chattel slavery began to be used on Barbados, the
institution was initially unfamiliar to the English there. On
Barbados, a "code" had to be drawn up, in which situation of
course, the Negro had no voice, such was the voice of what would
become Imperialism! This became the Barbados slave code, later
exported to Jamaica, then to Virginia.
(K. G. Davies, The Royal African Company. London, Longmans,
1960., p. 9, p. 15, p. 42. I have leaned heavily here on the use of
Davies' lists of investors in the slave trade, as given in his
index, in order to link names with other information on men
involved in the English slave trades from the 1640s.)

(Ends this essay section by Dan Byrnes)

1630 and earlier: Follows a list of earliest EICo names, to
about 1630: Sir John Banks (1627-1699) (no relation to the later
botanist Sir Joseph Banks), Edward Christian (see Glynn Christian,
p. 23 on family of Bounty mutineer Fletcher Christian, Thomas
Cordell (died 1612, linked to William Garraway and William Holiday
plus privateer George Clifford, Earl3 Cumberland in 1594; see
Brenner, p. 18), William Methwold, mariner James Lancaster, Richard
Bateman, London Lord Mayor Ralph Freeman (also Russia Co., and from
1624 he was linked to the Rich faction in control of the VA Co.),
Robert Bowyer active by 1620, Thomas Mustard active by 1634, John
Williams active by 1634, Capt. Weddell active by 1610, Sir Francis
Cherry, Edward Sherburn a secretary to Earl of Salisbury and also
to Lord Keeper Bacon, William Parker Lord Monteagle (also Va. Co.),
Capt. Richard Swanley, Paul Bayning Visc1 Bayning of Sudbury.

By 1630 the Spanish government agreed to market its American
silver in London instead of Genoa, gold otherwise got from the
Netherlands, so in all the EICo tended to be dependent on Spain as
a silver supplier.
(K. N. Chaudhuri, The English East India Company: The Study of
an Early Joint-Stock Company, 1600-1640. London, Frank Cass,
1965., p. 136. From about 1630 the East India Company in India was
deeply reliant on Indian financiers, the shroffs, e.g., Tapi
Das, just as a new joint-stock Company formed. Griffiths,
Licence to Trade, p. 84; in 1631, a new joint-stock company
being formed.)

1630: Indian port Surat: Famine strikes. And in other parts of
India.

date?: 1630+?: (Morse, p. 228), First English ships to carry on
trade with China were those of the Courteen Association, Byrnes
notes that Courteen had links with Dutch VOC which have never been
specified. (See Horsea Ballon Morse, 'The provision of funds for
the East India Company's trade at Canton during the Eighteenth
Century', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, April
1922, Part 2. pp. 227ff. MF 950.05/Roy at Dixson Library, UNE.

1630: By 1630 the East India Company has 12,000 employees.
(Alison Olson, Making The Empire Work: London and American
Interest Groups, 1690-1790. Harvard Univ. Press, London,
Harvard. 1992., p. 17).

1631: James I had granted in 1618 a charter for a Guinea Company
to Sir Robert Rich later Earl Warwick and some merchants. In 1631,
the next Guinea Co. arises for England, .... . with charter from
Charles I to Sir Richard Young, Sir Kenelm Digby, Nicholas Crisp
and Humphrey Slaney and others.
W. Walton Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti: From
the earliest times to the commencement of the Twentieth Century.
London, John Murray, 1915., p. 89.

1630: Some 900 Puritans under John Winthrop settle on the Boston
Peninsula of New England coast, and at Charlestown, Medford,
Watertown, Roxbury and Dorchester. Within a year they are trading
with Virginia, later with Maryland.

1632: More to come

1633: More to come

1634: New England, America (Portsmouth, New Hampshire, begins to
send masts of local timber for English navy, which does not use
them till the Dutch War of 1652-1654 cuts off naval supplies
carried by the Baltic trade. A mast sells for £95-115 or even up to
£1600 for an extra-large one.

1635: H. B. Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company
Trading to China, 1635-1834. (Five Vols) 1926-1929. *

The earliest-recorded American slaving ship is Desire of
Salem, which transports 17 Pequot Indians for sale in West Indies
and brings home some Negro slaves.
K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role
of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South Carolina
Press, 1988., p. 43

1638: Japan: Shimabara-no ran (Riot at Shimabara) 40,000
Christians and farmers stayed in the island and fought against
100,000 of the government soldiers about 4 months. Protestants
(Dutch) helped the government from the sea to seize the riot.

1638-1639: England: February: the Sheriff of Surrey receives a
warrant to deliver to one William Flemmen [Fleming?] of London,
Gent, some convicts for Virginia. (Wilfrid Oldham, Britain's
Convicts To The Colonies. Sydney, Library of Australian
History, 1990., pp. 5-6).

1639: India: English acquire Madras from a local dealer.

Late 1630s: (G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 335),
depression in England in the late 1630s, reached a crisis when
Charles I seized bullion in the tower, and though it was restored,
confidence had been undermined. He also proposes to debase the
coinage. A depression went on 1640-1650.

More to come

More to come

More to come

more to come

1639: Japan closes its coasts to foreigners.

1640: Founding of Montreal in Canada.

1640: English East India Co establishes Fort St George at
Madras.

In 1640: Charles harms the East India Company, buying a lot of
pepper, selling it at a loss and depreciating the future market; he
anyway never repaid the Company. (See William Foster, 'Charles
II and the East India Company', English Historical
Review, xix, pp. 456-463). Other companies had similar
grievances with the Crown as the depression advanced through
1640-1650.

1640: (G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 286-287), rapid
spread of the joint-stock company, as with EICo from 1600, writers
begin to contrast the moneyed interest with the landed interest, no
specialized bankers yet exist, spare coin is no longer stored in
the Tower, but Charles I in 1640 has threatened to seize bullion
there, so merchants used the strong rooms of goldsmiths for
"banking".

1640: From the early 1640s, an English settlement at Bengal.
From India came calico, spices, raw silk, indigo and saltpetre for
gunpowder, pepper, cloves and nutmeg. English exports to India
included textiles, tin, lead, and coral from the Mediterranean. It
was always necessary for East India Company ships to carry bullion,
as imports exceeded imports. During the 1640s, a risk arose that
the EICo settlements might have to be abandoned. The Company
experienced trouble with the Covenanters and the Civil Wars, and
trouble also with the Courteen Association. Matters however
improved during the Commonwealth, and a new arrangement was made
with the Courteen association. Cromwell gave the East India Co. its
first government support. A debate arose concerning joint-stock or
shipowners supplying their own capital and ships. (See Davies,
The Early Stuarts).

1640: English East India Co. establishes Fort St George at
Madras.

1640: English occupy Hooghly, India. All English settlements and
factories brought under control of Fort St. George at Madras.

1642: ... and political repression was giving victims to the
English notion of transportation. (Irish Records, Transportation,
Belfast, PRO, T.429, Letter from R. West to the Deputy of the Isle
of Man and court decree concerning the transportation of rebels
from County Down in 1642. Copies from the Rushen Papers in the Manx
Museum).

1643: Re New Netherland/New York, in 1643 the New Englanders
help form the New England confederation, for defense, competition
with the Dutch at New Netherland, and in 1664 a new effort to
subdue New Netherland, as it was encroaching on English holdings,
so the king decided to grant the area to his brother James, the
Duke of York, as a proprietary province. James' deputy was Richard
Nicholls who sailed for New Netherland from Boston, and Dutch
governor Peter Stuyvesant surrendered in September 1664, colony
renamed New York. New York's staple of trade was fur, part of the
New York territory included what would become New Jersey, and James
Duke of York here favoured his friends Lord John Berkeley and Sir
George Carteret, two defenders of the Stuarts during the Puritan
Cromwell period. and in 1665 they established a government for the
area, but New York protested at this as it clashed with their own
interests, there were Finns and Swedes then on the Delaware River,
and in 1674, Lord Berkeley sold his New Jersey interests to two
Quakers, John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge. And these Quakers used
trustees including William Penn. (Ver Steeg, The Formative
Years, pp. 115-116.)

1642-1643: (Morrell, p. 13ff), The Dutch are dominant on the
Indonesian archipelago, and never really challenged Spanish claims
in the Pacific. Van Diemen is an ambitious Gov.-general in the
Dutch East Indies who plans a voyage for Tasman and his pilot,
Major Visscher in 1642-43, the circumnavigation of New Holland,
whose western and north-western coasts the Dutch East India
Company's pilots had already been mapping. Tasman thought New
Zealand was part of a great southern continent. (The Dutch also
sent Roggeveen into the Pacific in 1721-1722, but found his work
unprofitable. Morrell writes, "The disinterested curiosity of the
'age of reason' brought a new, more scientifically oriented
motivation into play in regard of the Pacific."

1643: Evangelista Torricelli invents the barometer.

1644: China: The Manchu state (led by Nurhaci), captures
Peking-Beijing. Later, Nurhaci's son Abahai moves from being Khan
of Manchuria to Emperor of China.

1644: The last Ming emperor of China hangs himself. His apology:
"Now I meet with Heaven's punishment above, sinking ignominiously
below... May the bandits dismember my corpse and slaughter my
officials, but let them not despoil the Imperial tombs nor harm a
single one of our people".

1644-1645: Later the New Model army was formed by Parliament,
and a decisive battle at Naseby, June 14, 1645, which lost the
Midlands to the Royalists. Later king surrendered to the Scots, and
Oxford surrendered in June 1645. Army discontent becoming radical
and etc., and looked as though a second civil war might begin.
Cromwell had to suppress the Scots at Preston 17 Aug, 1648, as the
Covenanters felt the Covenant had been broken. King tried for
treason and Charles I beheaded on 30 Jan., 1649. Also, the
Presbyterian domination was overthrown. The Queen (of Charles II)
later regarded as regicides, Okey, Walton, Scroop, Norton, Pride,
Whaley, Edwards, Tichbourne, Lambert and Blackwell, who now had
"patriotic possession of large portions of the queen's dower":

1645: "The first identified American vessel to import slaves
from Africa is Rainbow." She brings to Boston two slaves
been kidnapped, not purchased. Puritans are offended and set them
free, then sent them home.
See K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The
Role of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South
Carolina Press, 1988., p. 43.

1646: More to come

1647: More to come

1648: More to come

In 1649 a new London group headed by Lord Fairfax, with some old
associates of Courteen, challenged the East India Company monopoly
yet again, and wanted colonies on Assada, off the coast of
Madagascar, and in the Indies. Here, the Fairfax name can be linked
to the aristocratic Fairfaxs who were so influential in the history
of Virginian tobacco planting.
(Thomas Fairfax (1612-1671), third Baron Fairfax, also Lord of the
Isle of Man, in 1645 was commander of the New Model Army, although
he later aided the Restoration. Hibbert, Cavaliers and
Roundheads, p. 299. GEC, Peerage, Colepeper, p. 365;
Vere of Tilbury, p. 257, Note b; Fairfax of Cameron, pp. 229ff.
Thomas Fairfax (died 1709-10), fifth Baron Fairfax, was governor of
Virginia, 1675-1682. In 1702 by the influence of the London-America
merchant, Micajah Perry, Colonel Robert "King" Carter (1663-1732)
of Virginia became agent for the Fairfaxes; Greene, Carter Diary,
Vol. , p. 67, p. 80. The sixth Baron Fairfax was owner of much of
the Northern Neck of Virginia. On related colonials, Fairfax of
Virginia, see Stella Pickett Hardy, Colonial Families, p.
321, pp. 519-527.)

The friend of Courteen was Thomas, third Baron Fairfax, a
Puritan Lord and general, Thomas Fairfax (1612-1671) who had as
tutor to his daughter Mary, the excellent poet, Andrew Marvell.
(GEC, Peerage, Vere of Tilbury, p. 257; Fairfax, p. 230;
Buckingham, p. 395.)

The Privy Council wanted this group to join with the existing
Company with one joint-stock, but everyone now knew that the
private traders had virtual impunity. Cromwell tired of all this.
In January 1650, the House of Commons decided there should be a
united joint stock Company to take over factories in India, leaving
Courteen's associates only with their Assada factory, which was
shortly abandoned.
(Furber, Rival, variously. Griffiths, Licence to
Trade.)

In June 1651 the Company's activities were at quite a low ebb,
and it was almost impossible to raise new capital. So the Company
issued licences to private traders, but this only meant paying
higher prices in India and getting lower sale prices at home. In
1654-57, the East India Company sent out 17 ships, while private
traders sent out 38 ships. In 1656 an audacious rump of East India
Company shareholders wanted to sell Company privileges and
factories in the east to private traders, for a mere £14,000, with
a proviso that the (Old) Company could continue in the trade.
Outraged, the Company in October 1656 petitioned Cromwell for
support. Cromwell put matters in the hands of a sub-committee
headed by his friend, Colonel Philip Jones, who was impressed with
the success of the Dutch joint-stock East India Company (VOC).
Cromwell's role in negotiations is unclear, Jones remained the main
negotiator, but it is said the Cromwell also spoke with the Earl of
Bridgwater, which would not have been surprising.

Annoying Spain was one motive for England to attempt to further
dominate West Indian islands. Without a base in Barbados, England
might not later in 1655-1656 have captured the prize of Jamaica,
during the time of Cromwell's "Western Design", which intended to
bring proper (Puritan) religion to the New World. Regarding the
East India Company, by October 1657 it was thought that a permanent
joint-stock would replace the older system of successive joint
stock operations. The Charter given by Charles II when he arrived
was very near to this; the East India Company would have power to
repatriate interlopers, make war, and so on. Yet the Council of
State hung back from such a form, so in January 1657 the Company
voted to sell unless they got a decision within a month.

The name Willoughby of Parham appeared again on the Caribbean
scene. By 9 July, 1660, Francis Willoughby (1613/1614-1666), fifth
Baron Willoughby, was married to Elizabeth Cecil. Willoughby took a
21-year Caribbean lease from the Earl of Carlisle. The king
directed Lord Willoughby to take up as governor of Barbados and
other Caribbee islands, in view of Willoughby's position as lessee
of the Earl of Carlisle's Caribbean rights. Soon, interested
persons in London protested, and in July and August 1660, one
protestor was Sir William Courteen Junior (who died 1666). Another
protestor was a Mr. Kendall. They went to law. The decision was for
Willoughby.

Bombay came to the English in 1661-1663, and one rather feels
that if the Mogul rulers of India made serious tactical mistakes in
dealing with the English, as they did, they did so during
Cromwell's time, which was also during the "Courteen phase" of
England's eastern trade. In the East, after 1660-1668, the Moguls
fail entirely to note the rise of the Whigs in England. The Whigs
became a most aggressive group, economically speaking.
(K. G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, index.)

Much depends on linkages, if any, between men engaged in Eastern
trade and slaving business.

Further notes on the trading activities of Maurice
Thomson:

NB: A chronological listing of the merchant associates of
Maurice Thomson, the "merchant banker" who seems to have worked
consistently for decades to promote the colonising interests of the
second Earl of Warwick.

By 1626 Maurice Thomson was a figure in the St. Kitts plantation
and tobacco and provisioning trade. Alison Olson sees Thomson as
active in the Canadian fur trade, sending provisions to New
England, with a monopoly on the Virginia tobacco crop, as an
interloper in East India Company trade, and one of the Guinea
Company.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 126-127.)

Thomson was quite prepared to leave London on serious business
matters. In April 1626 he went to Southampton for about six days,
regarding deals regarding St. Kitts, with one Thomas Combes of
there, which later went sour. Combes had a plantation on St. Kitts;
having been linked to Capt. Thomas Warner, the "original settler"
of St. Kitts. Thomson agreed to put in £4000 capital. In April-May
1626, Thomson and Combes sent three ships with sixty slaves to St.
Kitts. A new man joined the syndicate, Thomas Stone, of a Lancaster
family, been apprenticed into the Haberdashers, London. He was in
Cateaton Street, London, had a nephew in Virginia, one W. Stone,
and also had links to Holland. By 1627 Thomson and Stone were
re-exporting tobacco to Middleburg, Flushing and Amsterdam.

By the 1630s, Thomson was is in partnership with Humphrey Slaney
in Newfoundland and Guinea business and the American tobacco trade.
By 1631 he is also with the Kent Island project. By 1631 both
Thomson and John de la Barre are interlopers in the Canadian fur
trade. By 1631 Thomson was also involved with the Kent Island
project.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 184ff.)

By 1634 Thomson's factor in Virginia was one Thomas Stegg. For
1632-1633, Thomson dealt with William Tucker and Thomas Stone in a
syndicate given a right to market the entire Virginian tobacco
crop. From 1636-1640, Thomson was in partnership with Roger Limbrey
in the St. Kitts tobacco trade. To the 1640s, Thomson was in trade
to Massachusetts Bay with Nicholas Trerice (sic) and Joshua Foote
(sic). By 1637-1638, in partnership with the Virginia tobacco and
provision trade with William Harris, Thomas Deacon and William
Tucker.

William Tucker had arrived in Virginia in 1610 aged 21. Born
then 1589, he later married a sister of Maurice Thomson, Mary.
Tucker was originally a sea captain, but by 1616 he was active with
several Londoners in founding a Virginia plantation, one being
Elias Roberts, whose son Elias married Dinah Thomson, another
sister of Maurice. Another participant was Ralph Hamor (sic), who
became a Virginia magistrate and politician. By 1619 Tucker had
become a major figure in Virginia by 1621. Tucker and Ralph Hamor
went to London to see Parliament for Virginia's case in opposing
the tobacco contract proposed by Sir Thomas Roe and others.
(On Roe's career: Joyce Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 37, p.
149 on his visit to Mogul India.)

Later Tucker went off fighting Indians; he lived at Kecoughtan,
or, Elizabeth City. By 1625, Tucker was one of only 15 men in
Virginia who had ten or more servants. By 1626 Tucker had been
appointed to the Virginia Council.

About 1638, Thomson was in partnership in trade to an unnamed
area with William Tucker, George Thomson and James Stone. By
1638-1641, Thomas was involved in Capt. Jackson's raiding voyage to
the Spanish West Indies with William Pennoyer, Thomas Frere and
possibly William Tucker. By 1638, Thomson was involved in an
attempted interloping voyage to Guinea with Oliver Cloberry, Oliver
Reed and George Lewine. By 1638-1641, Thomson was involved in Capt.
Jackson's raiding voyage to Spanish West Indies with William
Pennoyer, Thomas Frere and possibly William Tucker.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 158 has it that Capt.
William Jackson was once an apprentice of William Tucker in the
London Clothworkers Company. )

By 1638, Thomson had probably become a "general business
manager" for the Earl of Warwick, presumably answering to Sir
Nathaniel Rich. Thomson here also became a partner with William
Courteen Jnr. Brenner for the late 1630s-1650 has a list of East
India interlopers and promoters of an Assada plantation, including
Maurice Thomson, William Pennoyer, Robert Thomson, Edward Thomson,
Richard Bateson, Jeremy Blackman, Martin Noel, Nathan Wright,
Samuel Moyer, Thomas Andrews, Nathaniel Andrews, John Fowke,
Stephen Estwicke, James Russell, William Ryder, Thomas Boone, Joas
(sic) Godschalk, John La Mott, Derrick Hoast, Adam Laurence,
Waldegrave Lodovicke and John Rushout.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 118, p. 173ff, pp.
192-193.
This Godschall is presumably of the Godschall-Johnson family, which
descent produces a governor of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham
(1806-1855). Burke's Landed Gentry for Barnard of Hotham.
Davis McCaughey, Naomi Perkins and Angus Trumble, Victoria's
Colonial Governors, 1839-1900. Melbourne University Press,
1993.)

By 1638, Thomson was involved with the Providence Island Company
which had plans to use a silver mine in the Bay of Darien. Thomson
in the late 1630s was also linked to the Anglo-Dutch-American
trader, Nicholas Corsellis, and with a lead mine in Cardigan,
Wales, the Mines Royal.
(Nicholas Corsellis a Virginia trader was son of Nicholas Corsellis
Senior and married a sister of Maurice Thomson. Also, Sir Thomas
Cambell of Clay Hall married a Miss Corsellis. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, pp. 89-90, p. 176. One does not
however read of commercial links between Maurice Thomson and these
Cambells. Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, pp. 98ff.)

Joshua Foote an ironmonger was busy with an ironworks in
Tancready, Ireland; then with Robt Houghton, William Hiccocks and
John Pocock he opened up the Massachusetts iron works at
Braintree.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 160ff.)

In 1638 at a meeting of the Providence Island Company,
apparently, a Mr. Samuel Border told John Pym, that the patron of
Benjamin Rudyerd was the Earl of Pembroke; Lord Mandeville may also
have been involved here with the Earl of Warwick. There was a large
silver mine at the Bay of Darien.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 301ff.)

Some of these men sent to see Maurice Thomson, who led an
expedition to this mine personally in 1639. Thomson anyway
provisioned for this company.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 3, p. 67.)

Otherwise, in matters probably linked, in May 1638, following
the failure of the Kent Island project, Claiborne in Virginia had
got a commission from the Providence Island Company to start a
settlement on island of Ruatan (Rich Island) off the coast of
Honduras.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 157.)

About 1638, Thomson was in partnership in trade to an unnamed
area with William Tucker, George Thomson and James Stone. By 1639,
Thomson was linked with William Pennoyer in a patent for a fishery
at Cape Anne, from the Massachusetts Bay colony. By 1639-1641
Thomson was linked with the Providence Island Company, in
provisioning Providence Island itself. In 1639, Thomson was linked
with William Claiborne, Samuel Matthews, George Fletcher, William
Bennett and the Bermuda Company regarding a great land grant
encompassing territory between the Potomac and Rappahanock rivers -
but plans here failed to eventuate. And generally, it is beyond
belief that Thomson dealt on such a large scale in his own right -
but the ambitions of his backers have been poorly described to
date.

The second Earl of Warwick was outspoken against Charles I's
ship money tax, and would become Parliamentary lord high admiral by
1643. By 1642-1643, London-based merchants had part-control of the
navy. Shortly, privateers operated as naval forces. This revamped
navy helped win the civil war. One man benefiting personally from
this, (Andrews writes), was "that ubiquitous entrepreneur", Maurice
Thomson.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 195ff.)

George Thomson, later linked with the Kent Island project, by
1635 was also involved in the founding of colony on Montserrat and
in the tobacco and provisioning trade, probably in partnership with
Anthony Briskett. Maurice's sister Mary married William Tucker of
the American trade, while sister Dinah married Elias Roberts of the
American trade.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p. 195, p. 328.)

Brenner also conveys that William Thomson married Elizabeth
Warner, daughter of Samuel Warner, a link then with Thomas Warner
of Barbados.

Matters on Barbados:

In the 1640s and again in the 1690s, thousands of Barbadians
died from yellow fever, called Barbados distemper or bleeding
fever. The patient vomited and voided blood. To the 1640s, the
Barbadians had been a simple group of peasant farmers on the first
port of call for Caribbean-bound ships. The most populous and most
successful of islands, it was never invaded by the French or
Spanish.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 18.)

By 1639 the members of the later Barbados elite included Allyn,
Bulkley, Codringtons (who became immensely wealthy). And James
Drax, a militia captain with an Anglo-Dutch background, who made
the first-ever sugar fortune.
(This Sir James Drax does not appear to be of the family listed in
Burke's Landed Gentry for Sawbridge-Erle-Drax. Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 17. He was linked politically with Sir Thomas
Modyford of Barbados and Jamaica.)

Drax brought from Holland a model of a sugar mill - a small
instance of technological transfer indicating the breadth of
Mintz's view on the revising of capitalism, seen as originating in
the Caribbean. By 1680 Drax was said to ship home £5000 worth of
sugar. Other notable Barbados names were Frere, Huy, Hothersall,
Pears, Yeamans. Dunn notes, many of these names had commercial
backgrounds in London. Later came names such Gibbs, Fortescue,
Sandiford, Read, Hothersall and Berringer. From about 1640,
Barbados people included Edward Cranfield and Edward Shelly, Capt.
George Martin.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 17. See Ligon's map of Barbados. Dunn,
Sugar and Slaves, p. 49, Note 10, p. 50, pp. 55- 58, p.
190.)

Capital and technology told. It was similar on Barbados, where
the original "peasants" were done for. Dunn lists the newcomers who
renovated the Barbados economy, including John Colleton, Samuel
Farmer, Thomas Kendall, Peter Leare, Thomas Modyford, Daniel
Searle, Constantine Silvester, George Stanfast, Timothy Thornhill,
Humphrey Walrond, Francis Lord Willoughby. Here, some names were
those of agents, some names had links to Dutch merchants, some were
eager to harvest sugar business. Some, as Dunn puts it, were the
younger sons of English gentry who had fought in the civil wars and
now wanted, or rather needed, fresh endeavour.

Dunn lists among the newcomers who renovated the Barbados
economy - John Colleton; James Colleton, Sir Peter, Thomas; James
on the Barbados assembly to 1700.) Samuel Farmer, Thomas Kendall,
Peter Leare, Thomas Modyford, Daniel Searle, Constantine Silvester,
George Stanfast, Timothy Thornhill, Humphrey Walrond, Francis Lord
Willoughby. The newcomers quickly helped consolidate "the Barbados
aristocracy."
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 115 on planters Colleton. On the
Beckfords, see Richard Pares, Merchants and Planters.
Cambridge at the University Press, Published for the Economic
History Review, 1960.)

Notes on the genealogy of "Godschalk":

NB: Notes on the probable family background of Joas Godschalk,
"a friend of Courteen" and also a connection of Maurice
Thomson:
Godschalk, or Godschall, is a rare Huguenot name. Godschalls had
first come to southern England about 1561.Their family trade was
woolens or cloth. No family background can be found for this Joas,
who was active about 1640.
(Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 175ff, pp. 192ff.
Contributing information on the genealogy of the Godschall-Johnson
family and others as descended from Sir Thomas Warner, governor of
Antigua, or linked to other families, is found from the following
sources:
(Burke's Peerage and Baronetage for Lucas-Tooth (of Kent)
and for Payne-Galway. Burke's Landed Gentry for Bonar of
Kimmerghame; Eyre of St John's Wood, Henderson formerly of Sedgwick
Park; Thornton; Warner formerly of Framlingham. Information on the
Tooth family is found in L. M. Mowle, A Genealogical History of
Pioneer Families of Australia. Fifth edition. Sydney, Rigby,
1978; and in R. F. Holder, Bank of New South Wales: A
History. Vol. 2, 1817-1850. Sydney, Angus and Robertson, 1970.,
pp. 37-373. ADB entries various on persons named Tooth.
Other sources for Australian persons: Redcliffe. (Brisbane,
Queensland), local municipal council, booklet, Redcliffe: 160
Years. Published, 1959. A. B. Paterson, Singer of the Bush.
Works: 1885-1900. Sydney, Ure-Smith, 1991. Robert Darvall
Barton (1843-1924), noted ADB, Vol. 5, entry for J. P.
McCansh. DNB for Sir Philip Francis, possible author of
The Junius Letters. A. P. Newton, European Nations,
p. 243. On Antigua planter, Godschall Johnson (died 180) of London,
an associates of J. J. Angerstein, husband of (1) Elizabeth Hedges
and (2) Mary Francis, Close Roll, 25 Geo III, Part 10, No. 5.
Godschall-Johnson sets of fiche being copies of Wills, etc., and
other material held by family members in Sydney, Queensland, and in
Armidale NSW. R. B. Sheridan, 'Colonial Gentry of Antigua',
pp. 346ff. On Godschall-Johnson family members emigrating to
Canada: Roy St George Stubbs, Four Recorders of St Rupert's
Land. Canada, Pegus Publishers, nd?)

James Godschall (resident in England by 1560-died 1636) son of
John (Jan) Godschall (died August 1587 and of a church on
Threadneedle Street) and Margaret Unknown, had property in Essex,
some land about St Botolph without Bishopsgate (the later site of
Bedlam Hospital and also near two theatres used by Shakespeare
et al). It seems John son of Jan also once gave the crown "a
large loan".

Some descendants of John son of Jan had a house in the parish of
St Mary Abchurch in an area once burnt in the Great Fire of London.
A draper and Turkey Company merchant, John Godschall married to
Bethia Charlton, had a son John (died 1725), a Turkey merchant of
St Dunstan's in the East. John Jnr. He went to Antioch, Turkey and
Syria on family business, such as buying rugs, and had a nephew,
William Mann Godschall. (William Mann Godschall, an antiquarian and
FRS, in 1787 wrote A General Plan of Parochial and Provincial
Police, which plan was unsuccessful.)
(Joanna Innes, 'The role of transportation in seventeenth and
eighteenth century English penal practice', pp. 1-24, in Carl
Bridge (Ed.), New Perspectives in Australian History.
London, Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, Institute
of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, 1990.)

John Jnr. Son of Bethia Charlton had a brother, Nicholas (died
1748, also of St Dunstan's In the East, also in the Turkey Company.
Nicholas married in 1727 to Sarah Onley (died 1750, of an Essex
family. (See Savile-Onley, Burke's Landed Gentry. Sir Robert
Godschall (died 1741), a wine merchant, a Portugal merchant, was
son of the same Bethia Charlton and became a Lord Mayor of London
by 1741.
(Valerie Hope, Lord Mayor, p. 112.)

Robert this Lord Mayor married Catherine Tryon, and Miss Lewin,
a daughter of London Lord Mayor in 1717, Sir William Lewin. This
Lord Mayor Robert of the Ironmongers Company seems also a Tory MP,
a director of the Royal Exchange from 1729 till he died, and a
brother-in-law of Sir John Barnard. Today, the Godschall-Johnsons
have many family members in Australia and Canada, as two brothers
split the family. One brother, Sir Francis Godschall-Johnson
(1817-1894) became Chief Justice of Lower Canada; the other
brother, Ralph Edward Godschall-Johnson, (1812)-1876) went to
Australia where he became first clerk of the Queensland
Parliament.
(On Ralph Edward, son of Captain Godschall-Johnson and Lucy
Bisshopp, see a booklet, Redcliffe [Brisbane] 160 Years,
published by the Town Council of Redcliffe, 1959.)

These two brothers were sons of a minor diplomat at Antwerp,
Captain Godschall II Godschall-Johnson, 1780-1859 of Cavendish
Square. It seems a genealogical accident that before 1779, Sir
Cecil Bisshopp Bart7 (died 1779) had married Susanna Hedges (died
1791), daughter of an East India Company official, Charles Hedges
of Finchley, Middlesex.
(Sir William Hedges was governor of Bengal 1681-1684 and then
Sheriff of London, 1693-1694. GEC, Peerage, Zouche, p.
954.)

Charles Hedges had married Catherine Tate, daughter of
Bartholomew Tate. This Bartholomew Tate happened to be one of the
descendants of the Lords Zouche, a line which can be traced
(although it had fallen into abeyance) earlier than Alan Zouche
(died 1270) husband of Helen or Ellen De Quincy.
(GEC, Peerage, Zouche, variously.)

In London by the 1780s, the Godschalls, who had lost touch with
their kin in Flanders, had become intermarried with the name
Warner, which had Caribbean plantations (Antigua) and the name
Johnson.
( The descendants of Sir Thomas Warner (died 1649) the settler of
Barbados and later governor of Antigua, and some of their linkages
with the Godschall-Johnson family are given in Burke's Landed
Gentry for Bonar of Kimmerghame; Eyre formerly of St John's
Wood; Warner formerly of Framlingham; Thornton of Clapham. The
Warner plantations on Antique, inherited by Godschall-Johnson
names, were The Folly and Savannah. Newton,
Colonising Puritans, p. 27. A Warner descendant, Colonel
Ashton Henry Warner, 41st Regt., was governor of Hobart Goal.
Joanna Innes, 'The role of transportation in seventeenth and
eighteenth century English penal practice', pp. 1-24, in Carl
Bridge (Ed.), New Perspectives in Australian History.
London, Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, Institute
of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, 1990. Jan
Rogozinski, A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak
and the Carib to the Present. New York, Facts on File, c.1992.,
p. 76. R. B. Sheridan, `Colonial Gentry, Antigua', p. 346.
Newton, Colonising Puritans, p. 27. Brenner, Merchants
and Revolution, p. 184.)

It seems by then, some family members had become involved in
aspects of the slave business, possibly as dealers in slaves to the
Caribbean, or, buyers of slaves.
(Godschall Johnson died 1800 a son of John Johnson (died 1775) and
Elizabeth Ann Warner became a business associate of John Julius
Angerstein in 1793-1794 in the matter of a loan to government. This
Godschall Johnson also took the 1785 Lottery and in 1775 on his
father's death inherited estates on Antigua; he married as first
wife in 1779, Elizabeth Hodges and then in 1792, Mary Francis.)

From the 1780s, some Godschall-Johnsons lived about the present
London borough of Lewisham, and they were on intimate family terms
(in terms of god-parentage of various children) with the family of
"the father of Lloyd's of London", John Julius Angerstein of
Greenwich/Blackheath, who was a personal friend of George III), and
also the Temple family (See re Viscount Palmerston).
(On John Julius Angerstein (1735-1823): D. G. C. Allan, `The
Society of Arts and Government, 1754-1800', Eighteenth
Century Studies, Vol. 7, 1973-1974, No. 4, Summer, 1974., pp.
434-452. Kynaston, City of London, p. 2 details Angerstein's
career and early commercial connections. Also on Angerstein: The
Listener, 24 September, 1987.)

Members of the extended family Godschall-Johnson came to
Australia in two waves, with the second wave represented by the
first clerk of the Queensland Parliament.

NB: I am grateful to Trin Truscett (nee Johnson) of
Armidale, Nigel Johnson her cousin (also of Armidale), and John
Godschall Johnson of Sydney, all descendants of this far-flung
family, Godschall-Johnson, for much of the information given
above.

Maurice Thomson as trader:

Between 1640-1660 the Barbados planters switched from tobacco
and cotton to sugar, and from using white servants' labour to black
slaves.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 59.) </

1649: Russia: Recent laws fully establish serfdom in Russia, by
when serfdom has virtually disappeared from Western Europe.

1649: Little is known, but it is thought Thomas Crispe in 1649
was the chief factor on the Gold Coast for Rowland Wilson, Maurice
Thomson, John Wood and Thomas Walter, whom he called The Guinea
Company. The original site of Cape Coast Castle had been given to
the English, then taken by the Swedes, then re-taken by English
during Crispe's time on the coast. Crispe claimed he had obtained
the original site from the local natives. (Davies, RAC, pp.
40-41).

1649: Charles I of England executed after trial. See career of
Cromwell.

1649: Trial and execution of England's King Charles
I.

1649: Recent laws fully establish serfdom in Russia, by when
serfdom has virtually disappeared from Western Europe.

1650: Year tea is first drunk in England as imported from
China.
Meantime, on piracy, see George Wycherley, Buccaneers of the
Pacific: of the bold English buccaneers, pirate privateers &
gentleman adventurers, who sailed in peril through the stormy
straits or pierced the isthmus jungle, to vex the king of Spain in
the South Seas & the Western Pacific, plundering his cities
& coasts & preying on his silver fleets & his golden
galleons. London, John Long, 1929.

Further chronology notes for 1650-1675

1650-1700: Note: One of the most remarkable (and outrageous?)
books ever written about English pirates is:
B. R. Burg, Sodomy and the Pirate Tradition: English Sea Rovers
in the Seventeenth Century Caribbean. New York, New York
University Press, 1995.
See also:
W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African-American Seamen in the
Age of Sail. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,
nd-recent/1990s?.

1650s: France sets up slave depots in Senegal, at Fort St. Louis
and Goree Island.

About 1650: Olson finds, maybe later, colonial merchants
included such as Maurice Thompson who figured in the Canadian fur
trade and sent provisions to New England. Thompson was recommended
by a governor of Virginia as one of three merchants who had a
monopoly on the tobacco crop. Thompson was also said to be an
interloper in East India Company trade. Another prominent merchant
was Owen Rowe, active in Virginia trade, a leading merchant backer
of development at Massachusetts Bay, a deputy governor of the
Bermuda Company. The interlocking activities of men of the City of
London were finding their shape. (Olson, Making the Empire Work, p.
15).

By 1650-1655: Thomas Povey was beginning to wield influence over
the colonies. (About 1664-1666, the merchant and lawyer Povey was
surveyor-general of the Victualling Dept.!). Povey dealt with the
West India islands, and men such as Maurice Thompson. Martin Noell
(sic) was a friend of Povey, "a barrister of Gray's Inn and a
merchant with widespread interests, well known for exerting his
influence". His brother Richard Povey was secretary and commissary
general of Provisions at Jamaica and another brother was William
Povey, provost-marshal at Barbados. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, pp. 10-13.

Reference item: Colin Jack-Hinton, The Search For The Islands
Of Solomon, 1567-1838. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. 1969.

1650 Circa: (Olson, Making the Empire work, p.21), about
1650, Cromwell's time, merchants worked with "head of the
Admiralty", Thomas Scott, to build up the Commonwealth navy. London
coffee houses date from 1650, and a Virginia-Maryland coffee house
seems to have arisen near the Royal Exchange. About 1650, maybe
later, colonial merchants included Maurice Thompson, in Canadian
fur trade, sent provisions to New England, recommended by Gov. of
Virginia as one of three merchants re monopoly on tobacco crop, an
interloper in EICo trade, another prominent merchant was Owen Rowe,
active in Virginia trade, leader merchant backer of Massachusetts
Bay, deputy governor of Bermuda Company.

Before 1652: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.21-22), the
authority of the proprietor of the Caribbean Islands is represented
by the earl of Carlisle's lessee, Francis Lord Willoughby of
Parham... Willoughby gained his authority from Charles Prince of
Wales in 1647.

1652: Dutchmen led by Jan van Riebeeck land at what becomes Cape
Town, South Africa/Cape of Good Hope, to establish a trading station.

1653: England bore its years of interregnum under a Commonwealth
to 1653, and the Protectorate after that. In 1654, Cromwell sent
Bulstrode Whitelocke to Stockholm to look into the Baltic trades,
to stave off the influence of the Dutch, to see to the security
supply of naval stores. (Albion, Forests and Sea Power, p.
167).

1654: Cromwell draws his "Western Design", a typical English
piratical expedition into the Caribbean undertaken with blistering
(and also self-punishing) self-righteousness. By mid-1654 Cromwell
wanted to break the Spanish monopoly in the West Indies and Central
America, rationalising this as "enlarging the boundaries of
Christ's kingdom". But the enterprise was mismanaged, botched,
ill-supplied. An attack on Hispaniola failed, and although a small
colony was started on Jamaica it faltered. (John Gillingham,
Cromwell: Portrait of a Soldier. London, Weidenfeld and
Nicolson. 1976., p. 135).

1654, Anglo-Spanish War.

1648-1654: The fall of Luanda to the Portuguese and the loss of
New Holland in 1654 lead the Dutch to establish Curacao as a slave
depot - quite a successful one. Goslinga says that Spanish
officials, aware of the value of slaves to sugar production, are
quite willing to accept bribes from foreigners in matters of slave
handling. Before the Grillo-Lomelino asiento, there had been
no official asiento granted for some time by the Spanish.
Grillo-Lomelino intended to rely mostly on English and Dutch
suppliers of slaves. Which meant, the Dutch West India Company is
involved. (Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, p. 353.) - Asiento
chronology -

1654+: The brother-in-law of William Courteen was the Earl of
Bridgewater. Bridgewater had taken on Courteen's debts after
Courteen had bankrupted due to his speculations with the Dutch East
India Company. Courteen had come to the attention of Oliver
Cromwell after 1654, and it seems Cromwell tried to smooth things
over regarding unstated problems with Bridgewater's estates -
problems which were probably also linked to the Courteen debts.
Charles had been indebted to Courteens but the Courteens' affairs
in all are too-little discussed. (Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our
Chief Of Men. London. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1973., p.
491).

1655, English conquer Jamaica.

1655: Stuart kings and DC's ancestors, In 1655, Jamaica was
captured by the English Admiral William Penn and Robert Venables,
and in 1670 was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of
Madrid.

1655++: Sir James Modyford: Sir James Modyford (died 13 January
1675 at St. Andrews, Jamaica). Lt-Gov of Jamaica. He was married to
Elizabeth Slanning, sole heir of Sir Nicholas Slanning, Knight, of
Maristow in Devon; they had four daughters. Modyford by about 1655
was licenced to take circuit-convicted felons and those from the
Old Bailey, who were to be reprieved to transportation to Jamaica.
Modyford had been a celebrated cavalier commander in the Civil War.
His estate went to a daughter, Grace, who married Peter Heywood;
then to their grandson and heir, James Modyford Heywood, who died
in 1798. [It is not impossible this Heywood was an early member of
the family line of Peter Heywood, the Bounty mutineer]. Modyford
brought settlers from Barbados to Jamaica after the success of
Cromwell's Western Design (from 1654). His influence as a leader on
Jamaica was significant and he therefore influenced some merchant
activity.

1655: From 1655 after England acquired Jamaica, reports flooded
back to England of suffering on the island. Cromwell considered
sending Irish youngsters, or Highlanders, but he was warned such
Scots might incite the island to rebellion. Soon Cromwell forced to
suggest 1000 Irish boys and girls be rounded up to fill the empty
island; no evidence this transportation actually occurred. Spanish
king furious about the English "rape" of Jamaica, Notes from
Antonia Fraser, Cromwell. Cromwell died 3 Sept., 1658.

1655: King granted a licence to Sir James Modyford to take all
felons convicted on circuits and at the Old Bailey, then reprieved,
to Jamaica.

1655: In 1655, Jamaica was captured by the English Admiral
William Penn and Robert Venables, and in 1670 was formally ceded to
Great Britain by the Treaty of Madrid. (Sir George Clark, The
Later Stuarts, 1660-1714. Oxford History of England. Vol. 10.
OUP. 1965., p. 340).

1655: In 1660, the most influential element in the West India
interest were the merchants [whom Penson does not name] whose rise
to power had been mainly caused by the share they took in the
Cromwell western expedition of 1655. (Writes Penson, Colonial
Agents, p.45.) Noell's interest declined. Povey's schemes
disappeared with the decline of the Willoughby interest.

1655: Meanwhile, from 1655 (Eric Williams, p. 101, p. 114)
Cromwell was to get rid of many inconvenient people by sending them
to the West Indies. (England captured Jamaica in 1655). Cromwell
sent 7000-8000 Scots from the 1651 Battle of Worcester to British
plantations in the colonies. Cromwell's men voted in 1656 to send
2000 Irish men and girls to Jamaica, and in 1656 Cromwell ordered
the Scottish government "to apprehend known idle, masterless
robbers and vagabonds" for Jamaica. But there is no evidence the
Irish transportation was actually conducted.

After 1655: (As in Penson, Colonial Agents, p.24,
Cromwell's military governor on Jamaica was Colonel D'Oyley.

1656++: On Thomas Povey: Thomas Povey, lawyer, became a West
Indian merchant. I have no information on his parentage. Newton
mentions the "overtures" of Noell and Povey in 1656-1657, who were
part of an important group of London merchants who advised
Cromwell. Their ideas led to the first beginnings of a definite
foreign colonial policy, and to the formation of a Select Committee
for Trade and Foreign Plantations. Povey had wanted to form a
privateering West India Company. About 1664-1666, Povey was
surveyor-general of the Victualling Dept. Penson sees Povey as a
Carlisle place man, a barrister of Gray's Inn. Povey's brother
Richard was on Jamaica and another brother, William, worked on
Barbados. Povey was friends with Maurice Thompson, Martin Noell,
and Colonel James Drax of the Caribbean. Richard Povey was active
about 1664. He became a Jamaica agent.
He may have been the Povey named as secretary for Jamaica mentioned
in Frederick G. Spurling, Early West India Government: showing
the progress of Government in Barbados, Jamaica and the Leeward
Islands, 1660-1783. Palmerston, North New Zealand, self pub.
nd.

William Povey, Provost Marshall of Barbados, brother of Thomas,
was active by about 1664. Charles Povey's name is noted in respect
of insurance in London; he was active by 1710. He was a
wheeler-dealer, an inveterate entrepreneur, a dealer in property
and newspapers. Povey founded the Sun insurance company. He
probably had association with one Nicholas Barbon.

Povey: Sources: P. G. M. Dickson, The Sun Insurance Office,
1710-1960. London, 1960. Clive Trebilcock, Phoenix Assurance
and the development of British Insurance. Vol. 1, 1782-1870.
London, Cambridge University Press, 1985., p. 7. There is much
information on Poveys and others of that generation in Pares,
Merchants and Planters. Arthur Percival Newton, The
Colonising Activities of the English Puritans: the last phase of
the Elizabethan struggle with Spain. New Edition. Port
Washington, New York, 1966., p. p. 101, p. 325; Brenner on Maurice
Thomson. Burke's Extinct Baronetcies, p. 70 in the section
for Bond of Peckham.
Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman
Conquest. Vol. 5. Bath, England, Cedric Chivers Ltd., 1972.,
notes that one Thomas Povey was Mayor of Bristol in 1612 as Anne
(of Denmark) visited that city. Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our
Chief of Men. London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973., p. 534;
K. G. Davies, Royal African Company, index. Maurice Thomson,
Noel and others are mentioned in Shafaat Ahmad Khan, The East
India Trade in the Seventeenth Century, in its Political and
Economic Aspects. New Delhi, S. Chand and Co., 1971?.

1656: A list of planter names now on Jamaica or Barbados, and/or
their backers, includes: the Earl Carlisle, James earl Marlborough
an early grantee, Lord Willoughby. By 1658 Sir James Modyford
(formerly in Charles' army) led anti-Carlisle Barbados factions.
Modyford's ally was Peter Watson. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 15).
Colonel Colleton (of a family early on Barbados) was a relative of
Modyford suspended by a Barbados governor Daniel Searle (It remains
uncertain who were Courteen supporters here? Courteen had a
vigourous now). Power would go to General Monk when Cromwell died.
Monk relatives included Modyford and Colleton, plus friends Peter
Watson, Sir James Drax, Thos. Kendall, Jonathan Andrews, Tobias
Frere, Edward Walrond. By 1759. Col. James Russell was governor of
Nevis. Some of the Willoughby faction were Povey and Noell.
Interested and anti-Willoughby was Kendall. The Royalist factions
won some battles and Willoughby appointed Humphrey Walrond. One
Capt. Lynch by 1673 became governor Jamaica, but he would be
supplanted by Modyford. (A statesmen Sir William Morice was a
kinsman of Monck).

1657: Governor Edward D'Oyley, Jamaica, in 1657 invited English
buccaneers to Tortuga to transfer their headquarters to Jamaica. By
the mid-1660s, a freebooting fleet manned by 1500 men operated from
the new town of Port Royal, which, a mark of the decadence of the
purposes preoccupying its residents, had no fresh water supply.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 24).

14 January 1657: Governor of English East India Company William
Cockayne calls a conference on state of the Company, news is not
good, and disaster is averted only since Cromwell and his men
decide the Company needs to survive, be reordered more
consistently, and be properly revived.

1658: Cromwell died on September 3, 1658, when the governor of
St. Christopher was Capt. Philip Ward. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 25). Power fell into the hands of George Monck,
leader of the forces occupying Scotland. In England arose strong
reaction against Puritan supremacy, and when Monck got to London,
opinion had already crystallised for recalling an exiled king.

1660: A noted Barbadian was Capt. John Bayes, once treasurer on
Barbados; he had been about the island since 1653. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, p. 15.

1660, July 16: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.27-28,
authorities in London wanted instatement of Col. Modyford at
Barbados, Modyford's friends in London wanting this outcome,
friends here led by John Colleton and aided by favour of General
Monk, both of whom were relatives of Modyford. The group of friends
appears to have been Peter Watson, John Colleton, [Sir] James Drax,
Thomas Kendall, Jonathan Andrews, Tobias Frere, Edward Walrond
(sic), all concerned re their tenures re Lord Willoughby. all this
group would later to 1671 dominate the actions of any agent for
Barbados.

30 August, 1660: Dispute over Barbados continues, a committee
had backed a decision of the king, as some rival claimants
appeared, the heir of the earl of Carlisle and the representative
of an earlier grant, James, Earl of Marlborough, and so Kendall,
Colleton et al had again to press their case for a royal government
of Barbados. [it seems, versus a [proprietary right].
Sept 1660: seemingly resolving the Barbados dispute, in Penson,
Colonial Agents, p.31, Lord Willoughby with royal authorization
designated Humphrey Walrond as present of council on Barbados,
Modyford demurred but gave in, though he then led the opposition on
the island over 1661.

1660: The commissioners of Treasury included Sir Edward Hyde,
George Monck later duke of Albemarle, Sir William Morice. 1660 -
England now with a base in the Caribbean - Jamaica - and Barbados,
wanted goods from the west, logwood for dyeing, from an area with
no fixed government, in the Bay of Honduras and on the Mosquito
Coast. The Spanish held St. Eustatius about now as an entrepot.
From Barbados came General Christopher Codrington, born in Barbados
and succeeding his father as governor there. (Clark, The Later
Stuarts, p. 325, p. 348).

December 1660: In London, some members of the Council for
Foreign Plantations include Secs of State, others of Privy Council,
some experts, Lord Willoughby, Earl of Marlborough, some west
Indian planters and merchants, Sir Peter Leare, Sir Andrew Riccard,
Sir James Drax, Thomas Povey, John Colleton [relative of Modyford],
Edward Walrond, Martin Noell, Thomas Kendall, Thomas Middleton,
William Watts. all worked together for five years with the board.
Povey seems to have been linked to some letters to Virginia and New
England. He maybe wanted to become agent all round. Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 34-35-37.) Earlier, Povey been more or
less recommended by Willoughby to governors of Montserrat and
Nevis, Col. Osborne and Col. Russell respectively, on concerns of
the islands. By about 1663, Colonel Philip Froude was sec of the
council for Foreign Plantations and he had support of Modyford's
party, and Lord Bartlet and others, re the antagonist Povey.

1660: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 26-27), July 9, 1660,
Lord Willoughby was directed by the king to take up as governor of
Barbados and other Caribbee islands, re his position as lessee of
the Earl of Carlisle's rights, whereupon interested persons in
London protested, and in July and August 1660, one protestor was
the son of the first settler of Barbados, Sir William Courteen.
Another protestor a Mr. Kendall. They had to go to law, as the
decision was for Willoughby.

1660s: One reason for a sugar island to be dependent on food
from Britain, Ireland and North America, was the price of sugar,
the cost of land and profit from it. (Dunn, Sugar and
Slaves, p. 206). Between 1660 and 1685 (reign of Charles II,
the king generally received more from each pound of Virginian
imported leaf that the planter! With the Restoration, the East
India Company directors gave gifts of their loyalty, and the king
gave them a favourable charter and accepted loans over 16 years of
£170,000. (Mukherjee, p. 75).

By 1660: England with base in Caribbean with Jamaica, also in
Barbados, and in west, England too logwood for dyeing, with no
fixed government, in Bay of Honduras and Mosquito Coast. Spanish
held St. Eustatius about now as an entrepot. Clark, Later
Stuarts, p. 325.)

1660, 9 July: Lord Willoughby was directed by the king to take
up as governor of Barbados and other Caribbean islands, respecting
his position as lessee of the Earl of Carlisle's rights. Whereupon
interested persons in London protested and in July and August 1660,
one protestor was the son of the first settler of Barbados, Sir
William Courteen. Another protestor was Mr. Kendall. They had to
resort to law as the decision was for Willoughby. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 26-27).

1660: 16 July: Certain authorities in London wanted the
instatement of Modyford at Barbados. Modyford's friends in London
also wanted this outcome, a coalition led by John Colleton and
aided by favour of General Monk, both of whom were relatives of
Modyford. The group of friends appears to have included Peter
Watson, John Colleton, [Sir] James Drax, Thomas Kendall, Jonathan
Andrews, Tobias Frere, Edward Walrond (sic), all here apparently
concerned about their tenures with Lord Willoughby. To 1671, all
this group would later dominate the actions of any agent for
Barbados. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 27-28).

1660 - 30 August: Dispute over Barbados continued. A committee
had backed a decision of the king as rival claimants had appeared,
the heir of the earl of Carlisle and the representative of an
earlier grant, James, Earl of Marlborough. And so Kendall, Colleton
et al had again to press their case for a royal government
of Barbados.

1660: September: Seemingly resolving the Barbados dispute, Lord
Willoughby with royal authorization designated Humphrey Walrond as
present of the council on Barbados, Modyford demurred but gave in,
though he then led the opposition on the island during 1661.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 31).

1660: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.26-27, July 9, 1660,
Lord Willoughby was directed by the king to take up as governor of
Barbados and other Caribbee islands, re his position as lessee of
the Earl of Carlisle's rights, whereupon interested persons in
London protested, and in July and August 1660, one protestor was
the son of Sir William Courteen, the first settler of Barbados.
Another protestor a Mr. Kendall. They had to go to law, as the
decision was for Willoughby.

1660: By 1660, "the most influential element in the West India
interest" were the merchants [whom Penson does not name] whose rise
to power had been mainly caused by the share they took in the
Cromwell western expedition of 1655. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 45). Noell's interest declined. Povey's schemes
disappeared with the decline of the Willoughby interest. But none
of this is adequately explained.

1660: 28 November: Two members of the army on Jamaica were Capts
Thomas Lynch (later the governor of Jamaica by 1673, and Epinetus
(sic) Crosse (sic). With the Restoration, both had returned to
London on their own concerns and regarding general business of the
island. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 18).

1661, June: Jeremy Bonnel and Co. of London petitioned the King
to have delivery of prisoners to ship to Jamaica on their ship
Charity. Bureaucracy ruined the overtures, but more pardons were
issued on conditions of transportation, whereupon the sheriffs of
London complained of the costs of keeping reprieved prisoners. (But
the City could reimburse itself by selling its felons!). (Coldham,
Emigrants in Chains, pp. 50-51.)

1661: June: Povey's old friend William Watts was in command of
government of St. Christopher, while Povey's brother Richard was on
Jamaica where the new governor was Lord Windsor. Povey's
pro-Willoughby influence abated from 1663 as the ruling party on
Barbados remained anti-Willoughby. About 1664-1666, Povey was
surveyor-general of the victualling dept. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, pp. 35-38).

1661: September 25: The naval administrator Samuel Pepys noted
in his diary the first time he ever drank tea. (Misra, p. 21).
(Joseph M. Walsh, Tea: its history and mystery.
Philadelphia, Coates and Co., 1892.

1661: Discussions ensued on the Carlisle patent respecting
Barbados. Francis Lord Willoughby, (who had a brother William Lord
Willoughby) referred to the actions of a group of planters and
merchants in London who "resisted the imposition of proprietary
government" for [their own] private ends. By 1667 these were
thought to include Peter Colleton, Peter Leare, Mr. Ferdinando
George [Gorges?]. These were all absentee planters continuing the
work of Kendall and Colleton, working against the development of an
agency by Povey. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 40-41).

1661: 29 March: Walrond on Barbados decided Kendall and Colleton
were really working for the reinstatement of Modyford on Barbados.
Willoughby sailed to Barbados by 1663 and there found considerable
intrigues. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 32-33).

1661: A Scots Council of Trade had formed during the interregnum
of 1661-1685. Scots merchants began trading to North America,
despite English provisions against such activity.

1661: Bank of Stockholm issues world's first
banknotes.

1662: And later. On the development of the joint-stock company
in England, (Davies, Early Stuarts, pp. 24ff). (K. G.
Davies, RAC, pp. 22ff, p. 32), lists joint-stock companies
such as Muscovy, Mines Royal, Mineral and Battery Co., Levant Co.,
East India Co., New River Company (half of its capital belonged to
the crown), Royal Fishery (interesting the Duke of Monmouth;
Charles II invested 9000 pounds in the RF), Royal Adventurers,
Royal African Co., Hudson's Bay Company, Bank of England.

1662: In 1662 the Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa had one
prime purpose, to oust the Dutch in the slave trade. It was the
third English-Africa Company, and it took over an East India
Company factory, Cape Coast Castle, a few miles east of a Dutch
station, Elmina, on the Gold Coast. Prince Rupert maintained an
interest as a shareholder. The Duke of York invested with the
Hudson's Bay Company. By 1663 there appeared the Company of Royal
Adventurers of England Trading to Africa, which in 1663 told
Charles II, the very being of the plantations depended on the
supply of Negro slaves. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 332).
(Eric Williams, pp. 136-137)

1662: In 1662, prior to the granting of an asiento to
Domingo Grillo and Amrosio Lomelino (who were Genoese), future
profits for slave trading promise to be large. Spain in 1662 makes
an asiento with Grillo-Lomelino, for 24,000 Negroes in seven
years and they would obtain slaves from Dutch West India Company
and the English Royal African Company, and resell them. They put an
agent on Curacao. This time around, Spain had varied its practice,
as Grillo-Lomelino had won an exclusive right to procure and sell
slaves in the Spanish colonies in America. Spanish colonists are
appalled at the arrangements and prices charged for slaves and
protest to their government, which tries to convince
Grillo-Lomelino to obtain slaves direct from Africa. They refused.
In 1668, though Grillo-Lomelino were becoming insolvent, they
contracted to supply 3500 slaves annually to the Caribbean,
subcontracting with the Dutch West India Co. for the delivery of
2000. (Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, pp. 353-362.) - Asiento
chronology -

1662: Dutch are driven from Taiwan (called Formosa by the
Portuguese, meaning "beautiful").

1663: Sir George Smith of EICo instrumental in interest in tea
import to London, with Henry Page at Bantam consigning tea to Smith
in ship London by 1663. (See Sir Percival Griffiths, The
History of the Indian Tea Industry. London, Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1967., p. 17)

1663: In 1662, Charles II married the Portuguese princess
Catherine of Braganza, who was very fond of tea. Sir George Smith
of the East India Company had been instrumental in promoting tea
import to London; Henry Page at Bantam was consigning tea to Smith
in the ship London by 1663. (Sir Percival Griffiths, Indian Tea
Industry, p. 17).

1663: About 1663, England acquires New York and New Jersey.

1633: In 1663, with formation of Royal Africa Co., e.g. Prince
Rupert a shareholder, and Duke of York invests with Hudson's Bay
Co.

1663: An Anglo-Dutch War. Capt. Robert Holmes (who ended in
causing a war that changed the history of the Caribbean! So who
sent him?) spent the 1663-1664 winter on the west coast of Africa
in winter with a squadron to support the Royal Africa Company
against Dutch encroachments. Holmes took the island of Goree, north
of the Gambia River and Cape Coast Castle on the Gulf of Guinea,
the Gold Coast. Other Anglo-Dutch conflict began elsewhere. the war
lasted 30 months (as in London the Great Plague raged, the worst
since the Black Death of 1348, almost 7000 deaths in one week).
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 63).

1664: England: A mere two pounds and two ounces of tea are
imported from China. (Frank Welsh, A History of Hong
Kong.)

1664: English capture New Amsterdam (New York).
1664: One summer's day, "four English frigates swoop on New
Amsterdam to change it to New York".

1664: Thailand: Dutch force king of Thailand to give them
monopoly of deerskin exports and seaborne trade with China.

The end of 1664: The Dutch admiral de Ruyter with 12 ships
recaptured African possessions - a battle fleet under the Duke of
York and Prince Rupert made prizes of Dutch ships in the Channel.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 65).

1664: Holmes established Fort James up the Gambia River. (Clark,
Later Stuarts, pp. 332ff).

1664: Formation of a French East India Company, wishing to take
what the Dutch had not yet taken. (Glen Barclay, A History of
the Pacific: From the Stone Age to the present day. London,
Sidgwick and Jackson, 1978., p. 38).

1664: The name John Colleton reappears. In 1664 - Charles II
granted a licence to Sir James Modyford to take to Jamaica all
felons convicted on circuits and at the Old Bailey, then reprieved.
(Oldham, p. 5).

1664: Holmes established Fort James up the Gambia River for the
English. Clark/Oxford p332ff, In 1664 Capt. Holme's expedition
founded Fort James about 20 miles up the Gambia River, after
cleaning out the Dutch, as a new base for British operations. There
followed a confusing series of British-Dutch capture and
recapture.

1664: Modyford, "a planter become a governor" as he boasted, was
removed from Barbados to Jamaica, but this did not destroy the
anti-Willoughby faction on Barbados that Modyford had built up to
hinder first Searle, then Willoughby. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 39). Modyford shortly laid down on Jamaica an evil
document, the Barbados slave code, which was later exported to
Carolina and Virginia in North America.

1664: English capture New Amsterdam (New York).

1664: November. Charles II told the sheriffs that Sir James
Modyford would ship felons to his brother on Jamaica. But in 1665,
a similar licence was given Thomas Bennet, and in 1668, Peter Pate
was given an exclusive trade in Newgate convicts. Till 1707, the
London officials had to play round robin to find which colonies
found transported prisoners most acceptable, for which reasons, or
not, for which excuses.

1664: England: A mere two pounds and two ounces of tea are
imported from China. (Frank Welsh, A History of Hong
Kong.)

1665: Newton "discovers" gravity.

1665: Second Anglo-Dutch War.

1665: A "purely commercial" Anglo-Dutch war began, stemmed again
from conflict on the African west coast, Capt. Robert Holmes took
Goree north of the Gambia River, and Cape Coast Castle on Gulf of
Guinea. Capt. Nicolls meanwhile took the New Netherlands (New York)
from Gov. Peter Stuyvesant. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 63).
The name Carteret would reappear. In 1643 the New Englanders had
helped form the New England confederation, for defense. A staple
trade item was fur. In 1664 came a new effort to subdue New
Netherland, as it was encroaching on English holdings. So Charles
II decided to grant the area to his brother James Duke of York, as
a proprietary province. James' deputy was Richard Nicholls who
sailed for New Netherland from Boston. The Dutch governor Peter
Stuyvesant surrendered in Sept 1664, the colony was renamed New
York. Part of the New York territory included what would become New
Jersey. The Duke of York here favoured his friends Lord John
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, two defenders of the Stuarts
during the Puritan Cromwell period. In 1665 these proprietors
established a government for the area, but New York protested as
this clashed with their own interests. (Finns and Swedes were then
on the Delaware River). In 1674 Lord Berkeley sold his New Jersey
interests to two Quakers, John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge. and
these Quakers used trustees including William Penn. (Ver Steeg,
The Formative Years, pp. 115-116).

Sept 1665, another pro-Willoughby agent in the wings was John
Champante, a clerk in the Grand Excise office. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p.38,

1665: The Dutch attacked Barbados. Gov. Lord Willoughby perished
in a hurricane that took his fleet and England no choice but to
base defence on the very buccaneers they'd earlier been trying to
suppress. England gained St. Eustatius, and Tobago. There followed
the Peace of Breda in 1667. England regained Nova Scotia, the Dutch
never recovered their dominant position in West Indian trade.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 327). At this time, the
commentator on Mercantilism, merchant-cum-political scientist
Josiah Child, dominated the East India Company. There was later a
firm, Coutts and Child. Sir Josiah Child as political economist
helped develop the outlook of Mercantilism.

1665 - With the connivance of the governor of Jamaica, three
British captains including Henry Morgan made their way upriver and
sacked Granada, capital of Nicaragua. Other parties later pillaged
the Pacific coast. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 328).

1665: The Dutch come to Ceylon, British power showed in 1796 and
complete British control by 1817.

1665: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 63), a purely commercial
war Anglo Dutch, stemmed from conflict on African west coast, Capt.
Robert Holmes aggressive there winter of 1663-1664, he took Goree
north of Gambia River and Cape Coast Castle on Gulf of Guinea - and
Capt. Nicolls took the New Netherlands.

From 1665-1671: Gov. Modyford of Jamaica sending out Henry
Morgan as pirate, and finally after 1671, Charles II thought it had
gone too far and recalled Modyford and set to suppress the
buccaneers. (Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p 156), the Gov. after
Modyford, is Lynch, a planter man who wished to dispense with the
buccaneers.

1665-1670: Charles II made attempts to obtain the contract for
the supply of slaves to the Spanish, the Asiento, which was
not granted to Britain till the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. (Clark,
Later Stuarts, p. 328).

1665: The plague of 1665 took 100,000 Londoners, spreading from
St. Giles and Drury Lane, to the City, then Stepney, Rotherhithe
and Deptford, until 4-5000 deaths occurred per week. The distress
lasted in all from summer 1664 to the Great Fire. (Burke,
Streets of London, p. 38).
1665: The plague of 1665 took 100,000 Londoners, spreading from St.
Giles and Drury Lane, to the City, then Stepney, Rotherhithe and
Deptford, until 4-5000 deaths occurred per week. The plague lasted
in all from summer 1664 to the Great Fire. Pro-Catholic Stuart
kings remained hateful of the Protestant Dutch, there was fighting
over supplying slaves to Catholic Spain. Further commerce was being
designed. 1665 - A purely commercial Anglo Dutch war occurred,
stemmed from conflict on the African west coast, where Capt. Robert
Holmes remained aggressive over the winter of 1663-1664; he took
Goree north of the Gambia River and Cape Coast Castle (Crispe's
earlier creation) on the Gulf of Guinea. Capt. Nicolls took the New
Netherlands (New York?) Burke, Streets of London, p. 38).
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 63).

1665-1671: Gov. Modyford of Jamaica began sending out Henry
Morgan as pirate till finally, after 1671, Charles II thought it
had gone too far and recalled Modyford and set to suppress the
buccaneers. (Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 156). The governor
replacing Modyford, Lynch, a planter man, wished to dispense with
the buccaneers.

1666: Sept.: The Great Fire of London, an accidental fire on
London Bridge, in four days 13,000 houses destroyed, plus larger
buildings in between, value of property was 7-10 million pounds, no
insurance as fire insurance a thing of the future, and in the
country, riots due to unemployment and high taxation. There were
many disasters, but Britain did gain New Amsterdam, New York.
1666: September. The Great Fire of London. Hillaby writes of "the
blitzed but still glorious shell of St.-Dunstan-in-the-East, near
Love Lane and St. Clements. The Great Fire of London started in a
bake house about Monument Street and Pudding Lane, taking a day and
a half to really take hold. Pepys had buried his valuables in the
garden of his house in Seething Lane. The king had given permission
to tear down houses to deprive the moving fire of fuel. The fire
raged for five days, taking 436 acres, about 13,000 houses and 89
churches. (Hillaby's London, pp. 86-87).

1667: Josiah Child dominates EICo, about time of Treaty of Breda
ending Dutch War in 1667.

1667: Sir Peter Colleton had visited Barbados, then returned to
London with a petition to the king respecting a risk of war with
France. Barbados' governor then was Sir Jonathan Atkins. Disputes
arose over island defence. Barbados agents became Colleton and the
pro-Modyford, anti-Willoughby Colonel Henry Drax died 1683.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 54-56).

1667-1668: William Lord Willoughby had sailed to the Leeward
Islands. On his return to London he was granted a renewal of his
commission as governor of all the Caribbean Islands. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, p. 43).

1667-1669: Act 18 Car II c. 3 empowered judges to exile for life
the border brigands of Northumberland and Cumberland to any of the
American colonies. This act expired in 1673.

18 April, 1667: Holland and England: Treaty of Breda. The
small Island of Run of the spice islands, Indonesia, source of
nutmeg, is swapped for Manhattan. Manhattan later becomes a giant
city, New York, and Run is forgotten, drops off maps, and is not
noticed again until Giles Milton writes Nathaniel's
Nutmeg.
(Giles Milton, Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Penguin Books, 1999/2000,
p. 364.)

1668: An advance in the art of economic reasoning, England
begins to collect statistics.

1668: A new council of trade was established. In 1670 a council
for the colonies was established, which in 1672 became a council
for trade and plantations, with its secretary after 1673 John
Locke. This body advised the Privy Council on co-ordinating policy,
but the innovation was dropped by 1675, till Parliament grew
dissatisfied.

From 1669: The Scots name Campbell begins to appear on Barbados,
in parishes such as St. Michael, St. Philip, St. Lucy, St. Peter in
1780, St. Joseph, Christ Church; in 1675 at Christ Church Barbados.
In 1677 a Susan Campbell lived on Barbados. Culpeper and Campbell
married in June 1774 at St. John. In 1664 was mentioned Mary
Campbell at St. John. Campbell married Jordan at St. Lucy in 1763.
Campbell and Armstrong were linked by 4 March, 1753. The names
Campbell and Joseph Nurse were linked at St. John's. (IGI). After
1672 the name Nurse appeared as a dealer with the Royal African
Company.

1669: Turks conquer Crete.

1670: After 1670: The Bahamas became subject of a grant to
certain of the proprietors to whom the province of Carolina was
also granted in 1670. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 99-103;
citing CSP iii, No. 311, pp. 132-133, November 1, 1670).

1670: In 1670, due to the Grillo-Lomelino insolvency, the
Spanish asiento goes to a Portuguese, Antonio Garcia, for
five years, with 4000 slaves supplied each year, he to get his
slaves from the Portuguese-controlled areas of Africa. But Garcia
buys his slaves from the Dutch WIC at Curacao. Garcia temporarily
loses his business to the resurging Grillo-Lomelino team, but
regains it two years later, and continues buying from the Dutch.
(It is even possible, says Goslinga, p. 362, that Dutch capital had
been involved earlier re the Garcia asiento of 1675, and so
the Dutch interest won out internationally in the slave trade.) At
one time, Grillo-Lomelino had placed several thousand guilders in
trust at Willemstad on the island of Curacao. Goslinga writes that
during the Garcia concession, two Amsterdam merchants, Balthasar
and Joseph Cooymans acted as bankers and representatives of the
asiento for Garcia. Later, Balthasar Cooymans got the
asiento for himself. Goslinga does not elaborate on a later
Balthasar Cooymans asiento, except to say that it was
"colourful". (Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, pp. 353-362.) -
Asiento chronology -

1670: Incorporation of the Hudson's Bay Company. Notions
persisted of finding the fabled north-west passage, but most
activity was engaged in the fur trade. (Clark, Later
Stuarts, p. 340).

1670 - The Spanish entreated England to try to discipline the
buccaneers. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 328). Over the winter
of 1670-1671, Apt Morgan with 1800 men again took Granada, Porto
Bello and Providence Island, then went across the Isthmus and took
Panama, Old Panama was never rebuilt, the Spanish were never
recompensed for their losses. Morgan was later knighted and became
Lt.-governor of Jamaica.

After 1670: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 99-103), the
Bahamas were subject of a grant to certain of the proprietors also
to whom the province of Carolina was granted in 1670, [citing CSP
iii, No. 311, pp. 132-133, Nov 1, 1670 -

1670: After 1670: In London, wealthy West Indian planters began
to meet at a tavern, and by 1674 had come into existence the
Jamaican Coffee House, and so was aided the institutionalisation of
West India absentee landlordism.

1670: Sir Thomas Modyford says in 1670 the council and assembly
of Jamaica is modelled on the high court of Parliament. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 4-5, and Modyford led the factions of
Barbados, when Daniel Searle the official governor of Barbados for
the Commonwealth. and in 1658, Searle suspended from judicial duty
a relative of Modyford, Colonel Colleton, member of a family on
Barbados quite early. p . 15. [So, is Colleton maybe a Courteen
supporter?]

1670 - In dealing with the French regarding Barbados, Willoughby
found support from some of the Barbados planters and merchants in
England such as Sir Peter Colleton and Edward Drax. But a Leeward
Islands interest triumphed. For whatever reason, in January
1670/71, Sir Charles Wheeler was appointed first governor-general
of the Leeward Islands. He was succeeded by Sir William Stapleton,
in office till 1685, "a man of powerful personality". (Penson,
Colonial Agents, p. 430.)

By 1670: In need of supplies, Charles II proposed to lay a tax
on commodities including sugar. William Lord Willoughby in England
still, dealing with Champante, also less so with Povey, processed
claims put forward by the Leeward Islands. He also wanted grant of
the petitions given him by the Barbados assembly in 1668.
Willoughby had little success, so in 1670 the assembly wrote to
both Willoughby and London merchants, as Modyford had earlier done,
in November 1670. Various merchant and planters remained worried
about taxes and regulations, and they wanted agents in London to
see to their affairs, the agents to be responsible not to London
but to the island assembly, which was regarded as an innovation.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 46-49ff).

1670: Sir Thomas Modyford says in 1670 the council and assembly
of Jamaica is modelled on the high court of Parliament. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 4-5, and Modyford led the factions of
Barbados, when Daniel Searle the official governor of Barbados for
the Commonwealth.

1671: London's sugar refiners had been intriguing regarding
import duty on sugars from Barbados. The New England traders were
at this time evading the Navigation Laws, trading for example with
the French sugar islands. The Royal Africa Company as a supplier of
slaves remained worrying due to its "narrow interests". (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 116-119).

Jan-Feb 1671: A former Barbados colonist, Col. Edward Thornburgh
(a crony of Povey) was being considered for attending to the
affairs of Barbados by the assembly there, but letters were
crossing in the mail. Ferdinando Gorges for a time was rival to
Thornburgh, who obtained the position, only to be replaced by
Thomas Hinchman. By 1672, Willoughby decided to leave everything to
the planters, who were divided over Hinchman. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, pp. 51-53, p. 116).

1672: By 1672 there were 70 sugar works on Jamaica (which is
total of 3,840,000 acres), in 1752, only 2,133,336 acres
cultivable, and in 1752, cultivable land measured at 633,336 acres
- in 1754 there were 1620 planters with an average holding of 1000
acres, and much land not used for sugar was left idle, despite the
island's potential for greater self-sufficiency in food production
and urgings it become more diversified in production, and also - to
keep production down propped up the price, and Eric Williams (p.
127) says Jamaica could easily have had three times the number of
sugar plantations it did have), producing 760 tons of sugar,
200,000 acres had been granted to 717 families, about 280 acres per
family. Sugar islands became increasingly parochial in outlook, was
this due to monoculturalism? (Eric Williams, pp. 114-115.)
Cultivating one acre of cane in the WI required [about] 172 days of
human labour.

1672: British Royal African Co. formed in 1672 with a
monopoly.

1672: Royal African Co. founded in 1672, then its monopoly from
1689 was broken by private traders, by 1712 the private traders
gave the Co. a 10 per cent commission, to fund operation of the
forts, from 1712, the British slave trade became free, after 1712
the Co. itself made only insignificant supply of slaves. this is
how Bristol and Liverpool became ports so dependent on slavery,
especially Liverpool.

1672: The African Adventurers Company had been ruined by its
losses. After 1672 it was replaced by the Royal Africa Company,
which ambitiously set up six forts on the Gold Coast and one on the
slave coast, while the French built north of the Gambia in
Senegal.

1672: The Treaty of Dover.

1672: England: The Cabal's public finances had been disastrous.
By 1672 the government owed two millions, one million to bankers to
whom government stopped paying interest. "Five considerable
bankruptcies" resulted. The king began to sell fee-farm-rents. In
1672, Clifford became treasurer, soon succeeded by Danby till 1679
(Danby who relied on the advice of Sir William Temple had wanted to
plan the marriage of William and Mary. Thomas Osborne or Danby was
related to Lady Temple.

1672: Charles II of England charters the slave-gathering
Royal Africa Company. Among the subscribers are 15 Lords of
the realm and the "philosopher of Liberty", John Locke.

1672: Outbreak of Dutch War. Also in 1672, France founds port of
Pondicherry in India.

About 1673: The English crown attempts unsuccessfully to install
Lord Culpeper and Lord Arlington as significant new landlords in
Virginia. (Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, p. 136).

1673: Governor of Jamaica is Sir Thomas Lynch, who tries and
fails to have an assembly formed.

1673: French build Kuthi at Chandannagar. French take over
Pondicherry.

1674 Circa: Names of interest on roads out from Barbados
Bridgetown by Carlisle Bay, in no particular order, (From Dunn,
Sugar and Slaves, p. 94, from a Barbados map dated about 1674.
Hawley, Scot(t) Sherland, Eyton, Carter, Kisbrook, Peat, Clements,
Morris, Child, Young, Codrington Jnr, Turton, Cecill, Elegant,
Newbold and Prideaux, Willoughby, Cole and Mellors, Gregory and
Prideaux, Ridgway, Pellard, Osborn, Robinson, Witham and Green,
Wolverston, Bulklay, Sutton Snr, Kandye, Perkins, Davis, Pointz,
Morgan, Silvester, Stroud, Finchbrok; Neal, Bright and Salter,
Newell and Guy, Gayton (maybe links to the Gaytons who relatives of
Arthur Phillip?), Bu Lett, Barnes, Marcell and Claypole, Holdip
(sic) Evans and Cade, Grant, Sharpe, Thompson and Prideaux,
Heywood, Chester, Lane Jnr, Lane Snr (are these linked to the later
Lane Son and Fraser?), Dean, (See Frost on Gov. Phillip of NSW, p.
4,5. old connections between Phillip, Lanes, Gaiton and Everitts,
Lane Son and Fraser acted as bankers to Michael Everitt and Arthur
Phillip, Phillip close to John Lane and Eleanor Everitt, In the
late 1780s, after Michael Everitt died (Phillip been with him on
ship Stirling Castle), Elizabeth Gaiton Everitt lived close to her
daughter in Nicholas Lane, about time she commissioned the portrait
of A. Phillip now in National Portrait Gallery, which she later
gave to Isabella Phillip, who later gave it to Eleanor Lane "of
Peckham", and in later C19th, the Lane house at Peckham passed to
the Gaiton family. See notes in Dunn on Caribbean planters, notes
from maps, re Lanes and Gaitons on Barbados before 1688.

1650-1700: Note: One of the most remarkable (and outrageous?)
books ever written about English pirates is:
B. R. Burg, Sodomy and the Pirate Tradition: English Sea Rovers
in the Seventeenth Century Caribbean. New York, New York
University Press, 1995.
See also:
W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African-American Seamen in the
Age of Sail. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,
nd-recent/1990s?.

1660: Reference item: For a detailed and more insightful account
of the East India Company's activities and relationship with
European rivals in Bengal see N.K. Sinha, Economic History of
Bengal - From Plassey to the Permanent Settlement. (Calcutta,
1956)

1660: Possible origins of The Hope Diamond, which is
"possibly cursed". It came from the Golconda region of Andrha
Pradesh, southern central India, into the possession of French
adventurer, Jean Baptiste Tavernier. It was "bluer in colour",
uncut, large and about 112-3/16th old carats, or 110.5 modern
carats, about 22.1 grams weight. In 1668 Tavernier was granted an
audience with Louis XIV, the Sun King of France, who bought about
1000 gemstones from the adventurer, including what became The Hope
Diamond. It was stolen during the French Revolution, but turned up,
recut, 20 years and one day after its theft in London, to then be
"squabbled over by greedy British aristocrats". At one point it was
held by London jeweller Daniel Eliason. In 1824 it was sold to
Henry Philip Hope, heir to a banking fortune (from Hopes of
Amsterdam, a firm bought out by Barings) who was born in Holland,
and who renamed the diamond. His sister-in-law, Louisa Hope, would
wear it at soirees she hosted. Hope died in 1839 and left the
diamond to his three nephews, one of whom was Henry, a failed
politician. In 1861, Henry's daughter Henrietta married the Earl of
Lincoln ("he a gambler, and from a family of drunks, drug addicts,
layabouts and the odd transvestite"). In 1884 the diamond went to
the Earl's second son by Henrietta Hope, Lord Francis
Pelham-Clinton Hope, a playboy-peer who by the 1890s was in serious
debt. He married music hall actress May Yohe (Madcap May), daughter
of a saloon keeper from Pennsylvania. She took up an affair with a
US dry-goods millionaire, Putnam Bradlee Strong. Lord Francis's
debts reached $5 million, but he had won a right to sell The Hope
Diamond. It was bought by Simon Frankel, a New York dealer. Later
it was perhaps in the hands of Selim Habib, a Paris dealer, then a
French syndicate, then in 1910 it was sold to Parisian jewellers,
Cartier Brothers. (May Yohe once starred in a silent movie serial,
The Hope Diamond Mystery and produced a book, The Mystery
of the Hope Diamond.) Cartiers sold The Hope Diamond to Evalyn
Walsh McLean, a daughter of Irish migrants who'd struck it
gold-rich in the 1890s Colorado goldfields. She married Ned McLean
(d.1941), heir to newspaper, Washington Post, whose debts
became so large the newspaper had to be sold. The diamond was found
stuck in the back of Evelyn's bedside radio when she died, then
stored in a bank vault. In 1949 The Hope Diamond was bought by New
York jeweller, Harry Winston, who in 1958 donated it to Smithsonian
Institute, which has had care of it ever since. (See recent book,
Hope: Adventures of a Diamond. Simon and Schuster, 2003.
Several other large and famed diamonds are the Sancy, Koh-i-Noor
(Mountain of Light) and Star of Africa.)

1675: More to come

1676: Time of civil unrest with servants generally in
Virginia.

1676: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.71), Jamaica, records
seems confused re agents for Jamaica, annoyingly, but a ref to one
John Bindloss agent to Sir Henry Morgan. and in 1677 was appointed
Sir John Griffith agent to Jamaica, no details on him, but by 1680
existed a circle of merchants and planters Jamaica in dispute at
Lords of Trade with the Royal Africa Co. and by 1682 Jamaica
merchants wanted regulation of transportation of servants to the
islands.

1677: Sheriffs of London and Middlesex were directed to deliver
malefactors to William Freeman, merchant of London for
transportation.

1677: Sheriffs of London and Middlesex were directed to deliver
malefactors to William Freeman, merchant of London. The next most
active merchant involved in convict transportation was Jonathan
Forward, from about 1714.

1678: On Nevis by 1678 were planters Sir James Russell and Col.
Randolph Russell, each an owner of 150 slaves. The Russells, Pym,
Keynall, Winthrops and Baijers (sic) seem, to have arrived in the
1640s and 1650s. The name appears, of William Byam of Surinam, and
one suspects Nordhorf and Hall, authors of a book on Bligh and the
Bounty of the 1930s, named their character Roger Byam from this
family name. (Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 128-130).

1678-1680: Links are forming between merchants who built ships,
supplied timber to the navy, the East India Company, and presumably
the users of ships for slaving. Many issues arose for discussion.
One wood monger was a Westminster JP, Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey,
"not so creditable", a friend of Pepys, who was also friends with
another wood monger, Warren. By 1680, Sir Joseph Williamson
received mail on a lack of English ships being built; the timber
merchant Thomas Papillon claimed ship-users had preferred taking
prize ships to using the timber trades. (Davis, Rise of the
English Shipping Industry, p. 53; Clark, Later Stuarts,
pp. 93-95)

1678: The Lords of Trade appointed a new governor for Jamaica,
the Earl of Carlisle, whose efforts were repelled by powerful
planters Samuel Long and William Beeston. One of Carlisle's aides
was Major-General Sir Francis-Watson. Opposition on the island was
led by Colonel Samuel Long, already from one of the most famous
families on Jamaica. In 1679-1680 charges were laid against Long
who had to stand before the Lords of Trade. In their politics, the
Jamaicans insisted they wanted "the Barbados model". (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 72-73).

1678: New governor of Jamaica is Lord Carlisle, he also had
little success with organising the assembly of Jamaica. one of his
aides was Major-General Sir Francis-Watson. Opposition on the
island led by Colonel Samuel Long, already one of the most famous
families on Jamaica, and in 1679-1680 charges were laid against
Long, and he had to stand before Lords of Trade. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp.72-73.) The Jamaicans wanted "the
Barbados model".

1680: K. G. Davies, The North Atlantic World in the
Seventeenth Century. Minneapolis, 1974.

1680: James D. Phillips, Salem in the Seventeenth
Century. Salem, 1933* Also, Salem in the Eighteenth
Century. Salem, 1937*., and Salem and the Indies.
Boston, 1947.*

1680: During the 1680s begins a small Scottish trade with the
American tobacco colonies - carried on illegally. (Davis, Rise
of the English Shipping Industry, p. 28, Note 1.)

1680: The Royal Africa Co. lists included Sir Benjamin Newland,
Deputy-Governor, Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Deputy-Gov. RACo.,
1680-1681, Court of Assistants to the Royal Africa Co. 1672.
Members were John Ashby, William Fawkener (sic), Sir John Verney,
James Ward, Apt Francis Wilshaw, Peter Joye (sic), Sir John
Mathews, Nicholas Mead, Richard Mountney, Tobias Rustat (sic), John
Morgan, William Stevens, Sir Henry Tulse, Lord George Berkeley,
John Morice, John Bull, Edward Rudge, Samuel Moyer, Sir Gabriel
Roberts, Robert Williamson, William Moyer, Jacob Lucy, (sic), John
Cooke. (Davies, RAC).
Between 1680-1688 the Royal African Company supplied 46,396 slaves
to the West Indies, about 5155 annually, and at 300 per ship, about
17 ships annually. And between 1680 and 1688 the Royal African
Company supplied 46,396 slaves to the West Indies, about 5155
annually, and at 300 per ship, about 17 ships annually. ...Williams
p. 99-100 says, "Besides the white indentured servants, convicts
and malefactors provided a second source of white labour. If the
existence of a contract gave a semblance of legality to the system
of white indentured labour, convict labour was also surrounded with
the aura of the law by the commutation of sentences involving death
or imprisonment to transportation and servitude in the colonies for
a term of years. The crime was extended to fit a punishment which
contributed to the solution of the colonial labour problem, and a
veritable system in this regard was developed in Bristol, where
magistrates and judges were connected, directly or indirectly,
Williams says, with the Caribbean sugar plantations."

1680: December 16: Some accommodations regarding Jamaican
politics were being reached between the Earl of Carlisle, Col.
Long, Mr. Beeston and others merchants and planters to Jamaica,
[There was a Cool William Beeston also]. Jamaicans wanted an
ability to raise money to solicit the affairs of the island. This
all received royal assent in October 1682. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 73).

1680 from 1676: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.71), Jamaica,
records seems confused re agents for Jamaica, annoyingly, but a ref
to one John Bindloss agent to Sir Henry Morgan. and in 1677 was
appointed Sir John Griffith agent to Jamaica, no details on him,
but by 1680 existed a circle of merchants and planters Jamaica in
dispute at Lords of Trade with the Royal Africa Co. and by 1682
Jamaica merchants wanted regulation of transportation of servants
to the islands.

1680: English pirates abused the 1680 Anglo-Spanish treaty and
went across Isthmus of Panama to pillage the Pacific coast,
returning by Cape Horn in 1682. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.
329).
And between 1680 and 1688 the Royal African Company supplied 46,396
slaves to the West Indies, about 5155 annually, and at 300 per
ship, about 17 ships annually. ... then Williams pp. 99-100 says,
"Besides the white indentured servants, convicts and malefactors
provided a second source of white labour. If the existence of a
contract gave a semblance of legality to the system of white
indentured labour, convict labour was also surrounded with the aura
of the law by the commutation of sentences involving death or
imprisonment to transportation and servitude in the colonies for a
term of years. The crime was extended to fit a punishment which
contributed to the solution of the colonial labour problem, and a
veritable system in this regard was developed in Bristol, where
magistrates and judges were connected, directly or indirectly,
Williams says, with the Caribbean sugar plantations."

1680: English apothecary, Thomas Sydenham, introduces Sydenham's
Laudanum, a compound of opium, sherry wine and herbs. His pills
along with others of the time become popular remedies for numerous
ailments.
From website based on book: Opium: A History, by Martin
Booth Simon and Schuster, Ltd., 1996. e-mail info@opioids.com

1680 approx: The Dutch agent-general on Curacao of the
asiento is Balthasar Beck, Lt-governor of the island under
Stuyvesant. (The Curacao slave market operates under terms set by
the Amsterdam Chamber, which made contracts with the
asentistas). Goslinga, Dutch in the Caribbean, pp. 353-362.
- Asiento chronology -

1680: In Virginia, it is now regarded as a non-felony to kill a
Negro. By 1681-1685, slave society in Virginia depends legally on
slavery, with slaves regarded differently to indentured
servants.

1681-1689: An Englishman Cornelius Hodges tries to explore up
the Gambia River, looking for gold-mining areas. The French are now
also exploring into Senegal seeking gold. Richard Jobson also
sailed up the Gambia on similar mission. (K. G. Davies, RCA,
p. 216).

1681-1682: William Penn, earlier a friend of James II,
interested in investing in America, was obliged to discharge a
crown debt to his father. Charles II granted him proprietary rights
on what became Pennsylvania, capital Philadelphia. (Clark, Later
Stuarts, p. 340). Penn Jnr had inherited a large financial
claim against the king, £16,000 sterling. (Ver Steeg, The
Formative Years, pp. 117-119).
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 340), William Penn earlier a
friend of James II, mother a Dutchwoman, interested in investing in
America, his father an admiral who commanded in Cromwell's "western
design", he dealt early with New Jersey, in 1681-82 Penn had to
discharge a crown debt to his father, Charles II granted him what
became Pennsylvania, proprietary rights, capital Philadelphia,

1682: Jamaica agents to be Sir Chas Littleton and Cool William
Beeston. Beeston may still have been agent in 1687. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, p. 75), supplies for Jamaica now rendered
more secure.

1682: The agents for Jamaica agents are to be Sir Charles
Littleton and Col. William Beeston. Beeston may still have been
agent in 1687. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 75). Supplies
for Jamaica are now rendered more secure.

1682: 22nd year of reign of Chas II. Contracts were made for the
removal of English felons by William Nevett and Thomas Walsh.
(Oldham).

1682: August: Jeaffreson left as governor of a Caribbean island
to return to his English estates. He attempted to see Blathwayt,
secretary to the Lords of Trade, and being delayed and given
difficulties he found it necessary with waiting on officials to pay
heavy gratuities and fees for anything to be done. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, p. 65).

1682: Twelve Quakers, including William Penn, bought East
Jersey. In 1702, New Jersey united and became a royal colony, by
which time Penn had established Pennsylvania. Wm Penn's father was
Admiral Sir William Penn, who remained close to the Stuarts even
though he'd assisted the Puritans. Penn Jnr inherited a large
financial claim against the king, some £16,000 sterling, so he
obtained the grant of Pennsylvania, in 1681. In 1682 Penn arrived
in America, to found Philadelphia. (Ver Steeg, The Formative
Years, pp. 117-119.)

1682: John Scarlett a merchant of the Eastland Co. (Westerfield,
Middlemen, p. 399).

1683: The directors of the East India Company considered a new
charter provided by James II. The directors would soon adopt
Keigwin's more aggressive policy for activity in India. (See Clark,
Later Stuarts, pp. 350-351, citing Ray and O. Strachey,
Keigwin's Rebellion. 1916.
1683: Richard Keigwin for British takes stronger measures to
protect EICo outposts, he had re-taken St. Helena, he got
aggressive, though the Co. at London wanted economy, not
adventures. Keigwin is recalled home, but returned to Bombay, and
in 1683 the garrison mutinied against the EICo quietist policy,
Keigwin took control of government and wrote the king Chas he was
holding Bombay for him. Chas put the matter to the CO, which sent
out in 1683 or later some navy plus Co. ships. Keigwin let off. He
died in 1690 landing in the West Indies.

1685: Navigation: Johannes Loots publishes his Chart of the
East Indies with Voyages of Tasman, Pelsaert and de
Chaumont.

James III is King of England, deals with The Monmouth
Rebellion.

1685: West African slaving depot Cape Coast Castle is taken over
for the English by Capt. Henry Nurse and renamed Fort Royal.

1685: By 1685: Secretary to the Lord of Trade is William
Blathwayt (sic) and Barbados men fearful of more duties on sugar.
An an agent in London for the Gov. of Barbados is one Thomas
Robson. (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 57-58), and some
interested merchants in London seem to be Edward Littleton, John
Gardner, Sir John Bowden, and these included some of the largest
merchants involved to Barbados. Soon, James Kendall to be appointed
Gov. of Barbados, the first planter-gov since Modyford.

1684: The Duke of York, first governor of the Royal African
Company, buys £3000 worth of East India Stock in 1684. He also
succeeds Prince Rupert as governor of the Hudson's Bay Company.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 61).

1685: One of the greatest merchants of his day is James Houblon
(sic) From R. Davis, Rise English ship industry, p.130).

1685: Edward Randolph appointed as surveyor of pines and timbers
in Maine for naval use, salary of £50, and by 1691 Randolph is
surveyor-general, deals with Jahleel (sic) Brenton or Ichabod
Plaisted - Plaisted an influential provincial judge timber getting
for John Taylor naval mast contractor). by 1700, Gov. of New York
Richard Coote Lord Bellomont complaining neither Randolph nor
Plaisted done any work of use. John Bridger also worked the
colonists, trying to supervise matters and Bridger did much for the
"broad arrow policy" to 1696. Albion, Forests and Sea Power,
pp. 242-243, p. 260).

1685: England: Smugglers had begun to feel persecuted. By 1685
the illegal running of goods was already considerable. The
forbidding of wool export meant that cloth workers had wool growers
at their mercy. In 1717, wool smuggling is made punishable by
transportation.

Before 1686: Major William Barnes acts as agent for Antigua,
acting in concert with Christopher Jeaffreson. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 68).

1685: England has instituted in the New England area its "broad
arrow policy", which meant that authorities blazed trees suitable
for naval stores, preserving it from other use. (Albion, Forests
and Sea Power, pp. 242-243, p. 260).

1685: The secretary to the Lords of Trade was William Blathwayt.
Barbados men remained fearful of more duties on sugar. An agent in
London for the governor of Barbados was one Thomas Robson. (Penson,
Colonial Agents, pp. 57-58). Some interested merchants in
London were Edward Littleton, John Gardner, Sir John Bowden, and
these included some of the largest merchants involved to Barbados.
Soon, James Kendall would be appointed Gov. of Barbados, the first
planter-governor since Modyford.

1686++: (From Lynch on Bourbon Spain): From 1686, European
merchants are re-exporting from Spain (Seville/Cadiz), assisted by
Spain's own merchants, the French did well out of this.

1686: The English East India Company sends an expedition to take
Chittagong and make war on the Mogul emperor. Britain finally took
St. Helena, which the crown granted to the Company.

1686 - A French force captures all but one of the Hudson's Bay
Company forts. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 341).

1687: Sir William Turner had begun making loans 1672 to 1693. In
1687 he was owed £3700 by Sir Arthur Harris, £3500 by the Earl of
Berkeley, £1000 by Lady Williams. Other loans made several thousand
pounds, mostly all at six per cent. Turner invested little in
ships, no more than 1/30th of his capital. (Davies, RAC, pp.
50-52, citing City of London Guildhall Library, MS 5105).

June 1688: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 54, p.133, p. 180),
Louis of France warned James of his danger, as William
corresponding in plain terms with his backers in England such as
Arthur Herbert, (Danby was principal minister until 1695), another
Russell sailor, Henry Sidney was Lord Romney and backed William,
Lumley, the rich Whig Shrewsbury was Charles Talbot, Devonshire,
Halifax not for William, the Tory Nottingham not for William.
William Russell, Lord Russell.

1687: Newton produces his Principia, a masterwork on
mathematics, explaining how gravity works.

1688: One of Britain's notable exports is ... people, people
turned into commodities - units of labour value.. In 1654-1685, it
has been estimated, 10,000 indentured servants sailed from Bristol
alone to North America and the Caribbean; about half went to
Virginia. and E. Williams (p. 137) says that in 1688 it was
estimated that Jamaica alone needed about 10,000 slaves
annually.

1689: England: Parliament declares that king Charles II has
abdicated.

Mid-July 1689: Both William & Mary wish Russell to take
command of naval fleet, and their judgement was correct, but
Russell reluctant, he was friends with Lord Shrewsbury, the
ex-minister, and W&M wanted Haddick, but Russell hated Haddick,
Russell refused to take part in two recent naval defeats, he wanted
two partners, one Lord Shrewsbury the ex-minister and one an
unnamed seaman. Queen did not object to Shrewsbury, but she and
William III insisted on Haddick, but Russell hated Haddick, and the
lords of admiralty thought fit to oppose the queen on these issues,
Sir Thomas Lee a leading admiralty man also hated Haddick, and
Russell hated Lee as much as he hated Haddick, so finally the lords
admiralty refused to sign a commission for the purpose, and so
Carmarthen saw the Queen, he in a rage, and Stricklands feel it odd
that Shrewsbury should be wanted by king, as he was not bred to
naval profession, and English fleet degraded by "harpies of
corruption", civilians concerned in finding stores, ammunition,
provision and pay, all pilferings, none of James II;'s naval men
wanted to proceed to fight, Mary upset at insolence of Sir Thomas
Lee. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII,
p.282-293ff.

1689: The Royal African Company monopoly from 1689 is broken by
private traders, who by 1712 gave the Company a 10 per cent
commission to help fund the operation of the forts. (Orlando
Patterson, pp. 127ff).

1690s - 1750: Peter Du Cane says he is a merchant with most
income from land and fund holding, a typical C18th passive investor
in shipping, his grand father had made a fortune in financial
operations with Wm III's wars, and by 1750, Peter Du Cane was a
director of EICo with large investments in EICo stock, he dabbled
unsuccessfully in marine insurance in 1740-41. (See E. Ward, The
London Spy, Dagmar 3, 1698, edited by R. Straus. 1924. (From R.
Davis, Rise English Shipping Industry, p.106.)

After 1688-89: William III's friend Schomberg is made Master of
Ordnance, Clark, Later Stuarts, p.180.)

During the 1680s: London has up to 2000 overseas merchants.
Several hundred traded independently to America, to Virginia, or
New York. By 1690 the leading American merchants formed a core
group of nine men, led by Richard Perry, the older Micajah Perry
and their partner, Thomas Lane. Chesapeake Merchants gathered about
Tower Hill, Pennsylvania around Gracechurch Street, newer Carolina
merchants about north and west London. Information on colonial
conditions became a tool of politics. (Olson, Making the Empire
Work, pp. 27-28, pp. 52-57. Olson cites Perry, p. 209, Notes
19, 25, and p. 220, Note 37; p. 221, Note 41).

1689: 14 November: A merchants' petition to the House of Commons
"proved" 100 merchant ships worth 600,000 l were lost for want of
convoys, or, by corruption of naval captains. Capt Churchill's
conduct was such that he was expelled from the house four days
later. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7,
p. 300, Note 2).

1689: Mid-July: Both William and Mary wished Russell to take
command of the navy. Their judgement was correct but Russell
reluctant. A dispute arose over the appointment of Haddick. The
English fleet was degraded by "harpies of corruption", civilians
concerned in finding stores, ammunition, provision and pay; much
pilfering. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol.
7, pp. 282-293ff).

1690: Whaling history: Whaler Ichabod Paddock from Cape Cod
moves to Nantucket Island to teach on the techniques of mainland
whaling - especially on harpooning .
K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role
of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South Carolina
Press, 1988., p. 231.

After mid-1690: Battle of the Boyne, 1690, (p. 266 William had a
troop of 30,000 regular troops, good artillery, Boyne won by a
furious charge of cavalry) and Mary had her father's standards
carried in triumphant processions and later hung in St. James
chapel, her father's old friends were outraged, and later Charles
Montague, earl of Halifax, wrote a poem panegyric of William's
exploits at this battle, without naming the antagonist, James II.
(Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII,
p.26-2670ff.

1690-1692: Job Charnock establishes Calcutta. East India Co.
receives English royal charter giving it monopoly of Eastern Trade
for 15 years.

1692: India: Calcutta and the death of Job Charnock of English
East India Company:

On August 4 2001 (sent to the India Mailing List)
. -----Original Message----- From: achintyarup Ray:
aray0@rediffmail.com
To: INDIA-L@rootsweb.com - INDIA-L@rootsweb.com
Date: Saturday, 4 August 2001 3:46 AM
Subject: [India-L] Calcutta History
Dear Listers, Following is a legal story the Hindustan Times
is carrying today on the history of Calcutta. Thanks, Achintyarup
Ray, Calcutta

PIL filed against Charnok myth
HT Correspondent
Kolkata, August 3

CALCUTTA HIGH Court today admitted a public interest
litigation challenging that Job Charnok, agent of East India
Company, founded Kolkata about 300 years ago.
A two-judge Bench, headed by Chief Justice Asoke Kumar Mathur,
asked the petitioner to serve notice on the State Government and
held that the matter would be heard again after a month.
Presently, August 24 is being celebrated as the city's birthday as
Charnok is believed to have anchored his boat in the Hooghly off
Sutanity on that day in 1690.
The petitioners -- Sabarna Roy Chowdhury Parivar Parishad (SRPP)
and some city-based historians -- claimed that Kolkata existed long
before Job Charnok arrived in India and the name "Kalkata" may be
traced even in books like Manasa Vijay and Ain-e-Akbari, written in
1494 and 1596 respectively.
SRPP, founded by members of Sabarna Roy Chowdhury family, which
originally owned Kolkata, said Charnok landed at Sutanuti, a marshy
fishing village on the bank of the Hooghly on August 24, 1964 and
lived there till he died on January 10, 1692.
"Charnok only concentrated towards some trade and was among
hundreds other Europeans and Indians who traded at Sutanuti", said
counsel Smarajit Roy Chowdhury, who appeared for SRPP before the
Division Bench this afternoon. Roy Chowdhury, who is also a
descendant of Sabarna Roy Chowdhury, said it was long after
Charnok's death that East India Company obtained the "Right to
Rent" of the three villages - Kalkata, Sutanuti and Gobindapur --
on which the city of Kolkata now stands. Charnok died six years
before the deal was signed.
The deed, singed at Bangladesh's Barisha, was, however, found to be
illegal as two minor of Sabarna family signed it out of a plan,
formulated to resist the British, Roy Chowdhury pointed out.
SRPP also said no individual can be regarded as the founder of the
city and it was Lakshmikanta, predecessor of Sabarna Roy Chowdhury,
who got the ownership right of eight villages, including the three
ones, from the Emperor Akbar as a token of appreciation of his
services.
Roy Chowdhury said a copy of the "Right to Rent" also proved that
Charnok was founder of the city, August 24 was its birthday.
The case was filed "to set right a wrong fact and reconstruct the
history of Kolkata, which is almost unknown to the world".
///////////Ends this item //////////

Mid-1690, Mary Stuart is worried as she is expecting a battle
between her father and her husband William III forces in Ireland,
and wants William's directions for command of the fleet, Lord
Monmouth claimed the command, Torrington (a Jacobite) had been
deprived of it, Russell refused to take it, so Sir Richard Haddick
and Sir John Ashby were proposed by Council, but Haddick wished
perhaps Duke of Grafton (soon killed as it happened at siege of
Cork), as he'd been brave at Beachy Head, Mary rather thought of
Shovel. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII,
p.261ff.

Mid-1690: William III protests that Mary has transferred Admiral
Russell from his post in Council to superintend a disabled fleet,
an ill success at sea, Lord Torrington to come to trial (for what?,
but acquitted and it seems when William III came with ships,
Torrington in command of them, ships out of condition, Torrington
withdrew in disgrace to obscurity, and when he died, the title of
Torrington was given to Admiral Byng, a commander whom James II had
drawn from obscurity) Russell seemingly loyal to Torrington.
(Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.
256-258.

Mid-1690: English Navy in a poor state, and suspicion of
(Herbert) Lord Torrington, Mary desired to interfere in his
business as an Admiral, Navy felt want of a royal admiral,
corruption in provisioning of the navy, Torrington insecure re his
ability to defend England, Lord Monmouth wanting command of a ship
of the line, as he had been ok in navy under James II, James had
wanted naval men to have had a naval life, Mary did not follow this
policy, Monmouth wanted most of the navy, but Mary doubted his
fidelity, there are secret letters passed about now to Mary written
in lemon juice (Mary later aware this "lemon juice" is
disinformation provided by Monmouth's man Major Wildman).
(Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII,
p.252-255-261.)

1690: (Kellock's article, pp. 131-132), Lane, Son and Fraser was
founded by John Lloyd (1656-1730), of 11 Nicholas Lane, Lombard
Street. Portugal trade, then with the New East India Company.
Friends with one Peter Godfrey. Thomas Lane came into the firm in
1735. Lane accumulated debts in America during the Seven Years War.
fix After 1690, the firm Lane, Son and Fraser was founded by John
Lloyd (1656-1730), of 11 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street. The firm
was in the Portugal trade, then with the New East India Company.
Peter Godfrey was a friend of the firm. Thomas Lane came into the
firm in 1735 and he accumulated debts in America during the Seven
Years War. (Katharine A. Kellock, 'London Merchants and the
pre-1776 American Debts', Guildhall Studies in London
History, Vol. 1, No 3, October 1974., pp. 131-132).

1690: Some Lords Privy Seal were Sir John Knatchbull, Sir
William Pulteney, in 1691 Thomas earl of Pembroke, in 1713 William
earl of Dartmouth.

1690: Note that penal settlements for convicts were West Indies
and North American colonies. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of
England, Vol. VII, p. 244.)
See Carl and Robert Bridenbaugh, No Peace Beyond The Line: The
English in the Caribbean, 1624-1690. New York, 1972.

1690: On Virginia Merchants: Olson notes that by 1690, leading
[London] American merchants had formed a core group of nine men led
by Richard Perry, the older Micajah Perry and their partner, Thomas
Lane; and probably a younger Micajah Perry. By Walpole's time, one
of the Perrys had become "dean of the American lobbyists". Perry
the younger finally bankrupted, partly as he spent so much time
engaged in mercantile politics. [See Robert G. Albion, Forests
and Sea Power: The Timber Problems of the Royal Navy,
1652-1862. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1926., p. 445; Also,
Alison G. Olson, Making the Empire Work, pp. 27-28, pp.
52-53, p. 103]. During the 1680s, London had some 2000 overseas
merchants, and several hundred were independently trading to
America. Chesapeake Merchants gathered about Tower Hill,
Pennsylvania around Gracechurch Street, newer Carolina merchants
about north and west London.

1691: Edward Littleton and William Bridges were chosen to
transact business for Barbados, John Gardner who had unofficially
represented Barbados being overlooked. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, p. 58).

1691: August. Queen Mary ordered the arrest of Bishop of Ely and
Lord Dartmouth. She remained an enemy of William Penn, trying to
stop to his philanthropy to Pennsylvania. (Strickland, Lives of
Queens of England, Vol. 7, p. 327, pp. 335-336). Admiral lord
Dartmouth was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary, later to die of
"grief and regret". Mary meanwhile desired to add the French colony
of Canada to her domain, and she invaded Quebec, unsuccessfully.
France held Canada for another 50 years [See the later careers of
Wolf and James Cook].

1691: As Mary and William fought in Flanders they found a great
slaughter of English troops, no victory. Corn was at famine prices,
the gentry and merchants sank under the weight of taxation never
heard of before in Britain. The fleet had returned in disgrace,
seamen had "horrible provisions and worthless ammunition" as
provided by a corrupt ministry. Lady Russell sought the auditorship
of Wales for her son, Mr. Vaughan. Jacobites remained active.
(Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp.
336-337).

1691: Sir Josiah Child (of the East India Company) and seven
others owned more than 25 per cent of Royal Africa Company stock,
and voted their own way, accordingly. (Davies, RAC, p. 156).
It is probable that regular financial linkages were maintained from
now between East India Company investors and those with interests
in profiting from slaving.

1692: As the outrage over the Campbell massacre at Glencoe
persisted, there the Scottish Darien Company which helped lead
Scotland to the Union of 1707. In 1654, the Highlanders failed in a
rebellion against Cromwell.

Sept 1692: Mary's errors in law, Strickland says her intellect
was brilliant, but she had a cannon-fodder view of the populous,
temptations of new gin shops, the thief-takers after blood money,
executions under the reward-conviction system as supported by
Parliament became 40 victims per month in London alone, "murderous
traffic of false witnesses", her grievous system lasted till 1816.
and here, amazingly, Stricklands, two women writers of 1852 and
earlier, here cite Apt Maconochie of Norfolk Island off Australia,
his work on "penal science", and regard his views as result of
Mary's and her cabinet's bad edict of Sept 13, 1692 Maconochie
said, "To set a price on the head of a criminal, or otherwise on a
great scale to reward the information of accomplices, is the
strongest proof of a weak or unwise government ..... (Strickland,
Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 391-392.)

13 September, 1692: Queen Mary issued an edict by proclamation
offering 40/- per head for the apprehension and conviction of any
burglar or highwaymen. This became known as "blood money", and it
got a terrific number of convictions and executions, while the
evil(s) Mary wished to end, only increased in number. Many abuses
here continued to the reign of Ego I, Strickland says, and all this
gave rise to the thief takers, their informers, the gaolers, evils
not subdued till the police of 1829 and later, Stricklands writing
later after 1829, "a long retrospect of human calamity [was] thus
opened up in one terrific error in legislation" from Mary, "a
prison discipline formed after the nearest idea of the dread place
of future perdition", not likely to cure her people of crime. She
did not refer anything here to Parliament. "Much of the crime and
sorrow of the present day," writes Strickland, "and, indeed, the
greatest national misfortune that ever befell this country,
originated from the example given by William III and his Dutch
courtiers as imbibers of ardent spirits. In fact, the laws of
England, from an early period, sternly prohibited the conversion of
malt into alcohol, excepting a small portion for medicinal
purposes." ... p. 390 "The consummation of all injury to the
people, was the encouragement that King William III was pleased to
give to the newly-born manufactories of spirituous liquors." [an
earlier English prejudice against gin]. (Strickland, Lives of
Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.388-389-390.)

Sept 1692: Mary's errors in law, Strickland says her intellect
was brilliant. a cannon fodder view of the populous, temptations of
new gin shops, the thief-takers after blood money, executions under
the reward-conviction system as supported by parliament became 40
victims per month in London alone, "murderous traffic of false
witnesses", her grievous system lasted till 1816. and here,
amazingly, Stricklands, two women writers of 1852 and earlier, here
cite Apt Maconochie of Norfolk Island off Australia, his work on
"penal science", and regard his views as result of Mary's and her
cabinet's bad edict of Sept 13, 1692 Maconochie said, "To set a
price on the head of a criminal, or otherwise on a great scale to
reward the information of accomplices, is the strongest proof of a
weak or unwise government ....."Strickland, Lives of Queens of
England, Vol. VII, p. 391-392.)

1692: Lord Orford as Admiral Russell became victor at Cape La
Hogue.

1692: A severe earthquake on Jamaica destroyed the notorious
Port Royal. The French continually raked the coast, but the
buccaneers were gone.

1692: William Beeston (forced to resign the agency of Jamaica in
1698 with the Free Trade Act) was appointed governor of Jamaica and
also agent for the Royal Africa Company. Edwin Stede (much accused
after his retirement) was Barbados RAC agent for 20 years. On
Barbados he was also provost marshal, deputy secretary, collector
of customs, councillor and secretary, and 1685-1690 he was
Lt.-Governor, acting governor. A similar situation existed with
Hender Molesworth on Jamaica. (Davies, RAC, variously).

1692: September 13: Queen Mary issued an edict by proclamation
offering 40/- per head for the apprehension and conviction of any
burglar or highwayman. This became known as "blood money", and
obtained many convictions and executions, while the evil(s) Mary
wished to end only increased in number. (Strickland, Lives of
the Queens of England, Vol. 7, pp. 388-390). The reckless bands
of well organised smugglers in Kent, Sussex and Hampshire were also
products of bad laws, "a vicious system" with its origin with
William III's time with its need for revenue. (Teignmouth and
Harper, The Smugglers, Vol. 1. 1973. [Orig. 1923]. pp.
11-12).

1692: Charles Montague later Halifax, lord of treasury in 1692,
first lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. Charles
Montague later Halifax, born 1661, lord of treasury in 1692, first
lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. 1692 - Clark,
Later Stuarts, p.172, the corsairs of Tripoli had declared war on
France and assisted British forces, Orford appeared on the Tripoli
coast, a famous French privateer at this time is Jean Bart. (Clark,
Later Stuarts, p.133.)

1692, Lord Orford as admiral Russell victor at Cape La Hogue in
1692.

1692: Severe earthquake on Jamaica.

1693: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.180ff. as yet, not
enough absentee planters from Jamaica to organiser affairs, till a
coffee house situation arose near the Royal exchange. Jamaica
Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674. Jamaica agents,
1693-1704, Bartholomew Gracedieu. Gilbert Heathcote, see
Penson.

1693: From 1660, Danby had used cash bribes in the City in
various East India Company matters. The Duke of Leeds who had
received 5500 guineas was impeached. (Clark, The Later
Stuarts, p. 85).

1693: William Paterson the later promoter of the Scottish Darien
Company (who may have known Dampier in the "silent period" of
Paterson's life in the West Indies) appeared before a committee of
the House of Commons on behalf of a mercantile group with a scheme
for credit on Parliamentary Security. The Bank of England was
formed in 1694 on that basis. Paterson resigned from the new bank
in 1695. For a time, Paterson was entangled with the City of London
orphan's fund. Then he promoted the Darien project with Sir Robert
Christie, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and Lord Belhaven. Vast
enterprises were envisaged. (John Prebble, The Darien
Disaster. London, Secker and Warburg, 1988., pp. 1-3ff, pp.
11-13).

1693: As yet, there were too few absentee planters from Jamaica
able to organise affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near
the Royal exchange, Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley,
from 1674. An Act was passed with the agents for Jamaica being
three Jamaica merchants, Gilbert Heathcote (1693-1704), Sir
Bartholomew Gracedieu MP (1693-1704) and John Tutt. Sir Gilbert
Heathcote (1651-1733), a founder of the East India Company in 1693,
Lord Mayor 1710-1711. (Melville, South Sea Bubble, p. 123).
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 180ff, p. 75).

1693: Re Jamaica (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 180ff,) an
act passed with agents for Jamaica being three Jamaica merchants,
Gilbert Heathcote, [Sir] Bartholomew Gracedieu MP and John Tutt.
1693: As yet, not enough absentee planters from Jamaica to
organiser affairs, till a coffee house situation arose near the
Royal exchange. Jamaica Coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, from
1674.

1693 - Allegations arose of heavy bribery of ministers by the
East India Company regarding its new charter. The Duke of Leeds
(Danby) was later impeached. There were few Whigs in the Company at
the time. By 1695, dissension broke out, which assisted the
Scottish Company. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 85, p. 352).

Mid-1690: William III protests that Mary has transferred Admiral
Russell from his post in Council to superintend a disabled fleet,
an ill success at sea, Lord Torrington to come to trial (for what?,
but acquitted and it seems when William III came with ships,
Torrington in command of them, ships out of condition, Torrington
withdrew in disgrace to obscurity, and when he died, the title of
Torrington was given to Admiral Byng, a commander whom James II had
drawn from obscurity) Russell seemingly loyal to Torrington.
(Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p.
256-258.)

1693: Re Jamaica (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 75), an act
passed with agents for Jamaica being three Jamaica merchants,
Gilbert Heathcote, [Sir] Bartholomew Gracedieu MP and John Tutt.
1693: (Penson, Colonial Agents, pp.180ff. as yet, not enough
absentee planters from Jamaica to organiser affairs, till a coffee
house situation arose near the Royal exchange. Jamaica Coffee house
in St. Michael's Alley, from 1674.

1693: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 352), heavy bribery of
ministers by EICo re new charter for EICo, Duke of Leeds/Danby
later impeached, few Whigs in Co. at time. and by 1695, dissension
broke out, which assisted the Scottish co.

1690s: India: Bengal. English East India Company official Job
Charnock founds the city of Calcutta (aided by local people), on a
swamp by the Hooghly river in Bengal, North-Eastern India.

1694: Founding of The Bank of England, as suggested by the
well-travelled Scotsman William Paterson.

1694: Wm III been detained by the French Fleet, but he arrived
at Margate on Nov 12, he opened Parliament next day, voted thanks
for Mary's firm administration, Parliament proceeded to impeach her
favourite prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the "infamous
corruption of his government", and the late speaker of the house,
Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and distributing
them in HOC, and some of the Queen's staff were here compromised,
and as journals of House of Lords indicates, Sir Thomas Cooke,
chairman EICo had sent a bribe from EICo to lord president of
Mary's cabinet in council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil Firebrass. and
among people suspected here were Lord Nottingham, the queen's lord
chamberlain, one Colonel Fitzpatrick [he soon died] re 1000 guineas
a pal of Nottingham, Lady Derby mistress of the robes, Strickland,
Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII, p. 431ff.

Mid-1690: English navy in a poor state, and suspicion of
(Herbert) Lord Torrington, Mary desired to interfere in his
business as an Admiral, Navy felt want of a royal admiral,
corruption in provisioning of the navy, Torrington insecure re his
ability to defend England, Lord Monmouth wanting command of a ship
of the line, as he had been ok in navy under James II, James had
wanted naval men to have had a naval life, Mary did not follow this
policy, Monmouth wanted most of the navy, but Mary doubted his
fidelity, there are secret letters passed about now to Mary written
in lemon juice (Mary later aware this "lemon juice" is
disinformation provided by Monmouth's man Major Wildman).
(Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol. VII,
p.252-255-261.

1694: 28 Dec: Queen Mary dies aged 33 having kindly removed her
servants from dangerous proximity, having had "dreary
hallucinations", with a popish nurse one hallucination, mention of
Jacobite DR Radcliffe p 442, did she have scruples re her father
James II? day she died, Wm III swooned twice, moves spied on by a
ghoulish roaming Jacobite Catholic priest, Lord Jersey a secret
Catholic, priest sent messages to James II, a French observer said
she was more bitter against her father than her husband Wm III, did
Wm III have affair with Elizabeth Villiers? Strickland by way of an
amazing demolition job views her as p. 453 as "an unnatural
daughter and a cruel sister", she had Greenwich and Virginian
endowments. (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol.
VII, pp. 443-453-454.

1694: John Stevens published a translation of Faria y Sousa's
book Asia Portuguese, probably for the first time
introducing British to story of how Portuguese discovered the
world, dedicated to Catherine of Braganza, the Portuguese princess
now Queen of England.

Danby used some cash bribes, Danby or duke of Leeds in 1694 so
he was the one bribed by the EICo? (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.
85.)

1694: Sir William Trumbull is one of the commissioners of
Treasury,

In 1694: is published in England Robinson's book, An Account
of Several Late Voyages & Discoveries to the South and the
North, in which Tasman's voyage of 1642 was translated. this
book helped revive British and Dutch interest in the still-unknown
Terra Australis. (Australian Encyclopedia).

1694: (Fox Bourne, English Merchants, pp. 253ff), in 1688
at Amsterdam, then Hamburg, brief interlude with New River Company
to get fresh water into London. became a talker on collection and
arrangement of public loans, so helped found the Bank of England in
1691, one objection to it being that the monarch could no longer
debase the coinage, the Bank was established from 27 July, 1694,
then Paterson left the Bank and was entangled for a time with the
City of London orphan's fund, then to the Darien project with Sir
Robert Christie the Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Belhaven,
vast enterprises envisaged, by 1697 had £400,000 subscribed, needed
to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of Co. at Milne
Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and
Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000
went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself, got references
from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the
Principal of Glasgow College, who was an: eminent scholar,
accomplished antiquary, shrewd merchant, brave soldier, able
politician, zealous divine and an amiable man". Paterson deposed as
Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in,
Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. [sense the
Dariens did not know what they were doing] Expedition one landed on
a watery morass, in six months, about 2/3rds of the expedition
dead, some 1200 people, Paterson so devastated he sank into a kind
of second childhood, or early dotage, but recovered.

1694: The French invaded and almost took Jamaica. London sent
1000 troops at a cost of £50,000. From 1682 to 1702 the governor
was Sir William Beeston. It was during Beeston's period that the
first Campbells arrived on Jamaica. The military governor of
Jamaica 1701-1711 was Thomas Handasyd, an army brigadier, followed
by Lord Archibald Hamilton a naval man. Jamaica was now again a
garrison colony and soldiers quickly died.

1694: William III had been detained by the French Fleet, but he
opened Parliament on 13 November. Parliament proceeded to impeach
Mary's prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the "infamous
corruption of his government"; and the late speaker of the house,
Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and distributing
them in the House of Commons. Some of the Queen's staff were here
compromised. Sir Thomas Cooke, chairman of the East India Company
had sent a Company bribe to the lord president of Mary's cabinet in
council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil Firebrass. Among people suspected
were Lord Nottingham, the queen's lord chamberlain, one Colonel
Fitzpatrick [he soon died]. (Strickland, Lives of the Queens of
England, Vol. 7, pp. 431ff).

1694: John Stevens published a translation of Faria y Sousa's
book Asia Portuguese, introducing the English to the story of how
the Portuguese had discovered the world. Also in 1694 was published
in England Robinson's book, An Account of Several Late Voyages
& Discoveries to the South and the North, in which Tasman's
voyage of 1642 was translated. This book helped revive British and
Dutch interest in the still-unknown Terra Australis. (McIntyre,
Secret Discovery of Australia, p. 5).

1694: Danby used some cash bribes, Danby or duke of Leeds in
1694 so he was the one bribed by the EICo. (Clark, Later
Stuarts, p. 85.)

1694: Sir William Trumbull was one of the commissioners of
Treasury.

1694: Wm III had been detained by the French Fleet, but he
arrived at Margate on Nov 12, he opened Parliament next day, voted
thanks for Mary's firm administration, Parliament proceeded to
impeach her favourite prime minister, then Duke of Leeds, for the
"infamous corruption of his government", and the late speaker of
the house, Sir John Trevor, for himself receiving bribes, and
distributing them in HOC, and some of the Queen's staff were here
compromised, and as journals of House of Lords indicates, Sir
Thomas Cooke, chairman EICo had sent a bribe from EICo to lord
president of Mary's cabinet in council, Carmarthen, by Sir Basil
Firebrass. and among people suspected here were Lord Nottingham,
the queen's lord chamberlain, one Colonel Fitzpatrick [he soon
died] re 1000 guineas a pal of Nottingham, Lady Derby mistress of
the robes, (Strickland, Lives of Queens of England, Vol.
VII, p. 431ff.

John /Houblon/ Lord Mayor of London Lord Mayor of London 1695
Sir John Houblon elected in 1695.
(Item, per Peter Western)

1695: In Queen Anne's reign, fear of the "mob" had arisen. In
April 1695 there were riots in London about Tooley, who ran a
debtor's prison in Holborn and was suspected of kidnapping recruits
for the army.

1695: Established, the Bank of Scotland, with capital of only
£100,000 sterling. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 265, p. 284.)
Clark says that in 1695, the Darien Co. "infringed" rights of the
Bank of Scotland,

1695: French forces sent onto Jamaica but were ejected by
settlers. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 330), the British got
sent an expedition to Jamaica with two regiments of foot, but it
was rendered useful by disease and mismanagement, there was later
an outburst of piracy, so home got licensed Apt William Kidd in
privateer the Adventure Galley in which some of the leading Whigs
were shareholders. Kidd later hanged. Kidd's backers include
Bellomont the gov. of NY organises backers for Kidd, including Sir
John Somers, Shrewsbury, Russell the First Lord of Admiralty and
Earl Orford, and Lord Romney the head of Ordnance. and one Mr.
Harrison. All these men are also backers of William III.

1695: William III anticipated action of 1695 Scots Parliament by
appointing a regular commission of inquiry. As a result of its
excellent report, Dalrymple had to resign and spend the rest of his
time in private life. Earl of Breadalbane charged with high treason
but never brought to trial. Clark writes, "The general execration
of the deed helped to build up the British sense of justice and
humanity"...."never again were the worst methods of frontier
warfare combined with the worst methods of secret police". That
Parliament then went on to the Darien Scheme. (Clark, Later
Stuarts, pp. 280-281.

1695: Fear of "the mob" had arisen. In April were riots in
London about Tooley, who ran a debtor's prison in Holborn and was
suspected of kidnapping recruits for the army.

1695: 26 June: Partly due to William Paterson's efforts, in the
Scots Parliament was passed an Act for a Company (The Darien
Company) trading to Africa and Indies, wanting a monopoly to trade
with Asia and Africa for all time and with America for 31 years.
(Some London merchants were Scots, says Clark, The Later Stuarts,
p. 282) London directors discussed fitting a Scots ship for the
East India Company trade, but the Company fought this in London.
The Darien Company retreated to Edinburgh. Paterson had obtained an
old manuscript copy of Lionel Wafer's journal of travels on Isthmus
of Darien. Wafer was a friend of Dampier and both gave advice to
the Darien Company.
1690+: See Clennel Wilkinson, William Dampier. London, John
Lane, 1929.
Other books on Dampier: W. H. Bonner, Captain William Dampier,
buccaneer-author. Standford, 1934. P. K. Kemp and C. Lloyd,
The Brethren of the Coast. London, 1960. J. C. Shipman,
William Dampier, sea-man scientist. Kansas, 1962.

1695: To prevent frauds in ships, John Bland wrote "Trade
Revived" and proposed registration of ownership of shipping. (See
Godolphin about 1702) (Davis, Rise of the English Shipping
Industry, p. 108).

1695: An act of 1695 constituted the Company of Scotland Trading
to Africa and the Indies, capital at £600,000 sterling, half
subscribed in London, half in Scotland. William Paterson the main
mover here, he had been in the West Indies, made money in the City
of London, had been in at the foundation of the Bank of England, a
director for the first year, then sold out. At the time,the stock
of the EICo was dropping, it was natural it should protect its
monopoly. the shit hit the fan for many reasons, the English
subscribers dropped the whole thing. Scotland tried much to help
the company, promised £400,00 and raised £200,000 from over 1300
persons. and what Paterson had chosen for a site for operations was
the Isthmus of Darien, south of the Mosquito Coast, hence, the
Darien Scheme. (Clark, p. 263), "The period which begins with the
Restoration has been called the most pitiful in the history of
Scotland."

G. Pratt on Darien p. 89, an echo here for Phillip at Port
Jackson in 1788, the Darien men reckoned they had found a harbour
"capable of containing 10,000 sail of Shipps". When it is simply a
matter of mariners supremely enjoying the spectacle of a snug spot
likely to be a good safe harbour!

1695: August: The Russell and Howland families become more
interested in the East India Company. In August 1695 a spate of
corrupt activities was discovered, such as forgery of banknotes.
William Kidd was born in Scotland between 1645 and 1660, and by
about 1695, he owned land in New York, including sections of Wall
Street, prime property. He had a connection with Mr. Livingston.
Kidd as a New Yorker had backed the installation of William III. In
1695, Kidd began seeking a naval position, at a time when Americans
are also engaging in Madagascar piracy which was linked to "Red Sea
men" which were also harassing English East India Company ships,
annoying London merchants. Various strands of concerns were brought
together by Livingston who was promoting Kidd. England needed to
suppress American piracy and encountered William III's idea to
licence pirates. Bellomont the governor of New York organised
backers for Kidd, including Sir John Somers, Shrewsbury, Russell
the First Lord of Admiralty, Earl Orford, and Lord Romney the head
of Ordnance, plus Mr. Harrison. All these were backers of William
III.

1695: A noted Bristol shipowner was John Cary. (BM Add MSS
5540-120, cited in Davis, Rise of the English Shipping
Industry, p. 109).

1695: December: After London left the Darien Company alone from
December 1695, between February and August 1696 Scotland in an
extraordinary effort pledged £400,000, though less than half was
ever paid; 1300 persons and more signed their names, many risking
all they had. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 282).

1695: French forces sent onto Jamaica were ejected by the
occupants. Troops sent by Britain were rendered by disease and
mismanagement. There was later an outburst of piracy, so the home
government licensed Apt William Kidd of New York as a privateer in
Adventure Galley. Some of the leading Whigs were shareholders in
the venture. Kidd was later hanged. Bellomont the governor of New
York helped organise Kidd's backers, including Sir John Somers,
Shrewsbury, Russell the First Lord of Admiralty and Earl Orford,
and Lord Romney the head of Ordnance,plus one Mr. Harrison, all of
whom were backers of William III. (See Clark, Later Stuarts,
p. 330).

Aug 1695: Russells and Howland families become more interested
in EICo. In Aug 1695 a spate of corrupt activities discovered,
e.g., forgery of banknotes, William Kidd born in Scotland between
1645 and 1660, about 1695, Kidd owns land in New York, including
sections of Wall Street, prime property. He has a connection with
Mr. Livingston. Wm Kidd as a New Yorker had backed installation of
William III. Livingston wishing to blacken the name of Gov.
Fletcher of New York. In 1695, Kidd seeking a naval position, at a
time when Americans are also engaging in Madagascar piracy which is
linked to "Red Sea men" which are also harassing British EICo
ships, so London becomes upset. Various strands of concerns brought
together by Livingston who is promoting Kidd. England needs to
suppress American piracy and encounters William III's idea to
licence pirates.

December 1695 and later: (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.282),
when London left the Darien Co. alone from Dec 1695 as the EICo in
trouble, between Feb and Aug 1696 Scotland in an extraordinary
effort pledged £400,000 though less than half was ever paid. 1300
persons and more signed their names, many risking all they had,

See S. G. Checkland, Scottish Banking, 1695-1973.
1975.

1695: Circa: Carteret - Admiralty family from before 1700,
proprietary owners in colonies Carolina, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania. During the 1690s, noted mercantile names included
Carteret - an Admiralty family from before 1700, proprietary owners
in colonies Carolina, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Sir John
Lambert, dealt throughout Europe (Westerfield, Middlemen, p.
361). Sir Thomas Gresham was "renowned and philanthropic" but his
business methods were none too honourable; there were allegations
of fraud, usury and high finance (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 399).
Sir John Eyles, Sir Gregory Page, Sir Nathaniel Mead, the Earl of
Tilney (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 403). "Merchant money was
democratizing" the peerage and gentility. (D. W. Jones, 'London
Merchants and the Crisis of the 1690s', in Clark and Slack,
(Eds.), Crisis and Order).

1695 Circa: Sir John Lambert, nd? dealt all around Europe, see
Westerfield, Middlemen, p361. Sir Thomas Gresham, renowned and
philanthropic, business methods none too honourable, fraud, usury
and high finance. (Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 399.) splendid
homes of Sir John Eyles, Sir Gregory Page, Sir Nathaniel Mead, the
Earl of Tilney, Westerfield, Middlemen, p403, by way of merchant
money democratizing the peerage and gentility.
D. W. Jones, London Merchants and the Crisis of the 1690s,
in Clark and Slack, (Eds), Crisis and Order.

1697: Pollexfen in England wrote on colonies: the usefulness of
the labour of Blacks and [white] vagrants. (Sidney W. Mintz,
Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History.
New York, 1985., p. 236).

From 1697: Years after Modyford had died, most English convicts
transportable were directed to the West Indies. On July 2, 1697 the
Lords Justices ordered 50 convict women sent to the Leeward
Islands. [Wilfrid Oldham, Britain's Convicts to the Colonies.
Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1990., p. 5] There is record
of an answer from Micajah Perry of London. [See John M. Hemphill,
Virginia and the English Commercial System, 1689-1733, p. 259,
citing on Perry, Elizabeth Donnan, "Eighteenth-Century English
Merchants: Micajah Perry", Journal of Economic and Business
History. Four Vols. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1928-1932. iv 1932.,
pp. 70-98.] These women must have been conspicuous, as they are
also mentioned in Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and
Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century. London, Penguin Press,
1991., p. 59. See Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, p. 55.
Oldham, Britain's Convicts to the Colonies, p. 5 on 50 women
convicts.

1696: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 1), in 1696, London agents for Co.
of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James
Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the
Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in
Glasgow. Darien connections p. 4 with Honble John Erskin, son of
Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of
Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors,
with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode
Island, Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir
Paul Ricaut. p. 48, Whitehall June 30, 1697, meeting of HM Comms
for Trade and Plantations, re Scotch EICo, ordered that Mr.
[William] Dampier who hath lately printed a book of his voyages -
Dampier and Mr. Wafer - re queries on Isthmus of Darien. Dampier
and Wafer attended again on July 2, 1697, answering re Spaniards at
Panama east to River of Chipelo and an island named Chipelo,
follows a description of Darien. part III of book is Wafer's
description of Darien, surgeon Lionel Wafer, by now, sec of Darien
Co. is Roderick Mackenzie.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 50, Surgeon Lionel Wafer in London met
Dampier, met in a London coffee house with agents of the Darien
directors and th

1696: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 1, in 1696, London agents for Co.
of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James
Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the
Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in
Glasgow. Darien connections p. 4 with Honble John Erskin, son of
Lord Cardross the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of
Gleneagles, Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors,
with Lt. Col. Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode
Island; Sec of Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir
Paul Ricaut. p. 48, Whitehall June 30, 1697, meeting of HM Comms
for Trade and Plantations, re Scotch EICo, ordered that Mr.
[William] Dampier who hath lately printed a book of his voyages -
Dampier and Mr. Wafer - re queries on Isthmus of Darien. Dampier
and Wafer attended again on July 2, 1697, answering re Spaniards at
Panama east to River of Chipelo and an island named Chipelo,
follows a description of Darien. part III of book is Wafer's
description of Darien, surgeon Lionel Wafer, by now, secretary of
Darien Co. is Roderick Mackenzie.

1696: (Olson, Making the Empire work, p.10), in 1696,
William III set up the Board of Trade, and its members obtained
information from interest groups, as William's government tightened
control on the colonies.

1697AD: Hungary: A final victory of the war, the battle of Zenta
in 1697, is followed by the Treaty of Karlovitz [Karlóca] in 1699,
which, with the exception of a small region, frees all Hungary from
Turkish occupation.

1697: William Dampier in Aust ADB. (1652-1715). published
his books in 1697 and 1699, and the admiralty consulted him. so he
sailed with the rank of captain in Jan 1699 in HMS Roebuck, and on
Aug 6 1699 he anchored at the inlet he named Shark Bay. his 1702
court martial declared him unfit to command a HM ship, in 1708 and
1711 he sailed with Apt Woodes Rogers. In 1707 Dampier published
his "unfortunate account" of the 1703 fiasco, Apt Dampier's
Vindication of his Voyage to the South Seas in the Ship St. George.
(London, 1707). entry concludes, "The discovery and settlement of
eastern Australia may be viewed as the indirect but none the less
real conclusion of Dampier's work. See also, L. R. Marchant,
'William Dampier', JRAHS, 6. 1963.

1697: The (Scottish) Darien Company by 1697 had £400,000
subscribed, and needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith. Its
offices were at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get
stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant
James Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on
himself, got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood
and William Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, who was an:
eminent scholar, accomplished antiquary, shrewd merchant, brave
soldier, able politician, zealous divine and an amiable man".
Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698 and then the Darien
madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct bad management but
failed. [sense the Dariens did not know what they were doing]
Expedition one landed on a watery morass, in six months, about
2/3rds of the expedition dead, some 1200 people, Paterson so
devastated he sank into a kind of second childhood, or early
dotage, but recovered.

From 1697, the main stream of convicts transportable is directed
to the West Indies.

1697-1699: Montague at Royal Society had introduced Dampier to
Lord Orford, Lord Admiralty, and about now, Dampier had realised
possibilities of Australian continent, saw Aust as "a country
likely to contain gold". So he put a proposal to Admiralty that a
king's ship explore the coast of New Holland, mentions other places
to be visited with good advantage, he had been commissioned by as
early as spring 1698. deciding to round Cape Horn, go to Australian
east coast, to go north to New Guinea, which meant he would have
got in before Cook. but delayed till September. (Clen Wilkinson,
Dampier, pp. 155-156.

1697: Charles Montague later Halifax, lord of treasury in 1692,
first lord 1697-1699, in 1714 he again became first lord. 1697,
Pelham one of commissioners of Treasury.

1698: The French develop a new company to trade in the Pacific,
Compagnie de la Mer de Sud, sending four vessels by Cape
Horn which return in 1701. Callao becomes a favoured port for
French trade ships.

1698: Steam Engine: Born 1698 (Died 1930). Inspired by a
pressure cooker, military engineer in 1698 patents the first steam
engine. In 1712, blacksmith Thomas Newcomen invented a better
engine which used steam to build a vacuum within a cylinder that
drove a piston via atmospheric pressure. James Watt by about 1761
invented an even better model.

1698: 18 Chas. II, c3. Act 22 Chas II c.5 and Act 22 23 Chas II
c.7. continued all this, transportation being to America of
Northumberland (?). London Guildhall records show that the contract
system with merchants transporting convicts is in existence by
now.

1698: The scientific movement. 1698 Peter the Great of Russia is
at Deptford studying shipbuilding and navigation.

1698: Ideas in English Whig circles to form the New or English
East India Company, granted its charter in September 1698.

1697-1699: Montague at The Royal Society had introduced Dampier
to Lord Orford, Lord of the Admiralty, and about now, Dampier had
realised possibilities of the Australian continent, seeing it as "a
country likely to contain gold". He proposed to Admiralty that a
king's ship explore the coast of New Holland, and mentioned other
places to be visited with good advantage. He was commissioned by as
early as spring 1698, deciding to round Cape Horn then visit the
Australian east coast, to go north to New Guinea. (Wilkinson,
Dampier, pp. 148-149, 155-156).

1698: July: Dampier was ordered to appear before the Council of
Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design of the
Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the Isthmus of
Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer was another witness.
Dampier's friends now included Sir Robert Southwell, diplomatist
and president of The Royal Society, 1690-1695. and Sir Hans Sloane,
patron of men of science and founder of the British Museum,
secretary of The Royal Society in 1693 and succeeding Isaac Newton
as president in 1727. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 150ff).

1698-1707: The profits of the slave trade. A ship the King
Solomon of the Royal Africa Company in 1720 carried a cargo of
slaves worth £4252. Some 296 Negroes are sold in St. Kitts for
£9228, a profit of 117 per cent. The profit on the company's
exports 1698-1707 was about 66 per cent. (Eric Williams, From
Columbus to Castro: The History of The Caribbean, 1492-1969.
London, Andre Deutsch, 1970., p. 147).

1698: September: There were ideas in Whig circles to form the
New or English East India Company, granted its charter in September
1698. The New EICo would trade normally with India in competition
to the already-established EICo, but other schemes such as the
Darien scheme of the Company of Scotland and the piratical
adventures of Capt. Kidd to Madagascar had provided inspiration.
The Darien Company cast of characters included William Dampier as a
minor advisor, his two patrons, Lord Charles Montague later Earl of
Halifax, Chancellor of Exchqr, and Earl of Orford, First Lord of
the Admiralty. Both of these were involved in Darien scheme and
Capt. Kidd's piracy to Madagascar, So any later findings by Dampier
may have gone to Orford and the New East India Company?

1698: The 10th Earl of Argyll a large subscriber to the Darien
Co., subscribed £1500, his brother James put in £700, and 22
gentlemen and merchants of allegiance to Argyll put in a total of
£9400. There is mention of more Campbells in Darien Co. pp.
102-103, one Major Thomas Drummond was with the Campbells at the
massacre at Glencoe, under command of Robt Campbell of Glenlyon.
so, "the Glencoe gang" - which disappeared into the destructive
vortex of Darien events.
List of the principal Darien characters including: Capt. Robt
Alliston was a buccaneer and friend of William Paterson, Argyll
10th Earl, Col. Alexander Campbell of Fonab, Capt. Thos. Drummond
of the massacre at Glencoe and brother of ship Capt. Robert
Drummond, commander of the ship Caledonia of Darien
Expedition 1, later commander of Speedy Return on an African
voyage, and sailed to Africa with Robert Drummond. Capt. Thomas
Green of Worcester later charged with piracy against the
Darien Co's ship Speedy Return, Tweeddales also in Darien
Co., Sir Robert Christie the Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord
Belhaven, needed to build ships at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of
Co. at Milne Square, Edinburgh, Paterson went off to get stores at
Hamburg and Amsterdam, left money with a London merchant James
Smith, but £8000 went missing, Paterson took the blame on himself,
got references from Edinburgh merchant Robert Blackwood and William
Dunlop the Principal of Glasgow College, Paterson deposed as Darien
manager by July 1698 and then the Darien madness entered in,
Paterson tried to correct bad management but failed. Col. Alexander
Campbell of Fonabb (sic), one of Darien link men re proposed Colony
of Caledonia on American continent. In 1696, London agents for Co.
of Scotland to Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James
Campbell of London their agents, merchants and directors of the
Co., plus Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in
Glasgow. connections with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross
the Gov. of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles,
Messrs William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col.
Erskin. deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island, Sec of
Darien Co. is Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. A
Darien Co. link man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam.
Glasgow merchants Walter and Patrick Buchanan, Dr. John Munro, re
medicine, voyage of Capt. Richard Long at time Sir William Beeston
is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in Dec 1698.
(See Spate Vol. 2, p. 169 re Scots and Darien), first Darien Co.
directors were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were Scots,
great need for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and secrecy,
Darien to be a colony with 2500 people .. ships Caledonia
and Unicorn reached New York with Thos. Drummond, losing 275
men on the way, Feb. 1700, Caledonia on Darien saved by the arrival
of Campbell of Fonabb, and straight to a fight with the Spanish, p.
178, Rising Sun and her consort later to Charleston in South
Carolina, to be overwhelmed by a hurricane, and of 1300 people
here, 950 died. nb: Pratt-preserved ledgers mentions perhaps only
one merchant of Glasgow named Campbell. ledger mentions goods in
1699 from John Sumervil, [1718 - born Colin Somerville son of John
Somerville, a Commissioner of General Assembly. James Somerville
was an uncle of young Colin. William Somerville was a provost of
Beufrew.] and John Munro, Glasgow merchants Thomas Calder, many
merchants mentioned, tho few Campbells. Costs from William Arbuckle
merchant of Glasgow, outlaid for Speedy Return Capt. John
Baillie, for Caledonia. Arbuckle laid out £1415/14/9 and one-third
pennies, on or by 23 Dec., 1699.
Pratt on Darien, Carolina colony originally to be a refuge for
Scots. Later sailed the Darien ships Speedwell owned by
Robert Blackwood Jnr a merchant of Edinburgh, Capt. Jn Campbell and
supercargo Robt Innes, to Macao. Speedwell left Batavia in
July 1701 for Macao. Speedwell later wrecked. Other Darien
Co. ships Speedy Return and Caledonian, sent out. In
Scotland, a plan to send next ship, the Annandale, which was
seized by English revenue men. Another Co. ship Content,
Capt. Stewart to India. p. xx, claims re the "legalised
murder" of Capt Green of ship Worcester, tensions
surrounding helped leading to the Union of 1707, this writer
claims. Mr. Alexander Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests
in American colonies.
Capt Thos. Drummond of the massacre at Glencoe and brother of
ship's Capt. Thos. Drummond, commander of Caledonia of
Expedition 1, later commander of Speedy Return on an African
voyage, and sailed to Africa with Thos. Drummond. Capt Thomas Green
of Worcester later charged with piracy against the Darien
Co's ship Speedy Return.
Capt. Robert Drummond was later commander of Speedy Return
on an African voyage, and sailed to Africa with Thos. Drummond.
Capt. Thomas Green of Worcester is later charged with piracy
against the Darien Co's ship Speedy Return, and the murder
of the Drummonds, hanged on Leith Sands). The first Darien
expedition comprised five ships, 1200 men and provisions, in ships
including Caledonia, Unicorn, and St. Andrew.
About July to November 1698 was made the remark: "This harbour ...
capable of containing a thousand sail" (a maritime cliché repeated
by Arthur Phillip in 1788 regarding Sydney Harbour). Don Juan
Pimienta, Governor of Cartegena, attacked and won the second Darien
colony by land and sea. Tweeddales also invested in the Darien
Company, Tweeddales also in Darien Co., Sir Robert Christie the
Lord Provost of Edinburgh and Lord Belhaven, needed to build ships
at Edinburgh and Leith, offices of Co. at Milne Square, Edinburgh,
Paterson went off to get stores at Hamburg and Amsterdam, left
money with a London merchant James Smith, but £8000 went missing,
Paterson took the blame on himself, got references from Edinburgh
merchant Robert Blackwood and William Dunlop the Principal of
Glasgow College, Paterson deposed as Darien manager by July 1698
and then the Darien madness entered in, Paterson tried to correct
bad management but failed. Col. Alexander Campbell of Fonabb (sic),
one of Darien link men re proposed Colony of Caledonia on American
continent. in 1696, London agents for Co. of Scotland to
Africa/Indies, appoints Messrs James Smith and James Campbell of
London their agents, merchants and directors of the Co., plus
Alexander Stevenson in Edinburgh and James Gibson in Glasgow.
connections with Honble John Erskin, son of Lord Cardross the Gov.
of Stirling Castle. John Haldan, Baron of Gleneagles, Messrs
William Paterson and James Smyth, directors, with Lt. Col. Erskin.
deal also with Scots at Hamburg, Rhode Island, Sec of Darien Co. is
Trumbull, at Hamburg is a link man Sir Paul Ricaut. a link man re
America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam. fix G. Pratt on Darien
p221, Darien Co. trying for Surat and a link man re America is
Martin Gregory in Amsterdam. fix Glasgow merchants Walter and
Patrick Buchanan, Dr. John Munro, re medicine, voyage of Apt
Richard Long at time Sir William Beeston is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in
Dec. 1698. See Spate Vol. 2, p 169 re Scots and Darien, first
Darien Co. directors were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were
Scots, great need for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and
secrecy, Darien to be a colony with 2500 people .. ships Caledonia
and Unicorn reached New York with Thos. Drummond, losing 275 men on
the way, Feb 1700, Caledonia on Darien saved by the arrival of
Campbell of Fonabb, and straight to a fight with the Spanish,
p. 178 Rising Sun and her consort later to Charleston in South
Carolina, to be overwhelmed by a hurricane, and of 1300 people
here, 950 died.

1698: 25 March: Dampier is given a silly ship, "Jolly Prize", as
Lord Orford pleased with this idea of exploration, but by July 1698
Dampier felt vessel unfit, so Roebuck got up, 12 guns, crew of 50
men and boys, provisioned for 20 months.

July 1698: Dampier continually called to London to advise
government, council of trade and plantations wanted to know if he
had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by the
Scotch East India Co.? Dampier July 1698 replied he had not,
adding, Wafer unlikely to be able to offer any great service to
Scotch East India Co. [Citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial
Series, America and the West Indies]. Clennel Wilkinson,
Dampier, p.156.)

July 1698, Dampier ordered (why ordered?) to appear before
Council of Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design
of the Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the
Isthmus of Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer another
witness. note re fantasies of gold mines as worked by slave labour.
but Wilkinson feels Dampier and Wafer can have given Council much
encouragement to proceed. Dampier's friends now include Sir Robert
Southwell diplomatist and president of Royal Society, 1690-1695.
and Sir Hans Sloane, patron of men of science and founder of
British Museum, sec of Royal Society in 1693 and succeeded Isaac
Newton as president RS in 1727. (Clennel Wilkinson, Dampier,
pp.150ff.)
Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at smallness of Roebuck
crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt. George Fisher a
gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy of Dampier,
Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John Knight. Doctor
was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James Brand. (Clennel
Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.157-158, p. 247 and Dampier as
scientist referred to problems of the variations of the
compass.

1698 Circa: (G. Pratt on Darien, p. 107), a Mr. Alexander
Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests in American colonies.
[note, throughout, is constant note in documents, the Darien men
did not know what they were doing]. Second Darien expedition,
ledger kept at Glasgow by Peter Murdoch re ship's outfitting.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 55, Apt James Gibson in Darien Co. ship,
Rising Sun, Mr. Cragg interested in making salt. connections
include Mr. Paterson, Mrs. Woodrop and Mr. Robt Blackwood, a Darien
Co. ship also named Dolphin.

1698: (G. Pratt on Darien p. 172), Glasgow merchants Walter and
Patrick Buchanan, G. Pratt on Darien, p. 166), one John Campbell of
Woodsyde, mention of Dinwidie.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 97), voyage of Apt Richard Long at time Sir
William Beeston is Lt. Gov. of Jamaica, in Dec 1698.
G. Pratt on Darien p. 221, Darien Co. trying for Surat and a link
man re America is Martin Gregory in Amsterdam.
G. Pratt on Darien p188, Re Alexander Campbell of Fonabb (sic), one
of Darien link men re proposed Colony of Caledonia on American
continent.

1698: 25 March: Dampier was provided a ship he found useless,
Jolly Prize since Lord Orford was pleased with his ideas for
exploration. But by July 1698 Dampier felt the vessel unfit, so
Roebuck was provided, 12 guns, crew of 50 men and boys, provisioned
for 20 months. Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at the
smallness of Roebuck crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt.
George Fisher a gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy
of Dampier, Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John
Knight. Doctor was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James
Brand. and Dampier as scientist referred to problems of the
variations of the compass. (Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 157-158,
p. 247).

1698: July: Dampier was continually called to London to advise
government. The council of trade and plantations wanted to know if
he had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by
the Scotch East India Company? Dampier in July 1698 replied he had
not, adding, Wafer was unlikely to be able to offer any great
service to Scotch East India Co. (Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 156,
citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and
the West Indies).

1698 Circa: (G. Pratt on Darien, p. 107), a Mr. Alexander
Hamilton is link man for Darien Co. interests in American colonies.
[note, throughout, is constant note in documents, the Darien men
did not know what they were doing]. Second Darien expedition,
ledger kept at Glasgow by Peter Murdoch re ship's outfitting.

In Amsterdam, a Darien contact is one Martin Gregory, p. 226,
his brother is Jonas Gregory. (Spate, Vol. 2, The Pacific Since
Magellan. ANU Press, Canberra, 1983 re Monopolists and
Freebooters, Dutch, Priests and Pearlers, the Buccaneers, Dampier
and Darien p 160ff, Anson sails for British, Manila, Peru and
California. p 169 re Scots and Darien, first Darien Co. directors
were 20, 10 in London and seven in London were Scots, great need
for privacy re views of the EICo charter, and secrecy, Darien to be
a colony with 2500 people,
p. 173 better stock of provisions than given to Botany Bay in 1788
. 1200 sailed for Darien on July 14, 1698, St. Andrew landed? in
Jamaica, Caledonia and Unicorn reached New York with Thos.
Drummond, losing 275 mane on the way, callous leadership, July
1698, Darien expedition 1 with three vessels, gave up within a
year, (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 285.)

1698: 27 September: Dampier called again to council of trade and
plantations re advising on fitting out a squadron against pirates
to east of Cape of Good Hope. ship voyage from Madagascar to
England. (Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 156-157).

G. Pratt on Darien p. 62, in 1698, a link man is Lord Ruthven.
Ship Rising Sun is part of second Darien expedition. p64, a
Darien director is Rt. Hon John Marquess of Tweeddale.

G. Pratt on Darien p57, (Dr. Hill Bunton's Darien Papers. p.
59), a Dr. John Munro, re medicine. p. 61. Early 1698: Principal of
College of Glasgow, William Dunlop been contacted to recommend a
minister to go out to Darien.
Thomas Calder, Glasgow merchant helping fit out Darien
expedition.

1698 Circa: EICo Capt. Thomas Bowrey (died in 1713) came ashore
with a few thousand pounds, invested in a china shop and a small
group of ships he managed, about 1700 he put these in the
temporarily free EICo trade, e.g. Rising Sun, Mary Galley,
Macclesfield, Trumball Galley, Horsham, Prosperous, and Rochester.
He also was husband for the Worcester re Capt. Green and end of the
Darien Co. disasters. see R. C. Temple, The Tragedy of the
Worcester. 1930.

1698: The Act 18 Chas. II, c3. Act 22 Chas II c.5 and Act 22 23
Chas II c.7. continued the custom of transportation. London
Guildhall records show that the contract system with merchants was
in existence by now. (Wilfrid Oldham, p. 4).

1698: The scientific movement: 1698 Peter the Great of Russia
was at Deptford studying shipbuilding and navigation. (Clark,
Later Stuarts, p. 372).

1698: 21 Nov.: Dampier wrote to Lord Orford on proposed voyage,
he had drawn up his own instructions, now too late to get about
Cape Horn (Bligh said the same in late 1787), so he'd have to sail
via CGH. wanted a gratuity for his men, aware he is insecure in
ways of dealing with superiors. His formal instructions came on
Nov. 30. to go to CGH and stretch to New Holland, steer any course,
wanting a discovery of value, hoping for advantages to nation.
internal squabbles braked the expedition, Lt. George Fisher a
regular naval officer had been a leading light re expedition had
appeared re the board's deliberations. He was later Dampier's
enemy. Fisher kept a note book, in 1689 Fisher had served with
distinction on William III's fleet at Londonderry. (Wilkinson,
Dampier, pp. 158-162).

1698, 25 March: Dampier given a silly ship, Jolly Prize,
as Lord Orford is pleased with this idea of exploration, but by
July 1698 Dampier felt vessel unfit, so Roebuck got up, 12 guns,
crew of 50 men and boys, provisioned for 20 months.

July 1698, Dampier continually called to London to advise
government, council of trade and plantations wanted to know if he
had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer by the
Scotch East India Co.? Dampier July 1698 replied he had not,
adding, Wafer unlikely to be able to offer any great service to
Scotch East India Co. [Citing, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial
Series, America and the West Indies]. (Clen Wilkinson,
Dampier, p.156.)

July 1698, Dampier ordered (why ordered?) to appear before
Council of Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design
of the Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the
Isthmus of Darien" under William Paterson. Lionel Wafer another
witness. note re fantasies of gold mines as worked by slave labour.
but Wilkinson feels Dampier and Wafer can have given Council much
encouragement to proceed. Dampier's friends now include Sir Robert
Southwell diplomatist and president of Royal Society, 1690-1695.
and Sir Hans Sloane, patron of men of science and founder of
British Museum, sec of Royal Society in 1693 and succeeded Isaac
Newton as president RS in 1727. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier,
pp.150ff.)

Re Argyll's trading to America, if so by when? One Argyll
brother perhaps? There is an Argyll brother mentioned re Darien in
The Old Scots Navy (?).

Dampier told Orford he was disappointed at smallness of Roebuck
crew, among whom were Jacob Hughes master, Lt. George Fisher a
gentleman and an enthusiastic Whig later an enemy of Dampier,
Philip Paine gunner, mates were R. Chadwick and John Knight. Doctor
was Scot William Borthwick and captains clerk James Brand. (Clen
Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.157-158, p. 247), and Dampier as
scientist referred to problems of the variations of the
compass.

1698: 27 September: Dampier called again to council of trade and
plantations re advising on fitting out a squadron against pirates
to east of Cape of Good Hope. ship voyage from Madagascar to
England. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 156-157.)

1698: There were ideas in Whig circles to form the New or
English East India Company, granted its charter in September
1698.

Jan 1699: Wm sent a circular letter to Govs of English colonies
ordering them to refuse all aid or countenance to the Darien
colonists. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 284.)

1699: G. Pratt on Darien p. 138, VIP nb: the ledger mentions
perhaps only one merchant of Glasgow named Campbell. ledger
mentions goods in 1699 from John Sumervil, and John Munro, Glasgow
merchants Thomas Calder, many merchants mentioned, no
Campbells.
G. Pratt on Darien, p. 89, echo here for Phillip, Darien men
reckoned they had found a harbour "capable of containing 10,000
sail of Shipps".
G. Pratt on Darien, p. 193, 20 Oct, 1699, costs from William
Arbuckle merchant of Glasgow, outlaid for Speedy Return
Capt. John Baillie, for Caledonia. no Campbell's were suppliers,
Arbuckle laid out £1415/14/9 and one-third pennies, on or by Dec
23, 1699.

1699: The Tories were impeaching about 1699 the Whigs Somers,
Portland, Orford and Halifax. (Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 186,
p.195), Montague as Halifax - member of junto p., 225, 27, 381,
info being that 186, in 1697 Montague succeeded Godolphin as First
Lord of Treasury.

January 1699: Roebuck ready to sail with Dampier aboard. a
king's ship. more Dampier books in hands of the printers. and
Dampier wrote from Downs to Lord Orford, First Lord of Admiralty,
unable to send Orford a copy of book(s), and this volume the second
made Dampier even more famous. [Wilkinson p. 154 complains Dampier
is damned with faint praise in British DNB]. (Clen
Wilkinson, Dampier, p.152.)

1699: 14 January: Roebuck sailed from Downs, master
Hughes. Met at Tenerife, English Captain Travers of the
Experiment. Fisher thinks Dampier has put an assassin aboard
to kill Fisher, Fisher put off boat, then for Cape Verde by Feb 11.
Aug 6, Dampier sees WA then makes for Timor arriving Sept 22.
Wilkinson feels Dampier felt he was making a mistake in leaving.
Seeing south coast New Guinea Jan 1, 1700. [Byrnes feels he must
have been testing the winds]. Dampier lost his ship off Island of
Ascension Feb 22, 1701 by a leak, Dampier lost his papers. (Clen
Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 162-181.)

1699: "The Kidd affair" as it became known. 1699, a ship was
sent out to get Kidd but it was driven back by a storm, allegations
Kidd's backers wanted plunder at home and abroad, admiralty got a
percentage from [licenced] pirates. King's grant (William III) for
backers of Kidd, a Royal Patent. with dummy names disguising "great
names" i.e. the names of Kidd's backers. 1701, Apt Kidd back in
London, a furore on his activities and queries on who were his
backers? HOC listens to argument and allegations. If Kidd claims,
as he did, he is innocent, then he also exonerates his backers.

December 1699, Lt. Fisher off Dampier's ship long back in
England and laying in wait with a prosecution. enemies been busy
for some time. (Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 182.)

(G. Pratt on Darien, p. 77, p. 271); Darien Manuscripts in
Archives of the Royal Society. Dr. James Wallace sailed with Darien
Fleet and gave an almost-official record to the Royal Society, if
Capt. Pennycook's voyage, Royal Society printed it in 1700-1701 as
part of its transactions.

Sept 1699: Third Darien expedition four ships, even beat of an
enemy attack, but gave up when enemy returned with stronger force,
and evacuated, not one ship returned home of the four, and Wm found
the Scots like "raging madmen". (Clark, Later Stuarts, p.
285.)

1699: January: Roebuck ready to sail with Dampier aboard.
More books by Dampier were in the hands of printers. (Wilkinson,
Dampier, pp. 152-154).

1699: January: William II sent a circular letter to the
governors of English colonies, ordering them to refuse all aid or
countenance to the Darien colonists. (Clark, Later Stuarts,
p. 284).

September 1699: Third Scottish Darien expedition, four ships,
Scots even beat off an enemy attack, but give up when enemy returns
with stronger force, and evacuate; not one ship returned home of
the four, and William III found the Scots like "raging madmen".
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 285.)

1699: Presidents of Council formerly Thomas earl of Danby till
1698, in 1699 was Thomas earl of Pembroke, in 1708 John Lord
Somers, in 1711 John Duke of Buckinghamshire.

About 1700: Some governors of Christ's Hospital in London
included Arthur Baron, Adrian Beyer, Col. James Boddington, Sir
William Coles, Sir James Collett, Peter Godfrey, Samuel Jackson,
Robert Knight, Thomas Lockington and Micajah Perry. (A. L. Bier and
Roger Finlay, London, 1500-1700: The Making of the
Metropolis. London, Longman, 1986., p. 276.)

After 1700: More so with the advent of the Hanoverians, England
produced the stereotyped image of portly John Bull.
Insensitive and jingoistic, not bright at all, despising the French
and the Irish, wanting "the Scotch" kept under the foot, and the
fruits of an expanded empire. Often a Whig.

1700: An associate of the Thomson brothers was an emigrant to
Virginia, William Claiborne. Claiborne's son, (or, grandson?) was
one Colonel Leonard Claiborne, who had two daughters, one,
untraced, ? and another, Catherine, who was of a marriageable age
by 1700, died 1735. [I am grateful to Virginian genealogist John
Dorman for information on the Claiborne family of Virginia].
Catherine married a Scot who by 1700 had left the second or third
unsuccessful expedition of the Scottish Darien Company to the
present area of the eastern outlet of the Panama Canal, one John
Campbell. John Campbell after his disappointing Darien adventures
remained in a state of high dudgeon, declaring he would not return
to an England or a Scotland which had sabotaged the Darien
Company.

The Asiento:

As American silver flowed to Europe, as Europe learned to cope
with inflation due to the intake of Spanish silver, there arose a
role for the Asiento, or, a market for silver exchange
devoted to slaving business. The question of satisfying the supply
of and demand for slaves was plugged irrevocably into international
business and commerce of the time.

Supplies of ultra-cheap labour for colonies were guaranteed as
luxuries (food spices, sugar, tobacco) become more available to the
upper classes, then the middle classes. "Capitalism" was corrupted
in respect of many factors; the costs of labour, the elasticity of
the supply of labour, the operating costs of plantations, the sale
price of the final products; all while the Mercantilist attempted
to buy cheap and sell dear as a matter of course.

A commercial role for the romantic figure of Prince Rupert
should not be forgotten.
(Prince Rupert Wittlesbach (17 Dec. 1619-29 Nov. 1682), FRS: there
is a legend that Rupert invented a gunpowder ten times more
powerful than existing supplies.

Rupert's father was Frederick Wittlesbach, his mother was
Elizabeth of Bohemia. Rupert was linked romantically with Frances
Bard and the actress, Margaret Hughes. Rupert became a patentee of
the Royal African Company on 10 January 1663, and got involved in
that Company's squabbles with the Dutch. He had planned by August
1664 to take 12 ships to the African coast to harry the Dutch. He
was upset in 1665 when command of this fleet went to the Earl of
Sandwich (Edward Montagu (1625-1672 and not himself.
(GEC, Peerage, Sandwich, p. 432, Mount Edgecumbe; p.
315.)

By 1668 he had a devised a scheme with Monck, the Duke of
Albemarle for discovering a passage from the Great Lakes to the
South Sea, In June 1668 two ships went to seek the north-west
passage; one of the ships was the Eaglet ketch, loaned by Charles
II. The expedition had been proposed by a Frenchman, Groseilliers,
and the commander was a man from Boston, Zacariah Guillam. A
charter of 2 May, 1670 was given to Rupert and others for the
Hudson Bay Company. The third Dutch war broke out in March 1672,
and on 15 August, 1672, Rupert was appointed vice-admiral of
England. By 1673 Rupert was intimate with Shaftesbury.
[K. H. D. Haley, The First Earl of Shaftesbury. Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1968., p. 229].)

Rupert became partners with Sir Thomas Cicheley and first Earl
Shaftesbury, and they hoped the navy would buy guns they
manufactured, but this arrangement went bad and they let their
rights to one John Browne of Horsmonden, Kent. But Browne soon died
and his widow and one William Dyke soon owed money to Rupert, Earl
Shaftesbury and Chicheley.

By 1636 or later Rupert had a wild scheme to colonise
Madagascar, of which his mother disapproved; Rupert (and/or
Charles) asked the advice of the East India Company. Later, an
expedition of Rupert's was commanded by one Sir William Batten.
Rupert had old grudges against Lord Colepeper. By 1650 Rupert was
operating as a pirate against the English and down to Cartagena,
and he wanted to use Barbados as a base. His flagship this time was
named Constant Reformation. He once took some prizes from
the Gambia. Rupert by 1653 came under the influence of the
lord-keeper, Sir Edward Herbert, and Rupert was hand in glove with
Lord Jermyn and Lord Gerard (Charles Gerard, (died 1694/95) first
Baron Gerard of Brandon, first Earl Macclesfield).
(GEC, Peerage, Macclesfield, pp. 328ff; Hamilton, p. 269).
From 1654, Rupert spent six years in Germany. [See DNB entry
and Eliot Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers
including their private correspondence. Three Vols. London,
Richard Bentley, MDCCCXLIX., Vol. 3, p. 489). Rupert bought the
house of Sir Nicholas Crisp at Hammersmith, which had cost £25,000
to build. [On Rupert's son, Dudley, see Warburton, Vol. 3, p. 466;
also Warburton, p. 461, p. 446. Earl Dartmouth, William Legge was a
friend of Rupert by 1660. [Haley, Shaftesbury, p. 231]
regarding Rupert and the Hudson's Bay Company, with shareholders
including Cooper, also the Earl of Craven, Sir Paul Neile (sic) and
his business partners, although Shaftesbury made little profits
from Hudson's Bay. [GEC, Peerage, Bellomont, pp.
106ff.].

Rupert dealt with the Earl of Craven (William Craven,
(1608-1697, first Earl Craven, a proprietor of Carolina, a son of
William Craven, Lord Mayor of London in 1610-1611)) in some
business deals.
(GEC, Peerage, Craven, pp. 500-502. Bliss, Revolution and
Empire, p. 209. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, p.
441. Haley, Shaftesbury, pp. 158ff and variously.

Shaftesbury's commercial involvements included Dorset estates,
mining, money lending, shipping, colonial proprietorship. He joined
the Africa Adventurers in 1663-1666, and put dependents into East
India Company employ. By 1646 he had a Barbados plantation and a
ship Rose regular on the Guinea slave coast. He also dealt
with the financier and Caribbean operator, Martin Noell.
(Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, Shaftesbury. Bliss,
Revolution and Empire, p. 209 on proprietors of Carolina.
Israel, (Ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment, variously. J. R.
Jones, The First Whigs: The Politics of the Exclusion Crisis,
1678-1683. London, Oxford University Press, 1961. Shaftesbury's
brother George married a daughter of Oldfield, a London
sugar-baker. (Haley, Shaftesbury, p. 64; and on Shaftesbury
as a Whig, pp. 234-235). A note is given below on the founder of
the Whig Party, Henry Wriothesley, third Earl of Southampton.)

Rupert was friends with Anthony Ashley Cooper (1621-1683), first
Earl Shaftesbury, often regarded, incorrectly, as "founder" of the
English Whigs.
(Much could be made of Shaftesbury's lineage in terms of themes
already outlined here: anti-Spanish feeling, furthering
colonisation, family connections with earlier privateers, and
interloping against the East India Company. In Shaftesbury's
background was MP and secretary at war, Sir Anthony Ashley
(1551-1622), who married Dorothy Wroughton (died 1616). She had
also married MP Carew Raleigh, a privateer and brother of Sir
Walter Raleigh. Shaftesbury's second wife was Frances Cecil,
daughter of David Cecil (third Earl Exeter), and Elizabeth Egerton,
a daughter of John Egerton, first Earl Bridgwater, by Frances
Stanley (1583-1635, daughter of Ferdinando Stanley (1559-1594),
fifth Earl Derby; that is, John Egerton otherwise married to
Margaret Courteen. Shaftesbury's third wife, married in 1655 was
Margaret Spencer, daughter of William Spencer (died 1636), second
Baron Spencer of Wormleighton, and Penelope Wriothesley
(1598-1667), daughter of Henry Wriothesley (1573-1624), who is more
properly viewed as founder of the English Whig party. GEC,
Peerage, Spencer of Wormleighton, p. 160, Shaftesbury, p.
646.)
(Henry Wriothesley: Who's Who /Shakespeare, p. 234. GEC,
Peerage, Craven of Ryton, p. 507; Drogheda, p. 436; Bedford,
pp. 80ff; Southampton, pp. 128ff. Hervey, Arundel, pp. 42ff.
Joyce (Ed.), Amazon, p. 204, Note 1. He is known in
literature as a patron of Shakespeare. He once went on an
expedition to the Azores, and was variously involved with
anti-Spanish sentiment, the Virginia Company, the East India
Company, Bermuda, the North West Passage Company, New England, the
"Sea Plan" of 1622, and he helped govern Ireland under Essex. By
1603 he had a farm of Sweet Wines. He came undone as he aided
Essex's "insurrection".

Rupert in older age developed a gunpowder ten times more
powerful than anything earlier known! It would be surprising if the
revised market for gunpowder did not give a strong filip to
the demand for saltpetre from India, carried in East India Company
ships. By 1650, Rupert was vigourously pirating against English
parliamentary ships, although his own fleet had no more than five
ships.

By 1651, Rupert was cruising the Guinea coast. His brother
Prince Maurice was destined to be lost in a storm at sea by
September 1652. Rupert was interested in Barbados and was there by
summer 1652, after Ayscue had returned the island to the obedience
of Parliament. Rupert did not bring home great prize money, nor
political advantage from his sea war with the Dutch. Soon he came
under the influence of Sir Edward Herbert, the lord keeper.
(Herbert: Attorney-General 1641-1645. GEC, Peerage,
Portland, p. 587; Torrington, p. 784ff.)

Rupert was also close to Lord Jermyn, and Lord Gerard, who all
wished to overthrow Hyde.
(Lord Gerard was lieutenant-general of all the forces in 1678-1679,
admiral and a Royalist Whig, Charles Gerard (died 1694/95), first
Baron Gerard of Brandon and first Earl Macclesfield. Hibbert,
Cavaliers and Roundheads, lists, p. 300. GEC,
Peerage, Macclesfield, pp. 328ff; Hamilton, p. 269.)

In search of profit, on 10 January, 1663 Rupert became one of
the patentees of the Royal African Company of the day, and there
followed disputes with the Dutch. By 1668 with others including the
Duke of Albemarle he took up the search for the supposed North-west
passage via Canada to the South Sea. (The Hudson's Bay
Company was chartered on 2 May, 1670). Rupert was first lord of the
admiralty between July 1673 and May 1679. By about 1670, the
Hudson's Bay Company set out to exploit several million square
miles of Canada, with a capital of only £10,500.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 32.)

About then, princes, ministers and the high of society invested
in joint-stock companies. James the Duke of York, lord high
admiral, was the first governor of the Royal African Company, he
bought £3000 worth of East India Stock in 1684; and he succeeded
Prince Rupert as governor of the Hudson's Bay Company.
(Sir George Clark, The Later Stuarts, 1660-1714. Oxford
History of England. Vol. 10. Oxford University Press, 1965., p.
61.)

It is not surprising, with such men having such commercial
interests, conflict broke out with other cross-channel commercial
powers.

There has been insufficient serious study of the Asiento,
and if the names of all the merchants involved in it were known,
the study of slavery could easily become more specific, especially
where English involvement is concerned. In 1663, the Asiento
arrangements took the form of a contract to supply the agent of the
Asiento with 3500 Negroes a year. This could only be done by
starving the English colonies of slaves, and anyway this contract
delivered few slaves. It is intriguing to inspect what Prince
Rupert might have overseen when he (or anyone else of high rank)
took any interest in slaving business.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 43, p. 327.)

By 1663, the English slavers had delivered 3075 slaves to
Barbados, but war had fretted the supply and the Barbados colonists
were enraged at higher costs and other issues related to the
Asiento.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 43., p. 327.)

In 1662, the Asiento was granted to two Genoese
merchants, Grillo and Lomelin, who were given permission to
sub-contract to any nation friendly to Spain. Grillo and Lomelin
were soon talking to the Dutch East India Company and English Royal
Adventurers. English dealers would now compete with the Dutch for
this Spanish trade in slaves. The English developed absurdly
optimistic hopes, reflective of their ignorance, in fact. The
Grillo Asiento ended in 1671 - one English participant had
been Richard (Ricardo) White.

Soon the Asiento was taken up by Garcia, a Madrid
businessman, the Consulado of Seville, and a sub-contractor, Don
Juan Barrosso, who relied greatly on the Dutch, by about 1671.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, agents lists.)

Some Englishmen involved included Captain Joseph Bagg,
agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, John Balle, agent for the
Africa Company in Jamaica, Sir William Beeston, nd, governor of
Jamaica, agent for Africa Company, Thomas Belchamber, nd, agent for
the Africa Company at Nevis, John Booker, agent in Gambia, Colonel
Spencer Boughton, nd, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, Capt
Nathaniel Bradley, nd, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, (Bradley
was an agent at Cape Coast Castle in June 1680). John Chidley (a
rogue), was agent in the Gambia. Thomas Corker, nd, was agent of
the Africa Company at Sherbro. Thomas Crispe was agent in 1655 and
1665. (He has been treated in some detail earlier.)

Also, William Hicks was an agent or chief merchant at Cape Coast
Castle, Capt Ralph Hodgkins was an agent-general for the Africa
Company at Cape Coast Castle. John Chidley, an agent in Gambia.
Thomas Corker, nd, agent for the Africa Company at Sherbro. Thomas
Croaker (sic) was an agent for the Asiento. Asiento
Howsley Freeman, agent or chief merchant at Cape Coast Castle, John
Freeman, slave agent at Sherbro (sic), Stephen Gascoigne, Royal
Africa Company's agent in Barbados, Juan Genes, agent of
Asiento, Abraham Gill, agent of Asiento, Henry
Greenhill, agent-general at Cape Coast Castle, John Hanbury, agent
for slaves in Gambia, Robert Helmes (sic) Africa Company's agent at
Nevis, Giles Heysham, Africa Company's agent at Barbados, Joseph
Holmes, agent and slaver factor in the Gambia, William Hicks, agent
or chief merchant at Cape Coast Castle, Captain Ralph Hodgkins,
agent-general for the Africa Company at Cape Coast Castle, William
Hicks, chief merchant at Cape Coast Castle, Captain Ralph Hodgkins,
agent-general Africa Company at Cape Coast Castle, John Kabes agent
of Kommenda, John Kastell, agent and slaver for the Africa Company
at the Gambia.

Lists can continue. The genealogist will wish to know: were any
interesting family names listed here, perhaps also connected with
other businesses mentioned by English historians of commerce?
Hender Molesworth, lieutenant-governor of Jamaica and Africa
Company's agent.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 241ff, pp. 297,
330ff.)

Zachary Rogers an Africa Company agent at Sherbro and accused of
helping interlopers; William Ronan, chief merchant or agent of the
Africa Company at Cape Coast Castle and accused of helping
interlopers; Walter Ruding, Africa Company's agent in Jamaica.
(Note: Sherbro was also known as York Island). Sir Edwin Stede,
governor of Barbados. An agent of the Africa Company, John Thurloe
at Sekondi (sic). A factor slaver or agent at Sekondi was Thomas
Thurloe. An agent slaver in the Gambia, Richard White; agent of
Asiento, John Whitfield, factor or agent at Anomabu; Richard
Willis, agent or slaver factor at Whydah.

In London, the practice arose of contracting for Negroe slaves,
in syndicates, which, as agreed in advance with the Royal Africa
Company, bought cargoes or fractions of cargoes at a fixed price
payable in London. Syndicates or their representatives then became
consignees of such slaves and had disposal of them. This seems to
have been the normal way of supplying the colonies before 1672.
Then the company encouraged contractors to get the slaves.
Fractions might be 1/20th of a cargo. By 1713, England carried out
the slave trade by an asiento (ie, a silver exchange)
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 294, p. 328; Pierre Vilar,
A History of Gold and Money, 1450-1920. London, Verso,
1991., p. 221.)

Some pre-1672 merchant adventurers to Africa were Sir John
Lethuillier, James and John Banckes, Godfrey Lee, Francis Boynton.
Sir William Turner (Lord Mayor, MP for London), paid £325 in 1671
to buy a 32/nd share in an East India Company ship Golden
Fleece, which made six voyages to the east. Turner had about
1/20th of his wealth in the Royal Africa Company.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 36, p. 159.)

Godfrey Lee of the Merchant Adventurers and the Royal Africa
Company was an importer of copper, as was Thomas Vernon of the same
Company. Mildmays is old and famous and illustrious Essex family,
which died out by 1796. There was once a Mildmay a slave agent at
Ophra, according to K. G. Davies' lists.
(Colley, Britons, p. 157.)

The Royal Africa Company of 1672 and the
Asiento:

The African Adventurers Company was ruined by its losses and
after 1672 was replaced by the Royal Africa Company, which was even
more ambitious, which set up six forts on the Gold Coast and one on
the slave coast, while the French built up north of the Gambia in
Senegal.
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, pp. 332ff.)

Founded in 1672, the Royal African Company had its monopoly
broken from 1689 by private traders; by 1712 the private traders
gave the Company a 10 per cent commission to fund operation of the
forts
(Orlando Patterson, Sociology, pp. 127ff.)

From 1712, the British slave trade became free, so the Company
made only an insignificant supply of slaves. Slackness in the
English trade allowed Bristol and Liverpool to become ports heavily
dependent on slavery, especially Liverpool. Africa House was in
Leadenhall Street, first mentioned by 1677. These premises were
taken over by the East India Company and from 1766 the Africa
Company offices were in Cooper's Court, and later, Cannon Street.
(The charter was recalled in 1821 and the remaining possessions on
the West African coast were given to Sierra Leone.)

By 1672 there were 70 sugar works on Jamaica (which is a total
of 3,840,000 acres). In 1752, cultivable land was measured at
633,336 acres. In 1754 there were 1620 planters with an average
holding of 1000 acres, and much land not used for sugar was left
idle, despite the island's potential for greater self-sufficiency
in food production and urgings that it become more diversified in
production. To keep production down propped up the price, and
Williams writes, Jamaica could easily have had three times the
number of sugar plantations it did have. Producing 760 tons of
sugar, 200,000 acres had been granted to 717 families, which is
about 280 acres per family. Sugar islands became increasingly
parochial in outlook, and, was this due to monoculturalism?
Cultivating one acre of cane in the West Indies required [about]
172 days of human labour.
(Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, pp. 114-119, p.
127.)

After 1670, in London, wealthy West Indian planters began to
meet at a tavern, and by 1674 arose the Jamaican Coffee House. So
was aided the institutionalisation of West India absentee
landlordism. On 27 September, 1672, the Royal Africa Company
charter passed the Great Seal, and now it had legal recognition. It
could seize the goods and ships of any who infringed its monopoly,
it sought gold, silver and Negroes, could make war and peace with
heathen nations, raise troops and execute martial law.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 97.)

But financially, matters were chimerical. On 16 December, 1712,
an item in London Gazette noted agreements reached about
finalising the Royal Africa Company, which then lapsed into
sleepiness, and it appeared that since 1672, an original subscriber
with £100 stock would have lost between £253 and £350. Its books at
times seem to have been handled with criminal dishonesty, or,
problems of ignorance, lack of experience in capital management,
though one might well ask, could anything like slavery in fact be
managed rationally? Davies writes: "The outrage to morality which
the Middle Passage must always be should not obscure the fact that
it was also an outrage to sound economics".
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 72, p. 96, p. 294.)

An original subscriber, John Bull, for £500, bought another £400
in 1674 and sold all the next eight months. He bought again in 1675
and 1676 and resold; the same, in 1679 and 1685. Others behaving in
this way were the Earl Berkeley, John Cudworth, Nicholas Hayward,
Thomas Hall. From 1672, more investors: Benjamin Newland bought
goods at the company's sales. John Gourney, Thomas Aldworth, Thomas
Nichols and Peter Proby supplied the RAC with goods for export as
wholesalers.
(This Peter Proby is difficult to identify. Two men named Peter
Proby, one Lord Mayor of London 1622-1623, were presumably dead by
this period. Burke's Peerage and Baronetage for Proby of
Elton, p. 429.)

Investors included Sir Humphrey Edwin as a company promoter, Sir
John Buckworth a commissioner of the Mint, Sir George Waterman the
City Auditor. Sir William Langhorne (ex-India with £19,000
in East India stock and £4000 in RAC stock). Sir Jeremy Sambrooke
(ex-India with £18,000 in India Stock and £700 in the RAC). And
Streynsham Master, ex-India. Old hands of the former Africa
Adventurers were modest investors; Abraham Holditch, Henry Nurse
former agents at Cape Coast Castle, and Alexander Cleeve a former
agent on the Gambia. So, two-thirds of capital was in the hands of
businessmen and most of these were overseas traders. Money was
drawn from already-established branches of trade.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 66-69.)

By 1672, some small RAC investors were Tobias Rustat, Yeoman of
the Wardrobe (and benefactor of Jesus College at Cambridge);
Lawrence du Puy, keeper of the mall; William Ashburnam, cofferer of
the royal household; Matthew Wren, secretary of the Duke of York;
and Eusebius Mathews ; a few holders of minor civil service posts,
some widows, some country gentlemen, a controller of prizes, a
cashier to customs, two revenue officers, country men including Sir
John Lowther of Lowther, Sir John Lowther of Whitehaven, Sir
Anthony Craven of Buckinghamshire, Broom Whorwood of Oxfordshire,
George Garth of Surrey, and Francis Farnaby of Kent. Lawrence du
Puy, the King's barber. Dudley North, the noted Turkey merchant.
joined the RAC to learn how to manipulate joint-stock, with which
he was unfamiliar.

By 1672, the new RAC had a sub-contract with the Asiento
and an oblique entry was made possible to Spanish colonial markets;
gold and ivory would supplement trade in Negroes, and of course,
sugar. The RAC would probably be favoured by Charles II, his court,
and the Duke of York (who invested in both the East India Company
and the Royal Africa Company), plus several ministers and prominent
courtiers. But an accident of finance, a stop on the exchequer,
poor national finances, debts to goldsmiths, all immobilized, and
those who had left money with goldsmiths (by then lent to the
crown?) were held up.

Moreover, with the "secret" treaty of Dover of 1671, Charles had
gotten cash from France for an attack on the United Provinces.
Since the Dutch were so important on the African coast, this was
all important; the second Dutch war had been largely an outcome of
rivalry on the African coast, and it was notable that many who knew
of the "secret" Dover treaty subscribed to the RAC. Including,
Clifford (died 1673 had £400 stock), Arlington (£500 stock),
Buckingham (£500 stock died 1687), and Ashley (Shaftesbury); four
of the five ministers in the Cabal, plus the Duke of York, Prince
Rupert, Sir William Coventry and Sir Joseph Williamson (secretary
of state, £500 stock, sold out in 1687). Plus, John Locke
(philosopher interested in colonisation, £400 stock, sold in 1675).
Sir George Carteret (£500 RAC stock - his family had a royal
charter for Carolina, he was a Lord Proprietor of Carolina and a
member of the committee of trade and plantations).

Sir Peter Colleton (large plantation in Barbados, £1000 RAC
stock sold in 1675, down to £400). The Earl of Craven (£600 stock).
Merchant Thomas Povey. Sir Edmund Andros (former governor of New
York). Ferdinando Gorges (£1000 RAC stock, sold in 1679), whose
family had estates in New England. Several such names had been
associated with Ashley (Shaftesbury) in his earlier [unnamed]
colonial schemes. Others were Lord Hawley, Lawrence du Puy and
Matthew Wren, close to the Duke of York. Lord Berkeley had up to
£1600 stock in the RAC but sold out in 1688. The king, James II,
sold his RAC stock, £3000 on 10 January, 1689; James received in
dividends £3480 and sold for £5730, with a total profit of £6210
over seventeen years. The Earl of Craven was not a large investor,
nor was Lord Powis (£100 stock) or Lord Falconberg. Royalty and
their circles never held more than one quarter of the RAC
stock.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 60-67.)

By 1672, the primary problem of any African company was a
shortage of liquid capital, and the RAC had raised too little.
Turnover was slower due to long credit being extended to
slave-buying planters. There was the infrastructure cost of fixing
capital in forts, so the Company had to borrow heavily. It traded
in gold, ivory, dyewood, hides and waxes for the English market and
in buying slaves for the West Indies. The need arose to export
English goods worth about £100,000 per year, including goods of
non-English origin, such as cheap eastern textiles, Swedish iron,
spirits such as French Brandy. Beads for Africa came from Venice.
English manufacturers objected as their markets were limited, the
sugar islands wanted more slaves than were supplied, free traders
objected. K. G. Davies writes, the RAC spent up to £25,000 per year
on hired shipping.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 44-46, and p. 175.)

The operation of the Asiento involved international
speculators in currency, and Spanish, Flemish, Italian and French
markets attracted speculators connected with the Crown by
asientos. Silver was placed in the most profitable
market.
(Vilar, A History of Gold and Money, p. 152.)

In 1674-1676, England renewed its interest in the Asiento
and probably dealt with Garcia at Madrid. In 1674 Francis
Millington, and in 1676, Peter Proby and various Royal Africa
Company shareholders made overtures, such as with a deal for 250
slaves to be delivered to Cadiz. Apparently, regarding a Spanish
ship, the Santo Domingo, Richard White, ex the Grillo
Asiento, made overtures which the Royal Africa Company later
rejected. (Later, Thomas Croaker went from Cadiz to Barbados in the
Caribbean to buy slaves). Then Spanish interest switched to
Jamaica, where the Spanish stationed a permanent agent.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 330.)

By October 1683, 336 slaves off Jamaica were sold to Abraham
Gill, an agent of the Asiento Porcio, (which was a Spanish
Asiento in conflict with the Dutch Coymans' Asiento)
to Don Juan Genes and Co., and to Don Juan Espino. Later operating
was Don Alexander Oliver, a representative of the Dutch Coymans
Asiento. There were no more such sales after 1686. The
Jamaicans enjoyed dealing in silver, the Royal Africa Company
missed a prime opportunity here, but the Jamaicans were notoriously
anti the Royal Africa Company monopoly. And in 1686,
Molesworth twice complained about the lawlessness of the South Sea
pirates. In June 1689, the former Porcio Asiento agent,
Santiago Castille ("Sir James Castille") visited England to arrange
a deal with the Royal Africa Company for slaves via Jamaica; this
was rather an illegal deal which English authorities decided to
overlook. War anyway made the deal impossible. Castille intended to
sue; the Royal Africa Company claimed "restraint of princes", the
outcome seems unknown. It appears anyway from 1693 that Castille
had stung a group of Jamaican merchants for over 86,000 pieces of
eight due to them (presumably for supply of slaves to Castille's
Asiento agency).
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 334.)

The English on the African Gold Coast:

Thomas Crispe in 1655 and 1665 had disputed with Denmark about
land near Cape Coast Castle and later made depositions. Crispe in
1649 had become the chief agent or factor on the Gold Coast for
Rowland Wilson, Maurice Thompson, John Wood and Thomas Walter, whom
he called The Guinea Company. The original site of Cape Coast
Castle had been given to the English, was then re-taken by the
Swedes, re-taken by the English, all in Crispe's time on the
coast.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 40-41.)

But we do not know how many ships used the location.
Interestingly, about 1670, a "slaver", Sir Nicholas Crisp sold his
house near Hammersmith to Prince Rupert, for the use of Rupert's
lover, a house which had cost £25,000. Crisp was active in the
Africa trade from 1625.
(Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, Vol. 3. DNB
entries.)

(NB: K. Chaudhuri has noted that Guinea was the
long-cloth imported by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) from the
Coromandel coast to be re-exported for the West Indies and African
slave marts. Here, the English East India Company was not keen on
business due to the "undeveloped" state of the pre-Restoration
English slave trade. Guinea stuff was sold to Guinea Company but
with little profit.)
(K. N. Chaudhuri, The English East India Company: The Study of
an Early Joint-Stock Company, 1600-1640. London, Frank Cass,
1965., p. 201.)
Meantime, between 1660 and 1685, tempe Charles II, the king
generally received more money from each pound of Virginian imported
leaf that the planter.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 206.)

In England itself, by 1660, any export of wool from Britain was
again forbidden, and in 1662, smuggling wool as export (from Kent,
Sussex and Essex), was made punishable by death. By 1671 there was
abolition of tunnage and poundage as forms of customs duties, and
then the "free traders" were styled as smugglers. The first
organised English customs duties seem to stem from 1688, and
smugglers began to feel persecuted by 1685, for their illegal
running of goods was becoming considerable. "Export smuggling" was
in wool, and the forbidding of wool export meant that cloth workers
had wool growers at their mercy.
(Teignmouth and Harper, The Smugglers. Vol. 1, 1973. (Orig.
1923)., pp. 9-12, p. 21, p. 28, pp. 46-40.)

By 1717, wool smuggling was punishable by transportation.
Further penalties were added in 1746, and Dr Johnson thought
customs officers were a lower species than smugglers, By the
mid-eighteenth century, bands of smugglers were well-organised in
Kent, Sussex and Hampshire, and gangs ran such as the Hawkhurst
Gang, headed by Arthur Gray, who was said to be worth £10,000,
whose residence with sweet irony was a site later built on by Lord
Goschen, at one time Chancellor of the Exchequer! Also, smugglers
using great numbers of horses, a trade in its own right, but
Teignmouth and Harper regard them as products of bad laws, a
vicious system with its origin tempe William III. Teignmouth
and Harper also suggest, p. 14, pp. 60-61, p. 69, p. 75, on 17
Nov., 1747, the gaol at Maidstone was broken open by 12 men and
smugglers were released; "robustious days". By 1749, smugglers were
conspiring to kill the turnkey of Newgate. By 1787, there were
"1425 articles liable to duty"... "very many of them taxed at
several times their market value", bringing in revenue of £6
million per year... "in 1797 the customs laws filled six large
folio volumes... a total number of Customs Acts before 1760 was
800, by 1813 there were 1300 more added, till Sir Robert Peel tried
to re-order the chaos.)

By 1660, commissioners of the Treasury included Sir Edward Hyde,
George Monck later duke of Albemarle, Monck's kinsman Sir William
Morice, Lords high admirals, and James, Duke of York. By 1660,
England had Caribbean bases on Jamaica and Barbados. England found
logwood for dyeing in an area with no fixed government, in the Bay
of Honduras and on the Mosquito Coast. The Spanish held St.
Eustatius which was becoming an entrepot.
(G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 301; Clark, The Later
Stuarts, p. 325.)

Cromwell and commercial developments:

In all colonial administration, Cromwell was personally
influenced by a group of London merchant advisors. He placed them
on committees, especially Martin Noell (sic) and Thomas Povey. By
about July 1656, there had been many complaints to Cromwell from
merchants such as Povey and Noell, and so a standing committee was
set up. Noell had much influence on Cromwell. Noell was from humble
origins in Stafford, but he became a "great capitalist", an
alderman of London by 1651, a member of the East India Company, and
he also had many West Indian connections. Noell was first heard of,
trading to Monserratt and Nevis, by 1650. He had acted as a
contractor for the Western Expedition, and was an agent for the
army out there, so he received a large land grant on Jamaica. His
brother Thomas was prominent at Surinam and Barbados. Noell
flourished as shipowner, importer, a landowner in the West Indies
and Wexford, merchant, contractor, money lender.
(Fraser, Cromwell, pp. 533ff.)

To Povey is owed a great deal, for he made the beginnings of a
definite colonial policy. English merchants by 1656 had gone a long
way with continuing the former anti-Spanish tradition of piracy,
and they proposed that parliament incorporate a West India Company
to attack Spanish towns, to interrupt the Spanish treasure fleet
and to drive Spaniards from control of the West Indies and South
America.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, pp. 325ff. Povey's papers are
in the British Museum, E.g., 2395, folios 89-113, and 202-237.
Povey's Letter book is: Add. MSS, 11411.)

By 9 December 1654, as the Western Design was firming, Daniel
Searle was made governor of Barbados at a council meeting.
Venables, Penn, Winslow and Butler were all being named in a
commission, but it had not been understood in London that Barbados
had developed its own unique way of life (and for example, was
developing its own slave code which was later exported to Jamaica,
then to Virginia).

About 1654, Jeremy Sambrooke examined the financial behaviour of
the East India Company.
(K. N. Chaudhuri, The English East India Company: The Study of
an Early Joint-Stock Company, 1600-1640. London, Frank Cass,
1965., p. 208.)

By 1657, the East India Company's directors were seriously
considering selling the Company's factories and rights, but the
general court (shareholders) overruled them. At this point,
Cromwell came down seriously in favour of continuing the Company as
a capitalistic enterprise, but oddly enough, no copy of the charter
issued by Cromwell in 1657 still exists. The charter which was
issued is thought to have resembled the charter of 1609.
(Ian Bruce Watson, Foundation for Empire: English Private Trade
in India, 1659-1760. New Delhi, Vikas Pub. House, 1980.)

After 1657, more shareholders were let into the East India
Company, and the newly-chartered Company bought all the properties
of the Old Company. Dividends would be paid in cash, not in
commodities as had earlier been the case. Cromwell's charter was
later abridged by a charter Charles II issued in 1661. By 1659 or
so, Charles II's new Company charter had five important features;
it allowed the company:
(1) to acquire territory;
(2) to coin money;
(3) to command troops and fortresses;
(4) to make alliances (5) to exercise civil and criminal
jurisdictions.
(Newton, Colonising Puritans, variously. In 1659 with
business bad in the City of London, many merchants were not
attending for lack of employment, poor families were in danger of
perishing and wards found it difficult to support them with the
Poor Rate. Also in 1659, a treaty demonstrated that Spanish power
on the wane, leaving some ways open for British adventure.)

The Restoration and commercial developments (not including
Barbados):

With the Restoration, West India merchants in London persuaded
Charles II to retain Jamaica as a royal colony, and later came the
appointment of Sir Thomas Modyford, royal governor of Jamaica
1664-1671. Modyford promoted agricultural development and attacks
on the Spanish, which got him personally £1000 per year from
buccaneers, and he wanted liberal land grants and Barbadians to
join him. Modyford himself had 22 parcels of land in eight
parishes.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 154ff.)

By 1660 and later, with the Restoration, some independence was
lost on Barbados, with the Navigation Act which tied sugar islands
to English interests. Barbados' planters became subject to London's
mercantilist policies. Charles agreed to annul the Carlisle claims
to the island and confirmed earlier Barbadian land purchases. So in
some senses, Charles assumed direct control, following which he
sent out Francis Lord Willoughby as first royal governor.
Willoughby had already been governor 1650-1652. By 1660, Peter
Watson had brought to London the petitions of Modyford and others
in the Barbados assembly.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 45-48.)

By 9 July, 1660, once Lord Willoughby was directed by the king
to take up as governor of Barbados and other Caribbee islands,
respecting his position as lessee of the Earl of Carlisle's rights,
of course, the Courteen interest protested, as noted earlier. Lord
Willoughby, had cause to refer to the actions of a group of
planters and merchants in London who resisted the imposition of
proprietary government for [their own] private ends.
(A "governor of the Caribbean" was William Willoughby (1616-1673),
sixth Baron Willoughby. Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 32-33.
GEC, Peerage, Bellomont, pp. 106ff; Willoughby, p.
709ff.)

By 1667 these men were thought to include Peter Colleton, Peter
Leare, Mr. Ferdinando George. These were all absentee planters
continuing the work of Kendall and Colleton, and they worked
against the development of any agency by Povey.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 26-28, pp. 40-41.)

By 1660, the most influential elements in the West India
interest were the merchants whose rise to power had been mainly
caused by the share they took in the Cromwell western expedition of
1655, writes Penson. Noell's interest declined. Povey's schemes
disappeared with the decline of the Willoughby interest. By
September 1665, another pro-Willoughby agent in the wings was John
Champante, a clerk in the Grand Excise office.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 38.)

In effect the island was cheated by the king. But the Barbadians
shrugged their shoulders, and it was from about now that some
Barbadians were knighted, becoming "sugar-coated knights" in
partial recognition of their gentry status. These included Sir
Thomas Modyford, Sir James Drax, Sir Peter Leare, Sir John
Colleton, Sir John Yeamans.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 80.)

Also with Charles II and the Restoration, the East India Company
directors gave gifts of their loyalty, and the king gave them a
favourable charter and accepted loans over 16 years of
£170,000.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 75.)

In a different trading sphere, by about 1660, more than half of
the beneficiaries of the capital in the Royal Adventurers to Africa
were peers or members of the Royal Family; including the Duke of
York, Princesses Maria and Henrietta, Prince Rupert (who withdrew),
the dukes of Albemarle and Buckingham, the earls of Bath (who
withdrew before capital had been fully paid up), Lord Hawley (who
withdrew) Ossory, Pembroke, St Albans and Sandwich. Commoner
investors included some of the greatest mercantile figures of
Restoration London; Sir Robert Vyner, Edward Backwell, Sir John
Robinson (Lord Mayor, London MP, deputy-governor of the Hudson's
Bay Company, and director, East India Company), Sir Philip Frowd,
Sir Andrew Riccard, Sir William Coventry (withdrew).
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 64-65. [See C. T. Carr,
Select Charters of Trading Companies. Selden Society. nd.])

By 16 July, 1660, as Penson writes, authorities in London wanted
Colonel Modyford installed at Barbados. Modyford's friends in
London wanted this outcome. Friends here being led by John Colleton
and aided by favour of General Monk, both of whom were relatives of
Modyford. The group of friends appears to have been Peter Watson,
John Colleton, [Sir] James Drax, Thomas Kendall, Jonathan Andrews,
Tobias Frere, Edward Walrond (sic). Given the views of Lord
Willoughby, these all remained concerned about their tenures. By
1671, this group would dominate the actions of any agent for
Barbados. By 30 August, 1660, as disputes over Barbados continued,
a committee had backed a decision of the king, as some rival
claimants appeared, the heir of the earl of Carlisle and the
representative of an earlier grant, James, Earl of Marlborough, and
so Kendall, Colleton et al had again to press their case for
a royal government of Barbados, versus, it seems, any
proprietary right.

Blah blah Redevelopment for convict
transportation:

By 1660, there arose also a petition stating that the prisons
were sanctuaries for the rich and able debtors, but murdering dens
of cruelty for the poor. The Fleet debtors' prison then was in use;
the warden had to make a living and pay his assistants from
extorting the inmates, much as depicted in Henry Fielding's novel,
a century later, Amelia. But at least the ordinary criminal
was fed. Meantime, the city was full of various kinds of rogues,
cheats and con-artists, more so at the end of the civil wars.

During the civil war, Scots, Irish and English enemies of the
commonwealth were transported mainly to Barbados and Virginia. And
since it was difficult to induce enough emigrants, a regular trade
grew up in kidnapped persons. Transportation of the vagrant and the
criminal appealed to authorities as an easy way out. (James in 1617
had ordered that notorious malefactors be transported to Virginia,
or be put as soldiers into wars.)
(G. Davies, Early Stuarts, p. 321.)

London's poor law administrators were vexed by wanderers from
the country, so they promoted an act of 1662 enabling them to
remove to their place of origin anyone who became chargeable. This
limited the freedom of movement of the poor, and of labourers, as a
disciplinary measure, and the law for punishing vagrants was also
strengthened. About 1667-1669, Act 18 Car II c. 3 empowered the
judges to exile for life the border brigands of Northumberland and
Cumberland to any of the American colonies. This act expired in
1673. (See Eris O'Brien, Foundation, p. 124.)

There was an increase in new types of workhouses (factories),
houses of correction or bridewells, prisons under another name, but
the Quakers set up their own bridewells, such as Clerkenwell in
London in 1701; and a poor-law system was set up where corruption
could as easily be conducted as genuine charity and
helpfulness. (See Clark, The Later Stuarts, pp. 52-53.)

Charles II arrived in London on 29 May, 1660. So arrived the
Restoration of the Stuart Family. A new parliament, the Convention
Parliament, was royalist, and Charles persuaded on condition that
he promised amnesty to former enemies of the House of Stuart. He
paid the army arrears and guaranteed religious toleration. Military
power went to the Cavaliers and policy arose from the group known
as the Cabal (made from their initials). The Cavalier parliament
assembled in 1661, restoring a militant Anglicanism, and Charles
considered re-asserting absolutism, though the crown remained still
dependent on Parliament for revenue.
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 107.)

All over Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
autocratic monarchy was receiving resistance from two sectors -
aristocracies and privileged corporation. One might wonder, could
this in any way by put down to population pressure and economics?
Absolute monarchy could not manage a system enabling increasing
populations to live at a sufficient standard.

Moves between Barbados and Jamaica:

By December 1660, in London, some members of the Council for
Foreign Plantations include Secretaries of State, others of the
Privy Council, some experts, Lord Willoughby, the Earl of
Marlborough, some west Indian planters and merchants such as, Sir
Peter Leare, Sir Andrew Riccard, Sir James Drax, Thomas Povey, John
Colleton (a relative of Modyford), Edward Walrond, Martin Noell,
Thomas Kendall, Thomas Middleton, William Watts. These latter
merchant names all worked together for five years with the board.
(Povey seems to have also been linked with events in Virginia and
New England). Maybe, Povey had ambitions of becoming an
"agent-all-round" ?
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 34-37.)

Earlier, Povey had been more or less recommended by Willoughby
to the governors of Montserrat and Nevis, colonels Osborne and
Russell respectively, on concerns of the islands. By about 1663,
Colonel Philip Froude was secretary of the council for Foreign
Plantations, and he had the support of Modyford's party, and Lord
Bartlet and others, regarding the antagonist Povey.

By December, 1660, a charter arose for the Royal Adventurers
into Africa, which by now had very shaky finances, and in Davies'
view was more "an aristocratic treasure-hunt than an organized
business". By January 1663 there was a rethink, a revised charter,
and specific mention of the slave trade as a company objective.
Capital was about £120,000, one seventh of which was never paid,
including £6000 promised by the king.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 41.)

With this 1660 founding of The Company of Royal Adventurers to
trade to West Africa, there was apparently little no connection
with the Caribbean. All this followed the 1588 endeavours of the
Senegal Adventurers, which had only eight original members and was
not incorporated; they had a monopoly to trade to Senegal and
Gambia for ten years. No next development happened until 1618.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 39.)

By 1661 too, the East India Company had a revised charter, which
allowed it to maintain forts and raise troops for their defence. So
began its new era with paid-up capital of £370,000, permanent
joint-stock.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 75.)

In 1665 began a purely commercial war, Anglo-Dutch, which
stemmed from conflict on the African west coast. Captain Robert
Holmes was aggressive there over the winter of 1663-1664.
(In 1664 Capt. Holme's expedition founded Fort James about 20 miles
up the Gambia River, after cleaning out the Dutch, as a new base
for English operations. There followed a confusing series of
English-Dutch capture and recapture.
(Clark, Oxford, pp. 332ff.)

Holmes took Goree north of the Gambia River and Cape Coast
Castle on the Gulf of Guinea. Captain Nicolls took the New
Netherlands (New York).
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 63. Anglo-Dutch Wars continued, of
1652-1654, 1665-1667 and 1672-1674. Notes, Dunn, Sugar and
Slaves, pp. 20-22. Anglo-French wars continued of 1666-1667,
1689-1697 and 1702-1713 were very destructive to the Caribbean,
more so than North America.)

In 1661, Robert Holmes for the Royal Adventurers into Africa
expelled the Courlanders (Latvians) from the mouth of the Gambia
River, and James Island was occupied by the English. There was
trading to Sherbro and Sierra Leone, but the Dutch placed
obstacles, so in 1664 Holmes captured Dutch settlements at Cape
Verde. De Ruyter then in 1665 swept out the English from all areas
but Cape Coast Castle.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 42.)

The king decided to grant New Netherland to his brother James,
the Duke of York, as a proprietary province. James' deputy was
Richard Nicholls, who sailed for New Netherland from Boston, and
Dutch governor Peter Stuyvesant surrendered in Sept 1664. New
York's trade staple was fur. Part of the New York territory
included what would become New Jersey, and James, Duke of York here
favoured his friends Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret,
two defenders of the Stuarts during the Puritan Cromwell period. In
1665 they established a government for the area, but New Yorkers
protested at this as it clashed with their own interests. In 1674,
Lord Berkeley sold his New Jersey interests to two Quakers, John
Fenwick and Edward Byllynge; who later used trustees including
William Penn.
(Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 115-116.)

By 29 March, 1661, Walrond on Barbados had decided Kendall and
Colleton were really working for the reinstatement of Modyford on
Barbados. Willoughby got himself to Barbados by 1663 and found
considerable intrigues there.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 32-33.)

By June 1661, Povey's old friend William Watts was in command of
the government of St Christopher. Povey's brother Richard was then
on Jamaica, and Jamaica had a new governor, Thomas Lord
Windsor.
(Thomas Windsor (Hickman) (1627-1687), seventh Baron Windsor and
first Earl Plymouth, appointed governor of Jamaica in 1661. He
disbanded the Roundhead army on Jamaica and cancelled commissions
to privateers.
(His DNB entry. GEC, Peerage, Plymouth, p. 560;
Windsor, p. 800.)

Povey's influences abated however from 1663. In the years after
the Restoration, Povey's influence declined as he was linked with
Willoughby, and the ruling party on Barbados was anti-Willoughby.
About 1664-1666, Povey was surveyor-general of the victualling
dept. in London.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 10-13, pp. 35-38.)

English merchant and lawyer Thomas Povey first became active
about 1650-1655. By about 1664-1666, Povey was surveyor-general of
the Victualling Dept. and dealt with West Indian islands. Maurice
Thompson and Martin Noell (sic) were friend of Povey. Thomas Povey,
a barrister of Gray's Inn and a merchant with widespread interests,
was well-known for exerting his influence; his brother Richard was
secretary and commissary general of provisions at Jamaica and
another brother was William, provost marshal at Barbados.)

In 1662 the Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa also had one
purpose, to oust the Dutch in the slave trade. The East India
Company had leased as a calling place, Cormantine (Kormantin), a
few miles east from the Dutch Cape Coast Castle. By now this was
the third English-Africa Company, and it took over an East India
Company factory, Cape Coast Castle, a few miles east of a Dutch
station, Elmina, on the Gold Coast. Breda gave Cape Coast Castle
back to the English.
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 332.)

The Duke of York was apparently involved here, as he put £3600
more into the Africa Company, which surrendered its charter in 1663
and had a new one issued, to The Company of Royal Adventurers of
England Trading into Africa. This charter mentioned slaving
specifically, the idea being to supply slaves to the West Indies on
credit. The new company took over Kormantin and Cape Coast Castle,
but was soon troubled by the Dutch (the English ambassador to
Holland then was Sir George Downing). A series of wars arose
between Britain and Holland.
(Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, pp. 136-137.)

The deeper interests of the "proprietors of
Carolina":

The granting of the "proprietorship of Carolina" south of
Virginia, was not simply a sole-colonisation venture. It was one
outcome of a large-scale, highly imaginative melding of many
diverse strands of economic endeavour, with a view to keeping that
endeavour in the hands of organisations bound largely to royal
monopolisation. It is very likely that the outbreak of resentment
in the 1790s, of merchants "interloping" against the East India
Company, in the time of William III, was the expression of a
London-based, long-held, Whiggish-minded resentment at what the
"proprietorship of Carolina" might have come to, as is easily found
from an examination of the interests of the Carolina proprietors.
Those interests stretched from eastern Canada, south down the
American coast, past Virginia, south to the Caribbean sugar
islands, to Surinam, also to the West African coast, and around the
Cape of Good Hope to India, via the financial interests of the East
India Company, about the time that England gained Bombay. The scope
of the interests held was enormous, since it embraced most of the
earlier history of English colonisation, plus existing entry points
into the Levant trade, as we find...

Carolina was intended to be the next jewel in the crown of
colonisation, but its promoters already had extensive interests in
all that had gone before... In a sense, Carolina represented a
capture of the fruit of colonisation that the Stuarts had
previously given too little attention. "The Carolina proprietors"
in effect represented the start of a royally-controlled set of
trading companies, with, potentially, enormous geographical scope
and reach. As such, it embodied most English themes so far
expressed in history, including, naturally, the continued
occupation of Ireland. A first charter was issued on 24 March,
1663, a second charter in June 1665. (The Royal Africa Company was
revivified from 1672.)

A grant had been made respecting the Carolinas as early as 1629,
but no serious attempt was made to colonise till 1663, with eight
proprietors, who received from Charles II a proprietary grant of
Carolina. They were "many wealthy and most influential men in
England". Waterhouse imparts in his first chapter, in 1663, the man
who had initiated the entire affair, to be joined by the governor
of Virginia, was Sir John Colleton, a rich Barbados planter. He
was, with Sir William Berkeley and Lord Ashley, a member of the
Special Committee for Foreign Plantations. Colleton was a relative
of Jamaica's Sir Thomas Modyford.
(Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 119ff; Dunn, Sugar
and Slaves, p. 78, Note 62. Davies, Royal Africa
Company, index.)

And in the wings, his brother, Lord John Berkeley of Stretton
(1602-1678), Commissioner of the Navy and member of the Privy
Council. John, a friend of James, Duke of York, was a proprietor of
New Jersey, a Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. John married Christian
Riccard, daughter of Sir Andrew Riccard, some-time governor of the
Levant Company and also of the East India Company. Christian
Riccard also married Henry Rich, first Viscount Irwin, of the
family of the Earls of Warwick.
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 72. GEC, Peerage,
Berkeley, pp. 147ff; Warwick, p. 416.)

Cromwellian Lieutenant-General, George Monck (1608-1670), first
Duke of Albemarle, Captain General.
(Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 209. GEC, Peerage,
Albemarle, pp. 87-90. George Monck's son Christopher became the
heavy-drinking governor of Jamaica known to Sir (Dr) Hans Sloane.
Christopher married Elizabeth Cavendish who also married Ralph,
first Duke Montagu, as his first wife. Ralph by his second wife had
a son John, second Duke Montagu, earlier mentioned as "John the
Planter", owner of St Lucia in the Caribbean.)

Edward Hyde (1608-1687), Earl Clarendon, Lord Chancellor, whose
son, Lawrence (died 1711), first Earl Rochester, was a partner with
Willoughby, the governor of Barbados, who also owned Surinam. Of
course, Edward's daughter, Anne, had married the king's brother,
James, Duke of York, governor of the Royal Africa Company, of
Jersey, of the Hudson's Bay Company. Lawrence Hyde shortly before
his death was governor of the Merchant Adventurers in London.
(GEC, Peerage, Clarendon, pp. 265ff; Rochester, pp. 49ff. Of
particular interest here is the conjunction of interest possessed
by both the Royal Africa Company and the East India Company in the
strategic location on the African coast, Kormantin.)

Anthony Ashley Cooper, first earl Shaftesbury, Chancellor of the
Exchequer, who had investments in the Guinea Trade and Barbados. He
was distrusted by Royalists, so the others "came in to provide
needed support".
(On Barbados, Carolina and slavery: Richard Waterhouse, A New
World Gentry: The Making of a Merchant and Planter Class in South
Carolina, 1670-1770. New York, Garland Publishing Inc., 1989.
Especially, Chapter 1.)

Sir George Carteret (died 1679-1680), treasurer of the navy,
member of the Board of Trade. He had been with Prince Rupert on
Rupert's piratical adventures. Carteret was also a proprietor of
New Jersey. His widow sold such rights to William Penn of
Pennsylvania.
(Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, Vol. 3.)

William Craven (1608-1697), Earl of Craven, Lord Lt. of
Middlesex, member of the Privy Council. At first sight, he does not
seem to be anyone who might be involved!
(Burke's Peerage and Baronetage for Whitmore. Burke's
Extinct Baronetcies for Bond of Peckham on "colonist",
London alderman William Bond; Kemeyes of Kenanmabley. R. G. Lang,
`Social Origins and Social Aspirations of Jacobean London
Merchants', Economic History Review, 2, V, 27, 1974.,
pp. 28-47. GEC, Peerage, Craven, pp. 500ff.)

Craven however was Master of the home of navigation, Trinity
House; a commissioner of the government of Tangier. He brought in
the useful interests of the families of recent Lords Mayor of
London. Son of a Lord Mayor, he was also son of a daughter,
Elizabeth, of the Lord Mayor in 1631, William Whitmore,
Haberdasher. His brother, John (1610-1648), first Baron Craven, by
his marriage may have brought in the family interests of the
Spencers of Wormleighton/Althorp. So, the name Craven presumably
contributed standing City interests, and very strong ones.

The king, it is said, gave the Carolinas to these parties, as in
his view, "he could not deny the strength of this coalition".
(Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, p. 120.)

Was he such an unaware businessman, oblivious of such an array
of geographically spread and lucrative interests? Most of these
proprietors had sustained colonial interests. Colleton was engaged
with Barbados, Sir William Berkeley had been a governor of
Virginia. Carteret and John Berkeley were involved with New Jersey.
Carolina was suitable for "baronial estates". Once the disgruntled
Barbadians arrived in Carolina, the system there provided a
specialised plantation agriculture, promoted slave labour, and
reduced the flexibility of the existing local social system.
Articles for the government of Carolina were drawn up by
Shaftesbury with the help of the philosopher John Locke, and were
based on political ideas "already outmoded" in England itself.
(Ver Steeg, The Formative Years, pp. 119-121.)

That is hardly any wonder. After some 55 years in power, the
Scots Stuarts were simply beginning to realise where the future
lay! And when they did realise, they overplayed their hand
disastrously.

From 1663, when the most active Carolina proprietor was (so it
is said) Shaftesbury, Sir Peter Colleton on Barbados, the eldest
son of the Carolina proprietor, had joined forces with Sir Thomas
Modyford, as some 200 Caribbean men were thinking of going to
Carolina. After 1667, the first permanent Carolina settlement was
made on the Ashley River, in 1670.

Dunn notes there had been some "aristocratic claptrap", of
trappings dreamt up by Shaftesbury and Locke for the government of
Carolina; its Fundamental Constitutions.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 112-114. Ver Steeg, The
Formative Years, speaks of "archaic, mediaeval ideas, outmoded
in England itself", p. 121.)

Later, from 1672, into the 1690s, the only revenge a London or
outport-based merchant could take on this royally-inspired takeover
of up to half-the-known-commercial-world was to engage firstly in
"interloping " activity about Africa, against the Royal Africa
Company, and when that failed, in the 1690s, to go interloping
against the East India Company, east of Africa. It is also hardly
any wonder that when the Scottish Darien Company arose in the
1690s, it also tried to fulfill many of the dreams inherent in the
model provided by the royally-backed plans of "the Carolina
proprietors". And all this is in the late 1690s was where the
"Caribbean pirate", William Dampier, a man very familiar with
English themes-in-history, gained employment circa 1700 when
he sailed by terra australis incognita.

A royal slaving company:

In 1663 the new royal slaving company told the king, Charles II,
the very being of the plantations depended on supply of Negro
slaves. Williams observes acidly, Europe was seldom so unanimous as
in its view of its dependence on the value of Negro slave labour.
Later, in 1672, the organisation was called The Royal Africa
Company, and by 1680, (there was rising the lobbyists' dependence
on the impressive statistic as a tool of trade), forts in Africa
were estimated to cost £20,000 per year. There was a need certainly
for private control of the Company, which like other slaving
companies had enemies. In short the Company wanted a monopoly; and
in 1671 the West India planters owed the Company £70,000 for
slaves, for Jamaica alone.

By May 1671, after debate about failures, the Royal Adventurers
were suggesting a new subscription of £100,000 and wanting the
existing charter continued, with creditors to get 33 per cent plus
old/new stock via a complicated formula. A new book for
subscriptions opened on 10 November, 1671, then fresh plans arose,
and a new company would buy all the old for £34,000. Between 10
November, 1671 and 11 December 1671, some 200 people underwrote
stock to £111,600. Some original subscribers were John Locke and
Shaftesbury. There were some delays in getting the capital in,
caused by outbreak of a war with the Dutch, although in general the
subscribers were keen to place their investment.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 59.)

But in 1698 (while free traders were also again assailing the
East India Company in London and about India), the Parliament
abrogated the Africa Company's monopoly and threw slaving open to
free trade. Although, a duty was applied of ten per cent on all
goods exported to Africa for the purchase of slaves. Such goods
included woolens (also part of the triangular trade), iron bars,
guns and brass goods including pans and kettles. By 1682 Britain
exported about 10,000 bars of iron to Africa yearly.

Eric Williams has discussed statistics provided by the pioneer
seventeenth century English economist, Charles Davenant, indicating
that by about 1700, England's total profit from trade amounted to
£2 million, with the plantation trade accounted for £600,000 of
this, and the re-export of plantation produce bringing in £120,000.
The triangular trade pattern represented 36 per cent of England's
commercial profits. About 1700, Davenant added that every
individual white or black in the West Indies was seven-times more
profitable than an individual at home in England. (And in 1700,
Bristol had only 46 ships in the West Indian trade.)

The Royal Africa Company dealt in fabrics, including
perpetuanas, lighter than serge, durable, cheap, while serge came
from Devonshire. The Company bought goods from an Exeter agent or a
London intermediary, one of whom was William Warren, a Company
shareholder.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 177-178; p. 183.)

Knives and swords came to Royal Africa Company (RAC) from Samuel
Banner of Birmingham (400,000 knives and 7000 swords). Banner had
earlier supplied the Hudson's Bay Company. Brokers used in London
to deal with RAC imports included the prominent Robert Wooley, who
paid the RAC 65,000 in ten years, although the destination of the
goods since they left Wooley's hands has never been traced. On the
lines of trade went; West India commodities going to London
refiners, ivory to cutlers and furniture makers, dyewood to
salters.

However, by January 1665 the Royal Adventurers owed £100,000,
and supply reverted to private persons. There arose the Gambia
Adventurers with a capital of £15,000, its shareholders being the
members of the parent body, peers and courtiers, though by 1665 a
number of prominent London merchants had entered the Company. It
was too late, however, and by 1670 was talk of winding it up.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 43-44.)

The Royal Adventurers sent no slaves to Jamaica after 1665;
Jamaica probably sent or used slaves made available by private
traders under licence. The RAC did not supply slaves again till
1674 (in which year, William Dampier was about Jamaica!). Jamaica
became a strong opponent to monopoly of slave supply.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, pp. 308-310.)

Meantime, themes anti-Spanish were not forgotten. In 1665 with
the connivance of the governor of Jamaica, three British captains
including Henry Morgan made their way upriver and sacked Granada,
capital of Nicaragua, while other parties later pillaged the
Pacific coast. In the winter of 1670-1671, Capt. Morgan with 1800
men again took Granada and Porto Bello, and Providence Island, then
went across Isthmus and took Panama, Old Panama never rebuilt, the
Spanish were never recompensed for these losses. Morgan was later
knighted and became Lt-gov of Jamaica.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 328.)

In September 1666 had blazed the Great Fire of London, beginning
with an accidental fire on London Bridge. In four days 13,000
houses were destroyed, plus larger buildings in between, all to a
property value of £7-10 million. Fire insurance was a thing of the
future, and oddly enough, when fire insurance did come, various
names in London's sugar business became conspicuous in promoting
it. And in the country, there were riots due to unemployment and
high taxation.
(For various other trade figures of the time, regarding sugar and
tobacco providing employment in the East End and on the south bank,
with the East India Company by the 1670s admitting it competed with
the Levant Company in silk handling, see pp. 132-138, A. L. Bier
and Roger Finlay, (Eds), London, 1500-1700: The Making of the
Metropolis. London, Longman, 1986, citing E. S. Morgan, 'The
First American Boom: Virginia 1618 to 1630', William and
Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 27, 1971. N. Williams,
'England's Tobacco Trade in the Reign of Charles I',
Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 65, 1957.)

Neil Hanson: The Dreadful Judgement: The True Story of the
Great Fire of London, 1666. Doubleday, 2001.

Iain Gateley, La Diva Nicotina: The Story of How Tobacco
Seduced The World. Simon and Schuster, 2001, 403pp.

Progress of the English East India Company: By 1661 and
later, with the Restoration, England did not own "one inch" of
Indian territory.
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 348.)

The East India Company held its factories as tenants to the
native rulers, operating mostly at Surat (north of Bombay on
India's north west coast), the principal port city on the west
coast of India, side by side with the Dutch. (From 1668 the French
also had a factory there). On the east coast the chief English
factory was Fort St George, at Madras. The English also had some
factories on the Coromandel coast, Masulipatam (on the mid-eastern
Indian coast), and on the coast, Balasore (south of Calcutta),
Orissa, Hughli (south of Calcutta on the west Ganges River
delta).

Another East India Company factory was at Bantam in Java,
another at Bencoolen in Sumatra. The Company leased some factories
on the African West Coast as calling ports, and here lies a
problem, since it is difficult to find reports on East India (or
"slaving") trading occurring at these ports. Presumably, trade did
take place, and if so, yet another nexus was formed enabling "East
India" and "slaving" money flows to mingle, with the proceeds
naturally amalgamating in London.

Meanwhile, the acquisition of Bombay in full territorial
sovereignty from the Spanish as a wedding gift for Charles II
provided many new opportunities. When the Duke of Marlborough had
come to collect Bombay with five men o' war, the Portuguese
governor was unhappy, and difficulties remained till 1665. Charles
found Bombay all to expensive and gave it to the East India Company
for a quit-rent in 1668. The Company thought well of Bombay and
soon transferred their local headquarters to it from Surat.

This coincided with a change in tempo for East India Company
activities. Initially, with disorder noted all over India, the
Company in London remained quite cautious and unambitious, but on
the spot in India, Company staff thought they could only survive by
taking strong measures, and so they lead the Company by the
nose.
(Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 350.)

The Company's Indian garrison mutinied against the Company's
pussyfooting attitude. (The Company also lost Bantam). Charters
granted to the Company in 1661 and 1683 had given it the right to
coin money, to exercise jurisdiction over English subjects, to make
peace and war, and to enter into alliances with Indian rulers.
Under James II the Company directors wanted the condition of a
sovereign state in India, so that they would not be at the mercy of
local rulers. Initially, the Company enjoyed prosperity under
Charles II, but this lapsed, partly as English interlopers had
reduced profits. (Those interlopers tend not to be named,
unfortunately).

A remarkable interloper was Samuel White, about the time
of the operations of the "association" of Sir William Courteen. The
East India Company as well as interlopers or free traders were
guided chiefly by lust for loot. Samuel White began as a Company
employee, as trade was mostly in Indian cotton goods in exchange
for cash or English manufactures. However, there was also arising
the "country trade", the intra-Asian trade. Interlopers engaged in
this enthusiastically, but Company staff did not; at least, "not
officially". Country trade became an indirect source of revenue for
the Company, and all was countenanced so long as the free traders
stayed away from the London markets. This was the situation Samuel
White met at Madras when he arrived in 1676. Samuel joined his
brother George, already an interloper, at the capital of Siam, at
Ayudhya. Samuel worked on Siam royal ships delivering elephants,
and trading on his own account. He also found the Siamese preferred
dealing with the French, and an idea was to keep English ships out
of the Bay of Bengal.

White however was allowed to fit out armed ships, and he entered
on piracy against Burma and Golconda, then to Sumatra and the
Persian Gulf. In about two years he acquired about £150,000, and
finally the Company in London got orders from James II that White
be removed from the service of the King of Siam. White remained
between a rock and a hard place, and he would not survive the
intrigues of Siam. So in 1687 he sailed one of his ships to Madras,
escorted by an East India Company ship with Weldon, come to fetch
him. White's lies to the king of Siam cost about 80 English lives
in the long run, but White arrived home, just as James II had just
fled. William III was now on the throne, a time was ripening
favourable for White and all interlopers, while misfortunes would
settle on the shareholders of the Company. White brazenly decided
that the best form of defence is offence, and so he would sue the
Company. But he died in 1689 before any case came up.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, pp. 79-83.)

White was not the only English aggressor! In 1686, an East India
Company expedition was sent to capture and fortify Chittagong (on
the east of the Ganges River delta). It was intended to make war on
the King of Siam and to capture an island near Bombay from the
Portuguese; but only the Chittagong project came off. The Mogul
Indians besieged the English everywhere, and the English retreated
down to the site of modern Calcutta (on the west of the Ganges
delta, where Job Charnock prevailed). One English response was to
blockade the progress of Moslem pilgrims to Mecca, which rather
oddly led to an Indian backdown, and also had some bearing on the
foundation of Calcutta.

In the later years of Charles II, the Company was troubled, and
in 1693 it had to bribe its way with senior ministers for a new
charter from the crown. Here, the House of Commons wanted no
exclusiveness for any one company to India, and said all subjects
had a right to trade to India unless prohibited by Act of
Parliament. With such disputes, London Whigs later wanted to
examine various accounts in the City, some of them, Company
accounts. The bribes of 1693 were discovered, and the Duke of
Leeds, who had received 5500 guineas, was impeached.

It appears, that William III simply auctioned the monopoly to
the East. The New East India Company offered a loan to government
of £2 million at 8 per cent, which was accepted despite a lower
interest rate bid from the Old East India Company. So Du Bois of
the Old Company bought heavily into the New. It was finally
realised that the two companies had to merge. The (Old) Company
averaged only 13 ships per year, but despite difficulties the
United Company found an annual profit of £300,000 per year during
the first four years of its existence. (In 1693 it was estimated
that the Old Company spent £170,000 in "secret service money",
bribing the Crown or its ministers and parliamentary contacts in
return for a favourable new charter.) Later, the Duke of
Leeds/Danby was impeached. There were at the time, few Whigs in the
Company, and by 1695, dissension broke out, which assisted the
Scottish (Darien) company - which will be discussed further in
detail.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 328, pp. 352-354. Ian B Watson,
Foundation, p. 29.)

Earlier, some of the Eastern interlopers thought they might link
with the Scottish Company trading to India, but this came to
nothing. There was, however, yet another visitation of
old-versus-new. There arose two English East India
companies, the Old and the New. This produced intense rivalry in
the East itself. The New Company at one point made a handsome loan
to the government, the directors of the Old held to what they had,
and acquired shares in the New. The New company had less an
imperialistic attitude, day-to-day in the east, and by 1702 it only
mattered when the New fused with the Old following "wise mediation"
by Godolphin. There appeared the United East India Company, a final
body which obtained most of the sea-borne trade of India, plus the
imperial inheritance of the Mogul emperors.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 43-48.)

The Caribbean: slavery and convict transportation:

In 1664, due to Sir Thomas Modyford, Jamaica lock-stock-and
barrel adopted the slave code which had earlier been written on
Barbados. With the aid of his kinsman Monck, Duke of Albemarle,
Modyford in 1664 became the royal governor of Jamaica, and in 1664
he sold his Barbados property, got 20,000 acres in Jamaica for
himself and relatives and soon owned a property, Sixteen Mile
Walk, the grandest plantation on the island, with six hundred
servants and slaves.
(Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p 82.)

Modyford boasted, he was "a planter become a governor" But
Modyford's move to Jamaica did not destroy the anti-Willoughby
faction on Barbados that Modyford had built up to hinder first
Searle, then Willoughby.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 39.)

To 1668, William Lord Willoughby had been out to the Leeward
Islands, and when he got back home to London he was granted a
renewal of his commission as governor of all the Caribbean Islands.
By 1668, Barbadian agitators with Lord Willoughby had included Sir
Paul Painter and Ferdinando Gorges.
(This was probably a merchant of St Bartholomew by the Exchange,
active 1674, a colonist, and an investor in the Royal Africa
Company according to K. G. Davies' lists; Hasler, History of
Parliament, Vol. 2, pp. 206ff. Sir Ferdinando Gorges "the
father of American colonisation", was proprietor of Maine in
1639-1647. His own DNB entry. Burke's Landed Gentry
for Gorges of Wraxall. GEC, Peerage, Coningsby, p. 395;
Southwell, Castle Matress, p. 149.)

A list of those who were restive with Willoughby's privileges
begins to look like a list of London's earliest Whigs of the
merchant classes; merchants less than enamoured of autocratic
royalty.

Which is no accident. From the 1680s, London Whig merchants were
to express themselves vigorously about royal monopolies, rights to
free trade, new colonies (such as Carolina), and naturally, their
financial interests were ranged around Eastern trade and slavery.
London's Whig merchants who came to final prominence during the
reign of William III only tightened earlier existing financial
linkages which made the mutuality of slavery and East India Company
business profitable, sophisticated in technique, more free in
attitude - and as this happened, further development of the
Virginia-London tobacco trade created new sources of profit.
Incidentally, by 1681, most of the MP investors in the Royal Africa
Company were Tories; between 1681 and 1702, 14 of 16 successful
Tory candidates were interested in the Company, which may have
reflected the influence of James II in the Company generally.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 104.)

Sir Josiah Child's management of the East India
Company:

By 1630, the East India Company had some 12,000 employees in
stable employment.
(Olson, Making the Empire work, p.17.)

Sir Josiah Child (died 1699) is regarded as "the father of
Mercantilism". He placed his daughters in marriage well, to the
Duke of Beaufort, Duke of Chandos, Lord Granville; and his own son
became Lord Tilney.
(Westerfield, Middlemen, p. 402. Rudolph Robert,
Chartered Companies and Their Role in the Development of Eastern
Trade. London, G. Bell and Sons, 1969., treats Sir Josiah
Child.)
(Some interesting contemporary and other titles of relevance here
include: A. V., An essay for regulating the coin. 2nd Ed.
1696. A. Abram, An Abstract of the Grievances of Trade, etc.
London, 1694. A. Abram, An account of some transactions ..
relating to the East India Company. London, 1693. R. Allen,
An essay on the nature and methods of carrying on a trade to the
South Sea. London, 1712 B. E. A new dictionary of terms,
ancient and modern, of the canting crew. London, circa 1696. W.
R. Bisschop, The Rise of the London Money Market. London,
1910. J. S. Brewer, British Merchant; or, Commerce
preserved. (C. Kind, Ed.). 3 Vols. London, 1721. Carry Jr.,
Case of Messrs. Brooke and Helier, circa 1700. Carry Jr.,
The Case of Richard Thompson and Company. London, 1678. R.
Coke, Collection of the debates and proceedings in Parliament in
1694 and 1695, upon the inquiry into the late briberies and corrupt
practices. London, 1695. Thomas Culpepper, Plain English ...
concerning the deadness of our markets. London, 1673.
(Following up Culpepper's 1641 tract against usury). F. W.
Fairholt, Tobacco: its history and associations. London,
1859. W. Forbes, A methodical treatise concerning bills of
exchange. 2nd edn. Edinburgh, 1718. E. Halley, Atlas
maritimus et commercialis. London, 1727. W. C. Hazlitt, The
Livery Companies of the City of London. London, 1892. W.
Herbert, The History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies of
London, etc. Two Vols. London, 1837. R. B. Westerfield,
Middlemen in English Business: 1660-1760. Newhaven,
Connecticut, 1915. [Reprinted, Newton Abbot, 1968]., p. 353, pp.
429 ff.)

Josiah Child as a young man left London for Portsmouth to make
his fortune from vittling Cromwell's army. He returned to London in
the 1660s and bought a brewery.
(Furber, Rival, p. 97.)

By 1664, Sir Josiah Child was warning that the North American
colonies would become "prejudicial" because of their growing
maritime strength.
(Albion, Forests and Sea Power, p. 245. Westerfield,
Middlemen, p. 406.)

Child was broadly correct. During the 1690s Josiah Child
labelled New England as "the most prejudicial Plantation to this
Kingdom", and described the inhabitants as "a people whose
Frugality, Industry and Temperance, and the happiness of whose laws
and institutions, promise to them long life with a wonderful
increase of People, Riches and Power."
(Philip S. Haffenden, New England in the English Nation,
1689-1713. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974. Introduction, and p.
54. Also, See Michael G. Hall, et al (Eds.), The Glorious
Revolution in America. Chapel Hill, NC, 1964.; Bernard Bailyn,
The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century.
Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1955.; Thomas C. Barrow,
Trade and Empire: The British Customs Service in Colonial
America, 1660-1775. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
University Press, 1966.; Curtis P. Nettels, Money Supply of the
American Colonies. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Wisconsin, 1934.)

By 1673, Child was the largest shareholder in the East India
Company, as dissatisfaction was rising with returns from the
Company, and interlopers were competing. The Company was split on
how to deal with interlopers or not, and there was also debate over
whether to exclude the King's brother, James, the Duke of York
(later James II) from succession to the crown or not.

The opponents of the interlopers, including Child, were
supporters of the King. Many of the pro-interlopers were
exclusionists, and a pro-exclusionist was Thomas Papillon, an East
India Company director since 1663, a pro-republican with Dutch
financial interests. The opposing forces within the Company were
matched equally till Child became Governor of the Company and
Papillon became deputy-governor in 1681.
(K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An
Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge
University Press, 1989., p. 87. According to Furber, Rival,
Sir Josiah Child was no relation to John Child who worked for the
East India Company in India.)

On 11 November, 1681 Papillon moved to wind up the Company's
joint stock in three years and open a new joint stock to
interlopers. This was defeated. Papillon also wanted more
parliamentary liaison for the Company. Later, Papillon and his
supporters were ousted, so they sold out of the Company. Child
meantime had judiciously distributed "presents". Papillon faced
damages of £10,000 and fled to Utrecht. The rebels had to sell out
their stock to Du Bois and withdraw to lick their wounds, Papillon
was finally fined £10,000 by Lord Chief Justice Jeffreys for
sedition and fled overseas. A small clique of about forty men
closely connected with the court were left in control of the
Company, and stockprices rose.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, pp. 76-77.)

About 1684-85 arose a legal case, the East India Company
versus Thomas Sandys. By 1683, a Company interloper, Thomas
Sandys, gained a royal prerogative to create a monopoly of the
Indian trade. Judge Jeffreys upheld the royal prerogatives but
interloping continued. In 1691 the interloping group had a new
society meeting at Dowgate, and they got a case to Parliament in
1694. In 1698 the New East India Company was set up. It gave a loan
of two million to the state, but the Old Company bought out the new
for £3.2 million, just as the Company was feeling greater need for
permanence in India.

The king's right to use royal prerogative to create a monopoly
whereby the Company could seize interlopers was upheld, and after
the accession of James II in 1685, the Company could successfully
prosecute interlopers. The Company obtained a new charter in 1686,
although Company fortunes fell and, quite outrageously, and partly
due to the work of Sir Josiah Child, the Company was waging war on
the Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb, just as William III came to the
throne in 1688-1689 - and as the pirate Samuel White had come
home.

Abroad, Thomas Papillon noted the case of Samuel White, came
home, and with others with a fund petitioned Parliament to throw
open the Indian trade. A French war delayed matters. Governor of
the Old Company, Sir Josiah Child, "father of Mercantilism", fought
all this. The Company spent nearly £90,000 in bribes in one year to
keep its exclusivity. An inquiry found it was the Company's usual
practice to distribute bribes to great men; that in 1693 it had
spent about £90,000 on bribery. The Duke of Leeds was charged with
accepting a bribe of £5000 and impeached. Great men tried to
smother the inquiry. Parliament was prorogued. Some £10,000 was
traced to William III.

With William III installed, however, Papillon felt confident in
returning from abroad. A war of pamphlets began in London. The
interlopers rose again. Whig interests sought a new charter for the
Company from William and the fight lasted eight years. Sir Josiah
Child possessed enough influence to get bills through favouring the
monopoly. Then the Company stupidly failed to pay a new tax and so
forfeited its charter. A new charter was written by October 1693,
although in 1694 the Parliament resolved that all subjects of
England had an equal right to trade to the East unless prohibited
by Act of Parliament.

So matters made for a standoff. As William III might have
allowed the claims of the private (eastern) traders, then came the
threat of the Scottish Darien Company, while in 1697 the weavers
attacked East India Company House, and Child's house too. Child
finally failed in efforts to restrict the stock ownership of the
Company, so much so that he used two brokers to sell shares dear
and buy cheap. But now it was Parliament, not the King, which
granted charters for trading monopolies.

Sir Josiah Child, "autocrat of the East India Company," remained
a favourite at the court of Charles II, since he made Charles many
private loans. Charles in gratitude made him baronet. Child was a
Whig who rose to Whig governorship of the East India Company. James
II hated Child, but Child turned Tory for James, rather
aggrandizing himself as part of the exercise.

It was this Toryism which led to revolt by the Company's
Papillon faction. As Tory, Child fared badly with 1688 Revolution
promoting William III, but power remained covertly in his hands.
Child often gave bribes, and bribery and corruption with the
Company reached "amazing proportions" from 1688 till later in
Walpole's times. "To obtain and maintain the exclusive economic and
political privileges in England, it (the East India Company)
combined bribery with protestations of honesty, intrigues with
outward submission, plunder of foreign lands for the small clique
with declarations of serving the British interest of promoting
trade, and, later, rapine of India" writes Mukherjee, along with
the hypocrisy of the carrying of "the white man's
burden".
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, p. 47. Maurice Collis, British
Merchant Adventurers. London, William Collins, 1942. W. M.
Torrens, Empire in Asia: How we came by it: A Book of
Confessions. London, Trubner and Co., 1872.)

And in all, it could be said, that as a writer on trade and
economics, Child may well have been too busy to notice that slavery
existed, and that workers needed living wages. His writings were
some of the early formulations which corrupted the heart of the
capitalism of his day. There was indeed an ideological battle
starting. A lesser-known figure, Sir William Petty, did however
write on seamen's wages versus landlubber wages in the early
1670s.
(See: C. H. Hull, (Ed.), Economic Writings of Sir William
Petty, as cited by Davis, Rise of the English Shipping
Industry, p. 152.)

As for "business styles"... Before 31 July, 1691, stockjobber
William Sheppard, the greatest of the stock jobbers of his day, was
buying and selling £6000-9000 in Royal Africa Company stock, also
dealing in other stocks, including for the Hudson's Bay Company and
the East India Company. He ended with Company stock lots of
£70,000.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 83.)

And in 1691, Sir Josiah Child and seven others owned more than
25 per cent of Royal Africa Company stock, and voted their own way,
accordingly.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 156.)

Was it simply racism which made the writers of the day on
economic topics overlook the fact that behind sugar and tobacco
profits, behind slavery, was a violent, irrational, and
institutionalised determination not to pay workers a
sensible wage for their labour? If so, then it was partly racism
which corrupted "capitalism" at the core, for the oversight
affected notions on final sale prices for commodities. This
oversight, and its affects in later commentary, helped to lay the
basis for discussion on trade and economics. Whereas some
historians are more prone to speak merely of the Mercantilists'
fondness for "buying cheap and selling dear", or the difficulties
of finding sufficient bullion to use in the East. As it was,
"buying cheap" could also entail warfare.

The Royal Africa Company as supplier of slaves was also a worry,
as it had "narrow interests". "The outrage to morality which the
Middle Passage must always be should not obscure the fact that it
was also an outrage to sound economics", as Davies writes.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 346.)

Davies calls the entire operation a failure as a capitalist
organisation, due to wars, operating on three continents,
under-capitalisation, structural defects, slow communications, as
well as the inhumanity and immorality of the exercise.
(Davies, Royal Africa Company, p. 294.)

Two men regarded as "political economists", Josiah Child and
Dalby Thomas, were investors in Royal Africa Company slaving
operations.
(Mintz, Sweetness, p. 155.)

Note: The fortunes of the Childs, the Riders and the Heathcotes
might be measured in hundreds of thousands of pounds.
(Davis, Rise of the English shipping industry, p. 95.)

The large London timber merchants drew widely on London business
circles to take shares in ships they built.
(Davis, Rise of the English shipping industry, p. 148.)

The usual trading rights for East India Company ships captains
made them a fortune in four or five voyages. In the Africa trade,
captains always and mates often could carry their own slave cargo
separate and freight free.
(R. Davis, Rise of the English shipping industry, p.
87.)

The lists are long: Sir Josiah Child (the greatest shareholder
and personality in the East India Company in the 1680s and 1690s);
Sir John Moore (director of the Company and Lord Mayor 1681-1682
and MP for London in 1685); Sir Gabriel Roberts (Company director,
deputy-governor of the Levant Company); Sir Samuel Dashwood
(Company director, Assistant to the Levant Company, MP for London,
Commissioner of Excise); Sir Robert Clayton (still in the rise of
his fortune-making, "the great scrivener", MP for London, Lord
Mayor, director of the Bank of England); Sir William Prichard (Lord
Mayor 1682-1683, MP for London, Company director); Sir William
Turner.

By 1665-1667, Sir Josiah Child was already eminent with Company
as a director. In his view, trade with India was the most
beneficial sort of English trade, although requiring over 25 of
"the most warlike mercantile ships". In Bengal, the Moguls had
resisted the first Portuguese, on the Hughli River.
(The name de Souzas can be found in J. J. A. Campos, History of
the Portuguese in Bengal. London/Calcutta, Butterworth and Co.,
1919., p. 189, p. 197, p. 157.)

The Portuguese about Bengal fell into piracy. But from about
1665, possibly from Chittagong, it was the Portuguese whose ideas
probably gave the English East India Company its ideas when, in
1685, Child waged war on the Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb.
(More merchant names are in Campos, History of the Portuguese in
Bengal, pp. 19ff, p. 126.)

"Sir Josiah Child [nd] as chairman of the East India Company
Court of Directors writes to Governor of Bombay nd to crush
countrymen (English) who had invaded ground of the Company's
pretensions in India."

In 1681, Child had become governor of the East India Company. He
soon became convinced the Company already had the power to make war
on Indian politics, regarding the use of Fort St. George. Child was
very concerned with revenue volumes, more so as overheads had to be
paid.
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 3.)

Child's policies became very aggressive and expansionary, and he
wanted to defray the overhead costs of infrastructure, (just as did
the Royal Africa Company).
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 83.)

About when Child began thinking of making war on the Mogul
emperor, Aurangzeb, Sir John Child in India (no relation to Sir
Josiah, evidently), was admitting that the Company at Surat owed
£281,250 to natives of Surat. It was inconvenient to pay even the
interest here, and some way had to be found re such
obligations.
(Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement in India. Vol.
1. New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India, 1970., p. 206.)

Mogul reactions were swift and drastic, moving against the
English at Surat, Masulipatam, Vizagapatam. Bombay was attacked.
The Emperor took English humility, and then came the firman
of 1690, on condition the Company paid all dues to Indian
merchants, gave compensation for losses inflicted on Empire, and
recalled Sir John Child from India. So Bombay was evacuated and
permits for trade on Indian west coast and Bengal were restored.
Sir John Child, the Company, about 1681 had become exasperated by
the behaviour of Mogul officials in Bengal and wanted to chastise
Aurangzeb. The Company from London gave Child increased military
and commercial powers, the same powers as the Dutchman Van Goens
enjoyed at Batavia with VOC.

But the war went badly for Child, the west coast English
reluctant to fight. Some Mogul pilgrim ships were seized, English
ships brought in prizes, but costs included the imprisonments of
some English at Surat and a siege of Bombay. The East India Company
directors in January 1686, including Josiah Child had decided on
war, but had no local knowledge. Their plan was naïve: to declare
war on Aurangzeb from the west, cut off Mogul shipping, while in
the east they would take Madras, evacuate Company servants from
Bengal, seize Mogul ships as sea, and take Chittagong as a base for
moving up the Ganges with forces led by Capt. William Heath, to try
to take the Mogul viceroy's capital at Dacca. Only Job Charnock
saved this absurd situation from complete disaster, and by-the-by
he had established Calcutta by 1692.
(Furber, Rival, pp. 96-97.)

Child evidently brewed Company discontents after 1681 when he
became Governor. He heeded Augnier's advice about conducting
commerce with sword in hand, so he wanted the Company to save for
this purpose, and also develop new sources of revenue at both
Bombay and Madras. However, his idea to increase taxes at Bombay
contributed to Keigwin's rebellion of 1683. Hearing of Keigwin's
actions, such as imprisoning the Company's deputy-governor, Charles
II appointed John Child Captain-General of all the Company's forces
in West India and sent out a ship ordering Keigwin to surrender.
Keigwin surrendered. In 1685, John Child was created Baronet.

Sir Josiah Child, becoming Company governor in 1681, had been
slow to persuade, but he finally went for war on Indian polities.
The infrastructure matter, the cost of fortifications, was a strong
point. And by 1684 the Company wanted to strengthen Fort St.
George, wanting like the Dutch to see a fort pay its way.
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 48.)

By 1700, Thomas Pitt in India was reporting to Child, about
increasing English revenue while not upsetting the local
government. The Company wanted to increase its revenues as well as
its commercial trade, and relevant ethical questions were not
addressed till Clive's time in 1765, when he was given
diwani rights.

Memorably, Child once expressed contempt for the laws of England
as "compiled by a few ignorant country gentlemen" who hardly knew
how to make laws for the good of their private families, let alone
regulating companies and foreign commerce. And although this remark
of Child's seems contemptuous, an examination of the views of those
he criticised here makes one suspect he was correct. Josiah Child
helped appoint John Vaux as Governor of Bombay, in which context
arose Child';s amazing remark, "the laws of England are a heap of
nonsense".
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 36, p. 72.)

And Child did want his own increasingly aggressive orders
carried out. In 1669, Child in his writings made remarks on the
timber trade, at a time when 200 ships sailed for "Eastland", but
England he feared was not building enough new ships for that trade.
Child, of course, wanted only English ships to be used.
(Albion, Forests and Sea Power, p. 157. Davis, Rise of
the English shipping industry, p. 53, p. 160.)

(Before 1713, it became convenient more so for the East India
Company shipping interest to become associated with senior Company
directors, partly as then, the shipowners could promise themselves
that their own ships would be used, and men setting up this
modified system included prominent Company members of the Company
court such as Sir Josiah Child, Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, Richard
Hutchinson and Charles Duncombe.

Endnote: After 1670, the Bahamas were subject of a grant to
certain of the Carolina proprietors of 1670, [CSP iii, No. 311, pp.
132-133, 1 Nov., 1670. By 1775-1776, the Royal Governor of South
Carolina was Lord William Campbell]. The proprietors of Bahamas
made little provision for defence, and in 1704 the Bahamas had
become depopulated (about 150 families were there) due to war. Salt
was the chief product. The Bahamas became a stronghold of pirates,
a situation not addressed again till 1715. By 1707, the collector
of customs for 20 years on Bahamas had been John Graves.
(Penson, Colonial Agents, pp. 99-103.)

For years the proprietors of the Bahamas had been resident of
England, using an agent to see to their interests in dealings with
the Board of Trade, one Thornburgh. By 1706, Graves was telling
government that the Bahamas decayed due to neglect by the
proprietors.

More on English trade from 1650

The Whiggish context of William Dampier's
explorations:

WHEN the Tyrant of Distance who has had such ill effect
on the writing of Australian history considered Dampier, he shore
Dampier of his links with the Darien Company. So he shore the
legend of the discovery of Australia of connections with Scottish
Enterprise and/or the English New East India Company.

With reference to Australia per se, the history of
Pacific exploration has been cast in terms of three main themes -
European rivalries based on treasure lusts-plus-misinformation,
versus a purer or more abstract interest in exploration,
science and discovery, plus improvement in the arts of navigation.
And thirdly, a sense of disappointment that such little of use was
found, as with the Dutch ventures on the northern Australian coast.
The Dutch ventures had more to do with hopes for an expansion of
Mercantilism - and Dampier's voyage, even more so.

But a review of William Dampier's career should be given a
preface, about piracy generally...

Where pirates from their own point of view can operate
successfully, the waters they use are obviously not being
successfully policed by any national power. What can any particular
state do about this? If particular states cannot police given
waters, the historical record seems to suggests that states react
passively by not policing the waters themselves, and also by
letting no other state police those waters. In this situation,
maritime arenas become decontrolled, and no power can be properly
exercised by any particular state. Pirates are virtually given free
rein, though they become subject to land-based law if they are
captured, or if they land.
(Australian Encyclopedia. In 10 Vols. Sydney, Angus and
Robertson, 1958. Grolier Society. of Australia, 1962. Brenner,
Merchants and Revolution, cited earlier. G. R. Elton,
England Under The Tudors. London, Methuen, 1955. Clennel
Wilkinson, William Dampier. London, John Lane, 1929. George
Wycherley, Buccaneers of the Pacific: of the bold English
buccaneers, pirate privateers & gentleman adventurers, who
sailed in peril through the stormy straits or pierced the isthmus
jungle, to vex the king of Spain in the South Seas & the
Western Pacific, plundering his cities & coasts & preying
on his silver fleets & his golden galleons. London, John
Long, 1929. (Found in the Bateson Collection of maritime history in
the library of the Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney.)
Margaret Irwin (pseud), The Great Lucifer: A Portrait of Sir
Walter Raleigh. London, Chatto and Windus, 1966.

Given the anti-Spanish reputation of the British sailor-pirate,
it remains to be asked why, after 1788, so few British ships ever
bothered the Spanish in the Philippines before, say 1810? However,
a colonel of the East India Company army who had commanded
artillery for Clive of India at the Battle of Plassey, Robert
Barker, visited the Philippines in 1762. (Valentine, British
Establishment, Vol. 1, p. 48). In 1779, a Baron of the Scottish
Exchequer, Sir John Dalrymple, suggested attacking Spanish colonies
from the Cape of Good Hope or New Zealand. (Robert J. King,
`"Ports of shelter and refreshment..": Botany Bay and Norfolk
Island in British naval strategy, 1786-1808', Australian
Historical Studies, Vol. 22, 1986., p. 202. Christopher
Hibbert, King Mob: The Story of Lord George Gordon and the Riots
of 1780. London, Longmans Green, 1958., p. 25.) An MP married
to one of the New York Loyalist family, Susanna De Lancey, Sir
William Draper, died 1787, once a colonel at Madras, led troops to
capture Manila, finding a ransom for it of £one million which was
never paid. Valentine, British Establishment, Vol. 1, p.
267).

In the 1790s, and by way of fulfilling an old tradition of
English prejudices, the Enderby whalers of London wished to conduct
punitive expeditions against South American coastal cities using
convicts from Sydney. Here, the Enderbys may have had in mind such
moves as the 1797 plan to conquer Manila in the Philippines. The
expedition assembled at Penang, the later Duke of Wellington having
had some hand in planning. The expedition was called off due to the
need to fight Tipu Sultan of Mysore.
(This latter material is from the early chapters to D. G. Hall,
Henry Burney: A Political Biography. London, Oxford
University Press, 1974.)

For a period, as it were, the pirates do the policing.
Meanwhile, normal trade becomes difficult or impossible; which
suggests that trade routes are either stymied, diverted, created,
or, recreated. The uneasy relationship between states, legal
merchants and pirates becomes an unstable boundary for the exercise
of state power... and this was all the political environment that
amused and challenged William Dampier enormously - and a great many
other pirates, including William Kidd. And, another pirate working
in the East, already mentioned, Samuel White.

In the late 1690s, Dampier was leading up to his second voyage
by north-western Australia. Earlier, arising from his first voyage
to there, on Capt. Swan's ship Cygnet, in 1667-1668.
Cygnet had sailed from Mexico to the Marianas, then to the
Philippines, then to north-western Australia (had she sailed west
through Torres Strait?), then to Christmas Island, past the
Sumatran Coast to the Nicobars. Dampier arrived home from this trip
in 1691. Once there, he wrote a negative report which, along with
Dutch inability to make successful settlements in Northern
Australia, conditioned European views on the usefulness of the
Australian land mass till the late 1760s, before Cook sailed. Of
the Australian Aboriginals he saw, Dampier wrote, "The miserablest
people in the world. The Hodmadods of Monomatapa, though a nasty
people, yet for wealth are gentlemen to these." The important word
here is "wealth", of which the Aboriginals seemed to know nothing,
because what interested Mercantilists was wealth. If inhabitants of
Australia had no wealth, no thriving population, this was
sufficient reason for Mercantilists to ignore the area. Dampier
later tested this view on behalf of notable English Whigs.

As preamble also, two other points should be made. Firstly, from
the Indian Ocean, or from South-East Asia, or from the Pacific
Ocean north of the Tropic of Capricorn, that is, north east of
Australia, maritime approaches to Australia were made difficult by
wind patterns.
(Australian Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 183ff, Grolier
edition, 1958. Yet another overview of European interest in
Australasia is available in: J. M. R. Cameron, Ambition's Fire:
The Agricultural Colonization of Pre-Convict Western Australia.
Nedlands, Western Australia, University of Western Australia Press,
1981.)

These wind patterns deflected or deterred European approaches,
let alone settlement. Even the Dutch landings made from Indonesia,
around the Gulf of Carpentaria and Arnhem Land, where many Dutch
place names survive on today's maps, proved relatively fruitless
except in navigational terms. That is, navigators had to find a way
to avoid such wind patterns; and this was part of Cook's
achievement. If Australia's Aboriginal people were so long isolated
from the rest of humanity, these wind patterns suggest the most
useful explanations why. Asian and Arabic mariners were generally
coast huggers. Successful approaches to Australia - and departures
from Australia - needed the application of European-style,
blue-water, star-gazing navigation techniques (and ship's
discipline, which could be brutal).

Secondly, viewing matters retrospectively, from the time of
Matthew Flinders' circumnavigation of Australia, we find that
Europeans, including the English, took over 207 years to correctly
map Australia. It should be recognised that Europeans had little
incentive to bother with such expensive work - and Dampier's
negative reports on north-western Australia had much to do with
intensifying such feeling of disincentive.

As we have seen, Dampier had some influence on the Scottish
Darien Company. It is partly in recognition of the maritime
difficulties posed by the wind patterns north of Australia, across
Torres Strait, that I have developed the following outlook on
Dampier's career. He was not merely a buccaneer-navigator - he was
a commercial espionage agent who relished operating in the
political environments referred to above. It is also difficult to
believe that Dampier was unaware of the long career of the second
Earl of Warwick in promoting anti-Spanish activism, and
colonisation. Dampier once spent time in Virginia; he probably knew
a great deal about the influence of the Rich family, alone, in
trans-Atlantic trade.

Dampier was romantic, flamboyant, observant, methodical in his
movements, and one historian has called him a born travel writer.
He had little patience with deliberated literary technique; he
wrote more from his eye and his heart. During his time in the
Caribbean, Dampier seems a ripe Caribbean pirate, but in that
guise, he was often merely acting out English prejudice against the
Spanish. Dampier was an action-man, but he was not malicious. We
can take it from reports of voyages to the East, and about
Australia, that while he was a gifted navigator, he was a poor
commander.

If we assume that Dampier was always a poor commander, a new
complexion is placed on his time in the Caribbean. He was not
leading, nor exactly following: he was scouting.
Dampier was a geographer, grasping the outlines and contours of
water and land masses in terms of their strategic values in terms
of the ambitions of the day. He interpreted the Caribbean, and the
area around "Darien", both on its Pacific and Caribbean/Atlantic
sides, in terms of the incursions the English might make and keep
against Spanish hegemony. The "Darien area" was of supreme
strategic value, and it still retains that value - a value the
English would capitalise on greatly from the 1650s, after the
capture of Jamaica. In advising the Scottish Darien Company,
Dampier was giving vent to his observations in terms of those
themes. For with the Darien Company - which cannot have escaped
Dampier's notice - the Scots were wishing to act out all previously
expressed English ambitions, prejudices and dreams in that region -
and it cost them dearly. The Scottish Darien Company began to share
almost-standard Mercantilist dreams about wealth drawn from the
East.
(Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient,
1600-1800. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, c.1976.
Holden Furber, John Company at Work. Cambridge,
Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1948. On Dampier and
Helyar, see Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, variously.)

Should those dreams of the East bear on interpretations of
Dampier's reports on north-western Australia? The English
Mercantilist from the 1690s wished and preferred to deal with an
already large, industrious population who drew productivity and
wealth from their natural resources in a well-organised way, as was
the case with the African Gold Coast, India, and later, China. The
English Mercantilist's policy was simple - buy cheap at the point
of origin and sell dear at the point of sale, the difference going
to the expected maritime transport costs, normal profit, and often,
quite some greed. But like any state, the Mercantilist state was
also vulnerable to piracy. This is partly why the misadventures of
Captain William Kidd caused such an uproar with the Old East India
Company of the 1690s, not so long after Samuel White's depredations
around the Bay of Bengal. Kidd helped to keep the Red Sea region
and the western reaches of the Indian Ocean, south to Madagascar,
destabilised.
(During the mid-1690s, pirates Thomas Tew and Henry Every kept
eastern seas in turmoil as Mogul shipping was attacked; the
position of the East India Company further deteriorated in the
1690s. Around 1706-1707 and later, English pirates worked the Red
Sea from Red Sea bases or Madagascar. Madras alone lost wealth of
about £80,000.)

The Mogul Empire under Aurangzeb, and earlier emperors, was
insignificant as a maritime power. The Moguls failed to appreciate
the trends implicit in European voyagings from 1600 which were
dangerous to them, and they did not react strongly to European
piracy in their region until pilgrim ships to Mecca were interfered
with. In the way they dealt with Europeans, the Moguls, in brief,
made many errors of statecraft, among which were, as a massive
mistake of political imagination, never sending any diplomats to
inspect the home bases of the Europeans.
(For a list of English East India pirates of the 1690s, see p. 43
of E. Keble Chatterton, Ventures and Voyages. London,
Longmans Green, 1928.)

Some notable traders of the day can be grouped into New
versus Old East India Company categories. An "Old" Company
servant was Thomas Pitt (1653-1716), governor of Madras 1698-1709,
MP for Old Sarum, the progenitor of Pitt the Elder and Younger,
prime ministers. At Bombay and Surat the New Company governor
1700-1708 was Sir Nicholas Waite, who took advantage of Aurangzeb's
exasperation at the Old Company's breakdown of protection of Mogul
ships against English pirates (Capt. Kidd?) especially on
pilgrimage ships to Mecca.
(Ian B Watson, Foundation, p. 113; Peter Douglas Brown,
William Pitt, Earl of Chatam: The Great Commoner. London,
Allen and Unwin, 1978. Furber, Rival, p. 352 says the Mogul
emperor, Aurangzeb took little note of East India Company servants,
even their war, till pilgrim ships were attacked, then he reacted.
Sir John Gayer, an Old East India Company governor, was sent to
prison by Aurangzeb.)

The career of Capt William Kidd, pirate:

Captain William Kidd had the backing of four powerful men of the
English government, plus some backing from William III. So, one
wonders, what was the interest they had in destabilising the
western Indian Ocean under the guise of attempting to control
piracy by employing William Kidd? By setting a thief to catch
thieves? During William III's reign in England, Whig energy was
given more freedom. William had agreed to curtail the royal
prerogative - and this had implications for any royally-chartered
company such as the East India Company. From 1688, new traders with
eyes on Eastern trade were harassing the Old East India Company.
Some of these traders of the New East India Company of the 1690s
will soon have to be named, but not before Kidd's backers are
named.

Privateer Captain William Kidd was born about 1645 at Greenock,
a Scot, and died hanged in May 1701. He has mixed reviews, as a
faithful husband, devoted father, a convicted pirate and murderer.
His wife was Sarah Oort, who had four husbands in all.
(Douglas Botting (Ed.), and the Editors of Time-Life Books, The
Seafarers: The Pirates. Alexandria, Virginia, Time-Life Books,
1978., pp. 100ff on Kidd. On various other backers of pirates, see
David J. Starkey, British Privateering Enterprise in the
Eighteenth Century. University of Exeter Press, Exeter Maritime
Studies, No. 4, 1990.)

Kidd comes to notice as a confidant of the governor of New York,
Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, who was notorious for his dealings with
the pirate, Tew. When Bellomont (Richard Coote), became governor of
New York he tried to stem piracy from New Jersey to Maine.
(Lord Bellomont, Richard Coote, died 5 March, 1700/01.)

Government hoped to attack pirates in the east; but due to
England's war with France, there were few spare ships, so, a "need"
arose to employ privateers. Kidd had distinguished himself as a
privateer captain in the King's service against the French in the
West Indies in 1689, so well, that talk circulated in London, and a
plan arose.

In London, Kidd met another New Yorker, Colonel Robert
Livingston, who had a "grandiose scheme" for ending Red Sea piracy
with profit. Kidd's backers became the new governor of New York,
the Earl of Bellomont, who met Kidd in London in 1695, and offered
him a privateer's commission to attack Red Sea pirates plus French
traders. Powerful backers would stifle any problems.
(Kidd had property on corner of Pearl and Hanover streets in
Manhattan, 86-90 and 119-121 Pearl St. and 52-56 Water Street and
25-29 Pine Street. Some property had come from his wife's two
earlier marriages. They held a pew at Wall Street's Trinity
Episcopal Church. A proportion of his property had been gained due
to "normal" success as a merchant captain. Ironically, some of his
pirate booty went into buildings now helping comprise the
National Maritime Museum at Greenwich, London.)

Amongst the backers were Richard Coote, governor of New York,
the unmarried Whig, Henry Sydney, Earl of Romney (1641-1704),
(master general of ordnance, an Admiralty Lord); Admiral Edward
Russell (1652-1727). (He was fourth son of the "colonist" Robert
Sydney, second Earl of Leicester, and brother of the "republican"
executed in 1683, Algernon. Henry was MP for Tamworth and a groom
of the royal bedchamber. It has been said, he was "the great wheel"
on which rolled the Glorious Revolution.
(GEC, Peerage, Romney, p. 84.)

Lord Orford; the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal;
(Identification of Earl Orford who backed Capt. Kidd and Dampier
can be confusing. It is easy to confuse Orford with a contemporary,
Lord Oxford. Orford was a Whig, Admiral, and Lord of Admiralty,
Edward Russell (1652-1727), second son of his father, Edward
Russell and Penelope Hill. Orford married his cousin, Mary Margaret
Russell, daughter of William Russell , first Duke of Bedford, but
had no children. Orford was second son of Edward Russell, a younger
son of William Russell the fifth Earl of Bedford (Baron Howland who
helped crown William III) and Anne Carr. Orford was a naval
treasurer from 1689, and a commissioner of the navy. He was once
accused of wholesale malversation in "conniving at the piracies of
Capt. Kidd to whom he gave a commission and since he helped fit out
Kidd's ship". He once made a fortune victualling the fleet in the
Mediterranean. Orford was one of the seven signatories inviting
William III to become King of England. GEC, Peerage,
Bedford, pp. 79-80; Willoughby, p. 692; Bathurst of Battlesden, p.
30; Orford, pp. 77-81. Orford should not be confused with first
earl Orford, Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745), also a Whig and
Admiralty figure, son of MP Robert Walpole and Mary Burwell, a
First Lord of Admiralty, Paymaster of the forces for George I and
known as "Brazen Face" for his dubious business practices.
(GEC, Peerage, Cholmondeley, pp. 203-204; Townshend, p.
805.)

Sir John Somers (1650-1716);
(Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury: Lord Mayor Craven was one of
his forebears, via Percy Herbert, second Baron Powis. On his
mother's side, some ancestors were Throckmortons. (GEC,
Peerage, Shrewsbury, pp. 720ff.)

The backers invested in the venture, the king promised £3000,
though he never paid up. In October 1695, Livingston, Bellomont and
Kidd signed an Articles of Agreement. Bellomont had to find
four-fifths of the costs, that is, £6000 of his own. Kidd and
Livingston were to put up other money. The custom was, the first
ten per cent went to the crown. If there was no booty, Livingston
and Kidd had to pay back all money to their backers.

William III's commission for the venture was dated 1 December,
1695. Adventure Galley 278 tons, with 34 guns and 23 pieces
for oars if becalmed, was launched at Deptford on the Thames in
December 1695. Nearly all the 70 crew were married men; that is,
reliable. Kidd's brother-in-law, Bradley, was also on the voyage.
Kidd went out in Adventure Galley, only to be interrupted by
a navy ship which took away some of Kidd's crew, leaving Kidd with
ragtag men. Later, Kidd made the mistake of taking Quedah
Merchant, which had an English captain, Wright, and Armenian
owners, but French papers. The East India Company at Surat wrote
home to the Lords Justices in England their accusations of piracy.
It was decided to give a free pardon to all pirates east of the
Cape, except Kidd, Kidd's associate, Avery, and one other pirate,
as a means of trying to isolate Kidd. Kidd had for example been
blockading both coasts of the Peninsula of India with squadrons,
and even been down to Malacca.
(On Kidd: John Bruce, Annals of the Honourable East India
Company. London, Court of Directors of the East India Company,
1810. Three Vols. Vol. 3, pp. 269-271, p. 301, regarding pirates on
the west coast of India including Adventure Galley, Capt.
Kidd, and Quedah Merchant, and p. 301, the establishment of
Fort William. P. J. Marshall, East India Fortunes: The British
in Bengal in the Eighteenth Century. Oxford at the Clarendon
Press, 1974, 1976., p. 61. Daniel Defoe, (Edited by Manuel
Schonhorn), A General History of the Pirates. London, Dent
and Sons, 1972. Defoe supported William III's foreign policy, in
1706 -1711, and he enlisted public support in Scotland for the
Union of the crowns in 1707.)

Kidd was outlawed entirely. When he got back to New York, he had
sailed 42,000 miles. By 1699, "the Kidd affair" was being spoken
of, and a ship was sent out to get Kidd, but it was driven back by
a storm. There were allegations that Kidd's backers wanted plunder
at home and abroad, that the admiralty got a percentage from
[licenced] pirates. The King's grant for Kidd's backers was thought
to be a Royal Patent with dummy names disguising "great names".

Kidd had landed in Boston on 2 July, 1699. He wanted an old
friend in New York, lawyer James Emmott, to talk to Bellomont for
him. Bellomont had received orders to arrest Kidd; and his own
career was in the balance. Kidd's friend the Boston postmaster
Duncan Campbell is mentioned as taking a message from Bellomont to
Kidd. In typical pirate story ways, treasure was buried in the
garden of John Gardiner on Long Island Sound, on Cherry Harbour
Beach. Taken to London, Kidd languished in Newgate for a year, from
around May 1700 before being interrogated March-May 1701. Kidd's
view was that he had become the victim of perjurers; his
prosecutors called him "Arch-Pirate and the common Enemy of
Mankind".
(Later, his wife Sarah Oort married a prominent politician and
lived another 43 years in New Jersey.)

During 1701, furore continued about Kidd's activities,
fuelled by queries on who were his backers? The House of Commons
listens to argument and allegations. If Kidd claimed, as he did,
that he was innocent, then he also exonerated his backers.

Kidd's backers in government included:

(1) John Somers (1650-1716), unmarried, first Baron Somers. He
assisted the Union of Scotland and England, was Chancellor
1697-1700 and Lord President of Council 1708-1710; one of the
Junto, tempe Queen Anne.

(2) Admiral Edward Russell (1652-1727), Earl Orford, who also
backed Dampier's voyage east in Roebuck. Russell had been
one of the seven peers putting their signature to an invitation to
William to rule England. Naval treasurer, Commissioner of Navy,
First Lord Admiralty, Commissioner for the Union with Scotland.

(There is here a variety of Whiggish promotion of interference
with the East India Company. Edward Russell (1652-1727), Earl
Orford, was a grandson of the fourth Earl of Bedford, Sir William
Courteen's patron in the matter of Barbados. Some Russell marriages
meant linkages with the family of Henry Wriothesley, founder of the
Whig Party. Earl Orford married his cousin, Mary Margaret Russell,
daughter of William (1616-1700) the fifth Earl of Bedford. This
fifth Earl, who helped crown William III, had married Anne Carr,
daughter of Robert Carr (1585-1645), Earl Somerset, a sometime
Treasurer of Scotland.)

(3) The first Duke of Shrewsbury, or, 12th Earl Shrewsbury,
Charles Talbot (1600-1717/18) was married to Adelaide Paleotti, a
lady of a royal bedchamber. Talbot's background is cast in terms of
England's sailor-pirate tradition. On his father's side, he had
ancestry arising with Lord Mayor William Craven (died 1618), whose
son William, Earl Craven (1608-1697), was a Whig and a proprietor
of Carolina. The maternal grandfather of Adelaide Paleotti was
Carlo Dudley, titular Duke of Northumberland (1614-1686). Carlo's
mother was Elizabeth Southwell (1586-1631), daughter of a privateer
of Drake's time, vice-admiral Robert Southwell (died 1598)
(Andrews, Elizabethan Privateers, p. 29. Who's Who
/Shakespeare, p. 236. GEC, Peerage, Carrick, p. 60;
Northumberland, p. 727; Willoughby, p. 692.)

This Talbot/Paleotti background also included Lord Admiral
Charles Howard (1536-1624), second Baron Howard of Effingham and
first Earl Nottingham, joint commander of the Spanish Armada, who
was married to Catherine Carey (d. 16020-1603), daughter of Henry
Carey, (1525-1596) first Baron Hunsdon. Henry Carey was a son of
Mary Boleyn, sister of Anne who had been beheaded by Henry
VIII.

(4) The governor of New York, Lord Bellomont, Richard Coote, who
died 5 March, 1700/1701, three months before Kidd was hanged after
prosecution by the Admiralty Court. His wife was Catherine Nanfan.
Bellomont died three months after Kidd. Bellomont was an early
backer of William III.

(5) Colonel Robert Livingston, prominent in New York. Livingston
with Bellomont inspired the entire scenario behind Kidd's
activities. He also had a deal to split booty with Kidd.

And 1701, around the year Kidd was hanged, the names of the
backers of Dampier's voyage east arise to also be listed. They
included Admiral Edward Russell; and Lord Charles Montague, first
Baron Halifax (1661-1715).
(Samuel Bennett, Australian Discovery and Colonisation. Vol.
1, to 1800. Milsons Point, Sydney, The Currawong Press, 1981.
[Facsimile of the original edition by Hanson and Bennett, Sydney,
1865].)

Montague's first wife was Anne Yelverton. He was Chancellor of
the Exchequer and a promoter of the New East India Company. He was
son of Hon. George Montague, married to Elizabeth Irby.
(The New East India Company met at Skinner's Hall. See Bruce,
Annals, various vols.) Montague, first Baron Halifax,
married as second wife, Mary Lumley (1696-1726); she was daughter
of the man said to have captured the rebel Duke of Monmouth,
Richard Lumley, first Earl Scarbrough (1650-1721), one of the seven
peers inviting William III to the throne of England (GEC,
Peerage, Scarbrough, pp. 509ff).

Montague was chancellor of the Exchequer, "an able financier"
and involved in confronting the "Old" East India Company with the
New.
Montague/Halifax's first wife was Ricarda Saltonstall, but it
remains difficult to know whether her family tree is linked with
that of an original subscriber to the East India Company, founder
of the Spanish Company, governor of the Merchant Adventurers, Lord
Mayor of London 1597-1598, Sir Richard Saltonstall (died 1601). Sir
Richard here had an interesting grandson, Wye Saltonstall, a witty
writer who had some relatives sail in 1630 and later to assist the
undertakers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
(Andreades, History of the Bank of England, pp. 104ff. GEC,
Peerage, Halifax, p. 245, Manchester, pp. 368-372. Andrews,
Elizabethan Privateers, pp. 114ff. Newton, Colonising
Puritans, pp. 78ff.)

More on Vulgar Trade - England after 1650

More on the backers of William Dampier:

The backers of both Kidd and Dampier were powerful men who were
astute enough to spend resources on assessing the risks of
exploiting areas subject at the time to the anarchy of piracy.
This, as the Old East India Company was being destabilised by the
increasingly concerted activity of new traders, many of them led by
Thomas Papillon, a near-republican and a sometime commissioner of
the victualling of the navy.
(Papillon (1623-1702), a proponent of the New East India Company,
was MP for Dover. Burke's Baronetage and Peerage, for
Papillon. Haley, Shaftesbury, p. 405. Bruce, Annals,
Vol. 3, pp. 260ff, pp. 290ff. Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p.
73.)

And this was only a few years after Sir Josiah Child at the Old
East India Company had unsuccessfully declared war on the Mogul
Emperor, Aurangzeb. The Mercantilist's need to deal with a thriving
population is partly why Dampier's first report on north-western
Australia was so dismal. Beliefs about the fabled
Java-Le-Grande south of South-East Asia were apparently a
miserable chimera. That part of that land mass - north western
Australia - had no industrious population and no apparently useful
resources - a simple sweep of the eye would indicate that. But did
any group feel it might be an idea to send Dampier out a second
time? What might have been their motives.

Dampier's earlier life:

William Dampier (1651-1715) was born at East Coker,
Somersetshire, on 5 September, 1651. Apparently his parents died
and he wished to go to sea.
(Entry, Australian Encyclopaedia, 1958 edition.)

He undertook some voyages then joined the Navy in 1672. In 1674
so he said, he left the navy having been offered a position as
manager of a plantation in the West Indies, and on the way he wrote
a journal.
(Perhaps the best treatment of Dampier's employers on Jamaica,
Helyars, is given in Dunn, Sugar and Slaves.)

The plantation was owned by Helyars of Somerset, who were old
compatriots of Sir Thomas Modyford. (Incidentally, their plantation
was not a long-term success and it ended up in the hands of the
Heathcote family). Dampier tired of plantation life in six months,
and joined a Jamaica coasting vessel, and in February 1676 sailed
for Campeachy Bay in Yucatan and entered the logwood industry, a
bay in Spanish territory with entry forbidden. At one time, Dampier
spent a going-nowhere period in Virginia. He became a buccaneer,
and this eventually took him to the South Seas. In October 1684 the
buccaneers were joined by a Capt. Swan in a ship Cygnet
(Signet), and in 1685 Dampier joined Swan's ship. Thus,
Dampier gained his first impressions of a sector of the Australian
land mass.

1697

By August 1697, Montague had arranged for Dampier to be a
"land-carriage man" in the Customs. By the spring of 1697, Dampier
was dealing with London publisher, James Knapton. The manuscript -
A New Voyage Around the World - was submitted to friends for
suggestions. Dampier's enemies said he had not written it, but had
it ghost written.
(There is however, no remark on who Dampier's enemies were; they
were anyway incorrect; Wilkinson also does not name Dampier's
friends - and he regards Dampier as a poor controversialist.)

When Dampier's book was published, in 1697 - A New Voyage
Round the World, it was immediately successful, and made
Dampier famous. And it was dedicated to Charles Montague, ie,
Halifax.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 146-149.)

Dampier's friends now included the diplomat Sir Robert
Southwell, also president of Royal Society, 1690-1695. And Sir
(Dr.) Hans Sloane, Bart, who had earlier been on Jamaica when the
hard-drinking Albemarle had been there, about when Dampier had been
on Jamaica. Sloane was a patron of scientists, a co-founder of the
British Museum, secretary of the Royal Society in 1693, and he
succeeded Isaac Newton as president of the Royal Society in
1727.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 150-162, p. 247. J. H. Parry,
The Age of Reconnaissance. New York, Mentor/New American
Library, 1963., p. 307. GEC, Peerage, Cadogan, p. 461.)

In brief, Dampier was sent to the East, by Australia, by a group
of High Whigs in London who were endeavouring to outmanoeuvre the
Old English East India Company. As well, part of the Scottish
Darien Company disaster was in losing ships sent to the East. In
sending those ships, the Scots Darienites were also modelling their
ambitions on what was happening in London. And what was happening
in London, in the City, was a concerted revolt against the royal
monopoly held by the East India Company whilst William III let out
new commercial spirits.

Various New East India Company men in London or in the East
included: Thomas Papillon, William Gifford (died 1721 murdered),
Gifford had links with Sir Stephen Evance of London, Thomas
Papillon, Maurice Thompson of London, Elihu Yale of Madras (later a
co-founder of Yale University in America).
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 73 and p. 333.)

Sir Streynsham Master: a director of the New East India Company,
and an investor in the Royal Africa Company and the East India
Company.
(GEC, Peerage, Coventry. K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and
Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise
of Islam to 1750. Cambridge University Press, 1989., p. 206. K.
G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, lists of investors.)

Also Sir William Norris, the failed emissary of the New East
India Company to the Mogul emperor;

Sir Edward Littleton (died 1707); a director of the New East
India Company and a "consul" in India at the times of Norris'
mission to the Mogul emperor.

John Dubois; Sir Nicholas Waite;

Sir James Bateman the father of William, first Viscount
Bateman,
(Lord Mayor of London Sir James Bateman was active by 1702 with the
New East India Company union with the Old, as trustee for the New.
He was possibly the father of William, first Viscount Bateman
married Anne Spencer, daughter of Charles Spencer (1674-1722),
third Earl Sunderland, a first lord of Treasury for Geo I; this
earl Sunderland had married Anne Churchill (died 1716) amongst
whose forebears were George Villiers, an anti-Spanish lord high
admiral, first Duke of Buckingham. John, second Viscount Bateman
married Elizabeth Sambrooke, a granddaughter of Sir Jeremy
Sambrooke and Judith Vanacker.
(GEC, Peerage, Bateman of Shobdon, pp. 13-14. The name
Robert Bateman is found as a Chamberlain of London, as a "prominent
merchant" involved with the 1620 Amazon adventure, as well as the
original East India Company, the Levant Company by 1605, the
Spanish Company in 1606, the Virginia Company in 1609, the North
West Passage Company of 1612. Brenner, Merchants and
Revolution, p. 384; Lorimer, (Ed.), Amazon, p. 215, Note
1.)

William Hedges a governor of Bengal and husband of Susanna
Vanacker.
(Vanacker: Susan's sister Dorothy Vanacker married Sir Jeremy
Sambrooke MP, of the East India Company. Their brothers were Turkey
merchants. Burke's Extinct Baronetcies for Vanacker of
London.)

First formlessly, then with more shape, there arose a "new"
English East India Company, a loose consortium of interlopers, some
of them with interesting family linkages. When Dampier sailed for
the regions north of Australia, he sailed for men in government who
were willing to assist those interlopers, those non-respectables.
What Dampier did was relatively simple, and not really original. He
retraced the paths of that earlier English explorer working before
the first English East India Company was formed - Ralph Fitch.

And so, it having been suggested to Admiralty that a naval
vessel be fitted out to explore the coast of New Holland, the job
would be done.

Some of the "High Whigs" in administration, and often of a
Royalist persuasion, prior to the late 1690s, were: Sir George
Carteret the treasurer of the navy (died 1679);
(Carteret was a favourite of Buckingham, also a deputy-governor of
Jersey, a Royalist, member of Privy Council. Burke's Extinct
Baronetcies, p. 104. There may be some confusion on this
person. An investor in the Royal Africa Company, listed thus by
Davies, was one proprietor of East Jersey, of a family named on a
royal charter for Carolina, a Royalist, a member of the Board of
Trade, whose widow sold his interest in Jersey (America) to twelve
Quakers including William Penn.)

Lord John Berkeley (1602-1678), Commissioner of Navy and Privy
Council;
(First Baron Berkeley, married to Christian Riccard, daughter of
Sir Andrew Riccard a governor of the East India Company. (Sir
Andrew Riccard was of St. Olave's, Hart Street, noted in Ian B.
Watson, Foundation, p. 72.) But Christian Riccard had also
married Henry Rich (died 1659), first Viscount Irving, a descendant
of the first Earl of Warwick.
(GEC, Peerage, Warwick, p. 416; Berkeley, p. 148; Holland,
p. 548. For his role as a proprietor of Carolina, Bliss,
Revolution and Empire, p. 209. He was friends with James,
Duke of York, a proprietor of New Jersey and in 1670 one of the
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. GEC, Peerage, Berkeley, pp.
147-148; Warwick; p. 416. Holland, p. 540.)

Sir William Berkeley (died 1677);
(William Berkeley: He was a proprietor of Carolina and a governor
of Virginia in 1641 and again in 1660, when he became "a tyrant"
and interested in the fur trade. Bliss, Revolution and
Empire, p. 209. Haley, Shaftesbury, pp. 230ff. T. J.
Wertenbaker, Virginia Under The Stuarts, 1607-1688.
1914.)

Governor of Virginia; Sir John Colleton a rich Barbados planter,
and as with Sir William Berkeley and Shaftesbury, a member of the
Special Committee for Foreign Plantations. (Major's view is that
Dampier was "selected" by "the Earl of Pembroke", who was
presumably Thomas Herbert (1656-1732), a Lord of Admiralty. Herbert
has no particularly Whiggish connections, although his father, the
fifth earl, was a promoter of the Royal Africa Company, and the
fourth earl had been the patron of Courteen in wrangles over
proprietorship of the Caribbean.

Notions were, the New East India Company would trade with India
in competition with the already-established or Old East India
Company, but fresh schemes such as the Darien scheme of the Company
of Scotland and Kidd's piratical adventures to Madagascar had
provided other inspirations. Dampier's two chief patrons were Lord
Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and
the Earl of Orford, First Lord of Admiralty?
(Here, we need also to be sure we refer to the Earl of Orford
(Admiral Russell 1652-1727) and not the first Earl of Oxford and
Mortimer. See McIntyre, Secret Discovery, pp. 72, 191, 195,
noting that Robert Harley (died 1724) (not Edward Harley, as
McIntyre states), first Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, had supposedly
had a copy of the "Dauphin Map", which allegedly was made by 1536.
McIntyre makes the point that by the Dampier's voyage, 1700, the
long-settled Portuguese of Timor had long known about, and long
ignored, the north-west Australian coast and hinterlands. There
were no secrets.
(Australian Encyclopaedia.)

In 1724 when Robert Harley died, the Dauphin Map was stolen by
one of his servants, and it went underground, amazingly to be later
found by Dr. Daniel Solander, friend of Sir Joseph Banks' friend,
and so it was acquired by Banks and was with Banks and therefore
Cook for the 1768-1770 voyage by the Eastern Australian coast. The
map is now in the British Museum.
(McIntyre, Secret Discovery of Australia.

Robert Harley (died 1724), by 1688 had helped his father raise a
horse troop for the "Glorious Revolution. A noted book collector,
he was a Whig who became a Tory finally suspected of Jacobitism by
the Hanoverians. He was a founder of the ill-fated South Seas
Company and an under-treasurer of the Exchequer.
(GEC, Peerage, Oxford and Mortimer, pp. 263ff.)

Which of these men had exerted influence on the Darien scheme,
which were involved in what became Capt Kidd's piracy about
Madagascar, which were interested in Dampier's voyage? It would
appear that William III had been interested in all three matters.
Presumably, any findings made by Dampier would have gone to Orford
and the New East India Company as well?

By the later 1690s, Dampier had realised the possibilities of an
"Australian continent", "a country likely to contain gold".
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 150-156.)

This led him to propose to the Admiralty that a king's ship
explore the coast of New Holland. Dampier also mentioned other
places to be visited with good advantage. He was commissioned by as
early as spring 1698, and he decided to round Cape Horn, visit the
Australian east coast, then proceed north to New Guinea, but was
delayed till September.

By July 1698, Dampier was also continually being called to
London to advise government, (the council of trade and plantations)
if he had heard of any proposals or bribes offered to Lionel Wafer,
Dampier's old Caribbean associate, by the Scotch East India
Company?
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 353, p. 408.)

In 1698 the East India Company loaned government two millions,
and were incorporated under the name General Society, a regulated
Company, members traded individually, interlopers formed their
Company, with joint stock company and till about 1708 with wise
mediation by Godolphin the Old and New East India companies traded
side by side, the old bought now the new. (The second earl
Godolphin helped to establish British racing; turf and
thoroughbreds.)

Dampier replied (possibly lying) that he had not. He said, Wafer
was unlikely to be able to offer any great service to a Scotch East
India Company.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 156-157, Citing, Calendar of State
Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies.)

Little is known of Dampier's moves between 1691-1696. But
Dampier's brother George sold a patent medicine, Dampier's
Powder, which, curiously enough, by 1697-1698, William Dampier
had formally made known to the Royal Society. Between 1697-1699,
Montague at the Royal Society had introduced Dampier to Earl
Orford, who was of the Russell family, also linked to the East
India Company, and the Duke(s) of Bedford. Bedfords were the
god-parents of Francis Drake. Walsingham had once proposed to
Elizabeth I that terra australis be settled and that Drake
be made life governor there. Where Dampier went, were English
traditions aplenty.

Having been ordered (why ordered?) to appear before Council of
Trade and Plantations to be "examined as to the design of the
Scotch East India Company to make a settlement on the Isthmus of
Darien" under William Paterson, Dampier found that Lionel Wafer was
another witness. (Wilkinson feels Dampier and Wafer could have
given Council much encouragement to proceed.) By 27 September,
1698, Dampier was called again to the council of trade and
plantations to advice on a squadron being fitted out against
pirates operating to the east of the Cape of Good Hope.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 156-157, Citing, Calendar of State
Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies.)

1697: Dampier's book New Voyage Round the World appears
in 1697, and brings matters into the purview of the more scientific
speculators such as Campbell, Callender and Dalrymple in Great
Britain, de Brosses in France: they all helped systematize existing
knowledge.

By 25 March, 1698, Dampier is given a silly ship, Jolly
Prize, as Lord Orford was pleased with this idea of
exploration, But by July, Dampier felt the vessel was unfit, so
Roebuck was got up, with 12 guns and a crew of 50 men and
boys provisioned for 20 months. Dampier told Orford he was
disappointed at the smallness of Roebuck's crew, among whom
were Jacob Hughes master, and Lt. George Fisher, a gentleman and an
enthusiastic Whig who later became Dampier's enemy. Plus Philip
Paine, gunner, and mates R. Chadwick and John Knight. The ship's
doctor was a Scot, William Borthwick and the captain's clerk was
James Brand. Dampier as scientist would refer to problems of the
variations of the compass.

About 21 November, 1698 Dampier wrote to Lord Orford on the
proposed voyage. He had drawn up his own instructions, but it was
now too late to get about Cape Horn. (Bligh on HMAV Bounty
had the same problem of timing in late 1787). So, he would have to
sail via the Cape of Good Hope. He wanted a gratuity for his
men, and was aware he was insecure in the ways of dealing with the
kind of superiors he now had. Dampier's formal instructions came on
30 November; he was to go to the Cape of Good Hope and stretch to
New Holland, steer any course, wanting a discovery of value, hoping
for advantages to the nation, etc. Internal squabbles slowed the
expedition. Lt. George Fisher, a regular naval officer had been a
leading light regarding the expedition and had appeared for the
board's deliberations.

By January 1699, Roebuck was ready to sail with Dampier
aboard with the rank of captain, as a king's ship. More manuscript
from Dampier was in hands of printers, and Dampier wrote from the
Downs to Lord Orford, unable to send Orford any copy of book(s).
This second volume was to make Dampier even more famous.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 152-154 complains Dampier is damned
with faint praise in the English DNB.)

On 14 January, 1699, Roebuck sailed from Downs, master
Hughes. Lt. Fisher began to imagine that Dampier had put an
assassin aboard to kill him (Fisher), so Fisher was later put off
the ship, at Brazil. Roebuck made for Cape Verde by 11
February. The west coast of New Holland (the north-western coast of
Western Australia) was sighted on 30 July, 1699. By 6 August,
Dampier was anchoring at Shark Bay. Some islands were named Dampier
Archipelago. Dampier then went east, to the present Roebuck Bay,
but the country wearied him, the crew had scurvy, so he went to
Timor, (22 September), where Roebuck was cleaned. He sailed about
Indonesia's coasts for three months, then along the northern coast
of New Guinea, rounding New Ireland and New Britain, to discover
the strait between the latter and New Guinea. The crew saw the
southern coast of New Guinea by 1 January, 1700.

Was Dampier testing the winds in the difficult areas of Torres
Strait? Did the English also want to find new ways to vault over
the Dutch East India Company? Major's extracts of Dampier's
writings informs us: that William III wanted new discoveries. (And
here, should it be assumed that William was familiar with existing
Dutch information on the region? Or not?). The Earl of Pembroke
(specifically) selected Dampier for the voyage.
(R. H. Major, (Ed.), Early Voyages to Terra Australis to the
Time of Captain Cook as told in Original Documents. Adelaide,
Australian Heritage Press, 1963. The views of William III are
given, p. lxvii, the contentious matter of the Dauphin Map is
mentioned, p. xvi; otherwise see pp. 101ff.)

Dampier mentions he had touched at Brazil, not intending to go
by the Cape of Good Hope, although he did go by the Cape, then set
for new Holland, pondering East Indies winds south of the Equator.
He pondered Timor, Java, Sumatra, the Straights of Sundy (Sunda)
before he arrived on the West Australian coast, and wondered, is
there an archipelago of Islands, is there a passage south of New
Holland or New Guinea, to or in a great sea westward? He might have
returned to New Guinea, but decided against it. He sought water
vainly, saw whales, sent men ashore to maybe dig a well, saw 9 or
10 natives, (with their front teeth knocked out), saw few land
animals, but did see [the] "largest whales I ever saw". There was
little encouragement to go further and with his men scorbutic, he
headed for Timor, an old Portuguese colony which had long ignored
Australian coastlines. Dampier finally lost his finally leaking
ship off Island of Ascension 22 February, 1701, and he also lost
his papers.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp.162-181.)

So for the Mercantilist, the best commodity available about
Western Australia was whale product. If the English had deciding on
whaling, then, that did not necessitate large-scale land
settlement.

According to Australian Encyclopedia, Dampier might have
sailed on and anticipated Cook's discovery of Eastern Australia,
but Roebuck was now leaking and the trade winds made sailing
south dangerous. So he went to Batavia, then England, reaching St.
Helena on 21 February, 1701, where Roebuck promptly sprang a
leak and sank. Dampier when he got home was court-martialled due to
manipulations brought about by his enemy-in-waiting, Lt. Fisher,
and was found to be unfit for further command.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, p. 182.)

And having retraced many of Ralph Fitch's earlier steps, and
gone beyond, Dampier might well have reported to the New East India
Company - "I saw nothing new of any use that the Spanish don't
already have locked up, militarily speaking, except for whales".
Which would have suggested that the New East India Company had
better make peace with the Old, because in the East, life was not
going to be made easier by the Dutch or the Spanish. The entry on
Dampier in the Australian Encyclopedia concludes, "The
discovery and settlement of eastern Australia may be viewed as the
indirect but none the less real conclusion of Dampier's work".
(Dampier, ADB entry.)

By 29 September, 1701 was an inquiry into Dampier's voyage. No
verdict was recorded. Sitting were president of court-martial Sir
Clowdisley Shovell, and Vice Admiral Hopson, on HMS Royal
Souveraine at Spithead on 8 June, 1702. Later it was reported
that Dampier would depart to the West Indies. He kissed a royal
hand, was introduced to her royal highness by the Lord High
Admiral. The War of the Spanish Succession had broken out,
privateers were back in vogue, and the owners of St. George,
120 men, 26 guns, wanted Dampier as commander, official approval
forthcoming. Dampier was to go out with the privateer Fame
Capt. John Pulling, to war on the French and Spanish. Now, Dampier
had a roving commission to do what he liked.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 183-189.)

Dampier's 1702 court martial having declared him unfit to
command a king's ship; in 1708 and 1711 he sailed with the
policeman of pirates, Capt. Woodes Rogers. In 1707 Dampier
published his "unfortunate account" of the 1703 fiasco, Capt
Dampier's Vindication of his Voyage to the South Seas in St
George. (London, 1707).

A 1703 fiasco? In 1702, Dampier had teamed with a shipowner
named Price and been given command of a privateer, St
George, with letters of marque. With St George was the
ship Cinque Ports, its mate being Alexander Selkirk. After
Selkirk was marooned on the island Juan Fernandez, his adventures
later formed the basis of Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe.
Dampier now ended as a prisoner for a time in a Dutch East India
settlements. He got back to England in 1707, to find himself
distrusted, his reputation tarnished. In 1708 he embarked as pilot
on Capt Woodes Rogers' privateer the Duke, which sailed in
company with Duchess. This expedition was successful, went
about Cape Horn, rescued Alex Selkirk on Juan Fernandez, raided
Spanish towns, captured a vessel from the Philippines, crossed the
Pacific to Batavia, went about the Cape of Good Hope and arrived to
England by October 1711 with prizes worth £200,000. Dampier
received only about £1300.

By 1714, Dampier's health had broken down, by September he was
63, living in the parish of St. Stephens, Coleman Street, near Old
Jewry, looked after by his female cousin Grace Mercer one of his
main beneficiaries. Some furniture was left with Capt. Richard
Newton. Dampier died in early March, 1715.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 239-241.)

He had beforehand published in 1700 A Supplement to the
Voyage Round the World, Two Voyages to Campeachy; a discourse on
trade winds. In 1703-1709 he published A Voyage to New
Holland in the Year 1699. Both books were translated into
French and Dutch.
(Ton Vermeulen, `The Dutch entry into the East Indies', pp.
33f, in John Hardy and Alan Frost, (Eds.), European Voyaging
Towards Australia. Canberra, Occasional Paper No. 8, Highland
Press in association with the Australian Academy of the Humanities,
1990.

26 January 1700: New research by 2007 indicates
that on or about 26 January 1700, occurred (about 8.1 on the
Richter scale) a major mega-thrust earthquake in the Cascadia
subduction zone of the North America Pacific North-West Coast /
Washington coast area. This set up a tsunami much like the
one afflicting Indonesia on 26 December 2004. This tsunami
left tree-ring evidence on the American coast, and written records
still available in Japan indicate the date was 26 January 1700 when
the tsunami arrived to Japan. There it was called “an orphan
tsunami”, which was the name the Japanese gave to any
tsunami not otherwise connected to an earthquake they happen
to have known about. (According to a documentary screened on ABC TV
Australia on 8 March 2007.)

The aftermaths of Dampier's voyages:

Did Dampier's voyages help his Whig backers at all?
(After 1700, backers of some of Dampier's voyages included Alderman
Batchelor (Master of the Society of Merchant Venturers) of London,
Thomas Goldney a Quaker merchant who invested in the St George
venture; an ex-Mayor, the incumbent mayor, two future mayors, the
London town clerk, James Rumsey/Ramsay.
(Christopher Lloyd, William Dampier. London, Faber and
Faber, 1966.)

It seems, very little, except perhaps in a negative sense of
indicating that with the exception of China, England's eastern
traders could achieve little more than was already being achieved.
Between 1700-1701, the Old and New East India companies amalgamated
with hubbub and din. "Bribes flowed like water". There was a final
amalgamation in 1702. Karl Marx long later wrote about it,
bemusedly, that from then, the time of William III, the Whigs
farmed the revenues of the British Empire.
(Mukherjee, Rise and Fall, pp. 86-87. Ian B. Watson,
Foundation, p. 146.)

Before 1702, while the New East India Company had failed to make
its way, their emissary, Sir William Norris, made a fool of himself
at the Mogul Court of Aurangzeb, lacking both patience and
sophistication, and barely escaped being murdered. The New Company
found their employees could not surpass the wider experience of the
Old Company's employees (a matter settled while London bubbled with
gossip about the winner and losers of the South Sea Bubble - many
New East India Company men were directors of the South Sea Company
before it collapsed).

Dampier's biographer, Clennel Wilkinson, feels that Dampier's
discoveries in Australia were important, "sensational", in 1700,
but they did not disclose or solve the important problem, the
Continent of Australia. However, one doubts that terra
australis incognita was regarded as a pressing topic in
England. Tasman had published on his visit to Tasmania in England
in 1694.
(Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 154-155.)

But by the time Dampier died, there was nothing to suggest that
whatever land lay south of Indonesia or New Guinea was useful to a
Mercantilist from any European nation. That is why the "problem of
Australia" was pushed into the realm of cartographic speculation,
or "pure navigation, and left there - in the territory of which
James Cook would become the master... later to become a home for
convicts.

See Basil Williams, The Whig Supremacy, 1714-1760. Oxford
Clarendon Press. 1952.
Anand C. Chitnis, The Scottish Enlightenment: A Social
History. 1976.
William Robinson, The History and Antiquities of the Parish of
Hackney. Two Vols. 1842.
1700s: John L. McMullan, The Canting Crew: London's Criminal
Underworld, 1550-1700. New Brunswick. 1984.
1700s: Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in
the C17th and C18th Centuries. 1962.
K. G. Davis, The Royal African Company. 1957.

Re Piracy in this timeframe: On "Jack Tar", the archetypal
English sailor, see Marcus Rediker, Between The Devil and the
Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates and the Anglo-American
Maritime World, 1700-1750. Cambridge 1987.

Reference item: William Robinson, The History and Antiquities
of the Parish of Hackney. Two Vols. 1842.

England: The Old and New East India companies:

Some of the earlier-mentioned interlopers - the New East India
Company - had once considered linking with the "Scottish Company"
trading to India, but this came to nothing. For a time, the Old and
New East India companies competed intensely in the East itself.
Perhaps significantly, the New company, day-to-day, had a less
imperialistic attitude in the east; but by 1702, anyway, the New
had fused with the Old. (There had been mediation by Godolphin). So
appeared the United East India Company, the body finally obtaining
most of England's sea-borne trade from India, plus the "imperial
inheritance" of the increasingly-disarrayed Moguls.

By this time, too, the East India Company usually chartered its
ships, it did not own them. The reason was that the ships were
built specifically for the trade. The ships "husbands" (mostly
managing owners) and many captains owned stock in the Company, as
did the shipbuilders, and so various interest groups appeared
within the Company operations. In the east, cargoes were paid for
in silver (often of a Spanish-South American origin) which was paid
for at home by the issue of short-term bonds.

In part, pro-bullion Mercantilist arguments resentful of this
export of "treasure" had helped promote the intra-Eastern country
trades (local trades) in the East India Company's realms of trade,
and sometimes, by engaging in the country trade, the ill-paid East
India Company servants could add to their private fortunes in ways
the Company could not possibly influence or adequately police.
Sometimes, Company servants in India used their country trade
profits to buy bills payable in London, which provided a different
form of funds which they could possibly re-invest in official
Company cargoes.

On use of the word "merchant":

The word "merchant" as used in these files is somewhat
indiscriminate. It often refers to importer/wholesalers of bulk
commodities. But from 1600, a "merchant" could have been a member
of the mercantile classes, a scrivener or goldsmith, a bill-broker,
moneylender, a manufacturer (including a shipbuilder), the manager
of several self-owned ships, a speculator, or investor; and most
notable London alderman were some kind of "merchant". There is no
especially useful way to be discriminating about what "merchant"
meant from era to era.

Meanwhile, many historians' treatments fail to inform that many
merchants had simultaneous interests in several fields of trade,
that is, they had multiple roles. Meanwhile, the transmission of
commodity items to the individual consumer, the retailer, or even
the smaller wholesaler, as a topic (or way of life?) is
conspicuously absent in English economic history until the early
nineteenth century, and English historians have remained curiously
uncurious about retailing
(David Alexander, Retailing in England during the Industrial
Revolution. London, University of London, Athlone Press,
1970.)

[This is seen also in Duncan Campbell's own letterbooks, which
between 1758 and 1796 provide frustratingly little information on
just whom he sold his tobacco or sugars to, so it remains difficult
to examine his commercial networks] The great oddity of this is
realised when one sees how, with the history of English contact
with the East since 1600, generally, with the import of sugars,
spices and tea, overviews of improvements to the English
diet are seldom offered; one suspects that the English diet had
been horribly drab for most people. However, the handling of
commodities-only does suggest that links between merchants and
aristocrats were financial, perhaps with the aristocrats providing
some of the capital for a merchant's handling of bulk
commodities.

The skilful handling of money, or, capital, was their only means
of balancing the contingencies arising from dealing in diverse
areas or commodities. Once joint-stock companies began to
reliably offer a variety of ways for profit-takers to
succeed, including parasitic speculation, the definitions of
"merchant" or "businessman" expanded. It was merchant experience
with all this in the City of London which has apparently remained
partially invisible to historians, but the biographies, the
intermarriages, the networks of merchants indicate that there were
such repeated flip-flops of capital between slaving interests, and
East India Company interests, that it is absurd to speak of one
without speaking of the other. And this situation arose partly
since investment in the East India Company gradually became
reliable for even the most conservative.

Merchants learned that any capital requiring a rest from risk or
speculation had better become shares in the East India Company. In
this way, the Company helped shore up slaving interests. Madras
traders include Nicholas Morse and William Monson. East India
Company servants at Madras might trade to China, Siam, Tonkin,
Pegu, Manila (Spanish Philippines could not trade with Protestants)
and Java and Sumatra "most to themselves". Bombay had the Red Sea,
Muscat, Persia and Malabar trades.
(Ian B. Watson, Foundation, pp. 123-127, on Francis
Pym.)

Here, seen within "a theory of Mercantilism", a basic list of
merchants with interests in both the East India Company and matters
of slaving would include such names as:

The son of Caleb Banks, Sir John Banks (1627-1699), Royal Africa
Company investor, married to Elizabeth Dethick. (This family was no
relation to the family of botanist Sir Joseph Banks of
Lincolnshire, later to be treated in this book.)
(Banks had premises in Leadenhall Street, and while he had links
with Mediterranean trade, he also dealt with Martin Noell, the
ubiquitous Maurice Thompson (or, Thomson) and a one-time governor
of the East India Company, William Thomson. D. C. Coleman, Sir
John Banks, Baronet and Businessman: A Study of Business, Politics
and Society in Later Stuart England. New York, Oxford
University Press, 1963. He was a friend of naval administrator
Samuel Pepys and the first Earl Shaftesbury. Ian B. Watson,
Foundation, pp. 72ff. GEC, Peerage, Devon, p. 334. K.
G. Davies, Royal Africa Company, variously, provides
information on men with links with the Royal Africa Company from
1672.) Thomas Papillon New East India Company, (1623-1702)
(Bruce, Annals, Vol. 3, pp. 260ff, pp. 290ff and Vol. 2, p.
86. Papillon had links with New East India Company figure William
Gifford, who ended murdered in April 1721.)

Sir Jeremy Sambrooke, active in the 1680s, who in 1654 began to
examine the financial behaviour of the East India Company. His name
is found amongst the genealogical connections of Sir John Banks
also in this list.
(GEC, Peerage, Bateman, p. 13. Ian B. Watson,
Foundation, p. 66. Chaudhuri, The English East India
Company, pp. 208ff. K. G. Davies, Royal Africa Company.
Namier-Brooke, The History of Parliament: House of Commons,
1754-1790. Vol. 2, p. 521.)

The Lascelles family, generally, which had various interests in
the Caribbean. Daniel Lascelles (1714-1784) MP, was of the East
India Company but he inherited West India property. His mother Mary
Carter (who married an East India Company director, Henry
Lascelles) was from Barbados. Daniel's brother Edwin (1713-1820)
became first Baron Harewood.
(As is well-known, the Lascelles family married into the British
royal family in the nineteenth century. Mary Carter was from
Barbados. Lascelles had wide West and East Indian interests.
Namier-Brooke, The History of Parliament: House of Commons,
1754-1790, Vol. 3, p. 22.)

Sir Edward Littleton (died 1707), of the New East India
Company.

William Proby, active for the New East India Company at
Surat.
(Son of Charles Proby. Ian B. Watson, Foundation, p. 267.
Burke's Extinct Baronetcies for Proby of Elton, p. 429.
While the genealogical connections are unclear, London Lord Mayor
and investor in the Royal Africa Company, Sir Peter Proby, knighted
in 1623, has amongst his descendants, the name Watson-Wentworth,
and the second Marquis Rockingham. K. G. Davies, Royal Africa
Company.)

1721++: Trecothick and Co., listed in Kellock. From 1721 to
1754, a triumvirate of leaders was Sir Robert Walpole, Henry
Pelham, and the Duke of Newcastle. Merchant friends of Newcastle
included Sir William Baker, Barlow Trecothick and John Tomlinson.
Barlow Trecothick was an America Merchant of Vintry Ward,
London.
(Sources: Olson, Making the Empire Work, p. 7, p. 140.)

1721: (Olson, Virginia Merchants of London, p. 373),
Virginia colonial agents John Povey and Nehemiah Blakiston to 1721
used Micajah Perry as their banker. See William and Mary
Quarterly, Vol. VIII 1899-1900. p. 273, re convicts, answer of
merchant Micajah Perry, merchant, refusing to take 50 women
convicts to Virginia, they were sent instead to the Leeward
Islands. Sainsbury Mss, 1697. Oldham mentions same no of women
convicts for same islands, sans mention of Perry.

18 May 1721: ship Gilbert Capt. Darby Lux (A. E. Smith,
p.126), probably Captain Lux' second voyage in the convict service.
Darby Lux made eleven more voyages, seven on the Patapsco
Merchant. His last voyage was in 1738, when he settled in
Maryland and acted as general agent for Forward. He still acted for
Forward in 1749.
(Oldham, p. 51.)

A London tobacco dealer active from the 1690s, Micajah Perry.
His father was "the greatest tobacco merchant in London".

1720, Birth of, Sir George Amyand, first Baronet (1720-1766),
son of Dr. Claudius Amyand. He became a director of the East India
Company in 1762-1764, prior to which he had been an army contractor
during the Seven Years War, with extensive interests in the West
Indies and North America worth up to £600,000 per year. He was a
director of the East India Company in 1762-1764 and opposed the
enemy of Clive of India, the deputy governor o f the East India
Company, Laurence Sulivan.
(Valentine, British Establishment, Vol. 1, pp. 19ff. GEC,
Peerage, Minto, p. 714.)

Buchanan and Simson, active in the 1780s, slavers, using
Liverpool ships captains, dealing in East India Company goods from
London. One of their associates appears to have been Robert
Barclay, and an English whaler and tobacco trader, a friend of the
American Nantucketeer whalers, Rotch. In 1785, this Barclay was a
member of the East India Company India Interest group.
(Jacob Price, 'Different Kind', pp. 29-31.) His father was
Alexander. The genealogy of the Barclay family is not as clear as
available information at first suggests.

Sir George Colebrooke, second Baronet (1729-1809). Governor of
the East India Company in 1769 and in 1772, whose wife had
plantations in Antigua, while he had land on Grenada worth £50,000.
By 1766 he was a noted speculator in East India Company stocks. He
once tried to corner the world market on alum, and he backed the
Vandalia settlement in North America, in the Ohio Valley. He helped
back Clive of India while his deputy-chairman of 1772, Laurence
Sulivan, became an enemy of Clive.
(For brief information on Laurence Sulivan's interests, H. T. Fry,
Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808) and the Expansion of British
Trade. London, Cass for The Royal Commonwealth Society, 1970.,
p. 143.)

1699: About 1699 in England the Tories are impeaching the Whigs,
Somers, Portland, Orford and Halifax. In 1697 Montague succeeds
Godolphin as First Lord of Treasury.
[Clark, The Later Stuarts, p. 27, p. 186, p. 195, p. 225, p.
381.]

Pre-1700: First coffee house before 1700 was the Rainbow, in
Fleet Street, then Dick's in the City, then Covent Garden or
Will's, and Tom's in Change Alley, coffee, wine and all the other
liquors...
(Burke, Streets of London, p. 43.

1700-1715: Follows a list of merchants working in Spain
(Seville-Madrid, in France, etc) drawn from: Henry Kamen, The
War of Succession in Spain, 1700-1715. London, Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1969., pp. 60ff:
By 1703 is working, commissary-general D. Francisco Fernandez de
Cordoba; in Paris is director-general of military factories and
stores, Maximilen Titon; a reformer of Spanish textiles industries
is Gaspar Naranjo; an army clothier (incl. shoes) in Paris is Jean
Lelarge; in 1705 some military accounts in Madrid are with Juan
Manuel de Villagarcia; a military uniforms outfit is Jean-Jacques
Yon and Co.; military tents are got from N. Morasin and N. Berton
of Bayonne or Jean Baptiste Duplessis (plus Jean Baptise Milhau);
the brothers Gallois are drapers of Paris and bankers of Madrid; a
financier of Lyons is Noe Dufau; military uniforms can be got from
Le Leu and Morasin in France; a gunpowder merchant in south-east
Spain is Luis Gonzalez del Olmo; arms contractors in Cantabria are
Juan Francisco Goyeneche and Co.; an army food supplier is Manuel
Lopez de Castro; in 1704 an army contractor for Castile and
Extremadura is Francisco Esteban Rodriquez de los Rios later
marquis de Santiago; an army contractor and administrator of the
banking house of the marques de Valdeolmos is Cristobal de Aguerri;
an army contractor for Andalucia is marques de Campflorido, and for
Galicia is marques de Campaflorido, and for Navarre is Jose de
Soraburu, and for Aragon is Esteban de Moriones, with Santiago
being considered the most efficient; in 1708, Amelot was organising
fourteen financiers of Madrid (including head of company Duchaufour
and one D. Thomas de Capdevilla) to form a company to provide war
supplies; in 1711-1712, a Frenchman Antoine Sartine headed a
company supplying Aragon, Valencia and Catalonial; Aguerri as above
was supplanted by financiers Juan Francisco Goyeneche and Pedro
Lopez de Ortega, as Ortega had replaced Aguerri as head of the firm
of Valdeolmos; of French financiers, of Cadiz-Madris, not named,.
some by 1701 had gained the Spanish asiento for slave
trading, with their Guinea Company, with Cadiz-Seville as Spanish
capital of West Indies trade, to about 1691, a firm serving the
financial interests of the Habsburgs for forty years had been
Francisco Baez Eminente, succeeded by his son Juan Francisco
Eminente, which firm was in financial difficulties 1701-1771 - this
firm later headed by Joseph Franco and descended to minor status;
one of the most prominent financiers of Philip V was Bartolome de
Flon y Morales (elevated to conde de la Cadena), who sometimes
dealt with Samuel Bernard in France and Gaetano Ametrano in Naples,
Flon was succeeded by his son Bartolome de Flon y Zurbaran, conde
de la Cadena who faded from 1732; a Spanish financier was Juan
Francisco Goyeneche of a family firm; a foreigner-banker in Madrid
was Hubert Hubrechtz; at Madrid were Italian bankers Rubini and
Spinelli; and an Englishman, Francis Arther (who had a partner
Edward Crean till 1715, Arther possibly with both sides of warring
parties); active in Cadiz by 1710 were (Jean-Baptiste) Masson,
Stalpaert and Romet and Co.; firm Sarsfield and Fenel; firm Gilly
and Co. (Gilly freres, who had extensive sugar plantations in the
Antilles and interests in the Languedoc); firm Villebague-Eon; some
Flemish financiers of Nantes were Stalpaert freres; a Paris banker
was Louis Romet; a financier-trader of Seville was Jean-Jacques
Fenel plus Jacques Sarsfield; the most prominent French banker in
Madrid was Jean-Jacques Yon who had a kinsman, Louis Yon, a Paris
banker; bankers of Madrid, Bayonne and Paris were Morasin, and the
brothers Barthelemy and Laurent de Ville; a Lyon banker (once
refusing bills) was Ollivier; there was a financial crash in Lyon
and Geneva in 1709 in which Samuel Bernard lost a fortune; ends
this list.

After 1700: There grew areas outside the London gates, West End
squares, Leicester Fields was built, Charing Cross, St. Giles,
Soho, Clerkenwell, Holborn and Bloomsbury, Marylebone,
Knightsbridge, Chelsea and Pancras, the penny post was invented,
and the rival messengers, the half-penny post, went broke, fire
insurance offices grew, some London buildings still wear their
badges, street lighting was installed, gardens were installed.
(Burke, Streets London, pp. 65-66.)

1700s: Hanbury and Co: John Hanbury, (1700-1758) Quaker early
established in Tower Street, London, a major figure in tobacco
trade. At some time he took a partner Capel (d. 1769) son of a
Bristol soap maker. John Hanbury promoted the Ohio Company for new
lands for tobacco growers and was close to Lord Baltimore. and in
the war 1755-1763 he transmitted government funds for the armies in
America. After John's death his son Osgood (1731-1748) became
Chapel's partner and after Capel died Osgood took as partner John
Lloyd a kinsman of his wife. In Feb. 1766 Capel Hanbury testified
against the Stamp Act, as monies he felt could only be collected in
tobacco. From Jan. 1759, George Washington handled his relatives
Custis' tobacco, and he dealt with Hanburys till 1774. In 1790
Hanbury and Co claimed a pre-war debt of £78,809 in Virginia.
(Jacob Price, article on Buchanan and Simson, p. 23; Kellock's
article, on London debt claimants of 1790, appendix, p. 127)-

1700+: On Jamaica: Item per genealogist John Dorman of Virginia,
USA, on 'Materials for Family History in Jamaica', in
Genealogists' Magazine, London, September, 1966.
See W. A. Feurtado, Official and Other Personages on Jamaica
from 1655 to 1790. Kingston, Jamaica, 1896.

1700 approx: Pirate Capt Kidd had a brother-in-law Samuel
Bradley, and did he maroon his brother-in-law near Antigua in 1700
or not? New York at this time wants Kidd's services, Kidd wanted a
naval posting from London; Kidd had a friend in 1698-1699, young
Duncan Campbell the postmaster of Boston; which young Campbell
tried more than once to bribe the young wife of the governor, once
with a box of gems. (Was this Duncan Campbell of Boston perhaps the
son or relative of one Duncan Campbell the friend of William
Dampier in 1674?)

1700+: There grow areas outside the London gates, West End
squares, Leicester Fields was built, Charing Cross, St Giles, Soho,
Clerkenwell, Holborn and Bloomsbury, Marylebone, Knightsbridge,
Chelsea and Pancras, the penny post was invented, and the rival
messengers, the half-penny post, went broke, fire insurance offices
grew, some London buildings still wear their badges, street
lighting was installed, gardens were installed. (Burke, Streets
of London, pp. 65-66)

After 1700: And more so with the advent of the Hanoverians,
England produces the stereotyped image of portly John Bull.
Insensitive and jingoistic, despising the French and the Irish,
wanting "the Scotch" kept under the foot, and coveting the fruits
of an expanded empire. Often a Whig.
Here 1500-1700 - A useful title is A. L. Bier and Roger Finlay,
London, 1500-1700: The Making of the Metropolis. 1986. With
essays by Roger Finlay and Beatrice Shearer, Population Growth
and suburban expansion; Paul Slack, Metropolitan government
in crisis: the response to plague; Margaret Pelling,
Appearance and reality: barber-surgeons, the body and
disease; Brian Dietz, Overseas Trade and metropolitan
Growth; A. L. Bier, Engine of Manufacture: the trades of
London; J. A. Chartres, Food consumption and internal
trade; M. J. Power, The social topography of Restoration
London; M. J. Kitch, Capital and Kingdom, migration to later
Stuart London; Stephen Macfarlane, Social Policy and the
poor in the later seventeenth century.

By the 1700s, larger cities than European cities existed in
China, northern India and Central America.

1700-1704: Barbados agents (in Penson, Colonial Agents,
pp.84ff) included William Bridges MP in 1705 a law clerk for
secretaries of state, Francis Eyles, Robert Heysham, and in 1704
were Sir John Stanley a commissioner of the Customs House, William
Bridges, Melatia (sic) Holder, plus William Cleland.

1700+: After 1700, Somers and Halifax support Thomas Rymer,
historian, to look into history of England's treaties, and Halifax
supports publication of Rhymer's Foedera. Rymer was
succeeded by Thomas Madox as royal historiographer.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 381.)

1700: Bristol entered the slave trade soon after 1700 and took a
lead in opposing the Royal Africa Co's monopoly of 1713.

1700: Taylor has eclipsed Warren as a timber magnate with the
navy board, monopoly re Baltic and New England mast timber, and
later till Am Rev the New England timber men were William Gulston,
John Henniker, firm of Durand and Bacon, with their agents in
colonies being Waldo, Westbrook, and the Wentworths, contract
monopolies at Portsmouth and Falmouth, and in the Baltic trade by
1775, the powerful houses were Normans in Norway, Sollys at Danzig
and Thorntons at Riga, all successful. (Albion, Forests and Sea
Power, p. 56.)

By 1700, Boston merchants of America are the wealthiest single
economic group of the colonies except for the rich planters of
Virginia and Maryland. By 1750, Boston operates more than 562
ships.
See K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The
Role of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South
Carolina Press, 1988., p. 40.

1701: Capt Kidd is back in London, a furore on his activities
and queries on who were his backers? House of Commons listens to
argument and allegations. If Kidd claims, as he did, he is
innocent, then he also exonerates his backers.
29 Sept., 1701: inquiry into Dampier's voyage, no verdict recorded.
Sitting were president of court-martial Sir Clowdisley Shovell, and
Vice Admiral Hopson, on HMS Royal Souveraine at Spithead on
8 June, 1702. Later it was reported, Dampier to go to depart to
West Indies, kissed HM hand, introduced to her by Royal Highness
the Lord High Admiral. The war of Spanish succession had broken
out, privateers in vogue, and the owners of St George 120
men 26 guns wanted Dampier as commander, official approval
forthcoming. Dampier to go out with privateer Fame Capt John
Pulling, to war on French and Spanish. Dampier had a roving
commission to do what he liked. (Clennell Wilkinson,
Dampier, pp. 183-189.)

1701: England: A London Customs commissioner, Godolphin,
introduces a register of all trading vessels.

1701++: Reputation of Scots-English financier William Paterson's
recovers from earlier reverses, by 1701 he proposes a kind of
Scottish Council of Trade, William Paterson perhaps raises the
enterprise-aspiration of Scotland considerably. re Union with
England; one idea he had in 1706 was he was Edinburgh as a
Commissioner of the English Govt., and the last Scot Parliament of
all commended him to the English monarch. He died in 1720, January,
just as the South Sea Bubble was giving his Bank of England "a
severe baptism of fire". Daniel Defoe thought Paterson a worthy
patriot of his country.
H. R. Fox Bourne, English Merchants: Memoirs, p. 271.

1701: Dr James Wallace sails with a Scots "Darien Fleet" and
later gives an almost-official record to the Royal Society, of Capt
Pennycook's voyage. Royal Society prints it in 1700-1701 as part of
its transactions. (G. Pratt on Darien, p. 77, p. 271)

1702: War of the Spanish Succession.

By the 1700s, larger cities than European cities existed in
China, northern India and Central America.

1703 - Isaac Newton Elected FRS in 1672, and in 1703, Newton
president of RS, and became friends with Jean Desaguliers (Holy
Grail p. 456), of Sion, who helped spread Freemasonry throughout
Europe, associated with Radclyffe, Ramsay, and in 1731 as Master of
the Masonic lodge at the Hague, presided (it is said) over
initiation of the first European prince to become a Freemason,
Francois, Duke of Lorraine, who when he married to Maria Therese of
Austria became Holy Roman Emperor.

1704+: Barbados agents include William Bridges MP in 1705, a law
clerk for secretaries of state, Francis Eyles, Robert Heysham. In
1704 some relevant names were Sir John Stanley a commissioner of
the Customs House, William Bridges, Melatia (sic) Holder, plus
William Cleland.

1704+: Archibald Campbell, Third Duke of Argyll, (1628-1761), in
1705 the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, and commissioner of the
Union in 1706 for 1707. He succeeded his brother John as duke of
Argyll, and served as a Scottish peer in the United Parliament
until his death. Unlike his brother he supported Robert Walpole. He
held high offices and promoted trade, industry and schools in
Scotland.

1704+: 1704-1732 is a long gap in the records of West India
agencies, for Jamaica. An Act of 1693 re this had expired in 1704,
and so the concerns of Jamaica were left in care of absentee
planters and merchants as they chose voluntarily to fulfil some of
the functions of an agent. Is this gap suspicious or not re the
activities of those who had backed Cromwell's "western expedition"
which took Jamaica from Spain?

By 1705: The role of French ambassador to Spain, Michael-Jean
Amelot, Marquis de Gournay. (Lynch on Bourbon Spain)

1705: Invention of Newcomen's steam-engine with condenser.

1705: Agency of Bermuda (Somers Islands), first agent late as
1705 is London merchant Charles Noden, till 1714, succeeded by Sir
John Bennet and his brother Thomas, then in 1724 a new agreement
and London agent Ralph Noden of the same family was appointed, till
1750, after disputes with the gov. No other names arise of
interest. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p. 247)

1705: Barbados agents included William Bridges MP in 1705, a law
clerk for secretaries of state, Francis Eyles, Robert Heysham. In
1704 some names were Sir John Stanley a commissioner of the Customs
House, William Bridges, Melatia (sic) Holder, plus William
Cleland.

1705: French ships begin to enter the Pacific Ocean.
See also: Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South
Pacific. 1950.; Bernard Smith, Imagining The Pacific: In The
Wake of the Cook Voyages. MUP, 1992.

1705: Dutch mariners make significant efforts to know more of
the north and south coasts of New Guinea and north coast of
Australia, eg, Port Essington. and in 1721, the Dutch West India Co
sought to find unknown areas west of South America, three ships,
went by the north coast of New Guinea. (Australian
Encyclopedia, exploration by sea).

1705: Richard Cary as agent for Nevis, in Penson, Colonial
Agents, p.126.) (Another Cary to be a noted merchant, see
Kellock.)

1705: Agency of Bermuda (Somers Islands), first agent late as
1705 was London merchant Charles Noden, till 1714, succeeded by Sir
John Bennet and his brother Thomas, then in 1724 a new agreement
and London agent Ralph Noden of the same family was appointed, till
1750, after disputes with the Gov., no other names arise of
interest. (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.247.)

1706: Hauksbee explores static glow in partial vacuum.

1706: Thomas Twining establishes Tom's Coffee House in Deveraux
Court near Temple Bar, London, and begins to specialize in tea. He
opens another house, The Golden Lyon, nearby for the sale of
dry tea and coffee.
(Sir Percival Griffiths, The History of the Indian Tea
Industry. London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967., p. 17.)

1706: After 1670, the Bahamas were subject of a grant to certain
of the proprietors to whom the province of Carolina was granted in
1670, [citing CSP iii, No. 311, pp. 132-133, of Nov 1, 1670]. The
proprietors of Bahamas made little provision for defence, and in
1704 they had become depopulated due to war. About 150 families
there. Salt the chief product. Bahamas had been a stronghold of
pirates, situation not addressed again till 1715. By 1707,
collector of customs for 20 years on Bahamas had been John Graves.
For years the proprietors of the Bahamas had been resident of
England, they had an agent to see to their interests re the Board
of Trade, one Thornburgh. By 1706, Graves urges govt that Bahamas
are decayed due to neglect of the proprietors. (Penson, Colonial
Agents, pp. 99-103.)

April 1706: Some 31 commissioners meet in London to discuss
union of Scotland and England, for new negotiations; one
commissioner was Sir John Clerk, although union detested by
Jacobite Scots.

September 1706: A huge tobacco fleet leaves Virginia, heavy
weather and French privateers, and 30 ships with nearly 15,000
pounds (weight) of tobacco are lost. The English market is anyway
glutted and result was a financial crisis for Virginia.
John M. Hemphill, Virginia and the English Commercial System,
1689-1733. London. Garland. 1985. [facsimile of a 1964 Ph. D
thesis, Princeton Univ. p. 27].

1707: One Rbt Holden is proposed as gov of Bahamas, and John
Graves resists this, in Penson, Colonial Agents, p.103.
Graves said that after Holden had seen the [as usual, unnamed]
proprietors he was only interested in "wrecks and whales".

1707: (H. R. Fox Bourne, English Merchants: Memoirs, p.
333), "The first English banker" is Sir Francis Child, and Coutts
are the largest corn dealers in Scotland.

1708: Merging of the Old and New East India Companies, new
charter in 1711 extended to Co's trading rights till 1733, a 1730
attempt by other merchants to share in its trade in vain, monopoly
continued till 1769.

1708: 2 August: Leaves Bristol privateer Woodes Rogers backed by
Bristol merchants and later Rogers is friends with Sir Robert
Southwell and Sir Hans Sloane and he is later made governor of the
Bahamas, died there 1732. He is on Duke, 320 tons 30 guns
117 men; and Capt Stephen Courtney on Duchess 260 tons 26
guns 108 men, and on Duke's crew are included Carleton Vanbrugh
merchant and owner's agent; Dampier pilot, John Finch steward, late
wholesale oilman of London; see re later rescue of Selkirk, brought
back a fortune of £170,000.
(Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 189-192-207, p. 217.)

1708: 22 Feb: Plans for an invasion of Scotland. March 1708,
King of France indicated support for the invasion to Edinburgh, but
matters are badly organized by France.

1708: Early months, (Gila Curtis, p. 157), a French fleet seen
by anxious English spies, assembled at Dunkirk, projected invasion
by the pretended Prince of Wales, so Catholics are put under
suspicion. Habeus Corpus is suspended. The prince opposing his
half-sister's throne is now 20 years old, James Francis Stuart.
Invasion fails, the English fleet under Sir George Byng, and the
fall of Harley was also engineered. Enter the Junto. More fighting
with the French. Harley takes to driving about the parks to provide
an impression all was well. Queen Anne becomes ill. Harley as
treasurer is losing his grip on most things, he cannot make himself
understood clearly.

1708: Vice-admiral Charles Wager commands at Jamaica and with
three ships attacks the Spanish silver fleet, success incomplete.
He later becomes very rich. And about now, Anglo-French rivalry
shifts to American mainland.
(Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 330.)

See also: Ernest Samhaber, Merchants Make History: How Trade
Has Influenced The Course Of History Throughout The World.
London, Harrap. 1963.

1709: A financial crash occurs in Lyon and Geneva in which
financier Samuel Bernard loses a fortune.

1709: England: Orford (see Clark, Later Stuarts, p. 225),
is made First Lord of Admiralty.

1709: Freemasons' modes of recognition mentioned in The
Tatler.

1709: Liverpool begins its slave trade in 1709, says
Samhaber.

1709: End of Sweden as a major European power when Charles XII
and Swedish forces at Poltava, Ukraine, lose to Russian forces
under Peter the Great.

1709: A Jesuit priest from Brazil, Father Bartolomeu de Gusmao,
demonstrates a hot-air balloon to the Portuguese court at
Lisbon. That is, the Montgolfier Bros of Paris were probably not
the first people to fly in a balloon. (Source: James/Thorpe).

1710: Sir Gilbert Heathcote (1651-1733), a founder of the [New?]
East India Company in 1693, London Lord Mayor in 1710-1711. (Lewis
Melville, The South Sea Bubble. New York, Burt Franklins,
1921., pp. 123)

See Katharine A. Kellock, 'London Merchants and the pre-1776
American Debts, Guildhall Studies in London History,
Vol. 1, No 3, October 1974., pp. 109-149.

1711: England: Formation of South Seas Company.

1711: South Seas Company founded by Rbt Harley, (Earl of
Oxford), in 1711, and in 1720 it attempted to take over the
national debt on terms disadvantageous to itself. Rbt Walpole an
astute speculator actually made money out of it all. People in all
ranks of society left penniless. Allegations of bribery,
corruption, robbery and jobbery. One minister committed suicide,
Chancellor of Exchqr and some MPs committed to the Tower, and
estates confiscated. The PM was arraigned. King is reviled for
supporting the Co.
Rbt Harley becomes Chancellor Exchequer in August 1710, needs to
improve finances, National Debt is over £nine million, plans
especially leaned on the stability of the Bank of England [only
recently founded by William Paterson]. Fantasies of vast riches to
be found in Peru and South America, [Britain once again as a
freebooter]. Idea that ships are only to travel out by Straits of
Magellan or by Terra del Fuego, not to trade in goods India, Persia
or China, go no further west than Chile, Peru, or Mexico, under
pain of heavy forfeitures to East India Company. Bubble directors
are not to be in EICo or Bank of England. South Seas Co. has royal
assent on 18 May, 1711, by July, some £2,000,000 are subscribed, a
further 2 million more came in. South Seas Royal Charter gained by
8 Sept., 1711, for South Seas and other parts of America. Some high
connections of the Co. included William Astell, Francis Acton,
William Chapman, South Sea Co. set up house in building north-east
corner of Threadneedle St, by Bishopsgate St, City. Was to settle
factories at Panama, Port Bello, Cartagena, Vera Cruz, Buenos
Aires, Havana, agents at Jamaica and Cadiz, Madrid, one ship
yearly.
(See Lewis Melville, The South Sea Bubble. New York, Burt
Franklins, 1921.)

1711: England, John, Duke of Buckinghamshire in 1711 is
president of the council.

1711: China: Ch'ing emperors are willing to relax restrictions
on foreign trade and English East India Co. allowed to create a
base at Canton.

1711: War between Turkey and Russia.

1711: Sir Gilbert Heathcote (1651-1733), a trader of the EICo in
1693, Lord Mayor of London 1710-1711. (Melville, South Sea
Bubble, p. 123.)

1711: Firm Champion and Dickason of Great Ayliffe Street,
Goodman's Fields, (formerly the house of Storke from 1711 when John
Storke died in 1711) with partner Alexander Champion, also in the
New England Company with Thomas Lane, alderman George Hayley also
of this house married Storke's widow - Champion left in 1764 to 117
Bishopsgate and Thomas Dickason. Champion retired in 1789 died
1795, the business went to Dickason and Dickason Jnr, and William
Burgess debt-collected for them (Champion and Hayley had dealt
together in 1764)-Kellock; Champion and Dickason, Kellock, London
debt claimants of 1790 appendix p. 120. This firm had its roots in
one established by John Storke died 1711, whose mother was a
Dummer, which gave him New England correspondents such as Samuel
Sewell of Boston. [See William I. Roberts, III, 'Samuel Storke,
An Eighteenth Century London Merchant trading to the American
Colonies', The Business History Review, XXXIX, Summer
1965., pp. 47-70. Storke's son John died 1725 continued business
and was succeeded by his son Samuel Storke, died 1746 aged 59, of
[Great Ayliffe Street] Goodman's Fields. By 1734, Samuel Storke had
Thomas Gainsborough for a partner with correspondents such as
Andrew Oliver of Boston and Cuylers and Livingstons of New York. In
1742 the firm became Storke and Son. Links with a society for the
propagation of the gospel in New England. Some funds transfers re
such linkages. Samuel Storke took a partner, Alexander Champion,
who headed the business after Storke died in 1753. Champion dealt
with New England and Thomas Lane of Lane, Son and Fraser, till
1775. In 1764, when Lane declined to give more credit to Gov
Jonathan Trumbull later gov of Connecticut, Champion and Hayley
gave him £1200 worth of goods on nine months credit. At some time,
George Hayley of the Storke counting house married Storke's widow,
with a dowry of £15,000, and he became Champion's partner. Storke's
widow was a termagent (turbulent) sister of John Wilkes the radical
alderman. At end of 1764, Champion left Great Ayliffe Street,
Goodman's Fields, and went into business with a new partner Thomas
Dickason, at 117 Bishopsgate. When Champion and Hayley parted,
Hayley, seeking correspondents for himself, wrote to Champion's
correspondents that it had really been he who had conducted the
business as Champion had poor health and spent most of his time in
the country. Champion retired in 1789, he died in 1795, and he
turned the business over to Dickason, who then took on his son and
namesake. Young Dickason had already been to America on one debt
collecting trip and the firm had earlier sent over William Burgess
for the same purpose.

1711: Dies 1711, Merchant John Storke Senior, married to Miss
Dummer of Boston. His son Samuel died of a sudden stroke leaving
Alexander Champion in charge of their firm which had dealt with
Americans such as Robert Livingston Jnr, and Henry Cuyler, families
in the American fur trade. The firm also from 1723-1724 dealt with
James Logan, who had a connection with the Pennsylvania trade of
Quaker John Askew, whose son John Askew Jnr carried on the fur
trade till 1730 when he also died. For the next ten years Storke
dealt with Logan and Shippen, In 1746 Storke began dealing with
Thomas Lawrence. In Philadelphia, Storke dealt with Isaac Norris Sr
and Isaac Norris Jnr, in wheat sent to Spanish and Mediterranean
ports. Storke had agents in Jamaica named Tindale, Manning and Co.
A Storke son also worked in Hamburg. Storke dealt among others with
four large Boston houses, Joshua Cheever, James Bowdoin, Andrew and
Peter Oliver, and Bill & Sewall. In the 1730s Storke dealt with
Holbroide and Pearson at Gibraltar, Patrick Purcell and Co at
Cadiz, Winder and Ferrand at Barcelona. Samuel Storke Jnr entered
the family firm in 1742 and soon took as a partner, Alexander
Champion. His father's firm had been known as Samuel Storke and Co,
Storke and Gainsborough, Storke and Son, Storke and Champion, and
dealt with Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Lisbon, Cadiz,
Gibralter, Jamaica, St Johns, Newfoundland, and major northern
European ports. This firm also dealt with Andrew Oliver of Boston
and Livingstons of New York. Storke died in 1753, so Champion
continued to trade, later linked with Lane, Son and Fraser. Samuel
Storke II had married Mary Wilkes; when he died, Mary married
alderman George Hayley. After Hayley died, Mary consorted with the
American whaler, Francis Rotch. An irony here is that since Mary
was sister of the radical John Wilkes, who had influenced political
thought in America, the business interests of his sister suffered
by the American War. The Hayley estate as a British Creditor
claimed £79,599.
See also, Anthony Dickinson, 'Some aspects of the origin and
implementation of the eighteenth century Falkland Islands sealing
industry', International Journal of Maritime History,
Vol. 1, No. 2, 1990., pp. 33-68. Eduoard A. Stackpole, Whales
And Destiny: The Rivalry between America, France, and Britain for
control of the Southern Whale Fishery, 1785-1825. University of
Massachusetts Press, 1972., pp. 102, 145; George Rude, Wilkes
and Liberty. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1962. Kel lock's article,
p. 111, p. 120. Collected citations would include D. A. Farnie,
'The Commercial Empire of the Atlantic, 1607-1783',
Economic History Review, Series 2, Vol. 15, 1962., pp.
205-218; G. D. Ramsay, (Ed.), English Overseas Trade during the
Centuries of Emergence. London, 1957, especially Ch. 7, William
I. Roberts, 'Samuel Storke: An Eighteenth Century London
Merchant trading to the American Colonies.'

1712: Whaling history: Nantucket Island. Capt. Christopher
Hussey in a Nantucket sloop is blown offshore and finds a new
species of deep-sea whale - the Sperm. By 1715, Nantucket has six
30-40 ton ships chasing deepwater Sperm. About now, a Nantucketeer
developed a brick tryworks enabling whalers to extract oil from
blubber. Also, Benjamin Crabb invented a way of making spermaceti
candles, meaning less shipment of fluid whale oil.
K. Jack Bauer, A Maritime History of the United States: The Role
of America's Seas and Waterways.. University of South Carolina
Press, 1988., p. 231.

1712: From 1712 the British slave trade became "free trade", and
later the Company itself provided only an insignificant supply of
slaves, allowing outports such as Bristol and Liverpool to become
so dependent on slavery.

1713: Treaty of Utrecht.

1713: A number of English merchants trading to the tobacco
colonies were also engaged in the slave trade, and in the
Chesapeake the higher prices for slaves before 1708 were those of
the separate traders, not the Royal Africa Co.
Olson, Virginia Merchants of London, p. 372 note 33)

1700-1713: After the establishment of the Spanish Bourbon
dynasty of 1700, a French company (French Guinea Co though not
named) is formed which receives the exclusive privilege of the
Spanish-American slave trade - the asiento. Encyclopedia
Britannica. - Asiento chronology -

1713: At the Peace of Utrecht of 1713, the British claim the
asiento. This privilege goes to the South Sea Company, and
forms part of the basis for the financial madness (and anti-Spanish
fervour) of the South Sea Bubble, which bursts from 1720.
Encyclopedia Britannica. - Asiento chronology -

December 1713: Queen Anne falls dangerously ill. Money is being
distributed it was said in the Highlands for Jacobite purposes.
Govt losing supporters. Bolingbroke quarrels with Oxford,
Bolingbroke to the head of the high church party, and it is now
known Bolingbroke had corrupt relations with a merchant and
commissioner for Trade, Arthur Moore, re provisions for the
peninsula army. Clark, Later Stuarts, pp. 245-247).

1713+: From 1713, under a contract with the South Sea Company,
slaves are supplied to Spanish colonies by the British, the Royal
Africa Co. assisting, Spanish colonies bought all their slaves from
France or England, as when a South Sea Co ship went to the "fairs"
at Vera Cruz and Cartagena. But these Anglo-Spanish relations
always remained uneasy, the last such English ship (there were only
ever eight) sailed in 1733, and Adam Smith anyway said the last
South Sea Co. ship sent, Royal Carolina of 1733, was the
only one to make a profit; the arrangements were abandoned in
1750.
(Williams, Whig, pp. 296-297.)

1713: England: The arrival of peace in 1713 after twelve years
of war with France sparks a sudden upsurge in serious crime.
Military demobilization sets loose thousands of toughened young men
in the London area with a need for employment and a taste for hard
living. Unlike France and other absolutist monarchies in Europe,
England lacks professional police on either the national or the
county level. The country's long-standing commitment to protecting
popular liberties hindered the development of a coercive
bureaucracy. Much as with the traditional fear Englishmen had of
standing armies, the prospect of a full-time police force engenders
widespread alarm. ....London and other urban areas depend heavily
upon amateur guardians like constables and watchmen who have
excessive workloads.

1713: By 1713 a prominent London tobacco merchant is Thomas
Coutts. See later careers of Coutts bankers.

1713, York Lodge makes eighteen Masons at Bedford. (Hamill.)

1713: The British Parliament passes an Act awarding £20,000 to
anyone of whatever nationality who can determine a way to determine
longitude to an accuracy of one degree. This prize not won until
1761 when a Hull man, John Harrison, produces his No. 4 Marine
Timekeeper, now at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. The
clockmaker George Graham assisted this invention.

1714: John Ailsabie (1670-1742) Treasurer of Navy from 1714,
chancellor of Exchqr in 1718, disapproves of the South Sea Company.
(Melville, South Sea Bubble, p. 24.)

1714: England: Death of Queen Anne. Scots Jacobites abroad
intrigued with Bolingbroke, hoping to crown the Old Pretender
instead of George I of Hanover in 1714. Bolingbroke's plans failed
and a rising grew, in Scotland, 1715, led by Bobbing John Erskine,
Earl of Mar and Bolingbroke from France. Mar's military
incompetence doomed the 1715 rising; at Preston in Scotland on Nov
13, 1715, the Jacobites capitulated to the English, while at
Sherrifmuir with an indecisive battle the Duke of Argyll defeated
Mar's 9000-strong Jacobite forces, three times the strength of his
enemy, and Mar withdrew leaving Argyll ready to fight another day.
James Edward Stuart cross from France to be crowned but his cause
was already lost.

1714: England: Charles Montague, later Halifax, in 1714 he again
becomes First Lord of Treasury.

1714: Mariner William Dampier's health is broken down, in
September he is 63, living in Parish of St Stephens, Coleman
Street, London, near Old Jewry, looked after by his female cousin
Grace Mercer, one of his main beneficiaries. Some furniture is left
with Capt Richard Newton. Dampier died early March, 1715.
(Clen Wilkinson, Dampier, pp. 239-241.)

1714: From March 1714, the Pope contributes funds to the
Stuart/Jacobite cause of Scotland.

1714: Geo I quite sensibly disliked the English habit of
officers buying their commissions, which is hardly any way to
encourage professionalism or run an efficient army. (Williams,
Whigs)

1716: (Penson, Colonial Agents, p.102), the proprietors
of the Bahamas have their rights resumed and the Crown takes up the
islands; and then in 1718, the famous navigator Capt Woodes Rogers
is sent there as governor to suppress pirates.

James /Bateman/ Lord Mayor of London 1600 Sir James Bateman
elected in 1716.
(Item, per Peter Western)

1716-1718: (Rediker, p. 257), the Bahamas Islands ungoverned and
undefended so become a haven for pirates in hundreds, and by 1718,
the resulting complaints lead Geo I to appoint Woodes Rogers to
bring the pirates under control. Rogers scatters pirates to
Carolinas and Africa. By 1718, Madagascar is a pirate's
entrepot for plunder and booty and a spot for temporary
settlement. They also used the mouth of the Sierra Leone River on
the African West Coast. (See Woodes Rogers, A Cruising Voyage
Round the World, edited by G. E. Manwaring, 1712, reprinted New
York, 1928. Rediker cannot clarify if the pirates' Jolly Roger, the
skull and crossbones, was appropriated from Freemasonry, although
he says the pirate's symbol of the death's head was appropriated
from somewhere.
Rediker (p. 268) has a fascinating diagram of social links amongst
pirates and their captains 1714-1727. Given that Anglo-American
pirates had their own codes of behaviour, but remained in
opposition to all other social codes, the diagram resembles a
social whirlpool, with the vortex concentrated in the years
1715-1721. Death often visited the centre of this social and
organisational vortex. (Rediker, p. 257).

1716: On Francis March: By 1716 a West Indies merchant of
London, Francis March, had agreed to ship to plantations all
prisoners he was able take from Gravesend, at his own expense. He
ended being paid £2 per head by the Treasury. Some ships used about
then were Lewis and Queen Elizabeth, for Jamaica.
March's career was short. By July 1718 he was replaced by Jonathan
Forward, who had the ear of the Solicitor-General. [Coldham,
Emigrants in Chains, pp. 59-61]. In early 1717, the Treasury
paid Francis March £108 to transport 54 felons aboard three vessels
to Jamaica. [Treasury Order, 6 march, 1717, in William A. Shaw,
Calendar of Treasury Books, London, 1905-1957., Vol. 31, pp.
171-172. [Noted by Ekirch]

1716: (Mingay, p. 124), in 1716 it is estimated there are 60,000
debtors imprisoned in England and Wales. The Marshalsea had 300
debtors in 1729, many literally starving to death.

1716-1717: A West Indies merchant, Francis March, in 1716 agreed
to ship to plantations all prisoners he was able take from
Gravesend, at his own expense, but he ended being paid £2 per head
by the Treasury. Ships used about then were Lewis and Queen
Elizabeth for Jamaica. March's career was short. By July 1718 he
was replaced by Jonathan Forward, who had the ear of the
Solicitor-General.) In early 1717, the Treasury pays the merchant
Francis March £108 to transport 54 felons aboard three vessels to
Jamaica. Treasury Order, 6 march, 1717, in Shaw, William A.,
Calendar Of Treasury Books, London, 1905-57. , XXXI, pp.
171-2. See also A. Roger Ekirch, Bound For America: The
Transportation Of British Convicts To The Colonies 1718-1775.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1987.

1717: Coldham notes, Forward's first convict ship in 1717 was
Dolphin, master/owner Gilbert Poulson. But finally, Poulson sued
Forward, Dolphin had been impounded and ended unseaworthy,
Forward's Maryland assets worth £2000 were seized, Lord Baltimore
was obstructing Forward's endeavours, law suits dragged on. During
the fracas, Forward used another of his ships from the slave trade,
Eagle, Capt Robert Staple (September 1718).

1717: Formation of Freemason's Grand Lodge of London.

1717: Forward as a slaver was not well-reported until Coldham
suggested his ship Jonathan regularly sailed in the slave
trade until she sank at Antigua in 1717, leaving Forward in need of
new business. Coldham notes from records of lawsuits, Forward took
on the assigneeships of bankrupt tobacco dealers, one of whom was
John Goodwin. Forward in 1717 had transported 131 convicts to
Maryland and in July 1718 he shipped another 40. Thomson considered
Forward ready to take felons at a lower rate than other merchants -
simple price undercutting, in fact. As an indication of the kind of
commercial imagination at work, Forward once suggested that a penal
settlement be founded at Nova Scotia. (Ekirch, p. 112.)
Forward operated from a Cheapside house on Fenchurch Street,
London, and also had experience in the Atlantic slave trade. He
also had links to the tobacco trade in Virginia and Maryland.
(Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, p. 61, pp. 71ff.)

Follows here a list of English ship managers operating
1717-1775, shipping convicts to America: With a list of merchants
shipping convicts to Australia from 1786-1788, to 1867: The two
lists will enable completion of any research on the English use of
convict transportation in the period covered...
Please note: This collected list has never appeared in any
printed book to date, and did not appear on the Internet before
16-6-2002 - Dan Byrnes.
1717: Francis March, London:
1718 Jonathan Forward, London;
1720 members of the Lux family, Darby, John, and Francis (probably
London before becoming colonials, (later linked to Jonathan
Forward's operations) and in 1750, William Lux;
1721-1722, Jonathan Forward Sydenham of London;
1722, ? Cheston;
1731, various men named Reed, to 1771;
1737, Joseph Weld in Dublin;
1739, Andrew Reid, London, with James and Andrew Armour, London,
and John Stewart of London;
1740++, Moses Israel Fonseca, London;
1740, Samuel Sedgley, Bristol;
1740, James Gildart, Liverpool;
1744, John Langley, Ireland;
1745, Reid and Armour, London;
1745, Sydenham and Hodgson, London;
1747, William Cookson of Hull;
1749, Jonathan Forward Sydenham a nephew of Jonathan Forward
above;
1749, Stewart and Armour, London;
1750, Andrew Reid, London;
1750, Samuel Sedgely and Co of Bristol; John Stewart and (Duncan)
Campbell, London (JS&C);
1758, Sedgely and Co (Hillhouse and Randolph), Bristol;
1759, Stewart and Armour, London;
1760, Sedgely and Hillhouse of Bristol;
1763, Andrew Reid retired;
1764, John Stewart and Duncan Campbell, London;
1766, Patrick Colquhuon, Glasgow; 1766, Sedgely and Co. at Bristol
replaced by William Randolph, William Stevenson and James Cheston,
Bristol;
1767, Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston, Bristol? with a colonial
agent Cheston;
1768, Jonathan Forward Sydenham, London or nearby counties;
1769, Dixon and Littledale, Whitehaven;
1769, Sedgely, Bristol; 1769, any ships captain providing necessary
securities could transport felons;
1770, James Baird, Glasgow;
1772, John Stewart died, Duncan Campbell carried on alone in London
until 1775.

At Bristol, Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston (SRC) were active
till 1776; they made ill-advised and vain attempts to transport
felons to North America at the end of the American Revolution.
Wisely, Duncan Campbell (1726-1803) did not attempt to resume
convict transportation to America.
(The above list does not include names transporting convicts from
Ireland.)
(See here, Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White
Servitude and Convict Labour in America, 1607-1776. Gloucester,
Massachusetts, University of Carolina Press, 1947. [Peter Smith,
1965])
As a matter of silence-in-history, US historian Bernard Bailyn once
wrote - about American reception of English emigrants generally
before 1775, (p. 4) there are... "extraordinary facts, key facts,
somehow obscured by historians of the empire concentrating on
institutions, power rivalries, mercantilism and trade"... "...
(See Bernard Bailyn, 'The Peopling of the British Peripheries in
the Eighteenth Century', Esso Lecture, 1988. Canberra,
Australian Academy of the Humanities, Occasional Paper No. 5,
1988.
Oddly, Bailyn then wrote, (page 19), "I have never found a single
reference to a convict in any genealogy or history of an American
family, nor, in any other way, does a single one of the 50,000
convicts sent to America appear as such in American history."
In terms of American colonial society (Virginia and Maryland to
1775), the following list of names is interesting: The American
correspondents of London based Duncan Campbell were mostly were
users of slave labour.
Here is a list of them: Duncan Campbell's correspondents from the
index to his business letterbook 1772-1776: including, Allison and
Campbell, William Adam, Samuel Athawes, Colonel William
Brockenbrough and Austin Brockenbrough, Dr John Brockenbrough, Adam
Barnes and Johnson, James Bain, Rev. Mr Beauvoir, James and Robert
Buchanan, George Buchanan, Robert Cockerell, Messrs Campbell and
Dickson, Colin Currie, Stewart Carmichael, William Dickson, Charles
Eyles, Fitzhugh, Fauntleroy, Richard Glascock/Glascook, Benj and
Charles Grimes, Henderson and Glassford, Rhodam Kenner, Abraham
Lopez and Son, James Millar Jamaica, Daniel Muse, Hudson Muse, Hugh
McLean, Joshua Newall, George Noble, Francis Randall, Major Henry
Ridgely, Adam Shipley, William Snydebottom, Richard Stringer, Alexr
Spiers and Co., Spiers, Finch and Co., Dr. Sherwin, William and
Edward Telfair, Tayloe and Thornton, Charles Worthington, Cooper
and Telfair.

From 1786, Duncan Campbell, the overseer of the Thames prison
hulks, never sent a convict ship to Australia, though he had every
opportunity to do so if he wished.
(Below names asterisked are merchant names which are still
resistant to genealogical or other forms of research.)
Merchants shipping convicts to Australia from 1786-1788 include:
for the First Fleet: William Richards Junior, London alderman
William (later Sir) Curtis, London alderman George Mackenzie
Macaulay, Leightons, James Mather. For the Second Fleet to Sydney,
London-based slavers supplying slaves to Jamaica at the time,
Camden*, Calvert* and King. The Third Fleet, the Enderby whalers
together with Calvert's firm. Later, a London whaling investor,
John St Barbe.
By 1800 or so, John Wilsone, Gabriel Gillett with William Wilson,
(who had links with the London Missionary Society, as did James
Duncan*; William Hingston*, Edward Redman*, Thomas Patrickson*,
John Prinsep (pioneer of the indigo industry in India); the London
whaler Daniel Bennet. London dockowner names Money and Wigram, who
from 1810 were also investor-names in the firm Forbes and Co. at
Bombay (a firm which still survives with that name!). Alexander
Towers*; Joseph Lachlan* (who as an agent took more than 84
contracts - "in bulk" - and so camouflaged the names of the
shipowners actually involved); Buckle, Buckle, Bagster* and
Buchanan*; J. Atty* and Co., Hovelds*, Lyalls*, Birch* and Ward*,
Thomas Ward, Abel Chapman, J. Blacket*, Johnsons*, John Barry*,
Robert Brooks, Joseph Somes*, Duncan Dunbar*.
The two lists above of convict-transporting ship managers given for
North America, then Australia, are the mainstay-names for England's
long-use of convict transportation from 1718 to 1867.
For more detailed information on these merchant names as chapters
arise, see Dan Byrnes' website on convict transportation from
England, 1718-1810: The Blackheath Connection at:
http://www.danbyrnes.com.au/blackheath/

1717: French authorities open their ports to American colonial
shipping, boosting trades in sugar and molasses to pleased American
surprise. Rum becomes a favoured American beverage and supplants
French brandy as a staple item in Guinea slave trade.

After 1718: Virginia and Maryland take the brunt of receiving
English convicts.

1718: John Ailsabie (1670-1742), ("avaricious and unscrupulous")
is Treasurer of Navy from 1714, Chancellor of Exchqr in 1718,
disapproved of the South Seas Co. (Melville, South Sea
Bubble, p. 24.

1718: William Nevine is proposed as agent for Montserrat
(Penson, Colonial Agents, p.93, p. 104.) In 1718-1728 Woodes
Rogers co-governs Bahamas with George Phenney, and Phenney
unpopular as he exacts money from the inhabitants. Rogers died in
1732.

1718: December: At Providence the capital of the Bahamas Islands
in the West Indies is a mass hanging of pirates which had been
anticipated with relish by the governor and vice-admiralty judge
Woodes Rogers. (Rediker. pp. 56ff).

1718: France: John Law amongst other things acquires control of
the Senegal (French) slave trade, he also buys out the old French
Eastern and China companies, and has monopolies of tobacco sales,
mint, and tax collections. Law's bank becomes the French royal bank
in 1718 and can issue notes.
(Pierre Vilar, A History of Gold and Money, 1450-1920.
London, Verso, 1991., p. 242, Vilar's chapter, From Colbert to
Law.)

1718: The Treasury and Jonathan Forward made an agreement on 8
August, 1718 which allowed Forward a monopoly on convict
contracting. [Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, pp. 61-61.
In 1719 Forward wanted higher fees for his services, partly as
tobacco prices were low; the Treasury gave in. later, Forward as in
Coldham, Emigrants in Chains, had a corrupt link with Wild the
thief taker, for people, see on thief-taker Jonathan Wilde, see
Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore, p. 27, and especially p.
613, Note 13 re corrupt links with Jonathan Forward.

1718-1867: On the English Convict Contractors 1718-1867 - in the
chronological order of their involvements:
Evidently, the merchants active in the convict service between
England and North America after 1717 had survived the South Sea
Bubble well. After 1717, a list of the names of British convict
contractors to North America (in roughly the chronological order of
their first appearance in records) would include:
1717: Francis March, London: 1718 Jonathan Forward, London; 1720
members of the Lux family, Darby, John, and Francis, probably
London (later linked to Jonathan Forward's operations) and in 1750,
William Lux; 1721, 1722, Jonathan Forward Sydenham of London; 1722,
Cheston, ?; 1731, various men named Reed, to 1771; 1737, Joseph
Weld in Dublin; 1739, Andrew Reid, London, with James and Andrew
Armour, London, and John Stewart of London; 1740ff, Moses Israel
Fonseca, London; 1740, Samuel Sedgley, Bristol; 1740, James
Gildart, Liverpool; 1744, John Langley, Ireland; 1745, Reid and
Armour, London; 1745, Sydenham and Hodgson, London; 1747, William
Cookson of Hull; 1749, Jonathan Forward Sydenham a nephew of
Jonathan Forward; 1749, Stewart and Armour, London; 1750, Andrew
Reid, London; ; 1750, Samuel Sedgely and Co of Bristol; John
Stewart and (Duncan) Campbell, London (JS&C); 1758, Sedgely and
Co (Hillhouse and Randolph), Bristol; 1759, Stewart and Armour,
London; 1760, Sedgely and Hillhouse of Bristol; 1763, Andrew Reid
retired; 1764, John Stewart and Duncan Campbell, London; 1766,
Patrick Colquhuon, Glasgow; 1766, Sedgely and Co at Bristol
replaced by William Randolph, William Stevenson, James Cheston,
Bristol; 1767, Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston, Bristol? with a
colonial agent Cheston; 1768, Jonathan Forward Sydenham, London or
nearby counties; 1769, Dixon and Littledale, Whitehaven; 1769,
Sedgely, Bristol; 1769, any ships captain providing necessary
securities could transport felons; 1770, James Baird, Glasgow;
1772, John Stewart died, Duncan Campbell carried on alone in London
until 1775. At Bristol, Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston (SRC) were
active till 1776; they made ill-advised and vain attempts to
transport felons to North America at the end of the American
Revolution. Wisely, Duncan Campbell did not.
The above list has been re-compiled from myriad information
compiled by historians working independently between 1933 and 1987
on the original documentation of transportation to North America.
[Historians such as A. E. Smith, Oldham, Coldham -[Peter Wilson
Coldham, Emigrants in Chains. Phoenix Hill, Far Thrupp,
Stroud, Gloucestershire, Allan Sutton, 1992.], Eris O'Brien, Shaw,
Ekirch [Roger A. Ekirch, Bound for America: The Transportation
of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718-1775. Oxford
University Press. And also, importantly, Roger A. Ekirch, 'Great
Britain's Secret Convict Trade To America, 1783-1784',
American Historical Review, Vol. 89, No. 5. December 1984.,
pp. 1285-1291.] and Kenneth Morgan, 'The Organisation of the
Convict Trade To Maryland: Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston,
1768-1775', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, Vol.
42, No. 2, April, 1985., pp. 201-227. ]
Often-mentioned merchants were obviously stayers in the convict
service .[John M. Hemphill, Virginia and the English Commercial
System, 1689-1733. London, Garland, 1985. [Facsimile of a 1964 Ph.D
thesis, Princeton University, pp. 152ff, on matters such as changes
in tobacco export inspection procedures from 1713 to 1730, prior to
consideration of the 1733 Excise Act instigated by Walpole. By 1713
(Marcus Rediker, Between The Devil and the Deep Blue Sea:
Merchant Seamen, Pirates and the Anglo-American Maritime World,
1700-1750. Cambridge, 1987., p. 281) Virginia merchants
remained very apprehensive about pirates disturbing trade. ]

Notably in maritime terms, merchants shipping felons had a
commercial advantage over their competitors - their voyage out was
partly or wholly paid. The merchants' inconvenience was that they
had to wait till convicts became available from the courts before
despatching a ship outward, and given the seasonal nature of
shipping colonial tobacco home, this did not always suit ship
turn-arounds.

1719: Departing England May 1719 ship Margaret Capt. William
Greenwood for Maryland. Coldham. Departing England 1719 Sept 19 -
Ship Margaret in trade. See F. H. Schmidt, 'Sold And
Driven: Assignment Of Convicts In Eighteenth-Century Virginia',
The Push From The Bush, No. 23, 1986, History Dept.
University Of New England.

1718-1720: Acts 4 Geo III c. 11 and Act 6 Geo III c.23 condemned
any person convicted of any larceny or felonious stealing to be
transported to America at discretion of the court. Fifteen more
such acts were made until 1765, enlarging the scope of application
of such a punishment as transportation.
(O'Brien, on Penal Colonisation, p. 124)
See also A. E. Smith, Transportation Of Criminals To The
American Colonies In The Seventeenth Century. American
History Review, Vol. XXXIX, Jan. 1934. Cited in Eris O'Brien,
Foundation, p. 316. A. E. Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White
Servitude and Convict Labour in America, 1607-1776. University
of Carolina Press, 1947. Gloucester, Mass. Peter Smith. 1965.

1720: George Campbell of the London bank which became Coutts
from about 1720. This George Campbell was associated as a banker
with a firm, Campbell and Carr. Sources: R. B. Westerfield,
Middlemen in English Business: 1660-1760. New Haven,
Connecticut, 1915. [Reprinted, Newton Abbot, 1968]., p. 383. On
Coutts bank, see Edna Healey, Coutts and Co, 1692-1992: The
Portrait of a Private Bank. London, Hodder and Stoughton,
1992.

1720: Japan removes its ban on European culture.

Departing England October 1720, convict ship Gilbert,
Capt. Darby Lux for Maryland. Coldham. 1721, 18 May, ship
Gilbert Capt. Darby Lux (A. E. Smith, p.126), probably
Captain Lux' second voyage in the convict service. Darby Lux made
eleven more voyages, seven on the Patapsco Merchant. His
last voyage was in 1738, when he settled in Maryland and acted as
general agent for Forward. He still acted for Forward in 1749.
Oldham rev. p.51. Departing England August 1721, ship Owners
Goodwill, Capt. John Lux for Maryland. Coldham.

Essay by Dan Byrnes

Re 1720++ Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution:
Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's Overseas
Traders, 1550-1653. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1993.
Brenner, I take it, demonstrated that there was greater
genealogical coherence in trading history, and in merchant
biographies, than had been previously thought. Which is to say,
that families engaged in England's international trade tended to
stay together in trade (and often in clusterings of trade, such as
the Levant Company, or East or West India trade) where possible,
whether or not their members entered politics, or married into the
aristocracy. This was due to many factors, including class
consciousness, the maintenance of family fortunes, commercial and
family tendencies in favour of the employment of nephews, and also
to the ability of such families to place money in secure
investments. This was more so after the disaster of the South Sea
Bubble (1720-1723) produced an investment house which could give
secure returns to annuities, while the East India Company also
provided useful investment returns to the affluent. These
tendencies can also be noticed in some London-based families
engaged in aspects of the trans-Atlantic slave trade.