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@ARTICLE{Kim06differencesin, author = {Kyungil Kim and Arthur B. Markman}, title = {Differences in fear of isolation as an explanation of cultural differences: Evidence from memory and reasoning}, journal = {Journal of Experimental Social Psychology}, year = {2006}, volume = {42}}

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Abstract

Previous research suggests that members of East Asian cultures show a greater preference for dialectical thinking and sensitivity to context information than do Westerners. We suggest this difference is rooted in a greater chronic Fear of Isolation (FOI) in East Asians than in Westerners. To support this hypothesis, we manipulated FOI in a group of Westerners and assessed their relative preference for dialectical proverbs and sensitivity to context. For cross-cultural validation of our hypothesis, we assessed the relationship between chronic levels of FOI and dialectical reasoning in Koreans. Consistent with our proposal, both experimentally primed FOI (Experiment 1A and 2) and chronic levels of FOI (Experiment 1B) were positively related to relative preference for dialectical proverbs. This effect was independent of participantsÕ level of negative mood (Experiment 2). A third experiment showed that sensitivity to context was affected by FOI in a manner consistent with previous studies of cultural differences (Experiment 3).

...are not always less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese show large differences with Westerners, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic than Americans (=-=Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002-=-). In our view, this dichotomy-based approach has limited our understanding of culture in at least three ways. First, the individualism vs. collectivism paradigm downplays variations within cultures. ...

...rvations that members of different cultures may exhibit radically different behaviors in a number of tasks that were previously thought to reflect more universal human tendencies (Hsee & Weber, 1999; =-=Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001-=-; Peng & Nisbett, 1999). Further the study of cultural differences has practical implications for international commerce and theoretical implications for claims about the universality of cognitive pro...

...y to participants and they answered the same four questions per proverb. For Korean participants, the English questionnaire and proverbs were translated into Korean by the method of back translation (=-=Brislin, 1970-=-). They responded FNE scale first, and then evaluated the dialectical and nondialectical proverbs. Results K. Kim, A.B. Markman / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 350–364 355 Two pa...

...al. Selfconstrual is defined as the constellation of thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning oneÕs relationship to others, and the self as distinct from others focuses two aspects of self-concept (=-=Singelis, 1994-=-). This works suggest that Westerners have a relatively more independent self-construal whereas Asians have a relatively more interdependent self-construal (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Self-construal ha...

...es may exhibit radically different behaviors in a number of tasks that were previously thought to reflect more universal human tendencies (Hsee & Weber, 1999; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; =-=Peng & Nisbett, 1999-=-). Further the study of cultural differences has practical implications for international commerce and theoretical implications for claims about the universality of cognitive processing. A critical qu...

...ronic FOI might influence behavior, we must first show that members of different cultures differ in their chronic FOI. As a measure of chronic FOI, we used the Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (FNE; =-=Watson & Friend, 1969-=-). There are other scales that have been used to measure FOI, but these scales also ask questions about physical rather than social isolation. This 30-item instrument measures social anxiety about rec...

...fferences in reasoning. Indeed, differences in culturally accessible concepts such as collectivism and individualism may influence cognition either by affecting level of FOI through some other route (=-=Aaker & Lee, 2001-=-; Hsee & Weber, 1999). This issue has been much discussed in communication theories, which have yielded no clear consensus on whether FOI is an antecedent or an intervening variable. For example, Shoe...

...o contextual manipulations than is FOI. Studies that manipulate self-construal often lead to changes in measures of self-construal that are as large as those observed in cross-cultural studies (e.g., =-=Gardner, Gabriel, & Lee, 1999-=-). Of importance, studies of this type reduce the size of the cross-cultural difference, but do not eliminate it. In contrast, while our manipulations changed FNE scores in American undergraduates, we...

...her degree of dialectical reasoning is positively related to levels of FOI. The two cognitive tasks we used are preference for dialectical proverbs and the recognition memory studies described above (=-=Masuda & Nisbett, 2001-=-; Peng & Nisbett, 1999). In Experiments 1A and 2, we manipulate American participantsÕ FOI and assess their relative preference for dialectical proverbs. In Experiment 1B, we examine Korean participan...

...ing, because of observations that members of different cultures may exhibit radically different behaviors in a number of tasks that were previously thought to reflect more universal human tendencies (=-=Hsee & Weber, 1999-=-; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; Peng & Nisbett, 1999). Further the study of cultural differences has practical implications for international commerce and theoretical implications for claim...

...trast, Westerners are more comfortable with formal logic and focusing on individuals. Generally speaking, East Asians tend to seek a compromise solution when reconciling conflicts and contradictions (=-=Briley, Morris, & Simonson, 2000-=-). For the purposes of this paper, we highlight two key findings from this research. First, Peng and Nisbett (1999) found that East Asians have a greater appreciation for dialectical proverbs than do ...

... influence of FOI as a trait (rather than as a state) on cognition and behavior. A putatively neutral condition may have variation not only in FOI but also in other confounding state variables (e.g., =-=Brown & Smart, 1991-=-; Sinclair & Kunda, 2000). Overview of experiments K. Kim, A.B. Markman / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 350–364 353 The goal of the present experiments is to show that some of th...

... between FOI and other factors Differences in levels of holistic and analytic reasoning have been studied not only between cultures but also between other demographic groups including gender and age (=-=Goldberger, Tarule, Clinchy, & Belenky, 1996-=-). For example, Belenky (1986) suggested that women are more likely to seek connected knowing, in which people understand the world based on connections with other. In contrast separate knowing, which...

... not have a reliable correlation with any of the six sub-factors of self-construal; Autonomy, Individualism, Behavioral consistency, Primacy of self, Esteem for group, and Relational interdependence (=-=Hardin, Leong, & Bhagwat, 2004-=-). A second individual differences variable that has been explored extensively in the context of cultural differences is mortality salience (Greenberg et al., 1990; Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pys...

...fect reasoning? Social anxiety, especially FOI, motivates people to focus on social activity, to interact with other members in their social network and to consider othersÕ responses seriously (2001; =-=Scheufele, Shanahan, & Lee, 2001-=-). Thus, members of cultures with high chronic FOI should be generally more interested in relations among people and their environment than should members of individualistic cultures (Morris & Peng, 1...

...tions of individual differences that are promoted by elements of the culture rather than fundamental differences in the cognitive architectures of members of different cultures (Barrett et al., 2004; =-=Briley & Wyer, 2001-=-). There are a number of important avenues for further work in this arena. First, as discussed in the previous section, more work needs to be done to explore the relationship between FOI and self-cons...

...tinction often treats members of different cultures as if they differ not only in their sensitivities to reasoning strategies primed by environmental factors but also in their cognitive architecture (=-=Donald, 2000-=-; Nisbett et al., 2001). Before concluding that members of different cultures differ at the level of their cognitive architecture, it is important to identify psychological variables that differ betwe...

...munication theories define FOI as a personÕs fear of being negatively evaluated by others and, consequently, a force that leads people to conceal their views when they believe they are in a minority (=-=Kennamer, 1990-=-; Noelle-Neumann, 1984; Shoemaker, Breen, & Stamper, 2000). This pressure is assumed to be related to their fears of being negatively evaluated by others. The theory maintains that masss352 K. Kim, A....

...e scale has been used for the measurement of individual differences (e.g., Gregorich, Kemple, & Leary, 1986; Shoemaker et al., 2000) and for the cross-cultural comparisons of fear of isolation (e.g., =-=Garcia-Lopez, Olivares, Hidalgo, Beidel, & Turner, 2001-=-). Scores on this scale reflect a fear of the loss of social approval. Items on the measure include signs of anxiety and ineffective social behaviors that would lead to disapproval by others. We gave ...

...rsonÕs fear of being negatively evaluated by others and, consequently, a force that leads people to conceal their views when they believe they are in a minority (Kennamer, 1990; Noelle-Neumann, 1984; =-=Shoemaker, Breen, & Stamper, 2000-=-). This pressure is assumed to be related to their fears of being negatively evaluated by others. The theory maintains that masss352 K. Kim, A.B. Markman / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42...

...differences are reflections of individual differences that are promoted by elements of the culture rather than fundamental differences in the cognitive architectures of members of different cultures (=-=Barrett et al., 2004-=-; Briley & Wyer, 2001). There are a number of important avenues for further work in this arena. First, as discussed in the previous section, more work needs to be done to explore the relationship betw...

... Relational interdependence (Hardin, Leong, & Bhagwat, 2004). A second individual differences variable that has been explored extensively in the context of cultural differences is mortality salience (=-=Greenberg et al., 1990-=-; Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Lyon, 1989). Research on terror management theory suggests that people use their social networks to protect them against fears of death. Mortality sali...

...self negativelyÕ and suggested that Ôfear of loss of social approval would be identical to FNEÕ (p. 449). For this reason, the scale has been used for the measurement of individual differences (e.g., =-=Gregorich, Kemple, & Leary, 1986-=-; Shoemaker et al., 2000) and for the cross-cultural comparisons of fear of isolation (e.g., Garcia-Lopez, Olivares, Hidalgo, Beidel, & Turner, 2001). Scores on this scale reflect a fear of the loss o...

...ment measures social anxiety about receiving negative evaluations from others. Specifically, it measures social anxiety arising from public evaluation, including apprehension about what others think (=-=Monfries & Kafer, 1987-=-). Watson and Friend (1969, p. 449) defined fear of negative evaluation as Ôapprehension about otherÕs evaluations, distress over their negative evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and th...

...han, & Lee, 2001). Thus, members of cultures with high chronic FOI should be generally more interested in relations among people and their environment than should members of individualistic cultures (=-=Morris & Peng, 1994-=-; Nisbett et al., 2001). A chronic attention to relationships among individuals may also extend to more general reasoning about relationships among items in the world. Attention to relations among obj...

...nce (Hardin, Leong, & Bhagwat, 2004). A second individual differences variable that has been explored extensively in the context of cultural differences is mortality salience (Greenberg et al., 1990; =-=Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Lyon, 1989-=-). Research on terror management theory suggests that people use their social networks to protect them against fears of death. Mortality salience tends to increase peopleÕs identification with their c...

...a trait (rather than as a state) on cognition and behavior. A putatively neutral condition may have variation not only in FOI but also in other confounding state variables (e.g., Brown & Smart, 1991; =-=Sinclair & Kunda, 2000-=-). Overview of experiments K. Kim, A.B. Markman / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 350–364 353 The goal of the present experiments is to show that some of the previously observed cu...

...xiety or fear in situations in which one experiences loneliness, a lack of community, solitary, confinement, or a quarantine (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Gilbert, Fiske, & Lindzey, 1998; Gilbert, 2001; =-=Walters, Marshall, & Shooter, 1960-=-). Communication theories define FOI as a personÕs fear of being negatively evaluated by others and, consequently, a force that leads people to conceal their views when they believe they are in a mino...