The aphid–ant mutualistic relationships are not necessarily obligate for neither partners but evidence is that such interactions provide them strong advantages in terms of global fitness. While it is ... [more ▼]

The aphid–ant mutualistic relationships are not necessarily obligate for neither partners but evidence is that such interactions provide them strong advantages in terms of global fitness. While it is largely assumed that ants actively search for their mutualistic partners namely using volatile cues; whether winged aphids (i.e. aphids’ most mobile form) are able to select ant-frequented areas had not been investigated so far. Ant-frequented sites would indeed offer several advantages for these aphids including a lower predation pressure through ant presence and enhanced chances of establishing mutuaslistic interactions with neighbour ant colonies. In the field, aphid colonies are often observed in higher densities around ant nests, which is probably linked to a better survival ensured by ants’ services. Nevertheless, this could also result from a preferential establishment of winged aphids in ant-frequented areas. We tested this last hypothesis through different ethological assays and show that the facultative myrmecophilous black bean aphid, Aphis fabae L., does not orientate its search for a host plant preferentially towards ant-frequented plants. However our results suggest that ants reduce the number of winged aphids leaving the newly colonized plant. Thus, ants involved in facultative myrmecophilous interactions with aphids appear to contribute to structure aphid populations in the field by ensuring a better establishment and survival of newly established colonies rather than by inducing a deliberate plant selection by aphid partners based on the proximity of ant colonies. [less ▲]

Sociality increases exposure to pathogens. Therefore, social insects have developed a wide range of behavioural defences, known as ‘social immunity’. However, the benefits of these behaviours in terms of ... [more ▼]

Sociality increases exposure to pathogens. Therefore, social insects have developed a wide range of behavioural defences, known as ‘social immunity’. However, the benefits of these behaviours in terms of colony survival have been scarcely investigated. We tested the survival advantage of prophylaxis, i.e. corpse removal, in ants. Over 50 days, we compared the survival of ants in colonies that were free to remove corpses with those that were restricted in their corpse removal. From Day 8 onwards, the survival of adult workers was significantly higher in colonies that were allowed to remove corpses normally. Overall, larvae survived better than adults, but were slightly affected by the presence of corpses in the nest. When removal was restricted, ants removed as many corpses as they could and moved the remaining corpses away from brood, typically to the nest corners. These results show the importance of nest maintenance and prophylactic behaviour in social insects. [less ▲]

The division of labour plays a major role in the success of social insects. For instance, through social prophylaxis, the spread of pathogens within the colony can be reduced if corpse removal is the ... [more ▼]

The division of labour plays a major role in the success of social insects. For instance, through social prophylaxis, the spread of pathogens within the colony can be reduced if corpse removal is the concern of a specialized group of ants. However, in relatively small colonies, the number of dead individuals and the amount of waste may be too low to justify a specialized group of corpse carriers. We examined the corpse removal habits of the common red ant, Myrmica rubra. Ants acting as corpse carriers were not strictly specialized in corpse management, but split their time between disposing of the dead and foraging. Some corpse-carrying individuals, however, developed a short-term specialization by making several successive corpse transports. Corpse carriers limited cross-contamination by remaining mostly outside the nest and congregating near the nest entrance when resting inside. [less ▲]

Honeydew is the keystone upon which ants and aphids build their mutualistic relationship. We have investigated how sugar and volatile compounds from honeydew are involved in the discovery, the recognition ... [more ▼]

Honeydew is the keystone upon which ants and aphids build their mutualistic relationship. We have investigated how sugar and volatile compounds from honeydew are involved in the discovery, the recognition and the exploitation of aphid colonies by the black garden ant Lasius niger. In addition to semiochemicals produced by aphids, honeydew volatile compounds are used by ant scouts to orient themselves and distantly recognize myrmecophilous species. Once discovered, aphid colonies producing sugars which are the most beneficial to the ants are preferentially tended. In this respect, the ways each sugar acts upon the feeding behavior of ant foragers and triggers the laying of a recruitment trail are essential to understand how their collective exploitation of aphid colonies proceeds and why mutualistic interactions between ants and aphids are maintained. Sensitivity of ant scouts to honeydew sugars was also investigated. Dose-response curves revealed between-sugar differences with foragers being very sensitive even to small amounts of melezitose, a sugar specifically produced by aphid colonies. We discuss about the relevance of honeydew cues used by ants in the selection of sugary resources, the recognition of their honeydew-producing partners as well as in the assessment of size and nutritive value of exploited aphid colonies. [less ▲]

Some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection. From a behavioral point of ... [more ▼]

Some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection. From a behavioral point of view, this phenomenon has been well studied from decades. However, its chemistry and semiochemical mechanisms are still largely unknown. This study aims to identify semiochemicals involved in the establishment of this relation, using both chemical and behavioral approaches. Bioassays revealed that the greatest part of ant attraction toward aphid colonies is due to honeydew volatile compounds; enabling ant scouts to find more quickly aphid colonies and distantly recognize myrmecophilous species. Many of those VOCs seeming to have microbial origins, the main honeydew microorganisms have been isolated and their roles in VOCs production and ant attraction have been investigated. It appeared that honeydew microflora holds a key role in the establishment of ant-aphids mutualistic relationship. [less ▲]

Some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection. From a behavioral point of ... [more ▼]

Some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection. From a behavioral point of view, this phe-nomenon has been well studied from decades. However, its chemistry and semiochemical mechanisms are still largely unknown. This study aims to identify semiochemicals involved in the establishment of this relation, using both chemical and behavioral approaches. Bioassays revealed that the great-est part of ant attraction toward aphid colonies is due to honeydew volatile compounds; enabling ant scouts to find more quickly aphid colonies and distantly recognize myrmecophilous species. Many of those VOCs seeming to have microbial origins, the main honeydew microorganisms have been isolated and their roles in VOCs production and ant attraction have been investigated. It appeared that honeydew microflora holds a key role in the establishment of ant-aphids mutualistic relationship. [less ▲]

Aphids are some of the most serious pests of cultivated crops worldwide, causing major yield and economic losses. Previous works have demonstrated ants and natural enemies (including ladybeetles and ... [more ▼]

Aphids are some of the most serious pests of cultivated crops worldwide, causing major yield and economic losses. Previous works have demonstrated ants and natural enemies (including ladybeetles and hoverflies) to be able to use aphid volatile chemicals to locate aphid colonies. Here, we report the first isolation of a bacterium from the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum honeydew, Staphylococcus sciuri, which produces kairomones used by the aphidophagous hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus and the Asian Ladybeetle Harmonia axyridis during their search for prey colonies. Some specific semiochemicals produced by S. sciuri were identified as attractants and ovipositional stimulants. Similarly, we have shown scouts of the aphid tending ant species, Lasius niger, to orientate their foraging behaviour toward an Aphis fabae infested plant and we have demonstrated that the odours released by this aphid honeydew were attractive for ant scouts. Again, bacteria were involved in the production of these honeydew semiochemicals. Interestingly, ant scouts were also able to discriminate honeydew odour from A. fabae (usually attended by L. niger) and A. pisum (unattendedby L. niger). Comparison of the volatile and bacteria composition of both aphid species honeydew were attended. [less ▲]

The mutualistic relationships that occur between myrmecophilous aphids and ants are based on the rich food supply that honeydew represents for ants and on the protection they provide against aphid natural ... [more ▼]

The mutualistic relationships that occur between myrmecophilous aphids and ants are based on the rich food supply that honeydew represents for ants and on the protection they provide against aphid natural enemies. While aphid predators and parasitoids actively forage for oviposition sites by using aphid semiochemicals, scouts of aphid-tending ant species would also benefit from locating honeydew resources by orienting toward aphid pheromone sources. The present study aims to provide additional information on the use of Aphis fabae alarm pheromone, i.e. (E)-β-farnesene (EβF), by ant scouts. The perception and behavioral impact of EβF on Lasius niger were investigated using electroantennography and two bio-assays measuring their attraction and orientation towards aphid semiochemicals. Pronounced electrical depolarizations were observed from L. niger scout antennae to stimulations of A. fabae alarm pheromone, while other sesquiterpenes elicited weak or no responses. L. niger scouts were significantly attracted toward EβF in a four-arm olfactometer, as well as in an two-choice bioassay. These laboratory results suggest for the first time that low amounts of aphid alarm pheromone can be used by L. niger scouts as a cue indicating the presence of aphid colonies and could therefore mediate the aphid-ant partnership in the field. [less ▲]

It is now long known that some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection ... [more ▼]

It is now long known that some ant and aphid species can present a mutualistic relationship, ants using aphid honeydew as sugar source and in exchange providing the aphid colony cleaning and protection. From a behavioral point of view, this phenomenon has been well studied, but its chemistry and semiochemical mechanisms are still largely unknown. This study aims to identify semiochemicals involved in the establishment of this relation and their sources, using both chemical and behavioral methods. Bioassays revealed that the greatest part of ant attraction toward aphid colonies is due to honeydew volatile compounds; enabling ant scouts to find more quickly aphid colonies and distantly recognize myrmecophilous species. Many of those VOCs seeming to have microbial origins, the main honeydew microorganisms have been isolated and their roles in VOCs production and ant attraction have been investigated. [less ▲]

Aphids are some of the most serious pests of cultivated crops worldwide, causing major yield and economic losses. Previous works have demonstrated ants and natural enemies (including ladybeetles and ... [more ▼]

Aphids are some of the most serious pests of cultivated crops worldwide, causing major yield and economic losses. Previous works have demonstrated ants and natural enemies (including ladybeetles and hoverflies) to be able to use aphid volatile chemicals to locate aphid colonies. Here, we report the first isolation of a bacterium from the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum honeydew, Staphylococcus sciuri, which produces kairomones used by the aphidophagous hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus and the Asian Ladybeetle Harmonia axyridis during their search for prey colonies. Some specific semiochemicals produced by S. sciuri were identified as attractants and ovipositional stimulants. Similarly, we have shown scouts of the aphid tending ant species, Lasius niger, to orientate their foraging behaviour toward an Aphis fabae infested plant and we have demonstrated that the odours released by this aphid honeydew were attractive for ant scouts. Again, bacteria were involved in the production of these honeydew semiochemicals. Interestingly, ant scouts were also able to discriminate honeydew odour from A. fabae (usually attended by L. niger) and A. pisum (unattendedby L. niger). Comparison of the volatile and bacteria composition of both aphid species honeydew were attended. [less ▲]

That some ant species show mutualistic relationships with some aphid species is well known since several decades. Ants protect aphids against natural enemies and as a reward collect the sugar-rich aphid ... [more ▼]

That some ant species show mutualistic relationships with some aphid species is well known since several decades. Ants protect aphids against natural enemies and as a reward collect the sugar-rich aphid excretion called honeydew. However, very little information is available on possible semiochemicals involved in these interactions. This study aims to identify semiochemicals involved in the establishment of this relation, using both chemical and behavioral approaches. Preliminary choice tests confirmed that ant scouts are able to detect aphid colonies at a distance using volatile organic compounds (VOC). Those VOC influencing ant’s orientation may originate from different sources: the attacked plant, the honeydew produced by the aphids and the aphids themselves. VOC emission profiles of each of those potential sources have been established using gas chromatography. Y-olfactometer assay revealed that honeydew volatile compounds are the key element in this distant attraction. Moreover, based on these VOCs, ant scouts are able to discriminate between the honeydew produced by a myrmecophilous and a non myrmecophilous aphid species. Thus, more than just a sugar source, honeydew is an attractant for ant scouts towards myrmecophilous aphids. [less ▲]

Honeydew is the keystone on which ant-aphid mutualism is built. The present study investigates how each sugar identified in Aphis fabae Scopoli honeydew acts upon the feeding and the laying of a ... [more ▼]

Honeydew is the keystone on which ant-aphid mutualism is built. The present study investigates how each sugar identified in Aphis fabae Scopoli honeydew acts upon the feeding and the laying of a recruitment trail by scouts of the aphid-tending ant Lasius niger Linnaeus, and thus may enhance collective exploitation by the ant mutualists. The feeding preferences shown by L. niger for honeydew sugars are: melezitose = sucrose = raffinose > glucose = fructose > maltose = trehalose = melibiose = xylose. Although feeding is a prerequisite to the launching of trail recruitment, the reverse is not necessarily true: not all ingested sugar solutions elicit a trail-laying behaviour among fed scouts. Trail mark laying is only triggered by raffinose, sucrose or melezitose, with the latter sugar being specific to honeydew. By comparing gustatory and recruitment responses of ant foragers to sugar food sources, the present study clarifies the role of honeydew composition both as a source of energy and as a mediator in ant-aphid interactions. Lasius niger feeding preferences can be related to the physiological suitability of each sugar (i.e. their detection by gustatory receptors as well as their ability to be digested and converted into energy). Regarding recruitment, the aphid-synthesized oligosaccharide (melezitose) could be used by ant scouts as a cue indicative of a long-lasting productive resource that is worthy of collective exploitation and defence against competitors or aphid predators. [less ▲]

Sociality increases risks of disease transmission as genetically related individuals live in a confined environment. Therefore, social insects developed specific defences against pathogens by showing ... [more ▼]

Sociality increases risks of disease transmission as genetically related individuals live in a confined environment. Therefore, social insects developed specific defences against pathogens by showing hygienic behaviours such as the rejection of cadavers and other wastes. We investigated if the undertaking and waste management is actually an efficient way of increasing ants’ survival and of limiting pathogens transmission. First, we observed the survival curve of ant colonies that were prevented from rejecting their dead nestmates outside the nest. Colonies that were forced to keep their dead inside the nest showed increased mortality of both adults and larvae in comparison to control nests, confirming that undertaking is an effective way for improving colony’s survival. Then, we compared the rejection dynamics of single waste items (ant cadavers, preys and clay pellet) introduced into ant nests. Clay pellets were quickly rejected within 12 ± 4 minutes, cadavers were dumped outside after 139 ± 28 min and preys were eaten and rejected only after 17.3 ± 0.3 hours. Spatial localisation inside the nest also differs between different items, as most cadavers stayed far from ants’ aggregate and larvae while preys were long-eaten close to larvae and inside ants’ aggregate. These results show that cadavers and preys are managed differently before becoming contagious, thus preventing effectively pathogens transmission inside the nest. [less ▲]

Living in society in a restricted and confined nest implies important organisational issues. Ants have to control food supply for the whole colony as well as nest defence but they also have to manage ... [more ▼]

Living in society in a restricted and confined nest implies important organisational issues. Ants have to control food supply for the whole colony as well as nest defence but they also have to manage everyday life tasks such as waste rejection. Within the nest, ants are faced with different items that have to be used or rejected regarding colony needs. We study whether they can discriminate between three types of items (building material, nestmate cadaver or prey) and accordingly adapt the spatio-temporal distribution of these items. Therefore, we used colonies of the ant Myrmica rubra settled in a 2-dimensional space and introduced different items in the nest centre. We show that each item triggers a specific cascade of behaviour. We observed important differences in rejection time: building items were removed within a few minutes and cadavers after a few hours while preys could be kept in the nest for a day or more. Furthermore, the movement of items by ants leads to specific spatio-temporal patterns. Building items were removed with a straight trajectory from the centre to the exit of the nest. Ant cadavers that could bear pathogens showed a trajectory avoiding and moving away from larvae that are potentially more sensitive to diseases. The moving of preys headed an oscillating pattern: these items were alternatively taken on larvae for consumption and then moved away from them, until final rejection. This specific pattern may be due to the coupled effects of groups of ants acting alternatively to feed larvae and reject waste. In the case of cadavers and building items, only undertaking ants may be active. These results suggest that each ant is able to discriminate and interact with each other leading at the collective level to a complex cascade of behaviour. [less ▲]

The mutualistic relationships that occur between myrmecophilous aphids and ants are based on the rich food supply that honeydew represents for ants and on the protection they provide against aphid natural ... [more ▼]

The mutualistic relationships that occur between myrmecophilous aphids and ants are based on the rich food supply that honeydew represents for ants and on the protection they provide against aphid natural enemies. While aphid predators and parasitoids actively forage for oviposition sites by using aphid semiochemicals, scouts of aphid-tending ant species would also benefit from locating honeydew resources by orienting toward aphid pheromone sources. The present study aims to identify the chemical factors that attract ants and that maintain their mutualistic relationships with aphids. The perception and behavioral impact of Aphis fabae alarm pheromone, namely (E)-β-farnesene, on Lasius niger were firstly investigated using electroantennography and a four-arm olfactometer. Aphis fabae honeydew sugar composition was subsequently analyzed while the foraging and recruiting behaviour of L. niger scouts towards each of the identified sugars was studied. Clear electrical depolarisations were observed from L. niger scout antennae to stimulations of A. fabae alarm pheromone. Scouts were significantly attracted toward (E)-β-farnesene in the four-arm olfactometer, suggesting for the first time that the latter compound is a key chemical in the establishment of the mutualism. Aphis fabae honeydew consisted of 9 identified mono-, di- and tri-saccharides and 8 hydrocarbons that could not be identified. The main identified sugars were sucrose, fructose, glucose and melezitose. L. niger scouts showed the following drinking preferences for the tested sugars: melezitose = sucrose = raffinose > glucose = fructose > maltose = trehalose = melibiose = xylose, with a recruitment launched toward the first three sugars. Therefore, ant scouts may use aphid semiochemicals to locate at distance an aphid colony and subsequently estimate honeydew quality by tasting it before recruiting conspecifics and establishing a mutualistic relationship. [less ▲]