CHAPTER II

NBC Defense Operations Fundamentals

1. Purpose. This chapter provides a discussion of NBC defense
fundamentals applicable to the theater of operations.

2. Overview. NBC defense operations present many unique challenges to
commanders. A clear understanding of the effects of WMD, coupled with
the implementation of the principles of NBC defense, can significantly
reduce these challenges.

a. Nuclear. Effects of a nuclear detonation are primarily in
three areas: thermal radiation, blast, and nuclear radiation.
Corollary effects, such as electromagnetic pulse (EMP), can break
down electronics system protection, disrupt communications, and
have significant psychological impacts on friendly forces.

(1) Thermal Radiation. Thermal radiation, consisting of heat
and light, results from the nuclear detonation. Thermal
radiation can cause widespread injuries in the form of skin
burns and retinal damage (flashblindness). Thermal radiation
can also cause fires and damage or destroy heat sensitive and
optical systems. The type of weapon burst (air, surface, or
subsurface) and the atmospheric conditions influence both the
range and intensity of thermal damage.

(2) Blast. Blast, consisting of shock waves, high
overpressures, and severe winds can demolish buildings,
equipment, and uproot trees. Even though the shock front
achieves sufficient strength to devastate most land features,
the type of nuclear burst determines the severity of
destruction. Blast is not an instantaneous effect. A finite
amount of time will elapse between the "flash" and the arrival
of the shock wave relative to a person's distance from the
point of detonation (ground zero). This time will allow
individuals to find some protection, whether
it be in a building, vehicle, or dropping to the ground if
caught in the open.

(3) Nuclear Radiation. The most widespread and longest
lasting weapon effect comes from the emission of radioactive
products. These appear in two forms: initial and residual
radiation. Initial radiation, which is emitted during the
first minute after detonation, produces deadly gamma rays and
neutrons. Residual radiation is most prevalent in ground
bursts where the detonation heaves up land, buildings, and
other materials that are later dispersed as radioactive
fallout. In the case of an air burst, residual radioactive
emissions are extremely limited.

(4) Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP). If the high currents and
voltage signals induced by an EMP event are delivered to
unprotected electronic devices, the devices can be permanently
damaged or temporarily degraded. Radio communications will be
subject to a wide variety of possible disruptions during and
after a nuclear exchange. These interruptions may range from
minor disruptions lasting just a few minutes to essential
communication links being rendered useless. Hardening
techniques include: electromagnetic shielding, proper
grounding, circumvention circuits to sense an EMP and "turn
off" or isolate critical circuits, filtering of broad
bandwidth EMP signals, use of voltage and current limiting
devices, and proper device selection and design to tolerate
EMP surges.

(5) Psychological Effect. In addition to causing massive
physical destruction, explosion of a nuclear weapon can cause
tremendous psychological effects that can impact on a unit's
ability to fight. Immediately after an attack, personnel may
show alertness or evidence denial or disbelief. Following
weapon detonation, some survivors will remain effective,
others will be dazed and stunned, and some will be in a state
of panic or acute confusion.

b. Biological. A biological threat is the capability of an enemy
to plan and deploy a biological material to produce casualties in
humans or animals or damage plants or other material. A biological
agent is a microorganism or biological toxin intended to cause
disease, injury, or death in
people, plants, or animals or deterioration of material. A
biological threat is the capability of an enemy to deploy these
types of agents.

(1) Microorganisms. Pathogenic microorganisms are infectious
agents that cause disease in personnel, animals, or plants by
entering the body through the lungs, digestive tract, skin,
and mucous membranes of body openings. Once they enter the
body, microorganisms multiply, overcoming the body's natural
defenses, and produce disease.

(2) Toxins. Toxins are poisonous substances produced as by-
products of microorganisms, plants, and animals. Some toxins
can be chemically synthesized, and some can be artificially
produced with genetic engineering techniques. Toxins exert
their lethal or incapacitating effects by interfering with
certain cell and tissue functions. The signs and symptoms of
toxin poisoning can be confused with both chemical poisoning
and infectious diseases.

(3) Enemy Biological Weapons Employment. Delivery systems
for biological warfare agents most commonly generate invisible
aerosol clouds with particles or droplets that can remain
suspended for extensive periods. The major risk is retention
of inhaled particles. To a much lesser extent, particles may
adhere to an individual or to clothing. Vectors, which are
organisms (e.g., insects) that transmit pathogens, may be
involved in the spread of a disease. The effective area
covered varies with many factors, including wind speed,
humidity, and sunlight. In the absence of direct evidence of
an attack, the first clue would be mass casualties fitting a
clinical pattern compatible with one of the biological agents;
however, diagnosis may be difficult because of the possible
use of multiple pathogens. Toxins, although nonliving, affect
the body in a manner similar to CW agents. However, toxins
are generally much more potent. Mucous membranes, including
the eyes, are also vulnerable to many biological warfare
agents. Potential targets of biological agents include the
following:

(a) Rear area command centers and key facilities.

(b) Troop assembly areas.

(c) Ports of debarkation or supply points, airfields,
and industrial centers prior to the outbreak of
hostilities.

(d) Naval operations near land.

(e) Forward combat areas and logistical areas.

(f) Any area that presents a likely target for a
terrorist or insurgent group.

c. Chemical. Chemical agents and compounds are classified
according to physical state, physiological action, and use. The
terms persistent and nonpersistent describe the time an agent stays
in an area. Threat forces classify chemical agents according to
their physiological effect on the body. They identify six major
types: nerve, blood, blister, choking, psychochemical, and
irritants.

(1) Persistent. Persistent chemical agents affect the
battlefield for an extended period of time. The exact
duration of the threat from a persistent agent is dependent
upon several factors, including its concentration, the
temperature, wind, amount of sunlight and precipitation.
Threat forces are known to stockpile persistent agents.
Persistent chemical agents are used to produce immediate or
delayed casualties. Immediate casualties occur when the
victim inhales the vapor or aerosol or, in some cases
(Lewisite [L], Phosgene Oxime [CX]), when the agent produces
rapid effects on the skin or eyes. Delayed casualties occur
when the vapor or aerosol is absorbed through the skin.
Persistent agents are used for the following purposes:

(2) Nonpersistent. Nonpersistent agents affect the
battlefield for relatively short periods of time. They are
more dependent upon the local weather and climatic conditions
than persistent agents because of their inherent physical and
chemical properties. Threat forces currently stockpile blood,
choking, psychochemical, and nerve agents such as Tabun (GA),
Sarin (GB), and Soman (GD). Although G-series nerve agents
are classified as nonpersistent agents, some G agents may
persist for hours to days when a thickening agent is used.
Nonpersistent agents should be expected against friendly units
along the forward line of own troops (FLOT) and against units
in contact with the attacking echelon. These agents are used
to immobilize, injure, or hinder activities of the unit under
attack. For example, the threat may use a blood agent at a
critical moment in battle to force troops into a higher
mission oriented protective posture (MOPP) level. Forcing
troops into a higher MOPP level reduces morale and degrades
performance. Another advantage is that the threat would not
need to decontaminate the area before occupying it.
Nonpersistent agents act through the respiratory system or
through skin absorption. Nonpersistent agents are used to
achieve the following results:

(a) Create favorable fighting conditions for the
initiator.

(b) Produce immediate casualties on targeted population
before an assault by an initiator.

(c) Degrade and suppress enemy forces by forcing them
into a higher MOPP level.

(d) Allow occupation with minimum decontamination

4. Operations in an NBC Environment. A capability to defend against
NBC attack and to survive and sustain combat operations in an NBC
environment requires intelligence forewarning and highly trained,
properly
equipped forces throughout the theater of operations. US forces must be
prepared to conduct operations in an NBC environment with minimal
degradation. At the theater operational level, NBC defense involves
protection for forces and the means to remove or cope with operationally
significant hazards, conceal intentions in the area of responsibility
(AOR), and provide adequate health service support to preserve the
fighting capability of the forces. Health service support will be
addressed in Chapter V, Medical Support.

a. Operational Stress. Physical and mental demands of military
operations can have profound effects on the performance of
individual Service members and units. This is particularly true
when the stress of combat is intensified by heat, continuous
operations, and NBC protective clothing worn as part of a unit's
MOPP.

b. Principles of NBC Defense. NBC defense for the theater
requires cognizance of the principles of NBC defense--avoidance,
protection, and decontamination--coupled with a proactive theater-
level program of intelligence, psychological operations, deception,
and obscuration. Theater-level intelligence assets gather
information on the state of the AOR and enemy capabilities and
intentions. Psychological operations support deterrent measures
and, in the event of the failure of deterrence, enhance reactive
measures as a force multiplier. Deception at the theater level
supports large-scale maneuvers. Obscuration increases
survivability of large-scale operations and port and airfield
operations. If the enemy uses NBC weapons, an effective NBC
defense program gives our forces an advantage in operational tempo.
This advantage causes the enemy to cease NBC warfare or continue
the conflict on less favorable terms. Nuclear weapons cause
casualties through blast, heat, and radiation effects. Biological
and chemical weapons cause serious injury or death and restrict the
use of terrain or equipment. NBC weapons also degrade force
effectiveness by causing military personnel to don cumbersome
protective clothing and equipment. To counter these effects, NBC
defense adheres to the three principles: avoidance, protection, and
decontamination.

(1) Avoidance. Passive and active measures used in avoiding
NBC attack are keys to NBC defense.

(a) Passive measures include training, camouflage and
concealment (including the use of smoke and obscurants),
hardened positions, and dispersion.

(b) Protecting Personnel. Ordinary clothing can provide
some protection against the thermal effects of a nuclear
detonation, but more sophisticated protection is required
against biological and chemical weapons. These measures
may include medical prophylaxis (pre-treatments)
protective masks or protective ensemble, antidote, or
other medical treatments.

2. Biological and Chemical. Other biological and
chemical measures include providing individual and
collective protection measures or relocation of
personnel to toxic-free areas.

(c) Mission-Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP). When
considering the use of MOPP, the commander should balance
protection with degradation of the forces' ability to
perform their mission. Normally the JFC will leave the
decision of MOPP level to the component commander, who
usually will decentralize the
decision to the various area commanders or captains of
their vessels.

(d) Physical Defense Measures. The optimum conditions
for the enemy to employ biological aerosols or chemical
attacks exist in the late evening or early morning. When
threat conditions exist, it is recommended that during
the hours of darkness as many personnel as possible
remain inside any available fixed or improvised
collective protection systems (CPS) or wear their
protective masks.

1. The entry of Service members or materials into a
collective protection system means that suitable
precautions must be taken or infectious or toxic
agents could be carried in on clothing or surfaces.
However, biological aerosol particles that have
settled on hard surfaces are unlikely to create a
hazard because they are not readily re-aerosolized.
The main risk comes from clothing of exposed persons
and from flexible or friable surfaces. Clothing or
protective equipment that has been exposed to
chemical agents, especially nonpersistent chemical
agents, may emit vapors within the protected area
and should be removed before entry.

2. In the case of personnel who may have been
exposed to a biological aerosol while outside the
facility, a potential hazard will only be created by
particles deposited on the outer layers of their
clothing (and possibly their hands, head, and hair
if these were not covered). If possible, they
should remove their outer clothing and wash their
hands, face, and hair.

3. Use of Individual Protective Equipment. The
mask is the most effective protection against
biological and chemical agents. Wearing a
respirator provides virtually complete protection
against a biological aerosol attack. Effective
respirator filters will remove any biological
aerosol
particles that are present in the air and will
protect against all known weaponized chemical
agents.

4. Use of Improvised Refuges. The term "improvised
refuge" is used to describe systems that offer only
limited protection and can be created even when a
supply of filtered air is not available. The
simplest form of improvised refuge is a room or
space with the doors and windows that can be closed
off.

a. Further benefit can be obtained by using a
space within a space. Thus, inner rooms of
buildings provide better protection than outer
rooms, especially if the opening is toward the
lee side of the building.

b. Further protection can be achieved if
doors, windows, and other openings can be
sealed, but this may seriously reduce the
habitability of the space.

(e) After an Attack. Following an attack, personnel
should take immediate action to reduce the impact of the
attack and restore the fighting power to continue the
mission. Different procedures would be prescribed for
nuclear, biological, or chemical attacks.

(3) Decontamination. Decontamination stops the erosion of
combat power and reduces possibility of additional casualties
from inadvertent exposure or failure of protection. The
extent of and time required for decontamination depends on the
tactical situation, mission, degree of contamination, and
other alternatives to decontamination, such as deferring the
use of the equipment. Forces should ordinarily decontaminate
only that materiel needed for completion of the mission.
Depending on agent type and weather conditions,
decontamination may not be required because of natural
weathering effects (temperature, wind, and sunlight).
Non-mission-essential equipment would have the decontamination
deferred, or natural weathering could be used.

a. Operations Tempo. The operations tempo may be profoundly
affected by the introduction of NBC weapons. Some of the
sustainment considerations that should be reviewed by the combatant
commander are outlined in Chapter IV.

b. Reconstitution. The component commanders' capabilities for
force generation may be severely hampered with introduction of NBC
weapons because of the disruption of normal personnel and materiel
replacement processes in theater. In addition, the scale of the
requirement for reconstitution may be dramatically increased,
especially in a biological or nuclear environment. The number of
anticipated casualties, even if afforded some protection, would
severely tax reorganization and reconstitution systems.

c. Military Performance in Chemical Protective Clothing and
Equipment. The use of protective equipment will cause serious
degradation of friendly forces' capabilities to perform their
mission. The wearing of chemical protective clothing and equipment
will increase the risk of heat stress. Commanders must consider
adequate water intake, fatigue, and heat acclimatization.

(1) The conditions of sustained or continuous operations
often require Service members to stay awake for extended
periods of time. MOPP decreases sensory awareness, making it
harder for Service members to stay awake. Additionally,
wearing chemical protective clothing reduces the individual's
ability to recognize and communicate efficiently. Combat
often requires that individuals change their habits (e.g.,
caffeine and nicotine use, nutrition, personal hygiene, etc.);
MOPP may require even more extreme changes in personal habits.
These changes can intensify the feelings of isolation and
confusion that are common on the battlefield and increase the
individual's vulnerability to combat stress. Commanders at
every level can prepare their Service members to fight
effectively in MOPP by
engaging in realistic training that builds confidence and
cohesion.

(2) All Service members can expect deficits in performance
because of the awkwardness of chemical protective clothing and
equipment. Several factors may increase the probability that
individuals will experience heat or combat stress while in
MOPP. Inexperienced individuals unfamiliar with MOPP or those
who are new to the unit are more likely to be affected.
Service members who work shifts of indefinite length (who do
not know when they will get relief from MOPP) are also more
susceptible. Commanders are encouraged to stress training
involving visual tasks, especially weapons use, manual
dexterity tasks and communication tasks, while in MOPP because
certain jobs are more likely to be affected than others (e.g.,
tasks that require clear vision; precise hearing; fine motor
skills; social and emotional support; or communication by
facial expression, gestures, and inflections in voice).
Service members who have trained often and realistically in
MOPP should be able to compensate for the constraints it
places on communication, vision, and movement.