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Unformatted text preview: MAYA DEREN: Cinematography:
The Creative Use of Reality 1 The motion-picture camera is
perhaps the most paradoxical of all machines, in that it can be at
once independently active and inﬁnitely passive. Kodak's early
slogan, "You push the button, it does the rest," was not an exag-
gerated advertising claim, and, connected to any simple trigger
device, a camera can even take pictures all by itself. At the same
time, while a comparable development and reﬁnement of other mechanisms has usually resulted in an increased specialization, the advances in the scope and sensitivity of lenses and emulsions have
made the camera capable of inﬁnite receptivity and indiscriminate
ﬁdelity. To this must be added the fact that the medium deals, or
can deal, in terms of the most elemental actuality. In sum, it can
produce maximum results for virtually minimal effort: it requires
of its operator only a modicum of aptitude and energy; of its sub-
ject matter, only that it exist; and of its audience, only that they
can see. On this elementary level it functions ideally as a mass
medium for communicating equally elementary ideas. The photographic medium is, as a matter of fact, so amorphous
that it is not merely unobtrusive but virtually transparent, and so
becomes, more than any other medium, susceptible of servitude to
any and all the others. The enormOus value of such servitude
sufﬁces to justify the medium and to be generally accepted as its
function. This has been a major obstacle to the deﬁnition and
development of motion pictures as a creative ﬁne-art form—capable
of creative action in its own terms—for its own character is as a
latent image which can become manifest only if no other image is
imposed upon it to obscure it. Those concerned with the emergence of this latent form must
therefore assume a partially protective role, one which recalls the
advice of an art instructor who said, "If you have trouble drawing
the vase, try drawing the space around the vase.” Indeed, for the Cinematogrt time being, the deﬁnit
careful attention to wh Animated Paintings In recent years, per
the ﬁlm world and no
theaters, there has bcc
be called the "graphic
which combine abstr.’
realistic ﬁgures, are (.ll
graphic artists who m:
of the rich resources
A major factor in thc
mous technical and 1
processing, so that it i
the two-dimensional, l
dom they bring to a cm The similarity bctiv
recognized by artists :4
others, who were att
limited at that time)
medium, particularly
rhythm, spatial depth
dimensional illusion Ci
etc. They put their gr:
as a means of extending. The new graphic-m
early efforts as i'evcrsr
ﬁlm medium as an ext
larly clear when one a'
for it is usually no 11'“
spelling out in time—
design of an individua
describe such works,
which certainly have
paintings.” This entry of paint
parallels with the in
attracted to it persons
exploration and develr
expression. The additi
ists and dramatists. A ° It is signiﬁcant that l
abandoned this approach.
Ray, Dali, and the paintr
Duchamp, ctc.) indicate a_
plastic and the photograp
photographic reality. iAYA DEREN: ography:
f Reality picture camera is
in that it can be at
sive. Kodak’s early
" was not an exag-
any simple trigger
r itself. At the same
reﬁnement of other
d specialization, the
and emulsions have
I and indiscriminate
to medium deals, or
tlity. In sum, it can
ll effort: it requires
1 energy; of its sub-
:nce, only that they
s ideally as a mass
I ideas. fact, so amorphous
transparent, and so
tible of servitude to of such servitude
ally accepted as its
the deﬁnition and
e-art form—capable
rn character is as a
if no other image is I 's latent form must
.e which recalls the
we trouble drawing
5e." Indeed, for the Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 6] time being, the deﬁnition of the creative form of ﬁlm involves as
careful attention to what it is not as to what it is. Animated Paintings In recent years, perceptible ﬁrst on the experimental fringes of
the ﬁlm world and now in general evidence at the commercial art
theaters, there has been an accelerated development of what might
be called the “graphic arts school of animated ﬁlm.” Such ﬁlms,
which combine abstract backgrounds with recognizable but not
realistic ﬁgures, are designed and painted by trained and talented
graphic artists who make use of a sophisticated, ﬂuent knowledge
of the rich resources of plastic media, including even collage.
A major factor in the emergence of this school has been the enor-
mous technical and laboratory advance in color ﬁlm and color
processing, so that it is now possible for these artists to approach
the two-dimensional, rectangular screen with all the graphic free-
dom they bring to a canvas. The similarity between screen and canvas had long ago been
recognized by artists such as Hans Richter, Oskar Fischinger, and
others, who were attracted not by its graphic possibilities (so
limited at that time) but rather by the excitements of the ﬁlm
medium, particularly the exploitation of its time dimension—
rhythm, spatial depth created by a diminishing square, the three-
dimensional illusion created by the revolutions of a spiral ﬁgure.
etc. They put their graphic skills at the service of the ﬁlm medium,
as a means of extending-ﬁlm expression.° The new graphic-arts school does not so much advance those
early efforts as reverse them, for here the artists make use of the
ﬁlm medium as an extension of the plastic media. This is particu-
larly clear when one analyzes the principle of movement employed,
for it it usually no more than a sequential articulation—a kind of
spelling out in time—of the dynamic ordinarily implicit in the
design of an individual composition. The most appropriate term to
describe such works, which are often interesting and witty, and
which certainly have their place among visual arts, is “animated
paintings." This entry of painting into the ﬁlm medium presents certain
parallels with the introduction of sound. The silent ﬁlm had
attracted to it persons who had talent for and were inspired by the
exploration and development of a new and unique form of visual
expression. The addition of sound opened the doors for the verbal-
ists and dramatists. Armed with the authority, power, laws, tech- ° It is signiﬁcant that Hans Richter. a pioneer in such a use of ﬁlm, soon
abandoned this approach. All his later ﬁlms, along with the ﬁlms of Leger. Man
Ray, Dali, and the painters who articipated in Richter's later ﬁlms (Ernst,
Duchamp, etc.) indicate a profoundap reciation of the distinction between the plastic and the hotographlc image an make enthusiastic and creative use of
photographic rea ity. 62 Mayo Deren niques, skills, and crafts which the venerable literary arts had
accumulated over centuries, the writers hardly even paused to
recognize the small resistance of the "indigenous" ﬁlm-maker, who
had had barely a decade in which to explore and evoke the
creative potential of his medium. The rapid success of the "animated painting" is similarly due to
the fact that it comes armed with all the plastic traditions and
techniques which are its impressive heritage. And just as the sound
ﬁlm interrupted the development of ﬁlm form on the cummercial
level by providing a more ﬁnished substitute, so the “animated
painting” is already being accepted as a form of film art in the few
areas (the distribution of 16 mm. ﬁlm shorts of film series and
societies) where experiments in ﬁlm form can still find an audience. The motion-picture medium has an extraordinary range of expres-
sion. It has in common with the plastic arts the fact that it is a visual
composition projected on a two-dimensional surface; with dance,
that it can deal in the arrangement of movement; with theater, that
it can create a dramatic intensity of events; with music, that it can
compose in the rhythms and phrases of time and can be attended
by song and instrument; with poetry, that it can justapose images;
with literature generally, that it can encompass in its sound track
the abstractions available only to language. This very profusion of potentialities seems to create confusion
in the minds of most film-makers, a confusion which is diminished
by eliminating a major portion of those potentialities in favor of
one or two, upon which the film is subsequently structured. An
artist, however, should not seek security in a tidy mastery over the
simpliﬁcations of deliberate poverty; he should, instead, have the
creative courage to face the danger of being overwhelmed by
fecundity in the effort to resolve it into simplicity and economy. While the “animated painting" ﬁlm has limited itself to a small
area of ﬁlm potential, it has gained acceptance on the basis of the
fact that it does use an art form—the graphic art form—and that
it does seem to meet the general condition of ﬁlm: it makes its
statement as an image in movement. This opens the entire question
of whether a photograph is of the same order of image as all
others. If not, is there a correspondingly different approach to it
in a creative context? Although the photographic process is the
basic building block of the motion-picture medium, it is a tribute to
its self-effacement as a servant that virtually no consideration has been given to its own character and the creative implications
thereof. The Closed Circuit of the Photographic Process
The term “image” (originally based on "imitation”) means in its first sense the visual likeness of a real Object or person, and in the
very act of specifying resemblance it distinguishes and establishes Cinematogral the entire category of \
or person. In this specii
photograph of a horse
image. 7 But the term "image'
a mental activity, whet
images" of perception :1
action of the imaginat
reality is first ﬁltered in
modiﬁed by prejudicial
it is combined with sin
both forgotten and rem
ceptual image; this in t1
instrument; and what ii
reality in its own right.
or image of a horse; it i
resemble a horse or w
visible relation to any r0 Photography, howevt
its own image by the a
It thus presents a close:
traditional art forms, 1
passes thrOugh the arti:
is responsible both for
process and for the v.
medium cannot be, its(‘
it is but a step to the
press or as an extensior
realization of the potcr
manner that the pho
paintings.” But in so far as the
already accomplished ll
the instrument than w]
to reality in conjunctior
or microscopic lenses a Just as the magniﬁca
a mountainous, craggy
so slow-motion can re‘
changes which either :2:
nature would be chant
Applied to the flight of
hitherto unseen sequer
movements of which it i By a telescopic use 0
achieved by triggering
minute intervals. When
the actual integrity, aln le literary arts had
lly even paused to
us" ﬁlm-maker, who
are and evolve the
" is similarly due to
astic traditions and
ad just as the sound
on the commercial
i, so the "animated
ffilm art in the few
of ﬁlm series and
'ill ﬁnd an audience.
ary range of expres-
act that it is a visual
uriace; with dance,
t; with theater, that
h music, that it can
ad can be attended
a juxtapose images;
i in its sound track to create confusion
vhich is diminished
tialities in favor of
Jtly structured. An [y mastery over the
, instead, have the ; overwhelmed by
.y and economy. 3d itself to a small
on the basis of the
irt form—and that
ﬁlm: it makes its
the entire question
21‘ of image as all
ent approach to it
hie process is the
m, it is a tribute to
I consideration has
aative implications ion”) means in its
person, and in the
res and establishes Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 63 the entire category of visual experience which is not a real object
or person. In this speciﬁcally negative sense—in the sense that the
photograph of a horse is not the horse itself—a photograph is an
image. But the term "image" also has positive implications: it presumes
a mental activity, whether in its most passive form (the “mental
images” of perception and memory) or, as in the arts, the creative
action of the imagination realized by the art instrument. Here
reality is ﬁrst ﬁltered by the selectivity of individual interests‘and
modiﬁed by prejudicial perception to become experience; as such
it is combined with similar, contrasting or modifying experiences,
both forgotten and remembered, to become assimilated into a con-
ceptual image; this in turn is subject to the manipulations of the art
instrument; and what ﬁnally emerges is a plastic image which is a
reality in its own right. A painting is not, fundamentally, a likeness
or image of a horse; it is a likeness of a mental concept which may
resemble a horse or which may, as in abstract painting, bear no
visible relation to any real object. Photography, however, is a process by which an object creates
its own image by the action of its light or light-sensitive material.
It thus presents a closed circuit precisely at the point where, in the
traditional art forms, the creative process takes place as reality
passes thr0ugh the artist. This exclusion of the artist at that point
is responsible both for the absolute ﬁdelity of the photographic
process and for the widespread conviction that a photographic
medium cannot be, itself, a creative form. From these observations
it is but a step to the conclusion that its use as a visual printing
press or as an extension of another creative form represents a full
realization of the potential of the medium. It is precisely in this
manner that the photographic process is used in "animated
paintings.” But in so far as the camera is applied to objects which are
already accomplished images, is this really a more creative use of
the instrument than when, in scientiﬁc ﬁlms, its ﬁdelity is applied
to reality in conjunction with the revelatory functions of telescopic
or microscopic lenses and a comparable use of the motor? Just as the magniﬁcation of a lens trained upon matter shows us
a mountainous, craggy landscape in an apparently smooth surface,
so slow-motion can reveal the actual structure of movements or
changes which either cannot be slowed down in actuality or whose
nature would be changed by a change in tempo of performance.
Applied to the ﬂight of a bird, for example, slow-motion reveals the
hitherto unseen sequence of the many separate strains and small
movements of which it is compounded. By a telescopic use of the motor, I mean the telescoping of time
achieved by triggering a camera to take pictures of a vine at ten-
minute intervals. When projected at regular speed, the ﬁlm reveals
the actual integrity, almost the intelligence, of the movement of the 64 Mayo Deren vine as it grows and turns with the sun. Such telescoped-time
photography has been applied to chemical changes and to physical
metamorphoses whose tempo is so slow as to be virtually imper-
ceptible. Although the motion-picture camera here functions as an instru-
ment of discovery rather than of creativity, it does yield a kind of
image which, unlike the images of “animated paintings" (anima-
tion itself is a use of the telescoped—time principle), is unique to
the motion-picture medium. It may therefore be regarded as an
even more valid basic element in a creative film form based on the
singular properties of the medium. Reality and Recognition The application of the photographic prdcess to reality results in an image which is unique in several respects. For one thing, since
a speciﬁc reality is the prior condition of the existence of a photo-
graph, the photograph not only testifies to the existence of that
reality (just as a drawing testiﬁes to the existence of an artist) but
is, to all intents and purposes, its equivalent. This equivalence is
not at all a matter of ﬁdelity but is of a different order altogether.
If realism is the term for a graphic image which precisely simulates
some real object,_then a photograph must be differentiated from it
as a form of reality itself. This distinction plays an extremely important role in the address
of these respective images. The intent of the plastic arts is to make
meaning manifest. In creating an image for the express purpose of
communicating, the artist primarily undertakes to create the most
effective aspect possible out of the total resources of his medium.
Photography, however, deals in a living reality which is structured
primarily to endure, and whose conﬁgurations are designed to serve
that purpose, not to communicate its meaning; they may even serve
to conceal that purpose as a protective measure. In-a photograph,
then, we begin by recognizing a reality, and our attendant knowl-
edges and attitudes are brought into play; only then does the aspect
become meaningful in reference to it. The abstract shadow shape
in a night scene is not understood at all until revealed and identi-
ﬁed as a person; the bright red shape on a pale ground which
might, in an abstract, graphic context, communicate a sense of
gaiety, conveys something altogether different when recognized as
a wound. As we watch a film, the continuous act of recognition in
which we are involved is like a strip of memory unrolling beneath
the images of the ﬁlm itself, to form the invisible underlayer of an
implicit double exposure. The process by which we understand an abstract, graphic image
is almost directly opposite, then, to that by which we understand
a photograph. In the ﬁrst case, the aspect leads us to meaning; in Clnemalogrc the second case the on:
the key to our evaluati Photographic Authority As a reality, the p
innocent arrogance of
dependent presence, ii
view it with an indil
toward the man-mach
require our perception
summate the communiu
d'étrc. At the same tin
personal detachment t'
the photographic imap
weight only to the out It is upon this autho:
mentary film is based.
effective reality and in
accentuate the per-tint
mentarists operate on
interests of bringing tl'
moral purpose of the fih Obviously, the interc
to the interest inherent
period of particular pr
served to make Fiction
effectiveness and autho
to the "neo~realist" styln
trend toward location fi In the theater, the p a sense of reality whicl raphy, the intermission the other conventions include this physical p ever, replace the ﬂl‘tlﬁt distances, and place; th
posed into transitions \\
turn of dramatic devel within the context of t' vincing in their logic 0 emanates from the res the streets and building- In certain respects, 1
physical presence of ti-
theater, can even cont
example, believe in the to believe that it is p Such telescoped-time
anges and to physical
o be virtually imper- unctions as an instru-
does yield a kind of
d paintings" (anima-
nciple), is unique to
3 be regarded as an
in form based on the s to reality results in
For one thing, since
existence of a photo-
he existence of that
ace of an artist) but
This equivalence is
cut order altogether.
h precisely simulates
differentiated from it Li: role in the address
lastic arts is to make
e express purpose of
s to create the most
recs of his medium.
- which is structured
ire designed to serve
they may even serve
re. In a photograph,
-ur attendant knew]-
then does the aspect
itract shadow shape
revealed and identi-
pale ground which
iunicate a sense of
when recognized as
wt of recognition in
y unrolling beneath
ile underlayer of an :ract, graphic image
nich we understand
5 us to meaning; in Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 65 the second case the understanding which results from recognition is
the key to our evaluation of the aspect. Photographic Authority and the “Controlled Accident” As a reality, the photographic image confronts us with the
innocent arrogance of an objective fact, one which exists as an in-
dependent presence, indifferent to our response. We may in turn
view it with an indifference and detachment we do not have
toward the man-made images of other arts, which invite and
require our perception and demand our response in order to con-
summate the communication they initiate and which is their raisori
(l’étre, At the same time precisely because we are aware that our
personal detachment does not in any way diminish the verity of
the photographic image, it exercises an authority comparable in
weight only to the authority of reality itself. It is upon this autherity that the entire school of the social docu-
mentary ﬁlm is based. Although expert in the selection of the most
effective reality and in the use of camera placement and angle to
accentuate the pertinent and effective features of it, the docu-
mentarists operate on a principle of minimal intervention, in the
interests of bringing the authority of reality to the support of the
moral purpose of the film. _ Obviously, the interest of a documentary ﬁlm corresponds closely
to the interest inherent in its subject matter. Such ﬁlms enjoyed a
period of particular pro-eminence during the war. This popularity
served to make ﬁction-ﬁlm producers more keenly aware of the
effectiveness and authority of reality, an awareness which gave rise
to the "nee-realist" style of film and contributed to the still growing
trend toward location filming. In the theater, the physical presence of the performers provides
a sense of reality which induces us to accept the symbols of geog-
raphy, the intermissions which represent the passage of time, and
the other conventions which are part of the form. Films cannot
include this physical presence of the performers. They can, how-
ever, replace the artiﬁce of theater by the actuality of landscape,
distances, and place; the interruptions of intermissions can be trans-
posed into transitions which sustain and even intensify the momen-
tum of dramatic development; while events and episodes which,
within the context of theatrical artiﬁce, might not have been con-
vincing in their logic or aspect can be clothed in the verity which
emanates from the reality of the surrounding landscape, the sun,
the streets and buildings. In certain respects, the very absence in motion pictures of the
physical presence of the performer, which is so important to the
theater, can even contribute to our sense of reality. We can, for
example, believe in the existence of a monster if we are not asked
to believe that it is present in the room with us. The intimacy 66 A Maya Deren imposed upon us by the physical reality of other art Works presents
us with alternative choices: either to identify with or to deny the
experience they propose, or to withdraw altogether to a detached
awareness of that reality as merely a metaphor. But the ﬁlm
image—whose intangible reality consists of lights and shadows
beamed through the air and caught on the surface of a silver
screen—comes to us as the reﬂection of another world. At that dis-
tance we can accept the reality of the most monumental and ex-
treme of images, and from that perspective we can perceive and
comprehend them in their full dimension. ' The authority of reality is available even to the most artificial
constructs if photography is understood as an art of the “controlled
accident." By “controlled accident” I mean the maintenance of a
delicate balance between what is there spontaneously and naturally
as evidence of the independent life of actuality, and the persons
and activities which are deliberately introduced into the scene. A
painter, relying primarily upon aspect as the means of communi-
cating his intent, would take enormous care in the arrangement of
every detail of, for example, a beach scene. The cinematographer,
on the other hand, having selected a beach which, in general, has
the desired aspect—whether grim or happy, deserted or crowded——
must on the contrary refrain from overcontrolling the aspect if he
is to retain the authority of reality. The ﬁlming of such a scene
should be planned and framed so as to create a contest of limits
within which anything that occurs is compatible with the intent of
the scene. The invented event which is then introduced, though itself an
artifice, borrows reality from the reality of the scene—from the
natural blowing of the hair, the irregularity of the waves, the very
texture of the stones and sand—in short, from all the uncontrolled,
spontaneous elements which are the property of actuality itself.
Only in photography—by the delicate manipulation which I call
controlled accident—can natural phenomena be incorporated into
our own creativity, to yield an image where the reality of a tree
confers its truth upon the events we cause to transpire beneath it. Abstractions and Archetypes Inasmuch as the other art forms are not constituted of reality
itself, they create metaphors for reality. But photography, being
itself the reality or the equivalent thereof, can use its own reality
as a metaphor for ideas and abstractions. ln painting, the image is
an abstraction of the aspect; in photography, the abstraction of an
idea produces the archetypal image. This concept is not new to motion pictures, but its development
was interrupted by the intrusions of theatrical traditions into the
film medium. The early history of ﬁlm is studded with archetypal
figures: Theda Bara, Mary Pickford, Marlene Dietrich, Greta Cinematogro Garbo, Charles Chapli
personages, not as peop
structured around then
brated cosmic truths.
The invasion of the
wrights and actors into
the root of theatrical in-
photography, is an absr
deprive the motion-pict
signiﬁcant that, despite
tors and ﬁlm critics wh
adopting the methods, {
respected art of theater
stars and the most cre
continue to operate in t
possible, as Marlon Bra;
to become an archetypa
intuition has been subse
repertory complex, anot
tioned as the means h
remunerative variety of
sistent employment for i
soever for insisting on
volved in the totally tliii Photography’s Unique In In all that I have said
the photographic image
Actually, however, the s:
—-an initial identificatit
aspect according to tha
aspectual terms)——becor.
aspect in a manner uniq I have previously refe
but it has its expressive 1
ing upon the subject and
ideal ease or nagging h
meditation on a moveme
to an action; or it can l
anguished helplessness,
mares of childhood, whei
which pursues us comes e Yet, slow-motion is no
something which exists i
be created only in conju
photographic image. Wh
ning and identify the acti her art works presents
r with or to deny the
agether to a detached
taphor. But the film
lights and shadows
2 surface of a silver
or World. At that dis-
monumental and ex-
we can perceive and to the most artiﬁcial
art of the "controlled
ie maintenance of a
measly and naturally
ity, and the persons
2d into the scene. A
means of communi-
the arrangement of
he cinematographer,
iich, in general, has
serted or crowded—
ing the aspect if he
ng of such a scene a context of limits
e with the intent of d, though itself an
no scene—-fi'om the
:hc waves, the very
II the uncontrolled,
of actuality itself.
lation which I call
: incorporated into
IO reality of a tree
anspirc beneath it. Istituted of reality
hotography, being
ise its own reality
Iting, the image is
- abstraction of an it its development
.raditions into the
d with archetypal Dietrich, Greta Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 67 Garbo, Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton, etc. These appeared as
personages, not as people or personalities, and the films which were
structured around them were like monumental myths which cele-
brated cosmic truths. The invasion of the motion-picture medium. by modern play-
wrights and actors introduced the concept of realism, which is at
the root of theatrical metaphor and which, in the a priori reality of
photography, is an absurd redundancy which has served merely to
deprive the motion-picture medium of its creative dimension. It is
signiﬁcant that, despite every effort of pretenti0us producers, direc-
tors and ﬁlm critics who seek to raise their professional status by
adopting the methods, attitudes, and criteria of the established and
respected art of theater, the major ﬁgures—both the most popular
stars and the most creative directors (such as Orson Welles)—
continue to operate in the earlier archetypal traditioa. It was even
possible, as Marlon Brando demonstrated, to transcend realism and
to become an archetypal realist, but it would appear that his early
intuition has been subsequently crushed under the pressures of the
repertory complex, another carry-over from theater, where it func-
tioned as the means by which a single company could offer a
remunerative variety of plays to an audience while providing con-
sistent employment for its members. There is no justiﬁcation what-
soever for‘ insisting on a repertory variety of roles for actors in-
volved in the totally different circumstances of motion pictures. Photography’s Unique Images In all that I have said so far, the ﬁdelity, reality, and authority of
the photographic image serve primarily to modify and to support.
Actually, however, the sequence in which we perceive photography
-—an initial identiﬁcation followed by an interpretation of the
aspect according to that identiﬁcation (rather than in primarily
aspectual terms)——becomes irreversible and confers meaning upon
aspect in a manner unique to the photographic medium. I have previously referred to slow-motion as a time microscope,
but it has its expressive uses as well as its revelatory ones. Depend-
ing upon the subject and the context, it can be a statement of either
ideal case or nagging frustration, a kind of intimate and loving
meditation on a movement or a solemnity which adds ritual weight
to an action; or it can bring into reality that dramatic image of
anguished helplessness, otherwise experienced only in the night-
mares of childhood, when our legs refused to move while the terror
which pursues us comes ever closer. Yet, slow-motion is not simply slowness of speed. It is, in fact,
something which exists in our minds, not on the screen, and can
be created only in conjunction with the identiﬁable reality of the
photographic image. When We see a man in the attitudes of run—
ning and identify the activity as a run, one of the knOwIedges which ‘53 Mayo Deren is part of that identiﬁcation is the pulse normal to that activity. It
is because we are aware of the known pulse of the identiﬁed action
while we watch it occur at a slower rate of speed:that we experi-
ence the double-exposure of time which we know as slow-motion.
It cannot occur in an abstract ﬁlm, where a triangle, for instance,
may go fast or slow, but, having no necessary pulse, cannot go in
slow-motion. Another unique image which the camera can yield is reverse
motion. When used meaningfully, it does not convey so much a
sense of a backward movement spatially, but rather an undoing of
time. One of the most memorable uses of this occurs in Cocteau’s
Blood of a Poet, where the peasant is executed by a volley of ﬁre
which also shatters the cruciﬁx hanging on the wall behind him.
This scene is followed by a reverse motion of the action—the dead
peasant rising from the ground and the cruciﬁx reassembling on the
wall; then again the volley of ﬁre, the peasant falling, the cruciﬁx
shattering; and again the ﬁlmic resurrection. Reverse motion also,
for obvious reasons, does not exist in abstract ﬁlms. The photographic negative image is still another striking case in
point. This is not a direct \vhite-on-black statement but is under-
stood as an inversion of values. When applied to a recognizable
person or scene, it conveys a sense of a critically qualitative change,
as in its use for the landscape on the other side of death in
Cocteau’s Orpheus. Both such extreme. images and the more familiar kind which
I referred to earlier make use of the motion-picture medium as a
form in which the meaning of the image originates in our recog-
nition of a kn0wn reality and derives its authority from the direct
relationship between reality and image in the photographic process.
While the process permits some intrusion by the artist as a modiﬁer
of that image, the limits of its tolerance can be deﬁned as that point
at which the original reality becomes unrecognizable or is irrelevant
(as when a red reﬂection in a pond is used for its shape and color
only and without contextual concern for the water or the pond). In such cases the camera itself has been conceived of as the
artist, with distorting lenses, multiple superpositions, etc., used to
simulate the creative action of the eye, the memory, etc. Such well-
intentioned efforts to use the medium creatively, by forcibly insert-
ing the creative act in the position it traditionally occupies in the
visual arts, accomplish, instead, the destruction of the photographic
image as reality. This image, with its unique ability to engage us
simultaneously on several levels—by the objective authority of
reality, by the knowledges and values which we attach to' that
reality, by the direct address of its aspect, and by a manipulated
relationship between these—is the building block for the creative
use of the medium. Cinematogra The Placement of the t Where dees the ﬁln
action if, in the interest
he restricts himself to
graphic stage and ac:
photographic process as Once we abandon ti
and consummation of t
visual arts and the the:
medium and can see 1
consists of two parts,
images with which the
permanent, incorruptib
way dependent upon t
assembled to compose
can and should be on]
creative action. All invention and cre
between known parts. '
I pointed out earlier, at
not to communicate a s
attributes simultaneous
and high. Seeing it as
appraise its age, an a
height. But in a ﬁlm sun
the table falls apart, at
constitute its meaning :
attributes becoming ir:
sequential relationship
the images according 1
form which transﬁgure
minishing their reality
of potential functions
reality. Whether the images
ing qualities, in the can
the logic of ideas and e
ture of a ﬁlm is sequer.
place in its time dimen
though composed of sp A major portion of ii
of time and space. By
ﬁlmic techniques as ﬁas
etc. These affect not tl
it. In a ﬂashback there :
integrity of the action ml to that activity. It
>f the identiﬁed action
speed that we experi-
know as slow-motion.
triangle, for instance,
'y pulse, cannot go in can yield is reverse
0t convey so much a
rather an undoing of
is occurs in Cocteau's
ed by a volley of ﬁre
the wall behind him.
the action—the dead
it reassembling on the
at failing, the cruciﬁx
Reverse motion also,
: ﬁlms.
iother striking case in
.tement but is under-
ed to a recognizable
ly qualitative change,
191' side of death in familiar kind which
picture medium as a
ginates in our reeog~
iority from the direct
photographic process.
he artist as a modiﬁer
deﬁned as that point
izablc or is irrelevant
if its shape and color
ater or the pond). conceived of as the
)sitions, ctc., used to
mory, etc. Such well-
ly, by forcibly insert-
nally occupies in 'the
l of the photographic
ability to engage us
ijective authority of
1 we attach to that
id by a manipulated
lock for the creative Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 69
The Piccerrieml of the Creative Act and Time-Space Manipulations Where does the ﬁlm-maker then undertake his major creative
action if, in the interests of preserving these qualities of the image,
he restricts himself to the control of accident in the pre-photo-
graphic stage and accepts almost complete exclusion from the
photographic process as well? Once we abandon the concept of the image as the end product
and consummation of the creative process (which it is in both the
visual arts and the theater), we can take a larger view of the total
medium and can see that the motion-picture instrument actually
consists of two parts, which ﬂank the artist on either side. The
images witl'l‘ which the camera prevides him are like fragments of a
permanent, incorruptible memory; their individual reality is in no
way dependent upon their sequence in actuality, and they can be
assembled to compose any of several statements. In ﬁlm, the image
can and should be only the beginning, the basic material of the
creative action. All invention and creation consist primarily of a new relationship
between known parts. The images of ﬁlm deal in realities which, as
l pointed out earlier, are structured to fulﬁll their various functions,
not to communicate a speciﬁc meaning. Therefore they have several
attributes simultaneously, as when a table may be, at once, old, red,
and high. Seeing it as a separate entity, an antique dealer would
appraise its age, an artist its color, and a child its inaccessible
height. But in a ﬁlm such a shot might be followed by one in which
the table falls apart, and thus a particular aspect of its age would
constitute its meaning and function in the sequence, with all other
attributes becoming irrelevant. The editing of a ﬁlm creates the
sequential relationship which gives particular or new meaning to
the images according to their function; it establishes a context, a
form which trausﬁgures them without distorting their aspect, di-
minishing their reality and authority, or impoverishing that variety
of potential functions which is the characteristic dimension of
reality. Whether the images are related in terms of common or contrast-
ing qualities, in the causal logic of events which is narrative, or in
the logic of ideas and emotions which is the poetic mode, the struc-
ture of a ﬁlm is sequential. The creative action in ﬁlm, then, takes
place in its time dimension; and for this reason the motion picture,
though composed of spatial images, is primarily a time form. A major portion of the creative action consists of a manipulation
of time and-space. By this I do not mean only such established
ﬁlmic techniques as ﬂashback, condensation of time, parallel action
etc. These aﬁect not the action itself but the method of revealing
it. In a ﬂashback there is no implication that the usual chronological
integrity of the action itself is in any way aﬁeeted by the process, 70 Mayo Deren however disrupted, of memory. Parallel action, as when we see
alternately the hero who rushes to the rescue and the heroine whose
situation becomes increasingly critical, is an omnipresence on the
part of the camera as a witness of action, not as a creator of it. The kind of manipulation of time and space to which I refer be-
comes itself part of the organic structure of a ﬁlm. There is, for
example, the extension of space by time and of time by space. The
length of a stairway can be enormously extended if three different
shots of the person ascending it (ﬁlmed from different angles so
that it is not apparent that the identical area is being covered each
time) are so edited together that the action is continuous and re»
sults in an image of enduring labor toward some elevated goal. A
leap in the air can be extended by the same technique, but in this
case, since the Film action is sustained far beyond the normal dura-
tion of the real action itself, the effect is one of tens-ion as we wait
for the ﬁgure to return, ﬁnally, to earth. Time may be extended by the reprinting of a single frame, which
has the effect of freezing the ﬁgure in mid-action; here the frozen
frame becomes a moment of suspended animation which, accord-
ing to its contextual position, may convey either the sense of criti-
cal hesitation (as in the turning back of Lot’s wife) or may consti-
tute a comment on stillness and movement as the opposition of
life and death. The reprinting of scenes of a casual situation in-
volving several persons may be used either in a prophetic context,
as a de’jri-uu; or, again, precise reiteration, by inter-cutting reprints,
of those spontaneous movements, expressions, and exchanges, can
change the quality of the scene from one of informality to that of
a stylization akin to dance; in so doing it confers dance upon non-
dancers, by shifting emphasis from the purpose of the movement
to the movement itself, and an informal social encounter then as-
sumes the solemnity and dimension of ritual. Similarly, it is possible to confer the movement of the camera
upon the Figures in the scene, for the large movement of a ﬁgure
in a ﬁlm is conveyed by the changing relationship between that
ﬁgure and the frame of the screen. If, as I have done in my recent
ﬁlm The Very Eye of Night, one eliminates the horizon line and
any background which would reveal the movement of the total
ﬁeld, then the eye accepts the frame as stable and ascribes all
movement to the ﬁgure within it. The hand-held camera, moving
and revolving Over the white ﬁgures on a totally black ground,
produces images in which their movement is as gravity-free and as
three-dimensional as that of birds in air or fish in water. In the
absence of any absolute orientation, the push and pull of their in-
terrelationships becomes the major dialogue. By manipulation of time and space, I mean also the creation of
a relationship between separate times, places, and persons. A swing-
pan—whereby a shot of one person is terminated by a rapid swing
away and a shot of another person or place begins with a rapid Cinematogr swing of the camera,
the blurred area of t
people, places, and z
separated. One can Eli
in different places pe'
movement, and, by :1
nor as to preserve the
becomes the dominan'
Separate and distan
made continuous by r
when a person begins
mediately followed by
to complete the gestu;
a dancer step from we
larly to transport him
itself became his stagi
by which the (lynamit
onist, instead of nude:
ture, finds instead that
action which was once
her with a volatile an:
sonal identity is the sol
These are but sever.
space relationships \vl
manipulation of the sc
tive action available t
it is a photographic in
tension, of scparatcnes
to the fullest degree
image: its ﬁdelity (wh
serves as a transCenda
and places), its rcalit
vates our l-mowledgcs .-
of location and dislo
(which transcends the
and endows it with me The Twentieth—Cantu: I initiated this discn
what creative ﬁlm fon-
eventually at a determ
only valid point of d6[
the keepers of catalog
ians, who, in their effn
performing or the plas
tean operation. A radio is not a louc n, as when we see
d the heroine whose
-mnipresence on the
as a creator of it.
to which I refer be-
t. ﬁlm. There is, for
time by space. The
ed if three different
different angles so
being covered each
continuous and re-
ne elevated goal. A
chnique, but in this
ad the normal dura-
’ tension as we wait single frame, which
Ion; here the frozen
tion which, accord-
sr the sense of criti-
vife) or may consti-
s the opposition of
casual situation in-
). prophetic context,
iter-cutting reprints,
and exchanges, can
formality to that of
rs dance upon non-
e of the movement
encounter then as- ient of the camera
wement of a ﬁgure
aship between that
i done in my recent
1e horizon line and
ement of the total
le and ascribes all
:ld camera, moving
tally black ground,
gravity-free and as
h in water. In the
ad pull of their in- 1150 the creation of
d persons. A swing-
d by a rapid swing
egins with a rapid Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 7l swing of the camera, the two shots being subsequently joined in
the blurred area of both swings—brings into dramatic proximity
people, places, and actions which in actuality might be "widely
separated. One can ﬁlm different people at different times and even
in different places performing approximately the same gesture or
movement, and, by a judicious joining of the shots in such a man-
ner as to preserve the continuity of the movement, the action itself
becomes the dominant dynamic which uniﬁes all separateness. Separate and distant places not only can be related but can be
made continuous by a continuity of identity and of movement, as
when a person begins a gesture in one setting, this shot being im-
mediately followed by the hand entering another setting altogether
to Complete the gesture there. I have used this technique to make
a dancer step from woods to apartment in a single stride, and simi-
larly to transport him from location to location so that the world
itself became his stage. In my At Land, it has been the technique
by which the dynamic of the Odyssey is reversed and the protag-
Onist, instead of undertaking the long voyage of search for adven-
ture, ﬁnds instead that‘thc universe itself has usurped the dynamic
action which was once the prerogative of human will, and confrOnts
her with a volatile and relentless metamorphosis in which her per-
sonal identity is the sole constancy. These are but several indications of the variety of creative time-
space relationships which can be accomplished by a meaningful
manipulation of the sequence of ﬁlm images. It is an order of crea-
tive action available only to the motion-picture medium because
it is a photographic medium. The ideas of condensation and of ex-
tension, of separatcness and of continuity, in which it deals, exploit
to the fullest degree the various attributes of the photographic
image: its ﬁdelity (which establishes the identity of the person who
serves as a transcendant unifying force between all separate times
and places), its‘rcality (the basis of the recognition which acti-
vates our knowledges and values and without which the geography
of location and dislocation could not exist), and its authority
(which transcends the impersonality and intangibility of the image
and endows it with independent and objective consequence). The Twentieth-Century Art Form I initiated this discussion by referring to the effort to determine
what creatiVe film form is not, as a means by which we can arrive
eventually at a determination of what it is. I recommend this as the
only valid point of departure for all custodians of classiﬁcations, to
the keepers of catalogues, and in particular to the harassed librar-
ians, who, in their effort to force ﬁlm into one or another of the
performing or the plastic arts, are engaged in an endless Procrus-
tean operation. A radio is not a louder voice, an airplane is not a faster car, and 72 Mayo Deren the motion picture (an invention of the same period of history)
should not be thought of as a faster painting or a more real play. All of these forms are qualitatively different from those which
preceded them. They must not be understood as unrelated develop-
ments, bound merely by coincidence, but as diverse aspects of a
new way of thought and a new way of life—one in which an ap-
preciation of time, movement, energy, and dynamics is more imme—
diately meaningful than the familiar concept of matter as a static
solid anchored to a stable cosmos. It is a change reflected in every
field of human endeavor, for example, architecture, in which the
notion of mass-upon-mass structure has given way to the lean
strength of steel and the dynamics of cantilever balances. It is almost as if the new age, fearful that whatever was there
already would not be adequate, had undertaken to arrive com-
pletely equipped, even to the motion-picture medium, which, struc-
turecl expressly to deal in movement and time-space relationships,
would be the most propitious and appropriate art form for express-
ing, in terms of its own paradoxically intangible reality, the moral
and metaphysical concepts of the citizen of this new age. This is not to say that cinema should or could replace the other
art forms, any more than flight is a substitute for the pleasures of
walking or for the leisurely panorama of landscapes seen from a
car or train window. Only when new things serve the same purpose
better do they replace old things. Art, however, deals in ideas;
time does not deny them, but may merely make them irrelevant.
The truths of the Egyptians are no less true for failing to answer
questions which they never raised. Culture is cumulative, and to
it each age should make its proper contribution. How can we justify the fact that it is the art instrument, among
all that fraternity of twentieth-century inventions, which is still the
least explored and exploited; and that it is the artist—of whom,
traditionally, the culture expects the most prophetic and visionary
statements—who is the most laggard in recognizing that the formal
and philosophical concepts of his age are implicit in the actual
structure of his instrument and the techniques of his medium? If cinema is to take its place beside the others as a full-fledged
art form, it must cease merely to record realities that OWe nothing
of their actual existence to the film instrument. Instead, it must
create a total experience so much out of the very nature of the in-
strument as to be inseparable from its means. It must relinquish the
narrative disciplines it has borrowed from literature and its timid
imitation of the causal logic of narrative plots, a form which ii0w-
ered as a celebration of the earth-bound, step-by-step concept of
time, space and relationship which was part of the primitive ma-
terialism of the nineteenth century. Instead, it must develop the
vocabulary of filmic images and evolve the syntax of ﬁlmic tech-
niques which relate those. It must determine the disciplines inher- Cinematogrop ent in the medium, discr
new realms and dimensr
ture artistically as scienc (Reprinted by permissio
Academy of Arts and
1960, The Visual Arts To Ie period of history)
or a more real play.
at from those which
as unrelated develop-
diverse aspects of a
one in which an ap—
larnics is more imme-
of matter as a static
ge reﬂected in every
ecture, in which the
an way to the lean
er balances.
whatever was there
aken to arrive com-
:edium, which, struc-
a-space relationships,
art form for express-
:le reality, the moral
s new age.
lld replace the other
for the pleasures of
lscapes seen from a
ve the same purpose
ever, deals in ideas;
ake them irrelevant.
'or failing to answer
cumulative, and to
n.
t instrument, among
us, which is still the
he artist—of whom,
sham and visionary
zing that the formal
:plicit in the actual
of his medium?
ers as a full-ﬂedged
as that owe nothing
at. Instead, it must
:ry nature of the in-
must relinquish the
:ature and its timid
a form which flow--
-by-step concept of
f the primitive ma-
: must develop the
ntax of ﬁlmic tech-
ie disciplines inher- Cinematography: The Creative Use of Reality 73 ent in the medium, discover its own structural modes, explore the
new realms and dimensions accessible to it and so ennch our cul-
ture artistically as science has done in its own province. (Reprinted by permission of Daedalus, the journal of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Massachusetts. Winter 1960, The Visual Arts Today.) ...
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