bhāvanā: mental development

Perhaps the closest we can get to a definition of the word, or at least what the concept entails, is a depiction of what the expression ‘the effort of/for development’ (bhāvanā·ppadhāna) practically means, as given in the Padhāna Sutta:

The development of bojjhaṅgas is also cited in a description of how āsavas are abandoned by developing (āsavā bhāvanā pahātabbā), at MN 2. Another definition of bhāvanā·bala (the power of development) is given in the following sutta:

AN 2.13

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu… paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati… dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ… tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ… catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ.And what, bhikkhus, is the power of development? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu… enters and dwells in the first jhana… the second jhana… the third jhana… the fourth jhana. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of development.

We also find in the suttas lists of what appears to be synonyms for bhāvanā. The related verb bhāveti is very often juxtaposed with bahulī·karoti(lit: ‘to make much of’, i.e. to practice frequently, repeatedly, seriously). AN 5.57 and MN 95 also juxtapose respectively āsevati(to frequent, visit; to practise, pursue, indulge, enjoy) and the related substantive āsevanā. At AN 9.35, the verb svādhiṭṭhitaṃ adhiṭṭhāti(to undertake in a well undertaken way; ven. Thanissaro: ‘establishes himself firmly in it’; ven. Bodhi: ‘focuses on it well’) is also juxtaposed to bhāveti and the above two verbs. Some suttas (e.g. AN 8.1) also sometimes juxtapose the past participles yānī·kata(lit: ‘made a vehicle’), vatthu·kata(lit: ‘made the ground/basis’), anuṭṭhita(lit: ‘stood along’, i.e. ‘carried out’), paricita(gathered, accumulated, increased; or scrutinized, acquainted with, constantly practised; ven. Bodhi translates consolidated), su·samāraddha (well undertaken).

The traditional treatment of the term sometimes consists in analyzing it in two categories: samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā. Although these exact compound words never actually occur in the suttas, we do find the following statement in a number of them:

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā.And what mental states are to be developed by direct knowledge? Tranquility and Insight. These, bhikkhus, are the mental states that are to be developed by direct knowledge.

The practice of samatha and vipassana also appears as a duty for a monk in the Piṇḍapātapārisuddhi Sutta:

It is also explained at AN 2.31 that samatha leads to the bhavana of citta, which in turns leads to abandoning rāga, while vipassana leads to the bhavana of paññā, which in turns leads to abandoning avijjā. SN 43.2 explains that they lead to the destruction of the three akusala·mūlas, and MN 73 shows in detail that they lead to the six abhiññā and arahatta. In AN 4.170, ven. Ananda explains that everyone who declares to him having become an arahant has achieved so by practicing both samatha and vipassana in one of four ways.

However, as the Upaka Sutta makes it clear, what is said ‘to be developed’ (bhāvetabba) is not at all restricted to samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā, but includes at large whatever is kusala:

AN 4.188

itipidaṃ kusalaṃ bhāvetabbaThat which is wholesome should be developed

That being said, when only one category of phenomena is mentioned as to be developed, it is often the 7 bojjhaṅgas, as we have seen above at AN 2.12 and MN 2, or sometimes kāyagatāsati:

“Yassa kassaci, bhikkhave, mahāsamuddo cetasā phuṭo antogadhā tassa kunnadiyo yā kāci samuddaṅgamā; evamevaṃ, bhikkhave, yassa kassaci kāyagatā sati bhāvitā bahulīkatā antogadhā tassa kusalā dhammā ye keci vijjābhāgiyā”ti.“Mendicants, anyone who brings into their mind the great ocean includes all of the streams that run into it. In the same way, anyone who has developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body includes all of the skillful qualities that play a part in realization.”

Some suttas mention development in body and in mind. Some suttas, such as the Loṇakapalla Sutta, even add development in virtue (sīla) and wisdom (paññā):

Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī.There is the case where a certain individual is developed in [contemplating] the body, developed in virtue, developed in mind, developed in discernment: unrestricted, large-hearted, dwelling with the immeasurable.

The Mahā Saccaka Sutta provides explanations as to what development in body and mind may mean:

“kathañca, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti bhāvitacitto ca? idha, aggivessana, sutavato ariyasāvakassa uppajjati sukhā vedanā. so sukhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na sukhasārāgī ca hoti, na sukhasārāgitañca āpajjati. tassa sā sukhā vedanā nirujjhati. sukhāya vedanāya nirodhā uppajjati dukkhā vedanā. so dukkhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na socati na kilamati na paridevati na urattāḷiṃ kandati na sammohaṃ āpajjati. tassa kho esā, aggivessana, uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. yassa kassaci, aggivessana, evaṃ ubhatopakkhaṃ uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. evaṃ kho, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti bhāvitacitto cā”ti.“And how, Aggivessana, is one developed in body and developed in mind? Here, Aggivessana, pleasant feeling arises in a well-taught noble disciple. Touched by that pleasant feeling, he does not lust after pleasure or continue to lust after pleasure. That pleasant feeling of his ceases. With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises. Touched by that painful feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve, and lament, he does not weep beating his breast and become distraught. When that pleasant feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain because body is developed. And when that painful feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain because mind is developed. Anyone in whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant feeling does not invade his mind and remain because body is developed, and arisen painful feeling does not invade his mind and remain because mind is developed, is thus developed in body and developed in mind.”

A number of suttas outline what are the consequences of the development of the mind or lack thereof. The Anāgatabhaya Sutta explains how lack of development brings about the corruption and disappearance of the Dhamma:

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment. They—being undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment—will take on others as students and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will take on still others as students and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—when giving a talk on higher Dhamma or a talk composed of questions and answers, will fall into dark mental states without being aware of it. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will not listen when discourses that are words of the Tathagata—deep, profound, transcendent, connected with the Void—are being recited. They will not lend ear, will not set their hearts on knowing them, will not regard these teachings as worth grasping or mastering. But they will listen when discourses that are literary works—the works of poets, elegant in sound, elegant in rhetoric, the work of outsiders, words of disciples—are recited. They will lend ear and set their hearts on knowing them. They will regard these teachings as worth grasping and mastering. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will become elders living in luxury, lethargic, foremost in falling back, shirking the duties of solitude. They will not make an effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. They will become an example for later generations, who will become luxurious in their living, lethargic, foremost in falling back, shirking the duties of solitude, and who will not make an effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma.

The Loṇakapalla Sutta explains what difference development makes for the future results of actions:

“kathaṃrūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ pāpakammaṃ kataṃ diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nā’ṇupi khāyati, kiṃ bahudeva? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī. evarūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ pāpakammaṃ kataṃ diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nāṇupi khāyati, kiṃ bahudeva.What kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but experiences it in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to speak of a lot? A person who has developed their physical endurance, ethics, mind, and wisdom. They’re not small-minded, but are big-hearted, living without limits. That kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but experiences it in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to speak of a lot.

The Bhāvanā Sutta compares the results of lack of development to the case where a hen does not take care of her eggs, and development to the case where a hen does.

“bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.“Mendicants, when a mendicant is not committed to development, they might wish: ‘If only my mind were freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is not freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā. tānassu kukkuṭiyā na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho abhabbāva te kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassaSuppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. But she had not properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if that chicken might wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the eggshell with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ Still they can’t break out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she has not properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a mendicant is not committed to development, they might wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is not freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.When a mendicant is committed to development, they might not wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā. tānassu kukkuṭiyā sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho bhabbāva te kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.Suppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. And she properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if that chicken doesn’t wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the eggshell with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ But still they can break out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a mendicant is committed to development, they might not wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

The Akammaniya Vagga explains that an undeveloped mind is unwieldy, harmful, brings suffering, whereas a developed one is workable, beneficial, and brings happiness.

Between AN 1.394 and AN 1.574, it is said about a bhikkhu who develops any of the 181 practices mentioned that he ‘is called a mendicant who does not lack absorption, who follows the Teacher’s instructions, who responds to advice, and who does not eat the country’s alms in vain.’ (arittajjhāno viharati, satthusāsanakaro ovādapatikaro, amoghaṃ raṭṭhapiṇḍaṃ bhuñjati’).