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1 Health Expenditure and Health Status in Northern and Southern Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis Using NHA Framework 1 By Olanrewaju Olaniyan And Akanni O. Lawanson Department of Economics, University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria Abstract This paper uses the National Health Accounts (NHA) framework to investigate the differences in the Northern and Southern regions patterns of health financial flows, and the implication for health outcomes in the region. The study is based on the federal structure of governance in the country which has shaped both health financing and delivery in Nigeria with all the three tiers of government involved in health care delivery organisation, management and financing. The paper found that health care financing in both the North and South of Nigeria is heavily dependent on household and the proportional share by the household is disproportionately against the North because of the higher poverty incidence in the north. With lower health financial flows in the North, the health outcomes in this region remain relatively significantly poor. This raises equity concerns as those who are least able to pay are made to bear the greater burden. The current overburden of the household requires exploration of alternative financing mechanisms by the government. Public facilities are the main users of the health funds in the country accounting for an average of more than 60% of all funds spent in the health sector. The dominance of the public providers is more prominent in the North, where more than 71% of health services are spent in public facilities, while both the public and private facilities in the South receive approximately equal share of the health spending in the region. Policy implications of our findings means that the fragile health insurance scheme in the country should be strengthened through broadening of its coverage to both formal and informal sectors of the economy. In addition, government should bring health issue to the fore by increasing resource allocation to health. JEL Classification: Keywords: Health expenditure, Health status, National Health Accounts Paper presented at the 2010 CSAE conference held at St Catherine College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK March, We acknowledge financial support of the Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja for the estimation of the National Health Accounts of Nigeria from which this paper is extracted. 1

2 Health Expenditure and Health Status in Northern and Southern Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis Using National Health Accounts (NHA) Framework 1. INTRODUCTION At independence in 1960, Nigeria comprises three regions of the North, South East and South West. However, the country can broadly be divided into North and South, being the original structure of the nation before the amalgamation of Despite the amalgamation and more than 48 years of political independence of the country, political ideology and economic characteristics are still patterned along the North-South divide. In the succeeding years the country has witnessed a division into smaller units of states, currently operates a federal structure with three tiers of government viz. federal, states and local governments. The nation now comprises of 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), as well as 774 Local Government Areas (LGAs). The federal structure has shaped health delivery in Nigeria as all the three tiers of government are involved in health care delivery organisation, management and financing. Although not formalised by any law, the prevailing situation is such that most of the tertiary heath care is provided by the federal government, secondary health care by State governments while LGAs shoulder the major responsibility at the primary level, providing PHC services with support from the State Ministries of Health. PHC in Nigeria is supposed to be available and accessible to all Nigerians in their communities. It covers health centres and clinics, dispensaries, and health posts, providing general preventive, curative, promotive, rehabilitative and pre-referral care to the population as the entry point to the health care system. Since most of the health care provision is at the primary and secondary health care levels, the differential roles of state and local government areas becomes a major factor in determining health status in the different states of the federation (World Bank, 2005). Although there is a National Council on Health that determines health policy in the country, the performance of health sector rest mainly on the different states. Health policy in Nigeria has emphasised the need to increase resources, strengthen research, and place greater emphasis on primary health care. Reforms have featured fiscal decentralization to provide more money to state and local governments and increase public expenditure. The effort of the Nigeria s health care system to widen health services of satisfactory quality to the vast majority of the citizens is increasingly facing various threats. These include lack of access to quality health care by the poor, severe budgetary constraints, uneven distribution of resources among the urban and rural areas, as well as across the geographical regions of the country, inequitable financial system resulting in increasing dependency of out-of-pocket spending. The country s disease burden is dominated by preventable diseases which has aggravated high poverty level. FMOH (2006) revealed that about 72% of deaths in Nigeria are due to communicable diseases. Infant mortality rate in 2008 was 75 deaths per 1,000 live births while the overall under-five mortality rate for the same period is 157 deaths per 1,000 live births (NDHS, 2008). Although, the Nigeria s overall health system performance is reported to be ranked 187 th among the 2

3 191 member States in 2000, the 2006 MDG report of the country indicates that the country is still struggling to meet the MDG health goals (NPC, 2006). Many studies have argued that inadequate resources is one of the main reasons for the low health status of Nigerians and this could also explain the regional variations in health status. The general poor health performance in Nigeria has often been associated with inadequate resource allocation and expenditure patterns across the different tiers of government. It is therefore not surprising that the health outcomes in the country vary across the geopolitical zones of the country. For instance, while total fertility rate for the country is 5.7 in 2008, it is 6.5 and 4.3 in the North and Southern parts of the country respectively. Infant, child and under-five mortalities also show significant disparities. While child and under-five mortalities are respectively as high as 133.3, and 231 per 100,000 births in the North, they are 50, and respectively in the South. The same disparities exist in child nutritional indicators. According to 2007 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), 8.3 percent of children were underweight while 19.4 percent were stunted. Analysis by location however reveals that the poor status is more location specific. For example, only 3.7 percent of children in the South were underweight compared to 12.2 percent in the North. In the same vein, while 12.3 per cent of Children in the South were stunted, 29.3 per cent of children in the North were stunted. There are thus policy challenges in the country of how to make development more equitable while improving the different health status in the country. There are indications that the differential development in the two locations might not be unconnected to the poverty status in the two areas. According to analysis, poverty is more widespread in the North than the South. One issue that arises from the foregoing is whether this disparities are related to the structure and flows health funds and financing in the two locations. This study therefore proposes to investigate the magnitude and flows of health resources in Nigerian as well as where the resources eventually go, and the associated influence on the health status outcomes. We have utilised the National Health Accounts (NHA) framework to investigate this. This is because the framework provides an ingenious ways of identifying and estimating resource flows in the health sector (Sein, 2002). It provides consistent framework for modelling reforms, and for monitoring the effects of changes in health financing and service provision. In many past studies NHA have been estimated for the whole country but it is possible to identify the satellite accounts of different states from the national NHA. Nigeria has recently completed the second round of NHA estimation for the period This paper thus re-analyses the information therein to examine the regional variations in health expenditure in the country. This is done by utilising the satellite accounts for different states of the federation and uses it to compare the structure of funding and resource flows by the South and Northern areas of the country. The belief is that examining the financing structure and share of burden among stakeholders will be starting point at addressing the poor state of health in the country and the inequality that characterise it. Are resources equally available to different regions of the country? If not, what are the implications for health outcomes across the country? What policy options are available to address the current imbalance in the health financing and outcomes? These represent the issues of focus in this paper. This paper 3

4 thus compares and contrast the findings of the Nigeria Sub-National Health Accounts (Sub-NHA) ( ) studies recently conducted across the States of the Federation, and the differences in the health status across the regions. The objectives of this paper is thus to characterise the differences in the Northern and Southern regions patterns of health financial flows indicating the relative distribution of funding between public, private and donor sources; financial flows between public and private intermediaries as well as examining the health status differences across the Northern and Southern regions in relation to available health care funding. This study proceeds as follows. The next section presents some primer on National Health Accounts and the methodology followed by the analysis of findings in section 3. Section 4 contains discussions of findings and conclusions with some policy recommendation in section LITERATURE REVIEW The framework of NHA is for measuring total national health expenditures by stakeholders in the sector, such as the public, private, and donors. Health expenditures are analysed based on a flow of funds framework, and presented in matrices form linking the sources of expenditure and the financing agents or intermediaries with a variety of breakdown of uses of expenditure (Berman, 1997). The core of NHA method is the calculation and presentation of estimates through a source and uses matrix (Magnoli, 2001). Using a matrix approach, a disaggregated analysis of expenditure is provided with the understanding of the flow of funds through the health care system, systemizing who pays, how much, and for what (see WHO 2001 for detailed explanations). In the NHA matrices, a number of categories of such as sources 2, financing agents 3, and uses 4 are specified. Sources relates to the primary origin of the funds, while uses are the categories of providers or types of health services on which the fund is expended. Between sources and uses are the financing agents who serve as intermediaries in the disbursement of the fund from sources to specific uses. Health resources originate and flow from the financing sources to the financing agents who carry out the actual purchases of health goods and services. The uses of the health funds are usually presented in a number of varieties such as by providers, functions, geographical and socio-economic grouping. NHA has been commonly accepted a veritable tool for assessing performance progress and changes in the health sector of any country. By the early nineties, there already existed health spending with estimates for 140 countries including total spending and public and private shares published by the World Bank and World Health Organisation in 1993 (World Bank, 1993; Murray et al, 1994). Many countries in Africa have conducted NHA estimates with the aim of tracking the fund flows in the health sector, and assess the efficiency and effectiveness of health activities and programmes on which fund is 2 Sources are the institutions or entities that provide the funds used in the system by financing agents. 3 Financing Agents are the institutions or entities that channel funds provided by financing sources and use those funds to pay for or purchase the activities inside the health accounts boundary. They are intermediaries in the disbursement of the fund from sources to specific uses. 4 Uses are the functions which are the types of goods and services provided and health care activities performed inside the health accounts boundary. These include administration, curative health care, preventive health care, rehabilitative, training and research in health. 4

5 allocated. The NHA allows an analysis of the changes in the level and source of all public and private health care expenditures at the aggregate national level, as well as changes in public expenditures that affect allocative efficiency by the central and aggregated local levels of government (Schwartz, et al, 2000). The policy relevance of NHA estimates have also been identified in the literature. Evidences have been established from some countries to show that user fees dissuade the poor from utilizing health care services (ESA-NHA Network, 2001). Similarly the relative role of public and private sector to provision of health care services has implication on accessibility by the poor, as private health care provision is usually non-affordable to the poor. NHA framework is often used to determine the skewness of distribution of health care resources between geographical regions (Makan et al, 1996). These have provided many policy implications for government on the need to increase their capacity for regulating quality, enforcing standards and monitoring safety standards in the private sector. NHA has also been used with household survey in country like Jordan to investigate the degree of inequality in the health system (PHRplus, undated). The general opinion is that dominance of out-of-pocket payments reduces equity since they impose a burden on those least able to pay (ESA-NHA Network, 2001), though it is suggestive of existence of substantial willingness to pay among relatively poor people in low-income countries. Soyibo et al (2007) used estimates from NHA framework to assess the equity in burden share by the stakeholders in the health sector in Nigeria. The study concluded that there is a need for changes in the health financing structure to take better advantage of pool financing based on health insurance scheme. NHA could be used as an element of the basis for resource allocation, by providing information on financing sources, financing agents, functions and providers and also giving snapshot comparisons between countries (Sein, 2002). Nandakumar et al. (2004) provides a comparative analysis of NHA in 26 countries in Latin and Middle East countries, while Orosz and Morgan (2004) examine 13 OECD countries while ESA-NHA Network (2001) compared findings for some African countries. The studies established the existence of wide spread inequality in the health care financing of the countries covered as well as wide disparity in the share of financial burden by different stakeholders in the health system. While there are inter country disparities in the literature this study contributes to the research by investigating intra country disparity in health expenditure in the most populated country in Africa. 3. METHODOLOGY The NHA framework is data intensive at health expenditure data has to be collected from both government and private sources. In order to be able to collect as comprehensive data as possible, a consultative and collaborative methodology with focus on institution-building was adopted. The government expenditure data comes from all the three tiers of government in Nigeria through their various Ministries of Health as well as other departments and agencies that spend funds on health and health related activities. In the case of government data, the official sources within the different 5

6 levels of government were utilized. Primary data were collected directly by the estimation team from relevant government Ministries, Departments and Agencies. In the case of private sector data, primary and secondary sources were utilised. The household health expenditure was derived from 2004 National Living Standard Survey (NLSS) which is a national survey conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics. In order to complement the secondary data three types of survey on enterprises, health insurance firms and development partners 5 were also conducted. In all, out of the 36 states, data were collected from 17 states out of which there were 8 states 6 in the North and 9 states 7 in the South of Nigeria. These data were then used to extrapolate for the whole of the country. The data identified the series of wealth resources flow in the states, and the financial intermediaries involved as well as the provider past-through of the fund and functions or activities on which the funds were expended. Information on the health status of the North and South of Nigeria was drawn from the NBS 2007 abstract of statistics with focus on data on the core welfare indicators. The survey data were analysed using STATA software while the administrative data were analysed using Microsoft Excel. In the case of the survey data, the focus was on computing appropriate per capita health expenditure from the sample after which the estimate was determine for the appropriate NHA or SNHA value using appropriate population figures. The next step was the estimation of appropriate NHA and SNHA components. This was done using appropriate Microsoft Excel programmes, developed for that purpose and which ensured that, as much as possible, there was no double counting. 4. FINDINGS AND RESULTS The NHA results reveals that structure and flows of health funds between entities from the various sources of the funds through the financing agents to the functions and uses of the funds. We present results of the sub national health accounts estimates for three years viz The estimates reveal that the total amount of funds spent on health in Nigeria as at 2005 was N billion. This was an increment of 24 percent over the N billion spent in Sources of Health funds in Nigeria There are three principal sources of health funds which include the government, private sector (including households and donors). The contributions by different sources are shown in Table 1. Private sources of which household contributes the most were the main sources of financing health in both the North and the South of the country. Over the years of estimates , the households in Nigeria provides about threequarters of the health funds with Northern households spending a little higher proportion than their southern counterparts. This has implication on equity, as those 5 A comprehensive description of the method of data collection is presented in Soyibo et al The States are Adamawa, Gombe, Kaduna, Kano, Kebbi, Kogi, Taraba, and Yobe. 7 The States are Cross Rivers, Delta, Edo, Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Oyo. 6

7 least able to pay are made to bear larger burden. Coupled with the relatively lower income level in the North, access and utilization of health facilities is significantly poor. For instance, as reported in the Nigeria 2003 DHS, less than 25% of deliveries in the North utilize health facilities, while the remaining more than 75% of deliveries are done at home without any medical assistance. On the other hand, more than 71% in the South utilize health facilities, with fewer percentages handled at home. This share by the household confirms the findings by reliable international studies among non-socialists low-income countries that the poor and low-income households bear a large share of health care funding (Berman, 1997). Table 1: Distribution of Per Capita Health Expenditure by Region by Sources ($) NORTH ($) SOUTH($) Sources Federal 2.01(6.4%) 1.97(6.1%) 2.22(5.5%) 5.39(12.1%) 5.39(11.7%) 6.17(10.8%) Government State Government 2.68(8.5%) 2.96(9.2%) 4.00(9.9%) 3.17(7.1%) 4.15(9.0%) 5.56(9.8%) Local Government 2.11(6.7%) 2.55(7.9%) 2.98(7.4%) 1.87(4.2%) 2.23(4.8%) 2.58(4.5%) PUBLIC 6.80(21.7%) 7.48(23.3%) 9.20(22.9%) 10.43(23.4%) 11.77(25.5%) 14.31(25.1%) Households 24.53(78.1%) 24.45(76.2%) 30.58(76.0%) 32.97(73.9%) 32.87(71.2%) 41.11(72.2%) Firms 0.03(0.1%) 0.03(0.1%) 0.04(0.1%) 1.00(2.3%) 1.19(2.6%) 1.20(2.1%) Donors 0.04(0.14%) 0.13(0.4%) 0.44(1.1%) 0.23(0.5%) 0.30(0.7%) 0.34(0.6%) PRIVATE 24.60(78.3%) 24.62(76.7%) 31.06(77.1%) 34.21(76.6%) 34.37(74.5%) 42.65(74.9%) Total Note: Percentages in parenthesis Government plays a relatively weaker role in the funding health care in Nigeria, contributing less than one-quarter of total health expenditure. On the average, the proportion of public sector health expenditure in total health expenditure is relatively higher in the South than in the North. It ranges from 21.7% and 23.3% in the North to between 23.4% and 25.5% in the South. Considering the contributions by different tiers of government, there is significant variation across the regions. While the contribution of the federal government is generally lower in the North relative to the South, the State and Local Governments in the North contribute higher share than their counterpart from the South, though their contributions are smaller in absolute. The per capita amount sourced from the federal government is generally higher than contributions from the States and Local governments in the South, while the reverse is the case for the North. The World Bank (1993) recommended per capita government expenditure of US$12.00 to fund basic health package, however, there is disparity in the amount spend by government in the two regions. While this recommendation is largely met in the Southern region it fell short in the northern region of the country which makes the basic package of health services to the population of the north to be smaller than required. Incidentally, the core health indicators for the country is still very poor which means while inadequate funding can be advanced in the North, the case in the South is different and could be a situation of where there exist relative inefficiency of financial resource use 7

8 within the health care systems of the region rather than absolute inadequacy of resources. It is observed that the ability of the public in the regions to raise revenue for health care is influenced by their aggregate economic capacity. The higher contribution of public in the South to funding of health is partly explained by the general economic advancement of the Southern states relative to their Northern counterpart. Incidence of poverty is much higher in the North relative to the South. More than 70% of the population of the North lives below the poverty line, while less than 35% in the South are considered as poor (NBS, 2007). Private firms also contribute to the funding of health care in Nigeria. The per capita contributions of firms to total health expenditure differ significantly in both absolute amount and proportion across the regions. In the North, the per capita contribution of firms ranged between 3 cent in 2003 and 4 cent in 2005, representing 0.1% in those years. This may be a reflection of the employment absorption rate and the economic differences across the region. Private commercial activities are generally more rift in the South than in the North. However, the general low contributions of firms to total health expenditure imply that employers of labour are less concerned about the welfare of their workers. With effective takeoff of the social insurance scheme in the country there is a better hope for increased contribution by private employers of labour into the resources pooling plan for health care. The scheme prescribe that both the employee and employer contribute 5% of the basic salary of the enrolee. There is however the need to fast track the enrolment of private organization employees, as majority of the current contributors to the National social health insurance scheme are public employees. Unlike in many African countries where the donors contribute well over one-quarter of health funds, the donor share of total health expenditure is generally small in both the North and South. Donors on average contributed less than 1.0% of total health expenditure. In the North, the donors contributed 0.14% in 2003, but progressively increased to 1.1% in Though, the per capita amount contributed by donors in the South increased over the years from $0.23 in 2003 to $0.34 in 2005, the percentage share fluctuated from 0.5% in 2003 to 0.7% in 2004, and then dropped to 0.6% in Though, the per capita health care expenditure from donors is considered low, the low dependency on donor funding in the states is quite encouraging. This signifies existence of reliable funding within the country s own resources to maintain current health services for a growing population, while increase funding is being advocated for. 4.2 Financial Intermediaries The funds that are spent on health are not necessarily spent by the source and in many instances the funds are channelled through financing agents. The Nigerian condition reveals that most of the funds are channelled mainly through the sector where the funds are derived. Apart from development partners who do not spend their funds by themselves, other agents spend more than 90 percent of their funds on their own. Since most of the funds spent on health is obtained from households, the main financing agents for health in the country is spent through households out of pocket (OOP) 8

9 expenses. OOP thus remains the largest purchaser of health services over the years at an average of between 76.4% and 78.5% in the North and between 71.4% and 74.2% in the South (Table 2). Though the absolute amount spent through the OOP in the South is greater than in the North, the burden is heavier in the North. Table 2: Distribution of Per Capita Health Expenditure by Region by Financing Agents ($) NORTH ($) 9 SOUTH($) Financing Agents Federal Govt Agencies 1.95(6.2%) 1.91(6.0%) 2.14(5.3%) 5.34(12.0%) 5.35(11.6%) 6.12(10.7%) SMOH 2.05(6.5%) 2.47(7.7%) 3.67(9.1%) 1.60(3.9%) 2.39(5.2%) 3.29(5.8%) HMB 0.60(1.9%) 0.54(1.7%) 0.62(1.5%) 1.30(2.9%) 1.35(2.9%) 1.56(2.7%) Other State Agencies 0.02(0.07%) 0.03(0.1%) 0.08(0.2%) 0.22(0.5%) 0.20(0.44%) 0.23(0.4%) LGA Health Depts. 2.09(6.6%) 2.52(7.9%) 2.96(7.3%) 1.92(4.3%) 2.52(5.5%) 3.10(5.4%) PUBLIC 6.72(21.4%) 7.47(23.3%) 9.47(23.5%) 10.37(23.2%) 11.80(25.6%) 14.30(25.1%) Out-of-Pocket 24.67(78.5%) 24.59(76.6%) 30.76(76.4%) 33.11(74.2%) 33.00(71.5%) 41.27(72.5%) Firm Health Depts (0.01%) 0.003(0.01%) 0.003(0.01%) 0.89(2.0%) 1.07(2.3%) 0.88(1.5%) Health Insurance 0.01(0.02%) 0.01(0.02%) 0.01(0.02%) 0.06(0.14%) 0.07(0.2%) 0.26(0.5%) NGOs 0.01(0.05%) 0.02(0.05%) 0.02(0.06%) 0.19(0.43%) 0.19(0.42%) 0.24(0.4%) PRIVATE 24.69(78.6%) 24.62(76.7%) 30.79(76.5%) 34.25(76.7%) 34.34(74.4%) 42.65(74.9%) TOTAL ($) Note: Percentage in Parenthesis Despite deeper incidence of poverty in the North, the welfare condition of the poor is further compounded by the burden of the poor having to pay for the health demand through OOP. It is believed that poor households might be spending more than necessary due to the absence of health insurance that caters for them. The higher proportion of OOP is due to the low level of activity in the health insurance sector of the economy. This might be responsible for the health status in the North relative to the South, as user fees may discourage the poor from utilizing health facilities. Evidences from a number of countries have been shown that user charges dissuade the poor from utilizing health care services (ESA-NHA Network, 2001). Continued reliance on OOP may make it unlikely that the health status of population across the regions will improve, especially in the North. This calls for critically consideration of the issue as only small proportion of the population can afford patronage of private facilities that are concentrated in the urban centres. Funds that are channelled through public financing agents across the regions are relatively small, as between 21.4% and 23.5% of health care services is purchased by the public agencies in the North and between 23.2% and 25.6% in the South (Table 2). The health care purchases by the states and LGs dominate in the North, while the federal Government agencies dominate in the South. This is an indication of weak involvement of Federal level in the purchase of health care in the North. There is therefore the need

10 for the health care activities of the federal government to be revisited to facilitate increased allocation and provision of health services to the Northern region of the country. Given that the revenue allocation to the federal government from the federation account is more than allocation to other tiers of government, purchase of health services needs to be intensified if any appreciable improvement in the health status of the North populace is to be witnessed. Firms health Department, Health insurance, and NGOs are other private purchasers of health care services, though their commitment is relatively insignificant. These three stakeholders accounts for less than 0.1% of health services purchases in the North, while they are responsible for the purchase of more than 1% of health care services in the South. One financing opportunity that is yet to be fully explored is the health insurance option. The huge burden on the household through OOP can be pooled under health insurance to better facilitate access to health by the poor. 4.3 Uses of Health Funds Health Expenditure by Types of Provider across the Regions We also present an analysis of where the health funds are spent in the country. Shown in Table 3 below is the provider breakdown of health care expenditure by regions. Health facilities are also broadly categorised into government health facilities and private health facilities. This is because both the public and the private sectors play significant role in the provision of health care services across the regions. Generally, in both the North and the South, more health care services are provided by public health care providers. However, payments in private facilities are higher than payments in public hospitals. This explains the variation in the proportion of funds used at the various facilities. Private facilities are more pronounced in the Southern region of Nigeria and hence the amount of user fees paid by the few who patronise the private providers is enough to tilt a higher proportion of health spending in the South in favour of Private providers. However, since most of the facilities in the North are government owned, the total funds used in public facilities are thus higher. While the public facilities dominates in the provision of health care services in the North, both public and private sectors appears to play equal role in the provision of health care services in the South. More than 71% of health funds are spent in public facilities in the North, while the remaining is spent on the services provided by the private sector (Figure 1). In the South, the health expenditure is spent almost equally on private and public facilities. In both regions the state facilities receive most of the funds spent on government facilities (Table 3). However, the local government facilities receive more health funds on the per capita basis than the federal facilities in the provision of health care services in the North, while vice versa condition applies in the South. The lower amount of funds spent in private facilities in the North further confirm the inabilities of the poor to afford health care services provided by the private sector, as the North have greater incidence of poverty. Access to care from health care professionals 10

12 Health Expenditure by Types of Functions across the Regions Analysis by health care functions shows that curative care has the highest proportion of health expenditure allocation, accounting for more than three-quarters, while preventive health care accounts for less than 20%. Between 75.7% and 78.3% of total health expenditure was spent on curative care in the North, while between 18.6% and 20.3% was expended on public health preventive (Table 4). In the South, curative care accounted for between 75.4% and 77%, while a little above 15% was expended on public health preventive (Table 5). This disproportionate share is contrary to the tenets of the National Health Policy (NHP) of the country, to which all the states in the regions subscribe to. In Nigeria, like in most LDCs, the provision of health care services (public or private) is dominated by hospital-base health care. The proportion of the Ministry of Health (MOH) budget devoted to teaching and specialist hospitals as grants and subventions ranged from 45.5 percent to 73.4 percent between 1990 and 1993 (Mbanefoh et al 1996). While training and research received relatively appreciable amount in the South, accounting for between 3.4% and 5.2%, this function accounted for an insignificant proportion in the North, being generally less than 0.7%. Rehabilitative care appears to be generally poorly attended to as less than 0.4% is allocated to this function across the regions. Thus curative care dominates in terms of resource allocation. Though current National Health Policy (NHP) thrust gives priority to primary health care (PHC), the financial and resources devotion, and patients flow-through places hospital care ahead (Lawanson, 2004). Due to lack of clear cut and restricted responsibilities for the health care levels, both secondary and tertiary health facilities are equally involved in delivery of primary health care services to the people. This may hamper the achievement of both goals of the NHP and MDGs, which are anchored on primary health care strategy. Table 4: Distribution of Per Capita Health Expenditure by Region by Functions ($) NORTH ($) 12 SOUTH($) Functions Public Health Preventive 5.84(18.6%) 6.38(19.9%) 8.16(20.3%) 6.85(15.3%) 7.08(15.6%) 8.70(15.3%) Curative Care 24.58(78.3%) 24.45(76.2%) 30.47(75.7%) 34.37(77.0%) 34.80(76.6%) 42.91(75.4%) Rehabilitative Care 0.01(0.05%) 0.02(0.08%) 0.003(0.01%) 0.15(0.34%) 0.15(0.3%) 0.06(0.11%) Training & Research 0.13(0.43%) 0.22(0.69%) 0.20(0.5%) 1.53(3.43%) 1.54(3.4%) 2.96(5.2%) Others 0.84(2.7%) 1.02(3.2%) 1.44(3.6%) 1.74(3.9%) 1.86(4.1%) 2.32(4.1%) TOTAL Note: Percentage in Parenthesis The disproportionate distribution of resources among health care functions may be partly responsible for the poor health outcomes, and general poor performance of the country s health sector. However, central to policy monitoring and evaluation is the information on primary health care expenditure. There is therefore need to re-examine

13 the allocation of resources in relation to the health policy guidelines. More resources are required at the primary or preventive level while the secondary and tertiary levels are strengthened to provide the required referral for the health sector to function effectively. The challenge however remains the need to enhance the accounting systems of the health facilities to reflect resource use by various functions, when more than one can be found within a facility. This will lead to better Sub-NHA estimates to inform, health policy monitoring and evaluation for better future decision making within the country s health sector Comparison of Degree of Regional Equity in Health Care Expenditure The quantity and quality of health care services delivered to any group of people is a function of the available resources. The more the resources available the better the health care services delivered. The per capita mean value of health expenditure for the two regions combined increased progressively from $38.41 in 2003 to $49.10 in 2005 (Table 5). Considering the characteristics of the States with the highest and lowest per capita values, there is the tendency for expenditures to be higher in urban compared to rural areas. Given the commerce characteristics of Lagos State, the highest per capita health expenditure is incurred in Lagos State, while the least per capita health expenditure is incurred in Kebbi State, reflecting the rural nature and low economic activities in the state. The gap between the per capita health expenditure in Lagos State and Kebbi State is almost three-fold of what is spent in Kebbi State, reflecting the severity of inequality in the country. This further reinforces the argument that rural areas receive lower proportion of both public and private health expenditure than the urban areas. Most of the heavily funded public hospitals are in the urban areas, while private health facilities are equally urban based. The degree of inequality across the regions however defers. The mean per capita health expenditure in the South is higher than in the North. Over the period of analysis, less than $41.00 per capita was spent in the North, while between $44.64 and $56.95 per capita was expended in the South (Table 5). The gaps in the range across the states in each of the regions are far more than the lowest per capita value in the regions. Though, the Southern region had the higher per capita mean value due to high overall per capita health expenditure, the distribution across the states in the region is more inequitable. The range values are higher in the South than in the North. However, with the greater inequality in the South, the per capita health expenditure of most of the States in the South is greater than most states in the North. The seeming differentials in the distribution of resources against rural areas is an indication of the fact that allocation of health resources is significantly influenced by existing infrastructure, rather than the varying regional health needs. Table 5: Comparison of Degree of Regional Equity in health Expenditure North & South North South Mean($)

14 Std. Dev Range Highest ($) Lagos (69.65) Lagos (70.48) Lagos (87.68) Tarraba (47.02) Tarraba (48.81) Tarraba (63.40) Lagos (69.65) Lagos (70.48) Lagos (87.68) Lowest ($) Kebbi (16.65) Kebbi (18.15) Kebbi (22.43) Kebbi (16.65) Kebbi (18.15) Kebbi (22.43) Ondo (24.60) Ondo (25.71) Ondo (30.97) The delivery of health care services has generally being linked to the quality and quantity of funds available. Though the factors influencing health outcomes may not be limited to health expenditure, there are evidences of positive correlation between the two. Our analyses have shown that greater resources are spent on health care in the South than in the Northern region of Nigeria. Consequently the health outcomes from both regions have not been the same. Some selected core health indicators in Table 6 revealed that health outcomes in the North are relatively worse off. While almost 90% of the people in the South access pre-natal care, less than 64% of the people in the North do. Also, around one-quarter of mothers in the North do access post-natal care, while more than 40% do in the South. Similarly, less than one-third of delivery in the North is handled by health professionals, whereas more than two-third of delivery in the South utilizes the services of health professionals. As a follow up to access to anti-natal care, at delivery, less than 5% of birth weights are up to 2.5kg and above in the North, whereas 35.8% of birth weights in the South exceed 2.5kg. Also the effectiveness of preventive health in the regions significantly defers. The immunization coverage in the Northern region is generally low. A situation where less than one-third of children in the North gets fully vaccinated, in the same country where their counterpart in the South gets almost two-third of children fully vaccinated is not encouraging. This further emphases the existence of severe inequality across the regions, thus requiring government intervention. It has been established in the literature that the health status of people has implication on their ability to generate income. Productivity of individual is significantly influenced by the state of his/her health. Worsening health condition can lead to poor economic status. The poor health status observed in the Northern region of Nigeria is found to be associated with greater incidence of poverty. Over the years between 1980 and 2004, the incidence of poverty has progressively increased in the Northern region relative to the South (Table 6). As at 2004, more than 70% of the Northern population live below the poverty line as against 35% in the South. Table 6: Nigeria Sub-NHA Estimates and Core Welfare Indicators North South Per capita Health Expenditure Sub-NHA, 2003 ($) Sub-NHA, 2004 ($) Sub-NHA, 2005 ($) Core Health Indicators,

15 Pre-Natal Care (%) Post-Natal Care (%), Birth weight ( 2.5kg), Delivery by Health Professionals (%) Measles immunization (%) Fully Vaccinated (%) Not vaccinated (%) Incidence of diarrhoea (%) Incidence of Poverty Spread in Poverty 1980 (%) Spread in Poverty 1985 (%) Spread in Poverty 1992 (%) Spread in Poverty 1996 (%) Spread in Poverty 2004 (%) Sources: Computed from Sub-NHA Estimates, and NBS, 2007, DHS, Conclusion and Recommendation This paper presents a comparison of the set of findings of Sub-National Health Accounts Estimates for for the states in the Northern and Southern regions of Nigeria. The study shows that per capita health expenditure across the two regions of the country is low and that there are wide disparities in health spending across the two geographical regions. The relative amount of per capita health expenditure is generally lower in the North compared to the South. Subsequently, the health status indicators in the North are generally poorer relative to what obtains in the South. Health care financing in the states in both the North and South of Nigeria is heavily dependent on private sources (especially the household OOP). The proportional share by the household is even more in the North. Given the high incidence of poverty, the policy objective of equity in the health sector is contradicted by the poor health status as shown by the health indicators. The current overburden of the household requires exploration of alternative financing mechanisms by the government. The fragile social health insurance scheme in the country should be strengthened through broadening of its coverage to both formal and informal sectors of the economy. In addition, government should bring health issue to the fore by increasing resource allocation to health. The situation is made worse by the relative dominance of the private sources of health funds, especially the household, in financing health care. Out of pocket spending by the household ranged from more than three-quarters (average of 77%) in the North, and a little less than three-quarter (average of 72.5%) in the South. Reduction in equity has generally been traced to OOP payments, as those who are least able to pay are made to bear the greater burden. The government funding of health expenditure ranged between average of 22.6% in the North and 24.7% in the South. This has implication on equity of access to health care, with the poor most likely disadvantaged. The spread and trend in 15

16 poverty rate between 1980 and 2004 shows that the proportion of the population in the North living below the poverty line is significantly higher than the proportion in the South. The stewardship role of the government has to increase in terms of funding health care, in the light of the low income of majority of the people, if the health status of the populace is to improve. While government may not necessarily be directly involved in the provision of health services, attempt should be made to subsidise the private sector and increased regulatory capacities to improve the overall availability and accessibility of health services to the majority of the population. In addition, there is the need for a combination of social assistance and social health insurance for health so as to reduce the burden of catastrophic out of pocket spending by the households. The insurance approach is appealing because the results indicate a substantial willingness to pay among relatively poor people. Policy inference here is that the existing willingness to pay among the poor can be transformed into a pooled financing to improve the health status of the majority of the population. Public facilities are the main users of the health funds in the country accounting for an average of more than 60% of all funds spent in the health sector. The dominance of the public providers is more prominent in the North, where more than 71% of health services are spent in public facilities, while both the public and private facilities in the South receive approximately equal share of the health spending in the region. This is because given that private facilities are relatively more expensive, and the poor economic status of the people especially in the North, the poor are forced to access health care services from the public facilities. In the light of this, government should strengthen even distribution of facilities to adequately cover the rural areas to facilitate access to health care by the poor. The revelation of the fact that an average per capita of N4, (equivalent to $34.59) and N6, (equivalent to $49.24) are respectively spent in the North and the South, reveals that on the average, it is possible to finance health adequately if the right mechanisms are put in place. However, there is the need for government to increase their spending in the North to at least meet the WHO s minimum basic package of health care service for the population. This suggests the existence of relative inefficiency rather than absolute inadequacy of financial resources within the health care system of the country. Thus, effort should be directed to efficient management of available resources, requiring development of management skills within the health sector of the country. The effectiveness of the health spending can also be inferred from the structure f type of healthcare that the funds are spent on. While the National Health Policy is focused on primary health care, there is significant disproportionate allocation of resources to preventative health care. The bulk of the resources are expended at the curative care level. Between 15-20% is expended on preventive health care, while about 77% is devoted to curative health care. Given that the country s disease burden is dominated by preventable diseases, this disproportionate allocation of resources against preventive health care may also be responsible for the poor health indicators across the regions. Finally, this study reveals that donors on the average appears to slightly contribute more in the South than in the North, but in all, generally less than 1% of the total health 16

17 expenditure. Though, the per capita health care expenditure by donor is considered low, the low dependency on donor funding in the states is quite encouraging. This signifies existence of reliable funding within the country s own resources to maintain current health services for a growing population, while increase funding is being advocated for. References Berman, P. (1997) NHA in Developing Countries: Appropriate Methods and Recent Applications, Health Economics Vol. 6: ESA-National Health Accounts Network (2001) National Health Accounts (NHA) In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA): A Comparative Analysis, Network Report Paper, Cape Town Federal Ministry of Health (2006), FMOH evaluation of health expenditures A Paper Presented at the Health Budget Preparation and Expenditure and Revenue Monitoring Roundtable, 19th 21st April 2006MOH (2006 Griffin, C. C. (1992) Health Care in Asia: A Comparative Study of Cost and Financing. World Bank Regional and Sectoral Studies, Washington, D,C.: The World Bank. Lawanson, Akanni Olayinka (2004) A Multi-Product Translog Model of Hospital Costs in Oyo State of Nigeria Ph.D Thesis Dissertation, Department of Economics, University of Ibadan. Magnoli, Alessandro (2001) National Health Accounts in Latin America and Caribbean: Concept, Results and Policy Use Inter-American Development bank Working Paper Series I- 17UE. (web location: Makan, B., N. Valentine, and Kirigia, (1996) Looking Back and Looking A Head : South Africa s 1995/96 Health Budget Watch 2(1), 4. Mbanefor, G.F., Soyibo, A. And Anyanwu, J.C (1996), The Demand for Health Care in Nigeria; An Econometric Analysis, Research Report Submitted to the Carnegie Corporation of New York and IHPP Washington McGreevey, M (1990) Social Security in Latin America: Issues and Options for the World Bank, World Bank Discussion Papers. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Murray, C. J. L., R. Govindaraj, and P. Musgrove (1994) National Health Expenditures: A Global Analysis. In Global Comparative Assessments in the Health Sector: Disease Burden, Expenditures, and Intervention Packages, eds. C. J. L. Murray and A. D. Lopez. Geneva: World Health Organization. Nandakumar A. K., A. Bhawalkar, M. Tien, R. ramos and S. De (2004) Synthesis of Findings from NHA studies in Twenty-six countries. Bethesda, MD: The Partners for Health Reform plus Project, Abt Associates NBS (2007), 2007 Annual Abstract of Statics, Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics. NDHS (2008) National Population Commission, Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 2008 NDHS (2003), National Population Commission, Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 2003 NPC 2006 National Population Commission, Population Census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2006 Orosz Eva and Morgan, David (2004)SHA-based National Health Accounts in thirteen OECD countries: A comparative analysis, OECD Health Working Papers No. 16 PHRplus (undated), National Health Accounts and Its Relevance to Policymaking in the Middle East and North Africa, NHA Regional Brief of Partners for Health Reformplus, Website: 17

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