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1 RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT: A RENEWED CALL TO ACTION The White House Council on Women and Girls January 2014

2 President Barack Obama signs S. 47, the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013, (VAWA) in the Sidney R. Yates Auditorium at the U.S. Department of Interior in Washington, D.C., March 7, (Official White House Photo by Chuck Kennedy) It is up to all of us to ensure victims of sexual violence are not left to face these trials alone. Too often, survivors suffer in silence, fearing retribution, lack of support, or that the criminal justice system will fail to bring the perpetrator to justice. We must do more to raise awareness about the realities of sexual assault; confront and change insensitive attitudes wherever they persist; enhance training and education in the criminal justice system; and expand access to critical health, legal, and protection services for survivors. President Barack Obama, April 2012 Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page ii

3 This report was prepared by the White House Council on Women and Girls and the Office of the Vice President. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page iii

5 Executive Summary This report analyzes the most recent, reliable data about rape and sexual assault in our country. It identifies those most at risk of being victims of these crimes, examines the cost of this violence (both to survivors and our communities), and describes the response, too often inadequate, of the criminal justice system. The report catalogues steps this Administration has taken to combat rape and sexual assault, and identifies areas for further action. An overview of the problem: Women and girls are the vast majority of victims: nearly 1 in 5 women or nearly 22 million have been raped in their lifetimes. 1 Men and boys, however, are also at risk: 1 in 71 men or almost 1.6 million have been raped during their lives. Women of all races are targeted, but some are more vulnerable than others: 33.5% of multiracial women have been raped, as have 27% of American Indian and Alaska Native women, compared to 15% of Hispanic, 22% of Black, and 19% of White women. Most victims know their assailants. The vast majority (nearly 98%) of perpetrators are male. Young people are especially at risk: nearly half of female survivors were raped before they were 18, and over one-quarter of male survivors were raped before they were 10. College students are particularly vulnerable: 1 in 5 women has been sexually assaulted while in college. Repeat victimization is common: over a third of women who were raped as minors were also raped as adults. Other populations are also at higher risk of being raped or sexually assaulted, including people with disabilities, the LGBT community, prison inmates (of both genders), and the homeless. Undocumented immigrants face unique challenges, because their abusers often threaten to have them deported if they try to get help. 1 Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In calculating the prevalence of rape, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) counts completed forced penetration, attempted forced penetration, or alcohol/drug facilitated completed penetration. Like other researchers, the CDC considers attempted forced penetration to fall within the definition of rape because that crime can be just as traumatizing for victims. As the CDC further explains, the most common form of rape victimization experienced by women was completed forced penetration: 12.3% of women in the United States were victims of completed forced penetration; 8% were victims of alcohol/drugfacilitated completed penetration, and 5.2% were victims of attempted forced penetration. These are lifetime estimates and a victim might have experienced multiple forms of these subtypes of rape in her lifetime. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 1

6 The Impacts of Rape and Sexual Assault. Rape and sexual assault survivors often suffer from a wide range of physical and mental health problems that can follow them for life including depression, chronic pain, diabetes, anxiety, eating disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder. They are also more likely than non-victims to attempt or consider suicide. The Economic Costs. Although hard to quantify, several studies have calculated the economic costs of a rape, accounting for medical and victim services, loss of productivity, decreased quality of life, and law enforcement resources. Each used a slightly different methodology, but all found the costs to be significant: ranging from $87,000 to $240,776 per rape. Campus Sexual Assault: A Particular Problem. As noted, 1 in 5 women has been sexually assaulted while she s in college. The dynamics of college life appear to fuel the problem, as many victims are abused while they re drunk, under the influence of drugs, passed out, or otherwise incapacitated. Most college victims are assaulted by someone they know and parties are often the site of these crimes. Notably, campus assailants are often serial offenders: one study found that of the men who admitted to committing rape or attempted rape, some 63% said they committed an average of six rapes each. College sexual assault survivors suffer from high levels of mental health problems (like depression and PTSD) and drug and alcohol abuse. Reporting rates are also particularly low. The Criminal Justice Response. Despite the prevalence of rape and sexual assault, many offenders are neither arrested nor prosecuted. A number of factors may contribute to low arrest rates but police biases (e.g., believing that many victims falsely claim rape to get attention, or that only those who ve been physically injured are telling the truth) persist, and may account for some officers unwillingness to make an arrest. Also, the trauma that often accompanies a sexual assault can leave a victim s memory and verbal skills impaired and without trauma-sensitive interviewing techniques, a women s initial account can sometimes seem fragmented. Even when arrests are made, prosecutors are often reluctant to take on rape and sexual assault cases and, in some jurisdictions, the backlog of untested rape kits can also be a factor in low prosecution rates. Rape kits which collect forensic evidence of a rape or sexual assault, including the perpetrator s DNA can be vital to successful prosecutions. Once tested, an offender s DNA can be matched with other offender samples in the FBI s national database, thus identifying assailants and linking crimes together. Unfortunately, however, many rape kits are still sitting on the shelves, either ignored or waiting to be tested. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 2

7 Breaking the Cycle of Violence Responding to the President s 2010 call to action, the Administration is aggressively working to combat rape and sexual assault on many fronts. For example: Last year, the President signed the third reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act the backbone of our nation s response to violence against women, authored and pioneered by then-senator Joe Biden which commits unprecedented resources to breaking the cycle of sexual violence. Among other measures, VAWA 2013: o Includes set-aside funding for multidisciplinary sexual assault teams; these are specially trained units of detectives, prosecutors, healthcare providers and victim advocates, all working together to support sexual assault survivors and increase the odds of successful prosecutions. These teams have a proven track record of winning convictions and helping survivors get back on their feet. o Provides new funding for sexual assault nurse examiners (SANEs), who are specially trained to provide respectful and supportive care while collecting forensic evidence after a rape or sexual assault. Here, too, research shows that the work of these nurses both improves victim care and increases rates of successful prosecutions. o Funds specialized training for law enforcement officers and prosecutors so they can learn how to conduct trauma-informed interviews and investigations, and more effectively bring offenders to justice. o Includes new protections for LGBT, immigrant, and Native American victims, as well as for those who live in low-income or subsidized housing. The Administration has also: Undertaken a major effort to make our colleges and universities safer by issuing guidance to help schools understand their obligations to prevent and respond to campus sexual assault, and by stepping up federal compliance and enforcement actions. Adopted a series of Executive Actions to address sexual assault in the military including measures to improve command accountability, expand victims rights within the military justice system, increase training across the ranks, and provide new support for victims. Notably, Secretary Hagel directed each service to provide all victims of sexual assault with legal counsel, who will be at a victim s side at every step of the process. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 3

8 Successfully called on Congress to double funding for VAWA s Sexual Assault Services Program (SASP), the first funding stream to focus specifically on rape and sexual assault. SASP provides for a wide array of services, such as crisis intervention, counseling, rape crisis centers, medical and social services, 24-hour sexual assault hotlines, and medical and legal advocacy. Launched the 1 is 2 Many Campaign to focus on teen and young-adult sexual violence. Among a number of other initiatives, the Campaign inspired creation of the Circle of 6 app which puts a group of friends instantly in touch with each other, so someone in trouble can send a come and get me message, complete with a GPS location map. The Campaign also developed best-practices resources on teen dating violence for schools, and convened a series of forums to enlist men in the effort to end violence against women. Secured funding for the National Dating Abuse Helpline to expand to digital services, which lets teens and young adults reach out for help in a way that they are most comfortable via text messaging and online chats. Modernized the definition of rape for nationwide data collection, ensuring a more accurate account of the crime. Developed a national, best-practices protocol for conducting sexual assault forensic examinations. Developed a five-year strategic plan to address the tragedy of human trafficking, especially as it impacts runaway, homeless and LGBT youth. Funded projects to reduce the rape kit backlog, with some impressive results. Directed all federal agencies to develop polices to address domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking in the federal workforce. Implemented a series of major initiatives to protect American Indian and Alaska Native Women, including more resources for tribal law enforcement, court systems, and victim services; new penalties for spouse and intimate-partner violence; and expanded jurisdiction to allow both federal and tribal authorities to hold domestic abusers, whether Indian or non-indian, accountable. Developed a 56-point action agenda for federal agencies to address the link between violence against women and HIV/AIDS. Promulgated new guidelines requiring prisons and other detention facilities to prevent, detect, and respond to sexual assault. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 4

9 A Renewed Call for Action The Administration is committed to redoubling the work it is already doing. At the same time, it is also exploring new frontiers. Continuing to Focus on Campus Sexual Assault. To make our campuses safer, change still needs to come from many quarters: schools must adopt better policies and practices to prevent these crimes and to more effectively respond when they happen. And federal agencies must ensure that schools are living up to their obligations. To accomplish these and other goals, the President today is establishing a White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault. The Task Force will: Provide educational institutions with best practices for preventing and responding to rape and sexual assault. Build on the federal government s enforcement efforts to ensure that educational institutions comply fully with their legal obligations. Improve transparency of the government s enforcement activities. Increase the public s awareness of an institution s track record in addressing rape and sexual assault. Enhance coordination among federal agencies to hold schools accountable if they do not confront sexual violence on their campuses. Increasing Arrest, Prosecution and Conviction Rates. Across all demographics, rapists and sex offenders are too often not made to pay for their crimes, and remain free to assault again. Arrest rates are low and meritorious cases are still being dropped many times because law enforcement officers and prosecutors are not fully trained on the nature of these crimes or how best to investigate and prosecute them. Many new and promising interviewing, investigative and prosecution protocols are being developed, with cutting-edge science about victim trauma informing the enterprise. We need to further develop these best practices and help get them out to the field. We can also help local jurisdictions move rape kits off the shelves and into crime labs for testing so more rapists can be identified through DNA and brought to justice. Committing Vital Resources. This Administration has made an unparalleled commitment to getting victims and survivors the many services they need from crisis intervention, counseling, legal advocacy, medical help, social services, and job and housing assistance and with a special eye on particularly vulnerable populations. We cannot retreat, but must recommit to getting these vital resources to those who need them. Changing the Culture. Sexual assault is pervasive because our culture still allows it to persist. According to the experts, violence prevention can t just focus on the perpetrators and the survivors. It has to involve everyone. And in order to put an end to this violence, Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 5

10 we as a nation must see it for what it is: a crime. Not a misunderstanding, not a private matter, not anyone s right or any woman s fault. And bystanders must be taught and emboldened to step in to stop it. We can only stem the tide of violence if we all do our part. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 6

11 Introduction The numbers alone are stunning: nearly 1 in 5 women or almost 22 million have been raped in their lifetimes. And the numbers don t begin to tell the whole story. They don t tell of the physical, emotional and psychological scars that a victim can carry for life. They don t speak to the betrayal and broken trust when the attacker is a friend, a trusted colleague, or a family member. And they don t give voice to the courage of survivors who work every day to put their lives back together. Twenty years ago, then-senator Joe Biden authored the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) to bring the problem of domestic violence and sexual assault out from the shadows and into the national spotlight. In the intervening decades, help has come: rape crisis centers have been built; hotlines are up and running; dedicated activists, advocates and service providers have more resources; states have passed tough new laws; and more abusers and sex offenders have been put behind bars. In 2010, President Obama called upon all federal agencies to make domestic and sexual violence a priority. And in March 7, 2013, he signed the third reauthorization of VAWA, which provides states, tribes, and local communities with unprecedented resources to combat sexual assault. This and other federal programs put federal dollars where they are most needed and effective: for crisis intervention, counseling, criminal justice advocacy, forensic evidence-gathering, medical and social services, law enforcement training and prosecutorial resources. In 2012, President Obama directed federal agencies to develop policies to address domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking in the federal workplace. Federal agencies have heeded the President s call to action in many innovative and wideranging ways. Among other initiatives, the Administration has issued new guidance to help schools, colleges and universities better understand their obligations to prevent and respond to sexual assault on their campuses; promulgated a series of executive actions to better protect our service members from military sexual assault; developed a national, best-practices protocol for conducting sexual assault forensic examinations; modernized the definition of rape for nationwide data collection, ensuring a more accurate accounting of the crime; launched new technologically-advanced ways for young women to get help; and enlisted men and boys to take an active stand against sexual violence. And today, the President is establishing a White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault which will go even further to make our schools safer for all students. More of the Administration s efforts are catalogued in this report and they are making a real difference. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 7

12 But despite all the progress, too many of our friends, wives, sisters, daughters and sons are still raped or sexually assaulted every day. A new generation of anti-rape activists, both women and men, are having a national conversation about rape and sexual assault and about attitudes toward victims and the role of the criminal justice system in holding offenders accountable. This report aims to be part of that conversation. It provides an overview of the scope of the problem, identifies those most at risk, describes the costs of this violence (both to survivors and society as a whole), and takes a look at the response of the criminal justice system. The report discusses steps this Administration has taken to address rape and sexual assault, and identifies challenging new fronts on which we should set our sights. 2 2 The terms survivor and victim are both used to describe individuals who have been raped or sexually assaulted. Many of these individuals and the advocates who work with them have come to prefer survivor, as they regard the term as more empowering. The term victim, however, is still in widespread use in research studies and in the criminal justice context. In this report, the terms are used interchangeably and always with respect for those who have suffered from these crimes. Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 8

13 An Overview of the Problem Anyone can be a victim of rape or sexual assault. But some are more at risk than others: Women and girls are the vast majority of victims: as noted, nearly 1 in 5 women has been raped in her lifetime. 3 Men and boys, however, are also at risk: 1 in 71 men or almost 1.6 million have been raped during their lives. 4 Women of all races are targeted, but some are more vulnerable than others: 33.5% of multiracial women have been raped, as have 27% of American Indian and Alaska Native women, compared to 15% of Hispanic, 22% of Black, and 19% of White women. 5 Most victims know their perpetrators: 51% of female victims were raped by a current or former intimate partner, and 41% were raped by an acquaintance. Stranger rape, in contrast, accounts for 14% of the total. 6 Of men and boys, 52% report being raped by an acquaintance and 15% by a stranger. 7 Repeat victimization is common: over a third of women who were raped as minors were also raped as adults. 8 The majority of perpetrators are male: 98% of female and 93% of male rape survivors report that their assailants were male. 9 Young people are especially at risk: nearly half of female survivors were raped before they were 18, and over one-quarter of male survivors were raped before they were Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [Hereafter cited as NISVS (2010)] In calculating the prevalence of rape, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) counts completed forced penetration, attempted forced penetration, or alcohol/drug facilitated completed penetration. Like other researchers, the CDC considers attempted forced penetration to fall within the definition of rape because that crime can be just as traumatizing for victims. As the CDC further explains, the most common form of rape victimization experienced by women was completed forced penetration: 12.3% of women in the United States were victims of completed forced penetration; 8% were victims of alcohol/drug facilitated completed penetration, and 5.2% were victims of attempted forced penetration. These are lifetime estimates and a victim might have experienced multiple forms of these subtypes of rape in her lifetime. 4 NISVS (2010) 5 NISVS (2010); Asian or Pacific Islander (API) women are also assaulted. However, the NISVS does not report the prevalence of sexual violence for API women due to a high standard error or low number of responses. 6 Some women are raped by multiple perpetrators in different relationships. Because a woman may be raped both by an intimate partner and a stranger, the overall percentages do not sum to NISVS (2010) 8 NISVS (2010) 9 NISVS (2010) 10 NISVS (2010) Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 9

14 A Closer Look at the Demographics Age at first rape (females) Teens and young adults. The majority of rape and sexual assault victims are young between the ages of 16 and 24. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that 80% of female victims were raped before they turned 25, and almost half were raped before they were Among men, 28% were raped before they were Some 12% of high school girls report having been forced to have sexual intercourse. 13 And up to 38% of runaway teens say that sexual abuse is one of the reasons they left home to 44 4% 25 to 34 14% 18 to 24 38% Over 45 2% Under 10 12% 11 to 17 30% College students are especially at risk: 1 in 5 women has been sexually assaulted while in college. 15 People with disabilities. People with physical or mental disabilities may also be at increased risk. A study found that in the mid-1990s, women with severe disabilities were four times more likely to be sexually assaulted than women with no disability. 16 A more recent study made similar findings, reporting that individuals with a disability were three times more likely to be raped or sexually assaulted than individuals without a disability. 17 LGBT community. People who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) are also uniquely vulnerable. One study found that 13.2% of bisexual men and 11.6% of gay men were raped in adulthood, compared to 1.6% of heterosexual men. 18 According to the CDC, 46% of bisexual women have been raped, compared to 13% of lesbians and 11 NISVS (2010) 12 NISVS (2010); Age at first rape (females) chart is derived from NISVS (2010). A comparable breakdown for males is not available because NIVIS (2010) does not report any age categories for males, other than under Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance. (2011). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 14 Greene, J., & Sanchez, R. (2002). Sexual Abuse Among Homeless Adolescents: Prevalence, Correlates and Sequelea. The Administration on Children, Youth and Families. 15 Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (221153). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. [Hereafter cited as CSA (2007)].; Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L (2009) College Women s Experiences with Physically Forced, Alcohol or Other Drug Enabled, and Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College. Journal of American College Health, 57(6), Casteel, C., Martin, S. L., Smith, J. B., Gurka, K. K., & Kupper, L. L. (2008). National study of physical and sexual assault among women with disabilities. Injury Prevention, 14(2), Harrell, E. (2012). Crime Against Persons with Disabilities, Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. 18 Balsam, K. F., Beauchaine, T. P., & Rothblum, E. D. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), [Hereafter cited as Balsam (2005)]

15 17% of heterosexual women. 19 Another study found that more than 25% of transgender individuals had been sexually assaulted after the age of Incarcerated individuals. Sexual assault is a problem in our nation s prisons. Among former state prisoners, 14% of females and 4% of males were sexually assaulted by another prisoner. Incarcerated gay and bisexual men are at particular risk: 34% of bisexual males and 39% of gay males report being sexually assaulted by another prisoner, compared to 3.5% of heterosexual males. 21 Undocumented immigrants. While numbers are difficult to estimate, undocumented immigrants face unique difficulties. Abusers often threaten to have their victims deported if they try to seek help, making immigrant survivors less likely to report these crimes. 22 Immigrant survivors may also be unaware or confused by the services that are available, particularly if service providers lack linguistically or culturally appropriate resources. 23 People who are homeless. There s a correlation between homelessness and sexual violence. One study found that 13% of homeless women had been raped in the previous year, and half of these women were raped at least twice. 24 This compares to 1% of women nationally who reported being raped in the previous year. 25 Additionally, up to 43% of homeless women were abused as children Walters, M.L., Chen, J., & Breiding, M.J. (2013). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 20 Testa, R. J., Sciacca, L. M., Wang, F., Hendricks, M. L., Goldblum, P., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). Effects of Violence on Transgender People. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), Beck, A.J. & Johnson, C. (2012). Sexual Victimization Reported by Former State Prisoners, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from 22 Orloff, L.E. & Dave, N. (1997) Identifying Barriers: Survey of Immigrant Women and Domestic Violence in the D.C. Metropolitan Area. Poverty and Race. 6(4) Mindlin, J., Orloff, J.E., Pochiraju, S., Baran, A., & Echavarria, E. (2013).Dynamics of sexual assault and the implications for immigrant women. National Immigrant Women s Advocacy Project. Retrieved from: of violence against immigrant women. 24 Wenzel, S.L., Leake, B.D., Gelberg, L. (2000). Health of homeless women with recent experiences of rape. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15(4) NISVS (2010) 26 The National Center on Family Homelessness (2007). Violence in the lives of homeless women. Retrieved from: Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 11

16 The Impacts of Rape and Sexual Assault Rape and sexual assault can take a profound toll on survivors, who often suffer from a wide range of physical and mental health problems that can be long-lasting. Physical Health According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, between , 58% of all female victims of sexual assault sustained an injury. 27 Women who are raped or stalked by any perpetrator or physically assaulted by an intimate partner are more likely to have asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and diabetes, and are also more likely to suffer from chronic pain, frequent headaches, and difficulty sleeping than non-victims. 28 A study of women in North Carolina indicated that survivors of sexual assault were more likely to smoke, to have high cholesterol and hypertension, and to be obese. 29 African American women ages who are sexually assaulted are nearly five times more likely to test positive for a high-risk HPV infection. Also, survivors of intimate partner rape or sexual assault are more likely than non-victims to contract sexually-transmitted infections, and are also more likely to report HIV risk factors, such as unprotected sex, injection drug use and alcohol abuse. 30 Mental Health Survivors also suffer from a wide range of mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 31 One study found that over half of survivors who were forcibly raped while under the influence of alcohol or drugs developed lifetime PTSD. These victims were also almost five times more likely to have lifetime major depressive episodes than non-victims Planty, M., Berzofsky, M., Krebs, C., Langton, L., & Smiley McDonald, H. (2013). Female victims of sexual violence, Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. [Hereafter cited as Planty (2013)] 28 NISVS (2010) 29 Cloutier, S., Martin, S. L., & Poole, C. (2002). Sexual assault among North Carolina women: prevalence and health risk factors. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56(4), Wingood, G. M., Seth, P., DiClemente, R. J., & Robinson, L. S. (2009). Association of sexual abuse with incident high risk human papilloma virus infection among young African American women. Sexually Transmitted Disease, 36(12), ; Bauer, H. M., Gibson, P., Hernandez, M., Kent, C., Klausner, K., & Bolan, G. (2002). Intimate partner violence and high risk sexual behaviors among female patients with sexually transmitted diseases. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29(7), ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008) Adverse Health Conditions and Health Risk Behaviors Associated with Intimate Partner Violence United States, MMWR. 57(5): Retrieved from: Lang, D.L., et al. (2011) Rape victimization and high risk sexual behaviors: longitudinal study of African American adolescent females. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 12(3), Many people with PTSD have flashbacks, repeatedly reliving the traumatic event in their thoughts or sleep. People with PTSD also may startle easily, lose interest in things they used to enjoy, or become more aggressive. National Council on Disability (n.d.). Section 3: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Retrieved from National Institute of Mental Health (n.d.). Anxiety Disorders. Retrieved from disorders/index.shtml 32 Zinzow, H., Resnick, H., Amstadter, A., McCauley, M., Ruggiero, K., & Kilpatrick, D. (2012). Prevalence and risk of psychiatric disorders as a function of variant rape histories: Results from a national survey of women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(6), [Hereafter cited as Zinzow (2012)] Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 12

17 Survivors of sexual assault are also more likely than non-victims to engage in risky behavior such as substance and alcohol abuse, smoking, and high-risk HIV behavior. 33 Experts believe these are a means of coping with the trauma, or that victims are otherwise self-medicating. One study found that when controlling for previous substance abuse history, sexual assault survivors were more likely to abuse alcohol than women who were not assaulted. 34 Another study found that female veterans who experienced sexual trauma in the military were twice as likely to report substance abuse, PTSD, and anxiety than female veterans who were not assaulted. 35 Sexual assault survivors are also more prone to developing eating disorders: one survey of undergraduates found that victims were seven times more likely to vomit or use laxatives to lose weight than non-victims. 36 Survivors of rape and sexual assault are also more likely to attempt or consider suicide. Research has found that men who were sexually abused in childhood are twice as likely as non-victims to attempt suicide. 37 One study found that high school students who were raped were more likely to report suicidal ideation in the past 12 months than their nonvictimized counterparts. 38 Another study reported that almost half of female veterans who were sexually assaulted in the military report suicide ideation. 39 Today, victims may be further traumatized by social media through which the details of an assault can go viral. While this is an unresearched issue, a number of high profile sexual assault cases have drawn attention to this relatively new and disturbing dynamic. 33 Cloutier, S., Martin, S. L., & Poole, C. (2002). Sexual assault among North Carolina women: prevalence and health risk factors. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56(4), ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Adverse Health Conditions and Health Risk Behaviors Associated with Intimate Partner Violence United States, MMWR. 2008; 57(5): Available at Lang, D.L., et al. Rape victimization and high risk sexual behaviors: longitudinal study of African American adolescent females. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2011; 12(3).; Kilpatrick, D.G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Sounders, B.E., Best, C.L. (1997). A 2 Year Longitudinal Analysis of the Relationships Between Violent Assault and Substance Use in Women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), Kilpatrick, D.G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Sounders, B.E., Best, C.L. (1997). A 2 Year Longitudinal Analysis of the Relationships Between Violent Assault and Substance Use in Women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), Kimerling, R., Street, A., Pavao, J., Smith, M., Cronkite, R. C., Holmes, T. H., & Frayne, S. (2010). Military related sexual trauma among veterans health administration patients returning from Afghanistan and Iraq. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8), Fischer, S., Stojek, M., & Hartzell, E. (2010). Effects of multiple forms of childhood abuse and adult sexual assault on current eating disorder symptoms. Eating Behaviors, 11(3), ; Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., King, C. R., & Rich, C. L. (2008). Sexual Victimization and Health Risk Behaviors. A Prospective Analysis of College Women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(6), Dube, Shanta R. (2005). Long Term Consequences of Childhood Sexual Abuse by Gender of Victim. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5), Basile, Lynberg, Simon, Arias, Brener, & Saltzman (2006). The Association between self reported lifetime history of forced sexual intercourse and recent health risk behaviors: Findings from the 2003 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(5), 752.e1 752.e7 (available on line only). 39 Surís, A., Link Malcolm, J., & North, C. S. (2011). Predictors of suicidal ideation in veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 13

18 Campus Sexual Assault: A Particular Problem Sexual assault is a particular problem on college campuses: 1 in 5 women has been sexually assaulted while in college. 40 The dynamics of college life appear to fuel the problem, as many survivors are victims of what s called incapacitated assault : they are sexually abused while drunk, under the influence of drugs, passed out, or otherwise incapacitated. 41 Perpetrators often prey on incapacitated women, and sometimes surreptitiously provide their victims with drugs or alcohol. 42 Perpetrators who drink prior to an assault are more likely to believe that alcohol increases their sex drive and are also more likely to think that a woman s drinking itself signals that she s interested in sex. 43 Most college victims are assaulted by someone they know, especially in incapacitated assaults. 44 And parties are often the site of the crime: a 2007 study found that 58% of incapacitated rapes and 28% of forced rapes took place at a party. 45 Notably, campus perpetrators are often serial offenders. One study found that 7% of college men admitted to committing rape or attempted rape, and 63% of these men admitted to committing multiple offenses, averaging six rapes each. 46 College survivors suffer high rates of PTSD, depression, and drug or alcohol abuse, which can hamper their ability to succeed in school. 47 Depression and anxiety are linked to higher college dropout rates, as is substance abuse. 48 Reporting rates for campus sexual assault are also very low: on average only 12% of student victims report the assault to law enforcement The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007); The Campus Sexual Assault Study was conducted by RTI International and funded by the National Institute of Justice. Data were collected using a web based survey from undergraduate students (5,466 women and 1,375 men) at two large, public universities.; Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L (2009) College Women s Experiences with Physically Forced, Alcohol or Other Drug Enabled, and Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College. Journal of American College Health, 57(6), Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Ruggiero, K. J., Conoscenti, L. M., & McCauley, J. (2007). Drug facilitated, incapacitated, and forcible rape: A national study (NCJ ). Charleston, SC: Medical University of South Carolina, National Crime Victims Research & Treatment Center.[Hereafter cited as Kilpatrick (2007)] 42 Ibid. 43 Zawacki, T., Abbey, A., Buck, P. O., McAuslan, P., & Clinton Sherrod, A. M. (2003). Perpetrators of alcohol involved sexual assaults: How do they differ from other sexual assault perpetrators and nonperpetrators? Aggressive Behavior, 29(4), The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007) 45 The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (2007). 46 Lisak, D., & Miller, P. M. (2002). Repeat Rape and Multiple Offending Among Undetected Rapists. Violence and Victims, 17(1), [Hereafter cited as Lisak (2002)] 47 Kilpatrick (2007) 48 Eisenberg, D., Golberstein, E., & Hunt, J. B. (2009). Mental Health and Academic Success in College. B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 9(1), 1 35.; Arria, A. M., Garnier Dykstra, L. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., Winick, E. R., & O'Grady, K. E. (2013). Drug use patterns and continuous enrollment in college: results from a longitudinal study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(1), Kilpatrick (2007) Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 14

19 The Economic Costs Although the economic costs of rape and sexual assault are hard to quantify and the data is limited, the existing research indicates that the costs are great. Various research studies have examined the quantifiable cost per rape, accounting for such costs as medical and victim services, loss of productivity, and law enforcement resources. Researchers also generally agree that intangible costs, such as decreased quality of life, though difficult to monetize, are also a necessary part of the cost calculus for sexual assault. (Many researches, in fact, believe the intangible costs are especially high in cases of sexual assault, due to the serious physical and mental health consequences for survivors.) Each of the studies we examined used a somewhat different methodology, but all found the costs to be significant ranging from $87,000 to $240,776 per rape. 50 In another study, the National Crime Victimization Survey found that between , 58% of female sexual assault victims were injured, 35% of whom received medical treatment. 51 For women who are raped by an intimate partner, about 36.2% are physically injured and, of those, 31% receive some type of medical care. 52 The injuries for intimate-partner rapes range from scratches, bruises, or welts to lacerations, broken bones, dislocated joints, head or spinal cord injuries, chipped or broken teeth, or internal injuries. 53 Nearly 80% of those who receive medical care are treated in a hospital, and 43.6% of those victims spend one or more nights there. 54 A 2003 CDC report on the costs of intimate partner violence found that the average medical cost for victims who received treatment was $2,084 per victimization. In half of these cases, private or group health insurers were the primary source of payment; survivors bore most of the financial burden one-fourth of the time. 55 Many survivors incur at least some out-of-pocket costs for their medical care. Also among intimate-partner rape survivors, more than one-fifth lose time from paid work, with an average loss of 8.1 days. Additionally, over one-eighth report losing time from household chores, with an average of 13.5 days lost. Nationally, rape survivors lose an estimated 1.1 million days of activity each year Miller, T.R., Cohen, M.A., & Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs and consequences: A new look. National Institute of Justice. Delisi, M. (2010). Murder by numbers: Monetary costs imposed by a sample of homicide offenders. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 21, ; Cohen, M. A., and Piquero, A.R. (2009) New Evidence on the Monetary Value of Saving a High Risk Youth, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25(1), French, Michael T., Kathryn E. McCollister, and David Reznik (2010) The Cost of Crime to Society: New Crime Specific Estimates for Policy and Program Evaluation. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 108(1 2), Planty (2013) 52 NCIPC (2003). Costs of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the United States. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, March [hereafter referred to as NCIPC (2013)]. 53 NCIPC (2003) 54 NCIPC (2003) 55 NCIPC (2003) 56 NCIPC (2003) Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 15

20 The Criminal Justice Response According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, between , only 36% of rapes or sexual assaults were reported to the police. 57 Male survivors report their assault at even lower rates than women. 58 But even when sexual assaults are reported, many assailants are not arrested and many cases are not prosecuted. Arrests Arrest rates for sexual assault cases are low. According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, approximately 12% of the 283,200 annual rape or sexual assault victimizations between resulted in an arrest at the scene or during a follow-up investigation. 59 Many factors may contribute to low arrest rates, and these cases can be challenging to investigate. However, research shows that some police officers still believe certain rape myths (e.g., that many women falsely claim rape to get attention), which may help account for the low rates. 60 Similarly, if victims do not behave the way some police officers expect (e.g., crying) an officer may believe she is making a false report 61 when, in reality, only 2-10% of reported rapes are false. 62 Sexual assault cases can also be difficult to investigate because of the effects of the trauma itself. Victims of rape and sexual assault sometimes have difficulty recalling the event, and scientific research has found that the trauma after a crime like rape can damage the parts of the brain that control memory. 63 As a result, a victim may have impaired verbal skills, short term memory loss, memory fragmentation, and delayed recall Planty (2013) 58 Hart TC, Rennison CM. (2003). Reporting crime to the police: Washington DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. 59 Planty (2013); The National Crime Victimization Survey is an annual survey of 90,000 households, comprising nearly 160,000 people. Respondents are asked about the frequency, characteristics, and consequences of criminal victimizations. For more information, visit 60 Page, A. D. (2008). Judging Women and Defining Crime: Police Officers Attitudes Toward Women and Rape. Sociological Spectrum, 28(4), Bollingmo, Guri C. (2008). Credibility of the emotional witness: A study of ratings by police investigators. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(1), Lisak, D., Gardinier, L., Nicksa, S. C., & Cote, A. M. (2010). False allegation of sexual assault: An analysis of ten years of reported cases. Violence Against Women, 16(12), Bremner, J.D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C., & Vermetten, E. (2008). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Brain Research. 167(1), Nixon, R. D., Nishith, P., & Resick, P. A. (2004). The Accumulative Effect of Trauma Exposure on Short Term and Delayed Verbal Memory in a Treatment Seeking Sample of Female Rape Victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(1), Rape and Sexual Assault: A Renewed Call to Action Page 16

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