baroque

baroque

(bərōk`), in art and architecture, a style developed in Europe, England, and the Americas during the 17th and early 18th cent.

The baroque style is characterized by an emphasis on unity among the arts. With technical brilliance, the baroque artist achieved a remarkable harmony wherein painting, sculpture, and architecture were brought together in new spatial relationships, both real and illusionary, often with spectacular visual effects. Although the restrained and classical works created by most French and English artists look very different from the exuberant works favored in central and southern Europe and in the New World, both trends in baroque art tend to engage the viewer, both physically and emotionally. In painting and sculpture this was achieved by means of highly developed naturalistic illusionism, usually heightened by dramatic lighting effects, creating an unequaled sense of theatricality, energy, and movement of forms. Architecture, departing from the classical canon revived during the Renaissance, took on the fluid, plastic aspects of sculpture.

Baroque Painting

Painters and sculptors built and expanded on the naturalistic tradition reestablished during the Renaissance. Although religious painting, history painting, allegories, and portraits were still considered the most noble subjects, landscapes, still lifes, and genre scenes were painted by such artists as Claude Lorrain, Jacob van Ruisdael, Willem Kalf, and Jan Vermeer. Caravaggio and his early followers were especially significant for their naturalistic treatment of unidealized, ordinary people. The illusionistic effects of deep space interested many painters, including Il Guercino and Andrea Pozzo. Other baroque painters opened up interior spaces by representing long files of rooms, often with extended views through doors, windows, or mirrors, as in the works of Diego Velázquez and Vermeer.

Color was manipulated for its emotional effects, ranging from the clear calm tones of Nicholas Poussin, to the warm and shimmering colors of Pietro da Cortona, to the more vivid hues of Peter Paul Rubens. A heightened sense of drama was achieved through chiaroscurochiaroscuro[Ital.,=light and dark], term once applied to an early method of printing woodcuts from several blocks and also to works in black and white or monotone. Today it is used loosely to refer to the distribution of light and dark in painting......Click the link for more information. in the works of Caravaggio and Rembrandt. Carracci and Poussin portrayed restrained feeling in accordance with the academic principles of dignity and decorum. Others, including Caravaggio, Rubens, and Rembrandt depicted religious ecstasy, physical sensuality, or individual psychology in their paintings.

Baroque Sculpture

Baroque sculptors felt free to combine different materials within a single work and often used one material to simulate another. One of the great masterpieces of baroque sculpture, Giovanni Bernini's St. Theresa from the Cornaro Chapel, for example, succumbs to an ecstatic vision on a dull-finished marble cloud in an alabaster and marble niche in which bronze rays descend from a hidden source of light. Many works of Baroque sculpture are set within elaborate architectural settings, and they often seem to be spilling out of their assigned niches or floating upward toward heaven.

Baroque Architecture

Buildings of the period are composed of great curving forms with undulating facades, ground plans of unprecedented size and complexity, and domes of various shapes, as in the churches of Francesco Borromini, Guarino Guarini, and Balthasar Neumann. Many works of baroque architecture were executed on a colossal scale, incorporating aspects of urban planning and landscape architecture. This is most clearly seen in Bernini's elliptical piazza in front of St. Peter's in Rome, or in the gardens, fountains, and palace at Versailles, designed by Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and André Le Nôtre.

Divisions of the Baroque Period

For convenience the baroque period is divided into three parts:

Early Baroque, c.1590–c.1625

The early style was preeminent under papal patronage in Rome where Carracci and Caravaggio and his followers diverged decisively from the artifice of the preceding mannerist painters (see mannerismmannerism,a style in art and architecture (c.1520–1600), originating in Italy as a reaction against the equilibrium of form and proportions characteristic of the High Renaissance......Click the link for more information.). Bernini abandoned an early mannerism in his sculpture, allowing him to express a new naturalistic vigor. In architecture, Carlo Maderno's facades for Sta. Susanna and St. Peter's moved toward a more sculptural treatment of the classical orders.

High Baroque, c.1625–c.1660

The exuberant trend in Italian art was best represented by Bernini and Borromini in architecture, by Bernini in sculpture, and by da Cortona in painting. The classicizing mode characterized the work of the expatriate painters Poussin and Claude Lorrain. This period produced an astonishing number and variety of international painters of the first rank, including Rembrandt, Rubens, Velázquez, and Anthony van Dyck.

Late Baroque, c.1660–c.1725

During this time Italy lost its position of artistic dominance to France, largely due to the patronage of Louis XIV. The late baroque style was especially popular in Germany and Austria, where many frescoes by the Tiepolo family were executed. The extraordinarily theatrical quality of the architecture in these countries is best seen in the work of Neumann and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. From Europe the baroque spread across the Atlantic Ocean to the New World. Gradually the massive forms of the baroque yielded to the lighter, more graceful outlines of the rococo.

baroque,

in music, a style that prevailed from the last decades of the 16th cent. to the first decades of the 18th cent. Its beginnings were in the late 16th-century revolt against polyphonypolyphony, music whose texture is formed by the interweaving of several melodic lines. The lines are independent but sound together harmonically. Contrasting terms are homophony, wherein one part dominates while the others form a basically chordal accompaniment, and monophony,.....Click the link for more information. that gave rise to the accompanied recitativerecitative, musical declamation for solo voice, used in opera and oratorio for dialogue and for narration. Its development at the close of the 16th cent. made possible the rise of opera......Click the link for more information. and to operaopera,drama set to music. Characteristics

The libretto may be serious or comic, although neither form necessarily excludes elements of the other. Opera differs from operetta in its musical complexity and usually in its subject matter......Click the link for more information.. With opera and recitative came the figured bassfigured bass,in music, a system of shorthand notation in which figures are written below the notes of the bass part to indicate the chords to be played. Called also thorough bass and basso continuo, it arose in the early 17th cent......Click the link for more information., used consistently in ensemble music throughout the baroque era. Renaissance polyphony persisted, however, being called the stile antico and considered more appropriate to the church than the nuove musiche. The baroque period was thus one of stylistic duality; it was an era that displayed emotional extremes (see romanticismromanticism,term loosely applied to literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and 19th cent. Characteristics of Romanticism

Resulting in part from the libertarian and egalitarian ideals of the French Revolution, the romantic movements had in common only a.....Click the link for more information.). By the end of the era major and minor tonalitytonality, in music, quality by which all tones of a composition are heard in relation to a central tone called the keynote or tonic. In music that has harmony the terms key and tonality.....Click the link for more information. had replaced the church modesmode,in music. 1 A grouping or arrangement of notes in a scale with respect to a most important note (in the pretonal modes of Western music, this note is called the final or finalis.....Click the link for more information.. Contrapuntal writing was resumed in the middle baroque period, but it now had a harmonic basis. Idiomatic writing, taking account of the individual character and capacities of instruments and voices, was characteristic of baroque music. Originating in Italy, opera, oratoriooratorio, musical composition employing chorus, orchestra, and soloists and usually, but not necessarily, a setting of a sacred libretto without stage action or scenery......Click the link for more information., and cantatacantata[Ital.,=sung], composite musical form similar to a short unacted opera or brief oratorio, developed in Italy in the baroque period. The term was first used in 1620 to refer to strophic variations in the voice part over a recurrent melody in the bass accompaniment......Click the link for more information. were the principal vocal forms. In instrumental music the sonatasonata, in music, type of instrumental composition that arose in Italy in the 17th cent.

At first the term merely distinguished an instrumental piece from a piece with voice, which was called a cantata......Click the link for more information., concertoconcerto, musical composition usually for an orchestra and a soloist or a group of soloists. In the 16th cent. concertare and concertato implied an ensemble, either vocal or instrumental......Click the link for more information., and overtureoverture,instrumental musical composition written as an introduction to an opera, ballet, oratorio, musical, or play. The earliest Italian opera overtures were simply pieces of orchestral music and were called sinfonie......Click the link for more information. were creations of the baroque. In France and Italy the baroque had by 1725 been overshadowed by its outgrowth, the rococorococo,in music, 18th-century reaction against the baroque style. Less formal and grandiose in structure, it was a graceful rather than a profound style, more hedonistic than venturesome......Click the link for more information., and it remained for Germany, where the baroque saw the flowering of Protestant church music, to bring the era to culmination in the works of J. S. BachBach, Johann Sebastian, 1685–1750, German composer and organist, b. Eisenach; one of the greatest and most influential composers of the Western world. He brought polyphonic baroque music to its culmination, creating masterful and vigorous works in almost every musical.....Click the link for more information.. The fuguefugue[Ital.,=flight], in music, a form of composition in which the basic principle is imitative counterpoint of several voices. Its main elements are: (1) a theme, or subject, stated first in one voice alone and then successively in all voices; (2) the continuation of a voice.....Click the link for more information., chorale prelude, and toccatatoccata[Ital.,=touched], type of musical composition. Early examples were written for various instruments, but the best-known form of toccata originated about the beginning of the 17th cent......Click the link for more information. were important forms of the late baroque.

Baroque

(probably from the Portuguese perola barroca, an oddly shaped pearl; or from the Latin baroco, mnemonic designation of one of the forms of syllogism in Scholastic logic), the dominant style in European art from the late 16th century to the mid-18th century.

A broader understanding of the Baroque period would include the outward forms of everyday life, carnivals, processions, and peculiarities of philosophical and scholarly expository style; thus, the Baroque period might be considered a general cultural phenomenon (like the Gothic period and the Renaissance). The baroque style reflected the crisis of feudalism during a period of initial accumulation of capital and colonial expansion, as well as the growing contradictions in religious and social consciousness. The baroque architectural style was widely used in cathedrals during the Counter-Reformation and was distinguished by its particular magnificence (Jesuit buildings; “ultrabaroque” architecture in Latin America). However, the baroque style was widely used not only in the Catholic countries but also in the Protestant countries, and later in Orthodox countries. It would be inaccurate to limit the baroque style to the Counter-Reformation and feudal reaction. “Lower baroque” forms developed at the same time as court and church baroque styles and were associated with the expression of antifeudal protest and the national liberation movements of the Slavic peoples against the Hapsburgs and the Ottoman yoke.

The baroque style was distinguished by antinomies in its perception and reflection of the world and by emotional and intellectual tension. An ascetic appeal was combined with hedonism, refinement with coarseness, and abstract symbolism with a naturalistic treatment of details. The baroque style was dynamic and ostentatious, with its own peculiar theatricality, enchantment, and illusoriness. The Baroque period adopted and remade various artistic traditions and included them in the development of national styles. The period was characterized by a striving for the interaction of different artistic media (for example, in opera), a concept of poetry as spoken painting and of painting as unspoken poetry, and a passion for the emblematic and allegorical. The baroque style was based on Scholastic logic and rhetoric and the development of complex metaphors and similes. It inherited the most expressive artistic forms from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and combined ancient classical and Christian images. The rhetorical rationalism of the Baroque period facilitated the expression of ideas by the early Enlightenment. The acceptance of the baroque style by romanticism and by the latest modernist tendencies is noteworthy.

Art and architecture

Baroque was one of the fundamental stylistic tendencies in architecture, fine arts, and decorative arts between the late 16th and mid-18th centuries. The baroque style became firmly established at a time of intensive formation of nations and national governments (mainly absolute monarchies), growth of the manufacturing industry, and, at the same time, strengthening of the feudal Catholic reaction. The art of the Baroque period was closely associated with the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the church and was called upon to glorify and propagandize their power. In addition, baroque art reflected new views on the unity, boundlessness, diversity, dramatic complexity, and eternal changeability of the world, as well as an interest in the environment, man’s surroundings, and the natural elements.

Baroque art replaced both the artistic culture of the Renaissance and the refined subjective art of mannerism. It rejected characteristic classical Renaissance ideas of the harmony and strict order of existence and the unlimited possibilities of man, his will, and his reason. Baroque aesthetics was based on the antitheses of man and the world, ideal and sensuous principles, and reason and the power of irrational forces. In baroque art, man is no longer the center of the universe. Man is a multileveled individual in a complex world of experiences, and he is drawn into the unending change and the conflicts of his environment. Baroque art was influenced by antifeudal peasant and plebeian movements and bourgeois revolutions, which brought a spirit of rebellious democratic aspirations into baroque art.

Baroque art was characterized by grandeur, magnificence, dynamism, soaring inspiration, intensity of feelings, and a passion for visual effects, a mixture of the illusory and the real, and strong contrasts in scale, rhythm, materials, textures, and light and shadow. The various art forms create a grand monumental and decorative unity whose scope astounds the imagination. The urban ensemble—streets, squares, parks, gardens—was regarded as an organized whole which develops in space and reveals its diversity to the spectator as he moves through it. Baroque palaces and churches assume a picturesque, dynamic quality and almost seem to flow into the surrounding space because of the luxurious, fanciful plasticity of the facades, the restless play of chiaroscuro, the coalescence of seemingly liquid forms, and complex, curved planes and outlines. In the formal interiors, architecture blends with multicolored sculpture, molding, and carving; mirrors and murals widen space illusorily, and ceiling frescoes create the illusion of gaping arches.

The predominant forms in baroque fine arts were virtuoso decorative compositions of religious, mythological, or allegorical subjects and formal portraits that emphasized the person’s privileged social position. In these paintings, idealized images and unrestrained hyperbole were combined with turbulent dynamism and unexpected compositional and visual effects; reality was combined with fantasy, religious affectation with emphatic sensuality. The emotional, rhythmic, and colorational unity of the whole composition, often in combination with an unconstrained freedom of the brushstroke, assumed an importance in painting. In sculpture, picturesque fluidity of form, the sensation of changeability, the formation of the image, and the wealth of points of view and impressions became important.

The art of G. Bernini, F. Borromini, and Pietro da Cortona, which was full of religious and sensual affectation; the academicism of the Bolognese school; and the democratic rebellious realism of Caravaggio arose in Italy, the birthplace of baroque art. Later, Italian baroque art evolved toward the fantastic quality of G. Guarini’s buildings, the bravura of the paintings of S. Rosa and A. Magnasco, and the dizzying lightness of G. B. Tiepolo’s paintings. In Flanders the new world view produced by revolution in the Netherlands brought powerful, new, life-affirming, realistic—and, at times, popular—principles into established baroque art (the painting of P. P. Rubens, A. van Dyck, and J. Jordaens). In 17th-century Spain some features of baroque art emerged in the ascetic architecture of J. B. de Herrera’s school, in the realistic painting of J. de Ribera and F. de Zurbarán, and in the sculpture of J. Montañés. However, it was in the 18th-century buildings by J. B. de Churriguera’s circle that baroque forms achieved unusual complexity and decorative refinement (even more hypertrophic in the ultrabaroque style in Latin America).

The splendor and luxuriousness of baroque style were given a unique interpretation in Austria (by the architects B. Fischer von Erlach and L. von Hildebrandt and the painter A. Maulbertsch), in the absolutist states of Germany (by the architects B. Neumann, A. Schlüter, Matthäus Pöppelmann, the Asam brothers, and the Dientzenhofer family), in Poland, the Czech lands, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, the Western Ukraine, and Lithuania.

In France, where classicism had become the leading style in the 17th century, the baroque style remained a secondary trend until the middle of the century; however, with the complete triumph of absolutism, the two styles were combined into a single, pompous style (the decoration of the halls of Versailles, the paintings of C. Le Brun). In the countries of intensive bourgeois development—England and Holland—the influence of the baroque style was only partial.

Baroque art developed in Russia in the first half of the 18th century and reflected the growth and consolidation of the gentry and absolute monarchy. Despite the generally class nature of the Baroque period, the Russian Baroque period was free from exaltation and mysticism (which were characteristic of the Baroque period in Catholic countries) and had a number of national features conditioned by a feeling of pride in the achievements of the government and the people.

Russian baroque architecture, which reached a majestic scope in the city and country ensembles of St. Petersburg, Peterhof, Tsarskoe Selo, and others, is distinguished by the splendid clarity and compositional unity of buildings and architectural complexes (the architects M. G. Zemtsov, V. V. Rastrelli, D. V. Ukhtomskii, S. I. Chevakinskii). Once freed from medieval religious chains, the fine arts turned to secular social themes and the image of active man (the sculpture of B. K. Rastrelli and others). In Russia, as in other countries, the Baroque period marked the rise of the decorative arts, which were closely related to architecture. In the first half of the 18th century the baroque style evolved everywhere toward the graceful lightness of the rococo style, but it also coexisted and interacted with the rococo. Beginning in the 1760’s, the baroque style was gradually displaced by classicism.

The concept of the baroque style is often applied to the entire artistic culture of the 17th century, including phenomena which are far from baroque in content and in style (for example, the Naryshkin baroque or the Moscow baroque in Russian architecture at the end of the 17th century).

Literature

The term “baroque” was applied to literature as early as the mid-19th century (G. Carducci, 1860; Porem-bovich, 1893). In the 1920’s a number of heavily subjective interpretations of the baroque style were advanced by expressionists and by representatives of the spiritual historical school. The term “baroque” is often used to designate precious literature (la préciosité) in France, Gongorism in Spain, Marinism in Italy, metaphysical poetry in England, and scholastic court poetry in Russia. However, the application of the term extends beyond these usages. In a broader sense, the baroque is regarded as a general style, historically natural in European literary development. The idea of a lower baroque style which answered the demands of the burgher class and the popular masses has also been suggested. Various manifestations of intellectual ferment connected with social Utopian movements and hopes also influenced forms of Baroque literature (J. Böhme, Q. Kuhl-mann, J. Amos Comenius).

Baroque literature was characterized by rhetoric and complex metaphors based on the “principle of wit” (or con-ceptism), which called for unexpected and striking combinations of “distant” ideas, images, and representations. The baroque style was marked by a striving for sharp contrasts, exaltation, and picturesqueness and by a passion for polymathy, the exotic, and the grotesque. Its leading genres were tragedy—with an abundance of horrors, bloody scenes, and outbursts of passion—and satire (not devoid of literary quality). A feeling of instability and anxiety produced by wars and social upheavals led to the theme of the falsity and vanity of existence (vanitas), which was taken up by the Counter-Reformation. In the lower stratum of the baroque style this theme reflected the real peripeteia of life, which rise up and throw man into the abyss. Man feels like a chip in the eddies of life; the theme of vanity corresponds to the fates of the soldiers of fortune, landsknechts, and adventurers of the period. The lower baroque style adopted set rhetorical formulas, motifs, and plot outlines from chivalrous and “precious” novels and satirically reinterpreted, reworked, and used them to build the important new form of the popular novel (Simplicissimus by Grimmelshausen). Baroque prose is often amorphous and full of heavy erudition and didacticism. The peripheral genres such as travel literature and literary collections combining novelistic and learned encyclopedic material became very important.

Baroque literature is represented in Spain by Góngora’s poetry, P. Calderon’s tragedies, Tirso de Molina’s dramas, and, to some extent, by the picaresque novel; in Italy, by the poetry of T. Tasso and G. Marino; in England, by J. Webster’s dramas; in Germany, by the tragedies of A. Gryphius and Lohenstein and the satire of J. Moscherosch and Grimmelshausen; in France, by D’Aubigné; in Croatia, by Gundulic’s epic poem, the dramas of I. Djordjič, and others. Some experts regard as baroque or find baroque features in the late drama of Shakespeare (The Tempest) and in the works of Milton, Vondel, Corneille, and many others.

In Russia the rise of the baroque style was closely related to the Ukrainian church sermon and the school drama. The baroque style is represented by the poetry of S. Polotskii and S. Medvedev. Baroque features such as antinomy, a tragic narrative tone, and a break with traditional genres are found in Avvakum’s Autobiography. Beginning in the late 17th century in Russia, the baroque style included the church sermon (S. Iavorskii, F. Prokopovich), the school theater, and the panegyric poetry of Petrine triumphs. The subsequent secularization of themes and motifs and the change in the system of versification altered and obscured the relationship of the new Russian poetry to baroque poetry. However, the work of Lomonosov, with its turbulent style, intense metaphors, striking imagery, pictorial sharpness, rhetorical style, and evocation of the fine arts (mosaics and illuminations), opened a new stage in the development of the baroque style in Russia.

Music

In foreign musicology the term “baroque” has been used since the early 20th century. The Baroque period of music is considered to be the period of the development of musical culture in European countries which coincided with the Baroque period of architecture and fine arts. The demarcation of the Baroque period of music is based primarily upon some general features of compositional technique. Thus, the period from the end of the 16th to the mid-18th centuries is said to be marked by the establishment of the basso continuo; the formation of the major-minor system; the recognition of chords and the functional correlations of harmonies, as well as of strong and weak beats (related to the introduction of measures); and the appearance of new musical genres and forms—the partita, sonata, ricercar, fugue, and especially the concerto. The weaknesses of this concept of the Baroque period of music are shown by the coexistence of different and sometimes contradictory musical phenomena—from the works of the madrigalists at the turn of the 17th century to the works of G. F. Handel and J. S. Bach. Soviet researchers think that during this period of European musical art, classicism appeared at the same time as the baroque style and interacted with it. Soviet experts deny that an integral Baroque period of music can be isolated. According to the views of Soviet musicologists, the work of the major composers of this period—Handel and Bach—is not confined to any one style. Soviet musicologists think that not formal and technical aspects but definite kinds of images and the character of musical expressiveness—its grandeur, magnificence, ornamentation, expression of powerful emotions, and so forth—are fundamental in the baroque style of music. The baroque style of music makes a distinction between the striving for a profound representation of the inner world of man, for dramatism, and for a synthesis of the arts (opera, the oratorio, the cantata, and passions) and the striving for freedom from language (the development of instrumental genres). The baroque style of music is most clearly shown in Italian music (the monumental vocal instrumental works of composers of the Venetian school led by G. Gabrieli; the operatic compositions of M. A. Cesti; the organ works of G. Frescobaldi; and others) and a little later, in German music (the operas of R. Keiser, the organ works of D. Buxtehude, the clavier works of J. Kuhnau, and others).

Baroque

A European style of architecture and decoration which developed in the 17th cent. in Italy from late Renaissance and Mannerist forms, and culminated in the churches, monasteries, and palaces of southern Germany and Austria in the early 18th cent. It is characterized by interpenetration of oval spaces, curved surfaces, and conspicuous use of decoration, sculpture, and color. Its late phase is called Rococo. The style prevailing in the restrained architectural climate of England and France can be called Baroque classicism.

baroque

1. a style of architecture and decorative art that flourished throughout Europe from the late 16th to the early 18th century, characterized by extensive ornamentation

2. a 17th-century style of music characterized by extensive use of the thorough bass and of ornamentation

Baroque

baroque

(2)

Feature-encrusted; complex; gaudy; verging on excessive. Said
of hardware or (especially) software designs, this has many of
the connotations of elephantine or monstrosity but is less
extreme and not pejorative in itself. "Metafont even has
features to introduce random variations to its letterform
output. Now *that* is baroque!"

In the final section of the collection, on the poetics of romance in the baroque era, Sergio Cappello argues that the usefulness of romance is discussed in terms of its allegorical sense, Ullrich Langer notes a debate in sixteenth-century texts on the desirability of narrative closure, Marian Rothstein finds baroque audiences still able to read, like medieval audiences, for the 'sens' of a romance through its 'conjointure', while Camille Esmein regards the seventeenth century as the point at which medieval romances were no longer deemed acceptable owing to their lack of verisimilitude and loose rules of composition.

These two ideas, of the malleability of time that sometimes folds back on itself as it travels through space, and of the instability of genre in which the verbal is repeatedly pushed toward the visual in the Baroque and its avatars, are embodied as well as described by her book.

What might appear at first glance to be yet another easily digestible program of choral baroque favorites is, in fact, something much more exciting--in addition to the easily digestible choral baroque favorites that are included here as filler, this lovely disc offers Handel's recently discovered setting of the hymn "Gloria in Excelsis Deo" for soprano, violins, and continuo.

However, in the eighteenth century, Austria and other countries like France and the Catholic parts of Germany [22] showed a considerable change in religious attitudes: baroque piety, which was marked by the sensuous and theatrical expression of religious beliefs, by strong contrasts and ostentation, gave way to the more sober Reform Catholicism.

The crux of MacFadyen's argument is found in the assumption that Brodsky follows the dialectical cycle of subject/ object, freedom/necessity, time/infinity, spirit/flesh, faith/reason, and life/death in conceits that are analogous to the development of Baroque poetry from John Donne, through Richard Crashaw, to Abraham Cowley.

Although its precise wording is not perhaps entirely warranted by the attempted linkage between the Celestina and the Baroque, the essays are indeed to a greater or lesser extent concerned with two interconnected issues - modernity in the Hispanic literary tradition and the Baroque as the expression of the modern.

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