Iglesia de San Lucas, Toledo

The Iglesia de San Lucas is located in front of the Bu hill at southeast of the city of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. In a high wall, attached to the church, was located the old parish cemetery, where it is told that the last Mozarabs of the city were buried.[1]

Most probably it was built in Mozarab style in the 12th-century,[2] in the 17th-century a Baroque chapel was added to it housing the Virgen de Esperanza.

The church is cited in a poem attributed to St. Ildefonsus, according to it was erected in 641 by Evancio, a son of Nicholas, who married Blesila and who were the grandfathers of St. Ildefonsus..[1] This fact can not be confirmed and it could even be a mosque adapted as a Christian church, due to the irregular arrangement of the south wall and the asymmetry of the immediate nave of the epistle.[1]

The church was one of the Mozarab churches of Toledo that had privilege to maintain this rite after the Reconquista.

1.
Toledo, Spain
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Toledo is a city and municipality located in central Spain, it is the capital of the province of Toledo and the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986 for its cultural and monumental heritage and historical co-existence of Christian, Muslim. Toledo has a history in the production of bladed weapons, which are now popular souvenirs of the city, people who were born or have lived in Toledo include Brunhilda of Austrasia, Al-Zarqali, Garcilaso de la Vega, Eleanor of Toledo, Alfonso X and El Greco. It was also the place of important historic events such as the Visigothic Councils of Toledo, as of 2015, the city has a population of 83,226 and an area of 232.1 km2. The town was granted arms in the 16th century, which by special royal privilege was based on the royal of arms of Spain, Toledo is mentioned by the Roman historian Livy as urbs parva, sed loco munita. At that time, Toletum was a city of the Carpetani tribe and it was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a civitas stipendiaria, that is, a tributary city of non-citizens. It later achieved the status of municipium by Flavian times, with this status, city officials, even of Carpetani origin, obtained Roman citizenship for public service, and the forms of Roman law and politics were increasingly adopted. At approximately this time were constructed in Toletum a Roman circus, city walls, public baths, and a municipal water supply and storage system. The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania, at 423 metres long and 100 metres wide, chariot races were held on special holidays and were also commissioned by private citizens to celebrate career achievements. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, archaeologists have also identified portions of a special seat of the sort used by the city elites to attend circus games, called a sella curulis. The circus could hold up to 15000 spectators, during Roman times, Toledo was never a provincial capital nor a conventus iuridicus. It started to gain importance in late antiquity, there are indications that large private houses within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the third and fourth centuries. Games were held in the circus into the fourth and early fifth centuries C. E. also an indication of active city life. A church council was held in Toledo in the year 400 to discuss the conflict with Priscillianism, a second council of Toledo was held in 527. The Visigothic king Theudis was in Toledo in 546, where he promulgated a law and this is strong though not certain evidence that Toledo was the chief residence for Theudis. King Athanagild died in Toledo, probably in 568 and this changed with Liuvigild, who brought the peninsula under his control. The Visigoths ruled from Toledo until the Moors conquered the Iberian peninsula in the years of 8th century. Today the historic center is pierced of basements, passages, wells, baths, a series of church councils was held in Toledo under the Visigoths

2.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth

3.
Mozarabs
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The Mozarabs is a modern historical term that refers to the Iberian Christians who lived under Moorish rule in Al-Andalus. Their descendants remained unconverted to Islam, however they were mostly fluent in Arabic, the local Romance vernaculars, heavily permeated by Arabic, spoken by Christians and Muslim alike has also come to be known as Mozarabic language. Mozarabs were mostly Roman Catholics of the Visigothic or Mozarabic Rite, most of the Mozarabs were descendants of Hispanic Christians and were primarily speakers of the Mozarabic language under Islamic rule. They also included members of the former Visigothic ruling elite who did not convert to Islam or emigrate northwards after the Muslim conquest. A few were Arab and Berber Christians coupled with Muslim converts to Christianity who, as Arabic speakers, a prominent example of Muslims who became Mozarabs by embracing Christianity is the Andalusian rebel and Anti-Umayyad military leader, Umar ibn Hafsun. Some Mozarabs were even Conversos Sephardi Jews who likewise became part of the Mozarabic milieu, separate Mozarab enclaves were located in the large Muslim cities, especially Toledo, Córdoba, Zaragoza, and Seville. Christians and Jews were designated dhimmi under Sharia, despite their restrictions, the dhimmi were fully protected by the Muslim rulers and did not have to fight in case of war, because they paid the jizyah. Some of them held high offices in the Islamic administration under some rulers. Conversion to Islam was encouraged by the Ummayad Caliphs and Emirs of Córdoba, many Mozarabs converted to Islam to avoid the heavy Jizya tax which they were subjected to as Dhimmis. Apostasy, however, for one who had raised as a Muslim or had embraced Islam, was a crime punishable by death. Until the mid-9th century, relations between Muslims and the majority Christian population of Al-Andalus, were relatively cordial, Christian resistance to the first wave of Muslim conquerors was unsuccessful. In exchange, Theodomir received Abd al-Aziz promise to both his property and his jurisdiction in the province of Murcia. There was no change in the composition of the people on the land, there is also substantial evidence that Mozarabs fought in the defence of the thaghr, participating in raids against Christian neighbours and struggles between Muslim factions. For instance, in 936, a significant number of Christians holed up in Calatayud with the rebel Mutarraf, there is very little evidence of any Christian resistance at Al-Andalus in the 9th century. Evidence points to a rapid attrition in the North, although Mozarab merchants traded in Andalusi markets, they were neither influential nor numerous before the middle of the 12th century. This was owed to commercial disinterest and disorganization in the early Middle Ages rather than any specific or religious impediments set up by the Muslim rulers, unlike Andalusi Muslims and Jews, Mozarabs had little interest in commerce because of their general perception of trade as lowly and despicable. It is often assumed that Mozarab merchants forged a vital commercial and cultural link between the north and south across the Iberian frontiers. Mozarab refugees may have had influence in northern Iberian trade at places like Toledo, the level of literary culture among the northern Christians was inferior to that of their Mozarab brethren in the historic cities to the south, due to the prosperity of Al-Andalus

4.
Puerta de Bisagra Nueva
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The Puerta de Bisagra Nueva is the best known city gate of Toledo, Spain. The gate is of Moorish origin, but the part was built in 1559 by Alonso de Covarrubias. It carries the coat of arms of the emperor Charles V and it superseded the Puerta Bisagra Antigua as the main entrance to the city

5.
Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes
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The Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes is an Isabelline style monastery in Toledo, in Castile-La Mancha, Spain, built by the Catholic Monarchs. Prince John of Portugal also celebrated his victory over the Castilian army of the Catholic monarchs with a procession on each anniversary of the battle. Undoubtedly, the battle represented a political victory for the Catholic Monarchs, assuring them the throne. As summarized by the Spanish academic historian Rafael Casas and this monastery was initially named San Juan de la Reyna and was conceived to be the mausoleum of the Catholic Monarchs. They would change their plans later, choosing Granada as their burial place, the monasterys construction began in 1477 following plans drawn by architect Juan Guas, and was completed in 1504. It was dedicated to Saint John the Evangelist for use by Franciscan friars, in 1809 the monastery was badly damaged by Napoleons troops during their occupation of Toledo, and abandoned in 1835. Restoration began in 1883 but was not completed until 1967, the monastery was restored to the Franciscan order in 1954. The monastery is an example of Gothic style with Spanish and Flemish influences, the church is notable for its decoration of the coats of arms of the Catholic Monarchs held by eagles. Its cloister has a small garden, the ground floors ceiling is formed of German cross vaults set with figures of saints interspersed with animal and plant motifs, all created by the Toledo sculptor Cecilio Béjar in the 20th century. Articles Beretta, Antonio Ballesteros- Fernando el Católico, Ejército revue, Ministerio del Ejercito, Madrid, nr 16, p. 54-66, May,1941. Casas, Rafael Dominguez San Juan de los reyes, espacio funerário y aposento régio – in Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia, number 56, p. 364-383, duro, Cesáreo Fernández La batalla de Toro. Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica, Madrid, Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tomo 38. Palenzuela, Vicente Ángel Alvarez La guerra civil y el enfrentamiento con Portugal Serrano, António Macia- San Juan de los Reyes y la batalla de Toro. Toledo, Real Academia de Bellas Artes y Ciencias Históricas de Toledo, ISSN, 0210-6310 Spanish Wikipedia article Books Dumont, Jean La “imcomparable” Isabel la Catolica, Madrid, Encuentro Editiones, printed by Rogar-Fuenlabrada. González, Justo L. Historia del Cristianismo, Miami, Editorial Unilit, ISBN1560634766 Manchado, Ana Isabel Carrasco Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad. Propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio, Madrid, Sílex ediciones, mendonça, Manuela O Sonho da União Ibérica - guerra Luso-Castelhana 1475/1479, Lisboa, Quidnovi, book description. ISBN 978-9728998882 Chronicles Mariana, Juan de Historia General de España, tome V Barcelona, pina, Ruy de Chronica de El- rei D. Affonso V, Project Gutenberg Ebook, Biblioteca de Clássicos Portugueses, 3rd book, Lisboa. Pulgar, Hernando del Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón, Valencia, resende, Garcia de - Vida e feitos d’El Rei D. João II electronic version, wikisource

6.
Synagogue of El Transito
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The Synagogue of El Transito, once also known as the Synagogue Samuel ha-Levi is a historic building in Toledo, Spain. It is famous for its rich decoration, which bears comparison with the Alcazar of Seville. It was founded as a synagogue by Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia, Treasurer to Peter of Castile, the founder eventually fell foul of the king and was executed in 1360. The synagogue was converted to a church after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, the building, which is in a good state of conservation for its age, is currently a museum. The synagogue was used as military headquarters during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1877 the building became a national monument, the transformation of the building into the Sephardi Museum, as it is now officially called, started around 1910. It was initiated by the Veca-Inclan foundation and this Synagogue was the private family synagogue of the kings wealthy treasurer, Don Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia. With the apparent approval of the king, he defied all the laws about synagogues being smaller and lower than churches, and plain of decoration. It features Nasrid-style polychrome stucco-work, Hebrew inscriptions praising the king and himself, and quotations from the Psalms, as well as multifoil arches, arabic inscriptions are intertwined with the floral patterns in the stucco pane. Women were separated from men during the ceremonies, but were allowed to watch, the Gallery is located on the first floor of the southern wall, having five open windows looking down towards Aron Kodesh or the Hechal

7.
Toledo Cathedral
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The Primate Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Toledo, Spain. It is the seat of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Toledo, the cathedral of Toledo is one of the three 13th-century High Gothic cathedrals in Spain and is considered, in the opinion of some authorities, to be the magnum opus of the Gothic style in Spain. It also combines some characteristics of the Mudéjar style, mainly in the cloister, the spectacular incorporation of light and the structural achievements of the ambulatory vaults are some of its more remarkable aspects. It is built with limestone from the quarries of Olihuelas. It is popularly known as Dives Toletana, for many years, an unwritten popular tradition has held that there was originally a church from the era of the first Archbishop Eugene located in the same place as the present cathedral. The city had been the seat of Visigothic Spain. The numerous Councils of Toledo attest to its important ecclesiastical past, also, the abjuration of Arianism on the part of Reccared occurred there. The Muslim invasion did not immediately eliminate the Christian presence and the bishopric remained established in the church of Saint Mary of Alfizén, the Visigothic church was torn down and the main mosque of the city of Toledo was erected in its place. The city of Toledo was reconquered by Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile, naturally, the preservation of the main mosque was integral to this compromise. On 25 October 1087, the archbishop in cooperation with Queen Constance sent a contingent to seize the mosque by force. They proceeded to install an altar and hung a bell in the minaret. In gratitude for this gesture, the Cathedral Chapter dedicated a homage to Walid and ordered his effigy to be placed on one of the pillars in the main chapel, thus the conversion of the Toledan mosque was upheld and it remained consecrated as a Christian cathedral. It is possible that it appeared much like the Church of the Savior of Toledo. King Alfonso VI made important donations to the new church, on 18 December 1086, the cathedral was placed under the advocacy of María and it was granted villas, hamlets, mills and one third of the revenues of all the rest of the churches of the city. Pope Urban II recognised this church in 1088 as the cathedral over the rest of the kingdom. The mosque-cathedral remained intact until the 13th century, when in the year 1222 a Papal bull issued by the Pope authorised the construction of a new cathedral which was begun in 1224. The official ceremony of the laying of the foundation took place in 1226. Throughout the 13th century the cathedrals income tax was raised through the incorporation of Alcalá de Henares into its archiepiscopal territories in 1129