Food security

Food security is a measure of de avaiwabiwity of food and individuaws' abiwity to access it. Affordabiwity is onwy one factor. There is evidence of food security being a concern many dousands of years ago, wif centraw audorities in ancient China and ancient Egypt being known to rewease food from storage in times of famine. At de 1974 Worwd Food Conference de term "food security" was defined wif an emphasis on suppwy. They said food security is de "avaiwabiwity at aww times of adeqwate, nourishing, diverse, bawanced and moderate worwd food suppwies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fwuctuations in production and prices".[1] Later definitions added demand and access issues to de definition, uh-hah-hah-hah. The finaw report of de 1996 Worwd Food Summit states dat food security "exists when aww peopwe, at aww times, have physicaw and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet deir dietary needs and food preferences for an active and heawdy wife."[2][3]

Househowd food security exists when aww members, at aww times, have access to enough food for an active, heawdy wife.[4] Individuaws who are food secure do not wive in hunger or fear of starvation.[5] Food insecurity, on de oder hand, is defined by de United States Department of Agricuwture (USDA) as a situation of "wimited or uncertain avaiwabiwity of nutritionawwy adeqwate and safe foods or wimited or uncertain abiwity to acqwire acceptabwe foods in sociawwy acceptabwe ways".[6] Food security incorporates a measure of resiwience to future disruption or unavaiwabiwity of criticaw food suppwy due to various risk factors incwuding droughts, shipping disruptions, fuew shortages, economic instabiwity, and wars. In de years 2011–2013, an estimated 842 miwwion peopwe were suffering from chronic hunger.[7] The Food and Agricuwture Organization of de United Nations, or FAO, identified de four piwwars of food security as avaiwabiwity, access, utiwization, and stabiwity.[8] The United Nations (UN) recognized de Right to Food in de Decwaration of Human Rights in 1948,[5] and has since said dat it is vitaw for de enjoyment of aww oder rights.[9]

The 1996 Worwd Summit on Food Security decwared dat "food shouwd not be used as an instrument for powiticaw and economic pressure".[3]

Food security can be measured by caworie to intake per person per day, avaiwabwe on a househowd budget.[10][11] In generaw, de objective of food security indicators and measurements is to capture some or aww of de main components of food security in terms of food avaiwabiwity, accessibiwity, and utiwization/adeqwacy. Whiwe avaiwabiwity (production and suppwy) and utiwization/adeqwacy (nutritionaw status/andropometric measurement) are easier to estimate and, derefore, more popuwar, accessibiwity (de abiwity to acqwire de sufficient qwantity and qwawity of food) remains wargewy ewusive.[12] The factors infwuencing househowd food accessibiwity are often context-specific.[13]

Severaw measurements have been devewoped to capture de access component of food security, wif some notabwe exampwes devewoped by de USAID-funded Food and Nutrition Technicaw Assistance (FANTA) project, cowwaborating wif Corneww and Tufts University and Africare and Worwd Vision, uh-hah-hah-hah.[13][14][15][16] These incwude:

Househowd Dietary Diversity Scawe (HDDS) – measures de number of different food groups consumed over a specific reference period (24hrs/48hrs/7days).

Househowd Hunger Scawe (HHS)- measures de experience of househowd food deprivation based on a set of predictabwe reactions, captured drough a survey and summarized in a scawe.

Coping Strategies Index (CSI) – assesses househowd behaviors and rates dem based on a set of varied estabwished behaviors on how househowds cope wif food shortages. The medodowogy for dis research is based on cowwecting data on a singwe qwestion: "What do you do when you do not have enough food, and do not have enough money to buy food?"[17][18][19]

Food insecurity is measured in de United States by qwestions in de Census Bureau's Current Popuwation Survey. The qwestions asked are about anxiety dat de househowd budget is inadeqwate to buy enough food, inadeqwacy in de qwantity or qwawity of food eaten by aduwts and chiwdren in de househowd, and instances of reduced food intake or conseqwences of reduced food intake for aduwts and for chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah.[20] A Nationaw Academy of Sciences study commissioned by de USDA criticized dis measurement and de rewationship of "food security" to hunger, adding "it is not cwear wheder hunger is appropriatewy identified as de extreme end of de food security scawe."[21]

The FAO, Worwd Food Programme (WFP), and Internationaw Fund for Agricuwturaw Devewopment (IFAD) cowwaborate to produce The State of Food Insecurity in de Worwd. The 2012 edition described improvements made by de FAO to de prevawence of undernourishment (PoU) indicator dat is used to measure rates of food insecurity. New features incwude revised minimum dietary energy reqwirements for individuaw countries, updates to de worwd popuwation data, and estimates of food wosses in retaiw distribution for each country. Measurements dat factor into de indicator incwude dietary energy suppwy, food production, food prices, food expenditures, and vowatiwity of de food system.[22] The stages of food insecurity range from food secure situations to fuww-scawe famine.[23]
A new peer-reviewed journaw, Food Security: The Science, Sociowogy and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food, began pubwishing in 2009.[24]

Number of peopwe affected by undernourishment in 2010–12 (by region, in miwwions)[25]

Wif its prevawence of undernourishment (PoU) indicator, de FAO reported dat awmost 870 miwwion peopwe were chronicawwy undernourished in de years 2010–2012. This represents 12.5% of de gwobaw popuwation, or 1 in 8 peopwe. The 2018 prevawence of food insecurity decwined, for de first time, to de pre-recession(2007) wevew of 11.1 percent.[26] Higher rates occur in devewoping countries, where 852 miwwion peopwe (about 15% of de popuwation) are chronicawwy undernourished. The report noted dat Asia and Latin America have achieved reductions in rates of undernourishment dat put dese regions on track for achieving de Miwwennium Devewopment Goaw of hawving de prevawence of undernourishment by 2015.[22] The UN noted dat about 2 biwwion peopwe do not consume a sufficient amount of vitamins and mineraws.[27] In India, de second-most popuwous country in de worwd, 30 miwwion peopwe have been added to de ranks of de hungry since de mid-1990s and 46% of chiwdren are underweight.[28]

Famines have been freqwent in worwd history. Some have kiwwed miwwions and substantiawwy diminished de popuwation of a warge area. The most common causes have been drought and war, but de greatest famines in history were caused by economic powicy.

The persistence of wet markets has been described as "criticaw for ensuring urban food security",[30][31] particuwarwy in Chinese cities.[32] The infwuence of wet markets on urban food security incwude food pricing and physicaw accessibiwity.[32]

Food insecurity has been an issue for Mexico droughout its history. Awdough food avaiwabiwity is not de issue, severe deficiencies in de accessibiwity of food contributes to de insecurity. Between 2003 and 2005, de totaw Mexican food suppwy was weww above de sufficient to meet de reqwirements of de Mexican popuwation, averaging 3,270 kiwocawories per daiwy capita, higher dan de minimum reqwirements of 1,850 kiwocawories per daiwy capita. However, at weast 10 percent of de popuwation in every Mexican state suffers from inadeqwate food access. In nine states, 25–35 percent wive in food-insecure househowds. More dan 10 percent of de popuwations of seven Mexican states faww into de category of Serious Food Insecurity.[33]

The issue of food inaccessibiwity is magnified by chronic chiwd mawnutrition, as weww as obesity in chiwdren, adowescents, and famiwy.[34]

Mexico is vuwnerabwe to drought, which can furder crippwe agricuwture.[35]

In 2019, Singapore managed to produce onwy 13% of weafy vegetabwes, 24% of its eggs, and 9% of its fish. In 1965, it was stiww abwe to produce 60% of its vegetabwe demand, 80% of its pouwtry and 100% of its eggs. In 2019, it announced it waunched de "30 by 30" program which aims to drasticawwy reduce its food insecurity drough hydroponic farms and aqwacuwture farms.[36][37]

The Agricuwture Department defines food insecurity as "wimited or uncertain avaiwabiwity of nutritionawwy adeqwate and safe foods or wimited or uncertain abiwity to acqwire acceptabwe foods in sociawwy acceptabwe ways."[38] Food security is defined by de USDA as "access by aww peopwe at aww times to enough food for an active, heawdy wife."[39]

Nationaw Food Security Surveys are de main survey toow used by de USDA to measure food security in de United States. Based on respondents' answers to survey qwestions, de househowd can be pwaced on a continuum of food security defined by de USDA. This continuum has four categories: high food security, marginaw food security, wow food security, and very wow food security.[38] The continuum of food security ranges from househowds dat consistentwy have access to nutritious food to househowds where at weast one or more members routinewy go widout food due to economic reasons.[40]Economic Research Service report number 155 (ERS-155) estimates dat 14.5 percent (17.6 miwwion) of US househowds were food insecure at some point in 2012.

The Democratic Repubwic of Congo is de second-wargest country in Africa and is deawing wif food insecurity. Awdough dey have an abundance of naturaw resources, dey wack accessibiwity of essentiaw foods, which makes it difficuwt for de Congowese peopwe in deir daiwy wives. Mawnutrition is high among chiwdren, which affects deir abiwity, and chiwdren who wive in a ruraw area are affected more dan chiwdren who wive in an urban area.[44] In de Democratic Repubwic of Congo, about 33% of househowds are food insecure; it is 60% in eastern provinces.[45] A study showed de correwation of food insecurity negativewy affecting at-risk HIV aduwts in de Democratic Repubwic of Congo.[45]

In 2007–2008, grain prices increased and de peopwe in de Democratic Repubwic of de Congo went to civiw unrest. There were riots and protests. Hunger is freqwent in de country, but sometimes it is to de extreme dat many famiwies cannot afford to eat every day.[46] Bushmeat trade was used to measure de trend of food security. The trend signifies de amount of consumption in urban and ruraw areas. Urban areas mainwy consume bushmeat because dey cannot afford oder types of meat.[47]

In 2010, de government of de United States began de Feed de Future Initiative.[48] The initiative is expected to work on de basis of country-wed priorities dat caww for consistent support by de governments, donor organizations, de private sector, and de civiw society to accompwish its wong-term goaws.[48]

The Worwd Summit on Food Security, hewd in Rome in 1996, aimed to renew a gwobaw commitment to de fight against hunger. The Food and Agricuwture Organization of de United Nations (FAO) cawwed de summit in response to widespread under-nutrition and growing concern about de capacity of agricuwture to meet future food needs. The conference produced two key documents, de Rome Decwaration on Worwd Food Security and de Worwd Food Summit Pwan of Action, uh-hah-hah-hah.[3][49]

The Rome Decwaration cawwed for de members of de United Nations to work to hawve de number of chronicawwy undernourished peopwe on de Earf by de year 2015. The Pwan of Action set a number of targets for government and non-governmentaw organizations for achieving food security, at de individuaw, househowd, nationaw, regionaw and gwobaw wevews.

Anoder Worwd Summit on Food Security took pwace at de FAO's headqwarters in Rome between November 16 and 18, 2009.[50] The decision to convene de summit was taken by de Counciw of FAO in June 2009, at de proposaw of FAO Director-Generaw Dr Jacqwes Diouf. Heads of state and government attended dis summit.

The WHO states dat dere are dree piwwars dat determine food security: food avaiwabiwity, food access, and food use and misuse.[51] The FAO adds a fourf piwwar: de stabiwity of de first dree dimensions of food security over time.[5] In 2009, de Worwd Summit on Food Security stated dat de "four piwwars of food security are avaiwabiwity, access, utiwization, and stabiwity".[8]

Food avaiwabiwity rewates to de suppwy of food drough production, distribution, and exchange.[52]Food production is determined by a variety of factors incwuding wand ownership and use; soiw management; crop sewection, breeding, and management; wivestock breeding and management; and harvesting.[53] Crop production can be affected by changes in rainfaww and temperatures.[52] The use of wand, water, and energy to grow food often competes wif oder uses, which can affect food production, uh-hah-hah-hah.[54] Land used for agricuwture can be used for urbanization or wost to desertification, sawinization, and soiw erosion due to unsustainabwe agricuwturaw practices.[54] Crop production is not reqwired for a country to achieve food security. Nations don't have to have de naturaw resources reqwired to produce crops in order to achieve food security, as seen in de exampwes of Japan[55][56] and Singapore.[57]

Because food consumers outnumber producers in every country,[57] food must be distributed to different regions or nations.
Food distribution invowves de storage, processing, transport, packaging, and marketing of food.[53] Food-chain infrastructure and storage technowogies on farms can awso affect de amount of food wasted in de distribution process.[54] Poor transport infrastructure can increase de price of suppwying water and fertiwizer as weww as de price of moving food to nationaw and gwobaw markets.[54] Around de worwd, few individuaws or househowds are continuouswy sewf-rewiant for food. This creates de need for a bartering, exchange, or cash economy to acqwire food.[52] The exchange of food reqwires efficient trading systems and market institutions, which can affect food security.[58] Per capita worwd food suppwies are more dan adeqwate to provide food security to aww, and dus food accessibiwity is a greater barrier to achieving food security.[57]

Goats are an important part of de sowution to gwobaw food security because dey are fairwy wow-maintenance and easy to raise and farm.

Food access refers to de affordabiwity and awwocation of food, as weww as de preferences of individuaws and househowds.[52] The UN Committee on Economic, Sociaw, and Cuwturaw Rights noted dat de causes of hunger and mawnutrition are often not a scarcity of food but an inabiwity to access avaiwabwe food, usuawwy due to poverty.[9] Poverty can wimit access to food, and can awso increase how vuwnerabwe an individuaw or househowd is to food price spikes.[58] Access depends on wheder de househowd has enough income to purchase food at prevaiwing prices or has sufficient wand and oder resources to grow its own food.[59] Househowds wif enough resources can overcome unstabwe harvests and wocaw food shortages and maintain deir access to food.[57]

There are two distinct types of access to food: direct access, in which a househowd produces food using human and materiaw resources, and economic access, in which a househowd purchases food produced ewsewhere.[53] Location can affect access to food and which type of access a famiwy wiww rewy on, uh-hah-hah-hah.[59] The assets of a househowd, incwuding income, wand, products of wabor, inheritances, and gifts can determine a househowd's access to food.[53] However, de abiwity to access sufficient food may not wead to de purchase of food over oder materiaws and services.[58] Demographics and education wevews of members of de househowd as weww as de gender of de househowd head determine de preferences of de househowd, which infwuences de type of food dat are purchased.[59] A househowd's access to enough and nutritious food may not assure adeqwate food intake of aww househowd members, as intrahousehowd food awwocation may not sufficientwy meet de reqwirements of each member of de househowd.[58] The USDA adds dat access to food must be avaiwabwe in sociawwy acceptabwe ways, widout, for exampwe, resorting to emergency food suppwies, scavenging, steawing, or oder coping strategies.[4]

The next piwwar of food security is food utiwization, which refers to de metabowism of food by individuaws.[57] Once food is obtained by a househowd, a variety of factors affect de qwantity and qwawity of food dat reaches members of de househowd. In order to achieve food security, de food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet de physiowogicaw reqwirements of each individuaw.[58]Food safety affects food utiwization,[52] and can be affected by de preparation, processing, and cooking of food in de community and househowd.[53] Nutritionaw vawues[52] of de househowd determine food choice,[53] and wheder food meets cuwturaw preferences is important to utiwization in terms of psychowogicaw and sociaw weww-being.[60] Access to heawdcare is anoder determinant of food utiwization, since de heawf of individuaws controws how de food is metabowized.[53] For exampwe, intestinaw parasites can take nutrients from de body and decrease food utiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[57] Sanitation can awso decrease de occurrence and spread of diseases dat can affect food utiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[53][61] Education about nutrition and food preparation can affect food utiwization and improve dis piwwar of food security.[57]

Food stabiwity refers to de abiwity to obtain food over time. Food insecurity can be transitory, seasonaw, or chronic.[53] In transitory food insecurity, food may be unavaiwabwe during certain periods of time.[58] At de food production wevew, naturaw disasters[58] and drought[53] resuwt in crop faiwure and decreased food avaiwabiwity. Civiw confwicts can awso decrease access to food.[58] Instabiwity in markets resuwting in food-price spikes can cause transitory food insecurity. Oder factors dat can temporariwy cause food insecurity are woss of empwoyment or productivity, which can be caused by iwwness. Seasonaw food insecurity can resuwt from de reguwar pattern of growing seasons in food production, uh-hah-hah-hah.[53]

Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity is defined as de wong-term, persistent wack of adeqwate food.[58] In dis case, househowds are constantwy at risk of being unabwe to acqwire food to meet de needs of aww members.
Chronic and transitory food insecurity are winked, since de reoccurrence of transitory food security can make househowds more vuwnerabwe to chronic food insecurity.[53]

Famine and hunger are bof rooted in food insecurity. Chronic food insecurity transwates into a high degree of vuwnerabiwity to famine and hunger; ensuring food security presupposes ewimination of dat vuwnerabiwity.[23]

Chiwdren wif symptoms of wow caworie and protein intake and a nurse attendant at a Nigerian orphanage in de wate 1960s

Many countries experience ongoing food shortages and distribution probwems. These resuwt in chronic and often widespread hunger amongst significant numbers of peopwe. Human popuwations can respond to chronic hunger and mawnutrition by decreasing body size, known in medicaw terms as stunting or stunted growf.[62] This process starts in utero if de moder is mawnourished and continues drough approximatewy de dird year of wife. It weads to higher infant and chiwd mortawity, but at rates far wower dan during famines.[63] Once stunting has occurred, improved nutritionaw intake after de age of about two years is unabwe to reverse de damage. Stunting itsewf can be viewed as a coping mechanism, bringing body size into awignment wif de cawories avaiwabwe during aduwdood in de wocation where de chiwd is born, uh-hah-hah-hah.[63] Limiting body size as a way of adapting to wow wevews of energy (cawories) adversewy affects heawf in dree ways:[63]

Stunted individuaws suffer a higher rate of disease and iwwness dan dose who have not undergone stunting;

Severe mawnutrition in earwy chiwdhood often weads to defects in cognitive devewopment.[64] It derefore creates disparity among chiwdren who did not experience severe mawnutrition and dose who experience it.

Irrigation canaws have opened dry desert areas of Egypt to agricuwture.

Water deficits, which are awready spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smawwer countries,[66] may soon do de same in warger countries, such as China or India.[67] The water tabwes are fawwing in scores of countries (incwuding nordern China, de US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerfuw diesew and ewectric pumps. Oder countries affected incwude Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran, uh-hah-hah-hah. This wiww eventuawwy wead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even wif de overpumping of its aqwifers, China is devewoping a grain deficit.[68] When dis happens, it wiww awmost certainwy drive grain prices upward. Most of de 3 biwwion peopwe projected to be born worwdwide by mid-century wiww be born in countries awready experiencing water shortages. After China and India, dere is a second tier of smawwer countries wif warge water deficits – Afghanistan, Awgeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Four of dese awready import a warge share of deir grain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Onwy Pakistan remains sewf-sufficient. But wif a popuwation expanding by 4 miwwion a year, it wiww wikewy soon turn to de worwd market for grain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[69]

Regionawwy, Sub-Saharan Africa has de wargest number of water-stressed countries of any pwace on de gwobe, as of an estimated 800 miwwion peopwe who wive in Africa, 300 miwwion wive in a water-stressed environment.[70] It is estimated dat by 2030, 75 miwwion to 250 miwwion peopwe in Africa wiww be wiving in areas of high water stress, which wiww wikewy dispwace anywhere between 24 miwwion and 700 miwwion peopwe as conditions become increasingwy unwivabwe.[70] Because de majority of Africa remains dependent on an agricuwturaw wifestywe and 80 to 90 percent of aww famiwies in ruraw Africa rewy upon producing deir own food,[71] water scarcity transwates to a woss of food security.

Muwtimiwwion-dowwar investments beginning in de 1990s by de Worwd Bank have recwaimed desert and turned de Ica Vawwey in Peru, one of de driest pwaces on earf, into de wargest suppwier of asparagus in de worwd. However, de constant irrigation has caused a rapid drop in de water tabwe, in some pwaces as much as eight meters per year, one of de fastest rates of aqwifer depwetion in de worwd. The wewws of smaww farmers and wocaw peopwe are beginning to run dry and de water suppwy for de main city in de vawwey is under dreat. As a cash crop, asparagus has provided jobs for wocaw peopwe, but most of de money goes to de buyers, mainwy de British. A 2010 report concwuded dat de industry is not sustainabwe and accuses investors, incwuding de Worwd Bank, of faiwing to take proper responsibiwity for de effect of deir decisions on de water resources of poorer countries.[72] Diverting water from de headwaters of de Ica River to asparagus fiewds has awso wed to a water shortage in de mountain region of Huancavewica, where indigenous communities make a marginaw wiving herding.[73]

Intensive farming often weads to a vicious cycwe of exhaustion of soiw fertiwity and decwine of agricuwturaw yiewds.[74] Approximatewy 40 percent of de worwd's agricuwturaw wand is seriouswy degraded.[75] According to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Naturaw Resources in Africa,[76] if current trends of soiw degradation continue, Africa might be abwe to feed just 25 percent of its popuwation by 2025.

Extreme events, such as droughts and fwoods, are forecast to increase as cwimate change and gwobaw warming takes howd.[77] Ranging from overnight fwoods to graduawwy worsening droughts, dese wiww have a range of effects on de agricuwturaw sector as weww as de species dat various communities are abwe to grow.[78] According to de Cwimate & Devewopment Knowwedge Network report Managing Cwimate Extremes and Disasters in de Agricuwture Sectors: Lessons from de IPCC SREX Report, de effects wiww incwude changing productivity and wivewihood patterns, economic wosses, and effects on infrastructure, markets and food security. Food security in future wiww be winked to our abiwity to adapt agricuwturaw systems to extreme events. An exampwe of a shifting weader pattern wouwd be a rise in temperatures. As temperatures rise due to cwimate change dere is a risk of a diminished food suppwy due to heat damage.[79]

Approximatewy 2.4 biwwion peopwe wive in de drainage basin of de Himawayan rivers.[80] India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangwadesh, Nepaw and Myanmar couwd experience fwoods fowwowed by severe droughts in coming decades.[81] In India awone, de Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more dan 500 miwwion peopwe.[82][83] The west coast of Norf America, which gets much of its water from gwaciers in mountain ranges such as de Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, awso wouwd be affected.[84] Gwaciers aren't de onwy worry dat de devewoping nations have; sea wevew is reported to rise as cwimate change progresses, reducing de amount of wand avaiwabwe for agricuwture.[85][86]

In oder parts of de worwd, a big effect wiww be wow yiewds of grain according to de Worwd Food Trade Modew, specificawwy in de wow watitude regions where much of de devewoping worwd is wocated. From dis de price of grain wiww rise, awong wif de devewoping nations trying to grow de grain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Due to dis, every 2–2.5% price hike wiww increase de number of hungry peopwe by 1%.[85] Low crop yiewds are just one of de probwem facing farmers in de wow watitudes and tropicaw regions. The timing and wengf of de growing seasons, when farmers pwant deir crops, are going to be changing dramaticawwy, per de USDA, due to unknown changes in soiw temperature and moisture conditions.[87]

Anoder way of dinking about food security and cwimate change comes from Evan Fraser, a geographer working at de University of Guewph in OntarioCanada. His approach is to expwore de vuwnerabiwity of food systems to cwimate change and he defines vuwnerabiwity to cwimate change as situations dat occur when rewativewy minor environmentaw probwems cause major effects on food security. Exampwes of dis incwude de Irish Potato Famine[88][dubious – discuss], which was caused by a rainy year dat created ideaw conditions for de fungaw bwight to spread in potato fiewds, or de Ediopian Famine in de earwy 1980s.[89] Three factors stand out as common in such cases, and dese dree factors act as a diagnostic "toow kit" drough which to identify cases where food security may be vuwnerabwe to cwimate change. These factors are: (1) speciawized agro-ecosystems; (2) househowds wif very few wivewihood options oder dan farming; (3) situations where formaw institutions do not provide adeqwate safety nets to protect peopwe.[89] "The Internationaw Food Powicy Research Institute (IFPRI) estimates dat an additionaw US$ 7.1–7.3 biwwion per year are needed in agricuwturaw investments to offset de negative effect of cwimate change on nutrition for chiwdren by 2050 (Tabwe 6)."[90]

Diseases affecting wivestock or crops can have devastating effects on food avaiwabiwity especiawwy if dere are no contingency pwans in pwace.
For exampwe, Ug99, a wineage of wheat stem rust, which can cause up to 100% crop wosses, is present in wheat fiewds in severaw countries in Africa and de Middwe East and is predicted to spread rapidwy drough dese regions and possibwy furder afiewd, potentiawwy causing a wheat production disaster dat wouwd affect food security worwdwide.[91][92]

The genetic diversity of de crop wiwd rewatives of wheat can be used to improve modern varieties to be more resistant to rust. In deir centers of origin wiwd wheat pwants are screened for resistance to rust, den deir genetic information is studied and finawwy wiwd pwants and modern varieties are crossed drough means of modern pwant breeding in order to transfer de resistance genes from de wiwd pwants to de modern varieties.[93][94]

Farmwand and oder agricuwturaw resources have wong been used to produce non-food crops incwuding industriaw materiaws such as cotton, fwax, and rubber; drug crops such as tobacco and opium, and biofuews such as firewood, etc. In de 21st century de production of fuew crops has increased, adding to dis diversion, uh-hah-hah-hah. However technowogies are awso devewoped to commerciawwy produce food from energy such as naturaw gas and ewectricaw energy wif tiny water and wand foot print.[95][96][97][98]

Governments sometimes have a narrow base of support, buiwt upon cronyism and patronage. Fred Cuny pointed out in 1999 dat under dese conditions: "The distribution of food widin a country is a powiticaw issue. Governments in most countries give priority to urban areas, since dat is where de most infwuentiaw and powerfuw famiwies and enterprises are usuawwy wocated. The government often negwects subsistence farmers and ruraw areas in generaw. The more remote and underdevewoped de area de wess wikewy de government wiww be to effectivewy meet its needs. Many agrarian powicies, especiawwy de pricing of agricuwturaw commodities, discriminate against ruraw areas. Governments often keep prices of basic grains at such artificiawwy wow wevews dat subsistence producers cannot accumuwate enough capitaw to make investments to improve deir production, uh-hah-hah-hah. Thus, dey are effectivewy prevented from getting out of deir precarious situation, uh-hah-hah-hah."[100]

Sociawist governments have used food as a powiticaw weapon, rewarding supporters whiwe denying food suppwies to areas dat oppose deir ruwe.[101] Under such conditions food becomes a currency wif which to buy support and famine becomes an effective weapon against opposition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[102][originaw research?]

A government wif a strong tendency towards kweptocracy can undermine food security even when harvests are good. When de ruwe of waw is absent, or private property is non-existent, farmers have wittwe incentive to improve deir productivity.[according to whom?] If a farm becomes noticeabwy more productive dan neighboring farms, it may become de target of individuaws weww connected to de government. Rader dan risk being noticed and possibwy wosing deir wand, farmers may be content wif de perceived safety of mediocrity.[103]

The approach known as food sovereignty views de business practices of muwtinationaw corporations as a form of neocowoniawism. It contends dat muwtinationaw corporations have de financiaw resources avaiwabwe to buy up de agricuwturaw resources of impoverished nations, particuwarwy in de tropics. They awso have de powiticaw cwout to convert dese resources to de excwusive production of cash crops for sawe to industriawized nations outside of de tropics, and in de process to sqweeze de poor off of de more productive wands.[73] Under dis view, subsistence farmers are weft to cuwtivate onwy wands dat are so marginaw in terms of productivity as to be of no interest to de muwtinationaw corporations. Likewise, food sovereignty howds it to be true dat communities shouwd be abwe to define deir own means of production and dat food is a basic human right. Wif severaw muwtinationaw corporations now pushing agricuwturaw technowogies on devewoping countries, technowogies dat incwude improved seeds, chemicaw fertiwizers, and pesticides, crop production has become an increasingwy anawyzed and debated issue.

Food waste may be diverted for awternative human consumption when economic variabwes awwow for it. The waste of consumabwe food is even gaining attention from warge food congwomerates. For instance, due to wow food prices, simpwy discarding irreguwar carrots has typicawwy been more cost-effective dan spending money on de extra wabor or machinery necessary to handwe dem. A juice factory in de Nederwands, however, has devewoped a process to efficientwy divert and use previouswy rejected carrots, and its parent company is expanding dis innovation to pwants in Great Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[104]

In recent years, France has worked to combat food insecurity, in part by addressing food waste; since 2013 de country has passed waws prohibiting grocery stores from discarding unsowd food items, reqwiring dat dey instead donate de food to designated charities.[105] Neverdewess, according to de Economist's Gwobaw Food Security Index, overaww food insecurity remains more severe in France dan de United States despite higher nation-wide estimates of food waste in de U.S.[105]

Locaw efforts, such as de Greater Frankwin Food Counciw in Farmington, Maine, can directwy hewp regionaw food security, particuwarwy when residents become mindfuw of de juxtaposition of food insecurity in deir communities wif deir own food waste at home. Learning dat de average famiwy of four drows away $1,500 worf of food per year whiwe neighbors may be going hungry can provide de motivation to waste wess and give more: waste wess money at de grocery store and give more to de food pantry.[106]

A famiwy pwanning pwacard in Ediopia. It shows some negative effects of having too many chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Current UN projections show a continued increase in popuwation in de future (but a steady decwine in de popuwation growf rate), wif de gwobaw popuwation expected to reach 9.8 biwwion in 2050 and 11.2 biwwion by 2100.[107] Estimates by de UN Popuwation Division for de year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 biwwion;[108] madematicaw modewing supports de wower estimate.[109] Some anawysts have qwestioned de sustainabiwity of furder worwd popuwation growf, highwighting de growing pressures on de environment, gwobaw food suppwies, and energy resources. Sowutions for feeding de extra biwwions in de future are being studied and documented.[110] One out of every seven peopwe on de pwanet go to sweep hungry. Areas are subject to overpopuwation, and 25,000 peopwe die of mawnutrition and hunger rewated diseases every day.

Whiwe agricuwturaw output has increased, energy consumption to produce a crop has awso increased at a greater rate, so dat de ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revowution techniqwes awso heaviwy rewy on chemicaw fertiwizers, pesticides and herbicides, many of which are petroweum products, making agricuwture increasingwy rewiant on petroweum.

David Pimentew, professor of ecowogy and agricuwture at Corneww University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at de Nationaw Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (NRIFN), suggested in 1994 dat de maximum U.S. popuwation for a sustainabwe economy is 210 miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. The study says dat to achieve a sustainabwe economy and avert disaster, de United States must reduce its popuwation by at weast one-dird, and worwd popuwation wiww have to be reduced by two-dirds.[112] The audors of de study bewieve dat de mentioned agricuwturaw crisis wiww onwy begin to affect us after 2020, and wiww not become criticaw untiw 2050. However, de US popuwation in 2020 is awready 330 miwwion, wif minimaw food insecurity, cawwing deir predictions into qwestion, uh-hah-hah-hah.

A smaww number of major crops, e.g. Soybean, have formed an increasing share of de food energy, protein, fat, and food weight eaten by de worwd's popuwation over de past 50 years[113]

Since 1961, human diets across de worwd have become more diverse in de consumption of major commodity stapwe crops, wif a corowwary decwine in consumption of wocaw or regionawwy important crops, and dus have become more homogeneous gwobawwy.[113] The differences between de foods eaten in different countries were reduced by 68% between 1961 and 2009. The modern "gwobaw standard"[113] diet contains an increasingwy warge percentage of a rewativewy smaww number of major stapwe commodity crops, which have increased substantiawwy in de share of de totaw food energy (cawories), protein, fat, and food weight dat dey provide to de worwd's human popuwation, incwuding wheat, rice, sugar, maize, soybean (by +284%[114]), pawm oiw (by +173%[114]), and sunfwower (by +246%[114]). Whereas nations used to consume greater proportions of wocawwy or regionawwy important crops, wheat has become a stapwe in over 97% of countries, wif de oder gwobaw stapwes showing simiwar dominance worwdwide. Oder crops have decwined sharpwy over de same period, incwuding rye, yam, sweet potato (by −45%[114]), cassava (by −38%[114]), coconut, sorghum (by −52%[114]) and miwwets (by −45%[114]).[113][114][115] Such crop diversity change in de human diet is associated wif mixed effects on food security, improving under-nutrition in some regions but contributing to de diet-rewated diseases caused by over-consumption of macronutrients.[113]

On Apriw 30, 2008, Thaiwand, one of de worwd's biggest rice exporters, announced de creation of de Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries wif de potentiaw to devewop into a price-fixing cartew for rice. It is a project to organize 21 rice exporting countries to create a homonymous organisation to controw de price of rice. The group is mainwy made up of Thaiwand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. The organization attempts to serve de purpose of making a "contribution to ensuring food stabiwity, not just in an individuaw country but awso to address food shortages in de region and de worwd". However, it is stiww qwestionabwe wheder dis organization wiww serve its rowe as an effective rice price fixing cartew, dat is simiwar to OPEC's mechanism for managing petroweum. Economic anawysts and traders said de proposaw wouwd go nowhere because of de inabiwity of governments to cooperate wif each oder and controw farmers' output. Moreover, countries dat are invowved expressed deir concern dat dis couwd onwy worsen de food security.[116][117][118][119]

China needs not wess dan 120 miwwion hectares of arabwe wand for its food security. China has reported a surpwus of 15 miwwion hectares. By contrast, some 4 miwwion hectares of conversion to urban use and 3 miwwion hectares of contaminated wand have awso been reported.[120] A survey found dat 2.5% of China's arabwe wand is too contaminated to grow food widout harm.[121]
In Europe, de conversion of agricuwturaw soiw impwied a net woss of potentiaw, but de rapid woss in de area of arabwe soiws appears to be economicawwy meaningwess because EU is perceived to be dependent on internaw food suppwy anymore. During de period 2000–2006, de European Union wost 0.27% of its cropwand and 0.26% of its crop productive potentiaw. The woss of agricuwturaw wand during de same time was de highest in de Nederwands, which wost 1.57% of its crop production potentiaw widin six years. The figures are qwite awarming for Cyprus (0.84%), Irewand (0.77%) and Spain (0.49%) as weww.[122]
In Itawy, in de Emiwia-Romagna pwain (ERP), de conversion of 15,000 hectare of agricuwturaw soiw (period 2003-2008) impwied a net woss of 109,000 Mg per year of wheat, which accounts for de cawories needed by 14% of ERP popuwation (425,000 peopwe). Such a woss in wheat production is just 0.02% of gross domestic product (GDP) of de Emiwia-Romagna region, which is actuawwy a minor effect in financiaw terms. Additionawwy, de income from de new wand use is often much higher dan de one guaranteed by agricuwture, as in de case of urbanisation or extraction of raw materiaws.[123]

As andropogenic greenhouse gas emissions reduce de stabiwity of de gwobaw cwimate,[124]abrupt cwimate change couwd become more intense.[125] The impact of an asteroid or comet warger dan about 1 km diameter has de potentiaw to bwock de sun gwobawwy,[126] causing impact winter. Particwes in de troposphere wouwd qwickwy rain out, but particwes in de stratosphere, especiawwy suwfate, couwd remain dere for years.[126] Simiwarwy, a supervowcanic eruption wouwd reduce de potentiaw of agricuwturaw production from sowar photosyndesis, causing vowcanic winter. The Toba super vowcanic eruption approximatewy 70,000 years ago may have nearwy caused de extinction of humans[126] (see Toba catastrophe deory). Again, primariwy suwfate particwes couwd bwock de sun for years. Sowar bwocking is not wimited to naturaw causes as nucwear winter is awso possibwe, which refers to de scenario invowving widespread nucwear war and burning of cities dat rewease soot into de stratosphere dat wouwd stay dere for about 10 years.[127] The high stratospheric temperatures produced by soot absorbing sowar radiation wouwd create near-gwobaw ozone howe conditions even for a regionaw nucwear confwict.[128]

A sufficientwy powerfuw geomagnetic storm couwd resuwt in de sudden absence of access to ewectricity in warge areas of de worwd. Because industriaw farming is increasingwy dependent on constant access to ewectricity, for exampwe in precision wivestock farming, a geomagnetic storm couwd potentiawwy have devastating effects to de food production, uh-hah-hah-hah.[129]

The Worwd Food Programme has written dat pandemics such as de COVID 19 pandemic are risk undermining de efforts of humanitarian and food security organizations to maintain food security. The Ebowa outbreak in 2014 wed to increases in de prices of stapwe foods in West Africa.[130]

Agricuwturaw subsidies are paid to farmers and agribusinesses to suppwement deir income, manage de suppwy of deir commodities and infwuence de cost and suppwy of dose commodities.[131] In de United States, de main crops de government subsidizes contribute to de obesity probwem; since 1995, $300 biwwion have gone to crops dat are used to create junk food.[132]

Taxpayers heaviwy subsidize corn and soy, which are primary ingredients in processed foods and fatty foods not encouraged by de government,[132] and are awso used to fatten wivestock. Hawf of farmwand is devoted to corn and soy, and de rest is wheat. Soy and corn can be found in sweeteners wike high fructose corn syrup.[132] Over $19 biwwion during de prior 18 years to 2013 was spent to incent farmers to grow de crops,[132] raising de price of fruits and vegetabwes by about 40% and wowering de price of dairy and oder animaw products. Littwe wand is used for fruit and vegetabwe farming.[133]

Corn, a piwwar of American agricuwture for years, is now mainwy used for edanow, high fructose corn syrup and bio-based pwastics.[134] About 40 percent of corn is used for edanow and 36% is used as animaw feed.[134] A tiny fraction of corn is used as a food source, and much of dat fraction is used for high-fructose corn syrup, which is a main ingredient in processed, unheawdy junk food.[134]

Peopwe who ate de most subsidized food had a 37% higher risk of being obese compared to peopwe who ate de weast amount of subsidized food.[135] This brings up de concern dat minority communities are more prone to risks of obesity due to financiaw wimitations. The subsidies resuwt in dose commodities being cheap to de pubwic, compared to dose recommended by dietary guidewines.

President Trump proposed a 21% cut to government discretionary spending in de agricuwture sector, which has met partisan resistance.[136] This budget proposaw wouwd awso reduce spending on de Speciaw Suppwement Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Chiwdren, awbeit wess dan President Obama did.[136]

Bengawi famine, 1943. The Japanese conqwest of Burma cut off India's main suppwy of rice imports.[137]

On Apriw 29, 2008, a UNICEF UK report found dat de worwd's poorest and most vuwnerabwe chiwdren are being hit de hardest by cwimate change. The report, "Our Cwimate, Our Chiwdren, Our Responsibiwity: The Impwications of Cwimate Change for de Worwd's Chiwdren", says dat access to cwean water and food suppwies wiww become more difficuwt, particuwarwy in Africa and Asia.[138]

By way of comparison, in one of de wargest food producing countries in de worwd, de United States, approximatewy one out of six peopwe are "food insecure", incwuding 17 miwwion chiwdren, according to de U.S. Department of Agricuwture in 2009.[139] A 2012 study in de Journaw of Appwied Research on Chiwdren found dat rates of food security varied significantwy by race, cwass and education, uh-hah-hah-hah. In bof kindergarten and dird grade, 8% of de chiwdren were cwassified as food insecure, but onwy 5% of white chiwdren were food insecure, whiwe 12% and 15% of bwack and Hispanic chiwdren were food insecure, respectivewy. In dird grade, 13% of bwack and 11% of Hispanic chiwdren were food insecure compared to 5% of white chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah.[140][141]

There are awso regionaw variations in food security. Awdough food insecurity can be difficuwt to measure, 45% of ewementary and secondary students in Maine qwawify for free or reduced-price schoow wunch; by some measures Maine has been decwared de most food-insecure of de New Engwand states.[142] Transportation chawwenges and distance are common barriers to famiwies in ruraw areas who seek food assistance. Sociaw stigma is anoder important consideration, and for chiwdren, sensitivewy administering in-schoow programs can make de difference between success and faiwure. For instance, when John Woods, co-founder of Fuww Pwates, Fuww Potentiaw,[143] wearned dat embarrassed students were shying away from de free breakfasts being distributed at a schoow he was working wif, he made arrangements to provide breakfast free of charge to aww of de students dere.[144]

According to a 2015 Congressionaw Budget Office report on chiwd nutrition programs, it is more wikewy dat food insecure chiwdren wiww participate in schoow nutrition programs dan chiwdren from food secure famiwies.[145] Schoow nutrition programs, such as de Nationaw Schoow Lunch Program (NSLP) and de Schoow Breakfast Program (SBP) have provided miwwions of chiwdren access to heawdier wunch and breakfast meaws, since deir inceptions in de mid-1900s. According to de Centers for Disease Controw and Prevention, NSLP has served over 300 miwwion, whiwe SBP has served about 10 miwwion students each day.[146] Neverdewess, far too many qwawifying students stiww faiw to receive dese benefits simpwy due to not submitting de necessary paperwork.[147] Muwtipwe studies have reported dat schoow nutrition programs pway an important rowe in ensuring students are accessing heawdy meaws. Students who ate schoow wunches provided by NLSP showed higher diet qwawity dan if dey had deir own wunches.[148] Even more, de USDA improved standards for schoow meaws, which uwtimatewy wead to positive impacts on chiwdren's food sewection and eating habits.[149]

Despite de sizabwe popuwations served by dese programs, Conservatives have reguwarwy targeted dese programs for defunding.[152] Conservatives' arguments against schoow nutrition programs incwude fear of wasting food and fraud from appwications. On January 23, 2017, H.R.610 was introduced to de House by Repubwican Representative Steve King. The biww seeks to repeaw a ruwe set by de Food and Nutrition Service of de Department of Agricuwture, which mandates schoows to provide more nutritious and diverse foods across de food pwate.[153] Two monds water, de Trump administration reweased a prewiminary 2018 budget dat proposed a $2 biwwion cut from WIC.[154]

Food insecurity in chiwdren can wead to devewopmentaw impairments and wong term conseqwences such as weakened physicaw, intewwectuaw and emotionaw devewopment.[155]

Food insecurity awso rewated to obesity for peopwe wiving in neighborhoods where nutritious food are unavaiwabwe or unaffordabwe.[156]

Gender ineqwawity bof weads to and is a resuwt of food insecurity. According to estimates, girws and women make up 60% of de worwd's chronicawwy hungry and wittwe progress has been made in ensuring de eqwaw right to food for women enshrined in de Convention on de Ewimination of Aww Forms of Discrimination against Women.[157][158] Women face discrimination bof in education and empwoyment opportunities and widin de househowd, where deir bargaining power is wower. Women's empwoyment is essentiaw for not onwy advancing gender eqwawity widin de workforce, but ensuring a sustainabwe future as it means wess pressure for high birf rates and net migration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[159] On de oder hand, gender eqwawity is described as instrumentaw to ending mawnutrition and hunger.[160]

Women tend to be responsibwe for food preparation and chiwdcare widin de famiwy and are more wikewy to spend deir income on food and deir chiwdren's needs.[161] Women awso pway an important rowe in food production, processing, distribution and marketing. They often work as unpaid famiwy workers, are invowved in subsistence farming and represent about 43% of de agricuwturaw wabor force in devewoping countries, varying from 20% in Latin America to 50% in Eastern and Soudeastern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. However, women face discrimination in access to wand, credit, technowogies, finance and oder services. Empiricaw studies suggest dat if women had de same access to productive resources as men, women couwd boost deir yiewds by 20–30%, raising de overaww agricuwturaw output in devewoping countries by 2.5 to 4%. Whiwe dese are rough estimates, dere wouwd be a significant benefit of cwosing de gender gap on agricuwturaw productivity.[162] The gendered aspects of food security are visibwe awong de four piwwars of food security: avaiwabiwity, access, utiwization and stabiwity, as defined by de Food and Agricuwture Organization.[163]

The number of peopwe affected by hunger is extremewy high, wif enormous effects on girws and women, uh-hah-hah-hah.[164] There is sentiment dat making dis trend disappear shouwd be a top priority for governments and internationaw institutions.[164] This is because food insecurity is an issue concerning eqwawity, rights and sociaw justice.[164] Factors wike capitawism, expworation of Indigenous wands aww contribute to food insecurity for minorities and de peopwe who are de most oppressed in various countries (women being one of dese oppressed groups).[164] Because girws and women are de most oppressed by de ineqwitabwe gwobaw economic processes dat govern food systems and by gwobaw trends such as cwimate change, it is refwective of how institutions continue to pwace women in positions of disadvantage and impoverishment to make money and drive on capitawizing de food system.[164] When de government widhowds food by raising its prices to amounts onwy priviweged peopwe can afford, dey bof benefit and are abwe to controw de wower-cwass/marginawized peopwe via de food market.[164]

One of de most up-and-coming techniqwes to ensuring gwobaw food security is de use of geneticawwy modified (GM) crops. The genome of dese crops can be awtered to address one or more aspects of de pwant dat may be preventing it from being grown in various regions under certain conditions. Many of dese awterations can address de chawwenges dat were previouswy mentioned above, incwuding de water crisis, wand degradation, and de ever-changing cwimate.

In agricuwture and animaw husbandry, de Green Revowution popuwarized de use of conventionaw hybridization to increase yiewd by creating high-yiewding varieties. Often, de handfuw of hybridized breeds originated in devewoped countries and were furder hybridized wif wocaw varieties in de rest of de devewoping worwd to create high yiewd strains resistant to wocaw cwimate and diseases.

The area sown to geneticawwy engineered crops in devewoping countries is rapidwy catching up wif de area sown in industriaw nations. According to de Internationaw Service for de Acqwisition of Agri-biotech Appwications (ISAAA), GM crops were grown by approximatewy 8.5 miwwion farmers in 21 countries in 2005; up from 8.25 miwwion farmers in 17 countries in 2004.

And, dat much of de needed food can be produced by smaww farmers wocated droughout de worwd using existing agroecowogicaw technowogies.

Based on evidence from previous attempts, dere is a wikewy wack of transferabiwity of one type of GM crop from one region to anoder. For exampwe, modified crops dat have proven successfuw in Asia from de Green Revowution have faiwed when tried in regions of Africa.[166] More research must be done regarding de specific reqwirements of growing a specific crop in a specific region, uh-hah-hah-hah.

There is awso a drastic wack of education given to governments, farmers, and de community about de science behind GM crops, as weww as suitabwe growing practices. In most rewief programs, farmers are given seeds wif wittwe expwanation and wittwe attention is paid to de resources avaiwabwe to dem or even waws dat prohibit dem from distributing produce. Governments are often not advised on de economic and heawf impwications dat come wif growing GM crops, and are den weft to make judgments on deir own, uh-hah-hah-hah. Because dey have so wittwe information regarding dese crops, dey usuawwy shy away from awwowing dem or do not take de time and effort reqwired to reguwate deir use. Members of de community dat wiww den consume de produce from dese crops are awso weft in de dark about what dese modifications mean and are often scared off by deir 'unnaturaw' origins. This has resuwted in faiwure to properwy grow crops as weww as strong opposition to de unknown practices.[167]

A study pubwished in June 2016 evawuated de status of de impwementation of Gowden Rice, which was first devewoped in de 1990s to produce higher wevews of Vitamin A dan its non-GMO counterparts. This strain of rice was designed so dat mawnourished women and chiwdren in dird worwd countries who were more susceptibwe to deficiencies couwd easiwy improve deir Vitamin A intake wevews and prevent bwindness, which is a common resuwt. Gowden Rice production was centrawized to de Phiwippines, yet dere have been many hurdwes to jump in order to get production moving. The study showed dat de project is far behind scheduwe and is not wiving up to its expectations. Awdough research on Gowden Rice stiww continues, de country has moved forward wif oder non-GMO initiatives to address de Vitamin A deficiency probwem dat is so pervasive in dat region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[168][169]

Many anti-GMO activists argue dat de use of GM crops decreases biodiversity among pwants. Livestock biodiversity is awso dreatened by de modernization of agricuwture and de focus on more productive major breeds. Therefore, efforts have been made by governments and non-governmentaw organizations to conserve wivestock biodiversity drough strategies such as Cryoconservation of animaw genetic resources.[170][171]

Many GM crop success stories exist, primariwy in devewoped nations wike de US, China, and various countries in Europe. Common GM crops incwude cotton, maize, and soybeans, aww of which are grown droughout Norf and Souf America as weww as regions of Asia.[172] Modified cotton crops, for exampwe, have been awtered such dat dey are resistant to pests, can grown in more extreme heat, cowd, or drought, and produce wonger, stronger fibers to be used in textiwe production, uh-hah-hah-hah.[173]

One of de biggest dreats to rice, which is a stapwe food crop especiawwy in India and oder countries widin Asia, is bwast disease, which is a fungaw infection dat causes wesions to form on aww parts of de pwant.[174] A geneticawwy engineered strain of rice has been devewoped so dat it is resistant to bwast, greatwy improving de crop yiewd of farmers and awwowing rice to be more accessibwe to everyone.[175] Some oder crops have been modified such dat dey produce higher yiewds per pwant or dat dey reqwire wess wand for growing. The watter can be hewpfuw in extreme cwimates wif wittwe arabwe wand and awso decreases deforestation, as fewer trees need to be cut down in order to make room for crop fiewds.[176] Oders yet have been awtered such dat dey do not reqwire de use of insecticides or fungicides. This addresses various heawf concerns associated wif such pesticides and can awso work to improve biodiversity widin de area in which dese crops are grown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[177]

In a review of Borwaug's 2000 pubwication entitwed Ending worwd hunger: de promise of biotechnowogy and de dreat of antiscience zeawotry,[178] de audors argued dat Borwaug's warnings were stiww true in 2010,[179]

Research conducted by de GMO Risk Assessment and Communication of Evidence (GRACE) program drough de EU between 2007 and 2013 focused on many uses of GM crops and evawuated many facets of deir effects on human, animaw, and environmentaw heawf.

The body of scientific evidence concwuding dat GM foods are safe to eat and do not pose environmentaw risks is wide. Findings from de Internationaw Counciw of Scientists (2003) dat anawyzed a sewection of approximatewy 50 science-based reviews concwuded dat "currentwy avaiwabwe geneticawwy modified foods are safe to eat," and "dere is no evidence of any deweterious environmentaw effects having occurred from de trait/species combinations currentwy avaiwabwe."[180] The United Nations Food and Agricuwture Organization (FAO) supported de same consensus a year water in addition to recommending de extension of biotechnowogy to de devewoping worwd.[181] Simiwarwy, de Royaw Society (2003) and British Medicaw Association (2004) found no adverse heawf effects of consuming geneticawwy modified foods.[182][183] These findings supported de concwusions of earwier studies by de European Union Research Directorate, a compendium of 81 scientific studies conducted by more dan 400 research teams did not show “any new risks to human heawf or de environment, beyond de usuaw uncertainties of conventionaw pwant breeding.”[184] Likewise, de Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devewopment in Europe (OECD) and de Nuffiewd Counciw on Bioedics (1999) did not find dat geneticawwy modified foods posed a heawf risk.[185][186]

The UN Miwwennium Devewopment Goaws are one of de initiatives aimed at achieving food security in de worwd. The first Miwwennium Devewopment Goaw states dat de UN "is to eradicate extreme hunger and poverty" by 2015.[187] Owivier De Schutter, de UN Speciaw Rapporteur on de Right to Food, advocates for a muwtidimensionaw approach to food security chawwenges. This approach emphasizes de physicaw avaiwabiwity of food; de sociaw, economic and physicaw access peopwe have to food; and de nutrition, safety and cuwturaw appropriateness or adeqwacy of food.[188]

The Food and Agricuwture Organization of de United Nations stated in The State of Food Insecurity in de Worwd 2003 dat countries dat have reduced hunger often had rapid economic growf, specificawwy in deir agricuwturaw sectors. These countries were awso characterized as having swower popuwation growf, wower HIV rates, and higher rankings in de Human Devewopment Index.[189] At dat time, de FAO considered addressing agricuwture and popuwation growf vitaw to achieving food security. In The State of Food Insecurity in de Worwd 2012, de FAO restated its focus on economic growf and agricuwturaw growf to achieve food security and added a focus on de poor and on "nutrition-sensitive" growf. For exampwe, economic growf shouwd be used by governments to provide pubwic services to benefit poor and hungry popuwations. The FAO awso cited smawwhowders, incwuding women, as groups dat shouwd be invowved in agricuwturaw growf to generate empwoyment for de poor. For economic and agricuwturaw growf to be "nutrition-sensitive", resources shouwd be utiwized to improve access to diverse diets for de poor as weww as access to a safe water suppwy and to heawdcare.[22]

The FAO noted dat some countries have been successfuw in fighting food insecurity and decreasing de number of peopwe suffering from undernourishment. Bangwadesh is an exampwe of a country dat has met de Miwwennium Devewopment Goaw hunger target. The FAO credited growf in agricuwturaw productivity and macroeconomic stabiwity for de rapid economic growf in de 1990s dat resuwted in an increase in food security. Irrigation systems were estabwished drough infrastructure devewopment programs. Two programs, HarvestPwus and de Gowden Rice Project, provided biofortified crops in order to decrease micronutrient deficiencess.[7]

Worwd Food Day was estabwished on October 16, in honor of de date dat de FAO was founded in 1945. On dis day, de FAO hosts a variety of event at de headqwarters in Rome and around de worwd, as weww as seminars wif UN officiaws.[27]

The Worwd Food Programme (WFP) is an agency of de United Nations dat uses food aid to promote food security and eradicate hunger and poverty. In particuwar, de WFP provides food aid to refugees and to oders experiencing food emergencies. It awso seeks to improve nutrition and qwawity of wife to de most vuwnerabwe popuwations and promote sewf-rewiance.[190] An exampwe of a WFP program is de "Food For Assets" program in which participants work on new infrastructure, or wearn new skiwws, dat wiww increase food security, in exchange for food.[191] The WFP and de Government of Kenya have partnered in de Food For Assets program in hopes of increasing de resiwience of communities to shocks.[192]

In Apriw 2012, de Food Assistance Convention was signed, de worwd's first wegawwy binding internationaw agreement on food aid. The May 2012 Copenhagen Consensus recommended dat efforts to combat hunger and mawnutrition shouwd be de first priority for powiticians and private sector phiwandropists wooking to maximize de effectiveness of aid spending. They put dis ahead of oder priorities, wike de fight against mawaria and AIDS.[193]

The main gwobaw powicy to reduce hunger and poverty are de recentwy approved Sustainabwe Devewopment Goaws. In particuwar Goaw 2: Zero Hunger sets gwobawwy agreed targets to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainabwe agricuwture by 2030.[194] A number of organizations have formed initiatives wif de more ambitious goaw to achieve dis outcome in onwy 10 years, by 2025:

In 2013 Caritas Internationaw started a Caritas-wide initiative aimed at ending systemic hunger by 2025. The One human famiwy, food for aww campaign focuses on awareness raising, improving de effect of Caritas programs and advocating de impwementation of de Right to Food.[195]

The partnership Compact2025,[196] wed by IFPRI wif de invowvement of UN organisations, NGOs and private foundations[197] devewops and disseminates evidence-based advice to powiticians and oder decision-makers aimed at ending hunger and undernutrition in de coming 10 years, by 2025.[198] It bases its cwaim dat hunger can be ended by 2025 on a report by Shenggen Fan and Pauw Powman dat anawyzed de experiences from China, Vietnam, Braziw and Thaiwand and concwudes dat ewiminating hunger and undernutrition was possibwe by 2025.[199]

In June 2015, de European Union and de Biww & Mewinda Gates Foundation have waunched a partnership to combat undernutrition especiawwy in chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. The program wiww initiatiwwy be impwemented in Bangwadesh, Burundi, Ediopia, Kenya, Laos and Niger and wiww hewp dese countries to improve information and anawysis about nutrition so dey can devewop effective nationaw nutrition powicies.[200]

The Food and Agricuwture Organization of de UN has created a partnership dat wiww act drough de African Union's CAADP framework aiming to end hunger in Africa by 2025. It incwudes different interventions incwuding support for improved food production, a strengdening of sociaw protection and integration of de Right to Food into nationaw wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[201]

Confwict prevention and resowution mechanisms and democracy and governance based on principwes of accountabiwity and transparency in pubwic institutions and de ruwe of waw are basic to reducing vuwnerabwe members of society.

Since de 1960s, de U.S. has been impwementing a food stamp program (now cawwed de Suppwementaw Nutrition Assistance Program) to directwy target consumers who wack de income to purchase food. According to Tim Joswing, a Senior Fewwow at de Freeman Spogwi Institute for Internationaw Studies, Stanford University, food stamps or oder medods of distribution of purchasing power directwy to consumers might fit into de range of internationaw programs under consideration to tackwe food insecurity.[203]

A farmer on de outskirts of Liwongwe (Mawawi) prepares a fiewd for pwanting.

There are strong, direct rewationships between agricuwturaw productivity, hunger, poverty, and sustainabiwity. Three-qwarters of de worwd's poor wive in ruraw areas and make deir wiving from agricuwture. Hunger and chiwd mawnutrition are greater in dese areas dan in urban areas. Moreover, de higher de proportion of de ruraw popuwation dat obtains its income sowewy from subsistence farming (widout de benefit of pro-poor technowogies and access to markets), de higher de incidence of mawnutrition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Therefore, improvements in agricuwturaw productivity aimed at smaww-scawe farmers wiww benefit de ruraw poor first. Food and feed crop demand is wikewy to doubwe in de next 50 years, as de gwobaw popuwation approaches nine biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Growing sufficient food wiww reqwire peopwe to make changes such as increasing productivity in areas dependent on rainfed agricuwture; improving soiw fertiwity management; expanding cropped areas; investing in irrigation; conducting agricuwturaw trade between countries; and reducing gross food demand by infwuencing diets and reducing post-harvest wosses.

According to de Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agricuwture, a major study wed by de Internationaw Water Management Institute (IWMI), managing rainwater and soiw moisture more effectivewy, and using suppwementaw and smaww-scawe irrigation, howd de key to hewping de greatest number of poor peopwe. It has cawwed for a new era of water investments and powicies for upgrading rainfed agricuwture dat wouwd go beyond controwwing fiewd-wevew soiw and water to bring new freshwater sources drough better wocaw management of rainfaww and runoff.[204] Increased agricuwturaw productivity enabwes farmers to grow more food, which transwates into better diets and, under market conditions dat offer a wevew pwaying fiewd, into higher farm incomes. Wif more money, farmers are more wikewy to diversify production and grow higher-vawue crops, benefiting not onwy demsewves but de economy as a whowe.[187]

It may be dat an awwiance between de emergency food program and community-supported agricuwture is beneficiaw, as some countries' food stamps cannot be used at farmer's markets and pwaces where food is wess processed and grown wocawwy.[205]
The gadering of wiwd food pwants appears to be an efficient awternative medod of subsistence in tropicaw countries, which may pway a rowe in poverty awweviation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[206]

Insurance is a financiaw instrument, which awwows exposed individuaws to poow resources to spread deir risk. They do so by contributing premium to an insurance fund, which wiww indemnify dose who suffer insured woss. This procedure reduces de risk for an individuaw by spreading his/her risk among de muwtipwe fund contributors. Insurance can be designed to protect many types of individuaws and assets against singwe or muwtipwe periws and buffer insured parties against sudden and dramatic income or asset woss.

Crop insurance is purchased by agricuwturaw producers to protect demsewves against eider de woss of deir crops due to naturaw disasters. Two type of insurances are avaiwabwe:[209] cwaim-based insurances and index-based insurances. In particuwar, in poor countries facing food security probwems, index-based insurances offer some advantages, incwuding indices dat can be derived from gwobawwy avaiwabwe satewwite images dat correwate weww wif what is insured. These indices can be dewivered at wow cost, and de insurance products open up new markets dat are not served by cwaim-based insurances.[rewevant? – discuss]

An advantage of index-based insurance is dat it can potentiawwy be dewivered at wower cost. A significant barrier dat hinders uptake of cwaim-based insurance is de high transaction cost for searching for prospective powicyhowders, negotiating and administering contracts, verifying wosses and determining payouts. Index insurance ewiminates de woss verification step, dereby mitigating a significant transaction cost. A second advantage of index-based insurance is dat, because it pays an indemnity based on de reading of an index rader dan individuaw wosses, it ewiminates much of de fraud, moraw hazard and adverse sewection, which are common in cwassicaw cwaim-based insurance. A furder advantage of index insurance is dat payments based on a standardized and indisputabwe index awso awwow for a fast indemnity payment. The indemnity payment couwd be automated, furder reducing transaction costs.[rewevant? – discuss]

Basis risk is a major disadvantage of index-based insurance. It is de situation where an individuaw experiences a woss widout receiving payment or vice versa. Basis risk is a direct resuwt of de strengf of de rewation between de index dat estimates de average woss by de insured group and de woss of insured assets by an individuaw. The weaker dis rewation de higher de basis risk. High basis risk undermines de wiwwingness of potentiaw cwients to purchase insurance. It dus chawwenges insurance companies to design insurances such as to minimize basis risk.[rewevant? – discuss]

The Food Justice Movement has been seen as a uniqwe and muwtifaceted movement wif rewevance to de issue of food security. It has been described as a movement about sociaw-economic and powiticaw probwems in connection to environmentaw justice, improved nutrition and heawf, and activism. Today, a growing number of individuaws and minority groups are embracing de Food Justice due to de perceived increase in hunger widin nations such as de United States as weww as de ampwified effect of food insecurity on many minority communities, particuwarwy de Bwack and Latino communities.[210]

A number of organizations have eider championed de Food Justice Cause or greatwy impacted de Food Justice space. An exampwe of a prominent organization widin de food justice movement has been de Coawition of Immokawee Workers, which is a worker-based human rights organization dat has been recognized gwobawwy for its accompwishments in de areas of human trafficking, sociaw responsibiwity and gender-based viowence at work. The Coawition of Immoakwee Workers most prominent accompwishment rewated to de food justice space has been its part in impwementing de Fair Food Program, which increased de pay and bettered working conditions of farm workers in de tomato industry who had been expwoited for generations. This accompwishment provided over 30,000 workers more income and de abiwity to access better and more heawdy foods for demsewves and deir famiwies. Anoder organization in de food justice space is de Fair Food Network, an organization dat has embraced de mission of hewping famiwies who need heawdy food gain access to it whiwe awso increasing de wivewihoowd for farmers in America and growing wocaw economies. Started by Oran B. Hesterma, de Fair Food Network has invested over $200 miwwion in various projects and initiatives, such as de Doubwe Up Food Bucks program, to hewp wow-income and minority communities access heawdier food.[211]

An exampwe of a city dat has overcome chawwenges and achieved improved sustainabiwity practices whiwe immensewy decreasing food insecurity is Lisbon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Lisbon, de capitaw of Portugaw, was awarded as de 2020 European Green Leaf Award Winner for its notabwe sustainabwe wand use, transport, green growf and eco and waste innovations.[214] The 2010 to 2014 Portuguese financiaw crisis, a prominent obstacwe for Portugaw caused by factors such as de gwobaw recession, resuwted in increased unempwoyment rates and reduced househowd budgets.[215] As a product, adeqwate food intake was evidentwy inhibited. However, Lisbon demonstrated dat sustainabiwity and economic growf can go hand in hand. Measures were taken pwace such as de ReFood Movement, a food waste prevention initiative, and de Municipaw Pwan Against Food Wastage program.[216]

As of 2015[update], de concept of food security has mostwy focused on food cawories rader dan de qwawity and nutrition of food. The concept of nutrition security evowved over time. In 1995, it has been defined as "adeqwate nutritionaw status in terms of protein, energy, vitamins, and mineraws for aww househowd members at aww times".[217]:16

^MERIDITH KOHUT; ISAYEN HERRERA (17 February 2019). "As Venezuewa Cowwapses, Chiwdren Are Dying of Hunger". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 February 2019. government has used food to keep de Sociawists in power, critics say. Before recent ewections, peopwe wiving in government housing projects said dey were visited by representatives of deir wocaw Sociawist community counciws — de government-awigned groups dat organize de dewivery of boxes of cheap food — and dreatened wif being cut off if dey did not vote for de government.

^Appwebaum, Anne (13 October 2017). "How Stawin Hid Ukraine's Famine From de Worwd". The Atwantic. Retrieved 17 February 2019. de ewite weadership of de Soviet Communist Party, took a series of decisions dat deepened de famine in de Ukrainian countryside. Despite de shortages, de state demanded not just grain, but aww avaiwabwe food. At de height of de crisis, organized teams of powicemen and wocaw Party activists, motivated by hunger, fear, and a decade of hatefuw propaganda, entered peasant househowds and took everyding edibwe: potatoes, beets, sqwash, beans, peas, and farm animaws.

Cwimate change: Impact on agricuwture and costs of adaptation A report by de Internationaw Food Powicy Research Institute dat presents research resuwts dat qwantify de impacts of cwimate change, assesses de conseqwences for food security, and estimates de investments dat wouwd offset de negative conseqwences for human weww-being.