Siméon-Denis Poisson, (born June 21, 1781, Pithiviers, France—died April 25, 1840, Sceaux), French mathematician known for his work on definite integrals, electromagnetic theory, and probability.

Poisson’s family had intended him for a medical career, but he showed little interest or aptitude and in 1798 began studying mathematics at the École Polytechnique in Paris under the mathematicians Pierre-Simon Laplace and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who became his lifelong friends. He became a professor at the École Polytechnique in 1802. In 1808 he was made an astronomer at the Bureau of Longitudes, and, when the Faculty of Sciences was instituted in 1809, he was appointed a professor of pure mathematics.

Poisson’s most important work concerned the application of mathematics to electricity and magnetism, mechanics, and other areas of physics. His Traité de mécanique (1811 and 1833; “Treatise on Mechanics”) was the standard work in mechanics for many years. In 1812 he provided an extensive treatment of electrostatics, based on Laplace’s methods from planetary theory, by postulating that electricity is made up of two fluids in which like particles are repelled and unlike particles are attracted with a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Poisson contributed to celestial mechanics by extending the work of Lagrange and Laplace on the stability of planetary orbits and by calculating the gravitational attraction exerted by spheroidal and ellipsoidal bodies. His expression for the force of gravity in terms of the distribution of mass within a planet was used in the late 20th century for deducing details of the shape of the Earth from accurate measurements of the paths of orbiting satellites.

Poisson’s other publications include Théorie nouvelle de l’action capillaire (1831; “A New Theory of Capillary Action”) and Théorie mathématique de la chaleur (1835; “Mathematical Theory of Heat”). In Recherches sur la probabilité des jugements en matière criminelle et en matière civile (1837; “Research on the Probability of Criminal and Civil Verdicts”), an important investigation of probability, the Poisson distribution appears for the first and only time in his work. Poisson’s contributions to the law of large numbers (for independent random variables with a common distribution, the average value for a sample tends to the mean as sample size increases) also appeared therein. Although originally derived as merely an approximation to the binomial distribution (obtained by repeated, independent trials that have only one of two possible outcomes), the Poisson distribution is now fundamental in the analysis of problems concerning radioactivity, traffic, and the random occurrence of events in time or space. Seestatistics: Special probability distributions.

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