The United States presidential election of 1952 was the 42nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4, 1952. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower won a landslide victory, ending a string of Democratic Party wins that stretched back to 1932. He carried the Republican Party (GOP) to narrow control of the House and Senate, during this time, Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was at a high level, as was fear of Communism in the US, epitomized by the campaign of McCarthyism. Foreign policy was a main issue in the race for the Republican nomination, the nation was polarized over the stalemated Korean War, and the extent of corruption in the federal government became a major issue as well. The economy was prosperous and economic and social issues played little role in the campaign.

Incumbent President Harry S. Truman, having been knocked out of the race by a poor showing in the early primaries, decided to back the Governor of Illinois, Adlai Stevenson. Stevenson had gained a reputation in Illinois as a reformer and intellectual; however, he had vacillated a great deal on whether he even wanted to run for the presidency. President Truman had several meetings with Stevenson about the President's desire for Stevenson to become the standard-bearer for the party. Truman became very frustrated with Stevenson and his high level of indecision before Stevenson actually committed to running, the Republican Party saw an intense battle for its nomination contest between the senior Senator of Ohio, Robert A. Taft and Eisenhower. The issue was foreign policy, with Eisenhower supporters attacking Taft as too isolationist. Taft saw little role for the United States in the Cold War.[4] Eisenhower, the former NATO commander and war hero, narrowly defeated Taft. Eisenhower then crusaded against the Truman policies he blasted as "Korea, Communism and Corruption." Eisenhower did well in all major demographic and regional groups outside the Deep South.

The fight for the Republican nomination was between General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the candidate of the party's moderate eastern establishment; Senator Robert A. Taft from Ohio, the longtime leader of the Republican Party's conservative wing; Governor Earl Warren of California, who appealed to Western delegates and independent voters; and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, who still had a base of support in the Midwest.

The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948. The moderates tended to be interventionists, who felt that America needed to fight the Cold War overseas and confront the Soviet Union in Eurasia; they were also willing to accept most aspects of the social welfare state created by the New Deal in the 1930s. The moderates were also concerned with ending the Republicans' losing streak in presidential elections; they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. For this reason, Dewey himself declined the notion of a third run for president, even though he still had a large amount of support within the party, the GOP had been out of power for 20 years, and the sentiment that a proper two-party system needed to be reestablished was strong, also a Republican Party in control of the White House would have more incentive to reign in unpopular demagogues such as Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy.

The conservative Republicans, led by Taft, were based in the Midwest and parts of the South, the Midwest was a bastion of conservatism and isolationist sentiment, dislike of Europeans, in particular Great Britain, was common, and there was a widespread feeling that the British manipulated US foreign policy and were eager to kowtow to the Soviet Union, although attitudes were beginning to change among the younger generation who had fought in World War II. Taft had unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1940 and 1948 presidential elections, losing both times to moderate candidates from New York (Wilkie and Dewey). Taft, 63, felt that this was his last chance to run for president and so his friends and supporters worked extra hard to ensure that he win the nomination.

Warren, although highly popular in California, refused to campaign in the presidential primaries and thus limited his chances of winning the nomination, he did retain the support of the California delegation, and his supporters hoped that, in the event of an Eisenhower-Taft deadlock, Warren might emerge as a compromise candidate.

After being persuaded to run, Eisenhower scored a major victory in the New Hampshire primary, when his supporters wrote his name onto the ballot, giving him an upset victory over Taft. However, from there until the Republican Convention the primaries were divided fairly evenly between the two, and by the time the convention opened, the race for the nomination was still too close to call. Taft won the Nebraska, Wisconsin, Illinois, and South Dakota primaries, while Eisenhower won the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Oregon primaries. Stassen and Warren only won their home states of Minnesota and California respectively, which effectively ended their chances of earning the nomination. General Douglas MacArthur also got ten delegates from various states (mostly Oregon), but had made it clear from early in the race that he had no interest in being nominated.

When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago, Illinois, most political experts rated Taft and Eisenhower as neck-and-neck in the delegate vote totals. Eisenhower's managers, led by Dewey and Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states such as Texas and Georgia. They claimed that Taft's leaders in these states had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters and put Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called this proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied this charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received two more boosts, firstly when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him, and secondly when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower, whose moderate policies he much preferred to those of Taft, the removal of many pro-Taft Southern delegates and the support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor.

However, the mood at the convention was one of the most bitter and emotional in American history. When Senator Everett Dirksen from Illinois, a Taft supporter, pointed at Dewey on the convention floor during a speech and accused him of leading the Republicans "down the road to defeat," mixed boos and cheers rang out from the delegates, and there were even fistfights between some Taft and Eisenhower delegates.

In the end, Eisenhower narrowly defeated Taft on the first ballot. To heal the wounds caused by the battle, he went to Taft's hotel suite and met with him. Taft issued a brief statement congratulating Eisenhower on his victory, but he was bitter about what he felt was the untrue "stealing delegates" charge, and he withheld his active support for Eisenhower for several weeks after the convention; in September 1952 Taft and Eisenhower met again at Morningside Heights in New York City, where Taft promised to support Eisenhower actively in exchange for Eisenhower agreeing to a number of requests. These included a demand that Eisenhower give Taft's followers a fair share of patronage positions if he won the election, and that Eisenhower agree to balance the federal budget and "fight creeping domestic socialism in every field." Eisenhower agreed to the terms, and Taft campaigned hard for the Republican ticket.[5] In fact, Eisenhower and Taft agreed on most domestic issues; their disagreements were primarily in foreign policy.[6]

Though there were initial suggestions that Warren could have earned the party's vice presidential slot for the second successive election if he were to withdraw and endorse Eisenhower, he ultimately chose not to do so. Eisenhower himself had been partial to giving the VP nod to Stassen, who had endorsed Eisenhower of his own accord and had generally similar political positions, the party bosses, however, were keen to find a running mate who could mollify Taft's supporters, as the schism between the moderate and conservative wings was so severe that in the worst case it could potentially lead to the conservatives bolting and running Taft as a third-party candidate.

Eisenhower had apparently given little thought to choosing his running mate, when asked, he replied that he assumed the convention would pick someone, the spot ultimately fell to the young California Congressman Richard Nixon, who was seen as being in the exact center of the GOP. Nixon was known as an aggressive campaigner and a fierce anti-communist, however he shied away from some of the more extreme ideas of the party's right wing, including isolationism and dismantling the New Deal. Most historians now believe that Eisenhower's nomination was primarily due to the feeling that he was a "sure winner" against the Democrats; most of the delegates were conservatives who would probably have supported Taft if they felt he could have won the general election.

Despite not earning the presidential or vice presidential nominations, Warren would subsequently be appointed as Chief Justice in October 1953, while Stassen would hold various positions within Eisenhower's administration.

The expected candidate for the Democratic nomination was incumbent President Harry S. Truman, since the newly passed 22nd Amendment did not apply to whoever was president at the time of its passage, he was eligible to run again. But Truman entered 1952 with his popularity plummeting, according to polls, the bloody and indecisive Korean War was dragging into its third year, Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-Communist crusade was stirring public fears of an encroaching "Red Menace," and the disclosure of widespread corruption among federal employees (including some high-level members of Truman's administration) left Truman at a low political ebb. Polls showed that he had a 66% disapproval rating, a record only matched decades later by Richard Nixon and surpassed by George W. Bush.[8]

Kefauver won all but three primaries, but failed to win nomination

Truman's main opponent was populist Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver, who had chaired a nationally televised investigation of organized crime in 1951 and was known as a crusader against crime and corruption, the Gallup poll of February 15 showed Truman's weakness: nationally Truman was the choice of only 36% of Democrats, compared with 21% for Kefauver. Among independent voters, however, Truman had only 18% while Kefauver led with 36%; in the New Hampshire primary, Kefauver upset Truman, winning 19,800 votes to Truman's 15,927 and capturing all eight delegates. Kefauver graciously said that he did not consider his victory "a repudiation of Administration policies, but a desire...for new ideas and personalities." Stung by this setback, Truman soon announced that he would not seek re-election (however, Truman insisted in his memoirs that he had decided not to run for reelection well before his defeat by Kefauver).

With Truman's withdrawal, Kefauver became the front-runner for the nomination, and he won most of the primaries. Other primary winners were Senator Hubert Humphrey, who won his home state of Minnesota, while Senator Richard Russell Jr. from Georgia won the Florida primary and U.S. diplomat W. Averell Harriman won West Virginia. However, most states still chose their delegates to the Democratic Convention via state conventions, which meant that the party bosses – especially the mayors and governors of large Northern and Midwestern states and cities – were able to choose the Democratic nominee. These bosses (including Truman) strongly disliked Kefauver; his investigations of organized crime had revealed connections between Mafia figures and many of the big-city Democratic political organizations.[9] The party bosses thus viewed Kefauver as a maverick who could not be trusted, and they refused to support him for the nomination.[9]

Instead, with Truman taking the initiative, they began to search for other, more acceptable, candidates. However, most of the other candidates had a major weakness. Richard Russell had much Southern support, but his support of racial segregation and opposition to civil rights for Southern blacks led many liberal Northern and Midwestern delegates to reject him.[9] Truman favored W. Averell Harriman of New York, but he had never held an elective office and was inexperienced in politics. Truman next turned to his vice-president, Alben W. Barkley, but at 74 he was rejected as being too old by labor union leaders. Other minor or favorite son candidates included Oklahoma Senator Robert S. Kerr, Governor Paul A. Dever of Massachusetts, Senator Hubert Humphrey from Minnesota, and Senator J. William Fulbright from Arkansas.

One candidate soon emerged who seemingly had few political weaknesses: Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois, the grandson of former Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson, he came from a distinguished family in Illinois and was well known as a gifted orator, intellectual, and political moderate. In the spring of 1952, Truman tried to convince Stevenson to take the presidential nomination, but Stevenson refused, stating that he wanted to run for re-election as Governor of Illinois. Yet Stevenson never completely took himself out of the race, and as the convention approached, many party bosses, as well as normally apolitical citizens, hoped that he could be "drafted" to run.

The 1952 Democratic National Convention was held in Chicago in the same coliseum the Republicans had gathered in several weeks earlier. Since the convention was being held in his home state, Governor Stevenson – who still proclaimed that he was not a presidential candidate – was asked to give the welcoming address to the delegates. He proceeded to give a witty and stirring address that led his supporters to begin a renewed round of efforts to nominate him, despite his protests, after meeting with Jacob Arvey, the "boss" of the Illinois delegation, Stevenson finally agreed to enter his name as a candidate for the nomination. The party bosses from other large Northern and Midwestern states quickly joined in support. Kefauver led on the first ballot, but had far fewer votes than necessary to win. Stevenson gradually gained strength until he was nominated on the third ballot.

After the delegates nominated Stevenson, the convention then turned to selecting a vice-presidential nominee, after narrowing it down to Senators John Sparkman, and A. S. Mike Monroney, President Truman and a small group of political insiders chose Sparkman, a conservative and segregationist from Alabama, for the nomination. The convention largely complied and nominated Sparkman as Stevenson's running mate, he was chosen because of his Southern identity and conservative record; party leaders hoped this factor would create a balanced ticket.

The Eisenhower campaign was one of the first presidential campaigns to make a major, concerted effort to win the female vote. Many of his radio and television commercials discussed topics such as education, inflation, ending the war in Korea, and other issues that were thought to appeal to women, the Eisenhower campaign made extensive use of female campaign workers. These workers made phone calls to likely Eisenhower voters, distributed "Ike" buttons and leaflets, and threw parties to build support for the GOP ticket in their neighborhoods, on election day, Eisenhower won a solid majority of the female vote.[10]

Eisenhower campaigned by attacking "Korea, Communism, and Corruption"—that is, what the Republicans regarded as the failures of the outgoing Truman administration to deal with these issues,[11] the Eisenhower campaign accused the administration of "neglecting Latin America" and thus "leading them into the arms of wily Communist agents waiting to exploit local misery and capitalize on any opening to communize the Americas."[12] Charges that Soviet spies had infiltrated the government plagued the Truman Administration and also became a "major campaign issue" for Eisenhower,[13] the Republicans blamed the Democrats for the military's failure to be fully prepared to fight in Korea; they accused the Democrats of harboring communist spies within the federal government; and they blasted the Truman Administration for the numbers of officials who had been accused of various crimes.

Stevenson hoped to exploit the rift between the conservative Taft Republicans and the moderate Eisenhower Republicans;[14] in a speech in Baltimore, Stevenson said, "The GOP elephant has two heads nowadays, and I can't tell from day to day who's driving the poor beast, Senator Taft or the General. I doubt that America will entrust its future, its hopes, to the master of a house divided against itself."[14] Stevenson, Truman, and other Democrats campaigning that fall also criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy and other right-wing Republicans for what they believed were reckless and unwarranted attacks and congressional investigations into leading government officials and public servants;[15] in a Salt Lake City speech Stevenson stated that right-wing Republicans were "quick with accusations, with defamatory hints and whispering campaigns when they see a chance to scare or silence those with whom they disagree. Rudely, carelessly, they invade the field of thought, of conscience, which belongs to God, and not to Senators...McCarthy and men like him can say almost anything, and if my opponent's conscience permits, he can try to help all of them get reelected."[15] Stevenson said that right-wing attacks on government officials such as General George Marshall, who had served Truman as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense, reflected a "middle of the gutter approach" to politics.[16] President Truman repeatedly criticized Senator McCarthy's character and temperament, and called on Eisenhower to repudiate him.[17] Stevenson ridiculed right-wing Republicans "who hunt Communists in the Bureau of Wildlife and Fisheries while hesitating to aid the gallant men and women who are resisting the real thing in the front lines of Europe and Asia...They are finally the men who seemingly believe that we can confound the Kremlin by frightening ourselves to death."[18] In return, Senator McCarthy often confused the names Adlai and Alger, the first name of convicted Soviet spy Alger Hiss, by stating "Alger, I mean Adlai..." in his speeches.[19] McCarthy, in response to Stevenson's criticisms, also stated during the campaign that he would like to get on the Stevenson campaign trail "with a club and make a good and loyal American" out of Stevenson.[16]

Neither Stevenson nor Sparkman had been a part of the Truman administration and they largely ignored its record, preferring to hark back to the Roosevelt's New Deal achievements while warning of against a repetition of the Hoover depression. Historian Herbert Parmet says that although Stevenson:

tried to separate his campaign from Truman's record, his efforts failed to dispel the widespread recognition that, for a divided America, torn by paranoia and unable to understand what had disrupted the anticipated tranquility of the postwar world, the time for change had really arrived. Neither Stevenson nor anyone else could have dissuaded the electorate from its desire to repudiate 'Trumanism.'[20]

Many Democrats were particularly upset when Eisenhower, on a scheduled campaign swing through Wisconsin, decided not to give a speech he had written criticizing McCarthy's methods, and then allowed himself to be photographed shaking hands with McCarthy as if he supported him. Truman, formerly friends with Eisenhower, never forgot what he saw as a betrayal; he had previously thought Eisenhower would make a good president, but said, "he has betrayed almost everything I thought he stood for."[21]

Despite these mishaps, Eisenhower retained his enormous personal popularity from his leading role in World War II, and huge crowds turned out to see him around the nation, his campaign slogan, "I Like Ike," was one of the most popular in American history. Stevenson attracted the support of the young, emergent postwar intellectual class, however Eisenhower was seen as more appealing to Main Street. Stevenson was ridiculed in some quarters as too effeminate to be president, the staunchly conservative New York Daily News called him "Adelaide" Stevenson, even though he had a reputation as a ladies' man and several mistresses.

A notable event of the 1952 campaign concerned a scandal that emerged when Richard Nixon, Eisenhower's running mate, was accused by several newspapers of receiving $18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy donors; in reality, contributions were by design only from early supporters and limited to $1,000, with full accountability. Nixon, who had been accusing the Democrats of hiding crooks, suddenly found himself on the defensive. Eisenhower and his aides considered dropping Nixon from the ticket and picking another running mate.

Results by county explicitly indicating the percentage for the winning candidate. Shades of red are for Eisenhower (Republican) and shades of blue are for Stevenson (Democratic).

Eisenhower, who barely knew Nixon, waffled and refused to comment on the incident. Nixon saved his political career, however, with a dramatic half-hour speech, the "Checkers speech," on live television; in this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters a gift – a dog named "Checkers" – and that he would not return it, because his daughters loved it. The "Checkers speech" led hundreds of thousands of citizens nationwide to wire the Republican National Committee urging the Republican Party to keep Nixon on the ticket, and Eisenhower stayed with him.

Despite the red-baiting of the right wing of the GOP, the campaign on the whole was conducted with a considerable degree of dignity and Stevenson was seen as reinvigorating a Democrat Party that had become exhausted after 20 years in power and refreshing its appeal with younger voters, he accused Eisenhower of silently tolerating Joseph McCarthy's excesses, and that the GOP was dominated by "men who hunt communists in the Bureau of Wildlife and Fisheries while refusing to help the brave men and women confronting the real thing in Europe and Asia". Stevenson went before the American Legion, a bastion of hardline conservatism, and boldly declared that there was nothing patriotic or American about what Joseph McCarthy was doing.

Even with the dignified nature of the campaign, the dislike between the two candidates was visible; Stevenson criticized Eisenhower's non-condemnation of McCarthy and use of television spots, and Eisenhower, while he had initially respected Stevenson, in time came to view him as simply another career politician, something he strongly disliked.

The 1952 election campaign was the first one to make use of the new medium of television, in part thanks to the efforts of Rosser Reeves, the head of the Ted Bates Agency, a leading advertising firm. Reeves had initially proposed a series of radio spots to Thomas Dewey in the 1948 campaign, but Dewey considered them undignified, and Reeves maintained that Dewey might have won the election had he been slightly more open-minded.

Studying Douglas MacArthur's keynote speech at the Republican convention in July, Reeves believed that the general's words were "powerful", but "unfocused" and "all over the map". Eisenhower's public speeches were even worse, he was unable to make his point to the voting public in a clear, legible manner. Reeves felt that Eisenhower needed to condense his message down to a few simple, easily digestible slogans.

Eisenhower at first also fared poorly on television and had a difficult time appearing relaxed and at ease on camera, the TV lighting was not flattering and it made him look old and unattractive, in particular his forehead tended to glisten under the lights. Eisenhower became upset when CBS correspondent Dave Schoenbrun pointed this out and suggested he try altering his poses to make his forehead less noticeable and also apply makeup so it would not shine from the lighting. Eventually, he gave in and agreed to these modifications. Reeves also wanted Eisenhower to not wear his eyeglasses on camera in order to look younger, but he could not read the prompter board without them, so Reeves devised a large, handwritten signboard.

Reeves's TV work, although pioneering, was the subject of considerable criticism on the grounds that he was attempting to sell a presidential candidate to the public in the same manner that one might sell a car or a brand of toothpaste. Adlai Stevenson for his part would have nothing to do with television at all and condemned Eisenhower's use of the medium, calling it "selling the presidency like cereal", he himself made a point of the fact that he did not own a TV or watch television, and many of his inner circle did likewise.

Both campaigns made use of television ads. A notable ad for Eisenhower was an issue-free, feel-good animated cartoon with a soundtrack song by Irving Berlin called "I Like Ike." For the first time, a presidential candidate's personal medical history was released publicly, as were partial versions of his financial histories, because of the issues raised in Nixon's speech.[22] Near the end of the campaign, Eisenhower, in a major speech, announced that if he won the election he would go to Korea to see if he could end the war, his great military prestige, combined with the public's weariness with the conflict, gave Eisenhower the final boost he needed to win.

To circumvent the local Republican Party apparatus mostly controlled by Taft supporters, the Eisenhower forces created a nationwide network of grass-roots clubs, "Citizens for Eisenhower." Independents and Democrats were welcome, as the group specialized in canvassing neighborhoods and holding small group meetings. Citizens for Eisenhower hoped to revitalize the GOP by expanding its activist ranks and by supporting moderate and internationalist policies, it did not endorse candidates other than Eisenhower. However Eisenhower paid it little attention after he won, and it failed to maintain its impressive starting momentum. Instead it energized the conservative Republicans, leading finally to the Barry Goldwater campaign of 1964. Long-time Republican activists viewed the newcomers with suspicion and hostility. More significantly, activism in support of Eisenhower did not translate into enthusiasm for the party cause.[23]

On election day, Eisenhower won a decisive victory, winning over 55% of the popular vote and carrying thirty-nine of the forty-eight states. Stevenson did not win a single state north of the Mason–Dixon line or west of Arkansas, whilst Eisenhower took three Southern states that the Republicans had won only once since Reconstruction: Virginia, Florida, and Texas, despite the Republican win in Florida, this remains the last time to date a Democrat has won Collier County before southwestern Florida was turned into a growing Sun Belt Republican stronghold, and is also the last time a Democrat has won Aiken County, South Carolina, before the "Solid South" would collapse in the wake of the Civil Rights Movement.[24] 1952 is also, however, the last time a Republican won Yolo County, California, or Native American Rolette County, North Dakota, and the last until Donald Trump in 2016 that the Republicans won Pacific County, Washington, or Swift County, Minnesota.[24] This was the last time the Republicans won Missouri until 1968 and the last time the Democrats won Kentucky until 1964, it is also the last time that a Republican won the election without Kentucky. Stevenson's 700-vote win was the smallest percentage margin in any state since Woodrow Wilson won New Hampshire by fifty-six votes in 1916.

This election was the first in which a computer (the UNIVAC I) was used to predict the results.[25]

^Sabato, Larry; Ernst, Howard (2006). "Presidential Election 1952". Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. Facts on File. p. 354. Retrieved 16 November 2016. Eisenhower, born in Texas, considered a resident of New York, and headquartered at the time in Paris, finally decided to run for the Republican nomination...

^"1952: The Election of a Military Hero". The Press and the Presidency. Kennesaw State University, Department of Political Science & International Affairs. August 31, 2001. Retrieved November 20, 2008.

1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

2.
United States presidential election, 1948
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The United States presidential election of 1948 was the 41st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1948. Trumans victory is considered to be one of the greatest election upsets in American history, virtually every prediction indicated that he would be defeated by Dewey. The Democratic Party had a severe three-way ideological split, with both the far left and far right of the Party running third-party campaigns, with simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Trumans election confirmed the Democratic Partys status as the majority party. As would be experienced by the Democrats, there was a boom for General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular general of World War II, unlike the latter movement within the Democratic party, however, the Republican draft movement came largely from the grassroots of the party. With the first state primary approaching, Eisenhower was forced to make a quick decision, stating that soldiers should keep out of politics, Eisenhower declined to run and requested that the grassroots draft movement cease its activities. Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began, Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the Republican Partys Eastern Establishment. In 1946 he had been re-elected governor of New York by the largest margin in state history, Deweys handicap was that many Republicans disliked him on a personal level, he often struck observers as cold, stiff, and calculating. Taft was the leader of the Republican Partys conservative wing, which was strongest in the Midwest, Taft had two major weaknesses, He was a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Both Vandenberg and Warren were highly popular in their states, but each refused to campaign in the primaries. Their supporters, however, hoped that in the event of a Dewey-Taft-Stassen deadlock, General MacArthur, the famous war hero, was especially popular among conservatives. Since he was serving in Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers occupying that nation and they chose to enter his name in the Wisconsin primary. The surprise candidate of 1948 was Stassen, a liberal from Minnesota, in 1938, Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31, he resigned as governor in 1943 to serve in the wartime Navy. In 1945 he served on the committee created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most liberal of the Republican candidates, Stassen stunned Dewey and MacArthur in the Wisconsin primary, Stassens surprise victory virtually eliminated General MacArthur, whose supporters had made a major effort on his behalf. Stassen defeated Dewey again in the Nebraska primary, thus making him the new frontrunner and he then made the strategic mistake of trying to beat Taft in Ohio, Tafts home state. Stassen believed that if he could defeat Taft in his state, Taft would be forced to quit the race. Taft defeated Stassen in his native Ohio, however, and Stassen earned the hostility of the partys conservatives, even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary

3.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president

4.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation

5.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier

Richard Nixon
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Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon
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The infant Richard stands outside the Nixons' Yorba Linda Home (early 1914), looking toward what is today the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Richard Nixon
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Nixon (second from right) makes his newspaper debut in 1916, contributing five cents to a fund for war orphans. Donald is to the left of his brother.
Richard Nixon
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Nixon at Whittier High School in 1930.

6.
John Sparkman
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John Jackson Sparkman was an American politician from the U. S. state of Alabama. A Southern Democrat, Sparkman served in the U. S. House of Representatives and he was the Democratic Partys nominee for Vice President as Adlai Stevensons running mate in the 1952 U. S. presidential election. Sparkman, a son of Whitten Joseph and Julia Mitchell Sparkman, was born on a farm near Hartselle, in Morgan County and he grew up in a four-room cabin with his eleven brothers and sisters. His father was a tenant farmer and doubled as the deputy sheriff. As a child, John Sparkman worked on his fathers farm picking cotton and he attended a one-room elementary school in rural Morgan County, then walked four miles every day to his high school. Sparkman graduated from Morgan County High School in 1917 and enrolled in the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, during World War I, he was a member of the Students Army Training Corps. Sparkman worked shoveling coal in the boiler room to help pay for his education. He worked on the The Crimson White, becoming the papers editor-in-chief and he received his Bachelor of Arts in 1921, and his bachelor of laws from the University of Alabama School of Law in 1923. In 1924, Sparkman earned his masters degree in history, writing his thesis titled The Kolb-Oates Campaign of 1894. Oatess 1894 campaign for Governor of Alabama, Sparkman briefly worked as a high school teacher before he was admitted to the Alabama State Bar in 1925. He commenced his practice in Huntsville and he was also an instructor at Huntsville College from 1925 to 1928. He was appointed as a U. S, commissioner for Alabamas northern judicial district, serving from 1930 to 1931. A Freemason, he was member of Helion Lodge#1 in Huntsville. He was also member of the Huntsville Scottish Rite bodies and a recipient of the Knight Commander Court of Honor, after Representative Archibald Hill Carmichael announced his retirement in 1936, Sparkman ran in the Democratic primary for the open seat. Sparkman was elected to the United States House of Representatives in the 1936 election, defeating Union Party candidate and he was reelected in 1938,1940,1942, and 1944, serving in the 75th, 76th, 77th, 78th, and 79th Congresses. In 1946 he served as House Majority Whip, Sparkman resigned from the House of Representatives immediately following the election and began his Senate term on November 6,1946. He served until his retirement on January 3,1979, having not sought reelection in 1978, the 1943 Sparkman Act, which allowed women physicians to be commissioned as officers in the armed forces, was named for him, after lobbying by Dr. Emily Dunning Barringer. In 1949, Sparkman was instrumental in convincing the United States Department of the Army to transfer the missile development activities from Fort Bliss, Texas, to Redstone Arsenal

7.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period

8.
United States presidential election
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These electors then in turn cast direct votes, known as electoral votes, for President and Vice President. The candidate who receives a majority of electoral votes for President or Vice President is then elected to that office. The Electoral College and its procedure is established in the U. S, Constitution by Article II, Section 1, Clauses 2 and 4, and the Twelfth Amendment. C. Casts the same number of votes as the least-represented state. Also under Clause 2, the manner for choosing electors is determined by state legislature. Many state legislatures used to select their electors directly, but over all of them switched to using the popular vote to help determine electors. In modern times, faithless and unpledged electors have not affected the outcome of an election. The Electoral College electors then formally cast their votes on the first Monday after December 12 at their respective state capitals. Congress then certify the results in early January, and the term begins on Inauguration Day. These primary elections are held between January and June before the general election in November, while the nominating conventions are held in the summer. Article Two of the United States Constitution originally established the method of presidential elections and this was a result of a compromise between those constitutional framers who wanted the Congress to choose the president, and those who preferred a national popular vote. Each state is allocated a number of electors that is equal to the size of its delegation in both houses of Congress combined. With the ratification of the 23rd Amendment to the Constitution in 1961, however, U. S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College. Constitutionally, the manner for choosing electors is determined within each state by its legislature, during the first presidential election in 1789, only 6 of the 13 original states chose electors by any form of popular vote. Gradually throughout the years, the states began conducting popular elections to choose their slate of electors, resulting in the overall. Under the original system established by Article Two, electors could cast two votes to two different candidates for president, the candidate with the highest number of votes became the president, and the second-place candidate became the vice president. This presented a problem during the election of 1800 when Aaron Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Thomas Jefferson. In the end, Jefferson was chosen as the president because of Alexander Hamiltons influence in the House of Representatives and this added to the deep rivalry between Burr and Hamilton which resulted in their famous 1804 duel

9.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare

10.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

11.
McCarthyism
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McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence. It originated with President Trumans Executive Order 9835 of March 21,1947, McCarthyism soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts. The term is now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated accusations. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators, many people suffered loss of employment or destruction of their careers, some even suffered imprisonment. McCarthyism was a social and cultural phenomenon that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate. The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthys own involvement in it, many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them extending back to the years of the First Red Scare, inspired by Communisms emergence as a recognized political force. While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected. That same year, Mao Zedongs Communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang, in 1950, the Korean War began, pitting U. S. U. N. and South Korean forces against Communists from North Korea and China. The following year saw several significant developments regarding Soviet Cold War espionage activities. In January 1950, Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury, in Great Britain, Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 on charges of stealing atomic bomb secrets for the Soviets and were executed in 1953, there were also more subtle forces encouraging the rise of McCarthyism. It had long been a practice of conservative politicians to refer to progressive reforms such as child labor laws. This tendency increased in the 1930s in reaction to the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in general, the vaguely defined danger of Communist influence was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-Communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity. He produced a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department and this speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and established the path that made him one of the most recognized politicians in the United States. The first recorded use of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block. The cartoon depicted four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant to stand on a platform atop a stack of ten tar buckets. Block later wrote that there was nothing particularly ingenious about the term, if anyone has a prior claim on it, hes welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of dishes and a case of soap

12.
Governor of Illinois
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The Governor of Illinois is the chief executive of the State of Illinois and the various agencies and departments over which the officer has jurisdiction, as prescribed in the state constitution. It is an elected position, votes being cast by popular suffrage of residents of the state. The governor is responsible for enacting laws passed by the Illinois General Assembly, Illinois is one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term-limit. The current governor is Republican Bruce Rauner, who succeeded Pat Quinn in 2015, the term of office of Governor of Illinois is four years, and there is no limit on the number of terms a governor may serve. Inauguration takes place on the second Monday in January following a gubernatorial election, a single term ends four years later. Its first occupant was Governor Joel Aldrich Matteson, who took residence at the mansion in 1855 and it is one of three oldest governors residences in continuous use in the United States. The governor is given the use of an official residence on the state fair grounds. Governors have traditionally used this part of the year. Six Illinois governors have been charged with crimes during or after their governorships, four were convicted, len Small, governor from 1921 to 1929, was indicted in office for corruption. He was acquitted, thereafter, eight of the received state jobs. Among his defense lawyers was a governor, Joseph W. Fifer, who asserted in pre-trial hearings. William G. Stratton, governor from 1953 to 1961, was acquitted of tax evasion in 1965 and he was prosecuted by future Illinois governor Jim Thompson. He was sentenced to seven years in prison five years of probation following his release. Former governor Jim Thompson, whom Ryan had served under as Lieutenant Governor of Illinois in the 1980s, was manager of the law firm that defended Ryan. In August 2010, he was convicted of lying to the FBI in connection with the investigation, but the jury deadlocked on 23 other charges. Blagojevich was retried on 20 counts from his 2010 trial and on June 27,2011, Blagojevich was convicted on 17 counts of fraud, acquitted on one count, on December 7,2011, Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison. List of Governors of Illinois 1. α Current governor of Illinois, in 2015, the Council of State Governments reported that Rauner had returned all but $1 of his salary to the State of Illinois. However, the pay rate for the title of Governor in Illinois remains at $177,412, Illinois Office of the Governor Illinois Executive Mansion Burial places of Illinois Governors Article V in the Illinois Constitution list of government help in Illinois

13.
List of United States Senators from Ohio
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The state of Ohio elects one Class 1 and one Class 3 senator. Its current senators are Democrat Sherrod Brown and Republican Rob Portman, as of December 2016, there is one former Senator who is living, one from Class 1. The most recent Senator to die was John Glenn of Class 3, the most recently serving Senator to die was George Voinovich of Class 3, on June 12,2016. The most recent Class 1 Senator to die was Howard Metzenbaum on March 12,2008, list of United States Representatives from Ohio Burke, Dewayne. The Senate, 1789-1989, Historical Statistics, 1789-1992, Taylor, William Alexander, Taylor, Aubrey Clarence. Ohio statesmen and annals of progress, from the year 1788 to the year 1900

14.
Isolationist
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Isolationism is the foreign policy position that a nations interests are best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance. One possible motivation for limiting international involvement is to avoid being drawn into dangerous, there may also be a perceived benefit from avoiding international trade agreements or other mutual assistance pacts. Before 1999, Bhutan had banned television and the Internet in order to preserve its culture, environment, eventually, Jigme Singye Wangchuck lifted the ban on television and the Internet. His son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, was elected as Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan, after Zheng Hes voyages in the 15th century, the foreign policy of the Ming dynasty in China became increasingly isolationist. The Hongwu Emperor was the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1371, the Qing dynasty that came after the Ming dynasty often continued the Ming dynastys isolationist policies. From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy which it called kaikin, the policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. However, the commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed is misleading, in fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands and the Netherlands. The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history. In 1863, King Gojong took the throne of the Joseon Dynasty when he was a child and his father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s he was the proponent of isolationism and the principal instrument of the persecution of both native and foreign Catholics. The Spanish settlers who had arrived just before independence had to intermarry with either the old colonists or with the native Guarani, francia had a particular dislike of foreigners and any who came to Paraguay during his rule were not allowed to leave for the rest of their lives. Switzerland has been neutral in foreign relations since the Battle of Marignano in 1515, switzerland is not a member of the European Union or the European Economic Area and the general public remains opposed to full EU membership. In February 2014, Swiss voters narrowly approved a referendum to restrict immigration, robert Art makes his argument in A Grand Strategy for America. Both sides claim policy prescriptions from George Washingtons Farewell Address as evidence for their argument, a desire for separateness and unilateral freedom of action merged with national pride and a sense of continental safety to foster the policy of isolation. Although the United States maintained diplomatic relations and economic contacts abroad, the Department of State continually rejected proposals for joint cooperation, a policy made explicit in the Monroe Doctrines emphasis on unilateral action. Not until 1863 did an American delegate attend an international conference, a Global Affairs Commentary, The Terms of Power, Foreign Policy in Focus, November 6,2002, University Press. Japan in Print, Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period, ISBN9780520237667, OCLC60697079 Chalberg, John C. ISBN9781565102231, OCLC30078579 Craig, Albert, ISBN9780674128507, OCLC413558 Glahn, Richard Von

Isolationist
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Opposition to wars or aspects of war

15.
Republican Party presidential primaries, 1952
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Former U. S. Army General Dwight D. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the moderates were also concerned with ending the GOPs losing streak in presidential elections, they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. The conservative Republicans led by Senator Taft were based in the Midwest, Senator Taft had been a candidate for the GOP nomination in 1940 and 1948, but had been defeated both times by moderate Republicans from New York. Taft, who was 62 when the campaign began, freely admitted that 1952 was his last chance to win the nomination, and this led his supporters to work hard for him. Tafts weakness, which he was never able to overcome, was the fear of many party bosses that he was too conservative, notable was the absence of Dewey. He strongly supported Eisenhower and played an important role in persuading him to run, Dewey used his powerful political machine to win Ike the support of delegates in New York and elsewhere. Eisenhower scored a victory in the New Hampshire primary when his supporters wrote his name onto the ballot. Eisenhowers managers, led by Governor Dewey and Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. accused Taft of stealing delegate votes in Southern states such as Texas and Georgia. They claimed that Tafts leaders in these states had illegally refused to give delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters, Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates, they called this proposal Fair Play. In the end Eisenhower took the nomination on the first ballot, to heal the wounds caused by the battle he went to Tafts hotel suite and met with him. The Convention then chose young Senator Richard Nixon of California as Eisenhowers running mate, it was felt that Nixons credentials as a slashing campaigner, the balloting at the Republican Convention went, Freshman California Senator Richard Nixon was nominated for Vice President, also with notable Deweys support. Republican politician thought that his experience, aggressive style and political base on the West would help political newcomer Eisenhower

16.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

United States Senate
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United States Senate
United States Senate
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Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
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The Senate side of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
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A typical Senate desk

17.
Harold Stassen
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Harold Edward Stassen was the 25th Governor of Minnesota from 1939 to 1943. After service in World War II, he was president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1948 to 1953 and he was a leading candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 1948, considered for a time to be the front-runner. He thereafter regularly continued to run for that and other offices, Stassen, the third of five children, was born in West St. Paul, Minnesota, to Elsie Emma and William Andrew Stassen, a farmer and several-times mayor of West St. Paul. His mother was German and his father was born in Minnesota, to German and he graduated from high school at age 14. At the University of Minnesota, Stassen was a debater, captain of the champion university rifle team in 1927. After opening a law office with Elmer J. Ryan in South St. Paul that year, he was elected District Attorney of Dakota County in 1930 and 1934, Stassen was seen as an up and comer after delivering the keynote address at the 1940 Republican National Convention. There he worked to help Wendell Willkie win the Republican Party nomination for the presidency, after being promoted to Commander, he joined the staff of Admiral William F. Halsey, Commander of the South Pacific Force, and served for two years. He left active duty at the rank of Captain in November 1945, Stassen lost some of his political base while overseas, whereas Republican candidates such as Thomas E. Dewey had a chance to increase theirs. Stassen was a delegate at the San Francisco Conference that established the United Nations and he served as president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1948 to 1953. His attempt to increase the prominence of the university team was unpopular. From 1953 to 1955, he was the director of President Dwight D. Eisenhowers short-lived Foreign Operations Administration, Stassen was later best known for being a perennial candidate for the Republican Party nomination for President of the United States, seeking it nine times between 1944 and 1992. Stassens strongest bid for the Republican presidential nomination was in 1948, the May 17 Dewey–Stassen debate was the first recorded modern debate between presidential candidates to take place in the United States. The debate, which concerned the criminalization of the Communist Party of the United States, was broadcast over the radio throughout the nation. Cobb described the South as the last frontier to which we can turn for substantial gains for our party - gains that can be held in the years to come. In the first two rounds of balloting, Stassen finished third behind Dewey, the front runner, and Robert Taft, after the second round, Stassen and Taft bowed out and Dewey was selected unanimously as the nominee on the next ballot. In all Republican conventions since 1948, the nominee has been selected on the first ballot, Stassen played a key role in the 1952 Republican contest when he released his delegates to Dwight D. Eisenhower. His doing so helped Eisenhower to defeat Robert A. Taft on the first ballot and he served in the Eisenhower Administration, filling posts including director of the Mutual Security Administration and Special Assistant to the President for Disarmament. During this period, he held cabinet rank and led an effort to dump Nixon at the 1956 Republican Convention

18.
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. Warren is the person elected to three consecutive terms as Governor of California, and with those three elected terms he is second only to Jerry Brown for total gubernatorial wins in California. Before holding these positions, he was the District Attorney for Alameda County, California, Warren was the nominee of the Republican Party for Vice President in 1948, as the running mate of Thomas E. Dewey. He was appointed to chair what became known as the Warren Commission, which was formed to investigate the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles, on March 19,1891, to Mathias H. Warren, a Norwegian immigrant whose family name was Varren, and his wife, Crystal. Mathias Warren was an employee of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After he was blacklisted for joining in a strike, the moved to Bakersfield, California. Matthias worked in a repair yard, and Earl had summer jobs in railroading. Earl Warren grew up in Bakersfield, where he attended Washington Junior High and his father was murdered there by an unknown person during a robbery. In 1912 Warren graduated with a B. A. in political science from the University of California, in 1914 he earned his J. D. at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He was a member of The Gun Club secret society, and the Sigma Phi Society, as an undergraduate, Warren also played clarinet in the Cal Band. Warren maintained a friendship with fellow Cal student Robert Gordon Sproul. In 1948, at the Republican National Convention, Sproul would nominate Warren for Vice President, Warren was admitted to the California bar in 1914. Warren worked a year for Associated Oil Company in San Francisco, then joined Robinson & Robinson, in August 1917, Warren enlisted in the U. S. Army for World War I service. Assigned to the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington, 1st Lieutenant Earl Warren was discharged in 1918. After the war, he served as a clerk of the Judicial Committee for the 1919 Session of the California State Assembly, then as the Deputy City Attorney in Oakland, Warren came to the attention of powerful Republican Joseph R. Knowland, publisher of The Oakland Tribune. He was strongly influenced by California Governor Hiram Johnson and other leaders of the Progressive Era to oppose corruption, in 1925, Warren was appointed as the District Attorney of Alameda County. Warren was re-elected to three four-year terms, Warren vigorously investigated allegations that a deputy sheriff was taking bribes in connection with street-paving arrangements

19.
Douglas MacArthur
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Douglas MacArthur was an American five-star general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and he received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign, which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur, Jr. the first father and son to be awarded the medal. He was one of five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army. During the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz, he conducted a reconnaissance mission, in 1917, he was promoted from major to colonel and became chief of staff of the 42nd Division. From 1919 to 1922, MacArthur served as Superintendent of the U. S, Military Academy at West Point, where he attempted a series of reforms. His next assignment was in the Philippines, where in 1924 he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Scout Mutiny, in 1925, he became the Armys youngest major general. He served on the martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell and was president of the American Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1930, he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army, as such, he was involved in the expulsion of the Bonus Army protesters from Washington, D. C. in 1932, and the establishment and organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He retired from the US Army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East. A series of disasters followed, starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941, MacArthurs forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan, where they held out until May 1942. In March 1942, MacArthur, his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia, upon his arrival in Australia, MacArthur gave a speech in which he famously promised I shall return to the Philippines. For his defense of the Philippines, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor, after more than two years of fighting in the Pacific, he fulfilled a promise to return to the Philippines. He officially accepted Japans surrender on 2 September 1945, aboard USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay, as the effective ruler of Japan, he oversaw sweeping economic, political and social changes. He led the United Nations Command in the Korean War until he was removed from command by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 and he later became Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand. A military brat, Douglas MacArthur was born 26 January 1880, at Little Rock Barracks, Little Rock, Arkansas, to Arthur MacArthur, Jr. a U. S. Army captain, Pinkney came from a prominent Norfolk, Virginia, family. Two of her brothers had fought for the South in the Civil War, Arthur and Pinky had three sons, of whom Douglas was the youngest, following Arthur III, born on 1 August 1876, and Malcolm, born on 17 October 1878. The family lived on a succession of Army posts in the American Old West, conditions were primitive, and Malcolm died of measles in 1883. In his memoir, Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write—indeed and this time on the frontier ended in July 1889 when the family moved to Washington, D. C. where Douglas attended the Force Public School

Douglas MacArthur
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MacArthur in Manila, Philippines c. 1945, smoking a corncob pipe
Douglas MacArthur
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Douglas MacArthur as a student at West Texas Military Academy in the late 1890s
Douglas MacArthur
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Brigadier General MacArthur holding a crop at a French chateau, September 1918
Douglas MacArthur
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General Pershing (second from left) decorates Brigadier General MacArthur (third from left) with the Distinguished Service Cross. Major General Charles T. Menoher (left) reads out the citation while Colonel George E. Leach (fourth from left) and Lieutenant Colonel William Joseph Donovan await their decorations.

20.
Eurasia
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Eurasia /jʊˈreɪʒə/ is a combined continental landmass of Europe and Asia. The term is a portmanteau of its constituent continents, in geology, Eurasia is often considered as a single rigid megablock. However, the rigidity of Eurasia is debated based on the paleomagnet data, Eurasia covers around 55,000,000 square kilometres, or around 36. 2% of the Earths total land area. The landmass contains around 5.0 billion people, equating to approximately 70% of the human population, humans first settled in Eurasia between 60,000 and 125,000 years ago. Physiographically, Eurasia is a single continent, the concepts of Europe and Asia as distinct continents date back to antiquity and their borders are geologically arbitrary. Eurasia is connected to Africa at the Suez Canal, and Eurasia is sometimes combined with Africa as the largest contiguous landmass on Earth called Afro-Eurasia. Eurasia formed 375 to 325 million years ago with the merging of Siberia, Kazakhstania, and Baltica, chinese cratons collided with Siberias southern coast. Eurasia has been the host of ancient civilizations, including those based in Mesopotamia. In the Axial Age, a belt of civilizations stretched through the Eurasian subtropical zone from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This belt became the mainstream of world history for two millennia, originally, “Eurasia” is a geographical notion, in this sense, it is simply the biggest continent, the combined landmass of Europe and Asia. However, geopolitically, the word has different meanings, reflecting the specific geopolitical interests of each nation. “Eurasia” is one of the most important geopolitical concepts, as Zbigniew Brzezinski observed, how America manages Eurasia is critical. A power that dominates “Eurasia” would control two of the three most advanced and economically productive regions. About 75 per cent of the people live in “Eurasia”. “Eurasia” accounts for about three-fourths of the known energy resources. ”At the moment one of the most prominent projects of the European Union is the Russia - EU Four Common Spaces Initiative. A political and economic union of former Soviet states named the Eurasian Economic Union was established in 2015, the Russian concept of “Eurasia” corresponded initially more or less to the land area of Imperial Russia in 1914, including parts of Eastern Europe. One of Russias main geopolitical interests lies in ever closer integration with those countries that it considers part of “Eurasia. ”Every two years since 1996 a meeting of most Asian and European countries is organised as the Asia-Europe Meeting. In ancient times, the Greeks classified Europe and Asia as separate lands, where to draw the dividing line between the two regions is still a matter of discussion

21.
Social welfare
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For conceptual models of social well-being, see Social welfare function. Welfare is the provision of a level of well-being and social support for citizens without current means to support basic needs. The welfare state expands on this concept to include such as universal healthcare. In the Roman Empire, the first emperor Augustus provided the Cura Annonae or grain dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food every month, Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan. Trajans program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger, the Song dynasty government supported multiple programs which could be classified as social welfare, including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers graveyards. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, The medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching, early welfare programs in Europe included the English Poor Law of 1601, which gave parishes the responsibility for providing welfare payments to the poor. This system was modified by the 19th-century Poor Law Amendment Act. It was predominantly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a system of state welfare provision was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of the first welfare systems for the working classes, in Great Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911, a system later expanded by Clement Attlee. The United States inherited Englands poor house laws and has had a form of welfare since before it won its independence. Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands, as well as the Nordic countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories, Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal. In the Islamic world, Zakat, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, has collected by the government since the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century. The taxes were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, according to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali, the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. Welfare can take a variety of forms, such as payments, subsidies and vouchers. A persons eligibility for welfare may also be constrained by means testing or other conditions, Welfare is provided by governments or their agencies, by private organizations, or a combination of both. Funding for welfare usually comes from government revenue, but when dealing with charities or NGOs. Some countries run conditional cash transfer welfare programs where payment is conditional on behaviour of the recipients, the 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform. In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65, a national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912

22.
Draft Eisenhower
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The Draft Eisenhower movement was the first successful political draft of the 20th century to take a private citizen to the Oval Office. It was a widespread American grassroots political movement that eventually persuaded Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for President, the movement culminated in the 1952 presidential election in which Eisenhower won the Republican nomination and defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson to become the 34th President of the United States. Dwight Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York, in June 1911 and he steadily rose through the ranks of the U. S. military from 1915 to 1952. At the end of the War in Europe on May 8,1945, Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31,1952. During this period Eisenhower served as president of Columbia University from 1948 until 1953, the time from 1951 to 1952 has been called the American Winter of Discontent. Americans were frustrated by the stalemated Korean War, with no end in sight. Eisenhower rejected all requests to enter politics and he considered making a statement similar to Shermans, but did not reject running for the presidency as definitively as William T.18. i forbidding partisan political activity by serving officers. Democrats sought a candidate who could help them retain the White House after Truman, hoping that Eisenhower would run on behalf of the Democratic Party, Truman wrote to Eisenhower in December 1951, saying, I wish you would let me know what you intend to do. Eisenhower responded, I do not feel that I have any duty to seek a political nomination, Republican New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. of Massachusetts meanwhile worked to persuade him to run. Lodge began encouraging Eisenhower to run more than two years before the 1952 Republican National Convention, and Dewey on 15 October 1950 had announced his support for the general, Republican admirers coined the phrase I like Ike in the spring of 1951 as a symbol of their hopes. The I Like Ike slogan was created when Peter G. Thus, Eisenhower had told Kansas newspaper editor Roy A. Roberts in 1947 that he was a good Kansas Republican like yourself. Although Roberts disclosed their conversation in 1951, Americans remained uncertain of Eisenhowers politics, while Taft had voted against NATO, Eisenhower believed that the United States and its allies needed to oppose Communism through NATO and other collective security efforts. He hoped to settle the issue before taking the NATO post in Paris, Eisenhower offered to make a Shermanesque statement rejecting any possibility of running for the presidency if Taft agreed to support collective security with Europe. During 1951 more Republican politicians announced their support for Eisenhower, while Democrats continued to him that he could win the presidency as a Democrat. Taft announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on 16 October, on 17 November Lodge became the campaign manager for the Draft Eisenhower movement, still without any authorization from its candidate. On January 6,1952, Lodge entered Eisenhowers name into the New Hampshire primary ballot without Eisenhowers permission, soon 24 newspapers including The New York Times endorsed Eisenhower, and Senator Paul Douglas even suggested that both parties nominate Eisenhower with differing vice-presidential running mates. For several weeks Eisenhower was a non-participant, however, and would not speak out on his views or declare himself a candidate. Through January and February Eisenhower wrote to friends and family members saying that he was flattered by the movement, on 8 February the movement demonstrated its size

Draft Eisenhower
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Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1945 military photo

23.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage

24.
Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
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He was the Republican nominee for Vice President in the 1960 presidential election. Lodge was born in Nahant, Massachusetts, through his mother, Mathilda Elizabeth Frelinghuysen, he was a great-grandson of Senator Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen, and a great-great-grandson of Senator John Davis. He had two siblings, John Davis Lodge, also a politician, and Helena Lodge de Streel, Lodge attended St. Albans School and graduated from Middlesex School. In 1924, he graduated cum laude from Harvard University, where he was a member of the Hasty Pudding, Lodge worked in the newspaper business from 1924–1931. He was elected in 1932, and served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1933 to 1936, in November 1936, Lodge was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, defeating Democrat James Michael Curley. He served from January 1937 to February 1944, Lodge served with distinction during the war, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel. During the war he saw two tours of duty, the first was in 1942 while he was also serving as a U. S. Senator. The second was in 1944–5 after he resigned from the Senate, the first period was a continuation of Lodges longtime service as an Army Reserve Officer. Lodge was a major in the 1st Armored Division, Senator to do so since the Civil War He saw action in Italy and France. In the fall of 1944, Lodge single-handedly captured a four-man German patrol and his American decorations included the Legion of Merit and the Bronze Star Medal. After the war, Lodge returned to Massachusetts and resumed his political career and he continued his status as an Army Reserve officer and rose to the rank of major general. In 1946 Lodge defeated Democratic Senator David I. Walsh and returned to the Senate and he soon emerged as a spokesman for the moderate, internationalist wing of the Republican Party. In late 1951, Lodge helped persuade General Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for the Republican presidential nomination, Lodge argued in hearings that Tydings demonized McCarthy and whitewashed McCarthys supposed discovery of security leaks at the State Department. Lodge told Tydings, Mr. Chairman, this is the most unusual procedure I have seen in all the years I have been here, why cannot the senator from Wisconsin get the normal treatment and be allowed to make his statement in his own way. And not be pulled to pieces before he has had a chance to one single consecutive sentence. I do not understand what kind of game is being played here, in July 1950, the record of the committee hearing was printed, and Lodge was outraged to find that 35 pages were not included. Lodge stated I shall not attempt to characterize these methods of leaving out of the printed parts of the testimony. Because I think they speak for themselves, Lodge soon fell out with McCarthy and joined the effort to reduce McCarthys influence

25.
Everett Dirksen
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Everett McKinley Dirksen was an American politician of the Republican Party. He represented Illinois in the House of Representatives and the Senate, Dirksen, a conservative, was one of the Senates strongest supporters of the Vietnam War and was also known as The Wizard of Ooze because of his flamboyant oratorical style. Dirksen was born in Pekin, Illinois, a city near Peoria. He was the son of German immigrants Johann Friedrich Dirksen and his wife Antje Conrady, Everett had a fraternal twin, Thomas Dirksen, and a brother named Benjamin Harrison, a nod to the Republican leanings of his father. The boys father died when the twins were nine years old, Dirksen grew up on a farm on Pekins outskirts, in a section called Beantown because immigrants grew beans instead of flowers. After attending the schools, he entered the University of Minnesota Law School. He served as a lieutenant in a field artillery battery. He was a member of the Reformed Church in America, founded in the 18th century by Dutch immigrants, after the war, Dirksen invested money in an electric washing machine business, but it failed. He joined his brothers in running a bakery and he expressed his artistic side by writing a number of unpublished short stories, as well as plays with former classmate Hubert Ropp. In addition, Dirksen was active in the American Legion, and his political career began in 1926, when he was elected to the nonpartisan Pekin City Council. He placed first in field of eight candidates vying for four seats, at the time, the top votegetter also received appointment as the citys commissioner of accounts and finance, and Dirksen held both posts from 1927 to 1931. Dirksen was a Freemason and was a member of Pekin Lodge #29 in Pekin, in 1954, he was Grand Orator of the Grand Lodge of Illinois. He was honored with the 33rd degree in 1954, after losing in the 1930 Republican primary, Dirksen won the nomination and the congressional seat in 1932 and was re-elected seven times. His support for many New Deal programs marked him as a moderate, Dirksen was able to secure the passage of an amendment to the Lend Lease Act by introducing a resolution while 65 of the Houses Democrats were at a luncheon. It provided that the Senate and the House could, by a majority in a concurrent resolution. Dirksen studied law privately in Washington, D. C. after he was elected and he was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1936 and the bar of Illinois in 1937. In December 1943, Dirksen announced that he would be a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1944 and he stated that a coalition of midwestern Republican representatives had urged him to run and that his campaign was serious. Dirksens presidential campaign was still alive on the eve of the 1944 convention

26.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served

Chief Justice of the United States
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Incumbent John G. Roberts, Jr. since September 29, 2005
Chief Justice of the United States
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Chief Justice of the United States
Chief Justice of the United States
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John Jay, by Gilbert Stuart
Chief Justice of the United States
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John Marshall, the fourth and longest serving Chief Justice.

27.
Hubert Humphrey
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Hubert Horatio Humphrey Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th Vice President of the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1965 to 1969. Humphrey twice served in the United States Senate, representing Minnesota from 1949 to 1964 and 1971 to 1978 and he was the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 1968 presidential election, losing to the Republican nominee Richard M. Nixon. Born in Wallace, South Dakota in 1911, Humphrey attended the University of Minnesota before earning his pharmacist license from the Capitol College of Pharmacy in 1931. He helped run his fathers pharmacy until 1937 when he returned to academia, graduating with a degree from Louisiana State University in 1940. He returned to Minnesota during World War II and became a supervisor for the Works Progress Administration and he was then appointed state director of the Minnesota war service program before becoming the assistant director of the War Manpower Commission. In 1943, Humphrey became a professor of Political Science at Macalester College, Humphrey helped found the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party in 1944, and in 1945, became the DFL candidate for mayor of Minneapolis for a second time, winning with 61% of the vote. Humphrey served as mayor from 1945 to 1948, he was reelected and he served three terms in the Senate from 1949 to 1964 and was the Democratic Majority Whip from 1961 to 1964. Humphrey ran for two failed Presidential campaigns in the 1952 and 1960 Democratic primaries, after Johnson made the surprise announcement that he would not seek reelection in March 1968, Humphrey launched his campaign for the presidency the following month. Humphreys main Democratic challengers were anti-Vietnam War Senators Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy, Humphreys delegate strategy succeeded in clinching the nomination, choosing Senator Edmund Muskie as his running mate. On November 5,1968, Humphrey lost to former Vice President Richard Nixon in the general election, Humphrey then returned to teaching in Minnesota before returning to the Senate in 1971. He became the first Deputy President pro tempore of the United States Senate, Humphrey died of bladder cancer at his home in Waverly, Minnesota, and is buried at the Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis. He was succeeded by his wife of forty-one years Muriel Humphrey as interim Senator for Minnesota, Humphrey was born in a room over his fathers drugstore in Wallace, South Dakota. In the late 1920s, an economic downturn hit Doland. After his son graduated from Dolands high school, Hubert Humphrey Sr. left Doland and opened a new drugstore in the town of Huron, South Dakota. Because of the financial struggles, Humphrey had to leave the University of Minnesota after just one year. He earned a license from the Capitol College of Pharmacy in Denver, Colorado. Both father and son were innovative businessmen in finding ways to attract customers, to supplement their business, a sign featuring a wooden pig was hung over the drugstore to tell the public about this unusual service. Farmers got the message, and it was Humphreys that became known as the farmers drugstore, Humphrey himself later wrote that we made Humphreys Sniffles, a substitute for Vicks Nose Drops

Hubert Humphrey
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Humphrey during the 1960s
Hubert Humphrey
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Humphrey working as a pharmacist in his father's pharmacy.
Hubert Humphrey
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Humphrey at the 1948 Democratic National Convention, in Philadelphia.
Hubert Humphrey
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Senator Humphrey

28.
Estes Kefauver
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Carey Estes Kefauver was an American politician from Tennessee. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in the U. S. House of Representatives from 1939 to 1949 and in the Senate from 1949 until his death from an attack in Bethesda, Maryland. After leading an investigation into organized crime in the early 1950s. In 1956, he was selected by the Democratic National Convention to be the mate of presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson. Kefauver was born in Madisonville, Tennessee, the son of Phredonia Bradford and Robert Cooke Kefauver, Estes attended the University of Tennessee from 1922 to 1924, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree and being initiated into the Kappa Sigma Fraternity. After a year of teaching mathematics and coaching football at a Hot Springs, Arkansas, high school, he attended Yale Law School, from which he received an LL. B. cum laude in 1927. In 1935 he married Nancy Pigott of Glasgow, Scotland, eight years his junior and they raised four children, one of them adopted. Aroused by his role as attorney for the Chattanooga News, Kefauver became interested in local politics and he lost but in 1939 spent two months as Finance and Taxation Commissioner under the newly elected governor Prentice Cooper. When Congressman Sam D. McReynolds of Tennessees 3rd district, which included Chattanooga, died in 1939, Kefauver was elected to five terms in the House of Representatives as a Democrat. As a member of the House during President Franklin D and he chaired, for instance, the House Select Committee on Small Business, which investigated economic concentration in the U. S. business world in 1946. That same year, Kefauver also introduced legislation to plug loopholes in the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Kefauver investigation into television and juvenile delinquency in the mid-1950s led to an even more intensive investigation in the early 1960s. The new probe came about after people became concerned over juvenile violence. During the primary, Crump and his allies accused Kefauver of being a fellow traveler, and of working for the pinkos and communists, with the stealth of a raccoon. In a televised speech given in Memphis, in which he responded to charges, Kefauver put on a coonskin cap and proudly proclaimed, I may be a pet coon. To win election to the Senate, Kefauver defeated the incumbent Tom Stewart in the 1948 Democratic primary, Kefauver was backed by the influential editor Edward J. Meeman of the Memphis Press-Scimitar, who had long fought the Crump machine for its corruption and stranglehold over Memphis politics. After he went on to win both the primary and the election, he adopted the cap as his trademark and wore it in every successive campaign and he received the cap from journalist Drue Smith. Kefauver was unique in Tennessee politics in his outspoken liberal views and his constituency included many prominent citizens whose views were considerably less liberal than his but who admired him for his integrity. Despite opposition from the Crump machine, Kefauver won the Democratic nomination and his victory is widely seen as the beginning of the end for the Crump machines influence in statewide politics

Estes Kefauver
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Estes Kefauver

29.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River

30.
George W. Bush
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George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts

George W. Bush
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George W. Bush
George W. Bush
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Lt. George W. Bush while in the Texas Air National Guard
George W. Bush
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George W. Bush with his father outside the White House, April 29, 1992
George W. Bush
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Governor Bush (right) with father, former president George H. W. Bush and wife, Laura, in 1997

31.
The Gallup Organization
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Gallup, Inc. is an American research-based, global performance-management consulting company. Founded by George Gallup in 1935, the became known for its public opinion polls conducted worldwide. It provides research and strategic consulting to organizations in many countries, focusing on analytics and advice to help leaders. Some of Gallups stated key practice areas are employee engagement, customer engagement, talent management, Gallup has 30 offices in more than 20 countries, employing about 2,000 people in four divisions, Gallup Poll, Gallup Consulting, Gallup University, and Gallup Press. George Gallup founded the American Institute of Public Opinion, the precursor of the Gallup Organization, in Princeton, New Jersey and he wished to objectively determine the opinions held by the people. In 1936, Gallup successfully predicted that Franklin Roosevelt would defeat Alfred Landon for the U. S. presidency, in 1938, Gallup and Gallup Vice President David Ogilvy began conducting market research for advertising companies and the film industry. In 1958, the modern Gallup Organization was formed when George Gallup grouped all of his operations into one organization. In 1985, the organization started compiling video games sales charts in the United Kingdom, after Gallups death in 1984, his family sold the firm to Selection Research, Incorporated, a research firm headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1988. SRI, founded in 1969 by the psychologist Don Clifton, pioneered the use of talent-based structured psychological interviews, SRI wanted the Gallup name to use on its polls, which gave them more credibility and higher response rates. Today the poll is used to gain visibility, George Gallup, Jr. established the nonprofit George H. Gallup Foundation as part of the acquisition agreement. Gallup Jr. died on November 21,2011, the Gallup Poll is the division of Gallup that regularly conducts public opinion polls. Gallup Poll results, analyses, and videos are published daily in the form of data-driven news, the poll loses about $10 million a year, but gives the company the visibility of a well-known brand. Historically, the Gallup Poll has measured and tracked the publics attitudes concerning political, social, Gallup Daily tracking is made up of two surveys, the Gallup U. S. Daily political and economic survey and the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index, for both surveys, Gallup conducts 500 interviews across the U. S. per day,350 days out of the year, with 70% on cellphones and 30% on landlines. Gallup Daily tracking methodology relies on live interviewers, dual-frame random-digit-dial sampling, the population of the U. S. that relied only on cell phones was 34% of the population in 2012. Within each contacted household reached via landline, an interview is sought with an adult 18 years of age or older living in the household who will have the next birthday, Gallup Daily tracking includes Spanish-language interviews for Spanish-speaking respondents and interviews in Alaska and Hawaii. When respondents to be interviewed are selected at random, every adult has a probability of falling into the sample. Gallups Daily tracking process now allows Gallup analysts to aggregate larger groups of interviews for more detailed subgroup analysis, but the accuracy of the estimates derived only marginally improves with larger sample sizes. S

The Gallup Organization
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Gallup

32.
W. Averell Harriman
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William Averell Harriman was an American Democratic politician, businessman, and diplomat. He was the son of railroad baron E. H. Harriman and he served as Secretary of Commerce under President Harry S. Truman and later as the 48th Governor of New York. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952, Harriman served President Franklin D. Roosevelt as special envoy to Europe and served as the U. S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union and U. S. Ambassador to Britain. He served in numerous U. S. diplomatic assignments in the Kennedy and he was a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as The Wise Men. Better known as Averell Harriman, he was born in New York City and he was the brother of E. Roland Harriman and Mary Harriman Rumsey. Harriman was a friend of Hall Roosevelt, the brother of Eleanor Roosevelt. Hart Merriam, Grove Karl Gilbert, and Edward Curtis, along with 100 family members and staff, young Harriman would have his first introduction to Russia, a nation on which he would spend a significant amount of attention in his later life in public service. He attended Groton School in Massachusetts before going on to Yale where he joined the Skull, after graduating, he inherited the largest fortune in America and became Yales youngest Crew coach. Using money from his father he established W. A. Harriman & Co banking business in 1922, in 1927 his brother Roland joined the business and the name was changed to Harriman Brothers & Company. In 1931, it merged with Brown Bros. & Co. to create the highly successful Wall Street firm Brown Brothers Harriman & Co, notable employees included George Herbert Walker and his son-in-law Prescott Bush. Harrimans main properties included Brown Brothers & Harriman & Co, Union Pacific Railroad, Merchant Shipping Corporation, Harrimans associated properties included the Southern Pacific Railroad, Illinois Central Railroad, Wells Fargo & Co. the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. American Ship & Commerce, Hamburg-Amerikanische Packetfahrt-Aktiengesellschaft, the American Hawaiian Steamship Co, United American Lines, the Guaranty Trust Company, and the Union Banking Corporation. He served as Chairman of The Business Council, then known as the Business Advisory Council for the United States Department of Commerce in 1937 and 1939. Harrimans older sister, Mary Rumsey, encouraged Averell to leave his job and work with her and their friends. Averell joined the NRA National Recovery Administration, the first government consumer rights group, following the death of August Belmont, Jr. in 1924, Harriman, George Walker, and Joseph E. Widener purchased much of Belmonts thoroughbred breeding stock. Harriman raced under the name of Arden Farms, among his horses, Chance Play won the 1927 Jockey Club Gold Cup. He also raced in partnership with Walker under the name Log Cabin Stable before buying him out, racing Hall of Fame inductee Louis Feustel, trainer of Man o War, trained the Log Cabin horses until 1926. Of the partnerships successful runners purchased from the August Belmont estate, Harrimans banking business was the main Wall Street connection for German companies and the varied U. S. financial interests of Fritz Thyssen, who was a financial backer of the Nazi party until 1938

33.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others

34.
Paul A. Dever
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Paul Andrew Dever was a Democratic politician from Boston, Massachusetts. He served as the 58th Governor of Massachusetts and was its youngest-ever Attorney General, Paul Dever was born in Boston, Massachusetts to two Irish immigrants, Joseph and Anna MacAlevy Dever. He attended Boston public schools, including Boston Latin School and he attended Northeastern University for a time, but then transferred to Boston University, from whose law school he graduated with an LL. B. in 1926 with high honors. Dever was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1928, in 1934 he was elected Attorney General, and was at age 31 the youngest to hold that office. In 1940, he challenged popular incumbent Governor Leverett Saltonstall, losing by a narrow margin, in 1942, Dever enlisted in the United States Navy for World War II. He was subsequently commissioned a lieutenant commander, and served in the North Atlantic, Dever lost the 1946 race for lieutenant governor, but two years later he defeated incumbent governor Robert F. Bradford by a substantial margin in the race for Governor, and became the 58th Governor. He was re-elected in 1950, defeating the Republican candidate, former Lieutenant Governor Arthur W. Coolidge, during his tenure, Dever increased state aid to schools and issued an executive order to extend higher education benefits to Korean War veterans. Among his chief concerns were civil defense and resisting domestic communism and he supported legislation requiring school teachers to take loyalty oaths, and he advocated increasing old age and workers compensation insurance. In 1952, Dever made a bid for the Democratic presidential nomination. One of those eligible was former Mayor of Boston and Governor James Michael Curley, Dever gave in to pressure groups, calling a special session of the legislature that repealed the bill. Although Dever had built a political machine in Massachusetts, he was narrowly defeated for re-election by Christian Herter in 1952. After leaving office Dever returned to practicing law and he suffered from heart disease in his later years, and died of a heart attack on April 11,1958. He was buried in St. Joseph Cemetery in the West Roxbury section of Boston, after Devers death, the Myles Standish State School for the Mentally Retarded was renamed the Paul A. Dever State School in his honor

35.
J. William Fulbright
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James William Fulbright was a United States Senator representing Arkansas from January 1945 until his resignation in December 1974. He was also a segregationist who signed the Southern Manifesto, Fulbright opposed McCarthyism and the House Un-American Activities Committee and later became known for his opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War. His efforts to establish an exchange program eventually resulted in the creation of a fellowship program which bears his name. Fulbright was born in Sumner, Missouri, the son of Roberta and he earned a history degree from the University of Arkansas in 1925, where he became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. He was elected president of the student body and a star player for the Razorback football team from 1921 to 1924. Fulbright later studied at Oxford University, where he was a Rhodes Scholar at Pembroke College, Fulbright was a lecturer in law at the University of Arkansas from 1936 until 1939. He was appointed president of the school in 1939, making him the youngest university president in the country and he held this post until 1941. The School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Arkansas is named in his honor and he was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute, University of Oxford. Fulbrights sister, Roberta, married Gilbert C, Swanson, the head of the Swanson frozen-foods conglomerate, and was the maternal grandmother of media figure Tucker Carlson. Fulbright was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1942, during this period, he became a member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee. The House adopted the Fulbright Resolution which supported international peace-keeping initiatives and this brought Fulbright to national attention. In 1943 a confidential analysis by Isaiah Berlin of the House and it continued, A young wealthy ex-Rhodes scholar, whose major experience so far has been of farming and business. He has already shown versatile competence and ability in business as special attorney in the Anti-Trust Division of the Justice Department and he was elected to the Senate in 1944, unseating incumbent Hattie Carraway, the first woman ever elected to the U. S. Senate. In his first general election to the Senate, Fulbright defeated the Republican Victor Wade of Batesville,85.1 to 14.9 percent. Benjamin Travis Laney, a more conservative Democrat than Fulbright, won the race for governor of Arkansas in the election by a similar margin,86 to 14 percent for Republican Harley C. Stump, the mayor of Stuttgart. The program was established to increase understanding between the peoples of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge. It is considered one of the most prestigious award programs and it operates in 155 countries, Fulbright became a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1949, and served as chairman from 1959 to 1974–he was the longest-serving chair in that committees history

J. William Fulbright
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J. William Fulbright
J. William Fulbright
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An earlier portrait of Senator Fulbright.
J. William Fulbright

36.
1952 Democratic National Convention
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Four major candidates sought the nomination, U. S. Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, Governor Adlai E. Stevenson, II, of Illinois, Senator Richard Russell of Georgia, in 1952, the popularity of television was on the rise with 37% of American households owning televisions. As such, both Republican and Democratic party leaders recognized the importance of television and the impact it would have on the political process. A commission was established by party leaders and media representatives to outline rules for the broadcast of their conventions, the commission also oversaw the outfitting of the International Amphitheater in Chicago for the live coast-to-coast broadcast of these conventions, the first time it had ever been done. At the Republican National Convention held two weeks before the Democratic convention television, cameras were restricted to the sides of the floor which did not allow for close, quality shots. The Democrats took note of issue and constructed a tower in the middle of the floor for television cameras to capture good shots of the podium. Before the convention, party officials instructed delegates to conduct themselves formally during the convention as the cameras were broadcasting their actions, Governor Stevenson, who stated that he was not a presidential candidate, was asked to give the welcoming address to the delegates. He proceeded to give a witty and stirring address that led his supporters to begin a round of efforts to nominate him despite his protests. After meeting with Jacob Arvey, the boss of the Illinois delegation, Stevenson finally agreed to enter his name as a candidate for the nomination, the party bosses from other large Northern and Midwestern states quickly joined in support. Kefauver led on the first ballot but had far fewer votes than necessary to win, Stevenson gradually gained strength until he was nominated on the third ballot. The convention then chose Senator John Sparkman of Alabama, a conservative and segregationist, Stevenson then delivered an eloquent acceptance speech in which he famously pledged to talk sense to the American people. Democratic candidates Kefauver had the most delegates after the first round and he persuaded Harriman to drop out and endorse the Illinois governor, thereby pre-empting support for Kefauver and Russell, whom Truman opposed. Stevenson was nominated on the third ballot and it was the last nomination contest of either major U. S. political party to require more than one round of voting to nominate a presidential candidate to date. The following table from Richard C, the main candidates for this position were Kefauver, Russell, Barkley, Senator John Sparkman, and Senator A. S. Mike Monroney. Both withdrew their names in favor of Sparkman, Stevenson then delivered an eloquent acceptance speech in which he famously pledged to talk sense to the American people. Adlai Stevenson and running mate John Sparkman lost the election to Dwight D. Eisenhower, despite the defeat, Stevenson was four years later again selected as the Democratic presidential nominee at the 1956 Democratic National Convention, with Kefauver as his running mate. Democratic Party Platform of 1952 at The American Presidency Project Stevenson Acceptance Speech at The American Presidency Project

37.
George Marshall
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George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was an American statesman and soldier. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman and he was hailed as the organizer of victory by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II. Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall was a 1901 graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, after serving briefly as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, Marshall received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February,1902. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, in 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the mobilization and training in the United States. Subsequently assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, after the war, Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to John J. Pershing, who was then serving as the Armys Chief of Staff. He later served on the Army staff, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, in 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Armys Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. In 1932 and 1933 he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps camps in Oregon, in July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and he was subsequently appointed as the Armys Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff and he served as Chief of Staff until the end of the war in 1945. As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U. S. history, Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, a requirement for holders of five-star rank. As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall received credit for the Marshall Plan for Europes post-war rebuilding, after resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross. After resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia and he died in 1959 and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was born into a family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute, where he was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order in 1901. He was an All-Southern tackle for the VMI Keydets varsity football team in 1900, following graduation from VMI in 1901, Marshall sat for a competitive examination for a commission in the U. S. Army. While awaiting the results he took the position of Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Marshall passed the exam and was commissioned a second lieutenant in February,1902

38.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S

United States Secretary of State
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Incumbent John Kerry since February 1, 2013
United States Secretary of State
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Seal of the Department of State

39.
Alger Hiss
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Alger Hiss was an American government official who was accused of being a Soviet spy in 1948 and convicted of perjury in connection with this charge in 1950. Before he was tried and convicted, he was involved in the establishment of the United Nations both as a U. S. State Department official and as a U. N. official, in later life he worked as a lecturer and author. On August 3,1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former U. S, Communist Party member, testified under subpoena before the House Un-American Activities Committee that Hiss had secretly been a Communist, though not a spy, while in federal service. Called before HUAC, Hiss categorically denied the charge, when Chambers repeated his claim on nationwide radio, Hiss filed a defamation lawsuit against him. During the pretrial process, Chambers produced new evidence indicating that he and Hiss had been involved in espionage. A federal grand jury indicted Hiss on two counts of perjury, Chambers admitted to the offense but, as a cooperating government witness, was never charged. Although Hisss indictment stemmed from the espionage, he could not be tried for that crime because the statute of limitations had expired. After a mistrial due to a jury, Hiss was tried a second time. In January 1950, he was guilty on both counts of perjury and received two concurrent five-year sentences, of which he eventually served three and a half years. Hiss maintained his innocence until his death, arguments about the case and the validity of the verdict took center stage in broader debates about the Cold War, McCarthyism, and the extent of Soviet espionage in the United States. Since Hisss conviction, statements by involved parties and newly exposed evidence have added to the dispute, author Anthony Summers argued that since many relevant files continue to be unavailable, the Hiss controversy will continue to be debated. In 2001, James Barron, a reporter for The New York Times, identified what he called a growing consensus that Hiss. Alger Hiss was one of five born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Mary Minnie Lavinia. Both parents came from substantial Baltimore families who could trace their roots to the middle of the eighteenth century, Hisss paternal great-great grandfather had emigrated from Germany in 1729, married well, and changed his surname from Hesse to Hiss. Minnie Hughes had attended college and was active in Baltimore society. Shortly after his marriage at age 24, Charles Hiss entered the world and joined the dry goods importing firm of Daniel Miller. He did well, becoming an executive and stockholder, when Charless brother John died suddenly at age 33, Charles assumed financial and emotional responsibility for his brothers widow and six children in addition to his own expanding family. Charles also helped his wifes brother, Albert Hughes, find work at Daniel Miller

Alger Hiss
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Alger Hiss testifying
Alger Hiss
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President Harry S. Truman addressing the United Nations Conference in San Francisco, California. From left to right: Unknown person, President Truman, Harry Vaughan, Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, and Alger Hiss. Armed Service personnel and the flags of nations are in the background, June 26, 1945
Alger Hiss
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Alger Hiss in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary (Photos courtesy of the Federal Bureau of Prisons)
Alger Hiss
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Robert J. Lamphere

40.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

41.
New York Daily News
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The New York Daily News, officially titled Daily News, is an American newspaper based in New York City. It is the fourth-most widely circulated newspaper in the United States. It was founded in 1919, and was the first U. S. daily printed in tabloid format and it is owned by Mortimer Zuckerman, and is headquartered at 4 New York Plaza in Lower Manhattan. The Daily News was founded by Joseph Medill Patterson in 1919, Patterson and his cousin, Robert R. McCormick were co-publishers of the Chicago Tribune and grandsons of Tribune founder Joseph Medill. On his way back, Patterson met with Alfred Harmsworth, who was the Viscount Northcliffe and publisher of the Daily Mirror, impressed with the advantages of a tabloid, Patterson launched the Daily News on June 26,1919. The Daily News was not a success, and by August 1919. Still, New Yorks many subway commuters found the tabloid format easier to handle, by the time of the papers first anniversary in June 1920, circulation was over 100,000 and by 1925, over a million. Circulation reached its peak in 1947, at 2.4 million daily and 4.7 million on Sunday. The Daily News carried the slogan New Yorks Picture Newspaper from 1920 to 1991, for its emphasis on photographs, and a camera has been part of the newspapers logo from day one. The papers later slogan, developed from a 1985 ad campaign, is New Yorks Hometown Newspaper, while another has been The Eyes, the Ears, the Honest Voice of New York. News-gathering operations were, for a time, organized using two-way radios, prominent sports cartoonists have included Bill Gallo, Bruce Stark and Ed Murawinski. Editorial cartoonists have included C. D. Batchelor, editions were published as extras in 1991 during the brief tenure of Robert Maxwell as publisher. In 1982, and again in the early 1990s during a newspaper strike, in the 1982 instance, the parent Tribune offered the tabloid up for sale. In 1991, millionaire Robert Maxwell offered financial assistance to The News to help it stay in business, when Maxwell died shortly thereafter, The News seceded from his publishing empire, which eventually splintered under questions about whether Maxwell had the financial backing to sustain it. After Maxwells death in 1991, the paper was held together in bankruptcy by existing management, led by editor James Willse, mort Zuckerman bought the paper in 1993. From its founding until 1991, the Daily News was owned by the Tribune Company, in 1948 The News established WPIX, whose call letters were based on The News nickname of New Yorks Picture Newspaper, and later bought what became WPIX-FM, which is now known as WFAN-FM. The News also maintains local bureaux in the Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens, at City Hall, within One Police Plaza, in January 2012, former News of the World and New York Post editor Colin Myler was appointed editor-in-chief of the Daily News. Myler was replaced by his deputy Jim Rich in September 2015, ather than portraying New York through the partisan divide between liberals and conservatives, The News has played up the more mythic rift between the city’s fiends and heroes

New York Daily News
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The August 21, 2014 front page
New York Daily News
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February 5, 1921 front page
New York Daily News
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Daily News Building, John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood, architects, rendering by Hugh Ferriss. The landmark building housed the paper until the mid-1990s.
New York Daily News
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Former headquarters at 450 West 33rd Street

42.
Animated cartoon
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Animated cartoons are still created for commercial, educational, and personal purposes to this day. The first animated projection was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888. On 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot and this film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, but drawn directly onto the transparent strip, in 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. The first animated projection was Humorous Phases of Funny Faces by newspaper cartoonist J. Stuart Blackton, in the movie, a cartoonists line drawings of two faces were animated on a blackboard. The two faces smiled and winked, and the man blew smoke in the ladys face, also. The first animated projection in the sense was Fantasmagorie by the French director Émile Cohl in 1908. This was followed by two films, Le Cauchemar du fantoche and Un Drame chez les fantoches, all completed in 1908. One of the very first successful animated cartoons was Gertie the Dinosaur by Winsor McCay and it is considered the first example of true character animation. At first, animated cartoons were black-and-white and silent, felix the Cat and Oswald the Lucky Rabbit are notable examples. From the 1920s to 1960s, theatrical cartoons were produced in huge numbers, MGM, and UPA were the largest studios producing these 5- to 10-minute shorts. Other studios included Walter Lantz, DePatie-Freleng, Charles Mintz Studios, Famous Studios, the first cartoon to use a soundtrack was in 1926 with Max Fleischers My Old Kentucky Home. However the Fleischers used a De Forest sound system and the sound was not completely synchronized with the film, walt Disneys 1928 cartoon Steamboat Willie starring Mickey Mouse was the first to use a click track during the recording session, which produced better synchronism. Mickey Mousing became a term for any action that was perfectly synchronized with music. The music used is original most of the time, but musical quotation is often employed, animated characters usually performed the action in loops, i. e. drawings were repeated over and over. Although other producers had made films earlier using 2-strip color, Disney produced the first cartoon in 3-strip Technicolor, Flowers and Trees, technicians at the Fleischer studio invented rotoscoping, in which animators trace live action in order to make animation look more realistic. However, rotoscoping made the animation look stiff and the technique was used more for studying human and animal movement. Today, traditional animation uses traditional methods, but is aided by computers in certain areas and this gives the animator new tools not available that could not be achieved using old techniques

43.
Reconstruction Era of the United States
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states

Reconstruction Era of the United States
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The southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865
Reconstruction Era of the United States
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The ruins of Richmond, Virginia after the American Civil War, newly freed African Americans voting for the first time in 1867, Office of the Freedmen's Bureau in Memphis, Tennessee, Memphis Riots of 1866
Reconstruction Era of the United States
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A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
Reconstruction Era of the United States
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Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war

44.
Collier County, Florida
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Collier County is a county located in the U. S. state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the population was 321,520 and its county seat is East Naples, where the county offices were moved from Everglades in 1962. Collier County comprises the Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island, FL Metropolitan Statistical Area, Collier County was created in 1923 from Lee County. It was named for Barron Collier, a New York City advertising mogul and real estate developer who had moved to southwest Florida and established himself as a prominent land owner. He agreed to build the Tamiami Trail for what was then Lee County in exchange for consideration with the state legislature to have a county named for him. But I really didnt expect to have a county named after me. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,305 square miles. It is the largest county in Florida by land area and fourth-largest by total area, virtually the entire southeastern portion of the county lies within the Big Cypress National Preserve. The northernmost portion of Everglades National Park extends into the coastal part of the county. S. Route 41 State Road 29 State Road 84 State Road 951 As of the census of 2000, there were 251,377 people,102,973 households, the population density was 124 people per square mile. There were 144,536 housing units at a density of 71 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino individuals accounted for 19. 61%, languages spoken,75. 3% spoke English,17. 8% Spanish,2. 3% French Creole and 1. 2% German as their first language. 24. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.79. The median age was 44.1 years, for every 100 females there were 100.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $48,289, and the median income for a family was $54,816. Males had an income of $32,639 versus $26,371 for females. The per capita income for the county was $31,195, about 6. 60% of families and 10. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16. 20% of those under age 18 and 4. 30% of those age 65 or over. The county continues to experience significant growth and is becoming increasingly diverse, as of the 2010 census, the countys population had increased to 321,520, an increase of 27. 9% over the 2000 census

Collier County, Florida
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The Collier County courthouse in April 2010
Collier County, Florida
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Collier County's main administration building, left, and the back end of the county courthouse, right

45.
Aiken County, South Carolina
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Aiken County /ˈeɪkən/ is a county located in the U. S. state of South Carolina. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, its population was 160,099 and its county seat and largest city is Aiken. Aiken County is a part of the Augusta-Richmond County, GA-SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is located in the Piedmont region. Both Aiken County and its county seat of Aiken are named after William Aiken, Aiken County was organized during the Reconstruction era in 1871 from portions of Barnwell, Edgefield, Lexington, and Orangeburg counties. Prince Rivers, a freedman and state legislator from Edgefield County, had been a leader in the United States Colored Troops and he was named to head the commission that drew the new countys boundary lines. He was dubbed The Black Prince by local newspapers, including the Edgefield Advertiser and he also led the commission that selected the site of Aiken Countys present-day courthouse. Political tensions kept rising in South Carolina during the 1870s, especially around elections, between the Hamburg Massacre in July and several days of rioting in September in Ellenton, more than 100 black men were killed by white paramilitary groups in this county. Two white men died in the violence, in the late 19th century, the county became a popular destination as a winter refuge for affluent Northerners, who built luxury housing. The county remains popular with horse trainers and professional riders because mild winters allow lengthy training seasons, Ellenton, South Carolina was acquired and its buildings demolished for its development for this plant. Its residents and businesses were all moved north about eight miles to New Ellenton, developed during Cold War tensions, the facility is now scheduled for decommissioning of various parts of the site. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,081 square miles. It is the fourth-largest county in South Carolina by land area. S,1 US25 US78 US278 As of the census of 2000, there were 142,552 people,55,587 households, and 39,411 families residing in the county. The population density was 133 inhabitants per square mile, there were 61,987 housing units at an average density of 58 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 71. 37% White,25. 56% Black or African American,0. 40% Native American,0. 63% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,2. 12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22. 0% were of American,9. 7% English,8. 4% German and 7. 9% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. 25. 20% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.03. In the county, the population was out with 26. 20% under the age of 18,8. 80% from 18 to 24,28. 90% from 25 to 44,23. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 92.90 males

Aiken County, South Carolina
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Aiken County Courthouse

46.
Solid South
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The Southern bloc existed especially between 1877 and 1964. During this period, the Democratic Party controlled state legislatures, most local and state officeholders in the South were Democrats, Southern Democrats disenfranchised blacks in every state of the former Confederacy at the turn of the century. This resulted essentially in a one-party system, in which a candidates victory in Democratic primary elections was tantamount to election to the office itself, white primaries were another means that the Democrats used to consolidate their political power, excluding blacks from voting in primaries. The “Solid South” is a term referring to the states that made up the voting bloc at any point in time. The Southern region as defined by U. S. Census comprises sixteen states plus Washington, D. C. —Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D. C. West Virginia, Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and this definition of the Southern region does not necessarily correspond precisely to the states in the definition of the Solid South. Maryland was occasionally considered part of the Solid South, as was Missouri, a former slave state, it became dominated by Democrats. While nearly six million African Americans had left the region by then in the Great Migration to other areas of the country and its national leaders had supported the civil rights movement. Around the same time, white conservatives began to shift to the Republican Party, African Americans have elected numerous candidates of their choice, generally Democrats, from districts where their votes have been concentrated. At the start of the American Civil War, there were 34 states in the United States,15 of which were slave states. The slave states that stayed in the Union were Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and Kentucky, in 1861, West Virginia was created out of Virginia, and admitted in 1863 and considered a border state. By the time the Emancipation Proclamation was made in 1863 Tennessee was already in Union control, accordingly the Proclamation applied only to the 10 remaining Confederate states. Abolition of slavery was a condition of the return of local rule in those states that had declared their secession, the Reconstruction era came to an end in 1877. Democratic dominance of the South originated in the struggle of white Southerners during and after Reconstruction to establish white supremacy, the U. S. government under the Republican Party had defeated the Confederacy, abolished slavery, and enfranchised blacks. In several states, black voters were a majority or close to it, Republicans supported by blacks controlled state governments in these states. Thus the Democratic Party became the vehicle for the white supremacist “Redeemers”, by 1876, Redeemer Democrats had taken control of all the state governments in the South. From then until the 1960s, state and local government in the South was almost entirely monopolized by Democrats, the Democrats elected all but a handful of U. S. Representatives and Senators, and Democratic presidential candidates regularly swept the region – from 1880 through 1944 and this rhetoric was effective with many Southerners

Solid South
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The "Solid South" from 1880–1912.
Solid South
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Arkansas voted Democratic in all 23 presidential elections from 1876 through 1964; other states were not quite as solid but generally supported Democrats for president.
Solid South
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Missouri goes for Republican Theodore Roosevelt in the 1904 election. (Cartoon by John T. McCutcheon.)

47.
Rolette County, North Dakota
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Rolette County is a county located in the U. S. state of North Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 13,937, the county was created by the 1872-73 territorial legislature and named for Joseph Rolette, Jr. a fur trader and politician from Pembina. The county government was first organized on October 14,1884, before becoming Rolla, the county seat was Dunseith from 1884 to 1885 and St. John from 1885 to 1889. The International Peace Garden is located in the northwest corner of the county along the Canada–United States border with Manitoba. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 939 square miles. Rolette County contains one of only six exclaves contained on the Canada–US border and it is an unnamed peninsula located at 48°59′53″N 99°52′44″W. Part of the Turtle Mountain plateau lies in the part of the county. The population density was 15 people per square mile, there were 5,027 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 25. 12% White,0. 07% Black or African American,73. 01% Native American,0. 07% Asian,0. 12% from other races,0. 80% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 9. 3% were of Norwegian and 7. 4% German ancestry,94. 6% spoke English,1. 3% Ojibwa,1. 0% French Cree and 1. 0% Cree as their first language. 22. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.45. In the county, the population was out with 36. 50% under the age of 18,9. 50% from 18 to 24,25. 80% from 25 to 44,18. 50% from 45 to 64. The median age was 29 years, for every 100 females there were 97.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.90 males, the median income for a household in the county was $26,232, and the median income for a family was $29,744. Males had an income of $24,288 versus $20,383 for females. The per capita income for the county was $10,873, about 28. 00% of families and 31. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39. 20% of those under age 18 and 19. 60% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 13,937 people,4,783 households, the population density was 15.4 inhabitants per square mile. There were 5,372 housing units at a density of 5.9 per square mile

Rolette County, North Dakota
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Native vegetation based on NRCS soils information
Rolette County, North Dakota
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Location in the state of North Dakota

48.
Pacific County, Washington
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Pacific County is a county located in the U. S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, the population was 20,920 and its county seat is South Bend, and its largest city is Raymond. The county was formed by the government of Oregon Territory on February 4,1851 and is named for the Pacific Ocean, the unincorporated community of Oysterville, established in 1852, was the original county seat until the late 19th century when it changed to South Bend. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,223 square miles. Cape Disappointment Columbia River Long Beach Peninsula Long Island Willapa Bay U. S, the population density was 22 people per square mile. There were 13,991 housing units at a density of 15 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 54% White,0. 20% Black or African American,2. 44% Native American,2. 08% Asian,0. 09% Pacific Islander,1. 83% from other races, and 2. 82% from two or more races. 5. 01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,18. 0% were of German,10. 8% English,8. 8% Irish and 8. 6% United States or American ancestry. 29. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.77. In the county, the population was out with 21. 40% under the age of 18,6. 00% from 18 to 24,21. 20% from 25 to 44,28. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46 years, for every 100 females there were 98.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.80 males, the median income for a household in the county was $31,209, and the median income for a family was $39,302. Males had an income of $33,892 versus $22,982 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,322, about 9. 10% of families and 14. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19. 70% of those under age 18 and 8. 10% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 20,920 people,9,499 households, the population density was 22.4 inhabitants per square mile. There were 15,547 housing units at a density of 16.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 87. 4% white,2. 3% American Indian,2. 0% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 1% Pacific islander,4. 4% from other races, and 3. 4% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 8. 0% of the population

Pacific County, Washington
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Pacific County Courthouse

49.
Swift County, Minnesota
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Swift County is a county located in the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 9,783, Swift County was established February 18,1870. This county was named after Henry Adoniram Swift, the governor of Minnesota in 1863 and it is located in the west central part of Minnesota and consists of 757 square miles with 3 tiers of 7 townships each. The Swift County Courthouse was built in 1897 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976, the City of Benson is the County seat of Swift County. The railroad tracks run through the center of the town of Benson, the Indians had grievances against the government including delays in sending annuities which caused near starvation several times. In August,1862, an Indian rebellion broke out in Minnesota, the warfare reached the settlements just getting started in the northeastern part of Swift County. By the latter part of September,1862, the Indian War was almost over, scandinavians and Germans were in decided majority among the early settlers. A number of them came with the honor and privileges of Civil War veterans, in 1869, the St. Paul & Pacific Railroad had reached Willmar and the following year it arrived in Benson. The railroad company determined the number of trading centers in the county by locating sites at intervals of approximately 8 miles. Historical building in Swift County include, Gethsemane Episcopal Church in Appleton built in 1879, Swift County was traditionally a Democratic stronghold, with the last Republican to win it before 2016 being Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952. A dramatic swing against the Democrats in the “rust belt” saw Trump win Swift County over Hillary Clinton by twenty-six percent. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 752 square miles. Swift County is primarily an agriculture community and it is a vast, flat monotonous stretch of land, unbroken by trees. The following example shows savanna and prairie soils, https, //commons. wikimedia. org/wiki/File, Swift County is home to a total of 24 lakes. Lake Oliver is one of the biggest in the county at 416 acres, the lakes in Swift County are great for fishing. There are 9 rivers and streams in this county, the population density was 16 people per square mile. There were 4,821 housing units at a density of 6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 67% White,2. 69% Black or African American,0. 50% Native American,1. 43% Asian,1. 52% Pacific Islander,1. 40% from other races, and 1. 79% from two or more races

Swift County, Minnesota
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The Swift County Courthouse is one of several buildings in Benson on the National Register of Historic Places.
Swift County, Minnesota
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Native vegetation based on NRCS soils information

50.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow

51.
UNIVAC I
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The UNIVAC I was the first commercial computer produced in the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, design work was started by their company, Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation, and was completed after the company had been acquired by Remington Rand. In the years before successor models of the UNIVAC I appeared, the first Univac was accepted by the United States Census Bureau on March 31,1951, and was dedicated on June 14 that year. The fifth machine was used by CBS to predict the result of the 1952 presidential election, with a sample of just 1% of the voting population it famously predicted an Eisenhower landslide while the conventional wisdom favored Stevenson. As such the UNIVAC competed directly against punch-card machines, though the UNIVAC originally could neither read nor punch cards and that shortcoming hindered sales to companies concerned about the high cost of manually converting large quantities of existing data stored on cards. This was corrected by adding offline card processing equipment, the UNIVAC Card to Tape converter, however, the early market share of the UNIVAC I was lower than the Remington Rand Company wished. To promote sales, the company joined with CBS to have UNIVAC I predict the result of the 1952 Presidential election, UNIVAC I predicted Eisenhower would have a landslide victory over Adlai Stevenson whom the pollsters favored. The result was a public awareness of computing technology. The first contracts were with government agencies such as the Census Bureau, the U. S. Air Force, contracts were also signed by the ACNielsen Company, and the Prudential Insurance Company. Following the sale of Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation to Remington Rand, due to the cost overruns on the project, Remington Rand convinced Nielsen and Prudential to cancel their contracts. The first sale, to the Census Bureau, was marked with a ceremony on March 31,1951, at the Eckert–Mauchly Divisions factory at 3747 Ridge Avenue. As a result, the first installation was with the second computer, UNIVAC installations, 1951–1954 Originally priced at US$159,000, the UNIVAC I rose in price until they were between $1,250,000 and $1,500,000. A total of 46 systems were built and delivered. The UNIVAC I was too expensive for most universities, and Sperry Rand, a few UNIVAC I systems stayed in service long after they were made obsolete by advancing technology. The Census Bureau used its two systems until 1963, amounting to 12 and nine years of service, respectively, Sperry Rand itself used two systems in Buffalo, New York until 1968. The insurance company Life and Casualty of Tennessee used its system until 1970, UNIVAC I used 5,000 vacuum tubes, weighed 16,000 pounds, consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per second running on a 2.25 MHz clock. The Central Complex alone was 4.3 m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m high, the complete system occupied more than 35.5 m² of floor space. The main memory consisted of 1000 words of 12 characters, when representing numbers, they were written as 11 decimal digits plus sign

52.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south

53.
Socialist Labor Party of America
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Originally known as the Workingmens Party of America, the party changed its name in 1877 to Socialistic Labor Party and again sometime in the late 1880s to Socialist Labor Party. It has operated continuously since then, although its current existence is tenuous, despite these organizational efforts, the socialist movement in America remained deeply divided over tactics. In April 1876, a conference took place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania bringing together representatives of the union-oriented Internationalists. The gathering agreed to issue a call for a Unity Congress to be held in July to establish a new political party, on Saturday, July 15,1876, delegates from the remaining American sections of the First International gathered in Philadelphia and disbanded that organization. German émigrés dominated the organization, although in Chicago Albert Parsons, in 1877 the Workingmens Party met at Newark, New Jersey in a convention which changed the name of the organization to the Socialist Labor Party. The SLP achieved its most notable success in Chicago, where in 1878-79, its candidates won slots for a state senator. There was an upsurge of support for the new organization, reflected in the proliferation of the socialist press, between 1876 and 1877, no fewer than 24 newspapers were established which either directly or indirectly supported the SLP. Eight of these were English-language publications, including one daily, while 14 were in German, two more papers were published in Czech and Swedish, respectively. Just two years later, in the wake of a crisis, not one of the privately owned English newspapers had survived. The party established its own English-language paper, The National Socialist, in May 1878, the year 1878 saw the establishment of a more enduring newspaper, the German-language New Yorker Volkszeitung. About this same time, the American anarchist movement gained strength, fueled by the economic crisis, both being critics and denouncers of the present system, however, they were able to work together. As a result of the brutalities of the militia and regulars in the strikes of 1877. This found expression in the Lehr und Wehr Verein, an armed and drilled body of workmen pledged to protect the workers against the militia in a strike, the arms-bearing tactics were opposed by the Executive Committee of the SLP, the Secretary of which was Philip van Patten. A fight ensued between the Verbote, which was the edition of the Arbeiter Zeitung, of Chicago, and the Labor Bulletin. The SLP suffered its first split in 1878, members who were displeased with the exclusively political actionist turn of the party who wanted the group to focus more on organizing workers formed the International Labor Union. Members were not barred from belonging to both, but there was some animosity between the two organizations. Amidst economic crisis and factional squabbling, membership in the SLP plummeted, as the 1870s drew to a close, the Socialistic Labor Party could count about 2,600 members—with at least one estimate substantially lower. The party was on the ropes, the years 1880 and 1881 saw a new influx of political refugees from Germany, activists in the socialist movement fleeing the crackdown on radicalism launched with the Anti-Socialist Laws of 1878

Socialist Labor Party of America
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The SLP does not seem to have used its distinctive arm-and-hammer logo until it appeared on the front page of The Workmen's Advocate in 1885.
Socialist Labor Party of America
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Socialist Labor Party of America
Socialist Labor Party of America
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Dutch-American radical Philip Van Patten was the first National Secretary of the Socialist Labor Party.
Socialist Labor Party of America
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Daniel DeLeon in 1902.

54.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas

Arkansas
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View from the Ozark Highlands Scenic Byway in Boxley Valley
Arkansas
Arkansas
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The Ozarks: bend in the Buffalo River from an overlook on the Buffalo River Trail near Steel Creek
Arkansas
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The flat terrain and rich soils of the Arkansas Delta near Arkansas City are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.

55.
Harry F. Byrd
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Harry Flood Byrd, Sr. of Berryville in Clarke County, Virginia, was an American newspaper publisher, and political leader of the Democratic Party in Virginia. He was the leader of the coalition in the United States Senate. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia and his son Harry F. Byrd, Jr. succeeded him as U. S. Senator. Byrd was a dominant figure in Virginia who reorganized and modernized Virginias government and his political machine dominated Virginia Democratic Party politics for much of the first half of the 20th century. Financial conditions in Virginia during his youth conditioned his thinking on fiscal matters throughout his life and he is best remembered for his austere pay-as-you-go financial policies. Byrd was also known as a racist and avowed white separatist and this policy created a large subset of black students who were denied their education in several Virginia counties. These students, many of whom are alive, are known as the lost generation. Harry Flood Byrd was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia in 1887 and moved with his parents, Eleanor Bolling and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. to Winchester, Virginia the same year. Byrd was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia, his ancestors included William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, Harry Flood Byrd was the brother of famed aviator Richard Evelyn Byrd. Joel Flood served as Commonwealth Attorney of Appomattox County from 1919 to 1932 and he became a long-time Federal Court Judge of the Fifth Judiciary Circuit, serving from 1940 to 1964. Young Harry Byrds father was an apple grower in the Shenandoah Valley. He attended the schools and Shenandoah Valley Academy in Winchester. Harry Byrd never lacked food, but he had no money for luxuries, if a man got into debt, there was small chance of getting out of it. Even worse in Byrds eyes was the dilemma of the state itself, Virginia beginning in 1816 had taken on debt to help finance many internal public improvements through the Virginia Board of Public Works before the Civil War. Some of these improvements, which were primarily canals, turnpikes, others had been made in the former portion of the state that separated to form the new State of West Virginia. For several decades thereafter, Virginia and West Virginia disputed the new share of the Virginia governments debt. The issue was settled in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. West Virginia paid the final installment of this sum in 1939, however, the issue of Virginias public debt was far from resolved during Byrds formative years

Harry F. Byrd
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Harry F. Byrd

56.
United States Senate elections, 1952
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The United States Senate elections of 1952 was an election for the United States Senate which coincided with the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower to the presidency by a large margin. The Republicans managed to make a net gain of two seats, which was reduced to one when Wayne Morse became an independent, the Republicans held a 49 to 47 seat majority after Morses switch. This election was the time in history that the party in power lost their majority. *I1@, Wayne Morse of Oregon, who was not up for election this year, maryland, Herbert OConor was replaced by James Glenn Beall Texas, Tom Connally was replaced by Price Daniel Connecticut, Appointee William A. Purtell, was replaced by Prescott Bush. Nebraska, Appointee Fred Andrew Seaton was replaced by Dwight Griswold, tennessee, Kenneth D. McKellar lost to Albert Gore, Sr. who later won the general election. Maine, Ralph O. Brewster lost to Frederick G. Payne, United States elections,1952 United States presidential election,1952 United States House of Representatives elections,1952 82nd United States Congress 83rd United States Congress

United States Senate elections, 1952
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36 of the 96 seats in the United States Senate 49 seats needed for a majority
United States Senate elections, 1952

57.
First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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The first inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower as the 34th President of the United States was held on January 20,1953, at the east portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of the first four-year term of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the presidential oath of office to Eisenhower. The vice presidential oath was administered to Nixon by Senator William Knowland, afterward, he recited his own prayer, rather than kissing the Bible. Arends Representative Joseph W. Martin Representative Sam Rayburn United States presidential election,1952 Presidency of Dwight D

58.
UC Santa Barbara
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The University of California, Santa Barbara is a public research university and one of the 10 campuses of the University of California system. The main campus is located on a 1, 022-acre site near Goleta, California, tracing its roots back to 1891 as an independent teachers college, UCSB joined the University of California system in 1944 and is the third-oldest general-education campus in the system. UCSB is one of Americas Public Ivy universities, which recognizes top public universities in the United States. The university is a doctoral university and is organized into five colleges. UCSB was ranked 37th among National Universities, 8th among U. S. public universities, the university was also ranked 48th worldwide for 2016-17 by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 42nd worldwide by the Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2016. UC Santa Barbara is a high activity research university with twelve national research centers. UCSB was the No.3 host on the ARPAnet and was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1995, the UC Santa Barbara Gauchos compete in the Big West Conference of the NCAA Division I. The Gauchos have won NCAA national championships in soccer and mens water polo. UCSB traces its origins back to the Anna Blake School which was founded in 1891 and offered training in home economics and industrial arts. The Anna Blake School was taken over by the state in 1909 and became the Santa Barbara State Normal School, the State College system sued to stop the takeover, but the Governor did not support the suit. A state initiative was passed, however, in 1946 to stop subsequent conversions of State Colleges to University of California campuses, from 1944 to 1958 the school was known as Santa Barbara College of the University of California, before taking on its current name. When the vacated Marine Corps training station in Goleta was purchased for the growing college. Originally, the Regents envisioned a small, several thousand-student liberal arts college, chronologically, UCSB is the third general-education campus of the University of California, after Berkeley and UCLA. The original campus the Regents acquired in Santa Barbara was located on only 100 acres of largely unusable land on a seaside mesa, all of this change was done in accordance with the California Master Plan for Higher Education. In 1959, UCSB professor Douwe Stuurman hosted the English writer Aldous Huxley as the universitys first visiting professor, Huxley delivered a lectures series called The Human Situation. In the late 1960s and early 1970s UCSB became nationally known as a hotbed of anti-Vietnam War activity, a bombing at the schools faculty club in 1969 killed the caretaker, Dover Sharp. UCSBs anti-Vietnam activity impelled then Governor Ronald Reagan to impose a curfew, weapon-carrying guardsmen were a common sight on campus and in Isla Vista during this time. On May 23,2014, a killing spree occurred in Isla Vista, California, all six people killed during the rampage were students at UCSB

UC Santa Barbara
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The Storke Tower and the University Center in front of the UCSB Lagoon.
UC Santa Barbara
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University of California, Santa Barbara
UC Santa Barbara
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A view over the school's lagoon to one of the Channel Islands
UC Santa Barbara
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Henley Gate (eastern entrance) at sunset

59.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

60.
Nancy Gibbs
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Nancy Reid Gibbs is an American essayist and managing editor for Time magazine, a best-selling author and commentator on politics and values in the United States. Gibbs was born in New York, the daughter of Janet, who worked at Friends Seminary, and Howard Glenn Gibbs and she graduated from Yale University in 1982, summa cum laude, with honors in history. She studied at New College, Oxford as a Marshall Scholar and she joined TIME in 1985 as a part-time fact checker in the International section. She became a writer in 1988 and has more than 100 cover stories, including the black-bordered special issue on the September 11 attacks. She has been a frequent guest on radio and television shows, including the Today Show, Good Morning America, Charlie Rose. In 1993 and 2006, she served as a Ferris Professor of writing at Princeton University and she is a former elder and deacon of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York City. In October 2013, she became the first female managing editor of Time magazine,2013 Chautauqua Prize, shortlist, The Presidents Club Pompeo, Joe. Appearances on C-SPAN C-SPAN Q&A interview with Gibbs and Michael Duffy about The Presidents Club, Inside the Worlds Most Exclusive Fraternity, May 13,2012

61.
George Gallup
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George Horace Gallup was an American pioneer of survey sampling techniques and inventor of the Gallup poll, a successful statistical method of survey sampling for measuring public opinion. Gallup was born in Jefferson, Iowa, the son of Nettie Quella and George Henry Gallup, as a teen, George Jr. known then as Ted, would deliver milk and used his salary to start a newspaper at the high school, where he also played football. He earned his B. A. in 1923, his M. A. in 1925 and he then moved to Des Moines, Iowa, where he served as head of the Department of Journalism at Drake University until 1931. That year, he moved to Evanston, Illinois, as a professor of journalism, the next year, he moved to New York City to join the advertising agency of Young and Rubicam as director of research. He was also professor of journalism at Columbia University, but he had to give up this position shortly after he formed his own polling company, Gallup is often credited as the developer of public polling. In 1932, Gallup did some polling for his mother-in-law, Ola Babcock Miller, with the Democratic landslide of that year, she won a stunning victory, furthering Gallups interest in politics. In 1936, his new organization achieved national recognition by correctly predicting, from the replies of only 50,000 respondents and this was in direct contradiction to the widely respected Literary Digest magazine whose poll based on over two million returned questionnaires predicted that Landon would be the winner. Not only did Gallup get the right, he correctly predicted the results of the Literary Digest poll as well using a random sample smaller than theirs. Twelve years later, his organization had its moment of greatest ignominy, Gallup believed the error was mostly due to ending his polling three weeks before Election Day. In 1947, he launched the Gallup International Association, an association of polling organizations. In 1948, with Claude E. Robinson, he founded Gallup and Robinson, in 1958, Gallup grouped all of his polling operations under what became The Gallup Organization. Gallup died in 1984 of an attack at his summer home in Tschingel. He was buried in Princeton Cemetery and his wife died in 1988, and their son, writer and pollster George Gallup, Jr. died in 2011. Approval rating The Gallup Organization Gallup & Robinson George H. Gallup House Gallup International Association Cantril, gauging Public Opinion Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. Public Opinion, 1935–1946, massive compilation of public opinion polls from US, UK, Canada, Australia. Online Converse, Jean M. Survey Research in the United States, Roots and Emergence 1890–1960, moscow, Foley, Ryan J. Gallup Papers Give Glimpse into US Polling History, Associated Press Gallup, George. Public Opinion in a Democracy Gallup, Alec M. ed, the Gallup Poll Cumulative Index, Public Opinion, 1935–1997 lists 10, 000+ questions, but no results Gallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll, Public Opinion, 1935–19713 vol summarizes results of each poll, taking the Pulse of Democracy, George Gallup, Iowa, and the Origin of the Gallup Poll

George Gallup
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George Gallup on a 2001 Romania stamp
George Gallup
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George Gallup
George Gallup
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Grave in Princeton Cemetery

62.
Time Magazine
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931

Time Magazine
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The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring SpeakerJoseph G. Cannon.
Time Magazine
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Time
Time Magazine
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Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time Magazine
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Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.

63.
United States presidential election, 1792
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The United States presidential election of 1792 was the second quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Friday, November 2 to Wednesday, December 5,1792, incumbent President George Washington was elected to a second term by a unanimous vote in the electoral college. As in the first presidential election, Washington is considered to have run unopposed, Electoral rules of the time, however, required each presidential elector to cast two votes without distinguishing which was for president and which for vice president. The recipient of the most votes would become president. Incumbent Vice President John Adams received 77 votes and was also re-elected and this election was the first in which each of the original 13 states appointed electors. It was also the presidential election that was not held exactly four years after the previous election. The second inauguration was on March 4,1793 at the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, in 1792, presidential elections were still conducted according to the original method established under the U. S. Constitution. Under this system, each elector cast two votes, the candidate who received the greatest number of votes became president, while the runner-up became vice president. The Twelfth Amendment would eventually replace this system, requiring electors to cast one vote for president and one vote for vice president, because of this, it is difficult to use modern-day terminology to describe the relationship between the candidates in this election. Washington is generally held by historians to have run unopposed, indeed, the incumbent president enjoyed bipartisan support and received one vote from every elector. The choice for president was more divisive. They had no chance of unseating Washington, but hoped to win the presidency by defeating the incumbent. The Republicans would have preferred to nominate Thomas Jefferson, their ideological leader, however, this would have cost them the state of Virginia, as electors were not permitted to vote for two candidates from their home state and Washington was also a Virginian. Instead, they settled on Governor George Clinton, though Jefferson would receive the votes of four Kentucky electors, madison was at first a Federalist until he opposed the establishment of Hamiltons First Bank of the United States in 1791. He formed the Democratic-Republican Party along with Anti-Federalist Thomas Jefferson in 1792, the elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In New York, the race for governor was fought along these lines, the candidates were Chief Justice John Jay, a Hamiltonian, and incumbent George Clinton, who was allied with Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans. Although Washington had been considering retiring, both encouraged him to remain in office to bridge factional differences. Washington was supported by all sides throughout his presidency and gained more popularity with the passage of the Bill of Rights

United States presidential election, 1792
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132 electoral votes of the Electoral College 67 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1792
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President George Washington
United States presidential election, 1792
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Vice President John Adams

64.
United States presidential election, 1800
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The United States presidential election of 1800 was the fourth quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Friday, October 31 to Wednesday, December 3,1800, in what is sometimes referred to as the Revolution of 1800, Vice President Thomas Jefferson defeated President John Adams. The election was an election that ushered in a generation of Democratic-Republican Party rule. The Alien and Sedition Acts, by which Federalists were trying to stifle dissent from Democratic-Republican newspaper editors, the jockeying for electoral votes, regional divisions, and the propaganda smear campaigns created by both parties made the election recognizably modern. The election exposed one of the flaws in the original Constitution of the United States, members of the Electoral College were authorized by the original Constitution to vote for two names for President. The candidate with the most electoral votes would become President and the candidate with the second most would become Vice President, each elector who voted for Jefferson also voted for Burr, resulting in a tied electoral vote. The election was then put into the hands of the outgoing House of Representatives, to rectify the flaw in the original presidential election mechanism, the Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, was added to the United States Constitution. It called for electors to make a choice between their selections for president and vice president. Historians such as Garry Wills, Leonard L. Richards, and William W. Freehling have written that had not been counted at all. Adams had never owned a slave and was opposed to slavery, Jefferson was subsequently criticized as having won the temple of Liberty on the shoulders of slaves. Democratic-Republican nomination Thomas Jefferson, Vice President of the United States from Virginia Aaron Burr, senator from New York Federalist nomination John Adams, President of the United States from Massachusetts Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, former U. S. Minister to France from South Carolina The 1800 election was a re-match of the 1796 election, the campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radicals who would ruin the country, Adams was attacked by both the opposition Democratic-Republicans and a group of so-called High Federalists aligned with Alexander Hamilton. High Federalists considered Adams too moderate and would have preferred the leadership of Alexander Hamilton instead, Hamilton had apparently grown impatient with Adams and wanted a new president who was more receptive to his goals. During Washingtons presidency, Hamilton had been able to influence the response to the Whiskey Rebellion. When Washington announced that he would not seek a third term, Hamilton appears to have hoped in 1796 that his influence within an Adams administration would be as great or greater than in Washingtons. In his third sabotage attempt toward Adams, Hamilton quietly schemed to elect Pinckney to the presidency, given Pinckneys lack of political experience, he would have been expected to be open to Hamiltons influence. It embarrassed Adams and damaged Hamiltons efforts on behalf of Pinckney, partisans on both sides sought any advantage they could find

United States presidential election, 1800
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138 electoral votes of the Electoral College 70 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1800
United States presidential election, 1800
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Aaron Burr from New York

65.
United States presidential election, 1808
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The United States presidential election of 1808 was the sixth quadrennial presidential election, held from Friday, November 4, to Wednesday, December 7,1808. The Democratic-Republican candidate James Madison defeated Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney decisively, Madison was serving as United States Secretary of State under incumbent Thomas Jefferson, and Pinckney had been the unsuccessful Federalist candidate in the election of 1804. Madisons strongest challenge came from members of his own party, sitting Vice President George Clinton and former Ambassador James Monroe both challenged Madison for leadership of the party prior to the general election. Clinton received six votes in the general election, all from New York. This election was the first of two instances in American history in which a new President would be selected but the incumbent Vice President would continue to serve. James Madison, Secretary of State James Monroe, Former U. S, with Thomas Jefferson ready to retire, supporters of Secretary of State James Madison of Virginia worked carefully to ensure that Madison would succeed Jefferson. Madisons primary competition came from former Ambassador James Monroe of Virginia, Monroe was supported by a group known as the tertium quids, who supported a weak central government and were dissatisfied by the Louisiana Purchase and the Compact of 1802. Clintons support came from Northern Democratic-Republicans who disapproved of the Embargo Act, the Congressional caucus chose Madison as its candidate for president and Clinton as its candidate for vice president. Many supporters of Monroe and Clinton refused to accept the result of the caucus, Monroe was nominated by a group of Virginia Democratic-Republicans, and although he did not actively try to defeat Madison, he also refused to withdraw from the race. Clinton was also supported by a group of New York Democratic-Republicans for president even as he remained the official vice presidential candidate. The Federalist caucus renominated General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, minister to France Rufus King, former U. S. Nonetheless, Jefferson was still very popular with Americans generally and Pinckney was soundly defeated, though not as badly as in 1804. Pinckney received few votes outside of New England. Except for the North Carolina districts, all of the improvement was in New England, Monroe won a portion of the popular vote in Virginia and North Carolina, while the New York legislature split its electoral votes between Madison and Clinton. Our Campaigns. Source, A New Nation Votes, American Election Returns 1787-1825 Source, only 10 of the 17 states chose electors by popular vote. Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements, one Elector from Kentucky did not vote. History of American presidential elections, 1789-1968, Volume 1 pp 185-249 Carson, a New Nation Votes, American Election Returns, 1787-1825

66.
United States presidential election, 1812
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The United States presidential election of 1812 was the seventh quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Friday, October 30 to Wednesday, December 2,1812, the Federalist opposition threw their support behind Clinton. Nonetheless, Madison was re-elected with 50.4 percent of the vote to his opponents 47. 6%. This was the first presidential election to be held during a war involving the United States. Meanwhile, expansionists in the south and west of the United States coveted British Canada and Spanish Florida, the pressure steadily built, with the result that the United States declared war on the United Kingdom on June 12,1812. This occurred after Madison had been nominated by the Democratic-Republicans, initially, these hopes were pinned upon Vice President George Clinton, but his poor health and advanced age eliminated his chances. Even before Clintons death on April 20,1812, his nephew DeWitt Clinton was considered the candidate to move against Madison by the northern Democratic-Republicans. Early caucuses were held in the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania, seeking a northerner for a running mate, the caucus chose New Hampshire Governor John Langdon to balance the ticket. However Langdon declined due to his own advanced age, at the time 70 years, a second caucus nominated Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts for the Vice Presidency even though he was not much younger than Langdon at 68. When the New York caucus did meet on May 29, it voted to nominate DeWitt Clinton for the presidency almost unanimously. Clintons now open candidacy was opposed by many who, while not friends of James Madison, the matter of how to conduct his campaign also became a major problem for Clinton, especially with regards to the war with the British after June 12. Straight-Federalist candidate, While many Federalists were supportive of DeWitt Clintons candidacy, others were not so keen, skeptical of Clintons positions regarding the war and other matters. Rufus King, a former Ambassador and Congressman, had led an effort at the September Caucus to nominate a Federalist ticket for the election that year, though he was ultimately unsuccessful. Still, some wished to enter Kings name into the race under the Federalist label, in the case of Virginia, Clinton was rejected entirely by the state Federalist Party, which instead chose to nominate Rufus King for President and William Richardson Davie for Vice President. The ticket would acquire about 27% of the vote in the state, however, a coalition of Democratic-Republicans and Federalists would defeat the motion and succeed in nominating a slate pledged to Clinton. The war heavily overshadowed the campaign, Clinton continued his regional campaigning, adopting an anti-war stance in the Northeast, and a pro-war stance in the South and West. The election ultimately hinged on New York and Pennsylvania, and while Clinton took his state, he failed to take Pennsylvania. Though Clinton lost, the election was the best showing for the Federalists since that of Adams, as the party gains in Congress

United States presidential election, 1812
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All 217 electoral votes of the Electoral College 109 electoral votes needed to win
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United States presidential election, 1812
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Vice PresidentGeorge Clinton (Died April 20)

67.
United States presidential election, 1832
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The United States presidential election of 1832 was the 12th quadrennial presidential election, held from Friday, November 2, to Wednesday, December 5,1832. Jackson won 219 of the 286 electoral votes cast, Virginia Governor John Floyd, who was not a candidate, received the electoral votes of South Carolina. This was the first national election for Martin Van Buren of New York, Van Buren faced opposition for the vice-presidency within his own party, however, and as a result, all 30 Pennsylvania electors cast ballots for native son William Wilkins. For this reason, the candidates of 1832 were chosen by national conventions, the first national convention was held by the Anti-Masonic Party in Baltimore, Maryland, in September 1831. The National Republican Party and the Democratic Party soon imitated them, also holding conventions in Baltimore, as a result of this, Secretary of State Martin Van Buren and Secretary of War John H. Eaton resigned from office in April 1831, and Jackson requested the resignation of all cabinet offices as well except one. Van Buren instigated the procedure as a means of removing Calhoun supporters from the Cabinet, Calhoun further aggravated the president in the summer of 1831 when he issued his Fort Hill Letter, in which he outlined the constitutional basis for a states ability to nullify an act of Congress. At the time of Calhouns vote to end Van Burens political career, as a result, the Democratic Party followed the pattern of the opposition and called a national convention. The 1832 Democratic National Convention, the first of the Democratic Party, was held in the Athenaeum in Baltimore from May 21,1832, several decisions were made at this initial convention of the party. On the first day, a committee was appointed to provide a list of delegates each state. This committee, which came to be called the Credentials Committee. The Rules Committee gave a report that established several other customs. Each state was allotted as many votes as it had presidential electors, several states were over-represented, secondly, balloting was taken by states and not by individual delegates. Thirdly, two-thirds of the delegates would have to support a candidate for nomination, the fourth rule, which banned nomination speeches, was the only one the party quickly abandoned. No roll call vote was taken to nominate Jackson for a second term, instead, the convention passed a resolution stating that we most cordially concur in the repeated nominations which he has received in various parts of the union. Martin Van Buren was nominated for vice-president on the first ballot, afterwards, the convention approved an address to the nation and adjourned. The Barbour Democratic National Convention was held in June 1832 in Staunton, Jackson was nominated for president and Philip P. Barbour was nominated for vice-president. Although Barbour withdrew, the ticket appeared on the ballot in five states, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, soon after the Anti-Masonic Party held its national convention, supporters of Henry Clay called a national convention of the National Republican Party

United States presidential election, 1832
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All 286 electoral votes of the Electoral College 144 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1832
United States presidential election, 1832

68.
United States presidential election, 1848
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The United States presidential election of 1848 was the 16th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 7,1848. It was won by Zachary Taylor of the Whig Party, who ran against Lewis Cass of the Democratic Party, incumbent President James K. Polk, having achieved all of his major objectives in one term and suffering from declining health, kept his promise not to seek re-election. The contest was the first presidential election took place on the same day in every state. The Whigs in 1846–47 had focused all their energies on condemning Polks war policies and they had to reverse course quickly. In February 1848 Polk surprised everyone with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War, the Whigs in the Senate voted 2-1 to approve the treaty. Then, in the summer, the Whigs nominated the hero of the war, while he did promise no more future wars, he did not condemn the Mexican-American War or criticize Polk, and the Whigs had to follow his lead. They shifted their attention to the new issue of slavery could be banned from the new territories. The choice of Zachary Taylor was made almost out of desperation, he was not clearly committed to Whig principles, the Democrats had a record of victory, prosperity, and the acquisition of both Oregon and the Southwest. It appeared almost certain that they would win unless the Whigs picked Taylor, Taylor ultimately declared himself a Whig, and easily took their nomination, receiving 171 delegate votes to defeat Henry Clay, Winfield Scott, Daniel Webster and others. Former President Martin Van Buren once again sought the Democratic nomination, Cass had served as Governor and Senator for Michigan, as well as Secretary of War under Andrew Jackson, and from 1836 to 1842 as ambassador to France. Van Buren had burned for the nomination, but he had wanted it on a Free Soil platform, neither his name nor his stand received any support at the Democratic convention. The Free Soil Party, was organized for the 1848 election to oppose expansion of slavery into the western territories. Much of its support came from disaffected anti-slavery Barnburner Democrats and Conscience Whigs, the party was led by Salmon P. Chase and John Parker Hale and held its 1848 convention in Utica and Buffalo, New York. Van Buren knew that the Free Soilers had not the slightest chance of winning, rather that his candidacy would split the Democratic vote, bitter and aging, Van Buren did not care despite the fact his life had been built upon the rock of party solidarity and party regularity. He loathed Lewis Cass and the principle of sovereignty with equal intensity. Despite their significant showing in the presidential election, certain events would conspire to remove the Liberty Party from political significance. Initially, the nomination was to be decided in the fall of 1847 at a Convention in Buffalo, there, Senator John P. Hale was nominated over Gerrit Smith, brother-in-law to the partys previous nominee James G. Birney. Leicester King, a judge and state senator in Ohio, was nominated to be Hales running mate

United States presidential election, 1848
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Van Buren/Adams
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All 290 electoral votes of the Electoral College 146 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1848
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Artwork for " Fort Harrison March," a campaign song for Zachary Taylor's presidential campaign which recalled his triumph at the Siege of Fort Harrison in 1812.
United States presidential election, 1848
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Political cartoon about the election campaign, titled "Shooting the Christmas Turkey"

69.
United States presidential election, 1856
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The United States presidential election of 1856 was the 18th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1856. Incumbent president Franklin Pierce was defeated in his effort to be re-nominated by the Democratic Party, James Buchanan, an experienced politician who had held a variety of political offices, was serving as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom and won the nomination instead. Slavery was the omnipresent issue, while the Whig Party, which had since the 1830s been one of the two parties in the U. S. had disintegrated. New parties such as the Republican Party and American, or “Know-Nothing, ” Party, the Republican Party nominated John C. Frémont of California as its first presidential candidate, the Know-Nothing Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore, of New York. Frémont condemned the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and decried the expansion of slavery, Buchanan warned that the Republicans were extremists whose victory would lead to civil war. The Democrats endorsed popular sovereignty as the method to determine slavery’s legality for newly admitted states, the 1856 election also marks the last time to date that a Democrat had been elected to succeed a fellow Democrat as president without the previous president having died in office. The 1856 presidential election was primarily waged among three parties, though other parties had been active in the spring of the year. The conventions of these parties are considered below in order of the popular vote. Democratic candidates, James Buchanan, Minister to Great Britain and former Secretary of State Franklin Pierce, President of the United States Stephen Douglas, Senator from Illinois Lewis Cass, Former U. S. Senator and 1848 presidential nominee from Michigan The Democratic Party was wounded from its losses in the 1854–1855 midterm elections. Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, who had sponsored the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the Pennsylvania delegation continued to sponsor its favorite son, James Buchanan. The Seventh Democratic National Convention was held in Smith and Nixon’s Hall in Cincinnati, Ohio, the delegates were deeply divided over slavery. This election was the time in American history where a man who had been elected president was denied re-nomination after seeking it. On the first ballot, Buchanan placed first with 135.5 votes to 122.5 for Pierce,33 for Douglas, and 5 for Senator Lewis Cass, with each succeeding ballot, Douglas gained at Pierces expense. A host of candidates were nominated for the presidency, but a number of them attempted to withdraw themselves from consideration, among them the eventual nominee. Breckinridge, besides having been selected as an elector, was also supporting former Speaker of the House Linn Boyd for the nomination, however, following a draft effort led by the delegation from Vermont, Breckinridge was nominated on the second ballot. Fremont, former U. S. senator from California John McLean, however, the party collaborated with other disaffected groups and gradually absorbed them

United States presidential election, 1856
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All 296 electoral votes of the Electoral College 149 electoral votes needed to win
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United States presidential election, 1856
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PresidentFranklin Pierce from New Hampshire (Name Withdrawn on the 15th Ballot in favor of Stephen Douglas)

70.
United States presidential election, 1860
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The United States presidential election of 1860 was the nineteenth quadrennial presidential election to select the President and Vice President of the United States. The election was held on Tuesday, November 6,1860, the United States had been divided during the 1850s on questions surrounding the expansion of slavery and the rights of slave owners. Incumbent President James Buchanan, like his predecessor Franklin Pierce, was a northerner with sympathies for the South and he recommended that Supreme Court Justice Robert Grier vote proslavery in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857. This was so unpopular it backfired on Buchanans presidency, allowing the Republican Party to win a majority in the House in 1858, in 1860, these issues broke the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern factions, and a new Constitutional Union Party appeared. In the face of an opposition, the newly created Republican Party secured a majority of the electoral votes. The 1860 presidential election marked the end of the Souths political dominance over the nation, moreover, since 1791, Southerners had comprised a majority of the Supreme Court. The 1860 presidential election conventions were unusually tumultuous, due in particular to a split in the Democratic Party that led to rival conventions, three other candidates, Isaac Toucey from Connecticut, James Pearce from Maryland, and Jefferson Davis from Mississippi also received votes. Douglas, a moderate on the slavery issue who favored “popular sovereignty”, was ahead on the first ballot, on the 57th ballot, Douglas was still ahead, but 51.5 votes short of nomination. In desperation, the agreed on May 3 to stop voting. The Democrats convened again at the Front Street Theater in Baltimore, Maryland and this time,110 Southern delegates walked out when the convention would not adopt a resolution supporting extending slavery into territories whose voters did not want it. Some considered Horatio Seymour a compromise candidate for the National Democratic nomination at the convention in Baltimore. Seymour wrote a letter to the editor of his local newspaper declaring unreservedly that he was not a candidate for either spot on the ticket, after two ballots, the remaining Democrats nominated the ticket of Stephen A. Douglas from Illinois for president. Benjamin Fitzpatrick from Alabama was nominated for president, but he refused the nomination. That nomination ultimately went instead to Herschel Vespasian Johnson from Georgia, Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States Daniel S. When the Democrats reconvened in Baltimore, they rejoined and this larger group met immediately in Baltimore’s Institute Hall, with Cushing again presiding. They adopted the pro-slavery platform rejected at Charleston, and nominated Vice President John C, Breckinridge for President, and Senator Joseph Lane from Oregon for Vice President. Yancey and some of the bolters, almost entirely from the Lower South, met on June 28 in Richmond, along with the South Carolina and this convention affirmed the nominations of Breckinridge and Lane. Besides the Democratic Parties in the states, the Breckinridge/Lane ticket was also supported by the Buchanan administration

United States presidential election, 1860
United States presidential election, 1860
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All 303 electoral votes of the Electoral College 152 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1860
United States presidential election, 1860
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SenatorWilliam H. Seward of New York

71.
United States presidential election, 1864
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The United States presidential election of 1864 was the 20th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1864. In this match, incumbent president Republican Abraham Lincoln ran for re-election against Democratic candidate George B, McClellan, who tried to portray himself to the voters as the peace candidate who wanted to bring the American Civil War to a speedy end. Lincoln was re-elected president by a landslide in the Electoral College, since the election of 1860, the Electoral College had expanded with the admission of Kansas, West Virginia, and Nevada as free-soil states. As the Civil War was still raging, no electoral votes were counted from any of the southern states that had joined the Confederate States of America. The second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln took place on March 4,1865, Lincolns second term is the second shortest term served by any U. S. president, next to the 31-day presidency of William Henry Harrison. The Presidential election of 1864 took place during the American Civil War, according to the Miller Center for the study of the presidency, the election was noteworthy for occurring at all, an unprecedented democratic exercise in the midst of a civil war. A group of Republican dissidents who called themselves Radical Republicans formed a party named the Radical Democracy Party, Frémont as their candidate for president. Frémont later withdrew and endorsed Lincoln, in the Border States, War Democrats joined with Republicans as the National Union Party, with Lincoln at the head of the ticket. The National Union Party was a name used to attract War Democrats. It faced off against the regular Democratic Party, including Peace Democrats, the 1864 presidential election conventions of the parties are considered below in order of the partys popular vote. Senators Charles Sumner and Henry Wilson from Massachusetts wanted the Republican Party to advocate constitutional amendments to prohibit slavery, initially, not all northern Republicans supported such measures. Democratic leaders hoped that the radical Republicans would put forth their own ticket in the election, Frémont supporters in New York City established a newspaper called the New Nation, which declared in one of its initial issues that the National Union Convention would be a nonentity. Before the election, some War Democrats joined the Republicans to form the National Union Party, the party platform included these goals. It also praised the use of troops and Lincolns management of the war. Andrew Johnson, the senator from and current military governor of Tennessee, was named as Lincolns vice presidential running-mate. Moderate Peace Democrats who supported the war against the Confederacy, such as Horatio Seymour, were preaching the wisdom of a negotiated peace, after the Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863, moderate Peace Democrats proposed a negotiated peace that would secure Union victory. They believed this was the best course of action, because an armistice could finish the war without devastating the South. Radical Peace Democrats known as Copperheads, such as Thomas H. Seymour, declared the war to be a failure, George B. McClellan vied for the presidential nomination

72.
United States presidential election, 1868
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The United States presidential election of 1868 was the 21st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3,1868. It was the first presidential election to place after the American Civil War. As three of the former Confederate states were not yet restored to the Union, their electors could not vote in the election, by 1868, Johnson had alienated many of his constituents and had been impeached by Congress. Although Johnson kept his office, his presidency was crippled, after numerous ballots, the Democrats nominated former New York Governor Horatio Seymour to take on the Republican candidate, Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant. Grant was one of the most popular men in the North due to his efforts in concluding the Civil War successfully for the Union, although Seymour was buried in the electoral college, he gave Grant a good race for the popular vote. It was the first election in which African Americans could vote in every Northern or Reconstructed Southern state, every state except Florida used popular votes to determine electors for the Electoral College vote. Reconstruction and civil rights of slaves was a hotly debated issue in the Union. Republican candidate, By 1868, the Republicans felt strong enough to drop the Union Party label, the Democratic Party controlled many large Northern states that had a great percentage of the electoral votes. House Speaker Schuyler Colfax, a Radical Republican from Indiana, was nominated for vice-president on the ballot, beating out the early favorite. The Republican platform supported black suffrage in the South as part of the passage to full citizenship for former slaves and it agreed to let northern states decide individually whether to enfranchise blacks. Democratic candidates, The Democratic National Convention was held in New York City between July 4, and July 9,1868, meanwhile, the convention chairman Horatio Seymour, former governor of New York, received nine votes on the fourth ballot from the state of North Carolina. This unexpected move caused “loud and enthusiastic cheering, ” but Seymour refused, saying, “I must not be nominated by this Convention and my own inclination prompted me to decline at the outset, my honor compels me to do so now. It is impossible, consistently with my position, to allow my name to be mentioned in this Convention against my protest. The clerk will proceed with the call. ”After numerous indecisive ballots, the names of John T. Hoffman, Francis P. Blair, none of these candidates, however, gained substantial support. For twenty-one ballots, the opposing candidates battled it out, the East battling the West for control, the two leading candidates were determined that the other should not receive the nomination, because of the two-thirds rule of the convention, a compromise candidate was needed. Seymour still hoped it would be Chief Justice Salmon P. ” Seymour had to wait for the rousing cheers to die down before he could address the delegates, “I have no terms in which to tell of my regret that my name has been brought before this convention. God knows that my life and all that I value most in life I would give for the good of my country, I could not receive the nomination without placing not only myself but the Democratic party in a false position. God bless you for your kindness to me, but your candidate I cannot be. ”Seymour left the platform to cool off and rest

United States presidential election, 1868
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SpeakerSchuyler Colfax from Indiana For Vice President
United States presidential election, 1868
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All 294 electoral votes of the Electoral College 148 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1868
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Republican campaign poster, created by superimposing a portrait of Grant onto the platform of the Republican Party.
United States presidential election, 1868
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Grant/Colfax humorous campaign card

73.
United States presidential election, 1872
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The United States presidential election of 1872 was the 22nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1872. The incumbent President Ulysses S. Grant was easily elected to a term in office. Grants decisive re-election was achieved in the face of a split within the Republican Party that resulted in a party of Liberal Republicans nominating Horace Greeley to oppose Grant. This action caused the Democratic Party to cancel its convention, support Greeley as well, on November 29,1872, after the popular vote was counted, but before the Electoral College cast its votes, Greeley died. As a result, electors previously committed to Greeley voted for four different candidates for president, Greeley himself received three posthumous electoral votes, but these votes were disallowed by Congress. The election of 1872 is the only United States presidential election in which a party nominee died during the electoral process. It was the last instance until the 2016 presidential election in more than one presidential elector voted for a candidate to which they were not pledged. Others, who had grown weary of the corruption of the Grant administration, in the hope of defeating Grant, the Democratic party endorsed the nominees of the Liberal Republican Party. An influential group of dissident Republicans split from the party to form the Liberal Republican Party in 1870, at the partys only national convention, held in Cincinnati in 1872, New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley was nominated for president on the sixth ballot, defeating Charles Francis Adams. Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown was nominated for vice-president on the second ballot, the 1872 Democratic National Convention met in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 9–10. Because of its desire to defeat Ulysses S. Grant. Greeley received 686 of the 732 delegate votes cast, while Brown received 713, accepting the Liberal platform meant the Democrats had accepted the New Departure strategy, which rejected the anti-Reconstruction platform of 1868. They realized that to win the election they had to look forward, also, they realized they would only split the anti-Grant vote if they nominated a candidate other than Greeley. Bayard that sought to act independently of the Liberal Republican ticket, the convention, which lasted only six hours stretched over two days, is the shortest major political party convention in history. Presidential Candidates, The Labor Reform Party had only been organized in 1870, with its first National Convention meeting held in St. Louis, Missouri, on February 22,1872. Every motion to that effect lost, and a number of ballots were taken that resulted in the nomination of David Davis, joel Parker, the Governor of New Jersey, was nominated for vice-president. After their convention, in which he failed to attain the nomination, Davis telegraphed the Labor Reform party, unfortunately for the aims of the party, that movements nominee, Charles OConor, also declined to run. Recognizing that it was now too late to nominate a ticket of their own, the various state affiliates grew less and less active, and by the following year, the party ceased to exist

United States presidential election, 1872
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Senator Henry Wilson from Massachusetts For Vice President
United States presidential election, 1872
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All 352 electoral votes of the Electoral College 177 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1872
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Liberal Republican campaign poster
United States presidential election, 1872
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Charles O'ConorLawyer from New York (Declined Nomination)

74.
United States presidential election, 1892
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The United States presidential election of 1892 was the 27th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1892. It witnessed a re-match of the contested presidential election in 1888. Former Democratic President Grover Cleveland and incumbent Republican President Benjamin Harrison both ran for election to a second term, in 1888, Cleveland won the popular vote over Harrison, but lost in the electoral college. In a re-match, Cleveland won both the popular and electoral vote, thus becoming the first and to only person in American history to be elected to a second. The campaign centered mainly on issues, especially the concept of a sound currency. Cleveland was a proponent of the standard, while the Republicans. Cleveland also ran on a platform of lowering tariffs and opposed the Republicans 1890 voting rights proposal, as of 1892, Cleveland was one of only two people to win the popular vote in three U. S. presidential elections. In the 20th century Franklin D. Roosevelt eventually exceeded this distinction by winning the vote in four consecutive elections. Cleveland also became the first Democrat to be nominated by his party three times, a distinction matched later only by William Jennings Bryan and exceeded by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Blaine had been the Republican nominee in 1884 when he was beaten by Democrat Grover Cleveland. Blaine, however, did not want another fight for the nomination and his health had begun to fail, and three of his children had recently died. Blaine refused to run actively, but the nature of his responses to a draft effort fueled speculation that he was not averse to such a movement. A boom began to build around the draft Blaine effort with supporters hoping to cause a break towards their candidate, like Blaine, however, he was averse to another bitter battle for the nomination and like the rebels down South, want to be let alone. This inevitably turned attention to Ohios Governor William McKinley, who was indecisive as to his intentions in spite his ill feelings toward Harrison and he was not averse to receiving the nomination, but did not expect to win it either. However, should Blaine and Harrison fail to attain the nomination after a number of ballots, in any case, the presidents forces had the nomination locked up by the time delegates met in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on June 7–10,1892. Richard Thomas from Indiana delivered Harrisons nominating speech, Harrison was nominated on the first ballot with 535.17 votes to 182.83 for Blaine,182 for McKinley, and the rest scattered. With the ballots counted, many observers were surprised at the strength of the McKinley vote, whitelaw Reid from New York, editor of the New York Tribune and recent United States Ambassador to France, was nominated for vice-president. The incumbent Vice President, Levi Morton, was supported by many at the convention, including Reid himself, Harrison also did not want to have Morton on the ticket. By the beginning of 1892, many Americans were ready to return to Clevelands political policies, though he had remained relatively quiet on the issue of silver versus gold, often deferring to bi-metallism, Senate Democrats in January 1891 voted for free coinage of silver

United States presidential election, 1892
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All 444 electoral votes of the Electoral College 223 electoral votes needed to win
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United States presidential election, 1892
United States presidential election, 1892
United States presidential election, 1892

75.
United States presidential election, 1896
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The United States presidential election of 1896 was the 28th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 3,1896. The 1896 campaign was an election that ended the old Third Party System. McKinley forged a coalition in which businessmen, professionals, skilled factory workers. He was strongest in cities and in the Northeast, Upper Midwest, Bryan was the nominee of the Democrats, the Populist Party, and the Silver Republicans. He presented his campaign as a crusade of the man against the rich, who impoverished America by limiting the money supply. Silver, he said, was in ample supply and if coined into money would restore prosperity while undermining the power of the money trust. Bryan was strongest in the South, rural Midwest, and Rocky Mountain states, Bryans moralistic rhetoric and crusade for inflation alienated conservatives. Turnout was very high, passing 90% of the voters in many places. Since the Panic of 1893, the nation had been mired in an economic depression, marked by low prices, low profits, high unemployment. Economic issues, especially tariff policy and the question of whether the standard should be preserved for the money supply, were central issues. Republican campaign manager Mark Hanna pioneered many modern techniques, facilitated by a $3.5 million budget. He outspent Bryan by a factor of five, at their convention in St. Louis, Missouri, held between June 16 and 18,1896, the Republicans nominated William McKinley for president and New Jerseys Garret Hobart for vice-president. McKinley had just vacated the office of Governor of Ohio, both candidates were easily nominated on first ballots. Given that many businessmen and bankers were terrified of Bryans populist rhetoric and demand for the end of the gold standard, in the end, Hanna raised a staggering $3.5 million for the campaign and outspent the Democrats by an estimated 5-to-1 margin. This sum would be equivalent to approximately $85 million, according to the calculator of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Major McKinley was the last veteran of the American Civil War to be nominated for president by either major party, one month after McKinleys nomination, supporters of silver-backed currency took control of the Democratic convention held in Chicago on July 7–11. Most of the Southern and Western delegates were committed to implementing the free silver ideas of the Populist Party, the convention repudiated President Clevelands gold standard policies and then repudiated Cleveland himself. This, however, left the convention wide open, there was no successor to Cleveland

76.
United States presidential election, 1904
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The United States presidential election of 1904 was the 30th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1904. During the election campaign, Republicans emphasized Roosevelts success in foreign affairs, the nominee of the Democratic Party was Alton B. Parker, Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, as there was little difference between the candidates positions, the race was largely based on their personalities, the Democrats argued the Roosevelt presidency was arbitrary and erratic. Roosevelt easily defeated Parker, sweeping every region in the nation except the South, in doing so, he became the first President to win a term in his own right after having ascended to the Presidency upon the death of his predecessor. Since then, Presidents Calvin Coolidge in 1924, Harry S. Truman in 1948, Republican candidates, As Republicans convened in Chicago on June 21–23,1904, President Theodore Roosevelts nomination was assured. He had effectively maneuvered throughout 1902 and 1903 to gain control of the party to ensure it, a dump-Roosevelt movement had centered on the candidacy of conservative Senator Mark Hanna from Ohio, but Hannas death in February 1904 had removed this obstacle. Roosevelts nomination speech was delivered by former governor Frank S. Black of New York, Roosevelt was nominated unanimously on the first ballot with 994 votes. Since conservatives in the Republican Party denounced Theodore Roosevelt as a radical, Senator Charles W. Fairbanks from Indiana was the obvious choice, since conservatives thought highly of him, yet he managed not to offend the partys more progressive elements. Roosevelt was far from pleased with the idea of Fairbanks for vice-president and he would have preferred Representative Robert R. Hitt from Illinois, but he did not consider the vice-presidential nomination worth a fight. With solid support from New York, Pennsylvania, and Indiana, source, US President - R Convention. Source, US Vice President - R Convention, Democratic candidates, In 1904, both William Jennings Bryan and former President Grover Cleveland declined to run for president. Since the two Democratic nominees of the past 20 years did not seek the nomination, Alton B. Parker, a Bourbon Democrat from New York, emerged as the frontrunner, Parker was the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals and was respected by both Democrats and Republicans in his state. On several occasions, the Republicans paid Parker the honor of running no one against him when he ran for political positions. Parker refused to work actively for the nomination, but did nothing to restrain his conservative supporters, former President Grover Cleveland endorsed Parker. The Democratic Convention that met in St. Louis, Missouri, on July 6–9,1904, has called one of the most exciting. The struggle inside the Democratic Party over the nomination was to prove as contentious as the election itself, despite the fact that Parker had supported Bryan in 1896 and 1900, Bryan hated him for being a Gold Democrat. Bryan wanted the weakest man nominated, one who could not take the control of the party away from him and he denounced Judge Parker as a tool of Wall Street before he was nominated and declared that no self-respecting Democrat could vote for him

77.
United States presidential election, 1912
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The United States presidential election of 1912 was the 32nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1912. The election was a rare four-way contest, incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and it nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. Meanwhile, the Socialist Party of America renominated its perennial standard-bearer and it is the last election in which a former, or incumbent, President ran for the office without being nominated as either a Democrat or Republican. It is also the last election in which an incumbent president running for re-election failed to either first or second in the popular vote count. Wilson won the election, gaining a majority in the Electoral College and winning 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won 27%, Taft 23%. Wilson became the elected president from the Democratic Party between 1896 and 1932, and the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was also the last election in more than one nominee had previously been elected president. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election in 1908 in fulfillment of a pledge to the American people not to seek a full term. Roosevelts first term as president was incomplete, as he succeeded to the office upon the assassination of William McKinley and he had tapped Secretary of War William Howard Taft to become his successor, and Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the general election. The progressive Republicans favored restrictions on the employment of women and children, promoted ecological conservation, the progressives were also in favor of the popular election of federal and state judges and opposed to having judges appointed by the president or state governors. By 1910 the split between the two wings of the Republican Party was deep, and this, in turn, caused Roosevelt and Taft to turn against one another, despite their personal friendship. Republican candidates, William Howard Taft, President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt, La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin For the first time, significant numbers of delegates to the national conventions were elected in presidential preference primaries. Primary elections were advocated by the faction of the Republican Party. Altogether, twelve states held Republican primaries, La Follette won two of the first four primaries. Beginning with his victory in Illinois on April 9, however, Roosevelt won nine of the last ten presidential primaries. As a sign of his popularity, Roosevelt even carried Tafts home state of Ohio. The Republican Convention was held in Chicago from June 18 to 22, Taft, however, had begun to gather delegates earlier, and the delegates chosen in the primaries were a minority

United States presidential election, 1912
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All 531 electoral votes of the Electoral College 266 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1912
United States presidential election, 1912

78.
United States presidential election, 1920
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The United States presidential election of 1920 was the 34th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1920. The Republicans nominated newspaper publisher and Senator Warren G. Harding from Ohio, while the Democrats chose newspaper publisher, incumbent President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, in poor health, chose not to run for a third term. Former President Theodore Roosevelt had been the front runner for the Republican nomination and he died in January 1919 without leaving an obvious heir to his progressive legacy. With both Wilson and Roosevelt out of the running, the parties turned to little-known dark horse candidates from state of Ohio. As his running mate, Cox chose Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harding virtually ignored Cox in the race and essentially campaigned against Wilson by calling for a return to normalcy. With a spending advantage of almost 4-to-1, Harding won a victory by winning 37 states, including the first Republican victories in Arizona, New Mexico. The wartime economic boom had collapsed, at home, the year 1919 was marked by major strikes in the meatpacking and steel industries and large-scale race riots in Chicago and other cities. Anarchist attacks on Wall Street produced fears of radicals and terrorists, harding’s victory margin of 26. 2% in the popular vote remains the largest popular-vote percentage margin in presidential elections after the unopposed election of James Monroe in 1820. Hardings percentage of the vote, however, was later exceeded by Franklin Roosevelt in 1936, Lyndon Johnson in 1964. As a result, the popular vote increased dramatically, from 18.5 million in 1916 to 26.8 million in 1920. The election is notable for being the first of three in which a sitting U. S. senator was elected president. Republican candidates, On June 8, the Republican National Convention met in Chicago, the race was wide open, and soon the convention deadlocked between Major General Leonard Wood and Governor Frank Orren Lowden of Illinois. Other names placed in nomination included Senators Warren G. Butler, la Follette from Wisconsin was not formally placed in nomination, but received the votes of his state delegation nonetheless. Harding was nominated for president on the ballot, after some delegates shifted their allegiances. At that decisive time, the friends of Harding will suggest him, Daughertys prediction described essentially what occurred, but historians Richard C. Bain and Judith H. Parris argue that Daughertys prediction has been too much weight in narratives of the convention. The Tally, Source for convention coverage, Richard C, bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. 200–208. Early favorites for the nomination had included McAdoo and Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, others placed in nomination included New York Governor Al Smith, United Kingdom Ambassador John W. Davis, New Jersey Governor Edward I

79.
United States presidential election, 1928
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The United States presidential election of 1928 was the 36th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1928. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover was nominated as the Republican candidate, New York Governor Al Smith was the Democratic nominee. Hoover and Smith had been known as potential presidential candidates long before the campaign of 1928. Each candidate was a newcomer to the race and presented in his person. Each candidate also faced serious discontent within his party membership, the result was a third consecutive Republican landslide, a result that would only be repeated in 1988. Hoover narrowly failed to carry a majority of former Confederate states and this was the last election until 1952 in which a Republican won the White House. Republican candidates, With President Coolidge choosing not to enter the race, the leading candidates were Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, former Illinois Governor Frank Orren Lowden and Senate Majority Leader Charles Curtis. A draft-Coolidge movement failed to gain traction with party insiders and failed to persuade Coolidge himself, the Republican Convention, held in Kansas City, Missouri, from June 12 to 15, nominated Hoover on the first ballot. To attract votes from farmers concerned about Hoovers pro-business orientation, it was offered to Senator Curtis. He was nominated overwhelmingly on the first ballot, in his acceptance speech eight weeks after the convention ended, Secretary Hoover said, We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of this land. We shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this land, the phrase would eventually haunt Hoover during the Great Depression. One who did not was New York Governor Al Smith, who had tried twice before to secure the Democratic nomination, the 1928 Democratic National Convention was held in Houston, Texas, on June 26 to 28, and Smith became the candidate on the first ballot. Smith was the first Roman Catholic to gain a major partys nomination for president, many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in Rome in making decisions affecting the country. Source, US President - D Convention, the Prohibition Party Convention was held in Chicago from July 10 through July 12. Nonetheless, William F. Varney was nominated for president over Hoover by a margin of 68–45, anti-Catholicism was a significant problem for Smith’s campaign. According to a joke, after the election he sent a one-word telegram advising Pope Pius XI to “Unpack”. An example was a statement issued in September 1928 by the National Lutheran Editors’ and Managers’ Association that opposed Smith’s election, the Catholic Church, the manifesto asserted, was hostile to American principles of separation of church and state and of religious toleration. Smith’s opposition to Prohibition, a key reform promoted by Protestants, also lost him votes, due to these issues, Smith lost several states of the Solid South that had been carried by Democrats since Reconstruction

80.
United States presidential election, 1940
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The United States presidential election of 1940 was the 39th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1940. The election was fought in the shadow of World War II in Europe, incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate, broke with tradition and ran for a third term, which became a major issue. The surprise Republican candidate was maverick businessman Wendell Willkie, a horse who crusaded against Roosevelts perceived failure to end the Depression. Roosevelt, acutely aware of strong isolationist and non-interventionism sentiment, promised there would be no involvement in foreign wars if he were re-elected, Willkie conducted an energetic campaign and managed to revive Republican strength in areas of the Midwest and Northeast. Roosevelt won reelection in 1940 thanks to his wide margins in the nations large cities. In the North, cities with a population over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60% of their votes, while smaller cities, rural, and suburban areas in the North favored Willkie 52%-48%. Throughout the winter, spring, and summer of 1940, there was speculation as to whether Roosevelt would break with longstanding tradition. The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the U. S. Constitution, had established by President George Washington when he refused to run for a third term in 1796. He was aided by the political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat the popular Willkie. At the July 1940 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Illinois, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and John Nance Garner, Garner was a Texas conservative who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies. As a result, Roosevelt decided to pick a new running mate, Henry A. Wallace from Iowa, his Secretary of Agriculture and an outspoken liberal. That choice was opposed by many of the partys conservatives. The three leading candidates for the Republican nomination were all isolationists to varying degrees, the three frontrunners were Senator Robert A. Taft from Ohio, Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg from Michigan, and District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey from New York. Taft was the leader of the conservative, isolationist wing of the Republican Party, Vandenberg, the senior Republican in the Senate, was the favorite son candidate of the Michigan delegation and was considered a possible compromise candidate if Taft or Dewey faltered. Former President Herbert Hoover was also spoken of as a compromise candidate, however, each of these candidates had weaknesses that could be exploited. Deweys relative youth—he was only 38 in 1940—and lack of any foreign-policy experience caused his candidacy to weaken as the Nazi military emerged as a fearsome threat, in 1940, Vandenberg was also an isolationist and his lackadaisical, lethargic campaign never caught the voters attention. Hoover still bore the stigma of having presided over the market crash of 1929. This left an opening for a dark horse candidate to emerge, a Wall Street-based industrialist named Wendell Willkie, who had never before run for public office, emerged as the unlikely nominee

81.
United States presidential election, 1964
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The United States presidential election of 1964 was the 45th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 3,1964, Democratic candidate and incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson had come to office less than a year earlier following the assassination of his predecessor John F. Kennedy. Johnson, who had associated himself with Kennedy’s popularity, won 61. 1% of the popular vote. It was the most lopsided US presidential election in terms of votes. The Republican candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, suffered from a lack of support from his own party, Johnson’s campaign advocated a series of anti-poverty programs collectively known as the Great Society, and successfully portrayed Goldwater as being a dangerous extremist. Johnson easily won the Presidency, carrying 44 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, Goldwater carried the remaining six states in what would be the first election to see a total of fifty states carried by presidential candidates. Goldwater’s unsuccessful bid influenced the modern movement and the long-time realignment within the Republican Party. His campaign received support from former Democratic strongholds in the Deep South and was the first Republican campaign to win Georgia in a presidential election. Conversely, Johnson won Alaska for the Democrats for the first time, as well as Maine, since 1992, Vermont and Maine have rested solidly in the Democratic column for presidential elections, and Georgia has remained in the Republican presidential fold since 1996. As of 2017, this is the last time Alaska, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah, while on the first campaign swing of his re-election effort, President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22,1963 in Dallas, Texas. During the following period of mourning, Republican leaders called for a political moratorium, as such, little politicking was done by the candidates of either major party until January 1964, when the primary season officially began. At the time, most political pundits saw Kennedy’s assassination as a way of leaving the nation politically unsettled, President Lyndon B. Johnson Governor George Wallace The nomination of Johnson was assured, but he wanted to control the convention and to avoid a public fight over civil rights. Nonetheless, Johnson faced challenges from two sides over civil rights issues over the course of the nomination season, all favorite sons, however, won their primaries. In California, Yorty lost to Brown, many white delegates from Mississippi and Alabama refused to sign any pledge, and left the convention, and many young civil rights workers were offended by any compromise. Johnson biographers Rowland Evans and Robert Novak claim that the MFDP fell under the influence of black radicals, Johnson lost Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and South Carolina. Johnson also faced trouble from Robert F. Kennedy, President Kennedy’s younger brother, Kennedy and Johnson’s relationship was troubled from the time Robert Kennedy was a Senate staffer. According to his recounting, Johnson and President Franklin D, in early 1964, despite his personal animosity for the president, Kennedy had tried to force Johnson to accept him as his running mate. Johnson eliminated this threat by announcing that none of his members would be considered for second place on the Democratic ticket

82.
United States presidential election, 1984
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The United States presidential election of 1984 was the 50th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 6,1984, the contest was between the incumbent President Ronald Reagan from California, the Republican candidate, and former Vice President Walter Mondale from Minnesota, the Democratic candidate. Reagan carried 49 of the 50 states, becoming one of two candidates to do so. Although Mondale received 40. 6% of the vote, electoral votes are awarded on a winner-take-all basis in each state. Reagans 525 electoral votes is the highest total received by a presidential candidate and his showing ranks fifth by percentage of electoral votes received out of total available electoral votes, just shy of the 523 out of 531 received by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936. Mondales 13 electoral votes is also the second-fewest received by a second-place candidate, in the national popular vote, Reagan received 58. 8% to Mondales 40. 6% and the percentage of his margin of victory ranks 7th of all presidential elections. No candidate since then has managed to equal or surpass Reagans 1984 electoral result, also, no post-1984 Republican candidate has managed to match Reagans electoral performance in the Northeastern United States and in the West Coast states. At 73, Reagan was the oldest president and oldest presidential candidate to win a presidential election, as of 2017, this is the last time Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, Hawaii, Rhode Island and Washington voted for the Republican candidate. For the only time in American history, the presidential roll call was taken concurrently with the presidential roll call. Vice President George H. W. Bush was overwhelmingly renominated and this was the last time in the 20th century that the vice presidential candidate of either major party was nominated by roll call vote. Initially, Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy, after a bid to win the 1980 Democratic nomination for president, was considered the de facto front-runner of the 1984 primary. But, after Kennedy ultimately declined to run, former Vice-President Mondale was then viewed as the favorite to win the Democratic nomination, Mondale had the largest number of party leaders supporting him, and he had raised more money than any other candidate. However, both Jackson and Hart emerged as surprising, and troublesome, opponents, Hollings dropped out two days after losing badly in New Hampshire, and endorsed Hart a week later. His disdain for his competitors was at times showcased in his comments and he notably referred to Mondale as a lapdog, and to former astronaut Glenn as Sky King who was confused in his capsule. Glenn and Askew hoped to capture the support of moderate and conservative Democrats, none of them possessed the fundraising ability of Mondale nor the grassroots support of Hart and Jackson, and none won any contests. Jackson was the second African-American to mount a campaign for the presidency. He got 3.5 million votes during the primaries, third behind Hart and he won the primaries in Virginia, South Carolina, and Louisiana, and split Mississippi, where there were two separate contests for Democratic delegates. Through the primaries, Jackson helped confirm the black electorates importance to the Democratic Party in the South at the time, during the campaign, however, Jackson made an off-the-cuff reference to Jews as Hymies and New York City as Hymietown, for which he later apologized

United States presidential election, 1984
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All 538 electoral votes of the Electoral College 270 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 1984
United States presidential election, 1984
United States presidential election, 1984
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Former GovernorHarold Stassen of Minnesota

83.
United States presidential election, 2004
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The United States presidential election of 2004, the 55th quadrennial presidential election, was held on Tuesday, November 2,2004. Republican Party candidate and incumbent President George W. Bush won re-election, defeating Democratic Party candidate John Kerry, Senator from Massachusetts and eventual United States Secretary of State. Bush and incumbent Vice President Dick Cheney were renominated by their party with no difficulty, Howard Dean, former Governor of Vermont, was initially the frontrunner for the Democratic Partys nomination, but Kerry won nearly all of the primaries and caucuses. Kerry chose Senator John Edwards of North Carolina, who had himself sought that partys 2004 presidential nomination, foreign policy was the dominant theme throughout the election campaign, particularly Bushs conduct of the War on Terrorism and the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Domestic issues were debated as well, including the economy and jobs, health care, as of 2016, this was also the most recent election in which the Republican candidate won the popular vote. In the Electoral College, Bush received 286 votes to Kerrys 251, as of 2016, this marks the last election in which Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Virginia voted for the Republican candidate. Just eight months into his presidency, the terrorist attacks of September 11,2001, Bushs approval ratings surged to near 90%. Within a month, the forces of a coalition led by the United States entered Afghanistan, by December, the Taliban had been removed, although a long and ongoing reconstruction would follow. The Bush administration then turned its attention to Iraq, and argued the need to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq had become urgent. Among the stated reasons were that Saddams regime had tried to acquire nuclear material and had not properly accounted for biological and chemical material it was known to have previously possessed. Both the possession of weapons of mass destruction, and the failure to account for them. The United States invaded Iraq on March 20,2003, along with a coalition of the willing that consisted of troops from the United Kingdom. Within about three weeks, the invasion caused the collapse of both the Iraqi government and its forces, however, the U. S. Bushs approval rating in May was at 66%, according to a CNN–USA Today–Gallup poll, however, Bushs high approval ratings did not last. Bushs popularity rose as a president, and he was able to ward off any serious challenge to the Republican nomination. Senator Lincoln Chafee from Rhode Island considered challenging Bush on a platform in New Hampshire. On March 10,2004, Bush officially clinched the number of delegates needed to be nominated at the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City and he accepted the nomination on September 2,2004, and retained Vice President Dick Cheney as his running mate. During the convention and throughout the campaign, Bush focused on two themes, defending America against terrorism and building an ownership society, Senator from North Carolina Howard Dean, former Governor of Vermont Wesley Clark, retired U. S

United States presidential election, 2004
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All 538 electoral votes of the Electoral College 270 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 2004
United States presidential election, 2004
United States presidential election, 2004
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President George W. Bush

84.
United States presidential election, 2012
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The United States presidential election of 2012 was the 57th quadrennial American presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 6,2012, as the incumbent president, Obama secured the Democratic nomination with no serious opposition. Romney effectively secured the nomination by early May as the economy improved, the campaign was marked by a sharp rise in fundraising, including from new nominally independent Super PACs. The campaigns focused heavily on issues, debate centered largely around sound responses to the Great Recession in terms of economic recovery. Other issues included long-term federal budget issues, the future of social programs. Obama defeated Romney, winning both the popular vote and the college, with 332 electoral votes to Romneys 206. Obama carried all states and districts that he had won in the 2008 presidential election except North Carolina, Indiana, as such, his margin of victory decreased from 2008. Consequently, Obama became the first incumbent since Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944 to win reelection with fewer electoral votes, nonetheless, Obama also became the first two-term president since Ronald Reagan to win both his presidential bids with an absolute majority of the nationwide popular vote. Not since 1820 had three consecutive American presidents succeeded in securing two consecutive terms, as of 2017, this is the last time Florida, Iowa, Ohio, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania voted for the Democratic candidate. September–October 2012, Early voting begins in some states and continue as late as November 5, November 6,2012, Election Day, at around 11,15 p. m. EST, the networks call Ohio for Obama, projecting him the winner of the election. November 7,2012, Romney concedes the election to Obama at around 1,00 a. m, November 10,2012, The electoral outcomes of all 50 states and the District of Columbia have been definitively projected. Obama won 332 electoral votes while Romney won 206 electoral votes, december 17,2012, The Electoral College formally re-elects President Obama and Vice President Biden. January 3,2013, The 113th Congress is sworn in, January 4,2013, Electoral votes are formally counted before a joint session of Congress. The re-election of President Obama and Vice President Biden is certified, January 20,2013, President Obama and Vice President Biden take the oaths of office, Obamas second presidential term begins at noon. January 21,2013, The inauguration ceremonies are held, Florida, Georgia, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginias state legislatures approved measures to shorten early voting periods. Florida and Iowa barred all felons from voting, kansas, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Wisconsin state legislatures passed laws requiring voters to have government-issued IDs before they could cast their ballots. This meant, typically, that people without drivers licenses or passports had to gain new forms of ID, Obama, the NAACP, and the Democratic Party fought against many of the new state laws. Clinton said the moves would effectively disenfranchise core voter blocs that trend liberal, including students, Blacks

United States presidential election, 2012
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538 members of the Electoral College 270 electoral votes needed to win
United States presidential election, 2012
United States presidential election, 2012
United States presidential election, 2012
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Mitt Romney on the campaign trail.

85.
United States presidential election, 2016
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The United States presidential election of 2016 was the 58th quadrennial American presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,2016. The Republican ticket of businessman Donald Trump and Indiana Governor Mike Pence defeated the Democratic ticket of former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Senator from Virginia Tim Kaine. Trump took office as the 45th President, and Pence as the 48th Vice President, on January 20,2017. Concurrent with the election, Senate, House, and many gubernatorial and state. While Clinton received about 2.9 million more votes nationwide, leading up to the election, a Trump victory was considered unlikely by almost all media forecasts. In the Electoral College vote on December 19, seven electors voted against their pledged candidates, a further three electors attempted to vote against Clinton but were replaced or forced to vote again. Ultimately, Trump received 304 electoral votes and Clinton garnered 227, Trump is the fifth person in U. S. history to become president while losing the nationwide popular vote. It was also the first time since the 1828 election of Democrat Andrew Jackson that a vote split occurred in Maine. On January 6,2017, the United States governments intelligence agencies concluded that the Russian government interfered in the 2016 United States elections. A joint U. S. intelligence review stated with confidence that Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election. Russia’s goals were to undermine public faith in the U. S. democratic process, denigrate Secretary Hillary Clinton, investigations about potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials were started by the FBI, the Senate Intelligence Committee and the House Intelligence Committee. Traditionally, the elections are indirect elections where voters cast ballots for a slate of party delegates pledged to a particular candidate. The partys delegates then officially nominate a candidate to run on the partys behalf, President Barack Obama, a Democrat and former U. S. The series of primary elections and caucuses took place between February and June 2016, staggered among the 50 states, the District of Columbia. With seventeen major candidates entering the race, starting with Ted Cruz on March 23,2015, prior to the Iowa caucuses on February 1,2016, Perry, Walker, Jindal, Graham and Pataki withdrew due to low polling numbers. Despite leading many polls in Iowa, Trump came in second to Cruz, after which Huckabee, Paul, following a sizable victory for Trump in the New Hampshire primary, Christie, Fiorina and Gilmore abandoned the race. Bush followed suit after scoring fourth place to Trump, Rubio and Cruz in South Carolina. On March 1,2016, the first of four Super Tuesday primaries, Rubio won his first contest in Minnesota, Cruz won Alaska, Oklahoma and his home of Texas, failing to gain traction, Carson suspended his campaign a few days later. On March 15,2016, the second Super Tuesday, Kasich won his only contest in his state of Ohio

United States presidential election, 2016
United States presidential election, 2016
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United States presidential election, 2016
United States presidential election, 2016
United States presidential election, 2016

86.
United States presidential primary
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The series of presidential primary elections and caucuses held in each U. S. state and territory forms part of the nominating process of United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process, political parties have developed their own procedures over time, some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning in either late-January or early-February, State and local governments run the primary elections, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. These delegates then in turn select their partys presidential nominee, the first state in the union to hold its presidential primary was New Hampshire in 1920. Each party determines how many delegates it allocates to each state, along with those pledged delegates chosen during the primaries and caucuses, state delegations to both the Democratic and Republican conventions also include unpledged delegates who have a vote. For Republicans, they consist of the three top party officials who serve At Large from each state and territory, Democrats have a more expansive group of unpledged delegates called superdelegates, who are party leaders and elected officials. In some of the less populous states, this allows campaigning to take place on a more personal scale. However, the results of the primary season may not be representative of the U. S. As a result, more states vie for earlier primaries, known as front-loading, the national parties have used penalties and awarded bonus delegates in efforts to stagger the system over broadly a 90-day window. Where state legislatures set the primary or caucus date, sometimes the out-party in that state has endured penalties in the number of delegates it can send to the national convention. There is no provision for the role of parties in the United States Constitution. In Federalist Papers No.9 and No,10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. Thus in the first two elections, the Electoral College handled the nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 that selected George Washington. The beginnings of the American two-party system then emerged from Washingtons immediate circle of advisors, starting with the 1796 election, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the partys presidential candidates. Before 1820, Democratic-Republican members of Congress would nominate a candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824, and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention, the first national convention was called by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1831, as they could not use the caucus system because they had no Congressmen. The party leaders called for a national meeting of supporters to select the partys candidate. This convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland on September 26,1831 which selected William Wirt as their Presidential candidate, delegates to the national convention were usually selected at state conventions whose own delegates were chosen by district conventions

United States presidential primary
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A 2008 Washington state Democratic caucus held in the school lunchroom of Eckstein Middle School in Seattle. In some states like Washington, voters attend local meetings run by the parties instead of polling places to cast their selections.
United States presidential primary
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A 2008 Democratic caucus meeting in Iowa City, Iowa. The Iowa caucuses are traditionally the first major electoral event of presidential primaries and caucuses.

87.
Iowa caucuses
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About 1% of the nations delegates are chosen by the Iowa State Convention. The Iowa Caucus is noteworthy for the amount of attention it receives during U. S. presidential election years. Since 1972, the Iowa caucuses have been the first major event of the nominating process for President of the United States. In 2016, the Iowa Democratic and Republican Party precinct caucuses took place on Monday, February 1 with one hour of voting beginning at 7, for the first time, results were electronically sent to both Democratic and Republican headquarters. After the 1968 Democratic National Convention protest activity, the Democratic Party decided to make changes to their presidential nominating process by spreading out the schedule in each state. Since Iowa had a process of precinct caucuses, county conventions, district conventions. In 1972, Iowa was the first state to hold their Democratic caucus, the Iowa Caucus operates very differently from the more common primary election used by most other states. The caucuses are generally defined as gatherings of neighbors, rather than going to polls and casting ballots, Iowans gather at a set location in each of Iowas 1,681 precincts. Typically, these occur in schools, churches, public libraries. The caucuses are held two years, but the ones that receive national attention are the presidential preference caucuses held every four years. In addition to the voting and the presidential preference choices, caucus-goers begin the process of writing their parties’ platforms by introducing resolutions, beginning with the 2012 Presidential election, Iowa switched from the old winner-take-all allocation to proportional allocation. The change was made to prolong the race, giving lesser known candidates a chance and it was also hoped that this change in the election system would energize the base of the party. The process used by the Democrats is more complex than the Republican Party caucus process, each precinct divides its delegate seats among the candidates in proportion to caucus goers votes. Participants indicate their support for a candidate by standing in a designated area of the caucus site. An area may also be designated for undecided participants, then, for roughly 30 minutes, participants try to convince their neighbors to support their candidates. Each preference group might informally deputize a few members to supporters from the other groups and, in particular. Undecided participants might visit each preference group to ask its members about their candidate, after 30 minutes, the electioneering is temporarily halted and the supporters for each candidate are counted. At this point, the caucus officials determine which candidates are viable, depending on the number of county delegates to be elected, the viability threshold is 15% of attendees

88.
South Carolina primary
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South Carolina has cemented its place as the First in the South primary for both parties. For the Democrats, the 2008 primary took on added significance because it was the first nominating contest in that cycle in which a percentage of primary voters were African Americans. The 2012 South Carolina primary was held on January 21 for Republicans, the 2016 primary was held on February 20 for Republicans, and on February 27 for Democrats. 1980, Ronald Reagan won with 55%, defeating runner-up John Connally,1988, George H. W. Bush won with 49%, defeating runner-up Bob Dole. 1992, George H. W. Bush won with 67%,1996, Bob Dole won with 45%, defeating runner-up Pat Buchanan. 2000, George W. Bush won with 53%, defeating runner-up John McCain,2008, John McCain won with 33%, defeating runner-up Mike Huckabee. 2012, Newt Gingrich won with 40%, defeating runner-up Mitt Romney,2016, Donald Trump won with 33%, defeating runner-up Marco Rubio. 1988, In 1988, South Carolina Democrats held a rather than a primary. Jesse Jackson won with approximately 55% of the vote, defeating Al Gore,1992, Bill Clinton won with approximately 69% of the vote, defeating Paul Tsongas. 2000, Al Gore won with 92% of the vote, defeating Bill Bradley,2004, John Edwards won with 45% of the vote, defeating John Kerry. 2008, Barack Obama won with approximately 55% of the vote, defeating Hillary Clinton,2016, Hillary Clinton won with 73% of the vote, defeating runner-up Bernie Sanders

89.
Convention bounce
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A presumptive nominee for president may also be said to experience a VP bounce after announcing his or her pick for vice president prior to the convention. The size and impact of convention bumps vary, but presidential candidates usually see at least a small uptick in their polling numbers coming out of their conventions. Bill Clinton benefited from one of the largest bumps in history after the Democratic National Convention in 1992, four years later, Bob Dole got a big bounce after the Republican convention, but quickly fizzled. However, Al Gores 2000 bounce endured for weeks, prior to the Democratic convention, Gore was behind Texas Gov. George W. Bush by as many as 16 points, but was in a statistical tie with the Republican the weekend after his acceptance speech. To the bafflement of political pundits, Democratic candidate John Kerry did not get a convention bounce in 2004, nielsen ratings revealed that years party conventions to be the most-watched ever, with the Republican convention narrowly trumping the Democrats. The RealClearPolitics polling index revealed the 2012 convention bounces for President Obama, though Romney pulled even with Obama during that years Republican convention at the end of August, Obama opened up a three- or four-point lead during the Democratic convention the week after. NBC, however, reported no bump for Trump following the convention, for Clinton, CBS polling revealed a four-point convention bounce, RABA Research reported a ten-point convention bounce and CNN reported a 13% bounce

Convention bounce
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Ronald Reagan addresses the 1980 GOP convention. Reagan saw a big boost in the polls after his acceptance speech, but his opponent, President Jimmy Carter, got an equally large bump after his convention four weeks later.

90.
Election Day (United States)
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In the United States, Election Day is the day set by law for the general elections of federal public officials. It is statutorily set as the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of November or the first Tuesday after November 1, the earliest possible date is November 2, and the latest possible date is November 8. For federal offices, Election Day occurs only in even-numbered years, presidential elections are held every four years, in years divisible by four, in which electors for President and Vice President are chosen according to the method determined by each state. General elections in which candidates are not on the ballot are referred to as midterm elections. Terms for those elected begin in January the following year, the President and Vice President are inaugurated on Inauguration Day, Congress has mandated a uniform date for presidential and congressional elections, though early voting is nonetheless authorized in many states. Election Day is a holiday in some states, including Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off with pay, california Elections Code Section 14000 provides that employees otherwise unable to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. A federal holiday, Democracy Day, to coincide with Election Day has been unsuccessfully proposed, other movements in the IT and automotive industries encourage employers to voluntarily give their employees paid time off on Election Day. No federal law regulated the 1788 federal election. S, President and vice-president, in their respective states. This gave each state some flexibility in the holding of their elections, an election date in November was seen as convenient because the harvest would have been completed and the winter-like storms would not yet have begun in earnest. In close elections, the states that voted last might well determine the outcome, a uniform date for choosing presidential electors was instituted by the Congress in 1845. Many theories have been advanced as to why the Congress settled on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, the actual reasons, as shown in records of Congressional debate on the bill in December 1844, were fairly prosaic. The bill initially set the day for choosing presidential electors on the first Tuesday in November, so, the bill was reworded to move the date for choosing presidential electors to the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, a date scheme already used in New York. The period between Election Day and the first Wednesday in December is always 29 days, the effect of the change was to make November 2 the earliest day on which Election Day may fall. In 1845, the United States was largely an agrarian society, farmers often needed a full day to travel by horse-drawn vehicles to the county seat to vote. Tuesday was established as election day because it did not interfere with the Biblical Sabbath or with market day, which was on Wednesday in many towns. In modern times, the United States is no longer primarily an agrarian society and this has led activists to object to Election Day being on a Tuesday on the grounds that it decreases voter turnout. They advocate either making Election Day a federal holiday or allowing voters to cast their ballots over two or more days

Election Day (United States)
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This perpetual calendar can be used to find the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November for any year through A.D. 2799.

91.
Swing state
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In American politics, the term swing state refers to any state that could reasonably be won by either the Democratic or Republican presidential candidate. These states are usually targeted by both major-party campaigns, especially in competitive elections, the battlegrounds may change in certain election cycles, and may be reflected in overall polling, demographics, and the ideological appeal of the nominees. In American presidential elections, each state is free to decide the method by which its electors to the Electoral College will be chosen, the expectation was that the candidates would look after the interests of the states with the most electoral votes. In Maine and Nebraska, the apportionment of electoral votes parallels that for Senators, two electoral votes go to the person who wins a plurality in the state, and a candidate gets one additional electoral vote for each Congressional District in which they receive a plurality. Both of these states have relatively few electoral votes – a total of 4 and 5, neither Maine, which is generally considered a Democratic-leaning state, nor Nebraska, typically thought to be safely Republican, would become battlegrounds in the event of a close national race. States where the election has a result become less meaningful in landslide elections. Instead, states which vote similarly to the national vote proportions are likely to appear as the closest states. For example, the states in the 1984 election with the tightest results were Minnesota, instead, the closest state that year was Michigan, as it gave Reagan the decisive electoral vote. The difference in Michigan was nineteen points, quite similar to Reagans national margin of eighteen percent. Michigan would have been relevant to the election results had the election been closer. Similarly, Barack Obamas narrow victory in Indiana in the 2008 election inaccurately portrays its status as a battleground. Obama lost Indiana by more than ten points in the closer 2012 election, but triumphed despite losing less Republican states as North Carolina, Arizona, Georgia, Missouri. In 2012, the states of North Carolina, Florida, Ohio, however, none of them were considered the tipping-point state, as Romney would not have been able to defeat Obama even if he had emerged victorious in all of them. Rather, Colorado was most in-step with the rest of the country, coloradans voted for Obama by just over five percent, which was closer to Obamas national margin than those of any other contested state. As many mathematical analysts have noted, however, the voting in a fashion most similar to that of the nation as a whole is not necessarily the tipping-point. For example, if a candidate wins only a few states but does so by a margin, while the other candidates victories are much closer. The presidential election in 2016 was an example, as it featured one of the largest historical disparities between the Electoral College and popular vote. As the election was close, the winner of the Electoral College did not capture the popular vote

Swing state
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States won by Republican Mitt Romney by 0–4 percentage points

92.
Election recount
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An election recount is a repeat tabulation of votes cast in an election that is used to determine the correctness of an initial count. Recounts will often place in the event that the initial vote tally during an election is extremely close. Election recounts will often result in changes in contest tallies, errors can be found or introduced from human factors, such as transcription errors, or machine errors, such as misreads of paper ballots. Alternately tallies may change because of a reinterpretation of voter intent, a machine recount is a retabulation of ballots cast during the election. This can be using an optical scan voting system, punched card system or DRE voting machine. With document-based Ballot Voting Systems, ballots are counted a second time by some form of machine, with Non-document-based Ballot Voting Systems officials will recollect vote data from each voting machine which will be combined by a central tabulation system. A manual or hand recount involves each individual physical representation of voter intent be reviewed for voter intent by one or more individuals, with DRE voting machines, a voter verified paper audit trail is examined from each voter. For some DREs that do not generate a VVPAT, images can be printed for each ballot cast, recounts can be mandatory or optional. In some jurisdictions, recounts are mandatory in the event the difference between the top two candidates is less than a percentage of votes cast or of a fixed number, mandatory recounts are paid for by the elections official, or the state. Mandatory recounts can usually be waived by the apparent losing candidate, the winning side will usually encourage the loser to waive the recount in a show of unity and to avoid spending taxpayer money. Each jurisdiction has different criteria for optional recounts, some areas permit recounts for any office or measure, while others require that the margin of victory be less than a certain percentage before a recount is allowed. In all instances, optional recounts are paid for by the candidate, their party, or, in some instances. The person paying for the recount has the option to stop the recount at any time, if the recount reverses the election, the jurisdiction will then pay for the recount. In the United Kingdom it is possible for a defeated candidate denied a recount by the Returning Officer, there are several cases where a Parliamentary election has been the subject of a court-ordered recount. Loosely called recounts are actually first counts of various kinds like absentee ballots, florida election recount -2000 U. S

93.
Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1952
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Although the popular vote proved conclusive, the 1952 Democratic National Convention held from July 21 to July 26,1952, in Chicago, Illinois, was forced to go multiballot. The 1952 primary season was one of two where a challenge to an incumbent president of either party was successful, the other being 1968. Prior to this, the last incumbent to try and fail to win his partys nomination was Chester Arthur in 1884 on the Republican side, the expected candidate for the Democratic nomination was incumbent President Harry S. Truman. But Truman entered 1952 with his popularity plummeting, according to polls, the Gallup poll of February 15 showed Trumans weakness, nationally Truman was the choice of only 36% of Democrats, compared with 21% for Kefauver. Among independent voters, however, Truman had only 18% while Kefauver led with 36%, in the New Hampshire primary Kefauver upset Truman, winning 19,800 votes to Trumans 15,927 and capturing all eight delegates. Kefauver graciously said that he did not consider his victory a repudiation of Administration policies, stung by this setback, Truman soon announced that he would not seek re-election. With Trumans withdrawal, Kefauver became the front-runner for the nomination and these bosses strongly disliked Kefauver, his investigations of organized crime had revealed connections between mafia figures and many of the big-city Democratic political organizations. The party bosses thus viewed Kefauver as a maverick who could not be trusted, instead, with President Truman taking the lead, they began to search for other, more acceptable, candidates. However, most of the candidates had a major weakness. Truman favored U. S. diplomat W. Averell Harriman of New York, Truman next turned to his Vice-President, Alben Barkley, but at 74 he was rejected as being too old by labor union leaders. One candidate soon emerged who seemingly had few weaknesses, Governor Adlai Stevenson II of Illinois. The grandson of former Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson, Stevenson came from a family in Illinois and was well known as a gifted orator, intellectual. In the spring of 1952 President Truman tried to convince Stevenson to take the presidential nomination, but Stevenson refused, stating that he wanted to run for re-election as Governor of Illinois. Yet Stevenson never completely took himself out of the race, and as the convention approached many party bosses, as well as normally apolitical citizens, hoped that he could be drafted to run. The 1952 Democratic National Convention was to be held in Chicago, the convention itself would prove, in retrospect, the last of its kind