Sample records for oral contraceptives inas-oc

Over 60 million women use highly efficient and safe modern combined oralcontraceptives (OCs) every day. A women who takes the oralcontraceptive for 5 years before the age of 30 will actually live 12 days longer, although a woman taking the pill for the 1st time for 5 years after the age of 30 will have her life span reduced on the average by 80 days. OC related morbidity and mortality mostly occur in women over 35 who smoke. Combined low dose OCs are safe for women who do not smoke, at least to 45 years of age and probably to the menopause. The prescription of OCs is also safe to the young adolescent. The pill does not interfere with maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary ovarian axis and does not increase the incidence of amenorrhoea, oligomenorrhoea or infertility in later life. Patients with contraindications to estrogen therapy are excluded from OC use (history of thromboembolism, major heart disease, liver disease, breast cancer). Low-dose (30-35 mcg estrogen-containing monophasic or triphasic) pills are recommended. Combined oralcontraceptives contain either ethinyl estradiol (1.7 to 2 times more potent) or mestranol. After absorption the progestagens, norethisterone acetate, ethynodiol diacetate and lynoestrenol are all metabolized to norethisterone. The progestagen-only pill has about a 2% failure rate and poorer cycle control than the combined pill, but it lacks estrogenic, progestagenic and androgenic side effects. This pill is suitable for the lactating mother, for smokers over 35, for hypertensive patients, and for those with a history of thrombosis. The efficacy of the progestagen-only pill is restored in 3 days of pill taking. Postcoital contraception is an alternative: treatment can be given for at least 72 hours after intercourse. The Yuzpe method calls for the patient to take 2 combined oralcontraceptive tablets containing levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol (Eugynon or Ovral) followed by a further 2 tablets 12 hours later. This regimen

Oral steroid contraception is a popular method of family planning worldwide. Over the past several decades, this method of contraception has changed significantly by decreasing the estrogen dose, changing the progestin component, and reducing the hormone free interval. Despite the popularity of oral steroid contraception, there has been much criticism regarding the associated risks of venous thromboembolism and stroke. Despite these established, yet uncommon risks, oral steroid contraception has many important health benefits. This review highlights the available formulations of oralcontraceptives along with their evidence-based associated risks and benefits. Highlights regarding future directions for development of novel oralcontraceptives are also addressed.

On the 50th birthday of the pill, it is appropriate to recall the milestones which have led to its development and evolution during the last five decades. The main contraceptive effect of the pill being inhibition of ovulation, it may be called a small miracle that this drug was developed long before the complex regulation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle was elucidated. Another stumbling block on its way was the hostile climate with regard to contraception that prevailed at the time. Animal experiments on the effect of sex steroids on ovulation, and the synthesis of sex steroids and orally active analogues were the necessary preliminaries. We owe the development of oralcontraceptives to a handful of persons: two determined feminists, Margaret Sanger and Katherine McCormick; a biologist, Gregory Pincus; and a gynaecologist, John Rock. Soon after the introduction of the first pills, some nasty and life-threatening side effects emerged, which were due to the high doses of sex steroids. This led to the development of new preparations with reduced oestrogen content, progestins with more specific action, and alternative administration routes. Almost every decade we have witnessed a breakthrough in oralcontraception. Social and moral objections to birth control have gradually disappeared and, notwithstanding some pill scares, oralcontraceptives are now one of the most used methods of contraception. Finally, all's well that ends well: recent reports have substantiated the multiple noncontraceptive health benefits paving the way for a bright future for this 50-year-old product.

Oralcontraceptive (OC) options for adolescents are provides. Clarification for those desiring a birth control method is necessary and the benefits of decreased acne and dysmenorrhea with low dose OCs should be stressed along with the importance of compliance. A community effort is suggested to communicate the sexual and contraceptive alternatives, including abstinence and outercourse (sexual stimulation to orgasm without intercourse). Attention is given to concerns associated with teenage sexual activity, prevention of adolescent pregnancy, contraceptive options for the adolescent patient, adolescent attitudes toward birth control OCs, management of the adolescent OC user, manipulation of steroid components of OCs to respond to adolescent concerns, and other hormonal contraceptive options such as minipills or abstinence. The text is supplemented with tables: the % of US women by single years of age for 1971, 1976, 1979, and 1982; comparative pregnancy and abortion rates for the US and 5 other countries; federal cost for teen childbearing; adolescent nonhormonal contraceptive methods (advantages, disadvantages, and retail cost); checklist to identify those at risk for noncompliance with OCs; hormonal side effects of OCs; risks from OCs to adolescents; and benefits of OCs. Concern about adolescent pregnancy dates back to Aristotle. A modern profile shows girls form single-parent families are sexually active at an earlier age, adolescent mothers produce offspring who repeat the cycle, victims of sexual abuse are more likely to be sexually active, and teenagers in foster care are 4 times more likely to be sexually active and 8 times more likely to become pregnant. Prevention involves a multifaceted approach. OCs are the most appropriate contraceptive choice for adolescents. Frequency of intercourse is closely associated with OC use after approximately 15 months of unprotected sexual activity. At risk for noncompliance variables are scales of personality development

Oralcontraceptives are combinations of estrogens and progestogens or, in the case of the mini-pills, progestogens alone. With specific test procedures in laboratory animals or human subjects, it is possible to assign potency evaluations to the components relative to the progestational, estrogenic, or antiestrogenic activities of the progestogen or to the estrogenic potencies of the estrogenic component. It might even be possible to quantify the synergistic effects of the estrogen on the progestational agent. Unfortunately, however, it is impossible now to amalgamate such assay results into single estimates of the potencies of the combinations (either the combination products per se or the combination tablets of sequential products). For example, an over-all estrogenic potency of a combination preparation would involve the integration of contributions form the estrogen itself plus the estrogenic products of metabolism of the progestogen minus the antagonistic effect of the progestational agent, if any. These factors cannot now be quantified independently, much less merged into a single figure of clinical significance. Further, even if it were possible to produce such an estimate, it is unlikely that the evaluation would be meaningful in relation to any putative side effect or adverse reaction, i.e., the alleged thrombogenic effects of oralcontraceptives cannot currently be related directly to any measure of potency that will allow prediction of these clinical conditions from laboratory models. Any evaluation of the potential of a given contraceptive to produce a specific side effect will depend upon data generated with specific regard to that adverse reaction and the individual product in question.

It has been recognized for over 50 years that combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are also capable of offering health benefits beyond contraception through the treatment and prevention of several gynaecological and medical disorders. During the last years a constant attention was given to the adverse effects of COCs, whereas their non-contraceptive benefits were underestimated. To date, most women are still unaware of the therapeutic uses of hormonal contraceptives, while on the contrary there is an extensive and constantly increasing of these non-contraceptive health benefits. This review summarizes the conditions of special interest for physicians, including dysmenorrhoea, menorrhagia, hyperandrogenism (acne, hirsutism, polycystic ovary syndrome), functional ovarian cysts, endometriosis, premenstrual syndrome, myomas, pelvic inflammatory disease, bone mineral density, benign breast disease and endometrial/ovarian and colorectal cancer. The benefits of COCs in rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, menstrual migraine and in perimenopause have also been treated for more comprehensive information. Using COCs specifically for non-contraceptive indications is still outside the product licence in the majority of cases. We strongly believe that these aspects are not of minor relevance and they deserve a special consideration by health providers and by the mass media, which have the main responsibility in the diffusion of scientific information. Thus, counseling and education are necessary to help women make well-informed health-care decisions and it is also crucial to increase awareness among general practitioners and gynaecologists.

Full Text Available Marc Dhont Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium Abstract: The health benefits of the oralcontraceptive (OC pill are numerous and outweigh the risks of OC use. There are unintended but useful preventive side effects and potential therapeutic uses of OCs apart from contraception itself. Unequivocal evidence for the protective influence of combined OCs against ovarian and endometrial cancers, and colon cancer to a lesser extent, has been found. The pill also reduces the incidence of benign breast disease, functional ovarian cysts, pelvic inflammatory disease requiring hospitalization, ectopic pregnancy, and iron-deficiency anemia. The pill can be used for the treatment of several gynecologic disorders such as dysmenorrhea, irregular or excessive bleeding, acne, hirsutism, and endometriosis-associated pain, whether prescribed solely to treat these symptoms or prescribed to treat them in addition to providing contraception. These health benefits are often underestimated, as they get too little attention from the mass media. Keywords: the pill, estrogens, progestogens, safety, contraception

A laboratory study was undertaken with volunteer females (aged 20-25) to determine the effect of OCs (oralcontraceptives) on hematologic and metabolic variables during exercise. 5 of the women studied were naturally cycling and 7 were taking OCs. The women worked at 2 workloads on a bicycle ergometer at 50% and 90% of their maximal aerobic capacity during 3 different phases of their menstrual cycle. There was no better time of the month for doing the 50% or the 90% workload in either group. Heartrate for the OC group was significantly higher at the 50% maximal capacity. Results of the test indicate tha women on OCs have somewhat reduced cardiac efficiency and are ventilating more to carry out a given amount of work when compared to women who are naturally cycling. Possible explanations for the higher heart rate are put forward. The main limitation of the study is that the subject numbers involved are small and the number of cycles studied is also small.

Abstract Oralcontraceptives (OCs) following induced abortion offer a reliable method to avoid repeated abortion. However, limited data exist supporting the effective use of OCs postabortion. We conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis in the present study reported immediate administration of OCs or combined OCs postabortion may reduce vaginal bleeding time and amount, shorten the menstruation recovery period, increase endometrial thickness 2 to 3 weeks after abortion, and reduce the risk of complications and unintended pregnancies. A total of 8 major authorized Chinese and English databases were screened from January 1960 to November 2014. Randomized controlled trials in which patients had undergone medical or surgical abortions were included. Chinese studies that met the inclusion criteria were divided into 3 groups: administration of OC postmedical abortion (group I; n = 1712), administration of OC postsurgical abortion (group II; n = 8788), and administration of OC in combination with traditional Chinese medicine postsurgical abortion (group III; n = 19,707). In total, 119 of 6160 publications were included in this analysis. Significant difference was observed in group I for vaginal bleeding time (P = 0.0001), the amount of vaginal bleeding (P = 0.03), and menstruation recovery period (P abortion (P abortion, and reduce the risk of complications and unintended pregnancies. PMID:27399060

Oralcontraceptives (OC) are the most popular contraception in Denmark. Overall figures on use are well described, but more detailed use patterns according to type and age need to be updated.......Oralcontraceptives (OC) are the most popular contraception in Denmark. Overall figures on use are well described, but more detailed use patterns according to type and age need to be updated....

The authors review the effect of the oralcontraceptive Mercilon on menstrual cycle, contraceptive efficacy, lipid profile, safety profile and adverse effects in a group of 32 women, included in the survey. The results of the trial show excellent contraceptive effect with Pearl Index of 0.00 and good control over the menstrual cycle. No negative or unfavorable effects were seen on the lipid profile as well as on the liver kidney and coangulant system function. Minor side effects were seen in only 5% of the patients.

... oralcontraceptive pill is much more than a birth control pill. Adolescent girls and young women are frequently prescribed the ... Control Pills: General Information Medical Uses of the Birth Control Pill PCOS: All ... Chat with us! Our PCOS chats are safe places for teens and young women who share a common condition ...

Nor-Q.D.® ... only oralcontraceptives are safe for use by breast-feeding mothers. If you are fully breastfeeding (not ... 6 weeks after delivery. If you are partially breast-feeding (giving your baby some food or formula), ...

Full Text Available Objective: Bariatric surgery offers a highly effective mode of treatment for obese patients. Some procedures such as bypass cause an alteration in normal gastrointestinal tract with possible consequences for the uptake of orally administered drugs. Methods: We assessed the literature to ascertain whether the use of oral drugs and especially oralcontraceptives is effective and adequate after bariatric surgery. Results: The bioavailability of drugs could be affected by the solubility and pH of the modified medium after bariatric surgery and by the loss of gastrointestinal transporters. Bariatric surgery could potentially result in a transient change in the absorption of drugs such as analgesics, antibiotics, antiarrhythmics, anticoagulants, psychotropic, and oralcontraceptive drugs. Effective contraception is especially critical in the postoperative period, and implants might be representing a safe contraceptive method in women undergoing bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Each drug will have to be evaluated with respect to its site of absorption and its mechanism of absorption, with special attention on parameters influencing the effectiveness of the absorption processes.

Traditional forms of oralcontraception contain 21 days of hormone-containing pills and 7 days of placebo during the hormone-free interval (HFI). Since 2003, the Food and Drug Administration has approved 24/4, 84/7, and 365-day regimens. These regimens shorten the HFI in an attempt to decrease bleeding and menstrual-associated side effects. Safety and efficacy of these regimens is comparable with traditional 21/7 dosing. Extended regimens are associated with high patient satisfaction. Bleeding patterns are similar or shorter in women using extended regimens, along with improvement in menstrual symptoms. One of the new formulations contains the new progestin drospirenone, which has antimineralocorticoid and antiandrogenic properties. This review summarizes the data about new formulations of oralcontraception available in the United Sates and also provides a summary of the current literature on drospirenone.

The combined oralcontraceptive pill is an effective contraceptive method which can also offer other benefits. However, other contraceptive options should be discussed. If the pill is the chosen method, prescribe a pill with the lowest effective dose of oestrogen and progestogen.

A review of the available literature suggests that adolescent lack of compliance with oralcontraceptives (OCs) is a multifactorial problem that requires a multifactorial solution. Because of their lack of experience with contraception, higher frequency of intercourse, higher intrinsic fertility, and pattern of frequent stopping or switching of methods, adolescents experience higher OC failure rates than do adult women. Adolescents also are more likely to forget to take the pill or to discontinue due to side effects, without consulting their physician. A survey of European young women identified contraceptive protection without weight gain as the most necessary change in OCs. Adolescents must be counseled not to miss a single pill, observe the pill-free interval, take phasic formulations in the right order, and use a back-up method in case of diarrhea and vomiting or when certain medications (e.g., antibiotics and anti-epileptics) are used concurrently, and be informed of steps to take in the event of side effects and unprotected intercourse. The quality of the counseling appears to be more important to compliance than the quantity of information provided. Pharmacists should complete the counseling initiated by the physician and explain prescription use. The most significant predictor of consistent OC use is the adolescent's motivation.

The availability of long-acting hormonal birth control methods has created new contraceptive options for adolescents. The purpose of this study was to determine whether teens initiating these methods use condoms less frequently than teens using oralcontraceptive pills or condoms alone and may therefore be at an increased risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections. To investigate ongoing condom behavior in teens using levonorgestrel (Norplant) contraceptive implants, oralcontraceptives, and condoms alone, we examined data from a 2-year prospective cohort study of 399 urban teens. The study consisted of 3 clinic-based cohorts of adolescent female contraceptive users: Norplant contraceptive implants (n = 200), oralcontraceptives (n = 100), and condoms alone (n = 99). Data were collected at an admission interview and at 1- and 2-year follow-up from method continuers. Norplant contraceptive implant users were less likely than oralcontraceptive or condom users to report condom use at last sex or consistent condom use at 1- and 2-year follow-up. The implant group showed a significant decrease in condom use from admission to 2 years after method initiation. The proportion of implant users self-reporting new sexually transmitted infections at 2-year follow-up, however, was not significantly greater than that of oralcontraceptive or condom users. Our findings indicate that teen users of Norplant contraceptive implants are less likely to use condoms than teens who choose oralcontraceptives but, probably because of differences in sexual behavior, are no more likely to self-report sexually transmitted infections. Our findings also indicate that teens who choose oralcontraceptives and condoms do not use them consistently enough to avoid pregnancies or sexually transmitted infections.

textabstractThe study objectives in this thesis focus on pituitary-ovarian activity in women using oralcontraceptive steroids. Contraceptive steroids influence the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis in order to interfere with normal follicular development and ovulation. Additional effects on the e

textabstractThe study objectives in this thesis focus on pituitary-ovarian activity in women using oralcontraceptive steroids. Contraceptive steroids influence the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis in order to interfere with normal follicular development and ovulation. Additional effects on the e

OBJECTIVE: To measure the association between oralcontraceptive use and the prevalence of genital warts in women. METHODS: Cross sectional case control study comparing oralcontraceptive use in women with and without genital warts attending a city centre genitourinary medicine clinic controlling for recent sexual activity, the presence of other sexually transmitted infections, socio-economic class and history of pregnancy using a multivariate logistic regression model. RESULTS: After control...

Millions of women in the United States and abroad use oralcontraceptive pills. These popular contraceptives are the most common reversible birth control method in the United States, and a wide variety of pills are available for prescription. Oralcontraceptives provide safe and effective protection against pregnancy and offer several noncontraceptive benefits. Over the years, advances in the laboratory and knowledge gained through epidemiologic data promoted the development of new contraceptive preparations. Generations of oralcontraceptives emerged over time, containing lower doses of estrogens and new and novel progestins. The current review discusses the clinical characteristics of oralcontraceptives, with emphasis on basic pharmacology and the evolution of various contraceptive formulations and regimens.

Oralcontraceptive pills have been associated with increased risk for myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous thromboembolism. Studies have been published recently that suggest that these risks are minimal in appropriately chosen low-risk women. Stroke is a very uncommon event in childbearing women, occurring in approximately 11 per 100,000 women over 1 year. Thus, even a doubling of this risk with oralcontraceptive pills would have minimal effect on attributable risk. The estimated risk of myocardial infarction associated with oralcontraceptive pill use in nonsmokers is 3 per million women over 1 year. The estimated risk of venous thromboembolism attributable to oralcontraceptive pills is less than 3 per 10,000 women per year. Additionally, the literature suggests that there may be an increased risk of breast cancer associated with long-term oralcontraceptive pill use in women under the age of 35. However, because the incidence of breast cancer is so low in this population, the attributable risk of breast cancer from birth control pill use is small.

Oralcontraceptive use has been shown to protect against gonococcal pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but the effect on chlamydial PID is uncertain. Chlamydia infection is rising in incidence and has become the major cause of PID in many areas. PID may cause infertility, impairing the future reproduction of women. Previous studies on oralcontraceptives and PID relied on hospitalized women, which may have biased the sample to include mainly gonococcal PID. Several studies show increased risk of endocervical chlamydia infection in users of oralcontraceptives. The postulated mechanism is cervical ectopy, exposing more squamous epithelium to the organisms. Nevertheless, there is evidence indicating that despite the increased incidence of endocervical infection, oralcontraceptives may inhibit the organisms from ascending, thus still offering a protective affect against both gonococcal and chlamydial PID. Future research must focus on the prevalence of chlamydia infection in Africa, and the natural history of the illness. The effect of different types of oralcontraceptives on chlamydia infection must be evaluated.

Oralcontraceptives (OC) are either composed of a combination of an estrogen derivative (usually ethinly estradiol) and a progestogen, or they contain a progestogen only. OC are characterized by a high effectiveness and have a low failure rate if taken correctly. Most women tolerate OC relatively well, but adverse effects do occur which are driven by the estrogen dose as well as by the type of progestogen. The most frequently reported adverse effects are nausea or vomiting, breast tenderness, headache or inbalanced mood, but these unwanted side effects are often transient. The fear of weight gain of many OC users is not necessarily supported by data from studies which report relatively little differences in body mass index on average during OC use. Nevertheless, substantial weight gain can occur in individual women. The widely discussed fear of breast cancer is also not justified, and the risk of developing ovarian or endometrial cancer is reduced for women who use OC on a regular basis. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is the adverse effect with the greatest potential for serious harm if pulmonary embolism develops. This rare, but potentially dangerous adverse effect of OC has been discussed emotionally for many years and keeps attracting a lot of public interest. VTE is rare in young women, but the VTE risk is increased two- to sixfold for OC users as compared to non-users. The VTE risk increases with increasing estrogen dose, is highest in the first year of use, and is higher for OC from the third generation (containing desogestrel, gestodene or norgestimate) than for OC from the second generation (containing levonorgestrel) or than for the progestogen-only pill. According to most studies, OC containing the progestogens drospirenone or cyproterone acetate are similar with regard to VTE risks than OC from the third generation. Individual genetic susceptibility affecting the clotting system plays a major role in the risk of developing VTE in combination with OC, and

Oralcontraceptives (OCs) can reduce acne by lowering the production of adrenal and ovarian androgens, by inhibiting 5-alpha-reductase, which in turn, reduces the levels of dihydrotestosterone, and by stimulating sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), thus reducing the levels of free testosterone. In newer OCs, such as Tricyclen and Diane-35, the progestin component is minimally androgenic and anti-androgenic respectively, thereby enhancing the favorable profile of these products in the treatment of hyperandrogenic disorders, including acne. The efficacy of these agents and their long-term safety profile supports their use in various grades of acne in females: * As adjunctive therapy to topical agents for women with mild non-scarring acne desiring oralcontraception * As primary therapy for patients with moderate non-scarring acne in combination with topical therapy and systemic antibiotics * As one of two preferred methods of contraception in patients with scarring and severe inflammatory acne being treated with systemic isotretinoin.

The longterm prospective study of health effects of oralcontraceptives (OCs) conducted by the Royal College of General Practitioners compared 23,000 OC users with 23,000 controls matched for age and marital status. As of 1981, 55 deaths attributable to circulatory problems had occurred in ever-users of OCs, ciompared to 10 in controls, giving a relative risk of 4.2 for OC users. No relation was found between duration of use and mortality risk among users, although mortality risks were greater at all durations of use than for nonusers. Parity was related to mortality risk among users but not among controls. The most significant factors affecting the relation between pill use and circulatory risk were age and smoking. Among users who smoked, the risk ratios were 3.4 for those aged 25-34, 4.2 for those aged 35-44, 7.4 for those aged 45 and over, and 5.1 for the entire group. Among nonsmoking pill users, the ratios were 1.6 for those aged 25-34, 3.3 for those aged 35-44, 4.6 for those 45 and over, and 3.2 for the total sample. Among smokers, the rates of excess deaths were 1 in 10,000 for users aged 15-34, 1 in 2000 for those aged 35-44, and 1 in550 for those aged 45 and over. Among nonsmokers, the rates were 1 in 50,000 users for those aged 25-34, 1 in 6700 for those aged 35-44, and 1 in 2500 for those aged 45 and over. The majority of deaths were attributed to ischemic cardiac problems and to sub-arachnoid hemorrhages, and risks appeared to be elevated in former as well as current users. The total incidence of circulatory effects in former users appears to be elevated only for cerebrovascular disorders, but the suggestion of residual effects requires further study before conclusions can be drawn. Smokers who developed cardiovascular or cerebrovascular problems were at 2-3 times greater risk of dying than were other women. The percentages of fatal cases of ischemic heart and cerebrovascular diseases were 22.8% among ever-users who smoked, 10.9% among controls who

This article focuses on a two treatment, two period, two treatment sequence crossover drug interaction study of a new drug and a standard oralcontraceptive therapy. Both normal theory and distribution-free statistical analyses are provided along with a notable amount of graphical insight into the dataset. For one of the variables, the decision on…

This article focuses on a two treatment, two period, two treatment sequence crossover drug interaction study of a new drug and a standard oralcontraceptive therapy. Both normal theory and distribution-free statistical analyses are provided along with a notable amount of graphical insight into the dataset. For one of the variables, the decision on…

Background. Oralcontraceptives are prescribed as contraception but also as therapy for menstrual cycle disturbances and acne. We studied the prevalence of oralcontraceptive (OC) use and the indications to start OC use among adolescents. Methods. A cohort consisting of ninth grade secondary school

Background. Oralcontraceptives are prescribed as contraception but also as therapy for menstrual cycle disturbances and acne. We studied the prevalence of oralcontraceptive (OC) use and the indications to start OC use among adolescents. Methods. A cohort consisting of ninth grade secondary school

Hormonal contraceptives are used by over 100 million people worldwide. Recently, there has been an emerging interest in studying the potential impact of oralcontraceptives (OCs) on certain neurological conditions. It has been suspected for some time that hormonal birth control increases seizure activity in women with epilepsy, but there is little supportive data. Areas covered: Literature from PubMed and online sources was analyzed with respect to hormonal contraception and epilepsy or seizures. New evidence indicates that OCs can cause an increase in seizures in women with epilepsy. The epilepsy birth control registry, which surveyed women with epilepsy, found that those using hormonal contraceptives self-reported 4.5 times more seizures than those that did not use such contraceptives. A preclinical study confirmed these outcomes wherein epileptic animals given ethinyl estradiol, the primary component of OCs, had more frequent seizures that are more likely to be resistant. Expert commentary: OC pills may increase seizures in women with epilepsy and such refractory seizures are more likely to cause neuronal damage in the brain. Thus, women of child bearing age with epilepsy should consider using non-hormonal forms of birth control to avoid risks from OC pills. Additional research into the mechanisms and prospective clinical investigation are needed.

Emergency oralcontraception is part of the sexual and reproductive rights of women. In 2001, this health policy was incorporated into the Rules of the National Family Planning Program of the Ministry of Health, primarily to prevent unwanted pregnancy and its serious consequences, induced abortion and the high associated maternal mortality rate, which are major public health problems. Scientific research has confirmed that the main mechanism of action of levonorgestrel, component of emergency oralcontraception (EOC) is to inhibit or delay ovulation, preventing fertilization of the egg; additionally, it increases the thickening of the cervical mucus, making the sperm migration more difficult. No study has found endometrial abnormalities that may interfere with the implantation of the fertilized egg or embryo development of an implanted egg. However, despite the support of medical science and legal backing, the EOC is available only to users with economic resources, but its use has not been fully implemented in public sector services, due to obstacles created by groups opposed to contraception under claim of an alleged abortive effect that has already been ruled out scientifically. This article describes the administrative experience and legal confrontations between groups of power that prevent the proper implementation of an emergency contraception policy in Peru.

Full Text Available Thirty young, healthy, nonsmoking women (mean age approximately 28 years taking low-dose oralcontraceptive pills were recruited for the study of the effects of these pills on coagulating factors. Twenty subjects were taking LD pill (Ethinyl estradiol 0.03 mg, levonorgestrel 0.15 mg and 10 others were taking Cilest (Ethinyl estradiol 0.035 mg, Norgestimate 0.25 mg for six months. The control subjects did not receive any oralcontraceptives or other medications. Our results showed that:"n1. There is no significant difference between the effects of LD and Cilest (with a different progestin content on coagulating factors."n2. No significant changes were observed between both LD users and controls in PT, APTT, and fibrinogen levels."n3. No significant changes were observed between both Cilest users and controls in PT, APTT, and fibrinogen levels."n

Examines communication about contraception and specific knowledge of oralcontraceptives (OCs) in a sample of Norwegian high school students. More females than males discussed contraception at least monthly. Discussions were predominantly held with peers and not adults. Females were far more knowledgeable about OCs than males. The most significant…

175 patients using oralcontraceptives (OCs) for periods from 2 months-6 years were studied. A survey was made of the secondary effects of the treatment. Among the total group, 101 of them had not presented headache before the use of contraceptives, and the remaining 75 patients had previously complained of chronic headaches which were considered due to different etiologies. 50 patients from the group without previous headache claimed that OC treatment marked the initiation of the headaches. 25 had vascular headaches and 25 had tension headaches. Among the 75 patients included in the other group as complainers of chronic headache prior to treatment, 30 had a worsening of the symptoms after use of the OCs. The authors compare their results with those referred to in the literature. (author's)

The observation that estrogens in sufficient dosage given postcoitally may prevent implantation of the ovum have led to studies regarding practical clinical application. Estrogens that appear effective in humans include stilbestrol and ethinyl estradiol orally and estrone parenterally. Mestranol should also be effective as well as ORF-3858. Any estrongenic substance in sufficient dosage would probably prevent implantation. Effective period of administration is only between time of fertilization and implantation or 4 to 6 days following coitus. Test dosages have been 25-50 mg stilbestrol or .5-2 mg esthinyl estradiol daily for 5 days. It is now considered that 2-5 mg ethinyl estradiol would be more effective. In over 100 midcycle exposures there have been no pregnancies. Others have reported failures with inadequate dosage. Injectable estrone, 2-20 mg on alternate days for 3 doses, has also been reported effective. The process of implantation is discussed. Endometrial biopsies have usually revealed a "retarded endometrium," a possible mode of action. Side effects have been those usually associated with estrogens: nausea, vomiting, breast soreness, prolonged menses.

Numerous publications have, in recent years, associated the apparition of depressive syndrome with OC (oralcontraception). The study of modified triptophane metabolism in OC patients has also involved the study of quantitative modifications of serotonin in certain types of depressive syndrome, as well as the positive effects of vitamin B6 and of pyridoxine administration. On the other hand, there is strong evidence showing that the involvement of OCs in depression cannot always be incriminated, and that, in the majority of cases, the causes are to be found in other, and mostly psychological, factors. Even in these last cases pyridoxine can be prescribed for a limited time without interruption of OC treatment.

Many literature studies have shown that long-term use of oralcontraceptives (OC) is associated with lack of protection of the epithelium of the uterine cervix. Forty-five patients, from 18 to 35 years old, users of two contraceptive formulations, of different estrogenic concentration, took part in this study as volunteers to evaluate the predisposition of the cervix to pathologies. The results found before OC use were 11% of Chlamydia trachomatis infection and 13% of HPV infection. These pathologies were correctly treated and after 5 months of OC use we found total remission of Chlamydia trachomatis infection and 4% of persistent HPV infection. These data lead us to conclude that the OC studied here interfered very little with the presented pathologic results. The risk factors that we considered relevant were: 1) age group (the patients that presented HPV and C. trachomatis infections were young university students); 2) lifestyle (most patients certified that they did not combine the use of barrier contraceptives with the use of OC); 3) multiple sexual partners; 4) low socioeconomic condition.

Full Text Available Alfred O Mueck1, Harald Seeger1, Xiangyan Ruan2 1Department of Endocrinology and Menopause, University Women's Hospital of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; 2Department of Gynecological Endocrinology, Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China Abstract: No placebo-controlled studies concerning hormonal contraception in general have been published, and only investigations on biological mechanisms and observational clinical studies are available. Thus, associations can be described but not their causality. Experimental studies strongly suggest protective effects of the progestagen component of hormonal contraception against development of estrogen-related (type 1 endometrial cancer. In light of this research, it seems biologically plausible that, in more than 20 published studies, a reduction in endometrial cancer risk was achieved in up to 50% of users of combined oralcontraceptives (COC, compared with nonusers. Few data exist for progestin-only oral preparations. However, in view of the mechanisms involved, a reduction in cancer risk should also be expected. Whereas hormonal dose-dependency has been investigated in only a few studies, which showed a stronger risk reduction with increasing progestagenic potency, a decreased risk dependent on duration of use has been clearly demonstrated, and after stopping COC this effect has persisted for up to 20 years. Possible confounders, including family history, parity, and smoking, have been investigated in a few studies, with only a minor impact on hormonal effect of endometrial cancer risk, with the exception of obesity, which was a strong risk factor in most but not all studies. There are obvious differences in the incidence of endometrial cancer in women using COC when evaluated in absolute numbers for Western and Asian countries, being about 3–5-fold higher in the US than in Asia. Further research should include the noncontraceptive benefit of COC

Although investigations of the physiological effects of oralcontraceptives suggest that affective changes may accompany their use, empirical documentation of these effects has not been consistent. This study examined physiological and affective changes accompanying use of a low-dosage oralcontraceptive while controlling for possible expectancy…

Full Text Available Anne Burke Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USAAbstract: Oralcontraceptives remain a popular method of contraception over 50 years after their introduction. While safe and effective for many women, the failure rate of oralcontraception is about 8%. Concerns about the risk of venous thromboembolism continue to drive the search for the safest oralcontraceptive formulations. The oralcontraceptive NOMAC-E2 contains nomegestrol acetate (NOMAC 2.5 mg + 17b-estradiol (E2 1.5 mg. The approved dosing regimen is 24 days of active hormone, followed by a 4-day hormone-free interval. NOMAC is a progestin derived from testosterone, which has high bioavailability, rapid absorption, and a long half-life. Estradiol, though it has a lower bioavailability, has been successfully combined with NOMAC in a monophasic oralcontraceptive. Two recently published randomized controlled trials demonstrate that NOMAC-E2 is an effective contraceptive, with a Pearl Index less than one pregnancy per 100 woman-years. The bleeding pattern on NOMAC-E2 is characterized by fewer bleeding/spotting days, shorter withdrawal bleeds, and a higher incidence of amenorrhea than the comparator oralcontraceptive containing drospirenone and ethinyl estradiol. The adverse event profile appears to be acceptable. Few severe adverse events were reported in the randomized controlled trials. The most common adverse events were irregular bleeding, acne, and weight gain. Preliminary studies suggest that NOMAC-E2 does not seem to have negative effects on hemostatic and metabolic parameters. While no one oralcontraceptive formulation is likely to be the optimum choice for all women, NOMAC-E2 is a formulation with effectiveness comparable with that of other oralcontraceptives, and a reassuring safety profile.Keywords: oralcontraception, nomegestrol acetate, estradiol

The estrogen potencies of 9 oralcontraceptive pills, Enovid-E, Enovid-5, Ovulen, Demulen, Norinyl+80, Norinyl+50, Ovral, Norlestrin 1 mg. and Norlestrin 2.5 mg., were determined by bioassay. Relative estrogen potency was determined by analysis of variance. Enovid-5, the most estrogenic compound, had a potency of 4.88 compared to ethinyl estradiol, 50 mcg. equal 1.00; Ovral, the least estrogenic compound, had a potency of 0.81, a sixfold difference. Estrogen potencies at a fractional dose of 0.00155 correlate with reports of the incidence of minor side effects and thromboembolic disease. The effect of progestins on estrogen potency was purely additive (norgestrel and norethynodrel), purely antagonistic, or additive at low concentrations and antagonistic at high concentrations (norethindrone, norethindrone acetate, and ethynodiol diacetate). These results suggest that pills with a greater margin of safety might be developed by utilizing greater ratios of progestin to estrogen. In addition, differences in relative estrogen potency of oralcontraceptive pills may be used as a basis for better clinical selection.

Intrauterine exposure to artificial sex hormones such as oralcontraceptives may be associated with an increased risk of fetal death. Between 1996 and 2002, a total of 92 719 women were recruited to The Danish National Birth Cohort and interviewed about exposures during pregnancy. Outcome.......2%) women took oralcontraceptives during pregnancy. Use of combined oestrogen and progesterone oralcontraceptives (COC) or progesterone-only oralcontraceptives (POC) during pregnancy was not associated with increased hazard ratios of fetal death compared with non-users, HR 1.01 [95% CI 0.71, 1.45] and HR...... 1.37 [95% CI 0.65, 2.89] respectively. Neither use of COC nor POC prior to pregnancy was associated with fetal death. Stratification by maternal age and smoking showed elevated risks of fetal death for women contraception during pregnancy, but the interactions were...

Combined oralcontraceptives show clear differences in effect on the tissue factor-initiated coagulation test of activated protein C resistance, which is dependent on the presence and dosage of levonorgestrel. Multiphasic levonorgestrol oralcontraceptives differ from monophasic contraceptives and

Full Text Available The first oral hormonal contraceptive Enovid (9.85 mg norethynodreland 0.15 mg mestranol(G.D.Searle, US was approved for contraception by the FDA in the US in 1959 but was never marketed by Searle for contraception. One year later Searle got approval for a lower dose product Enovid 5mg (5 mg norethinodrel and 75 µg mestranol as a contraceptive pill. On the 1st of January 1961, Bayer HealthCare (then Schering launched its first oralcontraceptive (brandname: Anovlar® by Schering in Australia, followed a few months later by the launch in West Germany. In the beginning it was approved only on prescription for the treatment of painful menstrual cycles in married women until later the indication contraception was added. Shortly after the introduction of the pill in Europe severe cardiovascular side effects were observed in the UK for Enovid. The development of different formulations of oralcontraceptives with less estrogen and progestins was initiated. Furthermore, highly selective derivatives of steroid hormones were investigated to find products well tolerated and with a low profile of undesired side effects. New, preferably neutral products were developed taking into consideration the metabolic profile and safety aspects of cardiovascular disease and cancer, especially breast cancer. Growing knowledge in the field of gene analysis and a deeper understanding of the regulatory changes in the coagulation system led to a discussion as to the influence of oralcontraceptives on women having genetic risk factors for thrombophilia. The development of oral hormonal contraceptives during the past 50 years has been accompanied by the continued search for new products. Specific formulas have been analyzed not only to provide data on the safety and reliability of the contraceptive method, in addition to possible non-contraceptive benefits (i.e. regular menstrual cycles, improvement of acne vulgaris, dysmenorrhea and fewer premenstrual

Women at middle age have decreased fertility and their pregnancies are higher risk. Combined oralcontraceptives (COC) are effective but confer increased risk of age-related diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases. These risks are lower, however, with progestogen-only pills (POP). Therefore, other than the levonorgestrel intrauterine device (LNG-IUD), POP are usually the first choice, even though they do often lead to bleeding problems, which are already frequent in the perimenopause. However, the main risk of COC, venous thromboembolism, seems not to be relevant in (non-hospitalized) Chinese women and perhaps also other Asian women. COC may therefore be in fact a better choice than POP for these groups. In contrast to POP and IUDs, they have a variety of benefits especially important for middle-aged women, including a large decrease of the risk of ovarian, endometrial and colorectal cancer, an improvement in bleeding irregularities, a reduction of climacteric symptoms and some protection against bone loss. Further research is needed into individualized and safe contraception that takes into account ethnicity, as well as other factors.

The introduction of the birth control pill as an effective, coitally-independent method of contraception was a public health milestone of the last century. Over time, combined oralcontraception (COC) formulations and pill-taking regimens have evolved with improved safety and tolerability while maintaining contraceptive efficacy. In addition to protection against pregnancy, use of combined oralcontraception confers a number of significant non-contraceptive benefits to users. COC use is also associated with well-studied risks. Common side effects are generally self-limiting and improve with increasing duration of use while serious adverse events, including venous thromboembolism, are rare among healthy COC users. Contraceptive decision-making should include consideration of both the risks and benefits of a given method versus the real consequences of unintended pregnancy.

Oncogenic human papillomavirus is the key determinant of cervical cancer, but other risk factors interact with it to define individual risk. Among these, there is oralcontraceptive (OC) use. A quantitative review of the link between OCs and cervical cancer was performed. Long-term (>5 year) current or recent OC use has been related to an about two-fold excess risk of cervical cancer. Such an excess risk, however, levels off after stopping use, and approaches unity 10 or more years after stopping. The public health implications of OC use for cervical cancer are limited. In any case, such implications are greater in middle-income and low-income countries, as well as in central and eastern Europe and Latin America, where cervical cancer screening and control remain inadequate.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare effects of the transdermal contraceptive patch, a desogestrel/ethinyl estradiol (EE)-containing, monophasic combination oralcontraceptive (COC) and a levonorgestrel/EE-containing, triphasic COC on hemostasis variables. Study Design: This was a

Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare effects of the transdermal contraceptive patch, a desogestrel/ethinyl estradiol (EE)-containing, monophasic combination oralcontraceptive (COC) and a levonorgestrel/EE-containing, triphasic COC on hemostasis variables. Study Design: This was a randomize

Dr. De Teresa and others reported that mean prothrombin time ratio of 12 patients on long-term anticoagulation with warfarin was significantly higher when they were also taking oralcontraceptives (OCs). A study of prothrombin complex activity was recently conducted in female rats treated with an estrogen-progestogen combination (lynestrenol 5 mg; mestranol 0.3 mg/kg body weight) which resulted in a 100% infertility in this species. After 1 treatment for only 1 estral cycle, OC-treated rats had a significantly longer Normotest clotting time (37.7+ or-0.5 sec) than control rats (31.0+or-0.4); the difference was even more notable after 10 cycles. Although this finding has not been reported in women on OCs, it may be that the estrogen-induced "lability" of the prothrombin complex occurs in humans only in special conditions, such as anticoagulation. Alternatively, liver dysfunction occurring among women on OCs may be responsible for reduced metabolism of warfarin, contributing to the effectiveness of the anticoagulation. Further pharmacology studies should be done to clarify the interaction between OCs and oral anticoagulants.

Results are reported from a study which examined attitudes, experiences, and concerns of college women (N=237) regarding oralcontraception. Implications of the findings for health educators are discussed. (IAH)

Considerable research evidence now exists to suggest that the risks of oralcontraceptive (OC) use were seriously overestimated in earlier work. Because experimentation in medicine is never possible in the rigorous sense in which it is employed in basic sciences, other sources of information must be substituted. Information on the dangers of OC use has come from anecdotal reports, retrospective case control studies, prospective cohort studies, and statistical analyses of deaths, each source being associated with specific problems of interpretation. Recent findings of the Royal College of General Practitioners, the Walnut Creek Study, and the Oxford Study have suggested a lowered incidence of malignant neoplasms in OC than in IUD or diaphragm users; a reduced incidence of breast cancer although the relationship did not consistently achieve statistical significance, and a reduced incidence of ovarian and endometrial cancer. The risks of cervical cancer among OC users appeared slightly higher but disappeared when sexual behavior was controlled. Despite much concern with the possibility of postpill amenorrhea and perhaps sterility among women discontinuing OC use, it now appears that after 2 years there is no difference in the fertility of women who have discontinued use of OCs, IUDs, or diaphragms. Use of OCs as a contraceptive before pregnancy does not appear to be associated with fetal malformations, spontaneous abortion, or perinatal mortality, and the inadvertent use of OCs in early pregnancy is apparently associated with only a very slight risk of anomalies. Recent studies of cardiovascular disease risks indicate that the relative risks of cardiovascular disease among OC users have been greatly exaggerated, especially when smoking is taken into account. Various studies of mortality data have failed to establish a link between OC use and excess mortality from cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVES--Chlamydia trachomatis is now recognised as a major sexually transmitted disease; oralcontraceptive use is rapidly increasing particularly in developing countries. There are thus important public health implications of the many reports that isolation of C trachomatis is more frequent among users of oralcontraceptives. The aim of this analysis was to assess the strength and consistency of this association by summarising published studies between 1972 and 1990. DESIGN--Studies iden...

Medically induced amenorrhea has been used successfully in women who have medical conditions that worsen during menstruation. Menstrual suppression through the use of continuous oralcontraceptives has been proven to be safe, effective, and extremely acceptable to women. Women without medical indications for menstrual suppression may find medically induced amenorrhea to be a significant improvement in their quality of life. Greater satisfaction with use of oralcontraception may encourage compliance and increase the prevalence of pill-related health benefits.

An inventory is made on the hindrances to the acceptance of contraception in general and oralcontraception in particular. They are grouped as hindrances related to the social and psychological significance of "making children", hindrances related to the social and psychological significance of "having children" hindrances, related to the method of oralcontraception itself, to be divided in social hindrances, psychological hindrances and medical hindrances and finally hindrances related to the provision of the pill to the individual user. Each of these is amply discussed, the author expresses the hope that by identification of these hindrances, lessons may be learned for the future, when other methods of contreception become available.

Facts about oralcontraceptives and their use are provided for the practcing generalist and specialist. Identification of oralcontraceptives is given in chart form including company, name, contents, pill color, number in pack and special markings. Section 2 entitled "facts that may be helpful in prescribing or changing the prescription of oralcontraceptives" includes potency of progestins and estrogens and symptoms indicating excessive or deficient progestin and estrogen activity. Contraindications such as migraine headaches, epilepsy, hepatic disease, renal disease and hypertension are among the reasons for obtaining a complete family history prior to prescription of oralcontraceptives. This information provides the basis for choice of contraception tailored to the individual. A 100 pound 17 year old with a normal menstrual history and with adequate estrogen production would be safest with a medication low in estrogen and progestin. An older heavier woman with prolonged menstruation and cramps would require a pill which is potent in progestins since these are excellent for causing endometrium regression and vascular reduction. Length of time on oral c ontraceptives depends upon the patient's general health. If responding well to contraceptives the patient should continue to use them because 1) the body is programmed for lengthy periods of ovulation suppression; 2) the patient becomes accustomed to infertility and 3) too many unplanned pregnancies occur during rest intervals. Complaints of nausea, migraine headaches, change in libido, chloasma or thrombophlebitis determine the termination of the drug.

Oralcontraceptives (OCs) are a major class of prescription drug, used by a large proportion of women starting from early adolescence. Much research has been conducted to investigate the physiological changes that occur in women who take OCs. These include changes in general health as well as in nutritional needs. In terms of nutrition, several studies investigated whether women on OCs need different amounts of some vitamins and minerals. In particular, a report from the World Health Organization (WHO) points out that the influence of OCs on nutrient requirements is a topic of high clinical relevance and should, therefore, receive great attention. It has been shown that the key nutrient depletions concern folic acid, vitamins B2, B6, B12, vitamin C and E and the minerals magnesium, selenium and zinc. Most research has focused on the levels of these vitamins and minerals in the blood of women who take OCs compared to women who do not. Since women who take OCs not always have adequate diet, may have unhealthy life style or may suffer from pathologies of malabsorption, the possibility to prevent vitamin and mineral deficiencies by taking appropriate dietary supplements should be considered a first-line approach by clinicians.

More than 50 % of women living with HIV in low- and middle-income countries are of reproductive age, but there are limitations to the administration of oralcontraception for HIV-infected women receiving antiretroviral therapy due to drug-drug interactions caused by metabolism via the cytochrome P450 isoenzymes and glucuronidation. However, with the development of newer antiretrovirals that use alternative metabolic pathways, options for contraception in HIV-positive women are increasing. This paper aims to review the literature on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral hormonal contraceptives when given with antiretroviral agents, including those currently used in developed countries, older ones that might still be used in salvage regimens, or those used in resource-limited settings, as well as newer drugs. Nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), the usual backbone to most combined antiretroviral treatments (cARTs) are characterised by a low potential for drug-drug interactions with oralcontraceptives. On the other hand non-NRTIs (NNRTIs) and protease inhibitors (PIs) may interact with oralcontraceptives. Of the NNRTIs, efavirenz and nevirapine have been demonstrated to cause drug-drug interactions; however, etravirine and rilpivirine appear safe to use without dose adjustment. PIs boosted with ritonavir are not recommended to be used with oralcontraceptives, with the exception of boosted atazanavir which should be used with doses of at least 35 µg of estrogen. Maraviroc, an entry inhibitor, is safe for co-administration with oralcontraceptives, as are the integrase inhibitors (INIs) raltegravir and dolutegravir. However, the INI elvitegravir, which is given in combination with cobicistat, requires a dose of estrogen of at least 30 µg. Despite the growing evidence in this field, data are still lacking in terms of large cohort studies, randomised trials and correlations to real clinical outcomes, such as pregnancy rates, in women

Oralcontraceptive steroids may undergo enterohepatic circulation, but it is relevant for only estrogens, because these compounds can be directly conjugated in the liver. Animal studies show convincing evidence of the importance of the enterohepatic circulation, but studies in humans are much less convincing. The importance of the route and the rate of metabolism of ethinyl estradiol are reviewed. Some antibiotics have been reported anecdotally to reduce the efficacy of oralcontraceptive steroids, but controlled studies have not confirmed this observation. Although gut flora are altered by oral antibiotics, the blood levels of ethinyl estradiol are not reduced, and one antibiotic at least (cotrimoxazole) enhances the activity of ethinyl estradiol.

Full Text Available Most studies investigating the impact of oralcontraceptives have been performed some years ago, when the level of sexual hormones was greater than the actual formulations. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of current combined oralcontraceptives (COC on periodontal tissues, correlating the clinical parameters examined with the total duration of continuous oralcontraceptive intake. Material and methods: Twenty-five women (19-35 years old taking combined oralcontraceptives for at least 1 year were included in the test group. The control group was composed by 25 patients at the same age range reporting no use of hormone-based contraceptive methods. Clinical parameters investigated included pocket probing depth (PD, clinical attachment level (CAL, sulcular bleeding index (SBI and plaque index (Pl.I. Data were statistically evaluated by unpaired t test, Pearson’s correlation test and Spearman’s correlation test. Results: The test group showed increased PD (2.228±0.011 x 2.154±0.012; p<0.0001 and SBI (0.229±0.006 x 0.148±0.005, p<0.0001 than controls. No significant differences between groups were found in CAL (0.435±0.01 x 0.412±0.01; p=0.11. The control group showed greater Pl.I than the test group (0.206±0.007 x 0.303±0.008; p<0.0001. No correlation between the duration of oralcontraceptive intake, age and periodontal parameters was observed. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the use of currently available combined oralcontraceptives can influence the periodontal conditions of the patients, independently of the level of plaque accumulation or total duration of medication intake, resulting in increased gingival inflammation.

We investigated the relation between epithelial ovarian cancer and the use of oralcontraceptives in a case-control study of 144 white women under the age of 60 who had ovarian cancer and 139 white women under 60 who were selected from the general population. We observed a decreased risk for ovarian cancer associated with the use of oralcontraceptives in subjects 40 through 59 years of age at the time of the study. The relative risk, adjusted for parity, was 0.11, with 95 per cent confidence limits of 0.04 to 0.33. In contrast to the findings in older women, a decreased risk for ovarian cancer associated with oral-contraceptive use was not found in women under 40. In this group, the adjusted relative risk associated with any use of oralcontraceptives was 1.98, with 95 per cent confidence limits of 0.74 to 5.27. The lowest risk for ovarian cancer associated with the use of oralcontraceptives was observed in older parous subjects and in women who had discontinued use more than 10 years previously.

This letter is a response to an article describing the efficacy of administering large doses of tryptophan to depressive patients taking oralcontraceptives. This letter-writer argues that the salient action of mood elevation is a result of the supplemental pyridoxine (vitamin B) which ameliorates the deficiency induced by oralcontraceptive use that leads to depression resulting from inhibition of synthesis of biogenic amines in the central nervous system. Instead of large doses of tryptophan, which may cause dangerous accumulations of possibly carcinogenic and diabetogenic metabolites when therapy for depression is indicated, pyridoxine should be administered together with the tryptophan; the tryptophan should be discontinued once the deficiency is corrected, although the vitamin therapy should continue throughout oralcontraceptive use.

Oralcontraceptives have been used by hundreds of millions of women around the world. Important questions remain regarding the very long-term cancer risks that are associated with oralcontraception. Despite previous research, important questions remain about the safety of these contraceptives: (1) How long do endometrial, ovarian, and colorectal cancer benefits persist? (2) Does combined oralcontraceptive use during the reproductive years produce new cancer risks later in life? (3) What is the overall balance of cancer among past users as they enter the later stages of their lives? The purpose of this study was to examine the very long-term cancer risks or benefits associated with the use of combined oralcontraceptives, including the estimated overall life-time balance. The 46,022 women who were recruited to the UK Royal College of General Practitioners' OralContraception Study in 1968 and 1969 were observed for up to 44 years. Directly standardized rates of specific and any cancer were calculated for "ever" and "never" users of combined oralcontraceptives; data were standardized for age, parity, social class, and smoking. Attributable risk and preventive fraction percentages were calculated. Poisson regression that adjusted for the same variables was used to estimate incidence rate ratios between ever and never users and to examine effects by time since last oralcontraceptive use. There were 4661 ever users with at least 1 cancer during 884,895 woman-years of observation and 2341 never users with at least 1 cancer during 388,505 woman-years of observation. Ever use of oralcontraceptives was associated with reduced colorectal (incidence rate ratio, 0.81; 99% confidence interval, 0.66-0.99), endometrial (incidence rate ratio, 0.66; 99% confidence interval, 0.48-0.89), ovarian (incidence rate ratio, 0.67; 99% confidence interval, 0.50-0.89), and lymphatic and hematopoietic cancer (incidence rate ratio, 0.74; 99% confidence interval, 0.58-0.94). An increased

Recent discussions have centered on the small apparent risk increase for venous thromboembolism found with newer oralcontraceptives (third-generation oralcontraceptives containing the progestins desogestrel and gestodene) compared with older oralcontraceptives (second-generation). This article reviews the studies addressing the association between oralcontraceptive use and thromboembolic conditions affecting the arterial system, ischemic stroke, and myocardial infarction. Differences are found between a US database study, which showed no risk of ischemic stroke or myocardial infarction associated with low-dose oralcontraceptive use, and the European studies, which showed oralcontraceptive use in general to be associated with increased risks of ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction. The European studies showed no difference between oralcontraceptive generations with respect to the occurrence of ischemic stroke; however, the risk of myocardial infarction associated with oralcontraceptive use was consistently lower for third- than for second-generation oralcontraceptives. Although there seems to be no differential risk of ischemic stroke associated with oralcontraceptive generations, third-generation oralcontraceptives appear to be consistently associated with no excess risk of myocardial infarction. In all instances, however, cardiovascular risk factors other than oralcontraceptive use play the predominant role in the occurrence of ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction.

textabstractSteroid drugs with contraceptive properties have been available in the clinical setting for over four decades and are still subject to improvement. Estrogens, progestins and anti-progestins have been used alone or in various combinations, regimens and routes of administ

Millions of women use birth control pills for contraceptive and noncontraceptive reasons. Although there have been reports of rare adverse events, birth control pills do offer well-documented health benefits, including a decrease in the risk of ovarian and endometrial carcinoma. In addition, manufacturers continue to modify birth control pills to reduce side effects and medical risks.

We present the case of a phototoxic skin reaction due to the regular intake of a combined oralcontraceptive (levonorgestrel/ethinylestradiol). Upon spectrophotometer testing, we demonstrated high absorption in the UV-B region of the solar spectrum of the combined product (Ovoplex®), especially for the estrogen compound (ethinylestradiol).

The purpose of this study was to examine possible differences in laryngeal aerodynamic measures during connected speech associated with oralcontraceptive (OC) use. Eight women taking an OC, and eight others not taking an OC, participated in the study. Three trials of syllable /p[subscript alpha] /repetitions were obtained using a…

Background: Evidence on the association between antibiotic use and combined oralcontraceptive (COC) failure is controversial. We examined the effect of concomitant antibiotic treatment on the risk of breakthrough pregnancy among COC users. Study Designs: We performed a case-crossover study of 1330

The effect on clearance of levetiracetam (LEV) was estimated in women with epilepsy of childbearing potential using oralcontraceptives (OCs). The estimated clearance (plasma concentration/daily dose) was 39 nmol/L/mg (range 14-88 nmol/L/mg) among women who did not use OC (n=30) and 38 nmol/L/mg ...

Combined oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) are the most commonly prescribed method of birth control for adolescents. This article presents an overview of OCP pharmacology and summarizes the different types of OCPs. The initial patient evaluation and subsequent care are described, with a focus on management plans specific to adolescents. Emergency contraception, an alternative use of OCPs, is described as well. A thorough knowledge of OCPs and an appreciation of adolescent-specific management plans will enhance nurse practitioners' skills in preventing pregnancy in their adolescent patients.

Erythema multiforme has been linked to numerous drugs and infectious agents. A link to oralcontraceptive use has been reported in the past in the adult population but thus far has not been reported in children or adolescents. We report the case of an 18-yr-old female who developed oral erosions consistent with erythema multiforme two and a half weeks after initiating therapy with an oralcontraceptive agent. A thorough examination for other inciting factors was negative, and the lesions slowly resolved over the course of 3 weeks. This case illustrates that erythema multiforme should be considered in the differential diagnosis of adolescents with oral erosions who have been prescribed oralcontraceptives.

The relationship between stress and changes in insulin levels, plasma ratio of tryptophan to other large neutral amino acids (LNAAs), mood, and food intake was investigated in women taking monophasic oralcontraceptives containing progestagens. Subjects experiencing high levels of stress displayed significant decreases of insulin and tryptophan to other LNAAs ratios, before and after the consumption of a standard meal during the pill-free period as compared with the period of pill use. The decline of the tryptophan to other LNAAs ratio was accompanied by worsening of mood. In a control group of subjects experiencing low levels of stress there was no relationship between insulin and tryptophan to other LNAAs ratio, nor between tryptophan to other LNAAs ratio and mood. These results suggest that the combination of stress and alterations in sex hormones may be responsible for mood changes during the pill-free period in women taking oralcontraceptives.

We describe a fulminant autochthonous hepatic failure caused by hepatitis E (HEV) in a patient admitted in our hospital for liver-transplant evaluation. The only risk factor recorded for this severe course was the use of oralcontraceptives that are known to mimic a hormonal status similar to pregnancy. The diagnosis was based on the presence of IgG and IgM anti-HEV in the serum of the patient and confirmed by the isolation of a strain of HEV genotype 3f from a blood sample obtained the fourth day after hospital admission. HEV genotype 3 is present in human and swine populations in Spain. The patient began to recover while waiting for a liver transplant. To our knowledge, this is the first report of fulminant hepatitis E in a non-pregnant European patient on oralcontraceptives. PMID:20064988

On the U.S.-Mexico border, residents frequently cross into Mexico to obtain medications or medical care. We previously reported relatively high prevalence of hypertension among Latina oralcontraceptive users in El Paso, particularly those obtaining pills over the counter (OTC) in Mexico. Here, we examine factors associated with having hypertension among 411 OTC users and 399 clinic users. We also assess hypertension awareness and interest in using blood pressure kiosks. Women age 35 to 44 an...

This study aims to identify the factors that affect women who use public and private oralcontraceptive services. It also aims to assess user satisfaction among pill users, particularly those who are covered by the 30-Baht card of the Universal Coverage Scheme. 1,234 women of reproductive age from the Kanchanaburi DSS (Round 5, 2004) were studied by using logistic regression to determine factors affecting the selection of family planning providers. More than half of the pill users used privat...

A review of available clinical studies indicates that 10 to 40 per cent of oralcontraceptive users may suffer mild to moderate depression syndromes. Clinical and animal data indicate that a variety of mechanisms may be involved, including alterations in folate, pyridoxine, and vitamine B12 metabolism, as well as related effects on biogenic amine metabolism. Interactive effects may result, such as impairment of usual coping mechnisms and psychological defenses by altered central nervous system function.

The transcapillary fluid balance was examined in eleven women before administration of a monophasic oralcontraceptive (desogestrel 0.15 mg, ethinylestradiol 0.03 mg), and after three and six months of use. The interstitial colloid osmotic pressure was measured by the "wick" method, and the interstitial hydrostatic pressure by the "wick-in-needle" method in subcutaneous tissue on thorax and leg. During the six-month observation period, the following changes were observed: Plasma colloid osmotic pressure decreased (mean 1.8 mmHg, p = 0.047), as well as serum albumin (mean 5.1 g/l, p = 0.0006), total protein concentration (mean 2.8 g/l, p = 0.0006), hemoglobin (mean 0.5 g/dl, p = 0.014) and hematocrit (mean 1.8%, p = 0.047). Blood pressure and body weight remained unchanged, but foot volume showed a significant increase. The colloid osmotic pressure gradient (plasma-interstitium) was significantly reduced. The results indicate an increase in plasma volume in addition to an increased capillary permeability to plasma proteins during oralcontraceptive use. We suggest that the observed changes in transcapillary fluid balance is caused by the estrogen component of the oralcontraceptive pill.

The venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a rare event during childbearing age and during the assumption of combined oralcontraceptive. The absolute risk of VTE in users of combined oralcontraceptives is 20-30 per 100000 women years. A number of case-control studies published in recent years have shown an apparent increase in the risk of VTE among users of oralcontraceptives (OCs) containing desogestrel, gestodene, drospirenone and cyproterone, relative to the use of levonorgestrel. The data derived from these recent studies is of borderline statistical significance because any important factors are not considered to evaluate the real correlation between the assumption of OCs and risk of venous thromboembolism. Among the factors that should be considered, there are: EE dose, duration of use, coexistance of other risk factors of venous thromboembolism (age, BMI, familiarity, surgical interventions) and other prescription bias. The lack of these factors is likely to contribute to the increased risk of venous thromboembolism observed in users of third-generation OCs when compared to that in users of second-generation OCs. To date, because of the inadequacy of epidemiological studies, the data about the correlation between OCs and TVE, are not conclusive and it will be necessary to carry out other studies to clarify this debating point, definitively.

Factors affecting fibrin formation and dissolution were compared for 15 women taking combined oralcontraceptives and 15 women using nonpharmacological methods of birth control. The two groups were matched for age, body weight, time of blood collection, and day in menstrual cycle; none of the women was receiving other drugs known to affect the blood coagulation or fibrinolytic parameters measured in this study. Fibrinogen concentrations tended to be higher in the experimental group; the degree of fibrinogen degradation, number of fibrin cross-links, and levels of factor XIII and plasminogen were the same for both group. There were significant reductions in antithrombin activity, the euglobulin lysis time, and fibrinolytic inhibitor level in women using oralcontraceptives. An estrogen dose effect was suggested for fibrinogen concentration and the degree of antithrombin activity. The increased fibrinolytic activity and decreased fibrinolytic inhibitor levels are consistent with in vitro observations that antithrombin also inhibits plasmin activity. Thus while oralcontraceptive-induced depression of antithrombin III could possibly predispose to thrombosis by diminishing the inhibition of the serine protease clotting factors, the concomitant decreased level of plasmin inhibition might balance the system by favoring thrombolysis as well as the digestion and inactivation of certain clotting factors by plasmin.

Since the introduction of oralcontraceptives, their use has been associated with an increased risk of both venous and arterial thrombosis. Pulmonary embolism, myocardial infarction, and stroke are serious disorders with a considerable risk of mortality. Because worldwide over 100 million women use oralcontraceptives, issues of drug safety are of great importance. The risk of venous thrombosis during low-dose oralcontraceptive use is three- to sixfold increased compared with that of nonusers. The association is not only attributed to the estrogen component of the pill: the risk is twice as high for desogestrel and gestodene (third generation) containing oralcontraceptives as for levonorgestrel (second generation) containing oralcontraceptives. The risk of venous thrombosis is highest in the first year of use and in women with genetic or acquired risk factors for thrombosis. Both venous or arterial thrombosis are unrelated to duration of use or past use of combined oralcontraceptives. The risk of myocardial infarction and stroke during low-dose oralcontraceptive use is two- to fivefold increased relative to that of nonusers. The risk of arterial thrombosis induced by oralcontraceptive use is more pronounced in smokers and women with hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia. All types of thrombosis have strongly age-dependent incidences, and therefore in absolute figures the risks and effects of risk factors increase with age. The lowering of the estrogen dose in combined oralcontraceptives from 50 microg to 20-30 microg in the last decade did not clearly reduce the risk of venous thrombosis, myocardial infarction, stroke, or peripheral arterial disease. For stroke and peripheral arterial disease no difference in risk was found between second and third generation oralcontraceptives. For myocardial infarction study results are conflicting, and a small benefit of third- over second-generation oralcontraceptives cannot be ruled out. However, this is

In some studies third-generation oralcontraceptives have been reported to be associated with a higher risk of venous thromboembolism than are second-generation oralcontraceptives, whereas recent, more refined studies have not confirmed this. The reasons for the alleged differences are under discussion, and differential effects on hemostasis have been proposed. Eighteen studies comparing second- and third-generation oralcontraceptives with respect to their effects on hemostasis were analyzed. Significant changes from baseline were reported for many variables with both second- and third-generation oralcontraceptives without significant between-group differences. Also, in a combined analysis of nonsignificant changes, no consistent pattern of change emerged for any marker, with the exception of higher factor VII levels associated with third-generation oralcontraceptives. However, factor VII is not related to venous thromboembolism risk. In addition, 1 cross-sectional study with an unvalidated assay reported a higher ratio of activated protein C sensitivity with third-generation oralcontraceptives. Only 2 components of the hemostatic system (factor VII and activated protein C sensitivity ratio) emerged as potentially differentially affected by second- and third-generation oralcontraceptives; the association with venous thromboembolism risk is questionable in the former case and unknown in the latter.

Oralcontraceptive pills were first approved by the Food and Drug Administration 50 years ago. Discovery of the physiology of reproduction and demonstration of the ability to inhibit ovulation with ovarian extracts laid the early groundwork for the development of contraceptives. Later, characterization of the hormones controlling ovulation and synthesis of progestins allowed production of oralcontraceptives. Modern estrogen and progestin pills have undergone significant changes since their initial introduction. New formulations have been developed, doses have been lowered, and extended use introduced. The Food and Drug Administration has recently approved a new oralcontraceptive containing estradiol valerate and dienogest. This pill contains an orally active estradiol in combination with a progestin with strong endometrial activity. The decreasing estrogen dose combined with an increasing progestin dose decreases the risk of break through bleeding when compared to previous estradiol valerate formulations. The contraceptive efficacy and a tolerability of this new pill are similar to currently marketed low dose combined estrogen-progestin oralcontraceptives.

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To estimate the prevalence of the contraindicated use of oralcontraceptives and the associated factors in Brazilian women. METHODS 20,454 women who answered the VIGITEL survey in 2008 also participated in this study, of which 3,985 reported using oralcontraceptives. We defined the following conditions for the contraindicated use of contraceptives: hypertension; cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, stroke/cerebrovascular accident; diabetes mellitus; being smoker and 35 years old or older. We estimated the prevalence and 95% confidence intervals of contraindicated use in users of oralcontraceptives and the factors associated with contraindication by prevalence ratio and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS In the total population, 21% (95%CI 19.7–21.9) of women showed some contraindication to the use of oralcontraceptives, of which 11.7% (95%CI 10.6–13.7) belonged to the group of users of oralcontraceptives. The most frequent contraindication in users of oralcontraceptives was hypertension (9.1%). The largest proportion of women with at least one contraindication was aged between 45 and 49 years (45.8%) and with education level between zero and eight years (23.8%). The prevalence of contraindication to oralcontraceptives was higher in women less educated (zero to eight years of study) (PR = 2.46; 95%CI 1.57–3.86; p oralcontraceptives. PMID:28099550

A study was conducted on a total of 100 women attending the Family Planning Clinic in Kuala Lumpur. 50 took combined low-dose estrogen and progesterone pills for a year or more and the other 50 used different methods of birth control. Platelet aggregation, ATP release, Thromboxane B2, and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1alpha estimations were made to evaluate the effect of oralcontraceptives (OCs) on platelet function and prostanoid production. The results showed no significant differences in the parameters measured in the 2 groups investigated. These findings are comparable to those reported by other studies, suggesting relatively low risk, if any, of thrombosis in OC users.

Full Text Available This paper summarizes our current knowledge of the role of the oralcontraceptive pill in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBO, followed by a review of fertility in women and men. IBD and pregnancy, including the impact on the fetus and the mother with ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease, is considered. The safety of drug treatment during pregnancy, the outcome of surgical treatment during pregnancy and the problems that may be encountered during pregnancy in patients with an ileostomy or ileo-anal pouch are discussed, followed by a review of the short and long term prognosis of ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease partition.

Full Text Available Gian Benedetto Melis, Marisa Orrù, Maria Francesca Marotto, Monica Pilloni, Mariagrazia Perseu, Stefano Lello, Anna Maria PaolettiClinica Ginecologica Ostetrica e di Fisiopatologia della Riproduzione Umana, Universita' di Cagliari, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria di Cagliari, Cagliari, ItalyAbstract: The pathogenesis of acne (the most common disorder involving the sebaceous gland originates from increased sebum production by the sebaceous gland followed by colonization of the hair follicle with Propionibacterium acnes, hyperkeratinization of the upper follicle, and release of inflammatory mediators into the skin. Androgens are the main stimulators of sebum production. Androgens originate from the gonads and adrenal glands, but can also be locally produced within the sebaceous gland from dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. In the presence of high androgen levels, which can be either a normal pattern of adolescence or a consequence of gonadal or adrenal disease, overproduction of sebum triggers the pathogenesis of acne which, mainly in adolescent women, has deleterious psychological consequences. Estrogens exert the opposite action on sebum production, probably due to the reduction of androgen availability, a direct consequence of estrogen-related increased production of hepatic sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG. The inhibition of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis induced by oralcontraceptives is followed by reduced androgen production. Oralcontraceptives containing ethinyl estradiol, which has strong estrogenic activity, amplify the hypoandrogenic effect via estrogen-related stimulation of SHBG. The hypoandrogenic effect of oralcontraceptives is modulated by the progestin compound. Progestins derived from 19-nortestosterone bind androgenic receptors, whereas others exert antiandrogenic properties by antagonizing the binding of androgens to their receptors, reduce 5α-reductase, and do not bind SHBG. Through this last effect, SHBG is freely

On the assumption that the number of E-rosettable lymphocytes (active T lymphocytes) is an index of cell-mediated immunity, rosette assays were performed at early cycle and at midcycle for 6 women taking oralcontraceptives (OCs) for 1-4 years. OC subjects at midcycle had 21.4% active rosette-forming lymphocytes as compared with 14.1% in controls (p less than .05). The 2 youngest subjects had higher values during the early cycle. These results imply the possibility of hormonal regulation of human T-cell activity.

Knowledge and attitudes of adolescent females regarding the side effects of oralcontraceptives were investigated. The data source was a large study of sexual and contraceptive attitudes and experience. The questionnaire responses of 486 single females attending 10 birth control and pregnancy counseling centers in Ontario, Canada were examined. The age range of the subjects was from 13-20; 71% were attending school and 69% were living at home. They were attending the centers in order to obtain contraceptives (55%), to renew OC prescriptions (20%), or to receive pregnancy counseling (25%). 29% of the subjects had used OCs before coming to the clinic, but 91% planned to use OC after their clinic visit. 8% were planning to use an IUD; 1% were planning to use a diaphragm; and less than 1% were planning to have their boyfriend use condoms. 85% of the subjects indicated that they had heard abut side effcts of OCs with weight gain as the best known side effect. Other side effects familiar to many included nausea, circulatory disorders, headaches, emotional changes, menstrual problems and cancer. About 1/2 of the subjects had learned about these side effects from the mass media or female friends, 25% from a school sex education class, 15% from their mothers, and 3% from a physician. Despite knowledge regarding side effects, most of the subjects had positive attitudes toward OCs with 59% believing that the advnatages outweighed any disadvantages.

Oral hormonal contraceptives are the safest methods for young patients to avoid unwanted pregnancy. They are well accepted and have certain beneficial effects; however, physicians should pay attention to risk factors even when applied in young age. Obesity, dyslipidemia, smoking and oralcontraceptive pills alone or in combination may lead to serious adverse events. Authors present a young woman who developed acute myocardial infarction in association with several unconsidered risk factors including the use of contraceptive pills.

Full Text Available Background and AimsThe continual use of hormonal contraceptives among women within reproductive age has been on the increase. The effects of these contraceptives on lipid metabolism vary depending on the type of hormonal contraceptive. This study was carried out among Nigerian women, to compare theeffects of injectable hormonal contraceptives to that of combined oralcontraceptives on lipid profile (triglyceride, total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol and low density lipo-protein-cholesterol.MethodsThe lipid profile of a total of 83 women (50 of whom were non-users of contraceptives while the remaining 33 used different hormonal contraceptives; 26 of them used the injectable hormonalcontraceptives while 7 used oralcontraceptives were estimated using enzymatic methods except low density lipoprotein- cholesterol (LDL-C which was by calculation.ResultsThere was a significant change (p 0.05 in total cholesterol (TC and high density lipoprotein- cholesterol (HDL-C levels in women on oralcontraceptives, while in injectable hormonal contraceptive users, there was significant change (p < 0.05 in HDL-C and LDL-C, and no significant change in TG and TC levels. The Castelli risk index I and II (TC/HDL-C and LDL-C/HDL-C were more reduced in women using injectable contraceptives (1.65 and 0.45, respectively than in oralcontraceptive users (1.80 and 0.56,respectively.ConclusionThe result indicated that the use of injectable hormonal contraceptives is more beneficial than combined oralcontraceptives among these women.

It is a commonly held belief that combined oralcontraceptive (COC) pills containing an androgenic progestin may be less likely to impair sexual function than COCs containing an anti-androgenic progestin.......It is a commonly held belief that combined oralcontraceptive (COC) pills containing an androgenic progestin may be less likely to impair sexual function than COCs containing an anti-androgenic progestin....

Full Text Available Introduction. Oralcontraceptives, mainly combined monophasic pills, are widely used by young women who expect their physicians to prescribe them safe drugs which will not harm their health and which will simplify their life. Numerous epidemiologic studies have been performed to determine the relation between oralcontraceptive use and the development of neoplasms. Breast cancer. An increased incidence of breast cancer has occurred simultaneously with the growing use of oralcontraceptives. The possibility of a link between the oralcontraceptive use and breast cancer has led to intensive research, but studies have provided inconsistent results causing confusion among clinicians. It was noticed that the risk of breast cancer was slightly elevated in current and recent young oralcontraceptives users. That finding could be influenced by a detection bias or could be due to the biologic effect of the pills. The absolute number of additional breast cancer cases will be very small because of low baseline incidence of the disease in young women. Oralcontraceptives probably promote growth of the already existing cancer, they are probably promoters not initiators of breast cancer. The available data do not provide a conclusive answer that is need. Cervical cancer. Numerous factors may influence the development of cervical cancer. The evidence suggests that current and recent oralcontraceptive users have an increased risk of cervical cancer which decline after discontinuation of the application of medication. Oralcontraceptives might increase the biological vulnerability of the cervix. Cervical cancer develops slowly over a long time period and can be effectively prevented by periodic cervical screening. Fortunately, oralcontraceptives do not mask abnormal cervical citology. Conclusions regarding invasive cervical cancer and oralcontraceptive use are not definitive but if there is any increased risk, it is low. Endometrial cancer. In oral

Oralcontraceptives (OCs) are the most popular type of birth control pills. The study was designed to examine the biochemical changes which occur due to the use of oralcontraceptive pills (OCs). The study was based on the questionnaire for having the information of any reproductive history fasting, age, health, nature of menstrual cycle, bleeding, disease etc and blood profiling for biochemical analysis of the women includes high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG). Lipid profiling was carried out by using a commercially available diagnostic test kits. SPSS was used to analyze the data. The results showed statistically significant differences among users of OCs compared to non-users. Total cholesterol (242.92 +/- 2.842 mg dL(-1)), HDL-C (58.65 +/- 1.098 mg dL(-1)), LDL-C (115.84 +/- 1.266 mg dL(-1)) and triglycerides (105.56 +/- 2.341 mg dL(-1)) were significantly higher compared to the non-users (Total cholesterol 218.49 +/- 1.762, HDL-C 48.17 +/- 0.543, LDL-C 100.321 +/- 0.951 and triglycerides 83.77 +/- 2.299 mg dL(-1)). The result suggests that OCs increase the level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG).

Oralcontraceptives are used since more than 50 years and are very popular due to offering more than 99% confidence in preventing pregnancy. Over 100 million women worldwide use oralcontraceptives. In the UK 27% of women between 16 and 49 y. use pills. In the United States they are about 30%, in Germany - 40%, and in The Netherlands - 60%. According to a study by B. Pehlivanov, 2008, in Bulgaria only 4% of women use OC. (1) Despite the convenience and security, in the U.S.A. 29% of women taking OC interrupt prematurely their use (2), while the percentage of adolescents appears to be higher (3) Earlier studies of the reasons for refusal of OC focus on their influence on the menstrual cycle, as well as on some physical side effects such as the appearance of hair growth, weight gain, bloating etc. They paid very little attention to their impact on mood and sexual behavior of women (4). Newer studies suggest that the side effects associated with mood and sexual behavior proved more powerful factor leading to early termination of the use of OC (5). This paper is a review of the literature and evaluation of the facts presented in studies from different countries. They found a high incidence of symptoms such as anxiety, susceptibility to stress, mood changes, incl. depression, anxiety, increased irritability and affection of sexual desire of women. (6) There are many indications that OC-users are at increased risk of suicide and mental illnesses. (9).

(1) Intrauterine devices (IUDs) are placed in the uterine cavity with the objective of providing long-term contraception, mainly by preventing fertilisation. The best-known IUDs contain copper, but there is also an IUD delivering levonorgestrel, a progestin; (2) How effective are these devices, and what are their adverse effects? To answer these questions, we analysed the literature using the standard Prescrire methodology; (3) T-shaped copper IUDs, with a copper surface area of 380 mm2 on 3 arms, and the levonorgestrel-releasing device, have similar contraceptive efficacy as combined oralcontraceptives that are used correctly. In contrast, IUDs are more effective than oralcontraception used incorrectly; (4) Among IUD users, there are on average about 6 pregnancies per 1000 woman-years. There is less experience with the levonorgestrel IUD which seems to be at least as effective as copper IUDs; (5) The rare intrauterine pregnancies that occur in women using an IUD generally end in miscarriage. About 25% of these pregnancies end in a live birth if the device is left in place, compared to about 90% if the device is removed; (6) Ectopic pregnancies are rarer in IUD users than in women who do not use contraception. However, about one in 20 pregnancies that occur in women using an IUD is ectopic; (7) The IUD is expelled in about 5% to 10% of cases within 5 years, and expulsion recurs in about 30% of these women; (8) Problems such as difficult insertion, pain, bleeding and syncope are reported in less than 1.5% of cases overall; (9) Uterine perforation during insertion is rare, occurring in 0.6 to 16 cases per 1000 insertions, regardless of the type of IUD. The risk of perforation is higher when the IUD is inserted less than 4 to 6 weeks after delivery or elective abortion; (10) During the first 3 months after insertion, the risk of pelvic infection is slightly higher than in the general population, especially in women with pre-existing asymptomatic Chlamydia

Possessing correct therapeutic information on oralcontraceptives is an important prerequisite for the provision of sound advice to women who are using these products. This study examines Egyptian pharmacists' knowledge of pharmacotherapeutic aspects of oralcontraceptives as well as interest in developing skills in providing counseling on oralcontraceptive pills. Community pharmacies throughout Alexandria, Egypt. A cross-sectional survey was self-administered by a random sample of community pharmacists in Alexandria, Egypt. Five multiple choice questions likely to arise when counseling women on oralcontraceptives were constructed. Questions covered compatibility with breastfeeding, precautions, health risks and managing missed pills of oralcontraceptives. Using ordered logistic regression, a model was estimated to predict pharmacists' interest in developing skills in providing counseling on oralcontraceptives. Pharmacists' aggregate scores for knowledge questions and pharmacists' interest in developing skills in providing counseling on oralcontraceptive pills. Of the 181 approached pharmacists, 92 % participated. Twenty one pharmacists (13 %) did not know the correct answer to any question, 122 (73 %) answered one-two correctly, 23 (14 %) answered three-four correctly. No pharmacist answered all five questions correctly. For pharmacists' interest in developing skills in providing counseling on oralcontraceptives, the percentage values for answers were: not interested at all (10.2 %), slightly interested (27.0 %), somewhat interested (23.4 %), interested (30.0 %) and extremely interested (9.6 %). Pharmacists' interest in developing skills in providing counseling on oralcontraceptives was significantly associated with the number of women who requested advice from the pharmacists on oralcontraceptives (OR 1.54, CI 1.24-1.91). In terms of the learning method of preference, percentage values for answers were: attending a workshop (4 %), online course (18

and taking combination-type oralcontraceptives, were randomized to treatment with placebo or a standard combination-type contraceptive pill. The dose-corrected trough plasma concentration of LTG and the ratio of N-2-glucuronide/unchanged LTG on urine after 21 days of concomitant placebo treatment...... was analyzed versus those after 21 days of concomitant treatment with the oralcontraceptive pill. RESULTS: The mean dose-corrected LTG concentration after placebo treatment was 84%[95% confidence interval (CI), 45-134%] higher than after oralcontraceptives, signifying an almost doubling of the concentration......PURPOSE: This study evaluates the effect of oralcontraceptives on lamotrigine (LTG) plasma concentrations and urine excretion of LTG metabolites in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study in patients with epilepsy. METHODS: Women with epilepsy, treated with LTG in monotherapy...

A three-month prospective study of 103 women initiating oralcontraceptive use examined how consistently the women took their pills and whether those who missed pills employed other means to avoid pregnancy. The results showed that 52% took each active pill or never missed more than one pill at a time after the first week of the initial cycle, according to electronic devices that recorded the date and time each pill was removed from the blister pack. Another 21% were protected by behaviors that reduce the risk of pregnancy when two or more consecutive pills have been missed: avoiding coitus for the next seven days (18%) or using backup contraception during that period (3%). The remaining 27% were at increased risk of pregnancy. Predictors of increased risk were receiving low partner support for effective pill use, being unmarried and not considering it especially important to avoid pregnancy. Increased risk was most likely during the first seven days and during the third cycle of pill use.

Post-marketing surveillance of combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) for rare complications such as venous thromboembolism (VTE) presents unique challenges. Prospective studies, which are costly and time consuming, have to date been undertaken by only a few contraceptive manufacturers willing to commit to full evaluation of product safety. Often such studies are conducted with the approval of regulatory authorities as a precondition for marketing. Alternatively, independent investigators with access to large databases have conducted retrospective studies to compare the incidence of VTE between new and older products. Such studies, however, run the risk of erroneous conclusions if they cannot ensure comparable risk profiles for users of these different products. Often database studies are unable to access information on important confounders, and medical records may not be available to validate the actual diagnosis of VTE. "Pill scares" generated following publication and media dissemination of worrisome findings, when the conclusions are in doubt and not corroborated by stronger prospective study designs, are frequently damaging to public health. From a review of recent publications on the VTE risk with drospirenone-containing COCs, it can be concluded that the best quality evidence does not support a difference in risk between users of COCs containing drospirenone and those of COCs containing levonorgestrel.

Aim: To prospectively evaluate the effects of an oralcontraceptive containing the progestin gestodene on carbohydrate metabolism in ordinary Turkish women Material / Method: Carbohydrate metabolism was prospectively evaluated in 53 normal women prior to and during their use of monophasic oralcontraceptive containing the progestin gestodene plus ethinyl estradiol for one year. The women had a two hour oral glucose tolerance test using 75 gram glucose load, measuring serum glucose and ...

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the prevalence of current use of oral and injectable contraceptives by Brazilian women, according to demographic and socioeconomic variables and issues related to access to those medicines. METHODS A cross-sectional, population-based analytical study with probability sampling based on data from the Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM – National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), carried out between September 2013 and February 2014 in 20,404 Brazilian urban households. Prevalence was calculated based on reports from non-pregnant women aged 15-49 on the use of oral or injectable contraceptives. The independent variables were gender, age, level of education, socioeconomic class, Brazilian region and marital status. Also analyzed were access, means of payment, sources, and reported medicines. Statistical analyses considered 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and Pearson Chi-square test to evaluate the statistical significance of differences between groups, considering a 5% significance level. RESULTS Prevalence of use was 28.2% for oralcontraceptives (OC) and 4.5% for injectable contraceptives (IC). The highest prevalence of oralcontraceptives was in the South region (37.5%) and the lowest in the North region (15.7%). For injectable contraceptives there was no difference between regions. Access was higher for oralcontraceptive users (90.7%) than injectable contraceptives users (81.2%), as was direct payment (OC 78.1%, IC 58.0%). Users who paid for contraceptives acquired them at retail pharmacies (OC 95.0% and IC 86.6%) and at Farmácia Popular (Popular Pharmacy Program) (OC 4.8% and IC 12.7%). Free of charge contraceptives were mostly obtained from the Brazilian Unified Health System – SUS (OC 86.7%; IC 96.0%). Free samples were reported by 10.4% of users who did not pay for oralcontraceptives. Most of paying users did not try to obtain

Full Text Available ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the prevalence of current use of oral and injectable contraceptives by Brazilian women, according to demographic and socioeconomic variables and issues related to access to those medicines. METHODS A cross-sectional, population-based analytical study with probability sampling based on data from the Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM – National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines, carried out between September 2013 and February 2014 in 20,404 Brazilian urban households. Prevalence was calculated based on reports from non-pregnant women aged 15-49 on the use of oral or injectable contraceptives. The independent variables were gender, age, level of education, socioeconomic class, Brazilian region and marital status. Also analyzed were access, means of payment, sources, and reported medicines. Statistical analyses considered 95% confidence intervals (95%CI and Pearson Chi-square test to evaluate the statistical significance of differences between groups, considering a 5% significance level. RESULTS Prevalence of use was 28.2% for oralcontraceptives (OC and 4.5% for injectable contraceptives (IC. The highest prevalence of oralcontraceptives was in the South region (37.5% and the lowest in the North region (15.7%. For injectable contraceptives there was no difference between regions. Access was higher for oralcontraceptive users (90.7% than injectable contraceptives users (81.2%, as was direct payment (OC 78.1%, IC 58.0%. Users who paid for contraceptives acquired them at retail pharmacies (OC 95.0% and IC 86.6% and at Farmácia Popular (Popular Pharmacy Program (OC 4.8% and IC 12.7%. Free of charge contraceptives were mostly obtained from the Brazilian Unified Health System – SUS (OC 86.7%; IC 96.0%. Free samples were reported by 10.4% of users who did not pay for oralcontraceptives. Most of paying users did not try to

Combination oralcontraceptives (OCs) (those that contain estrogen and progestin) are widely used in the treatment of acne because they modify an excessively androgenic hormonal environment and can decrease lesions. Dermatologists' knowledge of the most appropriate OC may be hampered by an incomplete understanding of these agents, misleading promotion, and confusion surrounding the new generation of OCs. Despite reports attributing significance to the degree of androgenicity of the progestin components of OCs, in vitro and animal bioassays of androgenicity have little clinical relevance. Because all of today's low-dose combination OCs are estrogen dominant, they are equally beneficial in women with androgenic conditions such as acne. Use of the OC containing the lowest dose of each hormone, consistent with the patient's needs, can enhance compliance by preventing or limiting common early-cycle side effects (e.g., nausea/vomiting, breast tenderness, weight gain, headache), while providing acne improvement.

A comparative study was conducted to assess the biochemical effects of a low-estrogen combined OC (oralcontraceptive). The focus of the study was on possible biochemical effects indicative of altered nutritional status. Both low and high income women on pills were compared with others not on pills. The groups were further divided according to the duration of OC usage. Blood hemoglobin, serum Vitamin A, plasma ascorbic acid, folic acid, riboflavin, and aspartate transaminase levels were measured. Higher income women had better measures on all the indices than the low income women, indicating a better initial nutritional status. Deficiencies increased with duration of use. Results of the study show that OCs reduce the vitamin nutritional level in women. For poor women on OCs, special nutrition intervention programs should be instituted.

In order to reduce the side-effects (blood-lipid alterations, androgen effects etc.) new gestogens were introduced, while the ethinyl-estradiol component of the pill was unchanged. Authors report about clinical trial on monophasic oralcontraceptive containing 0.030 mg ethinyl-estradiol and 0.075 mg gestodene. In a follow up of 92 women, in 1740 cycles no pregnancy and no cardivascular or thromboembolic complication was observed. The frequency of bleeding disorders was below 10% already in the first cycle. The quantity of withdrawal bleeding, as well the frequency of breakthrough bleeding and spotting decreased during the treatment. Significant alteration in body weight or blood pressure did not occur. Femoden containing third generation gestogen has an excellent cycle control and good patient compliance.

The introduction of conscience clauses after the 1973 US Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade allowed physicians and nurses to opt out of medical procedures, particularly abortions, to which they were morally opposed. In recent years pharmacists have requested the same consideration with regard to dispensing some medicines. This paper examines the pharmacists' role and their professional and moral obligations to patients in the light of recent refusals by pharmacists to dispense oralcontraceptives. A review of John Rawls's concepts of the "original position" and the "veil of ignorance", along with consideration of the concept of compartmentalisation, are used to assess pharmacists' requests and the moral and legal rights of patients to have their prescriptive needs met.

Stroke is a devastating disease affecting millions of people worldwide every year. Female stroke victims have higher mortality rates and they do not re-cover as well as men. Women's longevity and different vascular risk factor burden like a larger prevalence of atrial fibrillation play a role. Women also have unique risk factors such as oralcontraception, pregnancy, estrogen decrease after the menopause and hormone replacement therapy, which should all be evaluated and taken into consideration in treatment decisions both in the acute phase of stroke and in secondary prevention. In this review, the evidence regarding these hormonal aspects and the risk of stroke in women are evaluated. The relevant guidelines are studied and research gaps identified. Future topics for research are recommended and current treatment possibilities and their risks discussed.

Full Text Available The incidence of multiple sclerosis (MS is rising in women.To determine whether the use of combined oralcontraceptives (COCs are associated with MS risk and whether this varies by progestin content.We conducted a nested case-control study of females ages 14-48 years with incident MS or clinically isolated syndrome (CIS 2008-2011 from the membership of Kaiser Permanente Southern California. Controls were matched on age, race/ethnicity and membership characteristics. COC use up to ten years prior to symptom onset was obtained from the complete electronic health record.We identified 400 women with incident MS/CIS and 3904 matched controls. Forty- percent of cases and 32% of controls had used COCs prior to symptom onset. The use of COCs was associated with a slightly increased risk of MS/CIS (adjusted OR = 1.52, 95%CI = 1.21-1.91; p<0.001. This risk did not vary by duration of COC use. The association varied by progestin content being more pronounced for levenorgestrol (adjusted OR = 1.75, 95%CI = 1.29-2.37; p<0.001 than norethindrone (adjusted OR = 1.57, 95%CI = 1.16-2.12; p = 0.003 and absent for the newest progestin, drospirenone (p = 0.95.Our findings should be interpreted cautiously. While the use of some combination oralcontraceptives may contribute to the rising incidence of MS in women, an unmeasured confounder associated with the modern woman's lifestyle is a more likely explanation for this weak association.

The aim of this open, noncontrolled phase III study was the assessment of the contraceptive efficacy and the evaluation of the safety of long-term use of Belara (30 micrograms ethinyl estradiol plus 2 mg chlormadinone acetate). Furthermore, cycle stability during administration of Belara and the influence of Belara on acne and seborrhea as clinical signs of androgenization were observed. Belara was taken by 1655 women for a total of 22,337 cycles. For the theoretical Pearl index, a value of 0.269 (95% CI [0.109, 0.600]) was calculated. In 1655 of 22,337 cycles (7.4%), no withdrawal bleeding was documented, whereas in 2565 of 22,308 cycles (11.5%), spottings and, in 786 of 22,308 cycles (3.5%), breakthrough bleeding occurred. After the intake of Belara for 12 cycles, acne on the face/neck improved in 64.1% of the women (209 of 326). In 53.4% of the women (175 of 326), acne disappeared completely. Seborrhea improved after 12 cycles in 89 of 131 women (67.9%), of whom 76 women (58.0%) were completely cured. Sixty-two serious adverse events (SAE) occurred in 59 of 1655 women. Accidents and injuries of the musculoskeletal system were the SAE with the highest incidence (0.66%). Two cases of deep venous thrombosis, one pulmonary embolism, and two cases of visual disturbances were observed. Only for the two cases of deep venous thrombosis could a relation to Belara be assumed. Of the adverse events commonly reported for oralcontraceptives, headache was observed for the first time under study medication in 37.4%, nausea in 23.1%, breast tenderness in 21.7%, and vaginal discharge in 19.4% of the women. The frequency of adverse events decreased with longer duration of a drug consisting of intake of Belara. In conclusion, Belara can be described as an effective and safe oralcontraceptive with marked antiandrogenic properties.

Although acne is seldom associated with high serum levels of androgens, it has been shown that female acne patients have definite increases in ovarian and adrenal androgen levels when compared to appropriate controls. As shown in several pilot and in multiple open and comparative studies, oralcontraceptives (OCs) are effective in causing a significant regression of mild to moderate acne. These results have been confirmed by multicentre randomized trials where low-dose OCs did not cause side effects different from those of the placebo-controlled group. The beneficial effect of OCs is related to a decrease in ovarian and adrenal androgen precursors; to an increase in sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), which limits free testosterone; and to a decrease in 3a-androstenediol glucuronide conjugate, the catabolite of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) formed in peripheral tissues. The estrogen-progestin combination containing cyproterone acetate (CPA) is particularly effective in treating acne, since this progestin also has a direct peripheral anti-androgenic action in blocking the androgen receptor. Only two open studies and one randomized study on small numbers of patients have reported some efficacy of spironolactone used alone or in combination with an OC in the treatment of acne. The new non-steroidal anti-androgens flutamide and finasteride are being evaluated for the treatment of hirsutism. Oral antibiotics are prescribed to patients with inflammatory lesions, where they are effective in decreasing the activity of microbes, the activity of microbial enzymes, and leukocyte chemotaxis. Concomitant intake of an OC and an antibiotic usually prescribed for acne does not impair the contraceptive efficacy of the OC. A second effective contraceptive method should be used whenever there would be decreased absorption or efficacy of the OC (digestive problems, breakthrough bleeding), lack of compliance and use of a type or dose of antibiotic different from that usually prescribed

Full Text Available ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To estimate the prevalence of the contraindicated use of oralcontraceptives and the associated factors in Brazilian women. METHODS 20,454 women who answered the VIGITEL survey in 2008 also participated in this study, of which 3,985 reported using oralcontraceptives. We defined the following conditions for the contraindicated use of contraceptives: hypertension; cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, stroke/cerebrovascular accident; diabetes mellitus; being smoker and 35 years old or older. We estimated the prevalence and 95% confidence intervals of contraindicated use in users of oralcontraceptives and the factors associated with contraindication by prevalence ratio and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS In the total population, 21% (95%CI 19.7–21.9 of women showed some contraindication to the use of oralcontraceptives, of which 11.7% (95%CI 10.6–13.7 belonged to the group of users of oralcontraceptives. The most frequent contraindication in users of oralcontraceptives was hypertension (9.1%. The largest proportion of women with at least one contraindication was aged between 45 and 49 years (45.8% and with education level between zero and eight years (23.8%. The prevalence of contraindication to oralcontraceptives was higher in women less educated (zero to eight years of study (PR = 2.46; 95%CI 1.57–3.86; p < 0.05 and with age between 35-44 years (PR = 4.00; 95%CI 2.34–6.83 and 45-49 years (PR = 5.59; 95%CI 2.90–10.75. CONCLUSIONS Age greater than or equal to 35 and low education level were demographic and iniquity factors, respectively, in the contraindicated use of oralcontraceptives.

A 2012 WHO consultation concluded that combined oralcontraception (COC) does not increase HIV acquisition in women, but the evidence for depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) is conflicting. We evaluated the effect of COC and DMPA use on the vaginal microbiome because current evidence suggests that any deviation from a 'healthy' vaginal microbiome increases women's susceptibility to HIV. We conducted a systematic review and reanalysed the Hormonal Contraception and HIV Acquisition (HC-HIV) study. Vaginal microbiome outcomes included bacterial vaginosis by Nugent scoring, vaginal candidiasis by culture or KOH wet mount and microbiome compositions as characterized by molecular techniques. Our review of 36 eligible studies found that COC and DMPA use reduce bacterial vaginosis by 10-20 and 18-30%, respectively. The HC-HIV data showed that COC and DMPA use also reduce intermediate microbiota (Nugent score of 4-6) by 11% each. In contrast, COC use (but not DMPA use) may increase vaginal candidiasis. Molecular vaginal microbiome studies (n=4) confirm that high oestrogen levels favour a vaginal microbiome composition dominated by 'healthy' Lactobacillus species; the effects of progesterone are less clear and not well studied. DMPA use does not increase HIV risk by increasing bacterial vaginosis or vaginal candidiasis. COC use may predispose for vaginal candidiasis, but is not believed to be associated with increased HIV acquisition. However, the potential role of Candida species, and vaginal microbiome imbalances other than bacterial vaginosis or Candida species, in HIV transmission cannot yet be ruled out. Further in-depth molecular studies are needed.

Community-based services (CBS) have long used checklists to determine eligibility for contraceptive method use, in particular for combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) and the 3-month injectable contraceptive depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). As safety information changes, however, checklists can quickly become outdated. Inconsistent checklists and eligibility criteria often cause uneven access to contraceptives. In 1996, WHO produced updated eligibility criteria for the use of all contraceptive methods. Based on these criteria, new checklists for COCs and DMPA were developed. This article describes the new checklists and their development. Several rounds of expert review produced checklists that were correct, comprehensible and consistent with the eligibility requirements. Nevertheless, field-testing of the checklists revealed that approximately half (48%) of the respondents felt that one or more questions still needed greater comprehensibility. These findings indicated the need for a checklist guide. In March 2000, WHO convened a meeting of experts to review the medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. The article reflects also the resulting updated checklist. PMID:10994285

Following myomectomy the rate of fertility is restored and pregnancy may be attempted with a good outcome. In the present study a 3 month treatment with OCs in a group of women after a myomectomy was evaluated. The drug compliance and side effects, the benefits of OC in order to reduce symptoms, to increase post-surgical hemoglobin levels and to avoid an early pregnancy after myomectomy were analyzed. A group of women (n = 55) each with myoma >/=5 cm was recruited: they presented menorrhagia, pelvic pain, dyspareunia and dysmenorrhae. After laparotomic myomectomy the women were divided into 3 groups. Group 1: women (n = 16) treated with pill A (15 mcg of ethynilestradiol + 60 mcg of gestodene); group 2: women (n = 23) treated with pill B (20 mcg of ethynilestradiol + 100 mcg of levonorgestrel); group 3: women (n = 16) treated with a placebo (oral calcium). After three months from myomectomy and treatment patients in each group reported a reduced menorrhagia, dismenorrhea and pelvic pain. Serum haemoglobin levels increased in all women (P < .05). No pregnancy occurred in any group and the compliance was good. A post surgery treatment by using oralcontraceptives guarentees pregnancy prevention, associated with reduction of pain, and improvement of haematologic conditions.

The article offers a general interpretation of the influence of oralcontraceptive agents on glucose tolerance, emphasizing comparisons of synthetic sex hormones. Although there are conflicting reports on steroid-induced diabetes in normal women, their glucose curves are often higher when under oralcontraceptive treatment, suggesting that oralcontraceptives may induce a form of subclinical diabetes melitus that is reversible. Evidence from diabetic women suggests definite deliterious effects from contraceptive administration. Estradiol, estriol, and estrone may improve glucose tolerance in nondiabetic women and reduce insulin requirements in diabetics. Progesterone has little effect on carbohydrate tolerance, as did synthetic progestin. Conjugated equine estrogens (equilenine or Premarin) may provoke mild to moderate deterioration of carbohydrate tolerance. Parenterally administered natural estrogens and orally administered synthetic derivatives appear to differ sharply in their effects. Sex hormones' effects on carbohydrate metabolism likely involve interactions with insulin and endogenous glucocorticoids.

The anatomy of the thrombus in acute deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in women using oralcontraceptives was studied in 277 reports on DVT received by the Swedish Adverse Drug Reaction Advisory Committee (SADRAC). The study revealed a similarity between the anatomy of DVT in women on oralcontraceptives and that of DVT in pregnant women, suggesting a pharmacologic influence of the hormones in the pill on the pathogenesis of DVT in women on oralcontraceptives. The anatomy of DVT in women on low-estrogen pills was identical with that of DVT in women on high-estrogen pills, suggesting an identical pharmacologic influence of the two types of pill on the pathogenesis of DVT in women on oralcontraceptives.

Full Text Available Young-Mo Yang, Eun Joo Choi College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju, South Korea Background: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS is an endocrinopathy that affects approximately 10% of reproductive-aged women throughout their lives. Women with PCOS present with heterogeneous symptoms including ovulatory dysfunction, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries. Therefore, lifelong individualized management should be considered. Pharmacological agents commonly used to manage the symptoms are metformin and oralcontraceptive pills. Although these medications have been beneficial in treating PCOS symptoms, their efficacy and safety are still not entirely elucidated. This study aimed to report the efficacy and safety of metformin, oralcontraceptives, or their combination in the treatment of PCOS and to define their specific individual roles.Methods: A literature search of original studies published in PubMed and Scopus was conducted to identify studies comparing metformin with oralcontraceptives or evaluating the combination of both in PCOS. Results: Eight clinical trials involving 313 patients were examined in the review. The intervention dosage of metformin ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 mg/d and that of oralcontraceptives was ethinylestradiol 35 µg and cyproterone acetate 2 mg. Lower body mass index was observed with regimens including metformin, but increased body mass index was observed in monotherapy with oralcontraceptives. Administration of metformin or oralcontraceptives, especially as monotherapy, had a negative effect on lipid profiles. In addition, there are still uncertainties surrounding the effects of metformin or oralcontraceptives in the management of insulin level, although they improved total testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin levels. In the included studies, significant side effects due to metformin or oralcontraceptives were not reported. Conclusion: The clinical trials suggest that metformin or oral

Background: It is noted that oralcontraceptive pills increase the risk of abnormal Pap smear but results have been inconsistent across the populations. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the association between oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) consumption and abnormal Pap smear in women who referred to Shahid Sadoughi and Madar hospitals in Yazd. Materials and Methods: A cross sectional descriptive study was carried out and a database of all Pap smear reports from 2009-2011 at Cytopa...

Loss of libido associated with the use of oralcontraceptives has been studied in 113 women of reproductive age who had taken a combined pill for periods ranging from 1 to 3 years. The patients were divided in four groups. In the first group (I) of 24 women oralcontraceptive treatment was discontinued and all women received in intra-uterine contraceptive device (IUCD). The second group (II) of 36 patients, the brand of oralcontraceptive was changed. Women in group (III) had their oralcontraceptive maintained receiving in addition a mixture of an androgen and an estrogen (methyltestosterone 4 mg and ethynilestradiol 0.002 mg) daily. To women of group (IV) the oralcontraceptive was discontinued but the androgen-estrogen mixture was given. All women in this group received an IUCD. Evaluation of the psyco-sexual parameters included changes in libido, time to reach an orgasm, duration and intensity or orgasms. Frequency of intercourse and response to autostimulation was also investigated. Libido was restored in 94.2% of patients in group II, in 97.3% of group III and in 92.8% of group IV. In group I only 55.6% of patients had libido fully restored. In view of the prompt restoration of libido in all groups except in patients discontinuing oralcontraceptive therapy, it is suggested that loss of libido in oralcontraceptive users has an important physological component which can be overcome probably by psychotherapy. Short term treatment with a mixture of methyltestosterone and ethynilestradiol seems to be highly effective in restoring libido in all patients.

Full Text Available Background & aim: Sexual health is an essential element of quality of life, affecting both physical and psychological domains. Hormones used in contraceptive methods have contradictory effects on sexual function. In this study, we aimed to compare sexual function in women using combined oralcontraceptives (COC and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA, referred to healthcare centers affiliated to Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences in Tehran, Iran in 2013. Methods: This descriptive, comparative study was performed on 240 women (n=120 per group, selected through multistage sampling in Tehran, Iran. A questionnaire consisting of three parts, General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28, demographic characteristics, and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI, was completed through interviews. For data analysis, descriptive statistics were calculated, and independent t-test, Mann-Whitney test, Chi-square, and Fisher's exact test were performed, using SPPS version 16. P-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The mean age at marriage in women using DMPA was lower than those using COC (18.55±3.61 vs. 19.92±3.98 years. Based on the findings, the menstrual status in the majority of DMPA users was irregular (46.7% in DMPA group vs. 8.3% in COC group. The difference in sexual function between the COC and DMPA groups was significant. Sexual arousal and lubrication were more favorable in the COC group in comparison with the DMPA group; also, pain in this group was lower than the DMPA group. Scores of total sexual function (27.35±5.22 in DMPA group vs. 29.15±6.13 in COC group, sexual arousal (4.11±0.90 in DMPA group vs. 4.51±1.39 in COC group, and vaginal lubrication (4.82±1.30 in DMPA group vs. 5.26±1.35 in COC group were lower in the DMPA group, compared to the COC group. Pain scores (4.91±1.25 in DMPA group vs. 5.28±1.19 in COC group were higher in the DMPA group in comparison with the COC group (P

, adolescent girls have more pauses and shifts between types of hormonal contraceptives. Since 2010 there has been a shift toward use of second generation oralcontraceptives away from third and fourth generation contraceptives. CONCLUSION: Adolescent girls tend to initiate their use of oralcontraceptives...... at a younger age than the older cohorts do. Furthermore, they have more pauses and shift between products more frequently than older cohorts. The type of oralcontraceptive used has shifted since 2010 towards older products with second generation progestins. FUNDING: The study was funded by salaries from North......INTRODUCTION: Use of hormonal contraceptives for birth control is commonplace in the Western World. In Europe, there is considerable variety in the frequency of use of hormonal contraceptives and in the age at which these contraceptives are initiated. The purpose of the present study...

Full Text Available Aim: To prospectively evaluate the effects of an oralcontraceptive containing the progestin gestodene on carbohydrate metabolism in ordinary Turkish women Material / Method: Carbohydrate metabolism was prospectively evaluated in 53 normal women prior to and during their use of monophasic oralcontraceptive containing the progestin gestodene plus ethinyl estradiol for one year. The women had a two hour oral glucose tolerance test using 75 gram glucose load, measuring serum glucose and insulin level, performed at the beginning of the contraceptive therapy and after one year. Results: The results demonstrate no significant changes in either of carbohydrate metabolic indices between the two tests. Conclusion: The progestin containing contraceptive pill can be safely used in consideration of the carbohydrate metabolism.

Management of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and decisions about contraception are being influenced by reports that oralcontraceptives decrease the risk of PID. To evaluate the validity of this association, we have examined published epidemiologic evidence and reviewed relevant information from other disciplines. Current information does not permit the generalization that oralcontraceptives protect against all forms of PID. Most studies conducted (1) have been limited to hospitalized women, who represent less than 25% of all PID cases and are likely to have relatively severe forms of the disease, and (2) have failed to distinguish between gonococcal and nongonococcal PID. While oralcontraceptives may provide some protection against gonococcal PID, no basis exists for assuming similar protection is provided against chlamydial PID. In fact, epidemiologic and biologic evidence suggests that infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, the leading cause of nongonococcal PID, is enhanced by oralcontraceptives. We judge the conclusion that oralcontraceptives protect against all PID to be premature, and urge caution in its application in health policy and clinical decisions.

Full Text Available Doctor's perception of oralcontraceptive products is very important for social marketing. Though the obvious and important use of oralcontraceptives is to prevent unwanted pregnancy, it is also found that awareness regarding non-contraceptive health benefit use of oralcontraceptives is increasing. As oralcontraceptives have a lot of side effects, normally doctors go for low dose pills to avoid inconvenience and risk when prescribing a patient. In many cases, doctors give their own judgment on the basis of a number of factors in defining low dose pills. It is evident that Nordette 28 and Marvelon are considered to be almost near considering the attributes – less side effect, low dose, reasonable price and patient's preference. Femicon is separated from the rest of the group due to its low price and is perceived by the doctors as the least quality oralcontraceptive. Doctors usually like to prescribe Ovostat and Marvelon to those patients who have more purchasing ability and considers price as a quality factor.

Riboflavin depletion has been identified in women on oralcontraceptives (OC) but change in riboflavin nutriture has not been consistently demonstrated in all OC user groups studied. Discrepant findings in reports have been attributed to differences of pill formulation or riboflavin intake. Aims of this study were to compare the riboflavin requirements of healthy OC users and nonusers on diets prepared in a metabolic unit. A single daily menu and meal pattern was used. The basic diet providing riboflavin at a level of 0.6 mg/1000 kcal was used in the period of acclimation and period 1. In periods 2 and 3, the riboflavin content of the diet was increased to 0.8 and 1.0 mg/1000 kcal, respectively. The riboflavin status of subjects was monitored by erythrocyte glutathione reductase assay and urinary riboflavin excretion. Eight women on OC and 10 nonusers participated. Erythrocyte glutathione reductase assay values and urinary riboflavin excretion showed intersubject and interperiod differences but no significant group differences (OC versus non-OC) in erythrocyte glutathione reductase values or in urinary riboflavin per g creatinine. It was concluded that when dietary intake is controlled, OC do not significantly influence riboflavin status. Riboflavin needs were related to energy requirements of the subjects.

Female guinea pigs were given daily doses of a combination of oralcontraceptive (OC) agents, consisting of mestranol and norethynodrel suspended in sesame oil or distilled H2O, and were infected in the genital tract with the chlamydial agent of guinea pig inclusion conjunctivitis (GPIC). Counts of chlamydial inclusions in cells of vaginal smears collected during infection, showed prolongation and enhancement of infection in OC-treated animals as compared with controls. Appearance of IgG and IgA antibodies to GPIC in genital secretions, as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), was also delayed in OC-treated animals as compared with controls. OC-treated infected animals were killed on days 15 and 43, and gross pathological evidence for ascending infection culminating in salpingitis was found in all of five and four of five animals, respectively. On the other hand, among untreated infected controls on each sacrifice day, only one of five animals had any evidence for ascending infection. Chlamydiae were detected by light and electron microscopy in fallopian tube tissue collected on day 15 following OC-treatment but not in tissue from control animals.

High serum copper concentration--a well-known effect of oralcontraceptive (OC) use--has been linked to increased mortality from cardiovascular disease. The influence of OCs containing newer progestins has not been investigated, however. This concern was addressed in a 1987-88 cross-sectional epidemiologic study of 610 nonpregnant, nonlactating West German women 18-44 years of age. 195 women (32.1%) were current OC users, but only 152 of these women were able to cite the name of the formulation they were taking. In 70% of cases, the OC contained less than 45 mcg of ethylestradiol (median dose, 32.4 mcg). The most common progestin components were desogestrel (41%) and levonorgestrel (30%). Mean serum copper concentration was higher among users of all types of OCs than among non-users, but this concentration varied more strongly according to the OC's progestin compound than its estrogen content. The greatest increase in serum copper (55% compared with non-users) was recorded in users of OCs containing anti-androgen progestins, followed by desogestrel (46%), norethisterone/lynestrenol (42%), and levonorgestrel (34%). The increase in serum copper was more pronounced in women taking OCs containing 45 mcg or less of ethylestradiol than in users of OCs with a high estrogen dose. In the regression models, the different progestin compounds alone explained 28% of the total variance in serum copper concentration. Further investigation of OC-induced increases in serum copper concentration and their impact on cardiovascular risk are warranted.

Although combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are a safe and highly effective method of birth control, they may also give rise to problems of clinical tolerability in migraine patients. Indeed, headache is among the most common side effects reported with the use of COCs, frequently leading to their being discontinued. The latest International Classification of Headache Disorders identified at least two entities evidently related to the use of COCs, i.e., exogenous hormone-induced headache and estrogen-withdrawal headache. As to the former, the newest formulations of COCs are generally well tolerated by migraine without aura patients, but can worsen headache in migraine with aura patients. Headache associated with COCs, generally, tends to improve as their use continues. However, although it is not yet clear if there is an association between headache and the composition of COCs (both in the type and amount of hormones), it has been observed that the incidence of headache during COC use seems greater if migraine is associated with menstrual trigger. The estrogen-withdrawal headache is a headache that generally appears within the first 5 days after cessation of estrogen use and resolves within 3 days, even if in some cases it may appear on the sixth or seventh day after pill suspension and lasts more than 3 days.

The purpose of this study is to explore predictors of inconsistent use of oralcontraceptives (OCs) in rural Bangladesh. A total of 801 rural OC users were included in the study, about half of them (49%) missed one or more active pill(s) during the 6 months before the survey.Multivariate analysis revealed that Muslim women were 60% more likely to be inconsistent OC users compared to their non-Muslim counterparts. Women who lacked knowledge about contraindications were 60% more likely to take the pill inconsistently than were women who had the knowledge. Women who were not visited by family planning workers or did not have access to mass media were 40% more likely to be inconsistent OC users.OC users need increased information about correct OC use, which could be provided via improved access to mass media with specific messages on how to use OCs properly. Better access to the community clinics could improve the pill-taking behaviors of rural Bangladeshi women.

Combined oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) have been used in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) for the treatment of menstrual disorders, acne and hirsutism. Despite years of their use and broad clinical experience, there are still ongoing doubts concerning their implications for the cardiovascular system and carbohydrate metabolism both in the general population and women with PCOS. In the general population, the risk of venous thromboembolism is reported to be increased. However, arterial thrombotic events seem to require concomitant risk factors to appear during administration of OCPs. In terms of carbohydrate metabolism, available data do not consistently suggest an increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or conversion of IGT to type 2 diabetes mellitus, in spite of some subtle fluctuations in glucose and insulin levels. In subgroup analyses of epidemiological studies in the general population, there is no finding indicating an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and related mortality in premenopausal women with PCOS. There is no significant alteration in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism after use of OCP in PCOS either. The absence of further cardiometabolic risk with OCP use in PCOS might suggest some unproven preventive alterations in this patient population.

Some of the effects of oralcontraceptives (OCs) to alter glucoregulation may be ameliorated by exercise. To test this premise, the effects of acute aerobic exercise on postprandial glucose, insulin, and C-peptide responses (area under the curve [AUC]) were measured in 8 users of low-dose estrogen and progestin OCs (OC(+)) and 10 women not using OCs (OC(-)). They completed 2 randomly ordered intervention trials: (1) aerobic exercise on 3 consecutive days with a 2.5-hour, 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) on day 4, and (2) no exercise for 3 days prior to the OGTT (control trial). The exercise was 50 minutes of treadmill walking at 70% (.-)VO(2max). The groups were similar in age (27 +/- 3 years), waist-to-hip ratio (0.74 +/- 0.01), and cardiorespiratory fitness (32.5 +/- 1.6 mL x kg body mass(-1) x min(-1)). Fasting plasma glucose, C-peptide, and insulin levels were similar (P >.05) between groups in the control trial. In both trials, glucose(AUC) was significantly greater (13%, P

In October 1995, a "pill scare" developed in Europe. In the Netherlands, the recommendations given were 1) to not alarm women without risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and 2) to be reserved in prescribing third generation oralcontraceptives (OC) for young women who were beginning OC use. To dete

In October 1995, a "pill scare" developed in Europe. In the Netherlands, the recommendations given were 1) to not alarm women without risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and 2) to be reserved in prescribing third generation oralcontraceptives (OC) for young women who were beginning OC use. To dete

Oralcontraceptives have many advantages, but sometimes also have side effects which can cause users to switch appropriately or inappropriately to less effective methods or abandon contraception. In Brazil, 2/3 of married women of childbearing age were using contraception in 1981, and 1/2 of these were using orals. Contraceptive behavior following reported side effects in users of oralcontraceptives in Southern Brazil is examined in this study, in relation to diverse factors. Among 2904 currently-married women, aged 15-44, almost 75% reported that they had used the pill at some time, and of these, 45.6% were still doing so. Data on perceived side effects were gathered for all women. There was no independent medical evaluation of the effects, so the data did not necessarily represent actual prevalence of pill related problems. Women who reported problems with the pill were less likely to be current users (25%) than women who did not (65%). However, overall contraceptive prevalence was about the same in both groups (66.2% and 67.0% respectively), indicating that women who stop using oralcontraceptives usually switch to another method. However, they are more likely to be using traditional methods than women in the general population, especially if they want more children. Termination of pill use varies little according to the type of problem reported. Women with problems who sought medical attention were more likely to stop using the pill, and 82.4% of women advised to stop by their physician did so, but the major factor affecting discontinuation was the reported experience of a problem. The most frequently reported problems were headaches (38.1%), nausea (34.1%), nervousness (27.9%), and vertigo (18.3%). Physician intervention should help to avoid women's abandoning oralcontraceptives unnecessarily.

Although they provide birth control and are easier to use, oralcontraceptives (OCPs) are not the preferred approach to preventing sexually transmitted disease (STD). Do the knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of oralcontraceptive users place them at greater risk for STDs than those who employ barrier methods? This study examined differences between sexually active female college students (ie, those who reported ever having had vaginal intercourse) who used OCPs and those who employed barrier methods of contraception at the time of their most recent intercourse. The authors analyzed HIV- and other STD-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors from three consecutive annual health surveys of young women about to begin their first year of college. Findings showed barrier and OCP users to be comparable in knowledge about the effectiveness of various contraceptive methods in protecting them against STDs, perceived personal susceptibility to HIV, and experiences with alcohol before sexual intercourse. Oralcontraceptive users, compared with those in the group who used barrier methods, reported a greater number of recent partners (p less than .03) and greater perceived vulnerability to STDs (p less than .03). Student healthcare providers must develop creative educational strategies to encourage simultaneous use of both oralcontraceptives and barrier methods to protect students against STDs and pregnancy.

Full Text Available Christopher U Iklaki,1 John E Inaku,2 John E Ekabua,1 Patience O Odusolu,1 Charles O Njoku11Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria; 2Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar, NigeriaAbstract: The objective of this study was to find out about the use of combined oralcontraceptive pills by women in Calabar, Nigeria, with a particular interest in single nulliparous teenage women. During the period from 2006 to 2010, a total of 1980 women seen in the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital's family planning unit used various methods of contraception. Of these, 316 (15.96% used combined oralcontraceptive pills. Twenty girls aged between 13 and 19 years accounted for 6.3% of those who used combined oralcontraceptive pills. There were 296 (93.6% women between the ages of 20 and 34 years who accounted for the remaining users. Of these women, 195 (61.5% were educated to the secondary level, and 34 (10.8% were educated to primary level. No women without formal education used combined oralcontraceptive pills during the period of study. The majority of the users were nulliparous (128; 40.4%; the rest had parity values of at least one to more than four. One hundred thirty-seven (43.4% of the users were single, 112 (35.4% were married, and the remaining 67 (21.1% were separated, divorced, or widowed. There is a growing need to educate young Nigerian women about the use of combined oralcontraceptive pills; this medication is suitable and effective for most young women, and it also has additional noncontraceptive health benefits.Keywords: combined, oral, contraception, pills

Full Text Available Background: Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is the most common cause of abnormal uterine bleeding. It can cause anemia, reduces the quality of life and increases healthcare costs. The present study was carried out to study the efficacy of ormeloxifene and compare it to combined oralcontraceptive pills in the treatment of dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Methods: 140 patients with dysfunctional uterine bleeding were selected randomly and divided into 2 groups of 70 each. Group A was given ormeloxifene tablet 60 mg twice a week for 12 weeks followed by 60 mg once a week for next 12 weeks. Group B was given low dose oralcontraceptive pills containing 30 and #956;g of ethinyl estradiol and 150 and #956;g levonorgestrel from day 1 of the menstrual cycle to day 21 for 6 consecutive cycles. Follow up for six months on every cycle was done to assess the symptoms in the form of amount of bleeding (which was assessed by pictorial blood loss assessment chart score, recurrence of symptoms and also the side effects of each drug. Patient's improvement was assessed by performing blood hemoglobin level. Patient's level of satisfaction was judged by general health, limitation of social activity, sexual life and patient's wish to continue treatment with the same drug. Results: The reduction in mean pictorial blood loss assessment score with ormeloxifene (174 to 75 was significantly more than with oralcontraceptive pills (171 to 106 at 6 months (P 0.05. Recurrence of symptoms was 11% with ormeloxifene and 24% with oralcontraceptive pills. The side effects were minimal in both the groups. 68.6% patients with ormeloxifene and 47.2% with oralcontraceptive pills were highly satisfied with their treatment. Conclusions: Ormeloxifene is more effective, with convenient dose schedule, well tolerated, with better compliance and shows less recurrence rate in treatment of dysfunctional uterine bleeding than oralcontraceptive pills. [Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol

Some clinicians claim that the potential association between oralcontraceptive (OC) use and HIV infection is cause for concern. A study of prostitutes conducted in Kenya showed OC use to be the single most common cofactor in sexually transmitted human immunodeficiency virus infection. A similar study conducted in the US was unable to confirm an association. In the Kenya study, 123 HIV seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi were followed for 54 months and assessed for seroconversion to HIV and occurrence of sexually transmitted diseases. 91% of the women who seroconverted were using OCs; 73% of the women who remained seronegative were using OCs. Demographic features, sexual behavior, number of daily sex partners, and parenteral exposure were not related to seroconversion. No significant associations were found between HIV infection and sexual activity and condom use. Independent associations were found between seroconversion and OC use, genital ulcer disease (GUD), and chlamydia trachomatis infections. It is possible that OCs increase the risk of acquiring chlamydia because cervical ectropion creates a greater exposure of columnar epithelium to infecting agents. The multicenter, cross-sectional, collaborative study of 638 prostitutes in 8 areas of the US found that HIV infection was totally unrelated to OC use. Prostitutes with no evidence of intravenous drug use were studied. 5% of the women were found to be infected with HIV. The most common variables associated with HIV infection were seromarkers for hepatitis B and syphilis and sex with "nonpaying partners." About 80% of the prostitutes reported using condoms regularly with clients; only 16% used condoms with their boyfriends or husbands. About 30% (194) of the prostitutes reported they had used OCs for at least 1 month out of the past 5 years. 9 of those women (4.6%) were positive for HIV. Of 444 prostitutes who had never used OC during the past 5 years, 21 or 4.73% were HIV positive.

The aim of this study is to ascertain whether the quantity and quality of tear and eye subjective comfort are influenced by the temperature, humidity and oralContraceptives Taking or Non-taking (CTNT). Forty-one students, females, from the University of Minho, Braga, Portugal, aged (mean+/-1standard deviation) of 21.51+/-1.85 years, ranging from 20 to 30 years, participated in this study. The McMonnies Questionnaire (MMQ), Break Up Time (BUT) and Phenol Red Test (PRT) were accessed between 14-17 hours in four sets of visits throughout the year: Visit 1, Visit 2, Visit 3 and Visit 4. The PRT and BUT values (mean+/-1standard deviation) for Visit 1, Visit 2, Visit 3 and Visit 4 were respectively 23.88+/-6.50mm, 22.29+/-8.00mm, 23.61+/-6.75mm, 22.88+/-7.00mm and 6.02+/-1.58s, 5.62+/-1.22s, 5.23+/-0.88s, 5.53+/-1. 42s. The MMQ scores for Visit 1, Visit 2, Visit 3 and Visit 4 ranged from 2-13, 2-15, 1-14 and 2-14 with medians of 6, 7, 6 and 6, respectively. The influence of temperature, humidity and CTNT on PRT, BUT and MMQ were evaluated using generalized linear mixed model. For BUT and MMQ statistical significant effects were found regarding temperature and humidity. The temperature and humidity influenced the tear quality and subjective comfort but did not influence the tear quantity. The CTNT did not influence tear quantity, quality or subjective eye comfort.

What is the effect of estrogen on heparanase procogulant activity? Estrogen increases heparanase procoagulant activity. Estrogen therapy increases the risk of thrombosis and was previously found to up-regulate heparanase expression. Heparanase is involved in angiogenesis and metastasis, and has been shown to form a complex with tissue factor (TF) and also shown to enhance the generation of factor Xa. A case-control study. Thirty-four healthy women using oralcontraceptives (OC) and 41 women not using hormonal therapy and not pregnant per history were enrolled, over a 5-month period, at the Rambam Medical Center, Haifa, Israel. In vitro, estrogen receptor-positive (MCF-7) and -negative (MDA-231) cell lines were incubated with estrogen, tamoxifen and ICI-182.780 a pure estrogen receptor antagonist. The cell medium was evaluated for TF/heparanase complex activity, TF activity and heparanase procoagulant activity by chromogenic substrate. Exclusion criteria included age set, the odds ratio was 131 (P tamoxifen increased heparanase procoagulant activity in the medium of estrogen receptor-positive (MCF-7) cells. The main limitation of the current study is that the two estrogens given to the women and cell cultures, ethinyl estradiol (EE) and 17-β-estradiol (E2), respectively, may have different effects on the coagulation system, although an increase in heparanase procoagulant activity was demonstrated in both of them. Although the sample size of the study group was limited, significant differences in the activation of the extrinsic coagulation pathway were demonstrated. The clinical relevance of the heparanase procoagulant activity assay as a screening tool in thrombophilia work-up should further be elucidated.

Acne vulgaris may be effectively treated with combination oralcontraceptive pills (COCs) in women. COCs may be useful in any woman with acne in the absence of known contraindications. When prescribing a COC to a woman who also desires contraception, the risks of the COC are compared with the risks associated with pregnancy. When prescribing a COC to a woman who does not desire contraception, the risks of the COC must be weighed against the risks associated with acne. COCs may take 3 cycles of use to show an effect in acne lesion count reductions.

STUDY QUESTION: To what extent does oralcontraception (OC) impair ovarian reserve parameters in women who seek fertility assessment and counselling to get advice on whether their remaining reproductive lifespan is reduced? SUMMARY ANSWER: Ovarian reserve parameters defined by anti...... and the contraceptive vaginal ring). Non-users included women with an intrauterine device (IUD) or no hormonal contraception. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Of the 887 women, 244 (27.5%) used OC. In a linear regression analyses adjusted for age, ovarian volume was 50% lower (95% CI 45.1-53.7%), AMH was 19% lower...

STUDY QUESTION: To what extent does oralcontraception (OC) impair ovarian reserve parameters in women who seek fertility assessment and counselling to get advice on whether their remaining reproductive lifespan is reduced? SUMMARY ANSWER: Ovarian reserve parameters defined by anti...... and the contraceptive vaginal ring). Non-users included women with an intrauterine device (IUD) or no hormonal contraception. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Of the 887 women, 244 (27.5%) used OC. In a linear regression analyses adjusted for age, ovarian volume was 50% lower (95% CI 45.1-53.7%), AMH was 19% lower...

Hormonal variation over the menstrual cycle alters women's preferences for phenotypic indicators of men's genetic or parental quality. Hormonal contraceptives suppress these shifts, inducing different mate preference patterns among users and non-users. This raises the possibility that women using oralcontraception (OC) choose different partners than they would do otherwise but, to date, we know neither whether these laboratory-measured effects are sufficient to exert real-world consequences,...

Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) offer a convenient, safe, effective, and reversible method of contraception. However, their use is limited by side effects. Several strategies have been suggested to make COC use more acceptable among women. Reduction in the dose of estrogen is a commonly accepted approach to reduce the side effects of COC. Use of newer generation of progestins, such as gestodene, reduces the androgenic side effects generally associated with progestogens. Furthermore, reduc...

Epidemiologic studies show a lower frequency of fibrocystic breast disease among users of oralcontraceptives than among women who have never used them. Family history of breast cancer appears to be more common among benign breast disease patients than among their controls. To determine the use of oralcontraceptives and the presence of family history of breast cancer, information was obtained from 211 cystic cases and their matched controls from the metropolitan Toronto area. Cystic cases compared to controls had a higher proportion of women with a family history of breast cancer (21% vs 15%). For both a positive and negative family history of breast cancer, as well as for all women combined, the mean duration of oralcontraceptive use was lower for cystic cases than for controls. The odds ratio for oralcontraceptive use according to family history of breast cancer for cystic cases and controls was 0.42 and 0.81 respectively. The possibility that a woman is more protected against benign breast disease by using oralcontraceptives if she has a family history of breast cancer deserves more attention in future investigations on the long-term effects of birth control pills.

One thousand eight non-pregnant women aged 16-34 years, presenting for the first time at a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases (STD), were examined and screened for infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Candida species. The respective prevalence rates were 21.1%, 20.7%, 13.4%, and 27.8%. Isolation rates for C trachomatis, either occurring alone or in association with other genital infections, were significantly greater in women using oralcontraceptive agents. This was not because oralcontraceptive users were more promiscuous. The findings strengthen the case for providing a routine chlamydial culture service for women attending STD clinics. They also indicate that the likelihood of chlamydial infection in women taking oralcontraceptives is increased.

The objective of the study was to investigate histological changes in the endometrium in 20 volunteers treated with a low-dose, gestodene-containing triphasic oralcontraceptive. Endometrial biopsy specimens were taken before, during a 6-month period of oralcontraceptive use and in a post-treatment period. These specimens were evaluated using light microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. In addition, ultrasound examinations of the uterus, endometrial thickness and ovaries were performed. The low-dose, gestodene-containing triphasic oralcontraceptive had no adverse effects on the endometrium (e.g. no proliferation, no polyps, no inflammatory processes), was well tolerated and showed a low side-effect profile. The inhibition of endometrial transformation was demonstrated both by endometrial morphology as well as by endometrial thickness, as measured by transvaginal ultrasound examination.

The paper is devoted to the topical problem of maintaining somatic and psychic health of the women of reproductive age by rational pregnancy planning and prevention of abortions by modern methods of contraception including combined oral hormonal contraception. Unfortunately, this approach is rarely employed in this country (5-6%). Results of retrospective analysis of medical documentation, clinical efficacy and safety of modern combined oral hormonal contraception are presented.

Acne and seborrhea (or facial oiliness) are related androgenic skin disorders which affect a high proportion of women after menarche. They can have a negative effect on psychological well-being and social life. Androgens play an important role in the pathogenesis of acne through the stimulation of sebum secretion, increasing sebaceous gland size and possibly through follicular hyperkeratinization. Conversely, estrogens decrease sebum production by suppressing gonadotropin release and androgen production and increasing sex hormone binding globulin production. One of the treatment options for these conditions is hormonal therapy, especially for women who require contraception. The effect of combined oralcontraceptives in androgenic skin disorders depends on their estrogen:progestogen balance and on the antiestrogenic activity of the progestogen component. Improved understanding of what women value about oralcontraceptives suggests that the choice of product should be tailored as much as possible to the individual. Several combined oralcontraceptives containing new-generation progestogens (e.g. desogestrel, gestodene) or progestational antiandrogens (e.g. cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate) have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of women with acne, although comparisons between trials are difficult because of differing endpoints. Seborrhea has been less well studied, but the few studies that are available show an improvement in women with this condition using combined oralcontraceptives.

Objective To explore whether the changes on lipids profile induced by oralcontraceptives could be reduced through alternatively administering two oralcontraceptives of different formulations (either predominant in progestogen or estrogen) Materials & Methods A total of 59 women aged 25～45 were divided into two treatment groups. The subjects in Group A received oralcontraceptive A (OcA: NET 0.600 mg + EE 0.035 mg) and B (OcB: LNG 0.15 mg + EE0.03 mg) alternatively during 12 treatment cycles. Each contraceptive was administrated for three cycles consecutively with starting from OcA. The subjects in the B group received OcB only during 12 treatment cycles. Fasting blood were drawn before treatment, at the end of each trimester treatment and at the end of one cycle after stopping treatment respectively. The concentrations of lipids and apolipoproteins were measured. Results OcA increased the levels of triglyceride(TG), total cholesterol(TC), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol(HDL-c), and apolipoprotein AI (apo AI) with statistical significance, whereas OcB significantly decreased all parameters above. As compared with the control group, the overall mean of variation in the study group was much less than that of the control group.Conclusion It indicates that the impacts of oralcontraceptives on lipids profile could be moderated by means of alternatively administering Ocs of two different formulations, with estrogen-dominant or progestogen-dominant.

Hormonal fluctuation across the menstrual cycle explains temporal variation in women's judgment of the attractiveness of members of the opposite sex. Use of hormonal contraceptives could therefore influence both initial partner choice and, if contraceptive use subsequently changes, intrapair dynamics. Associations between hormonal contraceptive use and relationship satisfaction may thus be best understood by considering whether current use is congruent with use when relationships formed, rather than by considering current use alone. In the study reported here, we tested this congruency hypothesis in a survey of 365 couples. Controlling for potential confounds (including relationship duration, age, parenthood, and income), we found that congruency in current and previous hormonal contraceptive use, but not current use alone, predicted women's sexual satisfaction with their partners. Congruency was not associated with women's nonsexual satisfaction or with the satisfaction of their male partners. Our results provide empirical support for the congruency hypothesis and suggest that women's sexual satisfaction is influenced by changes in partner preference associated with change in hormonal contraceptive use.

Oralcontraceptives provide the woman under 35 with the most effective and safest reversible method of birth control. As the estrogen content of oralcontraceptives has gradually been lowered during the past 20 years, there has been a lessening of the side-effects first reported by the Royal College of General Practice in 1967. The research of two decades has brought about changes in “the pill”. The most recent change has been the introduction of biphasic and triphasic pills with lower hormon...

Oralcontraceptives provide the woman under 35 with the most effective and safest reversible method of birth control. As the estrogen content of oralcontraceptives has gradually been lowered during the past 20 years, there has been a lessening of the side-effects first reported by the Royal College of General Practice in 1967. The research of two decades has brought about changes in “the pill”. The most recent change has been the introduction of biphasic and triphasic pills with lower hormon...

Background: We report a case series of cerebral vein thrombosis (CVT) in women who used oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) in the Muslims Ramadan and fasting month.Methods: This study was a retrospective case series of 9 patients with diagnosis of CVT, who admitted in the neurology ward of Tohid Hospital of Sanandaj, Iran, in July-August 2014-2015.Results: Patients had no history of thrombosis before. They were treated with oralcontraceptive more than 1 month to be able to fast during Ramadan. Th...

It is not clear if early oralcontraceptive use increases the risk of breast cancer among young women with a breast cancer susceptibility gene 1 (BRCA1) mutation. Given the benefit of oralcontraceptives for the prevention of ovarian cancer, estimating age-specific risk ratios for oralcontraceptive use and breast cancer is important. We conducted a case-control study of 2,492 matched pairs of women with a deleterious BRCA1 mutation. Breast cancer cases and unaffected controls were matched on year of birth and country of residence. Detailed information about oralcontraceptive use was collected from a routinely administered questionnaire. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate the odds ratios (OR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI) for the association between oralcontraceptive and breast cancer, by age at first use and by age at diagnosis. Among BRCA1 mutation carriers, oralcontraceptive use was significantly associated with an increased risk of breast cancer for women who started the pill prior to age 20 (OR 1.45; 95 % CI 1.20-1.75; P = 0.0001) and possibly between ages 20 and 25 as well (OR 1.19; 95 % CI 0.99-1.42; P = 0.06). The effect was limited to breast cancers diagnosed before age 40 (OR 1.40; 95 % CI 1.14-1.70; P = 0.001); the risk of early-onset breast cancer increased by 11 % with each additional year of pill use when initiated prior to age 20 (OR 1.11; 95 % CI 1.03-1.20; P = 0.008). There was no observed increase for women diagnosed at or after the age of 40 (OR 0.97; 95 % CI 0.79-1.20; P = 0.81). Oralcontraceptive use before age 25 increases the risk of early-onset breast cancer among women with a BRCA1 mutation and the risk increases with duration of use. Caution should be taken when advising women with a BRCA1 mutation to take an oralcontraceptive prior to age 25.

oralcontraceptive use and risk of breast cancer among BRCA1/2 carriers. PATIENTS AND METHODS In the International BRCA1/2 Carrier Cohort study (IBCCS), a retrospective cohort of 1,593 BRCA1/2 mutation carriers was analyzed with a weighted Cox regression analysis. Results We found an increased risk...... was found among BRCA1/2 mutation carriers that current use of oralcontraceptives is associated with risk of breast cancer more strongly than is past use, as is found in the general population. However, duration of use, especially before first full-term pregnancy, may be associated with an increasing risk...

Purchasers of a low-cost oralcontraceptive were intercepted and interviewed in a sample of Santo Domingo pharmacies that represented the highest sales of the product, yet also reflected the socioeconomic profile of the city's entire population. Users of the contraceptive were later interviewed in greater depth in their homes. The survey of users showed that the Dominican Republic's social marketing program, implemented by PROFAMILIA, was reaching an appropriate target market--that is, younger, lower-middle-class women of low parity. The program was, in addition, successful in attracting first-time adopters, and it was also expanding the overall commercial market for all contraceptives. The marketing campaign was successful in part because a mass audience was reached, through brief television spots. Program impact on contraceptive prevalence can be assessed from sales data.

Acne is a common skin disorder among women. Although no uniform approach to the management of acne exists, combination oralcontraceptives (COCs), which contain an estrogen and a progestin, often are prescribed for women. To determine the effectiveness of combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) for the treatment of facial acne compared to placebo or other active therapies. In January 2012, we searched for randomized controlled trials of COCs and acne in the computerized databases of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, POPLINE, and LILACS. We also searched for clinical trials in ClinicalTrials.gov and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (Aug 2011). For the initial review, we wrote to researchers to seek any unpublished or published trials that we might have missed. We considered randomized controlled trials reported in any language that compared the effectiveness of a COC containing an estrogen and a progestin to placebo or another active therapy for acne in women. We extracted data on facial lesion counts, both total and specific (i.e., open or closed comedones, papules, pustules and nodules); acne severity grades; global assessments by the clinician or the participant, and discontinuation due to adverse events. Data were entered and analyzed in RevMan. For continuous data, we calculated the mean difference (MD) and 95% confidence interval (CI). For dichotomous data, we calculated the Peto odds ratio (OR) and 95% CI. The review includes 31 trials with 12,579 participants. Of 24 comparisons made, 6 compared a COC to placebo, 17 different COCs, and 1 compared a COC to an antibiotic. Of nine placebo-controlled trials with data for analysis, all showed COCs reduced acne lesion counts, severity grades and self-assessed acne compared to placebo. A levonorgestrel-COC group had fewer total lesion counts (MD -9.98; 95% CI -16.51 to -3.45), inflammatory and non-inflammatory lesion counts, and were more likely to

In order to determine whether certain factors influence the direct pituitary suppressive effect of contraceptive steroid, 50 subjects who had used various formulations of oralcontraceptive steroids for periods of time ranging from one to nine years were stimulated with 50 microgram of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during the last week of oralcontraceptive ingestion. The response of lutinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was compared to the results obtained in nine control subjects with regard to: (1) age of subject. (2) type of contraceptive formulation used, and (3) length of use. Prestimulation levels of LH and FSH, respectively, were significantly decreased in 37 (74 per cent) and 42 (84 per cent) of the subjects. Following GnRH stimulation, peak responses of serum LH and FSH, respectively, were also significantly lower than those in the control subjects in 40 (80 per cent) and 45 (90 per cent of the subjects. The degree of suppression of pituitary gonadotropins, both before and after GnRH administration was significantly correlated with the type of steroid formulation used, being greatest with a combination of d-norgestrel and ethinyl estradiol. No correlation was found with length of use of oralcontraceptives or age of the subjects.

Breast milk volume and composition and infant growth were measured at three- and four-week intervals, up to six months, in a multicenter randomized double-blind trial comparing a low-dose combined oralcontraceptive (OC) with a progestogen-only OC. A nonrandom group using nonhormonal methods was also studied in the three centers: Szeged, Hungary; Bangkok, Thailand; and Khon Kaen, Thailand. A fourth group, users of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) was included in the two Thai centers. Altogether, 341 women were recruited into the study. Combined OCs caused a significant decrease in milk output and total energy content as well as widespread changes in milk constituents. In the DMPA group, no significant changes were observed in milk volume, and only minor shifts occurred in milk composition, which varied between centers. No differences were found between the progestogen-only pill and DMPA. No hormonal contraceptive was associated with any significant difference in infant weight or fat fold, nor in the rate of discontinuation for failure to gain weight. This study reiterates the need to avoid combined OCs during the first few weeks or months of lactation. Both norgestrel and DMPA appear to be safe for use in both developing and developed countries, at least when the nutritional status of the mother and infant are adequate, but further research is needed on the safety of these contraceptives in populations with malnutrition.

The term "forgettable contraception" has received less attention in family planning than has "long-acting reversible contraception." Defined here as a method requiring attention no more often than every 3 years, forgettable contraception includes sterilization (female or male), intrauterine devices, and implants. Five principal factors determine contraceptive effectiveness: efficacy, compliance, continuation, fecundity, and the timing of coitus. Of these, compliance and continuation dominate; the key determinants of contraceptive effectiveness are human, not pharmacological. Human nature undermines methods with high theoretical efficacy, such as oralcontraceptives and injectable contraceptives. By obviating the need to think about contraception for long intervals, forgettable contraception can help overcome our human fallibility. As a result, all forgettable contraception methods provide first-tier effectiveness (contraceptives today with exclusively first-tier effectiveness is the one that can be started -- and then forgotten for years.

Full Text Available Sally Rafie,1 Laura Borgelt,2 Erin R Koepf,3 Mary E Temple-Cooper,4 K Joy Lehman51Department of Pharmacy, University of California San Diego Health System, San Diego, CA, 2Departments of Clinical Pharmacy and Family Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 3Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of New England College of Pharmacy, Portland, ME, 4Department of Pharmacy, Hillcrest Hospital, Cleveland Clinic, Mayfield Heights, OH, 5Department of Pharmacy, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USAAbstract: Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB is associated with significant direct medical costs and impacts both society and the quality of life for individual women. Heavy menstrual bleeding, a subset of AUB, also referred to as menorrhagia, is defined as menstrual blood loss greater than 80 mL or the patient's perception of excessive blood loss. The newest treatment option available is a novel combination oralcontraceptive product containing estradiol valerate (E2V and dienogest (DNG. As with other combination oralcontraceptives, E2V/DNG works primarily by preventing ovulation. However, in contrast with other combination oralcontraceptives, it is the progestin component of E2V/DNG that is responsible for endometrial stabilization. Use of E2V/DNG for six months has led to significant reductions in heavy menstrual bleeding with an average 65% reduction in mean blood loss. Approximately half of the women with heavy menstrual bleeding who received E2V/DNG for six months demonstrated an 80% reduction in mean blood loss. Additionally, significant improvements in hematologic indicators (ie, ferritin, hemoglobin, and hematocrit have been shown. Based on its chemical properties, E2V/DNG may have fewer adverse effects on lipid and glucose metabolism and reduced risk of thromboembolic complications compared with other combination oralcontraceptives. This has not yet been shown in clinical trials and until then it

Oralcontraceptives have been in wide use for more than 50 years. Levonorgestrel, a commonly employed progestin component of combined oralcontraceptives, was implicated in drug-drug interactions mediated via CYP2C9. Although in vitro studies refuted this interaction, there are no confirmatory in vivo studies. In the current study, we examined the phenotypic status of CYP2C9 using low-dose (125 mg) tolbutamide before and after oralcontraceptive use in reproductive age women. Blood was collected 24 hours after the tolbutamide oral dose was administered, plasma was isolated, and tolbutamide concentration (C24) was measured using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The natural logarithm of tolbutamide C24, a metric for CYP2C9 phenotype, was found to be equivalent (within 80%-125% equivalency boundaries) before and after oralcontraceptive use. In conclusion, levonorgestrel-containing oralcontraceptives, the most commonly used form of oralcontraception, do not affect the status of the CYP2C9 enzyme. This suggests that it is safe to co-administer levonorgestrel-containing oralcontraceptives and CYP2C9 substrates, which include a wide array of drugs.

Full Text Available Anita L NelsonObstetrics and Gynecology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Harbor UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USAAbstract: Natazia® is a new oralcontraceptive with estradiol valerate and dienogest in a unique multiphasic formulation that includes a shortened hormone-free interval. This new formulation has been approved for both contraception and also as a treatment for heavy menstrual bleeding in women who desire to use oralcontraceptives as their method of birth control. It is marketed in the US as Natazia® and elsewhere as Qlaira®. This article will review the properties of each of the major new features of this pill: estradiol used in place of ethinyl estradiol, dienogest as the progestin, and the unique dosing pattern of this product. It will also summarize the results of the pivotal clinical trials of contraceptive effectiveness, bleeding patterns, safety and tolerability. The lessons learned from the clinical trials about the effectiveness of this formulation in the treatment of excessive menstrual bleeding will be summarized. Also, results of trials comparing this new pill to other popular formulations for "menstrually-related" symptoms and for potential female sexual dysfunction related to use of oralcontraceptives will be presented. This review will suggest how all this information might be used to counsel women about how to use this pill most successfully.Keywords: oralcontraceptives, estradiol valerate, dienogest, heavy menstrual bleeding, menorrhagia, dynamic dosing

Combined oralcontraceptives (COC) have been demonstrated to have significant benefits for the treatment and prevention of disease. These medications also are associated with untoward health effects, and they may be directly contraceptive. Prescribers and users must compare and weigh the intended beneficial health effects against foreseeable but unintended possible adverse effects in their decisions to prescribe and use. Additionally, those who intend to abide by Catholic teachings must consider prohibitions against contraception. Ethical judgments concerning both health benefits and contraception are approached in this essay through an overview of the therapeutic, prophylactic, untoward, and contraceptive effects of COC and discussion of magisterial and traditional Catholic teachings from natural law. Discerning through the principle of double effect, proportionate reason, and evidence gathered from the sciences, medical and moral conclusions are drawn that we believe to be fully compliant with good medicine and Catholic teaching.

In 45 somatically healthy women the possible occurrence of psychic effects of a new low dose combined oralcontraceptive was studied using different psychodiagnostic test methods. All the participants were previous users of some of the standard combined oralcontraceptives, but had discontinued either due to experienced, side-effects, due to fear of such effects or due to other reasons. Four patients dropped out before the end of the six-month-observation period. Women who discontinued previous use of oralcontraceptives due to side-effects or due to fear of side-effects exhibited a more pronounced degree of neuroticism compared to those who terminated due to other reasons. Those who experienced side-effects during earlier medication had initially a higher depression score than the two remaining groups suggesting that women's basic psychic nature seems to play an important role in the development of psychic symptoms during oralcontraceptive therapy. None of the three groups developed additional signs of depression during treatment. Moreover, no impairment of the sexual function, assessed by a number of parameters, was found. The findings clearly indicate that Neovletta did not cause any psychic disturbance in the patients studied.

The high rate of early pregnancy in Brazil and particularly in Teresina (21.5%), Piauí State, motivated the current study, the aim of which was to identify levels of objective and perceived knowledge on oralcontraceptives, as well as predictive reproductive and socio-demographic variables for high knowledge. A cross-sectional study was performed including 278 teenage mothers (15-19 years), with their childbearing history, admitted to four maternity hospitals in Teresina in 2006. Logistic regression provided the basis for the statistical analysis. Nearly 98% of the adolescent mothers showed low objective and perceived knowledge of oralcontraceptives. High parity was the only predictor of increased objective knowledge on oralcontraceptives. The adolescents' low level of objective and perceived knowledge on use of oralcontraceptives emphasized their susceptibility to risky sexual behavior. The findings emphasize the need for a more interactive approach with adolescents concerning their level of objective and perceived knowledge, to reduce the occurrence and repetition of unwanted teenage pregnancy and its negative consequences for the lives of these young mothers and their children.

In the Multiple Environmental and Genetic Assessment of risk factors for venous thrombosis (MEGA study), body weight, height and body mass index (BMI) were evaluated as risk factors. Additionally, the joint effect of obesity together with oralcontraceptive use and prothrombotic mutations on the

Many young females take exogenous hormones as oralcontraceptive (OC), a condition rarely controlled for in studies on sleep and memory consolidation even though sex hormones influence consolidation. This study investigated the effects of OCs on sleep-related consolidation of a motor and declarative

To investigate a reported negative association between the use of oralcontraceptives (OC) and the development of rheumatoid arthritis, a case-control study was undertaken to compare the histories of OC use between 228 women with a diagnosis of probable or definite rheumatoid arthritis and 302 women

Objectives Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) decrease androgen levels, including testosterone (T), which may be associated with sexual dysfunction and mood complaints in some women. We have shown that 'co-administration' of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) to a drospirenone (DRSP)-containing COC

Menstrual cycle patterns and concerns and oralcontraceptive use in the combat environment were examined in Caucasian, Asian, Hispanic, and African American women to guide the development of educational resources for women soldiers. An anonymous, questionnaire was completed by 455 U.S. Army women-Caucasian (CA: n = 141); Asian (AS: n = 67); Hispanic (HIS: n = 67); and African American (AA: n = 184) to compare menstrual patterns and concerns, dysmenorrhea, and oralcontraceptive patterns. Total menstrual concerns were significantly lower among African Americans relative to Caucasians, Asians, or Hispanics; Asians and Hispanics reported the greatest concern. Overall, secondary amenorrhea was noted by 14.9% of women. Severe dysmenorrhea rates were significantly lower in African American (6.1%) compared to Caucasian (11.6%), Asian (20.9%) and Hispanic (19.7%) women. Asian women reported missing less work-only 9.3% with moderate to severe dysmenorrhea missed work compared to 25.1% of all other women. Only 9.2% of women with mild, compared to 25.8% with moderate to severe (OR = 3.44; p ≤ 0.0001) dysmenorrhea sought health care. Less than 50% of women took oralcontraceptive, and less than half of those women took oralcontraceptive continuously. African Americans seemed to experience menstruation as less bothersome than others, despite no difference in the proportion with menstrual irregularities, mean duration of menses, and/or mean time between cycles.

Allopregnanolone is a known GABA(A) receptor agonist not previously given to men, or to women using oralcontraceptives (OC). The effects of metabolites of sex hormones on the GABA(A) receptor are different between men and women. OC are known to change GABA(A) receptor subunit composition. These fac

The factor V Leiden mutation is the most common genetic risk factor for deep vein thrombosis: it is present in about 5% of the white population. The risk of deep vein thrombosis among women who use oralcontraceptives is greatly increased by the presence of the mutation. The same seems to be true of the risk of postpartum thrombosis. Several authors have called for all women to be screened before prescription of oralcontraceptives and during pregnancy. Such a policy might deny effective contraception to a substantial number of women while preventing only a small number of deaths due to pulmonary emboli. Moreover, in pregnancy the ensuing use of oral anticoagulation prophylaxis might carry a penalty of fatal bleeding that is equal to or exceeds the risk of death due to postpartum thrombosis. It might pay, however, to take a personal and family history of deep vein thrombosis when prescribing oralcontraceptives or at a first antenatal visit to detect women from families with a tendency to multiple thrombosis. Images p1129-a PMID:8916702

In the Multiple Environmental and Genetic Assessment of risk factors for venous thrombosis (MEGA study), body weight, height and body mass index (BMI) were evaluated as risk factors. Additionally, the joint effect of obesity together with oralcontraceptive use and prothrombotic mutations on the ris

Purpose: Difficulties with intonation and vibrato control during the menstrual cycle have been reported by singers; however, this phenomenon has not yet been systematically investigated. Method: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial assessing effects of the menstrual cycle and use of a combined oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) on pitch…

Female gender and hormones have been associated with disease activity in multiple sclerosis (MS). We investigated age at menarche, use of oralcontraceptives and pregnancy in relation to progression of disability in relapsing onset and progressive onset MS. We conducted a cross-sectional survey amon

Thrombotic risk among combined oralcontraceptives (COC) users has recently been debated following a court action initiated by a patient. Recent epidemiological data, as well as accumulating biological data underlying these data, have led French Health authorities to modify COC prescription and reimbursement modalities. A short synthesis is proposed by a multidisciplinary group of experts from four French societies (CGOF, FNCGM, GHT, and SFMV).

Many young females take exogenous hormones as oralcontraceptive (OC), a condition rarely controlled for in studies on sleep and memory consolidation even though sex hormones influence consolidation. This study investigated the effects of OCs on sleep-related consolidation of a motor and declarative

Purpose: Difficulties with intonation and vibrato control during the menstrual cycle have been reported by singers; however, this phenomenon has not yet been systematically investigated. Method: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial assessing effects of the menstrual cycle and use of a combined oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) on pitch…

textabstractCase-control studies examining the effects of oralcontraceptives (OC) are prone to misclassification bias due to errors in assessment of OC use. Concern about inaccurate exposure histories has increased since current studies require women to recall OC use over prolonged periods of time.

Oral combined contraceptive pill (OCCP) is popular as birth control pills. Like all other drugs, they are not free from risks. Women taking certain types of OCCP have higher risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT). A 29 year old married woman had taken OCCP for 3.5 months, developed deep vein thrombosis of left leg. Hereditary and acquired causes of DVT were excluded. She was treated with parenteral and oral anticoagulants simultaneously and was advised to discontinue OCCP. Initially th...

Oral combined contraceptive pill (OCCP) is popular as birth control pills. Like all other drugs, they are not free from risks. Women taking certain types of OCCP have higher risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT). A 29 year old married woman had taken OCCP for 3.5 months, developed deep vein thrombosis of left leg. Hereditary and acquired causes of DVT were excluded. She was treated with parenteral and oral anticoagulants simultaneously and was advised to discontinue OCCP. Initially th...

The results of a survey are presented conerning the effectiveness of mass media publicity with the public. After oralcontraceptives containing high levels of estrogen were prohibited in Denmark, a telephone survey of 23 doctors was taken to determine the fluctuation in demand for medical information from patients, and the reason for the fluctuation. The reasons were divided into 3 groups: 1) resulting from mass media publicity, 2) resulting from the unavailability of a particular contraceptive, and 3) other. 3 surveys were conducted of the frequency of demand for information on the high estrogen contraceptives, 1 for each of the 2 weeks after the prohibition and withdrawal of the contraceptives took place, and 1 1 month after the prohibition. 2-3% of the inquiries received by the doctors concerned the prohibited contraceptives, and half of these could be attributed directly to the mass media publicity. The number of requests in categories 1 and 2 dropped sharply in the 2nd and 3rd surveys, indicating that the effect of the mass meida publicity and the withdrawal of the contraceptive from the market had only a very immediate effect. It is also shown that the telephone can be used successfully to ascertain the effects of a short-term social phenomenon on the public.

A monophasic combination of ethinylestradiol plus levonorgestrel or norethisterone is the oralcontraceptive with which we have most experience. A quadriphasic combination of estradiol and dienogest was recently authorised in various European Union member states. The results of two non-comparative trials and one comparative trial versus ethinylestradiol + levonorgestrel suggest that the contraceptive efficacy of the estradiol + dienogest combination is no better than that of other oralcontraceptives. In addition, there is no tangible difference in regulation of the menstrual cycle compared to the ethinylestradiol + levonorgestrel combination, as assessed by bleeding during and after dosing. The estradiol + dienogest combination has the same frequent and mild adverse effects as other combined contraceptives, such as nausea, breast tenderness and headache. In contrast, little is known of the potential cardiovascular adverse effects of the new combination, including the risk of thrombosis. Use of this quadriphasic combination is inconvenient. The monthly blister pack contains 5 different tablets, with different compositions, that must be taken in exactly the right order. In addition, a woman must follow complicated directions for catching up if she misses a pill, and they differ throughout the cycle. In practice, it is better to continue to use a well-documented combined contraceptive such as the monophasic ethinylestradiol + levonorgestrel combination.

Endometriosis is a chronic disease in which a persistent state of heightened inflammation is maintained by nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation. The progestins present in oralcontraceptives are potent inhibitors of NF-κB translocation to cell nuclei, while Pycnogenol® (Pinus pinaster) acts by blocking post-translational events. In this study, the effects of Pycnogenol on pain scores were investigated in patients with endometriosis using oralcontraceptives containing either gestodene or drospirenone in extended regimens. Pain scores were determined using a visual analog scale before and after 3 months of treatment. Oralcontraceptives, used alone (groups 1 and 3) or in association with Pycnogenol (groups 2 and 4), resulted in significant decreases in pain scores after 3 months of treatment; however, this reduction was significantly greater in the groups using oralcontraceptives + Pycnogenol (groups 2 and 4) compared with those using oralcontraceptives alone (groups 1 and 3). In the groups using oralcontraceptives alone, 50% of patients became pain-free by the end of the third month of treatment. These results suggest that Pycnogenol increases the efficacy of oralcontraceptives for the treatment of endometriosis-related pain. PMID:24379702

Full Text Available Serena Ferrari, Marianna Cannoletta, Matteo Generali, Lucia Cazzato, Angelo CagnacciDepartment of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Pediatrics, Azienda Ospedaliero, Universitaria di Modena, ItalyAbstract: Since their introduction in 1959, development of hormonal contraceptives has been ongoing, with the ultimate aim of creating not only an effective and safe contraceptive method, but also a drug able to meet the need for treatment of other conditions, such as acne, seborrhea, and hirsutism, with few or no side effects. With this objective, a new progestin, chlormadinone acetate (CMA, has been developed as a derivative of progesterone for ­contraception. This new molecule has been introduced in combination with ethinylestradiol (EE 30 µg as a safe ­contraceptive with antiandrogenic properties. Many clinical studies have investigated this new oral combination and found it to be safe, with a Pearl Index similar to that of other combined hormonal contraceptives. CMA, because of its antiandrogenic properties, has been also considered effective for resolution of acne, seborrhea, and hirsutism. The data show it to be a safe molecule in terms of glucose and lipid metabolism. No major weight changes have been linked with its use, and it seems to be the only progestin able to reduce fat mass during use. The CMA-EE combination is well tolerated and acceptable to women. Adverse events related to its use are similar to those reported with other third-generation ­contraceptives. We can conclude that CMA-EE is an effective, safe, and well tolerated ­antiandrogenic hormonal contraceptive.Keywords: chlormadinone acetate, acne, weight, metabolism, safety, hormonal contraceptive

Evidence from epidemiologic studies suggests a possible role of exogenous and endogenous hormones in colorectal carcinogenesis in women. However, with respect to exogenous hormones, in contrast to hormone replacement therapy, few cohort studies have examined oralcontraceptive use in relation to colorectal cancer risk. We used data from a large cohort study of Canadian women enrolled in a randomized controlled trial of breast cancer screening to assess the association of oralcontraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy and reproductive factors with risk of colorectal cancer, overall and by subsite within the colorectum. Cancer incidence and mortality were ascertained by linkage to national databases. Among 89,835 women aged 40-59 at enrollment and followed for an average of 16.4 years, we identified 1,142 incident colorectal cancer cases. Proportional hazards models were used to estimate the associations between the exposures of interest and risk of colorectal cancer. Ever use of oralcontraceptives at baseline was associated with a modest reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer (hazard ratio 0.83, 95% confidence interval 0.73-0.94), with similar effects for different subsites within the colorectum. No trend was seen in the hazard ratios with increasing duration of oralcontraceptive use. No associations were seen with use of hormone replacement therapy (ever use or duration of use) or reproductive factors. Our results are suggestive of an inverse association between oralcontraceptive use and colorectal carcinogenesis. However, given the lack of a dose-response relationship and the potential for confounding, studies with more complete assessment of exogenous hormone use throughout the life course are needed to clarify this association. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Because of their hormonal content, oralcontraceptives may alter lipolytic activity under resting or exercise conditions in women. The aim of the present study was to compare lipid mobilization in a postprandial state at rest and during exercise in oralcontraceptive users (OC+) versus nonusers (OC-). The metabolic (glucose, glycerol, free fatty acids) and hormonal (insulin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and catecholamines) concentrations were determined in 11 OC+ (monophasic low-dose oralcontraceptives) and 10 OC- during a resting and an exercise session (45 min at 65% maximal oxygen consumption). Results were expressed as plasma concentrations and area under the concentration versus time curve values. ANP concentrations were higher in OC+ compared with OC- women at baseline (p = 0.04). Plasma concentrations of glycerol (p = 0.04), free fatty acids (p = 0.04), ANP (p = 0.02), and noradrenaline (p = 0.04) were higher in OC+ compared with OC- when both sessions were pooled. The plasma growth hormone, IGF-1, and adrenaline concentrations were not significantly different between the 2 groups. When the effect of exercise was isolated to overcome food intake and daytime variations (exercise per se using the area under the curve), no difference was observed between groups for all metabolic and hormonal variables. Overall, oralcontraceptives increased lipid mobilization in the postprandial state, but this effect was blunted when lipolytic activity was stimulated by exercise per se. Oralcontraceptive-induced greater lipolytic mobilization could be partly explained by greater ANP levels in OC users.

Background: As oralcontraceptive pills are available over the counter in pharmacies, pharmacists are professionally responsible for checking and informing patients about every aspect of taking these drugs. Simulated patient method is a new and robust way to evaluate professional performance of pharmacists. Objective: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacy practice of Iranian pharmacists regarding over-the-counter use of oralcontraceptive pills using simulated patient method. Methods: Simulated patients visited pharmacy with a prescription containing ciprofloxacin and asked for oralcontraceptive pills. The pharmacist was expected to ask important questions for using these drugs and to inform the patient about them properly. Moreover, the Pharmacists should advise patients in regard to the possible interaction. Results: Ninety four pharmacists participated in this study. In 24 (25.3%) visits, the liable pharmacist was not present at the time of purchase. Furthermore, In 13 (18.57 %) visits by the simulated patients, the liable pharmacists did not pay any attention to the simulated patients even when they asked for consultation. Twenty nine (41.43%) pharmacists did not ask any question during dispensing. Nausea was the most frequent described side effect by pharmacists (27 (38.57%)). Yet important adverse effects of oralcontraceptive pills were not mentioned by the pharmacists except for few ones. Only twelve (17.14%) pharmacists mentioned the possible interaction. There was a significant relation between the pharmacists’ gender and detection of possible interaction (p value= 0.048). Conclusion: The quality of the pharmacists’ consultations regarding the over the counter use of oralcontraceptive pills was not satisfactory and required improvement. PMID:28042350

Mild thrombophilias include heterozygous forms of Factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutation and high levels of factor VIII. These defects are responsible for only a moderate increase of venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk compared with strong thrombophilias (antithrombin III, protein C and protein S deficiencies and homozygous forms of factor V Leiden and G20210A prothrombin mutation). Combined oralcontraceptives increase the VTE risk in women in a fertile age, and in a far more important way in thrombophilia carrier women. Universal screening of thrombophilia test before the use of combined oralcontraceptives is not recommended. However, selective VTE-history based screening is associated with a better cost-effectiveness, especially in asymptomatic relatives of carriers of strong thrombophilia. Currently, combined oralcontraceptives are discouraged in women with any thrombophilic defects. The VTE risk is higher during pregnancy and postpartum period compared to hormonal contraceptive use period in women with mil thrombophilia. For this reason, a careful election of an alternative birth control method is necessary in these women.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of an oralcontraception formulation with drospirenone (Yasmin) on lipid metabolism. An open-label, non-comparative clinical trial was conducted. One hundred women, who desired oralcontraception for at least 6 months, were recruited. The subjects received a blister pack which contained 21 tablets of 3 mg drospirenone/30 mug ethinyl estradiol for the first four cycles (1 cycle = 28 days). Cycle 5 and 6 blister packs were dispensed during the next visit in cycle 4. Serum from each subject was collected and analyzed for lipid profile levels at baseline and at cycle 6. The mean differences in lipid profile levels at cycle 6 compared with baseline were assessed. Of the total 100 subjects, 92 (92%) completed the study. There was no significant change in total cholesterol. At cycle 6, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides increased significantly by 25.7% and 42.0%, respectively, compared with baseline. However, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) decreased significantly by 9.9% at cycle 6 compared with baseline. Our results show that the new oralcontraception formulation with drospirenone (Yasmin) is well tolerated and has good contraceptive efficacy. The observed favorable changes in HDL-C and LDL-C suggest a potential cardioprotective benefit.

Full Text Available Giuseppe Benagiano, Sabina Carrara, Valentina FilippiDepartment of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Sapienza University, Rome, ItalyAbstract: The progestational steroid norgestrel was synthesized and tested between 1960 and 1965 through an international cooperation between Wyeth, USA and Schering, Berlin. It is a mixture of two “enantiomers,” with only one form (designated as levonorgestrel biologically active. When taken orally, it is rapidly absorbed, not subjected to a “first-pass” effect and is approximately 90% bioavailable, with a circulating half-life around 15 hours. Its contraceptive action is exerted at the central (hypothalamic and peripheral (cervical mucus and endometrium levels. Levonorgestrel (LNG, alone or in combination with ethinyl estradiol (EE, is the most widely employed contraceptive progestin: it is used in combined oralcontraceptives, progestogen-only pills, long-acting contraceptive implants, intrauterine contraceptive systems and in emergency contraception. It is also the steroid of choice for new oralcontraceptive regimens aimed at reducing the frequency of bleeding episodes. This novel approach, already tried more than 30 years ago, gained interest around the year 2000 when surveys of women’s attitudes toward monthly menstrual bleeding started to show a major change: more and more women declared that they would welcome a hormonal contraceptive method that reduced bleeding episodes to 4, 2 or even 1 per year. At this point, while the debate on the significance and “usefulness” of menstruation went on, attention focused on new regimens. The first new modality consisted of changing the 7-day medication-free interval, either shortening it to fewer than 7 days, or by the administration of low-dose estrogens during the interval between packages. Then, continuous administration regimens started to be investigated. This, however, did not happen suddenly, since, in specific situations, doctors had for years

Background Rates of musculoskeletal injury differ substantially between the genders, with females more likely to experience conditions such as anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries than males in the same sports. Emerging evidence suggests a significant hormonal contribution. Most research has focused solely on how hormonal fluctuations affect connective tissue, but a direct link between hormonal shifts, ligamentous laxity, and ACL injury has not been borne out. There is also evidence to suggest that sex hormones can modulate the central nervous system, but how this affects neuromuscular control is not well understood. Objective To determine whether changes in sex hormone concentrations would alter spinal excitability, measured across the menstrual and oralcontraceptive pill cycle. We hypothesized that spinal excitability would fluctuate across the menstrual cycle (with increased excitability during the periovulatory phase due to peak estradiol concentration), but that there would be no fluctuation in oralcontraceptive users. Design This was a prospective cohort study. Setting The study took place at a biomechanics laboratory at a rehabilitation hospital. Participants A total of 30 healthy women aged 18–35 who were similar in age, body composition, and exercise-training status were included. Fifteen of the women were eumenorrheic and nonusers of oralcontraceptives (nonusers), and 15 of the women were taking oralcontraceptives (users). Main Outcome Measures H-reflex (Hmax/Mmax ratio), serum estradiol, and progesterone concentrations were measured at 3 time points during the menstrual and contraceptive pill cycle. Results The H-reflex (Hmax/Mmax ratio) remained stable across the menstrual and contraceptive pill cycle. Spinal excitability was lower in the users compared with the nonusers across all testing sessions, but this was not statistically significant. Conclusions Our results suggest that acute fluctuations of endogenous estradiol and progesterone do

This study assessed the influence of current oralcontraceptive pills on periodontal health in young females. Seventy women ranging in age from 17 to 35 years (mean 24 years) had a comprehensive periodontal examination. Their current and previous oralcontraceptive pill use was assessed by a questionnaire. A periodontal assessment was performed that included recording the following: plaque index, gingival index, probing depth, and attachment level at six sites per tooth. The periodontal health of women taking birth control pills for at least two years was compared to that of women not taking an oralcontraceptive. The control and test groups were matched for socioeconomic status, age, oral habits, occupation, and educational levels. Although there was no difference in plaque index levels between the two groups, current oralcontraceptive pill users had higher levels of gingival inflammation and bleeding on probing. However, no significant differences were found regarding mean probing depths and attachment loss between the two groups. As birth control policies are advocated by most countries, and because oralcontraceptives are the most widely used method for birth control, a need exists to assess the effects of oralcontraceptives on the periodontal health of young women. Although additional studies are needed to better understand the mechanism of OC-induced gingivitis, female patients should be informed of the oral and periodontal side effects of OCs and the need for meticulous home care and compliance with periodontal maintenance.

Since its introduction in 1960, the combined oralcontraceptive (COC) pill has become one of the most widely and frequently used methods of contraception worldwide. Although highly effective, early COC formulations were associated with significant adverse effects and unacceptable cardiovascular risk. Improvements in tolerability and safety have been achieved, without compromises in effectiveness, primarily via hormone dosage reductions and the development of several new progestins. Multiphasic COCs and extended-/continuous-cycle COCs have also been introduced, although the clinical advantages of these formulations vs. traditional COCs have yet to be established. Inclusion of natural estrogens such as estradiol valerate and 17β-estradiol with selective progestins in new combinations that maintain good cycle control is the most recent evolutionary step designed to improve COC tolerability and safety. Vigorous research needs to continue to help guarantee that the unmet need for safe and effective contraception is satisfied in future generations.

This report provides an overview of research activities and needs in the area of contraceptive development. In a review of the present state, discussions are offered on the effectiveness and drawbacks of oralcontraceptives, intrauterine devices, barrier methods, natural family planning, and sterilization. Methods of contraception that are in the…

Full Text Available Jeffrey T Jensen,1 Johannes Bitzer,2 Marco Serrani3 1Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA; 2Department of Social Medicine and Psychosomatics, Women’s Hospital, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; 3Global Medical Affairs, Women’s Healthcare, Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Berlin, Germany Abstract: Three estradiol (E2-containing oralcontraceptives, estradiol valerate/cyproterone acetate (E2V/CPA, Femilar®, estradiol valerate/dienogest (E2V/DNG, Qlaira®/Natazia™, and estradiol/nomegestrol acetate (E2/NOMAC; Zoely®, have received approval for use in general practice. Only Finnish women currently have access to all three E2-based formulations. E2/NOMAC is currently approved only in Europe, while E2V/DNG is approved globally. To assist clinicians counseling women considering use of one of these formulations, we conducted a review of the published information about the current E2-containing oralcontraceptives. A literature search was conducted using the Ovid interface and a combination of free search terms relevant to estradiol and oralcontraception to identify suitable articles for inclusion in this review. The available data show that E2V/DNG, E2/NOMAC, and E2V/CPA are all effective oralcontraceptives. While direct comparisons are lacking, indirect evidence suggests that E2V/DNG and E2/NOMAC may have better bleeding profiles than E2V/CPA. E2V/DNG is also approved for the treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding. Both E2V/DNG and E2/NOMAC have minimal influence on hemostatic, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism parameters, or induce less change in these parameters relative to ethinylestradiol-based oralcontraceptives. However, the predictive value of these surrogate parameters is a matter of debate, and whether these differences can be translated into meaningful clinical outcomes needs to be established in large-scale, post-marketing, prospective, Phase IV cohort

Objective To evaluate the associations of oralcontraceptives(OC) exposure,angiotensinogen(AGT) gene polymorphism and joint effects on the risk of stroke inChinese women.Methods On the basis of a prospective

The progestational steroid norgestrel was synthesized and tested between 1960 and 1965 through an international cooperation between Wyeth, USA and Schering, Berlin. It is a mixture of two “enantiomers,” with only one form (designated as levonorgestrel) biologically active. When taken orally, it is rapidly absorbed, not subjected to a “first-pass” effect and is approximately 90% bioavailable, with a circulating half-life around 15 hours. Its contraceptive action is exerted at the central (hypothalamic) and peripheral (cervical mucus and endometrium) levels. Levonorgestrel (LNG), alone or in combination with ethinyl estradiol (EE), is the most widely employed contraceptive progestin: it is used in combined oralcontraceptives, progestogen-only pills, long-acting contraceptive implants, intrauterine contraceptive systems and in emergency contraception. It is also the steroid of choice for new oralcontraceptive regimens aimed at reducing the frequency of bleeding episodes. This novel approach, already tried more than 30 years ago, gained interest around the year 2000 when surveys of women’s attitudes toward monthly menstrual bleeding started to show a major change: more and more women declared that they would welcome a hormonal contraceptive method that reduced bleeding episodes to 4, 2 or even 1 per year. At this point, while the debate on the significance and “usefulness” of menstruation went on, attention focused on new regimens. The first new modality consisted of changing the 7-day medication-free interval, either shortening it to fewer than 7 days, or by the administration of low-dose estrogens during the interval between packages. Then, continuous administration regimens started to be investigated. This, however, did not happen suddenly, since, in specific situations, doctors had for years empirically utilized various continuous administration regimens. The first extended-cycle oralcontraceptive regimen introduced in clinical practice is an 84

Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are increasingly used by adolescents. The aim of this review is to investigate the evidence regarding COCs' influence on weight, height and bone mineral density (BMD) in girls younger than 18 years.......Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are increasingly used by adolescents. The aim of this review is to investigate the evidence regarding COCs' influence on weight, height and bone mineral density (BMD) in girls younger than 18 years....

Full Text Available This article presents the results of a study on the acceptability of emergency contraception (EC in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. Opinions of potential users and possible providers were obtained through discussion groups and those of authorities and policy-makers through semi-structured interviews. Most participants had a positive opinion of EC, based on the view that it can help reduce unplanned pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy, and unsafe abortion. Several interviewees felt that all women should be informed about EC, while others viewed it as a method for special situations such as rape and unprotected first sexual intercourse. Concern was expressed that its introduction might be associated with a decrease in condom use, increase in sexually transmitted diseases, and irresponsible or promiscuous sexual behavior among adolescents. The need for EC was clearly perceived by most participants, leading to the conclusion that health authorities have the responsibility of implementing programs for its introduction. Training of health care personnel should include the discussion of reproductive health problems that could be prevented by EC.

To test whether the oralcontraceptive pill cycle affects endocrine and metabolic responses to hypoxic (fraction of inspired oxygen = 13%, P(IO2): 95 mmHg; H) versus normoxic (P(IO2):153 mmHg; N) exercise, we examined eight women (28 +/- 1.2 yr) during the third (PILL) and placebo (PLA) weeks of their monthly oralcontraceptive pill cycle. Cardiopulmonary, metabolic, and neuroendocrine measurements were taken before, during, and after three 5-min consecutive workloads at 30%, 45%, and 60% of normoxic V(O2peak) in H and N trials. Heart rate response to exercise was greater in H versus N, but was not different between PILL and PLA. Lactate levels were significantly greater during exercise, and both lactate and glucose levels were significantly greater for 30 min after exercise in H versus N (p exercise (p exercise.

To analyze the prevalence of current use of oral and injectable contraceptives by Brazilian women, according to demographic and socioeconomic variables and issues related to access to those medicines. A cross-sectional, population-based analytical study with probability sampling based on data from the Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM - National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), carried out between September 2013 and February 2014 in 20,404 Brazilian urban households. Prevalence was calculated based on reports from non-pregnant women aged 15-49 on the use of oral or injectable contraceptives. The independent variables were gender, age, level of education, socioeconomic class, Brazilian region and marital status. Also analyzed were access, means of payment, sources, and reported medicines. Statistical analyses considered 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and Pearson Chi-square test to evaluate the statistical significance of differences between groups, considering a 5% significance level. Prevalence of use was 28.2% for oralcontraceptives (OC) and 4.5% for injectable contraceptives (IC). The highest prevalence of oralcontraceptives was in the South region (37.5%) and the lowest in the North region (15.7%). For injectable contraceptives there was no difference between regions. Access was higher for oralcontraceptive users (90.7%) than injectable contraceptives users (81.2%), as was direct payment (OC 78.1%, IC 58.0%). Users who paid for contraceptives acquired them at retail pharmacies (OC 95.0% and IC 86.6%) and at Farmácia Popular (Popular Pharmacy Program) (OC 4.8% and IC 12.7%). Free of charge contraceptives were mostly obtained from the Brazilian Unified Health System - SUS (OC 86.7%; IC 96.0%). Free samples were reported by 10.4% of users who did not pay for oralcontraceptives. Most of paying users did not try to obtain contraceptives from SUS. Monophasic

The prevalence of cholesterol gall stones in young women has increased since the introduction of oralcontraceptives. The synthetic female sex hormones used in these preparations, increase the degree of cholesterol saturation in bile. To determine whether oestrogens, progestagens, or both, are responsible for the change in biliary cholesterol saturation index, a prospective randomised, controlled study was performed. A significant increase in the cholesterol saturation index of bile was obser...

Angela Choi, Angela DempseyDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USAAbstract: Oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) remain the most commonly used reversible birth control method. Failure to adhere to daily pill taking and gaps in use are common and contribute to the risk of unintended pregnancy among OCP users. OCP compliance is influenced by a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioral, logistic, clinical, and social factors. This review out...

Oralcontraceptive (OC) use and alcohol consumption have been shown to alter the levels of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood. The effect of alcohol consumption on levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-B, Apo-A1, the ratio of HDL cholesterol/total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol/LDL cholesterol, and the ratio of LDL cholesterol/LDL-B among normal healthy young women before initiation of oralcontraceptives and after six months of oralcontraceptive use are both described. Of primary interest is the mediating effect of alcohol consumption on the association between steroid usage and blood lipid values. At baseline, ethanol consumption was found to be positively associated with triglycerides, HDL-C, and Apo-A1 and negatively associated with LDL-C/LDL-B. After adjustment for several covariables, alcohol consumption was found to be positively associated with the increases in triglycerides and in Apo-A1 observed at 3 and 6 months after initiation of OCs. Since these two parameters are believed to have opposite relationships to cardiovascular disease, the effect of alcohol consumption remains uncertain.

Full Text Available Background and objectives: A major problem for labs. esp. medicolegal centers is drug test false positive and negative results. Using carbonpaper, sodium bicarbonate or oralcontraceptive pills (OCP are commonamong addict people to make the results negative. Therefore, we decidedto evaluate the effect of carbon paper, sodium bicarbonate or OCP onmorphine urine test.Material and Methods: We performed this pre-experimental study onthe urine samples of all people referred to narcotic drug laboratory ofMarkazi province during May of 2005. Of 2110 urine samples, theMorphine Rapid Test of 208 samples was positive. Then by means ofTLC method, we confirmed the presence of morphine metabolites in 150urine samples. After that, we divided these samples into three equalgroups for adding carbon paper, sodium bicarbonate or OCP.Results: The results show that in carbon paper group, 41 cases arepositive and nine cases unclear. In sodium bicarbonate group, 45 samplesare positive and 5 cases unclear. In estrogen conjugate group, all 50samples are positive.Conclusion: According to this study, adding carbon paper, sodiumbicarbonate or oralcontraceptive pills cannot make negative theMorphine Rapid Test result.Key words: Morphine Rapid Test, Carbon paper, Sodium bicarbonate,Oralcontraceptive pill.

Venous thromboembolism is a serious, potentially lethal health problem affecting one per 1,000 people annually. Major surgery, the use of oralcontraceptives, complicated pregnancy, fractures, and immobilization increase the risk of thrombosis. In addition to these factors, thrombosis is associated with inherited deficiencies of antithrombin III, protein C, and protein S. Together these do not account for more than five to 10% of the cases. Hereditary activated protein C resistance has been recognized as a basis for a majority of cases of familial thrombosis. It accounted for more than a 10 times higher number than that of other known genetic defects. We describe a case of a young female who presented with a pulmonary embolism and was discovered to have activated protein C resistance. This patient had a heterozygous mutation for factor V Leiden and was taking oralcontraceptives. This report underlines: 1) increased risk of venous thrombosis in oralcontraceptive users who carry factor V Leiden mutation associated with functional resistance to the normal anticoagulation activities of protein C; 2) most episodes occurring in the young are minor, but pulmonary embolus can occur; 3) the importance of identifying other affected members of the family; and 4) the importance of anticoagulation prophylaxis at times of enhanced risk, particularly during pregnancy, postpartum, and major surgery.

Epidemiological studies have pointed to a correlation between the oestrogen content of oralcontraceptives and the risk of deep vein thrombosis (DVT). The correlation has been strongest in studies which partially consisted of adverse drug reaction reports to the Swedish Adverse Drug Reaction Advisory Committee (SADRAC). The present study analyzes the epidemiological basis of the adverse drug reaction reports on DVT in women on oralcontraceptives to SADRAC. It verifies the reported correlation between the oestrogen content of the pills and the risk of DVT but it also demonstrates that this correlation probably was secondary to differences in the diagnostic standard of DVT, to differences in reporting policies to SADRAC and to an age difference between women on low-oestrogen-pills and those on high-oestrogen pills and is thus due to bias. It is concluded that adverse drug reaction reporting on oralcontraceptives has been very unreliable, for which reason it cannot support any epidemiological conclusion concerning the relative thrombogenicity of high-oestrogen pills compared with that of low-oestrogen pills.

Objectives: Orlistat, a potent and selective inhibitor of gastrointestinal lipases, is designed for the treatment of obesity. A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, 2-way crossover study investigated the possible influence of orlistat on the ovulation-suppressing action of combination oral

Objectives: Orlistat, a potent and selective inhibitor of gastrointestinal lipases, is designed for the treatment of obesity. A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, 2-way crossover study investigated the possible influence of orlistat on the ovulation-suppressing action of combination oral

Full Text Available Abstract Background Withdrawal as a method of birth control is still used in Iran. The aim of this study was to explore married women's perspectives and attitudes on withdrawal use instead of oralcontraceptive (OC in Tehran, Iran. Methods This was a qualitative study. Participants were 50 married women, not currently pregnant, not desiring pregnancy and who had been using withdrawal for contraception. Face-to face interviews were conducted to collect data. Content analysis was performed to analyze the data. Results Four major themes were extracted from the interviews: advantages, disadvantages, barriers for OC use, and husband-related factors. Advantages of withdrawal use were identified as: easy to use, convenient, ease of access, natural. Even those participants who had experienced unwanted pregnancy while using withdrawal, relied on withdrawal as their contraceptive method. Disadvantages of OC included concerns about side effects. Barriers related to use of OC included the need for medical advice, vaginal examination and daily use. Husband-related factors included: the husband wanted to be the primary decision maker on the number of children and that he preferred withdrawal. Conclusion Health providers should address misunderstandings that exist about OC and highlight the non-contraceptive health benefits of OC to balance the information provided for women. We suggest that not only women but also their spouses be advised in family planning programs.

Full Text Available Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs offer a convenient, safe, effective, and reversible method of contraception. However, their use is limited by side effects. Several strategies have been suggested to make COC use more acceptable among women. Reduction in the dose of estrogen is a commonly accepted approach to reduce the side effects of COC. Use of newer generation of progestins, such as gestodene, reduces the androgenic side effects generally associated with progestogens. Furthermore, reduction in hormone-free interval, as a 24/4 regimen, can reduce the risk of escape ovulation (hence preventing contraceptive failure and breakthrough bleeding. It also reduces hormonal fluctuations, thereby reducing the withdrawal symptoms. A COC with gestodene 60 µg and ethinylestradiol (EE 15 µg offers the lowest hormonal dose in 24/4 treatment regimen. This regimen has been shown to offer good contraceptive efficacy and cycle control. With the progress of treatment cycles, the incidence of breakthrough bleeding reduces. Gestodene/EE low dose 24/4 regimen was associated with lower incidence of estrogen-related adverse events, such as headache, breast tenderness, and nausea. Furthermore, COCs containing low dose of estrogen have not been associated with any adverse effect on haemostasis in healthy women. Ultra-low-dose COCs can be considered in women who are at risk of developing estrogen-related side effects.

Full Text Available Hormonal contraceptives may produce side effects that deter women from their use as a method of family planning. In nutritionally vulnerable populations these effects may be more pronounced due to micronutrient deficiencies and health status. Previous studies have been unable to resolve whether micronutrient supplementation may reduce such side effects. Aim: In a longitudinal study, 1011 women obtaining oralcontraception through the public health system in rural Cambodia were allocated to either intervention or control groups, receiving either daily Vitamin B6 supplement or care as usual (without placebo. Results: The intervention participants (n = 577 reported fewer side effects in three categories: nausea/no appetite, headache, and depression compared with control group participants (n = 434. Conclusion: Women taking Vitamin B6 supplement were less likely to report side effects in a nutritionally vulnerable population. Underlying nutrition status should be considered by clinicians and reproductive health policy makers in the context of providing contraceptive services. Further investigation into micronutrient supplementation, particularly with B6, in reproductive-aged women using hormonal contraception should be conducted in other settings to determine the potential for widespread adoption.

The combined oralcontraceptives are one of the most prescribed medicines. Across the years they have given to more than 60 million women of the whole world a suitable method for the highly reliable and effective natal control. The oralcontraceptives are different from other medicines; principally they are not in use for controlling any disease and have the potential of giving advantages. To evaluate the control of the cycle, tolerability and acceptance of an oralcontraceptive of ultralow dose with gestodene (60 microg) and ethinylestradiol (15 microg) in a population of healthy women from 18 to 35 years. The study included adult healthy women, all the users signed assent of informed before being included to the study and of the beginning of any procedure in agreement with the declarations of Helsinki and its amendments. Descriptive statistics was used for the demographic information and the comparison between the initial and final visits of the variables of efficiency. There was used the test (Proof) of ranges of Wilcoxon's sign for related samples. There were included 113 women. The average of age was 26.08 years (SD = 4.43), weight of 62.02 kg (SD = 11.13) and height of 159.20 cm (SD = 6.06). The distribution in four centers was: 32 in the University Hospital (Monterrey), 21 in the Country 2000 (Guadalajara), 30 in in the Medical Center La Mora (Aguascalientes) and 30 in Perinatology National Institute (Mexico City). The contraceptive efficiency of the combination of 15 microg of ethinylestradiol and 60 microg of gestodene has been demonstrated in previous studies. This study ratifies the international results of efficiency and tolerability.

Figure 9 is an attempt to summate the influences of life-style on lipid parameters. Based on the work of Nikkila, it shows the source of the production of HDL and LDL, the factors that can affect these lipoprotein levels, and where in the cascade of lipoprotein metabolism these factors exert influence. The source of HDL production is the liver and the intestine. At this stage, diet, exercise, hormones, genetics, drugs, and certain disease states can affect HDL levels. Lecithin-cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT) esterifies HDL-free cholesterol in plasma, and HDL3 is formed that in turn is transformed to HDL2. At the same time, VLDL from the gut and the liver will be converted, under the influence of LPL, to HDL2 and LDL. Thus HDL2 is being formed by the breakdown of VLDL and from the transformation of HDL3 to HDL2. Insulin, exercise, alcohol, fats, drugs, and diet affect lipoprotein lipase and consequently influence levels of LDL and HDL2 indirectly. Progestogens increase and estrogens decrease hepatic endothelial lipase, thus affecting the HDL2 concentration. It is at this point that combination OCs influence HDL2. The balance between estrogen and progestogen in a given contraceptive determines the extent and direction of HDL2 concentration. A separate pathway in the liver also catabolizes HDL2 and HDL3. LDL is generated partly from catabolism of VLDL and is partly secreted from the liver. The removal of LDL is mediated by receptors in both the liver and peripheral tissues. It is here that the Brown-Goldstein theory plays a major role. If LDL receptors are present in an insufficient number or are defective, then the C will accumulate and atherosclerosis may follow. Thus two key enzymes, LCAT and LPL, control the production of HDL2 and LDL, whereas a third enzyme, hepatic endothelial lipase, catabolizes HDL2.

Progestogen-only oralcontraceptives (POCs) are generally considered a good contraceptive choice for brestfeeding women and for women who want to use an oral form of contraception, but are not suited for, or cannot tolerate the side effects of, estrogen-containing preparations. However, a number of POCs' safety, efficacy and other related issues remain to be addressed. This paper reviews recent literature and evaluates these issues from an epidemiologic perspective. The small number of users imposes severe limitations in designing epidemiologic studies to address POCs' long-term safety issues, but available information suggests POCs are at least as safe as, if not safer than, COCs. Compared to COCs, POCs are more likely to cause menstrual disturbances which, in turn, could affect their acceptability and lead to poor compliance and hence higher pregnancy rates. POCs' efficacy has been estimated to be between 1.4 and 4.3 pregnancies per 100 woman-years of use. Lower pregnancy rates approaching those of COCs have been reported in centers with good counseling. POCs' benefits outweigh their risks. However, more studies are needed to further address POCs' safety and efficacy issues.

Objective Menstrual symptoms such as dysmenorrhea usually occur during the hormone-free interval in oralcontraceptive users. Progestin withdrawal activates NF-κB transcription factor, which upregulates both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and Cox-2 expression in the endometrium. The use of natural NF-κB inhibitors such as pycnogenol may block this response, improving dysmenorrhea. Patients and methods Twenty-four patients with severe dysmenorrhea were allocated to one of two treatment groups. In Group A (n=13), women were treated with an oralcontraceptive containing 15 μg of ethinyl estradiol and 60 mg of gestodene (Adoless®) in a 24/4 regimen for three consecutive cycles. Women in Group B (n=11) used the same contraceptive regimen together with 100 mg of pycnogenol (Flebon®) continuously for 3 months. Pain scores were graded using a visual analog scale (VAS) before and during the hormone-free interval at the end of the third treatment cycle. Results Before treatment, VAS pain scores for dysmenorrhea were 8 and 9 in Groups A and B, respectively. However, by the end of the third treatment cycle, pain scores had decreased significantly (Pgestodene. PMID:25525393

Full Text Available Hugo Maia Jr,1–3 Clarice Haddad,3 Julio Casoy3 1Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, 2Itaigara Memorial Day Hospital, 3Centro de Pesquisas e Assistência em Reprodução Humana (CEPARH, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil Abstract: Endometriosis is a chronic disease in which a persistent state of heightened inflammation is maintained by nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB activation. The progestins present in oralcontraceptives are potent inhibitors of NF-κB translocation to cell nuclei, while Pycnogenol® (Pinus pinaster acts by blocking post-translational events. In this study, the effects of Pycnogenol on pain scores were investigated in patients with endometriosis using oralcontraceptives containing either gestodene or drospirenone in extended regimens. Pain scores were determined using a visual analog scale before and after 3 months of treatment. Oralcontraceptives, used alone (groups 1 and 3 or in association with Pycnogenol (groups 2 and 4, resulted in significant decreases in pain scores after 3 months of treatment; however, this reduction was significantly greater in the groups using oralcontraceptives + Pycnogenol (groups 2 and 4 compared with those using oralcontraceptives alone (groups 1 and 3. In the groups using oralcontraceptives alone, 50% of patients became pain-free by the end of the third month of treatment. These results suggest that Pycnogenol increases the efficacy of oralcontraceptives for the treatment of endometriosis-related pain. Keywords: Pycnogenol®, aromatase, endometriosis, nuclear factor-kappa B

Results of the 1998 "Contraceptive Technology Update" Pill Survey indicate that oralcontraceptives (OCs) remain the top birth control choice for US women. More than 70% of providers who responded to the survey reported that at least 50 women leave their offices each month with an OC prescription. When asked to cite their first OC choice, for a 21-year-old nonsmoking woman, Ortho Tri-Cyclen was selected by 43.6% of providers. This OC is considered an excellent choice for young women because of its ease of use, good cycle control, and beneficial effect on acne. The top choices for a 42-year-old nonsmoking woman were Loestrin (26.5%) and Alesse (21.1%), both of which have low estrogen doses. 25% of providers indicated they had prescribed OCs specifically to decrease the ovarian cancer risk in genetically predisposed women.

Full Text Available Luis Bahamondes,1 Josefina Lira-Plasencia,2 Ricardo Martin,3 Victor Marin,4 Maria Y Makuch1 1Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas (UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil; 2Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, México, DF, México; 3Hospital Universitario, Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Bogotá, Colombia; 4Hospital Central, Petróleos Mexicanos, México, DF, México Background: Unintended pregnancy is a public health problem and unmet medical need worldwide. It is estimated that in the year 2012, almost 213 million pregnancies occurred, and the global pregnancy rate decreased only slightly from 2008 to 2012. It was also estimated that 85 million pregnancies (40% of all pregnancies were unintended and that 38% ended in an unintended birth. Objectives: To assess knowledge and attitudes of Latin American (LA obstetricians and gynecologists (OBGYNs regarding unintended pregnancies and aspects of combined oralcontraceptive (COC use. Methods: A survey was conducted during a scientific meeting about contraception in 2014, in which OBGYNs from 12 LA countries who provide attention in contraception were invited to respond to a multiple-choice questionnaire to assess their knowledge and attitudes regarding unplanned pregnancy and some aspects regarding COC use. Results: A total of 210 OBGYNs participated in the study. Their knowledge regarding COC failure was low. The participants reported they believed that their patients habitually forgot to take a pill and that their patients did not know what to do in these situations. They were aware of the benefits of COC use; however, they were less prone to prescribe COCs for the purpose of protecting against ovarian and endometrial cancer, and one-quarter of them had doubts about the association between COC use and cancer risk. Conclusion: The interviewed LA OBGYNs showed some flaws in terms of knowledge of COC failure rates and the non-contraceptive benefits and risks

inclusion. OCP and M+OCP were superior to M regarding reduction in free T levels. Conclusions: M treatment alone or in combination with OCP was associated with weight loss and improved body composition compared with OCP, whereas free T levels decreased during M+OCP or OCP. Combined treatment with M......Context: Central obesity in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is associated with increased inflammatory markers and increased risk for type 2 diabetes. Objective: The objective of the study was to evaluate whether treatment with metformin (M) or M combined with oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs...... (150 mg desogestrel+30 μg ethinylestradiol), or OCP. Whole-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scans and clinical and hormonal evaluations were performed before and after the intervention period. A total of 65 of 90 patients completed the study. Main Outcome Measures: Changes in weight at 6 and 12...

INTRODUCTION Intimate partner violence (IPV) is estimated to affect 25% of adult women in the US alone. IPV directly impacts women’s ability to use contraception, resulting in many of unintended pregnancies and STIs. This review examines the relationship between IPV and condom and oralcontraceptive use within the United States at two levels: the female victim’s perspective on barriers to condom and oralcontraceptive use, in conjunction with experiencing IPV (Aim 1) and the male perpetrator’s perspective regarding condom and oralcontraceptive use (Aim 2). STUDY DESIGN We systematically reviewed and synthesized all publications meeting the study criteria published since 1997. We aimed to categorize the results by emerging themes related to each study aim. RESULTS We identified 42 studies that met our inclusion criteria. We found 37 studies that addressed Aim 1. Within this we identified three themes: violence resulting in reduced condom or oralcontraceptive use (n=15); condom or oralcontraceptive use negotiation (n=15); which we further categorized as IPV due to condom or oralcontraceptive request, perceived violence (or fear) of IPV resulting in decreased condom or oralcontraceptive use, and sexual relationship power imbalances decreasing the ability to use condoms or oralcontraceptives; and reproductive coercion (n=7). We found 5 studies that addressed Aim 2. Most studies were cross-sectional, limiting the ability to determine causality between IPV and condom or oralcontraceptive use; however, most studies did find a positive relationship between IPV and decreased condom or oralcontraceptive use. CONCLUSIONS Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research has demonstrated the linkages between female IPV victimization/male IPV perpetration and condom or oralcontraceptive use. However, additional qualitative and longitudinal research is needed to improve the understanding of dynamics in relationships with IPV and determine causality between IPV

Full Text Available CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Fibroadenomas are the most common benign tumors of the female breast. The aim of this study was to evaluate the proliferative activity of breast fibroadenoma as shown by ultrasound measurements, following administration of oralcontraceptives with and without associated estriol. DESIGN AND SETTING: This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial carried out in the Mastology Sector, Department of Gynecology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. METHODS: We studied 33 women with fibroadenomas. Ten were placed in group 1 and took an oralcontraceptive consisting of levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol together with placebo material in the same capsule, for four consecutive cycles with a seven-day interval between them. The other 23 patients constituted group 2 and took the oralcontraceptive as above together with estriol in the same capsule, in the same way as done by the group 1 patients. We took ultrasound measurements of their tumors (in three dimensions before and after the intake of medication. At the end of the study, all the patients had their tumors removed by surgery. RESULTS: We observed decreased fibroadenoma width among the users of oralcontraceptives with placebo, and this decrease was statistically significant. In the other group, we did not observe any changes (in width, length or height. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that estriol may block the protective effect of oralcontraceptives on fibroadenomas, since we observed decreased fibroadenoma width among the group 1 patients but not the group 2 patients.

The influence of menstrual cycle phase and oralcontraceptive use on neurobehavioral function and circadian rhythms were studied in healthy young women (n = 25) using a modified constant routine procedure during 24 h of sleep deprivation. Alertness and performance worsened across sleep deprivation and also varied with circadian phase. Entrained circadian rhythms of melatonin and body temperature were evident in women regardless of menstrual phase or oralcontraceptive use. No significant difference in melatonin levels, duration, or phase was observed between women in the luteal and follicular phases, whereas oralcontraceptives appeared to increase melatonin levels. Temperature levels were higher in the luteal phase and in oralcontraceptive users compared to women in the follicular phase. Alertness on the maintenance of wakefulness test and some tests of cognitive performance were poorest for women in the follicular phase especially near the circadian trough of body temperature. These observations suggest that hormonal changes associated with the menstrual cycle and the use of oralcontraceptives contribute to changes in nighttime waking neurobehavioral function and temperature level whereas these factors do not appear to affect circadian phase.

The influence of menstrual cycle phase and oralcontraceptive use on neurobehavioral function and circadian rhythms were studied in healthy young women (n = 25) using a modified constant routine procedure during 24 h of sleep deprivation. Alertness and performance worsened across sleep deprivation and also varied with circadian phase. Entrained circadian rhythms of melatonin and body temperature were evident in women regardless of menstrual phase or oralcontraceptive use. No significant difference in melatonin levels, duration, or phase was observed between women in the luteal and follicular phases, whereas oralcontraceptives appeared to increase melatonin levels. Temperature levels were higher in the luteal phase and in oralcontraceptive users compared to women in the follicular phase. Alertness on the maintenance of wakefulness test and some tests of cognitive performance were poorest for women in the follicular phase especially near the circadian trough of body temperature. These observations suggest that hormonal changes associated with the menstrual cycle and the use of oralcontraceptives contribute to changes in nighttime waking neurobehavioral function and temperature level whereas these factors do not appear to affect circadian phase.

Full Text Available Rossella E Nappi,1 Marco Serrani,2 Jeffrey T Jensen3 1Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Research Centre for Reproductive Medicine, IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo Foundation, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy; 2Global Medical Affairs Women's Healthcare, Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Berlin, Germany; 3Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA Abstract: Combined oralcontraceptives formulated to include estradiol (E2 have recently become available for the indication of pregnancy prevention. A combined estradiol valerate and dienogest pill (E2V/DNG, designed to be administered using an estrogen step-down and a progestin step-up regimen over 26 days of active treatment followed by 2 days of placebo (26/2-day regimen, has also undergone research to assess the potential for additional noncontraceptive benefits. Randomized, placebo-controlled studies have demonstrated that E2V/DNG is an effective treatment for heavy menstrual bleeding – a reduction in median menstrual blood loss approaching 90% occurs after 6 months of treatment. To date, E2V/DNG is the only oralcontraceptive approved for this indication. Comparator studies have also demonstrated a reduction in hormone withdrawal-associated symptoms in users of E2V/DNG compared with a conventional 21/7-day regimen of ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel. Other potential noncontraceptive benefits associated with E2V/DNG, like improvement in dysmenorrhea, sexual function, and quality of life, are comparable with those associated with other combined oralcontraceptives and are discussed further in this review. Keywords: heavy menstrual bleeding, hormone withdrawal-associated symptoms, quality of life

Full Text Available Serum level and 24hr urinary excretion pattern of potassium have been studied in 104 healthy women, aged 18-44 years, using combined • oralcontraceptives for a period of 3-48 months, and results h av e been compared with those obtained from 21 healthy controls of the same clinic. aged 19-40 years, using IUD. There was no sign ificant change observed in s erum potassium level, but 24hr urinary excretion pattern of potassium decreased significantly in 90% of the individuals equivalent to 2. &- 78 . 3% of the mean control, possibly due to a retention of potas sium in the cells.

Full Text Available Angela Choi, Angela DempseyDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USAAbstract: Oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs remain the most commonly used reversible birth control method. Failure to adhere to daily pill taking and gaps in use are common and contribute to the risk of unintended pregnancy among OCP users. OCP compliance is influenced by a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioral, logistic, clinical, and social factors. This review outlines the evidence base for strategies that have been studied for their impact on OCP compliance.Keywords: adherence, continuation, unintended pregnancy, reminder system

The authors describe an automatic method to assay circulating immune complexes induced by OC (oralcontraception). The method is simple, quick, and cheap; it consists of detecting the immune complexes precipitating by ammonium sulphate at 25% saturation, as in the manual method. In the automatic method the procedure is done on an Auto Analyzer apparatus, which allows direct reading of the floculation, and does not require washing of the precipitate. Results obtained for 164 sera tested automatically were compared with results obtained by the manual method; the correlation was very significant. The same method can be used for screening other immune complexes.

Full Text Available The association between oralcontraceptive (OC pills and vascular diseases is well-known, although, the present generation of pills is considered to be relatively safer in this regard. Hormonal treatment for severe abnormal uterine bleeding is usually considered after ruling out malignancy, when such bleeding is resistant to all other forms of treatment. We report a case of severe peripheral arterial disease in a female, who had been on high-dose OC pills for an extended period of time for severe uterine bleeding.

Oralcontraceptives caused increased fibrinogen, FVII, FX, and fibrinolysis. The latter was associated with elevated FXII and PKK, while C1-INH was decreased, ATIII and alpha 2M were unchanged; it could not be accounted for by changes in t-PA, u-PA, PAI, plasminogen, alpha 2-AP, proteins C or S. HCII and alpha 1-PI were increased and may regulate the availability of thrombin and FXIa. The increased FXII/PKK dependent fibrinolytic potential and HCII may offset any increase in thrombin generation, while alpha 1-PI limits intrinsic coagulation.

The oralcontraceptive pill, having been on the market for 45 years, should be sold over-the-counter. There is no longer any valid reason for FDA to maintain the prescription status of the drug. First, numerous studies over the past few decades have shown that the pill is safe for the vast majority of women, with current risk to users estimated to be less than the risks associated with pregnancy. In addition, the pill is effective and easy to use. Studies have shown that the pill also confers...

of fibrinogen and Factor VIIc increased, and the capacity of coagulation inhibition was affected by increased protein C and decreased protein S levels. Increased fibrinolytic capacity was indicated by elevated activity and reduced antigen levels of tissue plasminogen activator and by reduced activity......OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine key variables in the regulation of coagulation and fibrinolysis during intake of low-dose oralcontraceptives containing newly developed progestogens. STUDY DESIGN: Thirty-four healthy young women were allocated to 12 consecutive cycles...

Hormonal variation over the menstrual cycle alters women's preferences for phenotypic indicators of men's genetic or parental quality. Hormonal contraceptives suppress these shifts, inducing different mate preference patterns among users and non-users. This raises the possibility that women using oralcontraception (OC) choose different partners than they would do otherwise but, to date, we know neither whether these laboratory-measured effects are sufficient to exert real-world consequences, nor what these consequences would be. Here, we test for differences in relationship quality and survival between women who were using or not using OC when they chose the partner who fathered their first child. Women who used OC scored lower on measures of sexual satisfaction and partner attraction, experienced increasing sexual dissatisfaction during the relationship, and were more likely to be the one to initiate an eventual separation if it occurred. However, the same women were more satisfied with their partner's paternal provision, and thus had longer relationships and were less likely to separate. These effects are congruent with evolutionary predictions based on cyclical preference shifts. Our results demonstrate that widespread use of hormonal contraception may contribute to relationship outcome, with implications for human reproductive behaviour, family cohesion and quality of life.

women aged 35–79 years; 554 women with epithelial ovarian cancer and 1,564 age-matched controls were included in the analyses. Data were analyzed in multiple logistic regression models. RESULTS: The use of combined oralcontraceptives only and the mixed use of combined and progestin-only pills decreased...... the risk of ovarian cancer, while no association was found with exclusive use of progestin-only pills. No major differences in risk were found for users of combined oralcontraceptives with high- and low-potency estrogen and progestin. There was no effect of cumulative progestin intake, but decreased risks......PURPOSE: Oralcontraceptive use decreases the risk of ovarian cancer, but no previous studies have assessed the impact of cumulative intake of estrogen and progestin on ovarian cancer risk. METHODS: We used data from a population-based case–control study conducted in Denmark in 1995–1999 among...

Two seventeen year-old women, developed acute onset left choreic movements following two months and two weeks use of oralcontraceptives. Left hemiparesia appeared a few days later, while involuntary movements discontinued. Cranial CT scan and MRI showed bilateral ischemic lesion in the frontal region for the first case and isolated lesion in the right centrum ovale for the second. Angiography showed nearly complete obstruction of the terminal portion of the internal carotid artery with an outline Moya-Moya network. After discontinuing oralcontraceptives, there has been no relapse of neurologic dysfunction for more than three years for the first case and twelve months for the second one. The role of perfusion insufficiency in limb-shaking carotid transient ischemic attack is discussed and the possible relations between oralcontraceptives, chorea and angiographic features resembling Moya-Moya disease are evaluated.

Full Text Available Background: Little is known about how parental gender equality early in their children lives can influence daughters′ decision to use contraceptive pills. Aim: The study aimed at exploring whether maternal working time and paternity leave in Sweden during the first two years of their daughters′ lives is associated with the use of oralcontraceptives when they are adolescents or young adults. Materials and Methods: The study population was selected from a cohort of all Swedish fathers and mothers who had their first child together between 1988 and 1989 (n = 57,520 family units. Multivariate logistic regression was used to estimate the association. Results: Mothers′ longer working time was mildly associated with daughters′ oralcontraceptive pill use, though no clear trend was observed. Longer paternity leave periods (>30 days were not associated with use of oralcontraceptives among their daughters, but 1-30 day periods showed a mild positive association. Conclusion: For maternal working time, there seems to be an association, but trends by working hours are not clear. There is no clear association between paternity leave during the first two years of their daughters′ life and the use of oralcontraceptives when they are adolescents and young adults.

If complications occur within a pregnancy planned and brought to term, they often can be dealt with and accepted. They are even more traumatic when they occur in an unwanted pregnancy that could have been prevented through contraception. Teenagers, because of their physical and psychological immaturity and also because of their social environment, seem to suffer with undue frequency from the complications of induced abortion. Its result, for the teenager, is a handicapped future in comparison to other women. Hence, access to contraception is important for all women, and especially for teenagers, in order to avoid such prejudicial situations. It is important, then, to prescribe oralcontraception for its efficacy and its short- and long-term innocuousness. Because of her immaturity, the pregnant teenager is at risk: of spontaneous abortion, pre-eclampsia, anemia, hemorrhage, and prematurity. She is also at risk because of the social difficulties she will be facing. This is particularly true in families from developing countries. From birth, the child is also at risk: of low birth weight for the term, mortality in the first year of life, and all risks linked to abandonment, or education by a third party. In a proportion of 13 to 30% in western countries and in a proportion of 3% in East Asia or in Northwest Africa (Maghreb), induced abortions are a reflection of the following: early sexual activity without contraception even if fertility is still low in very young teenagers, absence of social protection or social independence, refusal of forced marriage, and presence or absence of liberal legislation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Background Unintended pregnancy is a public health problem and unmet medical need worldwide. It is estimated that in the year 2012, almost 213 million pregnancies occurred, and the global pregnancy rate decreased only slightly from 2008 to 2012. It was also estimated that 85 million pregnancies (40% of all pregnancies) were unintended and that 38% ended in an unintended birth. Objectives To assess knowledge and attitudes of Latin American (LA) obstetricians and gynecologists (OBGYNs) regarding unintended pregnancies and aspects of combined oralcontraceptive (COC) use. Methods A survey was conducted during a scientific meeting about contraception in 2014, in which OBGYNs from 12 LA countries who provide attention in contraception were invited to respond to a multiple-choice questionnaire to assess their knowledge and attitudes regarding unplanned pregnancy and some aspects regarding COC use. Results A total of 210 OBGYNs participated in the study. Their knowledge regarding COC failure was low. The participants reported they believed that their patients habitually forgot to take a pill and that their patients did not know what to do in these situations. They were aware of the benefits of COC use; however, they were less prone to prescribe COCs for the purpose of protecting against ovarian and endometrial cancer, and one-quarter of them had doubts about the association between COC use and cancer risk. Conclusion The interviewed LA OBGYNs showed some flaws in terms of knowledge of COC failure rates and the non-contraceptive benefits and risks of COCs. To adequately counsel their patients regarding COC intake, OBGYNs must be updated regarding all aspects of COC use. PMID:25999766

The efficacy, cycle control, subjective complaints, and safety of monophasic preparations of the oralcontraceptives containing gestodene 75 mcg plus ethinyl estradiol 30 mcg versus desogestrel 150 mcg plus ethinyl estradiol 30 mcg were compared in a 6-cycle, open-label, parallel, randomized, multicenter phase IV clinical study in Latin America. Of a total of 176 women in each group, 163 in the gestodene group and 160 in the desogestrel group completed 6 cycles, providing data for 1,015 and 1,006 cycles, respectively. Subject compliance was excellent; pills were missed during only 6.9% of the cycles in each group. No woman became pregnant during the study. Gestodene group exhibited significantly better cycle control as evidenced by the lower incidence of breakthrough bleeding and spotting. Spotting in some cycles was reported by 11.9% of women taking the gestodene-combination compared with 21% of women taking the desogestrel-combination. Based on number of women, 86.4% of the gestodene group reported all cycles were normal (no BTB) compared with 76.7% of the desogestrel group. Also, the women in the gestodene group reported a significantly lower incidence of nuisance side effects during treatment cycles. No amenorrhea was observed for either group. There were no clinically significant differences between groups with respect to body weight, blood pressure, or laboratory evaluations. Seven women withdrew from the gestodene group and 8 women withdrew from the desogestrel group because of adverse reactions. The results of this study indicate that, although both OCs provided effective contraception, in comparison to the desogestrel-combination, the gestodene-containing OC is associated with better cycle control, less bleeding, and fewer subjective complaints.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies have shown that both the estrogen dose and progestogen type of oralcontraceptives contribute to the increased risk of thrombosis in oralcontraceptive users. Thrombin generation-based activated protein C (APC) sensitivity is a global test for the net

Objective To assess the thrombotic risk associated with oralcontraceptive use with a focus on dose of oestrogen and type of progestogen of oralcontraceptives available in the Netherlands. Design Population based case-control study. Setting Six participating anticoagulation clinics in the Nethe

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies have shown that both the estrogen dose and progestogen type of oralcontraceptives contribute to the increased risk of thrombosis in oralcontraceptive users. Thrombin generation-based activated protein C (APC) sensitivity is a global test for the net prothromboti

To assess the risk of venous thromboembolism from use of combined oralcontraceptives according to progestogen type and oestrogen dose.......To assess the risk of venous thromboembolism from use of combined oralcontraceptives according to progestogen type and oestrogen dose....

Full Text Available Hugo Maia Jr, Clarice Haddad, Julio Casoy Centro de Pesquisa e Assistência em Reprodução Humana (CEPARH, Salvador, Bahia, BrazilObjective: Menstrual symptoms such as dysmenorrhea usually occur during the hormone-free interval in oralcontraceptive users. Progestin withdrawal activates NF-κB transcription factor, which upregulates both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF and Cox-2 expression in the endometrium. The use of natural NF-κB inhibitors such as pycnogenol may block this response, improving dysmenorrhea.Patients and methods: Twenty-four patients with severe dysmenorrhea were allocated to one of two treatment groups. In Group A (n=13, women were treated with an oralcontraceptive containing 15 µg of ethinyl estradiol and 60 mg of gestodene (Adoless® in a 24/4 regimen for three consecutive cycles. Women in Group B (n=11 used the same contraceptive regimen together with 100 mg of pycnogenol (Flebon® continuously for 3 months. Pain scores were graded using a visual analog scale (VAS before and during the hormone-free interval at the end of the third treatment cycle.Results: Before treatment, VAS pain scores for dysmenorrhea were 8 and 9 in Groups A and B, respectively. However, by the end of the third treatment cycle, pain scores had decreased significantly (P<0.05 both in groups A and B. The final pain scores were 6 in Group A and 2 in Group B, a difference that was statistically significant (P<0.0001. In Group B, 27% of the patients became pain-free, while in Group A, none of the women reported complete disappearance of this symptom. The number of bleeding days was also lower in Group B.Discussion: Pycnogenol effectively decreased pain scores and the number of bleeding days when administered concomitantly with a low-dose 24/4 oralcontraceptive containing gestodene.Keywords: gestodene, hormone-free interval, pain

A 40-year-old woman experiencing sudden dyspnea went to her personal doctor for advice. She was previously diagnosed with endometriosis and prescribed oralcontraceptives for treatment. During earthquakes, she spent 7 nights sleeping in a vehicle. The patient had swelling and pain in her left leg and high D-dimer concentration levels. A contrast-enhanced computed tomography scan revealed a contrast deficit in the bilateral pulmonary artery and in the left lower extremity. She was diagnosed with pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), and anticoagulation therapy was initiated. This present case is the first report of PTE attributed to the use of oralcontraceptives after earthquakes.

Oral combined contraceptive pill (OCCP) is popular as birth control pills. Like all other drugs, they are not free from risks. Women taking certain types of OCCP have higher risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT). A 29 year old married woman had taken OCCP for 3.5 months, developed deep vein thrombosis of left leg. Hereditary and acquired causes of DVT were excluded. She was treated with parenteral and oral anticoagulants simultaneously and was advised to discontinue OCCP. Initially the risk of blood clot was believed to be due to dose of estrogen but recent study relates it to the type of progesterone involved in OCCP. Thus, it is still a matter of debate, whether to associate risk of DVT to the amount of estrogen alone or also to the type of progestin. Apart from careful selection of patients, one should also look for the risk of venous thromboembolism irrespective of type of OCCP prescribed.

Full Text Available Oral combined contraceptive pill (OCCP is popular as birth control pills. Like all other drugs, they are not free from risks. Women taking certain types of OCCP have higher risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT. A 29 year old married woman had taken OCCP for 3.5 months, developed deep vein thrombosis of left leg. Hereditary and acquired causes of DVT were excluded. She was treated with parenteral and oral anticoagulants simultaneously and was advised to discontinue OCCP. Initially the risk of blood clot was believed to be due to dose of estrogen but recent study relates it to the type of progesterone involved in OCCP. Thus, it is still a matter of debate, whether to associate risk of DVT to the amount of estrogen alone or also to the type of progestin. Apart from careful selection of patients, one should also look for the risk of venous thromboembolism irrespective of type of OCCP prescribed.

The association between oralcontraceptives and the modification of corporal weight and body fat distribution is controversial. The characteristics of the menstrual cycle, lipids and glucose levels were also analyzed. Thirty women who received ethinylestradiol 0.035 mg and norethindrone 0.400 mg for one year were studied. The following variables were analyzed every 3 months: weight, body mass index (BMI), hip perimeter, waist perimeter, waist-hip ratio (WHR), duration of menstrual cycle, quantity of uterine bleeding, as well as blood levels of cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose. Waist and hip perimeters increased during the third evaluation; as well as the BMI starting from the second evaluation. The triglycerides levels rose from the first evaluation. No modifications were found in the WHR, glucose and cholesterol levels and the duration of the menstrual cycle, but the quantity of uterine bleeding decreased from the third month. The oralcontraceptive significantly increased BMI and triglycerides level, but no changes were detected in body fat distribution, cholesterol and glucose levels. Uterine bleeding decreased from the first evaluation.

Full Text Available To examine the relation between oralcontraceptive (OCPs use, body mass index, parity, familial history of gallstone disease, history of diabetes, history of hyperlipidemia and gallstone disease in women, we have undertaken a case-control study. The study population comparison 80 hospital patients with diagnosed acute gallstone disease as case group and 200 controls who were patients in hospital with no history of gallstone disease. The data were analyzed by Chi-square and T-student test. The results revealed that: The use of OCPs in case group is higher than that of control group. But there is no significant difference between them. No relation was found between gallstone disease and body mass index, parity, history of diabetes, familial history of gallstone disease, use of OCPs of different types and duration of use. While there was a significant difference between the 2 groups regarding history of hyperlipidemia (P<0.05. Finally we found no correlation between the history of use, types and duration of use of OCPs and symptomatic gallstone disease. There was no indication of any interaction between oralcontraceptive use and other risk factors and duration of OCP use and other risk factors in the production of disease.

Full Text Available Retinal vascular occlusion is the most common cause of retinopathy leading to severe visual loss in all age groups. Central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO is usually seen in older age group and is often associated with systemic vascular diseases. Although the exact cause and effect relationship has not been proven, central retinal vein occlusion has been associated with various systemic pathological conditions, hence a direct review of systems toward the various systemic and local factors predisposing the central retinal vein occlusion is advocated. We describe the development of central retinal venous occlusion with associated cystoid macular edema (CME in two healthy infertile women who were recruited for in vitro fertilization cycle for infertility. Predisposing risk factors associated with central retinal vein occlusion are obesity, sedentary life style, smoking, and some systemic diseases such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, associated autoimmune disorders e.g., antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, lupus, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, bleeding or clotting disorders, vasculitis, closed-head trauma, alcohol consumption, primary open-angle glaucoma or angle-closure glaucoma.In our patients, they were ruled out afterdoing allpertaining investigations. The cases were managed with further avoidance of oralcontraceptives and intra-vitreal injections of Bevacizumab (Avastin, an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF drug and Triamcinolone acetonide (a long acting synthetic steroid. Hence, even if no systemic diseases are detected. Physical examinations are recommended periodically for young women on oralcontraceptive pills.

In 15 females who have never before taken oralcontraceptives, the porphyrin concentration in erythrocytes and in urine were investigated. The laboratory assays were performed before and after being on the oralcontraceptive Stediril during 5 months (2 women took Stediril during only 3 months). The mean PP concentration in the erythrocytes increased from 16.4 microgram (before) to 24.1 microgram/100 ml of erythrocytes after taking Stediril regularly for 5 months. A statistical evaluation with the Student's test showed that at the level of 2%, the t(exp) = 2.58 was larger than the theoretical t(0.02) = 2.47. The difference of the mean CP concentration in the erythrocytes before and after taking Stediril was not statistically significant at the level of 5%. The mean concentration of CP in urine increased from 119.2 to 137.1 microgram in 1,000 ml. This difference was, however, not statistically significant at the level of 5% when assayed with the same test. There was no increase in UP concentration in urine.

Resistin is a hormone secreted by adipose tissue that could be involved in the development of insulin resistance. Previous studies confirmed that endogenous sex steroids may influence serum resistin concentration in women. The aim of our study was to investigate the influence of combined oralcontraceptives containing desogestrel or gestodene on circulating levels of resistin. Fifty-three women were enrolled in the study. Thirteen patients received 20 microg ethinylestradiol/150 microg desogestrel, 15 women were treated with 20 microg ethinylestradiol/75 microg gestodene, 11 with 30 microg ethinylestradiol/150 microg desogestrel and 14 with 30 microg ethinylestradiol/75 microg gestodene. Blood samples for estimation of serum resistin and insulin levels were drawn before administration of oralcontraceptive and after 6 cycles of therapy. We found that serum resistin level remained unchanged in women receiving ethinylestradiol/desogestrel and was reduced in women treated with formulations containing gestodene. We conclude that ethinylestradiol combined with desogestrel or gestodene is unlikely to induce insulin resistance through resistin pathway.

Full Text Available INTRODUCTION : DUB is defined as a state of abnormal uterine bleeding without any clinically detectable organic pelvic pathology - tumor , inflammation or pregnancy. The present study was conducted to compare the effect of ormeloxifene HCL ( SERM and combined oralcontraceptive pills in medical treatment of DUB. MATERIAL & METHOD: This study is based on 100 cases of DUB from age group of 20 to 50 years , out of which fifty cases were prescribed Ormeloxifen HCL (Drug A and another 50 cases were given Combined Contrac eptive pills. (Drug B Ormeloxifen HCL was given in doses of 60mg biweekly for 12 weeks and from 13 th week one tablet weekly for another 12 weeks. CC pills (Levonorgestrel 0.15mg & Ethinyloestradiol 0.03mg – One tablet from 5th day of menses for 21 days g iven cyclically for six months. Regular cyclic follow - up was done to assess response , compliance tolerance and recurrence of the symptoms and side effects of every patient. RESULT : The study revealed marked decrease in PBAC score 82% vs. 35% , reduction in percentage of bleeding 100%vs 68% , regularization of menstrual cycle100%vs74% , recurrence of symptoms in the form of excessive bleeding 4% vs. 64% and irregular cycle 0%vs 68% in drug A vs. drug B and side effects were comparable in both the groups. CONCL USION : Ormeloxifen HCL is more effective , well tolerated with superior compliance than combined oralcontraceptive pills in medical treatment of DUB.

For vulvar Lichen sclerosus (LS) immunological factors, genetic predisposition, and decreased 5 alpha-reductase activity have been discussed as aetiological factors. During the last decade an increase of LS in young women has been suspected. Aim of this study was to evaluate data of premenopausal women with early onset LS to find potential risk factors focussing on the use of oralcontraceptives. We retrospectively analyzed the data of 40 premenopausal patients with early onset LS regarding use of oralcontraceptives (OCPs), and first occurrence of LS. To compare these data in a case-control study we analyzed a matched control group of 110 healthy women. All our LS patients were using OCPs compared to 73 women (66.4%) in the control group. OCPs with anti-androgenic activity (chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, dienogest, and drospirenone) were used by 28 (70%) of the LS patients and by 35 (47.9%) of the 73 women using OCPs in the control group. Thus, the odds ratio for early onset LS for women using anti-androgenic OCPs was 2.53 (95% CI: 1.12-5.75). Our data suggest that disturbance of the androgen dependent growth of the vulvar skin by OCPs and especially by OCPs with anti-androgenic properties might trigger the early onset of LS in a subgroup of susceptible young women.

Full Text Available Based on epidemiologic data, women who take oralcontraceptives seem to have an increased risk of developing thromboembollic disease. The thrombotic effects of oralcontraceptive (OC are probably mediated, at least partly through their effects on the coagulation system. Plasma levels of several clotting factors have been shown to be elevated in OC users, and this increase is graduated according to the dose of estrogen. In this study, fifty healthy and non smoking women, aged 18-35 years, were randomly assigned to treatment with 2 different OCs: a monophasic pill containing 30 pg of ethinyl estradiol plus 150µg levonorgestrel (LD and a monophasic pill containing 35µg ethinylestradiol plus 250pg norgestimate (Cilest. Factor VIII plasma values were significantly decreased (P<0.05 only in women treated with the preparation LD, but the levels of factor VIII were not significantly different in the group treated with Cilest. Factor IX plasma values were significantly increased (P<0.05 only in women treated with the preparation Cilest, but the levels of factor Ix were not significantly different in the group treated with LD. In LD and cilest users factors VIII and IX were not significantly changed (P<0.05 in overweight and obese subjects in comparison to normal weight.

Migraine headaches are a significant problem for American women with many of them suffering from headaches around the time of their menstrual cycle. Women taking oralcontraceptives in the standard 21/7 cycle regimen often suffer from headaches around the time of the hormone free intervals (HFIs) as well. Extended oralcontraceptive regimens have been shown to decrease the frequency, but not eliminate these headaches. This study is a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of participants with menstrual-related migraines (MRMs) who were initiated on extended combined oralcontraceptives and given frovatriptan prophylactically during HFIs. Participants having spontaneous menstrual cycles or taking daily combined oralcontraceptives in a 21/7 regimen with MRMs were placed on a contraceptive containing levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol. Analyses compared headache scores during pre-study baseline cycles to those in a 168-day extended regimen with placebo versus frovatriptan treatments during HFIs. Daily headache scores decreased (p=0.034) from 1.29 ± 0.10 during pre-study cycles to 1.10 ± 0.14 during extended combined oralcontraceptive use. Frovatriptan blocked the increase in headache score over the placebo during HFIs. However, following the withdrawal of frovatriptan, headache scores increased (p>0.01) despite resuming combined oralcontraceptive use. Extended combined oralcontraceptive regimen reduces MRM severity. Frovatriptan prevents headaches during HFIs, but is associated with new headache symptoms when withdrawn.

Full Text Available Abstract Background The progestogen component of oralcontraceptives (OCs has undergone changes since it was recognized that their chemical structure can influence the spectrum of minor adverse and beneficial effects. Methods The objective of this review was to evaluate currently available low-dose OCs containing ethinylestradiol and different progestogens in terms of contraceptive effectiveness, cycle control, side effects and continuation rates. The Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched. Randomized trials reporting clinical outcomes were considered for inclusion and were assessed for methodological quality and validity. Results Twenty–two trials were included in the review. Eighteen were sponsored by pharmaceutical companies and in only 5 there was an attempt for blinding. Most comparisons between different interventions included one to three trials, involving usually less than 500 women. Discontinuation was less with second-generation progestogens compared to first–generation (RR 0.79; 95% CI 0.69–0.91. Cycle control appeared to be better with second-compared to first-generation progestogens for both, mono-and triphasic preparations (RR 0.69; 95% CI 0.52–0.91 and (RR 0.61; 95% CI 0.43–0.85, respectively. Intermenstrual bleeding was less with third- compared to second-generation pills (RR 0.71; 95% CI 0.55–0.91. Contraceptive effectiveness of gestodene (GSD was comparable to that of levonorgestrel (LNG, and had similar pattern of spotting, breakthrough bleeding and absence of withdrawal bleeding. Drospirenone (DRSP was similar compared to desogestrel (DSG regarding contraceptive effectiveness, cycle control and side effects. Conclusion The third- and second-generation progestogens are preferred over first generation in all indices of acceptability. Current evidence suggests that GSD is comparable to LNG in terms of contraceptive effectiveness and for most cycle control indices. GSD is also

The extent to which the high discontinuation rate for oralcontraceptives is due to adverse effects of mood, well-being and sexuality is explored, taking into account early studies on high dose combined and sequential pills, recent studies on low-dose combined and triphasics, experimental design factors, effects of OCs on free androgen levels, psychosocial factors and reasons for choosing or stopping pills, effects on depressive illness, premenstrual syndrome, sexuality, and possible mechanisms for direct effects of steroids on mood and sexuality. Study design is complicated by selection of early or late oralcontraceptive users, types of controls, and unknown confounding factors such as reason for choice of pills, effect of a reliable contraceptive on the sexual relationship, prior history of depression and premenstrual tension. Furthermore virtually all topics reviewed here resulted in inconsistent or contradictory findings, making a case for individual variation and subgroups of women with different responses regarding the end point being examined. Examples include whether progestogen alter female sexual desire or male attraction; and whether rising or falling free testosterone levels affect sexual response. Factors affecting experimental design include culture, language, life-cycle, type of relationship, personal qualities affecting contraceptive choice, manner of eliciting reports of side effects, steroid dose, whether ovulation was blocked, initial or established pill-use, possibility of missed pills, and type of controls. Current pill users seem to discontinue for depression and low libido less frequently than did users of higher dose pills, and severity scores of adverse effects are lower. Premenstrual and other cyclic events may be altered in timing, and premenstrual symptoms are relieved in most women, but worsened in some who take pills. It is likely that women with depressive and premenstrual complaints tend to discontinue pills, leaving the remaining

The prevention of pregnancy remains an important part of the practice of medicine. Contraception can occur at a number of points in the basic reproductive biological process and through a number of contraceptive product options. Pharmacists are health care providers appropriately positioned to assist patients in suitable contraceptive product selection based on their personal situations and lifestyles. This article provides an overview of available products for prevention of pregnancy and associated risks and benefits. Contraceptive products are categorized by their hormonal content and method of action. Hormonal options include oralcontraceptive pills, contraceptive patch, implants, injection, intravaginal, and intrauterine devices. Barrier products prevent pregnancy by creating a physical obstacle to the successful fertilization of an egg by sperm. All products and methods are associated with benefits and potential complications that must be considered as patients, and health care providers select the most satisfactory option.

Objectives?To compare the effects of a combined oralcontraceptive (COC) taken continuously with those of one of similar composition taken cyclically on 30 variables related to haemostasis, lipids, carbohydrates, bone metabolism, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Methods?Randomised,

BACKGROUND: For many subfertile women, assisted reproductive techniques (ART) is the only hope for a pregnancy and live birth. The combined oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) given prior to the hormone therapy in an IVF cycle may result in better pregnancy outcomes of ART. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether p

Objectives?To compare the effects of a combined oralcontraceptive (COC) taken continuously with those of one of similar composition taken cyclically on 30 variables related to haemostasis, lipids, carbohydrates, bone metabolism, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Methods?Randomised, open-labe

OBJECTIVE: Oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) are one of the most popular family planning methods in Sri Lanka. As part of two hospital-based studies on self-harm, the use of OCPs was identified, from yet unpublished results, as a means of intentional self-poisoning. To inform future guidelines...

The authors conducted a comparative study of the effect of two oralcontraceptives Varnoline and Diane in the treatment of androgenic manifestations: acne and hirsutism. The two products tested seem to have a similar efficacy on this type of clinical manifestations.

Objectives?To compare the effects of a combined oralcontraceptive (COC) taken continuously with those of one of similar composition taken cyclically on 30 variables related to haemostasis, lipids, carbohydrates, bone metabolism, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Methods?Randomised, open-labe

BACKGROUND: For many subfertile women, assisted reproductive techniques (ART) is the only hope for a pregnancy and live birth. The combined oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) given prior to the hormone therapy in an IVF cycle may result in better pregnancy outcomes of ART. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether p

Controlled experiments confirmed the therapeutic usefulness in gynecology of a phlebokinetic drug, in which EPL (polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine) was combined with escine and rutine. The drug is particularly recommended for the prophylaxis and treatment of vein disorders caused by oralcontraceptives. A total of 75 patients were treated with the drug (Essaven), in addition to the usual treatment (such as anticoagulants), while 75 controls received the usual treatment only. Results were excellent in cases of varicose veins, where the symptoms were eliminated in almost all cases. In cases of phlebitis and thrombophlebitis, the response was less univocal, but a definite improvement was evident in a good number of cases treated with Essaven; the drug also favored the return to normal conditions after thrombophlebitis attacks, reducing the duration of their painful aftereffects. The drug can be used daily for very long periods without side effects. It can also be used safely during pregnancy, without adverse effects on the fetus and on delivery. It is regarded as ideal to avoid the side effects of contraceptives on the venous system.

There is compelling evidence that oralcontraceptives (OCs) are effective in the management of mild-moderate acne vulgaris, as well as cumulative evidence that elevated levels of androgens in acne patients, relative to appropriate controls, are an underlying pathophysiological factor in acne. All low dose OCs reduce serum free testosterone (T) to a similar extent, which is contrary to the traditional concept that a patient who has acne should not use an OC containing a progestin with androgenic properties. The efficacy of various OCs to improve acne has been reported in transverse, cohort and comparative studies, and more recently in multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Recently, an ultra-low dose OC (Alesse, Wyeth) was shown to effectively reduce non-inflammatory and inflammatory lesions in mild-to-moderate acne, while having a profile of side-effects similar to that of a placebo. Besides its contraceptive efficacy, an ultra-low dose OC represents an attractive alternative as a single or associated medication in the management of acne.

Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) increase the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), particularly among women with inherited clotting disorders. The World Health Organization classifies combined hormonal contraception as an "unacceptable health risk" for women with thrombogenic mutations but advises against universal thrombophilia screening before prescribing COCs given the low prevalence of thrombophilia and high screening costs. Through the lens of lifetime costs and benefits, this paper systematically and critically reviews all published economic evaluations of thrombophilia screening prior to prescribing COCs. We searched relevant databases for economic evaluations of thrombophilia screening before prescribing COCs. After extracting the key study characteristics and economic variables, we evaluated each article using the Quality of Health Economic Studies (QHES) and the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS) instruments. Seven economic evaluations of thrombophilia screening before prescribing COCs met our inclusion criteria. Only the two economic evaluations focusing exclusively on selective screening exceeded the 75-point threshold for high-quality economic studies based on the QHES instrument, whereas only one of these exceeded the 85% CHEERS threshold. Only three of the seven economic evaluations performed sensitivity analysis on key parameters. Most studies underestimated the benefits of thrombophilia screening by comparing one-time costs of genetic screening against benefits per person-year, thus implicitly assuming a 1-year duration of COC use, neglecting the long-term implications of VTE and/or neglecting the lifetime benefits of awareness of inherited thrombophilia. Our review highlights the lack of methodologically rigorous economic evaluations of universal thrombophilia screening before prescribing COCs.

Oral administration of testosterone enanthate (TE) and dutasteride increases serum testosterone and might be useful for male hormonal contraception. To ascertain the contraceptive potential of oral TE and dutasteride by determining the degree of gonadotropin suppression mediated by 4 weeks of oral TE plus dutasteride, 20 healthy young men were randomly assigned to 4 weeks of either 400 mg oral TE twice daily or 800 mg oral TE once daily in a double-blinded, controlled fashion at a single site. All men received 0.5 mg dutasteride daily. Blood for measurement of serum luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone, dihydrotesterone (DHT), and estradiol was obtained prior to treatment, weekly during treatment, and 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 20, and 24 hours after the morning dose on the last day of treatment. FSH was significantly suppressed throughout treatment with 800 mg TE once daily and after 4 weeks of treatment with 400 mg TE twice daily. LH was significantly suppressed after 2 weeks of treatment with 800 mg TE, but not with 400 mg TE. Serum DHT was suppressed and serum estradiol increased during treatment in both groups. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol was suppresed during treatment, but liver function tests, hematocrit, creatinine, mood, and sexual function were unaffected. The administration of 800 mg oral TE daily combined with dutasteride for 28 days significantly suppresses gonadotropins without untoward side effects and might have utility as part of a male hormonal contraceptive regimen.

BACKGROUND: C-reactive protein (CRP) is a well-established marker of inflammation. The level of CRP is affected by several lifestyle factors. A slightly increased CRP level, also known as low-grade inflammation (LGI), is associated with increased risk of several diseases, especially cardiovascular...... disease. The aim of this study was to identify predictors of increased CRP levels in healthy individuals. We therefore assessed CRP in a large cohort of blood donors. METHODS: We measured plasma CRP levels in 15,684 participants from the Danish Blood Donor Study. CRP was measured by a commercial assay...... and abdominal obesity strongly predicted LGI among healthy individuals. However, the most striking finding was the high prevalence of LGI among premenopausal women who used combined oralcontraception. Although the significance of CRP as a marker of inflammation is well known, the role of CRP in pathogenesis...

1080 nonpregnant women ages 16-34 years, presenting for the 1st time at a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases (STD), were examined and screened for infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrheae, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Candida species. The respective prevalence rates were 21.1%, 20.7%, 13.4%, and 27.8%. Isolation rates for Chlamydia trachomatis, either occurring alone or in association with other genital infections, were significantly greater in women using oralcontraceptives (OCs). This was not because OC users were more promiscuous. The findings strengthen the case for providing a routine chlamydial culture service for women attending STD clinics. They also indicate that the likelihood of chlamydial infection in women taking OCs is greater. (author's)

Venous thromboembolism is well known as one of the rare but serious adverse effects of combined oralcontraceptives (COCs). The COCs with third and fourth generation progestogens were found to have higher risk of venous thrombosis than those with second generation progestogens. We present a case of pulmonary embolism in a 23-year-old nulligravid woman who was using COCs containing the third generation progestogen (desogestrel). At the time of presentation of the adverse effect, she had been using the COCs for 4 months. She had no additional risk factors for thrombosis such as smoking, surgery, tumor as well as genetic factors. This case demonstrates even young women in otherwise good health may be at risk of venous thromboembolism from low-dose formulations of COCs as an over-the-counter drug. We describe this case with a brief review of literatures. PMID:28344968

Women with epilepsy (WWE)'s knowledge of the interaction between antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and oralcontraceptives (OCs) and the potential teratogenicity of AEDs has received limited study. We conducted a cross-sectional questionnaire study (English or Spanish) among young WWE (18-44 years) to assess demographic characteristics, current AED use, and knowledge of AED interactions with OCs and teratogenicity. We used the Food and Drug Administration's classification system to categorize each AED's teratogenic potential. Participants (n=148) had a mean age of 32 years (SD 8); 32% spoke Spanish and described themselves as Hispanic. Among women prescribed a cytochrome p450-inducing AED, 65% were unaware of decreased OC efficacy. Forty percent of those prescribed Category D AEDs were unaware of potential teratogenic effects. WWE have limited knowledge of the potential interaction between AEDs and OCs and the teratogenic effects of AEDs. Educational efforts should highlight the reproductive health effects of AEDs in WWE.

Synthetic oralcontraceptives (SOCs) are a group of compounds with progestagenic and/or androgenic activities, with some also possessing estrogenic activities. Recent research has documented that some of these emerging contaminants have adverse effects on aquatic organisms at very low concentrations. To facilitate the evaluation of their latent risks, published works on their occurrence and fate in the environment are reviewed. Androgenic/progestagenic relative potencies or relative binding affinity of these SOCs as well as their physicochemical properties and toxicity are summarized. Appropriate analytical methods are outlined for various environmental sample types, including methods of sample preparation and limit of detection/quantification (LOD/LOQ). Finally results on their occurrence and fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and other environments are critically examined.

Full Text Available Edith Weisberg1,21Sydney Centre for Reproductive Health Research, Research Division of Family Planning NSW, 2Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Queen Elizabeth II Research Institute for Mothers and Infants, University of Sydney, Sydney, AustraliaAbstract: A new chewable combined oralcontraceptive pill containing ethinyl estradiol (EE 0.025 mg and norethindrone (NE 0.8 mg in a 24/4 regimen was approved for marketing in December 2010. Each of the four inactive tablets contains 75 mg ferrous fumarate, which has no therapeutic benefit. The tablet can be taken with food but not water as this affects the absorption of EE. The Pearl index based on intention to treat women aged 18–35 years has been reported at 2.01 (confidence interval [CI] 1.21, 3.14 and for the whole population 1.65 (CI 1.01, 2.55. The effect of a body mass index of >35 was not studied. Regular withdrawal bleeding occurred for 78.6% of women in Cycle 1, but by Cycle 13 almost half the women failed to have a withdrawal bleed. This new formulation provides an intermediate dose of an EE/NE combination that will be useful for women experiencing breakthrough bleeding on the lower-dose EE/NE pill. The convenience of a low-dose pill, which can be chewed without the need for water, will be useful to enable women who have forgotten a pill to take one whenever they remember, provided they carry it with them. The advantage of a 24/4 regimen is better suppression of follicular development in the pill-free interval and may be beneficial for women who experience menstrual cycle-related problems, such as heavy bleeding or dysmenorrhea.Keywords: combined oralcontraceptive, low dose, ethinyl estradiol, norethindrone

Full Text Available Jerry KL Tan1, Chemanthi Ediriweera21University of Western Ontario and Windsor Clinical Research Inc., Windsor, Ontario, Canada; 2University of Western Ontario, Southwest Ontario Medical Education Network, Windsor, Ontario, CanadaAbstract: Acne is a common disorder affecting the majority of adolescents and often extends into adulthood. The central pathophysiological feature of acne is increased androgenic stimulation and/or end-organ sensitivity of pilosebaceous units leading to sebum hypersecretion and infundibular hyperkeratinization. These events lead to Propionibacterium acnes proliferation and subsequent inflammation. Hormonal therapy, including combined oralcontraceptives (OCs, can attenuate the proximate androgenic trigger of this sequence. For many women, hormonal therapy is a rational option for acne treatment as it may be useful across the spectrum of severity. Drospirenone (DRSP is a unique progestin structurally related to spironolactone with progestogenic, antimineralocorticoid, and antiandrogenic properties. It is available in 2 combined OC preparations (30 µg EE/3 mg DRSP; Yasmin® in a 21/7 regimen; and 20 µg EE/3 mg DRSP; Yaz® in a 24/4 regimen. These preparations are bereft of the fluid retentional side effects typical of other progestins and their safety has been demonstrated in large epidemiological studies in which no increased risk of vascular thromboembolic disease or arrhythmias was observed. In acne, the efficacy of DRSP-containing OCs has been shown in placebo-controlled superiority trials and in active-comparator non-inferiority trials.Keywords: acne vulgaris, combined oralcontraceptives, drosperinone, ethinyl estradiol, efficacy, safety, treatment

A 34-year-old woman who had been using oralcontraceptives for 10 years developed hypertensive crisis with papilloedema after an upper respiratory infection. Laboratory data showed hyperreninemic hyperaldosteronism and elevated levels of fibrinogen, fibrin, and fibrinogen degradation products. Echocardiography demonstrated two masses (18 mm) in the left ventricle. On the fourth hospital day, cerebral infarction, renal infarction, and upper mesenteric artery occlusion suddenly occurred despite the blood pressure being well-controlled using anti-hypertensive drugs. Echocardiography revealed the disappearance of the left ventricular masses, which suggested left ventricular thrombi. Cessation of the contraceptives and administration of heparin, warfarin, and anti-platelets drugs improved her general condition.

Estradiol valerate and dienogest have been combined to create a novel four-phasic oralcontraceptive pill effective for both pregnancy prevention and treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding. This formulation represents the only oralcontraceptive pill available in the USA containing an estrogen component that is biologically active as the endogenous estrogen 17β-estradiol. This medication was developed out of efforts to replace the most common estrogen in contraceptive pills, ethinyl estradiol, which is known to be a potent inducer of hepatic protein synthesis. Estradiol valerate has been available since the 1970s in oral and injectable forms indicated for the treatment of menopausal climacteric symptoms. Dienogest has been used in other oralcontraceptive pills for over 10 years. Previous attempts to develop an oralcontraceptive pill with natural estradiol or estradiol valerate were unsuccessful due to poor cycle control. A novel dynamic-dosing regimen was devised to improve the bleeding pattern. This medication has been shown in several clinical trials to have good contraceptive efficacy and cycle control. Recent studies have also demonstrated that this medication is effective for the treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding. However, compared with other oralcontraceptive pills, this medication is associated with a higher frequency of absent withdrawal bleeding. Furthermore, the dynamic dosing regimen requires relatively complex instructions for users who miss pills.

Findings on women's sexuality across the menstrual cycle are inconsistent. One relatively consistent finding is a midcycle and premenstrual peak in sexual desire in freely cycling women. Results on the cycle-related effects on sexual behavior are less clear. Large proportions of reproductive-aged women use combined oralcontraception (COC), but studies on potential cycle-related shifts in sexual desire and behavior are sparse. A prospective diary study assessed sexual desire, sexual behavior, and mood in 89 heterosexual couples. Women were using one of four contraceptive methods: (1) nonhormonal contraception, (2) low-dose COC containing 20 mcg ethinylestradiol and 75 mcg gestoden or desogestrel, (3) COC containing 35 mcg ethinylestradiol and 2 mg cyproteronacetate, and (4) COC containing 30 mcg ethinylestradiol and 3 mg drospirenone. No cycle effects of sexual desire were established in the COC group, but frequency of sexual intercourse declined in the last days of active pill taking. These results were similar in both female and male partners. Negative affect did not covary with sexual desire.

Objective To provide a comprehensive overview of the risk of venous thrombosis in women using different combined oralcontraceptives. Design Systematic review and network meta-analysis. Data sources PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Academic Search Premier, and ScienceDirect up to 22 April 2013. Review methods Observational studies that assessed the effect of combined oralcontraceptives on venous thrombosis in healthy women. The primary outcome of interest was a fatal or non-fatal first event of venous thrombosis with the main focus on deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Publications with at least 10 events in total were eligible. The network meta-analysis was performed using an extension of frequentist random effects models for mixed multiple treatment comparisons. Unadjusted relative risks with 95% confidence intervals were reported. The requirement for crude numbers did not allow adjustment for potential confounding variables. Results 3110 publications were retrieved through a search strategy; 25 publications reporting on 26 studies were included. Incidence of venous thrombosis in non-users from two included cohorts was 1.9 and 3.7 per 10 000 woman years, in line with previously reported incidences of 1-6 per 10 000 woman years. Use of combined oralcontraceptives increased the risk of venous thrombosis compared with non-use (relative risk 3.5, 95% confidence interval 2.9 to 4.3). The relative risk of venous thrombosis for combined oralcontraceptives with 30-35 µg ethinylestradiol and gestodene, desogestrel, cyproterone acetate, or drospirenone were similar and about 50-80% higher than for combined oralcontraceptives with levonorgestrel. A dose related effect of ethinylestradiol was observed for gestodene, desogestrel, and levonorgestrel, with higher doses being associated with higher thrombosis risk. Conclusion All combined oralcontraceptives investigated in this analysis were

Female patients requiring treatment for pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) are advised to avoid pregnancy because of the high associated mortality rate. Oralcontraception is one of the main methods of preventing pregnancy in this context, mandating pharmacokinetic and safety studies for new agents in this setting. Riociguat is a soluble guanylate cyclase stimulator approved for treatment of PAH and inoperable and persistent or recurrent chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. This single-center, randomized, nonblinded study involving healthy postmenopausal women investigated the effect of riociguat on plasma concentrations of levonorgestrel (0.15 mg) and ethinylestradiol (0.03 mg) in a combined oralcontraceptive. Treatment A was a single oral tablet of levonorgestrel-ethinylestradiol. In treatment B, subjects received 2.5 mg riociguat 3 times daily for 12 days. On the eighth day, they also received a single oral tablet of levonorgestrel-ethinylestradiol. Subjects received both regimens in a crossover design. There was no change in area under the plasma concentration-time curves of levonorgestrel or ethinylestradiol or maximum concentration in plasma (C max) of levonorgestrel during combined administration versus levonorgestrel-ethinylestradiol alone. A 20% increase in the C max of ethinylestradiol was noted during coadministration; this is not anticipated to adversely impact the contraceptive efficacy or to require any dose adjustment for ethinylestradiol. Plasma concentrations and exposures of riociguat were within the expected range and were not influenced by coadministration with levonorgestrel-ethinylestradiol. Combined treatment was safe and well tolerated. In conclusion, riociguat did not change the exposure to levonorgestrel or ethinylestradiol relative to oralcontraceptive administered alone.

The longtime application of oralcontraceptives is assumed to elevate serum prolactin levels under non-stimulated conditions. We therefore examined whether oralcontraceptives also will augment prolactin secretion after stimulation, e.g. by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). After TRH stimulation the time sequence of secretion both of prolactin (HPRL) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) was determined. Three groups of women were tested in a non-randomized study: group 1 without any hormonal medication (= controls), group 2 taking an oralcontraceptives containing cyproterone acetate, group 3 using an oralcontraceptive containing d-norgestrel. HPRL secretion was similar in all three groups, the same held true for TSH. A possible correlation between the secretion of HPRL and TSH was examined in the control group. No such correlation was found. The secretion patterns of both hormones also were different. In addition, the basic levels of both HPRL and TSH did not seem to influence the response after stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Oralcontraceptives were introduced almost 50 years ago, and over 100 million women currently use them. Oralcontraceptives can reduce the risk of ovarian cancer, but the eventual public-health effects of this reduction will depend on how long the protection lasts after use ceases. We...... aimed to assess these effects. METHODS: Individual data for 23,257 women with ovarian cancer (cases) and 87,303 without ovarian cancer (controls) from 45 epidemiological studies in 21 countries were checked and analysed centrally. The relative risk of ovarian cancer in relation to oralcontraceptive use...... was estimated, stratifying by study, age, parity, and hysterectomy. FINDINGS: Overall 7308 (31%) cases and 32,717 (37%) controls had ever used oralcontraceptives, for average durations among users of 4.4 and 5.0 years, respectively. The median year of cancer diagnosis was 1993, when cases were aged an average...

Full Text Available Abstract Background Poor adherence to the oralcontraceptive pill (OCP is reported as one of the main causes of unintended pregnancy in women that rely on this form of contraception. This study aims to estimate the associations between a range of well-established modifiable psychological factors and adherence to OCP. Method A cross-sectional survey of 130 female University students currently using OCP (Mean age: 20.46 SD: 3.01, range 17–36 was conducted. An OCP specific Medication Adherence Report Scale was used to assess non-adherence. Psychological predictor measures included necessity and concern beliefs about OCP, intentions, perceived behavioural control (pbc, anticipated regret and action and coping planning. Multiple linear regression was used to analyse the data. Results Fifty-two per cent of participants reported missing their OCP once or more per month and 14% twice or more per month. In bivariate analysis intentions (r = −0.25, perceived behavioural control (r= −0.66, anticipated regret (r=0.20, concerns about OCP (r =0.31, and action (r= −0.25 and coping (r= −0.28 planning were all significantly associated with adherence to OCP in the predicted direction. In a multivariate model almost half (48% of the variation in OCP adherence could be explained. The strongest and only statistically significant predictors in this model were perceived behavioural control (β=−0.62, p Conclusion The present data point to a number of key modifiable psychological determinants of OCP use. Future work will establish whether changing these variables results in better adherence to the OCP.

Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are widely advocated as treatment for primary dysmenorrhoea, but their efficacy has been questioned in a Cochrane review. The aim of this study was to evaluate COCs and the influence of age on the severity of dysmenorrhoea. Postal questionnaires regarding weight/height, contraception, pregnancy history and other reproductive health factors were sent to random samples of 19-year-old women born in 1962 (n = 656), 1972 (n = 780) and 1982 (n = 666) resident in the city of Gothenburg in 1981, 1991 and 2001. The responders were assessed again 5 years later at the age of 24 years. Current severity of dysmenorrhoea was measured on each occasion by a verbal multidimensional scoring system (VMS) and by a visual analogue scale (VAS). The severity of dysmenorrhoea was lower (PVMS score: a reduction of 0.3 units/VAS: a reduction of 9 mm, both PVMS score: a reduction of 0.1 units per 5 years, P< 0.0001/VAS: a reduction of 5 mm per 5 years, P< 0.0001). Childbirth also reduced the severity of dysmenorrhoea (VAS, P< 0.01 with a reduction of 7 mm). Women from the 82-cohort reported a greater severity of dysmenorrhoea compared with the 62 and 72 cohorts at both 19 and 24 years of age. In this longitudinal case-control study, COC use and increasing age, independent of each other, reduced the severity of dysmenorrhoea. COC use reduced the severity of dysmenorrhoea more than increasing age and childbirth. There was a trend over time regarding the severity of dysmenorrhoea where women from the 82-cohort reported a greater severity of dysmenorrhoea compared with the 62 and 72 cohorts.

By age 19, the average North American man has had sex with 5.11 people. Almost two thirds of high-school senior-aged women have had sex. While the rates of sexual activity among teens in the US are not substantially different from rates in other developed western countries, adolescent pregnancy rates in the US are several times higher than in most other countries. These high rates of adolescent pregnancy are partly due to the collective reluctance among adults in the US to discuss sexuality issues with adolescents and provide them with contraception. Effective communication is the key to providing contraception to teens. Studies have clearly shown that teens are interested in sexuality and would like to discuss the issue with their physicians. The author notes that any successful program to reduce unwanted pregnancies among teens will understand that teens are often concrete thinkers focused upon their physical appearance and dedicated to taking risks. Oralcontraception, long-acting progestin methods, condoms, and other options are discussed. However, emergency contraception with birth control pills is the one most important contraceptive option which can be provided to teens. The approach has recently been approved by the FDA Advisory Board for both safety and efficacy. Recent studies, however, show that less than 10% of US clinicians informed their patients of the availability of emergency contraception. Information on providers of emergency contraception can be obtained by dialing Princeton University's Office of Population Research's toll-free emergency contraception hotline at (800) 584-9911.

Full Text Available Background: We report a case series of cerebral vein thrombosis (CVT in women who used oralcontraceptive pill (OCP in the Muslims Ramadan and fasting month.Methods: This study was a retrospective case series of 9 patients with diagnosis of CVT, who admitted in the neurology ward of Tohid Hospital of Sanandaj, Iran, in July-August 2014-2015.Results: Patients had no history of thrombosis before. They were treated with oralcontraceptive more than 1 month to be able to fast during Ramadan. They did not have other possible risk factors for CVT. A headache was the most common in 9/9 patients (100% followed by vomiting and vertigo.Conclusion: We found that high rate of CVT in female population during Ramadan indicates that it needs be considered as a specific risk factor and should be considered by healthcare system.

The elimination of monthly withdrawal bleeding with use of extended-cycle (84 pills) monophasic birth-control pills has modernized oralcontraceptives. The use of ethinyl estradiol 10 microg pills in place of the seven placebo pills addresses the problems posed by 21/7 formulations of low-dose birth-control pills, which allow early stimulation of ovarian follicles, and of the early 84/7 formulations, which had higher rates of unscheduled bleeding and spotting.

The combined oralcontraceptive containing ethinylestradiol and the selective progestogen, desogestrel, in a phasic regimen (DSG-OC, Tri-merci) has been shown to reduce facial oiliness. This study was designed to evaluate further the effects of this OC on the skin of women with facial seborrhea and mild or moderate acne. This was an open, noncomparative, bicenter study in 60 healthy Russian women, aged 18-30 years, with facial seborrhea and mild or moderate facial acne, who wished to use oralcontraception. All women received the OC containing desogestrel (50/100/150 microg) and ethinylestradiol (35/30/30 microg) for three phases of 7 days followed by a 7-day pill-free interval, for six cycles. Seborrhea was assessed using the Sebutape technique, in which strips of adhesive microporous polymeric film pressed onto facial sites are used to assess sebaceous activity. Acne was assessed by counting facial lesions. Subjective evaluations of skin and hair condition, patients' feelings to them and satisfaction with the OC were made using a visual analogue scale (VAS). Assessments were made at baseline, and after one, three and six treatment cycles. Sebutape assessments of seborrhea were significantly improved, on the right and left cheeks, after one treatment cycle, and on the forehead after three treatment cycles. These improvements increased steadily and were much larger at the end of Cycle 6. Acne grades were significantly improved after three and six treatment cycles. VAS scores in response to questions dealing with self-esteem and self-confidence were significantly improved after three cycles and in some cases after just one cycle. The women's views of their skin and hair (greasiness) were correspondingly significantly improved. Subjective assessments indicated that after one, three and six cycles, 69%, 93% and 98%, respectively, of women were satisfied or very satisfied with the DSG-OC. In women with facial seborrhea and mild or moderate acne, the use of DSG

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of oralcontraceptive (OC) use on salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) levels at rest and in response to an acute bout of moderate-vigorous exercise during 2 phases of the 4-week OC cycle corresponding to different phases of the synthetic menstrual cycle. Ten healthy active females completed a cycling at 70% peak oxygen uptake for 45 min at 2 time points of an OC cycle: during the equivalent in time to the mid-follicular phase (day 8 ± 2) and the mid-luteal phase (day 20 ± 2). Timed unstimulated saliva samples were obtained before, immediately postexercise, and 1 h postexercise and analyzed for salivary SIgA. Salivary SIgA secretion rate was 26% (95% confidence limits (CI) 6-46) lower at postexercise compared with pre-exercise during the synthetic follicular phase (p = 0.019) but no differences were observed during the synthetic luteal trial. Saliva flow rate was 11% (95% CI, 8-30) lower at postexercise compared with pre-exercise (main effect for time; p = 0.025). In conclusion, the pattern of salivary SIgA secretion rate response to moderate-vigorous exercise varies across the early and late phases of a monophasic OC cycle, with a transient reduction in salivary SIgA responses during the synthetic follicular phase. These findings indicate that monophasic OC use should be considered when assessing mucosal immune responses to acute exercise.

An important feature of the human defense system comprises fear learning, which stress hormones can crucially modulate. However, stress hormones might influence men and women differently, in part because of interactions with sex hormones. In women, distinct stages of the menstrual cycle or the intake of oralcontraceptives (OC) affect sex hormone levels. In this study, we used a differential fear conditioning paradigm with electrical stimulation as unconditioned stimulus (UCS) following one neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS+), but not another (CS-).To investigate implicit fear learning, participants were distracted from detecting the contingencies between CS and UCS. To address interaction effects of sex and stress hormones, 32 men, 30 women in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (FO), 30 women in the luteal phase (LU), and 30 OC women received either 30 mg cortisol or a placebo. In the contrast CS+ minus CS-, an interaction between cortisol administration and sex hormone status emerged in the anterior parahippocampal gyrus and the hippocampus. Cortisol reduced fear learning in men, FO, and LU women, but enhanced it in OC women. Additionally, cortisol attenuated differential amygdala activation in the entire group. These results demonstrate that OC usage substantially modifies cortisol effects on emotional learning in women, particularly in memory-related medial temporal lobe regions. Further, a high dose of cortisol reduces amygdala differentiation pointing to a lowered learning ability of the defense system under high cortisol concentrations, irrespective of current sex hormone availability.

There is evidence that the oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) and smoking contribute independently to risk of circulatory disease. There is mixed evidence that the combined risk may be greater than the sum of these factors operating in isolation. Little is known about how the general population views the risks from OCP use, singly and in combination with smoking. Previous attempts at assessing whether the public views risks as operating synergistically have generally found evidence for subadditive models, where the combined risk is less than the sum of factors operating in isolation. However, concerns have been expressed over the validity of the measures of risk perception used. Therefore, this study used three distinct methods of measurement to assess the extent to which 241 undergraduate students perceive the risks of smoking and the OCP separately and combined, for circulatory disease. For all three methods, respondents read each of four vignettes describing information about a woman's risk factors (with high and low levels of both OCP and smoking), and then estimated risk of circulatory disease using one of the three risk measures. The three measures produced similar ratings. Consistent with the epidemiological evidence, information about smoking had more impact on estimates of overall risk than did information about the OCP For all three measures, responses were consistent with an additive model of risk from smoking and the OCP. This convergence of results from different methods suggests that all three methods of measurement employed, which all had a large number of response options, may be valid.

Combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are considered the first-line treatment for women with hirsutism. They diminish androgen release from the ovary and decrease plasma free testosterone levels by increasing sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations. COCs containing cyproterone acetate (CPA) and drospirenone (DRSP) have been proved effective for the treatment of acne and facial hirsutism. This study prospectively compared the clinical and biochemical efficacy of 3 mg DRSP/30 microg ethinyl estradiol (EE) and 2 mg CPA/35 microg EE combinations in a total of 91 patients with hirsutism. Individuals randomly received a cyclic combination of either DRSP/EE (n=48) or CPA/EE (n=43) for 12 months. Basal serum total testosterone, free testosterone, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and SHBG levels, as well as Ferriman-Gallwey scores, were determined before and after treatment. Both COCs achieved a similar effect on clinical hirsutism scores, in addition to serum androgen and SHBG levels, after completion of therapy. The percentage reductions in total hirsutism score (median % (min-max)) during therapy were 0.70 (0-0.58) vs. 0.57 (0.10-1.00) at 6 months (p = 0.028) and 0.80 (0-0.42) vs. 0.81 (0-0.75) at 12 months (p = 0.6) in the DRSP/EE and CPA/EE groups, respectively. In conclusion, the DRSP/EE combination is at least as effective as the CPA/EE combination in improving hirsutism scores.

The aim of this work was to explore the major design features of drug-drug interaction trials between antiviral medications (AVs) and oralcontraceptives (OCs). Information on these trials (n = 27) was collected from approved drug labels and clinical pharmacology reviews conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The primary objective of all trials was to evaluate changes in OC exposure following the coadministration of AVs. In addition, an evaluation of potential pharmacodynamic interaction was performed in 10 of these trials. Twenty-two trials were open label with a fixed-sequence design, and 5 trials used a double-blind crossover design. The trials were conducted using one, two, or three 28-day ovulatory cycles in 10, 8, and 9 trials, respectively. Only 1 trial enrolled HIV-infected women. The median number of women in a trial was 20 (range, 12 to 52). Norethindrone/ethinyl estradiol (EE) combination was the most commonly used OC (n = 16, 59%) followed by norgestimate/EE (n = 9, 33%). Labeling recommendations were based on exposure changes in 25 cases and on safety observations in the trial in 2 cases. In conclusion, a wide variety of trial designs was used, and there is no preferred design. The answer to the exposure question can be achieved using multiple designs.

Thrombin generation, as evidenced by plasma fibrinopeptide A (FPA) concentrations, was studied during blood collection from donors taking oralcontraceptives (OC). 450 ml blood were drawn into Fenwal PVC bags from 26 OC users and 28 nonusers. Blood samples for determination of FPA, beta-thromboglobulin (BTG), thrombotest (TT), prekallikrein (PKK), antithrombin-III (AT-III) and factor VIII procoagulant activity (FVIII:C) were drawn from the bags immediately after ending blood donation and following storage for 24 h at 4 degrees C. The FPA concentrations following donation were significantly higher in the OC than in the control group (p less than 0.05). The levels of PKK were also higher in blood obtained from OC users (p less than 0.001), as was the FVIII:C level, the latter difference, however, was not significant (p = 0.06). No cold-promoted activation of factor VII, as evidenced from TT, was detected following storage at 4 degrees C, neither was any change observed in the FPA, PKK and AT-III levels. The BTG concentrations increased significantly during storage, most pronounced in the control group (p less than 0.05). The decay of FVIII:C was similar in the two groups, averaging 24.7%. No correlation was observed between the FPA levels and the other parameters determined. We conclude that thrombin generation is more pronounced during routine blood collection from donors taking OC.

Acne is a common disorder affecting the majority of adolescents and often extends into adulthood. The central pathophysiological feature of acne is increased androgenic stimulation and/or end-organ sensitivity of pilosebaceous units leading to sebum hypersecretion and infundibular hyperkeratinization. These events lead to Propionibacterium acnes proliferation and subsequent inflammation. Hormonal therapy, including combined oralcontraceptives (OCs), can attenuate the proximate androgenic trigger of this sequence. For many women, hormonal therapy is a rational option for acne treatment as it may be useful across the spectrum of severity. Drospirenone (DRSP) is a unique progestin structurally related to spironolactone with progestogenic, antimineralocorticoid, and antiandrogenic properties. It is available in 2 combined OC preparations (30 μg EE/3 mg DRSP; Yasmin(®) in a 21/7 regimen; and 20 μg EE/3 mg DRSP; Yaz(®) in a 24/4 regimen). These preparations are bereft of the fluid retentional side effects typical of other progestins and their safety has been demonstrated in large epidemiological studies in which no increased risk of vascular thromboembolic disease or arrhythmias was observed. In acne, the efficacy of DRSP-containing OCs has been shown in placebo-controlled superiority trials and in active-comparator non-inferiority trials.

A representative sample of 286 Danish females aged 16-20 years were interviewed during the period April 1984--February 1985. The response rate was 75%. Both use of oralcontraception (OC) and smoking were common; 46.6% used OC, 34.2% smoked and 19.6% combined smoking and OC. The prevalence...... of smoking was significantly higher (42.0%) among OC-users than among non-users (27.2%). The combination of smoking and OC was especially prevalent among young women with sexual debut before 16 years (36.8%). The association between smoking and the use of OC was significant both when tested unstratified (p...... less than 0.05) and stratified by age at sexual debut (p less than 0.01). Smoking was also associated with early debut of intercourse (p less than 0.001). It has been reported that the combination of these two factors in adult women increase the risk for cardiovascular mortality. However, the health...

Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) after kidney transplantation has various aetiologies, including acute antibody-mediated rejection, bacterial or viral infection and immunosuppressive drugs, particularly calcineurin inhibitors. We present the case of a 28-year-old woman who developed TMA 30 months after the transplantation of an ABO-incompatible kidney from a living unrelated donor. The patient developed a sudden onset of allograft renal dysfunction and became uremic. She was transferred to our institution from a community hospital with strongly suspected acute allograft rejection. Intensive treatments for both T- and B-cell mediated acute rejection, including steroid pulse therapy, double-filtration plasmapheresis, antithymocyte globulin (1.5 mg/kg × 14 days) and rituximab (100 mg), were initiated during haemodialysis. However, her renal allograft function did not improve. Histopathological analysis 8 days after the treatment indicated TMA, despite the absence of apparent acute T-cell- or acute antibody-mediated rejection. There were no symptoms of infectious diseases, such as intestinal haemorrhagic colitis or viral infection. We concluded that the use of oralcontraceptives, which had been initiated 3 weeks before TMA onset for the treatment of irregular vaginal bleeding, was the aetiologic agent.

Abstract Background: Association between exogenous estrogen intake and cholelithiasis risk has been reported in several epidemiological studies, including oralcontraceptive (OC) and hormone replacement therapy (HRT), while the results were controversial. This study aimed to perform a comprehensive meta-analysis of this issue. Methods: PUBMED, EMBASE, and Cochrane library database were searched up to October 2016. Two reviewers independently extracted data from eligible studies, relative risks (RRs), and/or odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for the highest versus lowest categories of intake were adopted. Either a fixed- or a random-effects model was adopted to estimate overall RRs or ORs. Besides, subgroup and publication bias analyses were applied to explain the heterogeneity. An original study was also conducted to verify our conclusion. Results: A total of 19 studies with approximately 556,620 participants were included in this meta-analysis. The pooled RR of cholelithiasis for the highest versus the lowest categories was 1.59 (95% CI: 1.44–1.75), indicating that exogenous estrogen was positive associated with the intake of exogenous estrogen. However, the pooled RR of OC intake and cholelithiasis risk was 1.19 (95% CI: 0.97–1.45), and the RR for HRT was 1.79 (95% CI: 1.61–2.00). Conclusion: The HRT was positively associated with the cholelithiasis risk, and the OC will not increase the risk of cholelithiasis. PMID:28383429

In response to unpublished data revealing a doubling of venous thromboembolism risk with oralcontraceptives (OCs) containing desogestrel or gestodene compared with levonorgestrel, the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines advised physicians that women taking these third-generation OCs should be switched to another formulation. There are indications, however, that the studies on which this recommendation was based were flawed by prescriber bias and confounding. In addition, laboratory measures of thrombosis and fibrinolysis do not indicate a shift toward a thrombotic state associated with the newer progestogens. Moreover, desogestrel and gestodene OCs have been associated with a reduced risk of arterial disease when compared to levonorgestrel-containing OCs. Since the mortality associated with acute myocardial infarction is almost 50%, compared with 1-2% for venous thromboembolism, this information should be considered when counseling OC users about their risk of cardiovascular disease. Although the European Union Committee on Proprietary Medicinal Products has taken the position that all OCs are contraindicated in women with current or past cardiovascular disease, unlike the UK Committee, it has not made any specific recommendations about the suitability or non-suitability of the third-generation OCs.

Cardiovascular risks have been a concern since combined oralcontraceptives (OCs) were first introduced. In the past four years new, mostly reassuring information on the safety of modern, low oestrogen dose OCs has become available. However, in 1995 the new information showed higher venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk for OCs containing desogestrel and gestodene compared with levonorgestrel- or norethindrone-containing OCs. The controversial responses by national authorities, their scientific and public health merits were hotly debated and many considered the differences in risk small and resulted from bias and/or confounding. We discuss these arguments and conclude they lack empirical support or cannot account for the 2-fold increased risk. The risk of ischaemic stroke and myocardial infarction (MI) associated with low oestrogen dose OCs are very small in women without cardiovascular risk factors, while increased risk of haemorrhagic stroke is confined to women >35 years of age. Applying the most recent risks to models of OC-attributable events and deaths, OC-attributable mortality in women mortality (about 90 per million women of reproductive age annually in the UK) such risks appear small. Over the age of 35 years, OC-attributable mortality is a more important concern, particularly among smokers. In the absence of any appreciable OC-attributable mortality in young healthy women, the additional VTE risk for third compared with second generation OCs should be considered when women choose which OC to use.

The Pill has undergone many changes since its first appearance some 50 years ago. Key developments included the reduction of ethinylestradiol doses and the synthesis of new progestins in order to increase safety, compliance and efficiency. Low-dose combined oralcontraceptives (COCs) are currently the preferred option for millions of women. Due to this widespread use, it has been argued that the safety of COCs should be even better, raising the threshold for excellence. Yet in spite of major improvements, there is still an associated risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). The next step in COCs' evolution should take total estrogenicity and hepatic estro-androgenic balance into account. The focus on the estrogen component--which has not changed in 50 years--has yielded a new class of natural estrogen pills. Following the introduction of a first quadriphasic pill, a monophasic estradiol pill based on the concept of "natural balance" was subsequently made available. These recent achievements could represent a step forward in the evolution of COCs and pave the way for better safety.

Objective To assess the side effects and the continuation rate of combined oralcontraceptive (COC) containing desogestrel (Marvelon ) during 12 months. Methods This was a post-marketing surveillance study on Marvelon COC among 870 healthy rural women in 5 different counties of Jiangsu Province during 12 months. Results About 24.02% of the women who used Marvelon COC experienced side effects during 12 months. Gastrointestinal disorder, bleeding/spotting and chloasma were ranked the first three in the side effects. The rate of side effects of Marvelon COC users during the first 3 months in southern area of Jiangsu was significantly higher than that of users in northern area of Jiangsu. Most of the users did not experience obvious weight changes i.e., loss or increase in weight of more than 5 kg during 12 months. Blood pressure and biochemical indicators of almost 99% among users were within the normal range. The gross cumulative continuation rate for 12 months was 83.14%; the most common medical reason for discontinuation was gastrointestinal disorder. There was an increased risk of discontinuation use among women with lower educational level.Conclusion Marvelon COC brought fewer side effects and was well accepted when applied in Chinese rural women.

Thyroid anomalies are more frequent in women than men. Variations in estrogen levels as observed during pregnancy and oralcontraception using combined pills may vitiate the results of certain types of thyroid hormone analysis. Consequently, as a result of an increase in thyroxine carrier proteine levels, the total thyroxine levels will be falsely higher whereas the results of the Hamolsky test will be falsely lower. However, the free thyroxine index obtained by combining the results of the 2 tests is not altered by the fluctuations of carrier proteins induced by estrogen overcharge. Although estrogen fluctuations modify thyroxine carrier proteine levels, they hardly influence thyroid function, particularly if hyperthyroidea occurs in menopause. It is simply coincidental. In the same way, thyroidal pathology actually interferes very little with ovarian function. As for the treatment of thyroid problems in pregnant women, difficulties may occur in the case of hyperthyroidea, since theoretically the usual treatments (lugol, beta-blockers, synthetic antithyroidals, radioactive iodine, or surgery on evolutive hyperthyroidea) cannot be applied. In practice, the best solution is to prescribe mild doses of synthetic antithroidals in order to decrease the basic problem without inducing hypothryoidea. (author's)

Women who ingest their oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) as part of a daily routine are more likely use their OCPs correctly. This trial examines the feasibility of an electronic-mail (e-mail) reminder system to improve OCP compliance. An e-mail reminder was sent to 50 new OCP users daily for 3 months. Subjects sent an e-mail reply to confirm receipt. OCP compliance was recorded on diaries. Four subjects were discontinued for not checking their e-mail. Active participants missed a median of 18% of the e-mail reminders (range: 0-65%). A follow-up visit was scheduled after completion of three OCP cycles. Of the 40 subjects returning completed diaries, 50% missed no active pills at all and 20% missed at least one in each cycle. Most found the daily e-mail somewhat (65%) or very helpful (19%) for OCP compliance. Of those continuing OCPs, 64% wanted to continue receiving e-mail reminders at the completion of the study. Because inconsistent OCP use is a significant cause of unplanned conception, the use of e-mail to improve OCP compliance has the potential to decrease unintended pregnancies.

Full Text Available The 1960s is often characterized as a decade of outstanding social and demographic changes in Western societies. The introduction of the contraceptive pill is assumed to have contributed to these changes. Yet the social as well as the demographic significance of the pill is ambiguous. This article has two aims: 1 to describe the early history of the pill in Finland in the 1960s and in the early 1970s and 2 to explore relationships between fertility and the pill. Surveys, pharmaceutical market data, and estimations are used to depict the diffusion of the pill. Based on calculated user percentages, the pill was adopted neither instantly nor extremely widely in Finland during the period under study. The results show that the diffusion coincided with fertility decline and other changes in fertility patterns. However, a causal connection of any kind cannot be established due to a lack of sufficient data.

We determined the prevalence of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women who visited a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and the influence of the number of partners and the use of oralcontraceptives (OC), with special attention to the recognition of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and to the results of therapy. Of 217 women, with a mean age of 26 years (range 14-56), who visited the STD clinic of the University Hospital of Groningen from July 1985 until November 1987, anamnestic data were collected as well as the results of swabs from cervix and urethra taken for culture and direct immunofluorescence test of C. trachomatis and for gonococcal culture. The influence of the number of partners (1 versus greater than 1) and OC on the prevalence of C. trachomatis infection was evaluated by logistic regression analysis. PID was excluded in coöperation with the department of gynaecology. C. trachomatis-infected women were treated by doxycycline orally (day 1 2 x 100 mg, day 2-7 1 x 100 mg) according to the dosage scheme advised by the Dutch Health Council in 1986. A control culture was taken 2-3 weeks after treatment. C. trachomatis was detected in 72/217 (33%) women by culture and (or) direct IF test and in 22/41 (54%) women with gonorrhoea. In connection with the number of partners in the year preceding the examination, the following prevalences were found: 18/74 (24%) (1 partner), 43/108 (40%) (2-5 partners) and 10/27 (greater than 5 partners).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

An open label, non-comparative study was carried out in 22 women over a total of five cycles. After an untreated cycle, oral administration of 20 microg ethinyl estradiol (EE) with 50 microg gestodene (GST) (tablets taken daily for 21 days with a break of 7 days) was commenced, and three treatment cycles were followed by an untreated follow-up control cycle. The ability of this formulation to inhibit ovulation and suppress ovarian activity was assessed by using hormonal parameters and ultrasound. One ovulation occurred during treatment. Luteinized unruptured follicles were observed in three cases in the second treatment cycle and in one case during the third treatment cycle. Follicle-like structures larger than 13 mm associated with a serum estradiol level of more than 30 pg/mL were noted in 19% of the women in the first treatment cycle. The rate of active follicle-like structures was 43% in the second treatment cycle and 28% in the third treatment cycle. The results were compared with previously reported findings of a preparation containing 20 microg EE and 75 microg GST. With regard to ovarian grading and endogenous hormone secretion, considerably more residual ovarian activity, with all parameters examined, was found in the 20 microg EE and 50 microg GST preparation compared to the 20 microg EE and 75 microg GST preparation. It was concluded that the 20 microg EE and 50 microg GST preparation administered for 21 days does not meet the requirements of a combined oralcontraceptive with respect to ovulation inhibition.

Full Text Available Abstract Background Biotransformation by using microbial and plant cell cultures has been applied effectively for the production of fine chemicals on large scale. Inspired by the wealth of literature available on the biotransformation of steroids, we decided to investigate the biotransformation of ethynodiol diacetate (1 by using plant and microbial cultures. Results The biotransformation of ethynodiol diacetate (1 with Cunninghamella elegans and plant cell suspension cultures of Ocimum basilicum and Azadirachta indica is being reported here for the first time. Biotransformation of 1 with Cunninghamella elegans yielded three new hydroxylated compounds, characterized as 17α-ethynylestr-4-en-3β,17β-diacetoxy-6α-ol (2, 17α-ethynylestr-4-en-3β,17β-diacetoxy-6β-ol (3, and 17α-ethynylestr-4-en-3β,17β-diacetoxy-10β-ol (4 and a known metabolite, 17α-ethynyl-17β-acetoxyestr-4-en-3-one (5. The biotransformation of 1 with Ocimum basilicum included hydrolysis of the ester group, oxidation of alcohol into ketone, and rearrangement of the hydroxyl group. Thus four major known metabolites were characterized as 17α-ethynyl-17β-acetoxyestr-4-en-3-one (5, 17α-ethynyl-17β-hydroxyestr-4-en-3-one (6, 17α-ethynyl-3 β-hydroxy-17β-acetoxyestr-4-ene (7 and 17α-ethynyl-5α,17β-dihydroxyestr-3-ene (8. Biotransformation of 1 with Azadirachta indica culture yielded compounds 5 and 6. Spectroscopic data of compound 8 is being reported for the first time. Structure of compound 6 was unambiguously deduced through single-crystal x-ray diffraction studies. Conclusion Biotransformation of an oralcontraceptive, ethynodiol diacetate (1, by using microbial and plant cell cultures provides an efficient route to the synthesis of a library of new steroids with potential contraceptive properties. These methods can be employed in the production of such compounds with high stereoselectivity.

Describes the 1998 Canadian Contraception Study, a mailed survey which asked women about contraceptive practices past, present, and future (including use of oralcontraceptives, condoms, and sterilization); familiarity with and opinion about different contraception methods; and general sexual and reproductive health. The paper also examines…

Advances in contraceptive technology have made birth control more effective, convenient, and safe. We review the newer products and some under development, including the latest oralcontraceptives, injectable progesterone, subdermal progestin implants, progesterone-releasing IUDs, emergency contraception, and male contraception.

Oralcontraception (OC) and energy intake may play a role in fuel selection during exercise. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of OCs (OC+ vs. OC-) in fed and fasting conditions on substrate oxidation and metabolic and hormonal responses in women during exercise. Substrate oxidation (respiratory exchange ratio and lipid and carbohydrates oxidation rates), metabolic (glycerol, free fatty acids (FFA), and glucose), and hormonal (insulin, adrenaline, and noradrenaline) responses were determined in 21 women: 10 regularly menstruating women (OC-) and 11 women using OCs (OC+: low-dose monophasic pill; ethinyl estradiol ≤ 30 µg) during 45 min at 65% of maximal oxygen consumption in fasting and postprandial states. At rest, OC+ presented higher low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol, and triglyceride plasma concentrations as compared with OC-. OC status had no influence on substrate oxidation and metabolic and hormonal responses during exercise. In the fasting state, whatever the OC status, women exhibited greater reliance on fat than in postprandial condition. This occurred in the presence of lower plasma insulin concentrations and higher plasma FFA and glycerol levels. The results indicated that the use of low-dose monophasic combined with OCs did not modify fuel selection and metabolic and hormonal responses during exercise in women. The fasting condition, compared with the fed condition, decreased carbohydrate oxidation during exercise, leading to a greater lipid mobilization and utilization whatever the OC status. Thus, in women, the realization of an exercise in either the fed or fasting conditions had a greater impact on substrate oxidation than OC status.

Recent oralcontraceptive (OC) use is associated with modestly higher breast cancer incidence among younger women, but its impact on survival is unclear. This study examined the relationship between OC use before breast cancer diagnosis and survival. A population-based sample of 1,264 women aged 20 to 54 years with a first primary invasive breast cancer during 1990 to 1992 were followed up for 8 to 10 years. OC and covariate data were obtained by interviews conducted shortly after diagnosis and from medial records. All-cause mortality was ascertained through the National Death Index (n = 292 deaths). Age- and income-adjusted hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were estimated by Cox regression methods. All-cause mortality was not associated with ever use of OCs or duration of use. Compared with nonusers, mortality estimates were elevated among women who were using OCs at diagnosis or stopped use in the previous year (HR, 1.57; 95% CI, 0.95-2.61). The HR for use of high-dose estrogen pills within 5 years before diagnosis was double that of nonusers (HR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.29-4.41) or, if the most recent pill included the progestin levonorgestrel, compared with nonusers (HR, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.03-3.91). Because subgroup estimates were based on small numbers of OC users, these results should be cautiously interpreted. Overall, most aspects of OC use did not seem to influence survival, although there is limited evidence that OC use just before diagnosis, particularly use of some pill types, may negatively impact survival in breast cancer patients aged 20 to 54 years.

The aim of our study was to examine the risk of breast cancer according to specific types of estrogens and progestagens in oralcontraceptives (OCs) based on the prospective Norwegian Women and Cancer study (NOWAC). Between 1991-97 women aged 30-70 years were drawn at random from the central person register and mailed an invitation and a questionnaire. Women (102,443) were enrolled with follow-up information collected throughout 1999 by linkage with national registries of cancer, mortality and emigration based on the unique national identification number. Among the 96,362 women included in the present analysis 851 invasive breast cancer were diagnosed. The adjusted risk of breast cancer increased with 25% for ever use of OCs and the risk increased with increasing duration of use (test for trend: p = 0.007). No association between time since last use and breast cancer risk was found after stratification on duration of use. Positive trend was still found for total duration of use among women who used OCs more than 5 years ago. Second generation of OCs had an increased risk with increasing duration of use. Classifying progestagens according to chemical groups, the relative risk increased significantly with increasing cumulative dose of levonorgestrel progestagen. It was difficult to conclude for the other groups due to lack of power. In a multivariate analysis the cumulative dose for all progestagen groups were non-significant, although we observed a significant increased risk with increasing milligram-months of estrogen exposure (p = 0.002). In conclusion, the increased risk of breast cancer related with OC formulations could be due mostly to estrogen component.

The UK's prescription drug regulatory agency warned the public and health care providers about the possible increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) among users of the combined oralcontraceptives (OCs) containing desogestrel or gestodene. Data from three large not-yet-published studies served as the basis for the warning. The studies found about a 2-fold increased risk of VTE for these OC users when compared to users of OCs with other progestins. Yet the observational studies are subject to inherent biases (e.g., hospitalized cases and selection bias), which may explain the increased risk. Assuming the increased risk to be true, the risk of VTE is still lower than that linked to pregnancy (30 vs. 60 VTE cases per 100,000). The risk of VTE for users of OCs containing older progestins is about 15 VTE cases and that among healthy, nonpregnant, nonusers is about 4 VTE cases. The mortality risk associated with VTE among users of OCs containing desogestrel or gestodene is 1-1.5 deaths/1 million woman-years. The US Food and Drug Administration has examined the data and has concluded that the risk is not high enough to justify switching to other OCs or stopping use of OCs containing desogestrel or gestodene. It recommends that users of the OCs in question discuss the OCs with their providers and make an informed choice based on the benefits and risks and individual preferences. It might consider changes in labeling, but not pulling the OCs off the market. In Germany, women aged less than 30 were temporarily advised not to begin use of desogestrel- or gestodene-containing OCs. Women using them were advised to continue their use, however. The European Union announced that bias or chance could account for the findings and thus did not recommend changes in prescribing desogestrel- or gestodene-containing OCs.

Background Combined oralcontraceptive (COC) use is the most commonly used reversible method of birth control. The incorrect use of COCs is frequent and one of the most common causes of unintended pregnancies. Community pharmacists (CPs) are in a strategic position to improve COC use because they are the last health professional to interact with patients before drug use. Objective To evaluate the COC dispensing practices of CPs in a developing country. Method A cross-sectional study was conducted in community pharmacies of Assis and Ourinhos microregions, Brazil, between June 1, 2012, and October 30, 2012. Four simulated patients (SPs) (with counseled audio recording) visited community pharmacies with a prescription for Ciclo 21® (a COC containing ethinyl estradiol 30 mcg + levonorgestrel 15 mcg). The audio recording of every SP visit was listened to independently by 3 researchers to evaluate the COC dispensing practice. The percentage of CPs who performed a screening for safe use of COCs (i.e., taking of patients’ medical and family history, and measuring of blood pressure) and provided counseling, as well as the quality of the screening and counseling, were evaluated. Results Of the 185 CPs contacted, 41 (22.2%) agreed to participate in the study and finished the study protocol. Only 3 CPs asked the SP a question (1 question asked by each professional), and all of the questions were closed-ended, viz., “do you smoke?” (n = 2) and “what is your age?” (n = 1). None of the CPs measured the patient’s blood pressure. Six CPs provided counseling when dispensing COCs (drug dosing, 5 CPs; possible adverse effects, 2 CPs), and one CP provided counseling regarding both aspects. Conclusion The CPs evaluated did not dispense COC appropriately and could influence in the occurrence of negatives therapeutic outcomes such as adverse effects and treatment failure. PMID:24324584

Full Text Available BACKGROUND: Combined oralcontraceptive (COC use is the most commonly used reversible method of birth control. The incorrect use of COCs is frequent and one of the most common causes of unintended pregnancies. Community pharmacists (CPs are in a strategic position to improve COC use because they are the last health professional to interact with patients before drug use. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the COC dispensing practices of CPs in a developing country. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was conducted in community pharmacies of Assis and Ourinhos microregions, Brazil, between June 1, 2012, and October 30, 2012. Four simulated patients (SPs (with counseled audio recording visited community pharmacies with a prescription for Ciclo 21(® (a COC containing ethinyl estradiol 30 mcg + levonorgestrel 15 mcg. The audio recording of every SP visit was listened to independently by 3 researchers to evaluate the COC dispensing practice. The percentage of CPs who performed a screening for safe use of COCs (i.e., taking of patients' medical and family history, and measuring of blood pressure and provided counseling, as well as the quality of the screening and counseling, were evaluated. RESULTS: Of the 185 CPs contacted, 41 (22.2% agreed to participate in the study and finished the study protocol. Only 3 CPs asked the SP a question (1 question asked by each professional, and all of the questions were closed-ended, viz., "do you smoke?" (n = 2 and "what is your age?" (n = 1. None of the CPs measured the patient's blood pressure. Six CPs provided counseling when dispensing COCs (drug dosing, 5 CPs; possible adverse effects, 2 CPs, and one CP provided counseling regarding both aspects. CONCLUSION: The CPs evaluated did not dispense COC appropriately and could influence in the occurrence of negatives therapeutic outcomes such as adverse effects and treatment failure.

The hypothesis that omission of the first three pills of the oralcontraceptive (OC) cycle leads to ovulation by extending further the pill-free period was investigated in 107 healthy women 18-35 years of age recruited from family planning programs in Finland, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Study participants were randomly allocated to one of the following treatment groups: 1) monophasic gestodene--75 mcg of gestodene and 30 mcg of ethinyl estradiol; 2) triphasic gestodene--6 days of 50 mcg gestodene and 30 mcg ethinyl estradiol, 5 days of 70 mcg gestodene and 40 mcg ethinyl estradiol, and 10 days of 100 mcg gestodene and 30 mcg ethinyl estradiol; or 3) monophasic desogestrel--150 mcg desogestrel and 20 mcg ethinyl estradiol. Noncompliance with OC taking was simulated by extending the pill-free period from 7 to 10 days. During or after the extended pill-free interval, follicular growth exceeding 18 mm occurred in 24% of women in the monophasic gestodene group, 24% in the triphasic gestodene group, and 40% in the monophasic desogestrel group. Follicle-stimulating hormone reached a maximum serum concentration in most women during the first 7 pill-free days, indicating complete pituitary recovery. No normal ovulation was observed after either a 7- or 10-day pill-free period as evaluated by ultrasonography of follicles and serum progesterone assays. Since normal ovulation did not occur when pill omissions were limited to 3 days, OC users who forget to take these three tablets can be safely advised to start the pill cycle on day 11.

Mineralocorticoids are thought to play a role in tissue repair, including fibrous tissue formation. The antimineralocorticoid activity of spironolactone has been linked to an increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. Drospirenone is a synthetic progestin approved in combination with ethinyl-estradiol as an oralcontraceptive (OC). It is a spironolactone-derivative, and its antimineralocorticoid effects could irritate the gastrointestinal tract leading to symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). A retrospective cohort study was conducted evaluating women 18-46 years of age in the IMS claims-database. New-users of progestin-based OCs were identified between 1997-2009. Ninety days of OC therapy and one year of prior enrollment with no prior diagnosis of IBS were required for inclusion. Cases were identified using a previously validated method for the diagnosis of IBS. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) for developing IBS with the different OC formulations using levonorgestrel as a reference. The cohort included 939,281 women, averaging 29.1 years of age and 247 days of OC therapy. 3,050 incident cases of IBS were detected. The annualized incidence for IBS with drospirenone was 0.77% (1083 cases) while that for levonorgestrel was 0.46% (483 cases). The crude HR for development of IBS with drospirenone compared to levonorgestrel was 1.70 (95%CI 1.53-1.90), while the adjusted HR was 1.63 (95%CI 1.46-1.82). Multiple sensitivity analyses confirmed this association. Other OCs were unassociated with IBS. Our study found a positive association between drospirenone and a diagnosis of IBS that was not observed with other OCs.

Previous studies have shown that resting heart rate variability (HRV) is modified by different phases of the menstrual cycle in nonusers of oralcontraceptive pills (OCP); however, the effect of OCP on autonomic control of the heart remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate HRV during the low hormone (LH-not taking OCP) and during the high hormone (HH-active OCP use) phases of the menstrual cycle in young women. Seventeen healthy women (19-31 years) taking OCP for at least 6 consecutive months were enrolled in this study. Plasma estradiol and progesterone were verified at each visit. HRV was assessed by using one-lead electrocardiography in time and frequency domains, in which participants rested in the supine position for a 20-min period with a breathing rate of 15 cycles/min. In addition, resting heart rate, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were obtained. Both plasma estradiol (LH: 19.8 ± 4.2 pg/mL vs. HH: 12.4 ± 1.5 pg/mL; p > .05) and progesterone (LH: 0.247 ± 0.58 ng/mL vs. HH: 0.371 ± 0.08 ng/mL; p > .05) (mean ± SE) levels were similar in both phases. No significant difference was obtained for any component of HRV, heart rate, or blood pressure between the LH and HH phases (p > .05). These results provide preliminary evidence that use of OCP does not affect HRV during the menstrual cycle in healthy women.

Full Text Available Chinazo Ujuju,1 Samson B Adebayo,2 Jennifer Anyanti,3 Obi Oluigbo,3 Fatima Muhammad,4 Augustine Ankomah5 1Research and Evaluation Division, Society for Family Health, Abuja, Nigeria; 2Planning, Research and Statistics Directorate, National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, Abuja, Nigeria; 3Technical Services Directorate, Society for Family Health, Abuja, Nigeria; 4Family Planning Directorate, Society for Family Health, Abuja, Nigeria; 5Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana Introduction: In Nigeria about 50% of oralcontraceptive pill users obtain their products from proprietary patent medicine vendors (PPMVs. This group of service providers are poorly trained and have very limited knowledge about contraception. This paper investigated the nature of the advice offered to simulated current and potential users of oralcontraceptive pills. The main objective was to assess the nature and quality of advice provided by PPMVs to pill users. Method: This study is based on findings from a 'mystery client' approach in which three scenarios related to contraceptive pill use were simulated. Each of the 12 mystery clients simulated one of the following three scenarios: new pill users (new to family planning or switching from condom to pills; user seeking a resupply of pills; and dissatisfied pill users intending to discontinue use. Simple random sampling was used to select 410 PPMVs from a total of 1,826 in four states in Nigeria. Qualitative study using in-depth interviews was also conducted. Results: A majority of the PPMVs had pills in stock on the day of the survey and resupplied pills to the clients. PPMVs also understood the reason and importance of referring clients who were new adopters of oralcontraceptive methods to a health facility; 30% of the PPMVs referred new adopters to a health facility. However, demand from clients who do not want to go

Serena Ferrari, Marianna Cannoletta, Matteo Generali, Lucia Cazzato, Angelo CagnacciDepartment of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Pediatrics, Azienda Ospedaliero, Universitaria di Modena, ItalyAbstract: Since their introduction in 1959, development of hormonal contraceptives has been ongoing, with the ultimate aim of creating not only an effective and safe contraceptive method, but also a drug able to meet the need for treatment of other conditions, such as acne, seborrhea, and hirsutism, with fe...

To determine if gender and/or the use of oralcontraceptives alter cycling performance with exercise-induced muscle damage (EiMD). Nine male adults (MEN), nine normally menstruating female adults (WomenNM), and nine female adults using oralcontraceptives (WomenOC) participated. Gas exchange and time to exhaustion were measured during continuous cycling performed at three distinct power outputs before (pre) and 48 h after (post) 240 maximal effort eccentric contractions of the quadriceps muscles designed to induce muscle damage (i.e., EiMD). The change in muscle damage (i.e., range of motion about the knee joint and serum creatine kinase activity) from pre- compared to post-EiMD was greater in MEN and WomenOC compared to the WomenNM. Time to exhaustion decreased after EiMD in MEN (5.19 ± 4.58 min, p = 0.01) and in WomenOC (2.86 ± 2.83 min, p = 0.02) but did not change in WomenNM (0.98 ± 2.28 min, p = 0.43). Accordingly, the slow component of O2 uptake, expressed relative to time to exhaustion (i.e., % min(-1)), was greater in post- compared to pre-EiMD for MEN (p = 0.02) and the WomenOC (p = 0.03), but not for the WomenNM (p = 0.12). The preservation of exercise tolerance during heavy-intensity cycling performed after intense eccentric exercise is improved in women compared to men. Furthermore, the preservation of exercise tolerance is exclusive to 17β-estradiol and cannot be replicated with an exogenous synthetic estrogen replacement delivered in an oralcontraceptive.

Full Text Available Background: Postprandial Lipemia (PPL is a physiological process that reflects the ability of the body to metabolize lipids. Even though the influence of oralcontraceptives (OC on PPL is not known, it is a known fact that their use increases fasting lipid values. Objective: To compare the PPL between women who are on OC and those who are not. Methods: A prospective analytical study which assessed eutrophic women, aged between 18 and 28 years old, who were irregularly active and with fasting triglycerides ≤150 mg/dL. They were divided into two groups: oralcontraceptive group (COG and non-oralcontraceptive group (NCOG. Volunteers were submitted to the PPL test, in which blood samples were collected in time 0 (12-hour fasting and after the intake of lipids in times 180 and 240 minutes. In order to compare the triglyceride deltas, which reflect PPL, the two-tailed Mann-Whitney test was used for independent samples between fasting collections and 180 minutes (Δ1 and between fasting and 240 minutes (Δ2. Results: Forty women were assessed and equally divided between groups. In the fasting lipid profile, it was observed that HDL did not present significant differences and that triglycerides in COG were twice as high in comparison to NCOG. Medians of Δ1 and Δ2 presented significant differences in both comparisons (p ≤0.05. Conclusion: The results point out that women who are irregularly active and use OC present more PPL in relation to those who do not use OC, which suggests that in this population, its chronic use increases the risk of heart conditions.

Background Cancer is one of the main public health issues in the world. Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among women. It is also the second cause of mortality in women. The association between the use of oralcontraceptive pills and breast cancer is controversial and a main issue in public health. Some findings have shown that taking these pills does not have a significant effect in increasing the risk of breast cancer, while others have confirmed the carcinogenic effect of these products. These contradictory findings necessitated this meta-analysis, through of all correlated studies in Iran. Methods All published studies were considered from June 2000 until June 2015, using reliable Latin databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, Google search, Scopus, and Science Direct, and Persian database like SID, Irandoc, IranMedex, and Magiran. Finally, 26 papers were selected: 24 studies were case control while two were population based studies. A total of 26 papers with 46,260 participants were assessed since 2001. Results Overall estimate of OR for the effect of oralcontraceptive pills on breast cancer is 1.521 (CI = 1.25–1.85), which shows that the intervention group had more chance (52%) compared to the control group (P = 0.001). Using these pills increased the risk of breast cancer up to 1.52 times. Conclusions Because of directly increasing levels of estrogen and the role of estrogen in gaining weight indirectly, oralcontraceptive pills can stimulate the occurrence of breast cancer. More studies should be conducted for controlling the period of pill use. PMID:28053965

The management of oligo-amenorrhea in adolescent patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) represents an important and difficult challenge. Metformin and/or oralcontraceptives (OCs) are different strategies widely proposed in these patients. The objective of the current review was to provide an overview on the use of metformin and/or OCs for the management of oligo-amenorrhea in adolescents with PCOS underlining their potential risks and benefits in order to help the clinician to choose the best patients' tailored treatment.

The alterations in lipid metabolism that occur with the use of oralcontraceptives (OCs) have aroused considerable concern that OCs might increase the risk of premature atherosclerosis. However, most studies examining the role of OCs in atherogenesis were performed using earlier-generation preparations employing larger doses of sex hormones than present formulation. Therefore, we undertook a comparative and standardized determination of the effects on lipid metabolism of six modern, low-dose OCs. This open, randomized, comparative study included patients recruited at 21 study centers throughout Europe. Four hundred sixty-six women, aged 18-38 years, participated. They were randomly assigned to the following OC formulations:(1) norgestimate 250 micrograms + ethinyl estradiol (EE) 35 micrograms (Cilest); (2) norgestimate 180/215/250 micrograms + EE 35 micrograms (Tricilest); (3) desogestrel 150 micrograms + EE 20 micrograms = (Marvelon); (4) desogestrel 150 micrograms + EE 30 micrograms (Mercilon); (5) gestodene 75 micrograms + EE 30 micrograms (Femovan); and (6) gestodene 50/70/100 micrograms + EE 30/40/30 micrograms (Trifemovan). There were three parallel studies with six parallel patient groups. Fasting blood samples were drawn at baseline (between days 24 and 28) and on days 18-22 of cycle 6, and cycle 12. Sample were analyzed for total cholesterol,high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, HDL2 cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein (apo)A1, and apoB at one central laboratory. Two hundred eighty-two women completed all 12 cycles and were included in the final evaluation. As expected, triglyceride and total cholesterol concentrations increased in all study groups but to lesser levels with the formulations containing gestodene. All OCs, except the monophasic gestodene preparation, slightly but significantly increased HDL. The HDL2 subfraction did ot change significantly except in the group using the monophasic

A case of acute intestinal vascular necrosis in a 19-year-old user of oralcontraceptives (OCs) is described, and hypotheses explaining the digestive complications of synthetic estrogens are reviewed. The patient had originally presented with a violent gastric pain that subsequently spread to the entire abdomen. An abrupt worsening of her condition involved cardiovascular collapse associated with a peritoneal syndrome, vomiting and dehydration, and hyperleukocytosis. Emergency opening of the peritoneum was followed by evacuation of a large quantity of fetid gas and alimentary debris, and observation of a completely necrosed stomach. A careful lavage of the entire intestinal cavity led to temporary improvement, but it became clear during an attempt at gastrectomy that further treatment would be unavailing and the patient died shortly thereafter. Estrogens were believed to be responsible for the digestive necrosis because it occurred in a young woman who had used an estrogen-rich OC for 3 years and who smoked; a hapatic biopsy confirmed the diagnosis. No traces of other risk factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, neoplasia, or obesity were observed. Recent publications indicate that OCs are responsible for a certain number of digestive problems, which may include acceleration of intestinal transit, severe diarrhea, rectorrhagia, ischemic or ulcerative colitis, intestinal infarct which is usually localized, and hepatocellular problems ranging from moderate hepatic insufficiency to malignant tumor and Budd-Chiari syndrome. OCs do not modify hemodynamic regimes, but they may cause elevation of fibrinogen and thrombin, diminution of antithrombin III acitivty, increased platelet adhesivity, and decreased fibrinolysis leading to hypercoagulability. These modifications in hemostasis occur in all OC users and are not statistically correlated with occurence of thrombotic accidents. OCs are probably responsible for parietal vascular lesions; experimental

Full Text Available Introduction. The authors analyze contemporary methods of contraception. Regarding oralcontraception, they point to agents which decrease the efficacy of oralcontraception. They also deal with agents which increase the level of estrogen, thus increasing side effects (paracetamol, vitamin C. OralcontraceptivesOralcontraceptives may also have an impact on the efficacy of some medications (anticonvulsants, antidepressants. Health risks of oralcontraceptives are also mentioned, as well as WHO's, guidelines for women using contraceptives based on risks and benefits. Other methods of contraception The authors also offer criteria for use of bioactive intrauterine devices (IUD, with recommendations of WHO. Besides men's, there are women's condoms, which are very reliable protection against infections, but their negative side is that they are rather expensive. Bad sides of vaginal wash are also emphasized, although this method is rather widespread in the world. Conclusion. At the end, the authors quote the International Family Planning Fund (IFPF which considers IUD to be the most reliable method of contraception nowadays. .

OBJECTIVE: To assess the risk of developing cerebral thromboembolism among pregnant women and among fertile women with hypertension, migraine, diabetes, and previous thrombotic disease, and to investigate the interaction of these risk factors with the use of oralcontraceptives. DESIGN: A retrosp......OBJECTIVE: To assess the risk of developing cerebral thromboembolism among pregnant women and among fertile women with hypertension, migraine, diabetes, and previous thrombotic disease, and to investigate the interaction of these risk factors with the use of oralcontraceptives. DESIGN......-matched, randomly selected controls. RESPONSE: Of the 692 case and 1584 control questionnaires sent out, 590 (85.1%) and 1396 (88.1%), respectively, were returned. Of the 590 cases, nine had had cerebral thrombosis before 1980, 15 refused to participate, 44 had a revised diagnosis (primarily multiple sclerosis......) and 25 had an unreliable diagnosis, leaving 497 with a reliable cerebral thromboembolic diagnosis. Among the 1396 controls, 26 either refused to participate, were mentally handicapped, lived abroad or returned an uncompleted questionnaire, leaving 1370 controls included in the study. RESULTS: After...

A comparative study of low-dose oralcontraceptives (OCs) containing either desogestrel or gestodene failed to detect any major differences in metabolic risk markers for coronary heart disease. Included in the investigation were 70 women who used an OC composed of 30 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 150 mcg of desogestrel, 43 women who took an OC containing 30 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 75 mcg of gestodene, and 54 controls who did not use hormonal contraception. The study subjects, 18-35 years of age, were recruited from family planning clinics and general practices in England. Concentrations of serum total cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and apolipoproteins were higher in both groups of OC users than in controls, primarily because of increases in the protective HDL subfraction 3. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were unaffected, but serum triglyceride concentrations were elevated in OC users. Fasting plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide concentrations were similar in all three groups. The only significant differences between the two OCs were in HDL subfraction 2 concentrations (higher with desogestrel) and the late oral glucose tolerance test plasma insulin response (higher with gestodene). Further research and development, perhaps involving modification of the estrogen component, are needed to avoid the increased triglyceride concentrations and insulin responses associated with these low-dose formulations.

Full Text Available Anita L Nelson Obstetrics and Gynecology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Harbor UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA Abstract: The evidence that folates reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs is so compelling that supplementation has been recommended by every relevant authority. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews has determined that folate supplementation should be rated as a Grade 1 recommendation. United States Preventive Health Services Task Force, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC have all produced clear guidelines for such supplementation. Unfortunately, despite food fortification and targeted public health campaigns promoting folic acid supplementation, periconceptional utilization of folic acid supplements has decreased in the US in recent years. Worldwide, over 300,000 newborns are affected with NTDs every year. NTDs account for 10% of all neonatal mortality. This article will review the risk factors for NTDs and the evidence supporting folate supplementation. It will also describe the remaining problems and outline current ideas to solve them. Finally, new evidence of the effectiveness of adding metafolin to drospirenone-containing oralcontraceptives in raising serum and red blood cell folate levels, the rationale for making such an addition, and an estimate of the magnitude of the contribution use of such pills might have on reducing NTDs will be discussed. Keywords: neural tube defects, folate, metafolin, oralcontraceptives

The purpose was to examine effects of oralcontraceptive (OC) use on plasma growth hormone (GH) responses to heavy resistance exercise. Sixty untrained women were placed into one of two groups: currently using OC (Ortho Tri-Cyclen) (n=25; mean+/-SD: 24.5+/-4.2y, 160.4+/-7.1cm, 64.1+/-11.3kg) or not currently using OC (NOC) (n=35; 23.6+/-4.6y, 165.9+/-6.0cm, 65.7+/-10.3kg). Participants performed an acute heavy resistance exercise test (AHRET; six sets of 10 repetition squats; 2min rest between sets) during days 2-4 of the follicular phase (NOC group) or of inactive oralcontraceptive intake (OC group). Plasma was obtained before and immediately after AHRET and subsequently fractionated based on apparent molecular weight (>60kD, 30-60kD, and exercise-induced GH for the IFA, Nichols, and NIDDK in unfractionated plasma and >60kD subfraction compared to NOC group. No differences were observed for the tibial line bioassay. OC use augmented immunological GH response to AHRET in unfractionated plasma and >60kD molecular weight subfraction. However, OC use only increased biological activity of GH in one of two bioassays. These data demonstrated that GH concentrations at rest and following exercise are assay-dependent.

Conclusions: A decrease in the serum concentrations of zinc, selenium, phosphorus and magnesium have been reported in OC users. Such reductions were proportional to the duration of contraceptive use. These reductions may imply a reduction in the probability of having a pregnancy and/or an increase of serious illness for the unborn. In this regard, a supplementation with the above compounds could be useful in OC users, namely for reducing side effects. [Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol 2014; 3(1.000: 1-10

目的 统计我院门诊口服避孕药的非避孕性应用的临床分布,并评价口服避孕药用药的合理性. 方法 采用回顾性调查方式抽取我院门诊2014年7月-12月使用口服避孕药(炔诺酮片、米非司酮片、去氧孕稀炔雌醇片(妈富隆)、炔雌醇环丙孕酮片(达英-35))的处方,共3840张,根据国际疾病分类(ICD-10)统计临床诊断,根据《处方管理办法》、《临床用药须知》(2011版)、《妇产科学》(第八版)以及结合药品说明书对处方进行合理性评价. 结果 在3840张处方中,用于避孕的处方有57张,非避孕性应用的处方有3783张,非避孕性使用率达到98.5%;不合理处方有220张,不合理用药率达到5.7%.结论 非避孕性应用是该院门诊使用口服避孕药的主要目的,应用情况基本合理,但仍存在不合理用药的现象,应加强口服避孕药非避孕性应用的监管,提高用药合理性.%Objective To collect statistics of the clinical distribution of the non-contraceptive applications of oralcontracep-tives in the outpatient of the women and children hospital,and to evaluate proper usage of the oralcontraceptives. Methods By retrospective servey method,extracting a total of 3840 prescriptions of using oralcontraceptives (Norethindrone tablet,Mifepristone tablet,Desogestrel and Ethynyl Estradiol tablet,Ethynyl Estradiol and Cyproterone tablet) in the outpatient of the women and chil-dren hospital from July to December in 2014. According to the international classification of diseases (ICD-10),to collect statistics of clinical diagnosis. According to the Prescription Management Method,Obstetrics and Gynecology (the 8th edition) and Clinical Medication Notice (2011 edition),combinin-g with drug instruction,to evaluate rationality of prescriptions of oralcontraceptives. Results Among the 3840 pieces of prescriptions,there were 57 piece for birth control,and 3783 piece for non-contraceptive us-ing. The percentage of non-contraceptive

Serum prolactin, growth hormone, and alpha-fetoprotein were determined in women taking a new oralcontraceptive, consisting of 2 mg cyproterone acetate and 50 microgram of ethinylestradiol. Because these women were suffering from acne vulgaris they were taking this contraceptive containing a gestagen with antiandrogenic activity. Prolatin and growth hormone were determined because both may favour the development and the growth of mammary tumors and because their secretion may be stimulated by estrogenic compounds. Alpha-fetoprotein is a marker of hepatocellular carcinoma, which may be associated with long-term use of oralcontraceptives. During one year of treatment with cyproterone acetate and ethinylestradiol there was a continuous rise of serum concentrations of prolactin. However, this rise did not exceed the normal range. In contrast, serum concentrations of growth hormone did not change significantly. Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels remained below the detection limit of the method.

复方口服避孕药由于避孕效果可靠，一直是世界范围使用最广泛的避孕方法之一，同时也是国际上认为研究最深入的领域之一。该文将对复方口服避孕药的早期发现、新型口服避孕药的发展趋势和目前应用现状进行简要综述。%Combined oralcontraceptive( COC) is one of the most frequently used contraception drugs world-wide, and researches on COC has become one of the most intensively investigated area in gynecology.The early dis-covery of COC, current status of its clinical use, and trends of new oralcontraceptive are reviewed in this paper.

The objective of this study was to ascertain the effects of menstrual cycle, oralcontraception, and training status on the exercise-induced changes in circulating DHEA-sulphate and testosterone in young women. Twenty-eight healthy women were assigned to an untrained group (n = 16) or a trained group (n = 12) depending on their training background. The untrained group was composed of nine oralcontraceptive users (OC+) and seven eumenorrheic women (OC-). The trained group was composed of OC+ subjects only. All the OC+ subjects were taking the same low-dose oralcontraception. Three laboratory sessions were organised in a randomised order: a prolonged exercise test until exhaustion, a short-term exhaustive exercise test, and a control session. Blood specimens were collected before, during and after the exercise tests and at the same time of the day during the control session. Basal circulating testosterone was significantly lower in trained as compared to untrained subjects. In all subjects, the prolonged exhaustive exercise induced a significant increase in circulating DHEA-s and testosterone. The short-term exercise induced a significant increase in circulating DHEA-s in untrained eumenorrheic and in trained OC users only. Menstrual phases in OC- did not influence the responses. It was found that exhaustive physical exercise induced an increase in circulating DHEA-s and testosterone in young women. Oralcontraception may limit short-term exercise-induced changes.

Combined oralcontraceptives are the most widely used contraceptives preparations, they contain two sex hormone:progestogen and estrogen. COC may cause cardiovascular diseases. Epidemiological evidence suggests that the dyslipidemia may he associated with these diseases. The mechanism of this phenomenon is not entirely clear; the elevation of blood triglyceride levels may be related to a decrease in lipolytic activity of liver and triglyceride removed as well as an increase in blood insulin levels. Different preparations of COC should be altemated if possible for a long-term use of the contraceptives in women of child-bearing age, and blood lipid levels should be monitored during the period of COC use.%复方口服避孕药(COC)为最常用的避孕制剂,其含有2种性激素:孕激素和雌激素.COC 可致心血管疾病.流行病调查显示COC引起的心血管疾病与血脂异常有关.其机制尚不完全清楚;三酰甘油水平的升高可能与肝脏分解脂肪和清除三酰甘油能力降低及血液中胰岛素水平增高有关.育龄期妇女长期使用时应尽可能交替使用不同种类的COC,用药期间进行血脂监测.

Recent epidemiologic studies indicate that use of combined oralcontraception is associated with a increase in the incidence of cardiovascular disease (venous thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism, myocardial infarction and stroke). The risk of cardiovascular disease is strongly related to estrogen dose, progestogen type and other factors for example thrombogenic mutations and cigarette smoking among female over age 35. The progestogen only contraception is safe alternative to combined hormonal contraception. Progestogen only pill (POP) has different levels of action (local and/or central) which may vary from one drug to another. As for the cardiovascular disease risk, progestogens are not considered to be risk factors. Desogestrel containing POP is advised in the following cases: bad tolerance of exogenous oestrogens; in order to counteract an endogenous hyperoestrogenosis; medical, metabolic or cardiovascular contraindications to estroprogestogen contraception. Lastly, POP should be used as a prime contraception in some particular situations (breast feeding, endometriosis, adenomyosis, cigarette smoking, contraception for older women). These recommendations present the actual system of care in that population of women in Poland.

Marvelon, a monophasic oralcontraceptive (OC) containing 30 mcg of ethinyl estradiol and 150 mcg of desogestrel, has been available to Malaysian women through the national family planning program since 1982. To assess the safety, effectiveness, and side effects associated with this OC, 247 women who requested the pill were enrolled in a multicenter prospective study that included follow-up after the first, third, and sixth cycles of use. 81% of participants had never used any form of contraception before Marvelon. 194 women (79%) completed the 6-month study. There were no pregnancies recorded. Although women reported a slightly increased incidence of nausea, breast tenderness, and headache in the first treatment cycle, these side effects had abated by the end of the third cycle. After six cycles, mean body weight had decreased by an average of 0.4 kg. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were unaffected. An unexpected finding was a decrease in the severity of acne with continuous use of Marvelon. Although both spotting and breakthrough bleeding increased slightly in the first two cycles, irregular bleeding returned to pretreatment levels by the third cycle. The length of the withdrawal bleed in the pill-free week was reduced. The incidence of irregular bleeding and other side effects was substantially lower in this sample of Malaysian women than in Asian and Caucasian Marvelon users surveyed in other studies.

The objective of this prospective study was to assess the effects of a low-dose oralcontraceptive (OC) containing 15 microg ethinylestradiol and 60 microg gestodene on sexuality. Forty-eight healthy volunteers (age range, 18-35 years), having regular menstrual cycles with ovulation, participated in the study. Sexual behavior was assessed using the self-administered Personal Experience Questionnaire, at baseline, and at 3, 6 and 9 months of pill use. Women reported decreased sexual desire (p < 0.005) and sexual activity (p < 0.05) at the 9th month of pill use, and diminished sexual arousal at the 3rd month of pill intake (p < 0.05), with respect to baseline. The frequency of orgasm did not change during OC use (p = NS). Moreover, sexual enjoyment was worse at the 3rd, 6th and 9th month with respect to baseline (p < 0.001). The low dose of ethinylestradiol could cause decreased vaginal lubrication, and diminished sexual arousal could be due to hypoandrogenism. Women may expect increased sexual performance when they take the pill, as compared to before starting contraception. Consequently, they could have an unexpected effect with pill use, though sexuality may remain the same.

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of oralcontraceptive use on the silent period (SP) of anterior temporal and masseter muscles during the menstrual cycle. Materials and Methods: Totally, 28 women on reproductive age were selected including 15 nonusers of any hormone and 13 contraceptive users. All patients were dentate without muscular temporomandibular disorders. Electromyography (SP test) of the anterior temporal and masseter muscles was conducted every week during three consecutive menstrual cycles at 1st day of menstruation (P1), 7th day (P2), 14th day (P3) and 21st day (P4). Results: The SP values in the anterior temporal and masseter muscles were measured at both sides. The SP values of the right side (13.49 ms) at P2 were significantly different compared to the left side (12.28 ms). However, there was no significant difference on the interactions among the three factors. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the SP values in healthy women in reproductive age may not be influenced by the menstrual cycle with similar results for both muscles. PMID:26038645

Combined hormonal contraceptives (CHCs) contain estrogen and progestin, which can stimulate estrogen-sensitive and/or progesterone-sensitive breast cancer growth. Until recently, ethinylestradiol had been almost the only estrogen used for decades, and its dose has been greatly reduced over time. The first generations of birth control pills contained approximately five times more estrogen and four times more progestin than the latest contraceptives. Newer CHCs also contain steroids that more closely mimic the physiological estradiol (E2) and progesterone effects. The newer CHC formulations are thus expected to have less influence on the breast, although it is very difficult to demonstrate any difference among the recent available preparations in human studies. Recently, nomegestrol acetate (NOMAC), a neutral, nonandrogenic, progesterone-like profile progestin, has become available in combination with the 'natural' estrogen, E2. According to the literature, NOMAC/E2 is expected to have either a lesser stimulating effect or a neutral effect on estrogen-sensitive breast cancers. We performed an analysis of the available studies and a bibliographical review. The endocrine and metabolic effects of NOMAC/E2 formulation might lead to a lesser breast tissue stimulation. The data reported, confirmed through clinical studies, should be considered when choosing a hormonal contraceptive, especially when breast stimulation is a concern.

Full Text Available In order to compare the new generation of oralcontraceptive pills containing Norgestimate (NGM with currently available pills containing levonorgestrel (LNG a clinical trial was conducted. 413 women (age 18-35 years with no contrainindication to pill use entered the study and randomly received one type of pills. Premenstrual syndrome and depression were significantly decreased in NGM group (P=0.00016, P=0.005, on the other hand, breast tenderness, mood changes and hair loss were significantly increased in LNG group (P=0.001, P=0.042, P=0.011. Comparing two groups with each other, following variables were significantly lower in NGM group: headache (P<0.05, vertigo (P<0.05, cloasma (P<0.05, acne (P<0.04, depression (P<0.05, appetite change (P<0.03. Overall patient satisfaction was similar in two groups.

Oralcontraceptive (OC) use influences the hemostatic system significantly and is a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease. Factor VII-activating protease (FSAP) has potential effects on hemostasis. The 1601GA genotype of the 1601G/A polymorphism in the FSAP gene expresses a FSAP...... alloenzyme with reduced pro-fibrinolytic activity. Presently, we address whether OC use and OC formulation affect FSAP measures in human blood. Healthy women (n=588) were allocated to six cycles of OCs with estrogen contents of 20µg (n=158), 30µg (n=284), 35µg (n=79) or 50µg (n=67) combined with various...... progestins. FSAP genotypes, FSAP and factor VII (FVII) plasma measures were assessed at baseline and after 6 cycles of OC. The 1601GA genotype was present in 49 (8.3%) of the women and was associated with significantly reduced levels of FSAP (P=0.001). OC use increased FSAP antigen by 25% and FSAP activity...

The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect of sustained monophasic oralcontraceptive pill (MOCP) use on the in vivo passive stiffness of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle-tendon unit. Twenty four females volunteered for this study (age range 20-25 yrs); twelve participants had been taking the combined MOCP for a minimum of 12 months, and twelve participants, who had never taken the MOCP, formed a control group. Distal displacement of the GM myotendinous junction (MTJ) was measured during passive dorsiflexion at 2 Nm increments to 20 Nm, and at end range of motion using ultrasonography. In addition, GM MTJ displacement was measured at passive torques equivalent to 5, 10 and 15% of plantarflexion maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque, and relative to GM length. MOCP users had significantly greater GM MTJ displacement at all passive torques (PMTJ displacement, passive muscle stiffness is less in MOCP using females, compared to non-pill users.

It is proposed that oralcontraceptive (OC) users are at increased risk to experiencing adverse psychological disorders (e.g. irritability, depression) from exposures to elevated levels of carbon disulfide (CS2). This theory is based on studies indicating that both OCs and CS2 induce either a vitamin B6 deficiency and/or enhance its requirement. Since disruptions of B6 metabolism are thought to explain, at least in part, the adverse psychological effects of OCs and CS2, it is speculated that joint exposure to these substances may result in an exaggerated disruption of B6 metabolism with the development of CS2 induced adverse psychological effects occurring at exposure levels below those normally associated with adverse effects.

Full Text Available Oralcontraceptives are pharmaceutical formulations containing an estrogen in a small amount and a synthetic progestin in 5-30 times bigger amount. A sensitive, accurate and rapid method for determination of active compounds is required. We have developed HPLC methods for determination of ethinylestradiol (EED and levonorgestrel (LNG in commercially available tablets. Chromatographic separation was performed on a Purospher® STAR RP-18e reversed-phase column (150 X 4.0 mm I.D.; particle size 5 µm in an isocratic mode with a mobile phase constituted of 47% acetonitrile: 53% water (V/V for both methods. The elution was carried out at a flow rate of 1.50 ml /min. All analyses were performed at room temperature (24 +/- 2°C. In the HPLC method with UV detection (internal standard method both compounds were detected at 215 nm. Drospirenone was used as an internal standard. In HPLC method with UV/fluorescence detection (external standard method LNG was monitored at 242 nm, while EED was detected with fluorescence detector at 310 nm (excitation 285 nm. The methods’ performances were fully validated by a determination of linearity, reproducibility, accuracy and sensitivity. Both methods were applied for determination of Uniformity of Dosage Units. The results obtained with both methods were highly comparable. However, the HPLC method with UV/ fluorescence detection has showed superior sensitivity for EED indicated by 83 times lower detection limit. HPLC method with UV/ fluorescence detection could be recommended as a method of choice for determination of ethinylestradiol, present at a very low dosage level in low-dose oralcontraceptives, that also contain bigger amount of synthetic progestin.

The effect of a triphasic oralcontraceptive containing ethinyl estradiol and gestodene (EE/GSD) on various lipid and lipoprotein parameters was compared with that of a monophasic formulation containing 35 micrograms ethinyl estradiol and 250 micrograms norgestimate (EE/NGM). Blood samples were collected from 46 women on days 2, 11, and 21 of the preceding control cycle and of the third, sixth, and twelfth treatment cycles. There was no significant difference between formulations with regard to the influence on any measured parameter. As compared with controls, a significant increase was observed in the plasma levels of total triglycerides (24-78%), total phospholipids (7-20%), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) triglycerides (61-76%), VLDL-phospholipids (14-60%), low density lipoprotein (LDL) triglycerides (8-35%), LDL-phospholipids (28-30%), high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (8-16%), HDL 3-cholesterol (11-20%), HDL-triglycerides (17-66%), HDL-phospholipids, HDL 3-phospholipids (7-11%), apolipoprotein (apo) A-I (5-20%) and apo A-II (10-40%) during treatment with both formulations. In contrast, the LDL-cholesterol levels were significantly decreased. These changes in lipid metabolism appear to reflect a predominance of the effect of the estrogen component. The results indicate that both low dose oralcontraceptives containing different progestins and different amounts of EE do not exert a deleterious effect on lipoprotein metabolism, as high HDL-cholesterol and low LDL-cholesterol levels are known as low risk factors of cardiovascular disease. In contrast to endogenous hypertriglyceridemia, an EE-induced rise in triglyceride levels does not appear to increase cardiovascular risk if LDL is not increased.

Full Text Available Introduction: Oralcontraceptives (OCs are considered as one of the most common risk factor of venous thromboembolism (VTE in child bearing age. Some of the recent researches indicate that the odds of VTE may be even higher with newer generations of OCs. The present meta-analysis was designed to evaluate the effect of different generation of OCs on the occurrence of VTE. Methods: Two researchers independently ran a thorough search in Pubmed, ISI Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL and Scopus databases regarding study keywords including thromboembolic event, thromboembolism, embolism, thromboembolic, thrombotic and thrombosis, combined with oralcontraceptive. The outcomes were the incidence of diagnosed thromboembolism, such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism and cerebral venous thrombosis. Based on the heterogeneity of the studies, random effect model was used and pooled odds ratio was reported. Results: Three cohort and 17 case-control studies with 13,265,228 subjects were entered into meta-analysis. Analysis showed that the odds of VTE in women taking OCs are more than three-fold (OR=3.13; 95% CI: 2.61-3.65. The risk of VTE in women taking first-, second- and third-generation OCs are 3.5 fold (OR=3.48; 95% CI: 2.01-4.94, 3 fold (OR=3.08; 95% CI: 2.43-3.74 and 4.3 fold (OR=4.35; CI: 3.69‒5.01, respectively. Conclusion: It seems that the risk of VTE is not same between different generations of OCs, so that third-generation has highest risk. Taking second and third-generation OCs increases the risk of VTE up to 3 and 4.3 fold, respectively. The researchers of the present study suggest that more clinical trials be designed in relation to the effect of newer generations of OCs in different communities.

Oralcontraceptive use is associated with venous thrombosis. However, the mechanism behind this remains unclear. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate genetic variation in the first-pass metabolism of contraceptives, to identify the clinical implications of hormonal contraceptive use after a

Oralcontraceptive use is associated with venous thrombosis. However, the mechanism behind this remains unclear. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate genetic variation in the first-pass metabolism of contraceptives, to identify the clinical implications of hormonal contraceptive use after a thromb

Objective: To evaluate the combined effect of oralcontraceptives and intrauterine devices (IUD) , and to study the most appropriate contraceptive measures. Methods: The subjects were randomly divided into two groups, the contraceptive effectiveness, adverse reactions and non - pregnant out of hope were analyzed in the two groups. Results: Pearl index was 0. 62, incidence of adverse reactions was 7. 0% , discontinuation rates of non - pregnancy out of hope was 4. 5% in the oralcontraceptive group; Pearl index was 2. 63 , incidence of adverse reactions was 13. 5% , discontinuation rates of non - pregnancy out of hope was 9. 5% in the IUD group. Conclusion: Oralcontraceptives and intrauterine devices have their advantages and disadvantages, oralcontraceptives is better than IUD; different species in same category are quite different, clinical results of Yasmin oralcontraceptive and Jeanne ring are the best.%目的:评估口服避孕药及宫内节育器(IUD)的综合效果,探讨最合适的避孕措施.方法:将研究对象随机分为两组各200例,评估分析两组的避孕效果、不良反应及非希望妊娠停用情况.结果:口服避孕药组珍珠指数0.62,不良反应发生率7.0％,非希望妊娠停用率4.5％；IUD组珍珠指数2.63,不良反应发生率13.5％,非希望妊娠停用率9.0％.结论:口服避孕药及宫内节育器各有利弊,整体评估口服避孕药优于IUD；同类不同品种效果也存在较大差异,口服避孕药以优思明、IUD以吉妮环的临床效果最佳.

Levonorgestrel (LNg) is known for its marked progestational/contraceptive activity. As shown in animal experiments, however, high doses of LNg are required to elicit an androgenic response; in contrast, considerably lower doses of LNg are required for antiovulatory (contraceptive) action. Thus, a large dose separation exists between androgenic and contraceptive activity. When LNg is combined with an estrogen, as in the contraceptive formulations, the androgenic response is attenuated or negat...

The development of contraception has allowed women to think about and experience motherhood not as their destiny but as an option. Humans have always been interested in controlling their fertility. Writings unearthed in the 18th century demonstrated the interest of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks in fertility control. The oralcontraceptive (OC) pill, developed in the 1950s by Pincus and Rock, has allowed millions of women to avoid unwanted pregnancy. Since 1960, when the oralcontraceptive Enovid was first marketed in the US, over 200 million women throughout the world have used OCs. Modern formulations have low hormone doses, which has minimized side effects. OCs now have an effectiveness of 98%. The method is controlled by the woman, permitting autonomous decisions about pregnancy. Currently, in Colombia, 12.9% of women in union use OCs, 25.7% are sterilized, 11.1% each use IUDs and traditional methods, 4.3% use condoms, 2.5% use injectables, 1.4% use vaginal tablets, 0.7% each use Norplant and vasectomy, and 1.8% use other methods. 27.8% use no method. OCs can be used as an emergency method in case of rape, an unexpected sexual encounter, or failure of another method. When used as a postcoital method, OCs must be taken within 72 hours of unprotected sexual intercourse.

Full Text Available In the future, fertility control will focus on the improvement of existing methods (efficacy, side effects, easy use, duration of action, manufacturing process, costs, on new approaches (mode of action and on new targets for contraception. Counselling of women in view of contraceptive choices based on individual risks (e. g. cardiovascular disease, thrombophilia, family risk of breast cancer, sexually transmitted diseases will gain more and more importance. Only a few companies can afford research in contraception such as Bayer-Schering-Pharma, Wyeth-Ayerst, Ortho-McNeil and Organon. Female contraception: Ovulation inhibition: In the future, a focus will be placed on the preselection of patients to minimize their individual risk, new oralcontraceptive (OC regimen, OC with new progestins, OC with estradiol or estradiolesters, new ovulation inhibitors with new progestins and new regimens including long cycles and continuous steroidal contraceptives, new contraceptive patches, vaginal rings, spray-on contraceptives, recently identified genes involved in the ovulation process as new targets for ovulation inhibitors. Fertilisation inhibition: New intrauterine systems will comprise: a smaller Mirena intrauterine system releasing levonorgestrel (LNG and new frameless progestin-releasing intrauterine systems (IUS. Various new contraceptive barriers have been introduced. Research is ongoing on substances acting both as spermicides and as microbicides, reducing the risk of sexually transmitted diseases. New implantables and injectables will feature an improved pharmacokinetic profile, decreased side effects and a safer delivery system. Additionally, there are various new approaches in female sterilisation. Immunocontraception for the female will not be available in the near future. Implantation inhibition: Selective progesterone receptor modulators (SPRMs are tested for postcoital contraception. New targets are analysed for immunocontraceptives. Male

To avoid unintended pregnancy, women in the UK need to consistently use reliable contraception for over 30 years. The long-acting reversible contraceptive methods compromise the progestogen-only implant, the progestogen-only injectable contraceptive, the copper-bearing intra-uterine device and the levonorgestrel-releasing intra-uterine system. These methods of contraception are highly reliable in pregnancy prevention, and are amongst the medically safest methods for users. Despite this, these long-acting methods are used by less than 10% of the UK population. National guidance has advised that increasing uptake of these long-acting methods will reduce the unplanned pregnancy rate. In addition, these methods are more cost effective than the oralcontraceptive even at 1 year of use. Obstetricians and gynaecologists frequently come into contact with women requiring contraceptive advice, and should have a sound knowledge of the long-acting methods. Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Using steady-state conditions we aimed to test if administration of oral activated charcoal affects the bioavailability of norethisterone acetate (NET Ac) and gestodene (GEST) by inhibiting their enterohepatic recirculation. Thirteen volunteers received, in a randomized order, Minulet (75 microg GEST and 30 microg ethinylestradiol [EE(2)]) and Econ/30 (1 mg NET Ac and 30 microg EE(2)), each for 4 months. Serum GEST and norethisterone (NET) levels were evaluated with respect to C(max,) t(max) and 24-h area under the curve (AUC(0-24h)) in the middle of the control (3rd) cycle and the charcoal treatment (4th) cycle during both pill treatments. No statistically significant difference was seen in any of the aforementioned variables between the control and charcoal treatment cycles of either pill. Neither was a difference seen in the bioavailability of GEST and NET as evaluated by the ratios of two 24-h AUCs calculated in the control and charcoal cycles of each pill treatment (p = 0.29). The results suggest that enterohepatic circulation of GEST and NET is not of clinical importance. We conclude that women on oralcontraceptives can take activated charcoal for the treatment of diarrhea when administered 3 h after and at least 12 h before pill intake.

Although epidemiologic evidence for the ability of combined oralcontraception (OC) to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer (OvCa) is convincing, the biological mechanisms underlying this effect are largely unknown. We conducted the present study to determine if OC also influences ovarian carcinogenesis in a genetic mouse model and, if so, to investigate the mechanism underlying the protective effect. LSL-K-ras(G12D/+)Pten(loxP/loxP) mice were treated with ethinyl estradiol plus norethindrone, contraceptive hormones commonly used in combined OC, or norethindrone alone, or a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. The combined OC had a 29% reduction in mean total tumor weight compared with placebo (epithelial tumor weight, -80%). Norethindrone alone reduced mean total tumor weight by 42% (epithelial tumor weight, -46%), and the gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist increased mean total tumor weight by 71% (epithelial tumor weight, +150%). Large variations in tumor size affected the P values for these changes, which were not statistically significant. Nonetheless, the OC reductions are consistent with the epidemiologic data indicating a protective effect of OC. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity was decreased in association with OC, indicating that OC may affect ovarian carcinogenesis by decreasing proteolytic activity, an important early event in the pathogenesis of OvCa. In contrast, OC increased invasion in a K-ras/Pten OvCa cell line established from the mouse tumors, suggesting that OC hormones, particularly estrogen, may have a detrimental effect after the disease process is under way. Our study results support further investigation of OC effects and mechanisms for OvCa prevention.

Full Text Available Summary Objective: Objective: to compare clinical and laboratory parameters in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS using metformin or combined oralcontraceptive (COC after 6 months. Methods: retrospective study analyzing records of patients with PCOS using the Androgen Excess and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (AE-PCOS Society criteria. The groups were: I-COC (21 tablets, pause of 7 days; n=16; II-metformin (850mg 12/12h, n=16; III-COC plus metformin (n=9. Body mass index (BMI, acne (% of improvement, modified Ferriman-Gallway index and menstrual cycle index (MCI, luteinizing hormone (LH, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH, total testosterone (TT, androstenedione (A and homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance (HOMA-IR index were assessed Results: isolated use of COC compared to metformin was better regarding to acne, Ferriman index, MCI, LH, TT and A levels. On the other hand, metformin was better in the HOMA-IR index (4.44 and 1.67 respectively, p=0.0007. The association COC plus metformin, compared to metformin alone shows the maintenance of improvement of acne, Ferriman index, MCI, and testosterone levels. The HOMA-IR index remained lower in the metformin alone group (4.19 and 1.67, respectively; p=0,046. The comparison between COC plus metformin and COC alone, in turn, shows no difference in the improvement of acne, Ferriman index, MCI, LH, TT and A levels, indicating that the inclusion of metformin did not lead to additional benefits in these parameters. Still, the HOMA-IR index was similar in both groups (4.19 and 4.44 respectively; p=0.75, showing that the use of metformin associated with COC may not improve insulin resistance as much as it does if used alone. Conclusion: our data suggest that the combination of metformin and contraceptive does not improve insulin resistance as observed with metformin alone.

This study aimed to evaluate the associated cardiovascular risk in Egyptian healthy consumers of different types of combined oralcontraceptives pills (COCPs) via determination of lipids profiles, Castelli index I, leptin, adiponectin, and resistin concentrations as cardiovascular risk factors. In this cross-sectional study, the study groups consisted of control group that represented by 30 healthy married women who were not on any contraceptive mean or any hormonal therapy and had normal menstrual cycles, group two consisted of 30 women who were users of Levonorgesterl 0.15 mg plus Ethinylestradiol 0.03 mg as 21 days cycle, group three consisted of 30 women who were users of Gestodene 0.075 mg plus Ethinylestradiol 0.03 mg as 21 days cycle, and group four consisted of 30 women who were users of Drospirenone 3 mg plus Ethinylestradiol 0.03 mg as 21 days cycle. One-way analysis of variance followed by LSD post hoc test was used for comparison of variables. P value index. Formulation containing ethinylestradiol combined with gestodene neither altered adipose tissue function nor showed deleterious effect on lipid panel. Formulation containing ethinylestradiol combined with drospirenone resulted in significantly higher HDL-C and adiponectin concentrations. In conclusion, the uptake of COCPs containing levonorgestrel plus ethinylestradiol is associated with high cardiovascular risk since this formulation showed significantly lower adiponectin concentration, significantly higher leptin, resistin, and atherogenic index as compared to other studied groups. By contrast, the formulations containing ethinylestradiol combined with third generation progestin gestodene or fourth generation progestin drospirenone are associated with low cardiovascular risk since they neither altered adipose tissue function nor impaired lipoprotein metabolism as experienced by their favorable effect on leptin, adiponectin, and resistin, with non-changed atherogenic index, higher HDL-C levels and

The mean age of first sexual intercourse is still around 17 in France, but a lot of teenagers are concerned by contraception before, with approximately 25% of sexually active 15-year-old girls. The contraceptive method must take into consideration some typical features of this population, as sporadic and non-planned sexual activity, with several sexual partners in a short period of time. In 2004, the "Haute Autorité de santé" has recommended, as first-line method, combined oralcontraceptive (COC) pills, in association with male condoms. Copper-containing intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCD) and etonogestrel-containing subcutaneous implant have been suggested but not recommended. However, oralcontraceptive pill, as a user-based method, carries an important typical-use failure rate, because remembering taking a daily pill, and dealing with stop periods, may be challenging. Some easier-to-use method should be kept in mind, as 28-day COC packs, transdermal contraceptive patches, and vaginal contraceptive rings. Moreover, American studies have shown that long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC), i.e. IUCD and implant, have many advantages for teenagers: very effective, safe, invisible. They seem well-fitted for this population, with high satisfaction and continuation rates, as long as side effects are well explained. Thus, LARC methods should be proposed more widely to teenagers. Anyway, before prescribing a contraceptive method, it is important to determine the specific situation of every teenager, to let them choose the method that they consider as appropriate in their own case, and to think about the availability of the chosen method. It is necessary to explain how to handle mistakes or misses with user-based contraceptive methods, and emergency contraception can be anticipated and prescribed in advanced provision. The use of male condoms should be encouraged for adolescents, with another effective contraceptive method, in order to reduce the high risk

To obtain an overview of the effect of monophasic gestodene on blood pressure and to determine the frequency of "OC elevated BP/hypertension," the results of blood pressure monitoring from four clinical studies of contraceptive efficacy and safety have been retrospectively analyzed. A total of 1930 women took part in the studies, which recorded BP for up to 24 cycles. Analysis of results revealed that 97 women (5.0%) showed an increase in blood pressure from previously normal to elevated values while taking monophasic gestodene, with only 26 (1.35%) fulfilling the criteria of "OC elevated BP/hypertension." Only four women dropped out of the trials due to hypertensive blood pressure values, while 67 women (3.5%) experienced a normalization of previously elevated blood pressure measurements. In conclusion, this analysis has confirmed that gestodene has a negligible effect on blood pressure, with increased BP a relatively rare event.

menstrual pattern are a well known side effect of this effective contraceptive method. .... For most teenagers requesting contraceptive, ... Injectables offer the advantage of not requiring ... insertion, and the combined oralcontraceptive pills.

To determine potential changes in total and unbound serum valproic acid (VPA) concentrations at steady-state during a cycle of intake of combined hormonal contraceptive (HC) steroids. Blood samples were collected from nine women stabilized on VPA monotherapy on two separate randomized occasions: (i) at the end of the 4- to 7-day HC-free interval, and (ii) on the last day of the HC intake period. Trough concentrations of VPA in serum and serum ultrafiltrates were determined by fluorescence polarization immunoassay. In all women, total and unbound VPA concentrations were higher during the HC-free interval than during HC intake (means +/- SD: 425 +/- 184 vs. 350 +/- 145 micromol/L, respectively, for total VPA, p = 0.002, and 55 +/- 37 vs. 39 +/- 25 micromol/L, respectively, for unbound VPA, p = 0.005). Compared with the HC-free interval, HC intake was associated with a mean 21.5% increase in VPA total apparent oral clearance (from 8.0 +/- 5.2 to 9.7 +/- 6.4 ml/h/kg, p = 0.01) and a 45.2 % increase in VPA unbound apparent oral clearance (from 79 +/- 81 to 115 +/- 121 ml/h/kg, p = 0.029). The apparent oral clearance of total and unbound VPA increases during the HC intake period compared with the HC-free interval, probably due to induction of glucuronosyltransferase by ethinylestradiol. The magnitude of the change varies across individuals, being potentially clinically relevant in some cases. Serum VPA concentrations should be monitored when adding or discontinuing HC steroids, and possibly during the on-off intervals of a HC cycle.

In a survey of 461 women routinely attending family planning clinics those taking oralcontraceptives had significantly higher mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures than those using non-hormonal contraception. There appeared to be a dose-response relation of blood pressure to the progestogen component of two oralcontraceptives with an identical 30 μg ethinyloestradiol component. This supports the idea that the progestogen as well as the oestrogen component has an aetiological role in t...

Full Text Available Background & Objectives: Although there is no prolonged time elapsed from propagation of oralcontraceptive pills (OCP, case reports demonstrated occurrence of pulmonary embolism and cerebral infarction in women using these pills. Present study was done to specify distributive frequency of oralcontraceptive pills consumption in women with cerebrovascular events admitted in Farshchian hospital of Hamadan between 1997 to 2007. Materials & Methods: Every woman with cerebrovascular events during years 1997-2007 who was admitted in Farshchian hospital of Hamadan and her dossier was present in archive of hospital, were carefully checked and those who hadn’t exclusion criteria, were include in this study, a total of 1587 of them with respect to their Characteristics such as type of cerebrovascular event, age, type of oralcontraceptive pill and duration of pill use were extracted from patient dossier and registered in respective checklist. Results: 24.1% of patient used oralcontraceptive pill and 76.9% of patients were non users. Mean age of OCP users and non users were 45 years. Mean duration of pill use among these patients was 33 months. In assessing type of vascular events, in the group OCP users 73.1% and non users 66.4% had ischemic stroke.Which was statistically significant. In the group OCP users 24.6% and non users 29.1% were hemorrhagic stroke.. Also in the group OCP users 2.3% and non users 4.5% were affected sagital sinuses thrombosis that showed no significant difference. Among OCP users 85% of the patients used OCP, LD and 15% of the patients OCP, HD. Conclusion: The present study showed, the ischemic stroke rate of the patients with OCP consumption were significantly more than those of non users.

Full Text Available We present the case of a 28-year-old woman who was admitted to our cardiology unit for acute coronary syndrome. Her history was notable for cardiovascular disease familiarity, active smoking, and oralcontraceptive use. On further analysis, she was noted to have thrombophilic polymorphisms involving the plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR genes. We discuss the implications that these cofactors may have had in the genesis of the disease.

The requirement for vitamin B6 in oralcontraceptive users was studied in 8 college-age women who used combined (7) or sequential (1) oralcontraceptives. The subjects and 8 controls consumed a basal diet supplemented to result in daily intake of 2.06 mg pyridoxine hydrochloride for 10 days (predepletion) and then containing only .36 mg of vitamin B6 for 32 days. After the depletion period, the diet was supplemented with pyridoxine hydrochloride to increase the intake of B6 to .96, 1.56, and 5.06 mg for 8, 9, and 7 days respectively. Complete 14-hour urine collections were analyzed for xanthurenic acid, kynurenic acids, kynurenine, and 3-hydroxykynurenine after administration of a l load-dose of 2 gm L-trytophan on days 2, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 43, 50 , 59, and 66 for the subjects and days 2 and 10 for the controls. Pretryptophan urine was analyzed for vitamin B6. Posttryptophan urine was analyzed for 4-pyridoxic acid. It was found that during the depletion phase the excretion of tryptophan metabolites increased significantly. Excretion dropped significantly upon supplementation with 1.56 or 5.06 mg of vitamin B6, returning values to normal. Levels of vitamin B6 and 4-pyridoxic acid in the urine decreased during depletion to be restored to normal upon supplementation with 1.56 mg/day. Since an intake of 5.0 mg vitamin B6 caused a loss of the vitamin in the urine and all levels were returned to normal with an intake of 1.56 mg, it is suggested that 1.5 mg of vitamin B6 is sufficient to meet the needs of most oralcontraceptive users and that there is no significant difference in the vitamin B6 requirement of oralcontraceptive users and nonusers.

The results of three independent studies of venous thromboembolic disease (VTE) and oralcontraceptives are reviewed together with two further cohort/case-control studies which we conducted using the MediPlus and General Practice Research Database (GPRD) databases. These latter studies jointly involved 395 cases and uniquely examined the association between VTE and individual combined oralcontraceptive (COC) formulations. The two studies yielded very similar results. Crude incidence rates for idiopathic VTE of 4.6 and 3.8 were found per 10,000 exposed woman-years (EWY), in the MediPlus and GPRD studies respectively. Incidence rates increased markedly with age, and in both databases the rates amongst users of levonorgestrel products were lower than those amongst users of desogestrel and gestodene products. A case fatality rate of 3% and a mortality rate of 10 per million EWY were estimated. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated for confounding variables and different COC formulations. Both database studies indicated an excess of current smokers and women with high body mass indices amongst cases. There were significantly more cases with asthma in the GPRD study and cases who had been using their COC for less than a year. No statistically significant differences between COC formulations were found in the analyses where controls were matched to cases by practice and year of birth in both the MediPlus and GPRD studies. In the GPRD study we also ran a study where controls were matched by practice and within 5 year age bands. In this study the OR were consistently higher for the newer or 'third generation' products than when controls were matched by year of birth. However only the acne formulation/OC containing cyproterone acetate and 35 microg ethinyloestradiol yielded a significant OR of 2.3. It may be concluded that improvements in prescribing are paramount as the results strongly indicate that overweight women and those who smoke are at a greater risk of VTE. Further

Objective To investigate the association between use of combined oralcontraceptives and risk of venous thromboembolism, taking the type of progestogen into account. Design Two nested case-control studies. Setting General practices in the United Kingdom contributing to the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD; 618 practices) and QResearch primary care database (722 practices). Participants Women aged 15-49 years with a first diagnosis of venous thromboembolism in 2001-13, each matched with up to five controls by age, practice, and calendar year. Main outcome measures Odds ratios for incident venous thromboembolism and use of combined oralcontraceptives in the previous year, adjusted for smoking status, alcohol consumption, ethnic group, body mass index, comorbidities, and other contraceptive drugs. Results were combined across the two datasets. Results 5062 cases of venous thromboembolism from CPRD and 5500 from QResearch were analysed. Current exposure to any combined oralcontraceptive was associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (adjusted odds ratio 2.97, 95% confidence interval 2.78 to 3.17) compared with no exposure in the previous year. Corresponding risks associated with current exposure to desogestrel (4.28, 3.66 to 5.01), gestodene (3.64, 3.00 to 4.43), drospirenone (4.12, 3.43 to 4.96), and cyproterone (4.27, 3.57 to 5.11) were significantly higher than those for second generation contraceptives levonorgestrel (2.38, 2.18 to 2.59) and norethisterone (2.56, 2.15 to 3.06), and for norgestimate (2.53, 2.17 to 2.96). The number of extra cases of venous thromboembolism per year per 10 000 treated women was lowest for levonorgestrel (6, 95% confidence interval 5 to 7) and norgestimate (6, 5 to 8), and highest for desogestrel (14, 11 to 17) and cyproterone (14, 11 to 17). Conclusions In these population based, case-control studies using two large primary care databases, risks of venous thromboembolism associated with combined oral

Mechanical methods of contraception tend nowadays to be considered as unsafe and the "modern" contraceptives are more popular. The advantage of the intrauterine device is that once it has been placed, one can forget about it. However it is necessary for the woman to undergo checkups and have the device replaced regularly. IUD's are not always very well tolerated psychologically. Women are influenced by information, the fear of the risks, the opinion of their friends and families and the media, and they end up getting tired of this method of contraception. Oralcontraceptives are 100% safe but only provided one does not forget to take it: it imposes a daily routine which disturbs many women after a certain time. They then tend to relate all their problems to the pill. Women are aware of the risks contained in oralcontraceptives, and they refuse to run these risks by themselves. Whichever method of contraception one chooses, it liberates the woman from the fear of unwanted pregnancy. A good contraception should do this, plus separate the idea of procreation from the sexual intercourse. This seems to be going well for a few years, but after a while a weariness appears. The answer may be to find a contraception suitable to both partners, so that they could make their own decision.

目的 科学认识口服避孕药的不良反应,明确药物避孕失败的药理学原因,指导合理用药,提高人口素质,达到优生优育的目的.方法 通过临床用药经验,总结口服避孕药的主要不良反应、本类药物与其他药物之间的相互作用,并给出一些合理的用药建议.结果 口服避孕药的主要不良反应包括早期的类早孕反应,严重的不良反应主要体现在增加心脑血管系统疾病的风险方面,但发生率较低,本类药物与肝药酶诱导剂、抗生素、抗结核病药以及抗癫痫药等合用,可导致避孕失败,指导合理使用本类药物可以增加用药的有效性和依从性.结论 使用口服避孕药时需要避免与导致避孕失败的药物合用,同时积极指导本类药物的合理使用,开展健康教育,对广大育龄妇女正确、合理选择使用口服避孕药避孕具有积极意义.%Objective : To the scientific understanding of the adverse reactions of oralcontraceptives, contraceptive failure reason clearly drug pharmacology, guiding rational drug use, improve population quality, advocating eugenics. Methods: By consulting clinical experience of oralcontraceptives are the main adverse reactions, this class of drugs and other interactions between drugs, and given some reasonable recommendations. Results: Oralcontraceptives are the main adverse reactions including early type of pregnancy reaction, serious adverse reaction is mainly reflected in increased cardiovascular disease risk, but the incidence is low, this class of drugs and hepatic enzyme induction agents, antibiotic, antituberculosis drags and resistance to antiepileptic drugs and other drugs, can cause contraceptive failure, guide reasonable use of this class of drugs can increase drug efficacy and compliance. Conclusion; The use of o-ralcontraceptives to avoid and can cause contraceptive failure medications, and actively guide the rational use of the drugs, health education , the

Studies carried out in different countries during the last 15 years have provided evidence that supplementation with (or excess of) estro-progestational hormones may be accompanied by an increased urinary excretion of tryptophan metabolites, as happens in pyridoxine deficiency. Further methods of assessment of vitamin B6 in humans have confirmed an impaired status in women using hormonal contraception. Disturbances in the metabolism of tryptophan have been shown to be responsible for such symptoms as depression, anxiety, decrease of libido and impairment of glucose tolerance occurring in some of the OCA users. Administration of 40 mg of vitamin B6 daily not only restores normal biochemical values but also relieves the clinical symptoms in those vitamin B6 deficient women taking OCA's. Further studies are justified to clarify whether vitamin B6 supplementation may contribute to improving depression also in other situations with hyperoestrogenism (pregnancy, puerperium, estro-progestational treatments, etc.), as well as correcting metabolic impairments, such as a minor alteration of glucose tolerance.

INTRODUCTION: Use of hormonal contraceptives for birth control is commonplace in the Western World. In Europe, there is considerable variety in the frequency of use of hormonal contraceptives and in the age at which these contraceptives are initiated. The purpose of the present study was to descr......INTRODUCTION: Use of hormonal contraceptives for birth control is commonplace in the Western World. In Europe, there is considerable variety in the frequency of use of hormonal contraceptives and in the age at which these contraceptives are initiated. The purpose of the present study...... was to describe the use of hormonal contraceptives among the Danish adolescent female population, focusing on age, period and cohort effects and including types of hormonal contraceptives. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All women aged 14-50 years during the 1995-2012 period were identified through the Central Person...... Register. Furthermore, the National Registry of Medicinal Products Statistics provided information on redeemed prescriptions for hormonal contraceptives characterised by Anatomical-Therapeutic-Chemical (ATC) classification codes. RESULTS: At the age of 17 years, more than 50% of the Danish adolescent...

Effective contraceptives contribute to the regulation of births, protect the health of women, reduce maternal and perinatal mortality and gynecological diseases, and prevent abortion-related complications. Complications after abortion average 30%, and among primigravidas the rate reaches 45%. Abortion can result in sterility and in the inability to carry out the pregnancy. Oralcontraceptives (OCs) are used by 150 million globally. In new preparations ethinyl estradiol (EE) and levonorgestrel (LNG) are the most common components. In the 2-phase and 3-phase preparations Sequilar, Anteovin, and lipid profile safe Triquilar the gestagen component was reduced 40%. Continuin and Famulen are minipills, and Postinor is a postcoital contraceptive. Absolute contraindications of OCs include thromboembolytic diseases, severe cardiovascular system diseases, liver disorders, cirrhosis, cerebral vascular diseases, grave diabetes, jaundice, and malignant tumors of the mammae and sexual organs. Rigevidon, Triquilar, and Trisiston have high steroid content with minimal side effects. The protective effect of OCs are: 2-3 times lower risk of inflammation of the small pelvis, lower risk of malignant and benign ovarian tumors that lasts even after discontinuation, uterine cancer prevention (antiproliferation effect on the endometrium and inhibition of mitotic activity of the myometrium), and reduced risk of benign breast neoplasms. The finding that estrogen-induced risk of breast cancer increases with longterm contraceptive use in young nulliparas has not been persuasively proven. The optimal duration of uninterrupted OC use is 1-1.5 years. Monophasic estrogen-gestagen preparations include Bisecurin, Non-Ovlon, Ovidon, Rigevidon, Minisiston, and Demulen with low dosages of EE, LNG, norethisterone acetate, and diacetate ethonodiol. Norplant is a subdermal silastic capsule with effectiveness for up to 5 years.

Full Text Available This case report describes a case of venous thrombosis in a young woman who had undergonetympanoplasty due to chronic otitis media.Other than that she was healthy. According to the anamnesis she stopped taking oralcontraceptive pills (OCP a month before the surgery. She did not receive thromboprophylaxis before the surgerybecause it was estimated that there was a low risk for a thromboembolic incident. Several hours after the surgery she was still not responding properly to external stimulus and there was noverbal contact. An urgent computed tomography (CT scan of head and neck revealed thrombosis of the left internal jugular vein. She was admitted to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU and heparin therapy started. After a few days she was fully recovered. Later it was confirmed that the patient had an inherited fibrinolysis disorder caused by plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1 gene polymorphism. Our opinion is that the unexpected thrombotic incident was a result of interaction of multiple factors, including the venous stasis at the surgery site, decreased fibrinolysis ability, and the prothrombotic effect of OCP.

Objective To compare the content,uniformity of dosage units and dissolution rate of triphasic oralcontraceptives from two pharmaceutical factories A and B.Methods A High Performance Liquid Chromatography(HPLC)method for the simultaneous determination of levonorgestrel and ethinylestradiol was used.The content of levonorgestrel(LNG)was monitored by an UV detector at 247 nm,while ethinylestradiol(EE)was monitored by fluorescence detector with the excitation of 285 nm and emission wavelengths of 310 nm.The dissolution test was performed using the paddle method.Results The content of levonorgestrel(LNG)and ethinylestradiol(EE)in product A was within 100.5%-122.4% while product B within 120.6%-140.9%.The uniformity value of dosage units of tablets from two factories was more than 15.The dissolution rate of tables from two factories was more than 60% within 60 min.Conclusion Only the content of product A was in the ±25% range of label claim.The uniformity of two products was not up to standard.The dissolution rate of the tablets from two products met the requirement of ChP2005.

To evaluate and compare the risk of early pregnancy loss in patients stimulated with GnRH antagonist protocols according to oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) pretreatment. Retrospective case-control study. Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad. University of Valencia. Spain. One thousand five hundred thirty-nine patients, aged <36, stimulated with GnRH antagonists for IVF between January 1, 2000 and November 1, 2005. Reproductive outcome was compared based on the application (or not) of OCP pretreatment: 944 women were included in the OCP group and 595 in the non-OCP group. The Student's t test was used for statistics. Pregnancy, biochemical pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy, early clinical pregnancy loss, early pregnancy loss, and ongoing pregnancy rates. No significant differences were observed in any of the outcome parameters. Early pregnancy loss rates were similar: 23% in the OCP pretreatment group versus 19.2% in the non-OCP pretreatment group. However, longer periods of ovarian stimulation and higher doses of gonadotropins needed to be employed in the OCP group. There is not sufficient evidence to confirm OCP pretreatment as a risk factor for miscarriage in patients stimulated with GnRH antagonist protocols.

Full Text Available Abstract. We investigated effects of combined oralcontraceptives (COC containing low- and microdoses of estrogenic components upon serum levels of macroglobulin family proteins (alpha-2-macroglobulin, α2-MG, and pregnancy-associated alpha-2-glycoprotein, α2-PAG, their immune complexes with IgG, as well as concentrations of some cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, IFNγ. It was shown that cytokine levels did not differ with control, whereas α2-MG concentrations showed a time-dependent decrease in a group of women taking COC with microdoses of estrogens, and α2-PAG levels increased tenfold, independent on dosage and time of COC application. Meanwhile, contents of PAG-IgG complexes exhibits a gradual decrease, along with increase in MG-IgG. Considering PAG as a marker of normal and malignant proliferation, we suggest, that the levels of α2-PAG may be useful in monitoring of women taking COC, in order to predict high risk of pathological proliferation by evaluation of individuals with elevated α2-PAG levels. (Med. Immunol., 2011, vol. 13, N 6, pp 635-638

The effects of a combined oralcontraceptive (COC) containing 20 microg ethinyl estradiol (EE) and 75 microg gestodene (GSD) on prothrombin activity (PA), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), thrombin time (TT), platelet number, fibrinogen, antithrombin III (ATIII), protein C, protein S and D-dimer were evaluated over 6 months in 23 young, healthy women. Laboratory assessments were performed prior to initiation of COC use (pretreatment) and after 3 and 6 months of use. Results showed no significant changes in fibrinogen, protein C, ATIII or D-dimer during COC use, compared with pretreatment values. The increase in platelet count, decreases in protein S level, PA and APTT, and the prolongation of TT were significant. In conclusion, the use of a COC containing 20 microg EE and 75 microg GSD did not cause any significant changes in the hemostatic parameters studied that could be suggestive of a higher prothrombotic risk. Further studies with a larger sample size are necessary in order to obtain conclusive data.

Full Text Available This open-label randomized controlled trial was designed to compare the efficacy of acupuncture and combined oralcontraceptive (COC pill in treating moderate-to-severe primary dysmenorrhea. Fifty-two participants were randomly assigned to receive either acupuncture (n = 27 or COC (n = 25 for three menstrual cycles. Mefenamic acid was prescribed as a recue analgesic drug with both groups. The statistical approach used for efficacy and safety assessments was intention-to-treat analysis. By the end of the study, both treatments had resulted in significant improvement over baselines in all outcomes, that is, maximal dysmenorrhea pain scores, days suffering from dysmenorrhea, amount of rescue analgesic used, and quality of life assessed by SF-36 questionnaire. Over the three treatment cycles, COC caused greater reduction in maximal pain scores than acupuncture, while improvements in the remaining outcomes were comparable. Responders were defined as participants whose maximal dysmenorrhea pain scores decreased at least 33% below their baseline. Response rates following both interventions at the end of the study were not statistically different. Acupuncture commonly caused minimal local side effects but did not cause any hormone-related side effects as did COC. In conclusion, acupuncture is an alternative option for relieving dysmenorrhea, especially when COC is not a favorable choice.

Identifying women at risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a major public health issue. The objective of this study was to identify environmental and genetic determinants of VTE risk in a large sample of women under combined oralcontraceptives (COC). A total of 968 women who had had one event of VTE during COC use were compared to 874 women under COC but with no personal history of VTE. Clinical data were collected and a systematic thrombophilia screening was performed together with ABO blood group assessment. After adjusting for age, family history, and type and duration of COC use, main environmental determinants of VTE were smoking (odds ratio [OR] =1.65, 95% confidence interval [1.30-2.10]) and a body mass index higher than 35 kg.m⁻² (OR=3.46 [1.81-7.03]). In addition, severe inherited thrombophilia (OR=2.13 [1.32-3.51]) and non-O blood groups (OR=1.98 [1.57-2.49]) were strong genetic risk factors for VTE. Family history poorly predicted thrombophilia as its prevalence was similar in patients with or without first degree family history of VTE (29.3% vs 23.9%, p=0.09). In conclusion, this study confirms the influence of smoking and obesity and shows for the first time the impact of ABO blood group on the risk of VTE in women under COC. It also confirms the inaccuracy of the family history of VTE to detect inherited thrombophilia.

Oralcontraceptive (OC) use influences the hemostatic system significantly and is a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease. Factor VII-activating protease (FSAP) has potential effects on hemostasis. The 1601GA genotype of the 1601G/A polymorphism in the FSAP gene expresses a FSAP...... alloenzyme with reduced pro-fibrinolytic activity. Presently, we address whether OC use and OC formulation affect FSAP measures in human blood. Healthy women (n=588) were allocated to six cycles of OCs with estrogen contents of 20μg (n=158), 30μg (n=284), 35μg (n=79) or 50μg (n=67) combined with various...... progestins. FSAP genotypes, FSAP and factor VII (FVII) plasma measures were assessed at baseline and after 6 cycles of OC. The 1601GA genotype was present in 49 (8.3%) of the women and was associated with significantly reduced levels of FSAP (P≤0.001). OC use increased FSAP antigen by 25% and FSAP activity...

There is an unexplained strong male predominance in the aetiology of oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC). The hypothesis that oestrogens are protective, deserves attention. A potential protective influence of exogenous oestrogen exposure, that is, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and oralcontraceptives (OC) has been addressed only in studies of limited statistical power, and the individual studies have not provided conclusive results. We conducted a systematic literature search and meta-analysis on HRT and OC and the risk of OAC. We used the databases PubMed and the Web of Science. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated by the Mantel-Haenszel random-effect method. A total of five studies were included. Compared to never users, ever users of HRT had a statistically significantly decreased risk of OAC (pooled OR = 0.75; 95% CI: 0.58-0.98), and ever users of OC had a borderline significantly decreased risk of this cancer (pooled OR = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.57-1.00). In conclusion, HRT and OC use seems to be associated with a decreased risk of OAC. However, further research is warranted.

Full Text Available Background: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS is one of the common endocrine disorders in women of reproductive ages. It is associated with a range of disorders, such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, insulin resistance (IR, compensatory hyperinsulinemia, gestational, and type 2 diabetes, and increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity. There are different treatments available for PCOS. The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the effects of metformin, flutamide plus oralcontraceptives (OCs, and simvastatin on the metabolic consequences of PCOS. Materials and Methods: This study was a single-blind clinical trial. The subjects were selected from a group of patient with PCOS and metabolic syndrome, who were referred to the midwifery clinic of Al-Zahra Hospital and Beheshti Hospital, Isfahan, Iran. A total of 111 subjects were randomly assigned to three groups: metformin, flutamide plus OCs, and simvastatin groups. The measurements were performed at baseline and after 6 months of therapy. Paired t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA, and chi-square test were applied in this study. Results: A total of 102 subjects were analyzed in this study, 34 subjects were allotted in each group. The prevalence of IR was statistically different between three groups (P-value = 0.001. After a 6-month course, metformin showed larger reduction in fasting blood sugar (FBS level (P-value 0.05. Conclusion: Metformin performed better in FBS reduction. Simvastatin had better performance in terms of reducing TG level and waist circumference.

One thousand eight non-pregnant women aged 16-34 years, presenting for the first time at a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases (STD), were examined and screened for infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Candida species. The respective prevalence rates were 21.1%, 20.7%, 13.4%, and 27.8%. Isolation rates for C trachomatis, either occurring alone or in association with other genital infections, were significantly greater in women using oral...

Full Text Available Background: Previous studies show that provision of oralcontraceptive pill (OCs without a prescription is safe, feasible and effective and that users are interested in obtaining contraception in this way, especially if a pharmacist screening is involved. A recent national survey conducted in the Republic of Ireland has highlighted that unintended pregnancy resulting from the failure of OCs could be linked to poor compliance due to costs and difficulty of access. Objective: To evaluate views and attitudes of OC users towards the availability of OCs without a prescription in the Republic of Ireland. Methods: A cross sectional survey was conducted using an opportunistic sample of OC users aged 18 to 50 years. Sixty community pharmacists were recruited nationwide. Data were collected using self-completed questionnaires. The questionnaires comprised information on: demographic data, need of the service, views on the availability of OCs without prescription, advantages and concerns around the service, role of pharmacists and cost implications for private and public patients. Results: A total of 488 eligible OC users completed the survey. The majority of the respondents (71.7%;n = 350/488 reported to have missed a pill for reasons connected to the OCs prescription status and 55.5% (n = 268/488 of the respondents reported to have felt distressed on at least one occasion because they could not renew their OC prescription. A total of 87.9% (n = 429/488 of the respondents said they were in favour of OCs being available without prescription and 92% (n = 448/488 said they were likely to obtain OCs without prescription if available. Convenience and ease of access were indicated as the main advantages of availing of OCs without prescription, while safety was the biggest concern reported. Over 88% (n = 430/488 of the respondents indicated that pharmacists would be able to safely supply OCs without prescription. Private patients expected to save an average of

The objective of this study was to compare cycle control, efficacy and tolerance of an oralcontraceptive containing 20 microg ethinylestradiol and 150 microg desogestrel with a preparation containing 30 microg ethinylestradiol combined with 75 microg gestodene. This study involved 342 women and 4104 cycles use in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. Contraceptive efficacy was good with both formulations. Two pregnancies occurred in the desogestrel group but were not due to method failure. With respect to cycle control, the incidence of intermenstrual bleeding was higher during the first 3 cycles in the desogestrel group; it was significant (p gestodene group (8.5%). Adverse events were similar in all the countries with headache, breast tension, and nausea, the most frequently reported symptoms. The range of mean increase in body weight varied from 0.2 kg in the Argentine group to 2.6 kg in the Chilean group (95% confidence limit, +/- 2.51) in the gestodene group, and 0.2 kg in the Argentine group to 2.5 kg in Brazilian group (95% confidence limit, +/- 2.36) in the desogestrel group. Fifteen women discontinued because of headache, but there were no significant differences between the groups regarding discontinuation for this and other medical or non-medical reasons. Both oralcontraceptive preparations are reliable and well tolerated, and both have favorable effects on control cycle.

unprotected intercourse. Its limitations are the non-optimal efficacy which is decreasing the later the drug is taken and the fact that it can only be used for up to 72 hours after UPSI. Mifepristone in the dosages of 10 or 25 mg is used with good results as an emergency contraceptive in China for up to 120 hours after unprotected intercourse. Recently the selective progesterone receptor modulator (SPRM ulipristal acetate in the dose of 30 mg has been introduced in Europe for emergency contraception. It has shown to be more efficacious than levonorgestrel and can be used for up to 120 hours after unprotected intercourse. Independent of the substance it should be noted that, if there is a choice, the intake of an oral emergency contraceptive pill should happen as soon as possible after the risk situation.

Full Text Available Coronary angioplasty is recognized nowadays as the first-choice therapeutic strategy for acute coronary syndrome with ST-segment elevation. Atherosclerotic disease is still the main cause ofthis sickness; however, other disturbances, such is dilated coronariopathy, may favor this coronary event. Although some authors raise that atherosclerosis is the main cause of coronary dilation, it is uncommon that this lipid disorder promotes consequences early in life. We present the case of a 33-year-old female (oralcontraceptive user - etinor who had not any apparent coronary risk factor but suffered from inferior acute myocardial infarction. The thrombolysis failed, and fortunately we could perform the angioplasty. Intracoronary thrombosis with distal embolism occurred, that waswhy we administered streptokinase. Possible mechanisms that involve oralcontraceptives and dilated coronariopathy are discussed, and angiographic images are shown.

Among the reasons why male hormonal contraception has lagged behind female methods are the necessity of preserving virility, the fact that spermatogenesis is a continuous process, the need to control secondary effects and toxicity, and the requirement that modes of administration be acceptable to both partners. Among currently available reversible mehtods, withdrawal is undoubtedly the most ancient. It is still widespread but cannot be recommended because of its limited effectiveness. The condom is used by about 10% of couples worldwide as a principal or temporary method, but its inter-ference with sensation has limited its acceptance. Condoms are nevertheless highly effective when used with a spermicide. Various androgens are currently under investigation. High doses of testosterone can induce azoospermia without affecting libido but their side effects may be serious. The use of combinations of steroids permits doses to be reduced and offers promise for the future. The combination of oral medroxyprogesterone acetate and percutaneous testosterone is one of the better approaches; the combination is effective and nontoxic but has the disadvantage of percutaneous administration. Gossypol, a pigment extracted from the cotton plant, has been used as a contraceptive in China with a reported efficacy of 99.89%, recovery of fertility within 3 months, and no effect on future fertility. However, its toxicity appears to be significant in the animal and its reversibility is uncertain. A search is on for analogs which would preserve the contraceptive effects while eliminating toxic effects. Several gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) analogs under investigation for their interference with spermatogenesis have given promising results. Several chemicals tested for contraceptive effects have had unacceptably high toxicity. Chinese investigators have reported good results with various physical methods of interfering with sperm production, but their reversibility and innocuity

Many couples in the Islamic Republic of Iran rely on coital withdrawal for contraception. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to use the theory of planned behaviour to explore factors that influence withdrawal users' intent to switch to oralcontraception (OC). Participants were 336 sexually active, married women, who were current users of withdrawal and were recruited from 5 public family planning clinics in Tehran. A questionnair included measures of the theory of planned behaviour: attitude (behavioural beliefs, outcome evaluations), subjective norms (normative beliefs, motivation to comply), perceived behaviour control, past behaviour and behavioural intention. Linear regression analyses showed that past behaviour, perceived behaviour control, attitude and subjective norms accounted for the highest percentage of total variance observed for intention to use OC (36%). Beliefs-based family planning education and counsellingshould to be designed for users of the withdrawal method.

Faldaprevir is a potent hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3/4A protease inhibitor. Faldaprevir is known to inhibit P-glycoprotein, CYP3A4, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1. This study evaluated the effect of steady-state 240 mg faldaprevir on the pharmacokinetics (PK) of an oralcontraceptive containing ethinylestradiol (EE) and levonorgestrel (LNG) in healthy premenopausal women. In period 1, subjects received EE/LNG once daily (QD) for 14 days. Blood samples were taken on days 1, 11, and 12, with intensive PK blood sampling for EE and LNG on day 13. In period 2, subjects received EE-LNG QD and 240 mg faldaprevir QD on days 14 to 21 (240 mg faldaprevir twice daily on day 14). Blood samples were taken on days 14, 19, and 20, with PK profiling samples obtained for EE and LNG on day 21. A total of 15/16 subjects completed the study. Overall, EE and LNG exposure (assessed by the area under the curve) was approximately 1.4-fold higher when EE and LNG were coadministered with faldaprevir than when administered alone. Median t1/2 (terminal half-life in plasma at steady state) values were prolonged for both EE (2.4 h longer) and LNG (4.7 h longer) when EE and LNG were coadministered with faldaprevir. The mean oral clearance and apparent volume of distribution of both EE and LNG were lower (∼ 30%) when EE and LNG were coadministered with faldaprevir. Coadministration of faldaprevir and an oralcontraceptive resulted in a moderate increase in exposure to both EE and LNG. However, this increase was not considered clinically meaningful, and no dose adjustment of oralcontraceptives was deemed necessary. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under registration number NCT01570244.).

The prevalence of obesity is increasing massively over several decades in industrialized countries. Obese women are sexually active but they use fewer contraceptive methods and are at high risk of unintended pregnancy. In addition, obesity is an important risk factor for venous thromboembolism events and arterial thrombosis (myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke). All of these data are to be considered in choosing a contraceptive method for obese women. Except depot medroxyprogesterone acetate injection, the progestin-only contraceptives (progestin only pills and etonogestrel subdermal implant) and the intra-uterine devices are the preferred contraceptive methods in obese women. The combined estrogen-progestin contraceptives (pill, patch and vaginal ring) may be proposed in very strict conditions (no other associated vascular risk factor). Obesity does not increase the risk of failure of most contraceptive methods. Bariatric surgery is a complex situation. It requires to program a possible pregnancy and contraception is needed for several months. Some bariatric surgical techniques such as by-pass can induce gastrointestinal malabsorption. In this situation, all oralcontraceptives are not recommended because of a higher risk of failure.

Background Pharmacokinetic (PK) interactions between lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) and transdermally delivered ethinyl estradiol (EE) and norelgestromin (NGMN) are unknown. Methods Using a standard noncompartmental PK analysis, we compared EE area under the time–concentration curve (AUC) and NGMN AUC during transdermal contraceptive patch administration in HIV-1–infected women on stable LPV/r to a control group of women not on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). In addition, EE AUC after a single dose of a combination oralcontraceptive pill including EE and norethindrone was measured before patch placement and was compared with patch EE AUC in both groups. Contraceptive effects on LPV/r PKs were estimated by measuring LPV/r AUC at baseline and during week 3 of patch administration. Results Eight women on LPV/r, and 24 women in the control group were enrolled. Patch EE median AUC0–168 h was 45% lower at 6010.36 pg·h·mL−1 in those on LPV/r versus 10911.42 pg·h·mL−1 in those on no HAART (P = 0.064). Pill EE median AUC0–48 hours was similarly 55% lower at 344.67 pg·h·mL−1 in those on LPV/r versus 765.38 pg·h·mL−1 in those on no HAART (P = 0.003). Patch NGMN AUC0–168 h however, was 138.39 ng·h·mL−1, 83% higher in the LPV/r group compared with the control AUC of 75.63 ng·h·mL−1 (P = 0.036). After 3 weeks on the patch, LPVAUC0–8 h decreased by 19%, (P = 0.156). Conclusions Although PKs of contraceptive EE and NGMN are significantly altered with LPV/r, the contraceptive efficacy of the patch is likely to be maintained. Larger studies are indicated to fully assess contraceptive efficacy versus risks of the transdermal contraceptive patch when co-administered with protease inhibitors. PMID:20842042

Contraceptive counseling and the supply of contraceptive methods are part of post-abortion care and positively influence the subsequent use of contraceptive methods. Studies showing such evidence have been conducted predominantly in countries with no legal restrictions on abortion and with adequate care for women that terminate a pregnancy. However, little is known about contraceptive practices in contexts where abortion is illegal, as in Brazil, in which post-abortion contraceptive care is inadequate. The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of contraceptive care on male condom use and oral and injectable contraceptives in the six months post-abortion, considering reproductive intention. The results showed that contraceptive care only has a positive effect on the use of oralcontraceptives in the first six months post-abortion, as long as the woman had a medical consultation in the same month in which she received information on contraception. One or the other intervention alone had no significant impact.

Emergency Contraception is a post-coital contraceptive for women who have had unprotected intercourse or have reason to believe that their contraceptive method has failed. The article focuses mainly on Emergency Contraceptive Pills (ECPs) because they are the most frequently used form of post-coital contraception. In 1997 the FDA approved the "off-label" use of high dose of oralcontraceptives for use as post-coital contraception. Since then, they have been approved for repackaging and marketed solely for use as post-coital emergency contraception. The first dose of ECPs must be administered within 72 hours of the act of unprotected intercourse. The second dose is taken 12 hours later. ECPs are believed to work in one of three ways depending on where the woman is in her menstrual cycle when she seeks treatment. It can delay or prevent ovulation, impair formation of the corpus luteum, or cause histological or biochemical changes within the endometrium, thus preventing implantation. Their effectiveness is approximately 75%, being most effective when administered as quickly as possible after the act of unprotected intercourse. The pills can cause nausea and vomiting, so the pre-administration of an anti-emetic may help alleviate these symptoms. A major issue concerning the ECPs is the lack of knowledge and availability. Very few health-care providers discuss ECPs with their patients. Most people cited the media as the primary source of information. The 72-hour window in which the ECPs must be administered makes it important for women to have easy access to these post-coital contraceptives. However, women who seek treatment will often find that their health-care provider will require a physical exam and/or a pregnancy test before writing a prescription. Yet, studies show that ECPs do not affect an implanted fetus, and there are no emergency contraceptive protocols that require pregnancy tests or physical exams prior to treatment. The AMA is encouraging physicians to

Background: There is growing interest in diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of cervical carcinoma but normal uterine appearances and effects of the oralcontraceptive pill (OCP) have not been described. Purpose: To establish apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values for normal regions of uterus, determine the effect of the OCP on these values, and compare them with ADCs from cervical cancer. Material and Methods: Twenty-seven premenopausal women (19 taking the OCP) with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) were studied with T2W and diffusion weighted MRI (DW-MRI). Regions of interest were drawn on ADC maps by visual matching with T2W images on different zones of the uterus and values compared between women not taking and taking the OCp.A further group of 25 women with clinically obvious tumors of the cervix were also studied with T2W and DW-MRI and ADC values of tumor were compared with ADC values of cervical epithelium and stroma. Results: The ADC values of adjacent zones of the uterus and cervix were significantly different from one another (P<0.001). The junctional zone was seen as a band of restricted diffusion between endometrium and outer myometrium. The ADC value of the junctional zone of the uterus was significantly greater (P<0.001) in patients taking the OCP than those patients not taking the OCp.There was no significant affect of the OCP on the ADC values of other uterine zones. Conclusion: The zonal anatomy of the uterus is well demonstrated by DW-MRI with hormonal effects secondary to the OCP affecting junctional zone alone. ADC of cervical tumor is significantly different to cervical epithelium and stroma indicating a role in cervical cancer detection and local staging

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the influence of oralcontraceptive (OC) use on the subgingival occurrence of specific periodontopathogens and the host's periodontal status. Ninety-two females aged 19 to 40 years were included in the study. They were divided into two groups, OC users and non-users, and subgrouped according to the most severe periodontal condition and duration of OC usage. A pooled subgingival sample from each subject was cultured to investigate the presence of Candida species, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans), and Prevotella intermedia. OC users, particularly smokers, show a statistically significant increase in the prevalence of severe periodontitis. OC users had deeper probing depths (>or=5 mm) than non-users. Moreover, OC users had higher gingival index scores and clinical attachment loss, >or=2 and >or=5 mm, respectively, than non-users (P <0.01). Patients taking OCs had significantly higher numbers of cultures positive for Candida. Seven Candida species were isolated. Subgingival Candida was associated with P. gingivalis and P. intermedia in 82.9% and 85.4%, respectively, in patients taking OCs. A. actinomycetemcomitans was isolated in patients with moderate and severe periodontitis and was associated with subgingival P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, and Candida. OC use may increase the risk of severe periodontitis and seems to cause a selection of certain Candida species in periodontal pockets. OC users showed a higher prevalence of P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, and A. actinomycetemcomitans compared to non-users. C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and C. glabrata were the species with the ability to survive in the conditions created by the sex hormones after 3 years.

Objective:To provide an evidence-based,consistent assessment of the burden of breast cancer attributable to reproductive factors (RFs,including nulliparity,mean number of children,age at first birth and breastfeeding),use of oralcontraceptives (OCs,restricted to the age group of 15-49 years),and hormone replacement therapy (HRT),as well as of the burden of ovarian cancer attributable to the mean number of children in China in 2005.Methods:We derived the prevalence of these risk factors and the relative risk of breast and ovarian cancer from national surveys or large-scale studies conducted in China.In the case of RFs,we compared the exposure distributions in 2001 and counterfactual exposure.Results:Exposure of RFs in 2001 was found to account for 6.74％ of breast cancer,corresponding to 9,617 cases and 2,769 deaths,and for 2.78％ of ovarian cancer (711 cases,294 deaths).The decrease in mean number of children alone was responsible for 1.47％ of breast cancer and 2.78％ of ovarian cancer.The prevalence of OC use was 1.74％ and the population attributable fraction (PAF) of breast cancer was 0.71％,corresponding to 310 cases and 90 deaths.The PAF of breast cancer due to HRT was 0.31％,resulting in 297 cases and 85 deaths.Conclusion:RFs changes in China contributed to a sizable fraction of breast and ovarian cancer incidence and mortality,whereas HRT and OCs accounted for relatively low incidence of breast cancer in China.

Full Text Available There is conflicting data regarding exogenous sex hormones [oralcontraceptives (OC and hormonal replacement therapy (HRT] exposure and different outcomes on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE. The aim of this work is to determine, through a systematic review and meta-analysis the risks associated with estrogen use for women with SLE as well as the association of estrogen with developing SLE.MEDLINE, EMBASE, SciElo, BIREME and the Cochrane library (1982 to July 2012, were databases from which were selected and reviewed (PRISMA guidelines randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional, case-control and prospective or retrospective nonrandomized, comparative studies without language restrictions. Those were evaluated by two investigators who extracted information on study characteristics, outcomes of interest, risk of bias and summarized strength of evidence. A total of 6,879 articles were identified; 20 full-text articles were included. Thirty-two meta-analyses were developed. A significant association between HRT exposure (Random model and an increased risk of developing SLE was found (Rate Ratio: 1.96; 95%-CI: 1.51-2.56; P-value<0.001. One of eleven meta-analyses evaluating the risk for SLE associated with OC exposure had a marginally significant result. There were no associations between HRT or OC exposure and specific outcomes of SLE. It was not always possible to Meta-analyze all the available data. There was a wide heterogeneity of SLE outcome measurements and estrogen therapy administration.An association between HRT exposure and SLE causality was observed. No association was found when analyzing the risk for SLE among OC users, however since women with high disease activity/Thromboses or antiphospholipid-antibodies were excluded from most of the studies, caution should be exercised in interpreting the present results. To identify risk factors that predispose healthy individuals to the development of SLE who are planning to start HRT or OC

The wide clinical spectrum of the ABCB4 gene (ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 4) deficiency syndromes in humans includes low phospholipid-associated cholelithiasis (LPAC), intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP), oralcontraceptives-induced cholestasis (CIC), and progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3 (PFIC3). No ABCB4 mutations are found in a significant proportion of patients with these syndromes. In the present study, 102 unrelated adult patients with LPAC (43 patients) or CIC/ICP (59 patients) were screened for ABCB4 mutations using DNA sequencing. Heterozygous ABCB4 point or short insertion/deletion mutations were found in 37% (16/43) of the LPAC patients and in 27% (16/59) of the ICP/CIC patients. High-resolution gene dosage methodologies were used in the 70 negative patients. Here, we describe for the first time ABCB4 partial or complete heterozygous deletions in 7% (3/43) of the LPAC patients, and in 2% (1/59) of the ICP/CIC patients. Our observations urge to systematically test patients with LPAC, ICP/CIC, and also children with PFIC3 for the presence of ABCB4 deletions using molecular tools allowing detection of gross rearrangements. In clinical practice, a comprehensive ABCB4 alteration-screening algorithm will permit the use of ABCB4 genotyping to confirm the diagnosis of LPAC or ICP/CIC, and allow familial testing. An early diagnosis of these biliary diseases may be beneficial because of the preventive effect of ursodeoxycholic acid on biliary complications. Further comparative studies of patients with well-characterized genotypes (including deletions) and phenotypes will help determine whether ABCB4 mutation types influence clinical outcomes. PMID:21989363

Women are at greater risk than men for certain kinds of diseases and injuries, which may at least partly be caused by sex hormonal differences. We aimed to test the influence of estradiol in vivo on collagen synthesis in tendon, bone, and muscle. Two groups of young, healthy women similar in age, body composition, and exercise-training status were included. The two groups were either habitual users of oralcontraceptives exposed to a high concentration of synthetic estradiol and progestogens (OC, n = 11), or non-OC-users tested in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle characterized by low concentrations of estradiol and progesterone (control, n = 12). Subjects performed 1 h of one-legged kicking exercise. The next day collagen fractional synthesis rates (FSR) in tendon and muscle connective tissue were measured after a flooding dose of [(13)C]proline followed by biopsies from the patellar tendon and vastus lateralis in both legs. Simultaneously, microdialysis catheters were inserted in vastus lateralis and in front of the patellar tendon for measurement of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and its binding proteins. Serum NH(2)-terminal propeptide of type I collagen (PINP) and urine COOH-terminal telopeptides of type-I collagen (CTX-I) were measured as markers for bone synthesis and breakdown, respectively. Tendon FSR and PINP were lower in OC compared with control. An increase in muscle collagen FSR postexercise was only observed in control (P collagen synthesis in tendon, bone, and muscle connective tissue, which may be related to a lower bioavailability of IGF-I.

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of pretreatment with transdermal estradiol (E2) compared to oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) on controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) response in normal responders undergoing fresh in vitro fertilization (IVF)-embryo transfer (ET) cycles. A retrospective cohort study was performed of normal responders undergoing fresh IVF-ET cycles who received pretreatment with transdermal E2 versus OCPs prior to fresh IVF-ET. The total days of ovarian stimulation, total dosage of gonadotropins, total number of oocytes, and mature oocytes retrieved were noted. Pregnancy outcomes after ET were also recorded. A total of 2,092 patients met the inclusion criteria: 1,057 and 1,035 patients in the transdermal E2 and OCP groups, respectively. Patients in the OCP group had a longer duration of COS (10.7±1.63 days, p<0.01) than the E2 group (9.92±1.94 days). Patients in the OCP group also required higher cumulative doses of gonadotropins (2,657.3±1,187.9 IU) than those in the E2 group (2,550.1±1,270.2 IU, p=0.002). No statistically significant differences were found in the total and mature oocytes retrieved or in the rates of biochemical pregnancy, clinical pregnancy, spontaneous miscarriage, and live birth between the groups. Our findings suggest that compared to OCPs, pretreatment with transdermal E2 is associated with a shorter duration of ovarian stimulation and lower gonadotropin utilization, without compromising the oocyte yield or pregnancy outcomes in normal-responder patients undergoing fresh IVF.

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of pretreatment with transdermal estradiol (E2) compared to oralcontraceptive pills (OCPs) on controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) response in normal responders undergoing fresh in vitro fertilization (IVF)-embryo transfer (ET) cycles. Methods A retrospective cohort study was performed of normal responders undergoing fresh IVF-ET cycles who received pretreatment with transdermal E2 versus OCPs prior to fresh IVF-ET. The total days of ovarian stimulation, total dosage of gonadotropins, total number of oocytes, and mature oocytes retrieved were noted. Pregnancy outcomes after ET were also recorded. Results A total of 2,092 patients met the inclusion criteria: 1,057 and 1,035 patients in the transdermal E2 and OCP groups, respectively. Patients in the OCP group had a longer duration of COS (10.7±1.63 days, p<0.01) than the E2 group (9.92±1.94 days). Patients in the OCP group also required higher cumulative doses of gonadotropins (2,657.3±1,187.9 IU) than those in the E2 group (2,550.1±1,270.2 IU, p=0.002). No statistically significant differences were found in the total and mature oocytes retrieved or in the rates of biochemical pregnancy, clinical pregnancy, spontaneous miscarriage, and live birth between the groups. Conclusion Our findings suggest that compared to OCPs, pretreatment with transdermal E2 is associated with a shorter duration of ovarian stimulation and lower gonadotropin utilization, without compromising the oocyte yield or pregnancy outcomes in normal-responder patients undergoing fresh IVF. PMID:28090462

Full Text Available Infant cuteness can influence adult-infant interaction and has been shown to activate reward centres in the brain. In a previous study, we found men and women to be differentially sensitive to small differences in infant facial cuteness, with reproductive hormone status as the potential underlying cause. It is unclear, however, whether reproductive hormone status impacts on the aesthetic and incentive salience of infant faces. To address this question, we conducted two interlinked studies. We used static images of the same smiling and neutral-looking infant faces in both a rating task, in which participants had to rate the cuteness of infant faces (aesthetic salience - 'liking', and a key-press task, in which participants could prolong or shorten viewing time of infant faces by rapid alternating key-presses (incentive salience - 'wanting'. In a first study, we compared the performance of men, women who are taking oralcontraceptives, and regularly cycling women. In this study, we found a significant correlation between cuteness ratings within and between groups, which implies that participants had the same concept of cuteness. Cuteness ratings and effort to look at faces was linked regardless of sex and reproductive hormone status, in that cute faces were looked at for longer than less cute faces. A happy facial expression contributed only marginally to the incentive salience of the face. To explore the potential impact of reproductive hormone status in more detail, we followed a subset of regularly cycling women during the menstrual, follicular and luteal phases of their cycle. The aesthetic and incentive salience of infant faces did not change across the menstrual cycle. Our findings suggest that reproductive hormone status does not modulate the aesthetic and incentive value of infant faces.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a rare but serious complication of combined hormonal contraception. While the absolute risk of VTE is low in adolescents, thrombotic events in contraception users younger than the age of 20 years account for 5 to 10% of total contraception-related VTE events in population studies, because of the high frequency of contraception use in adolescents. An increased risk of VTE exists not only with oralcontraceptives, but also the contraceptive patch and vaginal ring. Most adolescents who experience contraception-related VTE have additional transient or inherited thrombotic risk factors at the time of VTE. Although the presence of inherited thrombophilia impacts the risk of contraception-related VTE, thrombophilia screening before contraception prescribing should be targeted only to high-risk populations. Pediatric institutions, caregivers, and young women need to be aware of the risk of VTE with estrogen-containing contraception, and maintain a high index of suspicion for this complication in women using these agents.

Obesity is a major public health concern affecting an increasing proportion of reproductive-aged women. Avoiding unintended pregnancy is of major importance, given the increased risks associated with pregnancy, but obesity may affect the efficacy of hormonal contraceptives by altering how these drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized or eliminated. Limited data suggest that long-acting, reversible contraceptives maintain excellent efficacy in obese women. Some studies demonstrating altered pharmacokinetic parameters and increased failure rates with combined oralcontraceptives, the contraceptive patch and emergency contraceptive pills suggest decreased efficacy of these methods. It is unclear whether bariatric surgery affects hormonal contraceptive efficacy. Obese women should be offered the full range of contraceptive options, with counseling that balances the risks and benefits of each method, including the risk of unintended pregnancy.

To compare user satisfaction and adverse events (AEs) with a levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG-IUS 8; average levonorgestrel release rate approximately 8 μg/24 h over the first year [total content 13.5 mg]) and a 30 μg ethinyl estradiol/3 mg drospirenone (EE/DRSP) combined oralcontraceptive (COC) in a population of young women. Nulliparous and parous women (aged 18-29 years) with regular menstrual cycles (21-35 days) were randomised to LNG-IUS 8 or EE/DRSP for 18 months. The primary endpoint was the overall user satisfaction rate at month 18/end of study visit. Overall, 279 women were randomised to LNG-IUS 8 with attempted placement and 281 women were randomised to EE/DRSP and took ≥1 pill; the mean age was 23.7 and 23.9 years, and 77.4% and 73.3% were nulliparous, respectively. At month 18/end of study, 82.1% and 81.9% of women, respectively, reported being 'very satisfied' or 'satisfied' with their treatment; however, significantly more LNG-IUS 8 users reported a preference to continue their treatment post-study (66.2% vs 48.8%; p = 0.0001). There were two pregnancies (one ectopic pregnancy, one spontaneous abortion) reported in the LNG-IUS 8 group and six (three live births, two spontaneous abortions, one induced abortion) in the EE/DRSP group. LNG-IUS 8 and EE/DRSP were associated with similarly high user satisfaction rates. However, LNG-IUS 8 users were significantly more likely to prefer to continue their contraceptive method post-study, indicating that a levonorgestrel intrauterine system is an appealing contraceptive option for young women.

Full Text Available Fertility control in the future will focus on the improvement of existing methods (efficacy, side effects, easy use, duration of action, manufacturing process, costs, on new approaches (mode of action bringing additional health benefits, and on new targets for nonhormonal contraception. Counselling of women in view to contraceptive choices based on the individual risk (e. g. cardiovascular disease, thrombophilia, family risk of breast cancer, sexually transmitted diseases will gain more and more importance. Only a few companies can afford research in contraception such as Bayer-Schering-Pharma, and MSD. Female contraception: Ovulation inhibition: preselection of patients to minimize the individual risk. New oralcontraceptive (OC regimen, OC with new progestins, OC with estradiol or estradiol esters, new ovulation inhibitors with new progestins and new regimen including long cycles and continuous delivery of steroidal contraceptives, new contraceptive patches, vaginal rings andsprayon contraceptives. Recently identified genes involved in the ovulation process as new targets for ovulation inhibitors. Fertilisation inhibition: new intrauterine systems have been developed: a smaller Mirena intrauterine system releasing levonorgestrel (LNG and a new frameless progestinreleasing intrauterine systems (IUS. Various new contraceptive barriers have been introduced. Research is ongoing on substances acting both as spermicide and as microbicides as a dualprotection method reducing both the risk of unwanted pregnancy and the risk of sexually transmitted diseases. New implantable systems and improved injectables (with improved pharmacokinetic profile, decreased side effects and a safer delivery system have been made available recently. Various new approaches in female sterilisation include non invasive method of tubal occlusion Immunocontraception for the female will not be available in the near future. Implantation inhibition: selective progesterone

This prospective, multicenter study was conducted to evaluate the contraceptive reliability, cycle control and tolerability of a 21-day oralcontraceptive regimen containing 20 microg ethinylestradiol and 75 microg gestodene in four Latin American countries (Mexico, Argentina, Brazil and Colombia). Participants took trial medication daily for 21 days. Contraceptive efficacy, cycle control and tolerability were evaluated over a period of 13 cycles. Efficacy data gathered from 5,109 treatment cycles were obtained from 393 participants. The trial medication proved to be an effective contraceptive and provided good cycle control. One pregnancy because of poor compliance was recorded. This resulted in a study Pearl index of 0.25. Forty-six percent of Latin American women reported one intracyclic spotting bleeding episode and 37.6% reported one intracyclic breakthrough bleeding (medium/excessive bleeding) episode during cycles 2-4 (primary target). Overall, intracyclic bleeding was reported in 41%. Overall, there was a trend towards a lower incidence of spotting in all the countries and this difference had statistical significance between Argentina and the others three countries (p < 0.05) during cycles 2-4. This trend was also apparent with respect to breakthrough bleeding, but again the difference did not achieve statistical significance. The discontinuation rate because of adverse events was low (3%); no serious adverse events were reported. More than 78% of the women in the four countries maintained constant body weight or lost weight (2 kg) during the study. The treatment effect on blood pressure was negligible. There were no appreciable changes in mean laboratory values over the course of the study.

Seven hundred and seventy-two lactating mothers were studied from delivery for 1 year to select the best contraceptive method (oral drug, injected drug, or IUD) which did not affect lactation. Ten groups of mothers were studied, including 234 control subjects. The injectable progestational contraceptives caused an improvement in the amount of milk and its protein concentration, whereas the IUCDs did not influence the lactation pattern. Sulpiride was an ineffective contraceptive but a potent lactation stimulant. The side effects of each method (effects on milk yield, protein content and prolactin concentrations) were also noted; it was concluded that IUCDs are the ideal contraceptive method during lactation, with the use of a lactation stimulant when indicated.

Does the combined oralcontraceptive pill (COCP) change endometrial gene expression when used for cycle programming? COCP used for scheduling purposes does not have a significant impact on endometrial gene expression related to endometrial receptivity. Controversy exists around COCP pretreatment for IVF cycle programming, as some authors claim that it might be detrimental to the live birth rate. Microarray technology applied to the study of tissue gene expression has previously revealed the behavior of genes related to endometrial receptivity under different conditions. Proof-of-concept study of 10 young healthy oocyte donors undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) recruited between June 2012 and February 2013. Microarray data were obtained from endometrial biopsies from 10 young healthy oocyte donors undergoing COS with GnRH antagonists and recombinant FSH. In group A (n = 5), COCP pretreatment was used for 12-16 days, and stimulation began after a 5-day pill-free interval. Stimulation in group B (n = 5) was initiated on cycle day 3 after a spontaneous menses. Endometrial biopsies were collected 7 days after triggering with hCG. No individual genes exhibited increased or decreased expression (fold change (FC) >2) in patients with prior COCP treatment (group A) compared with controls (group B). However, the results of the functional analysis showed a total of 11 biological processes that were significantly enriched in group A compared with group B (non-COCP). The Endometrial Receptivity Array (ERA) has only been validated on endometrial samples obtained in natural cycles and after hormonal replacement treatment (HRT). Therefore, it was not possible in this study to classify the endometrial samples as receptive or non-receptive. We used the ERA to focus on 238 genes that are intimately related to endometrial receptivity, thus simplifying the analysis and understanding of the data. Cycle scheduling is common in IVF units and is used to avoid weekend

We studied 67 healthy women who were randomly allocated to receive third generation gestodene (Gynera) or second generation levonorgestrel (Microgynon 30) combination of low-dose estrogen oralcontraceptives (OCs) for their hemostatic effects over 2 years. Hemostatic changes were apparent within 3 months of OC use. Hematocrit (Hct) was not affected, but hemoglobin (Hb) concentration decreased by 18 months. Shortened prothrombin time (PT) and activated plasma thromboplastin time (APTT) were associated with elevated fibrinogen within the 12-month use of both OCs. Factor VII was reduced only in Micro 30 during the 18 months of use. Enhanced thrombin-antithrombin (TAT)-complex level was seen at 18 months of Gynera use. Prothrombin fragment1+2 (F1+2) rise was seen at 3 months with Micro 30. Reduced antithrombin III (ATIII) activity was seen at 18 months with Gynera and at 24 months with Micro 30. Increased protein C activity was seen at 3 months and reduced protein S occurred at 18 months of Gynera use. Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) activity was enhanced for 6 months in both OCs with raised D-dimer levels for 12 months with Gynera and 6 months with Micro 30. Decreased t-PA antigen was seen at 18 months and decreased urokinaselike plasminogen activator (u-PA) antigen occurred throughout the 24 months of both OCs use. Enhanced u-PA activity was only seen in Gynera users. Elevated plasminogen levels were apparent throughout both OCs use. PAI-1 levels were significantly decreased with Micro 30. With Gynera, the decreased PAI-1 activity was seen only at 18 months and PAI-1 antigen at 12 months. No change in platelets and von Willebrand factor (vWF) were seen in long-term OC use except that beta-thromboglobulin (beta-TG) showed decreased trends reaching statistical significance by 18 and 24 months of Micro 30 use and by 24 months of Gynera use. A further significant decrease in beta-TG, u-PA antigen, ATIII, and protein S levels were seen 3 months after pill stoppage

The effect of semaglutide, a once-weekly human glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog in development for type 2 diabetes (T2D), on the bioavailability of a combined oralcontraceptive was investigated. Postmenopausal women with T2D (n = 43) on diet/exercise ± metformin received ethinylestradiol (0.03 mg)/levonorgestrel (0.15 mg) once daily for 8 days before (semaglutide-free) and during (steady-state 1.0 mg) semaglutide treatment (subcutaneous once weekly; dose escalation: 0.25 mg 4 weeks; 0.5 mg 4 weeks; 1.0 mg 5 weeks). Bioequivalence of oralcontraceptives was established if 90%CI for the ratio of pharmacokinetic parameters during semaglutide steady-state and semaglutide-free periods was within prespecified limits (0.80-1.25). The bioequivalence criterion was met for ethinylestradiol area under the curve (AUC0-24 h ) for semaglutide steady-state/semaglutide-free; 1.11 (1.06-1.15). AUC0-24 h was 20% higher for levonorgestrel at semaglutide steady-state vs. semaglutide-free (1.20 [1.15-1.26]). Cmax was within bioequivalence criterion for both contraceptives. Reductions (mean ± SD) in HbA1c (-1.1 ± 0.6%) and weight (-4.3 ± 3.1 kg) were observed. Semaglutide pharmacokinetics were compatible with once-weekly dosing; the semaglutide dose and dose-escalation regimen were well tolerated. Adverse events, mainly gastrointestinal, were mild to moderate in severity. Asymptomatic increases in mean amylase and lipase were observed. Three subjects had elevated alanine aminotransferase levels ≥3x the upper limit of normal during semaglutide/oralcontraceptive coadministration, which were reported as adverse events, but resolved during follow-up. Semaglutide did not reduce the bioavailability of ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel.

Full Text Available Abstract Background Young people between the ages of 15 and 24 years are both the most at risk of HIV and the greatest hope for turning the tide against HIV/AIDS. Although various surveys have been done on sexual behaviour of youth in Ethiopia, studies assessing the effect of emergency oralcontraceptives on condom utilization of university students are lacking. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in two major universities of Ethiopia from January to May 2011 using structured self administered questionnaire with the aim to assess the effect of introducing oral emergency contraceptive pills on condom utilization and sexual risk taking behaviours among female university students. Study participants were selected by simple random sampling using the list from the associate registrars of each University. Data were entered, cleaned and analyzed using SPSS version 17.0. Bivariate and multiple logistic regression analyses were used to determine factors associated with condom utilization. Results a total of 623 students out of 660 were included giving response rate of 94.4%. A total of 103(16.5% had history of sexual intercourse and nearly half (45.6% of them had sex before the age of 20 years. Forty (6.4% students had history of sexually transmitted infections (STI. Sixty seven percent of students had heard about emergency oralcontraceptives. One hundred and ninety one (45.7% of students believe that EOC is effective in preventing pregnancy. Believing that EOC is effective in preventing pregnancy (adjusted Odds ratio, AOR = 0.22 95% CI 0.06, 0.87, condom prevents STI (AOR = 10.37, 95% CI 1.73, 62.24 and younger age below 20 years (AOR = 11.68 95% CI 1.25, 109.19 were statistically significantly associated with condom use. Conclusion a significant number of students had history of sexual intercourse and used emergency contraception. The belief in the effectiveness of EOC negatively affects condom use. The preference for the

Objective To study the effect of immediate application of a short-acting oralcontraceptive after abortion. Methods Women were randomly divided into observation group and control group, these cases of observation group immediately took a short-acting oralcontraceptives and antibiotics to prevent infection after the abortion. These cases of control group were given antibiotics to prevent infection only.Results The vaginal bleeding time, blood loss, postoperative period after tide time, cervical spondylitis, pelvic inlfammatory disease, and again pregnancy in three months of cases of observation group were signiifcantly better than the control group (P<0.05).Conclusion The time of vaginal bleeding, postoperative vaginal bleeding volume and postoperative complications were shorten because of immediate application short-acting oralcontraceptives, and the reliable contraceptive can reduce the repetition rate of artiifcial abortion.%目的：探讨人工流产术后即刻口服短效避孕药的影响。方法将在我院行人工流产妇女随机分为观察组和对照组，观察组人工流产后即给予妈富隆及抗生素预防感染治疗，对照组只给予抗生素预防感染治疗。结果观察组人工流产术后阴道出血时间、出血量、月经复潮时间、宫颈粘连、盆腔炎性疾病及3个月内再次妊娠均优于对照组（P＜0.05）。结论行人工流产术后，即刻口服妈富隆可以缩短患者阴道流血时间、减少术后阴道流血量及术后并发症的发生，而且避孕效果可靠，减少重复人工流产率。

Morning-after pill; Postcoital contraception; Birth control - emergency; Plan B; Family planning - emergency contraception ... prevents pregnancy in the same way as regular birth control pills: By preventing or delaying the release of an ...

Cycle control and tolerability of two monophasic oralcontraceptive pills containing 30 microg ethinyl estradiol (EE) with either 150 microg desogestrel (DSG) or 75 microg gestodene (GSD) were compared in women starting oralcontraception. A minimum of 200 healthy women at risk for pregnancy were to be treated for a total of 6 cycles per patient in a prospective, randomized open parallel-group multicenter trial. Two hundred and forty-one subjects were randomized, 115 to DSG/EE and 126 to GSD/EE. Compliance to the study preparation was high (around 95%) in both groups and no pregnancies occurred during the study. Cycle control was excellent; there were no differences between the two groups with regard to incidence of spotting and breakthrough bleeding or duration and intensity of withdrawal bleeding. Side-effects were mild and in general comparable in the two groups. Both at baseline and during treatment, a higher proportion of women taking GSD/EE complained about breast tenderness. This resulted in more early withdrawals because of breast tenderness in the GSD/EE group. It was concluded that monophasic DSG/EE and GSD/EE are equally effective, have similar cycle control and both are generally well tolerated.

为评估口服避孕药对产妇内分泌的影响,我们对一些相关文献进行了综述.多数研究认为单孕激素类口服避孕药(oralcontraceptive,OC)对泌乳没有影响,而复合型避孕药(combination-type oralcontraceptive,COC)可能会减少泌乳量或者缩短泌乳时间;大部分研究提示OC对婴儿的生长发育没有影响,而有些数据表明OC影响婴儿发育;对于何时开始使用OC的时间存在争议.故我们认为目前有限的临床资料不足以证明OC对泌乳持续时间和婴儿健康有无影响,世界卫生组织(World Health Organization,WHO)和美国妇产科医师学会(American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,ACOG)推荐最早产后6周才能开始使用雌孕激素复合型避孕药.

In the last decade, global use of contraceptive methods has increased. About 50% of couples of childbearing age use a modern contraceptive method. This evolution and a positive change in attitude towards male contraception has encouraged research in fertility regulation to enlarge and to improve acceptance of the contraceptive mix. Current injectable contraceptives interfere with the menstrual cycle. Research is exploring ways to minimize such secondary effects by reducing the total hormone dose and by changing the way the active product is delivered (e.g., microspheres). An injectable prototype is an analogue of levonorgestrel (HRP 002). A new IUD is made of leather suspended by a nylon suture which has been inserted into the uterine muscle. RU-486, often used to interrupt early pregnancy, is being tested as an oralcontraceptive (OC). It inhibits secretion of gonadotropins and ovulation. It holds promise as an OC with no estrogen component. Since it also inhibits endometrial development and thus prevents implantation, it may someday be used for emergency contraception (i.e., postcoital contraception). New contraceptive implants under study include Norplant RII (2 rods of levonorgestrel lasting for 3 years), Implanon (desogestrel), and Capranor (biodegradable implant lasting 2 years). The female condom consists of a flexible polyurethane sheath with a flexible ring at each end. It has the potential to protect against sexually transmitted diseases since it covers the labial lips and is impermeable to HIV. France and Switzerland have both approved its use. It will enter the UK market at the end of the year. Approval for marketing has been sought in the US.

The period immediately following an abortion, spontaneous or induced, has been considered favourable to the initiation of high efficicy contraception: sterilization, oralcontraceptives, or intrauterine devices. The rate of post-abortal complications associated with these contraceptive methods was evaluated using data drawn from published and unpublished studies. The following conclusions were reached: sterilization is advisable only for women who do not desire additional children, and is obviously not recommended for young nulliparous women. The effective use of oralcontraceptives requires a high motivational level and is therefore advisable only in cases where such motivation exists. The insertion of an intrauterine device seems to be the most adequate contraceptive method for women with low motivational level.

The objective of the paper is to evaluate the influence of the body mass index (BMI) on selected parameters of the coagulation system in patients with disorders of the balance system taking oralcontraceptives. 105 young women participated in the study who were divided into 2 groups. Group I: 52 women disorders of the balance system taking hormonal contraceptives for at least 2 months, between the age of 20-49; Group II: 53 women with no disorders of the balance system taking hormonal contraceptives for at least 2 months, between the age of 18-40. Patients entering the study underwent full otoneurological examination, detailed laryngological assessment and the examination of selected parameters of the hemostasis system, including the evaluation of fibrinogen and D-dimer levels, APTT and PT, estradiol and progesterone concentrations in the blood serum and evaluation of the body mass index (BMI). Central vertigo was the most common type of vertigo in the study group (59,6% of cases). Other vertigo types in this group included compensated vertigo of mixed origin (36,6% of cases) and peripheral vertigo (only 3,8% of cases), which indicates that 40.4% of the cases suffer from damage to the labyrinth. The analysis of the concentration of estradiol in the blood serum revealed, after consideration of a menstrual cycle phase, that estradiol concentration exceeded normative values significantly more often in the study group than in the control group and that estradiol concentration was significantly less frequently below the norm in the study group; the difference was statistically significant (p=0,048). The body mass index (BMI) of women participating in the study significantly correlated with the concentration of D-dimers only in the study group (p=0,35 vs p=0,012). Evaluating the body mass index before administering hormonal contraception can be useful to eliminate other risk factors for thromboembolism. In order to prevent potential thromboembolism episodes

Objective: We evaluated the effects of a new combined hormonal contraceptive vaginal ring (CVR) delivering the nonandrogenic progestin Nestorone® (NES) and ethinyl estradiol (EE) on several key estrogen-sensitive hepatic proteins that may be markers for the risk of arterial or venous disease events

Objective: We evaluated the effects of a new combined hormonal contraceptive vaginal ring (CVR) delivering the nonandrogenic progestin Nestorone® (NES) and ethinyl estradiol (EE) on several key estrogen-sensitive hepatic proteins that may be markers for the risk of arterial or venous disease events

To understand if the contraceptive ring or patch was more acceptable, as measured primarily by continuation, to women using an oralcontraceptive and interested in a nondaily, combined hormonal contraceptive...

Humans have tried to control fertility for centuries. Primitive, preliterate societies practiced infanticide and abortion. When primitive women understood the advantages of conception control, they tried, when possible, to use contraception. In the 4th century B.C., Plato and Aristotle advocated a one-child family. Greek medical literature reported a hollow tube inserted through the cervix into the uterus and a potion as contraceptives. Islamic physicians had much knowledge about conception control. The attitudes toward contraception. In the 5th century B.C., Saint Augustine condemned contraception, even among married couples. The condom emerged in the early modern period. Yet, they were usually worn to protect against disease, e.g., bilharzia in Egypt and syphilis in Europe. The cervical cap and the diaphragm are examples of occlusive pessaries. By 1880, contraceptives and spermicides were advertised. In 1928, the IUD joined the existing contraceptives. Today we have combined oralcontraceptives. Judaic law requires husbands to fulfill their wives sexual needs, separate from their duty to procreate. It also calls men, not women, to procreate and forbids men from masturbating, thus Judaic law does not forbid women from practicing contraception. The Roman Catholic church forbids contraceptive use because it is a sin against nature. Some Protestant denominations have allowed contraceptive use. Islamic law states that children are gifts from Allah. Some Moslems believe that they must have many children, but Allah and the Prophet state that children have rights to education and future security. These rights allow couples to prevent pregnancy. Neither Hinduism nor Buddhism prohibit contraceptive use. Differences in husband-wife communication, sex roles, access to contraceptives, and traditional family values will have more of an effect on contraceptive use and fertility than theological barriers or the social class of religious groups.

Despite easy availability of contraception, Germany is confronted with the problem of increasing rates of pregnancies and abortions in minors. Prescription of contraceptives that do not rely on compliance and are acceptable to adolescents is required in addition to improved counseling. For that purpose, adherence to the guidelines for the use of contraceptives in minors written by the consortium for legislation in medicine (AG Medizinrecht) is essential. Oralcontraceptives are the most commonly prescribed form of birth control, advantages include reversibility as well as a good tolerance and safety profile. New developments are low-dose compounds, novel progestins, prevention of ovulation by pure gestagen pills and the long-term use of low-dose monophasic micro pills. Long-term contraceptives like subdermally implantable depot compounds or hormone-releasing pessaries in utero have been used on a regular basis and seem a convenient alternative for birth control for longer periods, also in adolescents. The easy-to-use intravaginal ring and the birth control patch have expanded the spectrum of hormone-releasing contraceptive systems. Studies show improved compliance and a possible reduction of unintentional pregnancies due to application errors. Amelioration of the range of highly effective birth control products different modes of application will hopefully lead to drop in the rate of unplanned pregnancies, especially in adolescents.

Full Text Available The literature linking breast cancer with oralcontraceptives and BRCA mutation as possible risk factors is equivocal. Hence, to account for these conflicting results in the existing literature and to observe the net effect, this meta-analysis aims to investigate whether oralcontraceptives are a risk factor for developing breast cancer in breast cancer (BRCA gene carrier female in the 30-60 years age group. Method: Systematic review of the literature, both published and unpublished, and meta-analysis of relevant data. Results: Meta-analysis of data from five relevant studies, with a total of 6682 BRCA carriers (3,269 BRCA1 carriers and 791 BRCA2 carriers, revealed that use of oralcontraceptives is associated with increased risk of breast cancer among BRCA mutation carriers (OR=2.267; 95 % CI= 1.311, 3.919. When the same risk was stratified by mutation type, both BRCA1 and BRCA2 were at increased risk. However, BRCA2 carriers (OR= 3.060; 95% CI=0.951, 9.848 were found to be at elevated risk compared to BRCA1 carriers (OR= 2.347; 95% CI=0.939, 5.865. Conclusions: This meta-analytical finding suggests that oralcontraceptives are a risk factor for developing breast cancer in breast cancer (BRCA gene carrier females.

The purpose of the paper was to assess the effects of oralcontraceptives on selected parameters of the homeostatic control system in women having a sudden disorder of the auditory and/or balance system. The study included 105 young women divided into two groups: Group I--52 women with the disorder of the auditory and/or balance system using hormonal contraceptives for at least 2 months, aged 20-49; and Group II--53 women without any disorder of the auditory and/or balance system using hormonal contraceptives for at least 2 months, aged 18-40. The patients included in the study underwent a full otoneurological evaluation, detailed laryngological diagnostics and an evaluation of selected parameters of the homeostatic control system--fibrinogen level, D-dimer level, evaluation of APTT and PT indicator, plasma estradiol and progesterone with the Roche Cobas analyser by means of chemiluminescence. The vertigo occurring in the study group was most often central (59.6% of cases), mixed with compensation in 36.6% of cases, and peripheral only in 3.8% of cases, indicating labyrinth damage in 40.4% of cases. An analysis of the progesterone level, considering the menstrual cycle phase in the group, showed that its value was abnormal in 51.0% of women in the study group and 47.1% in the control group. In their own studies, the authors observed that the estradiol level in the plasma, considering the menstrual cycle phase in the study group, was abnormal in 41.2% of women and that the differences in its concentration were statistically significant in the study and control groups (p = 0.005), which may have a negative impact on the possibility of a thromboembolic episode.

Objective To assess the risk of pulmonary embolism, ischaemic stroke, and myocardial infarction associated with combined oralcontraceptives according to dose of oestrogen (ethinylestradiol) and progestogen. Design Observational cohort study. Setting Data from the French national health insurance database linked with data from the French national hospital discharge database. Participants 4 945 088 women aged 15-49 years, living in France, with at least one reimbursement for oralcontraceptives and no previous hospital admission for cancer, pulmonary embolism, ischaemic stroke, or myocardial infarction, between July 2010 and September 2012. Main outcome measures Relative and absolute risks of first pulmonary embolism, ischaemic stroke, and myocardial infarction. Results The cohort generated 5 443 916 women years of oralcontraceptive use, and 3253 events were observed: 1800 pulmonary embolisms (33 per 100 000 women years), 1046 ischaemic strokes (19 per 100 000 women years), and 407 myocardial infarctions (7 per 100 000 women years). After adjustment for progestogen and risk factors, the relative risks for women using low dose oestrogen (20 µg v 30-40 µg) were 0.75 (95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.85) for pulmonary embolism, 0.82 (0.70 to 0.96) for ischaemic stroke, and 0.56 (0.39 to 0.79) for myocardial infarction. After adjustment for oestrogen dose and risk factors, desogestrel and gestodene were associated with statistically significantly higher relative risks for pulmonary embolism (2.16, 1.93 to 2.41 and 1.63, 1.34 to 1.97, respectively) compared with levonorgestrel. Levonorgestrel combined with 20 µg oestrogen was associated with a statistically significantly lower risk than levonorgestrel with 30-40 µg oestrogen for each of the three serious adverse events. Conclusions For the same dose of oestrogen, desogestrel and gestodene were associated with statistically significantly higher risks of pulmonary embolism but not arterial

Health care providers often tell women to wait until the next menses to begin hormonal contraception. The intent is to avoid contraceptive use during an undetected pregnancy. An alternative is to start hormonal contraception immediately with back-up birth control for the first seven days. Immediate initiation was introduced with combined oralcontraceptives (COCs), and has expanded to other hormonal contraceptives. At the time of the initial review, how immediate start compared to conventional menses-dependent start was unclear regarding effectiveness, continuation, and acceptability. The immediate-start approach may improve women's access to, and continuation of, hormonal contraception. This review examined randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of immediate-start hormonal contraception for differences in effectiveness, continuation, and acceptability. In August 2012, we searched MEDLINE, CENTRAL, POPLINE, LILACS, ClinicalTrials.gov, and ICTRP for trials of immediate-start hormonal contraceptives. We contacted researchers to find other studies. Earlier searches also included EMBASE. We included RCTs that compared immediate start to conventional start of hormonal contraception. Also included were trials that compared immediate start of different hormonal contraceptive methods with each other. Data were abstracted by two authors and entered into RevMan. The Peto odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated. Five studies were included. No new eligible studies have been found since the review was initially conducted. Method discontinuation was similar between groups in all trials. Bleeding patterns and side effects were similar in trials that compared immediate with conventional start. In a study of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), immediate start of DMPA showed fewer pregnancies than a 'bridge' method before DMPA (OR 0.36; 95% CI 0.16 to 0.84). Further, more women in the immediate-DMPA group were very satisfied versus those with a 'bridge

Full Text Available Background: Emergency hormonal contraceptives (EHC are contraceptives used to prevent unintended pregnancy following unprotected sexual intercourse (USI or contraceptive failure. The EHCs available without a prescription include medicines containing levonorgestrel (LNG in more than 80 countries and, recently, based on an EU-switch ellaOne®, which contains ulipristal acetate (UPA. EHCs work by stopping or delaying ovulation. Those containing LNG can be used up to 72 hours after USI or contraceptive failure, while UPA can be used up to 120 hours. In the context of the UPA implementation process, Germany switched LNG to non-prescription status as well. Objectives: To develop recommendations, a protocol, and a continuing education program for pharmacists to assure quality when giving advice and dispensing EHCs in community pharmacies without a medical prescription. Methods: The recommendations were developed by an iterative process of drafting, recognizing, and discussing comments and proposals for amendments as well a seeking agreement with a number of stakeholders such as the Federal Ministry of Health (BMG, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM, Federal Chamber of Physicians (BÄK, Drug Commission of German Physicians (AkdÄ, professional organizations/associations of gynaecologists, pharmaceutical OTC-industry as well as government-controlled, private, and church-based organizations and centres providing advice on sex education and family planning. Results: The recommendations were eventually endorsed by the BMG in consultation with the BfArM. Conclusions: The recommendations were made public, published in the professional journal and used in an uncounted number of continuing education programs based on the curriculum and provided by the State Chambers of Pharmacists.

Thirty-five young women completed the Profile of Mood States and tests of automatization and perceptual restructuring ability before and after commencing one of three forms or oralcontraception (OC) or one form of intrauterine contraception (the loop). For each subject on each experimental variable the difference between the first and second tests was computed. These data were then analysed by covariance and discriminant function analyses. Two sets of functions were derived. The first distinguished the loop users from the OC users. The latter exhibited significantly greater increases in anger and significantly greater reductions in vigor than the former. The second set of discriminant functions distinguished users of Neogynon from the women in the other three groups. Neogynon users' performances on the Color Words Test (a measure of automatization ability) worsened and their anger, vigor and tension scores had decreased to a greater extent than was the case for members of the other groups. It is suggested that the changes in affect demonstrated by the first discriminant function were related to personal and attitudinal variables associated with the Loop users. The second discriminant function was interpreted as an indication that the varying progestagen content of OC may have differential effects upon both affect and automatization ability.

Adolescents represent a particularly difficult group with respect to compliance. Not only is incorrect pill intake a common problem, but unnecessary discontinuation also occurs regularly. Reasons for poor compliance are varied, but inadequate information and problems with cycle control and weight gain are particularly important. Choosing a well-tolerated oralcontraceptive can help to improve compliance, and clinical experience from a large, multicenter trial suggests that monophasic gestodene (75 micrograms gestodene/30 micrograms ethinylestradiol) is a suitable preparation for this group of women. An investigation of 5,602 adolescents with an average age of 16.4 years found good contraceptive reliability and excellent cycle control. The incidence of spotting and breakthrough bleeding was low and declined during the course of the study. The preparation was tolerated well, and the incidence of adverse events was low, with only 4.4% of women withdrawing from the study due to adverse events. An increase in body weight was uncommon. At the end of the study, 85.0% of adolescents rated monophasic gestodene as good and 9.6% as satisfactory.

A 91-day extended-cycle oralcontraceptive (OC) consisting of levonorgestrel/ethinylestradiol 150/30 µg for 84 days and ethinylestradiol 10 µg for 7 days (Seasonique(®)) has recently been approved for the prevention of pregnancy in adult women in the EU. This regimen allows for a reduction in the number of withdrawal bleeding episodes to four per year, compared with 13 episodes per year with conventional 28-day regimens. Seasonique(®) was effective in preventing pregnancy in a large (n = 1006), noncomparative trial of healthy, sexually active women. In this trial, the overall Pearl index (pregnancies per 100 woman-years of use) in women aged 18-35 years (n = 621) was 0.76 and the Pearl index for method-failure (compliant use) was 0.26. Scheduled (withdrawal) bleeding and/or spotting remained fairly constant over time, with a mean of 2 days of bleeding and 1 day of spotting per each 91-day cycle. Unscheduled bleeding and unscheduled spotting was highest during the first few cycles of use and decreased thereafter. Seasonique(®) was generally well tolerated, with a tolerability profile in line with that expected for OCs. Seasonique(®) extends the contraceptive options currently available to women, particularly in those who desire fewer withdrawal bleeding episodes.