HON. D.LITT. OF OXFORD, DURHAM, AND DUBLIN, AND HON. LL.D. OF EDINBURGH,GLASGOW, AND ABERDEEN UNIVERSITIES; REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY,CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OF "HISTORY OF THE LATTER ROMAN EMPIRE," "HISTORY OF GREECE,""HISTORY OF THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE," ETC.

[IV]

1913,

[V]CONTENTS

CHAP.

I Introductory II Reason Free (Greece And Rome) III Reason in Prison (The Middle Ages) IV Prospect of Deliverance (The Renaissance and the Reformation) V Religious Toleration VI The Growth of Rationalism (Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries) VII The Progress of Rationalism (Nineteenth Century)VIII The Justification of Liberty of Thought Bibliography Index

[7] A HISTORY OF FREEDOM OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER I

FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND THE FORCES AGAINST IT

(INTRODUCTORY)

IT is a common saying that thought is free. A man can never be hinderedfrom thinking whatever he chooses so long as he conceals what he thinks.The working of his mind is limited only by the bounds of his experienceand the power of his imagination. But this natural liberty of privatethinking is of little value. It is unsatisfactory and even painful tothe thinker himself, if he is not permitted to communicate his thoughtsto others, and it is obviously of no value to his neighbours. Moreoverit is extremely difficult to hide thoughts that have any power over themind. If a man's thinking leads him to call in question ideas andcustoms which regulate the behaviour of those about him, to rejectbeliefs which they hold, to see better ways of life than those theyfollow, it is almost

[8] impossible for him, if he is convinced of the truth of his ownreasoning, not to betray by silence, chance words, or general attitudethat he is different from them and does not share their opinions. Somehave preferred, like Socrates, some would prefer to-day, to face deathrather than conceal their thoughts. Thus freedom of thought, in anyvaluable sense, includes freedom of speech.

At present, in the most civilized countries, freedom of speech is takenas a matter of course and seems a perfectly simple thing. We are soaccustomed to it that we look on it as a natural right. But this righthas been acquired only in quite recent times, and the way to itsattainment has lain through lakes of blood. It has taken centuries topersuade the most enlightened peoples that liberty to publish one'sopinions and to discuss all questions is a good and not a bad thing.Human societies (there are some brilliant exceptions) have beengenerally opposed to freedom of thought, or, in other words, to newideas, and it is easy to see why.

The average brain is naturally lazy and tends to take the line of leastresistance. The mental world of the ordinary man consists of beliefswhich he has accepted without questioning and to which he is firmlyattached; he is instinctively hostile to anything which

[9] would upset the established order of this familiar world. A newidea, inconsistent with some of the beliefs which he holds, means thenecessity of rearranging his mind; and this process is laborious,requiring a painful expenditure of brain-energy. To him and his fellows,who form the vast majority, new ideas, and opinions which cast doubt onestablished beliefs and institutions, seem evil because they aredisagreeable.

The repugnance due to mere mental laziness is increased by a positivefeeling of fear. The conservative instinct hardens into the conservativedoctrine that the foundations of society are endangered by anyalterations in the structure. It is only recently that men have beenabandoning the belief that the welfare of a state depends on rigidstability and on the preservation of its traditions and institutionsunchanged. Wherever that belief prevails, novel opinions are felt to bedangerous as well as annoying, and any one who asks inconvenientquestions about the why and the wherefore of accepted principles isconsidered a pestilent person.

The conservative instinct, and the conservative doctrine which is itsconsequence, are strengthened by superstition. If the social structure,including the whole body of customs and opinions, is associatedintimately

[10] with religious belief and is supposed to be under divine patronage,criticism of the social order savours of impiety, while criticism of thereligious belief is a direct challenge to the wrath of supernaturalpowers.

The psychological motives which produce a conservative spirit hostile tonew ideas are reinforced by the active opposition of certain powerfulsections of the community, such as a class, a caste, or a priesthood,whose interests are bound up with the maintenance of the establishedorder and the ideas on which it rests.

Let us suppose, for instance, that a people believes that solar eclipsesare signs employed by their Deity for the special purpose ofcommunicating useful information to them, and that a clever mandiscovers the true cause of eclipses. His compatriots in the first placedislike his discovery because they find it very difficult to reconcilewith their other ideas; in the second place, it disturbs them, becauseit upsets an arrangement which they consider highly advantageous totheir community; finally, it frightens them, as an offence to theirDivinity. The priests, one of whose functions is to interpret the divinesigns, are alarmed and enraged at a doctrine which menaces their power.

In prehistoric days, these motives, operating

[11] strongly, must have made change slow in communities whichprogressed, and hindered some communities from progressing at all. Butthey have continued to operate more or less throughout history,obstructing knowledge and progress. We can observe them at work to-dayeven in the most advanced societies, where they have no longer the powerto arrest development or repress the publication of revolutionaryopinions. We still meet people who consider a new idea an annoyance andprobably a danger. Of those to whom socialism is repugnant, how many arethere who have never examined the arguments for and against it, but turnaway in disgust simply because the notion disturbs their mental universeand implies a drastic criticism on the order of things to which they areaccustomed? And how many are there who would refuse to consider anyproposals for altering our imperfect matrimonial institutions, becausesuch an idea offends a mass of prejudice associated with religioussanctions? They may be right or not, but if they are, it is not theirfault. They are actuated by the same motives which were a bar toprogress in primitive societies. The existence of people of thismentality, reared in an atmosphere of freedom, side by side with otherswho are always looking out for new ideas and

[12] regretting that there are not more about, enables us to realizehow, when public opinion was formed by the views of such men, thoughtwas fettered and the impediments to knowledge enormous.

Although the liberty to publish one's opinions on any subject withoutregard to authority or the prejudices of one's neighbours is now a well-established principle, I imagine that only the minority of those whowould be ready to fight to the death rather than surrender it coulddefend it on rational grounds. We are apt to take for granted thatfreedom of speech is a natural and inalienable birthright of man, andperhaps to think that this is a sufficient answer to all that can besaid on the other side. But it is difficult to see how such a right canbe established.

If a man has any "natural rights," the right to preserve his life andthe right to reproduce his kind are certainly such. Yet human societiesimpose upon their members restrictions in the exercise of both theserights. A starving man is prohibited from taking food which belongs tosomebody else. Promiscuous reproduction is restricted by various laws orcustoms. It is admitted that society is justified in restricting theseelementary rights, because without such restrictions an ordered societycould not exist. If then we

[13] concede that the expression of opinion is a right of the same kind,it is impossible to contend that on this ground it can claim immunityfrom interference or that society acts unjustly in regulating it. Butthe concession is too large. For whereas in the other cases thelimitations affect the conduct of every one, restrictions on freedom ofopinion affect only the comparatively small number who have anyopinions, revolutionary or unconventional, to express. The truth is thatno valid argument can be founded on the conception of natural rights,because it involves an untenable theory of the relations between societyand its members.

On the other hand, those who have the responsibility of governing asociety can argue that it is as incumbent on them to prohibit thecirculation of pernicious opinions as to prohibit any anti-socialactions. They can argue that a man may do far more harm by propagatinganti-social doctrines than by stealing his neighbour's horse or makinglove to his neighbour's wife. They are responsible for the welfare ofthe State, and if they are convinced that an opinion is dangerous, bymenacing the political, religious, or moral assumptions on which thesociety is based, it is their duty to protect society against it, asagainst any other danger.

[14]

The true answer to this argument for limiting freedom of thought willappear in due course. It was far from obvious. A long time was needed toarrive at the conclusion that coercion of opinion is a mistake, and onlya part of the world is yet convinced. That conclusion, so far as I canjudge, is the most important ever reached by men. It was the issue of acontinuous struggle between authority and reason--the subject of thisvolume. The word authority requires some comment.

If you ask somebody how he knows something, he may say, "I have it ongood authority," or, "I read it in a book," or, "It is a matter ofcommon knowledge," or, "I learned it at school." Any of these repliesmeans that he has accepted information from others, trusting in theirknowledge, without verifying their statements or thinking the matter outfor himself. And the greater part of most men's knowledge and beliefs isof this kind, taken without verification from their parents, teachers,acquaintances, books, newspapers. When an English boy learns French, hetakes the conjugations and the meanings of the words on the authority ofhis teacher or his grammar. The fact that in a certain place, marked onthe map, there is a populous city called Calcutta, is for most

[15] people a fact accepted on authority. So is the existence ofNapoleon or Julius Caesar. Familiar astronomical facts are known only inthe same way, except by those who have studied astronomy. It is obviousthat every one's knowledge would be very limited indeed, if we were notjustified in accepting facts on the authority of others.

But we are justified only under one condition. The facts which we cansafely accept must be capable of demonstration or verification. Theexamples I have given belong to this class. The boy can verify when hegoes to France or is able to read a French book that the facts which hetook on authority are true. I am confronted every day with evidencewhich proves to me that, if I took the trouble, I could verify theexistence of Calcutta for myself. I cannot convince myself in this wayof the existence of Napoleon, but if I have doubts about it, a simpleprocess of reasoning shows me that there are hosts of facts which areincompatible with his non-existence. I have no doubt that the earth issome 93 millions of miles distant from the sun, because all astronomersagree that it has been demonstrated, and their agreement is onlyexplicable on the supposition that this has been demonstrated and that,if I took the trouble to work out the calculation, I should reach thesame result.

[16]

But all our mental furniture is not of this kind. The thoughts of theaverage man consist not only of facts open to verification, but also ofmany beliefs and opinions which he has accepted on authority and cannotverify or prove. Belief in the Trinity depends on the authority of theChurch and is clearly of a different order from belief in the existenceof Calcutta. We cannot go behind the authority and verify or prove it.If we accept it, we do so because we have such implicit faith in theauthority that we credit its assertions though incapable of proof.

The distinction may seem so obvious as to be hardly worth making. But itis important to be quite clear about it. The primitive man who hadlearned from his elders that there were bears in the hills and likewiseevil spirits, soon verified the former statement by seeing a bear, butif he did not happen to meet an evil spirit, it did not occur to him,unless he was a prodigy, that there was a distinction between the twostatements; he would rather have argued, if he argued at all, that ashis tribesmen were right about the bears they were sure to be right alsoabout the spirits. In the Middle Ages a man who believed on authoritythat there is a city called Constantinople and that comets are portentssignifying divine wrath, would not

[17] distinguish the nature of the evidence in the two cases. You maystill sometimes hear arguments amounting to this: since I believe inCalcutta on authority, am I not entitled to believe in the Devil onauthority?

Now people at all times have been commanded or expected or invited toaccept on authority alone--the authority, for instance, of publicopinion, or a Church, or a sacred book--doctrines which are not proved orare not capable of proof. Most beliefs about nature and man, which werenot founded on scientific observation, have served directly orindirectly religious and social interests, and hence they have beenprotected by force against the criticisms of persons who have theinconvenient habit of using their reason. Nobody minds if his neighbourdisbelieves a demonstrable fact. If a sceptic denies that Napoleonexisted, or that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, he causesamusement or ridicule. But if he denies doctrines which cannot bedemonstrated, such as the existence of a personal God or the immortalityof the soul, he incurs serious disapprobation and at one time he mighthave been put to death. Our mediaeval friend would have only been calleda fool if he doubted the existence of Constantinople, but if he hadquestioned the significance of comets he

[18] might have got into trouble. It is possible that if he had been somad as to deny the existence of Jerusalem he would not have escaped withridicule, for Jerusalem is mentioned in the Bible.

In the Middle Ages a large field was covered by beliefs which authorityclaimed to impose as true, and reason was warned off the ground. Butreason cannot recognize arbitrary prohibitions or barriers, withoutbeing untrue to herself. The universe of experience is her province, andas its parts are all linked together and interdependent, it isimpossible for her to recognize any territory on which she may nottread, or to surrender any of her rights to an authority whosecredentials she has not examined and approved.

The uncompromising assertion by reason of her absolute rights throughoutthe whole domain of thought is termed rationalism, and the slight stigmawhich is still attached to the word reflects the bitterness of thestruggle between reason and the forces arrayed against her. The term islimited to the field of theology, because it was in that field that theself-assertion of reason was most violently and pertinaciously opposed.In the same way free thought, the refusal of thought to be controlled byany authority but its own, has a definitely theological reference.Throughout

[19] the conflict, authority has had great advantages. At any time thepeople who really care about reason have been a small minority, andprobably will be so for a long time to come. Reason's only weapon hasbeen argument. Authority has employed physical and moral violence, legalcoercion and social displeasure. Sometimes she has attempted to use thesword of her adversary, thereby wounding herself. Indeed the weakestpoint in the strategical position of authority was that her champions,being human, could not help making use of reasoning processes and theresult was that they were divided among themselves. This gave reason herchance. Operating, as it were, in the enemy's camp and professedly inthe enemy's cause, she was preparing her own victory.

It may be objected that there is a legitimate domain for authority,consisting of doctrines which lie outside human experience and thereforecannot be proved or verified, but at the same time cannot be disproved.Of course, any number of propositions can be invented which cannot bedisproved, and it is open to any one who possesses exuberant faith tobelieve them; but no one will maintain that they all deserve credence solong as their falsehood is not demonstrated. And if only some deservecredence, who, except reason,

[20] is to decide which? If the reply is, Authority, we are confrontedby the difficulty that many beliefs backed by authority have beenfinally disproved and are universally abandoned. Yet some people speakas if we were not justified in rejecting a theological doctrine unlesswe can prove it false. But the burden of proof does not lie upon therejecter. I remember a conversation in which, when some disrespectfulremark was made about hell, a loyal friend of that establishment saidtriumphantly, "But, absurd as it may seem, you cannot disprove it." Ifyou were told that in a certain planet revolving round Sirius there is arace of donkeys who talk the English language and spend their time indiscussing eugenics, you could not disprove the statement, but would it,on that account, have any claim to be believed? Some minds would beprepared to accept it, if it were reiterated often enough, through thepotent force of suggestion. This force, exercised largely by emphaticrepetition (the theoretical basis, as has been observed, of the modernpractice of advertising), has played a great part in establishingauthoritative opinions and propagating religious creeds. Reasonfortunately is able to avail herself of the same help.

The following sketch is confined to Western

[21] civilization. It begins with Greece and attempts to indicate thechief phases. It is the merest introduction to a vast and intricatesubject, which, treated adequately, would involve not only the historyof religion, of the Churches, of heresies, of persecution, but also thehistory of philosophy, of the natural sciences and of politicaltheories. From the sixteenth century to the French Revolution nearly allimportant historical events bore in some way on the struggle for freedomof thought. It would require a lifetime to calculate, and many books todescribe, all the directions and interactions of the intellectual andsocial forces which, since the fall of ancient civilization, havehindered and helped the emancipation of reason. All one can do, all onecould do even in a much bigger volume than this, is to indicate thegeneral course of the struggle and dwell on some particular aspectswhich the writer may happen to have specially studied.

[21] CHAPTER II

REASON FREE

(GREECE AND ROME)

WHEN we are asked to specify the debt which civilization owes to theGreeks, their

[22] achievements in literature and art naturally occur to us first ofall. But a truer answer may be that our deepest gratitude is due to themas the originators of liberty of thought and discussion. For thisfreedom of spirit was not only the condition of their speculations inphilosophy, their progress in science, their experiments in politicalinstitutions; it was also a condition of their literary and artisticexcellence. Their literature, for instance, could not have been what itis if they had been debarred from free criticism of life. But apart fromwhat they actually accomplished, even if they had not achieved thewonderful things they did in most of the realms of human activity, theirassertion of the principle of liberty would place them in the highestrank among the benefactors of the race; for it was one of the greateststeps in human progress.

We do not know enough about the earliest history of the Greeks toexplain how it was that they attained their free outlook upon the worldand came to possess the will and courage to set no bounds to the rangeof their criticism and curiosity. We have to take this character as afact. But it must be remembered that the Greeks consisted of a largenumber of separate peoples, who varied largely in temper, customs andtraditions,

[23] though they had important features common to all. Some wereconservative, or backward, or unintellectual compared with others. Inthis chapter "the Greeks" does not mean all the Greeks, but only thosewho count most in the history of civilization, especially the Ioniansand Athenians.

Ionia in Asia Minor was the cradle of free speculation. The history ofEuropean science and European philosophy begins in Ionia. Here (in thesixth and fifth centuries B.C.) the early philosophers by using theirreason sought to penetrate into the origin and structure of the world.They could not of course free their minds entirely from receivednotions, but they began the work of destroying orthodox views andreligious faiths. Xenophanes may specially be named among these pioneersof thought (though he was not the most important or the ablest), becausethe toleration of his teaching illustrates the freedom of the atmospherein which these men lived. He went about from city to city, calling inquestion on moral grounds the popular beliefs about the gods andgoddesses, and ridiculing the anthropomorphic conceptions which theGreeks had formed of their divinities. "If oxen had hands and thecapacities of men, they would make gods in the shape of oxen." Thisattack on received

[24] theology was an attack on the veracity of the old poets, especiallyHomer, who was considered the highest authority on mythology. Xenophanescriticized him severely for ascribing to the gods acts which, committedby men, would be considered highly disgraceful. We do not hear that anyattempt was made to restrain him from thus assailing traditional beliefsand branding Homer as immoral. We must remember that the Homeric poemswere never supposed to be the word of God. It has been said that Homerwas the Bible of the Greeks. The remark exactly misses the truth. TheGreeks fortunately had no Bible, and this fact was both an expressionand an important condition of their freedom. Homer's poems were secular,not religious, and it may be noted that they are freer from immoralityand savagery than sacred books that one could mention. Their authoritywas immense; but it was not binding like the authority of a sacred book,and so Homeric criticism was never hampered like Biblical criticism.

In this connexion, notice may be taken of another expression andcondition of freedom, the absence of sacerdotalism. The priests of thetemples never became powerful castes, tyrannizing over the community intheir own interests and able to silence voices raised against religiousbeliefs. The civil authorities

[25] kept the general control of public worship in their own hands, and,if some priestly families might have considerable influence, yet as arule the priests were virtually State servants whose voice carried noweight except concerning the technical details of ritual.

To return to the early philosophers, who were mostly materialists, therecord of their speculations is an interesting chapter in the history ofrationalism. Two great names may be selected, Heraclitus and Democritus,because they did more perhaps than any of the others, by sheer hardthinking, to train reason to look upon the universe in new ways and toshock the unreasoned conceptions of common sense. It was startling to betaught, for the first time, by Heraclitus, that the appearance ofstability and permanence which material things present to our senses isa false appearance, and that the world and everything in it are changingevery instant. Democritus performed the amazing feat of working out anatomic theory of the universe, which was revived in the seventeenthcentury and is connected, in the history of speculation, with the mostmodern physical and chemical theories of matter. No fantastic tales ofcreation, imposed by sacred authority, hampered these powerful brains.

All this philosophical speculation prepared

[26] the way for the educationalists who were known as the Sophists.They begin to appear after the middle of the fifth century. They workedhere and there throughout Greece, constantly travelling, training youngmen for public life, and teaching them to use their reason. As educatorsthey had practical ends in view. They turned away from the problems ofthe physical universe to the problems of human life--morality andpolities. Here they were confronted with the difficulty ofdistinguishing between truth and error, and the ablest of theminvestigated the nature of knowledge, the method of reason--logic-- andthe instrument of reason--speech. Whatever their particular theoriesmight be, their general spirit was that of free inquiry and discussion.They sought to test everything by reason. The second half of the fifthcentury might be called the age of Illumination.

It may be remarked that the knowledge of foreign countries which theGreeks had acquired had a considerable effect in promoting a scepticalattitude towards authority. When a man is acquainted only with thehabits of his own country, they seem so much a matter of course that heascribes them to nature, but when he travels abroad and finds totallydifferent habits and standards of conduct prevailing, he begins tounderstand

[27] the power of custom; and learns that morality and religion arematters of latitude. This discovery tends to weaken authority, and toraise disquieting reflections, as in the case of one who, brought up asa Christian, comes to realize that, if he had been born on the Ganges orthe Euphrates, he would have firmly believed in entirely differentdogmas.

Of course these movements of intellectual freedom were, as in all ages,confined to the minority. Everywhere the masses were exceedinglysuperstitious. They believed that the safety of their cities depended onthe good-will of their gods. If this superstitious spirit were alarmed,there was always a danger that philosophical speculations might bepersecuted. And this occurred in Athens. About the middle of the fifthcentury Athens had not only become the most powerful State in Greece,but was also taking the highest place in literature and art. She was afull-fledged democracy. Political discussion was perfectly free. At thistime she was guided by the statesman Pericles, who was personally afreethinker, or at least was in touch with all the subversivespeculations of the day. He was especially intimate with the philosopherAnaxagoras who had come from Ionia to teach at Athens. In regard to thepopular gods Anaxagoras was a thorough-going

[28] unbeliever. The political enemies of Pericles struck at him byattacking his friend. They introduced and carried a blasphemy law, tothe effect that unbelievers and those who taught theories about thecelestial world might be impeached. It was easy to prove that Anaxagoraswas a blasphemer who taught that the gods were abstractions and that thesun, to which the ordinary Athenian said prayers morning and evening,was a mass of flaming matter. The influence of Pericles saved him fromdeath; he was heavily fined and left Athens for Lampsacus, where he wastreated with consideration and honour.

Other cases are recorded which show that anti-religious thought wasliable to be persecuted. Protagoras, one of the greatest of theSophists, published a book On the Gods, the object of which seems tohave been to prove that one cannot know the gods by reason. The firstwords ran: "Concerning the gods, I cannot say that they exist nor yetthat they do not exist. There are more reasons than one why we cannotknow. There is the obscurity of the subject and there is the brevity ofhuman life." A charge of blasphemy was lodged against him and he fledfrom Athens. But there was no systematic policy of suppressing freethought. Copies of the work of Protagoras were collected and

[29] burned, but the book of Anaxagoras setting forth the views forwhich he had been condemned was for sale on the Athenian book-stalls ata popular price. Rationalistic ideas moreover were venturing to appearon the stage, though the dramatic performances, at the feasts of the godDionysus, were religious solemnities. The poet Euripides was saturatedwith modern speculation, and, while different opinions may be held as tothe tendencies of some of his tragedies, he often allows his charactersto express highly unorthodox views. He was prosecuted for impiety by apopular politician. We may suspect that during the last thirty years ofthe fifth century unorthodoxy spread considerably among the educatedclasses. There was a large enough section of influential rationalists torender impossible any organized repression of liberty, and the chiefevil of the blasphemy law was that it could be used for personal orparty reasons. Some of the prosecutions, about which we know, werecertainly due to such motives, others may have been prompted by genuinebigotry and by the fear lest sceptical thought should extend beyond thehighly educated and leisured class. It was a generally acceptedprinciple among the Greeks, and afterwards among the Romans, thatreligion was a good and necessary thing

[30] for the common people. Men who did not believe in its truthbelieved in its usefulness as a political institution, and as a rulephilosophers did not seek to diffuse disturbing "truth" among themasses. It was the custom, much more than at the present day, for thosewho did not believe in the established cults to conform to themexternally. Popular higher education was not an article in the programmeof Greek statesmen or thinkers. And perhaps it may be argued that in thecircumstances of the ancient world it would have been hardlypracticable.

There was, however, one illustrious Athenian, who thoughtdifferently--Socrates, the philosopher. Socrates was the greatest of theeducationalists, but unlike the others he taught gratuitously, though hewas a poor man. His teaching always took the form of discussion; thediscussion often ended in no positive result, but had the effect ofshowing that some received opinion was untenable and that truth isdifficult to ascertain. He had indeed certain definite views aboutknowledge and virtue, which are of the highest importance in the historyof philosophy, but for our present purpose his significance lies in hisenthusiasm for discussion and criticism. He taught those with whom heconversed--and he conversed indiscriminately

[31] with all who would listen to him--to bring all popular beliefsbefore the bar of reason, to approach every inquiry with an open mind,and not to judge by the opinion of majorities or the dictate ofauthority; in short to seek for other tests of the truth of an opinionthan the fact that it is held by a great many people. Among hisdisciples were all the young men who were to become the leadingphilosophers of the next generation and some who played prominent partsin Athenian history.

If the Athenians had had a daily press, Socrates would have beendenounced by the journalists as a dangerous person. They had a comicdrama, which constantly held up to ridicule philosophers and sophistsand their vain doctrines. We possess one play (the Clouds ofAristophanes) in which Socrates is pilloried as a typical representativeof impious and destructive speculations. Apart from annoyances of thiskind, Socrates reached old age, pursuing the task of instructing hisfellow-citizens, without any evil befalling him. Then, at the age ofseventy, he was prosecuted as an atheist and corrupter of youth and wasput to death (399 B.C.). It is strange that if the Athenians reallythought him dangerous they should have suffered him so long. There can,I think, be

[32] little doubt that the motives of the accusation were political. [1]Socrates, looking at things as he did, could not be sympathetic withunlimited democracy, or approve of the principle that the will of theignorant majority was a good guide. He was probably known to sympathizewith those who wished to limit the franchise. When, after a struggle inwhich the constitution had been more than once overthrown, democracyemerged triumphant (403 B.C.), there was a bitter feeling against thosewho had not been its friends, and of these disloyal persons Socrates waschosen as a victim. If he had wished, he could easily have escaped. Ifhe had given an undertaking to teach no more, he would almost certainlyhave been acquitted. As it was, of the 501 ordinary Athenians who werehis judges, a very large minority voted for his acquittal. Even then, ifhe had adopted a different tone, he would not have been condemned todeath.

He rose to the great occasion and vindicated freedom of discussion in awonderful unconventional speech. The Apology of Socrates, which wascomposed by his most brilliant pupil, Plato the philosopher, reproduces

[33] the general tenor of his defence. It is clear that he was not ableto meet satisfactorily the charge that he did not acknowledge the godsworshipped by the city, and his explanations on this point are the weakpart of his speech. But he met the accusation that he corrupted theminds of the young by a splendid plea for free discussion. This is themost valuable section of the Apology; it is as impressive to-day asever. I think the two principal points which he makes are these--

(1) He maintains that the individual should at any cost refuse to becoerced by any human authority or tribunal into a course which his ownmind condemns as wrong. That is, he asserts the supremacy of theindividual conscience, as we should say, over human law. He representshis own life-work as a sort of religious quest; he feels convinced thatin devoting himself to philosophical discussion he has done the biddingof a super-human guide; and he goes to death rather than be untrue tothis personal conviction. "If you propose to acquit me," he says, "oncondition that I abandon my search for truth, I will say: I thank you, OAthenians, but I will obey God, who, as I believe, set me this task,rather than you, and so long as I have breath and strength I will never

[34] cease from my occupation with philosophy. I will continue thepractice of accosting whomever I meet and saying to him, 'Are you notashamed of setting your heart on wealth and honours while you have nocare for wisdom and truth and making your soul better?' I know not whatdeath is--it may be a good thing, and I am not afraid of it. But I doknow that it is a bad thing to desert one's post and I prefer what maybe good to what I know to be bad."

(2) He insists on the public value of free discussion. "In me you have astimulating critic, persistently urging you with persuasion andreproaches, persistently testing your opinions and trying to show youthat you are really ignorant of what you suppose you know. Dailydiscussion of the matters about which you hear me conversing is thehighest good for man. Life that is not tested by such discussion is notworth living."

Thus in what we may call the earliest justification of liberty ofthought we have two significant claims affirmed: the indefeasible rightof the conscience of the individual --a claim on which later strugglesfor liberty were to turn; and the social importance of discussion andcriticism. The former claim is not based on argument but on intuition;it rests in fact on the assumption

[35] of some sort of superhuman moral principle, and to those who, nothaving the same personal experience as Socrates, reject this assumption,his pleading does not carry weight. The second claim, after theexperience of more than 2,000 years, can be formulated morecomprehensively now with bearings of which he did not dream.

The circumstances of the trial of Socrates illustrate both the toleranceand the intolerance which prevailed at Athens. His long immunity, thefact that he was at last indicted from political motives and perhapspersonal also, the large minority in his favour, all show that thoughtwas normally free, and that the mass of intolerance which existed wasonly fitfully invoked, and perhaps most often to serve other purposes. Imay mention the case of the philosopher Aristotle, who some seventyyears later left Athens because he was menaced by a prosecution forblasphemy, the charge being a pretext for attacking one who belonged toa certain political party. The persecution of opinion was neverorganized.

It may seem curious that to find the persecuting spirit in Greece wehave to turn to the philosophers. Plato, the most brilliant disciple ofSocrates, constructed in his later years an ideal State. In this Statehe instituted

[36] a religion considerably different from the current religion, andproposed to compel all the citizens to believe in his gods on pain ofdeath or imprisonment. All freedom of discussion was excluded under thecast-iron system which he conceived. But the point of interest in hisattitude is that he did not care much whether a religion was true, butonly whether it was morally useful; he was prepared to promote moralityby edifying fables; and he condemned the popular mythology not becauseit was false, but because it did not make for righteousness.

The outcome of the large freedom permitted at Athens was a series ofphilosophies which had a common source in the conversations of Socrates.Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Epicureans, the Sceptics--it may bemaintained that the efforts of thought represented by these names havehad a deeper influence on the progress of man than any other continuousintellectual movement, at least until the rise of modern science in anew epoch of liberty.

The doctrines of the Epicureans, Stoics, and Sceptics all aimed atsecuring peace and guidance for the individual soul. They were widelypropagated throughout the Greek world from the third century B.C., andwe may say that from this time onward most

[37] well-educated Greeks were more or less rationalists. The teachingof Epicurus had a distinct anti-religious tendency. He considered fearto be the fundamental motive of religion, and to free men's minds fromthis fear was a principal object of his teaching. He was a Materialist,explaining the world by the atomic theory of Democritus and denying anydivine government of the universe. [2] He did indeed hold the existenceof gods, but, so far as men are concerned, his gods are as if they werenot--living in some remote abode and enjoying a "sacred and everlastingcalm." They just served as an example of the realization of the idealEpicurean life.

There was something in this philosophy which had the power to inspire apoet of singular genius to expound it in verse. The Roman Lucretius(first century B.C.) regarded Epicurus as the great deliverer of thehuman race and determined to proclaim the glad tidings of his philosophyin a poem On the Nature of the World. [3] With all the fervour

[38] of a religious enthusiast he denounces religion, sounding everynote of defiance, loathing, and contempt, and branding in burning wordsthe crimes to which it had urged man on. He rides forth as a leader ofthe hosts of atheism against the walls of heaven. He explains thescientific arguments as if they were the radiant revelation of a newworld; and the rapture of his enthusiasm is a strange accompaniment of adoctrine which aimed at perfect calm. Although the Greek thinkers haddone all the work and the Latin poem is a hymn of triumph over prostratedeities, yet in the literature of free thought it must always hold aneminent place by the sincerity of its audacious, defiant spirit. In thehistory of rationalism its interest would be greater if it had explodedin the midst of an orthodox community. But the educated Romans in thedays of Lucretius were sceptical in religious matters, some of them wereEpicureans, and we may suspect that not many of those who read it wereshocked or influenced by the audacities of the champion of irreligion.

The Stoic philosophy made notable contributions to the cause of libertyand could hardly have flourished in an atmosphere where discussion wasnot free. It asserted the rights of individuals against public

[39] authority. Socrates had seen that laws may be unjust and thatpeoples may go wrong, but he had found no principle for the guidance ofsociety. The Stoics discovered it in the law of nature, prior andsuperior to all the customs and written laws of peoples, and thisdoctrine, spreading outside Stoic circles, caught hold of the Romanworld and affected Roman legislation.

These philosophies have carried us from Greece to Rome. In the laterRoman Republic and the early Empire, no restrictions were imposed onopinion, and these philosophies, which made the individual the firstconsideration, spread widely. Most of the leading men were unbelieversin the official religion of the State, but they considered it valuablefor the purpose of keeping the uneducated populace in order. A Greekhistorian expresses high approval of the Roman policy of cultivatingsuperstition for the benefit of the masses. This was the attitude ofCicero, and the view that a false religion is indispensable as a socialmachine was general among ancient unbelievers. It is common, in one formor another, to-day; at least, religions are constantly defended on theground not of truth but of utility. This defence belongs to thestatecraft of Machiavelli, who taught that religion is necessary forgovernment,

[40] and that it may be the duty of a ruler to support a religion whichhe believes to be false.

A word must be said of Lucian (second century A.D.), the last Greek manof letters whose writings appeal to everybody. He attacked the popularmythology with open ridicule. It is impossible to say whether hissatires had any effect at the time beyond affording enjoyment toeducated infidels who read them. Zeus in a Tragedy Part is one of themost effective. The situation which Lucian imagined here would beparalleled if a modern writer were blasphemously to represent thePersons of the Trinity with some eminent angels and saints discussing ina celestial smoke-room the alarming growth of unbelief in England andthen by means of a telephonic apparatus overhearing a dispute between afreethinker and a parson on a public platform in London. The absurditiesof anthropomorphism have never been the subject of more brilliantjesting than in Lucian's satires.

The general rule of Roman policy was to tolerate throughout the Empireall religions and all opinions. Blasphemy was not punished. Theprinciple was expressed in the maxim of the Emperor Tiberius: "If thegods are insulted, let them see to it themselves." An exception to therule of tolerance

[41] was made in the case of the Christian sect, and the treatment ofthis Oriental religion may be said to have inaugurated religiouspersecution in Europe. It is a matter of interest to understand whyEmperors who were able, humane, and not in the least fanatical, adoptedthis exceptional policy.

For a long time the Christians were only known to those Romans whohappened to hear of them, as a sect of the Jews. The Jewish was the onereligion which, on account of its exclusiveness and intolerance, wasregarded by the tolerant pagans with disfavour and suspicion. But thoughit sometimes came into collision with the Roman authorities and someill-advised attacks upon it were made, it was the constant policy of theEmperors to let it alone and to protect the Jews against the hatredwhich their own fanaticism aroused. But while the Jewish religion wasendured so long as it was confined to those who were born into it, theprospect of its dissemination raised a new question. Grave misgivingsmight arise in the mind of a ruler at seeing a creed spreading which wasaggressively hostile to all the other creeds of the world--creeds whichlived together in amity--and had earned for its adherents the reputationof being the enemies of the human race. Might not its expansion

[42] beyond the Israelites involve ultimately a danger to the Empire?For its spirit was incompatible with the traditions and basis of Romansociety. The Emperor Domitian seems to have seen the question in thislight, and he took severe measures to hinder the proselytizing of Romancitizens. Some of those whom he struck may have been Christians, but ifhe was aware of the distinction, there was from his point of view nodifference. Christianity resembled Judaism, from which it sprang, inintolerance and in hostility towards Roman society, but it differed bythe fact that it made many proselytes while Judaism made few.

Under Trajan we find that the principle has been laid down that to be aChristian is an offence punishable by death. Henceforward Christianityremained an illegal religion. But in practice the law was not appliedrigorously or logically. The Emperors desired, if possible, to extirpateChristianity without shedding blood. Trajan laid down that Christianswere not to be sought out, that no anonymous charges were to be noticed,and that an informer who failed to make good his charge should be liableto be punished under the laws against calumny. Christians themselvesrecognized that this edict practically protected them. There were

[43] some executions in the second century--not many that are wellattested--and Christians courted the pain and glory of martyrdom. Thereis evidence to show that when they were arrested their escape was oftenconnived at. In general, the persecution of the Christians was ratherprovoked by the populace than desired by the authorities. The populacefelt a horror of this mysterious Oriental sect which openly hated allthe gods and prayed for the destruction of the world. When floods,famines, and especially fires occurred they were apt to be attributed tothe black magic of the Christians.

When any one was accused of Christianity, he was required, as a means oftesting the truth of the charge, to offer incense to the gods or to thestatues of deified Emperors. His compliance at once exonerated him. Theobjection of the Christians--they and the Jews were the only objectors--tothe worship of the Emperors was, in the eyes of the Romans, one of themost sinister signs that their religion was dangerous. The purpose ofthis worship was to symbolize the unity and solidarity of an Empirewhich embraced so many peoples of different beliefs and different gods;its intention was political, to promote union and loyalty; and it is notsurprising that those who denounced it should

[44] be suspected of a disloyal spirit. But it must be noted that therewas no necessity for any citizen to take part in this worship. Noconformity was required from any inhabitants of the Empire who were notserving the State as soldiers or civil functionaries. Thus the effectwas to debar Christians from military and official careers.

The Apologies for Christianity which appeared at this period (secondcentury) might have helped, if the Emperors (to whom some of them wereaddressed) had read them, to confirm the view that it was a politicaldanger. It would have been easy to read between the lines that, if theChristians ever got the upper hand, they would not spare the cults ofthe State. The contemporary work of Tatian (A Discourse to the Greeks)reveals what the Apologists more or less sought to disguise, invinciblehatred towards the civilization in which they lived. Any reader of theChristian literature of the time could not fail to see that in a Statewhere Christians had the power there would be no tolerance of otherreligious practices. [4] If the Emperors made an exception to theirtolerant policy in the case of Christianity, their purpose was tosafeguard tolerance.

[45]

In the third century the religion, though still forbidden, was quiteopenly tolerated; the Church organized itself without concealment;ecclesiastical councils assembled without interference. There were somebrief and local attempts at repression, there was only one gravepersecution (begun by Decius, A.D. 250, and continued by Valerian). Infact, throughout this century, there were not many victims, thoughafterwards the Christians invented a whole mythology of martyrdoms. Manycruelties were imputed to Emperors under whom we know that the Churchenjoyed perfect peace.

A long period of civil confusion, in which the Empire seemed to betottering to its fall, had been terminated by the Emperor Diocletian,who, by his radical administrative reforms, helped to preserve the Romanpower in its integrity for another century. He desired to support hiswork of political consolidation by reviving the Roman spirit, and heattempted to infuse new life into the official religion. To this end hedetermined to suppress the growing influence of the Christians, who,though a minority, were very numerous, and he organized a persecution.It was long, cruel and bloody; it was the most whole-hearted, generaland systematic effort to crush the forbidden faith. It was a

[46] failure, the Christians were now too numerous to be crushed. Afterthe abdication of Diocletian, the Emperors who reigned in differentparts of the realm did not agree as to the expediency of his policy, andthe persecution ended by edicts of toleration (A.D. 311 and 313). Thesedocuments have an interest for the history of religious liberty.

The first, issued in the eastern provinces, ran as follows:--

"We were particularly desirous of reclaiming into the way of reason andnature the deluded Christians, who had renounced the religion andceremonies instituted by their fathers and, presumptuously despising thepractice of antiquity, had invented extravagant laws and opinionsaccording to the dictates of their fancy, and had collected a varioussociety from the different provinces of our Empire. The edicts which wehave published to enforce the worship of the gods, having exposed manyof the Christians to danger and distress, many having suffered death andmany more, who still persist in their impious folly, being leftdestitute of any public exercise of religion, we are disposed to extendto those unhappy men the effects of our wonted clemency. We permit them,therefore, freely to profess their private opinions, and to assemble intheir conventicles

[47] without fear or molestation, provided always that they preserve adue respect to the established laws and government." [5]

The second, of which Constantine was the author, known as the Edict ofMilan, was to a similar effect, and based toleration on the Emperor'scare for the peace and happiness of his subjects and on the hope ofappeasing the Deity whose seat is in heaven.

The relations between the Roman government and the Christians raised thegeneral question of persecution and freedom of conscience. A State, withan official religion, but perfectly tolerant of all creeds and cults,finds that a society had arisen in its midst which is uncompromisinglyhostile to all creeds but its own and which, if it had the power, wouldsuppress all but its own. The government, in self-defence, decides tocheck the dissemination of these subversive ideas and makes theprofession of that creed a crime, not on account of its particulartenets, but on account of the social consequences of those tenets. Themembers of the society cannot without violating their consciences andincurring damnation abandon their exclusive doctrine. The principle offreedom of conscience is asserted as superior to all obligations to theState, and the State, confronted

[48] by this new claim, is unable to admit it. Persecution is theresult.

Even from the standpoint of an orthodox and loyal pagan the persecutionof the Christians is indefensible, because blood was shed uselessly. Inother words, it was a great mistake because it was unsuccessful. Forpersecution is a choice between two evils. The alternatives are violence(which no reasonable defender of persecution would deny to be an evil initself) and the spread of dangerous opinions. The first is chosen simplyto avoid the second, on the ground that the second is the greater evil.But if the persecution is not so devised and carried out as toaccomplish its end, then you have two evils instead of one, and nothingcan justify this. From their point of view, the Emperors had goodreasons for regarding Christianity as dangerous and anti-social, butthey should either have let it alone or taken systematic measures todestroy it. If at an early stage they had established a drastic andsystematic inquisition, they might possibly have exterminated it. Thisat least would have been statesmanlike. But they had no conception ofextreme measures, and they did not understand --they had no experience toguide them --the sort of problem they had to deal with. They hoped tosucceed by intimidation.

[49] Their attempts at suppression were vacillating, fitful, andridiculously ineffectual. The later persecutions (of A.D. 250 and 303)had no prospect of success. It is particularly to be observed that noeffort was made to suppress Christian literature.

The higher problem whether persecution, even if it attains the desiredend, is justifiable, was not considered. The struggle hinged onantagonism between the conscience of the individual and the authorityand supposed interests of the State. It was the question which had beenraised by Socrates, raised now on a wider platform in a more pressingand formidable shape: what is to happen when obedience to the law isinconsistent with obedience to an invisible master? Is it incumbent onthe State to respect the conscience of the individual at all costs, orwithin what limits? The Christians did not attempt a solution, thegeneral problem did not interest them. They claimed the right of freedomexclusively for themselves from a non-Christian government; and it ishardly going too far to suspect that they would have applauded thegovernment if it had suppressed the Gnostic sects whom they hated andcalumniated. In any case, when a Christian State was established, theywould completely forget the principle which they

[50] had invoked. The martyrs died for conscience, but not for liberty.To-day the greatest of the Churches demands freedom of conscience in themodern States which she does not control, but refuses to admit that,where she had the power, it would be incumbent on her to concede it.

If we review the history of classical antiquity as a whole, we mayalmost say that freedom of thought was like the air men breathed. It wastaken for granted and nobody thought about it. If seven or eightthinkers at Athens were penalized for heterodoxy, in some and perhaps inmost of these cases heterodoxy was only a pretext. They do notinvalidate the general facts that the advance of knowledge was notimpeded by prejudice, or science retarded by the weight of unscientificauthority. The educated Greeks were tolerant because they were friendsof reason and did not set up any authority to overrule reason. Opinionswere not imposed except by argument; you were not expected to receivesome "kingdom of heaven" like a little child, or to prostrate yourintellect before an authority claiming to be infallible.

But this liberty was not the result of a conscious policy or deliberateconviction, and therefore it was precarious. The problems

[51] of freedom of thought, religious liberty, toleration, had not beenforced upon society and were never seriously considered. WhenChristianity confronted the Roman government, no one saw that in thetreatment of a small, obscure, and, to pagan thinkers, uninteresting orrepugnant sect, a principle of the deepest social importance wasinvolved. A long experience of the theory and practice of persecutionwas required to base securely the theory of freedom of thought. Thelurid policy of coercion which the Christian Church adopted, and itsconsequences, would at last compel reason to wrestle with the problemand discover the justification of intellectual liberty. The spirit ofthe Greeks and Romans, alive in their works, would, after a long periodof obscuration, again enlighten the world and aid in re-establishing thereign of reason, which they had carelessly enjoyed without assuring itsfoundations.

[1] This has been shown very clearly by Professor Jackson in the articleon "Socrates" in the Encyclopoedia Britannica, last edition.

[2] He stated the theological difficulty as to the origin of evil inthis form: God either wishes to abolish evil and cannot, or can and willnot, or neither can nor will, or both can and will. The first three areunthinkable, if he is a God worthy of the name; therefore the lastalternative must be true. Why then does evil exist? The inference isthat there is no God, in the sense of a governor of the world.

[3] An admirable appreciation of the poem will be found in R. V.Tyrrell's Lectures on Latin Poetry.

[4] For the evidence of the Apologists see A. Bouche-Leclercq, ReligiousIntolerance and Politics (French, 1911) --a valuable review of the wholesubject.

[5] This is Gibbon's translation.

CHAPTER III

REASON IN PRISON

(THE MIDDLE AGES)

ABOUT ten years after the Edict of Toleration, Constantine the Greatadopted Christianity. This momentous decision inaugurated

[52] a millennium in which reason was enchained, thought was enslaved,and knowledge made no progress.

During the two centuries in which they had been a forbidden sect theChristians had claimed toleration on the ground that religious belief isvoluntary and not a thing which can be enforced. When their faith becamethe predominant creed and had the power of the State behind it, theyabandoned this view. They embarked on the hopeful enterprise of bringingabout a complete uniformity in men's opinions on the mysteries of theuniverse, and began a more or less definite policy of coercing thought.This policy was adopted by Emperors and Governments partly on politicalgrounds; religious divisions, bitter as they were, seemed dangerous tothe unity of the State. But the fundamental principle lay in thedoctrine that salvation is to be found exclusively in the ChristianChurch. The profound conviction that those who did not believe in itsdoctrines would be damned eternally, and that God punishes theologicalerror as if it were the most heinous of crimes, led naturally topersecution. It was a duty to impose on men the only true doctrine,seeing that their own eternal interests were at stake, and to hindererrors from spreading. Heretics were more

[53] than ordinary criminals and the pains that man could inflict onthem were as nothing to the tortures awaiting them in hell. To rid theearth of men who, however virtuous, were, through their religiouserrors, enemies of the Almighty, was a plain duty. Their virtues were noexcuse. We must remember that, according to the humane doctrine of theChristians, pagan, that is, merely human, virtues were vices, andinfants who died unbaptized passed the rest of time in creeping on thefloor of hell. The intolerance arising from such views could not butdiffer in kind and intensity from anything that the world had yetwitnessed.

Besides the logic of its doctrines, the character of its Sacred Bookmust also be held partly accountable for the intolerant principles ofthe Christian Church. It was unfortunate that the early Christians hadincluded in their Scripture the Jewish writings which reflect the ideasof a low stage of civilization and are full of savagery. It would bedifficult to say how much harm has been done, in corrupting the moralsof men, by the precepts and examples of inhumanity, violence, andbigotry which the reverent reader of the Old Testament, implicitlybelieving in its inspiration, is bound to approve. It furnished anarmoury for the theory of

[54] persecution. The truth is that Sacred Books are an obstacle tomoral and intellectual progress, because they consecrate the ideas of agiven epoch, and its customs, as divinely appointed. Christianity, byadopting books of a long past age, placed in the path of humandevelopment a particularly nasty stumbling-block. It may occur to one towonder how history might have been altered --altered it surely would havebeen--if the Christians had cut Jehovah out of their programme and,content with the New Testament, had rejected the inspiration of the Old.

Under Constantine the Great and his successors, edict after edictfulminated against the worship of the old pagan gods and againstheretical Christian sects. Julian the Apostate, who in his brief reign(A.D. 361-3) sought to revive the old order of things, proclaimeduniversal toleration, but he placed Christians at a disadvantage byforbidding them to teach in schools. This was only a momentary check.Paganism was finally shattered by the severe laws of Theodosius I (endof fourth century). It lingered on here and there for more than anothercentury, especially at Rome and Athens, but had little importance. TheChristians were more concerned in striving among themselves than in

[55] crushing the prostrate spirit of antiquity. The execution of theheretic Priscillian in Spain (fourth century) inaugurated the punishmentof heresy by death. It is interesting to see a non-Christian of this ageteaching the Christian sects that they should suffer one another.Themistius in an address to the Emperor Valens urged him to repeal hisedicts against the Christians with whom he did not agree, and expoundeda theory of toleration. "The religious beliefs of individuals are afield in which the authority of a government cannot be effective;compliance can only lead to hypocritical professions. Every faith shouldbe allowed; the civil government should govern orthodox and heterodox tothe common good. God himself plainly shows that he wishes various formsof worship; there are many roads by which one can reach him."

No father of the Church has been more esteemed or enjoyed higherauthority than St. Augustine (died A.D. 410). He formulated theprinciple of persecution for the guidance of future generations, basingit on the firm foundation of Scripture--on words used by Jesus Christ inone of his parables, "Compel them to come in." Till the end of thetwelfth century the Church worked hard to suppress heterodoxies. Therewas much

[56] persecution, but it was not systematic. There is reason to thinkthat in the pursuit of heresy the Church was mainly guided byconsiderations of its temporal interest, and was roused to severe actiononly when the spread of false doctrine threatened to reduce its revenuesor seemed a menace to society. At the end of the twelfth centuryInnocent III became Pope and under him the Church of Western Europereached the height of its power. He and his immediate successors areresponsible for imagining and beginning an organized movement to sweepheretics out of Christendom. Languedoc in Southwestern France waslargely populated by heretics, whose opinions were consideredparticularly offensive, known as the Albigeois. They were the subjectsof the Count of Toulouse, and were an industrious and respectablepeople. But the Church got far too little money out of this anti-clerical population, and Innocent called upon the Count to extirpateheresy from his dominion. As he would not obey, the Pope announced aCrusade against the Albigeois, and offered to all who would bear a handthe usual rewards granted to Crusaders, including absolution from alltheir sins. A series of sanguinary wars followed in which theEnglishman, Simon de Montfort, took part. There were

[57] wholesale burnings and hangings of men, women and children. Theresistance of the people was broken down, though the heresy was noteradicated, and the struggle ended in 1229 with the complete humiliationof the Count of Toulouse. The important point of the episode is this:the Church introduced into the public law of Europe the new principlethat a sovran held his crown on the condition that he should extirpateheresy. If he hesitated to persecute at the command of the Pope, he mustbe coerced; his lands were forfeited; and his dominions were thrown opento be seized by any one whom the Church could induce to attack him. ThePopes thus established a theocratic system in which all other interestswere to be subordinated to the grand duty of maintaining the purity ofthe Faith.

But in order to root out heresy it was necessary to discover it in itsmost secret retreats. The Albigeois had been crushed, but the poison oftheir doctrine was not yet destroyed. The organized system of searchingout heretics known as the Inquisition was founded by Pope Gregory IXabout A.D. 1233, and fully established by a Bull of Innocent IV (A.D.1252) which regulated the machinery of persecution "as an integral partof the social edifice in every city and every

[58] State." This powerful engine for the suppression of the freedom ofmen's religious opinions is unique in history.

The bishops were not equal to the new talk undertaken by the Church, andin every ecclesiastical province suitable monks were selected and tothem was delegated the authority of the Pope for discovering heretics.These inquisitors had unlimited authority, they were subject to nosupervision and responsible to no man. It would not have been easy toestablish this system but for the fact that contemporary secular rulershad inaugurated independently a merciless legislation against heresy.The Emperor Frederick II, who was himself undoubtedly a freethinker,made laws for his extensive dominions in Italy and Germany (between 1220and 1235), enacting that all heretics should be outlawed, that those whodid not recant should be burned, those who recanted should beimprisoned, but if they relapsed should be executed; that their propertyshould be confiscated, their houses destroyed, and their children, tothe second generation, ineligible to positions of emolument unless theyhad betrayed their father or some other heretic.

Frederick's legislation consecrated the stake as the proper punishmentfor heresy. This

[59] cruel form of death for that crime seems to have been firstinflicted on heretics by a French king (1017). We must remember that inthe Middle Ages, and much later, crimes of all kinds were punished withthe utmost cruelty. In England in the reign of Henry VIII there is acase of prisoners being boiled to death. Heresy was the foulest of allcrimes; and to prevail against it was to prevail against the legions ofhell. The cruel enactments against heretics were strongly supported bythe public opinion of the masses.

When the Inquisition was fully developed it covered Western Christendomwith a net from the meshes of which it was difficult for a heretic toescape. The inquisitors in the various kingdoms co-operated, andcommunicated information; there was "a chain of tribunals throughoutcontinental Europe." England stood outside the system, but from the ageof Henry IV and Henry V the government repressed heresy by the stakeunder a special statute (A.D. 1400; repealed 1533; revived under Mary;finally repealed in 1676).

In its task of imposing unity of belief the Inquisition was mostsuccessful in Spain. Here towards the end of the fifteenth century asystem was instituted which had peculiarities of its own and was veryjealous of

[60] Roman interference. One of the achievements of the SpanishInquisition (which was not abolished till the nineteenth century) was toexpel the Moriscos or converted Moors, who retained many of their oldMohammedan opinions and customs. It is also said to have eradicatedJudaism and to have preserved the country from the zeal of Protestantmissionaries. But it cannot be proved that it deserves the credit ofhaving protected Spain against Protestantism, for it is quite possiblethat if the seeds of Protestant opinion had been sown they would, in anycase, have fallen dead on an uncongenial soil. Freedom of thoughthowever was entirely suppressed.

One of the most efficacious means for hunting down heresy was the "Edictof Faith," which enlisted the people in the service of the Inquisitionand required every man to be an informer. From time to time a certaindistrict was visited and an edict issued commanding those who knewanything of any heresy to come forward and reveal it, under fearfulpenalties temporal and spiritual. In consequence, no one was free fromthe suspicion of his neighbours or even of his own family. "No moreingenious device has been invented to subjugate a whole population, toparalyze its intellect, and to reduce it

[61] to blind obedience. It elevated delation to the rank of highreligious duty."

The process employed in the trials of those accused of heresy in Spainrejected every reasonable means for the ascertainment of truth. Theprisoner was assumed to be guilty, the burden of proving his innocencerested on him; his judge was virtually his prosecutor. All witnessesagainst him, however infamous, were admitted. The rules for allowingwitnesses for the prosecution were lax; those for rejecting witnessesfor the defence were rigid. Jews, Moriscos, and servants could giveevidence against the prisoner but not for him, and the same rule appliedto kinsmen to the fourth degree. The principle on which the Inquisitionproceeded was that better a hundred innocent should suffer than oneguilty person escape. Indulgences were granted to any one whocontributed wood to the pile. But the tribunal of the Inquisition didnot itself condemn to the stake, for the Church must not be guilty ofthe shedding of blood. The ecclesiastical judge pronounced the prisonerto be a heretic of whose conversion there was no hope, and handed himover ("relaxed" him was the official term) to the secular authority,asking and charging the magistrate "to treat him benignantly andmercifully." But this

[62] formal plea for mercy could not be entertained by the civil power;it had no choice but to inflict death; if it did otherwise, it was apromoter of heresy. All princes and officials, according to the CanonLaw, must punish duly and promptly heretics handed over to them by theInquisition, under pain of excommunication. It is to be noted that thenumber of deaths at the stake has been much over-estimated by popularimagination; but the sum of suffering caused by the methods of thesystem and the punishments that fell short of death can hardly beexaggerated.

The legal processes employed by the Church in these persecutionsexercised a corrupting influence on the criminal jurisprudence of theContinent. Lea, the historian of the Inquisition, observes: "Of all thecurses which the Inquisition brought in its train, this perhaps was thegreatest--that, until the closing years of the eighteenth century,throughout the greater part of Europe, the inquisitorial process, asdeveloped for the destruction of heresy, became the customary method ofdealing with all who were under any accusation."

The Inquisitors who, as Gibbon says, "defended nonsense by cruelties,"are often regarded as monsters. It may be said for them and for thekings who did their will that

[63] they were not a bit worse than the priests and monarchs ofprimitive ages who sacrificed human beings to their deities. The Greekking, Agamemnon, who immolated his daughter Iphigenia to obtainfavourable winds from the gods, was perhaps a most affectionate father,and the seer who advised him to do so may have been a man of highintegrity. They acted according to their beliefs. And so in the MiddleAges and afterwards men of kindly temper and the purest zeal formorality were absolutely devoid of mercy where heresy was suspected.Hatred of heresy was a sort of infectious germ, generated by thedoctrine of exclusive salvation.

It has been observed that this dogma also injured the sense of truth. Asman's eternal fate was at stake, it seemed plainly legitimate or ratherimperative to use any means to enforce the true belief--even falsehoodand imposture. There was no scruple about the invention of miracles orany fictions that were edifying. A disinterested appreciation of truthwill not begin to prevail till the seventeenth century.

While this principle, with the associated doctrines of sin, hell, andthe last judgment, led to such consequences, there were other doctrinesand implications in Christianity which, forming a solid rampart againstthe

[64] advance of knowledge, blocked the paths of science in the MiddleAges, and obstructed its progress till the latter half of the nineteenthcentury. In every important field of scientific research, the ground wasoccupied by false views which the Church declared to be true on theinfallible authority of the Bible. The Jewish account of Creation andthe Fall of Man, inextricably bound up with the Christian theory ofRedemption, excluded from free inquiry geology, zoology, andanthropology. The literal interpretation of the Bible involved the truththat the sun revolves round the earth. The Church condemned the theoryof the antipodes. One of the charges against Servetus (who was burned inthe sixteenth century; see below, p. 79) was that he believed thestatement of a Greek geographer that Judea is a wretched barren countryin spite of the fact that the Bible describes it as a land flowing withmilk and honey. The Greek physician Hippocrates had based the study ofmedicine and disease on experience and methodical research. In theMiddle Ages men relapsed to the primitive notions of a barbarous age.Bodily ailments were ascribed to occult agencies--the malice of the Devilor the wrath of God. St. Augustine said that the diseases of Christianswere caused by demons,

[65] and Luther in the same way attributed them to Satan. It was onlylogical that supernatural remedies should be sought to counteract theeffects of supernatural causes. There was an immense traffic in relicswith miraculous virtues, and this had the advantage of bringing in alarge revenue to the Church. Physicians were often exposed to suspicionsof sorcery and unbelief. Anatomy was forbidden, partly perhaps onaccount of the doctrine of the resurrection of the body. The oppositionof ecclesiastics to inoculation in the eighteenth century was a survivalof the mediaeval view of disease. Chemistry (alchemy) was considered adiabolical art and in 1317 was condemned by the Pope. The longimprisonment of Roger Bacon (thirteenth century) who, while he professedzeal for orthodoxy, had an inconvenient instinct for scientificresearch, illustrates the mediaeval distrust of science.

It is possible that the knowledge of nature would have progressedlittle, even if this distrust of science on theological grounds had notprevailed. For Greek science had ceased to advance five hundred yearsbefore Christianity became powerful. After about 200 B.C. no importantdiscoveries were made. The explanation of this decay is not easy, but wemay be sure that it is to be sought in the

[66] social conditions of the Greek and Roman world. And we may suspectthat the social conditions of the Middle Ages would have provedunfavourable to the scientific spirit-- the disinterested quest offacts--even if the controlling beliefs had not been hostile. We maysuspect that the rebirth of science would in any case have beenpostponed till new social conditions, which began to appear in thethirteenth century (see next Chapter), had reached a certain maturity.Theological prejudice may have injured knowledge principally by itssurvival after the Middle Ages had passed away. In other words, the harmdone by Christian doctrines, in this respect, may lie less in theobscurantism of the dark interval between ancient and moderncivilization, than in the obstructions which they offered when sciencehad revived in spite of them and could no longer be crushed.

The firm belief in witchcraft, magic, and demons was inherited by theMiddle Ages from antiquity, but it became far more lurid and made theworld terrible. Men believed that they were surrounded by fiendswatching for every opportunity to harm them, that pestilences, storms,eclipses, and famines were the work of the Devil; but they believed asfirmly that ecclesiastical rites were capable of coping with theseenemies. Some of the

[67] early Christian Emperors legislated against magic, but till thefourteenth century there was no systematic attempt to root outwitchcraft. The fearful epidemic, known as the Black Death, whichdevastated Europe in that century, seems to have aggravated the hauntingterror of the invisible world of demons. Trials for witchcraftmultiplied, and for three hundred years the discovery of witchcraft andthe destruction of those who were accused of practising it, chieflywomen, was a standing feature of European civilization. Both the theoryand the persecution were supported by Holy Scripture. "Thou shalt notsuffer a witch to live" was the clear injunction of the highestauthority. Pope Innocent VIII issued a Bull on the matter (1484) inwhich he asserted that plagues and storms are the work of witches, andthe ablest minds believed in the reality of their devilish powers.

No story is more painful than the persecution of witches, and nowherewas it more atrocious than in England and Scotland. I mention it becauseit was the direct result of theological doctrines, and because, as weshall see, it was rationalism which brought the long chapter of horrorsto an end.

In the period, then, in which the Church exercised its greatestinfluence, reason was

[68] enchained in the prison which Christianity had built around thehuman mind. It was not indeed inactive, but its activity took the formof heresy; or, to pursue the metaphor, those who broke chains wereunable for the most part to scale the walls of the prison; their freedomextended only so far as to arrive at beliefs, which, like orthodoxyitself, were based on Christian mythology. There were some exceptions tothe rule. At the end of the twelfth century a stimulus from anotherworld began to make itself felt. The philosophy of Aristotle becameknown to learned men in Western Christendom; their teachers were Jewsand Mohammedans. Among the Mohammedans there was a certain amount offree thought, provoked by their knowledge of ancient Greek speculation.The works of the freethinker Averroes (twelfth century) which were basedon Aristotle's philosophy, propagated a small wave of rationalism inChristian countries. Averroes held the eternity of matter and denied theimmortality of the soul; his general view may be described as pantheism.But he sought to avoid difficulties with the orthodox authorities ofIslam by laying down the doctrine of double truth, that is thecoexistence of two independent and contradictory truths, the onephilosophical, and the other religious. This

[69] did not save him from being banished from the court of the Spanishcaliph. In the University of Paris his teaching produced a school offreethinkers who held that the Creation, the resurrection of the body,and other essential dogmas, might be true from the standpoint ofreligion but are false from the standpoint of reason. To a plain mindthis seems much as if one said that the doctrine of immortality is trueon Sundays but not on week-days, or that the Apostles' Creed is false inthe drawing-room and true in the kitchen. This dangerous movement wascrushed, and the saving principle of double truth condemned, by PopeJohn XXI. The spread of Averroistic and similar speculations calledforth the Theology of Thomas, of Aquino in South Italy (died 1274), amost subtle thinker, whose mind had a natural turn for scepticism. Heenlisted Aristotle, hitherto the guide of infidelity, on the side oforthodoxy, and constructed an ingenious Christian philosophy which isstill authoritative in the Roman Church. But Aristotle and reason aredangerous allies for faith, and the treatise of Thomas is perhaps morecalculated to unsettle a believing mind by the doubts which itpowerfully states than to quiet the scruples of a doubter by itssolutions.

There must always have been some private

[70] and underground unbelief here and there, which did not lead to anyserious consequences. The blasphemous statement that the world had beendeceived by three impostors, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed, was current inthe thirteenth century. It was attributed to the freethinking EmperorFrederick II (died 1250), who has been described as "the first modernman." The same idea, in a milder form, was expressed in the story of theThree Rings, which is at least as old. A Mohammedan ruler, desiring toextort money from a rich Jew, summoned him to his court and laid a snarefor him. "My friend," he said, "I have often heard it reported that thouart a very wise man. Tell me therefore which of the three religions,that of the Jews, that of the Mohammedans, and that of the Christians,thou believest to be the truest." The Jew saw that a trap was laid forhim and answered as follows: "My lord, there was once a rich man whoamong his treasures had a ring of such great value that he wished toleave it as a perpetual heirloom to his successors. So he made a willthat whichever of his sons should be found in possession of this ringafter his death should be considered his heir. The son to whom he gavethe ring acted in the same way as his father, and so the ring passedfrom hand to

[71] hand. At last it came into the possession of a man who had threesons whom he loved equally. Unable to make up his mind to which of themhe should leave the ring, he promised it to each of them privately, andthen in order to satisfy them all caused a goldsmith to make two otherrings so closely resembling the true ring that he was unable todistinguish them himself. On his death-bed he gave each of them a ring,and each claimed to be his heir, but no one could prove his titlebecause the rings were indistinguishable, and the suit at law lasts tillthis day. It is even so, my lord, with the three religions, given by Godto the three peoples. They each think they have the true religion, butwhich of them really has it, is a question, like that of the rings,still undecided." This sceptical story became famous in the eighteenthcentury, when the German poet, Lessing, built upon it his drama Nathanthe Sage, which was intended to show the unreasonableness ofintolerance.

CHAPTER IV

PROSPECT OF DELIVERANCE

(THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION)

THE intellectual and social movement which was to dispel the darkness ofthe

[72] Middle Ages and prepare the way for those who would ultimatelydeliver reason from her prison, began in Italy in the thirteenthcentury. The misty veil woven of credulity and infantile naivete whichhad hung over men's souls and protected them from understanding eitherthemselves or their relation to the world began to lift. The individualbegan to feel his separate individuality, to be conscious of his ownvalue as a person apart from his race or country (as in the later agesof Greece and Rome); and the world around him began to emerge from themists of mediaeval dreams. The change was due to the political andsocial conditions of the little Italian States, of which some wererepublics and others governed by tyrants.

To the human world, thus unveiling itself, the individual who sought tomake it serve his purposes required a guide; and the guide was found inthe ancient literature of Greece and Rome. Hence the wholetransformation, which presently extended from Italy to Northern Europe,is known as the Renaissance, or rebirth of classical antiquity. But theawakened interest in classical literature while it coloured thecharacter and stimulated the growth of the movement, supplying newideals and suggesting new points of view, was only the form in which thechange of spirit

[73] began to express itself in the fourteenth century. The change mightconceivably have taken some other shape. Its true name is Humanism.

At the time men hardly felt that they were passing into a new age ofcivilization, nor did the culture of the Renaissance immediately produceany open or general intellectual rebellion against orthodox beliefs. Theworld was gradually assuming an aspect decidedly unfriendly to theteaching of mediaeval orthodoxy; but there was no explosion ofhostility; it was not till the seventeenth century that war betweenreligion and authority was systematically waged. The humanists were nothostile to theological authority or to the claims of religious dogma;but they had discovered a purely human curiosity about this world and itabsorbed their interest. They idolized pagan literature which aboundedin poisonous germs; the secular side of education became all-important;religion and theology were kept in a separate compartment. Somespeculative minds, which were sensitive to the contradiction, might seekto reconcile the old religion with new ideas; but the general tendencyof thinkers in the Renaissance period was to keep the two worldsdistinct, and to practise outward conformity to the creed without anyreal intellectual submission.

[74]

I may illustrate this double-facedness of the Renaissance by Montaigne(second half of sixteenth century). His Essays make for rationalism, butcontain frequent professions of orthodox Catholicism, in which he wasperfectly sincere. There is no attempt to reconcile the two points ofview; in fact, he takes the sceptical position that there is no bridgebetween reason and religion. The human intellect is incapable in thedomain of theology, and religion must be placed aloft, out of reach andbeyond the interference of reason; to be humbly accepted. But while hehumbly accepted it, on sceptical grounds which would have induced him toaccept Mohammadanism if he had been born in Cairo, his soul was not inits dominion. It was the philosophers and wise men of antiquity, Cicero,and Seneca, and Plutarch, who moulded and possessed his mind. It is tothem, and not to the consolations of Christianity, that he turns when hediscusses the problem of death. The religious wars in France which hewitnessed and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (1572) werecalculated to confirm him in his scepticism. His attitude to persecutionis expressed in the remark that "it is setting a high value on one'sopinions to roast men on account of them."

The logical results of Montaigne's scepticism

[75] were made visible by his friend Charron, who published a book OnWisdom in 1601. Here it is taught that true morality is not founded onreligion, and the author surveys the history of Christianity to show theevils which it had produced. He says of immortality that it is the mostgenerally received doctrine, the most usefully believed, and the mostweakly established by human reasons; but he modified this and some otherpassages in a second edition. A contemporary Jesuit placed Charron inthe catalogue of the most dangerous and wicked atheists. He was really adeist; but in those days, and long after, no one scrupled to call a non-Christian deist an atheist. His book would doubtless have beensuppressed and he would have suffered but for the support of King HenryIV. It has a particular interest because it transports us directly fromthe atmosphere of the Renaissance, represented by Montaigne, into thenew age of more or less aggressive rationalism.

What Humanism did in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries,at first in Italy, then in other countries, was to create anintellectual atmosphere in which the emancipation of reason could beginand knowledge could resume its progress. The period saw the invention ofprinting and

[76] the discovery of new parts of the globe, and these things were toaid powerfully in the future defeat of authority.

But the triumph of freedom depended on other causes also; it was not tobe brought about by the intellect alone. The chief political facts ofthe period were the decline of the power of the Pope in Europe, thedecay of the Holy Roman Empire, and the growth of strong monarchies, inwhich worldly interests determined and dictated ecclesiastical policy,and from which the modern State was to develop. The success of theReformation was made possible by these conditions. Its victory in NorthGermany was due to the secular interest of the princes, who profited bythe confiscation of Church lands. In England there was no popularmovement; the change was carried through by the government for its ownpurposes.

The principal cause of the Reformation was the general corruption of theChurch and the flagrancy of its oppression. For a long time the Papacyhad had no higher aim than to be a secular power exploiting itsspiritual authority for the purpose of promoting its worldly interests,by which it was exclusively governed. All the European States basedtheir diplomacy on this assumption. Since the fourteenth century everyone acknowledged

[77] the need of reforming the Church, and reform had been promised, butthings went from bad to worse, and there was no resource but rebellion.The rebellion led by Luther was the result not of a revolt of reasonagainst dogmas, but of widely spread anti-clerical feeling due to theecclesiastical methods of extorting money, particularly by the sale ofIndulgences, the most glaring abuse of the time. It was his study of thetheory of Papal Indulgences that led Luther on to his theologicalheresies.

It is an elementary error, but one which is still shared by many peoplewho have read history superficially, that the Reformation establishedreligious liberty and the right of private judgment. What it did was tobring about a new set of political and social conditions, under whichreligious liberty could ultimately be secured, and, by virtue of itsinherent inconsistencies, to lead to results at which its leaders wouldhave shuddered. But nothing was further from the minds of the leadingReformers than the toleration of doctrines differing from their own.They replaced one authority by another. They set up the authority of theBible instead of that of the Church, but it was the Bible according toLuther or the Bible according to Calvin. So far as the spirit ofintolerance went, there

[78] was nothing to choose between the new and the old Churches. Thereligious wars were not for the cause of freedom, but for particularsets of doctrines; and in France, if the Protestants had beenvictorious, it is certain that they would not have given more liberalterms to the Catholics than the Catholics gave to them.

Luther was quite opposed to liberty of conscience and worship, adoctrine which was inconsistent with Scripture as he read it. He mightprotest against coercion and condemn the burning of heretics, when hewas in fear that he and his party might be victims, but when he was safeand in power, he asserted his real view that it was the duty of theState to impose the true doctrine and exterminate heresy, which was anabomination, that unlimited obedience to their prince in religious as inother matters was the duty of subjects, and that the end of the Statewas to defend the faith. He held that Anabaptists should be put to thesword. With Protestants and Catholics alike the dogma of exclusivesalvation led to the same place.

Calvin's fame for intolerance is blackest. He did not, like Luther,advocate the absolute power of the civil ruler; he stood for the controlof the State by the Church--a form of government which is commonly calledtheocracy;

[79] and he established a theocracy at Geneva. Here liberty wascompletely crushed; false doctrines were put down by imprisonment,exile, and death. The punishment of Servetus is the most famous exploitof Calvin's warfare against heresy. The Spaniard Servetus, who hadwritten against the dogma of the Trinity, was imprisoned at Lyons(partly through the machinations of Calvin) and having escaped camerashly to Geneva. He was tried for heresy and committed to the flames(1553), though Geneva had no jurisdiction over him. Melanchthon, whoformulated the principles of persecution, praised this act as amemorable example to posterity. Posterity however was one day to beashamed of that example. In 1903 the Calvinists of Geneva felt impelledto erect an expiatory monument, in which Calvin "our great Reformer" isexcused as guilty of an error "which was that of his century."

Thus the Reformers, like the Church from which they parted, carednothing for freedom, they only cared for "truth." If the mediaeval idealwas to purge the world of heretics, the object of the Protestant was toexclude all dissidents from his own land. The people at large were to bedriven into a fold, to accept their faith at the command of theirsovran. This was the principle laid down in the

[80] religious peace which (1555) composed the struggle between theCatholic Emperor and the Protestant German princes. It was recognized byCatherine de' Medici when she massacred the French Protestants andsignified to Queen Elizabeth that she might do likewise with EnglishCatholics.

Nor did the Protestant creeds represent enlightenment. The Reformationon the Continent was as hostile to enlightenment as it was to liberty;and science, if it seemed to contradict the Bible, has as little chancewith Luther as with the Pope. The Bible, interpreted by the Protestantsor the Roman Church, was equally fatal to witches. In Germany thedevelopment of learning received a long set-back.

Yet the Reformation involuntarily helped the cause of liberty. Theresult was contrary to the intentions of its leaders, was indirect, andlong delayed. In the first place, the great rent in WesternChristianity, substituting a number of theological authorities insteadof one--several gods, we may say, instead of one God--produced a weakeningof ecclesiastical authority in general. The religious tradition wasbroken. In the second place, in the Protestant States, the supremeecclesiastical power was vested in the sovran; the sovran had otherinterests besides those of

[81] the Church to consider; and political reasons would compel himsooner or later to modify the principle of ecclesiastical intolerance.Catholic States in the same way were forced to depart from the duty ofnot suffering heretics. The religious wars in France ended in a limitedtoleration of Protestants. The policy of Cardinal Richelieu, whosupported the Protestant cause in Germany, illustrates how secularinterests obstructed the cause of faith.

Again, the intellectual justification of the Protestant rebellionagainst the Church had been the right of private judgment, that is, theprinciple of religious liberty. But the Reformers had asserted it onlyfor themselves, and as soon as they had framed their own articles offaith, they had practically repudiated it. This was the most glaringinconsistency in the Protestant position; and the claim which they hadthrust aside could not be permanently suppressed. Once more, theProtestant doctrines rested on an insecure foundation which no logiccould defend, and inevitably led from one untenable position to another.If we are to believe on authority, why should we prefer the upstartdictation of the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg or the English Thirty-nine Articles to the venerable authority of the Church of Rome? If wedecide against Rome, we must do so by means

[82] of reason; but once we exercise reason in the matter, why should westop where Luther or Calvin or any of the other rebels stopped, unlesswe assume that one of them was inspired? If we reject superstitionswhich they rejected, there is nothing except their authority to preventus from rejecting all or some of the superstitions which they retained.Moreover, their Bible-worship promoted results which they did notforesee. [1] The inspired record on which the creeds depend became anopen book. Public attention was directed to it as never before, thoughit cannot be said to have been universally read before the nineteenthcentury. Study led to criticism, the difficulties of the dogma ofinspiration were appreciated, and the Bible was ultimately to besubmitted to a remorseless dissection which has altered at least thequality of its authority in the eyes of intelligent believers. Thisprocess of Biblical criticism has been conducted mainly in a Protestantatmosphere and the new position in which the Bible was placed by theReformation must be held partly accountable. In these ways,Protestantism was adapted to be a stepping-stone to rationalism, andthus served the cause of freedom.

[83]

That cause however was powerfully and directly promoted by one sect ofReformers, who in the eyes of all the others were blasphemers and ofwhom most people never think when they talk of the Reformation. I meanthe Socinians. Of their far-reaching influence something will be said inthe next chapter.

Another result of the Reformation has still to be mentioned, itsrenovating effect on the Roman Church, which had now to fight for itsexistence. A new series of Popes who were in earnest about religionbegan with Paul III (1534) and reorganized the Papacy and its resourcesfor a struggle of centuries. [2] The institution of the Jesuit order,the establishment of the Inquisition at Rome, the Council of Trent, thecensorship of the Press (Index of Forbidden Books) were the expressionof the new spirit and the means to cope with the new situation. Thereformed Papacy was good fortune for believing children of the Church,but what here concerns us is that one of its chief objects was torepress freedom more effectually. Savonarola who preached right livingat Florence had been executed (1498) under Pope Alexander VI who was anotorious profligate. If Savonarola had lived

[84] in the new era he might have been canonized, but Giordano Bruno wasburned.

Giordano Bruno had constructed a religious philosophy, based partly uponEpicurus, from whom he took the theory of the infinity of the universe.But Epicurean materialism was transformed into a pantheistic mysticismby the doctrine that God is the soul of matter. Accepting the recentdiscovery of Copernicus, which Catholics and Protestants alike rejected,that the earth revolves round the sun, Bruno took the further step ofregarding the fixed stars as suns, each with its invisible satellites.He sought to come to an understanding with the Bible, which (he held)being intended for the vulgar had to accommodate itself to theirprejudices. Leaving Italy, because he was suspected of heresy, he livedsuccessively in Switzerland, France, England, and Germany, and in 1592,induced by a false friend to return to Venice he was seized by order ofthe Inquisition. Finally condemned in Rome, he was burned (1600) in theCampo de' Fiori, where a monument now stands in his honour, erected someyears ago, to the great chagrin of the Roman Church.

Much is made of the fate of Bruno because he is one of the world'sfamous men. No country has so illustrious a victim of that era tocommemorate as Italy, but in other lands

[85] blood just as innocent was shed for heterodox opinions. In Francethere was rather more freedom than elsewhere under the relativelytolerant government of Henry IV and of the Cardinals Richelieu andMazarin, till about 1660. But at Toulouse (1619) Lucilio Vanini, alearned Italian who like Bruno wandered about Europe, was convicted asan atheist and blasphemer; his tongue was torn out and he was burned.Protestant England, under Elizabeth and James I, did not lag behind theRoman Inquisition, but on account of the obscurity of the victims herzeal for faith has been unduly forgotten. Yet, but for an accident, shemight have covered herself with the glory of having done to death aheretic not less famous than Giordano Bruno. The poet Marlowe wasaccused of atheism, but while the prosecution was hanging over him hewas killed in a sordid quarrel in a tavern (1593). Another dramatist(Kyd) who was implicated in the charge was put to the torture. At thesame time Sir Walter Raleigh was prosecuted for unbelief but notconvicted. Others were not so fortunate. Three or four persons wereburned at Norwich in the reign of Elizabeth for unchristian doctrines,among them Francis Kett who had been a Fellow of Corpus Christi,Cambridge. Under James I, who

[86] interested himself personally in such matters, Bartholomew Legatewas charged with holding various pestilent opinions. The king summonedhim to his presence and asked him whether he did not pray daily to JesusChrist. Legate replied he had prayed to Christ in the days of hisignorance, but not for the last seven years. "Away, base fellow," saidJames, spurning him with his foot, "it shall never be said that onestayeth in my palace that hath never prayed to our Saviour for sevenyears together." Legate, having been imprisoned for some time inNewgate, was declared an incorrigible heretic and burned at Smithfield(1611). Just a month later, one Wightman was burned at Lichfield, by theBishop of Coventry, for heterodox doctrines. It is possible that publicopinion was shocked by these two burnings. They were the last cases inEngland of death for unbelief. Puritan intolerance, indeed, passed anordinance in 1648, by which all who denied the Trinity, Christ'sdivinity, the inspiration of Scripture, or a future state, were liableto death, and persons guilty of other heresies, to imprisonment. Butthis did not lead to any executions.

The Renaissance age saw the first signs of the beginning of modernscience, but the mediaeval prejudices against the investigation

[87] of nature were not dissipated till the seventeenth century, and inItaly they continued to a much later period. The history of modernastronomy begins in 1543, with the publication of the work of Copernicusrevealing the truth about the motions of the earth. The appearance ofthis work is important in the history of free thought, because it raiseda clear and definite issue between science and Scripture; and Osiander,who edited it (Copernicus was dying), forseeing the outcry it wouldraise, stated untruly in the preface that the earth's motion was putforward only as a hypothesis. The theory was denounced by Catholics andReformers, and it did not convince some men (e.g. Bacon) who were notinfluenced by theological prejudice. The observations of the Italianastronomer Galileo de' Galilei demonstrated the Copernican theory beyondquestion. His telescope discovered the moons of Jupiter, and hisobservation of the spots in the sun confirmed the earth's rotation. Inthe pulpits of Florence, where he lived under the protection of theGrand Duke, his sensational discoveries were condemned. "Men of Galilee,why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" He was then denounced to the HolyOffice of the Inquisition by two Dominican monks. Learning that hisinvestigations were being considered

[88] at Rome, Galileo went thither, confident that he would be able toconvince the ecclesiastical authorities of the manifest truth ofCopernicanism. He did not realize what theology was capable of. InFebruary 1616 the Holy Office decided that the Copernican system was initself absurd, and, in respect of Scripture, heretical. CardinalBellarmin, by the Pope's direction, summoned Galileo and officiallyadmonished him to abandon his opinion and cease to teach it, otherwisethe Inquisition would proceed against him. Galileo promised to obey. Thebook of Copernicus was placed on the Index. It has been remarked thatGalileo's book on Solar Spots contains no mention of Scripture, and thusthe Holy Office, in its decree which related to that book, passedjudgment on a scientific, not a theological, question.

Galileo was silenced for a while, but it was impossible for him to bemute for ever. Under a new Pope (Urban VIII) he looked for greaterliberty, and there were many in the Papal circle who were well disposedto him. He hoped to avoid difficulties by the device of placing thearguments for the old and the new theories side by side, and pretendingnot to judge between them. He wrote a treatise on the two systems (thePtolemaic and the Copernican) in the form

[89] of Dialogues, of which the preface declares that the purpose is toexplain the pros and cons of the two views. But the spirit of the workis Copernican. He received permission, quite definite as he thought,from Father Riccardi (master of the Sacred Palace) to print it, and itappeared in 1632. The Pope however disapproved of it, the book wasexamined by a commission, and Galileo was summoned before theInquisition. He was old and ill, and the humiliations which he had toendure are a painful story. He would probably have been more severelytreated, if one of the members of the tribunal had not been a man ofscientific training (Macolano, a Dominican), who was able to appreciatehis ability. Under examination, Galileo denied that he had upheld themotion of the earth in the Dialogues, and asserted that he had shown thereasons of Copernicus to be inconclusive. This defence was in accordancewith the statement in his preface, but contradicted his deepestconviction. In struggling with such a tribunal, it was the only linewhich a man who was not a hero could take. At a later session, he forcedhimself ignominiously to confess that some of the arguments on theCopernican side had been put too strongly and to declare himself readyto confute the

[90] theory. In the final examination, he was threatened with torture.He said that before the decree of 1616 he had held the truth of theCopernican system to be arguable, but since then he had held thePtolemaic to be true. Next day, he publicly abjured the scientific truthwhich he had demonstrated. He was allowed to retire to the country, oncondition that he saw no one. In the last months of his life he wrote toa friend to this effect: "The falsity of the Copernican system cannot bedoubted, especially by us Catholics. It is refuted by the irrefragableauthority of Scripture. The conjectures of Copernicus and his discipleswere all disposed of by the one solid argument: God's omnipotence canoperate in infinitely various ways. If something appears to ourobservation to happen in one particular way, we must not curtail God'sarm, and sustain a thing in which we may be deceived." The irony isevident.

Rome did not permit the truth about the solar system to be taught tillafter the middle of the eighteenth century, and Galileo's books remainedon the Index till 1835. The prohibition was fatal to the study ofnatural science in Italy.

The Roman Index reminds us of the significance of the invention ofprinting in the struggle for freedom of thought, by making

[91] it easy to propagate new ideas far and wide. Authority speedilyrealized the danger, and took measures to place its yoke on the newcontrivance, which promised to be such a powerful ally of reason. PopeAlexander VI inaugurated censorship of the Press by his Bull againstunlicensed printing (1501). In France King Henry II made printingwithout official permission punishable by death. In Germany, censorshipwas introduced in 1529. In England, under Elizabeth, books could not beprinted without a license, and printing presses were not allowed exceptin London, Oxford, and Cambridge; the regulation of the Press was underthe authority of the Star Chamber. Nowhere did the Press become reallyfree till the nineteenth century.

While the Reformation and the renovated Roman Church meant a reactionagainst the Renaissance, the vital changes which the Renaissancesignified--individualism, a new intellectual attitude to the world, thecultivation of secular knowledge--were permanent and destined to lead,amid the competing intolerances of Catholic and Protestant powers, tothe goal of liberty. We shall see how reason and the growth of knowledgeundermined the bases of theological authority. At each step in thisprocess, in which philosophical speculation, historical

[92] criticism, natural science have all taken part, the oppositionbetween reason and faith deepened; doubt, clear or vague, increased; andsecularism, derived from the Humanists, and always implying scepticism,whether latent or conscious, substituted an interest in the fortunes ofthe human race upon earth for the interest in a future world. And alongwith this steady intellectual advance, toleration gained ground andfreedom won more champions. In the meantime the force of politicalcircumstances was compelling governments to mitigate their maintenanceof one religious creed by measures of relief to other Christian sects,and the principle of exclusiveness was broken down for reasons ofworldly expediency. Religious liberty was an important step towardscomplete freedom of opinion.

[1] The danger, however, was felt in Germany, and in the seventeenthcentury the study of Scripture was not encouraged at GermanUniversities.

[2] See Barry, Papacy and Modern Times (in this series), 113 seq.

CHAPTER V

RELIGIOUS TOLERATION

IN the third century B.C. the Indian king Asoka, a man of religious zealbut of tolerant spirit, confronted by the struggle between two hostilereligions (Brahmanism and Buddhism), decided that both should be equallyprivileged and honoured in his dominions. His ordinances on the matterare memorable

[93] as the earliest existing Edicts of toleration. In Europe, as wesaw, the principle of toleration was for the first time definitelyexpressed in the Roman Imperial Edicts which terminated the persecutionof the Christians.

The religious strife of the sixteenth century raised the question in itsmodern form, and for many generations it was one of the chief problemsof statesmen and the subject of endless controversial pamphlets.Toleration means incomplete religious liberty, and there are manydegrees of it. It might be granted to certain Christian sects; it mightbe granted to Christian sects, but these alone; it might be granted toall religions, but not to freethinkers; or to deists, but not toatheists. It might mean the concession of some civil rights, but not ofothers; it might mean the exclusion of those who are tolerated frompublic offices or from certain professions. The religious liberty nowenjoyed in Western lands has been gained through various stages oftoleration.

We owe the modern principle of toleration to the Italian group ofReformers, who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity and were the fathersof Unitarianism. The Reformation movement had spread to Italy, but Romewas successful in suppressing it, and many heretics fled to Switzerland.The anti-Trinitarian

[94] group were forced by the intolerance of Calvin to flee toTransylvania and Poland where they propagated their doctrines. TheUnitarian creed was moulded by Fausto Sozzini, generally known asSocinus, and in the catechism of his sect (1574) persecution iscondemned. This repudiation of the use of force in the interest ofreligion is a consequence of the Socinian doctrines. For, unlike Lutherand Calvin, the Socinians conceded such a wide room to individualjudgment in the interpretation of Scripture that to impose Socinianismwould have been inconsistent with its principles. In other words, therewas a strong rationalistic element which was lacking in the Trinitariancreeds.

It was under the influence of the Socinian spirit that Castellion ofSavoy sounded the trumpet of toleration in a pamphlet denouncing theburning of Servetus, whereby he earned the malignant hatred of Calvin.He maintained the innocence of error and ridiculed the importance whichthe Churches laid on obscure questions such as predestination and theTrinity. "To discuss the difference between the Law and the Gospel,