​Man has been fermenting grain, fruit and honey to make alcohol for thousands of years, with the first evidence of an early alcoholic drink being recorded in China around 7000 B.C.

By the sixteenth century, alcohol, referred to as spirits, was predominately used within medical practice, and by the beginning of the eighteenth century, British parliament passed a law encouraging the use of grain for distilling spirits. Subsequently, cheap spirits flooded the market and by the mid eighteenth century the consumption of gin had reached 18 million gallons and alcoholism became widespread.

- Alcohol, a short story. Drug free world

On average every person in the world aged 15 years and older drinks 6.2 litres of pure alcohol per year. According to the WHO, less than half of the world’s population actually drinks alcohol, leaving those who do indulge to consume on average 17 litres of pure alcohol annually. Spirits are the most popular drink type which accounts for 50.1% of all recorded alcohol in the world. Thereafter, beer is the second favorite globally accounting for 34.8%.

A recent report published in The Citizen states South Africa, whilst not ranking in the top 10 alcohol consuming countries world wide, is the "drunkest" country on the African continent. South Africans consumed 11.0 litres of pure alcohol per person in 2010, tipping them as the African country who consumes the most alcohol per capita. South Africa fits into this trend with beer being the most popular drink in the country, followed by wine (8%), other and least enjoyed, spirits.

- The Citizen : SA the 'drunkest' country in Africa

Measuring Alcohol

The South African blood alcohol limit is 0.05g/100ml or 0,24mg/1000ml equating to:

Two thirds of a beer or spirit cooler with 5% alcohol content.

75ml of red or white wine per hour with an alcohol content of 12% to 14% .

Spirits, up to one 25ml tot of alcohol per hour.

​The amount of alcohol contained within the blood stream may be measured by obtaining a:

Blood sample

Urine sample

Analysis of exhaled breath

Further classification of the level of alcohol intoxication may be described as follows:

Sexual violence and rape is known across the world. The high rate of such incidents within South Africa has been met with public outrage, concern, marches, campaigns, parliamentary debate, and in some cases has lead to law reform.

- UNODC 2014

South African legislation makes reference to 59 different sexual offences detailed in the "Sexual Offences and Related Matters Amendment Act of 2007" (SOA). Sexual violence and offences may take many different forms and ranges from unwanted sexual comments to rape and murder and may include:

Sexual assault

Rape and compelled rape

Incest, bestiality and sexual acts with a corpse

Sexual exploitation and grooming of children, as well as of persons who are mentally unstable

44 751 acts of rape where reported between April 1994 and March 1995

By 2010/11 this figure had risen to56 272 ​annually

Sexual assault is thesexual violation of a person without their consent and includes threatsof sexual violation.

​Sexual violation is:

The direct or indirect contact between the genitals, anus or female breasts of one person and another part of the body of another person, animal or object, for example: touching a woman’s breasts without her consent

Contact with the mouth of one person and

the mouth of another person, for example: Kissing someone without their consent

the genitals, anus or breasts of another person

any other part of another person’s body in a way that causes sexual arousal

any object that resembles the genitals, anus or breasts

the genital organs or anus of an animal

inserting an object that resembles human or animal genitals

masturbating someone with the mouth without their consent

​Compelled sexual assault occurs when one individual forces another to commit acts of sexual violation on another individual. Related crimes may include:

Compelled self-sexual assault

Forcing a person to masturbate themselves

Forcing a person to act in a way that is sexually arousing or degrading

Forcing a person to penetrate their own genitals or anus, either with a finger or an object

Similar sexual offences that are committed against adults, children or mentally disabled people:

Exposing genital organs, anus or female breasts to others (flashing) without their consent

Forcing others to watch sex-acts, self-masturbation or sex crimes without their consent

It is also a crime, called Bestiality, if

An individual puts his genital organs into the mouth, anus or genital organs of an animal

An individual puts the genital organs of an animal into their own mouth, genital organs or anus

An individual masturbates an animal

- Borrowed from: http://shukumisa.org.za/sexual-assault/​

Not all forms of sexual violence are defined as crimes with South Africa. Sexual harassment is classified as misconduct and may be dealt with in terms of the labour law and an institutions' disciplinary codes. As a result, some cases of sexual victimization may be not be reported on, and result in the improper collection of statistics. Current statistics show that there are a recorded 172 sexual offences per day.

​Both the treatment of children as sexual objects and the production of erotic literature and drawings involving children have unfortunately existed through out the ages.

Following the rise of general pornography (after the invention of the camera in the early nineteenth century), child pornography proliferated with sexual images involving children being produced, traded and collected.​The majority of imagery remained locally produced, expensive, of poor quality, and difficult to obtain.

Following the relaxation of censorship standards in the 1960's, the availability of child pornography increased, and by 1977 over 250 child pornography magazines where circulating in the United States of America, many of European origin.

​The response of law enforcement over the rising concerns of circulating child pornography saw the destruction and dramatic restriction of traditional hard-copy formats as well as a reduction in actual trafficking. However, after the advent of the internet in the 1980's, a platform was for the resurgence of this type of pornography, with a virtually untraceable method of distribution.

The internet allows ordinary citizens to access child pornography images that may have been produced and stored in other cities, or on other continents. Alternatively, local citizens may produce or distribute images that are accessed and downloaded by thousands of people across the globe. Child pornography is unlike the majority of crimes handled by local police departments. An investigation that begins in one police district may cross jurisdictional boundaries, and most of the major investigations are sure to involve cooperation of law enforcement at an international level.

There is an estimated one million plus pornographic images of children currently on the internet, with 200 new images posted daily. It has been reported that a single child pornography site can receive over one million hits during one month. There are currently somewhere between 50 000 and 100 000 pedophiles involved in organized child pornography rings globally, with one third operating within the USA.

As many of these sites exist for only a brief period of time before they are shut down, estimating the exact number of statistics becomes impossible.

“Domestic violence is any act of physical, mental or sexual violence, and any attempt at such violence, as well as the forcible restriction of individual freedom and of privacy, carried out against individuals who have or have had family or kinship ties or cohabit or dwell in the same home.” -Law on protection Against Violence (2005) Bulgaria, Chapter 1, S. 2

The Domestic Violence Act (1998) of South Africa includes a definition of domestic violence which contains the following clause which embodies the concept of coercive control:“…any other controlling or abusive behavior towards a complainant, where such conduct harms, or may cause imminent harm to, the safety, health, or well-being of the complainant.” Sec.1(viii)(j) The legislation then describes particular acts of abuse, such as economic abuse and emotional, verbal, and psychological abuse, in more detail.

Domestic abuse or spousal abuse occurs when a person in a marriage or an intimate relationship attempts to dominate and control the other person. This type of abuse is often overlooked, excused or denied as there are no physical indications of abuse. Domestic abuse that includes physical violence is termed domestic violence.

This type of abuse does not discriminate and occurs within all economic levels, regardless of ethnic backgrounds and within all age ranges. It occurs among same-sex partnerships as well as heterosexual couples. Although it is commonly believed that woman are often victimized, men also experience abuse, especially emotionally and verbally. Physical abuse experienced by men is not uncommon.

The signs of an abusive relationship:

Do you:

Believe that you deserve to be hurt or mistreated?

Wonder if you are the one who is "crazy"?

Feel emotionally numb or helpless?

Feel afraid of your partner much of the time, or avoid certain topics out of fear at how your partner may respond?

Does your partner belittle you by:

Yelling at you or humiliate you?

Blaming you for their own abusive behavior?

Consider you as property or a sexual object?

Continuously criticizes you or puts you down?

Does your partner exhibit violent behavior or threaten you by:

Destroying your belongings?

Forcing you to have sex?

Threatening to commit suicide if you leave?

Having a bad and unpredictable temper?

Saying they will hurt or kill you?

Does your partner show controlling behavior by:

Controlling where you go and what you do?

Limiting your access to the phone, money or the car?

Constantly check up on you?

Acting excessively jealous and possessive?

Keeping you from seeing your family or friends?

There are many signs of an abusive relationship leading to domestic abuse and violence. FEAR of your partner is the most telling sign that the relationship is abusive and unhealthy.

The emergence of the minibus taxi industry came in the wake of the apartheid government’s policy of economic deregulation (initiated in 1987). Prior to deregulation, African taxi operators had to defy apartheid laws and strict regulations that were prejudicial to Africans. For many commuters, they have become the only viable means of public transportation.

The average minibus taxi covers 8000 km per month, transporting 3161 passengers spending roughly 65 minutes commuting over 2.3 trips per passenger per day. This equates to 14 million people making use of minibus taxi's each day. These Taxi's are by the far the preferred method of transportation by the majority of South Africans.

At the heart of the problem is the persistent struggle over control of this multi-billion randindustry that
carries over 60% of South Africa’s commuters.

When considering the violence associated with minibus taxi's in the Cape Peninsula region, a study entitled From Low Intensity War to Mafia War: Taxi violence in South Africa (1987 - 2000) concluded the following:

• As the state's control over the economy and society has weakened in the course of South Africa's transition, taxi associations have developed as informal agents of regulation, protection and extortion.

• Violent taxi associations called 'mother bodies' have been allowed to develop and expand virtually unchecked by the authorities. These organisations are behind most of the violence that has come to be associated with the industry. Mother bodies have used their considerable firepower and weight to resist recent government attempts to re-regulate the taxi industry and they are symptomatic of more generalized rising levels of organised crime in post-apartheid South Africa.

• Official corruption and collusion are major factors contributing to the continuation of taxi violence. In particular, the ownership of taxis by police and other government personnel directly aids criminality in the industry and exacerbates attempts to resolve the violence.

The South Africa minibus taxi industry has become an over traded highly competitive market, marked by frequent violent interactions. Many believe that the use of violence against commuter clients of the competitor as well as bus service clientele is a means of controlling both prices and competition.

First quoted by Frederick II, king of Prussia when referring to one of his Italian greyhounds, Dog has been Mans best friend for the better part of 40 000 years. Despite this revered relationship, dogs fall victim to much violence and abuse (specifically the pit bull), with North American animal abuse statistics recorded in 2007 as:

64.5% (1,212) involved dogs

18% (337) involved cats

25% (470) involved other animals

Animal Abuse
Animal abuse refers to a wide range of behaviors that may be harmful to animals which may include physical abuse, neglect, knowingly depriving an animal of food and water, shelter or veterinary care if in need. Abuse may also encompass maiming, mutilating, maliciously torturing or purposefully killing an animal.

Why be concerned...
We all know and realize that it is wrong to inflict harm or suffering on a living creature. The intentional pattern of cruelty may indicate an underlying psychological distress and and is often associated with domestic violence, as well as other forms of violence. Up to 30% of children who have witnessed domestic violence will act out similar forms of violence on their pets.

Much of the abusive behavior directed against animals is done so by the youth, through out the ages of childhood and adolescence. Addressing cruelty to animals as a significant form of aggressive and antisocial behavior may add one more piece to the puzzle of understanding and preventing youth violence. Some of the developmental motivations behind animal cruelty may include:

Curiosity or exploration

Peer pressure

Mood enhancement

Sexual gratification

Forced abuse (by a more powerful individual)

Identification with a known abuser

Post traumatic play/ stress

Imitative behavior

Self injury

Vehicle for emotional abuse

To control an animal

Retaliation against an animal

Expressing aggression through an animal

Enhancement of ones own aggression

Shocking people for amusement

Retaliation against other people

(This is not to imply that every person who has at some point fit the definition of animal abuser will turn out to be a homicidal maniac at some point in their lives...).

- US Department of Justice. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency.

“Elder Abuse is a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person”. It can be of various forms: physical, psychological/emotional, sexual, financial or simply reflect intentional or unintentional neglect.

The elderly in South Africa have been recognised as citizens who have been and still are making important contributions to development through alleviating financial and asset needs in households, the upbringing and social nurturing of grandchildren; providing care for sick, disabled and frail household members, and financially and materially supporting their offspring.

However, despite this they are often neglected and fall victim to abuse.

- The Toronto Declaration on the Global Prevention of Elder Abuse. WHO. 2002

- Legido-Quigley H. The South African old age pension: Exploring the role of poverty alleviation in households affected by HIV/AIDS

South Africa has a aging population, and it is projected that by 2025 the proportion of older South Africans will increase to 10,5% and the number of older people to 5,23 million, with substantial growth particularly in the number of older women.

76% of Elder abuse is perpetrated by close or immediate family, with adult children forming the majority of perpetrators. Only up to 4% of elderly victims will report abuse.

-Reports for Elder Abuse. National Centre on Elder Abuse, State Statistics.

April 2008 witnessed the death of 42 people,thousands injured, more than 16 000 displaced and 400 people arrested during a series of xenophobic attacks against foreigners within the Gauteng province. Due to the violent nature of attacks, the government at the time was forced to deploy troops in an attempt to quell the violence. The brutal nature of the killings (including foreigners being necklaced) shocked the nation and questioned the validity of the "rainbow nation" .

The Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation reports: "xenophobia in the South African context is not just an attitude: it is an activity. It is a violent practice that results in bodily harm and damage." Such attitudes are not only expressed in the media or in conversation, but overflow into acts of violence. Much of this xenophobic violence is directed at foreign nationals running small grocery stores in informal settlements and townships. Somalians, Nigerians, Zimbabweans and other nationalities are considered easy targets for the frustrations felt by many groups due to their own economic circumstances.

An injury and Injury Prevention Project brought to you by @safeinthecityct

‘A student is bullied or victimised when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students.’

When considering the notion of bullying, traditional bullying tactics, and more importantly the emergence of cyber bullying in South Africa, statistics show of the learners being bullied, most (55.3%) experienced emotional bullying while almost one in every five (16.9%) experienced cyber bullying. The prevalence rates of personal bullying, bullying of peers and perpetrators of bullying have been described as follows:

Personal Bullying: 34.4%

Peer Bullying: 38.1%

Perpetrators of bullying: 23.3%

Traditional forms of bullying include: Physical, emotional and verbal abuse, with victims experiencing name calling, physical encounters, threats and intimidation by (mainly) younger perpetrators. Most bullying has been reported to take place off of school premises.

- (Olweus, D. 1993. Bullying at school: what we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA: Wiley Blackwell.)

Current research highlights various factors or attributes that may contribute to victimization, which include jealousy and physical appearance which in turn makes young people extremely vulnerable to the various forms of bullying.

Cyber bullying is predominantly practiced through the use of SMSs and social networks accessed through cellphones. It primarily includes name calling (48.0%), rumors and gossiping (49.0%) and the use of upsetting messages. Most learners have indicated that the prevalence of bullying in general (67.7%), and in particular cyber bullying (40.3%) has increased over the past two years.

The World Health Organization (2014) defines violence as:“The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.”This definition should be understood to encompass physical, psychological and social problems as well as recognizing that the outcomes of violence may be broader than physical injury, disability or death.

Self directed violence encompasses a wide range of violent behaviors including those of non fatal suicidal behavior as well as non-suicidal intentional self harm (where the intent is to perform self-mutilation not resulting in death). Included within the definition of self directed violence is the concept of suicidal behavior (i.e.: behaviors directed towards thinking about, considering or planning a suicide).

Descriptions of suicidal behavior highlights key differences among population groups.

Self directed violence has become a major public health problem through out the world. Whilst suicide reflects only a small portion of the total impact of suicidal behavior, substantially more patients are admitted to hospital as consequence of nonfatal suicide behavior than those who are fatally injured. An even grater portion are treated in the ambulatory setting, or not treated at all.

A look at the prevalence of Male: Female ratio of age-standardized suicide rates globally:

American Indians/Alaska Natives and African-Americans have their highest suicide rates among adolescents and young adults. When considering gender, suicide rates are higher among males than females, while thoughts of suicide and nonfatal suicide behavior is far more prevalent in females. Suicide rates in the age group >65 has traditionally been the highest when compared to adolescents and young adults, whilst rates of nonfatal suicidal behavior have been shown to be highest among the younger age groups and relatively low in among older adults.