HMS Queen Mary was the last battlecruiser built by the Royal Navy before World War I. The sole member of her class, Queen Mary shared many features with the Lion-class battlecruisers, including her eight 13.5-inch (343 mm) guns. She was completed in 1913 and participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight as part of the Grand Fleet in 1914. Like most of the modern British battlecruisers, she never left the North Sea during the war, as part of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron, she attempted to intercept a German force that bombarded the North Sea coast of England in December 1914, but was unsuccessful. She was refitting in early 1915 and missed the Battle of Dogger Bank in January, but participated in the largest fleet action of the war, the Battle of Jutland in mid-1916, she was hit twice by the German battlecruiser Derfflinger during the early part of the battle and her magazines exploded shortly afterwards, sinking the ship.

Her wreck was discovered in 1991 and rests in pieces, some of which are upside down, on the floor of the North Sea. Queen Mary is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 as it is the grave of 1,266 officers and men.

Left elevation and deck plan of the Lion-class battlecruisers, to which Queen Mary was almost identical externally

Queen Mary was ordered, together with the four battleships of the King George V class, under the 1910–11 Naval Programme. As was the usual pattern of the time, only one battlecruiser was ordered per naval programme, she differed from her predecessors of the Lion class in the distribution of her secondary armament and armour and in the location of the officers' quarters. Every capital ship since the design of the battleship HMS Dreadnought in 1905 had placed the officers' quarters closer to their action stations amidships; after complaints from the Fleet, Queen Mary was the first battlecruiser to restore the quarters to their traditional place in the stern.[1] In addition, she was the first battlecruiser to mount a sternwalk.[2]

Slightly larger than the preceding Lion-class ships, Queen Mary had an overall length of 703 feet 6 inches (214.4 m) including her sternwalk, a beam of 89 feet 0.5 inches (27.1 m), and a draught of 32 feet 4 inches (9.9 m) at deep load. The ship normally displaced 26,770 long tons (27,200 t) and 31,650 long tons (32,160 t) at deep load, over 1,000 long tons (1,016 t) more than the earlier ships. She had a metacentric height of 5.92 feet (1.8 m) at deep load.[6] In peacetime the crew numbered 997 officers and enlisted men,[7] but this increased to 1,275 during wartime.[8]

The ship had two paired sets of Parsonsdirect-drivesteam turbines housed in separate engine rooms. Each set consisted of a high-pressure turbine driving an outboard propeller shaft and a low-pressure turbine driving an inner shaft. A cruising stage was built into the casing of each high-pressure turbine for economical steaming at low speeds, the turbines had a designed output of 75,000 shaft horsepower (56,000 kW), 5,000 shp (3,700 kW) more than her predecessors. On sea trials in May and June 1913, Queen Mary achieved more than 83,000 shp (62,000 kW), although she barely exceeded her designed speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). The steam plant consisted of 42 Yarrow boilers arranged in seven boiler rooms.[9] Maximum bunkerage was 3,600 long tons (3,660 t) of coal and 1,170 long tons (1,190 t) of fuel oil to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate.[10] Her range was 5,610 nautical miles (10,390 km; 6,460 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).[11]

Queen Mary mounted eight BL 13.5-inch Mk V guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets, designated 'A', 'B', 'Q' and 'X' from bow to stern. The guns could be depressed to −3° and elevated to 20°, although the director controlling the turrets was limited to 15° 21' until prisms were installed before the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 to allow full elevation,[12][13] they fired 1,250-pound (567 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,550 ft/s (780 m/s); at 20° elevation, this provided a maximum range of 23,820 yd (21,781 m) with armour-piercing (AP) shells. The rate of fire of these guns was 1.5–2 rounds per minute.[14]Queen Mary carried a total of 880 rounds during wartime for 110 shells per gun.[15]

Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4-inch Mk VII guns, most of which were mounted in casemates on the forecastle deck, unlike the arrangement in the Lion class.[15] The guns could depress to −7° and had a maximum elevation of 15°, they fired 31-pound (14 kg) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2,821 ft/s (860 m/s) at a maximum range of 11,400 yd (10,400 m);[16] the ship carried 150 rounds per gun.[12]

The ship was built without any anti-aircraft guns, but two guns were fitted in October 1914. One was a QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss gun and the other was a QF 3-inch 20 cwt,[Note 1] both on high-angle mountings.[15] The Hotchkiss fired a 6-pound (2.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,773 ft/s (540 m/s).[17] The three-inch gun fired a 12.5-pound (5.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,604 ft/s (794 m/s) with a maximum effective ceiling of 23,000 ft (7,010 m).[18]

Two 21-inch (530 mm) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted, one on each broadside.[11] Fourteen Mk II*** torpedoes were carried,[15] each of which had a warhead of 400 pounds (181 kg) of TNT. Their range was 4,500 yards (4,115 m) at 45 knots (83 km/h; 52 mph) or 10,000 yards (9,144 m) at 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph).[19]

In February 1913, the Admiralty bought five sets of fire-control equipment from Arthur Pollen for comparative trials with the equipment designed by CommanderFrederic Dreyer. One set was mounted in Queen Mary and consisted of a 9-foot (2.7 m) Argo rangefinder located on top of the conning tower that fed range data into an Argo Clock Mk IV (a mechanical fire-control computer)[20] located in the transmitting station below the conning tower. The clock converted the information into range and deflection data for use by the guns, the target's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target. The aft torpedo director tower was the backup gunnery control position. All four turrets were provided with 9-foot rangefinders and 'B' and 'X' turrets were further outfitted to serve as auxiliary control positions.[21]

Fire-control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I, and the development of the director firing system was a major advance, this consisted of a fire-control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided elevation and training angles to the turrets via pointers, which the turret crewmen only had to follow. The guns were fired simultaneously, which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimized the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells.[22]Queen Mary received her director before the Battle of Jutland.[23]

The armour protection given to Queen Mary was similar to that of the Lions; her waterlinebelt of Krupp cemented armour was also 9 inches (229 mm) thick between 'B' and 'X' turrets. It thinned to 4 inches (102 mm) inches towards the ships' ends, but did not reach either the bow or the stern. In addition the ship was given an upper armour belt with a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour, thinning to 5 inches (127 mm) abreast the end turrets. Four-inch transverse bulkheads closed off the ends of the armoured citadel. High-tensile steel plating, cheaper than nickel-steel, but equally as effective, was used for the protective decks, the lower armoured deck was generally only 1 inch (25 mm) thick except outside the citadel where it was 2.5 inches (64 mm). The upper armoured deck was situated at the top of the upper armour belt and was also only one inch thick, the forecastle deck ranged from 1 to 1.5 inches (25.4 to 38.1 mm).[24]

The gun turrets had nine-inch fronts and sides, while their roofs were 2.5 to 3.25 inches (64 to 83 mm) thick. The barbettes were protected by nine inches of armour above the deck, but it thinned to 8 inches (203 mm) above the upper armour deck and 3 inches (76 mm) below it. The forward 4-inch guns were protected by three-inch sides and a two-inch high-tensile steel deck overhead, the conning tower sides were 10 inches (254 mm) thick, with three-inch roofs and communication tubes. Her aft torpedo director tower was protected by six-inch walls and a three-inch cast steel roof. High-tensile steel torpedo bulkheads 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms. Her funnel uptakes were protected by high-tensile steel splinter armour 1.5 inches (38 mm) thick on the sides and one inch thick on the ends between the upper and forecastle decks.[25]

Queen Mary's first action was as part of the battlecruiser force under the command of Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914. Beatty's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case the large ships of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks, they turned south at full speed at 11:35[Note 2] when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule, and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary. The brand-new light cruiserHMS Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers SMS Strassburg and SMS Cöln when Beatty's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12:37. Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire, but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron. Beatty, however, was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser SMS Ariadne directly ahead of him. He turned in pursuit and reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at close range (under 6000 yards or 5.5 km). At 13:10 Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire. Beatty's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north, and she was sunk by two salvos from HMS Lion.[29]

The Imperial German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail. An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful, but a larger-scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards, the fast battle-cruisers were to conduct the bombardment, while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid. But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey, although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well. Beatty's 1st BCS, now reduced to four ships, including Lion, together with the 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts, was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank.[30] By this time, Queen Mary was commanded by Captain C. I. Prowse.[27]

Hipper set sail on 15 December 1914 for another such raid and successfully bombarded several English towns, but British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 05:15 and fought an inconclusive action with them. Vice AdmiralSir George Warrender, commanding the 2nd Battle Squadron, had received a signal at 5:40 that the destroyer HMS Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers although Beatty had not. The destroyer HMS Shark spotted the armoured cruiserSMS Roon and her escorts at about 07:00, but could not transmit the message until 07:25. Warrender received the signal, as did the battlecruiser HMS New Zealand, but Beatty did not, despite the fact that New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and Beatty. Warrender attempted to pass on Shark's message to Beatty at 7:36, but did not manage to make contact until 07:55. Beatty reversed course when he got the message and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon, she was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 09:00. Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough.[31]

Relative positions of the British and German forces at about 12:00 hours

The British forces split going around the shallow Southwest Patch of the Dogger Bank; Beatty's ships passed to the north, while Warrender passed to the south as they headed west to block the main route through the minefields defending the English coast. This left a 15-nautical-mile (28 km; 17 mi) gap between them through which the German light forces began to move. At 12:25, the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper. The light cruiser HMS Southampton spotted the light cruiser SMS Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty. At 12:30 Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships. Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper's ships, however, those were some 50 km (31 mi) behind. The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron, which had been screening for Beatty's ships, detached to pursue the German cruisers, but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions,[Note 3] this confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape, and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers. The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape.[32]

Queen Mary was refitting in January and February 1915 and did not participate in the Battle of Dogger Bank;[27] she received her main battery director in December 1915.[23]

On 31 May 1916 Queen Mary put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea, the British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea. Hipper's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 15:20, but Beatty's ships did not spot the Germans to their east until 15:30. Two minutes later, he ordered a course change to east south-east to position himself astride the German's line of retreat and called his ships' crews to action stations. Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard, away from the British, almost 180 degrees, to assume a south-easterly course, and reduced speed to 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up. With this turn Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet, then about 60 miles (97 km) behind him. Around this time Beatty altered course to the east, as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper.[33]

This began what was to be called the "Run to the South" as Beatty changed course to steer east-southeast at 15:45, paralleling Hipper's course, now that the range closed to under 18,000 yards (16,000 m). The Germans opened fire first at 15:48, followed by the British, the British ships were still in the process of making their turn, as only the two leading ships, Lion and HMS Princess Royal, had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire. The German fire was accurate from the beginning, but the British overestimated the range, as the German ships blended into the haze. Queen Mary opened fire about 15:50 on SMS Seydlitz, using only her forward turrets.[34] By 15:54 the range was down to 12,900 yards (11,800 m), and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 15:57.[35] During this period, Queen Mary made two hits on Seydlitz, at 15:55 and 15:57, one of which caused a propellant fire that burnt out her aft superfiring turret.[36]

Queen Mary explodes during the Battle of Jutland

The range had grown too far for accurate shooting, so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 16:12 and 16:15, this manoeuvre exposed Lion to the fire of the German battlecruisers, and she was hit several times. The smoke and fumes from these hits caused SMS Derfflinger to lose sight of Lion, which had sheered out of line to starboard, and to switch her fire to Queen Mary, now visible to Derfflinger's gunnery officer as the second ship in the British line and therefore assumed to be Princess Royal, at 16:16. Queen Mary hit Seydlitz again at 16:17 and knocked out one gun of her secondary armament.[37] In return, Queen Mary had been hit twice by Seydlitz before 16:21 with unknown effects, but the German battlecruiser hit the turret face of 'Q' turret at that time and knocked out the right-hand gun in the turret. By 16:25 the range was down to 14,400 yards (13,200 m), and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again. This move came too late, however, for Queen Mary, as Derfflinger's fire began to take effect, hitting her twice before 16:26.[38] One shell hit forward and detonated one or both of the forward magazines, which broke the ship in two near the foremast. Stationed inside 'Q' turret, MidshipmanJocelyn Latham Storey survived and reported that there had been a large explosion forward which rocked the turret, breaking the left gun in half, the gun breech falling into the working chamber and the right gun coming off its trunnions. Cordite in the working chamber caught fire and produced poisonous fumes that asphyxiated some of the turret's crew, it is doubtful that an explosion forward could have done this, so 'Q' turret may have been struck by the second shell.[39] A further explosion, possibly from shells breaking loose, shook the aft end of the ship as it began to roll over and sink,[40] the battlecruiser behind her, HMS Tiger, was showered with debris from the explosion and forced to steer to port to avoid her remains.[41] 1,266 crewmen were lost; eighteen survivors were picked up by the destroyers HMS Laurel, HMS Petard, and HMS Tipperary, and two by the Germans.[42][43][44][Note 4]

Queen Mary, along with the other Jutland wrecks, has been declared a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 to discourage further damage to the resting place of 1,266 officers and men.[49] Surveys of this site conducted by nautical archaeologist Innes McCartney in 2001–03 have shown the wreck is in three sections, with the two forward sections being heavily damaged and in pieces,[50] her aft end is upside down and relatively complete except for her propellers, which have been salvaged.[8] Examination of the damage to the ship has suggested that the initial explosion was not in the magazine of 'A' or 'B' forward main turrets, but instead in the magazine of the forward 4-inch battery. An explosion of the quantity of cordite in the main magazine would have been sufficient to also ignite 'Q' magazine, destroying much more of the ship, the explosion in the smaller magazine would have been sufficient to break the ship in two, the blast then spreading to the forward magazine and ripping apart the forward section.[51]

^"cwt" is the abbreviation for hundredweight, 20 cwt referring to the weight of the gun.

^The times used in this article are in Greenwich Mean Time, which was one hour behind CET, which is often used in German works.

^Beatty had intended on retaining only the two rearmost light cruisers from Goodenough's squadron; however, HMS Nottingham's signalman misinterpreted the signal, thinking that it was intended for the whole squadron, and thus transmitted it to Goodenough, who ordered his ships back into their screening positions ahead of Beatty's battlecruisers.[31]

^Casualty figures are in general agreement, although the number of survivors varies. According to Corbett and the Narrative of the Battle of Jutland casualties were: 57 officers and 1,209 ratings killed (1,266 total); two officers and five ratings wounded (7 total); one officer and one rating prisoners of war.[45][46] Parkes gives the total officers killed as 67 instead of 57, presumably a typographical error.[47] Campbell gives casualties as 1,266 killed, six wounded and two made prisoner.[48]

Corbett, Julian (1997). Naval Operations. History of the Great War: Based on Official Documents. III (reprint of the 1940 second ed.). London and Nashville, Tennessee: Imperial War Museum in association with the Battery Press. ISBN1-870423-50-X.

1.
Torpedo net
–
Torpedo nets were a passive ship defensive device against torpedoes. They were in use from the 1890s until the Second World War. They were superseded by the bulge and torpedo belts. With the introduction of the Whitehead torpedo in 1873, and the subsequent development of the torpedo boat, in 1876 the British Admiralty Torpedo Committee came up with a number of recommendations for combating torpedoes, which included. Nets of galvanised iron hung around each battleship from projecting 40 ft spars, experiments were conducted in 1877, with HMS Thunderer becoming the first operational ship to be fitted with the nets. Torpedo nets could be out from the defending ship, when moored or otherwise stationary in the water. Each boom was fixed to the ship at one end at or below the edge of the deck, by a steel pin that permitted the boom to be swung against the ship. A series of such booms was so fixed at intervals along each side of the ship, with the net mounted, a torpedo aimed at the ship would hit the mesh net and explode at a sufficient distance from the hull to prevent serious damage to the ship. Early booms were made of wood, originally 10 inches in diameter, each boom weighed 20 to 24 long cwt and cost £28 to £30. His Lordship further stated that the steel booms that the Committee favoured were of a different type to those designed by Bullivant, on 21 June 1888 three Opposition Liberal MPs questioned the First Sea Lord on whether wooden booms were the best choice for either effectiveness or cost. Admiral Field claimed that the Admiralty Torpedo Committee and Dockyard officials preferred steel booms as they weighed less than 10 long cwt, Field alleged that in experiments since September 1886 wooden booms invariably failed and that steel booms were lighter and more effective. In reply the First Sea Lord claimed that in five experiments, wooden booms had worked on all but one occasion, when questioned by James Picton, MP for Leicester, the First Sea Lord agreed that wooden beams were heavier. Then John Brunner, MP for Northwich, asked who was opposing steel booms, the First Sea Lord ended the discussion by retorting that it was most improper that Questions should be put to him for the purpose of advertising inventions. About 1875 William Munton Bullivant had taken over the Wire Tramway Co, a manufacturer of wire and steel rope based in Millwall, London, the company exhibited at trade events including the Naval and Submarine Exhibition of 1882. Bullivant developed not only steel torpedo nets but also steel booms to suspend them from ships, in 1888 Admiral Field and other Liberal MPs offended the First Sea Lord by promoting Bullivants products in the House of Commons. However, by the early 20th century, torpedo nets were referred to as Bullivant type and they were made from 6 1⁄2-inch-diameter steel hoops linked by smaller hoops to form a mesh, with a weight of about one pound per square foot. These nets were projected from the sides of the ship on 40-foot-long wooden booms, extensive tests were conducted, with the nets proving capable of stopping the contemporary 14-inch-diameter torpedo without being damaged. A 16-inch torpedo with a 91-pound warhead proved capable of causing limited damage to the net, a heavier net was introduced in 1894 consisting of 2 1⁄2-inch hoops with a weight of five pounds per square foot

2.
Royal Navy
–
The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive

3.
Lion-class battlecruiser
–
The Lion class were a pair of battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy before World War I. Nicknamed the Splendid Cats, the ships were a significant improvement over their predecessors of the Indefatigable class in terms of speed, armament and armour. These improvements were in response to the German battlecruisers of the Moltke class, Lion served as the flagship of the Grand Fleets battlecruisers throughout World War I. She sank the German light cruiser Cöln during the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and participated in the battles of Dogger Bank in 1915 and she was so badly damaged at the Battle of Dogger Bank that she had to be towed back to port. During the Battle of Jutland, Lion suffered a serious fire that could have destroyed the ship. Princess Royal also participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight and was sent south to the Caribbean to intercept the German East Asia Squadron in case they used the Panama Canal. After the squadron was sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, shortly afterwards, Princess Royal became the flagship of the 1st BCS and participated in the Battle of Jutland. Both ships were present during the inconclusive Action of 19 August 1916, the sister ships spent the rest of the war on uneventful patrols in the North Sea, they provided distant cover during Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917. In 1920 they were put into reserve and were sold for scrap a few years later in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Continuing pressure forced the Government to announce in July 1909 that the ships would also be built. The Lion-class battlecruisers were designed to be as superior to the new German battlecruisers of the Moltke class as the German ships were to the Invincible class. The increase in speed, armour and gun size forced a 40% increase in size over the Indefatigable class and their layout was adapted from the design of the first super-dreadnought class, the Orion-class battleships of 1910, with 13. 5-inch guns. The ships were the first battlecruisers to be armed with the new 13. 5-inch Mk V gun and this was done because the greater size and weight of the new guns rendered wing turrets impracticable. As such, all four turrets in the Lions were arranged on the centreline, Q turret was located amidships and this was not approved, possibly because of doubts about its feasibility. The Lions were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Indefatigable class and they had an overall length of 700 feet, a beam of 88 feet 6.75 inches, and a draught of 32 feet 5 inches at deep load. They displaced 26,270 long tons at load and 30,820 long tons at deep load. They had a height of 6 feet at deep load. The Lion-class ships had two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each of which was housed in an engine room

4.
HMS Tiger (1913)
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HMS Tiger was a battlecruiser of the Royal Navy and the eleventh ship to bear that name. She was built by John Brown and Company of Clydebank, Scotland, Tiger was the most heavily armoured battlecruiser of the Royal Navy at the start of the First World War, but was not yet ready for service. Tiger next participated in the Battle of Jutland in 1916, where she was lightly damaged despite suffering many hits by German shells. Apart from providing distant cover during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917, Tiger was the oldest battlecruiser retained by the Royal Navy after the tonnage limits of the Washington Naval Treaty came into effect in 1922. She became a training ship in 1924 and then joined the Battlecruiser Squadron in 1929 when its flagship, HMS Hood. Upon Hoods return to service in 1931, Tiger was decommissioned, Tiger was the sole battlecruiser authorised in the 1911–12 Naval Programme. Tiger had a length of 704 feet, a beam of 90 feet 6 inches. She normally displaced 28,430 long tons and 33,260 long tons at deep load. Although Tiger was only 4 feet longer and 1 foot 5.5 inches wider than the previous battlecruiser, HMS Queen Mary and she had a metacentric height of 6.1 feet at deep load. In September 1914, her complement consisted of 1,112 officers and enlisted men, in April 1918, Tiger had two paired sets of Brown-Curtis direct-drive steam turbines housed in separate engine-rooms. Each set consisted of high-pressure ahead and astern turbines driving a shaft and low-pressure ahead and astern turbines. Her three-bladed propellers were 13 feet 6 inches in diameter, the turbines were powered by 39 Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers in five boiler rooms at a working pressure of 235 psi. The ships fuel capacity was 3,800 long tons of fuel oil and 3,340 long tons of coal. The sole figure for Tigers daily fuel consumption of 1,245 long tons a day at 24 knots would have given a maximum endurance of 3,300 nautical miles, the equivalent figure for Queen Mary was roughly 2,400 nautical miles. Four direct current electric dynamos with a capacity of 750 kilowatts supplied the common ring main at 220 volts. Tiger mounted eight 45-calibre BL13. 5-inch Mk V guns in four hydraulically powered turrets. They fired 1, 250-pound projectiles at a velocity of 2,500 ft/s, at 20° elevation. The rate of fire of guns was approximately 2 rounds per minute

5.
Mary of Teck
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Mary of Teck was Queen of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Empress of India as the wife of King-Emperor George V. Although technically a princess of Teck, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, she was born and her parents were Francis, Duke of Teck, who was of German extraction, and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, a granddaughter of King George III. She was informally known as May, after her birth month, the following year, she became engaged to Albert Victors next surviving brother, George, who subsequently became king. Before her husbands accession, she was successively Duchess of York, Duchess of Cornwall and she supported her second son, Albert, who succeeded to the throne as George VI, until his death in 1952. She died the year, during the reign of her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II. Princess Victoria Mary of Teck was born on 26 May 1867 at Kensington Palace and her father was Prince Francis, Duke of Teck, the son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg by his morganatic wife, Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde. Her mother was Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, the child and younger daughter of Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. She was baptised in the Chapel Royal of Kensington Palace on 27 July 1867 by Charles Thomas Longley, before she became queen, she was known to her family, friends and the public by the diminutive name of May, after her birth month. Mays upbringing was merry but fairly strict and she was the eldest of four children, the only girl, and learned to exercise her native discretion, firmness, and tact by resolving her three younger brothers petty boyhood squabbles. They played with their cousins, the children of the Prince of Wales, may was educated at home by her mother and governess. Although her mother was a grandchild of King George III, May was only a member of the British Royal Family. Her father, the Duke of Teck, had no inheritance or wealth, however, the Duchess of Teck was granted a parliamentary annuity of £5,000 and received about £4,000 a year from her mother, the Duchess of Cambridge. Despite this, the family was deeply in debt and lived abroad from 1883, the Tecks travelled throughout Europe, visiting their various relations. They stayed in Florence, Italy, for a time, where May enjoyed visiting the art galleries, churches, in 1885, the Tecks returned to London, and took up residence at White Lodge, in Richmond Park. May was close to her mother, and acted as an secretary, helping to organise parties. She was also close to her aunt, the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, during the First World War, the Crown Princess of Sweden helped pass letters from May to her aunt, who lived in enemy territory in Germany until her death in 1916. In December 1891, May was engaged to her second cousin once removed, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. The choice of May as bride for the Duke owed much to Queen Victorias fondness for her, as well as to her strong character, however, Albert Victor died six weeks later, in a recurrence of the worldwide 1889–90 influenza pandemic

6.
Jarrow
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Jarrow is a town in north-east England, located on the River Tyne. Historically part of County Durham, in 1974 it became part of the county of Tyne. In the 8th century, the monastery of Saint Paul in Jarrow was the home of Bede, who is regarded as the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar and the father of English history. From the middle of the 19th century until 1935, Jarrow was a centre for shipbuilding, Jarrow had a population of 43,431 in 2011. Later spellings are Jaruum in 1158, and Jarwe in 1228, today Jarrow residents popular nickname for Jarrow is Jarra. Along with the abbey at Wearmouth, Jarrow became a center of learning and had the largest library north of the Alps, primarily due to the travels of Benedict Biscop. In 794 Jarrow became the target in England of the Vikings. The monastery was dissolved by Henry VIII. The ruins of the monastery are now associated with and partly built into the church of St. Paul. One wall of the church contains the oldest stained-glass window in the world, just beside the monastery is Bedes World, a working museum dedicated to the life and times of Bede. Bedes World also incorporates Jarrow Hall, a grade II listed building, originally three copies of the Bible were commissioned by Saint Ceolfrid in 692. This date has been established as the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow secured a grant of additional land to raise the 2000 head of cattle needed to produce the vellum for the Bibles pages. Saint Ceolfrid accompanied one copy on its journey to be presented to Gregory II, the book later appears in the 9th century in the Abbey of the Saviour, Monte Amiata in Tuscany, where it remained until 1786 when it passed to the Laurentian Library in Florence. Jarrow remained a town until the introduction of heavy industries like coal mining and shipbuilding. Charles Mark Palmer established a shipyard – Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company – in 1852, john Bowes, the first iron screw collier, revived the Tyne coal trade, and Palmers was also responsible for the first modern cargo ship, as well as a number of notable warships. Around 1,000 ships were built at the yard, they produced small fishing boats to catch eel within the River Tyne. Palmers employed as much as 80% of the working population until its closure in 1933 following purchase by National Shipbuilders Securities Ltd. This organisation had set up by Stanley Baldwins Conservative government in the 1920s

7.
Battle of Jutland
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The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements, from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmarks Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle in that war and the only full-scale clash of battleships, Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history, germanys High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a strategy to break the British blockade of Germany. Meanwhile, Great Britains Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and they stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. The German plan had been delayed, causing problems for their submarines. On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hippers battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected, in a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with loss of life. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet, however, the British press criticised the Grand Fleets failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheers plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal, subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day, with 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navys 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy, in January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British. On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping and this followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels and it was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, the hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it. A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the battleship squadron

8.
Battlecruiser
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The battlecruiser, or battle cruiser, was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century. They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, however, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships. British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where their armour made them very vulnerable to large-caliber shells. Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, in the post–Cold War era, the Soviet Kirov class of large guided missile cruisers have also been termed battlecruisers. The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser. The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection. However, the results were satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship. As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, in the 1890s, technology began to change this balance. New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships. In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as allies in the event of war, started to build large. In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause difficulties for the British Empires worldwide trade. Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type and this building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction. The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, the cost of this cruiser arms race was significant. In the period 1889–96, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers, from 1897–1904, it spent £26.9 million. Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large, the increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely. The battleships main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size, however, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value. The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, however, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques. The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were likely to hit the enemy

9.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute

10.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute

11.
Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company
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Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company was a British engineering company based in Wallsend, North England, on the River Tyne. The company was founded by Charles Algernon Parsons in 1897 with £500,000 of capital, although both these vessels came to grief, the new engines were not to blame, and the Admiralty was convinced. His son became a director in the company and was replaced during the First World War by his daughter Rachel Parsons, USS Arizona used four direct-drive Parsons turbines. The turbines were designed to produce a total of 34,000 shaft horsepower, but only achieved 33,376 shp during Arizonas sea trials, the Royal Navy, along with the Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Australian Navy, used Parsons turbines on their Tribal-class destroyers. The Invincible-class battlecruisers all used propulsion systems manufactured by the company, the last ship to use a Parsons propulsion system was HMS Glamorgan launched in 1964. The company was absorbed into C. A. Parsons and Company and survives in the Heaton area of Newcastle as part of Siemens, C. A. Parsons and Company Johnston, Ian, Buxton, Ian. The Battleship Builders - Constructing and Arming British Capital Ships

12.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine

13.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp

14.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude

15.
BL 13.5-inch Mk V naval gun
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The BL13.5 inch Mk V gun was a British heavy naval gun, introduced in 1912 as the main armament for the new super-dreadnought battleships of the Orion class. The calibre was 13.5 inches and the barrels were 45 calibres long i. e.607.5 inches. The guns were superior and unrelated to the earlier 13. 5-inch Mk I to Mk IV guns used on the Admiral, Trafalgar. The gun was developed in response to the failure of the British high-velocity 12-inch Mk XI. Due to the excellent characteristics of the gun, it was decided to increase the weight of shell to 1,400 lb, the gun firing the lighter shell was designated Mark V by the Royal Navy, and the 1,400 lb version Mark V. Three BL13.5 inch /45 Mark V guns, named Gladiator, Piece Maker, Scene Shifter re-used a railway truck which had carried a BL14 inch Railway Gun in the First World War. In 1940 these guns were issued to the Royal Marine Siege Regiment at Dover in Kent to bombard German batteries and they could be stored in railway tunnels when not in use to protect them from attack. A13. 5/8 inch hypervelocity gun for stratospheric experiments was developed and deployed near St Margarets in Kent, the weapon was a 13.5 inch gun Mark V lined down to 8 inches, the liner projected several feet beyond the 13.5 inch barrel. The concept was suggested by F. A. Lindemann, Winston Churchills scientific advisor, due to its deployment near the heavy cross-Channel guns and manning by the Royal Marine Siege Regiment, it is often erroneously assumed to have been intended as a cross-Channel gun. It was initially named Wilfred, but this was changed to Bruce. The projectiles were custom-made with external rifling to match the guns rifling, with tighter tolerances than normal, the rate of fire was very low as a result, but this was not a major concern in an experimental piece. Both High Explosive and High Velocity shells were made for the gun, observations of the smoke were used to study conditions in the stratosphere. The gun was first test-fired in June 1942 at the Isle of Grain, the gun was deployed near St. Margarets on 21 January 1943 and experimental firing commenced on 30 March 1943. Successful experiments with smoke shells were conducted in February 1944, the intended burst zone for the smoke shells was 30 miles horizontally from the gun and 95,000 feet altitude. These trials resulted in the need for a new barrel or liner, the data from these experiments was important in the development of the Grand Slam bomb. After further experimental firings, the weapon was taken out of service in February 1945, the History of Coast Artillery in the British Army. Uckfield, East Sussex, The Naval & Military Press Ltd, vickers Photographic Archives British 13. 5/45 Mark V13. 5/45 Mark V at navweaps. com

16.
BL 4 inch naval gun Mk VII
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The BL 4-inch gun Mk VII was a British high-velocity naval gun introduced in 1908 as an anti-torpedo boat gun in large ships, and in the main armament of smaller ships. Of the 600 produced,482 were still available in 1939 for use as coastal artillery, the guns armed the following warships, Bellerophon-class battleships, laid down 1906 St. In World War II many guns were used to arm merchant ships, a battery of 4 guns mounted on field carriages was first deployed with the South African Heavy Artillery in the German South West Africa campaign in 1915 and returned to England in September. They were then deployed in the East African Campaign from February 1916 with 11th Heavy Battery manned by the Royal Marine Artillery. 2 Mk VII guns from HMS New Zealand outside the Auckland War Memorial Museum List of naval guns 4/50 caliber gun US equivalent HANDBOOK for the 4 Mark VII. Guns 1913 ADMIRALTY Gunnery Branch, G. 8652/13 Campbell, John. British Naval Guns, 1880–1945, No.17, British 4/50 BL Mark VII Farndale, General Sir Martin. History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Forgotten Fronts and the Home Base 1914-18, london, The Royal Artillery Institution,1988 Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War Two

17.
British 21 inch torpedo
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There have been several British 21-inch diameter torpedoes used by the Royal Navy since their first development just before the First World War. The 21-inch was the largest size of torpedo in use in the RN. They were used by ships and submarines rather than aircraft which used smaller 18 inch torpedoes. The first British 21 inch torpedo came in two lengths Short at 17 ft 10.5 in, and Long at 23 ft 1.25 in, the explosive charge was 200 lb of gun cotton increased later to 225 lb. The Mark II, chiefly used by destroyers, entered service in 1914, apart from some older British ships, it was used with the old US Town-class destroyers provided to the UK during the early part of the Second World War. The running speed was reduced from 45 knots for better reliability, the Mark II*, an improved Mark II was used by battleships and battlecruisers. A wet heater design, it could run for 4.1 km at 45 knots From 1912, used by destroyers, in the Second World War they were carried on HMS Hood. The Mark V was used by the A and B-class destroyers and, with modification, the Mark VII was issued for use on the British heavy cruisers, i. e. cruisers with 8-inch guns. Designed in the mid-1920s the County-class cruisers were built at the time in the post Washington Naval Treaty period. The power came from the use of enriched air, though torpedo stocks were converted to run on normal air at the start of the Second World War. It was used from 1927 on submarines of the O class onwards, the principal World War II version was the improved Mark VIII**,3,732 being fired by September 1944. The torpedo was still in service with the Royal Navy as late as 1983, the Mark VIII** was used in two particularly notable incidents, - On 9 February 1945 the Royal Navy submarine HMS Venturer sank the German submarine U-864 with four Mark VIII** torpedoes. This is the only intentional sinking of one submarine by another while both were submerged. On 2 May 1982 the Royal Navy submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser ARA General Belgrano with three Mark VIII** torpedoes during the Falklands War and this is the only sinking of a surface ship by a nuclear-powered submarine in wartime. First appeared in 1930 and was improved by 1939. Used on Leander and later cruisers, A and later destroyer classes, also replaced the old Mark VII in some 8 cruisers during the war. From 1939, used by submarines, motor boats and destroyers. Electric battery powered torpedo with a 322 kg TNT warhead, entering service during the Second World War it was used by destroyers

18.
Torpedo tube
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A torpedo tube is a cylinder shaped device for launching torpedoes. There are two types of torpedo tube, underwater tubes fitted to submarines and some surface ships. Thus a submarine torpedo tube operates on the principle of an airlock, the diagram on the right illustrates the operation of a submarine torpedo tube. The diagram is somewhat simplified but does show the working of a torpedo launch. A torpedo tube has a number of interlocks for safety reasons. For example, an interlock prevents the door and muzzle door from opening at the same time. The submarine torpedo launch sequence is, in simplified form, Open the breech door in the torpedo room, load the torpedo into the tube. Hook up the connection and the torpedo power cable. Shut and lock the breech door, turn on power to the torpedo. A minimum amount of time is required for torpedo warmup, fire control programs are uploaded to the torpedo. This may be manually or automatically, from sea or from tanks. The tube must be vented during this process to allow for complete filling, Open the equalizing valve to equalize pressure in the tube with ambient sea pressure. If the tube is set up for Impulse Mode the slide valve will open with the muzzle door, if Swim Out Mode is selected, the slide valve remains closed. The slide valve allows water from the pump to enter the tube. Modern torpedoes have a safety mechanism that prevents activation of the torpedo unless the torpedo senses the required amount of G-force, the power cable is severed at launch. However, if a wire is used, it remains connected through a drum of wire in the tube. Torpedo propulsion systems vary but electric torpedoes swim out of the tube on their own and are of a smaller diameter,21 weapons with fuel-burning engines usually start outside of the tube. Once outside the tube the torpedo begins its run toward the target as programmed by the control system

19.
Belt armor
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Belt armor is a layer of heavy metal armor plated onto or within the outer hulls of warships, typically on battleships, battlecruisers and cruisers, and aircraft carriers. The belt armor is designed to prevent projectiles from penetrating to the heart of a warship, typically, the main armor belt covers the warship from its main deck down to some distance below the waterline. If, instead of forming the hull, the armor belt is built inside the hull, it is installed at a sloped angle for improved protection. Furthermore, the spaces around the main belt in some designs were filled with storage tanks that could contain fuel oil, seawater. The liquids in these tanks absorb or scatter much of the force of warheads. To deal with the leakage from the tanks and incoming seawater and this multilayer design is featured in the cross-sectional drawings of Tirpitz and King George V. In combat, a warship can be seriously damaged underwater not only by torpedoes, to improve protection against both shells and torpedoes, an air space can be added between the armor belt and the hull to increase the buoyancy of the warship. Some kinds of naval warships have belt armor thinner than actually necessary for protection against projectiles and this is common especially with battlecruisers, battleships, and aircraft carriers to reduce their weight, thus increasing their acceleration and speed. Another possible reason is to meet treaty restrictions on ship displacement, one such method is all-or-nothing armoring, where belt armor is stripped from areas deemed non-vital to the functioning of the ship in battle. Agility gained from such processes are an asset to offensive warships that seek to quickly bring their heavy striking power to the enemy. In carriers, the maneuverability is exploited when deploying and recovering aircraft, since planes take off and land most easily when flying into the wind, the aircraft carrier steams rapidly into the wind in both maneuvers, making take-off and landing safer and easier. S. Comparison of WW2 battleship armor schemes Torpedo belt Protected cruiser Armored cruiser

20.
Bulkhead (partition)
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A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an aeroplane. Other kinds of elements within a ship are decks and deckheads. The word bulki meant cargo in Old Norse, sometime in the 15th century sailors and builders in Europe realized that walls within a vessel would prevent cargo from shifting during passage. In shipbuilding, any vertical panel was called a head, so walls installed abeam in a vessels hull were called bulkheads. Now, the term applies to every vertical panel aboard a ship. Bulkhead partitions are considered to have been a feature of Chinese junks, song Dynasty author Zhu Yu wrote in his book of 1119 that the hulls of Chinese ships had a bulkhead build. The 5th-century book Garden of Strange Things by Liu Jingshu mentioned that a ship could allow water to enter the bottom without sinking, texts written by Western writers such as Marco Polo, Niccolò Da Conti, and Benjamin Franklin describe the bulkhead partitions of East Asian shipbuilding. Bulkhead partitions became widespread in Western shipbuilding during the early 19th century, a 19th century book on shipbuilding attributes the introduction of watertight bulkheads to Charles Wye Williams, known for his steamships. Some bulkheads and decks are fire-resistance rated to achieve compartmentalisation, a fire protection measure. On an aircraft, bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas, openings in fire-resistance rated bulkheads and decks must be firestopped to restore the fire-resistance ratings that would otherwise be compromised, if the openings were left unsealed. The authority having jurisdiction for such measures varies depending upon the flag of the ship, merchant vessels are typically subject to the regulations and inspections of the Coast Guards of the flag country. Combat ships are subject to the set out by the navy of the country that owns the ship. The term was applied to other vehicles, such as railroad cars, hopper cars, trams, automobiles, aircraft or spacecraft, as well as to containers, intermediate bulk containers. In some of these cases bulkheads are airtight to prevent air leakage or the spread of a fire, the term may also be used for the end walls of bulkhead flatcars. Mechanically, a partition or panel through which pass, or a connector designed to pass through a partition. In architecture the term is used to denote any boxed in beam or other downstand from a ceiling. Head strikes on these elements are commonplace hence in architecture any overhead downstand element comes to be referred to as a bulkhead

21.
Barbette
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Barbettes are several types of gun emplacement in terrestrial fortifications or on naval ships. In recent naval usage, a barbette is a circular armour support for a heavy gun turret. This evolved from earlier forms of gun protection that led to the pre-dreadnought. The former gives better angles of fire but less protection than the latter, the disappearing gun was a variation on the barbette gun, it consisted of a heavy gun on a carriage that would retract behind a parapet or into a gunpit for reloading. They were primarily used in coastal defences, but saw use in a handful of warships. The term is used for certain aircraft gun mounts. By the late 1880s, all three systems were replaced with a hybrid system that combined the benefits of both types. The heavily-armored vertical tube that supported the new gun mount was referred to as a barbette, american authors generally refer to such mounts simply as tail guns or tail gun turrets. The use of barbette mountings originated in ground fortifications, the term originally referred to a raised platform on a rampart for one or more guns, enabling them to be fired over a parapet. This gave rise to the phrase en barbette, which referred to a gun placed to fire over a parapet, rather than through an embrasure, while an en barbette emplacement offered wider arcs of fire, it also exposed the guns crew to greater danger from hostile fire. In addition, since the position would be higher than a casemate position—that is. Fortifications in the 19th century typically employed both casemate and barbette emplacements, the type was usually used for coastal defence guns. Later heavy coastal guns were protected in hybrid installation, with wide casemate with cantilevered overhead cover partially covering a barbette mount. Following the introduction of ironclad warships in the early 1860s, naval designers grappled with the problem of mounting guns in the most efficient way possible. The first generation of ironclads employed the same arrangement as the old ship of the line. This was particularly important to designers, since the tactic of ramming was revived following its successful employment at the decisive Austrian victory at the Battle of Lissa in 1866, ramming required a ship to steam directly at its opponent, which greatly increased the importance of end-on fire. Designers such as Cowper Phipps Coles and John Ericsson designed the first gun turrets in the 1860s, in the 1870s, designers began to experiment with an en barbette type of mounting. The barbette was a fixed armoured enclosure protecting the gun, the barbette could take the form of a circular or elongated ring of armour around the rotating gun mount over which the guns fired

22.
Turret
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In architecture, a turret is a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle. Turrets were used to provide a defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall in the days of military fortification. As their military use faded, turrets were used for decorative purposes, a turret can have a circular top with crenellations as seen in the picture at right, a pointed roof, or other kind of apex. The size of a turret is therefore limited by technology, since it puts additional stresses on the structure of the building and it would traditionally be supported by a corbel. Bartizan, an overhanging, wall-mounted turret found particularly on French and they returned to prominence in the 19th century with their popularity in Scottish baronial style

23.
Deck (ship)
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A deck is a permanent covering over a compartment or a hull of a ship. On a boat or ship, the primary or upper deck is the structure that forms the roof of the hull, strengthening it. Decks for some purposes have specific names, the main purpose of the upper or primary deck is structural, and only secondarily to provide weather-tightness and support people and equipment. The deck serves as the lid to the box girder which is the hull. It resists tension, compression, and racking forces, the decks scantling is usually the same as the topsides, or might be heavier if the deck is expected to carry heavier loads. The deck will be reinforced around deck fittings such as the capstan, cleats, on ships with more than one level, deck refers to the level itself. The actual floor surface is called the sole, the term refers to a structural member tying the ships frames or ribs together over the keel. In modern ships, the decks are usually numbered from the primary deck. So the first deck below the deck will be #2. Some merchant ships may alternatively designate decks below the deck, usually machinery spaces, by numbers. Ships may also call decks by common names, or may invent fanciful and romantic names for a deck or area of that specific ship. Equipment mounted on deck, such as the wheel, binnacle, fife rails. Eastern designs developed earlier, with efficient middle decks and minimalist fore, in vessels having more than one deck there are various naming conventions, numerically, alphabetically, etc. However, there are various common historical names and types of decks,01 level is the term used in naval services to refer to the deck above the main deck. The next higher decks are referred to as the 02 level, the 03 level, afterdeck an open deck area toward the stern-aft. Berth deck, A deck next below the gun deck, where the hammocks of the crew are slung, Boat deck, Especially on ships with sponsons, the deck area where lifeboats or the ships gig are stored. Boiler deck, The passenger deck above the vessels boilers, may also refer to the deck of a bridge. Flight deck, A deck from which aircraft take off or land, flush deck, Any continuous unbroken deck from stem to stern

24.
Conning tower
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A conning tower is a raised platform on a ship or submarine, often armored, from which an officer can conn the vessel, i. e. give directions to the helmsman. It is usually located as high on the ship as practical, to give the conning team good visibility of the entirety of the ship itself and of ocean conditions, the verb “conn” probably stems from the verb “conduct” rather than from another plausible precedent, the verb “control”. On surface ships, the tower was a feature of all battleships. Located at the front end of the superstructure, the tower was a heavily armored cylinder. At all other times than during battles, the ship would be navigated from the bridge instead, conning towers were used by the French on their floating batteries at the Battle of Kinburn. They were then fitted to the first ironclad the French battleship La Gloire, the first Royal Navy conning tower appeared on HMS Warrior which had 3 inches of armour. The King George V class, in contrast to the Nelson class had comparatively light conning tower protection with 4.5 inch sides,3 inch front and rear, and 2 inch roof and deck. The RNs analysis of World War I combat revealed that command personnel were unlikely to utilize an armoured conning tower, older RN battleships that were reconstructed with new superstructures, had their heavily armoured conning towers removed and replaced with much lighter structures. These new conning towers were placed much higher in the ship. Even in the United States Navy, battleship captains and admirals preferred to use the unarmoured bridge positions during combat. The USN had mixed opinions of the tower, pointing out that its weight, high above the ships center of gravity. Beginning in the late 1930s, as radar surpassed visual sighting as the method of detecting other ships, battleships began reducing or eliminating the conning tower. By the end of World War II, US ships were designed with expanded weather bridges enclosing the armored conning towers. With the demise of battleships after World War II, along with the advent of missiles and nuclear weapons during the Cold War, modern warships no longer feature conning towers. It should not be confused with the control room, which was directly below it in the main pressure hull, or the bridge. As improvements in technology allowed the periscopes to be made longer it became unnecessary to raise the station above the main pressure hull. The USS Triton was the last American submarine to have a conning tower, the additional conning tower pressure hull was eliminated and its functions were added to the command and control center. Thus it is incorrect to refer to the sail of a submarine as a conning tower

25.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

26.
Ship class
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A ship class is a group of ships of a similar design. This is distinct from a type, which might reflect a similarity of tonnage or intended use. For example, USS Carl Vinson is an aircraft carrier of the Nimitz class. In the course of building a class of ships, design changes might be implemented, in such a case, the ships of different design might not be considered of the same class, each variation would either be its own class, or a subclass of the original class. If ships are built of a class whose production had been discontinued, ships in a class often have names linked by a common factor, e. g. Trafalgar-class submarines names all begin with T, and Ticonderoga-class cruisers are named after American battles. Ships of the class may be referred to as sister ships. The name of a ship class is most commonly the name of the lead ship. However, other systems can be used without confusion or conflict, a descriptive name may be used, for example it was decided to group destroyers made to the same design as HMS Tomahawk, all named after weapons, as the Weapon rather than Tomahawk class. In European navies a class is named after the first ship commissioned regardless of when she was ordered or laid down, the West German Navy used a three-digit type number for every class in service or in advanced project state. Modified versions were identified by a letter suffix. After the reunification of Germany the German Navy kept the system, informally, classes are also traditionally named after their lead ships. The Indonesian Navy has a naming for its ships. Moreover, the type and missions can be identified by the first number on the ships three-digit hull number, which is placed on the front bows. That project sometimes, but not always, had a metaphorical name, in addition, the ships of the class would be numbered, and that number prefixed by a letter indicating the role of that type of vessel. For example, Project 641 had no name, though NATO referred to its members as Foxtrot-class submarines. The British Royal Navy has used methods of naming classes. For instance, the Amphion class is known as the A class. Most destroyer classes were known by the letter used in naming the vessels, e. g. V

27.
Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914)
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The First Battle of Heligoland Bight was the first naval battle of the First World War, fought on 28 August 1914, between the United Kingdom and Germany. The battle took place in the south-eastern North Sea when the British attacked German patrols off the north-west German coast, the German High Seas Fleet remained largely in safe harbours on the north German coast while the British Grand Fleet remained in the northern North Sea. Both sides engaged in long-distance sorties with cruisers and battlecruisers, the British devised a plan to ambush German destroyers on their daily patrols. A British fleet of 31 destroyers and two cruisers under Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt and submarines commanded by Commodore Roger Keyes was dispatched and they were supported at longer range by an additional six light cruisers commanded by William Goodenough, and five battlecruisers commanded by Vice Admiral David Beatty. Three German light cruisers and one destroyer were sunk, three more light cruisers were damaged,712 sailors killed,530 injured and 336 taken prisoner. The British suffered one light cruiser and three damaged,35 killed and 40 wounded. The battle was regarded as a victory in Britain, where the returning ships were met by cheering crowds. However, the raid might have led to disaster had the forces under Beatty not been sent by Admiral John Jellicoe at the last minute. The battle took place less than a month after Britains declaration of war against Germany on 5 August 1914. Initially, the war on land went badly for the French and their allies, with German forces invading France and an urgent need to gather all possible troops to send to France to resist them. British naval tactics had typically involved a close blockade of ports, taking the fight to the enemy. Such an approach was still expected by the British population, the German fleet had expected that Britain would adopt its traditional approach, and had prepared by investing in submarines and coastal defences. The main body of the German navy—the High Seas Fleet—was smaller than the British Grand Fleet stationed around home waters and it therefore adopted a strategy of waiting in defended home ports for opportunities to attack the larger British force when the anticipated attack came. The British, appreciating this situation chose to adopt a strategy of patrolling the North Sea rather than close to Germany. This led to a stand off, with neither fleet doing more than hold the other endlessly waiting, the German ships were contained in an area where they could not attack merchant shipping arriving on the west of Britain, which was vital for British survival. To encourage the German fleet to stay at home, the British would make occasional forays with the Grand Fleet, the bulk of the British Expeditionary Force was transported to France between 12 and 21 August. This operation was protected from German attack by British destroyers and submarines patrolling Heligoland Bight, the Grand Fleet remained in the centre of the North Sea ready to move south should any German attack commence, but none came. Although the German army had anticipated a transfer of the British army to aid France

28.
Grand Fleet
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The Grand Fleet was the main fleet of the British Royal Navy during the First World War. It was formed in August 1914 from the First Fleet and elements of the Second Fleet of the Home Fleets and it was initially commanded by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. He was succeeded by Admiral Sir David Beatty in December 1916, in April 1919 the Grand Fleet was disbanded, with much of its strength forming a new Atlantic Fleet. Not all the Grand Fleet was available to put to sea at any one time, because ships required maintenance and repairs. For a list of the ships that were part of the Grand Fleet at the time of the Battle of Jutland in May 1916, the order of battle of the Grand Fleet at the end of the war appears in Naval order of 24 October 1918. After the United States entered the war, United States Battleship Division Nine was attached to the Grand Fleet as the Sixth Battle Squadron, adding four, British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995, A Biographical Dictionary. U. S. Battleship Operations in World War I, the Grand Fleet Royal Navy History

29.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest

30.
1st Battlecruiser Squadron
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The First Battlecruiser Squadron was a Royal Navy squadron of battlecruisers that saw service as part of the Grand Fleet during the First World War. It was created in 1909 as the First Cruiser Squadron and was renamed in 1913 to First Battle Cruiser Squadron and it participated in the battles of Heligoland Bight, Dogger Bank and the Battle of Jutland. After the end of the war it became the sole Battlecruiser Squadron, the first two British battlecruisers of the Invincible class—Inflexible and Indomitable—were commissioned into the Nore Division of the Home Fleet in October 1908. Also part of the squadron were the armoured cruisers Minotaur and Drake, Rear-Admiral the Honourable Stanley Colville took command of the squadron on 24 February and transferred his flag to Indomitable on 29 July. Drake then became flagship of the Fifth Cruiser Squadron in the Atlantic Fleet, on 24 February 1911, Rear-Admiral Lewis Bayly assumed command of the First Cruiser Squadron, which had been joined in February by the new Indefatigable-class battlecruiser Indefatigable. Upon joining on 4 June 1912, Lion became Rear-Admiral Baylys flagship, Princess Royal joined on 14 November. A reorganisation of the renamed the First Cruiser Squadron to First Battlecruiser Squadron on 1 January 1913. During 1913 gradually all the battlecruisers left to join the Second Battlecruiser Squadron in the Mediterranean Fleet. Rear-Admiral David Beatty was selected to command the squadron and succeeded Bayly on 1 March 1913, the near-sister to the Lion class—Queen Mary—joined on 4 September. This plan was abandoned due to the outbreak of war, the First Battlecruiser Squadron at the outbreak of war was composed of the four newest battlecruisers in the Royal Navy. On 3 October, it was joined by the recently completed Tiger, on 15 January 1915, New Zealand left to become flagship of the Second Battlecruiser Squadron and was joined by Indomitable, which had served with the First Battlecruiser Squadron over the New Year. As a result of the battle, in February the battlecruiser force was reorganised, Brock of Princess Royal was appointed Commodore, First Class and given command of the First Battlecruiser Squadron, until he was promoted to the rank of Rear-Admiral in March. At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, all ships were damaged by German shell fire as the First Battle Squadron under Rear-Admiral Brock, early in the action, Queen Mary was lost and all but a small number of her crew were killed. Two other battlecruiser—Invincible and Indefatigable—were sunk during the battle, the squadrons losses were made up for by the arrival of the new battlecruisers Repulse and Renown in September 1916 and January 1917 respectively. Brock was replaced by Rear-Admiral Richard F. Phillimore, when Phillimore left to become Rear-Admiral Commanding, Aircraft Carriers, he was superseded by Rear-Admiral Henry Oliver on 14 March 1918. Flying the flag of Rear-Admiral the Honourable Stanley C. J. Colville, Flying the flag of Rear-Admiral the Honourable Stanley C. J. Colville. Flying the flag of Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, Princess Royal Flying the flag of Rear-Admiral Osmond De B. Flying the Flag of Rear-Admiral Richard F. Phillimore, Flying the flag of Rear-Admiral Henry F. Oliver

31.
Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)
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The British surprised the smaller and slower German squadron, which fled for home. During a stern chase lasting several hours, the British caught up with the Germans, the British disabled Blücher, the rearmost German ship and the Germans put the British flagship HMS Lion out of action. Due to inadequate signalling, the remaining British ships stopped the pursuit to sink Blücher and when the ship had been sunk, the squadron returned to harbour, with some ships so badly damaged as to require extensive repairs. Lion made it back to port but was out of action for several months. The British had lost no ships and suffered few casualties, the Germans had lost Blücher and most of its crew, both navies replaced commanders who were thought to have shown poor judgement and made changes to equipment and procedures, to remedy failings observed during the battle. Before 1914, international communication was conducted via undersea cables, most under British control, hours after the British ultimatum to Germany in August 1914, The British cut German cables and messages could only be passed by wireless, using ciphers to disguise their content. The Signalbuch der Kaiserlichen Marine was captured from the German Light cruiser SMS Magdeburg, during the Battle off Texel, the commander of the German destroyer SMS S119 threw overboard all secret papers in a lead lined chest as the ship was sinking. The transfer of a naval officer, Commander W. W. The intelligence meant that the British did not need wasteful defensive standing patrols, the British could economise on fuel and use the time for training and maintenance. The Admiralty also uncovered the German order of battle and tracked the deployment of ships, the lack of a proper war staff at the Admiralty and poor liaison between Room 40, Oliver and the operations staff, meant that the advantage was poorly exploited in 1915. When German ships sailed, information from Room 40 needed to be passed on quickly but Oliver found it hard to delegate, when Jellicoe asked for a decryption section to take to sea, it was refused on security grounds. Hipper opened fire at 08,00 on 16 December 1914, eventually killing 108, the British fleet had sailed but the German ships escaped in stormy seas and low visibility, assisted by British communication failures. The British had let the raid occur and appeared to the public to have been surprised, the British had escaped a potential disaster, because the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron was unsupported by the 2nd Battle Squadron, when it failed to make contact with the raiding force. The worst British failure was in the exploitation of the intelligence provided by the breakers at Room 40. Some intercepts decoded during the action had taken two hours to reach British commanders at sea, by when they were out of date or misleading. News of the sailing of the HSF was delivered so late that the British commanders thought that the Germans were on the way, at sea, Beatty had sent ambiguous signals and some commanders had not used their initiative. Hipper ordered German ships vigorously to enforce search and seizure rules, buoyed by the success of the raid on the English coast, Admiral Hipper planned an attack for next month on the British fishing fleet on the Dogger Bank. Hipper intended to clear the bank of British fishing vessels and dubious neutrals and to any small British warships in the area

32.
SMS Derfflinger
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SMS Derfflinger was a battlecruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine built just before the outbreak of World War I. She was the vessel of her class of three ships, her sister ships were Lützow and Hindenburg. The Derfflinger-class battlecruisers were larger and featured significant improvements over the previous German battlecruisers, in terms of armament, armor protection, the ship was named after Field Marshal Georg von Derfflinger who fought in the Thirty Years War. Derfflinger was part of the I Scouting Group for most of World War I and she took part in the bombardments of English coastal towns, as well as the Battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland, where her stubborn resistance led to the British nicknaming her Iron Dog. Derfflinger was interned with the rest of the High Seas fleet at Scapa Flow following the armistice in November 1918, under the orders of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, the interned ships were scuttled on 21 June 1919, Derfflinger sank at 14,45. Built by Blohm & Voss at their yard in Hamburg, Derfflingers keel was laid in January 1912 and she was to have been launched on 14 June 1913, but the wooden sledges upon which the ship rested became jammed, the ship moved only 30–40 centimeters. A second attempt was successful on 12 July 1913, a crew composed of dockyard workers took the ship around the Skagen to Kiel. In late October, the vessel was assigned to the I Scouting Group, on completion she displaced 26,600 t and was 210.40 m long. The ship had a crew of 44 officers and 1,068 enlisted men, Derfflinger was equipped with two sets of high- and low-pressure turbines powered by 14 coal-burning boilers that drove four propellers. She was capable of a top speed of 26.5 knots, in early August 1915, a derrick was mounted amidships, and tests with Hansa-Brandenburg W seaplanes were conducted. Mounting a main armament of eight 30.5 cm guns, the ships armament was rounded out by twelve 15 cm guns in single casemate mounts and eight 8.8 cm guns, also placed in casemates, though four of these were removed in 1916. An additional four 8.8 cm flak guns were installed amidships, four 50 cm submerged torpedo tubes were carried, one was located in the bow, two on the broadside, and one in the stern. Derfflingers first combat operation was a raid on the English coastal towns of Scarborough, Hartlepool, one raid had already been conducted by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group, on the town of Yarmouth in late 1914. Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, the commander of the High Seas Fleet and his goal was to lure a portion of the Grand Fleet into combat where it could be isolated and destroyed. At 03,20 on 15 December, Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper, with his flag in Seydlitz, departed the Jade estuary. Following Seydlitz were Derfflinger, Moltke, Von der Tann, and Blücher, along with the light cruisers Kolberg, Strassburg, Stralsund, and Graudenz, and two squadrons of torpedo boats. The ships sailed north past the island of Heligoland, until they reached the Horns Reef lighthouse, twelve hours after Hipper left the Jade, the High Seas Fleet departed to provide distant cover. The main fleet consisted of 14 dreadnoughts, eight pre-dreadnoughts and a force of two armored cruisers, seven light cruisers, and 54 torpedo boats

33.
Magazine (artillery)
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Magazine is the name for an item or place within which ammunition or other explosive material is stored. It is taken originally from the Arabic word makhāzin, meaning magazine or storeroom, via Italian, the term is also used for a place where large quantities of ammunition are stored for later distribution, or an ammunition dump. In the early history of tube artillery drawn by horses, ammunition was carried in separate unarmored wagons or vehicles and these soft-skinned vehicles were extremely vulnerable to enemy fire and to explosions caused by a weapons malfunction. Therefore, as part of setting up a battery, a designated place would be used to shelter the ready ammunition. In the case of batteries of towed artillery the temporary magazine would be placed, if possible, in a pit, or natural declivity, circumstances might require the establishment of multiple field magazines so that one lucky hit or accident would not disable the entire battery. The ammunition storage area aboard a warship is referred to as a magazine or the magazine by sailors. An open flame was never allowed inside the magazine, more modern warships use semi-automated or automated ammunition hoists. The separation of shell and charge gave the storage of the former the name shell room, surface warships that have carried torpedoes, and ones that still do, have had torpedo magazines for carrying these dangerous antiship and antisubmarine weapons in well-defended compartments. For ships with both forward and aft surface-to-air missile launchers, there are at least two missile magazines, nearly every detail of nuclear weapons storage is classified, although many of the same principles of an ammunition dump would apply. The one consistent factor is the increased security compared to that afforded to the storage of other weapons. In naval usage, most nuclear weapons are stored fitted to vehicles in the launch position. Their vertical launching system tubes and missile tubes could technically be described as magazines, the United States employs the Weapons Storage and Security System for storing its tactical nuclear weapons in Europe. Ammunition dump Armory Arsenal Gunpowder magazine Colonial Williamsburg Magazine

34.
Protection of Military Remains Act 1986
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The Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom which provides protection for the wreckage of military aircraft and designated military vessels. The Act provides for two types of protection, protected places and controlled sites, Military aircraft are automatically protected but vessels have to be specifically designated. The primary reason for designation is to protect as a war grave the last resting place of UK servicemen, however, there have been four statutory instruments designating wrecks under the Act, in 2002,2006,2008 and 2009. Twelve wrecks are designated as controlled sites, on which diving is banned and these twelve vessels, all lost on military service, provide a small representative sample of all such vessels. All other vessels that meet the criteria of the act are subject to a programme of assessment. The order that is currently in force, since February 2010 and this means that diving is allowed but divers must follow the rule of look, dont touch. The Act provides for two types of protection, protected places and controlled sites, the primary reason for designation is to protect the last resting place of UK servicemen. The wreckage of United Kingdom military aircraft are also protected under the act elsewhere in the world, Wrecks are designated by name and can be designated as protected places even if the location of the site is not known. Thus, the wreckage of a UK military aircraft is automatically a protected place even if the remains have not been previously discovered or identified. Shipwrecks need to be designated, and designation as a protected place applies only to vessels that sank after 4 August 1914. The Act makes it an offence to interfere with a protected place, divers may visit the site but the rule is look, dont touch and dont penetrate. Controlled sites must be designated by location, where the site contains the remains of an aircraft or a vessel that crashed. The Act makes it illegal to conduct any operations within the site that might disturb the remains unless licensed to do so by the Ministry of Defence. Licences have been granted for excavation of aircraft, provided that it is not thought there are human remains present or unexploded ordnance. Controlled sites at sea are marked on admiralty charts and their location is marked by means of a buoy. During the 1970s there was a growth in excavation of the crash sites of military aircraft. These were sometimes carried out by interested amateur souvenir hunters, excavations continued however, and several incidents involving the discovery of human remains and live ordnance led to the passing of the Protection of Military Remains Act in 1986. Since the passing of the Act, investigators have been able to obtain licences to excavate subject to a number of conditions, the applicant must have thoroughly researched the crash and be able to identify the aircraft and the fate of the crew

35.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853

36.
King George V-class battleship (1911)
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The King George V-class battleships were a group of four dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy in the early 1910s that were sometimes termed super-dreadnoughts. The sister ships spent most of their careers assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Home and Grand Fleets, the ships remaining after the end of the First World War were all decommissioned in the 1920s to allow for the two Nelson-class battleships under the Washington Naval Treaty. The ships had a length of 597 feet 9 inches, a beam of 90 feet 1 inch. They displaced 25,420 long tons at load and 27,120 long tons at deep load. Their crew numbered around 869 officers and ratings upon completion and 1,114 in 1916, the King George V class also used the same arrangement and they were altered while under construction to remedy the problem at a cost of approximately £20,000 per ship. The fore funnel was moved aft and a makeshift foremast was built one of the struts of the original tripod mast. The spotting tower at the rear of the tower was removed, the conning tower enlarged. The ships of the King George V class were powered by two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, the outer propeller shafts were coupled to the high-pressure turbines in the outer engine rooms and these exhausted into low-pressure turbines in the centre engine room which drove the inner shafts. The turbines used steam provided by 18 water-tube boilers and they were rated at 27,000 shaft horsepower and were intended to give the battleships a maximum speed of 21 knots. During their sea trials, the ships exceeded their designed speed and horsepower and they carried a maximum of 3,100 long tons of coal and an additional 840 long tons of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate. This gave them a range of 5, 910–6,310 nautical miles at a speed of 10 knots. The guns had an elevation of +20° which gave them a range of 23,830 yards. Their gunsights, however, were limited to +15° until super-elevating prisms were installed by 1916 to allow full elevation, the ships carried 100 shells per gun. Eight of these were mounted in the superstructure, four in the aft superstructure. The guns in the casemates were frequently unusable in heavy seas and were later removed during the war. The Mark VII guns had an elevation of +15° which gave them a range of 11,400 yards. They fired 31-pound projectiles at a velocity of 2,821 ft/s. They were provided with 150 rounds per gun, four 3-pounder saluting guns were also carried

37.
Battleship secondary armament
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The secondary armament of a capital ship are smaller, faster-firing weapons that are typically effective at a shorter range than the main weapons. The nature, disposition, size and purpose of secondary weapons changed dramatically as the changed from torpedo boats, to torpedo-carrying destroyers, to aircraft. Pre-dreadnoughts, from the period 1890 to 1905, were fitted with 3 or 4 different calibres of weapon. The main guns were usually approximately 12-inch caliber, secondary weapons usually 6-inch, guns smaller than 4. 7-inch are usually considered tertiary. Secondary guns were quick firers, and could fire 5 to 10 rounds per minute and it was this attribute, rather than their destructive power or accuracy, that provided the military value. Secondary guns were almost universally carried in casemates, or a long armoured wall through which the battery of guns projected, such weapons were designed to fire at both capital ship targets and smaller targets such as torpedo craft and destroyers. Small targets were of course vulnerable to 6-inch projectiles, and a rate of fire was necessary to be able to hit a small. In this era, secondary weapons were also expected to engage capital ships, heavily-armoured areas of battleships would not be vulnerable to 6-inch fire, but there were large areas that could not be heavily protected. These lightly armoured and unarmoured areas would be riddled at the ranges of perhaps 3000 yards. This would knock out the secondary armament, punch holes in the lightly armoured bow and stern, perhaps knock down funnels and spotting tops. Secondary guns were an important factor in battleship combat. Dreadnoughts were characterized by an all-big-gun armament, broadly, this era spans from 1906, through the super-dreadnought era, to the end of World War I. During this period, there was variation in the selection of secondary weapon. British practice, at first, was to mount very small guns that were considered a tertiary battery and these guns were often mounted unarmoured in the open, or later, in a casemate battery. Later, the guns grew to 6-inch size, in other navies, the 6-inch size was commonly mounted throughout the era as a casemate battery. British doctrine at first held that the guns were for anti-torpedo defense only. Other navies, with a secondary battery, held that they should also be used against capital ships. For instance, German doctrine, for fighting in the North Sea, britain later came around to this point of view, although the primary justification for mounting a 6-inch battery remained fighting against the increasingly large torpedo boats and destroyers

38.
Capital ship
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The capital ships of a navy are its most important warships, they are generally the larger ships when compared to other warships in their respective fleet. A capital ship is generally a leading or a ship in a naval fleet. William S. Lind, in the book America Can Win, defines a capital ship as follows, These characteristics define a capital ship, if the ships are beaten. But if the rest of the navy is beaten, the ships can still operate. Another characteristic that defines capital ships is that their opponent is each other. The Mahanian doctrine was applied by the Imperial Japanese Navy, leading to its preventive move to attack Pearl Harbor. Four-deckers suffered in rough seas, and the lowest deck could seldom fire except in calm conditions, third rate,64 to 80 guns. Fourth rate,46 to 60 guns, frigates were ships of the fifth rate, sixth rates comprised small frigates and corvettes. Towards the end of the Napoleonic Wars and into the late 19th century, some larger and this applied mainly to ships resulting from the dreadnought revolution, dreadnought battleships and battlecruisers. In the 20th century, especially in World Wars I and II, typical capital ships would be battleships, all of the above ships were close to 20,000 tons displacement or heavier, with large caliber guns and heavy armor protection. Heavy cruisers, despite being important ships, were not considered capital ships, an exception to the above in World War II was the Deutschland-class cruiser. The Alaska-class cruisers, despite being oversized heavy cruisers and not true battleships/battlecruisers, were considered by some to be capital ships. In regard to design, however, the Kirov is simply a supersized guided-missile cruiser with nuclear propulsion. It took until late 1942 for aircraft carriers to be considered capital ships. The U. S. Navy was forced to rely primarily on its aircraft carriers after the attack on Pearl Harbor sank or damaged eight of its Pacific-fleet battleships. In the 21st century, the carrier is the last remaining capital ship, with capability defined in decks available and aircraft per deck, rather than in guns. Despite their significance to modern fleets, the U. S. Navy has never named aircraft carriers after U. S. states as was the practice when battleships were considered capital ships. Instead, U. S. state names are applied to nuclear submarines while Aircraft Carriers are named after famous Navy personel and presidents, such as Chester W. Nimitz

39.
HMS Dreadnought (1906)
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HMS Dreadnought was a battleship built for the Royal Navy that revolutionised naval power. The generation of ships she made obsolete became known as pre-dreadnoughts, admiral Sir John Jacky Fisher, First Sea Lord of the Board of Admiralty, is credited as the father of Dreadnought. Shortly after he assumed office, he ordered design studies for a battleship armed solely with 12-inch guns and he convened a Committee on Designs to evaluate the alternative designs and to assist in the detailed design work. Dreadnought was the first battleship of her era to have a main battery. She was also the first capital ship to be powered by steam turbines and her launch helped spark a naval arms race as navies around the world, particularly the German Imperial Navy, rushed to match her in the build-up to World War I. In March 1915 Dreadnought became the only confirmed to have sunk a submarine. Dreadnought did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 as she was being refitted and this was the only time during the war that British dreadnought battleships fired on their German counterparts. Nor did Dreadnought participate in any of the other World War I naval battles, after the Battle of Jutland she was relegated to coastal defence duties in the English Channel, not rejoining the Grand Fleet until 1918. She was reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for two years later. A related problem was that the shell splashes from the numerous smaller weapons tended to obscure the splashes from the bigger guns. Keeping the range open generally negated the threat from torpedoes and further reinforced the need for guns of a uniform calibre. In 1903, the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti first articulated in print the concept of an all-big-gun battleship, when the Italian Navy did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in Janes Fighting Ships advocating his concept. He proposed an ideal future British battleship of 17,000 long tons, with a battery of a dozen 12-inch guns in eight turrets,12 inches of belt armour. The Royal Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy all recognised these issues before 1905. The unheard of long-range fire during the Battle of the Yellow Sea, in particular, although never experienced by any prior to the battle. In January 1905, he convened a Committee on Designs, including members of his informal group, to evaluate the various design proposals. While nominally independent it served to deflect criticism of Fisher and the Board of Admiralty as it had no ability to consider options other than those already decided upon by the Admiralty, Fisher appointed all of the members of the committee and he was President of the Committee. This was deemed necessary after the Russian battleship Tsesarevich was thought to have survived a Japanese torpedo hit during the Russo–Japanese War by virtue of her heavy internal bulkhead, to avoid increasing the displacement of the ship, the thickness of her waterline belt was reduced by 1 inch

40.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary

41.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen

42.
Wentworth Beaumont, 1st Viscount Allendale
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Wentworth Canning Blackett Beaumont, 1st Viscount Allendale PC, JP, DL, styled The Honourable Wentworth Beaumont between 1906 and 1907, was a British Liberal politician. He attended Eton and graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge with an MA in 1888 and he was appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard in April 1907 and was sworn of the Privy Council the following month. On 5 July 1911 he was created Viscount Allendale, of Allendale and Hexham in the County of Northumberland, Beaumont was also appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northumberland in September 1901. Lord Allendale married Lady Alexandrina Vane-Tempest, daughter of George Vane-Tempest, 5th Marquess of Londonderry and they had six children, Wentworth Henry Canning Beaumont, 2nd Viscount Allendale. Hon. Margaret Helen Beaumont, married the 5th Earl Fortescue and had issue, hon. Aline Mary de Burgh Beaumont. Lord Allendale died in London in December 1923, aged 63, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Viscount Allendale

43.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A

44.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind

45.
Metacentric height
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The metacentric height is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre, a larger metacentric height implies greater initial stability against overturning. Hence, a sufficiently, but not excessively, high metacentric height is considered ideal for passenger ships, when a ship heels, the centre of buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. It might also move up or down with respect to the water line, the point at which a vertical line through the heeled centre of buoyancy crosses the line through the original, vertical centre of buoyancy is the metacentre. The metacentre remains directly above the centre of buoyancy by definition, in the diagram, the two Bs show the centres of buoyancy of a ship in the upright and heeled conditions, and M is the metacentre. KM is the distance from the keel to the metacentre, stable floating objects have a natural rolling frequency, just like a weight on a spring, where the frequency is increased as the spring gets stiffer. Metacentre is determined by the ratio between the resistance of the boat and the volume of the boat. Wide and shallow or narrow and deep hulls have high transverse metacenters, and the opposite have low metacenters, ignoring the ballast, wide and shallow or narrow and deep means that the ship is very quick to roll and very hard to overturn and is stiff. A log shaped round bottomed means that it is slow to roll and easy to overturn, G, is the center of gravity. GM, the parameter of a boat, can be lengthened by lowering the center of gravity or changing the hull form or both. An ideal boat strikes a balance, very tender boats with very slow roll periods are at risk of overturning, but are comfortable for passengers. However, vessels with a metacentric height are excessively stable with a short roll period resulting in high accelerations at the deck level. In such vessels, the motion is not uncomfortable because of the moment of inertia of the tall mast. The centre of buoyancy is at the centre of mass of the volume of water that the hull displaces and this point is referred to as B in naval architecture. The centre of gravity of the ship is commonly denoted as point G or VCG, when a ship is at equilibrium, the centre of buoyancy is vertically in line with the centre of gravity of the ship. The metacentre is the point where the lines intersect of the force of buoyancy of φ ± dφ. When the ship is vertical, the metacentre lies above the centre of gravity and this distance is also abbreviated as GM. Work must be done to roll a stable hull and this is converted to potential energy by raising the centre of mass of the hull with respect to the water level or by lowering the centre of buoyancy or both

46.
Engine room
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On a ship, the engine room or ER is the propulsion machinery spaces of the vessel. To increase a vessels safety and chances of surviving damage, the necessary for operations may be segregated into various spaces. The engine room is generally the largest physical compartment of the machinery space and it houses the vessels prime mover, usually some variations of a heat engine - diesel engine, gas or steam turbine, or some combination of these. On some ships, the space may comprise more than one engine room, such as forward and aft, or port or starboard engine rooms. On a large percentage of vessels, ships and boats, the room is located near the bottom, and at the rear, or aft, end of the vessel. This design maximizes the cargo carrying capacity of the vessel and situates the prime mover close to the propeller, minimizing equipment cost, the engine room on some ships may be situated mid-ship, especially on vessels built from 1900 to the 1960s. With the increased use of electric propulsion packages, the engine room may be located well forward, low or high on the vessel. The engine room of a vessel typically contains several engines for different purposes. Main, or propulsion engines are used to turn the ships propeller and they typically burn diesel oil or heavy fuel oil, and may be able to switch between the two. There are many arrangements for motor vessels, some including multiple engines, propellers. Smaller, but still large engines drive electrical generators that power for the ships electrical systems. Large ships typically have three or more synchronized generators to ensure smooth operation, the combined output of a ships generators is well above the actual power requirement to accommodate maintenance or the loss of one generator. On a steamship, power for electricity and propulsion is provided by one or more large boilers giving rise to the alternate name boiler room. High pressure steam from the boiler is used to drive reciprocating engines or turbines for propulsion, besides propulsion and auxiliary engines, a typical engine room contains many smaller engines, including generators, air compressors, feed pumps, and fuel pumps. Today, these machines are powered by small diesel engines or electric motors. The engine get required cooling from liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers connected to fresh seawater or divertible to recirculate through tanks of seawater in the engine room, both supplies draw heat from the engines via the coolant and oil lines. Heat exchangers are plumbed in so that oil is represented by a mark on the flange of the pipes. Sea water, or brine, is represented by a mark on the flanges