Baker and the head of the constabulary were replaced; the Filipino legislature emerged as coequal with the American administration, and the elites were largely confirmed in their political and economic power, which they hold to this day.

In the absence of any constitutional requirement binding Congress, we stated that “[t] he respect due to coequal and independent departments” demands that the courts accept as passed all bills authenticated in the manner provided by Congress.

As you know, the Department has a longstanding practice of defending the constitutionality of duly-enacted statutes if reasonable arguments can be made in their defense, a practice that accords the respect appropriately due to a coequal branch of government.