The 18-point agreement, or the 18-point memorandum, was a hypothetical list of 18 points drawn up by Sarawak, proposing terms to form Malaysia, during negotiations prior to the creation of the new federation in 1963. It was argued as hypothetical as unlike the 20-point memorandum of Sabah submitted jointly by its political leaders in 1962, which exact documents existed, the details of who prepared & signed the 18-point memorandum remains sketchy. [1]

The agreements, which can be found in the Proclamation of Malaysia and also the Cobbold Commission reports, stated the conditions and rights that were meant to safeguard the autonomy and the special interest of the people of Sabah and Sarawak, protecting, among others, these regions’ rights on religion, language, education, administration, economy and culture.

Some of the points were incorporated into the Constitution of Malaysia while the rest of Sarawak’s 18 points are outlined as follows:

1.
Malaysia Agreement
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Singapore later ceased to be a part of Malaysia, becoming an independent state on 9 August 1965. It came into being in 1946, through a series of agreements between the United Kingdom and Malayan Union, the Malayan Union was superseded by the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, and achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on 31 August 1957. The committee is also a successor to the former Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories and it stated that all people have a right to self-determination and proclaimed that colonialism should be brought to a speedy and unconditional end. Under the Malaysia Agreement signed between Great Britain and the Federation of Malaya, Britain would enact an Act to relinquish control over Singapore, Sarawak. The issue of self-determination with respect to the peoples of North Borneo, Sarawak and it has accordingly been decided to set up a Commission to carry out this task and to make recommendations. The five-man team, which comprised two Malayans and three British representatives, was headed by Lord Cobbold. In Singapore, the Peoples Action Party sought merger with Malaysia on the basis of the mandate it obtained during the general elections of 1959 when it won 43 of the 51 seats. However, this mandate became questionable when dissension within the Party led to a split, in July 1961, following a debate on a vote of confidence in the government,13 PAP Assemblymen were expelled from the PAP for abstaining. They went on to form a new party, the Barisan Sosialis. More defections occurred until the PAP had a majority of just one seat in the Assembly, given this situation, it would have been impossible to rely on the mandate achieved in 1959 to move forth with merger. A new mandate was necessary, especially since the Barisan argued that the terms of merger offered were detrimental to the Singapore people. While Brunei sent a delegation to the signing of the Malaysia Agreement, United Nations General Assembly 18th Session - the Question of Malaysia Malaysia Timeline by the BBC News Channel. Allen, J. de V. Stockwell, Anthony J. Wright, a collection of treaties and other documents affecting the states of Malaysia 1761-1963

2.
Malaysia Bill
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The Malaysia Bill is an annex of the Agreement relating to Malaysia between United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. It adopted its present name, the name of the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya should be changed into Constitution of Malaysia, the following is table of contents to the Malaysia Bill. First Schedule Insertion of new Articles in Constitution, second Schedule Section added to Eighth Schedule to Constitution. Fourth Schedule—Special Legislative Lists for Borneo States and Singapore, fifth Schedule—Additions for Borneo States to Tenth Schedule to Constitution. Sixth Schedule—Minor and consequential amendments of Constitution

3.
Cobbold Commission
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It was also responsible for the subsequent drafting of the Constitution of Malaysia prior to the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963. The Commission was headed by former Bank of England governor, Lord Cobbold, the Commission released its findings, report and recommendations on 1 August 1962. It concluded that the formation of Malaysia should be implemented, however, Lord Cobbold also stressed that all parties enter the federation as equal partners. The remaining third is divided between those who insist on independence before Malaysia is considered and those who would prefer to see British rule continue for some years to come. If the conditions and reservations which they have put forward could be substantially met, moreover once a firm decision was taken quite a number of the third category would be likely to abandon their opposition and decide to make the best of a doubtful job. COMPOSITION OF THE COMMISSION TERM OF REFERENCE INTRODUCTION1, cardinal Principles of the rule of the English Rajah D. Legal Meaning of the Term Native E. North Borneo and Sarawak Governments Papers on Malaysia F

4.
20-point agreement
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The 20-point agreement often serves as a focal point amongst those who argue that Sabahs rights within the Federation have been eroded over time. It was decided to set up a Commission to carry out that task, the five-man team, which comprised two Malayans and three British representatives, was headed by Lord Cobbold. An inter-governmental committee was appointed to work out the details of the Malaysia Agreement. Lord Lansdowne served for Britain and Tun Abdul Razak, Deputy Prime Minister of the Federation of Malaya served for Malaya. The 20 points were written with a view to safeguarding the interests, rights, a similar proposal, with certain differences in content, was made by Sarawak, and is commonly referred to as the 18-point agreement. Attention is often drawn to these memoranda by those who believe that their principles were not subsequently adhered to after federation, There have been numerous calls for the 20-point memorandum to be reviewed so as to take into account social, economic, and political changes over time. 17 January 1962, The Commission of Enquiry was announced to observe the views of the people of Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei,21 June 1962, The Cobbold Report was completed and submitted to the prime ministers of Britain and Malaya. The Commissions view was - firm support for a federated Malaysia,31 July 1962, The British and Malayan governments decided in principle that the proposed Federation of Malaysia should be brought into being by 31 August 1963. An Inter-Governmental Committee was to be formed to work on future constitutional arrangements, August 1962, The Report was published to all parties. Reportedly, this came as a surprise to North Borneo,13 –14 August 1962, Donald Stephens convened a meeting of political leaders who drew up a 14-point memorandum of minimum demands. 12 &26 September 1962, North Borneo and Sarawak legislative council agreed to the formation of Malaysia on condition that state rights were safeguarded, Malay should be the national language of the Federation b. English should continue to be used for a period of 10 years after Malaysia Day c, english should be an official language of North Borneo for all purposes, State or Federal, without limitation of time. A new Constitution for North Borneo was of course essential, the Head of State in North Borneo should not be eligible for election as Head of the Federation. The Federal Government should not be able to veto the entry of persons into North Borneo for State Government purposes except on strictly security grounds. North Borneo should have unfettered control over the movements of other than those in Federal Government employ from other parts of Malaysia into North Borneo. There should be no right to secede from the Federation, borneanisation of the public service should proceed as quickly as possible. Every effort should be made to encourage British Officers to remain in the service until their places can be taken by suitably qualified people from North Borneo. North Borneo should retain control of its own finance, development and tariff, a) the Prime Minister should be elected by unofficial members of Legislative Council b) There should be a proper Ministerial system in North Borneo

5.
Singaporean integration referendum, 1962
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Voters were offered three options, but did not have the choice of opposing integration. Option A, which provided for the highest level of autonomy was chosen by 96% of voters, in Singapore, the PAP sought formation of Malaysia on the basis of the strong mandate it obtained during the general elections of 1959 when PAP won 43 of the 51 seats. However, this mandate became questionable when dissension within the party led to a split, the ruling PAP was not legally obliged to call for a referendum, but did so to secure the mandate of the people. The referendum did not have an option of objecting to the idea of merger because no one had legitimately raised the issue in the Legislative Assembly before then, however, the methods had been debatable. The referendum was called to resolve the issue as an effort to decide objectively which option the people backed. The legitimacy of the referendum was challenged by Singaporean left-wingers. The Council of Joint Action founded by 19 members of the Assembly to block the merger, the CJA also criticized the terms, and the lack of choice in the referendum. Being strongly against the referendum, the Barisan Sosialis called for a boycott of the referendum, over 144,000 blank votes were cast, over a quarter of all votes. The media campaign fielded by both sides was extremely heated, many of the leaders on both sides broadcast radio shows in several languages, Singapore entered into merger with Malaya on 16 September 1963, marking the birth of Malaysia. Singapore ceased to be a state of Malaysia on 9 August 1965 when it became an independent state, proclamation of Malaysia Singapore in Malaysia Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965 Singapore-elections - a site documenting the various election results in Singapores history. Referendum alternatives - documents the referendum options

6.
Communist insurgency in Sarawak
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The Communist insurgency in Sarawak occurred in Malaysia from 1962 to 1990, and involved the North Kalimantan Communist Party and the Malaysian Government. It was one of the two Communist insurgencies to challenge the former British colony of Malaysia during the Cold War, the insurgency was triggered by the 1962 Brunei Revolt, which had been instigated by the left-wing Brunei Peoples Party in opposition to the proposed formation of Malaysia. The Sarawak Communist insurgents were supported by Indonesia until 1965 when the pro-Western President Suharto assumed power. Following the end of the Confrontation, Indonesian military forces would co-operate with the Malaysians in counter-insurgency operations against their former allies, in response to the insurgency, the Malaysian federal government created several controlled areas along the Kuching-Serian road in Sarawaks First and Third Divisions in 1965. In addition, the Sarawak Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Yakub also managed to convince many of the NKCP insurgents to enter peace negotiations. Besides the communist insurgency in Peninsular Malaysia, a one was waged in Sarawak. As with their MCP counterparts, the Sarawak Communist Organisation or the Communist Clandestine Organisation, was dominated by ethnic Chinese. However, the Sarawak Communist Organisation had little support from ethnic Malays, at its height, the SCO had 24,000 members. During the 1940s, Maoism had spread among Chinese vernacular schools in Sarawak, Communist objectives in Sarawak were to achieve self-government and independence for the colony, and to establish a Communist society. The Communist Organisation operated through both legitimate and secret organisations to propagate Communist ideology and their tactic was to establish a united front with other left-wing and anti-colonial groups in Sarawak to achieve their goal of independence of the colony from British rule. According to the Australian historian Vernon L. Porritt, the first known Sarawak Communist Organisation operation was an assault on the Batu Kitang bazaar on 5 August 1952. In response, the Sarawak colonial government approved funding for security measures, strengthen the security forces. Sarawak Communists were also opposed to the formation of the Federation of Malaysia, azaharis Brunei Peoples Party, and the Sarawak United Peoples Party. According to the historians Cheah Boon Kheng and Vernon L. Porritt, the Brunei Revolt was a failed uprising against the British by the A. M. In December 1962, the SCO still lacked a military wing, following the Brunei Revolt, the SCO switched to a policy of armed insurgency from January 1963 since the defeat of the Bruneian rebels deprived it of a source of weapons. The Sarawak Communist Organisations guerrillas would fight alongside the TNKU and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, there, these Communists received military-style training at Indonesian camps. At that time, President Sukarno was pro-Communist and anti-Western, due to the Sukarno governments hostility to Britain and Malaysia, the Sarawak Communist Organisation used Indonesian Kalimantan as a base for building up a guerrilla force. These Communist exiles in Indonesia would form the core of the North Kalimantan Communist Partys two guerrilla formations, the Sarawak Peoples Guerilla Force and the North Kalimantan Peoples Army

7.
Piracy in the Sulu Sea
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Piracy in the Sulu Sea occurred in the vicinity of Mindanao, where frequent acts of piracy were committed against the Spanish. Because of the wars between Spain and the Moro people, the areas in and around the Sulu Sea became a haven for piracy which was not suppressed until the beginning of the 20th century. The pirates should not be confused with the forces or privateers of the various Moro tribes. However, many of the pirates operated under government sanction during time of war, the pirate ships used by the Moros were known as proa, or garays, and they varied in design. The majority were wooden sailing galleys about ninety feet long with a beam of ten feet 27.4 by 6.1 m and they carried around fifty to 100 crewmen. Slave trading and raiding was also common, the pirates would assemble large fleets of proas. Hundreds of Christians were captured and imprisoned over the centuries, many were used as galley slaves aboard the pirate ships. Other than muskets and rifles, the Moro pirates, as well as the navy sailors, the wooden or ivory handle was often heavily ornamented with silver or gold. The type of wound inflicted by its blade makes it difficult to heal, the kris was used often used in boarding a vessel. Moros also used a Kampilan, another sword, a knife, or barong and a spear, made of bamboo and an iron spearhead. The Moros swivel guns were not like more modern guns used by the powers but were of a much older technology, making them largely inaccurate. Lantakas dated back to the 16th century and were up to six long, requiring several men to lift one. They fired up to a cannonball or grape shot. A lantaka was bored by hand and were sunk into a pit, the barrel was then bored by a company of men walking around in a circle to turn drill bits by hand. The Spanish engaged the Moro pirates frequently in the 1840s, the expedition to Balanguingui in 1848 was commanded by Brigadier José Ruiz with a fleet of nineteen small warships and hundreds of Spanish Army troops. They were opposed by at least 1,000 Moros holed up in four forts with 124 cannons, there were also dozens of proas at Balanguingui but the pirates abandoned their ships for the better defended fortifications. The Spanish stormed three of the positions by force and captured the one after the pirates had retreated. Over 500 prisoners were freed in the operation and over 500 Moros were killed or wounded, the Spanish lost twenty-two men killed and around 210 wounded

8.
Cross border attacks in Sabah
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The Cross border attacks in Sabah are a series of cross border terrorism perpetrated by the Moro pirates from Mindanao on Sabah that began even before the British colonial period. Many civilians have died or suffered during these incidents, causing an increase in anti-Filipino sentiment among the peoples of Sabah. The attacks were intense during the presidential terms of Diosdado Macapagal. Piracy has been a part of the Sultanate of Sulus culture, the Sulu islands were known for their great slave market with their islanders frequently attacking Borneo Island in search of slaves. In 1910, the neighbouring Celebes Islands was attacked by seven Moro pirates whom had crossed from Mindanao, subsequent reports from the British government in North Borneo reported that Joloano Moros terrorised the inhabitants of North Borneo, looting small towns and killing many people. Although the British did a lot to combat piracy, an office of a British company was raided by twelve Moro pirates in Kalabakan in July 1958. Another raid was done on the township of Semporna on 29 March 1954. During the last years of British rule in North Borneo, both seafarers and coastal settlements suffered a high numbers of attacks from pirates who were believed to be based on Tawi-Tawi. Between 1959 and 1962,232 pirates attack were recorded by the British authorities in North Borneo, regional migration flows within Southeast Asia are not a phenomenon restricted to current times. Social and cultural connections between Sabah, Mindanao and the Indonesian province of North Kalimantan have existed for centuries, the tradition of border crossing from the Philippine Sulu Archipelago to Sabah originated in the late 16th century. The struggle for dominance between different ethnic groups and the Spanish in Mindanao led to increased immigration of Philippine Moro ethnic groups, mostly the Suluks and Bajaus to Sabah. The first arrival of the immigrants in Sabah in the 1960s was said to be associated with the then Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos. At the same time, a Suluk native, Mustapha Harun became the third Chief Minister of Sabah, most of those who left the Philippines were already involved in criminal activities, mainly smuggling and armed robbery. Today, a numbers of Moros still live in many places in Sabah such as Kota Kinabalu, Kinarut, Lahad Datu, Sandakan, Semporna, Tawau. Most of the Filipino refugees are issued with IMM13 documents by the Malaysian government during Mahathir Mohamad administration, the tactics are different, and are based on the motives of individual groups. Generally, the Moro pirate and militants will attack and escape to the Malaysia–Philippines border or any nearby islands when their activities are spotted by the security forces, both the pirates and militants will usually steal boat engines, food and other useful things that can be sold. In certain cases, they also attack towns, killing innocent civilians and kidnapping them as shown in the Lahad Datu, the Filipino illegal immigrants play an important role in helping them by providing information on their next target. Due to the security patrol by the Malaysian Armed Forces

9.
Moro conflict
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The Moro conflict is an insurgency in the Mindanao region of the Philippines. Over the successive years, the MNLF has splintered into different groups including the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. Since then, Moro resistance has persisted against the Philippine government, the Moros had a history of resistance against Spanish, American, and Japanese rule for 400 years. During the Spanish–Moro conflict, Spain repeatedly tried to conquer the Moro Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Maguindanao, the root of the conflict originates in the Spanish and American wars against the Moros. Filipinos opposed foreign rule from the United States, which claimed the Philippines as its territory, on 14 August 1898, after defeating Spanish forces, the United States had established a military government in the Philippines under General Wesley Merritt as Military Governor. American forces took control from the Spanish government in Jolo on 18 May 1899, Brigadier General John C. Bates was sent to negotiate a treaty with the Sultan of Sulu, Jamalul Kiram II. Kiram was disappointed by the American takeover, as he expected to regain sovereignty after the defeat of Spanish forces in the archipelago, Bates main goal was to guarantee Moro neutrality in the Philippine–American War, and to establish order in the southern Philippines. After some negotiation, the Bates Treaty was signed which was based on an earlier Spanish treaty, the Bates Treaty did ensure the neutrality of the Muslims in the south, but it was actually set up to buy time for the Americans until the war in the north ended. After the war, in 1915, the Americans imposed the Carpenter Treaty on Sulu, on 20 March 1900, General Bates was replaced by Brigadier General William August Kobbé and the District of Mindanao-Jolo was upgraded to a full department. American forces in Mindanao were reinforced and hostilities with the Moro people lessened, although there are reports of Americans and other civilians being attacked, the United States military killed hundreds of Moro in the Moro Crater massacre. Repeated rebellions by the Moros against American rule continued to break out even after the main Moro Rebellion ended, during the Japanese invasion of the Philippines, the Moros waged an insurgency against the Japanese on Mindanao and Sulu until Japan surrendered in 1945. Moro Juramentados attacked the Spanish, Americans, Philippine Constabulary and the Japanese, under President Ferdinand Marcos, it was alleged that at least 11 Muslim military trainees were killed in Corregidor, by soldiers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The trainees were believed to be a part of an upcoming rebellion, another grievance by the Moro people is the extraction of Mindanaos natural resources by the central government whilst many Moros continued to live in poverty. The Philippine government allegedly encouraged Christian settlers in Mindanao to form a militia called the Ilaga to fight the Moros. The Ilaga engaged in killings and human rights abuses and were responsible for the Manili massacre of 65 Moro Muslim civilians in a mosque in June 1971, the Ilaga allegedly also engaged in cannibalism, cutting off the body parts of their victims to eat in rituals. In 1969, the MNLF was established and commenced an armed struggle against the Philippine government, many civilians were supposedly killed when the Armed Forces razed much of Jolo municipality to the ground in a scorched-earth tactic. Two years later, the Philippine government and the MNLF signed the Tripoli Agreement, the agreement provided that Mindanao would remain a part of the Philippines, but 13 of its provinces would be under the autonomous government for the Bangsamoro people. President Marcos later reneged on the agreement, and violence ensued, on 24 September 1974, the Philippine Army killed at least 1,000 Moro civilians who were praying in a mosque in what is known as the Malisbong massacre

10.
Brunei revolt
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The Brunei revolt was a December 1962 insurrection in the British protectorate of Brunei by opponents of its monarchy and its proposed inclusion in the Federation of Malaysia. The insurgents were members of the TNKU, a militia supplied by Indonesia, the TKNU began co-ordinated attacks on the oil town of Seria and on police stations and government facilities around the protectorate. The revolt began to break down within hours, having failed to achieve key objectives such as the capture of Brunei town, the revolt influenced the Sultans 1963 decision not to join Malaysia. It is seen as one of the first stages of the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, the northern part of the island of Borneo was composed of three British territories, the colonies of Sarawak and North Borneo and the protectorate of the Sultanate of Brunei. Oil was discovered in 1929 near Seria and the Shell Petroleum Company concession provided the Sultanate with a huge income, the capital, called Brunei Town in those days, was on a river some 10 miles from the coast. In 1959, the Sultan, Sir Omar Ali Saifuddin III, established a legislature with half its members nominated, elections were held in September 1962 and all of the contested seats were won by the Brunei People’s Party. Between 1959 and 1962, the United Kingdom, Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo, however, the Philippines and particularly Indonesia opposed any move towards unification of North Borneo and Sarawak with the new federation. This support was given strength by evidence of widespread anti-Federation sentiment in Sarawak, in fact, political forces in Sarawak had long anticipated their own national independence as promised by the last White Rajah of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke, in 1941. The North Kalimantan proposal was seen as an alternative by local opposition against the Malaysian Federation plan. However, before the Brunei People’s Party electoral success, a wing had emerged, the North Kalimantan National Army. Its sympathies lay with Indonesia which was seen as having better ‘liberationist’ credentials than Malaya, Azahari had lived in Indonesia and was in touch with Indonesian intelligence agents. He had recruited several officers who had trained in clandestine warfare in Indonesia. By late 1962, they could muster about 4000 men, a few modern weapons, hints of brewing trouble came in early November 1962 when the Resident for the 5th Division of Sarawak, Richard Morris, who was based in Limbang received information. Special Branch police from Kuching visited Limbang but only found some illegal uniforms with TNKU badges, later in November, Morris heard that an insurrection was planned for Brunei, but not before 19 December. Claude Fenner, the Inspector General of the Malayan Police flew to Sarawak to investigate, however, the Chief of Staff in the British Far East Headquarters in Singapore did review and update the contingency plan, PALE ALE, for Brunei. On 6 December, Morris heard the rebellion would start on the 8th, on 7th, similar information reached John Fisher, the resident of the 4th Division of Sarawak, based in Miri some 20 miles west of Brunei. As a result, police were put on alert through Brunei, North Borneo and Sarawak. Contrary to popular belief, no evidence has ever been unearthed to support claims that the Indonesian President

11.
North Borneo Federation
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The idea supported and propagated the unification of all Borneo territories under British rule to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. Azahari personally favoured Bruneis independence and merging with British North Borneo, the North Borneo proposal was seen as a post-decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Joining to form Malaysia was seen as a new form of colonialism under Malaya, the basic concept behind the formation of a union of British Borneo was partly based upon the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in Southern Africa. After the defeat of the revolutionaries in the Brunei Revolt, the idea was put to rest, had the federation been formed, the capital city would probably have been chosen from Kuching, Jesselton or Bandar Brunei. The Sultanate of Brunei has traditionally opposed such a federation, there remain groups of people who favour the creation of such an independent state and desire separation from the rest of Malaysia. These groups see union of Malaysia as unfair to the people of Borneo, particularly Sabah, only about 5% of the regions oil revenues go to the state government of Sabah and Sarawak. The federal government has taken 15% and other 80% goes to Petronas, Malaysian politics have usually been centred in Peninsular Malaysia, and critics see the federation neglecting the needs of East Malaysians. Some opposition parties in the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly have tried to promote a North Borneo federation, the matter was refused to be debated in the Assembly due to its sensitivity, by the coalition of governing parties in Sarawak, namely the Barisan Nasional led by Abdul Taib Mahmud. This has seen an increase in development in the two states

12.
Sarawak Day
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Sarawak Self-government Day is a self-government day celebrated on 22 July every year by the state of Sarawak in Malaysia. The holiday has received widely by the Sarawak state government and citizens only since 2012. Originally, the Kingdom of Sarawak was granted independence by the Sultanate of Brunei in 1841, however, at this time, Sarawak was not fully granted independence. After the end of World War II, the territory was administered by the British Military Administration, the transferring of the territory to colonial administration has led to the major protest by Sarawakian citizens who wanted the independence of Sarawak to be restored. This led to the assassination of Duncan Stewart, the governor of the Colony, by Rosli Dhobi. The position of the Governor was succeeded by Anthony Abell, who became one of the members for the Cobbold Commission which brought Sarawak. Sarawak was granted self-government on 22 July 1963, on the condition that it would join to form the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September the same year, before he left, the Governor appointed Stephen Kalong Ningkan as the first Chief Minister of Sarawak. In 2016, Chief Minister Adenan Satem announced 22 July a public holiday in Sarawak starting from 2016 in view of Sarawak Day

13.
Malaysia Act 1963
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The Malaysia Act 1963 was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. It came into operation on 31 July 1963, as a result of the Act, the Federation of Malaya was renamed Malaysia on 16 September 1963. Singapore ceased to be a state of Malaysia on 9 August 1965, becoming an independent state instead

14.
North Borneo Self-government Day
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North Borneo Self-government Day is a self-government day celebrated on 31 August every year by the state of Sabah in Malaysia. Only since 2012, the holiday has received widely by the Sabah state government. The task to reconstructing the territory was taken by the Crown colony government with the first Crown Colony Governor appointed was Edward Twining on 5 May 1949. Ralph Hone succeeded him to continue the reconstruction of the territory, north Borneo Self-government Day,31 August, also happens to be Hari Merdeka, a national day of Malaysia commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya from British colonial rule in 1957. The Borneo Heritage Foundation and Sabah DAP have stated that they will be celebrating Sabah Independence Day instead of Hari Merdeka on that day and he added Everyone now knows that 31 August is Malayas and Sabahs Independence Day… its not our independence day. They can celebrate it both in Malaya and in Sabah as they have the same Independence Day date, and we can join them if they invite us. Masing was commenting on Shabery Cheek’s recent proposal that Malaysia should continue to commemorate 31 August as its Independence Day, Merdeka Day Sarawak Self-government Day Malaysia Day

15.
Operation Claret
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Claret was the code name given to operations conducted from about July 1964 until July 1966 from East Malaysia across the border in Indonesian Kalimantan during the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation. They were instigated by the Director of Borneo Operations Major General Walter Walker with the agreement of the British and Malaysian governments. Their purpose was to seize the initiative and put the Indonesians on the defensive instead of allowing Indonesian forces to be based in Kalimantan and attack when. British casualties on Claret operations were reported as being in East Malaysia. These operations involved special forces and infantry. Conventional forces were tasked to act on information and that from other sources to ambush or otherwise attack the Indonesians under a policy of aggressive defence. Such operations were to be deniable as they may have represented a violation of state sovereignty and this caused increasing concern to DOBOPS. However, in July 1964 the new Labour government in London approved cross-border offensive operations to a depth of 5,000 yards by both forces and infantry under the code-name Claret. Claret operations were publicly disclosed by Britain in 1974, whilst the Australian government did not officially acknowledge its involvement until 1996. The number of Claret operations and their objectives is unclear, weekly operational reports by brigade, higher headquarters and some units are available in UK National Archives. They do not identify any actions as specifically Claret. They outline contacts in a way that implies they took place in East Malaysia but provide a grid reference, however, the border is some 1,000 miles long. The operations varied in size from 4 man special forces reconnaissance patrols to infantry fighting patrols in company strength and they included at least one permanent Claret task, an artillery position astride the border ridge with authority to fire at any identifiable Indonesian forces inside Indonesia. Infantry tasks included fighting patrols inside Indonesia looking for opportunity contacts, attacks on Indonesian positions and ambushing tracks, initially, apart from special forces, only Gurkha infantry were used in company strength, and a battalion could only have one operation at a time. As experience and the situation developed these changed, and the Golden Rules on preparation and rehearsal, so too was the need for sworn secrecy, if it ever existed, and an early ban on internal discussion of operations. In 1965 penetration limits were increased to 10,000 yards in the wake of the Indonesian assault at the Battle of Plaman Mapu, small amphibious raids on the flanks by Special Boat Service were also authorised. Infantry operations were usually, if not always, within artillery range and their depth was also affected by the threat of interception while withdrawing, greater when the Indonesian troop density was higher as it was in the areas south of Kuching. Another constraint was the range of man-pack VHF radios A41 &42

16.
South Thailand insurgency
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The South Thailand insurgency is an ongoing conflict centered in southern Thailand. Although low-level separatist violence had occurred in the region for decades, the campaign escalated after 2001, with a recrudescence in 2004, incidents blamed on southern insurgents have occurred in Bangkok and Phuket. In July 2005, Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra assumed wide-ranging emergency powers to deal with the southern violence, on 19 September 2006, a military junta ousted Thaksin Shinawatra in a coup. The junta implemented a policy shift by replacing Thaksins earlier approach with a campaign to win over the hearts. Despite little progress in curbing the violence, the junta declared that security was improving, by March 2008, however, the death toll surpassed 3,000. During the Democrat-led government of Abhisit Vejjajiva, Foreign Minister Kasit Piromya noted a sense of optimism, but by the end of 2010 insurgency-related violence had increased, confounding the governments optimism. Finally in March 2011, the government conceded that violence was increasing, however, these groups have been largely sidelined by the Barisan Revolusi Nasional-Koordinasi, the group currently spearheading the insurgency. It sees no reason for negotiations and is against talks with other insurgent groups, the BRN-C has as its immediate aim to make southern Thailand ungovernable and it has largely been successful. Estimates of the strength of the insurgency vary greatly, in 2004 General Pallop Pinmanee claimed that there were only 500 hardcore jihadists. Other estimates say there as many as 15,000 armed insurgents, Thai rule over the historical Patani region was confirmed by the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. Until well into the 20th century, the government in Bangkok had interfered little locally and this included an exemption in implementing Thai Civil Law, which had allowed Muslims to continue their observance of local Islamic laws regarding issues on inheritance and family. The National Culture Act was enforced as a result of the Thaification process, promoting the concept of Thai-ness and its Mandate 3 was directly aimed at the Patani people. By 1944, Thai civil law was enforced throughout the land including the Patani region, the school curriculum was revised to be Thai-centric, with all lessons in the Thai language, to the detriment of the local Jawi. Traditional Muslim courts that formerly handled civil cases were removed and replaced with civil courts run and this forced assimilation process and the perceived imposition of Thai-Buddhist cultural practices upon their society were irritants to the ethnic Malay Patani. In 1947, Haji Sulong, founder of the Patani People’s Movement, launched a campaign, demanding autonomy, language, and cultural rights. In January 1948, Sulong was arrested on treason charges along with local leaders branded as separatist. Sulong was released from jail in 1952, then disappeared under mysterious circumstances in 1954, denied recognition as a culturally separate ethnic minority, Patani leaders reacted against the Thai government policy towards them. Inspired by ideologies such as Nasserism, in the 1950s a Patani nationalist movement began to grow, by 1959, Tengku Jalal Nasir established the Patani National Liberation Front, the first Malay rebel group

17.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra

18.
History of Malaysia
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Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign culture. Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, the adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Sultanate of Malacca. Islam had a influence on the Malay people, but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies. A fourth phase of influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula. Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia, the subsequent occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British, a tough military response was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multi-racial Federation of Malaya on 31 August 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories in North Borneo and Singapore were granted independence, approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill without the consent of signatory of Malaysia Agreement 1963 to separate Singapore from the Federation. A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s, race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the National Front coalition headed by United Malays National Organisation has governed Malaysia, Economic growth dramatically increased living standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimise political discontent, stone hand-axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong. They date back 1.83 million years, the oldest evidence of habitation in Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence of human habitation in Malaysia is the 40, 000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in todays Sarawak. It was excavated from a trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson in 1958. This is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia, the skull probably belongs to a 16-to 17-year-old adolescent girl. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia, the landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, the foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants

19.
Tun Abdul Razak
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Tun Haji Abdul Razak bin Dato Haji Hussein was the second Prime Minister of Malaysia, ruling from 1970 to 1976. He is also renowned for launching the Malaysian New Economic Policy, born in Pekan, on 11 March 1922, Tun Razak is the first of two children to Dato Hussein bin Mohd Taib and Datin Hajah Teh Fatimah bt Daud. Of aristocratic descent, Abdul Razak studied at the Malay College Kuala Kangsar, after joining the Malay Administrative Service in 1939, he was awarded a scholarship to study at Raffles College in Singapore in 1940. His studies at the college ceased with the onset of the Second World War, during the war he helped organise the Wataniah resistance movement in Pahang. After World War II, Tun Razak left for Britain in 1947 to study law, in 1950 he received a law degree and qualified as barrister at Lincolns Inn in London. During his student days in England, Tun Razak was a member of the British Labour Party and he also formed the Upon his return from the United Kingdom, in 1950, Tun Razak joined the Malayan Civil Service. Owing to his political calibre, he became the chief for United Malays National Organisation. Two years later, he worked as the Assistant State Secretary of Pahang and in February 1955, at just 33 years of age, Razak stood in and won a seat in Malaysias first general elections in July 1955 and was appointed as the Education Minister. He was instrumental in the drafting of the Razak Report which formed the basis of the Malayan education system, Tun Razak was also a key member of the February 1956 mission to London to seek the independence of Malaya from the British. After the general elections in 1959, he became the Minister of Rural Development in addition to holding the portfolios of Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence and his achievements include formulating the development policy known as the Red Book. At the time of Separation of Singapore from the Federation of Malaysia in 1965, class, birth and money were secondary in his calculations. As a consequence of this initiative, the young leaders of mixed heritage in UMNO. In 1967 he was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for community leadership, after the 13 May Incident in 1969, his faction in UMNO overthrew Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra and imposed a State of Emergency, ruling by decree as the National Operations Council until 1970. On September 1970, Tun Razak succeeded Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra as the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Razak set up the Barisan Nasional or National Front on 1 January 1973 to replace the ruling Alliance Party. He increased the membership of its parties and coalitions in an effort to establish Ketahanan Nasional through political stability, Tun Razak is also renowned for launching the Malaysian New Economic Policy in 1971. He and the generation of Malay politicians saw the need to tackle vigorously the economic. The MNEP set two basics goals – to reduce and eventually eradicate poverty, and to reduce and eventually eradicate identification of economic function with race, due in part to leukaemia, Abdul Razak died in office on 14 January 1976 while seeking medical treatment in London. He was posthumously granted the soubriquet Bapa Pembangunan and he was laid to rest in Heroes Mausoleum near Masjid Negara, Kuala Lumpur

20.
Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Ann Arbor is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. The 2010 census recorded its population to be 113,934, the citys population was estimated at 117,070 as of July 2015 by the U. S. Census Bureau. The Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Washtenaw County, the city is also part of the larger Detroit–Ann Arbor–Flint, MI Combined Statistical Area with a population of 5,318,744. Ann Arbor was founded in 1824, named for wives of the villages founders, the University of Michigan moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837, and the city grew at a rapid rate in the early to mid-20th century. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as a center for left-wing politics, Ann Arbor became a focal point for political activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as various student movements. Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan, one of the foremost research universities in the United States, the university shapes Ann Arbors economy significantly as it employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. The citys economy is centered on high technology, with several companies drawn to the area by the universitys research and development infrastructure. In about 1774, the Potawatomi founded two villages in the area of what is now Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. On 25 May 1824, the plat was registered with Wayne County as Annarbour. Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of Bur Oak in the 640 acres of land purchased for $800 from the federal government at $1.25 per acre. The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allens sawmill, Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside 40 acres of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capital, but lost the bid to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan, since the universitys establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked. Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor, while the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish, and African-Americans. In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city, though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873. It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth, with new immigrants coming from Greece, Italy, Russia, Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling. Ann Arbors Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, during the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Ann Arbor also became a locus for left-wing activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, during the ensuing 15 years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city

21.
University of Michigan Press
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The University of Michigan Press is part of Michigan Publishing at the University of Michigan Library. It publishes 170 new titles each year in the humanities and social sciences, titles from the press have been awarded the Pulitzer Prize, Bancroft Prize, and the Nautilus Book Award. In 2010, Bard Graduate Center partnered with the University of Michigan Press to produce Cultural Histories of the Material World. In March 2009, the University of Michigan Press announced the transition to digital publication, the shift to digitization began with the publication of digital monographs in lieu of low-run, high-cost print editions. According to Pochoda, the move freed the press, in large part, the University of Michigan Press publishes e-books in pdf, Amazon Kindle, and MP3 formats and has extended its e-book services to the Ann Arbor District Library. In 2011, the University of Michigan Press began to publish installments of new releases on Facebook and this move was followed later in the year by announcements of new releases on Twitter. In June 2008, the University of Michigan Press severed ties with the British independent publishing firm, the University of Michigan Press stopped distributing the book in the Fall of 2007, after serious questions were raised about the book by members of the university community. In addition, the relationship between the University of Michigan Press and Pluto Press came under examination by the faculty committee that oversees the press. Later in September, the University of Michigan Press announced that it would resume distribution of Overcoming Zionism after receiving complaints that it was conducting censorship and we conclude that we should not fail to honor our distribution agreement based on our reservations about the content of a single book. In the same statement, the University of Michigan Press stated that it would review its relationship with Pluto Press, in October 2007, the University of Michigan Press announced in a statement that it would continue to distribute books for Pluto Press. It also announced that it would review the policies dictating its relationship with external presses, in an interview with Joel Kovel, Amy Goodman of Democracy Now. Discussed this issue and focused in particular on the influence of Howard Zinn, in response, Kovel stated that he had contacted Zinn and that Zinn and other well-known people, like Richard Falk, you know, have said yes, we’re on board with this. In January 2008, the University of Michigan announced new guidelines for the distribution of books by publishing companies. In June 2008, the University of Michigan Press ended its relationship with Pluto Press, mcCraken stated in an interview with Inside Higher Ed that the relationship ended because Pluto Press does not use the same peer review process as The University of Michigan. Roger van Zwanenberg, chairman of Pluto Press responded to the decision by linking it to the criticism of Overcoming Zionism. He stated, What this tells you is that there are forces in America who would like to control the flow of ideas. He also stated that Pluto Press would seek a new American distributor, Pluto Press is currently distributed in the United States by the University of Chicago Press

22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

23.
East Malaysia
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East Malaysia, also known as Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan or Malaysian Borneo, is the part of Malaysia located on the island of Borneo. It consists of the Malaysian states of Sabah, Sarawak, and it lies to the east of Peninsular Malaysia, which is located on the Malay Peninsula. The two are separated by the South China Sea, while East Malaysia is less populated and less developed than West Malaysia, its land mass is larger and it has notably more natural resources, chiefly oil and gas reserves. Some parts of present-day East Malaysia, especially the regions, were once part of the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei. However, most parts of the region consisted of independent tribal societies. In 1658, the northern and eastern coasts of Sabah were ceded to the Sultanate of Sulu while the west coast of Sabah, beginning in the mid 19th century, Sabah and Sarawak became British protectorates, and, in 1946, they became separate British colonies. Sabah and Sarawak were separate British colonies from Malaya, and did not become part of the Federation of Malaya in 1957, however, each voted to become part of the new Federation of Malaysia along with the Federation of Malaya and Singapore in 1963. Previously, there were efforts to unite Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak under the North Borneo Federation, Sabah and Sarawak retained a higher degree of local government and legislative autonomy than other states in West Malaysia. For example, both states have their own immigration controls, requiring Malaysian citizens from West Malaysia to carry passports or identity cards when visiting East Malaysia, the islands of Labuan were once part of North Borneo in 1946 before becoming a Federal Territory in Malaysia on 1984. It was used to establish a centre for finance in 1990. The consensus seems to be that Sabah and Sarawak are merely states of the federation with a higher degree of autonomy compared to states in Peninsular Malaysia. There are also separate laws governing Sabah and Sarawak, as opposed to the National Land Code. With regard to the administration of justice, the courts in East Malaysia are part of the court system in Malaysia. The Constitution of Malaysia provides that there shall be two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction – The High Court in Malaya and the High Court in Sabah, the current Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak is Richard Malanjum from Sabah. His office is the fourth highest in the Malaysian judicial system, in 1976, all the Sabah and Sarawak MPs supported the Malaysian parliament bill which downgraded both the states from equal partners to one of the 13 states in the federation. Political parties in Sarawak and Sabah evolved independently of each other, party switching and party leadership tussle are common in both the states. The landscape of East Malaysia is mostly rain forests with areas of mountain rain forest towards the interior regions. The total area of East Malaysia is 200,565 km2, representing approximately 61% of the land area of Malaysia

24.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei

25.
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
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Because of its oil resources, Borneo was a prime target for Japan, and a very poorly guarded one. Chronically short of resources, Japan needed an assured supply, particularly of oil. In 1941, the Americans and British had placed an embargo on exports of raw materials to Japan because of its aggression in China. Borneo was strategically important to Japan as it is located on the sea routes between Java, Sumatra, Malaya and Celebes. Control of these routes was vital to securing the territory, the Japanese invasion plan called for the British territories to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Army and the southern Dutch territory to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The IJA unit that invaded northern Borneo was the 35th Infantry Brigade, the Brigade was led by Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi and consisted of units previously stationed at Canton, southern China. Ten transport ships carried the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade HQ under the command of Major-General Kiyotake Kawaguchi, the Support Force—commanded by Rear-Admiral Takeo Kurita—consisted of the cruisers Kumano and Suzuya and the destroyers Fubuki and Sagiri. The Japanese forces intended to capture Miri and Seria, while the rest would capture Kuching, the convoy proceeded without being detected and, at dawn on 16 December 1941, two landing units secured Miri and Seria with little resistance from British forces. A few hours later, Lutong was captured, after securing the oilfields, on 22 December, the main Japanese forces moved westwards to Kuching. The Japanese airforce bombed Singkawang airfield to prevent a Dutch attack, after escorts drove off a lone Dutch submarine, the Japanese task force entered the mouth of the Santubong river on 23 December. The convoy arrived off Cape Sipang, and the troops in twenty transports, commanded by Colonel Akinosuke Oka, the 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment, which was stationed in Kuching, was the sole Allied infantry unit on the entire island. Although they resisted the Japanese attack on the airfield, they were outnumbered and retreated up the Santubong river. At about 16,40 on 25 December, Japanese troops successfully captured Kuching airfield, the Punjab Regiment retreated through the jungle to the Singkawang area. On 31 December 1941, a force under Lieutenant Colonel Watanabe moved northward to occupy the remainder of Brunei, Jesselton was defended by the North Borneo Armed Constabulary, with only 650 men. They hardly provided any resistance to slow down the Japanese invasion, on 3 January 1942, the Japanese army invaded Labuan Island. On 18 January 1942, using fishing boats, the Japanese landed at Sandakan. On the morning of the 19 January, Governor Charles Robert Smith surrendered British North Borneo and was interned with other staff, the occupation of British Borneo was thus completed. Southern and central Borneo were taken by the Japanese Navy, following its attacks from east and west, after ten weeks in the jungle-covered mountains, Allied troops surrendered on 1 April 1942

26.
Borneo campaign (1945)
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The Borneo Campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific Area during World War II. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, attacked Imperial Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the U. S. 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, the Australian First Tactical Air Force, thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. The plans for the Allied attacks were known collectively as Operation Oboe, Borneo in particular was considered at the time a strategic location for its natural resources, oil. The Borneo campaign was criticized in Australia at the time and in subsequent years, modern historians such as Max Hastings have said that attacking these forces, already cut off from Japan, was a waste of resources. Any rational strategic judgment would have them to their own devices screened by token allied forces until their nations defeat enforced their surrender. In the end only the operations against Tarakan, Balikpapan and British Borneo—at Labuan, the campaign opened with Oboe 1 by a landing on the small island of Tarakan, off the north east coast on 1 May 1945 using Australian built MKIII folboats. Small parties paddled in the Tarakan region to obtain useful information, on the 10th June 1945 Oboe 6 subsequently followed with simultaneous assaults on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei, in the north west of Borneo. A week later, the Australians followed up with attacks on Japanese positions around Weston on the part of Brunei Bay. The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, the last major amphibious assault of World War II was at Balikpapan on 1 July 1945. These operations ultimately constituted the last campaigns of Australian forces in the war against Japan. 1 May –21 June 1945, Battle of Tarakan 10 June –15 August 1945, Battle of North Borneo and Battle of Labuan 1–21 July 1945, Battle of Balikpapan Japanese occupation of British Borneo Dennis, the Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Commando Kayak, The Australian Folboat in the Pacific Campaign, hirschbooks. net & ozatwar. com/hoehn. ISBN 978-3-033-01717-7 Last Battles, The Landings, WW2 Australia Borneo campaign at AWM London Borneo Campaign at WW2 Database

27.
British Military Administration (Borneo)
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The British Military Administration was the interim administrator of British Borneo between the end of World War II and the establishment of the Crown Colony of Sarawak and North Borneo in 1946. Specifically, the entity lasted from 12 September 1945 to 15 July 1946, Labuan also were placed under a temporary British military rule and the headquarters located there. The headquarters was mostly managed by the Australian Imperial Force, the area under this administration comprises today of Labuan, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. British Military Administration Japanese occupation of Malaya Japanese occupation of Singapore Lists of Archival Materials from Public Record Office, British military administration British Borneo, Monthly Reports

28.
History of Sabah
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The history of Sabah can be traced back to about 23–30,000 years ago when evidence suggests the earliest human settlement in the region existed. The history is interwoven with the history of Brunei and the history of Malaysia, the earliest recorded history of Sabah being part of any organised civilisation began in the early 15th century during the thriving era of the Sultanate of Brunei. Prior to this, early inhabitants of the lived in predominantly tribal societies. The eastern part of Sabah was ceded to the Sultan of Sulu by the Sultan of Brunei in 1658 for the former helping a victory over Brunei enemies, but many sources stated it had not been ceded at all. By the late 19th century, both territories previously owned by Sultan of Brunei and Sultan of Sulu was granted to British syndicate. Sabah became a protectorate of the United Kingdom in 1888 and subsequently became a colony until 1963. On 16 September 1963, Sabah merged with Malaya, Sarawak, during the Last Glacial Maximum about 20,000 years ago, Sabah and the rest of Borneo island was connected to mainland Asia in a landmass known as the Sundaland. Subsequent deglaciation, which caused sea level to rise, resulted in the Sundaland being submerged. Earliest human settlement in the region is believed to have dated back about 20 and these early humans are believed to be Australoid or Negrito people. The tools found there were considered advanced for its period, there was evidence of human cave-dwellings around 15, 000–6,000 years ago. These recent findings suggests that human settlement in Sabah and Malaysia have existed earlier than previously thought. The earliest ascertained wave of migration, believed to be Austronesian Mongoloids. Another kingdom which was suspected to have existed according to Chinese records beginning the 9th century was Po-ni and it was believed that Po-ni existed at the mouth of Brunei River and was the predecessor to the Sultanate of Brunei. This is consistent with the recent discovery of timber coffins in the Agop Batu Tulug cave in the Kinabatangan Valley. The coffins, adorned with carvings believed to resemble similar cultural practices in China, from the 14th century, the Majapahit empire expanded its influence towards Brunei and most of the coastal region of Borneo. The Sultanate of Brunei began after the ruler of Brunei embraced Islam, some sources indicate that this had occurred around 1365 CE after the ruler, Awang Alak Betatar, converted into Islam and became known as Muhammad Shah. Other sources suggests that the conversion occurred much later around 1514 to 1521 CE, albeit, during the same period, trade relations flourished, and intermarriages among the native peoples of Borneo with Chinese and Arab traders became common. The intermixing of blood resulted in a distinct breed both in stature and features

29.
Brunei Civil War
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The Brunei Civil War was a civil war fought in Brunei from 1660 to 1673. His defeat was jeered by Pengiran Muda Alam, in his rage, Bongsu killed Pengiran Muda Alam and escaped from the scene. In revenge, Abdul Mubin and his followers garroted Sultan Muhammad Ali, Abdul Mubin then made himself the fourteenth Sultan and took the title of Sultan Hakkul Abdul Mubin. He tried to appease the previous Sultans followers by appointing Muhammad Alis grandson, after a while, however, Muhammad Alis supporters took revenge by convincing Bendahara Muhyiddin to stand up against Abdul Mubin. Bendahara Muhyddin initially refused, but then agreed to do so. His supporters started making disturbances in the form of poking spears into palaces and homes, Sultan Abdul Hakkul Mubin then moved his palace to Pulau Chermin under the advice of Muhyiddin with the intent to wait the crisis out. After he left, however, Muhyiddin declared himself the fifteenth sultan, a battle between the two competing Sultans then ensued. Thus, the war of Brunei started. During the Civil War, Abdul Mubin fled to Kinarut, Malaysia where, he stayed there for ten years and they returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddins forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Mubin. Muhyiddin was concerned that the war was dragging on too long. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the Sulus assistance, Abdul Mubin was killed in the civil war. It is not clear to historians whether Muhyiddin asked for Sulu’s help in the civil war, the Sultan of Sulu at that time on his part, however, claimed that he was asked by Brunei to help and was promised eastern Sabah as a reward. As promised, the Sultan of Sulu received eastern Sabah as a gift from the Sultan of Brunei. Sabah Brunei Sultanate of Sulu History of Brunei History of Sabah Sultan of Brunei Cockfighting

30.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor

31.
Austrian colonial policy
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Due to pressures by the other European colonial powers and a monarchy that could not afford full support, all attempts eventually failed. Technically, however, the Austrians had the largest colonial empire at the time Emperor Charles V was the crown of both the Spanish Empire and Holy Roman Empire. Austria, being one of the Holy Roman Empire states, received funds from the spoils of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, ostend Company was a merchants company made to trade with the East Indies, chartered by 1722 in the Austrian Netherlands. International political pressures had ended its extraordinary growth and in 1727 the charter was suspended, colonization of the Nicobar Islands was a short-lived and unsuccessful attempted colony on the archipelago in the eastern Indian Ocean. The colony was established in 1778 and this had previously been a Danish colony, and Austria established it after Denmark-Norway had abandoned the islands, although not its claim. By 1783, due to a lack of support from the Habsburg Monarchy, during the Boxer rebellion and its aftermath 1899-1901, Austria-Hungary participated in the Eight-Nation Alliance and helped in suppressing the rising. However, Austria sent by far the smallest force of any of the combatant nation. Only one warship and a force of only 75 marines were dispatched Even so, on 7 September 1901, the Austrian concession zone was 150 acres in area, slightly larger than the Italian, but smaller than the Belgian zone. The self-contained concession had its own prison, school, barracks and it also contained the Austro-Hungarian consulate and its citizens were under Austrian, not Chinese, rule. If they committed a crime on Chinese soil, they could be tried in their own courts, though it was provided with a small garrison, Austria proved unable, due to World War I, to maintain control of its concession. The concession zone was occupied by China at the Chinese declaration of war on the Central Powers. Austria finally abandoned all claim to it on 10 September 1919, Hungary made a similar recognition in 1920. However, despite its relatively short life-span of 16 years, the Austrians left their mark on that area of the city, individual actions and expeditions would not change this state of affairs. In 1873, an Austrian expedition was sent to the North pole and discovered an arctic archipelago and it was not habitable, and no other country formally claimed it until the Soviet Union annexed the islands in 1926. A trader based in Hong-Kong sold his rights to North Borneo to Baron von Overbeck and he received a 10-year renewal of the lease from the Temenggong of Brunei, and a similar treaty from the Sultan of Sultanate of Sulu on 22 January 1878. To finance his development plans there, Overbeck acquired financial backing from the British Dent Brothers, however, he was unable to get investments from Austria-Hungary for the territory. After attempts to sell it to Italy for use as a colony failed, Overbeck left in 1880. In 1885, despite Austria-Hungary not being a power, it was invited to the Berlin conference to regulate colonial policy among the powers of Europe

32.
North Borneo Chartered Company
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The North Borneo Chartered Company or British North Borneo Company was a chartered company assigned to administer North Borneo in August 1881. The company also administered the island of Labuan for a period in 1890 before it became part of the Straits Settlements. North Borneo became a protectorate of the British Empire with internal affairs administered by the company until 1946 when it became the Crown Colony of British North Borneo, the main motto was Pergo et Perago, which means I undertake and I achieve. The first chairman of the company was Alfred Dent, in 1882, the North Borneo Chartered Company established a settlement on Pulau Gaya, one year after the Chartered Company was given the mandate to rule Sabah. However, in 1897, this settlement was burnt to the ground during the raid led by Mat Salleh and this company is also known as Syarikat Borneo Utara British and was criticised by the locals for the taxes it collected. H. Treacher, British Borneo - Sketches of Brunai, Sarawak, Labuan and North Borneo, Singapore, Government print department,1891 K. G. Tregonning, A History Of Modern Sabah,2

33.
North Borneo
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North Borneo also described as the State of North Borneo was a state that existed from 1882 until 1946. The state came about owing to the grant by the Sultans of Brunei, the country was placed under British protection in 1888 under an agreement between the Company and the British government concluded on 12 May 1888. From 1942 to 1945, North Borneo was occupied by Japanese military forces and this transfer of administration was completed under a past treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the United States. Today, the former North Borneo is part of Malaysia as the state of Sabah, a free port was then established here which was of importance for the interest of Britain in the east Asia region, namely, trade with China. The port however failed to become a long term due to constant pirate attacks as well as other reasons. In 1865, the United States Consul to Brunei, Charles Lee Moses, Torrey began a settlement at the Kimanis River mouth, which he named Ellena. Attempts to find backing for the settlement were futile, and disease, death. Harris died in 1866 and Torrey returned to America in 1877 and he died in Boston, Massachusetts, in March 1884. With the imminent termination of the lease at hand in January 1875, Torrey managed to sell his rights to the Consul of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in Hong Kong, Baron Gustav von Overbeck. Von Overbeck managed to get a 10-year renewal of the lease from the Temenggong of Brunei, to finance his plans for North Borneo, Overbeck found financial backing from the Dent brothers. However, he was unable to interest his government in the territory, after efforts to sell the territory to Italy for use as a penal colony, von Overbeck withdrew in 1880, leaving Alfred Dent in control. Dent was supported by Sir Rutherford Alcock, and Admiral Sir Harry Keppel, in July 1881, Alfred Dent and his brother formed the British North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd and obtained an official Royal Charter 1 November the same year. In May 1882, the North Borneo Chartered Company replaced the Provisional Association, Sir Rutherford Alcock became the first President, and Alfred Dent became Managing director. In spite of some protests by the Dutch, Spanish and Sarawak governments. The company also established a foundation for growth in North Borneo by restoring peace to a land where piracy. It abolished slavery and set up transport, health and education services for the people, chinese immigrants were wooed to boost the small population of less than 100,000. Through the combined effort of the locals and immigrants, towns, farms, from 1890 to 1905 the British government placed the colony of Labuan under the administration of North Borneo. The Companys rule in North Borneo had great impact on the development of the region, although was generally peaceful, the local population occasionally resented the imposition of taxes and the loss of land to European plantations

The Indonesian–Malaysian confrontation or Borneo confrontation (also known by its Indonesian/Malay name, Konfrontasi) …

Image: British forces in Borneo during Confrontation

Members of the Sarawak People's Guerilla Force (SPGF), North Kalimantan National Army (NKNA) and Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) taking photograph together marking the close relations between them during Indonesia under the rule of Sukarno.

Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on a strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and foreign …

The discovery of a skull which estimates say is around 40,000 years old on Niah Caves in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo.

The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.

Japanese paratroopers of the 2nd Yokosuka Naval Landing Force under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Genzo Watanabe (standing on top in the left) inside a transport ship heading to Borneo prior to their invasion in December 1941

The Sandakan Death Marches were a series of forced marches in Borneo from Sandakan to Ranau which resulted in the …

Sandakan POW camp on 24 October 1945, a few months after the camp was destroyed by the retreating Japanese troops. In No. 1 compound (pictured), graves containing the bodies of 300 Australian and British prisoners were later discovered. It is believed they were the men left at the camp after the second series of marches. Each grave contained several bodies, in some cases as many as 10.

Sergeant Hosotani Naoji (left, seated) of the Kenpeitai (Japanese military police) at Sandakan is interrogated by Squadron Leader F. G. Birchall (second right) of the Missing Servicemen Section and Sergeant Mamo (right) of the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section on 26 October 1945. Naoji confessed to shooting two Australian POWs and five Chinese civilians. (Photographer: Frank Burke.)

North Borneo (also known as the State of North Borneo) was a British protectorate located in the northern part of the …

North Borneo border, 1903.

Alfred Dent, the founder of North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd (later replaced by the North Borneo Chartered Company) is the key player to the establishment of solid British presence in northern Borneo.

The Battle of North Borneo took place during the Second World War between Allied and Japanese forces. Part of the wider …

A map showing the movements of the main Australian infantry units in North Borneo

Australian troops comprising the members of the 24th Brigade landing on Labuan on 10 June 1945.

Labuan, 15 June 1945. Members of a patrol from "A" Company, Australian 2/43rd Infantry Battalion, disembark from a boat and walk along a large fallen tree, as they move inland to investigate reports of Japanese activity.