TAOISM

by

Fritjof Capra

From "The Tao of Physics"

Mistrust
of conventional knowledge and reasoning is stronger in Taoism than in any other
school of Eastern philosophy. It is based on the firm belief that the human
intellect can never comprehend the Tao. In the words of Chuang Tzu,

The most extensive knowledge does not necessarily know it;
reasoning will not make men wise in it.
The sages have decided against both these methods.

Chuang
Tzu's book is full of passages reflecting the Taoist's contempt of reasoning
and argumentation. Thus he says

A dog is not reckoned good because he barks well,
and a man is not reckoned wise because he speaks skillfully.

and

Disputation is a proof of not seeing clearly.

Logical
reasoning was considered by the Taoists as part of the artificial world of man,
together with social etiquette and moral standards. They were not interested
in this world at all, but concentrated their attention fully on the observation
of nature in order to discern the characteristics of the Tao. Thus they developed
an attitude which was essentially scientific and only their deep mistrust in
the analytic method prevented them from constructing proper scientific theories.
Nevertheless, the careful observation of nature, combined with a strong mystical
intuition, led the Taoist sages-to profound insights which are confirmed by
modern scientific theories.

One of
the most important insights of the Taoists was the realization that transformation
and change are essential features of nature. A passage in the Chuang-tzu shows
clearly how the fundamental importance of change was discerned by observing
the organic world

In the transformation and growth of all things, every bud and feature has
its proper form. In this we have their gradual maturing and decay, the constant
flow of transformation and change

The Taoists
saw all changes in nature as manifestations of the dynamic interplay between
the polar opposites yin and yang, and thus they came to believe that any pair
of opposites constitutes a polar relationship where each of the two poles is
dynamically linked to the other. For the Western mind, this idea of the implicit
unity of all opposites is extremely difficult to accept. It seems most paradoxical
to us that experiences and values which we had always believed to be contrary
should be, after all, aspects of the same thing. In the East, however, it has
always been considered as essential for attaining enlightenment to go 'beyond
earthly opposites,' and in China the polar relationship of all opposites lies
at the very basis of Taoist thought. Thus Chuang Tzu says

The "this" is also "that." The "that" is also "this." . . .
That the "that" and the "this" cease to be opposites
is the very essence of Tao.
Only this essence, an axis as it were,
is the center of the circle
responding to the endless changes

From the
notion that the movements of the Tao are a continuous interplay between opposites,
the Taoists deduced two basic rules for human conduct. Whenever you want to
achieve anything, they said, you should start with its opposite. Thus Lao Tzu

In order to contract a thing, one should surely expand it first.
In order to weaken, one will surely strengthen first.
In order to overthrow, one will surely exalt first.
"In order to take, one will surely give first."
This is called subtle wisdom.

On the other hand, whenever you want to retain
anything, you should admit in it something of its opposite:

Be bent, and you will remain straight.
Be vacant, and you will remain full.
Be worn, and you will remain new.

This is
the way of life of the sage who has reached a higher point of view, a perspective
from which the relativity and polar relationship of all opposites are clearly
perceived. These opposites include, first and foremost, the concepts of good
and bad which are interrelated in the same way as yin and yang. Recognizing
the relativity of good and bad, and thus of all moral standards, the Taoist
sage does not strive for the good but rather tries to maintain a dynamic balance
between good and bad. Chuang Tzu is very clear on this point

The sayings, "Shall we not follow and honor the right
and have nothing to do with the wrong?" and
"Shall we not follow and honor those who secure good government
and have nothing to do with those who produce disorder?"
show a want of acquaintance with the principles of Heaven and Earth
and with the different qualities of things.
It is like following and honoring Heaven and taking no account of Earth;
it is like following and honoring the yin and taking no account of the yang.
It is clear that such a course cannot be pursued.

It is amazing
that, at the same time when Lao Tzu and his followers developed their world
view, the essential features of this Taoist view were taught also in Greece,
by a man whose teachings are known to us only in fragments and who was, and
still is, very often misunderstood. This Greek "Taoist" was Heraclitus of Ephesus.
He shared with Lao Tzu not only the emphasis on continuous change, which he
expressed in his famous saying "Everything flows," but also the notion that
all changes are cyclic. He compared the world order to "an ever-living fire,
kindling in measures and going out in measures," an image which is indeed very
similar to the Chinese idea of the Tao manifesting itself in the cyclic interplay
of yin and yang

It is easy
to see how the concept of change as a dynamic interplay of opposites led Heraclitus,
like Lao Tzu, to the discovery that all opposites are polar and thus united.
"The way up and down is one and the same," said the Greek, and "God is day night,
winter summer, war peace, satiety hunger." Like the Taoists, he saw any pair
of opposites as a unity and was well aware of the relativity of all such concepts.
Again the words of Heraclitus -"Cold things warm themselves, warm cools, moist
dries, parched is made wet" remind us strongly of those of Lao Tzu, "Easy gives
rise to difficult...resonance harmonizes sound, after follows before

It is surprising
that the great similarity between the world views of those two sages of the
sixth century B.C. is not generally known. Heraclitus is often mentioned in
connection with modern physics, but hardly ever in connection with Taoism. And
yet it is this connection which shows best that his world view was that of a
mystic and thus, in my opinion, puts the parallels between his ideas and those
of modern physics in the right perspective.

When we
talk about the Taoist concept of change, it is important to realize that this
change is not seen as occurring as a consequence of some force, but rather as
a tendency which is innate in all things and situations. The movements of the
Tao are not forced upon it, but occur naturally and spontaneously. Spontaneity
is the Tao's principle of action, and since human conduct should be modeled
on the operation of the Tao, spontaneity should also be characteristic of all
human actions. Acting in harmony with nature thus means for the Taoists acting
spontaneously and according to one's true nature. It means trusting one's intuitive
intelligence, which is innate in the human mind just as the laws of change are
innate in all things around us.

The actions
of the Taoist sage thus arise out of his intuitive wisdom, spontaneously and
in harmony with his environment. He does not need to force himself, or anything
around him, but merely adapts his actions to the movements of the Tao. In the
words of Huai Nan Tzu,

Those
who follow the natural order flow in the current of the Tao.

Such a way of acting is called wu-wei in Taoist philosophy; a term which means
literally "non-action," and which Joseph Needham translates as "refraining
from activity contrary to nature," justifying this interpretation with a quotation
from the Chuang-tzu:

Non-action
does not mean doing nothing and keeping silent.
Let everything be allowed to do what it
naturally does, so that its nature will be satisfied.

If one refrains from acting contrary to nature or, as Needham says, from "going
against the grain of things," one is in harmony with the Tao and thus one's
actions will be successful. This is the meaning of Lao Tzu's seemingly so puzzling
words, "By non-action everything can be done."

The contrast of yin and yang is not only the basic ordering principle throughout
Chinese culture, but is also reflected in the two dominant trends of Chinese
thought. Confucianism was rational, masculine, active and dominating. Taoism,
on the other hand, emphasized all that was intuitive, feminine, mystical, and
yielding. "Not knowing that one knows is best," says Lao Tzu, and "The sage
carries on his business without action and gives his teachings without words."
The Taoists believed that by displaying the feminine, yielding qualities of
human nature, it was easiest to lead a perfectly balanced life in harmony with
the Tao. Their ideal is best summed up in a passage from the Chuang-tzu which
describes a kind of Taoist paradise: The men of old, while the chaotic condition
was yet undeveloped, shared the placid tranquility which belonged to the whole
world. At that time the yin and yang were harmonious and still; their resting
and movement proceeded without any disturbance; the four seasons had their definite
times; not a single thing received any injury, and no living being came to a
premature end. Men might be possessed of the faculty of knowledge, but they
had no occasion for its use. This was what is called the state of perfect unity.
At this time, there was no action on the part of anyone but a constant manifestation
of spontaneity.