Best Practice For The Management of Lymphoedema

Christine Moffatt, Debra Doherty, Phil Morgan

29th-Sep-2017

Description: Lymphoedema is a progressive chronic condition that affects a significant number of people and can have deleterious effects on patients' physical and psychosocial health. Even though it may be greatly ameliorated by appropriate management, many patients receive inadequate treatment, are unaware that treatment is available or do not know where to seek help. Several recent systematic reviews have highlighted the distinct lack of evidence for the optimal management of lymphoedema 1-3 . By presenting a model for best practice in lymphoedema in adults, this document aims to raise the profile of the condition and improve the care that patients receive.

The views expressed in this
publication are those of the
authors and do not necessarily
reflect those of Sigvaris.
The images in Figures 2, 16, 18
and 23 are courtesy of
Professor PS Mor ... See more

imer.

SENIOR CONSULTANT EDITOR
Christine Moffatt, Professor of Nursing and
Co-director, Centre for Research and
Implementation of Clinical Practice, Faculty of
Health and Social Sciences, Thames Valley
University, London, UK
CONSULTANT EDITORS
Debra Doherty, Senior Lecturer and Clinical Nurse
Specialist in Lymphoedema;
Phil Morgan, Post-doctoral Research Fellow;
Centre for Research and Implementation of Clinical
Practice, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences,
Thames Valley University, London, UK
THE LYMPHOEDEMA FRAMEWORK
The Lymphoedema Framework is a UK based
research partnership launched in 2002 that aims
to raise the profile of lymphoedema and improve
standards of care through the involvement of
specialist practitioners, clinicians, patient groups,
healthcare organisations, and the wound care
and compression garment industry.
Lymphoedema Framework Secretariat
Centre for Research and Implementation of
Clinical Practice
Thames Valley University, 32-38 Uxbridge Road,
London, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 280 5050. Web: www.lf.cricp.org
The Lymphoedema Framework would like to
thank the following for their valuable
participation in the consensus process that
formed the basis of this document:

ISBN 0-9547669-4-6
Published by
Medical Education Partnership
(MEP) Ltd
53 Hargrave Road
London N19 5SH, UK
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Email: info@mepltd.co.uk
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or
transmission of this publication may be made
without written permission. No paragraph of
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or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs & Patents Act 1988 or
under the terms of any licence permitting
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Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1P 0LP.

To reference this document cite the following:
Lymphoedema Framework. Best Practice for the
Management of Lymphoedema. International
consensus. London: MEP Ltd, 2006.

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN ENDORSED BY:
American Society of Lymphology (ASL, USA)
British Lymphology Society (BLS, UK)
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Lymphologie (DGL,
Germany)
Fysioterapeuters Faggruppe for Lymføbehandling
(FFL, Denmark)
Japanese Society of Lymphology (JSL, Japan)
Lymphedema Association of North America
(LANA, USA)
Lymphoedema Support Network (LSN, UK)
MLDUK
National Lymphedema Network (NLN, USA)
Nederlands Lymfoedeem Netwerk (NLNet, The
Netherlands)
Norsk Lymfødemforening (NLF Norsk, Norway)
Österreichische Lymph-Liga (Austria)
Professor C Campisi, President of the Italian
Society of Lymphangiology (SIL) and of the LatinMediterranean Chapter of the International
Society of Lymphology (ISL)
Professor N Piller on behalf of the Lymphoedema
Association of Australia (LAA, Australia)
Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Lymphologie
(SGL, Switzerland)
Sociedad Española de Rehabilitación y Medicina
Fisica (SERMEF, Spain)
Société Française de Lymphologie (SFL, France)
Svensk Förening för Lymfologi (SFL, Sweden)
Svenska Ödem Förbundet (Sweden)
The editors of the Lymphoedema Framework
recognise that the standards of lymphoedema
care advocated are based on the UK model and
may not be adaptable to the healthcare systems
of all other countries. Some of the organisations
listed above endorse the document as a
professional resource to advance lymphoedema
diagnosis and treatment.
STATEMENTS OF RECOGNITION
The American Society of Lymphology (ASL, USA)
and its National and International Board
Members support the conclusion of this document that standards of education and treatment
must be established for the benefit of patients
with lymphoedema and the physicians charged
with overseeing their therapist and medical care.
The International Society of Lymphology (ISL)
recommends the Lymphoedema Framework
document as a valuable, useful, and illustrative
educational resource for general practitioners
and the public and as a thoughtful, detailed
compendium of established practices within the
United Kingdom.
The Lymphatic Research Foundation (LRF, USA)
endorses the concept of creating a framework
for the clinical care of patients with
lymphoedema and congratulates this
extraordinary effort to do so.

Introduction
Lymphoedema is a progressive chronic
condition that affects a significant number
of people and can have deleterious effects on
patients' physical and psychosocial health.
Even though it may be greatly ameliorated by
appropriate management, many patients
receive inadequate treatment, are unaware
that treatment is available or do not know
where to seek help. Several recent systematic
reviews have highlighted the distinct lack of
evidence for the optimal management of
lymphoedema1-3. By presenting a model for
best practice in lymphoedema in adults, this
document aims to raise the profile of the
condition and improve the care that patients
receive.

Technology Assessment model for guideline
development (Box 3)4.
This document will be reviewed and
updated after five years. Key references
have been included; a complete list of the
references used in the preparation of the
text can be found at: www.lf.cricp.org.

ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT
The guidance provided here was derived
from a UK national consensus on standards
of practice for people who are at risk of or
who have lymphoedema (Box 1). The
consensus process (Box 2) was launched in
2002 and was driven by the Lymphoedema
Framework with input from national patient
support groups, patients with
lymphoedema, national professional
lymphoedema groups, clinical experts and
industry (Appendix 1). Production of this
document included review by an
international panel of experts and
endorsement by key national lymphoedema
organisations.
The recommendations resulting from the
consensus approach are included where
relevant. Each recommendation has been
classified according to the UK NHS Health

BOX 2 Consensus process
The recommendations made in this document
are the result of a highly rigorous, systematic
process based on an explicit methodology of
consultation and consensus4 that involved:
■ developing multidisciplinary, nationally
representative groups
■ identifying and critically appraising the best
available information
■ linking recommendations to supporting
evidence

BOX 1 Standards of practice for lymphoedema services, adapted from5
Standard 1: Identification of people at
risk of or with lymphoedema
Systems to identify people at risk of or
with lymphoedema, regardless of cause,
will be implemented and monitored to
ensure that patients receive high quality
education and lifelong care
Standard 2: Empowerment of people at
risk of or with lymphoedema
Individual plans of care that foster selfmanagement will be developed in
partnership with patients at risk of or
with lymphoedema (involving relatives
and carers where appropriate), in an
agreed format and language
Standard 3: Provision of lymphoedema
services that deliver high quality clinical
care that is subject to continuous
improvement and integrates
community, hospital and hospice based
services
All people at risk of or with
lymphoedema will have access to trained
healthcare professionals, including
lymphoedema specialists, who will work
to agreed standards for comprehensive
ongoing assessment, planning,
education, advice, treatment and
monitoring. Care will be of a high
standard and subject to continuous
quality improvement

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

Standard 4: Provision of high quality
clinical care for people with
cellulitis/erysipelas
Agreed protocols for the rapid and
effective treatment of cellulitis/
erysipelas, including prevention of
recurrent episodes, will be
implemented and monitored by
healthcare professionals who have
completed recognised training in this
subject
Standard 5: Provision of compression
garments for people with
lymphoedema
Agreed protocols for assessment for
and the provision of compression
garments for people with
lymphoedema, or where warranted,
those at risk of lymphoedema, will be
implemented and monitored
Standard 6: Provision of multi-agency
health and social care
Following comprehensive assessment,
any patient at risk of or with
lymphoedema who requires multiagency support will have access to and
receive care appropriate to their needs
from health and social services

1

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS LYMPHOEDEMA?
Lymphoedema may manifest as swelling of
one or more limbs and may include the
corresponding quadrant of the trunk. Swelling
may also affect other areas, eg the head and
neck, breast or genitalia. Lymphoedema is the
result of accumulation of fluid and other
elements (eg protein) in the tissue spaces
due to an imbalance between interstitial fluid
production and transport (usually low output
failure)6. It arises from congenital malformation of the lymphatic system, or damage to
lymphatic vessels and/or lymph nodes.
In patients with chronic lymphoedema,
large amounts of subcutaneous adipose
tissue may form. Although incompletely
understood, this adipocyte proliferation may
explain why conservative treatment may not
completely reduce the swelling and return the
affected area to its usual dimensions.
Lymphoedema may produce significant
physical and psychological morbidity.
Increased limb size can interfere with mobility
and affect body image7-10. Pain and discomfort
are frequent symptoms, and increased

susceptibility to acute cellulitis/erysipelas can
result in frequent hospitalisation and longterm dependency on antibiotics11,12.
Lymphoedema is a chronic condition that
is not curable at present, but may be
alleviated by appropriate management; if
ignored, it can progress and become
difficult to manage.
At birth, about one person in 6000 will
develop primary lymphoedema; the overall
prevalence of lymphoedema/chronic
oedema has been estimated as
0.13-2%13-15. In developed countries, the
main cause of lymphoedema is widely
assumed to be treatment for cancer.
Indeed, prevalences of 12-60% have been
reported in breast cancer patients16-19 and
of 28-47% in patients treated for
gynaecological cancer20,21. However, it
appears that about a quarter to a half of
affected patients suffer from other forms
of lymphoedema, eg primary lymphoedema and lymphoedema associated
with poor venous function, trauma, limb
dependency or cardiac disease14,22.

People at risk of lymphoedema should be identified early during routine
assessment, monitored and taught self care.

Effective identification of patients at risk of
lymphoedema relies on awareness of the
causes of lymphoedema and associated risk
factors, implementation of preventive
strategies, and self monitoring. Patients,
carers and healthcare professionals should
be aware that there may be a considerable
delay of several years from a causative event
to the appearance of lymphoedema.

RISK FACTORS FOR LYMPHOEDEMA
The true risk factor profile for lymphoedema
is not known. There may be many factors
that predispose an individual to developing
lymphoedema or that predict the
progression, severity and outcome of the
condition (Box 4). Further epidemiology is
required to identify these factors, and
research is needed to establish how risk
factors themselves can be modified to
reduce the likelihood or severity of
consequent lymphoedema.

Cording (axillary web syndrome):
the appearance of tender, painful
cord-like structures below the skin;
may be due to inflammation or
thrombosis of lymph vessels
Seroma: an accumulation of fluid at
or near a surgical wound

3

IDENTIFICATION

Lymphadenitis: inflammation of
the lymph nodes, which become
swollen, tender and painful

Lymphoedema is classified as primary or
secondary depending on aetiology23.
Primary lymphoedema is thought to be the
result of a congenital abnormality of the
lymph conducting system. Secondary or
acquired lymphoedema (Table 1) results
from damage to the lymphatic vessels
and/or lymph nodes, or from functional
deficiency. It may also be the result of high
output failure of the lymphatic circulation,
eg in chronic oedema due to venous
insufficiency or post-thrombotic syndrome,
when the function of the overloaded
lymphatic system eventually deteriorates.

The diverse aetiology of lymphoedema
means that patients at risk of lymphoedema
will be encountered in a wide variety of
primary and secondary/tertiary care
settings, eg cancer services, vascular
surgery units, wound care/tissue viability
services, dermatology services, plastic
surgery units and services where patients
receive symptom management for
advanced cancer. To guarantee that patients
at risk are recognised and their risk of
lymphoedema is minimised, each setting
should ensure that staff are aware of the
potential risk factors for lymphoedema, the
appropriate actions to take and relevant
referral pathways (Figure 1). The setting
should also offer structured patient
education that follows an established
methodology24.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

IDENTIFICATION

FIGURE 1 Management of
patients at risk of lymphoedema

Healthcare professional
awareness of potential risk
factors for lymphoedema

Identification of patients
at risk of lymphoedema

Does the patient have
swelling/symptoms of
swelling?

Yes

Referral for medical/
lymphoedema assessment

No
Patient/partner/carer education (verbal and written) re:
• maintaining good health
• reducing risk of swelling
• early signs and symptoms of swelling
• who to contact if swelling occurs
• local/national expert patient group
Documentation of risk to alert other healthcare
professionals

C

Patients and carers should be offered
information about lymphoedema and
its management.

Patients at risk of developing lymphoedema
and their partners/carers need to know what
lymphoedema is, why the patient is at risk,
how to maintain good health, how to

minimise the risk of developing
lymphoedema (Box 5), early symptoms and
signs (Box 6), and who to contact if swelling
develops.
A number of organisations disseminate
information about lymphoedema (Box 7).
Individual settings could use this information
to devise patient education programmes,
information leaflets and resources.

BOX 5 Common sense approach to minimising
the risk of developing lymphoedema

NB While robust evidence is lacking that these actions
reduce the risk of lymphoedema, they reflect a common
sense approach. These actions may also help patients
with existing lymphoedema to reduce the risk of
deterioration.

An accurate assessment is essential for the appropriate treatment of lymphoedema.

Effective assessment of a patient at risk of
or with possible lymphoedema will be
comprehensive, structured and ongoing.
Here, assessment has been divided into
medical assessment and lymphoedema
assessment, but the two may run in parallel
within the same healthcare setting.

MEDICAL ASSESSMENT

Chyluria: milky coloured urine due
to reflux of chyle (the fat-bearing
lymph that normally drains from
the intestine to the thoracic duct)
into the lymphatics of the urinary
system

6

The medical assessment is used to diagnose
lymphoedema and to identify or exclude
other causes of swelling (Box 8). If the
patient presents to a primary care setting,
the general practitioner may choose to
conduct some initial screening investigations to exclude other causes of swelling
before referring the patient for confirmation
of the diagnosis of lymphoedema. If the
patient presents to secondary/tertiary care,
assessment may be by a medical specialist.
Most cases of lymphoedema are
diagnosed on the basis of the medical
history and physical examination. The
choice of investigations used to elucidate
the cause of the swelling (Box 9) will
depend on the history, presentation and
examination of the patient.

Specialist investigations
In secondary/tertiary settings, specialist
investigations may be conducted. These
should be performed according to standardised protocols to ensure reproducibility of
data. Investigations include:
■ ultrasound25 – to assess tissue
characteristics, eg for skin thickening and
tissue fibrosis
■ colour Doppler ultrasound26 – to exclude
deep vein thrombosis and evaluate
venous abnormalities
■ lymphoscintigraphy27 (Figure 2) – to
identify lymphatic insufficiency in
patients where the cause of the swelling
is unclear, to differentiate lipoedema and
lymphoedema (Table 2, page 9), and to

micro-lymphangiography using
fluorescein labelled human albumin28 –
to assess dermal lymph capillaries
■ indirect lymphography using water
soluble contrast media29 – to opacify
initial lymphatics and peripheral lymph
collectors and to differentiate lipoedema
and lymphoedema
■ CT/MRI scan30 – to detect thickening of
the skin and the characteristic
honeycomb pattern produced by
lymphoedema, to detect lymphatic
obstruction by a tumour at the root of a
limb or in the pelvis or abdomen, and to
differentiate lipoedema and
lymphoedema
■ bioimpedance31 – to detect oedema and
monitor the outcome of treatment
■ filarial antigen card test – to detect
infection with Wuchereria bancrofti by
testing for antibodies to the parasite in a
person who has visited or is living in a
lymphatic filariasis endemic area.
Primary lymphoedema is usually diagnosed
after exclusion of secondary lymphoedema.
Genetic screening and counselling may be
required if there is a suspected familial link.
Three gene mutations have been linked with
primary lymphoedema:
■ FOXC2 – lymphoedema-distichiasis
syndrome
■ VEGFR-3 – Milroy's disease
■ SOX18 – hypotrichosis-lymphoedematelangiectasia syndrome.
■

LYMPHOEDEMA ASSESSMENT
A lymphoedema assessment should be
performed at the time of diagnosis and

ASSESSMENT

(b)

FIGURE 2 Lymphoscintigraphy
Radiolabelled colloid or protein is
injected into the first web space
of each foot or hand, and is
tracked as it moves along the
lymphatics by a gamma camera.
(a) Normal lower limb images
with fast lymph drainage in left
leg because of associated venous
disease. (b) Normal right leg with
disturbances to lymph drainage
in left leg from past
cellulitis/erysipelas.

BOX 11 International Society of Lymphology (ISL) lymphoedema staging6
ISL stage 0
A subclinical state where swelling is not evident despite impaired lymph transport.
This stage may exist for months or years before oedema becomes evident
ISL stage I
This represents early onset of the condition where there is accumulation of tissue
fluid that subsides with limb elevation. The oedema may be pitting at this stage
ISL stage II
Limb elevation alone rarely reduces swelling and pitting is manifest
ISL late stage II
There may or may not be pitting as tissue fibrosis is more evident
ISL stage III
The tissue is hard (fibrotic) and pitting is absent. Skin changes such as thickening,
hyperpigmentation, increased skin folds, fat deposits and warty overgrowths
develop

repeated periodically throughout treatment.
The findings of the assessment should be
recorded systematically (Box 10, page 8)
and form the baseline from which
management is planned, further referral
made and progress monitored. Specialist
computer programs can assist in
standardising assessment (eg LymCalc;
details can be found at:
www.colibri.demon.co.uk).
Lymphoedema assessment is usually
carried out by a practitioner who has
undergone training at specialist level.

Lymphoedema staging

Lymphoedema-distichiasis
syndrome: a form of primary
lymphoedema with onset at or after
puberty in which the patient has
accessory eyelashes along the
posterior border of the eyelids. Has
a clear family history
Milroy's disease: a form of primary
lymphoedema that is present at
birth, only affects the lower limbs
and has a clear family history
Hypotrichosis-lymphoedematelangiectasia syndrome: a form of
primary lymphoedema associated
with sparse or absent hair and
telangiectasia (localised collections
of distended blood capillary vessels
observed in the skin as red spots)

Several staging systems for lymphoedema
have been devised, including the
International Society of Lymphology system
(Box 11). None has achieved international
agreement and each has its limitations.

Can involve the legs, arms, trunk,
genitalia or head and neck
Swelling of limbs affects hands and feet
Affects either sex
Stemmer sign may be positive; usually
not painful on pinching

Aetiology

Results from inadequate lymphatic
drainage
May be congenital or result
from damage to the lymphatic system
Not usually associated with
hormonal imbalances

Lymphoscintigraphy

Identifies disordered lymphatics

MRI scan

Honeycomb pattern in the subcutis
and thickened skin

Usually causes symmetrical
bilateral swelling of the lower limbs;
can occur in arms
Swelling stops at ankles and wrists
Pain and bruising are prominent
features
Affects mainly women
In pure lipoedema, Stemmer sign is
negative; often painful on pinching
Unknown; results in excessive
subcutaneous fat deposition
Appears to be oestrogen requiring
and starts at time of hormonal
change eg pregnancy, puberty
Family history of lipoedema often
positive
Often indicates normal lymphatic
functioning
Subcutaneous fat, but no fluid

*Lipoedema can progress to develop an oedematous component – lipolymphoedema.

Chylous ascites: the accumulation
of chyle (fat-bearing lymph) in the
abdominal cavity

Classification of severity
One method of establishing the severity of
unilateral limb lymphoedema is based on the
difference in the limb volume of the affected
and unaffected limbs (Box 12).
There is currently no formal system for the
classification of the severity of bilateral limb
swelling or lymphoedema of the head and
neck, genitalia or trunk.
The severity of lymphoedema can also be
based on the physical and psychosocial
impact of the condition. Factors to consider
include:
■ tissue swelling – mild, moderate or severe;
pitting or nonpitting
■ skin condition – thickened, warty, bumpy,
blistered, lymphorrhoeic, broken or
ulcerated

Assessment of swelling
TESTING FOR
PITTING
Pitting indicates the
presence of excess
interstitial fluid, ie tissue
oedema. Pitting is usually
tested for by pressing
firmly, but without hurting
the patient, on the area to
be examined with a finger
or thumb for a count of at
least 10 seconds. If an
indentation remains when
the examiner ceases
pressing, pitting is present.
The depth of the
indentation reflects the
severity of the oedema.
In a research setting, the
pitting test may be defined
in terms of the pressure
applied and the length of
application, and
measurement of the depth
of any resulting
indentation.

The duration, location and extent of the
swelling and any pitting should be recorded,
along with the location of any
lymphadenopathy, the quality of the skin
and subcutaneous tissue, and the degree of
shape distortion. Limb circumference and
volume should be measured.
Limb volume measurement
Limb volume measurement is one of the
methods used to determine the severity of
the lymphoedema, the appropriate
management, and the effectiveness of
treatment. Typically, limb volume is
measured on diagnosis, after two weeks of
intensive therapy with multi-layer
inelastic lymphoedema bandaging
(MLLB), and at follow-up assessment.
In unilateral limb swelling, both the
affected and unaffected limbs are
measured. The difference in limb volume
is expressed in millilitres (ml) or as a
percentage.
Oedema is considered present if the
volume of the swollen limb is more than
10% greater than that of the contralateral
unaffected limb. The dominant limb
should be noted: in unaffected patients,
the dominant limb can have a
circumference up to 2cm greater and a
volume as much as 8-9% higher than the
nondominant limb32,33.
In bilateral limb oedema, the volume of
both limbs is measured and used to track
treatment progress.
There is no effective method for
measuring oedema affecting the head
and neck, breast, trunk or genitalia.
Digital photography is recommended as
an appropriate means to subjectively
record and monitor facial and genital
lymphoedema34.
Water displacement method
The water displacement method (also
known as water plethysmography) is
considered the 'gold standard' for calculating limb volume and is the only reliable
method available for the measurement of
oedematous hands and feet35. It uses the
principle that an object will displace its
own volume of water. However,

practicalities, such as hygiene issues and
accessing this method, limit its use.
Circumferential limb measurements
Calculation of volume from circumferential
measurements is the most widely used
method. It is easily accessible and its
reliability can be improved if a standard
protocol is followed.
Circumferential measurements of limbs
(Figure 3) are put into a specialist computer
program or calculator for determination of
individual limb volume and excess limb
volume. Some practitioners have set up
standard spreadsheet programs to calculate
volume.
A simplified method for the measurement
of patients with palliative care needs is shown
in Figure 4 (page 12). These measurements
are not used to calculate limb volume, but to
track sequential changes in circumference.
Perometry
Perometry uses infrared light beams to
measure the outline of the limb. From these
measurements, limb volume (but not hand or
foot volume) can be calculated quickly,
accurately and reproducibly36. Although the
use of perometry is becoming more
widespread, the cost of the machine limits it
to specialist centres.
Bioimpedance
Bioimpedance measures tissue resistance to
an electrical current to determine
extracellular fluid volume. The technique is
not yet established in routine practice.
However, it may prove useful in
demonstrating early lymphoedema,
identifying lipoedema, and in monitoring the
outcome of treatment31. The technique is
currently of limited use in bilateral swelling.
Limitations of excess limb volume
Calculation of excess limb volume is of
limited use in bilateral lymphoedema. In
such cases measurements can be used to
track sequential changes in limb
circumference to indicate treatment
progress. In patients with extensive
hyperkeratosis, elephantiasis or tissue
thickening it should be recognised that a
proportion of the excess volume will be due
to factors other than fluid accumulation.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

ASSESSMENT

ASSESSMENT

FIGURE 3 Method for obtaining measurements for calculating limb volume
A pretensioned tape measure should be used. No tension should be applied to the tape during measuring.

Upper limbs
■ Ask the patient to sit with the arm supported on a table with the hand palm down
■ On the ulnar aspect of the arm* measure with a ruler and record the distance from the
nail bed of the little finger to 2cm above the ulnar styloid (wrist)†. Mark this point on
the patient. This determines the starting point
■ Mark the same point on the contralateral arm
■ Lie a ruler along the ulnar aspect of the arm and mark the limb at 4cm intervals from
the starting point to 2cm below the axilla
■ With the limb in a relaxed position, measure the circumference at each mark, placing
the top edge of the tape measure just below the mark
■ Note measurements above the elbow in the correct section of the paper or electronic
recording form
■ Repeat the process on the other limb. Ensure there are the same number of
measurements for both arms
■ Document the position the patient was in when measurements were taken
Lower limbs
Ask the patient to stand or sit with both feet firmly on the ground
■ On the medial aspect of the leg* measure with a ruler and record the distance from the floor to 2cm above the middle of the medial
malleolus†. Mark this point on the patient. This determines the starting point
■ Mark the same point on the contralateral leg
■ Seat patient on a chair with bottom as close to the edge as possible, or seat on a couch with the leg straight
■ Lie a ruler along the medial aspect of the leg and mark the limb at 4cm
intervals from the starting point to 2cm below the popliteal fossa for swelling
below the knee
■ If swelling extends above the knee, ask the patient to stand or to lie on a couch.
Continue the marks at 4cm intervals above the knee to 2cm below the gluteal
crease
■ With the limb in a relaxed position, measure the circumference at each mark,
placing the top edge of the tape measure just below the mark
■ Note measurements above the knee in the correct section of the paper or
electronic recording form
■ Repeat the process on the other limb. Ensure there are the same number of
measurements for both legs
■ Document the position the patient was in when measurements were taken
■

*If only one limb is affected, start with the unaffected side.
†If the ulnar styloid or medial malleolus cannot be located, alternative fixed anatomical points can be used to determine the starting point, eg olecranon process or
anterior iliac spine. The distance from the fixed anatomical point to the starting point should be recorded to ensure consistency when measurements are repeated
subsequently.
NB Some limb volume calculation methods or systems may require a different interval between circumferential measurements.

MEASURING LIMBS FOR VOLUME OR COMPRESSION GARMENTS
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate methods for measuring limbs to assess limb volume and swelling.
These methods differ from the techniques used to measure for compression garments,
which are shown on pages 41 and 42.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

11

ASSESSMENT

ASSESSMENT

FIGURE 4 Simplified measuring method for patients with palliative care needs
A pretensioned tape measure should be used. No tension should be applied to the tape during measuring.

Lower limbs
With the limb in a relaxed position, measure circumference:
■ of the foot (if oedematous)
■ 2cm above the medial malleolus
■ 10cm above the superior pole of the patella
■ 10cm below the inferior pole of the patella
Repeat with the other leg

Upper limbs
With the limb in a supported
position and the arm straight,
measure circumference:
■ around the dorsum of the
hand (if oedematous)
■ around the wrist
■ 10cm below the point of
the elbow (olecranon
process)
■ 10cm above the olecranon
process
Repeat with the other arm

Lymphangiectasia: dilatation of
lymph vessels; may appear as
blister-like protuberances on the
skin
Lymphorrhoea: leakage of lymph
from the skin surface
Papillomatosis: the development
of warty growths on the skin
consisting of dilated lymphatics and
fibrous tissue
Lipodermatosclerosis: thickening
and hardening of the subcutaneous
tissues of the lower leg with brown
discolouration of the skin;
associated with chronic venous
insufficiency; in severe cases
lymphatics become damaged

Assessment of skin condition
The general condition of the patient's skin
and that of the affected area should be
assessed for:
■ dryness
■ pigmentation
■ fragility
■ redness/pallor/cyanosis
■ warmth/coolness
■ dermatitis
■ cellulitis/erysipelas
■ fungal infection
■ hyperkeratosis
■ lymphangiectasia
■ lymphorrhoea
■ papillomatosis
■ scars, wounds and ulcers
■ lipodermatosclerosis
■ orange peel skin (peau d'orange)
■ deepened skin folds
■ Stemmer sign (Figure 5).
Examples of some of the skin changes
seen in lymphoedema can be found on
pages 24-27, along with the indications for
referral of patients to dermatology or other
specialist services.

Vascular assessment
The arterial vascular status of the legs of all
patients with lower limb lymphoedema
should be assessed. The presence of
peripheral arterial occlusive disease may
contraindicate compression therapy or
necessitate a reduction in the level of
compression used.
12

Ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI)
provides an objective measure of the
patency of the large arteries supplying blood
to the foot. It is calculated from the ratio of
the highest ankle systolic pressure for each
limb to the highest systolic pressure in the
arm. There are limitations to the test
particularly in the presence of
lymphoedema. Tissue thickening,
hyperkeratosis or oedema may make it
difficult to detect blood flow using the
standard 8MHz probe. The use of a 4MHz
probe and a larger size blood pressure cuff
may overcome these problems37.
An ABPI of 1.0-1.3 is normal; an ABPI of
<0.8 indicates a degree of lower limb arterial
occlusive disease that precludes the use of
high compression. Inability to obliterate the
pulse signal during measurement or an
ABPI>1.3 also indicates vascular disease.
Measurement of toe-brachial pressure
index (TBPI) may be useful when obtaining
an ABPI is not possible or too painful38.
Alternatives for assessing vascular status
include pulse oximetry and pulse
oscillography of the limbs, but may be
subject to false-positive ischaemic results in
the presence of oedema.
If there is any doubt about the patient's
peripheral arterial status, a vascular opinion
should be sought.
Use of these vascular assessment methods
requires appropriate training in
measurement technique and interpretation
of results.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

ASSESSMENT

FIGURE 5 Stemmer sign
In a healthy person, a fold of skin
can be pinched and lifted up at
the base of the (a) second toe or
(b) middle finger. The Stemmer
sign is present and indicative of
lymphoedema when a skin fold
cannot be raised.

ASSESSMENT

(a)

(b)

NB A negative sign may occur in
proximal descending lymphoedema
and does not exclude lymphoedema.

Pain assessment
Pain has been reported to affect 50% of
patients with lymphoedema, with most
taking regular analgesia14. Pain may be
caused by:
■ inflammation
■ tissue distension
■ infection
■ ischaemia
■ lipoedema
■ nerve entrapment or neuropathy
■ complex regional pain syndrome
■ factitious swelling
■ radiation-induced fibrosis
■ cancer recurrence/progression
■ taxane chemotherapy
■ degenerative joint disease.
Effective assessment of pain requires noting
the cause, nature, frequency, timing, site,
severity and impact of the pain. Effective
management strategies are dependent on
the understanding that there are layers of
pain in lymphoedema, eg:
■ procedural pain – resulting from the
treatment of lymphoedema
■ incident pain – breakthrough pain caused
by day to day activities
■ background pain – intermittent or
continuous pain at rest.
Any of these can be influenced by
environmental factors or psychosocial
factors that affect patient experience and
ability to communicate pain39.
Local pain management clinics and
palliative care teams can provide help in
the consistent and regular use of formal
pain assessment tools and the management
of pain.

Nutritional assessment

B

Patients with lymphoedema should be
encouraged to maintain a healthy
body weight.

Nutritional assessment has two components:
determining obesity and assessing the
patient's diet.
As yet, the role of diet in lymphoedema is
not established. However, lymphoedema is
associated with obesity and obesity is a risk
factor for the development of lymphoedema
after treatment for breast cancer40,41. The
frequent co-existence of obesity and
lymphoedema suggests that obesity may
contribute to the development of lymphoedema, possibly by reducing mobility42.
Body mass index (BMI), calculated from the
patient's weight and height, may be used to
determine obesity. Overweight patients
should be encouraged to reduce their BMI to
<25; patients with BMI ≥30 should be offered
dietary treatment or advice43.
Waist measurement and waist-to-hip ratio
provide an indication of total body fat and are
simple methods for the assessment of obesity.
A waist-to-hip ratio of >0.80 for women and
>0.90 for men is associated with increased
health risk44. A reduction in waist circumference, indicating decreased central body fat,
with no overall weight change may result in a
significant reduction in health risk (Table 3).
TABLE 3 The relationship between waist
circumference and health risk45,46
Waist circumference
Women 80-87cm (32-34in)
88cm (35in) or greater
Men

Patients with lymphoedema should
receive psychological screening to
identify those who require help to
cope with the condition and those who
require specialist psychological
intervention.

Lymphoedema can result in functional
impairment, reduced self esteem, distorted
body image, depression, anxiety, and
problems with sexual, family and social
relationships7,10,47. Psychosocial assessment
will highlight areas that require referral for
specialist intervention and factors that may
have an impact on management and
concordance with treatment.
Psychological evaluation should include
asking the patient how their swelling makes
them feel about themselves alongside
assessment for:
■ depression – eg low mood, loss of
interest, low energy, changes in weight,
appetite or sleep patterns, poor
concentration, feelings of guilt or
worthlessness, suicidal thoughts (Box 13)
■ anxiety – eg apprehension, panic attacks,
irritability, poor sleeping, situation
avoidance, poor concentration
■ cognitive impairment – may contribute to
lack of motivation and inability to be
independent
■ lack of motivation
■ ability to cope
■ understanding of disease and
concordance with treatment.

BOX 13 Screening for depression48
NICE recommends that screening for depression
should include the use of at least two questions
concerning mood and interest, eg:
■ During the last month, have you often
been bothered by feeling down, depressed
or hopeless?
■ During the last month, have you often
been bothered by having little interest or
pleasure in doing things?

14

ASSESSMENT

BOX 14 Functional assessment of limbs affected by lymphoedema
Arm:
■ range of joint movement
■ ability to use fastenings, eg buttons, bra fastenings
■ ability to put on or remove underwear/compression garments or bandaging
■ hand grip and pincer movement (opposition of thumb and index finger)
■ effect of lymphoedema on activities of daily living
■ use of any aids
Leg:
■ range of joint movement
■ ability to get up from sitting or lying
■ ability to walk; gait analysis
■ ability to lift individual legs
■ posture when sitting and standing
■ ability to put on and take off footwear/compression garments or bandaging
■ suitability of footwear
■ effect of lymphoedema on activities of daily living
■ use of any aids

Mobility and functional assessment
Assessment of a patient's mobility and
functional status (Box 14) will contribute
to the formulation of a management plan
and determine whether referral for further
assessment is necessary. Functional
assessment of lymphoedema affecting
the head, neck, trunk or genitalia should
be undertaken by a lymphoedema
specialist.
The World Health Organization has
produced a standardised, cross-cultural,
non-disease specific tool for functional
assessment – the WHO Disability
Assessment Scale, available at:
www.who.int/icidh/whodas.
Patients with functional, joint or mobility
problems should be referred as appropriate
for physiotherapy and/or occupational
therapy assessment.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

TREATMENT
DECISIONS

Treatment decisions
B
B

Patients with lymphoedema should receive a coordinated package of care and information
appropriate to their needs.
Patients and carers should have early active involvement in the management of lymphoedema.

The best practice management of
lymphoedema has a holistic,
multidisciplinary approach that includes:
■ exercise/movement – to enhance
lymphatic and venous flow
■ swelling reduction and maintenance – to
reduce limb size/volume and improve
subcutaneous tissue consistency through
compression and/or massage, and to
maintain improvements
■ skin care – to optimise the condition of
the skin, treat any complications caused
by lymphoedema and minimise the risk
of cellulitis/erysipelas
■ risk reduction – to avoid factors that may
exacerbate lymphoedema
■ pain and psychosocial management.
Swelling reduction is achieved through a
combination of compression (eg MLLB

and/or compression garments) and
exercise/movement with or without
lymphatic massage (manual lymphatic
drainage – MLD, simple lymphatic drainage
– SLD or intermittent pneumatic
compression – IPC).
The precise form of management
programme required will be determined by
the site, stage, severity and complexity of
the lymphoedema, and the patient's
psychosocial situation (Figure 6). Patients
may require referral to a lymphoedema
service (Box 15), or for assessment of coexisting medical, functional or psychosocial
problems. Successful management of
lymphoedema relies on patients and carers
playing an active role.

Chyle: the milk-coloured, fatbearing lymph that usually drains
from the intestine into the thoracic
duct

15

TREATMENT
DECISIONS

FIGURE 6 Initial management of lymphoedema
This algorithm guides the practitioner in choosing the appropriate form of management for the patient, and indicates where in this document
to find further information.

*If problems with garment management are likely to be ongoing, careful consideration should be given to commencing MLLB because
it may be required long-term.
†Includes skin care, exercise/movement and elevation. Please see text for practitioner roles.

Compression hosiery
Patients with mild lower limb lymphoedema
(ISL stage I), minor pitting, no significant
tissue changes, no or minimal shape
distortion, or palliative needs may be
suitable for initial management with
compression hosiery. The pressure used
should be guided by the patient's vascular
status and their ability to tolerate
compression and manage the garment
(pages 39-45). Skin care,
exercise/movement, elevation and SLD
should be taught alongside self monitoring
and proper application, removal and care of
hosiery. Patients' application/removal
technique should be assessed and
monitored.
Patients should be reviewed four to six
weeks after initial fitting, and then after
three to six months if response is
satisfactory. The patient should be reviewed
at each garment renewal, ie approximately
every three to six months.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained.

Modified MLLB
Patients with ISL stage II or late stage II
lower limb lymphoedema may be
candidates for initial treatment with
modified MLLB, outside an intensive therapy
regimen. Modified MLLB may also be useful
in controlling symptoms in patients with
cancer-related lymphoedema and frail
patients who have complex medical
problems (page 34). Management should

include skin care, exercise/movement,
elevation, SLD and psychosocial support.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained.

Intensive therapy
Intensive therapy reduces swelling by
decongesting impaired lymphatic pathways,
reducing lymphatic load, encouraging the
development of collateral drainage routes,
and stimulating the function of remaining
patent routes.
Intensive therapy is used in patients with
ISL stage II, late stage II and stage III lower
limb lymphoedema. Intensive therapy
regimens use a combination of skin care,
MLLB, exercise/movement and elevation.
The regimen may include MLD or MLD
with IPC.
The frequency of treatment, degree of
compression and type of bandaging used
should be adapted according to the patient's
physical and psychosocial needs, and to the
presence of venous ulceration and arterial or
venous insufficiency (Figure 7, page 19).
Intensive therapy programmes are likely
to be undertaken for a period of two to four
weeks, although a maximal effect may be
achieved more quickly in some patients.
During this time treatment should be
evaluated continuously and appropriate
alterations made according to patient need
and the effectiveness of the selected
regimen. Appropriate training is required for
all practitioners who deliver intensive
therapy programmes49.
Standard intensive therapy (>45mmHg)
This involves skin care, exercise/movement,
elevation, MLD, and MLLB with inelastic
bandages (sub-bandage pressure
>45mmHg) undertaken daily.
Patients undergoing standard intensive
therapy must be carefully selected and be
willing and able to commit physically and
emotionally to daily intensive therapy,
including participation in exercise
programmes.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained at specialist level.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

INTENSIVE THERAPY
The combination of skin
care, exercise, MLD and
MLLB is often known as
decongestive lymphatic
therapy (DLT) or complete
decongestive therapy
(CDT). The term intensive
therapy has been used in
this document to denote a
holistic approach that
includes education,
psychosocial support and
pain management, and
that may also include SLD
and IPC.

MODIFYING MLLB
Where necessary, MLLB
may be modified and
individualised, according
to patient need and
resources available, by
altering the:
■ compression produced
■ frequency of bandage
change
■ materials used.

17

TREATMENT
DECISIONS

SAFETY ISSUES
Lower limb peripheral
arterial occlusive disease
Patients with lower limb
lymphoedema with
reduced ABPI of 0.5-0.8
should not receive
sustained compression
exceeding 25mmHg50.
Patients with ABPI <0.5
should not receive
compression. If arterial
involvement is suspected,
referral to a vascular
specialist should be made
before introducing
compression.
Cellulitis/erysipelas
During periods of acute
infection, the level of
compression should be
reduced or removed if too
painful, medical
supervision may be
required, and any form of
lymphatic massage
should be discontinued.
The usual type and level of
compression should be
recommenced when the
acute phase of the
infection has resolved and
the patient is able to
tolerate it again. Patients
who wear compression
garments can use one of
lower compression if
available, or receive
modified bandaging until
garments can be
tolerated.

18

Modified intensive therapy with high
pressure (>45mmHg)
This involves skin care, exercise/movement,
elevation, MLD/SLD and MLLB with inelastic
bandages undertaken three times weekly.
Suitable patients are able to tolerate high
levels of compression, but are unable to
commit to standard intensive therapy for
physical, social, psychological or economic
reasons. This may include those who are
elderly, obese or have poor mobility.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained, and have access to physiotherapy
assessment and to a practitioner with
specialist training.
Modified intensive therapy with reduced
pressure (15-25mmHg)
This involves skin care, exercise/movement,
elevation, SLD, MLLB +/– IPC undertaken
three times weekly.
Patients are selected for this treatment
when high levels of compression are either
unsafe or difficult to tolerate. This includes
those with:
■ moderate concurrent lower limb
peripheral arterial occlusive disease
(ABPI 0.5-0.8)50. NB Patients with ABPI
<0.5 should not receive sustained
compression therapy, but may benefit
from special forms of IPC
■ a neurological deficit that will make
sensing complications difficult
■ lipoedema/lipolymphoedema – lower
levels of compression may be easier to
tolerate
■ cancer requiring palliative treatment
■ co-morbidities requiring less aggressive
reduction in swelling.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained, and have access to physiotherapy
assessment and to a practitioner with
specialist training.

Intensive therapy for lymphovenous
disease (35-45mmHg or 15-25mmHg)
This involves skin care, exercise/movement,
elevation, and MLLB +/– IPC undertaken
either daily or three times weekly.
Treatment frequency will be determined by
the severity of the oedema, skin condition
and rate of swelling reduction.
Suitable patients include those who have
had deep vein thrombosis or those who
have post-thrombotic syndrome, who may
be at risk of developing or have existing leg
ulceration. A recent review concluded that
immediate ambulation with appropriate
compression does not significantly increase
the incidence of pulmonary embolism,
produces a faster reduction of pain and
swelling, and reduces the severity of postthrombotic syndrome51. MLLB may need to
be modified in the presence of venous
ulceration, peripheral arterial occlusive
disease or immobility (Appendix 2). IPC
may be particularly useful for the many
patients with venous ulceration who have
poor mobility and are unable to elevate their
legs52-54.
NB In severe cases with significant limb
distortion, oedema and tissue thickening,
fitter patients may benefit from a period of
standard intensive therapy.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained at specialist level.

SUB-BANDAGE PRESSURE
■

■

■

The pressures given here are subbandage pressures measured at the
ankle in the supine position.
The optimal sub-bandage ankle
pressures for the MLLB systems used in
lymphoedema have yet to be
determined.
The recommendations here relate to
the sub-bandage ankle pressures
recommended for venous disease55.

*Patients with ABPI <0.5 should not receive compression therapy and should be referred to a vascular specialist.
†Includes skin care, exercise/movement and elevation.
In the palliative situation, bandages may be used to support the limb and would apply very little compression.

Compression garments
Compression garments can be used as
initial management in patients who have
mild upper limb lymphoedema (ISL stage I)
with minimal subcutaneous tissue changes
and shape distortion. Where there is
considerable soft pitting oedema, MLLB
(inelastic bandaging) will be required to
reduce and stabilise the swelling prior to the
application of compression garments.
In general, the level of compression used
to treat lymphoedema of the upper limb is
lower than that required for lower limb
lymphoedema. Lower pressure compression
garments also have a role to play in
managing symptoms in a palliative context.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

19

TREATMENT
DECISIONS

Management of patients treated initially
with compression garments will include
education about risk reduction and self
management, skin care, exercise/
movement, elevation, SLD and psychosocial
support.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained.

Modified MLLB
Initial management of upper limb
lymphoedema with MLLB will usually be
part of an intensive therapy regimen (see
below). Selected patients with ISL stage II or
late stage II upper limb lymphoedema who
are unable to wear compression garments
may better tolerate adapted forms of MLLB.
The initial and longer term management of
patients with palliative care needs may also
involve modified MLLB (page 34).
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained.

Intensive therapy
Intensive therapy of upper limb
lymphoedema involves the use of MLLB to
reduce oedema and improve, where
required, limb shape, subcutaneous tissue
consistency and skin condition. In the
intensive phase of treatment, daily
bandaging is undertaken for two to four
weeks, and all aspects of standard intensive
therapy are implemented, ie skin care,
exercise/movement, elevation and MLD.
In the palliative situation, where modified
MLLB is used, it may be possible to reduce
the frequency of bandaging after at least an
initial week of daily treatment.
The practitioner will be appropriately
trained, and have access to physiotherapy
assessment and to a practitioner with
specialist training.

CAUTIONARY NOTE
Practitioners should be sensitive to the
individual response of patients to
compression and adapt the treatment
regimen accordingly. Some patients
respond well to and are able to tolerate
high levels of compression. However, in
other patients similar pressures may be
difficult to tolerate and may cause
problems such as skin damage. Lower
pressure garments may encourage
concordance.

20

TRANSITION MANAGEMENT –
UPPER AND LOWER LIMB
LYMPHOEDEMA
Following intensive therapy, some patients
may benefit from a one to three month
period of transition management before
progressing to long-term therapy. The
transition period may be helpful to:
■ maximise the effects of intensive therapy
and stabilise fluctuations in swelling to an
individually acceptable level
■ prevent rebound swelling on transfer to
compression hosiery
■ evaluate long-term maintenance
strategies
■ support and facilitate self management
■ reduce practitioner input.
An algorithm has been developed to guide
practitioners in deciding which patients
require transition therapy (Figure 8).
Transition management requires a
practitioner who has received appropriate
training at specialist level, and may be
shared with community staff.

Compression choices
Success and concordance demand that an
individualised compression regimen is
developed that is comfortable and
acceptable to the patient. Treatment may
include a combination of compression
garments and MLLB, with or without MLD
or IPC (Figure 9).

Promotion of self management
An important aim of the transition phase is
promotion of self management and longterm control. Patients should, wherever
possible, be actively engaged in all stages of
their treatment. Patient involvement during
the transition phase, with education,
training and supervision, can include:
■ skin care
■ exercise/movement, elevation and
weight reduction
■ use of an inelastic adjustable
compression device
■ SLD
■ compression garments +/- MLLB
■ self monitoring for complications
■ treatment adjustment according to
fluctuations.
A trained and competent health or social
carer or a relative can support any or all of
these activities.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

TREATMENT
DECISIONS

FIGURE 8 Transition management – upper and lower limb lymphoedema

Upper or lower limb lymphoedema
Following two to four weeks of intensive therapy does the patient:
• have difficulty maintaining limb shape?
• have difficulty managing skin condition?
• require careful management of rebound swelling?
Yes

No

Transition management
(Figure 9)

Long-term management with
compression hosiery

Reassess weekly initially
If lymphoedema is stable
reassess monthly for up to
three months

Yes

• Maintenance or reduction
of swelling and size/
volume
• No deterioration in tissue
density
• No deterioration in limb
shape
• Improvement in
patient/carer involvement
and self management

Further period of intensive
therapy

No

Successful outcome of
transition management

Consider which therapies to
use long-term

Is the patient suitable for or
willing to undergo further
intensive therapy?

SLD performed by the patient or a trained
carer/relative
■ self monitoring.
Long-term management of lymphoedema
usually involves compression garments.
However, for some patients the most
appropriate form of compression in the
long-term will be bandaging (Figure 10) or a
combination of compression garments and
bandaging.
Occasionally, patients with upper limb
lymphoedema who have developed
expertise in managing their condition will be
able to manage their lymphoedema mainly
through exercise, using compression
garments when needed.
Long-term management requires that the
practitioner has appropriate training, and
access to a practitioner with specialist
training.
■

MANAGEMENT OF MIDLINE
LYMPHOEDEMA
The management of midline lymphoedema
(Box 16), ie lymphoedema of the head and
neck, trunk, breast or genitalia, can be
particularly challenging, especially because
of the lack of standardised objective
measurement methods to evaluate
treatment effects and to facilitate
measurement for appropriate compression
garments.
Practitioners treating midline
lymphoedema will be trained at specialist
level. Management will require
collaboration with the patient and a
multidisciplinary team. In some
circumstances, care may be managed
jointly with community staff.

Truncal lymphoedema
Lymphoedema can affect the chest, back,
abdomen, buttocks, breast or genitalia in
isolation or in combination with limb
oedema. Lymphoedema of the trunk is often
secondary to a tumour compressing the
lymphatics or to trauma and tissue damage
from cancer treatment. Consequently,
particular attention should be paid to
determining the presence or recurrence of
cancer during initial assessment.
The management strategies described for
breast and genital lymphoedema can be
combined, where necessary, with those for
the management of limb lymphoedema56.
Breast lymphoedema
There is little consensus on the best
approach to the management of breast
lymphoedema. However, prevention, early
diagnosis and supportive care have much
to offer. MLD and SLD form an important
part of treatment. Medium compression
(25-30mmHg) may be applied using
suitable bras (including sports bras), Lycra
foundation garments or custom made
garments. Tissue thickening may be
softened by using customised foam pads.
The anatomy of the area may make
bandaging difficult.

Genital lymphoedema
Genital lymphoedema can be highly
incapacitating and extremely difficult to
manage. Careful monitoring for signs of
infection and scrupulous skin care are
crucial. MLD and SLD are important
treatment components.
When genital lymphoedema and lower
limb lymphoedema co-exist, treatment of
the lower limb swelling may exacerbate the
genital oedema. In this situation, clearance of
the core lymphatics through MLD is
particularly important.
Women usually require custom made
compression garments with anatomically
contoured stasis pads to treat thickened and
swollen areas. In men, MLLB may be used
and self-bandaging taught. Depending on
the degree of swelling, supportive close
fitting shorts containing Lycra (eg cycle
shorts) may be a useful alternative to ready
to wear or custom made scrotal supports or
compression garments. In either sex, surgical
management may sometimes be necessary.

BOX 16 Principles of
management for midline
lymphoedema
The individually tailored
management plan for
patients with lymphoedema
of the head and neck, trunk,
breast or genitalia, is likely to
include:
■ daily skin care
■ exercise/movement
■ massage – MLD and/or
SLD
■ compression – bandaging,
compression garments and
individualised foam pads
■ self monitoring
NB Compression may not be well
tolerated in midline lymphoedema
and MLD may be the only realistic
option.

Lymphoedema of head and neck
Lymphoedema of the head and neck is often
a complication of cancer or secondary to
tissue damage in this area. MLD and SLD are
key elements of treatment. Low pressure
compression may be applied using
bandaging or custom made garments. Low
density foam pads can be used to apply
localised pressure. Compression should
never be applied to the neck area. Surgical
management of eyelid lymphoedema may be
considered.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

23

SKIN CARE

Skin care and
cellulitis/erysipelas
B

FIGURE 11 Intact skin

FIGURE 12 Rough and scaly dry
skin

Good skin care regimens should be implemented by patients and carers in the management
of lymphoedema.

Skin problems are common in patients with
lymphoedema. Swelling may produce deep
skin folds where fungal and bacterial
infections can develop. Chronic
inflammation causes deposition of fibrin and
collagen, contributing to skin thickening and
firm tissue consistency. Reduced tissue
compliance may further compromise lymph
flow and increase the tendency to infection.
Maintenance of skin integrity and careful
management of skin problems in patients
with lymphoedema are important to
minimise the risk of infection.
The general principles of skin care
(Box 17) aim to preserve skin barrier
function through washing and the use of
emollients. Ordinary soaps, which usually
contain detergents and no glycerin, should
be avoided because they tend to dry the skin.
Natural or pH neutral soap can be used. The
perfumes and preservatives in scented
products may be irritant or allergenic. In high
concentrations, mineral and petrolatum
based products may exacerbate dry skin
conditions by occluding skin pores and
preventing natural oils from surfacing.
Emollients re-establish the skin's
protective lipid layer, preventing further
water loss and protecting the skin from

bacteria and irritants. Emollients can be
bath oils, soap substitutes or moisturisers
(lotions, creams and ointments). In general,
ointments, which contain little or no water,
are better skin hydrators than creams, which
are better than lotions.
The best method of emollient application
is unknown. Some practitioners recommend
applying them using strokes in the direction
of hair growth (ie towards the feet when
applying to the legs) to prevent blockage of
hair follicles and folliculitis. Others
recommend applying emollients by stroking
towards the trunk to encourage lymph
drainage.
Emollients may damage the elastic
component of compression garments, and it
is preferable to avoid application
immediately prior to donning.

SKIN CARE REGIMENS
Following are descriptions of skin care
regimens for skin conditions that can occur
in patients with lymphoedema. These
conditions may occur simultaneously and
require combinations of regimens. The
general principles of skin care apply to all
conditions (Box 17).

The condition of intact skin (Figure 11)
should be optimised by applying emollient
at night.

Dry skin
Dry skin may vary from slightly dry or flaky
to rough and scaly (Figure 12). Patients may
complain of itching.
Emollients should be applied twice daily
(including after washing) to aid rehydration.
If the heels are deeply cracked, emollients
and hydrocolloid dressings may help and the
patient should be referred according to local
dermatology guidelines.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

SKIN CARE

FIGURE 13 Hyperkeratosis

FIGURE 14 Folliculitis

Hyperkeratosis

FIGURE 15 Fungal infection on
the sole of the foot

Hyperkeratosis (Figure 13) is caused by
overproliferation of the keratin layer and
produces scaly brown or grey patches.
Emollients with a low water content are
recommended. MLLB reduces the
underlying lymphoedema and improves skin
condition. If the condition has not improved
within one month, the patient should be
referred according to local dermatology
guidelines.

Treatment is with terbinafine 1% cream
for up to six weeks alongside meticulous
skin care. In some countries, Whitfield
ointment is used as an alternative. Any
sign of bacterial infection should be
treated promptly (pages 27-29). Nail
infection requires treatment with an oral
antifungal agent under medical
supervision. The patient should be referred
to a dermatologist if there is no response
after six weeks' treatment.

Folliculitis

Lymphangiectasia

Folliculitis (Figure 14) is due to inflammation
of the hair follicles. It causes a red rash with
pimples or pustules, and is most commonly
seen on hairy limbs. The cause is usually
Staphylococcus aureus, and it may precede
cellulitis/erysipelas. Swabs should be taken
for culture if there is any exudate or an open
wound.
An antiseptic wash/lotion, eg one
containing chlorhexidine and benzalkonium,
should be used after washing. Emollient
should be applied without being rubbed in. If
there is no response after one month, the
patient should be referred according to local
dermatology guidelines.

FIGURE 16 Lymphangiectasia

Lymphangiectasia (Figure 16 – also known
as lymphangiomata) are soft fluid-filled
projections caused by dilatation of
lymphatic vessels. Treatment is
compression with MLLB. If there is no
response to initial compression, or the
lymphangiectasia are very large, contain
chyle or cause lymphorrhoea, the patient
should be referred immediately to a
lymphoedema practitioner with training at
specialist level.

Fungal infection
Fungal infection (Figure 15) occurs in skin
creases and on skin surfaces that touch. It
causes moist, whitish scaling and itching,
and is particularly common between the
toes. It can precede the development of
cellulitis/erysipelas. Skin scrapings and, if
nails are affected, nail clippings should be
sent for mycological examination.

FIGURE 17 Papillomatosis

FIGURE 18 Severe papillomatosis

Papillomatosis
Papillomatosis (Figures 17 and 18)
produces firm raised projections on the
skin due to dilatation of lymphatic vessels
and fibrosis, and may be accompanied by
hyperkeratosis.
The condition may be reversible with
adequate compression. If the condition
does not improve after one month, the
patient should be referred to a
lymphoedema practitioner with training at
specialist level.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

25

SKIN CARE

FIGURE 19 Lymphorrhoea and
resulting maceration

FIGURE 20 Ulceration

FIGURE 21 Venous eczema

FIGURE 22 Contact dermatitis

Lymphorrhoea

Venous eczema

Lymphorrhoea (Figure 19) occurs when
lymph leaks from the skin surface. The
patient may require medical review to
determine the underlying cause, eg
worsening congestive heart failure.
The surrounding skin should be
protected with emollient, and nonadherent
absorbent dressings should be applied to
the weeping skin. MLLB will reduce the
underlying lymphoedema, but needs to be
changed frequently to avoid maceration of
the skin. Frequency of change will be
determined by factors such as
strikethrough and the rate of swelling
reduction. In the palliative situation, light
bandaging may be more appropriate. If the
condition does not improve with two
weeks of treatment, the patient should be
referred to a lymphoedema practitioner
with training at specialist level.

Venous eczema (also known as varicose
eczema or stasis dermatitis) usually occurs
on the lower legs (Figure 21), particularly
around the ankles, and is associated with
varicose veins. The skin becomes
pigmented, inflamed, scaly and itchy.
Treatment is with topical corticosteroids
in ointment form as recommended in local
guidelines, eg a potent corticosteroid such
as betamethasone valerate 0.1% with
clioquinol 3% for seven days followed by a
mildly potent corticosteroid such as
clobetasone butyrate 0.05% or
betamethasone valerate 0.025%. A
non-sensitising, low water content emollient
should be applied during steroid treatment.
If ABPI is <0.5, the patient should be
referred to a vascular surgeon. The patient
should be referred according to local
dermatology guidelines if the condition
persists.

Ulceration
It is important to establish the underlying
cause of the ulcer because it determines
treatment and whether compression is
appropriate (Figure 20). If venous and/or
arterial disease is present, the
internationally agreed leg ulcer
management algorithm should be followed
(Appendix 2). The ulcer will require an
appropriate dressing and the surrounding
skin will need to be treated according to its
condition. Exercise/movement and optimal
nutrition should be encouraged and long
periods of limb dependency minimised.
The patient should be referred to the
appropriate specialist service if the ulcer is
unresponsive after six to eight weeks, there
is rapid deterioration or a drop in ABPI.

26

Contact dermatitis
Contact dermatitis (Figure 22) is the result of
an allergic or irritant reaction. It usually starts
at the site of contact with the causative
material, but may spread. The skin becomes
red, itchy and scaly, and may weep or crust.
Acute episodes are treated with a potent
topical corticosteroid in ointment form, eg
betamethasone valerate 0.1% once or twice
daily. For dermatitis unresponsive to less
potent corticosteroids, treatment is with a
very potent topical corticosteroid such as
clobetasol propionate 0.05% once or twice
daily. Treatment should continue for three to
four weeks, during which time the strength
of the steroid and amount applied are
gradually reduced. The patient should be
referred according to local dermatology
guidelines if the condition does not improve.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

SKIN CARE

Lymphangiosarcoma
In the most severe cases of lymphoedema,
lymphangiosarcoma, a rare form of
lymphatic cancer (Stewart-Treves
syndrome) can develop (Figure 23). It
mainly occurs in patients who have been
treated for breast cancer with mastectomy
and/or radiotherapy. The sarcoma first
appears as a reddish or purplish
discolouration or as a bruised area that does
not change colour. It progresses to an ulcer
with crusting, and eventually to extensive
necrosis of the skin and subcutaneous
tissue. It can metastasise widely. Patients
with suspected lymphangiosarcoma require
urgent referral to an oncologist.

CELLULITIS/ERYSIPELAS
Patients with lymphoedema are at increased
risk of acute cellulitis/erysipelas, an
infection of the skin and subcutaneous
tissues. The cause of most episodes is
believed to be Group A β-haemolytic
streptococci. It may also be caused by
staphylococci or other bacteria.
Good skin care reduces the likelihood of
cellulitis/erysipelas, and consequently the
need for antibiotics.

Symptoms are variable. Episodes may
come on over minutes, grumble over several
weeks or be preceded by systemic upset.
Symptoms include pain, swelling, warmth,
redness, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis and
sometimes blistering of the affected part
(Figure 24). More severe cases have a
greater degree of systemic upset, eg chills,
rigor, high fever, headache and vomiting. In
rare cases, these symptoms may be
indicative of necrotising fasciitis. The focus
of the infection may be tinea pedis (athlete's
foot), venous eczema, ulceration, ingrowing
toe nails, scratches from plants or pets, or
insect bites. Box 18 (page 28) outlines the
principles involved in the management of
acute cellulitis/erysipelas at home or in
hospital.

Summary of guidelines for the
management of cellulitis/erysipelas
in lymphoedema57
The guidelines summarised here describe
the indications for hospital admission and
antibiotic therapy for acute and recurrent
cellulitis/erysipelas in patients with
lymphoedema.
Prompt treatment of cellulitis/erysipelas is
essential to prevent further damage that
can predispose to recurrent attacks.

Criteria for hospital admission
The patient should be admitted to hospital if
they show:
■ signs of septicaemia (hypotension,
tachycardia, severe pyrexia, confusion or
vomiting)
■ continuing or deteriorating systemic
signs, with or without deteriorating local
signs, after 48 hours of oral antibiotics
■ unresolving or deteriorating local signs,
with or without systemic signs, despite
trials of first and second line oral
antibiotics.
It is essential that patients with
cellulitis/erysipelas, who are managed at
home, are monitored closely, ideally by the
general practitioner.

If fails to resolve, or
constitutional symptoms
develop, convert to iv
regimen as for hospital
admission

History of animal bite

Co-amoxiclav 625mg
six hourly

Ciprofloxacin 500mg
twelve hourly

Consult microbiologist

Causes may be
Pasteurella multocida,
Eikinella corrodens or
Capnocytophaga
canimorsus

NB Local guidelines may determine which antibiotics may be used.
*Dosages are for oral treatment unless stated otherwise; iv = intravenously.
†Add if infection with Staphylococcus aureus is suspected, eg if folliculitis, pus formation, and/or crusted dermatitis are present.

28

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

LYMPHATIC
MASSAGE

Antibiotic regimens
Antibiotic regimens for cellulitis/erysipelas in
lymphoedema vary according to the clinical
situation (Table 4). Antibiotics should be
continued for at least 14 days after an acute
episode has responded clinically to treatment.
It may take one to two months of antibiotic
treatment to achieve complete resolution.
Antibiotics 'in case'
The risk of further attacks of
cellulitis/erysipelas in lymphoedema is high. It
is recommended that patients who have had
an attack of cellulitis/erysipelas carry a two
week supply of oral antibiotics, particularly
when away from home for any length of time,
eg on holiday. Patients should be advised to

start antibiotics immediately when familiar
symptoms of cellulitis/erysipelas arise and to
seek a medical opinion as soon as possible.
Recurrent cellulitis/erysipelas
Antibiotic prophylaxis should be offered to
patients who have two or more attacks of
cellulitis/erysipelas per year (Table 4). After
two years of successful prophylaxis the
antibiotics can be discontinued. However, if
cellulitis/erysipelas recurs, lifelong antibiotic
prophylaxis is required.
The risk of recurrent cellulitis/erysipelas
can be reduced by controlling swelling, and by
treating interdigital scaling, fungal infections,
folliculitis, dermatitis, open wounds (including
leg ulcers) and weeping lymphangiectasia.

Lymphatic massage
Lymphatic massage – manual lymphatic
drainage (MLD) and simple lymphatic
drainage (SLD) – aims to reduce swelling by
encouraging lymph flow.
The efficacy of MLD and SLD remains to be
proven, but there is no doubt that they are
of immense value in providing
psychological and symptomatic benefits.

MANUAL LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE

C

MLD and compression can reduce and
control lymphoedema of the head, neck
and body.

Manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) is a
gentle massage technique that is
recognised as a key component of
decongestive therapy. MLD aims to
encourage fluid away from congested
areas by increasing activity of normal
lymphatics and bypassing ineffective or
obliterated lymph vessels. Although there
is a wealth of clinical opinion advocating
the benefits of MLD, there are little

research data to conclusively support its
use2,58-60. The most appropriate
techniques, optimal frequency and
indications for MLD, as well as the benefits
of treatment, all remain to be clarified.
MLD remains a specialist skill that needs
regular practice in order to maintain
competence. Deep, heavy-handed
massage should be avoided because it may
damage tissues and exacerbate oedema by
increasing capillary filtration.

Indications
MLD may be indicated as part of intensive
therapy, transition management, long-term
management or palliative care (Box 19).
MLD on its own is not sufficient treatment
for lymphoedema; it should be combined
with compression therapy to support and
maintain its effects. However, where
compression is difficult or is not well
tolerated, eg in lymphoedema of the head,
neck, trunk, breast and genitalia, MLD may
be the only realistic option.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

BOX 19 Indications for MLD
and SLD
■
■

■

■

Swelling at the root of a
limb
Trunk and midline oedema
(eg chest, breast, back,
abdomen, genitalia, head
and neck)
Provision of comfort and
pain relief when other
physical therapies are no
longer appropriate
Adjunctive treatment to
pain management

29

LYMPHATIC
MASSAGE

An important contraindication to MLD and
SLD is acute cellulitis/erysipelas (Box 20).
In advanced cancer, MLD/SLD can be used
with medical practitioner and patient
consent, but should not be used over the
sites of known primary tumours or
metastases.

Technique
A number of different techniques exist for
MLD. However, there is little evidence to
demonstrate which is the most effective and
for what clinical indications. Essentially,
MLD is a gentle massage technique that
follows the lymphatic pathways. The
different methods have several aspects in
common:
■ performed for up to an hour daily
■ usually performed with the patient in the
lying position, unless for lymphoedema of
the head and neck
■ starts with deep diaphragmatic breathing
■ treats the unaffected lymph nodes and
region of the body first
■ moves proximally to distally to drain the
affected areas
■ movements are slow and rhythmical
■ uses gentle pressure – if the pressure is
too hard it stimulates blood flow, the skin
becomes red, and more fluid is
encouraged to move into the tissues
■ ends with deep diaphragmatic breathing.
MLD may be conducted daily (or sometimes
twice daily) or three times weekly. A course
of therapy may last three or more weeks,
and may be repeated at intervals of three
months to one year61. However, the ideal
frequency and length of course for MLD
remains to be defined.
MLD is conducted by practitioners with
training at specialist level.

SIMPLE LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
Simple lymphatic drainage (SLD) is a
simplified self-administered version of MLD
that patients and carers can learn and apply
themselves62,63. Ideally, all patients should
be taught SLD, unless contraindicated (Box
20). While there may be benefits, some
patients find it difficult to learn, memorise
and effectively incorporate this treatment
into a daily regimen. Patients who have MLD
may find it easier to learn SLD.

Technique
In common with MLD, there is little robust
evidence to support the use or effect of SLD.
There is no definitive technique for SLD, but
it is similar to MLD and is conducted for
10-20 minutes daily.
For SLD to be effective, the healthcare
professional must ensure that:
■ the patient/carer is motivated
■ the patient/carer is sufficiently dextrous
to perform SLD
■ time is allocated for initial teaching
■ teaching is progressive and enables the
patient or carer to become skilled
■ written instruction is given and technique
is observed
■ competence in the procedure and the
patient's ability to cope with treatment
are checked regularly.
SLD is conducted and taught by
practitioners with appropriate training.

Intermittent pneumatic
compression
Although there is considerable
international debate over its effectiveness
in lymphoedema, intermittent pneumatic
compression (IPC) is widely used. It may
form part of an intensive therapy regimen
or long-term management in selected
patients, and may be used with caution in
the palliative situation.

BOX 21 Contraindications to IPC
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

WHAT IS IPC?

■

IPC consists of an electrical air compression
pump attached to an inflatable plastic
garment that is placed over the affected
limb. The garment is inflated and deflated
cyclically for a set period, usually about
30-120 minutes. The pressure produced by
the garment can be varied. Garments may
be single chambered, or contain multiple
chambers (usually three, five or 10) that are
inflated sequentially to provide a peristaltic
massaging effect along the length of the
limb towards its root.
The question of whether single or
multichambered devices are more effective
remains open. However, multichambered
devices are used most frequently and
randomised controlled trials have shown
them to produce a faster effect64,65.
IPC is thought to reduce oedema by
decreasing capillary filtration, and therefore
lymph formation, rather than by
accelerating lymph return.
IPC is particularly effective in
nonobstructive oedemas, eg those due to
immobility, venous incompetence,
lymphovenous stasis or hypoproteinaemia.
In obstructive lymphoedema, ie
lymphoedema resulting from lymphatic
vessel/node damage or lymph node
resection, SLD or MLD is recommended
before IPC to stimulate lymphatic flow66.
It is important that compression therapy
with garments or bandaging is continued
after IPC to prevent rapid rebound swelling.
Contraindications to IPC are listed in Box 21.

GUIDELINES FOR USE
Consensus on the pressures suitable for
IPC in lymphoedema is lacking.
Careful surveillance is required to ensure
that the correct technique and pressures
are applied. Pressures should be adjusted
according to patient tolerance and
response to treatment. In general:
■ pressures of 30-60mmHg are advised
■ lower pressures are advised in palliative
care, eg 20-30mmHg
■ a duration and frequency of 30 minutes
to two hours daily is recommended66-68.
IPC may exacerbate or cause congestion or
a ring of fibrosis at the noncompressed root
of a treated limb if the lymphatics in the
root of the limb have not been cleared. IPC
of the lower limbs may precipitate genital
oedema69.
IPC is not recommended if there is
oedema at the root of the limb or in the
adjacent trunk.
IPC should be prescribed and performed
by practitioners who have received
appropriate training at specialist level.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

31

MLLB

Multi-layer inelastic
lymphoedema bandaging
BOX 22 Indications for
MLLB
Lymphoedema with:
■ fragile, damaged or
ulcerated skin
■ distorted limb shape
■ limb too large to fit
compression garments
■ areas of tissue thickening
■ lymphorrhoea
■ lymphangiectasia
■ pronounced skin folds
Cautionary notes: Patients with
significant skin sacs/lobes or
extensive tissue thickening should
be referred to a lymphoedema
practitioner with training at
specialist level. If there is swelling
at the root of the limb or adjacent
to the trunk, MLD should be
performed in conjunction with
MLLB.

B

Multi-layer systems followed by compression garments are more effective than single layer
compression garments when used in the initial phase of lymphoedema treatment70.

Multi-layer lymphoedema bandaging (MLLB)
is a key element of intensive therapy
regimens. For some patients it may also form
part of their transition, long-term or palliative
management.
MLLB uses inelastic bandages that have
low extensibility and that produce high
working pressures and lower resting
pressures (Figure 25), ie they create peak
pressures that produce a massaging effect
and stimulate lymph flow. In certain
situations (page 34), elastic bandages may
be used instead. Elastic bandages produce
sustained compression with smaller
variations during movement.

MLLB SYSTEMS
The purpose and characteristics of the usual
components of MLLB in their order of use are
described in Table 5.
MLLB regimens can be adapted to
individual patient's needs by varying the:
■ pressure produced by the bandages
■ frequency of bandage change
■ bandage bulk
■ type of bandage, eg using elastic
bandages instead of inelastic bandages.
BOX 23 Contraindications to MLLB

USES FOR MLLB
As well as reducing oedema, MLLB:
■ restores shape to the limb/affected area
■ reduces skin changes such as
hyperkeratosis and papillomatosis
■ supports overstretched inelastic skin
■ eliminates lymphorrhoea
■ softens subcutaneous tissues.
MLLB is indicated when skin changes are
marked or limb distortion and skin folds
preclude compression garments (Box 22).
Resting pressure – the bandage or compression
garment applies a constant pressure to the skin
when the limb is at rest
Skin

Muscle

■

■
■

Severe arterial insufficiency (ABPI <0.5),
although modified MLLB with reduced
pressures can be used under close
supervision
Uncontrolled heart failure
Severe peripheral neuropathy

Caution required: cellulitis/erysipelas (MLLB can be
continued, if tolerated, at reduced pressure), diabetes
mellitus, paralysis, sensory deficit, controlled congestive
heart failure (application of MLLB to one limb at a time
may be advisable).

Working pressure – when muscles contract and
expand (eg during exercise) they press against
the resisting bandage and the pressure inside
the limb increases temporarily

To protect the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, to
normalise shape*, to protect
bony prominences and to
equalise the distribution of
pressure produced by other
bandage layers

Soft synthetic wool or polyurethane
foam is available in different widths and
thicknesses, and as bandages or sheets
Polyester undercast padding is available
in sheets of various widths
Higher densities of foam are used with
greater degrees of shape distortion or
tissue thickening

Extra padding may be required
on vulnerable pressure points
such as the Achilles' tendon,
dorsum of the foot, tibialis
anterior tendon, the malleoli,
the popliteal fossa and the
elbow

Polyurethane high density foam is
available in sheets or pads of different
thicknesses that can be cut to shape

Applied over soft synthetic
wool or under foam
Edges should be bevelled to
prevent rubbing

6. Inelastic bandages

To provide compression

Constructed of crimped cotton yarns
Available as nonadhesive, cohesive or
adhesive
Most types are available in 4cm, 6cm,
8cm, 10cm and 12cm widths

Several layers are used
Cohesive and adhesive
bandages can help to prevent
slippage and are used to
prolong the time the bandage
is worn

7. Tape

To secure ends of bandages

The tape appropriate to the
bandage being secured should
be used

*Foam chip bags contain low density foam pieces in a tubular bandage and can be used to bulk out areas such as the palm of the hand or over areas of tissue
thickening.

Achieving the desired pressure
The pressure produced by a compression
bandage can be predicted according to
Laplace's Law (Box 24). This law shows that
sub-bandage pressure will:
■ rise with increasing bandage tension and
number of bandage layers
■ decrease with increasing limb
circumference and bandage width.
In practice, therefore, Laplace's Law shows
that for a larger limb requiring high levels of
compression, the desired pressure may be
achieved by increasing the number of
bandage layers applied and increasing the
tension used during application.

Frequency of MLLB system change
As yet, there is no empirical evidence to
indicate how frequency of bandage change
affects speed of oedema reduction or final
outcome. Clinical experience recommends
that MLLB systems should be changed daily

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

33

MLLB

for the first seven days. This will minimise
bandage slippage and ensure that subbandage pressure is maintained as swelling
reduces. According to therapy regimen and
wound/skincare requirements, it may then
be possible to reduce the frequency of
change to two to three times per week.
Continence issues may also influence the
frequency of change.
Commencement of bandaging and the
timing of bandage change may need to be
co-ordinated with any orthotic or podiatric
needs of the patient.

Self/carer bandaging may be helpful to
patients with:
■ pressure resistant lymphoedema
■ obesity/larger limbs
■ experience of treatment
■ a desire to be actively engaged in their
management
■ refill not controlled by hosiery alone.
Patients may also choose self/carer
bandaging to enhance comfort or for use at
night when they wear a compression
garment during the day.

ALLERGY AND MLLB
Use of elastic bandaging
In some situations, the inelastic bandages
used in MLLB may be replaced with a
multi-layer elastic bandage regimen. The
stiffness produced by the combination of
layers and the inclusion of a cohesive
elastic bandage produces high working
pressures. However, the resting pressure is
higher than with inelastic systems.
The sustained resting pressure produced
by high stiffness elastic bandage systems
may be useful when:
■ the patient is immobile
■ the ankle joint is fixed, ie the calf muscle
pump cannot be used
■ the patient has venous ulceration and
lymphatic disease
■ the patient has proven venous disease
■ large volume loss is expected, ie to
increase time worn.

Modifications for long-term or
palliative use
MLLB can be modified to apply reduced
pressure for long-term, palliative or night
time use. In most cases, the bandages are
applied using a spiral technique only.
Materials include:
■ cotton tubular bandage
■ soft synthetic wool or foam padding
■ cohesive or adhesive inelastic bandages
– using fewer layers.

BANDAGE CARE
Some components of the MLLB system can
be washed and dried according to the
manufacturer's instructions and reused. Over
time, inelastic bandages will progressively
lose their extensibility, which will increase
their stiffness. Heavily soiled materials should
be discarded. Cohesive and adhesive
bandages should be discarded after use.

PRINCIPLES OF MLLB
Practical bandaging skills are important for
the effective use of MLLB (Boxes 25 and
26).
Practitioners will be appropriately trained.
The use of tailored foam pads requires
training at specialist level.
Clear guidance is given for MLLB of the leg
in Figures 26-33 and Box 27 (pages 35-37)
and for MLLB of the arm in Figures 34-38
and Box 28 (pages 37-38).

BOX 25 Avoiding bandage slippage72
■
■

Self/carer bandaging
For selected patients, self bandaging or
bandaging by a carer may be appropriate.
The patient or carer needs good dexterity,
a clear understanding of the technique
involved, and to demonstrate proficiency in
application. The bandaging technique
would be modified as described for longterm management.
34

Where possible, tubular bandages with high
cotton content should be used to avoid
exposing the patient to potential allergens.
Direct contact between skin and foams
should be avoided.

■
■

Use foam to pad (more likely to stay in place
than soft wool underpadding)
Place narrow strips of foam between the
inelastic bandage layers at the thigh to act as
a brake
Apply a cohesive or adhesive bandage in
≥ one layer, and particularly as the final layer
Use ordinary noncompressive pantyhose
over the bandage or suspenders attached to
the proximal end of the bandages. This
avoids changing the pressure gradient over
the leg

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

MLLB

BOX 26 Principles of MLLB
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■

■
■

Protect the affected area using tubular bandage and soft synthetic wool or foam underpadding
Start bandaging distally and move proximally
Guide bandages close to the limb using the entire hand to ensure good fit and to prevent creasing
Always apply additional padding to the popliteal fossa and the inside of the elbow
Apply inelastic bandages at full extension (lock-out point), except when applied to fingers and toes
If elastic bandages are used, they are usually applied at 50% extension and with 50% overlap
Use several layers of inelastic bandages to achieve the desired pressure
Minimise creases at joints by bandaging the limb in a slightly flexed position and using figure of eight turns at the joint
Extend partial limb bandaging beyond the area of swelling and ideally incorporate the knee or elbow joint to prevent proximal
displacement of fluid into the joint
Figure of eight bandaging increases the number of layers of bandage applied and results in higher sub-bandage pressures than spiral
bandaging. Its use over the whole limb may be appropriate to reduce slippage or for inverted champagne bottle shaped legs, when high
sub-bandage pressures are required
Assess security of bandages and fixation, range of movement, circulation, sensation and level of comfort after application. Ask the
patient to report bandage slippage and any change in digit sensation or colour
The patient should be encouraged to contribute to the development of an individualised bandage system that fulfils their needs

MLLB OF THE LEG
FIGURE 26 Application of
tubular bandage to lower leg
Apply a cotton tubular bandage
next to the skin. The tubular
bandage can be applied after toe
bandaging, if indicated. If applied
before toe bandaging, the tubular
bandage should be folded back
temporarily to allow access to
the toes.

BOX 27 Recommended materials for MLLB of the leg
■
■
■
■

FIGURE 27 Bandaging the toes
and foot
Toes should be bandaged if
swollen. If not bandaged, the
toes should be monitored and
bandaged if they become
swollen.
(a) Anchor the 4cm conforming
bandage with one complete
circle at the base of the toes.
(b) Take the bandage to the distal
end of the big toe.
(c) Bandaging should be distal to
proximal starting from the base
of each toenail with a turn
around the base of the toes
before starting the next toe.
(d) Keep slight tension on the
bandage. Avoid making creases
on the underside of the toes. The
little toe can be bandaged on its
own, with the adjacent toe, or left
unbandaged. On completion
check that the bandage does not
slip off, and check the toes for
cyanosis and sense of touch.

Cotton tubular bandage
Toe bandages (if indicated) – 4cm conforming bandage
Soft synthetic wool or soft foam roll (10cm or 20cm) or
sheet
Inelastic bandages – one 8cm, three to four 10cm for lower
leg, and four to six 12cm for thigh

(b)

(c)

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

(a)

(d)

35

MLLB

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 28 Application of
underpadding to lower leg
Apply soft synthetic wool padding
to protect and reshape the limb.
Soft foam underpadding can also
be used.

(d)

FIGURE 29 Spiral bandaging of foot and lower leg with inelastic bandage
(a) Anchor an 8cm inelastic bandage with a turn around the base of the toes.
(b) Bandage the foot using spiral technique. Use figure of eight technique around the ankle. Continue up the
leg using spiral technique with any remaining bandage.
(c) Bandage the lower part of the leg using a 10cm inelastic bandage and spiral technique, and continue up
the limb.
(d) The end of the tubular bandage can be folded back and concealed under the next layer of bandage.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

FIGURE 30 Spiral bandaging of the thigh with inelastic bandage
(a) If swelling occurs above the knee, the thigh should be bandaged. Ensure the cotton tubular bandage is long enough to cover the thigh.
(b) After bandaging the lower leg, allow the patient to stand with the knee slightly bent. Apply soft synthetic wool padding to the knee and thigh.
(c) At the popliteal fossa, double or triple the padding or apply a foam insert.
(d) Ask the patient to shift their weight to the leg to be bandaged, providing support if necessary, so that the thigh can be bandaged with the muscle
contracted. Use a 10cm or 12cm inelastic bandage and apply a loose turn to anchor the bandage below the knee.
(e) After anchoring the bandage obliquely across the popliteal fossa, make a circular turn once around the distal aspect of the thigh. Then continue
down to the starting point of the bandage, wrapping the flexed knee with figure of eight turns. Then wrap through the popliteal fossa over the
patella using spiral technique.
(f) Continue the bandage up the thigh to the groin using spiral bandaging technique. The next layer is applied in the same way, but in the opposite
direction.

36

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

MLLB

Addressing specific problems

FIGURE 31 Padding skin folds
Deep skin folds can occur on the toes.
Forefoot swelling may also be present. Skin
folds must be padded. Bevel edged foam
strips can be used. This is an area of
treatment that is initiated and monitored by
practitioners with training at specialist level.

FIGURE 32 Forefoot swelling
Foam padding can be applied to the forefoot
and fastened with a toe bandage to increase
local pressure. This care is initiated and
monitored by practitioners with training at
specialist level, as it requires accurate use of
appropriately cut foam.

FIGURE 34 Application of
tubular bandage
Apply a cotton tubular bandage,
first cutting a hole for the thumb.

FIGURE 35 Finger and hand
bandaging
(a) Begin with the palm of the
hand facing down. Make one
loose complete turn with the 4cm
conforming bandage around the
wrist to anchor it.
(b) Ask the patient to spread their
fingers and thumb. Then begin to
bandage the hand. Wrap each
finger individually.
(c) Bring the bandage over the
back of the hand to the fingertips
without tension. Bandaging
should be distal to proximal,
leaving the fingertips uncovered.
Make circular turns around each
finger. Maintain light tension on
the bandage.
(d) On completion check that the
bandage does not slip off, and
check digits for cyanosis and
sense of touch.

(b)

(c)

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

(a)

(d)

37

MLLB

FIGURE 36 Application of foam
underpadding
(a) Start the soft synthetic wool or
soft foam underpadding at the
hand. Cut a hole for the thumb and
anchor around the wrist.
(b) Apply extra padding to the
palm of the hand by fanning
padding back and forth over the
palm to keep it in a natural open
position. This helps to provide
opposing pressure on the dorsum
of the hand when the inelastic
bandage is applied. Then proceed
up the arm using spiral technique.
(c) Apply double or triple padding
or a thin foam sheet to the inside
of the elbow to protect it from the
inelastic bandage.
(d) If a second padding bandage is
required to cover the arm, overlap
its beginning with the end of the
first bandage.

38

(b)

(c)
FIGURE 37 Spiral bandaging of
the arm with the inelastic
bandage
(a) Begin with a 6cm inelastic
bandage applied loosely at the
wrist with one turn to anchor. For
patients with small hands, a 4cm
bandage may be used instead.
Wrap the hand with the fingers
spread. Use moderate tension on
the bandage. Cover all of the hand
including the knuckles and palm
of the hand at the base of the
thumb to mid palm.
(b) Use spiral technique to
bandage the forearm with any
remaining material. Overlap the
second inelastic bandage (8cm or
10cm) with the end of the first.
Bandage the forearm with the
muscles tightened by asking the
patient to make a fist. This is to
prevent excess pressure increase
in this part of the arm during
active movement that might
worsen venous and lymphatic
return.
(c) Use figure of eight turns to
bandage the elbow while it is
slightly flexed. This further
protects the inner elbow.
(d) Start the final inelastic
bandage (10cm) at the wrist.
Apply it using spiral technique in a
reverse direction to cover the
whole arm up to the armpit. This
helps to maintain an optimal
pressure gradient from the distal
to proximal part of the arm.

(a)

(d)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 38 Padding for dorsal
and palmar oedema
Additional pressure can be
applied to palmar and dorsal
oedema by inserting foam
padding that has been cut to
shape and bevelled.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

COMPRESSION
GARMENTS

Compression garments
C

Correctly fitted compression garments
should be prescribed appropriately for
patients with lymphoedema.

The main use of compression garments is in
the long-term management of
lymphoedema, usually following a period of
intensive therapy. Compression garments
are also used for prophylaxis or as part of
initial treatment. They may provide the only
form of compression used, or form part of a
regimen that includes other types of
compression. Some patients wear garments
during waking hours only, for exercise only,
or up to 24 hours per day.
A wide variety of factors must be taken
into account when determining whether a
patient is suitable for compression
garments73 (Boxes 29 and 30).

COMPRESSION GARMENT
CONSTRUCTION
Compression garments can be categorised
according to method of fabric
manufacture74:
■ Circular knit garments – the material is
continuously knitted on a cylinder and
has no seam, and is used mainly to make
ready to wear garments. Garments are
shaped by varying stitch height and yarn
tension (Figure 39). Circular knit
garments may be thinner and more
cosmetically acceptable than flat knit
garments.
■ Flat knit garments – the material is firmer
and thicker than that of circular knit
garments. Garments are knitted as a flat
piece that is shaped by adding or
removing needles (Figure 40). The flat
piece is then joined by a seam to form the
garment. Most custom made garments
are made from flat knit material.

as testing methods, yarn specification,
compression gradient and durability.
Existing standards do not cover
compression garments other than hosiery,
eg they do not cover arm sleeves, and
differences in class pressure ranges and
testing equipment make comparisons
between standards difficult (Table 6)74.
Furthermore, practitioners should be aware
TABLE 6 Comparison of hosiery classification in the British, French and German
compression hosiery standards74 The mmHg ranges refer to the pressures applied at
B (ankle circumference at smallest girth) by the compression hosiery. NB There are no
national standards for compression hosiery in the USA; the compression classification
used most widely there is: Class 1 20-30mmHg; Class 2 30-40mmHg;
Class 3 40-50mmHg and Class 4 50-60mmHg. Hosiery is also available in the USA
in a 15-20mmHg pressure range.
British standard
BS 6612:1985

French standard
AFNOR G 30.102

German standard
RAL-GZ 387:2000

Testing method

HATRA

IFTH

HOSY

Class I

14–17mmHg

–15mmHg

18–21mmHg

COMPRESSION GARMENT
STANDARDS

Class II

18–24mmHg

15–20mmHg

23–32mmHg

National standards for compression
garments are usually prerequisites for
reimbursement and cover parameters such

that some manufacturers’ compression
class pressure ranges for lower limb hosiery
may be different from the compression class
ranges used for upper limb garments. To
assist comparison, therefore, garment
packaging and studies involving
compression garments should state the
pressure ranges and the testing method
used to determine the pressures.

LIMB SHAPE AND GARMENT
CHOICE
Limb shape plays an important role in
choosing compression garments. Ready to
wear compression garments are suitable
where there is no or minimal limb distortion,
but can be more difficult to fit precisely and,
if circular knit, may roll at the top. Custom
made garments can be made to
accommodate a wide range of anatomical
distortion. Flat knit garments do not roll,
curl, twist or tourniquet, can achieve a
better fit, and can be made with zippers to
aid application.

Compression garments for patients with
lymphoedema should be fitted by
appropriately trained practitioners.

Prescription of compression garments
should only be undertaken after full
assessment of the patient, and should take
into account factors such as the stage and
severity of the lymphoedema, the patient's

comfort, preferences, lifestyle,
psychosocial status, concurrent disease,
and ability to apply and remove garments.
Patients with skin problems such as
dermatitis or psoriasis and those with
known allergies to substances like elastane
benefit from the use of cotton rich
garments.
Patients should be measured for
garments when swelling has been
minimised, pitting oedema is absent or
minimal, any shape distortion optimised
and the area stabilised (Box 31).
Accurate measurement is important to
achieve correct fit of ready to wear and
custom made garments. Measurements
required will usually include
circumferential measurements at several
given sites and longitudinal measurements
between specified points (Figures 41 and
42). The prescription should also specify
style, knitted texture and any fixation or
attachment (Box 32).
Measurement for ready to wear or custom
made compression garments requires
that the practitioner has appropriate
training, and access to a practitioner with
training at specialist level.

NOTE: FIGURES 41-42
These figures provide a guide to
measuring for compression hosiery.
Careful attention should be paid to the
specific measuring instructions of the
manufacturers from which garments are
ordered.

BOX 31 Tips for compression garment measurement
■
■
■
■

Measure when the area is largely free from pitting oedema, ie immediately after removal of
compression bandages, or in the morning before swelling can develop
The measuring tape should be pulled firmly, but not so tightly that it indents the skin
Measure with the patient in the recommended position
Continue bandaging until the patient has received the prescribed garments

*For lower limb garments, the length measurement determines which length of garment is required, and is taken from the heel to just below
the gluteal fold for thigh length garments, and from the heel to just below the knee for below knee garments.
†Some manufacturers prefer shoe size to foot length measurements.

FIGURE 41 Measurements for ready to wear compression garments for limbs
Circumferential measurements are taken at the levels indicated.
(a) Upper limb
Measurements may be taken while the patient is sitting comfortably with the arm supported. The length measurement is taken along the inside of
the arm from the wrist to 2cm below the axilla to determine whether a standard or longer length garment is required.
(b) Lower limb
According to patient mobility and the circumstances in which the measuring is taking place, measurements may be taken while the patient is
standing, lying or sitting. In ideal conditions, measurements from the foot to the knee may be taken while the patient is lying on a couch, and
measurements above the knee while the patient is standing. A measuring board should be used if available.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

41

COMPRESSION
GARMENTS

(b)

(a)

Waist

Waist

Back

Front

H
G-H**

G1

Hips

G

G

2cm below
gluteal fold

F

a-G

F

Mid-thigh

G
C-G

Mid-upper arm F

a-F

C-F

Elbow crease
E†
(slightly bent)

C-D
C1*
C*

E

D

a-D
C

Middle of
knee cap
D 2cm below
knee cap
Maximum
C
calf girth

E

a-E

C

a-C

B1 Where calf
starts to widen

B1

a-B1

2cm above medial
B malleolus
H Around heel

B

a-B

H
a

A

a

A Base of toes

Closed toe: foot length from tip of big toe to heel
Open toe: foot length from base of big toe to heel
Slant toe: as for open toe plus base of little toe to heel
and base of big toe to heel

Measurements required for pantyhose

C-E

Measurements required for above knee (thigh length) garment

Mid-forearm D

Measurements required for below knee garment

Measurements required for arm sleeve

G-G1§

Hips

* To find C, ask the patient to flex the wrist. Use the level of the second crease from the hand to measure circumference C. C1 is about 3cm
proximal to C.
† Measure circumference E at the elbow crease with the elbow slightly bent. Measure again 1-2cm proximal to E. If this circumference is larger
than the E measurement, record this as E.
To measure circumference G, ask the patient to place a piece of paper in the axilla to show where they would like the garment to finish while
putting the arm at their side. Fold the paper around the arm and mark the level of G at the top edge of the paper. When measuring
circumference G do not apply any tension to the tape.
§ Measure length G-G1 for bias top.
**Measure length G-H for shoulder attachment.

FIGURE 42 Measurements for custom made compression garments for limbs
Circumferential and longitudinal measurements are taken as indicated for the style of garment required.
(a) Upper limb
Measurements may be taken while the patient is sitting comfortably with the arm supported. Length measurements are taken along the inside of
the arm.
(b) Lower limb
According to patient mobility and the circumstances in which the measuring is taking place, measurements may be taken while the patient is
standing, lying or sitting. In ideal conditions, measurements from the foot to the knee may be taken while the patient is lying on a couch, and
measurements above the knee while the patient is standing. A measuring board should be used.

42

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

COMPRESSION
GARMENTS

Checking fit
A trained practitioner should check that a
newly prescribed garment is as ordered, fits
properly and fully covers the area requiring
treatment. Initial fitting should include a
demonstration of how to put on and remove
the garment, and observation and
assessment of the patient's/carer's
application and removal techniques. Clear
verbal and written instructions should be
given on errors of fit that may be discovered
after first wearing, and on how to care for
the garment (Box 33).

exist to assist with garment removal.
Oily or greasy emollients can damage
compression garments and make garment
application difficult. A cotton underlayer
can be used to assist application and
minimise damage.

Garment replacement
Garments should be replaced every three
to six months, or when they begin to lose
elasticity. Young or very active patients
may require more frequent garment
replacement.

BOX 33 Application and care of compression
garments

ALLERGY AND COMPRESSION
GARMENTS

Patients and carers should be advised that:
■ All folds and wrinkles should be removed.
This can be assisted by wearing household
rubber gloves whilst smoothing the garment
■ Emollients may damage compression
garments. Ensure emollient is absorbed
before donning garment or use products
approved by the garment manufacturer.
A cotton liner can be used if emollient is
applied just before donning, the skin is at risk
of trauma, or there is dermatitis
■ Compression garments should not be worn
with the top folded down
■ Garments combining an armsleeve and
gauntlet should not be worn with the
handpiece folded back
■ Any distortion in limb shape, skin
redness/damage/discolouration, or
peripheral swelling may indicate garment
unsuitability
■ The garment should be removed immediately
if problems occur and the patient should
contact their practitioner
■ Garments should be washed frequently
according to the manufacturer's instructions
(performance may be impaired by infrequent
washing)

Patients may develop an allergy to
compression garments. Allergens include
fabric dye, latex and nylon. If an allergy is
suspected:
■ treat contact dermatitis appropriately
■ use garments without latex
■ use garments with high cotton content,
or that have double covered yarns to
limit skin contact with elastic
components
■ consider the use of a cotton tubular
bandage underlayer (which must be
unwrinkled during wear) or a garment
with an inbuilt lining.

At follow up visits, the practitioner should
check that the patient is concordant with
garment wear, that the garment has not
been altered, and that swelling is not
occurring proximal or distal to the garment.

Avoiding problems
Garment slippage can be overcome in a
number of ways (Box 34). A variety of aids is
available for easing application of
compression garments (Box 35). Aids also

COMPRESSION GARMENTS FOR
LIMBS
The following recommendations for
compression garments for the lower limb
(Figure 43 and Table 7) and for the upper
limb (Table 8) have been developed by the
British Lymphology Society compression
garments group and the Lymphoedema
Framework working groups.
Patients with severe shape distortion
may find flat knit garments more
appropriate. However, the finer finish of
circular knit hosiery may make it more
cosmetically acceptable.
If the patient is unable to tolerate the
therapeutically indicated level of
compression, lower pressure garments
may be necessary to encourage
concordance.
Tolerability of high levels of compression
may be enhanced by layering garments.

Layering compression garments
The practice of layering compression
garments has been described in the
management of lymphoedema12, but there
is little evidence of its efficacy. Two layers of
garment produce a higher pressure on the
limb and are stiffer than one garment. The
second layer is likely to add about 70% of
the pressure it would when applied alone75.
Patients may find that wearing an
44

additional garment layer can help to
manage exacerbations of their condition.
Furthermore, patients who have difficulty
applying a single higher compression
garment may be able to manage to apply
two layers of a lower compression garment.
When layering two garments, it is
recommended that a flat knit garment is
used next to the skin and that the outer layer
is a circular knit garment.

Where toe caps are difficult to manage, closed toe garments may be helpful

Forefoot swelling

No risk of toe swelling – use open toe garments; flat knit is preferable
Toe swelling – use open toe garment and toe caps, unless toe caps are impractical, when a
closed toe garment may suffice
Lymphoedema of the foot only – inelastic adjustable foot wrap may be useful

Forefoot bulge

Custom made flat knit garments may be required to produce sufficient pressure
An individually shaped foam pad can apply additional pressure
Inelastic adjustable footwrap may be useful
Check that footwear is well-fitting and supportive

Retromalleolar swelling

Foam, crescent shaped stasis pads can be used to focus pressure

Fat/arthritic knees

Low classification pantyhose under a calf stocking may be useful for shape distortion of the
knee and thigh
If using circular knit, use an extra wide calf range

Thickened tissue just below patella

Below knee garments can exacerbate the problem; ideally use full leg garments
Pressure can be focused by using a crescent shaped ribbed or foam chip stasis pad over
thickened area
If a below knee compression garment is necessary, a stasis pad can be used with an
orthopaedic elasticated knee support

Inverted champagne bottle legs

Limb shape should be corrected with MLLB
Flat knit appears to be more effective than circular knit
May need higher pressure levels
May need custom made garments
If using two garment layers, use a combination of flat knit and circular knit

Lymphoedema extends to groin

Flat knit custom made garments, eg one- or two-legged closed gusset panty, should be used
A foam chip pad angled into the groin under the compression garment may be used to focus pressure
Close fitting shorts with Lycra (eg cycle shorts) are convenient for some patients

Obesity

May need custom made garments; flat knit may be easier to apply
Garments designed to accommodate pregnancy may be useful
Severe distortion of the lower limb or patient preference may restrict treatment to the lower
part of the leg
Using separate overlapping garments for above and below the knee may make application easier

SAFETY ISSUES
Lower limb peripheral arterial occlusive disease
The lower limb peripheral arterial status of patients with lower limb lymphoedema should
be assessed prior to compression. Patients with ABPI <0.5 should not receive compression
and should be referred to a vascular specialist.
Risk reduction
Patients should be advised to wear compression garments when performing high risk,
repetitive activities. Although there is no robust evidence that long sitting while travelling,
eg by aeroplane, increases or precipitates lymphoedema, patients should exercise caution
and wear a compression garment if they are at risk of or have lymphoedema.

Application aids may be required by
less dextrous and elderly patients

■
■
■

Moderate lymphoedema
ISL late stage II-III
Some shape distortion

MEDIUM
20-25mmHg

Circular or flat knit
Ready to wear or custom made*

Garments can be made that
incorporate pads to treat areas of
thickened tissue
Silk inserts can be used at the inner
elbow if irritation and trauma occur

■
■
■

Severe lymphoedema
ISL stage III
Major shape distortion

HIGH
25-30mmHg

Circular or flat knit
Custom made*

Such high pressure is required only in
exceptional cases

NB The compression applied by knitted armsleeves is graduated. The compression applied at the proximal end of the garment is 50-80% of that applied at the wrist.
*All upper limb styles including gloves and gauntlets and inelastic adjustable compression devices.

COMPRESSION GARMENTS FOR
MIDLINE LYMPHOEDEMA
Compression garments can be used to
treat lymphoedema of the head and neck,
breast, trunk or genitalia. These garments
may be custom made or ready to wear.
Garments for the torso are usually
classified as providing medium
compression (25-30mmHg), while lower
pressures are used on the head. However,
there is no recognised agreement on the
appropriate level of compression for these
patients.
Leotard or bodice style garments may be
useful for patients with truncal oedema and
flat knit construction is preferable. Patients
with breast lymphoedema may require a
ready to wear or custom made bra. For
patients with scrotal swelling, scrotal
supports can be used. Anatomically
contoured foam padding inserted into
compression pantyhose or shorts can be
used in female genital lymphoedema. Groin
swelling is often accompanied by tissue
thickening, and may occur in combination
with lower limb lymphoedema; one- or twolegged closed gusset pantyhose angled
across the groin with foam chip stasis pads
may be helpful.

46

OTHER COMPRESSION DEVICES
Inelastic adjustable compression devices
are available for the treatment of
lymphoedema. The compression the device
applies can be adjusted by altering how
tightly the straps used to fix the garment in
place are pulled. They can be used to
contain swelling in patients with moderate
or severe lymphoedema of the upper or
lower limb and the torso, and are useful self
management tools.

ADVISORY NOTE: UPPER LIMB
LYMPHOEDEMA
It is advisable for patients who wear
armsleeves to also wear a handpiece when
travelling by aeroplane.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

EXERCISE

Exercise/movement and elevation
Exercise/movement are common
rehabilitative interventions used to reduce
oedema. At present, there is little evidence to
indicate which types, intensities and
frequencies of exercise may be safely used in
the management of lymphoedema.

TAILORED EXERCISE/MOVEMENT
PROGRAMMES
Combinations of flexibility, resistance and
aerobic exercise may be beneficial in
controlling lymphoedema77-79, and
should be tailored to the individual patient
(Box 36). Physiotherapy referral is required
for patients who have difficulty with mobility,
joint function or joint movement.

BOX 36 General guidelines on exercise
■
■
■
■
■

Patients should be encouraged to maintain normal functioning, mobility and
activity
Exercise/movement should be tailored to the patient's needs, ability and
disease status
Patients should be encouraged to include appropriate warming up and
cooling down phases as part of exercise to avoid exacerbation of swelling
Compression should be worn during exercise
Expert patients can help to demonstrate, teach and monitor exercise, and
provide information on access to local exercise programmes

Anecdotal evidence suggests that limb
elevation when the patient is sitting or in bed
may be a useful adjunct to active treatment,
but should not be allowed to impede function
or activity. Patients should be encouraged not
to sleep in a chair and to go to bed at night to
avoid the development of 'arm chair' legs or
exacerbation of lower limb lymphoedema.

ELEVATION
Elevation of the affected limb, ideally to just
above the level of the heart, is often advised
to reduce swelling. It is thought that elevation
acts by maximising venous drainage and by
decreasing capillary pressure and lymph
production.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

47

PSYCHOSOCIAL
SUPPORT

Psychosocial support

FIGURE 44 Algorithm to address
psychosocial problems

Psychosocial support is an important
element of the holistic treatment of
lymphoedema: it has the potential to have
considerable influence on outcome by
enhancing concordance, encouraging selfmanagement and maximising quality of life.
Intervention involves planning and
implementing psychosocial care strategies

that help patients and their family/carers
to take a positive role in the management
of their lymphoedema and to achieve as
good a quality of life as possible (Figure
44).
If psychosocial problems are not resolved
within three months, the patient should
be referred for specialist intervention.

Palliative care
The needs of patients with lymphoedema who
are otherwise ill with advanced disease and
who require palliative care can be complex.
This document can provide only an indication
of supportive measures and treatments that
may be helpful.
Lymphoedema can produce distressing
and debilitating symptoms that affect
lifestyle and function. Patients with
advanced disease may not be able to
tolerate a full programme of assessment
and treatment, but require a palliative
approach in which assessment techniques

BOX 37 Guide to selection of treatment in advanced disease
■
■
■
■
■

Ascertain type and cause of oedema, and contributory factors
Identify levels of symptoms such as pain
Establish significance of the swelling to the patient and consider patient
circumstances and perspective
Establish realistic goals
Consider response to treatment

are modified and individual treatments are
selected to ease specific symptoms (Box 37
and Table 9).

Lymphocutaneous fistulae:
abnormal connections between the
lymphatic system and the surface
of the skin; may leak large
quantities of lymph
Megalymphatics: large, dilated
incompetent lymph vessels that
allow lymphatic reflux

SURGICAL REDUCTION
Surgical reduction (sometimes also known
as debulking surgery) aims to remove
excess subcutaneous tissue and skin, and
may be useful in the symptomatic treatment
of severe lymphoedema. However, the
postsurgical morbidity of reduction
operations may be considerable80,81. In
some cases, surgical reduction may be
considered for lymphoedema of the eyelid
or genitalia.

ation82. Anastomosis of lymph vessels to the
venous system may be attempted in patients
with proximal lymphatic obstruction and
patent distal lymphatics, and produces better
results at earlier stages of lymphostatic
disease83-85. Lymphatic grafting and lymph
node transplantation require microsurgical
techniques, and show promising results in
carefully selected patients86,87.

LIPOSUCTION
In patients with chronic lymphoedema,
adipocyte proliferation (which may be
related to an inflammatory process) may
mean that conservative treatment or
microsurgery do not completely resolve
limb enlargement88.
Liposuction has been performed on
patients with long-standing breast cancer
related lymphoedema. It removes excess fat
tissue and is considered only if the limb has
not responded to standard conservative
therapy. Liposuction does not correct
inadequate lymph drainage and is not
indicated when pitting is present. Where
concordance with compression garments
after treatment is high, results have been
maintained89,90. Liposuction has also been
used for primary and secondary leg
lymphoedema with promising results91.

Other treatments
A variety of other treatment modalities may
be used to treat lymphoedema; many
require further evaluation (Box 39). National
use of these treatments is variable.

DRUG TREATMENT
Two main groups of drug have been used in
the treatment of lymphoedema:
benzopyrones and diuretics.

50

Benzopyrones
Benzopyrones are based on a variety of
naturally occurring substances. Examples
include flavonoids, oxerutins, escins,
coumarin, and ruscogen combined with
hesperidin.
There is little evidence to support the use
of these drugs in lymphoedema1,95. There is
some data, however, that flavonoids may
stabilise swelling by reducing microvascular
filtration96.

BEST PRACTICE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF LYMPHOEDEMA

OTHER TREATMENTS

Oxerutins have been licensed in some
countries, usually for use in chronic venous
insufficiency, but there are insufficient data
to draw conclusions about their efficacy in
lymphoedema. The same conclusion has
been reached about flavonoids. Coumarin
has been most widely trialled, but the most
recent study reported no significant effect95
and the drug has been withdrawn in
Australia because of liver toxicity.

LYMPHOEDEMA TAPING
Lymphoedema taping is an emerging form of
treatment for lymphoedema. It involves the
application of narrow strips of elastic tape to
the affected area, and can be used in
combination with compression garments or
bandaging. It is thought to improve muscle
function and lymph flow98 and may have a
role to play in the treatment of midline and
peripheral swelling. However, evidence is
lacking of its efficacy in lymphoedema.

Diuretics
Diuretics encourage the excretion of salt and
water, and by reducing blood volume might
be expected to reduce capillary filtration and
lymph formation. There is no evidence that
diuretics encourage lymph drainage.
A diuretic is likely to be prescribed on a
pragmatic basis for anyone with oedema
almost irrespective of cause. However,
higher doses of thiazides or loop diuretics
(eg furosemide or bumetanide) can reduce
body potassium levels with long-term use
and may cause muscle weakness, promote
oedema formation and affect the heart.
Diuretics are not recommended for use in
the treatment of lymphoedema. Occasionally,
short courses may be of benefit in chronic
oedema of mixed aetiology, and in older
patients in whom enhanced lymphatic
drainage as a result of lymphoedema therapy
precipitates cardiac failure.

HYPERBARIC OXYGEN
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy is known to
promote healing in bone that has become
ischaemic following radiotherapy. In patients
with upper limb lymphoedema following
radiotherapy, two small studies have
indicated that hyperbaric oxygen may
improve lymph flow and reduce limb volume
in the short-term99,100. Further research is
required to establish whether benefits can be
demonstrated in randomised trials and in the
long-term.

LASER THERAPY
Low level laser therapy has shown potential
for the treatment of lymphoedema,
particularly of the upper limb, where it has
reduced limb volume and tissue hardness101.
Further research is required to establish the
benefits of treatment and the optimal
regimen.

BREATHING EXERCISES
Breathing exercises are recommended by
some clinicians as a preliminary manoeuvre
that may help to clear the central
lymphatics prior to interventions that
promote lymph drainage from the
peripheries97. However, other clinicians
question the physiological basis of breathing
exercises as there are no experimental data
in humans to confirm that variations in
intrathoracic pressure due to breathing
assist central lymphatic drainage into the
venous system.
Although a recent human study
demonstrated that a combination of exercise
and deep breathing significantly reduced the
volume of lymphoedematous limbs79,
evidence is lacking of the effect of breathing
exercises in isolation. Nonetheless, breathing
exercises are not harmful, are inexpensive,
and may be proven beneficial in some groups
of patients with lymphoedema.