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3 C H A P T E R C H E C K L I S TWhen you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be able to1 Describe the patterns and trends in international trade.2 Explain why nations engage in international trade and why trade benefits all nations.3 Explain trade barriers reduce international trade.4 Explain the arguments used to justify trade barriers and show why they are incorrect but also why some barriers are hard to remove.

4 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSImports are the goods and services that we buy from people in other countries.Exports are the goods and services that we sell to people in other countries.We trade internationally:GoodsServices

5 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSTrade in GoodsIn 2006, manufactured goods accounted for55 percent of U.S. ExportsAlmost 70 percent of U.S. importsMinerals and fuels accounted for2 percent of U.S. exports12 percent of U.S. importsAgricultural products account for5 percent of U.S. exports3 percent of U.S. imports

6 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSIn 2006, trade in goods accounted for70 percent of U.S. exports80 percent of U.S. importsThe rest of U.S. international trade was in services.Trade in ServicesU.S. international trade in services is large and growing.Services include hotel and transportation services bought by American tourists abroad and foreign tourists in the United States, insurance, and banking services.

7 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSThe Outsourcing TrendIn 1960, the United StatesExported 5 percent of total output.Imported 4 percent of the goods and services bought.By 2007, the United StatesExported 12 percent of total output.Imported 17 percent of the goods and services bought.

8 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSSome of the increase arises from offshore outsourcing—buying a good or service from a low-cost overseas supplier.Trading Partners and Trade AgreementsThe United States has trading links with every part of the world and is a member of several international organizations that seek to promote international trade and regional trade.

10 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSTrade AgreementsA trade agreements are treaties between two countries (called bilateral agreements) or among a group of nations (called multilateral agreements) to promote greater trade and economic cooperation.The United States is a member ofNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA)Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

11 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)An agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico to make trade among them easier and freer.NAFTA came into effect in 1994 and since then trade among these three countries has grown rapidly.

12 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSCentral American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA)A comprehensive agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.The agreement has both trade and political goals, the latter to promote freedom and democracy in Central America.

13 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)APEC is a group of 21 nations that border the Pacific Ocean.The countries include the United States, China, Japan, Australia, Canada, and the dynamic Asian countries.APEC was established in 1989 and has developed into an organization that promotes freer trade and cooperation among its members.The APEC nations conduct 50 percent of world trade.

14 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSThe Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)The governments of 34 democracies in the Americas (all 35 countries excluding Cuba) have begun a Free Trade Area of the America process.The objective of this process is to achieve free international trade among all countries in the Americas.

15 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSBalance of Trade and International BorrowingBalance of trade is the value of exports minus the value of imports.In 2007, the United States imported more than it exported and the U.S. trade balance was negative.

16 18.1 TRADE PATTERNS AND TRENDSA country has aTrade deficit if imports > exports.Trade surplus if exports > imports.When a country has a trade deficit, it pays for the deficit by borrowing from other countries or by selling some of its assets.When a country has a trade surplus, it lends to other countries or buys more foreign assets so that other countries can pay their trade deficits.

17 Why the United States Exports Airplanes18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEComparative advantage is the force that generates international trade.Why the United States Exports AirplanesThe United States has a comparative advantage in the production of airplanes because the opportunity cost of producing an airplane is lower in the United States than in most other countries.Figure 18.1 shows an export.

18 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE No Trade1. With no international trade, domestic purchases equal domestic production.2.The U.S. price of an airplane is $80 million.3. U.S. aircraft makers produce 400 airplanes a year.

19 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE TradeWith international trade, the world market determines1. The world price of a plane at $100 million.2. Domestic purchases decrease to 300 airplanes.3. Domestic production increases to 800 airplanes.airplanes are exported.

20 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Comparative AdvantageThe U.S. aircraft makers have a comparative advantage in producing airplanes:The world price line tells us that the world opportunity cost of producing an airplane is $100 million.The U.S. supply curve shows that the U.S. opportunity cost of producing a airplane is less than $100 million for all airplanes up to the 800th one.

21 Why the United States Imports T-shirts18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEWhy the United States Imports T-shirtsMore than half the clothing we buy is manufactured in other countries and imported into the United States.Why?The rest of the world (mainly Asia) has a comparative advantage in the production of clothes because the opportunity cost of producing a T-shirt in Asia is less than in the United States.Figure 18.2 shows an import.

22 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE No Trade1. With no international trade, domestic purchases equal domestic production.2. The price of a T-shirt is $8.3. U.S. T-shirt makers produce 20 million T-shirts a year.

23 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE TradeWith international trade, the world market determines1. The world price at $5 a T-shirt.2. Domestic purchases increase to 50 million T-shirts.3. Domestic production decreases to zero.4. 50 million T-shirts are imported.

24 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Comparative AdvantageAsian garment makers have a comparative advantage in producing T-shirts:The world price line tells us that the world opportunity cost of producing a T-shirt is $5.The U.S. supply curve shows that no U.S. garment maker has such a low opportunity cost, not even at smaller output.

25 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Gains from Trade and the PPFWe can use the PPF to show the gains from international trade.Production Possibilities in the United States and ChinaSuppose that the United States produces only two goods: airplanes and T-shirtsSuppose that China produces these same goods.

26 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEIf the United States uses all of its resources to produce airplanes, its output is 10 airplanes a year and no T-shirts.If ithe United States uses all of its resources to produce T-shirts, its output is 100 million T-shirts and no airplanes.Assume, that the U.S. opportunity cost of producing a airplane is constant.The U.S. opportunity cost of producing 1 airplane is 10 million T-shirts.

27 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEIf China uses all of its resources to make airplanes, China can produce 2 airplanes a year and no T-shirts.If China uses all of its resources to produce T-shirts, China can produce 100 million T-shirts and no airplanes.Assume, China’s opportunity cost of producing a airplane is constant.China’s opportunity cost of producing 1 airplane is 50 million T-shirts.

28 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Figure 18.3(a) shows the U.S. PPF.1. With no international trade, the United States produces at point A.Along the U.S. PPF, the opportunity cost of producing an airplane is constant.2. The opportunity cost of producing an airplane in the United States is 10 million T-shirts.

29 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Figure 18.3(b) shows China’s PPF.3. With no international trade, the China produces at point B.4. The opportunity cost of producing an airplane in China is 50 million T-shirts.

30 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE No Trade With no international trade:The United States produces 5 airplanes and 50 million T-shirts at point A on its PPF.China produces 2 airplanes and no T-shirts at point B on its PPF.With no trade, total production is 7 airplanes and 50 million T-shirts.

31 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Comparative AdvantageChina has the comparative advantage in producing T-shirts.China’s opportunity cost of a T-shirt is 1/50,000,000 of a airplane.The U.S. opportunity cost of T-shirt is 1/10,000,000 of a airplane.China’s opportunity cost of a T-shirt is less than the U.S. opportunity cost of a T-shirt, so China has a comparative advantage in producing T-shirts.

32 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEThe United States has a comparative advantage in producing airplanes.The U.S. opportunity cost of producing a airplane is 10 million T-shirts.China’s opportunity cost of producing a airplane is 50 million T-shirts.The U.S. opportunity cost of a airplane is less than China’s opportunity cost of a airplane, so the United States has a comparative advantage in producing airplanes.

33 The Gains Available from Trade18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEThe Gains Available from TradeIf the United States, which has a comparative advantage in producing airplanes, allocates all its resources to producing airplanes, it can produce 10 airplanes a year.If China, which has a comparative advantage in producing T-shirts, allocates all its resources to producing T-shirts, China can produce 100 million T-shirts a year.

34 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEWith no trade, total production is 7 airplanes and 50 million T-shirts.By specializing in production, total production is 10 airplanes and 100 million T-shirts.Total production increases by 3 airplanes and 50 million T-shirts a year.This increase in production is the gains available from trade. But to reap these gains the United States and China must trade.

35 Achieving the Gains from TradeThe United States and China will reap the gains from international trade, if each country specializes in producing the good in which it has a comparative advantage and then the two countries trade with each other.

36 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Figure 18.4 shows the gains from trade.1. The United States specializes by producing 10 airplanes at point P on its PPF.2.China specializes by producing 100 million T-shirts at point Q on its PPF.

37 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEIf T-shirts and airplanes are traded at 20 million T-shirts per airplane,China can consume at points B’ andthe United States consumes at points A’.3. Both countries consume outside their PPFs—both countries gain from trade.

38 Offshoring and Outsourcing18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEOffshoring and OutsourcingA firm in the United States can obtain the things that ir sells in any of four ways:Hire U.S. labor and produce in the United States.Hire foreign labor and produce in other countries.Buy finished goods, components, or services from other firms in the United States.Buy finished goods, components, or services from firms in other countries.

39 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEOutsourcing occurs when a firm buys finished goods, components, or services from other firms.Offshoring occurs when a U.S. firm either producing in another country or outsourcing to a firm in another country.Activities 3 and 4 are outsourcing.Activities 2 and 4 are offshoring.

40 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADEWhy Did Offshoring of Services boom During the 1990s?A dramatic fall in the cost of telecommunications generated the offshoring boom of the 1990s.The gains from specialization and trade must be large enough to make it worth incurring the costs of communications and transportation.Until the 1990s, the costs were too high to make offshoring of services efficient.

41 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE What Are the Benefits of Offshoring?Offshoring brings gains from trade that are identical to those of any other type of trade.Why is Offshoring a Concern?Many people believe that offshoring:Brings costs, especially in terms of a slowdown in jobs growth, outweigh the benefits.Increases U.S. imports faster than U.S. exports

42 18.2 THE GAINS FROM TRADE Winners and LosersGains from trade don’t benefit every individual.Americans on the average gain from offshoring, but some lose.The losers are those who have invested in human capital to do a specific job that has now gone offshore.

43 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONSGovernments restrict trade to protect industries from foreign competition by using two main tools:TariffsNontariff barriersA tariff is a tax on a good that is imposed by the importing country when an imported good crosses its international border.A nontariff barrier is any action other than a tariff that restricts international trade. For example, a quota.

44 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS Figure 18.5 shows the effects of a tariff.1.The world price of a T-shirt is $5.2. With free international trade, Americans buy 50 million T-shirts a year.3. The United States produces no T-shirts, so 50 million shirts are imported.Suppose that the United States put a tariff on imported T-shirts.

45 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS With a tariff, 1. The domestic price equals2. The world price plus3. The tariff.So with a 50 percent tariff on T-shirts, the price in the United States rises from $5 to $7.50.

46 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS 4. Americans buy 25 million T-shirts a year.5. U.S. garment makers produce 10 million T-shirts a year6. Imports shrink to 15 million T-shirts a year and the government collects tariff revenue (purple area).

47 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS Rise in Price of a T-shirtThe price of a T-shirt rises by 50 percent from $5 to $7.50 a shirt.Decrease in PurchasesThe quantity bought decreases from 50 million to 25 million T-shirts a year.Increase in Domestic ProductionThe higher price stimulates domestic production, which increases from zero to 10 million T-shirts a year.

48 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS Decrease in ImportsThe quantity imported from 50 million to 15 million T-shirts a year—a decrease of 35 million T-shirts.Tariff RevenueThe government collects tariff revenue of $2.50 perT-shirt on the 15 million T-shirts imported, a tariff revenue of $37.5 million a year.

49 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS U.S. Consumers LoseThe opportunity cost of T-shirt is $5.But Americans pay $7.50 for a T-shirt—$2.50 more than the opportunity cost of a T-shirt.U.S. consumers are willing to buy 50 million T-shirts a year at the opportunity cost.So the tariff deprives people of T-shirts that they are willing to buy at a price equal to its opportunity cost.

50 Nontariff Barriers 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONSQuota is a specified maximum amount of a good that may be imported in a given period of time.How a Quota WorksWith free trade, Americans pay $5 a T-shirt and import 50 million T-shirts a year.Suppose the U.S. government sets a quota on imported T-shirts at 15 million a year.

51 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS Figure 18.6 shows the effects of a quota.1. With free trade, the domestic price equals the world price, there is no domestic production, and imports are 50 million shirts a year.2. With a quota, domestic supply become S + quota.

52 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS3. The price Americans pay is determined in the U.S. market and it rises to $7.50 a T-shirt.4. Americans buy 25 million T-shirts a year.5. With the higher price, U.S garment makers increase production to 10 million T-shirts a year.

53 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS6. U.S. imports decrease from 50 million to 15 million T-shirts, which equals the quota.

54 18.3 TRADE RESTRICTIONS Health, Safety, and Other Nontariff BarriersThousands of detailed health, safety, and other regulations restrict international trade.Some examples areFood imports into the United States must meet Food and Drug Administration’s standards.Europe bans imports of genetically modified foods such as U.S. soybean and Canadian granola.Australia bans imports of Californian grapes to protect its grapes from a virus in California.

56 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONThe National Security ArgumentThe argument that a country must protect industries that produce equipment and armaments and those on which the defense industries rely for their raw materials.This argument can be taken too far.In a time of war, all industries contribute to national defense.To increase the output of a strategic industry, it is more efficient to use a subsidy rather than a tariff or quota.

57 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONThe Infant-Industry ArgumentInfant-industry argument is that it is necessary to protect a new industry to enable it to grow into a more mature industry that can compete in world markets.Valid only if the benefits of learning-by-doing not only accrue to the owners and workers of the firms in the infant industry but also spill over to other industries and parts of the economy.

58 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONThe Dumping ArgumentDumping occurs when a foreign firm sells its exports at a lower price than its cost of production.The argument is that a firm that wants to become a global monopoly might try to eliminate its foreign competitors by dumping.Once it has a global monopoly, it will raise its price.Dumping is usually justification for temporary countervailing duties.

59 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONFive New Arguments for ProtectionSaves JobsThe argument is that protection saves jobs because when we buy shoes from Brazil or shirts from Taiwan, U.S. workers lose their jobs.Allows Us to Compete with Cheap Foreign LaborThe argument is that with the removal of protective tariffs in U.S. trade with Mexico jobs rushing to Mexico would make a “giant sucking sound.”

60 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONBrings Diversity and StabilityThe argument is that protection brings a diversified economy—an economy that fluctuates less than one that produces only a few goods and services.Penalizes Lax Environmental StandardsThe argument is that many poor countries, such as Mexico, do not have the same environmental standards as the United States, so we cannot compete without tariffs.

61 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONProtects National CultureThe argument that is commonly heard in Canada and Europe is that free trade in books, magazines, movies, and television programs means U.S. domination and the end of local culture.None of these five common arguments provides overwhelming support for protection.

62 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONWhy Is International Trade Restricted?Two key reasons:Tariff revenueRent seekingTariff RevenueIn some developing countries, governments cannot use income taxes and sales taxes because financial record-keeping is poor.In these countries, international trade transactions are well recorded, so governments use tariffs on imports to raise revenue.

63 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONRent SeekingRent seeking is lobbying and other political activity that seeks to capture the gains from trade.Free trade increases consumption possibilities on the average, but not everyone shares in the gains.Free trade brings benefits to some and costs to others.The uneven distribution of benefits and costs is the principle source of impediment to freer international trade.

64 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONCompensating LosersIn total, the gains from free international trade exceed the losses, so why don’t the people who gain from free trade compensate the losers?To a degree, losers are compensated: When Congress approved the NAFTA deal with Canada and Mexico, it set up a $56 million fund to support and retrain workers who lost their jobs because of the free trade agreement.

65 18.4 THE CASE AGAINST PROTECTIONDuring the first six months of NAFTA, only 5,000 workers applied for benefits under the scheme.It is difficult to identity and compensate the losers from free international trade.But if we don’t make a better effort, protectionism will remain such a popular and permanent feature of our national economic and political life.