Introduction

This report is the product
of one of several working parties set up to review the state of research in
Wales, with the aim of establishing an archaeological research agenda. This
preliminary review of SE Wales in the Early Medieval period in Wales has
benefited from input from Steve Clarke (Monmouth Archaeological Society), Ray
Howell (University of Wales, Newport), Jeremy Knight (formerly Inspector for SE
Wales, Cadw: Welsh Historic Monuments), Alan Lane (University of Cardiff) and
Mark Redknap (National Museums & Galleries of Wales).

The period under review has
been defined as covering the post-Roman to pre-Norman period in SE Wales. As
for the rest of Wales, the period is poorly understood, and remains heavily
reliant on sparse documentary sources (for attempts to review this, see Lady
Fox 1946, Edwards & Lane 1988; Arnold 2000).

In Roman times, Glamorgan and
Monmouthshire belonged to the territory of the Civitas of the Silures,
with its caput at Venta Silurum (Caerwent), After the end
of the Roman occupation, the eastern core of the territory around the former caput became the small successor kingdom
of Guenta deriving its name from the
former Venta Silurum, by the normal
sound change v > gu. The survival of the name suggests a
measure of political continuity and two sub-Roman cemeteries, one intra-mural
and one extra-mural, show that the town itself retained a measure of importance
as a centre for the surrounding area.

The western part of the former civitas territory came to comprise a series of seven cantrefi (‘the seven cantrefs of
Glamorgan’) which 12th-century tradition saw as named after the sons of an
eponymous king Glywys (Glywysing). In
the 10th century the area was renamed Morgannwg,
after a king of Glamorgan, Morgan Hen, though the origin story was simply a
learned construct. The cantrefi corresponded to natural geographical units and
may preserve an earlier territorial reality; the cantrefi or their subdivisions
the commotes provide convenient units for archaeological and landscape
research. In some cases, a mother church of the commote or cantref, equivalent
to an English hundredal minster, can be identified and sometimes has evidence
of early origins in the form of early inscriptions and sculpture. At times, a
high status secular centre can be identified to go with the ecclesiastical
centre (e.g. Llandough/Dinas Powys, Llantwit Major/Llysworney,
Caerwent/Portskewett), though the secular centre was usually far more fluid in
form and function than its ecclesiastical equivalent. Within each unit, the
pattern of churches probably mirrors that of secular settlement, and a pattern
of ecclesiastical centres can be identified, ranging from churches whose early
foundation is attested by the presence of pre-Norman sculptures and
inscriptions pre-dating the developed parochial system of the 10th and 11th
centuries, to Anglo-Norman manorial churches, often with a parish whose
boundaries and form show that it was carved out of a larger, earlier unit.

These territorial units – cantref, commote and parish –
provide a framework which may help to overcome the difficulties in identifying
secular settlements of the period, and within which the multi-period landscape
archaeology can be used to identify that of the early medieval period.

A number of historical works provide a valuable insight into
early medieval Glamorgan (e.g. Glamorgan County History); the equivalent work
on Monmouthshire is scheduled for publication in September 2003.

A fundamental pre-requisite for research in the Early
Medieval period is the need for:

1. Greater success in site characterisation, including
establishing their extent [97 definite military/settlement Roman sites are listed
in the GGAT Resource audit (and 72 potential sites; total of 1119 Roman
archaeological sites), compared with 12 ‘key ‘ sites and 5 uncertain for the
early medieval period];

2. A more precise chronological framework;

3. A multi-disciplinary approach, with projects that may
involve a number of partner institutions. In what follows, strengths,
weaknesses and threats are summarised, and some future opportunities suggested.

Taken together, these should provide a foundation on which
to construct a sustainable research agenda.

Settlement and
earthworks

Strengths

The hillfort settlement at Dinas Powys, excavated between
1954-58, was fully published in 1963, heralded a period of optimism in early
medieval archaeology in Wales. The recognition of a settlement rich in
artefacts, Mediterranean and Continental pottery, and evidence for metalworking
and other aspects of its economy suggested that at last parallels for the rich
early medieval settlement evidence from Ireland was being found in Wales. The
site has been the subject of several important reassessments, and its
relationship with the recently excavated cemetery at Llandough is now being
assessed. Re-assessment of the post-Roman evidence for Caerwent has suggested a
secular basis for much of the activity represented there, in addition to
monastic activity. Offa’s Dyke, previously studied by Cyril Fox and Frank
Noble, is the subject of an ongoing research programme by David Hill and
Margaret Worthington, who have re-examined Buttington Tump. Re-use of caves has
been well documented and published, some with radiocarbon dates.

Weaknesses

Despite success in examining some of the more obvious sites,
few new sites have been identified on the ground, and even fewer excavated:
some discoveries, such as Hen Gastell (Wilkinson 1995), were the fortunate
outcome of a programme of rescue excavation. There is an assumption that many
sites are poor in artefacts – true for some key fieldwalking indicators such as
ceramics, but not necessarily the case for metalwork. Publication has focussed
on two site types - small multivallate hillforts and caves – and the extent,
nature and character of documented sites remain uninvestigated. Historically
interesting areas such as Flatholm have been greatly modified by post-medieval
development, making the search for early medieval evidence of activity very
difficult. Estate boundaries have not been archaeologically tested, and the
transition with the preceding period is poorly understood. The relationship of
the Dyke to contemporary settlement/landscape/communications on both sides of
it is poorly understood.

Threats

The piecemeal nature of infill development, particularly in
rural villages such as Llancarfan and Llandough, makes site identification
difficult; site evaluations and watching briefs have variable success rates.
There may be a reluctance to initiate long-term research on an area, where
results are unpredictable, at best slow, and often disappointing. Many
earthworks are threatened by erosion (natural, weather, animal, people),
agriculture/forestry and tourism

Opportunities

·Identification of settlement. As has been recognised
elsewhere in Britain, the increase in metal detecting over the last 20 years
has resulted in a wealth of early medieval metalwork being recognised. The reporting
of find spots, now under either the Treasure
Act 1996 or the Portable Antiquities
Reporting Scheme, is providing evidence for the location of so-called
‘productive’ sites. Future funding for investigative fieldwork would be
valuable in ‘ground-truthing’ these clusters. No high-status site dating to the
8th-11th centuries has yet been excavated in SE Wales.

·With a rich legacy of late Roman sites in SE Wales (in
comparison with other areas), there is a need to investigate the late
Roman/early medieval transition – working from the known to the unknown.

·Comparative characterisation of land use and
settlement. Land units and estate boundaries and their relationship to
settlement merit further investigation.

·The location and nature of hillfort settlement –
whether re-used earthworks or founded de
novo – deserves more work.

·Available evidence suggests that some early medieval
sites are complex, often multi-period, with ecclesiastical associations. The
examination of complex sites with a high likelihood of an early medieval
component would enable investigators to place the evidence within a broader
chronological and topographic pattern. A sample of sites where this approach
might prove fruitful is given below. In some cases, the preliminary work of
assembling the currently available evidence has been carried out, e.g. in Glamorgan County History Vol. 2. An
assessment of available evidence, both documentary and archaeological, for each
site complex, followed by a carefully focussed modest research programme,
including limited excavation and the use of scientific geophysical and dating
techniques would probably prove fruitful.

Castell Arnallt

Castell Arnallt is situated near the River Usk approximately
4 miles SE of Abergavenny. The oblong mound, over 150m long on its NS axis, has
traditionally been interpreted as the llys
of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal, which had been destroyed by William de Braose in 1175.
Contour and geophysical surveys conducted in 2000 suggest a number of
structures on the site as well as possible multivallate defences (Phillips
2000). Surface stone in some areas may indicate an inner wall or palisade base.
The general appearance of the site suggests parallels with known llysoedd although the apparent defences
would be more in keeping with a castle. It is possible, therefore, that Castell
Arnallt represents an important transitional site perhaps best described as a
fortified or developed llys. It is
also possible that the origins of the llys
were in the early medieval period. This is clearly a site where additional
investigation including excavation could pay substantial dividends.

Portskewett

Roman Villa evidence in
recent excavations by GGAT and others, with possible Iron Age beginnings.

Late Roman temple on Portskewett Hill (“Farthing Hill”)
above villa site. Large unpublished coin collection from site from Wheeler’s
excavations (in possession of the landowner) and many coins are being found by
metal detectorists. Former comprise one 3rd-century radiate and large numbers
of 4th-century issues.

Documentary evidence for pre-Norman llys of kings of Gwent on site of Harold Godwinson’s hunting lodge
of 1063. Early Norman church with substantial adjacent earthworks (“Harold’s
Palace”) which are probably the medieval manorial complex of the Deneband
family, but with possible earlier elements. There are associated wetland
structures nearby, including fish traps, with dates from 6th century onwards.

Monmouth

Extensive excavations by Stephen Clarke and the Monmouth
Archaeology Society have revealed a sequence comprising a pre-Flavian Roman
fort, the Roman settlement of Burrium with
a strong early 4th-century phase, followed by evidence for early pre-Norman
settlement associated with timber defensive structures (on the basis of
stratigraphic sequences). Pre-Norman Chester ware jar known from site – only
one in south Wales. Important evidence of Norman settlement, with castle and
Priory church. Only brief summaries of these excavations have been published.
Full publication an urgent need.

Caerwent area

History of the Roman town is being re-assessed by Richard
Brewer in light of fresh excavations. Post-Roman metalwork from old excavations
and intra-mural and extra-mural post-Roman cemeteries now published. Need for
carefully targeted research programme to take forward the early medieval
element of this.

Wetlands Edge Sites

The recent research programme on the Gwent Levels has
emphasised that the period between the late Roman marine transgression and the
12th-century resettlement, the levels were exploited from wetland edge
settlements. The potential of this has been shown in GGAT excavations at
Pencarn Farm (Coedkernew) where a late Roman fen-edge settlement underlay a
medieval site with documentary evidence for early medieval occupation
associated with Bassaleg and Llancarfan in the Vita Cadoci. Bishton (Llancadwalladr) is another site with
potential – a pre-Norman ecclesiastical estate with charter evidence for the
site of medieval episcopal manor.

Margam

Upland complex of prehistoric and medieval sites, studied by
Cyril and Aileen Fox (Forts and Farms on
Margam Mountain). Thought to have early medieval element because of
presence of the ‘Bodvoc’ stone, but Fox’s attempts to identify an early
medieval element not successful.

Several Group I Latin- / ogam-inscribed stones in area with
known findspots. Medieval Cistercian Abbey has an important group of pre-Norman
sculptured crosses but no early inscriptions / cross-slabs. A fragment of early medieval beaker has been found within
the park nearby. Cluster of important disused church sites in area. Eglwys
Nynidd (with Group I stone) threatened by golf course extension etc (excavated
by Pre-Construct Archaeology); Cae’r hen
Eglwys being destroyed by ploughing.

Other sites

A range of earthworks with
possible early medieval origins may provide a fertile focus for targeted survey
and other investigations.A case in
point is represented by dykes including the short lengths of rampart found on
many upland ridges in Glamorgan.Some
sites in this category have ramparts forming a possible defensive line
including Tor Clawdd, Ffos Toncenglau, Bwlch Garw, and Bwlch y Clwydd.Dry stone walling or revetting are
incorporated in the dyke at Ffos Toncenglau and Bwlch y Clwydd. (RCAHM 1976, I,
iii, 6)With notable exceptions such as
work by Hill and Worthington on Offa’s Dyke (Hill & Worthington 2002),
fewer sites have been investigated in Gwent where there is considerable scope
for new initiatives.Place names such
as Pen y Clawdd, while possibly ‘head of the ridge’ rather than ‘head of the
dyke’, may provide a useful starting point for new research.

In many cases, earthworks may have been associated with
ecclesiastical sites.There is an
assumption that early monastic sites, accommodating members of the claswyr, would have been enclosed by a
bank or wall, usually curvilinear in plan. Shallow ditches may also have been
associated, at least on some sites. (RCAHM, 13)Similar smaller scale enclosures are associated with many llan churches and references in Liber Landavensis, the Book of Llandaff,
may provide a useful starting point for possible field survey.In some instances earthworks may also be
associated with domestic occupation sites.A rubble bank at Thornwell Farm near Chepstow(Hughes 1992, 8-13) and a shallow rubble bank at Caerwent Quarry
(Vyner & Allen 1980, 67 - 122), while presumably late Roman in date, are
suggestive.An interesting possibility
is that shallow banks may define some early llysoedd
sites. For example, the tradition which places a llys of Caradoc ap Ynyr near Portskewett (Vita Sanctorum, 270 - 287) and pronounced field marks at the site,
encourage archaeological investigation there.

Earthworks associated with
re-occupied hillforts may also offer productive areas for new research.Recent excavation at Lodge Wood Camp
north-west of Caerleon, for example, revealed a series of narrow terraces with
small post holes and a limited amount of late Roman pottery in an oval
enclosure in the interior of the Iron Age hillfort.The entrance had been re-cut during a materially impoverished
phase.A trench through the inner bank
and ditch demonstrated a stone-revetted timber-laced rampart with a large
collapse deposit of stone rubble.Perhaps significantly, a later phase survived as a thin rubble spread
overlying soil which had formed after the collapse of the primary rampart
(Howell & Pollard 2000, 97-98) Given evidence of late Romano-British
activity at several hillfort sites in Glamorgan (RCAHM 1976, I, ii, 8) and
Romano-British pottery at other Gwent sites such as Llanmelin (Nash-Williams
1933, 237-315) and Sudbrook (Nash-Williams 1939, 42-79), additional targeted
investigation of hillfort sites could shed considerable light on early medieval
origins.

Ecclesiastical Sites
and Cemeteries

Strengths

Recent excavations at the Atlantic Trading Estate, Llandough
and at Llanelen (Gower) have shed more light on the nature of early
ecclesiastical centres and cemeteries. A major step forward has been the
reassessment of the evidence within the Llandaff Charters (Davies 1979),
research into specific fields (pulled together in Edwards & Lane 1992) and
models for the origin and initial development of early medieval ecclesiastical
centres. The corpus of early medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture published
by Nash-Williams in 1950 is being revised. This is a multidisciplinary study (a
collaboration between the National Museums & Galleries of Wales, the
Universities of Bangor and Aberystwyth, and RCAHMW) which will include details
where available of the original locations of many stones, geology, epigraphic,
linguistic and stylistic analysis. It is hoped that it will form an important
tool in future research.

Weaknesses

There is no identified pre-Norman church fabric in SE Wales,
and the early phases of many documented sites are poorly understood. While the
early medieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture are individually and
collectively important, few remain in situ, and the contexts of those that do
remain poorly understood. Skeletal data from early excavations such as Caerwent
are not published in detail; bone does not survive well in some areas;
chronology remains a problem, with difficulties in establishing reliably dated
burial sequences and horizontal phasing. A low number of radiocarbon dates for
some sites. As for other periods, some excavations have yet to be fully
published (e.g. Burry Holms), while other sites would merit further study.

Threats

As with settlement, the small-scale nature of much work
undertaken limits the results; a recent problem has been insufficient funding
during the post-excavation stage, especially if the excavation has been
developer funded. Increasing church redundancy and limited funding poses
threats to both church sites and monuments. Early medieval inscribed stones at
many sites are under threat of damage (natural or human), and lack protection.
Resources will be required to implement the recommendations of the newly
established National Committee for the
Recording and Protection of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture.
This initiative could help to direct further research in this field.

Opportunities

·The work of the Early
Medieval Ecclesiastical Sites Working Group set up by Cadw: Welsh Historic
Monuments and the review by GGAT of ecclesiastical sites and their morphology
in SE Wales, will focus ideas for future management plans and related research.

·The development, role and function of ecclesiastical
sites, and their wider context.

·The demography of early medieval Britain. The retention
of the complete skeletal collection from Llandough (over 850 burials) by NMGW
will provide a valuable ‘key-site’ assemblage to support future research.

·As in the case of settlement, programmes of aerial
photography, geophysical surveying and trial excavation could lead to further
site identification (e.g. Llangan)

As with settlement, carefully focussed modest research
programmes on complex sites, including limited excavation and the use of
scientific geophysical and dating techniques would probably prove fruitful:

Llantwit Major

Major monastery of St Illtyd, presumably on the site of the
early church. Abbots recorded from 7th century onwards; series of crosses
and inscriptions referring to abbots and kings of Glamorgan. Extensive
earthwork complex and buildings around church, belonging to the medieval grange
of Tewkesbury Abbey. Partly excavated by V. E. Nash-Williams.

Villa and Monastery set in extremely large medieval parish
on excellent corn land with good microclimate. Large medieval monastic estate
(and possible Roman villa estate?)
requires investigation. Llysworney, within parish, identified as llys of
cantref of Gorfynydd. Possibility of paired early medieval religious/secular
high status settlements, as Dinas Powys / Llandough.

Documentary evidence (VitaIlltuti) of refortification of Castle
Ditches hillfort during a Welsh attack on Anglo-Norman settlement (Glamorgan County History Vol. 2).

Llancarfan

Major early monastery of St Cadoc and later manorial centre
of St Peter’s Abbey, Gloucester. Exceptionally rich documentary evidence – two
saints lives, that in British Library MS Vespasian A XIV accompanied by
charters and detailed account of pre-Conquest / early post-Conquest settlement
and land use in large parish. Much other material e.g. in Gloucester Cartulary.

Monastery possibly scattered along valley in same manner as,
for example, Glendalough in Ireland, rather than within a nucleated enclosure.
The whole valley bottom is presently disappearing under housing. Traces of
earthworks in vicinity of church are as yet uninvestigated. The whole area
around the church has exceptionally high potential for geophysics. During the
only archaeological investigation under the car park of the Fox and Hounds
Public House next to church, an aceramic dark layer was observed by Howard
Thomas. The church itself is of considerable interest. (Glamorgan County History Vol. 2)

Burry Holms / Llanmadoc / West Gower

Medieval extra-parochial
area in West Gower. Very rich archaeological sequence from prehistory onwards.
Major early ecclesiastical site associated with Llanmadoc (group I
Latin-inscribed memorial stone and two Group II cross-slabs). Douglas Hague’s
excavations on the associated medieval hermitage site on Burry Holms, with
pre-church timber structures, still unpublished. Elizabeth Walker’s recent
excavations, which revealed later prehistoric timber structures including
roundhouse, may throw fresh light on the nature and date of the early timber
features under church.

Extra parochial area
probably representing pre-Norman ecclesiastical estate, later passing to Abbey
of St Taurin, Evreux (France) and then to All Souls College, Oxford.
Llangennith church is a Norman foundation, of interesting plan, replacing a
pre-Norman establishment.

Abernant

Abernant at Kemeys Inferior near Caerleon has produced a
grave grouping with inhumations in stone-lined cists. These burials may be late
Roman in date, although the excavators have detected a curvature to the burial
site which is not dissimilar to that found at Llandoc (Llandough) and other
early medieval ecclesiastical sites. There are no grave goods and the burials
range in orientation between 42 and 73 degrees. An industrial site with
evidence of smithing located 180m to the NE has produced a calibrated
radiocarbon date of AD 690-990 (Tuck 2001). Given the historical references to
a court of Ffernfael near this site, further investigation of a potentially
important early medieval site is worthwhile.

Economy, Land-use,
Natural Resources

Strengths

Much more is known about early medieval activities in the
coastal zone of the Bristol Channel, where waterlogged features are
exceptionally well-preserved. Fish traps from the Severn Estuary, the Newport
boat fragment have been published, and many issues summarised in Cadw’s rapid
coastal survey and The Coastal
Archaeology of Wales (Davidson, ed. 2002). Imported wares are well
documented, their sources have been refined and residues analysed. Under the Portable Antiquities Reporting Scheme,
important examples of early medieval metalwork are being recorded and their
provenances assessed: most have archive level reports, and many are in the
process of being published. Little is known of field system patterns and
subsistence economies.

Weaknesses

The mudflats of the Severn levels are under constant threat
of erosion. The evidence for water transport is very limited, and there has
been little work on communication routes. Evidence for trade/commerce/industry
during the 8th-11th centuries poorest. Artefact studies rely on the random
nature of new discoveries; some old finds are no longer available for
re-examination. Apart from work on the Severn Levels, there has been little
palaeoenvironmental analysis; there are no large animal bone assemblages to
compare with the well-studied animal bone from Dinas Powys.

Threats

The intensification of housing development threatens areas
high in potential for archaeological evidence for early industry. Non-reporting
of finds, and lack of resources to investigate their contexts.

Opportunities

·The excellent survival
of waterlogged features in the Severn estuary provides rich resource
unparalleled on land, in particular for organic and environmental evidence and
accurate dating.

·A co-ordinated approach
to the targeting of possible early medieval horizons for environmental
analysis.

·A fast-track mechanism
for obtaining radiocarbon dates for potential early medieval deposits (equally
applicable to any site type) would be beneficial.

·The identification of
artefact clusters through the Portable
Antiquities Reporting Scheme and the Treasure
Act 1976 should provide pointers to early medieval areas of activity, as
well as opportunities for scientific analysis and the identification of
cultural trends.

·Near Caerleon has
produced a grave grouping with inhumations in stone-lined cists. These burials
may be late Roman in date, although the excavators have detected a curvature to
the burial site which is not dissimilar to that found at Llandoc (Llandough)
and other early medieval ecclesiastical sites. There are no grave goods and the
burials range in orientation between 42 and 73 degrees.

·An industrial site at
Abernant, Kemeys Inferior, has produced evidence of smithing (hammer scale)
associated with a calibrated radiocarbon date of AD 690-990 (Tuck 2001).

Wider Issues

In short, our state of
knowledge for early medieval Wales based on archaeological evidence is parlous,
and many of the wider research questions will have equal relevance for the rest
of Wales:

·We know virtually
nothing about the character of 5th-century settlement, and impact on settlement
of the transition from ‘Roman’ to ‘early medieval Wales’ beyond what has been
gleaned from historical sources.

·We know little about the
character and development of early medieval agriculture and land-use.

·We know little about the
exploitation of different landscape zones.

·We know very little
about the nature of ‘industrial’ processes and resource exploitation.

·We know little about the
layout and development of early ecclesiastical centres.

·We know little about
mariculture, and the relationship with the sea (ships, boats, fishing etc).