Voronov V.K., Podoplelov A.V.

Physics of Self-Organizing and Ordered Systems

PHYSICS AT THE TURN OF THE MILLENNIUM. Physics of Self-Organizing and Ordered Systems

This is the first volume of the series entitled "Physics at the Turn of the Millennium." This book contains three chapters. The first chapter deals with the fundamentals of a new interdisciplinary scientific direction, physics of open systems, whose origin was associated with the work of outstanding researchers of the nineteenth century. Among them are physicist L. Boltzmann, mathematicians A. Poincaré and A. Lyapunov, and biologist Ch. Darwin. The second chapter covers the physics of solids. This study is of a paramount importance because it allows obtaining information about the structure of matter in living and nonliving nature as well as about materials used in technologies. The third chapter analyzes the branch of physics related to new possibilities of large-scale application of semiconductors in diverse fields of science and technology.

The book is intended for everyone who is interested in the problems of modern physics.

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1.

Physics of open systems

1.1.

Properties of self-organized structures

1.2.

Dynamical systems

1.3.

Determinate chaos

1.4.

Ressler's chaotic attractor

1.5.

Cantor sets

1.6.

Fractals

1.7.

Feigenbaum scenario

Test questions

References

Chapter 2.

Condensed media

2.1.

Self-organized structures in solid states

2.2.

Stochastic resonance

2.3.

Disordered condensed systems

2.3.1.

Long-range order and disorder in condensed media

2.3.2.

Peculiarities of disordered systems structure

2.4.

Quasi-crystals

2.5.

Amorphous metallic materials

2.5.1.

Methods for preparation of amorphous metal alloys

2.5.2.

Structure of amorphous alloys

2.5.3.

Amorphous ferromagnetics

2.5.4.

Practical application of amorphous alloys

2.6.

Diffusion mechanisms in disordered systems

2.6.1.

Methods of computer simulation of disordered systems

2.6.2.

Cooperative mechanism of diffusion

2.6.3.

Activation mechanisms of diffusion

2.6.4.

Local inhomogeneities of amorphous structure

2.7.

Physical properties of manganites

2.8.

Periodic domain structures in electro- and magnetoordered compounds

2.8.1.

Regularities of domain structure formation in ferroelectrics

2.8.2.

Periodic domain structures

2.8.3.

Formation of ferroelectric domains in electric fields

2.8.4.

Ferroelectric PDS in the field of acoustic wave

2.8.5.

Domain structures in magnets

2.9.

Ferroelectrics in nonlinear optics

2.9.1.

Nonlinear optical and acoustic effects in periodic domain structures

2.9.2.

Optically induced domains in PDS in ferroelectrics

2.10.

Controlled transformation of physical properties of materials by ion beams

2.11.

The fundamentals of the laser ablation theory

2.11.1.

Heat model

2.11.2.

Two-temperature model

2.11.3.

Photophysical ablation

2.11.4.

Gas dynamics of three-dimensional expansion of vapor during laser ablation

2.12.

Phases and phase transitions

2.12.1.

Classification of phase transitions

2.12.2.

Critical fluctuation under phase transitions

2.12.3.

The fundamentals of the renormalized group method

2.12.4.

Ordered and phase transitions

Test questions

References

Chapter 3.

Semiconductors

3.1.

Heterosystems of reduced dimension

3.1.1.

Size quantization of electrons energy

3.1.2.

Exciton in low-dimensional structures

3.2.

Physical principles of formation of nanostructures

3.2.1.

The methods of generation of quantum dots

3.2.2.

Practical applications of nanostructures

3.3.

The Ge/Si heterostructure

3.4.

New sources of light on the basis of heterostructures

3.5.

Physical backgrounds of superconducting electronics

3.6.

The mutual interaction of superconductivity and magnetism in ferromagnetic/superconductor heterostructures

3.7.

Quantum Hall effect

3.7.1.

The classical Hall effect

3.7.2.

Two-dimensional electron systems

3.7.3.

Modulated doping

3.7.4.

The integer quantum Hall effect

3.7.5.

The fractional quantum Hall effect

Test questions

References

Preface

The principal trend of current development of science involves
an ever-increasing volume of knowledge. Being originated in
ancient world in connection with the demand of practice, science
has transformed into productive force and became an important
social institute effecting significantly on all spheres of
society and a culture as a whole. Since the seventieth century
the volume of scientific knowledge (number of discoveries and
scientists, volume of scientific information,) is doubled
approximately every 10--15 years. Impetuous growth of
information volume results inevitably in drastic gap between the
level achieved by fundamental science and the level of training
in higher educational institutions.

In one of his statements professor S. P. Kapitsa has expressed a
thought that every generation has to write its own manual of
physics. Then brings up the questions: "Has the time for
writing this manual come, and if yes, is modern generation (of
the late twentieth -- early twenty first centuries) ready to do
it? And the very important -- what the content of such manual
will be?". Speaking about history of physics development, the
famous American physicist and popularizer of science Jane
Orire*, has
chosen (arbitrarily to some extent) three periods -- classical,
new and modern. By the end of ninetieth century such areas of
physics as mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, optics
and hydrodynamics have been thoroughly studied. It was seemed
that the development of theory of these fields was completed and
one could hardly expect here any new revelations and
breakthrough. All these areas was referred to as classical
physics.

In the end of the ninetieth century and during first three
decades of the twentieth century a series of remarkable
discoveries has been made in physics. There was found
radioactivity phenomenon, which further on was applied for the
investigation of atom structure. The formulation of relativity
theory made one to correct traditional views on space and time.
The attempts to describe the atom structure led to the
origination of quantum theory. This period of time, when the
essence of physical studies was changed dramatically, was called
the period of new physics.

In the 30-th of twentieth century radiowave radiation of stars
has been discovered. In those years neutron and division of
atomic nuclei were also found. These and other revelations
resulted in huge number of information accumulated in new fields
of physics. This process is keeping up nowadays. Such
development of physics resulted in further discoveries and
formulation of new ideas has led to the origination of modern
physics.

Apart from the growth of information volume, the other
distinctive trend in modern natural science is an
ever-increasing integration of scientific studies. Such trend
makes the division of natural science into strictly defined
fields rather conditional. Though the role of physics, studying
the simplest and at the same time the most common properties of
material world, remains dominant. Just like one should not deny
the specifics of investigation objects of other branches of
natural science.

Two peculiarities aforementioned (tremendous growth of
scientific information and ever-increasing integration of
different fields of natural science) put forward the problems of
methodological character, which should be solved before
publishing manual literature. Importance of the problem is also
strengthened by the fact that very often one accents how to
learn. Though we see the problem in other aspect "What one has
to learn?"

All these facts impelled us to prepare a series of publications
under general title "Physics on the boundary of centuries"
where the basic achievements of physics for the last fifty years
would be reflected. By the moment (2009) three monographs in
English have been prepared. The first is "Physics of
self-organizing and ordered systems", the second is "New
objects of atomic and nuclear physics", the third is "Novel in
physics of organic world". We have used the material taken from
different sources (reviews, monographs, manuals). Primarily we
rested the articles published in "Advances of physical
sciences" (Uspekhi Phys. Nauk in country-regionplaceRussia) and
"Soros' Educational Journal" (Soros Obraz. Jurn. In Russian)
journals. References are given in the end of each chapter. In
some cases we included in the references the sources wherefrom
we did not take material or did it in small extent. But these
sources can be helpful for deep study of the material; therefore
the references of out books contain more than 250 publications.
Thus, the reader of our manual will have an opportunity to use a
vast list of references related to different fields of modern
physics.

We understand the complexity of our task. But one has to solve
this task just now. To do it one should have any experience; one
should make the first step. We want to believe that we have done
this step. Taking into account that a huge amount of material
was accumulated during the last fifty years as well as the fact
that volume of book (and time of training the students) is
limited we had to make a choice. Working on the book, we had in
a view, first of all, the students of technical specialties. Of
course, it was not made by accident. Technical progress, which
we are observing today, became possible due to scientific
advancements achieved during some last decades. At the same time
we have discussed in our book those fields of physics, which do
not impact directly on technical progress, but without them it
is impossible to understand the world we are living in.

As for as the level of our book is concerned, it is intermediate
between manual and scientific review. Therefore, the books is
intended primarily for the students of higher years, which have
studied the corresponding courses of physics and mathematics. We
aimed at interesting presentation of the material, because it
promotes to its deeper learning. Control questions to each
chapter as well as numerous illustrations pursue the same
objective.

The first book contains three chapters. The first chapter deals
with the fundamentals of new interdisciplinary scientific
direction, physics of open systems, which origination was
connected with the activity and works of outstanding researchers
of the nineteenth century. Among them are physicist L. Bolzmann,
mathematicians A. Poincare and A. Lyapunov, biologist
Ch. Darwin. The second chapter covers the physics of solids. The
study of the latter is of special importance because it allows
one to obtain the data on structure of matter in living and
non-living nature as well as on materials used in technologies.
The third chapter of the first part analyzes the branch of
physics related to new possibilities of wide and large-scale
application of semiconductors in diverse fields of science and
technology.

V. K. Voronov, A. V. Podoplelov

About the Authors

Vladimir Kirillovich VORONOV

Doctor of Science, Professor, an Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation and Soros Professor. He is a well-known scientist, a leading specialist in the field of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and the author (or coauthor) of more than 200 publications, including 6 monographs. Prof. V. K. Voronov is a highly skilled lecturer, who pays much attention to training activity. Over many years he has delivered lectures on physics besides the course entitled "Concepts of Modern Natural Science".

Alexey Vitalievich PODOPLELOV

Doctor of Science. His research activity relates to the study of paramagnetic particles using nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. He is a well-known specialist in the study of the effects of electron and nuclear spins on reactions involving radicals. These works as well as his
training activity are performed at both the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Novosibirsk State University. Currently, A. V. Podoplelov is head of the Center for Proteomic Research in Moscow. He also is a professor at Moscow State University.

Об авторах

Vladimir K. VORONOV

D.Sc. (chemistry), Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, winner of the Award of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of education. Professor of the Irkutsk National Research Technical University. Scientific interests relate to molecular spectroscopy, physical-organic chemistry, nuclear magnetic resonance and quantum chemistry. Over the last two decades, he is also engaged into investigations in the field of quantum information and scientific-methodical studies devoted to cognitive barriers of the universities’ students. Awarded with the gold medal "For Innovative Work in the Field of the Higher Education".

Alexey V. PODOPLELOV

D.Sc. (chemistry), Professor, scientific expert of the HTLab AG Company (Pfäffikon, Switzerland). He is a winner of the Award of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of education. Research interests relate to the studies of paramagnetic particles by methods of nuclear magnetic resonance of high resolution. His works are devoted to the effects of electron and nuclear spin on the reactions involving radicals. He is an author and coauthor of more than seventy publications including nine monographs.