President John F. Kennedy met the Soviet Premier, Nikita S. Khrushchev, at the Vienna Summit in June 1961. Prior to meeting face-to-face, their contact began when Khrushchev sent Kennedy a message on November 9, 1960; in the message, Khrushchev congratulated Kennedy on his presidential election and stated his hope that “relations between [the U.S. and USSR] would again follow the line along which they were developing in Franklin Roosevelt’s time.”[1] He also told Kennedy that the USSR desired to negotiate with the U.S. on issues relating to, “disarmament… a German peace treaty…and other questions which could bring about an easing and improvement of the entire international situation.”[2] In a reply message, Kennedy thanked Khrushchev and similar niceties continued until 1961.

On February 22, 1961, President Kennedy sent Premier Khrushchev a letter stating, “I hope it will be possible, before too long, for us to meet personally for an informal exchange of views.”[3] This was the first time either man suggested a diplomatic meeting. Kennedy felt “that if he could just sit down with Khrushchev” the two leaders could work out their inter-state conflicts.[4] Yet, Kennedy’s advisors told him not to meet with Khrushchev so soon after Kennedy’s election, the American Ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn E. Thompson, feared that Kennedy misjudged Khrushchev’s personality and intentions. Likewise, Charles Bohlen, a U.S. diplomat, “worried that JFK underrated Khrushchev’s determination to expand world communism.”[5] Nevertheless, Khrushchev accepted Kennedy’s summit proposal and the leaders began to make plans for their official meeting. Meanwhile, Cold War rivalries between the two powers escalated in Germany, Laos, and Cuba, the regional conflicts became major items on the Vienna Summit agenda.

Between 1945 and 1961, 2.7million East Germans emigrated from East Berlin, a part of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), to West Berlin. The leader of the GDR, Walter Ulbricht, argued that the large number of emigrants leaving East Berlin threatened the existence of the GDR by diminishing its population;[6] in the early months of 1961, Ulbricht pressured Khrushchev to close the border between East and West Berlin. Khrushchev understood Ulbricht’s concern but feared that a potential intervention from Western powers would destabilize East Berlin further. Kennedy’s Ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn Thompson, warned in February, 1961 that if there were “no progress” on Berlin and Germany, Khrushchev would “almost certainly proceed with [his] separate peace treaty…”[7] The notion of a separate peace treaty threatened American interests in West Germany. If the USSR rendered complete control of East Berlin to the East German government, then the U.S. could only communicate with and control West Berlin with permission from the East German government.

The Berlin Question—whether or not the U.S. would allow the USSR to sign a separate peace treaty with Berlin—dominated Khrushchev and Kennedy’s debates at the Vienna Summit. The signing of a separate peace treaty with Berlin did not appeal to American policy makers. America felt comfortable with the division of Germany and Berlin itself. A peace treaty threatened the established balance of power and could potentially lead to the United States losing all its influence in East Berlin.

A lesser known conflict fuelled controversy at the Vienna Summit as well. “As in Berlin, [Kennedy] inherited in Laos a situation aggravated by near-direct armed confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States.”[8] During Eisenhower’s presidency, the U.S. backed a right-winged conservative government (royal government) in Laos to counter that communist threat of the popular Pathet Lao.[9] In Laos, “the Eisenhower government committed millions of dollars in aid” in order to continue the rule of a pro-American leader.[10] Both the Soviets and the Americans knew that a proxy war in Laos drove both countries further into an arms race. Under this context, Khrushchev and Kennedy discussed the Laos situation at length at the Vienna Summit.

The American-facilitated Bay of Pigs Invasion of April 1961 also rocked Khrushchev and Kennedy’s relationship, on April 18, 1961, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram that said, “Mr. President, I send you this message in an hour of alarm, fraught with danger for the peace of the whole world. Armed aggression has begun against Cuba.”[11] Kennedy countered by saying that the Americans were merely helping support the “100,000 Cubans” attempting to “[resist] the Castro dictatorship.”[12] He claimed that the Americans fought on the side of freedom and Cuban self-determination.

Kennedy knew that the Cuban invasion sparked controversy. Therefore, Kennedy felt it crucial to meet with Khrushchev as soon as possible, he hoped that open channels of communication could remedy some of the conflict between the U.S. and the USSR. Khrushchev and Kennedy met in Vienna on June 4, 1961.

Khrushchev and Kennedy devoted a significant amount of time at the Vienna Summit to discussing the Berlin Crisis. Khrushchev opened the conversation by expressing the Soviet perspective that a united Germany “[constituted] a threat of World War III.”[13] He pointed to the fact that Germany began World War II. Only fifteen years after the end of that war, Germany again posed a “military threat” as a member of NATO.[14] Khrushchev explained that the USSR desired to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany, such a treaty, he argued, “would not prejudice the interests of the U.S., the UK, or France.”[15] He told Kennedy that if the United States failed to support a peace treaty, the Soviet Union would sign the peace treaty unilaterally.

Kennedy replied that American forces occupied Berlin “by contractual rights” rather than by the agreement of East Germans.[16] Kennedy understood the Soviet perspective but feared that if the US removed its troops from Berlin, “no one would have any confidence in U.S. commitments and pledges.”[17] Kennedy insisted that the US maintain its position in Berlin for strategic purposes, although Kennedy argued that the current balance of power in Germany was effective, Khrushchev said that “no force in the world would prevent the USSR from signing a peace treaty.”[18]

When Kennedy pointed out that such a treaty required unilateral action on the part of the Soviet Union, thereby ignoring the four-power agreement signed at the end of World War II, Khrushchev stated that such a peace treaty nullified the four-power agreement, he insisted that the city of Berlin should belong solely to the German Democratic Republic. West Germany, Khrushchev told Kennedy, would remain under American influence. Kennedy countered by saying that the U.S. could not accept such an agreement due to the prestige it would lose as a result of the decision. In light of this remark, Khrushchev suggested that an “interim arrangement” be considered.[19] Khrushchev remained firm in the fact that “the Soviet Union [would] sign [the peace treaty] in December if the U.S. [refused] an interim agreement.”[20]

Kennedy hoped to determine the Soviet’s feeling regarding the neutralization of Laos.[21] Kennedy wanted to convince Khrushchev that the United States and Soviet Union could work together to de-escalate tensions in the unstable state. “Without a firm Soviet commitment to stop supplying the guerrillas and to persuade the North Vietnamese to halt their efforts, nothing could be accomplished,” Kennedy asserted.[22] On the first day of the Summit, Kennedy quickly discovered that Khrushchev was in no mood to discuss the Laos situation. Khrushchev only rebuffed the United States for playing a significant role in the overthrowing of the Laos government.

The next day, Kennedy approached the Laos subject again, this time, Khrushchev negotiated more willingly.[23] Khrushchev agreed that a “neutral and independent Laos chosen by the Laotians themselves” benefitted both the U.S. and the USSR.[24] Although the leaders made no official agreement, they did reach a consensus regarding the future of Laos— cease-fire and ultimate neutralization, this agreement proved to be one of the only accomplishments of the Vienna Summit.[25]

Seymour Topping’s article on “Khrushchev and Vienna” ran in the New York Times on June 3—the day before the conference began. Topping correctly identified the major points of conversation that dominated the conference—the Berlin and Laos questions.[26] Topping also correctly stated Khrushchev’s opinions regarding each issue and pinpointed the Soviet perspective on Berlin. Clearly, both the Americans and the Soviets had ample information regarding the other’s position prior to the opening of the Summit. However, no one could predict the outcome of the summit, including the leaders’ reactions to each other.

For the Americans, the summit was initially seen as a diplomatic triumph.[27] Kennedy had refused to allow Soviet pressure to force his hand, or to influence the American policy of containment, he had adequately stalled Khrushchev, and made it clear that the United States was not willing to compromise on a withdrawal from Berlin, whatever pressure Khrushchev may exert on the "testicles of the West", as Khrushchev once called them.

In retrospect the summit may be seen as a failure, the two leaders became increasingly frustrated at the lack of progress of the negotiations. Kennedy later said of Khrushchev, "He beat the hell out of me" and told New York Times reporter James ‘Scotty’ Reston it was the "worst thing in my life, he savaged me".[28] On the other hand, Khrushchev viewed the summit in a much more positive light; in his memoir, Khrushchev showed ambivalence. He proclaimed, “I was generally pleased with our meeting in Vienna. Even though we came to no concrete agreement, I could tell that [Kennedy] was interested in finding a peaceful solution to world problems and avoiding conflict with the Soviet Union.”[29] However, historian William Taubman suggests that Khrushchev merely felt he could “[push Kennedy around].”[30]

In addition to conveying US reluctance to defend the full rights of Berlin’s citizens, Kennedy ignored his own cabinet officials’ advice to avoid ideological debate with Khrushchev. Khrushchev outmatched Kennedy in this debate, and came away believing he had triumphed in the summit over a weak and inexperienced leader. Observing Kennedy’s morose expression at the end of the summit, Khrushchev believed Kennedy "looked not only anxious, but deeply upset…I hadn’t meant to upset him. I would have liked very much for us to part in a different mood, but there was nothing I could do to help him…Politics is a merciless business.”[31]

1.
John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade

John F. Kennedy
–
John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
–
The Kennedy family at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in 1931 with Jack at top left in white shirt. Ted was born the following year.
John F. Kennedy
–
Lieutenant (junior grade) John F. Kennedy (standing at right) with his PT-109 crew, 1943.
John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the PT-109, 1943.

2.
Vienna
–
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north

Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna

3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

4.
Premier of the Soviet Union
–
The office of Premier of the Soviet Union was synonymous with head of government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Twelve individuals became premier over the span of the office. Two of the twelve died in office of natural causes. The first premier was Lenin, who was inaugurated in 1922 after the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, ivan Silayev spent the shortest time in office at 126 days in 1991. At over fourteen years, Kosygin spent the longest time in office, the Council of Peoples Commissars was established on 8 November 1917 by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Government. The Council of Peoples Commissars published decrees and decisions that were binding throughout the Soviet Union, in 1946, the Council of Peoples Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers at both all-Union and Union Republic level. However Kosygins position was weakened when he proposed a reform in 1965. Under the 1977 Soviet Constitution, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was the head of government of the USSR. The premier was responsible and accountable to the Supreme Soviet, the premier managed the national economy, formulated the five-year plans and ensured socio-cultural development. List of heads of state of the Soviet Union List of leaders of the Soviet Union Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union

Premier of the Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924)
Premier of the Soviet Union
–
Coat of arms
Premier of the Soviet Union
Premier of the Soviet Union

5.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

6.
Superpower
–
Superpower is a term used to describe a state with a dominant position, which is characterised by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined-means of technological, cultural, military and economic strength, as well as international relations. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers, the term was first applied to the British Empire, the United States, and the Soviet Union. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term superpower to a variety of past entities. However, since even the most powerful empires of old had little to no means to exert influence over very long distances, no agreed definition of what is a superpower exists, and may differ between sources. This was because the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics and military dominance. The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch-American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the shape of a new post-war world order. A year later, in 1944, William T. R, according to him, there were three states that were superpowers, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. According to Lyman Miller, The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power, military, economic, political, although, many modifications may be made to this basic definition. According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, in his book, Superpower, Three Choices for Americas Role in the World, Dr. There have been attempts by historians to apply the term superpower retrospectively. Recognition by historians of these states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically, the Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism, planned economy and a one-party state, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively and these alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world. Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in wars, which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions. After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term began to be applied to the United States. This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial, one notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. In 1999, Samuel P. However, he rejected the claim that the world was unipolar, but that does not mean that the world is unipolar, describing it instead as a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers

7.
Nikita S. Khrushchev
–
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, Khrushchevs party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar, with the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalins purges, and approved thousands of arrests, in 1938, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was again a commissar, Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalins close advisers, in the power struggle triggered by Stalins death in 1953, Khrushchev, after several years, emerged victorious. On 25 February 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the Secret Speech, denouncing Stalins purges and his domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for defense, Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, Khrushchevs rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War, flaws in Khrushchevs policies eroded his popularity and emboldened potential opponents, who quietly rose in strength and deposed the premier in October 1964. However, he did not suffer the fate of previous losers of Soviet power struggles, and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970, Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease. Khrushchev was born on 15 April 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in what is now Russias Kursk Oblast and his parents, Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva, were poor peasants of Russian origin, and had a daughter two years Nikitas junior, Irina. Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine, working as a railwayman, as a miner, and laboring in a brick factory. Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region, Kalinovka was a peasant village, Khrushchevs teacher, Lydia Shevchenko, later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been. Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age and he was schooled for a total of four years, part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenkos tutelage in Kalinovkas state school. She urged Nikita to seek education, but family finances did not permit this. In 1908, Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka, fourteen-year-old Nikita followed later that year, while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after

8.
USSR
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

9.
Disarmament
–
Disarmament is the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons. Disarmament generally refers to a military or specific type of weaponry. Disarmament is often taken to mean total elimination of weapons of destruction, such as nuclear arms. ”Before World War I at the Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907 government delegations debated about disarmament. The court was considered necessary because it was understood that nation-states could not disarm into a vacuum, after the war revulsion at the futility and tremendous cost of the war was widespread. A commonly held belief was that the cause of the war had been the escalating buildup of armaments in the half century among the great powers. Although the Treaty of Versailles effectively disarmed Germany, a clause was inserted that called on all the powers to likewise progressively disarm over a period of time. One of the earliest successful achievements in disarmament was obtained with the Washington Naval Treaty, the size of the three countrys navies was set at the ratio 5-5-3. In 1921 the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments was set up by the League of Nations to explore possibilities for disarmament, proposals ranged from abolishing chemical warfare and strategic bombing to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal, although there were 65 signatories to the pact, it achieved nothing, as it set out no guidelines for action in the event of a war. A final attempt was made at the Geneva Disarmament Conference from 1932–37, Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany demilitarised for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany, the talks broke down in 1933, when Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the conference. Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. In the United Kingdom, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament held a public meeting at Central Hall, Westminster, on 17 February 1958. After the meeting a few hundred left to demonstrate at Downing Street, cNDs declared policies were the unconditional renunciation of the use, production of or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain and the bringing about of a general disarmament convention. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches, in 1961, US President John F. There have been many large demonstrations and protests. On June 12,1982, one million people demonstrated in New York Citys Central Park against nuclear weapons and it was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. He also notes, Now a freeze or a mutually agreed increase is not strictly speaking disarmament at all, and such measures may not even be intended to be a first step towards any kind of reduction or abolition

10.
Peace treaty
–
A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. A treatys content usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded, in the case of large conflicts between numerous parties there may be one international treaty covering all issues or separate treaties signed between each party. There are many issues which may be included in a peace treaty. Some of these may be, Formal designation of borders, a peace treaty also is often not used to end a civil war, especially in cases of a failed secession, as it implies mutual recognition of statehood. In cases such as the American Civil War, it ends when the armies of the losing side surrender. By contrast, a secession or declaration of independence is often formalized by means of a peace treaty. Treaties are often ratified in territories deemed neutral in the previous conflict, since its founding after World War II the United Nations has sought to act as a forum for resolution in matters of international conflict. A number of treaties and obligations are involved in which member states seek to limit. This has meant that formal declarations of war are not undertaken. Probably the earliest recorded peace treaty, although rarely mentioned or remembered, was between the Hittite Empire and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation, circa 1350 BC. More famously, one of the earliest recorded peace treaties was concluded between the Hittite and Egyptian empires after the ca.1274 BC Battle of Kadesh, the battle took place in what is modern-day Syria, the entire Levant being at that time contested between the two empires. After an extremely costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a substantial advantage, the lack of resolution led to further conflict between Egypt and the Hittites, with Ramesses II capturing the city of Kadesh and Amurru in his 8th year as king. However, the prospect of further protracted conflict between the two states eventually persuaded both their rulers, Hatusiliš III and Ramesses, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the other in Akkadian using cuneiform script, fortunately, such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, however, in that the two versions are worded differently. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, while the Egyptian version claims the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a plaque. The Treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hatusiliš III in Year 21 of Ramesses reign and its eighteen articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceed to maintain that their respective gods also demand peace

11.
Charles Bohlen
–
Charles Eustis “Chip” Bohlen was a US diplomat from 1929 to 1969 and an expert on the Soviet Union. He served in Moscow before, during, and after World War II and he then became ambassador to the Philippines and to France. He was an exemplar of the foreign policy advisers who came to be known colloquially as The Wise Men. Bohlen was born in Clayton, New York, on August 30,1904, to Celestine Eustis Bohlen, Eustis, a Senator from Louisiana and ambassador to France under Grover Cleveland and Charles Bohlen, a gentleman of leisure. The second of three Bohlen children, he acquired an interest in foreign countries by traveling in Europe as a boy, Bohlen graduated from Harvard College in 1927. He was thus was related to Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach was indicted for war crimes at the Nuremberg tribunal, but illness prevented his prosecution until his demise in 1950. Alfred Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach was found guilty of war crimes but was pardoned after a few years by John J. McCloy, in 1935, Bohlen married Avis Howard Thayer, born September 18,1912 in Philadelphia, the daughter of George Thayer and Gertrude Wheeler. The Avis Bohlen award was created and named for her in 1982 and it is administered by the American Foreign Service Association and each year honors the US Foreign Service dependent who has done the most to advance US interests. Her brother, Charles Wheeler Thayer, also a diplomat, worked closely with his brother-in-law, Charles, Charles and Avis Bohlen had two daughters, Avis and Celestine, and a son, Charles Jr. The younger Avis became a diplomat in her own right, who served as deputy chief of mission in Paris, US ambassador to Bulgaria. The other daughter, Celestine, became a journalist and has been a Moscow-based reporter for The New York Times, Bohlen joined the US Department of State in 1929, learned Russian, and became a Soviet specialist, working first in Riga, Latvia. In 1934, at 30, he joined the staff of the embassy in Moscow, US President Franklin Roosevelt was urgently informed, but the US did not tell to any of the concerned governments in Europe. A week later, the plan was realized by the German and Soviet invasions of Poland, in 1940 and 1941, he worked in the American embassy in Tokyo and was interned for six months before his release by the Japanese in mid-1942. He then worked on Soviet issues in the State Department during the war and he worked closely with Roosevelt and was Roosevelts interpreter at the Tehran Conference and the Yalta Conference. Bohlen, criticized by some of the hawks in the US Congress, when George Marshall became Secretary of State in 1947, Bohlen became a key adviser to US President Harry Truman. In 1946, he disagreed with his friend and mentor, Ambassador George F. Kennan, Kennan, declared persona non grata for some criticism of the Soviet Union in Berlin in September 1952, would not be allowed to return to the country. Oversight of the embassy was then awarded Chargé d´Affaires Jacob Beam, on 20 January 1953, Dwight Eisenhower became US president. When Stalin died in March 1953, the post of ambassador was still empty, in April 1953, Eisenhower named Bohlen as ambassador to the Soviet Union

Charles Bohlen
–
Charles Bohlen (on right) in February, 1945
Charles Bohlen
–
Charles E. Bohlen
Charles Bohlen
–
The Secretary of State James F. Byrnes support consults with the advisors in preparation for Potsdam Conference in Germany. L to R, from the left, Charles E. Bohlen on July 12, 1945.

12.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements

13.
East Berlin
–
East Berlin existed between 1949 and 1990 and consisted of the Soviet sector of Berlin established in 1945. The American, British, and French sectors became West Berlin, strongly associated with West Germany, from 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989, East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. In East German official usage, it widespread in the 1970s to refer to the Western part of the city as Westberlin. In May 1945, the Soviet Union installed a city government for the city that was called Magistrate of Greater Berlin. After the war, the Allied Forces initially administrated the city together within the Allied Kommandatura, however, in 1948 the Soviet representative left the Kommandatura and the common administration broke apart during the following months. In the Soviet sector, a city government was established. When the German Democratic Republic was formed in 1949, it immediately claimed East Berlin as its capital - a claim that was recognized by all Communist countries, nevertheless, its representatives to the Peoples Chamber were not directly elected and did not have full voting rights until 1981. In June 1948, all railways and roads leading to West Berlin were blocked, however, more than one-thousand East Germans were escaping to West Berlin each day by 1960. In August 1961, the East German Government tried to stop that from happening by building the Berlin Wall and it was very dangerous for illegal migrants to cross because of the presence of armed guards that were trained to shoot people in such cases. East Germany was a socialist republic, but there was not complete economic equality, privileges such as prestigious apartments and good schooling were given to members of the ruling party and their family. Eventually, Christian churches were allowed to operate without restraint after years of harassment by authorities, in the 1970s wages of East Berliners rose and working hours fell. The United States Command Berlin, for example, published detailed instructions for U. S. military, in fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested against the presence of the East German National Peoples Army in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades. Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as the capital of East Germany, treaties instead used terms such as seat of government. On 3 October 1990, West and East Germany and West and East Berlin were reunited, after reunification, the East German economy suffered significantly. Many East German factories were shut due to inability to comply with West German pollution and safety standards. Because of this, an amount of West German economic aid was poured into East Germany to revitalize it. This stimulus was part-funded through a 7. 5% tax on income, despite the large sums of economic aid poured into East Berlin, there still remain obvious differences between the former East and West Berlin. East Berlin has a visual style, this is partly due to the greater survival of prewar façades and streetscapes

East Berlin
–
Marx-Engels-Platz and the Palast der Republik in East Berlin in the summer of 1989. The Fernsehturm (TV Tower) is visible in the background
East Berlin
–
Flag
East Berlin
–
Easter Sunday 1988 Fernsehturm and Palast der Republik
East Berlin
–
Karl Marx Allee apartments

14.
German Democratic Republic
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt

15.
Laos
–
Present day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao, which existed for four centuries as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Due to Lan Xangs central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom was able to become a hub for overland trade. After a period of conflict, Lan Xang broke off into three separate kingdoms— Luang Phabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three territories uniting to form what is now known as the country of Laos and it briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a civil war ended the monarchy. Laos is a one-party socialist republic and it espouses Marxism and is governed by the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, in which the party leadership is dominated by military figures. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam Peoples Army continue to have significant influence in Laos, other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. Laos is a country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60 percent of the population. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other hill tribes, accounting for 40 percent of the population, live in the foothills. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997, on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership. According to the anti-corruption non-governmental organisation Transparency International, Laos remains one of the most corrupt countries in the world and this has deterred foreign investment and created major problems with the rule of law, including the nations ability to enforce contract and business regulation. This has contributed to a third of the population of Laos currently living below the poverty line. Laos has an economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2014, the country ranked 141st on the Human Development Index, according to the Global Hunger Index, Laos ranks as the 29th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation. Laos has also had a human rights record. In the Lao language, the name is Muang Lao or Pathet Lao. Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos, archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC

16.
Pathet Lao
–
The Pathet Lao was a communist political movement and organization in Laos, formed in the mid-20th century. The group was successful in assuming political power in 1975. The Pathet Lao were always associated with Vietnamese communists. During the civil war, it was organized, equipped. They fought against the anti-communist forces in the Vietnam War, eventually, the term became the generic name for Laotian communists. The political movement of the Pathet Lao was called first the Lao Peoples Party, key Pathet Lao leaders include Prince Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Phoumi Vongvichit, Nouhak Phoumsavanh and Khamtay Siphandone. The political wing of the Pathet Lao, called the Lao Patriotic Front served in multiple coalition governments, through the 1960s and 1970s the Pathet Lao battled the Royal Lao government during the Laotian Civil War, gaining control of the north and east of Laos. The Pathet Lao gained power throughout the country by the spring of 1975, in December, the US-backed Vientiane government fell and the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party formed a new government. The organization can trace its roots from the Second World War just as the Khmer Issarak in Cambodia and the Viet Minh and Vietnam Peoples Army in Vietnam did in the war as well. In August 1950, Souphanouvong joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi, Vietnam, the Pathet Lao founded resistance government with members, Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Nouhak Phoumsavanh, Phoumi Vongvichit, Souk Vongsak, Sithon Kommadam, and Faydang Lobliayao. This was an attempt to give a front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent a united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party, in 1953, Pathet Lao fighters accompanied an invasion of Laos from Vietnam led by Viet Minh forces, they established a government at Viengxay in Houaphan province in northeast Laos. The communists began to make incursions into central Laos with the support of the Viet Minh, and a war erupted. The 1954 Geneva Conference agreements required the withdrawal of foreign forces, two months after the conference, the Viet Minh-North Vietnamese formed the unit Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Nameo. The unit effectively controlled and directed the Pathet Lao movement and it was formed into an official party, the Lao Patriotic Front, in 1956. Its stated goal was to wage the communist struggle against capitalism, unstated was its subordination to the Communist Party of Vietnam. A coalition government was established in 1957 between the monarchists and communists, but it collapsed in 1959, bringing about a resumption of fighting, by the late 1950s, North Vietnam had occupied areas of eastern Laos. The area was used as a route for men and supplies destined for the insurgency in South Vietnam

17.
Arms race
–
An arms race, in its original usage, is a competition between two or more parties/groups to have the best armed forces. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, superior military technology, the term is also used to describe a competitive situation, in which the purpose is only to be more successful than ones competitors. From 1891 to 1914, an arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany took place. British concern about rapid increase in German naval power resulted in a building competition of Dreadnought-class ships. This tense arms race lasted until 1914, when the war broke out, after the war, a new arms race developed among the victorious Allies, which was temporarily ended by the Washington Naval Treaty. A nuclear arms race developed during the Cold War, a period between the Soviet Union and the United States and some other countries. This was one of the causes that began the cold war. On both sides, perceived advantages of the led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy wars were all over the world in which the superpowers conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and the nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced. More generically, the arms race is used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal. An arms race may also imply futility as the competitors spend a great deal of time and money, an evolutionary arms race is a system where two populations are evolving in order to continuously one-up members of the other population. This is related to the Red Queen effect, where two organisms co-evolve to overcome each other but each fails to progress relative to the other interactant, rowohlt, Reinbek 1984, ISBN 3-499-11450-X Jürgen Bruhn, Der Kalte Krieg oder, Die Totrüstung der Sowjetunion

Arms race
–
The size and power of battleships grew rapidly before, during, and after World War I: a result of competitive shipbuilding among a number of naval powers, brought to an end by the Washington Naval Treaty

18.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
–
The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Prime Minister Fidel Castro. The Presidential coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, against President Carlos Prio, President Prios exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Fidel Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of December 31,1958, severed the countrys formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets. It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Fidel Castro forged strong links with the Soviet Union, with whom, at the time. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castros government was taking, the CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhowers successor John F. Kennedy approved the invasion plan on 4 April 1961. Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five battalions and one paratrooper battalion. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields, on the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia, the Cuban Armys counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover for the invasion, as a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhowers presidency had required both air and naval support, on 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons. The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castros leadership, made him a national hero and it also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy, Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castros leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later, for centuries, Cuba was home of the Spanish Empire. The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out, subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60% of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban North Americans. Between 1906 and 1909,5,000 US Marines were stationed across the island, many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. Another was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil, which had been founded by the Federation of University Students President José Antonio Echevarría, however, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the 26th of July Movement, founded by a lawyer named Fidel Castro

19.
Fidel Castro
–
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. Politically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state, industry and business were nationalized, born in Birán, Oriente as the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. After a years imprisonment, he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batistas forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batistas overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cubas Prime Minister, adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by control of the press. These actions, coupled with Castros leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cubas medical internationalism, following the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its Special Period and embraced environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American pink tide—namely with Hugo Chávezs Venezuela—and signed Cuba up to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, in 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008. Castro is a world figure. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary regime advanced economic, critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human-rights abuses, the exodus of a large number of Cubans, and the impoverishment of the countrys economy. He was decorated with various awards and significantly influenced various individuals. In 1960 Castro was bestowed with the Grand Slam Silver Trophy in the prestigious Ernest Hemingway International Billfishing Tournament after he caught a sailfish, Castro was born out of wedlock at his fathers farm on August 13,1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, aged six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, in 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, in 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was illiterate, he became embroiled in student activism. In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People, a charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf, in later years anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these remain unproven

20.
Cease-fire
–
A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and finally by peace treaties, during World War I, on December 24,1914, there was an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front as France, the United Kingdom, and Germany observed Christmas. No treaty was signed, and the war resumed after a few days, on November 29,1952, the newly U. S. president-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. Upon agreeing to the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which has since been patrolled by the KPA and the joint ROKA, US. The Korean Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel, to the south, the old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally lay in the pre-war ROK, but now is in the DPRK. The United Nations Command, the North Korean Korean Peoples Army, the Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China, and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. For his part, ROK President Syngman Rhee attacked the peace proceedings, the war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. On January 15,1973, President Richard Nixon of the USA ordered a ceasefire of the bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr. Henry Kissinger, the National Security Affairs advisor to the president, returned to Washington from Paris, combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27,1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord. After Iraq was driven by U. S. -led coalition forces out of Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm, Iraq, throughout the 1990s, the U. N. Security Council passed 16 Resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm the WMDs program unconditionally and immediately. The war remained in effect until 2003 when U. S. and United Kingdom forces invaded Iraq, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire was agreed between India and Pakistan on 1 January 1949, ending the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The Security Council set up a dedicated United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the Security Council set up a United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the ceasefire line. During World War I, Turkey, which was an ally of Germany, had its troops stationed both in the Balkan States in the west and at the Russian-Iranian border in the north and east. The Turkish government, who were angry at the Christians, had kept under pressure by the Russian Army. Simkos hope was that by annihilating the Assyrians he would get an autonomous rule for his people, who lived in both Turkey and Iran

Cease-fire
–
A truce – not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war. By Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, February 17, 1877, p. 132.
Cease-fire
–
British and German officers after arranging the German handover of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the surrounding area, negotiated during a temporary truce, April 1945

21.
New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

New York Times
–
Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on Operation Pillar of Defense.
New York Times
–
The Times Square Building, The New York Times ‍ '​ publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
New York Times
–
The New York Times newsroom, 1942
New York Times
–
A speech in the newsroom after announcement of Pulitzer Prize winners, 2009

22.
Containment
–
Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as the Cold War policy of the United States, a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback, the basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U. S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II administration of U. S. President Harry Truman. As a description of U. S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U. S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s, although the term containment was first used for the strategy in the 1940s, there were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a containment strategy for stopping the expansion of slavery, following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, or ring of non-communist states, translating this phrase, U. S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a quarantine. Both phrases compare communism to a contagious disease, the U. S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933, hoping to expand American export markets. The Munich Agreement of 1938 was an attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe, the U. S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia in 1937-41, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor. After Germany invaded the USSR in 1941 during World War II, the U. S. the policy was rollback, to defeat Germany, Italy, and Japan. Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close, harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Trumans views on the Soviet Union. In February 1946, the U. S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U. S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Kennans cable was hailed in the State Department as the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed, six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant. Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and this report, which recommended restraining and confining Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24,1946. In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled The Sources of Soviet Conduct, Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat. After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, in March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, then fighting Communist subversion. Truman pledged to, support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures and this pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine

Containment
–
A 1962 nuclear explosion as seen through the periscope of a U.S. Navy submarine. The goal was to contain Communist expansion without a nuclear war.

23.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

24.
Weekly Standard
–
The Weekly Standard is an American conservative opinion magazine published 48 times per year. Its founding publisher, News Corporation, debuted the title on September 18,1995, originally edited by founders William Kristol and Fred Barnes, the Standard has been described as a redoubt of neoconservatism and as the neo-con bible. It is currently owned by MediaDC, a subsidiary of Clarity Media Group, the magazines website also produces regular online-only commentaries and news articles. The Washington Examiner reported that the Examiners parent company, the Anschutz-owned Clarity Media Group, had purchased the Standard, after the sale to the Clarity Media Group, the Standard increased its paid circulation by 39 percent between its June 2009 and June 2010 BPA statements. The editors stated, We apologize to Dr. Chopra and to our readers and we regret any harm that may unjustly have been done to Dr. Chopras reputation. We trust that this correction and apology will help in repairing any such harm, and will set the record straight. They added, “We also would no longer state that his company’s herbal remedies have high levels of bug parts and rodent hairs or levels higher than other such organic products. ”Chopra claimed the magazine settled for $1.6 million

Weekly Standard
–
The Weekly Standard

25.
List of Presidents of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War

List of Presidents of the United States
–
The White House in Washington, D.C. is the president's official residence, the center of the administration, and a prominent symbol of the office.
List of Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents of the United States
–
1
List of Presidents of the United States
–
2

26.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

United States Senate
–
United States Senate
United States Senate
–
Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
–
The Senate side of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
–
A typical Senate desk

27.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House

United States House of Representatives
–
United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
–
Seal of the House
United States House of Representatives
–
Republican Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.
United States House of Representatives
–
House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman George Miller confer with President Barack Obama at the Oval Office in 2009.

28.
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
The presidency of John F. Kennedy was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. A Democrat, he took office following the 1960 presidential election, in which he defeated Richard Nixon, Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president, and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office. He was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency, Kennedys time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and its satellite states, as well as Cuba. In Cuba, an attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro. Kennedys administration subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. Kennedy took steps to support the Civil Rights Movement, and after his death his proposed civil rights bill was passed as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the structure of former-General Eisenhower. Kennedy preferred the structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve in his cabinet and we can learn our jobs together, he stated. Kennedys brother, Robert F. Kennedy, served as Attorney General, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was largely sidelined during the administration. Thurgood Marshall, who Kennedy appointed to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20,1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be citizens, famously saying, Ask not what your country can do for you. He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the enemies of man, tyranny, poverty, disease. He added, All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days, nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. The address reflected Kennedys confidence that his administration would chart an historically significant course in both policy and foreign affairs. President Kennedys foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, in 1961, Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. He started off on the foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961

Presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy's second draft of his written remarks announcing his presidential candidacy, January 2, 1960. See also Works related to Statement of Senator John F. Kennedy Announcing His Candidacy for the Presidency of the United States at Wikisource
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
September 26: Senator Kennedy and Vice President Nixon participate in the first television presidential debate.
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
December 6: President-elect Kennedy meets with President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

29.
Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
This timeline begins on January 2,1960, the date when then U. S. Senator Kennedy announced his intention to run for the Democratic Party presidential nomination, and concludes on November 25,1963, Kennedy, the 35th United States president, was the first Roman Catholic as well as the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president. Additionally, he is the youngest individual ever elected to the office, Kennedy was the eighth president to die in office and the fourth one to be assassinated. Upon his death, in accordance with Constitutional procedure, Vice President Lyndon B, Johnson, succeeded to the presidency and took the presidential oath of office aboard Air Force One less than an hour after Kennedy died. Johnson served out the remaining 425 days of Kennedys term, and was elected to the presidency in his own right in 1964, January 2 – Senator John Fitzgerald Kennedy of Massachusetts officially announces his intention to run for the Presidency of the United States. March 8 – Kennedy wins the New Hampshire primary, receiving 88% of the vote and this would be the first of 10 primary victories for the Massachusetts Senator. May 4 – Senators Kennedy and Humphrey hold a debate in West Virginia. May 10 – Kennedy wins the West Virginia primary, receiving 61% of the vote, West Virginia shows that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas is nominated for Vice President, Kennedy was the first senator since 1920 to be nominated for the presidency by either the Democrats or the Republicans. September 26 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Richard Nixon participate in the first televised presidential debate, October 7 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the second presidential debate, held in Washington, D. C. October 13 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Nixon debate each other for the third time, Kennedy participates from a New York studio, while Nixon participates from a Los Angeles studio. October 21 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the fourth and final debate in New York. November 9 – Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon concedes the presidency to Kennedy, Kennedys official popular vote margin is 0. 1% and his electoral margin is 84 electoral votes. Nixon won more states,26 to 22, the electoral result proves to be the closest since the 1916 presidential election. November 25 – John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. President-elect and Mrs. Kennedys second child, is born at Georgetown University Hospital, December 6 – President-elect Kennedy meets with President Dwight Eisenhower at the White House to discuss the presidential transition. January 20 – Kennedys presidency begins with his inauguration at the United States Capitol in Washington and he is congratulated by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Kennedy also formally nominates his cabinet and attends the inaugural balls, January 21 – Kennedy meets with former President Harry S. Truman and issues Executive Order 10914 directing a doubling of the quantity of surplus food distributed to needy families. Kennedy also attends a meeting at the Democratic National Committee and hosts the swearing-in of his cabinet, January 22 – Kennedy meets with the poet Robert Frost

Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
Presidency of John F. Kennedy
Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy's second draft of his written remarks announcing his presidential candidacy, January 2, 1960. See also Works related to Statement of Senator John F. Kennedy Announcing His Candidacy for the Presidency of the United States at Wikisource
Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
September 26: Senator Kennedy and Vice President Nixon participate in the first television presidential debate.
Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
–
December 6: President-elect Kennedy meets with President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

30.
John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates
–
Although he was president for less than three years, John F. Kennedy appointed two men to the Supreme Court of the United States, Byron White and Arthur Goldberg. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker retired from the Supreme Court in March 1962 after just over five years on the court, the Whittaker retirement gave Kennedy his first vacancy on the Supreme Court. Two names initially came up as nominees, Judge William H. Hastie of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy had recommended Hastie, Robert F. Kennedy said it would mean so much overseas that we had a Negro on the Supreme Court. However, Hastie was opposed by Chief Justice Earl Warren, who balked because hes not a liberal and hell be opposed to all measures we are interested in, Associate Justice William O. Douglas also objected to Hastie as the nominee. In addition, President Kennedys adviser, Ted Sorensen, opposed Hastie because Kennedy was in the process of considering another African-American, Sorensen argued that the first appointment should be one hailed by all for his judicial mien. Sorensen recommended Freund as the nominee, ultimately, Kennedy selected White, who was a longtime supporter of his and who had been serving as United States Deputy Attorney General. Kennedy formally nominated White to the Supreme Court on April 3,1962, White was confirmed by the United States Senate just eight days later, on April 11,1962, in a voice vote. After suffering a stroke, Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter retired from the Supreme Court on August 28,1962, there is not much evidence that Kennedy considered any other candidate other than Goldberg for the vacancy. It had been reported that Frankfurters seat was considered a Jewish seat on the Supreme Court. Kennedy nominated Goldberg, who at time was United States Secretary of Labor. The United States Senate confirmed Goldberg in a vote on September 25,1962

John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates
–
Contents

31.
Clean Air Act (United States)
–
The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, in coordination with state, local and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U. S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution, the first federal legislation to actually pertain to controlling air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963. The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a program within the U. S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution, the 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. Major amendments to the law, requiring regulatory controls for air pollution, the 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly expanded federal enforcement, the 1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, established a national permits program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush, the Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits. Numerous state and local governments have enacted legislation, either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs. This section of the act declares that protecting and enhancing the nations air quality promotes public health, the law encourages prevention of regional air pollution and control programs. It also provides technical and financial assistance for air pollution prevention at both state and local governments, additional subchapters cover of cooperation, research, investigation, training and other activities. Grants for air pollution planning and control programs, and interstate air quality agencies, the act mandates air quality control regions, designated as attainment vs non-attainment. Non-attainment areas do not meet standards for primary or secondary ambient air quality. Attainment areas meet these standards, while unclassifiable areas cannot be classified on the basis of the information that is available, Air quality criteria, national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, state implementation plans and performance standards for new stationary sources are also covered in Part A. The list of air pollutants established by the act includes acetaldehyde, benzene, chloroform, phenols. The list also includes mineral fiber emissions from manufacturing or processing glass, the list periodically can be modified. The remaining subchapters cover smokestack heights, state plan adequacy, and estimating emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, measures to prevent unemployment or other economic disruption include using local coal or coal derivatives to comply with implementation requirements

Clean Air Act (United States)
–
Counties in the United States where one or more National Ambient Air Quality Standards are not met, as of October 2015.
Clean Air Act (United States)
–
Clean Air Act
Clean Air Act (United States)
–
President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the 1967 Clean Air Act in the East Room of the White House, November 21, 1967.
Clean Air Act (United States)
–
Air

32.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
–
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. It was signed into law on June 10,1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program. Stanley from Buffalo, N. Y. introduced H. R.5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, Congress included within the text of the EPA a clear and concise policy statement and briefly described the problems it was intended to remedy. The Supreme Court has expressly recognized the view that the EPA must be construed to achieve Congress’ goal of remedying sexual discrimination. The EPA protects both men and women and it also protects administrative, professional and executive employees who are exempt under the Fair Labor Standards Act. The EPA, Section 206, prohibits employer and it is important to note that the EPA does not contain any intent requirement within the statutory language. Liability under the EPA is established by meeting the three elements of the prima facie case, regardless of the intention of the employer, as such, the EPA imposes strict liability on employers who engage in wage discrimination on the basis of gender. Any other factor other than sex Upon its initial enactment, the EPA was the first step towards an adjustment of balance in pay for women. ”As a part of the FLSA, the EPA was subject to the scope and exceptions of covered employees and employers contained within that act. On the floor of the House of Representatives, many Representatives voiced their concern that the EPA should act as the point for establishing pay parity for women. Subsequent to the enactment of the EPA, Congress undertook two actions which broadened the scope of protection against wage discrimination on the basis of sex. First, the same 88th Congress enacted Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, second, Congress expanded the EPA’s coverage to professionals and other white-collar employees. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work, the Congress did not ignore the EPA’s economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women. First, as an amendment of the FLSA, the EPA is part of the legislative structure that houses the federal minimum wage laws. The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for jobs, and has the potential of acting as a price floor on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs. Second, several Representatives voiced their concerns that the impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for women. American women’s salaries have risen relative to mens since the EPA’s enactment, the EPA’s equal pay for equal work goals have not been completely achieved, as demonstrated by the BLS data and Congressional findings within the text of the proposed Paycheck Fairness Act. The EPA did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals, representative Rosa DeLauro first introduced an identical bill in the House of Representatives on the same day. This bill, providing that each gender-unequal paycheck is a new violation of the law, was the first signing of the Obama Presidency and came almost forty-five years after the Equal Pay Act

33.
Food for Peace
–
In different administrative and organizational forms, the Food for Peace program of the United States has provided food assistance around the world for more than 50 years. Approximately 3 billion people in 150 countries have benefited directly from U. S. food assistance, the Office of Food for Peace within the United States Agency for International Development is the U. S. Government’s largest provider of food assistance. The food assistance programming is funded primarily through the Food for Peace Act, the Office of Food for Peace also receives International Disaster Assistance Funds through the Foreign Assistance Act that can be used in emergency settings. The Office of Food for Peace donates food based on an identified need, during the 2010s the program underwent revisions offered by in the Administrations Fiscal Year 2014 budget. These revisions would change the program to provide cash donations rather than American grown, on April 24,2013, USA Maritime Chairman James L. Henry wrote a statement which discussed the efficacy of the program and specifically the importance of the U. S. Merchant Marine in delivering the U. S. food aid to people who are undernourished around the world, Henry offers that this is a significant fact in the effort to address global hunger. Americas food assistance programs began in 1812 when James Madison sent emergency aid to victims in Venezuela. As director of the American Relief Administration, Herbert Hoover led a $20 million feeding program in Russia during the 1920s under the Russian Famine Relief Act. In 1949, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided large quantities of food aid commodities to the people of Western Europe, the Marshall Plan helped rejuvenate and unite Europe while laying the foundations for a permanent U. S. food assistance program. Many of the European countries the U. S. Government helped at that time have become major food exporters. On July 10,1954, Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Agricultural Trade Development, by signing this legislation, the President laid “the basis for a permanent expansion of our exports of agricultural products with lasting benefits to ourselves and peoples of other lands. S. dollars. Through new amendments, the law switched its focus from disposing of surplus commodities to addressing humanitarian needs. In signing the extension of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act in 1959 and he specifically referred to the extension as the Food for Peace program. Although Kennedy may have expanded the program, he was not the first to refer to the program as Food for Peace, former U. S. McGovern assumed the post on January 21,1961. He found space for the program in the Executive Office Building rather than be subservient to either the U. S. Department of State or U. S. Department of Agriculture. By the close of 1961, the Food for Peace program was operating in a dozen countries, during an audience in Rome, Pope John XXIII warmly praised McGoverns work. McGovern resigned his post on July 18,1962, wanting to resume his political career

Food for Peace
–
George McGovern as Food for Peace director in 1961, with President John F. Kennedy

34.
Space policy of the United States
–
The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program. There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the space program. Space advocacy organizations may provide advice to the government and lobby for space goals, the President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas. The President also consults with the National Security Council, the Office of Science and Technology Policy, and the Office of Management and Budget. Before taking office as President, John F. Kennedy persuaded Congress to amend the Act to allow him to set the precedent of delegating chairmanship of this council to his Vice President, the Council was discontinued in 1973 during the presidency of Richard M. Nixon. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush re-established a differently constituted National Space Council by executive order, International aspects of US space policy may involve diplomatic negotiation with other countries, such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. In these cases, the President negotiates and signs the treaty on behalf of the United States according to his constitutional authority, once a request is submitted, the Congress exercises due diligence to approve the policy and authorize a budgetary expenditure for its implementation. In support of this, civilian policies are reviewed by the House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee conducts hearings on proposed space treaties, and the various appropriations committees have power over the budgets for space-related agencies. In addition, the Department of Commerces National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, military space activities are implemented by the Air Force Space Command, Naval Space Command, and Army Space and Missile Defense Command. Funding for space programs occurs through the budget process, where it is mainly considered to be part of the nations science policy. In the Obama administrations budget request for fiscal year 2011, NASA would receive $11.0 billion, out of a total research and development budget of $148.1 billion. Other space activities are funded out of the research and development budget of the Department of Defense, the United States is a party to four of the five space law treaties ratified by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The United States has ratified the Outer Space Treaty, Rescue Agreement, Space Liability Convention, and the Registration Convention, the United Nations General Assembly adopted five declarations and legal principles which encourage exercising the international laws, as well as unified communication between countries. No one nation may claim ownership of space or any celestial body. Objects launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including people, objects, parts, and components discovered outside the jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any damages that occur internationally, prior to the Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik 1, Eisenhower had already authorized Project Vanguard, a scientific satellite program associated with the International Geophysical Year. At the suggestion of Eisenhowers science advisor James R. Killian, the result was the National Aeronautics and Space Act passed in July 1958, which created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Eisenhower appointed T. Keith Glennan as NASAs first Administrator, with the last NACA Director Hugh Dryden serving as his Deputy, NASA as created in the act passed by Congress was substantially stronger than the Eisenhower administrations original proposal

Space policy of the United States
–
President Nixon visits the Apollo 11astronauts in quarantine after observing their landing in the ocean from the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Hornet.
Space policy of the United States
Space policy of the United States
–
President Reagan delivering the March 23, 1983 speech initiating the Strategic Defense Initiative.
Space policy of the United States
–
The launch of the Ares I-X prototype on October 28, 2009 was the only flight performed under the Bush administration's Constellation program.

35.
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
–
The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons, and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation, though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere. The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then,123 other states have become party to the treaty, ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons, in 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling the expected yield. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan, around the same time, victims of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, in 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was Vannevar Bush, who had initiated and administered the Manhattan Project, as a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Truman to help construct US nuclear weapons policy, a version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission as the Baruch Plan in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material, the Soviet Union dismissed the Baruch Plan as a US attempt to secure its nuclear dominance, and called for the US to halt weapons production and release technical information on its program. The Acheson–Lilienthal paper and Baruch Plan would serve as the basis for US policy into the 1950s, between 1947 and 1954, the US and Soviet Union discussed their demands within the United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament. A series of events in 1954, including the Castle Bravo test and spread of fallout from a Soviet test over Japan, additionally, by 1954, both US and Soviet Union had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. Interest in nuclear control and efforts to stall proliferation of weapons to other states grew as the Soviet Unions nuclear capabilities increased, in the same year, the British Labour Party, then led by Clement Attlee, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of negotiations, as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commissions Committee of Five, the May 1955 proposal is now seen evidence of Khrushchevs new approach to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957, Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after World War II. In 1947, he rejected arguments by Stafford L. Warrens arguments were lent credence in the scientific community, everybody seems to think that were skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers

Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

36.
Peace Corps
–
The Peace Corps is a volunteer program run by the United States government. The work is related to social and economic development. Each program participant, a Peace Corps Volunteer, is an American citizen, typically with a college degree, Volunteers work with governments, schools, non-profit organizations, non-government organizations, and entrepreneurs in education, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment. After 24 months of service, volunteers can request an extension of service, from 1961 to 2015, nearly 220,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps and served in 141 countries. The Peace Corps shows the willingness of Americans to work at the level in order to help underdeveloped countries meet their needs. The Peace Corps has affected the way people of other countries view Americans, how Americans view other countries, following the end of World War II, various members of the United States Congress proposed bills to establish volunteer organizations in developing countries. In that calling, these men would follow the work done by the religious missionaries in these countries over the past 100 years. In 1952 Senator Brien McMahon proposed an army of young Americans to act as missionaries of democracy, privately funded nonreligious organizations began sending volunteers overseas during the 1950s. The President, knowing how I felt, asked me to introduce legislation for all three, I introduced the first Peace Corps bill in 1957. It did not meet with much enthusiasm, Some traditional diplomats quaked at the thought of thousands of young Americans scattered across their world. Many senators, including liberal ones, thought it silly and an unworkable idea, now, with a young president urging its passage, it became possible and we pushed it rapidly through the Senate. It is fashionable now to suggest that Peace Corps Volunteers gained as much or more and that may be true, but it ought not demean their work. They touched many lives and made them better, Only in 1959, however, did the idea receive serious attention in Washington when Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin proposed a Point Four Youth Corps. In 1960, he and Senator Richard L. Neuberger of Oregon introduced identical measures calling for a study of the ideas advisability and practicability. Both the House Foreign Affairs Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee endorsed the study, in this form it became law in June 1960. He later dubbed the proposed organization the Peace Corps, a brass marker commemorates the place where Kennedy stood. In the weeks after the 1960 election, the group at Colorado State University. Kennedys opponent, Richard M. Nixon, predicted it would become a cult of escapism, others doubted whether recent graduates had the necessary skills and maturity

37.
Vietnam War
–
It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades

38.
Cuban Project
–
The operation was led by United States Air Force General Edward Lansdale and went into effect after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. Operation Mongoose was a program against Cuba aimed at removing the Communists from power. US policymakers also wanted to see a new government with which the United States can live in peace, There are still many different documents spread throughout the world that have much more information on the Cuban Missile Crisis, but they are hard to locate for the general populace. In 1959, the CIA predicted that Castro would have a difficult time hanging on to the government, the major initial fear was that Castro would demand that a much higher rent be paid by the U. S. for possession of Guantanamo Bay. Early on there was a wait and see approach to judge if Castro was a communist and he was not deemed to be one initially, but his brother Raul was. General C. P. Cabell noted in November 1959 that while Castro was not a communist he allowed free opportunity to the communist party in Cuba to grow, nonetheless, by December plans were already being tossed around that called for overthrowing the Castro government. An official report from the CIA states that, by March 1960, due to the United States fear of repercussions from the United Nations, the plan was kept much more secret, and as thus, plausible deniability was made a key focal point in American policy. The CIA’s budget estimation for this operation was approximately $4.4 million. The paper signed by Eisenhower was also the report issued by the government throughout the entire project. This program required the agency to work around the clock and collect an amount of detail-specific information. To secure the financial backing, the “Bender Group” was developed as an organization that would provide American businessmen a secret avenue through which to trade with Cuban groups. On May 11,1960, the Bender Group came to an agreement with group called Frente Revolucionario Democratico, propaganda activities included using print and radio mediums to broadcast anti-Castro messages. These programs were launched all over Latin America, large amounts of real estate were purchased by the agency for use in this operation. A base of operations was established in Miami on May 25, by using a “New York career and development firm”, a communications station was also established on June 15 by using an Army operation as a cover. The agency also obtained safe houses all over Miami for different “operational purposes. ”The CIA also acquired properties in different US cities, from March through August 1960, the CIA had plans aimed at undermining Castro and his appeal to the public by sabotaging his speeches. The schemes thought up were aimed at discrediting Castro by influencing his behavior, one plan that was discussed was using a chemical with similar properties to LSD to spray over one of Castros broadcasting studios. Another plot was to lace a box of Castros cigars with a known to cause temporary disorientation. The CIAs plans to undermine Castros public image went so far as to line his shoes with thallium salts which would cause his beard to fall out

39.
SS-100-X
–
Secret Service code name for the presidential limousine originally used by the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy. The limousine is the one that Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy were passengers in when the President was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22,1963. Following Kennedys assassination, the car received significant armor plating and a bullet-proof hardtop and its navy blue exterior was painted black. It resumed its role as a limousine for President Lyndon B. Johnson until 1967 and later remained in service until 1978. SS-100-X was originally a standard 1961 Lincoln Continental four door convertible built by the Ford Motor Company and assembled at the Wixom and it had a retail price of $7,347. The car was moved to the Experimental Garage at the Ford Proving Grounds where an additional 41 inches was added between the front and rear doors and just beyond the rear doors, the cars frame was strengthened to accommodate the additional length and weight. It was painted a navy blue color and taken to Hess & Eisenhardt of Cincinnati, Ohio for reupholstering. During the refit the car had no bulletproof or bullet-resistant additions added, the windshield remained the standard two-ply safety glass which could be easily replaced at any dealership. It was first delivered to the White House on June 15,1961 and measured 255 long, had a wheelbase of 156, was 78.6 wide, and 57 high. It weighed 7,800 lbs, up 1,585 lbs from factory weight, and was powered by a hand-built 350-horsepower 430 cubic inch Ford MEL engine. An open car, the Lincoln was equipped with an assortment of tops, including a bubble top, a black cover for the bubble, a formal rear top. It also featured two-way radio telephones and retractable steps and grab-handles for Secret Service agents, no armor plate was added to the bodywork, but the undercarriage and all suspension components were strengthened. A hydraulically-lifted rear seat was fitted, at the time of the assassination, the Lincoln had been fitted with a 1962-model front clip. It had a special short-turn radius,61.9 feet, total cost of modifications was approximately $200,000. The limousine was registered to the Ford Motor Company and was leased to the Secret Service for a fee of $500 per year. The limousine carried the District of Columbia license plate GG300, in November 2015, the license plates were sold at auction for $100,000. Following the shooting of President Kennedy and Governor Connally at approximately 12.30 pm, the Plexiglas bubble top and cloth cover were then attached. Later that afternoon at 3.30 pm CST the limousine was taken to Love Field and boarded on a C-130 and flown to Andrews Air Force Base, Washington DC, after arrival at Andrews AFB, the limo was delivered to the White House garage

SS-100-X
–
The car on display in the Henry Ford Museum
SS-100-X
–
JFK, Jackie, and the Connallys in the presidential limousine seconds before his assassination

40.
Situation Room
–
The Situation Room is equipped with secure, advanced communications equipment for the President to maintain command and control of U. S. forces around the world. The Situation Room was created in 1961 on the order of President John F. Kennedy after the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion was attributed to a lack of real-time information. The room has secure communications systems built into it and the walls contain wood panels that hide different audio, video, the Situation Room staff is organized around five Watch Teams that monitor domestic and international events. The teams are staffed from a pool of approximately 30 senior personnel from agencies in the intelligence community. These members are handpicked from heavily vetted nominations made by their parent agencies and they stand watch on a 24-hour basis, constantly monitoring world events and keeping senior White House staff apprised of significant incidents. The mission of the Situation Room is to provide current intelligence and crisis support to the NSC staff, the National Security Advisor, in effect, the Situation Room is a 24/7 one-stop shop for sensitive information flowing into and out of the White House. It is also the funnel through which most communications, especially classified information and it is an essential link, providing the traveling White House with access to all the information available from Washingtons national security community. The day begins with the Watch Teams preparation of the Morning Book, the Morning Book is usually in the car when the National Security Advisor is picked up for work. In addition, the Watch Teams produce morning and evening summaries of highly selective material and these summaries, targeted on current interagency issues, are transmitted electronically to the NSC staff. The Situation Room staff also provides alerts on breaking events to NSC, responsibility for informing the President belongs to the National Security Adviser. Later, a written Sit Room Note will be prepared, summarizing the event with up-to-the-minute reports from other centers, perhaps including a photo, diagram, another typical Situation Room activity is arranging the Presidents phone calls and other sensitive communications with foreign heads of state. This includes coordinating the timing of calls at each end, providing interpreters where necessary. In this function, the Situation Room coordinates closely with the White House Communications Agency, the only comprehensive renovation of the Situation Room took place from 2006 to 2007. Prior to the renovation, the room used cathode ray tubes for monitors and fax for communication and had computers, the room also had a small kitchen with no sink. Encrypted audio/visual equipment was unreliable, and such equipment would sometimes go black. Henry Kissinger once described the Situation Room as uncomfortable, unaesthetic and essentially oppressive, planning for the renovation began before the September 11,2001 attacks, although the project became more urgent afterward. Renovations began in August 2006, when the Situation Room complex was gutted down to bricks and bare floor and rebuilt from the ground up. The complex was renovated over about four and a months and was disruptive, particularly to White House Chief of Staff Joshua Bolten

Situation Room
–
President Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room. (Clicking on a person will take you to their respective article).
Situation Room
–
The newspaper with censored photo
Situation Room
–
Life and politics

41.
American University speech
–
Noteworthy are his comments that the United States was seeking a goal of complete disarmament of nuclear weapons and his vow that America will never start a war. The speech was unusual in its outreach to the Soviet Union at the height of the Cold War. After the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, Kennedy was determined to construct a better relationship with the Soviet Union to discourage another threat of nuclear war and he believed that Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was also interested in renewing U. S. -Soviet relations. On November 19,1962, Khrushchev had submitted a report to the Central Committee of the Communist Party that implicitly called for a halt in foreign intervention to concentrate on the economy. One month later, Khrushchev wrote Kennedy a letter stating the time has now to put an end once. Kennedy greeted this response with enthusiasm and suggested that technical discussions for nuclear inspections begin between representatives of the two governments, however, Kennedy faced opposition for any test ban from Republican leaders and his own State Department. After several months the opposition in the Senate lessened and gave the Kennedy Administration the opportunity to pursue the ban with the Soviet Union, in May 1963, the president informed his National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy that he wished to deliver a major address on peace. In the days before the speech, Kennedy was committed to addressing the U. S, Conference of Mayors in Honolulu and asked Sorensen to construct the initial draft with input from several members of Kennedys staff. The speech was reviewed and edited by Kennedy and Sorensen on the flight from Honolulu days before the address. Historian and Special Assistant Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. observed in his diary, from the viewpoint of orderly administration, but the State Department could never in a thousand years have produced this speech. By 1963 he had written drafts for nearly every speech Kennedy delivered in office, including the address, the Cuban Missile Crisis speech. Common elements of the Kennedy-Sorensen speeches were alliteration, repetition and chiasmus as well as historical references, although Kennedy often interposed off-the-cuff ad-libs to his speeches, he did not deviate from the final draft of the address. Anca Gata described Ted Sorensen as “the chief architect of the speech in language, style, composition, Kennedy noted that almost uniquely among the major world powers the United States and Russia had never been at war with each other. Kennedy sought to draw similarities between the United States and the Soviet Union several times and called for a reexamination of American attitudes towards Russia. He warned that adopting a course towards nuclear confrontation would be only of the bankruptcy of our policy—or of a collective death-wish for the world. For in it Kennedy tells us about transforming our deepest aspirations--in this case for peace--into practical realities and he almost presents a method, a dream-and-do combination that soars with high vision and yet walk on earth with practical results. What kind of peace do I mean and what kind of a peace do we seek, not a Pax Americana enforced on the world by American weapons of war. Not the peace of the grave or the security of the slave, today the expenditure of billions of dollars every year on weapons acquired for the purpose of making sure we never need them is essential to the keeping of peace

American University speech
–
President Kennedy delivers the commencement address at American University, Monday, June 10, 1963.

42.
We choose to go to the Moon
–
It was one of Kennedys earlier speeches meant to persuade the American people to support the national effort to land a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth. The perception deepened when in April 1961, Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space before the U. S. could launch its first Project Mercury astronaut. ”Kennedys goal gave direction and this required the expansion of NASAs Space Task Group into a Manned Spacecraft Center. Houston, Texas was chosen as the site, and the Humble Oil and Refining Company donated the land in 1961, Kennedy took advantage of the 1962 construction of the facility to deliver a speech on the nations space effort. On September 12,1962, President Kennedy delivered his speech before a crowd of 35,000 people in the Rice football stadium, for space science, like nuclear science and all technology, has no conscience of its own. There is no strife, no prejudice, no conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all and its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say, the Moon, why choose this as our goal. And they may ask, why climb the highest mountain. Why,35 years ago, fly the Atlantic and we choose to go to the Moon. This allowed Kennedy to reference back to his speech, when he declared to the world “Together let us explore the stars, ” enabling his metaphor to come full circle. ”With this extended metaphor of massive proportions, Kennedy seeks to imbue a sense of urgency. He recognized the growth of technology, and played on that to show that within the short time of nine years the stars would be ready for exploration. Rather than claim it as essential, he focused on the such a endeavor can provide – focusing the energy of the nation –. Let the people be driven to great deeds not by threats to their safety, as Kennedy told Congress earlier, “whatever mankind must undertake, free men must fully share. He began by talking about Space as the new frontier for all of mankind and he then condensed human history to show that within a very short period of time space travel will be possible, informing the audience that their dream is achievable. This constant use of first-person plural connects the listeners, and makes them aware that they, douglas Brinkley, a professor of history at Rice University, wrote in looking back on the speech on its 50th anniversary that, Kennedys oration was front-page news around the country. Pundits saw it as another Ted Sorenson-penned speech drenched in terrestrial aspiration, but for all of its soaring rhetoric, the Rice address was grounded in pragmatism. Kennedy made the case to taxpayers that NASA needed a $5.4 billion budget, Kennedy also did a tremendous job of connecting the moonshot to Houston in ways that thrilled locals. We meet at a noted for knowledge, in a city noted for progress, in a state noted for strength

We choose to go to the Moon
–
John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University
We choose to go to the Moon
–
President John F. Kennedy delivers his proposal to put a man on the Moon before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961
We choose to go to the Moon
–
JFK explained the cost of the entire space budget to be "somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars", equating to 40 cent per week "for every man, woman and child in the United States", saying that the "high national priority" of the Moon program will require this to rise to more than 50 cents a week.

43.
Ich bin ein Berliner
–
Ich bin ein Berliner is a quotation from a June 26,1963, speech by U. S. President John F. Kennedy in West Berlin. Kennedy aimed to underline the support of the United States for West Germany 22 months after Soviet-supported East Germany erected the Berlin Wall to prevent mass emigration to the West. The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a statement of U. S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. The speech is considered one of Kennedys best, both a moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New Frontier. It was a morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an enclave deep inside East Germany. Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg for an audience of 450,000, Kennedy said, Two thousand years ago, Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is Ich bin ein Berliner. All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, there is a widespread misconception that the phrase is incorrect German and in fact means Im a doughnut. It has even been embellished into an urban legend including equally incorrect claims about the audience laughing at this phrase, germanys capital, Berlin, was deep within the area controlled after World War II by the Soviet Union. Afterward, the controlled by the NATO Allies became an effective exclave of West Germany. From 1952, the border between East and West was closed everywhere but in Berlin, hundreds of thousands of East Germans defected to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain that threatened East Germany with economic collapse. In 1961, the East German government under Walter Ulbricht erected a barrier around West Berlin. The East German authorities argued that it was meant to prevent spies, however, it was universally known as the Berlin Wall and its real purpose was to keep East German citizens from escaping to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, the Wall closed the biggest loophole in the Iron Curtain, and Berlin went from being one of the easiest places to cross from East Europe to West Europe to being one of the most difficult. The West, including the U. S. was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the Wall, officially, Berlin was under joint occupation by the four allied powers, each with primary responsibility for a certain zone. Kennedys speech marked the first instance where the U. S. acknowledged that East Berlin was part of the Soviet bloc along with the rest of East Germany. Today, I believe, in 1962 the proudest boast is to say, and it is not enough to merely say it, we must live it. But Americans who serve today in West Berlin—your sons and brothers -- are the Americans who are bearing the great burden, such transcriptions are also found in the third draft of the speech, from June 25. The final typed version of the speech does not contain the transcriptions and it became clear quickly that the president did not have a gift for languages and was more likely to embarrass himself if he was to cite in German for any length

44.
United States presidential election, 1960
–
The United States presidential election of 1960 was the 44th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1960. The Republican Party nominated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon, while the Democratic Party nominated John F. Kennedy, the incumbent President, Republican Dwight D. This was the first presidential election in which voters in Alaska and Hawaii were able to participate, Kennedy received 112,827 more votes than Nixon nationwide and although Nixon won the popular vote contest in more individual states, Kennedy won a 303 to 219 Electoral College victory. The 1960 presidential election was the closest election since 1916, which can be explained by a number of factors. Kennedy benefited from the recession of 1957–58, which hurt the standing of the incumbent Republican Party. Furthermore, the new votes that Kennedy, the first Roman Catholic president, Kennedys campaigning skills decisively outmatched Nixons. In the end, Nixons emphasis on his experience carried little weight, Kennedy used his large, well-funded campaign organization to win the nomination, secure endorsements, and, with the aid of the last of the big-city bosses, get out the vote in the big cities. Kennedy relied on running mate Lyndon B. Johnson to hold the South, following the election, Nixon unsuccessfully ran for governor of California in 1962, before making a successful campaign for the presidency in 1968, winning re-election by a landslide in 1972. He was later the first United States President to resign, following the Watergate Scandal and this election also features the last time the state of Ohio was on the losing end of the presidential election. From 1964 onward, the candidate who won Ohio won the election nationwide, several other candidates sought support in their home state or region as favorite son candidates without any realistic chance of winning the nomination. Symington, Stevenson, and Johnson all declined to campaign in the presidential primaries, realizing that this was a strategy touted by his opponents to keep the public from taking him seriously, Kennedy stated frankly, Im not running for vice-president, Im running for president. The next step was the primaries, Kennedys Roman Catholic religion was an issue. Kennedy first challenged Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey in the Wisconsin primary, Kennedys attractive sisters, brothers, and wife Jacqueline combed the state looking for votes, leading Humphrey to complain that he felt like an independent merchant competing against a chain store. The first televised debate of 1960 was held in West Virginia, humphreys campaign was low on funds and could not compete for advertising and other get-out-the-vote drives with Kennedys well-financed and well-organized campaign. In the end, Kennedy defeated Humphrey with over 60% of the vote, West Virginia showed that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Although Kennedy had only competed in nine primaries, Kennedys rivals, Johnson and Symington. Following the primaries, Kennedy traveled around the nation speaking to state delegations, as the Democratic Convention opened, Kennedy was far in the lead, but was still seen as being just short of the delegate total he needed to win. The 1960 Democratic National Convention was held in Los Angeles, California, in the week before the convention opened, Kennedy received two new challengers when Lyndon B

45.
United States presidential debates
–
During presidential elections in the United States, it has become customary for the main candidates to engage in a debate. The topics discussed in the debate are often the most controversial issues of the time, candidate debates are not constitutionally mandated, but it is now considered a de facto election process. The debates are targeted mainly at undecided voters, those who tend not to be partial to any ideology or party. Presidential debates are held late in the cycle, after the political parties have nominated their candidates. The candidates meet in a hall, often at a university. The formats of the debates have varied, with questions posed from one or more journalist moderators. Debates have been broadcast live on television, radio, and in recent years, the first debate for the 1960 election drew over 66 million viewers out of a population of 179 million, making it one of the most-watched broadcasts in U. S. television history. The 1980 debates drew 80 million viewers out of a population of 226 million, recent debates have drawn decidedly smaller audiences, ranging from 46 million for the first 2000 debate to a high of over 67 million for the first debate in 2012. A record-breaking audience of over 84 million people watched the first 2016 presidential debate between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, a number that does not reflect online streaming. While the first general presidential debate was not held until 1960, the series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Senator Stephen A. Douglas for U. S. Douglas was later re-elected to the Senate by the Illinois legislature. Lincoln and Douglas were both nominated for president in 1860, and their earlier debates helped define their positions in that election. Republican candidate Wendell Willkie challenged President Franklin D. Roosevelt to a debate in 1940, in 1948, a radio debate was held in Oregon between Thomas E. Dewey and Harold Stassen, Republican primary candidates for president. The Democrats followed suit in 1956, with a primary debate between Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver. The Student Government Association Council of the University of Maryland invited both candidates to debate at the University of Maryland. In August 1956 the Baltimore Sun wrote an article with the headline Immigrant Urges Presidential Debates, both chairperson of both parties were contacted and considered the suggestion. Fred A. Kahn, a student of the University of Maryland, Kahn also sent letters to the chairmen of the Democratic and Republican parties, Maryland Governor Theodore McKeldin, and Eleanor Roosevelt. Mrs. Mrs. Roosevelt also sent a letter regarding Kahns proposal to James Finnegan, Adlai Stevensons campaign manager, the precise impact of Kahns proposal on the Kennedy-Nixon debates during the 1960 presidential campaign is unclear, but his ideas did receive national press exposure. Four years later the first televised debates were held, the first general election presidential debate was held on September 26,1960, between U. S

46.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site
–
The property is now owned by the National Park Service, tours of the house are offered, and a film is presented. The Kennedy home was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, the house was purchased by Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. in 1914, shortly after his marriage to Rose Fitzgerald, John and his sisters Rosemary and Kathleen were born in the upstairs master bedroom. The family lived there until 1920, when the growth of the family motivated the Kennedys to move to a home just a few blocks away on the corner of Abbottsford. The Kennedys sold the Beals Street house to Joe Kennedys advisor Edward Moore, the Kennedys lived in the Abbottsford Road home until 1927, when Joe Kennedys business interests prompted the familys move to New York. The Kennedy family were the owners of the house on Beals Street. The home was built in 1909, a period of growth in Brookline. The Kennedys moved into the home, then the last on the street, a few months after they were married, Joe Kennedy purchased a new Model T Ford which he used to commute to downtown, where he worked as the president of the Columbia Trust Bank. The T line to Coolidge Corner existed when the Kennedys were living in Brookline, Rose Kennedy would often walk from the Beals Street house down to the shopping district in Coolidge Corner, where there used to be an S. S. Pierce store among the other shops. In 1966, the Kennedy family repurchased the home from its owner, Mrs. Pollack. She wanted to restore the home to the hour of Jacks birth, about 19% of the artifacts in the home are original to the Kennedy family, being either used in the Beals Street residence or in later homes and brought back to Beals Street during the restoration. Rose Kennedy donated the home to the National Park Service in 1967 as a memorial to her son, the home is open to the public and visitors can take either a ranger guided tour or self-guided tours through the home. The house, Visitors are able to each of these rooms by both the ranger led and the self-guided tours. The basement of the home is the entrance and National Park visitor center. There is one public restroom available, as well as a small Eastern National retail shop, Visitors are welcome to view any exhibits and photographs in the visitor center, as well as watch a film. Living room Visitors to the Kennedy home would have been shown into the living room, the piano dominating the parlor belonged to Rose Kennedy and is one of the original pieces in the home. It was given to her as a gift from two of her uncles. Dining room The dining room contains the most complete collection of Kennedy artifacts within the home, the china was Roses wedding china. The table would not have set with a formal place setting for day to day meals

John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site
–
The house in 2011
John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site
–
The house in 1974.

47.
Kennedy Compound
–
The Kennedy Compound consists of three houses on six acres of waterfront property on Cape Cod along Nantucket Sound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, United States. It was once the home of American businessman and political figure Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. his wife Rose and their youngest son, Senator Ted Kennedy, lived in his parents house, and it was his main residence from 1982 to 2009. He died of cancer at the compound in August 2009. Ted Kennedy also bought President Kennedys house from his daughter, Caroline Kennedy and this house now belongs to Ted Kennedy, Jr. President Kennedy used the compound as a base for his successful 1960 U. S, presidential campaign and later as a summer White House and presidential retreat until his assassination in November 1963. In 2012, the house was donated to the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate. In 1926 Joseph P. Kennedy rented a cottage at 50 Marchant Avenue in Hyannis Port. Two years later, he purchased the structure, which had erected in 1904. In and around this house, their nine children spent their summers, acquiring a lifelong interest in sailing, in 1956, Jack bought a smaller home of his own at 111 Irving Avenue, not far from his fathers home. Subsequently, Ted acquired the residence at 28 Marchant Avenue adjacent to the two in 1959 and sold it to Bobby and his wife Ethel in 1961. Edward lived in the compound until his death, all three buildings are white-frame clapboard structures typical of vacation residences on Cape Cod. Except for specific occasions at the Main House, the buildings are not available for public visitation, joes home, the Main House and the largest of the three, is surrounded by well-tended lawns and gardens and it commands sweeping views of the ocean from its long porches. On the second floor are six bedrooms, a room, packing room. The house has a full attic, the basement contains a motion-picture theater and a hall covered with dolls from all around the world. A wine cellar designed after a hull and a sipping room – one of the Kennedy familys favorite hideouts. It is considered the place that Ted coined the well-known toast There are good ships, and there are wood ships, but the best ships are friendships, and may they always be. The house has changed little, either structurally or in furnishings, in 2012, the main house was donated by the Kennedy family to the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate. On the grounds are a swimming pool, tennis court, a four-car garage

48.
Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109
–
PT-109 was a PT boat last commanded by Lieutenant, junior grade John F. Kennedy in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Kennedys actions to save his crew after the sinking of PT-109 made him a war hero. The incident may have contributed to his long-term back problems. After he became president, the incident became a phenomenon, inspiring a song, books, movies, various television series, collectible objects, scale model replicas. Interest was revived in May 2002, with the discovery of the wreck by Robert Ballard, PT-109 earned two battle stars during World War II operations. PT-109 belonged to the PT-103 class, hundreds of which were completed between 1942 and 1945 by Elco in Bayonne, New Jersey, PT-109s keel was laid 4 March 1942 as the seventh Motor Torpedo Boat of the 80-foot-long -class built by Elco and was launched on 20 June. She was delivered to the Navy on 10 July 1942, the Elco boats were the largest PT boats operated by the U. S. Navy during World War II. At 80 feet and 40 tons, they had wooden hulls of two layers of 1-inch mahogany planking. Powered by three 12-cylinder 1,500 horsepower Packard gasoline engines, their top speed was 41 knots. For space and weight-distribution reasons, the outboard or wing engines were mounted with their ends facing forward. The center engine was mounted with the output flange facing aft, the engines were fitted with mufflers on the transom to direct the exhaust under water, which had to be bypassed for anything other than idle speed. PT-109 could accommodate a crew of three officers and 14 enlisted, with the crew size between 12 and 14. Fully loaded, PT-109 displaced 56 tons, the principal offensive weapon was her torpedoes. She was fitted with four 21-inch torpedo tubes containing Mark 8 torpedoes and they weighed 3,150 pounds each, with 386-pound warheads and gave the tiny boats a punch at least theoretically effective even against armored ships. Torpedoes were also useless against shallow-draft barges, which were their most common targets, because they were fueled with aviation gasoline, a direct hit to a PT boats engine compartment sometimes resulted in a total loss of boat and crew. In order to have a chance of hitting their target, PT boats had to close to within 2 miles for a shot, at this distance, a target could easily maneuver to avoid being hit. The boats approached in darkness, fired their torpedoes, which gave away their positions. Sometimes retreat was hampered by seaplanes dropping flares to render the visible in darkness

49.
Hammersmith Farm
–
Hammersmith Farm is a Victorian mansion and estate located at 225 Harrison Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island, United States. It was the home of First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy. During his presidency, it was referred to as the Summer White House, Hammersmith Farms 28-room main house was built in 1887 for John W. Auchincloss, the great-grandfather of Hugh D. Auchincloss, Jacqueline Kennedys stepfather. During a stay at Hammersmith in late September 1961, President Kennedy announced that John McCone would become the new Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, additionally, Kennedy signed Public Law 87-293, the Peace Corps Act of 1961. The main house remained in the Auchincloss family until the 1976 death of Hugh Auchincloss, janet Lee Bouvier Auchincloss, Jacqueline Kennedys mother, sold the main house and moved into one of the guesthouses on the farm, called The Castle. There was another guest house on the farm built to resemble a windmill, a group of investors bought main house in 1977, and opened it for public tours and special events. Fruit of the Loom executive William F. Farley bought it in 1997 for $6.675 million. In 1999, Farley sold the house for over $8 million to Peter Kiernan, a partner at Goldman Sachs. It had not been lived in since 1974, and had fallen into serious disrepair, much of the original plumbing was inoperable, and wiring had frayed from time and rodent damage. Bricks were coming loose and wood rot was everywhere, each year the building was listing a little more northward, toward Fort Adams. A major restoration was required to save the damaged structure, Kiernan oversaw a multi-year rehabilitation of the building, working with noted restoration architectural firm Windigo, headed by James Gubelman. Major structural flaws necessitated the removal of one end of the building, the house had suffered from decades of wood rot from leaking windows. Outside, the brick was bowing due to many successive winters of freezing, popping and falling bricks during the winter was routine. The interiors were painstakingly disassembled and numbered and new plumbing, HVAC, the exterior was restored with equal sensitivity to the original structure. Windows were rebuilt to protect the house from the sea winds of winter. New shingles and roof were installed following the architectural plans. Happily, the building had been recorded from numerous angles and vantage points over the decades. The goal of the owners, architects, and the HDC was to restore the farm as closely as possible to the one might have enjoyed in 1888

Hammersmith Farm
–
Senator John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy on their wedding day, September 12, 1953.
Hammersmith Farm
–
President John F. Kennedy, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy and their children sitting on the stairs at Hammersmith, September 29, 1961.
Hammersmith Farm
–
Hammersmith Farm garden, 1930.
Hammersmith Farm
–
President John F. Kennedy arriving at Hammersmith Farm in 1962.

50.
Coretta Scott King
–
Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, civil rights leader, and the wife of Martin Luther King, Jr. from 1953 until his death in 1968. Coretta Scott King helped lead the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, King was an active advocate for African-American equality. King met her husband while in college, and their participation escalated until they became central to the movement, in her early life, Coretta was an accomplished singer, and she often incorporated music into her civil rights work. King played a prominent role in the years after her husbands 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself, King founded the King Center and sought to make his birthday a national holiday. King finally succeeded when Ronald Reagan signed legislation which established Martin Luther King and she later broadened her scope to include both opposition to apartheid and advocacy for LGBT rights. King became friends with many politicians before and after Martin Luther Kings death, most notably John F. Kennedy, John F. Kennedys phone call to her during the 1960 election was what she liked to believe was behind his victory. In August 2005, King suffered a stroke paralyzed her right side and left her unable to speak. Her funeral was attended by some 10,000 people, including four of five living US presidents and she was temporarily buried on the grounds of the King Center until being interred next to her husband. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame and was the first African-American to lie in State in the Georgia State Capitol, King has been referred to as First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement. Coretta Scott was born in Marion, Alabama, the third of four children of Obadiah Scott and she was born in her parents home with her paternal great-grandmother Delia Scott, a former slave, presiding as midwife. Corettas mother became known for her talent and singing voice. As a child Bernice attended the local Crossroads School and only had a fourth grade education, bernices older siblings, however, attended boarding school at the Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee Institute. The senior Mrs. Scott worked as a bus driver, a church pianist. She served as Worthy Matron for her Eastern Star chapter and was a member of the local Literacy Federated Club, Obie, Corettas father, was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a vehicle. Before starting his own businesses he worked as a policeman, along with his wife, he ran a clothes shop far from their home and later opened a general store. He also owned a mill, which was burned down by white neighbors after Scott refused to lend his mill to a white male logger. Her maternal grandparents were Mollie and Martin van Buren McMurry – both were of African-American and Irish descent, Mollie was born a slave to plantation owner Jim Blackburn and Adeline Smith. Corettas maternal grandfather, Martin, was born to a slave of Black Native American ancestry and he eventually owned a 280-acre farm

51.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy

Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
An aerial view of Dealey Plaza showing the route of President Kennedy's motorcade
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
President Kennedy with his wife, Jacqueline, and Texas GovernorJohn Connally and his wife, Nellie, in the presidential limousine, minutes before the President's assassination
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
Ike Altgens ' photo of the Presidential limousine taken between the first and second shots that hit President Kennedy. President Kennedy's left hand is in front of his throat and Mrs. Kennedy's left hand is holding his arm.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
–
Polaroid photo by Mary Ann Moorman taken a fraction of a second after the fatal shot (detail).

52.
Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination
–
This article considers the detailed timeline of events before, during, and after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22. Oswald had secured the job after a referral by Ruth Paine, with whom Lees wife, Marina Oswald, Ruth had also separated from her husband, Michael Paine, at about the same time. On October 24,1963, when on a visit to Dallas to mark U. N. Day, U. N. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson was jeered, jostled, hit by a sign, and spat upon. Dallas Police were fearful that similar demonstrations were going to happen to Kennedy when he visited Dallas, several people, including Stevenson, warned JFK against coming to Dallas, but Kennedy refused their advice. Dallas Police, headed by chief Jesse Curry, did increase the level of security during Kennedys visit, Curry even deputized citizens to take action for any suspicious acts that may be pointed towards the president. San Antonio, Dedication speech for U. S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base, Houston, Testimonial dinner at the Rice Hotel, honoring Congressman Albert Thomas. Fort Worth, Arrival at Hotel Texas, Fort Worth, Chamber of Commerce breakfast speech at Hotel Texas. Dallas, Luncheon speech attended by Dallas Citizens Council, Dallas Assembly, austin, Fundraising dinner speech at Municipal Auditorium. Johnson City, Weekend of relaxation at Lyndon Johnsons ranch, on Thursday, November 21,1963, at 11,07 p. m. Air Force One lands at Carswell Air Force base on the ouskirts of Fort Worth, when walking down the steps of Air Force One, the president and his wife are met by Raymond Buck, president of the Fort Worth Chamber of Commerce. Also travelling on board Air Force Two are the vice president Lyndon B, Johnson, the Texas governor John Connally, and Senator Ralph Yarborough. Connally and Yarborough dislike each other so much that Yarborough is unwilling to travel in the car as Johnson. The following day, the president tells him to ride with Johnson, Kennedy is praising Fort Worth’s aviation industry. JFK takes his place in the hotel’s Grand Ballroom for the scheduled speech, later, press secretary Mac Kilduff shows the First Couple a disturbing advertisement seen in The Dallas Morning News, ironically and critically headlined ‘Welcome Mr. Kennedy to Dallas’. JFK tells Jacqueline, ‘We’re heading into nut country today, ’ On Friday, November 22,1963, at 11,38 a. m

53.
Black Jack (horse)
–
A coal-black Morgan-American Quarter Horse cross, Black Jack served in the Caisson Platoon of the 3rd U. S. Named in honor of General John J. Pershing, he was the horse in more than 1,000 Armed Forces Full Honors Funerals. With boots reversed in the stirrups, he was a symbol of a fallen leader, Black Jack was foaled January 19,1947, and came to Fort Myer from the cavalry remount station at Fort Reno, Oklahoma, on November 22,1952. Black Jack was the last of the Quartermaster–issue horses branded with the Armys U. S. brand, Black Jack served a long and respectable military career. Among the highlights were that he participated in four state funerals, Presidents, John F. Kennedy Herbert Hoover Lyndon B. Johnson Five-star general, wehle was the Commanding General of the Military District of Washington during those state funerals, except during the Presidency of Lyndon Johnson. At that time Army Major General James Adamson served as Commanding General, Black Jack died after a 29-year military career on February 6,1976. He is one of two horses in United States history to be buried with Full Military Honors, the other being Comanche. Black Jacks burial site is at coordinates 38. 881141°N77. 081130°W﻿ /38.881141, -77.081130

54.
John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame
–
The John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame is a presidential memorial at the gravesite of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, in Arlington National Cemetery. The permanent site replaced a temporary grave and eternal flame used during President Kennedys funeral on November 25,1963, the site was designed by architect John Carl Warnecke, a long-time friend of President Kennedys. The permanent John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame grave site was consecrated and opened to the public on March 15,1967, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on Friday, November 22,1963. Initial press reports indicated that President Kennedy would be buried at Holyhood Cemetery in Brookline, Massachusetts, but the site for the Presidents grave was quickly changed to the hillside just below Arlington House. The site was chosen because the President and his friend, architect John Carl Warnecke, happened to visit the site in March 1963, the initial suggestion to bury President Kennedy at Arlington appears to have been made by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy agreed to the change, on Sunday, November 24,1963, Jacqueline Kennedy requested an eternal flame for her husbands grave. According to several published accounts, she drew inspiration from a number of sources, one was the eternal flame at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, which she and her husband had seen during a visit to France in 1961. She also took inspiration from the novel The Candle in the Wind and her brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, counseled against an eternal flame, worried that it might appear ostentatious or that it would compete with other such memorials at Arlington National Cemetery. The Presidents funeral was set for Monday, November 25 and this left very little time to manufacture and install an eternal flame. The Corps also installed a gas line to a propane tank 200 yards away to feed the torch, a mound of evergreens was placed around the base of the flame to cover the tubing and torch mechanism, and the head of the grave dug in front of the flame. The grave was set in a plot of grass roughly 5 yards on each side, the site was about halfway up the hill on which Arlington House stands. The grave was placed so that it had a view of the Lincoln Memorial and Washington Monument, Jacqueline Kennedy lit a taper from a candle held by a nearby soldier, and then brought the eternal flame to life at the end of the burial service. The presidents brothers, Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. Kennedy, on the evening of November 26, the site was surrounded by a white picket fence. The fencing covered an expanded area 30 feet long by 20 feet wide, the enlarged site was due to the wish of Mrs. Kennedy to inter her two deceased children next to their father. She had read that President Abraham Lincoln had been buried next to his son, Willie Lincoln. The two caskets were flown to Washington, D. C. accompanied by Mrs. Auchincloss, a small white cross was placed at the head of the daughters grave, and a small white headstone placed at the head of Patrick Kennedys grave. During the funeral, flowers were laid on the hillside above the grave, after the erection of the fence, flowers were placed inside the enclosure, leaning against the uphill side of the fence. A canvas-covered circular wooden walkway was built from Sheridan Drive to the site to give members of the public access to the grave

John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame
–
John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame at Arlington National Cemetery after its 2013 renovation
John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame
–
Mrs. Kennedy and AG Robert F. Kennedy walk away from President Kennedy's casket after lighting the Eternal Flame. The evergreen boughs which cover the base of the temporary Eternal Flame can be seen behind them. The Presidential Honor Guard is in front of and to the left of Mrs. Kennedy. Note the presence of the Green Beret.
John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame
–
View across the Arlington Memorial Bridge to the Lincoln Memorial and Washington Monument.
John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame
–
Grave site under construction in October 1965. The temporary grave is just beyond the picket fence, where the crowd has gathered.

55.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
–
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum is the presidential library and museum of John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States. Designed by the architect I. M, the library and museum were dedicated in 1979 by President Jimmy Carter and members of the Kennedy family. It can be reached from nearby Interstate 93 or via shuttle bus or walk from the JFK/UMass stop on the Boston subways Red line. At the time there were four other Presidential Libraries, the Hoover Presidential Library, the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, the Truman Library. They were all scattered around the country in small towns from New York to Iowa, Kennedy had not decided on any design concept yet, but he felt that the existing presidential libraries were placed too far away from scholarly resources. Kennedy chose a plot of land next to the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, the building would face the Charles River which was a few feet away, and on the other side of which, the dormitories that included Winthrop House where Kennedy spent his upperclassman days. Therefore, the building would have the word museum appended to its name, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, after President Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, his family and friends discussed how to construct a library that would serve as a fitting memorial. A committee was formed to advise Kennedys widow Jacqueline, who would make the final decision, the group deliberated for months, and visited with architects from around the world including Pietro Belluschi and others from the United States, Brazils Lucio Costa, and Italys Franco Albini. Mrs. Kennedy and others met with the candidates together at the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis, Massachusetts, the committee also conducted a secretive process whereby the architects voted anonymously for the most capable of their colleagues. Progress on the building shortly after his death. On January 13,1964, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy announced that a taped oral-history project was to be undertaken for inclusion in the library, the project would feature administration staff, friends, family, and politicians from home and abroad. Large donations came from the Hispanic world with Venezuela pledging $100,000, the oral-history project also began recording, starting with Jacqueline Kennedy and Robert Kennedy. Originally projected to consist of interviews with 150 people,178 had agreed to participate, some notable donations include $900,000 handed over to Postmaster General John A. Gronouski on July 9,1964. It was the sum of a campaign encompassing 102 Federal agencies, Gronouski said many of the Federal employee contributions were in the form of a $5 withholding each payday for a period of three years. The next day the Indian ambassador to the United States, Braj Kumar Nehru, presented Black with a check for $100,000 during a ceremony at the River Club. Nehru said that the Indian people were hit by a sad blow when the President died, and he desired for Indian students abroad in the United States to use the library, then still planned for construction at Harvard along the banks of the Charles River. On December 13,1964, the Kennedy family announced that I. M. Pei was unanimously chosen by a subcommittee as the architect of the library. Even though Pei was relatively unknown amongst the list of candidates, Mrs. Pei did not have a design yet, but the idea as described by Robert Kennedy was to “stimulate interest in politics. ”Meanwhile, the suggestion that Harvard may not be a suitable site for the library had begun cropping up

John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
–
From the pavilion (pictured), designer I. M. Pei says there is a restricted access area that offers the best view in the complex.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
–
President Kennedy had the coconut made into a paperweight. It sat on his desk in the Oval Office. The message reads: "NAURO ISL… COMMANDER… NATIVE KNOWS POS'IT… HE CAN PILOT… 11 ALIVE… NEED SMALL BOAT… KENNEDY"
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
–
Life

56.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
–
The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission is a federal agency that administers and enforces civil rights laws against workplace discrimination. On March 6,1961, President John F and it established the Presidents Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity of which then Vice President Lyndon Johnson was appointed to head. This was the forerunner of the EEOC, the EEOCs first complainants were female flight attendants. However, the EEOC at first ignored sex discrimination complaints, one EEOC director called the prohibition a fluke. All Commission seats and the post of counsel to the commission are filled by the President of the U. S. subject to confirmation by the Senate. She had been nominated as chairwoman by President Barack Obama in July 2009, in September 2009, Obama chose Chai Feldblum to fill another vacant seat. On March 27,2010, President Obama made recess appointments of three Commission posts, Berrien, Feldblum, and Victoria Lipnic, Obama also made a recess appointment of P. David Lopez to be the EEOCs General Counsel. On December 22,2010, the Senate gave full confirmation to Berrien, Feldblum, Lipnic, in 2011, the Commission included sex-stereotyping of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals as a form of sex discrimination illegal under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 2012, the Commission expanded protection provided by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to transgender status, after the departure of Ishimaru, the commission returned to its full complement of five commissioners on April 25,2013, with the Senate confirmation of Jenny Yang. In 2015, it concluded that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 doesnt allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination. However, these rulings, while persuasive, are not binding on courts, the Commission also mediates and settles thousands of discrimination complaints each year prior to their investigation. The EEOC is also empowered to file civil suits against employers on behalf of alleged victims. In an opinion handed down in December of 2014 in the matter of Aguilar v. Bennett reducing the amount to the cap of $300,000. Asarco lost its appeal to have the amount reduced more, another less obvious reality about the current EEOC statutory caps that Aguilar v. ASARCO LLC raises is that, while the damages to the plaintiff amounted to the statutory cap of $300,000. The legal fees awarded to Aguilars attorneys were more than $350,000, in 1975, when backlog reached more than 100,000 charges to be investigated, President Gerald Fords full requested budget of $62 million was approved. A Backlog Unit was created in Philadelphia in 1978 to resolve the thousands of federal equal employment complaints inherited from the Civil Service Commission. In 1980, Eleanor Holmes Norton began re-characterizing the backlog cases as workload in her reports to Congress, in 2006, a partial budget freeze prevented the agency from filling vacant jobs, and its staff had shrunk by nearly 20 percent from 2001. A Bush administration official stated that the cuts had been made because it was necessary to more money to defense

57.
Kennedy Space Center
–
The John F. Kennedy Space Center is one of ten National Aeronautics and Space Administration field centers. Since December 1968, Kennedy Space Center has been NASAs primary launch center of human spaceflight, Launch operations for the Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle programs were carried out from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 and managed by KSC. Located on the east coast of Florida, KSC is adjacent to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, the management of the two entities work very closely together, share resources, and even own facilities on each others property. Additionally, the center manages launch of robotic and commercial missions, researches food production and In-Situ Resource Utilization for off Earth exploration. Since 2010, the center has worked to become a multi-user spaceport through industry partnerships, there are about 700 facilities grouped across the centers 144,000 acres. There is also a Visitor Complex open to the public on site, the military had been performing launch operations since 1949 at what would become Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. In December 1959, the Department of Defense transferred 5,000 personnel, President John F. Kennedys 1961 goal of a manned lunar landing before 1970 required an expansion of launch operations. On July 1,1962, the Launch Operations Directorate was separated from MSFC to become the Launch Operations Center, therefore, the decision was made to build a new LOC site located adjacent to Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island. NASA began land acquisition in 1962, buying title to 131 square miles, the major buildings in KSCs Industrial Area were designed by architect Charles Luckman. Construction began in November 1962, and Kennedy visited the site twice in 1962, on November 29,1963, the facility was given its current name by President Lyndon B. Johnson under Executive Order 11129. Johnsons order joined both the civilian LOC and the military Cape Canaveral station under the designation John F. Kennedy Space Center, spawning some confusion joining the two in the public mind. Located on Merritt Island, Florida, the center is north-northwest of Cape Canaveral on the Atlantic Ocean and it is 34 miles long and roughly six miles wide, covering 219 square miles. KSC is a major central Florida tourist destination and is one hours drive from the Orlando area. The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex offers public tours of the center, Center workers can encounter bald eagles, American alligators, wild boars, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes, the endangered Florida panther and Florida manatees. From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches, the first of two unmanned flights, Apollo 4 on November 9,1967, was also the first rocket launch from KSC. The Saturn Vs first manned launch on December 21,1968 was Apollo 8s lunar orbiting mission, the next two missions tested the Lunar Module, Apollo 9 and Apollo 10. Apollo 11, launched from Pad A on July 16,1969, Apollo 12 followed four months later. From 1970–1972, the Apollo program concluded at KSC with the launches of missions 13 through 17, on May 14,1973, the last Saturn V launch put the Skylab space station in orbit from Pad 39A

58.
Kennedy half dollar
–
The Kennedy half dollar, first minted in 1964, is a fifty-cent coin currently issued by the United States Mint. Intended as a memorial to the assassinated President John F. Kennedy, use of existing works by Mint sculptors Gilroy Roberts and Frank Gasparro allowed dies to be prepared quickly, and striking of the new coins began in January 1964. The silver coins were hoarded upon their release in March 1964 by collectors, although the Mint greatly increased production, the denomination was seldom seen in circulation. Continued rises in the price of increased the hoarding—many early Kennedy half dollars have been melted for their silver. Starting with 1965-dated pieces, the percentage of silver was reduced from 90% to 40%. In 1971, when silver was eliminated entirely from the coins and production increased, the series began to see improved, a special design for the reverse of the half dollar was issued for the United States Bicentennial and was struck in 1975 and 1976. In 2014 a special edition of the Kennedy half dollar was struck in 99. 99% gold. Even though ample supplies of circulating half dollars are available from most banks. Since 2002, Kennedy half dollars have only been struck to satisfy the demand from collectors, within hours of the assassination of John F. Mrs. Kennedys reasoning was that she did not want to replace George Washington on the quarter, both Roberts and Gasparros designs had been approved by Kennedy. After the Mint produced trial strikes, Jacqueline and Robert Kennedy were invited to view them, mrs. Kennedy viewed the designs favorably, but suggested that the hair be altered slightly. Frank Gasparros reverse design of the Kennedy half dollar was also influenced by the experience he gained from designing the President John, the reverse design of the Kennedy appreciation medal depicts a larger and more detailed Presidential Seal than the one he designed on the Mints Presidential series. Gasparros placement of his initials FG is also located on both the Kennedy appreciation medal and Kennedy half dollar. Congressional approval was required for any change within 25 years of the last. In early December, Representative Henry Gonzalez introduced a bill for Kennedy to appear on the half dollar, President Johnson stated that he had been moved by letters from many members of the public to agree with the plan. The bill to authorize the Kennedy half dollar passed on December 30,1963, work was already underway on coinage dies, the use of the already-available designs allowed for the completion of the first dies on January 2,1964. Only proof coins were initially struck, the first Kennedy half dollars intended for circulation were struck at the Denver Mint on January 30,1964, followed by the Philadelphia Mint the next week. A ceremonial first strike was held at both Philadelphia and Denver on February 11,1964, the Treasury Department made the coins available to the public beginning on March 24,1964

59.
Operation Sail
–
Operation Sail refers to a series of sailing events held to celebrate special occasions and features sailing vessels from around the world. Each event is coordinated by Operation Sail, Inc. a non-profit organization established in 1961 by U. S. President John F. Kennedy and must be approved by the United States Congress. Often referred to as OpSail or Op Sail, the event has the goals of promoting good will and it is also sometimes erroneously referred to as Tall Ships. While the tall ships form the centerpiece of the event, smaller sailing vessels also participate, Op Sail events, when scheduled, are run concurrently with the annual International Naval Review, which features present-day warships from various navies. Six Op Sail events have held to date, in 1964,1976,1986,1992,2000 and 2012. The event culminates in the Parade of Ships on the Hudson River and in New York Harbor on July 4, the United States Coast Guard cutter Eagle has been the host vessel to all six Op Sail events. Along with Nils Hansell, Frank Braynard launched the worlds first Operation Sail, the inaugural Opsail was a tie-in with the 1964 New York Worlds Fair. Operation sail 1964, Four years in the making, Operation Sail is an effort to promote goodwill and to generate awareness of ships. It is a dream come true for sailing enthusiasts, and a once in an opportunity for anyone who is stirred by the sight of a square rigger under full sail. Many nations maintain sailing ships in this age because they believe there is no better way to build character in young men than sail training. It encourages initiative, steadfastness, leadership and personal courage, the records of the brotherhood of the sea sparkle with innumerable examples of the value of such training. The prestige of having served aboard a windjammer is no small matter, to reach New York for the July 14 parade up the Hudson River, some of these tall ships will have sailed from their home ports as long ago as early March. Some will have raced from Plymouth, England, to Lisbon, Portugal, then 3000 miles across the Atlantic to Bermuda rendezvous, and these ships are specifically built for training under sail. As these tall ships plough the oceans, the men who man this great fleet are helping to forge a bond of understanding, July 12, Ships anchor in designated order in Gravesend Bay. July 13, 1430- Captains briefing aboard USCG 1730-2000, Reception at Chase Manhattan Bank, July 14, 1100- Ships will depart Gravesend Bay and pass official reviewing vessel, USS Randolph, and then proceed to anchorages below the George Washington Bridge. July 15, Ships move to assigned piers, July 16, 1200- Ticker tape parade from Battery Park to City Hall. 1400-1800- Ships open to Public. 2000-0100- Grand Ball, Holland America Line Pier 40, July 17, 0900- Captains Symposium, Maritime Exchange. 1215- American Institute of Marine Underwriters luncheon for Captains at India House, July 18, Worlds Fair Day, Singer Bowl

60.
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
–
This is a list of memorials to John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States. At Harvard University, The Harvard Institute of Politics serves as a memorial which promotes public service in his name. The School of Government is known as the John F. Kennedy School of Government, John F. Kennedy University opened in Pleasant Hill, California, in 1964 as a school for adult education. Hundreds of schools across the U. S. were named in Kennedys honor, the first school in the United States named after him, while he was alive, had been the Kennedy Middle School, in Cupertino, California. In the week after Kennedys death, the first schools renamed for him were the Kennedy Elementary School in Butte, Montana, both schools held Board Meetings on November 26, at which time the new names were adopted. Originally scheduled to be named in honour of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, it was instead named President Kennedy School, Cape Canaveral itself was likewise renamed Cape Kennedy, but a referendum passed by Florida voters in 1973 reverted it to its original name. In New York City, the New York International Airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, today, the airport is widely referred to as JFK which is now its IATA code. John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport, Ashland, Wisconsin, United States, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum on Columbia Point in Dorchester, Massachusetts opened in 1979 as Kennedys official presidential library. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts opened in 1971 in Washington, the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Federal Building in Government Center, Boston. John F. Kennedy Stadium, Bridgeport, Connecticut, United States, JFK Stadium, Springfield, Missouri, United States. One of the five towers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst is named Kennedy Tower in his honor. The student union at the University of Dayton is named the John F. Kennedy Memorial Union, in Cumberland, Maryland a low income residential apartment is named the John F Kennedy Tower. It was dedicated by Maryland native and late brother-in-law of Kennedy, Sargent Shriver, Philadelphia Municipal Stadium was renamed John F. Kennedy Stadium in 1964. It was razed in 1992 and its location is now occupied by the Wells Fargo Center. Rue John Kennedy, a street in Beirut, Lebanon that was named in honor of President John F. Kennedy on November 30,1963, Kennedy Street was the name of a street in Tehran, Iran, which was renamed Vahdat-e-Islami Street after the Revolution of 1979. Kennedybrücke, a bridge in Vienna, Austria, finished in 1964 and named after John F. Kennedy, kennedytunnel, one of the busiest highway tunnels in Europe, built in the 1960s in Antwerp, Belgium, and named after President Kennedy. Kennedybrücke, a bridge in Hamburg, between the Binnenalster and Außenalster, completed in 1953 and originally named Neue Lombardsbrücke, it was renamed Kennedybrücke after the assassination in 1963. Ejido John F. Kennedy, a farm in the state of Sonora

Memorials to John F. Kennedy
–
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy has appeared on the U.S. half-dollar coin since 1964
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
–
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
Memorials to John F. Kennedy
–
Bust of Kennedy, with UQAM President Kennedy Pavilion behind, on Président-Kennedy Avenue in Montreal

61.
Kennedy Expressway
–
The highway is named for the 35th U. S. President, John F. Kennedy, and conforms to the Chicago-area convention of using the term Expressway for an Interstate Highway without tolls. The Interstate 90 portion of the Kennedy is a part of the much longer I-90, the Kennedys official endpoints are the Circle Interchange with Interstate 290 and the Dan Ryan Expressway at the east end, and the OHare Airport terminals at the west end. The Interstate 190 portion of the Kennedy is 3.07 miles long and is meant to serve airport traffic, Interstate 90 picks up the Kennedy destination and runs a further 6.29 miles, before joining with I-94 for the final 8.44 miles. With up to 327,000 vehicles traveling on some portions of the Kennedy daily, the Kennedy and its South Side extension, the Dan Ryan, are the busiest roads in Illinois. The Kennedy was originally constructed along the route of Avondale Avenue, a diagonal street. Until 1978, the Kennedy Expressway was marked as I-94 and Illinois Route 194, I-90 and I-190 replaced IL194, the express portion of the freeway was last reconstructed from 1992 through 1994, when the existing express lanes, which previously were reversed by hand, were modernized. In addition, all aspects of the express lanes system were computerized, at least once a day, however, IDOT crews still examine the express lanes for debris while the lanes are closed. In 2005, the Washington Street bridge over the expressway was reconstructed, the same was done in 2006 for the Monroe Street bridge. This left a portion of each ramp remaining on the expressway, to be removed. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided the funding for the construction between Hubbard Street and the Circle Interchange, commencing in summer 2009. The only remaining short, limited-sight, left-side suicide ramp entrance is from Lake Street to the eastbound expressway, as part of the project, eastbound traffic patterns were adjusted. For example, the changes increased the taper for the Randolph Street entrance headed eastbound from 160 to 583 feet, in the westbound direction, the exit ramp to Monroe Street was permanently removed. In 2015, the American Highway Users Alliance named the 12 miles of the Kennedy between the Circle Interchange and Edens junction the worst traffic bottleneck in the country. The Blue Line operates in the median of the Kennedy Expressway for about 10 miles from OHare International Airport to just south of Addison Street and this had been done previously in the early 1950s within the medians of the Eisenhower Expressway, and for the Dan Ryan Expressway in 1969. The decision proved to be wise, as the line is heavily traveled by commuters and travelers during the rush hour. The second distinct features of the Kennedy Expressway are its reversible express lanes where I-94 merges into I-90, the reversible lanes lie in the median of the highway from the Kennedy Expressway/Edens Expressway junction until just north of the Loop, a distance of about eight miles. These reversible lanes allow two lanes of traffic to flow towards or away from the city, depending on the time of the day, the lanes are controlled by computers and verified by humans at a separate control center. Steel mesh barriers and breakaway gates prevent traffic from entering oncoming lanes, on January 25,2014, a drunk driver broke through the safety gates and drove in the express lanes in the wrong direction, but was stopped by a snow plow, no injuries were reported

Kennedy Expressway
–
An eastbound view of the Kennedy Expressway heading toward downtown Chicago
Kennedy Expressway
–
Southeastward view of the Kennedy Expressway from the Montrose Blue Line Station, with the reversible express lanes to the right of the tracks
Kennedy Expressway
–
Sign over the Kennedy Expressway, at the north entrance to Hubbard's Cave, encouraging commuters to use Metra trains, such as one seen here passing over the highway, to avoid the common congestion
Kennedy Expressway
–
Magikist Lips sign formerly located on the Kennedy Expressway at Montrose Avenue in Chicago, torn down in 2004

62.
John F. Kennedy International Airport
–
John F. Kennedy International Airport is a major international airport located near South Ozone Park in the borough of Queens in New York City, United States,12 miles southeast of Lower Manhattan. Over ninety airlines operate out of the airport, with non-stop or direct flights to destinations in all six inhabited continents, the airport features six passenger terminals and four runways. It serves as a hub for American Airlines and Delta Air Lines and is the operating base for JetBlue Airways. In the past, JFK served as a hub for Eastern, National, Pan Am, John F. Kennedy International Airport was originally Idlewild Airport after the Idlewild Beach Golf Course that it displaced. It was built to relieve LaGuardia Airport, which was overcrowded soon after opening in 1939. Construction began in 1943, and about $60 million was spent of governmental funding. In March 1948 the New York City Council changed the name to New York International Airport, Anderson Field, the Port Authority leased the JFK property from the City of New York in 1947 and maintains this lease today. The first airline flight from JFK was on July 1,1948, the Port Authority cancelled foreign airlines permits to use LaGuardia, forcing them to move to JFK during the next couple of years. JFK opened with six runways and a seventh under construction, runways 1L and 7L were held in reserve and never came into use as runways. Runway 31R is still in use, runway 31L opened soon after the rest of the airport and is still in use, runway 1R closed in 1957, runway 4 opened June 1949 and runway 4R was added ten years later. A smaller runway 14/32 was built after runway 7R closed and was used through 1990 by general aviation, STOL and smaller commuter flights. The Avro Jetliner was the first jetliner to land at JFK on April 18,1950, later in 1957 the USSR sought approval for two Tupolev Tu-104 flights carrying diplomats to JFK, the Port Authority did not allow them, saying noise tests had to be done first. The airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, then-mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. proposed the renaming. The Port of New York Authority originally planned a single 55-gate terminal, architect Wallace Harrison then designed a master plan under which each major airline at the airport would be given its own space to develop its own terminal design. This scheme made construction more practical, made terminals more navigable, the revised plan met airline approval in 1955, with seven terminals initially planned—five for individual airlines, one developed for 3 airlines and an international arrivals building. The International Arrivals Building, or IAB, was the first new terminal at the airport, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and opening in December 1957. Stretching nearly 700 meters parallel to runway 7R where Terminal 4 is now, it had finger piers at right-angles to the building allowing more aircraft to park. United Airlines opened Terminal 7, a Skidmore design similar to the IAB, Eastern Airlines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 a month later, it was demolished in 1995

John F. Kennedy International Airport
–
John F. Kennedy International Airport - KJFK
John F. Kennedy International Airport
John F. Kennedy International Airport
–
FAA airport diagram as of September 2014.
John F. Kennedy International Airport

63.
John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
–
The main span is 700 feet and the bridge has a total length of 2,498 feet. The span carries six southbound lanes and it is named after U. S. President John F. Kennedy. Designed by the Louisville engineering firm of Hazelet & Erdal, construction began in the spring of 1961, the span was unnamed when U. S. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22,1963. Four days later, Kentucky Governor Bert T. Combs announced that there was agreement that the bridge would be named in Kennedys honor. The bridge was dedicated and opened for traffic on December 6. Between the late 1990s and 2006, the bridge was covered with spots and the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet had failed in attempts to rectify this. The state twice paid contractors to repaint the bridge who then failed to do so, the attempts cost over $23 million, with little apparent result. The first of the two contracts, awarded in 1999, ended two years later in a scandal that resulted in criminal prosecution. In October 2006, the awarded a $14.7 million contract to Intech Contracting of Lexington to paint half the bridge by the summer of 2007. The new contract differed in that the project was split in two, and the plans for a three color paint scheme were replaced with a simpler all beige colored one. The very southernmost portion of the bridge was completed in three colors, although this will be painted over, on December 5,2007, the painting project was completed at a cost of $59 million which included the two previous failed painting projects. In 2013, Kentucky broke ground on a span as part of the Ohio River Bridges Project. The Abraham Lincoln Bridge, a bridge that opened in December 2015. The Kennedy Bridge now carries six lanes of southbound I-65 traffic, the Kennedy Bridge reopened in three phases during the final months of 2016. The first phase saw one lane reopen on September 30 for traffic traveling from surface streets in Jeffersonville to I-65, the final phase was the reopening of the exit ramp from the bridge to westbound I-64, which had been closed for nearly a year, on November 14

John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
–
The John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge in 2006 as seen from Jeffersonville, Indiana
John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
–
The bridge during the last repainting project. Note the far right part of the bridge painted in a three color scheme, originally planned for the whole bridge. This scheme was abandoned and the entire bridge was painted in a light grey.

64.
John F. Kennedy School of Government
–
The John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University is a public policy and public administration school, of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The school offers degrees in public policy, public administration, and international development, grants several doctoral degrees. It conducts research in subjects relating to politics, government, international affairs, the Schools primary campus is located on John F. Kennedy Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The main buildings overlook the Charles River, southwest of Harvard Yard and Harvard Square, the School is adjacent to the public riverfront John F. Kennedy Memorial Park. In 2015, Douglas Elmendorf, the director of the U. S. Congressional Budget Office who had served as a Harvard faculty member, was named Dean of the Harvard Kennedy School. From 2004 to 2015, the Schools Dean was David Ellwood, previously, Ellwood was an assistant secretary in the Department of Health and Human Services in the Clinton Administration. A major expansion and renovation of the began in 2015. Harvard Kennedy School was originally the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration, and was founded in 1936 with a $2 million gift from Lucius N. Littauer and its shield was designed to express the national purpose of the school and was modeled after the U. S. shield. The School drew its initial faculty from Harvards existing government and economics departments, the Schools original home was in the Littauer Center north of Harvard Yard, now the home of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences Economics Department. In the 1960s, the School began to develop public policy degree. In 1966, the School was renamed for President John F. Kennedy, under the terms of Littauers original grant, the current HKS campus also features a building called Littauer. The IOP has been housed on the Kennedy School campus since 1978, the John F. Kennedy, Jr. Forum in the new Littauer building is both the site of IOP forum events as well as a major social gathering place between HKS courses. Ground breaking commenced on May 7,2015 and is expected to be complete in early 2018. The school has stated that the new space will be used exclusively to cater to the needs of the class sizes. Currently, Harvard Kennedy School offers four degree programs. The Master of Public Policy program focuses on analysis, economics, management in the public sector. Among the members of the mid-career MPA class are the Mason Fellows, Mason Fellows typically constitute about 50% of the incoming class of Mid Career MPA candidates

John F. Kennedy School of Government
–
Littauer Building
John F. Kennedy School of Government
–
Harvard Kennedy School
John F. Kennedy School of Government
–
Taubman Building
John F. Kennedy School of Government
–
Belfer Center

65.
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
–
Its purpose is to recruit, assess, select, train and educate the U. S. The command originated in 1950, when the U. S. Army developed the Psychological Warfare Division of the Army General School at Fort Riley, Kansas. The U. S. Army Psychological Warfare Center and School, which included operational tactical units, the center was proposed by the Armys then-Psychological Warfare Chief, Robert A. McClure, to provide doctrinal support and training for both psychological and unconventional warfare. In 1956, the PSYWAR Center and School was renamed the U. S. Army Center for Special Warfare/U. S, the school was given the responsibility to develop the doctrine, techniques, training and education of Special Forces and Psychological Operations personnel. In 1960, the schools expanded to counterinsurgency operations. In 1962, the Special Warfare Center established a Special Forces Training Group to train enlisted volunteers for operational assignments within Special Forces units, the Advanced Training Committee was formed to explore and develop methods of infiltration and exfiltration. On 16 May 1969, the school was renamed the U. S. Army Institute for Military Assistance, the curriculum was expanded to provide training in high-altitude, low-opening parachuting and SCUBA operations. On 1 April 1972, the U. S. Army Civil Affairs School was transferred from Fort Gordon, Georgia to Fort Bragg, in 1973, the center was assigned to the new U. S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. On 1 June 1982, the Chief of Staff of the Army approved the separation of the center as an independent TRADOC activity under the name U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center. The SWC integrated special operations into the Army systems, training and operations, in 1985, SWC was recognized as the U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School. A few years later, the Noncommissioned Officer Academy was instituted, on 20 June 1990, SWCS was reassigned from TRADOC to the U. S. Army Special Operations Command. This designation gave USASOC control of all components of SOF, with the exception of forward-deployed units. The U. S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School at Fort Bragg, N. C. manages and resources training, education, Special operations forces training is grounded in the SOF Truths, Humans are more important than hardware. Competent special-operations forces cannot be created after emergencies occur, most special operations require non-SOF support On any given day, approximately 3,100 students are enrolled in SWCS training programs. Courses range from training to advanced war fighting skills. SWCS also maintains the Special Forces Warrant Officer Institute and the David K. Thuma Noncommissioned Officer Academy, while most courses are conducted at Fort Bragg, SWCS also has facilities and relationships with outside institutions. In all, SWCS offers 41 unique courses, including assessment & selection and qualification courses for Civil Affairs, Psychological Operations, Special Forces and Cultural Support. Advanced skills courses include combat diver training in Key West, Florida, sniper training at Fort Bragg, regional studies and education constitutes Phase II of the three branches qualification courses

John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
–
Distinctive Unit Insignia
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
–
U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School insignia

66.
Runnymede
–
Runnymede is a water-meadow alongside the River Thames in the English county of Surrey, and just over 20 miles west of central London. It is notable for its association with the sealing of Magna Carta, and as a consequence is, with its adjoining hillside, Runnymede Borough is named after the area, Runnymede being at its northernmost point. The name Runnymede refers to land in public and National Trust ownership in the Thames flood plain south-west of the river between Old Windsor and Egham, the area includes the Long Mede and Runnymede, which together with Coopers Hill Slopes is managed by the National Trust. There is also a strip of land, east of the road and west of the river. Slightly further downstream from the area shown on the map are, an area with a car park, a number of private homes, a large distribution centre. The landscape of Runnymede is characterised as Thames Basin Lowland, urban fringe and it is a gently undulating vale of small fields interspersed by woods, shaws, ponds, meadows, and heath. The National Trust area is a Site of Nature Conservation Interest which contains a Site of Special Scientific Interest, both sites are overseen by Runnymede Borough Council. Long Mede is a north of the ancient mede of Runnymede towards Old Windsor and has been used for centuries to provide good-quality hay from the alluvial pasture. Near the Island, on the north-east flood plain, in parkland on the bank of the river, are Ankerwycke. The Thames has changed course here occasionally, and these areas may once have been a part of Runnymede. Both were acquired by the National Trust in 1998, runnymedes historical significance has been heavily influenced by its proximity to the Roman Road river crossing at nearby Staines-upon-Thames. The name Runnymede may be derived from the Anglo-Saxon runieg and mede, the Witan, Witenagemot or Council of the Anglo-Saxon Kings of the 7th to 11th centuries was held from time to time at Runnymede during the reign of Alfred the Great. The Council met usually in the open air and this political organ was transformed in succeeding years, influencing the creation of Englands 13th century parliament. The water-meadow at Runnymede is the most likely location at which, in 1215, the charter indicates Runnymede by name as Ronimed. Magna Carta affected common and constitutional law as well as political representation also affecting the development of parliament, runnymedes association with ideals of democracy, limitation of power, equality and freedom under law has attracted placement there of monuments and commemorative symbols. The last fatal duel in England took place in 1852, on Priest Hill, the National Trust land was donated in 1929 by Cara Rogers Broughton and her two sons. The gift was given in memory of Urban Broughton, between 2012 and 2015 Coopers Hill was occupied by a radical community living in self-build houses, huts, benders and tents, in the self-proclaimed Runnymede Eco Village. Around 40 people, including a few families, lived in a dispersed settlement throughout the 4 acres of woodland

Runnymede
–
Detail of area shown in location map, skewed north-south
Runnymede
–
View over Magna Carta Island towards Runnymede
Runnymede
–
Runnymede water-meadow viewed from south-east of National Trust land
Runnymede
–
Long Mede pasture at Runnymede viewed from north-west of National trust land

67.
Yad Kennedy
–
Yad Kennedy, located in the Mateh Yehuda Region near Jerusalem, Israel, is a memorial to John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, who was assassinated in Dallas, Texas in 1963. The 60-foot high memorial is shaped like the stump of a felled tree, inside is a bronze relief of Kennedy, with an eternal flame burning in the center. It is encircled by 51 concrete columns, one for each of the 50 states in the United States plus one for Washington, the emblems of the states are displayed on each of the columns, and the columns are separated by slim panels of glass. The monument measures approximately 250 feet in circumference around its base, the monument was built in 1966 with funds donated by American Jewish communities. Yad Kennedy and its picnic grounds are part of the John F. Kennedy Peace Forest. The site is located 7 miles from downtown Jerusalem, in the general direction as Hadassah Medical Center, on top of the highest of the Jerusalem hills. The view from the lot has been described in the Frommers travel guide as breathtaking – a never-ending succession of mountains. On a clear day, the Mediterranean Sea can be seen in the direction of Tel Aviv,40 miles away, the memorial can be reached by following the winding mountain roads past Ora and Aminadav. It is approximately 45 minutes by foot from the nearest main road, the monument and adjoining picnic grounds are part of the John F. Kennedy Peace Forest. The area designated as the JFK Peace Forest is part of the larger Aminadav Forest, max Bressler of Chicago, Illinois, then president of the American Jewish National Fund, came up with the proposal for the memorial in 1964. Bressler, for whom the Jerusalem neighborhood of Kiryat Menachem is named, had hoped to lead an American delegation to the dedication ceremony, but he died in 1966. On 13 January 1964, former Pennsylvania Governor George M. Leader announced plans for the memorial and he stated that similar committees would be set up in each State, as well as some additional committees in countries overseas. On 22 November 1964, the first anniversary of the assassination, the meetings were described as tributes for the fallen President as well as symbolic dedication ceremonies for the planned memorial. American communities pledged to fund the planting of trees in the forest in addition to funds for the memorial, an Israeli childrens band played Hatikva, the Israeli national anthem, along with the U. S. anthem, the Star Spangled Banner. Among the guests at the 4 July 1966 dedication was U. S, chief Justice Earl Warren, who had chaired the commission tasked with investigating the 1963 assassination. Among other guests were Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel, Teddy Kollek, the mayor of Jerusalem, and Walworth Barbour, the United States Ambassador to Israel. Warren noted that Washington, D. C. had many memorials and your children and grandchildren when they visit Israel will find your monument. Second, Warren recalled that Kennedy had visited Israel twice, the first time in 1939 when it was part of the British Mandate

68.
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
–
USS John F. Kennedy is the only ship of her class and the last conventionally powered carrier built for the United States Navy. The ship is named after the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, Kennedy was originally designated a CVA, however, the designation was changed to CV to denote that the ship was capable of anti-submarine warfare, making her an all-purpose carrier. After nearly 40 years of service in the United States Navy and she is berthed at the NAVSEA Inactive Ships On-site Maintenance facility in Philadelphia and is available for donation as a museum and memorial to a qualified organization. The name has been adopted by the future Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier John F. Kennedy, contracted as Ship Characteristic Board SCB-127C, the ships keel was laid on 22 October 1964 by Newport News Shipbuilding. The ship was officially christened 27 May 1967 by Jacqueline Kennedy and her 9-year-old daughter, Caroline, the ship entered service 7 September 1968. John F. Kennedy is a version of the earlier Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carriers. Originally scheduled to be the fourth Kitty Hawk-class carrier, the ship received so many modifications during construction she formed her own class, the ship was originally ordered as a nuclear carrier, using the A3W reactor, but converted to conventional propulsion after construction had begun. The island is somewhat different from that of the Kitty Hawk class, with angled funnels to direct smoke, Kennedy is also 17 feet shorter than the Kitty Hawk class. After an ORI conducted by Commander, Carrier Division Two, Kennedy left for the Mediterranean in April 1969, the ship reached Rota, Spain on the morning of 22 April 1969 and relieved USS Forrestal. Rear Admiral Pierre N. Charbonnet, Commander, Carrier Striking Forces, Sixth Fleet, the turnover complete by nightfall, the carrier, escorted by destroyers, transited the Strait of Gibraltar at the start of the mid watch on 22 April. The next day, John F. Kennedy refueled from USS Marias and it was during the 1970s that Kennedy was upgraded to handle the F-14 Tomcat and the S-3 Viking. Kennedy was involved in the Navy response to the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East in October 1973, with her actions, in 1974, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. On 20 June 1975 Kennedy was the target of arson, suffering eight fires, with no injuries, while at port in Norfolk, Virginia. On 22 November 1975 Kennedy collided with the cruiser Belknap, severely damaging the ship and earning itself the nicknames Can Opener. As a result of the collision with John F. Kennedys overhanging deck, JP-5 fuel lines were ruptured spraying fuel over an adjacent catwalk, belknaps superstructure was gutted almost to the main deck, and seven of her crew killed. Aboard Kennedy, smoke inhalation claimed the life of Petty Officer 2nd Class Yeoman David A. Chivalette of CVW-1, both crew members ejected and landed on the deck, injured but alive. A naval race followed between the Soviet Navy and US Navy to get not only the plane, but also its missiles. In late 1978 Kennedy underwent her first, yearlong overhaul, which was completed in 1979, on 9 April 1979 she experienced five fires set by arson while undergoing overhaul at Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Virginia

USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
–
USS John F. Kennedy is escorted out of NS Mayport, Florida by tugboats, on 11 November 2003.
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
–
John F. Kennedy on her initial shakedown in December 1968
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
–
A view of damage sustained by the carrier John F. Kennedy when she collided with the cruiser USS Belknap
USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
–
An elevated starboard quarter view of John F. Kennedy during the International Naval Review in New York Harbor, 4 July 1986.

69.
USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79)
–
John F. Kennedy is the second Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier being built for the United States Navy. The ship is under construction and planned to be commissioned in 2020, on 7 December 2007, the 66th anniversary of the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Congressman Harry Mitchell proposed naming this ship USS Arizona. In 2009, Congressman John Shadegg proposed naming either CVN-79 or the subsequent CVN-80 Barry M. Goldwater, after Barry Goldwater, the late senator from Arizona. On 29 May 2011, the Department of Defense announced that the ship would be named for John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, who served in the navy during World War II. She will be the navy ship named after members of the Kennedy family, and the second aircraft carrier named John F. Kennedy, succeeding USS John F. Kennedy. On 15 January 2009, Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding was awarded a million contract for design work. On 30 September 2010, Northrop Grumman announced a new president for the construction of John F. Kennedy, Mike Shawcross. On 25 February 2011, the navy conducted the First Cut of Steel ceremony at Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding in Newport News, John F. Kennedy was originally planned to be completed in 2018. This was extended to 2020 after Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced in 2009 that the program would shift to a building program so as to place it on a more fiscally sustainable path. In September 2013, the Government Accountability Office recommended delaying the detail design, the Navy and Defense Department have rejected the recommendation. The Navy faces technical, design, and construction challenges to completing USS Gerald R. Ford, Gerald R. Ford had costs increase by 22 percent to $12.8 billion, and additional increases could follow due to uncertainties facing critical technology systems and shipbuilder underperformance. Risk is introduced in the plan to conduct integration testing of key systems at the same time as initial operational test. One action the GAO says could be taken to ensure Ford-class carrier acquisitions are supported is conducting an analysis of required capabilities. The ships keel was laid in Newport News, Virginia on 22 August 2015, as part of the traditional keel laying ceremony, the initials of ship sponsor Caroline Kennedy, daughter of President Kennedy, were welded into the ships hull. DoD press release naming CVN-79 John F. Kennedy Builder Website, Construction Milestones

70.
Kennedy family
–
The Kennedy family is an American family that has been prominent in American politics, public service, and business during the 20th century. Three of the four sons of Joseph, Sr. and Rose Kennedy served as senator, the first Kennedys to reside in the United States were Patrick Kennedy and Bridget Murphy, who sailed from Ireland to East Boston in 1849. Their son Patrick Joseph went into Massachusetts politics and business, P. J. s brother-in-law, Charles M. Hickey, served as mayor of Brockton, Massachusetts in 1913. Under President Franklin D. Josephs wife was Rose Fitzgerald, whose father, John F. Fitzgerald, served as a senator, member of the U. S. House of Representatives. Joseph and Rose had nine children, Joseph Jr. John, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, John served as the President of the United States, while Robert and Ted both became prominent senators. Every Kennedy to hold elective office has served as a Democrat while other members of the family have worked for the Democratic Party or held Cabinet posts under Democratic administrations. Many have attended Harvard University, and the family has contributed greatly to that universitys John F. Kennedy School of Government, Joseph originally hoped for his eldest son, Joseph Jr. to become a politician and ultimately to be elected President. After Joseph Jr. was killed in World War II, Joseph Sr. s hopes transferred to his second son, during his presidency, John appointed Robert as Attorney General. Meanwhile, Ted was elected to the Senate in 1962, the family received intense publicity during Johns term as President, often emphasizing their relative youth, allure, education, and future in politics. The family suffered many tragedies, which contributed to the idea of the Kennedy curse, Kathleen, and John Jr. all died in airplane crashes. Italics denote members who married into the family, only members who held political office are shown below. P. J. Kennedy, Member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1884–89, member of the Massachusetts Senate, John F. Caroline Kennedy, United States Ambassador to Japan, 2013–17. Bobby Shriver, Member of the Santa Monica, California City Council, 2004–12, maria Shriver, First Lady of California, 2003–11, married Arnold Schwarzenegger, Chairman of the Presidents Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition, 1990–93, and governor of California, 2003–11. Mark Shriver, Member of the Maryland House of Delegates, 1995–2003, Robert F. Kennedy, United States Attorney General 1961–64, United States senator from New York, 1965–68. Kathleen Kennedy Townsend, Lieutenant governor of Maryland, 1995–2003, Joseph P. Kennedy II, Member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts, 1987–99. Joseph P. Kennedy III, Member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts, Jean Kennedy Smith, United States Ambassador to Ireland, 1993–98. Ted Kennedy, United States senator from Massachusetts, 1962–2009, edward M. Kennedy Jr. Member of the Connecticut Senate, 2015–present. Patrick J. Kennedy, Member of the Rhode Island House of Representatives, 1989–93, member of the United States House of Representatives from Rhode Island, the Kennedys, A Family Tree, St

71.
Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
–
Jacqueline Lee Jackie Kennedy Onassis was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and First Lady of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. Bouvier was the daughter of Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III. In 1951, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature from George Washington University, in 1952, Bouvier met Congressman John F. Kennedy at a dinner party. In November of that year, he was elected as a United States Senator from Massachusetts, and they had four children, two of whom died in infancy. As First Lady, she was known for her highly publicized restoration of the White House and her emphasis on arts, on November 22,1963, she was riding with the President in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, when he was assassinated. She and her children withdrew from view after his funeral. Following her second death in 1975, she had a career as a book editor for the final two decades of her life. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, as well as for her style, elegance. She was an icon, and her famous ensemble of pink Chanel suit. She ranks as one of the most popular First Ladies and in 1999 was named on Gallups list of Most Admired Men and Women in 20th-century America. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28,1929, at Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Black Jack Bouvier III, Bouviers mother was of Irish descent, and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Named after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan and her younger sister Lee was born in 1933. Bouvier spent her childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata. She idolized her father, who favored her over her sister. From an early age, Bouvier was an equestrienne and successfully competed in the sport. She also took lessons, was an avid reader, and excelled at learning languages. Bouvier enrolled in the Chapin School in Manhattan in 1935, which she attended for grades 1–6. She was a student but often misbehaved, one of her teachers described her as a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic

72.
Caroline Kennedy
–
Caroline Bouvier Kennedy is an American author, attorney, and diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Japan from 2013 to 2017. She is a prominent member of the Kennedy family and the surviving child of President John F. Kennedy. The following year, Caroline, her mother, and brother settled on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, Kennedy graduated from Radcliffe College and worked at Manhattans Metropolitan Museum of Art, where she met her future husband, exhibit designer Edwin Schlossberg. She went on to receive a J. D. degree from Columbia Law School, most of Kennedys professional life has spanned law and politics, as well as education reform and charitable work. She has also acted as a spokesperson for her familys legacy, congresswoman Kirsten Gillibrand ultimately replaced Clinton as the junior New York Senator. In 2013, President Obama appointed her as ambassador to Japan, Caroline Bouvier Kennedy was born on November 27,1957, at New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan to John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy. A year before Carolines birth, her parents had a daughter named Arabella. Caroline had two brothers, John Jr. who was born just before her third birthday, and Patrick. Caroline lived with her parents in Georgetown, Washington, D. C. during the first three years of her life, when Caroline was three years old, the family moved to the White House when her father was sworn in as President of the United States. Caroline frequently attended kindergarten in classes that were organized by her mother, one such photo in a news article inspired singer-songwriter Neil Diamond to write his Top Ten hit song, Sweet Caroline—which he revealed when he performed it for her 50th birthday. As a small child, Caroline received numerous gifts from dignitaries, including a puppy from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, historians described Carolines childhood personality as a trifle remote and a bit shy at times yet remarkably unspoiled. Shes too young to realize all these luxuries, her grandmother, Rose Kennedy. She probably thinks its natural for children to go off in their own airplanes, but she is with her cousins, and some of them dance and swim better than she. They do not allow her to take special precedence and that evening, the children were brought back to the White House, and while Caroline was in her bed, Shaw broke the news to her. Shaw soon found out that Jacqueline had wanted to be the one to tell the children, on December 6, two weeks after the assassination, Jacqueline and the children moved out of the White House, back to Georgetown. Their new home became a popular tourist attraction and they moved from Washington to a penthouse apartment at 1040 Fifth Avenue on the Upper East Side of Manhattan the following year. In 1967, Caroline christened the U. S. Navy aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy in a widely publicized ceremony in Newport News, Virginia. Over that summer, Jacqueline took the children on a sentimental journey to Ireland

73.
Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.
–
Joseph Patrick Joe Kennedy Sr. was an American businessman, investor, and politician known for his high-profile positions in United States politics. Kennedy was married to Rose Kennedy, three of their nine children attained distinguished political positions, President John F. Kennedy, Attorney General and Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and longtime Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy. He was a member of the Democratic Party and of the Irish Catholic community. He was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to be the first chairman of the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, and later directed the Maritime Commission. Kennedy served as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1938 until late 1940, in the 1920s Kennedy made huge profits from reorganizing and refinancing several Hollywood studios, ultimately merging several acquisitions into Radio-Keith-Orpheum studios. His company, Somerset Importers, became the exclusive American agent for Gordons Gin, in addition, Kennedy purchased spirits-importation rights from Schenley Industries, a firm in Canada. He owned the largest office building in the country, Chicagos Merchandise Mart, giving his family an important base in that city, Kennedy allowed surgeons to perform a lobotomy on his daughter Rosemary Kennedy in 1941. Various reasons for the operation have been given, but it left her permanently incapacitated, Kennedy resigned under pressure shortly afterwards. In later years, Kennedy worked behind the scenes to continue building the financial and political fortunes of the Kennedy family, after a disabling stroke in 1961, Kennedy developed aphasia and lost all power of speech, but remained mentally intact. He was confined to a wheelchair until his death in 1969, Joseph Patrick Kennedy was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He was the son of businessman and politician Patrick Joseph P. J. Kennedy. He had a younger brother Francis, and two sisters, Mary and Margaret. All four of Joes grandparents had immigrated to Massachusetts in the 1840s to escape the Irish famine and he was born into a highly sectarian society, where Irish Catholics were excluded by upper-class Boston Brahmins. Boston Irish thus became active in the Democratic Party, which included P. J. P. J. Kennedy followed in the footsteps of older cousins by attending Harvard College. He focused on becoming a leader, working energetically to gain admittance to the prestigious Hasty Pudding Club. While at Harvard he joined the Delta Upsilon International fraternity and played on the baseball team, in 1937, he received an honorary degree in Doctor of Laws from Oglethorpe University. On October 7,1914, Kennedy married Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald, honey Fitz Fitzgerald and Mary Josephine Josie Hannon. The marriage joined two of the citys most prominent political families, as Kennedys business success expanded, he and his family kept homes in the Boston area, suburban New York City, Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, and Palm Beach, Florida

74.
Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.
–
Joseph Patrick Joe Kennedy Jr. was a United States Navy lieutenant. He was killed in action while serving as a patrol bomber pilot in World War II and was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross. He was the eldest of nine born to Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Joe Sr. had plans for Joe Jr. to become President. However, Joe Jr. was killed participating in a top-secret mission in 1944, and the high expectations of the father then fell upon Joe Jr. s younger brother John. Kennedy was born in Hull, Massachusetts and he first attended the Dexter School in Brookline, Massachusetts, with his brother, John. He graduated from The Choate School in 1933 in Wallingford, Connecticut and he then entered Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, graduating in 1938. Kennedy participated in football, rugby, and crew, and he served on the student council, Kennedy then spent a year studying under the tutelage of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics before enrolling in Harvard Law School. From a very young age, Kennedy was groomed by his father, when he was born, his grandfather John F. Fitzgerald, then Mayor of Boston, told the news, This child is the future President of the nation. He often boasted that he would be president even without help from his father and he was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1940. Kennedy planned to run for Massachusettss 11th congressional district in 1946, Kennedy expressed approval of Adolf Hitler. His father sent him to visit Nazi Germany in 1934. He wrote to his father, praising Hitler’s sterilization policy as “a great thing” that “will do away with many of the specimens of men. ”He explained that Hitler is building a spirit in his men that could be envied in any country. Kennedy left before his year of law school at Harvard to enlist in the U. S. Naval Reserve on June 24,1941. He entered flight training to be a Naval Aviator, and after training and he was assigned to Patrol Squadron 203 and then Bombing Squadron 110. In September 1943, he was sent to Britain and became a member of Bomber Squadron 110, Special Air Unit ONE and he piloted land-based PB4Y Liberator patrol bombers on anti-submarine details during two tours of duty in the winter of 1943–1944. Kennedy had completed 25 combat missions and was eligible to return home and he instead volunteered for an Operation Aphrodite mission. Kennedy was appointed a lieutenant on July 1,1944, after the U. S. Army Air Forces operation missions were drawn up on July 23,1944, Lieutenants Wilford John Willy and Kennedy were designated as the first Navy flight crew

75.
Eunice Kennedy Shriver
–
Dame Eunice Mary Kennedy Shriver, DSG was a member of the Kennedy family, she was the sister of President John F. Kennedy and senators Robert F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy. Her husband, Sargent Shriver, was the United States Ambassador to France during the Lyndon Johnson presidency, in 1962, she founded Camp Shriver, which started on her Maryland farm known as Timberlawn, and evolved into the Special Olympics in 1968. Eunice Mary Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, she was the fifth of nine children of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. and she was educated at the Convent of The Sacred Heart, Roehampton, London and at Manhattanville College in Upper Manhattan. After graduating from Stanford University with a Bachelor of Science degree in sociology in 1943 and she eventually moved to the U. S. Justice Department as executive secretary for a project dealing with juvenile delinquency. In 1969, Shriver moved to France and pursued her interest in intellectual disability there, Shriver actively campaigned for her elder brother, John, during his successful 1960 U. S. presidential election. Although Shriver was a Democrat, she was a supporter of the pro-life movement. In 1990, Shriver wrote a letter to The New York Times denouncing the misuse of a quotation by President Kennedy used out of context by a pro-choice group. During Bill Clintons 1992 Democratic U. S. presidential campaign, casey of Pennsylvania, and Bishop Austin Vaughan of New York – who signed a letter to The New York Times protesting the Democratic Partys pro-choice plank in its platform. Shriver was a supporter of several organizations, Feminists for Life of America. Anthony List, and Democrats for Life of America, a lifelong Democrat, she supported her Republican son-in-law Arnold Schwarzeneggers successful 2003 Governor of California election. On January 28,2008, Shriver was present at American University in Washington, D. C. when her brother, senator Edward M. Kennedy, announced his endorsement of Barack Obamas 2008 Democratic U. S. presidential campaign. She has also helped to establish numerous other university programs, government initiatives, health-care facilities, in 1982, Shriver founded the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring at University of Utah, Salt Lake City. The Community is a grades K-12, whole school, comprehensive character education program with a focus on disabilities, adopted by almost 1,200 schools nationwide and in Canada. She was awarded the nations highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, in 1984 by U. S. President Ronald Reagan, in 1990 Shriver was awarded the Eagle Award from the United States Sports Academy. The Eagle Award is the Academys highest international honor and was awarded to Shriver for her significant contributions to international sport, in 1992, Shriver received the Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. For her work in nationalizing the Special Olympics, Shriver received the Civitan International World Citizenship Award and her advocacy on this issue has also earned her other awards and recognitions, including honorary degrees from numerous universities. She is the second American and only woman to appear on a US coin while still living and her portrait is on the obverse of the 1995 commemorative silver dollar honoring the Special Olympics. On the reverse is the quotation, As we hope for the best in them, in addition to the Teddy recognition, she was selected in 2006 as part of the NCAA Centennial celebration as one of the 100 most-influential individuals in its first century, she was listed ninth

76.
Patricia Kennedy Lawford
–
Patricia Helen Pat Kennedy Lawford was an American socialite and the sixth of nine children of Rose and Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. She was a sister of President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, Pat wanted to be a film producer, a profession not readily open to young women in her time. She married English actor Peter Lawford in 1954, but they experienced a serious culture-clash, Patricia Helen Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts. She was considered the most sophisticated, yet also the most introverted, since childhood she had a fascination with travel and Hollywood. In time she would become a traveler, so much so that as a young girl she was given assignments by the independent. Her ongoing fascination with Hollywood was fueled by her fathers stories and adventures there as a movie mogul heading RKO Pictures, after graduating from Rosemont College, she moved to Hollywood in hopes of becoming a movie producer and director like her father. Her father apparently believed that she could do as much, once saying and she could really run this town if she put her mind to it. She met English actor Peter Lawford through her sister Eunice in the 1940s and they met again in 1949, and again in 1953. They courted briefly and officially announced their engagement in February 1954 and they married on April 24,1954, at the Roman Catholic Church of St. Thomas More in New York City, twelve days before her thirtieth birthday. They settled in Santa Monica, California, and often socialized with actress Judy Garland, Garland gave birth to her son Joseph at the same hospital and on the same day Kennedy gave birth to her son Christopher. Lawford had difficulty adjusting to Kennedys steadfast Catholicism and her familys larger-than-life image, Kennedy could not tolerate Lawfords heavy drinking, extramarital affairs, and gradual addiction to drugs. Shortly after her brother Jacks death, she filed for a separation. After her divorce, Kennedy battled alcoholism and suffered from tongue cancer and she worked with the John F. Kennedy died of pneumonia at age of 82 on September 17,2006 in her Manhattan home. She was survived by her four children and ten grandchildren, as well as her brother Ted and her sisters Eunice and she was buried in Southampton Cemetery. Kennedy family Kennedy family tree Patricia Kennedy Lawford obituary Patricia Kennedy Lawford at the Internet Movie Database

77.
Jean Kennedy Smith
–
Jean Ann Kennedy Smith is an American diplomat who served as United States Ambassador to Ireland from 1993 to 1998. She is the eighth of nine born to Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald. Her siblings include President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, longtime Senator Ted Kennedy, Smith is the founder of Very Special Arts, an internationally recognized non-profit dedicated to creating a society where those with disabilities can engage with the arts. In 2011, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nations highest civilian honor, by President Barack Obama for her work with VSA, as Ambassador to Ireland, Smith was instrumental to the Northern Ireland peace process as President Bill Clintons representative in Dublin. Irish President Mary McAleese conferred honorary Irish citizenship on Smith in 1998 in recognition of her service to the country, Jean Kennedy was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on her elder sister Kathleens eighth birthday. She has been described as the shyest and most guarded of the Kennedy children, on May 19,1956, she married Stephen Edward Smith in a small chapel of the Roman Catholic Saint Patricks Cathedral in New York City. The Smiths maintained a profile than some other members of the extended Kennedy family. During the early 1960s, they settled in New York City, Jean gave birth to two sons, Stephen Edward Smith, Jr. S. In 1974, Kennedy Smith founded Very Special Arts, now simply as VSA the international organization on art. VSA is a affiliate of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts which is headquartered in Washington. It is dedicated to creating a society where people with disabilities learn through, participate in, VSA annually serves over 7 million people across American and in 52 countries. Smith has traveled throughout the world on behalf of VSA to advocate for greater inclusion in the arts for people with disabilities. Her book, Chronicles of Courage, Very Special Artists, co-written with George Plimpton, was published by Random House in April 1993. In 2011, Smith was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nations highest civilian honor, by President Barack Obama for her work with VSA, as ambassador, she played a pivotal role in the peace process in Northern Ireland for almost five years before retiring the post. She successfully advocated for the U. S. government to grant a visa to Sinn Féin President Gerry Adams, which directly led to the IRA declaring a ceasefire in 1994. As a demonstration of her views, on at least one occasion she received communion in a cathedral of the Church of Ireland. Irish President Mary McAleese conferred honorary Irish citizenship on Smith in 1998 in recognition of her service to the country, during a ceremony, McAleese praised Smiths fixedness of purpose. Irish Taoiseach Bertie Ahern told Smith, You have helped bring about a life for everyone throughout Ireland

78.
Ted Kennedy
–
Edward Moore Ted Kennedy was a United States Senator from Massachusetts and a member of the Democratic Party. He was the second most senior member of the Senate when he died and was the senator in United States history. Ted Kennedy was the most prominent living member of the Kennedy family for many years and he was the youngest brother of US President John F. Kennedy and Senator Robert F. Kennedy, both victims of assassination, and the father of Congressman Patrick J. Kennedy. Kennedy entered the Senate in a November 1962 special election to fill the seat held by his brother John. He was elected to a full term in 1964 and was re-elected seven more times. The Chappaquiddick incident on July 18,1969 resulted in the death of his automobile passenger, Kennedy pleaded guilty to a charge of leaving the scene of an accident and received a two-month suspended sentence. The incident and its aftermath hindered his chances of becoming president of the United States. His one attempt, in the 1980 presidential election, resulted in a Democratic primary campaign loss to incumbent President Jimmy Carter, Kennedy was known for his oratorical skills. His 1968 eulogy for his brother Robert and his 1980 rallying cry for modern American liberalism were among his best-known speeches and he became recognized as The Lion of the Senate through his long tenure and influence. More than 300 bills that Kennedy and his staff wrote were enacted into law, during the 2000s, he led several unsuccessful immigration reform efforts. Over the course of his Senate career and continuing into the Obama administration, Kennedy continued his efforts to enact health care. In May 2008, Kennedy was hospitalized suffering a seizure and was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor. He died on August 25,2009, at his Hyannis Port, by the later years of his life, he had come to be viewed as a major figure and spokesman for American progressivism. Edward Moore Kennedy was born on February 22,1932 at St. Margarets Hospital in the Dorchester section of Boston and his eight elder siblings included Joseph Jr. John, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, and Jean. John asked to be the godfather, a request his parents honored. They named him after their fathers assistant instead and his formal education started at Gibbs School, in Sloane Street, Kensington, London. He attended ten different schools by the age of eleven, with his suffering as a result. At age seven, he received his First Communion from Pope Pius XII in the Vatican and he spent sixth and seventh grades in the Fessenden School, where he was a mediocre student, and eighth grade at Cranwell Preparatory School, both schools were in Massachusetts

79.
John F. Fitzgerald
–
John Francis Honey Fitz Fitzgerald was an American politician, father of Rose Kennedy and maternal grandfather of President John F. Kennedy. Fitzgerald, born to Irish immigrants, was a Democratic congressman who went on to win two terms as mayor of Boston, and made unsuccessful runs for Governor of Massachusetts. He made major improvements to the port, and became a patron of the team now known as the Boston Red Sox. He maintained a profile in the city, with his theatrical style of campaigning. His daughter Rose married Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. the son of his political rival P. J. Kennedy, in old age, Fitzgerald helped his grandson John F. Kennedy to win his first seat in congress. John Francis Fitzgerald was born in the North End of Boston to Irish businessman/politician Thomas Fitzgerald of Bruff, County Limerick and he was the fourth of twelve children. Both of his sisters, Ellen and Mary, and his eldest brother, Michael, Fitzgeralds brother Joseph had severe brain damage from malaria and barely functioned. Only three of the children survived in good health, Fitzgeralds mother died when he was sixteen. His father wished for him to become a doctor to help prevent future tragedies of the sort that had marred the Fitzgerald family. Accordingly, after being educated at Boston Latin School and Boston College, he enrolled at Harvard Medical School for one year, Fitzgerald later became a clerk at the Customs House in Boston and was active in the local Democratic Party. Fitzgerald was a member of the Royal Rooters, a supporters club for Bostons baseball teams, particularly its American League team. At one point, he was the chairman, and threw out the ceremonial opening pitch in Fenway Parks inaugural game. His great-granddaughter Caroline Kennedy threw out the first pitch for Fenway Parks 100th anniversary on April 20,2012, Fitzgerald was elected to Bostons Common Council in 1891. In 1892, he became a member of the Massachusetts Senate and these early victories came about with support from the powerful boss of Bostons 8th ward, Martin Lomasney. In 1906, Fitzgerald was elected Mayor of Boston, becoming the first American-born Irish-Catholic to be elected to that office, in the process, he made an enemy of the powerful Lomasney, who had fielded one of his lieutenants for the office. Fitzgerald served as mayor of Boston from 1906 to 1908, was defeated for re-election, of his stylish manner, Robert Dallek wrote, He was a natural politician—a charming, impish, affable lover of people. His warmth of character earned him yet another nickname, Honey Fitz, a pixie-like character with florid face, bright eyes, and sandy hair, he was a showman who could have had a career in vaudeville. But politics, with all the brokering that went into arranging alliances, a verse of the day ran, Honey Fitz can talk you blind / on any subject you can find / Fish and fishing, motor boats / Railroads, streetcars, getting votes