PowerPoint Presentation - Earth Observation Center

LECTURE 1
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
Typical energy flow - passive systems (Figure 2.1)
• energy source
• path length
• atmospheric interactions
• target interactions
• energy sensor
• active vs passive remote sensing
Electromagnetic energy
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a dynamic form of energy
made manifest only by its interaction with matter. EMR radietes
acoording to the basic wate theory (Figure2.2) which describes
electromagnetic energy as traveling in a harmonic,sinusoidal fashion et
the "velocity of light," c = 3 x 108 m/sec. Wavelength () is the linear
distance between succesive peaks, frequency () is the number of peaks
passing a fixed point in space per unit time.
C=
The sun emits EMR in a manners similar to a blackbody
radiator at 6,000 K and has its peak spectral energy at about
0.5m. This corresponds to the peak spectral sensitivity of
human eyes.
Electromagnetic Spectrum (Figure2.3)
• Ultraviolet  < 0.4 m
• Visiblelight  = 0.4 to 0.7 m
• Near IR  = 0.7 to 1.35 m
- Photographic IR  = 0.7 to 0.98 m
• Middle IR (SWIR)*  = 1.35 to 3.0 m
• Thermal IR  = 3.0 to 14.0 m
• Microwave  = 1 mm to 1 m
*Short-Wavelength IR (SWIR)
ENERGY INTERACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
The earth's atmosphere has a profound effect on the intensity and
spectral composition of EMR passing through it, principally
through the mechanisms of scattering and absorption.
Scattering is unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in
the atmosphere (Figure2.4).
Rayleigh scatter – diffusion of radiation as it interacts with
atmosphere constituents the diameters of which are much smaller
than the wavelength of the interacting radiation. The effect of
Rayleigh scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
wavelength. Short wavelengths are scattered more than long wave
lengths, hence the blue sky. Haze is a primary effect of Rayleigh
scatter.
Miescatter - diffusion of radiation by atmospheric particulates having diameters
about equal to the wavelength of the interacting radiation. Water vapor and dust
are the major causes.
Non selective scatter - radiation diffusion by atmospheric particles whose
diameters are much larger than the energy wavelength. Water droplets,
commonly 5 to 10 m in diameter, scatter all visible and reflective IR
wavelengths about equally, hence white couds.
Absorption – a thermodynamically irreversible transformation of radiant energy
into heat.
Atmospheric absorption is due primarily to water vapor, carbon dioxide and
ozone. These gases selectively absorb EMR in specific wavelength bands.
Wavelength regions in which the atmosphere is particularly transmissive of
energy are called atmospheric windows.
Figure2.5 depicts the spectral transmittence of the atmosphere and shows the
five "windows" used routinely in remote sensing. These windows are listed
below:
Atmospheric Windows
Reflected EMR
• visible and near infrared (0.3-1.3 m) very high transmission (several
small H2O absorption features between 0.8 and 1.1 m)
• middle infrared (1.5-1.8 m and 2.0-2.6 m) high transmission, but
several very strong H2O and C02 absorption bands at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 m
Emitted Thermal I R
• short-wavelength thermal infrared (3.5-5 m) popular window for night-
time thermal sensing
• long-wavelength thermal infrared (8-14 m) most frequently used
thermal window
Non-optical EMR
• microwave (>5.5mm) transmission is virtually l00% (between 14 m
and 5.5 mm atmospheric transmission is very low)
ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH EARTH
SURFACE MATERIALS
EMR incident on any earth surface will interact in three fundanental
ways – various fractions of the energy will be reflected, absorbed
and/or transmitted.
EI () = ER () + EA () + ET ()
EI = i nci dent energy
ER = refl ected energy
EA = absorbed energy
ET = transmi fted energy
() = denotes all components are a function of wavelength
Reflection, absorption, and transmission will vary for different earth
features and help us to distinguish between them.
The wavelength dependency is critically important because two
indistinguisable features in one wavelength region may be very
different in another wavelength band – the foundation of
multispectral remote sensing.
Specular Reflection – mirror like ,where the angle of reflection
equals the angle of incidence.
Diffuse Reflection - reflection is uniform in all directions
(Lambertian).
EMR absorbed or transmitted by earth features are of little direct
use in remote sensing except that the reflected energy we are
interested in is reduced by these two mechanisms.
Solar Radiant Flux
For our purposes, the sun may be considered as a sphere of gas,
nearly 1.4 million kilometers in diameter, which is heated by
continuous nuclear reactions at its center. The spectral radiant flux
output from the sun is complicated by the tremendous temperature
variations which occur along its radius. Also, the solar atmosphere is
opaque to certain wavelengths. Stated simply, the effective blackbody
temperature(EBT) of the sun is wavelength dependent. In the
wavelength region from 350 to 2500 nm, the EBT varies from 5,700
to 6,000 kelvin. At its peak exitence wavelength (487 nm), the sun
can be best approximated by a blackbody source at 5,950 kelvin. For
general discussion purposes, an average EBT of 6,000 kelvin can be
used in the wavelength region 400-2500 nm. As show in Figure 2.6,
more than 50 percent of the total solar energy present in the visible
through middle-infrared spectrum occurs in the visible light region
(400-700 nm).
LECTURE 2
BioPhysical Controlsof Vegetation Reflectance
Energy Partitioning. From an energy belance viewpoint, All solar radiant flux
incident upon any object is either reflected, transrnitted, or absorbed. As a group,
vegetation is unique in its three-segment partitioning of solar irradiance
(Figure2.7). In the visible part of the spectrum (400-700 nm), reflectance is low,
transmittance is nearly zero, and absorptance is high. The fundamental control of
energy-matter interactions with vegetation in this part of the spectrum is plant
pigmentation.
In the longer wavelengths of the near-infrared portion of the spectrum (700-1350
nm), both reflectance and transmittance are high whereas absorptance is very low.
Here the physical control is internal leaf structures. The middle-infrared sector
(1350-2500 nm) of the spectrum for vegetztion is characterized by transition. As
wavelength increases, both reflectence and transmittance generally decrease from
medium to low. Absorptance, on the other hand, generally increases from low to
high. Additionally, at three distinct places in thisn wavelength domain, strong
water absorption bands can be observed. The primary physical control in these
middle-infrared wavelength for vegetetion is in vivo water content. Internal leaf
structure plays a secondary role in controlling energy-matter interactions at these
wavelengths.
Visible Reflectance. The dominant plant pigments are the chlorophylls.
These compounds exhibit pronounced absorptance of the bluish (400-500
nm) and reddish (60-700 nm) wavelengths (Figure 2.8.) This absorption of
solar energy by vegetetion is, of course, required in order to support
photosynthesis. As noted above transmittance by vegetation in the visible
wavelengths is very low. Irradiance which has not been absorbed will be
reflected. Thus Chlorophyll-bearing vegetation appears green as a result
of its minor reflectance peak in the 500-600 nm wavelengths.
There are other plant pigments, the carotenes and xanthophylls which
produce yellow or orange reflectances. Figure 2.9 shows the single, broad
absorptance band, centered at about 450 nm, associated with these
compounds, Although frequently present in green leaves, the solitary
absorption feature produced by these pigments is usually masked by the
chlorophyll absorptance. During stress or senescence, however,
chlorophyll production usually declines and blue absorption (i.e. yellow
reflectance) of the carotenes/xanthophylls may become obvious.
The anthocyanins are another type of plant pigment. They absorb the bluish and
greenish wavelengths, giving rise to their red reflectance (Figure 2.9). These
compounds are also frequently present in green foliage, but are masked by
chlorophyll absorption. Some plant species (eg. red maple Acer rubrum) produce
large quantities of anthocyanin during atumn, senescene at a time when chlorophyll
production is declining. The resulting shift in spectral absorptance accounts for the
bright red leaf color.
As plant senescence progresses, the changes in relative abundance of the various
pigments are accompanied by shifts in spectral absorptance and reflectance. Figure
2.10 illustrates the temporally dynamic nature of visual foliar reflectence.
Near-infrared Reflectance. Experiments by Moss (1951), Pearman (1966), Woolley
(1971), Gausman (1977), and others have demonstrated that leaf reflectance occurs
internally. The fundamental mechanism responsible for this phenomenon is the
refractive index differences between the various internal leaf structures (cell walls,
air spaces, chloplasts, etc.). Leaves which were vacuum infiltrated with various li
quids reflerted less energy in the 400-2500 nm wavelengths than non-infiltrated
leaves (Figure 2.11). Note that the near-infrared (NIR) reflectance was the most
altered in these experiments, followed by the middle-infrared reflectance.
There are two common types of structural arangements within leaves. The
dorsiventral leaf structure, typical of dicots, has pali sade mesophyll along
the upper leaf side and spongy mesophyll composing the lower portion
(Figure 2.12). The compact leaf structure typical of monocots, in contrast,
presents a relatively densely-packed mesophyll lacking the long, prism-
like pali sade cells and containing very few large intercellular air voids.
Internal leaf structure exerts little control on visible reflectance. In the
infrared spectrum, dorsiventral leaves containing numerous large air voids
reflect more long-wavelength radiation than compact leaves (Figure 2.13).
The importain role these internal air voids play in controlling infrared
reflectance is highlighted by observing leaf maturation. From a structural
standpoint, dorsi ventral leaves grow by pulling themselves apart internally
(Figure 2.14). Immature dorsi ventral leaves exhibit a compact, overall
mesophyll arangement. The lacunete mesophyll associated with older dorsi
ventral leaves contains many more air spaces. The relationships between
spectral reflectance and leaf maturity are illustrated in Figure 2.15. Since
young, immature leaves contain less chlorophyll and fewer air voids than
older leaves, they reflect more visible light and less infrared radiation.
LECTURE 3
Bio Physical Controls of Soil Reflectance
The spectral reflectance of soil is controlled, for the most part, by six variable:
moisture content, organic matter content, particles size distribution, iron oxide
content, soil mineralogy, and soil structure (Obukhov and Orlov, 1964;
Bowers and Hanks, 1965; Shields et al., 1968; Baumgardner et al., 1970;
Bowersand Smith, 1972; Peterson et al., 1979; Stoner and Baumgardner,
1980, 1981). Of these variables, moisture content and organic matter are the
most important (Figure 2.24)
Moisture content. The near-surface moisture content of soil is the most
important reflectance factor due to its dynamic nature and large overall impact
on soil reflectance. As shown in Figure 2.25, there is an inverse relationship
between edaphic moisture content and soil spectral reflectance. Note the
persistence of the water absorption bands (1.45 and l.92 micrometers) even in
the air-dried sample. This results from water films being held tightly onto the
relatively large proportion of very fine silt and clay particles in this particular
soil. Also notable is the strong hydroxyl absorption band at 2200 nm which
many clay-rich soils will exhibit. Comparing soils from different natural
drainage classes, the better drained soils are more reflective (Figure 2.26).
Organic Matter Content. Mineral soils, as distinct from organic
soils, are dominantly mineral material with less than 20 percent
organic carbon by weight. As shown in Figure 2.27, for mineral
sois, as the organic matter content increases, soil reflectance
decreases. As shown in Figure 2.28, some researchers have
demonstrated a workable relationship between remotely sensed soil
reflectance and organic carbon content.
The reflectance of organic soils, on the other hand, is controlled
primarily by state of decomposition of the plant material (Figure
2.29). Peat (fibric material) is composed of plant remains which
have under gone only minimal decomposition. This type of organic
soil is usually dark brown to reddish-brown. The highly
decomposed sapric material (muck) is generally black. Organic
soils of intermediate decomposition are classed as hemic soils.
Particle Size Distribution. The larger-diameter particle
sizes (e.g. medium sand, coarse sand, etc.) exhibit
pronounced interstitiel voids. This increased surficial
micro-roughness, compared to the fine particle sizes,
presents many more “light traps” to any irradiance.
Assuming the other soil factors are equal, the finer
particle sizes will exhibit greater soil reflectances (Figure
2.30). With moisture content equilibrated, and the
organic matter content naturally similar, the multi-sample
data presented in Figure 2.31 illustrate the relationship
between soil texture and spectral reflectance.
Iron Oxide Content. Iron oxide (Fe2 O3) is one of the
primary causes of the red colors in many soils. Iron oxide
content and organic matter content are the two most
important soil properties affecting the spectral reflectence
characteristics of eroded soils, particularly in the 500 to
1200 nm region (Weismeiier et al., 1984). The data
presented in Figure 2.32 illustrate the relationship between
iron oxide content and soil spectral reflectance.
Chemically removing the extractable iron oxides from a
soil sample results in increased reflectance especially at
wave-lengths less than 1100 nm. A broad absorption
feature, centered at 900 nm and attributed to iron oxide, is
obvious in this graph.
LECTURE 4
BioPhysical Controls of Water Reflectance
Energy Partitioning. There are three types of possible reflectance
from a water body-surface (specular) reflectance, bottom
reflectance, and volume reflectance (Figure 2.33). Of these, only
volume reflectancec contains information relating to water quality.
For deep (> 2m), clear water bodies, volume reflectance is very
low (6-8 percent) and is confined to the visible wavelengths
(Figure 2.34). Transmittance in these cases is very high especially
in the blue-green part of the spectrum, but diminishes rapidly in
the near-infrared wavelength and Absorptance, on the other hand,
is notably low in the shorter visible wavelengths, but increases
abruptly in the near-infrared sector. Shallow water (<2m deep)
transmits significant amounts of NIR radiation (Figure 2.35). As
depth increases the peak transmittance wavelength for clear water
decreases and finally stabilize at about 480nm.
Volume Reflectance. Clear water reflects very little solar irradiance,
but turbid water is capable of reflecting significant amounts of
sunlight (Figure 2.36). It is notable that the peak-reflectance point
shifts to longer wavelengths as turbidity increases (Figure 2.37). As
shown in Figures 2.38 and 2.39, as the chlorophyll content of a water
body increases (resulting from an increase in algae, phytoplankton,
etc.) its blue-light reflectance decreases while its green light
reflectence increases. The “hingepoint” in this relationship, over four
orders of magnitude of concentrate on differences, remains relatively
stable at 510-520 nm. Also noteworthy, is the asymptotic reflectance
change in the blue wavelengths as chlorophyll concentration
increases compared to the reflectance differences in the longer
wavelengths.
MODELLING AND DATA INTERGRATION IN
THE STUDY OF SEDIMENT PLUME: CASE OF
KLANG-LANGAT RIVER BASIN
Figure 4: How light is attenuated by clear water
Source : Ritchie et al, 1984
Figure 5: Increase in the backscattered energy as Figure 6: Relationship between the Reflectance
the sediment concentration increases and SS concentration for Bands 2 and 3
Source : Ritchie et al, 1984
Source : Ritchie et al, 1984
Spectral reflectance curve for surface water layer (solid line) and
20m depth (dotted line).
Source : Mathew, 1998
Processes acting on solar radiant energy in the visible part of the
spectrum over an area of shallow water.
Source : Mathew, 1998
Linear Regression of Depth and DN for Langat Estuary 1999
120 50
45
100
40
y = -0.3881x + 93.114 35 y = -0.338x + 37.516
80 R2 = 0.5112 R2 = 0.5869
DN Band 2
30
DN Band 1
DN1 DN2
60 25
Linear (DN1) Linear (DN2)
20
40 15
10
20
5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth Depth
50
45
40
35 y = -0.3353x + 28.841
R2 = 0.4199
DN Band 3
30
DN3
25
Linear (DN3)
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIGITAL PIXEL VALUES AND
TOTAL SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION
100 100
80
DN Values (Band 1)
90
60
40
80
20 band 1(0.45-0.52um)
band 2 (0.52-0.60um)
0 band 3 (0.63-0.69um) 70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Total Suspended Sediment (mg/l) Total Suspended Sediments (mg/l)
50 60
50
40
DN Values (Band 3)
40
30
30
20
20
10 10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Total Suspended Sediment (mg/l) Total Suspended Sediment (mg/l)
IMAGE LANDSAT TM 1999 OFFSHORE LANGAT RIVER
BAND 3 2 1 ( R G B )
SAMPLING POINTS OFFSHORE LANGAT RIVER
IDENTIFY DN VALUES OFFHORE LANGAT RIVER
UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION OFFSHORE LANGAT RIVER
End