The name Topeka is a Kansa-Osage sentence that means "place where we dug potatoes",[12] or "a good place to dig potatoes".[13] As a placename, Topeka was first recorded in 1826 as the Kansa name for what is now called the Kansas River. Topeka's founders chose the name in 1855 because it "was novel, of Indian origin and euphonious of sound."[14][15] The mixed-blood Kansa Native American, Joseph James, called Jojim, is credited with suggesting the name of Topeka.[16] The city, laid out in 1854, was one of the Free-State towns founded by Eastern antislavery men immediately after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Bill. In 1857, Topeka was chartered as a city.

In the early 1850s, traffic along the Oregon Trail was supplemented by trade on a new military road stretching from Fort Leavenworth through Topeka to the newly established Fort Riley. In 1854, after completion of the first cabin, nine men established the Topeka Town Association. Included among them was Cyrus K. Holliday, an "idea man" who would become mayor of Topeka and founder of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. Soon, steamboats were regularly docking at the Topeka landing, depositing meat, lumber, and flour and returning eastward with potatoes, corn, and wheat. By the late 1860s, Topeka had become a commercial hub providing many Victorian era comforts.

Topeka was a bastion for the free-state movement during the problems in Kansas Territory between anti- and proslavery settlers (the latter of whom controlled the legal government based out of Lecompton). After southern forces barricaded Topeka in 1856, Topeka’s leaders took actions to defend the free-state town from invasion. A militia was organized and fortifications were built on Quincy Street. The fortifications seemed to consist of low-lying earthwork levies strengthened by the presence of at least one cannon. There was stone in the fortifications. The militia manned the fortifications until at least September 1856, when the siege around the town was lifted.[19][20]

After a decade of abolitionist and pro-slavery conflict that gave the territory the nickname Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861 as the 34th state. Topeka was finally chosen as the capital, with Dr. Charles Robinson as the first governor. In 1862, Cyrus K. Holliday donated a tract of land to the state for the construction of a state capitol. Construction of the Kansas State Capitol began in 1866. It would take 37 years to build the capitol, first the east wing, and then the west wing, and finally the central building, using Kansas limestone. In fall 1864 a stockade fort, later named Fort Simple, was built in the intersection of 6th and Kansas Avenues to protect Topeka, should Confederate forces then in Missouri decide to attack the city. It was abandoned by April 1865 and demolished in April 1867.

Old Governor's Mansion (1887), replaced by Cedar Crest in 1963 and demolished the following year

Bird's-eye view in 1909

State officers first used the state capitol in 1869, moving from Constitution Hall, what is now 427-429 S. Kansas Avenue. Besides being used as the Kansas statehouse from 1863 to 1869, Constitution Hall is the site where anti-slavery settlers convened in 1855 to write the first of four state constitutions, making it the "Free State Capitol." The National Park Service recognizes Constitution Hall - Topeka as headquarters in the operation of the Lane Trail to Freedom on the Underground Railroad, the chief slave escape passage and free trade road.

Although the drought of 1860 and the ensuing period of the Civil War slowed the growth of Topeka and the state, Topeka kept pace with the revival and period of growth Kansas enjoyed from the close of the war in 1865 until 1870. In the 1870s, many former slaves known as Exodusters, settled on the east side of Lincoln Street between Munson and Twelfth Streets. The area was known as Tennessee Town because so many of them were from that state. The first African American Kindergarten west of the Mississippi was organized in Tennessee Town by Dr. Charles Sheldon, pastor of the Central Congregational Church in 1893.[21]

Lincoln College, now Washburn University, was established in 1865 in Topeka by a charter issued by the State of Kansas and the General Association of Congregational Ministers and Churches of Kansas. In 1869, the railway started moving westward from Topeka, where general offices and machine shops of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad system were established in 1878.

During the late 1880s, Topeka passed through a boom period that ended in disaster. There was vast speculation on town lots. The 1889 bubble burst and many investors were ruined. Topeka, however, doubled in population during the period and was able to weather the depressions of the 1890s.

Early in the 20th Century, another kind of boom, this time the automobile industry, took off, and numerous pioneering companies appeared and disappeared. Topeka was not left out. The Smith Automobile Company was founded there in 1902, lasting until 1912.

Home to the first African-American kindergarten west of the Mississippi River, Topeka became the home of Oliver Brown, the named plaintiff in Brown v. Board of Education which was the case responsible for eliminating the standard of "separate but equal", and requiring racial integration in American public schools. In 1960, the Census Bureau reported Topeka's population as 91.8% white and 7.7% black.[22]

At the time the suit was filed, only the elementary schools were segregated in Topeka, and Topeka High School had been fully integrated since its inception in 1871. Furthermore, Topeka High School was the only public high school in the city of Topeka. Other rural high schools existed, such as Washburn Rural High School—created in 1918—and Seaman High School—created in 1920. Highland Park High School became part of the Topeka school system in 1959 along with the opening of Topeka West High School in 1961. A Catholic high school —Assumption High School, later renamed Capitol Catholic High School, then in 1939 again renamed, to Hayden High School after its founder, Father Francis Hayden — also served the city beginning in 1911.[23]

Monroe Elementary, a segregated school that figured in the historic Brown v. Board of Education decision, through the efforts of The Brown Foundation working with the Kansas Congressional delegation place in the early 1990s, is now Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site. The Brown Foundation is largely responsible for the content of the interpretive exhibits at the Historic Site. The National Historic Site was opened by President George W. Bush on May 17, 2004.

Topeka has struggled with the burden of racial discrimination even after Brown. New lawsuits attempted unsuccessfully to force suburban school districts that ring the city to participate in racial integration with the inner city district. In the late 1980s a group of citizens calling themselves the Task Force to Overcome Racism in Topeka formed to address the problem in a more organized way.

The F5 tornado in 1966

On June 8, 1966, Topeka was struck by an F5 rated tornado, according to the Fujita scale. It started on the southwest side of town, moving northeast, passing over a local landmark named Burnett's Mound. According to a local Indian legend, this mound was thought to protect the city from tornadoes if left undisturbed. A few years prior to the tornado strike saw development near the mound including a water tank constructed near the top of the mound against the warnings of local Native Americans. The tornado went on to rip through the city, hitting the downtown area and Washburn University. Total dollar cost was put at $100 million making it, at the time, one of the most costly tornadoes in American history. Even to this day, with inflation factored in, the Topeka tornado stands as one of the most costly on record. It also helped bring to prominence future CBS and A&E broadcaster Bill Kurtis, who became well known for his televised admonition to "...take cover, for God's sake, take cover!" on WIBW-TV during the tornado. (The city is home of a National Weather Service Forecast Office that serves 23 counties in north-central, northeast, and east-central Kansas).

Topeka in 1980

Topeka recovered from the 1966 tornado and has sustained steady economic growth. Washburn University, which lost several historic buildings from the tornado, received financial support from the community and alumni to rebuild many school facilities. Today, university facilities offer more than one million square feet of modern academic and support space.

In 1974, Forbes Air Force Base closed and more than 10,000 people left Topeka, influencing the city's growth patterns for years to come. During the 1980s, Topeka citizens voted to build a new airport and convention center and to change the form of city government. West Ridge Mall opened in 1988, replacing the White Lakes Mall which opened in 1964.

In 1989 Topeka became a motorsports mecca with the opening of Heartland Park Topeka. The Topeka Performing Arts Center opened in 1991. In the early 1990s the city experienced business growth with Reser's Fine Foods locating in Topeka and expansions for Santa Fe and Hill's Pet Nutrition.

During the 1990s voters approved bond issues for public school improvements including magnet schools, technology, air conditioning, classrooms, and a sports complex. Voters also approved a quarter-cent sales tax for a new Law Enforcement Center, and in 1996 approved an extension of the sales tax for the East Topeka Interchange connecting the Oakland Expressway, K-4, I-70, and the Kansas Turnpike. During the 1990s Shawnee county voters approved tax measures to expand the Topeka and Shawnee County Public Library. The Kansas Legislature and Governor also approved legislation to replace the majority of the property tax supporting Washburn University with a countywide sales tax.

In 2000 the citizens again voted to extend the quarter-cent sales tax, this time for the economic development of Topeka and Shawnee County. In August, 2004, Shawnee County citizens voted to repeal the 2000 quarter-cent sales tax and replace it with a 12- year half-cent sales tax designated for economic development, roads, and bridges. Each year the sales tax funds provide $5 million designated for business development job creation incentives, and $9 million for roads and bridges. Planning is under way to continue to redevelop areas along the Kansas River, which runs west to east through Topeka. In the Kansas River Corridor through the center of town, Downtown Topeka has experienced apartment and condominium loft development, and façade and streetscape improvements. On the other side of the river, Historic North Topeka has benefited from a major streetscape project and the renovated Great Overland Station, regarded as the finest representation of classic railroad architecture in Kansas. The Great Overland Station is directly across the river from the State Capitol, which is undergoing an eight-year, $283 million renovation.

On March 1, 2010, Topeka Mayor Bill Bunten issued a proclamation calling for Topeka to be known for the month of March as "Google, Kansas, the capital city of fiber optics."[24] The name change came from Ryan Gigous, who wanted to "re-brand" the city with a simple gesture.[25] This was to help "support continuing efforts to bring Google's fiber experiment" to Topeka, though it was not a legal name change. Lawyers advised the city council and mayor against an official name change.[26]Google jokingly announced it would change its name to Topeka to "honor that moving gesture" on April 1, 2010 (April Fools' Day) and changed its home page to say Topeka.[27] In its official blog, Google announced this change thus affected all of its services as well as its culture, e.g. "Googlers" to "Topekans", "Project Virgle" to "Project Vireka", and proper usage of "Topeka" as an adjective and not a verb, to avoid the trademark becoming genericized.[28]

In 2007 Forbes Magazine named Topeka as one of the leading U.S. cities in terms of having the greatest variations in temperature, precipitation, and wind.[29]
Topeka has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classificationDfa), with hot, somewhat humid summers and cool to cold, fairly dry winters, and is in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6.[30] Over the course of a year, the monthly daily average temperature ranges from 29.7 °F (−1.3 °C) in January to 79.0 °F (26.1 °C) in July. The maximum temperature reaches 90 °F or 32.2 °C an average of 41.5 afternoons per year and reaches 100 °F or 37.8 °C an average of 3.5 afternoons per year. The minimum temperature falls below 0 °F or −17.8 °C an average of four mornings per year, and there are 21 afternoons per year that stay below freezing.[31] The average window for freezing temperatures is October 15 through April 17.[31]

The area receives nearly 36.5 inches (930 mm) of precipitation during an average year, with the largest share being received in May and June—the April through June period averages 33 days of measurable precipitation. Generally, the spring and summer months have the most rainfall, with autumn and winter being fairly dry. During a typical year the total amount of precipitation may be anywhere from 25 to 47 inches (640 to 1,190 mm). Much of the rainfall is delivered by thunderstorms. These can be severe, producing frequent lightning, large hail, and sometimes tornadoes. There are an average of 100 days of measurable precipitation per year. Winter snowfall is light, as is the case in most of the state, as a result of the dry, sunny weather patterns that dominate Kansas winters, which do not allow for sufficient moisture for significant snowfall. Winter snowfall averages almost 17.8 inches or 0.45 metres. Measurable (≥0.1 inches or 0.0025 metres) snowfall occurs an average of 12.9 days per year, with at least one inch (0.025 metre) of snow being received on five of those days. Snow depth of at least an inch occurs an average of 20 days per year.[31]

There were 53,943 households of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.1% were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 12% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.99.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.4% of residents under the age of 18; 9.8% between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.1% from 25 to 44; 25.4% from 45 to 64; and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age in the city was 36 years. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.

There were 52,190 households out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.8% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.2% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.94.

In the city, the population is spread out, with 24.3% under the age of 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.

As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $35,928, and the median income for a family was $45,803. Males had a median income of $32,373 versus $25,633 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,555. About 8.5% of families and 12.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.7% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.

Being the state's capital city, Topeka's largest employer is the State of Kansas—employing about 8,400 people,[36] or 69% of the city's government workers. Altogether, government workers make up one out of every five employed persons in the city.[37]

The educational, health and social services industry makes up the largest proportion of the working population (22.4%[37]). The four school districts employ nearly 4,700 people, and Washburn University employs about 1,650.[36] Three of the largest employers are Stormont-Vail HealthCare (with about 3,100 employees), St. Francis Health Center (1,800), and Colmery-O'Neil VA Hospital (900).[36]

Other industries are finance, insurance, real estate, and rental and leasing (7.8%); professional, scientific, management, administrative, and waste management services (7.6%); arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation and food services (7.2%); construction (6.0%); transportation and warehousing, and utilities (5.8%); and wholesale trade (3.2%).[37]Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas is the largest insurance employer, with about 1,800 employees.[36]BNSF Railway is the largest transportation employer, with about 1,100.[36]Westar Energy employs nearly 800.[36] About a tenth of the working population is employed in public administration (9.9%[37]).

The First Presbyterian Church in Topeka is one of the very few churches in the U.S. to have its sanctuary completely decorated with Tiffany stained glass (another is St. Luke's United Methodist in Dubuque, Iowa). The other is the Emmanuel Episcopal Church in Cumberland, Maryland.

Topeka also has a claim in the history of the Baha'i Faith in Kansas. Not only does the city have the oldest continuous Baha'i community in Kansas (beginning in 1906), but that community has roots to the first Baha'i community in Kansas, in Enterprise, Kansas, in 1897. This was the second Baha'i community in the western hemisphere.

Topeka is home of the Westboro Baptist Church, a hate group according to the Southern Poverty Law Center.[39] The church has garnered worldwide media attention for picketing the funerals of U.S. servicemen and women for what church members claim as "necessary to combat the fight for equality for gays and lesbians." They have sometimes successfully raised lawsuits against the city of Topeka.

Kansas State Capitol, with murals by John Steuart Curry, including the portrait of John Brown towering over "Bleeding Kansas" and the Kansas prairie, and topped with the sculpture of an American Indian named Ad Astra (from the state motto Ad Astra per Aspera, meaning "To the Stars Through Difficulty".)

Potwin Neighborhood, originally its own town, Potwin has now been surrounded by the City of Topeka, though it still maintains its own mayor and traditions, including the Easter brunch and 4 July Parade.

C W Porubsky's Deli & Tavern's chili "has been a lure to north Topeka since 1951".[40][41][42] The restaurant has been called "a landmark as significant as the state Capitol" for many Kansans.[43] In 2009 a documentary short film, Transcendent Deli, was made about the restaurant, focusing on its chili and pickles.[43] In 2014 Travel + Leisure named it one of America's Best Chilis.[44] There are also other notable restaurants in Topeka such as Bobo's Drive In, which features a signed light fixture by Guy Fieri (signed on the Food Network hit show, Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives on 10/04/07), the Blind Tiger Brewery and Restaurant, as well as other local and family owned restaurants.

The Chief Executive Officer of the City of Topeka is City Manager Jim Colson.[4]

The City Manager is responsible to the City Council of Topeka. The City Council consists of the Mayor and nine members elected from separate districts within the city. The city council members select the Deputy Mayor from amongst themselves who chairs the Committee of the Whole and represents the City of Topeka at official functions when the Mayor is unavailable.

Although Topeka experienced problems with crime in the 1990s, the city's crime rates have improved in the past decade. The city is now breaking trends when it comes to violent crime, so much so it has gained the interest of researchers from Michigan State University. Since 2000, most cities with a population greater than 100,000 have seen an increase in violent crimes. Topeka's crime rates are decreasing. Researchers credit good communication between law enforcement agencies, informed media outlets, and strong community involvement for Topeka's success. Topeka was one of four cities, along with Chicago, Tampa, and El Monte, California, to be studied.

Overall, crime in Topeka was down nearly 18 percent in the first half of 2008, compared with the same period of 2007. Topeka police reported a 6.4 percent drop in crime from 2007 to 2008, including significant reductions in business robberies and aggravated assaults and batteries, as well as thefts.[50]

On October 11, 2011, the Topeka city council agreed to repeal the ordinance banning domestic violence in an effort to force the Shawnee County District Attorney to prosecute the cases.[51] Shawnee County District Attorney Chad Taylor said the DA "would no longer prosecute misdemeanors committed in Topeka, including domestic battery, because his office could no longer do so after county commissioners cut his budget by 10 percent."[51] The next day, Taylor said his office would "commence the review and filing of misdemeanors decriminalized by the City of Topeka."[52] The same day it was announced 17% of the employees in the District Attorney's office would be laid off.[53]

Topeka is also home to several private and parochial schools such as Topeka Collegiate and Cair Paravel-Latin School. There are also elementary and junior high schools supported by other Christian denominations. Hayden High School, a Catholic high school is also in Topeka, as well as Cornerstone Family Schools, a non-denominational Christian organization that offers junior and senior high school athletics to home school families in the northeast Kansas area. Cornerstone's mascot is "the Saints".

I-70, I-470, and I-335 all go through the City of Topeka. I-335 is part of the Kansas Turnpike where it passes through Topeka. Other major highways include: US-24, US-40, US-75, and K-4. Major roads within the city include NW/SW Topeka Blvd. SW Wanamaker Road. N/S Kansas Ave. SW/SE 29th St. SE/SW 21st St. SE California Ave. SW Gage Blvd. and SW Fairlawn Rd.

Local transit service is provided by the Topeka Metropolitan Transit Authority. The agency offers bus service from 6 am to 6:30 pm Monday through Friday, and 7 am to 5 pm on Saturday. The agency also provides demand response general public taxi service which operates evenings from 8 pm until 11:30 pm and on Sundays.

1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output

2.
Kansas
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Kansas /ˈkænzəs/ is a U. S. state located in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas is named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribes name is said to mean people of the wind or people of the south wind. For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous, tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. When it was opened to settlement by the U. S. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided. The abolitionists eventually prevailed, and on January 29,1861, after the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. By 2015, Kansas was one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles is the 15th largest state by area and is the 34th most populous of the 50 United States with a population of 2,911,641, residents of Kansas are called Kansans, officially. Mount Sunflower is Kansass highest point at 4,041 feet, for a millennia, the land that is currently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, in 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, from 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state, the Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30,1854, establishing the U. S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery, the secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29,1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature and his application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record

3.
Topeka & Shawnee County Public Library
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The Topeka & Shawnee County Public Library is a public library located in Topeka, Kansas. It serves all of Shawnee County, Kansas with the exception of the Rossville, Kansas and Silver Lake, the Topeka & Shawnee County Public Library is a municipal taxing district authorized by Kansas law. It is governed by a board of trustees consisting of ten members, the library offers many services to the public including homebound delivery, bookmobile services, a homework help center,177 public computers, meeting rooms, extensive programming, and the Alice C. The Topeka & Shawnee County Public Library was founded in 1870 when the Ladies Library Association met to start a library and it was not until March 1871 that the doors of the library finally opened in the Keith & Meyers Dry Goods Store. In 1883, the library opened its first permanent building, in 1953, the library opened its new building at the corner of 10th and Washburn. In 1970, the Library expanded at its current location in celebration of its centennial, in 1996, voters approved a $23 million expansion project. Michael Graves was retained by the firm to be the design architect. A groundbreaking took place in 1998 for the expansion, the library opened its doors on January 12,2002. Former Directors Former directors include Horace Moses, James Marvin and David L. Leamon, the current Executive Director is Gina Millsap. The librarys auditorium is named after James Marvin and the Librarys Circulation Lobby is named after David Leamon, the Special Collections area contains the Moses Collection. Controversies In February 2009, the board voted to restrict minors from accessing four sexually-themed books. After public protest and controversy over the decision, the board voted in April 2009 to return the books to the shelves without restriction. The Board of Trustees is composed of three County appointees, and seven City appointees, sabatini Gallery City of Topeka Website Shawnee County Website

4.
Topeka High School
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Topeka High School is a fully accredited high school, serving students in grades 9–12, located in Topeka, Kansas. It is one of four schools within Topeka Public Schools. In the 2010-2011 school year, there were 1,840 students enrolled, Topeka High School was established in 1871, and moved to its current location in 1931. At the time, it was among the first million dollar high schools west of the Mississippi River, Topeka High offers a variety of sports and extracurricular activities, and notable alumni include Charles Curtis, 31st Vice President of the United States. Topeka High Schools mission is to all students for college and/or career readiness and success in a global society. The Topeka Board of Education established Topeka High School in 1871, over the next 10 years, the school was moved to various locations, including the Washburn Building at 10th and Jackson, and a room situated above the Topeka YMCA and Daily Capital newspaper. In 1882, the first black student graduated from Topeka High, attendance continued to outgrow the capacity of the school facilities, and in 1894 a new school was completed on the northwest corner of 8th and Harrison, at a cost of $85,000. One third of the new building would be for manual training, in 1915, an auditorium and cafeteria were added to the north school, and the old auditorium was converted to classes. In 1921, Topeka Highs cafeteria cook Ida M. Moyer was declared Champion Pie Baker of the World and it was calculated that over the previous 6 years, Moyer had baked 37,248 pies. Overcrowding persisted at the new facility, made worse in 1924 when Topekas Fire Marshall closed the schools 4th floor, a committee planning the construction of a new high school recommended that one large school be built, and that it occupy an entire city block. They wished it to be an addition to the Citys public buildings, Thomas Williamson and Ted Griest were selected as architects, and Linus Burr Smith as designer. Construction of the new school took 18 months, and the total cost was $1.8 million, the school opened in Sept.1931, and there were 2000 students enrolled by the following year. A spar from the USS Constitution was acquired with the assistance of Vice President Curtis and it was dedicated in Oct.1931. After years of wear, a replacement spar, also from the USS Constitution, was installed in 2004, Topeka Highs Hoehner Auditorium was selected as the site for the inauguration of Kansas Governor Payne Ratner, on Jan. In 1957, Time and Newsweek listed Topeka High among the 38 best schools in the nation, two new high schools helped ease the crowded conditions at Topeka High, Highland Park High School was annexed into Topeka in 1958, and Topeka West High School was completed in 1961. Restructuring of the district meant that in 1980, students in the 9th grade would begin attending high school. In 1984, Topeka High installed a computer-assisted automated dialing device which called home each time a student was truant, principal Ned Nusbaum commented, Its been a very effective tool for getting kids into class. The US Dept of Education recognized Topeka High as a School of Excellence in 1989, in 2001, Topeka High awarded an honorary diploma to the Honorable Eric S. Rosen, Justice, Kansas Supreme Court—a longtime supporter of the school

5.
Shawnee County, Kansas
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Shawnee County is a county located in northeast Kansas, in the central United States of America. As of the 2010 census, the population was 177,934 making it the third-most populous county in Kansas and its most populous city, Topeka, is the state capital and county seat. The county was one of the original 33 counties created by the first territorial legislature in 1855, for many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1855, Shawnee County was established. Before the treaty of 1854, the now known as Shawnee County was inhabited by Shawnee, Kansas. Westward expansion brought the country its first white settler in 1830 when Frederick Choteau opened a trading post on American Chief Creek, in 1855, Shawnee became one of the first counties established by the Kansas territorial legislature with a population of 250. General H. J. Strickler, of Tecumseh, who was a member of the council in 1855, at that time, Shawnee County borders were entirely south of the Kansas River and extended south to include Osage City and Carbondale. The legislature later desired to make Topeka the county seat and moved the borders of the county to their present locations to make Topeka centrally located in the county,1855 also saw the first ever meeting of the Shawnee County Board of Commissioners. Tecumseh was the first county seat, and the first county courthouse was opened there in 1856, the building was 40x50 feet but was never finished. Topeka was made the county seat by vote in 1858. In 1896, a new courthouse was constructed at 5th and Van Buren. That building remained in use until the current courthouse at 7th, concerning the origin of the names in this county, it is generally understood that Shawnee County receives its name from that well known tribe of Indians. Topeka A good place to grow potatoes, half-Day Creek Named after a Pottawatomie chief. Mission Creek Named after an old Kaw mission on its banks, blacksmith Creek Named after a Kaw blacksmith shop. Soldier Creek Its banks were a favorite camping ground for passing from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Riley

6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

7.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance

8.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi

9.
City manager
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A city manager is an official appointed as the administrative manager of a city, in a council–manager form of city government. Local officials serving in this position are sometimes referred to as the executive officer or chief administrative officer in some municipalities. Other small or middle sized American cities, especially in the West, in Europe, smaller cities in the Netherlands were specially attracted by the plan. Most sources trace the first city manager to Staunton, Virginia in 1908, some of the other cities that were among the first to employ a manager were Sumter, South Carolina and Dayton, Ohio, Dayton was featured in the national media, and became a national standard. The first City Managers Association meeting of eight city managers was in December 1914, by 1930200 American cities used a city manager form of government. In addition, many states, such as the states of New Hampshire, the City Manager position focuses on efficiency and providing a certain level of service for the lowest possible cost. The competence of a city manager can be assessed using composite indicators, Manager members of the ICMA are bound by a rather rigid and strongly enforced code of ethics that was originally established in 1924. Since that time the code had been up-dated/revised on seven occasions, in the early years of the profession, most managers came from the ranks of the engineering professions. As of 2005 more than 60% of those in the profession had a MPA, MBA, the average tenure of a manager is now 7–8 years and has risen gradually over the years. Tenures tend to be less in smaller communities and higher in larger ones, educational Level of Local Government Managers, Local government Local government in the United States council-manager government Clerk Kemp, Roger L. Managing Americas Cities, A Handbook for Local Government Productivity, McFarland, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. UK1998. _______, Model Government Charters, A City, County, Regional, State, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. UK,2003 _______, Forms of Local Government, A Handbook on City, County and Regional Options, McFarland, jefferson, NC, USA, and London, Eng. The rise of the city manager, A public professional in local government, organized business and the city commission and manager movements. In JSTOR White, Leonard D. Staunton, Virginia, Birthplace Of City Manager Form Of Government, a history on the city manager system of government

10.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option

11.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people

12.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above

13.
Central Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010

14.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year

15.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule

16.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001

17.
North American Numbering Plan
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The North American Numbering Plan is a telephone numbering plan that encompasses 25 distinct regions in twenty countries primarily in North America, including the Caribbean and the U. S. territories. Not all North American countries participate in the NANP, each participating country forms a regulatory authority that has plenary control over local numbering resources. The FCC also serves as the U. S. regulator, Canadian numbering decisions are made by the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium. The NANP divides the territories of its members into numbering plan areas which are encoded numerically with a telephone number prefix. Each telephone is assigned a telephone number unique only within its respective plan area. The telephone number consists of a central office code and a four-digit station number. The combination of a code and the telephone number serves as a destination routing address in the public switched telephone network. For international call routing, the NANP has been assigned the calling code 1 by the International Telecommunications Union. The North American Numbering Plan conforms with ITU Recommendation E.164, from its beginnings in 1876 and throughout the first part of the 20th century, the Bell System grew from essentially local or regional telephone systems. These systems expanded by growing their subscriber bases, as well as increasing their service areas by implementing additional local exchanges that were interconnected with tie trunks and it was the responsibility of each local administration to design telephone numbering plans that accommodated the local requirements and growth. As a result, the Bell System as a developed into an unorganized system of many differing local numbering systems. The diversity impeded the efficient operation and interconnection of exchanges into a system for long-distance telephone communication. The new numbering plan was accepted in October 1947, dividing most of North America into 86 Numbering Plan Areas. Each NPA was assigned a Numbering Plan Area code, often abbreviated as area code and these codes were first used by long-distance operators to establish long-distance calls between toll offices. The first customer-dialed direct call using area codes was made on November 10,1951, from Englewood, New Jersey, to Alameda, California. Direct distance dialing was introduced across the country and by the early 1960s most areas of the Bell System had been converted and it was commonplace in cities. In the following decades, the system expanded to all of the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda. By 1967,129 area codes had been assigned, mexican participation was planned, but implementation stopped after two area codes had been assigned and Mexico opted for an international numbering format, using country code 52

18.
Area code 785
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Area Code 785 was the result of a split from 913 on July 20,1997. It covers most telephone exchanges in northern Kansas and it stretches from the Colorado state line on the west to the Missouri state line on the east, while excluding the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. The largest city covered by the code is the state capital of Topeka. When area codes were implemented in 1946 the southern half of the state would receive 316, the north-south division is unusual for Kansas, a state which usually sees east-west geographic disputes. However, since all three of the states largest cities--Wichita, Topeka and Kansas City--are in the half of the state. This configuration remained in place for 40 years, however, by the mid-1990s,913 was close to exhaustion due to the popularity of cell phones and pagers, as well as the rapid growth of the Kansas City area. Late in 1996, the Kansas Corporation Commission, which oversees telecommunications in the state,785 began its split on July 20,1997, permissive dialing continued until October 3,1998. The code boundary dips along I-135 in McPherson County and continues east to just north of Emporia in Lyon County along the Kansas Turnpike, Joseph, Missouri is part of 785. The counties of Linn, Miami, Johnson, Wyandotte, one exception to this rule is the city of Elwood in Doniphan County, which retains the 913 area code while the remaining geographical balance of the county is under the 785 area code. This is because Elwood receives its dialtone from St. Joseph, Missouri which is covered by the Kansas City, Missouri LATA, all bordering 816/913 rate centers have each others area codes

19.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes

20.
Capital (political)
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right

21.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county

22.
Kansas River
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The Kansas River is a river in northeastern Kansas in the United States. It is the southwestern-most part of the Missouri River drainage, which is in turn the northwestern-most portion of the extensive Mississippi River drainage and its name come from the Kanza people who once inhabited the area. The state of Kansas was named for the river, dropping 322 feet on its journey seaward, the water in the Kansas River falls less than 2 feet per mile. The Kansas River valley is only 115 miles long, the length of the river is due to meandering across the floodplain. The rivers course roughly follows the maximum extent of a Pre-Illinoian glaciation, and the river likely began as a path of glacial meltwater drainage. The Kansas drains 34,423 square miles of land in Kansas, along with 16,916 square miles in Nebraska and 8,775 square miles in Colorado, making a total of just over 60,000 square miles. When including the Republican River and its tributaries, the Kansas River system has a length of 743 miles. Its highest headwaters are at about 6,000 feet and extend nearly to Limon, much of the drainage of the river lies within the Great Plains, but the river itself exists entirely within the Mid Continent Region. The majority of the rest of the state is drained by the Arkansas, a portion of central-eastern Kansas is drained by the Marais des Cygnes River, which flows into Missouri to meet the Missouri River. A small area in the extreme northeast part of the state directly into the Missouri. In the Kansas City metro area, some streams drain east into the Blue River tributary of the Missouri, the Kansas River flows through what is known as the Stable Interior region. Since this region is near the center of the North American Plate, it has not experienced any extensive geologic faulting, folding, the river flows through limestone and shale strata that, except for diagenesis, remain largely undisturbed since deposition beneath the Western Interior Seaway. The age of the rock exposed by the river becomes progressively older as the river downstream for two main reasons. All of the rocks in the area are sedimentary, ranging from Late Pennsylvanian to recent, the first is sand and gravel brought down from the Rocky Mountains which have settled in the western extents of the Kansas River basin. The third is loess, a fine silt that may have originally been deposited by the water of the receding glaciers. The thickest loess deposits can be found in the northwest and north-central part of the Kansas River basin from southern Nebraska into northwest Kansas, as well as near the rivers mouth. The first map showing the Kansas River is French cartographer Guillaume de LIsles Carte de la Louisiane, on it the Petite Riv des Cansez flows into the Missouri River at about the 40th parallel. This map, with no changes except for the translation of French into English, was subsequently published by John Senex

23.
Topeka, Kansas metropolitan area
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The Topeka Metropolitan Statistical Area, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, is an area consisting of five counties in northeastern Kansas, anchored by the city of Topeka. In total, it has an area of 3,290.15 square miles, as of the 2010 census, the MSA had a population of 233,870. The racial makeup of the MSA was 85. 95% White,6. 95% African American,1. 41% Native American,0. 76% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,2. 53% from other races, and 2. 40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 85% of the population, the median income for a household in the MSA was $41,322, and the median income for a family was $48,124. Males had an income of $33,251 versus $24,079 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $18,856

24.
Jackson County, Kansas
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Jackson County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 13,462 and its county seat and most populous city is Holton. The county was named for President Andrew Jackson, the Prairie Band Potawatomi Indian Reservation, located near the center of the county, comprises about 18. 5% of the countys area. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1859, Jackson County was established. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 658 square miles. Brown County Atchison County Jefferson County Shawnee County Pottawatomie County Nemaha County Jackson County is included in the Topeka, KS Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the U. S. Census in 2000, there were 12,657 people,4,727 households, the population density was 19 people per square mile. There were 5,094 housing units at a density of 8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 21% White,6. 84% Native American,0. 53% Black or African American,0. 17% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 39% from other races, and 1. 84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 49% of the population,22. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the family size was 3.09. In the county, the population was out with 28. 30% under the age of 18,6. 80% from 18 to 24,26. 70% from 25 to 44,23. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 96.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.80 males, the median income for a household in the county was $40,451, and the median income for a family was $46,520. Males had an income of $32,195 versus $22,305 for females

25.
Jefferson County, Kansas
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Jefferson County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. At the 2010 census, the county population was 19,126 and its county seat is Oskaloosa, and its most populous city is Valley Falls. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1855, Jefferson County was established, and was named for President Thomas Jefferson. The settlement was first abandoned due to the violence resulting from the border wars, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 557 square miles, of which 533 square miles is land and 2.4 square miles is water. Atchison County Leavenworth County Douglas County Shawnee County Jackson County Jefferson County is included in the Topeka, at the 2000 Census, there were 18,426 people,6,830 households and 5,190 families residing in the county. The population density was 34 per square mile, there were 7,491 housing units at an average density of 14 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 96. 70% White,0. 92% Native American,0. 37% Black or African American,0. 17% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 42% from other races, and 1. 41% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 28% of the population,20. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the family size was 3.07. 27. 40% of the population were under the age of 18,7. 00% from 18 to 24,28. 00% from 25 to 44,24. 90% from 45 to 64, the median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 102.60 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.90 males. The median household income was $45,535 and the family income was $50,557. Males had an income of $36,174 compared with $25,468 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,373, about 5. 30% of families and 6. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 90% of those under age 18 and 7. 70% of those age 65 or over. Valley Falls USD338 Jefferson County North USD339 Jefferson West USD340 Oskaloosa USD341 McLouth USD342 Perry-Lecompton USD343 Grantville Jefferson County is divided into twelve townships

26.
Osage County, Kansas
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Osage County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 16,295 and its county seat is Lyndon, and its most populous city is Osage City. The county was organized in 1855 as Weller County, and was renamed in 1859 after the Osage River that runs through it. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1859, Osage County was established. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 720 square miles. Shawnee County Douglas County Franklin County Coffey County Lyon County Wabaunsee County Osage County is included in the Topeka Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the U. S. Census in 2000, there were 16,712 people,6,490 households, the population density was 24 people per square mile. There were 7,018 housing units at a density of 10 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 27% White,0. 22% Black or African American,0. 65% Native American,0. 17% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,0. 41% from other races, and 1. 18% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 53% of the population,23. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the family size was 2.99. In the county, the population was out with 27. 00% under the age of 18,6. 40% from 18 to 24,27. 00% from 25 to 44,23. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 96.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $37,928, and the median income for a family was $44,581. Males had an income of $30,670 versus $22,981 for females

27.
Wabaunsee County, Kansas
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Wabaunsee County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 7,053, the county was created by the territorial legislature of Kansas Territory on March 25,1859, and was named for a chief of the Potawatomi Indians. For millennia, the now known as Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. In 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase, the first white settlers in the area were said to have been a band of outlaws known as the McDaniel Gang. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized and Wabaunsee County was created by the legislature on March 25,1859. The name used since 1859 is derived from the Potawatomi Wah-bon-seh, meaning dawn of day literally, and it was the name of the chief of the Potawatomi Indians. Also in 1854, the Beecher Bible and Rifle Church was established by a group of free-staters, who had rifles shipped to the church to be used in the free-state effort in boxes marked Bibles. Captain William Mitchell, Jr. a seaman who joined the Beecher Bible and Rifle Colony that settled in Wabaunsee, played an important role in the county settlement, the countys first church, Wabaunsee Church of Christ, was founded in June 1857. In 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, the first railroad to be built through Wabaunsee County was the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe in 1880. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a line from Topeka to Herington. This main line connected Topeka, Valencia, Willard, Maple Hill, Vera, Paxico, McFarland, Alma, Volland, Alta Vista, Dwight, White City, Latimer, a massive drought beginning in 1930 resulted in a series of dust storms that lasted until 1941. The drought combined with the onset of the Great Depression, forced farmers off the land and this ecological disaster caused an exodus of many farmers to escape from the hostile environment of Kansas. As the world demand for wheat plummeted, rural Kansas became poverty-stricken, republican Governor Alf Landon also employed emergency measures, including a moratorium on mortgage foreclosures and a balanced budget initiative. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration succeeded in raising wheat prices after 1933, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 800 square miles, of which 794 square miles is land and 5.3 square miles is water. Pottawatomie County Shawnee County Osage County Lyon County Morris County Geary County Riley County Wabaunsee County is part of the Topeka, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,885 people,2,633 households, and 1,958 families residing in the county. The population density was 9 people per square mile, there were 3,033 housing units at an average density of 4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 24% White,0. 46% Black or African American,0. 49% Native American,0. 15% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,0. 60% from other races, and 1. 00% from two or more races. 1. 86% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older

28.
Kaw people
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The Kaw Nation are a federally recognized Native American tribe in Oklahoma. They come from the central Midwestern United States, the tribe known as Kaw have also been known as the People of the South wind, People of water, Kansa, Kaza, Kosa, and Kasa. Their tribal language is Kansa, classified as a Siouan language, the toponym Kansas was derived from the name of this tribe. The name of Topeka, capital city of Kansas, is said to be the Kaw word Tó Ppí Kˀé meaning a place to grow potatoes. The Kaw are closely related to the Osage Nation, with members often intermarried. The Kaw Nations headquarters is in Kaw City, Oklahoma, the elected chairwoman is Jacque Secondine Hensley currently serving a four-year term. Of the 3,126 enrolled members,1,428 of them live within the state of Oklahoma, the estimated annual economic impact of the tribe is $200 million. The Kaw Nation Judicial Branch includes a domestic violence program, the Kaw Nation operates its own Housing Authority, library, Title VI Food Services and issues its own tribal vehicle tags. The Kanza News, the newsletter of Kaw Nation, is published quarterly, the Kaw are a member of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family. Oral history indicates that the ancestors of the five Dhegiha tribes migrated west from the Ohio Valley, the Quapaw separated from the other Dhegiha at the mouth of the Ohio, going down the Mississippi River to live in what is today the state of Arkansas. The other Dhegiha proceeded up the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, the Osage left the main group in central Missouri, the Kaw halted upstream on the Missouri River in northeastern Kansas, the Omaha and Ponca continued north to settle in Nebraska and South Dakota. The Dhegiha probably migrated westward in the early to mid-17th century and their reason for leaving their traditional home may have been due to the displacement westward of Indian tribes caused by European settlement on the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Displacement and Western migration was the fate of many Indian tribes, the French explorer Bourgmont was the first European known to visit the Kaws in 1724. He found them living in a large village near the future site of the town of Doniphan, Kansas. In 1780 the Kaw abandoned this village and took up residence on the Kansas River, when Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri, they noted passing the site of the “old village of the Kanzas” on July 2,1804. From 1780 to 1830 the Kaw lived at Blue Earth Village on the Kansas River, at the site of present-day Manhattan, the Kaw probably moved to the Kansas River Valley to be closer to the buffalo herds on the Great Plains. The tribe increasingly depended upon hunting for its subsistence and less on agriculture. Also, living on the Kansas River gave them access to a territory of fur bearing animals to trade to the French for guns

29.
Joseph James and Joseph James Jr.
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Joseph James is the name of two Kansa-Osage-French interpreters on the Kansas and Indian Territory frontier in the 19th century. Both were usually called “Joe Jim” or “Jojim. ”Joe Jim, Sr. was probably born in the 1790s at the Osage town in Vernon County and he is believed to have been the son of a French trader and an Osage woman. By about 1815, Joe Jim was living among the Kaw tribe along the Kansas River in what would become the state of Kansas, Joe Jim married Wyhesee, a daughter of Kaw chieftain White Plume, and thereafter became an important member of the tribe. Joe Jim is believed to have been a signatory to an 1825 treaty ceding Kaw land to the United States government under the name of Ky-he-ga-shin-ga, fluent in English, French, Kaw and Osage Joe Jim became an interpreter for the U. S. government about 1829. In 1830 he served as a guide for an expedition to western Kansas by missionary Isaac McCoy. McCoy, critical of most of his associates, was laudatory about Joe Jim, the last record of Joe Jim is 1837 at which time he was still employed by the U. S. government as an interpreter. In 1846 and 1847, during the Mexican-American War he and Peter Revard and he worked as a teamster during a military campaign against the Navajos. While returning to Kansas in a train, he survived a Comanche attack that resulted in the death of two American soldiers. In the 1850s, Joe Jim had an arm amputated due to “poisoning” which ended his active life. He became an interpreter for the U. S. government in 1858, one of the Indian Agents Joe Jim worked for was Hiram Warner Farnsworth. In 1859, he was an informant for pioneering ethnologist Lewis Henry Morgan. Morgan said of him, “He is half French and half Kaw, and bright and intelligent…He is married to a Potawatomi woman and he has a second house in which the cooking and eating is done. I took dinner with them and it was very good. ”Joe Jim’s wife was Margaret Curley, the Potawatomi had been forced by the U. S. to move to Kansas from the Ohio River valley in the 1830s. Joe Jim has been credited with naming Topeka, Kansas, in 1867, Joe Jim accompanied a Kaw delegation headed by Chief Al-le-ga-wa-ho to Washington. The Kaw were disappearing rapidly as a tribe, their lands being occupied by white settlers and they sought a new reservation free of white squatters in the Indian Territory. Joe Jim was involved in one of the most colorful and public Indian battles in the West, on June 3,1868, about one hundred Cheyenne warriors descended upon the Kaw reservation near Council Grove, Kansas. The Kaw men sallied forth to them and for four hours the two tribes staged a military pageant described as a “battle royal. ”The Cheyenne then retired from the field, taking with them a few stolen horses. Nobody was seriously hurt on either side, during the battle Joe Jim galloped 60 miles on horseback to Topeka to inform the governor that the Cheyenne were attacking and to request assistance

30.
Free-Stater (Kansas)
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Free-Staters were those settlers in Kansas Territory during the Bleeding Kansas era in the 1850s who opposed the extension of slavery to Kansas. The name derives from the free state, that is. Other Free-Staters were abolitionists who came to Kansas Territory from Ohio, Iowa, Holton, Kansas was named for the Milwaukee, Wisconsin free-stater Edward Dwight Holton. What united the Free-Staters was a desire to defeat the proslavery Southern settlers in Kansas Territory on the question of whether Kansas would be admitted to the Union as a slave state, pro-slavery Southerners in Kansas Territory painted all Free-Staters as abolitionists in order to motivate the Souths opposition. As time passed and the violence in Bleeding Kansas escalated, abolitionists became ascendent in the Free-State movement, Kansas became a state in 1861 after a free state constitution was agreed upon

31.
Eli Thayer
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Eli Thayer was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1857 to 1861. He was born in Mendon, Massachusetts and he graduated from Worcester Academy in 1840, from Brown University in 1845, and in 1848 founded Oread Institute, a school for young women in Worcester, Massachusetts. He is buried at Hope Cemetery, Worcester and he is chiefly remembered for his connection with the Kansas Crusade, the purpose of which was to secure the admission of Kansas to the Union as a free State. With this aim in view, early in 1854 Thayer organized the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company to send settlers to the Kansas Territory. In 1855, this joined with the New York Emigrant Aid Company. Local leagues were established whose members emigrated to Kansas and established towns, the Company provided hotels for temporary accommodation and provided sawmills and other improvements. Settlements were established at Manhattan, Lawrence, Topeka, and Osawatomie, the clash of these settlers and other Free-Stater Northerners with proslavery settlers spawned the violence of Bleeding Kansas. Thayer wanted to establish a colony in Virginia, but land was too expensive. He then looked to western Virginia, Thayer chose to build his colony at the mouth of Twelvepole Creek in Wayne County, Virginia now West Virginia. He named his town Ceredo after the goddess Ceres, the town was founded in 1857. He enlisted fellow abolitionist Zopher D. Ramsdell to settle there and establish a boot and it is open as a historic house museum. History of the Kansas Crusade, Its Friends and its Foes Napier, Ceredo, Its Founders and Families The New York Times, Sisters Run Down by Auto, Mrs. Clara Thayer Perry Dead, Miss Ida M. Thayer Dying September 18,1914, p.5. Emigrant Aid groups United States Congress, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Works related to Eli Thayer at Wikisource

32.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on

33.
Plessy v. Ferguson
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Plessy v. Ferguson,163 US537 was a landmark constitutional law case of the US Supreme Court. It upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities under the doctrine of separate, the decision was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1 with the majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown and the dissent written by Justice John Marshall Harlan. Separate but equal remained standard doctrine in U. S. law until its repudiation in the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education. In 1890, the state of Louisiana passed a law that required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on railroads, concerned, a group of prominent black, creole, and white New Orleans residents formed the Comité des Citoyens dedicated to repeal the law or fight its effect. They persuaded Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race, to participate in an orchestrated test case, Plessy was born a free man and was an octoroon. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, on June 7,1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a whites only car of the East Louisiana Railroad in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for Covington, Louisiana. After Plessy took a seat in the railway car, he was asked to vacate it. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective, as planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in Orleans Parish, Plessy was convicted and sentenced to pay a $25 fine. Plessy immediately sought a writ of prohibition, the Committee of Citizens took Plessys appeal to the Supreme Court of Louisiana, where he again found an unreceptive ear, as the state Supreme Court upheld Judge Fergusons ruling. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled as early as 1849 that segregated schools were constitutional, in answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court stated, This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law and cannot be changed by law. Similarly, in commenting on a Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated and it is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to intermix. Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court in 1896, two legal briefs were submitted on Plessys behalf. One was signed by Albion W. Tourgée and James C. Walker, oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13,1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy, Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was property, which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by Attorney General Milton Joseph Cunningham of Natchitoches, earlier, Cunningham had fought to restore white supremacy during Reconstruction. Justice Edward Douglass White of Louisiana was one of the majority, in the seven-to-one decision handed down on May 18,1896, the Court rejected Plessys arguments based on the Fourteenth Amendment, seeing no way in which the Louisiana statute violated it. In addition, the rejected the view that the Louisiana law implied any inferiority of blacks

34.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race

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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress