Allah's Use of Plural Pronouns:

The inability of Muslims to cogently explain the divine plurals of the Qur’an (1, 2, 3), or even to convincingly write off the necessity of explaining them on the grounds that only Allah knows what they mean (4), leads us back to the observation with which this series started: the plurals of the Qur’an appear to present a problem for Islamic monotheism; if we take this language of the Qur’an as it stands, it does not comport with the central teaching of Islam – Tawhid. The total collapse under scrutiny of any explanation for the divine plurals is strong evidence that this problem is not only apparent but genuine.

Since Muslims, for no fault of their own since they are shackled here by the constraints the Qur’an and Islamic theology place upon them, cannot show how the divine plurals can be interpreted so as to harmonize with the absolute monotheism supposedly taught elsewhere in the Qur’an, the door is opened to consider another possible reason for the inclusion of these divine plurals that has not been considered by Muslims.

Ill-Informed Borrowing

Although there are certainly other possibilities, one promising explanation is that Muhammad, either because he was deceived into believing or because he was trying to convince others that he was proclaiming the same God that spoke to the prophets and by the apostles, picked up this practice from Jews and Christians without understanding the reason behind its presence in the prophetic writings, much like he picked up many other things from Jews and Christians unaware of their true sense.1 In his misguided efforts to mimic what he heard from Jewish and Christian sources, both of which present God speaking this way, it is quite plausible that Muhammad borrowed these expressions without understanding what they meant in their original context. In the Bible such expressions clearly point to the uni-plural nature of Yahweh, the Triune God;2 in Muhammad’s hands they become unclear and empty expressions put in the mouth of an equally empty unitarian deity.

Not only is there general evidence for at least the possibility that Muhammad could have derived this language from Jews and Christians, for his contact with and penchant for borrowing from Jews and Christians is easily attested and well known in many other cases, but there is some specific evidence that is consistent with and supportive of the idea that this is the case when it comes to the use of plural expressions by Allah for himself.

According to Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah, after being pressed by the Christians of Najran on why Allah says “We”, “Us,” and “Our, and on why the Qur’an applies and ascribes titles and works to Christ that demonstrate His deity and divine Sonship, it records: “The apostle was silent and did not answer them.” It was only after this period of silence that the Surah of the Family of Imran was supposedly “sent down” as a reply.

A deputation of the Christians of Najran came to the apostle … They were Christians according to the Byzantine rite, though they differed among themselves in some points, saying He is God; and He is the son of God; and He is the third person of the Trinity, which is the doctrine of Christianity. They argue that he is God because he used to raise the dead, and heal the sick, and declare the unseen; and make clay birds and then breath into them so that they flew away; and all this was by the command of God Almighty, ‘We will make him a sign to men.’ They argue that he is the son of God in that they say he had no known father; and he spoke in the cradle and this is something that no child of Adam has ever done They argue that he is the third of three in that God says: We have done, We have commanded, We have created and We have decreed, and they say, If He were one he would have said I have done, I have created, and so on, but He is He and Jesus and Mary. Concerning all these assertions the Quran came down.

When the two divines spoke to him the apostle said to them, ‘Submit yourselves.’ They said, ‘We have submitted.’ He said: ‘You have not submitted, so submit.’ They said, ‘Nay, but we submitted before you.’ He said, ‘You lie. Your assertion that God has a son, your worship of the cross, and your eating pork hold you back from submission.’ They said, ‘But who is his father, Muhammad?’ The apostle was silent and did not answer them. So God sent down concerning their words and their incoherence the beginning of the sura of the Family of ‘Imran up to more than eighty verses, and He said: ‘Alif Lam Mim ...’3 (Emphasis mine)

At least three things appear from this relevant to the point being made here:

1) Muhammad’s delay in answering what the Christians of Najran had spoken to him demonstrates that he unthinkingly picked up and employed plural expressions for God and said things about Jesus; otherwise Muhammad would have had an answer on the spot. As it is, in Ibn Ishaq’s account Muhammad clearly appears to have been flummoxed.

2) The Christians who were questioning Muhammad naturally thought there was a connection between Muhammad’s portrayal of Allah using first person plurals and that which they were familiar with as people of the Book (just like they recognized from their writings some of the things the Qur’an says about Jesus – His virgin birth, mighty miracles, etc.).

3) The “answer” that Muhammad eventually came back with, particularly on Allah’s use of first person plural pronouns, which is equivalent to the answer found in post-Christian Jewish writings, belies a Jewish influence on Muhammad’s thinking in connection to this issue (see part IV).

Moreover, if Muhammad was not discomfited by his use of plural pronouns spoken by Allah when the incongruity of doing so was brought to his attention, and if he actually was confident that the answer he had provided was a satisfactory solution or explanation of the problem, why when we turn to the first eighty verses of Surah 3, the verses that were given as a response to the Christians of Najran, do we find Muhammad radically scaling back, in comparison to the practice observed in other Surahs, the use of first person plurals by Allah? In fact, in all eighty plus verses only two instances of the use of the plural can be found on the lips of Allah, namely 3:25 and 3:44.

The available evidence makes it appear entirely plausible and quite possible that Muhammad originally borrowed this way of speaking from Jews and Christians and was caught off-guard and justly embarrassed when the implications of it were pointed out to him.

Borrowing and Bumbling

This confused borrowing, or whatever accounts for the presence of such plurals in the Qur’an, coupled with Muhammad’s semi-illiteracy, which Muslims are wont to call eloquence, makes it possible to argue that the Qur’an teaches something akin to the Trinity (even if not a trinity of the Father, Mary, and the Son, a notion Muhammad imputed to Christians even though it is not a teaching of Christianity4).

Since the Arabic words used by Allah (nahnu, inna) indicate three or more, when Allah says “We”, it is an indication that Allah could be three, four, five or more persons but not less than three. As mentioned above, matters are all the more compounded by Muhammad’s semi-illiteracy, reflected in this connection in his bantering back and forth between first, second and third person pronouns, both singular and plural. On this, observe the following verses which are supposedly the direct speech of Allah:

And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true. (S. 2:23)

So We said: "Strike the (body) with a piece of the (heifer)." Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His Signs: perchance ye may understand. (S. 2:73)

And remember We took a covenant from the Children of Israel (to this effect): worship none but Allah; treat with kindness your parents and kindred, and orphans and those in need; speak fair to the people; be steadfast in prayer; and practise regular charity. Then did ye turn back, except a few among you, and ye backslide (even now). (S. 2:83)

Except those who repent and make amends and openly declare (the Truth): to them I turn; for I am Oft-returning, Most Merciful. Those who reject Faith, and die rejecting,- on them is Allah's curse, and the curse of angels, and of all mankind; … (S. 2:160-161)

O ye who believe! Eat of the good things that We have provided for you, and be grateful to Allah, if it is Him ye worship. (S. 2:172)

As to those who reject faith, I will punish them with terrible agony in this world and in the Hereafter, nor will they have anyone to help. As to those who believe and work righteousness, Allah will pay them (in full) their reward; but Allah loveth not those who do wrong. (S. 3:56-57)

Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers, for that they joined companions with Allah, for which He had sent no authority: their abode will be the Fire: and evil is the home of the wrong-doers! (S. 3:151)

If any do that in rancour and injustice,- soon shall We cast them into the Fire: and easy it is for Allah. (S. 4:30)

To (benefit) every one, We have appointed shares and heirs to property left by parents and relatives. To those, also, to whom your right hand was pledged, give their due portion. For truly Allah is witness to all things. (S. 4:33)

If We had ordered them to sacrifice their lives or to leave their homes, very few of them would have done it: but if they had done what they were (actually) told, it would have been best for them, and would have gone farthest to strengthen their (faith); and We should then have given them from our presence a great reward; and We should have shown them the Straight Way. All who obey Allah and the messenger are in the company of those on whom is the Grace of Allah,- of the prophets (who teach), the sincere (lovers of Truth), the witnesses (who testify), and the Righteous (who do good): Ah! what a beautiful fellowship! Such is the bounty from Allah: And sufficient is it that Allah knoweth all. (S. 4:66-70)

In most of their secret talks there is no good: but if one exhorts to a deed of charity or justice or conciliation between men, (Secrecy is permissible): to him who does this, seeking the good pleasure of Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest (value). (S. 4:114)

But those who believe and do deeds of righteousness,- we shall soon admit them to gardens, with rivers flowing beneath,- to dwell therein for ever. Allah's promise is the truth, and whose word can be truer than Allah's? (S. 4:122)

These were the men to whom We gave the Book, and authority, and prophethood: if these (their descendants) reject them, behold! We shall entrust their charge to a new people who reject them not. Those were the (prophets) who received Allah's guidance: copy the guidance they received; Say: "No reward for this do I ask of you: this is no less than a message for the nations." (S. 6:89-90)

Even if We did send unto them angels, and the dead did speak unto them, and We gathered together all things before their very eyes, they are not the ones to believe, unless it is in Allah's plan. But most of them ignore (the truth). Likewise did We make for every Messenger an enemy,- evil ones among men and jinns, inspiring each other with flowery discourses by way of deception. If thy Lord had so planned, they would not have done it: so leave them and their inventions alone. (S. 6:111-112)

Such were the towns whose story We (thus) relate unto thee: there came indeed to them their messengers with clear (signs): but they would not believe what they had rejected before. Thus doth Allah seal up the hearts of those who reject faith. (S. 7:101)

We appointed for Moses thirty nights, and completed (the period) with ten (more): thus was completed the term (of communion) with his Lord, forty nights. And Moses had charged his brother Aaron (before he went up): "Act for me amongst my people: Do right, and follow not the way of those who do mischief." (S. 7:142)

“If any do that in rancour and injustice,- soon shall We cast them into the Fire: And easy it is for Allah.” (S. 4:30)

“To (benefit) every one, We have appointed shares and heirs to property left by parents and relatives. To those, also, to whom your right hand was pledged, give their due portion. For truly Allah is witness to all things.” (S. 4:33)

“Serve Allah, and join not any partners with Him; and do good- to parents, kinsfolk, orphans, those in need, neighbours who are near, neighbours who are strangers, the companion by your side, the wayfarer (ye meet), and what your right hands possess: For Allah loveth not the arrogant, the vainglorious;- (Nor) those who are niggardly or enjoin niggardliness on others, or hide the bounties which Allah hath bestowed on them; for We have prepared, for those who resist Faith, a punishment that steeps them in contempt;- Not those who spend of their substance, to be seen of men, but have no faith in Allah and the Last Day: If any take the Evil One for their intimate, what a dreadful intimate he is! (S. 4:36-38)

“How then if We brought from each people a witness, and We brought thee as a witness against these people! On that day those who reject Faith and disobey the messenger will wish that the earth were made one with them: But never will they hide a single fact from Allah!” (S. 4:41-42)

We sent not a messenger, but to be obeyed, in accordance with the will of Allah. If they had only, when they were unjust to themselves, come unto thee and asked Allah's forgiveness, and the Messenger had asked forgiveness for them, they would have found Allah indeed Oft-returning, Most Merciful. But no, by the Lord, they can have no (real) Faith, until they make thee judge in all disputes between them, and find in their souls no resistance against Thy decisions, but accept them with the fullest conviction. (S. 4:64-5)

“Let those fight in the cause of Allah who sell the life of this world for the hereafter. To him who fighteth in the cause of Allah,- whether he is slain or gets victory - Soon shall We give him a reward of great (value).” (S. 4:74)

“In most of their secret talks there is no good: But if one exhorts to a deed of charity or justice or conciliation between men, (Secrecy is permissible): to him who does this, seeking the good pleasure of Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest (value).” (S. 4:114)

“But to those who believe and do deeds of righteousness, He will give their (due) rewards,- and more, out of His bounty: But those who are disdainful and arrogant, He will punish with a grievous penalty; nor will they find, besides Allah, any to protect or help them. O mankind! verily there hath come to you a convincing proof from your Lord: For We have sent unto you a light (that is) manifest. Then those who believe in Allah, and hold fast to Him,- soon will He admit them to mercy and grace from Himself, and guide them to Himself by a straight way.” (S. 4:173-175)

Allah did aforetime take a covenant from the Children of Israel, and we appointed twelve captains among them. And Allah said: "I am with you: if ye (but) establish regular prayers, practise regular charity, believe in my messengers, honour and assist them, and loan to Allah a beautiful loan, verily I will wipe out from you your evils, and admit you to gardens with rivers flowing beneath; but if any of you, after this, resisteth faith, he hath truly wandered from the path or rectitude." But because of their breach of their covenant, We cursed them, and made their hearts grow hard; they change the words from their (right) places and forget a good part of the message that was sent them, nor wilt thou cease to find them- barring a few - ever bent on (new) deceits: but forgive them, and overlook (their misdeeds): for Allah loveth those who are kind. From those, too, who call themselves Christians, We did take a covenant, but they forgot a good part of the message that was sent them: so we estranged them, with enmity and hatred between the one and the other, to the day of judgment. And soon will Allah show them what it is they have done. O people of the Book! There hath come to you our Messenger, revealing to you much that ye used to hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is now unnecessary): There hath come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book, - Wherewith Allah guideth all who seek His good pleasure to ways of peace and safety, and leadeth them out of darkness, by His will, unto the light,- guideth them to a path that is straight.” (S. 5:13-16)

“O People of the Book! Now hath come unto you, making (things) clear unto you, Our Messenger, after the break in (the series of) our messengers, lest ye should say: "There came unto us no bringer of glad tidings and no warner (from evil)": But now hath come unto you a bringer of glad tidings and a warner (from evil). And Allah hath power over all things.” (S. 5:19)

It is He Who maketh the stars (as beacons) for you, that ye may guide yourselves, with their help, through the dark spaces of land and sea: We detail Our signs for people who know. It is He Who hath produced you from a single person: here is a place of sojourn and a place of departure: We detail Our signs for people who understand. It is He Who sendeth down rain from the skies: with it We produce vegetation of all kinds: from some We produce green (crops), out of which We produce grain, heaped up (at harvest); out of the date-palm and its sheaths (or spathes) (come) clusters of dates hanging low and near: and (then there are) gardens of grapes, and olives, and pomegranates, each similar (in kind) yet different (in variety): when they begin to bear fruit, feast your eyes with the fruit and the ripeness thereof. Behold! in these things there are signs for people who believe. Yet they make the Jinns equals with Allah, though Allah did create the Jinns; and they falsely, having no knowledge, attribute to Him sons and daughters. Praise and glory be to Him! (for He is) above what they attribute to Him! To Him is due the primal origin of the heavens and the earth: How can He have a son when He hath no consort? He created all things, and He hath full knowledge of all things. That is Allah, your Lord! there is no god but He, the Creator of all things: then worship ye Him: and He hath power to dispose of all affairs. No vision can grasp Him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things. Now have come to you, from your Lord, proofs (to open your eyes): if any will see, it will be for (the good of) his own soul; if any will be blind, it will be to his own (harm): I am not (here) to watch over your doings. Thus do we explain the signs by various (symbols): that they may say, "Thou hast taught (us) diligently," and that We may make the matter clear to those who know. Follow what thou art taught by inspiration from thy Lord: there is no god but He: and turn aside from those who join gods with Allah. If it had been Allah's plan, they would not have taken false gods: but We made thee not one to watch over their doings, nor art thou set over them to dispose of their affairs. (S. 6:97-107)

Follow what thou art taught by inspiration from thyLord: there is no god but He: and turn aside from those who join gods with Allah. If it had been Allah's plan, they would not have taken false gods: but We made thee not one to watch over their doings, nor art thou set over them to dispose of their affairs. Revile not ye those whom they call upon besides Allah, lest they out of spite revile Allah in their ignorance. Thus have We made alluring to each people its own doings. In the end will they return to their Lord, and We shall then tell them the truth of all that they did. (S. 6:106-108)

Even if We did send unto them angels, and the dead did speak unto them, and We gathered together all things before their very eyes, they are not the ones to believe, unless it is in Allah's plan. But most of them ignore (the truth). Likewise did We make for every Messenger an enemy,- evil ones among men and jinns, inspiring each other with flowery discourses by way of deception. If thy Lord had so planned, they would not have done it: so leave them and their inventions alone. (S. 6:111-112)

Say: "Shall I seek for judge other than Allah? - when He it is Who hath sent unto you the Book, explained in detail." They know full well, to whom We have given the Book, that it hath been sent down from thy Lord in truth. Never be then of those who doubt. The word of thy Lord doth find its fulfilment in truth and in justice: None can change His words: for He is the one who heareth and knoweth all. Wert thou to follow the common run of those on earth, they will lead thee away from the way of Allah. They follow nothing but conjecture: they do nothing but lie. Thy Lord knoweth best who strayeth from His way: He knoweth best who they are that receive His guidance. So eat of (meats) on which Allah's name hath been pronounced, if ye have faith in His signs. Why should ye not eat of (meats) on which Allah's name hath been pronounced, when He hath explained to you in detail what is forbidden to you - except under compulsion of necessity? But many do mislead (men) by their appetites unchecked by knowledge. Thy Lord knoweth best those who transgress. (S. 6:114-119)

This is the way of thy Lord, leading straight: We have detailed the signs for those who receive admonition. For them will be a home of peace in the presence of their Lord: He will be their friend, because they practised (righteousness). One day will He gather them all together, (and say): "O ye assembly of Jinns! Much (toll) did ye take of men." Their friends amongst men will say: "Our Lord! we made profit from each other: but (alas!) we reached our term - which thou didst appoint for us." He will say: "The Fire be your dwelling-place: you will dwell therein for ever, except as Allah willeth." for thy Lord is full of wisdom and knowledge. (S. 6:126-128)

Who is more unjust than one who invents a lie against Allah or rejects His Signs? For such, their portion appointed must reach them from the Book (of decrees): until, when our messengers (of death) arrive and take their souls, they say: "Where are the things that ye used to invoke besides Allah?" They will reply, "They have left us in the lurch," And they will bear witness against themselves, that they had rejected Allah. (S. 7:37)

Call on your Lord with humility and in private: for Allah loveth not those who trespass beyond bounds. Do no mischief on the earth, after it hath been set in order, but call on Him with fear and longing (in your hearts): for the Mercy of Allah is (always) near to those who do good. It is He Who sendeth the winds like heralds of glad tidings, going before His mercy: when they have carried the heavy-laden clouds, We drive them to a land that is dead, make rain to descend thereon, and produce every kind of harvest therewith: thus shall We raise up the dead: perchance ye may remember. (S. 7:55-57)

In the above passages, Allah, speaking in the first person as either “I”, “We”, or “Our”, turns around and speaks of Allah in the third person as either “Allah”, “Lord”, “He”, “Him” or “Himself”. Given that the words “We” and “Our” are plural, indicating three or more, and given that Allah, speaking as “We” and “Our”, refers to Allah in the third person, verses like the above show that Allah is at least four persons. Even if Muslims want to go against the evidence and insist that when Allah says “We”, it does not indicate that he is more than one person, then the above passages would still show that Allah is at least two, for Allah, i.e. “We”, speak in the third person of “Allah” or the “Lord” or “Him”. In other words, on the view that “We” is a genuine plural, and Muslims can’t demonstrate otherwise, Allah is four or more persons; on the view that “We” is only one person, which Muslims are far from able to prove, then Allah is at least two persons. The same goes for the passages where Allah turns from speaking in the first person singular to speaking of Allah in the third person singular.

Some of these verses are especially confusing on the supposition that Allah is only one person. To take just one example from the above, Surah 6:126-128, says:

This is the way of thy Lord, leading straight: We have detailed the signs for those who receive admonition. For them will be a home of peace in the presence of their Lord: He will be their friend, because they practised (righteousness). One day will He gather them all together, (and say): "O ye assembly of Jinns! Much (toll) did ye take of men." Their friends amongst men will say: "Our Lord! we made profit from each other: but (alas!) we reached our term - which thou didst appoint for us." He will say: "The Fire be your dwelling-place: you will dwell therein for ever, except as Allah willeth." for thy Lord is full of wisdom and knowledge. (S. 6:126-128)

Here we see Allah, who is supposedly the speaker, refer to Allah in the third person – i.e. “thy Lord”, “He” – and Allah even goes on to quote Allah who also refers to Allah in the third person. Allah says: “He will say: ‘The Fire be your dwelling-place: you will dwell therein for ever, except as Allah willeth.’” Since Allah says that Allah will tell some people to dwell in the fire forever, except as Allah wills, how many Allahs are in view here?

Remarkably, Muslims look upon this sort of thing as something beautiful, an indication of the surpassing eloquence and rhetorical genius of the Qur’an, but it is actually a beautiful example that the Qur’an isn’t what it claims to be: either it is not the revelation of a mono-personal deity or it is not the inimitable masterpiece they are taught to think it is.

Conclusion

In the course of surveying the use of divine plurals in the Qur’an and critiquing the explanations that have been offered for them, it has been found that Muslims have no way of explaining them (or explaining them away) that is at once consistent with tawhid and/or other teachings of the Qur’an (such as the claim that the Qur’an is both clear and supremely eloquent). It has also been shown that a possible explanation for where Muhammad picked up this practice lies in the direction of his well-known penchant for undiscerningly borrowing from Jews and Christians, a view that appears every bit consistent with what is reported in the Sirah of Ibn Ishaq. While the above creates huge problems for Muslims, matters are all the more compounded when considered in conjunction with other peculiarities of the Qur’an, such as when Allah speaks of Allah or when Allah quotes Allah referring to Allah.

It can only be reasonably concluded from all of this that the teaching of the Qur’an cannot clearly or consistently be set forth as a bulwark against the uni-plural nature of God in favor of unitarianism.

Further Reading

For more on this general subject, both in relation to the Bible and the Qur’an, see the following articles:

My thanks to Jochen Katz, Sam Shamoun, Bassam Madany and Mutee’a Al-Fadi for reading this series and offering much in the way of constructive criticism (only some of which I followed, leaving me solely responsible for any possible mistakes that may remain).

Footnotes

1 For example calling Jesus God’s Word and saying that He had the power to create life, all of which bespeak His essential Godhood.

2 For the evidence of this, see the articles listed at the end of this paper.

4 This was/is not a teaching of Christianity in general or the Byzantine rite in particular. Muhammad obviously misunderstood the Christians of Najran, a fact that should have been (but was not) cleared up when Allah “sent down” the Qur’an. Indeed, not only does Allah fail to correct this error in the Qur’an but he repeats it, once again showing that the measure of Allah’s knowledge was co-extensive with that of Muhammad’s ignorance. What Muhammad (and his companions) failed to understand correctly … Allah failed to understand correctly. It is for this reason that many view the Quranic Allah to be nothing more than Muhammad’s alter ego, a projection of his own mind.