MEDIA PRESERVATION: INTRODUCTION

No medium, whether its marble or magnetic tape, lasts forever.
But electronic mediavideo, audio, and digital worksare
especially vulnerable. Magnetic tape, which is used in both audio
and video recording, was never intended as an archival storage medium.
It deteriorates rapidly without proper care. Digital mediatechnologies
so recent theyre often called "new media"are
inherently intangible, posing a unique set of challenges. But a
clear preservation strategy, which includes cataloging, cleaning,
remastering, and good storage conditions can delay the natural deterioration
of electronic media caused by exposure to moisture, heat, and dirt.
It can also limit the likelihood of damage from mishandling, as
well as from worst-case scenarios such as fire or flooding. If properly
preserved, video, audio, and digital media can actually outlast
the equipment used to create them.

Obsolescence is built into all electronic media. Tape formats and
recording equipment are constantly being upgraded, as are computer
hardware and software. As Bruce Sterling wrote in Dead Media
Manifesto: "It's a rather rare phenomenon for an established
medium to die. They usually expand wildly in their early days and
then shrink back to some protective niche as they are challenged
by later and more highly evolved competitors . . . but some media
do, in fact, perish." In the 1960s, eight-track audiotape was
so popular that car stereos routinely came equipped with eight-track
tape decks; by the 1980s the once-ubiquitous format had all but
disappeared. In the 1970s, before VHS became the standard format,
home videos were recorded on cassette formats like Cartivision and
V-Cord, now classified as extinct by preservationists. Digital information
that was stored on computers in now-defunct programming languages
like FORTRAN II can never be retrieved.

If the preservation needs of an electronic media collection are
ignored, artists and organizations risk losing an irreplaceable
legacy. IMAP recognizes that electronic media collectionsparticularly
independent work that exists outside of large, established institutionsare
a vital part of our cultural heritage. To guarantee the survival
of these collections, independent artists and organizations must
establish preservation guidelines. But artists, art centers, dance
and theater companies, libraries, university departments, and similar
small organizations generally lack the support and resources required
to ensure the longevity of their collections. IMAP was founded in
1999 to help these individuals and organizations acquire the necessary
tools to design and implement preservation programs tailored to
their specific needs.

The first movie camera, the Kinetoscope, was invented in the laboratory
of Thomas Edison in 1893. Within two years, the Lumiére Brothers
began screening films for a paying public in France. Before the
turn of the twentieth century, there was no standard film format,
and film widths ranged from 35mm to 54mm to 60mm. Edison may have
chosen the 35mm width simply by cuttting the film then commonly
used for still pictures (70mm) in half. Movies had become big business
by the early 1900s, and in 1909, after intensifying patent struggles,
filmmakers adopted 35mm film as the industry standard.

The popularity of commercial movies led to the introduction of
portable hand-crank cameras for amateur use. The French company
Pathé offered the first model, which used 9.5 mm film, in
1922. (The 9.5mm format fell into disuse in the 1950s). A year later,
Kodak introduced a 16mm camera, a format that is still popular today.
In addition to 35mm, 16mm, and 9.5 mm, independent archives also
commonly include regular 8mm and Super 8 film.

Film is subject to natural deterioration, which is hastened by
exposure to heat and humidity. The nature of the deterioration depends
on the base of the film stock. Prior to 1951, 35mm film was often
made of nitrate, which can spontaneously combust. Acetate-based
film is susceptible to "vinegar syndrome"a process
that occurs when moisture in the air interacts with the acetate,
producing a vinegary odor. Over time, the film begins to warp and
shrink, and the emulsion pulls off. (Polyester-backed film stocks
such as Super 8, and 16mm and 35mm produced after 1980, are immune
to vinegar syndrome). Proper storage can guarantee films longevity.

The origins of magnetic audio recording date back to 1893, when
the Danish electrician Valdemar Poulsen invented a device that stored
magnetic impulses on a wire that crudely reproduced sound. (An American
scientist named Oberlin Smith had explored similar ideas twenty
years earlier with no results). In 1928, the German scientist Fritz
Pfluemer patented a process for applying magnetic powder to plastic
or paper backing, inventing audiotape as we know it. The Germans
continued to develop the new technology through the early 1940s,
but after World War II, the United States and Britain assumed German
patent rights. In 1947, the American company 3M introduced the first
high-quality magnetic tape. Singer Bing Crosby championed the new
technology, switching networks when NBC refused to tape-record his
radio show.

Audiotape has been the mainstay of both the radio and recording
industries. It has also been widely used by independent musicians
and composers to document performances, by educators to record lectures,
by anthropologists to gather oral histories, and by artists who
use sound as their medium. The most common audiotape formats are
1/4-inch open reel, audiocassette, and digital audiotape (DAT).
Like all magnetic media, magnetic audiotape suffers from natural
deterioration. An audiotapes lifespan depends on the quality
of the original tape stock, the quality of the recording itself,
and handling and storage conditions. In addition, 1/4-inch audiotape
manufactured between the 1940s and 1960s could have paper rather
than polyester backing, which puts it at additional risk for deterioration.

Magnetic videotape was developed in the 1950s for use in broadcast
television, which at the time relied entirely on live transmissions.
The American radio industry had already embraced magnetic audiotape
in the late 1940s and the three television networks were eager for
a technology that would allow them to record live programs for rebroadcast
across multiple time zones. The first commercially available videotapea
2-inch, open-reel format called Quadruplexwas introduced at
a broadcasters convention in Chicago in 1956. One year later,
all three networks were recording their nightly news shows for delayed
broadcast.

Sony introduced the first portable video camera, the Portapak,
in 1964. The Korean artist Nam June Paik bought an early model in
Tokyo and, art history legend has it, picked up his camera at a
cargo boat in New York, hailed a taxi, and started shooting footage
of a papal procession along Fifth Avenue. That night he screened
the tape for friends at Cafe A Go Go and video art was born. However
accurate, this story illustrates the attraction the new medium,
which produced instantaneous results, held for artists.

Commercial television and visual art were far from the only applications
of early video technology. Choreographers, musicians, performance
artists, and theater companies began taping their performances.
Documentary makers were drawn to video because it was more affordable
than film and the equipment was more portable. In 1975, when Sony
introduced a 1/2-inch videocassette format called Betamax to consumers,
video was widely available to the general public for the first time,
revolutionizing the industry. (Though hugely popular when it was
first released, Betamax eventually lost market share to VHS, the
most successful analog home videotape format.)

Since the introduction of videotape, over 65 formatsanalog
and digitalhave been introduced, including 2-inch quad, 1-inch,
1/2-inch open reel, 3/4-inch, 8mm, Hi-8mm, Betacam, VHS, and DV.
Some of the formats are now obsolete, due in part to the discontinuation
of the machines that produced them. As new recording technologies
and tape formats gain popularity, manufacturers typically stop producing
and servicing older equipment. Finding machines to play outdated
formats is one challenging aspect of the preservation process, but
the most important part of preserving magnetic media is caring for
the tape itself.

Videotape is composed of a strip of polyester film with a layer
of magnetic particlesadhered to the film with a binderthat
record magnetic signals. The binder creates a smooth surface, allowing
tape to run easily through equipment. Like film, videotape is subject
to natural deterioration, which is hastened by exposure to heat
and humidity.

The most vulnerable part of videotape is the binder. In the late
1960s, the durability and low cost of polyester urethane made it
the most popular binder. Unfortunately, polyester urethane absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere, altering its molecular structure in
a process called hydrolysis. High temperatures and high relative
humidity accelerate this chemical reaction, resulting in "sticky
shed syndrome," which is characterized by softer-than-normal
binder coatings and gummy residues on tape surfaces.

A number of other conditions may damage videotape, including: exposure
to liquid or dry debris; stretching, creasing, or breakage due to
playback on poorly maintained equipment; uneven tension when rewinding;
demagnetizing; inadvertent erasure or rerecording; and natural disasters
such as fire or flooding.

The first programmable digital computer was developed by the United
States military during World War II to aid in ballistic calculations,
but the war was over by the time the Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer (ENIAC) was finally unveiled in 1946. It weighed 30
tons, covered 1,800 square feet, and solved in 20 seconds an equation
that would have taken a mathematician more than 40 hours to complete.
By the 1960s, mainframe computers were commonplace in corporations
and universities, but it wasnt until the advent of personal
computers in the 1980s that the technology reached a consumer audience.
Before that, artists interested in digital technologies could only
experiment at large research institutions such as Bell Labs or Xerox
Park. Just as the Sony Portapak camera spawned video art, affordable
and easy-to-use personal computers generated a new electronic medium
for artists. Digital technology also revolutionized information
management, as libraries and universities supplemented paper archives
with computer files and databases and arts organizations began to
create and maintain electronic archives.

Digital media would not exist without computers, but a second,
related technology had a major impact on electronic media in the
late twentieth century: the Internet. In 1962, the Rand Corporation
conceived ARPANET, a decentralized telecommunications network designed
to enable communication after a nuclear attack. ARPENET eventually
evolved into the Internet, which became a tool for scientists and
scholars. The audiovisual interface known as the World Wide Web
was developed in 1989 at CERN, Switzerlands Particle Physics
laboratory, to help scientists share data more efficiently. When
web-browsing software such as Netscape was introduced to consumers
in the mid-1990s, anyone with a phone line and a personal computer
could access the Internet. Suddenly, art and information created
on a home computer could be distributed from one as well.

Because they are intangible, digital media works are sometimes
mistakenly considered immune to deterioration. But as preservation
expert Jeff Rothenberg jokes: "Digital media last forever or
five yearswhichever comes first." The complexity of digital
media preservation is fourfold. First, data resides on a physical
supporta floppy disk, CD-ROM, or hard-drive, for exampleand
this physical container or support naturally deteriorates. Second,
the data itself may decay. Third, most software is proprietary and
has no long-term technical support. Finally, hardware obsolescence
makes a great deal of digital media inaccessible.

COLLECTION EVALUATION: CATALOGING AND REHOUSING

Archives sometimes accumulate with little strategic planning, and
organizations may become repositories of electronic media by default
rather than by design. As the former director of one alternative
arts center put it: "Our archive started because the artists
never picked up their tapes." The first step in preserving
any electronic media archive is catalogingcreating a record
of, at the most basic level, who authored a work and when. Other
cataloging questions address format, number of copies of a work,
how and when a work was acquired, its value, and who owns the copyright.

Catalogers of magnetic media often find themselves in a Catch-22:
they can only determine an unlabeled tapes contents by playing
it, but playing it could lead to irreparable damage. For this reason,
catalogers should first rely on the information on a works
storage box or reel, even if it is incomplete. Once an item has
undergone preservation work and a viewing copy has been made, the
cataloging record can be updated. More and more digital media today
contain metadataimbedded information about a files creation
and contentwhich can also assist in the cataloging process.

Although creating a computer-based collections inventory is an
excellent idea, establishing an individual system leads to unnecessary
work. IMAP has developed a standards-based template (available in
Filemaker Pro or Microsoft Access) for Macintosh and PC, as well
as an online training tutorial. IMAPs standards-based catalog
offers compatibility with other similar catalogs, which could ultimately
provide access to the records to a wider audience of scholars, students,
artists, curators, and others.

During the cataloging stage, electronic media must be housed in
a stable environment. This may require temporary rehousing to ensure
that the material is protected while preservation priorities are
being established. A stable environment is defined by a clean, dust-free
space away from major electrical conduits (which will demagnetize
tapes). It may be appropriate to catalog material as it is being
shelved. In other instances, it may be more prudent to rehouse material
first.

Once an electronic media archive has been cataloged, the condition
of individual items must be assessed to determine what material,
if any, requires reformatting. Physical examination alone may not
identify every problemtape demagnetization cannot be detected
by the naked eye, for example. The following five inspection steps
may be used to determine if an item is at risk and needs to be reformatted.

Examine the container. If a box, reel, or cassette is visibly damaged,
contents have likely suffered as well. Stains that suggest liquid
contamination may mean accelerated decay or that the tape is stuck
together. Some containers show signs of fungus, which can grow on
magnetic tape in high humidity. This situation can be hazardous
and routine inspection should cease until the scope of a fungal
outbreak is understood.

Check for odor. If a tape or film smells musty, it may be
contaminated by a fungus. Scents that can be described as "waxy,"
"astringent," or "like dirty socks" all indicate
the chemical decay of magnetic tape. "Vinegar syndrome"
may be detected by placing small pieces of treated paper called
acid detection strips inside a container. The strips change color
to indicate the level of acidity and thus the severity of degradation.
Acid detection strips can detect vinegar syndrome even before there
is a noticeable odor.

Examine the surface and the edges. White powder or crystalline
residue on the edge of a tape or film, or black or brown flakes
of oxide inside a container all reveal that degradation has begun.
A gummy residue visible on the surface of a videotape is probably
an early sign of binder breakdown, or "sticky shed syndrome."
Damage caused by improper tension during winding often appears as
wavy or scalloped edges, and tape may also be creased or broken
due to mishandling. Dust, dirt, or other foreign deposits may indicate
surface contamination, and discoloration may indicate areas where
magnetic pigment material has separated from the backing.

Identify the format. Polyester film can be distinguished
from acetate film by holding the roll up to a light. Polyester film
appears opaque; acetate looks translucent. Polyester will not rip,
but acetate breaks off easily.

Play the tape. Playback may detect several common problems,
including noise, color shift, distortion, and timing flaws. If a
tape does not move through the transport as a result of "sticky
shed" and clogs the heads of the machine, it is deteriorating
and must be reformatted. Be careful: attempts to play back a severely
damaged tape before it has been restored places both the tape and
the playback machinery at risk.

Once an electronic media collection has been cataloged and the
condition of its contents has been assessed, it is time to prioritize
which material should be restored first. The highest restoration
priorities are unique copies. If only one copy of a work exists,
there is no recourse if it is lost or damaged. Other high priorities
are works older than 15 years, if the content is valuable. Obviously,
deteriorating or damaged material should also be given precedence.

A works format can also help determine if it is a preservation
priority. As a rule of thumb, three videotape formats require immediate
attention: 1/2-inch open-reel videotape (most date from 1965 to
1975); 3/4-inch U-matic videocassettes (1973 to 1983); and original
VHS tapes that are older than ten years with valuable content. Obsolete
formats, such as 2-inch Quad video reels (1956 to 1981), also warrant
immediate attention.

Audiotape formats that deserve high priority include: paper- and
acetate-based 1/4-inch reels (from the 1940s and 50s); any
recordings made between 1977 and 1983 on Ampex 1/4-inch audiotape;
and unique audiocassettes made before 1990. For film, in addition
to deteriorating and damaged stock, color-faded prints are a priority.
For digital media, preservation is urgent if the software or hardware
required to run a piece are threatened with obsolescence, or if
the optical medium on which it is storedCD-R, CD-ROM, or DVDhas
begun to deteriorate.

PRESERVATION: CLEANING AND REFORMATTING

Preservation of electronic media entails cleaning and/or migration
to another format, also known as "reformatting." There
is currently no consensus among professionals on either the best
cleaning practices or the best format for creating master copies
of tapes, films, or digital media. Organizations and individuals
need to make informed decisions about which approach best suits
their needs.

Cleaning magnetic tape is a difficult process best undertaken by
trained specialists. This may mean outsourcing restoration to a
professional facility or training staff to perform the work in-house.
A variety of methods may be used to clean magnetic tapes depending
on their condition, such as scraping with a blade, wiping, vacuuming,
and baking.

Although there is much debate about the advantages and disadvantages
of various cleaning methods, one thing is certain: trying to apply
a single solution across the board can spell disaster for electronic
media. A creased tape would be severely damaged by a cleaning machine
that scrapes its surface with a razor, for example.

REFORMATTING

Electronic media may be remastered when existing copies suffer
from physical or chemical degradation or their original recording
formats have become obsolete. Financial, technical, and administrative
factors all influence the decision to create a new copy in an archival
format.

If the budget allows, the ideal approach is to create a master
copy in both an analog and a digital format. Digital is the dominant
format in the industry right now, but it is relatively new and there
is still no standard digital format. Nonetheless, as video and audio
technologies continue to move toward digital platforms, analog video
and audio formats may become less available. Creating two masters
and storing them separately and safely minimizes the risks to preserved
material.

Many experts currently recommend transferring videotape to an uncompressed
digital format such as D-2 as well as an analog format like Betacam
SP. (D-2 is beyond the budget of many organizations and individuals,
so some collections are being remastered onto digital Betacam).
Betacam SP is so widely used in the broadcast industry that it is
unlikely to be discontinued, which means that repair services and
replacement equipment are likely to be available in the future.
Audio preservation experts also call for two masters: a reel-to-reel
analog tape and a digital copy. Film masters are preserved in a
film format, but viewing copies may be transferred to videotape
for easier access.

There are currently three methods of protecting digital works when
the hardware or software they use are threatened with obsolescence:
migration, emulation, and encapsulation. Migration, also known as
"refreshing," simply means copying digital files onto
newer, more stable digital media. This approach may sound simple,
but it does have disadvantages. Repeated migration runs the risk
of losing or corrupting data. Unfortunately, because digital technology
is developing so rapidly, it is impossible to predict how frequently
migration will be necessary. Also, because of the proprietary nature
of most commercial software, migration of digital data may raise
intellectual property issues. Although at this point migration remains
the most cost-effective and widely practiced method of preserving
digital media, some experts favor the strategy known as emulation.

Emulation involves creating software that will mimic, or emulate,
the behavior of an earlier computer. This approach avoids the need
for continuing conversion of digital records, but emulators must
be created for every software/hardware configuration, which makes
it far more expensive than migration. Although it is increasingly
favored by experts in the preservation fieldand some emulators
have been created as funded research projectsemulations
cost is prohibitive for most independent media arts organizations.

Another preservation strategy for digital media, called encapsulation,
groups a digital object with all other entities that are necessary
to provide access to that object. In encapsulation, physical or
logical structures called "containers" or "wrappers"
provide information about the relationships between all data and
software application components. Encapsulation aims to overcome
the issue of obsolete file formats by including details on how to
interpret the original information. While encapsulation has some
strong proponentsincluding the preservation expert Jeff Rothenbergquestions
remain as to its practical implementation. Various projects, such
as the Universal Preservation Format (UPF), have been undertaken
to explore encapsulation, but it is still a developing strategy
that may not be practical for independent media for some time.

Proper storage can extend the natural lifespan of electronic media
considerably. Optimal conditions vary by medium, but cool temperatures
and low humidity are key factors across the board. The best long-term
storage conditions for audio or videotape call for temperatures
between 50 and 60º F, with 25 to 35% relative humidity. Magnetic
media should never be stored at temperatures below 46º F (which
will cause the lubrication to separate from the binder) or near
magnetic sources such as motors, transformers, electrical fixtures,
loudspeakers, or vacuum cleaners, which may demagnetize them.

Tapes should be stored upright, on either their spines or edges,
in plastic polypropylene cases. Magnetic media should not be stored
in cardboard, which is not an archival material and is especially
vulnerable to water and fire damage. (For the same reason, no paper
should be stored inside the plastic cases.) Tapes should be wound
to the end and then rewound back to the beginning before they are
stored. It may take several tries before achieving a good, flat
tape pack. Storing tape in a cued wind leaves it exposed to possible
hydrolysis.

Film should be stored in a colder environment than magnetic media.
Color film should be stored at the coldest possible temperature
to reduce fading0º F is preferred, but if that is not
realistic, temperatures up to 30º F with 25 to 35% relative
humidity will suffice. Black-and-white film can be stored at 25
to 50º F, also with 25 to 35% relative humidity. Like tape,
film is best stored in plastic containers with no paper, which increases
the acid level in the environment and can accelerate vinegar syndrome.

In terms of digital media, storage simply refers to saving digital
files, usually on magnetic tape or optical devices such as CD-ROMs
or DVDs. As previously discussed, the physical components of these
formats are subject to natural deterioration and raise concerns
about storage conditions, handling, and exposure to dirt and dust.
Optical digital media, such as CD-Rs, CD-ROMs, and DVDs, can be
stored at higher temperatures and relative humidity than other electronic
media62 to 68º F and 33 to 45% relative humiditybut
cooler temperatures (as low as 50º F) and a relative humidity
range of 20 to 50% will ensure longevity for the physical media
itself. Optical media should not be stored in plastic sleeves, which
can stick to the disc. Discs should be stored in jewel cases or,
preferably, in the same type of inert plastic containers used to
store magnetic media and film.

If a collection numbers in the hundreds, an organization may choose
to store material in a professional off-site storage facility. If
ongoing access is necessary, however, or if off-site storage is
simply not in the budget, constructing a designated storage room
is a good alternative. In-house storage rooms should be clean and
dark, although basement levels, which tend to be humid, should be
avoided. Metal shelving is recommended, and cases should be stored
with adequate airflow (rather than packed tightly together) and
kept away from heat sources, sprinklers, and water pipes. As already
stated, motors, speakers, and TV monitors, as well as magnetic items
like cabinet latches, can all negatively affect magnetic media and
should not be stored in the same facility as audio or videotape.

In-house storage of electronic media collections does include certain
risks. While catastrophe is far less likely to cause damage than
natural deterioration, if disaster does strikewhether in the
form of burst pipes or plaster dust from constructionit can
render an archive unusable. Several safety measures can be taken
to minimize potential damage from fire, flooding, earthquake, or
construction.

The most valuable material in an archive should be duplicated and
stored in a separate location, preferably off site. Duplicate storage
reduces the chance of losing everything in one fell swoop. On site,
valuable material should be stored as far from the floor and the
ceiling as possible.

Mops, gloves, buckets, aprons, and plastic sheeting to cover shelves
and divert falling water should be kept on hand in case of a flood.
Tapes contaminated by water or fire-suppressant chemicals require
immediate attention and should be treated by professionals while
still wetletting wet material dry on site can deform tape
and leave corrosive residue. Wet tapes should be kept cool at all
times to slow decay.

After an earthquake or construction work, tapes may be covered
with dry debris like plaster dust and they should be isolated to
prevent further contamination. Tapes should be kept dry at all times
to prevent moisture from chemically activating corrosive elements
in the dust. Use extreme caution when moving wet or dry material
from a disaster area. Changing a tapes orientation can cause
further damage and also spread contaminants. If possible, tapes
should be protected from shock and insulated against sudden changes
in temperature during a move.

Time is a crucial factor in successful recovery after a disaster.
Emergency phone numbers, including insurance contacts and a professional
recovery service, should be clearly posted near on-site storage
facilities. If disaster does strike, review inventory records to
determine if alternate copies exist. Contact the insurance company
to determine what costs are covered, establish a budget for any
remaining costs, and allocate staff to oversee the recovery process.
IMAP strongly recommends contacting preservation experts as soon
as possible to assess damages.

To groups or individuals just starting out, preserving an electronic
media collection can seem overwhelming. Fortunately, many experts
are available to helpfrom nonprofit membership affiliations
such as The Association of Moving Image Archivists (AMIA), Independent
Media Arts Preservation (IMAP), American Institute for Conservation
(AIC), Electronic Media Group, and Bay Area Video Coalition (BAVC),
to government-sponsored organizations like the National Center for
Film and Video Preservation at the American Film Institute. International
consortiums like Video Art Denmark explore ways to maintain the
integrity of the artists intent during archiving, while Little
Film, a project of the commercial film-to-tape transfer service
Brodsky & Treadway, offers information more suitable to the
preservation of home movies. Cataloging information and templates
can be accessed through initiatives like IMAP as well as the Library
of Congress. From addressing the digital preservation needs of the
United Kingdom (Digital Preservation Coalition) to the documentation
and preservation of video art and community television (Electronic
Arts Intermix, Experimental Television Center), the wide range of
professional associations documented here can also lead to further
resources.

Assistance can come in the form of fact sheets on video preservation
(AMIA) and guidelines for storing magnetic media (National Archives
and Records Administration). Some web sites offer cataloging templates
(IMAP) or bibliographies (CoOl) for further research. Many of these
national and international organizations have experienced preservation
consultants who can assist in condition assessment, collection management,
and staff training. If an organization cannot provide the information
or service you need, it can usually refer you to one that can.

Many organizations publish sourcebooks to help artists and organizations
get a handle on their preservation needs. BAVC produced a DVD called
PLAYBACK: A Preservation Primer for Video, which discusses
the causes of videotape deterioration, recommendations for effective
methods of storage and cleaning, and other conservation issues that
apply to electronic art. Another example is Permanence Through
Change: The Variable Media Approach, a collaboration between
the Guggenheim Museum and the Daniel Langlois Foundation that discusses
preservation strategies for ephemeral works such as electronic art.

Organizations like IMAP are invested in the future of magnetic media
and committed to ensuring continued access to these works. This
web site contains information on almost all aspects of preservation
and conservation in the section titled Information Resournces.

The field of electronic media preservation is very young. In the
1970s and 80s, educational opportunities amounted to short
courses or stand-alone workshops. As recently as 1995, the title
of an article in a prominent film journal posed the question "Is
Film Archiving A Profession?," pointing out the dearth of university-level
courses or accreditation programs in the field. Today, more educational
opportunities exist. In 1996, the George Eastman House launched
a certificate program at the L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film
Preservation. In 1998, UCLA established a graduate-degree program
in Moving Image Archive Studies, which includes courses in both
film and, as of 2002, magnetic media preservation studies. In 2003,
New York University initiated a graduate program in Moving Image
Archiving and Preservation to provide training for professionals
who manage preservation-level collections of film, video, new media,
and other types of digital work.