The
ChalukyaChalukya dynasty ([tʃaːɭukjə]) was an Indian royal dynasty
that ruled large parts of southern and central
IndiaIndia between the 6th
and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three
related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the
"
BadamiBadami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle
of the 6th century. The
BadamiBadamiChalukyasChalukyas began to assert their
independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of
BanavasiBanavasi and
rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II.
After the death of Pulakeshin II, the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas became an
independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from
Vengi until
about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the
RashtrakutasRashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas
of
BadamiBadami before being revived by their descendants, the Western
Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas ruled
from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
The rule of the
ChalukyasChalukyas marks an important milestone in the history
of South
IndiaIndia and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The
political atmosphere in South
IndiaIndia shifted from smaller kingdoms to
large empires with the ascendancy of
BadamiBadami Chalukyas. A Southern
India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region
between the
KaveriKaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw
the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and
the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan
architecture".
KannadaKannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in
the 9th century
RashtrakutaRashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas in the
JainJain and
Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th
century saw the birth of
Telugu literatureTelugu literature under the patronage of the
Eastern Chalukyas.

While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the
consensus among noted historians such as John Keay, D.C. Sircar, Hans
Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is the founders of the
empire at
BadamiBadami were native to the modern Karnataka
region.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called
Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the
Andhra IkshvakuAndhra Ikshvaku (from an
Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This
according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage.
The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the
Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as
Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the
same lineage as their early overlords, the
KadambasKadambas of Banavasi. This
makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The
ChalukyasChalukyas took control of
the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.[13]
A later record of
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin
theory and claims one ruler of
AyodhyaAyodhya came south, defeated the
PallavasPallavas and married a
PallavaPallava princess. She had a child called
Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin I's father.
However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri,
there are
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was
Pulakeshin I's grandfather and Ranaranga, his father.[14][15][16][17]
Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century
to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the
AyodhyaAyodhya origin.[18][19]
While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many
historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier
southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs
examination.[20] According to him, the complete absence of any
inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and
their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier
migration into present day
KarnatakaKarnataka region where they achieved
success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their
ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire
who may have considered themselves natives of the
KannadaKannada speaking
region.[12] The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet
Bilhana suggests
the
ChalukyaChalukya family belonged to the
ShudraShudra caste while other sources
claim they were Kshatriyas.[21]
The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar
note the
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya inscriptions are in
KannadaKannada and
Sanskrit.[22][23][24] According to the historian N. L. Rao, their
inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada
titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom. The names of some
ChalukyaChalukya princes end with the pure
KannadaKannada term arasa (meaning "king"
or "chief").[25][26] The
RashtrakutaRashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas
of
BadamiBadami Karnatabala ("Power of Karnata"). It has been proposed by
the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated from
Salki or Chalki which is a
KannadaKannada word for an agricultural
implement.[27][28]
Historical sources[edit]
Inscriptions in
SanskritSanskrit and
KannadaKannada are the main source of
information about
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya history. Among them, the
BadamiBadami cave
inscriptions of
Mangalesha (578),
Kappe ArabhattaKappe Arabhatta record of
c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakeshin II, the
KanchiKanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription and
PattadakalPattadakal Virupaksha
Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II (all in
KannadaKannada language)
provide more evidence of the
ChalukyaChalukya language.[29][30] The Badami
cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543), the
MahakutaMahakuta Pillar
inscription of
Mangalesha (595) and the
AiholeAihole inscription of
Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit
inscriptions written in old
KannadaKannada script.[31][32][33] The reign of
the
ChalukyasChalukyas saw the arrival of
KannadaKannada as the predominant language
of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula
outside what is known as Tamilaham (Tamil country).[34] Several coins
of the
BadamiBadamiChalukyasChalukyas with
KannadaKannada legends have been found. All this
indicates that
Kannada languageKannada language flourished during this period.[35]
Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful
information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang
had visited the court of Pulakeshin II. At the time of this
visit, as mentioned in the
AiholeAihole record, Pulakeshin II had
divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces
comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present
day Karnataka,
MaharashtraMaharashtra and coastal Konkan.[36][37] Xuanzang,
impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits
of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later,
Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with
Pulakeshin II.[38][39][40]
Legends[edit]
Court poets of the Western
ChalukyaChalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate:

"Once when Brahma, the creator, was engaged in the performance of the
sandhya (twilight) rituals, Indra approached and beseeched him to
create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth. On
being thus requested,
BrahmaBrahma looked steadily into the Chuluka-jala
(the water of oblation in his palm) and out sprang thence a great
warrior, the progenitor of the Chalukyas".[41] The
ChalukyasChalukyas claimed
to have been nursed by the Sapta
MatrikasMatrikas ("seven divine mothers") and
were worshippers of many gods including Siva, Vishnu, Chamundi, Surya,
Kubera, Parvati, Vinayaka and Kartikeya.

Some scholars connect the
ChalukyasChalukyas with the Chaulukyas (Solankis) of
Gujarat.[42] According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of
Prithviraj Raso, Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at
Mount Abu. However it has been reported that the story of Agnikula is
not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso
preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.[43]
According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI
(11th century or later), the
ChalukyasChalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya
where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family
ruled from South
IndiaIndia where they had migrated. This is repeated by
his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the
family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the
hands" of God Brahma.[44][45]
According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the
ChalukyaChalukya were
descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe of
IraqIraq and that their conflict
with the
PallavaPallava of
KanchiKanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict
between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors of
Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks
to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.[46]
Periods in
ChalukyaChalukya history[edit]

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their
immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen
in the area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and Tamilaham.
The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this
region.[47] The
ChalukyaChalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I
in 543.[48][49][50] Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern
BadamiBadami in
BagalkotBagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his
capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as
"
ChalukyasChalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the
entire state of
KarnatakaKarnataka and most of
Andhra PradeshAndhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,[51] commanded
control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known
emperor of the
BadamiBadami dynasty.[52][53] He is considered one of the
notable kings in Indian history.[54][55][56] His queens were princess
from the Alupa Dynasty of
South CanaraSouth Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty
of Talakad, clans with whom the
ChalukyasChalukyas maintained close family and
marital relationships.[57][58] Pulakeshin II extended the
ChalukyaChalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the
PallavaPallava kingdom and
halted the southward march of
HarshaHarsha by defeating him on the banks of
the river Narmada. He then defeated the
VishnukundinsVishnukundins in the
south-eastern Deccan.[59][60][61][62]
PallavaPallavaNarasimhavarmanNarasimhavarman however
reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami
temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died
fighting.[39][63]
The
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the
death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when
BadamiBadami was
occupied by the
PallavasPallavas for a period of thirteen years.[64][65] It
recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in
pushing the
PallavasPallavas out of
BadamiBadami and restoring order to the empire.
Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (lit "Sovereign of the
Mallas" or Pallavas).[66] The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya
(696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple
building activity.[67][68]
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious
Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his
repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his
subsequent victories over
PallavaPallava Nandivarman II, but also for
his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram,
the
PallavaPallava capital.[67][69][70] He thus avenged the earlier
humiliation of the
ChalukyasChalukyas by the
PallavasPallavas and engraved a Kannada
inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha
Temple.[69][71][72] During his reign Arab intruders of the Umayyad
Caliphate invaded southern
GujaratGujarat which was under
ChalukyaChalukya rule but
the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Pulakesi, a Chalukya
governor of Navsari.[73] He later overran the other traditional
kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the
CholasCholas and the Cheras in
addition to subduing a
KalabhraKalabhra ruler.[74] The last
ChalukyaChalukya king,
Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the
RashtrakutaRashtrakuta King Dantidurga
in 753.[75] At their peak, the
ChalukyasChalukyas ruled a vast empire
stretching from the
KaveriKaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
ChalukyasChalukyas of Kalyani[edit]
Main article: Western
ChalukyaChalukya Empire
The
ChalukyasChalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of
dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the
Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still
debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional
evidence plus the finding that the
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas employed titles
and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the
Western
ChalukyaChalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the
illustrious
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya dynasty of the 6th century[76][77] while
other Western
ChalukyaChalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a
distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.[78]
Tailapa II, a
RashtrakutaRashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi –
1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the
ChalukyaChalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya
empire.[79][80] The
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and
were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered
the most notable ruler of the dynasty.[81][82] Starting from the very
beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the
original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era. Most subsequent
ChalukyaChalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.[83][84]
Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader.
Under his leadership the
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas were able to end the Chola
influence over
Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in
the Deccan.[85][86] The Western
ChalukyaChalukya period was an important age
in the development of
Kannada literatureKannada literature and Sanskrit
literature.[87][88] They went into their final dissolution towards the
end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the
Pandyas, the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.[89]
ChalukyasChalukyas of Vengi[edit]
Main article: Eastern Chalukyas
Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the
coastal districts of modern
Andhra PradeshAndhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the
remnants of the
VishnukundinaVishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja
Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621.[90][91] Thus the Eastern Chalukyas
were originally of
KannadaKannada stock.[92] After the death of
Pulakeshin II, the
Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an
independent kingdom and included the region between
NelloreNellore and
Visakhapatnam.[91][93]
After the decline of the
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya empire in the mid-8th
century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the
new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much
of the next two centuries, the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas had to accept
subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.[94] Apart from a rare military
success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was
only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these
ChalukyasChalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the
death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession
disputes and interference in
Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.[94]
The fortunes of the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000.
Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda
King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven
years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in the Chola
kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a
CholaChola territory,
and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in
Chola–
ChalukyaChalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of
Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of
Vengi in 1000, though under the
control of king Rajaraja Chola I.[95] This new relationship
between the
CholasCholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to
the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the
RashtrakutasRashtrakutas as
the main power in the western Deccan. The
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas sought to
brook the growing
CholaChola influence in the
Vengi region but were
unsuccessful.[94][96]
Initially, the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas had encouraged
Kannada languageKannada language and
literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over
and they gave importance to Telugu language.[97][98] Telugu literature
owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.[99]
Architecture[edit]
See also:
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya Architecture, Western
ChalukyaChalukya architecture,
Pattadakal,
BadamiBadami Cave Temples, and Aihole

Virupaksha temple in Dravidian style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE

The
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya era was an important period in the development of
South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were called
Umapati Varlabdh and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva.[100]
Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or
"Karnata Dravida architecture".[101][102] Nearly a hundred monuments
built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in the
MalaprabhaMalaprabha river basin in modern
BagalkotBagalkot district of northern
Karnataka.[103] The building material they used was a reddish-golden
SandstoneSandstone found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations,
cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not build as
their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special
technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural.[104]
Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated
most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area
within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami,
PattadakalPattadakal and
MahakutaMahakuta in modern
KarnatakaKarnataka state.[105]
Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases.
The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and
resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three
elementary cave temples at
AiholeAihole (one Vedic, one
JainJain and one
Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples
at
BadamiBadami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to
578 CE).[106] These cave temples at
BadamiBadami are similar, in that, each
has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior
consisting of a pillared verandah, a columned hall (mantapa) and a
cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of
worship.[107] In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in
Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of
Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu
seated on Anantha (the snake) and
NatarajaNataraja (dancing Shiva).[108]
The second phase of temple building was at
AiholeAihole (where some seventy
structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian
temple architecture"[109]) and Badami. Though the exact dating of
these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings
of these constructions are from c. 600.[110][111][112] These are
the
Lad Khan TempleLad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately
to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures
of river goddesses; the Meguti
JainJain Temple (634) which shows progress
in structural design; the
DurgaDurga Temple with its northern Indian style
tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design
to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of
north and south Indian styles.[100]); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with
a new inclusion, a vestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.[113]
Other dravida style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple
at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the
Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at
Badami.[111] Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland,
140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the
Early
ChalukyaChalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple at
SanduruSanduru which
dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and
37 ft wide. It has a nagara (north Indian) style vimana (tower)
and dravida (south Indian) style parts, has no mantapa (hall) and
consists of an antarala (vestibule) crowned with a barrel vaulted
tower (sukhanasi). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became
popular much later, in the 11th century.[114][115]
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now
a
UNESCOUNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase
of
BadamiBadami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at
BadamiBadami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal,
six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style.
Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the
Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745)
in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha
Temple (740) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion
style.[116] Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and
the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King
Vikramaditya II after his military success over the
PallavasPallavas of
Kanchipuram.[111] Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are
Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.[117]
The reign of
Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas was an important period in the
development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a
conceptual link between the
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya architecture of the 8th
century and the
Hoysala architectureHoysala architecture popularised in the 13th
century.[118][119] The centre of their cultural and temple-building
activity lay in the
TungabhadraTungabhadra region of modern
KarnatakaKarnataka state,
encompassing the present-day Dharwad district; it included areas of
present-day
HaveriHaveri and Gadag districts.[120][121] Here, large medieval
workshops built numerous monuments.[122] These monuments, regional
variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the Karnata dravida
tradition.[123]
The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district,[124][125] the
Kasivisvesvara Temple at
LakkundiLakkundi in the Gadag district,[126][127] the
Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,[127] and the Kallesvara Temple at
Bagali,[128] both in the Davangere district.[129] Other notable
constructions are the
Dodda Basappa TempleDodda Basappa Temple at
DambalDambal (Gadag
district),[130][131] the
Siddhesvara TempleSiddhesvara Temple at
HaveriHaveri (Haveri
district),[132][133] and the Amrtesvara Temple at
AnnigeriAnnigeri (Dharwad
district).[134][135] The
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at
Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.[106][136]

The
AiholeAihole inscription of
Pulakeshin IIPulakeshin II (634) written by his court
poet Ravikirti in
Sanskrit languageSanskrit language and
KannadaKannada script is considered
as an classical piece of poetry.[31][137] A few verses of a poet named
Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati" have been
preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince
Chandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II).[138] Famous writers in
SanskritSanskrit from the Western
ChalukyaChalukya period are
Vijnaneshwara who
achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King
Someshvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all
arts and sciences called Manasollasa.[139]
From the period of the
BadamiBadami Chalukyas, references are made to the
existence of
KannadaKannada literature, though not much has survived.[140]
Inscriptions however refer to
KannadaKannada as the "natural language".[141]
The
Kappe ArabhattaKappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is
the earliest available work in
KannadaKannada poetics.[142][143]
Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed
to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this
period.[143] Other probable
KannadaKannada writers, whose works are not
extant now but titles of which are known from independent
references[144] are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have
authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called
Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the
Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on
logic.[140][145][146][147]
The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major
event in the history of
KannadaKannada and Telugu literatures respectively.
By the 9th–10th centuries,
Kannada languageKannada language had already seen some of
its most notable writers. The "three gems" of
KannadaKannada literature,
Adikavi Pampa,
Sri Ponna and
RannaRanna belonged to this period.[148][149]
In the 11th century,
Telugu literatureTelugu literature was born under the patronage of
the
Eastern ChalukyasEastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first
writer.[149][150]
BadamiBadamiChalukyaChalukya country[edit]
Army[edit]
The army was well organised and this was the reason for
Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas.[151] It consisted of
an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The
Chinese traveller
Hiuen-TsiangHiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had
hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to
battle.[39][152] It was with their navy that they conquered
Revatidvipa (Goa), and
PuriPuri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta
inscriptions use the term Karnatabala when referring to the powerful
ChalukyaChalukya armies.[153]
Land governance[edit]
The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the
Magadhan and
SatavahanaSatavahana administrative machinery.[39] The empire was
divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas
(Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is
similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower
levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The
Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called
Dasagrama.[154] In addition to imperial provinces, there were
autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the
Gangas, the Banas and the Sendrakas.[155] Local assemblies and guilds
looked after local issues. Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins)
looked after agraharas (called ghatika or "place of higher learning")
such as at
BadamiBadami which was served by 2000 mahajans and
AiholeAihole which
was served by 500 mahajanas. Taxes were levied and were called the
herjunka – tax on loads, the kirukula – tax on retail
goods in transit, the bilkode – sales tax, the pannaya –
betel tax, siddaya – land tax and the vaddaravula – tax
levied to support royalty.[155]
Coinage[edit]
The
BadamiBadamiChalukyasChalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard
compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.[156] The coins had
Nagari and
KannadaKannada legends.[23] The coins of
Mangalesha had the symbol
of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple
on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion
facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins
weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, hun (or honnu)
and had fractions such as fana (or fanam) and the quarter fana (the
modern day
KannadaKannada equivalent being hana – which literally
means "money").[157] A gold coin called gadyana is mentioned in a
record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal, which later came to
be known as varaha (their royal emblem).[156]
Religion[edit]

Both
ShaivismShaivism and
VaishnavismVaishnavism flourished during the
BadamiBadami Chalukya
period, though it seems the former was more popular.[158] Famous
temples were built in places such as Pattadakal,
AiholeAihole and Mahakuta,
and priests (archakas) were invited from northern India. Vedic
sacrifices, religious vows (vrata) and the giving of gifts (dana) was
important.[159] The
BadamiBadami kings were followers of Vedic
HinduismHinduism and
dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of
deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva,
Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti,
SuryaSurya and Sapta
MatrikasMatrikas ("seven
mothers"). The
BadamiBadami kings also performed the
AshwamedhaAshwamedha ("horse
sacrifice").[160] The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is
known.
JainismJainism too was a prominent religion during this period. The
kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged
Jainism. One of the
BadamiBadami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain
faith.
JainJain temples were also erected in the
AiholeAihole complex, the
temple at Maguti being one such example.[161] Ravikirti, the court
poet of Pulakeshin II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a
temple for the
TrimurtiTrimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the
Trimurti,
HariharaHarihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and Ardhanarishwara (half
Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance.[160]
BuddhismBuddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast
Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami,
Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern
LakshmeshwarLakshmeshwar in the Gadag
district) were primary places of learning.
Society[edit]
The
Hindu caste systemHindu caste system was present and devadasis were recognised by
the government. Some kings had concubines (ganikas) who were given
much respect,[162] and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like
Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis were
however present in temples. Sage Bharata's Natyashastra, the precursor
to Bharatanatyam, the classical dance of South India, was popular and
is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.[163] Some
women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration.
Queen Vijayanka was a noted
SanskritSanskrit poet,[138] Kumkumadevi, the
younger sister of
Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana)
made several grants and had a
JainJain basadi called Anesajjebasadi
constructed at Puligere,[164] and the queens of Vikramaditya II,
Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly
consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but
also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.[165]
In popular culture[edit]
The
ChalukyaChalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of
cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the
transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in
the field of architecture. The
ChalukyasChalukyas spawned the Vesara style of
architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and
southern dravida styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic
culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already
popular.[47]
Dravidian languagesDravidian languages maintain these influences even today.
This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.[166]
The Hindu legal system owes much to the
SanskritSanskrit work
Mitakshara by
Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western
ChalukyaChalukya King
Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature,
Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law
based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of
India. Englishman
Henry Thomas ColebrookeHenry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into
English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British
Indian court system.[167] It was during the Western
ChalukyaChalukya rule that
the
BhaktiBhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of
RamanujacharyaRamanujacharya and Basavanna, later spreading into northern India.
A celebration called
ChalukyaChalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music
and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka, is held every
year at Pattadakal,
BadamiBadami and Aihole.[168] The event is a celebration
of the achievements of the
ChalukyasChalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music
and dance. The program, which starts at
PattadakalPattadakal and ends in Aihole,
is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers,
poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this
event. In the 26 February 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part
in the festivities. Colorful cut outs of the
VarahaVaraha the Chalukya
emblem,
Satyashraya Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural
masterpieces such as Durga, Mahishasuramardhini (
DurgaDurga killing demon
Mahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at
PattadakalPattadakal is
named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the
Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari. At
BadamiBadami it is called
ChalukyaChalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole, Ravikirti Vedike after the
famous poet and minister (Ravikirti) in the court of
Pulakeshin II. Immadi Pulakeshi, a
KannadaKannada movie of the 1960s
starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great
king.[168]
See also[edit]