5
5 ACCELERATION [m.s -2 ] Newton’s 1 st Law inertia Newton’s 2 nd Law direction of acceleration same as net force acting on object m Centripetal acceleration a c always directed towards centre of circle Some of the effects of acceleration we are familiar with include: (1)Experience of sinking into the seat as a plane accelerates down the runway. (2)"flutter" in our stomach when a lift suddenly speeds up or slows down. (3)“being thrown side ways” in a car going around a corner too quickly.  Newton’s 1 st Law - inertia

7
7 PROJECTILE MOTION Problem A volcano that is 3300 m above sea level erupts and sends rock fragments hurting into the sea 9.4 km away. If the fragments were ejected at an angle of 35 o, what was their initial speed? Galileo's analysis of projectile motion: Projectile motion was consisted of both horizontal and vertical components - these components were independent of each other occurred simultaneously perpendicular to each other. Vertical acceleration was the same for all falling objects if air resistance is disregarded. Trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. A motion of an object is relative to its frame of reference and an object has the motion of its inertial frame of reference. He tested this in his Crow's Nest experiment - It was thought that, if a ship was moving at a constant speed, and a ball was dropped from the crows nest, it would fall behind the ship and into the sea as the ship would have moved. Instead, it fell straight down onto the ship as if it hadn't moved.

12
12 MOMENTUM p P IMPULSE J [N.s kg.m.s -1 ] vector For a system in which the net force acting on it is zero, then the total momentum of the system does not change: Newton’s 3 rd Law  Law of Conservation of Momentum. This law is useful for making predictions when collisions or explosions occur.

16
16 GRAVITATION Weight F G = W = m g mg = |g| = 9.8 m.s -2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation weight of an object is due to the force acting on it in a gravitational field (attraction between object and planet) g = 9.8 m.s -2 at the Earth’s surface

19
19 MOTION OF ROCKETS Pilots experience large g-forces when entering and pulling out of a steep dive Force experienced by an astronaut during a space flight

20
20 MOTION OF ROCKETS Rocket launch & orbital motion of the Earth Rockets are launched in an easterly direction to get a velocity booster as a result of the Earth spinning about its axis of rotation Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun can be helpful in launching rockets to planets in our Solar System SLINGSHOT EFFECT - performed to achieve an increase in speed and/or a change of direction of a spacecraft as it travels around a planet. As it approaches, it is caught by the gravitational field of the planet, and swings around it, the speed acquired throws the spacecraft back out again, away from the planet. By controlling the approach, the outcome of the manoeuvre can be manipulated and the spacecraft gain some of the planet’s momentum, relative to the Sun. Simple view from solar reference frame: energy & momentum are conserved http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/teach_res/hsp/u5/t5_slingshot.htm

22
22 Safe re-entry and landing of rockets or spacecraft The safe return of a spacecraft into the Earth’s atmosphere and subsequent descent to Earth requires consideration of two main issues: (1) How to handle the intense heat generated as the spacecraft enters the Earth’s atmosphere. (2) How to keep the g-forces of deceleration within safe limits. For a safe landing of a spacecraft it must enter the atmosphere in the correct range of angles. Spacecraft re-entry and the heating effect in passing through the atmosphere.

23
23 Safe re-entry and landing of rockets or spacecraft What Can Go Wrong?  If the angle of re-entry is too shallow, the spacecraft may skip off the atmosphere. The commonly cited analogy is a rock skipping across a pond. If the angle of entry is too steep, the spacecraft will burn up due to the heat of re-entry.  Because of collisions with air particles and the huge deceleration, a huge amount of thermal energy is produced from friction. The space shuttle must be able to withstand these temperatures. It uses a covering of insulating tiles which are made of glass fibres but are about 90% air. This gives them excellent thermal insulating properties and also conserves mass. The tile construction is denser near the surface to make the tiles more resistant to impact damage, but the surface is also porous. Damage to the space shuttle Columbia's heat shield is thought to have caused its disintegration and the loss of seven astronauts on 1st February 2003. Investigators believe that the scorching air of re-entry penetrated a cracked panel on the left wing and melted the metal support structures inside.  Large g-forces are experienced by astronauts as the space shuttle decelerates and re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. Astronauts are positioned in a transverse position with their backs towards the Earth's surface as g-forces are easier for humans to tolerate in these positions. Supporting the body in as many places as possible also helps to increase tolerance.  There is an ionisation blackout for the space shuttle of about 16 minutes where no communication is possible. This is because as thermal energy builds up, air becomes ionised forming a layer around the spacecraft. Radio signals cannot penetrate this layer of ionised particles.

24
24 MOTION OF SATELLITES Satellites are placed in one of several different types of orbit depending on the nature of their mission Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Radius: 200 km to 2000 km above the Earth’s surface. Period: 60 min 90 minutes. Frequent coverage of specific or varied locations on the Earth’s surface. Small field of view. Orbits less than 400 km are difficult to maintain due to atmospheric drag and subsequent orbital decay. Types of satellites: military applications, Earth observation, weather monitoring, shuttle missions. With the exception of the lunar flights of the Apollo program, all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO. All manned space stations and the majority of artificial satellites in LEO. Orbital decay - reduction in the height of an object's orbit over time due to the drag of the atmosphere on the object. All satellites in low Earth orbits are subject to some degree of atmospheric drag that will eventually decay their orbit and limit their lifetimes. Even at 1000 km, as ‘thin’ as the atmosphere is, it is still sufficiently dense to slow the satellite down over a period of time. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Circular orbit in the Earth's equatorial plane, any point on which revolves about the Earth in the same direction and with the same period as the Earth's rotation. Useful because they cause a satellite to appear stationary with respect to a fixed point on the rotating Earth. As a result an antenna can point in a fixed direction and maintain a link with the satellite. The satellite orbits in the direction of the Earth's rotation, at an altitude of approximately 35,786 km above ground. This altitude is significant because it produces an orbital period equal to the Earth's period of rotation, known as the sidereal day. These orbits allow for the tracking of stationary point on Earth. Have the largest field of view. Applications include communications, mass-media and weather monitoring.

25
25 MOTION OF SATELLITES uniform circular motion A force (centripetal force F c ) acting towards the centre of a circle is necessary for an object to rotate in a circular path. Satellite is acted upon by the gravitation force between the Earth and the satellite. The centripetal force is the gravitational force. For a mass m, moving at a speed v, in uniform circular motion of radius r, the net force acting on is called the centripetal force F c and its magnitude is given by Centripetal force  change in direction of the object as its speed is constant. The resulting acceleration due to the change in direction is the centripetal acceleration a c and its magnitude is Direction of the centripetal force and centripetal acceleration is towards the centre of the circle (centripetal means ‘centre seeking’).

26
26 MOTION OF SATELLITES ORBITAL MOTION Orbital velocity v orb To place a satellite of mass m into a stable Earth orbit at a particular radius r, the launch must give it both an initial vertical and horizontal component of velocity relative to the Earth’s surface. The satellite will eventually turn so that it is travelling horizontal to the Earth’s surface. At this radius r, the force of gravity F G provides the acceleration needed to keep the object moving in a circle, but a particular orbital velocity is also required to keep the object in a stable orbit – orbital velocity v orb. To calculate that orbital velocity, we equate the centripetal force F c and gravitational force F G. Orbital velocity of a satellite as it orbits around the Earth only depends on: mass of the Earth M E radius of the orbit r Altitude is the only variable that determines the orbital velocity required for a specific orbit around the Earth. Greater the radius of that orbit, the lower that velocity v orb r   v orb  Orbital velocity around other planets M E  M planet Geostationary Orbit M planet r net force is always directed to centre of orbit m period T = 24 h

27
27 MOTION OF SATELLITES How do the planets move ? Kepler’s Laws of Motion The motion of a planet is governed by the Law of Universal Gravitation F = G M S m / r 2 where G is the Universal Gravitational Constant, M S is the mass of the Sun, m is the mass of the planet and r is the distance from the Sun to the planet. G = 6.67  10 -11 N.m 2.kg 2 M S = 2.0  10 30 kg Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion 1 The path of each planet around the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. 2 Each planet moves so that all imaginary lines drawn from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time. 3 The ratio of the squares of the periods of revolution of planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their orbital radii (mean distance from the Sun or length of semi-major axis, a) Kepler’s 1 st law: path of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse. Kepler’s 2 nd law: Planet moves so that an imaginary line drawn from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time. Computer simulation of the motion of a planet around the Sun. http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/teach_res/hsp/u5/ag_kepler1.htm

29
29 EINSTEIN THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: SPACE & TIME FRAMES OF REFERENCE What is the trajectory of the ball? – it is relative – it depends upon the motion of the observer Which is bigger – the bear or mouse? – depends upon the location of the observer Inertial frame of reference * Fame of reference with constant velocity. * Is a non-accelerating frame of reference. * Law of inertia holds. * Newton's laws of motion hold. * No fictitious forces arise. Non-Inertial Frames of Reference * Does not have a constant velocity. It is accelerating. * The frame could be travelling in a straight line, but be speeding up or slowing down. * The frame could be travelling along a curved path at a steady speed. * The frame could be travelling along a curved path and also speeding up or slowing down.

30
30 AETHER MODEL FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT EINSTEIN THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: SPACE & TIME Classical picture for the speed of light. The speed of light is relative to the motion of the observer, and so the speed of light is c+v or c-v. But this is not correct. The correct answer, is that the person will measure the speed of light to be the constant value c and it does not matter how fast or slower they are approaching or receding from the light beam or the speed of the light source. It seemed inconceivable to 19 th Century physicists that light and other electromagnetic waves, in contrast to all other kinds of waves, could propagate without a medium. It seemed to be a logical step to postulate such a medium, called the aether (or ether), even though it was necessary to assume unusual properties for it, such as zero density and perfect transparency, to account for its undetectability. This aether was assumed to fill all space and to be the medium with respect to which electromagnetic waves propagate with the speed c. It followed, using Newtonian relativity, that an observer moving through the aether with velocity v would measure a velocity for a light beam of (c + v). If the aether exists, an observer on Earth should be able to measure changes in the velocity of light due to the Earth’s motion through the aether. The Michelson-Morley experiment attempted to do just this. Property of aetherEvidence Fills space, permeates all matter light travels everywhere Stationarylight travels in straight lines Transparentcan’t see it Extremely low densitycan’t be detected Great elasticitymedium must be elastic otherwise energy dissipated AETHER – proposed medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves

31
31 MICHELSON – MORLEY EXPERIMENT EINSTEIN THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: SPACE & TIME The light from reflected by the two mirrors produces an interference pattern at the location of the observer. As the Earth revolves around the Sun and spins on its axis, the direction of the light beams varies with the direction of flow through the aether, their relative velocities would alter and thus the difference in time required for each beam to reach O would alter. This would result in a change in the interference pattern as the apparatus was rotated (changes in the patterns of bright and dark fringes). The Michelson-Morley experiment is an excellent example of a critical experiment in science - the fact that no motion of the Earth relative to the aether was detected suggested quite strongly that the aether hypothesis was incorrect and that no aether (absolute) reference frame existed for electromagnetic phenomena – this opened the way for a whole new way of thinking that was to be proposed by Albert Einstein in his Theory of Special Relativity. The null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment was such a blow to the aether hypothesis in particular and to theoretical physics in general that the experiment was repeated by many scientists over more than 50 years. A null result has always been obtained. A null result has always been obtained initial interference pattern interference pattern after rotation of apparatus

32
32 EINSTEIN THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: SPACE & TIME In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) published his famous paper entitled: “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”, in which he proposed his two postulates of relativity and from these derived his Special Relativity Theory. 1. The Principle of Relativity – All the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames – no preferred inertial frame exists. 2. The Principle of the Constancy of the Speed of Light – the speed of light in free space has the same value c, in all inertial frames, regardless of the velocity of the observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light. The speed of light is constant no matter what are the speeds of the transmitter or receiver. constant c  both space and time must be relative quantities Einstein concluded - if we accept that the principle of relativity can never be violated, then 1 The aether model must be wrong. 2 The speed of light is constant regardless of the motion of the observer. In order to satisfy, speed of light is constant, he made a revolutionary statement: it is not the speed of light that is changing, but time. Stationary observers and the moving observers perceive space and time differently. In classical physics space and time are constants and motion is defined by them. In Einstein's physics it is the speed of light that is constant and space and time change to accommodate this. Using these ideas, Einstein put forward his Special Theory of Relativity 1 All motion is relative — the principle of relativity holds in all situations. 2 The speed of light is constant regardless of the observer's frame of reference. 3 The aether is not needed to explain light, and, in fact it does not exist.

33
33 EINSTEIN THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: SPACE & TIME Relativity of simultaneity - whether two spatially separated events occur at the same time is not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame. - it is impossible to say in an absolute sense whether two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/SpecRel/Flash/Simultaneity.html Observer in train observes train at rest v = 0 Ground based observer sees train go past at speed v v Train observer sees flashes when light reaches the ends of the carriage simultaneously. Ground based observer sees a flash at the back of the carriage before the flash at the front of the carriage. Light beams travel from centre of train and when they hit the ends of the carriage a light flash is given out.

34
34 EINSTEIN: SPECIAL RELATIVITY – SPACE AND TIME TIME DILATION v t0t0 Time Dilation SPEED OF LIGHT IS CONSTANT – INDEPENDENT OF THE MOTION OF SOURCE OR OBSERVER c = 3.0x10 8 m.s -1  Time is a relative quantity: different observers can measure different time intervals between the occurrence of two events. This arises because the speed of light is a constant and independent of the motion of the source of light or the motion of an observer. An observer watching a moving clock sees the passage of time on the moving clock to be slower than the passage of time on their own clock. t v time interval measured by observing moving clock t 0 time interval measured by observing stationary clock Time intervals are not absolute. This is a violation of a fundamental concepts in Newtonian physics where time is an absolute quantity. proper time t 0 – the time interval between two events occurring at the same point in space w.r.t. a clock at rest w.r.t. that point. dilated time intervals t v – they are the time intervals on moving clocks w.r.t. a stationary observer. All time intervals measured on moving clocks are longer compared with the stationary clock  moving clocks run slower

35
35 EINSTEIN: SPECIAL RELATIVITY – SPACE AND TIME TIME DILATION v t0t0 Time Dilation SPEED OF LIGHT IS CONSTANT – INDEPENDENT OF THE MOTION OF SOURCE OR OBSERVER c = 3.0x10 8 m.s -1  Consider a train with velocity v = 0.90c w.r.t. a stationary frame of reference. In the stationary frame of reference, the duration of an event was 1.00 s. What would be the duration of the event as measured by an observer watching the moving clock? t 0 = 1.00 s t v = ? s v = 0.90c To an observer on Earth, the time taken for the event is 2.29 s. The observer in the train, measures a time interval of only 1.00 s. The Earth observer sees that the train clock has slowed down. It is essential that you understand that this is not an illusion. It makes no sense to ask which of these times is the “real” time. Since no preferred reference frame exists all times are as real as each other. They are the real times seen for the event by the respective observers. Time dilation tells us that a moving clock runs slower than a clock at rest by a factor of 1/  {1 – (v2/c2)}. This result, can be generalised beyond clocks to include all physical, biological and chemical processes. The Theory of Relativity predicts that all such processes occurring in a moving frame will slow down relative to a stationary clock. stationary frame of reference moving frame of reference

36
36 EINSTEIN: SPECIAL RELATIVITY – SPACE AND TIME LENGTH CONTRACTION L0L0 L v Length contraction SPEED OF LIGHT IS CONSTANT – INDEPENDENT OF THE MOTION OF SOURCE OR OBSERVER c = 3.0x10 8 m.s -1  How long is a train? It depends on the relative motion of the observer and the train. This is a real difference in length of the object when it is motion relative to an observer. For a person in the train, there is no contraction in length. L measured by observer in stationary frame of reference by observing moving object. L v is the proper length as measured by an observer who is at rest to the object. L0L0 L v = ? v stationary frame of reference moving frame of reference L v = ?

39
39 MASS ENERGY E = m c 2 RELATIVISTIC MASS Newtonian mechanics, if a force is applied, an object will accelerate and its velocity will increase indefinitely. Special Relativity, as the velocity approaches the speed of light, the same force produces less and less acceleration, gradually reducing to zero. This is because the mass of the object is increasing and acceleration and mass are inversely proportional when the force is constant (F = m a). If this did not happen the velocity would become infinite. Where does this extra mass come from? The applied force is still doing work (W = F s) so the object is gaining kinetic energy (since v is increasing). This additional energy is converted into mass according to the equation E = m c 2, rather than continually increasing the velocity of the object. m v = measured mass of the moving object m o = measured mass of the object at rest (rest mass) v = relative velocity between the observed object and the observer c = speed of light The mass of an object is a relative quantity, it depends on the relative velocity of the object w.r.t. an observer. v / c m v / m 0 Newtonian physics ok

40
40 MASS ENERGY E = m c 2 Einstein’s famous equation E = m c 2  equivalence of mass and energy Energy can be converted into mass and vice versa: * A particle and its antiparticle collide, all the mass is converted into energy. * Mass is converted into energy in a nuclear fission reaction. * When a body gives off energy E in the form of radiation, its mass decreases by an amount equal to E/c 2. In Special Relativity, the Law of Conservation of Energy and the Law of Conservation of Mass have been replaced by the Law of Conservation of Mass-Energy. When mass increases as a body gains velocity effectively limits all man-made objects to travel at speeds approaching the speed of light. The closer a body gets to the speed of light, the more massive it becomes. The more massive it becomes, the more energy that has to be used to give it the same acceleration. To accelerate the body up to the speed of light would require an infinite amount of energy. Clearly, this places a limit on both the speed that can be attained by a spacecraft and therefore the time it takes to travel from one point in space to another.