Description: The wind"up session of this multi"part symposium on women at MIT brings together brains and brine -- two researchers' pioneering work in neuroscience and ocean microbes.

In 1985, Sallie (Penny) Chisholm discovered Prochlorococcus, a "tiny, round, green thing that's not so beautiful but extraordinary." Lined up, 100 of these sub"micron size phytoplankton come to the width of a human hair, and they turn out to be the most abundant photosynthetic cell on the planet. There are so many Prochlorococcus distributed through global oceans that their accumulated weight would amount to one billion people. Most important, life as we know it would not be possible without these (and other) photosynthetic ocean creatures, which produce a large share of the planet's oxygen.

Chisholm has spent more than two decades devoted to in"depth study of Prochlorococcus, which even as a single species presents many "ecotypes." Some fare better in great depths, far from the sun, others closer to the surface. Research has verified 12 genetically different strains of Prochlorococcus occupying different ocean niches _ and given that there are 1027 cells in the wild, many more genomes are literally floating around. Chisholm ultimately wants to understand why certain types of Prochlorococcus appear in particular ecosystems, and not in others. For instance, Prochlorococcus follow the Gulf Stream, but "disappear near Massachusetts." With faster gene sequencing, Chisholm and colleagues have been sampling seawater from around the world for Prochlorococcus, hoping to understand better the reasons for their diversity, and how they fit into the larger physical and chemical systems of the oceans.
Nancy Kanwisher approaches fundamental questions involving the nature of the human mind using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), which enables investigation of both structure and function of the brain. In particular, Kanwisher has been exploring whether the brain features regions specialized for specific purposes. Her studies have turned up several such areas: the fusiform face area of the brain, responsible only for face recognition; the parahippocampal place area, a region that responds to images of places or scenes; and the "third and most disreputable region," the extrastriate body area, which responds to pictures of bodies, body parts _ whether stick figures or silhouettes.

These regions are found in the architecture of all normal human brains, Kanwisher says, and their existence raises additional questions that she and other researchers are pursuing. For instance, to learn when these areas become wired in the brain, Kanwisher scanned children. She learned that kids as young as five years showed the same face recognition brain activity as adults. There is evidence "implicating genes" in face recognition. But there is a role for experience as well. Although there is a brain region that responds strongly to visual words and letter strings, the "selectivity of the region" depends on an individual's history (such as familiarity with written characters from specific languages). Kanwisher concludes that while there are some "highly specialized bits" of the mind/brain made up of specialized components, "these may be relatively rare, and there is probably lots of general purpose machinery."

About the Speaker(s): From 2007 to 2010, Katrin Wehrheim served as assistant professor of math at MIT. She received the B.S. equiv. in mathematics and physics from the University of Hamburg in 1995, and the Diploma in physics from Imperial College in 1996. She completed the Ph.D. in mathematics at ETH Z orich in 2002. Wehrheim's thesis was awarded the ETH Medal. She continued at ETH Z orich as a postdoctoral fellow, 2002"03, before going to Princeton University as instructor, 2003"04. She was a member of Institute of Advanced Studies, 2004"06 and fellow at Princeton, 2005"06.

Wehrheim's research interests include problems in gauge theory and symplectic topology and PDEs, in particular the relations of gauge theoretic and symplectic Floer theories.

Description: The built environment consumes a very large share of the nation's energy, and so offers rich opportunities for reducing our overall carbon footprint. MIT researchers share innovations that could soon radically alter the energy profile, as well as form and function, of buildings. Their work may prove invaluable to those in the real estate or construction industries seeking not just efficiency, but a good investment.

Pumping gas into a car, we can get a good sense of its energy costs, says John Ochsendorf. But when it comes to buildings, which are huge capital investments, "we have practically no literacy" around energy performance. Now we are entering a "new frontier," says Ochsendorf, as pressure builds to achieve substantial, swift reductions in energy consumption. He is helping to develop new metrics for measuring the amount of energy a building uses over its entire lifespan, from construction through many years of occupancy.

Ochsendorf maps the material and energy flow involved in producing a can of Coke, from the extraction of minerals for aluminum smelting, to the French beets used in its sugar syrup, and suggests that this level of detail should be available for our buildings as well. This means "lifecycle assessment with rigorous benchmarking of building performance," down to the CO2 emissions per square foot. Ochsendorf is working with concrete and cement manufacturers to help them achieve steep reductions quickly, and to design buildings that use local waste material such as clay, and operate with zero net energy use.

The value of buildings derives from their capacity to "protect and enhance the health, safety and well"being of occupants and communities," says Sarah Slaughter. There are measurable benefits, too: Acoustically quiet classrooms improve student retention, and reinforced buildings can withstand hurricanes and earthquakes. Slaughter is interested in using "low impact development" for healthy, resilient buildings. She takes a "system of systems" approach, examining first the interaction of systems within a building. Could use of rainwater capture, for instance, decrease the need for non"potable water, or could "daylight harvesting" permit the downsizing of artificial lighting? Slaughter next considers the building's connections to the larger environment, including its neighborhood and region.

She sees a "value"added chain" that ultimately includes municipalities and state and federal agencies. By targeting the right links in the chain, one can achieve both performance enhancement and cost efficiencies. This leads to "clearly demonstrable bottom"line benefits -- less than a year payback for some upgrades" as well as improved buildings that "allow people to complete their organizational missions more effectively."

Alex (Sandy) Pentland hopes to make buildings more productive and efficient, but focuses on people rather than structures. He has devised methods for mapping human activities, following cellphone and other wireless signals. For example, Pentland can track face to face meetings taking place in an organization, and troubleshoot areas of low"productivity. He describes changing the time for coffee breaks in a Bank of America call center, and saving that business $15 million. He has detailed how "tribes" of people move about in cities, and can make astonishingly accurate predictions about where and when these groups go to eat and the kinds of things they buy. Real estate developers could look at transportation patterns, for instance, and build stores in places convenient to a target group. These tools are powerful enough to reveal socioeconomic patterns, such as crime rates, disease and even life expectancy among different groups. Data mapping, believes Pentland, will prove increasingly useful to many institutions, although it presents some perils around privacy issues.

About the Speaker(s): Tony Ciochetti leads the Center for Real Estate's mission to improve the global built environment through industry relevant research and to promote more informed professional practice. Prior to his appointment at MIT, Ciochetti was the Director of the Center for Real Estate Development and a Professor of Finance at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill. Ciochetti is also a visiting Professor in the Department of Land Economy at Cambridge University in England. His teaching areas of expertise include Commercial Real Estate Development and Real Estate Finance. He has created or taught courses in these areas at MIT, the University of Pennsylvania, Cambridge University, the University of Wisconsin"Madison, Indiana University, and the University of North Carolina"Chapel Hill.

Ciochetti's research interests lie in two broad areas: commercial mortgage credit risk and the role of real estate within pension plan portfolios. His work has appeared in leading scholarly journals, including Real Estate Economics, and the Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, among others. Ciochetti is currently the President of the Real Estate Research Institute, where he is also an academic fellow, and serves on the Board of Directors of Real Estate Economics.

Ciochetti received his B.A. in Finance from the University of Oregon, and both his M.S. and Ph.D. in Real Estate and Urban Land Economics from the University of Wisconsin"Madison.

Host(s): School of Architecture and Planning, MIT Center for Real Estate

Description: While automakers market increasingly intelligent cars, they may be missing the point. No matter how sophisticated the vehicle's brain, suggests Alex (Sandy) Pentland, the smartest element on the road is still the human driver. In search of safe, responsive vehicles, designers should not think of separate components -- machine and operator -- but rather, an integrated system comprised of two, complementary intelligences.

Tackling this challenge involves analyzing human behavior -- not the traditional purview of engineers who "are scared off by the noise, the randomness of people." Pentland, on the other hand, has long explored human decision"making in a variety of settings, including car driving. Working with an automaker, he outfitted test vehicles with sensors on the steering wheel, brakes and elsewhere, to "determine predictive signals of driving." The sensors permitted the analysis of "clusters of behaviors," so Pentland could figure out with 95% accuracy "what people would do before they did it." From developing a model of the driver's behavior, he moved on to neighboring drivers' patterns, to paint a picture of road interactions and signaling.

This research has resulted in a system now deployed in Nissan cars as a "safety shield" -- a computer brain that uses predictive knowledge to help "nudge back" a driver who may be straying into the wrong lane, or gently decelerate if the driver is speeding into the car ahead. Pentland's "general philosophy" about creating an interface between people and an intelligent vehicular system involves recognizing that the human is in charge, never the vehicle, lest "the human stop paying attention." It is about establishing a "joint control mode" so "car and human are cooperating" in a way that feels natural. Indeed, Pentland notes that there is evidence these sensor systems help people become better drivers.

Beyond this basic work, Pentland is introducing robot "friends" into cars, to help guide a driver's attention in appropriate ways. He is also extending his intricate models of driving patterns toward better route navigation technology. Pentland builds traffic flow maps that are based on the "conditional dependence" among driving decisions made en route, which may prove extremely helpful in alerting drivers to construction obstacles or other hazards. He has also mapped mobility patterns of certain groups in a city, by monitoring taxi and cell phone use, and can predict where specific groups of people travel, shop and eat. This research could prove useful to urban planners laying out a public transportation grid, and someday, might help in making greener cities or battling epidemics.

About the Speaker(s): Alex (Sandy) Pentland is a pioneer in wearable computers, health systems, smart environments, and technology for developing countries.

He is a co"founder of the Wearable Computing research community, the Autonomous Mental Development research community, the Center for Future Health, and was the founding director of the Media Lab Asia. He was formerly the Academic Head of the MIT Media Laboratory. Pentland was chosen by Newsweek as one of the 100 Americans most likely to shape the next century.

Description: The Obama campaign owes its victory not to a single charismatic candidate, but to the efforts of a disciplined and motivated organization whose roots go back to landmark movements of the 1960s. Marshall Ganz, who cut his teeth on civil rights work and with Cesar Chavez's United Farm Workers, describes how the principles and practices he learned around organizing and leadership played out in the most recent presidential election.

For Ganz, our time represents the end of "40 years of wandering in the desert," the end of "the politics of disappointment." We've arrived at an extraordinary moment of rapid change -- a time of both possibility and uncertainty -- with commensurate challenges to political leaders. But Ganz's take, after years with progressive movements, is that leadership involves "taking responsibility to enable others to achieve purpose in the face of uncertainty." Leaders recruit, motivate and develop others, constructing a community around common interests, and building capacity from within the community. And unlike businesses, which tend to rely on rigid hierarchies, and systems and procedures, effective volunteer"based organizations must engage and enable lots of people to become innovators, adaptive in the face of uncertainty.

This kind of "civic capital" is precisely what the Obama campaign cultivated and invested in, says Ganz. Thousands of people acquired the skills and practiced "the arts of leadership necessary to self govern in democracy." Some unique conditions made this campaign so successful, including Obama's story of hope, which drew on a persuasive personal narrative. There was also the campaign's strategy of developing grassroots capacity to win caucuses and close primaries; its use of the Internet to attract an army of small"scale, repeat contributors; and its capacity for "continual learning" about what was and was not working.

In the summer of 2007, Ganz served as counselor in LA's "Camp Obama," teaching key state organizers to share personal narratives and create compelling politics around human experience and emotion, rather than around issues. He led workshops on motivating from "a place of hopefulness," rather than of fear, and on how to build from common ground to shared political values and commitments. Obama staffers and volunteers learned how to create mutually reliant leadership teams that could act independent of the campaign HQ; and how to amass and utilize voter information both to get out the vote, and to tap additional volunteers. A "cascade of training and leadership development" led to a massive field organization that built upon itself, where volunteers continually joined and moved up the ranks, and everyone felt "they owned a piece of it."

About the Speaker(s): In 1964, a year before he graduated from Harvard College, Marshall Ganz left to volunteer as a civil rights organizer in Mississippi. In 1965, he joined Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers; over the next 16 years he gained experience in union, community, issue, and political organizing and became Director of Organizing. During the 1980s, he worked with grassroots groups to develop effective organizing programs, designing innovative voter mobilization strategies for local, state, and national electoral campaigns.

In 1991, Ganz returned to Harvard College and, after a 28"year leave of absence, completed his undergraduate degree in history and government. He was awarded an M.P.A. by the Kennedy School in 1993 and completed his Ph.D. in sociology in 2000. He teaches, researches, and writes on leadership, organization, and strategy in social movements, civic associations, and politics.

Description: This session goes a long way toward demonstrating the -happy face of the atom," as moderator David Kaiser puts it, replacing the mushroom cloud image with a multidimensional picture of the uses of nuclear technology.
As a plasma physicist, Ian Hutchinson works on controlled fusion -- a very hot area of nuclear technology in more ways than one. By fusing together isotopes of hydrogen, you can achieve the energy source of stars, says Hutchinson. This promises infinite reserves of clean energy. These reactions are only possible at super high temperatures, and -to bring these down to a human scale," the gases created must be contained by powerful magnets in machines called tokamaks. MIT and other labs have produced fusion energy and now a major international project to create a large fusion reactor is under way. The big challenge, says Hutchinson, is understanding the -great stirrings and eddies inside the plasma" that cause gas leaks and disruption to the fusion process.
We are now entering a time when -angst seems to be subsiding and we are able to discuss the benefits of nuclear technology in the security arena," says Dwight Williams. He describes some major upgrades to the detection devices commonly used to prevent people from getting -bad stuff on an airplane or through a port." Williams explains active system devices, which can induce a radioactive signature in something that was not originally radioactive, and thus signal an item's -elemental content." A machine using thermal neutron activation analysis can penetrate all kinds of shielding, to produce gamma rays and a 3D image of the contents of a bag. Since explosives share some of the features of jam, marzipan and chocolate, says Williams, advanced nuclear techniques will help inspectors distinguish between the benign and dangerous.
Medical applications of nuclear technology deploy different types of radiation to kill tumor cells and spare healthy tissue. But, says Jeffrey Coderre, shielding healthy cells to prevent radiation's side effects turns out to be a tricky proposition. Coderre investigated the nature of radiation damage and determined it was a function of damage to stem cells (rather than damage to blood vessels). He describes how the radioisotopes used in medical radiation, virtually all of which come from Canadian reactors, can be used in a variety of ways: to view areas of rapid bone growth, or tumor sites in bone; to sterilize syringes and drapes used in hospitals; and in a radiation helmet called the gamma knife to get focused radiation into difficult brain tumors.
Alan Jasanoff provides a one-stop tour of medical imaging techniques, differentiating between those scans that use high energy radiation (such as computed tomography and positron emission tomography); and low wavelength radiation, based on radio waves, such as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. PET scans detect molecular tracers that have been consumed in a sugary drink to find areas where cells are rapidly dividing, for example. New applications for this well established imaging method include locating plaques in the brain that cause Alzheimer's disease. MRI, unlike CT or PET scans, has minimal destructive impact on tissues, and allows 3D mapping of blood vessels, and more recently, the tracing of microscopic fibers in the brain. Jasanoff's lab uses calcium-sensitive contrast agents to detect events in the brain.

About the Speaker(s): David Kaiser's physics research focuses on early-universe cosmology. His historical research focuses on the development of physics during the twentieth century. Kaiser's research has been supported by the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy.

He is the author of Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics (University of Chicago Press, 2005). He has also edited six books on the history of modern physical sciences, including, most recently, Pedagogy and the Practice of Science: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (MIT Press, 2005). Kaiser has been honored with awards from the American Physical Society, the History of Science Society, and the British Society for the History of Science and MIT's Harold E. Edgerton Faculty Achievement Award.

Kaiser received his A.B. in physics at Dartmouth College in 1993, completed a Ph.D. in physics at Harvard University in 1997, and a Ph.D. in the history of science at Harvard in 2000.