Traditional clothing of Kosovo

Traditional clothing (folk costume) is one of the factors that has differentiated this nation from neighboring countries, dating back as far as the Illyrian era.[1]

The evolution this attire has undergone, has been in service of modernization and contemporary style, however, the fundamental symbols and motives by which these garments are designed tend to resemble Illyrian antiquity,[2] the materials and the traditional ways by which these clothes have been made throughout history have not changed much. The utilities which are used in the creation of these clothes are characteristically Kosovar, called vegjë or vek, which is a loom (resembling the English spinning jenny and flying shuttle). The methods of obtaining the materials and clothes have remained the same, the motifs and patterns on these garments can be explained by prehistoric religion. Triangles, rhombuses, circles and crosses occur frequently,and they are known as symbols of health and fertility.[2] Chromatically, there are three main colors in these clothes, the most symbolic of which is red.[2]

Traditional men's clothing of Podgur, characterized by marhama, as he carries the traditional instrument Lahuta

Women's Podgur apparel characterized by the crown lace

Among 140 types of traditional Albanian costumes, the Podgur's attire Veshja e Podgurit is Kosovar, differentiated by its variety and is an influence in all other regions,[3] this costume belonged to the majority of the Illyrian and Albanian regions included in the international framework. The clothing items consist of the shirts of men and women, which are wide sleeved with a narrow collar which was buttoned up and a white traditional hat worn by men called plis, leather moccasins or opinga. According to archaeologists of the Museum of Pristina, Podgur's clothing dates back to the 5th and 4th century BC.[3] However, transformations of this costume happened due to different social and cultural situations, technical inventions and also element exchange between the ethnic groups, from field investigation, it has been reported that in the 19th century and the first two decades of the 20th century, women's clothing went through morphological changes.[4] The 19th-century look consisted of the combing of their hair and braiding them, they also wore red semi-spherical shaped hats which were embellished with tiny gold coins. Around the crown of the hat they wore a tight lace, lidhëse, which was 60 cm long. It was tied so that their hair remained hidden. Marhama is a type of material which was worn along their neck and chin, but the embroidered tail of marhama was laid down along the right shoulder, and it was called masdorja.[4] The shirt was of foot-length and the sleeves were long and wide, approximately 35 cm and also embroidered. Shtjellakët (pështjellakët, mbështjellakët) which were pieces of material that resemble an apron, were big in size and tight in width, and it had geometrical motives, such as an axe or a circle. The moccasins were made from the skin of cattle and knitted with pieces of sheep skin, they were called gogishte moccasins. As belts, they wore woolen material called shokë which were knitted using a loom, it was of 3 cm width, and the embroidered part was tied on the back. Their colors were very characteristic and different, such as red, green, yellow and black.[5] Children of rich families had their clothes knitted by tailors and that made them look like any other grown man, from puberty and on, children's clothing becomes more detailed. In this age boys start to wear plis, where as in cold days they wore scarfs and tirqe, traditional white woolen pants; in the celibacy age boys wore tirqe (which were always white ), plis and vests. However, children clothing in general is characterized by its simplicity, it consists of a knee length shirt which is made of white fabric combined with vertical shokë which was of chestnut color. The wearing of shokë by children was very rare ; it was only worn during the years they were celibate and wanted to impress women their social circle.[5] In youngster clothing, the white and black color were worn more often, whereas blazers were also enriched with red, yellow, green, and brown, during cold weather, youngsters also wore a certain type of hat called kapulace. It was made of woolen threads which were skull-shaped and they covered every part of the head and face except the eyes and nose. Blazers were also part of the youngster attire and were made of soutane, resembling the adult costume. Boys wore shoulder-length hair,[6] before costumes were knitted by tailors, the models were first cut out in Peć. This was done once a year, during fall or winter.[7]

Men's clothing was the symbol of beauty at the time, this attire includes a shirt, tëlinat which were long briefs, a scarf and tirqe. There were differences among the clothing of adults, based on their economical standing; in the men clothing framework, the groom's attire was the most symbolic one. The costume is built upon the symbolic meaning of starting a new phase of life. Men of Podgur used to wear white semi-spherical plis. Along with it there was also a scarf made of white fabric which consisted of a few horizontal shokë of different colors, this scarf was circled around plis and covered a part of their head and ears. Scarfs were worn by men of older age, around their forties. Men's shirts were called "chestnut shirts" because they were made of horizontal shokë of chestnut color. "Chestnut shirts" are rarely seen today, except in mountain regions. Blazers were the items worn over shirts, the part among the sleeves, the collar and arms contained of a black stripe. The vest or xhamadani made of soutane was wide sleeved and reached the waist in length and had no collar, it was buttoned up with a clasp. The vest was double-breasted, and it was of black color; in cold weather, they used to wear a type of blazer called mitani and was made of soutane material. It was randomly worn over the vest or xhamadani, it had long sleeves, but no collar. The black strap covered the parts along the sleeves, around the neck and along the elbows. Mitani had an opening from the armpits to the elbows, and these openings were used to hold mitani freely. On the left part, a small pocket was sewn where men used to keep their cigars. Mitani was also worn by youngsters, but it was simpler than the mitani of men. Among the traditional clothing of Podgur's men, xhurdia which is a type of clothing worn by young boys is mostly known and symbolizes pride, it was made of soutane and tailors were usually the ones who made it. It had long and tight sleeves, open-chested, waist-length, and had a loose part at the back. Besides xhurdia there is also japanxhija which was a clothing of shepherds. However, it was also worn by others in cases of bad weather or long journeys, during nighttime, it was also used as a type of cover. It was made of white soutane along with black stripes, and it was also sleeveless and foot-length whereas its width depended on the length, taking form into a cone-shaped model. Along the belt the red shokë was worn which was older than the colorful shokë, its length had to be long enough to be wrapped around the waist 5 times. Tëlinat or the long briefs were made of linen, from which their name originates. Later on these long briefs were also made of fabric using a loom, the edges were embroidered and were 20 cm wide. During summer time men used to wear tëlina along with a shirt which was called the shirt of tire. Shokë was tied around the waist, making the shirt resemble a kilt. Tirqe were made of soutane, which varied in quality based on the amount of cord it contained. Tirqe of high quality contained 20 threads of cord. Whereas, the one ones with lower quality had 2-3 threads of cord, the economical status determined which ones they wore. Nevertheless, traditionally white tirqe with black cords were worn in Podgur. Black tirqe were seldom worn by young boys but they were considered infamous because they were worn during the night in order not to attract attention, the socks that they wore were made of sheep wool and were from the toe gore to the heel and sometimes knee -length. Some people used to wear a type of short socks called meste over the previous ones, they were made of the wool and skin of bull, whereas the moccasins were made of sheep skin. After The Second World War, moccasins were made up of threads of different ties and cotton. Instead of opinga they were called yrnek. Men used to wear a lot of accessories at the time, such as rings, qystek të sahatit or otherwise known as pocket watches, etc. Weapons may also be considered as a part of men's accessory, and the revolver was the most common. Simplicity is what characterizes the attire of old men, their most important item of clothing was Goxhufi, which was type of a vest and it was made of lamb skin. It had a sleeveless design and sometimes was knee length, they were reversible according to the climate.[8]

Young women's apparel. The floral embroidery symbolizes vitality and youth.

Even though young girls' costumes are not considered to be very specific or unique, in contrast to the women's attire, these costumes have gone through many transformations during their time being.[9] A part of girls' look was their hairstyle which resembled that of boys, the shirts they wore were the same as those of women, although they were quite more simple. They also used to wear a type of tight skirt called pështjellci which was knee-length and made of woolen threads using a loom, during the last few years, these skirts were also made of linen threads. At the edge of the skirt, different floral designs are embroidered, symbolizing youth and vitality.Their moccasins were identical to those of women. Traditional clothing of young girls has not been completely preserved because of its transition to modernism.[10]

Women's clothing

The transformation of women's attire mainly happened between the years of World War I and World War II, the semi-spherical shaped hats with gold coin embroidery were replaced with laces, called lidhsa. In the region of Istok, these laces were called hotoz, the fabric shirt was also to change its structure during this period of time. Instead of the fabric shirts, këmisha e arrës which is also a part of men's clothing was being used more often, the sleeves were shortened to the elbows and they were also tightened. When the sleeves were shortened, a different type of material was used to cover the part of the palm and up to the elbow, these were made of woolen thread and were known as mëngët or sleeves. Often, they were knitted using different colors.[11]

Mitani also went through changes; it had long sleeves and a tight collar. It was waist-length and it was deep purple, it was usually sold by tailors. The vest, which is considerably new in the traditional clothing of women, was sleeveless, it did not have a collar, and its motifs were solar and lunar. The material which was used to knit these vests was known as coha and was sold by tailors of Peć, Kosovska Mitrovica and Đakovica, during different journeys, women used to wear jackets called guna and they were made of woolen thread. It was knee-length, wide-sleeved and the parts along the neck were embroidered with threads of black cord. Women also used to wear fur which was seldom that of sheep and known as 'gala', it was a sleeveless item of clothing. Tëlinat remained mostly the same, except of the kamzave which were pieces of thicker material and covered the knees. They were usually decorated with different kinds of embroidery. Socks were made out of thick woolen sheep thread and were embellished along the pulps[clarification needed]. These embellishments differentiated due to age. Traditional clothing of women consisted of a lot of accessories, such as earrings, bracelets and rings.[12]

Elderly women's clothing

The differences between the attire of elderly women and those of younger ones are the same as the differences between elderly and young men, their main characteristic is the simplicity of their clothing. Except for the differences between group ages, the attire has also changed based on occasions; in weddings and other happy occasions, new clothing was worn, whereas in funerals, a specific costume was worn, known as veshja e Harcit.[13]

The most famous apparel was called ‘'pështjellak'’ which consistent of a long white shirt, and two ‘'pështjellak'’ (a white apron), the front and the back one. ‘'pështjellaku i parmë'’, or the front apron is as long as the shirt, and it was tailored to fit the woman's hip. ‘'pështjellaku i pasëm'’, the back apron was shorter than the front one. Other components of this clothing were : ‘'tëlina't’ (traditional underwear), ‘'jeleku'’ –resembles a short vest which was embroidered, ‘'shokë’' a large woolen material circling the waist, traditional black socks, and different color head scarves. Accessories were very popular among women – golden and silver necklaces, bracelets and rings, the socks were traditionally black, and they were worn with shoes called ‘'opinga'’, made of different animals’ skin.[14]

Another equivalently famous apparel is the Xhubleta-clothing. A xhubleta is a bell wavy skirt which is held by two straps on the shoulders, worn on top of a long sleeved white linen shirt. It’s texture consists of long suspended long black straps etched in the material, which was usually chestnut velvet, the socks and shoes were the same as the pështjellak clothing. In the Rugova region (Kosovar West) the xhubleta clothing was worn especially after the Second World War.[15]

Veshja e Dukagjinit is most often referred to as the most beautiful of Kosovar clothing. This look consisted of a long sleeved, full length white shirt, the tëlina are also of cotton, but their edges are colorfully embroidered. From the waist up, women wore a sleeveless vest decorated by golden threads, which was open to the front and it would button by beautiful clasps, the two pështjellak are also a characteristic of this clothing. The socks were woolen, and the ‘'opinga'’ were made of cattle skin, the decorative motifs of this region’s clothing are zoological, botanical and geometrical. The motif of the snake, rooster, and the Sun is related to the ancient beliefs of the Illyrian pagans, this garment was by default different for brides, who had sleeves embroidered by asymmetrical patterns of non distinctive colors.[16]

The clothing of the southern region of Has is among the distinctive types of clothing in Kosovo, this garment is commonly found today, as it has survived and embraced the changes of the European styles. A short white shirt and a white linen full –length dress are the main components of the look. Long white briefs served as underwear, the traditional pështjellak was slightly wider than in other regions, the jelek (vest) was enriched with beads, mostly red. It could also contain golden threads, for formal events, they wore a small hat decorated with beads and golden studs. The socks in this costume were white, differently from other costumes’.[17]

Men's clothing was less preserved, however throughout the years it appears as more unified. Men's garments did not change much from region to region. One popular outfit was the one with ‘'fustanelle’' (a version of a kilt) until 1914 the First Balkanic war, the most popular was the ‘'tirqi’' apparel. The full look had elements which are similar to women's (white shirt, tëlina, shokë, socks, opinga, jelek (vest) ),however the tirqi ( woolen white pants) were only a characteristic of men's clothing. The shirt and the ‘tlina’ briefs were exclusively white, the shirts’ collars’ were T-shaped, and the sleeves of their shirts had white simple embroidery. From the waist up, men wore either jelek(vest) or xhamadan, a traditional woolen west which was usually white but was also found in dark colors. Men's accessories were the '‘gajtan'’ – a long black cord, decorated push buttons in their jelek and xhamadanë, and metallic clasps, these vests were designed in such a way that enabled the bearer to move their hands freely, and the sleeves hung loosely back. The tirqi were always decorated around the waist, pockets and vertically in length with black seams. Men wore woolen white socks and cattle skin shoes; in their heads they wore plis, woolen caps, and marhama, a large white scarf which encircles the head and the neck, covering the plis. The marhama originated from Illyrians. Other accessories were qystek, a large golden chain which they put across their shoulders, sahati- a pocketwatch, a cigarette box along with a carved lighter and different silver rings. Occasionally, men held guns in their shokë,[18] the differences these clothes had from region to region were little – they might have been worn more tightly or loosely, the decorations in their tirqi might have been decorated with thicker or thinner seams.There were decorations which implied certain economic status, social status or societal hierarchy.For example, 3 golden threads in tirqi implied celibacy, whereas 12 golden threads implied wedlock .24 golden threads implied wealth and power, and the most occurring were in older men.[19]

The region of Podujevo is located in Northeastern Kosovo, its tradition of clothing has not survived the modernization of clothing and the components of this look have become artifacts. The latest version of this clothing which are remembered consisted of ‘'tirqi’' clothing for men and ‘'pështjellak’' clothing for women, the items of clothing composing this apparel were somewhat similar to other regions’ clothing – tirqi, jelek, shoka, plisi, marhama and common accessories such as ‘'qystek’'- pocket watch, carved metallic cigarette box for men and '‘pështjellak’', white shirts, '‘tëlina’', ‘'shoka’', ‘'opinga'’ - moccasins and head scarves for women. Women generally wore more accessories compared to other regions of Kosovo and their shirts had more embroidering with vivid colors.Both men’s and women’s clothing implied the bearer’s socioeconomic standing, based on what quality of material, quantity of embroidery, choice of colors, and ultimately the number of golden threads one had etched on the back of their shirts or ‘'mitan'’. Few remaining prototypes of this apparel are nowadays preserved in the Historical Museum of Pristina.[20]

Men's clothing of Karadak consists of the shirt, tëlinat, vest, mitani, xhurdia, fur, socks, moccasins, plis and different accessories such as pocket watches, cigarette boxes and weapons. Shokë of young boys was whiter and it contained a lot of embroidery, whereas shoka of older men was maroon. Shirts of young boys and elderly men differed in width and length, the socks that were worn by the younger ones were decorated with different colors, whereas those of old men were simpler. Tirqi of youngsters and the so-called agzona men ( epithet of courage and pride ), were of the color black.[21]

Nowadays, in this region Muslims and Christians all wear the so-called Veshje me dimi ( traditional embroidered pants similar to pantaloons ), the clothing that is worn today is similar with the clothing that was worn in the second half of the 19th century which consists of tëlina, dimi, shirt, vest, mitani, pështjellak, socks, moccasins, head-scarf, and accessories such as earrings, bracelets, rings, necklaces and clasps. Veshja me dimi consists of pështjellak, made out of fur which is the most important item of the apparel and a shirt which is made out of silk or cotton fabric.[22]

1.
Traditional Albanian clothing
–
Traditional Albanian clothing includes more than 200 different kind of clothings in all Albania and Albanian inhabited lands. This is due to the division the Albanian principalities in the Middle Ages, the Albanian folk dress is often decorated with symbolic elements of antique pagan origin, like suns, eagles, moons, stars, and snakes. Almost every region in Albania has its own traditional dress with women clothing being particularly colorful, fabrics are traditionally made by weaving clothes using looms. To this day, some old men and women mainly from the North wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. Albanian hat worn typically during the 15th to 18th centuries and immortalized in Onufris paintings, qylafë, a woolen high hat worn in southern Albania. The following headdress are in use for women, Kapica, a headdress for women, langi, other names include, peshqira, riza, marhamë, pashnik. Fustanella, traditional skirt-like garment worn by men, tirq, long pant worn by man. A Xhamadan is a traditional vest, which is worn by Albanian men throughout Albania, in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, and in the Arbëresh villages in Italy. Brez are traditional belts, which are worn by Albanian men throughout Albania, in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, and in the Arbëresh villages in Italy. Çorape are traditional socks which are worn by Albanian men throughout Albania, in Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, South Albania has many branches that come from many cities on the South. In the region of Vlora, the costume for men is like the picture on the right. Then they wear a black jacket, followed by a white shirt with wide sleeves. They also have a kind of a belt which is red and they have black pants with long white socks. For shoes, they wear Opinga which are worn in Albania, Romania and Serbia, Arbëresh Fustanella Culture of Albania Gjirokastër National Folklore Festival Traditional clothing of Kosovo Albanian dances Andromaqi, Gjergj. Albanian Costumes Through the Centuries, Origin, Types, Evolution, instituti i Kulturës Popullore, Departamenti Etnologjisë

2.
Folk costume
–
A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the peasantry of Europe came to serve as models for all that appeared genuine. Their dress crystallised into so-called typical forms, and enthusiasts adopted that attire as part of their symbolism, in areas where Western dress codes have become usual, traditional garments are often worn at special events or celebrations, particularly those connected with cultural traditions, heritage or pride. International events may cater for non-Western attendees with a dress code such as business suit or national dress. In modern times, there are instances where traditional garments are required by sumptuary laws, in Bhutan, the traditional Tibetan-style clothing of gho and kera for men, kira and toego for women, must be worn by all citizens, including those not of Tibetan heritage. In Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear the abaya in public. Tibet – Chuba Inner Mongolia – Deel Japan – Kimono, Junihitoe, Sokutai Korea – Hanbok Mongolia – Deel Taiwan – Hanfu, Every ethnic group in the country has their national costume. Kebayas, sarongs and the Beskap jacket of the Javanese and the Kain batik, vietnam – Áo giao lĩnh, Áo dài, Áo tứ thân, Áo bà ba. Abkhazia – Chokha Armenia – Each region has its own style of folk costume, kuwait – Thawb Oman – Dishdasha Ossetia – Chokha Qatar – Kandura Palestine – Keffiyeh, Taqiyah, Palestinian costumes. Saudi Arabia – Thawb, Ghutrah, Agal, Bisht, Abaya, Jilbab, Niqab Syria – Dishdasha Turkey – Fez, Kaftan, Shalvar. United Arab Emirates – Kandura Yemen – Similar to Saudi Arabia, scotland – Highland dress, Kilt or trews, tam oshanter or Balmoral bonnet, doublet, Aboyne dress, and brogues or ghillies. Greek fishermans caps in many villages by the Aegean sea. Italy – Italian folk dance costumes, Roman clothing, Toga, Stola South Tyrol – Tracht, slovenia – Gorenjska noša Spain – Every autonomous region has its own national costume. For example, Bavarias well-known Tracht, Lederhosen and Dirndl, liechtenstein – Tracht, Dirndl Netherlands – Dutch cap, Klompen, poffer Switzerland – Every canton has its own specific design of a national costume. A good example is seen in the attire of Paul Bunyan. Deep South and other parts of the American South – Traditional Southern US wear includes white seersucker suits and string ties for men and these short pants remained commonplace among young urban American boys until the mid 20th century. Nantucket – Summer residents of Nantucket will often wear Nantucket Reds, amish, the Pennsylvania Dutch and some sects of Mormon fundamentalism preserve traditional 19th century clothing styles

3.
Illyria
–
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians. The prehistory of Illyria and the Illyrians is known from archaeological evidence, the Romans conquered the region in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars. The Roman term Illyris was sometimes used to define an area north of the Aous valley, in Greek mythology, the name of Illyria is aetiologically traced to Illyrius, the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the Illyrians. A later version of the myth identifies Polyphemus and Galatea as parents of Celtus, Galas, ancient Greek writers used the name Illyrian to describe peoples between the Liburnians and Epirus. In the Roman period, Illyricum was used for the area between the Adriatic and Danube, the term was in a way of pars pro toto. The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians, the Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region, polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers, pliny writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were Illyrians proper or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and these later joined to form the Docleatae. The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra in 168 BC and captured him, four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region was governed by Rome and organized as a province. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the independent kingdom of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria in the west, although this division occurred in 10 AD, the term Illyria remained in use in Late Latin and throughout the medieval period. After the division of the Roman Empire, the bishops of Thessalonica appointed papal vicars for Illyricum, the first of these vicars is said to have been Bishop Acholius or Ascholius, the friend of St. Basil. The patriarchs of Constantinople succeeded in bringing Illyria under their jurisdiction in the 8th century, several armorials of the Early modern period, popularly called the Illyrian Armorials, depicted fictional coats of arms of Illyria

4.
Spinning jenny
–
The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, the device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced, the yarn produced by the Jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered Water Frame, which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial Spinning Jenny. It ushered in the factory system, the spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720, Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of Blackburn greys, cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed, at the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle had increased demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity. The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame, the rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve. When the bars were returned, the wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire was used to guide the threads onto the place on the spindle. In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and that industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny, in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds of cotton-wool was imported into England and this was due to commercial legislation to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustan, in 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished. Cotton-wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels, again the woollen manufacturers, in true protectionist style, claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry

5.
Flying shuttle
–
The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It allowed a weaver to weave much wider fabrics, and it could be mechanized. The flying shuttle was patented by John Kay in 1733 and this greatly speeds up the previous hand process, and it halves the labour force. Where a broad-cloth loom previously required a weaver on each side, until this point the textile industry has required four spinners to service one weaver. Kays innovation, in use by the 1750s, greatly increases this disparity. The operator then had to reach forward while holding the shuttle in one hand and pass this through the shed, the shuttle then had to be caught in the other hand, the shed closed, and the beater pulled forward to push the weft into place. The flying shuttle employs a board, called the race, which runs along the front of the beater, from side to side, the lower threads of the shed rest on the track and the shuttle slides over them. At each end of the race, there is a box which catches the shuttle at the end of its journey, the shuttle itself has some subtle differences from the older form. The ends of the shuttle are bullet-shaped and metal-capped, and the shuttle generally has rollers to reduce friction, the weft thread is made to exit from the end rather than the side, and the thread is stored on a pirn to allow it to feed more easily. Finally, the shuttle is generally somewhat heavier, so as to have sufficient momentum to carry it all the way through the shed. These innovations transformed the industry in Great Britain. All were attacked as threats to the livelihood of spinners and weavers and it is often incorrectly written that Kay was attacked and fled to France, but in fact he simply moved there to attempt to rent out his looms, a business model that had failed him in England. The flying shuttle itself produced a new source of injuries, if deflected from its path, it could be shot clear of the machine, the flying shuttle dominated commercial weaving through the middle of the twentieth century. By that time, other systems had begun to supplant it, the heavy shuttle was noisy and energy-inefficient, also, its inertia limited the speed of the loom. Projectile and rapier looms eliminated the need to take the bobbin/pirn of thread through the shed, later, air-, Flying shuttle looms are still used for some purposes, and old models remain in use. Leclerc Loom Options, Flying Shuttle Option, John Kay 1704-1780, Inventor of the Flying Shuttle. An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology

6.
Qeleshe
–
The qeleshe or plis, is a white brimless felt cap traditionally worn by Albanians. It has spread throughout Albanian-inhabited territories, and is part of the traditional costume of the Albanians. Pl. qeleshe or plisa, def. pl. qeleshet or plisat, the cloth is thought to originate from a similar cap worn by the Illyrians. The name qeleshe comes from the Albanian word for wool, while the name plis comes from the Proto-Albanian word *plitja related to Old High German filiz id. Latin pellis id. and Greek πῖλος pilos id. also known as pileus, the cap is part of the traditional costume of the northern Albanian highlands. In the northern Albanian highlands, the shape is hemispherical, while in Kukës, in southern Albania, the cap is taller than in northern Albania, especially in the Gjirokastër and Vlorë regions, with the exception of the Myzeqe low plains region. In some areas of southern Albania the cap has a small protrusion, the cap is made from one single piece of woolen felt, usually white, that is molded to the shape of the head. Culture of Albania List of hats and headgear Pileus Opinga Traditional clothing of Kosovo

7.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

8.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

9.
Balkan Wars
–
The Balkan Wars consisted of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war, one of the four, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples, the war set the stage for the Balkan crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to the First World War. By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, in 1912 these countries formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War had three main causes, The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising nationalism of its diverse peoples. The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms and this led the Balkan states to impose their own solution. Most importantly, the Balkan League had been formed, and its members were confident that it could defeat the Turks. The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories to the west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkeys western border, a large influx of Turks started to flee into the Ottoman heartland from the lost lands. By 1914, the core region of the Ottoman Empire had experienced a population increase of around 2.5 million because of the flood of immigration from the Balkans. Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a disaster in the nations history. Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, was responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the 1913 Ottoman coup détat carried out by the Young Turks. The First Balkan War began when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire on 8 October 1912, the Second Balkan War was begun on 16 June 1913. Seeing the treaty as trampled, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, the more numerous combined Serbian and Greek armies repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked into Bulgaria. Romania, who having taken no part in the conflict, had intact armies to strike with, the Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace regaining Adrianople. The background to the lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. Serbia had gained territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881. All three countries, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the Eastern Question and the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted access to the waters of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy

10.
Podujevo
–
Podujevo or Besiana is a city and municipality located in the district of Pristina of north-eastern Kosovo. Podujevo is situated in a position due to a regional motorway. Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, is located some 35 km to the south, the total population of the municipality is estimated at 86,836. Podujevo is located in the corner of Kosovo, situated near a regional motorway. Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, is located some 35 km to the south and it consists of Llapis Hollow and the Albanik mountains in the west, and eastern Kosovos mountains in the east. Llapi’s valley is placed between the village of Repa and that of Barileva with a 35 km distance and between Batllava and Llapashtica e Eperme with 12–15 km, Llapi’s jaw is located between Repa and Murgulla and from Bellasica to Uglar’s Cape. Gallapi is placed between Batllava and Metergoc in latitude and from Turiqica to Koliq in longitude, Podujevo is the largest municipality of Kosovo since it covers 633 m2. Since its territory is compact, it represents a microgeographical entirety, Podujevo counts several ravines, water springs and rivers. The most notable river is Llapi, the branch of Sitnica. The source of Llapi is considered to be the Polata village where the rivers of Murgula, in the upper part of it, the river runs through steep places but when it enter Llapi’s hollow, its speed is moderated. Llapi river is 82.7 km long up to Sitnica river while most of the passes through Podujevo’s lands. This river is wide from 9 to 12 meters and deep up to 1.2 meters, the river brings an average of 4.9 m3 per second, however, there are considerable variations with the maximum going up to 25 m3 per second. Dumnica river is 25.5 km long and fills 87 km2, kaqanolli river is Llapis most important right branch and it is 32.5 km long, filling 193.6 km2. Batlava river fills 315 km2 and it flows into Llapi. The climate in Podujevo belongs to the zone but alike. The average temperature in Podujevo is 9.6 ̊C, the annual rate of precipitation is lower than that of Kosovo with 697 mm of raining per year. The most humid month is may with 77.5 mm, the average snow fal l days are 26 while days with snow mantle are 48.4. The maximum layer of snow is recorded to be 96 cm while the month with a maximum of snow mantle days is February with 11.7 days, Podujevo counts 29,050 acres of forests most of whom are located in the western and northern part of its territory

11.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

12.
Kosovo
–
Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe that declared independence from Serbia in February 2008 as the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo is landlocked in the central Balkan Peninsula, with its strategic position in the Balkans, it serves as an important link in the connection between central and south Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and Black Sea. Its capital and largest city is Pristina, and other urban areas include Prizren, Pejë. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the west, while Serbia recognises administration of the territory by Kosovos elected government, it still continues to claim it as its own Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later the Roman province of Dardania was located in the region, the area was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes. In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, Kosovo was the core of the medieval Serbian state and it has been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate. After being part of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, the war ended with a military intervention of NATO, which forced the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which became a UN protectorate under UNSCR1244. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence and it has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 111 UN member states, Taiwan, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Cook Islands and Niue. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo as a state, although with the Brussels Agreement of 2013 it has accepted the legitimacy of Kosovar institutions, the entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864, Albanians refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of a Roman province located in Central Balkans that was formed in 284 AD which covered the territory of modern Kosovo. The name is derived from the Albanian word dardha/dardā which means pear, the former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a Dardanian identity and the Kosovan flag and presidential seal refer to this national identity. However, the name Kosova remains more widely used among the Albanian population, the official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. This arrangement, which has dubbed the asterisk agreement, was agreed in an 11-point arrangement agreed on 24 February 2012. By the independence declaration in 2008, its long name became Republic of Kosovo. In prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, the area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the area of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found in Metohija. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries

13.
History of Kosovo
–
The history of Kosovo is intertwined with the histories of its neighbouring regions. The name Kosovo is derived from the Kosovo Plain, where the Battle of Kosovo was fought between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire, Kosovos modern history can be traced to the Ottoman Sanjak of Prizren, of which parts were organized into Kosovo Vilayet in 1877. In antiquity, Dardania covered the area, which formed part of the larger Roman province of Moesia in the 1st century AD, in the Middle Ages, the region became part of the Bulgarian Empire, the Byzantine Empire and the Serbian medieval states. It was then conquered by the Ottoman Empire an exact 70 years after the Battle of Kosovo, in 1913 the Kosovo Vilayet was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbia, which in 1918 became part of Yugoslavia. Kosovo gained autonomy in 1963 under Josip Broz Titos direction, an autonomy which was extended by Yugoslavias 1974 Constitution. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence, as the Republic of Kosovo, in prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, Baden culture were active in the region. The area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years, during the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the areal of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black and grey pottery. Bronze and Iron Age tombs have found in Rrafshi i Dukagjinit. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the areal of the Vinča-Turdaş culture, Starčevo and Baden culture, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found only in Rrafshi i Dukagjinit, and not in Kosovo. In the 4th century BC, the area was in the parts of Illyria which bordered on Thrace. At that time it was inhabited by the Thraco-Illyrian tribes of the Dardani, by Celts, the region of Illyria was conquered by Rome in 168 BC, and made into the Roman province of Illyricum in 59 BC. The Kosovo region probably became part of Moesia Superior in AD87, after 284 Diocletian further divided Upper Moesia into the smaller provinces of Dardania, Moesia Prima, Dacia Ripensis, and Dacia Mediterranea. Dardanias capital was Naissus, previously a Celts settlement, the Roman province of Dardania included eastern parts of modern Kosovo, while its western part belonged to the newly formed Roman province of Prevalitana with its capital Doclea. The Romans colonized the region and founded several cities, the Hunnic invasions of 441 and 447-49 were the first barbarian invasions which were able to take Eastern Roman fortified centers and cities. Most Balkan cities were sacked by Attila, and recovered only if at all. Slavic migrations to the Balkans took place between the 6th to 7th centuries, the haplogroup E1b1b1a2-V13 has its highest frequency in Kosovo, its second highest in Albania, and its third highest in Serbia

14.
Archaeology of Kosovo
–
Archaeology of Kosovo as a field of study and research was started in the second half of the 20th century. In the 1950s, a new era for the ancient studies of Kosovo begins, with prehistoric, the municipality of Ferizaj specifically has been rich in archaeological findings. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries. This climatic stabilization influenced changes in the life and activities. Neolithic man now mastered stone and tooled weapons, tools and even used stone for the primitive architecture, during this period major changes occur, thus influencing the way of living, from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement. The Neolithic man now leaves hunting and gathering as the primary profession, moreover, the crop cultivation was the main economical activity, and the work on the land is done using the stone, animal bone/horn and wooden materials. All previously mentioned work is done by the Neolithic woman, therefore, the settlements were erected near the natural resources. The majority of Neolithic sites that were researched in our country shed light on the fact that dwellings were built with the usage of materials found near the settlements. The main cult was attributed to the mother goddess, such position of Neolithic woman is also known as the period of matriarchate which is a distinguished feature of Neolithic period. The metal period incorporates a long stretched timeline of over three millenniums, commencing from approximately 3500 BC up to middle of the 4th century BC, in fact, the new period is known as the Copper Age and chronologically commences with the end of the Neolithic Period. In the chronological history of the territory of Kosovo, this timeline incorporates approximately the period from 3500 up to 2500 BC, in our country, several archaeological sites of this particular transitory period from stone to metal usage have been recorded. Amid the most important copper age sites are, the site of Hisar in Suva Reka. The Bronze Age followed the Copper Age, stretching in the period from 2500 up to 1100 BC. With the advancement of the metallurgy industry, and with the mixing of copper with tin. The formula invention for creating this stronger metal, leads towards the preparation and production of weapons, tools, the particularity of this period lies in the fact that matriarchate is replaced with patriarchate, the social differentiation was developed and the first elements of tribal aristocracy emerges. All new changes and developments are reflected in the culture discovered in various sites across Kosovo. During the past research carried out in Kosovo, dozens of settlements, cemeteries and fortresses of the early, middle, regarding the fortifications, the Iron Age is characteristic for the erected fortresses on the top of the hills, with good Geo-strategic positions, partially protected by nature

15.
Monuments of Kosovo
–
Kosovo has an abundance of multicultural and rich heritage dating back to the Bronze Age, later followed by Illyrians, Roman, Byzantine/Serbian Orthodox and Ottoman periods. Most of the monuments were built by local knowledge and building techniques with local materials. Monuments that still stand are those of the Byzantine/Serbian Orthodox and Ottoman periods, among the antique cities, Byzantine and Orthodox churches and monasteries, Ottoman Mosques, Hamams and Bazaars thrived the building culture of the common people – the residential dwelling. Kosovos monuments are classified as common property for which the society is responsible to maintain them in order to transmit their authenticity to future generations. The field of architecture has value upon indigenous features that are considered to have one of the most original constructive structures in the whole Balkan. During the last war in 1998-1999, more than 500 monuments were targeted by the state forces. In many of them, only the walls have remained. UNESCO has classified monuments in Kosovo as Serbo-Byzantine monuments, Islamic monuments of the Ottoman Period, from 839 to the early thirteenth century the region fell under Bulgarian control, with intermittent periods when the Byzantines were able to reassert their rule. From the early century, until 1355, Kosovo was part of the Serbian Empire under the Nemanjić dynasty. Gračanica monastery is a Serbian Orthodox monastery and it was founded by the Serbian king Stefan Milutin in 1321. It is located in Gračanica and belongs to Serbo-Byzantine style, the monastery is known for its iconostasis, icons and manuscripts which express the wealthy and artistic values. The Christian basilica, which was the center of the Dardanian Ulpiana Eparchy in the 13th century, was rebuilt as a new church above the middle nave foundations and it was dedicated to Blessed Lady/Theotokos of Gračanica. This church was mentioned in Benedict the 11th Pope, in 1303. Only the church remains from the monastery complex, which was intended as the seat of the bishops of Lipljan. At the time when it was constructed, the building contained a monastery, a really important feature to be mentioned is that Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia and Balša I were buried in this monastery. It is declared a Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1948 by Republic of Serbia, today it is a protected monument of Republic of Kosovo, under the status number 464/48. It presents an important archaeological site and photography is forbidden. Monastery of Banjska is a Serbian Orthodox monastery, founded by the Serbian king Stefan Uroš II Milutin between 1313 and 1317 and it is located in the Banjska village in municipality of Mitrovica

16.
Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
–
For the history of Earth before the occupation by the genus homo, including the period of early hominins, see Geology of Europe and Human evolution. The changes between these are gradual, for example, depending on interpretation, protohistory might or might not include Bronze Age Greece, Minoan, Mycenaean, Thracian and Venetic cultures. By one interpretation of the criterion, Southeastern Europe enters protohistory only with Homer. At any rate, the period ends before Herodotus in the 5th century BC, the earliest evidence of human occupation discovered in the Balkans, in Kozarnika Bulgaria, date from at least 1.4 million years ago. There is evidence of presence in the Balkans from the Lower Paleolithic onwards. According to Douglass W. Bailey, The Palaeolithic period, literally the “Old Stone Age”, is an ancient cultural level of development characterized by the use of unpolished chipped stone tools. The transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is directly related to the development of modernity by hominids around 40,000 years BP. To denote the significance and degree of change, this dramatic shift from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is sometimes called the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution. In the late Pleistocene, various components of the culture and environmental features indicate continual change. The aforementioned aspects leave some doubt that the term Upper Palaeolithic Revolution is appropriate to the Balkans, in general, continual evolutionary changes are the first crucial characteristic of the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic in the Balkans. The notion of the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution that has developed for core European regions is not applicable to the Balkans. This particularly significant moment and its origins are defined and enlightened by other characteristics of the transition to upper Old Stone Age, the environment, climate, flora and fauna corroborate the implications. During the last interglacial period and the most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene, the glaciations did not affect southeastern Europe to the extent that they did in the northern and central regions. The evidence of forest and steppe indicate the influence was not so drastic, some species of flora, the Balkans today still abound in species endemic only to this part of Europe. The notion of gradual transition best defines Balkan Europe from about 50,000 BP, in this sense, the material culture and natural environment of the Balkans of the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene were distinct from other parts of Europe. Douglass W. ” Thus, in speaking about southeastern Europe, in this regard, the absence of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in the Balkans does not seem to be surprising. Civilisations develop new and distinctive characteristics as they respond to new challenges in their environment, in 2002, some of the oldest modern human remains in Europe were discovered in the Cave With Bones, near Anina, Romania. Nicknamed John of Anina, the remains are approximately 37,800 years old and these are some of Europe’s oldest remains of Homo sapiens, so they are likely to represent the first such people to have entered the continent

17.
Dardani
–
Their territory itself was not considered part of Illyria by Strabo. The term used for their territory was, while other areas had more unspecified terms, such as. Other than that, little to no data exists on the territory of the Dardani prior to Roman conquest, the Dardani/Dardanoi derived their name from Dardanus, the mythical founder of Dardania, an ancient city in the Troad. In Greek mythology, Dardanus was a son of Zeus and Electra, Dardanus Pronunciation of Dardanus as a name for boys has its root in Greek. Dardanus is a spelling of Dardanos. The Dardani are first mentioned in the 4th century BC, when their king Bardylis succeeded into bringing various tribes into a single organization, under his leadership the Dardani defeated the Macedonians and Molossians several times. At this time they were enough to rule Macedonia through a puppet king in 392-391 BC. In 385-384 they allied with Dionysius I of Syracuse and defeated the Molossians, killing up to 15,000 of their soldiers and their continuous invasions forced the Macedonian king to pay them a tribute in 372 BC. They returned raiding the Molossians in 360, in 359 BC Bardylis won a decisive battle against Macedonian king Perdiccas III, whom he killed himself, while 4,000 Macedonian soldiers fell, and the cities of upper Macedonia were occupied. The time of marriage is somewhat disputed while some historians maintain that the marriage happened after the defeat of Bardylis. In 334 BC, under the leadership of Cleitus, the son of Bardylis, the Dardani managed to capture some cities but were eventually defeated by Alexanders forces. Celts were present in Dardania in 279 BC, the Dardanian king offered to help the Macedonians with 20,000 soldiers against the Celts, but this was refused by Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos. Dardani were a constant threat to the Macedonian kingdom, in 230 under Longarus they captured Bylazora from the Paionians and in 229 they again attacked Macedonia, defeating Demetrius II in an important battle. In this period their influence on the region grew and some other Illyrian tribes defected Teuta joining the Dardani under Longarus, when Philip V rose to the Macedonian throne, skirmishing with Dardani began in 220-219 BC and he managed to capture Bylazora from them in 217 BC. In 201 Bato of Dardania along with Pleuratus the Illyrian and Amynander king of Athamania, a joint campaign of the Bastarnae and Macedonians against the Dardanians was organized, but Philip V died and his son Perseus of Macedon withdrew his forces from the campaign. The Bastarnae crossed the Danube in huge numbers and although they didnt meet the Macedonians, some 30,000 Bastarnae under the command of Clondicus seem to have defeated the Dardani. In 179 BC, the Bastarnae conquered the Dardani, who later in 174 pushed them out, in a war which proved catastrophic, with a few later, in 170 BC. Macedonia and Illyria became Roman protectorates in 168 BC, the Scordisci, a tribe of Celtic origin, most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there are for long no mention of the Dardani

18.
Roman Empire
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor

19.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD

20.
First Bulgarian Empire
–
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans, there they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the height of its power, Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, as the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantiums chief antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars, Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain, later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, the Byzantines, however, eventually recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and it was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the center of Slavic Europe. Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe, in 927, the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized. The Bulgars and other tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, the First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria, First Bulgarian State, during its early existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate. Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria, in English language sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire. The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes, the whole region as far north as the Danube River was gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD. The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD, nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation, the group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into Antes and Sclaveni who spoke the same language. The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the half of Justinian Is reign and while these were initially pillaging raids

21.
Grand Principality of Serbia
–
This is an archontological list of Serbian monarchs, containing monarchs of the medieval principalities, to heads of state of modern Serbia. The Serbian monarchy dates back to the Early Middle Ages, the Serbian royal titles used include Prince, Grand Prince, King, Emperor and Despot. The Vlastimirović dynasty was the first royal dynasty of the Serb people, the Serbs established several polities by the 10th century, Serbia or Zagorje which consisted of Serbia, and Bosnia, and Pomorje which consisted of Dioclea, Zachlumia, Pagania, Travunia. The Serbian ruler was titled archon, prince, the history of the dynasty starts with the eponymous founder Vlastimir. This era is marked by the Christianization of Serbs, the internal and external wars. The history of this dynasty ends with the annexation of Serbia in 969, the first office-holder was Peter of Diokleia, of which we only have a seal found in the 19th century. The next known is Jovan Vladimir, who became a Bulgarian vassal, Stefan Vojislav succeeds in giving the realm independence, he is the eponymous founder of the Vojislavljevići that ruled Duklja from the early 11th century up to the 1120s. The dynasty may have been a branch of the preceding Vlastimirovićs. In the mid-11th century, Mihailo I had liberated Rascia from Byzantine rule, in 1083, Constantine Bodin appoints brothers Vukan and Marko, sons of Petrislav, as rulers of Rascia. In 1089, the Byzantines capture Bodin, and Vukan retains independence, the Vukanovići quickly claim the following Serbian domains in the following decades, and by 1148, the maritime possessions are united with the inland. The Byzantine Empire at times intervened in the scene. The dynasty ruled until 1165, when a branch is instated by the Byzantines. Stefan Nemanja rebelled against his eldest brother Tihomir in 1166, who fled with his brothers Stracimir, but later on, Stefan Nemanja defeated his Greek army of mercenaries in the same year near the town of Pantino on Kosovo in which poor Tihomir drowned in the River of Sitnica. Nemanja captured his brothers and made peace with them by giving them rule in their former parts of the land to recognise him as the only ruler of Rashka or Serbia. The Nemanjić dynasty was named after Stefan Nemanja and ruled over Serbia until 1371, the Nemanjić dynasty ruled the Serb lands between ca.1166 up to 1371. The crumbling Serbian Empire under Stefan Uroš V was to be of little resistance to the powerful Ottoman Empire. In light of conflicts and decentralization of the realm, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, making vassals of the governors, soon thereafter. As Uroš was childless and the nobility could not agree on the heir, the Empire was ruled by semi-independent provincial lords

22.
Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)
–
The Kingdom of Serbia, or Serbian Kingdom, was a medieval Serbian state that existed from 1217 to 1346, ruled by the Nemanjić dynasty. The Grand Principality of Serbia was elevated with the coronation of Stefan Nemanjić as king by his brother, bishop Sava, after inheriting all territories unified by their father, the kingdom was proclaimed an empire on 16 April 1346. Each province had its own nobility and institutions, and each acquired a member of the Vojislavljevići to head as Župan, the Byzantine Empire launched a campaign on Duklja between 1089 and 1091 and possibly captured Bodin. A civil war broke out in the realm among Bodins relatives, Vukan took the opportunity to assert himself and broke away, claiming the title of Grand Prince of Serbia. Rascia, Bosnia, and Zahumlje all became independent in 1091, up to this point, Duklja had been the center of the Serbian realm, as well as the main resistance to Byzantium in the Balkans. After 1091 Rascia became the most powerful of the Serbian states, under the rule of the Vukanović dynasty, Rascia also replaced Duklja as the main opponent of Byzantine rule in the 12th century. Bodins heirs were forced to recognize Byzantine overlordship, and now only the small territories of Duklja. During the reign of Vukans son Uroš I, the Byzantines invaded Duklja and sought to conquer Rascia as well, Uroš II initially fought the Byzantines, but he gave oaths of servitude to the Emperor after he was defeated in war. Stefan Nemanja was succeeded by his middle son Stefan, whilst his first-born son Vukan was given the rule of the Zeta region, Stefan Nemanjas youngest son Rastko became a monk and took the name Sava, turning all his efforts to spreading religion among his people. In Byzantium, Sava managed to secure autocephaly for the Serbian Church, in the same year Sava published the first constitution in Serbia — St. Savas Nomocanon. The Nomocanon was a compilation of Civil law, based on Roman Law and its basic purpose was to organize the functions of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church. Thus the Serbs acquired both political and religious independence, the next generation of Serbian rulers — the sons of Stefan Prvovenčani, Radoslav, Vladislav, and Uroš I — marked a period of stagnation of the state structure. All three kings were more or less dependent on some of the neighbouring states — Byzantium, Bulgaria, the ties with the Hungarians played a decisive role as Uroš I was succeeded by his son Dragutin, whose wife was a Hungarian princess. Thus, some of these became part of the Serbian state for the first time. His new state was named Kingdom of Srem, in that time the name Srem was a designation for two territories, Upper Srem and Lower Srem. The Kingdom of Srem under the rule of Stefan Dragutin was actually Lower Srem, after Dragutin died in 1316, his son, king Vladislav II, became king and ruled until 1325. Under Dragutins younger brother, King Milutin, Serbia grew stronger despite having to fight wars on three different fronts. King Milutin was an apt diplomat much inclined to the use of a customary medieval diplomatic and dynastic marriages and he was married five times, with Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Byzantine princesses

23.
Serbian Empire
–
The Serbian Empire is a historiographical term for the empire in the Balkan peninsula that emerged from the medieval Serbian Kingdom. It was established in 1346 by King Stefan Dušan, known as the Mighty and he also promoted the Serbian Church to an Orthodox patriarchate. His son and successor, Uroš the Weak, lost most of the territory, the Serbian Empire effectively ended with the death of Stefan V in 1371 and the break-up of the Serbian state. Some successors of Stefan V claimed the title of Emperor in parts of Serbia until 1402, Stefan Dušan became King of Serbia by deposing father, Stefan Dečanski. By 1345, Dušan the Mighty had expanded his state to cover half of the Balkans, therefore, in 1345, in Serres, Dušan proclaimed himself Tsar. On 16 April 1346, in Skopje, he had himself crowned Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks, the ceremony was performed by the newly elevated Serbian Patriarch Joanikije II, the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon, and Nicholas, the Archbishop of Ohrid. Tsar Dušan doubled the size of his kingdom, seizing territories to the south, southeast. Serbia held parts of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moravian Serbia, Kosovo, Zeta, modern Macedonia, modern Albania and he did not fight a single field battle, instead winning his empire by besieging cities. Dušan undertook a campaign against the Byzantine Empire, which was attempting to avert a deteriorating situation after the destruction caused by the Fourth Crusade, Dušan swiftly seized Thessaly, Albania, Epirus, and most of Macedonia. Dušan thus ruled over the almost the entire Balkan peninsula, with only southern Greece, Salonica and he gave sanctuary to the former regent of the Byzantine Empire, John VI Kantakouzenos, in revolt against the government, and agreed to an alliance. In 1349 and 1354, Dušan enacted a set of known as Dušans Code. The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law and the first Serbian constitution and it was a Civil and Canon law system, based on the Ecumenical Councils, for the functioning of the state and the Serbian Orthodox Church. In 1355, Dušan begin military preparations, assembling an army of 80,000 men, Dušan marched towards Constantinople, capturing Adrianople in a fierce battle. The Serbian army was proceeding to Constantinople, located 40 miles to the east and his expedition ended as well, and the army retreated carrying the dead body of the man who had elevated Serbia to the rank of a great power. Dušan was succeeded by his son, Stefan Uroš V, called the Weak, the combination of sudden conquest, backwards administration, and failure to consolidate its holdings led to the fragmentation of the empire. The period was marked by the rise of a new threat, the Ottoman Turkish sultanate gradually spread from Asia to Europe and conquered first Byzantine Thrace, and then the other Balkan states. Too incompetent to sustain the empire created by his father. The Serbian Empire of Stefan V fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities, Stefan Uroš V died childless on 4 December 1371, after much of the Serbian nobility had been killed by the Ottoman Turks during the Battle of Maritsa

24.
Moravian Serbia
–
Moravian Serbia is the name used in historiography for the largest and most powerful state to emerge from the ruins of the Serbian Empire. In 1403 it was raised to the Serbian Despotate, which would exist until 1459, Moravian Serbia was established in 1373 and attained its largest extent in 1379 through the military and political activities of its first ruler, Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović. The name Moravian Serbia should not imply that the state was affiliated in any way with the region of Moravia in the present-day Czech Republic. The adjective Moravian in this sense refers to the fact that the state comprised the basins of the Great Morava, West Morava, and South Morava rivers. Lazar Hrebeljanović was born in around 1329 in the fortress of Prilepac, near the town of Novo Brdo in the region of Kosovo, powerful Serbian nobles became practically independent in the regions they controlled. Lazar left the court Tsar Uroš in 1363 or 1365, and he held the title of prince since at least 1371. His territory initially developed in the shadow of stronger regional lords, the strongest were the Mrnjavčević brothers, Vukašin and Jovan Uglješa. They were defeated and killed by the Ottoman Turks in the Battle of Mariča in 1371, Lazar and Tvrtko Kotromanić, the Ban of Bosnia, jointly defeated in 1373 another strong noble, Nikola Altomanović. Most of Altomanovićs territory was acquired by Lazar, about that time, Lazar accepted the suzerainty of King Louis I of Hungary, who granted him the region of Mačva, or at least a part of it. With all these gains, Lazar emerged as the most powerful Serbian lord. The state he created is known in historiography as Moravian Serbia. Moravian Serbia attained its full extent in 1379, when Lazar took Braničevo and Kučevo, Lazars state was larger than the domains of the other lords on the territory of the former Serbian Empire. It also had an organized government and army. The state comprised the basins of the Great Morava, West Morava and its north-western border ran along the Drina River. Besides the capital Kruševac, the state included important towns of Niš and Užice, as well as Novo Brdo and Rudnik, of all the Serbian lands, Lazars state lay furthest from Ottoman centres, and was least exposed to the ravages of Turkish raiding parties. This circumstance attracted immigrants from Turkish-threatened areas, who built new villages, there were also spiritual persons among the immigrants, which stimulated the revival of old ecclesiastical centres and the foundation of new ones in Lazars state. A Turkish raiding party, passing unobstructed through territories of Ottoman vassals and it was routed by Lazars nobles Crep Vukoslavić and Vitomir in the Battle of Dubravica, fought near the town of Paraćin. In 1386, the Ottoman Sultan Murad I himself led much larger forces that took Niš from Lazar and it is unclear whether the encounter between the armies of Lazar and Murad at Pločnik, a site southwest of Niš, happened shortly before or after the capture of Niš

25.
Battle of Kosovo
–
The army under Prince Lazar consisted of his own troops, a contingent led by Serbian nobleman Vuk Branković, and a contingent sent from Bosnia by King Tvrtko I, commanded by Vlatko Vuković. The battle was fought on the Kosovo Field, in the territory ruled by Branković and its site is about 5 kilometers northwest of the modern city of Prishtina. Reliable historical accounts of the battle are scarce, the bulk of both armies were wiped out in the battle, both Lazar and Murad lost their lives in it. Although Ottomans managed to annihilate the Serbian army, they suffered high casualties which delayed their progress. The Serbs were left too few men to effectively defend their lands. Consequently, one after the other, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years. Prince Lazar, ruler of the part of the former empire, aware of the Ottoman threat, began diplomatic. After the defeat of the Ottomans at Pločnik and Bileća, Murad I, from there, the party traveled across Velbužd and Kratovo. Though longer than the route through Sofia and the Nišava Valley. From Kosovo, Murads party could attack the lands of either Prince Lazar or Vuk Branković, having stayed in Kratovo for a time, Murad and his troops marched through Kumanovo, Preševo and Gjilan to Pristina, where he arrived on June 14. While there is information about Lazars preparations, he gathered his troops near Niš. His party likely remained there until he learned that Murad had moved to Velbužd and this was the best place Lazar could choose as a battlefield, as it gave him control of all the routes that Murad could take. Reliable historical accounts of the battle are scarce, however, a comparison with historically contemporaneous battles enables reliable reconstruction. Murads army numbered from 27,000 to 40,000 fighters. These 40,000 included no more than 2,000 Janissaries,2,500 of Murads cavalry guard,6,000 sipahis,20,000 azaps and akincis, marko and Dragaš, although Ottoman vassals, did not participate in the battle. The Ottoman army was supported by the forces of the Anatolian Turkoman Beylik of Isfendiyar, Lazars army numbered from 12,000 to 30,000. Also present were Knights Hospitaller led by the Croatian knight John of Palisna, the armies met at the Kosovo Field. Murad headed the Ottoman army, with his sons Bayezid on his right, one of the Ottoman commanders was Pasha Yiğit Bey

26.
Serbian Despotate
–
The Serbian Despotate was a medieval Serbian state in the first half of the 15th century. Even then, it continued to exist in exile in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary until the mid-16th century, Pavle Bakić was the last Despot of Serbia to be recognized by both the Ottoman and the Habsburg Empires. After Prince Lazar of Serbia was killed in the Battle of Kosovo on June 28,1389, being a minor, his mother Princess Milica ruled as his regent. A wise and diplomatic woman, she managed to balance the Ottoman threat as the Ottoman Empire was in a turmoil after the Battle of Kosovo and she married her daughter, Olivera, to his successor, Sultan Bayezid I. After the battle, in 1390 or 1391 depending on source, Serbia became a vassal Ottoman state and he did so in the Battle of Rovine in May 1395 against the Wallachian prince Mircea I and the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 against the Hungarian king Sigismund. After that, Sultan Bayezid awarded Stefan with the majority of the Vuk Brankovićs land on Kosovo, when Timurs army entered the Ottoman realm, Stefan Lazarević participated in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, in which the Ottomans were defeated and their leader Bayezid was captured. Returning to Serbia, Stefan visited Constantinople where the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos granted him the title of despot, already in Constantinople, Stefan had a dispute with his nephew Đurađ Branković, son of Vuk Branković who was accompanying him and was arrested by the Byzantine authorities. Stefans brother Vuk Lazarević was also in his escort and as they were returning over the Kosovo, they were attacked by the Branković army at Tripolje, near the Gračanica monastery. Vuk headed the Lazarević army, which was victorious, but reaching Novo Brdo, the next few years are marked by events in Stefans personal life. He managed to liberate his sister and Bayezids widow Olivera, in 1404 he made peace with his brother Vuk, in 1405 he married Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of Francesco II Gattilusio, ruler of the island of Lesbos. Also in 1405 his mother Milica died, in 1408 brothers disputed again and Vuk, together with sultan Suleyman and the Branković family, attacked Stefan in early 1409. Being besieged at Belgrade, Stefan agreed to give part of Serbia to his brother. Suleymans brother Musa rebelled against him and Stefan took Musas side in the battle of Kosmidion in 1410, through Constantinople, where Emperor Manuel II confirmed his despotic rights, Stefan returned to Belgrade and annexed Vuks lands. In 1410 King Sigismund of Hungary seized several territories in north-eastern Bosnia, as a reward for Stefan Lazarevićs help and loyalty, he transferred Srebrenica with its surroundings to the Serbian Despotate in 1411 or 1412. When Musa became self-proclaimed sultan in European part of the Ottoman Empire, Stefan then invited the ruler of the Anatolian part of the empire, sultan Mehmed Çelebi to attack Musa together. Securing Hungarian help, they attacked Musa on 5 July 1413 at Çamorlu, near the Vitosha mountain and defeated him, as a reward, Stefan received the town of Koprijan near Niš and the Serbian-Bulgarian area of Znepolje. For next twelve years, Stefan remained in good relations with Mehmed, on 28 April 1421, Stefans nephew and ruler of Zeta, Balša III died without an heir, bequeathing before death his lands to his uncle. With this and territorial gains from the Kingdom of Hungary, Serbia restored majority of its ethnic territories it occupied before the Battle of Kosovo, in 1425, the Ottoman Empire invaded Serbia, burning and pillaging across the Southern Morava valley

27.
Ottoman Kosovo
–
Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate Kosovo Vilayet. During this period several administrative districts (known as sanjaks each ruled by a sanjakbey have included parts of the territory as parts of their territories, many Serbs and Albanians pledged their loyalty to the Austrians, some joining Ludwigs army. This was by no means a reaction, many other Serbs. A massive Ottoman counter-attack the following summer drove the Austrians back to their fortress at Niš, then back to Belgrade, then finally back across the Danube into Austria. The Ottoman offensive was accompanied by savage reprisals and looting, prompting many Serbs – including Arsenije III and this event has been immortalised in Serbian history as the Great Migrations of the Serbs, regarded an alleged huge exodus of hundreds of thousands of Serbs from Kosovo and Serbia proper. By 1878 Kosovo had become the subject of Albanian, Serbian, kosovos population from these three groups had begun taking steps to oust the then-Ottoman authorities from the region. In 1878, the League of Prizren was created by Albanians from four vilayets including the Vilayet of Kosovo, the Leagues purpose was to resist Ottoman rule and incursions by the newly emerging Balkan nations. In 1910, an Albanian-organised insurrection broke out in Pristina and soon spread to the vilayet of Kosovo. The Ottoman sultan visited Kosovo in June 1911 during peace settlement talks covering all Albanian-inhabited areas, despite the imposition of Muslim rule, large numbers of Christians continued to live and sometimes even prosper under the Ottomans. A process of Islamisation began shortly after the beginning of Ottoman rule and it appears that many Christian Albanian inhabitants converted directly to Islam, rather than being replaced by Muslims from outside Kosovo. A large part of the reason for the conversion was probably economic and social, as Muslims had considerably more rights, around the 17th century, there is evidence of an increasingly visible Albanian population initially concentrated in Metohia. It has been claimed this was the result of migrations out of the south-west, there is certainly evidence of migration, many Kosovo Albanians have surnames characteristic of inhabitants of the northern Albanian region of Malësi. A small number of Slavs – presumably members of the Serbian Orthodox Church – converted to Islam under Ottoman rule, today, most Slavic Muslims of Serbia live in the Sandžak region of southern Serbia, northwest of Kosovo

28.
Rumelia Eyalet
–
The Eyalet of Rumeli or Rumelia, also known as the Beylerbeylik of Rumeli, was a first-level province of the Ottoman Empire encompassing most of the Balkans. For most of its history it was also the largest and most important province of the Empire, the capital was in Adrianople, Sofia, and finally Monastir. Its reported area in the 19th century was 48,119 square miles, the first capital of Rumelia was probably Edirne, which was also, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans capital city. It was followed by Sofia for a while and again by Edirne until 1520, for the same reason, powerful Grand Viziers like Mahmud Pasha Angelovic or Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha held the beylerbeylik in tandem with the grand vizierate. In the 18th century, Monastir emerged as a residence of the governor. At about the time, the Tanzimat reforms, aimed at modernizing the Empire, split off the new eyalets of Üsküb, Yanya and Selanik. The rump eyalet survived until 1867, when, as part of the transition to the more uniform vilayet system, lala Shahin Pasha, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, the lala of Murad I. The Pasha-sanjak in this period comprised an area in western Macedonia, including the towns of Üskub, Pirlipe, Manastir. A similar list compiled c.1534 gives the same sanjaks, except for the absence of Sofia, Florina and Inebahti, further sanjaks were removed with the progressive creation of new eyalets, and an official register c. Byzantine Empire Second Bulgarian Empire, gradually conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th-early 15th century, hickman, William C. ed. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad, The Ottoman-Christian Conflict from 1438-1444, the Papacy and the Levant, Vol. IV, The Sixteenth Century. New York, NY, Facts On File

29.
Sanjak of Prizren
–
The Sanjak of Prizren was one of the sanjaks in the Ottoman Empire with Prizren as its administrative centre. It was founded immediately after Ottoman Empire captured Prizren from Serbian Despotate in 1455 and it was one of the sanjaks established on the territory which Ottoman Empire conquered from Serbian Despotate. The rest of the territory of Serbian Despotate was conquered after the fall of Smederevo in 1459, at the beginning of the First Balkan War in 1912, the territory of Sanjak of Prizren was occupied by the armies of Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Montenegro. Based on Treaty of London signed on May 30,1913, according to the 1571 Ottoman register, the Sanjak of Prizren consisted of five nahiyahs, Prizren, Hoča, Žežna, Trgovište and Bihor. The majority of the territory once belonged to the Sanjak of Prizren now belongs to Kosovo, Serbia and smaller parts. In 1867, the Sanjak of Prizren merged with the Sanjak of Dibra and Sanjak of Scutari, in 1871 the Sanjak of Prizren became part of the newly established Prizren Vilayet. The Prizren Vilayet and its sanjaks, together with the Sanjak of Prizren, became part of the Kosovo Vilayet, Prizren was decided to be the seat of Kosovo vilayet. The Sanjak of Niš and Sanjak of Pirot together with Vranje were separated from Kosovo vilayet, the Sanjak of Dibra was attached to the Monastir Vilayet. After those changes Kosovo Vilayet consisted of three sanjaks, the Sanjak of Prizren, Sanjak of Skopje and Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Despite the decisions of Berlin Congress to award control over the Sanjak of Novi Pazar to Austria-Hungary, after the Young Turk Revolution, occurred in 1908, the Ottoman Empire organized the first parliamentary elections in the Sanjak of Prizren. Until the end of October 1912, during the First Balkan War, the Sanjak of Prizren was occupied by the Kingdom of Serbia, on the basis of the Treaty of London signed during the London Conference in 1913, its territory was divided between Serbia and Montenegro. Salnâme-i Vilâyet-i Kosova, Yedinci defa olarak vilâyet matbaasında tab olunmuştur,1896 Kosova vilâyet-i salnâmesi, İstanbul, Rumeli Türkleri Kültür ve Dayanışma Derneği. Katić, Tatjana, Tibor Živković, ed. Опширни попис призренског санџака из1571, године, Belgrade, Istorijski Institut, ISBN 978-86-7743-081-8, OCLC712374230 Yücel Yigit, Prizren Sancağının Idarî Yapısı, History Studies, 2/1

30.
Short-lived Ottoman provinces
–
The Eyalet of Kakheti was nominally an eyalet in 1578, when King Alexander was made a beylerbeyi of his own kingdom. The Eyalet of Shirvan existed from 1578 to 1604, it had previously been an Ottoman vassal for some years after 1533, the Eyalet of Dagestan was conquered in 1578 and remained an eyalet until the beginning of the next century. The Eyalet of Saruhan was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire from 1845 to 1847, the Eyalet of Sigetvar was formed in c.1596 and existed until 1600. It included parts of present-day Hungary and Croatia and it was later transferred to Kanije Eyalet. The Eyalet of Kurdistan existed from 1847 to 1867, confusingly, some neighbouring eyalets, such as Sharazor, were also sometimes referred to as Kurdistan. It was established by the Ottoman Empire following the suppression of Bedirhan Beys revolt in 1847, on December 14,1847, the Ottoman State newspaper - Takvim-i Vekayi Gazetesi - carried an official notice announcing the establishment of the Province of Kurdistan. The area of the eyalet was populated mainly by Kurdish speaking Muslims, as to its yearbook, it included Hakkâri, Dêrsîm, and Diyâr-ı Bekr in 1849. The territorial setup was later altered and it was disbanded in 1867, nakhichevan Eyalet Dersim Vilayet or Hozat Vilayet, existed from 1879 to 1886, the capital was Tunceli. Hakkari Vilayet existed from 1876 to 1888, the capital was Hakkari, karasi Vilayet existed from 1881 to 1888, the capital was Karesi. Prizren Vilayet existed from 1868 or 1871 to 1877 and it was created by joining the Sanjak of Prizren together with the Sanjak of Dibra, Sanjak of Skopje and Sanjak of Niš into one vilayet. In 1874, the seat of the vilayet was moved to Pristina, in the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 18,320 square miles. It became part of the Kosovo Vilayet, which was established in 1877, Herzegovina Vilayet was created by Mahmud Nedim Pasha, when he separated Herzegovina from Bosnia in 1875 and formed a new province, with two sanjaks. Herzegovina Vilayet was reincorporated into Bosnia Vilayet in 1877 and it reportedly had an area of 5,720 square miles

31.
Kosovo Vilayet
–
Uskub functioned as the capital of the province and the mid way point between Istanbul and its European provinces. Uskubs population of 32,000 made it the largest city in the province, followed by Prizren, the province was renowned for its craftsmen and important cities such as İpek, where distinct Ottoman architecture and public baths were erected, some of which can still be seen today. The birthplace of the Albanian national identity was first articulated in Prizren, before the First Balkan War in 1912, the provinces shape and location denied Serbia and Montenegro a common land border. After the war, the part of the vilayet was divided between Montenegro and Serbia. These borders were all ratified at the Treaty of London in 1913, the Ottoman Empire finally recognised the new borders following a peace deal with the Kingdom of Serbia on 14 March 1914. Between 1881 and 1912, it was expanded to include other regions of present-day Republic of Macedonia, including larger urban settlements such as Štip. These regions had belonged to the former Eyalet of Nis, the Eyalet of Skopje and, after 1865, in 1868 the Vilayet of Prizren was created with the sanjaks of Prizren, Dibra, Skopje and Nis, but it ceased to exist in 1877. In 1878, the League of Prizren was created by Albanians from four vilayets including the Vilayet of Kosovo, the Leagues purpose was to resist Ottoman rule and incursions by the newly emerging Balkan nations. With the Serbian Armys liberation of Niš and Vranje, the rebellion had been activated during the event with guerrilla fighting. The rebels received aid from the Serbian government, though the uprising only lasted four months. Two major administrative changes happened in 1880 and 1902, in 1902, kazas of Mitrovica and Novi Pazar were transferred to Sanjak of Pristina, and kazas of Berane and Rožaje to Sanjak of Ipek. In the same time, Sanjak of Sjenica was created with kazas, Sjenica, Nova Varoš, Bijelo Polje, in 1901, massacres of Serbs were carried out by Albanians in North Kosovo and Pristina. In 1910, an Albanian-organised insurrection broke out in Pristina and soon spread to the vilayet of Kosovo. The Ottoman sultan visited Kosovo in June 1911 during peace settlement talks covering all Albanian-inhabited areas, there have been a number of estimates about the ethnicity and religious affiliation of the population of the heterogeneous province. The Muslims were primarily Albanians and the Christians were mostly Serbs, british journalist H. Brailsford estimated in 1906 that two-thirds of the population of Kosovo was Albanian and one-third Serbian. The most populous districts of Đakovica and Peć were said to have between 20,000 and 25,000 Albanian households, as against some 5,000 Serbian ones. A map of Alfred Stead, published in 1909, shows that similar numbers of Serbs, sûreti defter-i esami vilayeti Dibra, f. 124-176, Başbakanlık Arşivi, maliyeden müdever, nr.508, regjistri turk i vitit 1485* - Prof. As

32.
20th-century history of Kosovo
–
Kosovo during the 20th century history has largely been characterised by wars and major population displacements. The region formed a part of numerous entities, some internationally recognised, at the turn of the century, Kosovo lay entirely within the Ottoman Empire. Its status was as a vilayet and it occupied a significantly larger than todays entity. Its own borders were expanded following a local administrations reorganisation by the Porte in 1882. The independence of Serbia and Montenegro in 1878 meant that Kosovo was the last line of defence for the Ottomans in Rumelia, after Bosnia and Herzegovina was incorporated into Austria-Hungary in 1908, Kosovo shared a frontier with three countries, Serbia, Montenegro and Austria-Hungary. During the Balkan Wars of 1912, most of Kosovo was taken from the Ottoman Empire by the Kingdom of Serbia while the region of Metohija was taken by the Kingdom of Montenegro, throughout the centuries, populations of ethnic Serbs and Albanians tended to shift following territorial handovers. As a result of the composition of Kosovo, the new administrations provoked a mixed response from the local population. Whilst Albanians did not welcome Serbian rule, the population considered this a liberation. According to Noel Malcolm writing for The Guardian, In 1918, Serbia became a part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later named Yugoslavia. The Serbian Army was able to recuperate and the sick and injured soldiers received medical attention since they were away from the front lines, once they were refreshed and regrouped, they returned to the battlefield. In 1918, the Serbian Army pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo, the peace treaties of 1919–1920 established a Yugoslav state named The Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, also called Yugoslavia. The Kingdom comprised 12 million people,300,000 were Albanian, Kosovo was split into four counties — three being a part of the entity of Serbia, Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija, and one of Montenegro, northern Metohija. However, the new system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three Areas of the Kingdom, Kosovo, Rascia and Zeta. In 1929, the Kingdom was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the territories of Kosovo were split among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. By 1921 Albanian Kosovars asked the League of Nations to unite Kosovo with Albania and they alleged 12,000 Albanians had been killed and 22,000 imprisoned since 1918. A Kachak movement of armed Albanians seeking union with Albania developed, the government considered this subversive to the Yugoslav constitution. Colonisation of Kosovo was a project implemented by the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during the interwar period. During this colonisation,60, 000-65,000 people settled in Kosovo colonists, over 90% of the total number of colonists were Serbs

33.
First Balkan War
–
The First Balkan War, lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and comprised actions of the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, as a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albania, despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of the Second Balkan War. By 1867, Serbia and Montenegro had both secured independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin, the question of the viability of Ottoman rule was revived after the Young Turk Revolution of July 1908, which compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. Serbias aspirations to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Bosnian crisis, the Serbs directed their expansionism to the south. Following the annexation, the Young Turks tried to induce the Muslim population of Bosnia to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire and those who took up the offer were re-settled by the Ottoman authorities in districts of northern Macedonia where there were few Muslims. The experiment proved to be a catastrophe for the Empire since the immigrants readily united with the population of Albanian Muslims. They participated in the series of Albanian uprisings before and during the spring Albanian Revolt of 1912, some Albanian government troops switched sides. Serbia, which had helped arm the Albanian Catholic and Hamidian rebels and sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, things got so far out of hand that no one was satisfied with the situation in Turkey in Europe. It became unbearable for the Serbs, the Greeks and for the Albanians, by the grace of God, I have therefore ordered my brave army to join in the Holy War to free our brethren and to ensure a better future. To all of them we bring freedom, brotherhood and equality, in a search for allies, Serbia was ready to negotiate a treaty with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that, in the event of victory against the Ottomans, serbias expansion was accepted by Bulgaria as being to the north of the Shar Mountains. The intervening area was agreed to be disputed, it would be arbitrated by the Tsar of Russia in the event of a war against the Ottoman Empire. After the successful coup détat for unification with Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria began to dream that its national unification would be realized, for that purpose, it developed a large army, and identified as the Prussia of the Balkans. But Bulgaria could not win a war alone against the Ottomans and they also wanted to reverse their defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 by the Ottomans. An emergency military reorganization led by a French military mission had been started for that purpose, in the discussions that led Greece to join the Balkan League, Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on the distribution of territorial gains, unlike its deal with Serbia over Macedonia. Bulgarias diplomatic policy was to push Serbia into an agreement limiting its access to Macedonia, Bulgaria believed that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of Aegean Macedonia and the important port city of Salonica before the Greeks. In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania in present-day Libya, the Italians decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Balkan states to imagine they might win a war against the Ottomans

34.
Kingdom of Serbia
–
Since 1817 the Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty. The Principality, suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, de facto achieved independence when the last Ottoman troops left Belgrade in 1867. In 1882 King Milan I proclaimed the Kingdom of Serbia and maintained a foreign policy friendly to Austria-Hungary, between 1912 and 1913 Serbia greatly enlarged its territory through engagement in the First and Second Balkan Wars - Sandžak-Raška, Kosovo Vilayet and Vardar Macedonia were annexed. As outcome of the World War I in 1918 it united with Vojvodina, the Principality of Serbia was a state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831-1833 it expanded to the east, south, in 1867 the Ottoman army left the Principality, securing its de facto independence. Serbia expanded further to the south-east in 1878, when it won international recognition at the Congress of Berlin. In 1882 it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia, the Serbo-Bulgarian War erupted on November 14,1885 and lasted until November 28 of the same year. The war ended in defeat for Serbia, as it had failed to capture the Slivnitsa region which it had set out to achieve. Bulgarians successfully repelled the Serbs after the victory at the Battle of Slivnitsa and advanced into Serbian territory taking Pirot. When Austria-Hungary declared that it would join the war on the side of Serbia, Bulgaria withdrew from Serbia leaving the Serbo-Bulgarian border precisely where it had prior to the war. The peace treaty was signed on February 19,1886 in Bucharest, as a result of the war, European powers acknowledged the act of Unification of Bulgaria which happened on September 6,1885. In 1888 Peoples Radical Party led by Sava Grujić and Nikola Pašić came to power, the lost war and the Radical Partys total electoral victory were some of the reasons why King Milan I abdicated in 1889. His son Alexander I assumed the throne in 1893 and in 1894 dismissed the constitution, King Alexander I of Serbia and his unpopular wife Queen Draga, were assassinated inside the Royal Palace in Belgrade on the night of 28–29 May 1903. Other representatives of the Obrenović family were shot as well and this act resulted in the extinction of the House of Obrenović which had been ruling Serbia since 1817. After the May Coup Serbian Skupština invited Peter Karadjorjević to assume the Serbian crown as Peter I of Serbia, a constitutional monarchy was created with the military Black Hand society operating behind the scenes. The traditionally good relations with the Austria-Hungary ended, as the new dynasty relied on the support of the Russian Empire, in April 1904 the Friendship treaty and in June 1905 the customs union with Bulgaria were signed. In response Austria-Hungary imposed a Tariff War of 1906-1909, after the 1906 elections Peoples Radical Party came to power. In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, where Serbia had hoped to expand its territory, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, Kingdom of Italy, Serbia, Principality of Montenegro, German Empire and France took an interest in these events

35.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state in Southeast Europe and Central Europe, that existed during the interwar period and first half of World War II. It was formed in 1918 by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification. For its first eleven years of existence, the Kingdom was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia by King Alexander I on 3 October 1929. The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903 onwards. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father. He was known as Alexander the Unifier and he renamed the kingdom Yugoslavia in 1929 and he was assassinated in Marseille by Vlado Chernozemski, a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, during his visit to France in 1934. The crown passed to his then-still under-aged son Peter and his cousin Paul ruled as Prince regent until 1941, when Peter II would come of age. The royal family flew to London the same year, prior to the country being invaded by the Axis powers, in April 1941, the country was occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. A royal government-in-exile, recognized by the United Kingdom and, later, in 1944, after pressure from the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the King recognized the government of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. This was established on 2 November following the signing of the Treaty of Vis by Ivan Šubašić, Trumbić faced initial hostility from Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, who preferred an enlarged Serbia over a unified Yugoslav state. In 1916, the Serbian Parliament in exile decided on the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, on 1 December 1918, the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karađorđević, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Serbian nationalists, for the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav people had united into a single state. For Serbian nationalists, the goal of uniting the majority of the Serb population across south-eastern Europe into one state was also achieved. Furthermore, as Serbia already had a government, military, and police force, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes participated in the Paris Peace Conference with Trumbić as the countrys representative. Almost immediately, it ran into disputes with most of its neighbours, Slovenia was difficult to determine, since it had been an integral part of Austria for 400 years. The Vojvodina region was disputed with Hungary, Macedonia with Bulgaria, a plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. Austrians had formed a majority in this region although numbers reflected that some Slovenes did vote for Carinthia to become part of Austria, the Dalmatian port city of Zadar and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy

36.
Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo
–
The Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, comprising the Kosovo region, was one of the two autonomous provinces of Serbia within Yugoslavia, between 1946 and the breakup of Yugoslavia. Between 1946 and 1963 the province was named the Autonomous District of Kosovo and Metohija, between 1963 and 1974, when the province was granted equal status with Vojvodina, the province was accordingly named the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. Fifteen years later, during the breakup of Yugoslavia, the 1974 reforms were reversed, during the interwar period, the constitutional status of Kosovo within Yugoslavia was unclear. At the time that Serbia liberated Kosovo, the 1903 constitution was still in force and this constitution required a Grand National Assembly before Serbias borders could be expanded to include Kosovo, but no such Grand National Assembly was ever held. Constitutionally, Kosovo should not have become part of the Kingdom of Serbia and it was initially ruled by decree. Serbian political parties, and the army, could not agree on how to govern the newly conquered territories, there were various proposals to join Kosovo to other areas but in 1945 it was decided to join Kosovo to Serbia. However, one piece of the former Kosovo Vilayet was given to the new Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, whilst another part had passed to Montenegro, in July 1945, a Resolution for the annexation of Kosovo-Metohija to federal Serbia was passed by Kosovos Regional Peoples Council. In principle, Albanian became a language, but little changed in practice as most judges. In the immediate post-war years there was an amount of cooperation with the Albanian government. From 1946 to 1963, it was the Autonomous District of Kosovo and Metohija, after the break with the Cominform in 1948, Yugoslavia tightened certain policies, including stricter collectivisation. This led to reductions in grain production in Kosovo, there were food shortages across Yugoslavia. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija was the name used from 1963 to 1974, the 1963 change had equalised the status of Kosovo and Vojvodina. Kosovo officially became a province in 1963. Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the Stalinist policies of Albanias Enver Hoxha. In 1956, a trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and were given long prison sentences. High-ranking Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo, islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey. At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, as a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovos nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale. Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest and these changes created widespread fear amongst Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia by these changes

37.
Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija
–
Kosovo and Metohija, officially the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, known as short Kosovo or simply Kosmet, refers to the region of Kosovo as defined in the Constitution of Serbia. The territory of the province is disputed between Serbia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo, who has de facto control, the territory of the province, as recognized by Serbian laws, lies in the southern part of Serbia and covers the regions of Kosovo and Metohija. The capital of the province is Pristina, the territory was previously an autonomous province of Serbia during Socialist Yugoslavia, and acquired its current status in 1990. The province was governed as part of Serbia until the Kosovo War, when it became United Nations protectorate, the control was then transferred to the UN administration of UNMIK. In 2008, Kosovo authorities declared independence, which is recognized by majority UN members, the same year, its Albanian majority – as well as the Republic of Albania – supported the proclamation of an independent Republic of Kosova. Following the end of the Kosovo War 1999, and as a result of NATO intervention, Serbia, in February 2008, the Republic of Kosovo declared independence. While Serbia has not formally recognised Kosovos independence, in the Brussels agreement of 2013, Kosovos independence is recognised by 111 UN member states. Constitutional changes were made in Yugoslavia in 1990, the parliaments of all Yugoslavian republics and provinces, which until then had MPs only from the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, were dissolved and multi-party elections were held within them. Kosovar Albanians refused to participate in the elections so they held their own unsanctioned elections instead, as election laws required turnout higher than 50%, a parliament in Kosovo could not be established. The new constitution abolished the individual provinces official media, integrating them within the media of Serbia while still retaining some programs in the Albanian language. The Albanian-language media in Kosovo were suppressed, funding was withdrawn from state-owned media, including those in the Albanian language in Kosovo. The constitution made the creation of privately owned media possible, however their operation was difficult because of high rents. State-owned Albanian language television or radio was also banned from broadcasting from Kosovo, the constitution also transferred control over state-owned companies to the Yugoslav central government. Some of those who were not sacked quit in sympathy, refusing to work for the Serbian government, although the sackings were widely seen as a purge of ethnic Albanians, the government maintained that it was removing former communist directors. Albanian educational curriculum textbooks were withdrawn and replaced by new ones, the curriculum was identical to its Serbian counterpart and that of all other nationalities in Serbia except that it had education on and in the Albanian language. Education in Albanian was withdrawn in 1992 and re-established in 1994, Albanians responded by boycotting state schools and setting up an unofficial parallel system of Albanian-language education. Kosovo Albanians were outraged by what they saw as an attack on their rights, in 1995, thousands of Serb refugees from Croatia were settled in Kosovo, which further worsened relations between the two communities. Albanian opposition to the sovereignty of Yugoslavia and especially Serbia had previously surfaced in rioting in the capital Pristina, in 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro

38.
Republic of Kosova
–
The Republic of Kosova was a self proclaimed state in 1992. During its peak, it tried to establish its own political institutions in opposition to the institutions of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo. The Serbian government responded by dissolving the Assembly and the government of Kosovo, the Serb government then passed another law on labour relations which fired another 80,000 Albanian workers. The assembly went on to declare the Republic of Kosova an independent state on 22 September 1992 and this declaration was endorsed by an unofficial referendum held a few days later. Serb authorities took this seriously, and attempted to capture. Kosovo Albanians organized a separatist movement, creating a number of structures in education, medical care. From 1995 onwards, tensions in the region escalated leading to the Kosovo War which began in 1998, the KLA-led campaign continued into January 1999 and was brought to the attention of the world media by the Račak massacre, mass killings of Albanians by Serb security forces. A Kosovo Transitional Council was established to enable Kosovo political and community leaders were represented in decisions, the KLA was disbanded and replaced by the Kosovo Protection Corps, a lightly armed civilian emergency response organization. Kosovo declared independence again in 2008, jusuf Zejnullahu 1990–1991 Bujar Bukoshi 1991–1999 Kosovo Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo Kosovo Liberation Army First Constitution of the Republic of Kosova

39.
Kosovo War
–
The Kosovo War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 5 March 1998 until 11 June 1999. After attempts at a diplomatic solution failed, NATO intervened, justifying the campaign in Kosovo as a humanitarian war and this precipitated a mass expulsion of Kosovar Albanians as the Yugoslav forces continued to fight during the aerial bombardment of Yugoslavia. The war ended with the Kumanovo Treaty, with Yugoslav and Serb forces agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence, Kosovos borders did not precisely match the areas of ethnic Albanian settlement in Yugoslavia. Kosovos formal autonomy, established under the 1945 Yugoslav constitution, initially meant relatively little in practice, the secret police cracked down hard on nationalists. In 1956 a number of Albanians went on trial in Kosovo on charges of espionage, the threat of separatism was in fact minimal, as the few underground groups aiming for union with Albania had little political significance. Demaci himself was imprisoned in 1964 along with many of his followers, Yugoslavia underwent a period of economic and political crisis in 1969, as a massive government program of economic reform widened the gap between the rich north and poor south of the country. Student demonstrations and riots in Belgrade in June 1968 spread to Kosovo in November of the same year, however, Tito conceded some of the students demands—in particular, representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies and better recognition of the Albanian language. The University of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, the lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered the Albanisation of education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks. In 1974 Kosovos political status improved further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted a set of political rights. Along with Vojvodina, Kosovo was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic, power was still exercised by the Communist Party, but it was now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists. Titos death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis. The disturbances were quelled by the Presidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming a state of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, hard-liners instituted a fierce crackdown on nationalism of all kinds, Albanian and Serbian alike. Kosovo endured a heavy secret-police presence throughout most of the 1980s that ruthlessly suppressed any unauthorised nationalist manifestations, according to a report quoted by Mark Thompson, as many as 580,000 inhabitants of Kosovo were arrested, interrogated, interned or reprimanded. Thousands of these lost their jobs or were expelled from their educational establishments, during this time tension between the Albanian and Serbian communities continued to escalate. Such concerns did attract interest in Belgrade, stories appeared from time to time in the Belgrade media claiming that Serbs and Montenegrins were being persecuted. There was a perception among Serbian nationalists that Serbs were being driven out of Kosovo, in addition to all this, the worsening state of Kosovos economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia, the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635. 33 nationalist formations were dismantled by Yugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people and seized arms caches, in Kosovo an increasingly poisonous atmosphere between Serbs and Albanians led to wild rumors being spread and otherwise trivial incidents being blown out of proportion

40.
Geography of Kosovo
–
Kosovo is a small landlocked country in Southeastern Europe, in the center of Balkan Peninsula. With an area of 10,908 km2, it is one of the smallest countries in Europe, considering its small area, Kosovo has a variety of topographical features. It is surrounded by mountains, the Sharr Mountains are located in the south and southeast, bordering Macedonia, the southwest borders with Montenegro and Albania are also mountainous, and home to the countrys highest peak, Gjeravica,2,656 m high. The central region is hilly, but two large plains spread over Kosovos west and east, respectively, Metohija plain and Kosovo plain. In the terms of hydrography, Kosovo has limited water resources, the main rivers in the country are the White Drin, running towards the Adriatic Sea, the South Morava in the Goljak area, and Ibar in the north. Sitnica, a tributary of Ibar, is the longest river lying completely within Kosovo, there are several small natural lakes but the countrys most important lakes are artificial. The biggest lakes are Gazivoda, Radonjić, Batlava and Badovac, Kosovo also does have a large number of karst springs, thermal and mineral water springs. It lies between latitudes 42° and 43° N, and longitudes 20° and 22° E and this geographic location gives the country its large annual temperature range. Summer temperature highs can reach +30 °C, winters temperatures as low as −10 °C, according to the Strahler classification map the climate in Kosovo is considered moist continental. The country experiences warm summers and cold and snowy winters, the climatic area of the Ibar valley is influenced by continental air masses. For this reason, in part of the region, the winters are colder with medium temperatures above −10 °C. The summers are hot with average temperatures of 20 °C. This area is characterized by a dry climate and an annual precipitation of 600 mm per year. The climatic area of Metohija, which includes the watershed of the White Drin river, is influenced very much by the hot air masses, medium temperatures during winter range from 0.5 °C to sometimes 22.8 °C. The average annual precipitation of this area is about 700 mm per year. The winter is characterized by heavy snowfalls, finally, it can be stated that the Kosovo territory is characterised by a sunny climate with variable temperature and humidity conditions. There are two main plains in Kosovo, the Dukagjini basin is a semi-karst field that lies in the southwestern part of Kosovo, covering 35% of countrys total area. It is about 60 km long and 23 km wide at its broadest point and it is surrounded by high mountain ranges of Bjeshket e Nemuna in the western part, Pashtrik in the southwest, the Sharr Mountains in the south and southeast

41.
Biodiversity of Kosovo
–
The fauna of Kosovo is influenced by the geographical position and conditions of Kosovo, which suit many rare animals. In the fields and hilly areas there are boar, deer, rabbits, ravens, magpies, starlings, field sparrows, woodpeckers and turtle doves. In the mountainous regions there are field partridges, quails, pheasants, squirrels, storks, the rare animals include the European brown bear, wolves, roe deer, lynx, wild and forest hen grouse. The bear is found in the Shar Mountains and in the Bjeshket e Nemuna or Albanian Alps. The high mountains in Kosovo make it ideal for many animals to live in, in the rivers and lakes there are salmon, trout, scuba, eel, gudgeon, catfish, carp, torpedo and small herring. Notes, Qenan Maxhuni, Biodiversiteti i Kosoves 23 February 2013| References

42.
Climate of Kosovo
–
Kosovo is a relatively small territory. Because of the position and complicated structure of the relief. Kosovo lies in the part of the middle geographical latitude of the northern hemisphere and it is affected by the Mediterranean Mild Climate. Important factors that affect Kosovos climate are, its position towards Eurasia and Africa, hydrographic masses, atmospheric masses, minor factors are, relief, hydrography, plain and vegetation. The climatic area of the Ibar valley is influenced by air masses. For this reason, in part of the region, the winters are colder with medium temperatures above −10 °C. The summers are hot with average temperatures of 20 °C. This area is characterized by a dry climate and an annual precipitation of 600 mm per year. The climatic area of Metohija, which includes the watershed of the White Drin river, is influenced very much by the hot air masses, medium temperatures during winter range from 0.5 °C to sometimes 22.8 °C. The average annual precipitation of this area is about 700 mm per year. The winter is characterized by heavy snowfalls, finally, it can be stated that the Kosovo territory is characterised by a sunny climate with variable temperature and humidity conditions. General air flows, physical, geographical and topographical characteristics enforce territorial and temporal changes of climatic elements, air Temperature is the main climatic element which tells the degree of air heat near-earth layers. In Kosovo there are differences in horizontal and vertical direction. The eastern side is colder than the western part, the average temperature of Kosovo for a year is 9.5 °C. The warmest month is July with 19.2 °C, the coldest is January with −1.3 °C, the highest average temperature for a year is in Prizren, the lowest temperature in Podujevo. Except Prizren and Istok, all other stations, in January have average temperatures under 0 °C. Except average temperature values, thermal characteristics of Kosovo will be understood in the analyze of extreme values. Maximal values in all stations are higher than 35 °C

43.
Forests of Kosovo
–
The forests of Kosovo make up about 41% of the entire surface of the country. Most of the forests are located in southwestern Kosovo, including the outskirts of Peje, Deçan, Istok, Junik, there are several types of forests in Kosovo and they are mostly represented by pinnate ones. All of the forests of Kosovo have a flora and fauna that is of a major importance to the entire region of Balkans. The Kosovan flora represents about 25% of the Balkans flora and 18% of the European one, while the most essential regions with assorted biodiversity are the Šar Mountains, still, the Kosovan woodlands are prone to being damaged by seasonal fires and illegal logging. The Kosovan forests have a significance and are currently protected by over ten laws. Their area is estimated to be as much as 464,800 hectares, the forests affect the climate of Kosovo and serve as protection measures against land erosion. Many of the woodlands have been transformed into natural resorts for their therapeutic capabilities, estimations show that the total volume of forest wood is about 40 million m3, with about 90 m3 of wood per hectare. Kosovan forests are home to both pinnate and conifer forests, as well as other ones, over two-thirds of the public and private forests are woods with diameter greater than 7 centimetres, which are typically thicker and of greater potential. The 40 million m3 of wood is annually increased by about 1.3 million m3, on the other hand, the annual national demand for wood is believed to be approximately 1 million m3. This enormous demand is due to firewood being the most common heating source throughout the entire country, the Kosovan forest are thus enlarged by 300,000 m3 of wood each year, whereas the global forests are in decline. Around 4. 39% of Kosovos territory are law protected parks, there are a total of 97 protected areas, which consist of natural reserves, regional parks, natural monuments and national parks. The largest protected area is the complex of Šar Mountains with a surface of 60,000 hectares. There are some settlements in the forests of Kosovo, the most noteworthy ones being located in southwestern Kosovo, more precisely in the Shar Mountains and Albanian Alps. Municipalities such as Shterpce, Junik and Dragash are located close to forested areas, additionally, there are many other villages and townships in other parts of Kosovo that are partly located in the woods. This, however, is changing due to the rate of urbanization and deforestation for agricultural purposes. The municipality of Leposaviq is also located close to the woodlands of Kopaonik, the main law regarding the conservation of forests was approved in 2003 by the then provisional Assembly of Kosovo. The Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo also foresees that the Kosovan forests are to be protected in accordance with previously approved laws, numerous other laws have since been approved, including the law on environmental protection and the law on spatial planning, but their application remains limited. Illegal use of forests by individuals is the issue that the environmental regulation agencies currently face

44.
Crnoljeva
–
Crnoljeva is a mountain in central Kosovo, dividing its two main geographical regions, the Kosovo Plain and Metohija. Crnoljeva is also a point where all three basins of Serbia meet, making the mountain a major hydrographic knot. In Albanian it is named after the village of Carraleva, Crnoljeva is located in the south-central part of Kosovo, between the valleys of the rivers Drenica and Miruša and Topluga. The mountain is elongated in the direction and divides the Prizren depression of the Metohija from the Drenica region of the Kosovo Plain. The highest peak is Topila, while the Drmanska glava peak is point of the hydrographic knot, another prominent peak is the Korenik. Crnoljeva is rich in ores, most notably the chromium, magnesite, right through the middle of the mountain goes the regional Uroševac-Prizren road, using the natural route of the Crnoljeva reka river valley

Germany, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Britain attempting to keep the lid on the simmering cauldron of imperialist and nationalist tensions in the Balkans to prevent a general European war. They were successful in 1912 and 1913 but did not succeed in 1914.

Italian soldiers in Vlorë, Albania during World War I. The tricolour flag of Italy bearing the Savoy royal shield is shown hanging alongside an Albanian flag from the balcony of the Italian headquarters.