It is a meeting that runs late into the night because the two sides could not reach an agreement.
In your example, Parliament had to have many late meetings because Parnell was working to prevent agreement.
Please note that this is a British (and possibly Australian) phrase. In America we would say "late session" or "all-nighter".

I don't live in the US, but my understanding is that they're a government benefit for people on low incomes, that can only be spent on food.
It is probably illegal to fire someone for collecting food stamps that they are owed. The reason someone might say it, is that it shows that the employer does not pay enough for their workers to eat properly, which is embarrassing for the company (as it should be).

Similar words to "Charles" and their differences

They both mean the same thing; the sister of Charles, it's just that there's a rule applied to the second one where a pronoun ended in s doesn't get another s but still gets the apostrophe at the end when showing that they are in possession of something. You usually don't pronounce the extra s with this.
e.g James' sister
Louise' book
Morris' violin
I can't say which one is more commonly used as I've heard people say James's and Morris's before.

Yeah he’s saying Amy will understand when she has a baby with Jake. Which is a weird thing to say! I think I remember this episode. I hope you like this show I think it’s really funny! You should always ask when you have a question about it 😂😂

There's a really subtle difference between the two, but in practice they are both acceptable.
knock on the door = hit the door with your knuckles
knock at the door = stand at the door and summon the person inside
Usually, someone is both knocking on the door and knocking at the door.
In practice, "knock at the door" is more frequently used as a noun phrase, and "knock on the door" is more frequently used as a verb phrase:
Dave woke up when he heard a knock at the door.
Dave woke up when he heard someone knocking on the door.

Charles II was the king of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1660 to 1685. He grew up during the Great Civil War that took place between 1642 and 1651. This war had broken out mostly due to tensions between Charles I and the Parliament. The situation became so tense that his father was judged and beheaded in 1649, giving Charles II no choice to exile in France. Thus, from 1649 to 1660, the Commonwealth ruled England, which means that all power was in the hand of the Council of State.

Well, it is what Mnuchin in fact said. If it seems out of place, it's because this particular article abbreviated it too incompetently.
For example, from a different source:
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At a Senate Appropriations subcommittee hearing on the president’s 2020 budget request, Sen. Chris Van Hollen, D-Md., repeatedly pressed Mnuchin on whether he agrees that Congress has an interest in verifying that the IRS is fairly enforcing the law and making sure the president is paying the taxes he owes.
“I think Congress has a legitimate interest to make sure that the IRS is performing the function properly as it relates to any taxpayer,” Mnuchin said. “If you’re referring to the specific request for the president’s tax returns ... I think this is a very important issue that has a precedent way beyond any president and Congress that affects the weaponization of the IRS and could be used against anyone.”
--
This makes it more logical.