04 Jul 1942 1st American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) end; becomes 23rd Fighter Group as part of China Air Task Force under command of Brigadier General Claire Chennault; subordinate to Tenth Air Force in India

20 Aug 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria complete; industrial equipment removed or destroyed; land given back to China; Shenyang and Harbin future aircraft industry for China; captured Japanese aircraft given to Chinese Communist movement

-- The 1st Red China aircraft was a single Douglas O-2 captured from the Nationalists; Communists rebuilt it and named it "Marx" but couldn't get it off the ground.

-- The 2nd Red China aircraft was a Vought V-65-C1 captured from a Nationalist defector; Communists named it "Lenin"; shot down by Nationalists October 5 1936.

Implications:

1) A Chinese tech tree would have to use both Nationalist and Communist aircraft to attempt completion.

2) Considering the limited opportunities for actual "progression" and the number of each type of aircraft used, the existence of the Hawk III as a premium strongly suggests that the I-15, I-15bis, I-153, and I-16 are to be used for the low-tier fighter progression. This is the Soviet Volunteer group that helped to train Chinese pilots and fought together against the Japanese. This could further imply that the American Volunteer group aircraft is to be utilized (P-43, P-40). More details on this later.

3) Given the challenges of actual "progression" that have been identified (non-native production, non-chronological development, non-Chinese volunteer groups, etc.), there is a strong indication that the usual precedents will need to be violated. This could mean the inclusion of trainers (of which there are many), or alternating between fighter and attack aircraft as you progress forward, or alternating Nationalist/Communist insignia as you progress upward, etc.

4) There are examples of aircraft "created by the Chinese" that are nothing more than utilization of remaining equipment. For example the "Jung 28B" was supposedly an adaptation of the I-15bis to use a Hawk III engine. Authoritative sources (such as Lennart Andersson's "A History of Chinese Aviation") are needed to see how these kinds of modifications can be accounted for in a workable tech tree. I expect to have the sources soon.

5) There are 2 essential ways to proceed with the creation of a Chinese tech tree. The "easy way" is to simply copy the progression of existing aircraft of other countries, though there are obvious problems with this and it wouldn't make for a very interesting tree anyway. The "hard way" is muddier to work through (much like early Chinese aviation) and involves looking closely at the limited equipment that they had on hand, and then trying to make a reasonable case for progression through it. Again, authoritative sources are needed for this kind of undertaking.

Chinese "meta" tech tree idea

I have been thinking about how a Chinese tech tree could be implemented, and the problem is that they relied very heavily on imports and volunteers. I went ahead and started a messy tree anyway with imports, and it occurred to me that a good solution might be to make it a "meta" tree, like this:

Chinese pilot sitting in hangar waiting for imports....

Tier I: American pilot completes P-12 from U.S. tree, sends it to China --> now China has access to Tier I P-12

Tier IV: U.S pilot unlocks P-36 from U.S. tree, sends it to China --> now China has can progress to Tier IV P-36

...and so on and so forth, until missing tiers are complete and China can fill in with their own manufactured aircraft (Chu X-PO, etc.). Then further imports (unlocked and donated from abroad) to fill missing tiers as needed (P-51 D and any others that have a historical basis).

This would dodge a very messy tree and add an interesting meta-game that encourages pilots to advance across multiple countries.

There are some minor points associated with the above such as,

1) Would the Russian/American/etc. pilots be able to fly the Chinese craft as volunteers (like Flying Tigers)? or

2) Would the Chinese pilots be required to complete module progression on the imported craft in order to have access to the next tier?

Probably the latter, though a combination of the two is possible.

It would be probably be easier/faster to implement than designing a tech tree from scratch because it would use many existing models/mechanics.

It would require primarily skins for the Chinese and volunteer units (community event/contest?), and GUI export/import mechanics.

This is a new and interesting idea - unlocking the planes via another tree - but I still very much dislike the idea of a cobbled-together Chinese tree. I know it will eventually happen, but that doesn't mean I have to be happy about it - I'm still disgruntled about the tank tree for that matter. (Though not liking any of their tanks doesn't help there either.)

-- "The Boeing Model 218 (XP-925H) was the prototype model in the P-12E-F4B-3 series. Speed took a forward jump with these many innovations and the P-12E had a top speed of over 190mph [306 km/h], and had a service celing of 27,000' [8230m] fully loaded using a Pratt & Whitney Wasp 500hp engine." (Maloney, 2)

-- private-venture Model 218 (designated XP-925 during USAAC trials) first flight September 29 1930; eventually sold to China (Green, 76)

-- "...basically a P-12B with a semi-monocoque metal fuselage ... served as basis for P-12E which employed similar fuselage and tail surfaces." (Green, 76-77)

-- while demonstrating the aircraft, American pilot Robert Short engaged 3 Japanese fighters and shot 1 down. He has been memorialized as the first American pilot to be killed while protecting China's airspace.

-- "Although Japan was quick to appreciate the airplane's value as a weapon, Japanese aircraft of the 1920's and early 1930's were invariably dismissed by European observers as either outright imitations or second-rate variations on French or British designs. A case in point could be seen in an incident over the Chinese port of Shanghai on February 22, 1932, in which three Mitsubishi B1M3 three-seat biplane bombers from the aircraft carrier Kaga came under attack by a Boeing 212 -- a unique all-metal version of the P-12 that was being demonstrated for the Chinese by American pilot Robert Short. Short killed the lead plane's pilot, Lt. Susumu Kotani, and wounded his observer, Airman 1st Class Setsuro Sasaki, but the third crewman, Lt. j.g. Yoshiro Sakinaga, managed to land the stricken B1M at Shanghai. Besides coming under fire from the other B1M gunners, however, Short was attacked and sent to his death in flames by three fighters flown by Lt. Nokiji Ikuta, Petty Officer 3rd Class Toshio Kuroiwa, and Seaman 1st Class Kazuo Takeo. The three Nakajima A1N2's that share in the Japanese Navy's first aerial victory were, in fact, license-built copies of the Gloster Gamecock biplane." (Guttman, 137)

Alternates

Aircraft marked with an asterisk (*) are "historically significant" to the communist story; their inclusion might help to navigate censorship if the game is introduced in China.

-- China was the main customer of Douglas O-2's (82 total delivered 1930-1936) (Francillon, 76)

-- "With the exception of the single O-2MC-10 ... the various versions of the O-2MC were essentially identical to the O-38." (Francillon, 76)

-- "In China ... the O-2MC's had a much shorter career as they were faced by the much superior fighter aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy, and little or no data on their operations filtered back to their manufacturers." (Francillon, 79-80)

-- the first Nationalist aircraft to be captured by the communists; repainted and named "Marx"

-- "The only order received for the A.W.XVI came from China: according to the Armstrong Whitworth production list there was an allocation of sixteen works numbers for the Chinese order but only four were delivered. The first, G-ABRH, was test flown in June 1931, and this aircraft, together with the second and third, registered G-ABRI and G-ABRJ, were dispatched to China in early 1932, whilst the fourth aircraft, G-ABZL, was first flown in October 1932 and, according to the company's list, was shipped to China in January 1933. ... The Chinese order was negotiated through the agency of the Far East Aviation Co Ltd, of Hong Kong, whose managing director was the British test pilot and writer R. Vaughan-Fowler. The aircraft were operated by the Cantonese Air Force and were used in battle against the Japanese." (Tapper, 176-183)

-- construction details (Tapper, 177-179)

-- also used in aerobatic displays for the Sir Alan Cobham circus (Tapper, 176-183)

-- only 18 produced late 1931, and 17 delivered to Chinese Kwangsi Air Force; 1 ultimately passed to the Alan Cobham circus (Green, 28)

-- only 5 total were produced: 1 prototype, 2 for Japan, 2 for China (Mason, 204)

-- "It was inevitable that Japan and China would eventually go to war ... The first step to occupation was taken when Japan's Kwantung Army marched into Manchuria and turned it into a puppet state ... China appealed to the League of Nations, who started a boycott of Japanese goods. On January 18 1932 rioting broke out in Shanghai against the invading army ... The first meaningful aerial engagement between the two forces occurred on February 5 [1932] when two bombers and three fighters from the [Japanese] carrier Hosho encountered a Blackburn F.2D Lincock III biplane fighter (one of only two supplied to China) over Shingu. The pilot, Tsu Dah-Shien, played 'tag' with the formation through the clouds until he was hit and wounded after his guns jammed -- he managed to return to base." (Sakaida, 6)

-- [sidenote: Robert Short was shot down the same month while flying a Boeing 218, February 23 1932 (source)]

-- Lennart Andersson claims the Kwangsi Air Force purchased 2 Type 91-1's in September 1934, with several more purchased in 1935 (source)

-- Lennart Andersson's claim is in agreement with the production chronology identified by Robert Mikesh in Japanese Aircraft 1910-1941 (Japanese production of the Type 92-2 ended in July 1934, replaced by the Kawasaki Ki-10) but it is a curious transaction because it occurred between the Shanghai Incident (January-March 1932) and the start of the war with Japan (1937) (Mikesh, 214-215).

"1 sent to China demonstration March 17 1930; assembled for test flight June 12, to be compared to Dewoitine D27 and Letov S131 October 5; captured by Japanese forces September 19 1930; used by Japan until 1932 despite protestations by Czech government."

-- "One of the greatest monuments in American fighter designs ... stubby, all-metal Pursuit design ... by Boeing Engineers of Seattle ... first all-metal production fighter designed for the U.S. Army Air corps ... also the first monoplane fighter design ... offered many new innovations over contemporary biplane pursuits such as the older P-6E and P-12. Prior to the P-26, many of the monoplane designs submitted to the Army were too weak in wing structure to take the stress loads imposed upon the pursuit in aerial maneuvers. The P-26 was an entirely new design ... and while structural features were drawn from the all-metal Boeing Monomail Model 218, the use of wire braced wings and a non-retractable landing gear seemed to be a step backwards. However, this was the year of 1932, and retractable landing gears were not as yet in vogue. Cantilever wings were also in style; however, the external bracing allowed a much lighter structure for the P-26. The wing wires produced less drag than would rigid struts." (Maloney, 2)

-- "The P-26A [first production model] ... was the most beautiful and exciting aircraft of the day. It heralded the end of the biplane pursuit -- namely, the P-12 and P-6. It was a good performer, with the look of a thoroughbred. Speed was built into it, yet it was also very maneuverable." (Maloney, 3)

-- Began as private-venture Boeing model 248 in September 1931; contract for three placed December 1931 by U.S. Army; construction began January 1932; prototype first flight March 20, 1932; first production delivery to U.S. Army Air Corps late 1933. (Maloney, 2-4)

-- the prototype for the I-15 flown in October 1933 actually used a Wright SGR-1820-F-3 Cyclone 715hp (Green, 473)

-- the Shvetsov M-62 used by the I-153 variant is currently in-game for the Tier IV I-16 (late mod). I-153 is also made faster due to retractable landing gear.

Northrop Gamma(~1932; to China 02/1934)

Tier II attack -- Northrop Gamma

Production

Airframe

Engine

Speed

Armament

Bombs

1

Gamma 5D*

II Pratt & Whitney S3H-1 550hp

2 assembled + 25 in parts for assembly by CAMCO

Gamma 2E

IV Wright R-1820-F53 Cyclone 750hp***

326 km/h

4x7.62mm** 1x7.62mm rear

up to 727kg**

7

Gamma 2EC

***

15

Gamma 2ED

***

* purchased by Japan, given to Nakajima for study, then to Manchurian Air Lines where it was used for aerial reconnaissance (Andersson, 278)

** the original Model 2E used 2x7.62mm and carried up to 450kg of bombs (Andersson, 303); the addition of heavier armament mentioned by Andersson in his book on Chinese aircraft may have been the field modifcation referred to here by Rosholt

*** Rene Francillon instead claims that the engine used by the Gamma 2E, 2EC, and 2ED was Wright SR-1820-F3 710hp driving two-blade propeller (Francillon, 135) [same engine used in the Hawk II]

-- "... externally similar to the Gamma 2C in its original configuration. However, a major recognition feature was the addition of a partially retractable bomb-aimer's tub beneath the fuselage just aft of the wing [pictured above]. During normal operations, the bomb-aimer/gunner sat facing forward, behind the pilot, under the canopy which covered the two cockpits. To man the flexible 0.30" machine-gun, he swivelled his seat to face aft. From this position, he could also slide down into the tub to aim the bombs through a forward-facing window." (Francillon, 135)

-- "[serial numbers 14-27, 30-37, 45-46, and serial numbers 48-72 in parts] ... built by Northrop in the Mines Field plant [Los Angeles] and shipped to China ... assembled by the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) at Loiwing and joined the assembled Gamma 2E's, 2EC's, 2ED's in service with the Chinese Army Air Arm. All 49 aircraft were rapidly destroyed in training accidents and during the early phase of the second Sino-Japanese conflict." (Francillon, 135-136)

-- "The first aircraft was delivered on 19 February 1934, the last on 21 September 1934." (Francillon, 135)

-- "... characterized as being very stable and easy to fly." (Andersson, 303)

-- a version of the Gamma was flown by Howard Hughes for a speed record flight

-- "The Hawk II became the leading fighter plane of the Fukien People's Republic Air Force. A number were destroyed by the Nationalists during the Fukien Rebellion, including some in air combat over Foochow" (Beuschel, 119)

-- "The Hawk II, sometimes called Goshawk, was an extensively redesigned model with a Wright Cyclone radial engine and single-leg undercarriage that preceded the U.S. Navy F11C/BFC design." (Bowers, 281)

-- "Export versions of both Goshawk variants reverted to wooden wing structures, the fixed-gear plane being called the Hawk II and the retractable model the Hawk III. Powered by a 740-horsepower Wright R-1820-F53 radial engine, the Hawk III had a top speed of 240 miles per hour, mounted two .30-caliber Browning machine guns, and served in the air arms of Thailand and Argentina as well as China, which imported its first twelve in [03/1936]. Another 90 arrived in crates and were assembled at the Central Manufacturing Company at Hangzhou. The Chinese had 72 operational when the Japanese invaded, as well as 50 Hawk II's." (Guttman, 139)

Hawk IIvs.Hawk III

Hawk II

Hawk III

Tier

2

2

HEALTH

105

95

Weight

1958 kg

1958 kg

FIREPOWER

19

19

Armament

2x7.62mm M1919 (S)

2x7.62mm M1919 (S)

Overheat time

16 s

Rate of Fire

540 rounds/min

Muzzle Velocity

850 m/s

Damage/s

31

AIRSPEED

302.6

319

Top Speed @ Sea Level

313.5 km/h

344 km/h

Top Speed @ Best Alt

330 km/h

362 km/h

Max Dive Speed

450 km/h

450 km/h

Stall Speed

70 km/h

70 km/h

Climb Rate

10.5 m/s

10.6 km/h

Optimum Speed

210 km/h

210 km/h

Boost time

10 s

MANEUVERABILITY

403.9

391

Time to turn 360-degrees

9.7 s

8.8 s

Roll rate

90

80

Controllability

96.3

94

Optimum Altitude

500

500

Alternates

Curtiss A-12 Shrike (1933; delivered to China 05/1936)

Production

Airframe

Engine

Speed

Armament

Bombs

20 delivered (05/1936)

Model 60 (A-12)

Wright R-1820-21 690hp

285 k/mh

4x7.62mm 1x7.62mm rear

10x13.6kg or 4x55.2kg bombs

Notes:

-- Development began 1930 as the [Model 59] XA-8 ... "This was a major advance for Curtiss in several respects -- the first Curtiss military monoplane, the first with both all-metal structure and covering, the first Curtiss to use trailing-edge flaps, full-span leading-edge slats, and enclosed cockpits and undercarriage that were designed-in instead of being added later. In spite of these advances, however, the XA-8 and its derivatives featured wire-braced wings which, with the exception of the contemporary Douglas O-31 and Boeing P-26, were an anachronism not seen on military monoplanes since early in the first World War." (Bowers, 326)

-- "The crew sat in two widely-separated cockpits. The pilot controlled four .30-calibre machine-guns mounted in the undercarriage fairings where their rate of fire would not be slowed by synchronization gear. The rear cockpit was fitted with a single .30-calibre flexible gun. Racks beneath the wings could carry up to 400 lb (181 kg) of bombs or chemical tanks.

-- XA-8 first flight June 1931; 46 A-12's delivered to U.S. Army 1934; 20 export versions of the A-12 sold to China 1936. (Bowers, 330)

-- "Japanese Navy's most widely used reconnaissance floatplane of World War II ... over 1,400 produced between 1940 and June 1945" (Bueschel, 208)

-- "The E13A operated in China and across the Pacific as a reconnaissance plane and light bomber, and was even used as a dive bomber. It was catapult-launched from cruisers or battleships and often operated from sheltered island bases across the southeast Pacific during the Pacific war years. Its last major wartime use was as an antisubmarine patrol plane carrying magnetic submarine-detection gear. In this guise it operated out of bases located along the coast of mainland China in order to protect the Japanese shipping lanes in 1944 and 1945, with many remaining at their bases at the war's end to be picked up by the Nationalists and the Chinese Communists." (Bueschel, 209)

-- "With the appearance of the Ki-10 the classic biplane fighter design reached its peak in Japan and the aircraft marked the end of an era. However, its superior maneuverability and supreme dog-fight agility were to influence the thinking of Japanese fighter pilots who, for many years after the introduction of the monoplane fighter, kept insisting that these aircraft be equally maneuverable." (Francillon, 86).

-- "...saw service with units of the Japanese Army in Japan, Formosa, Korea and Manchuko and participated in combat operations in China and Manchuria during the second Sino-Japanese conflict and the Nomonhan incident." (Francillon, 89).

-- Hawk 75H purchased by the Chinese Nationalist government, then given by Madame Chiang Kai-shek to Chennault (leader of the Flying Tigers) for personal use.

-- Hawk 75H was fitted with wing bomb racks (Bowers, 355)

-- Hawk 75A-5 contract dated May 21 1939 was for 1 pattern aircraft and components to build 54 more under license in China by CAMCO; due to evacuation and relocation only the 1 pattern aircraft was completed; the remaining components were either used as salvage or found their way to the RAF as Mohawk IV's (Andersson, 260); Bowers claims that the evacuation was to Bangalore, India, that CAMCO was reorganized there as Hindustan Aircraft Ltd, and that 6 H75-A5's were completed before the remainder was absorbed by the RAF. (Bowers, 352)

-- these are not simply copy/paste variants from the U.S. tech tree. The Hawk 75 currently in-game for the U.S. tree uses these engines:

-- design initiated early 1941 by Maj Gen Chu Chia-Gen, Chief of the Air Force Technical Bureau, at the Air Force Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (AFAMF) No. 1 (Green, 113); [sidenote: wiki entry claims he studied at Aerospace Engineering at MIT 1920-1926; another entry claims he led assembly of American aircraft and Soviet Polikarpov I-15's; later exiled to Taiwan and designed helicopters]

-- "It was anticipated that the X-PO would be manufactured in series at the AFAMF No.1 at Kunming, and the sole prototype was flown for the first time in 1943 at Yangling, northeast of Kunming. After circuiting the field, the aircraft landed too fast, ground-looped and was written off. In the meantime, the US entry into World War II and the consequent release of supplies of fighters to China had removed the need for indigenous fighter manufacture, and further development of the X-PO was discontinued. No data have apparently survived." (Green, 113)

-- "... intended to carry two or four 20mm cannon in underwing fairings, and a centerline bomb rack was to have enabled the fighter to fulfill a secondary role of dive bomber." Green, 113)

"Following the failure of Hawk 75 production, the CAMCO factory planned to organize assembly of the export version of the Curtiss-Wright CW-21 Demon, light fighter. Three aircraft and 32 sets of components were ordered from the USA. The factory at Loiwing worked until April 1942, when on account of Japanese attacks it had to be evacuated to Kunming, while its American personnel set up shop in India. From 1943 to 1946 the aircraft factory, which was dispersed in the ravines neighboring Kunming, assembled an experimental series of nine fighter monoplanes, probably from components of the Hawk 75M and 75A-5, and CW-21. To a degree they were similar to the American prototypes and their further fate is unknown. In western sources the first example figures under the strange designation XP-0."

-- "With simple structure and minimum equipment, the Demon was intended as an economical yet high-performance design for small-country air forces. No armor or fuel tank protection was provided; armament was light by European standards, with two guns in the nose and one in each wing. The first CW-21 flew in September 1938." (Bowers, 461)

-- CW-21A was a proposal to use the Allison V-1710 engine [same engine found in P-40] in the CW-21 airframe with a redesigned flush inward-retracting undercarriage, as found on 24 CW-21B's sold to Netherlands East Indies 1941." (Bowers, 462-463)

-- *1 prototype demonstrator delivered [sometime after 02/1939]; 3 built by Curtiss [March 1940] lost due to engine failures (dirty fuel suspected) while being ferried from Lashio to Kunming; 27 to be built in China by CAMCO at Loi-Wing were destroyed on May 1, 1942 to prevent capture by Japanese (Green, 144)

-- "A correspondent in China is of opinion that the Japanese bombers will shortly receive the biggest surprise of the war, the Chinese Government having ordered a number of American Curtiss-Wright interceptor monoplane fighters. // The machine concerned is known as the CW-21 and has the following characteristics: Initial rate of climb, 5,000 ft/min; climb to 10,000 ft, 2.8min; climb to 20,000 ft, less than 6 min; service ceiling, 35,000 ft; top speed, over 300 mph; normal gross weight, 4,092 lb. The armament comprises [1x0.30" Colt-Browning] with 500 rounds of ammunition and [1x0.5" Colt-Browning] with 200 rounds. // The pilot's seat is armoured to deflect bullets coming from behind and below. // The engine is a 9-cylinder Wright Cyclone with a two-speed supercharger and drives a constant-speed Hamilton airscrew. // Use is made of the new Curtiss-Wright 'tell-tale' instrument panel which is designed immediately to attract the pilot's attention to improper operating conditions and to indicate the specific item or items at fault." (Flight Magazine 03/02/1939 p.223)

-- the V-11 formed the basis of the Soviet BSh-1 attack aircraft in game ... which eventually became the IL-2

-- "...semi-monocoque stressed-skin structure of elliptical cross-section, incorporating an internal bomb-bay. A continuous four-section canopy joined the two cockpits and the stepped aft section of the canopy was pivoted at its base to permit deployment of an aft-firing machine gun. The fuselage structure included four strong longerons but no stringers and the metal skin was of 1.5-2.5mm thickness." (Andersson, 259)

-- "Originally the V-11 had no armor protection for the crew, power plant or fuel tanks" [the BSh-1 added armor] (Andersson, 259)

-- "...attack bomber based on the design of the Vultee V1 ... first flight September 17 1935 ... second prototype V-11A ready by October 9 1935 ... order for 30 placed by the Chinese Nationalist Government ... shipped between July 1937 and April 1938, all without engines and the later batches as sub-assemblies and parts which were assembled at Shanghai and Hangkow. The Wright R-1820-G2 850hp engines were acquired separately and this powerplant resulted in the designation V11-G. In service at Hangkow with the 14th Squadron, an international unit of American and French pilots and Chinese gunners, they saw limited action against Japanese forces in 1938." (Bowers, 156)

V-11 design lineage to Ilyushin IL-2

-- The V-11-GB variant was not used in China, but was studied by the Soviets as a basis for the armored BSh-1 development, arriving eventually at Ilyushin IL-2.

-- "The V11-GB attack-bomber had a third crew member in the lower aft fuselage, who acted as a bomb-aimer/camera operator and, in a prone rearward-facing position, as a second gunner with a retractable 7.62mm gun. Four more 7.62mm guns were wing-mounted. Four were acquired by the Soviet Union along with a license to manufacture the type. The first was flown on January 31 1937 [and again February 26 1937] ... both with -G2 engines. The other two were delivered engineless and the first was dismantled for parts. At least thirty-one were built (some reports suggest thirty-five) as the BSh-1 at the Moscow Menzhinskii factory up to December 1938 with a M-62 920hp (license-built Cyclone). With armor plate the Bronirovanny Shturmovik-1 (armored attacker 1) had a reduced performance and was rejected by VVS.

-- V-11-GB variant added a third crew member as bomb-aimer, observation windows in rear fuselage sides for bomb aiming, and may have reduced wing armament to 2x7.62mm (Andersson)

V-12

-- first flight September 13 1938 as model AB-2 ... "Incorporating the Twin Wasp R-1830-S1C3, it featured a streamlined canopy faired into a deeper rear fuselage, a fully -- instead of partially -- retractable tailwheel, and two 12.7mm and two 7.62mm guns. China ordered 26 aircraft, designated V-12C, with the Wright GR-1820-G205B 1100hp. The prototype flew in February 1940 but was damaged in a taxiing accident on January 25 1941, and was still stored at Nashvile in August 1944. The other 25 were shipped as parts for assembly by CAMCO at Loiwing. China also ordered 52 V-12D's with Wright GR-2600-A5B 1600hp and these had a similar canopy and fuselage shape to the V-11, but a taller fin and rudder. One pattern aircraft was shipped to China in 1940 but few aircraft had been completed locally before the factory was bombed by the Japanese on October 26 1940. Production resumed on behalf of the Chinese by Hindustan Aircraft Ltd at Bangalore in India, but only three were completed. [some found their way to Pakistan]. (Bowers, 156-156)

-- "...entirely of metal construction, the wing being of steel and duralumin with duralumin skinning, and the corrugated skinning of the fuselage gave place to a smooth duralumin covering." (Green, 87)

-- one of the last biplane fighters with non-retractable undercarriage (Andersson, 283)

-- over 300 built for the Royal Air Force and for export to Belgium, China, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal, Sweden; also used by the air forces of Finland, Egypt, Iraq, Ireland, South Africa (Andersson, 283)

-- [Gladiator Mk. I and II could be better used for Sweden because they ordered more and ordered both versions (37 Mk I, 18 Mk II)] (Green, 247)

Notes:
-- "Although remembered as the first Japanese light bomber fitted with double-row air-cooled engine, variable-pitch propeller, internal bomb-bay and split flaps, the Ki-30 cannot boast any claim to fame. Its operational career was inconspicuous as it served mainly in China at a time when little or no enemy opposition faced the IJA, but, being a remarkably easy aircraft to fly and maintain and possessing few or no vices, the Ki-30 was long remembered by its crews." (Francillon, 164)
-- "The Ki-30 began its operational career on the Chinese mainland in 1938 where it proved to be one of the Japanese Army's most reliable aircraft, and losses caused by enemy aircraft were low as it operated within the range of the Ki-27 fighter." (Francillon, 167)

Mitsubishi Ki-51(~1939; captured by China ___)

Mitsubishi Ki-51 -- "Sonia"

Production

Airframe

Engine

Speed

Armament

Bombs

2

Ki-51 prototype

MitsubishiZuisei15 Ha-26-II 940hp

424 km/h @ 3000m

2x7.7mm Type 89 (W)

1x7.7mm Type 89 rear

200-250 kg

11

Ki-51 service trials

MitsubishiZuisei15 Ha-26-II 940hp

424 km/h @ 3000m

2x7.7mm Type 89 (W)

1x7.7mm Type 89 rear

200-250 kg

2372

Ki-51

MitsubishiZuisei15 Ha-26-II 940hp

424 km/h @ 3000m

2x12.7mm Type 1 (W)

1x7.7mm Type 89 rear

200-250 kg

3

Ki-71

MitsubishiKinsei Ha-112-II 1500hp

470 km/h @ 3000m

2x20mm Ho-5 (W)

1x7.7mm Type 89 rear

200-250 kg

*details above are Japanese development -- see here for more current info

Notes:

-- "Japanese involvement on the Chinese mainland, and the continuous state of guerrilla warfare faced by their ground forces there between late 1937 and August 1945, led to the requirement for counter-insurgency aircraft for use against small mobile Chinese resistance units." (Bueschel, 156)

-- Ki-30 and Ki-32 competed for the same role, and Ki-51 was developed from Ki-30. (Francillon, Bueschel)

-- "As compared to its forerunner [Ki-30], the new aircraft, designated Ki-51, was to be smaller, and emphasis was placed on maneuverability, protection, and ability to operate from short fields close to front lines." (Francillon, 178).

-- "Use of the fixed landing gear on the Ki-51 may have seemed archaic, but it had a very practical purpose: it kept the aircraft relatively simple to maintain at fields deep in China." (Bueschel, 156)

-- the final (proposed) engine of Ki-51 (Ha-112-II) is also found in the Ki-45/96 and Ki-102. It was to be used in a modified Ki-51 (dubbed Ki-71 Army Experimental Tactical Reconnaisance Plane) that also featured retractable undercarriage. Though the design was not accepted for production, the Allies discovered it and assigned it a new code name, "Edna." (Francillon)

-- [having trouble finding the exact amount used in China, if any; it may be that it was given first to RAF then to China, or French Air Force then to China; or else it may be that the A-17 has been confused with the Northrop Gamma from which the A-17 was derived. This unattributed photo described as a "Northop Nomad in Chinese service" may be the source of the error. It is actually a Tachikawa Ki-55 (look at the wheels and tail). Moving A-17 to alternate list until evidence shows up]

-- "As the performance of the Gamma 2A and 2B exceeded substantially that of the Curtiss Shrike, the U.S. Army Air Corps' then current attack aircraft, Northrop had decided early in 1933 to undertake as a private venture, the development of an attack version of the Gamma. Retaining the wings and trousered undercarriage of the earlier aircraft, the Gamma 2C was fitted with a new fuselage housing a pilot and radio operator/gunner under an enclosed canopy located further forward to improve visibility ... [further modifications of the Gamma 2C led to Gamma 2F, which led to the A-17 and A-17A; not to be confused with the earlier Gamma 2E, 2EC, 2ED which were designations made for the delivery to China]" (Francillon, 127-138, 195-208)

-- " ... [A-17] differed from the production prototype in being fitted with three-segment perforated dive-brakes extending between the ailerons [pictured above] ... first production delivery 23 December 1935, last production delivery 5 January 1937 [delivery date to China needs to be confirmed]." (Francillon, 197)

-- "A-17A was a development to feature fully retractable main undercarriage ... required the extension of the inboard wing leading edge to provide space for the wheels [pictured above] ... expected to increase weight by ~104kg ... first flight 16 July 1936, first production delivery 12 August 1936 ... production delays .. a total of 129 A-17A's ordered, last delivered September 1938 ... 93 A-17A's were returned to Douglas on 20 June 1940 for delivery to the French Armee de l'Air." (Francillon, 197-199)

*Gray text above indicates related development not carried out in China

Notes:

-- [design based on the Model 48 Vanguard, which was in turn pattered after the H-1B racer designed for Howard Hughes] ... "With a similar fuselage and the same tail, wing center section and retractable undercarriage (including the tailwheel) as the BC-51 and Model 54 trainers ... armament of ten 7.62mm machine guns was originally proposed, including two firing rearwards aimed by mirrors, but this latter idea was abandoned during development and a conventional layout, two 7.62mm guns in the cowling and four wing-mounted 12.7mm guns." (Bowers, 161)

-- "...the first Vanguard was changed to [Model] 61 [and offered with R-1830-S2C6-G 1050hp Twin Wasp] ... "the engine was almost completely enclosed in a low-drag cowling with a retractable air intake positioned beneath, directly behind the massive spinner ... company demonstrator first flown September 8 1939" ... cooling issues led to the adoption of a conventional R-1830-S1C3-G and cowling ... "In this form the prototype was designated Model 48X and was flown in this configuration for the first time on February 11 1940 ... (Bowers, 161)

-- contract for 144 aircraft agreed by Sweden May 1940 ... to be designated Model 48C ... first flight September 6 1940, production began November 1 ... "both were fitted with -S2C4-G engines." (Bowers, 162)

-- the order for Sweden was denied due to war-time export restrictions, so the aircraft were assigned to Britain under lend-lease for use as trainers in Canada ... Britain released them May 1941 for supply to China ... 144 aircraft were given the USAAF designation P-66 ... delivered between October 24 1941 and April 20 1942 ... "However, the first three aircraft were painted in RAF markings and one carried Swedish roundels for photos." (Bowers, 162)

-- "Official records show that 104 aircraft were received by the Chinese Air Force ... although the actual number that reached China was probably less. About twelve were on strength with the 76th Fighter Squadron, 23rd Fighter Group, at Kunming but saw little use. Others saw action with two Chinese squadrons at An-Su from August 1943. Many were lost on the ground during Japanese attacks and because the overall appearance of the P-66 was similar to the Japanese Oscar or Tojo, at least two were shot down in error by their own side. Still others were placed in caves for storage at Chungking for use in the coming civil war against the communists and many were reported still in crates as late as 1947." (Bowers, 162)

-- "The first shipment for China finally left Long Beach in February 1942, followed by 40 more two months later..." (Bowers, 162)

-- "Many Chinese pilots, having trained on nosewheel Bell P-39's, were unqualified for the P-66 and several were lost during tests or en route; others remained unairworthy at Karachi. One was rebuilt from several wrecked aircraft and flown with an R-1830-92 engine." (Bowers, 162)

-- militarized version of racing aircraft that set a transatlantic record in 1936; to be used as a high-speed fighter-bomber

-- Developed from the Bellanca 28-70 long-range racer which designed and built for James Fitzmaurice of Ireland to be flown in the 1934 MacRobertson Race from England to Australia [aircraft name "Irish Swoop"]. The aircraft was not allowed to enter the race because it hadn't been tested, so it was sent back to the United States for testing but was damaged in a landing accident. Rebuilt 1936 as Bellanca 28-90 with Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp 960hp .. aircraft renamed "Dorothy" and piloted by Captain James A. Mollison for transatlantic speed record ... October 30 1936 crossed Atlantic in 13 hours ... sold to Spanish Republican government 1937, presumed lost in reconnaissance mission. (Abel, 47)

-- "The plane was a low-wing with retractable landing gear ... Most unique was the fact that the wings were braced with guy wires strung from two downward-protruding steel supporting struts beneath the fuselage ... upper "landing" wires ran from the main spars of the wings to the upper portion of the fuselage. The wing had two wooden spars and wooden ribs. It was covered in fabric and had trailing edge flaps. The fuselage was built of welded steel tubing faired to a circular section ... covered with fabric. The tandem cockpits were covered with sliding hatches. The undercarriage used two separate legs. Each wheel incorporated a Cleveland oleo shock absorber. The gear folded well into the wing. Bendix wheels and hydraulic brakes were standard equipment." (Abel, 47)

-- "Provision was made for two fixed guns and one movable gun ... could also carry bomb racks bearing eight 120-lb bombs, a radio and landing flare equipment. Service ceiling 30,500'. If needed it could carry 150 gallons of fuel for a range of 800 miles." (Abel, 47)

-- After complicated trade ordeal with Spanish government, the aircraft ultimately arrived in Hangkow, China in 1937, where bomb racks were fitted ... destroyed by Japanese bombers before even getting airborne. (Abel, 47)

-- the engines highlighted above are those that are currently in game for the P-40 found in the American tech tree (which also has a V-1710-85 1200hp); therefore the P-40's in the Chinese theater have potentially greater capability with the V-1710-73 and V-1710-115.

-- [based on the Allison engines now in game for the P-38, it may be possible to stretch P-40 to cover Tier V and VI with 5 engines, as the P-38 for U.S.A. is stretched across Tier V and VI with 4 engines]

04 Jul 1942 1st American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) end; becomes 23rd Fighter Group as part of China Air Task Force under command of Brigadier General Claire Chennault; subordinate to Tenth Air Force in India

*this is the same engine used by the P-51 in the U.S. tree (2nd of 3 engines); therefore the Chinese P-51 is likely middle-of-the-road with respect to speed

** 261 total P-51D and P-51K; 624 total implied for all P-51's

*** a photo reconnaissance version was also used, designated F-6

Also P-51A, P-51B

Notes:

-- "The Nationalist Chinese had four fighter groups equipped with P-51D by the end of 1947, making it the major fighter in the Nationalist Air Force during the civil war. An additional 95 were earmarked for Nationalists in 1948, and ultimately reached them on Taiwan" (Bueschel, 161)

-- Bueschel claims that whole squadrons of Nationalist P-51D's were captured by the Communists during the summer of 1949, and that they were the standard PLAAF fighter in the closing months of the Chinese civil war.

-- "In the immediate postwar years, the Soviet Union exported substantial number of Yak-9U's and Yak-9P's ... China ... was a recipient of a number of Yak-9P's ..." (Green, 602)

-- "... quickly became Russia's major export fighter and it soon showed up in just about every country receiving military aid from the Soviet Union in the late 1940's and early 1950's" (Bueschel, 210)

-- "... became a standard fighter of the PLAAF in 1950, just prior to the Korean War." (Bueschel, 210)

-- "... considerably smaller and lighter than the North American P-51D, an aircraft with which it was often compared." (Bueschel, 210)

-- all-metal construction (Bueschel, 210)

-- "P" designation = "Pushyechnyi" meaning "cannon armament"

-- China later gave some Yak-9P's to North Korea; "A Yak-9P of the North Korean Air Force was the first Communist aircraft to fly over the 38th parallel in June, 1950, dramatically announcing the start of the Korean War." (Bueschel, 210)

-- "By late 1947 negotiations were underway between the Nationalists and Canada for 150 Mosquitoes at a price of $10,000 each. Ultimately some 250 were shipped to China, where they served in the civil war, with their last stand being made in round-the-clock Mosquito raids against the mainland from the last remaining Nationalist bases on the island of Hainan in February 1950." (Bueschel, 120)

-- "A substantial number of the Canadian Mosquito bombers and fighters fell into Red Chinese hands." (Bueschel, 120)

^ Kangwan airfield is in Shanghai, roughly midway between Beijing and Taiwan (approximately 1200km from Beijing)

Notes:

-- P-47D flown by USAAF in China beginning April 1944, to defend B-29 bomber bases against Japanese aircraft (Bueschel, 173)

-- after the war, 3 squadrons of P-47D and a few of the faster P-47N purchased by Nationalists for use in the civil war; many went to Taiwan; those that didn't were captured by the PLA (Bueschel, 173-174)

-- Not a favorite because it used 50% more fuel than the P-51, and all aviation gas in China during the war years had to be flown in over the "hump" from India (Bueschel, 173)

-- "...developed to produce a fighter closely resembling the Gloster E.1/44 in configuration and armed with four fixed 20mm cannon in the nose." (James, 212)

-- developed to CXP-1001 below

-- "The Chinese Nationalist Government was eager to modernize its Air Force and in mid 1946 sent missions to both the United States and Great Britain. The British Mission was split into three with one section investigating the design and construction of a jet fighter, the second a bomber and the third a jet engine. Negotiations brought proposals to collaborate with Gloster on the fighter. An agreement dated July 18 1946 stated that, as part of a plan to assist the build-up of a Chinese aircraft industry, 30 Chinese personnel were to be given facilities for 12 months instruction at the Design and Drawing Offices at Hucclecote. After six months, the Chinese Government could request Gloster to design and built three prototype fighter aircraft to a specification supplied by China and agreed by the firm. The aircraft were to have Rolls-Royce engines and be delivered in 30 months. China then had the option of acquiring the manufacturing rights to the airplane." (Buttler, 123)

-- "The 30 trainees arrived in September ... during these early days security aspects presented formidable difficulties. For example, the Gloster Meteor and E.1/44 Ace fighters and Rolls AJ.65 and Nene II engines were all secret with little likelihood of information on them being cleared for the Chinese ... Approval of a manufacturing license for the Nene I was given but, as a result of misgivings expressed by the Air Ministry, Rolls-Royce was asked to defer completion of the contract for as long as possible. In November the Chinese Government asked Gloster to prepare a contract for the design of a single Nene powered fighter aircraft to be schemed with the assistance of the Chinese draftsmen." (Buttler, 123)

-- "Gloster requested Ministry permission to adapt to Chinese requirements the E.1/44 aircraft already building, but not to go into production, and this was agreed (the proposal was called CXP-102, dated May 14 1947). But Colonel Ku, who conducted the negotiations with Gloster, wished to secure a more advanced design in view of the length of time needed to get a Chinese factory in operation. The Ministry refused because it objected to an overseas Air Force being equipped with a British design comparable to or in advance of that currently in UK service and, with available design capacity in the UK limited and the E.1/44 rejected, Gloster was to be invited to prepare a design to one of the specifications (F.43 and 44/46) shortly to be released. The Foreign Office opposed exporting arms to China because of the conflict between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) and the Communists, but did not object to a manufacturing license as production was at least two or three years away." (Buttler, 124)

-- "In the end, the E.1/44 was thoroughly redesigned as the CXP-1001 though, at one stage in late 1946, the Meteor and Nene Vampire were also considered as alternatives by the MoS. The biggest change from the E.1/44 was the nose intake ....[detailed specs] .... CXP-1001 was considered a fairly efficient design, power coming from a single 5000 lbf Nene engine. Four 20mm Hispano cannon were placed in the nose, two above and two below the intake, and top speed was expected to be 965 km/h @ 3048m (600mph @ 10,000') with sea level rate of climb 1829m/min (6000'/min). (Buttler, 124)

-- "Progress was slow and by early 1949, with just two prototypes on order, only a mock-up and some components had been manufactured. By now the Nationalists were suffering at the hands of the Communists and on February 3 Colonel Lin contacted Air Marshal Coryton to inform him that the contract was to be cancelled and all work cleared up by the month's end. (This at last allowed Gloster to increase Drawing Office strength on the F.4/48). Gloster received confirmation to discontinue work on February 28 except for the completion and dispatch of unfinished drawings, a model and part of the mock-up." (Buttler, 124)

-- "In fact, after the Chinese Communist takeover in 1949 the project continued in Formosa, but release of drawings and components was frozen in October 1950 after Nationalists attacked a British merchant ship, the Achises. On November 25 1952 Gloster decided to dispose of all remaining material without consulting the Chinese Central People's Government. The MoS said this should be acceptable as the aircraft was now an out of date design, but also stated it was not responsible for the firm's actions (Buttler, 124)

-- La-11 was a longer-range variant of the La-9; "... fundamentally similar, but provision made to attach auxiliary fuel tanks at the wingtips ... [and] the ventral oil cooler was incorporated in the engine cowling ..." (Green, 329)

-- La-11 was the last piston-engine fighter from the Lavochkin bureau (Green, 329)

-- the F-86 on display in the China Aviation Museum has the markings of Pakistan, not Taiwan (defection to PLAAF); interesting because the Pakistan Air Force split from India, analogous to Taiwan split from China

Somehow I don't find this interesting at all. I'm seeing an awful lot of copypaste planes. I never approved of the Chinese Chi Ha, so when the Japanese version came out I was really turned off because the tank already exists.

Well I'm honestly disappointed but what the heck, it has always been about the money. As long as they get the markings right then I'm fine with it. Aircraft like the P-51 officially served with the ROC, whereas the PLAAF merely captured them and as such shouldn't count. I would've said the same for the M5A1 Stuart in WoT.

-- The project is essentially done; Tier 1 variable still needs to be considered closely, that will be done soon.

-- technological progression from ROCAF to PLAAF is not possible, so it is instead a political transition via aircraft of similar roles known to have served both factions. More on that later.

-- captured Japanese aircraft have been sidelined for several reasons:

--- 1) chronology doesn't fit with the rest of the progression; aircraft captured at the end of the war would be retro-filling earlier tiers, when in reality those aircraft were not actually prominent

--- 2) very difficult to know which variants were actually captured and used; a playable progression would likely have to rely on very detailed research in Chinese, or reasonable fiction, and I'm not going there.

--- 3) cannibalizing the Japanese Army tree wouldn't be wise anyway before it is introduced for the Japanese; more will likely be indicated here once it is revealed there