While the vast majority of whites are centrally middle-class, the majority of African Americans are considered working-class. In terms of income, the narrowest view of a household with a middle-class income is considered $39,100 to $62,000, while a more generous view is $20,291 to $100,000. Anything around $40,000 is seen as the lower end of the middle-class household income. In 2009, the majority of white household incomes was around $54,461, which is considered a centrally middle-class income. On the other hand, the majority of black household incomes was $32,584, which is viewed as a working class income.[4]

As of the 2010 Census, black households had a median income of $32,068,[5] which places the median black household within the second income quintile.[5] 27.3% of black households earn an income between $25,000 and $50,000, 15.2% earn between $50,000 and $75,000, 7.6% earn between $75,000 and $100,000, and 9.4% earn more than $100,000.[5]

Many African Americans had limited opportunities for advancement to middle class status prior to 1961 because of racial discrimination, segregation, and the fact that most lived in the rural South. In 1960, forty-three percent of the white population completed high school, while only twenty percent of the black population did the same. African Americans had little to no access to higher education, and only three percent graduated from college. Those blacks who were professionals were mainly confined to serving the African American population. Outside of the black community, they often worked in unskilled industrial jobs. Black women who worked were frequently domestic servants. However, black women in the post-slavery emerging middle class also worked as teachers, nurses, businesswomen, journalists and other professionals. [12]

Economic growth, public policy, black skill development, and the civil rights movement all contributed to the surfacing of a larger black middle class. The civil rights movement helped to remove barriers to higher education. As opportunity for African Americans expanded, blacks began to take advantage of the new possibilities. Homeownership has been crucial in the rise of the black middle class, including the movement of African Americans to the suburbs, which has also translated into better educational opportunities. By 1980, over 50% of the African American population had graduated from high school and eight percent graduated from college. In 2006, 86% of blacks between age 25 and 29 had graduated from high school and 19% had completed a bachelor's degrees.[13] As of 2003, the percentage of black householders is 48%, compared to 43% in 1990.[14]

The rise to the middle class for African Americans throughout the 1960s, however, leveled off and began to decline in the following decades due to multiple recessions that struck America throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Blacks and other lower-class groups suffered the brunt of those recessions.[15] In addition, with beliefs in "reverse racism" prevailing, aiding programs that were enacted during the Civil Rights Movement to improve the state of the black community began being heavily opposed and overturned by the late 1970s and into the 1980s. There is also evidence to suggest the wealth gap has been exacerbated by the housing market bubble in 2006 and the recession that followed from late 2007 to mid-2009, which took a far greater toll on depleting minority wealth.[16] According to Inequality.org "the median black family is actually only worth $1,700 when you deduct these durables. In contrast, the median white family holds $116,800 of wealth using the same accounting methods. Some historical context: In South Africa during apartheid, the median black family held about 7 percent of typical white South African family net worth. Today, using Wolff’s analysis, the median African American family holds a mere 1.5 percent of median white American family wealth. As shown on Eurweb - Electronic Urban Report" "Only 5% of African American Households Have More than $350,000 in Net Worth" According to the Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, of the 14 million black households, only 5% have more than $350,000 in net worth, and less than 1% of black families have over a million in net assets.

As of 1999, whites and blacks similarly situated within the "educational middle class" live in distinct wealth worlds. Whereas educationally middle-class whites possessed $111,000 in median net worth, educationally middle-class black families had only $33,500; in terms of assets, the disparity was $56,000 to $15,000. Looking at only "the occupational middle-class", an equally pronounced gap is visible: middle-class whites had $123,000 in median net worth and $60,000 in median net financial assets compared to $26,500 and $11,200 for middle-class African Americans.[17] Across the various categories that comprise the middle class, white families possess "between three and five times as much wealth as equally achieving black middle class families." For each dollar of income a family earns, white families earn $3.25 in net worth and black families accumulate just under $2 of net worth for each dollar earned.[18]

The Huffington Post article "America's Financial Divide" added context to racial wealth inequality stating "Relying on data from Credit Suisse and Brandeis University's Institute on Assets and Social Policy, the Harvard Business Review in the article "How America's Wealthiest Black Families Invest Money" recently took the analysis above a step further. In the piece, the author stated "If you're white and have a net worth of about $356,000, that's good enough to put you in the 72nd percentile of white families. If you're black, it's good enough to catapult you into the 95th percentile." This means 28 percent of the total 83 million white homes, or over 23 million white households, have more than $356,000 in net assets. While only 700,000 of the 14 million black homes have more than $356,000 in total net worth...According to the Slate.com article "The Wealth Gap Between Blacks and Whites is Even More Enormous Than You Think", the median net worth of white families is $116,000. This indicates 41 million white households across the nation have over $116,000 in net worth. In comparison, nearly 40 percent or 5.6 million African American homes in the U.S. have zero or negative net worth. In addition, when you deduct the family car as an asset, the median net worth of black families in America is only $1,700."

A recent piece on Inequality.org "Black Wealth Hardly Exists, Even When You Include NBA, NFL and Rap Stars" stated this about the difference between black middle class families, and white middle class families. "Going even further into the data, a recent study by the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS) and the Corporation For Economic Development (CFED) found that it would take 228 years for the average black family to amass the same level of wealth the average white family holds today in 2016. All while white families create even more wealth over those same two hundred years. In fact, this is a gap that will never close if America stays on its current economic path. According to the Institute on Assets and Social Policy, for each dollar of increase in average income an African American household saw from 1984 to 2009 just $0.69 in additional wealth was generated, compared with the same dollar in increased income creating an additional $5.19 in wealth for a similarly situated white household."

Author Lilian Singh wrote on why the perceptions about black life created by media are misleading in the American Prospect piece "Black Wealth On TV: Realities Don’t Match Perceptions". "Black programming features TV shows that collectively create false perceptions of wealth for African-American families. The images displayed are in stark contrast to the economic conditions the average black family is battling each day."

Most contemporary wealth is built on the concept of home equity. Present-day income is thus an insufficient measure of household socioeconomic status.[19] Looking at disparities between wealth accumulation among African Americans and whites paints a far more accurate picture of racial socioeconomic differences. The estimated median wealth of black households is $35,000, while white households estimated their parent's median wealth at $150,000 [18] Thus, a middle-income African American who makes an impressive salary may still be disadvantaged in light of asset poverty and deprivation.

For African Americans who were historically denied access to housing wealth, they face a substantial wealth disparity compared to whites. Asset poverty affects an African American's ability to procure other forms of middle class lifestyle and other forms of wealth. Asset poverty is built on an intergenerational nature of wealth, in which fewer assets are bequeathed to future generations, crippling the aggregate amount of wealth accumulated in a given family.[20] Wealth is transferable from generation to generation, allowing people to generate more wealth, borrow money for investments, and to invest in education, housing, and future wealth. The history and legacy of discrimination still has ripple effects crippling the black middle class. One policy that can potentially enable African Americans to rise out of asset poverty is the implementation of Individual Development Account (IDA) programs that specifically target people of color and help them use matched savings to acquire assets like their first home, a post-secondary education and small businesses.[21]

In a project conducted by the University of Washington's Civil Rights and Labor History Program in 2010, it was found that more than 400 properties in Seattle suburbs alone contained now illegal discriminatory language that formerly excluded several ethnic groups.[22]

Another barrier is discriminatory mortgage lending patterns and redlining. In applying for a home mortgage, African American and Hispanic customers are 82% more likely to be turned down for a loan than were white customers.[23] Black renters also favored a 10.7 percent chance of being totally excluded from housing made available to comparable white renters and a 23.3 percent chance of learning about fewer apartments.[24]

Discrimination in housing practices and residential segregation leads to substantial wealth gaps across races. Home ownership is typically a source of insurance against poverty. However, for blacks and Hispanics, home ownership rates have never made it past 50%.[25]

Another problem facing lower middle-class African Americans is their close proximity and ties to poor African Americans. Most of the lower middle-class black neighborhoods in the U.S. are adjacent to poor, struggling, urban areas and neighborhoods. For the most part, lower middle-class African Americans and poor African Americans share the same communities and environments. This is in part due to African Americans being much more likely to have poor family members, as much of today's middle-aged and elderly African Americans are very likely to have grown up in poverty. In fact, due to previous generations of racial discrimination, the African American rise to the lower middle-class is a development that largely only took off by the 1960s during the height of the Civil Rights Movement.

Because of the close living quarters between lower middle-class African Americans and poor African Americans, there is high potential for lower middle-class African Americans to develop friendships, relationships, and ties to poor African Americans and find themselves sharing the same urban environments. As a result, sociologists have found that the African American community's middle class has a greater potential than do middle-class whites of being involved with crimes and falling victim to crimes. As for centrally middle-class African Americans, they not only make up a racial class that is relatively scant in number, but they make up a racial class that is left with the unenviable options of either living in working-class black neighborhoods; adjacent to struggling, urban environments; or in suburban areas where they are vastly outnumbered by whites.

Segregated housing patterns also keep African Americans far from suburbanizing jobs and associated job information networks.[26] This mismatch between residential locations and employment reduce the employment options for middle- and lower-class African Americans.[27] These segregated housing patterns are supported by discriminatory mortgage lending practices and overt attempts to keep suburban neighborhoods racially exclusive. Although most African Americans are not living below the poverty line, what is middle-class for most white Americans is vastly different to what is middle-class for most African Americans. The few black professionals in all-white neighborhoods are not representative of the African American middle class by any stretch. Rather, most African Americans are lower middle-class living from paycheck to paycheck, employed in such jobs as retail, and facing many problems and circumstances worse off even than poor whites. Hence, what is vastly missing from the African American community is a cohesive, central middle class.

There is a significant black suburbanization lag, in which African Americans are less likely to adopt suburban residential patterns.[28] Because of institutional housing discrimination and discriminatory lending practices, the black middle class is more likely to reside in neighborhoods composed mainly of African Americans. These neighborhoods tend to be close to inner-city neighborhoods and replicate the problems of the inner city.

Hispanics and Asians, on the other hand, are likely to be suburbanized at far higher rates than African Americans. Even when African Americans do reside in contemporary suburbs, they are less likely to gain access to the same range of benefits and amenities as their white peers.

Black suburbs tend to be areas of low socioeconomic status and population density. Many are former manufacturing suburbs with weak tax bases, poor municipal services, and high levels of debt, compromising the secure middle-class lifestyle of its African American inhabitants.[29] These black middle-class neighborhoods also tend to have inflated house values and lower home equity because racial segmentation of suburban housing markets restricts demand for housing in black suburbs. The low socioeconomic character of these black middle-class neighborhoods, in turn, undermines the ability of the black middle class to build wealth on depreciated and undervalued black suburbs.[citation needed]

One reason for the racial achievement gap is lack of quality schools in black middle-class neighborhoods.[citation needed] Minority children tend to be concentrated in low-achieving, highly segregated schools.[citation needed] Quality of public education in residential areas across the United States is linked to neighborhood socioeconomic status. Because middle-class African Americans tend to reside in segregated neighborhoods of lower socioeconomic character[citation needed], they often attend struggling public schools which cannot provide the same academic resources as quality suburban schools.[citation needed]

Historically, programs designed for black school systems to succeed were all dropped by the early 1980s.[citation needed] Monetary funds were instead put into suburban schools, bolstering white flight, and causing black schools to deteriorate in quality.[citation needed] The disparity in expenditures on education between inner cities and affluent suburbs exist almost entirely due to the system of property taxes which most school systems rely on for funding.[30] By attending spatially segregated school systems, children of the black middle class are locked out of the same educational and employment opportunities as their white counterparts. In general, minority students are more likely to reside in lower or middle class inner city neighborhoods, meaning minority students are more likely to attend poorly funded schools based on the districting patterns within the school system. Schools in lower-income districts tend to employ less qualified teachers and have fewer educational resources.[31] Research shows that teacher effectiveness is the most important in-school factor affecting student learning. Good teachers can actually close or eliminate the gaps in achievement on the standardized tests that separate white and minority students.[32]

The culture and environment in which children are raised may play a role in the achievement gap. For example, many black middle-class households are headed by a single parent who may not have the time to devote to a child's education.[citation needed] Another explanation that has been suggested for racial and ethnic differences in standardized test performance is that standardized IQ tests and testing procedures are culturally biased toward European-American middle class knowledge and experiences.[33] Social psychologist Claude Steele suggests that minority children and adolescents may also experience stereotype threat—the fear that they will be judged to have traits associated with negative appraisals and/or stereotypes of their race or ethnic group which produces test anxiety and keeps them from doing as well as they could on tests. According to Steele, minority test takers experience anxiety, believing that if they do poorly on their test they will confirm the stereotypes about inferior intellectual performance of their minority group. As a result, a self-fulfilling prophecy begins, and the child performs at a level beneath his or her inherent abilities. Some researchers[34] also hypothesize that in some cases, minorities, especially African American students, may stop trying in school because they do not want to be accused of "acting white" by their peers.[35] It has also been suggested that some minority students simply stop trying because they do not believe they will ever see the true benefits of their hard work. As some researchers point out, minority students may feel little motivation to do well in school because they do not believe it will pay off in the form of a better job or upward social mobility.[35] By not trying to do well in school, such students engage in a rejection of the achievement ideology—that is, the idea that working hard and studying long hours will pay off for students in the form of higher wages or upward social mobility.

Achieving higher education is strongly correlated with the affluence of African Americans and their access to professional jobs. Recently, there has been a growth of historically black colleges to serve the black middle class in terms of higher education prospects. Historically black colleges and universities were formed because people classified as black were not allowed to attend existing colleges and universities for the most part. Despite systematic inequalities and discrimination, HBCUs were able to provide a culturally affirming, psychologically supportive academic environment for ambitious black middle-class students. Research shows historically black colleges and universities contribute significantly to the black middle class and the nation's economy. In spite of fewer resources and lower endowment funds, historically black colleges and universities produce an impressive number of graduates in education and STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields. However, debates linger on the effectiveness of historically black colleges and universities. Specific concerns are whether historically black colleges and universities provide equivalent quality of education and whether they foster racial exclusivity.[citation needed]

Sub-SaharanAfrican immigrants to the United States tend to have higher income levels than African Americans due to their higher education levels. (Sub-Saharan Africans are distinguished from African Americans, who are the descendants of America's black slaves.) In addition, African immigrants have the highest educational attainment rates of all American ethnic groups, with higher levels of completion than the commonly stereotyped Asian Americanmodel minority.[36][37] Like most Asian Americans, Africans migrated to America in the last few decades after the Civil Rights Movement era ended. Prior to the mid-1970s, there were very few non-white immigrants because of immigration laws, banning non-whites; that is, up until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which was an extension of, and made possible by way of the Civil Rights Movement.[38] Despite this, U.S. immigration policies are still discriminatory insofar as favoring immigrant candidates that have professional skills and higher educational levels over the many immigrant candidates who do not. In addition to this, it was found in a study that non-Mexican immigrants who can't simply cross the border, but must be able to pay for transatlantic journey, usually come to the U.S. already educated with middle-class backgrounds.[39][40]

In 1997, 24.6 percent of all adult white Americans and 13.3 percent of all black Americans held a bachelor's degree, while 48.9 percent of African immigrants held a bachelor's degree. Though the U.S. Census Bureau counts white populations who emigrated from Africa in the same category as black Africans, it shows African immigrants were more than three times as likely to hold a bachelor's degree than native-born African Americans.[41] Despite the high educational achievement of African immigrants, they still tend to have lower median household incomes compared to other immigrant groups. Many African immigrants hold strong ties to their home countries and send remittances to their relatives.[citation needed]

As of 2010, the poverty rate among non-Hispanic whites was 9.9%, whereas the poverty rate among African Americans was 27.4%.[42]

Long-term poverty is rare for whites.[43] Almost 9 out of 10 long-term poor children are African American and more than 6 out of 10 long-term poor children have spent time in single-parent families.[44] Poverty in a child's most formative years is critical to shaping a child's future attainments in terms of test scores, schooling, fertility choices, labor market outcomes and incomes.[45] Research has shown that parents who devote all of their time to meeting consumption needs have little time, money, and energy left to improve their own lives and their children's education and skills.

1.
Black Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor

2.
American middle class
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The American middle class is a social class in the United States. Depending on the model used, the middle class constitutes anywhere from 25% to 66% of households. One of the first major studies of the class in America was White Collar, The American Middle Classes. Later sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert of Hamilton College commonly divide the class into two sub-groups. Constituting roughly 15% to 20% of households is the upper or professional middle class consisting of highly educated, salaried professionals, constituting roughly one third of households is the lower middle class consisting mostly of semi-professionals, skilled craftsmen and lower-level management. Middle-class persons commonly have a standard of living, significant economic security, considerable work autonomy. Members of the middle class belong to groups which overlap with each other. Overall, middle-class persons, especially upper-middle-class individuals, are characterized by conceptualizing, creating and consulting, thus, college education is one of the main indicators of middle-class status. Largely attributed to the nature of middle-class occupations, middle class tend to emphasize independence, adherence to intrinsic standards, valuing innovation. Politically more active than other demographics, college educated middle class professionals are split between the two major parties, Income varies considerably from near the national median to well in excess of US$100,000. Household income figures, however, do not always reflect class status and standard of living, as they are influenced by the number of income earners. It is therefore possible for a large, dual-earner, lower middle class household to out-earn a small, the middle classes are very influential, as they encompass the majority of voters, writers, teachers, journalists, and editors. Most societal trends in the US originate within the middle classes, scholars have a variety of technical measures of who is middle-class. By contrast public opinion has a variety of implicit measures, the definitions seem to stretch quite a great deal depending on the political cause that is being invoked or defended, as one commentator noted, Well, it depends on whom you ask. Everyone wants to believe they are middle class, for people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet. But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord - used to everything from the Earned Income Tax Credit to the estate tax. While the groups overlap, differences between those at the center of both groups are considerable, the lower middle class has lower educational attainment, considerably less workplace autonomy, and lower incomes than the upper middle class. With the emergence of a labor market, the economic benefits

3.
Social class in the United States
–
Social class in the United States is a controversial issue, having many competing definitions, models, and even disagreements over its very existence. Many Americans believe in a simple model that includes the rich, the middle class. More complex models that have been proposed describe as many as a dozen class levels, while others deny the very existence, in the European sense. Most definitions of structure group people according to wealth, income, education, type of occupation. Most of the social classes entirely ignore the existence of black, Hispanic. Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, Joseph Hickey, and James Henslin have proposed class systems with six distinct social classes, some definitions of class look only at numerical measures such as wealth or income. Others take into account qualitative factors, such as education, culture, there is no consensus on which of these variables is essential and which are merely common correlates. Social class is presented as a description of how members of the society have sorted themselves along a continuum of positions varying in importance, influence, prestige. In these models, certain occupations are considered to be desirable and influential, while others are considered to be menial, repetitive, generally, the higher the ranking on such a scale, the higher the skill and education levels required to perform it. Some sociologists consider the income and prestige of higher ranked jobs to simply be incentives to encourage members of society to obtain the skills necessary to perform important work. This is an important mechanism in the theory of capitalism. In other cases, class or status is inherited and those taking the functionalist approach to sociology and economics view social classes as components essential for the survival of complex societies such as American society. Income in the United States is most commonly measured by United States Census Bureau in terms of household or individual. As 82% of all households, 16% of those in the top quintiles, had two income earners the discrepancy between household and personal income is quite considerable. In 2005 the top 95% of income earners made $12,500 or more, personal income is largely the result of scarcity. As individuals who hold higher status positions tend to possess rare skills or assume positions society deems very essential, have higher incomes, overall the median household income was $46,326 in 2005 while the median personal income was $32,140. Per capita household income, the income a household is able to allocate to each member of the household is also an important variable in determining a given standard of living. A high household income may be offset by a household size, thus

4.
Civil Rights Movement
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This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the South. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to immediately to these situations. The 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement witnessed the passage of several pieces of federal legislation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights for minorities, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 removed racial and national barriers and opened the way for non-white immigrants. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing, African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to take action. A wave of inner city riots in black communities from 1964 through 1970 undercut support from the white community. Many popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King, but, some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Before the American Civil War, almost four million blacks were enslaved in the South, only men of property could vote. From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to free labor. Many whites resisted the changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose members attacked black. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant, the U. S. Army, however, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the Federal Government to get involved. Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the clan in fear of war, for more than 60 years, blacks in the South were not able to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government. Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries, during this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the population of the South. The Republican Party—the party of Lincoln—which had been the party that most blacks belonged to, until 1965, the solid South was a one-party system under the Democrats. Outside a few areas, the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state, in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. The invitation was roundly criticized by politicians and newspapers

5.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race

6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option

7.
Household income in the United States
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Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household, or aggregated across a large group such as a county, city, or the whole country. It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a households economic status or to track trends in the US. Household income is measured in various ways, one key measure is the real median level, meaning half of households have income above that level and half below, adjusted for inflation. According to the Federal Reserve, this measure was $56,516 in 2015 and this was the largest one-year percentage increase on record. However, it remained 2. 5% below the 1999 peak of $57,909, the Census Bureau estimated real median household income at $55,775 in 2015, up $2,062 or 3. 8% from the 2014 level of $53,713. Household income varies geographically and by race, the overall median has continued to rise steadily, if slowly, to $57,616 in September 2016 according to one unofficial source that reports monthly versus annually. After falling somewhat due to the Great Recession in 2008 and 2009, inequality rose again during the economic recovery, the residents of the household do not have to be related to the head of the household for their earnings to be considered part of the households income. As households tend to share an economic context, the use of household income remains among the most widely accepted measures of income. The U. S. Census Bureau reported in September 2016 that real median income was $55,775 in 2015. This was the third year with a statistically significant increase by their measure. The U. S. Census Bureau reported in September 2014 that, U. S. real median income was $51,939 in 2013 versus $51,759 in 2012. In 2013, real median income was 8.0 percent lower than in 2007. Real median household income averaged $50,781 from 1964-2013, ranging from a low of $43,558 in 1967 to a high of $56,895 in 1999, the recovery from the 2007-2009 recession had not translated into higher incomes for the typical American family. For instance, the retirement of the Baby Boom generation should push down overall median income, however, analysis of different working age groups indicate a similar pattern of stagnating median income as well. But foreign-produced goods became sharply cheaper, meaning imports climbed and production moved overseas, and computers took over for humans in many manufacturing, clerical, and administrative tasks, eroding middle-class jobs growth and suppressing wages. Another line of analysis, known as compensation, presents a more complete picture of real wages. The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to healthcare costs went up 78% from 2003 to 2013. The marketplace has made a trade-off, expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages, measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970

8.
Sales
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A sale is the exchange of a commodity or money as the price of a good or a service. Sales is activity related to selling or the amount of goods or services sold in a time period. The seller or the provider of the goods or services completes a sale in response to an acquisition, appropriation, requisition or an interaction with the buyer at the point of sale. There is a passing of title of the item, and the settlement of a price, the seller, not the purchaser generally executes the sale and it may be completed prior to the obligation of payment. In common law countries, sales are governed generally by the common law, a person or organization expressing an interest in acquiring the offered item of value is referred to as a potential buyer, prospective customer or prospect. Buying and selling are understood to be two sides of the coin or transaction. Both seller and buyer engage in a process of negotiation to consummate the exchange of values, the exchange, or selling, process has implied rules and identifiable stages. It is implied that the process will proceed fairly and ethically so that the parties end up nearly equally rewarded. Sometimes, sellers have to use their own experiences when selling products with appropriate discounts, from a management viewpoint it is thought of as a part of marketing, although the skills required are different. Sales often forms a separate grouping in a structure, employing separate specialist operatives known as salespersons. Selling is considered by many to be a sort of persuading art, selling is the profession-wide term, much like marketing defines a profession. Recently, attempts have been made to understand who is in the sales profession. There are many articles looking at marketing, advertising, promotions, two common terms used to describe a salesperson are Farmer and Hunter. The reality is that most professional sales people have a little of both, a hunter is often associated with aggressive personalities who use aggressive sales technique. In terms of sales methodology a hunter refers to a person whose focus is on bringing in and this process is called sales capturing. An example is a commodity such as a long distance sales person, shoe sales person. Their job is to find and convert buyers, a sales farmer is someone who creates sales demand by activities that directly influence and alter the buying process. Many believe that the focus of selling is on the agents involved in the exchange between buyer and seller

9.
Blue-collar worker
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In English-speaking countries, a blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs non-agricultural manual labour. Often something is physically being built or maintained, in contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a worker whose labour is related to customer interaction, entertainment. Many occupations blend blue, white or pink industry categorizations, blue-collar work is often paid hourly wage-labor, although some professionals may be paid by the project or salaried. There is a range of payscales for such work depending upon field of specialty. Industrial and manual workers wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colors conceal potential dirt or grease on the clothing, helping him or her to appear cleaner. For the same reason, blue is a color for boilersuits which protect a workers clothing. Some blue collar workers have uniforms with the name of the business or the name embroidered or printed on it. Historically the popularity of the color blue among manual labourers contrasts with the popularity of white shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar/white collar color scheme has socio-economic class connotations, however, this distinction has become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour, and the relative increase in low-paying white-collar jobs. The term blue collar was first used in reference to trades jobs in 1924, Alden, a higher level academic education is often not required for many blue-collar jobs. However, certain fields may require specialized training, licensing or certification as well as a school diploma or GED. With the information revolution, Western nations have moved towards a service, many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of jobs in developed countries. Due to this economic osmosis, the rust belt has experienced high unemployment, poverty, blue-collar can be used as an adjective to describe the environment of the blue-collar worker such as a blue-collar neighborhood, restaurant, or bar

10.
White-collar worker
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In many countries, a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work is performed in an office, cubicle, or other administrative setting, many occupations blend blue, white and pink industry categorizations. Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt, employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress business casual or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred, white-collar employees may perform blue-collar tasks. An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers orders or a worker who also performs desk work. A Cochrane systematic review published in 2016 concluded that at present there is low quality evidence that sit-stand desks can reduce sitting at work at the short term. There is no evidence for other types of interventions, also, evidence was lacking on the long term health benefits of such interventions. Knowledge worker Designation of workers by collar color Notes Further reading Mills, white Collar, the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book. New York, Oxford University Press,1956

11.
Health care provider
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A health professional may operate within all branches of health care, including medicine, surgery, dentistry, midwifery, pharmacy, psychology, nursing or allied health professions. A health professional may also be a public/community health expert working for the good of the society. They often work in hospitals, healthcare centres, and other service points, but also in academic training, research. Some provide care and treatment services for patients in private homes, many countries have a large number of community health workers who work outside formal healthcare institutions. Managers of healthcare services, health technicians, and other assistive personnel. Healthcare practitioners are commonly grouped into health professions, within each field of expertise, practitioners are often classified according to skill level and skill specialization. In addition, unlicensed assistive personnel assist with providing health services as permitted. A mental health practitioner is a worker who offers services for the purpose of improving the mental health of individuals or treating mental illness. These health care providers often deal with the illnesses, disorders, conditions. The most significant difference across categories of health practitioners is education. A maternal and newborn health practitioner is a worker who deals with the care of women and their children before, during and after pregnancy. Such health practitioners include obstetricians, midwives, obstetrical nurses and many others, one of the main differences between these professions is in the training and authority to provide surgical services and other life-saving interventions. A surgical practitioner is a professional who specializes in the planning and delivery of a patients perioperative care, including during the anaesthetic, surgical. Medical diagnosis providers are health workers responsible for the process of determining which disease or condition explains a persons symptoms and it is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. This usually involves a team of healthcare providers in various diagnostic units and these include radiographers, radiologists, medical laboratory scientists, pathologists, and related professionals. A dental care practitioner is a worker who provides care and treatment to promote. These include dentists and dental surgeons, dental assistants, dental auxiliaries, dental hygienists, dental nurses, dental technicians, dental therapists, and related professionals. Care and treatment for the foot, ankle, and lower leg may be delivered by podiatrists, pedorthists, foot health practitioners, podiatric medical assistants, podiatric nurse and others

12.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts

13.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority

14.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators

15.
African American
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor

16.
Racial discrimination
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity

17.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included

18.
High school
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A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages 11 and 16, the systems and terminology remain unique to each country. School building design does not happen in isolation, schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, storage, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the roll of the school. A general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55m2, or more generously 62m2, a general art room for 30 students needs to be 83m2, but 104 m2 for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m2, examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary. The building providing the education has to fulfil the needs of, The students, the teachers, the support staff, the adminstrators. It has to should meet health requirements, minimal functional requirements- such as classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity, textbooks, Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establish building costs. Future plans are audited to ensure that standards are not exceeded. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014 and it said the floor area should be 1050m² +6. 3m²/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7m²/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m², a secondary school, locally may be called high school, junior high school, senior high school. Sweden, gymnasium Switzerland, gymnasium, secondary school, collège or lycée Taiwan, Junior High School, Senior High School, Vocational High School, Military School, in Nigeria, secondary school starts from JSS1 until SSS3. Most students start at the age of 10 or 11 and finish at 16 or 17, Students are required to sit for the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. To progress to university students must obtain at least a credit in Maths, English, in Somalia, secondary school starts from 9th grade until 12th. Students start it when they are around 14 to 15 years of age, Students are required to study Somali and Arabic, with the option of either English or Italian depending on the type of school. Religion, chemistry, physics, biology, physical education, textile, art, design, when secondary school has been completed, students are sent to national training camp before going to either college, or military training. In South Africa, high school begins at grade 8, Students study for five years, at the end of which they write a Matriculation examination

19.
Domestic servants
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A domestic worker or domestic helper is a person who works within the employers household. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food, such work has always needed to be done but before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of labour saving devices, it was physically much harder. Some domestic helpers live within their employers household, in some cases, the contribution and skill of servants whose work encompassed complex management tasks in large households have been highly valued. However, for the most part, domestic work, while necessary, is demanding, although legislation protecting domestic workers is in place in many countries, it is often not extensively enforced. In many jurisdictions, domestic work is regulated and domestic workers are subject to serious abuses. Servant is an older English word for domestic worker, though not all servants worked inside the home, Domestic service, or the employment of people for wages in their employers residence, was sometimes simply called service and has often been part of a hierarchical system. The United Kingdoms Master and Servant Act 1823 was the first of its kind and influenced the creation of domestic laws in other nations. However, before the passing of such Acts servants, and workers in general, had no protection in law, the only real advantage that domestic service provided was the provision of meals, accommodation, and sometimes clothes, in addition to a modest wage. Service was normally an apprentice system with room for advancement through the ranks, the conditions faced by domestic workers have varied considerably throughout history and in the contemporary world. In 2011, the International Labour Organization adopted the Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers. In July 2011, at the annual International Labour Conference, held by the ILO, conference delegates adopted the Convention on Domestic Workers by a vote of 396 to 16, the Convention recognized domestic workers as workers with the same rights as other workers. On 26 April 2012, Uruguay was the first country to ratify the convention, many domestic workers are live-in domestics. Though they often have their own quarters, their accommodations are not usually as comfortable as those reserved for the family members, in some cases, they sleep in the kitchen or small rooms, such as a box room, sometimes located in the basement or attic. Domestic workers may live in their own home, though often they are live-in domestics, meaning that they receive their room. The majority of workers in China, Mexico, India. Employers may require their domestic workers to wear a uniform, livery or other domestic workers clothes when in their employers residence, the uniform is usually simple, though aristocratic employers sometimes provided elaborate decorative liveries, especially for use on formal occasions. In traditional portrayals, the attire of domestic workers especially was typically more formal, on 30 March 2009, Peru adopted a law banning employers from requiring domestic workers to wear uniform at public places. However, it’s not explained which punishments will be given to employers violating the law, chile adopted a similar law in 2014, also banning employers to require domestic workers to wear uniform at public places

20.
Black flight
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While more attention has been paid to this since the 1990s, the movement of blacks to the suburbs has been underway for some time, with nine million people having migrated from 1960 to 2000. Their goals have been similar to those of the middle class, whose out-migration was called white flight, newer housing, better schools for their children. From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of African Americans who lived in the suburbs increased to a total of 39 percent, most who moved to the suburbs after World War II were middle class. Early years of change accelerated in the late 1960s after passage of civil rights legislation ended segregation. Since the 1950s, there began a period of restructuring of industries. In many cases, they are following the movement of jobs to the suburbs, because more African Americans are attaining college degrees, they are better able to find and obtain better-paying jobs and move to the suburbs. Most African-American migrants leaving the northern regions have gone to the New South states, according to a 2007 study, average African-American family income has increased, but the gap with white families has increased slightly. In his After the Fact study, the anthropologist Clifford Geertz documented changes in a city in Morocco, as poor rural migrants moved into the center city during urbanization, the older, more established and wealthier populations moved to the outskirts. In recent decades, such ethnic succession seen first in center cities has been taking place in the suburbs, since the 1960s, many middle-class African-Americans have been moving to the suburbs for newer housing and good schools, just as European Americans had done before them. Right now, the South, more than any region of the country, is living up to that promise. In the last 25 years, for example, the population of Prince Georges County, Maryland, by 2006 it was the wealthiest majority-black county in the nation. Similar to White Americans, African Americans continue to move to distant areas. Charles County, Maryland has become the destination for middle-class black migrants from Washington and other areas, by 2002. Charles County has the black population of any large county in the nation except the Atlanta suburbs. Randallstown near Baltimore has also become a majority-black suburb, in 1950 few northern cities yet had majority or near majority percentages of blacks, nor did southern ones, Washington, DC was 35 percent African American and Baltimore was 40 percent. From 1950 to 1970, the population increased dramatically in Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Newark, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, Kansas City, Cincinnati. By 196075 percent of blacks lived in environments, while whites had been moving to suburbs in large numbers following WWII. Job losses in former industrial cities have often pushed population out, in the 1950s and 1960s, numerous blacks from Chicago began to move to suburbs south of the city to improve their housing

21.
Recession
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In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction which results in a general slowdown in economic activity. Macroeconomic indicators such as GDP, investment spending, capacity utilization, household income, business profits, and inflation fall, while bankruptcies, in the United Kingdom, it is defined as a negative economic growth for two consecutive quarters. Recessions generally occur when there is a drop in spending. This may be triggered by events, such as a financial crisis, an external trade shock. Governments usually respond to recessions by adopting expansionary macroeconomic policies, such as increasing money supply, in a 1979 New York Times article, economic statistician Julius Shiskin suggested several rules of thumb for defining a recession, one of which was two down consecutive quarters of GDP. In time, the rules of thumb were forgotten. Some economists prefer a definition of a 1. 5-2 percentage points rise in unemployment within 12 months, in the United States, the Business Cycle Dating Committee of the National Bureau of Economic Research is generally seen as the authority for dating US recessions. Almost universally, academics, economists, policy makers, and businesses defer to the determination by the NBER for the dating of a recessions onset. In the United Kingdom, recessions are generally defined as two consecutive quarters of economic growth, as measured by the seasonal adjusted quarter-on-quarter figures for real GDP. The exact same recession definition applies for all states of the European Union. These summary measures reflect underlying drivers such as employment levels and skills, household savings rates, corporate investment decisions, interest rates, demographics, when these relationships become imbalanced, recession can develop within the country or create pressure for recession in another country. Policy responses are often designed to drive the economy back towards this ideal state of balance, a severe or prolonged recession is referred to as an economic depression, although some argue that their causes and cures can be different. As an informal shorthand, economists refer to different recession shapes. The type and shape of recessions are distinctive, japan’s 1993–94 recession was U-shaped and its 8-out-of-9 quarters of contraction in 1997–99 can be described as L-shaped. Korea, Hong Kong and South-east Asia experienced U-shaped recessions in 1997–98, recessions have psychological and confidence aspects. For example, if companies expect economic activity to slow, they may reduce employment levels, such expectations can create a self-reinforcing downward cycle, bringing about or worsening a recession. Consumer confidence is one used to evaluate economic sentiment. The term animal spirits has been used to describe the factors underlying economic activity

22.
Wealth gap in the United States
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Wealth inequality in the United States is the unequal distribution of assets among residents of the United States. Wealth includes the values of homes, automobiles, personal valuables, businesses, savings, the gap between the top 10% and the middle class is over 1, 000%, that increases another 1, 000% for the top 1%. The average employee needs to more than a month to earn what the CEO earns in one hour. Although different from income inequality, the two are related, more recently, in 2017, an Oxfam study found that eight rich people, six of them Americans, own as much combined wealth as half the human race. A2011 study found that US citizens across the political spectrum dramatically underestimate the current US wealth inequality, moreover, wealth provides for both short- and long-term financial security, bestows social prestige, and contributes to political power, and can be used to produce more wealth. Hence, wealth possesses an element that awards people the feeling of agency. The accumulation of wealth grants more options and eliminates restrictions about how one can live life, a September 2014 study by Harvard Business School declared that the growing disparity between the very wealthy and the lower and middle classes is no longer sustainable. In 2007, the top 20% wealthiest possessed 80% of all financial assets, in 2007 the richest 1% of the American population owned 35% of the countrys total wealth, and the next 19% owned 51%. Thus, the top 20% of Americans owned 85% of the countrys wealth, in 2011, financial inequality was greater than inequality in total wealth, with the top 1% of the population owning 43%, the next 19% of Americans owning 50%, and the bottom 80% owning 7%. The Great Recession also caused a drop of 36% in median household wealth but a drop of only 11% for the top 1%, according to PolitiFact and others, in 2011 the 400 wealthiest Americans have more wealth than half of all Americans combined. Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had a head start. In September 2012, according to the Institute for Policy Studies, in 2013 wealth inequality in the U. S. was greater than in most developed countries other than Switzerland and Denmark. In the United States, the use of offshore holdings is small compared to Europe. While the statistical problem is European wide, in Southern Europe statistics become even more unreliable, less than a thousand people in Italy have declared incomes of more than 1 million euros. Former Prime Minister of Italy described tax evasion as a national pastime, according to a 2014 Credit Suisse study, the ratio of wealth to household income is the highest it has been since the Great Depression. This period spans both The Great Depression and World War II, events with significant economic consequences and this is called the Great Compression. There is an important distinction between income and wealth, Income refers to a flow of money over time in the form of a rate, wealth is a collection of assets owned. In essence, income is specifically what people receive through work, retirement, the United States Census Bureau formally defines income as received on a regular basis before payments for personal income taxes, social security, union dues, medicare deductions, etc

23.
Racial inequality in the United States
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Racial inequality in the United States refers to social advantages and disparities that affect different races within the United States. These may be manifest in the distribution of wealth, power and these can be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or overall prejudice, especially against minority groups. In social science, racial inequality is typically analyzed as imbalances in the distribution of power, economic resources, and opportunities. Some claim that current racial inequalities in the U. S. have their roots in over 300 years of cultural, economic, physical, legal, and political discrimination based on race. It is hypothesized by some scholars, such as Michelle Alexander, that in the post-Civil Rights era, color-blind racism refers to contemporary racial inequality as the outcome of nonracial dynamics. The types of practices that take place under color blind racism are subtle, institutional and these practices are not racially overt in nature such as racism under slavery, segregation, and Jim Crow laws. This frame is based in liberal ideas such as opportunity, individualism. It uses these ideas as a basis to explain inequality, Naturalization – Naturalization explains racial inequality as a cause of natural occurrences. It claims that segregation is not the result of racial dynamics, instead it is the result of the naturally occurring phenomena of individuals choosing likeness as their preference. Cultural racism – Cultural racism explains racial inequality through culture, under this frame, racial inequalities are described as the result of stereotypical behavior of minorities. Stereotypical behavior includes qualities such as laziness and teenage pregnancy, Minimization of racism – Minimization of racism attempts to minimize the factor of race as a major influence in affecting the life chances of minorities. It writes off instances and situations that could be perceived as discrimination to be hypersensitivity to the topic of race, there are vast differences in wealth across racial groups in the United States. The wealth gap between white and African-American families nearly tripled from $85,000 in 1984 to $236,500 in 2009, there are many causes, including years of home ownership, household income, unemployment, and education, but inheritance might be the most important. The wealth gap between Caucasian and African-American families studied nearly tripled from $85,000 in 1984 to $236,500 in 2009, the study concluded that factors contributing to the inequality included years of home ownership, household income, education, and familial financial support and/or inheritance. Wealth can be defined as the value of things families own minus their debts. In contrast, income can be defined as, earnings from work, interest and dividends, pensions, family inheritance, which is passed down from generation to generation, helps with wealth accumulation. Wealth can also serve as a safety net against fluctuations in income, there is a large gap between the wealth of minority households and White households within the United States. The Pew Research Centers analysis of 2009 government data says the median wealth of households is 20 times that of black households and 18 times that of Hispanic households

24.
University of Washington
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The University of Washington, commonly referred to as simply Washington, UW, or informally U-Dub, is a public flagship research university in Seattle, Washington, United States. Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast, the university has three campuses, the oldest and largest in the University District of Seattle and two others in Tacoma and Bothell. Washington is a member of the Association of American Universities and is ranked among the top 15 universities in the world by a variety of international publications. In athletics, the university competes in the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference and its athletic teams are called the Huskies. Seattle was one of several settlements in the mid to late 19th century vying for primacy in the new Washington Territory, in 1854, territorial governor Isaac Stevens recommended the establishment of a university in Washington. Several prominent Seattle-area residents, chief among them Methodist preacher Daniel Bagley and they convinced early founder of Seattle and member of the territorial legislature Arthur A. Denny of the importance of Seattle winning the school. When no site emerged, the legislature, encouraged by Denny, in 1861, scouting began for an appropriate 10 acres site in Seattle to serve as the campus for a new university. Arthur and Mary Denny donated eight acres, and fellow pioneers Edward Lander and Charlie and this tract was bounded by 4th and 6th Avenues on the west and east and Union and Seneca Streets on the north and south. UW opened on November 4,1861, as the Territorial University of Washington, the following year, the legislature passed articles incorporating the University and establishing a Board of Regents. The school struggled initially, closing three times, in 1863 for lack of students, and again in 1867 and 1876 due to shortage of funds. However, Clara Antoinette McCarty Wilt became the first graduate of UW in 1876 when she graduated from UW with a degree in science. By the time Washington entered the Union in 1889, both Seattle and the University had grown substantially, enrollment increased from 30 students to nearly 300, and the relative isolation of the campus had given way to encroaching development. A special legislative committee headed by UW graduate Edmond Meany was created to find a new campus able to serve the growing student population. The committee selected a site on Union Bay northeast of downtown, the university relocated from downtown to the new campus in 1895, moving into the newly built Denny Hall. The regents tried and failed to sell the old campus, the University still owns what is now called the Metropolitan Tract. In the heart of the city, it is among the most valuable pieces of estate in Seattle. The original Territorial University building was torn down in 1908 and its former site houses the Fairmont Olympic Hotel. The sole surviving remnants of UWs first building are four 24-foot, white, hand-fluted cedar and they were salvaged by Edmond S. Meany—one of the Universitys first graduates and the former head of the history department

25.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city

26.
Redlining
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During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected

27.
Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity

28.
Suburbanization
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Suburbanization is a population shift from central urban areas into suburbs, resulting in formation of urban sprawl. Sub-urbanization is inversely related to urbanization, which denotes population shift from rural areas into urban centres, many residents of metropolitan regions work within the central urban area, and choose to live in satellite communities called suburbs and commute to work via automobile or mass transit. Others have taken advantage of advances to work from their homes. Proponents of containing urban sprawl argue that sprawl leads to urban decay, Suburbanization can be linked to a number of different push and pull factors. Improvements in transportation infrastructure encourage suburbanization, as people become increasingly able to live in a suburb, developments in railways, bus routes and roads are the main improvements that make suburbanization more practical. The increase in the number and size of highways is a significant part of this effect. Government policies can have a significant effect on the process, in the United States, suburbanization began to occur in mass amounts after World War II when soldiers returned home from war and wanted to live in houses outside of the city. During this time America had a prosperous economy and there was more leisure time available. Throughout the years, the desire to work life and home life has increased causing an increase in suburban populations. Suburbs in the United States have also evolved by increases in technology which allows residents to work from home rather than commute, industrial, warehousing, and factory land uses have also moved to suburban areas. Cheap telecommunications removes the need for headquarters to be within quick courier distance of the warehouses. Urban areas suffer from congestion, which creates costs in extra driver costs for the company which can be reduced if they were in a suburban area near a highway. As with residential, lower property taxes and low land prices encourage selling industrial land for profitable brownfield redevelopment, Suburban municipalities can offer tax breaks, specialized zoning, and regulatory incentives to attract industrial land users to their area, such as City of Industry, California. By 2000, half of the US population lived in suburban areas, in many countries of Europe, sometimes cities became seen as dangerous or very expensive areas to live, while the suburbs were seen as safe places to live and raise a family. There are periods of opposite developments like urbanization, City growth, residential mobility, land and housing development were under tight political control. Consequently, sub-urbanization in post-communist Europe is not only a recent, yet, the regulatory and institutional frameworks indispensable to a market-driven housing system – including housing finance – have remained underdeveloped, particularly in south-eastern Europe. This environment has undoubtedly stimulated housing self-provision, clearly, different forces have shaped different outcomes. Elsewhere processes of suburbanization seemed dominant, but their pace differed according to housing shortages, available finance, preferences, the process was slow in Prague during the 1990s and more apparent after 2000, when housing affordability improved

29.
Hispanics
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The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once colonized by the Spanish Empire in the Americas and Asia, particularly the countries of Latin America and the Philippines. It could be argued that the term should apply to all Spanish-speaking cultures or countries and it is difficult to label a nation or culture with one term, such as Hispanic, as the ethnicities, customs, traditions, and art forms vary greatly by country and region. The Spanish language and Spanish culture are the main traditions, the term Hispanic derives from Latin Hispanicus, the adjectival derivation of Latin Hispania and Hispanus/Hispanos, ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century, the words Spain, Spanish, and Spaniard are of the same etymology as Hispanus, ultimately. Hispanus was the Latin name given to a person from Hispania during Roman rule, in English, the term Hispano-Roman is sometimes used. The Hispano-Romans were composed of people from different indigenous tribes. A number of men, such as Trajan, Hadrian. Hispano-Roman is used to refer to the culture and people of Hispania, Hispanic is used to refer to modern Spain, to the Spanish language, and to the Spanish-speaking nations of the world and particularly the Americas. Spanish is used to refer to the people, nationality, culture, language, Spaniard is used to refer to the people of Spain. Hispania was the Roman name for the territory of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, this territory was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, in 27 B. C, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Hispania Baetica and Hispania Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. This division of Hispania explains the usage of the singular and plural forms used to refer to the peninsula and this revival of the old Roman concept in the Middle Ages appears to have originated in Provençal, and was first documented at the end of the 11th century. In the Council of Constance, the four kingdoms shared one vote, the word Lusitanian, relates to Lusitania or Portugal, also in reference to the Lusitanians, possibly one of the first Indo-European tribes to settle in Europe. From this tribes name had derived the name of the Roman province of Lusitania, the terms Spain and the Spains were not interchangeable. Spain was a territory, home to several kingdoms, with separate governments, laws, languages, religions, and customs. Spain was not an entity until much later, and when referring to the Middle Ages. The term The Spains referred specifically to a collective of juridico-political units, first the Christian kingdoms, although colloquially and literally the expression King of Spain or King of the Spains was already widespread, it did not refer to a unified nation-state

30.
Asians
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Asian people or Asiatic people are people who descend from a portion of Asias population. There are varieties of definition and geographical data presented by organizations, the Australian Census includes Central Asia. The Australian Census includes four regions of Asia in its official definition, defined by the 2006–2011 Australian Census, three broad groups have the word Asian included in their name, Central and Southern Asian, South-East Asian and North-East Asian. Russians are classified as Southern and Eastern Europeans while Middle Easterners are classified as North African, the Canadian Census uses the term Asian pan-continentally and the list of visible minorities includes West Asian, South Asian, Central Asian and Southeast Asian. The Canadian government uses West Asian in its statistics, however people from the Arab countries of Western Asia are counted in a separate Arab category. New Zealands census undertaken by Statistics New Zealand defines the Asian to include people of Chinese, Indian, Korean, Filipino, Japanese, Vietnamese, Sri Lankan, Cambodian, in less formal contexts, the term Asian often does not include South Asian people. Statistics Norway uses the term Asian pan-continentally and considers people of Asian background to be people from all Asian countries, Statistics Sweden uses the term Asian to refer to immigrants of Asian background from all Asian countries, including the Middle East. In the United Kingdom, the term Asian is more associated with people of South Asian origin, particularly Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis. The UK usage of the term Asian is reflected in the group section of UK census forms. Peter J. Aspinall of the Centre for Health Services Studies, University of Kent, recommends privileging the term South Asian over the term Asian, earlier Census forms from 1980 and prior listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups along with White and Black or Negro. Previously, Asian Americans were classified as other, but the 1980 Census marked the first general analyses of Asians as a group, combining several individual ancestry groups into Asian or Pacific Islander. By the 1990 Census, Asian or Pacific Islander was included as an explicit category, the 2000 and 2010 U. S. Census Bureau definition of the Asian race includes those who originate from the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. In 1930 and 1940, Indian Americans were identified as a race, Hindu, and in 1950 and 1960 they were racially classified as Other Race. Since 1980, Indians and all other South Asians have been classified as part of the Asian ethnic group, sociologist Madhulika Khandelwal described how. as a result of activism, South Asians came to be included as Asians in the census only in the 80s. Prior to that many South Asians had been checking Caucasian or Other, respondents can also report their specific ancestry, e. g. Okinawan, etc. Someone reporting these ancestries but no race would be classified as Asian, unlike South Asians, Jewish Americans, Israeli Americans, Arab Americans, Iranian Americans and Central Asian Americans have not lobbied to be included as Asians by the U. S. Census Board. In normal American usage Asian does not refer to the people from the Pacific Islands who are usually called Pacific Islanders, the term Asians and Pacific Islanders or Asia/Pacific was used on the 1990 US Census. However, in the 2000 US Census, the Asian or Pacific Islander category was separated into two categories, Asian and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, however, there are instances where the term is used solely to refer to those of South Asian descent

31.
Socioeconomic status
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When analyzing a familys SES, the household income, earners education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, whereas for an individuals SES only their own attributes are assessed. However, SES is more used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole. Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three levels to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall into, when placing a family or individual into one of these categories, any or all of the three variables can be assessed. These problems may be due to conditions in their workplace, or, in the case of mental illnesses. Education in higher socioeconomic families is typically stressed as much more important, in poorer areas, where food, shelter and safety are priority, education can take a backseat. Youth audiences are particularly at risk for health and social problems in the United States, such as unwanted pregnancies, drug abuse. Income refers to wages, salaries, profits, rents, income can be looked at in two terms, relative and absolute. Absolute income, as theorized by economist John Maynard Keynes, is the relationship in which as income increases, so will consumption, relative income dictates a person or family’s savings and consumption based on the family’s income in relation to others. Income is a commonly used measure of SES because it is easy to figure for most individuals. Income inequality is most commonly measured around the world by the Gini coefficient, low income families focus on meeting immediate needs and do not accumulate wealth that could be passed on to future generations, thus increasing inequality. Families with higher and expendable income can accumulate wealth and focus on meeting immediate needs while being able to consume and enjoy luxuries, education also plays a role in income. Median earnings increase with each level of education, as conveyed in the chart, the highest degrees, professional and doctoral degrees, make the highest weekly earnings while those without a high school diploma earn less. Higher levels of education are associated with economic and psychological outcomes. Education plays a role in skill sets for acquiring jobs. Laureau argues that families with lower income do not participate in this movement, a division in education attainment is thus born out of these two differences in child rearing. Research has shown how children who are born in lower SES households have weaker language skills compared to children raised in higher SES households and these language skills affect their abilities to learn and thus exacerbate the problem of education disparity between low and high SES neighborhoods. Research shows that lower SES students have lower and slower academic achievement as compared with students of higher SES, when teachers make judgments about students based on their class and SES, they are taking the first step in preventing students from having an equal opportunity for academic achievement. Educators need to overcome the stigma of poverty

32.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing

33.
Racial achievement gap in the United States
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The racial achievement gap in the United States refers to the educational disparities between various ethnic groups. The evidence, antecedents, implications, and successes of the achievement gap are discussed below, over the past 45 years, students in the United States have made notable gains in academic achievement. However, the achievement gap remains because not all groups of students are advancing at the same rates. The racial achievement gap has been found to exist before students enter kindergarten for their first year of schooling, at the start of kindergarten, Hispanic and black students have math and reading scores substantially lower than those of white students. While both Hispanics and blacks scores have significantly lower test scores than their counterparts, Hispanic. In a study published in 2009, Reardon and Galindo specifically examine test scores by race, the data Reardon and Galindo use comes from the ECLS-K, sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics. The ECLS-K contains data on a representative sample of approximately 21,400 students from the kindergarten class of 1998–1999. Students in the sample were assessed in reading and mathematics skills six times from 1998 to 2004, the content areas of the tests are based on the National Assessment of Educational Progress fourth-grade content areas, adapted to be age appropriate at each grade level. The assessments were scored using a three-parameter Item Response Theory model, six years later, Hispanic-white gaps narrow by roughly a third, whereas black-white gaps widen by about a third. More specifically, the Hispanic-white gap is a standard deviation in math. The trends in the Hispanic-white gaps are especially interesting because of the rapid narrowing that occurs between kindergarten and first grade, in a 2006 study published in the Review of Economics and Statistics, Clotfelter examines test scores of elementary and middle school students by race. North Carolina requires all students to take standardized achievement tests in math and reading at the end of every grade between grades 3 and 8. On this normalized scale, positive scores denote above-average performances relative to the statewide average, analysis by Clotfelter found gaps between four different racial groups, whites, Asians, Hispanics, and blacks. Essentially, while the black-white gaps are substantial, both Hispanic and Asian students tend to gain on whites as they progress in school. The white-black achievement gap in math scores is about half a standard deviation, by fifth grade, Hispanic and white students have roughly the same math and reading scores. By eighth grade, scores for Hispanic students in North Carolina surpassed those of observationally equivalent whites by roughly a tenth of a standard deviation and these differences in initial status are compounded by differences in reading gains made during high school. Specifically, between ninth and tenth grades, white students gain more than black students and Hispanic students. Between tenth and twelfth grades, white students gain at a faster rate than black students

34.
White flight
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The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some historians have challenged the white flight as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations, according to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its components, the first data set potentially capable of proving white flight was the 1950 census. But original processing of data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau. It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof required for policy makers to consider taking action. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, in 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it, after World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs and this may have exacerbated urban decay. In Birmingham, Alabama, the government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of blockbusting was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, the remaining white inhabitants, fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. Losses happened when they sold en masse, and would sell the properties to the black families, profiting from price arbitrage

35.
Single parent
–
A single parent is an uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is often the primary caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner, intentional artificial insemination. Historically, death of a partner was a cause of single parenting. Single parenting can also result from the breakup or divorce of coupled parents, custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. Recent years have seen the increasing incidence and visibility of uncoupled women who choose to be single parents, when single women seek to get pregnant intentionally in order to become single mothers by choice, they often seek an anonymous or known sperm donor. Single parent adoption or fostering is also sometimes an option for adults who want to raise a family. The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes, Single parenting has become a norm in the United States and is a trend found in multiple other countries. The morality and advisability of single motherhood has long been debated in the US, Single American mothers live in poverty 5 times more often than married parents. The topic is less contentious in Western European countries where all families enjoy more robust state-sponsored social benefits, Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate. In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been an increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The 1980 United States Census reported that 19. 5% were single parent households, from 1980 to 2009, the percentage of single-parent households jumped to 29. 5%. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women, in 2010,40. 7% of births in the US were to unmarried women. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never married,15. 6% of children lived with a divorced parent. The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the trend noted in 2000. Mississippi leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida, about 16% of children worldwide live in a single-parent household. In 2006,12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, in 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. At the 2013 census,17. 8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, in the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families,8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line, Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers

36.
Stereotype threat
–
Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. Since its introduction into the literature, stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology. Stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups, if negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific group, group members are likely to become anxious about their performance, which may hinder their ability to perform at their maximum level. Importantly, the individual does not need to subscribe to the stereotype for it to be activated and it is hypothesized that the mechanism through which anxiety decreases performance is by depleting working memory. Several reviews have voiced concerns that the effect has been over-estimated, Stereotype threat is a potential contributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance. Since most people have at least one social identity which is negatively stereotyped, situational factors that increase stereotype threat can include the difficulty of the task, the belief that the task measures their abilities, and the relevance of the stereotype to the task. Individuals show higher degrees of stereotype threat on tasks they wish to perform well on and these effects are also increased when they expect discrimination due to their identification with a negatively stereotyped group. Repeated experiences of stereotype threat can lead to a circle of diminished confidence, poor performance. The opposite of stereotype threat is stereotype boost, which is when people perform better than they otherwise would have, a variant of stereotype boost is stereotype lift, which is people achieving better performance because of exposure to negative stereotypes about other social groups. In 1995, Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson performed the first experiments demonstrating that stereotype threat can undermine intellectual performance and they had African-American and European-American college students take a difficult verbal portion of the Graduate Record Examination test. As would be expected based on averages, the African-American students did not perform as well on the test. Steele and Aronson split students into three groups, stereotype-threat, non-stereotype threat, and a third condition, all three groups received the same test. In the first experiment, the interaction was marginally significant. However, the study reported in the same paper found a significant interaction effect of race. This suggested that placement in the diagnostic condition significantly impacted African Americans compared with European Americans, Steele and Aronson concluded that changing the instructions on the test could reduce African-American students concern about confirming a negative stereotype about their group. Supporting this conclusion, they found that African-American students who regarded the test as a measure of intelligence had more related to negative stereotypes of their group. Steele and Aronson measured this through a word completion task and they found that African Americans who thought the test measured intelligence were more likely to complete word fragments using words associated with relevant negative stereotypes. More than 300 published papers show the effects of stereotype threat on performance in a variety of domains, the strength of the stereotype threat that occurs depends on how the task is framed

37.
Acting white
–
Success in education in particular can be seen as a form of selling out by being disloyal to ones culture. The term is controversial, and its meaning is hard to define. The question of whether or not acting white attitudes are prevalent has been debated in academic literature, Black people accused of acting white are sometimes referred to as Black Anglo-Saxons, a term coined by comedian Paul Mooney. Not all scholars define acting white in the same way, most definitions include a reference to situations where some minority adolescents ridicule their peers for engaging in behaviors perceived to be characteristic of whites. In this scenario, they equate white behavior with high grades in school, a result researchers can quantify, in his new book, he said that non-whites failed to observe the link between educational achievement and access to jobs. In 1997 the scholars Philip J and they labeled the issue something of a distraction from what they saw as more important educational reforms. Though Ogbus 1978 studys conclusion was widely discussed, a 2003 work also challenged its validity. In 2003, Karolyn Tyson, a sociologist, and William Darity, Jr. an economist, of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and they compared attitudes identified as acting white to the normal adolescent pains experienced in John Hughes movies. A2006 study titled An Empirical Analysis of Acting White by Roland G. Fryer and he found that groups such as Italian immigrants in Boston’s West End and the Maori of New Zealand display similar behaviors. A fundamental drawback of much of the research so far is that the people studied have been asked to rate their own popularity in the eyes of others, which naturally brings those scores into question. Roland G. Fryer, Jr. has remarked, Asking teenagers whether they’re popular is like asking them if they’re having sex, stuart Buck, a lawyer, also explored this issue in Acting White, The Ironic Legacy of Desegregation. He said that black schools had featured teachers, counselors, and others of the same race as the student population. Integration of many schools since the mid- to late-20th century may have resulted in schools in which black students perceived they were controlled or dominated by whites. A black student trying to achieve educational success may then be considered as trying to leave the minority group. Spencer and Harpalani employ William E and these kind of examples show that accusations of acting white are not fundamentally about black cultural attributes. That is also why such accusations are less common among black adults, political observer John McWhorter has commented, eenagers have a variety of identities open to them for trying on anti-Establishment postures. White kids can be stoners or goths and he interpreted those kids as black nerds. He stated that the acting white attitude developed as the creation of an other among newly integrated African-American kids

38.
Social mobility
–
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to others social location within a given society, Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. Open stratification systems are those in which at least some value is given to achieved status characteristics in a society, the movement can be in a downward or upward direction. Absolute social mobility refers to the numbers of people who end up in a different layer of stratification from that of their parents. The availability of at least some social mobility can be important in providing pathways to greater equality in societies with high social inequality, Mobility is most often quantitatively measured in terms of change in economic mobility such as changes in income or wealth. Occupation is another used in researching mobility, which usually involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis of data, but other studies may concentrate on social class. Mobility may be intragenerational, within the generation, or intergenerational. Intragenerational mobility is less frequent, representing rags to riches cases in terms of upward mobility, Intergenerational upward mobility is more common, where children or grandchildren are in economic circumstances better than those of their parents or grandparents. In the US, this type of mobility is described as a feature of the American Dream even though there is less such mobility than almost all other OECD countries. Social mobility is dependent on the overall structure of social statuses. The extent of differing social positions and the manner in which they fit together or overlap provides the social structure of such positions. Such dimensions within a society can be seen as independent variables that can explain differences in social mobility at different times and places in different stratification systems. These include sex or gender, race or ethnicity, and age and these differing dimensions of social mobility can be classified in terms of differing types of capital that contribute to changes in mobility. Cultural capital, a term first coined by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu is the process of distinguishing between the economic aspects of class and powerful cultural assets. Bourdieu described three types of capital that place a person in a social category, economic capital, social capital. Economic capital includes economic resources such as cash, credit, Social capital includes resources one achieves based on group membership, networks of influence, relationships and support from other people. Cultural capital is any advantage a person has that gives them a status in society, such as education, skills. Usually, people with all three types of capital have a status in society

39.
Achievement ideology
–
Achievement Ideology is the belief that one reaches a socially perceived definition of success through hard work and education. In 2002, Sandra L. Barnes, offered that people who believe in the American achievement ideology most likely blame underachievement on attitudinal or moral differences among individuals. For those who disagree with the achievement ideology, this difference in attitude is most likely the result of a response to negative institutional and structural forces. In her study, Barnes found that those who most benefit from achievement ideology are most likely to espouse the achievement ideology, all respondent groups, however, believe that education and hard work are most important for success, proving that achievement ideology is alive and well. Ultimately, Barnes argues that success is best reached when one has an achievement-oriented attitude coupled with the ability to accomplish one’s goals. While most people might have the attitude, structural factors can keep them from achieving. Ford sought to discover the differences in ideologies between male and female and gifted and nongifted African American students. This means that individuals weigh their expectancy of success with the value they place on that success, or, how well an individual thinks s/he can do and how much doing well actually matters. As with need achievement theory, social scientists who support test anxiety theory look to how a student evaluates her/his ability to succeed. Students who are preoccupied with the outcome of their performance, who fear failure or humiliation if they do not perform well, in this theory, students are socialized from an early age and hold different expectations or values based on their own experience or social situation. This theory explains a lack of motivation in students as a result of the belief in achievement ideology. When students attribute their own failure to a lack of ability, if a student fully believes in the achievement ideology, failure can only be a result of lack of ability or lack of effort. She describes this as the “paradox of underachievement, ” a discrepancy between a student’s ideology and their actual achievement. In her study, the majority of gifted and nongifted African American students claimed that school is “very important. ”The majority of male and female African American students alike responded that school was important or very important. ”This process causes America’s education system to act more like a “licensing agency” rather than promoting education for education’s sake. This, in turn, causes many employees to be overqualified for their jobs, when jobs gradually require higher and higher educational attainment as a prerequisite, the effort put into achieving these prerequisites does not equal the needed effort or skill at one’s job. Thus, workers’ endorsement of achievement ideology decreases each year that s/he remains in a job for which s/he is overqualified. In other words, employees begin to see the effort put forth in school as unnecessary. Jay MacLeod studied two groups of boys and young men who lived in a neighborhood for his book

Black Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third la

1.
An artist's conception of Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first " martyr " of the American Revolution. He was of Native American and African American descent.

2.
Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.

American middle class
–
The American middle class is a social class in the United States. Depending on the model used, the middle class constitutes anywhere from 25% to 66% of households. One of the first major studies of the class in America was White Collar, The American Middle Classes. Later sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert of Hamilton College commonly divide the cl

1.
Office buildings such as this are often the place of work for the vast majority of middle-class Americans, whether they are upper-middle-class professional or lower-middle-class secretaries.

2.
Percentage distribution of 2+ income households among the quintiles

3.
An upscale home in Salinas, California.

4.
Inflation adjusted percentage increase in after-tax household income for the top 1% and four of the five quintiles, between 1979 and 2005 (gains by top 1% are reflected by bottom bar; bottom quintile by top bar).

Social class in the United States
–
Social class in the United States is a controversial issue, having many competing definitions, models, and even disagreements over its very existence. Many Americans believe in a simple model that includes the rich, the middle class. More complex models that have been proposed describe as many as a dozen class levels, while others deny the very exi

1.
Douglas Tilden 's monument to the working and supporting classes along Market Street in the heart of San Francisco's Financial District

2.
Many primary and secondary level teachers in the United States are in the middle class.

3.
A homeless American citizen. (August 4, 2005)

Civil Rights Movement
–
This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the South. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, sta

1.
Four leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. From left: Bayard Rustin, Andrew Young, (N.Y. Cong. William Ryan), James Farmer, and John Lewis in 1965.

2.
The mob-style lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.

3.
School integration, Barnard School, Washington, D.C., 1955

4.
Troops from the 327th Regiment, 101st Airborne escorting the Little Rock Nine African-American students up the steps of Central High.

Racial segregation in the United States
–
Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning ag

1.
An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, 1939.

2.
A black man goes into the "colored" entrance of a movie theater in Belzoni, Mississippi, 1939.

2010 United States Census
–
The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the Unite

1.
President Obama completing his census form in the Oval Office on March 29, 2010.

2.
Seal of the U.S. Census Bureau

Household income in the United States
–
Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household, or aggregated across a large group such as a county, city, or the whole country. It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a households economic status or to track trends in the US. Household income is measured in various way

1.
This graph shows the median annual household income in accordance with the householder's educational attainment. The data only applies to household with a householder over the age of twenty-five.

2.
U.S. real median household income through 2013

3.
This graph shows the median household income in 2003 dollars according to educational attainment.

Sales
–
A sale is the exchange of a commodity or money as the price of a good or a service. Sales is activity related to selling or the amount of goods or services sold in a time period. The seller or the provider of the goods or services completes a sale in response to an acquisition, appropriation, requisition or an interaction with the buyer at the poin

1.
Vegetable seller at a market in Porto Covo, Portugal.

2.
A beach salesman showing necklaces to a tourist in Mexico.

Blue-collar worker
–
In English-speaking countries, a blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs non-agricultural manual labour. Often something is physically being built or maintained, in contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a worker whos

White-collar worker
–
In many countries, a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work is performed in an office, cubicle, or other administrative setting, many occupations blend blue, white and pink industry categorizations. Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-col

1.
Receptionists in Stockholm, Sweden

2.
Office work

Health care provider
–
A health professional may operate within all branches of health care, including medicine, surgery, dentistry, midwifery, pharmacy, psychology, nursing or allied health professions. A health professional may also be a public/community health expert working for the good of the society. They often work in hospitals, healthcare centres, and other servi

1.
A healthcare professional wears an air sampling device to investigate exposure to airborne influenza

Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary fr

1.
Dr Alberico Gentili (1552-1608), one of the best known lawyers.

2.
A French lawyer

3.
Law Faculty of Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovakia).

4.
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.

Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, info

1.
A science professor lecturing to university students.

2.
The Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.

Engineer
–
Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and q

1.
An electrical engineer, circa 1950

2.
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954

3.
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era

4.
The Challenger disaster is held as a case study of engineering ethics.

African American
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third la

1.
An artist's conception of Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first " martyr " of the American Revolution. He was of Native American and African American descent.

2.
Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.

Racial discrimination
–
Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditi

Southern United States
–
The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virgin

1.
Texas Hill Country

2.
The Southern United States as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The "South" and its regions are defined in various ways, however. (See Geography section.)

3.
Bluegrass region in Kentucky

4.
Glass Mountains at Glass Mountains State Park, Oklahoma

High school
–
A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tert

1.
Ursula Franklin Academy, a high school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

2.
Lists of newly admitted students – posted outside of Linxia High School

3.
Elementary students of Nuchhungi English Medium School wearing their uniform in Hnahthial, Mizoram, India

4.
An elementary student wearing the typical white and red uniform in Indonesia

Domestic servants
–
A domestic worker or domestic helper is a person who works within the employers household. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food, such work has always needed to be done but before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of labour saving devices, it was physically much harder. Some domestic helpers live

1.
Memorial valuing the work of Maria Home, servant in Warwick Castle (1834)

2.
A Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) Chinese ceramic figurine of a lady servant in a standard formal pose with hands covered by long sleeve cuffs in the traditional fashions

3.
Disgruntled cook (1855)

4.
Parisian maid (1906) (Image by Constant Puyo)

Black flight
–
While more attention has been paid to this since the 1990s, the movement of blacks to the suburbs has been underway for some time, with nine million people having migrated from 1960 to 2000. Their goals have been similar to those of the middle class, whose out-migration was called white flight, newer housing, better schools for their children. From

1.
Suburban areas have seen increases in African-American residents.

Recession
–
In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction which results in a general slowdown in economic activity. Macroeconomic indicators such as GDP, investment spending, capacity utilization, household income, business profits, and inflation fall, while bankruptcies, in the United Kingdom, it is defined as a negative economic growth for two co

1.
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)

Wealth gap in the United States
–
Wealth inequality in the United States is the unequal distribution of assets among residents of the United States. Wealth includes the values of homes, automobiles, personal valuables, businesses, savings, the gap between the top 10% and the middle class is over 1, 000%, that increases another 1, 000% for the top 1%. The average employee needs to m

1.
The distribution of net wealth in the United States, 2007. The chart in 2007 was divided into the top 20% (blue), upper middle 20% (orange), middle 20% (red), and bottom 40% (green). (The net wealth of many people in the lowest 20% is negative because of debt.) By 2014 the wealth gap deepened.

Racial inequality in the United States
–
Racial inequality in the United States refers to social advantages and disparities that affect different races within the United States. These may be manifest in the distribution of wealth, power and these can be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or overall prejudice, especially against minority groups. In social s

1.
Median household income along ethnic lines in the United States.

University of Washington
–
The University of Washington, commonly referred to as simply Washington, UW, or informally U-Dub, is a public flagship research university in Seattle, Washington, United States. Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast, the university has three campuses, the oldest and largest in the University District of Sea

1.
The original University of Washington building on Denny's Knoll, c. 1870

Seattle
–
Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an

1.
Downtown Seattle from Queen Anne Hill

2.
Seal

3.
The Battle of Seattle (1856)

4.
Seattle's first streetcar, at the corner of Occidental and Yesler, 1884. All of the buildings visible in this picture were destroyed by fire five years later.

Redlining
–
During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discriminat

1.
A HOLC 1936 security map of Philadelphia showing redlining of lower income neighborhoods. Households and businesses in the red zones could not get mortgages or business loans.

Poverty
–
Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the indust

1.
An example of urban poverty in this slum in Jakarta, Indonesia

2.
Children of the Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937

3.
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day. Sweden, 1868.

4.
A Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.

Suburbanization
–
Suburbanization is a population shift from central urban areas into suburbs, resulting in formation of urban sprawl. Sub-urbanization is inversely related to urbanization, which denotes population shift from rural areas into urban centres, many residents of metropolitan regions work within the central urban area, and choose to live in satellite com

1.
A suburban land use pattern

2.
View of housing development near farm in Richfield, Minnesota, 1954

Hispanics
–
The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once colonized by the Spanish Empire in the Americas and Asia, particularly the countries of Latin America and the Philippines. It could be argued that the term should apply to all Spanish-speaking cultures or

Asians
–
Asian people or Asiatic people are people who descend from a portion of Asias population. There are varieties of definition and geographical data presented by organizations, the Australian Census includes Central Asia. The Australian Census includes four regions of Asia in its official definition, defined by the 2006–2011 Australian Census, three b

Socioeconomic status
–
When analyzing a familys SES, the household income, earners education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, whereas for an individuals SES only their own attributes are assessed. However, SES is more used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole. Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three levels to describ

2.
This graph shows the differences in income between the top and bottom income earners.

3.
This diagram shows the percentages of wealth in the United States in 2007.

Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product desig

Racial achievement gap in the United States
–
The racial achievement gap in the United States refers to the educational disparities between various ethnic groups. The evidence, antecedents, implications, and successes of the achievement gap are discussed below, over the past 45 years, students in the United States have made notable gains in academic achievement. However, the achievement gap re

White flight
–
The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some histor

1.
Urban decay in the US: the South Bronx, New York City, was exemplar of the federal and local government's abandonment of the cities in the 1970s and 1980s; the Spanish sign reads "FALSAS PROMESAS", the English sign reads "BROKEN PROMISES".

Single parent
–
A single parent is an uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is often the primary caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner, intentional artificial insemination. Historically, death of a partner was a cause of single

1.
Harold Gilman 's Mother and Child, painted in 1918, depicts the traditional bond between a mother and child from early on in life.

2.
Statue of a mother at the Yasukuni shrine, dedicated to war widows who raised their children alone.

3.
A single mother and child

Stereotype threat
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Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. Since its introduction into the literature, stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology. Stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the pe

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"The Effects of Stereotype Threat on the Standardized Test Performance of College Students (adjusted for group differences on SAT)". From J. Aronson, C.M. Steele, M.F. Salinas, M.J. Lustina, Readings About the Social Animal, 8th edition, ed. E. Aronson

Acting white
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Success in education in particular can be seen as a form of selling out by being disloyal to ones culture. The term is controversial, and its meaning is hard to define. The question of whether or not acting white attitudes are prevalent has been debated in academic literature, Black people accused of acting white are sometimes referred to as Black

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Comedian and media figure Bill Cosby brought the term to wider knowledge in a 2004 speech.

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The difference among social groups, both native and foreign born, in regard to those who have earned a bachelor's degree or higher (data from U.S. Census Bureau).

Social mobility
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Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to others social location within a given society, Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people wi

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Illustration from a 1916 advertisement for a vocational school in the back of a US magazine. Education has been seen as a key to social mobility, and this advertisement appealed to Americans' belief in the possibility of self-betterment, as well as threatening the consequences of downward mobility in the great income inequality existing during the Industrial Revolution.

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Social mobility is lower in more unequal countries. Wilkinson and Pickett (2009).

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Comparison of social mobility in selected countries

Achievement ideology
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Achievement Ideology is the belief that one reaches a socially perceived definition of success through hard work and education. In 2002, Sandra L. Barnes, offered that people who believe in the American achievement ideology most likely blame underachievement on attitudinal or moral differences among individuals. For those who disagree with the achi

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Dark and lighter green: Definition of "Sub-Saharan Africa" as used in the statistics of UN institutions. Lighter green: However, Sudan is classified as North Africa by United Nations Statistics Division.