a sleep disorder characterized by the uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Our body temperature seems to rise and fall in sync with a biological clock, which is referred to as

the circadian rhythm

Stage 1 sleep is a twilight zone of light sleep. During stage 1 sleep, a person is most likely to experience

hallucinations

In the deepest stage of sleep-surprisingly the stage when people sleep walk-the brain emits large, slow delta waves. This is called

Stage 4

An electroencephalograph shows that during sleep we pass through a cycle of five stages, each with characteristic brain waves. As the night processes, the REM stage

becomes progressively longer

Various theories have been proposed too explain why we need sleep. They are:

1. Sleep has survival value.
2. Sleep helps us recuperate.
3. Sleep plays a role in the growth process.

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve

activation-synthesis theory

dreams spring from the mind's relentless effort to make sense of unrelated visual bursts, which are given thier emotional tone by the limbic system

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation; created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep

According to Freud, dreams are key to the understanding of our inner conflicts. In interpreting dreams, Freud was most interested in their

latent content, or symmbolic meaning

Soem theories of dreaming pose that dreams serve a physiological purpose. One such theory suggests that dreams

are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity

THe tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation is referred to as

REM rebound

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

posthypnotic amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

hidden observer

a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Hypnosis is a spcial interaction in which a hypnotist suggests to a subject that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Subjects who are hypnotizable and will carry out a hypnotic suggestion usually

are fantasy-prone

Although experts differ in their understandings of hypnosis, m ost agree that hypnosis can be effectively used to

relieve pain

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditional stimulus begins to produce a responce that anticipates and prepares for the unconditional stimulus

unconditional response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an orginally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimiulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reapperance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical, conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Learning is defined as "a relatively permenant change in behavior due to

experience with the environment"

Working with digs, Pavlov paired a tone or other neural stimulus with food in the mouth. The dogs then came to salivate when presented with the neural stimulus alone. Salivation in response to food in the mouth occurs naturally in dogs, without conditioning; food us therefore the unconditioned stimulus. Salivation in response to a tone must be learned; the tone is therefore a

conditioned response

Dogs can learn to respond to one kind of stimulus and not to another-for example, to salivate at the sight of a circle but not a square. Distinguishing between a CS and an irrelevent stimulus is

discrimination

Early behaviorists believed that for conditioning to occur, the unconditioned stimulus must immediately follow the conditioned stimulus. ____________ demonstrated this was not always so.

taste-aversion studies

Research showed that rats developed aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds, thus supporting

the principle that natural aselection favors traits that aid survival

The small child was classically conditioned to fear a white rat. After the rat was paired with a frieghtening noise, the child cried when the rat was presented even without the noise. The child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, dog, and a sealskin coat. The child's fear of objects resembling the rat illustrates

generalization of the conditioned response

Operant conditioning

a type oflearning in which behavior is strenghthened if followed by reinforement of diminished if followed by punishment

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers quide behavior toward closer and closer aproximations of a desired goal

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcer

a tangible reward that strengths a reponse by presenting a timulus after a response. It may be a praise or attention

negative reinforcement

strengthns a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus

Primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned reinforcer (secondary)

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that follows

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

memory

the persistence of learning over time and through the storage and retrival of information

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items breifly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the imformation is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

working memory

a concept of memory similar to short-term memory but focusing more on the processing of briefly stored information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

spacing effect

the tendency for distributing study or practice to yield better better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

serial position effect

our tendency to recall the last and the first items in a list better those in the middle

Human memory involves information processing. We take information in, retain it, and later get it back out. In pyscological terms, these steps are

encoding, storage and retrival

Short-term memory is an intermediate stage of memory where information is held before it is stored or forgotten. The newer concept of workign memory

clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing on behind-the-scenes information processing

Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information a person wants to remember, either in short-term or long-term. Rehearsal is part of

effortful processing

When people are showed a list of words and are immediately tested, they tend to recall the first and last items on the list more readily than those in the middle. When people are retested after a delay, they are most likely to recall

the first items on the list

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

implicit memory

retention without conscious recollection of skills and disposition

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explict memories for storage

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before". Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state is sometimes more easily recalled when we are again in the same state, a subtle phenomenon

mood-congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

mood-congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of bnew learning on the recall of old information

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source misattribution

attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories