Earth impact hazardthe danger of collision posed by astronomical small bodies whose orbits around the Sun carry them near Earth. These objects include the rocky asteroids and their larger fragments and the icy nuclei of comets.

Space in the vicinity of Earth contains a great number of solid objects in a range of sizes. The tiniest (millimetre-size and smaller) and by far most abundant ones, called micrometeroids or interplanetary dust particles, hit Earth’s atmosphere continually. They are also the least dangerous; they either burn up in the atmosphere or settle to the surface as dust. Of the somewhat larger objects—i.e., mostly asteroidal in origin—the great majority that reach the ground as meteorites are too small to endanger human life or property on a significant scale. Occasionally there are reports of roughly softball-size meteorite fragments damaging houses or cars. (The apparently only verified case of a meteorite hitting and injuring a human being occurred in 1954.) Reports of falls of meteorites with masses in the one-ton range are less frequent; when these objects strike the ground, they can excavate craters a few metres across.

It is only the biggest projectiles, those that collide with Earth very infrequently on average, that are acknowledged to pose a great potential danger to human beings and possibly to all life on the planet. Recognition that such a danger might exist dates back at least to the English astronomers Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton and their work on the Great Comet of 1680, whose orbit they showed crossed that of Earth. Modern interest was rekindled in 1980 when the experimental physicist Luis Alvarez of the University of California, Berkeley, and colleagues presented evidence that the impact of an asteroid or comet having a diameter of about 10 km (6 miles) was responsible for the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million years ago, in which most species of dinosaurs and much of the marine life of the day perished.

Since that time scientists have identified the probable site of the impact, called the Chicxulub crater, off Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula and have come to suspect that similar catastrophic impacts may have triggered other mass extinctions as well. In addition to causing tremendous immediate devastation and ensuing earthquakes, firestorms, and giant sea waves (tsunamis), collisions of such magnitude are believed to be capable of perturbing Earth’s environment globally by throwing large quantities of fine debris high into the atmosphere. The consequences would include a decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the surface and a prolonged depression of surface temperatures—a so-called impact winter—leading to loss of photosynthesizing plant life and worldwide starvation and disease.

In the early 1980s astronomers in the United States, followed by those in several other countries, began studies aimed at better defining the risk posed by cosmic impacts, developing programs to detect threatening objects, and determining if anything could be done to protect Earth from the most devastating impacts. One outgrowth of these efforts was the development of a scale for categorizing the potential impact hazard of objects newly discovered to be orbiting near Earth.

Objects that pose a threat

All objects that can someday cross Earth’s orbit have the potential to collide with the planet. This includes not only objects that regularly approach Earth but also others whose paths may change over time in a way that would make them cross Earth’s orbit. The objects that fall into this category are asteroids and comets in short-period orbits—together called near-Earth objects (NEOs)—and those long-period comets that make their closest approach to the Sun inside Earth’s orbit. Short-period comets complete their orbits in less than 200 years and so likely have been observed before; they generally approach along the plane of the solar system, near which lie the orbits of most of the planets, including Earth. Like short-period comets, most known Earth-approaching asteroids have orbits tilted by less than 20° to the plane of the solar system and periods of less than about three years. Long-period comets have orbital periods greater than 200 years and usually much greater; they can approach from any direction.

The amount of damage caused by the impact of an object with Earth is determined primarily by two factors: the object’s mass and its relative velocity. These determine the total kinetic energy released. A typical NEO would strike Earth with a velocity of about 20 km (12 miles) per second and a typical long-period comet with a greater velocity, 50 km (30 miles) per second or higher. For objects with diameters less than a few hundred metres, their physical properties are important in calculating how much destruction would result, but for larger bodies only the total energy of the impact is important. Hence, most damage assessments are based on the kinetic energy of an impact rather than the diameter or mass of the projectile. This energy is expressed in millions of tons (megatons) of TNT, the same units used to quantify the energy released by thermonuclear bombs.

The energy released by an impact falls between about 10 megatons and 1 billion megatons—i.e., between 700 and 70 billion times the energy of the 15-kiloton atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945. This very wide range corresponds to NEOs with diameters from about 50 metres (160 feet) to 20 km (12 miles) or to long-period comets with diameters about half as large. (Objects smaller than about 50 metres would break up high in the atmosphere; the damage would be limited to less than a few hundred square kilometres around the impact point.) For an object at the lower end of this size range, an ocean impact could cause more damage than one on land because it would result in large tsunamis that would devastate coastal areas for many kilometres inland. The last destructive impact known, called the Tunguska event, occurred at the low end of this range over land. On June 30, 1908, an object thought to be as much as 50 metres (160 feet) in diameter exploded over central Siberia, leveling about 2,000 square km (500,000 acres) of pine forest.

Frequency of impacts

Because there are far fewer large NEOs and long-period comets in space than smaller ones, the chances of a collision decrease rapidly with increasing size. The impact-hazard community—primarily scientists with an interest in the issue—has defined a global catastrophe to be an impact that leads to the death of one-fourth or more of the world’s population. An impact by a 1-km- (0.6-mile-) diameter NEO, the smallest believed capable of causing such a catastrophe, is estimated to occur about once per 100,000 years on average, based on the assumed population in space of such objects. On the other hand, an impact by a 100-metre (300-foot) NEO, the smallest believed capable of causing regional devastation, is estimated to occur about once every 1,000 years on average. The hazard posed by long-period comets is less certain because fairly few such objects are known, but it is thought to be perhaps as high as 25 percent of that for NEOs.

The major difference between the threat posed by the impact of an asteroid or comet and that posed by other natural disasters is the extent of the damage that could be done. In some parts of the world at high risk for floods or earthquakes, the chances of dying in such an event are 100–200 times greater than the risk of dying from a cosmic impact. What distinguishes the impact hazard, however, is that it is the only known natural disaster, with the possible exception of an exceedingly large volcanic eruption, that could result in the death of a significant fraction of Earth’s population and, in the most extreme case, the extinction of the human species.

NEO search programs

The outlook for detecting long-period comets that are specifically on a collision course with Earth is poor. Long-period comets, by definition, would likely be discovered on their way into the inner solar system only a few months—or, at best, a few years—before impact. (It is possible that an NEO destined for a collision with Earth also might not be discovered until the “last minute,” but the probability of finding it many years before impact is much higher because NEOs make frequent passages near Earth before colliding with it.) Although it might be feasible to detect long-period comets as early as about six months before impact, this knowledge would be useful only if a practical technology were already in place for preventing the collision. And if the comet is not on a collision course, then it is of little immediate concern, because it will not return for at least 200 years and perhaps not for millennia.

In principle, the outlook for identifying the larger NEOs is more promising. Using current technology, it is possible to find virtually all NEOs with diameters greater than 1 km (0.6 mile) and most of those half as large.

A number of loosely coordinated programs to search for NEOs have been instituted. Among them are several sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States and others in China, Japan, and Italy (as a joint Italian-German project). Their objective is to find objects capable of causing global catastrophe were they to hit Earth. In 1998 NASA stated its official program goal to be the “detection of 90 percent of the NEO population larger than 1 km within a decade.” As of mid-2004, about three-fourths of an estimated 1,000 2009, nearly 800 NEOs at least a kilometre in size were known.

These search programs use charge-coupled-diode (CCD) sensors, similar to those in digital cameras, on reflecting telescopes with primary mirrors in the 1-metre- (40-inch-) diameter range to obtain three or more images of the same region of the sky over a short period of time, generally some tens of minutes. The images are then compared with one another to find objects that have moved rapidly. The distance that the object has moved between images and its brightness provide clues to its distance and size. For example, fast-traveling, bright objects are almost certainly very close to Earth. A definitive orbit, however, is required before an accurate prediction can be made of the object’s true distance and future path through space. This generally requires several days to acquire an “arc” of sufficient length to allow computation of an accurate orbit.

For every NEO a kilometre or larger in size, there are thousands more as small as about 100 metres (300 feet). An impact by a 100-metre object has the explosive power of about 100 megatons of TNT, roughly equivalent to the largest man-made nuclear explosions. (If the blast of the Tunguska event had an energy of 15 megatons, as some damage-based estimates have placed it, then the colliding object likely had a diameter of about 30–50 metres [100–160 feet].) Search programs in the 1990s discovered several NEOs in this smaller size range passing close enough to Earth to attract attention in the popular press. In fact, for each one detected, hundreds of unobserved objects passed just as close or closer. Dozens in this range were larger than 100 metres and thus large enough to cause a devastating tsunami or, if one were to hit land, to destroy an area the size of a small country. The chance of an impact by a 100-metre NEO is about 1 in 10 per century. For each actual impact, however, there will be numerous near misses. Many of these NEOs are certain to be detected as a by-product of searches for the larger objects capable of causing global catastrophes.

Determining the hazard potential of an NEO

When an NEO is first discovered, its orbit and size are uncertain. If sufficient observations are made during its discovery apparition, a fairly good orbit can be computed. In practice, however, few orbits are reliably determined during the first apparition, and later observations of the object are required to learn how its position has changed in the interim. Observations to determine its size are rarely made (perhaps several in 100 are so observed), because they require specialized techniques such as radar or thermal infrared radiometry; rather, the size of an NEO is estimated from its brightness. Sizes estimated this way are uncertain by about a factor of 2—that is, an object reported as being 1 km (0.6 mile) in diameter could have a diameter between 0.5 and 2 km (0.3 and 1.2 miles).

In most cases, sufficient observation of an object will establish that the chances of its colliding with Earth are negligible. In some cases, however, there is no opportunity for additional observation. This happens, for example, when the object is small and discovered while passing very close to Earth; it quickly becomes too faint to observe further. Even a larger and more distant object can be lost because of poor weather (a factor taken into account in choosing observing sites for search programs). Without the observations needed to compute a reliable orbit, prediction of the object’s future close approaches to Earth is highly uncertain.

When computations indicate that a NEO estimated to be larger than about 200 metres (650 feet) could strike Earth during the next century or two, the object is called a potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA). As of mid-2004 2009 there were more than 570 1,000 identified PHAs. Observations of PHAs are continued until their orbits are refined to the point where their future positions can be reliably predicted.

While an object remains on the PHA list, its hazard potential is described by the Torino Impact Hazard Scale, an indicator named after the city of Turin (Italian: Torino), Italy, where it was presented at an international NEO conference in 1999. The purpose of the scale is to quantify the level of public concern warranted. The scale’s values, which are integers between 0 and 10, are based on both an object’s collision probability and its estimated kinetic energy. The value for a given object can change as probability and energy estimates are refined by additional observations.

On the Torino scale, a value of 0 indicates that the likelihood of a collision is zero or well below the chance that a random object of the same size will strike Earth within the next few decades. This designation also applies to any small object that, should it collide, is unlikely to reach Earth’s surface intact. A value of 10 indicates that a collision is certain to occur and is capable of causing a global climatic catastrophe; such events occur on timescales of 100,000 years or longer (the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous Period falls here). Intermediate values categorize impacts according to various levels of probability and destructiveness. A Torino scale value is always reported together with the predicted date of the close encounter to convey further the level of urgency that is warranted. Since the implementation of the Torino scale, there have been no known NEOs with final values has been only one NEO with a final value greater than 0. Objects For asteroid 2007 VK184, there is a 1 in 3,030 chance that it will strike Earth on June 3, 2048; this asteroid ranks as a 1 on the Torino scale. Other objects often have received higher initial values, but these values have proved fictitious once the needed additional observations have been made and more accurate orbits have been calculated.

Defending Earth from a colliding object

Even with the best of search programs, whether anything can be done about an object found to be on a collision course with Earth depends on many factors. The most important are the amount of lead time and the physical properties of the object—its size, shape, spin rate, density, strength, and other characteristics. Scientists believe that kinetic energy interception is adequate for the majority of objects, including those of intermediate size and most likely to cause destructive tsunamis. Such a strategy would involve the use of a nonexplosive projectile sent to strike the object in a particular location at high speed to change its orbit and possibly to fragment it. For the remainder, more aggressive measures, likely involving the use of powerful thermonuclear devices, are thought to be necessary to achieve the same results. Because the physical properties of NEOs are so poorly known, however, it is possible that such measures could do more harm than good—e.g., by breaking a large object into numerous smaller, but still potentially destructive, pieces without deflecting them enough to miss Earth. Validating these options requires additional theory, laboratory experiments, and safe experiments involving actual NEOs in space. In the early years of the 21st century, few, if any, such efforts were being made.