August 26 – Krakatoa begins its final phase of eruptions at 1:06pm local time. These produce a number of tsunami, mainly in the early hours of the next day, which result in about 36,000 deaths on the islands of Sumatra and Java. The final explosion at 10:02am on August 27 destroys the island of Krakatoa itself and is heard up to 3000 miles away.

1.
1878 in science
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The year 1878 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. Proctor describes the Zone of Avoidance, the area of the sky that is obscured by our own galaxy. Death of last confirmed Cape Lion, the rare earth element holmium is identified in erbium by Marc Delafontaine and Jacques-Louis Soret in Geneva and by Per Teodor Cleve in Sweden. An Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom places Epping Forest in the care of the City of London Corporation to remain unenclosed. June 22 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld sets out on the year-long first navigation of the Northern Sea Route, belgian mathematician Victor DHondt describes the DHondt method of voting. English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth is the first to publish Bertrands ballot theorem, Ádám Politzer publishes Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde, a major otology textbook. Dentists Act in the United Kingdom limits the title of dentist, february 11 – The first weekly weather report is published in the United Kingdom. 31 Iguanodon skeletons are discovered in a mine at Bernissart. February 19 – The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison, the oldest known audio recording is recovered from this device in 2012. March – The basic process, enabling the use of iron ore in steelmaking, developed at Blaenavon Ironworks by Percy Gilchrist. May 22 – John Philip Hollands experimental powered submarine Holland I is launched in Paterson, august – Cleopatras Needle is raised onto its base in London. October 14 – The worlds first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield, december 18 – Joseph Swan of Newcastle upon Tyne in England announces his invention of an incandescent light bulb. December 31 – Karl Benz produces a gas engine. William Crookes invents the Crookes tube which produces cathode rays, gustav Kessel obtains a patent in Germany for an espresso machine. Czech painter Karel Klíč perfects the photogravure process, lester Allan Pelton produces the first operational Pelton wheel. Remington, in the United States, introduce their No.2 typewriter, october 1 – Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College in the United States. Copley Medal, Jean Baptiste Boussingault Wollaston Medal for Geology, Thomas Wright January 1 – A

2.
1882 in science
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The year 1882 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. September – Great Comet of 1882 sighted, december 6 – Transit of Venus,1882. March 24 – Robert Koch announces his discovery of the responsible for tuberculosis. Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detects helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line when he analyzes the lava of Mount Vesuvius, clarence Duttons Tertiary History of the Grand Cañon District is published by the United States Geological Survey. German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann publishes proof that π is a transcendental number, december – Swedish mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler establishes the journal Acta Mathematica. March 28 – Paul Carl Beiersdorf patents an adhesive bandage in Germany, vladimir Bekhterev publishes Provodiashchie puti mozga, beginning to note the role of the hippocampus in memory. By March – Étienne-Jules Marey invents a chronophotographic gun capable of photographing 12 consecutive frames per second on the same plate, april 29 – Werner von Siemens demonstrates his Electromote, the first form of trolleybus, in Berlin. June 6 – Henry W. Seeley patents the electric clothes iron in the United States, september 4 – Thomas Edison starts the worlds first commercial electrical power plant, lighting one square mile of lower Manhattan. American electrical engineer Schuyler Wheeler produces an electric fan, alfred P. Southwick publishes his proposals for use of the electric chair as an execution method in the United States. First International Polar Year, a scientific program, begins. The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents, the modern-day Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys, is founded in the United Kingdom, copley Medal, Arthur Cayley Wollaston Medal for Geology, Franz Ritter von Hauer March 14 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician. March 23 – Emmy Noether, German mathematician, March 30 – Melanie Klein, Viennese-born psychoanalyst. June 17 – Harold Gillies, New Zealand-born plastic surgeon, july 21 – Herbert E. Ives, American optical engineer. September 30 – Johannes Hans Geiger, inventor of the Geiger counter, october 5 – Robert Goddard, American rocket scientist. October 26 – Marietta Pallis, Indian-born Graeco-British ecologist, december 11 – Max Born, physicist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1954. December 28 – Arthur Eddington, astrophysicist, january 11 – Theodor Schwann, physiologist. April 19 – Charles Darwin, geologist and naturalist, september 23 – Friedrich Woehler, chemist. October 27 – Christian Heinrich von Nagel, geometer, november 20 – Henry Draper, doctor, astronomer

3.
1887 in science
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The year 1887 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below. April – Carte du Ciel project initiated by Paris Observatory director Amédée Mouchez, theodor von Oppolzers Canon der Finsternisse, a compilation of the 8,000 solar and 5,200 lunar eclipses from 1200 BC until 2161 AD, is published posthumously. Jean Pierre Mégnin publishes Faune des Tombeaux, the work of modern forensic entomology. Sergei Winogradsky discovers the first known form of lithotrophy during his research with Beggiatoa, Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection developed by Émile Guyou. January 28 – In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, in the United States and they are 15 inches wide and 8 inches thick. September 28 – Start of the Yellow River floods in China,900,000 dead, june 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nations first national park, Banff National Park. February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, in Hawaii, the Mauna Loa volcano eruptions subside, having begun in 1843. During the 1887 eruption, about 2½ million tons of lava per hour pours out, march 3 – Anne Sullivan begins to teach language to the deaf and blind Helen Keller. July 26 – L. L. Zamenhof publishes Lingvo internacia under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto, Joseph Louis François Bertrand rediscovers Bertrands ballot theorem. Henri Poincaré provides a solution to the three-body problem, january 11 – Louis Pasteurs anti-rabies treatment is defended in the French Academy of Medicine by Dr. Joseph Grancher. August – The U. S. National Institutes of Health is founded at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY, october 1 – Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese founded by Patrick Manson. Franz König publishes Über freie Körper in den Gelenken in the journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, the Hospitals Association establishes the first register of nurses in the United Kingdom. November – The Michelson-Morley experiment is performed, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion, heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves in radio, an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light. November – G. Stanley Hall founds The American Journal of Psychology, richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey, in the course of investigations into popular belief in parapsychology, publish one of the first descriptions of eyewitness unreliability. March 8 – Everett Horton of Connecticut patents a fishing rod of telescoping steel tubes, march 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs. June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U. S. patent for his punched card calculator, july – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk in Scotland. July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U. S. patent for his comptometer, august – Anna Connelly patents the fire escape. November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U. S. patent for his Gramophone, adolf Gaston Eugen Fick invents the contact lens, made of a type of brown glass

4.
1883 in art
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20 April – Claude Monet moves to the house in Giverny which will be his main residence for the rest of his life. 28 October – Les XX established in Brussels by Octave Maus, L. Wyllie – Toil, Glitter, Grime and Wealth on a Flowing Tide 3 February – Camille Bombois, French naïve painter. 18 February – Jacques Ochs, French artist, épée and foil fencer,12 April Francis Cadell, Scottish Colourist painter Imogen Cunningham, American photographer. 24 June – Jean Metzinger, French painter and art theorist,16 July – Charles Sheeler, American modernist painter and photographer. 31 July – Erich Heckel, German painter and printmaker,19 August – Coco Chanel, French fashion designer. 14 September – Richard Gerstl, Austrian painter and draughtsman,9 November – Charles Demuth, American painter. 4 December – Felice Casorati, Italian painter,24 December – Stojan Aralica, famous Serbian Impressionist painter and academic. 26 December – Maurice Utrillo, French painter, date unknown – Charles Jourdan, French fashion designer

5.
1883 in architecture
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The year 1883 in architecture involved some significant events. May 1 - The Examination Schools of the University of Oxford, may 24 - Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling, is completed. May 26 - Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, designed by Konstantin Thon, is dedicated, Albany City Hall in Albany, New York, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson in Richardsonian Romanesque style, is completed. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago designed by William LeBaron Jenney, the Kuhns Building in Dayton, Ohio, is constructed. Hotel Windsor, Australia, designed by Charles Webb, is completed, cane Hill Hospital in Coulsdon, London, is completed. Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire, England, designed by Gabriel-Hippolyte Destailleur, is opened for guests, billings Memorial Library at the University of Vermont in Burlington, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, is built. Royal Gold Medal - Francis Cranmer Penrose, grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Gaston Redon

6.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science

7.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose

8.
Svante Arrhenius
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Svante August Arrhenius was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist, originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903, becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate, Arrhenius was born on 19 February 1859 at Vik, near Uppsala, Sweden, the son of Svante Gustav and Carolina Thunberg Arrhenius. His father had been a surveyor for Uppsala University, moving up to a supervisory position. At the age of three, Arrhenius taught himself to read without the encouragement of his parents, and by watching his fathers addition of numbers in his account books, in later life, Arrhenius enjoyed using masses of data to discover mathematical relationships and laws. At age eight, he entered the cathedral school, starting in the fifth grade, distinguishing himself in physics and mathematics. His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes, in 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for the doctorate. It did not impress the professors, among whom was Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, later, extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most of which would still be accepted today unchanged or with minor modifications, Arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt disassociates into charged particles. Faradays belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis, Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current and he thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team, Arrhenius declined, however, as he preferred to stay in Sweden for a while and had received an appointment at Uppsala. In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases and he believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution. The Arrhenius equation gives the basis of the relationship between the activation energy and the rate at which a reaction proceeds. In 1891 he became a lecturer at the Stockholm University College, being promoted to professor of physics in 1895, and rector in 1896. He was married twice, first to his former pupil Sofia Rudbeck, with whom he had one son Olof Arrhenius, about 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1901, for the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a de facto member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry. He used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends and to attempt to deny them to his enemies, in 1901 Arrhenius was elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, against strong opposition. In 1903 he became the first Swede to be awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry, in 1905, upon the founding of the Nobel Institute for Physical Research at Stockholm, he was appointed rector of the institute, the position where he remained until retirement in 1927. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1910, in 1911 he won the first Willard Gibbs Award

9.
Ion
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An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by chemical or physical means. In chemical terms, if an atom loses one or more electrons. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net charge and is known as an anion. Ions consisting of only a single atom are atomic or monatomic ions, because of their electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds, such as salts. In the case of ionization of a medium, such as a gas, which are known as ion pairs are created by ion impact, and each pair consists of a free electron. The word ion comes from the Greek word ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a charged ion. In Faradays nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device, arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faradays ions. Arrhenius proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current, ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. These stabilized species are commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts. Electrons, due to their mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms. Thus, anions are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron repel each other, as such, in general, cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of its electron cloud. One particular cation contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom. Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, an anion, from the Greek word ἄνω, meaning up, is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge. A cation, from the Greek word κατά, meaning down, is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, there are additional names used for ions with multiple charges

10.
Electrolyte
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An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent, electrically, such a solution is neutral. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current and this includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological and synthetic polymers, termed polyelectrolytes, a substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, in medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a patient has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for children and athletes. Electrolyte monitoring is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia, the word electrolyte derives from the Greek lytós, meaning able to be untied or loosened. Arrheniuss explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, faradays belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current and he thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concentrated if it has a concentration of ions. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form ions, the electrolyte is strong, if most of the solute does not dissociate. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements, in physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, hydrogen phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate. The electric charge symbols of plus and minus indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has a distribution of electrons. Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium is the main intracellular electrolyte, all known higher lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important, such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control, both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body

11.
Claus process
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The Claus process is the most significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous hydrogen sulfide. First patented in 1883 by the chemist Carl Friedrich Claus, the Claus process has become the industry standard, C. F. Claus was born in Kassel in the German State of Hessen in 1827, and studied chemistry in Marburg before he emigrated to England in 1852. Claus died in London in the year 1900, the by-product gases mainly originate from physical and chemical gas treatment units in refineries, natural gas processing plants and gasification or synthesis gas plants. These by-product gases may also contain hydrogen cyanide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide or ammonia, hydrogen sulfide produced, for example, in the hydro-desulfurization of refinery naphthas and other petroleum oils, is converted to sulfur in Claus plants. Sulfur is used for manufacturing sulfuric acid, medicine, cosmetics, fertilizers, elemental sulfur is used as fertilizer and pesticide. The process was invented by Carl Friedrich Claus, a chemist working in England, a British patent was issued to him in 1883. The process was significantly modified by IG Farben. A schematic process flow diagram of a basic 2+1-reactor SuperClaus unit is shown below, in the thermal step, hydrogen sulfide-laden gas reacts in a substoichiometric combustion at temperatures above 850 °C such that elemental sulfur precipitates in the downstream process gas cooler. The H2S content and the concentration of other combustible components determine the location where the gas is burned. Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinerys sour water stripper, sufficient air is injected into the muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. The air to the gas ratio is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide is converted to SO2. This ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction in the catalytic step. The separation of the combustion processes ensures an accurate dosage of the air volume needed as a function of the feed gas composition. To reduce the gas volume or obtain higher combustion temperatures. Several technologies utilizing high-level and low-level oxygen enrichment are available in industry, usually,60 to 70% of the total amount of elemental sulfur produced in the process are obtained in the thermal process step. The main portion of the hot gas from the combustion chamber flows through the tube of the process gas cooler and is cooled such that the sulfur formed in the reaction step condenses. The heat given off by the gas and the condensation heat evolved are utilized to produce medium or low-pressure steam. The condensed sulfur is removed at the liquid outlet section of the process gas cooler, more hydrogen sulfide reacts with the SO2 formed during combustion in the reaction furnace in the Claus reaction, and results in gaseous, elemental sulfur

12.
Carl Schotten
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Carl Schotten was a German chemist who, together with Eugen Baumann, discovered the Schotten-Baumann reaction. The Schotten-Baumann reaction is a method to synthesize amides from amines, examples of this reaction include the synthesis of N-vanillyl nonanamide, also known as synthetic capsaicin. Schotten was born as the child of a syndic at the University of Marburg. Although he lost his father at the age of two, his family background allowed him to receive a good education. After attending the gymnasium in Marburg and Schulpforta, he studied medicine at the University of Zurich and he later moved to the University of Leipzig and changed his subject to chemistry. Schotten joined the group of August Wilhelm von Hofmann at the University of Berlin in 1875, there, he received his Ph. D. in 1878 under the supervision of Ferdinand Tiemann. Schotten stayed three years in the laboratory of von Hofmann. In 1881, he was invited by Emil du Bois-Reymond to become lecturer at the institute at the University of Berlin. His analysis of pyridine, piperidine and coniine paved the way for the determination of the relations within these three compounds. Schotten stayed at Berlin University until 1891, when he changed to the patent office. He held that position until his death in 1910

13.
Eugen Baumann
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Eugen Baumann was a German chemist. He was one of the first people to create polyvinyl chloride, Baumann was born in Cannstatt, which is now part of Stuttgart. After he attended a gymnasium in Stuttgart, he was educated in the pharmacy of his father, during his time in Stuttgart, he already attended the lectures of Hermann von Fehling at the University of Stuttgart. To broaden his education, he went to Lübeck and Gothenburg to work in pharmacies there, later, he studied pharmacy at the University of Tübingen. He passed his first exam in 1870 and received his PhD in 1872 for work with Felix Hoppe-Seyler and he followed Hoppe-Seyler to the University of Straßburg where did his habilitation in 1876. The same year, Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond offered him a position as the Head of the Chemistry Department of the Institute of Physiology in Berlin, in 1882, Baumann became professor of medicine at that institute, and subsequently obtained professor position at the University of Freiburg. In 1895, he took over the management of Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie with Albrecht Kossel, from 1883 till his death, Baumann was married to Theresa Kopp, the daughter of chemist Hermann Kopp, and they had five children. He died at the age of 49 due to a heart problem, the organosulfur compounds of the urine were his starting point into the physiological chemistry. He identified the source for aromatic compounds in urine being the aromatic amino acids and he influenced the organosulfur chemistry by the synthesis of thioacetals and thioketals. These substances were used by other scientists, for example for anesthesia. Together with his coworkers, he was able to prove that thyroxine was the active ingredient in the thyroid gland

14.
Krakatoa
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Krakatoa, or Krakatau, is a volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in the Indonesian province of Lampung. The explosion is considered to be the loudest sound heard in modern history. The shock waves from the explosion were recorded on barographs worldwide for days afterward, in 1927 a new island, Anak Krakatau, or Child of Krakatoa, emerged from the caldera formed in 1883 and is the current location of eruptive activity. The most notable eruptions of Krakatoa culminated in a series of explosions over August 26–27,1883. The 1883 eruption ejected approximately 25 km3 of rock, the cataclysmic explosion was heard 4,800 km away in Alice Springs, as well as on the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius,4,653 km to the west. According to the records of the Dutch East Indies colony,165 villages and towns were destroyed near Krakatoa. At least 36,417 people died, and many thousands were injured. The eruption destroyed two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa, eruptions in the area since 1927 have built a new island at the same location, named Anak Krakatau. Periodic eruptions have continued since, with recent eruptions in 2009,2010,2011, as of late 2011, this island has a radius of roughly 2 kilometres, and a high point of about 324 metres above sea level, growing 5 metres each year. About two dozen variants have found, including Crackatouw, Cracatoa, and Krakatao. The first known appearance of the spelling Krakatau was by Wouter Schouten, the origin of the Indonesian name Krakatau is uncertain. The Smithsonian Institutions Global Volcanism Program cites the Indonesian name, Krakatau, as the correct name, while Krakatoa is more common in the English-speaking world, the Indonesian Krakatau tends to be favored by others, including geologists. Indonesia has over 130 active volcanoes, the most of any nation and they make up the axis of the Indonesian island arc system, which was produced by northeastward subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate. A majority of volcanoes lie along Indonesias two largest islands, Java and Sumatra. These two islands are separated by the Sunda Strait, which is located at a bend in the axis of the island arc. At some point in prehistory, an earlier caldera-forming eruption had occurred, leaving as remnants Verlaten, Lang, Poolsche Hoed, later, at least two more cones formed and eventually joined with Rakata, forming the main island of Krakatoa. At the time of the 1883 eruption, the Krakatoa group comprised Lang, Verlaten, and Krakatoa itself, there were also the tree-covered islet near Lang and several small rocky islets or banks between Krakatoa and Verlaten. There were three volcanic cones on Krakatoa island, Rakata, to the south, Danan, near the center, and Perboewatan, to the north

15.
Tsunami
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A tsunami or tidal wave, also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by wind, or tides which are generated by the pull of the Moon and Sun. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves, Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called internal wave train. Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events, numerous terms are used in the English language to describe waves created in a body of water by the displacement of water, however, none of the terms in frequent use are entirely accurate. The term tsunami, meaning harbour wave in literal translation, comes from the Japanese 津波, while not entirely accurate, as tsunami are not restricted to harbours, tsunami is currently the term most widely accepted by geologists and oceanographers. Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves and this once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. Although the meanings of tidal include resembling or having the form or character of the tides, use of the tidal wave is discouraged by geologists. The term seismic sea wave also is used to refer to the phenomenon, prior to the rise of the use of the term tsunami in English-speaking countries, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term seismic sea wave rather than tidal wave. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island, Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily, the Storegga Slide in the Norwegian sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake, at the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen, the principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity, tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis. Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water and they grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1,1946, the 8.6 Mw Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI and it generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed, the area where the earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting under Alaska

16.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control

17.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes

18.
Vasily Dokuchaev
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Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev was a Russian Geologist and Geographer who is credited with laying the foundations of soil science. Vasily Vasilevich Dokuchaev is commonly regarded as the father of Soil science and he developed soil science in Russia, and was, perhaps the first person to make wide geographical investigations of different soil types. His great contribution to science was, figuratively, to put soils on the map, using these ideas as a basis, he created the first soil classification. His ideas were taken up by a number of soil scientists. He worked on science, and developed a classification scheme describing five factors for soil formation. He arrived at his theory after extensive studies on Russian soils in 1883. His most famous work is Russian Chernozem, thanks to Dokuchaevs works a number of Russian soil terms are in the international soil science vocabulary. A crater on Mars is named in his honor and the Dokuchaev Award, the scientific basis of soil science as a natural science was established by the classical works of Dokuchaev. Previously, soil had been considered a product of transformations of rocks. Soil and bedrock were in fact equated, Dokuchaev considers the soil as a natural body having its own genesis and its own history of development, a body with complex and multiform processes taking place within it. The soil is considered as different from bedrock, the latter becomes soil under the influence of a series of soil-formation factors. Dokuchaev published in 1869-1901,285 works, including 61 books and 4 maps, List of publications Dokoutchaief B.1879. 66 p. Inostrantzev A. Schmidt Th, moeller V. Karpinsky A. Dokoutchaief B. et al. Rapport de la Sous-commission russe sur l’uniformité de la nomenclature géologique // Congrès géologique international, les steppes russes autrefois et aujurd’hui // Congrès international darchéologie, préhistorique et dantroppologie. P. 197-240, Our Steppes Before and Nowadays, agriculture Ministry of Crown Domains for the Worlds Columbian Exposition at Chicago,1893. 62 p. Dokoutchaief B. B.1892, notes sur l’étude scientifique du sol en Russie au point de vue de l’agronomie et de la cartographie agricole // Bull. Notes sur le loess // Bull, dokouchaev V. V. Sibirtzev N. M.1893. Short scientific review of professor Dockuchaev’s and his pupil’s collection of soils,40 p. Dokoutchaief B. B.1895

19.
Eugenics
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Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population. The exact definition of eugenics has been a matter of debate since the term was coined, frederick Osborns 1937 journal article Development of a Eugenic Philosophy framed it as a social philosophy—that is, a philosophy with implications for social order. That definition is not universally accepted, osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits, or reduced rates of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits. Alternatively, gene selection rather than people selection has recently been made possible through advances in genome editing, in this period, eugenic ideas were espoused across the political spectrum. Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies with the intent to improve the quality of stock of their countries. S. Furthermore, negative eugenics in particular is considered by many to be a violation of human rights. Another criticism is that eugenic policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, the concept of positive eugenics to produce better human beings has existed at least since Plato suggested selective mating to produce a guardian class. The idea of eugenics to decrease the birth of inferior human beings has existed at least since William Goodell advocated the castration. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwins theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwins death, Galton gave his research a name, with the introduction of genetics, eugenics relied on an ideology of genetic determinism in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism, throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial. Eugenics became a discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources. Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals, in 1909 the Anglican clergymen William Inge and James Peile both wrote for the British Eugenics Education Society. Inge was a speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics Conference. Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenists with meetings in 1912 in London, Eugenic policies were first implemented in the early 1900s in the United States. It also took root in France, Germany, and Great Britain, later, in the 1920s and 30s, the eugenic policy of sterilizing certain mental patients was implemented in other countries including Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan and Sweden. In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations, politically, the movement advocated measures such as sterilization laws. In its moral dimension, eugenics rejected the doctrine that all beings are born equal

20.
Francis Galton
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Galton produced over 340 papers and books. He also created the concept of correlation and widely promoted regression toward the mean. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the term itself and his book Hereditary Genius was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness. As an investigator of the mind, he founded psychometrics and differential psychology. He devised a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science and he also conducted research on the power of prayer, concluding it had none by its null effects on the longevity of those prayed for. His quest for the principles of diverse phenomena extended even to the optimal method for making tea. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability and he was Charles Darwins half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius Galton, son of Samuel John Galton, the Galtons were famous and highly successful Quaker gun-manufacturers and bankers, while the Darwins were distinguished in medicine and science. He was cousin of Douglas Strutt Galton and half-cousin of Charles Darwin, later in life, Galton would propose a connection between genius and insanity based on his own experience. His parents pressed him to enter the profession, and he studied for two years at Birmingham General Hospital and Kings College London Medical School. He followed this up with studies at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. A curious note in the states, Francis Galton Trinity College student. One of Galtons masonic certificates from Scientific lodge can be found among his papers at University College, a severe nervous breakdown altered Galtons original intention to try for honours. He elected instead to take a poll B. A. degree and he then briefly resumed his medical studies. In his early years Galton was a traveller, and made a notable solo trip through Eastern Europe to Constantinople. In 1845 and 1846 he went to Egypt and travelled down the Nile to Khartoum in the Sudan, in 1850 he joined the Royal Geographical Society, and over the next two years mounted a long and difficult expedition into then little-known South West Africa. He wrote a book on his experience, Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa. He was awarded the Royal Geographical Societys Founders Gold Medal in 1853 and this established his reputation as a geographer and explorer

21.
Thomas Clouston
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Sir Thomas Smith Clouston FRSE PRCPE was a Scottish psychiatrist. Clouston was born the son of Robert Clouston of Nist House, in the Birsay parish of Orkney, and educated at Aberdeen Grammar School, Clouston qualified M. D. with a thesis on the nervous system of the lobster, supervised by John Goodsir. His early interest in insanity resulted in an apprenticeship with David Skae, Clouston became a celebrated lecturer with an international reputation for his exposition of the psychiatric disorders of adolescence. Clouston published extensively, beginning with his remarkable Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases, followed, much later, in 1888, Clouston served as President of the Medico-Psychological Association. In 1875 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposers were Sir Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, John Hutton Balfour, Sir William Turner and Alexander Crum Brown. In 1894 he opened the Craig House extension to the Royal Edinburgh asylum on Easter Craiglockhart Hill, the buildings later became part of Napier University. From 1902 to 1904 he was President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Clouston retired in 1908 and was knighted in 1911. He is commemorated by a plaque on the eastern aspect of the North Transept of St Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall. His son was the author Storer Clouston and he Received the Freedom of the Burgh of Kirkwall on 28 August 1908. At the end of his life Clouston lived at 26 Heriot Row and he is buried in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh with his wife Dame Harriet Secur Storer. The grave lies on the southern terrace. His daughter, Augusta Maud Clouston CBE lies to the side, an award of £1,000 initially donated to the Royal College of Physicians in 1982. The income from the trust is used for money for essay or lecture on paediatrics in Sri Lanka. The award is granted every 3 years, Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases The Neuroses of Development The Hygiene of Mind Unsoundness of Mind Works by or about Thomas Clouston at Internet Archive

22.
JAMA (journal)
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JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association is a peer-reviewed medical journal published 48 times a year by the American Medical Association. It publishes original research, reviews, and editorials covering all aspects of the biomedical sciences, the journal was established in 1883 with Nathan Smith Davis as the founding editor. The journals current editor-in-chief is Howard Bauchner of Boston University, who succeeded Catherine DeAngelis on July 1,2011, the journal was established in 1883 by the American Medical Association and superseded the Transactions of the American Medical Association. The Councilors Bulletin was renamed the Bulletin of the American Medical Association which was absorbed by the Journal of the American Medical Association. In 1960 the journal obtained its current title, JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association, the journal is commonly referred to as JAMA. Continuing Education Opportunities for Physicians was a journal section providing lists for regional or national levels of continuing medical education. JAMA had provided this information since 1937, prior to 1955, the list was produced either quarterly or semiannually. Between 1955 and 1981, the list was available annually, as the number of CME offerings increased from 1,000 to 8,500, the JAMA website states that webinars are available for CME. The article was not subject to blind peer-review and argued for specific policies which future presidents could pursue in order to improve health care reform implementation. After the controversial firing of an editor-in-chief, George D. Lundberg, a seven-member journal oversight committee was created to evaluate the editor-in-chief and to help ensure editorial independence. Since its inception, the committee has met at least once a year, presently, JAMA states that article content should be attributed to authors and not the publisher. From 1964 to 2013, the journal used images of artwork on its cover, according to former editor George Lundberg, this practice was designed to link the humanities and medicine. In 2013, a redesign moved the art feature to an inside page, the purpose of the redesign was to standardize the appearance of all journals in the JAMA network. List of American Medical Association journals Official website American Medical Association Archives Free copies of volumes 1-80, from the Internet Archive and HathiTrust

23.
Robert Koch
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Robert Heinrich Hermann Koch was a celebrated German physician and pioneering microbiologist. In addition to his studies on these diseases, Koch created and improved laboratory technologies and techniques in the field of microbiology. As a result of his research on tuberculosis, Koch received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. Robert Koch was born in Clausthal, Hanover, Germany, on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch, Koch excelled in academics from an early age. Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and he graduated from high school in 1862, having excelled in science and maths. At the age of 19, Koch entered the University of Göttingen, however, after three semesters, Koch decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician. During his fifth semester of school, Jacob Henle, an anatomist who had published a theory of contagion in 1840. In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute. This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation, in January 1866, Koch graduated from medical school, earning honors of the highest distinction. Several years after his graduation in 1866, he worked as a surgeon in the Franco-Prussian War, from 1880-1885, Koch held a position as government advisor with the Imperial Department of Health. Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room, koch’s early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria. Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in pure laboratory culture, from 1885 to 1890, he served as an administrator and professor at Berlin University. For this he accepted harsh conditions, the Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the scandal with tuberculin, that any of Kochs inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and not compensated. Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection, in an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as potato slices. Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical and he found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with gelatin. Koch’s discovery of the agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. The organism must be isolated from a host containing the disease, samples of the organism taken from pure culture must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible animal in the laboratory. The organism must be isolated from the animal and must be identified as the same original organism first isolated from the originally diseased host

24.
Vibrio cholerae
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Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped bacterium. The bacteriums natural habitat is brackish or saltwater, some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. V. cholerae is a facultative anaerobe and has a flagellum at one cell pole as well as pili, V. cholerae can undergo respiratory and fermentative metabolism. When ingested, V. cholerae can cause diarrhea and vomiting in a host within several hours to 2–3 days of ingestion, V. V. cholerae is Gram-negative and comma-shaped. Initial isolates are slightly curved, whereas they can appear as straight rods upon laboratory culturing, the bacterium has a flagellum at one cell pole as well as pili. V. cholerae is a facultative anaerobe, and can undergo respiratory, V. cholerae pathogenicity genes code for proteins directly or indirectly involved in the virulence of the bacteria. During infection, V. cholerae secretes cholera toxin, a protein that causes profuse, colonization of the small intestine also requires the toxin coregulated pilus, a thin, flexible, filamentous appendage on the surface of bacterial cells. V. cholerae can cause syndromes ranging from asymptomatic to cholera gravis, in endemic areas, 75% of cases are asymptomatic, 20% are mild to moderate, and 2-5% are severe forms such as cholera gravis. Symptoms include abrupt onset of diarrhea, occasional vomiting. Death due to dehydration can occur in a few hours to days in untreated children, the disease is also particularly dangerous for pregnant women and their fetuses during late pregnancy, as it may cause premature labor and fetal death. In cases of cholera gravis involving severe dehydration, up to 60% of patients can die, however, the disease typically lasts 4–6 days. In 2002, the WHO deemed that the case fatality ratio for cholera was about 3. 95%, V. cholerae has two circular chromosomes, together totalling 4 million base pairs of DNA sequence and 3,885 predicted genes. The genes for cholera toxin are carried by CTXphi, a temperate bacteriophage inserted into the V. cholerae genome, CTXφ can transmit cholera toxin genes from one V. cholerae strain to another, one form of horizontal gene transfer. The genes for toxin coregulated pilus are coded by the VPI pathogenicity island, the entire genome of the virulent strain V. cholerae El Tor N16961 has been sequenced, and contains two circular chromosomes. Chromosome 1 has 2,961,149 base pairs with 2,770 open reading frames, the larger first chromosome contains the crucial genes for toxicity, regulation of toxicity, and important cellular functions, such as transcription and translation. Also relevant in determining if the replicon is a chromosome is whether it represents a significant percentage of the genome, and, unlike plasmids, chromosomes are not self-transmissible. However, the chromosome may have once been a megaplasmid because it contains some genes usually found on plasmids. V. cholerae contains an island of pathogenicity and is lysogenized with phage DNA

25.
Bacillus
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Bacillus is a genus of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria and a member of the phylum Firmicutes. Bacillus species can be obligate aerobes, or facultative anaerobes and they will test positive for the enzyme catalase when there has been oxygen used or present. Ubiquitous in nature, Bacillus includes both free-living and parasitic pathogenic species and these characteristics originally defined the genus, but not all such species are closely related, and many have been moved to other genera of the Firmicutes. Many species of Bacillus can produce copious amounts of enzymes which are use of in different industries. B. subtilis has proved a model for research. Other species of Bacillus are important pathogens, causing anthrax and food poisoning, many Bacillus species are able to secrete large quantities of enzymes. A portion of the Bacillus thuringiensis genome was incorporated into corn crops, the resulting GMOs are therefore resistant to some insect pests. Bacillus subtilis is one of the best understood prokaryotes, in terms of molecular and cellular biology and its superb genetic amenability and relatively large size have provided the powerful tools required to investigate a bacterium from all possible aspects. Recent improvements in fluorescent microscopy techniques have provided insight into the dynamic structure of a single cell organism. Bacillus species are almost ubiquitous in nature, e. g. in soil, B. thuringiensis produces a toxin that can kill insects and thus has been used as insecticide. Two Bacillus species are considered significant, B. anthracis, which causes anthrax, and B. cereus. A third species, B. thuringiensis, is an important insect pathogen, the type species is B. subtilis, an important model organism. It is also a notable food spoiler, causing ropiness in bread, some environmental and commercial strains of B. coagulans may play a role in food spoilage of highly acidic, tomato-based products. An easy way to isolate Bacillus species is by placing nonsterile soil in a test tube with water, shaking, placing in melted mannitol salt agar, colonies are usually large, spreading, and irregularly shaped. Under the microscope, the Bacillus cells appear as rods, the cell wall is composed of teichoic and teichuronic acids. The role of the cytoskeleton in shape generation and maintenance is important The genus Bacillus was named in 1835 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg and he had seven years earlier named the genus Bacterium. Bacillus was later amended by Ferdinand Cohn to further describe them as spore-forming, Gram-positive, like other genera associated with the early history of microbiology, such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio, the 266 species of Bacillus are ubiquitous. The genus has a very large ribosomal 16S diversity and is environmentally diverse, several studies have tried to reconstruct the phylogeny of the genus

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on …

Image: Akashi Bridge

The Manhattan Bridge, connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn in New York City, opened in 1909 and is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges; its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world.