tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/teacher-pay-10034/articlesTeacher pay – The Conversation2018-04-26T19:59:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/955822018-04-26T19:59:50Z2018-04-26T19:59:50Z3 reasons why teachers are striking right now<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216576/original/file-20180426-175044-nppwh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teachers and students wave to motorists in Peoria, Ariz.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Matt York</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Teachers from <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/04/22/604702008/arizona-teachers-plan-to-strike-on-thursday">Arizona</a> and <a href="https://chalkbeat.org/posts/co/2018/04/23/these-col%20orado-school-districts-are-canceling-classes-for-teacher-protests/">Colorado</a> are joining teachers in Oklahoma and Kentucky on the picket line.</p>
<p>These teacher strikes will likely intensify the debate among elected officials over where education fits in state budget priorities. They may also prompt Americans to consider whether they are willing to pay more tax dollars to educate the country’s youth.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Pg36S-AAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;authuser=1">scholar</a> who studies <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2056305117706786">protest</a> and <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/sociology/political-sociology/abortion-politics-mass-media-and-social-movements-america">politics</a> in the U.S., I’m often asked why teachers are striking now.</p>
<p>These are the three main reasons:</p>
<h2>1. Money matters</h2>
<p>First, teachers are tired of trying to educate students without enough money or adequate resources. This shared grievance goes well beyond low <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-things-to-know-about-the-teacher-strike-in-oklahoma-94277">teacher pay</a>.</p>
<p>Teachers are rebelling against <a href="https://www.weareteachers.com/why-are-teachers-and-kids-working-in-buildings-that-are-falling-apart/">aging facilities</a>, outdated teaching materials and four-day weeks – all of which are a result of reduced amounts of state and federal money flowing into public schools. In particular, funding greatly varies by <a href="https://www.npr.org/2016/04/18/474256366/why-americas-schools-have-a-money-problem">school district</a> and is often thinly spread in many states.</p>
<p>Take <a href="https://www.npr.org/2016/04/18/474256366/why-americas-schools-have-a-money-problem">Texas</a>, for example. School districts on the state’s east coast, especially around Houston, spend 33 percent less per student, per year, than the country’s national average of US$11,841. Compare this to school districts on Texas’s western border, which spend 33 percent more per student, per year, than the national average.</p>
<p>In places like West Virginia and Oklahoma, where <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/06/us/west-virginia-teachers-strike-deal.html">teachers are</a> <a href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/4/24/17274808/teacher-strikes-public-opinion-poll">pushing back</a> against a poorly funded education system, most of the school districts fall anywhere from 10 to 33 percent below the national average.</p>
<p>Experts agree that public education has fallen on hard times in the last decade. The liberal <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/a-punishing-decade-for-school-funding">Center on Budget and Policy Priorities</a> notes that most schools in the U.S. took a hit after the Great Recession in 2008, and that, in 2015, 29 states in the U.S. were still spending less per student than they did in 2008.</p>
<p>Financial resources are particularly stretched in states that champion charter schools, which often are entitled to a piece of a state’s school dollars. According to the <a href="https://www.ecs.org/charter-school-policies/">Education Commission of the States</a>, 44 states and the District of Columbia permit charter schools. Of those, <a href="http://ecs.force.com/mbdata/mbquestNB2C?rep=CS1703">25 states</a> do not have caps on the number of charter schools that can exist. This means that the number of charter schools can increase dramatically over a relatively short period of time.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.fldoe.org/core/fileparse.php/7696/urlt/Charter_Sept_2017_rev.pdf">Florida</a>, for example, added almost 100 charter schools between 2012 and 2017 – increasing the total number of charter schools in the state from 578 to 654. Education dollars in the state of Florida are attached to students rather than schools, and charter schools attract students away from the public school system. This means most public schools saw a decline in dollars received over this same period of time. </p>
<p>This, in turn, meant Florida schools found it more difficult to <a href="http://www.jacksonville.com/article/20160407/NEWS/801246143">cover the costs</a> associated with hiring teachers and support staff, as well as paying for educational materials and building upkeep. In short, <a href="https://theconversation.com/states-are-favoring-school-choice-at-a-steep-cost-to-public-education-95395">less money</a> goes to public schools in states where charter schools proliferate. The strikes are the teachers’ way of saying they have had enough. </p>
<h2>2. Everyone protests</h2>
<p>Some reporters have been quick to attribute teacher protests to <a href="https://americanresistancebook.com/">#TheResistance</a> – a movement against President Donald Trump. </p>
<p>This assumption ignores the fact that collective action in the U.S. has been on the rise over the last <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780847685400/The-Social-Movement-Society-Contentious-Politics-for-a-New-Century">few decades</a>. Americans have grown more accustomed to organizing and taking their claims directly to politicians, and when necessary, to the streets. Between 1960 and 1985, for example, the average size of protests in the U.S. <a href="http://mobilizationjournal.org/doi/abs/10.17813/maiq.10.3.730350353753l022?code=hjdm-site#A2">increased dramatically</a>. Making one’s voice heard is simply a part of everyday life in the digital age. </p>
<p>And it’s not just liberals who use public protest as a way to achieve political goals. Protesters span the political spectrum. Remember the Tea Party’s <a href="https://www.academia.edu/2012529/Constricting_Boundaries_Collective_Identity_and_the_Tea_Party_Movement">dramatic protests</a> outside the White House and the “sister” tea parties staged outside of state houses across the country? </p>
<p>This is also made clear in the fact that teachers’ political beliefs span the political spectrum. A 2017 survey commissioned by the <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2017/12/13/survey-paints-political-portrait-of-americas-k-12.html">Education Week Research Center</a> found that K-12 teachers hold a wide array of political points of view. What they share is a passion for their profession and willingness to face down politicians over the future of public education.</p>
<p>Protesting, in short, isn’t only about Donald Trump. It’s an American pursuit – one made easier by <a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9781479897872/">new technology</a>, social media in particular.</p>
<p>The man who spearheaded the Oklahoma teacher strike, <a href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/04/12/teacher-strikes-oklahoma-city-kentucky-west-virginia-217849">Alberto Morejon</a>, created a Facebook group after watching teachers protest in West Virginia. The group swelled to 30,000 members in three days. That is nearly three-quarters of <a href="http://sde.ok.gov/sde/sites/ok.gov.sde/files/documents/files/Fast%20Facts%20FY17%20December%2021%202017.pdf">all teachers</a> in the state.</p>
<h2>3. Piggybacking on success</h2>
<p>Finally, successful tactics <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/664685">spread</a>. This was true of the <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000312240607100503">lunch counter civil rights protests</a> in the 1960s and the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14742837.2013.830969">Occupy protests</a> that drew attention to local issues such as homelessness in communities across the country in 2011. The same is true today. When an aggrieved group finds a tactic that seems to work, even in the short term, it can quickly spread across the country. </p>
<p><iframe id="cd1QO" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/cd1QO/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>In the case of the teacher strikes, timing is everything. States currently are finalizing their budgets for next year, which means right now teachers have the most opportunity for influence and potentially the loudest voice. </p>
<p>It doesn’t hurt that school is in session, which helps shine a spotlight on the important work that teachers do as well as the conditions in which they do it. When teachers strike, schools close and education comes to a grinding halt.</p>
<p>It is difficult to say if teachers will have all of their demands met. </p>
<p>West Virginia teachers experienced <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/06/us/west-virginia-teachers-strike/index.html">some success</a>. After nine days of the strike, Gov. Jim Justice agreed to veto anti-union legislation, agreed to set up a task force to address problems facing the state health insurance program and gave teachers a 5 percent raise. </p>
<p>Not all politicians, however, are agreeing to teacher demands. In Colorado, some lawmakers are pushing legislation that would punish striking teachers with <a href="http://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/384420-colorado-bill-would-punish-teachers-who-go-on-strike-with-jail-time">jail time</a>.</p>
<p>Politicians contemplating action against teachers’ demands would be wise to note that teachers seem to have won over the hearts and minds of most Americans.
A <a href="http://www.apnorc.org/projects/Pages/American-Attitudes-toward-Teacher-Pay-and-Protests.aspx">recent poll</a> found that the majority of Americans are willing to pay more in taxes in order to put more money into public education.</p>
<p>This suggests that public education is important to the electorate – and there is an election right around the corner.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95582/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deana Rohlinger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Yes, money is one big reason. But teachers also just want to be heard like everyone else and are using methods that have been shown to be effective.Deana Rohlinger, Professor of Sociology, Florida State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/945802018-04-15T20:15:53Z2018-04-15T20:15:53ZSeven reasons people no longer want to be teachers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214648/original/file-20180413-566-kfik3x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The programs are long and intense, the creativity and relationships aspect of the vocation has been eroded, there is pervasive negativity in the media, and comparatively poor salary and working conditions. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The oldest profession – teaching – is no longer attractive. The Queensland Deans of Education <a href="http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/universities-blame-a-new-requirement-of-fiveyear-study-for-drop-in-teacher-training-enrolment/news-story/730755780318b1eaa74373edb851270b">revealed</a> there have been alarming drops in first preference applications for this year’s teacher preparation courses. Queensland has experienced an overall 26% drop. Most alarmingly, UQ reported a 44% plunge. QUT saw a 19% drop.</p>
<p>These figures reflect a national trend. ACU’s is down 20% for campuses in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. This follows disappointing interest in 2017. VTAC reported <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/applications-for-graduate-teaching-courses-drop-40-per-cent-in-victoria-20170111-gtppgn.html">a 40% drop in 2017</a> compared to 2016. So why don’t people want to be teachers anymore? There are at least seven reasons people aren’t so keen.</p>
<h2>1. Teacher education competency fixation</h2>
<p>Our best teachers can inspire a student to achieve beyond their wildest expectations. They find the teachable moments and use humour to explain key concepts. They care for their students as individuals and go that extra mile to design their teaching to connect with them in meaningful ways. Their assessments are fair and they rejoice with students when they master important ideas. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="http://theconversation.com/to-raise-status-of-teaching-australia-needs-to-lift-pay-and-cut-teacher-numbers-63518">To raise status of teaching, Australia needs to lift pay and cut teacher numbers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These professional attributes are the essence of good teaching. But accredited teacher education programs must be designed around 37 competencies as prescribed by <a href="https://www.aitsl.edu.au/">the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership</a> (AITSL). These competencies don’t address these personal attributes. </p>
<p>Having a competency framework is not so terrible. We need teachers to have observable capabilities to plan assessment, to know content and related ways to teach it. The skills are necessary, but not sufficient. We need the relationships dimension in the teacher education package. The types of things we value in our best teachers are conspicuous <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/aer/15/">by their absence in program accreditation</a>. So why would someone aspire to teach if the interpersonal dimension is lost?</p>
<h2>2. Standardised testing obsession</h2>
<p>Standardised testing has become a national sport, with <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">PISA</a> and <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/detrimental-victoria-joins-the-push-for-a-review-of-naplan-20180411-p4z8x4.html">NAPLAN</a>. Much class time is spent preparing students to do well. The stakes are high for the teachers and their schools. While <a href="http://education-consumers.org/pdf/ECF_Messenger.pdf">teachers do need to test their students</a> to check on their progress, the national obsession is a problem. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214670/original/file-20180413-543-v2ay9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Standardised tests, like NAPLAN, contribute to lack of enthusiasm to take up teaching.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Teachers spend a great deal of time preparing students for these tests. Standardised tests <a href="https://www.education.com/reference/article/preparing-standardized-tests/">are a unique testing genre</a>, and teachers need to attend to this preparation without abandoning everything else they need to do. This is a challenge, and <a href="http://livingout.social/how-standardized-testing-kills-creativity-in-education">the first casualty is teacher creativity</a>. International <a href="http://teacherrenewal.wiki.westga.edu/file/view/Testing,%20Testing,%20Testing.pdf">reports</a> also argue this point. Where’s the fun in teaching if you don’t have scope to be creative?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="http://theconversation.com/naplan-only-tells-part-of-the-story-of-student-achievement-86144">NAPLAN only tells part of the story of student achievement</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. Lack of autonomy</h2>
<p>Finland enjoys attention for their successful education system. Finnish teachers <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jan/07/pasi-sahlberg-finland-teach-australian-schools-education">have an open brief</a> to decide what to teach their students and how. In Australia we micromanage and control. The emphasis on play and the arts in Australian schools is lacking. </p>
<p>In Australia, departments of education provide explicit guidance for classes well ahead of time. This means the teaching approach and content is in place even before a teacher meets their students. This undermines the ability for teachers to be responsive and tailor teaching to learners’ needs. And so, the professional responsibility of Australian teachers is compromised - making the job seem rather unattractive.</p>
<h2>4. Work intensification</h2>
<p>Work intensification refers to the increasing range of duties and responsibilities that have been attached to the role of teachers. Teachers <a href="https://aeunt.org.au/news/technology-and-workload/">report</a> the rewards of teaching are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425690095153">obscured by this, and the crowded curriculum</a>. They are stressed by the range of things they’re required to teach and the snowball effect that emerges from increased requirements. </p>
<p>Intensification is due to many factors, not least of which is the expansion of teacher responsibilities to include social skills development previously addressed at home. Teaching is well known to be hard work. Yet, hard work without appreciation or respect is a disincentive.</p>
<h2>5. Negative public image</h2>
<p>An audit of newspaper stories in Queensland over the past year shows a tendency to report negatively on teachers. In the 12 months examined, 11 months featured more negative stories.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="gvXtC" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/gvXtC/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="http://theconversation.com/teachers-who-feel-appreciated-are-less-likely-to-leave-the-profession-89864">Teachers who feel appreciated are less likely to leave the profession</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>6. Teacher bashing</h2>
<p>Teaching as a vocation is publicly scorned. This is commonly called ‘teacher bashing’. As a career, teaching is tolerated as a convenient backup pathway for people, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/apr/22/teacher-bashing-gove-performance-pay">but not endorsed as the main game</a>. There have even been reports of teachers being actually <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/education/teacher-bashings-by-angry-parents-and-students-on-the-rise/news-story/081cd9bd2c09f75774ee5f2245d77107">physically bashed</a>.</p>
<h2>7. Teachers’ salaries are poor</h2>
<p>The final nail in the coffin: poor salaries. A graduate dentist from a five year course <a href="https://www.livingin-australia.com/australian-dentist-salaries/">earns A$130,000</a>. The majority of secondary teachers have also completed a five year program, but <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/future_students/careers/teacher_salaries.shtml">the starting salary is A$65,486</a> reaching A$71,000 after 5-10 years. </p>
<h2>No wonder people don’t want to be teachers</h2>
<p>It’s not surprising, then, that numbers of applicants for teacher education programs have slumped. The programs are long and intense, the creativity and relationships aspect of the vocation has been eroded, there is pervasive negativity in the media, and comparatively poor salary and working conditions. </p>
<p>It’s hard to know where to start, but appealing to the vocational drive of those who love leading others to achieve by raising the profile of these additional attributes in teacher education programs might help. This would require <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/aer/15/">a gentle review of the national program design and accreditation guidelines</a>. Or perhaps we need to be better at reporting teacher success in the mass media.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94580/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nan Bahr received funding from ACER for a review of quality in teaching and teacher education.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jo-Anne Ferreira does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There's been a drop in the number of people enrolling in teacher preparation courses. This is due to problems such as pay, professional autonomy, and a national obsession with standardised testing.Nan Bahr, Pro Vice Chancellor (Students)/ Dean of Education, Southern Cross UniversityJo-Anne Ferreira, Director, Teaching & Learning, Education, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/942772018-04-03T10:46:57Z2018-04-03T10:46:57Z5 things to know about the teacher strike in Oklahoma<p>Following the success of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/west-virginia-teachers-win-raise-but-nations-rural-teachers-are-still-underpaid-92884">West Virginia teachers strike</a> earlier this year that led to a 5 percent pay raise, teachers throughout the nation are rising to demand better conditions and better pay. The latest example is Oklahoma, where teachers went on strike on April 2. </p>
<p>Here are five things to know about the Oklahoma teacher strike:</p>
<h2>1. This strike goes beyond issues of pay.</h2>
<p>The Oklahoma teachers’ strike is not just about low salaries. It is a movement against a decade of failed economic policies and the defunding of public education. Oklahoma average teacher salaries are ranked <a href="http://www.nea.org/2017-rankings-and-estimates">49th out of 50 states and the District of Columbia</a> in average pay. Oklahoma teachers also <a href="http://newsok.com/article/5580331/oklahoma-teachers-continue-wait-for-pay-raise-a-decade-after-last-increase">have not seen a pay raise since 2008</a>.</p>
<p>Critics blame bleak economic conditions in the state on <a href="https://okpolicy.org/the-cost-of-tax-cuts-in-oklahoma/">reductions in state income taxes</a> for top earners. Oklahoma also offered tax breaks to oil companies to attract their business, but these corporate tax breaks diminished state revenue from 2008 through 2014. The tax breaks ultimately led to a <a href="http://time.com/money/4338825/oklahoma-oil-tax-breaks-school-budget-crisis/">24 percent reduction in per pupil funding</a> over the same time period.</p>
<p>Oklahoma has <a href="http://www.governing.com/topics/education/gov-oklahoma-states-education-funding.html">cut funding to public education by US$1 billion</a> in the last decade amid the oil industry’s economic downturn. These cuts have resulted in teachers working for <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/29/us/oklahoma-arizona-teachers/index.html">low pay with outdated textbooks in overcrowded classrooms</a>. <a href="http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/education/amid-teacher-shortage-four-day-school-districts-can-t-afford/article_cdd1b3f3-4303-574f-8352-54462e93a796.html">About 20 percent</a> of Oklahoma’s school districts have moved to a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/02/us/oklahoma-kentucky-teachers/index.html">four-day week</a> to save costs.</p>
<h2>2. Oklahoma teachers are disappointed with their state legislature.</h2>
<p>The Oklahoma legislature passed a teacher pay raise of $6,100 on March 28, <a href="http://kfor.com/2018/04/02/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-oklahoma-teacher-walkout/">less than the $10,000 increase demanded</a> by the Oklahoma Education Association and Oklahoma Teachers United, a Facebook group negotiating in conjunction with the state teachers’ unions for better pay. While the governor signed the bill, teachers were unsatisfied, given the state Senate’s <a href="http://okcfox.com/news/local/senate-fails-to-pass-teacher-pay-raise-funding-measure-during-late-night-vote">failure</a> to pass a bill that would fund the pay raise. The failure to actually fund the pay raise that was approved by the legislature appears to have strengthened striking teachers’ resolve. </p>
<h2>3. Right-to-work legislation has unintended consequences.</h2>
<p>Oklahoma, like West Virginia, is a right-to-work state, meaning it is illegal to make union membership compulsory. The legislation has <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/analysis-nea-membership-declined-in-27-states-and-one-where-it-grew-ny-is-anything-but-typical/">diminished</a> the number of dues-paying teachers’ union members. </p>
<p>It has also created two consequences relevant to the Oklahoma strike. </p>
<p>First, in right-to-work states, teachers lack codified procedures for grieving issues like low pay. Without these measures in place, the only recourse left is to strike. </p>
<p>Second, the diminished power of the unions has led to the rise of grassroots organization via social media platforms. Oklahoma Teachers United has almost 14,000 followers on its <a href="https://www.facebook.com/Oklahomateachersunited/">Facebook page</a>, allowing for fast communication to quickly organize rallies and walkouts. Further, the group <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2018/04/02/597358137/teachers-are-marching-ahead-of-their-unions-from-oklahoma-to-arizona">isn’t tied</a> to a specific union’s leadership, so it can affect negotiations without direction from union leaders. </p>
<h2>4. Oklahoma has a critical teacher shortage.</h2>
<p>As in West Virginia, Oklahoma is suffering from a teacher shortage that has reached crisis levels – with <a href="http://www.news9.com/story/37855452/teacher-shortage-deepens-in-oklahoma">over 500 vacancies as of August 1</a> and nearly 500 more positions eliminated. The state issued a <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/oklahoma/articles/2017-06-23/oklahoma-uses-emergency-certified-teachers-during-shortage">record number</a> of emergency certifications last year – about 1,200 – to plug a hole in the <a href="https://www.vox.com/2018/3/29/17164284/oklahoma-teachers-strike">large number of vacancies created</a>, when a quarter of Oklahoma teachers left for positions in other states or simply quit the profession. The shortage is acutely felt in places like Edmond Public Schools, which currently has <a href="http://www.news9.com/story/37855452/teacher-shortage-deepens-in-oklahoma">more than two dozen positions</a> open in its middle and high schools. The shortage is so deep that one teacher <a href="http://ktul.com/news/local/oklahoma-teachers-planning-a-statewide-strike">dared lawmakers</a> to fire striking workers, arguing they would teach in Texas, which would essentially make the shortage worse. Like in West Virginia, the teacher shortage means there are no replacements for striking teachers.</p>
<h2>5. The Oklahoma strike is likely not the last.</h2>
<p>Oklahoma is not alone in its strike efforts. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/oklahoma-kentucky-public-schools-close-thousands-teachers-strike-n861946">Kentucky schools closed</a> on April 2 in response to a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/oklahoma-kentucky-public-schools-close-thousands-teachers-strike-n861946">statewide strike</a>. Arizona teachers are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/03/30/598386499/arizona-teachers-threatening-to-strike-if-they-dont-get-a-pay-raise">poised to strike</a> if the state legislature does not respond to their demands for pay increases. And there are rumblings of <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-teachers-strikes-are-becoming-a-nationwide-movement-1522584001">similar action in other states</a> as well, including North Carolina. Arizona teachers rallied at their state Capitol in March in response to multiple <a href="https://www.azcentral.com/story/opinion/op-ed/laurieroberts/2018/03/30/arizona-legislature-considering-yet-another-tax-cut-yes-again/471531002/">tax cut bills</a> that are appearing before the state legislature. The move suggests Arizona teachers will be the next to strike.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94277/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin McHenry-Sorber works for West Virginia University as an assistant professor of higher education and senior scholar for the Center for the Future of Land-Grant Education. </span></em></p>The Oklahoma teachers strike is about more than just pay, but rather a longstanding pattern of decline in funding for the state's public schools.Erin McHenry-Sorber, Assistant Professor of Higher Education, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/928842018-03-07T11:43:42Z2018-03-07T11:43:42ZWest Virginia teachers win raise – but nation's rural teachers are still underpaid<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209230/original/file-20180307-146645-1mynxl0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A teacher holds a sign at a teacher rally at the West Virginia Capitol.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/West-Virginia-Teachers-Strike/36fe5b68614145a2acf50967ff893aae/12/0">Tyler Evert/Ap</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/tv/west-virginia-teacher-strike-now-longest-in-state-history/vp-BBJUOkj">longest teacher strike in West Virginia history</a> came to an end when Gov. Jim Justice announced a <a href="https://www.wvgazettemail.com/news/education/gov-justice-says-wv-teacher-strike-is-over-teachers-want/article_7939c12d-7b0c-5929-972b-6b0864c60da8.html">deal</a> on March 6 to grant the teachers 5 percent more in pay, but issues of pay disparities for rural teachers still persist.</p>
<p>If those issues are not resolved, we could see rural teachers in other states follow the example of the striking teachers in West Virginia, where <a href="http://www.ruraledu.org/user_uploads/file/WRM-2015-16.pdf">over half of all schools are considered rural.</a> I make this observation as one who has specialized in the study of rural education.</p>
<h2>West Virginia lags in teacher pay</h2>
<p>While the dramatic display of power by teachers in West Virginia was about better compensation, the reality is that the issue of teacher pay for rural teachers is complex. </p>
<p>In West Virginia – where the average teacher salary of US$45,622 is the <a href="http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/2017_Rankings_and_Estimates_Report-FINAL-SECURED.pdf">third lowest in the nation</a> – the state legislature sets a general pay scale. The 5 percent raise that teachers won by way of their strike will apply to that scale.</p>
<p>Wealthier districts within the state can supplement this salary, making their districts more competitive than neighboring ones. In West Virginia, counties experiencing population and economic growth, particularly near the District of Columbia, are able to raise their salaries to more competitive <a href="https://wvde.state.wv.us/finance/files/Data/2016-17/Professional%20Salary%20Schedules%20by%20County%2017.pdf">rates</a> than the rest of the state. On the other hand, in isolated and poverty-stricken McDowell County – the poorest county in West Virginia – the district <a href="https://www.apmreports.org/story/2017/08/28/rural-schools-teacher-shortage">struggles to find teachers,</a> particularly in hard-to-staff subjects like math and special education.</p>
<p>The situation is similar in North Carolina, where wealthier districts located in urban and suburban areas poach experienced teachers from less affluent rural districts. Like West Virginia, this has <a href="https://www.citizen-times.com/story/opinion/2018/02/20/nc-teacher-pay-shortchanges-veteran-educators-rural-schools/355247002/">exacerbated</a> the state’s rural teacher shortage.</p>
<h2>Big disparities in other states, too</h2>
<p>In the state of Pennsylvania, for example, schools are managed at the local level instead of at the county level, and rely on smaller community districts to set and maintain teacher salary scales.</p>
<p>Salary inequities across Pennsylvania are striking. </p>
<p>Lower Merion School District, located in the wealthy Philadelphia suburbs, has the highest <a href="http://www.openpagov.org/k12_payroll.asp">average teacher salary</a> in the state at $97,480. Compare that to Turkeyfoot Valley Area School District, a small, rural district located in southwestern Pennsylvania, where the average teacher salary is $36,709. Highly dependent on local tax revenue, rural school systems in Pennsylvania find themselves unable to compete with urban and suburban districts in terms of teacher pay – not just across the state, but within their own counties.</p>
<p>Unlike countywide systems, poor, rural community school districts in Pennsylvania see no benefits from economic growth in neighboring districts within their county borders. Such disparities in pay across and within states intensify a historical <a href="https://www.ecs.org/wp-content/uploads/Rural-SPED-Teacher-Shortages-June-2016.pdf">problem</a> of teacher recruitment and retention in rural places. While the cost of housing tends to be cheaper in rural locations, teachers may end up having to commute to where they work because of the lack of suitable housing options in those locations.</p>
<p>A 2003 study by the Rural School and Community Trust <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED474248.pdf">argued</a> that rural districts faced “a threefold disadvantage” related to the national teacher shortage: lower compensation compared to other rural professionals, <a href="http://www.nea.org/home/12661.htm">such as registered nurses and computer programmers</a>; salary disparities between rural and nonrural states; and within-state inequities between rural and nonrural teachers.</p>
<p>Fifteen years after this study, these problematic trends continue, with devastating consequences. The teacher <a href="https://www.apmreports.org/story/2017/08/28/rural-schools-teacher-shortage">shortage</a> has now reached crisis levels across many states, <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/coming-crisis-teaching">such as Oklahoma and Arizona</a>, and is especially pernicious in rural school systems.</p>
<h2>An issue for states to handle</h2>
<p>States control the level of equity between rural and nonrural schools within their borders. In my opinion, this means state legislatures must find the political will to commit to raising teacher pay in rural areas. </p>
<p>Numerous states, like West Virginia and Oklahoma, have attempted to <a href="http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/education/teacher-shortage-oklahoma-hits-record-for-emergency-certifications-after-just/article_63d0250f-1530-56d6-937e-d45ef4410eb5.html">deal with</a> the lack of certified teachers through emergency certifications, alternative certification programs and <a href="https://www.wvgazettemail.com/news/education/wv-house-oks-lowering-teacher-criteria-non-fully-certified-teachers/article_5aeccf1a-55e9-5a7b-87e8-5be16cf7db9a.html">diminished standards</a> for teacher certification.</p>
<p>Gov. Justice’s announcement ended a nine-day strike in which three unions came together to protest low pay, increasing insurance premiums, and moves by the state legislature to <a href="https://www.wvgazettemail.com/news/education/wv-house-oks-lowering-teacher-criteria-non-fully-certified-teachers/article_5aeccf1a-55e9-5a7b-87e8-5be16cf7db9a.html">lower</a> teacher certification requirements. The West Virginia Legislature’s support of decreased requirements for teacher credentialing came at the same time its teachers were demanding a 5 percent pay raise. Combined with increasing state employee insurance premiums, teachers felt devalued.</p>
<p>Given the success of the West Virginia teachers in winning a 5 percent pay raise not just for teachers but for all state employees, other predominantly rural states like Oklahoma and Kentucky may soon follow suit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92884/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin McHenry-Sorber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The recent strike by teachers in West Virginia demonstrates larger issues with pay disparities for rural teachers.Erin McHenry-Sorber, Assistant Professor of Higher Education, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/898642018-01-14T19:02:21Z2018-01-14T19:02:21ZTeachers who feel appreciated are less likely to leave the profession<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201603/original/file-20180111-60724-161urp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If teachers are aware of the positive influence they have on their students and colleagues they might have higher levels of self-efficacy and work satisfaction.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We are fast approaching the end of summer holidays and many teachers are turning their attention to preparing for the start of the school year. Many of the teachers who started their careers in 2017 will not return to the classroom in 2018. In fact, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10476210.2014.996746">over 40%</a> of teachers leave the profession within the first five years. Many of those who remain are left <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13664530.2014.945129">feeling burnt out, unsupported and undervalued</a> in their work.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/teachers-are-leaving-the-profession-heres-how-to-make-them-stay-52697">Read more: Teachers are leaving the profession – here’s how to make them stay</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>Commentators have suggested learning from countries with better PISA results, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jan/07/pasi-sahlberg-finland-teach-australian-schools-education">such as Finland</a>. They also suggest <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-11-30/teacher-training,-pay-and-performance-what-gets-results/9187926">increasing teacher pay</a> could improve the quality and status of teachers, and result in greater retention of teachers. </p>
<p>There is evidence to support these suggestions. If we look at Finland where teaching is a much higher status profession, this is likely contributed to by the fact all teachers hold Masters degrees. Having similar qualification requirements could be an option for Australia. </p>
<p>Additionally, the status of a profession <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Education_Employment_and_Workplace_Relations/Completed_inquiries/1996-99/teachers/report/index">is linked to the salaries it offers</a>. So, it could be argued increasing teacher pay could result in lifting the status of teaching profession. But it could also attract people for the wrong reasons. </p>
<p>These options could contribute to an improved status for the teaching profession, but they are unlikely to be quick fixes. Our teachers work in very different contexts to their Finnish counterparts. </p>
<p>Also, <a href="http://ecite.utas.edu.au/118694">research</a> tells us teachers don’t enter the profession for pay. They are intrinsically motivated to make a positive difference in children’s lives. We propose better recognition and acknowledgement of the positive impact teachers have in their students’ lives could result in less teachers leaving the profession.</p>
<h2>Positive portrayals of teachers</h2>
<p>Our recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322306673_Good_Teachers_Grow_Disrupting_negative_depictions_of_teachers_through_relational_artographic_inquiry">research</a> was prompted by the disappearance of a recently retired teacher in southern Tasmania, in October 2017. The <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-10-22/bushwalker-bruce-fairfax-wife-louise-final-memories/9066688">media attention</a> Bruce Fairfax’s disappearance attracted painted a picture of a teacher who was universally adored by the many staff and students who encountered him in the course of his teaching career of four decades. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fsctvnews%2Fvideos%2F1612985868744222%2F&amp;show_text=0&amp;width=560" width="100%" height="475" style="border:none;overflow:hidden" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="true"></iframe>
<p>In contrast, media discourse about teachers is often negative and <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-18/how-our-schools-are-failing-kids-with-learning-difficulties/8817608">tends to attribute all manner of failures to schools and teachers</a>. The portrayals of Bruce held a narrative of gratitude and appreciation at their centre. People shared concrete ways he, as a teacher, had positively influenced their lives. This led us think about the degree to which Bruce had been aware of this gratitude during his lifetime, and how this might have contributed to his work satisfaction, success and longevity as a recently retired career teacher. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0013191032000118910">Research</a> in England and Norway has noted work satisfaction is crucial for teacher retention. In contrast, Australian <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083371.pdf">research</a> suggests many teachers have become dissatisfied or disenchanted with their work. </p>
<p>If teachers are aware of the positive influence they have on their students and colleagues they might have higher levels of resilience and work satisfaction. They might then be better positioned to withstand the many challenges they encounter and continue in the teaching profession. So how can we better communicate gratitude to and for our teachers?</p>
<h2>Gratitude in education</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10476210.2011.638370">Research</a> into gratitude in education suggests it’s best expressed vocally or through demonstrating appreciation, active relationship building, and changes to attitude.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="http://theconversation.com/more-than-words-saying-thank-you-does-make-a-difference-30920">More than words: saying 'thank you' does make a difference</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Appreciation can be expressed by giving genuine compliments and thanks for specific things you have been taught, challenged by or introduced to – be it subject content or broader life lessons. These simple but powerful acts can be done either verbally, or through notes or emails. </p>
<p>Other options could be speaking positively about your teacher to other students, teachers, parents and school leaders. Student-teacher relationships can be built through meeting each other in a space of mutual respect, making the effort to get to know each other as people. Engage teachers in conversations, identify common interests, and give them your full attention when they are talking to you. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201606/original/file-20180111-60735-rrykqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When teachers feel valued and are made aware of the gratitude felt by students, staff and parents, they’re more likely to stick around.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We need to shift the status quo in societal perceptions where teachers and the teaching profession are disproportionately downtrodden. Gratitude for and celebration of the accomplishments of teachers is essential to keeping them motivated and engaged in the job for the long term. </p>
<p>Gratitude can be defined as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X14000468?via%3Dihub">an inner attitude best understood as the opposite of resentment or complaint</a>. Small actions such as greeting teachers warmly, smiling more, and offering to help pack up after a lesson can have a powerful positive influence on teachers and their work satisfaction. </p>
<p>Importantly, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10476210.2011.638370">research</a> has shown when gratitude is expressed towards others there are mutual benefits for both people. Both experience the relationship is strengthened. In school settings this can lead to improved student-teacher relationships, increased positivity in the learning environment and increased student engagement. These are all potentially important contributors to improving student outcomes and reducing teacher attrition.</p>
<p>If we are to expect good work from teachers, they must be met with proportionate levels of support, value and appreciation to ensure they, like Bruce, can enjoy long and successful careers. We propose when teachers feel valued and are made aware of the gratitude felt by students, staff and parents, they’re more likely to stay in the profession.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gratitude for and celebrating of the accomplishments of teachers is essential to keeping them motivated and engaged in the profession.Vaughan Cruickshank, Course Co-ordinator – Health and Physical Education, Maths/Science, Faculty of Education, University of TasmaniaAbbey MacDonald, Lecturer in Arts Education, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/635182016-09-01T20:18:39Z2016-09-01T20:18:39ZTo raise status of teaching, Australia needs to lift pay and cut teacher numbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135722/original/image-20160829-17872-1s9d8es.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Do we need to make teacher education more selective in Australia?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/better-teachers-30749">Better Teachers</a>, we’ll explore how to improve teacher education in Australia. We’ll look at what the evidence says on a range of themes including how to raise the status of the profession and measure and improve teacher quality.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/opinion/raise-status-of-teachers-add-some-authority-and-watch-our-students-blossom/story-e6frgd0x-1226287574078">many calls</a> to raise the status of teaching, but few concrete proposals of how it might be done. There are two strategies that could work, given the way they work with other professions.</p>
<p>One is to make entry to initial teacher education more selective. The other is to make membership of the teaching profession more selective.</p>
<p>The reputations of university courses are substantially influenced by the quality of students admitted and, in particular, the minimum Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) with which a student can gain entry. </p>
<p>But the minimum entry scores to many Australian teacher education programs are low. The percentage of offers for courses in teacher education to students with an ATAR above 70 has been dropping significantly, down to <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/geoff-masters/article/raising-the-professional-status-of-teaching">42% in 2015</a>.</p>
<p>At the University of Jyväskylä in Finland there are around 2,000 applicants for fewer than 100 places in teacher education, and there are similar selection ratios in other Finnish universities. </p>
<p>Finland links supply of teacher education places to demand for graduates. And with demand for places in teacher education substantially outstripping the places available, it has produced a highly selective entry. In Finland, it is more difficult to gain a place in teacher education than medicine.</p>
<h2>Cut teacher numbers</h2>
<p>In Australia, selection is much less stringent, and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-main-challenges-facing-teacher-education-in-australia-63658">position has become worse</a> since the federal government uncapped university places. Some universities increased teacher education places in programs in which places are cheap to provide.</p>
<p>Australia could make teacher education more selective if it reduced the oversupply of graduates for the present market. The New South Wales Minister for Education, Adrian Piccoli, has been trying to do this. He has no direct control over universities’ enrolment policies but he is <a href="http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/future-returning-teachers/become-a-teacher/primary-school/">setting entry requirements</a> into teacher education as employment criteria for new graduates in government schools in an effort to <a href="http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/future-returning-teachers/become-a-teacher/primary-school/">influence enrolment policies</a>. </p>
<p>The Victorian government is now seeking to pursue a <a href="http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/workingtogether.pdf">similar strategy</a>.</p>
<h2>Reshape role of paraprofessionals</h2>
<p>We could go much further in reducing the number of teachers required by restructuring the workforce in schools. We could do this by increasing the number of paraprofessionals who could undertake work that teachers currently do, but for which their professional skills are not required. </p>
<p>Training courses would need to be developed to prepare the paraprofessionals, with pathways through further study available for those who might later seek to become teachers. </p>
<p>The teaching workforce would then be differentiated much as the nursing workforce has been in recent decades. </p>
<p>Some of the work that nurses used to do is now delegated to nurses aides and other categories of paraprofessionals in nursing. At the top end, university trained professional nurses can undertake some tasks that were once the exclusive province of doctors.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/teachlearn/innovation/widerworkforce/teachingexcellence.pdf">England made such a change</a> in the workforce in schools. It did it during the Blair administration at a time when overall staffing levels in schools were growing, so existing teaching positions were not cut. </p>
<p>Teacher numbers grew more slowly than they would have without the change. The result is that there are now more paraprofessionals than teachers in English primary schools.</p>
<p>The impact of this development in England has been mixed, as a <a href="http://education.unimelb.edu.au/news_and_activities/events/upcoming_events/past/2016/dean_lecture_series/maximising-the-impact-of-teaching-assistants-lessons-from-the-uk">five-year evaluation of the changes has shown</a>.</p>
<p>The evaluation revealed that the presence of paraprofessionals often led to worse outcomes for students, though they did reduce workload and stress and improve job satisfaction for teachers. </p>
<p>The research showed that the lack of benefit for students was a consequence of teachers often giving the paraprofessionals responsibility for individual instruction of the students most in need of support. </p>
<p>The paraprofessionals generally did not have the content knowledge or pedagogical skills for the work assigned to them. Teachers had also not been trained in how best to have paraprofessionals fill a supplemental role. Instead the paraprofessionals were given a replacement role they were not equipped to fill.</p>
<p>The researchers did not propose that paraprofessionals be withdrawn. Instead they drew on their research to write two key books: one to help teachers learn how best to deploy paraprofessionals, <a href="http://maximisingtas.co.uk/resources.php">Maximising the Impact of Teaching Assistants</a>, and the other to help paraprofessionals learn how best to fill their role, <a href="http://www.readings.com.au/products/19763005/the-teaching-assistants-guide-to-effective-interaction-how-to-maximise-your-practice">The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to Effective Interaction</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/berj.3157/abstract">randomised control study</a> published in 2014 provided more encouraging evidence of effective use of paraprofessionals. </p>
<p>It showed that a ten-week literacy intervention program with poor readers delivered on a one-to-one basis by trained teaching assistants produced gains equivalent to three months’ additional progress over a year compared with students in the control group who did not receive the intervention.</p>
<h2>Better pay</h2>
<p>Australian teachers have a relatively good starting salary, the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933286182">fourth highest</a> (in $US equivalent purchasing power parity) among the 28 countries for which data is available. It also compares relatively well with <a href="http://www.graduatecareers.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Graduate_Salaries_Report_2014_FINAL.PDF">starting salaries</a> for other graduates. </p>
<p>But they reach the top of the statutory salary scales in less than 15 years, and the top of the scale is only 1.4 times the starting salary. </p>
<p>We need to have fewer teachers, and to pay them more on scales differentiated by skill and role into “graduate”, “proficient”, “highly accomplished” and “lead” as the Australian Institute of Teaching and School Leadership <a href="http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers/standards/list">has proposed</a>. We also need to have more restricted entry into teacher education programs. </p>
<p>The result will be a more skilled and higher status teaching profession and an overall greater impact from the same cost or even a reduction in cost.</p>
<p><em>• <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/better-teachers-30749">Read more</a> articles in the series</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63518/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry McGaw receives funding from Victorian, Queensland, New South Wales and Australian governments for past work.</span></em></p>We need to have fewer teachers, to pay them more on scales differentiated by skill, and to have more restricted entry into teacher education programs.Barry McGaw, Vice-Chancellor's Fellow, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/636582016-08-30T20:15:05Z2016-08-30T20:15:05ZWhat are the main challenges facing teacher education in Australia?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135836/original/image-20160830-17859-1a4gyqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">By investing wisely in the best evidence-based teacher education programs, the government can foster quality teaching without increasing total funding.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Miller/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/better-teachers-30749">Better Teachers</a>, we’ll explore how to improve teacher education in Australia. We’ll look at what the evidence says on a range of themes including how to raise the status of the profession and measure and improve teacher quality.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Top-performing international education systems value expert teaching and recognise that highly effective teaching improves student outcomes.</p>
<p>While there are some reforms in development, further work is required in Australia to lift the quality of teaching by attracting the brightest candidates into the profession and ensuring they receive the best preparation and ongoing support.</p>
<p>The federal government’s <a href="https://www.studentsfirst.gov.au/teacher-quality">new requirement</a> for teacher education students to be in the <a href="http://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/initial-teacher-education-resources/ite-standards-literacy-numeracy-vic.pdf?sfvrsn=6">top 30%</a> for literacy and numeracy is important. However, an effective teacher has more attributes that this.</p>
<p>Of the <a href="http://www.senatorbirmingham.com.au/Media-Centre/Media-Releases/ID/3154/Back-to-Basics-Teacher-test-to-lift-literacy-and-numeracy-outcomes-for-students">almost 4,000</a> teaching students who undertook the literacy and numeracy test in May-June this year, 95.4% met the literacy standard and 93.1% met the numeracy standard. So this measure’s impact is minimal.</p>
<p>This was only one recommendation of the <a href="https://www.studentsfirst.gov.au/teacher-education-ministerial-advisory-group">Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group</a> (TEMAG). There are 38 others still in the process of being implemented.</p>
<p>With key recommendations around tougher accreditation standards, TEMAG’s framework challenges initial teacher education providers to develop high-quality programs that can be rigorously assessed. </p>
<p>Universities will need to be able to demonstrate the positive impact they have on their graduates and that their graduates have on student learning. The latter is the mark of effective teaching.</p>
<p>TEMAG’s recommendations are not window-dressing. A paradigm shift, deep program reform and university support will be required to tackle current problems in teaching quality.</p>
<h2>Too many teachers</h2>
<p>Poor workforce planning by governments is further exacerbating concerns about teaching quality in Australia: supply is not well matched to demand.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/uncapping-of-university-places-achieved-what-it-set-out-to-do-so-why-is-it-dubbed-a-policy-failure-61082">uncapping of undergraduate places</a> in 2012 led some universities to exploit the fact that they receive funding for as many students as they can enrol. This has been a factor in the <a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&amp;context=policyinsights">oversupply</a>, giving the impression universities use teaching courses as a “cash cow”.</p>
<p>The largest education department, New South Wales, <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/teacher-glut-hits-university-graduates-job-hopes/news-story/531d3103012f68aaaff1d167c517ed5c">hired just 6%</a> of the state’s graduates on full-time contracts last year. Education Minister Adrian Piccoli made the point that universities:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… have doubled entrants in the last ten years … They should take fewer and do a better job [of training them].</p>
</blockquote>
<p>By investing wisely in the best evidence-based teacher education programs, the federal government can foster quality teaching without increasing total funding. This would also overcome the ethical issue of preparing teachers who have little chance of being employed.</p>
<h2>Undersupply of specialist teachers</h2>
<p>Despite general oversupply, Australia is experiencing <a href="https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/geoff-masters/article/planning-a-stronger-teacher-workforce">a significant undersupply</a> of language, geography, computing and history teachers, as well as secondary maths, physics and chemistry teachers, and qualified teachers in some regional areas.</p>
<p>As a result, more than 20% of secondary mathematics and 17% of secondary science teachers are unqualified in their field. Without even year 12 training in these fields, many <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-it-so-hard-to-recruit-good-maths-and-science-teachers-55697">science and maths teachers lack the ability to spark enthusiasm</a> for these subjects in their students. This is why TEMAG recommended the introduction of specialist maths and science primary teachers.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135854/original/image-20160830-17872-14h5hcs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://research.acer.edu.au/policyinsights/2/">The Conversation/ACER</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<h2>Undervalued profession</h2>
<p>To attract the highest-quality entrants, we also need to hold teachers in high esteem.</p>
<p>Teaching is arguably the most challenging profession of all, yet unlike Finland – where teachers accrue similar respect to doctors – we don’t recognise that teaching deserves the same respect and trust as the medical profession. Finland also demands graduate teaching qualifications.</p>
<p>Graduate students bring real-world experience, including deep disciplinary knowledge, analytical thinking and personal maturity. These are more powerful attributes for selection than the year 12 Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR).</p>
<p>The Victorian government flagged the prospect of graduate-only entry into teaching courses in a recently released discussion paper. </p>
<p>This would follow in the footsteps of the <a href="http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/all-new-south-australian-teachers-will-need-master-degrees-in-shakeup-of-education-standards/story-fni6uo1m-1226768270969">South Australia government</a>, which intends to require all teachers to have completed a graduate-level teaching degree. The state will also require government schools <a href="http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/sa-government-abandons-policy-for-new-teachers-to-have-masters-degrees-by-2020/news-story/85429ed93e85c506acd1534665126c47">to preference</a> the employment of graduates with master’s or double-degree teaching qualifications.</p>
<p>To attract the best candidates, prospective teachers need to see a career progression. Using the current lead teacher and accomplished teacher categories but linked with an appropriate pay level progression would be a good start.</p>
<p>Teachers have a crucial role in improving student outcomes. We need not only to lift course and graduate standards, but also to ensure teachers are well supported so they can contribute fully as highly developed experts in a widely respected profession.</p>
<p><em>• <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/better-teachers-30749">Read more</a> articles in the series</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63658/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Field Rickards does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We have an oversupply of teachers, a lack of specialist teachers and an undervalued profession.Field Rickards, Dean of Education, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/585922016-05-03T11:11:15Z2016-05-03T11:11:15ZFederal budget 2016: education experts react<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120950/original/image-20160503-19546-e794qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Coalition want to standardised literacy and numeracy testing for students in years 1 and 12.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government is spruiking a focus on education to drive innovation in the 2016 budget but it has put off higher education reforms in favour of further consultation.</p>
<p>The higher education reforms, which included the deregulation of university fees, were announced in the 2014 budget and will now be delayed for another year. </p>
<p>The total spend on education in this year’s budget is A$33.7 billion. This includes an agreement to fund schools to the tune of $1.2 billion between 2018 and 2020, but is contingent on education reform from the states and territories in all sectors including literacy and numeracy, teaching and school leadership and student outcomes.</p>
<p>There will also be $118.2 million over two years for students with a disability, the funding targeted to schools with the greatest need. </p>
<p>However, there are also cuts of $152.2 million over four years to the Higher Education Participation Program, which funds universities to bring in students from the lowest socio-economic levels and $20.9 million over the next four years to the Promotion of Excellence in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education Program. </p>
<h2>Coalition to give an extra $1.2 billion to schools</h2>
<p><em>Glenn Savage, senior lecturer in education policy, University of Melbourne, says</em></p>
<p>The Coalition has said it will give <a href="http://www.senatorbirmingham.com.au/Media-Centre/Media-Releases/ID/3061/The-quality-reforms-needed-to-get-all-Australian-students-ahead">$1.2 billion</a> for needs-based school funding between 2018-2020.</p>
<p>The plan falls well short of the <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/labor-commits-to-fully-funding-gonski-as-part-of-election-year-education-reform-plan-20160127-gmfovf.html">$4.5 billion promised</a> by Labor between 2018-19 as part of the <a href="https://docs.education.gov.au/documents/review-funding-schooling-final-report-december-2011-0">Gonski reform model</a>, but it is a win for supporters of increased school funding who have feared further cuts since last year when the Coalition <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/dec/29/hopes-dashed-by-coalition-decision-to-dump-gonski-school-funding-model">said it would dump the Gonski reforms entirely</a>. </p>
<p>The Coalition has not released details about how it will determine “need” or distribute funding, or how any new formula might differ from the current Gonski-informed model, saying only that it will <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/federal-budget/malcolm-turnbull-to-invest-more-in-schools-but-fall-short-of-gonski-promises-20160430-goitd2.html">negotiate such details with states and territories</a> in the coming months. </p>
<p>The Coalition has said it will ensure spending is <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/may/01/coalition-announces-12bn-for-schools-but-labor-says-funding-inadequate">“tied to evidence-based initiatives” that improve student performance</a>, suggesting conditions will be placed on the funding, such as introducing standardised literacy and numeracy testing for students in year 1, and linking the salaries of teachers to the <a href="http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers">national teaching standards</a>. </p>
<p>The Coalition has also committed $118.2 million over two years in additional support for students with a disability. </p>
<p>In just a few months, the Coalition has swung from claiming it would negotiate <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/simon-birmingham-dont-expect-schools-election-cash-splash-20151227-glvlpx.html">a new funding deal</a> with the states and territories, through to an ill-conceived plan that it might <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/mar/31/turnbull-offers-states-3bn-for-hospitals-but-plans-to-end-public-schools-support">walk away from funding public schools altogether</a>, through to its current budget decision to increase federal funding. </p>
<p>The funding increase is out of step with education minister Simon Birmingham’s repeated claim that <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-more-money-for-schools-improve-educational-outcomes-57656">funding does not matter</a> as much as other features of schooling such as curriculum or quality teachers. If this were truly the case, then why the funding increase?</p>
<p>It is inconsistencies of this nature that will drive scepticism that today’s budget is much more about political strategy ahead of the election than the beginning of a more consistent and coherent set of federal policy positions on schooling.</p>
<h2>New changes for teachers include linking pay to performance</h2>
<p><em>John Fischetti, dean of the school of education, University of Newcastle, says</em></p>
<p>Budget measures announced will do more harm than good in the journey to get education right for every child in Australia.</p>
<p>The announced measure to pay teachers for performance rather than time served <a href="http://www.rand.org/capabilities/solutions/evaluating-the-effectiveness-of-teacher-pay-for-performance.html">won’t work</a>. In similar plans in the US, no evidence was found that offering teachers pay-based incentives made a difference in student test scores. </p>
<p>The $1.2 billion for targeted school interventions linked to test scores is no more than a rollback on <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-01/public-private-school-funding-proposal-undermines-gonski-reform/7292500">Gonski reforms</a> and a major setback for equity funding for Australian children with any learning differences. It comes up several billion dollars short and reinforces a deficit model of children and schools rather than building access to opportunity.</p>
<p>The proposed emphasis on explicit instruction and graduation tests <a href="http://pfe.sagepub.com/content/12/8/1064.abstract">won’t work</a>, as similar schemes in the US and UK <a href="http://www.fairtest.org/nclb-not-closing-test-score-gaps">failed to close</a> education gaps.</p>
<p>The failure to fully fund high-quality early childhood education for all Australian children is a missed opportunity. High quality early childhood education has economic benefits <a href="http://heckmanequation.org/content/resource/invest-early-childhood-development-reduce-deficits-strengthen-economy">many times the original investment</a>. If early childhood education were to be fully funded, many of the proposals in the government’s plans would be unnecessary because children would start their schooling on a level playing field and achievement <a href="http://www.ncsl.org/research/human-services/new-research-early-education-as-economic-investme.aspx">gaps would actually close</a>.</p>
<p>The policies ignore the broader social and economic issues that are reinforcing the disadvantage of those from lower socio-economic families. These issues include pressures facing families such as housing, health care, adult education, redundancies and loss of employment.</p>
<p>The one bright spot is the proposal that high school students must complete a full maths or science curriculum in order to achieve an ATAR. These are already areas in which we have a dramatic shortage of teachers and this policy will inevitably create a need for new teachers in those areas.</p>
<h2>Federal government is back in the game in school education</h2>
<p><em>Peter Goss, school education program director, Grattan Institute, says</em></p>
<p><a href="https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/quality_schools_acc.pdf"><em>Quality Schools, Quality Outcomes</em></a> signals a shift in approach from the Coalition on two big issues in school education: equity, and the role of the federal government.</p>
<p><strong>Equity</strong></p>
<p>The goal seems to be to neutralise a Labor attack on “fairness” rather than make big changes. But it is a step in the right direction, including a clear acknowledgement of that <a href="http://grattan.edu.au/report/widening-gaps/">achievement gaps widen</a> as disadvantaged students move through school. </p>
<p>Additional funding for students with disability will be welcome. </p>
<p>For low SES students, the main policy response is to encourage incentives to attract high performing teachers and principals to disadvantaged schools. This is sensible but no game changer.</p>
<p>Assessing reading, phonics and numeracy during Year 1 will help to identify students who are behind, and is therefore in some sense an equity measure.</p>
<p>Yet there is no attempt to address the structural issues that reduce equity in Australian schools. Nor, despite the Coalition affirming its support for needs-based funding, will disadvantaged (largely government) schools see the big increases in funding that David Gonski called for. And states will need to justify how they spend even quite modest amounts of additional funding.</p>
<p><strong>Role of federal government</strong></p>
<p>The new interventionist mindset does not stop there. No longer does the government claim that it “<a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/the-gall-simon-birmingham-goes-on-the-attack-over-schools-funding-gonski-results-20160315-gnj9pp.html#ixzz47ZoERHnx">runs no schools and employs no teachers</a>”. </p>
<p>Instead, there are new initiatives, such a National Career Education Strategy. There are new aspirations, such as recruitment targets for STEM (science, technology, engineering, maths) and indigenous teachers. Above all, there are proposed new requirements, covering: </p>
<ul>
<li>attendance targets for indigenous students</li>
<li>Year 12 graduation requirements</li>
<li>progress reporting to parents</li>
<li>use of explicit teaching in classrooms </li>
<li>teacher training and career progression, and</li>
<li>principal certification. </li>
</ul>
<p>These new aspirations and requirements (I counted over 15 of them) must be implemented by states, and must therefore be negotiated with them. And if the states don’t play ball, they may not get the extra funding. </p>
<p>Lastly, it is concerning that the continued focus is on autonomy and accountability for outcomes, with limited discussion on the <a href="https://journal.anzsog.edu.au/publications/21/EvidenceBase%202015Issue1Version1.pdf">support that is required to make autonomy work</a>. </p>
<p>So, the federal government is back in the game in school education, and trying to set most of the rules. It will be interesting to see how states respond.</p>
<h2>Early learning left behind</h2>
<p><em>Megan O'Connell, policy program director, Mitchell Institute, Victoria University, says</em></p>
<p>The budget proposes little new for early learning, with the government deferring implementing of its <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/jobsforfamilies">Jobs for Families Package</a> until 1 July 2018, due to delays in securing approvals for the Family Tax Benefit reforms. The Jobs for Families Package aimed to increase access to early learning for low and middle income families, but tied access to early learning to parents’ workforce participation. </p>
<p>The delay in the implementation of this package represents a budget saving of $43.4 million in 2016-17 and $1.15 billion in 2017-18. It will mean that childcare subsidies remain at current levels (plus indexation) until 1 July 2018. </p>
<h2>Government defers its existing higher education policy for another year</h2>
<p><em>Conor King, Executive Director, Innovative Research Universities, says</em></p>
<p>The government has pushed back introducing any major changes to higher education a further year to 1 January 2018 and released a discussion paper as the basis for finalising the changes it will introduce. </p>
<p>The major commitment in the discussion paper is that there will be no full deregulation. Instead it explores how to increase the student contribution, bringing it closer to the government amount, and generating savings for the government. </p>
<p>It raises again the idea of “flagship programs” which a university does particularly well – and charges accordingly, subject to external scrutiny.</p>
<p>For students, it means no change for a further year, and for existing students it should mean no change in what they pay while they finish their degrees. </p>
<p>Options to tighten up Higher Education Loan Programme repayments are up for discussion and almost certainly will see some changes, with A<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-lowering-the-student-loan-repayment-threshold-fair-for-students-56814">ndrew Norton’s proposals</a> a useful guide to what is possible.</p>
<p>In terms of providing certainty post election, the discussion paper provides a basis for a Coalition government, if returned, to complete its revamped position and have the basis to gain senate support.</p>
<p>In terms of clarity, the main aspects are laid down but there is much more to go about exactly how the student charge will be altered and from that the basis of government CGS payments.</p>
<p>There are some changes in advance of 2018 against current settings:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>there will be no further attempt to legislate the efficiency dividend for either 2016 or 2017;</p></li>
<li><p>the Higher Education Participation and Partnership program is reduced by just over 20% from 2017. Labor did not lock this scheme in as a legislated loading in 2011 so it can be cut. It is a critical program for educating well all students. The final version in the 2018 package will be crucial;</p></li>
<li><p>as expected there is no direct replacement for the Office for Learning and Teaching (OLT) but a commitment to maintain the national Teaching Awards.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Other than the OLT decision, all of this depends on the election. If Labor wins, none of it will count.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58592/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn C. Savage receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan O&#39;Connell is a Policy Program Director at the Mitchell Institute at Victoria University. The University receives public higher education and VET funding.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Goss is School Education Program Director at Grattan Institute.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Conor King and John Fischetti do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While schools receive an extra $1.2 billion in funding for 2018-20, reforms for higher education are delayed by a further year.Glenn C. Savage, Senior Lecturer in Education Policy and ARC DECRA Fellow (2016-19), Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of MelbourneConor King, Executive Director, IRU, La Trobe UniversityJohn Fischetti, Professor/Head of School/Dean of Education School, University of NewcastleMegan O'Connell, Policy Program Director, Mitchell Institute, Victoria UniversityPeter Goss, School Education Program Director, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/530092016-01-18T10:39:49Z2016-01-18T10:39:49ZHow to solve the teacher shortage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108265/original/image-20160115-7365-if0upk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Overworked and underpaid.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Volt Collection/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a rare show of unity, six teachers unions have joined together to warn about a developing crisis in the teaching profession. In a submission to the School Teachers’ Review Body, they argued that teachers <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/education-35265048">need a pay rise</a> and that they are working under increasing pressure. </p>
<p>The official line from the Department for Education (DfE) is to reject talk of a crisis and accuse those sounding alarm bells as being guilty of “<a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jan/11/teachers-unions-unite-to-highlight-national-crisis-in-profession">scaremongering</a>”. The chief inspector of schools at Ofsted, Michael Wilshaw, has raised ministers’ ire by <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jan/02/ofsted-row-ministers-extent-teacher-shortages-michael-wilshaw">drawing attention to the issues</a>.</p>
<p>Despite the DfE’s protestations, the signs of a system under strain are clearly visible. There is already ample and growing evidence of problems with teacher <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-34866850">recruitment</a>, <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/record-50000-teachers-quit-classroom-6612339">retention</a> and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/oct/04/half-of-teachers-consider-leaving-profession-shock-poll">morale</a> while a recent rash of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-derbyshire-34797286">school-based strikes</a> is also symptomatic of a system on the edge. </p>
<p>The reason most frequently cited for failing to keep teachers in the profession – and putting them off entering it – is the pressure of excessive workload. Pay rise restrictions of 1% for the <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/teachers-pay-rises-limited-1-cent-four-years">next four years</a> compound the problems. Recent <a href="http://whyteach.lkmco.org/">surveys</a> have also highlighted the problem of poor or bullying management.</p>
<p>These problems are products of a system built on wholly unrealistic expectations. Schools increasingly mimic the commercial organisations to which the education system more widely is now subjugated. In this globalised economy, education is part of the race to be “world class” and second is not good enough. Teachers who question this logic risk being condemned for having “low expectations” or “lacking commitment”. Too often teachers risk facing burn out or being cast out.</p>
<h2>What is to be done?</h2>
<p>The issues that bedevil the teaching profession in England are substantial, and have been enduring. Countless numbers of excellent teachers have been lost to the system because of the problems of unsustainable workload. Just as the system has sacrificed many great teachers, so too have many great teachers sacrificed their health. Addressing these issues is both a practical necessity and a moral imperative.</p>
<p>Only a radical and bold solution will address both the symptoms, and more importantly, the causes of these problems. Fortunately, we already know the answer – and it comes in two parts.</p>
<p>The first is based on a recognition that the employment contract is the key to controlling teachers’ workload. All else is frippery and will make no meaningful difference. Tinkering with advice about how to mark students’ work (the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/action-to-address-the-top-3-teacher-workload-issues">DfE’s preferred approach</a>) will not tackle workload problems – but a contract with clear limits on how much teachers should work, will. </p>
<p>Teachers in England have always had a hopelessly open-ended contract. Historically, it has provided inadequate protection against the myriad pressures to do more and more. And given the undermining of the national contract now caused by the rush to transform more <a href="https://theconversation.com/cameron-forges-on-with-academies-revolution-despite-mounting-concerns-on-oversight-37080">schools into academies</a>, it is less effective than ever. That has to change.</p>
<p>This inevitably points to the second part of the solution – the means by which the contract is generated. Technically, a general contract of employment is an agreement between equal parties, although in reality the employer’s power is privileged. That is why workers, by organising in unions, have struggled for collective bargaining rights to ensure that the relationship between the employer and employees is more balanced.</p>
<p>In the last century, teachers <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/eb027957?journalCode=mrn">fought for, and won</a> the right to establish their pay and conditions through a process of national collective bargaining. That right was established in 1919, but <a href="https://www.routledge.com/products/9780415414548">abolished in 1987</a>. </p>
<p>Today these issues are determined by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/school-teachers-review-body">School Teachers’ Review Body</a>, which is obliged to consult, but not negotiate, with teacher unions. It responds to an agenda framed by the government, which can choose whether or not to accept its recommendations. </p>
<p>If collective bargaining still existed today, governments could only impose contractual changes on teachers in rare and exceptional circumstances. The norm would be changes secured by agreement through a process of negotiation.</p>
<h2>Collective bargaining exists elsewhere</h2>
<p>To the large number of teachers in England who have never experienced collective bargaining, this may seem incomprehensible – even impossible. But it still happens in Scotland <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781137436184">among many other countries and territories</a>, including Finland, Ontario and New Zealand. </p>
<p>In none of these places does collective bargaining magic away all of the problems that face teachers in England – but few face anything like the crisis currently being discussed across the teaching profession in England. Nor are these systems characterised by strikes and industrial conflicts as the <a href="http://www.brookings.edu/research/books/2011/specialinterest">right-wing critics of collective bargaining</a> often contend. </p>
<p>On the contrary, in recent years there has been far more <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-28226042">teacher strike action</a> in England than, for example, <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/teachers-walk-out-scotland-almost-unprecedented-local-strike">Scotland</a> or Finland.</p>
<p>These proposals to reintroduce national collective bargaining are not impractical solutions beyond our imagination – they are grounded in the experiences and successes of many other jurisdictions. For example, <a href="http://www.education.govt.nz/school/running-a-school/employing-and-managing-staff/collective-agreements/">New Zealand</a> has a highly decentralised school system (similar to England in many respects), but combines this with a national system of collective bargaining.</p>
<p>Of course to adopt such an approach requires a recognition that we have an education _system _(rather than an education marketplace) and that government has a significant responsibility, on behalf of us all, for making it work. Alas, to the market fundamentalists currently in charge of English education policy, the notion of education as a public good that needs public management is anathema. To most other people, I would contend, it is common sense.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53009/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Howard Stevenson receives funding from International Baccalaureate Organisation, Economic and Social Research Council, Education International and European Trade Union Committee for Education. </span></em></p>Bring back collective bargaining to help fix the developing teacher crisis.Howard Stevenson, Director of Research and Professor of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, School of Education, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/397082015-04-09T13:51:49Z2015-04-09T13:51:49ZManifesto Check: Plaid's education reforms more run-of-the-mill than radical<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/77527/original/image-20150409-15265-1ix3smx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plaid&#39;s education manifesto comes straight from the history books. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/s/school/search.html?page=2&amp;thumb_size=mosaic&amp;inline=143878204">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The stated aim of Plaid Cymru’s education policies is to reclaim Wales’ position as a “beacon of educational excellence”. This reflects concerns about the performance of Welsh education internationally, and in comparison to other nations in the UK, based on <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-25196974">recent PISA assessments</a>. </p>
<p>Plaid Cymru does not seek to follow the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ofsted-confirms-radical-reforms-to-education-inspection">recent radical reforms in England</a>. Instead, the party conveys a clear set of values and a desire to maintain a distinctly Welsh approach, rooted in a vision of a Welsh progressive community. Plaid Cymru’s actual policies, however, are often short on detail, and do not radically depart from the current system and policies in Wales.</p>
<h2>Consensual and collaborative</h2>
<p>Plaid Cymru rejects England’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/types-of-school/free-schools">free schools policy</a>, and instead wants to maintain a greater role for local authorities. The party’s manifesto explicitly mentions cooperation with teachers’ unions, building on the consensual model of educational policy development that exists in Wales, compared to the more <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-the-tables-turning-in-michael-goves-war-on-teacher-unions-25417">confrontational stance taken in England</a>.</p>
<p>One of Plaid’s central proposals is for a new national curriculum. The party suggests some changes, not least a greater emphasis on ecological issues such as climate change, Welsh history and culture and languages. But these suggestions don’t depart substantively from the current <a href="http://learning.wales.gov.uk/docs/learningwales/publications/130424-developing-the-curriculum-cymreig-en.pdf">Curriculum Cymreig</a>. </p>
<p>There is also an emphasis on advanced information and communications technology and coding skills, which appears similar to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/year-of-code-and-500000-fund-to-inspire-future-tech-experts-launched">recent reforms in England</a>. In the light of economic and technological developments, this seems a sensible proposal. But, as <a href="http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2252198/ofsted-warns-of-skills-shortage-among-computing-teachers">the English example has shown</a>, policymakers will need to ensure there is a sufficient number of teachers able to deliver such a programme.</p>
<p>Another key pledge is to provide an additional year of schooling for three to four-year-olds by qualified educational staff. This is particularly important in light of <a href="https://www.ioe.ac.uk/RB_Final_Report_3-7.pdf">recent findings</a> about how better quality provision in early years can improve outcomes over the long-term. But again, the proposal is rather vague, with no information about funding. This is true of a number of other costly commitments in the document, including more support for pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds, and a programme to replace unsuitable school buildings.</p>
<h2>Incremental, not radical</h2>
<p>The incremental nature of the manifesto is evident in the proposed relationship with schools. Essentially, the approach is similar to the “earned autonomy” principle, which has formed the basis of many accountability systems across the world, and was introduced in England in the <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/32/contents">2002 Education Act</a>. </p>
<p>This means that high performing schools will be given a more light-touch accountability regime, with fewer inspections for schools reaching required standards. Those that don’t are subject to possible spot-check inspections – an approach that <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-notice-school-inspections-take-teachers-out-of-class-and-into-paperwork-31880">carries some risk</a> of engendering too strong a focus on inspections, rather than improvement.</p>
<p>Plaid take credit for the introduction of the <a href="http://llyw.cymru/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/school-effectiveness-grant-2013-2015/?lang=en">Pupil Deprivation Grant</a> (PDG), so it’s not surprising that the party restates its support for this programme and promises to help more schools implement effective support strategies. The PDG is a measure which means schools receive an additional £1,050 for each pupil eligible for free school meals, and £1,150 for each child looked after by the local authority. These sums are to be earmarked specifically for supporting these pupils. As such, it is very similar to England’s <a href="https://www.gov.uk/pupil-premium-information-for-schools-and-alternative-provision-settings">Pupil Premium</a>. </p>
<p>A distinguishing policy proposal, which again points to the progressive nature of the manifesto, is a complete ban on hitting children through the abolition of the “<a href="http://www.bab.org.uk/downloads/Smacking_Leaflet.pdf">reasonable punishment</a>” defence</p>
<h2>When in Wales…</h2>
<p>Of course, the “Party of Wales” includes an emphasis on the promotion and protection of Welsh language and culture in its manifesto. Plaid aim to do this by ensuring that the existing requirement for local authorities to <a href="http://gov.wales/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/welshstrategicplan/?lang=en">develop strategic plans </a> to meet the growing demand for Welsh medium education are implemented effectively. Plaid Cymru emphasises the need for students to develop a positive understanding of the history of Wales and local communities through the curriculum. In addition, there is a call for further devolution of powers, to allow the Welsh Assembly to set teachers’ pay and conditions.</p>
<p>Plaid Cymru’s education manifesto is essentially a relatively standard set of centre-left policies, with the added element of protection and promotion of Welsh language and culture. It builds incrementally on current policies in Wales, and will not upset the apple cart. But, by the same turn, it’s unlikely to meet the ambitious aim stated at the beginning of the document.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Muijs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Plaid hits out at the "smacking defence" in otherwise typical education manifesto.Daniel Muijs, Director of Research and Deputy Head of Southampton Education School, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/360012015-01-09T06:13:03Z2015-01-09T06:13:03ZHow much is too much to pay headteachers?<p>The huge salaries of school “super-heads” and some university vice-chancellors has once again come under fire, this <a href="http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/public-accounts-committee/news/report-whole-government-accounts-2012-13/">time by MPs on the Public Accounts Committee</a>. UK headteachers<a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-evidence-are-uk-headteaYESYESchers-the-highest-paid-33570"> are among the highest paid in the world</a>, with good pension packages.</p>
<p>The chair, Margaret Hodge, and her committee pull no punches in <a href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmpubacc/678/67802.htm">their report</a>, asking some hard questions about pay levels in the public sector more generally, and demanding the Treasury to “get a grip” on the high pay of education’s leaders. Their report says that the state has been slow in:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>identifying and addressing seemingly excessive pay awards for some roles in the education sector, such as university vice chancellors and “super-heads” and has only recently started to collate information in areas such as the academy sector. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>They argue that the remuneration packages offered to senior public servants undermine messages about the need for pay restraint for the public sector. </p>
<h2>Academies slip through the gaps</h2>
<p>Given the <a href="https://theconversation.com/4-000-down-20-000-to-go-the-academies-drive-gathers-pace-26028">Coalition’s drive towards greater school autonomy</a>, devolved budgets and other freedoms, it is unsurprising that pay levels are high at academies as they compete to attract the “best” heads with proven track records of raising standards. </p>
<p>As in other state-funded schools, it is the governing body of academies that determine pay levels of their staff. But academy chains are not subject to the many constraints and rules over pay and conditions that face other state-funded schools. A <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/326163/RR366_-_research_report_academy_autonomy_Final.pdf">report by the Department of Education</a> in July 2014 found that 24% of academies had used their new freedoms to change staff pay structures and that 84% of academies specifically link staff pay to performance. </p>
<h2>Good leaders in short supply</h2>
<p>National pay scales for heads in state-funded schools were spelt out by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/279038/140207_23rd_Rpt_CM_8813.pdf">School Teachers Review Body</a> in 2014, but these don’t apply to academies. For state-funded schools, salary size is broadly linked to the size of the school and can vary along an pay spine known as the <a href="http://www.bristol.gov.uk/sites/default/files/assets/documents/hr-heads-ISR-faqs.pdf">individual school range</a>. The minimum salary is now £43,232 a year and the highest on the inner <a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-evidence-are-uk-headteaYESYESchers-the-highest-paid-33570">London pay band is £114,437</a> </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/headteacher-performance-effective-management">recent research</a> into headteacher performance management by the National College of Teaching and Leadership, at schools where governors or boards have responsibility for salary levels, shows that governors will often “go the extra mile” to reward their heads, for example moving them up two incremental points rather than one. Governors doing the recruiting know that good educational leaders are in short supply, especially for certain kinds of schools, such as small primary schools and Catholic schools. </p>
<p>In addition, the move towards a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-school-systems-need-to-be-more-like-the-tour-de-france-24604">self-improving school system</a>, exemplified by the growth of academy chains, school federations, teaching schools and school-to-school support, is requiring a certain type of leadership. </p>
<p>In England, we currently have about 1,000 <a href="https://www.gov.uk/national-leaders-of-education-a-guide-for-potential-applicants">National Leaders of Education</a>, who are heads of schools graded by the inspectorate Ofsted as “outstanding”. A growing number now <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-22907760">possess knighthoods</a>. Such leaders will be needed in spades if a self-improving school system is to have any chance to succeed. To improve schools you need outstanding leaders – and not only at headship level. </p>
<h2>How much is too much?</h2>
<p>Multi-academy trusts, federations and chains will continue to grow and their outstanding leaders will continue to be able to demand high salaries. We <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/headteacher-performance-effective-management">know that governing bodies</a> of state-maintained schools are more prepared to agree to “generous” pay rises when they are aware of the real dangers of their heads being “headhunted” by a local academy. </p>
<p>But governing bodies do not always have a good idea of what is the “going rate” for headteachers, since local authorities are no longer in a position to offer such information. </p>
<p>Good heads deserve to be paid well but perhaps £200,000 a year – the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2622724/Headteacher-sees-salary-shoot-200-000-year-means-earns-Prime-Minister-thanks-loophole-means-running-one-school.html">salary of one academy headteacher</a> in South London – is a little over the top.</p>
<h2>Huge pay disparities</h2>
<p>It’s worth situating this within wider discussions about the growth of inequality and income disparities. <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/exploring-the-school-leadership-landscape-9781472506634/">Data from the School Workforce Survey</a> shows that academies tend to have heads who are paid well-above the national average, some £2,500 per year more than other schools. </p>
<p>But their teachers tend to earn below average teacher salaries, often being young and inexperienced – or as the more cynical might say “cheap”. Teacher turnover rates can be high too in some of the more challenging schools, even if they are run by super-heads.</p>
<h2>Different performance measures</h2>
<p>Perhaps we should develop clear criteria for effective leadership that go beyond Ofsted’s definitions of success. Good schools led by good leaders will want to be assessed by other, more rounded measures such as pupil voice, enjoyment, self-esteem, confidence and resilience. </p>
<p>Leaders should be working towards a rounded or whole education. But as education researchers John Smythe and Terry Wrigley have argued, there is a real concern that “in the discourse of the new leadership, even the term ‘leading learning’ has been reduced into monitoring attainment”. They also criticise that “the complexities of social justice are viewed very narrowly through the lens of reducing attainment gaps.” </p>
<p>Those school leaders who buck this trend and are brave enough to change things positively are exceptional – their schools are truly outstanding and they deserve their high salaries. </p>
<p>In a profession that prides itself on collaboration, collegiality and teamwork, where moral purpose is the order of the day, and where it’s been shown consistently that pay is not a great motivator, one wonders why such high salaries are offered and accepted by heads, super or otherwise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36001/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Earley has previously worked on research projects funded by the Department of Education and the National College for Teaching and Leadership (formerly NCSL). He is a member of the British Educational Leadership, Management and Administration Society. </span></em></p>The huge salaries of school “super-heads” and some university vice-chancellors has once again come under fire, this time by MPs on the Public Accounts Committee. UK headteachers are among the highest paid…Peter Earley, Professor of Education Leadership and Management, London Centre for Leadership in Learning, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/335702014-11-04T13:54:16Z2014-11-04T13:54:16ZHard Evidence: are UK headteachers the highest paid?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63608/original/9qd9x84q-1415099522.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cream of the crop. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-204231358/stock-photo-pay-slip-close-up-macro-shot.html?src=pp-same_artist-204231343-76oOM_BbtwZ2re3VQu3XxA-1">Pay slip via ShaunWilkinson/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While teaching unions continue their <a href="https://www.teachers.org.uk/node/22668">campaign</a> for higher pay for teachers, there is less clamour for headteachers to earn better salaries. With reports that <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2797946/dozens-head-teachers-paid-bigger-salaries-pm-two-taking-home-190m.html">40 headteachers</a> are paid more than the prime minister, their pay is under close scrutiny. But exactly how well paid are headteachers in England and Wales compared to their peers in other European countries? And how do their salaries compare with people doing similar management-level roles in the public and private sectors?</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/school-workforce-in-england-november-2013">Department for Education data for 2013-14</a>, 900 heads earned six-figure salaries, up from 700 in 2011-12. Most of the highest earners are employed by academies, which can deviate from national terms and conditions and have more freedom over pay than local authority schools. </p>
<p>The exceptionally high earners make for good media copy, however as Russell Hobby, the general secretary of the National Association of Head Teachers, <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10757520/Almost-1000-head-teachers-earning-six-figure-salaries.html">asserted</a> in April: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Those on six-figure salaries are often responsible for leading several schools and all heads have high levels of scrutiny and accountability, work every hour available and care for the futures of thousands of children.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Hobby reminded us that “The average pay of a head teacher in England is £56,000 – far below the headline-grabbing paychecks and far less than their skills would earn in the private sector.” He added that leadership matters: “If you want the best, you need to pay for it.”</p>
<h2>Salary scales</h2>
<p>The latest salary ranges for headteachers of schools in England and Wales were published in June 2014 by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/279038/140207_23rd_Rpt_CM_8813.pdf">School Teachers’ Review Body</a>. </p>
<p>Headteachers are divided into eight groups within each of the four geographical pay bands: inner London, outer London, fringe areas (the home counties) and the rest of England and Wales. The minimum salary is now £43,232 a year and the highest on the inner London pay band is £114,437. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63558/original/y33gbh5w-1415031376.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63558/original/y33gbh5w-1415031376.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A headteacher’s salary range and their position on it will be determined by a number of factors, such as the location and size of school and the challenges the school faces. Every school is assigned to one of the eight pay “groups” according to the number and age of pupils and the number with special educational needs. </p>
<h2>International comparisons</h2>
<p>Comparing these salary scales with other countries is difficult. International data on classrooom teacher salaries is easier to come by than data for headteacher pay. Since 1995, teachers’ salaries have been included in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) report Education at a Glance.</p>
<p>In this graph from their <a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/Education-at-a-Glance-2014.pdf">2014 Education at a Glance</a> report, English teachers’ salaries are above the OECD average and the tenth highest out of the 32 countries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63571/original/7gc49pgv-1415035206.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63571/original/7gc49pgv-1415035206.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">England’s teachers are paid more than the OECD average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/Education-at-a-Glance-2014.pdf">OECD Eduation at a Glance</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, the OECD does not provide comparable data for headteachers’ salaries across their member countries. Although we know a differential will exist between the pay of classroom teachers and school leaders, this will not be the same in each education system. </p>
<p>Yet data on headteacher pay does exist for European education systems from the Eurydice network. Its <a href="http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/facts_and_figures/salaries.pdf">2014 dataset</a> of 37 EU countries shows that headteachers in England score quite high in European comparisons. </p>
<p>Across all European countries, except Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, headteachers’ maximum pay is more than the country’s GDP per capita, a measure of average earnings. The highest maximum salaries are being earned by principals in Cyprus, Portugal, England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, as the graph shows. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63601/original/fh72ytq4-1415097307.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63601/original/fh72ytq4-1415097307.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It therefore seems reasonable to state that headteachers’ salaries in England are among the highest in Europe – and the world – as are those for teachers.</p>
<h2>Public and private sectors</h2>
<p>So, if heads are well paid internationally, how well paid are they compared to those undertaking similar roles in the public and private sector? Again, there is not much information available for the comparison of teachers’ or heads’ salaries with the salaries of other equivalent professional groups. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/261170/School_Leadership_Comparator_Studies.pdf">study</a> by Incomes Data Services (IDS) for the Office of Manpower Economics attempted to compare the terms and conditions, including heads’ salaries, with comparable positions in 20 detailed case studies of both public and private sector organisations. </p>
<p>Current pay rates for comparative jobs in the public and voluntary sector ranged from about £49,500 to £125,000. Salaries for comparative positions in the private sector were £82,000 at a retailer, £125,000 at a law firm and between £90,000 and £130,000 at a finance and professional services firm.</p>
<p>This compares with headteacher salary ranges, at the time of the research, of between £42,379 to £56,950 for the school leaders outside London in the lowest pay band and £72,752 to £105,097 for those in the highest. As the graph below shows, private sector leaders appeared to attract higher rewards.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63564/original/5r5k7rwv-1415033129.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63564/original/5r5k7rwv-1415033129.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Setting salaries – who decides?</h2>
<p>So why are salaries of school leaders in England and Wales set as they are? A number of factors are important including the <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6564933.stm">last government’s willingness</a> to recognise the importance of education and to raise the status and remuneration of the profession. </p>
<p>Economist Peter Dolton’s work for the <a href="https://www.varkeygemsfoundation.org/sites/default/files/documents/2013GlobalTeacherStatusIndex.pdf">2013 Global Teacher Status Index</a> shows that in the UK, the status of headteachers is higher than in any other country. He suggests this is partly because we’ve had the <a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-super-powers-to-school-super-heads-is-not-a-panacea-27036">phenomenon of the “super head”</a> and seen heads as agents of change in the education system. He notes that this is different to the culture in other countries where headteachers are seen more as administrators than pedagogical leaders.</p>
<p>Local labour markets matter too. It may be the case that the panels who appoint headteachers – school governing bodies in the UK – have to pay over-the-market rates to secure an outstanding candidate or offer attractive annual increments to retain their head and prevent any “headhunting” or poaching. Interestingly, the latest <a href="https://www.gov.uk/school-workforce-census">School Workforce Census</a> shows a very low and stable picture of headship vacancies at around 0.2%. Yet some posts <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/exploring-the-school-leadership-landscape-9781472506634/">continue to have difficulty</a> attracting high quality applicants. </p>
<p>Recent research into <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/headteacher-performance-effective-management">headteacher performance management</a> suggests some governing bodies have been happy to award what might appear generous pay packages, especially at a time when teacher salaries are fairly static, in an attempt to retain their services. It also notes that, with the diminution of the role of local authorities in governing schools, governors don’t have access to salary benchmarking data. This research also suggested that problems can arise over adjusting pay during headteachers’ appraisals, which can be insufficiently candid. </p>
<p>There has been a long period of relative flexibility on the part of governing bodies as to how much to pay headteachers. Yet as <a href="https://theconversation.com/teachers-remain-divided-on-performance-related-pay-27664">performance-related-pay</a> becomes more commonplace across the UK education system, there is little evidence to show that pay is a strong motivator for heads or teachers. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/hard-evidence">Hard Evidence</a> is a series of articles in which academics use research evidence to tackle the trickiest public policy questions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33570/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Earley has previously worked on research projects funded by the Department of Education and the National College for Teaching and Leadership (formerly NCSL). He is a member of the British Educational Leadership, Management and Administration Society. </span></em></p>While teaching unions continue their campaign for higher pay for teachers, there is less clamour for headteachers to earn better salaries. With reports that 40 headteachers are paid more than the prime…Peter Earley, Professor of Education Leadership and Management, London Centre for Leadership in Learning, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/257752014-04-23T11:33:08Z2014-04-23T11:33:08ZPerformance-related pay won't motivate teachers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/46825/original/y23sr3q9-1398166206.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Govebusters vs teacher pay reforms. Who will win?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rui Vieira/PA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This Easter Monday, members of the National Union of Teachers <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-27100733">voted in favour</a> of a motion for strike action this summer. The threat of industrial action reflects <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-the-tables-turning-in-michael-goves-war-on-teacher-unions-25417">an ever deepening rift</a> between teachers and Michael Gove, the secretary of state for education, against a backdrop of <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/what-is-it-about-michael-gove-that-makes-people-hate-him-so-much-7628063.html">unpopular reforms</a> and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26008962">name calling</a>. </p>
<p>Among the most ostracised of these reforms is the dismantling of traditional experience-to-salary structures – to be replaced with performance-related-pay. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-advice-to-help-schools-set-performance-related-pay">Guidance</a> on the changes was introduced in September 2013, with the first pay rises based on performance starting in September 2014. In defence of his reform, Gove argues a link between performance and pay will “<a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9799356/Michael-Gove-to-confirm-plans-for-performance-related-pay-in-schools.html">make teaching a more attractive career and a more rewarding job</a>.”</p>
<p>Yet Gove, perhaps because he is an avid free marketeer, misses the point. Teachers are not bankers or stockbrokers (or Times editors). They are not seduced by the carrot of ever-increasing financial gain. </p>
<p>Financial gain, on its own, is a self-centred motivator and serves no purpose beyond the temporary gratification that money confers. Teaching, on the other hand, is a mutually rewarding occupation that serves the ongoing interests of both teachers and their students. By imposing economic sanctions on this precious relationship, we corrode the very meaning of teaching itself.</p>
<h2>A bad idea</h2>
<p>To understand why this is the case, it is important to understand how humans are motivated. We engage in certain activities not only for their tangible outcomes, but also for their implicit satisfaction. Harry Harlow, a primitive psychologist, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/40/2/228/">demonstrated</a> this over half a century ago when he observed that the satisfaction monkeys derived from mastering a maze task was so strong that they would even forgo food to do so. </p>
<p>This is where neoliberal ideology and human motivation begin to conflict. Motivation is not a commodity to be traded for the highest price. It originates from within and necessarily antagonises with any outside influence. Just ask teachers why they teach, they will tell you that they value the benefits and personal satisfaction that the job confers – it isn’t all about the money.</p>
<p>This, intrinsic motivation, is particularly important for teachers. It’s the motivational force that <a href="http://intrinsicmotivation.net/SDT/documents/2005_IsenReeve_MO.pdf">sustains their enjoyment</a> in the face of external pressure and underpins their <a href="http://www.ww.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2008_Grant_JAP_ProsocialMotivation.pdf">extra-curricular</a> support for students. More than this, though, intrinsic motivation gives teachers impetus to engage in energetic and creative thought processes that enhance the quality of their teaching provision. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/46826/original/p5qndhpr-1398166426.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It won’t work on teachers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">nist6dh</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research from other professions shows us that teachers who teach from a place of personal satisfaction are likely to be <a href="http://www.ww.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2007_OtisPelletier_JASP.pdf">healthier</a>, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02065.x/abstract">more satisfied, less inclined to burnout</a> and, importantly, <a href="http://m.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2004_BaardDeciRyan.pdf">perform better</a> than those who do not. Why, then, would we want to discourage teachers from harnessing their own motivational resources? </p>
<p>This is the most pernicious of Gove’s criticisms. He assumes that when self-interest is propelled upon people it would act in the same way markets do – by motivating. Yet, inconveniently, contemporary research supports the seminal work of Harlow and suggests that this ideology is only correct when <a href="http://www.bos.frb.org/economic/wp/wp2005/wp0511.pdf">tasks require little cognition</a>, or <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/50328990.pdf">are poorly paid in the first place</a>. </p>
<p>When tasks require more than a small degree of cognitive activation, and pay is perceived as equitable relative to living costs, rewards are in fact demotivating. In a <a href="http://www.rug.nl/gmw/psychology/research/onderzoek_summerschool/firststep/content/papers/4.4.pdf">synthesis</a> of 128 controlled experiments, consistent negative effects of rewards were reported on intrinsic motivation. These observations may not be intuitive to a society inculcated by economic discourse, but are in line with modern approaches to motivation which emphasise the salutogenic role of self-determination.</p>
<h2>Impacts on students</h2>
<p>And it isn’t only teachers that are harmed by performance-related pay. Children’s learning and development in school may also suffer.</p>
<p>It is well documented that when teachers feel pressured to produce certain outcomes the reaction is, typically, to pass along that pressure to their students in the form of control – to elicit short-term achievement. This may seem a somewhat controversial hypothesis, but it is supported by <a href="http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2002_PelletierLevesqueLegault_JESP.pdf">evidence</a>. </p>
<p>Worryingly, there is also evidence to suggest children’s learning is not helped by teaching practises that emphasise pressure to achieve. In an exemplary American <a href="http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/1984_BenwareDeci.pdf">study</a>, researchers had college students study science material with either the aim of teaching it to somebody else or with the expectation of being tested on it. Results revealed that those who learnt the material to teach, relative to those who learnt to take a test, demonstrated higher creative thought and better conceptual learning. </p>
<p>Yet it isn’t only children’s learning strategies that are undermined by pressure – their tendency to engage in school work is also weakened. Researchers in Israel, for instance, <a href="http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2002_AssorKaplanRoth_BJEP.pdf">found</a> that pressuring behaviours by teachers made children less likely to persist with a task in the face of adversity. Hence, pressure is a double edged sword that instigates short-term effort at the expense of perseverance.</p>
<p>Now, here’s the rub: attempting to commoditise motivation treads a dangerous path. It replaces the high-quality intrinsic motivation that teachers bring to the classroom with poorer quality extrinsic motives that, as we have seen, create conflict and pressure. </p>
<p>In this way, performance related pay for otherwise intrinsically motivated occupations, such as teaching, is an unnecessary and counterproductive initiative. It gambles on the utility of self-interest for improving standards, in the face of mounting evidence to the contrary. This isn’t a liberal conspiracy, Mr Gove, its a simple case of the evidence disagreeing with your deep-set ideology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/25775/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Curran does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This Easter Monday, members of the National Union of Teachers voted in favour of a motion for strike action this summer. The threat of industrial action reflects an ever deepening rift between teachers…Thomas Curran, Research Fellow in Sport, Exercise and Well-Being, University of GloucestershireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.