Methods for determining dysregulation of methylation of brain expressed genes on the x chromosome to diagnose autism spectrum disorders

Title: Methods for determining dysregulation of methylation of brain expressed genes on the x chromosome to diagnose autism spectrum disorders.Abstract: The discovery that alterations in methylation, which can cause one or more genes on the single X chromosome in males to be partially silenced or overexpressed, constitute a predisposition to autism spectrum disorders is generally disclosed herein. These alterations provide the rationale and basis for methods to diagnose autism spectrum disorders. ...

The present application claims filing benefit to and is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/510,316 filed on Jul. 28, 2009 of Stevenson, et al., and claims filing benefit of U.S. provisional patent application having the Ser. No. 61/084,063 filed on Jul. 28, 2008 entitled “Methods for Determining Dysregulation of Methylation of Brain Expressed Genes on the X Chromosome to Diagnose Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Roger E. Stevenson, Julie R. Jones, Cindy D. Skinner, and Michael J. Friez, inventors, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

Autism spectrum disorders include a group of serious and enigmatic neurobehavioral disorders that usually become apparent early in childhood and persist as lifelong disabilities. Disturbances in three categories of behavior (reciprocal social interactions, verbal and nonverbal communications, and age appropriate activities and interests) are considered hallmarks of autism.

The number of children diagnosed with autism has greatly increased in recent decades. At the midpoint of the 20th Century, autism was narrowly defined and uncommonly diagnosed (with a prevalence of about four per 10,000). Greater awareness, availability of services, changes in diagnostic criteria to include a broader spectrum of neurodevelopmental abnormalities, and possibly other factors have contributed to the ten-fold or greater increase in the frequency with which autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed (current prevalence of 40-60 per 10,000). One extraordinary aspect of the epidemiology is the three-fold to six-fold excess of males.

Autism appears causally heterogeneous. Although scientists have long abandoned the idea that autism is caused by humorless and rigid parenting, they have been unable to identify specific cause(s) in any substantial proportion of cases. Standardized criteria for autism (DSM IV-TR) may be assessed based on parental, caregiver, and/or examiner observations using the Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised (ADI-R) and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). A small percentage of patients will have coexisting genetic disorders and an even smaller percentage a history of an environmental insult.

Only meager evidence exists to suggest that environmental insults play a significant role in the causation of autism. Prenatal and postnatal infections (rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes) have been documented in a few cases. Little evidence exists to suggest injury in the perinatal period as a causative factor, although low birth weight and premature birth has been noted as a risk factor (Schendel et al. 2008). Although autism has been reported among infants with prenatal exposure to thalidomide, cocaine, alcohol, and valproate, most infants prenatally exposed to these and other drugs or chemical agents do not develop autism. Considerable attention has been given to the concept that immunizations for measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) might cause autism. However, repeated study has not provided evidence to support this theory.

No laboratory finding is consistently abnormal, although plasma serotonin levels may be elevated in affected individuals and first-degree relatives. In a promising study, Nelson et al. (2001) found several neuropeptides and neurotrophins (vasoactive intestinal peptide, calcitonin gene-related peptide, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 4/5) to be elevated in newborn blood spots from infants who were later found to have autism. Confirmation of these findings has not been reported by other investigators. More recently, James et al. (2006, 2008) have proposed that metabolic vulnerability to oxidative stress may be an autism susceptibility factor, and Carter (2007) has suggested that the skewed male:female ratio in autism may be explained by sex-specific responses to the neuropeptides, oxytocin and vasopressin.

The genetic contribution to the causation/predisposition to autism is considered to be substantial on the basis of high concordance in monozygous twins, a recurrence rate of about 5% among siblings, the uniquely high male:female ratio (about 4:1 in most studies), the co-occurrence of autism with a number of single gene disorders and chromosome aberrations, and the presence of behavioral disturbances among first degree relatives. These considerations aside, no specific genetic cause has been found to explain more than 1-2% of autism cases, and overall only in 10-20% of autism cases can a cause be determined.

Chromosomal abnormalities have been found in a number of individuals with autism. These include marker chromosomes, microdeletions and microduplications, rearrangements, and autosomal fragile sites (Schroer et al. 1998, Ullmann et al. 2007, Morrow et al. 2008, Freitag 2007, Sebat et al. 2007, Weiss et al. 2008, Marshall et al. 2008). Taken together, these observations do not suggest a single underlying chromosomal aberration, but rather that a variety of chromosomal changes may disturb brain development and function in a way that leads to autism. Chromosome aberrations observed in more than one case of autism include: 1q deletion, 15q deletion or duplication, 16p deletion or duplication, 17p deletion, 18q deletion, 22q deletion, and Xq28 deletion or duplication.

A number of genome-wide screens to identify chromosomal regions linked to autism susceptibility have been reported. The linkage evidence appears greatest for one or two loci on chromosome 7q, and loci on chromosomes 1q, 2q, 3p, 3q, 5p, 6q, 9q, 11p, 15q, 16p, 17q, and 19p. The study of candidate genes within the linkage regions has failed to identify genes that clearly cause or strongly predispose to autism.

Although several X-linked genes (NLGN3, NLGN4, RPL10, FMR1, MECP2 and ten others noted with an asterisk in the Table and FIG. 1) have been associated with autism or autistic features in males, X-chromosomal loci have not been implicated in autism by linkage analyses. This may be explained in part by existence of multiple X loci of importance (heterogeneity) or by the uninformative nature of the sib-pairs used in the analysis. Of greater importance is that linkage analysis would not detect epigenetic modifications of gene(s) on the X chromosome.

The recurrence rate in brothers and sisters of affected persons is 3-8%. This recurrence rate is less than expected if all cases were caused by autosomal recessive gene mutations (25%) or autosomal dominant gene mutations (50%). The rate is not unlike that found in conditions considered to have multifactorial causation, such as neural tube defects and cleft lip/palate. Multifactorial causation implies a collaboration between multiple genetic factors and environmental influences.

Soon after the discovery of the correct number of chromosomes in humans, the importance of gene dosage to human development and health was appreciated. Inactivation of an X chromosome in normal females, as reflected in formation of the sex chromatin body, was recognized and considered to equalize (at 1N) the dosage of X-linked genes between females and males (Lyon 1961). Trisomies, which augmented the gene dosage (to 3N) for genes on individual chromosomes, were found to be uniformly associated with mental defect and malformation, in most cases lethal before birth. Deletions of small segments of the genome, which reduced gene dosage segmentally to 1N, were likewise found to be associated with malformations and mental retardation—e.g., Cri du Chat, Miller-Dieker, Smith Magenis, velocardiofacial, Wolff-Hirschhorn, and other microdeletion syndromes (Schinzel 1988, Pai et al. 2002). These findings and others reinforce the concept that diallelic expression of autosomal genes and monoallelic expression for genes on the sex chromosomes are the norm for humans.

In the 1980s and 1990s, evidence was found, initially in mice and then in humans, that diallelic expression was not the norm for all autosomal gene loci (Nicholls et al. 1989, Engel and DeLozier-Blanchet 1991). Rather, expression of certain genes, found in specific clusters on several autosomes, was noted to be monoallelic, while the second allele, although present, was silenced. Further, the expressed gene was consistently derived from the same parent and the silenced gene from the other. Such parent specific influence on gene activity was designated imprinting.

Appreciation for the role of imprinted genes in the causation of human disease has grown steadily since these initial findings. Currently, at least twelve human chromosomes (1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, and 20) are known to harbor gene loci that are imprinted. Genome-wide, however, less than 1% of autosomal genes appear to be imprinted, and hence have monoallelic and parent specific expression.

Several lines of evidence link imprinted regions and autism predisposition. Schanen (2006) has pointed out that the gene loci with suggestive or possible linkage to autism overlap or are in close proximity to regions subject to genomic imprinting. The evidence is strongest for loci on 7q and 15q. Duplication of proximal 15q, when derived from the mother, has been associated with autism. When duplication from the same region is derived from the father, autism does not occur. Deletions of the maternal copy of the same region on 15q, paternal disomy, and mutations of UBE3A cause Angelman syndrome, a disorder that typically presents with autistic features and mental retardation. Hence, silencing or overexpression of genes from this region appears to predispose to autism. Jiang et al. (2004) have proposed a mixed epigenetic and genetic model for autism based on abnormal DNA methylation at the 5′ CpG island of UBE3A, on chromosome 15, in one autism brain, decreased E6-AP protein (product of UBE3A) in several autism brains, and sharing of paternal 15q alleles in one cohort of autism sibpairs. MECP2, the X chromosomal gene responsible for Rett syndrome, exerts its effect by binding individual CpGs and recruiting other repression-related factors. A primary target of this effect is UBE3A, the gene responsible for Angelman syndrome. This may explain the clinical similarities between Rett and Angelman syndrome. Hussman (2001) and Martin et al. (2000) have suggested that GABAergic inhibition predisposes to autism. Three GABA receptor subunits (GABA α, β, γ) are located near the imprinted region of chromosome 15q.

Less work has been performed on the putative autism loci on 7q. Campbell et al. (2006) have found the C allele in the promotor of MET receptor tyrosine kinase in the 7q31 autism candidate region to be a risk factor in autism. The C allele reduces MET expression and alters binding of transcription factors. Schanen (2006) reviewed the status of genes in the imprinted cluster on 7q21.3 finding several attractive candidates, but none that had conclusive evidence for autism susceptibility. Freitag (2007) suggested that RELN, LAMB1, and EN2 were perhaps the three most promising autism candidate genes on chromosome 7.

Skuse (2000) has proposed that at least one loci on the X chromosome is imprinted, being expressed only from the paternal chromosome. Patients with Turner syndrome (45,X) who have a maternal X are more vulnerable to impairments in language and social interactions, whereas those with a paternal X may be protected, having significantly better social adjustment and superior language skills. Xp deletions of the boundary between the Xp pseudoautosomal region and marker DXS7103 have been found in three females with autism (Thomas et al. 1999).

Silencing and overexpression of genes with normal DNA sequence on the single X chromosome in males and the active X chromosome in females have been identified as biological phenomena of significance. The most prominent example of gene silencing occurs in the fragile X syndrome. The pathology is based on expansion and methylation of a CGG repeat in the 5′ untranslated region of the FMR1 gene. Methylation and silencing of expression typically occur when the CGG repeat number exceeds 200 copies (Lubs 1969, Sutherland 1977, Oberle et al. 1991, Yu et al. 1991). Overexpression of MECP2 caused by duplication of the gene and adjacent region in Xq28 has been documented in numerous cases of males with mental retardation, hypotonia, and recurrent infections (Pai et al. 1997, Lubs et al. 1999, Van Esch et al. 2005, Friez et al. 2006). Males with duplication of MECP2 likewise have an increased risk of autism spectrum disorders (Meins et al. 2005, Friez et al. 2006).

The various chromosomal alterations and gene mutations currently reported in association with autism indicate the genetically heterogeneous nature of autism and taken together account for only a minority (less than 20%) of cases.

SUMMARY

Objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the following description, or may be obvious from the description, or may be learned through practice of the invention.

According to one embodiment, a method for determining predisposition to or diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in an individual is generally disclosed. For example, the method can include determining a cytosine methylation level of at least three different test polynucleotide sequences. Each test polynucleotide sequence comprises at least one gene on the X chromosome, and each test polynucleotide sequence is obtained from the individual.

The method also includes comparing the cytosine methylation level of each test polynucleotide sequence to a control cytosine methylation range of a corresponding control polynucleotide sequence. The control cytosine methylation range of the corresponding control polynucleotide sequence can be developed from data obtained from a control group comprising non-affected age matched individuals. A finding that the cytosine methylation level of at least about 20% of the test polynucleotide sequences falls outside of the control cytosine methylation range of the corresponding control polynucleotide sequences leads to a determination that the individual is predisposed to or affected with autism spectrum disorder.

The three or more different test polynucleotide sequences to be tested can include any genes of the X-chromosome and, optionally, can also include flanking sequences to the genes. For instance, in one embodiment, all of the genes of the X-chromosome can be tested. In other embodiments, smaller sets of genes can be tested. For example, the genes of the three or more test polynucleotide sequences can include all XLMR genes; the 85 XLMR genes of Table 1 (discussed further herein); a set of genes including NLGN4, NLGN3, L1CAM, and AVPR2; a set of genes including NLGN4, STK9, ARX, NLGN3, AGTR2, FMR1, RPL10, SLC6A8, MECP2, ARHGEF6, FACL4, MED12, JARID1C, TM4SF2, AP1S2; and so forth.

According to another embodiment, a method for determining predisposition to or diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in an individual that includes determining the presence or quantity of at least three different biomarkers in a test sample obtained from the individual is generally disclosed. Each of the at least three different biomarkers are specific for a different test X-chromosome gene. The method also includes determining an expression level of each of the test X-chromosome genes based upon the presence or quantity in the test sample of the biomarker for that test X-chromosome gene, and comparing the expression level of each of the test X-chromosome genes to a corresponding control expression level. A finding that at least about 20% of the test X-chromosome genes are either overexpressed or underexpressed to a significant degree from the corresponding control expression level corresponds to a determination that the individual is predisposed to or affected with autism spectrum disorder.

By way of example, the test X-chromosome genes can include the 44 genes of Table 2 (described further herein); genes found at chromosomal locations Xp11.2 to Xp11.4, Xp21 to Xp22, Xq23 to Xq24 or Xq25; the group of genes including CLCN4, WWC3, AMOT, KIAA2022, CDKL5, DMD, GPR64, SCML1, FHL1, and MAP7D2; the group of genes including CLCN4, WDR44, NGLN3, CDKL5, KIAA2022, AMOT, MAP7D2, and TBC1D8B; the group of genes including CASK, CFP, CDKL5, LONRF3, RNF12, MID1, RP2, SCML1, ZNF81, ELK1, and PQBP1; and so forth.

Biomarkers can be any suitable material for determining the expression level of the genes including mRNA, proteins, and the like.

Also disclosed herein are arrays suitable for use in determining the expression levels of biomarkers for determining predisposition for or diagnosing an individual affected with ASD. For example, the array can include a plurality of probes, where each probe being specific for a biomarker (e.g., mRNA, protein, etc.) of an X-chromosome gene.

Other features and aspects of the present invention are discussed in greater detail below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

A full and enabling disclosure of the present disclosure, including the best mode thereof to one skilled in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, which includes reference to the accompanying figures, in which:

FIG. 1 represents data showing the overall methylation level of the entire X-chromosome for 5 individuals diagnosed with ASD and the overall methylation level of the entire X-chromosome for 5 individuals not affected with ASD.

FIG. 2 represents an ideogram of the X chromosome showing the location of the currently known 85 brain expressed genes that can be a factor in development of autism when hypermethylated or hypomethylated. In addition, the location of two housekeeping genes, [G6PD, GLA], two autism genes [NLGN3, RPL10], and one gene [AVPR2] of uncertain significance are shown in brackets.

FIG. 3 represents scatterplots of the degree of methylation of selected genes on the X chromosome in males with autism (solid squares) and unaffected males (open circles). The squares encircled on the scatterplots for NLGN4, NLGN3, L1CAM, and AVPR2 identify males with autism whose methylation values fall outside the range of values for unaffected males.

FIG. 4 represents an expression of L1CAM as determined by real-time PCR in a male with autism, his mother, his affected identical twin brother, and two unaffected (normal) males. The overexpression of L1CAM alone or in combination with overexpression or underexpression of other brain expressed genes on the X chromosome can predispose for autism.

FIG. 6 represents an ideogram of the X chromosome showing the location of 44 genes that have been found to be expressed to a significantly different degree in individuals diagnosed with ASD. Genes expressed in the brain are shown underlined and genes expressed in lymphocytes are marked with an asterisk.

FIG. 7 represents scatterplots of the degree of expression of selected genes on the X chromosome that are generally overexpressed in males with autism (solid triangles) as compared to unaffected males (open circles). Each of the five genes with triangles encircled on the scatterplots have 8 or more autism samples with expression values above the range of values for unaffected males.

FIG. 8 represents scatterplots of the degree of expression of selected genes on the X chromosome that are generally underexpressed in males with autism (solid triangles) as compared to unaffected males (open circles). The two genes with encircled triangles on the scatterplots have 8 or more autism samples with expression values below the range of values for unaffected males.

DEFINITIONS

As used herein, the terms “autism” and “autism spectrum disorders” (ASD) are used interchangeably to generally describe three of the five pervasive developmental disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, IVth Edition (DSM IV-TR), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference: autistic disorder, Asperger disorder, and pervasive developmental disorders (American Psychiatric Association 2000). The clinical hallmarks of autism include disturbances in three categories of behavior—reciprocal social interactions, verbal and nonverbal communications, and age appropriate activities and interests. Mental retardation coexists in over two-thirds of individuals with autism spectrum disorder but is conspicuously absent in Asperger disorder. The other neurological manifestation of note is seizures, which occur in 20-35 percent of individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

The physical appearance of, individuals with autism is generally unremarkable, characterized by normal facial appearance, musculoskeletal structures, internal organs, and sexual development. Intrauterine and postnatal growth usually follows a normal course. A subgroup of approximately 20% of individuals with autism has macrocephaly, which is usually acquired during the first four years of life. Generalized brain overgrowth and cerebellar hypoplasia have been found in some cases using brain-imaging techniques, Reduced Purkinje cell counts in the cerebellum, reduced neuron size and absence of gliosis have been noted on brain microscopy.

Because of the absence of consistent physical findings in autism and the uncertainty of the diagnosis in the first couple of years of life, a laboratory test that helps diagnose autism at an early age would be desirable.

As used herein, the term “normal” with regard to level of expression of a gene generally refers to the average level of expression of a gene in individuals not affected by any autism spectrum disorders.

“Overexpression” and “underexpression” of a gene refer to expression of the gene at a greater or lesser level, respectively, than normal level of expression of the gene.

As used herein the term “promoter sequence” generally refers to a nucleic acid sequence which is required for expression of a gene product. In some instances, this sequence may be the core promoter sequence and in other instances, this sequence may also include an enhancer sequence and other regulatory elements which are required for expression of the gene product.

As used herein, the term “transcribed polynucleotide” generally refers to a polynucleotide (e.g. an RNA, a cDNA, or an analog of one of an RNA or cDNA) which is complementary to or homologous with all or a portion of a mature RNA made by transcription of a genomic DNA and normal post-transcriptional processing (e.g. splicing), if any, of the transcript.

As used herein, the terms “hypermethylated” and “hypermethylation” generally refer to excessive (e.g., more than the methylation of the same gene from a non-affected person or group of non-affected persons) methylation of one or more cytosines within or flanking genes. In one particular embodiment, the one or more cytosines are at CpG dinucleotides, but this is not a requirement of the term. Hypermethylation is a recognized epigenetic mechanism for suppression of gene expression (Grant 2008, Wilson et al. 2006). This is true for X-linked genes known to be down-regulated during the course of X-inactivation.

Conversely, the terms “hypomethylated” and “hypomethylation” generally refer to undermethylation (e.g., less than the methylation of the same gene from a non-affected person or group of non-affected persons) of one or more cytosines within or flanking genes, for instance at CpG dinucleotides. The expression of X-linked genes may be increased (i.e., overexpressed) if CpGs associated with the genes are hypomethylated.

As used herein, the terms “affected” and “affected person” generally refer to a person with features of autism or autism spectrum disorders as defined by The American Psychiatric Association (2000). While males are more commonly affected with autism spectrum disorders, both males and females may be affected. Conversely, the terms “non-affected” and “non-affected person” refers to a person without features of autism or autism spectrum disorders as defined by The American Psychiatric Association (2000).

As used herein the term “marker” generally refers to a material that can be used to directly or indirectly identify predisposition of an individual for ASD as well as to directly or indirectly identify an individual affected with ASD. For example, markers include, without limitation, DNA methylation of sense and anti-sense strands of genomic DNA (optionally including any introns occurring therein), RNA generated by transcription of genomic DNA, RNA generated by splicing of RNA transcribed from genomic DNA, and proteins or portions thereof (including proteins both before and after cleavage of normally cleaved regions such as transmembrane signal sequences). As used herein, “marker” may also include a cDNA made by reverse transcription of an RNA generated by transcription of genomic DNA (including spliced RNA).

As used herein, the term “probe” generally refers to any molecule which is capable of binding to a specifically intended target molecule, e.g., a marker. Probes can be either synthesized or derived from natural materials. Examples of molecules that can be utilized as probes include, but are not limited to, RNA, DNA, proteins, antibodies, and organic monomers.

As used herein, the term “gene” generally refers to a locatable region of a genomic sequence that is involved in producing a polypeptide chain, and includes regulatory regions, introns, transcribed regions and/or other functional sequence regions. The term also refers to sequences that are transcribed but not translated into a polypeptide (e.g., noncoding microRNAs).

As utilized herein, the term “flanking sequences” generally refers to sequences that are located on either end of a coding region, usually within 500 Kb of coding region. Flanking sequences are located 5′ or 3′ to the translated sequences. The 5′ flanking region may contain control or regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers or other recognition or binding sequences for proteins that control or influence the transcription of the gene. The 3′ flanking region may contain sequences that direct the termination of transcription, post-transcriptional cleavage and polyadenylation as well as recognition sequences for other proteins.

The terms “protein,” “peptide” and “polypeptide” are used interchangeably herein.

As used herein, the term “hybridization” generally refers to the process of annealing complementary nucleic acid strands by forming hydrogen bonds between nucleotide bases on the complementary nucleic acid strands. Hybridization, and the strength of the association between the nucleic acids, is impacted by such factors as the degree of complementarity between the hybridizing nucleic acids, the stringency of the conditions involved, the melting temperature (Tm) of the formed hybrid, the length of the hybridizing nucleic acids and the G:C ratio of those nucleic acids.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Reference now will be made to the embodiments of the disclosure, one or more examples of which are set forth below. Each example is provided by way of an explanation of the disclosure, not as a limitation of the disclosure. In fact, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the disclosure without departing from the scope or spirit of the disclosure. For instance, features illustrated or described as one embodiment can be used on another embodiment to yield still a further embodiment. It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the present discussion is a description of exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended as limiting the broader aspects of the present disclosure, which broader aspects are embodied exemplary constructions.

Disclosed herein is the discovery that alterations in methylation on the X chromosome, which can cause one or more genes on the single X chromosome in males to be partially or totally silenced or overexpressed, can constitute a predisposition to autism spectrum disorders and other related neurobehavioral conditions to include, but not limited to, mental retardation, attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, and learning disabilities.

Generally speaking, the present disclosure is directed to methods for determining whether one or more brain expressed genes located on the X chromosome are hypomethylated or hypermethylated and the subsequent predisposition for or diagnosis of ASD. More specifically, it has been determined that hypermethylation or hypomethylation of brain expressed genes can signify a predisposition to autism.

Possession of but a single X chromosome imposes on males a biological inequity which places them at higher risk than females for a number of health maladies.

While the inactivation of one of the two X chromosomes in females makes a single active X chromosome the norm in both sexes, this phenomenon clearly does not compensate for the inequity. Nowhere has this inequity been studied more extensively than in X-linked mental retardation (XLMR). Overall, about 30% more males than females will have mental retardation and at least some portion of this excess can be attributed to X-linked genes. Ten to twelve percent of all mental retardation appears to be X-linked.

In one embodiment, the overall methylation level of the X-chromosome can be examined to determine the predisposition of an individual for ASD. According to this embodiment, a statistically different degree of overall methylation of the X chromosome can be a signal for ASD. For instance, an individual exhibiting an overall difference in methylation (i.e., any combination of overmethylation and/or undermethylation) of the X-chromosome of more than about 20%, or more than about 33% in another embodiment, as compared to normal methylation levels can be predisposed to or affected with ASD.

Alternatively, a smaller group of genes can be the basis for disclosed determinations. For example, in one embodiment, genes encompassed by the present disclosure include those that are 1) located on the X chromosome, 2) expressed in the brain, 3) subject to inactivation, and 4) associated with mental retardation or autism.

Currently, 87 brain expressed genes have been identified (Table 1, below) as candidate genes for disclosed determinations. However, the present disclosure is not limited to these specific 87 brain expressed genes. In particular, it is believed that hypermethylation or hypomethylation of any gene or group of genes on the X chromosome can be a marker for the diagnosis of autism in an individual.

By extension, overexpression or underexpression of such genes and increased or decreased production of proteins encoded by such genes can be a designation for the diagnosis of autism.

Table 1 and FIG. 2 identify the name, symbol and location of 87 brain expressed genes on the X chromosome encompassed by the present disclosure. Ordinary mutations (e.g., changes in the coding sequence of the genes) in 85 of these 87 genes have been previously linked to mental retardation. Also, mutations in 15 of these 85 X-linked mental retardation (XLMR) genes have been associated with autism or autistic behaviors in addition to mental retardation. These 15 are identified with an asterisk in Table 1 and FIG. 2. Data on these genes are available with reference to R. E. Stevenson, C. E. Schwartz, and R. J. Schroer, “Atlas on X-Linked Mental Retardation” (X-Linked Mental Retardation, Oxford University Press, 2000) and the XLMR Update located at http://www.ggc.org/xlmr.htm, which are incorporated by reference herein. Additional data on these and other genetic and proteinaceous material discussed herein are available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The disorders associated with usual mutations in each gene and the currently known function(s) of each gene are also listed in Table 1.

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