Poisonous Vascular Plants

(arranged by family)

Ferns and related plants reproduce by dispersing spores rather than
seeds. Spores are found in either cone-like structures at the tip of
the stems or in clusters on the back of the leaves. These plants are
herbaceous and are usually less than 3-4 ft tall.

Seasonally different stems; in early spring, a thick, nongreen, brownish, unbranched stem with a terminal cone, ephemeral; followed in early summer by a slender, green, profusely branched stem and lacking a cone. Stream banks, low
wet floodplains, railroad embankments. Mainly mountains and piedmont, infrequently in the coastal plain
(Map 2).

Distribution: Mainly mountains and piedmont; less frequent in the coastal plain
(Map 2).

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Enzyme thiaminase for nonruminants; toxic principle for ruminants is not known.

Parts of plant: Aboveground parts; green or dried in hay. Hay containing 20% or more causes poisoning in horses in 2-5 weeks.

Periodicity: Spring through fall.

Animals poisoned: Horses, with sheep and cows less affected.

Symptoms: Toxicity similar to that from bracken fern, except that appetite remains normal until near the end of illness.
Ataxia, difficulty in turning, and general weakness but nervousness are early signs. In later stages, animals may be constipated and
muscles rigid, pulse rate increases and weakens, extremities become cold, cornea of eye may become opaque. Calm and eventually
coma precede death.

Description: (Fig. 2) Leaves (fronds) usually 10-40 in. tall, arising annually from a
perennial underground creeping rhizome (stem). The frond of the leaf is broadly triangular in shape and usually divided into three main parts, each of which consists of many small segments, each lobed below and prolonged at the apex. The frond itself is often inclined to one side. The reproductive
spores line the margin of the fertile segments and are partially covered by the narrow recurved margins. The plants are spread by the branching of the underground rhizome.

Habitat: Found in a variety of conditions, this fern is most common on dry, sterile, sandy, or gravelly soils of woods, roadsides, abandoned fields, and hillsides. It is most abundant in the open pine woods
of the coastal plain, but it can be found from the mountains to the dunes.

Related plants: Of doubtful importance is Onoclea sensibilis L. (sensitive fern). This is fairly common in the state in wet habitats and is sometimes associated with hay, causing disturbances when fed to horses.

Several species are cultivated as ornamentals in North Carolina, but T. canadensis
Marsh. is found naturally in North Carolina only in the extreme northwestern counties. These are evergreen shrubs with
alternate, linear leaves and scarlet "berries"; only the outer red coat (aril) is edible.

Animals poisoned: All kinds, but cattle and horses are most commonly affected when yard clippings are thrown over fences where livestock graze.

Symptoms: Nervousness, trembling, ataxia, collapse, and
dyspnea. Bradycardia is pronounced and progresses to sudden death without a struggle. A subacute poisoning may occur 1-2 days after ingestion; acute poisoning is accompanied by
gastroenteritis.

Necropsy: Acute: no lesions. Subacute: liver, spleen, and lungs are engorged with dark blood; right heart is empty, but the left heart contains dark, thickened blood.

Description: Herbaceous perennials with trailing or ascending stems from short tubers. Leaves
alternate, palmately lobed or divided. Flowers in terminal
racemes or panicles, white or deep blue-purple;
sepals 5, the upper one hooded and not spurred at the base;
stamens numerous. Fruit of 3-5 separate
follicles.

Habitat: Rich woods and slopes.

Distribution: (Map 4) Mountains and rarely in the piedmont. There are two species in the state:
A. reclinatum Gray, which has white flowers and
A. uncinatum L., which has blue-purple flowers.

Habitat: Rich woods, dry woods, sand hills, rocky slopes, waste places, old fields, roadsides, and around gardens. Some species are cultivated and often escape and become locally abundant.

Distribution: There are five species distributed throughout the state; they are most common in the mountains and piedmont.

Group number: 3. (Dangerous but uncommon)

Poisonous principle: The alkaloids delphinine, ajacine, and others.

Parts of plant: Young plant, including the roots; seeds.

Periodicity: Entire growing season; toxicity decreases with maturity.

Animals poisoned: Cattle; this is one of the most important plants in the western states but it is not common enough in North Carolina to be very important as a poisonous
plant. Sheep are more resistant.

Treatment: Toxic effects are so rapid that treatment is most likely futile. Physostigmine,
1 grain; pilocarpine, 2 grains; strychnine, 1/2 grain. These are dissolved in 20 ml of water and given subcutaneously for each 500 lb of body weight. Sheep require 1/4 the above dosage.

Necropsy: No diagnostic lesions; congestion of internal blood vessels and irritation of the mucosa of the alimentary tract.

Description: Perennial herb with short, knotty
rootstock. Stem simple, erect, bearing a large compound
sessile leaf and a raceme or
panicle of yellow-green or greenish purple flowers, each of which is about 3/8 in. across; flower parts in 6's. The solitary
pistil splits while young and exposes the 2
ovules, which develop into dark blue naked seeds.

This is a commonly cultivated shrub with divided leaves and bright red
berries. The berries may be dangerous to cats. Toxic to all grazing animals, especially
ruminants. Cyanogenic glycoside in foliage. See Prunus for treatment of cyanide poisoning.

Description: (Fig. 3) Perennial herb with a creeping
rhizome and thick, fibrous roots. Stems with one or two large, circular, umbrella-shaped, 5-9 lobed leaves. Flower solitary, nodding, white, with 6
sepals and 6-9 petals. Fruit a large, fleshy
berry, yellow when ripe, edible. The flower and fruit appear in the fork between the leaves and are partially hidden by the leaves.

Habitat: Rich woods and open fields or pastures. Usually found in clumps of many plants (often many plants from the same original
rhizome).

Distribution: Common and scattered throughout the entire state.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: A mixture of compounds called podophyllin, a drug used as a
purgative in small amounts. It is caustic to the gastrointestinal tract; overdoses can be fatal.

Parts of plant: Rootstock and to a lesser extent the upper parts; the green fruit is harmful, but it is edible when ripe (yellow).

Periodicity: Spring and summer.

Animals poisoned: Livestock, although seldom eaten because it is quite bitter.

Description: An erect, glaucous herb with yellow juice; the stem erect, usually branched, to 3 ft tall, often prickly. Leaves
alternate, sessile, and clasping the stem, coarsely lobed and spiny on the margin and usually on the midrib. Flowers solitary, showy, with 4-6 yellowish
petals; fruit a prickly capsule with 3-6 valves opening near the top; seeds many and small.

Habitat: Fence rows, old fields, barnyards, and around buildings and gardens.

Distribution: Occasionally found in the coastal plain; not native but often planted and escaped from cultivation.

Description:Perennial, glabrous, short-stemmed herbs from a cluster of small tubers or stout fleshy
rootstocks. Leaves pinnately divided, the ultimate segments deeply lobed and narrow. Flowers in a
raceme or panicle;
corolla 2-spurred on the upper side. Fruit a many-seeded
capsule.

Description: (Fig. 6) A coarse, rough-stemmed annual to 12 ft. tall; palmately divided leaves with 3-7
leaflets which are narrow and coarsely toothed; leaves
opposite below and alternate in the upper portion of the plant; flowers small and green, the sexes separate.

Habitat: Escaped cultivation in waste places or old fields.

Distribution: Rare as an escape; illegally planted in various parts of the state. Native of Asia.

Treatment: Oil-type laxative;
ruminotorics, parenteral fluid; nutrient therapy, and glucocorticoids. Feeding 10% calcium hydroxide may prevent symptoms. Transplantation of ruminal microflora. If illness has progressed to the point of advanced
renal dysfunction, it is rare for animals to recover.

Necropsy: Gastritis and enteritis, with a bloody false membrane forming in the intestine; increased peritoneal and plural fluids and petechiation on the subserous tissue, kidney, and heart;
necrosis of the proximal tubules, numerous hyaline casts in the kidney, and necrosis of the liver as seen microscopically. Perirenal
edema.

Description: (Fig. 7) A coarse, smooth branching herb, 3-12 ft tall, with a large
perennialrootstock. Stems green, red, or purple; leaves
alternate, 3-12 in. long, simple, petioled. Flowers and fruit in long
racemes which are more or less drooping in fruit. Fruit a dark purple
berry composed of 5-12 segments fused in a ring.

Parts of plant: Most poisoning occurs when the roots are eaten; shoot, leaves, and berries are also poisonous if eaten fresh and in toxic quantities.

Periodicity: Spring, summer, and fall.

Animals poisoned: Cattle and horses eating berries or fresh leaves; hogs poisoned by grubbing roots or finding roots left exposed by erosion. Abortion in cows has been caused by their eating leaves and stems.

Symptoms: Severe gastrointestinal irritation after two hours. Vomiting, bloody
diarrhea, hemolytic anemia. Spasms, purging,
convulsions, and finally death caused by paralysis of the
respiratory organs from the narcotic action of the poison.

Description: Coarse annual or
perennial to 4 ft tall, strongly aromatic and with small yellowish glands; leaves
alternate, coarsely toothed to nearly
entire. Flowers and fruits small and crowded in dense but leafy and elongated
inflorescences.

Habitat: Waste places, barnyards, and cultivated grounds.

Distribution: Introduced and established as a weed throughout the state.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: The oxide ascaridol.

Parts of plant: Seeds.

Periodicity: Most dangerous when seeds form; usually not eaten because of their disagreeable odor.

Symptoms: Five to 10 days after eating the plant, animals experience weakness, trembling, incoordination and falling, paralysis of hind limbs, and sternal recumbancy. They die from
cardiac-associated hyperkalemic effects within 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. Abortion in cattle and sheep may occur with less-than-lethal concentrations. Nitrate poisoning may occur with less-than-lethal amounts ingested.

Treatment: Immediately remove animals from pastures. No satisfactory treatment has been found.

Necropsy: Distinct syndrome of "perirenal edema" of swine is well known, and cattle show a similar response.
Edema of connective tissue around kidneys, with blood in the
edema fluid, and edema of the ventral abdominal wall and perirectal area; kidneys pale, with scattered areas of
hyperemia extending into the cortex; bladder
edematous; extensive thoracic and abdominal fluids.

Because of their high oxalate content, a number of plants in this family
(Fagopyrum, Polygonum, Rumex, Rheum) deserve brief mention as possible sources of poisoning, although none is considered very important.

Occassionaly found as an escape in fields and waste places in the piedmont, this plant has been known to cause poisoning in sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, and horses. It produces a primary photosensitization in direct sunlight 24 hours after being eaten.

Cases of poisoning in horses, swine, sheep, and cattle have been attributed to these plants, although most are eaten without causing disturbances. Curly dock and rhubarb are frequently associated with
hypocalcemia and kidney damage from calcium oxalate crystals.

The members of this family are not usually considered to be poisonous. Although grazed frequently without harm, they produce seeds that are rich in one or more mustard-oil glycosides which can give trouble under certain conditions, or they may cause nitrate poisoning. Feeds containing large amounts of seeds of
Brassica spp. (mustard), Lepidium spp.
(pepperweed), Raphanus spp.
(wild radish) or others can cause intestinal disorders, abortion,
hemolysis, or paralysis of the heart and lungs when fed to cattle, horses, and pigs.

The saltwort or beachwort (Batis maritima L.) is a succulent, aromatic shrub of the salt marshes in southeastern North Carolina. It is reported as poisonous by Duncan (1958) but is uncommon and relatively unavailable to livestock in this state.

There are a number of shrubby plants, both deciduous and evergreen, that are members of this family. Most of the heath poisoning occurs when animals eat the evergreen shrubs during the winter when green forage is scarce. Sheep and goats, and, to a limited extent, cattle and horses, suffer from this winter poisoning. Most important among the poisonous shrubs are
Kalmia, Rhododendron, and Pieris, but others may be just as dangerous if eaten in large quantities. Wild animals are not as subject to poisoning as are domestic animals, and they often feed freely on these evergreen heaths especially during
snow, or during the winter months in general. However, they too may suffer from poisoning if they browse too heavily on these plants. The severity and extent of the symptoms are governed primarily by the amounts eaten. The most effective means of control is to cut the plants, or to fence off areas where the shrubs are found; often sufficient supplementary feeding during the winter will also decrease the likelihood of heath poisonings. Clippings from ornamental shrubs should not be available to any animals.

Description: Shrubs with leathery, evergreen leaves. Flowers white, rose, purple, or crimson, saucer-shaped upper portion, the 10 anthers at first stuck singly in small pockets in the sides of the
corolla. Fruit a somewhat flat-topped globose
capsule of 5 carpels. The two species, and their identifying
characters, habitats, and distributions, are described below.

Animals poisoned: Mostly sheep and goats but also cattle and horses. "Poison honey" is occasionally formed when bees visit
Kalmia. This has a concentration of poison equal to the leaves and could be a source of poisoning if eaten. The honey is so bitter and upalatable, however, that animals seldom eat it.

Symptoms: The andromedotoxin has the following effects: loss of appetite, repeated swallowing with
salivation, nasal discharge, dullness, depression,
nausea and vomiting, frequent defecation. Secondary aspiration pneumonia is possible. Animals later become weak and lose coordination, lie prostrate, have difficulty breathing, and fall into a
coma.

Necropsy: Gastrointestinal irritation and some hemorrhage; acute parenchymatous nephritis with some
necrosis in the tubules; albuminous degeneration in the liver. Lung lesions from aspiration pneumonia.

Description: Shrubs with evergreen or deciduous leaves which are
alternate, slightly toothed, and petioled. Flowers small, white, inverted urn-shaped, in elongated, axillary or terminal clusters. Fruit a globular or 5-lobed
capsule with the top more or less depressed.
The four species, with identifying characters, habitats, and distributions
are described below.

Deciduous shrubs with alternate leaves. Flowers in terminal
racemes or panicles, white or pink and urn-shaped. Fruit globose or pear-shaped, not depressed at the apex.
Descriptions of the two species, with identifying characters, habitats,
and distributions are given below.

Related plants: The closely related plant, Lyonia lucida
(Lam.) K. Koch (fetter-bush), is common on the coastal plain and is not poisonous. This species is evergreen, the leaves have a conspicuous vein near each margin, and the fruits are globose
(Fig. 18).

Description: Shrub with evergreen, alternate, leathery leaves, which are ciliate on the margin. Flowers in several
racemes crowded in short terminal panicles;
corolla white, inverted urn-shaped, constricted near the tubular tip, the short lobes somewhat spreading. Fruit a globose
capsule.

Description: Low-growing, sprawling, herbaceous, winter
annuals often rooting at the lower nodes; stem 4-angled in cross-section. Leaves
opposite, ovate, entire margined,
sessile. Flowers solitary in the leaf axils, on long stalks; 5-parted with fused
petals, scarlet or brick red, sometimes blue or rarely white, opening only in fair weather, quickly closing at the approach of summer storms or very cloudy weather. Fruit a
capsule dehiscing by a terminal cap, recurved due to a drooping stalk.

Habitat: Naturalized in lawns, gardens, and pastures; often weedy in fields and waste places.

Distribution: (Map 23) The native hydrangea is H. arborescens
L., which is found mostly in the mountains, but locally eastward into the coastal plain. Some other species are cultivated throughout the state.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Possibly a cyanogenetic glycoside.

Parts of plant: Leaves in partially wilted condition.

Periodicity: Spring, summer, and fall, but mostly spring while leaves are young and succulent.

Description: (Fig. 22) Tree 15-60 ft tall at maturity. Bark of twigs very bitter. Leaves
alternate, simple, 1-5 in. long, deciduous, the margin finely toothed with blunt teeth;
petiole with glands at the upper end, just below the
blade, or sometimes on the base of the blade itself; leaf
glabrous and shiny above and glabrous below with dense hairs along lower part of the midrib. Flowers white, small, in
racemes terminating the leafy branches of the current year. Fruit a dark purple or black
drupe with one seed in a hard pit.

Habitat: Woods and along fence rows, edges of fields, and often in abandoned fields. Stump sprouts are common.

Distribution: Common throughout the entire state.

Group number: 1. (Dangerous!)

Poisonous principle: Hydrocyanic acid (also called prussic acid), which is one of the decomposition products formed by the action of enzymes on the glycoside amygdalin. Many factors appear to contribute to the formation of the acid, but it is most commonly found when the leaves are partially wilted. When fresh leaves are eaten, they release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the stomach or rumen after mastication.

Parts of plant: Leaves, twigs, bark, or seeds. Discarded fruit pits should not be available to dogs or caged birds.

Periodicity: Spring, summer, and fall; fresh, or wilted due to frost, drought, or broken branches.

Animals poisoned: Cattle, horses, sheep, goats, dogs, and birds.

Symptoms: Peracute course: difficult breathing, vertigo,
spasms,
convulsions, coma, and sickness of short duration, followed by death. Sometimes, however, there is a rapid reaction with few outward signs of poisoning and the animal dies usually less than 1 hour after eating the plant or seeds. Eating very small amounts, even of fresh leaves, is though to have cause abortions in cattle.

Treatment: Parenteral sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate by a veterinarian may be helpful if given promptly. Oxidizing substances such as potassium permanganate or hydrogen peroxide given as a drench may be of some help. Also vigorous
respiratory, heat, and nerve stimulants would be of aid.

Necropsy: Blood and mucous membranes
become bright red, and blood clots slowly; congestion of liver and distension of venous system; congestion and
hemorrhage in the trachea and lungs, and on serous membrane surfaces; odor of almonds may be apparent.

Related plants: Four other species throughout the state (Map
24) are also poisonous although infrequently eaten. They are as follows:

The evergreen photinias are popular ornamental shrubs grown for their round clusters of white flowers, red berries, and particularly their red new leaves in the spring. Cuttings from these shrubs can be poisonous because they contain hydrocyanic acid similar to
Prunus.

Symptoms: Effect on skeletal muscles, kidney, and liver. Afebrile,
ataxia, and diarrhea are generally the first symptoms observed. Later the animals stop eating, appear lethargic, and get
tremors in their hind legs; urine may become dark and coffee-colored and the animals becomes recumbent and unable to rise. Death can occur 12 hours after animal goes down from
hyperkalemic-induced heart failure.

Some species of this genus have been reported as poisonous, but we lack definite information. Investigation by Duncan et al. (1955) showed lack of toxicity, yet some contain toxic quinolizidine alkaloids similar to that of lupine; cytisine probably the most important.
Nausea,
diarrhea, and other gastrointestinal clinical signs are reported in toxic cases.

Description: (Fig. 24) Annual or
perennial herbs with
alternate, simple or compound leaves;
stipules often conspicuous and fused to the stem for some distance. Flowers yellow, on long terminal or axillary
racemes. Legumes inflated, subcylindric, many seeded.

Habitat: Fields, roadsides, open woods, and cultivated fields.

Distribution: (Map 27) Piedmont and coastal plain. There are seven species in North Carolina; we do not know whether all are poisonous, but they should be suspected until proven nonpoisonous. Three that definitely can cause trouble are
C. sagittalis L., C. spectablilis
Roth, and C. pallida var. obovata (Don) Polhill (C. mucronata
Desv., C. striata DC.). None should be planted as a green manure crop.

Parts of plant: Leaves, stems, roots, and seeds; dry or green. Only the seeds are considered poisonous in
C. pallida (Fig. 25), but they are very dangerous because they are often found in feed. Two grams of seed fed daily will poison a 50-lb hog in about 7
days; a chicked will be killed in 1-2 months by 80 seeds; 9 lbs of dried leaves will kill a 300-lb steer in 4 days. The tops of
C. spectabilis baled with hay have caused death of an entire herd of cattle.

Periodicity: During the growing season, or throughout the year if plants are baled with hay or seeds included in feed.

Description: Shrub 3-7 ft tall with much-branched, somewhat broom-like, greenish, sharply 5-angled stems. Leaves
alternate, compound with three small leaflets, or the upper leaves with only one leaflet. Flowers golden yellow, one or two in the axils of the old leaves, or forming leafy
racemes. Legumes small, flattened, and hairy.

Habitat: Escaped from cultivation into roadsides, old fields, waste places, and
around buildings.

Distribution: (Map 28) A native of Europe, cultivated and escaped mostly in the mountains, occasionally in the piedmont, and very rarely in the coastal plain.

Symptoms: Vomiting, excitement, muscular weakness, digestive disorders,
convulsions, and death in coma. Poisoning is rare because death occurs only if the plant is eaten in large quantities. Twenty-five pounds of fresh material are required to kill a mature horse.

Description: (Fig. 26) Shrub or small tree to 12 ft tall. Leaves
alternate, 4-8 in. long, even-pinnate with 12-40
leaflets, each with a minute and pointed tip and
entire margin. Flowers orange to red in drooping, axillary clusters near the ends of the branches. Legumes about 3 in. long, 4-winged, with cross-partitions between the seeds, indehiscent.

Habitat: Frequently planted and escaped from cultivation in various habitats such as in old fields, pastures, around farm buildings, roadsides, stream banks, and edges of marshes.

Related plants:Erythrina herbacea L. -
Cardinal-spear. This species is found rarely in southeastern North Carolina. It is a shrub with red flowers, and three delta-shaped
leaflets per leaf. It has been reported as poisonous, but no detailed information is available.

Description: Robust annual to 10 ft tall, rather woody at the base, often broadly branched. Leaves
alternate, 4-10 in. long, widely spaced on the stem, evenly pinnate-compound with 24-52
leaflets. Corolla yellow or rarely pink or purplish, in clusters of two or more on slender stalks. Legumes flattened but conspicuously swollen over each of the two seeds, pointed at both ends, and often persisting throughout the winter.

Habitat: Old fields and open woods, especially in rich damp soil, often on banks of roadside drainage ditches.

Habitat: Sandy soil of pinelands and scrub oak woods, or open fields, and roadsides.

Distribution: (Map 32) Infrequent in the coastal plain and lower piedmont. There are three native species in the state:
L. diffusus Nutt., L. perennis
L., and L. villosus Willd. Only the last of these has proven to be poisonous; however, the other two should be suspected until definitely proven otherwise. The cultivated lupines are not poisonous.

Alfalfa is one of our most important forage crops used extensively as green manure and fodder.
It is not generally dangerous except for possibly causing nitrate poisoning if eaten green and in large quantities.
However, when in flower it is visited by blister beetles (Epicauta spp.), which may live in great numbers in baled alfalfa hay.
These beetles feed on the pollen and nectar of alfalfa. Ingestion (by horses in particular) of hay contaminated with these beetles has resulted in
toxicosis. Other animals poisoned are cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, rats, and dogs.

Description: Annual or biennial herbs with
alternate, trifoliolate leaves, the leaflets with toothed margins. Flowers white or yellow, much like clover but in slender, elongated
racemes. Legumes inflated, straight, with 1 or 2 seeds.

Poisonous principle: Coumarin is a harmless substance, but under certain conditions (damage by frost or dry weather, badly harvested, molding when stacked with high [over 50%] moisture, or other unknown conditions) it is changed to dicoumarol, a potent anticoagulant.

Parts of plant: Leaves, flowers, and fruit. The toxicity is retained by the plant for extended periods.

Animals poisoned: Cattle and sheep; continued exposure to hay or silage containing these plants may cause extensive internal
hemorrhages.

Description: Herbaceous perennial with one to many erect, simple stems from a woody
rootstock. Leaves
alternate, odd pinnately divided with 9-27
leaflets. Flowers clustered in a dense, terminal
raceme or panicle; yellow and pink or pale purple. Legume rounded
in cross-section and hairy.

Group number: 4. (Of minor importance). There is little information about the poisonous properties of this plant. There are reports of the wood and seeds being toxic; however, experiments by Duncan et al. (1955) did not indicate toxicity. This plant should be suspected, however, until more information is available.

Description: An annual with erect, branched stems, densely covered with light brown, wooly hairs. Leaves
alternate, petioled, simple, hairy, and with a smooth margin or nearly so. Flowers small, in short
racemes, the sexes in separate flowers, the female flowers at the lower part of the raceme and lacking
petals. Fruit a 3-lobed capsule, the seeds one in each lobe of the fruit.

Description: Herbaceous perennial or annual with
milky juice. Leaves
alternate, opposite, or
whorled. Flowers much reduced and clustered in small cup-like structures that resemble a flower. Fruit a 3-lobed
capsule on a long stalk protruding from the cup-like involucre. Many species are difficult for anyone but a specialist to identify. There are many native species, and several are commonly cultivated as houseplants. It is the houseplants, of course, that are most dangerous to pets.

Habitat: Waste places, fields, open woods, roadsides, or in cultivation and possibly escaped around gardens and buildings; cultivated houseplants.

Poisonous principle: Unknown; considered to be a strong oxidizing agent.

Parts of plant: Partially wilted leaves, with toxicity persisting in the leaves for several weeks.

Periodicity: Spring to fall.

Animals poisoned: Horses and ponies. One unconfirmed case in cattle.

Symptoms: Clinical signs are the direct results of methemoglobinemia.
Heinz-body anemia, and intravascular
hemolysis: weakness, polyuria,
tachycardia, depression,
icterus, cyanosis, and a brownish discoloration of blood and urine.
Proteinuria and
hemoglobinuria are consistent findings. Severe acute anemia results in the death of poisoned animals.
Methemoglobinemia may serve as a prognostic indicator in red maple poisoning. Animals found to have large number of
Heinz-bodies but low levels of methemoglobin warrant a fair
prognosis, whereas those with a small number of Heinz-bodies but high levels of methemoglobin warrant a poor to grave prognosis.

Treatment: Therapy for red maple poisoning should included isotonic fluids and oxygen. Blood transfusions are indicated in horses with clinical signs of
hypoxia. Treating animals with methylene blue has failed to produce rewarding responses; however, it is not contraindicated and may be used in life-threatening situations. Ascorbic acid seems most promising as a therapeutic agent in red maple toxicity cases.

Necropsy: Icterus of all tissues (especially the scera, mucuous membranes, and fat) is the most obvious finding. There is marked splenomegaly with hemosiderosis. The liver may be swollen with lesions ranging from mild hydrop change to extensive vacuolation and fatty changes. Kidneys are usually swollen and the
capsule dark with a metallic sheen. Pigmentary tabular
nephrosis and dark brown urine in the bladder are common. Lungs
edematous and congested with thrombosis of large and small pulmonary arteries.

Related plants:Aralia spinosa L.
(Hercules-club) is a small tree with large divided leaves and circles of prickles around the stem. The fruits and leaves are considered potentially poisonous.
Schefflera spp. (schefflera, starleaf,
Australian umbrella tree) is an evergreen tree or shrub commonly grown as a houseplant. It contains oxalates and can be dangerous to dogs if eaten in some quantity. Symptoms are vomiting,
ataxia, anorexia, and leucopenia.

Description: (Fig. 32) Perennial herb, 3-7 ft tall with clustered, short and thickened tuberous roots and
glabrous, purple-striped or -mottled stems that are hollow except for partitions at the nodes. The
rootstock exhibits several air cavities, separated by plate-like cross partitions of solid tissue, as seen in a cut lengthwise through the root at the base of the stem. Leaves
alternate, petioles clasping the stem, 2-3 pinnately compound, to 2 ft long, the
leaflets narrow and 1-4 in. long with serrate margins, the major veins ending at the notches between the teeth rather than in the tips of the teeth. Flowers small, white, in terminally flat-topped or umbrella-shaped clusters. Fruit small, dry, with corky ribs.

Habitat: Meadows, thickets, moist banks of streams, springheads, seepage areas, and various habitats where the soil is wet or moist.

Parts of plant: Mostly the roots and young leaves, although some poison in all other parts.

Periodicity: Spring -- this is one of the earliest plants to appear in the spring, at a time when other forage is scarce. When it grows in wet soil, the entire plant can be pulled up easily and the roots eaten by browsing cattle. A very small amount of the root can be fatal to livestock. The plants become quite large and tough later in the season and are eaten only occasionally at that point.

Animals poisoned: Cattle mostly, but also horses, sheep, and swine.

Symptoms: The symptoms follow this sequence: frothing at mouth, uneasiness, jerking of muscles, stiffening of muscles,
dilated pupils and rolling of eyes, periodic violent
spasms, slow and shallow breathing, dizziness, and convulsions, followed by death. Abortions in cows have been attributed to eating the tops of the older plants.

Treatment: Practically hopeless in most cases. Avoid heavy grazing in wet areas early in the spring. Some aid may come from intestinal evacuation followed by intestinal
astringents, and nerve and heart sedatives if the animal does not die within a short time. A veterinarian should be called as soon as possible.

Description: (Fig. 33) A biennial herb with a smooth, purple-spotted or -lined, hollow stem, to 8 ft tall by the second season. The taproot is solid and parsnip-like. Leaves large, 3-4 compound, the
leaflets very small. Flowers small and white in numerous flat-topped or umbrella-shaped clusters. The fruit is similar to that of
Cicuta.

Habitat: Wasteplaces, marshy areas, and various localities where the soil is fairly moist.

Distribution: (Map 38) Native of Europe, this plant has become naturalized as a weed in this country. Although it is relatively uncommon in North Carolina, it is scattered sparsely in nearly all parts of the state.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: The alkaloid lambda-coniceine (during early vegetative growth), coniine, and N-methyl coniine (in mature plants and seeds), which are most toxic; also conhydrine and pseudoconhydrine, which are less toxic. Coniine and coniceine are teratogenic.

Parts of plant: Leaves and unripe fruits.

Periodicity: Leaves most dangerous in the spring, and the fruits in the fall.

Description: (Fig. 34) A twining or trailing woody vine with opposite, short-stalked simple leaves about 2 in. long and with a smooth margin; more or less evergreen. Flowers in short axillary clusters;
corolla tubular, yellow, and fragrant, appearing in early spring. Fruit a flattened
capsule, less than 1 in. long, and usually with a short beak. Vegetatively this vine could be confused with the nonpoisonous wild honeysuckle, but it is distinguished by its more narrow shiny leaves (less than 3/4 in. wide) and tapered leaf apex. Honeysuckle leaves are usually over 3/4 in. wide at maturity, dull, and not nearly as pointed at the apex.

Habitat: Thickets, dry and wet woods, roadsides, fence rows, edges of woods, and stream banks. Trailing on the ground, or climbing in bushes, tall trees, or on fences.

Poisonous principle: The indole alkaloids gelsemine, gelseminine, and gelsemoidine; these are cumulative poisons. They are related to strychnine.

Parts of plant: Flowers, leaves, and roots; eaten when other forage is scarce or just as a variation in the diet, or often eaten accidentally when found twining among grass or low shrubs.

Animals poisoned: All livestock. One of the most dangerous in North Carolina. Young bees have been poisoned by nectar from the flowers.

Symptoms: Muscular weakness with prostration, slow breathing, subnormal temperature, dilation of pupils; later the animal develops convulsive movements of the head and legs, feeble pulse, and finally death due to
respiratory failure. Abortion in cows has been caused by animals eating the leaves. Turkeys develop "limp neck" from eating the bark from stems or roots.

Treatment: No good treatment is known, but morphine is said to be a specific
antidote. Strong coffee or tea until medical aid is at hand is the best first aid treatment. Control respiration and convulsions (relaxants and
sedatives). Glycine treatment may be helpful in convulsive cases.

Description: Perennial herb, 1-4 ft tall with milky juice. Leaves
opposite, simple, entire, and glabrous or nearly so. Flowers in clusters on the main axis or on axillary branches; fruit of two long and slender
follicles; seeds with a tuft of long silky hairs at the apex. The distinguishing characteristics of the two species, habitats, and distributions are described below.

Description: Woody shrub or small tree with narrow, evergreen and leathery leaves that are
opposite or whorled, 3-10 in. long and with smooth margins. Flowers white, pink, red, or yellow. All parts with a gummy clear sap.

Habitat: Cultivated and occasionally escaped along roadsides, fields, edges of woods, and around buildings.

Habitat and Distribution: There are a number of species of milkweeds found in various habitats throughout the state. Some are reported as poisonous and others are only suspected. Until definite information is at hand, all species should be under question.

Parts of plant: All parts, green or dried in hay. Toxicity decreases with maturity.

Animals poisoned: Sheep, cattle, horses, and poultry. Approximately 2% animal weight may be dangerous. Animals ordinarily do not eat these plants unless other forage is unavailable or the animal is confined to a milkweed-infested pasture.

Symptoms: Observed within few hours of ingestion of a toxic dose: dizziness,
mydriasis, depression, loss of muscular control and staggering, violent
spasms and convulsions, rapid and weak pulse, elevated temperature, difficulty in breathing, and
respiratory paralysis.

Poisonous principle: The tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine). The first of these is usually responsible for stock poisoning.

Parts of plant: All parts, particularly the seeds; 0.06%-0.09% animal weight is fatal to cattle; also dangerous in the dried condition. Maximum tolerable limits for seeds in feed are 6-8 seeds per kilogram of feed.

Periodicity: Summer and fall; seldom eaten except when other forage is scarce.

Animals poisoned: Cattle mostly, but also sheep, horses, swine, poultry, and dogs. Seeds should not be given to caged birds.

(Group number 2.) Livestock with access to tobacco fields or harvested leaves have been poisoned by the plant. Tobacco may also be dangerous to puppies and birds if they have access to cigarettes,
cigars, pipe tobacco, or chewing tobacco.
Nicotine is a very toxic alkaloid. The alkaloid anabasine is teratogenic in pigs (exposure days 10-35 of gestation):
arthrogryposis; cleft palate reported in cattle.

Description: (Fig. 40) Annual herbaceous weeds, 1-2 ft tall; dark green stems branched and spreading,
pubescent, not spiny. Leaves
alternate, pubescent below, entire to variously and deeply toothed. Fruit a black
berry. Although these two are very similar,
Solanum nigrum is a European species and is rare in North Carolina.

Habitat: Cultivated grounds and waste places.

Distribution: Scattered throughout the entire state.

Group number: 1. (Dangerous!)

Poisonous principle: Glycoalkaloids such as solanine.

Parts of plant: Leaves and especially the unripe (green) fruit.

Periodicity: Spring, summer, and fall.

Animals poisoned: Livestock and pets.

Symptoms: Gastrointestinal and nervous signs. Narcosis and paralysis, depression,
salivation,
dilated pupils, vomiting, diarrhea, stimulation of the nervous system followed by depression; the toxicity seems to vary with the soil type, climate, and the season of the year. Death from
respiratory paralysis.

Treatment: Atropine and prompt-acting laxative; pilocarpine.
Respiratory and skeletal muscle relaxants may be of value.

Lantana, particularly
L. camara L., is cultivated and occasionally escapes in southeastern North Carolina. Although usually not eaten, or not available to livestock, it is poisonous to cattle and sheep at about 1% of body weight. Livestock should not have access to living plants or clippings. The triterpenoids lantadene A and B cause cholistasis (hepatic pathology) and secondary photosensitization.

Ligustrum spp. (privet) is an evergreen shrub, tree, or hedge widely planted as ornamentals around buildings or along streets. It has escaped cultivation to low, moist woods and waste places throughout North Carolina. Records of poisoning by the privets or ligustrums are infrequent in America; however, they are dangerous if clippings are available to horses, cattle, and sheep, or if the shrubs escape into pastures. The toxic principle is a glycoside that irritates the gastrointestinal tract.

Symptoms:Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, exhaustion,
salivation, sluggishness or prostration, dilation of pupils,
stupor,
coma, convulsions, and death. The alkaloids resemble nicotine and coniine in their actions. These are used medicinally in the treatment of laryngitis and asthma; overdoses act as
narcotic poisons.

Description: (Fig. 43) A deciduous shrub or small tree. Leaves opposite or
whorled, somewhat thin, and with short petioles. Flowers in globose heads arranged in round-topped terminal clusters.
Corolla white with a long tube and four lobes. Fruit in a globose head.

Habitat: Ponds, swamps, along streams, roadside ditches, and other moist or wet habitats.

Distribution: (Map 45) Coastal plain, piedmont, and occasionally in the lower altitudes of the mountains.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Glycosides.

Parts of plant: Mostly the leaves.

Periodicity: Summer and fall.

Animals poisoned: Cattle and horses, but they seldom eat this plant. Grazed safely by some wildlife.

Description: Shrubs with soft wood and a large pith; long internodes. Leaves deciduous,
opposite, pinnately divided with 5-11 leaflets which are toothed on the margin. Flowers white in large terminal clusters. Fruit berry-like and juicy. Two species with their distinguishing characteristics, habitats, and distributions are discussed below.

Flowers in large ovoid-clusters; fruit mostly red; pith brown. Found in rich woods of the high mountains
(Map 46).

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Possibly an alkaloid and glycoside; small amounts of prussic acid are produced under certain conditions.

Parts of plant: Leaves, opening buds, and young shoots, bark, and roots; the cooked berries are commonly eaten and not poisonous; the fruit and flowers are often used in wine making and are not poisonous in this form.

Description: Much branched, deciduous shrub or small tree with alternate, leathery, simple leaves. Flowers in small heads; the sexes on different plants. Mature fruits with silvery white tufts of hairs on the summit. The species, with habitats and distributions, are described below.

Leaves elliptic to broadly inverted pear-shaped, usually with a few coarse teeth above the middle, not resinous dotted; flower heads in
sessile or nearly sessile axillary clusters. Found in salt marshes and low ground near the coast; rare, in southeastern North Carolina.
(Map 47).

Leaves elliptic to broadly inverted pear-shaped, usually with a few coarse teeth above the middle, resinous dotted; flower heads in
panicle-like clusters usually beyond the leaves
(Fig. 45). Found in salt marshes along the coast, and inland usually along roads, or in open fields and woods and edges of woods; common in the coastal plain and rapidly becoming abundant in certain localities of the piedmont to the foothills of the mountains
(Map 48).

Group number: 2-3. (Dangerous, but uncommon or rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Cardioactive glycoside.

Parts of plant: Leaves and flowers.

Periodicity: Spring, when young leaves and shoots are tender.

Animals poisoned: Cattle, ponies, poultry, and sheep. One of our most dangerous.

Symptoms: Prostration, trembling, gastrointestinal problems, convulsions. Death if eaten in large enough quantity.

Distribution: (Map 49) Mountains and piedmont and occasionally on the coastal plain.

Group number: 1. (Dangerous!)

Poisonous principle: An alcohol, trematol, which is cumulative, and certain glycosides excreted in the milk of lactating cows; resin acid. Daily ingestion is necessary for toxicity.

Parts of plant: All parts, green or dried.

Periodicity: Late summer and fall when palatable forage is scarce.

Animals poisoned: Cattle, sheep, hogs, horses, mules, and goats. Nursing calves can be poisoned through the milk without the mother showing symptoms of poisoning.

Symptoms: Weakness and trembling increasing with exercise, quickened and labored respiration, and a pungent odor to the breath. Death is delayed in cattle, and may come within 2-3 days for horses. "Milk-sickness" was a major problem around the late 1800's and early 1900's.

Treatment: Nutrients and fluids. Some relief is obtained from heart and
respiratory stimulants and
cathartics. Lactating animals should be milked and the milk thrown away.

Necropsy: Congestion and fatty degeneration of the liver and kidney; subepicardial and myocardial
hemorrhages and (in horses) gray streaks in mycocardium; evidence of ketosis.

Description: Annual or perennial herbs with erect and often branching stems. Leaves
alternate, simple, glandular dotted, sessile, and numerous. Flowers yellow, in heads, ray
corollas present; the heads several to numerous in a leafy, rounded cluster at the top of the plant. Two species are common:

Necropsy: Irriation of stomach or abomasum, congestion of liver and slight
nephrosis; toxic hepatitis; degeneration of kidney tubules and presence of tubular casts after 48 hours; cirrhosis of liver in pigs in chronic cases; hypoglycemia;
hemorrhages in the heart.

Description: Perennial herb; glabrous, with tufted narrow leaves, 6-10 in. long; flowers inconspicuous on a stalk the height of the leaves. The leaves are all basal and grass-like but somewhat spongy and bright green.

Symptoms: Abnormal breathing, trembling and jerking of muscles; spasms or convulsions may develop and continue at short intervals until death due to
respiratory failure
(anoxia). The progression of symptoms is very rapid.

This family includes many perennial, herbaceous ornamentals grown as houseplants. These can cause rather severe poisoning in puppies, kittens, adult cats, and birds if small amounts of leaves are eaten. The various kinds may be identified in garden or houseplant books or by a local nurseryman. The commonly grown types are:

Treatment: Remove from grass. Treat locally in some cases (fescue foot). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and reserpine have been beneficial in treating
agalactia (horses). Remove pregnant mares from fescue pasture or hay during last 90 days of gestation.

Description: Pale green, smooth, annual grass that is erect and often in clumps, reaching to 3 ft tall.
Spikeletssessile, alternate, in a stiff, terminal, and erect spike. Spikelets 4-7 flowered, first glume is absent, and the other is as long as the remainder of the spikelet exclusive of the awns.

Habitat: Grain fields and waste places.

Distribution: (Map 52) Occasional in the piedmont. This grass is an introduction from Europe.

Group number: 3. (Dangerous, but uncommon)

Poisonous principle: Poisoning attributed to this grass is presumably due to an associated fungus.

Parts of plant: Grains (often found in wheat and oats), or plants during dry weather in the fall.

Habitat: Open ground, roadsides, fields, and waste places. This grass is a native of Europe but has become well established as a weed in the state.

Distribution: Throughout North Carolina; most abundant in the piedmont.

Group number: 2. (Dangerous, but rarely eaten)

Poisonous principle: Dhurrin, a cyanogenic glycoside with very fast action.

Parts of plant: Leaves and stems, green or wilted. Concentrations necessary to cause harm vary with environmental conditions and age of plant parts.

Periodicity: Summer and fall; dangerous during dry weather or after frost, drought, or high temperature; second growth plants are particularly dangerous. Under normal conditions this grass furnishes good forage.

Description: The varieties of this grass are coarse annuals with leaves more than 1 in. wide; large, terminal, dense
panicle of pairs of small spikelets, one
sessile and fertile and the other stalked and sterile but well developed, each with one
floret.

Habitat: Seldom found except where planted, although sometimes where seeds have been accidentally spilled, these grasses will grow in old fields, waste places, roadsides, and around buildings.

Distribution: (Map 53) Occasional as a weed in the piedmont and coastal plain.

Related plants:Lophiola aurea Ker-Gawl. (L. americana(Pursh) A. Wood) - Goldcrest. (Group 4). This plant is similar to the preceding, but has 6
stamens and the rootstock is not red. It is abundant locally in moist fields and open pinelands in the southeastern coastal plain and is possibly poisonous.

The wild or cultivated onions and wild (field) garlic are common. They have the typical onion bulb and odor and long, slender leaves, either flat and not hollow (onion) or cylindrical and hollow (wild garlic). These cause red blood cell
hemolysis and anemia in livestock and dogs.

Description: (Fig. 52) Herbaceous perennial to 3 ft tall with simple, erect,
glabrous stems from a bulb. Leaves mostly basal, long and 1/2 to 1 in. wide. Flowers white, in a dense terminal
raceme; sepals and
petals without glands at the base. Fruit a
capsule, 3-lobed and 3-horned at the apex; many seeded. The bracts at the base of the flower
pedicels are short and broad.

Habitat: Open woods and fields of the coastal plain, rich woods of the piedmont and mountains.

Distribution: Entire state.

Group number: 1. (Dangerous!)

Poisonous principle: Alkaloids, which are cumulative.

Parts of plant: Fruit, leaves, and bulb. The highest concentration of the alkaloids is found in the bulb.

Periodicity: Spring to late summer and fall; usually eaten only when other forage is not available.

Description: Herbaceous perennials to 4 ft tall, from a thick
rootstock; leaves mostly basal, the
blades rather long and narrow. Flowers in terminal
panicles, the stem pubescent;
sepals and petals with 2 glands at the base on the upper side. Fruit 3-lobed and somewhat inflated, the seeds flat and winged.

Symptoms:Salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pains, muscular weakness, difficulty in walking, general paralysis,
spasms; later followed by shallow breathing, slow pulse, low temperature,
convulsions, and death from
asphyxia. Death is rare because a large dose of the poison is required. Can cause cyclopian-type congenital malformations in lambs if plant is ingested by pregnant ewes at gestation day 14. Other malformations can occur when the animal is exposed to the plants later in gestation.

Treatment: Heart and respiratorystimulants, gastric and nervous sedatives; quiet should be enforced. Remove from source for rapid recovery. Epinephrine is contraindicated.

Description: Perennial herbs from a thick, horizontal
rootstock, to 3 ft tall; stems smooth, leafy, but leaves mostly basal,
blades linear; flowers in terminal racemes, or
panicles, white or cream, the perianth parts with one or two glands at the base on upper side.

Habitat: Open boggy areas on the coastal plain; slopes and cliffs in the mountains.

Parts of plant: Leaves, stems, flowers, seeds; fresh or dried. Seeds are most toxic. Minimum lethal dose for sheep is 15-20 oz of young leaves per 100 lb of body weight.

Periodicity: Summer.

Animals poisoned: Sheep, cattle, and horses.

Symptoms: There is a several-hour latent period after ingestion. Symptoms include
salivation, nausea, vomiting, lowered temperature, staggering or complete prostration, difficult breathing, sometimes
coma of various lengths, followed by death due to anoxic heart failure.

Description: Herbaceous perennial from a large bulb; leaves basal; flowers 3 or fewer in an
umbel; white with 6 petal-like segments and 6
stamens fastened to the perianth segments and connected by a thin white webbing; ovary at the base of a short periath tube; fruit a 1-3 seeded
capsule.

Habitat: Shallow streams, drainage ditches, and marshes.

Distribution: (Map 60) Fairly common in the southeastern coastal plain.

The irises, cultivated throughout the state and native in the coastal plain, contain irisin, an
acrid resinous substance that can cause poisoning if eaten in quanitity. These plants, however, are rarely eaten by livestock.

The corms and seeds can be dangerous to pets. They contain the very toxic alkaloid colchicine, a mitotic poison. Cumulative and excreted in the milk. Toxicity is characterized by difficulty in swallowing, abdominal pain, profuse vomiting, and bloody
diarrhea, shock, and collapse. Death from
respiratory failure.