WHAT FEMINISTS HAVE TO LOSE IN SAME-SEX MARRIAGE LITIGATION

Transcription

1 WHAT FEMINISTS HAVE TO LOSE IN SAME-SEX MARRIAGE LITIGATION Mary Anne Case * This Article highlights both the rewards in accepting and the risks in rejecting a claim of sex discrimination as one constitutional basis for invalidating restrictions on marriage for same-sex couples. It argues that recognition of same-sex marriage and elimination of enforced sex roles are as inextricably intertwined as the duck is with the rabbit in the famous optical illusion. As the Article demonstrates, this has long been clear to opponents, from the pope to David Blankenhorn, but needs to become as clear to proponents and to judges deciding same-sex marriage cases if we are to preserve and extend the liberty and equality of all regardless of sex or orientation. The Article begins by suggesting some advantages of thin over thick definitions of both sex and marriage in law. Through a review, first of landmark U.S. Supreme Court sex discrimination cases concerning the law of marriage and then of state constitutional same-sex marriage litigation from the 1970s to the present, it goes on to demonstrate, on the bright side, that opening marriage to same-sex couples would eliminate the last vestige of sex stereotyping from the law of marriage and complete the law s evolution away from legally enforced sex-role differentiated inegalitarian marriage, with a resulting benefit to persons of all orientations. On the dark side, however, it also demonstrates that to insist, as some state judges have done, that denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples does not discriminate on the basis of sex because neither the class of women nor the class of men is singled out for disadvantageous treatment is a repudiation, not only of the entire body of U.S. Supreme Court sex discrimination law of the last forty years, but of more general fundamental principles of U.S. equal protection law established for a century. Even * Arnold I. Shure Professor of Law, University of Chicago Law School. I am grateful to Nan Hunter and Brad Sears of the Williams Institute for the heroic work they did putting this symposium issue together; to Susan Appleton, Sylvia Law, and Shannon Minter for extensive comments on drafts; to Mary Bonauto, Mary Anne Franks, Suzanne Goldberg, Frederick Hertz, Denise Johnson, Joette Katz, Bob Smith, and Todd Preuss for helpful conversations; to Lyo Louis-Jacques, Deborah Megdal, Margaret Schilt, Emily Wood, and especially Shawn Kravich for research assistance; and to UCLA s Williams Institute, Princeton University s Crane Fellowship, and the University of Chicago s Arnold and Frieda Shure Research Fund for funding. Portions of this Article were delivered, not only at the UCLA Law Review-Williams Institute Conference on Sexuality and Gender Law, but at the University of Chicago Gender Studies 2010 Iris Young Distinguished Faculty Lecture, at Queen s University s International Conference on Feminist Constitutionalism, at the University of Vermont s conference on The Law and Politics of Marriage Equality: Vermont, the Nation, and the World, and at the University of Minnesota Institute for Law and Rationality s Meeting of the Minds. I am also grateful to organizers and participants in these events, particularly Bev Baines, Jane Dailey, Claire Hill, and Felicia Kornbluh. 1199

2 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) more ominously, some state judges have justified the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage by relying on exactly the sort of fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females settled understandings of federal constitutional sex equality mandate they repudiate. Not only gays and lesbians, but heterosexual women from a feminist perspective are the losers when marriage is (p)reserved for heterosexual couples because of and not in spite of its traditions, traditions that include sex-role differentiation and female subordination. The Article ends with an examination of the many opportunities Ted Olson and David Boies missed to highlight the sex discrimination argument in the trial of Perry v. Schwarzenegger and with some speculation as to why the two have so far failed to make the strong case they could have in support of the proposition that denial of marriage to same-sex couples is unconstitutional discrimination on the basis of sex. INTRODUCTION I. THE LIBERATORY ADVANTAGES OF THIN DEFINITIONS OF MARRIAGE AND OF SEX IN THE LAW II. WHAT GENDER MEANS TO THE U.S. SUPREME COURT AND TO THE VATICAN (OR TO RUTH BADER GINSBURG AND TO JOSEPH RATZINGER) III. HOW SEX EQUALITY JURISPRUDENCE TRANSFORMED MARRIAGE UNDER U.S. LAW IV. SEX DISCRIMINATION CLAIMS AND SAME-SEX MARRIAGE IN THE 1970S V. THE SECOND WAVE OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE LITIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES VI. PERRY V. SCHWARZENEGGER AS RISK AND OPPORTUNITY FOR FEMINISTS CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION For several years now, at a time when so many different religious fundamentalisms have come to the fore to demand legal recognition, I have sought to vindicate what I call feminist fundamentalism, defined as an uncompromising commitment to the equality of the sexes as intense and at least as worthy of respect as, for example, a religiously or culturally based commitment to female subordination or fixed sex roles. 1 As I have argued, both individuals and nation states can have feminist fundamentalist commitments that, like 1. See, e.g., Mary Anne Case, Feminist Fundamentalism and Constitutional Citizenship, in DIMENSIONS OF WOMEN S EQUAL CITIZENSHIP 107 (Joanna Grossman & Linda McClain eds., 2009) [hereinafter Case, Fundamentalism and Citizenship]; Mary Anne Case, Feminist Fundamentalism on the Frontier Between Government and Family Responsibility for Children, 2009 UTAH L. REV. 381; Mary Anne Case, Perfectionism and Fundamentalism in the Application of the German Abortion Laws, in CONSTITUTING EQUALITY: GENDER EQUALITY AND COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 93 (Susan Williams ed., 2009).

3 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1201 the religious commitments to which they can fruitfully be analogized, may differ somewhat in content as well as in character. While all feminists repudiate female subordination, for example, some may seek equality in separate spheres, while others insist instead that fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females 2 are anathema. 3 Although in the late-twentieth century feminist fundamentalist commitments of the latter kind were central to the constitutionalization of the law of marriage in the United States and elsewhere, more recent disputes at the intersection of constitutional and family law in Western constitutional democracies have foregrounded other concerns, including sexual orientation nondiscrimination and religious liberty. In this Article, I propose to analyze what a feminist fundamentalist perspective might bring to one of these ongoing disputes, the question of whether samesex couples have a constitutional right to marry. Taking the bulk of my examples from state constitutional cases in the United States, I shall argue that to reject a constitutional prohibition on sex discrimination as one basis for invalidating restrictions on same-sex marriage has broader adverse consequences for the sexual liberty and equality of all individuals, particularly but not exclusively for heterosexual women from a feminist perspective. As I shall explain, in part because an explicitly feminist perspective has been underrepresented and undervalued in the same-sex marriage debates, 4 heterosexual feminist couples, including but not limited to those who resist marriage from a feminist perspective, are among the losers in recent U.S. state constitutional decisions concerning same-sex couples. They lose whether they live in a state like New York, whose high court has now said that marriage can be reserved for them in order to inculcate traditional sex roles; 5 or a state like California, whose pre Proposition 8 6 state supreme court decision opening 2. Miss. Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 725 (1982). 3. The repudiation of such stereotyped notions as a basis for law has become the orthodox view of constitutional sex equality guarantees as articulated by the U.S. Supreme Court under the U.S. Constitution since the 1970s. See Mary Anne Case, The Very Stereotype the Law Condemns : Constitutional Sex Discrimination Law as a Quest for Perfect Proxies, 85 CORNELL L. REV. 1447, (2000). 4. Susan Frelich Appleton s Missing in Action? Searching for Gender Talk in the Same-Sex Marriage Debate, 16 STAN. L. & POL Y REV. 97 (2005), focuses on the absence of what she calls gender talk in the public debates on same-sex marriage. My focus will instead be on the effect of its underrepresentation in the case law. See also Deborah A. Widiss et al., Exposing Sex Stereotypes in Recent Same-Sex Marriage Jurisprudence, 30 HARV. J.L. & GENDER 461, 501 (2007) (analyzing the use of sex discrimination arguments in recent same-sex marriage cases in an effort to explain and correct for their lack of success). 5. See discussion infra Part V of Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1, 7 (N.Y. 2006) ( Intuition and experience suggest that a child benefits from having before his or her eyes, every day, living models of what both a man and a woman are like. ). 6. Proposition 8 is the ballot designation for the state constitutional amendment, passed by referendum of California voters in November 2008, adding to the California Constitution the provision Only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in California. Strauss v. Horton,

4 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) marriage to all went out of its way to reject the claim that sex discrimination was at issue in the state s prior exclusion of same-sex couples; 7 even, perhaps especially, if they live in states that have vindicated the claims of gay and lesbian couples for recognition of their relationships under another name, but have allowed marriage to be (p)reserved or at least the name of marriage to be (p)reserved for heterosexual couples because of, not merely in spite of 8 its traditions. 9 The traditions of marriage, including its legal traditions, are anything but free of fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females, also anything but free of female subordination. This is not to say that civil marriage today need be a prisoner of its restrictive and subordinating traditions, only that by explicitly continuing, because of its traditions, to limit marriage to male-female couples, the law so imprisons it and the couples who enter it. To grant civil marriage licenses to couples regardless of their sex would be to eliminate the last vestige of sex stereotyping from the law of marriage in the United States. It would complete the evolution away from sex-role differentiated, inegalitarian marriage law that began with nineteenth-century efforts to ameliorate the effects of coverture and continued in legislative reform and constitutional adjudication through the last third of the twentieth century. As feminist theorists have insisted for decades, 10 this 207 P.3d 48, (Cal. 2009) (upholding Proposition 8 as a permissible constitutional amendment). The passage of Proposition 8 overturned that portion of the California Supreme Court s earlier ruling opening marriage in California to same-sex couples. See In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008). 7. Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d at Even if it had wanted to make clear that heightened scrutiny for sexual orientation, rather than sex discrimination or substantive due process, was the basis for its decision in the Marriage Cases, the California Supreme Court majority could have done as the Iowa or the Connecticut Supreme Court did and simply declined to reach the sex discrimination claim instead of gratuitously rejecting it. See infra Part V. 8. I take this language, of course, from Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney, 442 U.S. 256, 279 (1979) (requiring discriminatory intent as well as disparate impact for claims of violation of equal protection on grounds of sex). 9. See infra Part V. For further discussion, see Mary Anne Case, What Stake Do Heterosexual Women Have in the Same-Sex Marriage/Domestic Partnership/Civil Union Debates? (unpublished manuscript, on file with the author). 10. See, e.g., Sylvia Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187, 218 ( Gay people and feminists violate conservative ideology of family in many ways.... [W]hen homosexual people build relations of caring and commitment, they deny the traditional belief and prescription that stable relations require the hierarchy and reciprocity of male/female polarity. ); SUSAN MOLLER OKIN, JUSTICE, GENDER AND THE FAMILY 140 (1989) ( It seems evident... from the disagreements between traditionalists and feminists... that there exists no clear current consensus in this society about what marriage is or should be.... By contrast, the lack of expectations about gender, and the lack of history of the institution of marriage, allow gay and lesbian couples more freedom in ordering their lives together and more chance to do so in an egalitarian manner. ); Nan D. Hunter, Marriage, Law and Gender: A Feminist Inquiry, 1 LAW & SEXUALITY 9, 17 (1991) ( Same-sex marriage could create the model in law for an egalitarian kind of interpersonal relation, outside the gendered terms of power, for many marriages. At the least, it would radically strengthen and dramatically illuminate the claim that marriage partners are presumptively equal. ).

5 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1203 would have benefits, not only for gay and lesbian couples, but for all who value liberty and equality on the basis of sex. I. THE LIBERATORY ADVANTAGES OF THIN DEFINITIONS OF MARRIAGE AND OF SEX IN THE LAW It has long been my claim that the greatest liberatory potential, from both a feminist and a queer perspective, 11 lies in an extremely thin, rather than in any thicker, definition of both sex and marriage in the law. With respect to marriage, I make the claim as a matter of contingent historical fact, rather than as a purely theoretical matter. As I have argued since 1993, [m]arried couples in this society are not required to do the rather conservative things courts and regulators typically require of unmarried couples, whether of the same or of opposite sexes, as a condition for relationship recognition: A marriage certificate now allows heterosexual couples to have an open marriage, to live in different cities or in different apartments in the same city, to structure their finances as they please, without having their commitment or the legal benefits that follow from it challenged. 12 By contrast: The requirements of actual cohabitation in a shared residence and commingled finances are quite typical of most domestic partner registries. Ascriptive or functional recognition schemes may also weigh additional requirements, such as that a couple be monogamous or be known as a couple to family and neighbors. Which is a greater restriction on my ability freely to structure my life with my partner the requirement that I must marry that partner and on rare occasions produce the marriage license to third parties, or the requirement that we must reside together, be sexually faithful to one another, commingle our finances, hold ourselves out to the world as a couple, and provide to third parties the details of how we live our lives, as domestic partnership ordinances and judicially enforced functional family definitions often require? But for the lingering cloud of repressive history hanging over marriage, it would be clear that marriage today provides far more license, and has the potential to be far more flexible, liberatory, and egalitarian than most available alternatives Or, to put it in terms that are outdated, but still attractive to me, from the perspective of both women s liberation and gay liberation. 12. Mary Anne Case, Couples and Coupling in the Public Sphere: A Comment on the Legal History of Litigating for Lesbian and Gay Rights, 79 VA. L. REV. 1643, (1993). 13. Mary Anne Case, Marriage Licenses, 89 MINN. L. REV. 1758, 1774 (2005).

6 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) Not only does the law tend to impose more restrictive behaviors, such as commingled finances and shared residence, on registered domestic partners than on married spouses, it even on occasion requires of such domestic partners specific affective intentions not required as a condition of marriage. Thus, for example, California law defines domestic partners as two adults who have chosen to share one another s lives in an intimate and committed relationship of mutual caring. 14 By contrast, marriage is defined simply as a personal relation arising out of a civil contract between a man and a woman, 15 and those eligible to marry are described simply as an unmarried male... and an unmarried female of the age of 18 years or older, and not otherwise disqualified. 16 It is not my intention to sneer at intimate and committed relationship[s] of mutual caring. I simply wish to point out that anyone concerned about state interference with and control over the details of adult consensual relationships, whether from a feminist, libertarian, or queer perspective, may find that the existing laws governing marriage are not the most worrisome or restrictive. In its evolution to a point of extreme thinness, the law of marriage can fruitfully be analogized to the law of business corporations, as I have also long argued. 17 Like corporate status, civil marriage today serves as an off-the-rack rule. Its principal legal function, at least while the relationship is ongoing, may not be to structure relations between the members of the marital couple, but instead to structure their relations with third parties; to license not just a select group of worthy activities or individuals, but almost anyone to do almost anything otherwise legally permissible. 18 Recently, gay rights advocates in same-sex marriage cases have tended to emphasize a much thicker view of marriage, for example by denigrating registered domestic partnership as feeling like no more than a business-like filling out of forms and sorting out of legalities, which lacks the uplifting and validating symbolic meaning and social approval of marriage. 19 It is, however, no accident, in my view, that the one judge in the Vermont same-sex marriage case who thought that the only appropriate remedy was immediate access to civil marriage for same-sex couples, rather than legislative elaboration of an alternative legal status for them, was the judge who took the thinnest possible view of legal marriage. According to Justice Denise Johnson: 14. CAL. FAM. CODE 297(a) (Deering 1994). 15. CAL. FAM. CODE 300 (Deering 1994). 16. CAL. FAM. CODE 301 (Deering 1994). 17. See, e.g., Case, supra note 13, at Id. at See, e.g., Plaintiffs and Plaintiff-Intervenor s Annotated Amended Proposed Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law at 63 66, Perry v. Schwarzenegger, No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (N.D. Cal. argued Jan. 11, 2010).

7 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1205 This case concerns the secular licensing of marriage. The State s interest in licensing marriages is regulatory in nature.... The regulatory purpose of the licensing scheme is to create public records for the orderly allocation of benefits, imposition of obligations, and distribution of property through inheritance. Thus, a marriage license merely acts as a trigger for state-conferred benefits. In granting a marriage license, the State is not espousing certain morals, lifestyles, or relationships, but only identifying those persons entitled to the benefits of the marital status. 20 As I will discuss below, Justice Johnson was also the only judge in the Vermont case to hold that sex discrimination was at stake in the denial of a marriage license to two persons of the same sex. Thus, a thin view of legal marriage and a thin view of legal sex came together in an opinion that most fully vindicated the rights of persons of all sexes and orientations. There are many reasons, therefore, why, in my view, Justice Johnson s is by far the best to date of the many judicial opinions written on the constitutional question of same-sex marriage. For about as long as I have been touting the descriptive accuracy and normative advantages of a thin view of marriage in the law, I have been doing the same for a thin view of the legal meaning of sex. 21 This thin view reduces legal sex in the sense of legal designation as male or female to little more than the basis for a claim of discrimination, allowing a plaintiff, whether in a statutory or a constitutional case, to prevail by showing that the plaintiff s legal sex is a but-for cause of the treatment of which plaintiff complains. As will be discussed further below, as articulated by the U.S. Supreme Court, this thin view of legal sex is at the core of the constitutional prohibition on embodying in law any fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females. 22 It is also at the core of the Court s interpretation of statutes such as Title VII to strike at the entire spectrum of disparate treatment of men and women resulting from sex stereotypes. 23 Just as a thin view of civil marriage makes it a legal shell that couples can fill with their own normative meaning and internal structure, a thin view of legal sex is normatively appealing in no small part because of its liberatory 20. Baker v. Vermont, 744 A.2d 864, (Vt. 1999) (Johnson, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (internal citations omitted). 21. See generally Mary Anne Case, Disaggregating Gender From Sex and Sexual Orientation: The Effeminate Man in the Law and Feminist Jurisprudence, 105 YALE L.J. 1 (1995) [hereinafter Case, Disaggregating]; Mary Anne Case, Two Cheers for Cheerleading: The Noisy Integration of VMI and the Quiet Success of Virginia Women in Leadership, 1999 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 347; Mary Anne Case, Unpacking Package Deals: Separate Spheres Are Not the Answer, 75 DENV. U. L. REV (1998) [hereinafter Case, Unpacking]; Case, supra note 3, at Miss. Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 725 (1982). 23. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228, 251 (1989).

8 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) potential for gender expression 24 : It opens the possibility of legal protection to gender benders of all stripes, regardless of their sex; regardless of whether they can or do make an identitarian claim as transgendered, transsexual, or even gay; and regardless of how mild or how extreme, how occasional or how systematic, their transgression of conventional gender norms may be. II. WHAT GENDER MEANS TO THE U.S. SUPREME COURT AND TO THE VATICAN (OR TO RUTH BADER GINSBURG AND TO JOSEPH RATZINGER) When I speak of gender expression herein, I am, of course, using the term gender to refer to qualities coded masculine or feminine, qualities whose treatment is sometimes inflected by, and sometimes irrespective of, whether the person exhibiting those qualities is male or female. 25 Confusingly, however, both statutes and case law in the United States have for the last several decades tended to use the words sex and gender interchangeably, creating what I have argued is an unfortunate terminological gap. Given that the subject of the panel for which this Article was written is The Many Meanings of Gender, it is particularly appropriate for me to highlight here yet again my agreement with Justice Scalia that it is to be regretted that the terms gender and sex have become interchangeable in the law because in other domains than the law the word gender has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male. 26 I do not agree with Scalia on much to do with the law of sex and gender, but am usually in agreement on such matters with Ruth Bader Ginsburg. It thus presents somewhat of a paradox that Ginsburg is the person most responsible for the interchangeability of the terms sex and gender in American law. While a litigator for the ACLU Women s Rights Project, Ginsburg was enormously influential in the development of the U.S. constitutional law of equal protection on grounds of sex. 27 But she worried that for impressionable minds 24. Of course, for both sex and marriage, the law is not the only source of constraint societal expectations and norms, whether or not backed by the force of law, can restrict and impose conformity on both individuals and married couples. 25. For a detailed explanation, see Case, Disaggregating, supra note J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B., 511 U.S. 127, 157 n.1 (1994) (Scalia, J., dissenting). For further discussion see Case, Disaggregating, supra note 21, at See Case, supra note 3, at 1450 (arguing that [a]ll of the moving parts of the present law are fully articulated in her brief for the appellant in Reed v. Reed, although it took until the second

9 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1207 the word sex may conjure up improper images of what occurs in porn theaters, 28 so, following the suggestion of her secretary, she began to substitute the word gender, 29 which by contrast, has a neutral, clinical tone that may ward off distracting associations. 30 Although her terminology differs from mine, the normative view Ginsburg has long advocated is one with which I am in full accord: If for Ginsburg gender means sex in the law, it also means that on the basis of which the law should not impose restrictions based on stereotype, should not pigeonhole in lieu of functional description. 31 As the author of the majority opinion in United States v. Virginia, 32 Ginsburg was able to affirm as a justice what she had first endorsed as an advocate and scholar decades earlier: that men and women should be given the same rights, obligations and work assignments in society... [and] that nobody should be forced into a predetermined role on account of sex, but each person should be given... possibilities to develop his or her personal talents. 33 As the next Part of this Article will discuss, Ginsburg s opposition to fixed sex roles, a view she succeeded as an advocate in enshrining in constitutional law, fully extended to the family and the law of marriage. First, however, I want to bring into the discussion another perspective on the many meanings of gender, one that has much in common with that of Ginsburg and the Supreme Court as a descriptive matter, but gives it a diametrically opposite normative valence. Whereas, thanks in no small part to Ginsburg, the Supreme Court now sees legally enforced fixed sex roles, in marriage and elsewhere, as a threat to the full dignity and personhood of both men and women, the Vatican, thanks in no small part to Joseph Ratzinger (aka Pope Benedict XVI), now sees any move away from legal enforcement of fixed sex roles, especially when it comes to marriage and the family, as a threat to the natural order comparable to the destruction of the rainforest and entailing the self-destruction of man himself. 34 modern constitutional sex discrimination case, Frontiero v. Richardson, which Ginsburg argued for the ACLU as amicus curiae, for members of the Court explicitly to adopt them ). 28. Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Gender in the Supreme Court: The 1973 and 1974 Terms, 1975 SUP. CT. REV. 1, 1 n Ernie Freda, Washington in Brief: A Lesson in Semantics, ATLANTA J. & CONST., Dec. 29, 1993, at A Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Gender and the Constitution, 44 U. CIN. L. REV. 1, 1 (1975). 31. Id. at U.S. 515 (1996). See infra Part V for further discussion. 33. Ginsburg, supra note 30, at 1 (quoting address by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, Women s National Democratic Club, Washington, D.C., June 8, 1970). 34. See Pope Benedict XVI, Address of His Holiness Benedict XVI to the Members of the Roman Curia for the Traditional Exchange of Christmas Greetings (Dec. 22, 2008), available at

10 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) Like Ginsburg as a Supreme Court justice, Ratzinger as pope is now able to put more authority behind a normative take on gender for which he had long been arguing. Before becoming pope, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger was the head of the Roman Catholic Church s Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, previously known as the Holy Inquisition. In this capacity, he issued a 2004 Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Collaboration of Men and Women in the Church and in the World 35 in which he warned: Recent years have seen new approaches to women s issues. A first tendency is to emphasize strongly conditions of subordination.... A second tendency emerges in the wake of the first. In order to avoid the domination of one sex or the other, their differences tend to be denied, viewed as mere effects of historical and cultural conditioning. In this perspective, physical difference, termed sex, is minimized, while the purely cultural element, termed gender, is emphasized to the maximum and held to be primary. The obscuring of the difference or duality of the sexes has enormous consequences on a variety of levels. This theory of the human person, intended to promote prospects for equality of women through liberation from biological determinism, has in reality inspired ideologies which, for example, call into question the family, in its natural two-parent structure of mother and father, and make homosexuality and heterosexuality virtually equivalent, in a new model of polymorphous sexuality. While the immediate roots of this second tendency are found in the context of reflection on women s roles, its deeper motivation must be sought in the human attempt to be freed from one s biological conditioning. According to this perspective, human nature in itself does not possess characteristics in an absolute manner: all persons can and ought to constitute themselves as they like, since they are free from every predetermination linked to their essential constitution. I introduce this official Vatican view on the many meanings of gender at this point in my discussion of the relationship between the development of the law of sex discrimination and that of same-sex marriage because I think it spe_ _curia-romana_en.html ( If the Church speaks of the nature of the human being as man and woman, and demands that this order of creation be respected, this is not some antiquated metaphysics. What is involved here is... a readiness to listen to the language of creation. To disregard this would be the self-destruction of man himself.... What is often expressed and understood by the term gender ultimately ends up being man s attempt at self-emancipation from creation and the Creator.... Rain forests deserve indeed to be protected, but no less so does man, as a creature having an innate message which does not contradict our freedom, but is instead its very premise. ). 35. Letter From Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, Prefect, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Collaboration of Men and Women in the Church and in the World (May 31, 2004), available at cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_ _collaboration_en.html.

11 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1209 is extremely important for what I see as my side of debates on the meaning of gender in law the side of the feminists, the gay rights advocates, the queer theorists to be clear about the relationship our most vehement and thoroughgoing opponents so clearly see between a commitment to traditional sex roles rooted in the subordination of women and opposition to equal rites and rights for gay and lesbian couples. 36 III. HOW SEX EQUALITY JURISPRUDENCE TRANSFORMED MARRIAGE UNDER U.S. LAW Many of Ruth Bader Ginsburg s pathbreaking cases for the ACLU Women s Rights Project were brought on behalf of married couples, which enabled her to demonstrate that the law s reliance on sex-role stereotyping and presumptions of female subordination in marriage hurt both men and women. 37 Consider, for example, the case captioned Frontiero et Vir v. Richardson, 38 in which justices of the Supreme Court first articulated the now orthodox view that laws based on sex stereotypes are constitutionally impermissible. The case s very caption is the first indicator that sex stereotypes will be shattered: Frontiero et Vir ( Frontiero and [her] Man ) is a twist on the more conventional addition of et ux. ( and wife ) after a plaintiff s name. The caption indicates that instead of the stereotypical wage-earning husband with a dependent wife, this case was brought by a wage-earning wife in the unstereotypical job of lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force, seeking benefits including housing and medical insurance for her husband For further discussion, see The Immanent Frame: Secularism, Religion and the Public Sphere, Homosexuality and the Anglican Debate Mary Anne Case, Aug. 4, 2009, As further evidence of this connection, consider that four years before Ratzinger, on behalf of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, condemned the pernicious influence he saw the concept of gender having on the collaboration of men and women in the church and in the world, Alfonso Cardinal Lopez Trujillo, on behalf of the Pontifical Council for the Family, blamed the spread of a certain ideology of gender for the pernicious developments he saw in the laws governing marriage and de facto unions. Cardinal Alfonso Lopez Trujillo, President, Pontifical Council for the Family, Presentation on Family, Marriage, and De Facto Unions (July 26, 2000), available at pontifical_councils/family/documents/rc_pc_family_doc_ _de-facto-unions_en.html ( Claiming a similar status for marriage and de facto unions (including homosexual unions) is usually justified today on the basis of categories and terms that come from the ideology of gender. ). 37. She may have been influenced by her own marriage to Martin Ginsburg, by all accounts a true partnership, in which they jointly decided on a career in law, broke with stereotypes in their division of household tasks (he did the cooking, for example), and cooperated on the early Moritz case, at the intersection of his specialty and hers tax law and sex discrimination. See, e.g., FRED STREBEIGH, EQUAL: WOMEN RESHAPE AMERICAN LAW 12 13, (2009) U.S. 677 (1973). 39. Id. at 680.

12 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) In Frontiero, the justices acknowledged the central historical role the law of marriage had played in the subordination of women. Taking their language almost verbatim from Ginsburg s briefs, they observed that throughout much of the 19th century the position of women in our society was, in many respects, comparable to that of blacks under the pre Civil War slave codes. Neither slaves nor women could hold office, serve on juries, or bring suit in their own names, and married women traditionally were denied the legal capacity to hold or convey property or to serve as legal guardians of their own children. 40 Indeed, in nineteenth century America, as in ancient Rome, slavery, like marriage, was one of the domestic relations; 41 and the law of marriage, like that of slavery, was premised not only on role-differentiation, but on hierarchy: Wives were subordinate to husbands as slaves were to masters. On the widely influential view of marriage set forth in Blackstone s Commentaries, 42 a marriage license could be seen to function, in ways loosely analogous to a modern dog license, as something like a certificate of ownership of the wife, entitling the husband to her property, her body and its products, including the labor she engaged in for wages and the labor that produced offspring; obliging him to provide for her care and feeding; giving him a cause of action against those who injured her or his interest in her; making him responsible for her actions; and giving him the right to control her. She did not have the same rights over and duties to him, although she was obliged to provide him domestic services and sexual access and to share his residence. Just as dog licenses require that the animal wear a collar and tag with its owner s name, so, as late as the 1970s, many U.S. states required by law that a wife take her husband s name; she also customarily always wore a wedding ring. 43 A husband did not ordinarily take his wife s name or indicate his marital status in his name or title in any way; nor, in much of U.S. society for long periods of history, did husbands tend to wear wedding rings. 44 This asymmetry of roles, duties, and privileges in the law of marriage, although on the decline since at least the passage of the first Married Women s Property 40. Id. at 685; cf., e.g., Brief of Appellant at 28, Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971) (No. 70-4) ( Prior to the Civil War, the legal status of women in the United States was comparable to that of blacks under the slave codes.... Neither slaves nor married women had the legal capacity to hold property or to serve as guardians of their own children. Neither blacks nor women could hold office, serve on juries, or bring suit in their own names. ). 41. See Mary Anne Case, Pets or Meat, 80 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1129, 1133 (2005) WILLIAM BLACKSTONE, COMMENTARIES ch. 15 (Morris Wayne 2001) (1793) ( Of Husband and Wife ). 43. Case, supra note 13, at 1768 (citing Joan S. Kohout, The Right of Women to Use Their Maiden Names, 38 ALB. L. REV. 105 (1973)). 44. Id.

13 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1211 Acts in the mid-nineteenth century, remained very much a part of the legal landscape at the time of Frontiero. 45 It was also central to the early, now thoroughly discredited, U.S. constitutional law of sex discrimination, even when the issues in a case were on their face far removed from marriage. Thus, infamously, Justice Bradley, concurring in the denial of a right to practice law to women generally, focused on petitioner Myra Bradwell s status as a married woman: The constitution of the family organization, which is founded in the divine ordinance, as well as in the nature of things, indicates the domestic sphere as that which properly belongs to the domain and functions of womanhood. The harmony, not to say identity, of interests and views which belong, or should belong, to the family institution is repugnant to the idea of a woman adopting a distinct and independent career from that of her husband. So firmly fixed was this sentiment in the founders of the common law that it became a maxim of that system of jurisprudence that a woman had no legal existence separate from her husband, who was regarded as her head and representative in the social state; and, notwithstanding some recent modifications of this civil status, many of the special rules of law flowing from and dependent upon this cardinal principle still exist in full force in most states. One of these is, that a married woman is incapable, without her husband s consent, of making contracts which shall be binding on her or him. This very incapacity was one circumstance which the Supreme Court of Illinois deemed important in rendering a married woman incompetent fully to perform the duties and trusts that belong to the office of an attorney and counselor. It is true that many women are unmarried and not affected by any of the duties, complications, and incapacities arising out of the married state, but these are exceptions to the general rule. The paramount destiny and mission of woman are to fulfill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator. And the rules of civil society must be adapted to the general constitution of things, and cannot be based upon exceptional cases. 46 In Frontiero, husband and wife had a shared fate and a common interest, so as to make it difficult to disentangle whose rights were at issue. Similarly, in another Ginsburg case, to deny survivor s benefits to widower Wiesenfeld would have discriminated against both his deceased wife as wage earner and him as surviving 45. See id. For an analysis of similarities in attitudes toward pets, slaves, and wives, see Case, supra note 41, at Bradwell v. State, 83 U.S. 130, (1873) (Bradley, J., concurring).

14 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) caregiver to their child. 47 The net effect of such cases was to dismantle, as a matter of constitutional law, legally (r)e(i)nforced sex role differentiation in marriage. Couples were still free to have a role-differentiated marriage, but no longer could the law require or even assume that breadwinners were male and homemakers female. Shortly after deciding Wiesenfeld, the Court extended its prohibition of legal reinforcement of sex-role stereotypes to a case involving not spouses, but children being prepared for their adult roles. In the Stanton case, it held that, for the following reason, it would be unconstitutional for the state to require a divorced father to support his son until age twenty-one, but his daughter only until age eighteen: No longer is the female destined solely for the home and the rearing of the family, and only the male for the marketplace and the world of ideas.... To distinguish between the two on educational grounds is to be self-serving: if the female is not to be supported so long as the male, she hardly can be expected to attend school as long as he does, and bringing her education to an end earlier coincides with the role-typing society has long imposed. 48 While Stanton focused on preparing women as well as men for a role in the marketplace, Hibbs, written by Chief Justice Rehnquist as if he were channeling his colleague Justice Ginsburg, put the prophylactic power of Section Five of the Fourteenth Amendment behind the Family and Medical Leave Act, which facilitated a role for men as well as women in the care work of the home: Stereotypes about women s domestic roles are reinforced by parallel stereotypes presuming a lack of domestic responsibilities for men. Because employers continued to regard the family as the woman s domain, they often denied men similar accommodations or discouraged them from taking leave. These mutually reinforcing stereotypes created a selffulfilling cycle of discrimination that forced women to continue to assume the role of primary family caregiver Years earlier, Rehnquist had opposed the Equal Rights Amendment on the grounds that its supporters evinced overtones of dislike and distaste for the traditional difference between men and women in the family unit, and in some cases very probably a complete rejection of the woman s traditionally different 47. Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld, 420 U.S. 636 (1975) (holding unconstitutional the provision of social security survivor s benefits only to mothers and not to fathers). 48. Stanton v. Stanton, 421 U.S. 7, (1975) (striking down differential ages of majority for boys and girls). 49. Nev. Dep t of Human Res. v. Hibbs, 538 U.S. 721, 736 (2003) (upholding Congress s power to apply the Family and Medical Leave Act to the states).

15 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1213 role in this regard. 50 Other opponents of the ERA, such as Paul Freund, had expressed fear that it would lead perforce to an invalidation of laws outlawing wedlock between members of the same sex. 51 Although the ERA never did pass, in the end Rehnquist himself put the capstone on a constitutional jurisprudence that nevertheless amounted to a virtually complete rejection of laws reinforcing the traditional difference between men and women in the family unit. As of the date of Hibbs, bans on same-sex marriage were virtually all that was left in the law of the traditional difference between men and women in the family unit. Unfortunately, as the remainder of this Article will discuss, the fight to eliminate such bans has led to as much retrogression as progress in the fight to eliminate from the law in the United States fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females. IV. SEX DISCRIMINATION CLAIMS AND SAME-SEX MARRIAGE IN THE 1970S The first same-sex couple whose quest for a marriage license reached the U.S. Supreme Court, Jack Baker and Michael McConnell, did include in their case a claim of sex discrimination, together with a multiplicity of other federal claims. But Baker and McConnell s legal challenge to the sex distinctions in the marriage laws began in 1970, before the U.S. Supreme Court had held any sex-respecting rule to be constitutionally problematic, 52 and their appeal was dismissed by the U.S. Supreme Court for want of a substantial federal question in 1972, before the now well-established doctrinal structure governing claims of denial of equal protection on grounds of sex was put in place. Rather than being able to strengthen their claim by invoking a line of other successful constitutional challenges to sex discrimination in the law of marriage, therefore, Baker and McConnell could only draw an analogy to Loving v. Virginia, 53 the then recently decided case striking down bans on interracial marriage. But the Minnesota Supreme Court held that, in commonsense and in a constitutional sense, there is a clear distinction between a marital 50. Rehnquist: ERA Would Threaten Family Unit, LEGAL TIMES, Sept. 15, 1986, at CONG. REC (1972) (Senator Sam Ervin quoting testimony of Paul Freund). 52. The first U.S. Supreme Court case invalidating any sex discrimination in the law was Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971), which struck down categorical preference for males over females in the appointment of estate administrators U.S. 1 (1967) (holding state bans on interracial marriage an unconstitutional denial of equal protection even when equally applied to blacks and whites).

16 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) restriction based merely upon race and one based upon the fundamental difference in sex. 54 According to the Minnesota Supreme Court: The institution of marriage as a union of man and woman, uniquely involving the procreation and rearing of children within a family, is as old as the book of Genesis.... This historic institution manifestly is more deeply founded than the asserted contemporary concept of marriage and societal interests for which petitioners contend. The due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is not a charter for restructuring it by judicial legislation. 55 In their jurisdictional statement to the U.S. Supreme Court, Baker and McConnell note that they were asked orally at the time of application which was to be the bride and which was to be the groom... [although] the forms for application for a marriage license did not inquire as to the sex of the applicants 56 and although they were not questioned as to which physical sex classification they belonged. 57 The clerk did ask, however, Where is the female in this marriage? 58 and a reporter waiting outside the county clerk s office insisted on knowing [w]ho s going to be the wife? We don t play those kinds of roles, came the reply. 59 The Look magazine spread on the couple, in an issue dedicated to The American Family, reinforced this answer, observing: In many respects, the Baker-McConnell household is like that of any young marrieds except that there is no male-female role playing. Neither is a limp-wristed sissy. I do the dishes, says Baker, because I don t like to cook. And I do the cooking, says McConnell, because I cook better than Jack.... Baker, as befits a man with a business degree, keeps the financial records in a stenographer s notebook, and keeps an eye out for bargains in the supermarkets. 60 The repudiation of sex roles was reaffirmed in the couple s wedding ceremony, when, dressed in identical white knit suits, each one said to the other, [t]ouch me... I am your lover, brother, sister, and friend. 61 At the time, 54. Baker v. Nelson, 191 N.W.2d 185, 187 (Minn. 1971), appeal dismissed, 409 U.S. 810 (1972) (holding that a state s denial of a marriage license to a male couple did not violate the U.S. Constitution). 55. Id. at Jurisdictional Statement at 4, Baker v. Nelson, 409 U.S. 810 (1972) (No ). 57. Alternative Writ of Mandamus, Hennepin County District Court, Jurisdictional Statement app. at 11a, Baker v. Nelson, 409 U.S. 810 (1972) (No ). 58. KAY TOBIN & RANDY WICKER, THE GAY CRUSADERS 145 (Arno Press 1975) (1972). 59. Id. 60. Jack Star, The Homosexual Couple, LOOK, Jan. 26, 1971, at 69, TOBIN & WICKER, supra note 58, at 150. At the risk of stating the obvious, let me note how perfectly these identical outfits combined the bride s traditional color with the groom s traditional garb.

17 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1215 the Minnesota law governing the solemnization of marriages specified that no particular form shall be required, except that the parties shall declare... that they take each other as husband and wife. 62 It is important to remember that, in 1970, more than a form of words was legally at stake and that the reporter s question could be far more than a facetious put-down or an inquiry into potential effeminacy. Which one would be the wife had serious legal consequences at a time when legally enforced sex-role differentiation in marriage was firmly entrenched in law and not yet seen as constitutionally problematic. 63 The wife, after all, was the one to whose household services the husband was entitled, such that her loss, not necessarily his, gave rise to a claim for loss of consortium by the survivor; the process by which state courts and legislatures made consortium claims reciprocal was still underway in The wife was the one presumed to be dependent, and who as a result could be eligible and make her husband eligible for benefits; not until the series of cases beginning with Frontiero in 1973 did the U.S. Supreme Court begin to dismantle on constitutional grounds the asymmetry in law between what a wife was entitled to on account of her husband and what a husband was entitled to on account of his wife. 65 The wife was the one the husband was obligated to support during marriage and who could be entitled to alimony on divorce; not until Orr v. Orr in 1979 did the U.S. Supreme Court insist that husbands be eligible for alimony equally with wives, holding that the state s purpose of reinforcing a model of allocation of family responsibilities under which the wife plays a dependent role... can no longer justify a statute that discriminates on the basis of gender. 66 The wife was also the one whose share of jointly owned property could be disposed of by her husband as head and master of the marital community without her knowledge or consent; not until Kirchberg v. Feenstra 67 in 1981 did the U.S. Supreme Court hold that state statutes giving the husband such exclusive control violated the Equal Protection Clause. In recommending Baker be denied a marriage license, the county attorney stressed that both our statutory and case law in... Minnesota is replete with references to the distinction of husband and wife as being male and female with 62. Jurisdictional Statement app. at 6a, Baker v. Nelson, 409 U.S. 810 (1972) (No ) (quoting MINN. STAT (1971), amended by MINN. STAT (1979)). 63. Not all the legal consequences described below were part of Minnesota law in 1970, however. 64. Minnesota wives had been accorded claims for loss of consortium by 1969, but, as late as 1977, a Minnesota treatise noted that this remained one of the legal remedies unavailable [to wives] in most States. ELLEN DRESSELHUIS, THE LEGAL STATUS OF HOMEMAKERS IN MINNESOTA 6 (1977). 65. See Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677, (1973) U.S. 268, (1979) U.S. 455, (1981).

18 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) different rights, duties and obligations accorded to each.... [I]f one were to permit the marriage of two male persons, it would result in a complete confusion as to the rights and duties of husband and wife, man and woman, in the numerous other sections of our law which govern the rights and duties of married persons... [and] result in an undermining and destruction of the entire legal concept of our family structure in all areas of law. 68 As of 1970, these claims might well have had merit. In the interim, virtually all the laws that speak in a legally differentiated way in terms of husband and wife, except those governing entry into civil marriage, have been undermin[ed] and destr[oyed] by the U.S. Supreme Court s decisions holding such differentiation an unconstitutional deprivation of equal protection on grounds of sex. 69 In ways not foreseen by the Minnesota Supreme Court as it decided Baker, the Fourteenth Amendment was indeed a charter for restructuring the historic institution of marriage so as to guarantee to men and women the equal protection of the laws. V. THE SECOND WAVE OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE LITIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES When same-sex marriage litigation resumed two decades after Baker, state rather than federal constitutional claims were raised. 70 In 1993, the Hawaii 68. Brief of Appellee at 21, Baker v. Nelson, 409 U.S. 810 (1972) (No ). 69. For the U.S. Supreme Court to say that embodying sex-based role differentiation in the law of marriage is no longer constitutionally permissible is by no means to outlaw legal rules based on role differentiation in marriage, however. Indeed, the claim Baker and McConnell brought for veterans spousal benefits in the 1970s clearly depended on such differentiation, as did their recent application for a tax refund. There may not have been a wife in the Baker/McConnell marriage, but there was a dependent spouse, under the statutes governing veterans benefits in 1971 and a secondary earner under the tax code in McConnell v. Nooner, 547 F.2d 54, 55 (8th Cir. 1976) (per curiam). Had there not been, there would have been no point to the couple s suit. Equal earning couples get a marriage penalty, not a refund, for changing their tax status to married, filing jointly. McConnell v. United States, No , 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 1313, at *3 (D. Minn. Jan. 3, 2005), aff d, No , 2006 U.S. App. LEXIS (8th Cir. July 17, 2006). And increased benefits were only awarded to veterans whose spouses depended financially on them. There might be objections from a feminist or other standpoint to the extent to which the law, particularly the tax law, disfavors equal earning couples and encourages marital role differentiation along the lines of the traditional role differentiation of husband and wife. But the importance of fixed roles in marriage no longer being legally assignable by sex should not be underestimated. Precisely because from time to time they may play different roles, without male-female role playing and despite both being men, Baker and McConnell in their spousal relationship embody the mandate against fixed notions concerning the roles and abilities of males and females. Miss. Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 725 (1982). 70. A case decided shortly after Baker, Singer v. Hara, 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974), also disposed of same-sex marriage claims on state constitutional grounds, holding, after considering

19 Feminism and Same-Sex Marriage Litigation 1217 Supreme Court held it to be sex discrimination of the sort that, under the Hawaii Constitution, could only be upheld if narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest for Hawaii to deny same-sex couples entry into marriage. 71 The only purportedly compelling justification offered on remand was based on stereotypes and was, as such, rejected by the lower court. 72 Specifically, the state offered evidence on remand only with respect to its interest in promoting the well-being of children, who, the state claimed, were best off when raised by both of their biological parents in a marital household. In rejecting any causal link between allowing same-sex marriage and adverse effects upon the optimal development of children, 73 the trial court relied on evidence from even Hawaii s own expert witnesses that there were gay and lesbian parents who provided good homes for children; heterosexual, married, biological parents who did not; as well as, more broadly, a diversity in functioning family structure. The court explained: A father and a mother can, and do, provide his or her child with unique paternal and maternal contributions which are important, though not essential, to the development of a happy, healthy and well-adjusted child..... However, there is diversity in the structure and configuration of families. In Hawaii, and elsewhere, children are being raised by their natural parents, single parents, step-parents, grandparents, adopted parents, hanai parents, foster parents, gay and lesbian parents, and same-sex couples. There also are families in Hawaii, and elsewhere, which do not have children as family members. The evidence presented by Plaintiffs and Defendants establishes that the single most important factor in the development of a happy, healthy and well-adjusted child is the nurturing relationship between parent and child. The sexual orientation of parents is not in and of itself an indicator of parental fitness..... evidence of voter intent, that Washington s then recently approved state constitutional Equal Rights Amendment did not extend the right to marry to same-sex couples. 71. Baehr v. Lewin, 852 P.2d 44, (Haw. 1993). 72. I use stereotype here in the sense of an archaic normative template for a given sex, as well as an imperfect descriptive proxy. See Case, supra note 3, at for further discussion of the relationship between constitutional antistereotyping doctrine and sex discrimination challenges to bans on state recognition of same-sex marriage, including the federal Defense of Marriage Act. 73. Baehr v. Miike, No , 1996 WL at *18 (Haw. Cir. Ct. Dec. 3, 1996), aff d, 950 P.2d 1234 (Haw. 1997).

20 UCLA LAW REVIEW 1199 (2010) Gay and lesbian parents and same-sex couples can be as fit and loving parents, as non-gay men and women and different-sex couples. 74 In other words, being a male-female couple was an imperfect proxy for being good parents. The Hawaii case was the first and last case to date in which a plurality of the judges on the highest court of any U.S. state accepted the claim that denial of marriage to same-sex couples constituted discrimination on the basis of sex. Because a state constitutional amendment authorizing the legislature to deny marriage to same-sex couples mooted the Hawaii case before a final resolution, 75 there is not even a definitive high court holding in place to the effect that no compelling governmental interest justifies the sex discrimination inherent in the denial of marriage to same-sex couples. Some subsequent state high court majority opinions that have addressed the question of same-sex marriage have avoided deciding the sex discrimination question entirely. Among them are those of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court and the Iowa and Connecticut Supreme Courts, all three of which ruled on other grounds that same-sex couples had a right to marry under their respective state constitutions. 76 However, only when a court rules in favor of marriage on other grounds can it easily avoid the sex discrimination question. To rule against marriage for same-sex couples requires a court to dispose of all of the arguments raised in their favor, including sex discrimination. And, because laws found to discriminate on the basis of sex are entitled to heightened scrutiny under a state as well as the federal constitution, it is particularly difficult, as the trial on remand in Hawaii demonstrated, for them to survive such scrutiny, whether by proof that they are not based on impermissible stereotypes or by proof that they are well-enough tailored to a sufficiently important governmental interest. Perhaps for this reason, every state high court that has ruled adversely to marriage for same-sex couples whether by denying them any state constitutional right to relationship recognition whatsoever, as the New York Court of Appeals did, 77 or by holding that their constitutional claims can be satisfied by providing for them under state law another relationship status that is not called marriage, as the Vermont Supreme Court did 78 has 74. Id. at * HAW. CONST. art. I, 23, ( The legislature shall have the power to reserve marriage to opposite-sex couples. ). 76. Kerrigan v. Comm r of Pub. Health, 957 A.2d 407 (Conn. 2008); Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009); Goodridge v. Dep t of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003). 77. Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1 (N.Y. 2006). 78. Baker v. State, 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999).

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