We begin in Petrified Wood: Part II, with plant
matters. From the microscopic cell
structures to macroscopic grain patterns, our search today favors paleobotany. As
certain
lapidary processes bring out these structures for our perusal, we will add these to our
cache of
last months feature.

With an
international eye on our worlds paleoforests, we will travel the globe in search
of petrified wood itself, and some cultural lore that surrounds it. We will touch
upon the
metaphysical briefly, but will base ourselves in the concrete science of evolving plant
forms
over time. Our evolution will take us to Pangea, and its subsequent
proto-continents,
China, Brazil, Antarctica, and places better known for sighting our logged quandary.

Introduction

Good morning,
everyone! I hope you are bright-eyed, bushy-tailed, and excited to depart,
as we are leaving in a few minutes. No need for airline tickets, since we will board
our clubs
charter flight to points all over. Please grab your backpacks and all aboard, while
I get the
morning beverage and in-flight lesson prepared.

Our itinerary
will list the places we will visit. They include: Argentina, Brazil, Antarctica!

All of our club
gear is already stowed, per our captain. We have everything from sunscreen
to winter parkas, for our comfort and convenience!

Flying from our
local New Castle County Airport, we will cross the Pacific Ocean to Asia,
then on to frozen Antarctica. To thaw out, we'll stop at sunny Australia, and next
to Africa and
South America. In between, we will hit Europe, and other spots on the globe.

As weve
had our primer on petrified wood, todays interactive discussion will feature plant
biology, and its changes over time. We wont be able to cover all of geologic
time, but will hit
upon a representation of many parts of the scale, depending on the locales well be
visiting.

Well cover
lapidary, and the other subjects on successive jaunts on our voyage. Are you
ready? Lets go!

Paleobotany
and botany have one thing in common; they both use scientific names in the
same manner. According the Linnean system of taxonomy, set down by Carolus Linnaeus
some time ago in 18th century Sweden. He based his work on upon a hierarchy in which
living
things can be categorized in an ascending/descending order, per their similar features.

Latin is used
here, so a working knowledge of rootwords can help, but is not necessary to
begin with. Just by rote learning a few names, we can jump start our exposure into
another
language

His system
goes: Kingdom, Phylum (Division for plants), Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species, with the first categories being the most general (Kingdom: Animal, Plant).
Modern
scientists have developed the system that he popularized.[i]

Today, the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN), set forth by the
International Botanical Congress, outlines the taxonomic designations that we will use in
our article. Three major differences are the addition of Domain before Kingdom,
sub-
designations to every step, and Variety and Form below Species,
for plants.[ii]

It is
interesting to note that Linnaeus had originally designated three Kingdoms:
Plants, Animals, and Minerals. I wonder into which category would he position
petrified
wood? We shall place it in Kingdom Plantae.

I list a a few,
representative (to this article), in a mix of fossil, extinct, and modern tree
classifications below:

Fossilien - versteinertes Holz = Fossils - petrified
wood

Where is petrified wood?

Anywhere that there was a forest,
tree, or wood set within conditions conducive towards
mineralization, there may lie under our feet petrified wood. As we understand the
basic
sedimentary principle of one layer of rock-forming material covering over another over
time,
we can surmise that many of the paleoforests of time lie some feet under our boots.

Active
geologies over eons have exposed our mineral woods for our exploration. It is these
visible
features that we will access this trip. We will leave the big digs for
another article. Except
for some hot weather, we wont even have to break a sweat. Isnt that
cool?!

Before we go, lets review:

There are three main steps towards
permineralization of living plant matter: (1.) encapsulation,
or removal from an environment that causes decomposition, (2.) introduction of sufficient
quantity
of a mineral-laden solution to bring about chemical-biochemical replacement of cell
structure,
and (3.) time.

As an avid
student of geology at Edinburgh University, Charles Darwin became embroiled in
the great geological debates of the 1820s and 1830s. Darwin received acclaim not
only by his
later works as a biologist, but as a geologist, as well. Darwin's most
successful application of
simple geology and his most lasting contribution to the science was his explanation of the
origin
of coral reefs. (They build up on the sides of slowly subsiding seamounts.)[iv]

Though he could
not successfully build upon Lyells work directly beyond this marine theory,
his geographic explorations aboard The Beagle pushed his focus to biology. His
highly
controversial theory of evolution paved the way for us to now understand more on our
changing
landscape of petrified wood. We can combine biology and geology into an earth
science that
supports our studies here. We will begin with his conclusions upon return from his
grand
adventure.

As similar
species covered the single landmass, when broken apart, some went with each
continent. As Darwin noted that isolated populations are likely to speciate,
subspeciate, or
evolve, a similar process is purported by many of todays scientists when Pangea
separated
into Laurasia and Gondwanaland. That process is known as vicariation. Examples
are the
creatures of the Galapagos Islands, and those of Australia versus those lineages of
Eurasia
and the Americas.

These flora and fauna adapted to their environment, as both climate
and ecosystems altered over time. His mantra survival of the fittest
describes the successfully altered progeny extant in each step of evolution, and moreso,
those who are alive today. Today, we call it adaptive radiation.

Many trees of
the fossil record survive relict today, such as Gingko biloba, which eminated
from China in the Jurassic, some 160 million years ago.[v]

Though it
has done so with little or no change, it did survive; whereas, many co-existing
species did not. It was, and is, the fittest. This example would also support
the newer theory
spurts and stasis. This dicot gymnosperm (twin-leafed deriving from naked, or
fruitless, seed),
native to China, can be found in yards, parks, and preserves for us to enjoy.

Some
species did not. They are extinct. There are many examples: Glossopterids,
Psaronius,
and Cordaites are but a few.

The Cycads are
still here, though todays palm trees (Genus: Cycas) are believed to have
some relation to Gingkos, perhaps in an anagenetic lineage,as they are both
spermatophytes.
The extinct genus Cordaites is structurally somewhat between Cycads and Gingkos.
The Cordaites lineage can be traced back to Late Paleozoic times.

Glossopteris,
a bald cypress-like tree, is believed to have covered all of today's continents
at one time. Psaronius lived as a great tree-fern from the Carboniferous
until the Late Permian.

Five major
extinction events can be marked on the geologic time line. The Devonian marked
one of them. At about 364 mya, most of the great fishes disappeared. This
event, marked by
the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, does not greatly defeat the land plants. In fact,
the
megafloras success may have been the catalyst to marine faunal extinctions.

By understanding
the Carbon
Cycle, we can appreciate that the greenhouse gas CO2
used up by the burgeoning plant community reduced atmospheric levels, thus generating a
global cooling. The resulting glaciation may have chilled the oceans too much for
the great
cold-blooded fishes to survive. As usual, the generalist species survived to adapt
and swim
on.[vi]

The
remainder of the organic carbon became deposited on and in the ground, to
eventually be metamorphosed into coal and peat.

Todays
fossil and paleoclimatological evidence points to mass extinctions. Though
this puts a dent into the Snowball
Earth theory, massive environment changes seemed
to have produced modified groups of species. Cold-hardy trees could have weathered
this
eonic storm.

Could this have been the dawning
time of evergreens and deciduous winter-sleepers?
In the Permian (290-248 mya), drier inland conditions may have caused adaptations in
plants,
such as the introduction of angiosperms (seed-bearing trees).

Also, the great
forests of fern-like plants shifted to gymnosperms, plants
with their
offspring enclosed within seeds. Modern conifers, the most familiar gymnosperms of today,
first appear in the fossil record of the Permian.[vii]

The transitional Triassic (248-206
mya) supports recovery of plant biota after a mass
extinction. The holdovers included the lycophytes, glossopterids,
and dicynodonts. While
those that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world include modern conifers, cycadeoids,
and the dinosaurs.[viii]

Plant
and insect taxa exploded in numbers, during the Triassic.

The Jurassic (206-144 mya) was overtaken by lush ferns and palm-type cycads.Early
seed plants, they still exist today.[ix]

Pangea began to break-up in the Jurassic, which
contributed to mass vicariation, based
upon hemisphere (northern, southern), and climate change. With the dawn of the
Cretaceous
(144-65 mya), many of the lifeforms (especially trees) we know today lived then.

For example, todays beech forests of New Zealand took root in the
Mid-Cretaceous. With the advent of pollen and seed plants(angiosperms),
recolonization of desolate areas took place. Before that, in the Early Cretaceous
(~135 mya) Gondwanian flowering plants, such as the kauri (mentioned in Petrified
Wood, Part I), arrived on the islands.

Among the first angiosperms to reach New Zealand was the wind-pollinated southern
beech tree (Nothofagus species). It arrived between 80 and 110 million years ago, after
New
Zealand had separated from the Australian part of Gondwana, but before it had separated
from the Antarctic region. For several million years, the beech forests stretched
continuously
from Tasmania, and through what is now New Zealand and Marie Byrd Land in Antarctica, on
into South America. Even today, the beech forests of New Zealand and South America
resemble each other so closely that each has the same parasitic fungi, mosses and
flightless
sucking bugs inhabiting their bark (Stevens et al., 1995).[x]

In ancient
Europe, now England, a Cretaceous to Jurassic paleoforest looms. There were
cypress, junipers, and cycadophytes, some similar to those of the Mediterranean
today.
The Fossil Forest, west of Lulworth Cove, Dorset, southern England, is a classic
geological
locality with the remains and moulds of late Jurassic or early Cretaceous coniferous trees
rooted in a palaeosol (ancient soil), the Great Dirt Bed. Above the trees is stromatolitic
limestone and over this the unusual Broken Beds, a limestone breccia that was originally
evaporitic.[xi]

Nearby, at
Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow, Scotland Lepidodendron
tree stumps
can be found in their original growth positions. Otherwise known as the scale
tree from the
Greek, it was deposited during the carboniferous in sandstone.[xii]

Araucaria

Araucaria with
Turedo burrows

KBC:

Steve, you have recently retired as a Biology/Zoology Professor Emeritus at
California State University (CSU) Fresno. Your stated areas of interest and research are
in Avian ecology, island ecology, and passerine population dynamics. How has your work in
these areas guided you towards an interest in evolution and paleontology?

SE:

My interest in evolution and paleontology predates my degrees. I had
an exceptional HS Biology Teacher in the 60's. One of the areas for my Ph.D. examinations
was avian paleontology and my Ph.D. dissertation was in avian ecology/behavior.

KBC:

You visited the Galapagos Islands in 1983-84 and 1987. What did you find there?
Oh, by the way, Happy Darwin Day <http://darwinday.org/englishL/home/index.html?>!
(February 12th)

SE:

Actually I have been to Galapagos in 82-83, 87, and 90. The 1987
trip was a sabbatical and I worked on Large-billed Flycatchers and Dark-billed Cuckoos.
The studies just developed basic information on relatively little known species. I lived
in Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz for 4 months. Galapagos is a wonderful place to see
evolution in action, plus it is the Mecca for biologists. Too few people truly
"see" Galapagos unless they live there and travel from island to island.
Differences in the features of a species are visible when you go from one island to the
next. I have been to most of the places Darwin visited...an exceptional experience when
combined with later visits to his home in London.

KBC:

When teaching evolution with petrified wood as a tool, what would be a
representative example you use, and why?

SE:

I have taught evolution for 32 years...plus some teaching as a
graduate student. It is the ONLY way that science views the world. Any other way is not
science and is usually an oxymoron. My wood collection is only a fraction of what I
presented, but I emphasized distribution of fossil forms to illustrate such principles as
continental drift. I usually used Araucaria, Ginkgo, and Glossopteris
as examples. Of course the first two still exist and have interesting distributions.

KBC:

Have you found that fossil plant evidence has had an influence in your work as a
Biologist/Zoologist? Or, have the two interests evolved divergently?

SE:

The answer would be convergence rather than divergence. Plant
ecology/paleontology goes hand-in-hand with animal ecology/paleontology.

KBC:

You name your personal homepage Corvus. Is that after the generic
name for crows, ravens, and jays? Has the study of their evolution been a profound
influence on you? Or, do you just like these passerine birds?

SE:

Corvids are considered one of the most "advanced" of the
passerine birds. They are incredibly intelligent and even use tools in some cases. While I
did not work with them, I have always been intrigued and impressed with them...they are
among my favorites.

KBC:

Our article attempts to link the first perching birds found in China with certain
species of fossil trees. The attempt is to suggest a picture with our supposed
paleo-view as a mind tool to grasp a better perspective, like on TV. I use the
example of either Microraptor (feathered dinosaur) or Archaeopteryx
(proto-bird) as potentially being able to perch upon the Gingko tree. As a new
bird to this branch of science, would my supposition be remotely plausible? (Of
course, outside the scope of this article, I would need to find evidence for and conduct
research concluding as such.) Or, what flora might these creatures have perched upon, if
any?

SE:

Most illustrations use cycads as dominant trees during the Jurassic
and Cretaceous. Ginkgo was apparently present around Solnhofen in Germany. I would guess
it was in China as well.

KBC:

You picture on your personal website a fossil Glossopteris leaf. (Have you used
this tree in support of Continental Drift?

SE:

Absolutely...although it is only one small shred of a vast amount of
evidence. Continental drift is now considered a fact...not a theory. This is just the same
for evolution...it is also a FACT. The theory is "Natural Selection"....how the
fact works. People usually get this wrong as we tend to shorten the phrase: Darwin's
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection" (correct) to just "Darwin's
Theory" (incorrect). Both Evolution and Continental Drift can be DIRECTLY
measured...there are parallels here.

This is not a paper...it was the title of a course I taught for over
20 years. It covered human evolution and other aspects of human ecology both in the past
and now. One of the topics I never covered was Creation Science...except to illustrate why
it is not scientific.

KBC:

What order would you say your interests developed in these areas: biology,
ornithology, or paleobotany (petrified wood)?

SE:

I can't put these in any order as some are inclusive of others. Both
ornithology and paleontology are branches of biology (and also geology). I am a very
broadly trained biologist with a wide range of evolutionary interests.

KBC:

As a collector of minerals, fossils, and petrified wood, when did it become a
hobby for you?

SE:

Sometime in the late 1950's. I started collecting things as a kid
usually does. My interests grew from there.

KBC:

Are there any works or resources that you would like to suggest our readers check
out regarding petrified wood and/or evolution?

SE:

There are too many to actually list. On the web: Talk Origins
Archive, UC Berkeley Paleo Dept, Pharyngula, Olduvai George, Down House etc. etc.

KBC:

Are there any suggestions that you would like to offer students of life science,
earth science, or of evolution?

SE:

It
is absolutely essential that people understand that all of biology and medicine are
based on Evolution. It is a FACT. It really troubles me that so few people in this country
understand that... and instead prefer religious and mystic views. To be a biologist
REQUIRES that you understand and work in an evolutionary context...anything else is a
throwback to the Dark Ages. You can be a religious person and an evolutionist...you just
cannot mix the two.

Plants and trees
have developed over time, giving us rich history to explore. Charles Darwin,
noted naturalist, assumed a gradual modification over generations of descendants; whereas,
some modern biologists work with the premise of bursts of changes, then periods of stasis
(punctuated equilibrium). Mass extinctions and long episodes of statis seem to
support the
latter theory.

One could assume that with pseudoextinction, an example being the
recognition
of modern birds as the dinosaurs descendants, that dinosaurs must today exist;
however, in a
different form.

Darwin received
acclaim not only as a biologist, but as a geologist, as well. So, his eye for
our current subject matter could guide us in our basic understanding of how trees
(evidenced
by petrified wood) have changed over geologic time.

It will also be helpful for us to learn "morphology" (tree parts) and some
biology. Dont worry, just enough to aid us in identifying on species from
another. For example, xylem,
phloem, and bark, cambium, precambium, etc.

In vascular plants,
xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in plants, phloem being the other one.
The word xylem is derived from classical Greek
xúlon, "wood", and indeed the best known xylem tissue is wood. The xylem transports sap
from the root up the plant: xylem sap consists mainly of water and inorganic ions,
although it can contain a number of organic chemicals as well.[xiii]

It is most likely one development that
encouraged or supported gigantism.

(Left): Tree Anatomy in cross-section

Water and
nutrient uptake is key to survival of plants. Xylem appeared early in the
history
of terrestrial plant life. Fossil plants with anatomically preserved xylem are known from
the Silurian (more than
400 million years ago), and trace fossils resembling individual xylem cells
may be found in earlier Ordovician rocks.[xiv]

Food is handled
by the phloem. In vascular plants, phloem is the living tissue
that carries
organic nutrients, particularly sucrose, to all parts of the plant where needed. In trees, the phloem
is part of the bark, hence
the name, derived from the Greek word for "bark".[xv]

The
vascular cambium is a lateral meristem: The vascular cambium is the source of both
the secondary
xylem (inwards) and the secondary phloem (outwards), and hence is located
between these tissues in the stem.

Vascular cambium is a part of the plant's meristem - series of
tissues consisting of embryonic
(incompletely differentiated) cells from which other (and more differentiated) plant tissues
originate.[xvi]

Now that
weve covered how our petrified trees evolved and got placed over geologic time,
we are ready to go over plant anatomy. Well need to know their parts (living
and fossil), if we
are going to be successful in identifying different species in the field.

Lets start
with the basics. Many fossil trees, like modern trees, have branches, trunks,
and roots. We can easily identify these major parts as tree-like. Grain
pattern have been
preserved in many specimens, thus aiding us in our comparson to modern woods.

The colorful
concentric rings comprising the trunks log structure also aid us. Sometimes,
we have clues deposited nearby, such as leaf impressions, fossilized seeds, cones, or
amber.
Even remnants of insect infestation, as in Mesozoic Antarctic woods can help.

You might
even
remember your high school biology class lesson on plants and trees. The key
elements of a
tree are: xylem, phloem, cambium "

After,
well go into some advanced stuff, like plant stones, and such.

A
plant stone
(or Phytolith) serves to add structural stability to plants. These microscopic
bodies can be
made from silicon or calcium oxalate. In paleobotany, these phytoliths often remain
behind,
serving as fossil evidence in identifying ancient flora. A relationship between
these plants
and fossil herbivores can be forged. From this evidence, changes in extinct animal
diets,
and their resulting evolutions, can be measured and compared. The chief faunal
evidence is
found within coprolites. It is interesting to note that Charles Darwin mentioned
plant stones
in his writings.[xvii]

About 75%
of flowering plants produce calcium oxalate crystals in some or all of their organs.
Because these crystals occur in various shapes and hydration states that are specific and
consistent within each organ, they have been used periodically as an internal taxonomic
character. Since crystals and their macropatterns are usually retained in the mature
leaves
and stems even after they die or drop off the plant, such information should be useful for
identification purposes, possibly in forensics.[xviii]

Development of the calcium
oxalate crystal macropattern in pomegranate
(Punica granatum, Punicaceae)
Photo by and courtesy of Harry T. Horner

When paleontologists and
paleobotanists study and reconstruct lifeforms over evolutionary
time, they require a context, called phylogeny. This biological context
connects groups of
organisms by ancestor/descendant relationships. Extinct organisms,
fossil forms of those
today extant, and living trees require a structure to show how they are interrelated,
called a
cladogram.

This genealogy of species can be
ensconced in field of systematics. Taxonomic science,
or the naming and classifying of lifeforms, underlies the study of these relationships.[xix]

When making a phylogenetic
analysis of organisms, say Gingko biloba, the best modern
acceptable method is cladisitics. Cladistics is a particular
method of hypothesizing
relationships among organisms.[xx]

The basis for cladistics are
synapomorphies, or the shared derived characteristics of
organisms compared.[xxi]

Another example of applying
phylogenetics in paleobotany is the contention to accept
a pre-Silurian plant record. By studying the microfossil evidence of cyrptospores,
Professor
Wilson A. Taylor of the University of Wisconsin at Eau-Claire in his paper, The case
for a
land flora in the Cambrian - ultrastructural evidence, proposes this hypothesis as a
pivotal
evolutionary event.[xxii]

Some Paleobotany being conducted
today

I have recently perused an abstract on a
presentation on Miocene Maryland fossil endocarp (nut shell) evidence. There are
scads
of resources for paleontologists and paleobotanists. I will list a few at the end of the
article,
many of which were presentations at the 2004 and 2005 Botany Conferences.

Some current
work by botanists have literally unearthed aspects on paleoenvironments for our modern
reconstruction upon the fossil record. The gamut here runs from plant forms
surviving
extinction events, the earliest insect pollinations, paleoclimatic changes in temperate
Antarctica, and early proof of autumn leave color changes.

Beyond just taking a
paleo-snapshot of a fossil-forming environment, new volumes of data
have been plotted to demonstrate trends in climate change and evolution. For
example,
various paleogeographic reconstructions suggest that the climate warmed during the Late
Cretaceous partly due to accumulation of greenhouse gases.[xxiii]

Inversand Greensand Mine, Sewell, New Jersey

Our club's local collecting area encompasses these
fossil-laden sands at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary.

Moreover, derived from
evidence about the differing chronostratigraphy surrounding the
Cretaceous-Teritiary Boundary (K-T) Event, the faunal and floral extinction dynamics
suggest a new interpretation. Professors W. A. Green and L. J. Hickey of Yale
University
offer that [t]his substantiates some of our standing assumptions about the
selectivity of
extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous, which may have eliminated taxa but do not seem
to have restructured plant ecosystems significantly. It provides an example of ecosystem
stability under environmental perturbation and highlights the influence of evolutionary
innovation o­n evolutionary history.[xxiv]

Some palynologists have proposed
that Middle Triassic cycads were insect pollinated,
like those today. They use fossil pollen and insect coprolites as evidence on these
gymnosperms (seed plants).[xxv]

Biologists at the University of
Kansas have presented on the topic of paleoclimate in
Permian-Triassic Antarctica:

Tree rings are well
preserved in Late Permian and Middle Triassic permineralized peats
from the central Transantarctic Mountains, and can be used as paleoclimate indicators.
During both of these time periods, the Earth had a greenhouse climate, with temperatures
in polar regions sufficient for plant growth. Previously there has not been much
paleoclimate
information obtained from Gondwana Triassic wood, and the permineralized material
represents an important source of data on growing conditions in Antarctica at this
time.[xxvi]

My favorite development is the
amazing preservation of leaf material from Idaho, which
shows us that Fall leaves did indeed change color seasonally some millions of years ago.

As,
an interesting correlation has been made between fossil and living tree genera from the
Late
Tertiary (~15 mya) in northern Idaho. Fossil foliage has been superbly well
preserved
[b]ecause of cold, anoxic bottom water and a high rate of sedimentation,
preservation of
the local biota was excellent. During the last 15 million years this area has
remained
tectonically stable, resulting in little post depositional change of any biota remains
trapped
in the sediments. Leaves often show original fall colors (brown, red, and yellow). Some
even
contain Chloroplasts and show the original green color. Biochemistry, unique in each
modern
genera of plant species correlates well with similar fossil species.[xxvii]

When we piece the paleo-puzzle
together, we can see trends of lifeform changes, known
as evolution. I will proffer an example that can bring a picture to our paleo-view
by building
upon an image most of us have witnessed in our lives: a bird perching upon a tree.
Our
question, How did he or she get here from a long travel over
generations? Lets find out.

Evolution: Dinosaurs, Birds, and Trees

Lets start from a certain
geologic point in time. About 550 mya, the Cambrian Explosion
occurred. Most of the major continents have moved into the southern hemisphere, thus
forming the supercontinent Pangea.

First plants on land? They occurred at least 400 mya,
in the Early Paleozoic. Vascular plants (xylem, phloem, etc.) grew in by the
Silurian
(443-417 mya), then the Devonian (417-354 mya) brought about tree diversification.[xxviii]

The earliest trees occurred and
spread globally about 370 mya, as [t]rees evolved
some 180 million years after the Cambrian explosion when the land masses were mostly
south of the equator and Pangea had begun to form. Because the land masses were fairly
close together, the forests were able to spread across the land quite rapidly.[xxix]

The Devonian (410-360 mya) brought
about the rise of Archaeopteris, now believed
to be the earliest tree. Its eventual biotic provinces were Laurasia and Gondwana.
Its
upright growth and shallow roots took advantage of water and minerals more deeply
below the surface than its ancestors.[xxx]

During the Carboniferous (360-286
mya), forests of lychophytes towered to greater
than 100 feet! These behemoth scale trees share the trait of being the first
vascular plants,
which still survive in albeit a relatively miniature form today. A differentiating
trait is in their
leaf structure. Lycophytes evolved separately as microphylls, which have
 only a single
unbranched strand of vascular tissue, or vein, whereas megaphylls, found in other plants
with leaves, have multiple veins, usually branching one or more times within the
leaf.[xxxi]

The Division Lycopodiophyta
(sometimes called Lycophyta) is a tracheophyte
subdivision
of the KingdomPlantae.
It is the oldest extant (living) vascular plant division and includes
some of the most "primitive" extant species. These species reproduce by shedding
spores
and have macroscopic alternation of generations, although some are homosporous while
others are heterosporous.
They differ from all other vascular plants in having microphylls,
leaves that have only a single vascular trace (vein) rather than the much more complex
megaphylls found in ferns and
seed plants.[xxxii]

Leading up to the Triassic Period
(248-206 mya), global climate change occurred at about
the time of Earths largest extinction event: the Permo-Triassic extinction.
On Pangea,
survivors included lycophytes
and glossopterids.
Typical Triassic tree flora included cycads
and conifers, along with ferns growing in the understory. Evolution prompted the
introduction
of ancestors to our modern conifers and cycadeoids. The glossopterids, however,
became
extinct by the end of the period. Dinosaurs, as we have traditionally known them,
also roamed
the planet, until the K-T Event.[xxxiii]

Triassic

Mesophyta plants (middle
flora) of the Late Permian to Middle Cretaceous
included ever smaller lycopods, Calamites-type plants, and ferns. Variations
occurred,
according to climate and geography, such as giant seed ferns overtowering trees in part of
Gondwana. Whereas, cycads and gingkos inhabited drier, interior climes, such as in
northern Pangea. And, Araucariacean conifers were the predominate large trees
in
Laurasia, with primitive gingkoaleans (e.g. Sphenobaiera and Glossphyllum) and cycads
as lower story and underbrush.[xxxiv]

Before trees, there was moss and algae. Tree evolution
includes the development of a vascular system with roots. Dr. Robert Banner of Yale
University presented his findings at Earth Systems Processes, a multidisciplinary meeting
in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is hosted jointly by the Geological Society of London
(GSL) and
the Geological Society of America (GSA).

His presentation, How trees changed the
world,
offers evidence of radical geological change deriving from such shifts in a new biota
ecosystem. He argues that changes in Earths atmosphere and the natural Carbon
Cycle
have been advanced.

As we shall see:

The
first trees soaked up nutrients from rocks at a rate never before seen. This
enhanced the weathering of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) silicate minerals,
which in turn removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as Ca and Mg became
locked together with carbonate ions in lime-rich sediments in the worlds oceans.
The removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by this method and by increased
photosynthesis (fixation) led to atmospheric CO2 stabilising at lower levels than
the world had known for most of its previous 4200Ma history.[xxxv]

Increased erosion levels occurred from root-splitting, as trees took their nutrients from
rocks. The procress proceeds with wood lignin becoming buried into these
sediments.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide used up by these large plants led to proportional deposition
of removed carbon. Organic carbon is removed from the wood, thus becoming
coal. As
large plant photosynthesis advanced globally, greater percentages of atmospheric oxygen
occurred.

Enriched air brought about faunal evolution, in that gigantism took over for a bit of
geologic time. The early resulting insect populations became huge, compared to even
todays largest dragonfly, for example.[xxxvi]

It
wasnt long after (in millions of years), that pollinating insects helped spread
flowering
trees and plants conquer the globe. Dinosaurs, then birds perched in trees, or flew from
the
ground first. Both sides of the origin of flight debate still rage today.

The first tree-dwelling bird
(dinosaur descendent, Archaeopteryx) must have evolved after
trees. Or, when did the earliest avian perch on trees?

The debate rages, whether avians
evolved from Mezozoic thecodonts, theropods, (or dinosaurs, at all). Still the
topical question
is, Which came first, the tree-dwelling dino, or the flight-adaptive
bird? Ornithologists differ
in opinion as to a ground flight or a tree flight origin.
Another question looms: Did flight
occur before trees evolved? If so, then the latter opinion on flight origin
could hold true.
Professor Gary Ritchison of Eastern Kentucky University, in his BIO554/754 Ornithology
Lecture Notes 1: Introduction to Birds, poses such questions.[xxxvii]

Why are we talking
birds and dinos in addition to trees?, you ask. Well, they are all
wrapped up in the process of adaption, environment, and evolution. Plants took root
(a
literal adaptation) to land, and the Devonian (417-354 mya) demise of the major specialist
fishes followed. Trees evolved from there. Tetrapods climbed out of the swamps to
develop
lungs from gills and legs from fins. Well look at supposed cause and effect as
an
underlying premise to our argument.

To continue, Was it Microraptor
zhaoianus (a feathered dino) or Archaeopteryx (a proto
bird) who first lived in trees?

Lets compare the dates of each bit of
evidence: Archaeopteryx
(Late Jurassic, 206-144 mya), Microraptor (20 million years later than Archaeopteryx),
and
Trees (Early Devonian,~370 mya).

Scientists have discovered evidence of the earliest
helical-crowned tree found in Lower Pennsylvanian strata (323-290 mya).[xxxviii]
Perhaps it
had good branches to sit upon.

Microraptor fossils
were uncovered in the Liaoning Province, northeast of Beijing, China.

So, trees preceded birds as a
lifeforms on Earth. Trees had some 200-odd million years
to develop before the smaller dinosauria and avians. Then, yes, arboreal creatures
had
potential perches and launches for flight.

Did birds find better homes in these? Did
they
adapt to flight there? The answer is still out there.

The helical crowns were found in the U. S. What about the trees of China, where Arcaheopteryx
and Microraptor were found? Could these trees have branches or leaves that
could support the weight of these creatures? Were both stands of trees similar
cladistically or enough in characteristic to branch out, literally? We will have to
look into the fossil record. We know that Gingko trees populated China about that
time in the Early Jurassic (160 mya).

That means that both Archaeopteryx
and Microraptor (and perhaps some undiscovered links)
had megaflora with branches sizeable enough to support them.

The earliest perching birds
(or
passerines) are believed to have evolved at the time of Gondwanas great breakup
(~160 mya).
The mild climate of the Late Jurassic supported vast numbers of flora and fauna.
First came the
Order Passeriformes, then divergence into Suborder Tyranni, and into the
5,400 species of Aves
known today. Biochemical studies have helped to reveal their origins.[xxxix]

Of course, there were other tree
types extant then, but one could better picture todays
iving Gingko perched full of modern song birds. The stretch to the imagination is
not
far-fetched. Who knows, perhaps ancient Chinese lore and use of Gingko as a medicine
harken back to such a combined origin of these species.

Now that we have visited
paleo-China,
lets move on to our other destinations!

Many scientists
today study Antarctica. In past articles, we have discussed geologists,
mainly. Now we get to go further into our study of the frozen continent!

This brief jaunt
will take us into paleo-country, to coin a term. Underneath the ice,
lies
fossil evidence of temperate forests and dinosaurs. Today, we will focus upon
petrified wood.

Coal and peat
beds exist, housing specimens of fossil-mineralized wood. Scientists of the
University of Kansas Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Edith L. Taylor and
Derek W. Kellogg, have put to us that tiny insects have bored their way into the geologic
record.

In their
presented paper, Evidence of wood-boring mites from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic
of Antarctica, they state that: Late Permian, Middle Triassic and Middle
Jurassic
permineralized peats from the central Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica have yielded
wood
containing tunnels and coprolites preserved within them. The coprolites fall into 5 size
classes:
1 in the Permian, 2 in the Triassic and 2 in the Jurassic.[xl]

Professor Taylor
has offered a resource for our serious scientific study. With her husband,
Professor Thomas Taylor, they have formed the Division of Paleobotany at the University of
Kansas in 1995. They had brought their extensive collections of slides with
them. Their
Antarctic Collection is available there today.[xli]

Two Australian Antarctic explorers, Webb and Fielding, have procured samples of petrified
wood from a coal lens at the Lambert Glaciers graben, North Prince Charles
Mountains.

This Late
Permian-Early Triassic feature evidences ancient tree-life there. It also suggests
support of Continental Drift. I do wonder if similar tree species did exist in
India.

Before the Cretaceous break-up between Antarctica and India, the Lambert Graben was
probably continuous with the Son-Mahanadi Graben in northeastern India.[xlii]

What references
on flora can we make here?

About 300m
above the base of the coal measures is the Dragon's Teeth Member, a thin
lensoidal unit of carbonaceous claystone containing upwards-coarsening sandstone cycles.
The lowermost bed within this member is a silicified peat with abundant petrified wood.
The
Dragon's Teeth Member formed in a shallow lake, perhaps dammed by minor earth
movements.[xliii]

Chips of
petrified wood as crisp as freshly hewn timber lay scattered under our boots,
despite our being at least 2,000 miles (3,219 kilometers) from the nearest living tree.

This is probably Glossopteris
wood, Askin explained, handing me the stump of an ancient
sapling. "It was a deciduous tree that also lived in South America, Africa, India,
and Australia.
Finding it in Antarctica was one of the things that proved the continents must have been
linked at one time."[xliv]

Early
discoveries of petrified wood have been reported in the logs of Captain Carl Anton
Larsen of Norway. During an 1893-94 voyage, he found some on seymour Island.[xlv]

There are various locales
around Asia that bear petrified wood. Some of the more popular
ones are China and Indonesia. Thailand now offers a source to visit. We'll
drive, then hike a bit.

Thailand

Petrified
Wood Park at Ban Krok Duean Ha, Tambon Suranari. The area has a
collection of over 10,000 petrified wood pieces. Petrified wood was unearthed here just
beneath the surface to 8 metres underground.

The wood is of
various sizes from pebbles to rocks with a diametre of over 50
centimetres and some pieces are more than 1 metre long. The wood comes in many
colours in the same stone and in different ones. They are aged between 1 to 70 million
years old. Provincial authorities plan to make this area a petrified wood park and the
first museum of its kind in Asia to conserve these prehistoric treasures for future
generations to study.[xlvi]

There are ranches, and other private lands, at which we can
obtain permission to collect
some prized specimens. If you don't want to carry much, then just buy some online
when we
return to the clubhouse!

"Argentina's Central Steppes are home to the Petrified Forest and inhabited by a
number
of animals, including the burrowing owl, mara, and lesser rheas.

The Petrified Forest
Millions of years ago, after the formation of the Andes
mountains, volcanic ash covered
the early forests -- killing the trees, but preserving them from decay. Mineral-saturated
water seeped through the ash and into the buried logs, filling the empty cells of the
decaying wood until they fossilized and turned to stone.

Considered to be one of the
world's best petrified reserves, the Petrified Forest has many
trees that measure more than 10 feet in diameter and 90 feet long. Compared to petrified
trees
in the United States and Australia that measure less than six feet in diameter, the trees
of the
Central Steppes are significantly larger.[xlvii]

Paleoforest management to date,
has been a compendium of forestry and park
preservation. In the U. S., most of these public lands are administered by parks
departments, rather than by forestry services.

As it is generally against the law
to collect specimens from these protected lands,
many visitors still cant resist to sample the colorful fossils, strewn about the
landscape,
like candy. When park rangers at the Petrified Forest National Park ask of guests
upon their exiting the park, most people admit to procuring a piece for posterity.
Guiltily, most hand them back to the admonishing ranger.

Plant fossils can be poached on a
large scale, too. This massive removal by
miners without a claim prompted government officials to enact tougher
penalties,
or just to extend a parks boundaries to protect the resource.

A case has been made at the 2005
Botany Conference by several concerned
scientists about a Nevada paleoarbor, the Lund Petrified Forest:

Scientific investigation of the little known Lund Petrified Forest in northwestern
Nevada
has revealed more than 250 mappable occurrences of petrified wood remains. Sites
range from pits left from past tree removal by bulldozers and dynamite to large stumps
up to 4.5 m (15 ft.) in diameter buried upright in place by a volcanic tuff. This ash-flow
tuff is not yet dated, but its position at the local base of the caldera section suggests
a
Miocene age of ca. 16.0-15.5 Ma. Analysis of the wood structure suggests some of the
large stumps are most similar to sequoiadendron giganteum (bigtree, giant sequoia),
which today grows in small scattered stands restricted to the western slope of the
central to southern Sierra Nevada at elevations between 1220 to 2560 m (4000 to
8400 ft.). Work is underway with the Bureau of Land Management to develop a plan
to preserve the trees for research and recreation by developing means to minimize the
effects of freeze/thaw weathering, uprooting of stumps from the overgrowth of
vegetation, and unauthorized collecting. Once dominated by a forest of towering giants,
today the Lund area is replaced by a high desert sagebrush community, yet another
sobering reminder of the profound impact climate change has on the landscape, life
and distribution of organisms through time.[xlviii]

Sadly, not all resources can be
saved in situ. Some must be relocated, or more
practically, samples taken and housed in a research facility archive.

Collections-based research
has become an increasingly important source of both
physical and digital data. In paleobotany, conservation of collections is
particularly
important as some sites may no longer exist, and increasing regulations or
preservation of sites may have limited further field work. In the case of remote
localities where additional collecting may be cost prohibitive, maintenance of existing
and historical material is crucial.[xlix]

A curious site would be seeing a
bird sitting upon a petrified tree. And, Will todays
genetically engineered trees of today become tomorrows petrified wood?
--Ken Casey

Now that we have a scientific
context for our favored petrified wood, we can indulge a
short journey of the imagination. What can ask ourselves, What is the appeal
of petrified
wood? Is it the rainbow colors, or maybe that it looks like would, but is not
real? We
will delve into lapidary, shortly. But first, we have another stopinto Navajo
lands. Of
course, I waited until we were invited, so lets go in.

We have seen into the geologic
past into ancient biotic realms. Our search for
knowledge has brought us closer to understanding the origins and development of our
modern trees. Personally, I revel at the fact that some species have remained nearly
unchanged for mega-millions of years!

As our imagination has been
brightened by example and our urge to explore the past,
we must include at least one view derived for a people before modern science. From a
cultural perspective, families, groups, and individuals have carried on either an oral or
written tradition. These stories recount what their ancestors passed on to them as
accounts of nature and creation of petrified wood. Our example this trip will be a
visit to
the Navajo Creation Story.

Native American

On our last
excursion, we mentioned that Paiute and Navajo peoples considered to
be earthly evidence of the divine, as based in their oral traditions.

Native
Americans had various beliefs about the origin of the petrified logs in what is
now Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. Natives of the Paiute tribe held that these
giant petrifications were spent arrow shafts and spears dispatched by the Thunder God
Shinauav and his enemies during a great battle. Members of the Navajo tribe believed
they were the bones of the great giant monster Yeitso.[li]

In the Navajo
Creation story, petrified wood was part of the seeding of the earth
of all plants:

In each hole was dropped two kinds
of seed. In each hole was dropped a seed of the
small Sun Flower and a seed of the Big Sunflower. After First Woman had planted this
she began to plant all of the plants, evergreens, firs, pines and all things that had been
created and are on the earth today. From a clayey material were created the other plants
and trees. After the ascension this vegetation turned into rocks and was washed up here
as petrified wood. The seeds were thrown into the wind which carried them and buried
them beneath the sand. The earth at this time was very small so First Man threw the
seeds all over the earth very easily. Upon each of the mountains First Man planted
trees.[lii]

Perhaps this is
allegorical, alluding to a single landmass, like Pangea, as being
small without having to cross oceans to travel. The ascension
could be the long-term
lifecycle of trees over geologic time. I do not want to presuppose that I could
understand
and interpret sacred stories and texts, as I do respect them. Only, that the Navajo
people
have shared their Creation story with us; and to me, this passage seems to make sense,
as witnessed in the terms of modern science. It is my personal view, I mean not to
offend.

Various
properties have been attributed to our favored stone this month, Petrified
Wood. Its physical colors and textures have been [a]ssociated with stability,
security,
strength, longevity, grounding, calmness and wisdom. Helps us communicate with
trees.
Teaches us to respect old people and ancient knowledge.[liii]

Some folks like
to gaze into or at stones, focusing their minds eye. Hoping to
ascertain the answer to a question, to heal, or just to meditate, each viewer has his or
her own goal in mind:

Like looking into the layers of the tree, petrified wood aids
us into
looking into our own past, and learning from our mistakes to create a better future. It
can
also aid in past life regression works, and help us understand the evolution of our own
incarnations: past, present and future.

It is very
grounding, being able to stabilize emotions and help to release worries,
bringing courage and strength. Especially useful to heal the skeletal system, skin, and
hair; but it can increase our overall health and lifespan.[liv]

European
Renaissance jewelers have been known to pick up and stare at any green
stone, as this verdurous view would clear their vision, as if they could go outdoors and
look at trees. I have not had success with this method in my jewelry work, but
prefer,
instead to go outdoors and admire the trees themselves. I would suggest to you,
after
having read this far, to do the same, for a break, if you like. When you come back,
well retire to the world of fiction.

Tree Realms

I wonder if
Enyas 1995 song The Memory of Trees could be thought to refer to
an ancient Irish spiritual belief of the importance of the majesty of tree spirits.
An early
European scientist theorized that all plants had souls. I am curious if petrified
wood
forests colossal spirit still graces Mother Earth.

Some
metaphysicians and healers look to a similarly esoteric viewpoint,
concerning its practical uses:

I have found no truth in the alleged connection of
the tree
rings making Petrified Wood sympathetic to the maladies of our own body and circulatory
system. However because of the minerals that are usually involved, see my entries on Agate, Fossils, and Opalized as it can
be this also.[lv]

The
author goes on to offer his remedy.

Books and Movies

As early as 1880, Famous writer Robert Louis Stevenson
visits Charles Evans and
his Petrified Forest. Stevenson recounts his visit in his booklet, The Silverado
Squatters.
(more)[lvi]

Before that, though, the Brothers Grimm write upon the
backdrop of an enchanted
forest. When I did a Yahoo! search for petrified forest, one result made
mention of the
new fictional movie about their lives. It made me think that petrified
also mean afraid,
as many of this writing duos characters were loath to be.

Last month, I had mentioned a good old-time movie, called
The Petrified Forest
(1936), based on a stage play. The film starred Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart, and
took place in the Arizona desert. Have you seen it, yet? I bought my own
copy. I
wonder what challenges there would be to colorize it, that is, every log in the scenery?

Going further, one might imagine a colorful landscape in
fiction if, say, the Painted
Deserts multi-hued petrified forest came to life. Perhaps, by using the
oil-painting
technique used by cinetographers to create the background in the Robin Williams
movie, What Dreams May Lie, we could better see it.

When the Ents went on the warpath in The Lord of the Rings
Trilogy (books and
movies), didnt they seem to be lifeless and petrified, having lived eons before the
characters became animated? How about

those
cantankerous apple trees in the Wizard of Oz

,or the viscious ones in the Harry Potter

books and movies?

There is so much lore about trees and references to petrified
wood throughout
history, and across cultures. As this wood, this mineral, this fossil can be
above-ground
laden on seven continents, it waits for us to pick it up and admire it. We can
readily
view its lightplay of many colors inspiring us to collect it, or form it into an object of
polished beauty. It can beckon us to become enlightened as to its deep history and
rare and unique countenance.

Jamie Huddleston of Letterink Art, Belmont,
Michigan, has offered a take on sculpting petwood.
Pure and simple, the approach here is to take the wood, as it is is found, then bring out
its unique
character in rounded shapes. Here are a few examles below:

As we know from
last month's excursion, petrified wood is available as rough as agate,
jasper, quartz, chalcedony, opal, calcium carbonate, and pyrite. We can form it into
virtually
any

shape, and can highly polish the quartz-like wood. Three of the best shapes to
appreciate
its inherent grainy beauty are: slabs, cabs, and spheres. If you are wondering about
the
intricacies of making the perfect sphere, look at the simplified diagram in step below:

A good website that better demonstrates this
technique can be found in the United Kingdom.
The sphere-makers at Mineral &
Rock in the UK use a combination of diamond and silicon carbide
tools to cut the rock. It is very labor-intensive, compared to making
cabachons. The symmetry is
extremely important to achieve. Otherwise, your sphere will look misshapen, even to
the untrained
eye.

The author of
their website explains sphere-making in eight steps. In summary, these are:
(1.) carefully choose your rough, (2.) cut it into a cube, (3.) cut cube several times to
achieve an
octagon on all sides, (4.) use grindstone to round of all edges, (5.) to the lathe with a
diamond
cutting tool, (6.) Reduce over several polishing grits in lathe with wooden cups, (7.)
employ buffing
wheel for final sheen, and (8.) three days in a tumbler.[lvii]

To see the
results of work from lapidaries around the world shown on one website, visit the
SpheresToYou.com Petrified Wood Pages. Owner Jackie Lapin offers thousands for sale
at her
California showroom. She has sizes from the mibster's marbles and up. Jackie
was so kind as to
allow us to borrow many of her sphere images for our MOTM articles. She has also
granted us a
very informative interview:

I went to a gem and mineral show because I love jewelry and gems.
I cute little snowflake obsidian sphere caught my eye and then a pampas onyx (glassy olive
green and mustard color). They just called to me, so to speak. By the next show I was
hooked. My personal collection now runs to 600 pieces. I assumed that since I was this
addicted there would be others like me and I might be able to share my love for spheres.
That's how Sphere's To You came to be.

KBC:

You
created ATMOSPHERE, The Society for the Appreciation of Spheres. Would you tell us a
little more about it?

JL:

As we began to develop our market and gather sphere enthusiasts, we realized that
people who were interested in spheres wanted to know more about spheres and would enjoy
the benefits of a Club Membership. So we created an organization that would entitle them
to a newsletter and a discount for their initial purchases. In the early years we also
held an annual meeting in Tucson at the time of the show so members could meet, but many
of our members could not coordinate their schedules. Thus today, our primary connection is
the newsletter. People expressed a desire to know more and so we began the newsletter, at
first by mail and now exclusively online and by email. Folks can register for membership
on our site.

KBC:

Your
newsletter, The Spherical World, offers articles on and tips on
care for ones sphere collection. What possible ideas could we look forward to in
upcoming issues?
(By the way, Congratulations on ten years of publication!)

JL:

Thanks for your nice words. This newsletter comes out twice yearly. Care is
covered in many of the back issues that are available on the site. Mostly today, you'll
learn about the newest materials being sphered, what types of spheres come from different
regions of the world, what's hot and new in the sphere world, profiles of interesting
people, collecting tips, etc.

KBC:

About
what percentage of members, would you say, collect Petrified Wood spheres?

JL:

Under
5% collect exclusively petrified wood, but many people include petrified wood in a larger
overall collection.

KBC:

What
are some of the most popular diameter sizes folks collect?

JL:

generally
2-3.5 inches on average...but we have up to 6 inches in petrified wood and other materials

KBC:

What is
your favorite specimen in your collection today?

JL:

There are so many...it's like asking a mother which is her favorite child! But as
a group I love the condor agates, the vast variety and color of ocean jasper, a whole
spectrum of agates (mexican lace, brazilian, moss agate and more). I love clear quartz
rutilated with gold rutile and all kinds of other colored rutile (iron/red, diosite/green,
black tourmaline/black, etc) . Geodes with brilliantly colored druzy--my most recent has a
coral color. And then there are the fabulous speciality pieces, Australian, Oregon and
Canadian Opals; starred-garnets and rose quartz; fiery red sphalerite; gem stone spheres
of blue topaz, rubellite, emerald and Ukrainian aquamarine.

KBC:

Do you
know of anyone who chooses to employ their spheres to play games with as
marbles?

JL:

Yes...we
are also the leading seller of natural mineral marbles in the world--everything from .25
inches up to 1.25. We have lots of call for marbles, and a select group that wants to get
"aggies" for marble play. These often are grandfather's wanting to share their
youthful experience with their grandchildren.

KBC:

You
have a showroom in southern California. How many spheres might we see today, if we came
in?

JL:

Probably 1000-1500 are on display, but we have more then 8,500 in the inventory
(much of it in labeled boxes). So a good thing to do is look on the site before you come
and if what you want isn't out where you can see it, we'll pull it out of the boxes when
you get here.

Thanks! We work to find the greatest variety and most beautiful spheres of any
type in the world. Over the past 15 years, we've come to develop a fair knowledge of what
is available and how to keep our stock interesting to petrified wood collectors.

KBC:

Your
knowledge on the subject inspires me to look more into the specialty hobby of collecting
and making them. Have you considered writing a book on spheres?

JL:

Actually,
there is one already in development by the man who has the world's largest collection, so
no need for me to duplicate it. He's doing it in his leisure time, so I couldn't say when
it will be out, but I know that Jeff Scovil, the best photographer in the mineral world is
doing the photography.

KBC:

Is
there anything else you would like to share with our readers about the joy of sphere
collecting?

JL:

Spherestoyou.com has been a labor of
love for me throughout the years. There is something so lovely about having a symmetrical
symbol of earth's beauty in your hands or in your vision. We welcome visitors to share our
passion and to come our site and our showroom if they are in California. Jeff Donovan, who
handles customer and collector relations, is a great resource on just about everything in
the inventory, and can be especially helpful to people who are looking into the
metaphysical or energy value of a particular stone. Don't hesitate to give him a call
(818) 991 5143. Thanks for inviting me to share my love and enjoyment of spheres. Sphere's
To You! Jackie

As time goes on after the publication of our club's articles, I have set up a place in
which members can continue to add and share their topical photos. What's cool is
that
we get to enjoy them, as well. (Just click on the photo to view a larger version!)

Polished round of
Petrified Wood,
Carl Muendel

Close-up of Carl's
Polished Round

Glossopteris leaves
(Permian) Australia,
Don Miller

Don's Glossopteris
fossil, bottom

Don's Glossopteris
fossil, top

Members,

Your Petrified Wood or Tree-related
fossil photo can go here!

Close-up of Don's Glossopteris
fossil
(Note to leaf detail)

Araucaria
mirabilis
(Jurassic) Argentina, Gene Hartstein

Petrified Log,
Odessa, Delaware,
Karissa Hendershot

Karissa's petwood
log weighs about 400-lbs.!

Until Next Time

We hope you have enjoyed our
travels around the globe in search of Petrified Wood. We
may have gained more of an understanding of the ancient living environments in which they
evolved. If your head is swimming in science, it's okay to go back and just review
the pictures
of our journey, until next time, when we take another amazing virtual fieldtrip.
Thanks for coming!
Until then, stay safe, and happy collecting.

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the generous
contributions of our fellow petrified wood
enthusiasts,
collectors, authors, curators, professionals, and club members who made this
work possible. Thanks.

About the Author:

Ken is current webmaster of the Delaware
Mineralogical Society.He has a diploma in
Jewelry Repair, Fabrication & Stonesetting from the Bowman Technical School,
Lancaster, PA, and worked as jeweler.He has
also studied geology at the University of Delaware.And,
he is currently a member of the Delaware Mineralogical Society and the Franklin-Ogdensburg
Mineralogical Society. E-mail: kencasey98@yahoo.com.

Want to see your name in print? Want to co-author, contribute,
or author a whole Mineral of the Month
article? Well, this the forum for you!

And Members, if you have pictures, or a story you would like to
share, please feel free to offer. We'd like to post them for our mutual enjoyment.
Of course, you get full photo and author credit, and a chance to reach other
collectors, hobbyists, and scientists. We only ask that you check your facts, give
credit where it is due, keep it wholesome for our Junior Members watching, and keep on
topic regarding rockhounding.

You don't even have to be experienced in making a webpage. We
can work together to publish your story. A handwritten short story with a Polaroid
will do. If you do fancier, a text document with a digital photo will suit, as well.
Sharing is the groundwork from which we can get your story out there.

Our club's webpages can reach any person surfing the net in the
world, and even on the International Space Station, if they have a mind to view our
website!

We are hoping for a possible tie-in to other informative programs
upon which our fellow members might want to collaborate. Contact any officer or
board member with your suggestions.

Our next MOTM will
be a surprise, new guest author. For 2006, we are waiting for your
suggestions. What mineral do you
want to know more about?

____________________________________

Most of the Mineral of the Month
selections have come from most recent club fieldtrips and March Show Themes, and from
inspriring world locales and people, thus far. If you have a suggestion for a future
Mineral of the Month, please e-mail
me at: kencasey98@yahoo.com, or tell me at our next meeting.