1.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology

2.
Carl Menger
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Carl Menger was an Austrian economist and the founder of the Austrian School of economics. Menger used his “Subjective Theory of Value” to arrive at what he considered one of the most powerful insights in economics, Menger was born in the city of Neu-Sandez in Austrian Galicia, which is now Nowy Sącz in Poland. He was the son of a family of minor nobility, his father. His mother, Caroline, was the daughter of a wealthy Bohemian merchant and he had two brothers, Anton and Max, both prominent as lawyers. His son, Karl Menger, was a mathematician who taught for years at Illinois Institute of Technology. After attending Gymnasium he studied law at the Universities of Prague and Vienna, in the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the Lemberger Zeitung in Lwów, Ukraine and later at the Wiener Zeitung in Vienna. In 1867 Menger began a study of economy which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his Principles of Economics. It was in work that he challenged classical cost-based theories of value with his theory of marginality – that price is determined at the margin. In 1873 he received the chair of economic theory at the very young age of 33. In 1876 Menger began tutoring Archduke Rudolf von Habsburg, the Crown Prince of Austria in political economy, for two years Menger accompanied the prince in his travels, first through continental Europe and then later through the British Isles. He is also thought to have assisted the crown prince in the composition of a pamphlet, published anonymously in 1878 and his association with the prince would last until Rudolfs suicide in 1889. In 1878 Rudolfs father, Emperor Franz Josef, appointed Menger to the chair of economy at Vienna. The title of Hofrat was conferred on him, and he was appointed to the Austrian Herrenhaus in 1900. During this time Menger began to attract like-minded disciples who would go on to make their own mark on the field of economics, most notably Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, in the late 1880s Menger was appointed to head a commission to reform the Austrian monetary system. Over the course of the decade he authored a plethora of articles which would revolutionize monetary theory, including The Theory of Capital. Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship, Menger used his “Subjective Theory of Value” to arrive at what he considered one of the most powerful insights in economics, both sides gain from exchange. Unlike William Jevons, Menger did not believe that goods provide “utils, rather, he wrote, goods are valuable because they serve various uses whose importance differs. Menger also came up with an explanation of how money develops that is accepted by some schools of thought today

3.
Lewis H. Morgan
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Lewis Henry Morgan was a pioneering American anthropologist and social theorist who worked as a railroad lawyer. He is best known for his work on kinship and social structure, his theories of social evolution, interested in what holds societies together, he proposed the concept that the earliest human domestic institution was the matrilineal clan, not the patriarchal family. Morgan is the only American social theorist to be cited by such scholars as Marx, Charles Darwin. Elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences, Morgan served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1879. Morgan was a Republican member of the New York State Assembly in 1861, various sources record that the three sons of William Morgan of Llandaff, Glamorganshire, took passage for Boston in 1636. From there Miles went to Springfield, James to New London, Connecticut, Lloyd writes, From these two brothers all the Morgans prominent in the annals of New York and New England are believed to be descended. The Morgans to which he played a critical part in the foundation of the colonies. During the American Revolutionary War, they were Continentals, immediately after the war, the Connecticut line, along with many other land-hungry Yankees, migrated into New York State. Following the United States victory against the British, the new government forced the latters Iroquois allies to cede most of their lands in New York. New York made 5 million of acres available for public sale, in addition, the US government granted some plots in western New York to Revolutionary veterans as compensation for their service in the war. Lewis grandfather, Thomas Morgan of Connecticut, had been a Continental soldier in the Revolutionary War. Afterward he and his family migrated west to New Yorks Finger Lakes region and he and his wife already had three sons, including Jedediah, the future father of Lewis, and a daughter. In 1797, Jedediah Morgan married Amanda Stanton, settling on a 100-acre gift of land from his father, after she had five children and died, Jedediah married Harriet Steele of Hartford, Connecticut. They had eight children, including Lewis. As an adult, he adopted the middle initial H. Lewis later decided that this H, if anything, a multi-skilled Yankee, Jedediah Morgan invented a plow and formed a business partnership to manufacture parts for it, he built a blast furnace for the factory. He moved to Aurora, leaving the farm to a son, after joining the Masons, he helped to form the first Masonic lodge in Aurora. Elected a state senator, Morgan supported the construction of the Erie Canal, at his death in 1826, Jedediah left 500 acres with herds and flocks in trust for the support of his family. This provided for education as well, Lewis studied classical subjects at Cayuga Academy, Latin, Greek, rhetoric and mathematics

4.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor
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Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was an English anthropologist, the founder of cultural anthropology. Tylors ideas typify 19th-century cultural evolutionism, in his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a basis for the development of society and religion. Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three stages of development, from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. Tylor is considered by many to be a figure of the science of social anthropology. He believed that research into the history and prehistory of man, could be used as a basis for the reform of British society. Tylor reintroduced the term animism into common use and he regarded animism as the first phase of development of religions. He was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London, and was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet Skipper and his elder brother, Alfred Tylor, became a geologist. He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylors parents during his adulthood he never gained a university degree. After his parents deaths, he prepared to help manage the family business, following advice to spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico. The experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in studying unfamiliar cultures, during his travels, Tylor met Henry Christy, a fellow Quaker, ethnologist and archaeologist. Tylors association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, Tylors first publication was a result of his 1856 trip to Mexico with Christy. His notes on the beliefs and practices of the people he encountered were the basis of his work Anahuac, Or Mexico, Tylor continued to study the customs and beliefs of tribal communities, both existing and prehistoric. He published his work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind. Following this came his most influential work, Primitive Culture, G. Frazer, who were to become Tylors disciples and contribute greatly to the scientific study of anthropology in later years. Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, in 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the history of the Pitt Rivers Museum. 1871 Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,1875 Honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Laws from the University of Oxford

5.
Herbert Spencer
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Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era. Spencer developed a conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia, the only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century. Spencer was the single most famous European intellectual in the decades of the nineteenth century but his influence declined sharply after 1900. Spencer is best known for the survival of the fittest. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820, the son of William George Spencer. Spencers father was a dissenter who drifted from Methodism to Quakerism. Thomas Spencer also imprinted on his nephew his own firm free-trade, otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact who acquired most of his knowledge from narrowly focused readings and conversations with his friends and acquaintances. Both as an adolescent and as a man, Spencer found it difficult to settle to any intellectual or professional discipline. Spencer himself introduced the biologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who would win fame as Darwins Bulldog. However it was the friendship of Evans and Lewes that acquainted him with John Stuart Mills A System of Logic and with Auguste Comtes positivism and which set him on the road to his lifes work. The first fruit of his friendship with Evans and Lewes was Spencers second book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1855, which explored a physiological basis for psychology. The book was founded on the assumption that the human mind was subject to natural laws. This permitted the adoption of a perspective not merely in terms of the individual, but also of the species. The Psychology, he believed, would do for the mind what Isaac Newton had done for matter. However, the book was not initially successful and the last of the 251 copies of its first edition was not sold until June 1861, Spencers interest in psychology derived from a more fundamental concern which was to establish the universality of natural law. This was in contrast to the views of theologians of the time who insisted that some parts of creation. Comtes Système de Philosophie Positive had been written with the ambition of demonstrating the universality of natural law, in 1858 Spencer produced an outline of what was to become the System of Synthetic Philosophy

6.
Francis Galton
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Galton produced over 340 papers and books. He also created the concept of correlation and widely promoted regression toward the mean. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the term itself and his book Hereditary Genius was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness. As an investigator of the mind, he founded psychometrics and differential psychology. He devised a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science and he also conducted research on the power of prayer, concluding it had none by its null effects on the longevity of those prayed for. His quest for the principles of diverse phenomena extended even to the optimal method for making tea. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability and he was Charles Darwins half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius Galton, son of Samuel John Galton, the Galtons were famous and highly successful Quaker gun-manufacturers and bankers, while the Darwins were distinguished in medicine and science. He was cousin of Douglas Strutt Galton and half-cousin of Charles Darwin, later in life, Galton would propose a connection between genius and insanity based on his own experience. His parents pressed him to enter the profession, and he studied for two years at Birmingham General Hospital and Kings College London Medical School. He followed this up with studies at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. A curious note in the states, Francis Galton Trinity College student. One of Galtons masonic certificates from Scientific lodge can be found among his papers at University College, a severe nervous breakdown altered Galtons original intention to try for honours. He elected instead to take a poll B. A. degree and he then briefly resumed his medical studies. In his early years Galton was a traveller, and made a notable solo trip through Eastern Europe to Constantinople. In 1845 and 1846 he went to Egypt and travelled down the Nile to Khartoum in the Sudan, in 1850 he joined the Royal Geographical Society, and over the next two years mounted a long and difficult expedition into then little-known South West Africa. He wrote a book on his experience, Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa. He was awarded the Royal Geographical Societys Founders Gold Medal in 1853 and this established his reputation as a geographer and explorer

7.
Henry Sidgwick
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Henry Sidgwick was an English utilitarian philosopher and economist. He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research and his work in economics has also had a lasting influence. He also founded Newnham College in 1875, a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was the second Cambridge college to admit women after Girton College, the co-founder of the college was Millicent Garrett Fawcett. He joined the Cambridge Apostles intellectual secret society in 1856 and he was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Reverend W. Sidgwick, was headmaster of the local grammar school, Ermysteds Grammar School. His mother was Mary Sidgwick, née Crofts, Henry himself was educated at Rugby, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. While at Trinity, Sidgwick became a member of the Cambridge Apostles, in 1859, he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellors medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year, he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity, and soon afterwards, he became a lecturer in classics there, the Sidgwick Site, home to several of the universitys arts and humanities faculties in the university, is named after him. In 1869, he exchanged his lectureship for one in moral philosophy, in the same year, deciding that he could no longer in good conscience declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship, and in 1881, he was elected an honorary fellow, in 1874 he published The Methods of Ethics, by common consent a major work, which made his reputation outside the university. John Rawls called it the first truly academic work in moral theory, in 1875, he was appointed praelector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, and in 1883 he was elected Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy. In 1885, the religious test having been removed, his once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation. Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took a part in the business of the university and in many forms of social. He married Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick, who was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, Bart Schultzs 2005 biography of Sidgwick sought to establish that Sidgwick was a lifelong homosexual, but it is unknown whether he ever consummated his inclinations. According to Schultz, Sidgwick struggled internally throughout his life with issues of hypocrisy and he is buried in Terling All Saints Churchyard, Terling, Essex, with his wife. In July 1895, the medium Eusapia Palladino was invited to England to Frederic William Henry Myerss house in Cambridge for a series of investigations into her mediumship. According to reports by the investigators, Myers and Oliver Lodge and her fraud was so clever, according to Myers, that it must have needed long practice to bring it to its present level of skill. In the Cambridge sittings, the results proved disastrous for her mediumship, during the séances, Palladino was caught cheating to free herself from the physical controls of the experiments

8.
Frederic Harrison
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Frederic Harrison was a British jurist and historian. Born at 17 Euston Square, London, he was the son of Frederick Harrison, a stockbroker and his wife Jane, daughter of Alexander Brice, a Belfast granite merchant. He was baptised at St. Pancras Church, Euston, and spent his childhood at the northern London suburb of Muswell Hill. His paternal grandfather was a Leicestershire builder, in 1840 the family moved again to 22 Oxford Square, Hyde Park, London, a house designed by Harrisons father. Along with his siblings Sidney and Lawrence, Harrison received his education at home before attending a day school in St Johns Wood. In 1843 he entered Kings College School, graduating as second in the school in 1849 and he received a scholarship to Wadham College, Oxford in 1849. It was at Oxford that he was to embrace positive philosophy, under the influence of his tutor Richard Congreve, for more than three decades, he was a regular contributor to The Fortnightly Review, often in defense of Positivism, especially Comtes version of it. Among his contemporaries at Wadham were Edward Spencer Beesly, John Henry Bridges and he received a second class in Moderations in 1852 and a first class in Literae Humaniores in 1853. In the following year he was elected a fellow of the college and became a tutor and he became part of a liberal group of academics at Oxford that also included Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Goldwin Smith, Mark Pattison and Benjamin Jowett. In 1907 he published The Creed of a Layman, which included his Apologia pro fide mea and he was called to the bar in 1858, and, in addition to his practice in equity cases, soon began to distinguish himself as an effective contributor to the higher-class reviews. A few years later Harrison worked at the codification of the law with Lord Westbury and he was also professor of jurisprudence to the Inns of Court, and an Honorary fellow of Wadham College. In 1904 he published a monograph of the 10th century Byzantine resurgence, Theophano. Harrisons father had been the lessee since 1874 and the author had many years of access in which to perform his detailed investigations and he gave the Sir Robert Rede Lecture at the University of Cambridge in 1900. An advanced and vehement Radical in politics and Progressive in municipal affairs, in 1889 he was elected an alderman of the London County Council, but resigned in 1893. Harrison was a contributor to George Potters trade unionist journal The Beehive, and to W. H. Rileys Commonwealth. In an article defending the Paris Commune which appeared in the Fortnightly Review Harrison proclaimed, the alternative is Communism or Positivism. Later works include Autobiographic Memoirs, The Positive Evolution of Religion, The German Peril, On Society, Jurisprudence and Conflict of Nations, Obiter Scripta, in 1870 he married Ethel Berta, daughter of William Harrison, by whom he had four sons. George Gissing, the novelist, was at one time their tutor, one of his sons, Christopher René Harrison, was killed in World War I

9.
Flag of Brazil
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The flag of Brazil is a blue disc depicting a starry sky spanned by a curved band inscribed with the national motto Ordem e Progresso, within a gold rhombus, on a green field. Brazil officially adopted this design for its flag on November 19,1889. The concept was the work of Raimundo Teixeira Mendes, with the collaboration of Miguel Lemos, Manuel Pereira Reis, a blue circle with 27 white five-pointed stars replaced the arms of the Empire of Brazil. The motto Ordem e Progresso is inspired by Auguste Comtes motto of positivism, Lamour pour principe et lordre pour base, le progrès pour, the first Brazilian vexillological symbols were private maritime flags used by Portuguese merchant ships that sailed to Brazil. A flag with green and white stripes was used until 1692, the green and white colors represented the House of Braganza and the national colors of Portugal. In 1692, that flag was no longer used by ships that sailed to Brazil, in 1692, a new flag was introduced for merchant vessels sailing to Brazil. The new flag had a field with a golden armillary sphere. The armillary sphere had served as the emblem of King Manuel I of Portugal. During his reign Portuguese ships used it widely, and eventually it became an emblem of Portugal and, more specifically. A similar flag was introduced for the Portuguese ships that sailed to India and it eventually became the unofficial ensign of Brazil. In 1815, Brazil was elevated to the rank of kingdom, and the kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single state--the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, the Charter Act of 1816 established the insignia of the new kingdom. It specified that the arms of the Kingdom of Brazil was to be composed of an armillary sphere on a blue field. During this time, the flag of Brazil was the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. The imperial flag of Brazil was designed by Jean-Baptiste Debret as the Royal Standard of the Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, Pedro I. After the Brazilian Declaration of Independence, and with the coronation of Pedro I as Emperor of Brazil, the new flag featured the imperial coat of arms within a gold rhombus, on a green field. The green and yellow represented the dynastic houses of Pedro I. The imperial flag was modified during the reign of Pedro II. It was flown from November 15,1889, until November 19,1889, Fonseca suggested that the flag of the new republic should resemble the old imperial flag

10.
Friedrich Engels
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Friedrich Engels was a German philosopher, social scientist, journalist, and businessman. He founded Marxist theory together with Karl Marx, in 1845, he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in Manchester. In 1848, he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx, though he also authored and co-authored many other works, after Marxs death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organised Marxs notes on the Theories of Surplus Value and he also made contributions to family economics. Friedrich Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in Barmen, Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropolis, and Friedrich was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton textile manufacturer. His father, Friedrich, Sr. was a Pietistic Protestant, as he grew up, however, he developed atheistic beliefs and his relationship with his parents became strained. His mother wrote to him of her concerns, She said that he had gone too far. She continued, You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my sons arrest, when his mother wrote, Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium, soon to make his way to Switzerland. In 1849, he returned to the Kingdom of Bavaria for the Baden, at 17, Friedrich had dropped out of high school due to family circumstances. He spent a year in Barmen, in 1838, his father sent the young man to work as a nonsalaried office clerk at a commercial house in Bremen. His parents expected that he would follow his father into a career in business and it would be some years before he joined the family firm. Whilst at Bremen, Engels began reading the philosophy of Hegel, in September 1838, he published his first work, a poem entitled The Bedouin, in the Bremisches Conversationsblatt No.40. He also engaged in literary and journalistic work. Also while at Bremen, Engels began writing newspaper articles critiquing the societal ills of industrialisation and he wrote under a pseudonym, Friedrich Oswald, to avoid connecting his life in a Pietist industrialist family with his provocative writings. In 1841, Engels joined the Prussian Army as a member of the Household Artillery and he was assigned to Berlin, where he attended university lectures at the University of Berlin and began to associate with groups of Young Hegelians. He anonymously published articles in the Rheinische Zeitung, exposing the poor employment, the editor of the Rheinische Zeitung was Karl Marx. Engels did not meet Marx until late November 1842, Engels acknowledged the influence of German philosophy on his intellectual development throughout his life

11.
Henry George
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Henry George was an American political economist, journalist, and philosopher. His most famous work, Progress and Poverty, sold millions of copies worldwide, George was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a lower-middle-class family, the second of ten children of Richard S. H. George and Catharine Pratt George. His father was a publisher of religious texts and a devout Episcopalian, George chafed at his religious upbringing and left the academy without graduating. Instead he convinced his father to hire a tutor and supplemented this with avid reading and attending lectures at the Franklin institute. His formal education ended at age 14 and he went to sea as a foremast boy at age 15 in April 1855 on the Hindoo, bound for Melbourne and Calcutta. He ended up in the West in 1858 and briefly considered prospecting for gold, in California, George fell in love with Annie Corsina Fox, an eighteen-year-old girl from Sydney who had been orphaned and was living with an uncle. The uncle, a prosperous, strong-minded man, was opposed to his nieces impoverished suitor, but the couple, defying him, eloped and married in late 1861, with Henry dressed in a borrowed suit and Annie bringing only a packet of books. The marriage was a one and four children were born to them. Foxs mother was Irish Catholic, and while George remained an Evangelical Protestant, on November 3,1862 Annie gave birth to future United States Representative from New York, Henry George, Jr. Early on, even with the birth of future sculptor, Richard F. George, which remained required reading in California schools for decades. George climbed the ranks of the Times, eventually becoming managing editor in the summer of 1867, George worked for several papers, including four years as editor of his own newspaper San Francisco Daily Evening Post and time running the Reporter, a Democratic anti-monopoly publication. The George family struggled but Georges increasing reputation and involvement in the newspaper industry lifted them from poverty, Georges other two children were both daughters. The first was Jennie George, later to become Jennie George Atkinson, Georges other daughter was Anna Angela George, who would become mother of both future dancer and choreographer, Agnes de Mille and future actress Peggy George. George began as a Lincoln Republican, but then became a Democrat and he was a strong critic of railroad and mining interests, corrupt politicians, land speculators, and labor contractors. He first articulated his views in an 1868 article entitled What the Railroad Will Bring Us and this had led to him earning the enmity of the Central Pacific Railroads executives, who helped defeat his bid for election to the California State Assembly. One day in 1871 George went for a ride and stopped to rest while overlooking San Francisco Bay. He later wrote of the revelation that he had, I asked a passing teamster, for want of something better to say, what land was worth there. He pointed to some cows grazing so far off that they looked like mice, and said, I dont know exactly, like a flash it came over me that there was the reason of advancing poverty with advancing wealth