The outbreak of war in 1914

It was on June 28, 1914. The hot Summer day, sapped one's energy. People dozed
behind curtains when suddenly, wild rumors struck their ears. People ran into
the streets, tore the extra editions from the hands of the newsboys  and
experienced the shocking news. Many thought that the shots of the murder in
Sarajevo had struck the heart of the monarchy and were concerned about the
future.

After a few weeks of rumor and conjecture, the war broke out. It turned into a
world wide conflict. Still, no one could grasp the tragedy that lay in the
terrible event or foresee the bloody consequences or realize that this war
would end European culture and civilization and introduce an epoch of horror of
incalculable duration. Millions would meet their fate and for the Bukovina
Jews, it meant the "beginning of the end."

In the first weeks of the war, the Czernowitz Jews celebrated the small
victories of the Austrian army units in the border clashes near the city. The
skirmish at Rarancze where the Russians got a bloody nose was celebrated as a
great victory by the local patriots. They didn't, however have to wait long for
a disappointment. Bad news arrived from the Galician front. Many were able to
foresee the future events and fled, preferably to Vienna. Mayor Dr.
Weisselberger remained staunchly at his post. Already on September 2, 1914
units of the Czar's army under General Evreimow entered Czernowitz. There were
gun battles in the side streets of the city and a Jewish victim was recorded,
but soon quite ruled. The Russian soldiers maintained discipline. Only the
general rattled his saber and demanded a high tribute from the mayor of the
city. Since the city treasury was empty, the mayor appealed to the citizens to
contribute money and valuables. Only the poor Jews responded to this appeal
since the rich Jews had already fled. The non-Jewish citizens remained passive.
The next day the Russian commander made a noble gesture  he nullified the
order. The money and valuables were returned to their owners. The protector of
the Jews was the Archbishop Dr. von Repta, who had stored the Torah scrolls in
his palace for safekeeping. In their time of greatest spiritual need, the
Czernowitz Jews were without political leaders. Dr. Straucher thinking of his
safety had fled as had his deputy, Dr. Adolf Leiter and the majority of the
Community Council. The community had become an orphan. Then the brave master
carpenter, Jeremia Sikofand stepped into the breach and together with other
courageous Jews, managed the community institutions.

The fortunes of war fluctuated. Already in November 1914, the Russians
retreated from Czernowitz. However, they took many prominent citizens as
hostages including Dr. Salo Weisselberger, the Zionist leader Dr. Mayer Ebner
and the journalist Dr. Philipp Menczel. The Austrian medical corps soldiers,
with many Jews among them, who remained in the city were taken as prisoners of
war. The Jews were now able to breath easy in the freed city. Their Christian
fellow citizens had hung holy pictures in their windows in order to direct the
plundering Russian soldiers to the Jewish homes. Since 1848 when Russian
soldiers marched through Czernowitz on the way to suppress the Hungarian
revolution, the city had seen no Russian troops; now the renewal of the
acquaintance would prove to have serious consequences.

In 1915, the Austrian government opened Czernowitz university which had been
closed for more than a year and also, all the middle schools of the land, in
order to show in this way that they didn't expect another Russian advance. This
maneuver was especially intended to prevent the Romanian government, which was
already making eyes at the Triple Entante
16
, from falling into the enemy camp. Obviously, the goal was not reached. The
Jews of the city and the state suffered grievously. The fleeing of a large part
of the population led reduced possibilities for earning a living. The front was
nearby. The thunder of the artillery continued day and night. Soon events took
a new turn. The offensive of the Russian general Brussilow in June of 1916 led
to a retreat of the Austrian Eastern Army and sped up the evacuation of
Czernowitz. Only when the Russian steamroller plowed back East in 1917 was the
city again free. The Russian revolution awoke new hope. Many Jewish families
who had fled, gradually returned. Their homes in the provinces were destroyed
and they tried to start over in Czernowitz. The despair grew with every day.
Most of the men were still in the field or sent Red Cross letters from prison
camps. In order to help the returnees, Jewish "help committees" were
organized in Czernowitz. The poor helped the poorest. Longing to return to
their home town of Czernowitz led many who had fled to break ties they had
built up in their temporary locations so they again be at home. In the end,
their loyalty to their home town was poorly rewarded.

During the war years, Czernowitz could hardly be recognized. People frightened
and weighed down with troubles, hurried like shadows through the streets.
Military uniforms dominated the cityscape. Officers and tired soldiers were on
their way to or from the railroad station. The station building, heated in
winter had become a dormitory. Soldiers slept on the floor pressed closely
together, leaving no space free. Anyone seeking the entrance had to step over
them. The closer the war came to its end, the greater became the lack of food
and other necessities. The most difficult articles to obtain were fuel and foot
wear. Prices rose from day to day.

The greatly reduced Jewish population suffered indescribable difficulties.
Intellectual life had died completely. After the fall of darkness, all traffic
ceased because the street lights didn't work. Families generally restricted
themselves to one room, dimly lit with an oil lamp. The only topic of
conversation was the war and its consequences. People clung to the weakest
hope. Austria still existed. Their own fate seemed to be tied to the final
victory of the Austrian army. People shut their eyes to the threatening danger.
Even elderly people who supposedly had the wisdom of age, had a completely
unfounded optimism. No one wanted to thing about the impending downfall of the
Hapsburg monarchy.

1918-1940

In Fall of 1918, the collapse of Austria seemed inevitable. The Jews of the
city, were enveloped in a deep depression as the last Austrian state president,
Dr. Josef Graf Endorf handed over the reigns of government to the Ukrainian and
Romanian Nation Councils. The common people expected help from President Wilson
because they knew that he had spoken out against oppression of the people.
However, the president disappointed his admirers. The courageous fighter for
the ideal of people's freedom and people's happiness became a weakling who was
easily manipulated by the Frenchman Clemenceau and the Englishman Loyd George.
In the place of the promised people's freedom dark clouds appeared, and the
minorities of Bukovina became the pitiable victims of narrow minded politics,
especially the Jews of the state who had no influential benefactor.

The streets of the city were filled with armed soldiers who had deserted their
units. Hand in hand with the disintegration of the army came a paralyzing
uncertainty. The danger of attacks on the Jewish population by armed deserters
seemed to be immanent. Like a miracle help came just in time. Chief doctor Dr.
Ferdinand Sternlieb, First Lieutenant Dr. Leon Schmelzer and other, still
uniformed children of the city spontaneously formed an organized well armed
militia which kept civil order. In the hearts of the returning soldiers, there
was still the last shreds of discipline. Not a single Jew was injured.

As on November 11, 1918 Romanian troops marched into Czernowitz, all the
residents of the city were depressed, but the Jewish population of the city was
most severely affected. Towards the end of the war the Austrian government made
efforts to start rebuilding the city. Now the hope for a better world came to a
sudden stop. Knowing how Jews in Romania were treated, people feared a return
to the barbarity of the middle ages. Desperation spread.

The first news came from the provinces; it was frightening. After their march
into the villages of Bukovina, the commanders of the Romanian troops introduced
the bastinado
17
punishment and the unhappy delinquent would receive 25 blows for the smallest
transgression. It was like being hit in the head. The bastinado was exactly
what it appeared, an act of barbarity. The Jews were assaulted and insulted on
the streets and had no way of protecting themselves. In official announcements,
the Jews were called "Evrei
" but normally, they were called "Jidani" (Jewish rascals) and
suffered in all punishments of the Romanians who were defeated in war, but
considered themselves members of the "ruling nation," a concept which
was difficult to get used to.

In his first announcement to the citizens, Jancu Flondor the new Bukovina
minister stated that the minorities (meaning the Jews) had to subject
themselves to the majority. When the Morgenblatt, in an article written by its
editor, Julius Weber took a position against this unreasonable demand and
called for justice the government promptly reacted by closing down the paper
for three days. The public got a small taste of "freedom of the
press" in Romania.

Soon, however, the Romanian government itself reigned in the outbreaks of hate
against the Jews. Romania stood before the conclusion of the peace negotiations
and was not sure that its territorial ambitions would be fulfilled and
therefore had to cultivate the good will of the Great Powers who were
suspicious of Romania because of its earlier treatment of the Jews. Therefore,
a "modus vivendi" came into being. Jewish businessmen could continue
with their businesses, Jewish civil servants with many years of service were
tolerated, albeit only in minor positions; children were could continue
attending school. Members of the learned professions had it harder however, the
policy of pin pricks continued unabated. Almost overnight, the new regime
nullified the positions attained through years of diligent study. Those who had
become lawyers or teachers suddenly stood before the void. They were denied the
instrument of speech. German was forbidden and few were able to speak
Romanian. The population of Bukovina was 40% Ruthenian
, 35% Romanian, 10% Jewish, 6% German, 5% Hungarian, 4% Polish and other
nationalities, but in Czernowitz the situation was different. In the city
everyone spoke German and the suburbs were mainly Ruthenian. With no transition
period, the official language became exclusively Romanian. Even businesses were
forced to use Romanian for their signs. Private announcements like obituaries
had to appear in two languages with Romanian in first place even if the
announcement was not intended for Romanians. In Austria, all languages were
treated equally and the declared superiority of the "Romanian state
language" offended one's sense of justice. The government organized
language courses for teachers and civil servants. Even old men sat on the
school benches, but the government's heavy handed methods created resentment
which carried over to the lessons. The success of the instruction was very
small.

The taxes were oppressive, but bearable. The most difficult burden for the
former full citizens of Austria was the attitude of the Romanian civil servants
who made the most insignificant transaction difficult. Soon, however, it was
realized that giving the civil servant the appropriate bribe, would smooth the
path for any business, legal or illegal. Many Jews gradually became used to
this situation and both Jews and bureaucrats were satisfied.

The Jews who were in need, found help at the organizations JOINT, ORT and OSE
which using funds from American sources performed many beneficial services. Not
much later, HIAS came into the picture.

The rebuilding made visible progress. Czernowitz Jews who were themselves in
need, did all they could to help their less fortunate brothers. A stream of
approximately 6000 Jewish refugees from the Ukraine came to Czernowitz to try
and rebuild their lives. A committee for Ukrainian refugees was established,
directed at first by Schaje Goldfeld, who later became president of "Safa
Iwria" and later directed by the warm hearted Karl Klueger. With help of a
staff of fellow workers they were successful in helping the unfortunate ones
with word and deed until they moved on. Also the existing fraternal orders
(Bnai Brith, Orient, Veritas, Fraternite) contributed to the social help. The
founding of the "Helio-Therapeutischen Station" for treating sick
children was also a wonderful example of Jewish desire to help.

After the conclusion of the peace treaty negotiations, in which the clauses
dealing with the Jews led to unhappy delays, Jews were finally accorded the
same rights as the other residents of Bukovina and the treaty was ratified by
the parliament. It soon became obvious that the Romanian government had no
intention of taking the requirements of the treaty seriously and soon took
measures that proved the rights promised to the Jews were only illusory.

The short lived Romanian governments differed mainly in the degree of
persecution the Jews in the Land suffered. A new government meant only a change
in personnel. The party which faced election always found ways and means to
insure itself a majority in the law making bodies. Thereupon, the earlier
ministers and high officials disappeared from the scene. Their replacements,
after a period, faced the same fate. Every administration had the goal of
pushing the Jews who were leaders in commerce and industry out and replacing
them with Romanians even though the party members were directly or directly
involved in the Jewish concerns and were well paid.

The leaders of the Jewish National Council (founded on December 7, 1918) fought
in the first months of the Romanian government to improve the living conditions
of the population and had to contend with the efforts of the government to
break the attempts at Jewish solidarity. For example, the National Council
declined the invitation to attend the December 28, 1918 congress of all the
National Councils of Bukovina called by Jancu Flondor, the first Romanian
governor and refused to provide the declaration of unconditional annexation to
the Romanian state. Then it was decided not to take part in the
Konstituante
held in the Summer of 1919. Then Jakob Hecht, a Jewish business running as a
candidate for the anti-semetic Liberial Party was "elected" senator
and in this capacity delivered the statement intended for the peace conference,
that the Jewish residents of Bukovina willingly become part of the Romanian
state. This declaration, however didn't achieve its goal because the Paris
Committee for the Protection of Jewish Rights was immediately informed about
the situation and Dr. Ebner, in his publication, the "East Jewish
Newspaper," skewered the lumber dealer Hecht for issuing this false
declaration, but this did nothing to alter the fact that from now on, the Jews
were registered members of the Romanian political parties and had lost their
mandate. The Jews could no longer present a united front against persecution by
the government, and this meant the victor of Romanian anti-Semitism. During its
existence the members of the Jewish National Council worked nobly, but couldn't
claim any noteworthy success.

Minister Jon Nistor, who represented Bukovina in the Kaiser's Council, a member
of the so called Liberals, said one time in an election meeting that one must
proceed with caution and be certain of the goal in order to gradually
"take the bread out of the Jew's mouths." This utterance, in its
perfidious brutality became popular. It was the favorite maxim of all the
following regimes. In Czernowitz the capital of Bukovina with the greatest
Jewish population, the pulse of events was more perceptible than in other
Jewish communities.

The Jewish National Council was dissolved on December 25 1919. There was no
longer a central organization for the defense of Jewish rights. The student
organizations continued their usual activity. They operated almost secretly,
meeting behind closed doors until the Romanian government ended their existence
in 1936 with the stroke of a pen. The Jewish press was allowed to publish until
1936 and they could no longer record the growing evil.

Being members of Romanian parties brought some advantage to the Jews because
the parties were forced to be considerate of their Jewish members and this
prevented measures for total annihilation of the Jews. In various election
periods, in addition to the already mentioned "Senator" Hecht, the
Zionist Dr. Mayer Ebner, Karl Kluegr and Dr. Salo von Weisselberger sat in the
Romanian Senate, the upper house. Members of the Chamber of Deputies were
Dr.Mayer Ebner, Dr. Manfred Reifer, Dr. Benno Straucher, and Dr. Jakob
Pistiner. The Jewish representatives had it hard. In spite of their courageous
efforts on the part of their constituents, they could accomplish very little.
There was no lack of efforts to relax the tense atmosphere. In the "Club
of Bukovina Intellectuals" founded in 1928, there were many Jewish members
(with Dr. Ebner at the helm) but attempts to dialogue with the Romanian
spokesmen from Regat and Bukovina were unsuccessful. There were representatives
of the Jewish population in the Czernowitz City Council and the Jews were also
sporadically represented in the Presidium, but they had very little influence
on the course of events. The Jews were always made aware that they didn't have
equal rights and at best were only tolerated. Even in the
Barreau
and the Chamber of Commerce where Jews were in the majority, the dignity of
the presidential office was reserved for Romanians. Romanians who tried to take
the side of the Jews like Professor Dr. Radulescu and latter Mayor Traian
Popovici were attacked unmercifully.

Since the Berlin Congress (1878) the granting of citizenship to Jews was a
controversial problem. The Bojaren, the feudal rulers of the land and the thin
strata of the educated and the half educated never made a secret of their
dislike of the Jews. The Romanians were masters shirking their obligations and
deceiving the world. Still in the pre-war years, the efforts of the
"Alliance of Israelites" and its representative Adolphe Cremieux, who
called the Jews in Romania "the last slaves in Europe" were without
success. The Jews were the pariahs in a society consisting of a few Bojars,
millions of backwards, exploited farmers and a thin strata of so called
intellectuals which "blew in the nationalistic horn" and placed the
blame for all its problems on the Jews. In the long run, the question of
citizenship for the Jews was a thorn in the eye of the politicians, a bite that
they couldn't swallow. A means to circumvent the clear wording of the
contractual obligations was the citizenship law of 1924 and later came the
ordinance of January 21, 1938 concerning the revision of citizenship
requirements. The law only effected Jews and in no way concerned the other
"foreign" races living in Bukovina. Thousands lost their citizenship
because they could not produce the required documents for the court or got
caught in the meshes of the exquisitely crafted law and this in a time when no
other country would accept them. The measures taken by the government made the
masses very bitter. Out of despair, the Czernowitz gynecologist, Dr. Weinberg
committed suicide. The process lasted many months, tormented the nerves and
required large outlays for lawyer's fees. Thousands lost their citizenship.
Everyone involved had the bitter realization that the Jews in Romania were
powerless against all the government's outrages. The countries which monitored
to insure that the terms of the peace treaty were adhered to found no reason to
interfere when the rights of Jews were trampled. The "Jewish Central"
set up in Bucharest, under the direction of Chief Rabbis Dr. Jakob Niemierower,
Dr. Theodor Fischer and Dr. Wilhelm Fildermann, could do nothing to alter the
situation. National Socialist Germany was already determining the fate of the
Romanian Jews.

The Czernowitz City Magistrate, the "Primaria" with every year,
became more the domain of self seeking politicians. What used to be called
"civic virtue" became an empty concept. The Jews were gradually
driven out of all positions. For them, there was no place under the sun. In the
City Council, which since 1863 had always had a Jewish deputy mayor or mayor as
chairman, the Romanians still allowed Jews as members in order to put up a
front, but allowed them to have no influence on the "Judenpolitik
19
"
of the party currently in power. Some of the Jewish members of the city
council in the Romanian period were Dr. Norbert Zlocower, Leo Schnapp, and Dr.
Marcus Kraemer. In 1928, Dr. Oberlaender and in 1929, Karl Klueger were deputy
mayors. The Judenpolitic of Nazi Germany was greeted in Romania with open
sympathy. One was no longer ashamed of the hate tirades against the
"Jidanii
20
."
Because of the Germans, hatred of the Jews had become respectable. This
development reached its highpoint when in 1937/1938, the short lived government
of Cuza-Goga came into power. Its fall only signified an acceleration of the
catastrophe that was to strike the Jews of Romania. The political
demoralization grew steadily. There was no protection against the exploitation
by corrupt officials and no forum where a grievance had a chance of success.
There were no Jews in the higher officialdom. For Jews, there were no favors
and no possibility of advancing. Even the vernacular was prescribed for them.
The former governor of Bukovina, Alexianu, who was executed as a war criminal
in 1945 ordered punishments for any Czernowitz Jew who used another language
than Romanian in public. There were no restrictions set on the language used by
the other non-Romanian residents of the city.

Since 1919, the Romanian government tried to gain influence over the Jewish
Community so they could use its help in undermining the position of the Jews of
the country. They made use of every discord in the Jewish camp, by sponsoring
the Chairman who suited them. The Bukovina Minister Nistor had seen with his
own eyes, the fight against Dr. Nestor in the People's Council and learned from
that how he could defeat the Jewish groups who honestly fought against
disfranchisement. He allowed Dr. Straucher who for a time had unsuccessfully
looked for new group of allies to return to Czernowitz. Dr. Straucher then
filled the wishes of his Romanian sponsors and joined the Jew hating Liberal
Party Romanians, who in Minister Nistor had their Czernowitz representative.
Dr. Straucher immediately after his return, caused the removal of the lawyer,
Dr. Salomon Kinsbrunner as leader of the Community and stepped into his place.
He probably thought that he could turn back the wheels of history if he took
the leadership of the Community, the source of previous position of power. His
deputy was the finance minister, a. D. Dr. Leo Neuberger. In 1926 there was a
Executive Committee headed by Dr. Mayer Ebner and Bank Director Bernhard
Fleminger with members: Julius Bochner, Moritz Geiger, Dr. Markus Kraemer,
Moritz Liquornik, Engineer Samuel Platzmann, Dr. Max Perlstein, Zacharias
Pullman, Isak Rosner, Felwel Trichter and Josef Wiznitzer. Soon, however a new
wind was blowing. Lawyer Dr. Marcus Menczer was appointed as leader of the
Community and then Dr. Straucher followed him (for the last time) and his
deputy was OLGR a.D. Dr. Isidor Gold. In 1930 the
Reg. Rat a.D
. Dr. Karl Gutherz became leader of the Community. Shortly thereafter an
election was held in the Executive Committee because of a new statute handed
down by the Romanian Ministry of Religions. From now on the government of the
Community was to be a body controlled by the Romanian administration for
addressing Jewish issues. It carried the name, 'Comunitates Evreeasca and the
Community seal bore the Romanian coat of arms. The purpose of the Community was
no longer to satisfy religious needs but was considered a "People's
Community
21
" with limited rights. As a result of the election, the Community got a
new leadership with Dr. Karl Guthertz as president and three vice presidents,
Dr. Berl Friedmann (Social Democrat), Dr. Joel Hafner and Dr. Paul Katz.
Members of the Executive Committee were Isak Einhorn, Aron Heitner, Dr. Herbert
Krauthammer, Moritz Liquornik, Dr. Jakob Markus, Kalman Metsch, Dr. Ignaz Perl,
and others. Moreover, in compliance with the statute, there were 50 members of
the Community Council. After the 4 year terms ran out, leaders of the Community
were appointed, among them were Dr. Markus Menczer and Government Advisor Dr.
Elias Enis. The Community received no subsidy from the government, while
Christian religious organizations were generously supported.

In the Russian years (1940/41) the existence of a Community was not compatible
with the Communist ideology. Some of the former officers of the Community
formed a burial society which was still tolerated. As the German and Romanian
army units entered in 1941, the real catastrophe began. Many reported for
service to make themselves indispensable and in that way avoiding deportation.
The Romanian administration at first put Dr. Siegmund Neuberger at the head of
the Community. He had an advisory committee whose members were: Heinrich
Deligdisch, Georg Haller, Dr. Moses Thaler, Dr. Leo Loewner, Dr. Jakob Landau,
Dr. Josef Mann, Karl Kluegr, Mrs. Kopelman-Finder, Michael Schindler, Siegmund
Sternberg and Arnold Zwecker. As the Community was dissolved on December 16,
1941 functions like the hospital and the burial society were directed by a
"Jewish Council" with 3 branches and Dr. Ludwig Dische.

Under Romanian rule, Dr. Josef Rosenfeld (died 1922) and starting in 1926, Dr.
Abraham Mark (murdered by the Nazis in 1941) served as chief rabbis. The
Orthodox rabbis were Benzion Katz (died 1934) and Meschulem Rath, a rabbinical
authority. They were assisted by rabbinical judges
22
Mordechai Schreiber, M.Hollaender and B. Schulsinger.

A change took place in the arena of politics. Loyalty, once a sign of strength
of character was no longer valued. Men with political ambitions joined Romanian
political parties in order to obtain the mandate. There were exceptions,
however. In addition to the Zionists under the leadership of Dr. Myer Ebner,
the leaders of the left leaning parties were upright, honorable men. Already in
the Austrian period, Dr. Jakob Pistiner, Dr. Joseph Kissman, Markus Kaswan, Dr.
Berl Friedmann, Nathan Tropper and many others had made a name for themselves.
Also the Poale Zionists, Dr. Berl Locker, Dr. Meier Rosner, Dr. Schlomo
Bickel, Dr. Feiwel Sternberg and Leib Steinmetz as well as the young leaders of
the Haschomer Hazair movement Jakob Polesiuk-Padan, Zwi Huber ((Ben Cohen),
Izchak Nussenbaum (Ben Aharon) and Izchak Pessach were far from turning
themselves into political "cattle dealers" in order to get in good
with the Romanian power brokers. They had clearly defined programs and defied
when possible the oppressive measures of the Romanian politicians. The left
wing parties were able to increase their numbers in the Romanian era and win
more ground with the Jewish public because, their political credo, appealed to
the many Jews who hated the Romanian dictatorship. Many worked out their anger
by joining a party that opposed the government. The "Bund" members
managed with help of American donations to build a community center,
"Morgenroit," in Czernowitz with a comprehensive library, a
vocational school and a cultural center for party members. Many youngsters
joined the party. The hopelessness of their future in Romania and their despair
about the situation led to join the Bund. The Romanian security officials
persecuted terribly the left leaning parties who they labeled as Communists.
There were numerous cases in which the unhappy representative of a new
"world view" paid for their idealism with their lives under the
torture of the Siguranza Agents (secret police). The Romanian leaders were
personally interested in the development of commerce and industry and therefore
couldn't completely put the Jewish element out of the picture. The attempt by
the Goga-Cuza government to totally drive out the Jews failed. This explains
why that up to 1940 in Czernowitz, although the Jews lost all their political
rights, their businesses prospered. The export of lumber blossomed. Max Ritter
von Auhauch, an imposing personality was still at the head of the most
important undertaking of this sort, "Bucovina," He was dedicated to
supporting Keren Hajessod
23
and contributed large sums for community services.

New industries were founded and developed by Jews. The textile industry
prospered thanks to Jewish capital and Jewish know how. Some of the firms were
the Trikot factory "Hercules" (B. Deligdisch); "Trinaco"
(Trichter, Naftalison & Co.); the factory of the Segall brothers;
"Tricotania" founded by Samuel Schmidt and his son-in-law Rosner;
"Bewi" (Bernhard Wiedner); "Minka" (Eugen Buchbinder) etc.
A button factory (Wronski) and a chemical dye works (Dresner) worked in
parallel with the textile factories. The Roskies brothers built a rubber ware
factory "Caurom" in Czernowitz. The crude oil refinery, the
distillery and the sugar refinery which already in the Austrian time were
products of Jewish industry were able to expand their scope. The Jewish
wholesale bakeries Bilgrey, Ternbach, Rasp and Spasser, provided baked goods
for the city. The brick works "Patria", and the tile factory H.
Trichter also large companies from the Austrian period were able to enlarge
their businesses. The domestic trade became more significant every year. Large
companies were "Buwag" (Bukowiner Warengesellschaft, B. Sobel) and
"Impex" (Import-Export) and many others. Noteworthy industrialists
and merchants were also Goldstein, Biedermann & Kindler (paper industry); M.
Rosenberg and Herman Kern (grain exporters) S. Imber (fabric); Richard
Trichter, Siegmund Lehr, Jakob & Josef Peretz, Gersch Steinberg, Israel
Gottesmann, Emil Roessler, Engineer M. Schindler and others.

Jews were also important in banking. The branch of the National Bank (Banca
Nationala) like its predecessor, the branch of the Austro-Hungarian bank had
slipped from Jewish influence, but despite all the restrictions, Jews were
active in the management of the other banks in the city. There were some new
entries in the banking business during this period; the Marmaroschbank, the
Mercurbank branch, later called the Banca Comerciala (Porcurist Josef Badian);
the branch of the Banca Moldova (Dir. Josef Hilferding); Bankhaus Soifer
(Procurist Josua Morgenstern); the Romanian Creditbank (Dr. Victor Landau) and
others. Only the Savings Bank, at one time the most loved financial institution
of in the city, in which the "little man" kept his savings went
under because the makeup of the board of directors became a bone of contention
among the Romanian parties and loans were made to party members incapable of
repaying them. The large number of Jewish depositors remained loyal to the bank
to the last and were the most hurt by its collapse. The "Ostbank"
(Gen. Dir. Jakob Kindler) replaced the Savings Bank in the trust of the
customers. Also, many Jews made a living in the insurance business (Steaua
Romaniei, Dir. Gustav Huefgott).

The planned restrictions on the Jews in all areas of public life, the political
pressure upon them, the general loss of rights and the countless small and
large vexations couldn't suppress the Jewish longing for education. The
majority of the population were not satisfied with the public school education,
they sent their children to higher schools and wanted to send their children,
as they were accustomed to, to the German middle schools that still existed.
The Romanian government put a rude stop to this effort. Already in 1919, the
Jewish middle school children were concentrated in one mammoth school, the
Jewish State Gymnasium which at that time had 32 departments and 70 teachers.
That way, the government achieved two goals with one stroke. The Jews could no
longer attend a German school, so that the "Germanization" process
was halted and the Romanian teachers who alone were permitted to teach the
national subjects (Romanian language and Romanian history) made the lives of
the students miserable and took away their desire to learn. Wealthy parents
sent their children to private schools in which a different wind blew. In order
to prevent the Jewish middle school graduates from attending the university, a
short time later the baccalaureate law was passed. This law required that a
middle school graduate had to pass an exam before a commission appointed by the
Ministry of Education in order to attend a university. The examination was just
a formality for Romanian aspirants, but for Jewish students it was roadblock
that was difficult to get by. The tragedy of the student Fallik illustrates the
situation. There were no Jews on the faculty of Czernowitz University. In spite
of all the difficulties, many Jewish students could be found in the lecture
halls, but their numbers steadily diminished. Those who could afford it
attended a university abroad. The diploma earned abroad, was accepted in
Romania if the candidate passed a special examination. The examining
professors, out of respect for their foreign colleagues generally accepted the
diploma. There were exceptions however.

In the initial years of Romanian rule, there were still a few German theater
performances. Even Alexander Moissi gave a guest performance. But just the fact
that the Jews acclaimed the great actor made the Romanians sour and they
abruptly banned the German theater. After that there were only amateur German
performances. The Romanian officials couldn't force the Jews to attend the
Romanian City Theater. Only the Jewish middle school students occasionally were
taken to "patriotic" plays by order of the school officials. Most
theater goers boycotted the Romanian theater because they hadn't mastered the
Romanian language and because of passive opposition to the forced
"Romanization" of the city. They had to think of their own cultural
values. The lodges, "Bnai Brith", "Orient", and
"Fraternite" and the club "Massada" provided places where
Jews could gather. The educational organizations "Ber-Borochow" and
"Morgenroit" provided for the cultural needs of the workers in the
socialist Bund organization. "Morgenroit" had a well stocked library.
In the social democratic "Education Society" worked mostly Jews. The
most well known instructors were Dr. Jakob Pistiner and Dr. Silbermann. The
"Zeire Zion" (Chairman Dr. Benedikt Kasan) in Herrengasse and the
"Poale Zion" in its home in Schulgasse cared for the education of the
Zionist workers. The organ of "Poale Zion" was the
"Freedom" and its most well known leaders were Leib Steinmetz,
Hersach Essner, Josef Schwarzmann, Dr. Schmiel Enzer, Dr. Feiwel Sternberg,
Chaim Kraft, Dr. Meier Rosner, Dr. Berl Locker, Leo Schaefler, Dr. Schaul
Sokal, Dr. Schlomo Bickel, Jehuda Teitler, Dr. Mosner and others. Occasional
guest performances offered Jewish theater (Fraje Yiddish Stage, Yiddish Theater
Group Fischsohn). The Yiddish theater organization founded in 1913 by Dr. Max
Diamant was not able to achieve its goal, the building of their own theater,
but it was able to bring many top Yiddish theater troupes to Czernowitz.

The Zionists enriched the cultural life of the city greatly. In mass meetings,
the population was urged to a healthy nationalistic feeling and was lifted
spiritually by the hope for a homeland. The instructors Dr. Mayer Ebner, Dr.
Theodor Weisselberger, Dr. Manfred Reifer and many others that we don't have
room to list became the teachers of the people. The Jews of Czernowitz learned
in time the names of all the honored guests who came to speak to them. The
visits from Chaim Weizmann, Chaim Arlosoroff, Kurt Blumenfeld, Martin Buber,
Selig Brodetzky, Nachum Goldmann, Seew Jabotinsky, Nachum Sokolow, Schmarjahu
Lewin, Imanuel Olswanger, Josef Sprinzak, Joachim Prinz, Dr. N. M. Gelber,
Menachem Ussischkin and others were unforgettable experiences. It was a prize
for the "Debor" the "Wizo" and the "Young Wizo"
and especially their long standing president Klara Klinge (died 1957 in
Tel-Aviv) to have won the Ladies for National Jewish Activity. Klara Klinger
accomplished great work as city councilwoman, serving on the Community Council
and as director of the Jewish Orphanage in Wagnergasse. The Zionist
organizations ran in addition to yearly propaganda rallies and commemoration
services, "adult education" courses with the help of Dr. Th.
Weisselberger, Dr. M. Reifer, Dr. L. Schmelzer, Julian Silberbusch, Dr. O.
Brueck, Dr. Ch. Ehrlilch, Karl Klueger, M. Friedmann and others. The
"Makabi" sports club had its own cultural circle under the leadership
of o Dr. Jakob Pelzel. The Circle of Zionist Women (Dr. Weich, Fraenkel, Kraft,
Kaniuk and others) met in private homes and listened to lectures about
scientific themes of all sorts. In addition, the Community supported a public
library with a reading room. In the memorable Community Council meeting of
August 23, 1919, Hebrew was recognized as the national language of the Jewish
people and its use was recommended for school instruction. The organization
"Safa Iwria" was especially active in promoting the use of Hebrew.
Jehuda Ehrenkranz was also a champion of the Hebrew language. In addition to
the :Safa Iwria" the "Yiddish School Organization" was also a
leader, albeit in a different direction.

There was a lively Jewish press in Czernowitz, which angered the Romanian
government, since the papers appeared in German and Yiddish which allowed them
to be distributed abroad, spreading the news of events which the Romanians
would have rather kept secret. The papers kept a high standard of journalism
and had a large circulation. The big dailies kept their readers up to date and
were rather mild in their criticism of state politics. One could read between
the lines that the writers of the articles were intimidated. The much
ballyhooed freedom of the press didn't exist. On the other hand, the numerous
publications of the left leaning parties, mostly in the Yiddish language were
less cautious which gave the censors grounds to continually step in.

German literature lost ground. No more creative talent was to be found in that
area. In contrast, Jewish literature blossomed. Some important authors were:
the fable poet Elieser Steinbarg (died 1932), the ballad poet Itzig Manger and
the poet Jakob Sternberg. Kubi Wohl who died young (1936) who wrote poetry in
German and Yiddish.

Only in the area of sports were the Romanian rulers less oppressive. In sports
the Jews saw a branch of Zionist activity, a kind of preparation for the life
in Eretz Israel. The "Blue White Hiking Club" had been founded in
1908 and was followed by "Maccabee" and "Hakoah." Among,
successful events, the Makkabee Games of 1935 deserve special mention. The
number of talented athletes was impressive (Volume 1, Dr. H. Rubel, Jewish
Sport in Bukovina).

In Czernowitz, music consistently found enthusiastic devotees. In the
"Music Club" which had its own building with a large auditorium, and
even in the Austrian time many Jewish artists practiced there and the music
school there has a goodly number of Jewish students. Especially deserving of
praise at the music school were Prof. Kraemer and Prof. Adler and Director
Fohrenstein. One singing group was "Hasamir." During the Romanian
period, the musical life of the city centered around the nerve doctor, Dr.
Alfred Ramler (died March 7, 1958) at whose home, musicians and lovers of music
met for Sunday concerts. Dr. Ramler, highly educated in music without actually
being a musician, enjoyed being the organizer of musical performances and a
sponsor of musical talent. His library which held vocal, instrumental and
orchestral music was one of a kind. The string quartet which he formed
consisted of Samuel Flohr (1
st
violin), Benno Koerner (2
nd
violin), and Dr. Max Schapira (viola and piano). Moreover Dr. Franz Tischler
(cello), the singers Rosi Dampf, Dolly Engel, Marguerite Kozenn-Chajes and
Melitta Sternberg were also part of this circle. The "Collegium Musicum
formed in 1927 regularly performed symphony concerts in Toynbee Hall, which
since 1937 were directed by Josua Hallenberg and in which besides the
performers already mentioned the pianist Bianka Kraemer-Neuberger and the
violinist Klein took part.

In addition, the concert agency of the Meth brothers repeatedly staged
concerts. The audience consisted mostly of Jews. It's noteworthy that they
rarely attended musical performances of the Romanian Conservatory or the
diverse national singing groups. There didn't feel comfortable there. The
estrangement had carried over into the area of music.

In the area of government social aid programs, the Jews were at a great
disadvantage since they couldn't expect any accommodation from the Romanian
authorities. Here is where private charity came into play. The accomplishments
of the Czernowitz Jews in this respect deserve the greatest recognition.
Especially helpful in this endeavor were the fraternal orders, "Bnai Brith
Orient" (founded in 1911) the "Veritas" which in its founding
year 1913 also accepted non-Jews, but since only 1923 only had Jewish members
and the "Fraternite" which grew out of Veritas as well as the
"Massada" club. The main goal was the creation of worker and student
kitchens as well as aid to cultural organizations (Safa Iwria, etc.). The
"Joint" (in Czernowitz since December 20, 1919) was generous with its
resources whenever it was appealed to.

Besides these various clubs and charitable organizations, individuals provided
charity. Nathan and Josefine Horowitz were supporters of the Child Protection
League for Care of Orphans, the Jakob brothers and Josef Peretz used their own
money to build the Apprentice Home, Dr. Gustav Schifter created the
tuberculosis sanatorium, and the married couple Kisslinger supported the
Toynbee Hall. When in the last half of September, 1933 a stream of refugees
came from Galicia to Czernowitz, the residents of Czernowitz helped all the
refugees without asking about their religion or nationality. Leading this
effore were the wife of the industrialist, Rosa Kraft, banker Lipa Horowitz,
Markus Gold, Simche Eisenberg, Josef Wronski, Director Isak Zehnwirt, etc.
After the war, benefactors from Czernowitz set up a kitchen in Bucharest where
hundreds of needy people could get a warm meal every day. Dr. Bernhard Tauber
working closely with Dr. Chaim Gelber , assisted by Berthold Sobel, Salo
Schmidt, Sumer Wolf (died 1956), Natan Klipper and Hermann Perez were
responsible for this act of charity. Among the residents of Czernowitz there
were always friends of humanity and not just in times of catastrophe. One we
should mention is Schmuil Aba Soifer (murdered in 1941) who in Café
Astoria, at his Oneg Schabbat had a group of generous men around him like Max
Seidmann, Heinrich Deligdisch, Mathias Roll, Lipa Horwoitz, etc who worked
together in charitable deeds. Among the most well known benefactors were Dr. S.
Bibring, Rabbi Rubin, Siegfried Adlersberg, Max Adelstein, Levi Schachter, Karl
Klueger (died December 19, 1943), Dr. Karl Gutherz, Arie Ritter, Maz Delfiner
and many others. Deserving special mention are the ladies Zunia Schifter,
President of the Czernowitz Jewish Tuberculosis Care Organization; Sarina
Fokschaner (after school day care); Lina Trichter (People's Kitchen
Organization); Gusti Weich and Klara Klinger (Woman's Aid Organization);
Caroline Leiter (maternity home); Lina Roth and Rosa Kozower (vacation home);
Eugenie Schifer, Josefine Horowitz and numerous deserving helpers, the many
girls and women who with heartwarming motherliness helped the needy. The lodges
and the club "Massada" saw in charitable works, their chief task.

During the Austrian period, Czernowitz had a student home (donated by Jews)
which stood open for poor students. Since the Romanians took over, the home no
longer accepted Jewish students. The building of a Jewish student home and a
Mensa academy for students who were not residents of the city was a worthwhile
work which proved very rewarding. In 1923 the Mensa moved into its own home
(leader: Dr. Jakob Pelzel).

The Romanian rulers had severely wounded the residents of Czernowitz. Human
nature is flexible, however and people adapt to the unavoidable. They became
used to the indignities and tried to bear them silently. Then suddenly in June
1940 came the Russian ultimatum. The Romanian military and officials cleared
the city rapidly. The Russian act of force enraged the Romanians of the city
and the surrounding land and this rage turned into a blind hatred of the Jews.
Revenge on the "Jidanii" was the solution, as if Stalin had been
invited to Bukovina by the Jews. Romanian soldiers, policemen and farmers
carried out horrifying bestialities on the Jews of the surrounding area and the
province. In the city itself, quite ruled as the Red Army marched in on June
28, 1940. The Russian years (1940/1941) let the Jews of the city get the full
taste of the revolutionary ideology. At first there was a never before
experienced lack of all food and necessities. There were long lines of young
and old standing in front of the few open shops in all kinds of weather while
policemen in blue uniforms taught the crowd Communist discipline. When there
was nothing left to sell, the people had to quietly leave the place before the
store that they had achieved by hours of waiting. In addition to the physical
suffering, there was a laming uncertainty. People were arrested on the street,
didn't come home and were never seen again. A dull confusion born out of hunger
and poverty held the majority of the population. The Communists divided the
people into two classes, capitalists and workers. The capitalists were
considered criminals. They received special passes and were not allowed to
work. They were the "exploiters" and the goal of the new order was to
exterminate them. The workers became slaves of the state and were condemned to
years of imprisonment for the slightest infraction. After they had faithfully
worked for 8 hours at their machines, they had to listen to lectures in the
evening telling them that they had to work harder and produce more. Former
members or leaders of any organization, even if it was a sports club or a choir
were suspect. Even members of the Bund whose outlook was close to that of the
Orthodox were persecuted.

As all businesses were taken over by the state, "capitalists" put in
prison and the last vestige of individuality lost in the collectives, in June
1941 came the peak of Soviet statesmanship. Thousands were routed out in the
night, loaded on trains and sent to the snowfields of Siberia. There were very
few non-Jews among the deportees. The measure was intended as a mass execution
and was carried out as such. Even minor children were not spared. The people
were still horrified about this misdeed when nightly explosions woke the city
residents from their sleep. German flyers dropped bombs on the airport and the
railroad station. The war had broken out. In a rapid sequence of events, the
Rusians burned a part of the inner city an withdrew. They were followed by Nazi
murder bands and uniformed Romanian criminals. The Russian enemy had fled. The
helpless Jews of the city became the object of revenge and killing lust.

What the Jews of Czernowitz suffered in the years 1941-1944 must be understood
in the framework of the total situation. The horrors that they were subjected
to have no parallel in human history. No atonement can make up for it. But it
is not necessary to add up the pieces from which the bitter material of our
experiences with outer and inner enemies consists. The wounds are still not
healed. The blood still flows at the lightest touch. There is no merit in
having survived if survival doesn't bring obligations. Obligations to never
forget. We will never be ashamed of our tears.

Written by Prof. Dr. Herman Sternberg, Tel-Aviv

Notes:

1) Chedar: A school where little Jewish children learn the torah.
Return

2) Kultusgemeinde: This term literally means "religious community."
In this essay, it refers to the Jewish community of a town, or sometimes to the
governing structure of the Jewish community as defined by the Austrian
government. I simply use the term Community whenever the author uses
Kultusgemeinde or Gemeinde. There were two committees, the Kultusvorstand
(which I call the Board of Directors) and the Kultusrat (which I call the
Community Council). There were also , a president, vice presidents, a
secretary, a rabbi, religion teacher, etc. The committees were elected by the
Community and I assume that some or all of the other positions were appointed.
Return

3) Maskilim: Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Jews who engaged in secular
rationalistic studies and facilitated the acculturation of Jews to Western
society.
Return

4) Gymnasuim: A secondary school that prepares students for the university.
Return

5) state: The term state refers to the political entity of Bukovina Their
parliament is called the Diet. In the text, it is usually called
"Land."
Return

12) Ruthenian: According to a British Foreign Office report, a race of
people constituting 38% of the population of Bukovina, speaking the
Ruthenian language. The Encyclopedia Britannica says that they were
originally Ukrainians. They were also called "Little Russians."
Return

13) Purim: The holiday which commemorates the salvation of the Jewish community
from the genocidal plans of the wicked Haman. Haman wanted to kill all the
Jews, children and adults, in one day.
Return

This material is made available by JewishGen, Inc.
and the Yizkor Book Project for the purpose of fulfilling our
mission of disseminating information about the Holocaust and
destroyed Jewish communities. This material may not be copied,
sold or bartered without JewishGen, Inc.'s permission. Rights may be
reserved by the copyright holder.

JewishGen, Inc. makes no representations regarding the accuracy of
the translation. The reader may wish to refer to the original material
for verification. JewishGen is not responsible for inaccuracies or omissions in the original work and cannot rewrite or edit the text to correct inaccuracies and/or omissions.
Our mission is to produce a translation of the original work and we cannot verify the accuracy of statements or alter facts cited.