Tunisiaofficially Republic of Tunisia, Arabic Al-Jumhūrīyah at-Tūnisīyah country of North Africa. Tunisia is strategically important in the Mediterranean region, where its location and ease of access have made it vulnerable to virtually every historical influence in the area. It is bounded by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east and north. It has an area of 63,378 square miles (164,150 square km); the capital is Tunis (Tūnis).

With its more than 800 miles (1,300 km) of coastline, Tunisia has often been compared to the hull of a ship, solidly moored on the continent but also freely washed by the waves; in consequence, its destiny, as its leaders never tire of repeating, is at once Mediterranean and Maghrebian. Because the Maghreb constitutes a single geographic entity, the largely undemarcated boundaries separating Tunisia from Libya and Algeria do not assume the form of any natural barrier but, rather, have been shaped by the vicissitudes of history.

The landRelief and drainageTunisia’s accessible Mediterranean Sea coastline and strategic location have attracted conquerors and visitors throughout the ages, and its ready access to the Sahara has brought its people into contact with the inhabitants of the African interior.

According to Greek legend, Dido, a princess of Tyre, was the first outsider to settle among the native tribes of what is now Tunisia when she founded the city of Carthage in the 9th century BC. Although the story is certainly apocryphal, Carthage nonetheless grew into one of the great cities and preeminent powers of antiquity, and its colonies and entrepôts were scattered throughout the western Mediterranean region. Carthage fought a series of wars with its rival, Rome. Rome prevailed in the mid-2nd century BC, razed Carthage, and ruled the region for the following 500 years. In the 7th century Arab conquerors converted the native Berber (Amazigh) population of North Africa to Islam.

Tunisia’s culture is highly diverse, in part because of long periods of Ottoman and then French rule but also because populations of Jews and Christians have lived among a Muslim majority for centuries. Similarly, the capital, Tunis, blends ancient Arab souks and mosques and modern-style office buildings into one of the most handsome and lively cities in the region. Other cities include Sfax (Ṣafāqis), Sousse (Sūsah), and Gabès (Qābis) on the fertile coast and Kairouan (Al-Qayrawān) and El-Kef (Al-Kāf) in the arid interior.

Tunisia’s people are renowned for their conviviality and easygoing approach to daily life, qualities that Albert Memmi captured in his 1955 autobiographical novel Pillar of Salt:

…we shared the ground floor of a shapeless old building, a sort of two-room apartment. The kitchen, half of it roofed over and the rest an open courtyard, was a long vertical passage toward the light. But before reaching this square of pure blue sky, it received, from a multitude of windows, all the smoke, the smells, and the gossip of our neighbours. At night, each locked himself in his room, but in the morning, life was always communal….

This warmth, joined with the country’s renowned hospitality and cuisine, has contributed greatly to Tunisia’s growing popularity as a destination for tourists from throughout Europe and the Americas.

Land

Tunisia is bounded by Algeria to the west and southwest, by Libya to the southeast, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the east and north.

Relief

Tunisia is characterized by moderate relief. The Tunisian DorsalDorsale, or High Tell, a southwest-to-northeast northeast–trending mountain range that is an extension of the Saharan Atlas (Atlas Saharien) of Algeria, tapers off in the direction of the Sharīk (Cape Bonpeninsula ) Peninsula in the northeast, south of the Gulf of Tunis. The highest mountain, Mount ashChambi (Al-Shaʿnabī(Djebel Chambi), located near the centre of the Algerian border, rises to 5,066 feet (1,544 metres), while Mount Zaghwān (Djebel Zaghouan), about 30 miles (50 km) southwest of Tunis, reaches 4,249 feet (1,295 metres). Between the limestone peaks of the central Tunisian Dorsal Dorsale and the mountains of the Northern Tell, which Tell—which include the sandstone ridges of the Kroumirie Mountains in the northwest that reach elevations of 3,000 feet (900 metres), and —and the Mogod MountainsMogods, a mountain range running along the deeply indented coastline to the north, lies the Majardah (Medjerda) River valley, formed by a series of ancient lake basins covered with alluvium. Containing the Majardah, the country’s only perennially flowing stream (which empties into the Gulf of Tunis), this This valley was once the granary of ancient Rome and remains has remained to this day the richest grain-producing region of Tunisia.

To the south of the Tunisian Dorsal Dorsale lies a hilly region known as the Haute Steppe (High Steppes) in the west and the Basse Steppe (Low Steppes) in the east. These have elevations ranging from about 600 to 1,500 feet (180 to 460 metres) and are crossed by secondary ranges trending north-south. Farther south there is a series of chott(or shaṭṭ; salty lake) depressions. Large plains border the eastern coasts; south of Sūsah ( Sousse ) lies the AsAl-Sāḥil (Sahel) plain and south of Qābis ( Gabès ) the is Al-Jifārah (Gefara) plainPlain. The extreme south is largely sandy desert, much of it part of the Great Eastern Erg of the Sahara.

Drainage

The major drainage feature of the north is the Majardah River, the country’s only perennially flowing stream, which cuts the Majardah valley before emptying into the Gulf of Tunis, near the site of ancient Carthage. Farther south, streams are intermittent and largely localized in the form of wadis, which are subject to seasonal flooding and terminate inland in chotts. In the country’s most southerly regions, within the Sahara, even these seasonal streams are rare. As in other countries of this arid region, access to water is a major concern. During the 1990s the government sponsored the construction of a number of dams to control flooding, preserve runoff, and recharge the water table.

Soils

Tunisia’s most fertile soils are found in the well-watered intermontane valleys in the north, where rich sandy clay soils formed from alluvium or soils high in lime content cover the valley bottoms and plains. Aside from these and from the plains of the High Haute Steppe region, where some clay soils of medium fertility may be found, soils in the rest of the country tend to be rocky or sandy. In the dry south, moreover, they are often also saline because of excessive evaporation. The humid coastal plain in the east, running between the Gulfs Gulf of Ḥammāmāt Hammamet and the Gulf of Gabes(Qābis), where Tunisia’s thriving olive plantations are found, is the most agriculturally productive of these coarse-textured soil areas.

Climate

Tunisia is situated in the warm temperate zone between latitudes 37° and 30° N. In the north the climate is Mediterranean, characterized by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers with no marked intervening seasons. This changes southward to semiarid conditions on the steppes and to desert in the far south. Saharan influences give rise to the sirocco, a seasonal hot, blasting wind from the south that can have a serious drying effect on vegetation.

Temperatures are moderated by the sea, being less extreme at Sūsah Sousse on the coast, for example, than at Kairouan (Al-Qayrawān(Kairouan) inland. Temperatures at Sūsah Sousse average 44 °F (7 °C) in January and 89 °F (32 °C) in August. Comparable temperatures at Al-Qayrawān Kairouan are 40 °F (4 °C) in January and 99 °F (37 °C) in August.

The amount of precipitation, all falling as rain, varies considerably from north to south. A mean annual rainfall of about 60 inches (1,520 mm) occurs in the Kroumirie Mountains in northwestern Tunisia, making it the wettest region in North Africa, as compared with less than 4 inches (100 mm) at Tozeur (Tawzar(Tozeur) in the southwest. Generally, from the mid-autumn to the mid-spring, when three-fourths of the annual total occurs, northern Tunisia receives more than 16 inches of rainfall, and the steppe region receives from 4 to 16 inches (100 to 400 mm). Amounts are also highly irregular from one year to another, and irregularity increases southward toward the desert. Harvests vary as a result, being poor in dry years.

Plant and animal life

The vegetation and animal life of the country are affected by these erratic climatic conditions. From north to south, the cork oak forest of the Kroumirie Mountains, with its fern undergrowth sheltering wild boars, gives way to scrub and steppes covered with esparto grass and populated with small game and to the desert, where hunting is forbidden so as to preserve the remaining gazelles. Scorpions are found in all regions; among dangerous snakes are the horned viper and the cobra. Desert locusts sometimes damage crops in the southern part of the country.

Settlement patterns

Tunisia is divided into four natural and demographic regions: the north, which is relatively fertile and well watered; the semiarid central region; As-Sāḥil (the Sahel) in the east-central coastal region, which is preeminently olive-growing country; and the desert south, where, except in the oases, all vegetation disappears. In the central and southern regions, there are still people who have preserved a certain cohesion through following a quasi-nomadic way of life. In the north and east, on the other hand, particularly along the coasts, the population is quite mixed and more dense, the life of the cultivator is more complex, the villages are more crowded, and the cities are larger. City populations have expanded at the expense of the countryside and by the late 20th century had incorporated more than three-fifths of the country’s people; about one-ninth of Tunisia’s population lives in Tunis alone. Growth has also been significant in the cities of Bizerte, Qābis, Qafsah, Ṣafāquis, Sūsah, and Jundūbah.

The people

Ethnic composition

Ichkeul National Park, in the northernmost part of the country, was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. It is important as a winter sanctuary for such birds as the greylag goose, coot, and wigeon.

People

Ethnic groups

The population of Tunisia is essentially Arab Berber. However, throughout the centuries Tunisia has received various waves of immigration that have included Phoenicians, sub-Saharan Africans, Jews, Romans, Vandals, and Arabs; Muslim refugees from Sicily settled in the AsAl-Sāḥil after their homeland was captured by the Normans in 1091. The most notable immigration , however, was that of the Spanish Moors (Muslims), which began after the fall of Sevilla (Seville), Spain, as a result of the Reconquista in 1248 and which turned into a veritable exodus in the early 17th century. As a result, some 200,000 Spanish Muslims settled in the area of Tunis, in the Majardah valley, and on the Cape Bon peninsula Sharīk Peninsula in the north, bringing with them their urban culture and more advanced agricultural and irrigation techniques. Finally, from the 16th to the 19th century, the Turks Ottomans brought in their own blend of Asian and European traditions. This great ethnic diversity is still seen in the variety of Tunisian family names.

Linguistic compositionLanguages

Arabic is the official language, and most natives speak a dialect of Tunisian Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools. The cultural Arabization of the country had been was largely completed by the end of the 12th century. Less than 1 percent of the population, in the south, still speaks the Berber language, and currently only a tiny fraction of the population—most of them in the south—still speak one of the Berber languages. French, introduced during the protectorate (1881–1956), paradoxically came into wider use only after independence, because of the spread of education. Although Arabic is the official language of the country, French It continues to play an important role in the press, education, and government. To a lesser extent, English and Italian comprise a part of the lingua franca.

Religion

Muslims constitute virtually all of the populationalso serve as lingua francas.

Religion

Virtually the entire population is Muslim, and Islam, in its Malikite Sunnite Mālikī Sunni form, is the state religion. Christian and Jewish minorities have declined substantially in number since independence; non-Muslims numbered more than 300,000 in 1956 and now but have since been reduced to only about 50,000. Official openness to religious diversity permits both communities to practice their faiths.

Settlement patterns

Tunisia is divided into four natural and demographic regions: the north, which is relatively fertile and well watered; the semiarid central region; Al-Sāḥil in the east-central coastal region, which is preeminently olive-growing country; and the desert south, where, except in the oases, all vegetation disappears. In the central and southern regions, there are still people who have preserved a certain cohesion through following a seminomadic way of life. In the north and east, on the other hand, particularly along the coasts, the population is quite mixed and more dense, the life of the cultivator is more complex, the villages are more crowded, and the cities are larger. City populations have expanded at the expense of the countryside and by the late 20th century had incorporated more than three-fifths of the country’s people; nearly one-tenth of Tunisia’s population lives in Tunis alone. Growth has also been significant in the cities of Bizerte, Gabès, Sfax, and Sousse.

Demographic trends

The population of Tunisia doubled during the last three decades of the 20th century. The country’s natural growth rate is less rapid, however, than those of the other North African countries, a feat accomplished through family planning to lower the birth rate—Tunisia has one of the lowest birth rates on the African continent—and by raising the social, economic, and legal status of women. Emigration has also helped depress the overall growth rate, with hundreds of thousands of Tunisians being employed abroad, notably in France and in the countries of the Middle Eastern countriesEast. Tunisia’s relatively favourable demographic situation is reflected in its high life expectancy (among the highest in Africa), higher living standards, declining infant mortality rate, marriages marriage at older agesage, and progressive aging of the population.

The economy

Average life expectancy is about 75 years.

Economy

Tunisia has a well-diversified economy, although it remains dominated by only a few large sectors. The economy is depends heavily dependent on mineral exports, especially petroleum and phosphates, a growing industrial manufacturing sector that has received much investment, and agricultural products. Tourism is also a significant source of revenue and foreign exchange, as are remittances from migrant workers living abroad. While foreign debt has been brought under control, the country continues to suffer from a regional imbalance between the north and AsAl-Sāḥil region, which are more fertile and more economically developed, and the arid central and southern regions, which have fewer natural advantages.

After a brief experiment with socialism in the 1960s, Tunisia shifted its economic doctrine toward a mixed planned and market economy. However, the economy fell into crisis in the early 1980s, the result of an over-reliance overreliance on oil revenues, foreign aid, and labour remittances. In the mid-1980s a comprehensive program was introduced to liberalize the economy, which helped restore Tunisia’s international credit standing, stabilize public finances, reduce budget deficits and inflation, improve trade balances, and increase foreign and domestic investments. Public-sector reforms, deregulation, and privatization have also been implemented. The program has not been without its social costs, however, as unemployment and poverty levels rose. Nonetheless, by the end of the 1990s, the country’s per capita gross national product equaled those of the lesser developed nations of Europe.

There are three large professional organizations: the General Union of Tunisian Workers, the principal trade union; the Tunisian Union of Industry, Commerce and Handicrafts, the main employers’ organization; and the National Union of Tunisian Farmers, the principal agricultural union. These are the main participants in national wage negotiations, although numerous other organizations also represent the country’s economic interests.

ResourcesTunisia’s natural resources are relatively meagre. The lumber industry is essentially confined to the exploitation of

has continued to grow steadily.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Some two-thirds of Tunisia is suitable for farming, and more than one-fifth of the working population is employed in agriculture, yet agricultural production is still insufficient to meet the needs of Tunisia’s growing population and contributes only about one-eighth of gross domestic product (GDP). Cereals, in particular, must be imported, as must meat and dairy products; sheep, goats, and cattle are raised but not in numbers sufficient to supply domestic demand. The low crop yields are in part caused by the division of the property into small, inefficient plots and also by the predominance of outdated farming methods. Climatic variations—periodic droughts and sporadic rainfall—often jeopardize harvests. Much of the country’s most recent agricultural investment since the late 20th century has focused on irrigation schemes, well and dam construction, and programs to prevent soil erosion and desertification. Reforms have also freed up agricultural prices by removing artificial price supports. Tunisia nonetheless exports a fair amount of agricultural produce. The principal commodities are citrus fruits, olive oil, grapes, tomatoes, melons, figs, and dates.

The lumber sector is essentially confined to exploiting oak and cork from the Kroumirie Mountains of the north, while the esparto grass of the plains is used for the to manufacture of quality paper. The expanding fishing industry, centred on the eastern port city of Sfax, also contributes to the country’s exports. Primary catches include sardines, mackerels, and cuttlefish.

Resources and power

Tunisia’s natural resources are relatively meagre. Until the discovery of petroleum, the principal mineral resource was phosphate; of this, one-third is exported, and the remainder is used by domestic chemical industries. Fertilizer is also a chief an important export. Other major mineral resources are ironzinc, lead, zincbarite, and mercuryiron.

Petroleum was discovered in the extreme south in 1964 at the Al-Burmah (El-Borma) field. Although Tunisia’s deposits are much smaller than those of its larger neighbours, they are of great importance significant to the economy. Hydrocarbons are still the third most valuable export after textiles and chemicals. As production fell in the 1980s, the government began developing several of the country’s smaller oil fields. Nearly a dozen deposits were being exploited by the early 1990s, the largest fields being Al-Burmah and AdAl-Dūlāb in southern Tunisia near the Algerian border, Sīdī al-Yatāʾim (Sidi el-Itayem) north of ṢafāqisSfax, the Ashtart field in the Gulf of Gabes, and the Tazarka (Tāzirkah) field in the Gulf of ḤammāmātHammamet.

In the early 1990s , Tunisia’s petroleum reserves were estimated to be more than two billion barrels, a volume sufficient to maintain the country’s low rate of extraction for several decades but insufficient to prevent Tunisia from Tunisia—because of increased domestic consumption and inadequate refinement facilities—from becoming a net importer of petroleum products. Since then, natural gas production has been significantly increased, and foreign investment has been encouraged in the sector. Major British investments in the Al-Miskar field in the mid-1990s contributed to Tunisia Tunisia’s achieving self-sufficiency in natural gas production. Like petroleum and despite new discoveries, the quantities of natural gas are small as compared to with Libyan and Algerian production. In addition, Tunisia receives about 5 percent in royalties on the gas that is pumped through a pipeline running through Tunisia, connecting the Algerian gas fields to Sicily.

Agriculture

Some two-thirds of Tunisia is suitable for farming, and more than one-fifth of the working population is employed in agriculture, yet agricultural production is still inadequate to meet the needs of Tunisia’s growing population. Cereals, in particular, must be imported, as must meat and dairy products; sheep, goats, and cattle are raised but not in numbers sufficient to supply domestic demand. The low crop yields are in part because of the division of the property into small, inefficient plots and also from the predominance of outdated farming methods. Climatic variations—periodic droughts and sporadic rainfall—often jeopardize harvests. Much of the country’s agricultural investment at the end of the 20th century has focused on irrigation schemes, the construction of wells and dams, and programs to prevent soil erosion and desertification. Reforms have also freed up agricultural prices.

Tunisia nonetheless exports a fair amount of agricultural produce. The principal commodities are citrus fruits, olive oil, grapes, tomatoes, melons, figs, and dates. The expanding fishing industry, centred on the eastern port city of Safāqis, also contributes to the country’s exports.

Industry

The industrialization of Most electricity is generated by thermal means, including newer plants fired by natural gas and fuel oil. Some solar power is also being utilized.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing contributes roughly one-sixth of GDP and employs an equal proportion of the population. The development of manufacturing in Tunisia has historically encountered two major difficulties: raw material and power supplies are inadequate, and the domestic market is limited. Since independence was achieved in 1956, some notable and sometimes costly projects, such as the Menzel Bourguiba (Manzil Bū Ruqaybah) iron-smelting complex , located near Bizerte, have been successfully established. In general, however, the manufacturing base has remained relatively small and overly concentrated on the making of clothes, textiles, and leather goods; mechanical engineering; , and food processingproducts. Tunisia’s industry became increasingly export-oriented during the 1970s, but it remained uncompetitive and overprotected and did not generate sufficient income. It also continued to be largely concentrated in wealthier coastal areas, despite government incentives to relocate to the country’s western and southern parts.

As a result of reforms, Tunisian industry subsequently manufacturing has become much more diversified, with new investments in the production and export of electronics, automotive partsmechanical and electromechanical equipment, petroleum products, and chemicalsand in services. The textile sector still remains disproportionately large, however, and more than one-third of all manufacturing operations are located in Tunis alone. On the other hand, investment codes introduced in the late 1980s have attracted some foreign interest—about half of the country’s manufacturing companies are now partially or wholly foreign-owned—enhancing strong foreign interest, which has enhanced technology transfer, modernizing modernized the service and financial sectors, and aiding aided export development.

Privatization has been a slower process. After an initial flurry of sales in the early 1990s, the pace slackened, and privatization seemed restricted to small, profitable enterprises such as individual hotels and textile factories. Renewed efforts since the late 1990s There have been renewed efforts to expand the private sector by transferring ownership of large, strategic companieshave resulted in increased activity, and activity has increased, particularly involving foreign , in the private sectorinterests.

Financeand other services

The Banque Central de Tunisie is the country’s central bank and issues the dinar, the national currency. The government also partly operates several development banks, the most important largest of which is the Banque de Développement Economique de TunisieSociété Tunisienne de Banque, and there are numerous commercial banks. The dinar has been made partially convertible against the European Union (EU) euro and several other currencies. The Tunisian stock exchange, or Bourse de Tunis, was founded in 1969 and has become a central pillar of economic policy, as it has facilitated privatization and encouraged both domestic savings and foreign investment.Tourism has become one of Tunisia’s leading sources of foreign exchange and has spawned a vibrant and growing handicraft industry in its wake. Although tourism has been adversely affected by regional instabilities and competition from other Mediterranean countries, the number of tourists, mainly from western Europe, Libya, and Algeria, has been increasing steadily since the 1960s.

Trade

Trade accounts for some one-fourth of GDP, and Tunisia relies heavily on its trade with Europe, with the EU accounting for the bulk of both exports and imports. France is the most important trading partner, followed by Italy and Germany. As the trade balance with the EU has consistently shown a deficit, Tunisia has looked to other markets, notably those in East Asia and eastern EuropeTunisia often shows an annual trade deficit. In the late 1990s Tunisia the country signed an agreement with the EU, under the framework of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership Program, that set in motion the creation of a free-trade area between Tunisia and the EUin the early 21st century. Tunisia has been a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade since 1990; it also is a participant in the World Trade Organization and is a signatory of the Arab League’s Arab Free Trade Area. In addition, Tunisia is a member of the Arab Maghreb Maghrib Union, which aims at economic integration among its member states.

Tunisia’s most significant exports are textiles and leather products, electrical machinery, and crude and refined petroleum. Its major imports are consumer products, raw materials, machinery and electrical equipment, and food products.

Services

Services, including retail trade, public administration, defense, and tourism, account for a significant portion of GDP—although Tunisia’s military spending, as a percentage of gross national product, is well below the world average—and for more than one-fourth of employment. Tourism has become one of Tunisia’s leading sources of foreign exchange and has spawned a vibrant and growing handicraft industry in its wake. Although tourism was adversely affected by regional instabilities at the beginning of the 21st century, the number of tourists—especially from other Arab countries—has again been rising.

Labour and taxation

Unemployment in Tunisia has often been high, despite concerted efforts by the government to reduce the rate. Workers are allowed by law to organize, and there are a number of unions. The three large professional organizations are: the General Union of Tunisian Workers, the principal trade union; the Tunisian Union of Industry, Commerce and Handicrafts, the main employers’ organization; and the National Union of Tunisian Farmers, the principal agricultural union. These are the main participants in national wage negotiations, although numerous other organizations also represent the country’s economic interests.

Most government revenues are acquired through taxation, and Tunisia levies both direct and indirect taxes. Direct taxes take the form of an income tax assessed at a marginal rate and a flat-rate corporate tax. Indirect taxes include a variable-rate value-added tax (certain luxury items, for instance, are taxed at a higher rate) and professional training, social security, and registration taxes.

Transportation and telecommunications

The network of roads and railways is sufficiently dense so that all cities of any importance are linked with the interior. Nearly four-fifths of roads are paved. Tunisia is connected by both road and rail to Algeria and Morocco but only by road to Libya(Tripoli), and to Egypt (Cairo), since the railway ends at QābisGabès. Work is underway under way to modernize and extend the railway network. The principal port is Tunis-Tunis–La Goulette (Ḥalq al-Wādī(La Goulette), the outport of Tunis; other major ports include ṢafāqisSfax, Bizerte, SūsahSousse, and, in the south, QābisGabès. An oil pipeline runs from Edjeleh, Algeria, to the port of AṣLa Skhira (Al-Ṣukhayrah(La Skhira, or Cekhira) , on the Gulf of GabèsGabes.

Despite the construction of an airport at QafsahGafsa, regional airports of at Monastir (Al-Munastīr), Jerba (Jarbah(Djerba), ṢafāqisSfax, and Tawzar Tozeur handle domestic or charter flights, and international air traffic is directed mainly through Al-ʿUwaynah airport near Tunis-Carthage .

Administration and social conditions

Government

International Airport.

Tunisia’s telecommunication services are controlled by Tunisie Télécom (founded in 1996), a state-owned entity that is responsible for maintaining and developing the country’s communications infrastructure. Tunisia signed the World Trade Organization Basic Telecommunications Services Agreement of 1997, which opened the country’s market, and its telecommunications infrastructure has expanded markedly since that time. Internet access is growing rapidly, and cellular telephones far outnumber standard phone lines. Local communications are largely conducted over microwave radio links, while international transmission makes use of satellite networks and fibre-optic cables.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The Tunisian constitution, promulgated in 1959 and subsequently amended, defines Tunisia as a republic whose religion is Islam and whose official language is Arabic. Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral In 2005 a bicameral legislature (the National Assembly) was established, with an elected Chamber of Deputies , which consists of 163 members elected for five-year terms by universal suffrage. Of this total, 144 are chosen from districts, the winning party from each district taking all the seats; the remainder is then divided proportionally among the opposition parties. In 1994 an amendment was passed as its lower house and, as its upper house, a new Chamber of Councillors, whose members are elected or appointed. In 1997 an amendment was ratified stating that no single party would be allowed to hold more than four-fifths of the total number of seats. Executive power is in the hands of the president of the republic, who is head of state, and the prime minister, who is head of the government. The president, who must be a Muslimand , is elected for to a five-year term by universal suffrage at the same time as the deputies; since 1988 the president has been limited to three consecutive termsin 2002 the three-term limit on the presidency was removed. Reforms have enabled candidates to challenge the presidency in elections beginning in since the late 1990s.

The country is administered by the Council of Ministers , (or cabinet), headed since 1969 by a the prime minister. The cabinet ministers are responsible to the president rather than to the Chamber of Deputies, which, however, possesses the power to censure the cabinet. If such censuring occurs, the president may dismiss the Chamber of Deputies and hold new elections. If censured again by the new Chamber, the government must resign.

A prominent feature of social policy has been the effort to improve the status and lives of women. Compared to their counterparts in other Arab countries, women in Tunisia have enjoyed greater equality before the law. The progressive Code of Personal Status, which was introduced in 1956, has been amended to affirm and enhance women’s political, social, and economic roles. The National Union of Tunisian Women, established in the same year, remains an important organization promoting women’s advancement.

Local government

The country is divided into 23 24 administrative areas called wilāyāt (provinces; singular wilāyah; French: gouvernorats), each of which are is headed by walis a wālī(governorsgovernor). Each province is designated by the name of its chief town and is in turn subdivided into some 250 numerous units called muʿtamadīyātmuʿtamadiyyāt(delegations; French: délégations), whose number varies according to the province’s province size. Delegations are administered by a muʿtamad and are in turn divided into more than 2,000 districts called manṭaqa turābiyyaminṭaqah turābiyyahs. Tunisia is further divided into more than 250 scores of municipalities and 154 rural councils.

Justice

Tunisia’s legal system is based on a combination of French civil law and a liberal interpretation of Islamic law (Sharīʿah). The Council of State comprises two judicial bodies: an administrative body that deals with legal disputes between individuals and state or public institutions and a public audit office. The court system consists of magistrate courts at the local level, courts of the first instance, courts of appeal, and a high court in Tunis. Judicial power is exercised by judges whose independence is constitutionally guaranteed.

Political process

The constitution guarantees “freedom of opinion, expression, press, publication, assembly, and association” (“under the conditions defined by law”), as well as the right to form trade unions. By law political . Political parties based on raceethnicity, religion, region, or language are forbidden by law. New political parties were introduced in 1981, ; permission for a multiparty system was granted in 1988, ; and the first multiparty elections were held in 1989. Turnout Reported turnout for elections typically is massivehigh, with nearly all of the registered voters participating, but the opposition parties routinely point to evidence of electoral malpractice and vote rigging. Thus, Tunisia continues to be, in effect, a one-party system. The ruling and incumbent candidates frequently are reelected by exceptionally high margins. The dominant party is the Democratic Constitutional Rally—or RCD—(originally called the Neo-Destour, to distinguish it from an older Destour Party founded in 1920)Rally (known by its French acronym RCD).

Because of the ban on parties based on religion, ethnicity, region, or language, the major opposition group, the Islamist party Al-Nahḍah (“The Renaissance”), has not been granted legal status, and many of its members have been detained, jailed, or exiled. The legal opposition parties are small ; they are and often focused focus around an individual or a single or small group of personalitiesand ; they have neither the financial nor the organizational structure to mobilize serious opposition in elections. By the end of the 1990s2005, opposition parties had been unable to win a constituency contested seat in the Chamber of Deputies. Although candidates from the Islamist opposition won at least one-eighth of the vote in 1989, the Islamist party has not been granted legal opposition and many members have since been detained, jailed, or exiled, preventing them from posing any challenge in subsequent elections. National Assembly. In addition to political parties, there are is a large number of politically active national organizations, most of which are affiliated with the RCD.

Education

Education is free to all school-age children, and schooling is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. Virtually all of the country’s children are enrolled in primary education, and nearly one-sixth of its young people go on to attend one of the country’s universities or institutes of higher learning. The number of students, schools, and teachers and the level of literacy have all increased steadily since independence.

This growth has created a serious financial drain, as education has constituted one of

the largest shares of the annual national budget. Students have had no alternative other than turning to private funding to supplement state education allowances, and they increasingly have been denied the choice of subject area or school. Given the difficulties of finding enough job opportunities for qualified people, more emphasis has been placed on technical, vocational, teacher, and agricultural training. The University of Tunis (founded 1960) is the country’s major institution of higher education. Two universities were opened at Al-Munastīr (near Sūsah) and Ṣafāqis in the mid-1980sSecurity

Tunisia maintains a relatively small active-duty military, consisting mostly of conscripts whose term of service is one year. The army is the largest branch (with the highest number of conscripts), but the country also has a small navy and air force. The former consists mainly of small patrol vessels. The air force has relatively few high-performance aircraft. A national police force—whose jurisdiction is largely restricted to the cities—and a largely rural national guard report to the Ministry of the Interior and are responsible for national security.

Health and welfare

The living standards of the population in general are modest but rising. According to the government, only a small fraction of the population lives below the poverty line. Although austere budgets and the general subsidy removals removal of subsidies have reduced social welfare provisions overall, a number of programs have been initiated , targeting the to ensure the protection of the poor and socially vulnerable, to ensure their protection. The best known of these is the National Solidarity Fund, established in 1992, which channels private, public, and institutional donations to development projects around the country. Additional funds support numerous other social welfare programs. The country’s national health system provides nearly all of its population with access to medical care. Despite rising public expenditure on health, many Tunisians have turned been turning to private health care as demand outstrips supply. A good network of hospitals and clinics has contributed to a relatively low death rate and, in particular, to one of the lowest infant mortality rate rates on the African continent.

A prominent feature of social policy has been the effort to improve the status and lives of women. Since independence, women in Tunisia enjoy more equality with men before the law. The progressive Code of Personal Status, which was introduced in 1956, has been amended to affirm and enhance women’s political, social, and economic roles.

Cultural lifeTunisia prides itself on its strong and unique cultural character that combines the preservation of an authentic heritage with external influences and modern interpretation. It is an Arabic-speaking Muslim country that

Housing

Traditional urban housing in Tunisia—found in the old city centres, or medinas—consisted of tightly arranged structures grouped within town walls and interlaced by a network of narrow walkways and passages. Building exteriors generally were whitewashed, with little decoration, while interiors were ornate and comfortable. Each neighbourhood (Arabic: ḥārah) was restricted to a particular ethnic or religious group, and it was only with the beginning of the protectorate that these city centres began to give way to European-style city plans. Following independence, the government began to encourage the restoration of the medinas, and architects have more recently sought to mitigate Western influence in favour of traditional architectural patterns.

The government has promoted housing growth in both urban and rural areas, thereby attempting to stem the flow of migrants to the country’s cities. This project has been fairly successful, facilitated by the establishment of essential services in the countryside, including irrigation projects designed to provide rural employment. According to the Tunisian government, most families own their own homes.

Unique to the region are the underground dwellings found in the rural southeastern part of the country. These structures were designed for habitation in a harsh, arid environment and generally consist of a sunken central courtyard surrounded by individual family dwellings, storage areas, and workrooms, all of which are built into the earth. (Scenes from the motion picture Star Wars were filmed at such a dwelling located in the village of Matmata [Maṭmāṭah].)

Education

Education is free to all school-age children, and schooling is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. Virtually all of the country’s children are enrolled in primary education, and nearly one-sixth of its young people go on to attend one of the country’s universities or institutes of higher learning. More than three-fourths of the population is literate; the rate among men is somewhat higher than that among women, but the gap is narrowing.

Growth in the number of schools, students, and teachers has created a serious financial strain, as education has constituted one of the largest shares of the annual national budget. Students have had no alternative other than turning to private funding to supplement state education allowances, and they increasingly have been denied the choice of subject area or school. Given the difficulties of finding enough job opportunities for qualified people, more emphasis has been placed on technical, vocational, teacher, and agricultural training. The University of Tunis (founded 1960) is the country’s major institution of higher education. Several more universities have opened since the 1980s, and there are also religious schools.

Cultural life

Tunisians are an independent-minded people who take pride in the rich admixture of native and foreign influences that make up their national character. Their Arab-Muslim country was deeply imbued with French culture during the 75 years of the protectorate, which ended in 1956.

Daily life and social customs

In general, though Tunisians consider themselves to be more liberal and tolerant than their neighbours—most urban women, for example, dress in Western clothes and do not veil themselves, and (though it is considered inappropriate by some Tunisian Muslims) locally made wines and spirits are consumed—they still maintain a strong Islamic identity. Thus,

the majority of the country’s daily newspapers are in French, and French-language television and radio programs are broadcast daily along with those in Arabic and Italian. The English language is also becoming more common in professional and commercial circles. The government actually encourages the use of English as an official second language, along with French.

The arts

Tunisians absorb new cultural influences from abroad while insisting on upholding their own values, but they are also vigilant about the impact of Western influence on their way of life. Those concerns led to a revival of some forms of social and religious conservatism in the 1990s, notably affecting women in the public sphere. Street cafés have increasingly become the preserve of men, especially in rural areas where relations between the sexes are still governed by conservative social norms.

Even Westernized Tunisians adhere to certain traditional values; foremost among these is the role of the family as the centre of social life. Meals are an important time for families to gather. Tunisian cuisine consists of a medley of European cuisine—largely French and Italian—and traditional dishes. As in the rest of the Maghrib, couscous, a semolina-based pasta, is a staple of virtually every meal and is customarily served with a rich stew. Other native basics are lamb, peppers, onions, chickpeas (often served in cakes as a dessert), and olive oil. Various types of seafood can be found near the coast. Unlike other cuisines of the Maghrib, Tunisian food is replete with hot spices, and harissa, a fiery red sauce, is served with most dishes.

Tunisians observe the standard Islamic holidays as well as several secular and national holidays, such as Independence Day (March 20) and Women’s Day (August 13).

The arts

Dotted with the ruins of ancient civilizations, Tunisia is an important location for the study of world archaeology and architecture. Among the most significant of its numerous historic sites are Al-Zaytūnah Mosque in Tunis, which dates to the 8th century AD, the slightly older Great Mosque of ʿUqbah ibn Nāfiʿ in Kairouan, and the remains of the ancient city of Carthage.

Although Tunisians generally use French or English in the scientific disciplines, they remain genuinely attached to Arabic in the literary sphere—in poetry, the novel, and the short story. Historical figures of philosophy and literary figures literature, such as Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rachik, Ibn Charaf, and al-Husri the 11th-century litterateurs Ibrāhīm al-Ḥuṣrī, Ḥasan ibn Rashīq, and Muḥammad ibn Sharaf al-Qayrawānī and the 14th-century polymath Ibn Khaldūn, are still revered. Modern Tunisian literature grew from a cultural renaissance in the early 20th century. Social essayist Tahar Haddad, satirist Ali Douagi, poet Aboul Kacem Chabbi, and others have paved the way for a new realist trend in Tunisian literature by combining modern European styles with contemporary Tunisian themes. Increasingly, Tunisian writers, including women, are gaining international prominence.While there is no official censorship of the media, self-censorship has become a feature of daily life, as certain repressive political behaviour by the government has restricted the ability of journalists and political personalities to speak freely. Nonetheless, the high rate of literacy and sizeable middle class have helped to sustain an avid readership for the large number of periodicals (notably business and economics) that are published.

Tunisian cinema has been gradually making its way to an international audience—among the luminaries of the Tunisian cinema are the directors Moufida Tlatli (Ṣamt al-Quṣūr [1994; The Silence of the Palaces]) and Férid Boughedir (Un été à La Goulette [1995; A Summer in La Goulette])—and Tunisia has been the location for major motion picture productions, including Star Wars (1977) and The English Patient (1996).

Cultural institutions

Contemporary Tunisian painting can also lay claim to a certain tradition, with the École de Tunis being foremost among artistic institutions. Tunisian artists such as Hamadi Ben Saad and Hassan Hassen Soufy enjoy a genuine local celebrity and have also exhibited abroad. Music- and theatre-based cultural festivals—notably the Carthage International Festival, the Testour Maalouf Festival of traditional Andalusian malouf(maʾlūf) music, the Sousse International Cultural Festival, and the International Jazz Festival of Tabarqah—have Tabarka—have become a feature of Tunisian life. Since Tunisians have generally been concerned about the influence of tourism on their social and cultural lives, the country’s premier music conservatory, or Rachidiathe Rashīdiyya Institute (1934), devotes attention mainly to national traditions while emphasizing classical European heritage. Tunisians are especially proud of El-Azifet, an exclusively female ensemble inspired by traditional malouf and mouachah(muwashshaḥ) music and traditional musicians such as Anwar Anouar Brahem.Tunisian cinema has been gradually making its way to an international audience. It has had some notable successes, among them The Silence of the Palaces and A Summer in La Goulette, and Tunisia has been the location for major motion picture productions, including The English Patient and Star Wars.

Daily life

Socially, Tunisians are concerned about the impact of Western influences. This uneasiness has led to a revival of some forms of social conservatism in the 1990s, notably affecting women in the public sphere. Street cafés have increasingly become the preserve of men, especially in rural areas where relations between the sexes are still governed by conservative social norms. In general, Tunisians consider themselves to be more liberal and tolerant than many of their Arab neighbours, but they still maintain a strong Islamic identity. Thus, they absorb new cultural influences from abroad while insisting on upholding their own.

The National Archives (1874) and the National Library (1885), both located in Tunis, contain large collections of documents, including books and manuscripts, the latter in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish. There are also a number of museums located throughout the country, the most notable of which is probably the Bardo National Museum (1888). This institution, located in the former palace of the Ottoman bey in the medina, or old quarter, of Tunis, houses collections of fine works dating from the Carthaginian, Roman, and Islamic periods. Among its holdings is the largest—and possibly the finest—collection of Roman mosaics in the world. The Carthage Museum (1964), a repository of numerous antiquities from the ancient and medieval periods, is located near the site of the ancient city and in close proximity to several important excavations. Several of these culturally significant locations in Tunisia have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites, including Carthage and the medina of Tunis in 1979 and the historic city of Kairouan and the medina of Sousse in 1988.

Sports and recreation

Football (soccer) is the most popular modern sport. Tunisia has fielded teams for the African Cup of Nations and World Cup competitions. Football is also a family sport and has been important in creating a demand for satellite television. Athletics has also become popular in the country, and Tunisian runners have achieved international renown at middle- and long-distance events. Tourism has provided resources for the development of other sports, including golf, hiking, and windsurfing. Diving Scuba diving has benefited from a vigorous conservation program , designed to protect the undersea flora and fauna. Tunisian women have not been excluded from participating in sports as sports—as women often have in other Arab countries, and countries—and they have been encouraged to begin competing at an early age. The traditional sport of wild boar hunting is found practiced mostly in the dunes, hills, and mountains of the Tabarqah region.

HistoryThis discussion

Tabarka region.

Media and publishing

While there is no official censorship of the media, self-censorship has become a feature of daily life, as various types of government coercion have restricted the ability of journalists and political personalities to speak freely. Nonetheless, the high rate of literacy and the sizable middle class have helped to sustain an avid readership for the large number of periodicals (notably business and economics) that are published, and the number of citizens with access to satellite television and the Internet has grown considerably since the late 1990s.

The state-run company Etablissement de la Radiodiffusion Télévision Tunisienne (ERTT) is the sole domestic provider of broadcast material, both television and radio. The majority of the country’s daily newspapers are in French, and French-language television and radio programs are broadcast daily along with those in Arabic and Italian.

History

The following discussion offers a brief summary of Tunisia’s early history but mainly focuses on Tunisia since about 1800. For a more detailed treatment of earlier periods and of the country in its regional context, seeNorth Africa, history of.

Tunisia was called Ifrīqīyah Ifrīqiyyah in the early centuries of the Islamic period. That name, in turn, comes from the Roman word for Africa and the name also given by the Romans to their first African colony following the Punic Wars against the Carthaginians in 264–146 BC. After brief periods of rule Following the decline of Rome, the region was ruled briefly by the Vandals and Byzantines, the Arabs conquered the area then the Byzantine Empire before being conquered by the Arabs in AD 647. Although the Arabs initially unified North Africa, by 1230 a separate Tunisian dynasty had been established by the HāfsidsḤafṣids. Muslim Andalusians migrated to the area after having been forced out of Spain during the Reconquista, particularly following the defeat of the Muslim kingdom of Granada in 1492. By 1574, Tunisia was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922whose control of the region, always tenuous, had all but dissolved by the 19th century.

Tunisia is the smallest of the Maghreb Maghrib states and consequently the most cohesive. By the beginning of the 19th century, virtually all of its inhabitants spoke Arabic. Berber, the earlier language of the MaghrebMaghrib, survived in Tunisia in only a few pockets, especially mainly in the extreme south. The vast majority of the population was Muslim, with a small Jewish minority. A single major city, Tunis, dominated the countryside both politically and culturally. Tunis itself was located near the site of the earlier ancient city-state of Carthage. More easily controlled from within than any other Maghreb Maghrib country, Tunisia was also more open to the influence of people and ideas from abroad. Roman Africa, for example, was the most intensively Christianized portion of North Africa, and Ifrīqīyah Ifrīqiyyah was later more quickly and more thoroughly Islamicized.

A small state with limited resources, Tunisia nonetheless managed a to retain considerable autonomy within the framework of the larger empires that frequently ruled it from afar. This status was achieved, for example, under the ʿAbbāsids in the 9th century and later under the Ottomans. Tunisia’s geographic and historical legacy helped prepare it for the shocks it received in the 19th century as a land caught between an expanding Europe and a declining Ottoman Empire. Yet, Tunisia proved to be as vulnerable economically as it was militarily.

The growth of European influence

In 1830, at the time of the French invasion of Algiers, Tunisia was officially a province of the Ottoman Empire but in reality was an autonomous state. Because the principal military threat had long come from neighbouring Algeria, the reigning bey of Tunisia, Ḥusayn, cautiously went along with assurances from the French that they had no intention of colonizing Tunisia. Ḥusayn Bey even accepted the idea that Tunisian princes would rule the cities of Constantine and Oran. The scheme, however, had no chance of success and was soon abandoned.

Tunisia’s security was directly threatened in 1835, when the Ottoman Empire deposed the ruling dynasty in Libya and reestablished direct Ottoman rule. Thereafter, the vulnerable beylikof Tunis found itself surrounded by two larger powers—France and the Ottoman Empire—both of whom which had designs on Tunisia. From that time until the establishment of the French protectorate in 1881, Tunisian rulers had to placate the larger powers while working to strengthen the state from within.

Aḥmad Bey, who ruled from 1837 to 1855, was an avowed modernizer and reformer. With the help of Western advisers (mainly French), he created a modern army and navy and related industries. Conscription was also introduced, to the great dismay of the peasantry. More acceptable were Aḥmad’s steps to integrate Arabic-speaking native Tunisians fully into the government, which had long been dominated by Mamlūks mamlūks (military slaves) and Turks. Aḥmad abolished slavery and took other modernizing steps intended to bring Tunisia more in line with Europe, but he also exposed his country to Europe’s infinitely greater economic and political power. His reforms negatively affected the already stagnant economy, which led to greater debt, higher taxes, and increased unrest in the countryside.

The next bey, Muḥammad (1855–59), tried to ignore Europe, but this was no longer possible. Continued civil disturbances and corruption prompted the British and French to force the bey to issue the Fundamental Pact (ʿAhd al-Amān; September 9, 1857), a civil rights charter modeled on the Ottoman rescript of 1839.

The final collapse of the Tunisian beylikcame during the reign of Muḥammad aṣal-Ṣadiq Ṣādiq (1859–82). Though sympathetic to the need for reforms, Muḥammad was too weak either to control his own government or to keep the European powers at bay. He did, in 1861, proclaim the first constitution (dustūr; also destour) in the Arab Arabic-speaking world, but this promising step toward representative government was cut short by runaway debt, a problem exacerbated by the government’s practice of securing loans from European bankers at exorbitant rates.

When the principal minister, Muṣṭafā Khaznadār (who had served from the earliest days of Aḥmad Bey’s reign), attempted to squeeze more taxes out of the hard-pressed peasants, the countryside rose in a revolt (1864). This uprising almost overthrew the regime, but the government ultimately suppressed it through a combination of guile and brutality.

Though Tunisia went bankrupt in 1869 , and an international financial commission—with British, French, and Italian representation—was representatives—was imposed on the country, there was one last attempt to reform Tunisia from within and thus avoid complete European domination. It was made during the reformist ministry of Khayr adal-Dīn (1873–77), one of the most effective statesmen of the 19th-century Muslim world. However, enemies from within and European intrigues from without conspired to force him from office. The final blow to Tunisia’s sovereignty came at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when Britain acquiesced to France’s control of Tunisia.

On the pretext that Tunisians had encroached on Algerian territory, France invaded Tunisia in 1881 and imposed the Treaty of Kasser Said (Al-Qaṣr as-Saʿīd)Bardo, which sanctioned French military occupation of Tunisia, transferred to France the bey’s authority over finance and foreign relations, and provided for the appointment of a French resident minister as intermediary in all matters of common interest. This provoked an uprising in southern Tunisia during which France attacked and captured Sūsah ( Sousse ) in July 1881, took Al-Qayrawān ( Kairouan ) in October, and Qafṣah (seized Gafsa ) and Qābis ( Gabès ) in November. After the death of the bey Muḥammad aṣal-ṢadiqṢādiq, his successor, ʿAlī, was forced to introduce administrative, judicial, and financial reforms that the French government considered useful. This agreement, known as the Convention of Al-Marsaand , was signed in 1883 , solidifed and solidified French control over Tunisia.

The protectorate (1881–1956)

Tunisia became a protectorate of France by treaty rather than by outright conquest, as was the case in Algeria. Officially, the bey remained an absolute monarch: Tunisian ministers were still appointed, the government structure was preserved, and Tunisians continued to be subjects of the bey. The French did not confiscate land, convert mosques into churches, or change the official language. Nevertheless, supreme authority was passed to the French resident general.

Under French guidance, Tunisia’s finances were soon stabilized and modern communications established. Though France never overtly seized land or displaced the population, both of which had occurred in Algeria, the most fertile portions of northern Tunisia, comprising the Majardah valley and the Cape Bon peninsulaSharīk Peninsula, were passed on to other European countries. Valuable phosphate mines began operating near Qafṣah Gafsa in the south, while the establishment of and vegetables were cultivated and exported from the Majardah valley after French and Italian colonists in the Majardah valley resulted in the cultivation and export of vegetableshad become established there.

By the 1890s a small French-educated group—the members of which came to be called “Young Tunisians”—began pushing for both modernizing reforms based on a European model and greater participation by Tunisians in their own government. The group’s conduct during the protectorate, however, was cautious and reserved. Their major weapon became the newspaper Le Tunisien, a French-language publication founded in 1907. With the printing of an Arabic edition in 1909, the Young Tunisians simultaneously educated their compatriots and persuaded the more liberal French to help move Tunisia toward modernity.

Even this moderate protonationalism was subject to repressive measures by the French in 1911–12. Little nationalist activity took place during World War I (1914–18), but in the postwar period the first attempt at mass political organization came with the creation of during the interwar period, when the Destour (Constitution) Party , so was created (the party was named for the short-lived Tunisian constitution of 1861). In 1920 the Destour Party presented the bey and the French government with a document that demanded the establishment of that a constitutional form of government be established in which Tunisians would possess the same rights as Europeans. The immediate result was the arrest of ʿAbd al-Azīz athʿAzīz al-ThaʿalibīThaʿālibī, the Destour leader. Two years later , the aged bey, Muḥammad anal-NasirNāṣir, requested that the program of the Destour be adopted or he would abdicate. In response, the resident general, Lucien Saint, surrounded the bey’s palace with troops, and the demand was withdrawn. Saint thus introduced restrictive measures, together with minor reforms, that pacified Tunisian sentiment and weakened the nationalist movement for several years.

In 1934 a young Tunisian lawyer, Habib Bourguiba, and his colleagues broke with the Destour Party to form a new organization, the Neo-Destour, which aimed at spreading propaganda and gaining mass support. Under Bourguiba’s vigorous leadership, the new party soon supplanted the existing Destour Party and its leaders. Attempts by the French to suppress the new movement only fueled the fire. The Neo-Destour began to gain more power and influence after the arrival of the Popular Front government in France in 1936. When the Popular Front government collapsed, repression was renewed in Tunisia and was met with civil disobedience. In 1938 serious disturbances led to the arrest of Bourguiba and other leaders of the party, which was then officially dissolved.

World War II

At the outbreak of war in 1939, Neo-Destour leaders, though still untried, were deported to France. However, they were released by the Nazis in 1942 following the German occupation of Vichy France, and, since Hitler regarded Tunisia as a sphere of Italian influence, he handed them over to the Fascist fascist government in Rome. There the leaders were treated with deference, the Fascists fascists hoping to gain support for the Axis. Bourguiba steadily refused to cooperate. In March 1943 Bourguiba he made a noncommittal broadcast, and the Neo-Destour leaders were finally allowed to proceed to Tunis, where the reigning bey, Muḥammad al-Munsif Munṣif (Moncef), formed a ministry of individuals who were sympathetic to Destour.

The assumption of power by the Free French after the Nazi retreat produced complete disillusionment for the Neo-Destour cause. The bey was deposed, while Bourguiba, accused of collaborating collaboration with the Nazis, escaped imprisonment by fleeing in disguise to Egypt in 1945. Still, a vigorous campaign of propaganda for Tunisian independence continued, and, in view of the emancipation of the eastern Arab states , and later of neighbouring Libya, the French felt compelled to make concessions. In 1951 the French permitted a government with nationalist sympathies to take office, of office—of which the secretary-general of the Neo-Destour, Salah Ben Youssef, became a member, and member—and Bourguiba was allowed to return to Tunisia. When the newly formed government wished to establish a Tunisian parliament, however, the result was further repressionrepressions ensued; Bourguiba was exiled, and most of the ministers were put under arrest. This resulted, for the first time, in outbreaks of terrorism. Nationalist groups guerrillas began to operate in the mountains, virtually paralyzing the country.

In July 1954 the French premier, Pierre Mendès-France, promised to grant complete autonomy to Tunisia, subject to a negotiated agreement. Bourguiba returned to Tunisia and was able to supervise the negotiations without directly participating. In June 1955 an agreement was finally signed by the Tunisian delegates—though it imposed strict limits in the fields of foreign policy, education, defense, and finance—and a mainly Neo-Destour ministry was formed. Salah Ben Youssef denounced the document, saying it was too restrictive, and refused to attend a specially summoned congress that unanimously supported Bourguiba. In response, he organized a brief armed resistance in the south that was quickly put downrepressed. Ben Youssef fled the country to escape imprisonment; he was assassinated in 1961.

Independence

The French granted full independence to Tunisia in an accord that was reached on March 20, 1956, and Bourguiba was chosen as prime minister. The rule of the beys was subsequently abolished, and on July 25, 1957, a republic was declared, with Bourguiba as president.

Domestic development

After independence was granted, the Neo-Destour Party (from 1964 to 1988 , the Destourian Socialist Party; from 1988 , the Democratic Constitutional Rally [RDIknown by its French acronym RCD]) ensured that Tunisia move moved quickly with reforms, most notably in the areas of education, the liberation of women, and legal reforms. Economic development was slower, but the government paid considerable attention to the more impoverished parts of the country. In 1961 Ahmad Ben Salah took charge of planning and finance. His ambitious efforts at forced-pace modernization, especially in agriculture, were foiled, however, by rural and conservative opposition. Expelled from the party and imprisoned in 1969, Ben Salah escaped in 1973 to live in exile. His fall brought a move in the government toward more conservative alignment.

In 1975 the Chamber of Deputies unanimously bestowed the presidency for life on the sick and aging Habib Bourguiba, who centralized power under his progressive but increasingly personalized rule. Hedi Amira Nouira, noted for his financial and administrative skills, became prime minister in November 1970; , but his government , however, failed to resolve the economic crisis or address growing demands for reform from liberals in his own party. A decade later, the ailing Nouira was replaced by Muḥammad Muhammad Mzali, who made efforts to restore dissidents to the party and , by 1981 , had granted amnesty to many who had been jailed for earlier disturbances. In addition, he persuaded Bourguiba to accept a multiparty system (although only one opposition party was actually legalized).

The outcome of the elections in November 1981 was disappointing to those who sought political liberalization. The National Front, an alliance of the Destourian Socialist Party and the trade union movement, swept all 136 parliamentary seats, a result received with cynicism and dismay by the opposition. Meanwhile, an Islamist opposition was developing around the Islamic Tendency Movement (Mouvement de la Tendance Islamique [MTI]). By 1984 Bourguiba saw had perceived an Islamist hand behind riots and demonstrations protesting rising prices. In response, he sent in the army and initiated a fierce campaign against the MTI. Bourguiba’s long rule, widely popular in its early years except among traditionalist groups, had provoked an increasing but passive opposition among Tunisians. Bourguiba, long in declining health, became unable to mask his autocratic tendencies. National elections in 1986 were boycotted by the major opposition parties, and the National Front once again carried the vote. In November 1987, amid widespread unrest and growing Islamist support, Bourguiba was declared mentally unfit to rule and was removed from office. He was succeeded by General Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, whom he had appointed as prime minister a month earlier.

President Ben Ali promised political liberalization and a transition to democracy. His early reforms attempted to restore a national consensus; one of these, the National Pact signed in 1989, drew together the ruling party, the legal opposition, the Islamists, and all the national organizations. Many political parties were legalized, with the exception of the MTI (renamed Al-NahdaNahḍah [“The Renaissance”] in 1988), but the 1989 national elections still failed to introduce a multiparty competition. The president gained 99 percent of the vote, and the RDI RCD won all 141 seats in the legislature. Local elections in 1990, boycotted by opposition parties, were also swept by the ruling party. Following early local electoral victories by Algerian Islamists in 1990 and Islamist opposition to the First Persian Gulf War in 1991(1990–91), the government began to crack down on Islamist political activity.

Despite the initial easing of Although the government initially eased press controls and the release of released political prisoners, the opposition soon became disillusioned with the new regime. Subsequently, it the government turned against secular opposition, and it has since been criticized for its abuse of human rights and its reliance on military and security forces. Piecemeal electoral reforms have failed to produce any genuine form of power sharing or transfer of power away from the president’s party. Similarly, the media and national organizations and associations have lost much of what little autonomy they wrested from the state, and Ben Ali’s regime has increasingly been subject to accusations of authoritarianism. The government, for its part, has claimed that democratization must be a gradual process that cannot be allowed to destabilize or inhibit the processes of economic liberalization and social consolidation. The implementation of bicameral legislature in 2005 was given as a step toward political liberalization.

Foreign relations

Foreign relations under Habib Bourguiba were dominated by his personal conviction that Tunisia’s future lay with the West and, in particular, with France and the United States. There were, nonetheless, some early crises, including the a French bombing raid on the Tunisian village of Sakiet Sidi Youssef (Sāqiyat Sīdī Yūsuf) in 1958, during which France claimed the right to pursue Algerian rebels across the border; the Bizerte incident of 1961, concerning the continued military use of that port and airfield facility by France; and the suspension of all French aid in 1964–66 after Tunisia abruptly nationalized foreign-owned landholdings. These difficulties aside, Tunisia’s relations with France have been improving, as have relations with the United States, despite some tensions with the latter over its involvement in the First Persian Gulf War and its policies toward the developing world. Alignment with the West was never allowed to interfere with positive trade policies toward the with developing world countries and what was then the Soviet bloc. Rather than balance East against West, Bourguiba maximized Tunisia’s advantages by maintaining good relations with both , and thereby reducing reduced the country’s dependency on either one. Bourguiba’s pragmatism also extended to the Arab world. Rejecting ideological constraints, he argued for the Arab recognition of Israel and Arab unity based on mutually advantageous cooperation rather than political integration.

Under Ben Ali, Tunisia has followed much the same path. The need for regional security and the desire to advance economic interests, especially trade and foreign investment, guides has guided foreign policy. With the uncertain future and stability of the Arab Maghreb Maghrib Union, in the past few years Tunisia has increasingly concentrated efforts on developing bilateral economic agreements with other Arab states, on promoting the Arab League’s Arab Free Trade Area, and in advancing regional economics. An agreement with the European Union, which came into effect in 1998, has also tied Tunisia’s economy and security to the Mediterranean community. Attempts to diversify trading links have led to closer ties with the East and Southeast Asia, and strong ties with the United States remain a linchpin in Tunisia’s ability to present itself as a stable, reliable, and moderate state. Tunisia is has been keen on supporting international organizations, in particular the United Nations, which it sees has viewed as the protector of smaller states and the defender of international law.