We have stated before in a previous passage 38that the profit human beings make is the value realized from their
labor. If someone could be assumed to have no (ability whatever to do
any) labor, he would have no profit whatever. The value realized from
one's labor corresponds to the value of one's labor and the value of
(this labor) as compared to (the value of) other labor and the need of
the people for it. The growth or decrease of one's profit, in turn,
depends on that. We have also just now explained 39that ranks are useful in securing property. A person of rank has
the people approach him with their labor and property. (They do that) in
order to avoid harm and to obtain advantages. The labor and property
through which they attempt to approach him is, in a way, given in
exchange for the many good and bad things they may obtain (or avoid)
with the aid of his rank. Such labor becomes part of the profit of (the
man of rank), and the value realized from it means property and wealth
for him. He thus gains wealth and a fortune in a very short time.

Ranks are widely distributed among people, and there are
various levels of rank among them. At the top, they extend to the rulers
above whom there is nobody. At the bottom, they extend to those who have
nothing to gain or to lose among their fellow men. In between, there are
numerous classes. This is God's wise plan with regard to His creation.
It regulates their livelihood, takes care of their interests, and
insures their permanency.

The existence and persistence of the human species can
materialize only through the co-operation of all men in behalf of what
is good for them. It has been established that a single human being
could not fully exist by himself, and even if, hypothetically, it might
happen as a rare exception, his existence would be precarious. Now, such
co-operation is obtained by the use of force, since people are largely
ignorant of the interests of the (human) species, and since they are
given freedom of choice and their actions are the result of thinking and
reflection, not of natural (instinct). They thus refrain from
co-operating. Therefore, it is obligatory to make them (co-operate), and
there must be some motive forcing human beings to take care of their
interests, so that God's wise plan as to the preservation of mankind can
materialize. This is what is meant by the verse of the Qur'an: "And we
placed some of you over others in various grades, so that they might use
the others for forced labor. The mercy of your Lord is better than
whatever they gather." 40

It has, thus, become clear that rank means the power
enabling human beings to be active among the fellow men under their
control with permission and prohibition, and to have forceful
superiority over them, in order to make them avoid things harmful to
them and seize their advantages. (They may act) in justice and apply the
laws of religion and politics, and (also) follow their own purposes 41in everything else.

However, the first thing (the just use of rank) was
intended by the divine providence as something essential, whereas the
second thing (self-seeking use of rank) enters into it as something
accidental, as is the case with all evils decreed by God. Much good can
fully exist only in conjunction with the existence of some little evil,
which is the result of matter. The good does not disappear with the
(admixture of evil), but attaches itself to the little evil that gathers
around it. This is the meaning of the occurrence of injustice in the
world. It should be understood.

Each class among the inhabitants of a town or zone of
civilization has power over the classes lower than it. Each member of a
lower class seeks the support of rank frommembers of the next higher class, and those
who gain it become more active among the people under their control in
proportion to the profit they get out of it. Thus, rank affects people
in whatever way they make their living. Whether it is influential or
restricted depends on the class and status of the person who has a
particular rank. If the rank in question is influential, the profit
accruing from it is correspondingly great. If it is restricted and
unimportant, (the profit) is correspondingly (small). A person who has
no rank, even though he may have money, acquires a fortune only in
proportion to the labor he is able to produce, or the property he owns,
and in accordance with the efforts he makes coming and going 42to increase it. This is the case with most merchants and, as a
rule, with farmers. It also is the case with craftsmen. If they have no
rank and are restricted to the profits of their crafts, they will mostly
be reduced to poverty and indigence, and they do not quickly become
wealthy. They make only a bare living, somehow fending off the distress
of poverty.

If this has been established and if it further has become
clear that rank is widely distributed and that one's happiness and
welfare are intimately connected with the acquisition of (rank), it will
be realized that it is a very great and important favor to give away or
grant a rank to someone, and that the person who gives it away is a very
great benefactor. He gives it only to people under his control. Thus,
giving (rank) away (shows) influence and power. Consequently, a
person who seeks
and desires rank must be obsequious and use flattery,
as powerful men and rulers require. Otherwise, it will be impossible for
him to obtain any (rank). Therefore, we have stated that obsequiousness
and flattery are the reasons why a person may be able to obtain a rank
that produces happiness and profit, and that most wealthy and happy
people have the quality (of obsequiousness and use flattery). Thus, too,
many people who are proud and supercilious have no use for rank. Their
earnings, consequently, are restricted to (the results of) their own
labors, and they are reduced to poverty and indigence.

It should be known that such haughtiness and pride are
blameworthy qualities. They result from the assumption (by an
individual) that he is perfect, and that people need the scientific or technical skill he
offers. Such an individual, for instance, is a scholar who is deeply
versed in his science, or a scribe who writes well, or a poet who makes
good poetry. Anyone who knows his craft assumes that people need what he
has. Therefore, he develops a feeling of superiority to them. People of
noble descent, whose forebears include a ruler or a famous scholar, or a
person perfect in some position, also share this illusion. They are
arrogant because of the position their forebears held in their town.
They have seen it themselves or have heard about it. They assume that
they deserve a similar position because of their relationship to such
men and the fact that they are their heirs. In fact, they cling to
something that is a matter of the past, since perfection is not passed
on by inheritance 43 The same is the
case with people who are skillful, experienced, and versed in affairs.
Some of them assume that they are perfect and needed on that account.

All these types (of people) are found to be proud. They
are not obsequious and do not flatter people of a higher station. They
belittle all others, because they believe that they are better than
other people. One of them may even disdain to be obsequious to a ruler
and consider such obsequiousness humiliating, abasing, and stupid. He
expects people to treat him in accordance with what he thinks of
himself, and he hates those who in any respect fail to treat him as he expects to be treated. He often gets to feel
very anxious and sad, because they fail (to treat him according to his
expectations). He always worries much, because people refuse to give him
what he considers his due. People, (in turn,) come to hate him, because
of the egoism of human nature. Rarely will (a human being) concede
perfection and
superiority to another, unless he is somehow forced to do so by superior
strength. Such (forcefulness and superior strength) is implied - in
rank. Thus, when a haughty person has no rank-and he cannot have any, as
has been explained - people hate him for his haughtiness, and he
receives no share of their kindness. He obtains no rank from members ofthe next higher class, because he is hated (by
them), and, therefore, he cannot associate with them and frequent their
homes. In consequence, his livelihood is destroyed. He remains in a
state of indigence and poverty, or (in a state) that is only a little
better. The acquisition of wealth is altogether out of the question for
him.

In this (sense), it is widely said among the people that
a person who is perfect in knowledge obtains no share (in worldly
goods). The knowledge that is given to him is taken into account, and
this is set apart as his share (in worldly goods). This is the meaning
of it. Everyone is successful at the things for which he was created
44 God decides.
There is no Lord but Him.

In a dynasty, the character quality mentioned may cause
disturbances among the ranks. Many people of the low classes come up to
fill them, and many people of the higher classes have to step down on
that account. The reason is that when a dynasty has reached its limit of
superiority and power, the royal clan claims royal and governmental
authority exclusively for itself. Everybody else despairs of (getting
any share in) it. (All the other people can only) hold ranks below
the rank of the ruler and under the control of the
government. They are a sort of servant of his. Now, when the dynasty
continues and royal authority flourishes, those who go into the service
of the ruler, who try to approach him with advice, or who are accepted
as followers by him because of their capability in many of his important
affairs, will all be equal in rank in his eyes. Many common people will
make efforts to approach the ruler with zealous counsel and come close
to him through all kinds of services. For this purpose, such people make
much use of obsequiousness and flattery toward the ruler, his entourage,
and his family, so that eventually they will be firmlyentrenched
and the ruler will give them a place in the total (picture) of his
(administration). Thus, they obtain a large share of happiness and are
accepted among the people of the dynasty.

At such a time, the new generation of the dynasty, the
children of the people who had seen the dynasty through its difficulties
and smoothed its path, are arrogant 45because of the noteworthy achievements of their forefathers.
Because of them, they look down on the ruler. They rely on their
influence (lasting) and become very presumptuous. 46This makes the ruler hate them and keep away from them. He now
leans toward those of his followers who do not rely upon any
(achievements of the past) and would not think of being presumptuous and
proud. Their behavior is characterized by obsequiousness to (the ruler)
and flattery (of him) and willingness to work for his purposes whenever
he is ready for some undertaking. Their rank, consequently, becomes
important. Their stations become high. The outstanding personalities and
the elite 47turn to
them, because they receive so many favors from the ruler and have great
influence with him. The new generation of the dynasty, meanwhile, keeps
its proud attitude and continues to rely upon the (achievements of the)
past. They gain nothing from that. It merely alienates them from the
ruler and makes him hate them and give preference to his (newly gained)
supporters, until the dynasty is destroyed. This is natural in a
dynasty, and this is usually at the origin of the importance of its
followers.