Sketches of Japanese Manners and Customs by J. M. W. Silver

Its easy to link to paragraphs in the Full Text ArchiveIf this page contains some material that you want to link to but you don't want your visitors to have to scroll down the whole page just hover your mouse over the relevent paragraph and click the bookmark icon that appears to the left of it. The address of that paragraph will appear in the address bar of your browser. For further details about how you can link to the Full Text Archive please refer to our linking page.

J. M. W. SILVERLieutenant Royal Marines, Light Infantry(Late of the Royal Marine Battalion for Service in Japan)

Illustrated by Native Drawings,Reproduced in Fac-Simile by Means of Chromo-Lithography.

LONDON

1867

[Illustration: Sketches of Japanese Manners and Customs]

TO

COLONEL SIR EDMUND SAUNDERSON PRIDEAUX, BART.

DEAR SIR EDMUND,

These few 'Sketches of Japanese Manners and Customs' were collectedduring the years 1864-5, at which time I was attached to the Battalionof Royal Marines for service in Japan, and it is now very pleasing tohave the privilege of dedicating them to one who was the friend andcompanion-in-arms of my late Father.

In memory of this bond of friendship, and in grateful acknowledgmentof the many kindnesses you have shown me, this Dedication of my humbleefforts to assist in the elucidation of the social condition of adistant and comparatively unknown race, affords me deep gratification.

The first feature of Japanese life that prominently presents itself tothe notice of the stranger, is the number of festivals and holidaysheld in honour of the various deities, warriors, and sages, or inaccordance with some ancient custom of the county, which is asparamount an authority as the most stringent of its laws. Of thesefestivals, the 'Oki-don-tako,' or 'Great Holiday,' which takes placeabout Christmas, and lasts a fortnight, is the most important.Previous to its celebration, it is customary with the people to settleaccounts, and amicably adjust any quarrels or estrangements that mayhappen to exist; and they evince the same spirit that actuatesChristian nations at this season, by a general interchange of presentsand complimentary visits with their friends and acquaintance. Soanxious are the merchants to take this opportunity of settling withtheir creditors, that, when the dealers have deficiencies to make up,articles are frequently pressed on foreign residents at the TreatyPorts at prices previously refused.

The 'Gogata Seku,' the emblems of which form the first subject ofillustration, is also a festival of great importance: it takes placeabout the middle of June, which is the fifth month of the Japanesecalendar, from which it derives its designation, and is kept up withmore than ordinary spirit during the three days of its continuance. Itis held in commemoration of Gongen Sama, the great general to whomthe present dynasty owes its existence; and the Japanese date theirbirths from this festival, even if born the day after its lastcelebration.

It has several curious symbols, the most striking being huge aerialfishes, in imitation of the 'koi,' or 'carp;' large crimson streamers,representations of Gongen Sama crushing a demon; and the heads andtails of crayfish, with which they decorate their dishes and theentrances of their houses. The floating fish flag is hoisted overevery house in which a boy has been born during the preceding twelvemonths, and is emblematical of his future career. As the 'koi,' or'carp,' which is very plentiful in Japan, finds its way up streams andrivers, surmounting all obstacles in its way, and rendering itself byits fecundity and edible qualities useful to the whole country, so thechild is to make his way through life, boldly fulfilling his destiny,and proving himself a useful and beneficial member of the community.In the same way, the scarlet streamer indicates the birth of a femalechild, and the domestic nature of her duties. The crayfish are used toremind the people of their humble origin (it being traditionary thatthe empire originated from a race of poor fishermen), and theconsequent necessity of humility, temperance, and frugality, in theirdifferent stations in life.[1]

[Footnote 1: The slice of salt-fish which accompanies Japanese lettersis an exhortation to the same effect.]

Various qualities are ascribed to the hero of this festival: he isconsidered the especial champion of women, for whose protection heinstituted several laws and regulations; among others, making itobligatory on them to blacken their teeth on entering into the marriedstate. He is believed to be able to charm away fevers, to alleviatesuffering, and to prevent the lives of his _protegees_ from beingembittered by jealousy. During the celebration of this festival thewhole country presents an extraordinary appearance; aerial fishes,streamers, and bamboo decorations, meet the eye in every direction;and the people in gala costume which is always worn on holidays,greatly enhance the brilliancy of the scene.

The gala dress is much gayer than that ordinarily worn, but there islittle difference in the material, the dress of every class beingregulated by stringent sumptuary laws. Blues and purples predominatein winter, the lighter and more varied colours being generallyconfined to materials only adapted for summer use. The ladies have agreat partiality for crimson crape, which is generally worn as anunder-robe, and peeps daintily out at the bottom of the dress, and atthe wide open sleeves; it is also entwined in the hair, and with thegirdle, at the back of which it is allowed to droop in full, gracefulfolds. The men do not affect such bright colours as the women andchildren, although their robes are often fantastically embroideredwith various strange devices, such as shell-fish, frogs, flowers andlandscapes, some of which are beautifully worked.

[Illustration: Mother and Child.(From Photograph.)]

The whole populace on these occasions seem determined to enjoythemselves; the air of good-natured contentment, which characterisesthem at all times, taking a more exuberant tone as they stroll aboutthe streets, visit in family parties, or make excursions to theneighbouring tea-houses. Thoroughly domestic in their tastes andhabits, it is a pleasing sight to watch the family groups. Here agrand-dame is carefully assisted along by her son and daughter-in-law,preceded by chattering grandchildren in the gayest of dresses, tuggingat extraordinary kites; or a father, in the doorway of his house,nurses one child, while the mother exhibits for the admiration ofsympathizing friends another infant--probably one of the unconsciousobjects of all this rejoicing.

Though the men frequently exceed the bounds of sobriety on thesefestivals and holidays, they rarely become quarrelsome. It is,however, by no means unusual for them to keep in a state ofintoxication for days; alleging this, with perfect _sang froid_, as anexcuse for any neglected promise or unfinished job.

The 'Omatsurie,' or 'Merchants' Great Festival,' which is onlycelebrated in the principal towns, takes place about the middle ofJuly, and may be considered to be an exhibition of the differenttrades, as the merchants and craftsmen of the country show thechoicest specimens of their wares and handicraft in a kind of trades'procession. Like all the rest of their festivals it has a religioussignification, the people believing that misfortunes in business arewarded off by it. Upwards of five hundred trade trophies figure in oneof these processions, the imposing nature of which may be imaginedfrom the gorgeous materials and fantastic dresses depicted in theillustration. The car in the foreground bears the trophy of thewax-figure makers, whose trade is one of the most lucrative in Japan,as the Japanese not only perpetuate their celebrities by wax-workeffigies, but the majority of the people, being professors of theSintoo religion, have Lares and Penates of the same material, called'Kamis,' which are supposed to intercede on their behalf with theSupreme Being. And this is in addition to regular wax-workexhibitions, which are very popular, and the sale of toys which arehawked about the country by travelling dealers.

[Illustration: Travelling Merchant (Native Drawing.)]

[Illustration: OTINTA LAMA.]

The merchants have a general right of _entree_ to all parts of thetown on these occasions. In the illustration, the procession ispassing through the official quarter of Yeddo, the Tycoon's palaceforming the subject of the background. They halt from time to time intheir progress, which is enlivened by songs descriptive of theirvarious callings, and the beating of huge drums, and blowing ofstrange discordant instruments. There is a kind of analogy between ourindustrial exhibitions and these festivals; and, whatever the purposemay be for which they were originated, it is plain that they admirablyrepresent the industry, wealth, and resources of the country.

'Otinta Sama' is a comical divinity, who is laughed at by some, andbelieved by others to inhabit certain miniature temples, which arecrowned with cocks with outspread wings, as that bird is supposed tobe his favourite incarnation. On holidays and festivals, his templesare frequently carried about on the shoulders of his votaries, who aregenerally the most ignorant and superstitious of the people. This isalways a subject of merriment with the unbelievers, who crowd roundthe temples and oppose their progress, and indulge in witticisms atthe expense of the divinity and his bearers. This sometimes leads to adisturbance, but only when the parties concerned have been indulgingtoo freely in their favourite saki.

[Illustration: Saki-drunk. (Native drawing.)]

The intercession of Otinta Sama is principally sought in times ofdrought or of heavy rains; the temple in the one case being broughtout and exposed to the sun, and in the other sprinkled with water, byway of intimating the immediate necessity for his good offices.

CHAPTER II.

FIRES AND FIRE-BRIGADES

Fires are necessarily frequent, as the majority of the houses areconstructed of wood; and such dangerous articles as paper-lanterns,small charcoal fire-boxes, and movable open stoves, for householdpurposes, are in common use. The candles burnt in the paper-lanternsrender them extremely dangerous, as they are fixed by a socket insidethe lower end of the candle, which fits on a peg in thelantern--generally very loosely; and as they flare a great deal, verylittle wind or motion will cause a conflagration. Fires are, mostlyattributed, however, to the 'chebache,' or small charcoal fire-box,which is used for smoking purposes. It is placed on a small stand inthe middle of the thickly-matted rooms, the smokers sitting rounddrinking saki, and occasionally filling their small pipes. Theirmethod of smoking, like all the rest of their habits, is remarkablypeculiar; for, after inhaling a few whiffs, the smoker invariablyknocks out the half-consumed remnant on the 'chebache,' and, presentlyrefilling, commences another pipe, and so on, two or three times insuccession, rarely troubling himself about the ashes of the last,which the slightest current of air may carry unperceived to smoulderin the combustible flooring.

[Illustration: A FIRE BRIGADE ON ITS WAY TO A FIRE.]

Fires occur frequently, notwithstanding the great precautions whichare taken for their prevention. Town and country are divided intodistricts, for which certain of the inhabitants are responsible. Eachof these has its alarum, with observatory and regular watchers; whileevery guard-house is provided with a supply of ladders, buckets, andother necessary implements. Whenever a gale is coming on, the'Yoshongyee and Kanabo,' or 'watch and fire look-outs,' who onordinary occasions only go their rounds by night, parade the townswith rattles and clanking iron instruments, as a warning to the peopleto keep their fires low.

They have numerous fire-brigades, which are well organized, andremarkably efficient. In the illustration one of them is seen hurryingalong the street to the place of action. On the right, a watchman isstriking an alarum, and another may be noticed, half-way up anobservatory in the distance, pointing out the direction of the fire.The white building on the other side of the street is a fire-proofstorehouse, in which the public documents and valuables of thedistrict are deposited whenever a fire breaks out in it.

[Illustration: Yoshongyee and Kanabo. (Native drawing.)]

A Japanese 'Shecase,' or fire-brigade, passing silently along thestreets, lighted by its weird red-and-black distinguishing lanterns,is a strange sight. Some of its members wear armour, with helmets andblack-lacquered iron visors, and carry 'martoe,' or 'fire-charms,' andvarious necessary implements; others are clad in head-and-shoulderpieces and gauntlets of light chain-armour, to protect them whilepulling down and unroofing houses, which is their especial duty. Allhave a regular fire costume, from the 'Oki Yaconin,' or 'head man,' tothe bare-legged coolie, who carries the badge of the brigade in largered characters on his back. On arriving at a fire, a _point de tete_is selected--generally a house, on the roof of which the fire-charmsare immediately fixed, as if to forbid its further advance. Thesecharms (the circular white objects with black mouldings) have, ofcourse, as little effect on one element as Canute's celebratedcommand had on another; but the people put such faith in their virtuethat their presence is a powerful auxiliary in prescribing the limitsof fires, which are rarely allowed to pass the bounds marked out bythem. The firemen fight with the flames as they close on the charms,like men determined to stand by their colours to the last, rushinginto the burning houses, pulling them down, and drenching the blazingthatch, with great courage and endurance. When, by thus putting theirshoulder to the wheel, the fire is fairly subdued, they turn round andpoint exultingly to the martoe as the Hercules that has procured theresult. On one occasion, at a fire in the village of Omura, adjoiningYokahama, the charms and their supporters were actually licked by theflames from the house opposite to that on which they were fixed, whosethatched roof was pulled off while in a state of rampant ignition byfire-coolies, who with bare hands, and no other protection than theirsaturated clothing, fought with the actual fire. One plucky fellowfell through the roof while thus employed, and, as the spectatorsstill shuddered at his anticipated fate, rushed out apparentlyuninjured, and, re-ascending, resumed his fiery task with unabatedvigour. Although the fire-charms were triumphant on this occasion,they did not escape unscorched, and several engines had to be kept inconstant play upon them and their supporters, to prevent the one fromignition, and the other from being baked in their armour like crabs intheir shells.

The engines in present use are made of wood, and, though simple, areefficient in damping the roofs of houses (which, being tiled with thinsquares of wood, are very inflammable), putting out embers, andplaying upon the firemen, who, as already indicated, prefer beingstewed to being roasted. The Japanese, however, are thoroughly awareof the superiority of our engines, which will probably soon take theplace of their own, as the people are singularly quick in availingthemselves of anything useful.

The townspeople generally calculate on being burnt out once in everyseven years, and whenever this calamity falls upon them, no time islost in rebuilding. For instance, in December, 1864, a fragment ofblazing wood, from a fire which destroyed the United Service Club atYokohama, was blown across to the village of Omura before alluded to,which was half burnt down, greatly endangering the General Small-PoxHospital and the huts of the Royal Marine Battalion in its rear. Butearly next morning, while the embers of the old houses were stillsmoking, new ones were in course of erection, and before night some ofthe industrious occupants were fairly roofed in afresh.[2]

[Footnote 2: As an illustration of the spirit which characterisesBritish merchants in their intercourse with the Japanese, it may bementioned that a liberal subscription was promptly got up for there-establishment of these burnt-out villagers; but, although theJapanese Government seemed thoroughly to appreciate the kindly spiritin which it was offered, national pride came in the way of itsacceptance, and the people were only induced to waive their objectionon its being urgently pressed upon them that the fire which destroyedthe Foreigners' Club was the cause of the calamity.]

CHAPTER III.

DOMESTIC LIFE.

It is impossible to mark the even and peaceable tenor of Japaneselife, the politeness, industry, respect for superiors, and general airof cheerfulness and content, that pervades all classes, withoutadmiration of the wise regulations which preserve such order amongstthem as a people. Quarrels and blows are almost unknown in families;the husband is gentle, the wife exemplary and affectionate, and thechildren singularly obedient and reverent to their parents: yet 'Sparethe rod and spoil the child' is a precept totally disregarded. Thechildren are never beaten, nor do the parents allow themselves to losetheir tempers in rebuking them, however great the provocation maybe--one remarkable result of the complete self-abnegation inculcatedby their social system.

[Illustration: A JAPANESE WEDDING.]

The relative position of father and son is very striking. From anearly age the latter enjoys the entire confidence of the former, whonot only treats him as a grown-up person, but frequently refersdisputed matters to his arbitration, invariably abiding by hisdecision. Again, on a son's arriving at manhood, the parents oftenresign their property in his favour, relying on him, with a confidencerarely misplaced, for maintenance during the remainder of their lives;and so sacred is this trust considered, that in case of the son'sdemise it devolves indisputably on his wife and children. So far, whatcould be more promising? But, alas! like everything else, Japaneselife has a dark side, and in this case it consists of a repulsivecustom, which permits indigent parents to sell their daughters for aterm of years into a state of bondage, for purposes of the mostdegrading nature. This possibility more than counterbalances all thebrighter features of their domestic economy. Generally speaking, whenyoung girls find themselves a burden to their parents, they seekemployment in the tea-houses, where they are well looked after andinstructed in various accomplishments, for which they serve a certainapprenticeship, and at its expiration generally marry, as girls soeducated are eagerly sought after.

There are two forms of marriage, either of which is legally binding.One is a religious, and the other a civil contract, not verydissimilar from our marriage by the registrar, saving that the bride'sparents sign for her. Whichever form is used, the parents receive asum of money from the bridegroom; but in neither case is the husbandsupposed to see the face of his bride until all due formalities havebeen performed. The religious ceremony takes place in a temple: thepair, after listening to a lengthy harangue from one of the attendantpriests, approach the altar, where large tapers are presented to them;the bride, instructed by the priest, lights her taper at the sacredcenser on the altar, and the bridegroom, igniting his from hers,allows the two flames to combine, and burn steadily together, thussymbolizing the perfect unity of the marriage state; and thiscompletes the ceremonial.

The illustration represents the private ratification of the civilcontract, which is a simple form, by which the parties take uponthemselves the respective duties of husband and wife. The veiledfigure in white is the 'hanna-yomie,' or 'bride,' in the act ofacknowledging the 'hanna-moko,' or 'bridegroom' (who sits opposite toher in an official dress), by partaking of the nuptial saki. This'saki,' or 'wine,' is prepared by two intimate female friends of thebride, who first pour it into the gold and silver lacquer vessels onthe stand, which respectively represent the husband and wife, andthen, taking the vessels in hand, mix the contents in a cup, anddeliver it to the 'shewarin,' or 'master of the ceremonies,' who handsit to the bride, and then to the bridegroom, and both partake of thecontents, which act constitutes the marriage.

Although young ladies are employed to mix the nuptial saki they do notattend on the bride. Such offices as are required are performed by amarried couple, the shewarin and his wife. It is they who make thenecessary arrangements, and provide the pheasants that appear in therecess; which signify that the hanna-moko, like the cock-pheasant,will always jealously guard his charmer, who, like the shy hen-bird,will readily respond to the call of her mate.

[Illustration: A Dose of Moxa. (Native drawing.)]

A more practical idea of the requirements of married life may bededuced from the annexed woodcut, representing the application ofmoxa, which is very commonly used as a remedy for rheumatism, and topromote circulation.

Japanese women make excellent wives: they are never idle in theirhouses; and when other occupations fail them, the spinning-wheel, orloom, is brought out, and materials for clothing their families areprepared. In the country, the women share equally with their husbandsand children in agricultural labours; early and late whole familiesmay be seen in the paddy-fields transplanting rice, or superintendingits irrigation, for which the undulating nature of the country affordsgreat facility.

[Illustration: Transplanting Rice. (Native drawing.)]

Notwithstanding the laborious nature of their tasks they have always acheerful greeting for the passer-by, even under extremely irritatingcircumstances, as they are greatly plagued by leeches, which swarm inthe paddy-fields.

The result of the constant attention paid to the cultivation of thesoil is astonishing. Our farmers would gaze with surprise on theluxuriant crops of cereals, roots, and vegetables; and this is solelyowing to the care taken in preparing the soil, which is not naturallyproductive. Weeds are never to be met with in the fields, which,however, from the constant manuring bestowed upon them, lack the sweetfresh smell of our own.

With regard to education, it is rare to meet with a Japanese whocannot read, write, and cipher; and in buying and selling they usecomputing slides like the Chinese, by the aid of which they quicklysettle the amount to be paid. They do not, except in the higherclasses, receive what we understand by a general or scientificeducation, the members of each trade or profession being onlyinstructed in what pertains to their own affairs--a fact the inquiringstranger soon discovers.

CHAPTER IV.

THE TYCOON, DAIMIOS, AND ARISTOCRACY.

The Government of Japan consists of an oligarchy of feudal princes,called Daimios, wielding absolute authority in their respectiveprovinces, but subject to the general control of one of their number,(selected from one of three great families), called the 'Tycoon,' who,assisted by a 'Gorogio,' or 'Great Council,' presides over the affairsof the state in the name of the 'Mikado,' or 'Spiritual Emperor,' itssupreme head.

The office of Mikado is apparently the cause of most of thedisturbances which agitate the country. Its temporal importance liesin possessing the power of issuing decrees, bestowing titles, anddelegating authority to others; and princes discontented with theTycoon are constantly intriguing against his legitimate influence withthe Mikado. For instance: an attempt was made in 1864 by a powerfulcoalition, headed by Choisiu, prince of Nangato, to obtain possessionof the Mikado's person. This was only prevented after a severestruggle by the bravery of the Tycoon's guard, to whose care thepalace and its inmates were entrusted. During the conflict a largeportion of the sacred city of Miako was burnt.

[Illustration: A DAIMIO PAYING A STATE VISIT.]

The Tycoon only leaves Yeddo when affairs of state require hispresence elsewhere. His palace is situated in the heart of the city,and is surrounded by grounds several miles in circumference, andenclosed by a deep moat. It is there that he receives the compulsoryvisits of the grandees of the empire, one of whom, on the point ofbeing ushered into the audience-chamber, is shown opposite, in hisrobes of ceremony, and attended by a sword-bearer, in token of hishigh rank. The bonze, or priest, who precedes him, does not impart anyreligious signification to the visit, as priests commonly act in thedouble capacity of spy and master of the ceremonies. The screen, whichforms the background of the illustration is worthy of attention, asits subject is taken from the Japanese mythology, and represents thegreat sun-god from whom Ten-zio-dai-zin, the patron goddess of theempire, sprang.

In public, these oligarchical princes are invariably surrounded by allthe pomp of feudal state, and when they travel are escorted by largebodies of retainers. At Kanagawa, which adjoins the settlement ofYokohama, the foreigner has frequent opportunities of witnessing theirprocessions as they pass to and fro along the 'tokaido,' or 'greatpublic road,' when they are going on their compulsory visits to Yeddofrom their own country palaces. Nor is much danger attached to this,as the passing of Daimios whom it would be dangerous to meet on thetokaido, is always notified by the authorities to the consul. Onwitnessing a Daimio's procession for the first time, it is hard torealise that it is not a scene from some gorgeous pantomime, aobrilliant and varied are the costumes of the retainers, and so totallydifferent is it from anything which European eyes are accustomed togaze upon. But should anything excite the risible faculties of theobserver, his hallucinations are likely to be quickly scattered by thescowls of the resolute-looking fellows passing by with 'hand onsword,' needing but little encouragement to 'set a glory' to it, 'bygiving it the worship of revenge,' as they are extremely jealous ofthe honour of their prince, and regard the presence of foreigners onthe tokaido at such times as an insult. This circumstance is alsorendered more galling by foreigners sitting coolly on their horses bythe road-side as the great man passes, generally in a low norimon, onwhich they must necessarily look down--in contradiction to Japaneseetiquette, which permits no inferior to look down upon asuperior--while the people of the country are either abjectlykowtowing to him or patiently waiting in their closed houses until hispassing shall set them once more at liberty.

A review given the by two ministers for foreign affairs to SirRutherford Alcock, shortly before his departure, was a very imposingspectacle. The approach of the ministers was announced by the beatingof drums (which are sometimes carried on the shoulder and struck bythe palm of the hand) and the blowing of conch-shells, each instrumentbeing sounded three times in succession, at short intervals. Men inarmour carrying banners, bearing the Tycoon's crest, headed theprocession. They were followed by a large drum in a square case,carried by two men, and the conch-blowers; then came a number ofspearmen in armour; officers on horseback immediately preceding theministers. On arriving at the ground they dismounted, and werereceived by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the remainder of their retinuepassing on and forming in rear of the others, to the left of theEnglish garrison, consisting of the second battalion of the 20thRegiment, the Royal Marine battalion, and detachments of RoyalArtillery, of the 67th Regiment, and Beloochees, who were drawn up inbrigade in honour of the occasion. At the request of the ministers thegarrison marched past and performed a few manoeuvres, concluding withdischarging blank cartridge in squares and in skirmishing order. Therapidity of the fire appeared to make a great impression on them. Thisover, the Japanese performance commenced; which was a representationof their ancient order of battle, the retainers dividing and formingin lines opposite one another, and about one hundred yards apart. Theproceedings were conducted by two marshals on foot; they began byforming the spearmen in line, with emphatic guttural commands,stamping of the feet, and flourishing of gilt batons, to the end ofwhich wisps of paper were attached. All were habited in magnificentarmour: some wore complete suits of mail; others chain armour, linedwith gorgeous silks. Broad lacquered hats were here and theresubstituted for helmets; or both were dispensed with, and the templesof the combatants bound with linen cloth, which is their usualheaddress in action. Presently a signal was given, on which theopposing lines commenced simultaneously to 'mark line double.' At asecond signal they faced into Indian file, and the marshals, placingthemselves at their head, led them off at a swinging trot, the wholeparty flinging up their heels like boys playing at 'follow my leader,'until startling guttural shouts from the marshals caused theglittering lines to halt and face each other. The horsemen, who hadhitherto taken no part in the pageant, were now stationed in rear ofthe centre of the respective lines, and added greatly to the effect bytheir crested helmets, their richly gilt armour, and the heraldicbanners, which were attached to the back of the cuirass and floatedabout two feet over their heads. As soon as the horsemen werestationed the exciting part of the sham-fight began, by the linesbeing wheeled backwards and forwards in wings from the centre, andinto zigzag formations from central points, with a slow 'stamp-and-go'march, the spears being flourished with each motion and pointed highand low, and right and left, as in our bayonet exercise. The marshalsregulated the movements of their respective lines with great accuracy,the one being retired directly the other advanced, so that therelative distance was never altered. After a time both partiessuddenly assumed a sitting posture and exchanged howls of defiance,which grew fiercer and fiercer, until a simultaneous rush, as if toengage, finished the performance from which the representatives ofbarbaric warfare retired amid the hearty cheers of the representativesof the bayonet and rifle.

[Illustration: A Daimio Retainer. (Native Drawing.)]

Though most of the Daimios have enormous revenues, and are surroundedby men devotedly attached to them, the policy of the country sotrammels their actions with formalities and espionage as to keep themin considerable subjection to the Tycoon; nor is even the privacy oftheir houses respected, for their families are retained in Yeddo, ashostages for their good behaviour, while they are absent in theirprincipalities. As an occasional relaxation from the cares attendanton their high position, they avail themselves of a privilege called'naiboen,' which enables them to share incognito in the pleasures andamusements of their countrymen. Those drawings and colouredrepresentations of scenes connected with the higher classes which solargely engross the attention of Japanese artists, generally depictnaiboen intrigues and adventures: these convey, however, a veryexaggerated idea of the manner in which the Daimios conduct themselveson these occasions.

[Illustration: Coolies carrying Norimon. (From Native Drawing.)]

The family in the house-boat witnessing a pyrotechnic display in thebay of Yeddo, may be regarded as a faithful representation of aDaimio's party enjoying the naiboen. The great man in his light summerrobe has apparently cast aside the cares of office, and seemsthoroughly to enjoy the cool evening breeze and the society of hiswives, only one of whom has a legal claim to that title, by right ofwhich she takes precedence of the others. Of the two bonzes, orpriests, in the stem of the boat, one, probably, is a member of thefamily, and the other its spy, for even naiboen excursions are notexempted from espionage: indeed the Japanese are so habituated to thiscustom that they generally regard it as a necessary check uponthemselves. Naiboen excursions to the tea-houses are very frequent,notice being sent previously in order to insure proper accommodationand privacy: the latter precaution being principally taken on accountof the ladies of the family, who never go beyond the palace except ina norimon guarded by armed retainers.

[Illustration: A DAIMIO AND FAMILY WITNESSING FIREWORKS.]

In their homes, the aristocracy are as simple in their habits as therest of the people. They are much given to study, the favouritesubjects being poetry,[3] history, astronomy, and logic. The childrenare usually taught the rudiments of education by their mothers, and asthey advance in years, are either privately instructed by masters orsent to the great schools at Miako, which are said to be attended byupwards of four thousand scholars.

[Footnote 3: A very interesting volume of translations of JapaneseLyrical Odes has lately been published by F.V. Dickins, Esq. M.B.:Smith, Elder, & Co.]

CHAPTER V.

THE COURT OF THE MIKADO.

The spiritual Emperor of Japan is supposed to be a direct descendantof the gods, and as such enjoys the adoration, as well as the fealtyof his subjects. Unfortunately, his divine attributes deprive him ofthe free exercise of his human functions, as his feet are neverpermitted to touch the ground out of doors; nor is he allowed to cuthis hair, beard, or nails, or to expose himself to the rays of thesun, which, would detract from the excellency of his person. Hisprincipal titles are, 'Zen Zi'--'Son of Heaven;' 'Mikado,'--'Emperor;'and 'Dairi,' or 'Kinrai,'--'Grand Interior:' the latter denoting theperpetual seclusion of his person. It is said that his ancestry can betraced in an unbroken line from nearly 700 years before the Christianera.

The Mikado never goes beyond the precincts of the Imperial residence,which occupies a large portion of the city of Miako, comprisingnumerous palaces and gardens; and connected with it are the schoolsalluded to in the last chapter, which are established on the plan of auniversity, and are much resorted to by the children of the nobility.

[Illustration: A MINISTER OF THE MIKADO ON A RELIGIOUS EXPEDITION.]

Whenever this great personage wishes to take an airing, he is carriedby fourteen men in a large norimon with latticed windows, throughwhich he is able to see without being seen; and even when granting anaudience he is said to be concealed from view by bamboo screen-work.His court consists of the members of his own family and certain greatofficers of State appointed by the Tycoon, who nominally receive andpromulgate his commands; but, in ordinary times, he has no real powerin the temporal affairs of the empire, and only refuses to conferlegality on the acts of his lieutenant under the pressure of intrigue,or of undue family influence.

To relieve the wearisome monotony of his life, as well as to preventthe possibility of the sacred race becoming extinct, he is allowedtwelve wives, who are chosen from the most beautiful daughters of thechief princes of the empire. These ladies occupy separate palaces inthe immediate vicinity of his, where they are attended by their ownretainers; but only one of them enjoys the rank of empress, althoughthey are all treated with the deference due to royalty. He is alsosaid to have an unlimited number of concubines, who reside within thebounds of the Imperial establishment.

The distinctive mark of the members of the Mikado's court and of theladies of his family consists of two black patches placed on theforehead, and in the arrangement of the hair, which is gathered up ina long cue and curved over the head by one sex, and worn dishevelledand without any kind of ornament by the other. Though the Mikado haslittle influence in the secular affairs of state, his authority inreligious questions is supreme; but it is doubtful if he personallytakes any part in the solemnities which are constantly occurring atMiako.

The subject of illustration represents one of these sacredobservances: the procession is coming from the Mikado's palace, which,properly speaking, is a temple, being full of idols and effigies ofthe 'Kamis,' or 'canonised saints.' The principal figure is the thirdminister of state, and from this circumstance the white dresses wornby the 'Kargardhee,' or 'fire-bearers,' and the presence of some ofthe Imperial children, it is probably a midnight pilgrimage to someneighbouring shrine, in honour of the manes of a departed member ofthe family.

The early education of the Mikado's children is entrusted to theladies of the court: the sons, while still young, are sent todifferent religious fraternities; and the daughters, on attaining asuitable age, are bestowed in marriage on the nobles of the country,except the eldest, who is appointed chief priestess of the temple ofthe Sun at Issie, which contains the shrine of Ten-zio-dai-zin, towhich all Japanese are supposed to make a pilgrimage once in theirlifetime.

The Mikado is said to spend the greatest portion of his time in thesociety of his wives, who contribute to his amusement by singing,dancing, and theatrical entertainments. The latter sometimes takeplace in the open air, as in the scene depicted opposite; on which the'Grand Interior' and a select party are supposed to be looking downthrough the jalousies of the palace. The vocal, instrumental, andtheatrical talents of the performers, are here called into play, thearena for the latter being the 'Mekoshee,' or movable stage, in whicha female figure may be noticed declaiming her part. The long-handled,fantastically-coloured umbrellas, belong to the Imperial attendantstaking part in the theatricals, whose hair, it will be noticed, isarranged according to court etiquette.

[Illustration: A Begging Criminal. (Native Drawing.)]

The men whose features are concealed by their broad hats are'Ninsokee,' or 'public singers.' Generally speaking they belong to thearistocratic class, and are reduced to earn their livelihood in thismanner in consequence of some misdemeanour, on account of which theirproperty has been forfeited to the state. Their occupation is initself a punishment, as Japanese gentlemen never sing, regarding thataccomplishment as derogatory to their dignity. A certain class ofcriminals also wear a disguise of this nature, as shown in thewoodcut.

[Illustration: THEATRICAL PERFORMANCE IN FRONT OF THE MIKADO'S PALACE.]

[Illustration: LADIES OF THE MIKADO'S COURT PERFORMING THE BUTTERFLYDANCE.]

The band here represented is much stronger than those that generallyfigure in Japanese orchestral and theatrical entertainments. Music isnot used, as with us, to fill the interval between the pieces, butaccompanies the performers throughout; the louder instruments beingenergetically struck as the singing becomes impassioned or the actorsdeclamatory.

The butterfly dance is another specimen of the amusements with whichthe ladies of the Mikado's court while away their monotonousexistence. As here shown, it is a private performance, of which theEmpress and her principal attendants are the only spectators. Theinsects are personated by two of her ladies, who mimic their motionsand sing praises of the different flowers they pretend to alight upon,to the accompaniment of a band of fair musicians. But the mostinteresting part of the affair is a spirited dialogue, in which theycleverly criticise, under floral appellations, the different ladies ofthe court, in a manner equally gratifying and flattering to theirroyal mistress.

[Illustration: Lady waiting on the Mikado. (from Photograph.)]

The Mikado is always waited upon by the ladies of his court, and issaid never to eat twice from the same vessels, which are broken topieces as they are removed. An intelligent yaconin, however, onbeing questioned about this point, was much amused; and, though heprofessed ignorance of the subject, was evidently very sceptical onthe matter of the dishes.

CHAPTER VI.

The 'HARA KIRU.'

Although we have long been aware of the existence of this peculiarmode of suicide, the exclusive policy of the Japanese has placedinsuperable difficulties in the way of obtaining accurate informationconcerning it.

A more enlightened policy is now gaining ground in the country. Thechromo-lithographs that illustrate these 'Sketches' are fac-similes ofpaintings by native artists, selected from a series lately publishedat Yeddo, and sold to foreigners with the connivance, if not bypermission, of the authorities; for the spy system in Japan is soperfect, that illicit dealings are next to impossible.

As Japanese punishments entail disgrace on every member of theculprit's family, the 'Hara Kiru,' or 'happy dispatch,' which is theonly exception, is regarded as a great privilege by the classesentitled to avail themselves of it These consist of the nobility,military, and official of a certain rank holding civil appointments.

It seems to be a prevalent idea that this sacrifice is reserved forpolitical offences; but this is not the case, as crimes of alldescriptions are condoned by it.

A simple act of suicide does not constitute the 'Hara Kiru.' To renderthe act legal, and to ensure the heir and family of the personperforming it against disgrace and loss of property, an order for itsperformance must be issued by the Tycoon, or by the suzerain prince ofthe culprit.

[Illustration: THE TYCOON'S MESSENGERS READING THE SENTENCE.]

The Japanese, being a high-spirited and patriotic people, considerthat death under any circumstances is preferable to dishonour; and theprivileged classes always carry about with them when they travel theparaphernalia used at the performance of the 'Hara Kiru,' in token oftheir readiness to prove their patriotism, or to die rather thandisgrace their family.

The dress consists of a robe and 'harakama,' or 'winged officialdress,' of coarse white cloth--white being the funeral colour of thecountry--which is undistinguished by the crest or any sign of the rankof the owner. There is also the disembowelling knife, the blade ofwhich is about eight inches long, and very sharp.

When the sentence of the 'Hara Kiru' is awarded, or the humble requestof a defeated politician to perform it is acceded to, a formaldocument is made out and duly signed by the competent authorities. Itis then delivered to two commissioners, by whom it is conveyed to theculprit.

Should the proposed victim be a Daimio of importance, and sufficientlypowerful to set the Tycoon at defiance, the delivery of the imperialmandate is likely to be attended with unpleasant results, as thebearers are sometimes waylaid and murdered by retainers of the doomedprince, and have frequently to resort to stratagem to accomplish theirtask. But when once the mandate is delivered, the prince must submit,or he would lose caste even with his own followers, so strongly arethe Japanese imbued with respect for the ancient customs of theircountry.

The accompanying illustrations represent the different formalitiesthat are observed at the performance of the 'Hara Kiru' by a Daimio.

On receiving the official intimation of his sentence, he orders thenecessary preparations to be made, and informs his friends andrelatives of it, inviting them to share in a parting carouse with him.

On the appointed day, after taking a private farewell of his family,he receives his friends. He is habited in his white robes, andsupported by two of his relatives or ministers, similarly attired.When the time arrives (which is previously arranged with thecommissioners) he takes leave of the guests, as on any ordinaryoccasion, and enters the screened enclosure, accompanied by hissupporters. It will be noticed, that the retainers guarding theexterior and entrance are barefooted, which is a mark of respect inhonour of the rank of the culprit, and of the solemnity of theoccasion.

The Tycoon's messengers then read the imperial mandate, whichproclaims that, in accordance with the ancient custom of the country,the Daimio is permitted honourably to sacrifice himself for itsbenefit, and thus to expiate in his own person the crime or offence hehas committed against the welfare of the state. In the illustration,the two officials charged with this disagreeable office are sittingopposite the Daimio and his friends, reading the fatal document, theirsuite surrounding them in respectful attitudes.

The whole party wear the official dress, which intimates at once therespect due to the victim and the official nature of the ceremony.

The second scene shows the Daimio on the point of performing thesacrificial ceremony. His forelock is reversed, as a sign ofsubmission to his fate, and to assist the executioner, who, as soon ashis master goes through the form of disembowelling himself with theknife on the stand, will, with one blow of his razor-edged sword,complete the sacrifice by decapitation. Only the two chiefcommissioners appointed by the Tycoon, and the sorely-taskedsupporters of the victim, remain to witness the last act of the drama.The rest of the party await its completion in the adjoiningcompartment of the enclosure, which is expressly constructed for thatpurpose.

The funeral procession, which is the subject of the next scene, isaccompanied by all the pomp indicative of the high position of thedeceased. The mourners wear robes of white cloth, and all the feudalparaphernalia are draped with the same material; which, as beforementioned, is used in Japanese mourning. The coffin is carried nearthe head of the procession; it is a square box of resinous wood,covered over with white, and the body is placed in it in a sittingposture.

[Illustration: THE SACRIFICE.]

[Illustration: A DAIMIO'S FUNERAL.]

[Illustration: CREMATION OF THE BODY.]

[Illustration: RELATIVES COLLECTING ASHES.]

All the members of the family attend the funeral, either on foot orin norimons. If the wife and the heir be absent in Yeddo, they arerepresented by the nearest relations. In this instance both arepresent, from which it may be inferred that the sacrificial act hastaken place in the neighbourhood of Yeddo.

Although the Japanese sometimes bury their dead, they generallypractise cremation. Repulsive as this custom is to European ideas, itmust be remembered that the Japanese are not singular in preferringit, as several of the most civilised nations of antiquity consideredit the most honourable mode of disposing of the bodies of the dead.While the body is being reduced to ashes the priests tell their beadsand chant prayers for the soul of the departed, as the followers ofalmost every religious sect in Japan believe in a state of purgatory.

The last scene shows the wife and son of the victim of the 'Hara Kiru'collecting his ashes and depositing them in an earthenware jar. Thisis afterwards sealed down and conveyed to the cemetery, or temple,which contains the remains of his ancestors.

Some of the Japanese cemeteries are very extensive; and they aregenerally situated in secluded, picturesque spots, in theneighbourhood of the towns and villages.

The graves are small, round, cemented receptacles; just large enoughto receive the jar containing the ashes. If the body is buried (whichonly happens when the deceased is friendless, or too poor to pay theexpenses of cremation), the head is always placed pointing to thenorth. The tombstones are ordinarily about three feet high; and areeither square or circular in shape, resting on square pedestals, inwhich small holes are cut to contain rice and water. The supplies ofthese are replenished from time to time, generally by the women of thefamily, lest the spirit of the deceased should revisit its grave andimagine itself neglected. Sometimes flowers are placed before thegraves, and flowering sprigs of peach and plum are stuck in the groundabout them.

Like the Chinese, the Japanese burn joss-sticks to propitiate thedeities in favour of their departed relatives; and the neighbourhoodof a graveyard may generally he detected by the peculiar aromaticodour emitted during the burning of these. For some time after afuneral the relatives daily visit the tomb and intercede for the dead,holding their hands up in the attitude of prayer, and rubbing thepalms together as they mutter their monotonous orisons.

CHAPTER VII.

NATIONAL GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS.

Notwithstanding the industrious habits of the Japanese, they are greatlovers of pleasure, and much addicted to sight-seeing; theatres andwax-work exhibitions are very numerous, and jugglers, top-spinners, andtumblers, are regular _habitues_ of the streets.

Though they do not allow pleasure to come before business, they do nothesitate to associate it with religious observances; and on solemnfestival occasions, the vicinity of even the most sacred temples isoccupied by a variety of shows and common stalls, for the sale ofsweetmeats, toys, and coloured pictures.

Their principal athletic amusement is wrestling, which may he regardedas the national game of the country. It is very generally practised,and pairs of 'brawny fellows' are to be frequently met with of anevening in the outskirts of towns and villages, either crouched downin the preliminary attitude, which resembles that of angryfighting-cocks, or dragging one another to and fro like frogsstruggling over a choice morsel. The game is necessarily a draggingand pulling one, its grand object being to force the opponent beyond acertain boundary.

So popular is it, that in addition to public performers, who travelabout the country exhibiting their prowess, the Daimios keep privatebands: each district has some especial champion; and every Japanese afavourite '_smoo_' as they term the wrestlers, whose exploits arecanvassed with an enthusiasm totally at variance with the stolidindifference which usually characterises the people, when any subjectis broached that does not directly concern their ordinary vocations.

The professional wrestlers are generally men of herculean proportions.From constant practice they attain a muscular development that wouldeclipse that of our prize-ring champions; but their paunchy figuresand sluggish movements render any further comparison impossible, asthey neither practise nor appreciate what we call training. Size andweight are prized more than activity in the limited arena to whichtheir performances are confined: so, instead of walking downsuperabundant flesh, they endeavour to increase it, dieting themselveson rice and fish, which is far from productive of any Bantingiteresult. The illustration of the Great Wrestling Amphitheatre at Yeddoconveys a fair idea of the estimation in which athletic games are heldby the Japanese. The enclosure is capable of containing severalthousand spectators, and is always filled when a match of importancetakes place.

In the centre is the '_docho_,' or 'boundary-ring,' which is abouteighteen feet in diameter. The game is generally decided by one orother of the combatants being forced against this boundary; for,although a fair throw counts, it rarely decides the mastery, as thegreat weight and the crouching position of the wrestlers necessitatedragging, pushing, and even carrying; and the tenacity of their graspis such, that any other results are almost impossible.

The price of admission to these exhibitions is very low; and, likeeverything else of a public nature, is regulated by the governmentOfficials are appointed to superintend the arrangements, and to seethat no accidents arise from overcrowding. For this purpose they areprovided with a box that overlooks the whole building.

The lofty scaffolding outside the enclosure is a time stage, fromwhich the commencement and duration of each match are intimated to theaudience by a certain number of strokes on the drum that surmounts it.

[Illustration: PUBLIC WRESTLING IN THE GREAT AMPHITHEATRE AT VEDDO.]

Before each wrestling-match commences, the 'geogee,' or 'judge,' whosuperintends it, shouts out the names and exploits of the contenders,who, after kowtowing very ceremoniously to one another, rise to thepreliminary attitude.

At a signal from the judge the combatants commence. At first they movecautiously about the centre of the ring, watching a favourableopportunity to close, which they presently do with deep gutturalexclamations. Then great working of muscle and tugging and strainingfollow, the spectators cheering on their respective favourites, untilthe fall of the geogee's fan--which is the moment depicted by theartist--proclaims the victor.

Thundering plaudits greet the hero of the occasion, who presentlystrolls about among the assembled multitude, attended by his 'coegi,'or 'servant,' who collects the offerings with which they liberallyreward his exertions. When money fails, articles of clothing arefrequently bestowed--and sometimes too freely, as it is by no meansunusual for both sexes to half denude themselves at these exhibitions;and it is a favourite joke with the women to send their male friendsto redeem the articles from the wrestler.

Although fencing is a military exercise, it is so commonly practisedby the Japanese 'yaconinierie,' or 'soldiery,' who comprise a largeportion of the population, and is entered into by them in so spiriteda manner, that it deserves to be classed as an amusement.

[Illustration: Yaconins fencing.]

The woodcut is a very faithful representation of yaconins fencing. Themasks cover the whole of the head; and the arms, breast, and hips, areprotected by cuirass, petticoat, &c. of leather ribbed with bamboo.

The fencing sticks are of the same length as the'obi-todee-auf-catana,' or 'great fighting-sword.' They are made ofsplit canes, bound tightly together, and are used with both hands.

The Japanese fence well, and deliver their points with greatprecision, especially an awkward downward thrust at the breast.

They deliver their cuts and points with fierce guttural exclamations,which are peculiarly disagreeable to European ears; especially whenthe listener is located in the vicinity of a guard-house, whoseoccupants notify their employment at daybreak with such cries as'Hie-e! Ah-h! Atturah-h!' ('That's at! that's into you!') and continuethis information, accompanied by the clashing of their sticks, andoccasional chuckles, until late in the afternoon.

The Japanese are great frequenters of the theatres, of the interior ofone of which the illustration is a very good representation--theexterior is generally very like that of the temples; and in some, theground-floor is laid out with miniature lakes and bridges, theaudience looking down on the performance from lateral and oppositegalleries.

The stage is a little smaller than ours, but sometimes has a promenadethrough the centre of the theatre, which facilitates by-play, to whichthe Japanese attach great importance. The body of the house is dividedinto boxes, which are generally taken by family parties, who bringtheir provisions with them and remain all day, as the performancesbegin about 10 A.M. and last until late in the evening. Their playsare very tedious, although enlivened by a good deal of smart_repartee_ and telling jokes, but the morality even of the mostcorrect is very questionable. Love, of course, is the prevailingfeature; and the adventures of the principal heroes contain enoughbloodshed and murder to satisfy the most ardent admirer of sensationdramas. In their hand-to-hand encounters they cut and slash at oneanother with naked swords, which they manage very skilfully, neverpermitting the blades to come into contact. The female parts areperformed by boys and young men, who, with the assistance of paint andpowder, make admirable substitutes for women, though singing anddancing-girls are frequently introduced as divertissements.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A THEATRE.]

[Illustration: Getting ready to go to the Theatre.]

Kite-flying is also a favourite amusement; and old age and childhoodmay frequently be seen side-by-side, tugging at soaring monsters, inthe construction of which great ingenuity is displayed.

The Japanese often play with cards, which are about a quarter of thesize of ours; and they are much given to gambling, although it isstrictly prohibited, and, when detected, severely punished. But themost popular in-door game is & sort of combination of draughts andchess, which frequently engrosses the players for hours at a time.

CHAPTER VIII.

CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS.

Crimes against property are rare in Japan, which is owing to thehigh-spirited and honourable feelings that actuate all classes of thecommunity; but from the feudal nature of the government, the smallvalue attached to life, and the deadly weapons constantly carried, bythe military classes, who are notoriously proud and revengeful, crimesagainst the person are very frequent.

A great check upon criminal offences is the severity of thepunishments inflicted, and the disgrace entailed upon the culprit'sfamily.

Although the laws are extremely severe, and in their administrationthere is neither jury nor counsel, justice is delivered with greatimpartiality; and the judge, who is generally the governor of the townor district in which the offence has been committed, is entrusted withconsiderable discretionary power.

When a prisoner is being examined his arms are bound to his sides by arope, which also passes round his neck, the end of which is held by anofficial, who, if his charge prove unruly, manages him by pulls andjerks.

'Thrashemono,' or 'public exposure,' is associated with all Japanesepunishments, and is said to be in itself a great preventive of crime,as the spirited Japanese dread being held up to the reprobation oftheir acquaintance more than they fear the extreme penalty of the law.

[Illustration: MODE OF CONDUCTING A CRIMINAL TO EXECUTION.]

The illustration, showing the mode of conducting a criminal toexecution, is an instance of 'thrashemono.' The culprit is bound on ahorse, and is preceded by a placard, borne by his relatives orneighbours, and indicating his crime. In this manner he is conductedthrough the town to the place of execution, where his sentence is readto him. He is then placed (with his limbs still bound) over afreshly-dug hole, where he is supported by his relatives till theexecutioner's sword performs its task.

After execution, the heads of malefactors are generally exposed: thatof Simono Sedgi (the lonin who was decapitated in the presence of theBritish garrison of Yokohama, for being the organizer of theassassination of Major Baldwin and Lieutenant Bird of Her Majesty's20th Regiment) was exhibited on the public stand at the guard-house atthe entrance of the town.

This man was a fair specimen of the lonin type, and was a mostdetermined ruffian, whose whole life had been a career of crime.

When exposed in the streets of Yokohama the day preceding hisexecution, he conducted himself with great bravado, remarking on theimprovements in the town since he last visited it, and expressing hisregret that he had not killed a consul.

At the place of execution he made an impassioned speech, in which hedeclared that he was a gentleman by birth, and had studied the artsand sciences, and never believed the government would sacrifice aJapanese for the death of a foreigner. He said that the days wouldcome when they would repent the encouragement they were now giving tostrangers; and ended by complimenting the executioner on hiswell-known skill.

The lonin differs from the ordinary criminal, and is thus ablydescribed by the highest authority on Japanese matters:[4]--

'As a noble or head of a house is responsible for all who are of hisfamily, or claim his protection, when any of his people are resolvedupon a desperate enterprise they formally renounce the protection anddeclare themselves "lonins;"--in other words, outlaws, or friendlessmen: after which no one is responsible for their acts, and this isconsidered a highly honourable and proper thing to do.

[Footnote 4: Sir Rutherford Alcock. See 'Capital of the Tycoon.']

The worst of this system is, that any one harbouring or assisting alonin endangers his head; and such men are, therefore, compelled toresort to robbery and extortion as means of supporting themselves. Itgenerally happens that this legalised method of taking the law intotheir own hands drives those who avail themselves of it into a seriesof crimes, and frequently they become the associates of commonthieves.

Of the gang represented in the illustration as robbing a richmerchant's house, one or two probably are lonins, the rest beingthieves in disguise.

The servants, kowtowing before two men, whose naked swords plainlyintimate the consequences of any attempt to give alarm, or to offerresistance to their demands, have apparently been collecting all themoney in the house and are laying it before the thieves. The oblongboxes are iron safes, in which the Japanese keep their money.

From the position of the other members of the gang, it is evident thatthey have not got all they require, and are watching something goingon in the interior of the house. They have probably learnt that themerchant has to forward some money for the purchase of goods by acertain date, and know exactly how much to expect.

In the spring of 1865 the Tycoon, in levying a tax on the Yeddomerchants, congratulated them on the fact that the portion of thecountry under his immediate control was exempt from the depredationsof lonins; but notwithstanding this statement, a robbery of the naturedescribed took place in the capital immediately after the issue of theTycoon's manifesto, and a lonin concerned in it gave as an excuse forhis conduct, that he had learnt that the money was intended forforeigners, who were settled in the country in opposition to the lawsof Gongen Sama, which had never been revoked.

With such dread are these men regarded by the non-combatant classes,that it frequently happens that one or two will go into a village andextort what they require without the slightest resistance beingoffered.

[Illustration: LONINS, OR OUTLAWS, ROBBING A RICH MERCHANT'S HOUSE.]

[Illustration: EXPOSURE FOR INFIDELITY.]

As a rule, Japanese punishments resemble those inflicted by theChinese, and seem to be based on the Mosaic principle of 'an eye foran eye and a tooth for a tooth.' Arson, for instance, is punished atthe stake; and a thief who endeavours to conceal the results of hisrobberies by burying them, has the disadvantages of that mode ofconcealment impressed upon him, by being himself embedded for a day ortwo in the ground, with only his head out--a mode of instruction thatrarely requires a repetition of the lesson.

_Apropos_ of this punishment is the testimony of an eye-witness, who,in passing the public execution place at Yeddo, noticed a head on theground, which he supposed to have been recently struck off. He hadturned away with a shudder, when a laugh from the bystanders causedhim to look again, when, to his great astonishment, the head wasvigorously puffing at a pipe which the facetious executioner had a fewmoments before been smoking himself.

The last illustration shows a man and woman undergoing public exposurefor adultery--a crime which is rare in Japan and which is punishedwith great severity.

With such detestation is it regarded, that, in addition to all legalcognizance, the husband is permitted, in certain instances, to avengehimself by taking the lives of the offenders upon the spot.

The board on the right contains the official intimation of the crime.

The curious instruments depicted in the woodcut are Japanese emblemsof justice and are to be seen at all the guard-houses; they are usedto catch runaway offenders or to pin a drunken yaconin against a wallor house, and so facilitate the task of disarming him without dangerto the captors.

[Illustration: Sodingarami, Satsumata, and Squobo.]

Although the Japanese use torture to extract information fromobstinate criminals, they employ all necessary caution to preservelife; and a doctor and responsible officer are always present when itis employed, as representatives of the respective claims of humanityand justice. A singular punishment, to which only the nobles of thecountry are liable, is secret banishment to the island of Fatzisiu,which is situated on the northern coast of the empire. It is small andbarren, rising perpendicularly from the sea. The only communicationwith it is by means of a basket, which is lowered from an overhangingtree to the water, a distance of about fifty feet.[5] From this islandthere is no return, and the unhappy, incarcerated nobles, arecompelled to support themselves by weaving silks, which are the mostbeautiful the country produces. A junk visits the island once a-year,when the silks are exchanged for provisions.

[Footnote 5: In 1853 an English man-of-war visited this island, andtwo of the officers were hoisted up in the basket for the purpose oftaking sights. One of them, who was my informant, describes it as awalled-in barren island, with no other mode of ingress or egress thanthat described.]

CHAPTER IX.

SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES.

The Sintoo faith and Buddhism are the prevalent religions of theJapanese. The teaching of the other sects is modelled more or less onthe tenets inculcated by these two. Some, however, hold a philosophicdoctrine, which recognises a Supreme Being but denies a future state,holding that happiness is only to be insured by a virtuous life.

Sintooism may be regarded as the national religion of the country. Itinculcates a high moral standard; and its chief personage is theMikado, or spiritual emperor, who is considered to be a mediatorbetween his subjects and the inhabitants of the other world.

Every Sintoo has the image of a patron 'kami,' or 'saint,' enshrinedin his house, to which he lays open his necessities and confesses hisshortcomings, and by whose intercession with the Supreme Being hetrusts at his death to be translated to the regions of the 'kamis,' asthey designate their heaven.

The wicked are supposed to be consigned to the abodes of thedisembodied spirits, who are punished according to the nature of theircrimes. For instance, saki merchants who have sold bad spirit arebelieved to be confined in stagnant pools; and murderers are supposedto haunt the graves of their victims, until the prayers of theirrelatives release them. Purity of life and body is the leading featureof the Sintoo faith. As an emblem of the natural purity of the soul,mirrors are hung up in the temples; and the more ignorant people (whoin Japan, like every other country, are most influenced bysuperstitions) believe, as they look into the mirror, that the SupremeBeing sees their past lives as easily as they do their own faces. Thevalue attached to indulgences and charms is very great, and the saleof them contributes largely to the revenues of the Mikado. Charms areeagerly purchased by the lower orders, who carry them about theirpersons, and never let anybody touch them except themselves.

At a tea-house at Kamakura, one of these charms was accidentallydropped by a lively little 'moosmie,' or 'girl,' who was waiting on aparty of foreigners. One of them picked it up, and was on the point ofopening the small box in which it is placed for safety when shediscovered the loss, and made a desperate rush for its recovery. Onfinding the importance attached to it, the 'friske,' as she called it,was handed round the group as she eagerly darted after it; and on oneof the party pretending to light a cigar with it she burst into tears,and was not to be pacified until it was restored.

A religious observance of great importance with the Japanese is'Osurasma,' or 'praying a soul out of purgatory,' as they wiselyconsider that even the most holy must have some small peccadilloes toanswer for.

This ceremony takes place in the seventh month after death: a whitelamp is its emblem. This is hung up at the entrance of the mourners'houses, while they offer oblations and burn joss-sticks. Food is alsoprepared and laid out, in case the spirit of the departed, finding thejourney to the regions of the 'kamis' a long and wearisome one, shouldneed refreshment.

No Japanese dreams of entering a friend's house while the white lampis hung up, or of disturbing in any way the privacy of a familyengaged in these solemn duties, as the spirits of the departed arefirmly believed to revisit their former dwellings at such times, ifthey have not already entered into a state of bliss.

[Illustration: SELLING INDULGENCES BY PUBLIC AUCTION.]

[Illustration: PRAYING A SOUL OUT OF PURGATORY.]

In one of their festivals they make pilgrimages at night to thegraves of their friends, on which they place food and hang lamps. Itis said they believe their ancestors to come from heaven to them onthese occasions, and imagine that they return again in small boats, towhich they attach lanterns, and which they place on the water atebb-tide, on the evening of the last day of the festival, and eagerlywatch, out of sight. An old fisherman, however, who was observedintently watching his frail bark floating out to sea, explained, onbeing questioned, that he whose lamp burnt longest caught most fish;and judging from the old man's solemn manner there was no doubt he hadperfect faith in the truth of his statement.

However gross their superstitions may he, there is no doubt that theyaffectionately revere the memory of their dead, and treat them withquite as much respect as the most civilised nation in Christendom.

In battle the Japanese always carry off the fallen.

At the bombardment of the Simono-seki forts, at the entrance of theSuwo-Nada, or 'Inland Sea,' in September 1864, Prince Choisiu's loss,according to one of his own officers, amounted to upwards of 500killed and wounded; but all had been removed when the brigade ofEnglish, French, and Dutch, under the command of Colonel Suther, C.B.,Royal Marines, took possession of the forts early next day. At thestorming of a stockade (which was pluckily defended) by two battalionsof Royal Marines and the light-armed companies of the Britishsquadron, the Japanese were noticed carrying away their dead andwounded, and several were unfortunately shot while thus employed.[6]

A few nights afterwards large fires were noticed in the interior,which were said to be the funeral pyres of those who had fallen in thedefence of the forts and stockade.

[Footnote 6: The whole of the operations, with the exception of thestorming of the stockade, which took place late in the day after theFrench and Dutch had embarked, were under the personal superintendenceof the English and French admirals.]

The illustration representing the last offices, depicts a custom ofBuddhist origin which is generally adopted by the Japanese. Theybelieve that shaving the head of the dead propitiates the deities intheir favour. It is also considered to be an emblem of sanctity, andthe bonzes, or priests, always keep their heads clean-shaved. Evenchildren intended for the priesthood, as well as certain religioussocieties of both sexes, are similarly distinguished. Odder-lookingcreatures than these bald-headed specimens of humanity can hardly beimagined.

[Illustration: Itinerant Sweetmeat Vendor. (Native drawing.)]

The itinerant sweetmeat vendor shown in the woodcut is a specimen ofthe class of Japanese most prone to superstition. The lantern hecarries serves not only to light his way but to advertise his wares:it also bears his name, no Japanese of the lower orders being allowedto stroll about at night without a lantern so distinguished.

[Illustration: SUDANGEE, OR LAST OFFICES.]

CHAPTER X.

ON THE TOKAIDO AND IN THE TEA-HOUSES.

Extending over the whole empire of Japan, regular ferries connectingit with the different islands, is the 'Tokaido,' or 'Imperial HighRoad,' to which occasional reference has been made.

Originally constructed at the instigation of a Tycoon of more thanordinary abilities, it has, from the constant care bestowed upon itfor centuries (each Daimio being compelled to keep that portion of itwhich passes through his dominions in repair), become a broad andwell-graduated highway.

It is frequently sheltered by avenues of colossal pines, cryptomerias,and other lofty trees; and small plantations of the graceful bambooare generally to be seen in the neighbourhood of the roadside houses.

The scenery is sometimes very lovely: mountain-ranges are to beobserved rising one above another, in that wild conglomerationpeculiar to volcanic countries; and in the Island of Nipon the snowycone of Fusiyama is almost always visible from the higher ground.

The hilly country is thickly wooded; but terraces of fields aresometimes cut in the sides, where the formation of the ground permits.The lowlands and valleys are mostly covered with rich crops ofcereals, which are watered by natural or artificial streams.

As the Tokaido winds along the hill-tops, occasional glimpses of thesea meet the eye, often with a series of headlands jutting one beyondanother into it, and distant islands dotting the horizon.

By the wayside many rare and beautiful ferns are to be seen; and intheir seasons, the large white lilies of the country, hydrangeas,violets, orchids, and an endless variety of wild flowers.

[Illustration: Carpenters at work. (Native drawing.)]

Along this beautiful road are constantly passing Daimios and theirhosts of retainers, trains of travellers and pilgrims, and a largeportion of the island traffic of the empire. As the Tokaido passesthrough most of the principal towns, the traveller has frequentopportunities of observing the various avocations of the people; formechanics commonly work in front of their doors, as shown in thewoodcut; and in fine weather, the sliding windows through which theJapanese enter their houses are always drawn back, leaving theinterior and its occupants open to the road.

The baker's shop opposite affords a good specimen of the waysidescenes, and conveys a fair idea of an ordinary Japanese house. It willbe noticed that the puppies in the foreground, as well as the cat inthe girl's arms, are very differently delineated; but such animals arethe especial stumbling-blocks of the native artists, although theyfaithfully represent birds, fishes, and reptiles.

With the exception of the Daimios on their state journeys (who, by theway, have regular halting-places at tea-houses officially set apartfor their use), for the mass of the people to be seen on the Tokaidobelong to the lower classes--the aristocracy considering it beneaththeir dignity to travel for pleasure, or to make pilgrimages.

[Illustration: A BAKER'S SHOP.]

[Illustration: A TEA-HOUSE MERRY-MAKING.]

Naturally hardy and energetic, the Japanese seem thoroughly to enjoytravelling, which in fine weather has few drawbacks. It is true thatthe peremptory order, 'Chetanerio,' or 'Down upon your knees,' at theapproach of one of their oligarchical rulers, would be objectionableto Europeans; but the Japanese are accustomed to this, and proceedwith their journey after half-an-hour's detention without being in anyway put out by it.

[Illustration: Tea-house Girl waiting. (Native drawing.)]

The numerous and pleasant tea-houses that skirt the Tokaido have agreat deal to do with rendering travelling popular, A smiling welcomefrom the pretty waitresses employed at these places may always beanticipated by the weary wayfarers; and, however slight theirrequirements may be, they are certain to be promptly and courteouslyattended to.

If the means of travellers do not permit them to resort to thetea-houses, there are sheds and stalls at intervals along the road,where they can obtain fruit or refreshments at a trifling cost.

Some of the tea-houses in the vicinity of large towns are muchfrequented in the spring-time by pleasure-parties, on account of thebeauty of their gardens. The chromo-lithograph opposite represents oneof these parties, some of whom appear to have been indulging toofreely in saki. The fellow dancing and waving the fan about isapparently addressing a love-song to the lady opposite, whose husbandis evidently desirous of putting a stop to the flirtation.

CHAPTER XI.

THE SPY SYSTEM--THE BATH-HOUSE.

There are two Japanese customs so diametrically opposed to Englishideas, and so materially affecting the national character, that it isnecessary to call special attention to them.

The espionage system is perhaps the strangest, as every one in thecountry is subjected to it, from the Mikado and Tycoon, or spiritualand temporal emperors, to the humblest of the people.

All offices of importance are double; that is to say, every governorof a town or district is associated with a vice-governor, who is an'ometsky,' or 'spy,' upon him, and is in turn spied upon by others. Inthis way a constant check is kept upon the executive of the empire.

In addition to this acknowledged system, government officials arefrequently watched by secret spies, who, for aught they know, may besome apparently trusty friend: so that, even in the absence of theirdouble, they can never be certain that they are free from supervision.

In private life families spy on each other, for which purpose they aredivided into coteries of five households, the heads of which are notonly responsible for themselves, their families and servants, but alsofor the other members of the coterie; and any wrong-doing in onehousehold must be immediately reported to the proper authorities, tosecure the rest from sharing in the punishment of the offence.

To such an extent is this system of responsibility carried, that awhole district sometimes suffers for the offence of one of itsresidents. In the towns where the streets are intersected withbarriers a few hundred yards apart, which are always closed at night,the people living within these enclosures are often under the ban ofthe officials for some irregularity which has occurred within thelimits. This constant espionage has, of course a very perniciouseffect upon the character of the people, as it necessarily instilsfeelings of distrust and suspicion among near neighbours. Yet it ismarvellous how well their social system works, and still moremarvellous that the officials, who in public life practise every kindof deception and artifice, should be, and from all accounts deservedlyso, distinguished in private life for their truthfulness, candour, andhospitality.

The other notable peculiarity is the indiscriminate manner in whichthe sexes mingle in the public bath-houses. All Japanese perform theirablutions once or twice a-day; for which purpose the poorer classesresort to the bath-houses, which are generally open to the road orstreet.

[Illustration: UYA, OR BATH-HOUSE.]

Some bath-houses have the women's lavatory separate; and one of theseis the subject of the illustration. This arrangement, however, is morefor convenience than in compliance with the demands of modesty as isevidenced by the fact that a male attendant is supplying water; andthat his presence is plainly a matter of perfect indifference to thewomen bathing, with their children, in his immediate vicinity.

But it is in the common bath-room where this extraordinary feature ofJapanese life unmistakeably presents itself. There men, women andchildren, perform their ablutions together, with all the apparentinnocency of our first parents. The proceedings are conducted withperfect order and good-nature. The steaming occupants make way for oneanother with ball-room politeness; they laugh and chat over theirtubs, discuss the public notices on the walls, or, maybe, saunteroccasionally to the open door or window, to look at something whichhas attracted their attention, or to exchange greetings with a passingfriend. All this is done with a freedom that speaks for itself oftheir utter unconsciousness of any impropriety in their conduct.

Frequently a lady is assisted by her husband in the cleansingprocess; and this is not necessarily a matrimonial compliment, asregular bathing-men are employed for the convenience of those whorequire such attention.

The favourite times for bathing are the middle of the day and theevening; but in the summer the bath-houses are always full.

[Illustration: Going home from the Bath-house. (Native drawing.)]

The _modus operandi_ is very simple. The bather, after duly depositinghis straw shoes at the door and paying a few cash for admittance, atonce proceeds to disrobe himself, placing his garments in an allottedcompartment. He then secures a tub, which is filled with lukewarmwater, and, squatting down before it, lathers himself with avegetable, soapy material, which is sewn up in a small bag. At thisstage of the proceeding he will probably enter into conversation withhis neighbours, complacently rejoicing in his soapiness until theremonstrances of the bathing-house man, or of some would-be possessorof his tub, compel him to finish his ablutions.

It would seem natural to conclude that such a system must have immoraleffects, but the Japanese attribute no evil consequences to it. Theysay that, being accustomed to it from childhood, it only enables themto carry out those habits of cleanliness which distinguish alike theirpersons and their homes.

It is amusing to notice the care taken by the Japanese to protectthemselves from a second bath on returning from the bath-houses totheir homes in rainy weather. The artisan with the umbrella (whichbears his name and direction, by the way) is an instance of this.

CHAPTER XII.

LOVE OF FLOWERS.

One of the many traits of the refinement which characterises allclasses of Japanese is their passion for flowers, which the singularlyrich and varied nature of the flora of the country, aided by themagnificent climate, enables them to cultivate with great success.

Every Japanese has some knowledge of the art of gardening; and,however humble a house may be, it generally has a potted flower ordwarf tree about it: or, in the absence of that, a flowering branch ofpeach or cherry, placed in water.

Regular professors teach the art of dwarfing, training, and graftingtrees and plants, and of laying out miniature landscapes, into whichartificial mountains and valleys are introduced, and very frequentlylakes, studded with lilliputian fern-covered islands, around whichgold and silver fish may be seen darting about; or, if the sun is hot,taking refuge under curious Japanese bridges, or the broad leaves ofthe lotus, which usually cover a portion of the surface--the onlything out of proportion, probably, in the details of the miniaturelandscape.

The sitting-apartments in Japanese houses are generally situated atthe sides or back; and either open upon flower-beds, grounds of theabove description, or some kind of enclosure, shaded by peach orpear-trees, trained trellis-fashion overhead; or by cedars, with onesolitary bough twisting fantastically over the ground, showing, in itsunnatural contortions, the skill of the artist, the other brancheshaving been lopped off, or stunted, to facilitate the growth andtraining of this one.

Gardens for the sale of dwarf trees and flowers are also very common.Some are perfect _bijoux_. As a rule the varied collections offlowers, planted in coloured china pots, are arranged, with veryagreeable effect, in tiers of shelves round the sides, and on standsabout the gardens.

Many of the dwarf trees, especially the maples, have great variety offoliage, the result of constant grafting. To such an extent is thispractised, that it is rare to find pure botanical specimens in aJapanese garden. Plants are sometimes cultivated for their berries aswell as for their variegated foliage. One very beautiful specimen,producing at the same time bright scarlet and yellow berries, isbelieved by many to have been obtained from cuttings of an exquisiteshrub, which is said to be the principal ornament of the regions ofthe 'Kamis,' or Japanese heaven.

Even the fern family undergoes a strange metamorphosis at the hands ofJapanese gardeners. Some of the fronds are artificially variegated;and others, on reaching maturity, have a curious crumpled appearance.Again, the roots of certain small species are frequently twisted intocurious devices, and hung up in grottoes, or shady corners. The effectof these, when the roots are partly concealed by the fresh youngfronds, is very pretty.

Nearly every fortnight a fresh flower comes into season, and is ingreat demand for the time; heavy prices being readily paid for finespecimens.

The poorer classes commonly buy flowers from men who gain theirlivelihood by hawking them about the streets. They buy them not onlyto gratify their tastes, but as offerings to their Lares andPenates--patron 'Kamis;' or to decorate the tombs of departedrelatives--a religious ceremony which is strictly observed.

Flower-shows are often held in the large towns, and are muchfrequented by the people.

[Illustration: A FLOWER SHOW.]

The illustration represents a chrysanthemum show. These flowers aremuch esteemed by the Japanese, who pay more attention to size andbrilliancy of colour than to perfume. The stone in the centre iscalled a 'skakeshe.' On it, poetry in praise of flowers is inscribed.This is a custom of very ancient origin, and poetical inscriptions onstones and rocks are to be often seen in public places. The piece ofornamental stonework is an 'ishedoro,' or 'stone lamp,' which is verycommon in gardens, and is much prized on account of the historicalassociations connected with it.

The Japanese have many floral compliments. A very pretty one isintimated by a present of seeds (especially if presented to aforeigner returning to his own country), the purport being--'Plantthese seeds about your home, and, when you see them growing, think ofme.'

[Illustration: Girl with Flowers.]

As an instance of the influence which flowers have upon the Japanesecharacter, the word 'hanna,' or flower, is commonly used as a term ofendearment: it is usually applied by parents to a favourite daughter,or by a lover to his mistress; it is also used to distinguish thebride and the bridegroom, as 'hanna-yomie,' 'hanna-moko.' Florallove-tokens (although they only consist of a single sprig) are as muchprized among the Japanese as among ourselves; and are, no doubt,sometimes

"Treasured in their fading,"

as the Japanese are not only poetical, but much given to sentimentalreflections.