Introduction Cognition is ability of thinking、reasoning and recollecting . In 1921, Jean Piaget published the result of his groundbreaking research on child development .He set out four powerful stages of child which will shape our thinking for years to come . The first stage of child is beginning the new born to 2 years of age . We called this stage is sensorimotor period . In this stage , infants have developed the ability of sense perception and circular reaction which means that infants will repeat and repeat to do the same tasks until they form a new scheme. .Piaget find that infants possess the object permanence concept which situation is that infants understanding the object and event continue to exist but they can not find the object and event directly in this stage.
Piaget believe that young infants (0-4months) can not search the disappearance of object and event . After that they will forget the object in their mind and sight. In the substage 3 , babies start to search for vanished objects. However , babies possess the ability of psychological operation in the stage 4.Therefore , babies will develop a exact thinker . Also , Piaget establish a concept of preoperational period in the two years to seven years of age children . In this stage , the children did not developed the concept of conservation .It means that they don't understanding logical thinking .Piaget think that children have some characteristics of egocentrism 、 irreversibility and attention . The first characteristic in this stage is egocentrism which means that the children can not accept other point of the other view .They tend to focus on one's own…...

...Women in Psychology
When one thinks about the field of psychology and those great names that made such great contributions to the field like; Freud and Skinner to name a few come to mind, one thinks of those men who made a important finding about psychology, nonetheless those names hold great meaning to the field, but along the way there have been several influential women who have also made such great contributions to the field, may who have been theorist, pioneers and counselors. Among some of these women there is a name that stands out the most, her name is Anna Freud. This paper will discuss Anna Freud’s background, her theoretical perspective and the contributions she was able to provide to the field of psychology.
Anna Freud was born on Vienna, Austria on December 3, 1895, the youngest of six children of Sigmund Freud and Martha Freud. Anna Freud had a special bond with her father, more than with her mother or any siblings; she started reading her father’s work at the age of 15. Her relationship with her siblings wasn’t quite the best; in fact Anna refers to her 2 years older sister Sophie as her rival. Anna felt relieved when Sophie went out and got marry, as the relationship wouldn’t be as competitive as it had been most of their lives. Anna gained a special interest in the field of psychology such as her father and in a time were men had made significant contributions to the field of psychology, then comes a little a girl who since a very early age learned......

...The article that I chose is titled “Overview of Social Psychology; Sociology & Related Fields”. It begins with a detailed definition of Psychology; stating Psychology or the study of human behavior is an amply sized, expansive field that encompasses several distinct factions, each of which offers its own unique brand of specialization (Gibson, 1994). Throughout the articles overview it speaks on the different branches of psychology, counseling psychology, clinical psychology and developmental psychology. This article is a review of existing research and psychological experiments. I can tell that the information in this article is based from existing research due to the article making reference several times to different classic studies, insights and experiments that were conducted to implement the study of “Social Psychology”. The main purpose of this article was to conduct classic social psychological studies including Stanley Milgram’s experiment on obedience; the study also examined the Bystander Effect and also addressed cognitive dissonance to better understand how one’s behavior changes through a social psychological lens.
Stanley Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience was titled “Behavioral Study of Obedience”, and was designed to uncover material encompassing the darker side of human behavior. Throughout the Milgram experiment they used fake actors who assumed various roles within the framework of a man made scenario to receive psychological insight towards human......

...Psychology is a huge topic and conveying the depth and breadth of the subject can be difficult. As a result, a number of different fields of psychology have emerged to deal with specific subtopics within the study of the mind, brain and behavior.
Most general and introductory psychology courses cover many of these fields of psychology. As you delve deeper into the subject, you’ll soon find courses offered in each individual area. Each field of psychology represents a specific area of study focused on a particular topic. Oftentimes, psychologists specialize in one of these areas as a career.
The following are just some of the major fields of psychology. For many of these specialty areas, additional graduate study in that particular field is required.
* Abnormal Psychology: Abnormal psychology is a field of psychology that deals with psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
* Biopsychology: Biopsychology is a field of psychology that analyzes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.
* Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behavior...

...biological basses of behavior and mental events
Key question: how does the nervous system produce behavior in mental events
Assumptions: there must be a relationship between nervous system behavior and mental events.
What is biopsychology?
* The branch of psychology that studies the relationship between nervous system activity and behavior and mental events.
* A new branch of neurosciences.
* Makes use of the findings discovered by other branches of psychology.
Brain consists of neurons and glia.
Other branches of the neurosciences are
1. Biological psychiatry is interested in treatment of biological treatments of
2. Developmental neurobiology is interested in how the nervous system changes and develops
3. Neuroanatomy is interested in the structure of the nervous system and hw the different areas are connected to one and another
4. Neurochemistry is interested in how the neurons work and how they communicate with one another
5. Neurobiology is interested the structure and the mechanics of the nervous system.
Biological psychology focuses on behavior (the observative behavior and the unobservative behavior)
Biopsychology has six branches
1. Physiological psychology the study of neural mechanism of behavior through the manipulation of the nervous system in controlled experiments either surgically, electrically or chemically.
2. Psychopharmacology concerned with the effects of drugs on brain and behavior. Research may......

...social and biological factors to problems such as mental illness.
- ‘Child health problems linked to fathers age’ BBC NEWS
- Modern foundations of psychology came from G Stanley Hall, 1878, who was interested in recapitulation.
- There are many different fields, which can lead from a degree in psychology such as social, cognitive and neuroscience. Although my main interest is clinical psychology, which involves reducing psychological distress and improve psychological well-being.
- NHS QUOTE on what they deal with.
- COLLEGE OF ST JOHNS how psychologists should behave.
- Issues facing psychology today: Prescription power, negative stigma, client-to-patient relationship and confidentiality
- How you must behave and what is expected of you. Am I insightful, its not something which can be taught but its difficult to see reasons for another persons problems, if you cant understand you own quirks.
- SHRINK TALK QUOTE
1b) – Psychology is competitive and you should have a full understanding of whether this is the right career for you and what will be expected of you once you’ve become a psychologist.
* UNIVERSITY QUOTE what they are looking for in a student in order to gain a place on a BSc psychology course.
* What you need to do an MSc such as determination, passion and insight, the course should be a British Psychology Society accredited degree. With a classification of 2.1.
- If you succeed, you can register for the Health & Care Professional Council......

...Psychology Perspectives
5 main psychology approaches:
* Behaviorist Perspective
* Psychodynamic Perspective
* Cognitive Psychology
* Biological Psychology
* Evolutionary Psychology
Behaviorism – different from most other approaches because they view people (and animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have learned from our environment.
* Concerned with how environmental factors (stimuli) affect observable behavior (response))
2 main processes learn from environment:
* Classical conditioning
* Operant conditioning
Behaviorism- scientific study of observable behavior working on basis that behavior can reduced to learned S-R (Stimulus-Response) units.
Classical conditioning- studied by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to conditioning dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through repeated associated of the sound of the bell and food.
* Principles of CC applied in many therapies include systematic desensitization for phobias and aversion therapy.
Operant conditioning- B.F. Skinner investigated voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner felt that some behavior could be explained by the person’s motive.
Therefore behavior occurs for a reason, 3 main behavior shaping techniques:
* Positive reinforcement
* Negative reinforcement
* Punishment
Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud- many expressions from our......

...Name: Deshni Naidoo
Student Number: 44105096
Module: Community and Health Psychology
Course Code: PYC4811
Assignment number: 1
Unique number: 657794
Name: Deshni Naidoo
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​Student number :44105096
Community Psychology Vs Public Health
Which approach would you choose to promote healthy living....................
Although the main focus of Community Psychology and Public Health centres
around ‘prevention’ in order to promote health and wellness, there are also
some visible differences as mention in Tutorial Letter 102 for PYC4811 (2015)
between the two approaches.
Community Psychology originated from mental reform units in the United
States of America (Guerina, 1995). There were three influential movements that
led to the development of particular types of institutions namely the moral
treatment movements (Therapeutic mental hospitals) in the 1800s, the ‘mental
hygiene movement’ (Child Guidance Clinics) in the 1900s and
deinstitutionalisation (community health centres) in the 1960s (Guerina).
Whereas ‘Public health’ is based on the biomedical model of illness, and is
practised in most industrialised countries that is South Africa and many other
post colonial societies as mentioned in Tutorial Letter 102 for PYC4811
(2015).
The ‘New Public Health’ was set in place between 1914-1918, it recognised the
importance of social aspects of health problems caused by lifestyles (Hattingh et
al ., 2008). As defined by Hattingh et al (2008,P.5) “Public health is the......

...Biological Psychology
Name
Institution
What scientific evidence exists to support the proposition that other animals are capable of language?
1. Student Linda Salazar
According to Linda Salazar, promising results from the right on time creature language studies were tossed after disclosures of methodological issues were revealed. This lent confirmation to an necessary clarification of the advancement of language, championed by a few language specialists and analysts, who guarantee that semantic attitudes are remarkably human (Kalat, 2013). Later research, deliberately intended to overcome procedural blemishes has refueled the level headed discussion, by giving confirmation to the transformative clarification of language improvement, proposing that a graduation of linguistic abilities exists in human and nonhuman primates. Analysts and commentators alike are mindful in assessing these later studies (Toates, 2001).
Numerous are concentrating on the inquiries that emerged from the dialect investigations of nonhuman primates, concerning cognizance and knowledge, and their relationship to phonetic/linguistic capacity. As supported by the book, Biological Psychology by James W. Kalat, human language is a repercussion of knowledge and its blemishes with this hypothesis (Garrett, 2009). Language should likewise have developed after some time as particular mind component. In light of acoustic instruments that control conduct, intentional and automatic frameworks, I......

...Positive Psychology
An Introduction
Martin E. P. Seligman
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
A science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve
quali~.' of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when
life is barren and meaningless. The exclusive focus on
pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline
results in a model of the human being lacking the positive
features that make life worth living. Hope, wisdom, creativity, future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and perseverance are ignored or explained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 15
articles in this millennial issue of the American Psychologist discuss such issues as what enables happiness, the
effects of autonomy and self-regulation, how optimism and
hope affect health, what constitutes wisdom, and how talent
and creativity come to fruition. The authors outline a
framework .['or a science of positive psychology, point to
gaps in our knowledge, and predict that the next century
will see a science and profession that will come to understand and build the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
E
ntering a new millennium, Americans face a historical choice. Left alone on the pinnacle of economic
and political leadership, the United States can continue to increase its material wealth while ignoring the
human needs of its people and those of the rest of......

...Examination of Clinical Psychology Paper
Francine Morgan
PSY 480
June 11, 2012
Professor Elizabeth Kane
Examination of Clinical Psychology Paper
A branch of psychology that deals with assessing and treating abnormal behavior, psychiatric disorders, and mental illness is clinical psychology which is a form of science psychology. In this field of clinical psychology, psychologist treats elderly individuals, young children and their families, even though an individual’s socioeconomic status is not an issue in the decision making process of who should receive treatment. Clinical psychologist deals with an individual that has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and individual coping with his or her own issues, such as losing a love one or divorce. Clinical psychologist let’s patients express his or her frustrations while assisting them in understanding his or her ability and skills in using different techniques to help patients, depending on their psychologist’s area of expertise.
In the early 1800’s, psychology has been around since 2500 B.C. In this time, the approach to examining mental health involved supernatural, religious aspects, and medical. The Greek physician Hippocrates, known as the father of ancient medicine, played a role in the development of psychology. The Hippocrates came up with the theory of humors, which consists of four bodily fluids, and they are the key to good health, which the fluid colors are yellow bile, black bile, blood and......

...Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.
The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.
Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology. Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research including processing models, cognitive research methods and the first use of the term "cognitive psychology."
The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist his book Cognitive Psychology. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human......

...in School psychology. Becoming a school psychologist has been something that I wanted to do since my freshman year in college. During that time I began working for an organization called Community Intervention and Research Center as a behavioral aide, which I found to be very rewarding. Though the organization was a social service agency, we worked with a lot of school and child psychologists. My job duties were to be someone who enforces behavior modification with children who were put on my case load one on one but within their normal everyday environment. Each child had a treatment plan that was put in place by their psychologist and my duty was to help implement it. So I accompanied the children on my caseload to school, home and/or their after school program. Each child had been diagnosed with some sort of emotional, behavioral, and/or learning disorder and it was my job to coach them through some of their difficulties. This job actually meant a lot to me because as a child I was diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Growing up was very difficult for me because I was always being kicked out of schools or put in remedial classes because a lot of schools weren’t adept at handling children with ADHD. So this job became especially important to me which is why I chose the profession of Educational Psychology.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in order to become a school psychologist one must obtain a master’s degree in psychology......

...Organizational psychology has become a prominent necessity within companies all over the world, regardless of size. With the growing number of competitors providing similar services and stressful expectations of continued success, this position proves time and again to be one of crucial significance. Organizational Psychologists offer a corporation unbiased, fresh ideas in the area of improvement and advancement using various methods of analysis and research. This essay will define the use of organizational psychology; the role of research and statistics in this form of psychology; and the many uses of organizational psychology within the workplace.
Definition of Organizational Psychology According to Jex (2008), organizational psychology is a field that utilizes scientific methodology to better understand the behavior of individuals working in organizational settings (p. 1). Organizational psychology spotlights specific conduct and behaviors employees exhibit on the job; particularly ones in need of intervention or improvement, and offers plans of action with the goal of encouraging positive workplace morale. This type of psychology concentrates on the human portion of the working environment and through research, surveying, or interviewing, can produce fair-minded plans of implementation to improve workplace conditions and thus assists in capitalizing on employee efficiency.
Research and Statistics in Organizational Psychology In view of the fact that organizational......

...Define psychology: Psychology involves the study of human and behavior, experiences and the mind. Psychology can be implemented using slews of techniques and is analyzed from different positions. Psychology has had a dynamic history; it has evolved over decades and has grown into a dependable science. More former understandings of the philosophies and ideas played a prominent role by outlining contemporary concepts. “Psychology has a long past, but only a short history.”(Ebbinhuas, 1973) Wilhem Wundt’s’ work was the blueprint of modern psychology in 1879; he instituted the laboratory dedicated to psychology in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt had a particular interest about human behavior, emotions. His techniques had special emphasis on experimental evidence that endorsed explanatory theory.
Today psychology is thought of as the scientific study of human behavior and mental process. However, this was not always the case. The soul of man was the leading interest of philosophers’, followed by the mind and conscious experience, and finally observable behavior. Problems arouse with the affiliation of body and soul. It remained unsolved by philosophers because it was founded on delusive dualism and involved a separate study of physical and spiritual development. Afterwards, the spiritual panorama was supplanted by a broader word “mind”. Modern psychology is disinterested in the study of mind, rather, the mental processes have deputized mind. The “mind approach” in psychology was......