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The digestion of foods
The digestive
organs
The digestion
of a mouthful of bread
Salivary digestion
Stomach digestion
Intestinal digestion
Other uses of
the digestive fluids
Absorption
Liver digestion
Time required
for digestion
Dr. Beaumont’s
table made from experiments on Alexis St. Martin
Hygiene of digestion
Hasty eating
Drinking freely
at meals
Eating between
meals
Simplicity in
diet
Eating when tired
Eating too much
How much food
is enough
Excess of certain
food elements
Deficiency of
certain food elements
Food combinations
Table topics.

Cookery
Evils of bad cookery
The principles
of scientific cookery
Fuels
Making fires
Care of fires
Methods of cooking
Roasting
Broiling or grilling
Baking
The oven thermometer
Boiling
The boiling point
of water
How to raise the
boiling point of water
Action of hot
and cold water upon foods
Steaming
Stewing
Frying
Evaporation
Adding foods to
boiling liquids
Measuring
Comparative table
of weights and measures
Mixing the material
Stirring
Beating
Kneading
Temperature
Cooking utensils
Porcelain ware
Granite ware
Galvanized iron
ware
Tests for lead
Adulterated tin
Table topics.

FRUITS:
Chemical constituents
of
Value as nutrients
Structure of fruits
The jelly-producing
principle
Digestibility
of fruits
Unripe fruits
Table of fruit
analysis
Ripe fruit and
digestive disorders
Over-ripe and
decayed fruits
Dangerous bacteria
on unwashed fruit
Free use of fruit
lessens desire for alcoholic stimulants
Beneficial use
of fruits in disease
Apples
The pear
The quince
The peach
The plum
The prune
The apricot
The cherry
The olive; its
cultivation and preservation
The date, description
and uses of
The orange
The lemon
The sweet lemon
or bergamot
The citron
The lime
The grape-fruit
The pomegranate,
its antiquity
The grape
Zante currants
The gooseberry
The currant
The whortleberry
The blueberry
The cranberry
The strawberry
The raspberry
The blackberry
The mulberry
The melon
The fig, its antiquity
and cultivation
The banana
Banana meal
The pineapple
Fresh fruit for
the table
Selection of fruit
for the table
Directions for
serving fruits
Apples
Bananas
Cherries
Currants
Goosberries
Grapes
Melons
Oranges
Peaches and pears
Peaches and cream
Pineapples
Plums
Pressed Figs
Raspberries, Blackberries,
Dewberries, Blueberries and Whortlberries
Frosted fruit
Keeping fresh
fruit
Directions for
packing, handling, and keeping fruitsRecipes:
To
keep grapes
To
keep lemons and oranges
To
keep cranberries
Cooked fruit

Page 6

The hazel nut
The filbert
The cobnut
The walnut
The butternut
The hickory nut
The pecan
The peanut or
ground nutRecipes:
To
blanch almonds
Boiled
chestnuts
Mashed
chestnuts
Baked
chestnuts
To
keep nuts fresh
Table topics.

THE LEGUMES
Composition and
nutritive value
Legumes as a substitute
for animal food
Legumin, or vegetable
casein
Chinese cheese
Legumes the “pulse”
of Scripture
Diet of the pyramid
builders
Digestibility
of legumes
A fourteenth century
recipe
The green legumes
Suggestions for
cooking
Slow cooking preferable
Soaking the dry
seeds
Effects of hard
water upon the legumes
Temperature of
water for cooking
Amount of water
required
Addition of salt
to legumes
Peas, description
of
Buying votes with
peas
A commemorative
dinner
Peas bainocks
Peas sausages
Peas pudding
Time required
for cookingRecipes:
Stewed
split peas
Peas
puree
Mashed
peas
Peas
cakes
Dried
green peas
Beans, description
of
Mention of beans
in Scripture
Beans in mythology
Time required
for digestion
Method of cooking
Experiment of
an English cook
Parboiling beans
Time required
to cookRecipes:
Baked
beans
Boiled
beans
Beans
boiled in a bag
Scalloped
beans
Stewed
beans
Mashed
beans
Stewed
Lima beans
Succotash
Pulp
succotash
Lentils, description
of
Use of lentils
by the ancients
Lentil meal
Preparation for
cookingRecipes:
Lentil
puree
Lentils
mashed with beans
Lentil
gravy with rice
Table topics.

VEGETABLES
Composition and
nutritive value of vegetables
Exclusive diet
of vegetables not desirable
To select vegetables
Poison in potato
sprouts
Stale vegetables
a cause of illness
Keeping vegetables
To freshen withered
vegetables
Storing winter
vegetables
Preparation and
cooking
To clean vegetables
for cooking
Methods of cooking
Time required
for cooking various vegetables
Irish potato,
description of
The chemistry
of cooking
Digestibility
of the potato
New potatoes
Preparation and
cookingRecipes:
Potatoes
boiled in “jackets”
Boiled
potatoes without skins
Steamed

BREAKFAST DISHES
Importance of
a good breakfast
Requirements for
a good breakfast
Pernicious custom
of using fried and indigestible foods for breakfast
Use of salted
foods an auxiliary to the drink habit
The ideal breakfast
Use of fruit for
breakfast
Grains for breakfast
An appetizing
dish
Preparation of
zwieback
Preparation of
toastRecipes:
Apple
toast
Apricot
toast
Asparagus
toast
Banana
toast
Berry
toast
Berry
toast No. 2
Celery
toast
Cream

MILK, CREAM, AND BUTTER
Milk, chemical
composition of
Proportion of
food elements
Microscopic examination
of milk
Casein
Casein coagulated
by the introduction of acid
Spontaneous coagulation
or souring of milk
Adulteration of
milk
Quality of milk
influenced by the food of the animal
Diseased milk
Kinds of milk
to be avoided
Distribution of
germs by milk
Proper utensils
for keeping milk
Where to keep
milk
Dr. Dougall’s
experiments on the absorbent properties of milk
Washing of milk
dishes
Treatment of milk
for cream rising
Temperature at
which cream rises best
Importance of
sterilizing milk
To sterilize milk
for immediate use
To sterilize milk
to keep
Condensed milk
Cream, composition
of
Changes produced
by churning
Skimmed milk,
composition of

Page 14

Buttermilk, composition
of
Digestibility
of cream
Sterilized cream
Care of milk for
producing cream
Homemade creamery
Butter, the composition
of
Rancid butter
Tests of good
butter
Flavor and color
of butter
Artificial butter
Test for oleomargarine
Butter in ancient
times
Butter making
Best conditions
for the rising of cream
Upon what the
keeping qualities of butter depend
Cheese
TyrotoxiconRecipes:
Hot
milk
Devonshire
or clotted cream
Cottage
cheese
Cottage
cheese from buttermilk
Cottage
cheese from sour milk
French
butter
Shaken
milk
Emulsified
butter
Table topics.

FOOD FOR THE SICK
Need of care in
the preparation of food for the sick
What constitutes
proper food for the sick
Knowledge of dietetics
an important factor in the education of
every
woman
No special dishes
for all cases
Hot buttered toast
and rich jellies objectionable
The simplest food
the best
Scrupulous neatness
in serving important
To coax a capricious
appetite
A “purple”
dinner
A “yellow”
dinner
To facilitate
the serving of hot foods
Cooking utensils
Gruel
Long-continued
cooking needed
Use of the double
boiler in the cooking of gruels
Gruel strainerRecipes:
Arrowroot
gruel
Barley
gruel
Egg

FOOD FOR THE AGED AND THE
VERY YOUNG
Requisites of
food for the aged
Stimulating diet
not necessary
Flesh food unsuitable
Bill of fare
Quantity of food
for the aged
Heavy meals a
tax upon digestion
Cornaro’s
testimony
Diet for the young
Causes of mortality
among young children
Best artificial
food
Use of sterilized
milk.
Difference between
cows’ milk and human milk
Common method
of preparing cows’ milk
Artificial human
milk
Artificial human
milk No. 2
Artificial human
milk No. 3
Peptonized milk
Mucilaginous food
excellent in gastro-enteritis
Preparation of
food for infants
Time required
for digestion of artificial food
Quantity of food
for infants
Rules for finding
the amount of food needed
Table for the
feeding of infants
Interval between
feeding
Intervals for
feeding at different ages
Manner of feeding
artificial foods
Danger from unclean
utensils
Diet of older
children
An abundance of
nitrogenous material important
Flesh food unnecessary
Experiments of
Dr. Camman
Testimony of Dr.
Clouston
Candy and similar
sweets
Eating between
meals
Education of the
appetite
Inherited appetites
and tendencies
Table topics.

THE ART OF DINING
Pleasant accessories
essential
The dining room
Neatness an essential
Care of the dining
room
Furnishings of
the dining room
Table talk
A pleasant custom
Table manners
Suggestions for
table etiquette
The table
Its appearance
and appointments
The table an educator
in the household
A well ordered
table an incentive to good manners
Ostentation not
necessary
Setting the table
The sub-cover

Page 18

Napkins
The center piece
Arrangement of
dishes
“Dishing
up”
Setting the table
over night
Warming the dishes
The service of
meals
A capital idea
Fruit as the first
course at breakfast
To keep the food
hot
A employed
General suggestions
for waiters
Suggestions concerning
dinner parties
Proper form of
invitation
Arrangement and
adornment of table
A pleasing custom
The menu
card
Service for a
company dinner
Etiquette of dinner
parties
Table topics.

AFTER MEALTIME
Clearing the table
Washing the dishespapier-mache
tubs
Ammonia, uses
of
Clean dishes not
evolved from dirty dishwater
Washing all dishes
of one kind together
Washing milk dishes
Uses of the dish
mop
Cleaning of grain
boilers and mush kettles
Washing of tin
dishes
To clean iron
ware
To wash wooden
ware
Care of steel
knives and forks
Draining the dishes
Dishcloths and
towels
To make a dish
mop
The care of glass
and silver
To keep table
cutlery from rusting
To wash trays
and Japanned ware
Care of the table
linen
To remove stains
To dry table linen
To iron table
linen
Washing colored
table linen
The garbage
Table topics.

A YEAR’S BREAKFASTS
AND DINNERS
A perplexing problem
Requisites for
a well arranged menu
Suggestions for
preparing bills of fare
Table of food
analyses
Fifty-two weeks’
breakfasts and dinners
Average cost
Analysis of various
bills of fare
Table topics.

No one thing over which we have control exerts so
marked an influence upon our physical prosperity as
the food we eat; and it is no exaggeration to say
that well-selected and scientifically prepared food
renders the partaker whose digestion permits of its
being well assimilated, superior to his fellow-mortals
in those qualities which will enable him to cope most
successfully with life’s difficulties, and to
fulfill the purpose of existence in the best and truest
manner. The brain and other organs of the body
are affected by the quality of the blood which nourishes
them, and since the blood is made of the food eaten,
it follows that the use of poor food will result in
poor blood, poor muscles, poor brains, and poor bodies,
incapable of first-class work in any capacity.
Very few persons, however, ever stop to inquire what
particular foods are best adapted to the manufacture
of good blood and the maintenance of perfect health;
but whatever gratifies the palate or is most conveniently
obtained, is cooked and eaten without regard to its
dietetic value. Far too many meals partake of
the characteristics of the one described in the story
told of a clergyman who, when requested to ask a blessing
upon a dinner consisting of bread, hot and tinged with
saleratus, meat fried to a crisp, potatoes swimming
in grease, mince pie, preserves, and pickles, demurred
on the ground that the dinner was “not worth
a blessing.” He might with equal propriety
have added, “and not worth eating.”

The subject of diet and its relation to human welfare,
is one deserving of the most careful consideration.
It should be studied as a science, to enable us to
choose such materials as are best adapted to our needs
under the varying circumstances of climate growth,
occupation, and the numerous changing conditions of
the human system; as an art, that we may become so
skilled in the preparation of the articles selected
as to make them both appetizing and healthful.
It is an unfortunate fact that even among experienced

Page 20

housekeepers the scientific principles which govern
the proper preparation of food, are but little understood,
and much unwholesome cookery is the result. The
mechanical mixing of ingredients is not sufficient
to secure good results; and many of the failures attributed
to “poor material,” “bad luck,”
and various other subterfuges to which cooks ignorance
of scientific principles. The common method of
blindly following recipes, with no knowledge of “the
reason why,” can hardly fail to be often productive
of unsatisfactory results, which to the uninformed
seem quite inexplicable.

Cookery, when based upon scientific principles, ceases
to be the difficult problem it so often appears.
Cause and effect follow each other as certainly in
the preparation of food as in other things; and with
a knowledge of the underlying principles, and faithfulness
in carrying out the necessary details, failure becomes
almost an impossibility. There is no department
of human activity where applied science offers greater
advantages than in that of cookery, and in our presentation
of the subjects treated in the following pages, we
have endeavored, so far as consistent with the scope
of this work, to give special prominence to the scientific
principles involved in the successful production of
wholesome articles of food. We trust our readers
will find these principles so plainly elucidated and
the subject so interesting, that they will be stimulated
to undertake for themselves further study and research
in this most important branch of household science.
We have aimed also to give special precedence of space
to those most important foods, the legumes, and grains
and their products, which in the majority of cook
books are given but little consideration or are even
left out altogether, believing that our readers will
be more interested in learning the many palatable ways
in which these especially nutritious and inexpensive
foods may be prepared, than in a reiteration of such
dishes as usually make up the bulk of the average
cook book.

For reasons stated elsewhere (in the chapter on Milk,
Cream, and Butter), we have in the preparation of
all recipes made use of cream in place of other fats;
but lest there be some who may suppose because cream
occupies so frequent a place in the recipes, and because
of their inability to obtain that article, the recipes
are therefore not adapted to their use, we wish to
state that a large proportion of the recipes in which
it is mentioned as seasoning, or for dressing, will
be found to be very palatable with the cream omitted,
or by the use of its place of some one of the many
substitutes recommended. We ought also to mention
in this connection, that wherever cream is recommended,
unless otherwise designated, the quality used in the
preparation of the recipes is that of single or twelve
hour cream sufficiently diluted with milk, so that
one fourth of each quart of milk is reckoned as cream.
If a richer quality than this be used, the quantity
should be diminished in proportion; otherwise, by
the excess of fat, a wholesome food may become a rich,
unhealthful dish.

Page 21

In conclusion, the author desires to state that no
recipe has been admitted to this work which has not
been thoroughly tested by repeated trials, by far
the larger share of such being original, either in
the combination of the materials used, the method
employed, or both materials and method. Care
has been taken not to cumber the work with useless
and indifferent recipes. It is believed that every
recipe will be found valuable, and that the variety
offered is sufficiently ample, so that under the most
differing circumstances, all may be well served.

We trust therefore that those who undertake to use
the work as a guide in their culinary practice, will
not consider any given recipe a failure because success
does not attend their first efforts. Perseverance
and a careful study of the directions given, will
assuredly bring success to all who possess the natural
or acquired qualities essential for the practice of
that most useful of the arts,—­“Healthful
Cookery.”

ELLA E. KELLOGG.

Battle Creek, April 20, 1892.

Foods

The purposes of food are to promote growth, to supply
force and heat, and to furnish material to repair
the waste which is constantly taking place in the
body. Every breath, every thought, every motion,
wears out some portion of the delicate and wonderful
house in which we live. Various vital processes
remove these worn and useless particles; and to keep
the body in health, their loss must be made good by
constantly renewed supplies of material properly adapted
to replenish the worn and impaired tissues. This
renovating material must be supplied through the medium
of food and drink, and the best food is that by which
the desired end may be most readily and perfectly
attained. The great diversity in character of
the several tissues of the body, makes it necessary
that food should contain a variety of elements, in
order that each part may be properly nourished and
replenished.

THE FOOD ELEMENTS.—­The various elements
found in food are the following: Starch, sugar,
fats, albumen, mineral substances, indigestible substances.

The digestible food elements are often grouped, according
to their chemical composition, into three classes;
vis., carbonaceous, nitrogenous, and inorganic.
The carbonaceous class includes starch, sugar, and
fats; the nitrogenous, all albuminous elements; and
the inorganic comprises the mineral elements.

Starch is only found in vegetable foods; all
grains, most vegetables, and some fruits, contain
starch in abundance. Several kinds of sugar
are made in nature’s laboratory; cane,
grape, fruit, and milk sugar.
The first is obtained from the sugar-cane, the sap
of maple trees, and from the beet root. Grape
and fruit sugars are found in most fruits and in honey.
Milk sugar is one of the constituents of milk.
Glucose, an artificial sugar resembling grape sugar,

Page 22

is now largely manufactured by subjecting the starch
of corn or potatoes to a chemical process; but it
lacks the sweetness of natural sugars, and is by no
means a proper substitute for them. Albumen
is found in its purest, uncombined state in the white
of an egg, which is almost wholly composed of albumen.
It exists, combined with other food elements, in many
other foods, both animal and vegetable. It is
found abundant in oatmeal, and to some extent in the
other grains, and in the juices of vegetables.
All natural foods contain elements which in many respects
resemble albumen, and are so closely allied
to it that for convenience they are usually classified
under the general name of “albumen.”
The chief of these is gluten, which is found
in wheat, rye, and barley. Casein, found in
peas, beans, and milk, and the fibrin of flesh,
are elements of this class.

Fats are found in both animal and vegetable
foods. Of animal fats, butter and suet are common
examples. In vegetable form, fat is abundant
in nuts, peas, beans, in various of the grains, and
in a few fruits, as the olive. As furnished by
nature in nuts, legumes, grains, fruits, and milk,
this element is always found in a state of fine subdivision,
which condition is the one best adapted to its digestion.
As most commonly used, in the form of free fats, as
butter, lard, etc., it is not only difficult
of digestion itself, but often interferes with the
digestion of the other food elements which are mixed
with it. It was doubtless never intended that
fats should be so modified from their natural condition
and separated from other food elements as to be used
as a separate article of food. The same may be
said of the other carbonaceous elements, sugar and
starch, neither of which, when used alone, is capable
of sustaining life, although when combined in a proper
and natural manner with other food elements, they
perform a most important part in the nutrition of
the body. Most foods contain a percentage of
the mineral elements. Grains and milk furnish
these elements in abundance. The cellulose, or
woody tissue, of vegetables, and the bran of wheat,
are examples of indigestible elements, which
although they cannot be converted into blood in tissue,
serve an important purpose by giving bulk to the food.

With the exception of gluten, none of the food elements,
when used alone, are capable of supporting life.
A true food substance contains some of all the food
elements, the amount of each varying in different
foods.

USES OF THE FOOD ELEMENTS.—­Concerning the
purpose which these different elements serve, it has
been demonstrated by the experiments of eminent physiologists
that the carbonaceous elements, which in general comprise
the greater bulk of the food, serve three purposes
in the body;

1. They furnish material for the production of
heat;

2. They are a source of force when taken in connection
with other food elements;

Page 23

3. They replenish the fatty tissues of the body.
Of the carbonaceous elements,—­starch, sugar,
and fats,—­fats produce the greatest amount
of heat in proportion to quantity; that is, more heat
is developed from a pound of fat than from an equal
weight of sugar or starch; but this apparent advantage
is more than counterbalanced by the fact that fats
are much more difficult of digestion than are the other
carbonaceous elements, and if relied upon to furnish
adequate material for bodily heat, would be productive
of much mischief in overtaxing and producing disease
of the digestive organs. The fact that nature
has made a much more ample provision of starch and
sugars than of fats in man’s natural diet, would
seem to indicate that they were intended to be the
chief source of carbonaceous food; nevertheless, fats,
when taken in such proportion as nature supplies them,
are necessary and important food elements.

The nitrogenous food elements especially nourish the
brain, nerves, muscles, and all the more highly vitalized
and active tissues of the body, and also serve as
a stimulus to tissue change. Hence it may be
said that a food deficient in these elements is a particularly
poor food.

The inorganic elements, chief of which are the phosphates,
in the carbonates of potash, soda, and lime, aid in
furnishing the requisite building material for bones
and nerves.

PROPER COMBINATIONS OF FOODS.—­While it
is important that our food should contain some of
all the various food elements, experiments upon both
animals and human beings show it is necessary that
these elements, especially the nitrogenous and carbonaceous,
be used in certain definite proportions, as the system
is only able to appropriate a certain amount of each;
and all excess, especially of nitrogenous elements,
is not only useless, but even injurious, since to
rid the system of the surplus imposes an additional
task upon the digestive and excretory organs.
The relative proportion of these elements necessary
to constitute a food which perfectly meets the requirements
of the system, is six of carbonaceous to one of nitrogenous.
Scientists have devoted much careful study and experimentation
to the determination of the quantities of each of
the food elements required for the daily nourishment
of individuals under the varying conditions of life,
and it has come to be commonly accepted that of the
nitrogenous material which should constitute one sixth
of the nutrients taken, about three ounces is
all that can be made use of in twenty-four hours,
by a healthy adult of average weight, doing a moderate
amount of work. Many articles of food are, however,
deficient in one or the other of these elements, and
need to be supplemented by other articles containing
the deficient element in superabundance, since to
employ a dietary in which any one of the nutritive
elements is lacking, although in bulk it may be all
the digestive organs can manage, is really starvation,
and will in time occasion serious results.

Page 24

It is thus apparent that much care should be exercised
in the selection and combination of food materials.
The table on page 484, showing the nutritive values
of various foods, should be carefully studied.
Such knowledge is of first importance in the education
of cooks and housekeepers, since to them falls the
selection of the food for the daily needs of the household;
and they should not only understand what foods are
best suited to supply these needs, but how to combine
them in accordance with physiological laws.

CONDIMENTS.—­By condiments are commonly
meant such substances as are added to season food,
to give it “a relish” or to stimulate
appetite, but which in themselves possess no real food
value. To this category belong mustard, ginger,
pepper, pepper sauce, Worcestershire sauce, cloves,
spices, and other similar substances. That anything
is needed to disguise or improve the natural flavor
of food, would seem to imply either that the article
used was not a proper alimentary substance, or that
it did not answer the purpose for which the Creator
designed it. True condiments, such as pepper,
pepper sauce, ginger, spice, mustard, cinnamon, cloves,
etc., are all strong irritants. This may
be readily demonstrated by their application to a raw
surface. The intense smarting and burning occasioned
are ample evidence of the irritating character.
Pepper and mustard are capable of producing powerfully
irritating effects, even when applied to the healthy
skin where wholly intact. It is surprising that
it does not occur to the mother who applies a mustard
plaster to the feet of her child, to relieve congestion
of the brain, that an article which is capable of
producing a blister upon the external covering of the
body, is quite as capable of producing similar effects
when applied to the more sensitive tissues within
the body. The irritating effects of these substances
upon the stomach are not readily recognized, simply
because the stomach is supplied with very few nerves
of sensation. That condiments induce an intense
degree of irritation of the mucous membrane of the
stomach, was abundantly demonstrated by the experiments
of Dr. Beaumont upon the unfortunate Alexis St. Martin.
Dr. Beaumont records that when St. Martin took mustard,
pepper, and similar condiments with his food, the mucous
membrane of his stomach became intensely red and congested,
appearing very much like an inflamed eye. It
is this irritating effect of condiments which gives
occasion for their extended use. They create an
artificial appetite, similar to the incessant craving
of the chronic dyspeptic, whose irritable stomach
is seldom satisfied. This fact with regard to
condiments is a sufficient argument against their use,
being one of the greatest causes of gluttony, since
they remove the sense of satiety by which Nature says,
“Enough.”

Page 25

To a thoroughly normal and unperverted taste, irritating
condiments of all sorts are very obnoxious. It
is true that Nature accommodates herself to their
use with food to such a degree that they may be employed
for years without apparently producing very grave results;
but this very condition is a source of injury, since
it is nothing more nor less than the going to sleep
of the sentinels which nature has posted at the portal
of the body, for the purpose of giving warning of danger.
The nerves of sensibility have become benumbed to
such a degree that they no longer offer remonstrance
against irritating substances, and allow the enemy
to enter into the citadel of life. The mischievous
work is thus insidiously carried on year after year
until by and by the individual breaks down with some
chronic disorder of the liver, kidneys, or some other
important internal organ. Physicians have long
observed that in tropical countries where curry powder
and other condiments are very extensively used, diseases
of the liver, especially acute congestion and inflammation,
are exceedingly common, much more so that in countries
and among nations where condiments are less freely
used. A traveler in Mexico, some time ago, described
a favorite Mexican dish as composed of layers of the
following ingredients: “Pepper, mustard,
ginger, pepper, potato, ginger; mustard, pepper, potato,
mustard, ginger, pepper.” The common use
of such a dish is sufficient cause for the great frequency
of diseases of the liver among the Mexicans, noted
by physicians traveling in that country. That
the use of condiments is wholly a matter of habit
is evident from the fact that different nations employ
as condiments articles which would be in the highest
degree obnoxious to people of other countries.
For example, the garlic so freely used in Russian
cookery, would be considered by Americans no addition
to the natural flavors of food; and still more distasteful
would be the asafetida frequently used as a seasoning
in the cuisine of Persia and other Asiatic countries.

The use of condiments is unquestionably a strong auxiliary
to the formation of a habit of using intoxicating
drinks. Persons addicted to the use of intoxicating
liquors are, as a rule, fond of stimulating and highly
seasoned foods; and although the converse is not always
true, yet it is apparent to every thoughtful person,
that the use of a diet composed of highly seasoned
and irritating food, institutes the conditions necessary
for the acquirement of a taste for intoxicating liquors.
The false appetite aroused by the use of food that
“burns and stings,” craves something less
insipid than pure cold water to keep up the fever
the food has excited. Again, condiments, like
all other stimulants, must be continually increased
in quantity, or their effect becomes diminished; and
this leads directly to a demand for stronger stimulants,
both in eating and drinking, until the probable tendency
is toward the dram-shop.

Page 26

A more serious reason why high seasonings leads to
intemperance, is in the perversion of the use of the
sense of taste. Certain senses are given us to
add to our pleasure as well as for the practical, almost
indispensable, use they are to us. For instance,
the sense of sight is not only useful, but enables
us to drink in beauty, if among beautiful surroundings,
without doing us any harm. The same of music and
other harmonics which may come to us through the sense
of hearing. But the sense of taste and was given
us to distinguish between wholesome and unwholesome
foods, and cannot be used for merely sensuous gratification,
without debasing and making of it a gross thing.
An education which demands special enjoyment or pleasure
through the sense of taste, is wholly artificial;
it is coming down to the animal plane, or below it
rather; for the instinct of the brute creation teaches
it merely to eat to live.

Yet how wide-spread is this habit of sensuous gratification
through the sense of taste! If one calls upon
a neighbor, he is at once offered refreshments of
some kind, as though the greatest blessing of life
came from indulging the appetite. This evil is
largely due to wrong education, which begins with
childhood. When Johnnie sits down to the table,
the mother says, “Johnnie, what would you like?”
instead of putting plain, wholesome food before the
child, and taking it as a matter of course that he
will eat it and be satisfied. The child grows
to think that he must have what he likes, whether it
is good for him or not. It is not strange that
an appetite thus pampered in childhood becomes uncontrollable
at maturity; for the step from gormandizing to intoxication
is much shorter than most people imagine. The
natural, unperverted taste of a child will lead him
to eat that which is good for him. But how can
we expect the children to reform when the parents
continually set them bad examples in the matter of
eating and drinking?

The cultivation of a taste for spices is a degradation
of the sense of taste. Nature never designed
that pleasure should be divorced from use. The
effects of gratifying the sense of taste differ materially
from those of gratifying the higher senses of sight
and hearing. What we see is gone; nothing remains
but the memory, and the same is true of the sweetest
sounds which may reach us through the ears. But
what we taste is taken into the stomach and what has
thus given us brief pleasure through the gratification
of the palate, must make work in the alimentary canal
for fourteen hours before it is disposed of.

VARIETY IN FOOD.—­Simplicity of diet should
be a point of first consideration with all persons
upon whom falls the responsibility of providing the
family bills of fare, since the simplest foods are,
as a rule, the most healthful. Variety is needed;
that is, a judicious mingling of fruits, grains, and
vegetables; but the general tendency is to supply
our tables with too many kinds and to prepare each

Page 27

dish in the most elaborate manner, until, in many
households, the cooking of food has come to be almost
the chief end of life. While the preparation of
food should be looked upon as of so much importance
as to demand the most careful consideration and thought
as to its suitability, wholesomeness, nutritive qualities,
and digestibility, it should by no means be made to
usurp the larger share of one’s time, when simpler
foods and less labor would afford the partakers equal
nourishment and strength.

A great variety of foods at one meal exerts a potent
influence in creating a love of eating, and is likewise
a constant temptation to overeat. Let us have
well-cooked, nutritious, and palatable food, and plenty
of it; variety from day to day, but not too great a
variety at each meal.

The prevalent custom of loading the table with a great
number of viands, upon occasions when guests are to
be entertained in our homes, is one to be deplored,
since it is neither conducive to good health nor necessary
to good cheer, but on the contrary is still laborious
and expensive a practice that many are debarred from
social intercourse because they cannot afford to entertain
after the fashion of their neighbors. Upon this
subject a well-known writer has aptly said: “Simplify
cookery, thus reducing the cost of living, and how
many longing individuals would thereby be enabled
to afford themselves the pleasure of culture and social
intercourse! When the barbarous practice of stuffing
one’s guests shall have been abolished, a social
gathering will not then imply, as it does now, hard
labor, expensive outlay, and dyspepsia. Perhaps
when that time arise, we shall be sufficiently civilized
to demand pleasures of a higher sort. True, the
entertainments will then, in one sense, be more costly,
as culture is harder to come by than cake. The
profusion of viands now heaped upon the table, betrays
poverty of the worst sort. Having nothing better
to offer, we offer victuals; and this we do with something
of that complacent, satisfied air with which some more
northern tribes present their tidbits of whale and
walrus.”

TABLE TOPICS.

“Let appetite wear reason’s
golden chain,
and find in due restrain its
luxury.”

A man’s food, when he has the
means and opportunity of selecting it, suggests
his moral nature. Many a Christian is trying to
do by prayer that which cannot be done except
through corrected diet.—­Talmage.

Our pious ancestors enacted a law that
suicides should be buried where four roads meet,
and that a cart-load of stones should be thrown
upon the body. Yet, when gentlemen or ladies commit
suicide, not by cord or steel, but by turtle soup
or lobster salad, they may be buried on consecrated
ground, and the public are not ashamed to read
an epitaph upon their tombstones false enough to make
the marble blush.—­Horace Mann.

Page 28

It is related by a gentleman who had
an appointment to breakfast with the late A.T.
Stewart, that the butler placed before them both an
elaborate bill of fare; the visitor selected a list
of rare dishes, and was quite abashed when Mr.
Stewart said, “Bring me my usual breakfast,—­oatmeal
and boiled eggs.” He then explained to his
friend that he found simple food a necessity to
him, otherwise he could not think clearly.
That unobscured brain applied to nobler ends would
have won higher results, but the principle remains
the same.—­Sel.

Study simplicity in the number
of dishes, and a variety in the
character of the meals.—­Sel.

I have come to the conclusion that more
than half the disease which embitters life is
due to avoidable errors in diet, ... and that more
mischief, in the form of actual disease, of impaired
vigor, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized
man from erroneous habits of eating than from
the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable
as I know that evil to be.—­Sir Henry
Thompson.

The ancient Gauls, who were a very brave,
strong, and hearty race, lived very abstemiously.
Their food was milk, berries, and herbs. They
made bread of nuts. They had a very peculiar fashion
of wearing a metal ring around the body, the size
of which was regulated by act of Parliament.
Any man who outgrew in circumference his metal ring
was looked upon as a lazy glutton, and consequently
was disgraced.

To keep in health this
rule is wise:
Eat only
when you need, and relish food,
chew thoroughly
that it may do you good,
have it well cooked,
unspiced, and undisguised.

—­Leonardo da
Vinci

THE DIGESTION OF FOODS.

It is important that the housekeeper not only understand
the nature and composition of foods, but she should
also know something of their digestive properties,
since food, to be serviceable, must be not only nutritious,
but easily digested. Digestion is the process
by which food rendered soluble, and capable of being
absorbed for use in carrying on the various vital
processes.

The digestive apparatus consists of a long and tortuous
tube called the alimentary canal, varying in length
from twenty-five to thirty feet, along which are arranged
the various digestive organs,—­the mouth,
the stomach, the liver, and the pancreas,—­each
of which, together with the intestines, has an important
function to perform. In these various organs
nature manufactures five wonderful fluids for changing
and dissolving the several food elements. The
mouth supplies the saliva; in the walls of the stomach
are little glands which produce the gastric juice;
the pancreatic juice is made by the pancreas; the liver
secretes bile; while scattered along the small intestines
are minute glands which make the intestinal juice.
Each of these fluids has a particular work to do in

Page 29

transforming some part of the food into suitable material
for use in the body. The saliva acts upon the
starch of the food, changing it into sugar; the gastric
juice digests albumin and other nitrogenous elements;
the bile digests fat, and aids in the absorption of
other food elements after they are digested; the pancreatic
juice is not confined in its action to a single element,
but digests starch, fats, and the albuminous elements
after they have been acted upon by the gastric juice;
the intestinal juice is capable of acting upon all
digestible food elements.

THE DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.—­A
mouthful of bread represents all, or nearly all, the
elements of nutrition. Taking a mouthful of bread
as a representative of food in general, it may be said
that its digestion begins the moment that it enters
the mouth, and continues the entire length of the
alimentary canal, or until the digestible portion
of the food has been completely digested and absorbed.
We quote the following brief description of the digestive
process from Dr. J.H. Kellogg’s Second Book
in Physiology[A]:—­

[Footnote A: Good Health Pub. Co., Battle
Creek, Mich.]

“Mastication.—­The first act
of the digestive process is mastication, or chewing
the food, the purpose of which is to crush the food
and divide it into small particles, so that the various
digestive fluids may easily and promptly come into
contact with every part of it.

“Salivary Digestion.—­During
the mastication of the food, the salivary glands are
actively pouring out the saliva, which mingles with
the food, and by softening it, aids in its division
and prepares it for the action of the other digestive
fluids. It also acts upon the starch, converting
a portion of it into grape-sugar.

“Stomach Digestion.—­After
receiving the food, the stomach soon begins to pour
out the gastric juices, which first makes its appearance
in little drops, like beads of sweat upon the face
when the perspiration starts. As the quantity
increases, the drops run together, trickle down the
side of the stomach, and mingle with the food.
The muscular walls of the stomach contract upon the
food, moving it about with a sort of crushing action,
thoroughly mixing the gastric juice with the food.
During this process both the openings of the stomach
are closed tightly. The gastric juice softens
the food, digests albumen, and coagulates milk.
The saliva continues its action upon starch for sometime
after the food reaches the stomach.

Page 30

“After the food has remained in the stomach
from one to three hours, or even longer, if the digestion
is slow, or indigestible foods have been eaten, the
contractions of the stomach become so vigorous that
the more fluid portions of the food are squeezed out
through the pylorus, the lower orifice of the stomach,
thus escaping into the intestine. The pylorus
does not exercise any sort of intelligence in the selection
of food, as was once supposed. The increasing
acidity of the contents of the stomach causes its
muscular walls to contract with increasing vigor,
until finally those portions of the food which may
be less perfectly broken up, but which the stomach
has been unable to digest, are forced through the
pylorus.

“Intestinal Digestion.—­As
it leaves the stomach, the partially digested mass
of food is intensely acid, from the large quantity
of gastric juices which it contains. Intestinal
digestion cannot begin until the food becomes alkaline.
The alkaline bile neutralizes the gastric juice, and
renders the digesting mass slightly alkaline.
The bile also acts upon the fatty elements of the
food, converting them into an emulsion. The pancreatic
juice converts the starch into grape-sugar, even acting
upon raw starch. It also digest fats and albumem.
The intestinal juice continues the work begun by the
other digestive fluids, and, in addition, digests
cane-sugar, converting it into grape-sugar.

“Other Uses of the Digestive Fluids.—­In
addition to the uses which we have already stated,
several of the digestive fluids possess other interesting
properties. The saliva aids the stomach by stimulating
its glands to make gastric juice. The gastric
juice and the bile are excellent antiseptics, by which
the food is preserved from fermentation while undergoing
digestion. The bile also stimulates the movements
of the intestines by which the food is moved along,
and aids absorption. It is remarkable and interesting
that a fluid so useful as the bile should be at the
same time composed of waste matters which are being
removed from the body. This is an illustration
of the wonderful economy shown by nature in her operations.

“The food is moved along the alimentary canal,
from the stomach downward, by successive contractions
of the muscular walls of the intestines, known as
peristaltic movements, which occur with great regularity
during digestion.

“Absorption.—­The absorption
of the food begins as soon as any portion has been
digested. Even in the mouth and the esophagus
a small amount is absorbed. The entire mucous
membrane lining the digestive canal is furnished with
a rich supply of blood-vessels, by which the greater
part of the digestive food is absorbed.

Page 31

“Liver Digestion.—­The liver
as well as the stomach is a digestive organ, and in
a double sense. It not only secretes a digestive
fluid, the bile, but it acts upon the food brought
to it by the portal vein, and regulates the supply
of digested food to the general system. It converts
a large share of the grape-sugar and partially digested
starch brought to it into a kind of liver starch,
termed glycogen, which it stores up in its tissues.
During the interval between the meals, the liver gradually
redigests the glycogen, reconverting it into sugar,
and thus supplying it to the blood in small quantities,
instead of allowing the entire amount formed in digestion
to enter the circulation at once. If too large
an amount of sugar entered the system at once, it would
be unable to use it all, and would be compelled to
get rid of a considerable portion through the kidneys.
The liver also completes the digestion of albumen
and other food elements.”

TIME REQUIRED FOR DIGESTION.—­The length
of time required for stomach digestion varies with
different food substances. The following table
shows the time necessary for the stomach digestion
of some of the more commonly used foods:—­

The time required for the digestion of food also depends
upon the condition under which the food is eaten.
Healthy stomach digestion requires at least five hours
for its completion, and the stomach should have an
hour for rest before another meal. If fresh food
is taken before that which preceded it is digested,
the portion of food remaining in the stomach is likely
to undergo fermentation, thus rendering the whole mass
of food unfit for the nutrition of the body, besides
fostering various disturbances of digestion.
It has been shown by recent observations that the
length of time required for food to pass through the
entire digestive process to which it is subjected
in the mouth, stomach, and small intestines, is from
twelve to fourteen hours.

Page 32

HYGIENE OF DIGESTION.—­With the stomach
and other digestive organs in a state of perfect health,
one is entirely unconscious of their existence, save
when of feeling of hunger calls attention to the fact
that food is required, or satiety warns us that a sufficient
amount or too much has been eaten. Perfect digestion
can only be maintained by careful observance of the
rules of health in regard to habits of eating.

On the subject of Hygiene of Digestion, we again quote
a few paragraphs from Dr. Kellogg’s work on
Physiology, in which is given a concise summary of
the more important points relating to this:—­

“The hygiene of digestion has to do with the
quality and quantity of food eaten, in the manner
of eating it.

“Hasty Eating.—­If the food
is eaten too rapidly, it will not be properly divided,
and when swallowed in coarse lumps, the digestive
fluids cannot readily act upon it. On account
of the insufficient mastication, the saliva will be
deficient in quantity, and, as a consequence, the
starch will not be well digested, and the stomach will
not secrete a sufficient amount of gastric juice.
It is not well to eat only soft or liquid food, as
we are likely to swallow it without proper chewing.
A considerable proportion of hard food, which requires
thorough mastication, should be eaten at every meal.

“Drinking Freely at Meals is harmful,
as it not only encourages hasty eating, but dilutes
the gastric juice, and thus lessens its activity.
The food should be chewed until sufficiently moistened
by saliva to allow it to be swallowed. When large
quantities of fluid are taken into the stomach, digestion
does not begin until a considerable portion of the
fluid has been absorbed. If cold foods or drinks
are taken with the meal, such as ice-cream, ice-water,
iced milk or tea, the stomach is chilled, and a long
delay in the digestive process is occasioned.

“The Indians of Brazil carefully abstain from
drinking when eating, and the same custom prevails
among many other savage tribes.

“Eating between Meals.—­The
habit of eating apples, nuts, fruits, confectionery,
etc., between meals is exceedingly harmful, and
certain to produce loss of appetite and indigestion.
The stomach as well as the muscles and other organs
of the body requires rest. The frequency with
which meals should be taken depends somewhat upon the
age and occupation of an individual. Infants
take their food at short intervals, and owing to its
simple character, are able to digest it very quickly.
Adults should not take food oftener than three times
a day; and persons whose employment is sedentary say,
in many cases at least, adopt with advantage the plan
of the ancient Greeks, who ate but twice a day.
The latter custom is quite general among the higher
classes in France and Spain, and in several South
American countries.

Page 33

“Simplicity in Diet.—­Taking
too many kinds of food at a meal is a common fault
which is often a cause of disease of the digestive-organs.
Those nations are the most hardy and enduring whose
dietary is most simple. The Scotch peasantry
live chiefly upon oatmeal, the Irish upon potatoes,
milk, and oatmeal, the Italian upon peas, beans, macaroni,
and chestnuts; yet all these are noted for remarkable
health and endurance. The natives of the Canary
Islands, an exceedingly well-developed and vigorous
race, subsist almost chiefly upon a food which they
call gofio, consisting of parched grain, coarsely
ground in a mortar and mixed with water.

“Eating when Tired.—­It is
not well to eat when exhausted by violent exercise,
as the system is not prepared to do the work of digestion
well. Sleeping immediately after eating is also
a harmful practice. The process of digestion
cannot well be performed during sleep, and sleep is
disturbed by the ineffective efforts of the digestive
organs. Hence the well-known evil effects of
late suppers.

“Eating too Much.—­Hasty eating
is the greatest cause of over-eating. When one
eats too rapidly, the food is crowded into the stomach
so fast that nature has no time to cry, ‘Enough,’
by taking away the appetite before too much has been
eaten. When an excess of food is taken, it is
likely to ferment or sour before it can be digested.
One who eats too much usually feels dull after eating.

“How Much Food is Enough?—­The
proper quantity for each person to take is what he
is able to digest and utilize. This amount of
various with each individual, at different times.
The amount needed will vary with the amount of work
done, mental or muscular; with the weather or the
season of the year, more food being required in cold
than in warm weather: with the age of an individual,
very old and very young persons requiring less food
than those of middle age. An unperverted appetite,
not artificially stimulated, is a safe guide.
Drowsiness, dullness, and heaviness at the stomach
are indications of an excess of eating, and naturally
suggest a lessening of the quantity of food, unless
the symptoms are known to arise from some other cause.

“Excess of Certain Food Elements.—­When
sugar is too freely used, either with food or in the
form of sweetmeats or candies, indigestion, and even
more serious disease, is likely to result. Fats,
when freely used, give rise to indigestion and ‘biliousness.’
An excess of albumen from the too free use of meat
is harmful. Only a limited amount of this element
can be used; an excess is treated as waste matter,
and must be removed from the system by the liver and
the kidneys. The majority of persons would enjoy
better health by using meat more moderately than is
customary in this country.

“Deficiency of Certain Food Elements.—­A
diet deficient in any important food element is even
more detrimental to health than a diet in which certain
elements are in excess.

Page 34

“The popular notion that beef-tea and meat extracts
contain the nourishing elements of meat in a concentrated
form, is a dangerous error. Undoubtedly many
sick persons have been starved by being fed exclusively
upon these articles, which are almost wholly composed
of waste substances. Prof. Paule Bernard,
of Paris, found that dogs fed upon meat extracts died
sooner than those which received only water.”

FOOD COMBINATIONS.—­Some persons, especially
those of weak digestive powers, often experience inconvenience
in the use of certain foods, owing to their improper
combinations with other articles. Many foods
which are digested easily when partaken of alone or
in harmonious combinations, create much disturbance
when eaten at the same meal with several different
articles of food, or with some particular article with
which they are especially incompatible. The following
food combinations are among the best, the relative
excellence of each being indicated by the order in
which they are named: Milk and grains; grains
and eggs; grains and vegetables or meats; grains and
fruits.

Persons with sound stomachs and vigorous digestion
will seldom experience inconvenience in making use
of other and more varied combinations, but dyspeptics
and persons troubled with slow digestion will find
it to their advantage to select from the bill of fare
such articles as best accord with each other, and
to avoid such combinations as fruits and vegetables,
milk and vegetables, milk and meats, sugar and milk,
meat or vegetables, fats with fruits, meats, or vegetables,
or cooked with grains.

TABLE TOPICS.

Now good digestion waits on
appetite, and health on
both—­Shakespeare.

We live not upon what we eat,
but upon what we digest.—­Abernethy.

If we consider the amount of ill temper,
despondency, and general unhappiness which arises
from want of proper digestion and assimilation
of our food, it seems obviously well worth while to
put forth every effort, and undergo any sacrifice,
for the purpose of avoiding indigestion, with
its resulting bodily ills; and yet year after
year, from the cradle to the grave, we go on violating
the plainest and simplest laws of health at the
temptation of Cooks, caterers, and confectioners,
whose share in shortening the average term of
human life is probably nearly equal to that of the
combined armies and navies of the world.—­Richardson.

Almost every human malady
is connected, either by highway or byway,
with the stomach.—­Sir
Francis Head.

It is a well-established fact that a
leg of mutton caused a revolution in the affairs
of Europe. Just before the battle of Leipsic,
Napoleon the Great insisted on dining on boiled mutton,
although his physicians warned him that it would
disagree with him. The emperor’s brain
resented the liberty taken with its colleague, the
stomach; the monarch’s equilibrium was overturned,
the battle lost, and a new page opened in history.—­Sel.

Galloping consumption at the
dinner table is one of the national
disorders.—­Sel.

Page 35

The kitchen (that is, your stomach)
being out of order, the garret (the head) cannot
be right, and every room in the house becomes affected.
Remedy the evil in the kitchen, and all will be right
in parlor and chamber. If you put improper
food into the stomach, you play the mischief with
it, and with the whole machine besides.—­Abernethy.

Cattle know when to go home
from grazing, but a foolish man never
knows his stomachs measures.—­Scandinavian
proverb.

Enough is as good as a feast.

Simplicity of diet is the characteristic
of the dwellers in the Orient. According
to Niebuhr, the sheik of the desert wants only a dish
of pillau, or boiled rice, which he eats without fork
or spoon. Notwithstanding their frugal fare,
these sons of the desert are among the most hearty
and enduring of all members of the human family.
A traveler tells of seeing one of them run up to the
top of the tallest pyramid and back in six minutes.

One fourth of what we eat
keeps us, and the other three fourths we
keep at the peril of our lives.—­Abernethy.

COOKERY.

It is not enough that good and proper food material
be provided; it must have such preparation as will
increase and not diminish its alimentary value.
The unwholesomeness of food is quite as often due to
bad cookery as to improper selection of material.
Proper cookery renders good food material more digestible.
When scientifically done, cooking changes each of
the food elements, with the exception of fats, in much
the same manner as do the digestive juices, and at
the same time it breaks up the food by dissolving
the soluble portions, so that its elements are more
readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. Cookery,
however, often fails to attain the desired end; and
the best material is rendered useless and unwholesome
by a improper preparation.

It is rare to find a table, some portion of the food
upon which is not rendered unwholesome either by improper
preparatory treatment, or by the addition of some
deleterious substance. This is doubtless due to
the fact that the preparation of food being such a
commonplace matter, its important relations to health,
mind, and body have been overlooked, and it has been
regarded as a menial service which might be undertaken
with little or no preparation, and without attention
to matters other than those which relate to the pleasure
of the eye and the palate. With taste only as
a criterion, it is so easy to disguise the results
of careless and improper cookery of food by the use
of flavors and condiments, as well as to palm off
upon the digestive organs all sorts of inferior material,
that poor cookery has come to be the rule rather than
the exception.

Page 36

Another reason for this prevalence of bad cookery,
is to be found in the fact that in so many homes the
cooking is intrusted to an ignorant class of persons
having no knowledge whatever of the scientific principles
involved in this most important and practical of arts.
An ethical problem which we have been unable to solve
is the fact that women who would never think of trusting
the care of their fine china and bric-a-brac to unskilled
hands, unhesitatingly intrust to persons who are almost
wholly untrained, the preparation of their daily food.
There is no department of life where superior intelligence
is more needed than in the selection and preparation
of food, upon which so largely depend the health and
physical welfare of the family circle.

The evils of bad cookery and ill-selected food are
manifold, so many, in fact, that it has been calculated
that they far exceed the mischief arising from the
use of strong drink; indeed, one of the evils of unwholesome
food is its decided tendency to create a craving for
intoxicants. Bad cookery causes indigestion, indigestion
causes thirst, and thirst perpetuates drunkenness.
Any one who has suffered from a fit of indigestion,
and can recollect the accompanying headache and the
lowness of spirits, varying in degree from dejection
or ill-humor to the most extreme melancholy, until
the intellectual faculties seemed dazed, and the moral
feelings blunted, will hardly wonder that when such
a condition becomes chronic, as is often the case
from the use of improperly prepared food, the victim
is easily led to resort to stimulants to drown depression
and enliven the spirits.

A thorough practical knowledge of simple, wholesome
cookery ought to form a part of the education of every
young woman, whatever her station in life. No
position in life is more responsible than that of the
person who arranges the bills of fare and selects
the food for the household; and what higher mission
can one conceive than to intelligently prepare the
wherewithal to make shoulders strong to bear life’s
burdens and heads clear to solve its intricate problems?
what worthier work than to help in the building up
of bodies into pure temples fit for guests of noble
thoughts and high purposes? Surely, no one should
undertake such important work without a knowledge
of the principles involved.

THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC COOKERY.

Cookery is the art of preparing food for the table
by dressing, or by the application of heat in some
manner.

FUELS.—­Artificial heat is commonly produced
by combustion, caused by the chemical action of the
oxygen of the air upon the hydrogen and carbon found
in fuel. The different fuels in common use for
cooking purposes are hard wood, soft wood, charcoal,
anthracite coal, bituminous coal, coke, lignite, kerosene
oil, gasoline, and gas. As to their respective
values, much depends upon the purpose for which they

Page 37

are to be used. Wood charcoal produces a greater
amount of heat than an equal weight of any other fuel.
Soft wood burns quicker and gives a more intense heat
than hard wood, and hence is best for a quick fire.
Hard wood burns slowly, produces a larger mass of
coals, and is best where long-continued heat is desired.
Anthracite coal kindles slowly, and burns with little
flame or smoke, but its vapor is sulphurous, and on
that account it should never be burned in an open stove,
nor in one with an imperfect draft. Its heat
is steady and intense. Bituminous coal ignites
readily, burns with considerable flame and smoke, and
gives a much less intense heat than anthracite, Lignite,
or brown coal, is much less valuable as fuel.
Coke is useful when a short, quick fire is needed.
Kerosene and gas are convenient and economical fuels.

MAKING FIRES.—­If coal is the fuel to be
used, first clean out the stove by shaking the grate
and removing all ashes and cinders. Remove the
stove covers, and brush the soot and ashes out of all
the flues and draft holes into the fire-box.
Place a large handful of shavings or loosely twisted
or crumpled papers upon the grate, over which lay some
fine pieces of dry kindling-wood, arranged crosswise
to permit a free draft, then a few sticks of hard
wood, so placed as to allow plenty of air spaces.
Be sure that the wood extends out to both ends of the
fire-box. Replace the covers, and if the stove
needs blacking, mix the polish, and apply it, rubbing
with a dry brush until nearly dry, then light the
fuel, as a little heat will facilitate the polishing.
When the wood is burning briskly, place a shovelful
or two of rather small pieces of coal upon the wood,
and, as they ignite, gradually add more, until there
is a clear, bright body of fire, remembering, however,
never to fill the stove above the fire bricks; then
partly close the direct draft. When wood or soft
coal is used, the fuel may be added at the same time
with the kindling.

CARE OF FIRES.—­Much fuel is wasted through
the loss of heat from too much draft. Only just
enough air should be supplied to promote combustion.
A coal fire, when well kindled, needs only air enough
to keep it burning. When the coal becomes red
all through, it has parted with the most of its heat,
and the fire will soon die unless replenished.
To keep a steady fire, add but a small amount of fuel
at a time, and repeat often enough to prevent any
sensible decrease of the degree of heat. Rake
the fire from the bottom, and keep it clear of ashes
and cinders. If a very hot fire is needed, open
the drafts; at other times, keep them closed, or partially
so, and not waste fuel. There is no economy in
allowing a fire to get low before fuel is added; for
the fresh fuel cools the fire to a temperature so low
that it is not useful, and thus occasions a direct
waste of all fuel necessary to again raise the heat
to the proper degree, to say nothing of the waste of
time and patience. The addition of small quantities

Page 38

of fuel at short intervals so long as continuous heat
is needed, is far better than to let the fuel burn
nearly out, and then add a larger quantity. The
improper management of the drafts and dampers has also
much to do with waste of fuel. As stoves are
generally constructed, it is necessary for the heat
to pass over the top, down the back, and under the
bottom of the oven before escaping into the flue,
in order to properly heat the oven for baking.
In order to force the heat to make this circuit, the
direct draft of the stove needs to be closed.
With this precaution observed, a quick fire from a
small amount of fuel, used before its force is spent,
will produce better results than a fire-box full under
other circumstances.

An item of economy for those who are large users of
coal, is the careful sifting of the cinders from the
ashes. They can be used to good advantage to
put first upon the kindlings, when building the fire,
as they ignite more readily than fresh coal, and give
a greater, quicker heat, although much less enduring.

METHODS OF COOKING.—­A proper source of
heat having been secured, the next step is to apply
it to the food in some manner. The principal
methods commonly employed are roasting, broiling, baking,
boiling, stewing, simmering, steaming, and frying.

Roasting is cooking food in its own juices
before an open fire. A clear fire with intense
heat is necessary.

Broiling, or grilling, is cooking by
radiant heat over glowing coals. This method
is only adapted to thin pieces of food with a considerable
amount of surface. Larger and more compact foods
should be roasted or baked. Roasting and broiling
are allied in principle. In both, the work is
chiefly done by the radiation of heat directly upon
the surface of the food, although some heat is communicated
by the hot air surrounding the food. The intense
heat applied to the food soon sears its outer surfaces,
and thus prevents the escape of its juices. If
care be taken frequently to turn the food so that its
entire surface will be thus acted upon, the interior
of the mass is cooked by its own juices.

Baking is the cooking of food by dry heat in
a closed oven. Only foods containing a considerable
degree of moisture are adapted for cooking by this
method. The hot, dry air which fills the oven
is always thirsting for moisture, and will take from
every moist substance to which it has access a quantity
of water proportionate to its degree of heat.
Foods containing but a small amount of moisture, unless
protected in some manner from the action of the heated
air, or in some way supplied with moisture during
the cooking process, come from the oven dry, hard,
and unpalatable.

Proper cooking by this method depends greatly upon
the facility with which the heat of the oven can be
regulated. When oil or gas is the fuel used,
it is an easy matter to secure and maintain almost
any degree of heat desirable, but with a wood or coal
stove, especial care and painstaking are necessary.

Page 39

It is of the first importance that the mechanism of
the oven to be used, be thoroughly understood by the
cook, and she should test its heating capacity under
various conditions, with a light, quick fire and with
a more steady one; she should carefully note the kind
and amount of fuel requisite to produce a certain
degree of heat; in short, she should thoroughly know
her “machine” and its capabilities before
attempting to use it for the cooking of food.
An oven thermometer is of the utmost value for testing
the heat, but unfortunately, such thermometers are
not common. They are obtainable in England, although
quite expensive. It is also possible at the present
time to obtain ranges with a very reliable thermometer
attachment to the oven door.

[Illustration: An Oven Thermometer]

A cook of good judgment by careful observation and
comparison of results, can soon learn to form quite
a correct idea of the heat of her oven by the length
of time she can hold her hand inside it without discomfort,
but since much depends upon the construction of stoves
and the kind of fuel used, and since the degree of
heat bearable will vary with every hand that tries
it, each person who depends upon this test must make
her own standard. When the heat of the oven is
found to be too great, it may be lessened by placing
in it a dish of cold water.

Boiling is the cooking of food in a boiling
liquid. Water is the usual medium employed for
this purpose. When water is heated, as its temperature
is increased, minute bubbles of air which have been
dissolved by it are given off. As the temperature
rises, bubbles of steam will begin to form at the
bottom of the vessel. At first these will be
condensed as they rise into the cooler water above,
causing a simmering sound; but as the heat increases,
the bubbles will rise higher and higher before collapsing,
and in a short time will pass entirely through the
water, escaping from its surface, causing more or less
agitation, according to the rapidity with which they
are formed. Water boils when the bubbles thus
rise to the surface, and steam is thrown off.
If the temperature is now tested, it will be found
to be about 212 deg. F. When water begins to
boil, it is impossible to increase its temperature,
as the steam carries off the heat as rapidly as it
is communicated to the water. The only way in
which the temperature can be raised, is by the confinement
of the steam; but owing to its enormous expansive
force, this is not practicable with ordinary cooking
utensils. The mechanical action of the water
is increased by rapid bubbling, but not the heat;
and to boil anything violently does not expedite the
cooking process, save that by the mechanical action
of the water the food is broken into smaller pieces,
which are for this reason more readily softened.
But violent boiling occasions an enormous waste of
fuel, and by driving away in the steam the volatile
and savory elements of the food, renders it much less
palatable, if not altogether tasteless. The solvent
properties of water are so increased by heat that
it permeates the food, rendering its hard and tough
constituents soft and easy of digestion.

Page 40

The liquids mostly employed in the cooking of foods
are water and milk. Water is best suited for
the cooking of most foods, but for such farinaceous
foods as rice, macaroni, and farina, milk, or at least
part milk, is preferable, as it adds to their nutritive
value. In using milk for cooking purposes, it
should be remembered that being more dense than water,
when heated, less steam escapes, and consequently it
boils sooner than does water. Then, too, milk
being more dense, when it is used alone for cooking,
a little larger quantity of fluid will be required
than when water is used.

The boiling point for water at the sea level is 212
deg. At all points above the sea level, water
boils at a temperature below 212 deg., the exact temperature
depending upon the altitude. At the top of Mt.
Blanc, an altitude of 15,000 feet, water boils at
185 deg. The boiling point is lowered one degree
for every 600 feet increase in altitude. The boiling
point may be increased by adding soluble substances
to the water. A saturated solution of common
baking soda boils at 220 deg. A saturated solution
of chloride of sodium boils at 227 deg. A similar
solution of sal-ammoniac boils at 238 deg. Of
course such solutions cannot be used advantageously,
except as a means of cooking articles placed in hermetically
sealed vessels and immersed in the liquid.

Different effects upon food are produced by the use
of hard and soft water. Peas and beans boiled
in hard water containing lime or gypsum, will not
become tender, because these chemical substances harden
vegetable casein, of which element peas and beans are
largely composed. For extracting the juices of
meat and the soluble parts of other foods, soft water
is best, as it more readily penetrates the tissue;
but when it is desired to preserve the articles whole,
and retain their juices and flavors, hard water is
preferable.

Foods should be put to cook in cold or boiling water,
in accordance with the object to be attained in their
cooking. Foods from which it is desirable to
extract the nutrient properties, as for broths, extracts,
etc., should be put to cook in cold water.
Foods to be kept intact as nearly as may be, should
be put to cook in boiling water.

Hot and cold water act differently upon the different
food elements. Starch is but slightly acted upon
by cold water. When starch is added to several
times its bulk of hot water, all the starch granules
burst on approaching the boiling point, and swell
to such a degree as to occupy nearly the whole volume
of the water, forming a pasty mess. Sugar is
dissolved readily in the either hot or cold water.
Cold water extracts albumen. Hot water coagulates
it.

Page 41

Steaming, as its name implies, is the cooking
of food by the use of steam. There are several
ways of steaming, the most common of which is by placing
the food in a perforated dish over a vessel of boiling
water. For foods not needing the solvent powers
of water, or which already contain a large amount
of moisture, this method is preferable to boiling.
Another form of cooking, which is usually termed steaming,
is that of placing the food, with or without water,
as needed, in a closed vessel which is placed inside
another vessel containing boiling water. Such
an apparatus is termed a double boiler. Food cooked
in its own juices in a covered dish in a hot oven,
is sometimes spoken of as being steamed or
smothered.

Stewing is the prolonged cooking of food in
a small quantity of liquid, the temperature of which
is just below the boiling point. Stewing should
not be confounded with simmering, which is slow, steady
boiling. The proper temperature for stewing is
most easily secured by the use of the double boiler.
The water in the outer vessel boils, while that in
the inner vessel does not, being kept a little below
the temperature of the water from which its heat is
obtained, by the constant evaporation at a temperature
a little below the boiling point.

Frying, which is the cooking of food in hot
fat, is a method not to be recommended—­Unlike
all the other food elements, fat is rendered less
digestible by cooking. Doubtless it is for this
reason that nature has provided those foods which
require the most prolonged cooking to fit them for
use with only a small proportion of fat, and it would
seem to indicate that any food to be subjected to
a high degree of heat should not be mixed and compounded
largely of fats. The ordinary way of frying,
which the French call sauteing, is by the use
of only a little fat in a shallow pan, into which
the food is put and cooked first on one side and then
the other. Scarcely anything could be more unwholesome
than food prepared in this manner. A morsel of
food encrusted with fat remains undigested in the
stomach because fat is not acted upon by the gastric
juice, and its combination with the other food elements
of which the morsel is composed interferes with their
digestion also. If such foods are habitually
used, digestion soon becomes slow and the gastric
juice so deficient in quantity that fermentation and
putrefactive changes are occasioned, resulting in
serious disturbance of health. In the process
of frying, the action of the heat partially decomposes
the fat; in consequence, various poisonous substances
are formed, highly detrimental to the digestion of
the partaker of the food.

ADDING FOODS TO BOILING LIQUIDS.—­Much of
the soddenness of improperly cooked foods might be
avoided, if the following facts were kept in mind:—­

Page 42

When vegetables, or other foods of ordinary temperature,
are put into boiling water, the temperature of the
water is lowered in proportion to the quantity and
the temperature of the food thus introduced, and will
not again boil until the mass of food shall have absorbed
more heat from the fire. The result of this is
that the food is apt to become more or less water-soaked
before the process of cooking begins. This difficulty
may be avoided by introducing but small quantities
of the food at one time, so as not to greatly lower
the temperature of the liquid, and then allowing the
latter to boil between the introduction of each fresh
supply, or by heating the food before adding it to
the liquid.

EVAPORATION is another principle often overlooked
in the cooking of food, and many a sauce or gravy
is spoiled because the liquid, heated in a shallow
pan, from which evaporation is rapid, loses so much
in bulk that the amount of thickening requisite for
the given quantity of fluid, and which, had less evaporation
occurred, would have made it of the proper consistency,
makes the sauce thick and unpalatable. Evaporation
is much less, in slow boiling, than in more rapid cooking.

MEASURING.—­One of the most important principles
to be observed in the preparation of food for cooking,
is accuracy in measuring. Many an excellent recipe
proves a failure simply from lack of care in this
respect. Measures are generally more convenient
than weights, and are more commonly used. The
common kitchen cup, which holds a half pint, is the
one usually taken as the standard; if any other size
is used, the ingredients for the entire recipe should
be measured by the same. The following points
should be observed in measuring:—­

1. The teaspoons and tablespoons to be used in
measuring, are the silver spoons in general use.

2. Any material like flour, sugar, salt, that
has been packed, should either be sifted or stirred
up lightly before measuring.

3. A cupful of dry material is measured level
with the top of the cup, without being packed down.

4. A cupful of liquid is all the cup will contain
without running over. Hold the cup in a saucer
while measuring, to prevent spilling the liquid upon
the floor or table.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.—­The
following comparative table of weights and measurements
will aid in estimating different materials:—­

One heaping tablespoonful of sugar weighs one ounce.

Two round tablespoonfuls of flour weigh one ounce.

Two cupfuls of granulated sugar weigh one pound.

Two cupfuls of meal weigh one pound.

Four cupfuls of sifted flour weigh one pound.

One pint of oatmeal, cracked wheat, or other coarse
grains, weighs about one pound.

One pint of liquid weighs one pound.

One pint of meat chopped and packed solid weighs one
pound.

Seven heaping tablespoonfuls of sugar = one cupful.

Page 43

Five heaping tablespoonfuls of flour = one cupful.

Two cupfuls of liquid or dry material = one pint

Four cupfuls of liquid or dry material = one quart.

MIXING MATERIALS.—­In the compounding of
recipes, various modes are employed for mingling together
the different ingredients, chief of which are stirring,
beating, and kneading.

By stirring is meant a continuous motion round
and round with a spoon, without lifting it from the
mixture, except to scrape occasionally from the sides
of the dish any portion of the material that may cling
to it. It is not necessary that the stirring
should be all in one direction, as many cooks suppose.
The object of the stirring is to thoroughly blend
the ingredients, and this may be accomplished as well
by stirring—­in one direction as in another.

Beating is for the purpose of incorporating
as much air in the mixture as possible. It should
be done by dipping the spoon in and out, cutting clear
through and lifting from the bottom with each stroke.
The process must be continuous, and must never be
interspersed with any stirring if it is desired to
retain the air within the mixture.

Kneading is the mode by which materials already
in the form of dough are more thoroughly blended together;
it also serves to incorporate air. The process
is more fully described in the chapter on “Bread,”

TEMPERATURE.—­Many a cook fails and knows
not why, because she does not understand the influence
of temperature upon materials and food. Flour
and liquids for unfermented breads cannot be too cold,
while for bread prepared with yeast, success is largely
dependent upon a warm and equable temperature throughout
the entire process.

COOKING UTENSILS.—­The earliest cookery
was probably accomplished without the aid of any utensils,
the food being roasted by burying it in hot ashes
or cooked by the aid of heated stones; but modern cookery
necessitates the use of a greater or less variety of
cooking utensils to facilitate the preparation of
food, most of which are so familiar to the reader
as to need no description. (A list of those needed
for use will be found on page 66.) Most of these utensils
are manufactured from some kind of metal, as iron,
tin, copper, brass, etc. All metals are
dissolvable in certain substances, and some of those
employed for making household utensils are capable
of forming most poisonous compounds when used for
cooking certain foods. This fact should lead to
great care on the part of the housewife, both in purchasing
and in using utensils for cooking purposes.

Iron utensils, although they are, when new, apt to
discolor and impart a disagreeable flavor to food
cooked in them, are not objectionable from a health
standpoint, if kept clean and free from rust.
Iron rust is the result of the combination of the
iron with oxygen, for which it has so great an affinity
that it will decompose water to get oxygen to unite
with; hence it is that iron utensils rust so quickly
when not carefully dried after using, or if left where
they can collect moisture. This is the reason
why a coating of tallow, which serves to exclude the
air and moisture, will preserve ironware not in daily
use from rusting.

Page 44

“Porcelain ware” is iron lined with a
hard, smooth enamel, and makes safe and very desirable
cooking utensils. German porcelain ware is unexcelled
for culinary purposes.

“Granite ware” is a material quite recently
come into use, the composition of which is a secret,
although pronounced by eminent chemists to be free
from all injurious qualities. Utensils made from
it are light in weight, easily kept clean, and for
most cooking purposes, are far superior to those made
from any other material.

What is termed “galvanized iron” is unsuitable
for cooking utensils, it being simply sheet iron coated
with zinc, an exceedingly unsafe metal to be used
for cooking purposes.

Tin, which is simply thin sheet iron coated with tin
by dipping several times into vats of the melted metal,
is largely employed in the manufacture of cooking
utensils. Tinware is acted upon by acids, and
when used for holding or cooking any acid foods, like
sour milk, sour fruits, tomatoes, etc., harmful
substances are liable to be formed, varying in quantity
and harmfulness with the nature of the acid contained
in the food.

In these days of fraud and adulteration, nearly all
the cheaper grades of tinware contain a greater or
less amount of lead in their composition, which owing
to its greater abundance and less price, is used as
an adulterant of tin. Lead is also used in the
solder with which the parts of tinware are united.
The action of acids upon lead form very poisonous
compounds, and all lead-adulterated utensils should
be wholly discarded for cooking purposes.

Test for Lead-Adulterated Tin.—­Place
upon the metal a small drop of nitric acid, spreading
it to the size of a dime, dry with gentle heat, apply
a drop of water, then add a small crystal of iodide
of potash. If lead is present, a yellowish color
will be seen very soon after the addition of the iodide.
Lead glazing, which is frequently employed on crockery
and ironware in the manufacture of cooking utensils,
may also be detected in the same manner.

Cooking utensils made of copper are not to be recommended
from the point of healthfulness, although many cooks
esteem them because copper is a better conductor of
heat than iron or tin. The acids of many fruits
combine with copper to form extremely poisonous substances.
Fatty substances, as well as salt and sugar, act upon
copper to a greater or less degree, also vegetables
containing sulfur in their composition and produce
harmful compounds.

Utensils made of brass, which is a compound of copper
and zinc, are not safe to use for cooking purposes.

TABLE TOPICS.

Bad cooking diminishes happiness
and shortens life.—­Wisdom of
Ages.

Says Mrs. Partington:
“Many a fair home has been desiccated by poor
cooking, and a man’s
table has been the rock on which his happiness
has split.”

Page 45

SIGNIFICANT FACT.—­Lady—­“Have
you had much experience as a cook?”Applicant—­“Oh,
indeed I have. I was the cook of Mr. and Mrs.
Peterby for three years.”

L.—­“Why
did you leave them?”

A.—­“I
didn’t leave them. They left me. They
both died.”

L.—­“What
of?”

A.—­“Dyspepsia.”

Cooking is generally bad because
people falling to routine; habit
dulls their appreciation,
and they do not think about what they are
eating.—­Didsbury.

It is told of Philip Hecgnet, a French,
physician who lived in the 17th, century, that
when calling upon his wealthy patients, he used often
to go to the kitchen and pantry, embrace the cooks
and butlers, and exhort them to do their duty
well. “I owe you so much gratitude,
my dear friends,” he would say; “you are
so useful to us doctors; for if you did not keep
on poisoning the people, we should all have to
go to the poorhouse.”

There are innumerable books of recipes
for cooking, but unless the cook is master of
the principles of his art, and unless he knows the
why and the wherefore of its processes, he cannot
choose a recipe intelligently and execute it successfully.—­Richard
Estcourt.

They who provide the food for the world,
decide the health of the world. You have
only to go on some errands amid the taverns and hotels
of the United States and Great Britain, to appreciate
the fact that a vast multitude of the human race
are slaughtered by incompetent cookery. Though
a young woman may have taken lessons in music,
and may have taken lessons in painting, and lessons
in astronomy, she is not well educated unless
she has taken lessons in dough!—­Talmage.

HOUSEHOLD WORKSHOP

It is a mistake to suppose that any room, however
small and unpleasantly situated, is “good enough”
for a kitchen. This is the room where housekeepers
pass a great portion of their time, and it should be
one of the brightest and most convenient rooms in
the house; for upon the results of no other department
of woman’s domain depend so greatly the health
and comfort of the family as upon those involved in
this “household workshop.” The character
of a person’s work is more or less dependent
upon his surroundings, hence is it to be greatly wondered
at that a woman immured in a small, close, dimly-lighted
room, whose only outlook may be the back alley or
the woodshed, supplies her household with products
far below the standard of health and housewifely skill?

Page 46

Every kitchen should have windows on two sides of
the room, and the sun should have free entrance through
them; the windows should open from the top to allow
a complete change of air, for light and fresh air are
among the chief essentials to success in all departments
of the household. Good drainage should also be
provided, and the ventilation of the kitchen ought
to be even more carefully attended to than that of
a sleeping room. The ventilation of the kitchen
should be so ample as to thoroughly remove all gases
and odors, which, together with steam from boiling
and other cooking processes, generally invade and render
to some degree unhealthful every other portion of
the house. It is the steam from the kitchen which
gives a fusty odor to the parlor air and provides
a wet-sheet pack for the occupant of the “spare
bed.” The only way of wholly eradicating
this evil, is the adoption of the suggestion of the
sanitary philosopher who places the kitchen at the
top of the house.

To lessen to discomforts from heat, a ventilator may
be placed above the range, that shall carry out of
the room all superfluous heat, and aid in removing
the steam and odors from cooking food. The simplest
form of such a ventilator this inverted hopper of
sheet iron fitted above the range, the upper and smaller
end opening into a large flue adjacent to the smoke
flue for the range. Care must be taken, however,
to provide an ample ventilating shaft for this purpose,
since a strong draft is required to secure the desired
results.

There should be ample space for tables, chairs, range,
sink, and cupboards, yet the room should not be so
large as to necessitate too many steps. A very
good size for the ordinary dwelling is 16 x 18 feet.

Undoubtedly much of the distaste for, and neglect
of, “housework,” so often deplored in
these days, arises from unpleasant surroundings.
If the kitchen be light, airy, and tidy, and the utensils
bright and clean, the work of compounding those articles
of food which grace the table and satisfy the appetite
will be a pleasant task, and one entirely worthy of
the most intelligent and cultivated woman.

It is desirable, from a sanitary standpoint, that
the kitchen floor be made impervious to moisture;
hence, concrete or tile floors are better than wooden
floors. If wooden floors are used, they should
be constructed of narrow boards of hard wood, carefully
joined and thoroughly saturated with hot linseed oil,
well rubbed in to give polish to the surface.

Cleanliness is the great desideratum, and this
can be best attained by having all woodwork in and
about the kitchen coated with varnish; substances
which cause stain and grease spots, do not penetrate
the wood when varnished, and can be easily removed
with a damp cloth. Paint is preferable to whitewash
or calcimine for the walls, since it is less affected
by steam, and can be more readily cleaned. A carpet
on a kitchen floor is as out of place as a kitchen
sink would be in a parlor.

Page 47

The elements of beauty should not be lacking in the
kitchen. Pictures and fancy articles are inappropriate;
but a few pots of easily cultivated flowers on the
window ledge or arranged upon brackets about the window
in winter, and a window box arranged as a jardiniere,
with vines and blooming plants in summer, will greatly
brighten the room, and thus serve to lighten the task
of those whose daily labor confines them to the precincts
of the kitchen.

THE KITCHEN FURNITURE.—­The furniture for
a kitchen should not be cumbersome, and should be
so made and dressed as to be easily cleaned.
There should be plenty of cupboards, and each for the
sake of order, should be devoted to a special purpose.
Cupboards with sliding doors are much superior to
closets. They should be placed upon casters so
as to be easily moved, as they, are thus not only
more convenient, but admit of more thorough cleanliness.

Cupboards used for the storage of food should be well
ventilated; otherwise, they furnish choice conditions
for the development of mold and germs. Movable
cupboards may be ventilated by means of openings in
the top, and doors covered with very fine wire gauze
which will admit the air but keep out flies and dust.
All stationary cupboards and closets should have a
ventilating flue connected with the main shaft by
which the house is ventilated, or directly communicating
with the outer air.

No kitchen can be regarded as well furnished without
a good timepiece as an aid to punctuality and economy
of time. An eight-day clock with large dial and
plain case is the most suitable.

Every kitchen should also be provided with a slate,
with sponge and pencil attached, on one side of which
the market orders and other memoranda may be jotted
down, and on the other the bills of fare for the day
or week. In households where servants are kept,
the slate will save many a vexatious blunder and unnecessary
call to the kitchen, while if one is herself mistress,
cook, and housekeeper, it may prove an invaluable
aid and time-saver if thus used.

[Illustration: A Convenient Kitchen Table.]

Lack of sufficient table room is often a great source
of inconvenience to the housekeeper. To avoid
this, arrange swinging tables or shelves at convenient
points upon the wall, which may be put up or let down
as occasion demands. For ordinary kitchen uses,
small tables of suitable height on easy-rolling casters,
and with zinc tops, are the most convenient and most
easily kept clean. It is quite as well that they
be made without drawers, which are too apt to become
receptacles for a heterogeneous mass of rubbish.
If desirable to have some handy place for keeping
articles which are frequently required for use, an
arrangement similar to that represented in the accompanying
cut may be made at very small expense. It may
be also an advantage to arrange small shelves about
and above the range, on which may be kept various articles
necessary for cooking purposes.

Page 48

One of the most indispensable articles of furnishing
for a well-appointed kitchen, is a sink; however,
a sink must be properly constructed and well cared
for, or it is likely to become a source of great danger
to the health of the inmates of the household.
Earthen-ware is the best material for kitchen sinks.
Iron is very serviceable, but corrodes, and if painted
or enameled, this soon wears off. Wood is objectionable
from a sanitary standpoint. A sink made of wood
lined with copper answers well for a long time if
properly cared for.

The sink should if possible stand out from the wall,
so as to allow free access to all sides of it for
the sake of cleanliness, and under no circumstances
should there be any inclosure of woodwork or cupboards
underneath to serve as a storage place for pots and
kettles and all kinds of rubbish, dust, and germs.
It should be supported on legs, and the space below
should be open for inspection at all times. The
pipes and fixtures should be selected and placed by
a competent plumber.

Great pains should be taken to keep the pipes clean
and well disinfected. Refuse of all kinds should
be kept out. Thoughtless housekeepers and careless
domestics often allow greasy water and bits of table
waste to find their way into the pipes. Drain
pipes usually have a bend, or trap, through which
water containing no sediment flows freely; but the
melted grease which often passes into the pipes mixed
with hot water, becomes cooled and solid as it descends,
adhering to the pipes, and gradually accumulating
until the drain is blocked, or the water passes through
very slowly. A grease-lined pipe is a hotbed for
disease germs.

Water containing much grease should be cooled and
the grease removed before being turned into the kitchen
sink, while bits of refuse should be disposed of elsewhere,
since prevention of mischief is in this case, as in
most others, far easier than cure. It is customary
for housekeepers to pour a hot solution of soda or
potash down the sink pipes occasionally, to dissolve
any grease which may tend to obstruct the passage;
but this is only a partial safeguard, as there is no
certainty that all the grease will be dissolved, and
any particles adhering to the pipes very soon undergo
putrefaction.

A frequent flushing with hot water is important; besides
which the pipes should be disinfected two or three
times a week by pouring down a gallon of water holding
in solution a pound of good chloride of lime.

STOVES AND RANGES.—­The furnishing of a
modern kitchen would be quite incomplete without some
form of stove or range. The multiplicity of these
articles, manufactured each with some especial merit
of its own, renders it a somewhat difficult task to
make a choice among them. Much must, however,
depend upon the kind of fuel to be used, the size of
the household, and various other circumstances which
make it necessary for each individual housekeeper
to decide for herself what is best adapted to her
wants. It may be said, in brief, that economy
of fuel, simplicity of construction, and efficiency
in use are the chief points to be considered in the
selection of stoves and ranges.

Page 49

A stove or range of plain finish is to be preferred,
because it is much easier to keep clean, and will
be likely to present a better appearance after a few
months’ wear than one of more elaborate pattern.
But whatever stove or range is selected, its mechanism
should be thoroughly understood in every particular,
and it should be tested with dampers open, with dampers
closed, and in every possible way, until one is perfectly
sure she understands its action under all conditions.

OIL AND GAS STOVES.—­In many households,
oil, gas, and gasoline stoves have largely taken the
place of the kitchen range, especially during the
hot weather of summer. They can be used for nearly
every purpose for which a wood or a coal range is
used; they require much less labor and litter, and
can be instantly started into full force and as quickly
turned out when no longer required, while the fact
that the heat can be regulated with exactness, makes
them superior for certain processes of cooking to
any other stove. But while these stoves are convenient
and economical, especially in small families, they
should be used with much care. Aside from the
danger from explosion, which is by no means inconsiderable
in the use of gasoline and oil stoves, they are not,
unless well cared for altogether healthful. Unless
the precaution is taken to use them in well-ventilated
rooms or to connect them with a chimney, they vitiate
the atmosphere to a considerable extent with the products
of combustion. Oil stoves, unless the wicks are
kept well trimmed, are apt to smoke, and this smoke
is not only disagreeable, but extremely irritating
to the mucous membrane of the nose and throat.
Oil stoves are constructed on the same principle as
ordinary oil lamps, and require the same care and
attention.

Quite recently there has been invented by Prof.
Edward Atkinson a very unique apparatus for cooking
by means of the heat of an ordinary kerosene lamp,
called the “Aladdin Cooker.” The food
to be cooked is placed in a chamber around which hot
water, heated by the flame of the lamp, circulates.
The uniform heat thus obtained performs the process
of cooking, slowly, but most satisfactorily and economically,
the result being far superior to that obtained by
the ordinary method of cooking by quick heat.
The cooker is only used for stewing and steaming; but
Mr. Atkinson has also invented an oven in which the
heat is conveyed to the place where it is needed by
a column of hot air instead of hot water. With
this oven, which consists of an outer oven made of
non-conducting material, and an inner oven made of
sheet iron, with an intervening space between, through
which the hot air circulates, no smoke or odor from
the lamp can reach the interior.

KITCHEN. UTENSILS.—­The list of necessary
kitchen utensils must of course be governed somewhat
by individual circumstances, but it should not be
curtailed for the sake of display in some other department,
where less depends upon the results. A good kitchen
outfit is one of the foundation-stones of good housekeeping.
The following are some of the most essential:—­

Page 50

Two dish pans; two or more papier-mache tubs
for washing glassware; one kneading board; one bread
board; one pair scales, with weights; scrubbing and
stove brushes; brooms; dustpans; roller for towel;
washbowl; soap dish; vegetable brushes.

[Illustration: A Double Boiler.]

FOR THE TIN CLOSET.-One dipper; one egg-beater; one
two-quart pail; one four-quart pail; six brick-loaf
bread pans; three shallow tins; three granite-ware
pie tins; two perforated sheet iron pans for rolls,
etc.; one set of measures, pint, quart, and two
quart; two colanders; two fine wire strainers; one
flour sifter; one apple corer; one set patty pans;
two dripping pans; two sets gem irons; one set muffin
rings; one toaster; one broiler; the six saucepans,
different sizes; two steamers; six milk-pans; one
dozen basins, different sizes; one chopping bowl and
knife; six double boilers; two funnels, large and small;
one can opener; griddle; kettles, iron and granite
ware; two water baths.

FOR THE DISH CLOSET.—­One half dozen iron-stone
china cups; three quart bowls; three pint bowls; two
large mixing bowls; two quart bowls with lip; six
deep plates; three kitchen pitchers; one glass rolling
pin; six wooden and six iron spoons, assorted sizes;
six kitchen teaspoons; one stone baking pot; glass
jars for stores; crocks and jars.

THE PANTRY.—­The pantry and china closet
should have direct light and good ventilation.
The dark, dingy places sometimes used for this purpose
are germ breeders. There should be plenty of shelf
room and cupboards for the fine glass and china-ware,
with a well-arranged sink for washing the dishes.
The sink for this purpose is preferably one lined
with tinned or planished copper; for dishes will be
less liable to become injured and broken then when
washed in an iron or earthen-ware sink. Extension
or folding shelves are a great convenience, and can
be arranged for the sink if desired. The accompanying
cuts illustrate a sink of four compartments for dish-washing,
devised by the writer for use in the Sanitarium Domestic
Economy kitchen, which can be closed and used as a
table. Two zinc trays fit the top, upon which
to place the dish drainers. If preferred, the
top might be arranged as a drainer, by making it of
well-seasoned hard wood, with a number of inclined
grooves to allow the water to run into the sink.
If the house be heated by steam, a plate-warmer is
an important part of the pantry furnishing.

[Illustration: Compartment Sink for Dish-Washing.
Open.]

THE STOREROOM.—­If possible to do so, locate
the room for the keeping of the kitchen supplies on
the cool side of the house. Plenty of light,
good ventilation, and absolute cleanliness are essential,
as the slightest contamination of air is likely to
render the food supply unfit for use.

Page 51

The refrigerator should not be connected with the
kitchen drain pipe, and the greatest care should be
taken to keep it clean and sweet. It should be
thoroughly scrubbed with borax or sal-soda and water,
and well aired, at least once a week. Strongly
flavored foods and milk should not be kept in the
same refrigerator. The ice to be used should always
be carefully washed before putting in the refrigerator.
Care should also be taken to replenish it before the
previous supply is entirely melted, as the temperature
rises when the ice becomes low, and double the quantity
will be required to cool the refrigerator that would
be necessary to keep it of uniform temperature if
added before the ice was entirely out.

THE WATER SUPPLY.—­The water used for drinking
and cooking purposes should receive equal consideration
with the food supply, and from whatever source obtained,
it should be frequently tested for impurities, since
that which looks the most refreshing may be contaminated
with organic poison of the most treacherous character.

[Illustration: Compartment Sink for Dish-Washing.
Closed.]

A good and simple test solution, which any housewife
can use, may be prepared by dissolving twelve grains
of caustic potash and three of permanganate of potash
in an ounce of distilled water, or filtered soft water.
Add a drop of this solution to a glass of the water
to be tested. If the pink color imparted by the
solution disappears at once, add another drop of the
solution, and continue adding drop by drop until the
pink color will remain for half an hour or more.
The amount of the solution necessary to security permanent
color is very fair index to the quality of the water.
If the color imparted by the first one or two drops
disappears within a half hour, the water should be
rejected as probably dangerous. Water which is
suspected of being impure may be rendered safe by
boiling. Filters are only of service in removing
suspended particles and the unpleasant taste of rain
water; a really dangerous water is not rendered safe
by filtering in the ordinary manner.

CELLARS.—­Sanitarians tell us that cellars
should never be built under dwelling houses.
Because of improper construction and neglect, they
are undoubtedly the cause of much disease and many
deaths. A basement beneath the house is advantageous,
but the greatest of care should be given to construct
it in accord with sanitary laws. It should be
thoroughly drained that there may be no source of dampness,
but should not be connected with a sewer or a cesspool.
It should have walls so made as to be impervious to
air and water. An ordinary brick or stone wall
is inefficient unless well covered with good Portland
cement polished smooth. The floors should likewise
be covered with cement, otherwise the cellar is likely
to be filled with impure air derived from the soil,
commonly spoken of as “ground air,” and
which offers a constant menace to the health of those
who live over cellars with uncemented walls and floors.

Page 52

Light and ventilation are quite as essential to the
healthfulness of a cellar as to other rooms of the
dwelling. Constantly during warm weather, and
at least once a day during the winter season, windows
should be opened wide, thus effecting a free interchange
of air. All mold and mustiness should be kept
out by thorough ventilation and frequent coats of
whitewash to the walls. Vegetables and other
decomposable articles, if stored in the basement, should
be frequently sorted, and all decaying substances
promptly removed. This is of the utmost importance,
since the germs and foul gases arising from decomposing
food stuffs form a deadly source of contamination through
every crack and crevice.

KITCHEN CONVENIENCES.

In these days of invention and progress, much thought
and ingenuity have been expended in making and perfecting
labor-saving articles and utensils, which serve to
make housework less of a burden and more of a delight.

THE STEAM-COOKER.—­One of the most unique
of these conveniences is the steam-cooker, one kind
of which is illustrated by the accompanying cut.
Steaming is, for many foods, a most economical and
satisfactory method of cooking. Especially is
this true respecting fruits, grains, and vegetables,
the latter of which often have the larger proportion
of their best nutritive elements dissolved and thrown
away in the water in which they are boiled. In
the majority of households it is, however, the method
least depended upon, because the ordinary steamer over
a pot of boiling water requires too much attention,
takes up too much stove room, and creates too much
steam in the kitchen, to prove a general favorite.
The steam-cooker has an escape-steam tube through which
all excess of steam and odors passes into the fire,
and thus its different compartments may contain and
cook an entire dinner, if need be, and over one stove
hole or one burner of an oil or gasoline stove.

[Illustration: The Steam-Cooker.]

THE VEGETABLE PRESS.—­The accompanying cut
represents this handy utensil, which is equally useful
as a potato and vegetable masher; as a sauce, gruel,
and gravy strainer; as a fruit press, and for many
other purposes for which a colander or strainer is
needed, while it economizes both time and labor.

[Illustration: Vegetable Press.]

LEMON DRILL.—­This little article for extracting
the juice of the lemon, and which can be purchased
of most hardware dealers, is quite superior to the
more commonly used lemon squeezer. Being made
of glass, its use is not open to the danger that the
use of metal squeezer is are from poisonous combinations
of the acid and metal, while the juice extracted is
free from pulp, seeds, and the oil of the skin.

[Illustration: Lemon Drill.]

Page 53

A HANDY WAITER.—­In many households where
no help is employed, a labor-saving device like the
one represented in the accompanying illustration,
will be found of great service. It is a light
double table on easy-rolling casters, and can be readily
constructed by anyone handy in the use of tools.
If preferred, the top may be covered with zinc.
In setting or clearing the table, the dishes may be
placed on the lower shelf, with the food on the top,
and the table rolled from pantry to dining room, and
from dining room to kitchen; thus accomplishing, with
one trip, what is ordinarily done with hundreds of
steps by the weary housewife. If desirable to
reset the table at once after a meal, the waiter will
be found most serviceable as a place whereon the glassware
and silverware may be washed. It is equally serviceable
for holding the utensils and material needed when
cooking; being so easily moved, they can be rolled
to the stove and is always convenient.

[Illustration: The Handy Waiter.]

WALL CABINET.—­where cupboard space is limited,
or where for convenience it is desirable to have some
provision for supplies and utensils near the range
and baking table, a wall cabinet offers a most convenient
arrangement. It may be made of a size to fit in
any convenient niche, and constructed plainly or made
as ornamental as one pleases, with doors to exclude
the dust, shelves on which to keep tin cans filled
with rice, oatmeal, cracked wheat, and other grains;
glass jars of raisins, sugar, citron, cornstarch,
etc.; hooks on which may hang the measures, egg-beater,
potato masher, and such frequently needed utensils;
and with drawers for paring knives, spoons, and similar
articles, the wall cabinet becomes a multum in parvo
of convenience which would greatly facilitate work
in many households.

[Illustration: Wall Cabinet.]

PERCOLATE HOLDER.—­The accompanying cut
illustrates an easily-constructed device for holding
a jelly bag or percolate. It may be so made as
to be easily screwed to any ordinary table, and will
save the housekeeper far more than its cost in time
and patience.

KNEADING TABLE.—­Much of the tiresome labor
of bread-making can be avoided if one is supplied
with some convenient table similar to the one represented
in the cut, wherein the needed material and utensils
may be kept in readiness at all times. The table
illustrated has two large tin drawers, each divided
into two compartments, in which may be kept corn meal,
entire wheat, and Graham and white flours. Two
drawers above provide a place for rolling-pin, bread
mallet, gem irons, spoons, etc., while a narrow
compartment just beneath the hardwood top affords a
place for the kneading board. The table being
on casters is easily moved to any part of the kitchen
for use.

[Illustration: Percolater Holder.]

[Illustration: Kneading Table.]

Page 54

DISH-TOWEL RACK.—­Nothing adds more to the
ease and facility with which the frequent dish-washings
of the household may be accomplished than clean, well-dried
towels. For quick drying,—­an item of
great importance if one would keep the towels fresh
and sweet,—­the towel rack represented in
the cut, and which can be made by any carpenter, is
a most handy device. When not in use, it can
be turned up against the wall as illustrated.
It is light, affords sufficient drying space so that
no towel need be hung on top of another, and projecting
out from the wall as it does, the free circulation
of air between the towels soon dries them.

[Illustration: Dish-Towel Rack.]

KITCHEN BRUSHES.—­These useful little articles
can be put to such a variety of uses that they are
among the chiefest of household conveniences.
They are also so inexpensive, costing but five cents
apiece without handles and seven cents with handles,
that no housewife can afford to be without a supply
of them. For the washing of dishes with handles,
the outside of iron kettles, and other cooking utensils
made of iron, they are especially serviceable.
The smaller sizes are likewise excellent for cleaning
cut glass ware, Majolica ware,—­in fact,
any kind of ware with raised figures or corrugated
surfaces. For cleaning a grater, nothing is superior
to one of these little brushes. Such a brush
is also most serviceable for washing celery, as the
corrugated surface of the stalk makes a thorough cleaning
with the hands a difficult operation. Then if
one uses a brush with handle, ice water, which adds
to the crispness of the celery, may be used for the
cleaning, as there will be no necessity for putting
the hands in the water. A small whisk broom is
also valuable for the same purpose. Such vegetables
as potatoes, turnips, etc., are best cleaned with
a brush. It makes the work less disagreeable,
as the hands need not be soiled by the process, and
in no other way can the cleaning be so well and thoroughly
done.

[Illustration: Vegetable Brush.]

All brushes after being used should be carefully scalded
and placed brush downward in a wire sponge basket,
or hung up on hooks. If left around carelessly,
they soon acquire the musty smell of a neglected dishcloth.

TABLE TOPICS.

The kitchen is a chemical laboratory,
in which are conducted a number of chemical processes
by which our food is converted from its crudest
state to condition more suitable for digestion and
nutrition, and made more agreeable to the palate.—­Prof.
Matthew Williams.

Half the trouble between mistresses
and maids arises from the disagreeable surroundings
to which servants are confined. There is no
place more dismal than the ordinary kitchen in city
dwellings. It is half underground, ill-lighted,
and unwholesome. What wonder, then, in the
absence of sunlight, there is a lack of sunny temper

Page 55

and cheerful service? An ill-lighted kitchen
is almost sure to be a dirty one, where germs
will thrive and multiply. Let sanitary kitchens
be provided, and we shall have more patient mistresses
and more willing servants.—­Sel.

A sluggish housemaid exclaimed, when
scolded for the uncleanliness of her kitchen,
“I’m sure the room would be clean enough
if it were not for the nasty sun, which is always
showing the dirty corners.”—­Sel.

If we would look for ready hands and
willing hearts in our kitchens, we should make
them pleasant and inviting for those who literally
bear the “burden and heat of the day”
in this department of our homes, where, emphatically,
“woman’s work is never done.”
We should no longer be satisfied to locate our
kitchens in the most undesirable corner of the
house. We should demand ample light,—­sunshine
if possible,—­and justly too; for the very
light itself is inspiring to the worker.
It will stir up cheer and breed content in the
minds of those whose lot is cast in this work-a-day
room.—­Sel.

Any invention on the part
of the housekeeper intended to be a
substitute for watchfulness,
will prove a delusion and a
snare.—­Sel.

“The first wealth is
health,” says Emerson.

A knowledge of sanitary principles should
be regarded as an essential part of every woman’s
education, and obedience to sanitary laws should
be ranked, as it was in the Mosaic code, as a religious
duty.—­Sel.

Much of the air of the house comes from
the cellar. A heated house acts like a chimney.
A German experimenter states that one half of the
cellar air makes its way into the first story, one
third into the second, and one fifth into the
third.

CEREALS AND THEIR PREPARATION FOR THE TABLE

Cereal is the name given to those seeds used as food
(wheat, rye, oats, barley, corn, rice, etc.),
which are produced by plants belonging to the vast
order known as the grass family. They are used
for food both in the unground state and in various
forms of mill products.

The grains are pre-eminently nutritious, and when
well prepared, easily digested foods. In composition
they are all similar, but variations in their constituent
elements and the relative amounts of these various
elements, give them different degrees of alimentary
value. They each contain one or more of the nitrogenous
elements,—­gluten, albumen, caseine, and
fibrin,—­together with starch, dextrine,
sugar, and fatty matter, and also mineral elements
and woody matter, or cellulose. The combined
nutritive value of the grain foods is nearly three
times that of beef, mutton, or poultry. As regards
the proportion of the food elements necessary to meet
the various requirements of the system, grains approach
more nearly the proper standard than most other foods;
indeed, wheat contains exactly the correct proportion
of the food elements.

Page 56

Being thus in themselves so nearly perfect foods,
and when properly prepared, exceedingly palatable
and easy of digestion, it is a matter of surprise
that they are not more generally used; yet scarcely
one family in fifty makes any use of the grains, save
in the form of flour, or an occasional dish of rice
or oatmeal. This use of grains is far too meager
to adequately represent their value as an article of
diet. Variety in the use of grains is as necessary
as in the use of other food material, and the numerous
grain preparations now to be found in market render
it quite possible to make this class of foods a staple
article of diet, if so desired, without their becoming
at all monotonous.

In olden times the grains were largely depended upon
as a staple food, and it is a fact well authenticated
by history that the highest condition of man has always
been associated with wheat-consuming nations.
The ancient Spartans, whose powers of endurance are
proverbial, were fed on a grain diet, and the Roman
soldiers who under Caesar conquered the world, carried
each a bag of parched grain in his pocket as his daily
ration.

Other nationalities at the present time make extensive
use of the various grains. Rice used in connection
with some of the leguminous seeds, forms the staple
article of diet for a large proportion of the human
race. Rice, unlike the other grain foods, is deficient
in the nitrogenous elements, and for this reason its
use needs to be supplemented by other articles containing
an excess of the nitrogenous material. It is
for this reason, doubtless, that the Hindoos use lentils,
and the Chinese eat peas and beans in connection with
rice.

We frequently meet people who say they cannot use
the grains,—­that they do not agree with
them. With all deference to the opinion of such
people, it may be stated that the difficulty often
lies in the fact that the grain was either not properly
cooked, not properly eaten, or not properly accompanied.
A grain, simply because it is a grain, is by no means
warranted to faithfully fulfil its mission unless properly
treated. Like many another good thing excellent
in itself, if found in bad company, it is prone to
create mischief, and in many cases the root of the
whole difficulty may be found in the excessive amount
of sugar used with the grain.

Sugar is not needed with grains to increase their
alimentary value. The starch which constitutes
a large proportion of their food elements must itself
be converted into sugar by the digestive processes
before assimilation, hence the addition of cane sugar
only increases the burden of the digestive organs,
for the pleasure of the palate. The Asiatics,
who subsist largely upon rice, use no sugar upon it,
and why should it be considered requisite for the
enjoyment of wheat, rye, oatmeal, barley, and other
grains, any more than it is for our enjoyment of bread
or other articles made from these same grains?
Undoubtedly the use of grains would become more universal

Page 57

if they were served with less or no sugar. The
continued use of sugar upon grains has a tendency to
cloy the appetite, just as the constant use of cake
or sweetened bread in the place of ordinary bread
would do. Plenty of nice, sweet cream or fruit
juice, is a sufficient dressing, and there are few
persons who after a short trial would not come to
enjoy the grains without sugar, and would then as
soon think of dispensing with a meal altogether as
to dispense with the grains.

Even when served without sugar, the grains may not
prove altogether healthful unless they are properly
eaten. Because they are made soft by the process
of cooking and on this account do not require masticating
to break them up, the first process of digestion or
insalivation is usually overlooked. But it must
be remembered that grains are largely composed of
starch, and that starch must be mixed with the saliva,
or it will remain undigested in the stomach, since
the gastric juice only digests the nitrogenous elements.
For this reason it is desirable to eat the grains
in connection with some hard food. Whole-wheat
wafers, nicely toasted to make them crisp and tender,
toasted rolls, and unfermented zwieback, are excellent
for this purpose. Break two or three wafers into
rather small pieces over each individual dish before
pouring on the cream. In this way, a morsel of
the hard food may be taken with each spoonful of the
grains. The combination of foods thus secured,
is most pleasing. This is a specially advantageous
method of serving grains for children, who are so
liable to swallow their food without proper mastication.

COOKING OF GRAINS.—­All grains, with the
exception of rice, and the various grain meals, require
prolonged cooking with gentle and continuous heat,
in order to so disintegrate their tissues and change
their starch into dextrine as to render them easy of
digestion. Even the so-called “steam-cooked”
grains, advertised to be ready for use in five or
ten minutes, require a much longer cooking to properly
fit them for digestion. These so-called quickly
prepared grains are simply steamed before grinding,
which has the effect to destroy any low organisms
contained in the grain. They are then crushed
and shredded. Bicarbonate of soda and lime is
added to help dissolve the albuminoids, and sometimes
diastase to aid the conversion of the starch into sugar;
but there is nothing in this preparatory process that
so alters the chemical nature of the grain as to make
it possible to cook it ready for easy digestion in
five or ten minutes. An insufficiently cooked
grain, although it may be palatable, is not in a condition
to be readily acted upon by the digestive fluids,
and is in consequence left undigested to act as a
mechanical irritant.

[Illustration: A Double Boiler.]

For the proper cooking of grains the double boiler
is the best and most convenient utensil for ordinary
purposes. If one does not possess a double boiler,
a very fair substitute may be improvised by using a
covered earthen crock placed within a kettle of boiling
water, or by using two pails, a smaller within a larger
one containing boiling water.

Page 58

A closed steamer or steam-cooker is also valuable
for the cooking of grains. Grains may be cooked
in an ordinary kettle, but the difficulties to be
encountered, in order to prolong the cooking sufficiently
and prevent burning, make it the least desirable utensil
for this purpose.

Water is the liquid usually employed for cooking grains,
but many of them are richer and finer flavored when
milk is mixed with the water,—­one part
to two of water. Especially is this true of rice,
hominy, and farina. When water is used, soft water
is preferable to hard. No salt is necessary,
but if used at all, it is generally added to the water
before stirring in the grain or meal.

The quantity of liquid required varies with the different
grains, the manner in which they are milled, the method
by which they are cooked, and the consistency desired
for the cooked grain, more liquid being required for
a porridge than for a mush. The following table
gives the time necessary for cooking and the quantity
of liquid required for the various grains, with the
exception of rice, when cooked in a double boiler
or closed steamer, to produce a mush of ordinary consistency.
If an ordinary kettle is used for cooking the grains,
a larger quantity of water will be needed:—­

TABLE SHOWING PROPORTION OF GRAIN AND LIQUID REQUIRED, WITH APPROXIMATE
TIME, WHEN A DOUBLE BOILER IS USED.

1. Measure both liquid and grain accurately with
the same utensil, or with two of equal size.

2. Have the water boiling when the grain is introduced,
but do not allow it to boil for a long time previous,
until it is considerably evaporated, as that will
change the proportion of water and grain sufficiently
to alter the consistency of the mush when cooked.
Introduce the grain slowly, so as not to stop the
sinking to the bottom, and the whole becomes thickened.
If the grain is cooked in a double boiler, this first
boiling should be done with the inner dish directly

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over the fire, and when the grain has thickened or
become “set,” as it is termed, the dish
should at once be placed in the outer boiler, the water
in which should be boiling. It will then require
no further care during the entire cooking, safe to
keep the outer boiler filled and the water boiling.
If the grain is to be cooked in a steam-cooker, as
soon as set it may be turned into a china or an earthen
dish, suitable for use on the table, and placed at
once in the steamer to complete the cooking. If
an ordinary kettle is used, it is well to place it
upon an iron ring or brick on some part of the range
were it will just simmer, for the remainder of the
cooking.

3. Stir the grain continuously until it has set,
but not at all afterward. Grains are much more
appetizing if, while properly softened, they can still
be made to retain their original form. Stirring
renders the preparation pasty, and destroys its appearance.
Grains cooked in a double boiler will require no stirring,
and there will be little danger of their being lumpy,
underdone on top, and scorched at the bottom, as is
so often the case when cooked in a single boiler.

4. Cook continuously. If it be necessary
to replenish the water in the outer boiler at anytime,
let it be done with water of boiling temperature.
If it is desired to have the mush quite thick and dry,
the boiler should be left uncovered during the latter
part of the cooking. If preferred moist, keep
the cover on.

In the preparation of all mushes with meal or flour,
it is a good plan to make the material into a batter
with a portion of the liquid retained from the quantity
given, before introducing it into the boiling water.
This prevents the tendency to cook in lumps, so frequent
when dry meal is scattered into boiling liquid.
Care must be taken, however, to add the moistened
portion very slowly, stirring vigorously meantime,
so that the boiling will not be checked. Use
warm water for moistening. The other directions
given for the whole or broken grains are applicable
to the ground products.

GRAINS FOR BREAKFAST.—­Since hasty preparation
will not suffice for the grains, they cannot be conveniently
cooked in the morning in time for breakfast.
This difficulty may be obviated by cooking the day
previous, and reheating in the following way:—­

Place the grain, when sufficiently cooked, in the
refrigerator or in some place where it will cool quickly
(as slow cooling might cause fermentation), to remain
overnight. If cooked in a porcelain-lined or
granite-ware double boiler, it may be left undisturbed,
if uncovered. If cooked in tin or iron, turn
the grain into a large earthen or china dish.
To heat in the morning, fill the outer boiler with
boiling water, place the inner dish containing the
grain therein, and steam until thoroughly heated.
No stirring and no additional liquid will be necessary,
and if placed upon the stove when beginning the preparations
for breakfast, it will be ready for serving in good
season. If the grain has been kept in an earthen
dish, it may best be reheated by placing that inside
the steam cooker or an ordinary steamer over a kettle
of boiling water.

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Cracked wheat, pearl wheat, oatmeal, and other course
grain preparations to be reheated, require for cooking
a half cup of water in addition to the quantity given
in the table. For rolled wheat, rolled oats, rolled
rye, and other crushed grains, no more is needed.
Grains may be used for breakfast without reheating,
if served with hot milk or cream. If one has
an Aladdin oven, the problem of grains for breakfast
may be easily solved by cooking them all night, and
if started late in the evening, they may be thus cooked
over a single burner oil stove with the flame turned
low.

GRAINS AN ECONOMICAL FOOD.—­While grains
are pre-eminently among the most nutritious of foods,
they are also among the most economical, the average
price being from five to seven cents a pound, and even
less when purchased in bulk. If it be objected
that they require much fuel to secure the prolonged
cooking necessary, we would say that a few cents’
worth of oil a week and a small lamp stove will accomplish
the cooking in a most efficient manner. For a
hot-weather food there are few articles which give
greater satisfaction and require less time and labor
on the part of the housewife than grains, cooked by
the aid of a small lamp stove.

WHEAT.

DESCRIPTION.—­Wheat is the most important
of the grain foods. It is probably a native of
Southwestern Asia, though like most grains cultivated
from the earliest periods, its history is extremely
obscure.

Wheat is of two principal kinds, characterized as
soft and hard wheat, though there are hundreds of
named varieties of the grain. The distinction
between many of these is due to variation in the relative
proportions of starch and nitrogenous matter.
Some contain not more than eight per cent of nitrogenous
elements, while others contain eighteen or twenty
per cent, with a corresponding decrease in carbonaceous
elements. This difference depends upon the soil,
cultivation, season, climate, and other conditions
under which the grain is produced.

The structure of the wheat grain consists of an external
tegument of a hard, woody nature, so coherent that
it appears in the form of scales or bran when the
wheat is ground, and an inner portion, more soft and
friable, consisting of several cellular layers.
The layer nearest the outer husk contains vegetable
fibrin and fatty matter. The second layer is
largely composed of gluten cells; while the center
comprising the bulk of the grain, is chiefly made
up of starch granules with a small proportion of gluten.

The structure of a wheat kernel is well illustrated
in the are situated in different parts of the grain,
and not uniformly distributed throughout its structure.
The outer husk of the berry is composed wholly of
innutritious and indigestible matter, but the thin
layers which lie next this outer covering contain
the larger proportion of the nitrogenous elements
to be found in the entire kernel. The central
portion consists almost wholly of farinaceous matter.

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[Illustration: Sectional View of Wheat Kernel.]

Phosphates and other mineral matter are present to
some extent throughout the entire grain, but preponderates
in the external part. Here is also found a peculiar,
soluble, active principle called diastase, which possesses
the power of converting starch into sugar. The
dark color and marked flavor of Graham bread is undoubtedly
due to the influence of this element.

Until within a few years the unground grain was rarely
used as an article of food, but people are beginning
to appreciate its wholesomeness, and cracked, rolled,
and pearled wheats are coming rapidly into favor.
Cracked wheat is the grain cleaned and then cut into
two or more pieces; in rolled wheat the grains are
mashed between rollers, by which process they are
thoroughly softened in every part, and are then easily
cooked. Pearl wheat is the whole grain cleaned
and dressed. The whole grain is also cooked sometimes
in its natural state.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Few articles of
food show greater difference between good and poor
cooking than the various grains. Dry, harsh,
or underdone, they are as unwholesome as unpalatable.
Like most of the grains, wheat, with the exception
of new wheat boiled whole, should be put into boiling
water and allowed to cook continuously but slowly
until done. Any of the unground preparations require
prolonged cooking. The average length of time
and the approximate amount of water needed in cooking
one cupful of the various wheat preparations
in a double boiler is stated on page 82.

RECIPES.

PEARL WHEAT.—­Heat a quart of water to boiling
in the inner dish of a double boiler, and stir into
it one cup or one-half pint of pearl wheat. Let
it boil rapidly until thickened and the wheat has ceased
settling, then place in the outer boiler, in which
the water should be boiling, and cook continuously
from three to four hours.

CRACKED WHEAT.—­Cracked wheat may be cooked
in the same manner as pearl wheat, by using four and
one-half parts of water to one of grain. The
length of time required to cook it thoroughly is about
the same as for pearl wheat.

ROLLED WHEAT.—­This preparation of wheat
requires only three parts water to one of wheat.
It should be cooked in the same way as pearled wheat,
but requires only three hours’ cooking.

BOILED WHEAT (sometimes called frumenty).—­Select
newly-cut wheat, well rubbed or threshed out.
Look it over carefully, wash, and put to cook in five
times its measure of cold water. Let it come to
a boil, and cook gently until the grains burst open,
and it can be readily mashed between the thumb and
finger. This will require from four to ten hours,
depending upon the age and variety of the wheat used.
When done, it should be even full of a rich, thick
liquor. If necessary, add more boiling water,
but stir as little as possible. It may be served
with cream, the same as other wheat preparations.
It is also excellent served with lemon and other fruit
sauces.

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WHEAT WITH RAISINS.—­Raisins or Zante currants
may be added to any of the foregoing recipes, if desired.
The raisins or currants should be well steamed previously,
however, and stirred in lightly and evenly just before
dishing. If cooked with the grain, they become
soft, broken, and insipid. Figs, well steamed
and chopped, may be added in the same way.

WHEAT WITH FRESH FRUIT.—­Fresh whortleberries,
blueberries, and blackberries stirred into any of
the well-cooked wheat preparations just before serving,
make a very desirable addition. A most delicious
dish may be prepared by stirring into well-cooked
cracked wheat a few spoonfuls of rather thick cream
and some fresh wild blackberries. Serve hot.

MOLDED WHEAT.—­Cracked wheat, rolled wheat,
or pearl wheat, cooked according to the foregoing
recipes, and turned into molds until cold, makes a
very palatable dessert, and may be served with sugar
and cream or with fruit juice. Bits of jelly
placed on top of the molds in the form of stars or
crosses, add to the appearance. Molded grains
are also very nice served with fresh berries, either
mashed or whole, arranged around the mold.

FINER MILL PRODUCTS OF WHEAT.

The grain of wheat is inclosed in a woody envelope.
The cellular layers just beneath contain the largest
proportion of nitrogenous matter, in the form of gluten,
and are hard of pulverization, while the starchy heart
of the grain is easily crumbled into fine dust.
Thus it will be readily understood that when the grain
is subjected to an equal pulverizing force, the several
portions will be likely to be crushed into particles
of different sizes. The outer husk being toughest,
will be the least affected, the nitrogenous or glutenous
portion will be much finer, while the brittle starch
will be reduced to powder. This first simple
product of grinding is termed wheat meal, unbolted,
or Graham flour, and of course contains all the elements
of the grain. In ordinary milling, however, this
is subjected to various siftings, boltings, or dressings,
to separate the finer from the coarser particles, and
then subdivided into various grades of flour, which
vary much in composition and properties. The
coarser product contains the largest proportion of
nutrients, while in the finer portions there is an
exclusion of a large part of the nitrogenous element
of the grain. The outer portions of the wheat
kernel, which contain the greater part of the nitrogenous
element, are darker in color than the central, starchy
portion. It will be apparent, then, that the
finer and whiter the flour, the less nutriment it
is likely to contain, and that in the use of superfine
white flour the eye is gratified at the expense of
the body.

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A preparation called farina, is made from the central
portion of wheat, freed from bran, and crushed into
granules. Another preparation, called Graham
grits, is prepared by granulating the outer layers
of the kernel together with the germ of the wheat.
This preparation, comparatively a new one, includes
the most nutritious properties of the grain, and its
granular form renders it excellent for mushes as well
as for other purposes. Farina is scarcely more
nutritious than white flour, and should not be used
as a staple food. Graham grits contains the best
elements of the wheat grain in good proportion, and
is one of the best preparations of wheat. Other
preparations of wheat somewhat similar in character
are farinose, germlet, etc.

RECIPES.

FARINA.—­Heat a pint of milk and one of
water, or if preferred, a quart of milk, in the inner
cup of a double boiler; and when boiling, stir in
five tablespoonfuls of farina, moistened evenly with
a little milk. Let it boil rapidly until well
set, which will be in about five or eight minutes;
then place in the outer boiler, and cook one hour.
Serve cold or hot with a dressing of cream or fruit
juices. Farina may be cooked in water alone,
but on account of its lack of nutritive elements,
it is more valuable if prepared with milk.

FARINA WITH FIG SAUCE.—­Cook the farina
as in the foregoing recipe, and serve hot with a fig
sauce prepared as follows:—­

Carefully look over, washed, and chop or cut quite
finally, enough good figs to make a cupful. Stew
in a pint of water, to which has been added a tablespoonful
of sugar, until they are one homogeneous mass.
If the figs are not of the best quality and do not
readily soften, it is well, after stewing for a time,
to rub them through a colander or vegetable press
to break up the tough portions and make a smooth sauce.
Put a spoonful of the hot fig sauce on each individual
dish of farina, and serve with cream or without dressing.

FARINA WITH FRESH FRUIT.—­Cook the farina
as previously directed. Have some sliced yellow
peaches, mellow sweet apples, or bananas in a dish,
turn the farina over them, stir up lightly with a fork,
and serve hot with cream.

MOLDED FARINA.—­Farina to be used cold may
be cooked in the same manner as before described,
with two or three tablespoonfuls of sugar added at
the same time with the farina, and when done, molded
in cups previously wet with a little cold water.
Serve with a dressing of fruit juice, whipped cream
flavored with lemon, or mock cream flavored with cocoanut.

GRAHAM GRITS.—­To four parts of water boiling
in the inner dish of a double boiler add slowly, so
as not to stop the boiling of the water, one part
of Graham grits. Stir until thickened, then place
in the outer boiler, and steam from three to five
hours. Serve hot with cream, or mold in cups
previously dipped in cold water, and serve with a dressing
of fruit juice. The fig sauce prepared as previously
directed, is also excellent with Graham grits.

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GRAHAM MUSH NO. 1.—­Good flour is the first
requisite for making good Graham mush. Poor Graham
flour cannot be made into first-class mush. Flour
made from the best white winter wheat is perhaps the
best. It may be used either sifted or unsifted,
as preferred. The proportion of flour and liquid
to be used will necessarily vary somewhat with the
quality of the flour, but in general, three parts water
to one of flour will be needed. Too much flour
not only makes the mush too thick, but gives it an
underdone taste. Stir the dried flour rapidly
into boiling water, (which should not cease to boil
during the process), until a thick porridge is obtained.
It is well to have it a little thinner at first than
is desirable for serving, as it will thicken by cooking.
Cook slowly at least one hour. A longer time
makes it more digestible.

Left-over Graham mush is nice spread on rather shallow
tins, and simply heated quickly in a hot oven.

GRAHAM MUSH NO. 2.—­Moisten one pint of
good Graham flour with a pint of warm water, or enough
to make a batter thin enough to pour. (The quantity
of water needed will vary a little with the fineness
and quality of the flour.) Pour this batter into a
quart of water boiling in the inner cup of a double
boiler. Remember to add the batter sufficiently
slow, so as not to stop the boiling of the water.
When thickened, put into the outer boiler, and cook
for one hour.

GRAHAM MUSH NO. 3.—­Prepare in the same
way as above, using milk or part milk in the place
of water. Left-over Graham mush at breakfast,
which has been prepared with water, is very nice if,
while it is still warm, a small quantity of hot milk
is well stirred into it, and it is then set by to
be reheated in a double boiler for dinner.

GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.—­Prepare a mush
as for Graham mush No. 2. When done, place in
the dish in which the mush is to be served, some nice,
fresh dates from which the stones have been removed.
Pour the mush over them, and stir up lightly, taking
care not to break the fruit, and serve. Raisins
previously steamed, or figs steamed and cut into pieces,
may be used instead of dates. Serve hot with cream,
or mold, and serve cold.

PLUM PORRIDGE.—­Prepare a Graham mush as
previously directed, and when done, add to it a cup
of well-steamed raisins and sufficient rich milk to
thin it to the consistency of porridge.

GRAHAM APPLE MUSH.—­Prepare a smooth apple
sauce of rather tart apples. Sweeten it slightly,
and thin with boiling water. Have this mixture
boiling, and add to it Graham flour, either sprinkled
in dry or moistened with water, sufficient to make
a well-thickened mush. Cook, and serve hot with
cream.

GRANOLA MUSH.—­Granola, a cooked preparation
of wheat and oats, manufactured by the Sanatarium
Food Co., makes a most appetizing and quickly prepared
breakfast dish. Into a quart of boiling water
sprinkle a pint of granola. Cook for two or three
minutes, and serve hot with cream.

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GRANOLA FRUIT MUSH.—­Prepare the mush as
directed, and stir into it, when done, a large cupful
of nicely-steamed, seedless raisins. Serve hot
with cream. Milk may be used instead of water,
if preferred.

GRANOLA PEACH MUSH.—­Instead of the raisins
as directed in the foregoing recipe, add to the mush,
when done, a pint of sliced yellow peaches. Finely-cut,
mellow sweet apples, sliced bananas, and blueberries
may be used in a similar way.

BRAN JELLY.—­Select some clean wheat bran,
sprinkle it slowly into boiling water as for Graham
mush, stirring briskly meanwhile with a wooden spoon,
until the whole is about the consistency of thick gruel.
Cook slowly in a double boiler for two hours.
Strain through a fine wire sieve placed over the top
of a basin. When strained, reheat to boiling.
Then stir into it a spoonful or so of sifted Graham
flour, rubbed smooth in a little cold water.
Boil up once; turn into molds previously wet in cold
water, and when cool, serve with cream or fruit juice.

THE OAT, OR AVENA.

DESCRIPTION.—­The native country of the
plant from which our common varieties of the oat are
derived, is unknown. Oat grains have been found
among the remains of the lake-dwellers in Switzerland,
and it is probable that this plant was cultivated
by the prehistoric inhabitants of Central Europe.

The ancient Greeks and Romans used oats, ranking them
next in value to barley, which they esteemed above
all other cereals. Although principally grown
as food for horses, the oat, when divested of its husk
and broken by a process of milling, is an exceedingly
nutritious and valuable article of diet for human
beings; and there is no article of food that has increased
in general favor more rapidly in the last few years
than this grain.

The Scotch have long been famed for their large consumption
of oatmeal. It forms the staple article of diet
for the peasantry, to which fact is generally attributed
the fine physique and uniform health for which they,
as a race, are particularly noted. It is related
that Dr. Johnson, of dictionary fame, who never lost
an opportunity to disparage the Scotch, on one occasion
defined oats as, “In Scotland, food for men;
in England, food for horses.” He was well
answered by an indignant Scotchman who replied, “Yes;
and where can you find such fine men as in Scotland,
or such horses as in England?”

Oatmeal justly ranks high as an alimentary substance.
It contains about the same proportion of nitrogenous
elements as wheat, and with the exception of maize,
is richer in fatty matter than any other of the cultivated
cereals. In general structure the oat resembles
wheat.

Page 66

To prepare oats for food, the husk, which is wholly
indigestible in character, must be thoroughly removed.
To accomplish this, the grain is first kiln-dried
to loosen the husk, and afterward submitted to a process
of milling. Denuded of its integument, the nutritive
part of the grain is termed groats; broken into finer
particles, it constitutes what is known as oatmeal;
rolled oats, or avena, is prepared by a process which
crushes the kernels. Oatmeal varies also in degrees
of trituration, some kinds being ground much finer
than others. The more finely-ground products
are sometimes adulterated with barley meal, which
is cheaper than oatmeal and less nutritious. The
black specks which are sometimes found in oatmeal
are particles of black oats which have been ground
in connection with the other.

Oatmeal lacks the tenacity of wheaten flour, and cannot,
without the addition of some other flour, be made
into light bread. It is, however, largely consumed
by the inhabitants of Scotland and the north of England,
in the form of oatcakes. The oatmeal is mixed
with water, kneaded thoroughly, then rolled into very
thin cakes, and baked on an iron plate or griddle
suspended over a fire. So much, however, depends
upon the kneading, that it is said that the common
inquiry before the engagement of a domestic servant
in Scotland, is whether or not she is a good kneader
of oatcakes.

The most common use of oatmeal in this country is
in the form of mush or porridge. For this the
coarser grades of meal are preferable. For people
in health, there is no more wholesome article of diet
than oatmeal cooked in this way and eaten with milk.
For growing children, it is one of the best of foods,
containing, as it does, a large proportion of bone
and muscle-forming material, while to almost all persons
who have become accustomed to its use, it is extremely
palatable. The time required for its digestion
is somewhat longer than that of wheaten meal prepared
in the same manner. It is apt to disagree with
certain classes of dyspeptics, having a tendency to
produce acidity, though it is serviceable as an article
of diet in some forms of indigestion. The manner
of its preparation for the table has very much to do
with its wholesomeness. Indeed, many objectionable
dishes are prepared from it. One of these, called
brose, much used in Scotland, is made by simply
stirring oatmeal into some hot liquid, as beef broth,
or the water in which a vegetable has been boiled.
The result is a coarse, pasty mass of almost raw oatmeal,
an extremely indigestible compound, the use of which
causes water brash. A preparation called sowens,
or flummery, made by macerating the husks of the oats
in water from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, until
the mixture ferments, then boiling down to the consistency
of gruel, is a popular article of food among the Scotch
and Welsh peasantry. When boiled down still more,
so it will form a firm jelly when cold, the preparation
is called budrum.

Page 67

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Oatmeal requires
much cooking in order to break its starch cells; and
the coarser the meal, the longer it should be allowed
to cook. A common fault in the use of oatmeal
is that it is served in an underdone state, which
makes a coarse, indigestible dish of what, with more
lengthy preparation, would be an agreeable and nutritious
food. Like most of the grains, it is best put
into boiling soft water, and allowed to cook continuously
and slowly. It is greatly injured by stirring,
and it is therefore preferably cooked in a double
boiler or closed steamer. If it is necessary to
use an ordinary kettle, place it on some part of the
range where the contents will only simmer; or a hot
brick may be placed under it to keep it from cooking
too fast. It may be cooked the day previous,
and warmed for use the same as other grains.

RECIPES.

OATMEAL MUSH.—­Heat a quart of water to
boiling in the inner dish of a double boiler, sift
into it one cup of coarse oatmeal, and boil rapidly,
stirring continuously until it sets; then place in
the outer boiler, the water in which should be boiling,
and cook three hours or longer. Serve with cream.

OATMEAL FRUIT MUSH.—­Prepare the oatmeal
as directed above, and stir in lightly, when dishing
for the table, some sliced mellow and juicy raw sweet
apples. Strawberry apples and other slightly tart
apples are likewise excellent for the purpose.
Well-ripened peaches and bananas may also be used,
if care is taken to preserve the slices whole, so as
to present an appetizing appearance. Both this
and the plain oatmeal mush are best eaten with toasted
whole-wheat wafers or some other hard food.

OATMEAL BLANCMANGE NO. 1.—­Soak a cupful
of coarse oatmeal over night in a pint and a half
of water. In the morning, beat the oatmeal well
with a spoon, and afterwards pass all the soluble portion
through a fine strainer. Place the liquid in
the inner dish of a double boiler, and cook for half
an hour. Turn into cups, cool fifteen or twenty
minutes, and serve warm with cream and sugar, or a
dressing of fruit juice. A lemon sauce prepared
as directed on page 354 likewise makes an excellent
dressing.

OATMEAL BLANCMANGE NO. 2.—­Take a pint of
well-cooked oatmeal, add to it a pint of milk, part
cream if obtainable. Beat well together, and
strain through a fine wire sieve. Turn the liquid
into a saucepan, and boil for a few moments, until
it is thick enough to drop from the point of a spoon;
then turn into cups previously wet in cold water, and
mold. Serve with a dressing of fruit juice or
whipped cream slightly sweetened and flavored with
lemon.

JELLIED OATMEAL.—­Cook oatmeal or rolled
oats with an additional cup or cup and a half of water,
and when done, turned into cups and mold. Serve
cold with hot cream.

MIXED MUSH.—­A cup and a half of rolled
wheat, mixed with one-half cup of coarse oatmeal,
and cooked the same as oatmeal, forms a mush preferred
by some to oatmeal alone.

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ROLLED OATS.—­This preparation of oats should
be cooked the same as oatmeal, but requires only three
parts water to one of rolled oats, when cooked in
a double boiler.

OATMEAL WITH APPLE.—­Cold oatmeal which
has been left over may be made into an appetising
dish by molding in alternate layers with nicely-steamed
tart apple, sprinkled lightly with sugar. Serve
with cream. Other cooked fruit, such as cherries,
evaporated peaches, and apricots may be used in the
same way. A very pleasing dish is made by using
between the layers ripe yellow peaches and plums sliced
together, and lightly sprinkled with sugar.

OATMEAL PORRIDGE.—­Into a quart and a half
of water, which should be boiling in the inner dish
of a double boiler, sprinkle one cup of rather coarse
oatmeal. Boil rapidly, stirring meanwhile until
the grain is set; then place in the outer boiler,
and cook continuously for three hours or longer.
A half cup of cream added just before serving, is a
desirable addition.

BARLEY.

DESCRIPTION.—­Barley is stated by historians
to be the oldest of all cultivated grains. It
seems to have been the principal bread plant among
the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. The Jews
especially held the grain in high esteem, and sacred
history usually uses it interchangeably with wheat,
when speaking of the fruits of the Earth.

Among the early Greeks and Romans, barley was almost
the only food of the common people and the soldiers.
The flour was made into gruel, after the following
recipe: “Dry, near the fire or in the oven,
twenty pounds of barley flour, then parch it.
Add three pounds of linseed meal, half a pound of
coriander seeds, two ounces of salt, and the water
necessary.” If an especially delectable
dish was desired, a little millet was also added to
give the paste more “cohesion and delicacy.”
Barley was also used whole as a food, in which case
it was first parched, which is still the manner of
preparing it in some parts of Palestine and many districts
of India, also in the Canary Islands, where it is known
as gofio. Of this custom a lady from Palestine
writes: “The reapers, during barley harvest,
take bunches of the half-ripe grain, and singe, or
parch, it over a fire of thorns. The milk being
still in the grain, it is very sweet, and is considered
a delicacy.”

In the time of Charles I, barley meal took the place
of wheat almost entirely as the food of the common
people in England. In some parts of Europe, India,
and other Eastern countries, it is still largely consumed
as the ordinary farinaceous food of the peasantry and
soldiers. The early settlers of New England also
largely used it for bread making. At the present
day only a very insignificant quantity of barley is
used for food purposes in this country, and most of
this in the unground state.

Barley is less nutritious than wheat, and to many
people is less agreeable in flavor. It is likewise
somewhat inferior in point of digestibility.
Its starch cells being less soluble, they offer more
resistance to the gastric juice.

Page 69

There are several distinct species of barley, but
that most commonly cultivated is designated as two-rowed,
or two-eared barley. In general structure, the
barley grain resembles wheat and oats.

Simply deprived of its outer husk, the grain is termed
Scotch milled or pot barley. Subjected
still further to the process by which the fibrous
outer coat of the grain is removed, it constitutes
what is known as pearl barley. Pearl barley
ground into flour is known as patent barley.
Barley flour, owing to the fact that it contains so
small a proportion of gluten, needs to be mixed with
wheaten flour for bread-making purposes. When
added in small quantity to whole-wheat bread, it has
a tendency to keep the loaf moist, and is thought by
some to improve the flavor.

The most general use made of this cereal as a food,
is in the form of pearl, or Scotch, barley. When
well boiled, barley requires about two hours for digestion.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING BARLEY.—­The
conditions requisite for cooking barley are essentially
the same as for oatmeal. It is best cooked slowly.
Four parts of water to one of grain will be needed
for steaming or cooking in a double boiler, and from
four to five hours’ time will be required, unless
the grain has been previously soaked for several hours,
in which case three hours will do. If the strong
flavor of the grain is objected to, it may be soaked
over night and cooked in fresh water. This method
will, however, be a sacrifice of some of the nutriment
contained in the grain. Barley thus soaked will
require only three parts water to one of barley for
cooking.

RECIPES.

BAKED BARLEY.—­Soak six tablespoonfuls of
barley in cold water over night. In the morning,
turn off the water, and put the barley in an earthen
pudding dish, and pour three and one half pints of
boiling water over it; add salt if desired, and bake
in a moderately quick oven about two and one half
hours, or till perfectly soft, and all the water is
absorbed. When about half done, add four or five
tablespoonfuls of sugar mixed with grated lemon peel.
It may be eaten warm, but is very nice molded in cups
and served cold with cream.

PEARL BARLEY WITH RAISINS.—­Carefully look
over and wash a cupful of pearl barley. Cook
in a double boiler in five cups of boiling water for
four hours. Just before serving, add a cupful
of raisins which have been prepared by pouring boiling
water over them and allowing them to stand until swollen.
Serve hot, with cream.

PEARL BARLEY WITH LEMON SAUCE.—­Pearl barley
cooked in the same manner, but without the addition
of the raisins, is excellent served with cream or
with a lemon sauce prepared as directed on page 354.

RICE.

DESCRIPTION.—­Rice is one of the most abundantly
used and most digestible of all the cereals.
It grows wild in India, and it is probable that this
is its native home. It is, however, now cultivated
in most tropical and sub-tropical climates, and is
said to supply the principal food for nearly one third
of the human race. It is mentioned in history
several hundred years before Christ. According
to Soyer, an old writer on foods, the Greeks and Romans
held rice in high esteem, believing it to be a panacea
for chest and lung diseases.

Page 70

The grain is so largely grown and used by the Chinese
that “fan,” their word for rice, has come
to enter into many compound words. A beggar is
called a “tou-fan-tee,” that is, “the
rice-seeking one.” The ordinary salutation,
“Che-fan,” which answers to our “How
do you do?” means, “Have you eaten your
rice?”

Rice requires a wet soil, and the fields in which
the grain is raised, sometimes called “paddy”
fields, are periodically irrigated. Before ripening,
the water is drained off, and the crop is then cut
with a sickle, made into shocks, stacked, threshed,
and cleaned, much like wheat. The rice kernel
is inclosed within two coverings, a course outer husk,
which is easily removed, and an inner, reddish, siliceous
coating.

“Paddy” is the name given in India to
the rice grain when inclosed in its husk. The
same is termed “rough rice” in this country.
The outer husk of the rice is usually removed in the
process of threshing, but the inner red skin, or hull,
adheres very closely, and is removed by rubbing and
pounding. The rough rice is first ground between
large stones, and then conveyed into mortars, and
pounded with iron-shod pestles. Thence, by fanning
and screening, the husk is fully removed, and the grain
divided into three different grades, whole, middlings,
and small whole grains, and polished ready for market.
The middlings consist of the larger broken pieces
of the grain; the small rice, of the small fragments
mixed with the chit of the grain. The broken rice,
well dried, is sometimes ground into flour of different
degrees of fineness. The small rice is much sweeter
and somewhat superior in point of nutritive value
to the large or head rice usually met with in commerce.

Rice is characterized by a large percentage of starch,
and is so deficient in other food elements that if
used alone, unless consumed in very large quantities,
it will not furnish the requisite amount of nitrogenous
material necessary for a perfect health food.
For this reason, it is necessary to supplement its
use with some other food containing an excess of nitrogenous
elements, as peas, beans, milk, etc. Associated
with other articles rich in albuminous elements, rice
is exceedingly valuable, and one of the most easily
digested foods. Boiled or steamed rice requires
but a little over one hour for digestion.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Rice needs to
be thoroughly washed to remove the earthy taste it
is so apt to have. A good way to do this is to
put it into a colander, in a deep pan of water.
Rub the rice well with the hands, lifting the colander
in and out the water, and changing the water until
it is clear; then drain. In this way the grit
is deposited in the water, and the rice left thoroughly
clean.

The best method of cooking rice is by steaming it.
If boiled in much water, it loses a portion of its
already small percentage of nitrogenous elements.
It requires much less time for cooking than any of
the other grains. Like all the dried grains and
seeds, rice swells in cooking to several times its
original bulk. When cooked, each grain of rice
should be separate and distinct, yet perfectly tender.

Page 71

RECIPES.

STEAMED RICE.—­Soak a cup of rice in one
and a fourth cups of water for an hour, then add a
cup of milk, turn into an earthen dish suitable for
serving it from at table, and place in a steam-cooker
or a covered steamer over a kettle of boiling water,
and steam for an hour. It should be stirred with
a fork occasionally, for the first ten or fifteen
minutes.

BOILED RICE (Japanese method).—­Thoroughly
cleanse the rice by washing in several waters, and
soak it overnight. In the morning, drain it,
and put to cook in an equal quantity of boiling water,
that is, a pint of water for a pint of rice.
For cooking, a stewpan with tightly fitting cover
should be used. Heat the water to boiling, then
add the rice, and after stirring, put on the cover,
which is not again to be removed during the boiling.
At first, as the water boils, steam will puff out
freely from under the cover, but when the water has
nearly evaporated, which will be in eight to ten minutes,
according to the age and quality of the rice, only
a faint suggestion of steam will be observed, and
the stewpan must then be removed from over the fire
to some place on the range, where it will not burn,
to swell and dry for fifteen or twenty minutes.

Rice to be boiled in the ordinary manner requires
two quarts of boiling water to one cupful of rice.
It should be boiled rapidly until tender, then drained
at once, and set in a moderate oven to become dry.
Picking and lifting lightly occasionally with a fork
will make it more flaky and dry. Care must be
taken, however, not to mash the rice grains.

RICE WITH FIG SAUCE.—­Steam a cupful of
best rice as directed above, and when done, serve
with a fig sauce prepared as directed on page 89.
Dish a spoonful of the fig sauce with each saucer of
rice, and serve with plenty of cream. Rice served
in this way requires no sugar for dressing, and is
a most wholesome breakfast dish.

ORANGE RICE.—­Wash and steam the rice according
to directions already given. Prepare some oranges
by separating into sections and cutting each section
in halves, removing the seeds and all the white portion.
Sprinkle the oranges lightly with sugar, and let them
stand while the rice is cooking. Serve a portion
of the orange on each saucerful of rice.

RICE WITH RAISINS.—­Carefully wash a cupful
of rice, soak it, and cook as directed for Steamed
Rice. After the rice has began to swell, but
before it has softened, stir into it lightly, using
a fork for the purpose, a cupful of raisins, or Zante
currents. Serve with cream.

RICE WITH PEACHES.—­Steam the rice as previously
directed, and when done, serve with cream and a nicely
ripened peach pared and sliced on each individual
dish.

Page 72

BROWNED RICE.—­Spread a cupful of rice on
a shallow baking tin, and put into a moderately hot
oven to brown. It will need to be stirred frequently
to prevent burning and to secure a uniformity of color.
Each rice kernel, when sufficiently browned, should
be of a yellowish brown, about the color of ripened
wheat. Steam the same as directed for ordinary
rice, using only two cups of water for each cup of
browned rice, and omitting the preliminary soaking.
When properly cooked, each kernel will be separated,
dry, and mealy. Rice prepared in this manner
is undoubtedly more digestible than when cooked without
browning.

RYE.

DESCRIPTION.—­Rye is much more largely grown
and used in European countries that in America.
In appearance it closely resembles wheat, although
somewhat darker in color and smaller in size.
Bread made from rye constitutes the staple food of
the people in many parts of Europe. In nutritive
value such bread nearly equals that made from wheat,
but it has an acid taste not relished by persons unaccustomed
to its use.

Rye is found in market deprived of its husk and crushed
or rolled, and also in the form of meal and flour.

RECIPES.

ROLLED RYE.—­Into three parts water boiling
in the inner dish of a double boiler, stir one part
rolled rye. Boil rapidly until set, stirring
meanwhile, then place in the outer boiler, and cook
for three or more hours.

RYE MUSH.—­Stir a cupful of rye meal to
a smooth batter with a cupful of water, then turn
it slowly into three cupfuls of water, which should
be boiling on the range, in the inner dish of a double
boiler. Stir until thickened, then place in the
outer boiler, and cook for an hour or longer.

MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN.

DESCRIPTION.—­There can be little doubt
that maize is of American origin. The discoverers
of the new world found it cultivated by the aborigines,
and from the fact that corn was the generic term then
largely used to designate grain (in old English, “corn”
means grain), they named it “Indian corn.”
Since that time it has been carried to nearly every
part of the globe, and probably it is more extensively
used than any other one of the cereals, with the exception
of rice. This is undoubtedly due to the fact
that it is the most prolific of the grains, and is
adapted to the widest range of climate.

Maize was the chief food of the slaves of Brazil,
as it used to be of those in our own Southern States,
and is very largely consumed in Mexico and Peru.
It was used very little in Europe until the Irish famine
in 1847; since then, it has become a staple food with
the poorer classes.

The varieties of corn are almost too numerous to be
counted. For general purposes, however, they
may be classified as field corn, sweet corn, and pop
corn.

Corn is characterized by an excess of fatty matter,
containing upwards of three times the amount of that
element to be found in wheat. Corn requires stronger
powers of digestion than wheat, and is unsuited to
some stomachs.

Page 73

The skin of the corn kernel is thin, and when subjected
to milling processes, is included in the grinding.
When well ground, it can be digested, with the exception
of the siliceous coating.

Sweet corn and some of the field varieties, form a
nutritious and favorite food while green. The
mature grain is used in many forms. The whole
grain, hulled, is an agreeable food. Hulled, broken,
or split to various degrees of fineness, it is known
according to the size to which the grain has been
reduced as hominy, fine hominy, or grits; or, if finer
still, as samp. Subjected to a process of still
finer trituration, it forms meal. Cornstarch
consists of the farinaceous portions of the grain.

On account of the large proportion of fatty matter
contained in maize, it acquires, if kept for some
time and unpleasant, rancid taste, occasioned by the
usual change which takes place in fat when exposed
to the atmosphere.

The new process granular meal, which is prepared from
corn dried for a long period before grinding, becomes
rank less quickly than that ground in the old way.

Maize meal is very largely consumed in the form of
mush or porridge. This, in Ireland, is termed
“stirabout;” in Italy it is called “polenta;”
and in British Honduras it is known as “corn
lob.”

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING.—­Most of
the various preparations from maize require prolonged
cooking to render them wholesome; this is equally
true respecting mushes prepared from samp or meal,
a dish which unfortunately some cook in bygone days
saw fit to term “hasty pudding.”
Unthinking people since, supposing it to have been
so named because of the little time required to cook
it, have commonly prepared it in fifteen or twenty
minutes, whereas from one to two hours, or even longer,
are necessary to cook it properly. Hulled corn,
hominy, and grits, all require prolonged cooking.
The time for cooking these preparations may be somewhat
lessened if they are previously soaked over night.
They should, however, be cooked in the same water in
which they are soaked.

RECIPES.

CORN MEAL MUSH.—­stir together one pint
of cornmeal, one tablespoonful of flour, and one pint
of cold milk. Turn this slowly, stirring well
meanwhile, into one quart of boiling water, which should
not cease to boil during the introduction of the batter.
Cook three or four hours. If milk is not obtainable,
water alone may be used, in which case two tablespoonfuls
of flour will be needed. Cook in a double boiler.

CORN MEAL MUSH WITH FRUIT.—­Mush prepared
in the above manner may have some well-steamed raisins
or chopped figs added to it just before serving.

CORN MEAL CUBES.—­Left-over corn meal mush
may be made into an appetizing dish by first slicing
into rather thick slices, then cutting into cubes
about one inch squares. Put the cubes into a tureen
and turn over them a quantity of hot milk or cream.
Cover the dish, let them stand until thoroughly heated
through, then serve.

Page 74

BROWNED MUSH.—­Slice cold corn meal mush
rather thin, brush each slice with thick, sweet cream,
and brown in a moderate oven until well heated through.

SAMP.—­Use one part of samp to four and
one half parts of boiling water. It is the best
plan to reserve enough of the water to moisten the
samp before adding it to the boiling water, as it is
much less likely to cook in lumps. Boil rapidly,
stirring continuously, until the mush has well set,
then slowly for from two to three hours.

CEREALINE FLAKES.—­Into one measure of boiling
liquid stir an equal measure of cerealine flakes,
and cook in a double boiler from one half to three
fourths of an hour.

HULLED CORN.—­To Hull the Corn.—­Put
enough wood ashes into a large kettle to half fill
it; then nearly fill with hot water, and boil ten
minutes. Drain off the water from the ashes, turn
it into a kettle, and pour in four quarts of clean,
shelled field corn, white varieties preferred.
Boil till the hulls rub off. Skim the corn out
of the lye water, and put it into a tub of fresh cold
water. To remove the hulls, scrub the corn well
with a new stiff brush broom kept for the purpose,
changing the water often. Put through half a dozen
or more waters, and then take the corn out by handfuls,
rubbing each well between the hands to loosen the
remaining hulls, and drop again into clear water.
Pick out all hulls. Cleanse the corn through
several more waters if it is to be dried and kept
before using. Well hulled corn is found in the
markets.

To Cook.—­If it is to be cooked at
once, it should be parboiled in clear water twice,
and then put into new water and cooked till tender.
It should be nearly or quite dry when done. It
may be served with milk or cream.

COARSE HOMINY.—­For coarse hominy use four
parts of water or milk and water to one of grain.
It is best steamed or cooked in a double boiler, though
it may be boiled in a kettle over a slow fire.
The only objection to this method is the need of frequent
stirring to prevent sticking, which breaks and mashes
the hominy. From four to five hours’ slow
cooking will be necessary, unless the grain has been
previously soaked; then about one hour less will be
required.

FINE HOMINY OR GRITS.—­This preparation
is cooked in the same manner as the foregoing, using
three and one half or four parts of water to one of
the grain. Four or five hours will be necessary
for cooking the unsoaked grits.

POPPED CORN.—­The small, translucent varieties
of maize known as “pop corn,” possessed
the property, when gently roasted, of bursting open,
or turning inside out, a process which is owing to
the following facts: Corn contains an excess
of fatty matter. By proper means this fat can
be separated from the grain, and it is then a thick,
pale oil. When oils are heated sufficiently in
a vessel closed from the air, they are turned into
gas, which occupies many times the bulk of the oil.
When pop corn is gradually heated, and made so hot
that the oil inside of the kernel turns to gas, being
unable to escape through the hull of the kernel, the
pressure finally becomes strong enough to burst the
grain, and the explosion is so violent as to shatter
it in a most curious manner.

Page 75

Popped corn forms an excellent food, the starch of
the grain being will cooked. It should, however,
be eaten in connection with other food at mealtime,
and not as a delicacy between meals. Ground pop
corn is considered a delectable dish eaten with milk
or cream; it also forms the base of several excellent
puddings.

To pop the corn, shell and place in a wire “popper”
over a bed of bright coals, or on the top of a hot
stove; stir or shake continuously, so that each kernel
may be subjected to the same degree of heat on all
sides, until it begins to burst open. If a popper
is not attainable, a common iron skillet covered tightly,
and very lightly oiled on the bottom, may be used
for the purpose. The corn must be very dry to
begin with, and if good, nearly every kernel will
pop open nicely. It should be used within twenty-four
hours after popping.

MACARONI.

DESCRIPTION.—­Macaroni is a product of wheat
prepared from a hard, clean, glutenous grain.
The grain is ground into a meal called semolina,
from which the bran is excluded. This is made
into a tasty dough by mixing with hot water in the
proportion of two thirds semolina to one third
water. The dough after being thoroughly mixed
is put into a shallow vat and kneaded and rolled by
machinery. When well rolled, it is made to assume
varying shapes by being forced by a powerful plunger
through the perforated head of strong steel or iron
cylinders arranged above a fire, so that the dough
is partially baked as it issues from the holes.
It is afterwards hung over rods or laid upon frames
covered with cloth, and dried. It is called by
different names according to its shape. If in
the shape of large, hollow cylinders, it is macaroni;
if smaller in diameter, it is spaghetti; if
fine, vermicelli; if the paste is cut into
fancy patterns, it is termed pasta d’Italia.

Macaroni was formerly made only in Italy, but at present
is manufactured to a considerable extent in the United
States. The product, however, is in general greatly
inferior to that imported from Italy, owing to the
difference in the character of the wheat from which
it is made, the Italian macaroni being produced from
a hard, semi-translucent wheat, rich in nitrogenous
elements, and which is only grown successfully in a
hot climate. Like all cereal foods, macaroni should
be kept in a perfectly dry storeroom.

TO SELECT MACARONI.—­Good macaroni will
keep in good condition for years. It is rough,
elastic, and hard; while the inferior article is smooth,
soft, breaks easily, becomes moldy with keeping.
Inferior macaroni contains a large percentage of starch,
and but a small amount of gluten. When put into
hot water, it assumes a white, pasty appearance, and
splits in cooking. Good macaroni when put into
hot water absorbs a portion of the water, swells to
nearly double its size, but perfectly retains its
shape. Inferior macaroni is usually sold a few
cents cheaper per pound than the genuine article.
It contains a much smaller amount of gluten.
The best quality of any shape one pleases can be bought
in most markets for ten or fifteen cents a pound.

Page 76

TO PREPARE AND COOK MACARONI.—­Do not wash
macaroni. If dusty, wipe with a clean, dry cloth.
Break into pieces of convenient size. Always
put to cook in boiling liquid, taking care to have
plenty of water in the saucepan (as it absorbs a large
quantity), and cook until tender. The length
of time required may vary from twenty minutes, if fresh,
to one hour if stale. When tender, turn into
a colander and drain, and pour cold water through
it to prevent the tubes from sticking together.
The fluid used for cooking may be water, milk, or
a mixture of both; also soup stock, tomato juice,
or any preferred liquid.

Macaroni serves as an important adjunct to the making
of various soups, and also forms the basis of other
palatable dishes.

RECIPES.

HOME-MADE MACARONI.—­To four cupfuls of
flour, add one egg well beaten, and enough water to
make a dough that can be rolled. Roll thin on
a breadboard and cut into strips. Dry in the sun.
The best arrangement for this purpose is a wooden
frame to which a square of cheese-cloth has been tightly
tacked, upon which the macaroni may be laid in such
a way as not to touch, and afterwards covered with
a cheese-cloth to keep off the dust during the drying.

BOILED MACARONI.—­Break sticks of macaroni
into pieces about an inch in length, sufficient to
fill a large cup; put it into boiling water and cook
until tender. When done, drained thoroughly, then
add a pint of milk, part cream if it can be afforded,
a little salt and one well-beaten egg; stir over the
fire until it thickens, and serve hot.

MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.—­Cook the macaroni
as directed in the proceeding, and serve with a cream
sauce prepared by heating a scant pint of rich milk
to boiling, in a double boiler. When boiling,
add a heaping tablespoonful of flour, rubbed smoothed
in a little milk and one fourth teaspoonful of salt.
If desired, the sauce may be flavored by steeping
in the milk before thickening for ten or fifteen minutes,
a slice of onion or a few bits of celery, and then
removing with a fork.

MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE.—­Break a dozen
sticks of macaroni into two-inch lengths, and drop
into boiling milk and water, equal parts. Let
it boil for an hour, or until perfectly tender.
In the meantime prepare the sauce by rubbing a pint
of stewed or canned tomatoes through a colander to
remove all seeds and fragments. Heat to boiling,
thicken with a little flour; a tablespoonful to the
pint will be about the requisite proportion.
Add salt and if desired, a half cup of very thin sweet
cream. Dish the macaroni into individual dishes,
and serve with a small quantity of the sauce poured
over each dish.

Page 77

MACARONI BAKED WITH GRANOLA.—­Break macaroni
into pieces about an inch in length sufficient to
fill a large cup, and cook until tender in boiling
milk and water. When done, drain and put a layer
of the macaroni in the bottom of an earthen pudding
dish, and sprinkle over it a scant teaspoonful of
granola. Add a second and third layer and sprinkle
each with granola; then turn over the whole a custard
sauce prepared by mixing together a pint of milk,
the well beaten yolks of two eggs or one whole egg,
and one-fourth of a teaspoonful of salt. Care
should be taken to arrange the macaroni in layers
loosely, so that the sauce will readily permeate the
whole. Bake for a few minutes only, until the
custard has well set, and serve.

EGGS AND MACARONI.—­Break fifteen whole
sticks of macaroni into two-inch lengths, and put
to cook in boiling water. While the macaroni
is cooking, boil the yolks of four eggs until mealy.
The whole egg may be used if caught so the yolks are
mealy in the whites simply jellied, not hardened.
When the macaroni is done, drain and put a layer of
it arranged loosely in the bottom of an earthen pudding
dish. Slice the cooked egg yolks and spread a
layer of them over the macaroni. Fill the dish
with alternate layers of macaroni and egg, taking care
to have the top layer of macaroni. Pour over
the whole a cream sauce prepared as follows:
Heat one and three fourths cup of rich milk to boiling,
add one fourth teaspoonful of salt and one heaping
spoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk.
Cook until thickened, then turn over the macaroni.
Sprinkle the top with grated bread crumbs, and brown
in a hot oven for eight or ten minutes. Serve
hot.

TABLE TOPICS.

ROBERT COLLYER once remarked; “One
great reason why I never had a really sick day
in my life was that as boy I lived on oatmeal and
milk and brown bread, potatoes and a bit of meat
when I could get it, and then oatmeal again.”

HOT-WEATHER DIET.—­The sultry
period of our summer, although comparatively slight
and of short duration, is nevertheless felt by some
people to be extremely oppressive, but this is mainly
due to the practice of eating much animal food
or fatty matters, conjoined as it often is with
the habit of drinking freely of fluids containing
more or less alcoholics. Living on cereals, vegetables,
and fruits, and abstaining from alcoholic drinks,
the same persons would probably enjoy the temperature,
and be free from the thirst which is the natural
result of consuming needlessly heating food.—­Sir
Henry Thompson.

Mistress (arranging
for dinner)—­“Didn’t the macaroni
come from
the grocer’s, Bridget?”

Page 78

Some years since, a great railroad corporation
in the West, having occasion to change the gauge
of its road throughout a distance of some five
hundred miles, employed a force of 3,000 workmen upon
the job, who worked from very early in the morning
until late at night. Alcoholic drinks were
strictly prohibited, but a thin gruel made of oatmeal
and water was kept on hand and freely partaken of by
the men to quench their thirst. The results
were admirable; not a single workmen gave out
under the severe strain, and not one lost a day from
sickness. Thus this large body of men were kept
well and in perfect strength and spirits, and
the work was done in considerably less time than
that counted on for its completion.

In Scotch households oatmeal porridge
is as inevitable as breakfast itself, except perhaps
on Sundays, as this anecdote will illustrate.
A mother and child were passing along a street
in Glasgow, when this conversation was overheard:—­

“What day is the morn,
mither?”

“Sabbath, laddie.”

“An’ will wi hae
tea to breakfast, mither?”

“Aye, laddie, gin we’re
spared.”

“An’ gin we’re
no spared, will we hae parrich?”

BREADSTUFFS AND BREADMAKING

Although the grains form most nutritious and palatable
dishes when cooked in their unground state, this is
not always the most convenient way of making; use
of them. Mankind from earliest antiquity has sought
to give these wonderful products of nature a more portable
and convenient form by converting them into what is
termed bread, a word derived from the verb bray,
to pound, beat, or grind small, indicative of the
ancient manner of preparing the grain for making bread.
Probably the earliest form of bread was simply the
whole grain moistened and then exposed to heat.
Afterward, the grains were roasted and ground, or
pounded between stones, and unleavened bread was made
by mixing this crude flour with water, and baking
in the form of cakes. Among the many ingenious
arrangements used by the ancients for baking this bread,
was a sort of portable oven in shape something like
a pitcher, in the inside of which a fire was made.
When the oven was well heated, a paste made of meal
and water was applied to the outside. Such bread
was baked very quickly and taken off in small, thin
sheets like wafers. A flat cake was the common
form in which most of the bread of olden times was
baked; being too brittle to be cut with a knife, the
common mode of dividing it was by breaking and hence
the expression “breaking bread” so common
in Scripture.

Page 79

Various substances have been and are employed for
making this needful article. Until the last few
decades, barley was the grain most universally used.
Chestnuts, ground to a flour, are made into bread in
regions where these nuts abound. Quite recently,
an immense peanut crop in the Southern States was
utilized for bread-making purposes. In ancient
times, the Thracians made to bread from a flour made
from the water coltran, a prickly root of triangular
form. In Syria, mulberries were dried and grounded
to flour. Rice, moss, palm tree piths, and starch
producing roots are used by different nationalities
in the preparation of bread. In many parts of
Sweden, bread is made from dried fish, using one half
fish flour and one half barley flour; and in winter,
flour made from the bark of trees is added. Desiccated
tomatoes, potatoes, and other vegetables are also
mixed with the cereals for bread-making. In India,
the lower classes make their bread chiefly from millet.
Moss bread is made in Iceland from the reindeer moss,
which toward autumn becomes soft, tender, and moist,
with a taste like wheat bran. It contains a large
quantity of starch, and the Icelanders gather, dry,
pulverize it, and thus prepare it for bread-making.
The ancient Egyptians often made their bread from
equal parts of the whole grain and meal.

The breadstuff’s most universally used among
civilized nations at the present time are barley,
rye, oats, maize, buckwheat, rice, and wheat, of which
the last has acquired a decided preference.

If made in the proper manner and from suitable material,
bread is, with the exception of milk, the article
best fitted for the nourishment of the body, and if
need be, can supply the place of all other foods.
Good bread does not cloy the appetite as do many other
articles of food, and the simplest bill of fare which
includes light, wholesome bread, is far more satisfying
than an elaborate meal without it. Were the tables
of our land supplied with good, nutritious, well-baked
bread, there would be less desire for cake, pastry,
and other indigestible particles, which, under the
present system of cookery, are allowed to compensate
for the inferior quality and poor preparation of more
wholesome foods.

Bread has been proverbially styled the “staff
of life.” In nearly all ancient languages
the entomology of the word “bread” signifies
all, indicating; that the bread of earlier periods
was in truth what it should be at the present time,—­a
staff upon which all the functions of life might with
safety depend.

Notwithstanding the important part bread was designed
to play in the economy of life, it would be hardly
possible to mention another aliment which so universally
falls below the standard either through the manner
of its preparation or in the material used.

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Bread, to answer the requirements of a good, wholesome
article of food, beside being palatable, must be light,
porous, and friable, so that it can be easily insalivated
and digested. It should not contain ingredients
which will in any way be injurious if taken into the
system, but should contain as many as possible of
the elements of nutrition. Wheat, the substance
from which bread is most generally made, contains
all the necessary food elements in proper proportions
to meet the requirements of nutrition, and bread should
also contain them. The flour, however, must be
made from the whole grain of the wheat, with the exception
of the outer husk.

What is ordinarily termed fine flour has a large part
of the most nutritive properties of the grain left
out, and unless this deficiency is made up by other
foods, the use of bread made from such material will
leave the most vital tissues of the body poorly nourished,
and tend to produce innumerable bad results.
People who eat bread made from fine white flour naturally
crave the food elements which have been eliminated
from the wheat, and are thus led to an excessive consumption
of meat, and the nerve-starvation and consequent irritability
thus induced may also lead to the use of alcoholic
drinks. We believe that one of the strongest
barriers women could erect against the inroads of intemperance
would be to supply the tables of the land with good
bread made from flour of the entire wheat.

The superiority of bread made from the entire wheat
or unbolted meal has been attested by many notable
examples in history. In England, under the administration
of William Pitt, there was for several years such a
scarcity of wheat that to make it hold out longer,
a law was passed by Parliament that the army should
be supplied with bread made of unbolted flour.
This occasioned much murmuring on the part of the soldiers,
but nevertheless the health of the army improved so
greatly as to be a subject of surprise. The officers
and the physicians at last publicly declared that
the soldiers had never before been so robust and healthy.

According to the eminent Prof. Liebig, whole-wheat
bread contains 60 per cent more of the phosphate or
bone forming material than does meat, and 200 per
cent more gluten than white bread. To the lack
of these elements in a food so generally used as white
flour bread, is undoubtedly due the great prevalence
of early decaying teeth, rickets, and other bone diseases.
Indeed, so many are the evils attendant upon a continued
use of fine flour bread that we can in a great measure
agree with a writer of the last century who says,
in a quaint essay still to be seen at the British
Museum, that “fine flour, spirituous liquors,
and strong ale-house beer are the foundations of almost
all the poverty and all the evils that affect the
labouring part of mankind.”

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Bread made from the entire wheat is looked upon with
far more favor than formerly, and it is no longer
necessary to use the crude products of the grain for
its manufacture, since modern invention has worked
such a revolution in milling processes that it is
now possible to obtain a fine flour containing all
the nutritious elements of the grain. The old-time
millstone has been largely superceded by machinery
with which the entire grain may be reduced to fine
flour without the loss of any of its valuable properties.
To be sure, the manufacture of fine white flour of
the old sort, is still continued, and doubtless will
be continued so long as color takes precedence over
food value. The improved processes of milling
have, however, enabled the millers to utilize a much
larger proportion of the nutritious elements of the
grain than formerly, and still preserve that whiteness
is so pleasing to many consumers. Although it
is true that there are brands of white flour which
possess a large percentage of the nutrient properties
of the wheat, it is likewise true that flour which
contains all the nutritive elements is not
white.

Of flours made from the entire grain there are essentially
two different varieties, that which is termed unbolted
wheat meal or Graham flour, and that called
wheat-berry, whole-wheat, or entire-wheat
flour. The principal difference between the two
consists in the preliminary treatment of the wheat
kernel before reduction, Graham flour containing more
or less of the flinty bran, which is wholly innutritious
and to a sensitive stomach somewhat irritating.
In the manufacture of whole or entire-wheat
flour, the outer, flinty bran is first removed by special
machinery, and then the entire grain pulverized, by
some of approved method, to different grades of fineness.
The absence of the indigestible bran renders the entire-wheat
flour superior in this respect to Graham, though for
many persons the latter is to preferred.

HOW TO SELECT FLOUR.—­The first requisite
in the making of good bread is good flour. The
quality of a brand of flour will of course depend
much upon the kind of grain from which it is prepared—­whether
new or old, perfect, or deteriorated by rust, mold,
or exposure, and also upon the thoroughness with which
it has been cleansed from dust, chaff, and all foreign
substances, as well as upon the method by which it
is ground. It is not possible to judge with regard
to all these particulars by the appearance of the
flour, but in general, good flour will be sweet, dry,
and free from any sour or musty smell or taste.
Take up a handful, and if it falls from the hand light
and elastic, it is pretty sure to be good. If
it will retain the imprint of the fingers and falls
and a compact mass or a damp, clammy, or sticky to
the touch, it is by no means the best. When and
knead a little of it between the fingers; if it works
soft and sticky, it is poor. Good flour, when
made into dough, is elastic, and will retain its shape.
This elastic property of good flour is due to the
gluten which it contains. The more gluten and
the stronger it is, the better the flour. The
gluten of good flour will swell to several times its
original bulk, while that of poor flour will not.

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In buying white flour, do not select that which is
pure white with a bluish tinge, but that which is
of a creamy, yellowish-white tint. While the
kinds of flour that contain the entire nutritive properties
of the wheat will necessarily be darker in color,
we would caution the reader not to suppose that because
flour is dark in color it is for that reason good,
and rich in nutritive elements. There are many
other causes from which flour may be dark, such as
the use of uncleansed or dark varieties of wheat,
and the large admixture of bran and other grains; many
unscrupulous millers and flour dealers make use of
this fact to palm off upon their unsuspecting customers
an inferior article. Much of the so-called Graham
flour is nothing more than poor flour mixed with bran,
and is in every way inferior to good white flour.
Fine flour or made from the entire wheat may generally
be distinguished from a spurious article by taking
a small portion into the mouth and chewing it.
Raw flour made from the entire grain has a sweet taste,
and a rich, nutty flavor the same as that experienced
in chewing a whole grain of wheat, and produces a
goodly quantity of gum or gluten, while a spurious
article tastes flat and insipid like starch, or has
a bitter, pungent taste consequent upon the presence
of impurities. This bitter taste is noticeable
in bread made from such flour. A given quantity
of poor flour will not make as much bread as the same
quantity of good flour, so that adulteration may also
be detected in this way. Doubtless much of the
prejudice against the use of whole-wheat flour has
arisen from the use of a spurious article.

As it is not always possible to determine accurately
without the aid of chemistry and a microscope whether
flour is genuine, the only safe way is to purchase
the product of reliable mills.

It is always best to obtain a small quantity of flour
first, and put it to the test of bread-making; then,
if satisfactory, purchase that brand so long as it
proves good. It is true economy to buy a flour
known to be good even though it may cost more than
some others. It is not wise to purchase too large
a quantity at once unless one has exceptionally good
facilities for storage, as flour is subject to many
deteriorating influences. It is estimated that
a barrel of good flour contains sufficient bread material
to last one person one year; and from this standard
it can be easily estimated in what proportion it is
best to purchase.

TO KEEP FLOUR.—­Flour should always be kept
in a tight receptacle, and in a cool, dry, well-ventilated
place. It should not be allowed to remain in
close proximity to any substances of strong odor, as
it very readily absorbs odors and gaseous impurities.
A damp atmosphere will cause it to absorb moisture,
and as a result the gluten will lose some of its tenacity
and become sticky, and bread made from the flour will
be coarser and inferior in quality. Flour which
has absorbed dampness from any cause should be sifted
into a large tray, spread out thin and exposed to
the hot sun, or placed in a warming oven for a few
hours.

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DELETERIOUS ADULTERATIONS OF FLOUR.—­Besides
the fraud frequently practiced of compounding whole-wheat
flour from inferior mill products, white flour is
sometimes adulterated—­more commonly, however,
in European countries that in this—­with
such substances as alum, ground rice, plaster of Paris,
and whiting. Alum is doubtless the most commonly
used of all these substances, for the reason that it
gives the bread a whiter color and causes the flour
to absorb and retain a larger amount of water than
it would otherwise hold. This enables the user
to make, from an inferior brand of flour, bread which
resembles that made from a better quality. Such
adulteration is exceedingly injurious, as are other
mineral substances used for a similar purpose.

The presence of alum in flour or bread may be detected
in the following way: Macerate a half slice of
bread in three or four tablespoonfuls of water; strain
off the water, and add to it twenty drops of a strong
solution of logwood, made either from the fresh chips
or the extract. Then add a large teaspoonful
of a strong solution of carbonate of ammonium.
If alum is present, the mixture will change from pink
to lavender blue.

The Journal of Trade gives the following simple
mode of testing for this adulterant: “Persons
can test the bread they buy for themselves, by taking
a piece of it and soaking it in water. Take this
water and mix it with an equal part of fresh milk,
and if the bread contains alum, the mixture will coagulate.
If a better test is required, boil the mixture, and
it will form perfect clot.”

Whiting can be detected by dipping the ends of the
thumb and forefinger in sweet oil and rubbing the
flour between them. If whiting is present, the
flour will become sticky like putty, and remain white;
whereas pure flour, when so rubbed, becomes darker
in color, but not sticky. Plaster of Paris, chalk,
and other alkaline adulterants may be detected by a
few drops of lemon juice: if either be present,
effervescence will take place.

CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING.—­Good flour alone
will not insure good bread. As much depends upon
its preparation as upon the selection of material;
for the very best of flour may be transformed into
the poorest of bread through improper or careless
preparation. Good bread cannot be produced at
random. It is not the fruit of any luck or chance,
but the practical result of certain fixed laws and
principles to which all may conform.

The first step in the conversion of flour into bread
is to incorporate with it a given amount of fluid,
by which each atom of flour is surrounded with a thin
film of moisture, in order to hydrate the starch,
to dissolve the sugar and albumen, and to develop the
adhesiveness of the gluten, thus binding the whole
into one coherent mass termed dough, a word
from a verb meaning to wet or moisten. If nothing
more be done, and this simple form of dough be baked,
the starch granules will be ruptured by the heat and

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thus properly prepared for food; but the moistening
will have developed the glue-like property of the gluten
to the extent of firmly cementing the particles of
flour together, so that the mass will be hard and
tough, and almost incapable of mastication. If,
however, the dough be thoroughly kneaded, rolled very
thin, made into small cakes, and then quickly baked
with sufficient heat, the result will be a brittle
kind of bread termed unleavened bread, which, although
it requires a lengthy process of mastication, is more
wholesome and digestible than soft bread, which is
likely to be swallowed insufficiently insalivated.

The gluten of wheat flour, beside being adhesive,
is likewise remarkably elastic. This is the reason
why wheat flour is much more easily made into light
bread than the product of other cereals which contain
less or a different quality of gluten. Now if
while the atoms of flour are supplied with moisture,
they are likewise supplied with some form of gaseous
substance, the elastic walls of the gluten cells will
become distended, causing the dough to “rise,”
or grow in bulk, and at the same time become light,
or porous, in texture.

This making of bread light is usually accomplished
by the introduction of air into the dough, or by carbonic
acid gas generated within the mass, either before
or during the baking, by a fermentative or chemical
process.

When air is the agency used, the gluten, by its glue-like
properties, catches and retains the air for a short
period; and if heat is applied before the air, which
is lighter than the dough, rises and escapes, it will
expand, and in expanding distend the elastic glutinous
mass, causing it to puff up or rise. If the heat
is sufficient to harden the gluten quickly, so that
the air cells throughout the whole mass become firmly
fixed before the air escapes, the result will be a
light, porous bread. If the heat is not sufficient,
the air does not properly expand; or if before a sufficient
crust is formed to retain the air and form a framework
of support for the dough, the heat is lessened or withdrawn,
the air will escape, or contract to its former volume,
allowing the distended glutinous cell walls to collapse;
in either case the bread will be heavy.

If carbonic acid gas, generated within the dough by
means of fermentation or by the use of chemical substances,
be the means used to lighten the mass, the gluten
by virtue of its tenacity holds the bubbles of gas
as they are generated, and prevents the large and small
ones from uniting, or from rising to the surface,
as they seek to do, being lighter than the dough.
Being thus caught where they are generated, and the
proper conditions supplied to expand them, they swell
or raise the dough, which is then termed a loaf. (This
word “loaf” is from the Anglo-Saxon hlifian,
to raise or lift up.) The structure is rendered permanent
by the application of heat in baking.

BREAD MADE LIGHT BY FERMENTATION.

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For general use, the most convenient form of bread
is usually considered to be that made from wheat flour,
raised or made light by some method of fermentation,
although in point of nutritive value and healthfulness,
it does not equal light, unfermented, or aerated bread
made without the aid of chemicals.

THE PROCESS OF FERMENTATION.—­Fermentation
is a process of decomposition, and hence more or less
destructive to the substances subjected to its influence.
When animal and vegetable substances containing large
amounts of nitrogenous elements are in a moist state
and exposed to air, they very soon undergo a change,
the result of which is decomposition or decay.
This is occasioned by the action of germs, which feed
upon nitrogenous substances, as do the various species
of fungi. Meat, eggs, milk, and other foods rich
in nitrogenous elements can be preserved but a short
time if exposed to the atmosphere. The carbonaceous
elements are different in this respect. When pure
starch, sugar, or fat is exposed to the air in a moistened
state, they exhibit the very little tendency to change
or decay. Yet if placed in contact with decomposing
substances containing nitrogen, they soon begin to
change, and are themselves decomposed and destroyed.
This communication of the condition of change from
one class of substances to another, is termed fermentation.
If a fermenting substance be added to a watery solution
containing sugar, the sugar will be changed or decomposed,
and two new substances, alcohol and carbonic acid
gas, are produced.

The different stages of fermentation are noted scientifically
as alcoholic, acetous, and putrefactive. The
first is the name given to the change which takes
place in the saccharine matter of the dough, which
results in the formation of alcohol and carbonic acid
gas. This same change takes place in the saccharine
matter of fruits under the proper with conditions
of warmth, air, and moisture, and is utilized in the
production of wines and fermented liquors.

In bread-making, the alcohol and carbonic acid gas
produced during the fermentation, are formed from
sugar,—­that originally contained in the
flour and the additional quantity formed from starch
during the fermenting process. It is evident,
therefore, that bread cannot be fermented without
some loss in natural sweetness and nutritive value,
and bread made after this method should be managed
so as to deteriorate the material as little as possible.

If this fermentation continues long enough, the acetous
fermentation is set up, and acetic acid, the
essential element of vinegar, is formed and the dough
becomes sour. If the process of fermentation is
very much prolonged, the putrefactive change is set
up, and the gluten is more or less decomposed.

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If the dough be baked during the alcoholic and carbonic-acid
stage of fermentation, the gas will render the loaf
light and porous. The alcohol will be dissipated
by the heat during the baking, or evaporated shortly
afterward, provided the baking be thorough. If
the fermentation is allowed to proceed until the acetous
fermentation has begun, the loaf, when baked, will
be “sad” and heavy, since there is no longer
any gas to puff it up. If, however, during the
first or alcoholic stage of fermentation, new material
be added, the same kind of fermentation will continue
for a certain period longer.

These facts serve to show that great care and attention
are necessary to produce good bread by a fermentative
process. If the fermentation has not been allowed
to proceed far enough to generate a sufficient amount
of gas to permeate the whole mass, the result will
be a heavy loaf; and if allowed to proceed too far,
acid fermentation begins, the gas escapes, and we
have sour as well as heavy bread. It is not enough,
however, to prevent bread from reaching the acetous
or sour stage of fermentation. Bread may be over-fermented
when there is no appreciable sourness developed.
Fermentation may be carried so far as to destroy much
of the richness and sweetness of the loaf, and yet
be arrested by the baking process just before the
acetous stage begins, so that it will be light and
porous, but decidedly lacking in flavor and substance.
Over-fermentation also develops in the bread various
bitter substances which obscure the natural sweetness
of the bread and give to it an unpleasant flavor.
Many of these substances are more or less harmful in
character, and include many poisons known as ptomaines,
a class of chemical compounds produced by germs whenever
fermentation or decomposition of organic matter takes
place. Much skill is required to determine at
what point to arrest the fermentation, in order to
save the sweetness and richness of the bread.

FERMENTATIVE AGENTS.—­Fermentation in vegetable
matter is always accompanied by the growth of living
organisms. The development of these minute organisms
is the exciting cause of fermentation and putrefaction.
The germs or spores of some of these fermenting agents
are always present in the air. It is well known
to housekeepers that if a batter of flour and water
and a little salt be kept in a jar of water at a temperature
of from 100 deg. to 110 deg., it will ferment in the
course of five or six hours. Scientists assure
us that this fermentation is occasioned by the introduction
of the spores of certain species of fungi which are
continually floating in the atmosphere, and the proper
conditions of warmth and moisture being supplied, they
at once begin to grow and multiply. This method
of securing fermentation is utilized by housewives
in making what is termed salt-rising bread. The
raising of dough by this process is lengthy and uncertain,
and a far more convenient method is to accelerate

Page 87

the fermentation by the addition of some active ferment.
The ancient method of accomplishing this was by adding
to the dough a leaven, a portion of old dough which
had been kept until it had begun to ferment; but since
the investigations of modern chemistry have made clear
the properties of yeast, that has come to be considered
the best agent for setting up the process of alcoholic
fermentation in bread. The use of leaven is still
practiced to somewhat in some European countries.
The bread produced with leaven, although light and
spongy in texture, has an unpleasant, sour taste,
and is much less wholesome than that produced with
fresh yeast.

Yeast is a collection of living organisms or plants
belonging to the family of fungi, which, like all
other plants, require warmth, moisture, and food,
in order to promote growth, and when properly supplied
with these, they begin to grow and multiply rapidly.
Fermentation will not take place at a temperature
below 30 deg., it proceeds slowly at 45 deg., but
from 70 deg. to 90 deg. it goes on rapidly. Fermentation
may be arrested by the exhaustion of either the fermenting
agent or the food supply, or by exposure to heat at
the temperature of boiling water. This latter
fact enables the housewife to arrest the process of
fermentation, when the loaf has become sufficiently
light, by baking it in a hot oven. Heat destroys
most of the yeast cells; a few, however, remain in
the loaf unchanged, and it is for this reason that
yeast bread is considered less wholesome for dyspeptics
than light unleavened bread. It is apparent,
then, that the more thoroughly fermented bread is baked,
the more wholesome it will be, from the more complete
destruction of the yeast germs which it contains.

YEAST.—­Next to good flour, the most important
requisite in the manufacture of fermented bread is
good yeast. The best of flour used in conjunction
with poor yeast will not produce good bread. The
most convenient and reliable kind of marketable yeast,
when fresh, is the compressed yeast. The dry
though they are always ready for use, the quality
of the bread they produce is generally inferior to
that made with either compressed yeast or good liquid
yeast. If this sort of yeast must be depended
upon, the cakes known as “Yeast Foam” are
the best of any with which we are acquainted.

Of homemade yeasts there are almost as many varieties
as there are cooks. Their comparative value depends
mainly upon the length of time they will keep good,
or the facility with which they can be prepared.
Essentially the same principles are involved in the
making of them all; viz., the introduction of
a small quantity of fresh, lively yeast into a mixture
of some form of starch (obtained from flour, potato,
or a combination of both) and water, with or without
the addition of such other substances as will promote
fermentation, or aid in preventing the yeast from
souring. Under proper conditions of warmth, the

Page 88

small amount of original yeast begins to supply itself
with food at once by converting the starch into dextrine,
and then into grape sugar, and multiplies itself with
great rapidity, and will continue to do so as long
as there is material to supply it with the means of
growth. While its growth is rapid, its decay
is equally so; and unless some means of preservation
be employed, the yeast will die, and the mixture become
sour and foul. Ordinarily it can be kept good
for several days, and under the best conditions, even
three or four weeks. After it has been kept from
four to six hours, it should be placed in some receptacle
as nearly air-tight as possible and set in the cellar
or refrigerator, where it can be kept at a temperature
not conducive to fermentation. Thus the little
yeast organisms will remain in a quiescent state, but
yet alive and capable of multiplying themselves when
again surrounded with favorable conditions.

The yeast should be kept in glass or glazed earthen
ware. The vessel containing it should be washed
and scalded with scrupulous care before new yeast
is put in, since the smallest particle of sour or spoiled
yeast will ruin the fresh supply in a very short time.
It is generally conceded that yeast will keep longer
if the material of which it is made be mixed with
liquid of a boiling temperature, or cooked for a few
minutes at boiling heat before adding the yeast.
The reason for this undoubtedly lies in the fact that
the boiling kills foreign germs, and thus prevents
early souring or putrefaction. The yeast must
not be added, however, until the liquid has cooled
to a little more than blood heat, as too great heat
will kill the yeast cells.

The starch of the potato is thought to furnish better
material for the promotion of yeast growth than that
of wheat flour; but whether the potato be first cooked,
mashed, and then combined with the other ingredients,
or grated raw and then cooked in boiling water, makes
little difference so far as results are concerned,
though the latter method may have the advantage of
taking less time. If potatoes are used for this
purpose, they should be perfectly mature. New
ones will not answer.

Sugar assists in promoting the growth of the yeast
plant, and a small amount is usually employed in making
yeast. Hops serve to prevent the yeast from souring,
and an infusion of them is frequently used for this
purpose.

While it is essential that the water used should be
boiling, it is also necessary that the mixture should
cooled to a lukewarm temperature before the introduction
of the original yeast, as intense heat will kill the
yeast plant. Freezing cold will likewise produced
the same result. While a cool temperature is
one of the requisites for keeping yeast fresh, care
must be taken, especially in winter, that it does not
get chilled.

When yeast is needed for bread, it is always the best
plan to take a cup to the cellar or refrigerator for
the desired quantity, and re-cover the jar as quickly
as possible. A half hour in a hot kitchen would
be quite likely to spoiled it. Always shake or
stir the whole well before measuring out the yeast.
In making yeast, used earthen bowls for mixing, porcelain-lined
or granite-ware utensils for boiling, and silver or
wooden spoons for stirring.

Page 89

BITTER YEAST.—­It sometimes happens that
an excessive use of hops in the making of yeast gives
to it so bitter a flavor as to communicate a disagreeable
taste to the bread. To correct this bitterness,
mix with the yeast a considerable quantity of water,
and let it stand for some hours, when the thickest
portion will have settled at the bottom. The
water, which will have extracted much of the bitterness,
can then be turned off and thrown away. Yeast
also sometimes becomes a bitter from long keeping.
Freshly burnt charcoal thrown into the yeast is said
to absorb the odors and offensive matter and render
the yeast more sweet; however, we do not recommend
the use of any yeast so stale as to need sweetening
or purifying. Yeast that is new and fresh is always
best; old and stale yeast, even though it may still
possess the property of raising the dough, will give
an unpleasant taste to the bread, and is much less
wholesome.

TESTS FOR YEAST.—­Liquid yeast, when good,
is light in color and looks foamy and effervescent;
it has a pungent odor somewhat similar to weak ammonia,
and if tasted will have a sharp, biting flavor.
Yeast is poor when it looks dull and watery, and has
a sour odor. Compressed yeast, if good, breaks
off dry and looks white; if poor, it appears moist
and stringy.

If there is any question as to the quality of yeast,
it is always best to test it before use by adding
a little flour to a small quantity and setting it
in a warm place. If it begins to ferment in the
course of fifteen or twenty minutes, it is good.

STARTING THE BREAD.—­Having secured good
yeast, it is necessary in some way to diffuse it through
the bread material so that it will set up an active
fermentation, which, by the evolution of gas, will
render the whole mass light and porous. As fermentation
is more sure, more rapid, and requires less yeast
to start it when set in action in a thin mixture than
when introduced into stiff dough, the more common method
of starting fermented bread is by “setting a
sponge;” viz., preparing a batter of flour
and liquid, to which potato is sometimes added, and
into which the yeast is introduced. Some cooks,
in making the batter, use the whole amount of liquid
needed for the bread, and as the sponge rises, add
flour in small quantities, beating it back, and allowing
it to rise a second, third, or even fourth time, until
sufficient flour has been added to knead; others use
only half the liquid in preparing the sponge, and
when it has well risen, prepare a second one by adding
the remainder of the liquid and fresh flour, in which
case the fermented batter acts as a double portion
of yeast and raises the second sponge very quickly.
The requisite amount of flour is then added, the dough
kneaded, and the whole allowed to rise a third time
in the loaf. Other cooks dispense altogether
with the sponge, adding to the liquid at first the
requisite amount of flour, kneading it thoroughly and
allowing it to rise once in mass and again after molding
into loaves. As to the superiority of one method
over another, much depends upon their adaptability
to the time and convenience of the user; light bread
can be produced by either method. Less yeast
but more time will be required when the bread is started
with a sponge. The end to be attained by all
is a complete and equal diffusion of gas bubbles generated
during fermentation throughout the whole mass of dough.

Page 90

The preferable method of combining the materials needed
for the batter is by first mingling the yeast with
the water or milk. If condensed or dry yeast
is used, previously dissolve it well in a half cupful
or less of lukewarm water. Stir the flour slowly
into the liquid mixture and beat it very thoroughly
so that the yeast shall be evenly distributed throughout
the whole.

PROPORTION OF MATERIALS NEEDED.—­The material
needed for making: the bread should all be carefully
measured out beforehand and the flour well sifted.
Many housekeepers fail in producing good bread, because
they guess at the quantity of material to be used,
particularly the flour, and with the same quantity
of liquid will one time use much more flour that at
another, thus making the results exceedingly variable.
With this same brand of flour, this same quantity should
always be used to produce a given amount of bread.
This amount will depend upon the quality of the material
used. Good flour will absorb a larger quantity
of liquids than that of an inferior quality, and the
amount of liquid a given quantity of flour will take
up determines the quantity of bread that can be produced
from it. This amount is chiefly dependent upon
the proportion of gluten contained in the flour.
One hundred pounds of good flour will absorb sufficient
water to produce one hundred and fifty pounds of bread.
One reason why bread retains so much water is that
during the baking a portion of starch is converted
into gum, which holds water more strongly than starch.
Again: the gluten, when wet, is not easily dried,
while the dry crust which forms around the bread in
baking is merely impervious to water, and, like the
skin of a baking potato, prevents the moisture from
escaping.

Kinds of flour vary so considerably in respect to
their absorbent properties that it is not possible
to state the exact proportions of flour and liquid
required; approximately, three heaping measures of
flour for one scant measure of liquid, including the
yeast, will in general be found a good proportion.
Bread made from the entire wheat will require from
one half to one cupful less flour than that made of
white flour. A quart of liquid, including the
yeast, is sufficient for three ordinary-sized loaves.
One half or two thirds of a cup of homemade yeast,
according to its strength, or one half a cake of compressed
yeast dissolved in a half cup of lukewarm water, will
be sufficient for one quart of liquid. It is
a common mistake to use too much yeast. It lessens
the time required, but the result is less satisfactory.
Bread to be set over night requires less yeast.

Whether water or milk should be used for bread-making,
depends upon taste and convenience. Bread retains
more nearly the natural flavor of the grain if made
with water, and is less apt to sour; at the same time,
bread made with milk is more tender than that made
with water. Bread made with milk requires from
one half to one cupful less of flour.

Page 91

Potatoes are sometimes used in conjunction with flour
for bread-making. They are by no means necessary
when good flour is used, but bread made from inferior
flour is improved by their use. Only potatoes
that are fully matured should be used for this purpose,
and they should be well cooked and smoothly mashed.
Neither sugar nor salt is essential for the production
of good bread, though most cook books recommend the
use of one or both. The proportion of the former
should not exceed one even tablespoonful to three
pints of flour, and the very smallest amount of salt,
never more than a half teaspoonful, and better less.
No butter or other free fat is required; the tenderness
of texture produced by its use can be secured as well
by the use of unskimmed milk and thorough kneading.

UTENSILS.—­For bread-making purposes, earthen
or china ware is preferable to either tin or wooden
utensils: being a poor conductor, it protects
the sponge from the cold air much more effectually
than tin, and is much more easily kept clean and sweet
than wood. The utensil should be kept exclusively
for the purpose of bread-making, and should never
be allowed to contain any sour substance. The
bowl should be thoroughly scalded before and after
each using. Use silver or granite-ware spoons
for stirring the bread. Iron and tin discolor
the sponge. For measuring the material, particularly
the liquid and the yeast, half-pint cups, divided
by marks into thirds and fourths, as shown in the
cut, are especially serviceable.

[Illustration: Measuring Cup] [Illustration:
Measuring Cup]

WHEN TO SET THE SPONGE.—­The time to set
the sponge for bread-making is a point each housekeeper
must determine for herself. The fact before stated,
that temperature controls the activity of fermentation,
and that it is retarded or accelerated according to
the conditions of warmth, enables the housewife, by
keeping the bread-mixture at a temperature of about
50 deg. F., to set her bread in the evening,
if desired, and find it light and ready for further
attention in the morning. In winter, the sponge
will need to be prepared early in the evening and
kept during the night at as even a temperature as
possible. A good way to accomplish this is to
cover the bowl with a clean napkin and afterwards
wrap it about very closely with several folds of a
woolen blanket. In extremely cold weather bottles
of hot water may be placed around the bowl outside
the wrappings. In case this plan is employed,
care must be taken to have sufficient wrappings between
the bread and the bottles to prevent undue heat, and
the bottles should be covered with an additional blanket
to aid in retaining the heat as long as possible.

If the sponge is set in the evening, if in very warm
weather, it should be started as late as practicable,
and left in a rather cool place. Cover closely
to exclude the air, but do not wrap in flannel as in
winter. It will be likely to need attention early
in the morning.

Page 92

TEMPERATURE FOR BREAD-MAKING.—­Except in
very warm weather, the ferment or sponge should be
started with liquid at a lukewarm temperature.

The liquid should never be so cold as to chill the
yeast. Milk, if used, should be first sterilized
by scalding, and then cooled before using.

After the sponge is prepared, the greatest care must
be taken to keep it at an equable temperature.
From 70 deg. to 90 deg. is the best range of temperature,
75 deg. being considered the golden mean throughout
the entire fermentative process of bread-making.

After fermentation has well begun, it will continue,
but much more slowly if the temperature be gradually
lowered to 45 deg. or 50 deg. If it is necessary
to hasten the rising, the temperature can be raised
to 80 deg. or 85 deg., but it will necessitate careful
watching, as it will be liable to over-ferment, and
become sour. Cold arrests the process of fermentation,
while too great heat carries forward the work too rapidly.
Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance
of an equable temperature. The housewife who
permits the fermentation to proceed very slowly one
hour, forces it rapidly by increased heat the next,
and perhaps allows it to subside to a chilling temperature
the third, will never be sure of good bread.

Putting the bowl containing the sponge into a dish
of warm (not hot) water, or keeping it in the warming
oven, or on the back of the range, are all methods
which may bring about good results, provided the same
degree of heat can be maintained continuously; but
if the fire is one which must be increased or diminished
to suit the exigencies of household details, nothing
but the closest and most careful attention will keep
the sponge at uniform temperature. The better
way is to cover the bowl with a napkin, and in cold
weather wrap closely in several thicknesses of flannel,
and place on a stand behind the stove, or in some
place not exposed to draughts. A bread-raiser
purposely arranged for keeping the bread at proper
temperature is a great convenience. Two small
and rather thick earthen ware crocks of the same size,
serve very well for this purpose. Scald both
with hot water, and while still warm, put the sponge
in one, invert the other for a cover, and leave in
a warm room. All flour used in the bread should
be warm when added.

LIGHTNESS OF THE BREAD.—­The time required
for bread in its different stages to grow light will
vary according to the quantity and strength of the
yeast used and the amount of warmth supplied.
A thin batter is light enough when in appearance it
resembles throughout a mass of sea foam. It will
not greatly increase in bulk, but will be in the state
of constant activity, sending up little bubbles of
gas and emitting a sharp, pungent odor like fresh
yeast.

Page 93

When the thicker batter or second sponge is sufficiently
light, it will have risen to nearly double its original
bulk and become cracked over the top like “crazed”
china. It should never be allowed to rise to the
point of sinking or caving in, and should be kneaded
as soon as ready. If for any reason it is not
possible to knead the bread at once when it has arrived
at this stage, do not allow it to stand, but take a
knife or spoon and gently beat it back a little.
This dissipates some of the gas and reduces the volume
somewhat. Let it rise again, which it will do
in a short time, if it has not been allowed to become
too light. If dough that has been kneaded and
allowed to rise in mass, becomes sufficiently light
at some inopportune moment for shaping into loaves,
it may be kept from becoming too light and souring,
by taking a knife and cutting it away from the sides
of the bowl and gradually working it over toward the
center. Re-cover and put in a warm place.
It will soon assume its former bulk. This “cutting
down” may be repeated several times if necessary,
provided the bread has not been allowed to become too
light at any time, and some cook’s recommend
it as a uniform practice. We do not, however,
except in case of necessity; since, though it may possibly
make the bread more light, the long-continued fermentation
destroys more than is necessary of the food elements
of the flour, and develops an unnecessary amount of
the products of fermentation. Lightness is not
the only requisite for bread, and should be secured
with as little deterioration of the flour as possible.

An important point in the preparation of bread is
to decide when it is sufficiently light after having
been molded and placed in pans. The length of
time cannot be given, because it will vary with the
temperature, the quality of the flour, and the quantity
added during the kneading. At a temperature of
75 deg., an hour or an hour and a half is about the
average length of time needed. A loaf should nearly
double its size after being placed in a pan, before
baking; when perfectly risen, the bread feels light
when lifted and weighed upon the hand. It is
better to begin the baking before it has perfectly
risen them to wait until it has become so light as
to commence to fall, since if the fermentation proceeds
too far, the sweetness of the grain will be destroyed,
and the bread will be tasteless and innutritious, even
if it does not reach the acetous stage.

The exercise of a little judgment and careful attention
to detail will soon enable a person successfully to
determine the proper degree of lightness of bread
in its various stages. Bread which passes the
extreme point of fermentation, or in common phrase
gets “too light,” will have a strong acid
odor, and will pull away from the bowl in a stringy
mass, having a watery appearance very different from
the fine, spongy texture of properly risen dough.
The acidity of such dough may be neutralized by the
addition of an alkali, and housewives who through carelessness
and inattention have allowed their bread to become
“sour,” often resort to saleratus or soda
to neutralize the acid. The result of such treatment
is unwholesome bread, wholly unfit for food. It
is better economy to throw away bread material which
needs to be sweetened with soda than to run the risk
of injury to health by using it.

Page 94

KNEADING THE DOUGH.—­As fresh flour is added
during the bread-making, it is necessary to mix it
in thoroughly. As long as the batter is thin,
this can be done by thoroughly beating the mixture
with the addition of material; but when it is a thick
dough, some other method must be adopted to bring
about the desired result. The usual way is by
mixing the dough to a proper consistency, and working
it with the hands. This is termed kneading.
Much of the excellence of bread depends upon the thoroughness
of this kneading, since if the yeast is not intimately
and equally mixed with every particle of flour, the
bread will not be uniform; some portions will be heavy
and compact, while others will be full of large, open
cavities, from the excessive liberation of gas.

The length of time required for kneading depends upon
the perfection with which the yeast cells have been
previously diffused throughout the sponge, and upon
the quality of the flour used in preparing the bread,
much less time being required for kneading dough made
from good flour. Some consider an hour none too
long to knead bread. Such a lengthy process may
be advantageous, since one of the objects of kneading
is to render the glutinous parts of the flour so elastic
that the dough may be capable of expanding to several
times its bulk without cracking or breaking, but excellent
results can be obtained from good flour with less
labor. Bread has been kneaded all that is necessary
when it will work clean of the board, and when, after
a smart blow with the fist in the center of the mass,
it will spring back to its original shape like an
India rubber ball. Its elasticity is the surest
test of its goodness; and when dough has been thus
perfectly kneaded, it can be molded into any shape,
rolled, twisted, or braided with ease. Chopping,
cutting, stretching, and pulling—­the dough
are other methods for accomplishing the same end.

If a large mass is to be kneaded, it is better to
divide it into several portions and knead each separately.
It is less laborious and more likely to result in
an equal diffusion of the yeast. Bread is often
spoiled by the addition of too much flour during kneading.
Dough should always be kneaded as soft as it can be
handled, and only sufficient flour added to prevent
its sticking to the board. Stiff bread is close
in texture, and after a day or two becomes dry and
hard.

HOW TO MANIPULATE THE DOUGH IN KNEADING.—­Sprinkle
the board well with flour, and scrape the dough from
the bowl with a knife. Dust the hands with flour,
and then draw the dough with a rolling motion from
the farthest side toward you, using the finger tips
for the purpose, but pressing firmly down upon the
mass with the palm of the hands. Reach forward
again with the finger tips, and again press the ball
of the hands upon the dough. Continue this process
of manipulation until the mass is very much elongated;
then turn at right angles and repeat the process,

Page 95

taking care that the finger tips do not break through
the light film which will form upon the outside of
soft dough when well managed. Keep the dough constantly
in motion until it is smooth, elastic, and fine-grained.
The hands and the board may need a light dusting of
flour at frequent intervals. If the dough sticks,
lift it quickly, and clean the board, that it may
be kept smooth. The dough will not stick if kept
in constant motion. Do not rub off little wads
of dough either from the hands or the board and keep
kneading them into the loaf; they will seriously injure
the uniform texture of the bread.

HOW MANY TIMES SHALL BREAD BE KNEADED?—­As
the objects to be attained in kneading dough are to
render the gluten more elastic and thoroughly to diffuse
the yeast, it will be seen that there has been sufficient
kneading when all the flour necessary for the bread
has been added. Furthermore, it must be apparent
that continued manipulation of the dough at this stage
will dissipate and press out the little vesicles of
gas held in place by the elastic gluten, and thus lose
in part what so much pains has been taken to secure.
At whatever stage the requisite amount of flour be
added, the dough should then be thoroughly kneaded
once for all. If allowed to rise in bulk, when
light it should be shaped into loaves with the greatest
care, handled lightly, and worked as little as possible,
and if at all diminished, allowed to rise again before
baking.

DRYNESS OF THE SURFACE.—­Bread in all stages
should be covered over the top, since it rises much
more evenly, and does not have a stiff, dried surface,
as when placed in a warm place exposed to air.
It sometimes happens that this precaution is forgotten
or not sufficiently attended to, and a dry crust forms
and over the dough, which, if kneaded into the loaves,
leaves hard, dry spots in the bread. In case of
such a mishap, take the dry crust off, dissolve it
in a little warm water, add flour enough to mold,
make it into a small loaf, and raise it separately.

SIZE OF LOAVES.—­The lightness of the bread
after baking depends upon the perfection with which
the little air-cells, formed during the fermenting
process, have become fixed by the heat during the baking.
The heat expands the carbonic acid gas contained within
the open spaces in the dough, and at the same time
checks further development of gas by destroying the
yeast plant. The sooner, then, that the cells
can be made permanent after the arrest of fermentation,
the more light and porous the bread will be.
Although this fixing of the cells is largely dependent
upon the degree of heat maintained, it likewise in
a measure depends upon the size of the loaf, as the
heat will penetrate and fix the cells of a small loaf
throughout much sooner than, those of a large one.
Therefore, bake in small loaves, and have a separate
pan for each, as that admits of an equal degree of
heat to all sides. This aids in a more rapid
fixing of the air-cells and likewise gives more crust,
which is the sweetest and most digestible part of
the bread.

Page 96

Sheet-iron pans, about eight inches in length, four
in width, and five in depth, are the most satisfactory.
After the dough is molded, divide it into loaves which
will fill such pans to the depth of two inches.
Let them rise until double their first volume, and
then put them in the oven. In baking, the loaves
will rise still higher, and if about five inches high
when done, will have expanded to about the right proportions.

[Illustration: Bread Pan]

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF THE OVEN.—­The objects
to be attained in the baking of bread are to break
up the starch and gluten cells of the Sour so as to
make them easily digestible, to destroy the yeast plant,
and render permanent the cells formed by the action
of the carbonic acid gas. To accomplish well
these ends, the loaf must be surrounded by a temperature
ranging from 400 deg. to 600 deg. The oven should
be one in which the heat is equal in all parts, and
which can be kept at a steady, uniform heat.
Old-fashioned brick ovens were superior in this respect
to most modern ranges. The fire for baking bread
should be of sufficient strength to keep the oven
heated for at least an hour. If the oven has
tendency to become too hot upon the bottom, a thin,
open grate, broiler, or toasting rack, should be placed
underneath the tins to allow a circulation of air
and avoid danger of burning. If the heat be insufficient,
fermentation will not cease until the bread has become
sour; the cells will be imperfectly fixed or entirely
collapsed; too little of the moisture will have evaporated,
and the result will be a soft, wet, and pasty or sour
loaf. If the heat be too great, the bread will
be baked before it has perfectly risen, or a thick,
burned crust will be produced, forming a non-conducting
covering to the loaf, which will prevent the heat
from permeating the interior, and thus the loaf will
have an overdone exterior, but will be raw and doughy
within. If, however, the temperature of the oven
be just right, the loaf will continue for a little
time to enlarge, owing to the expansion of the carbonic
acid gas, the conversion of the water into steam, and
the vaporizing of the alcohol, which rises in a gaseous
form and is driven off by the heat; a nicely browned
crust will be formed over the surface, the result
of the rapid evaporation of water from the surface
and consequent consolidation of the dough of this
portion of the loaf, and a chemical change caused
by the action of the heat upon the starch by which
is converted into dextrine, finally assuming a brown
color due to the production of a substance known to
the chemist as assama.

Bread is often spoiled in the baking. The dough
may be made of the best of flour and yeast, mixed
and kneaded in the most perfect manner, and may have
risen to the proper degree of lightness’ before
going to the oven, yet if the oven is either too hot
or not hot enough, the bread will be of an inferior
quality.

Page 97

Without an oven thermometer, there is no accurate
means of determining the temperature of the oven;
but housekeepers resort to various means to form a
judgment about it. The baker’s old-fashioned
method is to throw a handful of flour on the oven
bottom. If it blackens without igniting, the
heat is deemed sufficient. Since the object for
which the heat is desired is to cook the flour, not
to burn it, it might be supposed that this would indicate
too high a temperature; but the flour within the loaf
to be baked is combined with a certain amount of moisture,
the evaporation of which lowers the temperature of
the bread considerably below that of the surrounding
heated atmosphere. The temperature of the inner
portion of the loaf cannot exceed 212 deg. so long
as it continues moist. Bread might be perfectly
cooked at this temperature by steam, but it would
lack that most digestible portion of the loaf, the
crust.

A common way of ascertaining if the heat of the oven
is sufficient, is to hold the bare arm inside it for
a few seconds. If the arm cannot be held within
while thirty is counted, it is too hot to begin with.
The following test is more accurate: For rolls,
the oven should be hot enough to brown a teaspoonful
of flour in one minute, and for loaves in five
minutes.

The temperature should be high enough to arrest the
fermentation, which it will do at a point considerably
below the boiling point of water, and at the same
time to form a shell or crust, which will so support
the dough as to prevent it from sinking or collapsing
when the evolution of carbonic acid gas shall cease;
but it should not be hot enough to brown the crust
within ten or fifteen minutes. The heat should
increase for the first fifteen minutes, remain steady
for the next fifteen minutes, and may then gradually
decrease during the remainder of the baking. If
by any mischance the oven be so hot as to brown the
crust too soon, cover the loaf with a clean paper
for a few minutes. Be careful that no draught
reaches the bread while baking; open the oven door
very seldom, and not at all for the first ten minutes.
If it is necessary to turn the loaf, try to do so
without bringing it to the air. From three fourths
of an hour to an hour is usually a sufficient length
of time to bake an ordinary sized loaf. Be careful
not to remove the bread from the oven until perfectly
done. It is better to allow it to bake ten minutes
too long than not long enough. The crust of bread,
when done, should be equally browned all over.

The common test for well-baked bread is to tap it
on the bottom with the finger; if it is light and
well done, it will sound hollow; heavy bread will
have a dull sound. A thoroughly baked loaf will
not burn the hand when lifted upon it from the pan.

Page 98

CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.—­When done,
remove the loaves from the tins, and tilt them upon
edge so that the air may circulate freely on all sides
of them to prevent “sweating.” Do
not, however, lay them on a pine shelf or table to
absorb the odor of the wood. A large tin dripping
pan turned over upon the table does very well to tilt
them on. If they are turned often, so that they
will not soften on one side, but a fine wire bread
cooler is the best thing. If this is not obtainable,
a fair substitute can be easily improvised by tacking
window-screen wire to a light frame of sufficient
size to hold the requisite number of loaves.
If the bread is left exposed to the air until cold,
the crust will be crisp; if a soft crust is desired,
it can be secured by brushing the top of the loaf
while hot, with tepid water, and covering with several
thicknesses of a clean bread cloth.

If by accident any portion of the crust is burnt,
grate it away as soon as cold; this is preferable
to cutting or clipping it off.

BEST METHOD OF KEEPING BREAD.—­When the
bread is quite cold, put it away in a bread box, which
should be of tin, or of wood lined with tin, convenient
in form and supplied with a well-fitting cover.
Never use an unlined wooden box of any kind, as it
cannot easily be kept fresh and free from musty odors,
which bread so readily absorbs.

Stone and earthen ware are not open to this objection,
but they are likely to collect moisture, and hence
are not equal to a tin receptacle. Do not keep
bread in the cellar or any other damp place, nor in
a close closet, where there are other foods from which
it can absorb odors. The bread box should be
kept well covered, and free from crumbs and stale
bits. It should be carefully washed in boiling
soapsuds, scalded, and dried, every two or three days.
If cloths are used to wrap or cover the bread, they
too should be washed and scalded every week, and oftener
if at any time the loaf about which they are wrapped
becomes moldy or musty.

TEST OF GOOD FERMENTED BREAD.—­A loaf of
good bread, well risen and perfectly baked, may be
taken in the hands, and, with the thumb on the top
crust and fingers upon the bottom of the loaf, pressed
to less than half its thickness, and when the pressure
is removed, it will immediately expand like a sponge,
to its former proportions.

Good yeast bread, while it should be firm and preserve
a certain amount of moisture, will, when cold, crumble
easily when rubbed between the fingers. If, instead,
it forms a close, soggy mass, it may be regarded as
indigestible. This is one reason why hot, new
yeast bread and biscuit are so indigestible.
In demonstration of this, take a small lump of new
bread, gently roll it into a ball, and put into a glass
of water, adding a similar quantity of stale bread
of the same kind also. The latter will crumble
away very soon, while the former will retain its form
for hours, reminding one of its condition in the stomach,

Page 99

“as hard as a bullet,” for a long time
resisting the action of the gastric juice, although,
meanwhile, the yeast germs which have not been killed
in the oven are converting the mass into a lump of
yeast, by which the whole contents of the stomach
are soured. A soluble article like salt or sugar
in fine powdered form is much more easily and quickly
dissolved than the same article in solid lumps, and
so it is with food. The apparent dryness of stale
bread is not caused by its loss of moisture; for if
carefully weighed, stale bread will be found to contain
almost exactly the same proportion of water as new
bread that has become cold. The moisture has
only passed into a state of concealment, as may be
demonstrated by subjecting a stale loaf inclosed in
a tightly-sealed receptacle to a temperature equal
to boiling heat in an oven for half an hour, when it
will again have the appearance of new bread.

Hot bread eaten with butter is still more unwholesome,
for the reason that the melted grease fills up the
pores of the bread, and further interferes with the
action of the digestive fluids.

WHOLE-WHEAT AND GRAHAM BREADS.—­The same
general principles are involved in the making of bread
with whole-wheat and Graham flours as in the production
of bread from white flour. Good material and good
care are absolutely essential.

Whole-wheat flour ferments more readily and rises
more quickly than does white flour, hence bread made
with it needs more careful management, as it is more
liable to sour. The novice in bread-making should
not undertake the preparation of bread with whole-wheat
flour, until she has thoroughly mastered all the details
of the art by practical experience, and can produce
a perfect loaf from white flour.

Breads from whole-wheat and Graham flours require
less yeast and less flour than bread prepared from
white flour. A slower process of fermentation
is also advantageous.

Such breads will be lighter if at least one third
white flour be employed in their manufacture.
When the bread is made with a sponge, this white flour
may be utilised for the purpose. Thus the length
of time the whole-wheat flour will be undergoing fermentation
will be somewhat lessened, and its liability to become
sour diminished. This plan is a preferable one
for beginners in bread-making.

Graham and whole-wheat flour breads must be kneaded
longer than white-flour bread, and require a hotter
oven at first and a longer time for baking. Much
Graham and whole-wheat bread is served insufficiently
baked, probably owing to the fact that, being dark
in color, the crust appears brown very soon, thus
deluding the cook into supposing that the loaf is
well baked. For thorough baking, from one to one
and a half hours are needed, according to the size
of the loaf and the heat of the oven.

Page 100

TOAST.—­Toasting, if properly done, renders
bread more digestible, the starch being converted
into dextrine by the toasting process; but by the
ordinary method of preparing toast, that of simply
browning each side, only the surfaces of the slices
are really toasted, while the action of the heat upon
the interior of the slice, it is rendered exactly
in the condition of new bread, and consequently quite
as indigestible. If butter is added while the
toast is hot, we have all the dyspepsia-producing
elements of new bread and butter combined. Although
considered to be the dish par excellence for
invalids, nothing could be more unwholesome than such
toast. To properly toast the bread, the drying
and browning should extend throughout the entire thickness
of the slice. Bread may be thus toasted before
an open fire, but the process would be such a lengthy
and troublesome one, it is far better to secure the
same results by browning the bread in a moderate oven.

Such toast is sometimes called zwieback (twice
baked), and when prepared from good whole-wheat bread,
is one of the most nourishing and digestible of foods.
Directions for its preparation and use will be found
in the chapter on “Breakfast Dishes.”

STEAMED BREAD.—­Steaming stale bread is
as open to objection as the surface toasting of bread,
if steamed so as to be yielding and adhesive.
It is not, perhaps, as unwholesome as new bread, but
bread is best eaten in a condition dry and hard enough
to require chewing, that its starch may be so changed
by the action of the saliva as to be easily digested.

LIQUID YEAST.

RECIPES.

RAW POTATO YEAST.—­Mix one fourth of a cup
of flour, the same of white sugar, and a teaspoonful
of salt to a paste with a little water. Pare
three medium-size, fresh, and sound potatoes, and grate
them as rapidly as possible into the paste; mix all
quickly together with a silver spoon, then pour three
pints of boiling water slowly over the mixture, stirring
well at the same time. If this does not rupture
the starch cells of the flour and potatoes so that
the mixture becomes thickened to the consistency of
starch, turn it into a granite-ware kettle and boil
up for a minute, stirring well to keep it from sticking
and burning. If it becomes too much thickened,
add a little more boiling water. It is impossible
to give the exact amount of water, since the quality
of the flour will vary, and likewise the size of the
potatoes; but three pints is an approximate proportion.
Strain the mixture through a fine colander into an
earthen bread bowl, and let it cool. When lukewarm,
add one cup of good, lively yeast. Cover with
a napkin, and keep in a moderately warm place for
several hours, or until it ceases to ferment.
As it begins to ferment, stir it well occasionally,
and when well fermented, turn into a clean glass or
earthen jar. The next morning cover closely,
and put in the cellar or refrigerator, not, however,
in contact with the ice. It is best to reserve
enough for the first baking in some smaller jar, so
that the larger portion need not be opened so soon.
Always shake the yeast before using.

Page 101

RAW POTATO YEAST NO. 2.—­This is made in
the same manner as the preceding, with this exception,
that one fourth of a cup of loose hops tied in a clean
muslin bag, is boiled in the water for five minutes
before pouring it into the potato and flour mixture.
Many think the addition of the hops aids in keeping
the yeast sweet for a longer period. But potato
yeast may be kept sweet for two weeks without hops,
if cared for, and is preferred by those who dislike
the peculiar flavor of the bread made from hop yeast.

HOP YEAST.—­Put half a cup of loose hops,
or an eighth of an ounce of the pressed hops (put
up by the Shakers and sold by druggists), into a granite-ware
kettle; pour over it a quart of boiling water, and
simmer about five minutes. Meanwhile stir to
a smooth paste in a tin basin or another saucepan,
a cup of flour, and a little cold water. Line
a colander with a thin cloth, and strain the boiling
infusion of hops through it onto the flour paste,
stirring continually. Boil this thin starch a
few minutes, until it thickens, stirring constantly
that no lumps be formed. Turn it into a large
earthen bowl, add a tablespoonful of salt and two
of white sugar, and when it has cooled to blood heat,
add one half cup of lively yeast, stirring all well
together. Cover the bowl with a napkin, and let
it stand in some moderately warm place twenty-four
hours, or until it ceases to ferment or send up bubbles,
beating back occasionally as it rises; then put into
a wide-mouthed glass or earthen jar, which has been
previously scalded and dried, cover closely, and set
in a cool place. Yeast made in this manner will
keep sweet for two weeks in summer and longer in winter.

BOILED POTATO YEAST.—­Peel four large potatoes,
and put them to boil in two quarts of cold water.
Tie two loose handfuls of hops securely in a piece
of muslin, and place in the water to boil with the
potatoes. When the potatoes are tender, remove
them with a perforated skimmer, leaving the water
still boiling. Mash them, and work in four tablespoons
of flour and two of sugar. Over this mixture pour
gradually the boiling hop infusion, stirring constantly,
that it may form a smooth paste, and set it aside
to cool. When lukewarm, add a gill of lively
yeast, and proceed as in the preceding recipe.

BOILED POTATO YEAST NO. 2.—­To one teacupful
of very smoothly mashed, mealy potato, add three teaspoonfuls
of white sugar, one teaspoonful of salt, and one cup
of lively yeast, or one cake of Yeast Foam, dissolved
in a very little water. The potatoes should be
warm, but not hot enough to destroy the yeast.
Allow this to stand until light, when it is ready
for use.

FERMENTED BREADS.

In the preparation of breads after the following recipes,
the measure of flour should be heaping.

RECIPES.

Page 102

MILK BREAD WITH WHITE FLOUR.—­Scald and
cool on pint of unskimmed milk. Add to the milk
when lukewarm, one fourth of a cup, or three tablespoonfuls,
of liquid yeast, and three cups of flour. Give
the batter a vigorous beating, turn it into a clean
bread bowl or a small earthen crock, cover, and let
it rise over night. In the morning, when well
risen, add two or three cupfuls of warm flour, or sufficient
to knead. Knead well until the dough is sufficiently
elastic to rebound when struck forcibly with the fist.
Allow it to rise again in mass; then shape into loaves;
place in pans; let it stand until light, and bake.
If undesirable to set the bread over night, and additional
tablespoonfuls or two of cheese may be used, to facilitate
the rising.

VIENNA BREAD.—­Into a pint of milk sterilized
by scalding, turn a cup and a half of boiling water.
When lukewarm, add one half cup of warm water, in
which has been dissolved a cake of compressed yeast,
and a quart of white flour. Beat the batter thus
made very thoroughly, and allow it to rise for one
hour; then add white flour until the dough is of a
consistency to knead. Knead well, and allow it
to rise again for about three hours, or until very
light. Shape into four loaves, handling lightly.
Let it rise again in the pans, and bake. During
the baking, wash the tops of the loaves with a sponge
dipped in milk, to glaze them.

WATER BREAD.—­Dissolve a tablespoonful of
sugar in a pint of boiling water. When lukewarm,
add one fourth of a cup full of liquid yeast, and
sufficient flour to make a batter thick enough to drop
from the spoon. Beat vigorously for ten minutes,
turn into a clean, well-scalded bread bowl, cover
(wrapping in a blanket if in cold weather), and let
it rise over night. In the morning, when well
risen, add flour to knead. Knead well for half
an hour, cover, and let it become light in mass.
When light, shape into loaves, allow it to rise again,
and bake.

FRUIT ROLL.—­Take some bread dough prepared
as for Milk Bread, which has been sufficiently kneaded
and is ready to mold, and roll to about one inch in
thickness. Spread over it some dates which have
been washed, dried, and stoned, raisins, currants,
or chopped figs. Roll it up tightly into a loaf.
Let and it rise until very light, and bake.

FRUIT LOAF.—­Set a sponge with one pint
of rich milk, one fourth cup of yeast, and a pint
of flour, over night. In the morning, add two
cups of Zante currents, one cup of sugar, and three
cups of flour, or enough to make a rather stiff dough.
Knead well, and set to rise; when light, mold into
loaves; let it rise again, and bake.

POTATO BREAD.—­Cook and mash perfectly smooth,
potatoes to make a cupful. Add a teaspoonful
of best white sugar, one cup and a half of warm water,
and when the mixture is lukewarm, one half cup of yeast,
prepared as directed for Boiled Potato Yeast No. 2,
and flour to make a very thick batter. Allow
it to rise over night. In the morning, add a
pint of warm water and flour enough to knead.
The dough will need to be considerably stiffer than
when no potato is used, or the result will be a bread
too moist for easy digestion. Knead well.
Let it rise, mold into four loaves, and when again
light, bake.

Page 103

PULLED BREAD.—­Remove a loaf from the oven
when about half baked, and lightly pull the partially
set dough into pieces of irregular shape, about half
the size of one’s fist. Do not smooth or
mold the pieces; bake in a slow oven until browned
and crisp throughout.

WHOLE WHEAT BREAD.—­The materials needed
for the bread are: one pint of milk, scalded
and cooled, one quart of wheat berry flour, one pint
Minnesota spring wheat flour, one third cup of a soft
yeast, or one fourth cake of compressed yeast, dissolved
in one third cup of cold water. Stir enough flour
into the milk to make a stiff batter, put in the yeast,
and let it rise until foamy. Have the milk so
warm that, when the flour is put in, the batter will
be of a lukewarm temperature. Wrap in a thick
blanket, and keep at an equable temperature. When
light, stir in, slowly, warm flour to make a soft
dough. Knead for fifteen minutes, and return
to the bowl (which has been washed and oiled) to rise
again. When risen to double its size, form into
two loaves, place in separate pans, let rise again,
and bake from three fourths to one and one half hours,
according to the heat of the oven.

WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD NO. 2.—­Scald one pint
of unskimmed milk; when lukewarm, add one half cup
of liquid yeast, or one fourth cake of compressed
yeast, dissolved in one half cup of warm water, and
a pint of Pillsbury’s best white flour.
Beat this batter thoroughly, and allow it to rise.
When well risen, add three and two thirds cups of wheat
berry flour. Knead thoroughly, and allow it to
become light in mass; then shape into two loaves,
allow it to rise again, and bake.

MISS. B’S ONE-RISING BREAD.—­Sift
and measure three and three fourths cups of wheat
berry flour. Scald and cool a pint of unskimmed
milk. When lukewarm, add one tablespoonful of
lively liquid yeast. By slow degrees add the
flour, beating vigorously until too stiff to use a
spoon, then knead thoroughly for half an hour, shape
into a loaf, place in a bread pan, cover with a napkin
in warm weather, wrap well with blankets in cold weather,
and let rise over night. In the morning, when
perfectly light, pat in a well heated oven, and bake.

POTATO BREAD WITH WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR.—­Take
a half gill of liquid yeast made as for Boiled Potato
Yeast No. 2, and add milk, sterilised and cooled to
lukewarm, to make a pint. And one cup of well-mashed,
mealy potato and one cup of white flour, or enough
to make a rather thick batter Beat thoroughly, cover,
and set to rise. When well risen, add sufficient
whole-wheat flour to knead. The quantity will
vary somewhat with the brand of flour used, but about
four and one fourth cupfuls will in general be needed.
Knead well, let it rise in mass and again in the loaf,
and bake.

RYE BREAD.—­Prepare a sponge over night
with white flour as for Water Bread. In the morning,
when light, add another tablespoonful of sugar, and
rye flour to knead. Proceed as directed for the
Water Bread, taking care to use only enough rye flour
to make the dough Just stiff enough to mold.
Use white flour for dusting than kneading board, as
the rye flour is sticky.

Page 104

GRAHAM BREAD.—­Take two tablespoonfuls of
lively liquid yeast, or a little less than one fourth
cake of compressed yeast, dissolved in a little milk,
and add new milk, scalded and cooled to lukewarm, to
make one pint. Add one pint of white flour, beat
very thoroughly, and set to rise. When very light,
add three find one half cupfuls of sifted Graham flour,
or enough to make a dough that can be molded.
Knead well for half an hour. Place in a clean,
slightly oiled bread bowl, cover, and allow it to
rise. When light, shape into a loaf: allow
it to rise again, and bake.

GRAHAM BREAD NO. 2.—­Mix well one pint of
white and two pints of best Graham flour. Prepare
a batter with a scant pint of milk, scalded and cooled,
two table spoonfuls of liquid yeast, or a little less
than one fourth of a cake of compressed yeast, dissolved
in two table spoonfuls of milk, and a portion of the
mixed flour. Give it a vigorous beating, and
put it in a warm place to rise. When well risen,
add more flour to make a dough sufficiently stiff
to knead. There will be some variation in the
amount required, dependent upon the brands of flour
used, but in general, two and one half pints of the
flour will be enough for preparing the sponge and
kneading the dough. Knead thoroughly for twenty-five
or thirty minutes. Put into a clean and slightly
oiled bread bowl, cover, and set to rise again.
When double its first bulk, mold into a loaf; allow
it to rise again, and bake.

GRAHAM BREAD NO. 3.—­Mix three pounds each
of Graham and Minnesota spring wheat flour. Make
a sponge of one and a half pints of warm water, one
half cake compressed yeast, well dissolved in the water,
and flour to form a batter. Let this rise.
When well risen, add one and a half pints more of
warm water, one half cup full of New Orleans molasses,
and sufficient flour to knead. Work the bread
thoroughly, allow it to rise in mass; then mold, place
in pans, and let it rise again. The amount of
material given is sufficient for four loaves of bread.

RAISED BISCUIT.—­These may be made from
dough prepared by any of the preceding recipes for
bread. They will be more tender if made with
milk, and if the dough is prepared expressly for biscuits,
one third cream may be used. When the dough has
been thoroughly kneaded the last time, divide into
small, equal-sized pieces. A quantity of dough
sufficient for one loaf of bread should be divided
into twelve or sixteen such portions. Shape into
smooth, round biscuits, fit closely into a shallow
pan, and let them rise until very light. Biscuit
should be allowed to become lighter than bread before
putting in the oven, since, being so much smaller,
fermentation is arrested much sooner, and they do
not rise as much in the oven as does bread.

Page 105

ROLLS.—­Well kneaded and risen bread dough
is made into a variety of small forms termed rolls,
by rolling with the hands or with a rolling-pin, and
afterward cutting or folding into any shape desired,
the particular manner by which they are folded and
shaped giving to the rolls their characteristic names.
Dough prepared with rich milk or part cream makes
the best rolls. It may be divided into small,
irregular portions, about one inch in thickness, and
shaped by taking each piece separately in the left
hand, then with the thumb and first finger of the
right hand, slightly stretch one of the points of the
piece and draw it over the left thumb toward the center
of the roll, holding it there with the left thumb.
Turn the dough and repeat the operation until you have
been all around the dough, and each point has been
drawn in; then place on the pan to rise. Allow
the rolls to become very light, and bake. Rolls
prepared in this manner are termed Imperial Rolls,
and if the folding has been properly done, when well
baked they will be composed of a succession of light
layers, which can be readily separated.

French Rolls may be made by shaping each portion
of dough into small oval rolls quite tapering at each
end, allowing them to become light, and baking far
enough apart so that one will not touch another.

If, when the dough is light and ready to shape, it
be rolled on the board until about one eighth of an
inch in thickness, and cut into five-inch squares,
then divided through the center into triangles, rolled
up, beginning with the wide side, and placed in the
pan to rise in semicircular shape, the rolls are called
Crescents.

What are termed Parker House Rolls may be made
from well-risen dough prepared with milk, rolled upon
the board to a uniform thickness of about one forth
inch; cut into round or oval shapes with the cutter;
folded, one third over the other two thirds; allowed
to rise until very light, and baked.

The light, rolled dough, may be formed into a Braid
by cutting into strips six inches in length and one
in width, joining the ends of each three, and braiding.

The heat of the oven should be somewhat greater for
roils and biscuit than for bread. The time required
will depend upon the heat and the size of the roll,
but it will seldom exceed one half hour. Neither
rolls nor biscuits should be eaten hot, as they are
then open to the same objections as other new yeast
bread.

BROWN BREAD.—­To one and one fourth cups
of new milk which has been scalded and cooled, add
one fourth of a cup of lively yeast, three tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and one cup each of white flour, rye flour
or sifted rye meal, and yellow corn meal. With
different brands of flour there may need to be some
variation in the quantity of liquid to be used.
The mixture should be thick enough to shape. Allow
it to rise until light and cracked over the top; put
into a bread pan, and when again well risen, bake
for an hour and a half or two hours in an oven sufficiently
hot at first to arrest fermentation and fix the bread
cells, afterwards allowing the heat to diminish somewhat,
to permit a slower and longer baking. Graham
flour may be used in place of rye, if preferred.

Page 106

DATE BREAD.—­Take a pint of light white
bread sponge prepared with milk, add two tablespoons
of sugar, and Graham flour to make a very stiff batter.
And last a cupful of stoned dates. Turn into a
bread pan. Let it rise, and bake.

FRUIT LOAF WITH GRAHAM AND WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.—­Dissolve
one fourth cake of compressed yeast in a pint of sterilized
milk; and a pint of white flour; heat thoroughly,
and set to rise. When well risen, add three and
one fourth cups of flour (Graham and whole-wheat, equal
proportions, thoroughly mixed), or sufficient to knead.
Knead well for half an hour, and just at the last
add a cup of raisins, well washed, dried, and dusted
with flour. Let the loaf rise in mass; then shape,
put in the pan, allow it to become light again, and
bake.

RAISED CORN BREAD.—­Into two cupfuls of
hot mush made from white granular corn meal, stir
two cupfuls of cold water. Beat well, and add
one half cup of liquid yeast, or one half cake of compressed
yeast, dissolved in one half cup of warm water, and
two teaspoonfuls of granulated sugar. Stir in
white or sifted Graham flour to make it stiff enough
to knead. Knead very thoroughly, and put in a
warm place to rise. When light, molded into three
loaves, put into pans, and allow it to rise again.
When well risen, bake at least for three fourths of
an hour.

CORN CAKE.—­Sterilise a cupful of rich milk
or thin cream. Cool to lukewarm, and dissolve
in it half a cake of compressed yeast Add two small
cupfuls of white flour; beat very thoroughly, and put
in a warm place to rise. When light, add a cup
of lukewarm water or milk, and two cups of best yellow
cornmeal. Turn into a shallow square pan, and
leave until again well risen. Bake in a quick
oven. A tablespoonful of sugar may be added with
the corn meal, if desired.

OATMEAL BREAD.—­Mix a quart of well-cooked
oatmeal mush with a pint of water, beating it perfectly
smooth; add a cupful of liquid yeast and flour to
make a stiff batter. Cover, and let it rise.
When light, add sufficient flour to mold; knead as
soft as possible, for twenty or thirty minutes; shape
into four or more loaves, let it rise again, and bake.

MILK YEAST BREAD.—­Prepare the yeast the
day before by scalding three heaping teaspoonfuls
of fresh cornmeal with boiling milk. Set in a
warm place until light (from seven to ten hours); then
put in a cool place until needed for use. Start
the bread by making a rather thick batter with one
cupful of warm water, one teaspoonful of the prepared
yeast, and white flour. Put in a warm place to
rise. When light, add to it a cupful of flour
scalded with a cupful of boiling milk, and enough
more flour to make the whole into a rather stiff batter.
Cover, and allow it to rise. When again well
risen, add flour enough to knead. Knead well;
shape into a loaf; let it rise, and bake. Three
or four cupfuls of white flour will be needed for
all purposes with the amount of liquid given; more
liquid and flour may be added in forming the second
sponge if a larger quantity of bread is desired.
In preparing both yeast and bread, all utensils used
should first be sterilized by scalding in hot sal-soda
water.

Page 107

GRAHAM SALT-RISING BREAD.—­Put two tablespoonfuls
of milk into a half-pint cup, add boiling water to
fill the cup half full, one half teaspoonful of sugar,
one fourth teaspoonful of salt, and white flour to
make a rather stiff batter. Let it rise over night.
In the morning, when well risen, add a cup and a half
of warm water, or milk scalded and cooled, and sufficient
white flour to form a rather stiff batter. Cover,
and allow it again to rise. When light, add enough
sifted Graham flour to knead. When well kneaded,
shape into a loaf; allow it to become light again
in the pan, and bake. All utensils used should
be first well sterilized by scalding in hot sal-soda
water.

UNFERMENTED BREADS.

The earliest forms of bread were made without fermentation.
Grain was broken as fine as possible by pounding on
smooth stones, made into dough with pure water, thoroughly
kneaded, and baked in some convenient way. Such
was the “unleavened breads” or “Passover
cakes” of the Israelites. In many countries
this bread is the only kind used. Unleavened bread
made from barley and oats is largely used by the Irish
and Scotch peasantry. In Sweden an unleavened
bread is made of rye meal and water, flavored with
anise seed, and baked in large, thin cakes, a foot
or more in diameter.

[Illustration: Mexican Woman Making Tortillas]

Some savage tribes subsists chiefly upon excellent
corn bread, made simply of meal and water. Unleavened
bread made of corn, called tortillas, forms
the staple diet of the Mexican Indians. The corn,
previously softened by soaking in lime water, is ground
to a fine paste between a stone slab and roller called
a metate, then patted and tossed from hand
to hand until flattened into thin, wafer-like cakes,
and baked over a quick fire, on a thin iron plate or
a flat stone.

Unquestionably, unleavened bread, well kneaded and
properly baked, is the most wholesome of all breads,
but harder to masticate than that made light by fermentation,
but this is an advantage; for it insures more thorough
mixing with that important digestive agent, the saliva,
than is usually given to more easily softened food.

[Illustration: Stone Metate.]

What is usually termed unfermented bread, however,
is prepared with flour and liquid, to which shortening—­of
some kind is added, and the whole made light by the
liberation of gas generated within the dough during
the process of baking. This is brought about either
by mixing with the flour certain chemical substances,
which, when wet and brought into contact, act upon
each other so as to set free carbonic acid gas, which
expands and puffs up the loaf; or by introducing into
the dough some volatile substance as carbonate of
ammonia, which the heat during baking will, cause
to vaporize, and which in rising produces the same
result.

Carbonic acid gas maybe for this purpose developed
by the chemical decomposition of bicarbonate of potassa
(saleratus), or bicarbonate of soda, by some acid
such as sour milk, hydrochloric acid, tartaric acid,
nitrate of potassa, or the acid phosphate of lime.

Page 108

The chemical process of bread-raising originally consisted
in adding to the dough definite proportions of muriatic
acid and carbonate of soda, by the union of which
carbonic acid gas and common salt were produced.
This process was soon abandoned, however, on account
of the propensity exhibited by the acid for eating
holes in the fingers of the baker as well as in his
bread pans; and a more convenient one for hands and
pans, that of using soda or salaratus with cream of
tartar or sour milk, was substituted. When there
is an excess of soda, a portion of it remains in the
loaf uncombined, giving to the bread a yellow color
and an alkaline taste, and doing mischief to the delicate
coating of the stomach. Alkalies, the class of
chemicals to which soda and salaratus belong, when
pure and strong, are powerful corrosive poisons.
The acid used with the alkali to liberate the carbonic-acid
gas in the process of bread-making, if rightly proportioned,
destroys this poisonous property, and unites with
it to form a new compound, which, although not a poison,
is yet unwholesome.

We can hardly speak too strongly in condemnation of
the use of chemicals in bread-making, when we reflect
that the majority of housewives who combine sour milk
and salaratus, or cream of tartar and soda, more frequently
than otherwise guess at the proportions, or
measure them by some “rule of thumb,”
without stopping to consider that although two cups
of sour milk may at one time be sufficiently acid to
neutralize a teaspoonful of saleratus, milk may vary
in degree of acidity to such an extent that the same
quantity will be quite insufficient for the purpose
at another time; or that though a teaspoonful of some
brand of cream of tartar will neutralize a half teaspoonful
of one kind of soda, similar measures will not always
bring about the same result. Very seldom, indeed,
will the proportions be sufficiently exact to perfectly
neutralise the alkali, since chemicals are subject
to variations in degree of strength, both on account
of the method by which they are manufactured and the
length of time they have been kept, to say nothing
of adulterations to which they may have been subjected,
and which are so common that it is almost impossible
to find unadulterated cream of tartar in the market.

Baking powders are essentially composed of bicarbonate
of soda and cream of tartar, mixed in the proper proportions
to exactly neutralize each other, and if they were
always pure, would certainly be as good as soda and
cream of tartar in any form, and possess the added
advantage of perfect proportions; but as was demonstrated
not long ago by the government chemist, nearly every
variety of baking powder in the market is largely
adulterated with cheaper and harmful substances.
Alum, a most frequent constituent of such baking powders,
is exceedingly injurious to the stomach. Out
of several hundred brands of baking powder examined,
only one was found pure.

Page 109

Even when in their purest state, these chemicals are
not harmless, as is so generally believed. It
is a very prevalent idea that when soda is neutralized
by an acid, both chemical compounds are in some way
destroyed or vaporized in the process, and in some
occult manner escape from the bread during the process
of baking. This is altogether an error.
The alkali and acid neutralize each other chemically,
but they do not destroy each other. Their union
forms a salt, exactly the same as the Rochelle salts
of medicine, a mild purgative, and if we could collected
from the bread and weigh or measure it, we would find
nearly as much of it as there was of the baking powder
in the first place. If two teaspoonfuls of baking
powder to the quart of flour be used, we have remaining
in the bread made with that amount of flour 165 grains
of crystallized Rochelle salts, or 45 grains more
than this to be found in a Seidlitz powder. It
may be sometimes useful to take a dose of salts, but
the daily consumption of such chemical substances in
bread can hardly be considered compatible with the
conditions necessary for the maintenance of health.
These chemical substances are unusable by the system,
and must all be removed by the liver and excretory
organs, thus imposing upon them an extra and unnecessary
burden. It has also been determined by scientific
experimentation that the chemicals found in baking
powders in bread retard digestion.

These substances are, fortunately, not needed for
the production of good light bread. The purpose
of their use is the production of a gas; but air is
a gas much more economical and abundant than carbonic-acid
gas, and which, when introduced into bread and subjected
to heat, has the property of expanding, and in doing,
puffing up the bread and making it light. Bread
made light with air is vastly superior to that compounded
with soda or baking powder, in point of healthfulness,
and when well prepared, will equal it in lightness
and palatableness. The only difficulty lies in
catching and holding the air until it has accomplished
the desired results. But a thorough understanding
of the necessary conditions and a little practice
will soon enable one to attain sufficient skill in
this direction to secure most satisfactory results.

[Illustration: Gem Irons]

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.—­All materials used
for making aerated bread should be of the very best
quality. Poor flour will not produce good bread
by this or by any other process. Aerated breads
are of two kinds: those baked while in the form
of a batter, and such as are made into a dough before
baking.

[Illustration: Perforated Sheet Iron Pan for
Rolls.]

Page 110

All breads, whether fermented or unfermented, are
lighter if baked in some small form, and this is particularly
true of unfermented breads made light with air.
For this reason, breads made into a dough are best
baked in the form of rolls, biscuits, or crackers,
and batter breads in small iron cups similar to those
in the accompanying illustration. These cups
or “gem irons” as they are sometimes called,
are to be obtained in various shapes and sizes, but
for this purpose the more shallow cups are preferable.
For baking the dough breads a perforated sheet of Russia
iron or heavy tin, which any tinner can make to fit
the oven, is the most serviceable, as it permits the
hot air free access to all sides of the bread at once.
If such is not obtainable, the upper oven grate, carefully
washed and scoured, may be used Perforated pie tins
also answer very well for this purpose.

[Illustration: Making Unfermented Bread.]

The heat of the oven for baking should be sufficient
to form a slight crust over all sides of the bread
before the air escapes, but not sufficient to brown
it within the first fifteen minutes. To aid in
forming the crust on the sides and bottom of batter
breads, the iron cups should be heated previous to
introducing the batter. The degree of heat required
for baking will be about the same as for fermented
rolls and biscuit, and the fire should be so arranged
as to keep a steady but not greatly increasing heat.

Air is incorporated into batter breads by brisk and
continuous agitating and beating; into dough breads
by thorough kneading, chopping, or pounding.

Whatever the process by which the air is incorporated,
it must be continuous. For this reason
it is especially essential in making aerated bread
that every thing be in readiness before commencing
to put the bread together. All the materials
should be measured out, the utensils to be used in
readiness, and the oven properly heated. Success
is also dependent upon the dexterity with which the
materials when ready are put together. Batter
bread often proves a failure although the beating
is kept up without cessation, because it is done slowly
and carelessly, or interspersed with stirring, thus
permitting the air to escape between the strokes.

If the bread is to be baked at once, the greater the
dispatch with which it can be gotten into a properly-heated
oven the lighter it will be. Crackers, rolls
and other forms of dough breads often lack in lightness
because they were allowed to stand some time before
baking. The same is true of batter breads.
If, for any reason, it is necessary to keep such breads
for any length of time after being prepared, before
baking, set the dish containing them directly on ice.

Page 111

The lightness of aerated bread depends not only upon
the amount of air incorporated in its preparation,
but also upon the expansion of the air during the
baking. The colder the air, the greater will be
its expansion upon the application of heat. The
colder the materials employed, then, for the bread-making,
the colder will be the air confined within it, and
the lighter will be the bread. For this reason,
in making batter bread, it will be found a good plan,
when there is time, to put the materials together,
and place the dish containing the mixture on ice for
an hour or two, or even over night. When ready
to use, beat thoroughly for ten or fifteen minutes
to incorporate air, and bake in heated irons.
Rolls and other breads made into a dough, may be kneaded
and shaped and put upon ice to become cold. Thus
treated, less kneading is necessary than when prepared
to be baked at once.

Many of the recipes given for the batter breads include
eggs. The yolk is not particularly essential,
and if it can be put to other uses, may be left out.
The white of an egg, because of its viscous nature,
when beaten, serves as a sort of trap to catch and
hold air, and added to the bread, aids in making it
light. Very nice light bread may be made without
eggs, but the novice in making aerated breads will,
perhaps, find it an advantage first to become perfectly
familiar with the processes and conditions involved,
by using the recipes with eggs before attempting those
without, which are somewhat more dependent for success
upon skill and practice.

When egg is used in the bread, less heating of the
irons will be necessary, and not so hot an oven as
when made without.

If the bread, when baked, appears light, but with
large holes in the center, it is probable that either
the irons or the oven was too hot at first. If
the bread after baking, seems sticky or dough-like
in the interior, it is an indication that either it
was insufficiently baked, or that not enough flour
in proportion to the liquid has been used. It
should be stated, that although the recipes given have
been prepared with the greatest care, and with the
same brands of flour, careful measurement, and proper
conditions, prove successful every time, yet with
different brands of flour some variation in quantity
may needed,—­a trifle more or less,—­dependent
upon the absorbent properties of the flour, and if
eggs are used, upon the size of the eggs.

A heavy bread may be the result of the use of poor
flour, too much flour, careless or insufficient beating,
so that not enough air was incorporated, or an oven
not sufficiently hot to form a crust over the bread
before the air escaped. Breads made into a dough,
if moist and clammy, require more flour or longer
baking. Too much flour will make them stiff and
hard.

The length of time requisite for baking aerated breads
made with whole-wheat, wheat berry, or Graham flours,
will vary from forty minutes to one hour, according
to the kind and form in which the bread is baked,
and the heat of the oven.

Page 112

The irons in which batter breads are to be baked should
not be smeared with grease; if necessary to oil them
at all, they should only be wiped out lightly with
a clean, oiled cloth. Irons well cared for, carefully
washed, and occasionally scoured with Sapolio to keep
them perfectly smooth, will require no greasing whatever.

In filling the irons, care should be taken to fill
each cup at first as full as it is intended to have;
it, as the heat of the irons begins the cooking of
the batter as soon as it is put in, and an additional
quantity added has a tendency to make the bread less
light.

RECIPES.

WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.—­Put the yolk of an egg
into a basin, and beat the white in a separate dish
to a stiff froth. Add to the yolk, one half a
cupful of rather thin sweet cream and one cupful of
skim milk. Beat the egg, cream, and milk together
until perfectly mingled and foamy with air bubbles;
then add, gradually, beating well at the same time,
one pint of what berry flour. Continue the beating
vigorously and without interruption for eight or ten
minutes; then stir in, lightly, the white of the egg.
Do not beat again after the white of the egg is added,
but turn at once into heated, shallow irons, and bake
for an hour in a moderately quick oven. If properly
made and carefully baked, these puffs will be of a
fine, even texture throughout, and as light as bread
raised by fermentation.

WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS NO. 2.—­Make a batter
by beating together until perfectly smooth the yolk
of one egg, one and one half cups of new or unskimmed
milk, and one pint of whole-wheat flour. Place
the dish containing it directly upon ice, and leave
for an hour or longer. The bread may be prepared
and left on the ice over night, if desired for breakfast.
When ready to bake the puffs, whip the white of the
egg to a stiff froth, and after vigorously beating
the batter for ten minutes, stir in lightly the white
of the egg; turn at once into heated irons, and bake.
If preferred, one third white flour and two thirds
sifted Graham flour may be used in the place of the
wheat berry flour.

WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS NO. 3.—­Take one cupful
of sweet cream (twelve-hour cream), one half cupful
of soft ice water, and two slightly rounded cupfuls
of wheat berry flour. Beat the material well together,
and set the dish containing it on ice for an hour or
more before using. When ready to bake, beat the
mixture vigorously for ten minutes, then turn into
heated iron cups (shallow ones are best), and bake
for about an hour in a quick oven.

GRAHAM PUFFS.—­Beat together vigorously
until full of air bubbles, one pint of unskimmed milk,
the yolk of one egg, and one pint and three or four
tablespoonfuls of Graham flour, added a little at a
time. When the mixture is light and foamy throughout,
stir in lightly and evenly the white of the egg, beaten
to a stiff froth; turn into heated irons, and bake
in a rather quick oven. Instead of all Graham,
one third white flour may be used if preferred.

Page 113

GRAHAM PUFFS NO. 2.—­Beat the yolks of two
eggs in two cupfuls of ice water; then add gradually,
beating well meantime, three and one fourth cupfuls
of Graham flour. Continue the beating, after all
the flour is added, until the mixture is light and
full of air bubbles. Add last the whites of the
eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, and bake at once in
heated irons.

CURRANT PUFFS.—­Prepare the puffs as directed
in any of the foregoing recipes with the addition
of one cup of Zante currants which have been well
washed, dried, and floured.

GRAHAM GEMS.—­Into two cupfuls of unskimmed
milk which has been made very cold by standing on
ice, stir gradually, sprinkling it from the hand,
three and one fourth cupfuls of Graham flour.
Beat vigorously for ten minutes or longer, until the
batter is perfectly smooth and full of air bubbles.
Turn at once into hissing hot gem irons, and bake in
a hot oven. If preferred, the batter may be prepared,
and the dish containing it placed on ice for an hour
or longer; then well beaten and baked. Graham
gems may be made in this manner with soft water instead
of milk, but such, in general, will need a little
more flour than when made with milk. With some
ovens, it will be found an advantage in baking these
gems to place them on the upper grate for the first
ten minutes or until the top has been slightly crusted,
and then change to the bottom of the oven for the
baking.

CRUSTS.—­Beat together very thoroughly one
cupful of ice-cold milk, and one cupful of Graham
flour. When very light and full of air bubbles,
turn into hot iron cups, and bake twenty-five or thirty
minutes. The best irons for this purpose are
the shallow oblong, or round cups of the same size
at the bottom as at the top. Only a very little
batter should be put in each cup. The quantity
given is sufficient for one dozen crusts.

RYE PUFFS.—­Beat together the same as for
whole-wheat puffs one cupful of milk, one tablespoonful
of sugar, and the yolk of an egg. Add one cupful
of good rye flour, mixed with one half cupful of Graham
flour, and stir in lastly the well beaten white of
the egg. Bake at once, in heated gem-irons.

RYE PUFFS NO. 2.—­Beat together until well
mingled one pint of thin cream and the yolk of one
egg. Add gradually, beating meanwhile, four cups
of rye flour. Continue to beat vigorously for
ten minutes, then add the stiffly-beaten white of
the egg, and bake in heated irons.

RYE GEMS.—­Mix together one cupful of corn
meal and one cupful of rye meal. Stir the mixed
meal into one and a half cupfuls of ice water.
Beat the batter vigorously for ten or fifteen minutes,
then turn into hot irons, and bake.

BLUEBERRY GEMS.—­To one cupful of rich milk
add one tablespoonful of sugar, and the yolk of an
egg. Beat well till full of air bubbles; then
add gradually one cupful of Graham flour, and one cupful
of white flour, or white corn meal. Beat vigorously
until light; stir in the beaten white of the egg,
and one cupful of fresh, sound blueberries. Bake
in heated irons, in a moderately quick oven. Chopped
or sour apples may be used in place of the berries.

Page 114

HOMINY GEMS.—­Beat one egg until very light,
add to it one tablespoonful of thick sweet cream,
a little salt if desired, and two cupfuls of cooked
hominy (fine). Thin the mixture with one cupful
or less of boiling water until it will form easily,
beat well, and bake in heated irons.

SALLY LUNN GEMS.—­Beat together the yolk
of one egg, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and one cupful
of thin, ice-cold, sweet cream. Add slowly, beating
at the same time, one cup and two tablespoonfuls of
sifted Graham flour. Beat vigorously, until full
of air bubbles, add the white of the egg beaten stiffly,
and bake in heated irons.

CORN PUFFS.—­Mingle the yolk of one egg
with one cupful of rich milk. Add to the liquid
one cupful of flour, one-half cupful of fine, yellow
corn meal, and one-fourth cupful of sugar, all of which
have previously been well mixed together. Place
the batter on ice for an hour, or until very cold.
Then beat it vigorously five or ten minutes, till
full of air bubbles; stir in lightly the stiffly beaten
white of the egg, and put at once into heated irons.
Bake in a moderately quick oven, thirty or forty minutes.

CORN PUFFS NO. 2.—­Scald two cupfuls of
fine white corn meal with boiling water. When
cold, add three tablespoonfuls of thin sweet cream,
and the yolk of one egg. Beat well, and stir in
lastly the white of the egg, beaten to a stiff froth.
The batter should be sufficiently thin to drop easily
from a spoon, but not thin enough to pour. Bake
in heated irons, in a moderately quick oven.

CORN PUFFS NO. 3.—­Take one cupful of cold
mashed potato, and one cupful of milk, rubbed together
through a colander to remove all lumps. Add the
yolk of one well beaten, egg, and then stir in slowly,
beating vigorously meantime, one cupful of good corn
meal. Lastly, stir in the white of the egg beaten
to a stiff froth, and bake in heated irons, in a rather
quick oven.

CORN PUFFS NO. 4.—­Beat together one and
one-half cupfuls of unskimmed milk and the yolks of
two eggs, until thoroughly blended. Add two cupfuls
of flour, and one cupful best granular corn meal.
Beat the batter thoroughly; stir in lightly the whites
of the eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, turn into heated
irons, and bake.

CORN DODGERS.—­Scald one cupful of best
granular corn meal, with which a tablespoonful of
sugar has been sifted, with one cup of boiling milk.
Beat until smooth, and drop on a griddle, in cakes
about one inch in thickness, and bake slowly for an
hour. Turn when brown.

CORN DODGERS NO. 2.—­Mix one tablespoonful
of sugar with two cups best corn meal. Scald
with one cup of boiling water. Add rich milk to
make a batter thin enough to drop from a spoon.
Lastly, add one egg, yolk and white beaten separately,
and bake on a griddle in the oven from three fourth
of an hour to one hour.

CREAM CORN CAKES.—­Into one cup of thin
cream stir one and one half cups of granular corn
meal, or enough to make a stiff batter; beat well,
drop into heated irons, and bake.

Page 115

HOE CAKES.—­Scald one pint of white corn
meal, with which, if desired, a tablespoonful of sugar,
and one half teaspoonful of salt have been mixed,
with boiling milk, or water enough to make a batter
sufficiently thick not to spread. Drop on a hot
griddle, in large or small cakes, as preferred, about
one half inch in thickness. Cook slowly, and
when well browned on the under side, turn over.
The cake may be cooked slowly, until well done throughout,
or, as the portion underneath becomes well browned
the first browned crust may be peeled off with a knife,
and the cake again turned. As rapidly as a crust
becomes formed and browned, one may be removed, and
the cake turned, until the whole is all browned.
The thin wafer-like crusts are excellent served with
hot milk or cream.

OATMEAL GEMS.—­To one cupful of well-cooked
oatmeal add one half cupful of rich milk or thin cream,
and the yolk of one egg. Beat all together thoroughly;
then add, continuing to beat, one and one third cupfuls
of Graham flour, and lastly the stiffly beaten white
of the egg. Bake in heated irons. If preferred,
one cupful of white flour may be used in place of
the Graham.

SNOW GEMS.—­Beat together lightly but thoroughly
two parts clean, freshly fallen, dry snow, and one
part best granular corn meal. Turn into hot gem
irons and bake quickly. The snow should not be
packed in measuring, and the bread should be prepared
before the snow melts.

POP OVERS.—­For the preparation of these,
one egg, one cupful of milk, and one scant cupful
of white flour are required. Beat the egg, yolk
and white separately. Add to the yolk, when well
beaten, one half of the milk, and sift in the flour
a little at a time, stirring until the whole is a
perfectly smooth paste. Add the remainder of the
milk gradually, beating well until the whole is an
absolutely smooth, light batter about the thickness
of cream. Stir in the stiffly beaten white of
the egg, and bake in hot earthen cups or muffin rings,
and to prevent them from sticking, sift flour into
the rings after slightly oiling, afterward turning
them upside down to shake off all of the loose flour.

GRANOLA GEMS.—­Into three fourths of a cup
of rich milk stir one cup of Granola (prepared by
the Sanitarium Food Co.). Drop into heated irons,
and bake for twenty or thirty minutes.

BEAN GEMS.—­Prepare the gems in the same
manner as for Whole-Wheat Puffs, using one half cup
of milk, one egg, one cup of cooked beans which have
been rubbed through a colander and salted, and one
cup and one tablespoonful of white flour. A little
variation in the quantity of the flour may be necessary,
dependent upon the moisture contained in the beans,
although care should be taken to have them quite dry.

Page 116

BREAKFAST ROLLS.—­Sift a pint and a half
of Graham flour into a bowl, and into it stir a cupful
of very cold thin cream or unskimmed milk. Pour
the liquid into the flour slowly, a few spoonfuls at
a time, mixing each spoonful to a dough with the flour
as fast as poured in. When all the liquid has
been added, gather the fragments of dough together,
knead thoroughly for ten minutes or longer, until perfectly
smooth and elastic. The quantity of flour will
vary somewhat with the quality, but in general, the
quantity given will be quite sufficient for mixing
the dough and dusting the board. When well kneaded,
divide into two portions; roll each over and over
with the hands, until a long roll about once inch
in diameter is formed; cut this into two-inch lengths,
prick with a fork and place on perforated tins, far
enough apart so that one will not touch another when
baking. Each roll should be as smooth and perfect
as possible, and with no dry flour adhering. Bake
at once, or let stand on ice for twenty minutes.
The rolls should not be allowed to stand after forming,
unless on ice. From thirty to forty minutes will
be required for baking. When done, spread on the
table to cool, but do not pile one on top of another.

Very nice rolls may be made in the same manner, using
for the wetting ice-cold soft water. They requite
a longer kneading, are more crisp, but less tender
than those made with cream.

With some brands of Graham flour the rolls will be
much lighter if one third white flour be used.
Whole-wheat flour may be used in place of Graham,
if preferred.

STICKS.—­Prepare, and knead the dough the
same as for rolls. When ready to form, roll the
dough much smaller; scarcely larger than one’s
little finger, and cut into three or four-inch lengths.
Bake the same as rolls, for about twenty minutes.

CREAM GRAHAM RAILS.—­To one half cup cold
cream add one half cup of soft ice water. Make
into a dough with three cups of Graham flour, sprinkling
in slowly with the hands, beating at the same time,
so as to incorporate as much air as possible, until
the dough is too stiff to be stirred; then knead thoroughly,
form into rolls, and bake.

CORN MUSH ROLLS.—­Make a dough of one cup
of corn meal mush, one half cup of cream, and two
and one half cups of white flour; knead thoroughly,
shape into rolls, and bake.

FRUIT ROLLS.—­Prepare the rolls as directed
in the recipe for Breakfast Rolls, and when well kneaded,
work into the dough a half cupful of Zante currants
which have been well washed, dried, and floured.
Form the rolls in the usual manner, and bake.

CREAM MUSH ROLLS.—­Into a cupful of cold
Graham mush beat thoroughly three tablespoonfuls of
thick, sweet cream. Add sufficient Graham flour
to make a rather stiff dough, knead thoroughly, shape
into roils, and bake. Corn meal, farina, and
other mushes may be used in the place of the Graham
mush, if preferred.

Page 117

BEATEN BISCUIT.—­Into a quart of whole-wheat
flour mix a large cup of must be very stiff, and rendered
soft and pliable by thorough kneading and afterward
pounding with a mallet for at least half an hour in
the following manner: Pound the dough oat flat,
and until of the same thickness throughout; dredge
lightly with flour; double the dough over evenly and
pound quickly around the outside, to fasten the edges
together and thus retain the air within the dough.
When well worked, the dough will appear flaky and
brittle, and pulling a piece off it quickly will cause
a sharp, snapping sound. Mold into small biscuits,
making an indenture in the center of each with the
thumb, prick well with a fork, and place on perforated
sheets, with a space between, and put at once into
the oven. The oven should be of the same temperature
as for rolls. If they are “sad” inside
when cold, they were not well baked, as they should
be light and tender. If preferred, use one third
white flour, instead of all whole-wheat. Excellent
results are also obtained by chopping instead of pounding
the dough.

CREAM CRISPS.—­Make a dough of one cupful
of thin cream, and a little more than three cups of
Graham flour. Knead until smooth, then divide
the dough into several pieces, and place in a dish
on ice for an hour, or until ice cold. Roll each
piece separately and quickly as thin as brown paper.
Cut with a knife into squares, prick with a fork, and
bake on perforated tins, until lightly browned on both
sides.

CREAM CRISPS NO. 2.—­Into two and one half
cups of cold cream or rich milk, sprinkle slowly with
the hands, beating meanwhile to incorporate air, four
cups of best Graham flour, sifted with one half cup
of granulated sugar. Add flour to knead; about
two and one fourth cups will be required. When
well kneaded, divide into several portions, roll each
as thin as a knife blade, cut into squares, prick well
with a fork, and bake.

GRAHAM CRISPS.—­Into one half cupful of
ice-cold soft water, stir slowly, so as to incorporate
as much air as possible, enough Graham flour to make
a dough stiff enough to knead. A tablespoonful
of sugar may be added to the water before stirring
in the flour, if desired. After kneading fifteen
minutes, divide the dough into six portions; roll
each as thin as brown paper, prick with a fork, and
bake on perforated tins, turning often until both
sides are a light, even brown. Break into irregular
pieces and serve.

OATMEAL CRISPS.—­Make a dough with one cupful
of oatmeal porridge and Graham flour. Knead thoroughly,
roll very thin, and bake as directed for Graham Crisps.
A tablespoonful of sugar may be added if desired.

GRAHAM CRACKERS.—­Make a dough of one cup
of cream and Graham flour sufficient to make a soft
dough. Knead thoroughly, and place on ice for
half an hour; then roll thin, cut into small cakes
with a cookie-cutter, prick with a fork, and bake
on floured pans, in a brisk oven. A tablespoonful
of sugar may be added if desired.

Page 118

FRUIT CRACKERS.—­Prepare a dough with one
cup of cold sweet cream and three cups of Graham flour,
knead well, and divide into two portions. Roll
each quite thin. Spread one thickly with dates
or figs seeded and chopped; place the other one on
top and press together with the rolling pin.
Cut into squares and bake. An additional one fourth
of a cup of flour will doubtless be needed for dusting
the board and kneading.

TABLE TOPICS.

Behind the nutty loaf is the
mill wheel; behind the mill is the
wheat field; on the wheat
field rests the sunlight; above the sun is
God.—­James Russell
Lowell.

Bread forms one of the most important
parts of the ration of the German soldier.
In time of peace, the private soldier is supplied
day by day with one pound and nine ounces of bread;
when fighting for the Fatherland, every man is
entitled to a free ration of over two pounds of
bread, and field bakery trains and steam ovens for
providing the large amount of bread required, form
a recognized part of the equipment of the German
army.

The wandering Arab lives almost
entirely upon bread, with a few
dates as a relish.

According to Count Rumford, the Bavarian
wood-chopper, one of the most hardy and hard-working
men in the world, receives for his weekly rations
one large loaf of rye bread and a small quantity of
roasted meal. Of the meal he makes an infusion,
to which he adds a little salt, and with the mixture,
which he calls burned soup, he eats his rye bread.
No beer, no beef, no other food than that mentioned,
and no drink but water; and yet he can do more work
and enjoys a better digestion and possesses stronger
muscles than the average American or Englishman,
with their varied dietary.

The following truthful bit of Scandinavian
history well illustrates the influence of habits
of frugality upon national character: “The
Danes were approaching, and one of the Swedish
bishops asked how many men the province of Dalarna
could furnish.

“‘At least twenty
thousand,’ was the reply; ’for the old
men are
just as strong and brave as
the young ones.’

“‘But what do
they live upon?’

“’Upon bread and
water. They take little account of hunger and
thirst, and when corn is lacking,
they make their bread out of tree
bark.’

“‘Nay,’ said the bishop,
’a people who eat tree bark and drink water,
the devil himself could not vanquish!’ and neither
were they vanquished. Their progress was
one series of triumphs, till they placed Gustavus
Vasa on the throne of Sweden.”

The word biscuit embodies
the process by which this form of bread
was made from time immemorial
down to within the last century. Bis
(twice), and coctus
(cooked), show that they were twice baked.

Page 119

Fragments of unfermented bread
were discovered in the Swiss
lake-dwellings, which belong
to the Neolithic age.

Fermented bread is seldom seen in Northern
Europe and Asia except among the rich or the nobility.
At one time, the captain of an English vessel
requested a baker of Gottenburg to bake a large quantity
of loaves of raised bread. The baker refused to
undertake an order of such magnitude, saying it
would be quite impossible to dispose of so much,
until the captain agreed to take and pay for it all.

I made a study of the ancient and indispensable
art of bread-making, consulting such authorities
as offered, going back to the primitive days and
first invention of the unleavened kind, and traveling
gradually down in my studies through that accidental
souring of the dough which it is supposed taught
the leavening process, and through the various
fermentations thereafter till I came to “good,
sweet, wholesome bread,”—­the
staff of life. Leaven, which some deemed the
soul of bread, the spiritus which fills
its cellular tissues, which is religiously preserved
like the vestal fire,—­some precious bottleful,
I suppose, brought over in the Mayflower, did the
business for America, and its influence is still
rising, swelling, spreading in cerulean billows
over the land,—­this seed I regularly and
faithfully procured from the village, until one morning
I forgot the rules and scalded my yeast; by which
accident I discovered that even this was not indispensable,
and I have gladly omitted it ever since.
Neither did I put any soda or other acid or alkali
into my bread. It would seem that I made
it according to the recipe which Marcus Porcius
Cato gave about two centuries before Christ: “Make
kneaded bread thus: Wash your hands and trough
well. Put the meal into the trough, add water
gradually, and knead it thoroughly. When you
have needed it well, mold it, and bake it under a cover,”
that is in a baking kettle.—­Thoreau
in Walden.

FRUITS

Of all the articles which enter the list of foods,
none are more wholesome and pleasing than the fruits
which nature so abundantly provides. Their delicate
hues and perfect outlines appeal to our sense of beauty,
while their delicious flavors gratify our appetite.
Our markets are supplied with an almost unlimited
variety of both native and tropical fruits, and it
might be supposed that they would always appear upon
the daily bill of fare; yet in the majority of homes
this is rarely the case. People are inclined
to consider fruit, unless the product of their own
gardens, a luxury too expensive for common use.
Many who use a plentiful supply, never think of placing
it upon their tables, unless cooked. Ripe fruit
is a most healthful article of diet when partaken of
at seasonable times; but to eat it, or any other food,
between meals, is a gross breach of the requirements
of good digestion.

Fruits contain from seventy-five to ninety-five per
cent of water, and a meager proportion of nitrogenous
matter; hence their value as nutrients, except in
a few instances, is rather small; but they supply a
variety of agreeable acids which refresh and give tone
to the system, and their abundant and proper use does
much to keep the vital machinery in good working order.

Page 120

Aside from the skin and seeds, all fruits consist
essentially of two parts,—­the cellulose
structure containing the juice, and the juice itself.
The latter is water, with a small proportion of fruit
sugar (from one to twenty per cent in different varieties),
and vegetable acids. These acids are either free,
or combined with potash and lime in the form of acid
salts. They are mallic, citric, tartaric, and
pectic acids. The last-named is the jelly-producing
principle.

While the juice, as we commonly find it, is readily
transformable for use in the system, the cellular
structure of the fruit is not so easily digested.
In some fruits, as the strawberry, grape, and banana,
the cell walls are so delicate as to be easily broken
up; but in watermelons, apples, and oranges, the cells
are coarser, and form a larger bulk of the fruit,
hence are less easily digested. As a rule, other
points being equal, the fruits which yield the richest
and largest quantity of juices, and also possess a
cellular framework the least perceptible on mastication,
are the most readily digested. A certain amount
of waste matter is an advantage, to give bulk to our
food; but persons with weak stomachs, who cannot eat
certain kinds of fruit, are often able to digest the
juice when taken alone.

Unripe fruits differ from ripe fruits in that they
contain, starch, which during ripening is changed
into sugar, and generally some proportion of tannic
acid, which gives them their astringency. The
characteristic constituent of unripe fruit, however,
is pectose, an element insoluble in water, but which,
as maturation proceeds, is transformed into pectic
and pectosic acids. These are soluble in boiling
water, and upon cooling, yield gelatinous solutions.
Their presence makes it possible to convert the juice
of ripe fruits into jelly. Raw starch in any
form is indigestible, hence unripe fruit should never
be eaten uncooked. As fruit matures, the changes
it undergoes are such as best fit for consumption
and digestion. The following table shows the
composition of the fruits in common use:—­

There is a prevailing notion that the free use of
fruits, especially in summer, excites derangement
of the digestive organs. When such derangement
occurs, it is far more likely to have been occasioned
by the way in which the fruit was eaten than by the
fruit itself. Perhaps it was taken as a surfeit
dish at the end of a meal. It may have been eaten
in combination with rich, oily foods, pastry, strong
coffee, and other indigestible viands, which, in themselves,
often excite an attack of indigestion. Possibly
it was partaken of between meals, or late at night,
with ice cream and other confections, or it was swallowed
without sufficient mastication. Certainly, it
is not marvelous that stomach and bowel disorders
do result under such circumstances. The innocent
fruit, like many other good things, being found in
“bad company,” is blamed accordingly.
An excess of any food at meals or between meals, is
likely to prove injurious, and fruits present no exception
to this rule. Fruit taken at seasonable times
and in suitable quantities, alone or in combination
with proper foods, gives us one of the most agreeable
and healthful articles of diet. Fruit, fats,
and meats do not affiliate, and they are liable to
create a disturbance whenever taken together.

Partially decayed, stale, and over-ripe, as well as
unripe fruit, should never be eaten. According
to M. Pasteur, the French scientist, all fruits and
vegetables, when undergoing even incipient decay, contain
numerous germs, which, introduced into the system,
are liable to produce disturbances or disease.
Perfectly fresh, ripe fruit, with proper limitations
as to quantity and occasion, may be taken into a normal
stomach with impunity at any season.

It is especially important that all fruits to be eaten
should not only be sound in quality, but should be
made perfectly clean by washing if necessary, since
fruit grown near the ground is liable to be covered
with dangerous bacteria (such as cause typhoid fever
or diphtheria), which exist in the soil or in the
material used in fertilizing it.

Most fruits, properly used, aid digestion either directly
or indirectly. The juicy ones act as dilutents,
and their free use lessens the desire for alcohol
and other stimulants. According to German analysts,
the apple contains a larger percentage of phosphorus
than any other fruit, or than any vegetable.
In warm weather and in warm climates, when foods are
not needed for a heat-producing purpose, the diet may
well consist largely of fruits and succulent vegetables,
eaten in combination with bread and grains. In
case of liver and kidney affections, rheumatism, and
gout, the use of fruit is considered very beneficial
by many scientific authorities.

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To serve its best purpose, raw fruit should be eaten
without sugar or other condiments, or with the addition
of as small a quantity as possible.

It is a disputed question whether fruits should begin
or end the meal; but it is generally conceded by those
who have given the matter attention, that fruit eaten
at the beginning of a meal is itself the more readily
digested, and aids in the digestion of other foods,
since fruits, like soups, have the property of stimulating
the flow of the digestive juices. Something,
however, must depend upon the character of the fruit;
oranges, melons, and like juicy fruits, are especially
useful as appetizers to begin the meal, while bananas
and similar fruits agree better if taken with other
food, so as to secure thorough mixture with saliva.
This is true of all fruits, except such pulpy fruits
as strawberries, peaches, melons, grapes, and oranges.
It is often erroneously asserted that fruit as dessert
is injurious to digestion. For those people,
however, who regulate their bill of fare in accordance
with the principles of hygiene, a simple course of
fruit is not only wholesome, but is all that is needed
after a dinner; and much time, labor, and health will
be saved when housekeepers are content to serve desserts
which nature supplies all ready for use, instead of
those harmful combinations in the preparing of which
they spend hours of tiresome toil.

DESCRIPTION.—­For convenience, fruits may
be grouped together; as, pomaceous fruits,
including the apple, quince, pear, etc.; the
drupaceous fruits, those provided with a hard
stone surrounded by a fleshy pulp, as the peach, apricot,
plum, cherry, olive, and date; the orange or citron
group, including the orange, lemon, lime, citron, grape
fruit, shaddock, and pomegranate; the baccate
or berry kind, comprising the grape, gooseberry, currant,
cranberry, whortleberry, blueberry, and others; the
arterio group, to which belong raspberries,
strawberries, dewberries, and blackberries; the fig
group; the gourd group, including—­melons
and cantaloupes; and foreign fruits.

It is impossible, in the brief scope of this work,
to enumerate the infinite varieties of fruit; but
we will briefly speak of some of the most common found
in the gardens and markets of this latitude.

APPLES.—­The origin and first home of the
apple, is unknown. If tradition is to be believed,
it was the inauspicious fruit to which may be traced
all the miseries of mankind. In pictures of the
temptation in the garden of Eden, our mother Eve is
generally represented as holding an apple in her hand.

We find the apple mentioned in the mythologies of
the Greeks, Druids, and Scandinavians. The Thebans
offered apples instead of sheep as a sacrifice to
Hercules, a custom derived from the following circumstance:—­

“At one time, when a sacrifice was necessary,
the river Asopus had so inundated the country that
it was impossible to take a sheep across it for the
purpose, when some youths, recollecting that the Greek
word melon signified both sheep and an apple,
stuck wooden pegs into the fruit to represent legs,
and brought this vegetable quadruped as a substitute
for the usual offering. After this date, the apple
was considered as especially devoted to Hercules.”

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In ancient times, Greece produced most excellent apples.
They were the favorite dessert of Phillip of Macedon
and Alexander the Great, the latter causing them to
be served at all meals. Doubtless they came to
be used to excess; for it is recorded of the Athenian
lawgiver, Solon, that he made a decree prohibiting
a bridegroom from partaking of more than one at his
marriage banquet, a law which was zealously kept by
the Greeks, and finally adopted by the Persians.
In Homer’s time the apple was regarded as one
of the precious fruits. It was extensively cultivated
by the Romans, who gave to new varieties the names
of many eminent citizens, and after the conquest of
Gaul, introduced its culture into Southwestern Europe,
whence it has come to be widely diffused throughout
all parts of the temperate zone.

Apples were introduced into the United States by the
early settlers, and the first trees were planted on
an island in Boston Harbor, which still retains the
name of Apple Island. The wild crab tree is the
parent of most of the cultivated varieties.

THE PEAR.—­The origin of the pear, like
that of the apple, is shrouded in obscurity, though
Egypt, Greece, and Palestine dispute for the honor
of having given birth to the tree which bears this
prince of fruits. Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher
of the fourth century, speaks of the pear in terms
of highest praise; and Galen, the father of medical
science, mentions the pear in his writings as possessing
“qualities which benefit the stomach.”
The pear tree is one of the most hardy of all fruit
trees, and has been known to live several hundred years.

THE QUINCE.—­This fruit appears to have
been a native of Crete, from whence it was introduced
into ancient Greece; and was largely cultivated by
both Greeks and Romans. In Persia, the fruit is
edible in its raw state; but in this country it never
ripens sufficiently to be palatable without being
cooked. The fruit is highly fragrant and exceedingly
acid, and for these reasons it is largely employed
to flavor other fruits.

THE PEACH.—­This fruit, as its botanical
name, prinus Persica, indicates, is a native
of Persia, and was brought from that country to Greece,
from whence it passed into Italy. It is frequently
mentioned by ancient writers, and was regarded with
much esteem by the people of Asia. The Romans,
however, had the singular notion that peaches gathered
in Persia contained a deadly poison, but if once transplanted
to another soil, this injurious effect was lost.
In composition, the peach is notable for the small
quantity of saccharine matter it contains in comparison
with other fruits.

THE PLUM.—­The plum is one of the earliest
of known fruits. Thebes, Memphis, and Damascus
were noted for the great number of their plum trees
in the early centuries. Plum trees grow wild in
Asia, America, and the South of Europe, and from these
a large variety of domestic plum fruits have been
cultivated.

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Plums are more liable than most other fruits to produce
disorders of digestion, and when eaten raw should
be carefully selected, that they be neither unripe
nor unripe. Cooking renders them less objectionable.

THE PRUNE.—­The plum when dried is often
called by its French cognomen, prune.
The larger and sweeter varieties are generally selected
for drying, and when good and properly cooked, are
the most wholesome of prepared fruits.

THE APRICOT.—­This fruit seems to be intermediate
between the peach and the plum, resembling the former
externally, while the stone is like that of the plum.
The apricot originated in Armenia, and the tree which
bears the fruit was termed by the Romans “the
tree of Armenia.” It was introduced into
England in the time of Henry VIII. The apricot
is cultivated to some extent in the United States,
but it requires too much care to permit of its being
largely grown, except in certain sections.

THE CHERRY.—­The common garden cherry is
supposed to have been derived from the two species
of wild fruit, and historians tell us that we are
indebted to the agricultural experiments of Mithridates,
the great king of ancient Pontus, for this much esteemed
fruit. It is a native of Asia Minor, and its
birthplace.

THE OLIVE.—­From time immemorial the olive
has been associated with history. The Scriptures
make frequent reference to it, and its cultivation
was considered of first importance among the Jews,
who used its oil for culinary and a great variety
of other purposes. Ancient mythology venerated
the olive tree above all others, and invested it with
many charming bits of fiction. Grecian poets sang
its praises, and early Roman writers speak of it with
high esteem. In appearance and size the fruit
is much like the plum; when ripe, it is very dark green,
almost black, and possesses a strong, and, to many
people, disagreeable flavor. The pulp abounds
in a bland oil, for the production of which it is
extensively cultivated in Syria, Egypt, Italy, Spain,
and Southern France. The fruit itself is also
pickled and preserved in various ways, but, like all
other similar commodities when thus prepared, it is
by no means a wholesome article of food.

THE DATE.—­The date is the fruit of the
palm tree so often mentioned in the Sacred Writings,
and is indigenous to Africa and portions of Asia.
The fruit grows in bunches which often weigh from
twenty to twenty-five pounds, and a single tree will
bear from one to three thousand pounds in a season.
The date is very sweet and nutritious. It forms
a stable article of diet for the inhabitants of some
parts of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, and frequently
forms the chief food of their horses, dogs, and camels.
The Arabs reduce dried dates to a meal, and make therefrom
a bread, which often constitutes their sole food on
long journeys through the Great Desert. The inhabitants
of the countries where the date tree flourishes, put
its various productions to innumerable uses.

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From its leaves they make baskets, bags, mats, combs,
and brushes; from its stalks, fences for their gardens;
from its fibers, thread, rope, and rigging; from its
sap, a spirituous liquor; from its fruit, food for
man and beast; while the body of the tree furnishes
them with fuel. The prepared fruit is largely
imported to this country. That which is large,
smooth, and of a soft reddish yellow tinge, with a
whitish membrane between the flesh and stone, is considered
the best.

THE ORANGE.—­According to some authors,
the far-famed “golden fruit of the Hesperides,”
which Hercules stole, was the orange; but it seems
highly improbable that it was known to writers of antiquity.
It is supposed to be indigenous to Central and Eastern
Asia. Whatever its nativity, it has now spread
over all the warmer regions of the earth. The
orange tree is very hardy in its own habitat, and is
one of the most prolific of all fruit-bearing trees,
a single tree having been known to produce twenty
thousand good oranges in a season. Orange trees
attain great age. There are those in Italy and
Spain which are known to have flourished for six hundred
years. Numerous varieties of the orange are grown,
and are imported to our markets from every part of
the globe. Florida oranges are among the best,
and when obtained in their perfection, are the most
luscious of all fruits.

THE LEMON.—­This fruit is supposed to be
a native of the North of India, although it is grown
in nearly all sub-tropical climates. In general,
the fruit is very acid, but in a variety known as the
sweet lemon, or bergamot (said to be a hybrid of the
orange and lemon), the juice is sweet. The sour
lemon is highly valued for its antiscorbutic properties,
and is largely employed as a flavoring ingredient in
culinary preparations, and in making a popular refreshing
beverage.

THE CITRON.—­The citron is a fruit very
similar to the lemon, though larger in size and less
succulent. It is supposed to be identical with
the Hebrew tappuach, and to be the fruit which
is mentioned in the English version of the Old Testament
as “apple.” The citron is not suitable
for eating in its raw state, though its juice is used
in connection with water and sugar to form an excellent
acid drink. Its rind, which is very thick, with
a warty and furrowed exterior, is prepared in sugar
and largely used for flavoring purposes.

THE LIME.—­The fruit of the lime is similar
to the lemon, though much smaller in size. It
is a native of Eastern Asia, but has long been cultivated
in the South of Europe and other sub-tropical countries.
The fruit is seldom used except for making acidulous
drinks, for which it is often given the preference
over the lemon.

THE GRAPE FRUIT.—­This fruit, a variety
of shaddock, belongs to the great citrus family,
of which there are one hundred and sixty-nine known
varieties. The shaddock proper, however, is a
much larger fruit, frequently weighing from ten to
fourteen pounds. Although a certain quantity
of grape fruit is brought from the West Indies, our
principal supply is derived from Florida. It
is from two to four times the size of an ordinary
orange, and grows in clusters. It is rapidly gaining
in favor with fruit lovers. Its juice has a moderately
acid taste and makes a pleasing beverage. The
pulp, carefully separated, is also much esteemed.

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THE POMEGRANATE.—­This fruit has been cultivated
in Asia from earliest antiquity, and is still quite
generally grown in most tropical climes. In the
Scriptures it is mentioned with the vine, fig, and
olive, among the pleasant fruits of the promised land.
It is about the size of a large peach, of a fine golden
color, with a rosy tinge on one side. The rind
is thick and leathery. The central portion is
composed of little globules of pulp and seeds inclosed
in a thin membrane, each seed being about the size
of a red currant. It is sub-acid, and slightly
bitter in taste. The rind is strongly astringent,
and often used as a medicine.

THE GRAPE.—­Undoubtedly the grape was one
of the first fruits eaten by mankind, and one highly
valued from antiquity down to the present time.
Although this fruit is often sadly perverted in the
manufacture of wine, when rightly used it is one of
the most excellent of all fruits. The skins and
seeds are indigestible and should be rejected, but
the fresh, juicy pulp is particularly wholesome and
refreshing. Several hundred varieties of the
grape are cultivated. Some particularly sweet
varieties are made into raisins, by exposure to the
sun or to artificial heat. Sun-dried grapes make
the best raisins. The so-called English or Zante
currant belongs to the grape family, and is the dried
fruit of a vine which grows in the Ionian Islands
and yields a very small berry. The name currant,
as applied to these fruits, is a corruption of the
word Corinth, where the fruit was formerly grown.

THE GOOSEBERRY.—­The gooseberry probably
derives its name from gorse or goss, a prickly shrub
that grows wild in thickets and on hillsides in Europe,
Asia, and America. It was known to the ancients,
and is mentioned in the writings of Theocritus and
Pliny. Gooseberries were a favorite dish with
some of the emperors, and were extensively cultivated
in gardens during the Middle Ages. The gooseberry
is a wholesome and agreeable fruit, and by cultivation
may be brought to a high state of perfection in size
and flavor.

THE CURRANT.—­This fruit derives its name
from its resemblance to the small grapes of Corinth,
sometimes called Corinthus, and is indigenous to America,
Asia, and Europe. The fruit is sharply acid,
though very pleasant to the taste. Cultivation
has produced white currants from the red, and in a
distinct species of the fruit grown in Northern Europe
and Russia, the currants are black or yellow.

THE WHORTLEBERRY AND BLUEBERRY.—­These are
both species of the same fruit, which grows in woods
and waste places in the North of Europe and America.
Of the latter species there are two varieties, the
high-bush and the low-bush, which are equally palatable.
The fruit is very sweet and pleasant to the taste,
and is one of the most wholesome of all berries.

Page 127

THE CRANBERRY.—­A German writer of note
insists that the original name of this fruit was cram-berry,
because after dinner, when one was filled with other
food, such was its pleasant and seductive flavor that
he could still “cram” quite a quantity
thereof, in defiance of all dietetic laws. Other
writers consider the name a corruption of craneberry,
so called because it is eagerly sought after by the
cranes and other birds which frequent the swamps and
marshes where it chiefly grows. The fruit is
extremely acid, and is highly valued for sauces and
jellies. Cranberries are among the most convenient
fruits for keeping. Freezing does not seem to
hurt them, and they may be kept frozen all winter,
or in water without freezing, in the cellar, or other
cool places, for a long period.

THE STRAWBERRY.—­The flavor of antiquity
rests upon the wild strawberry. Its fruit was
peddled by itinerant dealers about the streets of
ancient Grecian and Roman cities. Virgil sings
of it in pastoral poems, and Ovid mentions it in words
of praise. The name by which the fruit was known
to the Greeks indicates its size; with the Latins its
name was symbolic of its perfume. The name strawberry
probably came from the old Saxon streawberige,
either from some resemblance of the stems to straw,
of from the fact that the berries have the appearance
when growing of being strewn upon the ground.
In olden times, children strung the berries upon straws,
and sold so many “straws of berries” for
a penny, from which fact it is possible the name may
have been derived. The strawberry is indigenous
to the temperate regions of both the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres, but it seems to have been matured in
gardens, only within the last two centuries.

THE RASPBERRY.—­This fruit grows in both
a wild and a cultivated state. It derives its
name from the rough rasps or spines with which the
bushes are covered. Among the ancients it was
called “the bramble of Mt. Ida,”
because it was abundant upon that mountain. It
is a hardy fruit, found in most parts of the world,
and is of two special varieties, the black and the
red.

THE BLACKBERRY.—­This fruit is a native
of America and the greater part of Europe. There
are one hundred and fifty-one named species, although
the high-blackberry and the low-blackberry, or dewberry,
are said to have furnished the best cultivated varieties.

THE MULBERRY.—­Different varieties of the
mulberry tree produce white, red, and black mulberries
of fine aromatic flavor, and acidulous or sweet taste.
Persia is supposed to be the native home of this fruit,
from whence it was carried, at an early date, to Asia
Minor and to Greece. The Hebrews were evidently
well acquainted with it. It was also cultivated
by the farmers of Attica and Peloponnesus. The
ancient mulberry was considered the wisest and most
prudent of trees, because it took care not to put
forth the smallest bud until the cold of winter had
disappeared, not to return. Then, however, it
lost no time, but budded and blossomed in a day.
Several varieties are found in the United States.

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THE MELON.—­This is the generic name for
all the members of the gourd tribe known as cantaloupes,
muskmelons, and watermelons. The fruit varies
greatly in size and color, and in the character of
the rind. When fresh and perfectly ripe, melons
are among the most delicious of edible fruits.

THE FIG.—­In the most ancient histories,
the fig tree is referred to as among the most desirable
productions of the earth. It was the only tree
in the garden of Eden of which the Sacred Writings
make particular mention. Among the inhabitants
of ancient Syria and Greece, it formed one of the
principal articles of food. Its cultivation was,
and is still, extensively carried on in nearly all
Eastern countries; also in Spain, Southern France,
and some portions of the United States. The fruit
is pear-shaped, and consists of a pulpy mass full of
little seeds. Dried and compressed figs are largely
imported, and are to be found in all markets.
Those brought from Smyrna are reputed to be the best.

THE BANANA.—­This is essentially a tropical
fruit growing very generally in the East, the West
Indies, South American countries, and some of the
Southern States. The plant is an annual, sending
up stems to the height of ten or fifteen feet, while
drooping from the top are enormous leaves three or
four feet in length, and looking, as one writer has
aptly said, like “great, green quill pens.”
It is planted in fields like corn, which in its young
growth it much resembles. Each plant produces
a single cluster of from eighty to one hundred or more
bananas, often weighing in the aggregate as high as
seventy pounds. The banana is exceedingly productive.
According to Humboldt, a space of 1,000 feet, which
will yield only 38 pounds of wheat, or 462 pounds of
potatoes, will produce 4,000 pounds of bananas, and
in a much shorter period of time. It is more
nutritious than the majority of fruits, and in tropical
countries is highly valued as a food, affording in
some localities the chief alimentary support of the
people. Its great importance as a food product
is shown by the fact that three or four good sized
bananas are equal in nutritive value to a pound of
bread. The amount of albumen contained in a pound
of bananas is about the same as that found in a pound
of rice, and the total nutritive value of one pound
of bananas is only a trifle less than that of an equal
quantity of the best beefsteak.

The unripe fruit, which contains a considerable percentage
of starch, is often dried in the oven and eaten as
bread, which, in this state, it considerably resembles
in taste and appearance. Thus prepared, it may
be kept for a long time, and is very serviceable for
use on long journeys. The variety of the banana
thus used is, however, a much larger kind than any
of those ordinarily found in our Northern markets,
and is known as the plantain. The dried plantain,
powdered, furnishes a meal of fragrant odor and bland
taste, not unlike common wheat flour. It is said
to be easy of digestion, and two pounds of the dry
meal or six pounds of the fruit is the daily allowance
for a laborer in tropical America.

Page 129

THE PINEAPPLE.—­This delicious fruit is
a native of South America, where it grows wild in
the forests. It is cultivated largely in tropical
America, the West Indies, and some portions of Europe.
The fruit grows singly from the center of a small
plant having fifteen or more long, narrow, serrated,
ridged, sharp-pointed leaves, seemingly growing from
the root. In general appearance it resembles the
century plant, though so much smaller that twelve
thousand pineapple plants may be grown on one acre.
From the fibers of the leaves is made a costly and
valuable fabric called pina muslin.

Nothing can surpass the rich, delicate flavor of the
wild pineapple as found in its native habitat.
It is in every way quite equal to the best cultivated
variety. The most excellent pineapples are imported
from the West Indies, but are seldom found in perfection
in out Northern markets.

FRESH FRUIT FOR THE TABLE.

All fruit for serving should be perfectly ripe and
sound. Immature fruit is never wholesome, and
owing to the large percentage of water in its composition,
fruit is very prone to change; hence over-ripe fruit
should not be eaten, as it is liable to ferment and
decompose in the digestive tract.

Fruit which has begun, however slightly, to decay,
should be rejected. Juice circulates through
its tissues in much the same manner as the blood circulates
through animal tissues, though not so rapidly and
freely. The circulation is sufficient, however,
to convey to all parts the products of decomposition,
when only a small portion has undergone decay, and
although serious results do not always follow the use
of such fruit, it certainly is not first-class food.

If intended to be eaten raw, fruit should be well
ripened before gathering, and should be perfectly
fresh. Fruit that has stood day after day in
a dish upon the table, in a warm room, is far less
wholesome and tempting than that brought fresh from
the storeroom or cellar. All fruits should be
thoroughly cleansed before serving. Such fruit
as cherries, grapes, and currants may be best washed
by placing in a colander, and dipping in and out of
a pan of water until perfectly clean, draining and
drying before serving.

DIRECTIONS FOR SERVING FRUITS.

APPLES.—­In serving these, the “queen
of all fruits,” much opportunity is afforded
for a display of taste in their arrangement.
After wiping clean with a damp towel, they may be piled
in a fruit basket, with a few sprigs of green leaves
here and there between their rosy cheeks. The
feathery tops of carrots and celery are pretty for
this purpose. Oranges and apples so arranged,
make a highly ornamental dish.

Raw mellow sweet apples make a delicious dish when
pared, sliced, and served with cream.

BANANAS.—­Cut the ends from the fruit and
serve whole, piled in a basket with oranges, grapes,
or plums. Another way is to peel, slice, and
serve with thin cream. Bananas are also very nice
sliced, sprinkled lightly with sugar, and before it
had quite dissolved, covered with orange juice.
Sliced bananas, lightly sprinkled with sugar, alternating
in layers with sections of oranges, make a most delicious
dessert.

Page 130

CHERRIES.—­Serve on stems, piled in a basket
or high dish, with bits of green leaves and vines
between. Rows of different colored cherries,
arranged in pyramidal form, make also a handsome dish.

CURRANTS.—­Large whole clusters may be served
on the stem, and when it is possible to obtain both
red and white varieties, they make a most attractive
dish. Put them into cold water for a little time,
cool thoroughly, and drain well before using.
Currants, if picked from the stems after being carefully
washed and drained, may be served lightly sprinkled
with sugar. Currants and raspberries served together,
half and half, or one third currants two thirds raspberries,
are excellent. Only the ripest of currants should
be used.

GOOSEBERRIES.—­When fresh and ripe, the
gooseberry is one of the most delicious of small fruits.
Serve with stems on. Drop into cold water for
a few moments, drain, and pile in a glass dish for
the table.

GRAPES.—­Grapes need always to be washed
before serving. Drop the bunches into ice water,
let them remain ten of fifteen minutes, then drain
and serve. An attractive dish may be made by arranging
bunches of different colored grapes together on a
plate edged with grape leaves.

MELONS.—­Watermelons should be served very
cold. After being well washed on the outside,
put on ice until needed. Cut off a slice at the
ends, that each half may stand upright on a plate,
and then cut around in even slices. Instead of
cutting through the center into even halves, the melon
may be cut in points back and forth around the entire
circumference, so that when separated, each half will
appear like a crown. Another way is to take out
the central portion with a spoon, in cone-shaped pieces,
and arrange on a plate with a few bits of ice.
Other melons may be served in halves, with the seeds
removed. The rough skin of the cantaloupe should
be thoroughly scrubbed with a vegetable brush, then
rinsed and wiped, after which bury the melon in broken
ice till serving time; divide into eighths or sixteenths,
remove the seeds, reconstruct the melon, and serve
surrounded with ice, on a folded napkin, or arranged
on a bed of grape leaves. Do not cool the melon
by placing ice upon the flesh, as the moisture injures
the delicate flavor.

ORANGES.—­Serve whole or cut the skin into
eighths, halfway down, separating it from the fruit,
and curling it inward, thus showing half the orange
white and the other half yellow; or cut the skin into
eighths, two-thirds down, and after loosening from
the fruit, leave them spread open like the petals
of a lily. Oranges sliced and mixed with well
ripened strawberries, in the proportion of three oranges
to a quart of berries, make—­a palatable
dessert.

PEACHES AND PEARS.—­Pick out the finest,
and wipe the wool from the peaches. Edge a plate
with uniform sized leaves of foliage plant of the
same tints as the fruit, and pile the fruit artistically
upon it, tucking sprays or tips of the plant between.
Bits of ice may also be intermingled. Yellow
Bartlett pears and rosy-cheeked peaches arranged in
this way are most ornamental.

Page 131

PEACHES AND CREAM.—­Pare the peaches just
as late as practicable, since they become discolored
by standing. Always use a silver knife, as steel
soon blackens and discolors the fruit. If sugar
is to be used, do not add it until the time for serving,
as it will start the juice, and likewise turn the
fruit brown, destroying much of its rich flavor.
Keep on ice until needed for the table. Add cream
with each person’s dish.

PINEAPPLES.—­The pineapple when fresh and
ripened to perfection, is as mellow and juicy as a
ripe peach, and needs no cooking to fit it for the
table. Of course it must be pared, and have the
eyes and fibrous center removed. Then it may
be sliced in generous pieces and piled upon a plate,
or cut into smaller portions and served in saucers.
No condiments are necessary; even the use of sugar
detracts from its delicate flavor. Pineapples
found in our Northern markets are, however, generally
so hard and tough as to require cooking, or are valuable
only for their juice, which may be extracted and used
for flavoring other fruits. When sufficiently
mellow to be eaten raw, they are usually so tart as
to seem to require a light sprinkling of sugar to suit
most tastes. Pineapples pared, cut into dice
or small pieces, lightly sprinkled with sugar, to
which just before serving, a cup of orange juice is
added, form a delicious dish.

PLUMS.—­Plums make a most artistic fruit
piece, served whole and arranged with bunches of choice
green grapes, in a basket or glass dish. A fine
edge may be made from the velvety leaves of dark purple
foliage plants.

PRESSED FIGS.—­Look over carefully, and
select only such as are perfectly good. They
may be served dry, mixed with bunches of raisins,
or steamed over a kettle of boiling water. Steamed
figs make an excellent breakfast dish, and are considered
much more wholesome then when used dry. Steamed
raisins are likewise superior to dried raisins.

RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, DEWBERRIES, BLUEBERRIES
AND WHORTLEBERRIES, require careful looking over to
remove all insects, stems, and over-ripe fruit.
Blueberries and whortleberries frequently need to be
washed. They are then drained by spreading on
a sieve or colander. Perfectly ripe, they are
more healthful without condiments; but sugar and cream
are usually considered indispensable.

If necessary to wash strawberries, they should be
put into cold water, a few at a time, pushed down
lightly beneath the water several times until entirely
clean, then taken out one by one, hulled, and used
at once. Like all other small fruits and berries
they are more wholesome served without cream, but
if cream is used, each person should be allowed to
add it to his own dish, as it quickly curdles and renders
the whole dish unsightly; if allowed to stand, it
also impairs the flavor of the fruit.

FROSTED FRUIT.—­Prepare a mixture of the
beaten white of egg, sugar, and a very little cold
water. Dip nice bunches of clean currants, cherries,
or grapes into the mixture; drain nearly dry, and roll
lightly in powdered sugar. Lay them on white
paper to dry. Plums, apricots, and peaches may
be dipped in the mixture, gently sprinkled with sugar,
then allowed to dry. This method of preparing
fruit is not to be commended for its wholesomeness,
but it is sometimes desirable for ornament.

Page 132

KEEPING FRESH FRUIT.

Of the numerous varieties of fruits grown in this
country, apples and pears are about the only ones
that can be kept for any length of time without artificial
means. As soon as fruit has attained its maturity,
a gradual change or breaking down of tissues begins.
In some fruits this process follows rapidly; in other
it is gradual. There is a certain point at which
the fruits are best suited for use. We call it
mellowness, and say that the fruit is in “good
eating condition.” When this stage has
been reached, deterioration and rotting soon follow.
In some fruits, as the peach, plum, and early varieties
of apples and pears, these changes occur within a
few days after maturity, and it is quite useless to
attempt to keep them; in others, like the later varieties
of apples and pears, the changes are slow but none
the less certain. To keep such fruits we must
endeavor to retard or prolong the process of change,
by avoiding all conditions likely to hasten decay.
Even with ordinary care, sound fruit will keep for
quite a length of time; but it can be preserved in
better condition and for a longer period by careful
attention to the following practical points:—­

1. If the fruit is of a late variety, allow it
to remain on the tree as long as practicable without
freezing.

2. Always pick and handle the fruit with the
greatest care.

3. Gather the fruit on a dry, cool day, and place
in heaps or bins for two or three weeks.

4. Carefully sort and pack in barrels, placing
those most mellow and those of different varieties
in different barrels; head the barrels, label, and
place in a cool, dry place where the temperature will
remain equable. Some consider it better to keep
fruit in thin layers upon broad shelves in a cool
place. This plan allows frequent inspection and
removal of all affected fruit without disturbance of
the remainder.

5. Warmth and moisture are the conditions most
favorable to decomposition, and should be especially
guarded against.

6. The best temperature for keeping fruit is
about 34 deg. F., or 2 deg. above freezing.

Another method which is highly recommended is to sprinkle
a layer of sawdust on the bottom of a box, and then
put in a layer of apples, not allowing them to tough
each other. Upon this pack more sawdust; then
another layer of apples, and so on until the box is
filled. After packing, place up from the ground,
in a cellar or storeroom, and they will keep perfectly,
retaining their freshness and flavor until brought
out. The Practical Farmer gives the following
rough but good way to store and keep apples:
“Spread plenty of buckwheat chaff on the barn
floor, and on this place the apples, filling the interstices
with the chaff. Cover with the chaff and then
with straw two or three feet deep. The advantage
of this is that covering and bedding in chaff excludes
cold, prevents air currents, maintains a uniform temperature,
absorbs the moisture of decay, and prevents the decay
produced by moisture.”

Page 133

The ordinary cellar underneath the dwelling house
is too warm and damp for the proper preservation of
fruit, and some other place should be provided if
possible. A writer in the American Agriculturist
thus calls attention to an additional reason why fruit
should not be stored beneath living-rooms: “After
late apples are stored for the winter, a gradual change
begins within the fruit. It absorbs oxygen from
the air of the room, and gives off carbonic acid gas.
Another change results in the formation of water,
which is given off as moisture. The taking up
of oxygen by the fruit and the giving off of carbonic
acid, in a short time so vitiates the atmosphere of
the room in which the fruit is kept, that it will
at once extinguish a candle, and destroy animal life.
An atmosphere of this kind tends to preserve the fruit.
There being little or no oxygen left in the air of
the room, the process of decay is arrested. Hence
it is desirable that the room be air tight, in order
to maintain such an atmosphere.”

The production of carbonic acid shows that a cellar
in or under a dwelling, is an improper place for storing
fresh fruit. When the gas is present in the air
in sufficient proportion, it causes death, and a very
small quantity will cause headache, listlessness, and
other unpleasant effects. No doubt many troubles
attributed to malaria, are due to gases from vegetables
and fruits stored in the cellar. A fruit cellar
should be underneath some other building rather than
the dwelling, or a fruit house may be built entirely
above the ground. A house to keep fruit properly
must be built upon the principle of a refrigerator.
Its walls, floor, and ceiling should be double, and
the space between filled with sawdust. The doors
and windows should be double; and as light is undesirable,
the windows should be provided with shutters.
There should be a small stove for use if needed to
keep a proper temperature in severe weather.

TO KEEP GRAPES.—­Select such bunches as
are perfect, rejecting all upon which there are any
bruised grapes, or from which a grape has fallen.
Spread them upon shelves in a cool place for a week
or two. Then pack in boxes in sawdust which has
been recently well dried in an oven. Bran which
has been dried may also be used. Dry cotton is
employed by some. Keep in a cool place.

Some consider the following a more efficient method:
select perfect bunches, and dip the broken end of
the stems in melted paraffine or sealing wax.
Wrap separately in tissue paper, hang in a cool place,
or pack in sawdust.

TO KEEP LEMONS AND ORANGES.—­Lemons may
be kept fresh for weeks by placing them in a vessel
of cold water in a very cool cellar or ice house.
Change the water every day. Oranges may be kept
in the same way. The usual method employed by
growers for keeping these fruits is to wrap each one
separately in tissue paper, and put in a cool, dry
place.

TO KEEP CRANBERRIES.—­Put them in water
and keep in a cool place where they will not freeze.
Change the water often, and sort out berries which
may have become spoiled.

Page 134

COOKED FRUIT.

Perfectly ripe fruit is, as a rule, more desirable
used fresh than in any other way. Fruits which
are immature, require cooking. Stewing and baking
are the simplest methods of preparation.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUIT.—­The
utensils for stewing should be porcelain-lined, or
granite ware. Fruit cooked in tin loses much
of its delicate flavor; while if it be acid, and the
tin of poor quality, there is always danger that the
acid of the fruit acting upon the metal will form
a poisonous compound. Cover with a china plate
or granite-ware cover, never with a tin one, as the
steam will condense and run down into the kettle,
discoloring the contents. Use only silver knives
for preparing the fruit, and silver or wooden spoons
for stirring. Prepare just before cooking, if
you would preserve the fruit perfect in flavor, and
unimpaired by discoloration. In preparing apples,
pears, and quinces for stewing, it is better to divide
the fruit into halves or quarters before paring.
The fruit is more easily handled, can be pared thinner
and cored more quickly. Peaches, apricots, and
plums, if divided and stoned before paring, can be
much more easily kept whole.

Cook in a small quantity of boiling water, and if
economy is a point to be considered, do not add sugar
until the fruit is done. Sugar boiled with an
acid will be converted into glucose, two and one half
pounds of which only equal one pound of cane sugar
in sweetening properties. It will require a much
larger amount of sugar to sweeten fruit if added before
the cooking process is completed. Fruit should
be cooked by stewing, or by gentle simmering; hard
boiling will destroy the fine flavor of all fruits,
and especially of berries and other small fruits.
Cinnamon, cloves, or other spices, should not be added,
as their stronger flavors deaden or obliterate the
natural flavor, which should always be preserved as
perfectly as possible. If desirable to add some
foreign flavor, let it be the flavor of another fruit,
or the perfume of flowers. For Instance, flavor
apple with lemon, pineapple, quince, or rose water.

Unripe fruit is improved by making the cooking quite
lengthy, which acts in the place of the ripening process,
changing the starchy matter to saccharine elements.
In cooking fruit, try to preserve its natural form.
The more nearly whole it is, the better it looks, and
the more natural will be its flavor.

Apples are best cooked by baking. Pears and quinces
are also excellent baked. The oven should be
only moderately hot; if the heat is too great, they
brown on the outside before they are done throughout.
In cooking fruit by any method, pains should be taken
to cook together such as are of the same variety,
size, and degree of hardness; if it is to be cut in
pieces, care should be taken to have the pieces of
uniform size.

RECIPES.

Page 135

BAKED APPLES.—­Moderately tart apples or
very juicy sweet ones are best for baking. Select
ripe apples, free from imperfections, and of nearly
equal size. Wipe carefully and remove the blossom
ends. Water sufficient to cover bottom of the
baking dish, should be added if the fruit is not very
juicy. If the apples are sour and quite firm,
a good way is to pare them before baking, and then
place them in an earthen pie dish with a little hot
water. If they incline to brown too quickly,
cover the tops with a granite-ware pie dish. If
the syrup dries out, add a little more hot water.
When done, set them away till nearly cold, then transfer
to a glass dish, pour the syrup, which should be thick
and amber colored, over them. Sour apples are
excellent pared, cored, and baked with the centers
filled with sugar, jelly, or a mixture or chopped
raisins and dates. They should be put into a shallow
earthen dish with water sufficient to cover the bottom,
and baked in a quick oven, basting often with the
syrup. Sweet apples are best baked without paring.
Baked apples are usually served as a relish, but with
a dressing of cream they make a most delicious dessert.

CITRON APPLES.—­Select a few tart apples
of the same degree of hardness, and remove the cores.
Unless the skins are very tender, it is better to
pare them. Fill the cavities with sugar, first
placing in each apple a few bits of chopped citron.
If the skins have been removed, place the stuffed
apples on a flat earthen dish with a tablespoonful
of water on the bottom; cover closely, and bake till
perfectly tender, but not till they have fallen to
pieces. If the skins are left on, they may be
baked without covering. When cold, serve in separate
dishes, with or without a spoonful or two of whipped
cream on each apple.

LEMON APPLES.—­Prepare tart apples the same
as for citron apples. Fill the cavities made
by removing the cores with a mixture of grated lemon
and sugar, squeeze a few drops of lemon juice over
each apple, and bake. Serve with or without whipped
cream.

BAKED PEARS.—­Hard pears make an excellent
dessert when baked. Pare, halve, remove seeds,
and place in a shallow earthen dish, with a cup of
water to each two quarts of fruit. If the pears
are sour, a little sugar may be added. Bake,
closely covered, in a moderate oven until tender.
Serve with sugar and cream. Tart pears are the
best for baking, as the sweet varieties are often
tasteless.

BAKED QUINCES.—­Pare and remove the cores.
Fill the cavities with sugar, put in a shallow earthen
dish, and add water to cover the bottom; bake till
soft, basting often with the syrup. If the syrup
dries out before the fruit is perfectly tender, add
a little more hot water.

PIPPINS AND QUINCE.—­Pare and quarter nice
golden pippins, and cook in boiling water until reduced
to a jelly. Add two or three quinces sliced,
and simmer slowly in the jelly until the quince is
tender. Add sugar to taste. Serve cold.

Page 136

BAKED APPLE SAUCE.—­Pare, core, and quarter
apples to fill an earthen crock or deep pudding dish,
taking care to use apples of the same degree of hardness,
and pieces of the same size. For two quarts of
fruit thus prepared, add a cup of water, and if the
apples are sour, a cup of sugar. Cover closely,
and bake in a moderate oven several hours, or until
of a dark red color.

Sweet apples and quinces in the proportion of two
parts of apple to one of quince, baked in this way,
are also good. Cut the apples into quarters,
but slice the quinces much thinner, as they are more
difficult to cook. Put a layer of quince on the
bottom of the dish, alternating with a layer of apple,
until the dish is full. Add cold water to half
cover the fruit, and stew in the oven well covered,
without stirring, until tender.

Pears may be cooked in a similar way, and both apples
and pears thus cooked may be canned while hot and
kept for a long period.

BAKED APPLE SAUCE NO. 2.—­Prepare nice tart
apples as for No. 1. Bake, with a small quantity
of water, in a covered pudding dish, in a moderate
oven, until soft. Mash with a spoon, add sugar,
and when cold, a little grated orange rind.

APPLES STEWED WHOLE.—­Take six large red
apples, wash carefully, and put in a fruit kettle
with just enough boiling water to cover. Cover
the kettle, and cook slowly until the apples are soft,
with the skins broken and the juice a rich red color.
After removing the apples, boil the juice to a syrup,
sweeten, and pour over the apples.

STEAMED APPLES.—­Select pound sweets of
uniform size, wipe, cut out the blossom-ends, and
pack in a large pudding dish. Pour in a cupful
of water, cover the dish closely, set in a moderate
oven, and steam till the apples are tender. Remove
from the dish, and pour the liquor over them frequently
as they cool.

COMPOTE OF APPLES.—­Pare and extract the
cores from moderately tart, juicy apples. Place
them in a deep pudding dish with just enough water
to cover them. Cover, place in a moderate oven,
and stew until they are tender. Remove the apples
and place in a deep dish to keep hot. Measure
the juice and pour it into a saucepan, add a few bits
of lemon rind, and boil up until thickened almost
like a jelly. While the juice is boiling, heat
some sugar, one tablespoonful to each cup of juice,
in the oven, and add to the juice when thickened.
Pour scalding hot over the apples, and cover until
cold.

APPLE COMPOTE NO. 2.—­Pare eight or ten
rather tart, finely flavored and easy-cooking apples,
carefully removing the cores, and put them into a
broad, shallow, granite-ware saucepan with just enough
hot water to cover the bottom. Cover tightly
and place over the fire. The steam will cook
the apples tender in a short time. Do not allow
them to fall to pieces. Make a syrup by dissolving
one cup of sugar in a pint of hot water. Add
three teaspoonfuls of the juice of canned pineapple,
and pour over the apples while both are hot.

Page 137

STEWED PEARS.—­Select some fine Bartlett
pears which are ripe, but have hardly begun to soften;
remove the skins, cut in halves or quarters, and take
out the seeds. Put loosely in a granite-ware kettle,
and add a pint of water for three and a half quarts
of fruit. Cover closely, and when it begins to
boil, set it where it will just simmer until the top
pieces are tender. Serve cold. Sugar will
not be necessary if the fruit is of good quality.

SMOOTH APPLE SAUCE.—­If fruit is not sufficiently
perfect to be cut into uniform quarters, a good way
to prepare it is to pare, core, and slice into thin
slices. Cook in as small a quantity of water as
possible, the fruit covered closely, so that the top
portion will steam tender as soon as the bottom, and
when done rub through a colander, or beat smooth with
a wooden spoon or an egg beater. Let it cool before
adding sugar. A little lemon peel may be added
to the fruit just long enough before it is done to
flavor it, if desired.

BOILED APPLES WITH SYRUP.—­Halve and remove
the cores of a half dozen nice apples, leaving the
skins on. Boil till tender in sufficient water
to cover them. Take out with a fork into a glass
dish. Add to the juice three or four slices of
a large lemon; boil for ten or fifteen minutes; sweeten
to taste; then pour over the apples, and cool.

STEWED APPLES.—­Select fine fruit of a sub-acid
flavor and not over-ripe. Pare, remove the cores
and all blemishes, and divide into sixths if large,
into quarters if small. Put into a porcelain or
granite-ware kettle with enough boiling water to cook
and leave a good liquor. Cover, and simmer gently,
without stirring, from one to two hours. Do not
add sugar till cold. Be careful not to break the
fruit in serving.

STEWED CRAB APPLES.—­Select perfect fruit.
Wash and stew in but little water until they are very
soft. Rub through a coarse sieve or colander
to remove the seeds and skins. Sweeten to taste.

SWEET APPLE SAUCE WITH CONDENSED APPLE JUICE.—­For
the juice, wash, divide, and core rather tart apples
and cook until softened with one cup of water for
every six pounds of fruit. When soft, put into
a percolater and drain off the juice or extract it
with a fruit press. Boil until it is reduced
one half. Skim if needed while boiling, and if
not perfectly clear allow it to settle before using.
A considerable quantity of the juice may be thus prepared
and put into stone jars, to be used as needed.
For the sauce, pare, core, and quarter sweet apples.
Put into a porcelain kettle with enough of the condensed
juice to cover. Cook slowly until tender.

APPLES WITH RAISINS.—­Pare, core, and quarter
a dozen or more medium sized sour apples. Clean
thoroughly one fourth as many raisins as apples, and
turn over them a quart of boiling water. Let them
steep until well swollen, then add the apples, and
cook until tender. Sugar to sweeten may be added
if desired, although little will be needed unless
the apples are very tart. Dried apples soaked
over night may be made much more palatable by stewing
with raisins or English currants, in the same way.

Page 138

APPLES WITH APRICOTS.—­Pare, core, and quarter
some nice, sour apples. Put them to cook with
two halves of dried apricot for each apple. When
tender, make smooth by beating or rubbing through a
colander, and sweeten. Dried apples may be used
in place of fresh ones.

PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES, BERRIES, and all small fruits
may be cooked for sauce by stewing in a small amount
of water, adding sugar to sweeten when done.

BAKED APPLES.—­Take any good tart apples;
peel, cut in halves, and remove the cores. Scatter
a few spoonfuls of sugar in the bottom of a dish,
and lay the apples in, flat side down; add a teacupful
of cold water, and bake till tender. Let stand
in the dish till cold, then take up the pieces in
a vegetable dish, and poor over them what juice remains.
Sweet apples are good baked in this way without sugar.

BAKED PEARS.—­Peel ripe pears; cut in halves,
and pack in layers in a stone ware jar. Strew
a little sugar over each layer, and add a small cupful
of water, to prevent burning. Cover tightly, and
bake three or four hours in a well-heated oven.
Let them get very cold, and serve with sweet cream.

BAKED PEACHES.—­Peaches which are ripe but
too hard for eating, are nice baked. Pare, remove
the stones, and place in loose layers in a shallow,
earthen pudding dish with a little water. Sprinkle
each layer lightly with sugar, cover and bake.

CRANBERRIES.—­Cranberries make an excellent
sauce, but the skins are rather hard of digestion,
and it is best to exclude them. Stew in the proportion
of a quart of berries to a pint of water, simmering
gently until the skins have all burst, and the quantity
is reduced to a pint. Put through a colander
to remove the skins, and when nearly cool, add for
the quart of berries two thirds of a cup of sugar.

CRANBERRIES WITH RAISINS.—­Cook the cranberries
as in the preceding recipe, and when rubbed through
the colander, add for every pound of cranberries before
cooking, one fourth pound of raisins which have been
steeped for half an hour in just sufficient boiling
water to cover. A little less sugar will be needed
to sweeten than when served without the raisins.

CRANBERRIES AND SWEET APPLES.—­Stew equal
parts of cranberries and sweet apples together.
Mash, rub through a fine sieve or colander to remove
the skins and make the whole homogeneous. This
makes a very palatable sauce without the addition
of sugar. California prunes and cranberries stewed
together in equal proportion, in a small quantity of
water, also make a nice sauce without sugar.

ORANGES AND APPLES.—­The mild, easy cooking,
tart varieties of apples make an excellent sauce stewed
with one third sliced oranges from which the seeds
have been removed. Pare, core, and slice the apples,
and cook gently so as to preserve the form of both
fruits until the apples are tender. Add sugar
to sweeten, and if desired a very little of the grated
yellow of the orange rind.

Page 139

STEWED RAISINS.—­Soak a pint of good raisins,
cleaned and freed from stems, in cold water for several
hours. When ready to cook, put them, with the
water in which they were soaked, in a fruit kettle
and simmer until the skins are tender. Three
or four good-sized figs, chopped quite fine, cooked
with the raisins, gives an additional richness and
thickness of juice. No sugar will be needed.

DRIED APPLES.—­Good apples properly dried
make a very palatable sauce; but unfortunately the
fruit generally selected for drying is of so inferior
a quality that if cooked in its fresh state it would
not be good. The dried fruit in most of our markets
needs to be looked over carefully, and thoroughly
washed before using. Put into a granite-ware
kettle, cover with boiling water, and cook gently until
tender. Fresh steam-dried or evaporated apples
will cook in from one half to three fourths of an
hour; if older, they may require from one to two more
hours. Add boiling water, as needed, during the
cooking. If when tender they are lacking in juice,
add a little boiling water long enough before lifting
from the fire to allow it to boil up once. If
the fruit is very poor, a few very thin slices of
the yellow portion of lemon or orange rind added a
half hour before it is done, will sometimes be an
improvement.

DRIED APPLES WITH OTHER DRIED FRUIT.—­An
excellent sauce may be made by cooking a few dried
plums with dried or evaporated apples. Only enough
of the plums to give a flavor to the apples will be
needed; a handful of the former to a pound of apples
will be sufficient. Dried cherries, raisins,
English currants, dried apricots, prunelles, and peaches
are also excellent used in combination with dried apples.

DRIED APRICOTS AND PEACHES.—­These fruits,
if dried with the skins on, need, in addition to the
preparation for cooking recommended for dried apples,
a thorough rubbing with the fingers, while being washed,
to remove the down. Put into boiling water in
about the proportion of two parts of fruit to three
of water. If the fruit was pared before drying,
a little more water will be required. Cook quickly,
but gently, until just tender, and take from the fire
as soon as done. If too soft, they will be mushy
and insipid.

EVAPORATED PEACH SAUCE.—­Soak the peaches
over night in just enough water to cover. In
the morning put to cook in boiling water. When
tender, sweeten and beat perfectly smooth with an egg
beater.

DRIED PEARS.—­These may be treated in the
same way as dried apples.

SMALL FRUITS.—­These when dried must be
carefully examined, thoroughly washed, and then cooked
rather quickly in boiling water. They swell but
little, do not require much water, and usually cook
in a few minutes. They should be taken from the
fire as soon as soft, as long standing makes them
insipid.

Page 140

PRUNES.—­Use only the best selected prunes.
Clean by putting them into warm water; let them stand
a few minutes, rubbing them gently between the hands
to make sure that all dust and dirt is removed; rinse,
and if rather dry and hard, put them into three parts
of water to one of prunes; cover closely, and let
them simmer for several hours. If the prunes
are quite easily cooked, less water may be used.
They will be tender, with a thick juice. The
sweet varieties need no sugar whatever. Many
persons who cannot eat fruit cooked with sugar, can
safely partake of sweet prunes cooked in this way.
A slice of lemon added just before the prunes are
done, is thought an improvement.

PRUNE MARMALADE.—­Cook sweet California
prunes as directed above. When well done, rub
through a colander to remove the skins and stones.
No sugar is necessary. If the pulp is too thin
when cold, it may be covered in an earthen pudding
dish and stewed down by placing in a pan of hot water
in a moderate oven.

THE PRESERVATION OF FRUIT.

Fresh fruit is so desirable, while at the same time
the season during which most varieties can be obtained
is so transient, that various methods are resorted
to for preserving it in as nearly a natural state
as possible. The old-fashioned plans of pickling
in salt, alcohol, or vinegar, or preserving in equal
quantities of sugar, are eminently unhygienic.
Quite as much to be condemned is the more modern process
of keeping fruit by adding to it some preserving agent,
like salicylic acid or other chemicals. Salicylic
acid is an antiseptic, and like many other substances,
such as carbolic acid, creosote, etc., has the
power of preventing the decay of organic substances.
Salicylic acid holds the preference over other drugs
of this class, because it imparts no unpleasant flavor
to the fruit. It is nevertheless a powerful and
irritating drug, and when taken, even in small doses,
produces intense burning in the stomach, and occasions
serious disturbances of the heart and other organs.
Its habitual use produces grave diseases.

What is sold as antifermentive is simply the well-known
antiseptic, salicylate of soda. It should be
self-evident to one at all acquainted with the philosophy
of animal existence, that an agent which will prevent
fermentation and decay must be sufficiently powerful
in its influence to prevent digestion also.

The fermentation and decay of fruits as well as that
of all other organic substances, is occasioned by
the action of those minute living organisms which
scientists call germs, and which are everywhere present.
These germs are very much less active in a dry, cold
atmosphere, and fruit may be preserved for quite a
long period by refrigeration, an arrangement whereby
the external air is excluded, and the surrounding
atmosphere kept at an equal temperature of about 40
deg. F. The most efficient and wholesome method
of preserving fruit, however, is destruction of the
germs and entire exclusion from the air. The germs
are destroyed at a boiling temperature; hence, if fruit
be heated to boiling, and when in this condition sealed
in air-tight receptacles, it will keep for an unlimited
period.

Page 141

CANNING FRUIT.

Canning consists in sealing in air-tight cans or jars,
fruit which has been previously boiled. It is
a very simple process, but requires a thorough understanding
of the scientific principles involved, and careful
management, to make it successful. The result
of painstaking effort is so satisfactory, however,
it is well worth all the trouble, and fruit canning
need not be a difficult matter if attention is given
to the following details:—­

Select self-sealing glass cans of some good variety.
Tin cans give more trouble filling and sealing, are
liable to affect the flavor of the fruit, and unless
manufactured from the best of material, to impair its
wholesomeness. Glass cans may be used more than
once, and are thus much more economical. Those
with glass covers, or porcelain-lined covers, are
best. Test the cans to see if they are perfect,
with good rubbers and covers that fit closely, by
partly filling them with cold water, screwing on the
tops, and placing bottom upward upon the table for
some time before using. If none of the water
leaks out, they may be considered in good condition.
If the cans have been previously used, examine them
with special care to see that both cans and covers
have been carefully cleaned, then thoroughly sterilize
them, and fit with new rubbers when necessary.

Cans and covers should be sterilized by boiling in
water for half an hour, or by baking in an oven, at
a temperature sufficient to scorch paper, for two
hours. The cans should be placed in the water
or oven when cold, and the temperature allowed to
rise gradually, to avoid breaking. They should
be allowed to cool gradually, for the same purpose.

Select only the best of fruit, such as is perfect
in flavor and neither green nor over-ripe. Fruit
which has been shipped from a distance, and which
is consequently not perfectly fresh, contains germs
in active growth, and if the least bit musty, it will
be almost sure to spoil, even though the greatest
care may be taken in canning.

Poor fruit will not be improved by canning; over-ripe
fruit will be insipid and mushy; and though cooking
will soften hard fruit, it cannot impart to it the
delicate flavors which belong to that which is in its
prime. The larger varieties of fruit should not
be quite soft enough for eating. Choose a dry
day for gathering, and put up at once, handling as
little as possible. Try to keep it clean enough
to avoid washing. If the fruit is to be pared,
use a silver knife for the purpose, as steel is apt
to discolor the fruit. If the fruit is one needing
to be divided or stoned, it will be less likely to
become broken if divided before paring.

Page 142

Cook the fruit slowly in a porcelain-lined or granite-ware
kettle, using as little water as possible. It
is better to cook only small quantities at a time
in one kettle. Steaming in the cans is preferable
to stewing, where the fruit is at all soft. To
do this, carefully fill the cans with fresh fruit,
packing it quite closely, if the fruit is large, and
set the cans in a boiler partly filled with cold water,
with something underneath them to prevent breaking,—­muffin
rings, straw, or thick cloth, or anything to keep
them from resting on the bottom of the boiler (a rack
made by nailing together strips of lath is very convenient);
screw the covers on the cans so the water cannot boil
into them, but not so tightly as to prevent the escape
of steam; heat the water to boiling, and steam the
fruit until tender. Peaches, pears, crab apples,
etc., to be canned with a syrup, may be advantageously
cooked by placing on a napkin dropped into the boiling
syrup.

Fruit for canning should be so thoroughly cooked that
every portion of it will have been subjected to a
sufficient degree of heat to destroy all germs within
the fruit, but overcooking should be avoided.
The length of time required for cooking fruits for
canning, varies with the kind and quality of fruit
and the manner of cooking. Fruit is more frequently
spoiled by being cooked an insufficient length of time,
than by overcooking. Prolonged cooking at a boiling
temperature is necessary for the destruction of certain
kinds of germs capable of inducing fermentation.
Fifteen minutes may be considered as the shortest time
for which even the most delicate fruits should be
subjected to the temperature of boiling water, and
thirty minutes will be required by most fruits.
Fruits which are not perfectly fresh, or which have
been shipped some distance, should be cooked not less
than thirty minutes. The boiling should be very
slow, however, as hard, rapid boiling will break up
the fruit, and much of its fine flavor will be lost
in the steam.

Cooking the sugar with the fruit at the time of canning,
is not to be recommended from an economical standpoint;
but fruit thus prepared is more likely to keep well
than when cooked without sugar; not, however, because
of the preservative influence of the sugar, which is
too small in amount to prevent the action of germs,
as in the case of preserves, but because the addition
of sugar to the water or fruit juice increases its
specific gravity, and thus raises the boiling point.
From experiments made, I have found that the temperature
of the fruit is ordinarily raised about 5 deg. by
the addition of the amount of sugar needed for sweetening
sub-acid fruit. By the aid of this additional
degree of heat, the germs are more certainly destroyed,
and the sterilization of the fruit will be accomplished
in a shorter time.

Another advantage gained in cooking sugar with the
fruit at the time of canning, is that the fruit may
be cooked for a longer time without destroying its
form, as the sugar abstracts the juice of the fruit,
and thus slightly hardens it and prevents its falling
in pieces.

Page 143

The temperature to which the fruit is subjected may
also be increased by the same method as that elsewhere
described for sterilizing milk, the covers of the
cans being screwed down tightly before they are placed
in the sterilizer, or as soon as the boiling point
is approached, so that the steam issues freely from
the can. See page 396. If this method is
employed, it must be remembered that the cans should
not be removed from the sterilizer until after they
have become cold, or nearly so, by being allowed to
stand over night.

Use the best sugar, two tablespoonfuls to a quart
of fruit is sufficient for most sub-acid fruits, as
berries and peaches; plums, cherries, strawberries,
and currants require from five to eight tablespoonfuls
of sugar to a quart. Have the sugar hot, by spreading
it on tins and heating in the oven, stirring occasionally.
See that; it does not scorch. Add it when the
fruit is boiling. Pears, peaches, apples, etc.,
which contain a much smaller quantity of juice than
do berries, may be canned in a syrup prepared by dissolving
a cup of sugar in two or three cups of water.
Perfect fruit, properly canned, will keep without
sugar, and the natural ’flavor of the fruit is
more perfectly retained when the sugar is left out,
adding the necessary amount when opened for use.

If the fruit is to be cooked previous to being put
in the cans, the cans should be heated before the
introduction of the fruit, which should be put in
at a boiling temperature. Various methods are
employed for this purpose. Some wrap the can
in a towel wrung out of hot water, keeping a silver
spoon inside while it is being filled; others employ
dry heat by keeping the cans in a moderately hot oven
while the fruit is cooking.

Another and surer way is to fill a large dishpan nearly
full of scalding (not boiling) water, then gradually
introduce each can, previously baked, into the water,
dip it full of water, and set it right side up in
the pan. Repeat the process with other cans until
four or five are ready. Put the covers likewise
into boiling water. Have in readiness for use
a granite-ware funnel and dipper, also in boiling water;
a cloth for wiping the outside of the cans, a silver
fork or spoon, a dish for emptyings, and a broad shallow
pan on one side of the range, half filled with boiling
water, in which to set the cans while being filled.
When everything is in readiness, the fruit properly
cooked, and at a boiling temperature, turn
one of the cans down in the water, roll it over once
or twice, empty it, and set in the shallow pan of hot
water; adjust the funnel, and then place first in
the can a quantity of juice, so that when the fruit
is put in, no vacant places will be left for air, which
is sometimes quite troublesome if this precaution is
not taken; then add the fruit. If any bubbles
of air chance to be left, work them out with a fork
or spoon handle, which first dip in boiling water,
and then quickly introduce down the sides of the jar

Page 144

and through the fruit in such a way that not a bubble
will remain. Fill the can to overflowing, remembering
that any vacuum invites the air to enter; use boiling
water or syrup when there is not enough juice.
Skim all froth from the fruit, adding more juice if
necessary; wipe the juice from the top of the can,
adjust the rubber, put on the top, and screw it down
as quickly as possible. If the fruit is cooked
in the cans, as soon as it is sufficiently heated,
fill the can completely full with boiling juice, syrup,
or water; run the handle of a silver spoon around the
inside of the can, to make sure the juice entirely
surrounds every portion of fruit, and that no spaces
for air remain, put on the rubbers, wipe off all juice,
and seal quickly.

[Illustration: Canning Utensils.]

As the fruit cools, the cover can be tightened, and
this should be promptly done again and again as the
glass contracts, so that no air may be allowed to
enter.

If convenient to fill the cans directly from the stove,
the fruit may be kept at boiling heat by placing the
kettle on a lamp stove on the table, on which the
other utensils are in readiness. Many failures
in fruit canning are due to neglect to have the fruit
boiling hot when put into the cans.

When the cans are filled, set them away from currents
of air, and not on a very cold surface, to avoid danger
of cracking. A good way is to set the cans on
a wet towel, and cover with a woolen cloth as a protection
from draughts.

After the cans have cooled, and the tops have been
screwed down tightly, place them in a cool place,
bottom upward, and watch closely for a few days.
If the juice begins to leak out, or any appearance
of fermentation is seen, it is a sign that the work
has failed, and the only thing to do is to open the
can immediately, boil the fruit, and use as quickly
as possible; recanning will not save it unless boiled
a long time. If no signs of spoiling are observed
within two or three weeks, the fruit may be safely
stored away in a dark, cool place. If one has
no dark storeroom, it is an advantage to wrap each
can in brown paper, to keep out the light.

Sometimes the fruit will settle so that a little space
appears at the top. If you are perfectly sure
that the can is tight, do not open to refill, as you
will be unable to make it quite as tight again, unless
you reheat the fruit, in which case you would be liable
to have the same thing occur again. Air is dangerous
because it is likely to contain germs, though in itself
harmless.

If mold is observed upon the top of a can, it should
be opened, and the fruit boiled and used at once,
after carefully skimming out all the moldy portions.
If there is evidence of fermentation, the fruit should
be thrown away, as it contains alcohol.

If care be taken to provide good cans, thoroughly
sterilized, and with perfectly fitting covers; to
use only fruit in good condition; to have it thoroughly
cooked, and at boiling temperature when put into the
can; to have the cans well baked and heated, filled
completely and to overflowing, and sealed at once
while the fruit is still near boiling temperature,
there will be little likelihood of failure.

Page 145

OPENING CANNED FRUIT.—­Canned fruit is best
opened a short time before needed, that is may be
will aerated; and if it has been canned without sugar,
it should have the necessary quantity added, so that
it may be well dissolved before using.

Fruit purchased in tin cans should be selected with
the utmost care, since unscrupulous dealers sometimes
use cans which render the fruit wholly—­unfit
for food.

The following rules which we quote from a popular
scientific journal should be ’carefully observed
in selecting canned fruit:—­

“Reject every can that does not have the name
of the manufacturer or firm upon it, as well as the
name of the company and the town where manufactured.
All ‘Standards’ have this. When the
wholesale dealer is ashamed to have his name on the
goods, be shy of him.

“Reject every article of canned goods which
does not show the line of resin around the edge of
the solder of the cap, the same as is seen on the
seam at the side of the can.

“Press up the bottom of the can; if decomposition
is beginning, the tin will rattle the same as the
bottom of your sewing-machine oil can does. If
the goods are sound, it will be solid, and there will
be no rattle to the tin.

“Reject every can that show any rust around
the cap on the inside of the head of the can.
Old and battered cans should be rejected; as, if they
have been used several times, the contents are liable
to contain small amounts of tin or lead”

RECIPES.

TO CAN STRAWBERRIES.—­These are generally
considered more difficult to can than most other berries.
Use none but sound fruit, and put up the day they
are picked, if possible. Heat the fruit slowly
to the boiling point, and cook fifteen minutes or
longer, adding the sugar hot, if any be used, after
the fruit is boiling. Strawberries, while cooking,
have a tendency to rise to the top, and unless they
are kept poshed down, will not be cooked uniformly,
which is doubtless one reason they sometimes fail
to keep well. The froth should also be kept skimmed
off. Fill the cans as directed on page 197, taking
special care to let out every air bubble, and to remove
every particle of froth from the top of the can before
sealing. If the berries are of good size, the
may be cooked in the cans, adding a boiling syrup
prepared with one cup of water and one of sugar for
each quart can of fruit.

If after the cans are cold, the fruit rises to the
top, as it frequently does, take the cans and gently
shake until the fruit is well saturated with the juice
and falls by its own weight to the bottom, or low enough
to be entirely covered with the liquid.

Page 146

TO CAN RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, AND OTHER SMALL
FRUITS.—­Select none but good, sound berries;
those freshly picked are best; reject any green, over-ripe,
mashed, or worm-eaten fruit. If necessary to wash
the berries, do so by putting a quart at a time in
a colander, and dipping the dish carefully into a
pan of clean water, letting it stand for a moment.
If the water is very dirty, repeat the process in a
second water. Drain thoroughly, and if to be
cooked previous to putting in the cans, put into a
porcelain kettle with a very small quantity of water,
and heat slowly to boiling. If sugar is to be
used, have it hot, but do not add it until the fruit
is boiling; and before doing so, if there is much
juice, dip out the surplus, and leave the berries with
only a small quantity, as the sugar will have a tendency
to draw out more juice, thus furnishing plenty for
syrup.

Raspberries are so juicy that they need scarcely more
than a pint of water to two quarts of fruit.

The fruit may be steamed in the cans if preferred.
When thoroughly scalded, if sugar is to be used, fill
the can with a boiling syrup made by dissolving the
requisite amount of sugar in water; if to be canned
without sugar, fill up the can with boiling water or
juice.

Seal the fruit according to directions previously
given.

TO CAN GOOSEBERRIES.—­Select such as are
smooth and turning red, but not fully ripe; wash and
remove the stems and blossom ends. For three
quarts of fruit allow one quart of water. Heat
slowly to boiling; cook fifteen minutes, add a cupful
of sugar which has been heated dry in the oven:
boil two or three minutes longer, and can.

TO CAN PEACHES.—­Select fruit which is perfectly
ripe and sound, but not much softened. Free-stone
peaches are the best. Put a few at a time in
a wire basket, and dip into boiling water for a moment,
and then into cold water, to cool fruit sufficiently
to handle with comfort. The skins may then be
rubbed or peeled off easily, if done quickly, and the
fruit divided into halves; or wipe with a clean cloth
to remove all dirt and the wool, and with a silver
knife cut in halves, remove the stone, and then pare
each piece, dropping into cold water at once to prevent
discoloration. Peaches cut before being pared
are less likely to break in pieces while removing
the stones. When ready, pour a cupful of water
in the bottom of the kettle, and fill with peaches,
scattering sugar among the layers in the proportion
of a heaping tablespoonful to a quart of fruit.
Heat slowly, boil fifteen minutes or longer till a
silver fork can be easily passed through the pieces;
can in the usual way and seal; or, fill the cans with
the halved peaches, and place them in a boiler of
warm water with something underneath to avoid breaking;
cook until perfectly tender. Have ready a boiling
syrup prepared with one half cup of sugar and two
cups of water, and pour into each can all that it will
hold, remove air bubbles, cover and seal. A few
of the pits may be cooked in the syrup, and removed
before adding to the fruit, when their special flavor
is desired.

Page 147

ANOTHER METHOD.—­After paring and halving
the fruit, lay a clean napkin in the bottom of a steamer;
fill with fruit. Steam until a fork will easily
penetrate the pieces. Have ready a boiling syrup
prepared as directed above, put a few spoonfuls in
the bottom of the hot cans, and dip each piece of
fruit gently in the hot syrup; then as carefully place
it in the jars. Fill with the syrup, and finish
in the usual way.

Peaches canned without sugar, retain more nearly their
natural flavor. To prepare in this way, allow
one half pint of water to each pound of fruit.
Cook slowly until tender, and can in the usual manner.
When wanted for the table, open an hour before needed,
and sprinkle lightly with sugar.

TO CAN PEARS.—­The pears should be perfectly
ripened, but not soft. Pare with a silver knife,
halve or quarter, remove the seeds and drop into a
pan of cold water to prevent discoloration. Prepare
a syrup, allowing a cup of sugar and a quart of water
to each two quarts of fruit. When the syrup boils,
put the pears into it very carefully, so as not to
bruise or break them, and cook until they look clear
and can be easily pierced with a fork. Have the
cans heated, and put in first a little of the syrup,
then pack in the pears very carefully; fill to overflowing
with the scalding syrup, and finish as previously directed.
The tougher and harder varieties of pears must be cooked
till nearly tender in hot water, or steamed over a
kettle of boiling water, before adding to the syrup,
and may then be finished as above. If it is desirable
to keep the pears whole, cook only those of a uniform
size together; or if of assorted sizes, put the larger
ones into the syrup a few minutes before the smaller
ones. Some prefer boiling the kins of the pears
in the water of which the syrup is to be made, and
skimming them out before putting in the sugar.
This is thought to impart a finer flavor. Pears
which are very sweet, or nearly tasteless, may be improved
by using the juice of a large lemon for each quart
of syrup. Pears may be cooked in the cans, if
preferred.

TO CAN PLUMS.—­Green Gages and Damsons are
best for canning. Wipe clean with a soft cloth.
Allow a half cup of water and the same of sugar to
every three quarts of fruit, in preparing a syrup.
Pick each plum with a silver fork to prevent it from
bursting, and while the syrup is heating, turn in
the fruit, and boil until thoroughly done. Dip
carefully into hot jars, fill with syrup, and cover
immediately.

TO CAN CHERRIES.—­These may be put up whole
in the same way as plums, or pitted and treated as
directed for berries, allowing about two quarts of
water and a scant pint of sugar to five quarts of solid
fruit, for the tart varieties, and not quite half
as much sugar for the sweeter ones.

TO CAN MIXED FRUIT.—­There are some fruits
with so little flavor that when cooked they are apt
to taste insipid, and are much improved by canning
with some acid or strongly flavored fruits.

Page 148

Blackberries put up with equal quantities of blue
or red plums, or in the proportion of one to three
of the sour fruit, are much better than either of
these fruits canned separately. Black caps are
much better if canned with currants, in the proportion
of one part currants to four of black caps.

Red and black raspberries, cherries and raspberries,
are also excellent combinations.

QUINCES WITH APPLES.—­Pare and cut an equal
quantity of firm sweet apples and quinces. First
stew the quinces till they are tender in sufficient
water to cover. Take them out, and cook the apples
in the same water. Lay the apples and quinces
in alternate layers in a porcelain kettle or crock.
Have ready a hot syrup made with one part sugar to
two and a half parts water, pour over the fruit, and
let it stand all night. The next day reheat to
boiling, and can.

Quinces and sweet apples may be canned in the same
way as directed below for plums and sweet apples,
using equal parts of apples and quinces, and adding
sugar when opened.

PLUMS WITH SWEET APPLES.—­Prepare the plums,
and stew in water enough to cover. When tender,
skim out, add to the juice an equal quantity of quartered
sweet apples, and stew until nearly tender. Add
the plumbs again, boil together for a few minutes,
and can. When wanted for the table, open, sprinkle
with sugar if any seems needed, let stand awhile and
serve.

TO CAN GRAPES.—­Grapes have so many seeds
that they do not form a very palatable sauce when
canned entire. Pick carefully from the stems,
wash in a colander the same as directed for berries,
and drain. Remove the skins, dropping them into
one earthen crock and the pulp into another.
Place both crocks in kettles of hot water over the
stove, and heat slowly, stirring the pulp occasionally
until the seeds will come out clean.

Then rub the pulp through a colander, add the skins
to it, and a cupful of sugar for each quart of pulp.
Return to the fire, boil twenty minutes until the
skins are tender, and can; or, if preferred, the whole
grapes may be heated, and when well scalded so that
the seeds are loosened, pressed through a colander,
thus rejecting both seeds and skins, boiled, then
sweetened if desired, and canned.

TO CAN CRAB APPLES.—­These may be cooked
whole, and canned the same way as plums.

TO CAN APPLES.—­Prepare and can the same
as pears, when fresh and fine in flavor. If old
and rather tasteless, the following is a good way:—­several
thin slices of the yellow part of the rind, four cups
of sugar, and three pints of boiling water. Pare
and quarter the apples, or if small, only halve them,
and cook gently in a broad-bottomed closely-covered
saucepan, with as little water as possible, till tender,
but not broken; then pour the syrup over them, heat
all to boiling, and can at once. The apples may
be cooked by steaming over a kettle of hot water,
if preferred. Care must be taken to cook those
of the same degree of hardness together. The
slices of lemon rind should be removed from the syrup
before using.

Page 149

TO CAN PINEAPPLES.—­The writer has had no
experience in canning this fruit, but the following
method is given on good authority: Pare very
carefully with a silver knife, remove all the “eyes”
and black specks; then cut the sections in which the
“eyes” were, in solid pieces clear down
to the core. By doing this all the valuable part
of the fruit is saved, leaving its hard, woody center.
As, however, this contains considerable juice, it
should be taken in the hands and wrung as one wrings
a cloth, till the juice is extracted, then thrown away.
Prepare a syrup with one part sugar and two parts
water, using what juice has been obtained in place
of so much water. Let it boil up, skim clean,
then add the fruit. Boil just as little as possible
and have the fruit tender, as pineapples loses its
flavor by overcooking more readily than any other
fruit. Put into hot cans, and seal.

FRUIT JELLIES.

The excess of sugar commonly employed in preparing
jellies often renders them the least wholesome of
fruit preparations, and we cannot recommend our readers
to spend a great amount of time in putting up a large
stock of such articles.

The juice of some fruits taken at the right stage
of maturity may be evaporated to a jelly without sugar,
but the process is a more lengthy one, and requires
a much larger quantity of juice than when sugar is
used.

Success in the preparation of fruit jellies depends
chiefly upon the amount of pectose contained in the
fruit. Such fruits as peaches, cherries, and
others containing but a small proportion of pectose,
cannot be made into a firm jelly. All fruit for
jelly should, if possible, be freshly picked, and
before it is over-ripe, as it has then a much better
flavor. The pectose, the jelly-producing element,
deteriorates with age, so that jelly made from over-ripe
fruit is less certain to “form.”
If the fruit is under-ripe, it will be too acid to
give a pleasant flavor. Examine carefully, as
for canning, rejecting all wormy, knotty, unripe,
or partially decayed fruit. If necessary to wash,
drain very thoroughly.

Apples, quinces, and similar fruits may require to
be first cooked in a small amount of water. The
juice of berries, currants, and grapes, may be best
extracted by putting the fruit in a granite-ware double
boiler, or a covered earthen crock placed inside a
kettle of boiling water, mashing as much as possible
with a spoon, and steaming without the addition of
water until the fruit is well scalded and broken.

For straining the juice, have a funnel-shaped bag
made of coarse flannel or strong, coarse linen crash.
The bag will be found more handy if a small hoop of
wire is sewn around the top and two tapes attached
to hang it by while the hot juice is draining, or
a wooden frame to support the bag may be easily constructed
like the one shown on page 74. A dish to receive
the juice should be placed underneath the bag, which

Page 150

should first be wrung out of hot water, and the scalded
fruit, a small quantity at a time, turned in; then
with two large spoons press the sides of the bag well,
moving the fruit around in the bag to get out all the
juice, and removing the pressed pulp and skins each
time before putting in a fresh supply of the hot fruit.
If a very clear jelly is desired, the juice must be
allowed to drain out without pressing or squeezing.
The juice of berries, grapes, and currants may be
extracted without the fruit being first scalded, if
preferred, by putting the fruit into an earthen or
granite-ware dish, and mashing well with a wooden potato
masher, then putting into a jelly bag and allowing
the juice to drain off for several hours.

When strained, if the jelly is to be prepared with
sugar, measure the juice and pour it into a granite
or porcelain fruit kettle with a very broad bottom,
so that as much surface can be on the stove possible.
It is better to boil the juice in quantities of not
more than two or three quarts at a time, unless one
has some utensil in which a larger quantity can be
cooked with no greater depth of liquid than the above
quantity would give in a common fruit kettle.
The purpose of the boiling is to evaporate the water
from the juice, and this can best be accomplished
before the sugar is added. The sugar, if boiled
with the juice, also darkens the jelly.

The average length of time required for boiling the
juice of most berries, currants, and grapes, extracted
as previously directed, before adding the sugar, is
twenty minutes from the time it begins to bubble all
over its surface. It is well to test the jelly
occasionally, however, by dropping a small quantity
on a plate to cool, since the quantity of juice and
the rapidity with which it is boiled, may necessitate
some variation in time. In wet season, fruits
of all kinds absorb more moisture and a little longer
boiling may be necessary. The same is true of
the juice of fruits gathered after a heavy rain.
Jellies prepared with sugar are generally made of
equal measures of juice, measured before boiling,
and sugar; but a very scant measure of sugar is sufficient,
and a less amount will suffice for many fruits.
White granulated sugar is best for all jellies.
While the juice is heating, spread the sugar evenly
on shallow tins, and heat in the oven, stirring occasionally
to keep it from scorching. If portions melt, no
great harm will be done, as the melted portions will
form in lumps when turned into the juice, and can
be removed with a spoon. When the juice has boiled
twenty minutes, turn in the sugar, which should be
so hot that the hand cannot be borne in it with comfort,
stirring rapidly until it is all dissolved. Let
the syrup boil again for three or four minutes, then
take immediately from the fire. Heat the jelly
glasses (those with glass covers are best), by rolling
in hot water, and place them in a shallow pan partially
filled with hot water, or stand them on a wet, folded

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towel while filling. If it is desired to have
the jelly exceptionally clear and nice, it may be
turned through a bag of cheese cloth, previously wrung
out of hot water, into the jelly glasses. If the
covers of the glasses are not tight fitting, a piece
of firm paper should be fitted over the top before
putting on the cover, to make it air tight. Pint
self-sealing fruit cans are excellent for storing jelly,
and if it is sealed in them in the same manner as
canned fruit, will keep perfectly, and obviate any
supposed necessity for the use of brandied paper as
a preservative measure. Label each variety, and
keep in some cool, dry place. If the jelly is
not sufficiently firm when first made, set the glasses
in the sunshine for several days, until the jelly
becomes more firm. This is better than reheating
and boiling again, as it destroys less of the flavor
of the fruit.

RECIPES.

APPLE JELLY.—­Cut nice tart apples in quarters,
but unless wormy, do not peel or core. Put into
a porcelain kettle with a cup of water for each six
pounds of fruit, and simmer very slowly until the apples
are thoroughly cooked. Turn into a jelly-bag,
and drain off the juice. If very tart, allow
three fourths of a pound of sugar to each pint of
juice. If sub-acid, one half pound will be sufficient.
Put the sugar into the oven to heat. Clean the
kettle, and boil the juice therein twenty minutes
after it begins to boil thoroughly. Add the sugar,
stirring until well dissolved, let it boil up once
again, and remove from the fire. The juice of
one lemon may be used with the apples, and a few bits
of lemon rind, the yellow portion only, cooked with
them to give them a flavor, if liked. One third
cranberry juice makes a pleasing combination.

APPLE JELLY WITHOUT SUGAR.—­Select juicy,
white fleshed, sub-acid fruit, perfectly sound and
mature but not mellow. The snow apple is one
of the best varieties for this purpose. Wash well,
slice, and core without removing the skins, and cook
as directed in the preceding recipe. Drain off
the juice, and if a very clear jelly is desired, filter
it through a piece of cheese cloth previously wrung
out of hot water. Boil the juice,—­rapidly
at first, but more gently as it becomes thickened,—­until
of the desired consistency. The time required
will vary with the quantity of juice, the shallowness
of the dish in which it is boiled, and the heat employed.
One hour at least, will be required for one or two
quarts of juice. When the juice has become considerably
evaporated, test it frequently by dipping a few drops
on a plate to cool; and when it jellies sufficiently,
remove at once from the fire. A much larger quantity
of juice will be needed for jelly prepared in this
manner than when sugar is used, about two quarts of
juice being required for one half pint of jelly.
Such jelly, however, has a most delicious flavor,
and is excellent served with grains. Diluted with
water, it forms a most pleasing beverage.

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BERRY AND CURRANT JELLIES.—­Express the
juice according to the directions already given.
For strawberries, red raspberries, and currants, allow
three fourths of a pound of sugar to a pint of juice.
Black raspberries, if used alone, need less sugar.
Strawberry and black raspberry juice make better jelly
if a little lemon juice is used. The juice of
one lemon to each pint of fruit juice will be needed
for black raspberries. Two parts red or black
raspberries with one part currants, make a better
jelly than either alone. Boil the juice of strawberries,
red raspberries, and currants twenty minutes, add the
sugar, and finish, as previously directed. Black
raspberry juice is much thicker, and requires less
boiling.

CHERRY JELLY.—­Jelly may be prepared from
cherries by using with the juice of cherries an equal
amount of apple juice, which gives an additional amount
of pectose to the juice and does not perceptibly change
the flavor.

CRAB APPLE JELLY.—­Choose the best Siberian
crab apples; cut into pieces, but do not pare or remove
seeds. Place in a porcelain-lined or granite-ware
double boiler, with a cup of water for each six pounds
of fruit, and let them remain on the back of the range,
with the water slowly boiling, seven or eight hours.
Leave in the boiler or turn into a large china bowl,
and keep well covered, all night. In the morning
drain off the juice and proceed as for apple jelly,
using from one half to three fourths of a pound of
sugar to one of juice.

CRANBERRY JELLY.—­Scald the berries and
express the juice for other jellies. Measure
the juice, and allow three fourths of a pound of sugar
to one of juice. Boil twenty minutes, add the
sugar hot, and finish as directed for other jellies.

GRAPE JELLY.—­Jelly from ripe grapes may
be prepared in the same manner as that made from the
juice of berries. Jelly from green grapes needs
one half measure more of sugar.

ORANGE JELLY.—­Express the juice of rather
tart oranges, and use with it an equal quantity of
the juice of sub-acid apples, prepared in the manner
directed for apple jelly. For each pint of the
mixed juice, use one half pound of sugar and proceed
as for other jellies.

PEACH JELLY.—­Stone, pare, and slice the
peaches, and steam them in a double boiler. Express
the juice, and add for each pint of peach juice the
juice of one lemon. Measure the juice and sugar,
using three fourths of a pound of sugar for each pint
of juice, and proceed as already directed. Jelly
prepared from peaches will not be so firm as many fruit
jellies, owing to the small amount of pectose contained
in their composition.

A mixture of apples and peaches, in the proportion
of one third of the former to two thirds of the latter,
makes a firmer jelly than peaches alone. The
apples should be pared and cored, so that their flavor
will not interfere with that of the peaches.

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QUINCE JELLY.—­Clean thoroughly good sound
fruit, and slice thin. Put into a double boiler
with one cup of water for each five pounds of fruit,
and cook until softened. Express the juice, and
proceed as with other jellies, allowing three fourths
of a pound of sugar to each pint of juice. Tart
or sweet apples may be used with quinces, in equal
proportions, and make a jelly of more pleasant flavor
than quinces used alone. The seeds of quinces
contain considerable gelatinous substance, and should
be cooked with the quince for jelly making.

PLUM JELLY.—­Use Damsons or Green Gages.
Stone, and make in the same way as for berry and other
small fruit jellies.

FRUIT IN JELLY.—­Prepare some apple jelly
without sugar. When boiled sufficiently to form,
add to it, as it begins to cool, some nice, stoned
dates or seeded raisins. Orange jelly may be used
instead of the apple jelly, if preferred.

FRUIT JUICES.

As sauces for desserts and for summer beverages for
sick or well, the pure juices of fruits are most wholesome
and delicious. So useful are they and so little
trouble to prepare, that no housewife should allow
the fruit season to pass by without putting up a full
stock. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries,
currants, grapes, and cherries are especially desirable.
In preparing them, select only the best fruit, ripe,
but not over-ripe. Extract the juice by mashing
the fruit and slowly heating in the inner cup of a
double boiler, till the fruit is well scalded; too
long heating will injure its color. Strain through
a jelly bag and let it drain slowly for a long time,
but do not squeeze, else some of the pulp will be
forced through. Reheat slowly to boiling and
can the same as fruit. It may be put up with or
without sugar. If sugar is to be used, add it
hot as for jelly, after the juice is strained and
reheated to boiling. For strawberries and currants,
raspberries and cherries, use one cup of sugar to a
quart of juice. Black raspberries and grapes
require less sugar, while blueberries and blackberries
require none at all, or not more than a tablespoonful
to the quart. A mixed juice, of one part currants
and two parts red or black raspberries, has a very
superior flavor.

RECIPES.

GRAPE JUICE, OR UNFERMENTED WINE.—­Take
twenty-five pounds of some well ripened very juicy
variety of grapes, like the Concord. Pick them
from the stems, wash thoroughly, and scald without
the addition of water, in double boilers until the
grapes burst open; cool, turn into stout jelly bags,
and drain off the juice without squeezing. Let
the juice stand and settle; turn off the top, leaving
any sediment there may be. Add to the juice about
four pounds of best granulated sugar, reheat to boiling,
skim carefully, and can the same as fruit. Keep
in a cool, dark place. The wine, if to be sealed
in bottles, will require a corker, and the corks should
first be boiled in hot water and the bottles well
sterilized.

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GRAPE JUICE NO. 2.—­Take grapes of the best
quality, picked fresh from the vines. Wash well
after stripping from the stems, rejecting any imperfect
fruit. Put them in a porcelain or granite fruit
kettle with one pint of water to every three quarts
of grapes, heat to boiling, and cook slowly for fifteen
minutes or longer, skimming as needed. Turn off
the juice and carefully filter it through a jelly bag,
putting the seeds and skins into a separate bag to
drain, as the juice from them will be less clear.
Heat again to boiling, add one cupful of hot sugar
to each quart of juice, and seal in sterilized cans
or bottles. The juice from the skins and seeds
should be canned separately.

ANOTHER METHOD.—­Wash the grapes, and express
the juice without scalding the fruit. Strain
the juice three or four times through muslin or cheese
cloth, allowing it to stand and settle for some time
between each filtering. To every three pints
of juice add one of water and two cupfuls of sugar.
Heat to boiling, and keep at that temperature for
fifteen minutes, skim carefully, and bottle while at
boiling heat. Set away in a cool, dark place.

FRUIT SYRUP.—­Prepare the juice expressed
from strawberries, raspberries, currants, or grapes,
as directed above for fruit juices. After it
has come to a boil, add one pound of sugar to every
quart of juice. Seal in pint cans. It may
be diluted with water to form a pleasing beverage,
and is especially useful in flavoring puddings and
sauces.

CURRANT SYRUP.—­Boil together a pint of
pure currant juice and one half pound of best white
sugar for ten minutes, and can or bottle while at
boiling temperature. One or two spoonfuls of the
syrup in a glass of water makes a most refreshing
drink. Two parts currants and one of red raspberries
may be used in place of all currants, if preferred.

ORANGE SYRUP.—­Select ripe and thin-skinned
fruit. To every pint of the juice add one pound
of sugar, the juice of one lemon, and a little of
the grated rind. Boil for fifteen minutes, removing
all scum as it rises. If the syrup is not clear,
strain through a piece of cheese cloth, and reheat.
Can and seal while boiling hot.

LEMON SYRUP.—­Grate the yellow portion of
the rind of six lemons, and mix with three pounds
of best granulated white sugar. Add one quart
of water and boil until it thickens. Strain, add
the juice of the six lemons, carefully leaving out
the pulp and seeds; boil ten minutes, and bottle.
Diluted with two thirds cold water, it forms a delicious
and quickly prepared lemonade.

LEMON SYRUP NO. 2.—­To every pint of lemon
juice add one pound of sugar; boil, skim, and seal
in cans like fruit.

BLACKBERRY SYRUP.—­Crush fresh, well-ripened
blackberries, and add to them one fourth as much boiling
water as berries; let them stand for twenty-four hours,
stirring frequently. Strain, add a cup of sugar
to each quart of juice, boil slowly for fifteen minutes,
and can.

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FRUIT ICES.—­Express the juice from a pint
of stoned red cherries, add the juice of two lemons,
one cup of sugar and a quart of cold water. Stir
well for five minutes, an freeze in an ice cream freezer.
Equal parts currant and red raspberry juice may be
used instead of cherry, if preferred.

DRYING FRUIT.

This method of preserving fruit, except in large establishments
where it is dried by steam, is but little used, since
canning is quicker and superior in every way.
Success in drying fruits is dependent upon the quickness
with which, they can be dried, without subjecting them
to so violent a heat as to burn them or injure their
flavor.

Pulpy fruits, such as berries, cherries, plums, etc.,
should be spread on some convenient flat surface without
contact with each other, and dried in the sun under
glass, or in a moderate oven. They should be
turned daily. They will dry more quickly if first
scalded in a hot oven. Cherries should be first
stoned and cooked until well heated through and tender,
then spread on plates, and the juice (boiled down to
a syrup) poured over them. When dried, they will
be moist. Pack in jars. Large fruit, such
as apples, pears, and peaches, should be pared, divided,
and the seeds or stones removed. If one has but
a small quantity, the best plan is to dry by mean
of artificial heat; setting it first in a hot oven
until heated through, which process starts the juice
and forms a film or crust over the cut surfaces, thus
holding the remaining: quantity of juice inside
until it becomes absorbed in the tissues. The
drying process may be finished in a warming oven or
some place about the range where the fruit will get
only moderate heat. If a larger quantity of fruit
is to be dried, after being heated in the oven, it
may be placed in the hot sun out of doors, under fine
wire screens, to keep off the flies; or may be suspended
for the ceiling in some way, or placed upon a frame
made to stand directly over the stove. As the
drying proceeds, the fruit should be turned occasionally,
and when dry enough, it should be thoroughly heated
before it is packed away, to prevent it from getting
wormy.

NUTS.

The nuts, or shell fruits, as they are sometimes termed,
form a class of food differing greatly from the succulent
fruits. They are more properly seeds, containing,
in general, no starch, but are rich in fat and nitrogenous
elements in the form of vegetable albumen and casein.
In composition, the nuts rank high in nutritive value,
but owing to the oily matter which they contain, are
difficult of digestion, unless reduced to a very minutely
divided state before or during mastication. The
fat of nuts is similar in character to cream, and needs
to be reduced to the consistency of cream to be easily
digested. Those nuts, such as almonds, filberts,
and pecans, which do not contain an excess of fat,
are the most wholesome. Nuts should be eaten,
in moderation, at the regular mealtime, and not partaken
of as a tidbit between meals. It is likewise
well to eat them in connection with some hard food,
to insure their thorough mastication. Almonds
and cream crisps thus used make a pleasing combination.

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Most of the edible nuts have long been known and used
as food. The Almond was highly esteemed
by the ancient nations of the East, its native habitat,
and is frequently referred to in sacred history.
It is grown extensively in the warm, temperate regions
of the Old World. There are two varieties, known
as the bitter and the sweet almond. The kernel
of the almond yields a fixed oil; that produced from
the bitter almond is much esteemed for flavoring purposes,
but it is by no means a safe article to use, at it
possesses marked poisonous qualities. Fresh, sweet
almonds are a nutritive, and, when properly eaten,
wholesome food. The outer brown skin of the kernel
is somewhat bitter, rough, and irritating to the stomach
but it can be easily removed by blanching.

Blanched almonds, if baked for a short time, become
quite brittle, and may be easily pulverized, and are
then more easily digested. Bread made from almonds
thus baked and pulverized, is considered an excellent
food for persons suffering with diabetes.

Brazil Nuts are the seeds of a gigantic tree
which grows wild in the valleys of the Amazon, and
throughout tropical America. The case containing
these seeds is a hard, woody shell, globular in form,
and about the size of a man’s head. It
is divided into four cells, in each of which are closely
packed the seeds which constitute the so-called nuts,
of commerce. These seeds are exceedingly rich
in oil, one pound of them producing about nine ounces
of oil.

The Cocoanut is perhaps the most important
of all the shell fruits, if we may judge by the variety
of uses to which the nut and the tree which bears
it can be put. It has been said that nature seldom
produces a tree so variously useful to man as the
cocoanut palm. In tropical countries, where it
grows abundantly, its leaves are employed for thatching,
its fibers for manufacturing many useful articles,
while its ashes produce potash in abundance.
The fruit is eaten raw, and in many ways is prepared
for food; it also yields an oil which forms an important
article of commerce. The milk of the fruit is
a cooling beverage, and the woody shell of the nut
answers very well for a cup from which to drink it.
The saccharine juice of the tree also affords an excellent
drink; and from the fresh young stems is prepared a
farinaceous substance similar to sago.

The cocoanuts grow in clusters drooping from the tuft
of long, fringed leaves which crown the branchless
trunk of the stately palm. The cocoanut as found
in commerce is the nut divested of its outer sheath,
and is much smaller in size than when seen upon the
tree. Picked fresh from the tree, the cocoanut
consists first of a green outer covering; next of
a fibrous coat, which, if the nut is mature, is hairy-like
in appearance; and then of the woody shell, inside
of which is the meat and milk. For household
purposes the nuts are gathered while green, and before
the inner shell has become solidified; the flesh is
then soft like custard, and can be easily eaten with
a teaspoon, while a large quantity of delicious, milk-like
fluid is obtainable from each nut.

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As found in our Northern markets, the cocoanut is
difficult of digestion, as is likewise the prepared
or desiccated cocoanut. The cocoanut contains
about seventy per cent of oil.

The Chestnut is an exception to most nuts in
its composition. It contains starch, and about
fifteen per cent of sugar. No oil can be extracted
from the chestnut. In Italy, and other parts of
Southern Europe, the chestnut forms an important article
of food. It is sometimes dried and ground into
flour, from which bread is prepared. The chestnut
is a nutritious food, but owing to the starch it contains,
is more digestible when cooked. The same is true
of the Acorn, which is similar in character
to the chestnut. In the early ages, acorns were
largely used for food, and are still used as a substitute
for bread in some countries.

The Hazelnut, with the Filbert and Cobnut,
varieties of the same nut obtained by cultivation,
are among the most desirable nuts for general consumption.

The Walnut, probably a native of Persia, where
in ancient times it was so highly valued as to be
considered suited only for the table of the king,
is now found very commonly with other species of the
same family, the Butternut and Hickory nut,
in most temperate climates.

The Pecan, a nut allied to the hickory nut,
and grown extensively in the Mississippi Valley and
Texas, is one of the most easily digested nuts.

The Peanut or Groundnut is the seed
of an annual, cultivated extensively in most tropical
and sub-tropical countries. After the plant has
blossomed, the stalk which produced the flower has
the peculiarity of bending down and forcing itself
under ground so that the seeds mature some depth beneath
the surface. When ripened, the pods containing
the seeds are dug up and dried. In tropical countries
the fresh nuts are largely consumed, and are thought
greatly to resemble almonds in flavor. In this
country they are more commonly roasted. They are
less easily digested than many other nuts because
of the large amount of oily matter which they contain.

RECIPES.

TO BLANCH ALMONDS.—­Shell fresh, sweet almonds,
and pour boiling water over them; let them stand for
two or three minutes, skim out, and drop into cold
water. Press between the thumb and finger, and
the kernels will readily slip out of the brown covering.
Dry between clean towels. Blanched almonds served
with raisins make an excellent dessert.

BOILED CHESTNUTS.—­The large variety, knows
as the Italian chestnut, is best for this purpose.
Remove the shells, drop into boiling water, and boil
for ten minutes, take out, drop into cold water, and
rub off the brown skin. Have some clean water
boiling, turn the blanched nuts into it, and cook
until they can be pierced with a fork. Drain
thoroughly, put into a hot dish, dry in the oven for
a few minutes, and serve. A cream sauce or tomato
sauce may be served with them if liked.

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MASHED CHESTNUTS.—­Prepare and boil the
chestnuts as in the preceding recipe. When tender,
mash through a colander with a potato masher.
Season with cream and salt if desired. Serve hot.

TO KEEP NUTS FRESH.—­Chestnuts and other
thin-shelled nuts may be kept from becoming too dry
by mixing with an equal bulk of dry sand and storing
in a box or barrel in some cool place.

TABLE TOPICS.

Who lives to eat, will die
by eating.—­Sel.

Fruit bears the closest relation to
light. The sun pours a continuous flood of
light into the fruits, and they furnish the best portion
of food a human being requires for the sustenance of
mind and body.—­Alcott.

The famous Dr. John Hunter, one of the
most eminent physicians of his time, and himself
a sufferer from gout, found in apples a remedy for
this very obstinate and distressing malady. He
insisted that all of his patients should discard
wine and roast beef, and make a free use of apples.

Do not too much for your stomach,
or it will abandon you.—­Sel.

The purest food is fruit, next the cereals,
then the vegetables. All pure poets have
abstained almost entirely from animal food. Especially
should a minister take less meat when he has to write
a sermon. The less meat the better sermon.—­A.
Bronson Alcott.

There is much false economy: those
who are too poor to have seasonable fruits and
vegetables, will yet have pie and pickles all the
year. They cannot afford oranges, yet can afford
tea and coffee daily.—­Health Calendar.

What plant we in the
apple tree?
Fruits that shall dwell
in sunny June,
And redden in the August
moon,
And drop, when gentle
airs come by,
That fan the blue September
sky,
While children come,
with cries of glee,
And seek there when
the fragrant grass
Betrays their bed to
those who pass
At the foot of the apple
tree.

—­Bryant.

LEGUMES

The legumes, to which belong peas, beans, and lentils,
are usually classed among vegetables; but in composition
they differ greatly from all other vegetable foods,
being characterized by a very large percentage of
the nitrogenous elements, by virtue of which they possess
the highest nutritive value. Indeed, when mature,
they contain a larger proportion of nitrogenous matter
than any other food, either animal or vegetable.
In their immature state, they more nearly resemble
the vegetables. On account of the excess of nitrogenous
elements in their composition, the mature legumes
are well adapted to serve as a substitute for animal
foods, and for use in association with articles in
which starch or other non-nitrogenous elements are
predominant; as, for example, beans or lentils with
rice, which combinations constitute the staple food
of large populations in India.

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The nitrogenous matter of legumes is termed legumin,
or vegetable casein, and its resemblance to the animal
casein of milk is very marked. The Chinese make
use of this fact, and manufacture cheese from peas
and beans. The legumes were largely used as food
by the ancient nations of the East. They were
the “pulse” upon which the Hebrew children
grew so fair and strong. According to Josephus,
legumes also formed the chief diet of the builders
of the pyramids. They are particularly valuable
as strength producers, and frequently form a considerable
portion of the diet of persons in training as athletes,
at the present day. Being foods possessed of
such high nutritive value, the legumes are deserving
of a more extended use than is generally accorded
them in this country. In their mature state they
are, with the exception of beans, seldom found upon
the ordinary bill of fare, and beans are too generally
served in a form quite difficult of digestion, being
combined with large quantities of fat, or otherwise
improperly prepared. Peas and lentils are in some
respects superior to beans, being less liable to disagree
with persons of weak digestion, and for this reason
better suited to form a staple article of diet.

All the legumes are covered with a tough skin, which
is in itself indigestible, and which if not broken
by the cooking process or by thorough mastication
afterward, renders the entire seed liable to pass
through the digestive tract undigested, since the digestive
fluids cannot act upon the hard skin. Even when
the skins are broken, if served with the pulp, much
of the nutritive material of the legume is wasted,
because it is impossible for the digestive processes
to free it from the cellulose material of which the
skins are composed. If, then, it be desirable
to obtain from the legumes the largest amount of nutriment
and in the most digestible form, they must be prepared
in some manner so as to reject the skins. Persons
unable to use the legumes when cooked in the ordinary
way, usually experience no difficulty whatever in digesting
them when divested of their skins. The hindrance
which even the partially broken skins are to the complete
digestion of the legume, is well illustrated by the
personal experiments of Prof. Struempell, a German
scientist, who found that of beans boiled with the
skins on he was able to digest only 60 per cent of
the nitrogenous material they contained. When,
however, he reduced the same quantity of beans to a
fine powder previous to cooking, he was enabled to
digest 91.8 per cent of it.

The fact that the mature legumes are more digestible
when prepared in some manner in which the skins are
rejected, was doubtless understood in early times,
for we find in a recipe of the fourteenth century,
directions given “to dry legumes in an oven and
remove the skins away before using them.”

The green legumes which are more like a succulent
vegetable are easily digested with the skins on, if
the hulls are broken before being swallowed.
There are also some kinds of beans which, in their
mature state, from having thinner skins, are more
readily digested, as the Haricot variety.

Page 160

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING.—­The legumes are
best cooked by stewing or boiling, and when mature,
require prolonged cooking to render them tender and
digestible. Slow cooking, when practicable, is
preferable. Dry beans and peas are more readily
softened by cooking if first soaked for a time in
cold water. The soaking also has a tendency to
loosen the skins, so that when boiled or stewed, a
considerable portion of them slip off whole, and being
lighter, rise to the top during the cooking, and can
be removed with a spoon; it likewise aids in removing
the strong flavor characteristic of these foods, which
is considered objectionable by some persons.
The length of time required for soaking will depend
upon the age of the seed, those from the last harvest
needing only a few hours, while such as have been
kept for two or more years require to be soaked twelve
or twenty-four hours. For cooking, soft water
is best. The mineral elements in hard water have
a tendency to harden the casein, of which the legumes
a largely composed, thus rendering it often very difficult
to soften them.

The dry, unsoaked legumes are generally best put to
cook in cold water, and after the boiling point is
reached, allowed to simmer gently until done.
Boiling water may be used for legumes which have been
previously soaked. The amount of water required
will vary somewhat with the heat employed and the
age and condition of the legume, as will also the time
required for cooking, but as a general rule two quarts
of soft water for one pint of seeds will be quite
sufficient. Salt should not be added until the
seeds are nearly done, as it hinders the cooking process.

PEAS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The common garden pea is probably
a native of countries bordering on the Black Sea.
A variety known as the gray pea (pois chiche)
has been used since a very remote period. The
common people of Greece and Rome, in ancient times
made it an ordinary article of diet. It is said
that peas were considered such a delicacy by the Romans
that those who coveted public favor distributed them
gratuitously to the people in order to buy votes.

Peas were introduced into England from Holland in
the time of Elizabeth, and were then considered a
great delicacy. History tells us that when the
queen was released from her confinement in the tower,
May 19, 1554, she went to Staining to perform her
devotions in the church of Allhallows, after which
she dined at a neighboring inn upon a meal of which
the principal dish was boiled peas. A dinner of
the same kind, commemorative of the event, was for
a long time given annually at the same tavern.

Peas, when young, are tender and sweet, containing
a considerable quantity of sugar. The nitrogenous
matter entering into their composition, although less
in quantity when unripe, is much more easily digested
than when the seeds are mature.

When quite ripe, like other leguminous seeds, they
require long cooking. When very old, no amount
of boiling will soften them. When green, peas
are usually cooked and served as a vegetable; in their
dried state, they are put to almost every variety
of use in the different countries where they are cultivated.

Page 161

In the southeast of Scotland, a favorite food is made
of ground peas prepared in thick cakes and called
peas-bainocks.

In India and southern Europe, a variety of the pea
is eaten parched or lightly roasted, or made into
cakes, puddings, and sweetmeats. In Germany,
in combination with other ingredients, peas are compounded
into sausages, which, during the Franco-Prussian war,
served as rations for the soldiers.

Dried peas for culinary use are obtainable in two
forms; the split peas, which have had the tough envelope
of the seed removed, and the green or Scotch peas.

The time required for cooking will vary from five
to eight hours, depending upon the age of the seed
and the length of time it has been soaked previous
to cooking.

RECIPES.

STEWED SPLIT PEAS.—­Carefully examine and
wash the peas, rejecting any imperfect or worm-eaten
ones. Put into cold water and let them come to
a boil; then place the stewpan back on the range and
simmer gently until tender, but not mushy. Season
with salt and a little cream if desired.

PEAS PUREE.—­Soak a quart of Scotch peas
in cold water over night. In the morning, drain
and put them to cook in boiling water. Cook slowly
until perfectly tender, allowing them to simmer very
gently toward the last until they become as dry as
possible. Put through a colander to render them
homogeneous and remove the skins. Many of the
skins will be loosened and rise to the top during
the cooking, and it is well to remove these with a
spoon so as to make the process of rubbing through
the colander less laborious. Season with salt
if desired, and a cup of thin cream. Serve hot.

MASHED PEAS.—­Soak and cook a quart of peas
as for Peas Puree When well done, if the Scotch
peas, rub through a colander to remove the skins.
If the split peas are used, mash perfectly smooth with
a potato masher. Season with a teaspoonful of
salt and a half cup of sweet cream, if desired.
Beat well together, turn into an earthen or granite-ware
pudding dish, smooth the top, and bake in a moderate
oven until dry and mealy throughout, and nicely browned
on top. Serve hot like mashed potato, or with
a tomato sauce prepared as follows: Heat a pint
of strained, stewed tomato, season lightly with salt,
and when boiling, thicken with a tablespoonful of
flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water.

PEAS CAKES.—­Cut cold mashed peas in slices
half an inch in thickness, brush lightly with cream,
place on perforated tins, and brown in the oven.
If the peas crumble too much to slice, form them into
small cakes with a spoon or knife, and brown as directed.
Serve hot with or without a tomato sauce. A celery
sauce prepared as directed in the chapter on Sauces,
is also excellent.

DRIED GREEN PEAS.—­Gather peas while young
and tender and carefully dry them. When needed
for use, rinse well, and put to cook in cold water.
Let them simmer until tender. Season with cream
the same as fresh green peas.

Page 162

BEANS.

DESCRIPTION.—­Some variety of the bean family
has been cultivated and used for culinary purposes
from time immemorial. It is frequently mentioned
in Scripture; King David considered it worthy of a
place in his dietary, and the prophet Ezekiel was
instructed to mix it with the various grains and seeds
of which he made his bread.

Among some ancient nations the bean was regarded as
a type of death, and the priests of Jupiter were forbidden
to eat it, touch it, or even pronounce its name.
The believer in the doctrine of transmigration of
souls carefully avoided this article of food, in the
fear of submitting beloved friends to the ordeal of
mastication.

At the present day there is scarcely a country in
hot or temperate climates where the bean is not cultivated
and universally appreciated, both as a green vegetable
and when mature and dried.

The time required to digest boiled beans is two and
one half hours, and upwards.

In their immature state, beans are prepared and cooked
like other green vegetables. Dry beans may be
either boiled, stewed, or baked, but whatever the
method employed, it must be very slow and prolonged.
Beans to be baked should first be parboiled until
tender. We mention this as a precautionary measure
lest some amateur cook, misled by the term “bake,”
should repeat the experiment of the little English
maid whom we employed as cook while living in London,
a few years ago. In ordering our dinner, we had
quite overlooked the fact that baked beans are almost
wholly an American dish, and failed to give any suggestions
as to the best manner of preparing it. Left to
her own resources, the poor girl did the best she
knew how, but her face was full of perplexity as she
placed the beans upon the table at dinner, with, “Well,
ma’am, here are the beans, but I don’t
see how you are going to eat them.” Nor
did we, for she had actually baked the dry beans,
and they lay there in the dish, as brown as roasted
coffee berries, and as hard as bullets.

Beans to be boiled or stewed do not need parboiling,
although many cooks prefer to parboil them, to lessen
the strong flavor which to some persons is quite objectionable.

From one to eight hours are required to cook beans,
varying with the age and variety of the seed, whether
it has been soaked, and the rapidity of the cooking
process.

RECIPES.

BAKED BEANS.—­Pick over a quart of best
white beans and soak in cold water over night.
Put them to cook in fresh water, and simmer gently
till they are tender, but not broken. Let them
be quite juicy when taken from the kettle. Season
with salt and a teaspoonful of molasses. Put
them in a deep crock in a slow oven. Let them
bake two or three hours, or until they assume a reddish
brown tinge, adding boiling water occasionally to
prevent their becoming dry. Turn, into a shallow
dish, and brown nicely before sending to the table.

Page 163

BOILED BEANS.—­Pick over some fresh, dry
beans carefully, and wash thoroughly. Put into
boiling water and cook gently and slowly until tender,
but not broken. They should be moderately juicy
when done. Serve with lemon juice, or season
with salt and a little cream as preferred.

The colored varieties, which are usually quite strong
in flavor, are made less so by parboiling for fifteen
or twenty minutes and then pouring the water off,
adding more of boiling temperature, and cooking slowly
until tender.

BEANS BOILED IN A BAG.—­Soak a pint of white
beans over night. When ready to cook, put them
into a clean bag, tie up tightly, as the beans have
already swelled, and if given space to move about with
the boiling of the water will become broken and mushy.
Boil three or four hours. Serve hot.

SCALLOPED BEANS.—­Soak a pint of white beans
over night in cold water. When ready to cook,
put into an earthen baking dish, cover well with new
milk, and bake in a slow oven for eight or nine hours;
refilling the dish with milk as it boils away, and
taking care that the beans do not at any time get
dry enough to brown over the top till they are tender.
When nearly done, add salt to taste, and a half cup
of cream. They may be allowed to bake till the
milk is quite absorbed, and the beans dry, or may
be served when rich with juice, according to taste.
The beans may be parboiled in water for a half hour
before beginning to bake, and the length of time thereby
lessened. They should be well drained before
adding the milk, however.

STEWED BEANS.—­Soak a quart of white beans
in water over night. In the morning drain, turn
hot water over them an inch deep or more, cover, and
place on the range where they will only just simmer,
adding boiling water if needed. When nearly tender,
add salt to taste, a tablespoonful of sugar if desired,
and half a cup of good sweet cream. Cook slowly
an hour or more longer, but let them be full of juice
when taken up, never cooked down dry and mealy.

MASHED BEANS.—­Soak over night in cold water,
a quart of nice white beans. When ready to cook,
drain, put into boiling water, and boil till perfectly
tender, and the water nearly evaporated. Take
up, rub through a colander to remove the skins, season
with salt and a half cup of cream, put in a shallow
pudding dish, smooth the top with a spoon, and brown
in the oven.

STEWED LIMA BEANS.—­Put the beans into boiling
water, and cook till tender, but not till they fall
to pieces. Fresh beans should cook an hour or
more, and dry ones require from two to three hours
unless previously soaked. They are much better
to simmer slowly than to boil hard. They should
be cooked nearly dry. Season with salt, and a
cup of thin cream, to each pint of beans. Simmer
for a few minutes after the cream is turned in.
Should it happen that the beans become tender before
the water is sufficiently evaporated, do not drain
off the water, but add a little thicker cream, and
thicken the whole with a little flour. A little
flour stirred in with the cream, even when the water
is nearly evaporated may be preferred by some.

Page 164

SUCCOTASH.—­Boil one part Lima beans and
two parts sweet corn separately until both are nearly
tender. Put them together, and simmer gently
till done. Season with salt and sweet cream.
Fresh corn and beans may be combined in the same proportions,
but as the beans will be likely to require the most
time for cooking, they should be put to boil first,
and the corn added when the beans are about half done,
unless it is exceptionally hard, in which case it
must be added sooner.

PULP SUCCOTASH.—­Score the kernels of some
fresh green corn with a sharp knife blade, then with
the back of a knife scrape out all the pulp, leaving
the hulls on the cob. Boil the pulp in milk ten
or fifteen minutes, or until well done. Cook
some fresh shelled beans until tender, and rub them
through a colander. Put together an equal quantity
of the beans thus prepared and the cooked corn pulp,
season with salt and sweet cream, boil together for
a few minutes, and serve. Kornlet and dried Lima
beans may be made into succotash in a similar manner.

LENTILS.

DESCRIPTION.—­Several varieties of the lentil
are cultivated for food, but all are nearly alike
in composition and nutritive value. They have
long been esteemed as an article of diet. That
they were in ordinary use among the Hebrews is shown
by the frequent mention of them in Scripture.
It is thought that the red pottage of Esau was made
from the red variety of this legume.

The ancient Egyptians believed that a diet of lentils
would tend to make their children good tempered, cheerful,
and wise, and for this reason constituted it their
principal food. A gravy made of lentils is largely
used with their rice by the natives of India, at the
present day.

The meal which lentils yield is of great richness,
and generally contains more casein than either beans
or peas. The skin, however, is tough and indigestible,
and being much smaller than peas, when served without
rejecting the skins, they appear to be almost wholly
of tough, fibrous material; hence they are of little
value except for soups, purees, toasts, and
other such dishes as require the rejection of the
skin. Lentils have a stronger flavor than any
of the other legumes, and their taste is not so generally
liked until one has become accustomed to it.

Lentils are prepared and cooked in the same manner
as dried peas, though they require somewhat less time
for cooking.

The large dark variety is better soaked for a time
previous to cooking, or parboiled for a half hour
and then put into new water, to make them less strong
in flavor and less dark in color.

RECIPES.

LENTIL PUREE.—­Cook the lentils and rub
through a colander as for peas puree.
Season, and serve in the same manner.

LENTILS MASHED WITH BEANS.—­Lentils may
be cooked and prepared in the same manner as directed
for mashed peas, but they are less strong in flavor
if about one third to one half cooked white beans are
used with them.

Page 165

LENTIL GRAVY WITH RICE.—­Rub a cupful of
cooked lentils through a colander to remove the skins,
add one cup of rich milk, part cream if it can be
afforded, and salt if desired. Heat to boiling,
and thicken with a teaspoonful of flour rubbed smooth
in a little cold milk. Serve hot on nicely steamed
or boiled rice, or with well cooked macaroni.

TABLE TOPICS.

The men who kept alive the
flame of learning and piety in the Middle
Ages were mainly vegetarians.—­Sir
William Axon.

According to Xenophon, Cyrus, king of
Persia, was brought up on a diet of water, bread,
and cresses, till his fifteenth year, when honey
and raisins were added; and the family names of Fabii
and Lentuli were derived from their customary
diet.

Thomson, in his poem, “The
Seasons,” written one hundred and sixty
years ago, pays the following
tribute to a diet composed of seeds
and vegetable
products:—­#/

“With such a liberal
hand has Nature flung
These seeds abroad, blown
them about in winds—­ ...
But who their virtues can
declare? who pierce,
With vision pure, into those
secret stores
Of health and life and joy—­the
food of man,
While yet he lived in innocence
and told
A length of golden years,
unfleshed in blood?
A stranger to the savage arts
of life—­
Death, rapine, carnage, surfeit,
and disease—­
The lord, and not the
tyrant of the world.”

Most assuredly I do believe that body
and mind are much influenced by the kind of food
habitually depended upon. I can never stray among
the village people of our windy capes without now and
then coming upon a human being who looks as if
he had been split, salted, and dried, like the
salt fish which has built up his arid organism.
If the body is modified by the food which nourishes
it, the mind and character very certainly will
be modified by it also. We know enough of
their close connection with each other to be sure of
what without any statistical observation to prove
it.—­Oliver Wendell Holmes.

The thoughts and feelings which the
food we partake of provokes, are not remarked
in common life, but they, nevertheless, have their
significance. A man who daily sees cows and
calves slaughtered, or who kills them himself,
hogs “stuck,” hens “plucked,”
etc., cannot possibly retain any true feeling
for the sufferings of his own species....Doubtless,
the majority of flesh-eaters do not reflect upon
the manner in which this food comes to them, but this
thoughtlessness, far from being a virtue, is the
parent of many vices....How very different are
the thoughts and sentiments produced by the non-flesh
diet!—­Gustav Von Struve.

That the popular idea that beef is necessary
for strength is not a correct one, is well illustrated

Page 166

by Xenophon’s description of the outfit
of a Spartan soldier, whose dietary consisted of the
very plainest and simplest vegetable fare.
The complete accoutrements of the Spartan soldier,
in what we would call heavy marching order, weighed
seventy-five pounds, exclusive of the camp, mining,
and bridge-building tools and the rations of bread
and dried fruit which were issued in weekly installments,
and increased the burden of the infantry soldier
to ninety, ninety-five, or even to a full hundred
pounds. This load was often carried at the
rate of four miles an hour for twelve hours per
diem, day after day, and only when in the
burning deserts of southern Syria did the commander
of the Grecian auxiliaries think prudent to shorten
the usual length of the day’s march.

DIET OF TRAINERS.—­The
following are a few of the restrictions and
rules laid down by experienced
trainers:—­

Little salt. No course
vegetables. No pork or veal. Two meals a
day;
breakfast at eight and dinner
at two. No fat meat is allowed, no
butter or cheese, pies or
pastry.

VEGETABLES

Vegetables used for culinary purposes comprise roots
and tubers, as potatoes, turnips, etc.; shoots
and stems, as asparagus and sea-kale; leaves and inflorescence,
as spinach and cabbage; immature seeds, grains, and
seed receptacles, as green peas, corn, and string-beans;
and a few of the fruity products, as the tomato and
the squash. Of these the tubers rank the highest
in nutritive value.

Vegetables are by no means the most nutritious diet,
as water enters largely into their composition; but
food to supply perfectly the needs of the vital economy,
must contain water and indigestible as well as nutritive
elements. Thus they are dietetically of great
value, since they furnish a large quantity of organic
fluids. Vegetables are rich in mineral elements,
and are also of service in giving bulk to food.
An exclusive diet of vegetables, however, would give
too great bulk, and at the same time fail to supply
the proper amount of food elements. To furnish
the requisite amount of nitrogenous material for one
day, if potatoes alone were depended upon as food,
a person would need to consume about nine pounds;
of turnips, sixteen pounds; of parsnips, eighteen
pounds; of cabbage, twenty-two pounds. Hence it
is wise to use them in combination with other articles
of diet—­grains, whole-wheat bread, etc.—­that
supplement the qualities lacking in the vegetables.

TO SELECT VEGETABLES.—­All roots and tubers
should be plump, free from decay, bruises, and disease,
and with fresh, unshriveled skins. They are good
from the time of maturing until they begin to germinate.
Sprouted vegetables are unfit for food. Potato
sprouts contain a poison allied to belladonna.
All vegetables beginning to decay are unfit for food.

Green vegetables to be wholesome should be freshly
gathered, crisp, and juicy; those which have lain
long in the market are very questionable food.
In Paris, a law forbids a market-man to offer for sale
any green vegetable kept more than one day. The
use of stale vegetables is known to have been the
cause of serious illness.

Page 167

KEEPING VEGETABLES.—­If necessary to keep
green vegetables for any length of time, do not put
them in water, as that will dissolve and destroy some
of their juices; but lay them in a cool, dark place,—­on
a stone floor is best,—­and do not remove
their outer leaves until needed. They should
be cooked the day they are gathered, if possible.
The best way to freshen those with the stems when
withered is to cut off a bit of the stem or stem-end,
and set only the cut part in water. The vegetables
will then absorb enough water to replace what has been
lost by evaporation.

Peas and beans should not be shelled until wanted.
If, however, they are not used as soon as shelled,
cover them with pods and put in a cool place.

Winter vegetables can be best kept wholesome by storing
in a cool, dry place of even temperature, and where
neither warmth, moisture, nor light is present to
induce decay or germination. They should be well
sorted, the bruised or decayed, rejected, and the
rest put into clean bins or boxes; and should be dry
and clean when stored. Vegetables soon absorb
bad flavors if left near anything odorous or decomposing,
and are thus rendered unwholesome. They should
be looked over often, and decayed ones removed.
Vegetables, to be kept fit for food, should on no account
be stored in a cellar with barrels of fermenting pickle
brine, soft soap, heaps of decomposing rubbish, and
other similar things frequently found in the dark,
damp vegetable cellars of modern houses.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Most vegetables
need thorough washing before cooking. Roots and
tubers should be well cleaned before paring. A
vegetable brush or a small whisk broom is especially
serviceable for this purpose. If necessary to
wash shelled beans and peas, it can best be accomplished
by putting them in a colander and dipping in and out
of large pans of water until clean. Spinach,
lettuce, and other leaves may be cleaned the same
way.

Vegetables admit of much variety in preparation for
the table, and are commonly held to require the least
culinary skill of any article of diet. This is
a mistake. Though the usual processes employed
to make vegetables palatable are simple, yet many
cooks, from carelessness or lack of knowledge of their
nature and composition, convert some of the most nutritious
vegetables into dishes almost worthless as food or
almost impossible of digestion. It requires no
little care and skill to cook vegetables so that they
will neither be underdone nor overdone, and so that
they will retain their natural flavors.

A general rule, applicable to all vegetables to be
boiled or stewed, is to cook them in as little water
as may be without burning. The salts and nutrient
juices are largely lost in the water; and if this needs
to be drained off, much of the nutriment is apt to
be wasted. Many cooks throw away the true richness,
while they serve the “husks” only.
Condiments and seasonings may cover insipid taste,
but they cannot restore lost elements. Vegetables
contain so much water in their composition that it
is not necessary to add large quantities for cooking,
as in the case of the grains and legumes, which have
lost nearly all their moisture in the ripening process.
Some vegetables are much better cooked without the
addition of water.

Page 168

Vegetables to be cooked by boiling should be put into
boiling water; and since water loses its goodness
by boiling, vegetables should be put in as soon as
the boiling begins. The process of cooking should
be continuous, and in general gentle heat is best.
Remember that when water is boiling, the temperature
is not increased by violent bubbling. Keep the
cooking utensil closely covered. If water is added,
let it also be boiling hot.

Vegetables not of uniform size should be so assorted
that those of the same size may be cooked together,
or large ones may be divided. Green vegetables
retain their color best if cook rapidly. Soda
is sometimes added to the water in which the vegetables
are cooked, for the purpose of preserving their colors,
but this practice is very harmful.

Vegetables should be cooked until they are perfectly
tender but not overdone. Many cooks spoil their
vegetables by cooking them too long, while quite as
many more serve them in an underdone state to preserve
their form. Either plan makes them less palatable,
and likely to be indigestible.

Steaming or baking is preferable for most vegetables,
because their finer flavors are more easily retained,
and their food value suffers less diminution.
Particularly is this true of tubers.

The time required for cooking depends much upon the
age and freshness of the vegetables, as well as the
method of cooking employed. Wilted vegetables
require a longer time for cooking than fresh ones.

TIME REQUIRED FOR COOKING.—­The following
is the approximate length of time required for cooking
some of the more commonly used vegetables:—­

Potatoes, baked, 30 to 45 minutes.

Potatoes, steamed, 20 to 40 minutes.

Potatoes, boiled (in jackets), 20 to 25 minutes after
the water is fairly boiling.

Potatoes, pared, about 20 minutes if of medium size;
if very large, they will require from 25 to 45 minutes.

Green corn, young, from 15 to 20 minutes.

Peas, 25 to 30 minutes.

Asparagus, 15 to 20 minutes, young; 30 to 50 if old.

Tomatoes, 1 to 2 hours.

String beans and shelled beans, 45 to 60 minutes or
longer.

Beets, boiled, 1 hour if young; old, 3 to 5 hours.

Beets, baked, 3 to 6 hours. Carrots, 1 to 2 hours.

Parsnips, 45 minutes, young; old, 1 to 2 hours.

Turnips, young, 45 minutes; old, 1-1/2 to 2 hours.

Winter squash, 1 hour. Cabbage, young, 1 hour;
old, 2 to 3 hours.

Vegetable oysters, 1 to 2 hours.

Celery, 20 to 30 minutes.

Spinach, 20 to 60 minutes or more.

Cauliflower, 20 to 40 minutes.

Summer squash, 20 to 60 minutes.

If vegetables after being cooked cannot be served
at once, dish them up as soon as done, and place the
dishes in a bain marie or in pans of hot water,
where they will keep of even temperature, but not boil.
Vegetables are never so good after standing, but they
spoil less kept in this way than any other. The
water in the pans should be of equal depth with the
food in the dishes. Stewed vegetables and others
prepared with a sauce, may, when cold, be reheated
in a similar manner.

Page 169

[Illustration: Bain Marie.]

If salt is to be used to season, one third of a teaspoonful
for each pint of cooked vegetables is an ample quantity.

THE IRISH POTATO.

DESCRIPTION.—­The potato, a plant of the
order Solanaceae, is supposed to be indigenous
to South America. Probably it was introduced
into Europe by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth
century, but cultivated only as a curiosity.
To Sir Walter Raleigh, however, is usually given the
credit of its introduction as a food, he having imported
it from Virginia to Ireland in 1586, where its valuable
nutritive qualities were first appreciated. The
potato has so long constituted the staple article
of diet in Ireland, that it has come to be commonly,
though incorrectly, known as the Irish potato.

The edible portion of the plant is the tuber, a thick,
fleshy mass or enlarged portion of an underground
stem, having upon its surface a number of little buds,
or “eyes,” each capable of independent
growth. The tuber is made up of little cells
filled with starch granules, surrounded and permeated
with a watery fluid containing a small percentage
of the albuminous or nitrogenous elements. In
cooking, heat coagulates the albumen within and between
the cells, while the starch granules absorb the watery
portion, swell, and distend the cells. The cohesion
between these is also destroyed, and they easily separate.
When these changes are complete, the potato becomes
a loose, farinaceous mass, or “mealy.”
When, however, the liquid portion is not wholly absorbed,
and the cells are but imperfectly separated, the potato
appears waxen, watery, or soggy. In a mealy state
the potato is easily digested; but when waxy or water-soaked,
it is exceedingly trying to the digestive powers.

It is obvious, then, that the great desideratum
in cooking the potato, is to promote the expansion
and separation of its cells; in other words, to render
it mealy. Young potatoes are always waxy, and
consequently less wholesome than ripe ones. Potatoes
which have been frozen and allowed to thaw quickly
are much sweeter and more watery, because in thawing
the starch changes into sugar. Frozen potatoes
should be thawed in cold water and cooked at once,
or kept frozen until ready for use.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Always pare potatoes
very thin. Much of the most nutritious part of
the tuber lies next its outer covering; so care should
be taken to waste as little as possible. Potatoes
cooked with the skins on are undoubtedly better than
those pared. The chief mineral element contained
in the potato is potash, an important constituent
of the blood. Potash salts are freely soluble
in water, and when the skin is removed, there is nothing
to prevent these salts from escaping into the water
in which the potato is boiled. If the potato is
cooked in its “jacket,” the skin, which
does not in general burst open until the potato is
nearly done, serves to keep this valuable element
largely inside the potato while cooking. For the
same reason it is better not to pare potatoes and
put them in water to soak over night, as many cooks
are in the habit of doing, to have them in readiness
for cooking for breakfast.

Page 170

Potatoes to be pared should be first washed and dried.
It is a good plan to wash quite a quantity at one
time, to be used as needed. After paring, drop
at once into cold water and rinse them thoroughly.
It is a careless habit to allow pared potatoes to
fall among the skins, as in this way they become stained,
and appear black and discolored after cooking.
Scrubbing with a vegetable brush is by far the best
means for cleaning potatoes to be cooked with the
skins on.

When boiled in their skins, the waste, according to
Letheby, is about three per cent, while without them
it is not less than fourteen per cent, or more than
two ounces in every pound. Potatoes boiled without
skins should be cooked very gently.

Steaming, roasting, and baking are much better methods
for cooking potatoes than boiling, for reasons already
given. Very old potatoes are best stewed or mashed.
When withered or wilted, they are freshened by standing
in cold water for an hour or so before cooking.
If diseased or badly sprouted, potatoes are wholly
unfit for food.

RECIPES.

BOILED POTATOES (IN JACKETS).—­Choose potatoes
of uniform size, free from specks. Wash and scrub
them well with a coarse cloth or brush; dig out all
eyes and rinse in cold water; cook in just enough water
to prevent burning, till easily pierced with a fork,
not till they have burst the skin and fallen in pieces.
Drain thoroughly, take out the potatoes, and place
them in the oven for five minutes, or place the kettle
back on the range; remove the skins, and cover with
a cloth to absorb all moisture, and let them steam
three or four minutes. By either method they
will be dry and mealy. In removing the skins,
draw them off without cutting the potatoes.

BOILED POTATOES (WITHOUT SKINS).—­Pare very
thin, and wash clean. If not of an equal size,
cut the larger potatoes in two. Cook in only
sufficient water to prevent burning until a fork will
easily pierce their center; drain thoroughly, place
the kettle back on the range, cover with a cloth to
absorb the moisture, and let them dry four or five
minutes. Shake the kettle several times while
they are drying, to make them floury.

STEAMED POTATOES.—­Potatoes may be steamed
either with or without the skin. Only mature
potatoes can be steamed. Prepare as for boiling;
place in a steamer, over boiling water, and steam until
tender. If water is needed to replenish, let
it always be boiling hot, and not allow the potatoes
to stop steaming, or they will be watery. When
done, uncover, remove the potatoes to the oven, and
let them dry a few minutes. If peeled before
steaming, shake the steamer occasionally, to make them
floury.

ROASTED POTATOES.—­Potatoes are much more
rich and mealy roasted than cooked in any other way.
Wash them very carefully, dry with a cloth, and wrap
in tissue paper; bury in ashes not too hot, then cover
with coals and roast until tender. The coals will
need renewing occasionally, unless the roasting is
done very close to the main fire.

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BAKED POTATOES.—­Choose large, smooth potatoes
as near the same size as possible; wash and scrub
with a brush until perfectly clean; dry with a cloth,
and bake in a moderately hot oven until a fork will
easily pierce them, or until they yield to pressure
between the fingers. They are better turned about
occasionally. In a slow oven the skins become
hardened and thickened, and much of the most nutritious
portion is wasted. When done, press each one
till it bursts slightly, as that will allow the steam
to escape, and prevent the potatoes from becoming soggy.
They should be served at once, in a folded napkin placed
in a hot dish. Cold baked potatoes may be warmed
over by rebaking, if of good quality and not overdone
the first time.

STUFFED POTATO.—­Prepare and bake large
potatoes of equal size, as directed in the preceding
recipe. When done, cut them evenly three fourths
of an inch from the end, and scrape out the inside,
taking care not to break the skins. Season the
potato with salt and a little thick sweet cream, being
careful not to have it too moist, and beat thoroughly
with a fork until light; refill the skins with the
seasoned potato, fit the broken portions together,
and reheat in the oven. When hot throughout,
wrap the potatoes in squares of white tissue paper
fringed at both ends. Twist the ends of the paper
lightly together above the fringe, and stand the potatoes
in a vegetable dish with the cut end uppermost.
When served, the potatoes are held in the hand, one
end of the paper untwisted, the top of the potato
removed, and the contents eaten with a fork or spoon.

STUFFED POTATOES NO. 2.—­Prepare large,
smooth potatoes, bake until tender, and cut them in
halves; scrape out the inside carefully, so as not
to break the skins; mash smoothly, mix thoroughly with
one third freshly prepared cottage cheese; season
with nice sweet cream, and salt if desired. Fill
the shells with the mixture, place cut side uppermost,
in a pudding dish, and brown in the oven.

MASHED POTATOES.—­Peel and slice potatoes
enough to make two quarts; put into boiling water
and cook until perfectly tender, but not much broken;
drain, add salt to taste; turn into a hot earthen dish,
and set in the oven for a few moments to dry.
Break up the potatoes with a silver fork; add nearly
a cup of cream, and beat hard at least five minutes
till light and creamy; serve at once, or they will
become heavy. If preferred, the potatoes may
be rubbed through a hot sieve into a hot plate, or
mashed with a potato beetle, but they are less light
and flaky when mashed with a beetle. If cream
for seasoning is not obtainable, a well-beaten egg
makes a very good substitute. Use in the proportion
of one egg to about five potatoes. For mashed
potatoes, if all utensils and ingredients are first
heated, the result will be much better.

NEW POTATOES.—­When potatoes are young and
freshly gathered, the skins are easiest removed by
taking each one in a coarse cloth and rubbing it;
a little coarse salt used in the cloth will be found
serviceable for this purpose. If almost ripe,
scrape with a blunt knife, wash very clean, and rinse
in cold water. Boiling is the best method of
cooking; new potatoes are not good steamed. Use
only sufficient water to cover, and boil till tender.
Drain thoroughly, cover closely with a clean cloth,
and dry before serving.

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CRACKED POTATOES.—­Prepare and boil new
potatoes as in the preceding recipe, and when ready
to serve, crack each by pressing lightly upon it with
the back of a spoon, lay them in a hot dish, salt
to taste, and pour over them a cup of hot thin cream
or rich milk.

CREAMED POTATOES.—­Take rather small, new
potatoes and wash well; rub off all the skins; cut
in halves, or if quite large, quarter them. Put
a pint of divided potatoes into a broad-bottomed, shallow
saucepan; pour over them a cup of thin sweet cream,
add salt if desired; heat just to the boiling point,
then allow them to simmer gently till perfectly tender,
tossing them occasionally in the stewpan to prevent
their burning on the bottom. Serve hot.

SCALLOPED POTATOES.—­Pare the potatoes and
slice thin; put them in layers in an earthen pudding
dish, dredge each layer lightly with flour, and salt,
and pour over all enough good, rich milk to cover well.
Cover, and bake rather slowly till tender, removing
the cover just long enough before the potatoes are
done, to brown nicely. If preferred, a little
less milk may be used, and a cup of thin cream added
when the potatoes are nearly done.

STEWED POTATO.—­Pare the potatoes and slice
rather thin. Put into boiling water, and cook
until nearly tender, but not broken. Have some
rich milk boiling in the inner dish of a double boiler,
add to it a little salt, then stir in for each pint
of milk a heaping teaspoonful of corn starch or rice
flour, rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Stir
until it thickens. Drain the potatoes, turn them
into the hot sauce, put the dish in the outer boiler,
and cook for a half hour or longer. Cold boiled
potatoes may be sliced and used in the same way.
Cold baked potatoes sliced and stewed thus for an
hour or more, make a particularly appetizing dish.

POTATOES STEWED WITH CELERY.—­Pare and slice
the potatoes, and put them into a stewpan with two
or three tablespoonfuls of minced celery. Use
only the white part of the celery and mince it finely.
Cover the whole with milk sufficient to cook and prevent
burning, and stew until tender. Season with cream
and salt.

POTATO SNOWBALLS.—­Cut largo potatoes into
quarters; if small, leave them undivided; boil in
just enough water to cover. When tender, drain
and dry in the usual way. Take up two or three
pieces at a time in a strong, clean cloth, and press
them compactly together in the shape of balls.
Serve in a folded napkin on a hot dish.

POTATO CAKES.—­Make nicely seasoned, cold
mashed potato into small round cakes about one half
an inch thick. Put them on a baking tin, brush
them over with sweet cream, and bake in a hot oven
till golden brown.

POTATO CAKES WITH EGG.—­Bake nice potatoes
till perfectly tender; peel, mash thoroughly, and
to each pint allow the yolks of two eggs which have
been boiled until mealy, then rubbed perfectly smooth
through a fine wire sieve, and one half cup of rich
milk. Add salt to taste, mix all well together,
form the potato into small cakes, place them on oiled
tins, and brown ten or fifteen minutes in the oven.

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POTATO PUFF.—­Mix a pint of mashed potato
(cold is just as good if free from lumps) with a half
cup of cream and the well-beaten yolk of an egg; salt
to taste and beat till smooth; lastly, stir in the
white of the egg beaten to a stiff froth. Pile
up in a rocky form on a bright tin dish, and bake
in a quick oven until heated throughout and lightly
browned. Serve at once.

BROWNED POTATOES.—­Slice cold potatoes evenly,
place them on an oiled tin, and brown in a very quick
oven; or slice lengthwise and lay on a wire broiler
or bread-toaster, and brown over hot coals. Sprinkle
with a little salt if desired, and serve hot with sweet
cream as dressing.

ORNAMENTAL POTATOES.—­No vegetable can be
made palatable in so many ways as the potato, and
few can be arranged in such pretty shapes. Mashed
potatoes made moist with cream, can easily be made
into cones, pyramids, or mounds. Cold mashed
potatoes may be cut into many fancy shapes with a
cookie-cutter, wet with a little cold water, and browned
in the oven.

Mounds of potatoes are very pretty smoothed and strewn
with well-cooked vermicelli broken into small bits,
and then lightly browned in the oven.

Scoring the top of a dish of mashed potato deeply
in triangles, stars, and crosses, with the back of
a carving knife, and then browning lightly, gives
a very pretty effect.

BROILED POTATO.—­Mashed potatoes, if packed
firmly while warm into a sheet-iron bread tin which
has been dipped in cold water, may be cut into slices
when cold, brushed with cream, and browned on a broiler
over hot coals.

WARMED-OVER POTATOES.—­Cut cold boiled potatoes
into very thin slices; heat a little cream to boiling
in a saucepan; add the potato, season lightly with
salt if desired, and cook until the cream is absorbed,
stirring occasionally so as to prevent scorching or
breaking the slices.

VEGETABLE HASH.—­With one quart finely sliced
potato, chop one carrot, one red beet, one white turnip,
all boiled, also one or two stalks of celery.
Put all together in a stewpan, cover closely, and set
in the oven; when hot, pour over them a cup of boiling
cream, stir well together, and serve hot.

THE SWEET POTATO.

DESCRIPTION.—­The sweet potato is a native
of the Malayan Archipelago, where it formerly grew
wild; thence it was taken to Spain, and from Spain
to England and other parts of the globe. It was
largely used in Europe as a delicacy on the tables
of the rich before the introduction of the common
potato, which has now taken its place and likewise
its name. The sweet potato is the article referred
as potato by Shakespeare and other English writers,
previous to the middle of the seventeenth century.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­What has been
said in reference to the common potato, is generally
applicable to the sweet potato; it may be prepared
and cooked in nearly all the ways of the Irish potato.

Page 174

In selecting sweet potatoes, choose firm, plump roots,
free from any sprouts; if sprouted they will have
a poor flavor, and are likely to be watery.

The sweet potato is best cooked with the skin on;
but all discolored portions and the dry portion at
each end, together with all branchlets, should be
carefully removed, and the potato well washed, and
if to be baked or roasted, well dried with a cloth
before placing in the oven.

The average time required for boiling is about fifty
minutes; baking, one hour; steaming, about one hour;
roasting, one and one half hours.

RECIPES.

BAKED SWEET POTATOES.—­Select those of uniform
size, wash clean, cutting out any imperfect spots,
wipe dry, put into moderately hot oven, and bake about
one hour, or until the largest will yield to gentle
pressure between the fingers. Serve at once without
peeling. Small potatoes are best steamed, since
if baked, the skins will take up nearly the whole
potato.

BAKED SWEET POTATO NO. 2.—­Select potatoes
of medium size, wash and trim but do not pare, and
put on the upper grate of the oven. For a peek
of potatoes, put in the lower part of the oven in a
large shallow pan a half pint of hot water. The
water may be turned directly upon the oven bottom
if preferred. Bake slowly, turning once when half
done. Serve in their skins, or peel, slice, and
return to the oven until nicely browned.

BOILED SWEET POTATOES.—­Choose potatoes
of equal size; do not pare, but after cleaning them
well and removing any imperfect spots, put into cold
water and boll until they can be easily pierced with
a fork; drain thoroughly, and lay them on the top
grate in the oven to dry for five or ten minutes.
Peel as soon as dry, and send at once to the table,
in a hot dish covered with a folded napkin. Sweet
potatoes are much better baked than boiled.

STEAMED SWEET POTATOES.—­Wash the potatoes
well, cut out any discolored portions, and steam over
a kettle of boiling water until they can be easily
pierced with a fork, not allowing the water in the
pot to cease boiling for a moment. Steam only
sufficient to cook them, else they will be watery.

MASHED SWEET POTATOES.—­Either bake or steam
nice sweet potatoes, and when tender, peel, mash them
well, and season with cream and salt to taste.
They may be served at once, or made into patties and
browned in the oven.

POTATO HASH.—­Take equal parts of cold Irish
and sweet potatoes; chop fine and mix thoroughly;
season with salt if desired, and add sufficient thin
cream to moisten well. Turn into a stewpan, and
heat gently until boiling, tossing continually, that
all parts become heated alike, and serve at once.

ROASTED SWEET POTATOES.—­Wash clean and
wipe dry, potatoes of uniform size, wrap with tissue
paper, cover with hot ashes, and then with coals from
a hardwood fire; unless near the main fire, the coals
will need renewing a few times. This will require
a longer time than by any other method, but they are
much nicer. The slow, continuous heat promotes
their mealiness. When tender, brush the ashes
off with a broom, and wipe with a dry cloth.
Send to the table in their jackets.

Page 175

TO DRY SWEET POTATOES.—­Carefully clean
and drop them into boiling water. Let them remain
until the skins can be easily slipped off; then cut
into slices and spread on racks to dry. To prepare
for cooking, soak over night, and boil the next day.

TURNIPS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The turnip belongs to the
order Cruciferae, signifying “cross flowers,”
so called because their four petals are arranged in
the form of a cross. It is a native of Europe
and the temperate portions of Asia, growing wild in
borders of fields and waste places. The ancient
Roman gastronomists considered the turnip, when prepared
in the following manner, a dish fit for epicures:
“After boiling, extract the water from them,
and season with cummin, rue or benzoin, pounded in
a mortar; afterward add honey, vinegar, gravy, and
boiled grapes. Allow the whole to simmer, and
serve.”

Under cultivation, the turnip forms an agreeable culinary
esculent; but on account of the large proportion of
water entering into its composition, its nutritive
value is exceedingly low. The Swedish, or Rutabaga,
variety is rather more nutritive than the white, but
its stronger flavor renders it less palatable.
Unlike the potato, the turnip contains no starch,
but instead, a gelatinous substance called pectose,
which during the boiling process is changed into a
vegetable jelly called pectine. The white lining
just inside the skin is usually bitter; hence the
tuber should be peeled sufficiently deep to remove
it. When well cooked, turnips are quite easily
digested.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Turnips are good
for culinary purposes only from the time of their
ripening till they begin to sprout. The process
of germination changes their proximate elements, and
renders them less fit for food. Select turnips
which are plump and free from disease. A turnip
that is wilted, or that appears spongy, pithy, or
cork-like when cut, is not fit for food.

Prepare turnips for cooking by thoroughly washing
and scraping, if young and tender, or by paring if
more mature. If small, they may be cooked whole;
if large, they should be cut across the grain into
slices a half inch in thickness. If cooked whole,
care must be taken to select those of uniform size;
and if sliced, the slices must be of equal thickness.

RECIPES.

BOILED TURNIPS.—­Turnips, like other vegetables,
should be boiled in as small an amount of water as
possible. Great care must be taken, however,
that the kettle does not get dry, as scorched turnip
is spoiled. An excellent precaution, in order
to keep them from scorching in case the water becomes
low, is to place an inverted saucer or sauce-dish
in the bottom of the kettle before putting in the turnips.
Put into boiling water, cook rapidly until sufficiently
tender to pierce easily with a fork; too much cooking
discolors and renders them strong in flavor.
Boiled turnips should be drained very thoroughly, and

Page 176

all water pressed out before preparing for the table.
The age, size, and variety of the turnip will greatly
vary the time necessary for its cooking. The
safest rule is to allow plenty of time, and test with
a fork. Young turnips will cook in about forty-five
minutes; old turnips, sliced, require from one and
a quarter to two hours. If whole or cut in halves,
they require a proportionate length of time. White
turnips require much, less cooking than yellow ones.

BAKED TURNIPS.—­Select turnips of uniform
size; wash and wipe, but do not pare; place on the
top grate of a moderately hot oven; bake two or more
hours or until perfectly tender; peel and serve at
once, either mashed or with cream sauce. Turnips
are much sweeter baked than when cooked in any other
way.

CREAMED TURNIPS.—­Pare, but do not cut,
young sweet white turnips; boil till tender in a small
quantity of water; drain and dry well. Cook a
tablespoonful of flour in a pint of rich milk or part
cream; arrange the turnips in a baking dish, pour
the sauce over them, add salt if desired, sprinkle
the top with grated bread crumbs, and brown in a quick
oven.

CHOPPED TURNIPS.—­Chop well-boiled white
turnips very fine, add salt to taste and sufficient
lemon juice to moisten. Turn into a saucepan
and heat till hot, gently lifting and stirring constantly.
Cold boiled turnip may be used advantageously in this
way.

MASHED TURNIPS.—­Wash the turnips, pare,
and drop into boiling water. Cook until perfectly
tender; turn into a colander and press out the water
with a plate or large spoon; mash until free from lumps,
season with a little sweet cream, and salt if desired.
If the turnips are especially watery, one or two hot,
mealy potatoes mashed with them will be an improvement.

SCALLOPED TURNIPS.—­Prepare and boil whole
white turnips until nearly tender; cut into thin slices,
lay in an earthen pudding dish, pour over them a white
sauce sufficient to cover, made by cooking a tablespoonful
of flour in a pint of milk, part cream if preferred,
until thickened. Season with salt, sprinkle the
top lightly with grated bread crumbs, and bake in
a quick oven until a rich brown. Place the baking
dish on a clean plate, and serve. Rich milk or
cream may be used instead of white sauce, if preferred.

STEAMED TURNIPS.—­Select turnips of uniform
size, wash, pare, and steam rapidly till they can
be easily pierced with a fork; mash, or serve with
lemon juice or cream sauce, as desired.

STEWED TURNIPS.—­Prepare and slice some
young, fresh white turnips, boil or steam about twenty
minutes, drain thoroughly, turn into a saucepan with
a cup of new milk for each quart of turnips; simmer
gently until tender, season with salt if desired,
and serve.

TURNIPS IN JUICE.—­Wash young white turnips,
peel, and boil whole in sufficient water to keep them
from burning. Cover closely and cook gently until
tender, by which time the water in the kettle should
be reduced to the consistency of syrup. Serve
at once.

Page 177

TURNIPS WITH CREAM SAUCE.—­Wash and pare
the turnips, cut them into half-inch dice, and cook
in boiling water until tender. Meanwhile prepare
a cream sauce as directed for Scalloped Turnips, using
thin cream in place of milk. Drain the turnips,
pour the cream sauce over them, let them boil up once,
and serve.

PARSNIPS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The common garden parsnip
is derived by cultivation from the wild parsnip, indigenous
to many parts of Europe and the north of Asia, and
cultivated since Roman times. It is not only used
for culinary purposes, but a wine is made from it.
In the north of Ireland a table beer is brewed from
its fermented product and hops.

The percentage of nutritive elements contained in
the parsnip is very small; so small, indeed, that
one pound of parsnips affords hardly one fifth of
an ounce of nitrogenous or muscle-forming material.
The time required for its digestion, varies from two
and one half to three and one half hours.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Wash and trim
off any rough portions: scrape well with a knife
to remove the skins, and drop at once into cold water
to prevent discoloration. If the parsnips are
smooth-skinned, fresh, and too small to need dividing,
they need only be washed thoroughly before cooking,
as the skins can be easily removed by rubbing with
a clean towel. Reject those that are wilted, pithy,
coarse, or stringy. Large parsnips should be
divided, for if cooked whole, the outside is likely
to become soft before the center is tender. They
may be either split lengthwise or sliced. Parsnips
may be boiled, baked, or steamed; but like all other
vegetables containing a large percentage of water,
are preferable steamed or baked.

The time required for cooking young parsnips, is about
forty-five minutes; when old, they require from one
to two hours.

RECIPES.

BAKED PARSNIPS.—­Wash, thoroughly, but do
not scrape the roots; bake the same as potatoes.
When tender, remove the skins, slice, and serve with
cream or an egg sauce prepared as directed for Parsnips
with Egg Sauce. They are also very nice mashed
and seasoned with cream. Baked and steamed parsnips
are far sweeter than boiled ones.

BAKED PARSNIPS NO. 2.—­Wash, scrape, and
divide; drop into boiling water, a little more than
sufficient to cook them, and boil gently till thoroughly
tender. There should remain about one half pint
of the liquor when the parsnips are done. Arrange
on an earthen plate or shallow pudding dish, not more
than one layer deep; cover with the juice, and bake,
basting frequently until the juice is all absorbed,
and the parsnips delicately browned. Serve at
once.

BOILED PARSNIPS.—­Clean, scrape, drop into
a small quantity of boiling water, and cook until
they can be easily pierced, with a fork. Drain
thoroughly, cut the parsnips in slices, and mash or
serve with a white sauce, to which a little lemon
juice may be added if desired.

Page 178

BROWNED PARSNIPS.—­Slice cold parsnips into
rather thick pieces, and brown as directed for browned
potatoes.

CREAMED PARSNIPS.—­Bake or steam the parsnips
until tender; slice, add salt if desired, and a cup
of thin sweet cream. Let them stew slowly until
nearly dry, or if preferred, just boil up once and
serve.

MASHED PARSNIPS.—­Wash and scrape, dropping
at once into cold water to prevent discoloration.
Slice thinly and steam, or bake whole until perfectly
tender. When done, mash until free from lumps,
removing all hard or stringy portions; add salt to
taste and a few spoonfuls of thick sweet cream, and
serve.

PARSNIPS WITH CREAM SAUCE.—­Bake as previously
directed. When tender, slice, cut into cubes,
and pour over them a cream sauce prepared as for Turnips
with Cream Sauce. Boil up together once, and serve.

PARSNIPS WITH EGG SAUCE.—­Scrape, wash,
and slice thinly, enough parsnips to make three pints;
steam, bake, or boil them until very tender.
If boiled, turn into a colander and drain well.
Have ready an egg sauce, for preparing which heat
a pint of rich milk or very thin cream to boiling,
stir into it a level tablespoonful of flour rubbed
smooth with a little milk. Let this boil a few
minutes, stirring constantly until the flour is well
cooked and the sauce thickened; then add slowly the
well-beaten yolk of one egg, stirring rapidly so that
it shall be well mingled with the whole; add salt
to taste; let it boil up once, pour over the parsnips,
and serve. The sauce should be of the consistency
of thick cream.

PARSNIPS WITH POTATOES.—­Wash, scrape, and
slice enough parsnips to make two and a half quarts.
Pare and slice enough potatoes to make one pint.
Cook together in a small quantity of water. When
tender, mash smoothly, add salt, the yolks of two
eggs well beaten, and a cup of rich milk. Beat
well together, put into an earthen or china dish, and
brown lightly in the oven.

STEWED PARSNIPS WITH CELERY.—­Prepare and
steam or boil some nice ones until about half done.
If boiled, drain thoroughly; add salt if desired,
and a tablespoonful of minced celery. Turn rich
boiling milk over them, cover, and stew fifteen or
twenty minutes, or till perfectly tender.

CARROTS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The garden carrot is a cultivated
variety of a plant belonging to the Umbettiferae,
and grows wild in many portions of Europe. The
root has long been used for food. By the ancient
Greeks and Romans it was much esteemed as a salad.
The carrot is said to have been introduced into England
by Flemish refugees during the reigns of Elizabeth
and James I. Its feathery leaves were used by the ladies
as an adornment for their headdresses, in place of
plumes. Carrots contain sugar enough for making
a syrup from them; they also yield by fermentation
and distillation a spirituous liquor. In Germany
they are sometimes cut into small pieces, and roasted
as a substitute for coffee.

Page 179

Starch does not enter into the composition of carrots,
but a small portion of pectose is found instead.
Carrots contain more water than parsnips, and both
much cellulose and little nutritive material.
Carrots when well cooked form a wholesome food, but
one not adapted to weak stomachs, as they are rather
hard to digest and tend to flatulence.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­The suggestions
given for the preparation of parsnips are also applicable
to carrots; and they may be boiled, steamed, or browned
in the same manner. From one to two hours time
will be required, according to age, size, variety,
and method of cooking.

RECIPES.

BOILED CARROTS.—­Clean, scrape, drop into
boiling water, and cook till tender; drain thoroughly,
slice, and serve with a cream sauce. Varieties
with strong flavor are better parboiled for fifteen
or twenty minutes, and put into fresh boiling water
to finish.

CARROTS WITH EGG SAUCE.—­Wash and scrape
well; slice and throw into boiling water, or else
steam. When tender, drain thoroughly, and pour
over them a sauce prepared the same as for parsnips
(page 244), with the addition of a tablespoonful of
sugar. Let them boil up once, and serve.

STEWED CARROTS.—­Prepare young and tender
carrots, drop into boiling water, and cook for fifteen
or twenty minutes. Drain, slice, and put into
a stewpan with rich milk or cream nearly to cover;
simmer gently until tender; season with salt and a
little chopped parsley.

BEETS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The beet is a native of the
coasts of the Mediterranean, and is said to owe its
botanical name, beta, to a fancied resemblance
to the Greek letter B. Two varieties are in common
use as food, the white and the red beet; while a sub-variety,
the sugar beet, is largely cultivated in France, in
connection with the beet-sugar industry in that country.
The same industry has recently been introduced into
this country. It is grown extensively in Germany
and Russia, for the same pose, and is also used there
in the manufacture of alcohol.

The beet root is characterized by its unusual amount
of sugar. It is considered more nutritive than
any other esculent tuber except the potato, but the
time required for its digestion exceeds that of most
vegetables, being three and three fourths hours.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Beets, like other
tubers, should be fresh, unshriveled, and healthy.
Wash carefully, scrubbing with a soft brush to remove
all particles of dirt; but avoid scraping, cutting,
or breaking, lest the sweet juices escape. In
handling for storage, be careful not to bruise or
break the skins; and in purchasing from the market,
select only such as are perfect.

Beets may be boiled, baked, or steamed. In boiling,
if the skin is cut or broken, the juice will escape
in the water, and the flavor will be injured; for
this reason, beets should not be punctured with a fork
to find if done. When tender, the thickest part
will yield readily to pressure of the fingers.
Beets should be boiled in just as little water as
possible, and they will be much better if it has all
evaporated by the time they are cooked.

Page 180

Young beets will boil in one hour, while old beets
require from three to five hours; if tough, wilted,
and stringy, they cannot be boiled tender. Baked
beets require from three to six hours.

RECIPES.

BAKED BEETS.—­Beets are far better baked
than boiled, though it takes a longer time to cook
properly. French cooks bake them slowly six hours
in a covered dish, the bottom of which is lined with
well-moistened rye straw; however, they may be baked
on the oven grate, like potatoes. Wipe dry after
washing, and bake slowly. They are very nice
served with a sauce made of equal quantities of lemon
juice and whipped cream, with a little salt.

BAKED BEETS NO. 2.—­Wash young and tender
beets, and place in an earthen baking dish with a
very little water; as it evaporates, add more, which
must be of boiling temperature. Set into a moderate
oven, and according to size of the beets, bake slowly
from two to three hours. When tender, remove
the skins and dress with lemon juice or cream sauce.

BEETS AND POTATOES.—­Boil newly matured
potatoes and young beets separately till tender; then
peel and slice. Put thorn in alternate layers
in a vegetable dish, with salt to taste, and enough
sweet cream nearly to cover. Brown in the oven,
and serve at once.

BEET GREENS.—­Take young, tender beets,
clean thoroughly without separating the tops and roots.
Examine the leaves carefully, and pick off inferior
ones. Put into boiling water, and cook for nearly
an hour. Drain, press out all water, and chop
quite fine. Serve with a dressing of lemon juice
or cream, as preferred.

BEET SALAD, OR CHOPPED BEETS.—­Cold boiled
or baked beets, chopped quite fine, but not minced,
make a nice salad when served with a dressing of lemon
juice and whipped cream in the proportion of three
tablespoonfuls of lemon juice to one half cup of whipped
cream, and salt if desired.

BEET SALAD NO. 2.—­Chop equal parts of boiled
beets and fresh young cabbage. Mix thoroughly,
add salt to taste, a few tablespoonfuls of sugar,
and cover with diluted lemon juice. Equal quantities
of cold boiled beets and cold boiled potatoes, chopped
fine, thoroughly mixed, and served with a dressing
of lemon juice and whipped cream, make a palatable
salad. Care should be taken in the preparation
of these and the preceding salad, not to chop the
vegetables so fine as to admit of their being eaten
without mastication.

BOILED BEETS.—­Wash carefully, drop into
boiling water, and cook until tender. When done,
drop into cold water for a minute, when the skins
can be easily rubbed off with the hand. Slice,
and serve hot with lemon juice or with a cream sauce.

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STEWED BEETS.—­Bake beets according to recipe
No. 2. Peel, cut in slices, turn into a saucepan,
nearly cover with thin cream, simmer for ten or fifteen
minutes, add salt if desired, and thicken the gravy
with a little corn starch or flour.

CABBAGE.

DESCRIPTION.—­The common white garden cabbage
is one of the oldest of cultivated vegetables.
A variety of the plant known as red cabbage was the
delight of ancient gourmands more than eighteen centuries
ago. The Egyptians adored it, erected altars
to it, and made it the first dish at their repasts.
In this they were imitated by the Greeks and Romans.

Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, considered the
cabbage one of the most valuable of remedies, and
often prescribed a dish of boiled cabbage to be eaten
with salt for patients suffering with violent colic.
Erasistratus looked upon it as a sovereign remedy against
paralysis, while Cato in his writings affirmed it
to be a panacea for all diseases, and believed the
use the Romans made of it to have been the means whereby
they were able, during six hundred years, to do without
the assistance of physicians, whom they had expelled
from their territory. The learned philosopher,
Pythagoras, composed books in which he lauded its
wonderful virtues.

The Germans are so fond of cabbage that it enters
into the composition of a majority of their culinary
products. The cabbage was first raised in England
about 1640, by Sir Anthony Ashley. That this epoch,
important to the English horticultural and culinary
world, may never be forgotten, a cabbage is represented
upon Sir Anthony’s monument.

The nutritive value of the cabbage is not high, nearly
ninety per cent being water; but it forms an agreeable
variety in the list of vegetable foods, and is said
to possess marked antiscorbutic virtue. It is,
however, difficult of digestion, and therefore not
suited to weak stomachs. It would be impossible
to sustain life for a lengthened period upon cabbage,
since to supply the body with sufficient food elements,
the quantity would exceed the rate of digestion and
the capacity of the stomach.

M. Chevreul, a French scientist, has ascertained that
the peculiar odor given off during the boiling of
cabbage is due to the disengagement of sulphureted
hydrogen. Cabbage is said to be more easily digested
raw than cooked.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­A good cabbage
should have a well-developed, firm head, with fresh,
crisp leaves, free from worm-holes and decayed portions.
To prepare for cooking, stalk, shake well to free
from dirt, and if there are any signs of insects, lay
in cold salted water for an hour or so to drive them
out. Rinse away the salt water, and if to be
boiled, drop into a small quantity of boiling water.
Cover closely and boil vigorously until tender.
If cooked slowly, it will be watery and stringy, while
overdone cabbage is especially insipid and flavorless.

Page 182

If too much water has been used, remove the cover,
that evaporation may go on more rapidly; if too little,
replenish with boiling water. Cabbage should
be cooked in a porcelain-lined or granite-ware sauce
pan or a very clean iron kettle. Cabbage may also
be steamed, but care must be taken to have the process
as rapid as possible. Fresh young cabbage will
cook in about one hour; old cabbage requires from
two to three hours.

RECIPES.

BAKED CABBAGE.—­Prepare and chop a firm
head of young white cabbage, boil until tender, drain,
and set aside until nearly cold. Then add two
well-beaten eggs, salt to taste, and a half cup of
thin cream or rich milk. Mix and bake in a pudding
dish until lightly browned.

BOILED CABBAGE.—­Carefully clean a nice
head of cabbage, divide into halves, and with a sharp
knife slice very thin, cutting from the center of
the head outward. Put into boiling water, cover
closely, and cook rapidly until tender; then turn
into a colander and drain, pressing gently with the
back of a plate. Return to the kettle, add salt
to taste, and sufficient sweet cream to moisten well,
heat through if at all cooled, dish, and serve at
once. If preferred, the cream may be omitted,
and the cabbage served with tomato sauce or lemon juice
as a dressing.

CABBAGE AND TOMATOES.—­Boil finely chopped
cabbage in as little water as possible. When
tender, add half the quantity of hot stewed tomatoes,
boil together for a few minutes, being careful to avoid
burning, season with salt if desired, and serve.
If preferred, a little sweet cream may be added just
before serving.

CABBAGE CELERY.—­A firm, crisp head of cabbage
cut in slices half an inch or an inch thick, and then
again into pieces four or five inches long and two
or three inches wide, makes a quite appetizing substitute
for celery.

CABBAGE HASH.—­Chop fine, equal parts of
cold boiled potatoes and boiled cabbage, and season
with salt. To each quart of the mixture add one
half or three fourths of a cup of thin cream; mix well
and boil till well heated.

CHOPPED CABBAGE OR CABBAGE SALAD.—­Take
one pint of finely chopped cabbage; pour over it a
dressing made of three tablespoonfuls of lemon juice,
two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and a half cup of whipped
cream, thoroughly beaten together in the order named;
or serve with sugar and diluted lemon juice.

MASHED CABBAGE.—­Cut a fine head of cabbage
into quarters, and cook until tender. A half
hour before it is done, drop in three good-sized potatoes.
When done, take all up in a colander together, press
out the water, and mash very fine. Season with
cream, and salt if desired.

STEWED CABBAGE. Chop nice cabbage quite fine,
and put it into boiling water, letting it boil twenty
minutes. Turn into a colander and drain thoroughly;
return to the kettle, cover with milk, and let it boil
till perfectly tender; season with salt and cream to
taste. The beaten yolk of an egg, stirred in
with the cream, is considered an improvement by some.

Page 183

CAULIFLOWER AND BROCCOLI.

DESCRIPTION.—­These vegetables are botanically
allied to the cabbage, and are similar in composition.
They are entirely the product of cultivation, and
constitute the inflorescence of the plant, which horticultural
art has made to grow into a compact head of white color
in the cauliflower, and of varying shades of buff,
green, and purple in the broccoli. There is very
little difference between the two aside from the color,
and they are treated alike for culinary purposes.
They were known to the Greeks and Romans, and highly
appreciated by connoisseurs. They are not as
nutritious as the cabbage, but have a more delicate
and agreeable flavor.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­The leaves should
be green and fresh, and the heads of cauliflower creamy
white; when there are dark spots, it is wilted.
The color of broccoli will depend upon the variety,
but the head should be firm, with no discolorations.
To prepare, pick off the outside leaves, cut the stalk
squarely across, about two inches below the flower,
and if very thick, split and wash thoroughly in several
waters; or better still, hold it under the faucet,
flower downward, and allow a constant stream of water
to fall over it for several minutes; then place top
downward in a pan of lukewarm salted water, to drive
out any insects which may be hidden in it; examine
carefully for worms just the color of the stalk; tie
in a net (mosquito netting, say) to prevent breaking,
or place the cauliflower on a plate in a steamer,
and boil, or steam, as is most convenient. The
time required for cooking will vary from twenty to
forty minutes.

RECIPES.

(The recipes given are applicable to both broccoli
and cauliflower.)

BOILED CAULIFLOWER.—­Prepare, divide into
neat branches, and tie securely in a net. Put
into boiling milk and water, equal quantities, and
cook until the main stalks are tender. Boil rapidly
the first five minutes, afterward more moderately,
to prevent the flower from becoming done before the
stalks. Serve on a hot dish with cream sauce or
diluted lemon juice.

BROWNED CAULIFLOWER.—­Beat together two
eggs, a little salt, four tablespoonfuls of sweet
cream, and a small quantity of grated bread crumbs
well moistened with a little milk, till of the consistency
of batter. Steam the cauliflower until tender,
separate it into small bunches, dip each top in the
mixture, and place in nice order in a pudding dish;
put in the oven and brown.

CAULIFLOWER WITH EGG SAUCE.—­Steam the cauliflower
until tender, separate into small portions, dish,
and serve with an egg sauce prepared as directed for
parsnips on page 244.

CAULIFLOWER WITH TOMATO SAUCE.—­Boil or
steam the cauliflower until tender. In another
dish prepare a sauce with a pint of strained stewed
smooth in a little water, and salted to taste.
When the cauliflower is tender, dish, and pour over
it the hot tomato sauce. If preferred, a tablespoonful
of thick sweet cream may be added to the sauce before
using.

Page 184

STEWED CAULIFLOWER.—­Boil in as little water
as possible, or steam until tender; separate into
small portions, add milk, cream and salt to taste;
stew together for a few minutes, and serve.

SCOLLOPED CAULIFLOWER.—­Prepare the cauliflower,
and steam or boil until tender. If boiled, use
equal quantities of milk and water. Separate
into bunches of equal size, place in a pudding dish,
cover with a white or cream sauce, sprinkle with grated
bread crumbs, and brown in the oven.

SPINACH.

DESCRIPTION.—­This plant is supposed to
be a native of western Arabia. There are several
varieties which are prepared and served as “greens.”
Spinach is largely composed of water. It is considered
a wholesome vegetable, with slightly laxative properties.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Use only tender
plants or the tender leaves of the older stalks, and
be sure to have enough, as spinach shrinks greatly.
A peck is not too much for a family of four or five.
Pick it over very carefully, trim off the roots and
decayed leaves, and all tough, stringy stalks, and
the coarse fibers of the leaves, as those will not
cook tender until the leaves are overdone. Wash
in several waters, lifting grit. Shake each bunch
well. Spinach is best cooked in its own juices;
this may be best accomplished by cooking it in a double
boiler, or if placed in a pot and slowly heated, it
will however, be stirred frequently at first, to prevent
burning; cover closely and cook until tender.
The time required will vary from twenty minutes to
half an hour or more. If water is used in the
cooking, have a half kettleful boiling when the spinach
is put in, and continue to boil rapidly until the
leaves are perfectly tender; then drain in a colander,
press with the back of a plate to extract all water,
chop very fine, and either serve with lemon juice
as a dressing, or add a half cup of sweet cream with
or without a teaspoonful of sugar. Boil up once,
stirring constantly, and serve very hot. A garnish
of sliced boiled eggs is often employed with this
vegetable.

CELERY.

DESCRIPTION.—­The common celery is a native
of Great Britain. In its wild state it has a
strong, disagreeable taste and smell, and is known
as smallage. By cultivation it becomes
more mild and sweet. It is usually eaten uncooked
as a salad herb, or introduced into soups as a flavouring.
In its raw state, it is difficult of digestion.

Celery from the market may be kept fresh for some
time by wrapping the bunches in brown paper, sprinkling
them with water, then wrapping in a damp cloth and
putting in some cool, dark place.

RECIPES

CELERY SALAD.—­Break the stems apart, cut
off all green portions, and after washing well put
in cold water for an hour or so before serving.

Page 185

STEWED CELERY.—­Cut the tender inner parts
of celery heads into pieces about a finger long.
The outer and more fibrous stalks may be saved to
season soups. Put in a stewpan, and add sufficient
water to cover; then cover the pan closely, and set
it where it will just simmer for an hour, or until
the celery is perfectly tender. When cooked, add
a pint of rich milk, part cream if you have it, salt
to taste, and when boiling, stir in a tablespoon of
flour rubbed smooth in a little milk. Boil up
once and serve.

STEWED CELERY NO. 2.—­Cut the white part
of fine heads of celery into small pieces, blanch
in boiling water, turn into a colander, and drain.
Heat a cup and a half of milk to boiling in a stewpan;
add the celery, and stew gently until tender.
Remove the celery with a skimmer, and stir into the
milk the beaten yolks of two eggs and one half cup
of cream. Cook until thickened; pour over the
celery, and serve.

CELERY WITH TOMATO SAUCE.—­Prepare the celery
as in the preceding recipe, and cook until tender
in a small quantity of boiling water. Drain in
a colander, and for three cups of stewed celery prepare
a sauce with a pint of strained stewed tomato, heated
to boiling and thickened with a tablespoonful of flour
rubbed smooth in a little cold water. If desired,
add a half cup of thin cream. Turn over the celery,
and serve hot.

CELERY AND POTATO HASH.—­To three cups of
cold boiled or baked potato, chopped rather fine,
add one cup of cooked celery, minced. Put season.
Heat to boiling, tossing and stirring so that the whole
will be heated throughout, and serve hot.

ASPARAGUS.

DESCRIPTION.—­The asparagus is a native
of Europe, and in its wild state is a sea-coast plant.
The young shoots form the edible portion. The
plant was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who
not only used it as a table delicacy but considered
it very useful in the treatment of internal diseases.
Roman cooks provided themselves with a supply of the
vegetable for winter use by cutting fine heads and
drying them. When wanted, they were put into
hot water and gently cooked.

The asparagus is remarkable as containing a crystalline
alkaloid called asparagin, which is thought
to possess diuretic properties.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Select fresh and
tender asparagus. Those versed in its cultivation,
assert that it should be cut at least three times
a week, and barely to the ground. If it is necessary
to keep the bunches for some time before cooking,
stand them, tops uppermost, in water about one half
inch deep, in the cellar or other cool place.
Clean each stalk separately by swashing back and forth
in a pan of cold water till perfectly free from sand,
then break off all the tough portions, cut in equal
lengths, tie in bunches of half a dozen or more with
soft tape, drop into boiling water barely sufficient
to cover, and simmer gently until perfectly tender.

Page 186

If the asparagus is to be stewed, break: (not
cut) into small pieces; when it will not snap off
quickly, the stalk is too tough for use.

Asparagus must be taken from the water just as soon
as tender, while yet firm in appearance. If boiled
soft, it loses its flavor and is uninviting.
It is a good plan when it is to be divided before cooking,
if the stalks are not perfectly tender, to boil the
hardest portions first. Asparagus cooked in bunches
is well done, if, when held by the thick end in a
horizontal position between the fingers, it only bends
lightly and does not fall heavily down.

The time required for boiling asparagus depends upon
its freshness and age. Fresh, tender asparagus
cooks in a very few minutes, so quickly, indeed, that
the Roman emperor Augustus, intimating that any affair
must be concluded without delay, was accustomed to
say, “Let that be done quicker than you can
cook asparagus.” Fifteen or twenty minutes
will suffice if young and fresh; if old, from thirty
to fifty minutes will be required.

RECIPES.

ASPARAGUS AND PEAS.—­Asparagus and green
peas make a nice dish served together, and if of proportionate
age, require the same length of time to cook.
Wash the asparagus, shell and look over the peas, put
together into boiling water, cook, and serve as directed
for stewed asparagus.

ASPARAGUS POINTS.—­Cut of enough heads in
two-inch lengths to make three pints. Put into
boiling water just sufficient to cover. When
tender, drain off the water, add a half cup of cream,
and salt if desired. Serve at once.

ASPARAGUS ON TOAST.—­Cook the asparagus
in bunches, and when tender, drain and place on slices
of nicely browned toast moistened in the asparagus
liquor. Pour over all a cream sauce prepared as
directed below.

ASPARAGUS WITH CREAM SAUCE.—­Thoroughly
wash, tie in small bunches, and put into boiling water;
boil till perfectly tender. Drain thoroughly,
untie the bunches, place the stalks all the same way
upon a hot plate, with a dressing prepared as follows:
Let a pint of sweet cream (about six hours old is
best) come to the boiling point, and stir into it
salt to taste and a level tablespoonful of flour rubbed
smooth with a little cold cream.

ASPARAGUS WITH EGG SAUCE.—­Prepare and cook
asparagus as directed above. When tender, drain
thoroughly, and serve on a hot dish or on slices of
nicely browned toast, with an egg sauce prepared in
the following manner: Heat a half cup of rich
milk to boiling, add salt, and turn into it very slowly
the well-beaten yolk of an egg, stirring constantly
at the same time. Let the whole just thicken,
and remove from the fire at once.

STEWED ASPARAGUS.—­Wash, break into inch
pieces, simmer till tender in water just to cover,
add sufficient rich milk, part cream if convenient,
to make a gravy, thicken slightly with flour, a teaspoonful
to a pint of milk; add salt if desired, boil up together
once, and serve.

Page 187

SEA-KALE.

DESCRIPTION.—­This plant, a native of Britain,
and much esteemed as a vegetable in England and on
the Continent, is also in its wild state a sea-coast
plant. When properly cooked, it is nutritious
and easy of digestion. In appearance and flavor
it greatly resembles asparagus, and the suggestions
for cooking and recipes given for that vegetable are
applicable to sea-kale.

LETTUCE AND RADISH.

DESCRIPTION.—­These two vegetables, although
wholly different, the one being the leaf of a plant,
the other the root, are both so commonly served as
relishes that we will speak of them together.
Both have long been known and used. Wild lettuce
is said to be the bitter herb which the Hebrews ate
with the Paschal lamb. The ancient Greek and Roman
epicures valued lettuce highly, and bestowed great
care upon its cultivation, in some instances watering
the plants with sweet wine instead of water, in order
to communicate to them a delicate perfume and flavor.
The common garden lettuce of the present day is a hardy
plant, which supplies an agreeable, digestible, and,
when served with a wholesome dressing, unobjectionable
salad.

The common radish is supposed to be indigenous to
China. Ancient writers on foods mention the radish
as used by the early Greeks and Romans, who fancied
that at the end of three years its seed would produce
cabbages. They had also the singular custom of
making the radish the ignominious projectile with
which in times of tumult the mob pursued persons whose
political opinions had made them obnoxious. When
quiet was restored, the disgraced vegetable was boiled
and eaten with oil and vinegar. Common garden
radishes are of different shapes and of various colors
on the outside, there being black, violet, red, and
white radishes. The inside portion of all, however,
is white. They are sometimes cooked, but more
commonly served raw. A dish of crisp, coral radishes
adds beauty to the appearance of the table, but they
are not possessed of a high nutritive value, being
very similar to the turnip in composition, and unless
very young, tender, and when eaten thoroughly masticated,
are quite difficult of digestion.

RECIPES.

LETTUCE.—­Wash well, put into cold water,
and set on ice or on the cellar bottom for an hour
or more before using. Dry the leaves with a soft
towel and use whole or tear into convenient pieces
with a silver fork; never cut with a knife. Serve
with a dressing prepared of equal quantities of lemon
juice and sugar, diluted with a little ice water;
or, with a dressing of cream and sugar, in the proportion
of three or four tablespoonfuls of thin cream to a
teaspoonful of sugar. The dressing may be prepared,
and after the sugar is dissolved, a very little lemon
juice (just enough to thicken the cream slightly, but
not sufficient to curdle it) may be added if desired.

Page 188

RADISHES.—­Wash thoroughly young and tender
radishes, and arrange in a glass dish with the taper
ends meeting. Scatter bits of cracked ice among
them. An inch of the stem, if left on, serve as
a convenience in handling.

CYMLING, SUMMER SQUASH, OR VEGETABLE MARROW.

DESCRIPTION.—­The vegetable marrow (sometimes
called cymling) is thought to be a variety of the
common gourd, from which also the pumpkin and winter
squash appear to have been derived. It is easily
digested, but on account of the abundance of water
in its composition, its nutritive value is very low.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­When very young,
most varieties need no preparation for cooking, aside
from washing thoroughly. After cooking, the skin
can be easily rubbed off and the seeds removed.
If more mature, pare thinly, and if large, divide
into halves or quarters and scoop out the seeds.
Summer squashes are better steamed than boiled.
If boiled, they should be cooked in so little water
that it will be quite evaporated when they are tender.
From twenty to sixty minutes will be required for
cooking.

RECIPES.

MASHED SQUASH.—­Wash, peel, remove seeds,
and steam until tender. Place the squash in a
clean cloth, mash thoroughly, squeeze until the squash
is quite dry, or rub through a fine colander and afterward
simmer until neatly dry; season with cream, and a
little salt if desired, and heat again before serving.
A teaspoonful of sugar may be added with the cream,
if desired.

SQUASH WITH EGG SAUCE.—­Prepare, steam till
tender, cut into pieces, and serve with an egg sauce
made the same as directed for asparagus, page 256.

STEWED SQUASH.—­Prepare, cut into pieces,
and stew until tender in a small quantity of boiling
water; drain, pressing out all the water; serve on
toast with cream or white sauce. Or, divide in
quarters, remove the seeds, cook in a double boiler,
in its own juices, which when done may be thickened
with a little flour. Season with salt if desired,
and serve hot.

WINTER SQUASHES.

The winter squash and pumpkin are allied in nature
to the summer squash.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Select squashes
of a firm texture, wash, break in pieces with a hatchet
if hard-shell, or if the shell is soft, divide with
a knife; remove all seeds, and boil, stew, steam, or
bake, as preferred.

To boil or steam, from thirty minutes to one hour’s
time will be needed; to bake, one to two hours.

RECIPES.

BAKED SQUASH..—­The hard-shell varieties
are best for baking. Wash, divide, and lay, shells
downward, on the top grate of the oven, or place in
a shallow baking dish with a little boiling water.
Boil until tender, serve in the shell, or scrape out
the soft part, mash and serve with two largo tablespoonful
of cream to a pint of squash. If preferred, the
skins may be removed before baking, and the squash
served the same as sweet potato, for which it makes
a good substitute.

Page 189

STEAMED SQUASH.—­Prepare the squash, and
steam until tender. Mash and season as for baked
squash.

THE PUMPKIN.

DESCRIPTION.—­When our forefathers came
to this country, they found the pumpkin growing in
the Indian cornfields, and at once made use of it.
Although as food it did not supply what its handsome
exterior promised, yet in the absence of other fruits
and relishes, of which the exigencies of a new country
deprived them, they soon found the pumpkin quite palatable;
and the taste, cultivated through necessity, has been
handed down through generations, until the pumpkin
stewed and baked in pies, has become an established
favorite.

RECIPES.

BAKED PUMPKIN.—­Wash the pumpkin well on
the outside, divide into quarters if small, into sixths
or eighths if large; remove the seeds but not the
rind. Bake as directed for squash. Serve
in the rind, dishing it out by spoonfuls.

STEWED PUMPKIN.—­Select a good, ripe pumpkin,
and cut in halves; remove the seeds, slice halfway
around, pare, cut into inch pieces, put over the fire
in a kettle containing a small quantity of boiling
water, and stew gently, stirring frequently until
it breaks to pieces. Cool, rub through a colander,
and place where it will just simmer, but not burn,
until the water is all evaporated and the pumpkin dry.
Pumpkin for pies is much richer baked like squash,
and rubbed through a colander after the skin has been
removed.

DRIED PUMPKIN.—­Pumpkin may be dried and
kept for future use. The best way is first to
cut and stew the pumpkin, then spread on plates, and
dry quickly in the oven. Dried in this manner,
it is easily softened, when needed, by soaking in
a small quantity of water, and is considered nearly
as good as that freshly stewed.

TOMATO.

DESCRIPTION.—­The tomato, or “love
apple,” as it was called in the early part of
the century, is a native of South America and Mexico.
It was formerly regarded as poisonous, and though
often planted and prized as a curiosity in the flower
garden, it has only within the last half century come
to be considered as a wholesome article of diet.
Botanically, it is allied to the potato. It is
an acid fruit, largely composed of water, and hence
of low nutritive value; but it is justly esteemed
as a relish, and is very serviceable to the cook in
the preparation of soups and various mixed dishes.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Tomatoes to be
served in an uncooked state should be perfectly ripe
and fresh. The medium-sized, smooth ones are
the best. To peel, pour scalding water over them;
let them remain for half a minute, plunge into cold
water, allow them to cool, when the skins can be easily
rubbed off. Tomatoes should always be cooked in
porcelain or granite ware; iron makes them look dark,
and being slightly acid in character, they are not
wholesome cooked in tin vessels.

Page 190

Tomatoes require cooking a long time; one hour is
needed, and two are better.

RECIPES.

BAKED TOMATOES.—­Fill a pudding dish two
thirds full of stewed tomatoes; season with salt,
and sprinkle grated crumbs of good whole-wheat or
Graham bread over it until the top looks dry.
Brown in the oven, and serve with a cream dressing.

BAKED TOMATOES NO. 2. Wash and wipe a quantity
of smooth, even-sized tomatoes; remove the stems with
a sharp-pointed knife. Arrange on an earthen
pudding or pie dish, and bake whole in a moderate
oven. Serve with cream.

SCALLOPED TOMATOES.—­Take a pint of stewed
tomatoes, which have been rubbed through a colander,
thicken with one and one fourth cups of lightly picked
crumbs of Graham or whole-wheat bread, or a sufficient
quantity to make it quite thick, add salt if desired,
and a half cup of sweet cream, mix well, and bake
for twenty minutes. Or, fill a pudding dish with
alternate layers of peeled and sliced tomatoes and
bread crumbs, letting the topmost layer be of tomatoes.
Cover, and bake in a moderate oven for an hour or
longer, according to depth. Uncover, and brown
for ten or fifteen minutes.

STEWED CORN AND TOMATOES.—­Boil dried or
fresh corn until perfectly tender, add to each cup
of corn two cups of stewed, strained tomatoes, either
canned or freshly cooked. Salt to taste, boil
together for five or ten minutes, and serve plain
or with a little cream added.

TOMATO GRAVY.—­Heat to boiling one pint
of strained stewed tomatoes, either canned or fresh,
and thicken with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth
in a little water; add salt and when thickened, if
desired, a half cup of hot cream. Boil together
for a minute or two and serve at once.

TOMATO SALAD.—­Select perfectly ripe tomatoes,
and peel at least an hour before using. Slice,
and place on ice or in a cool place. Serve plain
or with lemon juice or sugar as preferred.

TOMATO SALAD NO. 2.—­Use one half small
yellow tomatoes and one half red. Slice evenly
and lay in the dish in alternate layers. Powder
lightly with sugar, and turn over them a cupful of
orange juice to a pint of tomato, or if preferred,
the juice of lemons may be used instead. Set
on ice and cool before serving.

BROILED TOMATOES.—­Choose perfectly ripened
but firm tomatoes of equal size. Place them on
a wire broiler, and broil over glowing coals, from
three to eight minutes, according to size, then turn
and cook on the other side. Broil the stem end
first. Serve hot with salt to season, and a little
cream.

Page 191

STEWED TOMATOES.—­Peel and slice the tomatoes.
Put them into a double boiler, without the addition
of water, and stew for an hour or longer. When
done, serve plain with a little sugar added, or season
with salt and a tablespoonful of rather thick sweet
cream to each pint of tomatoes. If the tomatoes
are thin and very juicy, they may be thickened with
a little flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water.
They are much better, however, to stew a longer time
until the water they contain is sufficiently evaporated
to make them of the desired consistency. The
stew may also be thickened, if desired, by the addition
of bread crumbs, rice, or macaroni.

TOMATO WITH OKRA.—­Wash the okra, cut off
the stem and nibs, and slice thin. For a quart
of sliced okra, peel and slice three large tomatoes.
Stew the tomatoes for half an hour, then add the okra,
and simmer together for half an hour longer.
Season with salt and a little cream.

EGG PLANT.

DESCRIPTION.—­The egg plant, a vegetable
indigenous to the East Indies, is somewhat allied
in character to the tomato. In shape, it resembles
an egg, from which fact it doubtless derives its name.
It ranks low in nutritive value. When fresh,
the plant is firm and has a smooth skin.

RECIPES.

SCALLOPED EGG PLANT.—­Pare a fresh egg plant.
If large, divide in quarters, if small, in halves,
and put to cook in boiling water. Cook until
it can be easily pierced with a straw, and drain in
a colander. Turn into a hot dish, and beat with
a silver fork until finely broken. Measure the
egg plant, and add to it an equal quantity of graded
bread crumbs, a little salt, and a tablespoonful of
thick sweet cream. Lastly, add one well beaten
egg. Put in an earthen pudding dish, and brown
in the oven until the egg is set, and the whole is
heated throughout but not dry.

BAKED EGG PLANT.—­Wash and cook whole in
boiling water until tender. Divide in halves,
remove the inside with a spoon, taking care not to
break the skin. Beat the egg plant smooth with
a fork. Season with salt and cream, and if desired,
a stalk of celery or a small slice of onion very finely
minced, for flavor. Put back in the skin, sprinkle
the top with bread crumbs, and brown the outside uppermost
in the oven.

CUCUMBER.

DESCRIPTION.—­The cucumber is a native of
Southern Asia, although it is quite commonly cultivated
in most civilized countries. It formed a part
of the dietary of the Israelites when in Egypt, where
it grew very plentifully. The ancient Greeks
held the cucumber in high esteem, and attributed to
it wonderful properties.

The cucumber is not a nutritious vegetable, and when
served in its raw state, as it so generally is, dressed
with salt, vinegar, pepper, and similar condiments,
it is an exceedingly indigestible article. If
it is to be eaten at all, it should first be cooked.
It may be pared, divided in quarters, the seeds removed,
and cooked in a small quantity of water until perfectly
tender, and served on toast with an egg sauce or a
cream sauce; or it may be prepared the same as directed
for Escalloped Egg Plant.

Page 192

SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER.

DESCRIPTION.—­The vegetable oyster plant,
sometimes called purple goat’s-beard, or salsify,
is indigenous to some portions of Great Britain.
The long, slender root becomes fleshy and tender under
cultivation, with a flavor, when cooked, somewhat resembling
that of the mollusk for which it is named. On
this account, it is much esteemed for soups.
A variety of the plant grows near the line of perpetual
snow, and forms the principal article of fresh vegetable
food in the dietary of Kurdistan.

PREPARATION AND COOKING.—­Select fresh and
unshriveled roots, wash and scrape well, dropping
into cold water as soon as cleaned, to prevent discoloration.
If the roots are covered with cold water for a half
hour or more before scraping, they can be cleaned
much easier. Use a porcelain-lined kettle, for
cooking, as an iron one will discolor it and injure
its flavor. From twenty minutes to one hour, according
to age, is required to cook it tender.

RECIPES.

SCALLOPED VEGETABLE OYSTERS.—­Boil two quarts
of sliced vegetable oysters in about two quarts of
water until very tender. Skim them out, and fill
a pudding dish with alternate layers of crumbs and
oysters, having a layer of crumbs for the top.
To the water in which they were boiled, add a pint
and a half of thin cream, salt to taste, boil up, and
thicken with a heaping tablespoonful or two of flour
rubbed smooth in a little cold cream. Pour this
over the oysters and crumbs, and bake a half hour.
If this is not enough to cover well, add more cream
or milk. Stewed tomatoes are a nice accompaniment
for escalloped vegetable oysters.

STEWED VEGETABLE OYSTERS.—­Wash, scrape,
and cut into slices not more than one half inch in
thickness. Put into a small quantity of boiling
water and cook until tender. If a large quantity
of water is used, the savory juices escape, and leave
the roots very insipid. When tender, pour in
a cup of rich milk and simmer for five or ten minutes;
add a little flour rubbed smooth in milk, and salt
if desired; boil up once, and serve as a vegetable
or on slices of nicely browned toast. If preferred,
a well-beaten egg may be used in the place of flour.

GREEN CORN, PEAS, AND BEANS.

DESCRIPTION.—­Corn, peas, and beans in their
immature state are so nearly allied to vegetables,
that we give in this connection recipes for cooking
green corn, green beans, and green peas. A general
rule applicable to all is that they should, when possible,
be cooked and eaten the day they are gathered, as
otherwise they lose much of their sweetness and flavor.
For corn, select young, tender, well-filled ears,
from which the milk will spurt when the grain is broken
with the finger nail. Beans and peas are fresh
only when the pods are green, plump, snap crisply
when broken, and have unshriveled stems. If the
pods bend and appear wilted, they are stale.
Corn, peas, and beans are wholesome and nutritious
foods when thoroughly cooked and sufficiently masticated,
but they are almost indigestible unless the hull,
or skin, of each pea, bean, or grain of corn, be broken
before being swallowed.

Page 193

RECIPES FOR CORN.

BAKED CORN.—­Select nice fresh ears of tender
corn of as nearly equal size as possible. Open
the husks and remove all the silk from the corn; replace
and tie the husks around the ears with a thread.
Put the corn in a hot oven, and bake thirty minutes
or until tender. Remove the husks before serving.

BAKED CORN NO. 2.—­Scrape enough corn from
the cob (as directed below for Corn Pulp) to make
one and a half quarts. Put into a baking dish,
season with salt if desired, add enough milk, part
cream if convenient, barely to cover the corn, and
bake in a hot oven twenty-five or thirty minutes.

BOILED GREEN CORN.—­Remove the husks and
every thread of the silk fiber. Place in a kettle,
the larger ears at the bottom, with sufficient boiling
water nearly to cover. Cover with the clean inner
husks, and cook from twenty to thirty minutes, according
to the age of the corn; too much cooking hardens it
and detracts from its flavor. Try a kernel, and
when the milk has thickened, and a raw taste is no
longer apparent, it is sufficiently cooked. Green
corn is said to be sweeter, boiled with the inner
husks on. For cooking in this way, strip off all
outer husks, and remove the silk, tying the inner
husk around the ear with a bit of thread, and boil.
Remove from the kettle, place in a heated dish, cover
with a napkin and serve at once on the cob. Some
recommend scoring or splitting the corn by drawing
a sharp knife through each row lengthwise. This
is a wise precaution against insufficient mastication.

STEWED CORN PULP.—­Take six ears of green
corn or enough to make a pint of raw pulp; with a
sharp knife cut a thin shaving from each row of kernels
or score each kernel, and with the back of the knife
scrape out the pulp, taking care to leave the hulls
on the cob. Heat a cup and a half of rich milk—­part
cream if it can be afforded—­to boiling,
add the corn, cook twenty or thirty minutes; season
with salt and a teaspoonful of sugar if desired.

CORN CAKES.—­To a pint of corn pulp add
two well-beaten eggs and two tablespoonfuls of flour;
season with salt if desired, and brown on a griddle.
Canned corn finely chopped can be used, but two tablespoonfuls
of milk should be added, as the corn is less moist.

CORN PUDDING.—­One quart of corn pulp prepared
as for stewing, one quart of milk, three eggs, and
a little salt. Mix the corn with a pint of the
milk, and heat it to boiling. Break the eggs into
the remainder of the milk, and add it to the corn,
turn all into an oiled pudding dish, and bake slowly
until the custard is well set.

ROASTED GREEN CORN.—­Remove the husks and
silk, and place the corn before an open grate or in
a wire broiler over hot coals until the kernels burst
open, or bury in hot ashes without removing the husks.
Score the grains, and serve from the cob.

STEWED GREEN CORN.—­Cut the corn from the
cob and with the back of the knife scrape off all
the pulp, being careful to leave the hull on the cob.
Put into a stewpan with half as much water as corn,
cover closely and stew gently until thoroughly cooked,
stirring frequently to prevent the corn from sticking
to the pan; add cream or milk to make the requisite
amount of juice, and season with salt if desired.
A teaspoonful of white sugar may be added if desired.

Page 194

Cold boiled corn cut from the cob and stewed a few
minutes in a little milk, makes a very palatable dish.

SUMMER SUCCOTASH.—­This maybe made by cooking
equal quantities of shelled beans and corn cut from
the cob, separately until tender, and then mixing
them; or the beans may be cooked until nearly soft,
an equal quantity of shaved corn added, and the whole
cooked fifteen or twenty minutes or longer. Season
with cream, and salt if desired.

DRIED CORN.—­The sweet varieties of corn
taken when young and tender and properly dried, furnish
an excellent material for nearly all purposes to which
green corn is put. Take green corn, just right
for eating, have it free from silk; cut the fleshy
portion from the cob with a sharp knife, then with
the back of the knife gently press the remaining pulp
from the cob. Spread thinly on plates and put
into an oven hot enough to scald, not scorch it.
Watch closely for a half hour or more, turning and
stirring frequently with a fork. When thus thoroughly
scalded, the corn may be left without further attention
if placed in a moderate oven, save an occasional stirring
to prevent its sticking to the plate, until the drying
is complete, which ought to be in about forty-eight
hours; however, if one can spend the time to watch
closely and stir very frequently, the drying may be
completed in a single afternoon in a rather hot oven.
Be careful that it does not scorch.

When needed for use, soak over night and cook in accordance
with recipes for Stewed Corn, Succotash, etc.,
pages 265, 234, only remembering to allow a longer
time.

RECIPES FOR PEAS.

STEWED PEAS.—­If from the garden, pick and
shell the peas with clean hands; if from the market,
wash the pods before shelling, so that the peas will
not require washing, as they are much better without.
When shelled, put into a colander and sift out the
fine particles and undeveloped blossoms. If not
of equal growth, sort the peas and put the older ones
to cook ten minutes before the others. Use a porcelain
kettle, with one half pint of boiling water for each
quart of peas, if young and tender; older ones, which
require longer stewing, need more. Cover closely,
and simmer gently till tender. The time required
for young peas is from twenty-five to thirty minutes;
older ones require forty to fifty minutes. Serve
without draining, season with salt and enough sweet
cream to make them as juicy as desired. If preferred,
the juice may be thickened with a little flour.

The peas may be purposely stewed in a larger quantity
of water, and served in their own juices thickened
with a little flour and seasoned with salt.

RECIPES FOR BEANS.

LIMA BEANS.—­Lima beans are not good until
they are full grown and have turned white. Shell,
wash, cover with boiling water, and cook about one
hour or until tender. Let the water nearly evaporate,
and add milk or cream thickened with a little flour.
Season with salt to taste, boil up once, and serve.

Page 195

SHELLED BEANS.—­Shell, wash, drop into boiling
water sufficient to cover, and cook until tender.
Let the water boil nearly away, and serve without
draining. Season with thin cream, and salt if
desired.

STRING BEANS.—­Wash well in cold water.
Remove the strong fiber, or strings, as they are called,
by paring both edges with a sharp knife; few cooks
do this thoroughly. Break off stems and points,
carefully rejecting any imperfect or diseased pods.
Lay a handful evenly on a board and cut them all at
once into inch lengths. Put in a porcelain kettle,
cover with boiling water, and cook from one to three
hours, according to age and variety, testing frequently,
as they should be removed from the kettle just as
soon as done. When very young and tender, only
water sufficient to keep them from burning will be
needed. When done, add a half cup of thin cream,
and salt to taste. If the quantity of juice is
considerable, thicken with a little flour.

THE ONION.

The onion belongs to a class of foods containing an
acrid oil of a strongly irritating character, on which
account it cannot be considered a wholesome food when
eaten raw, as it so generally is. The essential
oil is, however, quite volatile, so that when cooked,
after being first parboiled in two or three waters,
its irritating properties are largely removed.
The varieties grown in warm climates are much milder
and sweeter than those grown in colder countries.
The onion is valuable for flavoring purposes.
It may also be boiled and served whole with a cream
sauce, or cut in quarters and prepared as directed
for Scalloped Turnips, page 242.

CANNING VEGETABLES.

Most housekeepers experience more difficulty in canning
and keeping vegetables than fruit. This is frequently
owing to lack of care to secure perfect cans, covers,
and rubbers, and to cook the vegetables thoroughly.
Whatever is to be canned must be cooked sufficiently
to be eaten, and must be boiling at the time it is
put into the cans. Care as to the cleanliness
of the cans and their sterilization is also important,
and after the canning process is completed, all vegetables
put up in glass should be kept in a cool, dark place.
The general directions given for canning fruits should
be followed in canning vegetables.

RECIPES.

CANNED CORN.—­Select corn just ripe enough
for table use, and prepare as directed for stewed
corn. It will require from twelve to fifteen
ears to fill sufficiently each quart can. To insure
success, the cans should be so full that when the
corn is shrunken by the cooking, the can will still
be well filled. Pack the corn in the cans, working
it down closely by means of the small end of a potato
masher, so the milk will cover the corn and completely
fill the can; heap a little more corn loosely on the
top, and screw the covers on sufficiently tight to

Page 196

prevent water from getting into the can. Place
the cans in a boiler, on the bottom of which has been
placed some straw or a rack; also take care not to
let the cans come in contact with each other, by wrapping
each in a cloth or by placing a chip between them.
A double layer of cans may be placed in the boiler,
one on top of the other, if desirable, provided there
is some intervening substance. Fill the boiler
with cold water so as completely to cover the cans;
place over the fire, bring gradually to a boil, and
keep boiling steadily for four hours. Remove the
boiler from the fire, and allow the cans to cool gradually,
tightening the covers frequently as they cool.

If the corn in the can shrinks, do not open to refill.
If cooked thoroughly, and due care is taken in other
particulars, there need be no failure. Wrap closely
in brown paper, and put away in a dark, cool, dry
place.

CANNED CORN AND TOMATOES.—­Use about one
third corn and two thirds tomatoes, or in equal portions
if preferred. Cook the tomatoes in a double boiler
for an hour and a half or longer; and in another double
boiler, when the tomatoes are nearly done, cook the
corn in its own juices until thoroughly done.
Turn them together, heat to boiling, and can at once.

CANNED PEAS.—­Select peas which are fresh,
young, and tender. Shell, pack into perfect cans,
shaking and filling as full as possible, add sufficient
cold water to fill them to overflowing, screw on the
covers, and cook and seal the same as directed for
canning corn.

CANNED TOMATOES.—­Tomatoes for canning should
be freshly gathered, ripe, but not at all softened.

As they are best cooked in their own juices, peel,
slice, put into a double boiler or a porcelain fruit-kettle
set inside a dish filled with boiling water, and cook
from one to two hours. Cooked in the ordinary
way, great care will be required to keep the fruit
from burning. When thoroughly cooked—­simple
scalding will not do—­put into cans, and
be sure that all air bubbles are expelled before sealing.
Wrap in dark brown paper, and put in a cool, dry,
dark place.

CANNED TOMATOES NO. 2.—­Cut the fruit into
thick slices, let it stand and drain until a large
portion of the juice has drained off; then pack solid
in new or perfect cans. Allow them to stand a
little time, then again drain off the juice; fill
up a second time with sliced tomatoes, and screw on
the top of the cans without the rubbers. Pack
into a wash boiler as directed for canning corn, and
boil for two hours, then put on the rubbers and seal.
When cold, tighten the covers and put away.

STRING BEANS.—­Select young and tender beans,
string them, and cut into pieces about one half inch
in length. Pack the cans as full as possible,
and fill with water until every crevice between the
beans is full. Screw on the covers and can in
the same manner as corn.

Shelled beans may be canned in the same way.

Page 197

CANNED PUMPKIN AND SQUASH.—­These fruits
when canned are quite as desirable for pies as the
fresh material. The same general rules should
be followed as in canning other vegetables and fruits.

TABLE TOPICS.

The word “vegetarian”
is not derived from “vegetable,” but from
the
Latin, homo vegetus,
meaning among the Romans a strong, robust,
thoroughly healthy man.

AN INTELLECTUAL FEAST.—­Professor
Louis Agassiz in his early manhood visited Germany
to consult Oken, the transcendentalist in zooelogical
classification. “After I had delivered
to him my letter of introduction,” he once
said to a friend, “Oken asked me to dine with
him, and you may suppose with what joy I accepted
the invitation. The dinner consisted only
of potatoes, boiled and roasted; but it was the
best dinner I ever ate; for there was Oken. Never
before were such potatoes grown on this planet;
for the mind of the man seemed to enter into what
we ate sociably together, and I devoured his intellect
while munching his potatoes.”

Dr. Abernethy’s recipe
for using cucumbers: “Peel the cucumber,
slice it, pepper it, put vinegar
to it, then throw it out the
window.”

A green son of the Emerald
Isle was eating sweet corn from the cob
for the first time. He
handed the cob to the waiter, and asked,
“Will you plaze put
some more beans on my shtick?”

A French physician styles
spinach, le balai de l’estomac (broom
of
the stomach).

An ox is satisfied with the pasture
of an acre or two; one wood suffices for several
elephants. Man alone supports himself by the
pillage of the whole earth and sea. What?
Has Nature indeed given us so insatiable a stomach,
while she has given us so insignificant bodies?
No; it is not the hunger of our stomachs, but insatiable
covetousness which costs so much.—­Seneca.

The oftener we go to the vegetable world
for our food, the oftener we go to the first and
therefore the cheapest source of supply. The
tendencies of all advanced scholars in thrift should
be to find out plans for feeding all the community,
as far as possible, direct from the lap of earth;
to impress science into our service so that she may
prepare the choicest viands minus the necessity of
making a lower animal the living laboratory for
the sake of what is just a little higher than
cannibal propensities.

_—­Dr. B.W.
Richardson._

A VOICE FROM THE CORN.

I was made to be eaten,
not to be drank,
To be husked in a barn,
not soaked in a tank;
I come as a blessing
when put in a mill,
As a blight and a curse
when run through a still.
Make me up into loaves,
and your children are fed;
But made into drink,
I will starve them instead.
In bread I’m a
servant the eater shall rule,
In drink I’m a
master, the drinker a fool.
Then remember my warning;
my strength I’ll employ,
If eaten, to strengthen,
if drunk, to destroy.

Page 198

—­Sel.

SOUPS

Soup is an easily made, economical, and when properly
prepared from healthful and nutritious material, very
wholesome article of diet, deserving of much more
general use than is commonly accorded it.

In general, when soup is mentioned, some preparation
of meat and bones is supposed to be meant; but we
shall treat in this chapter of a quite different class
of soups, viz., those prepared from the grains,
legumes, and vegetables, without the previous preparation
of a “stock.” Soups of this character
are in every way equal, and in many points superior
to those made from meat and bones. If we compare
the two, we shall find that soups made from the grains
and legumes rank much higher in nutritive value than
do meat soups. For the preparation of the latter,
one pound of meat and bones, in about equal proportion,
is required for each quart of soup. In the bone,
there is little or no nourishment, it being valuable
simply for the gelatine it contains, which gives consistency
to the soup; so in reality there is only one half pound
of material containing nutriment, for the quart of
soup. Suppose, in comparison we take a pea soup.
One half pound of peas will be amply enough for a
quart. As we take an equal amount of material
as basis for each soup, we can easily determine their
relative value by comparing the amount of nutritive
material contained in peas with that of beef, the
most commonly used material for meat soups. As
will be seen by reference to the table of food analyses
on page 486, peas contain 87.3 parts nutritive material,
while lean beef contains only 28 parts in one hundred.
Thus the pea soup contains more than three times as
much nourishment as does the beef soup.

Soups prepared from grains and legumes are no more
expensive than meat soups, and many kinds cost much
less, while they have the added advantage of requiring
less time and no more labor to prepare.

The greater bulk of all meat soups is water, holding
in solution the essence of meat, the nutritive value
of which is of very doubtful character.

When properly prepared, the solid matter which enters
into the composition of vegetable soups, is so broken
up in the process of cooking, that it is more easily
digested than in any other form.

Taken hot at the beginning of a meal, soup stimulates
the flow of the digestive juices, and on account of
the bulk, brings a sense of satiety before an excessive
quantity of food has been taken.

In preparing soups from grains, legumes, and vegetables,
the material should be first cooked in the ordinary
manner, using as small an amount of water as practicable,
so as the more thoroughly to disintegrate or break
it up. If the material be legumes or grains, the
cooking should be slow and prolonged. The purpose
to be attained in the cooking of all foods is the
partial digestion of the food elements; and in general,
with these foods, the more slowly (if continuous) the
cooking is done, the more completely will this be
brought about.

Page 199

When the material is cooked, the next step is to make
it homogeneous throughout, and to remove any skins
or cellulose material it may contain. To do this,
it should be put through a colander. The kind
of colander depends upon the material. Peas and
beans require a fine colander, since the skins, of
which we are seeking to rid them, would easily go
through a coarse one. To aid in this sifting process,
if the material be at all dry, a small quantity of
liquid may be added from time to time. When the
colander process is complete, a sufficient amount
of milk or other liquid may be added to make the whole
of the consistency of rather thick cream.

[Illustration: Chinese Soup Strainer.]

If the material is now cold, it must be reheated,
and the salt, if any is to be used, added. The
quantity of salt will depend somewhat upon the taste
of the consumer; but in general, one half teaspoonful
to the pint of soup will be an ample supply.
If any particular flavor, as of onion or celery, is
desired, it may be imparted to the soup by adding to
it a slice of onion or a few stalks of celery, allowing
them to remain during the reheating. By the time
the soup is well heated, it will be delicately flavored,
and the pieces of onion or celery may be removed with
a fork or a skimmer. It is better, in general,
to cook the soup all that is needed before flavoring,
since if allowed to boil, all delicate flavors are
apt to be lost by evaporation. When reheated,
add to the soup a quantity of cream as seasoning,
in the proportion of one cup of thin cream for every
quart or three pints of soup.

To avoid the possibility of any lumps or fragments
in the soup, pour it again through a colander or a
Chinese soup strainer into the soup tureen, and serve.
It is well to take the precaution first to heat the
strainer and tureen, that the soup be not cooled during
the process.

If it is desired to have the soup especially light
and nice, beat or whip the cream before adding, or
beat the hot soup with an egg beater for a few minutes
after adding the cream. The well-beaten yolk of
an egg for every quart or three pints of soup, will
answer as a very fair substitute for cream in potato,
rice, and similar soups. It should not be added
to the body of the soup, but a cupful of the hot soup
may be turned slowly onto the egg, stirring all the
time, in order to mix it well without curdling, and
then the cupful stirred into the whole. Soups
made from legumes are excellent without cream.

The consistency of the soup when done should be about
that of single cream, and equal throughout, containing
no lumps or fragments of material. If it is too
thick, it may be easily diluted with hot milk or water;
if too thin, it will require the addition of more material,
or may be thickened with a little flour or cornstarch
rubbed to a cream with a small quantity of milk, used
in the proportion of one tablespoonful for a quart
of soup,—­heaping, if flour; scant, if cornstarch,—­and
remembering always to boil the soup five or ten minutes
after the flour is added, that there may be no raw
taste.

Page 200

The addition of the flour or cornstarch gives a smoothness
to their consistency which is especially desirable
for some soups. A few spoonfuls of cooked oatmeal
or cracked wheat, added and rubbed through the colander
with the other material, is valuable for the same purpose.
Browned flour prepared by spreading a cupful thinly
on shallow tins, and placing in a moderately hot oven,
stirring frequently until lightly and evenly browned,
is excellent to use both for thickening and flavoring
certain soups.

If whole grains, macaroni, vermicelli, or shredded
vegetables are to be used in the soup, cook them separately,
and add to the soup just before serving.

The nutritive value of soup depends of course upon
its ingredients, and these should be so chosen and
combined as to produce the best possible food from
the material employed. Milk is a valuable factor
in the preparation of soups. With such vegetables
as potatoes, parsnips, and others of the class composed
largely of starch, and containing but a small proportion
of the nitrogenous food elements, its use is especially
important as an addition to their food value, as also
to their palatableness. Very good soups may,
however, be made from legumes, if carefully cooked
with water only.

Soups offer a most economical way of making use of
the “left-over” fragments which might
otherwise be consigned to the refuse bucket. A
pint of cold mashed potatoes, a cupful of stewed beans,
a spoonful or two of boiled rice, stewed tomatoes,
or other bits of vegetables and grains, are quite
as good for soup purposes as fresh material, provided
they have been preserved fresh and sweet. To insure
this it is always best to put them away in clean dishes;
if retained in the dish from which they were served,
the thin smears and small crumbs on the sides which
spoil much sooner than the larger portion, will help
to spoil the rest. One may find some difficulty
in rubbing them through the colander unless they are
first moistened. Measure the cold food, and then
determine how much liquid will be needed, and add a
part of this before attempting to put through the
colander.

It is difficult to give specific directions for making
soups of fragments, as the remnants to be utilized
will vary so much in character as to make such inapplicable,
but the recipes given for combination soups will perhaps
serve as an aid in this direction. Where a sufficient
amount of one kind of food is left over to form the
basis of a soup or to serve as a seasoning, it can
be used in every way the same as fresh material.
When, however, there is but a little of various odds
and ends, the general rule to be observed is to combine
only such materials as harmonize in taste.

Soups prepared from the grains, legumes, and vegetables,
are so largely composed of food material that it is
important that they be retained in the mouth long
enough for proper insalivation; and in order to insure
this, it is well to serve with the soup croutons,
prepared by cutting stale bread into small squares
or cubes, and browning thoroughly in a moderate oven.
Put a spoonful or two of the croutons in each
plate, and turn the hot soup over them. This
plan also serves another purpose,—­that
of providing a means whereby the left-over bits of
stale bread may be utilized to advantage.

Page 201

RECIPES.

ASPARAGUS SOUP.—­Wash two bunches of fresh
asparagus carefully, and cut into small pieces.
Put to cook in a quart of boiling water, and simmer
gently till perfectly tender, when there should remain
about a pint of the liquor. Turn into a colander,
and rub all through except the hard portion.
To a pint of asparagus mixture add salt and one cup
of thin cream and a pint of milk; boil up for a few
minutes, and serve.

BAKED BEAN SOUP.—­Soak a half pint of white
beans over night. In the morning turn off the
water, and place them in an earthen dish with two
or two and one half quarts of boiling water; cover
and let them simmer in a moderate oven four or five
hours. Also soak over night a tablespoonful of
pearl tapioca in sufficient water to cover. When
the beans are soft, rub through a colander, after
which add the soaked tapioca, and salt if desired;
also as much powdered thyme as can be taken on the
point of a penknife and sufficient water to make the
soup of proper consistency if the water has mostly
evaporated. Return to the oven, and cook one
half hour longer. A little cream may be added
just before serving.

BEAN AND CORN SOUP.—­Cold boiled or stewed
corn and cold baked beans form the basis of this soup.
Take one pint of each, rub through a colander, add
a slice of onion, three cups of boiling water or milk,
and boil for ten minutes. Turn through the colander
a second time to remove the onion and any lumps or
skins which may remain. Season with salt and
a half cup of cream. If preferred, the onion may
be omitted.

BEAN AND HOMINY SOUP.—­Soak separately in
cold water over night a cupful each of dry beans and
hominy. In the morning, boil them together till
both are perfectly tender and broken to pieces.
Rub through a colander, and add sufficient milk to
make three pints. Season with salt, and stir
in a cup of whipped cream just before serving.
Cold beans and hominy may be utilized for this soup.

BEAN AND POTATO SOUP.—­Soak a half pint
of dry white beans over night; in the morning drain
and put to cook in boiling water. When tender,
rub through a colander. Prepare sliced potato
sufficient to make one quart, cook in as small a quantity
of water as possible, rub through a colander, and
add to the beans. Add milk or water sufficient
to make two quarts, and as much prepared thyme as can
be taken on the point of a penknife, with salt to
season. Boil for a few minutes, add a teacup
of thin cream, and serve.

BEAN AND TOMATO SOUP.—­Take one pint of
boiled or a little less of mashed beans, one pint
of stewed tomatoes, and rub together through a colander.
Add salt, a cup of thin cream, one half a cup of nicely
steamed rice, and sufficient boiling water to make
a soup of the proper consistency. Reheat and
serve.

BLACK BEAN SOUP.—­Soak a pint of black beans
over night in cold water. When ready to cook,
put into two and one half quarts of fresh water, which
should be boiling, and simmer until completely dissolved,
adding more boiling water from time to time if needed.
There should be about two quarts of all when done.
Rub through a colander, add salt, a half cup of cream,
and reheat. When hot, turn through a soup strainer,
add two or more teaspoonfuls of lemon juice, and serve.

Page 202

BLACK BEAN SOUP NO. 2.—­Soak a pint of black
beans in water over night. Cook in boiling water
until tender, then rub through a colander. Add
sufficient boiling water to make about two quarts in
all. Add salt, and one half a small onion cut
in slices to flavor. Turn into a double boiler
and reheat. When sufficiently flavored, remove
the onion with a skimmer, thicken the soup with two
teaspoonfuls of browned flour, turn through the soup
strainer and serve. If desired, a half cup of
cream may be added, and the onion flavor omitted.

BRAN STOCK.—­For every quart of stock desired,
boil a cup of good wheat bran in three pints of water
for two or three hours or until reduced one third.
This stock may be made the base of a variety of palatable
and nutritious soups by flavoring with different vegetables
and seasoning with salt and cream. An excellent
soup may be prepared by flavoring the stock with celery,
or by the addition of a quantity of strained stewed
tomato sufficient to disguise the taste of the stock.
It is also valuable in giving consistence to soups,
in the preparation of some of which it may be advantageously
used in place of other liquid.

BROWN SOUP.—­Simmer together two pints of
sliced potatoes and one third as much of the thin
brown shavings (not thicker than a silver dime) from
the top of a loaf of whole-wheat bread, in one quart
of water. The crust must not be burned or blackened,
and must not include any of the soft portion of the
loaf. When the potatoes are tender, mash all
through a colander. Flavor with a cup of strained,
stewed tomatoes, a little salt, and return to the
fire; when hot, add a half cup of cream, and boiling
water to make the soup of proper consistency, and
serve at once. If care has been taken to prepare
the crust as directed, this soup will have a brown
color and a fine, pungent flavor exceedingly pleasant
to the taste.

CANNED GREEN PEA SOUP.—­Rub a can of green
peas through a colander to remove the skins.
Add a pint of milk and heat to boiling. If too
thin, thicken with a little flour rubbed smooth in
a very little cold milk. Season with salt and
a half cup of cream. A small teaspoonful of white
sugar may be added if desired.

Green peas, instead of canned, may be used when procurable.
When they have become a little too hard to serve alone,
they can be used for soup, if thoroughly cooked.

CANNED CORN SOUP.—­Open a can of green corn,
turn it into a granite-ware dish, and thoroughly mash
with a potato-masher until each kernel is broken,
then rub through a colander to remove the skins.
Add sufficient rich milk to make the soup of the desired
consistency, about one half pint for each pint can
of corn will be needed. Season with salt, reheat,
and serve. If preferred, a larger quantity of
milk and some cream may be used, and the soup, when
reheated, thickened with a little corn starch or flour.
It may be turned through the colander a second time
or not, as preferred.

Page 203

CARROT SOUP.—­For a quart of soup, slice
one large carrot and boil in a small quantity of water
for two hours or longer, then rub it through a colander,
add a quart of rich milk, and salt to season.
Reheat, and when boiling, thicken with two teaspoonfuls
of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk.

CELERY SOUP.—­Chop quite fine enough fresh,
crisp celery to make a pint, and cook it until tender
in a very little boiling water. When done, heat
three cupfuls of rich milk, part cream if it can be
afforded, to boiling, add the celery, salt to season,
and thicken the whole with a tablespoonful of flour
rubbed smooth in a little cold milk; or add to the
milk before heating a cupful of mashed potato, turn
through a colander to remove lumps, reheat, add salt
and the celery, and serve.

CELERY SOUP NO. 2.—­Cook in a double boiler
a cupful of cracked wheat in three pints of water
for three or four hours. Rub the wheat through
a colander, add a cup of rich milk, and if needed,
a little boiling water, and a small head of celery
cut in finger lengths. Boil all together for
fifteen or twenty minutes, until well flavored, remove
the celery with a fork, add salt, and serve with or
without the hard-boiled yolk of an egg in each soup
plate.

CHESTNUT SOUP.—­Shell and blanch a pint
of Italian chestnuts, as directed on page 215, and
cook in boiling milk until tender. Rub the nuts
through a colander, add salt and sufficient milk and
cream to make a soup of the proper consistency, reheat
and serve.

COMBINATION SOUP.—­This soup is prepared
from material already cooked, and requires two cups
of cracked wheat, one and one half cups of Lima beans,
one half cup of black beans, and one cup of stewed
tomato. Rub the material together through a colander,
adding, if needed, a little hot water to facilitate
the sifting. Add boiling water to thin to the
proper consistency, season with salt and if it can
be afforded a little sweet cream,—­the soup
is, however, very palatable without the cream.

COMBINATION SOUP NO. 2.—­Take three and
one half cups of mashed (Scotch) peas, one cup each
of cooked rice, oatmeal, and hominy, and two cups
of stewed tomato. Rub the material through a colander,
add boiling water to thin to the proper consistency,
season with salt, reheat, and add, just before serving,
two cups of cooked macaroni. If preferred, a
cup of cream may be used in place of the tomato, or
both may be omitted.

ANOTHER.—­One half cup of cold mashed potato,
one cup each of cooked pearl wheat, barley and dried
peas. Rub all through a colander, add boiling
milk to thin to the proper consistency, season with
salt and a half cup of cream.

ANOTHER.—­Take three cups of cooked oatmeal,
two of mashed white beans, and one of stewed tomato.
Rub the ingredients through a colander, add boiling
milk to thin to the proper consistency, season with
salt and a little cream.

Page 204

CREAM PEA SOUP.—­Soak three fourths of a
pint of dried Scotch peas over night in a quart of
water. In the morning put to cook in boiling
water, cover closely and let them simmer gently four
or five hours, or until the peas are very tender and
well disintegrated; then rub through a colander to
remove the skins. If the peas are very dry, add
a little water or milk occasionally, to moisten them
and facilitate the sifting. Just before the peas
are done, prepare potatoes enough to make a pint and
a half, after being cut in thin slices. Cook the
potatoes until tender in a small amount of water,
and rub them through a colander. Add the potatoes
thus prepared to the sifted peas, and milk enough to
make three and one half pints in all. Return
to the fire, and add a small head of celery cut finger
lengths, and let the whole simmer together ten or
fifteen minutes, until flavored. Remove the celery
with a fork, add salt and a cup of thin cream.
This should make about two quarts of soup. If
preferred, the peas may be cooked without soaking.
It will, however, require a little longer time.

CREAM BARLEY SOUP.—­Wash a cup of pearl
barley, drain and simmer slowly in two quarts of water
for four or five hours, adding boiling water from
time to time as needed. When the barley is tender,
strain off the liquor, of which there should be about
three pints; add to it a portion of the cooked barley
grains, salt, and a cup of whipped cream, and serve.
If preferred, the beaten yolk of an egg may be used
instead of cream.

GREEN CORN SOUP.—­Take six well-filled ears
of tender green corn. Run a sharp knife down
the rows and split each grain; then with the back
of a knife, scraping from the large to the small end
of the ear, press out the pulp, leaving the hulls
on the cob. Break the cobs if long, put them
in cold water sufficient to cover, and boil half an
hour. Strain off the water, of which there should
be at least one pint. Put the corn water on again,
and when boiling add the corn pulp, and cook fifteen
minutes, or until the raw taste is destroyed.
Rub through a rather coarse colander, add salt and
a pint of hot unskimmed milk; if too thin, thicken
with a little cornstarch or flour, boil up, and serve.
If preferred, a teaspoonful of sugar may be added
to the soup. A small quantity of cooked macaroni,
cut in rings, makes a very pretty and palatable addition
to the soup. The soup is also excellent flavored
with celery.

GREEN PEA SOUP.—­Gently simmer two quarts
of shelled peas in sufficient water to cook, leaving
almost no juice when tender. Rub through a colander,
moistening if necessary with a little cold milk.
Add to the sifted peas an equal quantity of rich milk
and a small onion cut in halves. Boil all together
five or ten minutes until the soup is delicately flavored,
then remove the onion with a skimmer; add salt if
desired, and serve. If preferred, a half cup of
thin cream may be added just before serving.
Celery may be used in place of the onion, or both
may be omitted.

Page 205

GREEN BEAN SOUP.—­Prepare a quart of fresh
string beans by pulling off ends and strings and breaking
into small pieces. Boil in a small quantity of
water. If the beans are fresh and young, three
pints will be sufficient; if wilted or quite old,
more will be needed, as they will require longer cooking.
There should be about a teacupful and a half of liquid
left when the beans are perfectly tender and boiled
in pieces. Rub through a colander, return to
the kettle, and for each cup of the bean pulp add
salt, a cup and a half of unskimmed milk; boil together
for a few minutes, thicken with a little flour, and
serve. The quart of beans should be sufficient
for three pints of soup.

KORNLET SOUP.—­Kornlet or canned green corn
pulp, may be made into a most appetizing soup in a
few minutes by adding to a pint of kornlet an equal
quantity of rich milk, heating to boiling, and thickening
it with a teaspoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a
little cold milk.

KORNLET AND TOMATO SOUP.—­Put together equal
quantities of kornlet and strained stewed tomato,
season with salt and heat to boiling; add for each
quart one fourth to one half cup of hot thin cream,
thicken with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth
in a little water, and serve. Cooked corn rubbed
through a colander may also be used for this soup.

LENTIL SOUP.—­Simmer a pint of lentils in
water until tender. If desired to have the soup
less dark in color and less strong in flavor, the
lentils may be first parboiled for a half hour, and
then drained and put into fresh boiling water.
Much valuable nutriment is thus lost, however.
When perfectly tender, mash through a colander to remove
all skins; add salt and a cup of thin cream, and it
too thick, sufficient boiling milk or water to thin
to the proper consistency, heat again to boiling,
and serve. If preferred, an additional quantity
of liquid may be added and the soup slightly thickened
with browned flour.

LENTIL AND PARSNIP SOUP.—­Cook together
one pint of lentils and one half a small parsnip,
sliced, until tender in a small quantity of boiling
water. When done, rub through a colander, and
add boiling water to make a soup of the proper consistency.
Season with salt and if desired a little cream.

LIMA BEAN SOUP.—­Simmer a pint of Lima beans
gently in just sufficient water to cook and not burn,
until they have fallen to pieces. Add more boiling
water as needed. When done, rub the beans through
a colander. Add rich milk or water to make of
the proper consistency, and salt to season; reheat
and serve. White beans may be used in place of
Lima beans, but they require more prolonged cooking.
A heaping tablespoonful of pearl tapioca or sago previously
soaked in cold water, may be added to the soup when
it is reheated, if liked, and the whole cooked until
the sago is transparent.

MACARONI SOUP.—­Heat a quart of milk, to
which has been added a tablespoonful of finely grated
bread crust (the brown part only, from the top of
the loaf) and a slice of onion to flavor, in a double
boiler. When the milk is well flavored, remove
the onion, turn through a colander, add salt, and
thicken with two teaspoonfuls of flour rubbed smooth
in a little cold milk. Lastly add one cupful of
cooked macaroni, and serve.

Page 206

OATMEAL SOUP.—­Put two heaping tablespoonfuls
of oatmeal into a quart of boiling water, and cook
in a double boiler for two hours or longer. Strain
as for gruel, add salt if desired, and two or three
stalks of celery broken into finger lengths, and cook
again until the whole is well flavored with the celery,
which may then be removed with a fork; add a half
cup of cream, and the soup is ready to serve.
Cold oatmeal mush may be thinned with milk, reheated,
strained, flavored, and made into soup the same as
fresh material. A slice or two of onion may be
used with the celery for flavoring the soup if desired,
or a cup of strained stewed tomato may be added.

PARSNIP SOUP.—­Take a quart of well scraped,
thinly sliced parsnips, one cup of bread crust shavings
(prepared as for Brown Soup), one head of celery,
one small onion, and one pint of sliced potatoes.
The parsnips used should be young and tender, so that
they will cook in about the same length of time as
the other vegetables. Use only sufficient water
to cook them. When done, rub through a colander
and add salt and sufficient rich milk, part cream
if desired, to make of the proper consistency.
Reheat and serve.

PARSNIP SOUP NO. 2.—­Wash, pare, and slice
equal quantities of parsnips and potatoes. Cook,
closely covered, in a small quantity of water until
soft. If the parsnips are not young and tender,
they must be put to cook first, and the potatoes added
when they are half done. Mash through a colander.
Add salt, and milk to make of the proper consistency,
season with cream, reheat and serve.

PEA AND TOMATO SOUP.—­Soak one pint of Scotch
peas over night. When ready to cook, put into
a quart of boiling water and simmer slowly until quite
dry and well disintegrated. Rub through a colander
to remove the skins. Add a pint of hot water,
one cup of mashed potato, two cups of strained stewed
tomato, and one cup of twelve-hour cream. Turn
into a double-boiler and cook together for a half
hour or longer; turn a second time through a colander
or soup strainer and serve. The proportions given
are quite sufficient for two quarts of soup. There
may need to be some variation in the quantity of tomato
to be used, depending upon its thickness. If
very thin, a larger quantity and less water will be
needed. The soup should be a rich reddish brown
in color when done. The peas may be cooked without
being first soaked, if preferred.

PLAIN RICE SOUP.—­Wash and pick over four
tablespoonfuls of rice, put it in an earthen dish
with a quart of water, and place in a moderate oven.
When the water is all absorbed, add a quart of rich
milk, and salt if desired; turn into a granite kettle
and boil ten minutes, or till the rice is done.
Add a half cup of sweet cream and serve. A slice
of onion or stalk of celery can be boiled with the
soup after putting in the kettle, and removed before
serving, if desired to flavor.

POTATO AND RICE SOUP.—­Cook a quart of sliced
potatoes in as little water as possible. When
done, rub through a colander. Add salt, a quart
of rich milk, and reheat. If desired, season with
a slice of onion, a stalk of celery, or a little parsley.
Just before serving, add a half cup of cream and a
cup and a half of well-cooked rice with unbroken grains.
Stir gently and serve at once.

Page 207

POTATO SOUP.—­For each quart of soup required,
cook a pint of sliced potatoes in sufficient water
to cover them. When tender, rub through a colander.
Return to the fire, and add enough rich, sweet milk,
part cream if it can be afforded to make a quart in
all, and a little salt. Let the soup come to
a boil, and add a teaspoonful of flour or corn starch,
rubbed to a paste with a little water; boil a few minutes
and serve. A cup and a half of cold mashed potato
or a pint of sliced baked potato can be used instead
of fresh material; in which case add the milk and
heat before rubbing through the colander. A slice
of onion or a stalk of celery may be simmered in the
soup for a few minutes to flavor, and then removed
with a skimmer or a spoon. A good mixed potato
soup is made by using one third sweet and two thirds
Irish potatoes, in the same manner as above.

POTATO AND VERMICELLI SOUP.—­Breakup a cupful
of vermicelli and drop into boiling water. Let
it cook for ten or fifteen minutes, and then turn
into a colander to drain. Have ready a potato
soup prepared the same as in the proceeding; stir
the vermicelli lightly into it just before serving.

SAGO AND POTATO SOUP.—­Prepare the soup
as directed for Potato Soup, from fresh or cold mashed
potato, using a little larger quantity of milk or
cream, as the sago adds thickness to the soap.
When seasoned and ready to reheat, turn a second time
through the colander, and add for each quart of soup,
one heaping tablespoonful of sago which has been soaked
for twenty minutes in just enough water to cover.
Boil together five or ten minutes, or until the sago
is transparent, and serve.

SCOTCH BROTH.—­Soak over night two tablespoonfuls
of pearl barley and one of coarse oatmeal, in water
sufficient to cover them. In the morning, put
the grains, together with the water in which they were
soaked, into two quarts of water and simmer for several
hours, adding boiling water as needed. About
an hour before the soup is required, add a turnip
cut into small dice, a grated carrot, and one half
cup of fine pieces of the brown portion of the crust
of a loaf of whole-wheat bread. Rub all through
a colander, and add salt, a cup of milk, and a half
cup of thin cream. This should make about three
pints of soup.

SPLIT PEA SOUP.—­For each quart of soup
desired, simmer a cupful of split peas very slowly
in three pints of boiling water for six hours, or
until thoroughly dissolved. When done, rub through
a colander, add salt and season with one half cup
of thin cream. Reheat, and when boiling, stir
into it two teaspoonfuls of flour rubbed smooth in
a little cold water. Boil up until thickened,
and serve. If preferred, the cream may be omitted
and the soup flavored with a little celery or onion.

SWEET POTATO SOUP.—­To a pint of cold mashed
sweet potato add a pint and a half of strained stewed
tomato, rub together through a colander, add salt
to season, and half a cup of cream. Reheat and
serve.

Page 208

SWISS POTATO SOUP.—­Pare and cut up into
small pieces, enough white turnips to fill a pint
cup, and cook in a small quantity of water. When
tender, add three pints of sliced potatoes, and let
them boil together until of the consistency of mush.
Add hot water if it has boiled away so that there
is not sufficient to cook the potatoes. When done,
drain, rub through a colander, add a pint and a half
of milk and a cup of thin cream, salt if desired,
and if too thick, a little more milk or a sufficient
quantity of hot water to make it of the proper consistency.
This should be sufficient for two and a half quarts
of soup.

SWISS LENTIL SOUP.—­Cook a pint of brown
lentils in a small quantity of boiling water.
Add to the lentils when about half done, one medium
sized onion cut in halves or quarters. When the
lentils are tender, remove the onion with a fork,
and rub the lentils through a colander. Add sufficient
boiling water to make three pints in all. Season
with salt, reheat to boiling, and thicken the whole
with four table spoonfuls of browned flour, rubbed
to a cream in a little cold water.

TOMATO AND MACARONI SOUP.—­Break a half
dozen sticks of macaroni into small pieces, and drop
into boiling water. Cook for an hour, or until
perfectly tender. Rub two quarts of stewed or
canned tomatoes through a colander, to remove all
seeds and fragments. When the macaroni is done,
drain thoroughly, cut each piece into tiny rings, and
add it to the strained tomatoes. Season with
salt, and boil for a few minutes. If desired,
just before serving add a cup of thin cream, boil up
once, and serve immediately. If the tomato is
quite thin, the soup should be slightly thickened
with a little flour before adding the macaroni.

TOMATO CREAM SOUP.—­Heat two quarts of strained,
stewed tomatoes to boiling; add four tablespoonfuls
of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water.
Let the tomatoes boil until thickened, stirring constantly
that no lumps form; add salt to season. Have
ready two cups of hot rich milk or thin cream.
Add the cream or milk hot, and let all boil together
for a minute or two, then serve.

TOMATO AND OKRA SOUP.—­Take one quart of
okra thinly sliced, and two quarts of sliced tomatoes.
Simmer gently from one to two hours. Rub through
a colander, heat again to boiling, season with salt
and cream if desired, and serve.

Canned okra and tomatoes need only to be rubbed through
a colander, scalded and seasoned, to make a most excellent
soup. If preferred, one or two potatoes may be
sliced and cooked, rubbed through a colander, and
added.

TOMATO SOUP WITH VERMICELLI.—­Cook a cupful
of broken vermicelli in a pint of boiling water for
ten minutes. Turn into a colander to drain.
Have boiling two quarts of strained, stewed tomatoes,
to which add the vermicelli. If preferred, the
tomato may be thickened slightly with a little cornstarch
rubbed smooth in cold water before adding the vermicelli.
Salt to taste, and just before serving turn in a cup
of hot, thin cream. Let all boil up for a moment,
then serve at once.

Page 209

VEGETABLE OYSTER SOUP.—­Scrape all the outer
covering and small rootlets from vegetable oysters,
and lay them in a pan of cold water to prevent discoloration.
The scraping can be done much easier if the roots
are allowed first to stand in cold water for an hour
or so. Slice rather thin, enough to make one
quart, and put to cook in a quart of water. Let
them boil slowly until very tender. Add a pint
of milk, a cup of thin cream, salt, and when boiling,
a tablespoonful or two of flour, rubbed to a cream
with a little milk. Let the soup boil a few minutes
until thickened, and serve.

VEGETABLE SOUP.—­Simmer together slowly
for three or four hours, in five quarts of water,
a quart of split peas, a slice of carrot, a slice
of white turnip, one cup of canned tomatoes, and two
stalks of celery cut into small bits. When done,
rub through a colander, add milk to make of proper
consistency, reheat, season with salt and cream, and
serve.

VEGETABLE SOUP NO. 2.—­Prepare and slice
a pint of vegetable oysters and a pint and a half
of potatoes. Put the oysters to cook first, in
sufficient water to cook both. When nearly done,
add the potatoes and cook all till tender. Rub
through a colander, or if preferred, remove the pieces
of oysters, and rub the potato only through the colander,
together with the water in which the oysters were cooked,
as that will contain all the flavor. Return to
the fire, and add salt, a pint of strained, stewed
tomatoes, and when boiling, the sliced oysters if
desired, a cup of thin cream and a cup of milk, both
previously heated; serve at once.

VEGETABLE SOUP NO. 3.—­Soak a cupful of
white beans over night in cold water. When ready
to cook, put into fresh boiling water and simmer until
tender. When nearly done, add three large potatoes
sliced, two or three slices of white turnip, and one
large parsnip cut in slices. When done, rub through
a colander, add milk or water to make of proper consistency,
season with salt and cream, reheat and serve.
This quantity of material is sufficient for two quarts
of soup.

VEGETABLE SOUP NO. 4.—­Prepare a quart of
bran stock as previously directed. Heat to boiling,
and add to it one teaspoonful of grated carrot, a
slice of onion, and a half cup of tomato. Cook
together in a double boiler for half an hour.
Remove the slice of onion, and add salt and a half
cup of turnip previously cooked and cut in small dice.

VELVET SOUP.—­Pour three pints of hot potato
soup, seasoned to taste, slowly over the well-beaten
yolks of two eggs, stirring briskly to mix the egg
perfectly with the soup. It must not be reheated
after adding the egg. Plain rice or barley soup
may be used in place of potato soup, if preferred.

VERMICELLI SOUP.—­Lightly fill a cup with
broken vermicelli. Turn it into a pint of boiling
water, and cook for ten or fifteen minutes. Drain
off all the hot water and put into cold water for a
few minutes. Turn into a colander and drain again;
add three pints of milk, salt to taste, and heat to
boiling. Have the yolks of three eggs well beaten,
and when the soup is boiling, turn it gradually onto
the eggs, stirring briskly that they may not curdle.
Return to the kettle, reheat nearly to boiling, and
serve at once.

Page 210

VERMICELLI SOUP NO. 2.—­Cook a cupful of
sliced vegetable oysters, a stalk or two of celery,
two slices of onion, a parsnip, and half a carrot
in water just sufficient to cover well. Meanwhile
put a cupful of vermicelli in a quart of milk and
cook in a double boiler until tender. When the
vegetables are done, strain off the broth and add it
to the vermicelli when cooked. Season with salt
and a cup of cream. Beat two eggs light and turn
the boiling soup on the eggs, stirring briskly that
they may not curdle. Reheat if not thickened,
and serve.

WHITE CELERY SOUP.—­Cut two heads of celery
into finger lengths, and simmer in a quart of milk
for half an hour. Remove the pieces of celery
with a skimmer. Thicken the soup with a tablespoonful
of cornstarch braided with a little milk, add salt
if desired, and a teacup of whipped cream.

TABLE TOPICS.

Soup rejoices the stomach,
and disposes it to receive and digest
other food.—­Brillat
Savarin.

To work the head, temperance
must be carried into the
diet.—­Beecher.

To fare well implies the partaking
of such food as does not disagree
with body or mind. Hence
only those fare well who live
temperately.—­Socrates.

The aliments to which the
cook’s art gives a liquid or semi-liquid
form, are in general more
digestible.—­Dictionaire de Medicine.

In the most heroic days of the Grecian
army, their food was the plain and simple produce
of the soil. When the public games of ancient
Greece were first instituted, the athleta, in
accordance with the common dietetic habits of
the people, were trained entirely on vegetable
food.

The eating of much flesh fills
us with a multitude of evil diseases
and multitudes of evil desires.—­Perphyrises,
233 A.D.

No flocks that range
the valley free
To slaughter I condemn;
Taught by the Power
that pities me,
I learn to pity them.
But from the mountain’s
grassy side
A guiltless feast I
bring;
A scrip with herbs and
fruits supplied
And water from the spring.

—­Goldsmith.

BREAKFAST DISHES

A good breakfast is the best capital upon which people
who have real work to do in the world can begin the
day. If the food is well selected and well cooked,
it furnishes both cheer and strength for their daily
tasks. Poor food, or good food poorly prepared,
taxes the digestive powers more than is due, and consequently
robs brain and nerves of vigor. Good food is
not rich food, in the common acceptation of the term;
it is such food as furnishes the requisite nutriment
with the least fatigue to the digestive powers.
It is of the best material, prepared in the best manner,
and with pleasant variety, though it may be very simple.

Page 211

“What to get for breakfast” is one of
the most puzzling problems which the majority of housewives
have to solve. The usually limited time for its
preparation requires that it be something easily and
quickly prepared; and health demands that the bill
of fare be of such articles as require but minimum
time for digestion, that the stomach may have chance
for rest after the process of digestion is complete,
before the dinner hour. The custom of using fried
potatoes or mushes, salted fish or meats, and other
foods almost impossible of digestion, for breakfast
dishes, is most pernicious. These foods set completely
at variance all laws of breakfast hygiene. They
are very difficult of digestion, and the thirst-provoking
quality of salted foods makes them an important auxiliary
to the acquirement of a love of intoxicating drinks.
We feel very sure that, as a prominent temperance
writer says, “It very often happens that women
who send out their loved ones with an agony of prayer
that they may be kept from drink for the day, also
send them with a breakfast that will make them almost
frantic with thirst before they get to the first saloon.”

The foods composing the breakfast menu should
be simple in character, well and delicately cooked,
and neatly served. Fruits and grains and articles
made from them offer the requisites for the ideal breakfast.
These afford ample provision for variety, are easily
made ready, and easily digested, while at the same
time furnishing excellent nutriment in ample quantity
and of the very best quality. Meats, most vegetables,
and compound dishes, more difficult of digestion, are
better reserved for the dinner bill of fare.
No vegetable except the potato is especially serviceable
as a breakfast food, and it is much more readily digested
when baked than when prepared in any other manner.
Stewing requires less time for preparation, but about
one hour longer for digestion.

As an introduction to the morning meal, fresh fruits
are most desirable, particularly the juicy varieties,
as oranges, grape fruit, melons, grapes, and peaches,
some one of which are obtainable nearly the entire
year. Other fruits; such as apples, bananas, pears,
etc., though less suitable, may be used for the
same purpose. They are, however, best accompanied
with wafers or some hard food, to insure their thorough
mastication.

For the second course, some of the various cereals,
oatmeal, rye, corn, barley, rice, or one of the numerous
preparations of wheat, well cooked and served with
cream, together with one or more unfermented breads
(recipes for which have been given in a previous chapter),
cooked fruits, and some simple relishes, are quite
sufficient for a healthful and palatable breakfast.

Page 212

If, however, a more extensive bill of fare is desired,
numerous delicious and appetizing toasts may be prepared
according to the recipes given in this chapter, and
which, because of their simple character and the facility
with which they can be prepared, are particularly suitable
as breakfast dishes. The foundation of all these
toasts is zwieback, or twice-baked bread, prepared
from good whole-wheat or Graham fermented bread cut
in uniform slices not more than a half inch thick,
each slice being divided in halves, placed on tins,
or what is better, the perforated sheets recommended
for baking rolls, and baked or toasted in a slow oven
for a half hour or longer, until it is browned evenly
throughout the entire slice. The zwieback may
be prepared in considerable quantity and kept on hand
in readiness for use. It will keep for any length
of time if stored in a dry place.

Stale bread is the best for making zwieback, but it
should be good, light bread; that which is sour, heavy,
and not fit to eat untoasted, should never be used.
Care must be taken also not to scorch the slices,
as once scorched, it is spoiled. Properly made,
it is equally crisp throughout, and possesses a delicious,
nutty flavor.

Its preparation affords an excellent opportunity for
using the left-over slices of bread, and it may be
made when the oven has been heated for other purposes,
as after the baking of bread, or even during the ordinary
cooking, with little or no additional heat. If
one possesses an Aladdin oven, it can be prepared
to perfection.

Zwieback may also be purchased in bulk, all ready
for use, at ten cents a pound, from the Sanitarium
Food Co., Battle Creek, Mich., and it is serviceable
in so many ways that it should form a staple article
of food in every household.

For the preparation of toasts, the zwieback must be
first softened with some hot liquid, preferably thin
cream. Heat the cream (two thirds of a pint of
cream will be sufficient for six half slices) nearly
to boiling in some rather shallow dish. Put the
slices, two or three at a time, in it, dipping the
cream over them and turning so that both sides will
become equally softened. Keep the cream hot, and
let the slices remain until softened just enough so
that the center can be pierced with a fork, but not
until at all mushy or broken. With two forks or
a fork and a spoon, remove each slice from the hot
cream, draining as thoroughly as possible, and pack
in a heated dish, and repeat the process until as
much zwieback has been softened as desired. Cover
the dish, and keep hot until ready to serve.
Special care should be taken to drain the slices as
thoroughly as possible, that none of them be wet and
mushy. It is better to remove them from the cream
when a little hard than to allow them to become too
soft, as they will soften somewhat by standing after
being packed in the dish. Prepare the sauce for
the toast at the same time or before softening the
slices, and pour into a pitcher for serving.
Serve the slices in individual dishes, turning a small
quantity of the hot sauce over each as served.

Page 213

RECIPES.

APPLE TOAST.—­Fresh, nicely flavored apples
stewed in a small quantity of water, rubbed through,
a colander, sweetened, then cooked in a granite-ware
dish in a slow oven until quite dry, make a nice dressing
for toast. Baked sweet or sour apples rubbed through
a colander to remove cores and skins, are also excellent.
Soften slices of zwieback in hot cream, and serve
with a spoonful or two on each slice. If desired,
the apple may be flavored with a little pineapple or
lemon, or mixed with grape, cranberry, or apricot,
thus making a number of different toasts.

APRICOT TOAST.—­Stew some nice dried apricots
as directed on page 191. When done, rub through
a fine colander to remove all skins and to render
them homogeneous. Add sugar to sweeten, and serve
as a dressing on slices of zwieback which have been
previously softened in hot cream. One half or
two thirds fresh or dried apples may be used with the
apricots, if preferred.

ASPARAGUS TOAST.—­Prepare asparagus as directed
on page 255. When tender, drain off the liquor
and season it with a little cream, and salt if desired.
Moisten nicely browned zwieback in the liquor and lay
in a hot dish; unbind the asparagus, heap it upon
the toast, and serve.

BANANA TOAST.—­Peel and press some nice
bananas through a colander. This may be very
easily done with a potato masher, or if preferred a
vegetable press may be used for the purpose. Moisten
slices of zwieback with hot cream and serve with a
large spoonful of the banana pulp on each slice.
Fresh peaches may be prepared and used on the toast
in the same way.

BERRY TOAST.—­Canned strawberries, blueberries,
and blackberries may be made into an excellent dressing
for toast.

Turn a can of well-kept berries into a colander over
an earthen dish, to separate the juice from the berries.
Place the juice in a porcelain kettle and heat to
boiling. Thicken to the consistency of cream with
flour rubbed smooth in a little water; a tablespoonful
of flour to the pint of juice will be about the right
proportion. Add the berries and boil up just
sufficiently to cook the flour and heat the berries;
serve hot. If cream for moistening the zwieback
is not obtainable, a little juice may be reserved
without thickening, and heated in another dish to
moisten the toast; of if preferred, the fruit may be
heated and poured over the dry zwieback without being
thickened, or it may be rubbed through a colander
as for Apricot Toast.

BERRY TOAST NO. 2.—­Take fresh red or black
raspberries, blueberries, or strawberries, and mash
well with a spoon. Add sugar to sweeten, and
serve as a dressing on slices of zwieback previously
moistened with hot cream.

CELERY TOAST.—­Cut the crisp white portion
of celery into inch pieces, simmer twenty minutes
or half an hour, or until tender, in a very little
water; add salt and a cup of rich milk. Heat to
boiling, and thicken with a little flour rubbed smooth
in a small quantity of milk—­a teaspoonful
of flour to the pint of liquid. Serve hot, poured
over slices of zwieback previously moistened with
cream or hot water.

Page 214

CREAM TOAST.—­For this use good Graham or
whole-wheat zwieback. Have a pint of thin sweet
cream scalding hot, salt it a little if desired, and
moisten the zwieback in it as previously directed packing
it immediately into a hot dish; cover tightly so that
the toast may steam, and serve. The slices should
be thoroughly moistened, but not soft and mushy nor
swimming in cream; indeed, it is better if a little
of the crispness still remains.

CREAM TOAST WITH POACHED EGG.—­Prepare the
cream toast as previously directed, and serve hot
with a well-poached egg on each slice.

CHERRY TOAST.—­Take a quart of ripe cherries;
stem, wash and stew (if preferred the stones may be
removed) until tender but not broken; add sugar to
sweeten, and pour over slices of well-browned dry toast
or zwieback. Serve cold.

GRAVY TOAST.—­Heat a quart and a cupful
of rich milk to boiling, add salt, and stir into it
three scant tablespoonfuls of flour which has been
rubbed to a smooth paste in a little cold milk.
This quantity will be sufficient for about a dozen
slices of toast. Moisten slices of zwieback with
hot water and pack in a heated dish. When serving,
pour a quantity of the cream cause over each slice.

DRY TOAST WITH HOT CREAM.—­Nicely prepared
zwieback served in hot saucers with hot cream poured
over each slice at the table, makes a most delicious
breakfast dish.

GRAPE TOAST.—­Stem well-ripened grapes,
wash well, and scald without water in a double boiler
until broken; rub through a colander to remove sends
and skins, and when cool, sweeten to taste. If
the toast is desired for breakfast, the grapes should
be prepared the day previous. Soften the toast
in hot cream, as previously directed, and pack in a
tureen. Heat the prepared grapes and serve, pouring
a small quantity over each slice of toast. Canned
grapes may be used instead of fresh ones, if desired.

LENTIL TOAST.—­Lentils stewed as directed
for Lentil Gravy on page 226 served as a dressing
on slices of zwieback moistened with hot cream or
water, makes a very palatable toast. Browned flour
may be used to thicken the dressing if preferred.

PRUNE TOAST.—­Cook prunes as directed on
page 191, allowing them to simmer very slowly for
a long time. When done, rub through a colander,
and if quite thin, they should be stewed again for
a time, until they are about the consistency of marmalade.
Moisten slices of zwieback with hot cream, and serve
with a spoonful or two of the prune dressing on each.
One third dried apple may be used with the prune, if
preferred.

PEACH TOAST.—­Stew nice fresh peaches in
a small quantity of water; when tender, rub through
a colander, and if quite juicy, place on the back
of the range where they will cook very slowly until
nearly all the water has evaporated, and the peach
is of the consistency of marmalade. Add sugar
to sweeten, and serve the same as prunes, on slices
of zwieback previously moistened with hot cream.
Canned peaches may be drained from their juice and
prepared in the same manner. Dried or evaporated
peaches may also be used. Toast with dried-peach
dressing will be more delicate in flavor if one third
dried apples be used with the peaches.

Page 215

SNOWFLAKE TOAST.—­Heat to boiling a quart
of milk to which a half cup of cream, and a little
salt have been added. Thicken with a tablespoonful
of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk.
Have ready the whites of two eggs beaten to a stiff
froth; and when the sauce is well cooked, turn a cupful
of it on the beaten egg, stirring well meanwhile so
that it will form a light, frothy mixture, to which
add the remainder of the sauce. If the sauce
is not sufficiently hot to coagulate the albumen,
it may be heated again almost to the boiling point,
but should not be allowed to boil. The sauce should
be of a light, frothy consistency throughout.
Serve as dressing on nicely moistened slices of zwieback.

TOMATO TOAST.—­Moisten slices of zwieback
in hot cream, and serve with a dressing prepared by
heating a pint of strained stewed tomato to boiling,
and thickening with a tablespoonful of corn starch
or flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water.
Season with salt and a half cupful of hot cream.
The cream may be omitted, if preferred.

VEGETABLE OYSTER TOAST.—­Cook a quart of
cleaned, sliced vegetable oysters in a quart of water
until very tender; add a pint and a half of rich milk,
salt to taste, and thicken the whole with two tablespoonfuls
of flour rubbed to a smooth paste with a little milk.
Let it boil for a few minutes, and serve as a dressing
on slices of well-browned toast previously moistened
with hot water or cream.

MISCELLANEOUS BREAKFAST DISHES.

BREWIS.—­Heat a pint of rich milk to boiling,
remove from fire, and beat into it thoroughly and
quickly a cup of very fine stale rye or Graham bread
crumbs. Serve at once with cream.

BLACKBERRY MUSH.—­Rub a pint of canned or
fresh stewed and sweetened blackberries, having considerable
juice, through a fine colander or sieve to remove
the seeds. Add water to make a pint and a half
cupful in all, heat to boiling, and sprinkle into it
a cupful of sifted Graham flour, or sufficient to
make a mush of desired thickness. Cook as directed
for Graham Mush, page 90. Serve hot with cream.

DRY GRANOLA.—­This prepared food, made from
wheat, corn, and oats, and obtainable from the Sanitarium
Food Co., Battle Creek, Mich., forms an excellent
breakfast dish eaten with cold or hot milk and cream.
Wheatena, prepared wholly from wheat; Avenola, made
from oats and wheat; and Gofio, made from parched
grains, all obtainable from the same firm, are each
delicious and suitable foods for the morning meal.

FRUMENTY.—­Wash well a pint of best wheat,
and soak for twenty-four hours in water just sufficient
to cover. Put the soaked wheat in a covered earthen
baking pot or jar, cover well with water, and let it
cook in a very slow oven for twelve hours. This
may be done the day before it is wanted, or if one
has a coal range in which a fire may be kept all night,
or an Aladdin oven, the grain may be started in the
evening and cooked at night. When desired for
use, put in a saucepan with three pints of milk, a
cupful of well-washed Zante currants, and one cup
of seeded raisins. Boil together for a few minutes,
thicken with four tablespoonfuls of flour rubbed smooth
in a little cold milk, and serve.

Page 216

MACARONI WITH RAISINS.—­Break macaroni into
inch lengths sufficient to fill a half-pint cup.
Heat four cups of milk, and when actively boiling,
put in the macaroni and cook until tender. Pour
boiling water over a half cup of raisins, and let
them stand until swelled. Ten or fifteen minutes
before the macaroni is done, add the raisins.
Serve hot with or without the addition of cream.
Macaroni cooked in the various ways as directed in
the chapter on Grains, is also suitable for breakfast
dishes.

MACARONI WITH KORNLET.—­Break macaroni into
inch lengths and cook in boiling milk and water.
Prepare the kornlet by adding to it an equal quantity
of rich milk or thin cream, and thickening with a little
flour, a tablespoonful to the pint. When done,
drain the macaroni, and add the kornlet in the proportion
of a pint of kornlet mixture to one and one half cups
of macaroni. Mix well, turn into an earthen dish,
and brown in a moderate oven. Left-over kornlet
soup, if kept on ice, may be utilized for this breakfast
dish, and the macaroni may be cooked the day before.
Green corn pulp may be used in place of the kornlet.

PEACH MUSH.—­Prepare the same as Blackberry
Mush using very thin peach sauce made smooth by rubbing
through a colander. Freshly stewed or canned
peaches or nicely cooked dried peaches are suitable
for this purpose. Apples and grapes may be likewise
used for a breakfast mush.

RICE WITH LEMON.—­Wash a cup of rice and
turn it into three pints of boiling water, let it
boil vigorously until tender, and turn into a colander
to drain. While still in the colander and before
the rice has become at all cold, dip quickly in and
out of a pan of cold water several times to separate
the grains, draining well afterward. All should
be done so quickly that the rice will not become too
cold for serving; if necessary to reheat, place for
a few moments in a dish in a steamer over a kettle
of boiling water. Serve with a dressing of lemon
previously prepared by cutting two fresh lemons in
thin, wafer-like slices, sprinkling each thickly with
sugar, and allowing them to stand for an hour or more
until a syrup is formed. When the rice is ready
to serve, lay the slices of lemon on top of it, pouring
the syrup over it, and serve with a slice or two of
the lemon for each dish.

TABLE TOPICS.

The lightest breakfast is
the best.—­Oswald.

A NEW NAME FOR BREAKFAST.—­“Tum,
mamma, leth’s go down to tupper,”
said a little toddler to her
mother, one morning, recently.

“Why, we don’t
have supper in the morning,” replied the mother.

“Den leth’s do
down to dinner,” urged the little one.

“But we don’t
have dinner in the morning,” corrected the mother.

“Well, den, leth’s
do down any way,” pleaded the child.

“But try and think what
meal we have in the morning,” urged mamma.

Page 217

“I know,” said
the toddler, brightening up.

“What meal do we have
in the morning?”

“Oatmeal. Tum on;
leth’s do.”—­Sel.

Seneca, writing to a friend
of his frugal fare which he declares
does not cost a sixpence a
day, says:—­

“Do you ask if that can supply
due nourishment? Yes; and pleasure too.
Not indeed, that fleeting and superficial pleasure
which needs to be perpetually recruited, but a
solid and substantial one. Bread and polenta
certainly is not a luxurious feeding, but it is no
little advantage to be able to receive pleasure
from a simple diet of which no change of fortune
can deprive one.”

Breakfast: Come
to breakfast!
Little ones and all,—­
How their merry footsteps
Patter at the call!
Break the bread; pour
freely
Milk that cream-like
flows;
A blessing on their
appetites
And on their lips of
rose.

Dinner may be pleasant
So may the social tea,
But yet, methinks the
breakfast
Is best of all the three.
With its greeting smile
of welcome,
Its holy voice of prayer,
It forgeth heavenly
armor
To foil the hosts of
care.

—­Mrs. Sigourney.

Health is not quoted in the
markets because it is without
price.—­Sel.

It is a mistake to think that
the more a man eats, the fatter and
stronger he will become.—­Sel.

DESSERTS

Custom has so long established the usage of finishing
the dinner with a dessert of some kind, that a menu
is considered quite incomplete without it; and we
shall devote the next few pages to articles which may
be deemed appropriate and healthful desserts, not because
we consider the dessert itself of paramount importance,
for indeed we do not think it essential to life or
even to good living, but because we hope the hints
and suggestions which our space permits, may aid the
housewife in preparing more wholesome, inexpensive
dishes in lieu of the indigestible articles almost
universally used for this purpose.

We see no objection to the use of a dessert, if the
articles offered are wholesome, and are presented
before an abundance has already been taken. As
usually served, the dessert is but a “snare and
delusion” to the digestive organs. Compounded
of substances “rich,” not in food elements,
but in fats, sweets, and spices, and served after enough
has already been eaten, it offers a great temptation
to overeat; while the elements of which it is largely
composed, serve to hamper the digestive organs, to
clog the liver, and to work mischief generally.
At the same time it may be remarked that the preparation
of even wholesome desserts requires an outlay of time
and strength better by far expended in some other
manner. Desserts are quite unnecessary to a good,

Page 218

healthful, nutritious dietary. The simplest of
all desserts are the various nuts and delicious fruits
with which nature has so abundantly supplied us, at
no greater cost than their harmful substitutes, and
which require no expenditure of time or strength in
their preparation. If, however, other forms of
dessert are desired, a large variety may be prepared
in a simple manner, so as to be both pleasing and
appetizing.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

In the preparation of desserts, as in that of all
other foods it is essential that all material used
shall be thoroughly good of its kind. If bread
is to be used, the crumbs should be dry and rather
stale, but on no account use that which is sour or
moldy. Some housekeepers imagine that if their
bread happens to spoil and become sour, although it
is hardly palatable enough for the table, it may be
advantageously used to make puddings. It is indeed
quite possible to combine sour bread with other ingredients
so as to make a pudding agreeable to the palate; but
disguising sour bread makes sweets and flavors by no
means changes it into a wholesome food. It is
better economy to throw sour bread away at once than
to impose it upon the digestive organs at the risk
of health and strength.

Bread which has begun to show appearance of mold should
never be used; for mold is a poison, and very serious
illness has resulted from the eating of puddings made
from moldy bread.

Eggs, to be used for desserts, should always be fresh
and good. Cooks often imagine that an egg too
stale to be eaten in any other way will do very well
for use in cakes and puddings, because it can be disguised
so as not to be apparent to the taste; but stale eggs
are unfit for food, either alone or in combination
with other ingredients. Their use is often the
occasion of serious disturbances of the digestive organs.
Most desserts in which eggs are used will be much
lighter if the yolks and whites are beaten separately.
If in winter, and eggs are scarce, fewer may be used,
and two tablespoonfuls of dry snow for each omitted
egg stirred in the last thing before baking.

Milk, likewise, should always be sweet and fresh.
If it is to be heated, use a double boiler, so that
there will be no danger of scorching. If fresh
milk is not available, the condensed milk found at
the grocer’s is an excellent substitute.
Dissolve according to directions, and follow the recipe
the same as with fresh milk, omitting one half or two
thirds the given amount of sugar.

If dried sweet fruits, raisins, or currants are to
be used, look them over carefully, put them in a colander,
and placing it in a pan of warm water, allow the currants
to remain until plump. This will loosen the dirt
which, while they are shriveled, sticks in the creases,
and they may then be washed by dipping the colander
in and out of clean water until they are free from
sediment; rinse in two waters, then spread upon a
cloth, and let them get perfectly dry before using.

Page 219

It is a good plan, after purchasing raisins and currants,
to wash and dry a quantity, and store in glass cans
ready for use. To facilitate the stoning of raisins,
put them into a colander placed in a dish of warm
water until plump; then drain, when the seeds can be
easily removed.

For desserts which are to be molded, always wet the
molds in cold water before pouring in the desserts.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FLAVORING, ETC.

TO PREPARE ALMOND PASTE.—­Blanch the nuts
according to directions given on page 215. Allow
them to dry thoroughly, and pound in a mortar to a
smooth paste. They can be reduced much easier
if dried for a day or two after blanching. During
the pounding, sprinkle with a few drops of cold water,
white of egg, rose water, or lemon juice, to prevent
them from oiling.

COCOANUT FLAVOR.—­Cocoanut, freshly grated
or desiccated, unless in extremely fine particles,
is a very indigestible substance, and when its flavor
is desired for custards, puddings, etc., it is
always better to steep a few tablespoonfuls in a pint
of milk for twenty minutes or a half hour, and strain
out the particles. The milk should not be allowed
to boil, as it will be likely to curdle. One tablespoonful
of freshly grated cocoanut or two of the desiccated
will give a very pleasant and delicate flavor; and
if a more intense flavor is desired, use a larger
quantity.

ORANGE AND LEMON FLAVOR.—­Orange or lemon
flavor may be obtained by steeping a few strips of
the yellow part of the rind of lemon or orange in
milk for twenty minutes. Skim out the rind before
using for desserts. Care should be taken to use
only the yellow part, as the white will impart a bitter
flavor. The grated rind may also be used for flavoring,
but in grating the peel, one must be careful to grate
very lightly, and thus use only the outer yellow portion,
which contains the essential oil of the fruit.
Grate evenly, turning and working around the lemon,
using as small a surface of the grater as possible,
in order to prevent waste. Generally, twice across
the grater and back will be sufficient for removing
all the yellow skin from one portion of a lemon.
A well-grated lemon should be of exactly the same
shape as before, with no yellow skin remaining, and
no deep scores into the white. Remove the yellow
pulp from the grater with a fork.

TO COLOR SUGAR.—­For ornamenting the meringues
of puddings and other desserts, take a little of the
fresh juice of cranberries, red raspberries, currants,
black raspberries, grapes, or other colored juices
of fruits, thicken it stiff with the sugar, spread
on a plate to dry, or use at one. It may be colored
yellow with orange peel strained through a cloth,
or green with the juice of spinach. Sugar prepared
in this manner is quite as pretty and much more wholesome
than the colored sugars found in market, which are
often prepared with poisonous chemicals.

FRUIT DESSERTS.

Page 220

RECIPES.

APPLE DESSERT.—­Pare some large tart apples,
remove the cores, put into the cavities a little quince
jelly, lemon flavored sugar, or grated pineapple and
sugar, according to the flavor desired. Have as
many squares of bread with the crust taken off as
there are apples, and place a filled apple on each
piece of bread, on earthen pie plates; moisten well
with a little quince jelly dissolved in water, lemon
juice, or pineapple juice, according to the filling
used. Cover closely, and bake in a rather quick
oven till the apples are tender. Serve with whipped
cream and sugar.

APPLE MERINGUE DESSERT.—­Pare and core enough
tart, easy-cooking apples to make a quart when stewed.
Cover closely and cook slowly till perfectly tender,
when they should be quite dry. Mash through a
colander, add a little sugar and a little grated pineapple
or lemon peel. Beat light with a silver fork,
turn into a pudding dish, and brown in a moderate
oven ten or fifteen minutes. Then cover with a
meringue made with two tablespoonfuls of sugar and
the beaten whites of two eggs, and return to the oven
for a moment to brown. Serve cold.

APPLE ROSE CREAM.—­Wash, core, slice, and
cook without paring, a dozen fresh snow apples until
very dry. When done, rub through a colander to
remove the skins, add sugar to sweeten, and the whites
of two eggs; beat vigorously with an egg beater until
stiff, add a teaspoonful of rose water for flavoring,
and serve at once, or keep on ice. It is especially
important that the apples be very dry, otherwise the
cream will not be light. If after rubbing through
the colander, there is still much juice, they should
be cooked again until it has evaporated; or they may
be turned into a jelly bag and drained. Other
varieties of apple may be used, and flavored with pineapple
or vanilla. Made as directed of snow apples or
others with white flesh and red skins, the cream should
be of a delicate pink color, making a very dainty
as well as delicious dessert.

APPLE SNOW.—­Pare and quarter some nice
tart apples. Those that when cooked will be whitest
in color are best. Put them into a china dish,
and steam until tender over a kettle of boiling water.
When done, rub through a colander or beat with a fork
until smooth, add sugar to sweeten and a little grated
lemon rind, and beat again. For every cup and
a half of the prepared apple allow the white of one
egg, which beat to a stiff froth, adding the apple
to it a little at a time, beating all together until,
when taken up in a spoon, it stands quite stiff.
Serve cold, with or without a simple custard prepared
with a pint of hot milk, a tablespoonful of sugar,
and the yolks of two eggs.

BAKED APPLES WITH CREAM.—­Pare some nice
juicy sweet apples, and remove the cores without dividing.
Bake until tender in a covered dish with a spoonful
or two of water on the bottom. Serve with whipped
cream. Or, bake the apples without paring and
when done, remove the skins, and serve in the same
manner. The cream may be flavored with a little
lemon or rose if desired. Lemon apples and Citron
apples, prepared as directed on pages 186 and 187,
make a most delicious dessert served with whipped
cream and sugar, or with mock cream flavored with cocoanut.

Page 221

BAKED SWEET APPLE DESSERT.—­Wash and remove
the cores from a dozen medium-sized sweet apples,
and one third as many sour ones, and bake until well
done. Mash through a colander to make smooth and
remove the skins. Put into a granite-ware dish,
smooth the top with a knife, return to the oven and
bake very slowly until dry enough to keep its shape
when cut. Add if desired a meringue made by heating
the white of one egg with a tablespoonful of sugar.
Cut into squares, and serve in individual dishes.
The meringue may be flavored with lemon or dotted with
bits of colored sugar.

BANANAS IN SYRUP.—­Heat in a porcelain kettle
a pint of currant and red raspberry juice, equal parts,
sweetened to taste. When boiling, drop into it
a dozen peeled bananas, and simmer very gently for
twenty minutes. Remove the bananas, boil the
juice until thickened to the consistency of syrup,
and pour over the fruit. Serve cold.

FRESH FRUIT COMPOTE.—­Flavor three tablespoonfuls
of sugar by mixing with it a little of the grated
yellow rind of an orange, or by rubbing it over the
orange to extract the oil. If the latter method
is used, the square lump sugar will be preferable.
Pare, quarter, and slice three medium-sized tart apples.
Peel, remove the seeds, and cut in quite fine pieces
three oranges. Put the fruit in alternate layers
in a glass dish. Sweeten a cupful of fresh or
canned raspberry juice with the flavored sugar, and
turn it over the fruit. Put the dish on ice to
cool for a half hour before serving.

GRAPE APPLES.—­Sweeten a pint of fresh grape
juice with a pint of sugar, and simmer gently until
reduced one third. Pare and core without dividing,
six or eight nice tart apples, and stew very slowly
in the grape juice until tender, but not broken.
Remove the apples and boil the juice (if any remain)
until thickened to the consistency of syrup. Serve
cold with a dressing of whipped cream. Canned
grape pulp or juice may be utilized for this purpose.
Sweet apples may be used instead of tart ones, and
the sugar omitted.

PEACH CREAM.—­Pare and stone some nice yellow
peaches, and mash with a spoon or press through a
colander with a potato masher. Allow equal quantities
of the peach pulp and cream, add a little sugar to
sweeten, and beat all together until the cream is light.
Serve in saucers or glasses with currant buns.
A banana cream may be prepared in the same manner.

PRUNE DESSERT.—­Prepare some prune marmalade
as directed on page 191. Put in a square granite-ware
dish, which place inside another dish containing hot
water, and cook it in a slow oven until the marmalade
is dry enough to retain its shape when cut with a
knife. If desired add a meringue as for baked
sweet apple dessert, dotting the top with pink sugar.
Serve in squares in individual dishes.

Page 222

DESSERTS MADE OF FRUIT WITH GRAINS, BREAD, ETC.

RECIPES.

APPLE SANDWICH.—­Mix half a cup of sugar
with the grated yellow rind of half a lemon.
Stir half a cup of cream into a quart of soft bread
crumbs; prepare three pints of sliced apples, sprinkled
with the sugar; fill a pudding dish with alternate
layers of moistened crumbs and sliced apples, finishing
with a thick layer of crumbs. Unless the apples
are very juicy, add half a cup of cold water, and unless
quite tart, have mixed with the water the juice of
half a lemon. Cover and bake about one hour.
Remove the cover toward the last, that the top may
brown lightly. Serve with cream. Berries
or other acid fruits may be used in place of apples,
and rice or cracked wheat mush substituted for bread
crumbs.

APPLE SANDWICH NO. 2.—­Prepare and stew
some apples as for sauce, allowing them to become
quite dry; flavor with lemon, pineapples, quince,
or any desired flavor. Moisten slices of zwieback
in hot cream as for toast. Spread a slice with
the apple mixture, cover with a second slice of the
moistened zwieback, then cut in squares and serve,
with or without a dressing of mock cream. If
desired to have the sandwiches particularly dainty,
cut the bread from which the zwieback is prepared
in rounds, triangles, or stars before toasting.

BAKED APPLE PUDDING.—­Pour boiling water
over bread crumbs; when soft, squeeze out all the
water, and line the bottom and sides of an oiled earthen
pudding dish with the crumbs. Fill the interior
with sliced apples, and cover with a layer of bread
crumbs. Bake in a covered dish set in a pan of
hot water, until the apples are tender; then remove
the cover and brown. Loosen the pudding with a
knife, invert on a plate, and it will turn out whole.
Serve with sugar and cream.

BARLEY FRUIT PUDDING.—­Mix together a pint
of cold, well steamed pearl barley, a cup of finely
minced tart apples, three fourths of a cup of chopped
and seeded raisins, a third of a cup of sugar, and
a cup of boiling water and turn into a pudding dish;
cover, and place the dish in the oven in a pan of
hot water, and bake slowly an hour and a half, or
until the water has become quite absorbed and the fruit
tender. Serve warm with a water, adding sugar
to taste, and thickening with a half teaspoonful of
cornstarch. Any tart fruit jelly may be used,
or the pudding may be served with cream and sugar
flavored with a little grated lemon rind.

BARLEY FIG PUDDING.—­One pint of well-steamed
pearl barley, two cups of finely chopped best figs,
one half cup of sugar, one half cup of thin sweet
cream, and one and one half cups of fresh milk.
Mix all thoroughly, turn into an earthen pudding dish;
place it in the oven in a pan half full of hot water,
and bake slowly till the milk is nearly absorbed.
The pudding should be stirred once or twice during
the baking, so that the figs will be distributed evenly,
instead of rising to the top.

Page 223

BLACKBERRY CORNSTARCH PUDDING.—­Take two
quarts of well-ripened blackberries which have been
carefully looked over, put them into a granite-ware
boiler with half a cup of water, and stew for twenty
minutes. Add sugar to sweeten, and three heaping
tablespoonfuls of cornstarch rubbed to a cream with
a little cold water. Cook until thickened, pour
into molds, and cool. Serve cold with milk or
cream. Other fresh or canned berries may be used
in the same way.

COCOANUT AND CORNSTARCH BLANCMANGE.—­Simmer
two tablespoonfuls of desiccated cocoanut in a pint
of milk for twenty minutes, and strain through a fine
sieve. If necessary, add more cold milk to make
a full pint. Add a tablespoonful of sugar, heat
to boiling, and stir in gradually two tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a very little cold
milk. Cook five minutes, turn into cups, and serve
cold with fruit sauce or cream.

CORNSTARCH BLANCMANGE.—­Stir together two
tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, half a cup of sugar,
the juice and a little of the grated rind of one lemon;
braid the whole with cold water enough to dissolve
well. Then pour boiling water over the mixture,
stirring meanwhile, until it becomes transparent.
Allow it to bubble a few minutes longer, pour into
molds, and serve cold with cream and sugar.

CORNSTARCH WITH RAISINS.—­Measure out one
pint of rich milk. Rub two tablespoonfuls of
cornstarch perfectly smooth with a little of the milk,
and heat the remainder to boiling, adding to it a tablespoonful
of sugar. Add the braided cornstarch, and let
it cook until it thickens, stirring constantly.
Then add a half cup of raisins which have been previously
steamed. This may be served hot with sugar and
cream, or turned into cups and molded, and served
cold with lemon, orange, or other fruit sauce for
dressing.

CORNSTARCH WITH APPLES.—­Prepare the cornstarch
as in the preceding recipe, omitting the raisins.
Place in a pudding dish some lemon apple sauce, without
juice, about two inches deep. Pour the cornstarch
over it, and serve hot or cold with cream.

CORNSTARCH FRUIT MOLD.—­Heat a quart of
strawberry, raspberry, or currant juice, sweetened
to taste, to boiling. If the pure juice of berries
is used, it may be diluted with one cup of water to
each pint and a half of juice. Stir in four tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch well braided with a little of the juice
reserved for this purpose. Boil until the starch
is well cooked, stirring constantly. Pour into
molds previously wet with cold water, and cool.
Serve with cream and sugar. A circle of fresh
berries around the mold when served adds to its appearance.

CORNSTARCH FRUIT MOLD NO. 2.—­Wash, stone,
and stew some nice French prunes, add sugar to sweeten,
and if there is not an abundance of juice, a little
boiling water. For every one fourth pound of prunes
there should be enough juice to make a pint in all,
for which add two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch, rubbed
smooth in a little cold water, and boil three or four
minutes. Pour into cups previously wet in cold
water, and mold. Serve cold with whipped cream.
Other dried or canned fruits, as apricots, peaches,
cherries, etc., may be used in place of prunes,
if preferred.

Page 224

CRACKED-WHEAT PUDDING.—­A very simple pudding
may be made with two cups of cold, well-cooked cracked
wheat, two and a half cups of milk, and one half cup
of sugar. Let the wheat soak in the milk till
thoroughly mixed and free from lumps, then add the
sugar and a little grated lemon peel, and bake about
three fourths of an hour in a moderate oven.
It should be of a creamy consistency when cold, but
will appear quite thin when taken from the oven.
By flavoring the milk with cocoanut, a different pudding
may be produced. Rolled or pearl wheat may be
used for this pudding. A cupful of raisins may
be added if desired.

CRACKED-WHEAT PUDDING NO. 2.—­Four and one
half cups of milk, a very scant half cup of cracked
wheat, one half cup of sugar; put together in a pudding
dish, and bake slowly with the dish covered and set
in a pan of hot water for three or four hours, or until
the wheat is perfectly tender, as may be ascertained
by dipping a few grains with a spoon out from the
side of the dish.

FARINA BLANCMANGE.—­Heat a quart of milk,
reserving one half cup, to boiling. Then add
two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and four heaping tablespoonfuls
of farina, previously moistened with the reserved half
cup of milk. Let all boil rapidly for a few minutes
till the farina has well set, then place in a double
boiler, or a dish set in a pan of boiling water, to
cook an hour longer. Mold in cups previously wet
with cold water. Serve with sugar and cream flavored
with vanilla or a little grated lemon rind, mock cream,
or cocoanut sauce.

Much variety may be given this simple dessert by serving
it with a dressing of fruit juices; red raspberry,
strawberry, grape, current, cranberry, cherry, and
plum are all very good. If desired, the milk with
which the blancmange is prepared may be first flavored
with cocoanut, thus making a different blancmange.
Fresh fruit, as sliced banana, blueberries, or strawberries,
lightly stirred in just before molding, make other
excellent varieties.

FARINA FRUIT MOLD.—­Put a quart of well-sweetened
red raspberry juice into the inner cup of a double
boiler. Heat to boiling, and stir in four heaping
tablespoonfuls of farina first moistened with a little
of the juice. Boil up until thickened, then set
into the outer boiler, the water in which should be
boiling, and cook for one hour. Pour into molds
previously wet in cold water, and cool. Serve
with whipped cream or mock cream. Currant, strawberry,
cherry, or blackberry juice may be used instead of
raspberry. If water be added to dilute the juice,
a little more farina will be needed.

FRUIT PUDDING.—­Measure out one quart of
rich new milk, reserving half a pint to wet five large
rounded tablespoonfuls of sifted flour. Add to
the milk one even cup of sugar, turn in the flour mixture
and heat to boiling in a farina kettle, stirring all
the while to prevent lumps, and cook till it thickens,
which will be about ten minutes after it begins to
boil. Remove from the stove, and beat while it
is cooling. When cool, add sliced bananas or
whole strawberries, whortleberries, raspberries, blackberries,
sliced apricots, or peaches. Serve cold.

Page 225

JAM PUDDING.—­Make a jam by mashing well
some fresh raspberries or blueberries and sweetening
to taste. Spread over slices of fresh, light
bread or buns, and pile in layers one above another
in a pudding dish. Pour over the layers enough
rich milk or thin cream heated to scalding, to moisten
the whole. Turn a plate over the pudding, place
a weight upon it, and press lightly till cold.
Cut in slices, and serve with or without a cream dressing.

PLAIN FRUIT PUDDING OR BROWN BETTY.—­Chop
together one part seeded raisins and two parts good
tart apples. Fill a pudding dish with alternate
layers of the fruit and bread crumbs, finishing with
the bread crumbs on top. Unless the apples are
very juicy, moisten the whole with a tablespoonful
of lemon juice in a cup of cold water, for a pudding
filling a three-pint dish. Cover the dish and
place it in a moderate oven in a pan of hot water,
and bake nearly an hour; then remove from the pan,
uncover, and brown nicely. Serve warm with cream
and sugar, or with an orange or lemon sauce.
Seeded cherries may be used in place of the apples
and raisins. In that case, each layer of fruit
should be sprinkled lightly with sugar, and the water
omitted.

PRUNE PUDDING.—­Moisten rather thin slices
of stale bread in hot milk and place in a pudding
dish with alternate layers of stewed prunes from which
the stones have been removed, finishing with bread
on top. Pour over the whole a little more hot
milk or pure juice or both, and bake in a moderate
over three fourths of an hour. Serve hot or cold
with orange or lemon sauce.

RICE MERINGUE.—­Steam a cupful of rice as
directed on page 99 until tender and dry. Heap
it loosely on a glass dish, and dot with squares of
cranberry or currant jelly. Beat with the whites
of two eggs to a stiff froth with one third cup of
sugar, and pile it roughly over the rice. Serve
with cream.

RICE SNOWBALL.—­Wash a cupful of good rice
and steam until half done. Have pared and cored
without dividing, six large, easy cooking tart apples.
Put a clean square of cheese cloth over a plate, place
the apples on it, and fill them and all the interstices
between with rice. Put the remainder of the rice
over and around the apples; tie up the cloth, and
cook in a kettle of boiling water until the apples
are tender. When done, lift from the water and
drain well, untie the cloth, invert the pudding upon
a plate and remove the cloth. Serve hot with
cream and sugar or cocoanut sauce.

RICE FRUIT DESSERT.—­Cold boiled rice, molded
so that it can be sliced, may be utilized in making
a variety of delicious desserts. A nice pudding
may be prepared by filling a dish with alternate layers
of half-inch slices of molded rice and grated tart
raw apples the same thickness. Grate a little
lemon rind over each layer. Cover, and place
in the oven in a pan of boiling water, and bake for
an hour. Serve with sugar and cream. Stoned
cherries or peaches may be used instead of the apple.

Page 226

RICE DUMPLING.—­Steam a teacup of rice until
tender, and line an oiled earthen pudding dish, pressing
it up around the sides and over the bottom. Fill
the crust thus made with rather tart apples cut in
small slices; cover with rice, and steam until the
apples are tender, which may be determined by running
a broom-straw through them. Let stand until cold,
then turn from the dish, and serve with sugar and cream.
Any easy cooking tart fruit, as stoned cherries, gooseberries,
etc., may be used in place of the apples when
preferred.

RICE CREAM PUDDING.—­Take one cup of good
well-washed rice, one scant cup of sugar, and eight
cups of new milk, with a little grated lemon rind
for flavoring. Put all into an earthen pudding
dish, and place on the top of the range. Heat
very slowly until the milk is boiling, stirring frequently,
so that the rice shall not adhere to the bottom of
the dish. Then put into a moderately hot oven,
and bake without stirring, till the rice is perfectly
tender, which can be ascertained by dipping a spoon
in one side and taking out a few grains. It should
be, when cold, of a rich, creamy consistency, with
each grain of rice whole. Serve cold. It
is best if made the day before it is needed.
If preferred, the milk may be first flavored with cocoanut,
according to the directions given on page 298.

RICE PUDDING WITH RAISINS.—­Wash thoroughly
one half cup of rice, and soak for two hours in warm
water. Drain off the water, add two tablespoonfuls
of sugar, one half cup of raisins, and four cups of
milk. Put in an earthen pudding dish and cook
for two hours in a moderate oven, stirring once or
twice before the rice begins to swell, then add a
cup of hot milk, and cook for an hour longer.

RED RICE MOLD.—­Take one and one half pints
of red currants and one half pint of red raspberries,
and follow directions on page 209 for extracting their
juice. The juice may be diluted with one part
water to two of juice if desired. Sweeten to
taste, and for each pint when boiling stir in two
tablespoonfuls of ground rice or rice flour rubbed
smooth in a little of the juice which may be retained
for the purpose. Pour into molds, cool, and serve
with whipped cream.

RICE AND FRUIT DESSERT.—­Steam a cup of
good well-washed rice in milk till tender. Prepare
some tart apples by paring, dividing midway between
the stem and blow ends, and removing the cores.
Fill the cavities with quince or pineapple jelly;
put the apples in a shallow stewpan with a half cup
of water, cover, and steam till nearly tender.
Put the rice, which should be very moist, around the
bottom and sides of a pudding dish; place the apples
inside, cover, and bake ten minutes. Serve with
cream flavored with quince or lemon.

Page 227

RICE AND TAPIOCA PUDDING.—­Soak one half
cup of tapioca over night in a cup of water; in the
morning drain off the water if any remains. Add
to the tapioca half a cup of rice, one cup of sugar,
one cup of raisins, and eight cups of new milk, with
a little grated lemon rind for flavoring. Put
all in an earthen pudding dish on the top of the range,
where it will heat very gradually to the boiling point,
stirring frequently. When the milk boils, put
the pudding in the oven, and bake till the rice grains
are perfectly tender but not broken and mushy.
From twenty minutes to half an hour is usually sufficient.
When taken from the oven, it will appear quite thin,
but after cooling will be of a delicious, creamy consistency.
Serve cold.

RICE-FLOUR MOLD.—­Braid two tablespoonfuls
of rice flour with a little milk and stir the mixture
into a pint of boiling milk to which has been added
three tablespoonfuls of sugar, and a little salt if
desired. Let this boil until it thickens, then
mold, and serve with cream and sugar or with lemon,
orange, or other fruit sauce.

RICE AND STEWED APPLE DESSERT.—­Steam or
bake some rice in milk until tender, sweeten slightly
and spread a layer of the rice half an inch thick
on the bottom of a pudding dish, then a layer of lemon-flavored
apple sauce, which has been rubbed through a colander
and afterward simmered on the range until stiff.
If preferred, the sauce may be prepared by first baking
the apples, and then rubbing the pulp through a colander.
Add another layer of rice, then one of sauce, and so
on until the dish is full. Bake in a moderate
oven and serve hot. If the apples are not very
tart, part stewed and sifted cranberries may be used
with them.

RICE AND STRAWBERRY DESSERT.—­Soak a cup
of rice in one and a half cups of new milk; place
all in an earthen dish, and steam an hour, or until
dry and tender, stirring occasionally for the first
fifteen minutes. When the rice is done, place
in the bottom of cups previously moistened with cold
water, five nice hulled strawberries in the shape of
a star. Carefully fill the interstices between
the berries with the cooked rice, and put in a layer
of rice. Add next a layer of strawberries, then
another of rice. Press firmly into the cups, and
set away to cool. When well molded, turn into
saucers, and pile whipped cream around each mold;
sprinkle with sugar and serve.

A little care in forming the stars and filling the
molds makes this a delicious and pretty dessert.
If preferred, the dessert may be prepared in one large
mold, and a larger number of berries arranged in the
form of a cross in the bottom of the dish, covering
with rice, and adding as many alternate layers of
berries and rice as desired.

Page 228

STEWED FRUIT PUDDING.—­Take a deep, square
or oblong granite-ware or earthen dish; cut strips
of stale bread uniformly an inch in width and three
fourths of an inch in thickness, and place them in
the mold with spaces between them equal to their width.
Or, fit the strips around the bottom of a round, earthen
pudding dish, like the spokes of a wheel, with stewed
or canned fruit, sweetened to taste; whortleberries
are best, but apricots, cherries, currants, strawberries,
and gooseberries may all be used. Separate the
juice from the berries by turning them into a colander.
Fill the interstices between the bread with hot fruit,
using just as little juice as possible. Cover
with another layer, this time placing the strips of
bread over the fruit in the first layer, and leaving
the spaces for fruit over the bread in the first layer.
Fill the dish with these layers of fruit and bread,
and when full, pour over all the hot fruit juice.
Put a plate with a weight on it on the top to press
it firmly. Dip off any juice that may be pressed
out, and set the pudding in the refrigerator to cool
and press. When cold, it will turn out whole,
and can be cut in slices and served with whipped cream
or cocoanut sauce.

STRAWBERRY MINUTE PUDDING.—­Cook a quart
of ripe strawberries in a pint of water till well
scalded. Add sugar to taste. Skim out the
fruit, and into the boiling juice stir a scant cup
of granulated wheat flour previously rubbed to a paste
with a little cold water; cook fifteen or twenty minutes,
pour over the fruit, and serve cold with cream sauce.

SWEET APPLE PUDDING.—­Pare, core, and slice
enough ripe, juicy sweet apples to fill a pint bowl.
Heat a quart of new milk to scalding in a double boiler.
Pour it hot over one cup of good granulated cornmeal,
and beat very thoroughly to remove all lumps.
Return to the double boiler, and cook until the meal
is set. The batter then should be about the consistency
of corn mush. Remove from the fire, add a pint
of cold milk, stir in the sliced apples, one third
of a cup of sugar or molasses, and a teaspoonful of
flour rubbed smooth in a very little milk. Turn
all into a deep earthen crock or pudding dish, and
bake slowly from three to four hours, stirring frequently
the first hour. It should be moderately browned
on top when done. Serve warm or cold.

WHORTLEBERRY PUDDING.—­One quart of new
milk, one quart of fine bread crumbs, two quarts of
fresh whortleberries, one or two tablespoonfuls of
sugar. Heat the milk to boiling; fill a pudding
dish with alternate layers of bread crumbs and berries,
beginning and ending with crumbs. Add the sugar
to the milk, let it dissolve, and pour the whole over
the pudding. Cover closely, and bake in a slow
oven within a pan of hot water nearly an hour.
Serve warm with cream or cocoanut sauce.

DESSERTS WITH TAPIOCA, SAGO, MONICA, AND SEA MOSS.

Page 229

Both pearl and flake tapioca are suitable for these
desserts. They should be soaked for some hours
before using, and it is always best to soak over night
if convenient. The flake tapioca requires longer
soaking and cooking than the pearl tapioca. For
soaking, use one and a half cups of water for each
cup of flake tapioca, and one pint of water for a cup
of pearl tapioca. For cooking, three or four additional
cups of water will be required for each cup of tapioca,
depending upon, the articles used with it. A
double boiler should be used for the cooking.

RECIPES.

APPLE TAPIOCA.—­Soak a cupful of pearl tapioca
over night. In the morning simmer in a quart
of boiling water until transparent and thickened.
Arrange in the bottom of a pudding dish four or five
good-sized tart apples, which have been pared, cored,
and the cavities filled with sugar. Squeeze the
juice of a lemon and grate a very little of the rind
over the apples. Pour the tapioca over the fruit.
Set the dish inside a pan filled with hot water, cover,
and bake one hour, or until the apples are done.
Serve with sugar and cream. It is best nearly
cold. Fresh peaches, pared and stewed, may be
used in place of apples, if preferred.

APPLE TAPIOCA NO. 2.—­Soak a half cup of
tapioca in a cap of tepid water, for at least three
hours. Pare, core, and quarter nice tart apples
to fill a two-quart pudding dish nearly half full.
Add four cups of water and one of sugar to the soaked
tapioca, pour it over the apples, and bake two or
three hours in a slow oven. Serve with whipped
cream.

BANANA DESSERT.—­Soak a cup of tapioca over
night. In the morning cook in a double boiler
in a quart of water until transparent. When done,
add a cup of sugar and three or four sliced bananas.
Serve cold with cream.

BLACKBERRY TAPIOCA.—­Soak a cup of tapioca
over night. When ready to cook, add three cups
of boiling water and cook in a double boiler until
transparent and smooth. Sprinkle a quart of fresh
blackberries with sugar, and stir lightly into the
tapioca. Pour into molds and serve cold with
cream and sugar. Other fresh berries may be used
in the same way.

CHERRY PUDDING.—­Soak and cook a half cup
of tapioca in a pint of water until transparent.
Have a pint of fresh pitted cherries in an earthen
pudding dish. Sprinkle them well with sugar, pour
over them the cooked tapioca, and bake for an hour
in a moderate oven. Serve hot with or without
cream.

FRUIT TAPIOCA.—­Cook three fourths of a
cup of tapioca in four cups of water until smooth
and transparent Stir into it lightly a pint of fresh
strawberries, raspberries, currants, or any small fruit,
adding sugar as required. For variety a cup of
canned quinces or apricots may be substituted for
fresh fruit. Serve warm or cold with whipped cream
or mock cream.

Page 230

MOLDED TAPIOCA WITH FRUIT.—­Simmer one half
cup of desiccated cocoanut in a pint of milk for twenty
minutes. Strain out the cocoanut, and add milk
to make a full pint. Add one half cup of sugar
and one half cup of tapioca previously soaked over
night. Let the whole simmer until the tapioca
is transparent. Dip some cups in cold water, drain,
and lay fresh strawberries, currants, or cherries
in the bottom of each in the form of a star or cross.
Pour the tapioca into the molds gently, so as not
to displace the fruit. When cold, turn out and
serve with whipped cream or fruit sauce. Raisins
may be substituted for fresh fruit, or bits of jelly
may be placed around the mold after it has cooled,
if preferred.

PINEAPPLE TAPIOCA.—­Soak one cup of tapioca
over night in one and one half cups of water.
Add two and one half cups of water and cook in a double
boiler until transparent, then add one cup of sugar
and one juicy pineapple minced fine with a sharp knife.
Mold, and serve cold with or without cream.

PRUNE AND TAPIOCA PUDDING.—­Soak one half
cup of tapioca over night. In the morning cook
until transparent in two cups of water. Stew
two cups of well-washed and stoned prunes in a quart
of water till perfectly tender; then add the juice
of a good lemon and two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and
boil till the syrup becomes thick and rich. Turn
the prunes into a pudding dish, cover with the cooked
tapioca, and add a little grated lemon rind. Bake
lightly. Serve without dressing or with sugar
and cream or almond sauce. If preferred, the
prunes and tapioca may be placed in the dish in alternate
layers, having the top one of tapioca.

TAPIOCA AND FIG PUDDING.—­Cook three fourths
of a cup of tapioca as for Apple Tapioca. Have
ready two cups of finely sliced or chopped tart apples,
and one cup of chopped figs, which have first been
lightly steamed. If preferred, raisins may be
used in place of half the figs. Put the fruit
in the bottom of the pudding dish, turn the tapioca
over it, and bake till the fruit is very soft.
If the apples are not very tart, sprinkle the juice
of a lemon over them before adding the figs and tapioca.

A nice fruit pudding can also be made by using half
canned pears and half apples, or canned quinces may
be substituted for figs.

PEACH TAPIOCA.—­For this will be needed
a quart of nicely canned peaches, a cup of tapioca,
and from one half to three fourths of a cup of sugar,
according to the sweetness of the peaches. Soak
the tapioca over night in just enough water to cover.
When ready to cook, put in a double boiler with three
cups of water, and cook for an hour. Remove from
the fire and add to it the juice from the peaches,
of which there should be a cup and a half, which has
been secured by draining the peaches in a colander,
and stir it well into the tapioca. Place a layer
of this mixture in an oiled pudding dish, add the peaches,
cover with the remainder of the tapioca, and bake
for an hour in a moderate oven.

Page 231

TAPIOCA JELLY.—­Soak a cup of tapioca in
a pint of water over night. Add another pint
and cook until transparent and smooth. Add three
tablespoonfuls of lemon juice and four tablespoonfuls
of sugar; beat well together and tun into molds.
Serve cold. No dressing is required. This
may be varied by using unsweetened currant, grape,
or other acid fruit juice in place of lemon.
Fruit jelly may be used if the juice is not easily
obtained. Add when the tapioca is well cooked,
and stir until dissolved.

APPLE SAGO PUDDING.—­Soak one cup of sago
in six cups of water; stew ten small apples, mix with
the sago, and bake three quarters of an hour.
Serve with cream and sugar. It is better warm
than cold, but acceptable either way.

RED SAGO MOLD.—­Take a quart of red raspberry
juice, pure or diluted with one third water, and sweeten
to taste. Have ready one half cup of best sago
which has soaked for twenty minutes in just enough
water to cover. Drain off any water that may remain.
Add the sago to the juice, and cook until the sago
is transparent, then turn into molds. Serve cold
with cream. Cranberry or strawberry juice may
be used in place of the raspberry, if preferred.

SAGO FRUIT PUDDING.—­Soak a small cup of
sago an hour in just enough water to cover. Drain
off any water that may not be absorbed. Mix two
thirds of a cup of sugar with this sago, and stir all
into a quart of boiling water. Let it boil until
the sago is perfectly transparent and pour in a pint
of nicely hulled strawberries. Turn into molds
to cool, or serve warm with cream, as preferred.
Tapioca can be used instead of sago, but needs longer
soaking. Raspberries, stoned cherries, or currants
can be used in place of strawberries.

SAGO PUDDING.—­Soak a cupful of sago for
twenty minutes in a cup of cold water; then pour over
it a quart and a cup of boiling water, add a cup of
sugar and one half cup of raisins. Cook till the
sago is perfectly transparent, flavor with vanilla,
and set away to cool. Serve with whipped cream.

MANIOCA WITH FRUIT.—­Pare, core, and quarter
six medium-sized tart apples, and put them to cook
in a quart of boiling water. Add a cup of sugar,
and cook without stirring until softened, then sprinkle
into the water in which they are cooking five tablespoonfuls
of manioca, and cook until it is transparent, which
will be in about ten minutes. Flavor with a little
grated lemon rind, and serve hot with sugar and cream,
or mold, as preferred. Canned peaches, apricots,
or cherries may be used in a similar manner, adding
boiling water if there is not sufficient juice to
properly cook the manioca. Or the manioca may
be first cooked in boiling water, using four scant
tablespoonfuls for a pint of water, and when transparent,
turning it over sliced bananas, pineapples, or oranges,
molding and serving with cream and sugar.

Page 232

RASPBERRY MANIOCA MOLD.—­Heat a pint of
water, and when boiling, sprinkle into it four scant
tablespoonfuls of manioca and cook for ten minutes
or until transparent, stirring continually. When
transparent and thickened, remove from the fire and
add a tablespoonful of lemon juice and one cup of
sugar. Place a layer of the cooked manioca in
the bottom of a pudding dish, add a layer of freshly
picked red raspberries, then another of the manioca,
filling the dish in alternate layers with one of manioca
for the top. Set away in some cool place until
well molded. Serve in slices with cream flavored
with rose. Other fresh berries may be used instead
of raspberries.

SEA MOSS BLANCMANGE.—­Wash the moss well
in several waters, and soak in a very little cold
water for an hour before using. It is hardly
possible to give exact directions for making this blancmange,
owing to the difficulty of accurately measuring the
moss, but in general, a small handful will be ample
for a quart of milk. Add the moss, when washed,
to the milk, and cook in a double boiler until the
milk has become thickened and glutinous. Add
sugar to sweeten, flavor with vanilla or rose water,
and strain through a fine sieve into cups previously
wet in cold water, and mold. This may be varied
by using boiling water instead of milk for cooking,
adding the juice of one or two lemons and a little
grated rind to flavor.

DESSERTS MADE WITH GELATINE.

Gelatine is an article largely employed in making
delicate and dainty dishes. It is economical
and convenient, because the dessert can be prepared
several hours before needed; but it must be stated
that it has in itself little or no food value, and
there is great liability of its being unwholesome.
A writer in the Anti-Adulteration Journal, a
short time since, speaking of the use of gelatine,
says:—­

“The nutritive value of pure gelatine has been
shown to be very low in the scale of foods. The
beef gelatine of the markets that is used by bakers,
is far from being pure gelatine. It frequently
has a very disagreeable, fetid odor, and has evidently
begun to decompose during the process of manufacture.
After a thorough drying, putrefaction does not take
place as long as it remains dry. But suppose that
gelatine which has thus begun to decompose during
the drying process, containing, perhaps, putrefactive
germs in the dried state, be dissolved in water, and
in hot weather, kept in this condition for a few hours
previous to being used; the result would be rapid
putrefaction. The putrefaction would be checked
by freezing; but the bacteria causing it are not killed
by the low temperature. As soon as the dessert
is melted or eaten, they resume their activity in
the body, and may cause sickness. It is a well-known
fact that gelatine is an excellent medium in which
to cultivate various kinds of micro-organisms; and
if the conclusions here mentioned be correct, it seems
that gelatine should be used with great care in connection
with food preparations. When used carelessly,
it may do a great deal of harm. I wish to impress
those who use it with the importance of guarding against
its dangers. Gelatine should not be allowed to
remain in solution for many hours before using, especially
in hot weather.

Page 233

“When used at all, the best varieties should
be employed, and such as are free from putrefactive
odor.”

A “box” of gelatine is used to signify
a two-ounce package. If half a box is called
for, divide it by cutting the box and its contents
in halves rather than by emptying the box and then
attempting to make a division.

To prepare gelatine for desserts, first soak it till
soft in a small quantity of cold water (a cupful to
one box of gelatine is sufficient); fifteen minutes
will suffice if it is stirred frequently; then dissolve
in boiling liquid. Do not cook the gelatine, and
after it is dissolved, always strain through a cloth
strainer before using.

In winter, a two-ounce package will solidify two quarts
of liquid, including the water in which the gelatine
is soaked. In summer, a little less liquid should
be used. Gelatine desserts must be left on ice
or in a cool place until hardened, but they should
not be served at the table so cold as to interfere
with the digestion of other foods.

RECIPES.

APPLES IN JELLY.—­Pare and core without
cutting open, a half dozen medium-sized tart apples
of the same degree of hardness. Fill the centers
with a little grated lemon rind and sugar. Steam
until tender but not broken. Have ready half
a package of gelatine which has been soaked for an
hour in just enough water to cover. Prepare a
syrup with one cup of sugar and a pint of water.
When boiling, turn the syrup over the gelatine, stirring
well to dissolve it, and add the juice of half a lemon.
Strain, place the apples in a deep dish with a little
space between each; turn the mixture over them, and
set in the ice box to cool. Serve with or without
a little whipped cream.

APPLE SHAPE.—­Steam some nice tart apples.
When tender, rub through a colander. Have two
thirds of a box of gelatine soaked in just enough
water to cover; pour over it a cup and a half of boiling
water; when well dissolved, strain and add a pint
of the sifted apples sweetened to taste, and one half
cup of grated fresh or canned pineapple, or if preferred,
one half cup of the juice of canned pineapple.
Turn into cups previously wet in cold water, and mold.
Serve with a little cream. Canned peaches, apricots,
and other fruit may be used the same as apples, if
preferred. Rub the fruit with but little juice
through a colander, and proceed as above.

BANANA DESSERT.—­Dissolve half a box of
gelatine in a half cup of warm water. Heat three
cups of rich milk to boiling, and add to it one cup
of sugar and turn over the well-dissolved gelatine
and strain. Let it partly cool, and mix in three
or four bananas, sliced thin or chopped fine.
Turn all into a mold previously wet with cold water,
and leave till hardened, which may require several
hours unless the mold be placed on ice. When
well molded, turn into a glass dish, serve with whipped
cream flavored with vanilla or lemon.

Page 234

CLEAR DESSERT.—­Soak a box of gelatine in
a large bowl with half a cup of cold water. When
soft, pour over it three pints of boiling water, add
the juice of three large lemons and two cups of sugar.
Stir well, strain, and pour into molds previously
wet with cold water. Put into the refrigerator
until hardened. Serve with whipped cream.
Quince, apricot, orange, or pineapple juice may be
substituted for lemon, and thus a variety of desserts
may be made.

FRUIT FOAM DESSERT.—­Soak half a package
of gelatine in half a cup of cold water until soft.
Heat to boiling two and one half cups of red raspberry,
currant, strawberry, or grape juice, sweetened to taste,
and pour over the soaked gelatine. Stir until
perfectly dissolved, then strain, and set the dish
in ice water to cool. When it is cold and beginning
to thicken, beat the whites of three eggs to a stiff
froth and stir into the thickening gelatine.
Beat thoroughly for fifteen minutes with an egg beater,
or whip till the whole is of a solid foam stiff enough
to retain its shape. Turn into molds previously
wet with cold water, or pile roughly in large spoonfuls
in a glass dish. Set away in the refrigerator
until needed. Serve with a little whipped cream
piled lightly around it.

FRUIT SHAPE.—­Take a quart of nicely canned
red raspberries, sweetened to taste; turn into a colander
and drain off the juice, taking care to keep the fruit
as perfect as possible. Put two thirds of a box
of gelatine to soak in just enough of the juice to
cover. When the gelatine is ready, heat the remainder
of the juice to boiling and pour over it. When
well dissolved, add the fruit, turn into cups, and
mold. Serve with cream. Peaches, strawberries,
apricots, and other canned fruit may be used in place
of the raspberries, if preferred.

GELATINE CUSTARD.—­Soak a quarter of a box
of gelatine in one fourth of a cup of cold water till
soft; then pour over it three fourths of a cup of
boiling water, and stir until dissolved. Beat
the yolks of two eggs and three tablespoonfuls of
sugar to a cream; pour over it slowly, stirring continuously,
a pint of boiling milk, and cook in a double boiler
until it thickens. Then add the gelatine mixture,
which should first be strained, the whites of the
two eggs beaten stiff, and a little vanilla for flavoring.
Beat all well together, turn into molds previously
wet in cold water, and place on ice to harden.
Serve with fruit sauce.

LAYER PUDDING.—­Divide a package of gelatine
into three portions, and put each to soak in one third
of a cup of cold water. Heat one and one fourths
cups of water to boiling, add the juice of one lemon
and two thirds of a cup of sugar. Turn this slowly,
stirring well meanwhile, over the well-beaten yolks
of two eggs. Cook in a double boiler five minutes,
or until the mixture thickens. Pour the hot custard
over one portion of the soaked gelatine, and stir
it until dissolved. Strain, add a little grated
lemon rind for flavoring, and turn into a broad, shallow
dish to mold. A square granite-ware baking tin
is admirable for this purpose.

Page 235

Take one and one half cups of raspberry, strawberry,
grape, or currant juice, sweetened to taste; heat
to boiling and pour over the second portion of the
soaked gelatine. Stir till well dissolved, strain,
and turn into a shallow mold like that containing
the first portion.

Heat one and one half cups of rich milk to boiling,
add one half cup of sugar, and pour over the third
portion of soaked gelatine. Strain and cool a
little, flavor with vanilla or a few chopped bananas;
or, if preferred, flavor the milk with cocoanut before
using, as directed on page 298. Pour into a third
mold like the others to cool. When all are cold,
arrange in layers, the yellow at the bottom and the
white at the top. The whites of the eggs may
be used for meringue, or for making a whipped cream
sauce to serve with the pudding.

LEMON JELLY.—­Soak one half box of gelatine
in a scant cup of cold water until soft. Then
pour over it one pint of boiling water and stir until
well dissolved. Add one cup of sugar, the yellow
rind of one lemon, and one half cup of lemon juice.
Strain, put into molds previously wet in cold water,
and place in the ice chest to harden. If preferred,
the above may be cooled in a shallow dish and cut into
irregular shapes to be served with a custard sauce.
Use only the yolks of eggs in making the custard,
that it may have a rich color, using two yolks in
place of one whole egg.

JELLY WITH FRUIT.—­Soak a package of gelatine
in a cup of cold water until soft; then pour over
it one quart and a cup of boiling water. Strain,
add the juice of four lemons and twelve tablespoonfuls
of sugar. Cool a little of the gelatine in a
mold, and as soon as set, scatter in some nice currants
or seedless raisins; add another layer of gelatine,
and when set, scatter in more fruit; continue until
the mold is full, having gelatine at the top.
Fresh fruit, currants, grapes, cherries, plums, peaches,
etc., may be used in place of raisins, if preferred.

ORANGE DESSERT.—­Soak one third of a cup
of gelatine in one third of a cup of cold water until
soft; then pour over it one third of a cup of boiling
water. Add a scant cup of sugar, the juice of
one lemon, and a cupful of orange juice and pulp.
Set the dish containing the mixture in a pan of ice
water until it begins to harden. Have ready the
whites of three eggs well whipped, add to the jelly,
and beat all together until light and stiff enough
to drop. Pour into molds wet in cold water, and
lined with sections of oranges, from which seeds and
white fiber have been removed.

ORANGES IN JELLY.—­Pare divide, and take
out the seeds from four or five sweet oranges, being
careful to remove all the white rind and shreds.
Place in a deep dish and pour over them a syrup prepared
as for Apples in Jelly, using the juice of a whole
lemon. Set in the ice box over night. A
very little orange peel may be grated into the syrup
if liked; and if the oranges are very sweet, less
sugar will be required. If one can afford to
use orange juice in place of the water in making the
syrup, the dessert will be greatly improved.

Page 236

ORANGE JELLY.—­Soak one quarter of a box
of gelatine until soft in just enough cold water to
cover. Then pour over it one half cup of boiling
water. Stir until well dissolved, add the juice
of one small lemon, one cupful of orange juice, and
one half cup of sugar. Strain, turn into molds
previously wet in cold water, and set on ice to harden.
Strawberry, raspberry, and other fruit juices may be
used in a similar manner.

SNOW PUDDING.—­Soak one fourth of a box
of gelatine until soft in an equal measure of cold
water. Then pour over it one cup of boiling water,
and add one fourth of a cup of strained lemon juice
and one cup of sugar; stir till the sugar is all dissolved.
Strain into a large china dish, and set in ice water
to cool. Let it stand until cold and beginning
to thicken. Have ready the whites of three eggs
beaten to a stiff froth, and add to the gelatine as
it begins to thicken; beat all together for fifteen
or twenty minutes, until it is of a solid foam and
stiff enough to hold its shape. Turn into molds
and keep in a cool place till needed. A half
dozen finely sliced or chopped bananas stirred in
toward the last, makes a nice variation. Serve
with custard sauce made with the yolks of the eggs
and flavored with rose or vanilla. Orange, quince,
or pineapple juice may be substituted for lemon, for
a change.

This dessert is best if made several hours before
it is needed and set in the refrigerator to keep cold.

DESSERTS WITH CRUSTS.

RECIPES.

APPLE TART.—­Pare and slice some quick-cooking,
tart apples, and place them in the bottom of a pudding
dish, with a tablespoonful of water. Cover with
a crust prepared in the following manner: Into
a cup of thin cream stir a gill of yeast and two cups
of flour; let this become very light, then add sufficient
flour to mix soft. Knead for fifteen or twenty
minutes very thoroughly, roll evenly, and cover the
apples; put all in a warm place until the crust has
become very light, then bake. If the apples do
not bake easily, they may be partially cooked before
putting on the crust. Dish so that the fruit will
be uppermost, and serve cold with cream and sugar,
cocoanut sauce, or mock cream.

GOOSEBERRY TART.—­Fill a pudding dish with
well prepared green gooseberries, adding a tablespoonful
or two of water. Cover with a crust as for Apple
Tart, and when light, bake in a moderately quick oven.
Cut the crust into the required number of pieces,
and dish with gooseberries heaped on top. Serve
cold with sugar and cream.

CHERRY TART.—­Prepare the same as for Apple
Tart, with stoned cherries, only omitting the water,
as the cherries will be sufficiently juicy of themselves.
If the fruit is very juicy, sprinkle a tablespoonful
of flour over it before putting on the crust.
Plum and peach tart may be made in the same manner,
and are both very nice.

Page 237

STRAWBERRY AND OTHER FRUIT SHORTCAKES.—­Beat
together one cup of thin cream, slightly warmed, a
tablespoonful of yeast, and two small cups of flour.
Set in a warm place till very light. Add sufficient
warm flour to mix soft, and knead thoroughly for fifteen
or twenty minutes. Divide into two equal portions,
and roll into sheets about one half inch in thickness,
making the center a very little thinner than the edges,
so that when risen, the center will not be highest.
Place in tins, and set in a warm place until perfectly
risen, or until they have doubled their first thickness.
Bake quickly. When cold, spread one cake with
fruit, and cover with the other. If the fruit
is large, it may be chopped fine with a knife, or
mashed with a spoon. A little lemon juice added
to peaches is an addition for shortcake.

BANANA SHORTCAKE.—­Prepare the crust as
previously directed. Fill with sliced bananas,
for every three of which add the juice of one orange,
a little of the grated rind, and a half cup of sugar.

LEMON SHORTCAKE.—­Prepare the crust as for
Fruit Shortcake. For the filling, grate the yellow
portion only of the lemon, and squeeze the juice into
a bowl; add a cupful of sugar. Braid a tablespoonful
of flour smooth with two tablespoonfuls of water,
add enough boiling water, stirring well meanwhile,
to make a teacupful. Add this to the other ingredients,
beat well together, and place the bowl in a basin of
boiling water or over the teakettle. Cook until
about as thick as boiled custard. Fill this between
the shortcakes and serve.

BERRY SHORTCAKE WITH PREPARED CREAM.—­Prepare
the shortcake as previously directed. Sweeten
the berries and spread on the lower crust, then pour
over them a “cream” prepared as follows,
and add top crust:—­

CREAM.—­Heat one half cup of milk and the
same of thin cream to boiling, add two tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and thicken with one teaspoonful of cornstarch
rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Turn the
hot sauce over the beaten white of two eggs, stirring
rapidly meanwhile, until the egg is thoroughly mingled
with the whole. Allow it to become cold before
using.

RAISED PIE.—­Prepare the dough as for shortcake.
Divide in two portions, spread one on the tin, and
cover with a layer of easy-cooking tart apples sliced
in eighths. Put two or three spoonfuls of rather
thick sweet cream over the apples, and cover with the
top crust. Let the crusts rise until very light,
and bake. Peaches may be used in the same manner.

BAKED APPLE LOAF.—­Prepare some dough as
for buns on page 347, leaving out the sugar, and when
ready for the last melding, cut it into three portions.
Put some flour on the bread board, mold the dough well,
and roll as thin as pie crust in such shape as will
fit a shallow baking tin. Spread over the tin,
and cover the dough with a layer of easy-cooking,
sour apples sliced very thin, or with very stiff apple
marmalade. Cover this with a second layer of dough,

Page 238

then add another layer of apples, and cover with the
third portion of the dough. Pinch the edges of
the dough well together, let the loaf rise till very
light, then bake. Eat cold with sugar and cream.
If the apples will not cook quickly, they may be first
steamed until nearly tender. If the crust appears
too hard when taken from the oven, cover with a wet
napkin and allow it to steam for a little time until
softened.

CUSTARD PUDDINGS.

Very much depends upon the baking in all puddings
made with milk and eggs.

A custard pudding made with one egg, and slowly baked,
will be much thicker and nicer than one made with
more eggs, baked in too hot an oven.

A custard pudding baked too quickly or too long will
have the eggs mixed with the farinaceous substance
and the milk turned to whey, while one more carefully
baked will have eggs and milk formed into a thick custard
on the top.

Custard puddings and all other baked puddings which
require to be cooked slowly, are best cooked in an
earthen dish set in the oven in a pan of hot water,
and baked only till the pudding is set. If it
is desirable to use with eggs any ingredient which
requires a lengthy cooking, it is much better to cook
it partially before adding the eggs. Many custard
desserts are much more dainty and more easily served
when cooked in cups than when baked in a large dish.
The blue willow pattern stoneware cups and the blue
and white Japanese ware are very suitable for this
purpose. When cooking, set the cups, allowing
one for each person, in the oven in a dripping pan
containing hot water, and bake. Serve without
removing from the cups.

If desired to stir beaten eggs into heated milk, add
a few spoonfuls of cold milk to the eggs, and pour
the mixture, a little at a time, into the hot milk,
taking care to stir it constantly.

A nice way to flavour custards and meringues for custard
puddings is to beat fruit jelly with the whites of
the eggs; red raspberry, quince, and pineapple jellies
give especially nice flavours.

RECIPES.

APPLE CUSTARD.—­Bake good tart apples; when
done, remove the pulp, and rub through a sieve; sweeten,
and flavour with grated pineapple or grated orange
or lemon rind. Put in a glass dish, and cover
with a plain custard prepared as directed on page
328. Bits of jelly may be scattered over the
top of the custard.

APPLE CUSTARD NO. 2.—­Peel, halve, and core
eight or ten medium-sized sour apples. Have prepared
a syrup made with a cup of water, the juice of one
lemon, a little grated rind, and a half cup of sugar.
When the sugar is dissolved, add the fruit, and simmer
till tender but not fallen to pieces. Skim out
the apples, draining thoroughly, and lay them in a
glass dish. Boil up the syrup until thick, and
poor it over the apples. Make a soft boiled custard
with a pint of milk, yolks of three eggs, and two
tablespoonfuls of sugar. When cold, spread over
the apples; whip the whites to a stiff froth, flavor
with lemon, and pile irregularly upon the top.
Brown lightly in the oven.

Page 239

APPLE CUSTARD NO. 3.—­Pare and remove the
cores from a dozen tart apples, and fill the cavities
with black raspberry, quince, or grape jelly.
Put them in a covered baking dish with a tablespoonful
of water, and steam in the oven till tender but not
fallen to pieces. Then cover the apples with
a raw custard made by cooking two tablespoonfuls of
flour rubbed smooth with a little milk, in a quart
of milk, till just thickened, and adding, when cold,
the yolks of two eggs well beaten with two heaping
tablespoonfuls of sugar, and lastly the whites of the
eggs whipped to a stiff froth. Bake in a dish
set in a pan of hot water, until the custard has set,
but not till it separates.

APPLE CORNSTARCH CUSTARD.—­Cover the bottom
of a small earthen-ware pudding dish an inch or more
in depth with apples stewed until very dry, sweetened
and flavored with a teaspoonful of rose water.
Heat a cup of milk to boiling, and stir into it a
tablespoonful of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a little
cold milk, and one fourth cup of sugar; cook until
thickened, then add the yolk of one egg, and pour the
whole over the apple. Meringue the top with the
white of the egg beaten stiff with a tablespoonful
of sugar, and flavored with a little rose water.

APPLE AND BREAD CUSTARD.—­For this is required
one cup of finely rolled bread crumbs, two eggs, one
half cup of sugar, one cup minced sour apples, and
one quart of milk. Beat the sugar and yolks together,
add the milk, bread, and fruit, and lastly the well-beaten
whites of the eggs. Bake in a dish set in a pan
of hot water till firm but not dry.

ALMOND CORNSTARCH PUDDING.—­Blanch one and
one half ounces of sweet almonds, and reduce them
to a paste as directed on page 298; or if obtainable,
almondine may be used instead of the prepared almonds.
Heat a quart of milk, and while boiling, stir into
it four tablespoonfuls of cornstarch which has been
braided smooth with a little cold milk; let it thicken
over the fire, stirring all the time. Then add
two tablespoonfuls of thick, sweet cream. Lastly,
stir in two or three well-beaten eggs and a tablespoonful
of rose water. Let it come just to the boiling
point, and remove from the stove. Keep in a cold
place till needed. Serve with hot mock cream
or with grape pulp as dressing.

ALMOND CREAM.—­Heat a pint of milk, and
when boiling stir into it two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch
rubbed smooth in a little cold milk, also one fourth
cup of sugar and three tablespoonfuls of almondine.
Cook until thickened, and pour it, stirring constantly
meanwhile, over the beaten whites of two eggs.
Set on ice to cool, and serve with grape pulp as dressing.
A cupful of blanched and chopped almonds may be used
instead of almondine if that is not obtainable.
The pudding will then require an additional one fourth
cup of sugar.

Page 240

APPLE CHARLOTTE.—­Take three cups of nicely
stewed tart apples which have been beaten smooth or
rubbed through a colander and sweetened to taste.
If the sauce is thin and very juicy, place it upon
the range, and simmer slowly till it is of the consistency
of thick marmalade or jelly. Add to the apples
four tablespoonfuls of grated fresh or canned pineapple
for flavoring. Remove the hard crusts from slices
of light whole-wheat bread, spread them quite thickly
with the prepared apple, and pack in layers in a pudding
mold. Cover with a simple custard made of a quart
of milk, three tablespoonfuls of sugar, and two eggs.
Let it stand half an hour, then bake. Do not
press the bread or beat it after the custard is turned
on, as that will be likely to make the pudding heavy.
Other fruit marmalade may be used in place of the apple
preparation if preferred.

BANANA CUSTARD.—­Prepare a custard as directed
for Plain Custard with a quart of milk, two well-beaten
eggs, four tablespoonfuls of sugar, and one of cornstarch.
When the custard is cool, pour it over four thinly
sliced yellow bananas, over which a tablespoonful of
sugar and a teaspoonful of water have been sprinkled.
Serve cold.

BOILED CUSTARD.—­Beat thoroughly together
one pint of milk, two eggs, and a tablespoonful or
two of sugar, until thoroughly mingled. Turn
the mixture into a double boiler, and cook until the
custard is set.

BOILED CUSTARD BREAD PUDDING.—­Crumble enough
of the soft portion of stale whole-wheat bread to
lightly fill a pint bowl. Heat a pint of milk
to boiling. Stir into it, as soon as it boils,
two eggs, yolks and whites well beaten separately,
two heaping tablespoonfuls of sugar, a little grated
lemon rind, and the light bread crumbs; stir rapidly
till the whole thickens, pour into a deep dish, and
when cold, dot the top with bits of currant or cranberry
jelly.

BREAD AND FRUIT CUSTARD.—­Take for this,
two cups of grated bread crumbs, two cups of finely
chopped tart apples, one cup of English currants or
stoned raisins, mixed with a very little chopped citron
for flavor, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, three cups
of milk, and two eggs. Beat the yolks of the
eggs and the sugar together, then add the milk, bread,
fruit, and lastly the well-beaten whites of the eggs.
Bake in a dish set within a pan of hot water, until
the custard is set.

BREAD CUSTARD PUDDING.—­Take one cup of
finely powdered bread crumbs, one half cup of sugar,
one quart of milk, and the beaten yolks of three eggs
and whites of two. Mix the bread and milk, and
when well softened, add the beaten yolks, sugar, and
lastly the well-beaten whites; beat all together thoroughly,
season with a little grated lemon rind; place the
pudding dish in the oven in a pan of hot water, and
bake till firm and lightly brown. Take from the
oven, cover the top with a layer of apple marmalade
made without sugar, or with some tart fruit jelly;
add to this a meringue made of the white of the remaining
egg and a tablespoonful of sugar, beaten to a stiff
froth, and place in the oven a moment to brown lightly.

Page 241

Fresh fruit, strawberries, raspberries, chopped peaches,
currants, cherries, or shredded oranges are equally
as good as the marmalade or jelly for the top dressing,
and may be used to vary this pudding in a number of
different ways. Canned fruits, if well drained
from juice, especially apricots and peaches, are excellent
for this purpose. A cocoanut custard pudding
may be made of the above by flavoring the milk before
using, with two tablespoonfuls of desiccated cocoanut
Another variety still may be made by adding to the
first recipe half a cup of Zante currants and the
same of seedless raisins, or a half cup of finely
shredded, tender citron.

BREAD AND FIG PUDDING.—­Put together two
cups of finely grated bread crumbs, two cups of milk,
one cup of finely chopped figs previously steamed
or cooked, one fourth cup of sugar, and lastly, two
well-beaten eggs. Bake in a moderate oven till
the custard is set.

BREAD AND APRICOT PUDDING.—­Fill a pudding
dish with alternate layers of bread crumbs and canned
apricots well drained from juice. Pour over it
a custard made with two eggs, one half cup of sugar,
and a pint of milk. Bake one half hour, or only
until the custard is set. Canned peaches, to
which a teaspoonful of lemon juice has been added after
draining, may be used in place of apricots.

CARAMEL CUSTARD.—­Turn one fourth of a cup
of sugar into a stewpan, and stir it over the fire
until it becomes liquid and brown. Scald a cup
and a half of milk, and add the browned sugar.
Beat two eggs thoroughly, add to them one half cup
cold milk, and turn the mixture slowly, stirring constantly
that no lumps form, into the scalding milk; continue
to stir until the custard thickens. Set away to
cool, and serve in glasses.

CARROT PUDDING.—­Take two cups of carrots,
boiled tender and rubbed through a colander, one pint
of milk, two thirds of a cup of sugar, and two well
beaten eggs. Flavor with vanilla, and having beaten
all well together, turn into an earthen pudding dish,
set the dish in a pan of hot water, and place in the
oven. Bake only till the custard sets.

COCOANUT CORNSTARCH PUDDING.—­Simmer a cupful
of grated cocoanut in a quart of milk for twenty minutes.
Strain the milk to remove the cocoanut, adding enough
more milk to make a full quart. With a small
portion of it braid smoothly one and one half tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch or rice flour, and put the remainder
in a saucepan over the fire. When the milk is
boiling, add the cornstarch, stirring constantly until
it thickens; then remove from the fire and cool.
Next add two tablespoonfuls of sugar and two well-beaten
eggs. Bake in a moderate oven, in a dish set
in a pan of hot water, until the custard is well set.

COCOANUT CUSTARD.—­Flavor a pint of milk
with cocoanut, add a tablespoonful of sugar and two
well-beaten eggs, and boil till set in a double boiler
or a bowl set in a dish of boiling water. Richer
custards may be made by using three or four eggs,
but the richer the custard the more likely it is to
curdle and become watery, as well as being less wholesome.

Page 242

COCONUT RICE CUSTARD.—­Flavor one quart
of milk quite strongly with coconut, as previously
directed. Add to it one and one half cups of
boiled rice, one cup of raisins, one half cup of sugar,
and lastly three well-beaten eggs. Set the pudding
dish in a pan of hot water, and bake till the custard
is well set.

CORN MEAL PUDDING.—­Heat a quart of milk
lacking two thirds of a cupful, to boiling. Moisten
three tablespoonfuls of nice granulated corn meal
with the two thirds of a cup of milk, and stir gradually
into the boiling milk. Let it boil up until set,
turn into a double boiler, and cook for an hour.
Then add a tablespoonful of thick sweet cream, one
half a cup of molasses or sugar, a quart of cold milk,
a little salt if desired, and lastly, two well-beaten
eggs. Mix thoroughly. Pour into a pudding
dish and bake one hour. A cup of currants or seeded
raisins may be used to give variety.

CORN MEAL PUDDING NO. 2.—­Crumble cold corn
puffs or corn cake to make a cupful; add a pint of
sweet milk, three teaspoonfuls of sugar, the yolks
of two eggs and the white of one, and bake slowly in
a dish set inside a pan of hot water for an hour.

CORN MEAL AND FIG PUDDING.—­Beat together
a scant cup of best sifted corn meal with a cupful
of molasses, and stir the mixture gradually into a
quart of boiling milk. Cook ten or twelve minutes,
or until well thickened, then set aside to cool.
Add a cupful of finely chopped figs, one and two thirds
cups of cold milk, part cream if it can be afforded,
and when the mixture is cool, add two well-beaten eggs.
Pour into a pudding dish and bake in a moderate, steady
oven for three or more hours; the longer the better.
When the pudding has baked an hour, pour over it a
cupful of cold milk. Do not stir the pudding,
but allow the milk to soak in gradually, a pint of
finely sliced or chopped sweet apples may be used
in place of figs for variety, or if preferred, both
may be omitted.

CORNSTARCH MERINGUE.—­Heat one and one half
pints of milk to boiling, and then stir in gradually
two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch which has been previously
rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. When the
starch has thickened, allow it partially to cool, and
then add, stirring continuously meanwhile, the yolks
of two eggs which have been previously well beaten
with three table spoonfuls of sugar. Let the whole
simmer for a minute or two longer, turn into a dish,
meringue with the whites of the eggs, and when cold,
dot with lumps of strawberry jelly.

CRACKED WHEAT PUDDING.—­Beat two cups of
cold steamed cracked wheat in two cups of rich milk
until so thoroughly mingled that no lumps remain.
Add one cup of canned sweet cherries well drained from
juice, one half cup of sugar, and two eggs, whites
and yolks beaten separately. Bake in a slow oven
till the custard is set.

CUP CUSTARD.—­Into four cups of milk stir
the yolks of three eggs and one whole one well beaten.
Add four tablespoonfuls of sugar, and strain the mixture
into cups; place these in a dripping pan full of hot
water, grate a little lemon rind over the top of each,
and bake in a moderate oven. If preferred, the
milk may be first flavoured with cocoanut. It
is also better to have the milk nearly hot when stirring
in the egg. Half a cupful of the milk should
be reserved to add to the egg before turning into
the heated portion.

Page 243

FARINA CUSTARD.—­Flavor a quart of milk
with cocoanut as directed on page 298. Cook two
tablespoonfuls of farina in the flavored milk for
twenty minutes, in a double boiler; then set aside
to cool. When nearly cold, add two tablespoonfuls
of sugar and the well-beaten yolks of two eggs.
Beat all together very thoroughly, and lastly stir
in the whites of the eggs which have been previously
beaten to a stiff froth. Bake in one dish set
inside another filled with hot water, just long enough
to set the custard. Serve cold.

FARINA PUDDING.—­Take a cup of cold cooked
farina and soak it in four cups of milk until there
are no lumps, or rub through a colander; add two well-beaten
eggs, one scant cup of sugar and one cup of raisins;
bake in a moderate oven until the custard is well set.

FLOATING ISLAND.—­Make a custard of a pint
of milk flavored with cocoanut, and the yolks of three
eggs; sweeten to taste, and steam in a double boiler.
When done, turn into a glass dish. Have the whites
of the eggs whipped to a stiff froth, and drop for
a few seconds on the top of a pan of scalding hot
water, turning so that both sides may be alike coagulated
but not hardened; skim off, and put in islands on the
top of the custard. When quite cold, drop bits
of different colored jellies on the islands, and keep
in a cool place till needed. Or put a spoonful
of fruit jelly in the bottom of small glasses, and
fill with the custard with a spoonful of the white
on top.

FRUIT CUSTARD.—­Heat a pint of red raspberry,
strawberry, or currant juice to boiling, and stir
into it two tablespoonfuls or cornstarch rubbed smooth
in a little cold water. Stir constantly until
thickened, then add half a cup of sugar, or less if
the fruit juice has been sweetened; take from the
fire and stir in the stiffly beaten whites of three
eggs, stirring all the time so that the hot mixture
will coagulate the egg. Make a custard of a pint
of milk, the yolks of the three eggs, and three tablespoonfuls
of sugar. When done, set on the ice to cool.
Dish in a glass dish when cold, placing the fruit mixture
by spoonfuls on top, and serve.

GRAHAM GRITS PUDDING.—­Heat two cups of
milk in a double boiler. When boiling, stir in
one cup of Graham grits moistened with one cup of
cold milk. Cook for an hour and a half in a double
boiler, then remove from the fire and cool. Add
three tablespoonfuls of sugar, three fourths of a
cup of finely chopped apples, and one fourth of a cup
of chopped raisins, and two well-beaten eggs.
Bake three fourths of an hour in a moderate oven.

GROUND RICE PUDDING.—­Simmer a few pieces
of thinly cut lemon rind or half a cup of cocoanut,
very slowly in a quart of milk for twenty minutes,
or until the milk is well flavored. Strain the
milk through a fine strainer to remove the lemon rind
or cocoanut, and put into a saucepan to boil.
Mix four large tablespoonfuls of ground rice smooth
with a little cold milk, and add to the boiling milk.
Cook until the whole has thickened, then set aside
to cool. When nearly cold, add two tablespoonfuls
of sugar and two well-beaten eggs. Bake in a gentle
oven in a dish placed in a pan of hot water, until
the whole is lightly browned.

Page 244

LEMON PUDDING.—­Grate the rind of one lemon;
soften one pint of bread crumbs in one quart of sweet
milk, add the yolks of two eggs, and half a cup of
sugar mixed with grated lemon rind. Bake twenty
minutes. Beat to a froth the whites of the eggs,
the juice of the lemon, and half a cup of sugar.
Spread over the top, and return to the oven for five
minutes. This may be baked in cups if preferred.

LEMON CORNSTARCH PUDDING.—­Beat the yolks
of two eggs in a pudding dish; add a cupful of sugar;
dissolve four tablespoonfuls of cornstarch in a little
cold water, stir it into two teacupfuls of actively
boiling water; when thickened, add the juice of two
lemons with a little grated peel; turn over the eggs
and sugar, beating well to mix all together, and bake
about fifteen minutes. If desired, the beaten
whites of the eggs may be used to meringue the top.
Serve either cold or hot.

LEMON CORNSTARCH PUDDING NO. 2.—­Mix together
one half cup of cornstarch, one half cup of sugar,
the juice and a portion of the grated rind of one
medium-sized lemon. Add to these ingredients just
enough cold water to dissolve thoroughly, then pour
boiling water over the mixture until it becomes thickened
and looks transparent. Stir continuously and
boil for a few minutes until the starch is cooked.
Take from the fire, and add gradually, with continuous
stirring, the well-beaten yolks of three eggs.
Whip the whites of the eggs with a teaspoonful of
quince jelly to a stiff froth, and pour over the pudding;
then brown in the oven. Orange juice with a very
little of the grated rind, or pineapple juice may
be substituted for the lemon, if preferred.

MACARONI PUDDING.—­Break sufficient macaroni
to make a pint in inch lengths, put into a double
boiler, turn over it three pints of milk, and cook
until tender. Turn into a pudding dish, add a
pint of cold milk, two thirds of a cup of sugar, one
egg, and the yolks of two others well beaten.
Bake from twenty minutes to one half hour. When
done, cool a little, spread the top with some mashed
fresh berries or grape marmalade, and meringue with
the whites of the eggs and a tablespoonful of sugar.

MOLDED RICE OR SNOW BALLS.—­Steam a pint
of well-cleaned rice until tender, as directed on
page 99, and tarn Into cups previously wet in cold
water, to mold. When perfectly cold, place in
a glass dish, and pour over them a cold custard made
of a pint of milk, half a cup of sugar, a teaspoonful
of cornstarch, and one egg. Or, if preferred,
the rice balls may be served in individual dishes
with the custard sauce, or with a dressing of fruit
juice.

ORANGE FLOAT.—­Heat one quart of water,
the juice of two lemons, and one and one half cupfuls
of sugar. When boiling, stir into it four tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a very little water.
Cook until the whole is thickened and clear.
When cool, stir into the mixture five nice oranges
which have been sliced, and freed from seeds and all
the white portions. Meringue, and serve cold.

Page 245

ORANGE CUSTARD.—­Turn a pint of hot milk
over two cups of stale bread crumbs and let them soak
until well softened: add the yolks of two eggs,
and beat all together until perfectly smooth; add a
little of the grated rind and the juice of three sweet
oranges, and sugar to taste. Lastly add the whites
of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth, turn into cups,
which place into a moderate oven in a pan of hot water,
and bake twenty minutes, or until the custard is well
set but not watery.

ORANGE PUDDING.—­Pare and slice six sweet
Florida oranges, removing the seeds and all the white
skin and fibers. Place in the bottom of a glass
dish. Make a custard by stirring two table spoonfuls
of cornstarch braided with a little milk into a pint
of boiling milk, and when thickened, adding gradually,
stirring constantly meanwhile, one egg and the yolk
of a second egg well beaten with one fourth cup of
sugar. When partially cool, pour over the oranges.
Whip the white of the second egg to a stiff froth
with one fourth cup of sugar which has been flavored
by rubbing over some orange peel, and meringue the
top of the pudding. Fresh strawberries, raspberries,
or peaches may be substituted for oranges in making
this dessert, if preferred.

PEACH MERINGUE.—­To every pint of stewed
or canned peaches, sweetened to taste, stir in the
beaten yolks of two eggs. Bake in a deep pudding
dish fifteen minutes, then cover with the whites of
the two eggs beaten till very light with two tablespoonfuls
of sugar. Brown in the oven, and serve cold with
whipped cream. For peaches, substitute any other
stewed fruit desired.

PICNIC PUDDING.—­Thicken a pint of strawberry
or raspberry juice, sweetened to taste, with two tablespoonfuls
of corn starch, as for Fruit Custard. Turn into
the bottom of cups previously wet with cold water,
or a large mold, as preferred. In a second dish
heat to boiling a pint of milk, flavored with cocoanut,
to which a tablespoonful of sugar has been, added.
Stir into it two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch rubbed
smooth in a little cold milk, and cook thoroughly.
When done, cool slightly and turn into the molds on
the top of the pink portion, which should be sufficiently
cool so that it will not mix. A third layer may
be added by cooking two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch
and one of sugar, rubbed smooth in a little milk,
in a pint of boiling milk, and stirring in, just as
it is taken from the stove, the well-beaten yolks
of two eggs.

PLAIN CORNSTARCH PUDDING.—­Heat to boiling
a pint and a half of milk, with a few bits of the
yellow rind of a lemon to flavor it. While the
milk is heating, rub four large spoonfuls of cornstarch
to a cream with half a cup of cold milk; beat well
together the yolks of three eggs, three tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and half a cup of cold milk, and whip the
whites of the eggs to a stiff froth. When the
milk is actively boiling, remove the bits of lemon
rind with a skimmer, and stir in the starch mixture;
stir constantly and boil three or four minutes—­until
the starch is well cooked; then add gradually, stirring
well meanwhile, the yolks and sugar. Remove from
the fire, and stir the beaten whites lightly through
the whole. Serve with a dressing of fruit juice
or fruit syrup; if in the season of fresh berries,
the pudding may be dressed with a few spoonfuls of
mashed strawberries, raspberries, or currants.

Page 246

PLAIN CUSTARD.—­Heat a pint of milk to boiling,
and stir in a tablespoonful of cornstarch nabbed smooth
in a little milk; let the milk and starch boil together
till they thicken; then cool and add one well-beaten
egg and two tablespoonfuls of sugar. Cook in the
oven in a dish set inside another filled with hot
water, or in a double boiler. The milk may be
previously flavored with orange, lemon, or cocoanut.

PRUNE PUDDING.—­Heat two and one half cups
of milk to boiling, then stir in gradually a heaping
tablespoonful of cornstarch which has been rubbed
smooth in a little cold milk; let this boil and thicken
for a minute, then remove from the fire. When
cool, add three well-beaten eggs, two tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and a cupful of prunes which have been stewed,
then drained of all juice, the stones removed, and
the prunes chopped fine. Pour into a pudding
dish and bake twenty minutes. Serve with or without
cream.

PRIME WHIP.—­Sift through a colander some
stewed sweet California prunes which have been thoroughly
drained from juice, and from which the stones have
been removed. Beat the whites of three eggs to
a stiff froth, and add two cups of the sifted prunes;
beat all together thoroughly; turn into a pudding
dish, and brown in the oven fifteen minutes.
Serve cold, with a little cream or custard for dressing.
Almond sauce also makes an excellent dressing.

RICE APPLE CUSTARD PUDDING.—­Pare, and remove
the cores without dividing from a sufficient number
of apples to cover the bottom of a two-quart pudding
dish. Fill the cavities of the apples with a little
grated lemon rind and sugar, and put them into the
oven with a tablespoon of water on the bottom of the
dish. Cover, and steam till the apples are tender,
but not fallen to pieces. Then pour over them
a custard made with two cups of boiled rice, a quart
of milk, half a cup of sugar, and two eggs.

RICE CUSTARD PUDDING.—­Take one and one
half cups of nicely steamed rice, four tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and a pint of milk; heat to boiling in a
saucepan. Then stir in very carefully the yolk
of one egg and one whole egg, previously well beaten
together with a few spoonfuls of milk reserved for
the purpose. Let the whole boil up till thickened,
but not longer, as the custard will whey and separate.
When partly cool, flavor with a little vanilla or
lemon, turn into a glass dish, and meringue with the
white of the second egg beaten to a stiff froth.
Cold steamed rice may be used by soaking it in hot
milk until every grain is separate.

RICE SNOW.—­Into a quart of milk heated
to boiling, stir five tablespoonfuls of rice flour
previously braided with a very little cold milk; add
one half cup of sugar. Let the whole boil up together
till well cooked and thickened; then remove from the
stove, and stir in lightly the beaten whites of four
eggs. Mold, and serve cold with foam sauce.

RICE SNOW WITH JELLY.—­Steam or bake a teacupful
of best rice in milk until the grains are tender.
Pile it up on a dish roughly. When cool, lay
over it squares of jelly. Beat the whites of two
eggs and one third of a cup of sugar to a stiff froth,
and pile like snow over the rice. Serve with
cream sauce.

Page 247

RICE WITH EGGS.—­Steam rice as previously
directed, and when sufficiently cooked, stir into
half of it while hot, the yolks of one or two eggs
well beaten with a little sugar. Into the other
half, the whites of the eggs, sweetened and beaten
to a stiff froth, may be lightly stirred while the
rice is still hot enough to set the eggs. Serve
with the yellow half in the bottom of the dish, and
the white part piled on top covered with whipped cream
flavored with lemon or vanilla.

SNOW PUDDING.—­Heat one half pint each of
water and milk together, to boiling, stir into this
a tablespoonful of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a little
cold milk, and cook for five minutes. Cool partially
and add the whites of two well-beaten eggs. Turn
into molds and set in the ice box to cool. Serve
with a cream made by stirring into a half pint of
boiling milk the yolks of two eggs, a teaspoonful of
cornstarch rubbed smooth in a little cold milk, and
half a cup of sugar. Cook until well thickened.
Cool and flavor with a little lemon or vanilla.
Or, if preferred, serve with a dressing of fruit juice.

STEAMED CUSTARD.—­Heat a pint of milk, with
which has been well beaten two eggs and one third
of a cup of sugar, in a double boiler until well thickened.
When done, turn into a glass dish, and grate a little
of the yellow rind of lemon over the top to flavor.
If desired to have the custard in cups, remove from
the fire when it begins to thicken, turn into cups,
and finish in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water.

STRAWBERRY CHARLOTTE.—­Fit slices of nice
plain buns (those made according to recipe on page
347 are nice for this) in the bottom of a pudding
dish, and cover with a layer of hulled strawberries;
add another layer of the buns cut in slices, a second
layer of strawberries, and then more slices of buns.
Make a custard in the following manner: Heat a
scant pint of milk to boiling in the inner cup of a
double boiler, and stir into it gradually, beating
thoroughly at the same time, an egg which has been
previously well beaten with half a cup of sugar, a
teaspoonful of cornstarch, and a spoonful or two of
milk until perfectly smooth. Cook together in
the double boiler until well set. Cool partially,
and pour over the buns and strawberries. Place
a plate with a weight upon it on the top of the charlotte,
and set away to cool.

POP CORN PUDDING.—­Take a scant pint of
the pop corn which is ground and put up in boxes,
or if not available, freshly popped corn, rolled fine,
is just as good. Add to it three cups of new milk,
one half cup of sugar, two whole eggs and the yolk
of another, well beaten. Bake in a pudding dish
placed inside another filled with hot water, till the
custard is set. Cover with a meringue made of
the remaining white of egg, a teaspoonful of sugar,
and a sprinkling of the pop corn.

SAGO CUSTARD PUDDING.—­Put one half cup
of sago and a quart of rich milk into the inner cup
of a double boiler, or a basin set inside a pan of
boiling water, and let it simmer until the sago has
thickened the milk and become perfectly transparent.
Allow it to cool, then add a cup of sugar, two well-beaten
eggs, and a little of the grated rind of a lemon.
Turn into a pudding dish, and bake only till the custard
has set.

Page 248

SAGO AND FRUIT CUSTARD PUDDING.—­Soak six
table spoonfuls of sago in just enough water to cover
it, for twenty minutes. Meanwhile pare and remove
the cores from half a dozen or more tart apples, and
fill the cavities with a mixture of grated lemon rind
and sugar. Place the apples in the bottom of
a pudding dish, with a tablespoonful of water; cover,
and set in the oven to bake. Put the soaked sago
with a quart of milk into a double boiler. Let
it cook until the sago is clear and thick; then add
three fourths of a cup of sugar and two well-beaten
eggs. Pour the sago custard over the apples,
which should be baked tender but not mushy. Put
the pudding dish in the oven in a pan of hot water,
and bake till the custard is well set. Serve
cold.

SNOWBALL CUSTARD.—­Flavor a pint of milk
by sleeping in it three or four slices of the yellow
rind of a lemon for twenty minutes or more. Skim
out the rind; let the milk come to the boiling point,
and drop into it the well-beaten whites of two eggs,
in tablespoonfuls, turning each one over carefully,
allowing them to remain only long enough to become
coagulated but not hardened, and then place the balls
upon a wire sieve to drain. Afterward stir into
the scalding milk the yolks of the eggs and one whole
one well beaten, together with two tablespoonfuls of
sugar. Stir until it thickens. Pour this
custard into a glass dish, and lay the white balls
on top.

TAPIOCA CUSTARD.—­Soak a cup of pearl tapioca
over night in sufficient water to cover. When
ready to prepare the custard, drain off the water
if any remain, and add one quart of milk to the tapioca;
place in a double boiler and cook until transparent;
then add the well-beaten yolks of three eggs or the
yolks of two and one whole one, mixed with three fourths
of a cup of sugar. Let it cook a few minutes,
just long enough for the custard to thicken and no
more, or it will whey and be spoiled; flavor with
a little vanilla and turn into a glass dish. Cover
the top with the whites beaten stiffly with a tablespoonful
of sugar, and dot with bits of jelly, or colored sugar
prepared by mixing sugar with cranberry or raspberry
juice and allowing it to dry. For variety, the
custard may be flavored with grated lemon rind and
a tablespoonful of lemon juice whipped up with the
whites of the eggs, or other flavor may be dispensed
with, and the meringue flavored by beating with a
tablespoonful of quince jelly with the whites of the
eggs.

TAPIOCA PUDDING.—­Soak a cupful of tapioca
over night in just enough water to cover. In
the morning, add to it one quart of milk, and cook
in a double boiler until transparent. Add three
eggs well beaten, one half cup of sugar, one half
cup of chopped raisins, and a very little chopped
citron. Bake till the custard is set. Serve
warm or cold as preferred.

Page 249

VERMICELLI PUDDING.—­Flavor two and one
half cups of milk with lemon as directed on page 229.
Drop into it, when boiling, four ounces of vermicelli,
crushing it lightly with one hand while sprinkling
it in, and stir to keep it from gathering in lumps.
Let it cook gently in a double boiler, stirring often
until it is tender and very thick. Then pour
it into a pudding dish, let it cool, and add a tablespoonful
of rather thick sweet cream if you have it (it does
very well without), half a cup of sugar, and lastly,
two well-beaten eggs. Bake in a moderately hot
oven till browned over the top.

WHITE CUSTARD.—­Beat together thoroughly
one cup of milk, the whites of two eggs, one tablespoonful
of sugar, and one and one half tablespoonfuls of almondine.
Turn into cups and steam or bake until the custard
is set.

WHITE CUSTARD NO. 2.—­Cook a half cup of
farina in a quart of milk in a double boiler, for
an hour. Remove from the stove, and allow it to
become partially cool, then add one half cup of sugar,
the whites of two eggs, and one half the yolk of one
egg. Turn into a pudding dish, and bake twenty
minutes or until the custard is well set.

STEAMED PUDDING.

The following precautions are necessary to be observed
in steaming puddings or desserts of any sort:—­

1. Have the water boiling rapidly when the pudding
is placed in the steamer, and keep it constantly boiling.

2. Replenish, if needed, with boiling water,
never with cold.

3. Do not open the steamer and let in the air
upon the pudding, until it is done.

RECIPES.

BATTER PUDDING.—­Beat four eggs thoroughly;
add to them a pint of milk, and if desired, a little
salt. Sift a teacupful of flour and add it gradually
to the milk and eggs, beating lightly the while.
Then pour the whole mixture through, a fine wire strainer
into a small pail with cover, in which it can be steamed.
This straining is imperative. The cover of the
pail should be tight fitting, as the steam getting
into the pudding spoils it. Place the pail in
a kettle of boiling water, and do not touch or move
it until the pudding is done. It takes exactly
an hour to cook. If moved or jarred during the
cooking, it will be likely to fall. Slip it out
of the pail on a hot dish, and serve with cream sauce.
A double boiler with tightly fitting cover is excellent
for cooking this pudding.

BREAD AND FRUIT CUSTARD.—­Soak a cupful
of finely grated bread crumbs in a pint of rich milk
heated to scalding. Add two thirds of a cup of
sugar, and the grated yellow rind of half a lemon.
When cool, add two eggs well beaten. Also two
cups of canned apricots or peaches drained of juice,
or, if preferred, a mixture of one and one half cups
of chopped apples, one half cup of raisins, and a little
citron. Turn into a pudding dish, and steam in
a steamer over a kettle of boiling water for two hours.
The amount of sugar necessary will vary somewhat according
to the fruit used.

Page 250

DATE PUDDING.—­Turn a cup of hot milk over
two cups of stale bread crumbs, and soak until softened;
add one half cup of cream and one cup of chopped and
stoned dates. Mix all thoroughly together.
Put in a china dish and steam for three hours.
Serve hot with lemon sauce.

RICE BALLS.—­Steam one cup of rice till
tender. Wring pudding cloths about ten inches
square out of hot water, and spread the rice one third
of an inch over the cloth. Put a stoned peach
or apricot from which the skin has been removed, in
the center, filling the cavity in each half of the
fruit with rice. Draw up the cloth until the rice
smoothly envelops the fruit, tie, and steam ten or
fifteen minutes. Remove the cloth carefully,
turn out into saucers, and serve with sauce made from
peach of apricot juice. Easy-cooking tart apples
may also be used. Steam them thirty minutes,
and serve with sugar and cream.

STEAMED BREAD CUSTARD.—­Cut stale bread
in slices, removing hard crusts. Oil a deep pudding
mold, and sprinkle the bottom and sides with Zante
currants; over these place a layer of the slices of
bread, sprinkled with currants; add several layers,
sprinkling each with the currants in the same manner.
Cover with a custard made by beating together three
or four eggs, three tablespoonfuls of sugar, and one
quart of milk. Put the pudding in a cool place
for three hours; at the end of that time, steam one
and a quarter hours. Serve with mock cream flavored
with vanilla. Apple marmalade may be used to spread
between the slices in place of currants, if preferred.

STEAMED FIG PUDDING.—­Moisten two cupfuls
of finely grated Graham bread crumbs with half a cup
of thin sweet cream. Mix into it a heaping cupful
of finely chopped fresh figs, and a quarter of a cup
of sugar. Add lastly a cup of sweet milk.
Turn all into a pudding dish, and steam about two
and one half hours. Serve as soon as done, with
a little cream for dressing, or with orange or lemon
sauce.

PASTRY AND CAKE.

So much has been said and written about the dietetic
evils of these articles that their very names have
been almost synonymous with indigestion and dyspepsia.
That they are prolific causes of this dire malady
cannot be denied, and it is doubtless due to two reasons;
first, because they are generally compounded of ingredients
which are in themselves unwholesome, and rendered
doubly so by their combination; and secondly, because
tastes have become so perverted that an excess of
these articles is consumed in preference to more simple
and nutritious food.

As has been elsewhere remarked, foods containing an
excess of fat, as do most pastries and many varieties
of cake, are exceedingly difficult of digestion, the
fat undergoing in the stomach no changes which answer
to the digestion of other elements of food, and its
presence interferes with the action of the gastric
juice upon other elements. In consequence, digestion
proceeds very slowly, if at all, and the delay often
occasions fermentative and putrefactive changes in
the entire contents of the stomach.

Page 251

It is the indigestibility of fat, and this property
of delaying the digestion of other foods, chiefly
that render pastry and cakes so deleterious to health.

We do not wish to be understood as in sympathy with
that class of people who maintain that dyspepsia is
a disciplinary means of grace, when, after having
made the previous statement, we proceed to present
recipes for preparing the very articles we have condemned.
Pie and cake are not necessarily utterly unwholesome;
and if prepared in a simple manner, may be partaken
of in moderation by persons with good digestion.
Nevertheless, they lack the wholesomeness of more simple
foods, and we most fully believe that would women
supply their tables with perfectly light, sweet, nutritious
bread would cease. However, if pies and cakes
must needs be, make them as simple as possible.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING PIES.—­Always
prepare the filling for pies before making the crust,
if the filling is to be cooked in the crust.
Have all the material for the crust on the table, measured
and in readiness, before beginning to put together.
Follow some of the simple recipes given in these pages.
Have all the material cold, handle the least possible
to make it into a mass, and do not knead at all.

When the crust is ready, roll it out quickly to about
one half inch in thickness, then fold up like a jelly
roll, and cut from the end only sufficient for one
crust at a time. Lay this, the flat side upon
the board, and roll evenly in every direction, until
scarcely more than an eighth of an inch in thickness,
and somewhat larger than the baking plate, as it will
shrink when lifted from the board.

Turn one edge over the rolling pin, and carefully
lift it onto the plate. If there is to be an
upper crust, roll that in the same manner, make a
cut in the center to allow the steam to escape, fill
the pie, slightly rounding it in the center, and lift
on the upper crust; press both edges lightly together;
then, lifting the pie in the left hand, deftly trim
away all overhanging portions of crust with a sharp
knife; ornament the edge if desired, and put at once
into the oven, which should be in readiness at just
the right temperature, a rather moderate oven being
best for pies.

The under crust of lemon, pumpkin, custard, and very
juicy fruit pies, filled before baking, is apt to
become saturated and softened with the liquid mixture,
if kept for any length of time after baking. This
may be prevented in a measure by glazing the crust,
after it is rolled and fitted on the plate, with the
beaten white of an egg, and placing in the oven just
a moment to harden the egg before filling; or if the
pie is one of fruit, sprinkle the crust with a little
flour and sugar, brushing the two together with the
hand before; adding the filling. During the baking,
the flour and melted sugar will adhere together, tending
to keep the juice from contact with the crust.

Page 252

Pies are more wholesome if the crusts are baked separately
and filled for use as needed. This is an especially
satisfactory way to make pies of juicy fruit, as it
does away largely with the saturated under crusts,
and the flavor of the fruit can be retained much more
perfectly. Pies with one crust can be made by
simply fitting the crust to the plate, pricking it
lightly with a fork to prevent its blistering while
baking, and afterward filling when needed for the
table. For pies with two crusts, fit the under
crust to the plate, and fill with clean pieces of
old white linen laid in lightly to support the upper
crust. When baked, slip the pie on a plate, lift
off the upper crust, take out the pieces of cloth,
and just before serving, fill with fruit, which should
be previously prepared.

Canned peaches filled into such a crust make a delicious
pie. Strawberries, cherries, gooseberries, and
other juicy fruits, that lose so much of their flavor
in baking, may be lightly scalded, the juice thickened
a little with flour if desired, sweetened to taste,
and filled into such a crust. An excellent pie
may be made in this manner from apples, stewed carefully
so as to keep the slices whole, sweetened to taste,
and flavored with lemon, orange, or grated pineapple.
One pineapple will be sufficient for four pies.
Fresh fruit for filling may be used without cooking,
if desired. If desired, several crusts may be
baked and put away unfilled. When needed, the
crusts may be placed for a few minutes in a hot oven
until heated through, then filled with freshly prepared
fruit.

In preparing material for custard or pumpkin pies,
if the milk used be hot, the pies will be improved
and the time of baking be considerably shortened.

Tin or granite-ware plates are preferable to earthen
ones for pies, as they bake better on the bottom.
The perforated pans are superior in some respects.
No greasing is needed; simply rub them well with flour.
The time required for baking pies varies from one
half to three fourths of an hour. The dampers
should be so adjusted as to bake the bottom crust
first.

After baking, remove at once to heated earthen plates,
or set the tins upon small supports, so that the air
can circulate underneath them.

RECIPES.

PASTE FOR PIES.—­Sift together equal parts
of Graham grits and white flour (Graham flour will
do if the grits are not obtainable, but the grits
will produce a more crisp and tender crust), and wet
with very cold, thin sweet cream. Have the flour
also as cold as possible, since the colder the material,
the more crisp the paste; mix together very quickly
into a rather stiff dough. Do not knead at all,
but gather the fragments lightly together, roll out
at once, fill and bake quickly, since much of the
lightness of the crust depends upon the dispatch with
which the pie is gotten into the oven after the materials
are thrown together. If for any reason it is
necessary to defer the baking, place the crust in
the ice-chest till needed.

Page 253

CORN MEAL CRUST.—­Equal parts of sifted
white corn meal and flour, mixed together lightly
with rather thin sweet cream which has been set in
the ice-chest until very cold, makes a very good crust.

GRANOLA CRUST.—­For certain pies requiring
an under crust only, the prepared granola manufactured
by the Sanitarium Food Co. makes a superior crust.
To prepare, moisten with thin sweet cream—­one
half cup of cream for every two thirds cup of granola
is about the right proportion, and will make sufficient
crust for one pie. Flour the board, and lift
the moistened granola onto it, spreading it as much
as possible with the hands. Dredge lightly with
flour over the top, and roll out gently to the required
size without turning. The material, being coarse
and granular, will break apart easily, but may be as
easily pressed together with the fingers. Change
the position of the rolling pin often, in order to
shape the crust without moving it. When well roiled,
carefully slip a stiff paper under it, first loosening
from the board with a knife if necessary, and lift
it gently onto the pan. Press together any cracks,
trim the edges, fill, and bake at once. Use the
least flour possible in preparing this crust, and bake
as soon as made, before the moisture has become absorbed.
Such a crust is not suited for custard or juicy fruit
pies, but filled with prune, peach, or apple marmalade,
it makes a most delicious and wholesome pie. A
cooked custard may be used in such a crust.

PASTE FOR TART SHELLS.—­Take one half cup
of rather thin sweet cream, which has been placed
on ice until very cold; add to it the stiffly beaten
whites of two eggs, and whip all together briskly for
ten minutes. Add sufficient white flour to roll.
Cut into the required shape, bake quickly, but do
not brown. Fill after baking. This paste,
rolled thin and cut into shapes with a cookie-cutter,
one half of them baked plain for under crusts, the
other half ornamented for tops by cutting small holes
with a thimble or some fancy mold, put together with
a layer of some simple fruit jelly between them, makes
a most attractive looking dessert. It is likewise
very nice baked in little patty pans, and afterward
filled with apple or peach marmalade, or any of the
following fillings:—­

CREAM FILLING.—­One cup of rich milk (part
cream if it can be afforded) heated to boiling.
Into this stir one scant tablespoonful of flour previously
braided smooth with a little cold milk. Add to
this the well-beaten yolk of one egg and one tablespoonful
of sugar. Turn this mixture into the hot milk
and stir until it thickens. Flavor with a little
grated lemon rind, vanilla, or, if preferred, flavor
the milk with cocoanut before using. Fill the
tart shells, and meringue with the white of the egg
beaten stiff with a tablespoonful of sugar.

GRAPE TART.—­Into one pint of canned or
fresh grape juice, when boiling, stir two tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch braided with a little water, and cook
for five minutes. Sweeten to taste, and fill a
baked crust.

Page 254

LEMON FILLING.—­Into one cup of boiling
water stir one tablespoonful of cornstarch previously
braided smooth with the juice of a large lemon.
Cook until it thickens, then add one half cup of sugar
and a little grated yellow rind of the lemon.

TAPIOCA FILLING.—­Soak one tablespoonful
of tapioca over night in one cup of water; mash and
stir the tapioca, simmer gently until clear and thick,
adding enough water to cook it well; add half a cup
of white sugar and a tablespoonful each of lemon and
orange juice. If desired, a little raspberry
or currant juice may be added to make the jelly of
a pink color.

APPLE CUSTARD PIE.—­Stew good dried apples
till perfectly tender and there remains but very little
juice. Rub through a colander. For each
pie use one cup of the sifted apples, one and a half
cups of rich milk, two eggs, five tablespoonfuls of
sugar, and a little grated lemon rind for flavoring.
Bake with under crust only. Stewed fresh apples,
beaten smooth or rubbed through a colander, can be
used if preferred. The eggs may be omitted, and
one half cup more of the sifted apples, with more
sugar, may be used instead.

BANANA PIE.—­For each pie required prepare
a custard with one and one half cups of milk, the
yolks of two eggs, and two heaping tablespoonfuls
of sugar. Mash two large bananas through a colander,
strain the custard over them, and beat well together.
Bake in an under crust only, and meringue the top
with the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth
with two tablespoonfuls of sugar.

BREAD PIE.—­Soak a slice of very light bread
in a pint of rich milk. When it is quite soft,
rub through a colander and afterward beat well through
the milk. Add one well-beaten egg, four tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and a little grated lemon rind for flavor.
Bake with under crust only, till the custard is set.
This is sufficient for one pie.

CARROT PIE.—­Boil, drain, and rub the carrots
through a colander. For each pie required, use
two large tablespoonfuls of carrot thus prepared,
two eggs, two cups of milk, a little salt if desired,
four tablespoonfuls of sugar, and lemon or vanilla
for flavoring. Bake with under crust only.

COCOANUT PIE.—­Flavor a pint of milk with
two tablespoonfuls of desiccated, or finely grated
fresh cocoanut according to directions on page 298;
strain, and add enough fresh milk to make a pint in
all. Add three tablespoonfuls of sugar, heat,
and as the milk comes to a boil, add a tablespoonful
of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a little cold milk.
Boil for a minute or two till the cornstarch thickens
the milk; then remove from the stove. Allow it
to get cold, and then stir in one well-beaten egg;
bake in an under crust. Tie a tablespoonful of
desiccated cocoanut in a clean cloth, and pound it
as fine as flour; mix it with a tablespoonful of sugar
and the white of an egg beaten to a stiff froth.
When the pie is done, spread this over the top, and
brown in the oven for a moment only.

Page 255

COCOANUT PIE NO. 2.—­Steep one half cup
of cocoanut in a pint of milk for one half hour.
Strain out the cocoanut and add sufficient fresh milk
to make a pint. Allow it to become cold, then
add a quarter of a cup of sugar and two well-beaten
eggs. Bake with an under crust only. When
done, the top may be covered with a meringue the same
as in the preceding recipe.

CREAM PIE.—­For one pie beat together one
egg, one half cup of sugar, one tablespoonful of flour,
and two cups of rich milk. Bake in one crust.

CRANBERRY PIE.—­Stew a quart of cranberries
until broken in a pint of boiling water. Rub
through a colander to remove the skins, add two cups
of sugar and one half cup of sifted flour. Bake
with under crust only.

DRIED APPLE PIE.—­Stew good dried apples
till perfectly tender in as small a quantity of water
as possible. When done, rub through a colander;
they should be about the consistency of fruit jam;
if not, a little flour may be added. Sweeten
to taste, fill under crusts with the mixture, and
bake. If lemon flavor is liked, a few pieces of
the yellow rind may be added to the apples a little
while before they are tender. If the apples are
especially tasteless, lemon juice or some sour apple
jelly should be added after rubbing through the colander.
The crusts may first be baked, and filled with the
mixture when needed; in which case the sauce should
be simmered lightly till of the desired consistency.
The top may be ornamented with strips or rings of crust,
if desired.

DRIED APPLE PIE WITH RAISINS.—­Rub a quart
of well-stewed dried apples through a colander, add
a cupful of steamed raisins, sugar to sweeten, and
bake with two crusts. This is sufficient for two
pies.

DRIED APRICOT PIE.—­Stew together one third
dried apricots and two thirds dried apples or peaches.
When soft, rub through a colander, add sugar to sweeten,
and if very juicy, stew again until the juice is mostly
evaporated; then beat until light and bake in a granola
crust.

FARINA PIE.—­Cook one fourth cup of farina
in a double boiler for an hour in three cups of rich
milk. Allow it to become cool, then add one half
cup of sugar, the yolks of two eggs, and a little grated
lemon rind. Bake with under crust only.
Meringue the top with the white of the egg beaten
to a stiff froth with one tablespoonful of sugar and
a little grated lemon rind for flavoring. The
quantity given is sufficient for two small pies.

FRUIT PIES.—­Apples, peaches, and all small
fruits and berries may be made into palatable pies
without rich crusts or an excess of sugar, or the
addition of unwholesome spices and flavorings.
Bake the crust separately, and fill when needed with
prepared fruit; or, fill with the fruit, using only
sufficient sugar to sweeten; add no spices, and bake
quickly. Prepare apples for pies by paring, coring,
and dividing in eighths. Peaches are best prepared
in a similar manner. Fill crusts in which the

Page 256

fruit is to be baked quite full and slightly heaping
in the center. If flavoring is desired, let it
be that of some other fruit. For apple pies,
a teaspoonful or two of pineapple juice, a little grated
lemon or orange peel, or a little strawberry or quince
syrup, may be used for flavoring. For pies made
of apples, peaches, and fruits which are not very
juicy, add a tablespoonful or so of water or fruit
juice; but for very juicy fruits and berries, dredge
the under crust with a tablespoonful of sugar and
a little flour mixed together before filling, or stir
a spoonful of flour into the fruit so that each berry
or piece may be separately floured.

GRAPE JELLY PIE.—­Cook perfectly ripe, purple
grapes; rub them through a colander to remove the
seeds and skins. Return the pulp to the fire
and thicken with rice flour or cornstarch, to the consistency
of thick cream or jelly, and sweeten to taste.
Fill an under crust with the mixture, and bake.
The top may be ornamented with pastry cut in fancy
shapes if desired.

JELLY CUSTARD PIE.—­Dissolve three tablespoonfuls
of nice, pure fruit jelly in very little warm water,
add one and one half cups of milk and two well-beaten
eggs, stirring the whites in last. Bake with under
crust only. Jellies are usually so sweet that
no sugar is needed. Apple, raspberry, currant,
strawberry, and quince jellies all make nice pies,
prepared in this way.

LEMON PIE.—­Take four tablespoonfuls of
lemon juice (one large lemon or two small ones will
yield about this quantity), the grated yellow portion
only of the rind of half a lemon, and two thirds of
a cup of sugar. Beat the lemon juice and sugar
together. Braid a slightly heaping tablespoonful
of cornstarch with as little water as possible, and
pour over it, stirring constantly, one half pint of
boiling water, to thicken the starch. Add the
lemon and sugar to the starch, and let it cool; then
stir in the yolks of two eggs and half the white of
one, well beaten together. Beat thoroughly, pour
into a deep crust, and bake. When done, cover
with the remaining whites of the eggs, beaten with
one and a half tablespoonfuls of sugar, and brown
lightly in the oven.

LEMON MERINGUE CUSTARD.—­Heat two cups of
milk to boiling, add a tablespoonful of cornstarch
well braided with a little cold milk; let the whole
simmer till thickened, stirring constantly. Allow
it to cool, add one third of a cup of sugar and the
beaten yolks of two eggs. Bake in an under crust,
and cover with a meringue made of the whites of the
eggs beaten to a stiff froth with two tablespoonfuls
of sugar mixed with grated lemon peel. If liked,
a spoonful of lemon juice may be added, a few drops
at a time, during the beating of the meringue.

ONE-CRUST PEACH PIE.—­Pare and remove the
stones from ripe, nice flavored peaches; stew till
soft in the smallest quantity of water possible without
burning. Rub through a colander, or beat smooth
with a large spoon. Add sugar as required.
Bake with one crust. If the peach sauce is evaporated
until quite dry, it is very nice baked in a granola
crust. When done, meringue with the whites of
two eggs whipped stiff with two tablespoonfuls of
sugar. The flavor is improved by adding by degrees
to the egg while whipping, a tablespoonful of lemon
juice. Return to the oven and brown lightly.
Serve cold.

Page 257

Canned peaches or stewed dried peaches may be used
in place of the fresh ones. In using the dried
peaches, carefully examine and wash; soak them over
night in cold water, and stew them in the same water
until soft enough to rub through the colander.
For each pie, add two tablespoonfuls of sweet cream,
and sufficient sugar to sweeten; too much, sugar destroys
the flavor of the fruit. Evaporated peaches, soaked
over night and stewed carefully until tender, then
removed from the syrup, which may be sweetened and
boiled until thick and rich and afterward turned over
the peaches, makes a delicious pie. Bake in one
crust, with or without a meringue.

ORANGE PIE.—­Rub smooth a heaping tablespoonful
of cornstarch in three tablespoonfuls of water; pour
over it a cup of boiling water, and cook until clear,
stirring frequently that no lumps form. Add one
cupful of sour orange juice, a little grated rind,
and the juice of one lemon, with two eggs. Bake
with under crust only. Meringue the top when baked,
with the whites of the eggs well beaten with a tablespoonful
of sugar, and a very little grated orange peel sprinkled
over it.

PEACH CUSTARD PIE.—­Cover a pie plate with
an under crust. Take fresh peaches, pare, halve,
and stone them, and place a layer, hollow side up,
in the pie. Prepare a custard with one egg, one
cup of milk, and three tablespoonfuls of sugar.
Pour the custard over the peaches, and bake.
If the quantity given will not entirely cover the peaches,
a little more must be prepared. Canned peaches
which are not broken can be used instead of fresh
ones. The pieces should be drained free from
juice, and less sugar used.

PRUNE PIE.—­Prepare and cook sweet California
prunes as directed for Prune Marmalade. Fill
an under crust and bake. The top may be ornamented
with strips of crust or pastry leaves; or if desired,
may be meringued with the whites of two eggs beaten
to a stiff froth with two tablespoonfuls of sugar
and a little grated lemon peel. This pie is excellent
baked in a granola crust.

PUMPKIN PIE.—­To prepare the pumpkin, cut
into halves, remove the seeds, divide into moderately
small pieces, and bake in the oven until thoroughly
done. Then scrape from the shell, rub through
a colander, and proceed as follows: For one and
one third pints of the cooked pumpkin use one quart
of hot, rich, sweet milk. Add one half cup of
sugar and the well-beaten yolks of three eggs, beat
well together, add the whites of the eggs beaten to
a stiff froth, and beat thoroughly. Line the tins
with a stiff cream paste, fill, and bake in a moderate
oven till the pies are barely firm in the center,
or till the custard is well set.

PUMPKIN PIE NO. 2.—­For each pie desired,
take one half pint of baked pumpkin, a pint of rich
milk, one third of a cup of sugar, and two eggs.
Mix the sugar and eggs, add the pumpkin, and lastly
the milk, which should be hot, and beat all together
with an egg beater until very light. Fill the
crust, and bake slowly.

Page 258

PUMPKIN PIE WITHOUT EGGS.—­Prepare the pumpkin
as previously directed. For two medium-sized
pies, heat a pint and a half of milk in a farina kettle,
and when scalding, stir into it two scant tablespoonfuls
of white flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk.
Cook, stirring often, until it thickens. Add
half a cup of sugar, or a little less of syrup, to
a pint and a half of the sifted pumpkin, and after
beating well together, stir this into the hot milk.
Bake in an under crust; or, for three pies, take one
quart and a cupful of pumpkin, three fourths of a
cup of sugar, two thirds of a cup of best New Orleans
molasses, and three pints of hot milk. Beat all
together thoroughly. Line deep plates with a
cream crust, and bake an hour and a half in a moderate
oven.

SIMPLE CUSTARD PIE.—­For one pie, take one
pint of milk, two well-beaten eggs, one third of a
cup of sugar, and a little grated lemon rind for flavor.
Bake in an under crust. If eggs are scarce, a
very good pie can be made by using only one egg, and
a tablespoonful of cornstarch, with the above proportions
of milk and sugar; in which case, heat the milk to
scalding, stir in the cornstarch, and cook till thickened;
cool, and then add the well-beaten egg. If preferred,
the crust may be baked before filling, and the custard
steamed, meanwhile.

SQUASH PIE.—­Squash prepared as directed
for pumpkin, and flavored with rose water, makes an
excellent pie. Or, for each pie desired, take
one pint of rich milk (part cream if it can be afforded),
add one cup of nicely baked mealy squash which has
been rubbed through a colander, one third of a cup
of sugar, and two well-beaten eggs. Beat all together
thoroughly. Bake in a deep pan slowly and carefully
until firm.

SQUASH PIE WITHOUT EGGS.—­Bake the squash
in the shell; when done, remove with a spoon and mash
through a colander. For one pie, take eight tablespoonfuls
of the squash, half a cup of sugar, and one and one
third cups of boiling milk. Pour the milk slowly
over the squash, beating rapidly meanwhile to make
the mixture light. Bake in one crust.

SWEET-APPLE CUSTARD PIE.—­Into one pint
of new milk, grate three ripe sweet apples (Golden
Sweets are excellent); add two well-beaten eggs, and
sugar to taste. Bake with under crust only.

SWEET POTATO PIE.—­Bake sufficient sweet
potatoes to make a pint of pulp when rubbed through
a colander; add a pint of rich milk, a scant cup of
sugar, salt if desired, the yolks of two eggs, and
a little grated lemon rind for flavor. Bake with
under crust. When done, meringue with the whites
of the eggs beaten up with a tablespoonful of sugar.

CAKE.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.—­Always sift the flour
for cake before measuring out the amount required.
Use the best granulated white sugar. Eggs for
use in cake are better to have the yolks and whites
beaten separately. Beat the former until they
cease to froth and begin to thicken as if mixed with
flour. Beat the whites until stiff enough to
remain in the bowl if inverted. Have the eggs
and dishes cool, and if practicable, beat in a cool
room. Use earthen or china bowls to beat eggs
in.

Page 259

If fruit is to be used, it should be washed and dried
according to directions given on page 298, and then
dusted with flour, a dessertspoonful to the pound
of fruit. For use in cup cake or any other cake
which requires a quick baking, raisins should be first
steamed. If you have no patent steamer, place
them in a close covered dish within an ordinary steamer,
and cook for an hour over a kettle of boiling water.
This should be done the day before they are to be used.

Use an earthen or granite-ware basin for mixing cake.
Be very accurate in measuring the materials, and have
them all at hand and all utensils ready before beginning
to put the cake together. If it is to be baked
at once, see that the oven also is at just the right
temperature. It should be less hot for cake than
for bread. Thin cakes require a hotter oven than
those baked in loaves. They require from fifteen
to twenty minutes to bake; thicker loaves, from thirty
to sixty minutes. For loaf cakes the oven should
be at such a temperature that during the first half
of the time the cake will have risen to its full height
and just begun to brown.

The recipes given require neither baking powder, soda,
nor saleratus. Yeast and air can be made to supply
the necessary lightness, and their use admits of as
great a variety in cakes as will be needed on a hygienic
bill of fare.

In making cake with yeast, do not use very thick cream,
as a rich, oily batter retards fermentation and makes
the cake slow in rising. If the cake browns too
quickly, protect it by a covering of paper. If
necessary to move a cake in the oven, do it very gently.
Do not slam the oven door or in any way jar a cake
while baking, lest it fall. Line cake tins with
paper to prevent burning the bottom and edges.
Oil the paper, not the tins, very lightly. Cake
is done when it shrinks from the pan and stops hissing,
or when a clean straw run into the thickest part comes
up clean.

As soon as possible after baking, remove from the
pan, as, if allowed to remain in the pan, it is apt
to become too moist.

RECIPES.

APPLE CAKE.—­Scald a cup of thin cream and
cool to blood heat, add one and a half cups of sifted
white flour, one fourth of a cup of sugar, and a gill
of liquid yeast or one half cake of compressed yeast
dissolved in a gill of thin cream. Beat well together,
set in a warm place, and let it rise till perfectly
light. When well risen, add one half cup of sugar
mixed with one half cup of warm flour. Beat well
and set in a warm place to rise again. When risen
a second time, add two eggs, whites and yolks beaten
separately, and about one tablespoonful of flour.
Turn the whole into three round shallow baking tins,
which have been previously oiled and warmed, and place
where it will rise again for an hour, or until it
is all of a foam. Bake quickly in a moderately
hot oven. Make this the day before it is needed,
and when ready to use prepare a filling as follows:
Beat together the whites of two eggs, one half cup
of sugar, the juice of one lemon, and two large tart
apples well grated. Heat in a farina kettle until
all are hot; cool, and spread between the layers of
cake. This should be eaten the day the filling
is prepared.

Page 260

COCOANUT CUSTARD CAKE.—­Make the cake as
directed in the preceding recipe. For the filling,
prepare a soft custard by heating just to the boiling
point one pint of rich milk previously flavored with
cocoanut; into which stir A tablespoonful of cornstarch
braided with a little milk, and let it boil until
thickened. Beat together an egg and one third
of a cup of sugar, and turn the hot mixture slowly
over it, stirring constantly till the custard thickens.
When cold, spread between the layers of raised cake.

CREAM CAKE.—­Prepare the cake as above.
Spread between the layers when cold a cream made as
follows: Stir into one half pint of boiling milk
two teaspoonfuls of cornstarch rubbed smooth in a little
cold milk. Take with two tablespoonfuls of sugar;
return to the rest of the custard and cook, stirring
constantly until quite thick. Cool and flavor
with a teaspoonful of vanilla or rose water.

DELICATE CUP CAKE.—­This cake contains no
soda or baking powder, and to make it light requires
the incorporation of as much air as possible.
In order to accomplish this, it should be put together
in the same manner as directed for Batter Breads (page
154). Have all material measured and everything
in readiness before beginning to put the cake together,
then beat together the yolk of one egg, one cup of
sugar, and one cup of very cold sweet cream, until
all of a foam; add a little grated lemon rind for
flavoring; stir in slowly, beating briskly all the
time, two cups of granular white flour (sometimes termed
gluten flour) or Graham meal. When all the flour
is added, add lastly the beaten whites of two eggs,
stirring just enough to mix them well throughout the
whole; turn at once into slightly heated gem irons
which have been previously oiled, and bake in a moderately
quick oven. If made according to directions,
this cake will be very light and delicate. It
will not puff up much above its first proportions,
but will be light throughout.

A nice cake may be prepared in the same manner with
Graham meal or even white flour, by the addition of
a heaping tablespoonful of cornstarch sifted into
the flour, in the way in which baking powder is ordinarily
mixed with flour before using.

FIG LAYER CAKE.—­Prepare the cake as directed
for Apple Cake. Chop one half pound of figs very
fine, add one half cup of sugar, one cup of water
and boil in a farina kettle until soft and homogeneous.
Cool, and spread between the cakes. Or chop steamed
figs very fine, mix with an equal quantity of almondine,
and use.

FRUIT JELLY CAKE.—­Prepare the cake as in
the foregoing, using fruit jelly between the layers.

GOLD AND SILVER CAKE.—­Prepare the cake
as for Apple Cake. When it has risen the second
time, measure out one third of it, and add the yolks
of the eggs to that portion with a little grated lemon
rind for flavoring; add the whites with some very
finely pulverized desiccated cocoanut to the other
two thirds. Make two sheets of the white and one
of the yellow. Allow them to become perfectly
light before baking. When baked, place the yellow
portion between the two white sheets, binding them
together with a little frosting or white currant jelly.

Page 261

ICING FOR CAKES.—­Since icing adds to the
excess of sugar contained in cakes, it is preferable
to use them without it except when especially desired
for ornament. An icing without eggs may be prepared
by boiling a cup of granulated sugar in five tablespoonfuls
of sweet milk for five minutes, then beating until
cool enough to spread. One with egg may be easily
made of six tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar, the white
of one egg, and one teaspoonful of boiling water mixed
without beating. A colored icing may be made
by using a teaspoonful of boiling cranberry juice
or other red fruit juice instead of water. The
top of the icing may be ornamented with roasted almonds,
bits of colored sugar or frosted fruits, directions
for the preparation of all of which have already been
given.

ORANGE CAKE.—­Prepare the cake as for Apple
Cake, and bake in two layers. For the filling,
take two good-sized, juicy oranges. Flavor two
tablespoonfuls of sugar by rubbing it over the skin
of the oranges, then peel, remove the white rind,
and cut into small pieces, discarding the seeds and
the central pith. Put the orange pulp in a china
bowl, and set in a dish of boiling water. When
it is hot, stir in a heaping teaspoonful of cornstarch
which has been braided smooth in two spoonfuls of
water. Stir constantly until the starch has cooked,
and the whole becomes thickened. Beat the yolk
of one egg to a cream with two tablespoonfuls of sugar.
Stir this very gradually, so as not to lump, into
the orange mixture, and cook two or three minutes longer.
Remove from the fire, and when cool, spread between
the cakes. If the oranges are not very tart,
a little lemon juice is an improvement. Meringue
the top of the cake with the white of the egg beaten
up with the two tablespoonfuls of sugar flavored with
orange.

FRUIT CAKE.—­Make a sponge of one pint of
thin cream which has been scalded and cooled to lukewarm,
one gill of liquid yeast or one half cake of compressed
yeast dissolved in a gill of cream, one half cup of
sugar, and two and one half cups of flour. Beat
all together very thoroughly and let rise until light.
When light, add another half cup of sugar, one half
cup of rather thick cream which has been scalded and
cooled, one cup of warm flour, and after beating well
together, set away to rise again. When well risen,
add one cup of seeded raisins, one fourth cup of citron
chopped fine, one half cup of Zante currants, two
well-beaten eggs, and about one and one third cups
of flour. Turn into a brick loaf bread pan, let
it rise until very light, and bake. When done,
remove from the pan and set away until at least twenty-four
hours old before using.

Page 262

LOAF CAKE.—­Scald a cup of rather thin cream,
and cool to blood heat. Add one and one half
cups of warm flour, one half a cup of sugar, and one
fourth cake of compressed yeast dissolved in two tablespoonfuls
of thin cream or as much of liquid yeast. Beat
well, and let rise until perfectly light; then add
one half cup more of sugar mixed with one half cup
of warm flour. Beat well, and set away to rise
a second time. When again well risen, add the
whites of three eggs beaten to a stiff froth, one
half cup of warm flour, and a little grated lemon rind,
or two teaspoonfuls of rose water to flavor.
Turn into a brick loaf bread pan lined with oiled
paper, allow it to become perfectly light again, and
bake. This cake, like other articles made with
yeast, should not be eaten within at least twenty-four
hours after baking.

PINEAPPLE CAKE.—­Prepare as for orange cake,
using grated pineapple in place of oranges.

PLAIN BUNS.—­These are the simplest of all
cakes. Dissolve half a small cake of compressed
yeast in a cup of thin cream which has been previously
warmed to blood heat, add two cups of warm flour, and
beat thoroughly together. Put in a warm place,
and let it rise till very light. Add three tablespoonfuls
of sugar mixed well with a half cup of warm flour,
one half cup of Zante currants, and sufficient flour
to make of the consistency of dough. Buns should
be kneaded just as soft as possible, and from fifteen
to twenty minutes. Shape into biscuits a little
larger than an English walnut, place them on tins far
enough apart so they will not touch each other when
risen. Put in a warm place till they have risen
to twice their first size, then bake in a moderately
quick oven. If desired, the currants may be omitted
and a little grated lemon rind for flavoring added
with the sugar, or a bit of citron may be placed in
the top of each bun when shaping. When taken
from the oven, sprinkle the top of each with moist
sugar if desired, or glace by brushing with milk while
baking.

SPONGE CAKE.—­For this will be required
four eggs, one cup of sugar, one tablespoonful of
lemon juice with a little of the grated rind, and
one cup of white flour. Success in the making
of sponge cake depends almost wholly upon the manner
in which it is put together. Beat the yolks of
the eggs until very light and thick, then add the sugar
little by little, beating it in thoroughly; add the
lemon juice and the grated rind. Beat the whites
of the eggs until perfectly stiff and firm, and fold
or chop them very lightly into the yolk mixture.
Sift the flour with a sifter little by little over
the mixture and fold it carefully in. On no account
stir either the white of the eggs or the flour in,
since stirring will drive out the air which has been
beaten into the eggs. Do not beat after the flour
is added. The cake, when the flour is all in,
should be stiff and spongy. If it is liquid in
character, it will be apt to be tough and may be considered
a failure. Bake in a shallow pan in a rather
hot oven fifteen or twenty minutes.

Page 263

SUGAR CRISPS.—­Make a soft dough of two
and one fourth cups of Graham flour, one half cup
of granulated white sugar, and one cup of rather thick
sweet cream. Knead as little as possible, roll
out very thinly, cut in rounds or squares, and bake
in a quick oven.

VARIETY CAKE.—­Make the same as Gold and
Silver Cake, and mix a half cup of Zante currants
and chopped raisins with the yellow portion.
The white portion may be flavored by adding a very
little chopped citron instead of the cocoanut, if
preferred.

TABLE TOPICS.

If families could be induced to substitute
the apple—­sound, ripe, and luscious—­for
the pies, cakes, candies, and other sweetmeats with
which children are too often stuffed, there would be
a diminution of doctors’ bills, sufficient
in a single year to lay up a stock of this delicious
fruit for a season’s use.—­Prof.
Faraday.

Food for repentance—­mince
pie eaten late at night.

Young Student—­“This
cook book says that pie crust needs plenty of
shortening. Do you know
what that means, pa?”

Father—­“It
means lard.”

“But why is lard called
shortening, pa?”

“Because it shortens
life.”

The health journals and the
doctors all agree that the best and most
wholesome part of the New
England country doughnut is the hole. The
larger the hole, they say,
the better the doughnut.

An old gentleman who was in the habit
of eating a liberal slice of pie or cake just
before retiring, came home late one evening after
his wife had gone to bed. After an unsuccessful
search in the pantry, he called to his wife, “Mary,
where is the pie?” His good wife timidly
acknowledged that there was no pie in the house.
Said her husband, “Then where is the cake?”
The poor woman meekly confessed that the supply
of cake was also exhausted; at which the disappointed
husband cried out in a sharp, censorious tone, “Why,
what would you do if somebody should be sick in
the night?”

Woman (to tramp)—­“I
can give you some cold buckwheat cakes and a piece
of mince pie.” Tramp—­(frightened)
“What ye say?” Woman—­“Cold
buckwheat cakes and mince pie.” Tramp—­(heroically)
“Throw in a small bottle of pepsin, Madam,
and I’ll take the chances.”

GRAVIES AND SAUCES

Gravies for vegetables, sauces for desserts, and similar
foods thickened with flour or cornstarch, are among
the most common of the poorly prepared articles of
the cuisine, although their proper preparation
is a matter of considerable importance, since neither
a thin, watery sauce nor a stiff, paste-like mixture
is at all palatable. The preparation of gravies
and sauces is a very simple matter when governed by
that accuracy of measurement and carefulness of detail
which should be exercised in the preparation of all

Page 264

foods. In consistency, a properly made sauce
should mask the back of the spoon; that is to say,
when dipped into the mixture and lifted out, the metal
of the spoon should not be visible through it as it
runs off. The proportion of material necessary
to secure this requisite is one tablespoonful of flour,
slightly rounded, for each half pint of water or stock.
If the sauce be made of milk or fruit juice, a little
less flour will be needed. If cornstarch be used,
a scant instead of a full tablespoonful will be required.
The flour, or cornstarch should be first braided or
rubbed perfectly smooth in a very small amount of
the liquid reserved for the purpose (salt or sugar,
if any is to be used, being added to the flour before
braiding with the liquid), and then carefully added
to the remaining liquid, which should be actively
boiling. It should then be continuously stirred
until it has thickened, when it should be allowed
to cook slowly for five or ten minutes until the starch
or flour is well done. If through any negligence
to observe carefully these simple details, there should
be lumps in the sauce, they must be removed before
serving by turning the whole through a fine colander
or wire strainer.

The double boiler is the best utensil for the preparation
of sauces and gravies, since it facilitates even cooking
and renders them less liable to become scorched.
The inner cup should be placed on the top of the range
until the sauce has become thickened, as in the cooking
of grains, and afterwards placed in the outer boiler
to continue the cooking as long as needed.

Cream gravies for vegetables may be delicately flavored
with celery, by steeping a few bits of celery in the
milk for a few minutes, and removing with a fork before
adding the thickening. Sauces for puddings may
be similarly flavored, by steeping cocoanut or bits
of orange or lemon rind in the milk.

GRAVIES AND SAUCES FOR VEGETABLES.

RECIPES.

BROWN SAUCE.—­Heat a pint of thin cream,
and when boiling, add half a teaspoonful of salt and
a tablespoonful of flour browned in the oven as directed
on page 274, and rubbed to a smooth paste with a little
cold milk. Allow it to boil rapidly, stirring
constantly until thickened; then cook more slowly,
in a double boiler, for five or ten minutes. If
desired, the milk may be flavored with onion before
adding the flour. This makes a good dressing
for potatoes.

CREAM OR WHITE SAUCE.—­Heat a pint of rich
milk, part cream if it can be afforded, to boiling,
and stir into it one tablespoonful of flour previously
rubbed smooth in a little milk. Season with salt,
and cook in a double boiler five or ten minutes, stirring
frequently that no lumps be formed. If lumps
are found in the sauce, turn it quickly through a
fine, hot colander into the dish in which it is to
be served.

CELERY SAUCE.—­Cut half a dozen stalks of
celery into finger-lengths, and simmer in milk for
ten or fifteen minutes. Skim out the celery,
add a little cream to the milk, salt to taste, and
thicken with flour as for white sauce. This is
very nice for potatoes and for toast.

Page 265

EGG SAUCE.—­Heat a pint of milk to boiling,
and stir in a dessertspoonful of flour rubbed smooth
in a little milk. Stir constantly until the sauce
is well thickened; add the well-beaten yolk of an egg,
turning it in very slowly and stirring rapidly so that
it shall be well mingled. Boil up once only,
add a very little salt, and serve. The egg makes
an excellent substitute for cream.

PEASE GRAVY.—­A gravy prepared either of
dried or green peas as directed for Lentil Gravy on
page 226, makes a suitable dressing for baked potatoes.
Lentil gravy is also good for the same purpose.
The addition of a little lemon juice to the lentil
gravy makes another variety.

TOMATO GRAVY.—­A gravy made of tomatoes
as directed on page 261, is excellent to use on baked
or boiled sweet potatoes.

TOMATO CREAM GRAVY.—­Prepare a gravy as
for Cream Sauce, using a slightly heaping measure
of flour. When done, add, just before serving,
for each quart of the cream sauce, one cup of hot,
stewed tomato which has been put through a fine colander
to remove all seeds. Beat it thoroughly into
the sauce and serve on boiled or baked potato.

SAUCES FOR DESSERTS AND PUDDINGS.

RECIPES.

ALMOND SAUCE.—­Heat a pint of rich milk
in the inner cup of a double boiler, placed directly
upon the stove. When the milk is boiling, stir
into it a heaping tablespoonful of flour which has
been rubbed to a cream in a little cold milk.
Boil rapidly until thickened, stirring constantly;
then add three tablespoonfuls of almondine; place in
the outer boiler, and cook for five or ten minutes
longer.

CARAMEL SAUCE.—­Stir a cup of sugar in a
saucepan over the fire until melted and lightly browned.
Add one cup of boiling water, and simmer ten minutes.

COCOANUT SAUCE.—­Flavor a pint of new milk
with cocoanut, as directed on page 298. Skim
out the cocoanut, and add enough fresh milk to make
one pint. Heat the milk to boiling, add two tablespoonfuls
of sugar, thicken with two even spoonfuls of cornstarch,
and proceed in the same manner as for Mock Cream.

CREAM SAUCE.—­Beat together two thirds of
a cup of sugar, one tablespoonful of thick, sweet
cream, and one egg. Wet half a teaspoonful of
cornstarch with a little milk, and stir in with the
mixture; then add five tablespoonfuls of boiling milk,
stirring rapidly all the time. Pour into the
inner cup of a double boiler; have the water in the
outer cup boiling, and cook five minutes. Flavor
to taste.

CRANBERRY PUDDING SAUCE.—­To a quart of
boiling water add two cups of sugar, and when well
dissolved, one quart of carefully sorted cranberries.
Mash the berries as much as possible with a silver
spoon, and boil just seven minutes. Turn through
a colander to remove skins, cool and serve.

Page 266

CUSTARD SAUCE.—­Rub two teaspoonfuls of
flour to a smooth paste with half a cup of new milk.
Heat two and a half cups of fresh milk in a double
boiler to scalding, then stir in the braided flour;
heat again, stirring constantly till just to the boiling
point, but no longer; remove from the stove and cool
a little. Beat together one egg, three tablespoonfuls
of sugar, and a little lemon rind for flavoring.
Turn the hot milk over this, a little at a time, stirring
briskly meanwhile. Return the whole to the double
boiler, and cook, stirring frequently, until when
a spoon is dipped into the custard a coating remains
upon it. Then remove at once from the fire.
If the spoon comes out clean, the custard is not sufficiently
cooked.

EGG SAUCE.—­Separate the yolks and whites
of three eggs. Beat the whites to a stiff froth,
and stir in very gently, so as not to let the air
out of the beaten whites, one cup of powdered sugar
and a teaspoonful of vanilla or lemon flavoring powder.
Lastly, stir in carefully the beaten yolks of the
eggs, and serve at once.

EGG SAUCE NO. 2.—­Beat the whites of three
eggs to a stiff froth with one half cup of sugar.
Add three tablespoonfuls of lemon juice and one of
water. Serve at once.

FOAMY SAUCE.—­Beat one egg or the whites
of two very thoroughly with one half cup of sugar
and a little grated lemon rind. Pour on this
very slowly, stirring constantly to make it smooth,
one cup of boiling milk, part cream if it can be afforded.
If the whites alone are used, they should not be beaten
stiff. If preferred, the lemon may be omitted
and a tablespoonful or two of currant juice or quince
jelly added last as flavoring.

FRUIT CREAM.—­Take the juice pressed from
a cupful of fresh strawberries, red raspberries, or
black caps, add to it one third of a cup of sugar,
and place in the ice chest till chilled. Set a
cup of sweet cream also on ice till very cold.
When thoroughly cold, whip with an egg beater till
the froth begins to rise, then add to it the cold
fruit juice and beat again. Have ready the white
of one egg beaten to a stiff froth, which add to the
fruit cream, and whip till no more froth will rise.
This makes a delicious dressing for simple grain molds
and blancmanges, but is so rich it should be used
rather sparingly. Serve as soon as possible after
being prepared. Fruit syrup, in the proportion
of two or three tablespoonfuls to the pint of cream,
may be used in the same manner when the fresh juice
is not available. The juice of orange, quince,
and pineapple may also be used in the same manner as
that of berries.

FRUIT SAUCE.—­Heat a pint of red raspberry,
currant, grape, strawberry, apricot, or any other
fruit juice to scalding, and stir in a tablespoonful
of cornstarch previously rubbed to a cream with a little
cold water. Cook till it thickens; then add sugar
according to the acidity of the fruit. Strain
and cool before using. If fruit juice is not
available, two or three tablespoonfuls of pure fruit
jelly may be dissolved in a pint of hot water and
used instead of the juice. A mixture of red and
black raspberry juice, or currant and raspberry, will
be found acceptable for variety.

Page 267

FRUIT SAUCE NO. 2.—­Mash a quart of fresh
berries, add one cup of sugar, beat very thoroughly
together, and set away until needed. Just before
it is wanted for serving, turn into a granite fruit
kettle and heat nearly to boiling, stirring constantly
to avoid burning. Serve hot with hot or cold
puddings, or molded desserts.

LEMON PUDDING SAUCE.—­Heat to boiling, in
a double boiler, a pint of water in which are two
slices of lemon, and stir into it a dessertspoonful
of cornstarch; cook four to five minutes, or until
it thickens. Squeeze the juice from one large
lemon, and mix it with two thirds of a cup of sugar.
Add this to the cornstarch mixture, and allow the
whole to boil up once, stirring constantly; then take
from the fire. Leave in the double boiler, surrounded
by the hot water, for ten minutes. Cool to blood
heat before serving.

MOCK CREAM.—­Heat a pint of fresh, unskimmed
milk in a double boiler. When the milk is boiling,
stir in two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and two even
tablespoonfuls of cornstarch which has first been rubbed
smooth in a very little cold milk. Bring just
to a boil, stirring constantly; then pour the hot
mixture, a little at a time, beating thoroughly all
the while, over the well-beaten white of one egg.
Put again into the double boiler, return to the fire,
and stir till it thickens to the consistency of cream.

MOLASSES SAUCE.—­To one half cup of molasses,
add one half cup of water, and heat to boiling.
Thicken with a teaspoonful of flour rubbed to a cream
with a little cold water. Serve hot.

ORANGE SAUCE.—­Squeeze a cupful of juice
from well-flavored, sour oranges. Heat a pint
of water, and when boiling, thicken with a tablespoonful
of cornstarch. Add the orange juice, strain, and
sweeten to taste with sugar that has been flavored
by rubbing over the yellow rind of an orange until
mixed with the oil in the rind. If a richer sauce
is desired, the yolk of an egg may be added lastly,
and the sauce allowed to cook until thickened.

PEACH SAUCE.—­Strain the juice from a well-kept
can of peaches. Dilute with one half as much
water, heat to boiling, and thicken with cornstarch,
a scant tablespoonful to the pint of liquid.

PLAIN PUDDING SAUCE.—­Thicken one and one
half cups of water with one tablespoonful of cornstarch;
boil a few minutes, then stir in two thirds of a cup
of sugar, and one half cup of sweet cream. Take
off the stove, and flavor with a little rose, vanilla,
or lemon.

RED SAUCE.—­Pare and slice a large red beet,
and simmer gently in three cups of water for twenty
minutes, or until the water is rose colored, then
add two cups of sugar, the thin yellow rind and juice
of one lemon, and boil until the whole is thick syrup.
Strain, add a teaspoonful of rose water or vanilla,
and serve.

ROSE CREAM.—­Remove the thick cream from
the top of a pan of cold milk, taking care not to
take up any of the milk. Add sugar to sweeten
and a teaspoonful or two of rose water. Beat with
an egg beater until the whole mass is thick.
Good thick cream, beaten in this manner, makes nearly
double its original quantity.

Page 268

SAGO SAUCE.—­Wash one tablespoonful of sago
in two or three waters, then put it into a saucepan
with three fourths of a cup of hot water, and some
bits of lemon peel. Simmer gently for ten minutes,
take out the lemon peel, add half a cup of quince
or apricot juice; and if the latter, the strained
juice of half a lemon, and sugar to taste. Beat
together thoroughly.

WHIPPED CREAM SAUCE.—­Beat together with
an egg beater until of a stiff froth one cup of sweet
cream which has been cooled to a temperature of 64
deg. or less, one teaspoonful of vanilla or a little
grated lemon rind, and one half cup of powdered white
sugar, and the whites of one or two eggs. The
sauce may be variously flavored with a little fruit
jelly beaten with the egg, before adding to the cream.

TABLE TOPICS.

Whether or not life is worth
living, all depends upon the
liver.—­Sel.

Diet cures mair than doctors.—­Scotch
Proverb.

According to the ancient Hindu
Scriptures, the proper amount of food
is half of what can be conveniently
eaten.

Every hour you steal from
digestion will be reclaimed by
indigestion.—­Oswald.

“Very few nations in the world,”
says a sagacious historian, “produce better
soldiers than the Russians. They will endure the
greatest fatigues and sufferings with patience
and calmness. And it is well know that the
Russian soldiers are from childhood nourished by
simple and coarse vegetable food. The Russian
Grenadiers are the finest body of men I ever saw,—­not
a man is under six feet high. Their allowance
consists of eight pounds of black bread, and four
pounds of oil per man for eight days.”

Colonel Fitzgibbon was, many years ago,
colonial agent at London for the Canadian Government,
and wholly dependent upon remittances from Canada
for his support. On one occasion these remittances
failed to arrive, and it being before the day
of cables, he was obliged to write to his friends
to ascertain the reason of the delay. Meanwhile
he had just one sovereign to live upon. He
found he could live upon a sixpence a day,—­four
pennyworth of bread, one pennyworth of milk, and
one pennyworth of sugar. When his remittances
arrived a month afterward, he had five shillings
remaining of his sovereign, and he liked his frugal
diet so well that he kept it up for several years.

An hour of exercise to every
pound of food.—­Oswald.

Some eat to live, they
loudly cry;
But from the pace they
swallow pie
And other food promiscuously,
One would infer they
eat to die.

—­Sel.

BEVERAGES

Page 269

The use of beverages in quantities with food at mealtime
is prejudicial to digestion, because they delay the
action of the gastric juice upon solid foods.
The practice of washing down food by copious draughts
of water, tea, or coffee is detrimental, not only
because it introduces large quantities of fluid into
the stomach, which must be absorbed before digestion
can begin, but also because it offers temptation to
careless and imperfect mastication, while tea and coffee
also serve as a vehicle for an excessive use of sugar,
thus becoming a potent cause of indigestion and dyspepsia.
It is best to drink but sparingly, if at all, at mealtimes.
Consideration should also be given to the nature of
the beverage, since many in common use are far from
wholesome. Very cold fluids, like iced water,
iced tea, and iced milk, are harmful, because they
cool the contents of the stomach to a degree at which
digestion is checked. If drunk at all, they should
be taken only in small sips and retained in the mouth
until partly warmed.

Tea is often spoken of as the “cup that cheers
but not inebriates.” “The cup that
may cheer yet does injury” would be nearer the
truth, for there is every evidence to prove that this
common beverage is exceedingly harmful, and that the
evils of its excessive use are second only to those
of tobacco and alcohol. Tea contains two harmful
substances, theine and tannin,—­from three
to six per cent of the former and more than one fourth
its weight of the latter. Theine is a poison
belonging to the same class of poisonous alkaloids,
and is closely allied to cocaine. It is a much
more powerful poison than alcohol, producing death
in less than one hundredth part the deadly dose of
alcohol; and when taken in any but the smallest doses,
it produces all the symptoms of intoxication.
Tannin is an astringent exercising a powerful effect
in delaying salivary and stomach digestion, thus becoming
one of the most common causes of digestive disorders.
It is also a matter of frequent observation that sleeplessness,
palpitation of the heart, and various disorders of
the nervous system frequently follow the prolonged
use of tea. Both theine and tannin are more abundant
in green than in black tea.

The dependence of the habitual tea-drinker upon the
beverage, and the sense of loss experienced when deprived
of it, are among the strongest proofs of its evil
effects, and should be warnings against its use.
No such physical discomfort is experienced when deprived
of any article of ordinary food. The use of tea
makes one feel bright and fresh when really exhausted;
but, like all other stimulants, it is by exciting
vital action above the normal without supplying extra
force to support the extra expenditure. The fact
that a person feels tired is evidence that the system
demands rest, that his body is worn and needs repair;
but the relief experienced after a cup of tea is not
recuperation. Instead, it indicates that his
nerves are paralyzed so that they are insensible to
fatigue.

Page 270

Some people suppose the manner of preparing tea has
much to do with its deleterious effects, and that
by infusion for two or three minutes only, the evils
resulting from the tannin will be greatly lessened.
This, however, is a delusion, if the same amount of
tea be used proportionate to the water; for tannin
in its free state, the condition in which it is found
in tea is one of the most readily soluble of substances;
and tea infused for two minutes is likely to hold
nearly as much tannin in solution as that infused
for a longer period.

Tea is not a food, and it can in no wise take the
place of food, as so many people attempt to make it,
without detriment to health in every respect.

Coffee, cocoa, and chocolate rank in the same category
with tea, as beverages which are more or less harmful.
Coffee contains caffein, a principle identical with
theine and a modified form of tannin, though in less
quantity than tea. Cocoa and chocolate contain
substances similar to theine and equally harmful,
though usually present in much less proportion than
in tea.

Custom has made the use of these beverages so common
that most people seldom stop to inquire into their
nature. Doubtless the question arises in many
minds; If these beverages contain such poisons, why
do they not more commonly produce fatal results?—­Because
a tolerance of the poison is established in the system
by use, as in the case of tobacco and other narcotics
and stimulants; but that the poisons surely though
insidiously are doing their work is attested by the
prevalence of numerous disorders of the digestive
and nervous systems, directly attributable to the use
of these beverages.

Both tea and coffee are largely adulterated with other
harmful substances, thus adding another reason why
their use should be discarded. It is stated on
good authority that it is almost impossible to obtain
unadulterated ground coffee.

In view of all these facts, it certainly seems wisest
if a beverage is considered essential, to make use
of one less harmful. Hot milk, hot water, hot
lemonade, caramel coffee, or some of the various grain
coffees, recipes for which are give in the following
pages, are all excellent substitutes for tea and coffee,
if a hot drink is desired.

RECIPES

BEET COFFEE.—­Wash best beets thoroughly,
but do not scrape; slice, and brown in a moderate
oven, taking care not to burn. When brown, break
in small pieces and steep the same as ordinary coffee.

CARAMEL COFFEE.—­Take three quarts best
bran, one quart corn meal, three tablespoonfuls of
molasses; mix and brown in the oven like ordinary
coffee. For every cup of coffee required, use
one heaping tablespoonful of the caramel. Pour
boiling water over it, and steep, not boil, for fifteen
or twenty minutes.

Page 271

CARAMEL COFFEE NO. 2.—­Take one cup each
of white flour, corn meal, unsifted Graham flour,
and molasses. Mix well, and form into cakes half
an inch thick and a little larger around than a silver
dollar. If the molasses is not thin enough to
take up all the dry material, one fourth or one half
a cup of cold water may be added for that purpose.
Bake the cakes in the oven until very dark brown,
allowing them to become slightly scorched. When
desired for use, take one cake for each cup of coffee
required, pour sufficient water over them, and steep,
not boil, twenty minutes.

CARAMEL COFFEE NO. 3.—­To three and one
half quarts of bran and one and one half quarts of
corn meal, take one pint of New Orleans molasses and
one half pint of boiling water. Put the water
and molasses together and pour them over the bran
and corn meal which have been previously mixed.
Rub all well together, and brown slowly in the oven,
stirring often, until a rich dark brown. Use
one heaping tablespoonful of coffee to each small
cup of boiling water, let it just boil up, then steep
on the back of the stove for five or ten minutes.

CARAMEL COFFEE NO. 4.—­Beat together four
eggs and one pint of molasses, and mix thoroughly
with four quarts of good wheat bran. Brown in
the oven, stirring frequently. Prepare for use
the same as the preceding.

MRS. T’S CARAMEL COFFEE.—­Make a rather
thick batter of Graham grits or Graham meal and milk,
spread it in shallow pans and bake in a moderate oven
until evenly done throughout. Cut the cake thus
prepared into thin strips, which break into small
uniform pieces and spread on perforated tins or sheets
and brown in the oven. Each piece should be very
darkly and evenly browned, but not burned. For
each cup of coffee required, steep a small handful
in boiling water for ten or fifteen minutes, strain
and serve.

PARCHED GRAIN COFFEE.—­Brown in the oven
some perfectly sound wheat, sweet corn, barley, or
rice, as you would the coffee berry. If desired,
a mixture of grains may be used. Pound or grind
fine. Mix the white of an egg with three tablespoonfuls
of the ground grain, and pour over it a quart of boiling
water. Allow it to come just to the boiling point,
steep slowly for twelve or fifteen minutes, and serve.

WHEAT, OATS AND BARLEY COFFEE.—­Mix together
equal quantities of these grains, brown in the oven
like ordinary coffee, and grind. To one quart
of boiling water take three tablespoonfuls of the prepared
coffee mixed with the white of an egg, and steep in
boiling water ten or fifteen minutes.

RECIPES FOR COLD BEVERAGES.

BLACKBERRY BEVERAGE.—­Crush a quart of fresh
blackberries, and pour over them a quart of cold water;
add a slice of lemon and a teaspoonful of orange water,
and let it stand three or four hours. Strain through
a jelly bag. Sweeten to taste with a syrup prepared
by dissolving white sugar in hot water, allowing it
to become cold before using. Serve at once with
bits of broken ice in the glasses, or place the pitcher
on ice until ready to serve.

Page 272

FRUIT BEVERAGE.—­A great variety of pleasant,
healthful drinks may be made by taking equal quantities
of water and the juice of currants, strawberries,
raspberries, cherries, or a mixture of two kinds, as
raspberries and currants, sweetening to taste, and
putting into each glass a small lump of ice.
Directions for the preparation of fruit juices will
be found on page 209.

FRUIT BEVERAGE NO. 2.—­Mash a pint of red
raspberries, add one cup of canned pineapple or half
a fresh one chopped fine; pour over all three pints
of water. Stir frequently, and let the mixture
stand for two hours. Strain, add the juice of
six lemons, and sugar or syrup to sweeten.

ANOTHER.—­Extract the juice from three lemons
and as many sour oranges, add a quart of cold water,
sugar or syrup to sweeten, half a teaspoonful of rose
water, and a cup of pure grape juice; or the rose
water and grape juice may be omitted and two tablespoonfuls
of strawberry, raspberry, or cherry juice used instead,
and the whole poured over half a dozen slices of pineapple,
and allowed to stand until well flavored before using.

FRUIT CORDIAL.—­Crush a pint of blackberries,
raspberries, grapes, currants, or cherries, adding
the juice of two sour oranges, and a sliced lemon;
pour over all a quart of cold water. Stir the
mixture frequently and let it stand for two hours,
then strain and add a syrup made by dissolving white
sugar in boiling water, sufficient to sweeten.
Cool on ice and serve.

GRAPE BEVERAGE.—­Crush two pounds of perfectly
ripened purple grapes and strain the juice through
a jelly bag. Add to the juice three tablespoonfuls
of granulated sugar or syrup, and dilute with cold
water to suit the taste.

LEMONADE.—­Use three large or four medium-sized
lemons for each quart of water, and from six to eight
tablespoonfuls of sugar. Rub or squeeze the lemons
till soft. Cut a slice or two from each, and extract
the juice with a lemon drill; strain the juice through
a fine wire strainer to remove the seeds and bits
of pulp, and pour it over the sugar. Add the
slices of lemon, and pour over all a very little boiling
water to thoroughly dissolve the sugar; let it stand
ten or fifteen minutes, then add the necessary quantity
of cold water, and serve. Or rub the sugar over
the outside of the lemons to flavor it, and make it
into a syrup by adding sufficient boiling water to
dissolve it. Extract and strain the lemon juice,
add the prepared syrup and the requisite quantity
of cold water, and serve.

MIXED LEMONADE.—­A very pleasant, cooling
summer drink is made from the juice of six oranges
and six lemons, with sugar to taste; add to this some
pounded ice and the juice of a small can of pineapple,
and lastly pour over the whole two quarts of water.

OATMEAL DRINK.—­Boil one fourth of a pound
of oatmeal in three quarts of water for half an hour,
then add one and one half tablespoonfuls of sugar,
strain and cool. It may be flavored with a little
lemon or raspberry syrup if desired; or the sugar may
be omitted and a quart of milk added. Cool on
ice and serve.

Page 273

ORANGEADE.—­Pare very thin from one orange
a few bits of the yellow rind. Slice three well-peeled
sour oranges, taking care to remove all the white
portion and all seeds. Add the yellow rind and
a tablespoonful of sugar; pour over all a quart of
boiling water. Cover the dish, and let it remain
until the drink is cold. Or, if preferred, the
juice of the oranges may be extracted with a lemon
drill and strained as for lemonade.

PINEAPPLE BEVERAGE.—­Pare and chop quite
fine one fresh pineapple; add a slice or two of lemon,
and cover with three pints of boiling water.
Let it stand for two hours or more, stirring frequently;
then strain and add the juice of five lemons, and
sugar or syrup to sweeten.

PINEAPPLE LEMONADE.—­Lemonade made in the
usual manner and flavored with a few spoonfuls of
canned pineapple juice, is excellent for variety.

PINK LEMONADE.—­Add to a pint of lemonade
prepared in the usual manner half a cup of fresh or
canned strawberry, red raspberry, currant, or cranberry
juice. It gives a pretty color besides adding
a pleasing flavor.

SHERBET.—­Mash a quart of red raspberries,
currants, or strawberries, add the juice of a lemon,
and pour over all three pints of cold water.
Stir frequently, and let it stand for two or three
hours. Strain through a jelly bag, sweeten to
taste, and serve.

TISANE.—­This is a favorite French beverage,
and is prepared by chopping fine a cupful of dried
fruits, such as prunes, figs, or prunelles, and steeping
for an hour in a quart of water, afterward straining,
sweetening to taste, and cooling on ice before using.

TABLE TOPICS.

The nervousness and peevishness of our
times are chiefly attributable to tea and coffee.
The digestive organs of confirmed coffee drinkers
are in a state of chronic derangement which reacts
on the brain, producing fretful and lachrymose
moods. The snappish, petulant humor of the
Chinese can certainly be ascribed to their immoderate
fondness for tea.—­Dr. Bock.

Dr. Ferguson, an eminent physician who
has carefully investigated the influence of tea
and coffee upon the health and development of children,
says he found that children who were allowed these
beverages gained but four pounds a year between
the ages of thirteen and sixteen, while those
who had been allowed milk instead, gained fifteen
pounds in weight during the same period.

Dr. Richardson, the eminent English
physician and scientist, asserts that the misery
of the women of the poorer classes of the population
in England is more than doubled by the use of tea,
which only soothes or stimulates to intensify
the after-coming depression and languor.

A physician recommended a
lady to abandon the use of tea and coffee.
“O, but I shall miss
it so,” said she.

“Very likely,”
replied her medical adviser, “but you are missing
health now, and will soon
lose it altogether if you do not.”

Page 274

Dr. Stenhouse, of Liverpool, once made
a careful analysis of a sample package of black
tea, which was found to contain “some pure Congo
tea leaves, also siftings of Pekoe and inferior kinds,
weighing together twenty-seven per cent of the
whole. The remaining seventy-three per cent
was composed of the following substances; Iron,
plumbago, chalk, China-clay, sand, Prussian-blue, tumeric,
indigo, starch, gypsum, catechu, gum, the leaves
of the camelia, sarangna, Chlorantes officinalis,
elm, oak, willow, poplar, elder, beach, hawthorn,
and sloe.”

MILK CREAM BUTTER

MILK.

Chemically considered, the constituents of milk are
nitrogenous matter (consisting of casein and a small
proportion of albumen), fat, sugar of milk, mineral
matter, and water, the last constituting from sixty-five
to ninety per cent of the whole.

The proportion of these elements varies greatly in
the milk of different animals of the same species
and of the same animals at different times, so that
it is not possible to give an exact analysis.

The analysis of an average specimen of cow’s
milk, according to Letheby, is:—­

If a drop of milk be examined with a microscope, it
will be seen as a clear liquid, holding in suspension
a large number of minute globules, which give the
milk its opacity or white color. These microscopic
globules are composed of fatty matter, each surrounded
by an envelope of casein, the principal nitrogenous
element found in milk. They are lighter than
the surrounding liquid, and when the milk remains at
rest, they gradually rise to the top and form cream.
Casein, unlike albumen, is not coagulated by heat;
hence when milk is cooked, it undergoes no noticeable
change, save the coagulation of the very small amount
of albumen it contains, which, as it solidifies, rises
to the top, carrying with it a small portion of the
sugar and saline matter and some of the fat globules,
forming a skin-like scum upon the surface. Casein,
although not coagulable by heat, is coagulated by the
introduction into the milk of acids or extract of
rennet. The curd of cheese is coagulated casein.
When milk is allowed to stand for some time exposed
to warmth and air, a spontaneous coagulation occurs,
caused by fermentative changes in the sugar of milk,
by which it is converted into lactic acid through
the action of germs.

Milk is sometimes adulterated by water, the removal
of more or less of the cream, or the addition of some
foreign substance to increase its density.

The quality of milk is more or less influenced by
the food upon which the animal is fed. Watery
milk may be produced by feeding a cow upon sloppy
food.

Page 275

The milk of diseased animals should never be used
for food. There is no way by which such milk
can invariably be detected, but Prof. Vaughan,
of Michigan University, notes the following kinds
of milk to be avoided:

1. Milk which becomes sour and curdles within
a few hours after it has been drawn, and before any
cream forms on its surface. This is known in
some sections as ‘curdly’ milk, and it
comes from cows with certain inflammatory affections
of the udder, or digestive diseases, or those which
have been overdriven or worried.

2. “Bitter-sweet milk” has cream
of a bitter taste, is covered with ‘blisters,’
and frequently with a fine mold. Butter and cheese
made from such milk cannot be eaten on account of
the disagreeable taste.

3. ‘Slimy milk’ can be drawn out
into fine, ropy fibers. It has an unpleasant
taste, which is most marked in the cream. The
causes which lead to the secretion of this milk are
not known.

4. ‘Blue milk’ is characterized by
the appearance on its surface, eighteen or twenty-four
hours after it is drawn, of small, indigo-blue spots,
which rapidly enlarge until the whole surface is covered
with a blue film. If the milk be allowed to stand
a few days, the blue is converted into a greenish
or reddish color. This coloration of the milk
is due to the growth of microscopic organisms.
The butter made from ‘blue milk’ is dirty-white,
gelatinous, and bitter.

5. ‘Barnyard milk’ is a term used
to designate milk taken from unclean animals, or those
which have been kept in filthy, unventilated stables.
The milk absorbs and carries the odors, which are often
plainly perceptible. Such milk may not be poisonous,
but it is repulsive.

There is no doubt that milk often serves as the vehicle
for the distribution of the germs of various contagious
diseases, like scarlet fever, diphtheria, and typhoid
fever, from becoming contaminated in some way, either
from the hands of milkers or from water used as an
adulterant or in cleansing the milk vessels. Recent
investigations have also shown that cows are to some
extent subject to scarlet fever, the same as human
beings, and that milk from infected cows will produce
the same disease in the consumer.

Milk should not be kept in brass or copper vessels
or in earthen-ware lined with lead glazing; for if
the milk becomes acid, it is likely to unite with
the metal and form a poisonous compound. Glass
and granite ware are better materials in which to
keep milk.

Milk should never be allowed to stand uncovered in
an occupied room, especially a sitting-room or bedroom,
as its dust is likely to contain disease-germs, which
falling into the milk, may become a source of serious
illness to the consumer. Indeed it is safest to
keep milk covered whenever set away, to exclude the
germs which are at all times present in the air.
A good way is to protect the dishes containing milk
with several layers of cheese-cloth, which will permit
the air but not the germs to circulate in and out
of the pans. Neither should it be allowed to
stand where there are strong odors, as it readily takes
up by absorption any odors to which it is exposed.

Page 276

A few years ago Dr. Dougall, of Glasgow, made some
very interesting experiments on the absorbent properties
of milk. He inclosed in jars a portion of substances
giving off emanations, with a uniform quantity of
milk, in separate vessels, for a period of eight hours,
at the end of which time samples of the milk were
drawn off and tested. The result was that milk
exposed to the following substances retained odors
as described:—­

These facts clearly indicate that if the emanations
to which milk is exposed are of a diseased and dangerous
quality, it is all but impossible that the milk can
remain free from dangerous properties.

Too much pains cannot be taken in the care of milk
and vessels containing it. Contact with the smallest
quantity of milk which has undergone fermentation
will sour the whole; hence the necessity for scrupulous
cleanliness of all vessels which have contained milk
before they are used again for that purpose.

In washing milk dishes, many persons put them first
into scalding water, by which means the albumen in
the milk is coagulated; and if there are any crevices
or seams in the pans or pails, this coagulated portion
is likely to adhere to them like glue, and becoming
sour, will form the nucleus for spoiling the next
milk put into them. A better way is first to
rinse each separately in cold water, not pouring the
water from one pan to another, until there is not
the slightest milky appearance in the water, then
wash in warm suds, or water containing sal-soda, and
afterward scald thoroughly; wipe perfectly dry, and
place if possible where the sun will have free access
to them until they are needed for further use.
If sunshine is out of the question, invert the pans
or cans over the stove, or place for a few moments
in a hot oven.

The treatment of milk varies with its intended use,
whether whole or separated from the cream.

Cream rises best when the milk is quite warm or when
near the freezing-point. In fact, cream separates
more easily from milk at the freezing-point than any
other, but it is not thick and never becomes so.
An intermediate state seems to be unfavorable to a
full rising of the cream.

A temperature of 56 deg. to 60 deg.F. is a good one.
Milk to be used whole should be kept at about 45 deg.
and stirred frequently.

All milk obtained from city milkmen or any source
not certainly known to be free from disease-germs,
should be sterilized before using. Indeed, it
is safest always to sterilize milk before using, since
during the milking or in subsequent handling and transportation
it is liable to become infected with germs.

Page 277

TO STERILIZE MILK FOR IMMEDIATE USE.—­Put
the milk as soon as received into the inner dish of
a double boiler, the outer vessel of which should
be filled with boiling water. Cover and heat the
milk rapidly to as near the boiling point as possible.
Allow it to remain with the water in the outer boiler
actively boiling for half an hour, then remove from
the stove and cool very quickly. This may be
accomplished by pouring into shallow dishes, and placing
these in cold water, changing the water as frequently
as it becomes warm, or by using pieces of ice in the
water. It is especially important to remember
that the temperature of the milk should be raised
as rapidly as possible, and when the milk is sufficiently
cooked, cooled very quickly. Either very slow
heating or slow cooling may prove disastrous, even
when every other precaution is taken.

Or, well-cleaned glass fruit cans may be nearly filled
with milk, the covers screwed on loosely, then placed
in a kettle of cold water, gradually heated to boiling
and kept at that temperature for a half hour or longer,
then gradually cooled. Or, perfectly clean bottles
may be filled with milk to within two inches of the
top, the neck tightly closed with a wad of cotton,
and the bottles placed in a steam cooker, the water
in which should be cold at the start, and steamed for
half an hour.

This cooking of milk, while it destroys many of the
germs contained in milk, particularly the active disease-germs
which are liable to be found in it, thus rendering
it more wholesome, and improving its keeping qualities
somewhat, does not so completely sterilize the milk
that it will not undergo fermentative changes.
Under varying conditions some thirty or forty different
species of germs are to be found in milk, some of
which require to be subjected to a temperature above
that of boiling water, in order to destroy them.
The keeping quality of the milk may be increased by
reboiling it on three successive days for a half hour
or longer, and carefully sealing after each boiling.

TO STERILIZE MILK TO KEEP.—­This is a somewhat
more difficult operation, but it may be done by boiling
milk sealed in very strong bottles in a saturated
solution of salt. The milk used should be perfectly
fresh. It is best, when possible, to draw the
milk from the cow directly into the bottles.
Fill the bottles to within two inches of the top,
cork them immediately and wire the corks down firmly
and place them in the cold salt solution. Boil
fifteen minutes or half an hour. Allow the solution
to cool before removing them. If the bottles are
removed from the solution while hot, they will almost
instantly break. When cold, remove the bottles,
and cover the tops with sealing wax. Store in
a cool place, shake thoroughly once or twice a week.
Milk sterilized in this manner will keep indefinitely.

CONDENSED MILK.—­Condensed milk is made
by evaporating milk in a vacuum to one fifth its original
volume; it is then canned like any other food by sealing
at boiling temperature in air-tight cans. When
used, it should be diluted with five times its bulk
of warm water.

Page 278

Condensed milk, when not thoroughly boiled in the
process of condensation, is liable to harbor disease-germs
the same as any other milk.

CREAM.

Cream varies in composition according to the circumstances
under which it rises.

In the process of churning; the membranes of casein
which surround each of the little globules constituting
the cream are broken, and the fat of which they are
composed becomes a compact mass known as butter.
The watery looking residue containing casein, sugar
of milk, mineral matter, and a small proportion of
fat, comprises the buttermilk.

Skim-milk, or milk from which the cream has been removed,
and buttermilk are analogous in chemical composition.

Skim-milk and buttermilk, when the butter is made
from sweet cream and taken fresh, are both excellent
foods, although lacking the fat of new milk.

Cream is more easily digested than butter, and since
it contains other elements besides fat, is likewise
more nutritious. In cream the fat is held in
the form of an emulsion which allows it to mingle freely
with water. As previously stated, each atom of
fat is surrounded with a film of casein. The
gastric juice has no more power to digest casein than
it has free fat, and the little particles of fat thus
protected are carried to the small intestines, where
the pancreatic juice digests them, and on their way
they do not interfere with the stomach digestion of
other foods, as the presence of butter and other free
fats may do.

It is because of its greater wholesomeness that in
the directions for the preparation of foods given
in this work we have given preference to the use of
cream over that of butter and other free fats.
The usual objection to its use is its expense, and
the difficulty of obtaining it from city dealers.
The law of supply and cost generally corresponds with
that of demand, and doubtless cream would prove no
exception if its use were more general.

Page 279

[Illustration: Creamery.]

Cream may be sterilized and preserved in a pure state
for some time, the same as milk.

Milk requires especial care to secure a good quality
and quantity of cream. Scrupulous cleanliness,
good ventilation, and an unvarying temperature are
absolute essentials. The common custom of setting
milk in pans is objectionable, not only because of
the dust and germs always liable to fall into the
milk, but also from the difficulty of keeping milk
thus set at the proper temperature for cream-rising.
Every family using milk in any quantity ought to have
a set of creameries of large or small capacity according
to circumstances, in which the milk supply can be
kept in a pure, wholesome condition, and so arranged
as to facilitate the full rising of the cream if desired.
A very simple and satisfactory creamery, with space
for ice around the milk, similar to that represented
in the accompanying cut, may be constructed by any
tinman.

The plan of scalding milk to facilitate the rising
of the cream is excellent, as it not only secures
a more speedy rising, but serves to destroy the germs
found in the milk, thus lessening its tendency to
sour. The best way to do this is to heat the milk
in a double boiler, or a dish set inside another containing
hot water, to a temperature of 150 deg. to 165 deg.F.
as indicated by wrinkles upon its surface. The
milk must not, however, be allowed to come to a boil.
When scalded, it should be cooled at once to a temperature
of about 60 deg. F. and kept thus during the
rising of the cream.

BUTTER.

Of all foods wholly composed of fat, good fresh butter
is the most wholesome. It should, however, be
used unmelted and taken in a finely divided state,
and only in very moderate quantities. If exposed
to great heat, as on hot buttered toast, meats, rich
pastry, etc., it is quite indigestible.
We do not recommend its use either for the table or
for cooking purposes when cream can be obtained, since
butter is rarely found in so pure a state that it
is not undergoing more or less decomposition, depending
upon its age and the amount of casein retained in
the butter through the carelessness of the manufacturer.

Casein, on exposure to air in a moist state, rapidly
changes into a ferment, which, acting upon the fatty
matter of the butter, produces rancidity, rendering
the butter more or less unwholesome. Poor, tainted,
or rancid butter should not be used as food in any
form.

Good butter is pale yellow, uniform throughout the
whole mass, and free from rancid taste or odor.
White lumps in it are due to the incorporation of
sour milk with the cream from which it was produced.
A watery, milk-like fluid exuding from the freshly
cut surface of butter, is evidence that insufficient
care was taken to wash out all the buttermilk, thus
increasing its liability to spoil.

The flavor and color of butter vary considerably,
according to the breed and food of the animal from
which the milk was obtained. An artificial color
is often given to butter by the use of a preparation
of annatto.

Page 280

Both salt and saltpeter are employed as preservatives
for butter; a large quantity of the former is often
used to increase the weight of the butter.

ARTIFICIAL BUTTER.—­Various fraudulent preparations
are sold as butter. Oleomargarine, one of the
commonest, is made from tallow or beef-fat, cleaned
and ground like sausage, and heated, to separate the
oil from the membranes. It is then known as “butter-oil,”
is salted, cooled, pressed, and churned in milk, colored
with annatto, and treated the same as butter.
Butterine, another artificial product, is prepared
by mixing butter-oil and a similar oil obtained from
lard, then churning them with milk.

An eminent analyst gives the following excellent way
of distinguishing genuine butter from oleomargarine:—­“When
true butter is heated over a clear flame, it ‘browns’
and gives out a pleasant odor,—­that of browned
butter. In heating there is more or less sputtering,
caused by minute particles of water retained in washing
the butter. On the bottom of the pan or vessel
in which true butter is heated, a yellowish-brown crust
is formed, consisting of roasted or toasted casein.
When oleomargarine is heated under similar circumstances,
it does not ‘brown,’ but becomes darker
by overheating, and when heated to dryness, gives off
a grayish steam, smelling of tallow. There is
no ‘sputtering’ when it is being heated,
but it boils easily. If a pledget of cotton or
a wick saturated with oleomargarine be set on fire
and allowed to burn a few moments before being extinguished,
it will give out fumes which are very characteristic,
smelling strongly of tallow, while true butter behaves
very differently.”

BUTTER IN ANCIENT TIMES.—­Two kinds of butter
seem to have been known to the ancient Jews, one quite
like that of the present day, except that it was boiled
after churning, so that it became in that warm climate
practically an oil; the other, a sort of curdled milk.
The juice of the Jerusalem artichoke was mixed with
the milk, when it was churned until a sort of curd
was separated. The Oriental method of churning
was by putting the milk into a goat-skin and swinging
and shaking the bag until the butter came, as illustrated
in the accompanying cut.

[Illustration: Oriental Butter-Making.]

An article still sold as butter in Athens is made
by boiling the milk of goats, allowing it to sour,
and then churning in a goat-skin. The result
is a thick, white, foamy substance appearing more like
cream than butter.

BUTTER-MAKING.—­The manufacture of good
butter is dependent upon good cows and the care given
them, as well as most careful treatment of the milk
and cream. The milk to be used for butter making,
as indeed for all purposes, should be most carefully
strained through a wire strainer covered with three
or four thicknesses of perfectly clean cheese cloth.

The following points given by an experienced dairyman
will be found worthy of consideration by all who have
to do with the manufacture of this article:—­

Page 281

“Milk is almost as sensitive to atmospheric
changes as mercury itself. It is a question among
many as to what depth milk should be set to get the
most cream. It does not make so much difference
as to the depth as it does the protection of the milk
from acid or souring. As soon as the milk begins
to sour, the cream ceases to rise.

“With a clear, dry atmosphere the cream will
rise clean in the milk; but in that condition of the
atmosphere which readily sours the milk, the cream
will not rise clean, but seems to hang in the milk,
and this even when the milk is protected by being
set in water.

“The benefit of setting milk in cold water is
that the water protects the milk from becoming acid
until the cream has time to rise. For cream to
rise readily on milk set in cold water, the atmosphere
in the room should be warmer than the water.
As much cream will rise on milk set in cold water
in one hour as on milk not set in water in twenty-four
hours. The milk should be skimmed while sweet,
and the cream thoroughly stirred at each skimming.

“Cream skimmed from different milkings, if churned
at the same time in one churn, should be mixed eight
to ten hours before churning; then the cream will
all come alike.

“The keeping qualities of butter depend principally
upon two things: First, the buttermilk must be
all gotten out; and secondly, the grain of the butter
should be kept as perfect as possible. Butter
should not be allowed to be churned after it has fairly
come, and should not be gathered compactly in the
churn in taking out, but the buttermilk should be
drained from the butter in the churn, through a hair
sieve, letting the butter remain in the churn.
Then take water and turn it upon the butter with sufficient
force to pass through the butter, and in sufficient
quantity to rinse the buttermilk all out of the butter.
With this process of washing the butter the grain
is not injured or mashed, and is thus far kept perfect.
And in working in the salt the ladle or roll or worker,
whatever it is, should never be allowed to slip on
the butter,—­if it does, it will destroy
the grain,—­but it should go upon the butter
in a pressing or rolling motion.”

Test the temperature of the cream with a thermometer,
and churn it at 60 deg. in summer and 62 deg. in winter.
If the butter is soft, it may be hardened by pouring
onto it while working a brine made by dissolving a
pint of salt in ten quarts of water. The salt
used in the butter should be carefully measured, three
fourths of an ounce of salt to the pound being the
usual allowance.

Butter, like milk, absorbs odors readily, and should
never be allowed to remain in occupied rooms or any
place exposed to strong or foul odors, but be kept
covered in a cold place.

CHEESE.

Page 282

Cheese is a product of milk prepared by separating
the casein, with more or less of the cream, according
to the manner in which it has been prepared, from
the other ingredients of the milk. It is an article,
which, although possessing a large proportion, of nutritive
material, is very difficult of digestion, and the
use of which is very questionable, not only for this
reason, but because it is very liable to contain a
poison called tyrotoxicon, capable of producing most
violent and indeed fatal results, according to the
remarkable researches of Prof. Vaughan of Michigan
University. This poison is sometimes found in
ice cream and custards, cream-puffs, etc., made
from stale milk or cream.

It is much better to use milk in its fresh, natural
state than in any of its products. Made into
either butter or cheese, we lose some of its essential
elements, so that what is left is not a perfect food.

RECIPES

HOT MILK.—­Milk is more easily digested
when used hot. This is not due to any marked
chemical change in the milk, but to the stimulating
effect of heat upon the palate and stomach.

To prepare hot milk, heat it in a double boiler until
a wrinkled skin appears upon the surface. In
the double boiler it may be kept at the proper temperature
for a long time without difficulty, and thus prepared,
it forms one of the most healthful of foods.

Milk, either cold or hot, should be taken a few sips
only at a time, and not be drank in copious draughts
when used in connection with other foods at mealtime.
It will then coagulate in the stomach in small flakes
much more easily digested than the large mass resulting
when a large quantity is swallowed at a time.

DEVONSHIRE OR CLOTTED CREAM.—­This is prepared
as follows: Strain the milk as it comes fresh
from the cow into a deep pan which will fit tightly
over a kettle in which water can be boiled, and set
away in a cool well-ventilated place, where it should
be allowed to remain undisturbed from eight to twelve
hours or longer. Then take the pan up very carefully
so as not to disturb the cream, place over a kettle
of water, heat to near the boiling point, or until
a rim of bubbles half an inch wide forms all around
the dish of milk. It must not, however, be allowed
to boil, or the cream will be injured. Now lift
the pan again with equal care back to a cool place
and allow it to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours
longer. The cream should be a compact mass of
considerable thickness, and may be divided with a knife
into squares of convenient size before skimming.
It is delicious for use on fruit and grains.

Page 283

COTTAGE CHEESE.—­This dish is usually prepared
from milk which has curdled from lack of proper care,
or from long standing exposed to the air, and which
is thus in some degree decomposing. But the fact
that the casein of the milk is coagulated by the use
of acids makes it possible to prepare this dish in
a more wholesome manner without waiting for decomposition
of the milk. Add to each four quarts of milk one
cupful of lemon juice; let it stand until coagulated,
then heat slowly, but do not boil, until the curd
has entirely separated from the whey. Turn the
whole into a colander lined with a square of clean
cheese cloth, and drain off the whey. Add to
the curd a little salt and cream, mix all together
with a spoon or the hands, and form into cakes or balls
for the table. The use of lemon gives a delicious
flavor, which may be intensified, if desired, by using
a trifle of the grated yellow rind.

COTTAGE CHEESE FROM BUTTERMILK.—­Place a
pail of fresh buttermilk in a kettle of boiling water,
taking care to have sufficient water to come up even
with the milk in the pail. Let the buttermilk
remain until it is heated throughout to about 140
deg., which can be determined by keeping a thermometer
in the milk and stirring it frequently. When it
is sufficiently heated, empty the curd into strong
muslin bags and hang up to drain for several hours.
If properly scalded and drained, the curd will be
quite dry and may be seasoned and served the same as
other cottage cheese. If scalded too much, it
will be watery.

COTTAGE CHEESE WITH SOUR MILK.—­Take a pan
of newly-loppered thick sour milk, and place it over
a kettle of boiling water until the whey separates
from the curd, breaking and cutting the curd as the
milk becomes warmed, so as to allow the whey to settle.
The milk should be well scalded, but not allowed to
boil, as that will render the curd tough and leathery.
Have ready a clean piece of cheese cloth spread inside
a colander, dip the curd into it, and leave it to drain.
If preferred, the corners of the cloth may be tied
with a string, thus forming a bag in which the cheese
may be hung up to drain. When well drained, remove
the dry curd to a dish, rub it fine with the hands,
add salt, and season with sweet cream, beating it
well through the curd with a silver fork. It
may be shaped into balls with the hands or pressed
in large cups or bowls.

FRENCH BUTTER.—­Fill a large, wide-mouthed
glass bottle or jar about half full of thick sweet
cream. Cork tightly, and with one end of the
bottle in each hand shake it vigorously back and forth
until the butter has separated from the milk, which
it will generally do in a few minutes. Work out
the buttermilk, make into small pats, and place on
ice until ready to serve. As a rule this butter
is not washed or salted, as it is intended for immediate
use.

SHAKEN MILK.—­Fit a conical tin cup closely
over a glass of milk and shake it vigorously until
all of a foam, after which it should be slowly sipped
at once; or a glass of milk may be put into a quart
fruit can, the cover tightly screwed on, and then
shaken back and forth until the milk is foamy.

Page 284

EMULSIFIED BUTTER.—­Boil the butter with
water for half an hour to destroy any germs it may
contain; use plenty of water and add the butter to
it while cold. When boiled, remove from the fire
and allow it to become nearly cold, when the butter
will have risen to the top and may be removed with
a skimmer, or it may be separated from the water by
turning the whole after cooling into a clean strainer
cloth placed inside a colander. The butter may
be pressed in the cloth if any water still remains.
If hardened, reheat just sufficient to soften, and
add to it, while still liquid, but cooled to about
blood heat, the yolk of one egg for each tablespoonful
of butter, and stir until very thoroughly mingled.

Or, add to each tablespoonful of the liquid butter
two level tablespoonfuls of flour, rub together thoroughly,
and cook until thickened in a half cupful of boiling
water. If cream is not obtainable and butter
must be used for seasoning, it is preferable to prepare
it in one of the above ways for the purpose, using
the quantity given as an equivalent of one cupful
of thin cream. It will be evident, however, that
these preparations will not only season but thicken
whatever they are used in, and that additional liquid
should be used on that account.

TABLE TOPICS.

A little six-year-old boy went into
the country visiting. About the first thing
he got was a bowl of bread and milk. He tasted
it, and then hesitated a moment, when his mother
asked if he didn’t like it; to which he
replied, smacking his lips, “Yes, ma’am.
I was only wishing that our milkman in town would
keep a cow!”

When Horace Greeley was candidate for
the presidency, he at one time visited New Orleans,
whose old creole residents gave him a dinner; and
to make it as fine an affair as possible, each of the
many guests was laid under contribution for some
of the rarest wines in his cellar. When dinner
was announced, and the first course was completed,
the waiter appeared at Mr. Greeley’s seat with
a plate of shrimp. “You can take them
away,” he said to the waiter, and then added
to the horrified French creole gentleman who presided,
“I never eat insects of any kind.”
Later on, soup was served, and at the same time
a glass of white wine was placed at Mr. Greeley’s
right hand. He pushed it quietly away, but
not unobserved by the chief host. “Do
you not drink wine?” he asked.

“No,” answered
Mr. Greeley; “I never drink any liquors.”

“Is there anything you
would like to drink with your soup?” the host
then asked, a little disappointed.

Said the host afterward in
his broken English, “Ze idea of electing
to ze presidency a man vot
drink buttermilk vis his soup!”

Old friendships are often
destroyed by toasted cheese, and hard
salted meat has often led
to suicide.—­Sydney Smith.

Page 285

A German sitting beside a Spanish officer
on board a Havana steamer, was munching Limberger
cheese with evident satisfaction when it occurred
to him that he ought to offer some to his neighbor,
who very coolly declined. “You think
it unhealthful to eat that?” inquired the
German in polite astonishment. “Unhealthful?”
exclaimed the Hidalgo, with a withering look and
a gasp for a more adequate word; “No, sir:
I think it an unnatural crime!”—­Oswald.

Good for Dyspepsia.—­“Really,
don’t you think cheese is good for dyspepsia?”
said an advocate of the use of this common article
of food. “Why, my uncle had dyspepsia
all his life, and he took a bit of cheese at the
close of every meal!”

As will be seen from the analysis given below, an
egg is particularly rich in nitrogenous elements.
It is indeed one of the most highly concentrated forms
of nitrogenous food, about one third of its weight
being solid nutriment, and for this reason is often
found serviceable in cases of sickness where it is
desirable to secure a large amount of nourishment
in small bulk.

The white of egg is composed mainly of albumen in
a dissolved state, inclosed in layers of thin membrane.
When beaten, the membranes are broken, and the liberated
albumen, owing to its viscous or glutinous nature,
entangles and retains a large amount of air, thus increasing
to several times its original bulk.

The yolk contains all the fatty matter, and this,
with a modified form of albumen called vitellin, forms
a kind of yellow emulsion. It is inclosed in
a thin membrane, which separates it from the surrounding
white.

The yolk, being lighter than the white, floats to
that portion of the egg which is uppermost, but is
held in position by two membranous cords, one from
each end of the egg. The average weight of an
egg is about two ounces, of which ten per cent consists
of shell, sixty of white, and thirty of yolk.

HOW TO CHOOSE EGGS.—­The quality of eggs
varies considerably, according to the food upon which
the fowls are fed. Certain foods communicate
distinct flavors, and it is quite probable that eggs
may be rendered unwholesome through the use of filthy
or improper food; hence it is always best, when practicable,
to ascertain respecting the diet and care of the fowls
before purchasing eggs.

Page 286

On no account select eggs about the freshness of which
there is any reason to doubt. The use of stale
eggs may result in serious disturbances of the digestive
organs.

An English gentleman who has investigated the subject
quite thoroughly, finds upon careful microscopical
examination that stale eggs often contain cells of
a peculiar fungoid growth, which seems to have developed
from that portion of the egg which would have furnished
material for the flesh and bones of the chick had the
process of development been continued. Experiments
with such eggs upon dogs produce poisonous effects.

There are several ways of determining with tolerable
accuracy respecting the freshness of an egg.
A common test is to place it between the eye and a
strong light. If fresh, the white will appear
translucent, and the outline of the yolk can be distinctly
traced. By keeping, eggs become cloudy, and when
decidedly stale, a distinct, dark, cloud-like appearance
may be discerned opposite some portion of the shell.
Another test is to shake the egg gently at the ear;
if a gurgle or thud is heard, the egg is bad.
Again, eggs may be tested by dropping into a vessel
containing a solution of salt and water, in the proportion
of a tablespoonful to a quart. Newly laid eggs
will sink; if more than six days old, they will float
in the liquid; if bad, they will be so light as to
ride on the surface of the brine. The shell of
a freshly laid egg is almost full; but owing to the
porous character of the shell, with age and exposure
to air a portion of the liquid substance of which the
egg is composed evaporates, and air accumulates in
its place at one of the extremities of the shell.
Hence an egg loses in density from day to day, and
the longer the egg has been kept, the lighter it becomes,
and the higher it will rise in the liquid.

An egg that will float on the surface of the liquid
is of too questionable a character to be used without
breaking, and is apt to be unfit for use at all.

HOW TO KEEP EGGS.—­To preserve the interior
of an egg in its natural state, it is necessary to
seal the pores of the shell air-tight, as the air
which finds its way into the egg through the pores
of the shell causes gradual decomposition. Various
methods are devised to exclude the air and thus preserve
the egg. A good way is to dip perfectly fresh
eggs into a thick solution of gum-arabic,—­equal
parts of gum and water,—­let the eggs dry
and dip them again, taking care that the shells are
entirely covered with the solution each time.
When dry, wrap separately in paper and pack in a box
of sawdust, bran, salt, or powdered charcoal, and
cover tightly to keep out the air.

There is a difference of opinion as to which end should
be placed down in packing; most authorities recommend
the smaller end. However, an experienced poultryman
offers the following reasons for packing with the
larger end down: “The air-chamber is in
the larger end, and if that is placed down, the yolk
will not break through and touch the shell and thereby
spoil. Another thing: if the air-chamber
is down, the egg is not so liable to shrink away.”

Page 287

It would be well for housekeepers to make the test
by packing eggs from the same lot each way and noting
the result.

Melted wax or suet may be used to coat the shells.
Eggs are sometimes immersed and kept in a solution
of lime water, a pound of lime to a gallon of cold
water, or simply packed in bran or salt, without a
previous coating of fat or gum. By any of these
methods they will keep for several weeks. Eggs,
however, readily absorb flavors from surrounding substances,
and for that reason lime water or salt solution are
somewhat objectionable. Nothing of a disagreeable
odor should be placed near eggs.

Eggs for boiling may be preserved by placing in a
deep pan, and pouring scalding water over them.
Let them stand half a minute, drain off the water,
and repeat the process two or three times. Wipe
dry, and when cool, pack in bran.

Eggs should be kept in a cool, not cold, place and
handled carefully, as rough treatment may cause the
mingling of the yolk and white by rupturing the membrane
which separates them; then the egg will spoil quickly.

The time required for the digestion of a perfectly
cooked egg varies from three to four hours.

It is generally conceded that eggs lightly cooked
are most readily digested. What is generally
termed a hard-boiled egg is not easily acted upon
by the digestive juices, and any other manner of cooking
by which the albumen becomes hardened and solid offers
great resistance to digestion.

TO BEAT EGGS.—­This may seem trivial, but
no dish requiring eggs can be prepared in perfection,
unless they are properly beaten, even if every other
ingredient is the best. An egg-beater or an egg-whip
is the most convenient utensil for the purpose; but
if either of these is not to be had, a silver fork
will do very well, and with this the beating should
be done in sharp, quick strokes, dipping the fork in
and out in rapid succession, while the egg should
grow firmer and stiffer with every stroke. When
carelessly beaten, the result will be a coarse and
frothy instead of a thick and cream-like mass.
Use a bowl in beating eggs with an egg-beater, and
a plate when a fork or egg-whip is employed.

If the white and yolk are used separately, break the
shells gently about the middle, opening slowly so
as to let the white fall into the dish, while retaining
the yolk in one half of the shell. If part of
the white remains, turn the yolk from the one half
to the other till the white has fallen. Beat
the yolks until they change from their natural orange
color to a much lighter yellow. The whites should
be beaten until firm and dry enough not to fall from
the bowl if turned upside down. The yolk should
always be beaten first, since, if the white is left
to stand after being beaten, a portion of the air,
which its viscous nature allows it to catch up, escapes
and no amount of beating will render it so firm a
second time. Eggs which need to be washed before
breaking should always be wiped perfectly dry, that
no water may become mingled with the egg, as the water
may dilute the albumen sufficiently to prevent the
white from becoming firm and stiff when beaten.

Page 288

In cold weather, it is sometimes difficult to beat
the whites as stiff as desirable. Albumen is
quite susceptible to temperature, and this difficulty
may be overcome by setting the dish in which the eggs
are beaten into warm water—­not hot by any
means—­during the process of beating.
In very hot weather it is often advantageous to leave
the eggs in cold or ice water for a short time before
beating. When a number of eggs are to be used,
always break each by itself into a saucer, so that
any chance stale egg may not spoil the whole.
If the white or yolk of an egg—­is left
over, it may be kept for a day or two if put in a cool
place, the yolk thoroughly beaten, the white unbeaten.

RECIPES.

EGGS IN SHELL.—­The usual method of preparing
eggs for serving in this way is to put them into boiling
water, and boil or simmer until they are considered
sufficiently cooked. Albumen, of which the white
of the egg is composed, is easiest digested when simply
coagulated. The yolk, if cooked at all, is easiest
digested when dry and mealy. Albumen coagulates
at 160 deg., and when the boiling point is reached,
it becomes hardened, tough, and leathery, and very
difficult of digestion. If the egg were all albumen,
it might be easily and properly cooked by dropping
into boiling water, allowing it to remain for a few
seconds, and removing it, since the shell of the egg
would prevent its becoming sufficiently heated in
so short a time as to become hardened; but the time
necessary to cook properly the white of the egg would
be insufficient for the heat to penetrate to and cook
the yolk; and if it is desirable to cook the yolk
hard, the cooking process should be carried on at
a temperature below the boiling point, subjecting the
egg to a less degree of heat, but for a longer time.
The most accurate method is to put the eggs into water
of a temperature of 160 deg., allowing them to remain
for twenty minutes and not permitting the temperature
of the water to go above 165 deg. Cooked in this
way, the white will be of a soft, jelly-like consistency
throughout, while the yolks will be hard. If
it is desired to have the yolks dry and mealy, the
temperature of the water must be less, and the time
of cooking lengthened. We have secured the most
perfect results with water at a temperature of 150
deg., and seven hours’ cooking. The temperature
of the water can be easily tested by keeping in it
an ordinary thermometer, and if one possesses a kerosene
or gas stove, the heat can be easily regulated to maintain
the required temperature.

Another method, although less sure, is to pour boiling
water into a saucepan, draw it to one side of the
range where it will keep hot, but not boil, put in
the eggs, cover, and let stand for twenty minutes.
If by either method it is desired to have the yolk
soft-cooked, lessen the time to ten minutes or so,
according to the hardness desired. Eggs are best
served as soon as done, as the white becomes more solid
by being kept in a hot shell.

Page 289

It should be remarked that the time necessary to cook
eggs in the shell will vary somewhat with the firmness
of the shell, the size of the eggs, and the number
cooked together.

EGGS IN SUNSHINE.—­Take an earthen-ware
dish which will stand heat and also do to use in serving
the eggs. Oil it and break therein as many eggs
as desired; sprinkle lightly with salt, and put into
the oven for two or more minutes till the eggs are
set. Have ready some hot tomato sauce prepared
as for Tomato Toast; pour the sauce over them, and
serve.

EGGS POACHED IN TOMATOES.—­Take a pint of
stewed tomatoes, cooked until they are homogeneous
or which have been rubbed through a colander; season
with salt if desired, and heat. When just beginning
to boil, slip in gently a half dozen eggs, the shells
of which have been so carefully broken that the yolks
are intact. Keep the tomato just below the boiling
point until the eggs are cooked. Lift the whites
carefully with a fork as they cook, until they are
firm, then prick them and let the yellow mix with
the tomato and the whites. The whole should be
quite soft when done, but showing the red of the tomatoes
and the white and yellow of the eggs quite distinctly.
Serve on toast. If the flavor is agreeable, a
little onion.

EGGS IN CREAM.—­Put a half cupful or more
of cream into a shallow earthen dish, and place the
dish in a kettle or pan of boiling water. When
the cream is hot, break in as many eggs as the bottom
of the dish will hold, and cook until well set, basting
them occasionally over the top with the hot cream.
Or, put a spoonful or two of cream into individual
egg or vegetable dishes, break a fresh egg in each,
and cook in the oven or in a steamer over a kettle
of boiling water until the white of the egg is well
set.

POACHED OR DROPPED EGGS.—­Break each egg
into a saucer by itself. Have a shallow pan half
filled with scalding, not boiling, water on the stove.
If desired, a little salt and a tablespoonful of lemon
juice may be added. Slip the eggs gently from
the saucer upon the top of the water, holding the
edge of the saucer under water to prevent the eggs
from scattering; dip the water over them with a spoon
and let them stand five minutes, or until the yolk
is covered with a film, and the white is firm but
not hardened; keep the water just below the boiling
point. Take out the eggs one by one on a skimmer,
and serve in egg-saucers, or on slices of nicely browned
toast moistened with a little sweet cream, as preferred.
If one is especially particular to keep the shape of
the eggs, an egg poacher should be used, or a set
of muffin-rings may be laid in the bottom of the pan,
and the eggs turned into the rings.

POACHED EGGS WITH CREAM SAUCE.—­Poach eggs
as in the foregoing, and pour over them a sauce made
according to direction on page 351.

QUICKLY PREPARED EGGS.—­A good way to cook
quickly a large number of eggs, is to use a large-bottomed
earthen dish, which will stand the heat and in which
the eggs may be served. Oil it well; break the
requisite number of eggs separately, and turn each
carefully into the dish; sprinkle lightly with salt;
set the dish in the oven or in a steamer over a kettle
of boiling water for a few minutes until the eggs
are set, then serve.

Page 290

SCRAMBLED EGGS.—­Beat four eggs lightly,
add a little salt if desired, and half a cup of milk
or cream. Have ready a hot, oiled saucepan; turn
the eggs in and cook quickly, stirring constantly until
firm, but soft.