Contents

^ abcdefGenerally, the southern varieties preserve the /f/–/v/, /x/–/ɣ/ and /s/–/z/ contrasts.[1][2] Southern /x/, /ɣ/ may be also somewhat more front, i.e. post-palatal.[2] In the north, these are far less stable: most speakers merge /x/ and /ɣ/ into a post-velar [x̠] or uvular [χ];[1][2] most Netherlandic Standard Dutch speakers lack a consistent /f/–/v/ contrast.[2] In some accents, e.g. Amsterdam, /s/ and /z/ are also not distinguished.[2]/ʒ/ often joins this neutralization by merging with /ʃ/. In some accents, /ɦ/ is also devoiced to [h]. See also Hard and soft G in Dutch.

^The final ‹n› of the plural ending -en is usually not pronounced, except in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish) where the ending becomes a syllabic [n̩] sound.

^ abcDutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words (e.g. a final /d/ becomes [t]). This is partly reflected in the spelling: the voiced ‹z› in plural huizen ('houses') becomes huis ('house') in singular, and duiven ('doves') becomes duif ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, even though a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the voiced ‹d› in plural baarden[ˈbaːrdə(n)] ('beards') is retained in the singular spelling baard ('beard'), but pronounced as [baːrt]; and plural ribben[ˈrɪbə(n)] ('ribs') has singular rib, pronounced as [rɪp]. Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is also devoiced, e.g. het vee ('the cattle') is [ɦət ˈfeː]

^The realization of the /ʋ/ phoneme varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the Dutch language. In the north of the Netherlands, it is a labiodental approximant[ʋ]. In the south of the Netherlands and in Belgium, it is pronounced as a bilabial approximant[β̞] (as it also is in the Hasselt and Maastricht dialects), and Standard Belgian Dutch uses the labiovelar approximant[w].

^The glottal stop[ʔ] is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words and often also at the beginning of a word.

^/ɡ/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in loanwords, like goal or when /k/ is voiced, like in zakdoek[ˈzɑɡduk].

^ ab/ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like show and bagage ('baggage'). Even then, they are usually realized as [sʲ] and [zʲ], respectively. However, /s/ + /j/ sequences in Dutch are often realized as [sʲ], like in the word huisje ('little house'). In dialects that merge /s/ and /z/, [zʲ] is often realized as [sʲ].

^When the penultimate syllable is open, stress may fall on any of the last three syllables. When the penultimate syllable is closed, stress falls on either of the last two syllables. While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare. For example vóórkomen/ˈvoːrkoːmə(n)/ "to occur" and voorkómen/voːrˈkoːmə(n)/ "to prevent". In composite words, secondary stress is often present. Marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended.

^ abThe "checked" vowels /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɔ/, and /ʏ/ occur only in closed syllables, while their "free" counterparts /aː/, /eː/, /i/, /oː/, and /y/ can occur in open syllables (as can the other vowels). These two sets also go by the names dull/sharp, dim/clear, lax/tense, closed/open, or short/long. One of each pair is pronounced slightly longer by many speakers, so the terms long and short traditionally used to explain the use of doubled consonants and vowels in the orthographic system. Differences in vowel length tend to be bigger in southern dialects; in extreme cases, when lax vowels become as tense as the tense vowels, the vowel length is the only difference between them.

^ abcFor most speakers of Netherlandic Standard Dutch, the long close-mid vowels /eː/, /øː/ and /oː/ are realised as slightly closing diphthongs [eɪ], [øʏ] and [oʊ], unless they precede /r/ within the same syllable.[3][4] The closing diphthongs also appear in certain Belgian dialects, e.g. the one of Bruges, but not in Belgian Standard Dutch. See Dutch phonology#Monophthongs for more details.

^ abcThe exact quality of diphthongs varies; Netherlandic Standard Dutch has somewhat more open (in case of /ʌu/ and often /œy/ also unrounded) first elements: [æi], [ɐy], [ɑu].[5][6] In Belgian Standard Dutch, they begin in the open-mid region, and the last diphthong has a rounded first element: [ɛi], [œy], [ɔu].[7][8] In Belgium, the onset of /œy/ can also be unrounded to [ɐy].[9] Some non-standard dialects (e.g. many southern dialects) realise these diphthongs as either narrow diphthongs or (as in The Hague dialect) long monophthongs.[9] See Dutch phonology § Diphthongs for more details.

Gussenhoven, Carlos (1999), "Dutch", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–77, ISBN0-521-65236-7

1.
Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants

2.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark

3.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German

4.
Dutch phonology
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Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages. Standard Dutch has two main de facto standards, Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands and it is associated with high status, education and wealth. Even though its speakers seem to be concentrated in the provinces of North Holland, South Holland and Utrecht and it is often impossible to tell where its speakers were born or brought up. The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch, The glottal stop is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after /aː/ and /ə/, apart from /r/, all alveolar consonants are laminal and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium. /b/ and /d/ are fully voiced, /ɡ/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in borrowed words, like goal. In native words, occurs as an allophone of /k/ when it undergoes voicing assimilation, in the south, the distinction between /x/ and /ɣ/ is generally preserved as velar or post-palatal. Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel, velar, post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g hard g, while the post-palatal variants are called zachte g soft g. In the Netherlands, /v/ can devoice and merge with /f/, according to Collins & Mees, there are hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch who consistently contrast /v/ with /f/. In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch also /z/ can devoice and merge with /s/, speakers who devoice /v/ and /z/ may also hypercorrectively voice /f/ and /s/, concert concert may thus be compared to the more usual. Some speakers pronounce /ɦ/ as a voiceless, some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping. In the Netherlands, /s/ and /z/ may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, in Belgium, they are more similar to English /s, z/. The sequences /sj/ and /zj/ are often assimilated to palatalised, alveolo-palatal, before /j/, /k/ is realized as a voiceless post-palatal affricate. The sequences /tj/ and /dj/ are assimilated to intervocalically and after /n/ unless theyre at the beginning of a syllable, barring loanwords. /ʃ, ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually only in borrowed words, like show. Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realisations of the clusters /sj, if they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realisations noted above. /m/ and /n/ assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases, Both become before /p, b/, /n/ merges into /ŋ/ before velars. The realisation of /ŋ/, in turn, depends on how a following velar fricative is realised, for example, it will be uvular for speakers who realise /x, ɣ/ as uvulars

5.
Consonant
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In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. For example, the sound spelled th in this is a different consonant than the th sound in thin, the word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns sounding-together, a calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon. Dionysius Thrax calls consonants sýmphōna pronounced with because they can only be pronounced with a vowel, the word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for the consonant /j/ in yoke, the vowel /ɪ/ in myth, the vowel /i/ in funny, and the diphthong /aɪ/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a letter, as in growth, raw, and how. In some other languages, such as Finnish, y represents a vowel sound. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC and this can be argued to be the only pattern found in most of the worlds languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut, there are consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the worlds languages. One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, on one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil. On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel /i/, so that the English word bit would phonemically be /bit/, beet would be /bii̯t/, and yield would be phonemically /i̯ii̯ld/. Likewise, foot would be /fut/, food would be /fuu̯d/, wood would be /u̯ud/, the other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying the nucleus of a syllable. Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, in Mandarin, they are historically allophones of /i/, and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson call these fricative vowels and say that they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels and that is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels. Many Slavic languages allow the trill and the lateral as syllabic nuclei, in languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of syllable applies in Nuxalk, there are consonants in words like /sx̩s/ seal fat. Miyako in Japan is similar, with /f̩ks̩/ to build and /ps̩ks̩/ to pull, each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features, The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant sound is made. Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals, the place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved

6.
Voiced bilabial stop
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The voiced bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨b⟩, the voiced bilabial stop occurs in English, and it is the sound denoted by the letter ⟨b⟩ in boy. Many Indian languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between breathy voiced /bʱ/ and plain /b/, features of the voiced bilabial stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

7.
Voiceless palatal stop
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The voiceless palatal stop or voiceless palatal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in some vocal languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨c⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are c_+ and t_- or t_-_j, respectively. There is also a non-IPA letter ⟨ȶ⟩, used especially in Sinological circles and it is common for the phonetic symbol ⟨c⟩ to be used to represent voiceless postalveolar affricate or other similar affricates, for example in the Indic languages. This may be considered appropriate when the place of articulation needs to be specified, the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨c̠⟩ or ⟨k̟⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are c_- and k_+, respectively, especially in broad transcription, the voiceless post-palatal stop may be transcribed as a palatalized voiceless velar stop. Features of the palatal stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, the otherwise identical post-palatal variant is articulated slightly behind the hard palate, making it sound slightly closer to the velar. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

8.
Voiceless labiodental fricative
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The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨f⟩ and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

9.
Voiced velar fricative
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The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in various spoken languages. It is not found in Modern English but it existed in Old English, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɣ⟩, a Latinized variant of the Greek letter gamma, ⟨γ⟩, which has this sound in Modern Greek. It should not be confused with the graphically similar ⟨ɤ⟩, the IPA symbol for a close-mid back unrounded vowel, the symbol ⟨ɣ⟩ is also sometimes used to represent the velar approximant, though that is more accurately written with the lowering diacritic, or. The IPA also provides a symbol for a velar approximant. There is also a voiced fricative in some languages. For voiced pre-velar fricative, see voiced palatal fricative and its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, some of the consonants listed as post-velar may actually be trill fricatives. Index of phonetics articles Voiceless velar fricative Guttural Recordings of the voiced and voiceless velar fricatives are also available at IPA Consonants

10.
Voiced glottal fricative
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The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɦ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is h\. In many languages, has no place or manner of articulation, thus, it has been described as a breathy-voiced counterpart of the following vowel from a phonetic point of view. However, its characteristics are influenced by the preceding vowels. Therefore, it can be described as a segment whose only consistent feature is its breathy voice phonation in such languages and it may have real glottal constriction in a number of languages, making it a fricative. Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives, features of the voiced glottal fricative, Its phonation type is breathy voiced, or murmured, which means the vocal cords are loosely vibrating, with more air escaping than in a modally voiced sound. In some languages, it has the manner of articulation of a fricative. However, in many if not most it is a state of the glottis with no manner of articulation other than its phonation type. Because there is no other constriction to produce friction in the vocal tract, true fricatives may have a murmured phonation in addition to producing friction elsewhere. However, the fricative is generally retained for the historical reasons. It may have a place of articulation. However, it may have no fricative articulation, making the term glottal mean that it is articulated by the vocal folds, all consonants except for the glottals, and all vowels, have an individual place of articulation in addition to the state of the glottis. As with all consonants, surrounding vowels influence the pronunciation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

11.
Palatal approximant
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The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J, jay, does not start with but with, the palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, some languages, though, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding, and therefore cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart. An example of language is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants, an approximant semivowel, which is always unrounded, and an unspecified for rounding approximant consonant. Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows, is shorter and is usually a merely transitory sound and it can only exist together with a full vowel and does not appear in syllable onset. has a lower amplitude, mainly in F2. It can only appear in syllable onset and it is not noisy either articulatorily or perceptually. Can vary towards in emphatic pronunciations, having noise, thus, in words like viuda widow, Dios God, vio s/he saw, etc. the semi-vowel is unrounded, if it were rounded a sound that does not exist in Spanish, would appear. He also says that in his opinion, the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, and are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the voiced velar approximant. The symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may also be used when the palatal approximant is merely an allophone of the palatal fricative /ʝ/ as, compared with ⟨j⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ʝ̞⟩ is j\_o, note that the symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ʝ˕⟩ should be substituted, in the writing systems used for most of the languages of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter j denotes the palatal approximant, as in German Jahr year. That is followed by IPA although it may be counterintuitive for English speakers, in grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as ⟨ι̯⟩. It can be considered the equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨j̠⟩, ⟨j˗⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j_- and M\_+, respectively, other possible transcriptions include a centralized ⟨j⟩, a centralized ⟨ɰ⟩ and a non-syllabic ⟨ɨ⟩

12.
Voiceless velar stop
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The voiceless velar stop or voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨k⟩, the sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically. Most languages have at least a plain, and some more than one variety. Most Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi and Bengali, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain, only a few languages lack a voiceless velar stop, e. g. Tahitian. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, hard and soft C Index of phonetics articles

13.
Bilabial nasal
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The bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨m⟩, the bilabial nasal occurs in English, and it is the sound represented by m in map and rum. It occurs nearly universally, and few languages are known to lack this sound, features of the bilabial nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

14.
Palatal nasal
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The palatal nasal is a type of consonant, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɲ⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is J. Palatal nasals are more common than the palatal stops. The alveolo-palatal nasal is a type of sound, used in some oral languages. There is no dedicated symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound, if more precision is desired, it may be transcribed ⟨n̠ʲ⟩ or ⟨ɲ̟⟩, these are essentially equivalent, since the contact includes both the blade and body of the tongue. There is a non-IPA letter ⟨ȵ⟩, used especially in Sinological circles, the alveolo-palatal nasal is commonly described as palatal, it is often unclear whether a language has a true palatal or not. Many languages claimed to have a nasal, such as Portuguese. This is likely true of several of the languages listed here, some dialects of Irish as well as some non-standard dialects of Malayalam are reported to contrast alveolo-palatal and palatal nasals. There is also a post-palatal nasal in some languages, features of the voiced palatal nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Nasal palatal approximant Index of phonetics articles Ɲ

15.
Velar nasal
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The velar nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ng in English sing, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ŋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is N. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called eng or engma, while almost all languages have /m/ and /n/, /ŋ/ is rarer. Only half of the 469 languages surveyed in Anderson had a nasal phoneme, as a further curiosity. In many languages that do not have the velar nasal as a phoneme, an example of a language that lacks a phonemic or allophonic velar nasal is Russian, in which /n/ is pronounced as laminal denti-alveolar even before velar consonants. It also makes it more difficult to allow air to escape through the nose. Features of the nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

16.
Voiceless bilabial stop
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The voiceless bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. The stop is missing from about 10% of languages that have a and this is an areal feature of the circum-Saharan zone. It is not known how old this feature is, and whether it might be a recent phenomenon due to Arabic as a prestige language. It is found in areas as well, for example, in Europe, Proto-Celtic. Nonetheless, the sound is very common cross-linguistically, most languages have at least a plain, and some distinguish more than one variety. Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between the aspirated and the plain

17.
Guttural R
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In common parlance, guttural R is the phenomenon whereby a rhotic consonant is produced in the back of the vocal tract rather than in the front portion thereof and thus as a guttural consonant. Speakers of languages with guttural R typically regard guttural and coronal rhotics to be alternative pronunciations of the same phoneme, despite articulatory differences. Similar consonants are found in parts of the world. German speakers who use the frontal-R mainly live in the Alps or closeby, the French rhotic has a wide range of realizations, both the voiced and voiceless uvular fricatives, the uvular trill, the alveolar trill, and the alveolar tap. These are all recognized as the phoneme /r/, but most of them are considered dialectal, for example, was once typical of a working class Parisian accent, while is sometimes found in southern France, as well as in North America. Today in northern France, /r/ is commonly pronounced as a voiced or voiceless uvular fricative after a consonant by assimilation. Is also the most common pronunciation in the French media, in much of southern France, this guttural R has replaced the traditional alveolar trill, which can now only be heard among the oldest speakers. It is not known when the guttural rhotic entered the French language, molières Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, written in the 17th century, has a professor describe the sound of /r/ as an alveolar trill. Standard versions of Portuguese have two phonemes, which contrast only between vowels. In older Portuguese, these were the alveolar flap /ɾ/ and the alveolar trill /r/, in other positions, only ⟨r⟩ is written in Modern Portuguese, but it can stand for either sound, depending on the exact position. ⟨r⟩ represents a flap elsewhere, i. e. following a vowel or following any consonant other than /n/, /l/, /z/, in the 19th century, the voiced uvular fricative penetrated the upper classes in the region of Lisbon in Portugal as the realization of the trill. By the late 20th century, it had replaced the alveolar trill in most of the urban areas. Many northern dialects, like Transmontano, Portuese, Minhoto, in the rural regions, the alveolar trill is still dominant, but most of the countrys population currently lives in or near the cities. The uvular trill is also heard sometimes, a common realization of the word-initial /ʀ/ in the Lisbon accent is a voiced uvular trill fricative. The Setúbal dialect uses the voiced uvular fricative for all instances of r — word start, intervocalic, postconsonantal and this same pronunciation is attested in people with rhotacism and in non-native speakers of French origin. In Africa, the alveolar trill is mostly still dominant. In Brazil, the pronunciation of ⟨rr⟩ is voiceless, either as a voiceless velar fricative. In many dialects, this voiceless sound not only replaces all occurrences of the traditional trill, the resulting distribution can be described as, A flap only for single ⟨r⟩ and only when it occurs either between vowels or between a preceding consonant and a following vowel

18.
Voiceless alveolar fricative
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A voiceless alveolar fricative is a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound, there are at least six types with significant perceptual differences, The voiceless alveolar sibilant has a strong hissing sound, as the s in English sin. It is one of the most common sounds in the world, the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant, also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English th in thin. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain, the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant, also called apico-alveolar or grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Astur-Leonese, Basque, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, a similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, some Southern dialects of Swedish, Finnish and Greek. The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative or, using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA, is similar to the th in English thin, the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English l and is written as ll in Welsh. The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made with the closed and have a piercing. The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass and it has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is used to get someones attention. The voiceless alveolar sibilant is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically, if a language has fricatives, it will most likely have. However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as, the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in an area covering northern. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area, in the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German. There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound, the symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating an apical pronunciation. However, that is problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds, but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant. Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a whistling quality, for this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with

19.
Voiced labiodental fricative
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The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨v⟩, although this is a familiar sound to most European and Middle Eastern listeners, it is cross-linguistically a fairly uncommon sound, being only a quarter as frequent as. The presence of and absence of, is a very distinctive feature of European languages. Speakers of East Asian languages that lack this sound tend to pronounce it as, or /, in certain languages, such as Danish, Faroese, Icelandic or Norwegian the voiced labiodental fricative is in a free variation with the labiodental approximant. Its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

20.
Labiodental approximant
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The labiodental approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is similar to an English w pronounced with the teeth, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is P or v\. The labiodental approximant is the realization of /v/ in the Indian South African variety of English. As the voiceless /f/ is also realized as an approximant, it is also an example of a language contrasting voiceless and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

21.
Voiceless velar fricative
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The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in dialects of English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩ and it is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative. There is also a voiceless fricative in some languages. For voiceless pre-velar fricative, see voiceless palatal fricative and its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom horn and *kʷód what became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely to be and. This sound change is part of Grimms law, in Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives

22.
Scottish English
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Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Scotland. The main, formal variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English, Scottish Standard English may be defined as the characteristic speech of the professional class and the accepted norm in schools. IETF language tag for Scottish Standard English is en-Scotland, Scottish Standard English is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with focused broad Scots at the other. Scottish English may be influenced to varying degrees by Scots, many Scots speakers separate Scots and Scottish English as different registers depending on social circumstances. Some speakers code switch clearly from one to the other while others style shift in a less predictable, generally there is a shift to Scottish English in formal situations or with individuals of a higher social status. Scottish English results from contact between Scots and the Standard English of England after the 17th century. Furthermore, the process was influenced by interdialectal forms, hypercorrections. Convention traces the influence of the English of England upon Scots to the 16th-century Reformation, printing arrived in London in 1476, but the first printing press was not introduced to Scotland for another 30 years. Texts such as the Geneva Bible, printed in English, were distributed in Scotland in order to spread Protestant doctrine. King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603, since England was the larger and richer of the two Kingdoms, James moved his court to London in England. The poets of the court therefore moved south and began adapting the language, to this event McClure attributes he sudden and total eclipse of Scots as a literary language. The continuing absence of a Scots translation of the Bible meant that the translation of King James into English was used in worship in both countries, the Acts of Union 1707 amalgamated the Scottish and English Parliaments. However the church, educational and legal structures remained separate and this leads to important professional distinctions in the definitions of some words and terms. There are therefore words with precise definitions in Scottish English which have no place in English English or have a different definition. The speech of the classes in Scotland tends to conform to the grammatical norms of the written standard. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the Lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, similarly, the English spoken in the North-East of Scotland tends to follow the phonology and grammar of Doric. Although other dialects have merged non-intervocalic /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ʌ/ before /r/, many varieties contrast /o/ and /ɔ/ before /r/ so that hoarse and horse are pronounced differently. /or/ and /ur/ are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour, an epenthetic vowel may occur between /r/ and /l/ so that girl and world are two-syllable words for some speakers

23.
Voiced alveolar fricative
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The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described, the symbol for the alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is z. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or postalveolar sibilants in narrow transcription unless modified by a diacritic, the IPA symbol for the alveolar non-sibilant fricative is derived by means of diacritics, it can be ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝⟩. The voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages, but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to the voiceless variant, only about 28% of the worlds languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of are languages of Europe, Africa, in the eastern half of Asia, the Pacific and the Americas, is very rare as a phoneme. Every language that has also has, the hissing effect in this variety of is very strong. Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, according to Ladefoged & Maddieson about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation. Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, acoustically, it is close to or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have symbols for the alveolar consonants, it can represent this sound as in a number of ways including ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ð͇⟩. Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a channel at the place of articulation. However, it not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies. Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, tongue shape Apical consonant Laminal consonant Index of phonetics articles

24.
Glottal stop
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The glottal stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʔ⟩, using IPA, this sound is known as a glottal plosive. In English, the glottal stop occurs as an open juncture, for most US English speakers, a glottal stop is used as an allophone of /t/ between a vowel and m or a syllabic n except in slow speech. In British English, the stop is most familiar in the Cockney pronunciation of butter as buer. The non-phonemic glottal stop always occurs before isolated or initial vowels, features of the glottal stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibration of the cords, necessarily so, because the vocal cords are held tightly together. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Although this segment is not a phoneme in English, it is present phonetically in nearly all dialects of English as an allophone of /t/ in the syllable coda. Speakers of Cockney, Scottish English and several other British dialects also pronounce an intervocalic /t/ between vowels as in city. In Received Pronunciation, a stop is inserted before a tautosyllabic voiceless stop, e. g. sto’p, tha’t, kno’ck, wa’tch, also lea’p, soa’k, hel’p. In many languages that do not allow a sequence of vowels, such as Persian, there are intricate interactions between falling tone and the glottal stop in the histories of such languages as Danish, Chinese and Thai. In many languages, the intervocalic allophone of the glottal stop is a creaky-voiced glottal approximant. These are only known to be contrastive in one language, Gimi, in the traditional Romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with an apostrophe, ⟨’⟩, and this is the source of the IPA character ⟨ʔ⟩. In Malay the glottal stop is represented by the letter ⟨k⟩, in Võro, other scripts also have letters used for representing the glottal stop, such as the Hebrew letter aleph ⟨א⟩, and the Cyrillic letter palochka ⟨Ӏ⟩ used in several Caucasian languages. In Tundra Nenets it is represented by the letters apostrophe ⟨ʼ⟩, in Japanese, glottal stops occur at the end of interjections of surprise or anger, and are represented by the character ⟨っ⟩. In the graphic representation of most Philippine languages, the stop has no consistent symbolization

25.
Voiced velar stop
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The voiced velar stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɡ⟩, strictly, the IPA symbol is the so-called single-story G, but the double-story G is considered an acceptable alternative. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, absent stop is an areal feature. Missing, on the hand, is widely scattered around the world. It seems that is more difficult to articulate than the other basic stops. This could have two effects, and might become confused, and the distinction is lost, or perhaps a never develops when a language first starts making voicing distinctions. With uvulars, where there is less space between the glottis and tongue for airflow, the imbalance is more extreme, Voiced is much rarer than voiceless. Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain

26.
Voiceless postalveolar fricative
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled ⟨sh⟩, as in ship, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʃ⟩, the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitman. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is S and it originated with the Czech orthography of Jan Hus and was adopted in Gajs Latin alphabet and other Latin alphabets of Slavic languages. It also features in the orthographies of many Baltic, Finno-Lappic and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in various languages, including English and French, it may have simultaneous labialization, i. e. although this is usually not transcribed. Classical Latin did not have, though it does occur in most Romance languages, for example, ⟨ch⟩ in French chanteur singer is pronounced /ʃ/. Chanteur is descended from Latin cantare, where ⟨c⟩ was pronounced /k/, the ⟨sc⟩ in Latin scientia science was pronounced /sk/, but has shifted to /ʃ/ in Italian scienza. Similarly, Proto-Germanic had neither nor, yet many of its descendants do, in most cases, this or descends from a Proto-Germanic /sk/. For instance, Proto-Germanic *skipą was pronounced /ˈski. pɑ̃/ and this change took longer to catch on in West Germanic languages other than Old English, though it eventually did. The second West Germanic language to undergo this sound shift was Old High German, in fact, it has been argued that Old High Germans /sk/ was actually already, because a single had already shifted to. Furthermore, by Middle High German, that /s̠k/ had shifted to, after High German, the shift most likely then occurred in Low Saxon. After Low Saxon, Middle Dutch began the shift, but it stopped shifting once it reached /sx/, then, most likely through influence from German and Low Saxon, North Frisian experienced the shift. However, the realization of Swedish /ɧ/ varies considerably among dialects, for instance. Finally, the last to undergo the shift was Norwegian, in which the result of the shift was, the sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ш⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative. The voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound, as the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants, this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠̊˔⟩

27.
Voiced postalveolar fricative
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The voiced palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiced domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the case form of the letter Ezh ⟨Ʒ ʒ⟩. An alternative symbol used in older and American linguistic literature is ⟨ž⟩. The sound occurs in languages and, as in English and French, may have simultaneous lip rounding. Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a letter or digraph. It also appears in loanwords, mainly from French. In some transcriptions of such as Cyrillic, as well as the Wikipedia pronunciation respelling for English. Some scholars use the symbol /ʒ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the retroflex sibilant. In such cases, the voiced palato-alveolar sibilant is transcribed /ʒʲ/ and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ж⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative. The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound, as the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants, this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠˔⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\_-_r and its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies. Its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue

28.
Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant affricate or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨t͡ʃ⟩, ⟨t͜ʃ⟩ or ⟨tʃ⟩ and it is familiar to English speakers as the ch sound in chip. Historically, this sound often derives from a former voiceless velar stop /k/, or a dental stop by way of palatalization. Some scholars use the symbol /t͡ʃ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the voiceless retroflex affricate, in such cases, the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate is transcribed /t͡ʃʲ/. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Catalan, and Thai have a voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate /t͡ɕ/ and its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds

29.
Vowel
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In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. There is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis and this contrasts with consonants, such as the English sh, which have a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, a phonetically equivalent but non-syllabic sound is a semivowel. In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak of many to all syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, the word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning vocal. In English, the vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel sounds and the written symbols that represent them. The phonetic definition of vowel does not always match the phonological definition, the approximants and illustrate this, both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract, but they occur at the onset of syllables. A similar debate arises over whether a word like bird in a dialect has an r-colored vowel /ɝ/ or a syllabic consonant /ɹ̩/. The American linguist Kenneth Pike suggested the terms vocoid for a vowel and vowel for a phonological vowel, so using this terminology. Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the syllabic nasals in button, daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the features of tongue height, tongue backness and roundedness. These three parameters are indicated in the schematic quadrilateral IPA vowel diagram on the right, there are additional features of vowel quality, such as the velum position, type of vocal fold vibration, and tongue root position. This conception of vowel articulation has been known to be inaccurate since 1928, Peter Ladefoged has said that early phoneticians. Thought they were describing the highest point of the tongue, and they were actually describing formant frequencies. The IPA Handbook concedes that the quadrilateral must be regarded as an abstraction. Vowel height is named for the position of the tongue relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. However, it refers to the first formant, abbreviated F1. Height is defined by the inverse of the F1 value, The higher the frequency of the first formant, however, if more precision is required, true-mid vowels may be written with a lowering diacritic. Although English contrasts six heights in its vowels, they are interdependent with differences in backness and it appears that some varieties of German have five contrasting vowel heights independently of length or other parameters

30.
Open back unrounded vowel
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The open back unrounded vowel, or low back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɑ⟩, the letter ⟨ɑ⟩ is called script a because it lacks the extra hook on top of a printed letter a, which corresponds to a different vowel, the open front unrounded vowel. The Hamont dialect of Limburgish has been reported to contrast long open front, central and back unrounded vowels, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth – that is, as low as possible in the mouth. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded

31.
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
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The open-mid front unrounded vowel, or low-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is a Latinized variant of the Greek lowercase epsilon, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. Its vowel height is open-mid, also known as low-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded

32.
Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
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The near-close near-front unrounded vowel, or near-high near-front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɪ⟩, the International Phonetic Association advises serifs on the symbols ends. Some sans-serif fonts do meet this typographic specification, prior to 1989, there was an alternate symbol for this sound, ⟨ɩ⟩, the use of which is no longer sanctioned by the IPA. Despite that, some modern writings still use it, sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨i⟩, which technically represents the close front unrounded vowel. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines as a close front unrounded vowel, therefore. The symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ is often used to transcribe the close-mid near-front unrounded vowel. It occurs in some dialects of English as well as other languages. Certain sources may even use ⟨ɪ⟩ for the close-mid front unrounded vowel, for the close-mid front unrounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩, see close-mid front unrounded vowel. For the fully central equivalents of these vowels, see near-close central unrounded vowel, the IPA prefers the terms close and open for classifying vowels. Some linguists use the high and low, respectively, instead of close. Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel, also known as front-central or centralized front, which means the tongue is positioned almost as far forward as a front vowel. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded

33.
Open-mid back rounded vowel
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The open-mid back rounded vowel, or low-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɔ⟩, the IPA symbol is a turned letter c and both the symbol and the sound are commonly called open-o. The name open-o represents the sound, in that it is like the sound represented by ⟨o⟩ and it also represents the symbol, which can be remembered as an o which has been opened by removing part of the closed circular shape. The IPA prefers the terms close and open for vowels, however, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high and low. Its vowel height is open-mid, also known as low-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, copyleft symbol index of phonetics articles

34.
Received Pronunciation
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Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3% of people in Britain were RP speakers, but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis. Since the 1960s, a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education, an individual using RP will typically speak Standard English, although the converse or inverse is not necessarily true. The standard language may be pronounced with an accent and the contrapositive is usually correct. It is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak a regional dialect, the introduction of the term Received Pronunciation is usually credited to Daniel Jones. However, the term had actually been used earlier by Alexander Ellis in 1869 and P. S. Du Ponceau in 1818 According to Fowlers Modern English Usage. The word received conveys its meaning of accepted or approved. RP is often believed to be based on the accents of southern England and this was the most populated and most prosperous area of England during the 14th and 15th centuries. By the end of the 15th century, Standard English was established in the City of London, some linguists have used the term RP while expressing reservations about its suitability. Other writers have used the name BBC Pronunciation. He used the term General British in his 1970s publication of A Concise Pronouncing Dictionary of American and British English, Received Pronunciation has sometimes been called Oxford English, as it used to be the accent of most members of the University of Oxford. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association uses the name Standard Southern British, page 4 reads, Standard Southern British is the modern equivalent of what has been called Received Pronunciation. It is an accent of the south east of England which operates as a prestige norm there and in parts of the British Isles. Faced with the difficulty of defining RP, many writers have tried to distinguish between different sub-varieties, later editions use the terms General, Refined and Regional. Wells refers to mainstream RP and U-RP, he suggests that Gimsons categories of Conservative and Advanced RP referred to the U-RP of the old, however, Wells stated, It is difficult to separate stereotype from reality with U-RP. Upton distinguishes between RP, Traditional RP, and an older version which he identifies with Cruttendens Refined RP. An article on the website of the British Library refers to Conservative, Mainstream, the modern style of RP is an accent often taught to non-native speakers learning British English. Non-RP Britons abroad may modify their pronunciation to something closer to Received Pronunciation to be understood by people unfamiliar with the diversity of British accents. They may also modify their vocabulary and grammar to be closer to those of Standard English for the same reason

35.
Close-mid central rounded vowel
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The close-mid central rounded vowel, or high-mid central rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound. It was added to the IPA in 1993, before that, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. The character ɵ has been used in several Latin-derived alphabets such as the one for Yañalif, the character is homographic with Cyrillic Ө. The Unicode code point is U+019F Ɵ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH MIDDLE TILDE and this sound rarely contrasts with the near-close near-front rounded vowel. For this reason, it may be transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʏ⟩. An example of a language contrasting /ɵ/ with /ʏ/ is the Hamont dialect of Limburgish, but in phonemic transcription, other possible transcriptions are ⟨ɘ͡β̞⟩⟩ and. Its vowel height is close-mid, also known as high-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel and its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed. The vowel transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɵ⟩ in Central Standard Swedish is actually mid

36.
Open central unrounded vowel
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The open central unrounded vowel, or low central unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages. While the International Phonetic Alphabet officially has no dedicated letter for this sound between front and back, it is normally written ⟨a⟩, if precision is required, it can be specified by using diacritics, such as centralized ⟨ä⟩ or retracted ⟨a̠⟩, but this is not common. Acoustically, however, is a central vowel. It is more common to use plain for a central vowel and, if needed. Alternatively, Sinologists may use the letter ⟨ᴀ⟩, the IPA voted against officially adopting this symbol in 2011–2012. The Hamont dialect of Limburgish has been reported to contrast long open front, central and back unrounded vowels, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, some prefer the terms high and low. Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth – that is, as low as possible in the mouth. Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel and it is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded. Most languages have some form of an open vowel. Because the IPA uses ⟨a⟩ for both front and central unrounded open vowels, it is not always clear whether a language uses the former or the latter

37.
Close-mid front unrounded vowel
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The close-mid front unrounded vowel, or high-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨e⟩, for the close-mid front rounded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ or ⟨i⟩, see near-close near-front unrounded vowel. If the usual symbol is ⟨e⟩, the vowel is listed here, the IPA prefers the terms close and open for vowels, and the name of this article follows this preference. However, a number of linguists prefer the terms high. Its vowel height is close-mid, also known as high-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded

38.
Close front unrounded vowel
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The close front unrounded vowel, or high front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound that occurs in most spoken languages, represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol i. The close front unrounded vowel is the equivalent of the palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, irish orthography reflects both etymology and whether preceding consonants are broad or slender, so such combinations as ⟨aí⟩, ⟨ei⟩, and ⟨aío⟩ all represent /iː/. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded

39.
Close-mid back rounded vowel
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The close-mid back rounded vowel, or high-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨o⟩, for the close-mid back rounded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ or ⟨u⟩, see near-close near-back rounded vowel. If the usual symbol is ⟨o⟩, the vowel is listed here, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. The close-mid back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨o⟩, and that is the used in this article. Another possible transcription is ⟨oʷ⟩ or ⟨ɤʷ⟩, but this could be misread as a diphthong, for the close-mid near-back protruded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩, see near-close near-back protruded vowel. If the usual symbol is ⟨o⟩, the vowel is listed here and its vowel height is close-mid, also known as high-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a close vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, there is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɤ͡β̞⟩ or ⟨ɤᵝ⟩, the spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨o͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, but spread technically means unrounded. Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast this with the more typical protruded close-mid back vowel and its vowel height is close-mid, also known as high-mid, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a close vowel and a mid vowel. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed

40.
Close front rounded vowel
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The close front rounded vowel, or high front rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Acoustically it is a close front-central rounded vowel, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨y⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y. Across many languages, it is most commonly represented orthographically as ⟨ü⟩ or ⟨y⟩, in the Attic and Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek, front developed by fronting from back /u uː/ around the 6th to 7th century BC. A little later, the diphthong /yi/ when not before another vowel monophthongized and merged with long /yː/, in Koine Greek, the diphthong /oi/ changed to, likely through the intermediate stages and. Through vowel shortening in Koine Greek, long /yː/ merged with short /y/, later, /y/ unrounded to, yielding the pronunciation of Modern Greek. For more information, see the articles on Ancient Greek and Koine Greek phonology, the close front rounded vowel is the vocalic equivalent of the labialized palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. In most languages, this vowel is pronounced with compressed lips. However, in a few cases the lips are protruded, the close front compressed vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨y⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA, however, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨i͡β̞⟩ or ⟨iᵝ⟩. The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a vowel letter ⟨y͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense, because front rounded vowels are assumed to have compression, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some examples in the table below may actually have protrusion. Catford notes that most languages with rounded front and back vowels use distinct types of labialization, protruded back vowels, however, a few languages, such as Scandinavian ones, have protruded front vowels. One of these, Swedish, even contrasts the two types of rounding in front vowels. As there are no diacritics in the IPA to distinguish protruded and compressed rounding, another possible transcription is ⟨yʷ⟩ or ⟨iʷ⟩, but this could be misread as a diphthong. Acoustically, this sound is between the more typical compressed close front vowel and the close front vowel

Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands mean

1.
Slogan in front of the Afrikaans Language Monument, near Paarl, South Africa. Loosely translated, it reads "This we care about/This is important to us", or, literally, "This is our seriousness".

International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, act

1.
X-ray photos show the sounds [i, u, a, ɑ]

Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official

1.
The Utrecht baptismal vow Forsachistu diobolae...

2.
Distribution of the Dutch language and its dialects in Western Europe

3.
Second edition of this column decorated with a title of Charles V 's portrait, with archaic Dutch inscriptions

4.
Dutch language street sign in the Netherlands

Dutch phonology
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Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages. Standard Dutch has two main de facto standards, Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands and it is associated with high status, education and wealth. Even though its speakers seem to be concentrated in the provinces of North H

1.
Monophthongs of Netherlandic Dutch, from Gussenhoven (1992:47)

Consonant
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In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. For example, the sound spelled th in this is a different consonant than the th sound in thin, the word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns sounding-together, a calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmp

1.
The letter T, the most common consonant letter in English.

Voiced bilabial stop
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The voiced bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨b⟩, the voiced bilabial stop occurs in English, and it is the sound denoted by the letter ⟨b⟩ in boy. Many Indian languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between brea

Voiceless palatal stop
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The voiceless palatal stop or voiceless palatal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in some vocal languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨c⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are c_+ and t_- or t_-_j, respectively. There is also a non-IPA letter ⟨ȶ⟩, used especially in Sinological circles an

Voiceless labiodental fricative
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The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨f⟩ and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it i

Voiced velar fricative
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The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in various spoken languages. It is not found in Modern English but it existed in Old English, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɣ⟩, a Latinized variant of the Greek letter gamma, ⟨γ⟩, which has this sound in Modern Greek. It should not be

Voiced glottal fricative
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The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɦ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is h\. In many languages, has no place or manner of articulation, thus, it has been described as a breathy-voiced counterpart of the following vowel from a phonetic point of view. However, its characteristics are influenced by the

Palatal approximant
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The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J, jay, does not start with but with, the palatal app

Voiceless velar stop
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The voiceless velar stop or voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨k⟩, the sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically. Most languages have at least a plain, and some more than one variety. Most Indo-Aryan languages,

Bilabial nasal
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The bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨m⟩, the bilabial nasal occurs in English, and it is the sound represented by m in map and rum. It occurs nearly universally, and few languages are known to lack this sound, features

Palatal nasal
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The palatal nasal is a type of consonant, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɲ⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is J. Palatal nasals are more common than the palatal stops. The alveolo-palatal nasal is a type of sound, used in some oral languages. There is no dedicated symb

Velar nasal
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The velar nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ng in English sing, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ŋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is N. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called eng or engma, while almost all languages have /m/ and

Voiceless bilabial stop
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The voiceless bilabial stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal co

Guttural R
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In common parlance, guttural R is the phenomenon whereby a rhotic consonant is produced in the back of the vocal tract rather than in the front portion thereof and thus as a guttural consonant. Speakers of languages with guttural R typically regard guttural and coronal rhotics to be alternative pronunciations of the same phoneme, despite articulato

1.
not usual

Voiceless alveolar fricative
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A voiceless alveolar fricative is a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound, there are at least six types with significant perceptual differences, The voiceless alveolar sibilant has a strong hissing sound, as th

Voiced labiodental fricative
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The voiced labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨v⟩, although this is a familiar sound to most European and Middle Eastern listeners, it is cross-linguistically a fairly uncommon sound, being only a quarter as frequent as.

Labiodental approximant
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The labiodental approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is similar to an English w pronounced with the teeth, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is P or v\. The labiodental approximant is the realization of /v/ in the Indian Sou

Voiceless velar fricative
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The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in dialects of English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩ and it is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the

Scottish English
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Scottish English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Scotland. The main, formal variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English, Scottish Standard English may be defined as the characteristic speech of the professional class and the accepted norm in schools. IETF language tag for Scottish Standard English is en-Sco

1.
A Book of Psalms printed in the reign of James VI and I

2.
An example of "outwith" on a sign in Scotland

Voiced alveolar fricative
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The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described, the symbol for the alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is z. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or p

Glottal stop
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The glottal stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʔ⟩, using IPA, this sound is known as a glottal plosive. In English, the glottal stop occurs as an open ju

1.
Road sign in British Columbia showing the use of 7 instead of ʔ in the Squamish language.

Voiced velar stop
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The voiced velar stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɡ⟩, strictly, the IPA symbol is the so-called single-story G, but the double-story G is considered an acceptable alternative. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is

Voiceless postalveolar fricative
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled ⟨sh⟩, as in ship, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʃ⟩, the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitm

Voiced postalveolar fricative
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The voiced palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiced domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the case form of the letter Ezh ⟨Ʒ ʒ⟩. An alternative symbol used in older and American linguistic literature is

Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant affricate or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨t͡ʃ⟩, ⟨t͜ʃ⟩ or ⟨tʃ⟩ and it is familiar to English speakers as the ch sound in chip. Historically, this sound often der

Vowel
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In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. There is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis and this contrasts with consonants, such as the English sh, which have a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as sy

1.
X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ].

Open back unrounded vowel
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The open back unrounded vowel, or low back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɑ⟩, the letter ⟨ɑ⟩ is called script a because it lacks the extra hook on top of a printed letter a, which corresponds to a different vowel, the open fro

Open-mid front unrounded vowel
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The open-mid front unrounded vowel, or low-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is a Latinized variant of the Greek lowercase epsilon, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this.

Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
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The near-close near-front unrounded vowel, or near-high near-front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɪ⟩, the International Phonetic Association advises serifs on the symbols ends. Some sans-serif fonts do meet this typographic sp

Open-mid back rounded vowel
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The open-mid back rounded vowel, or low-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɔ⟩, the IPA symbol is a turned letter c and both the symbol and the sound are commonly called open-o. The name open-o represents the sound, in that

Received Pronunciation
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Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3% of people in Britain were RP speakers, but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis. Since the 1960s, a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education, an individual using RP will typically speak Standard English, although the converse

1.
Transcriptions

2.
Monophthongs of RP. From Roach (2004, p. 242)

Close-mid central rounded vowel
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The close-mid central rounded vowel, or high-mid central rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound. It was added to the IPA in 1993, before that, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. The character ɵ has been used in several

Open central unrounded vowel
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The open central unrounded vowel, or low central unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages. While the International Phonetic Alphabet officially has no dedicated letter for this sound between front and back, it is normally written ⟨a⟩, if precision is required, it can be specified by using diacritics, such as centrali

Close-mid front unrounded vowel
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The close-mid front unrounded vowel, or high-mid front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨e⟩, for the close-mid front rounded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ɪ⟩ or ⟨i⟩, see near-close near-front unrounded vowel.

Close front unrounded vowel
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The close front unrounded vowel, or high front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound that occurs in most spoken languages, represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol i. The close front unrounded vowel is the equivalent of the palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, irish orthography reflects both etym

Close-mid back rounded vowel
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The close-mid back rounded vowel, or high-mid back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨o⟩, for the close-mid back rounded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ or ⟨u⟩, see near-close near-back rounded vowel. If the usu

Close front rounded vowel
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The close front rounded vowel, or high front rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Acoustically it is a close front-central rounded vowel, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨y⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y. Across many languages, it is most commonly represent