script of adding details to a larger generic framework, making us prone to reconstruction

implicit vs. explicit memory

the different theories of why we “forget"

Decay – memories decay over time, applies to STM and sensoryRetroactive/proactive interference – you learn something new that interferes with the ability to remember older and the opposite, respectivelyRepression – people protect themselves by repressing the memory of traumatic experiences

retrograde and anterograde amnesia

grammar

The rules of language that enable the communicator to combine symbols to convey meaning.

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phonology

Rules governing how sounds should be combined to make words in a language.

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syntax

Rules governing how words should be combined to form sentences.

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semantics

The rules used in language to communicate meaning.

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phonemes and morphemes

Phonemes - The smallest significant sound units in speech.Morphemes - The smallest units in a language that carry meaning.

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surface structure and deep structure

Surface - The literal ordering of words in a sentence.Deep - The underlying representation of meaning in a sentence.“Stephanie kissed the crying boy”—“The crying boy was kissed by Stephanie”Same deep structure, but different surface structure

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pragmatics

The practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an effective response.

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category

A class of objects (people, places, or things) that most people agree belong together.

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prototype and exemplar

Prototype - The best or most representative member of a category (such as robin for the category “bird”).

Exemplar - Specific examples of category members that are stored in longterm memory

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basic-level categories

The level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information; the basic level usually resides at an intermediate level in a category hierarchy.

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heuristics

Problem-solving ‘rules of thumb’ (when its not feasible to use an algorithm)

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means-end analysis, working backward, and searching for analogies

Means-end – devise actions that get us closer to the desired goal (break down tasks into simpler sub-tasks)Working backwards – start at the end and move backwards to the starting pointSearching for analogies – try to find similarities between the current problem and ones you’ve solved in the past

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mental set

Tendencies to rely on particular problem solving strategies that were successful in the past

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Tversky/Kahneman Asian disease problem

Losses hurt more than gains feel good

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confirmation bias

People have expectations about people and things and they tend to confirm their expectations while ignoring things against their expectations

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cognitive miser

People have reluctance to do much extra thinking

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representativeness heuristic

The tendency to make decisions based on an alternative’s similarity, or representativeness, in relation to an ideal. For example, people decide whether a sequence is random based on how irregular the sequence looks.

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base rate neglect

The basic idea here is that people compare something to their idea of the “typical representative case” of something, and if it is a close match to the typical representative case of something

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conjunction error

conjunction error refers to the idea that people often believe that the co-occurrence of two events is more likely than the occurrence of at least one of them

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availability heuristic

estimate the likelihood of an event by considering how easy it is to recall or generate specific examples of that thing (examples of divorce stick out more than happy couples)

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anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Using a starting point to estimate how frequent or likely an event is, and then make adjustments up and down from this starting point

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psychometrics

A branch of psychology dedicated to improving the way we measure constructs of interest (Galton)

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factor analysis

A statistical procedure used to lump similar variables together in order to reduce the amount of data one has to deal with (Spearman)

Combo of Spearman and Thurstone – has both g and independent factors

Gardner’s case study approach to multiple intelligences

reliability, validity, and standardization

Reliability – consistency of resultsValilidty – how well a test measures whit it is supposed to measure (content- test samples across domain of interest) (predictive – test predicts future outcome) (construct – tape into a theoretical construct)Standardization – everything the same across people

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Understand the components that make a test valid (content, predictive, construct)

instincts and drives and homoeostasis

intrinsic motivation

Entirely self-motivated; engage in the action for its own sake (reading twilight vs. math textbook)

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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Physiological needs – addressed first; most basic needs to stay aliveSafety needs – protect yourself from dangerBelonging and love needs – social aspectsEsteem needs – feel good about yourselfSelf-actualization needs – ability to feel like you are the best you

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epigenetics

the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.

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affective shift hypothesis

These short-term preferences only show up in men who have had many short-term sexual experiences

the positive-negative asymmetry of emotions

Bad things affect us more than good events (hedonic treadmill – you return to normal functioning quicker after good than bad)

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personality, a “trait”, and a “trait theory"

Personality - The distinguishing pattern of psychological characteristics—thinking, feeling, and behaving—that differentiates us from others and leads us to act consistently across situations.Trait - A stable predisposition to act or behave in a certain way.Trait theory - Formal systems for assessing how people differ, particularly in their predispositions to respond in certain ways across situations

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factor analytic approach

a mathematical procedure that’s used to analyze correlations among test responses. The goal is to identify a set of factors that collectively predict test performance

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big 5

The five dimensions of personality—extroversion (social, talkative), agreeableness (warm, rusting), conscientiousness (ethical, dependable), neuroticism (anxious, insecure), and openness (daring, imaginative)—that have been isolated through the application of factor analysis.

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self-report inventory vs projective personality test

Self-report - Personality tests in which people answer groups of questions about how they typically think, act, and feel; their responses, or self-reports, are then compared to average responses compiled from large groups of prior test takers.Projective - A type of personality test in which individuals are asked to interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli (Rorschach)

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psychodynamic theory

An approach to personality development, based largely on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that holds that much of behavior is governed by unconscious forces.

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Conscious

The contents of awareness—those things that occupy the focus of one’s current attention.

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Preconscious

The part of the mind that contains all of the inactive but potentially accessible thoughts and memories

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Unconscious

The part of the mind that Freud believed housed all the memories, urges, and conflicts that are truly beyond awareness

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Defense mechanism

According to Freud, unconscious processes used by the ego to ward off the anxiety that comes from confrontation, usually with the demands of the id

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Adler, Jung, and Horney - Collective unconscious

The notion proposed by Carl Jung that certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people

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humanistic approach to how personality develops

A movement in psychology and approach to personality that focuses on people’s unique capacity for choice, responsibility and growth.

Self concept - An organized set of perceptions that we hold about our abilities and characteristics.Positive regard - The idea that we value what others think of us and that we constantly seek others’ approval, love, and companionship.Conditions of worth - The expectations or standards that we believe others place on us.Incongruence - A discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves—our self-concept—and the sum of all our experiences

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social-cognitive approach to personality

An approach to personality that suggests it is human experiences, and interpretations of those experiences, that determine personality growth and development.

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person-situation debate

A controversial debate centering on whether people really do behave consistently across situations

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self-monitoring

The degree to which a person monitors a situation closely and changes his or her behavior accordingly; people who are high self-monitors may not behave consistently across situations.