The ship is outfitted with a 138 m2 (1,490 sq ft) flight deck and a 28 m2 (300 sq ft) hangar and is capable of operating one light helicopter of either the MBB Bo 105 or Bell 206L types.[2][4]Hudson is equipped with one RHIB and has four laboratories. There is one 40 m2 (430 sq ft) geo-chem lab, two 20 m2 (220 sq ft) labs, one hydrographic and one oceanographic and one 18 m2 (190 sq ft) general purpose lab. The ship has a complement of 31, comprising 11 officers and 20 crew, with 23 additional berths available.[2]

During the 1960s, Hudson performed five surveys of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge as part of the world-wide study of continental drift,[5] the ship took part in Expo '67 and had satellite navigation installed, becoming the first ship outside the United States Navy to have the technology.[1] In 1969, Hudson circumnavigated North America,[6] from November 1969 to October 1970, the vessel circumnavigated North and South America, starting in Nova Scotia, travelling south to Antarctic waters, around the southern tip of South America, north through the mid-Pacific and back to Nova Scotia through the Northwest Passage. Hudson was the first vessel to circumnavigate both continents.[4] While transiting, the ship carried out several experiments, among them studies of marine life along the east coast of the Americas, tidal current surveys of Chilean fjords and geographic discoveries in the Pacific Ocean,[1] this voyage, in which over 100 scientists participated during various stages, was documented in the 1973 book "Voyage to the Edge of the World" by Alan Edmonds ISBN0771030673.

During surveys of Canada's Arctic, Hudson employed a helicopter for the first time,[7] during the early 1970s, Hudson performed surveys of the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine.[1] In March 1976, Hudson rescued the entire crew of the fishery patrol vessel Cape Freels, which had been abandoned on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland after catching fire.[5][8] In the late 1970s, Hudson carried out the first survey of Baffin Bay.[5]

In the 1980s and 1990s, Hudson took part in large surveys that were part of international programs such as the Joint Global Ocean Fluxes Study and World Ocean Circulation Experiment;[5] in 1980, Hudson circumnavigated North America.[1]Hudson contributed significantly during recovery operations during the aftermath of the semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit Ocean Ranger that sank in Eastern Canadian waters on 15 February 1982. Hudson saved all 24 crew members of MV Skipper 1 in the North Atlantic on 29 April 1987. On 28 April 1988, an explosion was spotted by the crew over the horizon. When Hudson arrived on scene, they found the tankerAthenian Venture on fire and in two pieces. Hudson recovered only one body from among the wreckage.[1]

In the 1990s, Hudson performed surveys in Greenland waters, Rankin Inlet and Chesterfield Inlet. During operations in Greenland waters, ice tore a 15-foot (4.6 m) gash in the hull of the ship. Hudson was forced to return to Canada for repairs. In 1996, Hudson joined the fleet of the Canadian Coast Guard.[1]Hudson contributed to the recovery operations during the recovery operations of Swissair Flight 111 in the waters off of Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada during the autumn months of 1998.[1][9] From 1999 to 2001, Hudson performed surveys in the Sable Island region.[1]

In 2007 the Government of Canada announced several new shipbuilding projects for the Canadian Coast Guard, including a replacement for Hudson, expected to be in service by 2012,[10] the ship rescued the seven-man crew of the fishing vessel Ocean Commander which burned and sank on 6 July 2009.[11] The construction of the replacement for Hudson was delayed, forcing the Canadian Coast Guard to replace rusting plates aboard Hudson in 2012,[10] the repairs were completed in September 2015.[12]Hudson underwent a $4 million CAD refit beginning on 19 December 2016. The refit was performed by Heddle Marine at their shipyard in Hamilton, Ontario.[13]Hudson was towed out of Heddle Marine's shipyard to the Canada Centre for Inland Waters in Burlington, Ontario, a Government of Canada facility. The vessel's refit, scheduled to be finished in May 2017 was unfinished at the time of the ship's removal.[14]Hudson returned to the East Coast on 14 November 2017 to ensure that the ship was out of the Saint Lawrence Seaway before it closed.[15] The ship underwent further refit at Halifax, which included modification to the cabins and laboratories, the ship is scheduled to return to service in April 2018.[16]

1.
Henry Hudson
–
Henry Hudson, born circa 1565-1570, dead 1611, was an English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century. Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a prospective Northwest Passage to Cathay via a route above the Arctic Circle. Hudson explored the region around modern New York metropolitan area while looking for a route to Asia while in the employment of the Dutch East India Company. He explored the Hudson River, and laid thereby the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region, Hudson discovered the Hudson Strait and the immense Hudson Bay on his final expedition. While searching for the Northwest Passage, Hudson and his son would lose their lives. In 1611, after wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, the mutineers cast Hudson, his son and seven others adrift, the Hudsons, and those cast off at their side, were never seen again. His name also lives on with the Hudsons Bay Company that explored and worked in the vast Hudson Bay watershed and this large company, and one of the longest lasting, was very successful with fur trading all across North America. Canada acquired a portion of land from the purchase of Hudsons Bay Company lands. Details of Hudsons birth and early life are mostly unknown, some sources have identified Hudson as having been born in about 1565, but others date his birth to around 1570. Other historians assert even less certainty, Mancall, for instance, states that was born in the 1560s. Hudson is thought to have spent many years at sea, beginning as a cabin boy, in 1607, the Muscovy Company of England hired Hudson to find a northerly route to the Pacific coast of Asia. The English were battling the Dutch for northwest routes and it was thought at the time that, because the sun shone for three months in the northern latitudes in the summer, the ice would melt and a ship could make it across the top of the world. Hudson sailed on 1 May with a crew of ten men and they reached the east coast of Greenland on 14 June, coasting it northward until the 22nd. Here they named a headland Youngs Cape, a high mount, like a round castle near it Mount of Gods Mercy. After turning east, they sighted Newland on the 27th, near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the Great Indraught. On 13 July Hudson and his crew thought they had sailed as far north as 80°23 N, the following day they entered what Hudson later in the voyage named Whales Bay, naming its northwestern point Collins Cape after his boatswain, William Collins. They sailed north the following two days, on the 16th they reached as far north as Hakluyts Headland at 79°49 N, thinking they saw the land continue to 82° N when really it trended to the east. Encountering ice packed along the north coast, they were forced to turn back south, Hudson wanted to make his return by the north of Greenland to Davis his Streights, and so for Kingdom of England, but ice conditions would have made this impossible

2.
Canadian Coast Guard
–
The Canadian Coast Guard is the coast guard of Canada. The coast guard operates 119 vessels of varying sizes and 22 helicopters, the Canadian Coast Guard is headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario and is a Special Operating Agency within Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Unlike armed coast guards of some nations, the CCG is a government marine organization without naval or law enforcement responsibilities. Naval operations in Canadas maritime environment are exclusively the responsibility of the Royal Canadian Navy, enforcement of Canadas maritime-related federal statutes may be carried out by peace officers serving with various federal, provincial or even municipal law enforcement agencies. The CCGs responsibility encompasses Canadas 202, 080-kilometre long coastline, the longest of any nation in the world and its vessels and aircraft operate over an area of ocean and inland waters covering approximately 2.3 million square nautical miles. Canadian Coast Guard services support government priorities and economic prosperity and contribute to the safety, accessibility and security of Canadian waters, the CCG’s mandate is stated in the Oceans Act and the Canada Shipping Act. The Canada Shipping Act gives the powers, responsibilities and obligations concerning, aids to navigation, Sable Island, search and rescue, pollution response. As a special operating agency within the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, however, the CCG is one of several federal departments and agencies that have been granted heraldic symbols. The CCG badge was approved in 1962. Blue symbolizes water, white represents ice, and dolphins are considered a friend of mariners, the motto Saluti Primum, Auxilio Semper translates “Safety First, Service Always”. In addition to the Coast Guard Jack, distinctive flags have been approved for use by senior CCG officials including the Honorary Chief Commissioner, the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary was granted a flag and badge by the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 2012. Originally a variety of departments and even the navy performed the work which the CCG does today. Lifeboat stations had been established on the east and west coasts as part of the Canadian Lifesaving Service and these stations maintained, sometimes sporadically in the earliest days, pulling lifeboats manned by volunteers and eventually motorized lifeboats. After the Department of Marine and Fisheries was split into separate departments, during the inter-war period, the Royal Canadian Navy also performed similar duties at a time when the navy was wavering on the point of becoming a civilian organization. Laws related to customs and revenue were enforced by the division of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. A government reorganization in 1936 saw the Department of Marine and its Marine Service, along several other government departments and agencies. Following the Second World War, Canada experienced an expansion in ocean commerce. One of the more notable inheritances at the time of formation was the icebreaker Labrador, a period of expansion followed the creation of the CCG between the 1960s and the 1980s

3.
Ottawa
–
Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock

4.
Ontario
–
Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions

5.
Saint John Shipbuilding
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Saint John Shipbuilding was a Canadian shipbuilding company located in Saint John, New Brunswick. The shipyard was active from 1923 to 2003, numerous shipyards were located on the shores of Courtney Bay in the east end of Saint John Harbour where extensive mud flats dried at low tide. The new shipyard with its massive drydock opened in 1923 at a location on the shore of Courtney Bay. The first of its long list of vessels, the ferry MV Kipawo, after fit-up, it went into service in 1926. The shipyard was sold in the 1950s to the industrialist K. C. Irving, the ensuing corporate restructuring saw the company renamed Saint John Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Ltd. By the 1980s, it came to be simply as Saint John Shipbuilding and was the flagship of a collection of eastern Canadian shipyards operated by Irving Shipbuilding. The shipyard was used to oil tankers for Irving Oil and freighters and other cargo vessels for Kent Lines. The facility also received a contract from Canadian Pacific Railway in 1969 to build a ferry for its Bay of Fundy service from Saint John to Digby. Similarly, the ferry operator CN Marine placed an order in the early 1980s for a passenger-vehicle ferry for its Northumberland Strait service to Prince Edward Island. The East Isle Shipyard in Georgetown, Prince Edward Island was purchased from the provincial government, similarly, Irving Shipbuilding purchased the Shelburne Ship Repair shipyard in Shelburne and the Pictou Shipyard in Pictou to support the Halifax-class project. The skilled workforce at Saint John Shipbuilding dwindled as welders and engineers and other trades and professionals left for work on projects in Canada. The yard was mothballed in 2000 after it completed its last ship, the Irving Group of Companies announced the intention of permanently decommissioning Canadas largest shipyard and building a new wallboard manufacturing plant and other businesses on the site. The former dry dock cranes have been removed and the building is now Irving Wall board services, the train still can access the facility to remove shipments, but there is no and will not be in the for-see-able future. St. John to Have Biggest Drydock, sad day for Saint John Shipbuilding

6.
Saint John, New Brunswick
–
Saint John is a city on the Fundy coast in New Brunswick, Canada. In 2016, the city is the second largest in New Brunswick and has a population of 67,575 over an area of 315.82 square kilometres, Saint John is the oldest incorporated city in Canada. During the reign of Britains George III, the municipality was created by charter in 1785. The Saint John metropolitan area covers a area of 3,362.95 square kilometres across the Caledonia Highlands. Samuel de Champlain landed at Saint John Harbour on June 24,1604 and is where the Saint John River gets its name. S, in 1785, Saint John became the first incorporated city in what would later become Canada. Over the next century, waves of Irish immigration, namely during the Great Famine via Partridge Island, would change the citys demographics. The Mikmaq also ventured into the territory and named the area Měnagwĕs, samuel de Champlain landed at Saint John Harbour in 1604, but the area was in English hands by the end of the Seven Years War. After being incorporated as a city in 1785 with an influx of Loyalists from the Boston States and immigrants from Ireland, in 1851 the city cemented itself internationally when the Marco Polo, built from a Saint John yard, became the fastest in the world. However, the city would experience much struggle with its success. From 1840 to 1860 sectarian violence was rampant in Saint John resulting in some of the worst urban riots in Canadian history. The city experienced an outbreak in 1854 with the death over 1,500 people, as well as a great fire in 1877 that destroyed 40% of the city. 1785, First quarantine station in North America, Partridge Island, in the early 19th century, it greeted sick and dying Irish immigrants arriving with inhospitable conditions. 1820, The first chartered bank in Canada, the Bank of New Brunswick, Canadas oldest publicly funded high school, Saint John High School 1838, The first penny newspaper in the Empire, the tri-weekly Saint John News, was established. 1842, Canadas first public museum, originally known as the Gesner Museum, named after its Nova Scotian founder Abraham Gesner, the museum is now known as the New Brunswick Museum. 1849, Canada’s first labour union, the Laborer’s Benevolent Association that was formed when Saint John’s longshoremen banded together to lobby for regular pay and a shorter workday. One of their first resolutions was to apply to the city council for permission to erect the bell,1854, The automated steam foghorn was invented by Robert Foulis. 1870, Canadas first Y. W. C. A. was established,1870, First Knights of Pythias in British Empire. 1872, Monitor top railroad cars in the world invented by James Ferguson, the original model is in the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John

7.
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia
–
Dartmouth is a community and former city in the Halifax Regional Municipality of Nova Scotia, Canada. Dartmouth is located on the shore of Halifax Harbour. Dartmouth has been nicknamed the City of Lakes, after the number of lakes located within its boundaries. On April 1,1996, the government amalgamated all the municipalities within the boundaries of Halifax County into a single-tier regional government named the Halifax Regional Municipality. Dartmouth and its city of Halifax, the town of Bedford. The former city of Dartmouth forms part of the core of the larger regional municipality and is officially designated as part of the capital district by the Halifax Regional Municipality. The official place name did not change, due to the confusion with similar names, land use planning set out by the former City of Dartmouth. Today the same development planning for Downtown Dartmouth and the rest of the region is still in force, Father Le Loutres War began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21,1749. By unilaterally establishing Halifax, the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, the British quickly began to build other settlements. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, Lunenburg, in 1750, the sailing ship Alderney arrived with 151 immigrants. Municipal officials at Halifax decided that new arrivals should be settled on the eastern side of Halifax Harbour. During the early years, there were 8 Acadian and Mikmaq raids on the new British settlement, the community was later given the English name of Dartmouth in honour of William Legge, 1st Earl of Dartmouth who was a former Secretary of State. By 1752,53 families consisting of 193 people lived in the community, Dartmouth was initially a sawmill and agricultural outpost of Halifax. In 1873, Dartmouth was incorporated as a town and a Town Hall was established in 1877, in 1955, the town was permanently linked to Halifax by the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge which led to rapid suburban growth. The Town of Dartmouth amalgamated with neighbouring villages into the City of Dartmouth in 1961. The A. Murray MacKay Bridge opened in 1970, furthering commercial and residential growth, the city was dissolved on April 1,1996, when its government was amalgamated into the Halifax Regional Municipality. Residents of Dartmouth are known as Dartmouthians, as a community, Dartmouth has often tended to distinguish itself from the community and former city of Halifax, even under the present municipal amalgamation. Dartmouth is also the Halifax Regional Municipalitys Public Works Eastern Region, today, Dartmouth is home to the shopping district of Dartmouth Crossing, as well as federal government offices, many located in the Queen Square building on Alderney Drive

8.
IMO number
–
The International Maritime Organization number is a unique reference for ships and for registered ship owners and management companies. IMO numbers were introduced under the SOLAS Convention to improve safety and security. For ships, the IMO number remains linked to the hull for its lifetime, regardless of a change in name, flag, or owner. The ship number consists of the three letters IMO followed by a unique number assigned to sea-going merchant ships under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. In 1987 the IMO adopted Resolution A, in the SOLAS Convention cargo ships means ships which are not passenger ships. Passenger ships should carry the marking on a horizontal surface visible from the air. When introduced, the IMO adopted the existing unique ship numbers applied to ships listed by Lloyds Register since 1963, IMO ship identification numbers are assigned by IHS Fairplay. For new vessels the IMO number is assigned to a hull during construction, the IMO ship identification number is made of the three letters IMO followed by the seven-digit number. This consists of a six-digit sequential unique number followed by a check digit, the integrity of an IMO number can be verified using its check digit. This is done by multiplying each of the first six digits by a factor of 2 to 7 corresponding to their position from right to left, the rightmost digit of this sum is the check digit. For example, for IMO9074729, + + + + + =139, in May 2005, IMO adopted a new SOLAS regulation XI-1/3-1 on the mandatory company and registered owner identification number scheme, with entry into force on 1 January 2009. Like the IMO ship number, the identification number is a seven-digit number with the prefix IMO

9.
Research vessel
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A research vessel is a ship or boat designed, modified, and/or equipped to carry out research at sea. Research vessels carry out a number of roles, some of these roles can be combined into a single vessel but others require a dedicated vessel. Due to the nature of the work, research vessels are often constructed around an icebreaker hull. The research ship had origins in the voyages of exploration. By the time of James Cooks Endeavour, the essentials of what today we would call a ship are clearly apparent. In 1766, the Royal Society hired Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe, the Endeavour was a sturdy boat, well designed and equipped for the ordeals she would face, and fitted out with facilities for her research personnel, Joseph Banks. And, as is common with contemporary research vessels, Endeavour carried out more than one kind of research, some other notable early research vessels were HMS Beagle, RV Calypso, HMS Challenger, USFC Albatross, and the Endurance and Terra Nova. The names of early research vessels have been used to later research vessels. A hydrographic survey ship is a designed to conduct hydrographic research. Nautical charts are produced from this information to ensure safe navigation by military, hydrographic survey vessels also conduct seismic surveys of the seabed and the underlying geology. Apart from producing the charts, this information is useful for detecting geological features which are likely to bear oil or gas, in practice, hydrographic survey vessels are often equipped to perform multiple roles. Some function also as oceanographic research ships, naval hydrographic survey vessels often do naval research, for example, on submarine detection. An example of a survey vessel is CCGS Frederick G. Creed. For an example of the employment of a survey ship see HMS Hydra and these vessels often also carry scientific divers and unmanned underwater vehicles. Since the requirements of both oceanographic and hydrographic research are very different from those of fisheries research, these boats often fulfill dual roles, examples of an oceanographic research vessel include the NOAAS Ronald H. Brown and the Chilean Navy Cabo de Hornos. An example of a research vessel is FRV Scotia. Naval research vessels investigate naval concerns, such as submarine and mine detection, sonar, an example of a naval research vessel is the Planet of the German Navy. Polar research vessels are constructed around a hull, allowing them to operate in polar waters

10.
Deadweight tonnage
–
Deadweight tonnage or tons deadweight is a measure of how much mass a ship is carrying or can safely carry, it does not include the weight of the ship. DWT is the sum of the weights of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, DWT is often used to specify a ships maximum permissible deadweight, although it may also denote the actual DWT of a ship not loaded to capacity. Deadweight tonnage is a measure of a weight carrying capacity. It should not be confused with displacement which includes the ships own weight, nor other volume or capacity measures such as gross tonnage or net tonnage

11.
Net tonnage
–
Net tonnage is a dimensionless index calculated from the total moulded volume of the ships cargo spaces by using a mathematical formula. Net tonnage is used to calculate the port duties and should not be taken as less than 30 per cent of the gross tonnage. Net tonnage is not a measure of the weight of the ship or its cargo, also, unlike the net register tonnage, the net tonnage is unitless and thus can not be defined as tons or net tons. The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969 was adopted by IMO in 1969, Ships built before that date were given 12 years to migrate from their existing tonnage to use of NT and GT. The phase-in period was provided to allow time to adjust economically, since tonnage is the basis for satisfying manning regulations. Tonnage is also the basis for calculating registration fees and port dues, one of the Conventions goals was to ensure that the new units did not differ too greatly from the traditional GRT and NRT units. Both NT and GT are obtained by measuring ships volume and then applying a mathematical formula, Net tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all cargo spaces of the ship while gross tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship. In addition, a net tonnage is constrained to be no less than 30% of her gross tonnage. The net tonnage calculation is based on a number of factors, the choice of the value to use for d can be complicated. For ships subject to the International Convention on Load Lines, the Summer Load Line draft is used, for passenger ships, the draft used is the deepest subdivision load line assigned in accordance with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. Otherwise, if a ship has been assigned a load line by its national government, if the ship has no load line, instead, a maximum draft assigned by its national government, that value is used, if it has been assigned a maximum. Finally, for a ship to which none of the above applies, the Net tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 4 of Annex 1 of The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. In the United States, net tonnage is used to determine eligibility for registering boats with the federal government, vessels with net tonnage of five or more are eligible for federal registration and not required to display state registration numbers. Most vessels longer than 25 feet are five tons or more, International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969, archived from the original on 2009-07-07. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A

12.
Length overall
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Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A

13.
Length between perpendiculars
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When there is no sternpost, the centerline axis of the rudder stock is used as the aft end of the length between perpendiculars. Measuring to the stern post or rudder stock was believed to give an idea of the ships carrying capacity, as it excluded the small. On some types of vessels this is, for all practical purposes, in a ship with raked stems, naturally that length changes as the draught of the ship changes, therefore it is measured from a defined loaded condition. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A

14.
Ice class
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Some ice classes also have requirements for the ice-going performance of the vessel. The first requirements for merchant ships to be escorted by icebreakers were set in Finland in 1890, in the past, different classification organizations had different standards, rules, and ice classes. Converting between the Baltic and Arctic systems is not usually done, recently, the two different class systems have been defined by the International Association of Classification Societies and the International Maritime Organization. Not all ships are built to an ice class, building a ship to an ice class means that the hull must be thicker, and more scantlings must be in place. Sea chests may need to be arranged differently depending on the class, Sea bays may also be required to ensure that the sea chest does not become blocked with ice. Most of the stronger classes require several forms of rudder and propeller protection, two rudder pintles are usually required, and strengthened propeller tips are often required in the stronger ice classes. More watertight bulkheads, in addition to those required by a normal class, are usually required. In addition, heating arrangements for fuel tanks, ballast tanks, the classes can also be spelled with Roman numerals. Traffic restrictions in the Baltic Sea during winter months are based on the Finnish-Swedish ice class and these restrictions, imposed by the local maritime administrations, declare the minimum requirements for ships that are given icebreaker assistance, for example ice class 1A,2000 DWT. The American Bureau of Shipping has a system of ice classes which includes classes A5 through A0, B0, C0, A5 class is the strongest built of the classes, with D0 being the weakest. All other major classification societies have a system of ice classes. In most cases only the names of the classes are changed, ABS Class A5 is the only Arctic Class that may act independently in extreme Arctic waters with no limitations. Other classes are subject to limitations on time of year, required escort, the ABS database includes hundreds of Arctic Ice Classed ships, including many Arctic Research Vessels, and the entire productions of certain shipyards. Out of about 5,000 vessels classified by the RMRS, the RMRS ice class rules have been revised and the class notations changed several times over the years. As of 2017, the ice classes are divided to non-Arctic, Arctic and these ice classes can be assigned in parallel with the Finnish-Swedish ice class and/or the IACS Polar Class, provided the vessel complies with all applicable rules. In addition, icebreaker classes have requirements for minimum shaft power

15.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium

16.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal

17.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp

18.
Rigid-hulled inflatable boat
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A rigid-hulled inflatable boat or rigid-inflatable boat is a lightweight but high-performance and high-capacity boat constructed with a solid, shaped hull and flexible tubes at the gunwale. The design is stable and seaworthy, the inflatable collar allows the vessel to maintain buoyancy if a large quantity of water is shipped aboard due to bad sea conditions. The RIB is a development of the inflatable boat, uses include work boats in trades that operate on the water, military craft, where they are used in patrol roles and to transport troops between vessels or ashore, and lifeboats. Although working versions were built, the plywood rigid hulls were not strong enough, development was then transferred to Atlantic College in South Wales where the rigid section was formed as a deep vee hull to add strength and that worked. The first commercial RIB was introduced in 1967 by Tony and Edward Lee-Elliott of Flatacraft, in 1964, Rear-Admiral Hoare and his students at Atlantic College replaced the torn bottom of their 12-foot-long sailing club rescue inflatable boat with a plywood sheet glued to the inflatable tubes. This proved a successful modification but was uncomfortable at speed offshore. This boat was named Atlanta and later year a Atlantic College RIB was displayed at the London Boat Show. By 1966 the students had built a further five rigid inflatable boats – Aphrodite, Triton, Aphrodite and Triton were for the College’s own use. X1 and X2 were launched in 1965 by Queen Elizabeth II and they were taken by the RNLI for trials at Gorleston and Great Yarmouth from which they returned to Atlantic College in spring 1967. X3 was an experimental vortex-lift hull funded by a developer and was not greatly successful. By that time Hoare had concluded that for the conditions under which they operated a boat of around 18 feet long was optimum which led to X4, X5 and X6, and X7 to X8. At the same time, work started on a series of beach-launchable boats to support lifeguards on local beaches. All the above boats’ hulls were built from plywood, in summer 1968, student Paul Jefferies designed and constructed a hull from fiberglass, which was not a success due to lack of strength. The first commercial RIB is believed to be the Avon Rubber Searider which was launched at the January 1969 London Boat Show and these students were also trained by the graduates to operate these craft as safety boats in support of the colleges coastal sailing and diving programs. During summer, the college loaned their fast rescue craft to the Canadian Coast Guard, meanwhile, CCG stations in the Great Lakes began introducing 5.4 metre Avon Seariders at seasonal inshore rescue boat operations in the late 1970s. The CCG inshore rescue boats hired university students to serve as crew, in due to the success of the student crews operating these ever-buoyant rescue craft at Atlantic. The first inflatable boat manufacturer in the Southern Hemisphere is Lancer Industries Ltd, of Auckland, the founder Chris Marks had visited Europe and brought the concept to NZ. He pioneered many of the inflatable boat construction and material methods

19.
MBB Bo 105
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The Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm Bo 105 is a light, twin-engine, multi-purpose helicopter developed by Bölkow of Ottobrunn, Germany. It holds the distinction of being the first light helicopter in the world. The Bo 105 features a revolutionary hingeless rotor system, at time a pioneering innovation in helicopters when it was introduced into service in 1970. Production of the Bo 105 began at the then-recently merged Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, MBB became a part of Eurocopter in 1991, who continued production of the type until 2001. The Bo 105 was formally replaced in Eurocopters product range by the newer Eurocopter EC135, in 1964, development work began at Bölkow upon the helicopter that would become the Bo 105, although work on the hingeless rotor it would use had begun earlier. On 16 February 1967, the second Bo 105A prototype conducted its maiden flight at Ottobrunn in Germany, sud Aviation worked with Bölkow on developing the rotorcraft, an Alouette II helicopter was modified with the Bo 105s rotor and used to test its performance envelope. The third Bo 105 prototype was equipped with the production standard MAN Turbo 6022 turboshaft engines. On 13 October 1970, the German Civil Aviation Authority certified the Bo 105, initial deliveries for the first customers, ADAC Air Rescue and the Bavarian State Police, took place shortly thereafter. In 1972, a version of the rotorcraft with more powerful engines, the Bo 105C, was developed. However, nothing came of the Bo 106 project. In 1976, the Bo 105CB, equipped with more powerful Allison 250-C20B engines, was introduced, US aerospace firm Boeing-Vertol served as a partner in the types production and further development, and marketed the BO105 in the US market. Improvements and modifications to the Bo 105 LS continued until 1995, production of the Bo 105 by Eurocopter formally ended in 2001, principally due to the type having been superseded by the more modern Eurocopter EC135, itself a direct development from the Bo 105. By the end of production, a total of 1,406 rotorcraft had been manufactured and delivered to operators in 55 nations worldwide, during the 1970s, the Bo 105 was known for having a great useful load capacity and higher cruise speed than the majority of its competitors. While not being considered a visually attractive helicopter by some pilots, the Bo 105 was known for possessing steady, responsive controls and a good flight attitude. Most models could perform steep dives, rolls, loops, turnovers, perhaps the most significant feature of the Bo 105 is its rotor blades and rotor head. The reliability of the rotor system is such that, in over six million operating hours across the fleet. When outfitted with optional fuel tanks, a basic model Bo 105 had a flight endurance of roughly five hours under load. In the event of an engine failure, the Bo 105 could typically continue its flight, albeit with a reduction in cruise speed

20.
Hangar
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A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other such as wood. The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart, of Germanic origin, from Frankish *haimgard, from *haim, hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carriers and ships. The Wright brothers stored and repaired their aircraft in a wooden hangar constructed in 1902 at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina for their glider, after completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped, bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft and set up his headquarters in the unused shed. In Britain, the earliest aircraft hangars were known as aeroplane sheds and these were built in 1910 for the Bristol School of Flying and are now Grade II* Listed buildings. Examples of the latter survive at Farnborough, Filton and Montrose airfields, during World War I, other standard designs included the RFC General Service Flight Shed and the Admiralty F-Type of 1916, the General Service Shed and the Handley Page aeroplane shed. Airship hangars or airship sheds are generally larger than conventional aircraft hangars, most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks to keep the gas from exploding. Hangars that held several airships were at risk from chain-reaction explosions, for this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were built to house only one or two such craft. During the Golden Age of airship travel from 1900, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build, steel rigid airship hangars are some of the largest in the world. Hangar 1, Lakehurst, is located at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, the structure was completed in 1921 and is typical of airship hangar designs of World War I. The site is best known for the Hindenburg disaster, when on May 6,1937, Hangar No.1 at Lakehurst was used to build and store the American USS Shenandoah. The hangar also provided service and storage for the airships USS Los Angeles, Akron, Macon, as well as the Graf Zeppelin and the Hindenburg. The largest hangars ever built include the Goodyear Airdock measuring 1, 175x325x211 feet, the Goodyear Airdock, is in Akron, Ohio and the structure was completed on November 25,1929. The Airdock was used for the construction of the USS Akron and her sister ship, Hangar One at Moffett Federal Field, is located in Mountain View, California. The structure was completed in 1931, the US Navy established more airship operations during WWII. As part of this ten lighter-than-air bases across the United States were built as part of the defense plan. Hangars at these bases are some of the worlds largest freestanding timber structures, an alternative to the fixed hangar is a portable shelter that can be used for aircraft storage and maintenance

21.
Flight deck
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The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the official U. S. Navy term for these vessels is air-capable ships. The first flight decks were inclined wooden ramps built over the forecastle of warships, eugene Ely made the first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship from USS Birmingham on 14 November 1910. Ely told a reporter, It was easy enough, I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten. On 9 May 1912, Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his Short S.27 off of HMS Hibernia, which was steaming at 10.5 kn. Because the take-off speed of aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. The landing arrangements on Furious were highly unsatisfactory, in order to land, aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure. Furious was therefore returned to dockyard hands to have a 300 ft deck added aft for landing, the central superstructure remained, however, and turbulence caused by it badly affected the landing deck. Because of her flight deck, Argus had no fixed conning tower. Rather, exhaust gases were trunked down the side of the ship, the lack of a command position and funnel was unsatisfactory, and Argus was used to experiment with various ideas to remedy the solution. A photograph in 1917 shows her with a canvas mock-up of an island superstructure. This became the aircraft carrier arrangement and was used in the next British carriers, Hermes. Being large and fast they were suited to this role. Because the military effectiveness of aircraft carriers was then unknown, early ships were equipped with cruiser-calibre guns to aid in their defense if surprised by enemy warships. In ships of this configuration, the deck was the strength deck and an integral part of the hull. Such ships were still being built into the late 1940s, classic examples being the U. S. Navys Essex, however, in 1936, the Royal Navy began construction of the Illustrious class. In these ships, the deck was the strength deck, an integral part of the hull. The flight deck as the deck was adopted for later construction

22.
Hydrographic survey
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Strong emphasis is placed on soundings, shorelines, tides, currents, seabed and submerged obstructions that relate to the previously mentioned activities. Hydrography is collected under rules which vary depending on the acceptance authority, traditionally conducted by ships with a sounding line or echo sounding, surveys are increasingly conducted with the aid of aircraft and sophisticated electronic sensor systems in shallow waters. Hydrographic offices evolved from naval heritage and are found within national naval structures. The IHO publishes Standards and Specifications followed by its Member States as well as Memoranda of Understanding, increasingly those charts are provided and used in electronic form unders IHO standards. Governmental entities below the national level conduct or contract for hydrographic surveys for waters within their jurisdictions with both internal and contract assets, in the United States, there is coordination with the National Hydrography Dataset in survey collection and publication. State environmental organizations publish hydrographic data relating to their mission, commercial entities also conduct large-scale hydrographic and geophysical surveying, particularly in the dredging, marine construction, oil exploration, and drilling industries. Specialized companies exist that haveboth the equipment and expertise to contract with both commercial and governmental entities to perform such surveys, companies, universities, and investment groups will often fund hydrographic surveys of public waterways prior to developing areas adjacent those waterways. Survey firms are also contracted to survey in support of design, private surveys are also conducted before dredging operations and after these operations are completed. Crowdsourcing also is entering hydrographic surveying, with such as OpenSeaMap, TeamSurv. Apart from obvious cost savings, this gives a continuous survey of an area. Although sometimes accurate to 0.1 -0. 2m, this approach cannot substitute for a systematic survey. Nevertheless, the results are more than adequate for many requirements where high resolution. The history of hydrographic surveying dates almost as far back as that of sailing, in either case, the depths measured had to be read manually and recorded, as did the position of each measurement with regard to mapped reference points as determined by three-point sextant fixes. Single-beam echosounders and fathometers began to service in the 1930s which used sonar to measure the depth beneath a vessel. However, it shared the weakness of earlier methods by lacking depth information for areas in between the strips of sea bottom the vessel sounded, in 1904, wire-drag surveys were introduced into hydrography, and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys Nicholas H. Heck played a prominent role in developing and perfecting the technique between 1906 and 1916, in the wire-drag method, a wire attached to two ships or boats and set at a certain depth by a system of weights and buoys was dragged between two points. If the wire encountered an obstruction, it would become taut, the location of the V revealed the position of submerged rocks, wrecks, and other obstructions, while the depth at which the wire was set showed the depth at which the obstruction was encountered. This method revolutionized hydrographic surveying, as it allowed a quicker, less laborious, prior to the advent of sidescan sonar, wire-drag surveying was the only method for searching large areas for obstructions and lost vessels and aircraft

23.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century

24.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A

25.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind

26.
Caterpillar Inc.
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Caterpillar is a leading manufacturer of construction and mining equipment, diesel and natural gas engines, industrial gas turbines and diesel-electric locomotives. With more than US$89 billion in assets, Caterpillar was ranked one in its industry. In 2016 Caterpillar was ranked #59 on the Fortune 500 list, Caterpillar stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Caterpillar Inc. traces its origins to the 1925 merger of the Holt Manufacturing Company, Best Tractor Company, creating a new entity, the California-based Caterpillar Tractor Company. In 1986, the company re-organized itself as a Delaware corporation under the current name, Caterpillars headquarters are located in Peoria, Illinois, it announced in January 2017 that over the course of that year it would relocate its headquarters to Chicago. The company also licenses and markets a line of clothing and workwear boots under its Cat / Caterpillar name, Caterpillar machinery is recognizable by its trademark Caterpillar Yellow livery and the CAT logo. Benjamin Holt attempted to fix the problem by increasing the size and width of the wheels up to 7.5 feet tall and 6 feet wide, but this also made the tractors increasingly complex, expensive and difficult to maintain. Another solution considered was to lay a temporary plank road ahead of the tractor, but this was time-consuming, expensive. Holt thought of wrapping the planks around the wheels and he replaced the wheels on a 40 horsepower Holt steamer, No. 77, with a set of wooden tracks bolted to chains, on Thanksgiving Day, November 24,1904, he successfully tested the updated machine plowing the soggy delta land of Roberts Island. Company photographer Charles Clements was reported to have observed that the tractor crawled like a caterpillar, some sources, though, attribute this name to British soldiers in July 1907. Two years later Holt sold his first steam-powered tractor crawlers for US$5,500, each side featured a track frame measured 30 inches high by 42 inches wide and were 9 feet long. The tracks were 3 inches by 4 inches redwood slats, Holt received the first patent for a practical continuous track for use with a tractor on December 7,1907 for his improved Traction Engine. On February 2,1910, Holt opened up a plant in East Peoria, Illinois, there Pliny met farm implement dealer Murray Baker who knew of an empty factory that had been recently built to manufacture farm implements and steam traction engines. On October 25,1909, Pliny Holt purchased the factory, Holt incorporated it as the Holt Caterpillar Company, although he did not trademark the name Caterpillar until August 2,1910. Tractors were built in both Stockton and East Peoria, on January 31,2017, after more than 90 years of being headquartered in Peoria, Illinois, the company announced plans to move their headquarters from Peoria to Chicago, Illinois by the end of 2017. The upper echelon of executives, including newly installed CEO Jim Umpleby, will begin relocating later this year, about 300 employees will work in the new office at an as-yet undecided location once the transition is complete. The changes contributed to $2.3 billion in savings in 2016, Umpleby said that decline is a fundamental reason the companys Board of Directors opted to move global headquarters to an area where the global marketplace is in easier reach

27.
Kilowatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower

28.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute

29.
Manoeuvring thruster
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A bow thruster or stern thruster is a transversal propulsion device built into, or mounted to, either the bow or stern, of a ship or boat, to make it more maneuverable. A stern thruster is of the principle, fitted at the stern. Large ships might have multiple bow thrusters and stern thrusters, large vessels usually have one or more tunnel thrusters built into the bow, below the waterline. An impeller in the tunnel can create thrust in either direction which makes the ship turn, most tunnel thrusters are driven by electric motors, but some are hydraulically powered. These bow thrusters, also known as thrusters, may allow the ship to dock without the assistance of tugboats. Ships equipped with tunnel thrusters typically have a sign marked above the waterline over each thruster on both sides, as a big cross in a red circle. Tunnel thrusters increase the resistance to forward motion through the water. Ship operators should take care to prevent fouling of the tunnel, during vessel design, it is important to determine whether tunnel emergence above the water surface is commonplace in heavy seas. Tunnel emergence hurts thruster performance, and may damage the thruster, instead of a tunnel thruster, boats from 30 to 80 feet in length may have an externally mounted bow thruster. Externally mounted bow thrusters have one or more propellers driven by a reversible electric motor which provides thrust in either direction. The added control provided by a bow thruster helps the captain to avoid accidents while docking, a waterjet thruster is a special type of bow thruster that utilizes a pumping device instead of a conventional propeller. The water is discharged through specially designed nozzles which increase the velocity of the exiting jet, waterjets generally have the advantage of smaller hull penetrations for an equivalent size thruster. Additionally, the exit velocity of the discharged water increases the relative efficiency as speeds of advance, or currents, increase. Some waterjet bow thrusters can be configured to forward and aft auxiliary propulsion

30.
Diesel fuel
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Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load, as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, to distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents, as of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle. In Australia diesel fuel is known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his engine he invented in 1892. Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum, other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction. Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel, synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel, the process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid, gas-to-liquid or coal-to-liquid, depending on the raw material used. Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides. Fatty-acid methyl ester, more known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil in Europe, methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. FAME can be used pure in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, FAME as a fuel is specified in DIN EN14214 and ASTM D6751. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel, the loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%. As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of oxides and sulfates. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel. Biodiesel also may reduce risks associated with petroleum diesel

31.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude

32.
Bell 206
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The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single- or twin-engined helicopters, manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebec plant. Originally developed as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Armys Light Observation Helicopter program, Bell redesigned the airframe and successfully marketed the aircraft commercially as the five-place Bell 206A JetRanger. The new design was selected by the Army as the OH-58 Kiowa. The ICAO-assigned model designation B06 is used on plans for the JetRanger and LongRanger. On October 14,1960, the United States Navy solicited response from 25 aircraft manufacturers to a request for proposals on behalf of the Army for the Light Observation Helicopter, Bell entered the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co. Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4, on May 19,1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition. Bell developed the D-250 design into the Bell 206 aircraft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, the first prototype flew on December 8,1962. The YOH-4A also became known as the Ugly Duckling in comparison to the other contending aircraft, following a flyoff of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 was selected in May 1965. When the YOH-4A was eliminated by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft, in addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the planned three passengers. The solution was a fuselage, sleeker and aesthetically appealing, adding 16 ft3 of cargo space in the process. A Bell executive contributed to this redesign by drawing on a sketch two lines extending the fuselage to where it meets the tail. The redesign was designated Bell 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the JetRanger, the 206L LongRanger is a stretched variant with seating for seven. The fuselage, stretched a total of 30 inches, adds two rear-facing seats between the front and rear seats, since 1975, Bell has produced more than 1,700 LongRangers across all variant types. In 1981, a version was released, the 206L TexasRanger. In both applications, the 250-C30P is derated from 650 hp for takeoff and 501 hp continuous, the 206L-3 is transmission–limited to 435 hp for take-off, and the 206L-4 is transmission-limited to 495 hp. The 206L-3 and L-4 have not been offered in a twin configuration under those model designations, in 2007, Bell announced an upgrade program for the 206L-1 and 206L-3 which is designed to modify the aircraft to the 206L-4 configuration, modified aircraft are designated 206L-1+ and 206L-3+. On January 24,2008, Bell Helicopter announced plans to end production of the Bell 206B-3 version after current order commitments were fulfilled in 2010, in 2011, used 206B-3s sold for around $1.4 million depending upon the equipment and configuration. However, production of the 206L-4 is ongoing as of 2016, the TwinRanger name dates from the mid-1980s when Bell developed the Bell 400 TwinRanger, but it never entered production

33.
Glossary of nautical terms
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This is a partial glossary of nautical terms, some remain current, while many date from the 17th to 19th centuries. See also Wiktionarys nautical terms, Category, Nautical terms, See the Further reading section for additional words and references. A & AS Alterations and additions to the structure, rigging, abaft Toward the stern, relative to some object. Abaft the beam Further aft than the beam, a bearing of greater than 90 degrees from the bow. That would describe an object lying 22.5 degrees toward the rear of the ship, as measured clockwise from a line from the right side, center, of the ship. An imperative to leave the vessel immediately, usually in the face of some imminent overwhelming danger and it is an order issued by the Master or a delegated person in command. Abeam On the beam, a bearing at right angles to the ships keel. A merchant seaman qualified to perform all duties, or a junior rank in some navies. Aboard On or in a vessel, about To go about is to change the course of a ship by tacking. Ready about, or boutship, is the order to prepare for tacking, above board On or above the deck, in plain view, not hiding anything. Pirates would secret their crews below decks, thereby creating the impression that an encounter with another ship was a casual matter of chance. Above-water hull The hull section of a vessel above the waterline, absentee pennant Special pennant flown to indicate absence of commanding officer, admiral, his chief of staff, or officer whose flag is flying. Absolute bearing The bearing of an object in relation to north, either true bearing, using the geographical or true north, or magnetic bearing, using magnetic north. See also bearing and relative bearing, accommodation ladder A portable flight of steps down a ships side. Accommodation ship A ship or hulk used as housing, generally there is a lack of quarters available ashore. An operational ship can be used, but more commonly a hulk modified for accommodation is used, Act of Pardon or Act of Grace A letter from a state or power authorising action by a privateer. Admiral Senior naval officer of Flag rank, in ascending order of seniority, Rear Admiral, Vice Admiral, Admiral and Admiral of the Fleet. A high naval authority in charge of a states Navy or a territorial component

34.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen

35.
Continental drift
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Continental drift is the movement of the Earths continents relative to each other, thus appearing to drift across the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have drifted was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596, the concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, W. J. Kious described Ortelius thoughts in this way, Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus. Suggested that the Americas were torn away from Europe and Africa, by earthquakes and floods and went on to say, The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three. In his Manual of Geology,1863, Dana says The continents, Dana was enormously influential in America – his Manual of Mineralogy is still in print in revised form – and the theory became known as Permanence theory. This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature of the earths surface and this led Mantovani to propose an Expanding Earth theory which has since been shown to be incorrect. Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of continental creep. Wegener said that of all theories, Taylors, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of drift was referred to as the Taylor-Wegener hypothesis. Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on January 6,1912 and his hypothesis was that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called Pangea, before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations. Wegener was the first to use the continental drift and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow drifted apart. Although he presented evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. The Polflucht hypothesis was studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920. The theory of drift was not accepted for many years. One problem was that a driving force was missing. A second problem was that Wegeners estimate of the velocity of continental motion,250 cm/year, was implausibly high, and it did not help that Wegener was not a geologist. Other geologists also believed that the evidence that Wegener had provided was not sufficient, the British geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earths mantle contained convection cells that dissipated radioactive heat and his Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944

36.
Expo 67
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It is considered to be the most successful Worlds Fair of the 20th century with the most attendees to that date and 62 nations participating. It also set the attendance record for a worlds fair. Expo 67 was Canadas main celebration during its centennial year, the project was not well supported in Canada at first. It took the determination of Montreals mayor, Jean Drapeau, defying a computer analysis that said it could not be done, the fair opened on time. After Expo 67 ended in October 1967, the site and most of the continued on as an exhibition called Man and His World. By that time, most of the buildings — which had not been designed to last beyond the original exhibition — had deteriorated and were dismantled. Today, the islands hosted the world exhibition are mainly used as parkland and for recreational use. The exposition was offered first to Toronto but politicians there rejected the idea, however, Montreals mayor, Sarto Fournier, backed the proposal, allowing Canada to make a bid to the Bureau International des Expositions. At the BIEs May 5,1960 meeting in Paris, Moscow was awarded the fair after five rounds of voting that eliminated Austrias, in April 1962, the Soviets scrapped plans to host the fair because of financial constraints and security concerns. Montreals new mayor, Jean Drapeau, lobbied the Canadian government to try again for the fair, several sites were proposed as the main Expo grounds. One location that was considered was Mount Royal Park, to the north of the downtown core, but it was Drapeaus idea to create new islands in the St. Lawrence river, and to enlarge the existing Saint Helens Island. The choice overcame opposition from Montreals surrounding municipalities, and also prevented land speculation, Expo did not get off to a smooth start, in 1963, many top organizing committee officials resigned. Another more likely reason for the resignations was that on April 22,1963. Canadian diplomat Pierre Dupuy was named Commissioner General, after Diefenbaker appointee Paul Bienvenu resigned from the post in 1963, one of the main responsibilities of the Commissioner General was to attract other nations to build pavilions at Expo. Dupuy would spend most of 1964 and 1965 soliciting 125 countries, dupuys right-hand man was Robert Fletcher Shaw, the deputy commissioner general and vice-president of the corporation. He also replaced a Diefenbaker appointee, C. F, Shaw was a professional engineer and builder, and is widely credited for the total building of the Exhibition. Dupuy hired Andrew Kniewasser as the general manager, the management group became known as Les Durs - the tough guys - and they were in charge of creating, building and managing Expo. To this group the chief architect Édouard Fiset was added, all ten were honoured by the Canadian government as recipients of the Order of Canada, Companions for Dupuy and Shaw, Officers for the others

37.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress

38.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians

39.
Northwest Passage
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For centuries explorers sought a navigable passage as a possible trade route. Until 2009, the Arctic pack ice prevented regular marine shipping throughout most of the year, Arctic sea ice decline has rendered the waterways more navigable. If, as has been claimed, parts of the end of the Passage are barely 15 metres deep. Fully loaded, Nordic Orion was too large to sail through the Panama Canal, between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century, colonial powers from Europe dispatched explorers in an attempt to discover a commercial sea route north and west around North America. The Northwest Passage represented a new route to the trading nations of Asia. England called the northern route the Northwest Passage. The desire to establish such a route motivated much of the European exploration of both coasts of North America, when it became apparent that there was no route through the heart of the continent, attention turned to the possibility of a passage through northern waters. There was a lack of knowledge about conditions, for instance. Explorers thought that a water route close to the North Pole must exist. The belief that a route lay to the far north persisted for several centuries, many ended in disaster, including that by Sir John Franklin in 1845. While searching for him the McClure Arctic Expedition discovered the Northwest Passage in 1850, in 1906, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen first successfully completed a passage from Greenland to Alaska in the sloop Gjøa. Since that date, several fortified ships have made the journey, from east to west, the direction of most early exploration attempts, expeditions entered the passage from the Atlantic Ocean via the Davis Strait and through Baffin Bay. Five to seven routes have taken through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, via the McClure Strait, Dease Strait, and the Prince of Wales Strait. From there ships passed through waterways through the Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, on August 21,2007, the Northwest Passage became open to ships without the need of an icebreaker. According to Nalan Koc of the Norwegian Polar Institute, this was the first time the Passage has been clear since they began keeping records in 1972, the Northwest Passage opened again on August 25,2008. Thawing ocean or melting ice simultaneously opened up the Northwest Passage, awaited by shipping companies, this historic event will cut thousands of miles off their routes. We are going to see more and more as the years go by. Due to Arctic shrinkage, the Beluga group of Bremen, Germany, however, Canadas Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that ships entering the North-West passage should first report to his government

40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

41.
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
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The Canadian Arctic Archipelago, also known as the Arctic Archipelago, is a group of islands north of the Canadian mainland. The Canadian Arctic Archipelago is showing some effects of global warming, British claims on the islands were based on the explorations in the 1570s by Martin Frobisher. Canadian sovereignty was only over island portions that drained into Foxe Basin, Hudson Bay. Canadian sovereignty over all of the islands was not established until the 1880 transfer by Britain to Canada of the remaining islands, the District of Franklin – established in 1895 – comprised almost all of the archipelago, the district was dissolved upon the creation of Nunavut in 1999. Canada claims all the waterways of the Northwestern Passages as Canadian Internal Waters, however the United States, disagreement over the passages status has raised Canadian concerns about environmental enforcement, national security, and general sovereignty. Hans Island, in the Nares Strait east of Ellesmere Island, is a territory contested between Canada and Denmark. The archipelago extends some 2,400 km longitudinally and 1,900 km from the mainland to Cape Columbia, the northernmost point on Ellesmere Island. It is bounded on the west by the Beaufort Sea, on the northwest by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by Greenland, Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and on the south by Hudson Bay and the Canadian mainland. The various islands are separated from other and the continental mainland by a series of waterways collectively known as the Northwestern Passages. Two large peninsulas, Boothia and Melville, extend northward from the mainland, the archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than 130 km2, and cover a total area of 1,400,000 km2. The climate of the islands is arctic, and the terrain consists of tundra except in mountainous areas, most of the islands are uninhabited, human settlement is extremely thin and scattered, being mainly coastal Inuit settlements on the southern islands. Islands not on map British Arctic Territories List of Canadian islands by area List of islands of Canada

42.
Bay of Fundy
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Some sources believe the name Fundy is a corruption of the French word Fendu, meaning split, while others believe it comes from the Portuguese funda, meaning deep. The Bay of Fundy is known for having the highest tidal range in the world. Rivaled by Ungava Bay in northern Quebec, King Sound in Western Australia, Gulf of Khambhat in India, and the Severn Estuary in the UK, it has one of the highest vertical tidal ranges in the world. Burntcoat Head in the Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, has the greatest mean spring range with 14.5 metres and a range of 16.3 metres. ”Portions of the Bay of Fundy, Shepody Bay and Minas Basin, form one of six Canadian sites in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. In July 2009, the Bay of Fundy was named as a finalist for the New 7 Wonders of Nature contest that ended in November 2011 and it was not chosen as a wonder. The Bay of Fundy is known for its tidal range. The highest water level recorded in the Bay of Fundy system occurred at the head of the Minas Basin on the night of October 4–5,1869 during a tropical cyclone named the “Saxby Gale”. The water level of 21.6 meters resulted from the combination of winds, abnormally low atmospheric pressure. Leaf Basin has only been measured in recent years, whereas the Fundy system has measured for many decades. Traditional Mikmaq folklore states that the tides in the Bay of Fundy are caused by a giant whale splashing in the water, during the 12. 4-hour tidal period,115 billion tonnes of water flow in and out of the bay. The tides in the Bay of Fundy are semidiurnal, which means that they have two highs and two each day. The height that the water rises and falls to each day during these tides are approximately equal, there are approximately six hours and thirteen minutes between each high and low tide. Alternative forms of energy are being explored in depth in a number of unique areas, tidal energy harnesses the movement of ocean water to generate electricity through a number of mechanisms. Currently a process of gathering tidal energy called In-stream turbine technology is being tested in the Minas Passage and this project is being spearheaded by the Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy or FORCE. In-stream tidal turbine technology is a simple design. An elevated turbine is submerged under water in a location that enables its movement with tidal cycles, as the blades of the turbine move they create energy that powers an electric generator at the base. From here the power travels to an attached to the seafloor. While this technology has shown to be successful in its stages of testing

43.
Gulf of Maine
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The Gulf of Maine is a large gulf of the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of North America. It is delineated by Cape Cod at the tip of Massachusetts in the southwest. Both Massachusetts Bay and the Bay of Fundy are included within the Gulf of Maine system, as such, the Gulf of Maine is also home to the highest tidal variations on the planet. The coastline of the Gulf of Maine is predominantly rocky and scenic, the effects of glaciation are responsible for stripping sedimentary soil away from the coastline, therefore the gulf lacks the sandy beaches found to the south along the Eastern Seaboard. The underwater features of the seabed sculptured during the sea levels of the ice ages make the gulf a semi-enclosed sea bounded to the south. Georges Bank in particular, on its end, protects the Gulf of Maine waters from the Gulf Stream. Gulf of Maine waters are more influenced by the Labrador Current, making the gulf waters significantly colder. The Northeast Channel is the channel between the Gulf and the rest of the Northwest Atlantic. A secondary, shallower connection to the rest of the Atlantic is the Great South Channel, due to rapid warming of the Gulf of Maine, the water has become too hot for cod. This has pushed stocks towards collapse despite deep reductions in the number of fish caught, according to a study conducted by the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. The watershed of the gulf encompasses an area of 69,115 sq mi, including all of Maine, 70% of New Hampshire, 56% of New Brunswick, 41% of Massachusetts, the watershed also includes a small southern portion of the Canadian province of Quebec. The gulfs relative proximity to Europe made it a destination for European colonization. French settlers founded a settlement on St. Croix Island in 1604, in the 1960s and 1970s there was a dispute between Canada and the United States over fishing and other resource rights in the Gulf of Maine, specifically the Georges Bank region. This dispute was taken to the International Court of Justice, which delineated a maritime boundary through the Gulf in 1984, Canada and the U. S. continue to disagree on the sovereignty of Machias Seal Island and the waters surrounding it in the northeastern part of the gulf

44.
Grand Banks of Newfoundland
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The Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus south-east of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are shallow, ranging from 50 to 300 feet in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the waters of the Gulf Stream here. The mixing of waters and the shape of the ocean bottom lifts nutrients to the surface. These conditions helped to create one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, fish species include Atlantic cod, swordfish, haddock and capelin, shellfish include scallop and lobster. The area also supports colonies of seabirds such as northern gannets, shearwaters and sea ducks and various sea mammals such as seals, dolphins. In addition to the effects on nutrients, the mixing of the cold and it is also noted for its proximity to the sinking of the RMS Titanic and thus the launching point of Titanic shipwreck expeditions. The Grand Banks were extensively glaciated during the last glacial maximum, by approximately 13,000 years ago, the majority of the ice had melted, leaving the Grand Banks exposed as several islands extending for hundreds of kilometers. It is believed that sea levels submerged these around 8,000 years ago. Within a few years of Cabots voyage the existence of fishing grounds on the Grand Banks became generally known in Europe, ships from France and Portugal were first to fish there, followed by those from Spain while ships from England were scarce in the early years. This soon changed especially after Bernard Drakes devastating raid in 1585 which virtually wiped out the Spanish and these fish stocks thus became important for the early economies of eastern Canada and New England. Canadas EEZ currently occupies the majority of the Grand Banks except for the lucrative nose, the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave the United States shared rights to fish in these waters, but that section of the Treaty is no longer in force. Once this aspect of UNCLOS is ratified, Canada will presumably control these remaining parts of Grand Banks which are outside of its EEZ jurisdiction. Semi-fictional depictions of working on the Grand Banks can be found in Rudyard Kiplings novel Captains Courageous. The Grand Banks are also portrayed in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October

45.
Baffin Bay
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Baffin Bay, located between Baffin Island and the southwest coast of Greenland, is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is connected to the Atlantic via Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea, the narrower Nares Strait connects Baffin Bay with the Arctic Ocean. The bay is not navigable most of the year because of the ice cover and high density of floating ice, however, a polynya of about 80,000 km2, known as the North Water, opens in summer on the north near Smith Sound. Most of the life of the bay is concentrated near that region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of Baffin Bay as follows, a line from Cape Sheridan, Grant Land to Cape Bryant, Greenland. The parallel of 70° North between Greenland and Baffin Land, the Eastern limits of the North-West Passages. The area of the bay has been inhabited since c. 500 BC, around AD1200, the initial Dorset settlers were replaced by the Thule peoples. Recent excavations also suggest that the Norse colonization of the Americas reached the shores of Baffin Bay sometime between the 10th and 14th centuries, the English explorer John Davis was the first recorded European to enter the bay, arriving in 1585. In 1612, a group of English merchants formed the Company of Merchants of London and their governor Thomas Smythe organized five expeditions to explore the northern coasts of Canada in search of a maritime passage to the Far East. Henry Hudson and Thomas Buttons explored Hudson Bay, William Gibbons Labrador, and Robert Bylot Hudson Strait, aboard the Discovery, Baffin charted the area and named Lancaster, Smith, and Jones Sounds after members of his company. By the completion of his 1616 voyage, Baffin held out no hope of an ice-free passage, over time, his account came to be doubted until it was confirmed by John Rosss 1818 voyage. More advanced scientific studies followed in 1928, in the 1930s and after World War II by Danish, currently, there are a few Inuit settlements on the Canadian coast of the bay, including Arctic Bay, Pond Inlet and Clyde River. Those settlements are accessed and supplied by air and annual sealifts, in 1975, a town was built at Nanisivik to support lead and zinc production at the Nanisivik Mine—the first Canadian mine in the Arctic. The mine was closed in 2002 due to declining resources and metal prices, whereas the town still has a functional seaport and an airport, as of the 2006 census, it has an official population of zero. Baffin Bay was the epicenter of a 7.3 magnitude earthquake in 1933 and this is the largest known earthquake north of the Arctic Circle. It caused no damage because of its location and the small number of the nearby onshore communities. The northwestern part of the bay remains one of the most seismically active regions in eastern Canada, five earthquakes of magnitude 6 have occurred here since 1933. The latest strong earthquake occurred on 15 April 2010 and had the magnitude of 5.1, Baffin Bay is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by the Baffin Island in the west, Greenland in the east, and Ellesmere Island in the north

46.
Swissair Flight 111
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Swissair Flight 111 was a scheduled international passenger flight from New York City, United States, to Geneva, Switzerland. This flight was also a flight with Delta Air Lines. The crash site was 8 kilometres from shore, roughly equidistant from the fishing and tourist communities of Peggys Cove. This is one of the three MD-11 accidents with passenger fatalities along with China Eastern Airlines Flight 583 and another loss of China Airlines Flight 642. The search and rescue response, crash recovery operation, and investigation by the Government of Canada took over four years, Swissair Flight 111 was known as the UN shuttle because of its popularity with United Nations officials, the flight also carried business executives, scientists, and researchers. The aircraft, a McDonnell Douglas MD-11, serial number 48448, registration HB-IWF, was manufactured in 1991 and it bore the title of Vaud, in honour of the Swiss canton of the same name. The cabin was configured with 241 seats, first- and business-class seats were equipped with in-seat in-flight entertainment system. The aircraft was powered by three Pratt & Whitney 4462 turbofan engines and had logged a total of 36,041 hours before the crash, the pilot-in-command was 50-year-old Urs Zimmermann. At the time of the accident, he had approximately 10,800 hours of flying time. He was also a pilot for the MD-11. Before his career with Swissair, he was a pilot in the Swiss Air Force. Zimmermann was described as a person with professional skills, who always worked with exactness. The first officer, 36-year-old Stefan Löw, had approximately 4,800 hours of flying time. He was an instructor on the MD-80 and A320, from 1982 to 1990, he had been a pilot in the Swiss Air Force. The cabin crew comprised a maître de cabine and eleven flight attendants, all crew members on board Swissair Flight 111 were qualified, certified, and trained in accordance with Swiss regulations under the Joint Aviation Authorities. The flight took off from New Yorks John F. Kennedy Airport at 20,18 Eastern Daylight Time, from 20,33 EDT until 20,47 EDT, the aircraft experienced an unexplained thirteen-minute radio blackout, of which cause was determined to be communication radios tuning errors. At 22,10 Atlantic Time, the crew detected an odour in the cockpit. Following the captains request, the crew turned off the air conditioning vent, four minutes later, the odour returned and the smoke became visible, prompting the pilots to make a pan-pan radio call to the air traffic control Moncton

A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is …

Propeller on a modern mid-sized merchant vessel. The propeller rotates clockwise to propel the ship forward when viewed from astern (right of picture); the person in the picture has his hand on the blade's trailing edge.

Smith's original 1836 patent for a screw propeller of two full turns. He would later revise the patent, reducing the length to one turn.

A replica of SS Great Britain's first propeller was created for this museum ship. The real propeller was replaced with a four-bladed model in 1845. The SS Great Britain was initially designed to have paddles but the design was modified after screw propellers were proven to be more effective and efficient.

A U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey diagram of wire-drag hydrographic survey operations, ca. 1920. The basic principle is to drag a wire attached to two vessels at a set depth; if the wire encounters an obstruction it will come taut and form a "V," indicating the location of an obstruction at that depth.

Stern of "Evangelia" displaying "IMO 9176187" and port of registry ("Majuro"). In addition to the current name parts of the ship's former names are visible: "Cornelie Oldendorff" and "Asia Melody". The ship's current name is "Evangelia" (as of 2007)