1.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley

2.
1804
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As of the start of 1804, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – Haiti gains independence from France and becomes the first black republic, february 14 – The First Serbian Uprising begins as an intro into Serbian Revolution. By 1817, Principality of Serbia proclaims self-rule from Ottoman Empire, february 15 – New Jersey becomes the last northern state to abolish slavery. February 16 – First Barbary War, Stephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate USS Philadelphia at Tripoli to deny her further use by the captors, february 18 – Ohio University is chartered by the Ohio General Assembly. February – The 1804 Haiti Massacre, a cleansing, eradicates the white population on Haiti. March 7 John Wedgwood founds the Royal Horticultural Society, Thomas Charles is instrumental in founding the British and Foreign Bible Society. March 10 – Louisiana Purchase, In St. Louis, a ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of Louisiana Territory from France to the United States. March 17 – First performance of Friedrich Schillers play Wilhelm Tell, march 21 – The Napoleonic Code is adopted as French civil law. April 2 – Forty merchantmen are wrecked when a convoy led by the HMS Apollo runs aground off Portugal, April 26 – Henry Addington resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. May 10 – William Pitt the Younger begins his term as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. May 14 – The Lewis and Clark Expedition departs from Camp Dubois, may 18 – Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of the French by the French Senate. May 21 – Père Lachaise Cemetery a 118 acres cemetery in Paris, june 9 – Beethovens Symphony No.3 in E–flat premiered in Vienna. June 15 – The Twelfth Amendment to the U. S, constitution is ratified by New Hampshire, and arguably becomes effective. July 11 – Alexander Hamilton is shot during a duel with Aaron Burr, july 27 – The Twelfth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution ratified by Tennessee, removing doubt surrounding adoption, september 1 – German astronomer K. L. Harding discovers the asteroid Juno. November 3 – The Treaty of St. November 20 – Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat, december 2 – Coronation of Napoleon I, At the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, Napoleon crowns himself as the first Emperor of the French in a thousand years. Witnessing this, Simón Bolívar dedicates himself to liberating Venezuela from Spanish rule, december 3 – Thomas Jefferson defeats Charles C. Pinckney in the United States presidential election, december 12 – Spain declares war on the United Kingdom

3.
History of Chile
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The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3,000 B. C. The countrys economic development was marked by the export of first agricultural produce. The wealth of raw materials led to an upturn, but also led to dependency. Chile was governed during most of its first 150 years of independence by different forms of restricted government, in 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in the fertile valleys, pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies. These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme, the Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest Native American group in Chile. A mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with indigenous groups, they lived in scattered family clusters. Although the Araucanians had no language, they did use a common tongue. Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation and those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the Mapuche, as the Spaniards would after them, the Incas encountered fierce resistance and so were unable to exert control in the south. During their attempts at conquest in 1460 and again in 1491, the Incas established forts in the Central Valley of Chile, the Mapuche fought against the Sapa Tupac Inca Yupanqui and his army. During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and they became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late 19th century. The Araucanians valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nations first national heroes, the Chilean Patagonia located south of the river calle calle in Valdivia was composed of many tribes, mainly Tehuelches that were considered giants by Spaniards during Magellans voyage of 1520. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan to describe the native people whom his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed the Patagons were actually Tehuelches with an height of 1.80 m compared to the 1.55 m average for Spaniards of the time. The Argentine portion of Patagonia includes the provinces of Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, the Argentine politico-economic Patagonic Region includes the Province of La Pampa. The first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1,1520, however, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro

4.
Manuel Camilo Vial
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Manuel Camilo Agustín Vial Formas was a Chilean political figure and conservative politician. He served several times as minister and he was born in Valparaíso, the son of Agustín Vial Santelices and of María del Rosario de Formas y Patiño Sánchez de Morales. After completing his studies, he graduated as a lawyer on July 30,1835 and he married Luisa Carrera Fontecilla and together had one son, Agustín. After her death he married Rafaela de la Lastra Valdivieso, with whom he had eight children and he became the secretary of the Congreso de Plenipotenciarios on September 14,1830, replacing José Miguel Varas Vallejos. As a leader of the Conservative party, he was elected deputy for Casablanca in 1831 and he became Secretary of the chamber and member of the permanent committee on government and foreign affairs as well as the one on legislative affairs and justice. He was reelected, this time for San Carlos, on 1834, Vial was elected a Senator from 1846 to 1855, and then again from 1864 to his death in 1882. President Manuel Bulnes named him Minister of the Interior and Foreign Affairs on September 18,1846, of Finance, on September 2,1848, of Justice, Cult and he was also plenipotentiary minister to Peru in 1846. He was also a State Councillor and Supreme Court fiscal and he died in Valparaiso, at the age of 78

5.
Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship

6.
1814 in Chile
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Events from the year 1814 in Chile January 1, Brigadier Gabino Gaínza and his military expedition sail from Callao. January 31, The Royal Expedition arrives to Chile, february 1, José Miguel Carrera recognizes Bernardo OHiggins as the Commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army. February 17, Proclamation of the Constitutional Rules, february 23, Battle of Cucha-Cucha March 3, First Battle of Talca. Patriot Colonel Carlos Spano dies in the defense of Talca from the Royalist forces under the command of Ildefonso Elorreaga, March 6, José Miguel Carrera and his brother Luis Carrera are captured by a Royalist squadron under Clemente de Lantaño. March 7, Francisco de la Lastra is elected as the first Supreme Director of Chile, March 19, Battle of El Quilo. March 20, Battle of El Membrillar, March 28, In the Battle of Valparaiso, the British frigate HMS Phoebe and sloop HMS Cherub capture the American frigate USS Essex and sloop USS Essex Junior. March 29, First Battle of Cancha Rayada, the patriot troops under Manuel Blanco Encalada are completely routed. May 3, Both sides in conflict agree to a truce, may 12, José Miguel Carrera and his brother Luis Carrera escape from prison. July 19, Viceroy of Peru José Fernando de Abascal rejects the Treaty of Lircay, august 12, Brigadier Mariano Osorio and his expedition arrive to Talcahuano. August 18, Brigadier Mariano Osorio arrives to Chillan and takes command of the Royal Army, Brigadier Gabino Gaínza is sent back to Lima to be court martialled. OHiggins is defeated and agrees to himself to Carrera. September 9, José Miguel Carrera is named Commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army October 2, Royalist forces defeat the patriot troops under Colonel Bernardo OHiggins. October 5, The Royalist forces enter Santiago, begins the mass exodus of patriots towards Mendoza. November 1, The first group of prisoners are sent to the Juan Fernández Islands. March 3, Colonel Carlos Spano, during the First Battle of Talca, november 21, Juan MacKenna, after a duel with Luis Carrera