Sample records for double-layered low-temperature cylindrical

Double-layer capacitors capable of operating at extremely lowtemperatures (e.g., as low as -75.degree. C.) are disclosed. Electrolyte solutions combining a base solvent (e.g., acetonitrile) and a cosolvent are employed to lower the melting point of the base electrolyte. Example cosolvents include methyl formate, ethyl acetate, methyl acetate, propionitrile, butyronitrile, and 1,3-dioxolane. An optimized concentration (e.g., 0.10 M to 0.75 M) of salt, such as tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, is dissolved into the electrolyte solution. In some cases (e.g., 1,3-dioxolane cosolvent) additives, such as 2% by volume triethylamine, may be included in the solvent mixture to prevent polymerization of the solution. Conventional device form factors and structural elements (e.g., porous carbon electrodes and a polyethylene separator) may be employed.

In this paper, a theoretical investigation on plasmon modes in a circular cylindricaldouble-layer graphene structure is presented. Due to the interlayer electromagnetic interaction, there exist two branches of plasmon modes, the optical plasmon mode and the acoustic plasmon mode. The characteristics of these two modes, such as mode pattern, effective mode index and propagation loss, are analyzed. The modal behaviors can be effectively tuned by changing the distance between two graphene layers, the chemical potential of graphene and the permittivity of interlayer dielectric. Importantly, the breakup of tradeoff between mode confinement and propagation loss is discovered in the distance-dependent modal behavior, which originates from the unique dispersion properties of a double-layer graphene system. As a consequence, both strong mode confinement and longer propagation length can be achieved. Our results may provide good opportunities for developing applications based on graphene plasmonics in circular cylindrical structure. PMID:27607651

Electrochemical double-layer capacitors are finding increased use in a wide range of energy storage applications, particularly where high pulse power capabilities are required. Double-layer capacitors store charge at a liquid/solid interface, making them ideal for lowtemperature power applications, due to the facile kinetic processes associated with the rearrangement of the electrochemical double-layer at these temperatures. Potential lowtemperature applications include hybrid and electric vehicles, operations in polar regions, high altitude aircraft and aerospace avionics, and distributed environmental and structural health monitoring. State-of-the-art capacitors can typically operate to -40 C, with a subsequent degradation in power performance below room temperature. However, recent efforts focused on advanced electrolyte and electrode systems can enable operation to temperatures as low as -70 C, with capacities similar to room temperature values accompanied by reasonably low equivalent series resistances. This presentation will provide an overview of recent development efforts to extend and improve the wide temperature performance of these devices.

Double-layer capacitors are unique energy storage devices, capable of supporting large current pulses as well as a very high number of charging and discharging cycles. The performance of doublelayer capacitors is highly dependent on the nature of the electrolyte system used. Many applications, including for electric and fuel cell vehicles, back-up diesel generators, wind generator pitch control back-up power systems, environmental and structural distributed sensors, and spacecraft avionics, can potentially benefit from the use of double-layer capacitors with lower equivalent series resistances (ESRs) over wider temperature limits. Higher ESRs result in decreased power output, which is a particular problem at lower temperatures. Commercially available cells are typically rated for operation down to only 40 C. Previous briefs [for example, LowTemperature Supercapacitors (NPO-44386), NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 32, No. 7 (July 2008), p. 32, and Supercapacitor Electrolyte Solvents With Liquid Range Below 80 C (NPO-44855), NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 2010), p. 44] discussed the use of electrolytes that employed low-melting-point co-solvents to depress the freezing point of traditional acetonitrile-based electrolytes. Using these modified electrolyte formulations can extend the low-temperature operational limit of double-layer capacitors beyond that of commercially available cells. This previous work has shown that although the measured capacitance is relatively insensitive to temperature, the ESR can rise rapidly at lowtemperatures, due to decreased electrolyte conductance within the pores of the high surface- area carbon electrodes. Most of these advanced electrolyte systems featured tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEATFB) as the salt. More recent work at JPL indicates the use of the asymmetric quaternary ammonium salt triethylmethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEMATFB) or spiro-(l,l')-bipyrrolidium tetrafluoroborate (SBPBF4) in a 1:1 by volume solvent

Double-layer capacitors capable of operating at extremely lowtemperatures (e.g., as low as -80.degree. C.) are disclosed. Electrolyte solutions combining a base solvent (e.g., acetonitrile) and a cosolvent are employed to lower the melting point of the base electrolyte. Example cosolvents include methyl formate, ethyl acetate, methyl acetate, propionitrile, butyronitrile, and 1,3-dioxolane. A quaternary ammonium salt including at least one of triethylmethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEMATFB) and spiro-(1,1')-bipyrrolidium tetrafluoroborate (SBPBF.sub.4), is used in an optimized concentration (e.g., 0.10 M to 0.75 M), dissolved into the electrolyte solution. Conventional device form factors and structural elements (e.g., porous carbon electrodes and a polyethylene separator) may be employed.

The steady-state solution of the nonlinear Vlasov-Poisson equations is reduced to a nonlinear eigenvalue problem for the case of double-layer (potential drop) boundary conditions. Solutions with no relative electron-ion drifts are found. The kinetic stability is discussed. Suggestions for creating these states in experiments and computer simulations are offered.

28 page report describes experiments in fabrication of integrated circuits with double-layer metalization. Double-layer metalization requires much less silicon "real estate" and allows more flexibility in placement of circuit elements than does single-layer metalization.

Secure sketch has been applied successfully in a wide variety of applications like cryptography, biometric authentication systems and so on. All of these secure sketches have properties in common namely error-tolerance and small entropy loss. The former ensures an input set w' can unlock the system if w' is substantially overlapped with a template set w while the latter means it is hard for an adversary to get the information of w even with the knowledge of s, which is produced by w and stored in the system publicly. In their constructions, they all consider w as a set of atomic elements. However, in the real word, it is very likely the elements in the template set are sets as well. In this paper, we propose a doublelayer secure sketch to address this issue.

It is shown that it is useful to define doublelayers and shocks so that the ion phase spaces of doublelayers are the mirror image (about zero ion velocity) of the ion phase spaces for laminar electrostatic shocks. The distinguishing feature is the direction of the free ion velocity. It is also shown that doublelayers can exist without the presence of trapped ions. The Bohm condition for doublelayers, that the ion drift velocity on the high potential side must be greater than the ion sound velocity, is shown to be related to a requirement of a lower limit on the Mach number of laminar electrostatic shocks

There is a need for large amounts of power to be delivered rapidly in a number of airborne and space systems. Conventional, portable power sources, such as batteries, are not suited to delivering high peak power pulses. The charge stored at the electrode-electrolyte doublelayer is, however, much more assessible on a short time scale. Devices exploiting this concept were fabricated using carbon and metal oxides (Pinnacle Research) as the electrodes and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. The approach reported, replaces the liquid sulfuric acid electrolyte with a solid ionomer electrolyte. The challenge is to form a solid electrode-solid ionomer electrolyte composite which has a high capacitance per geometric area. The approach to maximize contact between the electrode particles and the ionomer was to impregnate the electrode particles using a liquid ionomer solution and to bond the solvent-free structure to a solid ionomer membrane. Ruthenium dioxide is the electrode material used. Three strategies are being pursued to provide for a high area electrode-ionomer contact: mixing of the RuOx with a small volume of ionomer solution followed by filtration to remove the solvent, and impregnation of the ionomer into an already formed RuOx electrode. RuOx powder and electrodes were examined by non-electrochemical techniques. X-ray diffraction has shown that the material is almost pure RuO2. The electrode structure depends on the processing technique used to introduce the Nafion. Impregnated electrodes have Nafion concentrated near the surface. Electrodes prepared by the evaporation method show large aggregates of crystals surrounded by Nafion.

Some basic properties of plasma doublelayers are deduced from a particle-in-cell computer simulation and related to parallel electric-field structures above the auroral regions. The simulation results on the processes leading to double-layer formation are examined, particularly in relation to the transient stage and double-layer structure and stability. It is concluded that: (1) a large potential difference applied to a finite-length plasma will be concentrated in a shocklike localized region instead of occurring over the entire length of the system; (2) the initial stage in double-layer formation is dominated by a large-potential pulse propagating in the direction of the induced electrostatic drift; (3) the entire potential is dropped over a specific scale length once the doublelayer has formed; and (4) this scale length is expected to be of the order of 1 km for a doublelayer above a discrete auroral arc with a potential of 10 kV and the electric-field vector parallel to the magnetic-field vector.

A new class of stationary doublelayer structure, with three or more distinct steps, is demonstrated in the laboratory. A large monotonic potential increase results from a series of smaller doublelayers. In many respects, these doublelayer structures resemble those inferred from satellite measurements of auroral doublelayers. This new class of doublelayer appears to depend on turbulence for its existence and to be a hybrid structure, intermediate between anomalous resistivity and BGK doublelayers.

In a triple plasma device, the injection of electron current from the source chamber to the target chamber causes the formation of a potential doublelayer. At a low current density, the space charge of the injected current produces a virtual cathode-type potential doublelayer. This doublelayer is stable, and various wave instabilities are observed to associate with this doublelayer. As the current density is increased, the doublelayer becomes unstable, and a moving doublelayer results. As the current density is increased further, the enhanced ionization causes the neutralization of the space charge of the electron beam, and the beam plasma discharge is ignited.

In a triple plasma device, the injection of electron current from the source chamber to the target chamber causes the formation of a potential doublelayer. At a low current density, the space charge of the injected current produces a virtual cathode-type potential doublelayer. This doublelayer is stable and various wave instabilities are observed to associate with this doublelayer. As the current density is increased, the doublelayer becomes unstable and a moving doublelayer results. As the current density is increased further, the enhanced ionization causes the neutralization of the space charge of the electron beam and the 'beam plasma discharge' is ignited.

Electrostatic plasma doublelayers are numerically simulated by means of a magnetized 2 1/2 dimensional particle in cell method. The investigation of planar doublelayers indicates that these one dimensional potential structures are susceptible to periodic disruption by instabilities in the low potential plasmas. Only a slight increase in the doublelayer thickness with an increase in its obliqueness to the magnetic field is observed. Weak magnetization results in the doublelayer electric field alignment of accelerated particles and strong magnetization results in their magnetic field alignment. The numerical simulations of spatially periodic two dimensional doublelayers also exhibit cyclical instability. A morphological invariance in two dimensional doublelayers with respect to the degree of magnetization implies that the potential structures scale with Debye lengths rather than with gyroradii. Electron beam excited electrostatic electron cyclotron waves and (ion beam driven) solitary waves are present in the plasmas adjacent to the doublelayers.

An effort to extend the low-temperature operational limit of supercapacitors is currently underway. At present, commercially available non-aqueous supercapacitors are rated for a minimum operating temperature of -40 C. A capability to operate at lower temperatures would be desirable for delivering power to systems that must operate in outer space or in the Polar Regions on Earth. Supercapacitors (also known as double-layer or electrochemical capacitors) offer a high power density (>1,000 W/kg) and moderate energy density (about 5 to 10 Wh/kg) technology for storing energy and delivering power. This combination of properties enables delivery of large currents for pulsed applications, or alternatively, smaller currents for low duty cycle applications. The mechanism of storage of electric charge in a supercapacitor -- at the electrical double-layer formed at a solid-electrode/liquid-electrolyte interface -- differs from that of a primary or secondary electrochemical cell (i.e., a battery) in such a manner as to impart a long cycle life (typically >10(exp 6) charge/discharge cycles).

As the rate of energy release in a doublelayer with voltage delta V is P approx I delta V, a doublelayer must be treated as a part of a circuit which delivers the current I. As neither doublelayer nor circuit can be derived from magnetofluid models of a plasma, such models are useless for treating energy transfer by means of doublelayers. They must be replaced by particle models and circuit theory. A simple circuit is suggested which is applied to the energizing of auroral particles, to solar flares, and to intergalactic double radio sources. Application to the heliospheric current systems leads to the prediction of two doublelayers on the Sun's axis which may give radiations detectable from Earth. Doublelayers in space should be classified as a new type of celestial object (one example is the double radio sources). It is tentatively suggested in X-ray and Gamma-ray bursts may be due to exploding doublelayers (although annihilation is an alternative energy source). A study of how a number of the most used textbooks in astrophysics treat important concepts like doublelayers, critical velocity, pinch effects and circuits is made.

Electron temperature differences across plasma doublelayers are studied experimentally. It is shown that the temperature differences across a doublelayer can be varied and are not a result of thermalization of the bump-on-tail distribution. The implications of these results for electron thermal energy transport in laser-pellet and tandem-mirror experiments are also discussed.

We present time-resolved measurements that demonstrate that large amplitude electrostatic instabilities appear in pulsed, expanding helicon plasmas at the same time as particularly strong doublelayers appear in the expansion region. A significant cross-correlation between the electrostatic fluctuations and fluctuations in the number of ions accelerated by the doublelayer electric field is observed. No correlation is observed between the electrostatic fluctuations and ions that have not passed through the doublelayer. These measurements confirm that the simultaneous appearance of the electrostatic fluctuations and the doublelayer is not simple coincidence. In fact, the accelerated ion population is responsible for the growth of the instability. The doublelayer strength, and therefore, the velocity of the accelerated ions, is limited by the appearance of the electrostatic instability.

Various mechanisms for driving doublelayers in plasmas are briefly described, including applied potential drops, currents, contact potentials, and plasma expansions. Some dynamical features of the doublelayers are discussed. These features, as seen in simulations, laboratory experiments, and theory, indicate that doublelayers and the currents through them undergo slow oscillations which are determined by the ion transit time across an effective length of the system in which doublelayers form. It is shown that a localized potential dip forms at the low potential end of a doublelayer, which interrupts the electron current through it according to the Langmuir criterion, whenever the ion flux into the double is disrupted. The generation of electric fields perpendicular to the ambient magnetic field by contact potentials is also discussed. Two different situations were considered; in one, a low-density hot plasma is sandwiched between high-density cold plasmas, while in the other a high-density current sheet permeates a low-density background plasma. Perpendicular electric fields develop near the contact surfaces. In the case of the current sheet, the creation of parallel electric fields and the formation of doublelayers are also discussed when the current sheet thickness is varied. Finally, the generation of electric fields and doublelayers in an expanding plasma is discussed.

A simple circuit is applied to the energizing of auroral particles, to solar flares, and to intergalactic double radio sources. Application to the heliospheric current systems leads to the prediction of two doublelayers on the Sun's axis which may give radiations detectable from Earth. Doublelayers in space should be classified as a new type of celestial object. It is suggested that X-ray and gamma-ray bursts may be due to exploding doublelayers (although annihilation is an alternative energy source). The way the most used textbooks in astrophysics treat concepts like doublelayers, critical velocity, pinch effects and circuits was studied. It is found that students using these textbooks remain essentially ignorant of even the existence of these, although some of the phenomena were discovered 50 yr ago.

A genuine two-fluid model of plasmas with collisions permits the calculation of dynamic (not necessarily static) electric fields and doublelayers inside of plasmas including oscillations and damping. For the first time a macroscopic model for coupling of electromagnetic and Langmuir waves was achieved with realistic damping. Starting points were laser-produced plasmas showing very high dynamic electric fields in nonlinear force-produced cavitous and inverted doublelayers in agreement with experiments. Applications for any inhomogeneous plasma as in laboratory or in astrophysical plasmas can then be followed up by a transparent hydrodynamic description. Results are the rotation of plasmas in magnetic fields and a new second harmonic resonance, explanation of the measured inverted doublelayers, explanation of the observed density-independent, second harmonics emission from laser-produced plasmas, and a laser acceleration scheme by the very high fields of the doublelayers.

A new class of stationary doublelayer structure, with three or more distinct steps, is demonstrated in the laboratory. A large monotonic potential increase results from a series of smaller doublelayers. In many respects, these doublelayer structures resemble those inferred from satellite measurements of auroral doublelayers. This new class of doublelayer appears to depend on turbulence for its existence and to be a hybrid structure, intermediate between anomalous resistivity and BGK doublelayers.

The results of analytical studies of quasi-static electric fields along geomagnetic field lines are discussed. The calculations were targeted at the structure, generation mechanisms and stability parameters. The field consists of two oppositely charged layers, either weakly or strongly charged, with an electric field between. Existence conditions are defined for the doublelayer field and balancing requirements are explored. Details of the simulation techniques, i.e., particle in cell and Vlasov simulations, for studying the doublelayer are outlined, noting that both periodic and quasi-periodic simulations are used. Solutions to Poisson's equation for fixed and floating point boundary conditions are generated. Finally, attention is also given to oblique and two-dimensional magnetic doublelayers.

Previous work on the evolution of weak doublelayers in a hydrogen plasma was extended to include H(+) and O(+) with relative drift. The relative drift between hydrogen and oxygen ions due to a quasi-static parallel electric field gives rise to a strong linear fluid instability which dominates the ion-acoustic mode at the bottom of the auroral acceleration region. This ion-ion instability can modify ion distributions at lower altitudes and the subsequent nonlinear evolution of weak doublelayers at higher altitudes in the ion-acoustic regime. Ion hole formation can occur for smaller relative electron-ion drifts than seen in previous simulations, due to the hydrogen-oxygen two-stream instability. This results in local modification of the ion distributions in phase space, and a partial filling of the valley between the hydrogen and oxygen peaks, which would be expected at higher altitudes on auroral field lines. The observed velocity diffusion does not necessarily preclude ion hole and doublelayer formation in hydrogen in the ion-acoustic regime. These simulation results are consistent with the experimentally measured persistence of separate hydrogen and oxygen peaks, and the observation of weak doublelayers above an altitude of 3000 km on auroral field lines.

Work on the simulation of auroral doublelayers (DLs) with realistic particle-in-cell models is presented. An early model simulated weak DLs formed in a self-consistent circuit but under conditions subject to the ion-acoustic instability. Recent work has focused on strong DLs formed when currentless jets are injected into a dipole magnetic field.

A conical pyrex plasma source with a conical helicon antenna surrounded by two cylindrically wound solenoids has been used in a helicon doublelayer thruster (HDLT) arrangement with the aim of investigating a new plasma cavity geometry and imposing a misalignment between the geometric and magnetic axis. An ion beam is measured with an energy analyser placed 6 cm downstream of the source exit for a low pressure argon plasma (~0.4 mTorr) for various currents in the two solenoids. Operation with current in the exhaust solenoid only also shows the presence of the ion beam. For a given radiofrequency power and similar total solenoidal current, the ion beam current measured downstream of the conical HDLT is about seven times greater than that previously measured downstream of the cylindrical HDLT. This may result from a larger plasma density in the source and from a source peak density shift by about 10 cm towards the tube exit measured in the conical arrangement compared with previous observations in the cylindrical arrangement. When an angle between the geometric and magnetic axis of up to 9° is mechanically imposed, the ion beam is detected for angles less than 5°.

It is shown that self-consistent stable and unstable doublelayers generated in plasma after a self-organisation process are able to accelerate charged particles. The implication of cosmic doublelayers (Dls) in the acceleration of electrical charged particles long been advocated by Alfven and his Stockholm school is today disputed by argument that static electric fields associated with Dls are conservative and consequently the line integral of the electric field outside the DL balances the line integral inside it. Related with this dispute we will evidence some, so far not considered, facts which are in our opinion arguments that aurora Dls are able to energize particles. For justifying this assertion we start from recent experimental results concerning the phenomenology of self-consistent Dls whose generation involve beside ionisations the neutrals excitations which are at tile origin of the light phenomena as those observed in auroras.

We have evaluated a wide variety of microcellular carbon foams prepared by the controlled pyrolysis and carbonization of several polymers including: polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polymethacrylonitrile (PMAN), resorcinol/formaldehyde (RF), divinylbenzene/methacrylonitrile (DVB), phenolics (furfuryl/alcohol), and cellulose polymers such as Rayon. The porosity may be established by several processes including: gelation (1-5), phase separation (1-3,5-8), emulsion (1,9,10), aerogel/xerogel formation (1,11,12,13), replication (14), and activation. In this report we present the complex impedance analysis and doublelayer charging characteristics of electrodes prepared from one of these materials for doublelayer capacitor applications, namely activated cellulose derived microcellular carbon foam.

We have evaluated a wide variety of microcellular carbon foams prepared by the controlled pyrolysis and carbonization of several polymers including: polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polymethacrylonitrile (PMAN), resorcinol/formaldehyde (RF), divinylbenzene/methacrylonitrile (DVB), phenolics (furfuryl/alcohol), and cellulose polymers such as Rayon. The porosity may be established by several processes including: Gelation (1-5), phase separation (1-3,5-8), emulsion (1,9,10), aerogel/xerogel formation (1,11,12,13), replication (14) and activation. In this report we present the complex impedance analysis and doublelayer charging characteristics of electrodes prepared from one of these materials for doublelayer capacitor applications, namely activated cellulose derived microcellular carbon foam.

This work describes the development of a Helicon DoubleLayer Thruster and its acquisition system at the University of Brasilia Plasma Physics Laboratory. Together with the data analysis process, we are able to measure important plasma characteristics in order to compound an Integrated Plasma Diagnostics System. Experimental results can be compared with computational simulations in order to improve parameters and optimize the performance of the thruster.

Charge transfer techniques have been extensively used as knobs to tune electronic properties of two- dimensional systems, such as, for the modulation of conductivity mobility of single layer graphene and for opening the bandgap in bilayer graphene. The charge injected into the graphene layer shifts the Fermi level away from the minimum density of states point (Dirac point). In this work, we study charge transfer in rotated double-layer graphene achieved by the use of organic dopant, Tetracyanoquinodimethane. Naturally occurring bilayer graphene has a well-defined A-B stacking whereas in rotated double-layer the two graphene layers are randomly stacked with different rotational angles. This rotation is expected to significantly alter the interlayer interaction. Double-layer samples are prepared using layer-by-layer assembly of chemical vapor deposited single-layer graphene and they are identified by characteristic resonance in the Raman spectrum. The charge transfer and distribution of charges between the two graphene layers is studied using Raman spectroscopy and the results are compared with that for single-layer and A-B stacked bilayer graphene doped under identical conditions.

During the last decade, there has been an upsurge in the research on current-free DLs (CFDLs). Research includes theory, laboratory measurements, and various applications of CFDLs ranging from plasma thrusters to acceleration of charged particles in space and astrophysical plasmas. The purpose of this review is to present a unified understanding of the basic plasma processes, which lead to the formation of CFDLs. The review starts with the discussion on early research on electric fields and doublelayers (DLs) and ion acceleration in planar plasma expansion. The review continues with the formation of DLs and rarefaction shocks (RFS) in expanding plasma with two electron populations with different temperatures. The basic theory mitigating the formation of a CFDL by two-electron temperature population is reviewed; we refer to such CFDLs as doublelayers structures formation by two-temperature electron populations (TET-CFDLs). Application of TET-CFDLS to ion acceleration in laboratory and space plasmas was discussed including the formation of stationary steady-state DLs. A quite different type of CFDLs forms in a helicon plasma device (HPD), in which plasma abruptly expands from a narrow plasma source tube into a wide diffusion tube with abruptly diverging magnetic fields. The formation mechanism of the CFDL in HPD, referred here as current free doublelayer structure in helicon plasma device (HPD-CFDL), and its applications are reviewed. The formation of a TET-CFDL is due to the self-consistent separation of the two electron populations parallel to the ambient magnetic field. In contrast, a HPD-CFDL forms due to self-consistent separation of electrons and ion perpendicular to the abruptly diverging magnetic field in conjunction with the conducting wall of the expansion chamber in the HPD. One-dimensional theoretical models of CFDLs based on steady-state solution of Vlasov-Poisson system of equations are briefly discussed. Applications of CFDLs ranging from helicon

During the last decade, there has been an upsurge in the research on current-free DLs (CFDLs). Research includes theory, laboratory measurements, and various applications of CFDLs ranging from plasma thrusters to acceleration of charged particles in space and astrophysical plasmas. The purpose of this review is to present a unified understanding of the basic plasma processes, which lead to the formation of CFDLs. The review starts with the discussion on early research on electric fields and doublelayers (DLs) and ion acceleration in planar plasma expansion. The review continues with the formation of DLs and rarefaction shocks (RFS) in expanding plasma with two electron populations with different temperatures. The basic theory mitigating the formation of a CFDL by two-electron temperature population is reviewed; we refer to such CFDLs as doublelayers structures formation by two-temperature electron populations (TET-CFDLs). Application of TET-CFDLS to ion acceleration in laboratory and space plasmas was discussed including the formation of stationary steady-state DLs. A quite different type of CFDLs forms in a helicon plasma device (HPD), in which plasma abruptly expands from a narrow plasma source tube into a wide diffusion tube with abruptly diverging magnetic fields. The formation mechanism of the CFDL in HPD, referred here as current free doublelayer structure in helicon plasma device (HPD-CFDL), and its applications are reviewed. The formation of a TET-CFDL is due to the self-consistent separation of the two electron populations parallel to the ambient magnetic field. In contrast, a HPD-CFDL forms due to self-consistent separation of electrons and ion perpendicular to the abruptly diverging magnetic field in conjunction with the conducting wall of the expansion chamber in the HPD. One-dimensional theoretical models of CFDLs based on steady-state solution of Vlasov-Poisson system of equations are briefly discussed. Applications of CFDLs ranging from helicon

An advanced flexible reusable surface insulation material for future space shuttle flights was investigated. A conventional fly shuttle loom with special modifications to weave an integral doublelayer triangular core fabric from quartz yarn was used. Two types of insulating material were inserted into the cells of the fabric, and a procedure to accomplish this was developed. The program is follow up of a program in which single layer rectangular cell core fabrics are woven and a single type of insulating material was inserted into the cells.

Rotating structures are present in a number of lowtemperature EXB devices such as Hall thrusters, magnetrons, Penning discharges etc...Some aspects of the physics of these rotating instabilities are specific to lowtemperature plasmas because of the relatively large collisionality, the role of ionization, and the fact that ions are often non-magnetized. On the basis of fully kinetic simulations (Particle-In-Cell Monte Carlo Collisions) we describe the formation of a rotating instability associated with an ionization front (``rotating spoke'') and driven by a cross-field current in a self-sustained cylindrical magnetron discharge at gas pressure on the order of 1 Pa. The rotating spoke is a strong doublelayer (electrostatic sheath) moving towards the higher potential region at a velocity close to the critical ionization velocity, a concept proposed by Alfvén in the context of the formation of the solar system. The mechanisms of cross-field electron transport induced by this instability are analyzed. At lower pressure (<0.01 Pa) the plasma of a magnetron discharge is non-neutral and the simulations predict the formation of electron vortices rotating in the azimuthal direction and resulting from the diocotron instability. The properties of these vortices are specific since they form in a self-sustained discharge where ionization (and losses at the ends of the plasma column) play an essential role in contrast with the electron vortices in pure electron plasmas. We discuss and analyze the mechanisms leading to the generation, dynamics and merging of these self-sustained electron vortices, and to the periodic ejection of fast electrons at the column ends (consistent with previous experimental observations).

Various mechanisms for driving doublelayers (DLs) in plasmas are described, including applied potential drops, currents, contact potentials, and plasma expansions. Somne dynamic features of the DLs are discussed; and it is demonstrated that DLs and the currents through them undergo slow oscillations, determined by the ion transit time across an effective length of the system in which the DLs form. It is shown that a localized potential dip forms at the low potential end of a DL, which interrupts the electron current through it according to the Langmuir criterion whenever the ion flux into the DL is disrupted. Also considered is the generation of electric fields perpendicular to the ambient magnetic field by contact potentials.

To date, a single layer of TiO2 or ZnO has been the most successful implementations of any electron transport layer (ETL) in solution-processed perovskite solar cells. In a quest to improve the ETL, we explore a new nanostructured double-layer ZnO film for mesoscopic perovskite-based thin film photovoltaics. This approach yields a maximum power conversion efficiency of 10.35%, which we attribute to the morphology of oxide layer and to faster electron transport. The successful implementation of the low-temperature hydrothermally processed double-layer ZnO film as ETL in perovskite solar cells highlights the opportunities to further improve the efficiencies by focusing on the ETL in this rapidly developing field.

To date, a single layer of TiO2 or ZnO has been the most successful implementations of any electron transport layer (ETL) in solution-processed perovskite solar cells. In a quest to improve the ETL, we explore a new nanostructured double-layer ZnO film for mesoscopic perovskite-based thin film photovoltaics. This approach yields a maximum power conversion efficiency of 10.35%, which we attribute to the morphology of oxide layer and to faster electron transport. The successful implementation of the low-temperature hydrothermally processed double-layer ZnO film as ETL in perovskite solar cells highlights the opportunities to further improve the efficiencies by focusing on the ETL in this rapidly developing field. PMID:25373624

The experiments on explosion of cylindrical conductors aimed at comparison of plasma formation during skin explosion of homogeneous and double-layer conductors with an external layer with a lower conductivity are carried out on a high-current MIG generator (current amplitude up to 2.5 MA and current rise time 100 ns). The generator is loaded with cylindrical copper conductors with a diameter of 3 mm on the cathode part of which a titanium layer of thickness 20, 50, and 80 μm is deposited in vacuum. This type of loading makes it possible to compare the behaviors of the homogeneous and double-layer conductors in identical conditions. It is shown that using the double-layer structure of the conductor with an external layer of thickness 20-80 μm with a lower conductivity, which is obtained by vacuum arc deposition, higher values of magnetic induction (as compared to homogeneous conductor) can be attained on its surface prior to plasma formation and spread.

Doublelayer capacitors (DLCs) have received increased use in computer memory backup applications for consumer products during the past ten years. Their extraordinarily high capacitance density along with their maintenance-free operation makes them particularly suited for these products. These same features also make DLCs very attractive in military type applications. Unfortunately, lifetime performance data has not been reported in the literature for any DLC component. Our objective in this study was to investigate the effects that voltage and temperature have on the properties and performance of single and series-connected DLCs as a function of time. Evans model RE110474, 0.47-farad, 11.0-volt Capatteries were evaluated. These components have a tantalum package, use welded construction, and contain a glass-to-metal seal, all incorporated to circumvent the typical DLC failure modes of electrolyte loss and container corrosion. A five-level, two-factor Central Composite Design was used in the study. Single and series-connected Capatteries rated at 85 C, 11.0-volts operation were subjected to test temperatures between 25 and 95 C, and voltages between 0 and 12.9 volts (9 test conditions). Measured responses included capacitance, equivalent series resistance, and discharge time. Data were analyzed using a regression analysis to obtain response functions relating DLC properties to their voltage, temperature, and test time history. These results are described and should aid system and component engineers in using DLCs in critical applications.

Weak doublelayers (WDLs) were first observed in the mid-altitude auroral magnetosphere in 1976 by the S3-3 satellite. The observations were confirmed by Viking in 1986, when more detailed information of these small-scale plasma structures became available. WDLs are upward moving rarefactive solitary structures with negative electric potential. The potential drop over a WDL is typically 0-1 V with electric field pointing predominantly upward. The structures are usually found in relatively weak (≤2 kV) auroral acceleration regions where the field-aligned current is upward, but sometimes very small. The observations suggest that WDLs exist in regions of cool electron and ion background. Most likely the potential structures are embedded in the background ion population that may drift slowly upward. There have been several attempts for plasma physical explanation of WDLs but so far the success has not been very good. Computer simulations have been able to produce similar structures, but usually for somewhat unrealistic plasma parameters. A satisfactory understanding of the phenomenon requires consideration of the role of WDLs in the magnetosphere-ionosphere (MI) coupling, including the large-scale electric fields, both parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic field, and the Alfvén waves mediating the coupling. In this report we give a critical review of our present understanding of WDLs. We try to find out what can be safely deduced from the observations, what are just educated guesses, and where we may go wrong.

The electroacoustical impedance of the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) in contact with aqueous electrolyte solutions was measured using the transfer function method in a flow injection system . Measurements of both components of the impedance of the QCM, the resistance R and the inductive reactance XL, have been performed for modified and bare gold and silver surfaces and for different concentrations of several aqueous electrolyte solutions. For the experimental concentration range of 0-50 mM, unexpectedly the QCM impedance does not follow the Kanazawa equation, as is usual for bulk newtonian liquids. This behavior indicates the presence of a nanometric sized viscoelastic layer between the piezoelectric crystal and the bulk electrolyte solution. This layer can only be identified as the Gouy-Chapman diffuse doublelayer (DDL). Its elasticity and viscosity have been estimated by the measurement of R and XL. The viscoelasticity of the DDL appears to be independent of the chemical nature of the surface and of the solution viscosity but strongly dependent on the surface charge, the bulk electrolyte concentration and the dielectric constant of the solvent. PMID:12430608

In observations of flare-heated electrons in the solar corona, a longstanding problem is the unexplained prolonged lifetime of the electrons compared to their transit time across the source. This suggests confinement. Recent particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations, which explored the transport of pre-accelerated hot electrons through ambient cold plasma, showed that the formation of a highly localized electrostatic potential drop, in the form of a doublelayer (DL), significantly inhibited the transport of hot electrons. The effectiveness of confinement by a DL is linked to the strength of the DL as defined by its potential drop. In this work, we investigate the scaling of the DL strength with the hot electron temperature by PIC simulations and find a linear scaling. We demonstrate that the strength is limited by the formation of parallel shocks. Based on this, we analytically determine the maximum DL strength, and also find a linear scaling with the hot electron temperature. The DL strength obtained from the analytic calculation is comparable to that from the simulations. At the maximum strength, the DL is capable of confining a significant fraction of hot electrons in the source.

A doublelayer (DL) is a nonlinear electrostatic structure consisting of two layers of opposite charge in the plasma, with a characteristic potential jump and unipolar electric field. Previous observations and simulations of DLs in the auroral region showed that those DLs are closely related to ion acoustic waves and typically propagate at ion sound speed. However, recent observation of DLs in the magnetosphere near the equator shows that some DLs propagate at a speed much greater than ion sound speed, inferring a different type of DL that may be associated with electron acoustic waves. In this study, we investigate the formation of DLs in two scenarios in the magnetosphere using particle-in-cell simulations. First, in a current-carrying uniform plasma, we artificially change the ion to electron mass ratio to study the transition from ion-acoustic DLs to electron-acoustic structures. Second, we study the formation of DLs at the boundary of two electron populations with different temperatures. These results may explain recent observations of different types of nonlinear electrostatic structures by Van Allen Probes.

Undriven doublelayers observed in plasmas expanding along magnetic fields are the result of a sheath instability connected with the Bohm criterion. Diverging magnetic field lines cause the presheath acceleration of ions, causing a potential jump resembling that of a doublelayer. The process stops when it runs out of energy.

A current-free electric doublelayer is created in a helicon doublelayer thruster operating with xenon and compared to a recently developed theory. The Xe{sup +} ion beam formed by acceleration through the potential drop of the doublelayer is characterized radially using an electrostatic ion energy analyzer. For operating conditions of 500 W rf power, 0.07 mTorr gas pressure, and a maximum magnetic field of 125 G, the measured beam velocity is about 6 km s{sup -1}, the beam area is about 150 cm{sup 2}, and the measured beam divergence is less than 6 deg.

A current-free electric doublelayer is created in a helicon doublelayer thruster operating with xenon and compared to a recently developed theory. The Xe+ ion beam formed by acceleration through the potential drop of the doublelayer is characterized radially using an electrostatic ion energy analyzer. For operating conditions of 500W rf power, 0.07mTorr gas pressure, and a maximum magnetic field of 125G, the measured beam velocity is about 6kms-1, the beam area is about 150cm2, and the measured beam divergence is less than 6°.

Energy-storage technologies, including electrical double-layer capacitors and rechargeable batteries, have attracted significant attention for applications in portable electronic devices, electric vehicles, bulk electricity storage at power stations, and "load leveling" of renewable sources, such as solar energy and wind power. Transforming lithium batteries and electric double-layer capacitors requires a step change in the science underpinning these devices, including the discovery of new materials, new electrochemistry, and an increased understanding of the processes on which the devices depend. The Review will consider some of the current scientific issues underpinning lithium batteries and electric double-layer capacitors. PMID:22965900

An experiment has been performed to study the electrical explosion of thick cylindrical conductors using the MIG pulsed power generator capable of producing a peak current of 2.5 MA within 100 ns rise time. The experimental goal was to compare the skin explosion of a solid conductor with that of a double-layer conductor whose outer layer had a lower conductivity than the inner one. It has been shown that in magnetic fields of peak induction up to 300 T and average induction rise rate 3 × 10{sup 9} T/s, the double-layer structure of a conductor makes it possible to achieve higher magnetic induction at the conductor surface before it explodes. This can be accounted for, in particular, by the reduction of the ratio of the Joule heat density to the energy density of the magnetic field at the surface of a double-layer conductor due to redistribution of the current density over the conductor cross section.

Using a quantum magnetohydrodynamic (QMHD) model, the existence of small but finite amplitude quantum electron-acoustic doublelayers (QEADLs) is reported in a magnetized collisionless dense quantum plasma whose constituents are two distinct groups of cold and hot electrons, and the stationary ions forming only the neutralizing background. It is shown that the existence of steady state solutions of these doublelayers obtained from an extended Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation depends parametrically on the ratio of the cold to hot electron unperturbed number density ({delta}), the quantum diffraction parameter (H), the obliqueness parameter (l{sub z}), and the external magnetic field via the normalized electron-cyclotron frequency ({omega}). It is found that the system supports both compressive and rarefactive doublelayers depending on the parameters {delta} and l{sub z}. The effects of all these parameters on the profiles of the doublelayers are also examined numerically.

Discusses the definition of temperature and the concept of order in non-mathematical terms. Describes the cooling techniques necessary in lowtemperature physics research, including magnetic cooling, the use of the Pomeranchuk Effect, and dilution refrigeration. Outlines the types of phenomena observed in matter within various temperature ranges…

At a recent educational workshop event hosted by Advanced Sterilization Products, expert speakers including Authorising Engineers, and delegates, discussed some of their experiences of lowtemperature sterilisation of 'hi-tech' medical devices, and highlighted the benefits of a process which allows decontamination of instruments and, for example, parts of robotic surgery systems, that cannot be decontaminated using standard methods. Also examined,and reported on here in an article that first appeared in HEJ's sister publication, The Clinical Services Journal, were some of the disadvantages of lowtemperature sterilisation, the key considerations and options when choosing such a system, and a focus on how the technology's use had benefited a major London-based NHS Trust. PMID:27132304

Dielectrophoresis is becoming one of the most important techniques in particle manipulation including particle separation, particle assembly, and biomolecule characterization. Understanding dielectrophoretic properties of particles is a key step toward effective and efficient particle manipulation. Theoretical studies of polarization of a particle can help to understand experimental observations and also go beyond to develop a predictive theory to guide the experimental design. This article discusses recent theoretical advances in the polarization of a dielectric particle, in particular, the polarization of the electric doublelayer. The double-layer polarization is critical to determine particle dynamics in dielectrophoresis. The dipole moment characterizing the strength of this polarization depends on the double-layer thickness, the electric field frequency, the particle's surface charge, and other surface's properties (Pohl, H. A., Dielectrophoresis, Cambridge University Press, New York 1978). After a brief review of the mathematical model, the focus is on the following problems: (i) the polarization of a spherical particle; (ii) the polarization of an elongated cylindrical particle; (iii) the effect of the slip on the polarization of a particle. The double-layer polarization is examined here in the context of high-frequency and low-frequency dispersions induced by surface conduction and diffusion, respectively. PMID:21823130

A model for the formation of a stationary current-free doublelayer in collisionless plasmas expanding in a magnetic nozzle is presented. The model consists of the dynamics of cold ions, isothermal hot electrons and fere-isothermal, i.e. almost isothermal, cold electrons. It can determine the position and amplitude of the doublelayer including the jump in cold electron temperature across the layer. The magnitude of the jump is consistent with experimental observations. Plasmas are accelerated mainly by the magnetic nozzle and the contribution from the doublelayer is small. The important effects of the ion charge state Z on the flow speed at the nozzle throat and at the exit are also discussed. It is found that the Mach number at the magnetic nozzle throat is \\sqrt Z which can be tested in experiments. The exit velocity also scales as \\sqrt Z . To increase the thrust power, the ion charge state Z could be an important parameter.

Electric double-layer capacitors are a family of electrochemical energy storage devices that offer a number of advantages, such as high power density and long cyclability. In recent years, research and development of electric double-layer capacitor technology has been growing rapidly, in response to the increasing demand for energy storage devices from emerging industries, such as hybrid and electric vehicles, renewable energy, and smart grid management. The past few years have witnessed a number of significant research breakthroughs in terms of novel electrodes, new electrolytes, and fabrication of devices, thanks to the discovery of innovative materials (e.g. graphene, carbide-derived carbon, and templated carbon) and the availability of advanced experimental and computational tools. However, some experimental observations could not be clearly understood and interpreted due to limitations of traditional theories, some of which were developed more than one hundred years ago. This has led to significant research efforts in computational simulation and modelling, aimed at developing new theories, or improving the existing ones to help interpret experimental results. This review article provides a summary of research progress in molecular modelling of the physical phenomena taking place in electric double-layer capacitors. An introduction to electric double-layer capacitors and their applications, alongside a brief description of electric doublelayer theories, is presented first. Second, molecular modelling of ion behaviours of various electrolytes interacting with electrodes under different conditions is reviewed. Finally, key conclusions and outlooks are given. Simulations on comparing electric double-layer structure at planar and porous electrode surfaces under equilibrium conditions have revealed significant structural differences between the two electrode types, and porous electrodes have been shown to store charge more efficiently. Accurate electrolyte and

Context. Particle acceleration during solar flares results in departures of the distribution of particle energies from the Maxwellian distribution. Apart from the high-energy tail, the bulk of the distribution was recently also found to be significantly affected, due, e.g., to the presence of doublelayers. Aims: We investigate the influence of several proposed non-Maxwellian distribution functions on the X-ray flare line spectra. The distribution functions considered are sharply peaked and include the n-distribution, the moving Maxwellian distribution, and the distribution formed in strong doublelayers in the flaring plasma. Methods: Synthetic Si xiid-Si xiv spectra involving allowed and dielectronic transitions at 5 - 6 Å are calculated numerically. The parameters chosen for the calculations correspond to the impulsive phase of solar flares, as inferred by previous authors. Results: The Si xiid λ5.56/Si xiii λ5.68 and Si xiid λ5.82/Si xiii λ5.68 ratios depend on the relative number of electrons at energies corresponding to the formation of the Si xiid lines. Therefore, these ratios increase with the increasing narrowness of the peak of the electron distribution function. The highest ratios are achieved for the distribution formed in doublelayers, while the moving Maxwellian distribution is less likely to reproduce the observed enhancement of Si xiid intensities. However, the ratio of the allowed Si xiv λ5.22/Si xiii λ5.68 transitions depends on the ionization equilibrium. This ratio is very small for the double-layer distribution. Combination of the double-layer distribution with a Maxwellian distribution with the same mean energy significantly enhances this ratio, while keeping the Si xiid intensities sufficiently increased to explain the characteristics of the observed spectra. Conclusions: These results support the presence of doublelayers in the plasma during impulsive phase of solar flares.

Anisotropic colloidal particles constitute an important class of building blocks for self-assembly directed by electrical fields. The aggregation of these building blocks is driven by induced dipole moments, which arise from an interplay between dielectric effects and the electric doublelayer. For particles that are anisotropic in shape, charge distribution, and dielectric properties, calculation of the electric doublelayer requires coupling of the ionic dynamics to a Poisson solver. We apply recently proposed methods to solve this problem for experimentally employed colloids in static and time-dependent electric fields. This allows us to predict the effects of field strength and frequency on the colloidal properties.

The S3-3, POLAR, and FAST satellite auroral observations of parallel and perpendicular electric field structures have been identified as belonging to a large "U"-shaped potential structure that supports oblique electric doublelayers. This interpretation is verified by terrestrial laboratory measurements of a self-consistently supported three-dimensional oblique current-free doublelayer. Its width is a few tens of Debye lengths, its oblicity (with respect to the magnetic field) varies from 0 up to 30 degrees, and its strength is a few times the electron temperature. PMID:19792801

Slides present the material under the following topics: Introduction (What is a doublelayer (DL)? Why is it important? Key unsolved problems); Theory -- time-independent solutions of 1D Vlasov--Poisson system; Particle-in-cell simulations (Current-driven DLs); and Electron acceleration by DL (Betatron acceleration). Key problems include the generation mechanism, stability, and electron acceleration. In summary, recent observations by Van Allen Probes show large number of DLs in the outer radiation belt, associated with enhanced flux of relativistic electrons. Simulations show that ion acoustic doublelayers can be generated by field-aligned currents. Thermal electrons can gain energy via betatron acceleration in a dipole magnetic field.

The ion beam generated by a helicon doublelayer has been electrically steered up to 20° off axis by using a solenoid placed normal to the two axial solenoids of the helicon plasma source without significantly changing the beam exhaust velocity.

The ion beam generated by a helicon doublelayer has been electrically steered up to 20 deg. off axis by using a solenoid placed normal to the two axial solenoids of the helicon plasma source without significantly changing the beam exhaust velocity.

Due to the semantic gap between visual features and semantic concepts, automatic image annotation has become a difficult issue in computer vision recently. We propose a new image multilabel annotation method based on double-layer probabilistic latent semantic analysis (PLSA) in this paper. The new double-layer PLSA model is constructed to bridge the low-level visual features and high-level semantic concepts of images for effective image understanding. The low-level features of images are represented as visual words by Bag-of-Words model; latent semantic topics are obtained by the first layer PLSA from two aspects of visual and texture, respectively. Furthermore, we adopt the second layer PLSA to fuse the visual and texture latent semantic topics and achieve a top-layer latent semantic topic. By the double-layer PLSA, the relationships between visual features and semantic concepts of images are established, and we can predict the labels of new images by their low-level features. Experimental results demonstrate that our automatic image annotation model based on double-layer PLSA can achieve promising performance for labeling and outperform previous methods on standard Corel dataset. PMID:24999490

For cell-based medicine, to mimic in vivo cellular localization, various tissue engineering approaches have been studied to obtain a desirable arrangement of cells on scaffold materials. We have developed a novel method of cell manipulation called "cell transfer technology", enabling the transfer of cultured cells onto scaffold materials, and controlling cell topology. Here we show that using this technique, two different cell types can be transferred onto a scaffold surface as stable doublelayers or in patterned arrangements. Various combinations of adherent cells were transferred to a scaffold, amniotic membrane, in overlapping bilayers (double-layered cell transfer), and transferred cells showed stability upon deformations of the material including folding and trimming. Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells from periodontal ligaments (PDLSC) and osteoblasts, using double-layered cell transfer significantly enhanced bone formation, when compared to single cell type transplantation. Our findings suggest that this double-layer cell transfer is useful to produce a cell transplantation material that can bear two cell layers. Moreover, the transplantation of an amniotic membrane with PDLSCs/osteoblasts by cell transfer technology has therapeutic potential for bone defects. We conclude that cell transfer technology provides a novel and unique cell transplantation method for bone regeneration. PMID:27624174

The experimental and theoretical results show that the anode doublelayer (DL) is a very sensitive plasma formation suitable for fine optogalvanic studies. The obtained results demonstrate that the parameters of the oscillations sustained by a DL (frequency, amplitude) can be used as optogalvanic detectors.

Necessary conditions are formulated for the generation of a doublelayer at the interface of a complex plasma and a particle-free electron-ion plasma in a weakly collisional discharge. Examples are calculated for realistic observed complex plasmas, and it is shown that situations of both ''smooth'' transitions and 'sharp' transitions can exist. The model can explain the abrupt boundaries observed.

An anodic doublelayer gasochromic sensor structure for optical detection of hydrogen in improved response time and with improved optical absorption real time constants, comprising: a glass substrate; a tungsten-doped nickel oxide layer coated on the glass substrate; and a palladium layer coated on the tungsten-doped nickel oxide layer.

Ionized gas plasmas near room temperature are used in a remarkable number of technological applications mainly because they are extraordinarily efficient at exploiting electrical power for useful chemical and material transformations near room temperature. In this tutorial address, I will focus on the newest area of lowtemperature ionized gas plasmas (LTP), in this case operating under atmospheric pressure conditions, in which the temperature-sensitive material is living tissue. LTP research directed towards biomedical applications such as sterilization, surgery, wound healing and anti-cancer therapy has seen remarkable growth in the last 3-5 years, but the mechanisms responsible for the biomedical effects have remained mysterious. It is known that LTP readily create reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). ROS and RNS (or RONS), in addition to a suite of other radical and non-radical reactive species, are essential actors in an important sub-field of aerobic biology termed ``redox'' (or oxidation-reduction) biology. I will review the evidence suggesting that RONS generated by plasmas are responsible for their observed therapeutic effects. Other possible bio-active mechanisms include electric fields, charges and photons. It is common in LTP applications that synergies between different mechanisms can play a role and I will review the evidence for synergies in plasma biomedicine. Finally, I will address the challenges and opportunities for plasma physicists to enter this novel, multidisciplinary field.

We show that the interlayer tunneling I-V in double-layer quantum Hall states displays a rich behavior which depends on the relative magnitude of sample size, voltage length scale, current screening, disorder, and thermal lengths. For weak tunneling, we predict a negative differential conductance of a power-law shape crossing over to a sharp zero-bias peak. An in-plane magnetic field splits this zero-bias peak, leading instead to a "derivative" feature at V(B)(B(parallel)) = 2 pi Planck's over 2 pi upsilon B(parallel)d/e phi(0), which gives a direct measurement of the dispersion of the Goldstone mode corresponding to the spontaneous symmetry breaking of the double-layer Hall state. PMID:11290258

The paper presents investigations of current free doublelayer (CFDL) that forms in helicon plasmas. In contrast to the other work reporting on the same subject, in the present investigations the doublelayer (DL) forms in a mirror-like magnetic field topology. The RF compensated Langmuir probe measurements show multiple DLs, which are in connection with, the abrupt fall of densities along with potential drop of about 24 V and 18 V. The DLs strengths (e ΔV{sub p})/(k T{sub e}) are about 9.5 and 6, and the corresponding widths are about 6 and 5 D lengths. The potential drop is nearly equal to the thermal anisotropies between the two plasma regions forming the DL, which is present in the plateau region of mirror, unlike the earlier studies on the DL formation in the region of strong gradients in the magnetic field. Also, it presents a qualitative discussion on the mechanism of DL formation.

It has been proposed that changes in ionic strength will alter the shape of current-voltage relations for ion transport across a lipid membrane. To investigate this effect, we measured currents across glyceryl monooleate membranes at applied potentials between 10 and 300 mV using either gramicidin and 1 mM NaCl or valinomycin and 1 mM KCl. A bridge circuit with an integrator as null detector was used to separate the capacitative and ionic components of the current. The changes in the current-voltage relations when ionic strength is varied between 1 and 100 mM are compared with predictions of Gouy-Chapman theory for the effects of these variations on polarization of the electrical diffuse double-layer. Double-layer polarization accounts adequately for the changes observed using membranes made permeable by either gramicidin or valinomycin. PMID:2432953

We have theoretically investigated the reflectivity spectrums of single- and double-layer photonic crystal slabs and the dielectric multilayer stack. It is shown that light can be perfectly confined in a single-layer photonic crystal slab at a given incident angle by changing the thickness, permittivity or hole radius of the structure. With a tunable double-layer photonic crystal slab, we demonstrate that the occurrence of tunable bound states in the continuum is dependent on the spacing between two slabs. Moreover, by analytically investigating the Drude lossless multilayer stack model, the spacing dependence of bound states in the continuum is characterized as the phase matching condition that illuminates these states can occur at any nonzero incident angles by adjusting the spacing. PMID:27245435

We have theoretically investigated the reflectivity spectrums of single- and double-layer photonic crystal slabs and the dielectric multilayer stack. It is shown that light can be perfectly confined in a single-layer photonic crystal slab at a given incident angle by changing the thickness, permittivity or hole radius of the structure. With a tunable double-layer photonic crystal slab, we demonstrate that the occurrence of tunable bound states in the continuum is dependent on the spacing between two slabs. Moreover, by analytically investigating the Drude lossless multilayer stack model, the spacing dependence of bound states in the continuum is characterized as the phase matching condition that illuminates these states can occur at any nonzero incident angles by adjusting the spacing. PMID:27245435

We have theoretically investigated the reflectivity spectrums of single- and double-layer photonic crystal slabs and the dielectric multilayer stack. It is shown that light can be perfectly confined in a single-layer photonic crystal slab at a given incident angle by changing the thickness, permittivity or hole radius of the structure. With a tunable double-layer photonic crystal slab, we demonstrate that the occurrence of tunable bound states in the continuum is dependent on the spacing between two slabs. Moreover, by analytically investigating the Drude lossless multilayer stack model, the spacing dependence of bound states in the continuum is characterized as the phase matching condition that illuminates these states can occur at any nonzero incident angles by adjusting the spacing.

We consider the contact between an electrolyte and a solid electrode. At first we formulate a thermodynamic consistent model that resolves boundary layers at interfaces. The model includes charge transport, diffusion, chemical reactions, viscosity, elasticity and polarization under isothermal conditions. There is a coupling between these phenomena that particularly involves the local pressure in the electrolyte. Therefore the momentum balance is of major importance for the correct description of the boundary layers. The width of the boundary layers is typically very small compared to the macroscopic dimensions of the system. In the second step we thus apply the method of asymptotic analysis to derive a simpler reduced bulk model that already incorporates the electrochemical properties of the doublelayers into a set of new boundary conditions. With the reduced model, we analyze the doublelayer capacitance for a metal-electrolyte interface. PMID:26415592

Since Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry made their great discovery of electromagnetic induction, there have been continuous developments in electrical power generation. Most people today get electricity from thermal, hydroelectric, or nuclear power generation systems, which use this electromagnetic induction phenomenon. Here we propose a new method for electrical power generation, without using electromagnetic induction, by mechanically modulating the electrical doublelayers at the interfacial areas of a water bridge between two conducting plates. We find that when the height of the water bridge is mechanically modulated, the electrical doublelayer capacitors formed on the two interfacial areas are continuously charged and discharged at different phases from each other, thus generating an AC electric current across the plates. We use a resistor-capacitor circuit model to explain the results of this experiment. This observation could be useful for constructing a micro-fluidic power generation system in the near future. PMID:23403587

The Authors display their results on microsurgical operations in rat's uteri. After having described the instruments and methods used, the surgical techniques and the differences between a single and a doublelayer suture are discussed. However the formation of intraoperative adherences, which can damage the functional results of the intervention, is studied. And what's more the mean number of live born foetuses is seen as an attainable parameter for future validations. PMID:7011341

An ultra-sensitive and highly specific electrical doublelayer (EDL) modulated biosensor, using nanoporous flexible substrates for wearable diagnostics is demonstrated with the detection of the stress biomarker cortisol in synthetic and human sweat. Zinc oxide thin film was used as active region in contact with the liquid i.e. synthetic and human sweat containing the biomolecules. Cortisol detection in sweat was accomplished by measuring and quantifying impedance changes due to modulation of the doublelayer capacitance within the electrical doublelayer through the application of a low orthogonally directed alternating current (AC) electric field. The EDL formed at the liquid-semiconductor interface was amplified in the presence of the nanoporous flexible substrate allowing for measuring the changes in the alternating current impedance signal due to the antibody-hormone interactions at diagnostically relevant concentrations. High sensitivity of detection of 1 pg/mL or 2.75 pmol cortisol in synthetic sweat and 1 ng/mL in human sweat is demonstrated with these novel biosensors. Specificity in synthetic sweat was demonstrated using a cytokine IL-1β. Cortisol detection in human sweat was demonstrated over a concentration range from 10–200 ng/mL. PMID:26420511

An ultra-sensitive and highly specific electrical doublelayer (EDL) modulated biosensor, using nanoporous flexible substrates for wearable diagnostics is demonstrated with the detection of the stress biomarker cortisol in synthetic and human sweat. Zinc oxide thin film was used as active region in contact with the liquid i.e. synthetic and human sweat containing the biomolecules. Cortisol detection in sweat was accomplished by measuring and quantifying impedance changes due to modulation of the doublelayer capacitance within the electrical doublelayer through the application of a low orthogonally directed alternating current (AC) electric field. The EDL formed at the liquid-semiconductor interface was amplified in the presence of the nanoporous flexible substrate allowing for measuring the changes in the alternating current impedance signal due to the antibody-hormone interactions at diagnostically relevant concentrations. High sensitivity of detection of 1 pg/mL or 2.75 pmol cortisol in synthetic sweat and 1 ng/mL in human sweat is demonstrated with these novel biosensors. Specificity in synthetic sweat was demonstrated using a cytokine IL-1β. Cortisol detection in human sweat was demonstrated over a concentration range from 10-200 ng/mL.

The potential dependence of the thermodynamics and kinetics of ion transfer reactions as influenced by the electrical doublelayer are studied via two-dimensional free energy surfaces calculated with an extension of the Anderson-Newns Hamiltonian. The Gibbs energy difference between the reduced and oxidized states, the activation barrier and the resulting current-potential curves are investigated as a function of the potential of zero charge and the Debye length, which are applied to characterize the external electric field. It is found that the current-potential curves of different redox systems are distinctly affected by the electrical doublelayer depending on the charges of the solution-phase and adsorbed species. For the redox couples sensitive to doublelayer effects, it is shown that the external electric field can cause a decrease in the driving force for the ion transfer process, which leads to the reversible peak current deviating significantly from the ideal, Nernstian predictions and the effective transfer coefficient being less than 1 even though the ion transfer is kinetically fully reversible. PMID:27001630

Supersolitons are characterized by subsidiary extrema on the sides of a typical bipolar electric field signature or by association with a root beyond doublelayers in the fully nonlinear Sagdeev pseudopotential description. It has been proven that supersolitons may exist in several plasmas having at least three constituent species, but they cannot be found in weakly nonlinear theory. Another recent aspect of pseudopotential theory is that in certain plasma models and parameter regimes solitons and/or doublelayers can exist at the acoustic speed, having no reductive perturbation counterparts. Importantly, they signal coexistence between solitons having positive and negative polarity, in that one solution can be realized at a time, depending on infinitesimal perturbations from the equilibrium state. Weaving the two strands together, we demonstrate here that one can even find supersolitons and doublelayers at the acoustic speed, as illustrated using the model of cold positive and negative ions, in the presence of nonthermal electrons following a Cairns distribution. This model has been discussed before, but the existence and properties of supersolitons at the acoustic speed were not established at the time of publication.

This paper is concerned with the formation of the acceleration region for electrons which produce the visible auroral arc and with the formation of the inverted V precipitation region. The former is embedded in the latter, and both are associated with field-aligned current sheets carried by plasma sheet electrons. It is shown that an electron current sheet driven from the plasma sheet into the ionosphere leads to the formation of a two-dimensional potential doublelayer. For a current sheet of a thickness less than the proton gyrodiameter solutions are obtained in which the field-aligned potential drop is distributed over a length much greater than the Debye length. For a current sheet of a thickness much greater than the proton gyrodiameter solutions are obtained in which the potential drop is confined to a distance on the order of the Debye length. The electric field in the two-dimensional double-layer model is the zeroth-order field inherent to the current sheet configuration, in contrast to those models in which the electric field is attributed to the first-order field due to current instabilities or turbulences. The maximum potential in the two-dimensional double-layer models is on the order of the thermal energy of plasma sheet protons, which ranges from 1 to 10 keV.

A theoretical investigation has been made on nonplanar (cylindrical and spherical) dust-ionacoustic (DIA) doublelayers (DLs) in a multi-ion dusty plasma system containing inertial positive and negative ions and arbitrarily charged stationary dust. The dust particles have been considered as arbitrarily (either positively or negatively) charged in order to observe the effects of the dust polarity on the DIA DLs. The ion species were considered to be at different temperatures to observe the effects of the temperatures on that waves. The modified Gardner equation, which has been derived by employing the reductive perturbation method, has been used to analyze time-dependent nonplanar and planar DIA DLs. It has been found that the time evolution of DIA DLs is significantly modified not only by the nonplanar geometry, but also by the polarity, temperature, and mass ratio of the constituent particles. It has been also found that the amplitude of cylindrical DIA DL structures is larger than that of 1D planar ones, but smaller than that of the spherical ones.

A theoretical investigation has been made on nonplanar (cylindrical and spherical) dust-ionacoustic (DIA) doublelayers (DLs) in a multi-ion dusty plasma system containing inertial positive and negative ions and arbitrarily charged stationary dust. The dust particles have been considered as arbitrarily (either positively or negatively) charged in order to observe the effects of the dust polarity on the DIA DLs. The ion species were considered to be at different temperatures to observe the effects of the temperatures on that waves. The modified Gardner equation, which has been derived by employing the reductive perturbation method, has been used to analyze time-dependent nonplanar and planar DIA DLs. It has been found that the time evolution of DIA DLs is significantly modified not only by the nonplanar geometry, but also by the polarity, temperature, and mass ratio of the constituent particles. It has been also found that the amplitude of cylindrical DIA DL structures is larger than that of 1D planar ones, but smaller than that of the spherical ones.

Electric doublelayers (EDLs) of ionic liquids have been used in superconducting field-effect transistors as nanogap capacitors. Because of the freezing of the ionic motion below ~200 kelvin, modulations of the carrier density have been limited to the high-temperature regime. Here we observe carrier-doping-induced superconductivity in an organic Mott insulator with a photoinduced EDL based on a photochromic spiropyran monolayer. Because the spiropyran can isomerize reversibly between nonionic and zwitterionic isomers through photochemical processes, two distinct built-in electric fields can modulate the carrier density even at cryogenic conditions.

A theoretical investigation is carried out to study the existence, formation and basic properties of ion acoustic (IA) doublelayers (DLs) in a magnetized bi-ion plasma consisting of warm/cold ions and Boltzmann distributed electrons. Based on the reductive perturbation technique, an extended Korteweg de-Vries (KdV) equation is derived. The propagation of two possible modes (fast and slow), and their evolution are investigated. The effects of obliqueness, magnitude of the magnetic field, ion concentration, polarity of ions, and ion temperature on the IA DL profile are analyzed, and then the ranges of parameters for which the IA DLs exist are investigated in details.

We report the first direct observations of parallel electric fields (E{sub parallel}) carried by doublelayers (DLs) in the plasma sheet of Earth's magnetosphere. The DL observations, made by the THEMIS spacecraft, have E{sub parallel} signals that are analogous to those reported in the auroral region. DLs are observed during bursty bulk flow events, in the current sheet, and in plasma sheet boundary layer, all during periods of strong magnetic fluctuations. These observations imply that DLs are a universal process and that strongly nonlinear and kinetic behavior is intrinsic to Earth's plasma sheet.

A dusty electronegative plasma containing Boltzmann electrons, Boltzmann negative ions, cold mobile positive ions, and negatively charged stationary dust has been considered. The basic features of arbitrary amplitude solitary waves (SWs) and doublelayers (DLs), which have been found to exist in such a dusty electronegative plasma, have been investigated by the pseudopotential method. The small amplitude limit has also been considered in order to study the small amplitude SWs and DLs analytically. It has been shown that under certain conditions, DLs do not exist, which is in good agreement with the experimental observations of Ghim and Hershkowitz [Y. Ghim (Kim) and N. Hershkowitz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 151503 (2009)].

We report an extremely rare case of double-layered lateral meniscus accompanied by meniscocapsular separation. The upper accessory meniscus was connected with the posterior horn and middle segment of the lower normal meniscus and was more mobile than the lower normal meniscus. A meniscocapsular separation was evident at the overlapping middle segment. Clinical symptoms were significantly improved by the resection of the upper accessory meniscus and the repair of the meniscocapsular separation. Careful arthroscopic analysis of other associated pathologies together with this rare abnormality was needed to achieve clinical improvement. PMID:26090252

We report the first direct observations of parallel electric fields (E_{ parallel}) carried by doublelayers (DLs) in the plasma sheet of Earth's magnetosphere. The DL observations, made by the THEMIS spacecraft, have E_{ parallel} signals that are analogous to those reported in the auroral region. DLs are observed during bursty bulk flow events, in the current sheet, and in plasma sheet boundary layer, all during periods of strong magnetic fluctuations. These observations imply that DLs are a universal process and that strongly nonlinear and kinetic behavior is intrinsic to Earth's plasma sheet. PMID:19518640

Langmuir probe measurements were carried out which confirm the occurrence of double-layers in an argon positive column. Pulsing the discharge current permitted probe measurements to be performed in the presence of the double-layer. Supplementary evidence, obtained from DC and pulsed discharges, indicated that the double-layers formed in the two modes of operation were similar. The double-layers observed were weak and stable; their relation to other classes of double-layers are discussed, and directions for future work are suggested.

Since Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry made their great discovery of electromagnetic induction, there have been continuous developments in electrical power generation. Most people today get electricity from thermal, hydroelectric, or nuclear power generation systems, which use this electromagnetic induction phenomenon. Here we propose a new method for electrical power generation, without using electromagnetic induction, by mechanically modulating the electrical doublelayers at the interfacial areas of a water bridge between two conducting plates. We find that when the height of the water bridge is mechanically modulated, the electrical doublelayer capacitors formed on the two interfacial areas are continuously charged and discharged at different phases from each other, thus generating an AC electric current across the plates. We use a resistor-capacitor circuit model to explain the results of this experiment. This observation could be useful for constructing a micro-fluidic power generation system and for understanding the interfacial charge distribution in solid-liquid interfaces in the near future. This work was supported by Center for Soft and Living Matter through IBS prgram in Korea.

The Earth's auroral zone contains dynamic processes occurring on scales from the length of an auroral zone field line which characterizes Alfven wave propagation to the scale of microscopic processes which occur over a few Debye lengths. These processes interact in a time-dependent fashion since the current carried by the Alfven waves can excite microscopic turbulence which can in turn provide dissipation of the Alfven wave energy. This review will first describe the dynamic aspects of auroral current structures with emphasis on consequences for models of microscopic turbulence. A number of models of microscopic turbulence will be introduced into a large-scale model of Alfven wave propagation to determine the effect of various models on the overall structure of auroral currents. In particular, the effects of a doublelayer electric field which scales with the plasma temperature and Debye length is compared with the effect of anomalous resistivity due to electrostatic ion cyclotron turbulence in which the electric field scales with the magnetic field strength. It is found that the doublelayer model is less diffusive than in the resistive model leading to the possibility of narrow, intense current structures.

Polymer gel electrolytes consisting of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF{sub 4}), and propylene carbonate (PC) as a plasticizer have been investigated for electric doublelayer capacitors. The PVdF gel electrolytes showed high ionic conductivity (ca. 6 mS/cm at 298 K). To assemble model capacitors with the PVdF gel electrolytes and activated carbon fiber cloth electrodes, a pair of the fixed electrodes was soaked in a precursor solution containing PC, PVdF, and TEABF{sub 4}, followed by evaporation of the PC solvent in a vacuum oven. The resulting gel electrolytes were in good contact with the electrodes. The model capacitors with the PVdF gel electrolytes showed a large value of capacitance and high coulombic efficiency in operation voltage ranges of 1--2 and 1--3 V. It is worth noting that the capacitors with the PVdF electrolytes showed long voltage retention in a self-discharge test. These good characteristics of the gel capacitors were comparable to those of typical doublelayer capacitors with a liquid organic electrolyte containing PC and TEABF{sub 4}; rather, the voltage retentivity of the PVdF gel capacitors was much superior to that of the capacitors with the organic electrolyte.

Using the generalized hydrodynamic model, the possibility of variety of large amplitude nonlinear excitations is examined in electron-ion plasma with arbitrary electron degeneracy considering also the ion temperature effect. A new energy-density relation is proposed for plasmas with arbitrary electron degeneracy which reduces to the classical Boltzmann and quantum Thomas-Fermi counterparts in the extreme limits. The pseudopotential method is employed to find the criteria for existence of nonlinear structures such as solitons, periodic nonlinear structures, and double-layers for different cases of adiabatic and isothermal ion fluids for a whole range of normalized electron chemical potential, η0, ranging from dilute classical to completely degenerate electron fluids. It is observed that there is a Mach-speed gap in which no large amplitude localized or periodic nonlinear excitations can propagate in the plasma under consideration. It is further revealed that the plasma under investigation supports propagation of double-wells and double-layers the chemical potential and Mach number ranges of which are studied in terms of other plasma parameters. The Mach number criteria for nonlinear waves are shown to significantly differ for cases of classical with η0 < 0 and quantum with η0 > 0 regimes. It is also shown that the localized structure propagation criteria possess significant dissimilarities for plasmas with adiabatic and isothermal ions. Current research may be generalized to study the nonlinear structures in plasma containing positrons, multiple ions with different charge states, and charged dust grains.

During flares and coronal mass ejections, energetic electrons from coronal sources typically have very long lifetimes compared to the transit times across the systems, suggesting confinement in the source region. Particle-in-cell simulations are carried out to explore the mechanisms of energetic electron transport from the corona to the chromosphere and possible confinement. We set up an initial system of pre-accelerated hot electrons in contact with ambient cold electrons along the local magnetic field and let it evolve over time. Suppression of transport by a nonlinear, highly localized electrostatic electric field (in the form of a doublelayer) is observed after a short phase of free-streaming by hot electrons. The doublelayer (DL) emerges at the contact of the two electron populations. It is driven by an ion-electron streaming instability due to the drift of the back-streaming return current electrons interacting with the ions. The DL grows over time and supports a significant drop in temperature and hence reduces heat flux between the two regions that is sustained for the duration of the simulation. This study shows that transport suppression begins when the energetic electrons start to propagate away from a coronal acceleration site. It also implies confinement of energetic electrons with kinetic energies less than the electrostatic energy of the DL for the DL lifetime, which is much longer than the electron transit time through the source region.

A method and apparatus for lowtemperature sensing which uses gas filled micro-size hollow glass spheres that are exposed in a confined observation area to a lowtemperature range (Kelvin) and observed microscopically to determine change of state, i.e., change from gaseous state of the contained gas to condensed state. By suitable indicia and classification of the spheres in the observation area, the temperature can be determined very accurately.

The recent flight of the Lambda Point Experiment has demonstrated the potential for performing precise tests of fundamental theories using lowtemperature techniques in Earth orbit. NASA's Microgravity Science and Applications Division has established a program of successor expermients to investigate other aspects of condensed matter physics using the same lowtemperature flight facility. This paper describes the new investigations that have been chosen for flight experiments, and those selected for ground-based studies that could lead to flight experiments later.

The electrodeposition of zinc has been studied in two deep eutectic solvents. Unlike the metals studied to date in these liquids, zinc electrodeposition is not mass transport limited and the morphology of the deposit differs in the two liquids. This study shows that changing the concentration of solute affects the physical properties of the liquid to different extents although this is found to not effect the morphology of the metal deposited. EXAFS was used to show that the speciation of zinc was the same in both liquids. Doublelayer capacitance studies showed differences between the two liquids and these are proposed to be due to the adsorption of a species on the electrode which is thought to be chloride. The differences in zinc morphology is attributed to blocking of certain crystal faces leading to deposition of small platelet shaped crystals in the glycol based liquid. PMID:21519629

The Chemical DoubleLayer (CDL) capacitor improves energy storage density dramatically when compared with conventional electrolytic capacitors. When compared to batteries, the CDL Capacitor is much less energy dense; however, the power density is orders of magnitude better. As a result, CDL-battery combinations present an interesting pulse power system with many potential applications. Due to the nature of the CDL it is inherently a low voltage device. The applications of the CDL can be tailored to auxiliary energy and burst mode storages which require fast charge/discharge cycles. Typical of the applications envisioned are power system backup, directed energy weapons concepts, electric automobiles, and electric actuators. In this paper, we will discuss some of the general characteristics of carbon-based CDL technology describing the structure, performance parameters, and methods of construction. Further, analytical and experimental results which define the state of the art are presented and described in terms of impact on applications.

Recent one-dimensional and two-dimensional numerical simulations of doublelayers (DLs) in the electric fields of the auroral plasma are reviewed, with reference to observational data. It is found that two-dimensional DLs driven by current sheets of finite thickness have different characteristics, depending on whether the layer thickness is less than or much greater than the ion gyroradius: When thickness is less than ion gyroradius, V-shaped DLs form with nearly equal parallel and perpendicular potential drops; when layer thickness is much greater than ion gyroradius the major parallel potential drop occurs outside the current sheet and the perpendicular electric fields are localized at the edges of the current sheet. It is shown that some features of the simulated fields, such as the amplitudes and scale lengths, are qualitatively similar to those observed in space.

Electrochemical doublelayer capacitors (EDLCs) are inherently high power devices when compared to rechargeable batteries. While capacitance and energy storage ability are mainly increased by optimizing the electrode active material or the electrolyte, the power capability could be improved by including conductive additives in the electrode formulations. This publication deals with the use of four different carbon additives - two carbon blacks and two graphites - in standard activated carbon based EDLC electrodes. The investigations include: (i) physical characterization of carbon powder mixtures such as surface area, press density, and electrical resistivity measurements, and (ii), electrochemical characterization via impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry of full cells made with electrodes containing 5 wt.% of carbon additive and compared to cells made with pure activated carbon electrodes in organic electrolyte. Improved cell performance was observed in both impedance and cyclic voltammetry responses. The results are discussed considering the main characteristics of the different carbon additives, and important considerations about electrode structure and processability are drawn.

We present analytic theory of monoenergetic protons acceleration by short pulse laser irradiation on a thin foil with specific thickness suggested by Yan et al. in simulations. The laser ponderomotive force pushes the electrons forward, leaving ions behind until the space charge field balances the ponderomotive force at distance {delta}. For the optimal target thickness D = {delta}>c/{omega}{sub p}, the electron sheath piled up at the rear surface of width skin depth moves into vacuum, carrying with it the protons contained in the sheath. These protons are trapped by the self field of the electron sheath and are collectively accelerated as a doublelayer by the laser ponderomotive force. We present here the analytic expression for the energy of the accelerated protons as a function of time, laser intensity, wavelength, and plasma density. For example, proton energy can reach {approx_equal}200 MeV at a = 5, and pulse length 90 fs.

In order to understand the electric interfacial behavior, mean field based electric doublelayer (EDL) theory has been continuously developed over the past 150 years. In this article, we briefly review the development of the EDL model, from the dimensionless Gouy-Chapman model to the symmetric Bikerman-Freise model, and finally toward size-asymmetric mean field theory models. We provide the general derivations within the framework of Helmholtz free energy of the lattice-gas model, and it can be seen that the above-mentioned models are consistent in the sense that the interconversion among them can be achieved by reducing the basic assumptions. Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 21421001, 21373118, and 21203100), the Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin, China (Grant No. 13JCQNJC06700), the MOE Innovation Team of China (Grant No. IRT13022), and NFFTBS (Grant No. J1103306).

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) offer several advantages over traditional batteries, such as long cycle life, high power capability, good low-temperature performance, etc. However, their major drawbacks, such as low specific energy and large voltage variation due to charge/discharge cycling, necessitate the use of high-efficiency power conversion electronics that can be used to efficiently discharge EDLCs and thus completely utilize the precious stored energy. In this study, we propose a novel discharger for EDLCs; this discharger uses cascaded switched capacitor converters (SCCs) and selectable intermediate taps. Although the voltage conversion ratio of SCCs is fixed, the load voltage can be maintained within a desired voltage range by the selectable intermediate taps. The circuit configuration, operating principle, and procedure for designing SCCs and selectable intermediate taps are presented. Experimental tests were performed using an EDLC module and a 200W prototype of the discharger. The obtained results showed that the 60V EDLC could be discharged to 30V with an average efficiency of 96% when the load voltage was maintained within the range 30-40V.

Dynamical properties of very strong doublelayers seen in a differentially pumped triple plasma device are reported. These doublelayers are V-shaped. The following findings are discussed: (1) Disruptions in the doublelayer potential and in the plasma current occur when an inductance is placed in series with the bias supply between the sources in the external circuit. These disruptions, which can be highly periodic, are the result of a negative resistance region. (2) When reactances in the circuit are minimized, the doublelayer exhibits a jitter motion in position approximately equal to the doublelayer thickness. (3) When the bias between the sources is rapidly turned on, the initial phase in the doublelayer formation is the occurrence of a constant electric field for the first few microseconds. First the apparatus used in all of the work is discussed and then each of the three phenomena are considered.

Low-pressure steady-state plasmas are analysed by means of a two-fluid model in both plane and cylindrical geometries. The charged particles are generated by UV illumination. Both a Gaussian and a one-step profile of the ionization are taken into account. Numerical results reveal various types of solutions depending on the ionization profile and the collisionality. The first state arises if the ionization spreads from the centre over a great part of the plasma. It has an almost quasineutral plasma core and a positively charged boundary sheath. The curvature of the number density of the charge particles is negative, except the boundary sheath. The second state occurs if the ionization is mainly localized in the vicinity of the centre and the collisionality is below a threshold. A slightly positive plasma core is surrounded by a doublelayer there where the ionization falls off steeply. Between the doublelayer and the boundary sheath a broad zone can exist where the plasma is nearly quasi-neutral and the electric field is small. Within the doublelayer the ion drift speed attains the Bohm velocity in collisionless plasmas, it is smaller in collisional cases. In a broad domain, the curvature of the number density of the charged particles can be positive. This is a feature of the so-called contracted columns. The transition between both the states occurs abruptly under collisonless conditions and becomes smooth as the collisionality increases. The minimum of the space charge density can become positive in this case. Several layers are possible, as well. Using the Gaussian profile analytical criteria can be given for a few of the mentioned phenomena. Probably, ionization profiles prescribed by photons allow to understand the origin of the contracted column more completely than up to now.

Low-pressure steady-state plasmas are analysed by means of a two-fluid model in both plane and cylindrical geometries. The charged particles are generated by UV illumination. Both a Gaussian and a one-step profile of the ionization are taken into account. Numerical results reveal various types of solutions depending on the ionization profile and the collisionality. The first state arises if the ionization spreads from the centre over a great part of the plasma. It has an almost quasineutral plasma core and a positively charged boundary sheath. The curvature of the number density of the charge particles is negative, except the boundary sheath. The second state occurs if the ionization is mainly localized in the vicinity of the centre and the collisionality is below a threshold. A slightly positive plasma core is surrounded by a doublelayer there where the ionization falls off steeply. Between the doublelayer and the boundary sheath a broad zone can exist where the plasma is nearly quasi-neutral and the electric field is small. Within the doublelayer the ion drift speed attains the Bohm velocity in collisionless plasmas, it is smaller in collisional cases. In a broad domain, the curvature of the number density of the charged particles can be positive. This is a feature of the so-called contracted columns. The transition between both the states occurs abruptly under collisonless conditions and becomes smooth as the collisionality increases. The minimum of the space charge density can become positive in this case. Several layers are possible, as well. Using the Gaussian profile analytical criteria can be given for a few of the mentioned phenomena. Probably, ionization profiles prescribed by photons allow to understand the origin of the contracted column more completely than up to now.

We show that the low-temperature conductance (G) of a quantum point contact consisting of ballistic tunnel-coupled double-layer quantum well wires is modulated by an in-layer magnetic field B{sub {parallel}} perpendicular to the wires due to the anticrossing. In a system with a small g factor, B{sub {parallel}} creates a V-shaped quantum staircase for G, causing it to decrease in steps of 2e{sup 2}/{Dirac_h} to a minimum and then increase to a maximum value, where G may saturate or decrease again at higher B{sub {parallel}}'s. The effect of B{sub {parallel}}-induced mass enhancement and spin splitting is studied. The relevance of the results to recent data is discussed.

The invention provides a composite catalyst containing a first component and a second component. The first component contains nanosized gold particles. The second component contains nanosized platinum group metals. The composite catalyst is useful for catalyzing the oxidation of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and other pollutants at lowtemperatures.

The invention relates to magnetic refrigeration and more particularly to lowtemperature refrigeration between about 4 and about 20 K, with an apparatus and method utilizing a belt of magnetic material passed in and out of a magnetic field with heat exchangers within and outside the field operably disposed to accomplish refrigeration.

The disclosure is directed to a lowtemperature 4 to 20 K. refrigeration apparatus and method utilizing a ring of magnetic material moving through a magnetic field. Heat exchange is accomplished in and out of the magnetic field to appropriately utilize the device to execute Carnot and Stirling cycles.

Self-contained lowtemperature battery system consisting of a magnesium anode, potassium thiocyanate-ammonia electrolyte and a cathode composed of a mixture of sulfur, carbon, and mercuric sulfate operates for at least seventy-two hours within a discharge temperature range of plus 20 degrees C to minus 90 degrees C.

This paper reports on the results of the numerical simulation of the motion of solid spherical particles in shear Stokes flows. Using the completed doublelayer boundary element method (CDLBEM) via distributed computing under Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM), the effective viscosity of suspension has been calculated for a finite number of spheres in a cubic array, or in a random configuration. In the simulation presented here, the short range interactions via lubrication forces are also taken into account, via the range completer in the formulation, whenever the gap between two neighbouring particles is closer than a critical gap. The results for particles in a simple cubic array agree with the results of Nunan and Keller (1984) and Stoksian Dynamics of Brady etal. (1988). To evaluate the lubrication forces between particles in a random configuration, a critical gap of 0.2 of particle's radius is suggested and the results are tested against the experimental data of Thomas (1965) and empirical equation of Krieger-Dougherty (Krieger, 1972). Finally, the quasi-steady trajectories are obtained for time-varying configuration of 125 particles.

Motivated by innovative progresses in designing multi-layer graphene nanostructured materials in the laboratory, we theoretically investigate the Dirac plasmon modes of a spatially separated double-layer graphene nanoribbon system, made up of a vertically offset armchair and metallic graphene nanoribbon pair. We find striking features of the collective excitations in this novel Coulomb correlated system, where both nanoribbons are supposed to be either intrinsic (undoped/ungated) or extrinsic (doped/gated). In the former, it is shown the low-energy acoustical and the high-energy optical plasmon modes are tunable only by the inter-ribbon charge separation. In the later, the aforementioned plasmon branches are modified by the added doping factor. As a result, our model could be useful to examine the existence of a linear Landau-undamped low-energy acoustical plasmon mode tuned via the inter-ribbon charge separation as well as doping. This study might also be utilized for devising novel quantum optical waveguides based on the Coulomb coupled graphene nanoribbons.

Doublelayers (DLs) have been observed in a plasma reactor composed of a source chamber attached to a larger expanding chamber. Positive ion beams generated across the DL were characterized in the low plasma potential region using retarding field energy analyzers. In electropositive gases, DLs were formed at very low pressures (between 0.1 and 1 mTorr) with the plasma expansion forced by a strongly diverging magnetic field. The DL remains static, robust to changes in boundary conditions, and its position is related to the magnetic field lines. The voltage drop across the DL increases with decreasing pressure; i.e., with increasing electron temperature (around 20 V at 0.17 mTorr). DLs were also observed in electronegative gases without a magnetic field over a greater range of pressure (0.5 to 10 mTorr). The actual profile of the electronegative DL is very sensitive to external parameters and intrusive elements, and they propagate at high negative ion fraction. Electrostatic probes measurements and laser-induced photodetachment show discontinuities in all plasma parameters (electron density, electron temperature, negative ion fraction) at the DL position. The voltage drop across the electronegative DL is about 8 V, is independent of the gas pressure and therefore of the electron temperature.

The junction conditions for the most general gravitational theory with a Lagrangian containing terms quadratic in the curvature are derived. We include the cases with a possible concentration of matter on the joining hypersurface—termed as thin shells, domain walls or braneworlds in the literature—as well as the proper matching conditions where only finite jumps of the energy-momentum tensor are allowed. In the latter case we prove that the matching conditions are more demanding than in general relativity. In the former case, we show that generically the shells/domain walls are of a new kind because they possess, in addition to the standard energy-momentum tensor, a doublelayer energy-momentum contribution which actually induces an external energy flux vector and an external scalar pressure/tension on the shell. We prove that all these contributions are necessary to make the entire energy-momentum tensor divergence-free, and we present the field equations satisfied by these energy-momentum quantities. The consequences of all these results are briefly analyzed.

A novel approach is presented for analyzing the double-layer interaction force between charged particles in electrolyte solution, in the limit where the Debye length is small compared with both interparticle separation and particle size. The method, developed here for two planar convex particles of otherwise arbitrary geometry, yields a simple asymptotic approximation limited to neither small zeta potentials nor the "close-proximity" assumption underlying Derjaguin's approximation. Starting from the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann formulation, boundary-layer solutions describing the thin diffuse-charge layers are asymptotically matched to a WKBJ expansion valid in the bulk, where the potential is exponentially small. The latter expansion describes the bulk potential as superposed contributions conveyed by "rays" emanating normally from the boundary layers. On a special curve generated by the centers of all circles maximally inscribed between the two particles, the bulk stress—associated with the ray contributions interacting nonlinearly—decays exponentially with distance from the center of the smallest of these circles. The force is then obtained by integrating the traction along this curve using Laplace's method. We illustrate the usefulness of our theory by comparing it, alongside Derjaguin's approximation, with numerical simulations in the case of two parallel cylinders at low potentials. By combining our result and Derjaguin's approximation, the interaction force is provided at arbitrary interparticle separations. Our theory can be generalized to arbitrary three-dimensional geometries, nonideal electrolyte models, and other physical scenarios where exponentially decaying fields give rise to forces.

A novel approach is presented for analyzing the double-layer interaction force between charged particles in electrolyte solution, in the limit where the Debye length is small compared with both interparticle separation and particle size. The method, developed here for two planar convex particles of otherwise arbitrary geometry, yields a simple asymptotic approximation limited to neither small zeta potentials nor the "close-proximity" assumption underlying Derjaguin's approximation. Starting from the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann formulation, boundary-layer solutions describing the thin diffuse-charge layers are asymptotically matched to a WKBJ expansion valid in the bulk, where the potential is exponentially small. The latter expansion describes the bulk potential as superposed contributions conveyed by "rays" emanating normally from the boundary layers. On a special curve generated by the centers of all circles maximally inscribed between the two particles, the bulk stress-associated with the ray contributions interacting nonlinearly-decays exponentially with distance from the center of the smallest of these circles. The force is then obtained by integrating the traction along this curve using Laplace's method. We illustrate the usefulness of our theory by comparing it, alongside Derjaguin's approximation, with numerical simulations in the case of two parallel cylinders at low potentials. By combining our result and Derjaguin's approximation, the interaction force is provided at arbitrary interparticle separations. Our theory can be generalized to arbitrary three-dimensional geometries, nonideal electrolyte models, and other physical scenarios where exponentially decaying fields give rise to forces. PMID:25768505

Motivated by innovative progresses in designing multi-layer graphene nanostructured materials in the laboratory, we theoretically investigate the Dirac plasmon modes of a spatially separated double-layer graphene nanoribbon system, made up of a vertically offset armchair and metallic graphene nanoribbon pair. We find striking features of the collective excitations in this novel Coulomb correlated system, where both nanoribbons are supposed to be either intrinsic (undoped/ungated) or extrinsic (doped/gated). In the former, it is shown the low-energy acoustical and the high-energy optical plasmon modes are tunable only by the inter-ribbon charge separation. In the later, the aforementioned plasmon branches are modified by the added doping factor. As a result, our model could be useful to examine the existence of a linear Landau-undamped low-energy acoustical plasmon mode tuned via the inter-ribbon charge separation as well as doping. This study might also be utilized for devising novel quantum optical waveguides based on the Coulomb coupled graphene nanoribbons.

Double-layer film electrets based on PET and PBT were studied. Data on thermally stimulated depolarization of the surface potential served as the basis for suggesting a mechanism of double-layer electrets. This electret system exhibit peaks localized broadly in three temperature intervals.

In recent years, a number of papers have been concerned with 'ion-acoustic' doublelayers. In the present investigation, results from numerical simulations are presented to show that the shapes and forms of current-driven doublelayers evolve dynamically with the fluctuations in the current through the plasma. It is shown that doublelayers with a potential dip can form even without the excitation of ion-acoustic modes. Doublelayers in two-and one-half-dimensional simulations are discussed, taking into account the simulation technique, the spatial and temporal features of plasma, and the dynamical behavior of the parallel potential distribution. Attention is also given to doublelayers in one-dimensional simulations, and electrical field strengths predicted by two-and one-half-dimensional simulations.

We present a theoretical description of the spectra of electrons elastically scattered from thin doublelayered Au-C samples. The analysis is based on the Monte Carlo simulation of the recoil and Doppler effects in reflection and transmission geometries of the scattering at a fixed angle of 44.3 ° and a primary energy of 40 keV. The relativistic correction is taken into account. Besides the experimentally measurable energy distributions the simulations give many partial distributions separately, depending on the number of elastic scatterings (single, and multiple scatterings of different types). Furthermore, we present detailed analytical calculations for the main parameters of the single scattering, taking into account both the ideal scattering geometry, i.e. infinitesimally small angular range, and the effect of the real, finite angular range used in the measurements. We show our results for intensity ratios, peak shifts and broadenings for four cases of measurement geometries and layer thicknesses. While in the peak intensity ratios of gold and carbon for transmission geometries were found to be in good agreement with the results of the single scattering model, especially large deviations were obtained in reflection geometries. The separation of the peaks, depending on the geometry and the thickness, generally smaller, and the peak width generally larger than it can be expected from the nominal values of the primary energy, scattering angle, and mean kinetic energy of the atoms. We also show that the peaks are asymmetric even for the case of the single scattering due to the finite solid angle. Finally, we present a qualitative comparison with the experimental data. We find our resulting energy distribution of elastically scattered electrons to be in good agreement with recent measurements.

Electrochemical DoubleLayered Capacitors (EDLC's) are becoming a more popular topic of research for hybrid power systems, especially vehicles. They are known for their high power density, high cycle life, low internal resistance, and wider operating temperature compared to batteries. They are rarely used as a standalone power source; however, because of their lack of energy density compared to batteries and fuel cells. Researchers are now discovering the benefits of using them in hybrid systems. The increased complexity of a hybrid power source presents many challenges. A major drawback of this complexity is the lack of design tools to assist a designer in translating a simulation all the way to a full scale implementation. A full spectrum of tools was designed to assist designers at all stages of implementation including: single cell testing, a multi-cell management system, and a full scale vehicle data acquisition system to monitor performance. First, the full scale vehicle data acquisition is described. The system is isolated from the electric shuttle bus it was tested on to allow the system to be ported to other vehicles and applications. This was done to modularize the system to characterize a wide variety of full scale applications. Next, a single cell test system was designed that allows the designer to characterize cell specifications, as well as, test control and safety systems in a controlled environment. The goal is to ensure safety systems can be thoroughly tested to ensure robustness as the bank is scaled up. This system also includes simulation models that provide examples of using the simulation to predict the behavior of a cell and the test system to validate the results of the simulation. This information is then used by the designer to more effectively design sensor ranges for the bank. Finally, a multi-cell EDLC management system was designed to implement a bank. It incorporates 12 series EDLC cells per control module, and the modular design

Room-temperature ionic liquids (ILs) are an emerging class of electrolytes for supercapacitors. We investigate the effects of ion size and electrode curvature on the electrical doublelayers (EDLs) in two ILs 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate [BMIM][PF{sub 6}], using a combination of molecular dynamics (MD) and quantum density functional theory (DFT) simulations. The sizes of the counter-ion and co-ion affect the ion distribution and orientational structure of EDLs. The EDL capacitances near both planar and cylindrical electrodes were found to follow the order: [BMIM][Cl] (near the positive electrode) > [BMIM][PF{sub 6}] (near the positive electrode) ≈ [BMIM][Cl] (near the negative electrode) ≈ [BMIM][PF{sub 6}] (near the negative electrode). The EDL capacitance was also found to increase as the electrode curvature increases. These capacitance data can be fit to the Helmholtz model and the recently proposed exohedral electrical double-cylinder capacitor (xEDCC) model when the EDL thickness is properly parameterized, even though key features of the EDLs in ILs are not accounted for in these models. To remedy the shortcomings of existing models, we propose a “Multiple Ion Layers with Overscreening” (MILO) model for the EDLs in ILs that takes into account two critical features of such EDLs, i.e., alternating layering of counter-ions and co-ions and charge overscreening. The capacitance computed from the MILO model agrees well with the MD prediction. Although some input parameters of the MILO model must be obtained from MD simulations, the MILO model may provide a new framework for understanding many important aspects of EDLs in ILs (e.g., the variation of EDL capacitance with the electrode potential) that are difficult to interpret using classical EDL models and experiments.

Room-temperature ionic liquids (ILs) are an emerging class of electrolytes for supercapacitors. We investigate the effects of ion size and electrode curvature on the electrical doublelayers (EDLs) in two ILs 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate [BMIM][PF(6)], using a combination of molecular dynamics (MD) and quantum density functional theory (DFT) simulations. The sizes of the counter-ion and co-ion affect the ion distribution and orientational structure of EDLs. The EDL capacitances near both planar and cylindrical electrodes were found to follow the order: [BMIM][Cl] (near the positive electrode) > [BMIM][PF(6)] (near the positive electrode) {approx} [BMIM][Cl] (near the negative electrode) {approx} [BMIM][PF(6)] (near the negative electrode). The EDL capacitance was also found to increase as the electrode curvature increases. These capacitance data can be fit to the Helmholtz model and the recently proposed exohedral electrical double-cylinder capacitor (xEDCC) model when the EDL thickness is properly parameterized, even though key features of the EDLs in ILs are not accounted for in these models. To remedy the shortcomings of existing models, we propose a 'Multiple Ion Layers with Overscreening' (MILO) model for the EDLs in ILs that takes into account two critical features of such EDLs, i.e., alternating layering of counter-ions and co-ions and charge overscreening. The capacitance computed from the MILO model agrees well with the MD prediction. Although some input parameters of the MILO model must be obtained from MD simulations, the MILO model may provide a new framework for understanding many important aspects of EDLs in ILs (e.g., the variation of EDL capacitance with the electrode potential) that are difficult to interpret using classical EDL models and experiments.

It is known, from laboratory experiments, that doublelayers will form in plasmas, usually in the presence of an electric current. It is argued that a doublelayer may be present in the accretion column of a neutron star in a binary system. It is suggested that the doublelayer may be the predominant deceleration mechanism for the accreting ions, especially for sources with X-ray luminosities of less than about 10 to the 37th erg/s. Previous models have involved either a collisionless shock or an assumed gradual deceleration of the accreting ions to thermalize the energy of the infalling matter.

It is known from laboratory experiments that doublelayers can form in plasmas, usually in the presence of an electric current. It is argued that a doublelayer may be present in the accretion column of a neutron star in a binary system. It is suggested that the doublelayer may be the predominant deceleration mechanism for the accreting ions, especially for sources with X-ray luminosities of less than about 10 to the 37th erg/s. Previous models have involved either a collisionless shock or an assumed gradual deceleration of the accreting ions to thermalize the energy of the infalling matter.

The acoustic doublelayer structures are studied using quantum hydrodynamic model in dense magnetized electron-positron-ion plasmas. The extended Korteweg-de Vries is derived using reductive perturbation method. It is found that increase in the ion concentration in dense magnetized electron-positron plasmas increases the amplitude as well as the steepness of the doublelayer structure. However, increase in the magnetic field strength and decrease in the obliqueness of the nonlinear acoustic wave enhances only the steepness of the doublelayer structures. The numerical results have also been shown by using the data of the outer layer regions of white dwarfs given in the literature.

Current-free doublelayers can develop in a collisionless, inertia-controlled plasma with two electron populations, expanding in a convergent-divergent nozzle. The doublelayer characteristics depend on whether they develop at the nozzle divergent side, convergent side, or throat. The divergent-geometry doublelayer describes faithfully the Hairapetian-Stenzel experiment [Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 175 (1990)], whereas the two other types correspond with those studied in self-similar expansions and wall-collection models of similar plasmas.

Fourteen kinds of ammonium salt, including nine ionic liquids, were evaluated for use as the electrolyte (as a solute) of an electric doublelayer capacitor (EDLC) from the viewpoint of practical performance and thermal stability. For this study, three kinds of anion species were selected for the counter anion: tetrafluoroborate (BF 4), hexafluorophosphate (PF 6) and bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (TFSI) anions. A series of EDLCs with only 0.4% deviation in the capacitance of each cell, based on activated carbon and various salts in propylene carbonate (PC), were strictly prepared. The capacitance at room temperature, and the resistance value of the EDLCs at a relatively large direct current at lowtemperatures were measured. We also examined the durability of these systems by continuous charging at 70 °C and 3.0 V. We report that N-(2-methoxyethyl)- N-methylpyrrolidinium-BF 4, a cyclic aliphatic quaternary ammonium with a methoxyethyl functional group, is the preferred ionic liquid for an EDLC electrolyte with respect to capacitance, power density, even at lowtemperatures and thermal durability.

In this paper employing doublelayer printed spiral coils (PSCs) is proposed for wireless power transmission in implantable biomedical applications. Detailed modeling of this type of PSCs is presented. Both calculations and measurements of fabricated doublelayer PSCs indicate that this structure can decrease the size of typical single layer PSCs without any change in the most important parameters of the coils, such as quality factor. Also, it is shown that with equal PSC dimensions and design parameters, doublelayer PSCs achieve significantly higher inductances and quality factors. Ultimately, a pair of doublelayer PSCs with a distance of 5 mm in air is used in an inductive link. The power transfer efficiency of this link is about 79.8% with a carrier frequency of 5 MHz and coupling coefficient of 0.189. PMID:22254943

The electrochemical doublelayer plays a critical role in electrochemical processes. Whilst there have been many theoretical models predicting structural and electrical organization of the electrochemical doublelayer, the experimental verification of these models has been challenging due to the limitations of available experimental techniques. The induced potential drop in the electrolyte has never been directly observed and verified experimentally, to the best of our knowledge. In this study, we report the direct probing of the potential drop as well as the potential of zero charge by means of ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy performed under polarization conditions. By analyzing the spectra of the solvent (water) and a spectator neutral molecule with numerical simulations of the electric field, we discern the shape of the electrochemical doublelayer profile. In addition, we determine how the electrochemical doublelayer changes as a function of both the electrolyte concentration and applied potential. PMID:27576762

In experiments on anode (ionization) doublelayers in nonuniform magnetic fields it has been noted that the magnetic field gradient seems to stabilize the doublelayer position. This effect is further investigated in a Q machine in which the magnetic field geometry could be varied. It is found that the position of the doublelayers, along the axis of the device, could be controlled by changing the magnetic geometry. This effect is accounted for in a physical model which takes into account the effect of ion reflection by the magnetic mirror force in the region of magnetic field nonuniformity. This model is also able to account for variation of the doublelayer position when the neutral gas pressure is varied.

The properties of ion-acoustic shock waves and doublelayers propagating in a viscous degenerate dense plasma (containing inertial viscous ion fluid, non-relativistic and ultra-relativistic degenerate electron fluid, and negatively charged stationary heavy element) is investigated. A new nonlinear equation (viz. Gardner equation with additional dissipative term) is derived by the reductive perturbation method. The properties of the ion-acoustic shock waves and doublelayers are examined by the analysis of the shock and doublelayer solutions of this new equation (we would like to call it “M-Z equation”). It is found that the properties of these shock and doublelayer structures obtained from this analysis are significantly different from those obtained from the analysis of standard Gardner or Burgers’ equation. The implications of our results to dense plasmas in astrophysical objects (e.g., non-rotating white dwarf stars) are briefly discussed.

Sagdeev’s technique is used to study the large amplitude compressional Alfvenic doublelayers in a magnetohydrodynamic plasma taking into account the small plasma β and small values of kinematic viscosity. Dispersive effect raised by non-ideal electron inertia currents perpendicular to the ambient magnetic field. The range of allowed values of the soliton speed, M (Mach number), plasma β (ratio of the plasma thermal pressure to the pressure in the confining magnetic field), and viscosity coefficient, wherein doublelayer may exist, are determined. In the absence of collisions, viscous dissipation modifies the Sagdeev potential and results in large amplitude compressional Alfvenic doublelayers. The depth of Sagdeev potential increases with the increasing Mach number and plasma β, however, decreases with the increasing viscosity. The doublelayer structure increases with the increasing plasma β, but decreases with increasing viscous dissipation μ(tilde sign)

Doublelayers form along auroral field lines in the Earth's magnetosphere. They form in order to maintain current continuity in the ionosphere in the presence of a magnetospheric electric field E with nabla x E is not equal to 0. Features which govern the formation of the doublelayers are: (1) the divergence of E, (2) the conductivity of the ionosphere, and (3) the current-voltage characteristics of auroral magnetic field lines. Astrophysical situations where nabla x E is not equal to 0 is applied to a conducting plasma similar to the Earth's ionosphere are potential candidates for the formation of doublelayers. The region with nabla x E is not equal to 0 can be generated within, or along field lines connected to, the conducting plasma. In addition to nabla x E, shear neutral flow in the conducting plasma can also form doublelayers.

Magnetized test ions are subjected to acceleration through a numerically simulated oblique doublelayer in order to determine whether they emerge with velocity vectors aligned with or oblique to the ambient magnetic field. A criterion for oblique alignment, depending on the double-layer parameters and on the external magnetization, is obtained. When it is applied to observed and theoretical auroral doublelayers, this criterion predicts that accelerated heavy ions will be substantially less magnetic field aligned than will accelerated hydrogen ions, thus suggesting auroral doublelayers as a source of high-energy ion conics. Test particle simulations are also used to investigate the perpendicular heating of ions at low altitudes by the electric fields associated with moving auroral arcs. The rapid motion of small-scale structures in the arcs is suggested as a source of low-energy conical ion distributions, and the slow drifts of the entire arc forms are inferred to heat ionospheric ions.

The properties of ion-acoustic shock waves and doublelayers propagating in a viscous degenerate dense plasma (containing inertial viscous ion fluid, non-relativistic and ultra-relativistic degenerate electron fluid, and negatively charged stationary heavy element) is investigated. A new nonlinear equation (viz. Gardner equation with additional dissipative term) is derived by the reductive perturbation method. The properties of the ion-acoustic shock waves and doublelayers are examined by the analysis of the shock and doublelayer solutions of this new equation (we would like to call it "M-Z equation"). It is found that the properties of these shock and doublelayer structures obtained from this analysis are significantly different from those obtained from the analysis of standard Gardner or Burgers' equation. The implications of our results to dense plasmas in astrophysical objects (e.g., non-rotating white dwarf stars) are briefly discussed.

Parametric characterization of multiple doublelayers is done during high pressure glow discharge in a toroidal vessel of small aspect ratio. Although glow discharge (without magnetic field) is known to be independent of device geometry, but the toroidal boundary conditions are conducive to plasma growth and eventually the plasma occupy the toroidal volume partially. At higher anode potential, the visibly glowing spots on the body of spatially extended anode transform into multiple intensely luminous spherical plasma blob structures attached to the tip of the positive electrode. Dynamics of multiple doublelayers are observed in argon glow discharge plasma in presence of toroidal magnetic field. The radial profiles of plasma parameters measured at various toroidal locations show signatures of doublelayer formation in our system. Parametric dependence of doublelayer dynamics in presence of toroidal magnetic field is presented here.

Ion-acoustic doublelayers are examined in an unmagnetized, three-component plasma consisting of cold ions and two temperature electrons. Both of the electrons are considered to be Boltzmann distributed and the ions follow the usual fluid dynamical equations. Using the method of characteristics, a time-dependent solution for ion-acoustic doublelayers is obtained. Results of the findings may have important consequences for the real time satellite observations in the space environment.

The origin of high anisotropy field Hk and low coercivity Hc of Fe-Co-B/Ni-Fe doublelayered film with high 4 πMs was investigated. In-plane and out-of-plane XRD studies clarified that the lattice spacing of planes along the easy axis direction was expanded than that along the hard axis direction. The fact was confirmed that such stress caused by the lattice expansion had significant effects on the magnetoelastic energy in this doublelayer.

The onset of homogeneous condensation of binary vapors in the supersaturated state is studied in ethanol/n-propanol and water/ethanol via their unsteady expansion in a shock tube at temperatures below 273 K. Ethanol/n-propanol forms a nearly ideal solution, whereas water/ethanol is an example of a strongly nonideal mixture. Vapor mixtures of various compositions are diluted in dry air at small mole fractions and expanded in the driver section from room temperature. The onset of homogeneous condensation is detected optically and the corresponding thermodynamic state is evaluated. The experimental results are compared with the binary nucleation theory, and the particular problems of theoretical evaluation at lowtemperatures are discussed.

The expansion of a plasma with two disparate electron populations into vacuum and channeled by a divergent magnetic nozzle is analyzed with an axisymmetric model. The purpose is to study the formation and two-dimensional shape of a current-free double-layer in the case when the electric potential steepening can still be treated within the quasineutral approximation. The properties of this quasi-double-layer are investigated in terms of the relative fraction of the high-energy electron population, its radial distribution when injected into the nozzle, and the geometry and intensity of the applied magnetic field. The two-dimensional doublelayer presents a curved shape, which is dependent on the natural curvature of the equipotential lines in a magnetically expanded plasma and the particular radial distribution of high-energy electrons at injection. The doublelayer curvature increases the higher the nozzle divergence is, the lower the magnetic strength is, and the more peripherally hot electrons are injected. A central application of the study is the operation of a helicon plasma thruster in space. To this respect, it is shown that the curvature of the doublelayer does not increment the thrust, it does not modify appreciably the downstream divergence of the plasma beam, but it increases the magnetic-to-pressure thrust ratio. The present study does not attempt to cover current-free doublelayers involving plasmas with multiple populations of positive ions.

Large-amplitude (less than about 100 percent) relaxation oscillations in the plasma potential are known to be generated when the cold endplate of a single-ended Q machine is biased positively. These oscillations are associated with doublelayers that form near the hot plate (plasma source) and travel toward the endplate at about the ion-acoustic velocity. At the endplate they dissolve and then form again near the hot plate, the entire process repeating itself in a regular manner. By admitting a sufficient amount of neutral gas into the system, the moving doublelayers were slowed down and eventually stopped. The production of stationary doublelayers requires an ion source on the high-potential side of the doublelayers. These ions are provided by ionization of the neutral gas by electrons that are accelerated through the doublelayer. The dependence of the critical neutral gas pressure required for stationary double-layer formation on endplate voltage, magnetic field strength, and neutral atom mass has been examined. These results are discussed in terms of a simple model of ion production and loss, including ion losses across the magnetic field.

The expansion of a plasma with two disparate electron populations into vacuum and channeled by a divergent magnetic nozzle is analyzed with an axisymmetric model. The purpose is to study the formation and two-dimensional shape of a current-free double-layer in the case when the electric potential steepening can still be treated within the quasineutral approximation. The properties of this quasi-double-layer are investigated in terms of the relative fraction of the high-energy electron population, its radial distribution when injected into the nozzle, and the geometry and intensity of the applied magnetic field. The two-dimensional doublelayer presents a curved shape, which is dependent on the natural curvature of the equipotential lines in a magnetically expanded plasma and the particular radial distribution of high-energy electrons at injection. The doublelayer curvature increases the higher the nozzle divergence is, the lower the magnetic strength is, and the more peripherally hot electrons are injected. A central application of the study is the operation of a helicon plasma thruster in space. To this respect, it is shown that the curvature of the doublelayer does not increment the thrust, it does not modify appreciably the downstream divergence of the plasma beam, but it increases the magnetic-to-pressure thrust ratio. The present study does not attempt to cover current-free doublelayers involving plasmas with multiple populations of positive ions.

The existence and the characteristic properties of electron-acoustic doublelayers are investigated in three component unmagnetized dense quantum plasmas consisting of stationary background ions and two electron populations: one 'cold' and the other 'hot'. Using the one-dimensional quantum hydrodynamic model and the reductive perturbation technique, a generalized form of nonlinear quantum Korteweg-de Vries equation governing the dynamics of weak electron acoustic doublelayers is derived. A stationary solution of this equation is obtained to discuss the existence criteria of different types of doublelayers and their characteristic properties. It is shown that two types of compressive doublelayers: one in the lower {delta}-parameter region and the other at the higher {delta}-parameter region, along with rarefactive doublelayers in the intermediate region, may exist, where {delta}=n{sub ec0}/n{sub eh0} is the ratio of unperturbed cold to hot electron densities. The width, the amplitude, and the velocity of these doublelayers are significantly affected by the {delta}-parameter. The relevance of the present investigation is also discussed.

We describe the design and development of the LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Facility, which is intended to provide a unique environment of lowtemperature and microgravity for the scientists to perform breakthrough investigations on board the International Space Station.

The LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Facility currently in the design phase is a multiple user and multiple flight facility intended to provide a long duration lowtemperature environment onboard the International Space Station.

The LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Facility currently in the design phase is a multiple user and multiple flight facility intended to provide a long duration lowtemperature environment onboard the International Space Station.

A review of the literature on lowtemperature sensitization (LTS) has been conducted to determine if LTS-related microstructural changes can occur in Type 304L stainless steel within the times and temperatures associated with nuclear waste storage. It was found that Type 304L stainless steel is susceptible to sensitization and LTS, and that cold work plays an important role in determining the rate of LTS. Severely cold worked Type 304L stainless steel would clearly develop LTS-related microstructural changes within the times and temperatures associated with nuclear waste storage. These changes could lead to increased susceptibility to corrosion. Significant improvements in the long-term resistance to sensitization, LTS and corrosion can be achieved by modest changes in alloy composition and fabrication practices. Therefore, Type 304L would not be the preferred alloy of construction for nuclear waste storage canisters. The final qualification of an alternate canister alloy should involve corrosion experiments on actual canisters. Suggestions for alternate canister alloys are 316L, 316LN, 316ELC, 347, and XM-19. 47 references, 4 figures.

The accurate determination of the temperature of an experiment at lowtemperatures in high magnetic fields is difficult. We present the results of measurements made using a number of new techniques developed over the last few years. In particular we discuss the results of measurements made using a unique capacitor made with Kapton and copper in a cylindrical geometry.1 This capacitance thermometer, dubbed the ``Kapacitor'', is different from other lowtemperature thermometers in that the minimum in capacitance vs. temperature can be moved to lower temperatures (to below 20 mK) by changing the construction technique. In addition, we discuss measurements on Coulomb blockade thermometers (CBT's) that offer the possibility of true primary thermomemtry at lowtemperatures without any magnetic field dependence. Both of these new techniques will be compared to the standard technique of resistance thermometry using RuO chip resistors. The crucial issues of accuracy and precision, usefulness for control, and noise sensitivity will be discussed for each of these technologies. In addition, recent measurements on the magnetic behavior of RuO thermometers at lowtemperatures and its relationship to anomalous low field peaks in the resistance that develop at temperatures below 50 mK are also presented.

The accurate determination of the temperature of an experiment at lowtemperatures in high magnetic fields is difficult. We present the results of measurements made using a number of new techniques developed over the last few years. In particular we discuss the results of measurements made using a unique capacitor made with Kapton and copper in a cylindrical geometry.1 This capacitance thermometer, dubbed the "Kapacitor", is different from other lowtemperature thermometers in that the minimum in capacitance vs. temperature can be moved to lower temperatures (to below 20 mK) by changing the construction technique. In addition, we discuss measurements on Coulomb blockade thermometers (CBT's) that offer the possibility of true primary thermomemtry at lowtemperatures without any magnetic field dependence. Both of these new techniques will be compared to the standard technique of resistance thermometry using RuO chip resistors. The crucial issues of accuracy and precision, usefulness for control, and noise sensitivity will be discussed for each of these technologies. In addition, recent measurements on the magnetic behavior of RuO thermometers at lowtemperatures and its relationship to anomalous low field peaks in the resistance that develop at temperatures below 50 mK are also presented.

This project has three main goals: Thin Films Studies, Preparation of Graded Porous Substrates and Basic Electrical Characterization and Testing of Planar Single Cells. During this time period substantial progress has been made in developing lowtemperature deposition techniques to produce dense, nanocrystalline yttrium-stabilized zirconia films on both dense oxide and polymer substrates. Progress has been made in the preparation and characterization of thin electrolytes and porous LSM substrates. Both of these tasks are essentially on or ahead of schedule. In our proposal, we suggested that the ZrO{sub 2}/Sc system needed to be considered as a candidate as a thin electrolyte. This was because microcrystalline ZrO{sub 2}/Sc has a significantly higher ionic conductivity than YSZ, particularly at the lower temperatures. As a result, some 0.5 micron thick film of ZrO{sub 2}/16% Sc on an alumina substrate (grain size 20nm) was prepared and the electrical conductivity measured as a function of temperature and oxygen activity. The Sc doped ZrO{sub 2} certainly has a higher conductivity that either 20nm or 2400nm YSZ, however, electronic conductivity dominates the conductivity for oxygen activities below 10{sup -15}. Whereas for YSZ, electronic conductivity is not a problem until the oxygen activity decreases below 10{sup -25}. These initial results show that the ionic conductivity of 20nm YSZ and 20nm ZrO{sub 2}/16% Sc are essentially the same and the enhanced conductivity which is observed for Sc doping in microcrystalline specimens is not observed for the same composition when it is nanocrystalline. In addition they show that the electronic conductivity of Sc doped ZrO{sub 2} is at least two orders of magnitude higher than that observed for YSZ. The conclusion one reaches is that for 0.5 to 1 micron thick nanocrystalline films, Sc doping of ZrO{sub 2} has no benefits compared to YSZ. As a result, electrolyte films of ZrO{sub 2}/Sc should not be considered as candidates

A suspension device for use with a lowtemperature refrigeration system, such as an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator is provided. A support ring is provided with three spring-loaded tension assemblies equally spaced about the periphery of the support ring. The tension assemblies each have a pulley, about which is entrained a band of material. Connected to this band is a ring that laterally supports a cylindrical salt pill. Undesired variations in the amount of slack in the band as the salt pill cools are compensated for by the spring loading of the tension assemblies.

We demonstrate both theoretically and experimentally that the microwave-shielding effectiveness of a double-layer metallic mesh with a submillimeter period can be improved by increasing the separation between the two mesh layers (without affecting transmittance). This double-layer mesh consists of two layers of square aluminum mesh separated by a quartz-glass substrate. By increasing the substrate's optical thickness from zero to λ/4 of the shielding band's upper frequency, the shielding of the double-layer mesh improves considerably, owing to the increased reflectivity of the double-layer mesh with increasing separation in the low-frequency band. A Ku-band shielding effectiveness of over 32 dB is observed for the double-layer mesh with a normalized visible transmittance greater than 91%. It is found that the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness is enhanced by over 7 dB (80.0% energy attenuation) across the Ku-band, compared with that of a single-layer mesh, while the optical transmittances are almost identical for both tested structures. Such an enhancement permits the design of high-transparency optical elements with stronger microwave shielding that can be achieved using single-layer metallic mesh.

The structure and properties of the electrical doublelayer in ionic liquids is of interest in a wide range of areas including energy storage, catalysis, lubrication, and many more. Theories describing the electrical doublelayer for ionic liquids have been proposed, however a full molecular level description of the doublelayer is lacking. To date, studies have been predominantly focused on ion distributions normal to the surface, however the 3D nature of the electrical doublelayer in ionic liquids requires a full picture of the doublelayer structure not only normal to the surface, but also in plane. Here we utilize 3D force mapping to probe the in plane structure of an ionic liquid at a graphite interface and report the direct observation of the structure and properties of topological defects. The observation of ion layering at structural defects such as step-edges, reinforced by molecular dynamics simulations, defines the spatial resolution of the method. Observation of defects allows for the establishment of the universality of ionic liquid behavior vs. separation from the carbon surface and to map internal defect structure. In conclusion, these studies offer a universal pathway for probing the internal structure of topological defects in soft condensed matter on the nanometer level in three dimensions.

The structure and properties of the electrical doublelayer in ionic liquids is of interest in a wide range of areas including energy storage, catalysis, lubrication, and many more. Theories describing the electrical doublelayer for ionic liquids have been proposed, however a full molecular level description of the doublelayer is lacking. To date, studies have been predominantly focused on ion distributions normal to the surface, however the 3D nature of the electrical doublelayer in ionic liquids requires a full picture of the doublelayer structure not only normal to the surface, but also in plane. Here wemore » utilize 3D force mapping to probe the in plane structure of an ionic liquid at a graphite interface and report the direct observation of the structure and properties of topological defects. The observation of ion layering at structural defects such as step-edges, reinforced by molecular dynamics simulations, defines the spatial resolution of the method. Observation of defects allows for the establishment of the universality of ionic liquid behavior vs. separation from the carbon surface and to map internal defect structure. In conclusion, these studies offer a universal pathway for probing the internal structure of topological defects in soft condensed matter on the nanometer level in three dimensions.« less

In this article, the wrinkling behavior and thickness distribution of 5A06 aluminum alloy sheets in an annealed state with thickness of 1.0 mm and 2.5 mm was numerically and experimentally investigated under different hydraulic pressures in the hydroforming of single-layer and double-layer sheets. Note that, in double-layer sheets hydroforming, an upper-aided sheet is needed. The upper, thicker sheet synchronously deforms with the lower, thinner sheet during hydroforming. When the double-layer sheets are separated, a thinner curved sheet part will be manufactured. As can be seen from the simulation and experimental results, the upper, thicker sheet could effectively suppress the wrinkles of the lower, thinner sheet and improve the thickness distribution due to the increasing anti-wrinkle ability of the formed sheet and the interfacial friction between the double-layer sheets. In addition, the maximum hydraulic pressure can be decreased via hydroforming of double-layer sheets; this approach reduces the drawing force for large sheet parts and meets the requirement of energy conservation.

The strength and stability of simulated doublelayers at the ionosphere-auroral cavity boundary have been studied as a function of cold ionospheric electron temperature and density. The simulations are performed with an open boundary one-dimensional particle-in- cell (PIC) simulation and are initialized by imposing a density cavity within the simulation domain. The PIC simulation includes H{sup +} and O{sup +} ion beams, a hot H{sup +} background population, cold ionospheric electrons, and a hot electron population. It is shown that a doublelayer remains quasistable for a variety of initial conditions and plasma parameters. The average potential drop of the doublelayer is found to increase as the cold electron temperature decreases. However, in terms of cold electron density, the average potential drop of the doublelayer is found to increase up to some critical cold electron density and decreases above this value. Comparisons with FAST observations are made and agreement is found between simulation results and observations in the shape and width of the doublelayer. This study helps put a constraint on the plasma conditions in which a DL can be expected to form and remain quasistable.

A lateral dislocation in a double-layer microsphere film is very difficult to identify because the constituent domains have the same two-dimensional crystalline orientation. Orientation-sensitive optical techniques cannot resolve this issue. Here, we demonstrate that partial dark-field (pDF) optical microscopy can be very effective in identifying this type of domain boundary and dislocation of a close-packed microsphere double-layer. Using the hexagonal symmetry of the close-packed microsphere film and the light-focusing property of microspheres, the partially blocked dark-field condenser can provide much higher contrast than other optical microscopy modes can in identifying the laterally dislocated domains. The former can also distinguish domains with different crystalline orientation by rotating the pDF stop. The simplicity of the pDF mode will make it an ideal tool for the structural study of close-packed double-layer microsphere films. PMID:25959375

Finite amplitude non-linear ion-acoustic solitary waves and doublelayers are studied in a magnetized plasma with cold ions fluid and two distinct groups of Boltzmann electrons, using the Sagdeev pseudo-potential technique. The conditions under which the solitary waves and doublelayers can exist are found both analytically and numerically. We have shown the existence of negative potential solitary waves and doublelayers for subsonic Mach numbers, whereas in the unmagnetized plasma they can only in the supersonic Mach number regime. For the plasma parameters in the auroral region, the electric field amplitude of the solitary structures comes out to be 49 mV/m which is in agreement of the Viking observations in this region.

Measurements of an inductive RF helicon argon plasma doublelayer with two temperature electron distributions including a fast (>80 eV) tail are observed at 0.17 mTorr Ar pressure. The fast, untrapped electrons observed downstream of the doublelayer have a higher temperature (13 eV) than the trapped (T{sub e} = 4 eV) electrons. The reduction of plasma potential and density observed in the doublelayer region would require an upstream temperature ten times the measured 4 eV if occurring via Boltzmann ambipolar expansion. The experimental observation in Madison helicon experiment indicates that fast electrons with substantial density fractions can be created at low helicon operating pressures.

This study compared two Type III ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) mouthguards for wearability, comfort, fit, and patient preference. Twenty-two athletes each received two custom-fabricated athletic mouthguards, a single-layered vacuum-formed EVA mouthguard and a double-layered heat- and pressure-laminated EVA type. Athletes wore each type of mouthguard for a two-week period while playing basketball. At the end of each two-week period, the athletes completed questionnaires that evaluated 17 characteristics of each mouthguard type. Data were analyzed using the binomial test for small numbers. The double-layered heat- and pressure-laminated EVA mouthguard performed as well as or better than the single-layered vacuum-formed type in 14 of the 17 categories. There was a statistically significant patient preference for the double-layered heat- and pressure-laminated mouthguard. PMID:16158793

At present a lot of efforts are made to use double-layer power cylinders in hydraulic props of powered supports. To study the response of these cylinders to loads a special finite-element model has been developed and used for investigations into tension effect and double-layer cylinder thickness – radial strain relation under pressure of hydraulic liquid 50 МPа. It has been revealed that double-layer cylinders are distinguished by much lower radial strains in the zone of cup-like sealing elements as if compared with one-layer cylinders, as well as equivalent stresses are lower, and safety factor is higher. The data of the study can be recommended to calculate appropriate geometrical parameters of hydraulic props with respect to lower radial strains of a hydraulic cylinder, which improve its leak-tightness and functioning of cup-like sealing elements. The obtained results can be useful for design and construction of powered supports.

The nonlinear development and collapse (breaking) of doublelayers in the long scale length limit is well described by equations for the cold ion fluid with quasineutrality. It is shown that electron dynamics is responsible for giving an 'equation of state' with negative ratio of specific heats to this fluid. Introducing a transformation for the density variable, the governing equation for the transformed quantity in terms of Lagrange variables turns out exactly to be a linear partial differential equation. This equation has been analyzed in various limits of interest. Nonlinear development of doublelayers with a sinusoidal initial disturbance and collapse of doublelayers with an initial perturbation in the form of a density void are analytically investigated.

The Dion–Jacobson double-layered perovskite, RbNdNb{sub 2}O{sub 7}, is used as a precursor to synthesize the series ANdNb{sub 2}O{sub 7} (A=H, Li, Na, K, NH{sub 4}, Ag), and (MCl)NdNb{sub 2}O{sub 7} (M=Mn, Fe, Cu) through ion-exchange reactions ≤400 °C. Thermal stability studies indicated that most of these compounds are metastable. A combination of X-ray powder diffraction and differential thermal analysis were used to determine various lowtemperature decomposition pathways; these pathways were very dependent on the interlayer species. Overall the ANdNb{sub 2}O{sub 7} series was found to be less stable than the corresponding lanthanides, ALaNb{sub 2}O{sub 7}. - Graphical abstract: A new series of topochemically-prepared metastable neodymium-containing layered perovskites are studied. - Highlights: • A series of new layered neodymium containing perovskites were synthesized by ion exchange. • Products were studied by variable temperature X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis. • Most of the series are metastable showing exothermic transitions on decomposition. • The Nd compounds are less stable due to the smaller size of the Nd relative to La.

Huge numbers of doublelayers carrying electric fields parallel to the local magnetic field line have been observed on the Van Allen probes in connection with in situ relativistic electron acceleration in the Earth's outer radiation belt. For one case with adequate high time resolution data, 7000 doublelayers were observed in an interval of 1 min to produce a 230,000 V net parallel potential drop crossing the spacecraft. Lower resolution data show that this event lasted for 6 min and that more than 1,000,000 volts of net parallel potential crossed the spacecraft during this time. A doublelayer traverses the length of a magnetic field line in about 15 s and the orbital motion of the spacecraft perpendicular to the magnetic field was about 700 km during this 6 min interval. Thus, the instantaneous parallel potential along a single magnetic field line was the order of tens of kilovolts. Electrons on the field line might experience many such potential steps in their lifetimes to accelerate them to energies where they serve as the seed population for relativistic acceleration by coherent, large amplitude whistler mode waves. Because the double-layer speed of 3100 km/s is the order of the electron acoustic speed (and not the ion acoustic speed) of a 25 eV plasma, the doublelayers may result from a new electron acoustic mode. Acceleration mechanisms involving doublelayers may also be important in planetary radiation belts such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, in the solar corona during flares, and in astrophysical objects. PMID:24476280

Huge numbers of doublelayers carrying electric fields parallel to the local magnetic field line have been observed on the Van Allen probes in connection with in situ relativistic electron acceleration in the Earth’s outer radiation belt. For one case with adequate high time resolution data, 7000 doublelayers were observed in an interval of 1 min to produce a 230 000 V net parallel potential drop crossing the spacecraft. Lower resolution data show that this event lasted for 6 min and that more than 1 000 000 volts of net parallel potential crossed the spacecraft during this time. A doublelayer traverses the length of a magnetic field line in about 15 s and the orbital motion of the spacecraft perpendicular to the magnetic field was about 700 km during this 6 min interval. Thus, the instantaneous parallel potential along a single magnetic field line was the order of tens of kilovolts. Electrons on the field line might experience many such potential steps in their lifetimes to accelerate them to energies where they serve as the seed population for relativistic acceleration by coherent, large amplitude whistler mode waves. Because the double-layer speed of 3100km/s is the order of the electron acoustic speed (and not the ion acoustic speed) of a 25 eV plasma, the doublelayers may result from a new electron acoustic mode. Acceleration mechanisms involving doublelayers may also be important in planetary radiation belts such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, in the solar corona during flares, and in astrophysical objects.

This project has three main goals: Thin Films Studies, Preparation of Graded Porous Substrates and Basic Electrical Characterization and testing of Planar Single Cells. During this time period substantial progress has been made in developing lowtemperature deposition techniques to produce dense, nanocrystalline yttrium-stabilized zirconia films on both dense oxide and polymer substrates. Microstructural changes in unsupported nanocrystalline yttrium stabilized zirconia (ZrO{sub 2}:16%Y, or YSZ) thin films were examined as a function of temperature and annealing time in order to determine the grain growth exponent and the mechanisms of pinhole formation. Grain growth and pinhole formation were measured using high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), normal imaging mode transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron diffraction, and energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDS). Grain growth was found to vary with a time exponent of about one half before pinhole formation and about one third after. Pinhole formation in 70 nm thick films occurred at temperatures near 600 C, corresponding to a grain size of about 15 nm, or a grain size to film thickness ration of approximately 0.25. The deposition of films on porous substrates is hampered by the penetration of the polymer precursor solution into the substrate whose pores as > 0.2 {micro}m, therefore much attention has to be paid to the development of porous colloidal oxide films onto surfaces. Thus during this line period we have been studying these films. Optical properties have proven to be an excellent way to study the quality of these nanoporous films. The influence of porosity and densification on optical properties of films on sapphire substrates that were prepared from water colloidal suspensions of small ({approx}5nm) particles of ceria was investigated. The colloidal ceria films have initially very porous structure (porosity about 50%) and densification starts at about 600 C accompanied by

Spatial ion energy measurements using a retarding field energy analyzer are performed in the exhaust of a 0.30mTorr, 250W helicon doublelayer plasma to investigate the divergence of the argon ion beam formed by acceleration in the doublelayer. Various divergence angles are computed by considering the radial distribution of beam density; the average beam ion diverging by 9°. The efficiency at which momentum is imparted parallel to the longitudinal axis of the thruster is calculated to be 98%. The results show that a few centimeters downstream of the source, the beam ions do not follow the magnetic field lines.

Spatial ion energy measurements using a retarding field energy analyzer are performed in the exhaust of a 0.30 mTorr, 250 W helicon doublelayer plasma to investigate the divergence of the argon ion beam formed by acceleration in the doublelayer. Various divergence angles are computed by considering the radial distribution of beam density; the average beam ion diverging by 9 deg. The efficiency at which momentum is imparted parallel to the longitudinal axis of the thruster is calculated to be 98%. The results show that a few centimeters downstream of the source, the beam ions do not follow the magnetic field lines.

Ion energy distribution functions downstream of the source exit in magnetically expanding low-pressure plasmas are experimentally investigated for four source tube diameters ranging from about 5 to 15 cm. The magnetic-field threshold corresponding to a transition from a simple expanding plasma to a doublelayer-containing plasma is observed to increase with a decrease in the source tube diameter. The results demonstrate that for the four geometries, the doublelayer and the accelerated ion beam form when the ion Larmour radius in the source becomes smaller than the source tube radius, i.e., when the ions become magnetized in the source tube.

A double-layered target system and an identification method (target ID) for individual targets mounted on a rotating wheel using correlation with evaporation residues were newly developed for the study of superheavy elements (SHE). The target system can be used in three modes: conventional single-layered mode, double-layered mode, and energy-degrader mode. The target ID method can be utilized for masking a target, measuring an excitation function without changing the beam energy from the accelerator, and searching for SHE nuclides using multiple targets during a single irradiation.

Large amplitude electrostatic structures associated with low-frequency dust kinetic Alfvenic waves are investigated under the pressure (temperature) gradient indicative of dust dynamics. The set of equations governing the dust dynamics, Boltzmann electrons, ions and Maxwell's equation have been reduced to a single equation known as the Sagdeev potential equation. Parameter ranges for the existence of arbitrary amplitude doublelayers are observed. Exact analytical expressions for the energy integral is obtained and computed numerically through which sub-Alfvenic arbitrary amplitude rarefactive doublelayers are found to exist.

A pseudopotential approach is used to investigate large amplitude dust-acoustic solitary structures for a plasma composed of positively charged dust, cold electrons, and nonthermal hot electrons. Numerical investigation for an adiabatic situation is conducted to examine the existence region of the wave. The negative potential of the doublelayers is found to be dependent on nonthermal parameters, Mach number, and electrons temperature. A range of the nonthermal parameters values exists for which two possible doublelayers for the same plasma mix at different Mach numbers and with significant different amplitudes. The present model is used to investigate localized structures in the lower-altitude Earth's ionosphere.

Doublelayer thin films were prepared using two kinds of cadmium chalcogenides by vacuum evaporation. The doublelayer films showed different photoelectrochemical properties from those of single layer electrodes. Onset potentials of CdSe/CdS and CdTe/CdSe electrodes shifted negatively from those of CdSe and CdTe single layer electrodes. The CdSe/CdTe electrode functioned under irradiation of longer wavelengths than the CdSe electrode did, and it was more stable than the N-CdTe electrode was.

In the present work we investigate the existence of obliquely propagating ion-acoustic doublelayers in magnetized two-electron plasmas. The fluid model is used to describe the ion dynamics, and the hot electron population is modeled via a κ distribution function, which has been proved to be appropriate for modeling non-Maxwellian plasmas. A quasineutral condition is assumed to investigate these nonlinear structures, which leads to the formation of double-layers propagating with slow ion-acoustic velocity. The problem is investigated numerically, and the influence of parameters such as nonthermality is discussed.

Despite the added cost and complexity of operating at sub-Kelvin temperatures, there are many measurement applications where the sensitivity and precision provided by lowtemperature detectors greatly outweigh any disadvantages. As a result, lowtemperature detectors are now finding wide application for measurements ranging from cosmology to homeland defense. In this tutorial I will introduce the basic operating principles and fundamental performance limits of several types of lowtemperature detectors.

Current driven electrostatic-wave- and electromagnetic-wave-produced resistivities do not occur in extragalactic jets for estimated values of the carried currents. Strong plasma doublelayers, however, may exist within self-maintained density cavities. The relativistic double-layer-emitted electron and ion beams drive plasma-wave resistivities in the low- and high-potential plasma adjacent to the doublelayers. The double-layer-emitted electron beams may also emit polarized radio waves via a collective bremsstrahlung process mediated by electrostatic two-stream instabilities.

For estimated values of the currents carried by extragalactic jets, current-driven electrostatic-wave- and electromagnetic-wave-produced resistivities do not occur. Strong plasma doublelayers, however, may exist within self-maintained density cavities, the relativistic double-layer-emitted electron, and ion beams driving plasma-wave resistivities in the low- and high-potential plasma adjacent to the doublelayers. The double-layer-emitted electron beams may also emit polarized radio waves via a collective bremsstrahlung process mediated by electrostatic two-stream instabilities.

It was experimentally proved that the action of a static transverse magnetic field (TMF) on a cylindrical positive column (PC) can change its internal structure. As a result, a succession of luminous structures known as standing striations are observed. The excitation of striations in a PC (frequently in molecular gases) is usually explained taking into account the periodic changes in ionised rate. It is known that the ionization rate is a strong function of the electron temperature (more precisely, kinetic energy). Thus, the standing striations being the spatial periodic change in the ionization rate, are affected by electron velocity. It can easily observed that in a striated PC there is a periodic change in light intensity. This means that beside ionization processes there is also a periodic change in excitation processes. It was showed that standing striations are, in fact spatial sequences of space charge structures known as doublelayers (Dls). In the last time it was proved that there is a direct connection between the excitation processes and the ordered spatial arrangement of the electric charges inside the DLs. The aim of this paper is to emphasize that the appearance of standing striations can be adequately described by the model of DL generation in a collisional plasma, that takes into account the electron-neutral excitation processes.

Lithium—manganese dioxide cells have not only excellent specific energy and shelf life characteristics, but they are also capable of very promising performance at temperatures as low as -40 °C (-40 °F). The polarization and discharge curves of cylindrical and button cells at -40 °C are compared in an effort to evaluate the useful lowtemperature operation range. The cathode design, and type of MnO 2 strongly affect the lowtemperature behaviour. Although the excellent lowtemperature performance of the Li/SO 2 system can probably never be equalled, due to some diffusion shortcomings inherent in the Li/MnO 2 cells, for low and moderate current drains covering many meteorological, military, and consumer applications, Li/MnO 2 batteries are very competitive in terms of simple technology, increased safety, and price, offering satisfactory operation within the range -40 to +71 °C (-40 °F to +160 °F).

A variational method for the solution to the hypernetted chain/mean spherical approximation equations applied to the electrical doublelayer is presented and demonstrated with calculations in the restricted primitive model for electrolytes near a charged planar surface. This variational method is also compared with the modified Gouy-Chapman theory. 20 refs., 7 figs.

The acoustic solitons and doublelayers are studied in unmagnetized quantum electron-positron plasmas in the presence of stationary ions. The quantum hydrodynamic model is employed and reductive perturbation method is used to derive the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) and extended KdV equations for solitons and doublelayers, respectively. It is found that in the linear limit both slow acoustic and fast Langmuir waves can propagate in such type of quantum plasmas like in classical pair-ion or pair plasmas. The amplitude and width of the electrostatic solitons are found to be decreasing with the increase in concentration of positrons (or decrease in the concentration of ions) in degenerate electron-positron-ion plasmas. It is found that only rarefactive doublelayer can exist in such plasmas which depend on various parameters. The dependence of doublelayer structure on ion concentration and quantum diffraction effects of electrons and positrons are also discussed. The results are also elaborated graphically by considering dense plasma parameters in the outer layers of astrophysical objects such as white dwarfs and neutron stars.

Large nonlinear acoustic waves are discussed in a plasma made up of cold supersonic and adiabatic subsonic positive ions, in the presence of hot isothermal electrons, with the help of Sagdeev pseudopotential theory. In this model, no solitons are found at the acoustic speed, and no compositional parameter ranges exist where solutions of opposite polarities can coexist. All nonlinear modes are thus super-acoustic, but polarity changes are possible. The upper limits on admissible structure velocities come from different physical arguments, in a strict order when the fractional cool ion density is increased: infinite cold ion compression, warm ion sonic point, positive doublelayers, negative doublelayers, and finally, positive doublelayers again. However, not all ranges exist for all mass and temperature ratios. Whereas the cold and warm ion sonic point limitations are always present over a wide range of mass and temperature ratios, and thus positive polarity solutions can easily be obtained, doublelayers have a more restricted existence range, specially if polarity changes are sought.

This study was aimed at introducing the laser induced thermal-crack propagation (LITP) technology to solve the silicon-glass doublelayer wafer dicing problems in the packaging procedure of silicon-glass device packaged by WLCSP technology, investigating the feasibility of this idea, and studying the crack propagation process of LITP cutting doublelayer wafer. In this paper, the physical process of the 1064 nm laser beam interact with the doublelayer wafer during the cutting process was studied theoretically. A mathematical model consists the volumetric heating source and the surface heating source has been established. The temperature and stress distribution was simulated by using finite element method (FEM) analysis software ABAQUS. The extended finite element method (XFEM) was added to the simulation as the supplementary features to simulate the crack propagation process and the crack propagation profile. The silicon-glass doublelayer wafer cutting verification experiment under typical parameters was conducted by using the 1064 nm semiconductor laser. The crack propagation profile on the fracture surface was examined by optical microscope and explained from the stress distribution and XFEM status. It was concluded that the quality of the finished fracture surface has been greatly improved, and the experiment results were well supported by the numerical simulation results.

The propagation of arbitrary amplitude electron-acoustic solitons and doublelayers is investigated in a plasma containing cold positive ions, cool adiabatic and hot isothermal electrons, with the retention of full inertial effects for all species. For analytical tractability, the resulting Sagdeev pseudopotential is expressed in terms of the hot electron density, rather than the electrostatic potential. The existence domains for Mach numbers and hot electron densities clearly show that both rarefactive and compressive solitons can exist. Soliton limitations come from the cool electron sonic point, followed by the hot electron sonic point, until a range of rarefactive doublelayers occurs. Increasing the relative cool electron density further yields a switch to compressive doublelayers, which ends when the model assumptions break down. These qualitative results are but little influenced by variations in compositional parameters. A comparison with a Boltzmann distribution for the hot electrons shows that only the cool electron sonic point limit remains, giving higher maximum Mach numbers but similar densities, and a restricted range in relative hot electron density before the model assumptions are exceeded. The Boltzmann distribution can reproduce neither the doublelayer solutions nor the switch in rarefactive/compressive character or negative/positive polarity.

The auroral field lines represent an important channel through which the ionosphere and the magnetosphere exchange mass, momentum, and energy. When the cold, dense ionospheric plasma interacts with sufficiently warm magnetospheric plasma along the field lines (with upward currents), doublelayers form with large parallel potential drops. The potential drops accelerate ionospheric ions, which in turn cause ion-beam-driven instabilities. The resulting wave-particle interactions (WPI) further heat the plasma, and hence, influence the behavior of the doublelayer. Understanding the coupling between these microscale and macroscale processes is crucial in quantifying the ionosphere-magnetosphere (I-M) coupling. Previous theoretical studies addressed the different facets of the problem separately. We developed a particle-in-cell (PIC) model that simulate the behavior of the doublelayer along auroral field lines, with special emphasis on the effect of the current along filed lines. Moreover, our model includes the effects of ionospheric collision processes, gravity, magnetic mirror force, electrostatic fields, as well as wave instabilities, propagation, and wave-particle interactions. The resulting self-consistent electrodynamics of the plasma in an auroral flux tube with an upward current is presented with emphasis on the formation and evolution of the doublelayer. In particular, we address questions such as: (1) what is the I-V relationship along the auroral field line, and (2) how the potential drop is distributed along the filed lines. These, and other results, are presented.

The auroral field lines represent an important channel through which the ionosphere and the magnetosphere exchange mass, momentum, and energy. When the cold, dense ionospheric plasma interacts with sufficiently warm magnetospheric plasma along the field lines (with upward currents), doublelayers form with large parallel potential drops. The potential drops accelerate ionospheric ions, which in turn cause ion-beam-driven instabilities. The resulting wave-particle interactions (WPI) further heat the plasma, and hence, influence the behavior of the doublelayer. Understanding the coupling between these microscale and macroscale processes is crucial in quantifying the ionosphere-magnetosphere (I-M) coupling. Previous theoretical studies addressed the different facets of the problem separately. They predicted, in agreement with observations, the formation of the doublelayer, ion beams, and ion heating due to WPI. We developed a comprehensive model for this problem that is based on a macroscopic PIC approach. Our model properly accounts for the transport phenomena, as well as the small-scale waves. For example, it includes the effects of ionospheric collision processes, gravity, magnetic mirror force, electrostatic fields, as well as wave instabilities, propagation, and wave-particle interactions. The resulting self-consistent electrodynamics of the plasma in an auroral flux tube with an upward current is presented with emphasis on the formation and evolution of the doublelayer.

The microwave absorption properties of BaCo0.4Zn1.6Fe16O27 ferrite and carbonyl iron powder with single-layer and double-layer composite absorbers were investigated based on the electromagnetic transmission line theory in the frequency range from 1 to 14 GHz. XRD was used to characterize the structure of prepared absorbing particles. SEM was used to examine the micromorphology of the particles and composites. The complex permittivity and permeability of composites were measured by using a vector network analyzer. The reflection loss of the single-layer and double-layer absorbers with different thicknesses and orders was investigated. The results show that double-layer absorbers have better microwave absorption properties than single-layer absorbers. The microwave absorption properties of the double-layer structure are influenced by the coupling interactions between the matching and absorption layers. As the pure ferrite used as matching layer and the composite of BF-5CI used as absorption, the minimum RL of absorber can achieve to -55.4 dB and the bandwidth of RL

This paper describes the operation of FPGAs at very lowtemperatures eg -160(deg)C. Both Actel and Xilinx parts are tested It was found that lowtemperature operations is not a problem with the parts tested, but there is a problem with powering on an FPGA at cold temperatures.

Describes the use of silicon diodes for lowtemperature thermometry in the teaching laboratory. A simple and inexpensive circuit for display of the diode forward voltage under constant current conditions is described, and its application in the evaluation of low cost silicon diodes as lowtemperature thermometers is presented. (SK)

Spacecraft charging in plasma and radiation environments is a temperature dependent phenomenon due to the reduction of electrical conductivity in dielectric materials at lowtemperatures. Charging time constants are proportional to l/conductivity may become very large (on the order of days to years) at lowtemperatures and accumulation of charge densities in insulators in charging environments traditionally considered benign at ambient temperatures may be sufficient to produce charge densities and electric fields of concern in insulators at lowtemperatures. Lowtemperature charging is of interest because a number of spacecraft-primarily infrared astronomy and microwave cosmology observatories-are currently being design, built, and or operated at very cold temperatures on the order of 40K to 100K. This paper reviews the temperature dependence of spacecraft charging processes and material parameters important to charging as a function of temperature with an emphasis on lowtemperatures regimes.

Our prime objective of this paper is to examine the parametric regimes for the existence and polarity of dust acoustic doublelayers (DADLs) and its solitary structures arising from a magnetized self-gravitating opposite polarity dust-plasma (OPDP) model. The constituents of the OPDP model are two species of positively and negatively charged dust grains, Maxwellian electrons and kappa distributed ions. Contributions of gravitational force only on dust grains are taken into account. For weakly nonlinear analysis, the multiple time scale technique has been used to construct the extended Korteweg-de Vries (E-KdV) and modified Korteweg-de Vries (M-KdV) equations. They pinpoint the evolution of DADLs and solitary structures associated with dust acoustic (DA) mode, respectively. The relevant configurational parameters in our study include the superthermality of ions (κ), obliqueness of propagation (θ), ion concentration (δi), static magnetic field B0 (via ω c p , ω c n ), and self-gravitational field (via γ), as well as the density (μ0), charge (α), and mass (β) ratio of positive to negative dust species. The proposed OPDP model permits positive and negative doublelayer polarities, while higher order nonlinear equation dictates us only positive polarity solitary structures. The main modification due to an increase in self-gravitational field (via γ) is an enhancement in the spatial width of doublelayers, yet leaving their amplitude, phase speed, and polarity practically unaffected. With enhanced superthermality and other intrinsic parameters in OPDP model, there is an opposite trend in both amplitude and width of doublelayers, while the amplitude and the width of solitary waves (via M-KdV equation) undergo the identical behaviors. In particular, the amplitude of solitary waves manifests monotonic behavior for permissible range of obliqueness θ, whereas this scenario is acceptable to only width of doublelayers. The results are discussed in the context of

Ion acoustic solitons and doublelayers are studied in a collisionless plasma consisting of cold heavier ion species, a warm lighter ion species, and hot electrons having Boltzmann distributions by Sagdeev pseudo-potential technique. In contrast to the previous results, no doublelayers and super-solitons are found when both the heavy and lighter ion species are treated as cold. Only the positive potential solitons are found in this case. When the thermal effects of the lighter ion species are included, in addition to the usual ion-acoustic solitons occurring at M > 1 (where the Mach number, M, is defined as the ratio of the speed of the solitary wave and the ion-acoustic speed considering temperature of hot electrons and mass of the heavier ion species), slow ion-acoustic solitons/doublelayers are found to occur at low Mach number (M double layers are found whereas for increasing densities there is a transition first to positive solitons/doublelayers, and then only positive solitons. The model can be easily applicable to the dusty plasmas having positively charged dust grains by replacing the heavier ion species by the dust mass and doing a simple normalization to take account of the dust charge.

Many space and some terrestrial applications would benefit from the availability of low-temperature electronics. Exploration missions to the outer planets, Earth-orbiting and deep-space probes, and communications satellites are examples of space applications which operate in low-temperature environments. Space probes deployed near Pluto must operate in temperatures as low as -229 C. Figure 1 depicts the average temperature of a space probe warmed by the sun for various locations throughout the solar system. Terrestrial applications where components and systems must operate in low-temperature environments include cryogenic instrumentation, superconducting magnetic energy storage, magnetic levitation transportation system, and arctic exploration. The development of electrical power systems capable of extremely low-temperature operation represents a key element of some advanced space power systems. The Low-Temperature Power Electronics Program at NASA Lewis Research Center focuses on the design, fabrication, and characterization of low-temperature power systems and the development of supporting technologies for low-temperature operations such as dielectric and insulating materials, power components, optoelectronic components, and packaging and integration of devices, components, and systems.

It is now widely recognized that superthermal electrons commonly exist with the thermal population in most space plasmas. When plasmas consisting of such electron population expand, doublelayers (DLs) naturally forma due to charge separation; the more mobile superthermal electrons march ahead of the thermal population, leaving a positive charge behind and generating electric fields. Under certain conditions such fields evolve into thin doublelayers or shocks. The doublelayers accelerate ions. Such double-layer formation was first invoked to explain expansion of laser produced plasmas. Since then it has been studied in laboratory experiments, and applied to (i) polar wind acceleration,(ii) the existence of low-altitude doublelayers in the auroral acceleration, (iii) a possible mechanism for the origination of the solar wind, (iv) the helicon doublelayer thrusters, and (v) the deceleration of electrons after their acceleration in solar flare events. The role of superthermal-electron driven doublelayers, also known as the low-altitude auroral doublelayers in the upward current region, in the upward acceleration of ionospheric ions is well-known. In the auroral application the upward moving superthermal electrons consist of backscattered downgoing primary energetic electrons as well as the secondary electrons. Similarly we suggest that such doublelayers might play roles in the acceleration of ions in the solar wind across the coronal transition region, where the superthermal electrons are supplied by magnetic reconnection events. We will present a unified theoretical view of the superthermal electron-driven doublelayers and their applications. We will summarize theoretical, experimental, simulation and observational results highlighting the common threads running through the various existing studies.

In many future NASA missions, such as deep space planetary exploration and the Next Generation Space Telescope, electrical components and systems must operate reliably and efficiently in extremely lowtemperature environments. Most modern electronic components cannot operate below moderately low operating temperatures (-40 to -55 C). The low-temperature electronics program at the NASA Lewis Research Center is focusing on the development and characterization of low-temperature components and the integration of the developed devices into demonstrable very low-temperature (-200 C) power systems such as dc-dc converters. Such low-temperature electronics will not only tolerate hostile environments but also will reduce system size and weight by eliminating radioisotope heating units, thereby reducing launch cost, improving reliability and lifetime, and increasing energy densities. Low-temperature electronic components will also have a great influence on terrestrial applications such as medical instrumentation, magnetic levitation transportation systems, and arctic and antarctic exploration. Lewis researchers are now performing extensive evaluations of commercially available as well as custom-made devices. These include various types of energy storage and signal capacitors, power switching devices, magnetic and superconducting materials, and primary lithium batteries, to name a few.

A reduced circuit description of the U-shaped potential structure of a discrete auroral arc, consisting of the flank transmission line plus parallel-electric-field region, is used to provide the boundary condition for one-dimensional simulations of the double-layer evolution. The model yields asymptotic scalings of the double-layer potential, as a function of an anomalous transport coefficient alpha and of the perpendicular length scale l(a) of the arc. The arc potential phi(DL) scales approximately linearly with alpha, and for alpha fixed phi (DL) about l(a) to the z power. Using parameters appropriate to the auroral zone acceleration region, potentials of phi (DPL) 10 kV scale to projected ionospheric dimensions of about 1 km, with power flows of the order of magnitude of substorm dissipation rates.

A new model for calculating the radiation force on double-layer microsphere is proposed based on the ray acoustics approach. The axial acoustic radiation force resulting from a focused Gaussian beam incident on spherical shells immersed in water is examined theoretically in relation to its thickness and the contents of its double-layer. The attenuation both in the water and inside the sphere is considered in this method, which cannot be ignored while the high frequency ultrasonic is used. Results of numerical calculations are presented for fat and low density polyethylene materials, with the hollow region filled with animal oil, water, or air. These results show how the acoustic impedance and the sound velocity of both layers, together with the thickness of the shell, affect the acoustic radiation force.

Plasma created by an inductive RF discharge is allowed to expand along a diverging magnetic field. Measurement of the axial plasma potential profile reveals the formation of an electric doublelayer near the throat of the expansion chamber. An accelerated ion beam has been detected in the downstream region, confirming the presence of the doublelayer. The 2-D nature of the ion energy distribution function of the downstream plasma has been studied by a movable ion energy analyser, which shows that the beam radius increases along the axial distance. The 2-D structure of the plasma potential has been studied by a movable emissive probe. The existence of a secondary lobe in the contour plot of plasma equipotential is a new observation. It is also an interesting observation that the most diverging magnetic field line not intercepting the junction of the discharge tube and the expansion chamber has an electric field aligned with it.

The feasible application of double-layered skin phantoms was evaluated to identify artificial blood flow with a Doppler optical coherence tomography (DOCT) system for laser tattoo treatments. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was used to fabricate the artificial phantoms with flow channels embedded. A double-integrating sphere system with an inverse adding-doubling method quantified both the absorption and the reduced scattering coefficients for epidermis and dermis phantoms. Both OCT and caliper measurements confirmed the double-layered phantom structure (epidermis = 136 ± 17 µm vs. dermis = 3.0 ± 0.1 mm). The DOCT method demonstrated that high flow rates were associated with high image contrast, visualizing the position and the shape of the flow channel. Application of the channel-embedded skin phantoms in conjunction with DOCT can be a reliable technique to assess dynamic variations in the blood flow during and after laser tattoo treatments.

Bias-dependent structure of electrochemical doublelayers at liquid-solid interfaces underpin a multitude of phenomena in virtually all areas of scientific enquiry ranging from energy storage and conversion systems, biology, to geophysics and geochemistry. Here we report the bias-evolution of the electric doublelayer structure of an ionic liquid on highly ordered pyrolytic graphite as a model system for carbon-based electrodes for electrochemical supercapacitors measured by atomic force microscopy. Matching the observed structures to molecular dynamics simulations allows us to resolve steric effects due to cation and anion layers. We observe reconfiguration under applied bias and the orientational transitions in the Stern layer. The synergy between molecular dynamics simulation and experiment provides a comprehensive picture of structural phenomena and long- and short range interactions. This insight will improve understanding of the mechanism of charge storage in electrochemical capacitors on a molecular level which can be used to enhance their electrochemical performance.

Weakly nonlinear ion-acoustic (IA) double-layers (DLs), which accompany electronegative plasmas composed of positive ions, negative ions, and nonextensive electrons are investigated. A generalized Korteweg-de Vries equation with a cubic nonlinearity is derived using a reductive perturbation method. Different types of electronegative plasmas inspired from the experimental studies of Ichiki et al. (2001) are discussed. It is shown that the IA wave phase velocity, in different mixtures of negative and positive ions, decreases as the nonextensive parameter q increases, before levelling-off at a constant value for larger q. Moreover, a relative increase of Q involves an enhancement of the IA phase velocity. Existence domains of either solitary waves or double-layers are then presented and their parametric dependence is determined. Owing to the electron nonextensivity, our present plasma model can admit compressive as well as rarefactive IA-DLs.

The last decade has seen an intensified interest in the development and use of electrochemical double-layer capacitors, fuelled by the availability of new electrode materials. The use of nanoporous carbons, in particular, with extremely high surface areas for ion adsorption has enabled the development of working devices with significantly increased capacitances that have become viable alternatives to lithium-ion batteries in certain applications. An understanding of the charge storage mechanism and the ion dynamics inside the nanopores is only just emerging, with the most compelling evidence coming from simulation. Here we present the first in situ magnetic resonance imaging experiments of electrochemical double-layer capacitors. These experiments overcome the limitations of other techniques and give spatially resolved chemical information about the electrolyte ions in real time for a working capacitor of standard geometry. The results provide insight into the predominant capacitive processes occurring at different states of charge and discharge.

The antireflection Germanium carbide (Ge 1- xC x) coating, deposited using RF reactive sputtering, on both sides of ZnS substrate wafer has been developed. The infrared (IR) transmittance spectra show that the IR transmittance in the wavelength region between 8 and 12 μm for the designed system Ge 1- xC x/ZnS/Ge 1- xC x is greatly enhanced compared to that for ZnS substrate. In addition, the double-layer coated ZnS substrate is approximately four times as hard as uncoated ZnS substrate. This investigation indicates that a double-layer Ge 1- xC x coating can be used as an effective antireflection and protection coating on ZnS infrared window.

A new model for calculating the radiation force on double-layer microsphere is proposed based on the ray acoustics approach. The axial acoustic radiation force resulting from a focused Gaussian beam incident on spherical shells immersed in water is examined theoretically in relation to its thickness and the contents of its double-layer. The attenuation both in the water and inside the sphere is considered in this method, which cannot be ignored while the high frequency ultrasonic is used. Results of numerical calculations are presented for fat and low density polyethylene materials, with the hollow region filled with animal oil, water, or air. These results show how the acoustic impedance and the sound velocity of both layers, together with the thickness of the shell, affect the acoustic radiation force.

Surface double-layer structure different from the interior was found in BiFeO{sub 3} thin film grown on SrRuO{sub 3} covered SrTiO{sub 3} (110) substrate by pulsed laser deposition. It was shown that BiFeO{sub 3} film exhibits epitaxial phase with single domain. X-ray reflectivity and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results revealed a skin layer of less than 1 nm with a reduced electron density and different surface state. Grazing incidence x-ray diffraction convinced a surface multi-domain structure of several nm beneath the surface skin layer. The double-layer near surface structure would be originated from the large depolarization field produced by the single-domain structure with strain.

The axial profiles of plasma parameters for low and moderate pressures, such as the plasma potential, electron temperature, and number density, have been evaluated in magnetized inductively coupled plasma. The experimental results revealed in both cases the existence of a genuine current-free double-layer structure, separating two plasma regions with different properties. Based on the experimental results, a physical scenario for the self-assembling of the doublelayer is proposed. Also, the axial profile of the electron number density downstream is analyzed, emphasizing the role of neutral metastable ionization, and a simple analytical model is developed to fit the experimental data. The model allows the estimation of neutral metastable number density downstream and the recombination rate coefficient.

The wide range of wavelengths over which quasi-periodic pulsations have been observed suggests that the mechanism causing them acts upon the supply of high energy electrons driving the emission processes. A model is described which is based upon the radial shrinkage of a magnetic flux tube. The concentration of the current, along with the reduction in the number of available charge carriers, can rise to a condition where the current demand exceeds the capacity of the thermal electrons. Driven by the large inductance of the external current circuit, an instability takes place in the tube throat, resulting in the formation of a potential doublelayer, which then accelerates electrons and ions to MeV energies. The doublelayer can be unstable, collapsing and reforming repeatedly. The resulting pulsed particle beams give rise to pulsating emission which are observed at radio and X-ray wavelengths.

Using a primitive variable formulation of the finite-element method, the differences in the surface observables, such as topography and geoid, produced by single- and double-layered thermal convection, were compared. Both constant and depth-dependent viscosities have been considered. For the same Rayleigh number, larger surface perturbations are produced by single-cell convection. For the same Nusselt number, the magnitudes of the surface observables are greater for double-layered convection. For the same surface heat-flux, surface topographies have similar magnitudes, but the relative amplitudes of geoid anomalies depend greatly on the style of viscosity stratification. This difference in the geoid between the two systems increases with greater surface heat-flow, regardless of viscosity structure.

This study proposes a new piercing technology with rotating punch on the double-layer clad sheet; it carries out an FEM simulation on rotating piercing process using DEFORM-3D commercial software. Frictions among the punch, the blank holder, the dies and the double-layer clad sheet material are assumed as Coulomb friction, but can be different. The surface of the inner diameter, the effective stress, the effective strain, velocity field, damage, burr and the shearing force can be determined form the FEM simulation. In this study, effects of various piercing conditions such as the clearance, the punch nose angle, the frictional factor, the rotating angular velocity, the shearing force, and burr on shearing characteristics are explored effectively to realize the feasibility of FEM model.

The electrostatic potential profile and the particle densities of a simplified auroral doublelayer are found using a relaxation method to solve Poisson's equation in one dimension. The electron and ion distribution functions for the ionosphere and magnetosphere are specified at the boundaries, and the particle densities are found from a collisionless kinetic model. The ion distribution function includes the gravitational potential energy; hence, the unperturbed ionospheric plasma has a density gradient. The plasma potential at the upper boundary is given a large negative value to accelerate electrons downward. The solutions for a wide range of dimensionless parameters show that the doublelayer forms just above a critical altitude that occurs approximately where the ionospheric density has fallen to the magnetospheric density. Below this altitude, the ionospheric ions are gravitationally confined and have the expected scale height for quasineutral plasma in gravity.

In this paper, we compare two photoacoustic techniques to characterize the mechanical parameters of edge-supported aluminum and silicon nitride double-layer thin films. In a first set of experiments, a femtosecond transient pump-probe technique is used to investigate the Young's moduli of the aluminum and silicon nitride layers by launching ultra-high frequency bulk acoustic waves in the films. In a second set of experiments, dispersion curves of the A0 mode of the Lamb waves that propagate along the unsupported films are measured using a broadband photoacoustic guided-wave method. The residual stresses and flexural rigidities for the same set of double-layer membranes are determined from these dispersion curves. Comparisons of the results obtained by the two photoacoustic techniques are made.

Using spin-polarized single- and two-electron spectroscopy, we probe exchange and spin–orbit interaction in a doublelayer of Fe and Au on W(110) and measure the spin asymmetry of the Bloch spectral density function of the sample. In a 5 ML iron film, the spin-orbit contribution to the measured asymmetry of the (e,2e) spectra was not detectable, whereas a deposition of about 1 ML of gold introduced a substantial spin-orbit component in the measured asymmetry. At the same time, this doublelayer still exhibits ferromagnetic properties: (i) the spectral density function asymmetry demonstrate imbalance of spin-up and spin-down electron densities in the valence band and (ii) the Stoner excitation asymmetry has almost the same value as in a pure Fe film.

The MC4169 Double-Layer Capacitor Assembly was developed in response to a request from the B61 Systems organization to provide interim power for the B61 Common JTA Development. The project has been successfully completed, and Lot 1 has been built by MMSC/GEND. Development testing showed that this assembly met all design requirements. This report describes the design configuration, environmental testing, and aging, reliability, and safety studies done to ensure that the design requirements were met.

Most of the space and astrophysical plasmas contain different type of charged particles with non-Maxwellian velocity distributions (e.g., nonthermal, superthermal, Tsallis ). These distributions are commonly found in the auroral region of the Earth's magnetosphere, planetary magnetosphere, solar and stellar coronas, solar wind, etc. The observations from various satellite missions have confirmed the presence of superthermal particles in space and astrophysical environments. Over the last many years, there have been a much interest in studying the different kind of properties of the electrostatic nonlinear excitations (solitons, doublelayers, rogue waves etc.) in a multi-component plasmas in the presence of superthermal particles. It has been analyzed that superthermal distributions are more appropriate than Maxwellian distribution for the modeling of space data. It is interesting to study the dynamics of various kinds of solitary waves, Doublelayers, Shocks etc. in varieties of plasma systems containing different kind of species obeying Lorentzian (kappa-type)/Tsallis distribution. In this talk, I have focused on the study of large amplitude IA solitary structures (bipolar solitary structures, doublelayers etc.), modulational instability and rogue waves in multicomponent plasmas. The Sagdeev potential method has been employed to setup an energy balance equation, from which we have studied the characteristics of large amplitude solitary waves under the influence of superthermality of charged particles and other plasma parameters. The critical Mach number has been determined, above which solitary structures are observed and its variation with superthermality of electrons and other parameters has also been discussed. Doublelayers have also been discussed. Multiple scale reductive perturbation method has been employed to derive NLS equation. From the different kind of solutions of this equation, amplitude modulation of envelope solitons and rogue waves have been

We report the fabrication of single and double hole quantum dots using a double-layer-gate design on an undoped accumulation mode [Formula: see text]/GaAs heterostructure. Electrical transport measurements of a single quantum dot show varying addition energies and clear excited states. In addition, the two-level-gate architecture can also be configured into a double quantum dot with tunable inter-dot coupling. PMID:27389108

We evaluated the effectiveness of a double-layered polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-covered nitinol stent in the palliative treatment of malignant esophageal strictures. A double-layered PTFE-covered nitinol stent was designed to reduce the propensity to migration of conventional covered stent. The stent consists of an inner PTFE-covered stent and an outer uncovered nitinol stent tube. With fluoroscopic guidance, the stent was placed in 32 consecutive patients with malignant esophageal strictures. During the follow-up period, the technical and clinical success rates, complications, and cumulative patient survival and stent patency were evaluated. Stent placement was technically successful in all patients, and no procedural complications occurred. After stent placement, the symptoms of 30 patients (94%) showed improvement. During the mean follow-up of 103 days (range, 9-348 days), 11 (34%) of 32 patients developed recurrent symptoms due to tumor overgrowth in five patients (16%), tumor ingrowth owing to detachment of the covering material (PTFE) apart from the stent wire in 3 (9%), mucosal hyperplasia in 2 (6%), and stent migration in 1 (3%). Ten of these 11 patients were treated by means of placing a second covered stent. Thirty patients died, 29 as a result of disease progression and 1 from aspiration pneumonia. The median survival period was 92 days. The median period of primary stent patency was 190 days. The double-layered PTFE-covered nitinol stent seems to be effective for the palliative treatment of malignant esophageal strictures. We believe that the double-layer configuration of this stent can contribute to decreasing the stent's migration rate.

We report the fabrication of single and double hole quantum dots using a double-layer-gate design on an undoped accumulation mode {{Al}}x{{Ga}}1-x{As}/GaAs heterostructure. Electrical transport measurements of a single quantum dot show varying addition energies and clear excited states. In addition, the two-level-gate architecture can also be configured into a double quantum dot with tunable inter-dot coupling.

Key parameters that influence the specific energy of electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) are the double-layer capacitance and the operating potential of the cell. The operating potential of the cell is generally limited by the electrochemical window of the electrolyte solution, that is, the range of applied voltages within which the electrolyte or solvent is not reduced or oxidized. Ionic liquids are of interest as electrolytes for EDLCs because they offer relatively wide potential windows. Here, we provide a systematic study of the influence of the physical properties of ionic liquid electrolytes on the electrochemical stability and electrochemical performance (double-layer capacitance, specific energy) of EDLCs that employ a mesoporous carbon model electrode with uniform, highly interconnected mesopores (3DOm carbon). Several ionic liquids with structurally diverse anions (tetrafluoroborate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonimide) and cations (imidazolium, ammonium, pyridinium, piperidinium, and pyrrolidinium) were investigated. We show that the cation size has a significant effect on the electrolyte viscosity and conductivity, as well as the capacitance of EDLCs. Imidazolium- and pyridinium-based ionic liquids provide the highest cell capacitance, and ammonium-based ionic liquids offer potential windows much larger than imidazolium and pyridinium ionic liquids. Increasing the chain length of the alkyl substituents in 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonimide does not widen the potential window of the ionic liquid. We identified the ionic liquids that maximize the specific energies of EDLCs through the combined effects of their potential windows and the double-layer capacitance. The highest specific energies are obtained with ionic liquid electrolytes that possess moderate electrochemical stability, small ionic volumes, low viscosity, and hence high conductivity, the best performing ionic liquid tested being 1-ethyl-3

Recently a Poisson-Helmholtz-Boltzmann (PHB) model [Bohinc , Phys. Rev. EPLEEE81539-375510.1103/PhysRevE.85.031130 85, 031130 (2012)] was developed by accounting for solvent-mediated nonelectrostatic ion-ion interactions. Nonelectrostatic interactions are described by a Yukawa-like pair potential. In the present work, we modify the PHB model by adding steric effects (finite ion size) into the free energy to derive governing equations. The modified PHB model is capable of capturing both ion specificity and ion crowding. This modified model is then employed to study the capacitance of the doublelayer. More specifically, we focus on the influence of nonelectrostatic ion-ion interactions on charging a doublelayer near a flat surface in the presence of steric effects. We numerically compute the differential capacitance as a function of the voltage under various conditions. At small voltages and low salt concentrations (dilute solution), we find out that the predictions from the modified PHB model are the same as those from the classical Poisson-Boltzmann theory, indicating that nonelectrostatic ion-ion interactions and steric effects are negligible. At moderate voltages, nonelectrostatic ion-ion interactions play an important role in determining the differential capacitance. Generally speaking, nonelectrostatic interactions decrease the capacitance because of additional nonelectrostatic repulsion among excess counterions inside the doublelayer. However, increasing the voltage gradually favors steric effects, which induce a condensed layer with crowding of counterions near the electrode. Accordingly, the predictions from the modified PHB model collapse onto those computed by the modified Poisson-Boltzmann theory considering steric effects alone. Finally, theoretical predictions are compared and favorably agree with experimental data, in particular, in concentrated solutions, leading one to conclude that the modified PHB model adequately predicts the diffuse

A doublelayer of identical subwavelength metal patch arrays is experimentally shown to be electromagnetically chiral due to the evanescent coupling of the near fields between nonchiral layers—it exhibits “evanescent handedness.” Despite each layer being intrinsically isotropic in the plane with four mirror planes orthogonal to the plane of the structure, circular dichroism, leading to significant polarization rotation, is found in the resonant microwave transmission for any incident linear polarization.

It is shown that the existence of static, cylindrically symmetric wormholes does not require violation of the weak or null energy conditions near the throat, and cylindrically symmetric wormhole geometries can appear with less exotic sources than wormholes whose throats have a spherical topology. Examples of exact wormhole solutions are given with scalar, spinor and electromagnetic fields as sources, and these fields are not necessarily phantom. In particular, there are wormhole solutions for a massless, minimally coupled scalar field in the presence of a negative cosmological constant, and for an azimuthal Maxwell electromagnetic field. All these solutions are not asymptotically flat. A no-go theorem is proved, according to which a flat (or string) asymptotic behavior on both sides of a cylindrical wormhole throat is impossible if the energy density of matter is everywhere nonnegative.

The evolution and long-time stability of a doublelayer in a discrete auroral arc requires that the parallel current in the arc, which may be considered uniform at the source, be diverted within the arc to charge the flanks of the U-shaped double-layer potential structure. A simple model is presented in which this current re-distribution is effected by anomalous transport based on electrostatic lower hybrid waves driven by the flank structure itself. This process provides the limiting constraint on the double-layer potential. The flank charging may be represented as that of a nonlinear transmission. A simplified model circuit, in which the transmission line is represented by a nonlinear impedance in parallel with a variable resistor, is incorporated in a 1-d simulation model to give the current density at the DL boundaries. Results are presented for the scaling of the DL potential as a function of the width of the arc and the saturation efficiency of the lower hybrid instability mechanism.

The evolution and long-time stability of a doublelayer (DL) in a discrete auroral arc requires that the parallel current in the arc, which may be considered uniform at the source, be diverted within the arc to charge the flanks of the U-shaped doublelayer potential structure. A simple model is presented in which this current redistribution is effected by anomalous transport based on electrostatic lower hybrid waves driven by the flank structure itself. This process provides the limiting constraint on the doublelayer potential. The flank charging may be represented as that of a nonlinear transmission line. A simplified model circuit, in which the transmission line is represented by a nonlinear impedance in parallel with a variable resistor, is incorporated in a one-dimensional simulation model to give the current density at the DL boundaries. Results are presented for the scaling of the DL potential as a function of the width of the arc and the saturation efficiency of the lower hybrid instability mechanism.

Electric doublelayers, abrupt potential drops within a plasma, exist in the plasma environment of the Earth and the stars, can cause phenomena as diverse as aurorae, or electromagnetic radiation from rotating neutron stars and may also play an important role in supplying and accelerating plasma in coronal funnels at the surface of the Sun. In the laboratory, both current-driven and current-free doublelayers have been generated and studied in a variety of experimental devices. The class of current-free doublelayers which form in low pressure magnetically expanding plasmas (e.g. from Helicon sources) for a variety of gases and geometries exhibit interesting electron and ions dynamics properties. The latter are also observed in particle-in-cell simulations. Application of expanding plasmas to the field of electric propulsion is receiving increasing interest: in addition to thruster performance assessment and optimisation, direct measurements of thrust combined with spatial mapping of the expanding plasma provides some information on momentum flux imparted from an expanding plasma and on plasma detachment from a magnetic field.

We theoretically study the Coulomb drag resistivity in a double-layer electron system with highly anisotropic parabolic band structure using Boltzmann transport theory. As an example, we consider a double-layer phosphorene on which we apply our formalism. This approach, in principle, can be tuned for other double-layered systems with paraboloidal band structures. Our calculations show the rotation of one layer with respect to another layer can be considered a way of controlling the drag resistivity in such systems. As a result of rotation, the off-diagonal elements of the drag resistivity tensor have non-zero values at any temperature. In addition, we show that the anisotropic drag resistivity is very sensitive to the direction of momentum transfer between two layers due to highly anisotropic inter-layer electron–electron interaction and also the plasmon modes. In particular, the drag anisotropy ratio, {ρyy}/{ρxx} , can reach up to ∼ 3 by changing the temperature. Furthermore, our calculations suggest that including the local field correction in the dielectric function changes the results significantly. Finally, We examine the dependence of drag resistivity and its anisotropy ratio on various parameters like inter-layer separation, electron density, short-range interaction and insulating substrate/spacer.

We theoretically study the Coulomb drag resistivity in a double-layer electron system with highly anisotropic parabolic band structure using Boltzmann transport theory. As an example, we consider a double-layer phosphorene on which we apply our formalism. This approach, in principle, can be tuned for other double-layered systems with paraboloidal band structures. Our calculations show the rotation of one layer with respect to another layer can be considered a way of controlling the drag resistivity in such systems. As a result of rotation, the off-diagonal elements of the drag resistivity tensor have non-zero values at any temperature. In addition, we show that the anisotropic drag resistivity is very sensitive to the direction of momentum transfer between two layers due to highly anisotropic inter-layer electron-electron interaction and also the plasmon modes. In particular, the drag anisotropy ratio, [Formula: see text], can reach up to [Formula: see text]3 by changing the temperature. Furthermore, our calculations suggest that including the local field correction in the dielectric function changes the results significantly. Finally, We examine the dependence of drag resistivity and its anisotropy ratio on various parameters like inter-layer separation, electron density, short-range interaction and insulating substrate/spacer. PMID:27221580

Previous comparison of predictive double-layer modeling and empirically derived metal-partitioning data has validated the use of the double-layer model to predict metal sorption reactions in iron-rich mine-drainage systems. The double-layer model subsequently has been used to model data collected from several mine-drainage sites in Colorado with diverse geochemistry and geology. This work demonstrates that metal partitioning between dissolved and sediment phases can be predictively modeled simply by knowing the water chemistry and the amount of suspended iron-rich particulates present in the system. Sorption on such iron-rich suspended sediments appears to control metal and arsenic partitioning between dissolved and sediment phases, with sorption on bed sediment playing a limited role. At pH > 5, Pb and As are largely sorbed by iron-rich suspended sediments and Cu is partially sorbed; Zn, Cd, and Ni usually remain dissolved throughout the pH range of 3 to 8.

Doublelayer coatings, with celsian-Y 2SiO 5 as inner layer and Y 2Si 2O 7 as outer layer, were prepared by microwave sintering on the surface of carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide matrix composite. Both celsian, Y 2SiO 5 and Y 2Si 2O 7 were synthesized by in situ method using BAS glass, Y 2O 3 and SiO 2 as staring materials. The sintering temperature was 1500 °C, and little damage was induced to the composite. The composition and micrograph of the fired coating were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The oxidation and thermal shock resistance of samples with doubled-layered coating were characterized at 1400 °C in air. After 150 min oxidation and thermal cycling between 1400 °C and room temperature for 15 times, the weight loss of doublelayer-coated sample was 1.22% and there were no cracks in the coating.

The electric doublelayer capacitors (EDLC) with nanostructured electrodes have attracted much attention of researchers due to their high power density and long life time. Recently, the ionic liquids are used as an electrolyte of EDLC owing to their electrochemical stability. When ionic liquids are used as an electrolyte, the interrelations between the electric doublelayer of ionic liquids and the nanostructured electrode must be studied. In this study, the EDLC systems with nanostructured electrodes and ionic liquids are simulated by solving the modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation proposed by Bazant, Storey, and Kornyshev with COMSOL Multiphysics. Several electrode geometries including exohedral, endohedral and arrayed shapes with different length scales are simulated. The potential and charge distributions in the normal direction to the electrode surface are analyzed. The capacitance per unit area is obtained and compared to that of flat electrode. The structure determines the space for counter-ion packing and co-ion gathering, thus has crucial effects on electric doublelayer capacitance. The critical increase of capacitance with nanoscale confined space is observed with low electrode potential. This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (Grant Number: 2013R1A1A2011956).

Self-discharge is an important factor that severely affects the performance of double-layer supercapacitors. This paper studies the self-discharge behavior of double-layer supercapacitors with experimental and modeling methods. The movement of ions, side-reactions, and instability of the doublelayer are taken into consideration. The influence of various factors, such as the initial voltage, charge duration, short-term history, and current, on the self-discharge is simulated, showing good agreement with experimental data. The simulation of the ion distribution also gives a detailed explanation of the mechanism of self-discharge and verifies the interpretation of the relaxation process proposed in a recent study. It further clarifies the key role of the charging/discharging current in influencing charge redistribution during self-discharge, which was neglected in previous studies. The results show that the relaxation period during which the supercapacitor loses energy very quickly is due to the unbalanced distribution of ions, and it could be avoided by further charging or by applying a small charging current.

NiO/LiCoO{sub 2} doublelayer cathodes (DLCs) were prepared with a thin highly active LiCoO{sub 2}-layer by a new doublelayer tape casting/sintering procedure. The resulting metallic porous precursor plates were mounted into the MCFC and heated up by a special procedure to form LiCoO{sub 2} from air, Co and Li{sub 2}CO{sub 3} in a solid/gas reaction. MCFCs with highly active NiO/LiCoO{sub 2}-DLCs can operate over prolonged periods of time with a Ni-precipitation which is 10% lower than one finds with state of the art NiO cathodes. According to LiCoO{sub 2}-cathodes have theoretical life times of more than 100 000 hours at nonpressurized conditions. MCFCs with new NiO/LiCoO{sub 2} doublelayer cathodes (DLC) were investigated with regard to variable parameters of their microstructure. From the agglomerate model of the porous MCFC cathode, the dependence of the polarization resistance from the radius of the agglomerates and the inner agglomerate surface area was calculated.

Novel heterostructures combining different layered materials offer new opportunities for applications and fundamental studies of collective excitations driven by interlayer Coulomb interactions. In this work, we have investigated the influence of the metallic-like substrate on the plasmon spectrum of a doublelayer graphene system and a structure consisting of conventional two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) immersed in a semiconductor quantum well and a graphene sheet with an interlayer separation of d. Long-range Coulomb interactions between substrate and graphene layered systems lead a new set of spectrum plasmons. At long wavelengths (q→0) the acoustic modes (ω~q) depend, besides on the carrier density in each layer, on the distance between the first carrier layer and the substrate in both structures. Furthermore, in the relativistic/nonrelativistic layered structure an undamped acoustic mode emerges for a certain interlayer critical distance dc. On the other hand, the optical plasmon modes emerging from the coupling of the double-layer systems and the substrate, both start at finite frequency at q=0 in contrast to the collective excitation spectrum ω~q1/2 reported in the literature for double-layer graphene structures.

It is shown that two types of, slow and fast, ion-acoustic solitary waves can occur in a solar wind plasma consisting of fluid hot protons, hot alpha particles streaming with respect to protons, and suprathermal electrons having k- distribution. The fast ion-acoustic mode is similar to the ion-acoustic mode of proton-electron plasma, and can support only positive potential solitons. The slow ion-acoustic mode is a new mode that occurs due to the presence of alpha particles. This mode can support both positive and negative solitons and doublelayers. The slow ion-acoustic mode can exist even when the relative streaming, U0, between alphas and protons is zero, provided alpha temperature, Ti, is not exactly equal to 4 times the proton temperature, Tp. An increase of the k- index leads to an increase in the critical Mach number, maximum Mach number and the maximum amplitude of both slow and fast ion-acoustic solitons. The model can explain the amplitudes and widths, but not shapes, of the weak doublelayers (WDLs) observed in the solar wind at 1 AU by Wind spacecraft in terms of slow ion-acoustic doublelayers. It is proposed that both slow and fast ion-acoustic solitons may be responsible for the ion- acoustic like wave activity in the solar wind.

We propose a doublelayered (intradural and epidural patch) duraplasty that utilizes Lyoplant and Duraseal. We examined a 47-year-old woman after decompression for thoracic ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament was performed in another hospital. On postoperative day 7, she complained of weakness in both legs. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection with cord compression. In the operative field, we found 2 large dural defects on the ventral dura mater. We performed a conventional fat graft with fibrin glue. However, the patient exhibited neurologic deterioration, and a postoperative MRI again showed CSF collection. We performed dorsal midline durotomy and inserted a intradural and epidural Lyoplant patch. She immediately experienced diminishing back pain postoperatively. Her visual analog scale and motor power improved markedly. Postoperative MRIs performed at 2 and 16 months showed no spinal cord compression or CSF leakage to the epidural space. We describe a new technique for doublelayered duraplasty. Although we do not recommend this technique for all dural repairs, double-layered duraplasty may be useful for repairing large inaccessible dural tears in cases of persistent CSF leakage refractory to conventional management. PMID:27437022

The method of matched asymptotic expansions is applied to the problem of a collisionless plasma generated by UV illumination localized in a central part of the plasma in the limiting case of small Debye length λ{sub D}. A second-approximation asymptotic solution is found for the doublelayer positioned at the boundary of the illuminated region and for the un-illuminated plasma for the plane geometry. Numerical calculations for different values of λ{sub D} are reported and found to confirm the asymptotic results. The net integral space charge of the doublelayer is asymptotically small, although in the plane geometry it is just sufficient to shield the ambipolar electric field existing in the illuminated region and thus to prevent it from penetrating into the un-illuminated region. The doublelayer has the same mathematical nature as the intermediate transition layer separating an active plasma and a collisionless sheath, and the underlying physics is also the same. In essence, the two layers represent the same physical object: a transonic layer.

We propose a doublelayered (intradural and epidural patch) duraplasty that utilizes Lyoplant and Duraseal. We examined a 47-year-old woman after decompression for thoracic ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament was performed in another hospital. On postoperative day 7, she complained of weakness in both legs. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection with cord compression. In the operative field, we found 2 large dural defects on the ventral dura mater. We performed a conventional fat graft with fibrin glue. However, the patient exhibited neurologic deterioration, and a postoperative MRI again showed CSF collection. We performed dorsal midline durotomy and inserted a intradural and epidural Lyoplant patch. She immediately experienced diminishing back pain postoperatively. Her visual analog scale and motor power improved markedly. Postoperative MRIs performed at 2 and 16 months showed no spinal cord compression or CSF leakage to the epidural space. We describe a new technique for doublelayered duraplasty. Although we do not recommend this technique for all dural repairs, double-layered duraplasty may be useful for repairing large inaccessible dural tears in cases of persistent CSF leakage refractory to conventional management. PMID:27437022

The operation of electronic systems at cryogenic temperatures is anticipated for many NASA spacecraft, such as planetary explorers and deep space probes. For example, an unheated interplanetary probe launched to explore the rings of Saturn would experience an average temperature near Saturn of about 183 C. Electronics capable of low-temperature operation in the harsh deep space environment also would help improve circuit performance, increase system efficiency, and reduce payload development and launch costs. An ongoing research and development program on low-temperature electronics at the NASA Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field is focusing on the design of efficient power systems that can survive and exploit the advantages of low-temperature environments. The targeted systems, which are mission driven, include converters, inverters, controls, digital circuits, and special-purpose circuits. Initial development efforts successfully demonstrated the low-temperature operation and cold-restart of several direct-current/direct-current (dc/dc) converters based on different types of circuit design, some with superconducting inductors. The table lists some of these dc/dc converters with their properties, and the photograph shows a high-voltage, high-power dc/dc converter designed for an ion propulsion system for low-temperature operation. The development efforts of advanced electronic systems and the supporting technologies for low-temperature operation are being carried out in-house and through collaboration with other Government agencies, industry, and academia. The LowTemperature Electronics Program supports missions and development programs at NASA s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Goddard Space Flight Center. The developed technologies will be transferred to commercial end users for applications such as satellite infrared sensors and medical diagnostic equipment.

Ga doped ZnO (GZO)/Cu grid doublelayer structures were prepared at room temperature (RT). We have studied the electrical and optical characteristics of the GZO/Cu grid doublelayer as a function of the Cu grid spacing distance. The optical transmittance and sheet resistance of the GZO/Cu grid doublelayer are higher than that of the GZO/Cu film doublelayer regardless of the Cu grid spacing distance and increase as the Cu grid spacing distance increases. The calculated values for the transmittance and sheet resistance of the GZO/Cu grid doublelayer well follow the trend of the experimentally observed transmittance and sheet resistance ones. For the GZO/Cu grid doublelayer with a Cu grid spacing distance of 1 mm, the highest figure of merit (ΦTC = 6.19 × 10-3 Ω-1) was obtained. In this case, the transmittance, resistivity and filling factor (FF) of the GZO/Cu grid doublelayer are 83.74%, 1.10 × 10-4 Ω·cm and 0.173, respectively. Project supported by the Key Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 91333203), the Program for Innovative Research Team in University of Ministry of Education of China (No. IRT13037), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51172204), and the Zhejiang Provincial Department of Science and Technology of China (No. 2010R50020).

Various biological tissues are designed to optimally support external loads for complex geometries and mechanobiological structures. This results in complex microstructures of such materials. The design of, for instance, (healthy) arteries, which are in the focus of this work, is characterised by a residually stressed fibre-reinforced multi-layered composite with highly non-linear elastic response. The complex interaction of material properties with the geometry and residual stress effects enables the optimal support under different blood pressures, respectively blood flow, within the vessel. The fibres reinforcing the arterial wall, as well as residual stresses present in the vessel, strongly influence its overall behaviour and performance. Turn-over and remodelling processes of the collagenous fibres occurring in the respective layers - either resulting from natural growth phenomena or from artificially induced changes in loading condition such as stent deployment - support the optimisation of the multi-layered composite structure of arteries for the particular loading conditions present in the artery. Within this contribution, the overall energetic properties of an artery are discussed by means of the inflation, bending and extension of a double-layeredcylindrical tube. Different states of residual stresses and different fibre orientations are considered so that, for instance, representative fibre angles that result in extremal states of the total potential energy can be identified. In view of turn-over and remodelling processes, these orientations are considered to constitute preferred directions of fibre alignment. In summary, the main goal of this work is to calculate optimal material, structural and loading parameters by concepts of energy-minimisation. Several numerical studies show that the obtained values - such as the fibre orientations, the residual axial stretch and the opening angle - are in good agreement with respective physiological parameters

Lowtemperature detectors necessarily require lowtemperature instruments. Constructing good lowtemperature instruments requires information on the properties of materials used in their construction, in particular the thermal conductivity. Unfortunately, this is poorly known for many materials. Collections of data in text books tend to be incomplete and in the worst cases are misleading. For most materials, what information is known is scattered through the literature. Searching out this data is time consuming, and in any case often results in conflicting information. We have started a programme to locate, consolidate and critically analyse thermal conductivity measurements from the literature, particularly for the challenging temperature range below 1 K. This has already produced useful results. We present some preliminary results here.

A system for monitoring temperature of a subsurface lowtemperature zone is described. The system includes a plurality of freeze wells configured to form the lowtemperature zone, one or more lasers, and a fiber optic cable coupled to at least one laser. A portion of the fiber optic cable is positioned in at least one freeze well. At least one laser is configured to transmit light pulses into a first end of the fiber optic cable. An analyzer is coupled to the fiber optic cable. The analyzer is configured to receive return signals from the light pulses.

We demonstrate formation of doublelayer graphene by means of a double transfer using two single graphene layers grown by a chemical vapor deposition method. It is observed that shiftiness and broadness in the double-resonance of Raman scattering are much weaker than those of bilayer graphene formed naturally. Transport characteristics examined from transmission line measurements and field effect transistors show the similar behavior with those of single layer graphene. It indicates that interlayer separation, in electrical view, is large enough to avoid correlation between layers for the doublelayer structure. It is also observed from a transistor with the doublelayer graphene that molecules adsorpted on two inner graphene surfaces in the doublelayered structure are isolated and conserved from ambient environment. PMID:27455706

The most common temperature controller used in lowtemperature experiments is the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller due to its simplicity and robustness. However, the performance of temperature regulation using the PID controller depends on initial parameter setup, which often requires operator's expert knowledge on the system. In this paper, we present a computer-assisted temperature controller based on the well known.

Graphene has attracted a lot of research interest owing to its exotic properties and a wide spectrum of potential applications. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) from gaseous hydrocarbon sources has shown great promises for large-scale graphene growth. However, high growth temperature, typically 1000^oC, is required for such growth. In this talk, I will show a revised CVD route to grow graphene on Cu foils at lowtemperature, adopting solid and liquid hydrocarbon feedstocks. For solid PMMA and polystyrene precursors, centimeter-scale monolayer graphene films are synthesized at a growth temperature down to 400^oC. When benzene is used as the hydrocarbon source, monolayer graphene flakes with excellent quality are achieved at a growth temperature as low as 300^oC. I will also talk about our recent progress on low-temperature graphene growth using paraterphenyl as precursor. The successful low-temperature growth can be qualitatively understood from the first principles calculations. Our work might pave a way to economical and convenient growth route of graphene, as well as better control of the growth pattern of graphene at lowtemperature.

The use of lowtemperature plasmas in industry is illustrated by the discussion of four applications, to lighting, displays, semiconductor manufacturing and pollution control. The type of plasma required for each application is described and typical materials are identified. The need to understand radical formation, ionization and metastable excitation within the discharge and the importance of surface reactions are stressed.

The thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of lunar fines samples from the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions, determined at lowtemperatures as a function of temperature and various densities, are reviewed. It is shown that the thermal conductivity of lunar soil is nearly the same as that of terrestrial basaltic rock under the same temperature and pressure conditions.

Combination bearing and seal used on Space Shuttle functions reliably at temperatures as low as - 160 degrees F and as high as + 130 degrees F. Corrosion-resistant stainless-steel spacer separates secondary and primary seals in both old and new versions of seal assembly. In new version, combination of flexible sealing lip and bridge is less susceptible to cracking at lowtemperatures.

A gas reaction process for the preferential production of methyl formate over the co-production of methanol wherein the reactant ratio of CO/H.sub.2 is upgraded and this reaction takes place at lowtemperatures of 50.degree.-150.degree. C. and moderate pressures of .gtoreq.100 psi.

We present a family of spherically symmetric Lorentzian wormholes in quadratic F (R ) gravity, with a thin shell of matter corresponding to the throat. At each side of the shell, the geometry has a different constant value of the curvature scalar R . The junction conditions determine the equation of state between the pressure and energy density at the throat, where a doublelayer is also located. We analyze the stability of the configurations under perturbations preserving the spherical symmetry. In particular, we study thin-shell wormholes with mass and charge. We find that there exist values of the parameters for which stable static solutions are possible.

It is suggested that the features which govern the formation of the doublelayers are: (1) the divergence of the magnetospheric electric field, (2) the ionospheric conductivity, and (3) the current-voltage characteristics of auroral magnetic field lines. Also considered are conditions in other astrophysical objects that could lead to the formation of DLs in a manner analogous to what occurs in the earth's auroral zones. It is noted that two processes can drive divergent Pedersen currents within a collisional conducting layer: (1) sheared plasma flow applied anywhere along the magnetic field lines connected to the conducting layer and (2) a neutral flow with shear within the conducting layer.

The existence condition for bump and dip type, as well as doublelayer (DL), solutions of electrostatic solitary waves (ESWs) in a nonthermal electron plasma with heavy ions is investigated by a pseudopotential method. It is found that the nonthermality of electrons determines the existence of the DL solution and that the amplitude of ESWs is enhanced by the density of heavy ions. When the heavy ion density is beyond a certain critical value, ESWs and DLs cannot exist. It is also found that both the lower and upper critical Mach numbers are reduced by the presence of heavy ions.

Papers are presented on such topics as doublelayers (DLs) and plasma-wave resistivity in extragalactic jets; the formation of a DL leading to the critical velocity phenomenon; formation mechanisms of laboratory DLs in triple plasma devices; and linear Vlasov stability in one-dimensional DLs. Consideration is also given to weak DLs in the auroral ionosphere; the dynamical properties of very strong DLs in a triple plasma device; particle simulation of auroral DLs; a muonic X-ray laser assisted by the catalyzed fusion of deuterium and tritium; and the feasbility of measuring the nuclear reaction cross sections at energies of several keV in a target under laser compression.

The realization of high yield doublelayer metal systems using wet chemistry processes and the ability to extend yields beyond that attainable with wet chemistry by means of post sintering processes at temperatures below 500 C for potential applications in very large scale integration structures were studied. Yields in excess of 98% and average total contact resistance of less than 150 ohms and 200 ohms were realized for a series of 560 vias of 0.5 X 0.5 mils and 0.2 X 0.2 mils in size, respectively.

The arrangement of permanent magnets in double-layer interior permanent-magnet motors is optimized for variable-speed applications. First, the arrangement of magnets is decided by automatic optimization. Next, the superiority of the optimized motor is discussed by the d- and q-axis equivalent circuits that consider the magnetic saturation of the rotor core. Finally, experimental verification is carried out by using a prototype motor. It is confirmed that the maximum torque of the optimized motor under both low speed and high speed conditions are higher than those of conventional motors because of relatively large q-axis inductance and small d-axis inductance.

Electric doublelayers (EDLs) of ionic liquids have been used in superconducting field-effect transistors as nanogap capacitors. Because of the freezing of the ionic motion below ~200 kelvin, modulations of the carrier density have been limited to the high-temperature regime. Here we observe carrier-doping-induced superconductivity in an organic Mott insulator with a photoinduced EDL based on a photochromic spiropyran monolayer. Because the spiropyran can isomerize reversibly between nonionic and zwitterionic isomers through photochemical processes, two distinct built-in electric fields can modulate the carrier density even at cryogenic conditions. PMID:25678657

Direct thrust measurements of a permanent magnet helicon doublelayer thruster have been made using a pendulum thrust balance and a high sensitivity laser displacement sensor. At the low pressures used (0.08 Pa) an ion beam is detected downstream of the thruster exit, and a maximum thrust force of about 3 mN is measured for argon with an rf input power of about 700 W. The measured thrust is proportional to the upstream plasma density and is in good agreement with the theoretical thrust based on the maximum upstream electron pressure.

Direct thrust measurements of a permanent magnet helicon doublelayer thruster have been made using a pendulum thrust balance and a high sensitivity laser displacement sensor. At the low pressures used (0.08 Pa) an ion beam is detected downstream of the thruster exit, and a maximum thrust force of about 3 mN is measured for argon with an rf input power of about 700 W. The measured thrust is proportional to the upstream plasma density and is in good agreement with the theoretical thrust based on the maximum upstream electron pressure.

Television observations of a barium-plasma flux tube extending from near 4500 km to near 10,000 km during a magnetic substorm and dawn-sector auroral display indicated several interesting anomalous events. Beyond 5500 km, there was a rapid increase in brightness accompanied by flux-tube splitting and diffusion, leaving behind a truncated single flux tube. From the orientation of the flux tube compared with theoretical field models, the presence of a substantial field-aligned current sheet is deduced. A suggested explanation of these phenomena is given in terms of a plasma potential doublelayer.

Adsorption of surface coions and charge reversal are induced at the electrical doublelayer of a wall charged with positive and negative surface sites next to an electrolyte solution. While for the considered surface charge density these effects are found over a wide range of conditions, they are not observed for the typically employed surface models in equivalent conditions. Important consequences in electrophoresis experiments for different colloids with equal effective surface charge density are foreseen. This study is carried out by means of molecular dynamics simulations. PMID:23005771

We have theoretically investigated the static dielectric function of graphene doublelayer system (GDLS) at finite temperatures within the random phase approximation. GDLS has been suspended on a substrate and barrier layer of three different materials; h-BN, Al2O3 and HfO2 has been introduced between two graphene sheets of GDLS. We have reported dependence of the overall dielectric function of GDLS on interlayer distance and the effect of the dielectric environment at finite temperatures. Results show close relation between changing environment and behavior of dielectric constant of GDLS.

Low-temperature decaying superfluid turbulence is studied using the nonlinear Schroedinger equation in the geometry of the Taylor-Green (TG) vortex flow with resolutions up to 512{sup 3}. The rate of (irreversible) kinetic energy transfer in the superfluid TG vortex is found to be comparable to that of the viscous TG vortex. At the moment of maximum dissipation, the energy spectrum of the superflow has an inertial range compatible with Kolmogorov`s scaling. Physical-space visualizations show that the vorticity dynamics of the superflow is similar to that of the viscous flow, including vortex reconnection. The implications to experiments in low-temperature helium are discussed. {copyright} {ital 1997} {ital The American Physical Society}

The Manufacturing Demonstration Facility (MDF) lowtemperature materials synthesis project was established to demonstrate a scalable and sustainable process to produce nanoparticles (NPs) for advanced manufacturing. Previous methods to chemically synthesize NPs typically required expensive, high-purity inorganic chemical reagents, organic solvents and high temperatures. These processes were typically applied at small laboratory scales at yields sufficient for NP characterization, but insufficient to support roll-to-roll processing efforts or device fabrication. The new NanoFermentation processes described here operated at a lowtemperature (~60 C) in low-cost, aqueous media using bacteria that produce extracellular NPs with controlled size and elemental stoichiometry. Up-scaling activities successfully demonstrated high NP yields and quality in a 900-L pilot-scale reactor, establishing this NanoFermentation process as a competitive biomanufacturing strategy to produce NPs for advanced manufacturing of power electronics, solid-state lighting and sensors.

Cyclic temperature and lowtemperature operating life tests, and pre-/post-life device evaluations were used to determine the degrading effects of thermal environments on microcircuit reliability. Low power transistor-transistor-logic gates and linear devices were included in each test group. Device metallization systems included aluminum metallization/aluminum wire, aluminum metallization/gold wire, and gold metallization/gold wire. Fewer than 2% electrical failures were observed during the cyclic and lowtemperature life tests and the post-life evaluations revealed approximately 2% bond pull failures. Reconstruction of aluminum die metallization was observed in all devices and the severity of the reconstruction appeared to be directly related to the magnitude of the temperature excursion. All types of bonds except the gold/gold bonds were weakened by exposure to repeated cyclic temperature stress.

Compilation of data (spreadsheet and shapefiles) for several low-temperature resource types, including isolated springs and wells, delineated area convection systems, sedimentary basins and coastal plains sedimentary systems. For each system, we include estimates of the accessible resource base, mean extractable resource and beneficial heat. Data compiled from USGS and other sources. The paper (submitted to GRC 2016) describing the methodology and analysis is also included.

Compilation of data (spreadsheet and shapefiles) for several low-temperature resource types, including isolated springs and wells, delineated area convection systems, sedimentary basins and coastal plains sedimentary systems. For each system, we include estimates of the accessible resource base, mean extractable resource and beneficial heat. Data compiled from USGS and other sources. The paper (submitted to GRC 2016) describing the methodology and analysis is also included.

The development of low-temperature thermodynamic power stations using solar energy is considered, with special attention given to the choice of the thermodynamic cycle (Rankine), working fluids (frigorific halogen compounds), and heat exchangers. Thermomechanical conversion machines, such as ac motors and rotating volumetric motors are discussed. A system is recommended for the use of solar energy for irrigation and pumping in remote areas. Other applications include the production of cold of fresh water from brackish waters, and energy recovery from hot springs.

Imagine sending a spacecraft into deep space that operates at the ambient temperature of its environment rather than hundreds of degrees Kelvin warmer. The average temperature of a spacecraft warmed only by the sun drops from 279 K near the Earth's orbit to 90 K near the orbit of Saturn, and to 44 K near Pluto's orbit. At present, deep space probes struggle to maintain an operating temperature near 300 K for the onboard electronics. To warm the electronics without consuming vast amounts of electrical energy, radioisotope heater units (RHUs) are used in vast numbers. Unfortunately, since RHU are always 'on', an active thermal management system is required to reject the excess heat. A spacecraft designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures and shielded from the sun by a large communication dish or solar cell array could be less complex, lighter, and cheaper than current deep space probes. Before a complete low-temperature spacecraft becomes a reality, there are several challenges to be met. Reliable cryogenic power electronics is one of the major challenges. The Low-Temperature Power Electronics Research Group at NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) has demonstrated the ability of some commercial off the shelf power electronic components to operate at temperatures approaching that of liquid nitrogen (77 K). Below 77 K, there exists an opportunity for the development of reliable semiconductor power switching technologies other than bulk silicon CMOS. This paper will report on the results of NASA GRC's Low-Temperature Power Electronics Program and discuss the challenges to (opportunities for) the creation of a low-temperature spacecraft.

The goals of the low-temperature assessment project, performed by the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries (DOGAMI) is aimed primarily at updating the inventory of the nation's low and moderate temperature geothermal resources. The study has begun in Oregon, where the areas of Paisley, Lakeview, Burns/Hines, Lagrande, and Vale were identified over 40 sites as having potential for direct heat utilization. Specifics sites are outlined, detailing water temperature, flow, and current uses of the sites.

The growing interest in the bioresorbable polymers contributed to developing a number of commercially available controlled drug delivery systems. Due to a variety of drugs and their physicochemical properties, there is a necessity of choosing an appropriate drug carrier. Terpolymer with shape memory properties was used to obtain doublelayer matrices composed of drug free matrix and paclitaxel containing layer. The in vitro degradation and drug release study were conducted at 37 °C in PBS (pH 7.4). The investigated materials were characterized by GPC (gel permeation chromatography) and DSC (differential scanning calorimetry). HPLC (high-pressure liquid chromatography) was applied to analyze the amount of released paclitaxel. The main purpose of this work was to determine the usefulness of the studied terpolymer as an anti-restenotic drug vehicle. Based on the obtained results it was established that polymer's degradation proceeded regularly and provided even paclitaxel release profiles. Doublelayer systems allowed to modify the amount of released drug which may be considered while developing the self-expanding drug-eluting stents tailoring different clinical indications. PMID:24491529

We consider a wireless relay network with a single source, a single destination, and a multiple relay. The relays are half-duplex and use the decode-and-forward protocol. The transmit source is a layered video bitstream, which can be partitioned into two layers, a base layer (BL) and an enhancement layer (EL), where the BL is more important than the EL in terms of the source distortion. The source broadcasts both layers to the relays and the destination using hierarchical 16-QAM. Each relay detects and transmits successfully decoded layers to the destination using either hierarchical 16-QAM or QPSK. The destination can thus receive multiple signals, each of which can include either only the BL or both the BL and the EL. We derive the optimal linear combining method at the destination, where the uncoded bit error rate is minimized. We also present a suboptimal combining method with a closed-form solution, which performs very close to the optimal. We use the proposed double-layer transmission scheme with our combining methods for transmitting layered video bitstreams. Numerical results show that the double-layer scheme can gain 2-2.5 dB in channel signal-to-noise ratio or 5-7 dB in video peak signal-to-noise ratio, compared with the classical single-layer scheme using conventional modulation. PMID:24808347

Ion energy distribution functions are measured using a retarding field energy analyser located 7.5 cm downstream of a helicon doublelayer plasma source, respectively, operating with four molecular gases: nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O). For radiofrequency powers of a few hundred watts, and a magnetic field diverging from about 0.013 T (130 G) in the source to about 0.001 T (10 G) in the exhaust, an ion beam is detected for each propellant over a very similar operating pressure range (~0.023 Pa (0.17 mTorr) to ~0.267 Pa (2 mTorr)), as a result of spontaneous electric doublelayer formation near the exit of the plasma source. The characteristics of the ion beam versus operating pressure closely follow those previously obtained in argon, xenon and hydrogen. The ion beam exhaust velocity in space is found to be in the 17-19 km s-1 range in N2, 21-27 km s-1 range in CH4 and NH3 and 14-16 km s-1 range in N2O.

A solid surface in contact with water or aqueous solution usually carries specific electric charges. These surface charges attract counter ions from the liquid side. Since the geometry of opposite charge distribution parallel to the solid-liquid interface is similar to that of a capacitor, it is called an electrical doublelayer capacitor (EDLC). Therefore, there is an electrical potential difference across an EDLC in equilibrium. When a liquid bridge is formed between two conducting plates, the system behaves as two serially connected EDLCs. In this work, we propose a new method for investigating the surface charge density on solid-liquid interfaces. By mechanically modulating the electrical doublelayers and simultaneously applying a dc bias voltage across the plates, an ac electric current can be generated. By measuring the voltage drop across a load resistor as a function of bias voltage, we can study the surface charge density on solid-liquid interfaces. Our experimental results agree very well with the simple equivalent electrical circuit model proposed here. Furthermore, using this method, one can determine the polarity of the adsorbed state on the solid surface depending on the material used. We expect this method to aid in the study of electrical phenomena on solid-liquid interfaces. PMID:25923410

High pressure drop and significant non-uniformity in temperature distribution along the streamwise direction are still challenges to the design of mini-channel heat sink. High density mini-channel arrays with high liquid-wall contact area are usually pursued in a conventional single-layer design of heat sink, which also inevitably brings high pressure drop. A novel double-layer structured heat sink is proposed in this paper. Four heat sinks with various designs in mini-channel density and flow direction were fabricated and studied experimentally on the heat transfer performance. The single factor of heat load does not show obvious effect on the overall thermal resistance of the heat sinks. On the other hand, slight decrease in thermal resistance was found with the increase in heat load at high flow rates. Moreover, a computational fluid dynamics modeling work was conducted. The results indicate that the parallel cross-flow field regulated by the double-layer structure enhances the heat exchange in both horizontal and vertical directions and consequently gives an uniform temperature distribution and high heat transfer efficiency.

Observations of charged particles during events of solitary waves and weak doublelayer-like structures by the Swedish magnetospheric research satellite Viking are discussed. The observations took place in relatively weak acceleration regions at altitudes between 1 and 2 R{sub E}. The total accelerating potential was typically somewhat less than 1 kV. The characteristics of ion and electron spectra indicate that the main part of the potential was below the satellite but osme field-aligned acceleration of elections had also taken place above it. The composition of the ion beams was domianted by protons with a variable concentration (0-30%) of oxygen ions. While it is difficult to determine the exact parameters of the background plasma, there is clear evidence of the presence of cool background electrons and ions. It is proposed that the weak doublelayer-like structures are structures in the cool ambient ions and convect slowly upward with the ion population. On the other hand, the structures accelerate auroral electrons toward Earth and beam ions from the ionosphere upward. It is suggested that the structures are likely to contribute to the perpendicular heating of the ion beams.

The aim of this study was to develop a novel cultured mucosal membrane that was facile to prepare and easy to handle, and that could be applied to mucosal defects in the oral cavity. Human oral keratinocytes and fibroblasts were prepared from the oral mucosa. We made the following two types of cultured mucosal cell sheets: a monolayer sheet of keratinocytes cultured on a collagen membrane (K-S) and a double-layered sheet of keratinocytes and fibroblasts on a collagen membrane (KF-S). A collagen membrane was used as a control. Each type of sheet was transplanted onto dorsal skin defects of nude mice. The wound area was measured for the assessment of wound contraction and a specimen was harvested for histologic evaluation 1 week and 4 weeks after grafting. Wound contraction was minimal with KF-S grafts. Although histologic examination showed normal differentiation of the epithelium in all graft types, the involucrin expression pattern of KFS was most similar to that of normal epithelium. These results indicate that a double-layered sheet of keratinocytes and fibroblasts cultured on a collagen membrane may facilitate epithelial healing and prevent wound contraction. PMID:15265283

This paper investigates the formation of doublelayer (DL) in helicon plasmas. In the experiment, argon plasma production is using the excitation of m = -1 helicon mode with magnetic mirror field with high mirror ratio of {approx}1:1.7. We have specifically used the radio frequency compensated Langmuir probe (LP) to measure the relevant plasma parameters simultaneously so as to investigate the details about the plasma production. The DL, which consists of both warm and bulk populations towards higher potential region and only dense bulk plasmas towards the lower potential region downstream the antenna, is present in the transition region. LP measurements also show an abrupt fall of density along with a potential drop of about 20 V and (e {Delta}V{sub p}/k T{sub e}) Almost-Equal-To 12 within a few cm. The potential drop is equal to the difference of the electron temperatures between the two plasma regions forming the DL, which is present in the plateau region of mirror, unlike in several prior studies on the DL formation in the region of strong gradients in the magnetic field. The DL is strong, current-free, electric double-layer with estimated thickness of about 10 Debye lengths.

When a dense plasma consisting of a cold and a sufficiently warm electron population expands, a rarefaction shock forms. In the expansion of the polar wind in the magnetosphere, it has been previously shown that when a sufficiently warm electron population also exists, in addition to the usual cold ionospheric one, a discontinuity forms in the electrostatic potential distribution along the magnetic field lines. Despite the lack of spatial resolution and the assumption of quasi-neutrality in the polar wind models, such discontinuities have been called doublelayers (DLs). Recently similar discontinuities have been invoked to partly explain the auroral acceleration of electrons and ions in the upward current region. By means of one-dimensional Vlasov simulations of expanding plasmas, for the first time we make here the connection between (i) the rarefaction shocks, (ii) the discontinuities in the potential distributions, and (iii) DLs. We show that when plasmas expand from opposite directions into a deep density cavity with a potential drop across it and when the plasma on the high-potential side contains two electron populations, the temporal evolution of the potential and the plasma. distribution generates evolving multiple doublelayers with an extended density cavity between them. One of the DLs is the rarefaction-shock (RFS) and it forms by the reflections of the cold electrons coming from the high-potential side; it supports a part of the potential drop approximately determined by the hot electron temperature.

Mass transport in porous materials is universal in nature, and its worth attracts great attention in many engineering applications. Plant leaves, which work as natural hydraulic pumps for water uptake, have evolved to have the morphological structure for fast water transport to compensate large water loss by leaf transpiration. In this study, we tried to deduce the advantageous structural features of plant leaves for practical applications. Inspired by the tissue organization of the hydraulic pathways in plant leaves, analogous double-layered porous models were fabricated using agarose hydrogel. Solute transport through the hydrogel models with different thickness ratios of the two layers was experimentally observed. In addition, numerical simulation and theoretical analysis were carried out with varying porosity and thickness ratio to investigate the effect of structural factors on mass transport ability. A simple parametric study was also conducted to examine unveiled relations between structural factors. As a result, the porosity and thickness ratio of the two layers are found to govern the mass transport ability in double-layered porous materials. The hydrogel models with widely dispersed pores at a fixed porosity, i.e., close to a homogeneously porous structure, are mostly turned out to exhibit fast mass transport. The present results would provide a new framework for fundamental design of various porous structures for effective mass transport. PMID:25825619

A diode-pumped Q-switched neodymium-doped yttrium vanadate (Nd:YVO4, λ = 1064 nm) laser was applied to obtain graphene patterns on a photopolymer layer by direct ablation. In the transfer process of the graphene layer, the photopolymer was employed as a graphene supporting layer and it was not removed for the simplification of the process. The laser ablation was carried out on graphene/photopolymer doublelayers for various beam conditions. The results showed that the laser-ablated widths on the graphene/photopolymer doublelayer were much greater than those on the graphene monolayer, especially at lower scanning speeds and at higher repetition rates. The photopolymer layer was not removed by the laser ablation, and the thermal energy was considered to have been dissipated in the lateral direction of graphene instead of being conducted vertically to the glass substrate. The Raman spectrum results showed that the graphene layer was clearly removed on the laser-ablated region of interest. PMID:26413616

Enhanced nuclear spin relaxation rates have been observed in recent experiments[1] on doublelayer quantum Hall systems near total filling factor νT=1. The effect is analogous to what happens in single layer systems, where a possible explanation lies in the development of a Skyrme crystal with low energy spin wave modes as the system is doped away from integer filling. Doublelayer systems are thought to support bimeron excitations, analogous to skyrmions but with layer indices playing the role of spin states. We demonstrate,within the Hartree-Fock approximation, that for low interlayer tunneling and large separations the bimerons reorganize into a vortex-antivortex lattice with an interwoven real spin texture. These states are most stable at large layer separation, where the introduction of the spin degree of freedom can relax an interlayer charge imbalance at the cores of the merons. The presence of the real spin texture produces a true spontaneously broken symmetry whose Goldstone modes can explain the enhancement of the nuclear spin relaxation. [1]I.B. Spielman et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 076803 (2005).

This work presents numerical well testing interpretation model and analysis techniques to evaluate formation by using pressure transient data acquired with logging tools in crossflow double-layer reservoirs by polymer flooding. A well testing model is established based on rheology experiments and by considering shear, diffusion, convection, inaccessible pore volume (IPV), permeability reduction, wellbore storage effect, and skin factors. The type curves were then developed based on this model, and parameter sensitivity is analyzed. Our research shows that the type curves have five segments with different flow status: (I) wellbore storage section, (II) intermediate flow section (transient section), (III) mid-radial flow section, (IV) crossflow section (from low permeability layer to high permeability layer), and (V) systematic radial flow section. The polymer flooding field tests prove that our model can accurately determine formation parameters in crossflow double-layer reservoirs by polymer flooding. Moreover, formation damage caused by polymer flooding can also be evaluated by comparison of the interpreted permeability with initial layered permeability before polymer flooding. Comparison of the analysis of numerical solution based on flow mechanism with observed polymer flooding field test data highlights the potential for the application of this interpretation method in formation evaluation and enhanced oil recovery (EOR). PMID:25302335

This work presents numerical well testing interpretation model and analysis techniques to evaluate formation by using pressure transient data acquired with logging tools in crossflow double-layer reservoirs by polymer flooding. A well testing model is established based on rheology experiments and by considering shear, diffusion, convection, inaccessible pore volume (IPV), permeability reduction, wellbore storage effect, and skin factors. The type curves were then developed based on this model, and parameter sensitivity is analyzed. Our research shows that the type curves have five segments with different flow status: (I) wellbore storage section, (II) intermediate flow section (transient section), (III) mid-radial flow section, (IV) crossflow section (from low permeability layer to high permeability layer), and (V) systematic radial flow section. The polymer flooding field tests prove that our model can accurately determine formation parameters in crossflow double-layer reservoirs by polymer flooding. Moreover, formation damage caused by polymer flooding can also be evaluated by comparison of the interpreted permeability with initial layered permeability before polymer flooding. Comparison of the analysis of numerical solution based on flow mechanism with observed polymer flooding field test data highlights the potential for the application of this interpretation method in formation evaluation and enhanced oil recovery (EOR). PMID:25302335

Dust acoustic waves are investigated in plasma system containing dynamic and streaming dust, supertherrmal electrons and ions. Linear and nonlinear studies are carried out and elaborated with the help of parameters taken for Saturn's F-ring. An energy integral equation is obtained by using the Sagdeev potential approach, and results are displayed by solving it analytically and numerically. The dependence of nonlinear structures on κ values, the ratio of electron to dust equilibrium densities μ ed , Mach number M, and dust streaming speed v d0 have been presented. The streaming speed appears as a destructive partner for the Mach number M in the pseudoenergy equation and hence plays a dominant modifying role in the formation of nonlinear structures. It plays a destructive role for some of the solitons and works as a source, for the emergence of new solitons (region). Formation of doublelayers are also investigated and shown that the amplitude, width and existence of doublelayers structures are predominantly affected by the presence of superthermal electrons, ions, and streaming dust beam.

Highly viscous fluids are used to initiate and propagate fractures and to place proppant in the fractures during the hydraulic stimulation process. These fluids can cause damage to the conductivity of the induced fractures if they are not properly cleaned out after the fracturing treatment. The clean-up process is aided by the degradation of the polymers, and in lowtemperature wells the breakdown of the polymer must be chemically induced. This work presents data on a new fracturing fluid aimed specifically at stimulating lowtemperature and low pressure reservoirs. The system consists of a CO/sub 2/-energized, cross-linked hydroxypropyl guar fluid. The gel is degraded by a traditional breaker that is activated by a new, lowtemperature breaker activator. The fluid is effective in wells as cool as 60 F and with bhp as low as 100 psi and should be particularly applicable to the shallow gas wells in the Alberta Medicine Hat and high level Keg River areas.

Scientific advancements in healthcare driven both by technological breakthroughs and an aging and increasingly obese population have lead to a changing medical device market. Complex products and devices are being developed to meet the demands of leading edge medical procedures. Specialized materials in these medical devices, including pharmaceuticals and biologics as well as exotic polymers present a challenge for radiation sterilization as many of these components cannot withstand conventional irradiation methods. The irradiation of materials at dry ice temperatures has emerged as a technique that can be used to decrease the radiation sensitivity of materials. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of lowtemperature irradiation on a variety of polymer materials, and over a range of temperatures from 0 °C down to -80 °C. The effectiveness of microbial kill is also investigated under each of these conditions. The results of the study show that the effect of lowtemperature irradiation is material dependent and can alter the balance between crosslinking and chain scission of the polymer. Lowtemperatures also increase the dose required to achieve an equivalent microbiological kill, therefore dose setting exercises must be performed under the environmental conditions of use.

Artificial spin ice is a macroscopic playground for magnetically frustrated systems. It consists of a geometrically ordered but magnetically frustrated arrangement of ferromagnetic macros spins, e.g. an arrangement of single domain ferromagnetic nanowires on a honeycomb lattice. Permalloy and cobalt which have critical temperature scales far above 290 K, are commonly used in the construction of such systems. Previous measurements have shown unusual features in the magnetotransport signature of cobalt honeycomb artificial spin ice at temperatures below 50 K which are due to changes in the artificial spin ice's magnetic reversal. In that case, the artificial spin ice bars were 1 micron long, 100 nm wide and 20 nm thick. Here we explore the lowtemperature magnetic behavior of honeycomb artificial spin ice structures with a variety of bar dimensions, indirectly via electrical transport, as well as, directly using lowtemperature magnetic imaging techniques. We discuss the extent to which this change in the magnetic reversal at lowtemperatures is generic to the honeycomb artificial spin ice geometry and whether the bar dimensions have an influence on its onset temperature. The EPSRC (Grant No. EP/G004765/1; Grant No. EP/L504786/1) and the Leverhulme Trust (Grant No. RPG 2012-692) funded this scientific work.

Low ice crystal concentration and sustained in-cloud supersaturation, commonly found in cloud observations at lowtemperature, challenge our understanding of cirrus formation. Heterogeneous freezing from effloresced ammonium sulfate, glassy aerosol, dust and black carbon are proposed to cause these phenomena; this requires low updrafts for cirrus characteristics to agree with observations and is at odds with the gravity wave spectrum in the upper troposphere. Background temperature fluctuations however can establish a dynamical equilibrium between ice production and sedimentation loss (as opposed to ice crystal formation during the first stages of cloud evolution and subsequent slow cloud decay) that explains lowtemperature cirrus properties. This newly-discovered state is favored at lowtemperatures and does not require heterogeneous nucleation to occur (the presence of ice nuclei can however facilitate its onset). Our understanding of cirrus clouds and their role in anthropogenic climate change is reshaped, as the type of dynamical forcing will set these clouds in one of two preferred microphysical regimes with very different susceptibility to aerosol.

The EXB configuration of various lowtemperature plasma devices is often responsible for the formation of rotating structures and instabilities leading to anomalous electron transport across the magnetic field. In these devices, electrons are strongly magnetized while ions are weakly or not magnetized and this leads to specific physical phenomena that are not present in fusion plasmas where both electrons and ions are strongly magnetized. In this paper we describe basic phenomena involving rotating plasma structures in simple configurations of lowtemperature EXB plasma devices on the basis of PIC-MCC (Particle-In-Cell Monte Carlo Collisions) simulations. We focus on three examples: rotating electron vortices and rotating spokes in cylindrical magnetrons, and azimuthal electron-cyclotron drift instability in Hall thrusters. The simulations are not intended to give definite answers to the many physics issues related to lowtemperature EXB plasma devices but are used to illustrate and discuss some of the basic questions that need further studies.

The plasma on a magnetic field line in the downward current region of the aurora is simulated using a Vlasov model. It is found that an electric field parallel to the magnetic fields is supported by a doublelayer moving toward higher altitude. The doublelayer accelerates electrons upward, and these electrons give rise to plasma waves and electron phase-space holes through beam-plasma interaction. The doublelayer is disrupted when reaching altitudes of 1-2 Earth radii where the Langmuir condition no longer can be satisfied due to the diminishing density of electrons coming up from the ionosphere. During the disruption the potential drop is in part carried by the electron holes. The disruption creates favourable conditions for doublelayer formation near the ionosphere and doublelayers form anew in that region. The process repeats itself with a period of approximately 1 min. This period is determined by how far the doublelayer can reach before being disrupted: a higher disruption altitude corresponds to a longer repetition period. The disruption altitude is, in turn, found to increase with ionospheric density and to decrease with total voltage. The current displays oscillations around a mean value. The period of the oscillations is the same as the recurrence period of the doublelayer formations. The oscillation amplitude increases with increasing voltage, whereas the mean value of the current is independent of voltage in the 100 to 800 V range covered by our simulations. Instead, the mean value of the current is determined by the electron density at the ionospheric boundary.

Advanced thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with lower thermal conductivity, increased resistance to calcium-magnesium-aluminosilicate (CMAS), and improved high-temperature capability, compared to traditional yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) TBCs, are essential to higher efficiency in next generation gas turbine engines. Double-layer rare-earth zirconate/YSZ TBCs are a promising solution. From a processing perspective, solution precursor plasma spray (SPPS) process with its unique and beneficial microstructural features can be an effective approach to obtaining the double-layer microstructure. Previously durable low-thermal-conductivity YSZ TBCs with optimized layered porosity, called the inter-pass boundaries (IPBs) were produced using the SPPS process. In this study, an SPPS gadolinium zirconate (GZO) protective surface layer was successfully added. These SPPS double-layer TBCs not only retained good cyclic durability and low thermal conductivity, but also demonstrated favorable phase stability and increased surface temperature capabilities. The CMAS resistance was evaluated with both accumulative and single applications of simulated CMAS in isothermal furnaces. The double-layer YSZ/GZO exhibited dramatic improvement in the single application, but not in the continuous one. In addition, to explore their potential application in integrated gasification combined cycle environments, double-layer TBCs were tested under high-temperature humidity and encouraging performance was recorded.

When a dense plasma consisting of a cold and a sufficiently warm electron population expands, a rarefaction shock forms [Bezzerides et al., 1978]. In the expansion of the polar wind in the magnetosphere, it has been previously shown that when a sufficiently warm electron population also exists, in addition to the usual cold ionospheric one, a discontinuity forms in the electrostatic potential distribution along the magnetic field lines [Barakat and Schunk, 1984]. Despite the lack of spatial resolution and the assumption of quasi-neutrality in the polar wind models, such discontinuities have been called doublelayers (DLs). Recently similar discontinuities have been invoked to partly explain the auroral acceleration of electrons and ions in the upward current region [Ergun et al., 2000]. By means of one-dimensional Vlasov simulations of expanding plasmas, for the first time we make here the connection between (1) the rarefaction shocks, (2) the discontinuities in the potential distributions, and (3) DLs. We show that when plasmas expand from opposite directions into a deep density cavity with a potential drop across it and when the plasma on the high-potential side contains hot and cold electron populations, the temporal evolution of the potential and the plasma distribution generates evolving multiple doublelayers with an ,extended density cavity between them. One of the DLs is the rarefaction-shock (RFS) and it forms by the reflections of the cold electrons coming from the high-potential side; it supports a part of the potential drop approximately determined by the hot electron temperature. The other DLs evolve from charge separations arising either from reflection of ions coming from the low-potential side or stemming from plasma instabilities; they support the rest of the potential drop. The instabilities forming these additional doublelayers involve electron-ion (e-i) Buneman or ion-ion (i-i) two-stream interactions. The electron-electron two

The atmospheres of many of the outer planets and their satellites contain a large number of hydrocarbon species. In particular, acetylene (C2H2) has been identified at Jupiter, Saturn and its satellite Titan, Uranus and Neptune. In the lower atmospheres of these planets, where colder temperatures prevail, the condensation and/or freezing of acetylene is probable. In order to obtain accurate models of the acetylene in these atmospheres, it is necessary to have a complete understanding of its vapor pressures at lowtemperatures. Vapor pressures at lowtemperatures for acetylene are being determined. The vapor pressures are measured with two different techniques in order to cover a wide range of temperatures and pressures. In the first, the acetylene is placed in a sample tube which is immersed in a lowtemperature solvent/liquid nitrogen slush bath whose temperature is measured with a thermocouple. The vapor pressure is then measured directly with a capacitance manometer. For lower pressures, a second technique which was called the thin-film infrared method (TFIR) was developed. It involves measuring the disappearance rate of a thin film of acetylene at a particular temperature. The spectra are then analyzed using previously determined extinction coefficient values, to determine the disappearance rate R (where R = delta n/delta t, the number of molecules that disappear per unit time). This can be related to the vapor pressure directly. This technique facilitates measurement of the lower temperatures and pressures. Both techniques have been calibrated using CO2, and have shown good agreement with the existing literature data.

The options for primary thermometry at ultra-lowtemperatures are rather limited. In practice, most laboratories are using (195)Pt NMR thermometers in the microkelvin range. In recent years, current sensing direct current superconducting quantum interference devices (DC-SQUIDs) have enabled the use of noise thermometry in this temperature range. Such devices have also demonstrated the potential for primary thermometry. One major advantage of noise thermometry is the fact that no driving current is needed to operate the device and thus the heat dissipation within the thermometer can be reduced to a minimum. Ultimately, the intrinsic power dissipation is given by the negligible back action of the readout SQUID. For thermometry in low-temperature experiments, current noise thermometers and magnetic flux fluctuation thermometers have proved to be most suitable. To make use of such thermometers at ultra-lowtemperatures, we have developed a cross-correlation technique that reduces the amplifier noise contribution to a negligible value. For this, the magnetic flux fluctuations caused by the Brownian motion of the electrons in our noise source are measured inductively by two DC-SQUID magnetometers simultaneously and the signals from these two channels are cross-correlated. Experimentally, we have characterized a thermometer made of a cold-worked high-purity copper cylinder with a diameter of 5 mm and a length of 20 mm for temperatures between 42 μK and 0.8 K. For a given temperature, a measuring time below 1 min is sufficient to reach a precision of better than 1%. The extremely low power dissipation in the thermometer allows continuous operation without heating effects. PMID:26903101

The CS system is designed to provide a very fast imaging system in order to search for weapons on persons in an airport environment. The Cylindrical Scanner moves a vertical transceiver array rapidly around a person standing stationary. The software can be segmented in to three specific tasks. The first task is data acquisition and scanner control. At the operator's request, this task commands the scanner to move and the radar transceiver array to sendmore » data to the computer system in a known and well-ordered manner. The array is moved over the complete aperture in 10 to 12 seconds. At the completion of the array movement the second software task automatically reconstructs the high-resolution image from the radar data utilizing the integrated DSP boards. The third task displays the resulting images, as they become available, to the computer screen for user review and analysis.« less

The CS system is designed to provide a very fast imaging system in order to search for weapons on persons in an airport environment. The Cylindrical Scanner moves a vertical transceiver array rapidly around a person standing stationary. The software can be segmented in to three specific tasks. The first task is data acquisition and scanner control. At the operator's request, this task commands the scanner to move and the radar transceiver array to send data to the computer system in a known and well-ordered manner. The array is moved over the complete aperture in 10 to 12 seconds. At the completion of the array movement the second software task automatically reconstructs the high-resolution image from the radar data utilizing the integrated DSP boards. The third task displays the resulting images, as they become available, to the computer screen for user review and analysis.

The objective of this project was to investigate metallurgical and mechanical phenomena associated with time dependent cracking of cold bent carbon steel piping at temperatures between 327 C and 360 C. Boiler piping failures have demonstrated that understanding the fundamental metallurgical and mechanical parameters controlling these failures is insufficient to eliminate it from the field. The results of the project consisted of the development of a testing methodology to reproduce lowtemperature time dependent cracking in laboratory specimens. This methodology was used to evaluate the cracking resistance of candidate heats in order to identify the factors that enhance cracking sensitivity. The resultant data was integrated into current available life prediction tools.

An approach for the development of a practical lowtemperature (293 K-311 K/68 F-100 F) curing adhesive system based on a family of amide/ester resins was studied and demonstrated. The work was conducted on resin optimization and adhesive compounding studies. An improved preparative method was demonstrated which involved the reaction of an amine-alcohol precursor, in a DMF solution with acid chloride. Experimental studies indicated that an adhesive formulation containing aluminum powder provided the best performance when used in conjunction with a commercial primer.

A method for determining fluoride ions in solution at lowtemperatures using a solid-contact fluorine-selective electrode (FSE) has been developed. The effect of temperature (60 to -15{degrees}C) on the calibration slope, potential equilibrium time, and operational stability is studied; the effect of an organic additive (cryoprotector) on the calibration slope is also studied. The temperature relationships obtained for the solid-contact FSEs allow appropriate corrections to be applied to the operational algorithm of the {open_quotes}Ftoring{close_quotes} hand-held semiautomatic HF gas analyzer for the operational temperature range of -16 to 60{degrees}C.

High photoresponse can be achieved in monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides. However, the response times are inconveniently limited by defects. Here, we report lowtemperature photoresponse of monolayer tungsten disulphide prepared by exfoliation and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) method. The exfoliated device exhibits n-type behaviour; while the CVD device exhibits intrinsic behaviour. In off state, the CVD device has four times larger ratio of photoresponse for laser on/off and photoresponse decay–rise times are 0.1 s (limited by our setup), while the exfoliated device has few seconds. These findings are discussed in terms of charge trapping and localization.

This paper analyses the recently-observed temperature-time dependence in a GM-cooler near its low-temperature limit. The paper mainly focusses on GM-coolers with 4He as the working fluid, but some attention is also paid to pulse-tube refrigerators (PTR's) using 3He and many features of the treatment equally apply to Stirling coolers. Ample attention is paid to the thermodynamics of the cycle by considering the isentropes in the Tp-diagrams of 4He and 3He. The role of the line, where the thermal expansion coefficient is zero, is emphasized. Some fundamental thermodynamic relationships are derived.

A method is described for breaking gelled viscosities of oil-based gelled fracturing fluids containing a gellant comprising aluminum complexes of alkyl phosphate esters and a proppant. The fracturing fluids are used in low-temperature formations having operating temperatures ranging between 60/sup 0/ - 120/sup 0/F. The oil-based gelled fracturing fluids are treated with an effective viscosity breaking amount of a chemical breaker consisting essentially of an admixture of hydrated lime and sodium bicarbonate containing a weight ratio ranging between 100/0 to about 20/80 hydrated lime to sodium bicarbonate.

A standard lowtemperature steam/formaldehyde autoclave was tested according to the manufacturer's instructions, using a range of test pieces containing Bacillus stearothermophilus spores as the challenge organism. There were failures in killing the challenge organism and the reasons for these are discussed. A description of modifications made to the autoclave is given together with details of an improved operating cycle. The performance of the modified autoclave was greatly improved and conditions were established for reliable and consistent sterilization of all the test pieces. A commercially produced prototype autoclave similarly modified also showed effective sterilization. PMID:6195245

Strain in graphene layers produces synthetic gauge fields that may be used to modify the properties of its electron system. We study single layers of graphene transferred over Ti/Au electrical contacts on oxidized Si wafers with etched triangular holes in the oxide. The layers are strained by applying pressure electrostatically using a gate voltage and hydrostatically using an external inert gas. We investigate electronic transport in this suspended variable-strain graphene system at lowtemperatures. We will discuss our latest results.

This study successfully demonstrated process intensification of lowtemperature waste form production. Modifications were made to the dry blend composition to enable a 50% increase in waste concentration, thus allowing for a significant reduction in disposal volume and associated costs. Properties measurements showed that the advanced waste form can be produced using existing equipment and processes. Performance of the waste form was equivalent or better than the current baseline, with approximately double the amount of waste incorporation. The results demonstrate the feasibility of significantly accelerating low level waste immobilization missions across the DOE complex and at environmental remediation sites worldwide.

Magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) is a technique whose goal is to combine the three-dimensional, chemically specific imaging capability of magnetic resonance imaging with the atomic-scale spatial resolution of scanning force microscopy. MRFM relies on the detection of small oscillatory magnetic forces between spins in the sample and a magnetic tip, using a micromechanical cantilever. The force resolution is a key issue for successfully operating MRFM experiments. Operating at lowtemperature improves the force resolution because of the reduced thermal energy and increased mechanical Q of the cantilever. The spin polarization is also enhanced at lowtemperature, leading to the improved magnetic resonance sensitivity for ensemble spin samples. A low-temperature magnetic resonance force detection apparatus was built and used to demonstrate a force resolution of 8×10sp{-17}\\ N/sqrt{Hz} at 6 K with a commercial single-crystal silicon cantilever. Both nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) were detected in micron-size samples. Force-detection technique was also applied to a wide range of magnetic resonance measurements, including inversion recovery, nutation, and spin echoes. Force-detected EPR spectra of phosphorus-doped silicon revealed hyperfine splitting, illustrating the possibility of using the MRFM technique for spectroscopic purposes. An improved low-temperature magnetic resonance force microscope was also built, incorporating a magnetic tip mounted directly on the cantilever. This allows a much wider variety of samples to be investigated and greatly improves the convenience of the technique. Using the improved microscope, three-dimensional EPR imaging of diphenylpicrylhydrazil (DPPH) particles was accomplished by scanning the sample in two dimensions while stepping an external field. The EPR force map showed a broad response reflecting the size and shape of the sample, allowing a three-dimensional real

Generation of monoenergetic ion bunch from a double-layer thin-foil target irradiated by an intense linearly polarized laser pulse is investigated using two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation. The protons in the front low-density hydrogen target layer accelerated by the space-charge field of the laser-driven hot electrons can penetrate through the high-Z high-mass and high-density ion layer, resulting in an energetic proton bunch. A part of the latter is further accelerated by the space-charge field of the hot electrons in the vacuum behind the high-Z ion layer. With this scheme, quasi-monoenergetic proton bunches can be produced using presently available laser pulses of moderate contrast and duration.

The authors adapt the method of binding polynomials to general problems of binding equilibria of ions to polybases, polyacids, and mixed polyelectrolytes, such as proteins and other colloids. For spherical particles with a smeared charge the interaction effects are taken into account using the Poisson-Boltzmann equation, which is shown to differ little from the Debye-Hueckel approximation under conditions met in most protein solutions. Examples are given of the salt dependence of pH titration equilibria. Binding polynomials produce an extra term in the free energy of the electrical doublelayer, which arises from the entropy of the adsorbed ions. The maximum term method applied to the binding polynominal yields an expression which is similar to that derived by the charging process of Chan and Mitchell. Applications to monolayers and to polyelectrolyte gels are also discussed.

Understanding the electric doublelayer (EDL) electrostatics of spherical polyelectrolyte (PE) brushes, which are spherical particles grafted with PE layers, is essential for appropriate use of PE-grfated micro-nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, oil recovery, water harvesting, emulsion stabilization, emulsion breaking, etc. Here we elucidate the EDL electrostatics of spherical PE brushes for the case where the PE exhibits pH-dependent charge density. This pH-dependence necessitates the consideration of explicit hydrogen ion concentration, which in turn dictates the distribution of monomers along the length of the grafted PE. This monomer distribution is shown to be a function of the nature of the sphere (metallic or a charged or uncharged dielectric or a liquid-filled sphere). All the calculations are performed for the case where the PE electrostatics can be decoupled from the PE elastic and excluded volume effects. Initial predictions are also provided for the case where such decoupling is not possible.

The ion-acoustic (IA) shock waves and doublelayers (DLs) in an unmagnetized, dissipative, quantum electron-positron-ion (EPI) plasma (composed of a viscous heavy ion fluid, Fermi electrons and positrons) have been theoretically investigated. The higher-order Burgers and Gardner equations are derived by employing the reductive perturbation method. The basic features of the IA shock waves and the DLs are identified by analyzing the solutions of both the higher-order Burgers and Gardner equations. The ratio of the Fermi temperature of the positron to that of the electron, the Fermi pressure of electrons and positrons, the viscous force, the plasma particle number densities, etc. are found to change remarkably the basic features (viz. amplitude, width, phase speed, etc.) of the IA waves. The results of our investigation may be helpful in understanding the nonlinear features of localized IA waves propagating in quantum EPI plasmas which are ubiquitous in astrophysical, as well as laboratory, environments.

Two types of large electric field signatures, individual pulses and pulse trains, were observed on a sounding rocket launched into the afternoon auroral zone on January 21, 1982. The typical electric fields in the individual pulses were 50 mV/m or larger, aligned mostly parallel to B, and the corresponding potentials were at leat 100 mV (kT approximately 0.3 eV). A lower limit of 15 km/sec can be set on the velocity of these structures, indicating that they were not ion acoustic doublelayers. The pulse trains, each consisting of on the order of 100 pulses, were observed in close association with intense plasma frequency waves. This correlation is consistent with the interpretation of these trains as Langmuir solitons. The pulse trains correlate better with the intensity of the field-aligned currents than with the energetic electron flux.

Spatial evolutionary games have mainly been studied on a single, isolated network. However, in real world systems, many interaction topologies are not isolated but many different types of networks are inter-connected to each other. In this study, we investigate the spatial evolutionary public goods game (SEPGG) on double-layered random networks (DRN). Based on the mean-field type arguments and numerical simulations, we find that SEPGG on DRN shows very rich interesting phenomena, especially, depending on the size of each layer, intra-connectivity, and inter-connected couplings, the network reciprocity of SEPGG on DRN can be drastically enhanced through the inter-connected coupling. Furthermore, SEPGG on DRN can provide a more general framework which includes the evolutionary dynamics on multiplex networks and inter-connected networks at the same time. PMID:27503801

We have numerically demonstrated chiral metamaterials based on double-layered asymmetric Au film with hollow out design of split ring resonators on either side of the polyimide. Multiple electric dipoles and magnetic dipoles resulted from parallel and antiparallel currents between the eight split ring resonators. Multi-band circular dichroism is found in the visible frequency regime by studying the transmission properties. Huge optical activity and the induced multi-band negative refractive index are obtained at resonance by calculating the optical activity and ellipticity of the transmitted E-fields. Chirality parameter and effective refractive index are retrieved to illustrate the tunable optical properties of the metamaterials. The underlying mechanisms for the observed circular dichroism are analyzed. These metamaterials would offer flexible electromagnetic applications in the infrared and visible regime.

Superparamagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) based nanomaterials have been exploited in various biotechnology fields including biomolecule separation. However, slow accumulation of Fe3O4 NPs by magnets may limit broad applications of Fe3O4 NP-based nanomaterials. In this study, we report fabrication of Fe3O4 NPs double-layered silica nanoparticles (DL MNPs) with a silica core and highly packed Fe3O4 NPs layers. The DL MNPs had a superparamagnetic property and efficient accumulation kinetics under an external magnetic field. Moreover, the magnetic field-exposed DL MNPs show quantitative accumulation, whereas Fe3O4 NPs single-layered silica nanoparticles (SL MNPs) and silica-coated Fe3O4 NPs produced a saturated plateau under full recovery of the NPs. DL MNPs are promising nanomaterials with great potential to separate and analyze biomolecules. PMID:26599084

Harnessing electrical bias-induced mechanical motion on the nanometer and molecular scale is a critical step toward understanding the fundamental mechanisms of redox processes and implementation of molecular electromechanical machines. Probing these phenomena in biomolecular systems requires electromechanical measurements be performed in liquid environments. Here we demonstrate the use of band excitation piezoresponse force microscopy for probing electromechanical coupling in amyloid fibrils. The approaches for separating the elastic and electromechanical contributions based on functional fits and multivariate statistical analysis are presented. We demonstrate that in the bulk of the fibril the electromechanical response is dominated by double-layer effects (consistent with shear piezoelectricity of biomolecules), while a number of electromechanically active hot spots possibly related to structural defects are observed.

A model of the electro-diffusion of ions in porous electrodes is applied to analyze the dynamics of capacitive-mixing extraction of energy from salinity gradients with carbon porous electrodes. The complex time-evolution of the cell voltage observed in experiments is satisfactorily described. The asymmetry on the duration of the solution-change steps performed in open circuit is found to be due to the nonlinear voltage–concentration relationship of the electric doublelayers and to a current that redistributes the counterions along the depth of the electrode leading to nonuniform charge and salt adsorption. The validated model is an essential tool for the design and optimization of renewable energy extraction by this technique. PMID:24319518

Small metallic particles used in forming nanostructured to impart novel optical, catalytic, or tribo-rheological can be modeled as conducting particles with equipotential surfaces that carry a net surface charge. The value of the surface potential will vary with the separation between interacting particles, and in the absence of charge-transfer or electrochemical reactions across the particle surface, the total charge of each particle must also remain constant. These two physical conditions require the electrostatic boundary condition for metallic nanoparticles to satisfy an equipotential whole-of-particle charge conservation constraint that has not been studied previously. This constraint gives rise to a global charge conserved constant potential boundary condition that results in multibody effects in the electric double-layer interaction that are either absent or are very small in the familiar constant potential or constant charge or surface electrochemical equilibrium condition. PMID:26317329

Towards deploying renewable energy sources it is crucial to develop efficient and cost-effective technologies to store electricity. Traditional batteries are plagued by a number of practical problems that at present limit their widespread applicability. One possible solution is represented by electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). To deploy EDLCs at the large scale it is necessary to better understand how electrolytes pack and diffuse within narrow charged pores. We present here simulation results for the concentrated aqueous solutions of NaCl, CsCl, and NaI confined within charged graphene-based porous materials. We discuss how the structure of confined water, the salt concentration, the ions size, and the surface charge density determine the accumulation of electrolytes within the porous network. Our results, compared to data available for bulk systems, are critical for relating macroscopic observations to molecular-level properties of the confined working fluids. Research supported by the Department of Energy.

Classical density functional theory (DFT) is used to calculate the structure of the electrical doublelayer and the differential capacitance of model molten salts. The DFT is shown to give good qualitative agreement with Monte Carlo simulations in the molten salt regime. The DFT is then applied to three common molten salts, KCl, LiCl, and LiKCl, modeled as charged hard spheres near a planar charged surface. The DFT predicts strong layering of the ions near the surface, with the oscillatory density profiles extending to larger distances for larger electrostatic interactions resulting from either lower temperature or lower dielectric constant. Inmore » conclusion, overall the differential capacitance is found to be bell-shaped, in agreement with recent theories and simulations for ionic liquids and molten salts, but contrary to the results of the classical Gouy-Chapman theory.« less

Classical density functional theory (DFT) is used to calculate the structure of the electrical doublelayer and the differential capacitance of model molten salts. The DFT is shown to give good qualitative agreement with Monte Carlo simulations in the molten salt regime. The DFT is then applied to three common molten salts, KCl, LiCl, and LiKCl, modeled as charged hard spheres near a planar charged surface. The DFT predicts strong layering of the ions near the surface, with the oscillatory density profiles extending to larger distances for larger electrostatic interactions resulting from either lower temperature or lower dielectric constant. In conclusion, overall the differential capacitance is found to be bell-shaped, in agreement with recent theories and simulations for ionic liquids and molten salts, but contrary to the results of the classical Gouy-Chapman theory.

A mechanism is proposed to enhance a proton acceleration field in laser plasma interaction. A double-layer plasma with different densities is illuminated by an intense short pulse. Electrons are accelerated to a high energy in the first layer by the wakefield. The electrons accelerated by the laser wakefield induce the enhanced target normal sheath (TNSA) and breakout afterburner (BOA) accelerations through the second layer. The maximum proton energy reaches about 1 GeV, and the total charge with an energy higher than 100 MeV is about several tens of μC/μm. Both the acceleration gradient and laser energy transfer efficiency are higher than those in single-target-based TNSA or BOA. The model has been verified by 2.5D-PIC simulations.

A mechanism is proposed to enhance a proton acceleration field in laser plasma interaction. A double-layer plasma with different densities is illuminated by an intense short pulse. Electrons are accelerated to a high energy in the first layer by the wakefield. The electrons accelerated by the laser wakefield induce the enhanced target normal sheath (TNSA) and breakout afterburner (BOA) accelerations through the second layer. The maximum proton energy reaches about 1 GeV, and the total charge with an energy higher than 100 MeV is about several tens of μC/μm. Both the acceleration gradient and laser energy transfer efficiency are higher than those in single-target-based TNSA or BOA. The model has been verified by 2.5D-PIC simulations.

Electric double-layer capacitors (DLCs) can have high storage capacity, but their porous electrodes cause them to perform like resistors in filter circuits that remove ripple from rectified direct current. We have demonstrated efficient filtering of 120-hertz current with DLCs with electrodes made from vertically oriented graphene nanosheets grown directly on metal current collectors. This design minimized electronic and ionic resistances and produced capacitors with RC time constants of less than 200 microseconds, in contrast with ~1 second for typical DLCs. Graphene nanosheets have a preponderance of exposed edge planes that greatly increases charge storage as compared with that of designs that rely on basal plane surfaces. Capacitors constructed with these electrodes could be smaller than the low-voltage aluminum electrolyte capacitors that are typically used in electronic devices. PMID:20929845

Nanoporous carbons (NPCs) have large specific surface areas, good electrical and thermal conductivity, and both chemical and mechanical stability, which facilitate their use in energy storage device applications. In the present study, highly graphitized NPCs are synthesized by one-step direct carbonization of cobalt-containing zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 (ZIF-67). After chemical etching, the deposited Co content can be completely removed to prepare pure NPCs with high specific surface area, large pore volume, and intrinsic electrical conductivity (high content of sp(2) -bonded carbons). A detailed electrochemical study is performed using cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge measurements. Our NPC is very promising for efficient electrodes for high-performance supercapacitor applications. A maximum specific capacitance of 238 F g(-1) is observed at a scan rate of 20 mV s(-1) . This value is very high compared to previous works on carbon-based electric doublelayer capacitors. PMID:24788922

The self-consistently generated current-free electric doublelayer (DL) is shown to scale up with the source tube diameter and appears not to be affected by rf driving frequency and changes in reactor geometry. This Letter presents the first simultaneous measurements of local plasma potential and beam energy as a function of axial position. The DL is shown to be no more than 5 mm thick (20 D lengths) and positioned just downstream of the maximum in the magnetic field gradient. Furthermore, its position relative to the magnetic field is observed to be invariant as the magnetic field is translated axially. Measurements of the potential drop across the DL are presented for pressures down to 0.09 mTorr and the DL strength ({phi}{sub DL}/T{sub e}) is determined to be between 5 and 7.

Electrons neutralizing an ion beam are additionally supplied to a magnetically expanding doublelayer (DL) plasma from the downstream side of the DL. The rf power and the argon gas pressure are maintained at 200 W and 55 mPa, respectively, and the source magnetic field is varied in the range of about 70-550 G. It is observed that the ion beam energy corresponding to the DL potential drop increases up to 30 eV with an increase in the magnetic field when supplying the additional electrons, while it saturates at 20 eV for the case of the absence of the additional electrons. The supplied electrons are believed to be an energy source for the DL such that increasing the magnetic field is able to increase the potential drop beyond the limit found in the absence of the supplied electrons.

A theoretical investigation is performed into the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid as a function of the contact area ratio. It is shown that the electric doublelayer (EDL) formed at the interface of the graphene and the liquid causes an overlap of the conduction bands and valance bands and increases the density of state (DOS) at the Fermi energy (EF). In other words, a greater number of charge carriers are induced for transport and the graphene changes from a semiconductor to a semimetal. In addition, it is shown that the dependence of the DOS at EF on the contact area ratio has a bimodal distribution which responses to the experimental observation, a pinnacle curve. The maximum number of induced carriers is expected to occur at contact area ratios of 40% and 60%. In general, the present results indicate that modulating the EDL provides an effective means of tuning the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid.

According to classical plume theory, purely thermal upwellings rise through the mantle, pond in a thin layer beneath the lithosphere, and generate hotspot volcanism. Neglected by this theory, however, are the dynamical effects of compositional heterogeneity carried by mantle plumes even though this heterogeneity has been commonly identified in sources of hotspot magmas. Numerical models predict that a hot, compositionally heterogeneous mantle plume containing a denser eclogite component tends to pool at ∼300-410 km depth before rising to feed a shallower sublithospheric layer. This double-layered structure of a thermochemical plume is more consistent with seismic tomographic images at Hawaii than the classical plume model. The thermochemical structure as well as time dependence of plume material rising from the deeper into the shallower layer can further account for long-term fluctuations in volcanic activity and asymmetry in bathymetry, seismic structure, and magma chemistry across the hotspot track, as are observed.

We report studies of magnetoresistance (MR) in double-layer organic spin valves (DOSV) using tris (8-hydroxyquinolinato) aluminum (Alq3) spacers. The device exhibits three distinct resistance levels depending on the relative magnetizations of the ferromagnetic electrodes. We observed a much weaker bias voltage dependence of MR in the device compared to that in the conventional organic spin valve (OSV). The MR magnitude reduces by the factor of two at 0.7 V bias voltage in the DOSV compared to 0.02 V in the conventional OSV. Remarkably, the MR magnitude reaches 0.3% at 6 V bias in the DOSVs, the largest MR response ever reported in OSVs at this bias. Our finding may have a significant impact on achieving high efficient bipolar OSVs strictly performed at high voltages. University of Georgia start-up fund, Ministry of Education, Singapore, National Natural Science Foundation of China.

The detection of minuscule changes in the local refractive index by localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs), carried by metal nanostructures, has been used successfully in applications such as real-time and label-free detection of molecular binding events. However, localized plasmons demonstrate 1-2 orders of magnitude lower figure of merit (FOM) compared with their propagating counterparts. Here, we propose and experimentally demonstrate a high-performance refractive index sensor based on a structure of double-layered metal grating (DMG) with an FOM and FOM* reaching 38 and 40 respectively under normal incidence. Such a high FOM and FOM* arise from a result of a sharp fano resonance, which is caused by the coherent interference between the LSPR from the individual top gold stripes and Wood's anomaly (WA). Moreover, a small conformal decay length of ~68 nm is determined in DMG, indicating that the DMG is a promising candidate for label-free biomedical sensing. PMID:25968735

The presence of nonthermal electron may play an important role in the formation of nonlinear structures in plasma. On the other hand, fluctuation of dust charge is an important and unique feature of complex plasma and it gives rise to a dissipative effect in the system leading to the formation of nonlinear structures due to the balance between nonlinearity and dissipation. In this paper, the propagation of nonlinear dust ion acoustic (DIA) wave in unmagnetized collisionless dusty plasma consisting of ions, nonthermal electrons and dust grains with variable negative charge has been investigated using the Sagdeev potential method. The existence domain of rarefactive doublelayer (DL) in the DIA wave has been investigated for the range of plasma parameters. The real potential has been obtained by numerically solving the Poisson equation and dust charging equation. It is observed that the presence of nonthermal electrons strengthens the DIA DL.

In this paper we delineate the consequences of field-dependent solvent polarization in the electric doublelayer (EDL) electrostatic potential distribution, and the effective EDL thickness in narrow nanofluidic confinements with thick (or overlapping) EDLs. The EDL, formed at the interface between a charged substrate and an electrolyte solution, induces a large electric field spanning across few nanometer distances from the interface. As a result, a polar solvent like water gets polarized, making its relative permittivity a function of the EDL electric field. This affects the overall EDL electrostatic potential distribution and most importantly, leads to a significant reduction of the effective EDL thickness, with the extent of the reduction being dictated by the value of field independent EDL thickness, strength of the solvent polarization, and the substrate-liquid interfacial electrostatic potential. Such a finding will necessitate redefining the classical EDL thickness, which will be of overwhelming significance in nanofluidic transport.

A novel leaky-wave antenna (LWA) is proposed using a double-layered resonant-type metamaterial (MTM) transmission line (TL). The MTM TL is composed of periodically arranged complementary split ring resonators (CSRRs), capacitive gaps, and metal caps. By introducing the extra metal cap in additional layer of the basic artificial MTM TL element, an increased left handed capacitor by 36 % with respect to that using none cap is engineered, which is necessary to implement a balanced condition, and thus a continuous beam steering property of the resultant LWA in terms of providing phase constants from negative to positive values. For verification, a 20-cells LWA sample is fabricated and measured. Consistent numerical and experimental results have both validated the continuous frequency-scanning capabilities of the antenna from backward -29° to forward 72° (including the broadside). The proposed prescription opens a way toward new types of MTM LWAs with easily engineered broadside radiation.

The paper proposes a new model of ion confinement in ECRIS, which can be easily generalized to any magnetic configuration characterized by closed magnetic surfaces. Traditionally, ion confinement in B-min configurations is ascribed to a negative potential dip due to superhot electrons, adiabatically confined by the magneto-static field. However, kinetic simulations including RF heating affected by cavity modes structures indicate that high energy electrons populate just a thin slab overlapping the ECR layer, while their density drops down of more than one order of magnitude outside. Ions, instead, diffuse across the electron layer due to their high collisionality. This is the proper physical condition to establish a double-layer (DL) configuration which self-consistently originates a potential barrier; this “barrier” confines the ions inside the plasma core surrounded by the ECR surface. The paper will describe a simplified ion confinement model based on plasma density non-homogeneity and DL formation.

An investigation is conducted of the stability of a large laboratory plasma current sheet, which has been generated in the process of magnetic field line reconnection, with respect to local current increases. Magnetic flux variations in regions remote from the current sheet generate an inductive voltage in the current loop that drops off inside the plasma in the form of a potential doublelayer, leading to particle acceleration with velocities much larger than those expected from the steady state electric fields in the plasma. A model for the mechanism of the current disruptions is formulated in which the potential structure leads to ion expulsion, creating a localized density drop. The associated current drop in an inductive circuit drives the potential structure, providing feedback for the disruptive instability. Similarities to, and differences from, magnetospheric substorm phenomena are noted.

Spatial evolutionary games have mainly been studied on a single, isolated network. However, in real world systems, many interaction topologies are not isolated but many different types of networks are inter-connected to each other. In this study, we investigate the spatial evolutionary public goods game (SEPGG) on double-layered random networks (DRN). Based on the mean-field type arguments and numerical simulations, we find that SEPGG on DRN shows very rich interesting phenomena, especially, depending on the size of each layer, intra-connectivity, and inter-connected couplings, the network reciprocity of SEPGG on DRN can be drastically enhanced through the inter-connected coupling. Furthermore, SEPGG on DRN can provide a more general framework which includes the evolutionary dynamics on multiplex networks and inter-connected networks at the same time. PMID:27503801

We report the investigation on the reproducibility of micro-scale electric doublelayer capacitors (micro-EDLCs). The micro-EDLC components were fabricated parallel using photolithography, wet and dry processing. Electrodes of the micro-EDLCs are highly dense packed Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) that form a mesh structure. The micro- EDLCs are connected 1-10 in series and in parallel being unified electrical circuits to tune the capacitance and the operational voltage. To confirm the reproducibility of the cells as well as the yield we performed electrochemical measurements in order to define the performance uniformity between cells strings and individual cells connected in a string. For 1-10 cells in series and in parallel the trends for the capacitance and operational voltage satisfied electrophysics rules governing cells addition. However, the measurements of the individual cells in a string revealed the significant performance discrepancy that might result in a shorten life cycling of a circuit.

Three-dimensional exterior acoustic problems with irregular domains are solved using a hypersingular meshless method. In particular, the method of fundamental solutions (MFS) is used to formulate and analyze such acoustic problems. It is well known that source points for MFS cannot be located on the real boundary due to the singularity of the kernel functions. Thus, the diagonal terms of the influence matrices are unobtainable when source points are located on the boundary. An efficient approach is proposed to overcome such difficulties, when the MFS is used for three-dimensional exterior acoustic problems. This work is an extension of previous research on two-dimensional problems. The solution of the problem is expressed in terms of a double-layer potential representation on the physical boundary. Three examples are presented in which the proposed method is compared to the MFS and boundary element method. Good numerical performance is demonstrated by the proposed hypersingular meshless method. PMID:26827046

Charge regulation in the electrical doublelayer has important implications for ion adsorption, interparticle forces, colloidal stability, and deposition phenomena. Although charge regulation generally receives little attention, its consequences can be major, especially when considering interactions between unequally charged surfaces. The present article discusses common approaches to quantify such phenomena, especially within classical Poisson-Boltzmann theory, and pinpoints numerous situations where a consideration of charge regulation is essential. For the interpretation of interaction energy profiles, we advocate the use of the constant regulation approximation, which summarizes the surface properties in terms of two quantities, namely, the diffuse layer potential and the regulation parameter. This description also captures some pronounced regulation effects observed in the presence of multivalent ions. PMID:26599980

We investigate electronic excitations in GaAs-AlxGa1-xAs double-layered quantum wire arrays with strong tunneling coupling by resonant inelastic light scattering. By applying an external electric field, we can change the one-dimensional (1D) electron density and the symmetry of the double quantum-well (DQW) structure at the same time. We identify confined optical 1D intersubband plasmons (COP) and confined acoustic 1D intersubband plasmons (CAP). Due to the tunneling coupling, the energies of the CAP exhibit a minimum for a symmetric DQW potential, whereas the energies of the COP are dominated by the total carrier density, and are nearly insensitive to the symmetry of the potential.

The performance of a helicon doublelayer thruster (HDLT) has been characterized using a pendulum type thrust stand and retarding field energy analyser. Data recorded for a fixed propellant flow rate of 16 sccm of krypton and fixed magnetic field topology show that the thrust generated increases linearly with increasing radio frequency input power over a range 250-650 W. Over the power range investigated thrust levels of approximately 1-2.8 mN were achieved. A maximum effective specific impulse of 280 s was determined using the thrust data. Ion energy distribution functions indicate that increasing power corresponds to improved plasma generation processes as general trends show increasing plasma and beam currents with increasing power.

A thermodynamic theory of association to a molecule immobilized near a surface has been developed. Exact equations for the binding enthalpy, entropy and equilibrium reaction constant for an immobilized complex are derived. Using linear Poisson-Boltzmann theory of the electric double-layer interaction between an ion-penetrable sphere and a hard plate allows a closed form evaluation. We briefly discuss application of the theory to a DNA chip at high (1 M NaCl) and low (0.01 M NaCl) ionic strength for dielectric and metallic substrates. Predicted strong electrostatic effects suggest the feasibility of electronic control of DNA hybridization and design of chips avoiding the DNA folding problem.

A thermodynamic theory of association to a molecule immobilized near a surface has been developed. Exact equations for the binding enthalpy, entropy and equilibrium reaction constant for an immobilized complex are derived. Using linear Poisson?Boltzmann theory of the electric double-layer interaction between an ion-penetrable sphere and a hard plate allows a closed form evaluation. We briefly discuss application of the theory to a DNA chip at high 1 M NaCl and low 0.01 M. NaCl ionic strength for dielectric and metallic substrates. Predicted strong electrostatic effects suggest the feasibility of electronic control of DNA hybridization and design of chips avoiding the DNA folding problem

We will present the results of our investigations of electrochemical doublelayer capacitors (EDLCs) or supercapacitors (SC) fabricated using graphene based ultra thin membranes. These EDLC's show far superior performance compared to other carbon nanomaterials based EDLC's devices. We found that the graphene based devices possess specific capacitance values as high as 120 F/g, with impressive power densities (˜105 kW/kg) and energy densities (˜9.2 Wh/kg). Further, these devices indicated rapid charge transfer response even without the use of any binders or specially prepared current collectors. Our ultracapacitors reflect a significant improvement over previously reported graphene-based ultracapacitors and are substantially better than those obtained with carbon nanotubes.

Atomistic simulations can play an important role in understanding electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) at a molecular level. In such simulations, typically the electrode surface is modeled using fixed surface charges, which ignores the charge fluctuation induced by local fluctuations in the electrolyte solution. In this work we evaluate an explicit treatment of charges, namely constant potential method (CPM)[1], in which the electrode charges are dynamically updated to maintain constant electrode potential. We employ a model system with a graphite electrode and a LiClO4/acetonitrile electrolyte, examined as a function of electrode potential differences. Using various molecular and macroscopic properties as metrics, we compare CPM simulations on this system to results using fixed surface charges. Specifically, results for predicted capacity, electric potential gradient and solvent density profile are identical between the two methods; However, ion density profiles and solvation structure yield significantly different results.

We demonstrate a new procedure for separation of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) fragments that are anchored to the surface of a gold electrode by end hybridization. The new separation procedure takes the advantage of the strong yet evolving non-uniform electric field near the gold surface in contact with a buffer solution gradually being diluted with deionized water. Separation of short ssDNA fragments is demonstrated by monitoring the DNA at the gold surface with in situ fluorescence measurement. The experimental results can be rationalized with a simple theoretical model of electric doublelayer that relates the strength of the surface pulling force to the ionic concentration of the changing buffer solution. PMID:23356906

The development of novel target concepts is crucial to make laser-driven acceleration of ion beams suitable for applications. We tested double-layer targets formed of an ultralow density nanostructured carbon layer (˜7 mg/cm 3 , 8 - 12 μ m -thick) deposited on a μ m -thick solid Al foil. A systematic increase in the total number of the accelerated ions (protons and C6 + ) as well as enhancement of both their maximum and average energies was observed with respect to bare solid foil targets. Maximum proton energies up to 30 MeV were recorded. Dedicated three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations were in remarkable agreement with the experimental results, giving clear indication of the role played by the target nanostructures in the interaction process.

We study electromagnetic properties of a double-layer graphene system in which electrons from one layer are coupled with holes from the other layer. The gauge invariant linear response functions are obtained. The frequency dependences of the transmission, reflection, and absorption coefficients are computed. We predict a peak in the reflection and absorption at the frequency equal to the gap in the quasiparticle spectrum. It is shown that the electron-hole pairing results in an essential modification of the spectrum of surface TM plasmons. We find that the optical TM mode splits into a low frequency undamped branch and a high frequency damped branch. At zero temperature the lower branch disappears. It is established that the pairing does not influence the acoustic TM mode. It is also shown that the pairing opens the frequency window in the subgap range for the surface TE wave.

The ionic liquid-electrode interface has attracted much recent interest owing to its importance for development of energy storage devices; however, the important step of adding electro-active ions is not yet well understood at the molecular level. Using direct force measurements across confined electrolyte films, we study the effect of added lithium-ion solute on the double-layer structure of an ionic liquid electrolyte with molecular resolution. We find anionic clusters involving lithium can persist adjacent to the surfaces, and in many cases, this inhibits direct adsorption of lithium ions to the negative surface. Two apparently similar ionic liquid solvents show diverging properties, with one facilitating and the other preventing direct Li-ion adsorption onto the negative surface. The results have implications for the selection of ionic liquids as electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries. PMID:26580815

Spatial evolutionary games have mainly been studied on a single, isolated network. However, in real world systems, many interaction topologies are not isolated but many different types of networks are inter-connected to each other. In this study, we investigate the spatial evolutionary public goods game (SEPGG) on double-layered random networks (DRN). Based on the mean-field type arguments and numerical simulations, we find that SEPGG on DRN shows very rich interesting phenomena, especially, depending on the size of each layer, intra-connectivity, and inter-connected couplings, the network reciprocity of SEPGG on DRN can be drastically enhanced through the inter-connected coupling. Furthermore, SEPGG on DRN can provide a more general framework which includes the evolutionary dynamics on multiplex networks and inter-connected networks at the same time.

Electrochemical double-layer capacitors, or supercapacitors, have tremendous potential as high-power energy sources for use in low-weight hybrid systems for space exploration. Electrodes based on single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) offer exceptional power and energy performance due to the high surface area, high conductivity, and the ability to functionalize the SWCNTs to optimize capacitor properties. This paper will report on the preparation of electrochemical capacitors incorporating SWCNT electrodes and their performance compared with existing commercial technology. Preliminary results indicate that substantial increases in power and energy density are possible. The effects of nanotube growth and processing methods on electrochemical capacitor performance is also presented. The compatibility of different SWCNTs and electrolytes was studied by varying the type of electrolyte ions that accumulate on the high-surface-area electrodes.

The development of new electrolytes is a centerpiece of many strategies to improve electrochemical doublelayer capacitor (EDLC) devices. We present here a computational screening-based rational design approach to find new electrolyte materials. As an example application, the known chemical space of almost 70 million compounds is investigated in search of electrochemically more stable solvents. Cyano esters are identified as especially promising new compound class. Theoretical predictions are validated with subsequent experimental studies on a selected case. These studies show that based on theoretical predictions only, a previously untested, but very well performing compound class was identified. We thus find that our rational design strategy is indeed able to successfully identify completely new materials with substantially improved properties.

Electrical doublelayer expansion (CDLE) has been proposed as a promising alternative to reverse electrodialysis (RED) and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) processes for extracting osmotic power generated by the salinity difference between freshwater and seawater. The performance of the CDLE process is sensitive to the configuration of porous electrodes and operation parameters for ion extraction and release cycles. In this work, we use a classical density functional theory (CDFT) to examine how the electrode pore size and charging/discharging potentials influence the thermodynamic efficiency of the CDLE cycle. The existence of an optimal charging potential that maximizes the energy output for a given pore configuration is predicted, which varies substantially with the pore size, especially when it is smaller than 2 nm. The thermodynamic efficiency is maximized when the electrode has a pore size about twice the ion diameter. PMID:26312731

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) are electrical devices that store energy by adsorption of ionic species at the inner surface of porous electrodes. Compared with aqueous electrolytes, ionic liquid and organic electrolytes have the advantage of larger potential windows, making them attractive for the next generation of EDLCs with superior energy and power densities. The performance of both ionic liquid and organic electrolyte EDLCs hinges on the judicious selection of the electrode pore size and the electrolyte composition, which requires a comprehension of the charging behavior from a microscopic view. In this Perspective, we discuss predictions from the classical density functional theory (CDFT) on the dependence of the capacitance on the pore size for ionic liquid and organic electrolyte EDLCs. CDFT is applicable to electrodes with the pore size ranging from that below the ionic dimensionality to mesoscopic scales, thus unique for investigating the electrochemical behavior of the confined electrolytes for EDLC applications.

We measure the transmission of infra-red radiation through double-layer metal lms with periodic arrays of subwavelength holes. When the two metal lms are placed in su ciently close proximity, two types of transmission resonances emerge. For the surface plasmon mode, the electromagnetic eld is concentrated on the outer surface of the entire metallic layer stack. In contrast, for the guided mode the eld is con ned to the gap between the two metal layers. Our measurements indicate that as the two layers are laterally shifted from perfect alignment, the peak transmission frequency of the guided mode decreases signi cantly, while that of the surface plasmon mode remains largely unchanged, in agreement with numerical calculations.

Graphene heterostructures are of considerable interest as a new class of electronic devices with exceptional performance in a broad range of applications has been realized. Here, we propose a graphene-embedded Al2O3 gate dielectric with a relatively high dielectric constant of 15.5, which is about 2 times that of Al2O3, having a low leakage current with insertion of tri-layer graphene. In this system, the enhanced capacitance of the hybrid structure can be understood by the formation of a space charge layer at the graphene/Al2O3 interface. The electrical properties of the interface can be further explained by the electrical doublelayer (EDL) model dominated by the diffuse layer. PMID:26530817

A triple plasma device is being constructed at the University of Wisconsin- Madison for basic plasma physics investigations. The device consists of two outer chambers and a central chamber. Separate plasmas are generated in the two outer chambers, and their interactions are measured in the central chamber. DC plasma is generated via thermionic emission of electrons from a hot-filament and rf plasma is generated either capacitively or inductively. The device is used to investigate doublelayer structures [Coakley and Hershkowitz, Physics of Fluids 22, 1171 (1979)] and beam plasma instabilities. The design, construction, and operation of this device are discussed. Initial results are presented here. This work is funded by U.S. Department of Energy Grant No. DE-FG02-97ER54437 and NSF Undergraduate Funding.

The ion distribution around hydroxylated silica nanoparticles (NP-H) dispersed in brine was investigated by fully atomistic molecular dynamics. The NP-H dispersions in aqueous electrolyte media are simulated in solutions of varying salinity (NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2), salt concentration (0.06 × 10-3 to 3.00 × 10-3 mole fraction {χ\\text{s}} ), and temperature (300 and 350 K) at 1 atm. The NP-H models reproduce the observed experimental concentration of silanol and geminal surface sites, which are responsible for local charge variations on the nanoparticles’ surface. Interestingly, under certain salt concentration conditions, the formation of an electrical doublelayer (DL) around the overall neutral NP-H occurs. The resulting DLs are attenuated with increasing temperature for all evaluated salts. With increasing salt concentration, a sign inversion of the effective charge at the first ion layer is observed, which modifies the electrostatic environment around the nanoparticle. The minimum salt concentration that leads to a DL formation at 300 K is 1.05 × 10-3, 0.37 × 10-3, and 0.06 × 10-3 {χ\\text{s}} for NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2, respectively. The width of the DL decreases sequentially in ionic strength from NaCl to CaCl2 to MgCl2, which is similar to that found for highly charged surfaces. These results are in line with our previous experimental data for negative charged NP-H. All together, these observations suggest an interplay mechanism between the formation and narrowing of electric doublelayers on the stability of NP dispersions in both neutral and negatively charged NP-H.

Bacteriophages from the family Myoviridae use double-layered contractile tails to infect bacteria. Contraction of the tail sheath enables the tail tube to penetrate through the bacterial cell wall and serve as a channel for the transport of the phage genome into the cytoplasm. However, the mechanisms controlling the tail contraction and genome release of phages with "double-layered" baseplates were unknown. We used cryo-electron microscopy to show that the binding of the Twort-like phage phi812 to the Staphylococcus aureus cell wall requires a 210° rotation of the heterohexameric receptor-binding and tripod protein complexes within its baseplate about an axis perpendicular to the sixfold axis of the tail. This rotation reorients the receptor-binding proteins to point away from the phage head, and also results in disruption of the interaction of the tripod proteins with the tail sheath, hence triggering its contraction. However, the tail sheath contraction of Myoviridae phages is not sufficient to induce genome ejection. We show that the end of the phi812 double-stranded DNA genome is bound to one protein subunit from a connector complex that also forms an interface between the phage head and tail. The tail sheath contraction induces conformational changes of the neck and connector that result in disruption of the DNA binding. The genome penetrates into the neck, but is stopped at a bottleneck before the tail tube. A subsequent structural change of the tail tube induced by its interaction with the S. aureus cell is required for the genome's release. PMID:27469164

The ion distribution around hydroxylated silica nanoparticles (NP-H) dispersed in brine was investigated by fully atomistic molecular dynamics. The NP-H dispersions in aqueous electrolyte media are simulated in solutions of varying salinity (NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2), salt concentration (0.06 × 10(-3) to 3.00 × 10(-3) mole fraction [Formula: see text]), and temperature (300 and 350 K) at 1 atm. The NP-H models reproduce the observed experimental concentration of silanol and geminal surface sites, which are responsible for local charge variations on the nanoparticles' surface. Interestingly, under certain salt concentration conditions, the formation of an electrical doublelayer (DL) around the overall neutral NP-H occurs. The resulting DLs are attenuated with increasing temperature for all evaluated salts. With increasing salt concentration, a sign inversion of the effective charge at the first ion layer is observed, which modifies the electrostatic environment around the nanoparticle. The minimum salt concentration that leads to a DL formation at 300 K is 1.05 × 10(-3), 0.37 × 10(-3), and 0.06 × 10(-3) χs for NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2, respectively. The width of the DL decreases sequentially in ionic strength from NaCl to CaCl2 to MgCl2, which is similar to that found for highly charged surfaces. These results are in line with our previous experimental data for negative charged NP-H. All together, these observations suggest an interplay mechanism between the formation and narrowing of electric doublelayers on the stability of NP dispersions in both neutral and negatively charged NP-H. PMID:26194994

We investigate how systematically increasing the accuracy of various molecular dynamics modeling techniques influences the structure and capacitance of ionic liquid electric doublelayers (EDLs). The techniques probed concern long-range electrostatic interactions, electrode charging (constant charge versus constant potential conditions), and electrolyte polarizability. Our simulations are performed on a quasi-two-dimensional, or slab-like, model capacitor, which is composed of a polarizable ionic liquid electrolyte, [EMIM][BF4], interfaced between two graphite electrodes. To ensure an accurate representation of EDL differential capacitance, we derive new fluctuation formulas that resolve the differential capacitance as a function of electrode charge or electrode potential. The magnitude of differential capacitance shows sensitivity to different long-range electrostatic summation techniques, while the shape of differential capacitance is affected by charging technique and the polarizability of the electrolyte. For long-range summation techniques, errors in magnitude can be mitigated by employing two-dimensional or corrected three dimensional electrostatic summations, which led to electric fields that conform to those of a classical electrostatic parallel plate capacitor. With respect to charging, the changes in shape are a result of ions in the Stern layer (i.e., ions at the electrode surface) having a higher electrostatic affinity to constant potential electrodes than to constant charge electrodes. For electrolyte polarizability, shape changes originate from induced dipoles that soften the interaction of Stern layer ions with the electrode. The softening is traced to ion correlations vertical to the electrode surface that induce dipoles that oppose doublelayer formation. In general, our analysis indicates an accuracy dependent differential capacitance profile that transitions from the characteristic camel shape with coarser representations to a more diffuse

We studied the effects of a variety of cations on chlorophyll fluorescence yield of broken chloroplasts prepared under carefully controlled ionic conditions. In the absence of light-induced electron transport and associated proton pumping, two types of cation-induced chlorophyll fluorescence changes could be distinguished in broken chloroplasts. These are termed "reversible" and "irreversible" fluorescence yield changes. Reversible fluorescence yield changes are characterized by antagonistic effects of monovalent and divalent cations and are prevented by the presence of 5 mM Mg2+ in the suspending media. Reversible-type fluorescence yield changes show little or no dependence on the structure, lipid solubility, or coordination number of the cation, but depend strictly on the net positive charge carried by the ion. It is proposed that these fluorescence changes are brought about through the interaction of monovalent or divalent cations with an electrical doublelayer at the interface of the outer surface of the thylakoid membrane and the surrounding aqueous solution. The results are interpreted in terms of the Gouy-Chapman theory of the diffuse doublelayer, indicating that the thylakoid outer surface bears an excess fixed negative charge density of about 2.5 muC/cm2, or approximately 1 negative charge per 640 A2 of membrane surface. Chlorophyll fluorescence quenching in isolated broken chloroplasts suspended in media containing 5 mM MgCl2 is also observed on addition of certain polyvalent cations to the medium. This type of cation-induced fluorescence change appears to be largely irreversible and may occur through specific binding of the cation to the thylakoid as a result of the high electrostatic attraction exerted by the negatively charged membrane surface. PMID:630043

We investigate how systematically increasing the accuracy of various molecular dynamics modeling techniques influences the structure and capacitance of ionic liquid electric doublelayers (EDLs). The techniques probed concern long-range electrostatic interactions, electrode charging (constant charge versus constant potential conditions), and electrolyte polarizability. Our simulations are performed on a quasi-two-dimensional, or slab-like, model capacitor, which is composed of a polarizable ionic liquid electrolyte, [EMIM][BF4], interfaced between two graphite electrodes. To ensure an accurate representation of EDL differential capacitance, we derive new fluctuation formulas that resolve the differential capacitance as a function of electrode charge or electrode potential. The magnitude of differential capacitance shows sensitivity to different long-range electrostatic summation techniques, while the shape of differential capacitance is affected by charging technique and the polarizability of the electrolyte. For long-range summation techniques, errors in magnitude can be mitigated by employing two-dimensional or corrected three dimensional electrostatic summations, which led to electric fields that conform to those of a classical electrostatic parallel plate capacitor. With respect to charging, the changes in shape are a result of ions in the Stern layer (i.e., ions at the electrode surface) having a higher electrostatic affinity to constant potential electrodes than to constant charge electrodes. For electrolyte polarizability, shape changes originate from induced dipoles that soften the interaction of Stern layer ions with the electrode. The softening is traced to ion correlations vertical to the electrode surface that induce dipoles that oppose doublelayer formation. In general, our analysis indicates an accuracy dependent differential capacitance profile that transitions from the characteristic camel shape with coarser representations to a more diffuse

At lowtemperatures, in the presence of an aqueous solution, olivine and orthopyroxene are not stable relative to the hydrous phases brucite, serpentine and talc. Alteration of dunite and peridotite to serpentine or steatite bodies must therefore proceed via non-equilibrium processes. The compositions of natural solutions emanating from dunites and peridotites demonstrate that the dissolution of forsterite and/or enstatite is rapid compared with the precipitation of the hydrous phases; consequently, dissolution of anhydrous minerals controls the chemistry of such solutions. In the presence of an aqueous phase, precipitation of hydrous minerals is the rate-controlling step. Brucite-bearing and -deficient serpentinites alter at lowtemperature by non-equilibrium processes, as evidenced by the composition of natural solutions from these bodies. The solutions approach equilibrium with the least stable hydrous phase and, as a consequence, are supersaturated with other hydrous phases. Dissolution of the least stable phase is rapid compared to precipitation of other phases, so that the dissolving mineral controls the solution chemistry. Non-equilibrium alteration of anhydrous ultramafic bodies continues until at least one anhydrous phase equilibrates with brucite, chrysotile or talc. The lowest temperature (at a given pressure) at which this happens is defined by the reaction: 3H2O + 2Mg2SiO4 ??? Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Mg(OH)2 (Johannes, 1968, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 19, 309-315) so that non-equilibrium alteration may occur well into greenschist facies metamorphic conditions. ?? 1978.

Previous studies indicated that palladium is catalyzes rapid decomposition of alkaline tetraphenylborate slurries. Additional evidence suggest that Pd(II) reduces to Pd(0) during catalyst activation. Further use of tetraphenylborate ion in the decontamination of radioactive waste may require removal of the catalyst or cooling to temperatures at which the decomposition reaction proceeds slowly and does not adversely affect processing. Recent tests showed that tetraphenylborate did not react appreciably at 25 degrees Celsius over six months suggesting the potential to avoid the decomposition at lowtemperatures. The lack of reaction at lowtemperature could reflect very slow kinetics at the lower temperature, or may indicate a catalyst ''deactivation'' process. Previous tests in the temperature range 35 to 70 degrees Celsius provided a low precision estimate of the activation energy of the reaction with which to predict the rate of reaction at 25 percent Celsius. To understand the observations at 25 degrees Celsius, experiments must separate the catalyst activation step and the subsequent reaction with TPB. Tests described in this report represent an initial attempt to separate the two steps and determine the rate and activation energy of the reaction between active catalyst and TPB. The results of these tests indicate that the absence of reaction at 25 degrees Celsius was caused by failure to activate the catalyst or the presence of a deactivating mechanism. In the presence of activated catalyst, the decomposition reaction rate is significant.

Compositional interpretation of remotely obtained reflectance spectra of outer solar system surfaces is achieved by a variety of methods. These include matching spectral curves, matching spectral features, quantitative spectral interpretation, and theoretical modeling of spectra. All of these approaches rely upon laboratory measurements of one kind or another. The bulk of these laboratory measurements are obtained with the sample of interest at ambient temperatures and pressures. However, surface temperatures of planets, satellites, and asteroids in the outer solar system are significantly cooler than ambient laboratory conditions on Earth. The infrared spectra of many materials change as a function of temperature. As has been recently demonstrated it is important to assess what effects colder temperatures have on spectral properties and hence, compositional interpretations. Titan tholin is a solid residue created by energetic processing of H-, C-, and N-bearing gases. Such residues can also be created by energetic processing if the gases are condensed into ices. Titan tholin has been suggested as a coloring agent for several surfaces in the outer solar system. Here we report laboratory measurements of Titan tholin at a temperature of 100 K and compare these to measurements of the same sample near room temperature. At lowtemperature the absorption features beyond 1 micrometer narrow slightly. At wavelengths greater than approx. 0.8 micrometer the overall reflectance of the sample decreases slightly making the sample less red at lowtemperatures. We will discuss the implications of the laboratory measurements for interpretation of cold outer solar system surfaces.

Exploration missions to outer planets and deep space require spacecraft, probes, and on-board data and communication systems to operate reliably and efficiently under severe harsh conditions. On-board electronics, in particular those in direct exposures to the space environment without any shielding or protection, will encounter extreme lowtemperature and thermal cycling in their service cycle in most of NASA s upcoming exploration missions. For example, Venus atmosphere, Jupiter atmosphere, Moon surface, Pluto orbiter, Mars, comets, Titan, Europa, and James Webb Space Telescope all involve low-temperature surroundings. Therefore, electronics for space exploration missions need to be designed for operation under such environmental conditions. There are ongoing efforts at the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) to establish a database on the operation and reliability of electronic devices and circuits under extreme temperature operation for space applications. This work is being performed under the Extreme Temperature Electronics Program with collaboration and support of the NASA Electronic Parts and Packaging (NEPP) Program. The results of these investigations will be used to establish safe operating areas and to identify degradation and failure modes, and the information will be disseminated to mission planners and system designers for use as tools for proper part selection and in risk mitigation. An overview of this program along with experimental data will be presented.

The inline filtration characteristics of freshly blended and degraded antimisting fuels (AMK) at lowtemperature are examined. A needle valve degrader was modified to include partial recirculation of degraded fuel and heat addition in the bypass loop. A pressure drop across the needle valve of up to 4,000 psi was used. The pressure drop across a 325 mesh filter screen placed inline with the degrader and directly downstream of the needle valve was measured as a function of time for different values of pressure drop across the needle valve. A volume flux of 1 gpm/sq in was employed based on the frontal area of the screen. It was found that, at ambient temperatures, freshly blended AMK fuel could be degraded using a single pass degradation at 4,000 psi pressure drop across the needle valve to give acceptable filterability performance. At fuel temperatures below -20 C, degradation becomes increasingly difficult and a single pass technique results in unacceptable filtration performance. Recirculation of a fraction of the degraded fuel and heat addition in the bypass loop improved lowtemperature degradation performance. The problem is addressed of blending the AMK additive with Jet A at various base fuel temperatures.

A collimated ion beam is generated through the interaction between ultra-intense laser pulse and a doublelayer plasma. The maximum energy is above 1GeV and the total charge of high energy protons is about several tens of nC/μm. The doublelayer plasma is combined with an underdense plasma and a thin overdense one. The wakefield traps and accelerates a bunch of electrons to high energy in the first underdense slab. When the well collimated electron beam accelerated by the wakefield penetrates through the second overdense slab, it enhances target normal sheath acceleration (TNSA) and breakout after-burner (BOA) regimes. The mechanism is simulated and analyzed by 2.5 dimensional Particle-in-cell code. Compared with single target TNSA or BOA, both the acceleration gradient and energy transfer efficiency are higher in the doublelayer regime.

We investigate the propagation characteristics of Ion-acoustic solitons and doublelayers in a five component cometary plasma consisting of positively and negatively charged oxygen ions, kappa described hydrogen ions, hot solar electrons, and slightly colder cometary electrons. The KdV and modified KdV equations are derived for the system and its solution is plotted for different kappa values and negatively charged oxygen ion densities. It is found that the strength of doublelayer increases with increasing spectral indices. It, however, decreases with increasing negatively charged oxygen ion densities. The parameter for the transition from compressive to rarefactive soliton is also specified. The presence of negatively charged oxygen ions can significantly affect the nonlinearity coefficients (both quadratic and cubic) of a doublelayer.

The propagation properties of large amplitude ion acoustic solitary waves (IASWs) are studied in a plasma containing cold fluid ions and multi-temperature electrons (cool and hot electrons) with nonextensive distribution. Employing Sagdeev pseudopotential method, an energy balance equation has been derived and from the expression for Sagdeev potential function, ion acoustic solitary waves and doublelayers are investigated numerically. The Mach number (lower and upper limits) for the existence of solitary structures is determined. Positive as well as negative polarity solitary structures are observed. Further, conditions for the existence of ion acoustic doublelayers (IADLs) are also determined numerically in the form of the critical values of q{sub c}, f and the Mach number (M). It is observed that the nonextensivity of electrons (via q{sub c,h}), concentration of electrons (via f) and temperature ratio of cold to hot electrons (via β) significantly influence the characteristics of ion acoustic solitary waves as well as doublelayers.

We provide an analytical model to describe the filling dynamics of horizontal cylindrical capillaries having charged walls. The presence of surface charge leads to two distinct effects: It leads to a retarding electrical force on the liquid column and also causes a reduced viscous drag force because of decreased velocity gradients at the wall. Both these effects essentially stem from the spontaneous formation of an electric doublelayer (EDL) and the resulting streaming potential caused by the net capillary-flow-driven advection of ionic species within the EDL. Our results demonstrate that filling of charged capillaries also exhibits the well-known linear and Washburn regimes witnessed for uncharged capillaries, although the filling rate is always lower than that of the uncharged capillary. We attribute this to a competitive success of the lowering of the driving forces (because of electroviscous effects), in comparison to the effect of weaker drag forces. We further reveal that the time at which the transition between the linear and the Washburn regime occurs may become significantly altered with the introduction of surface charges, thereby altering the resultant capillary dynamics in a rather intricate manner. PMID:25375597

The double-layered LaSr2Mn2O7 manganite was synthesized by the sol-gel process. Two samples with the average grain size from ∼150 nm to ∼1 μm were prepared by controlling the sintering temperature. Both samples had a tetragonal structure, with a small fraction of impurity phase in the S-1250 sample. In order to investigate the probable influence of grain size on the conduction mechanism, resistivity of the samples was measured as a function of temperature, and the data obtained was analyzed by different conduction mechanisms. It was found that with increase in the grain size, resistivity decreased at all temperature ranges. The results show that the adiabatic small polaron hopping (SPH) model is probably responsible for conduction at high temperature range, and that the 3D variable range hopping (VRH) model shows a better correlation with the experimental data for lowtemperature range. These analyses indicate the influence of grain size on the parameters obtained from fitting the data by both models.

Instrument measures thermal conductance of pressed contacts in liquid helium. Makes measurements automatically as function of force on pairs of brass samples having various surface finishes. Developed as part of effort to determine heat-transfer characteristics of bolted joints on cryogenically cooled focal planes in infrared equipment. Cylindrical chamber hangs from cover plate in bath of liquid helium. Inside chamber rocker arm applies controlled force to samples. Upper sample made slightly wider than lower one so two samples remain in complete contact even under slight lateral misalignment.

A mechanism for the weak doublelayers and coherent low-frequency electrostatic wave activity observed by Wind spacecraft in the solar wind at 1 AU is proposed in terms of ion-acoustic solitons and doublelayers. The solar wind plasma is modelled by a three component plasma consisting of fluid hot protons, hot alpha particles streaming with respect to protons, and suprathermal electrons having κ- distribution. This system supports two types of, slow and fast, ion-acoustic solitary waves. The fast ion-acoustic mode is similar to the ion-acoustic mode of proton-electron plasma, and can support only positive potential solitons. The slow ion-acoustic mode is a new mode that occurs due to the presence of alpha particles. This mode can support both positive and negative solitons and doublelayers. An increase of the κ- index leads to an increase in the critical Mach number, maximum Mach number and the maximum amplitude of both slow and fast ion-acoustic solitons. The slow ion-acoustic doublelayer can explain the amplitudes and widths, but not shapes, of the weak doublelayers (WDLs) observed in the solar wind at 1 AU by Wind spacecraft. The Fourier transform of the slow ion-acoustic solitons/doublelayers would produce broadband low-frequency electrostatic waves having main peaks between 0.35 kHz to 1.6 kHz, with electric field in the range of E = (0.01 - 0.7 ) mV/m, in excellent agreement with the observed low-frequency electrostatic wave activity in the solar wind at 1 AU.

Considering an unmagnetized plasma consisting of relativistic drifting electrons and nondrifting thermal ions and by using reductive perturbation method, a usual Korteweg--de Vries (KdV) equation and a generalized form of KdV equation are derived. It is found that while the former governs the dynamics of a small-amplitude rarefactive modified electron acoustic (MEA) soliton, the latter governs the dynamics of a weak compressive modified electron acoustic doublelayer. The influences of relativistic effect on the propagation of such a soliton and doublelayer are examined. The relevance of this investigation to space plasma is pointed out.

The magnetic-field-induced transition from a simple expansion to a doublelayer is experimentally investigated in an argon low pressure radio frequency helicon source plasma. When the magnetic field is increased from 30 to 140 G in the plasma source, an abrupt increase in the plasma density and upstream potential is measured at 50 G. In the downstream plasma, the plasma density and potential show a small decrease with increasing magnetic field and no abrupt change. When the upstream jump is measured, simultaneous measurements in the downstream plasma show an ion beam characteristic of a doublelayer near the source exit.

We investigate the mechanical properties of a doubly clamped, double-layer nanobeam embedded into an electromechanical system. The nanobeam consists of a highly pre-stressed silicon nitride and a superconducting niobium layer. By measuring the mechanical displacement spectral density both in the linear and the nonlinear Duffing regime, we determine the pre-stress and the effective Young's modulus of the nanobeam. An analytical double-layer model quantitatively corroborates the measured values. This suggests that this model can be used to design mechanical multilayer systems for electro- and optomechanical devices, including materials controllable by external parameters such as piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, or in more general multiferroic materials.

The LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Facility (LTMPF) is being developed by NASA to provide long duration lowtemperature and microgravity environment on the International Space Station (ISS) for performing fundamental physics investigations. Currently, six experiments have been selected for flight definition studies. More will be selected in a two-year cycle, through NASA Research Announcement. This program is managed under the LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Experiments Project Office at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The facility is being designed to launch and returned to earth on a variety of vehicles including the HII-A and the space shuttle. On orbit, the facility will be connected to the Exposed Facility on the Japanese Experiment Module, Kibo. Features of the facility include a cryostat capable of maintaining super-fluid helium at a temperature of 1.4 K for 5 months, resistance thermometer bridges, multi-stage thermal isolation system, thermometers capable of pico-Kelvin resolution, DC SQUID magnetometers, passive vibration isolation, and magnetic shields with a shielding factor of 80dB. The electronics and software architecture incorporates two VME buses run using the VxWorks operating system. Technically challenging areas in the design effort include the following: 1) A long cryogen life that survives several launch and test cycles without the need to replace support straps for the helium tank. 2) The minimization of heat generation in the sample stage caused by launch vibration 3) The design of compact and lightweight DC SQUID electronics. 4) The minimization of RF interference for the measurement of heat at pico-Watt level. 5) Light weighting of the magnetic shields. 6) Implementation of a modular and flexible electronics and software architecture. The first launch is scheduled for mid-2003, on an H-IIA Rocket Transfer Vehicle, out of the Tanegashima Space Center of Japan. Two identical facilities will be built. While one facility is onboard

The use of the CRESU (Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme, or Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow) technique coupled with pulsed laser photochemical kinetics methods has shown that reactions involving radicals can be very rapid at temperatures down to 10 K or below. The results have had a major impact in astrochemistry and planetology, as well as proving an exacting test for theory. The technique has also been applied to the formation of transient complexes of interest both in atmospheric chemistry and combustion. Until now, all of the chemical reactions studied in this way have taken place on attractive potential energy surfaces with no overall barrier to reaction. The F + H2 {→} HF + H reaction does possess a substantial energetic barrier ({\\cong} 800 K), and might therefore be expected to slow to a negligible rate at very lowtemperatures. In fact, this H-atom abstraction reaction does take place efficiently at lowtemperatures due entirely to tunneling. I will report direct experimental measurements of the rate of this reaction down to a temperature of 11 K, in remarkable agreement with state-of-the-art quantum reactive scattering calculations by François Lique (Université du Havre) and Millard Alexander (University of Maryland). It is thought that long chain cyanopolyyne molecules H(C2)nCN may play an important role in the formation of the orange haze layer in Titan's atmosphere. The longest carbon chain molecule observed in interstellar space, HC11N, is also a member of this series. I will present new results, obtained in collaboration with Jean-Claude Guillemin (Ecole de Chimie de Rennes) and Stephen Klippenstein (Argonne National Labs), on reactions of C2H, CN and C3N radicals (using a new LIF scheme by Hoshina and Endo which contribute to the lowtemperature formation of (cyano)polyynes. H. Sabbah, L. Biennier, I. R. Sims, Y. Georgievskii, S. J. Klippenstein, I. W. M. Smith, Science 317, 102 (2007). S. D. Le Picard, M

Among the three principal methods for precombustion desulfurization of coal, which include physical depyriting, chemical desulfurization, and coal conversion to low-sulfur liquid and gaseous fuels, the potential of chemical methods looks promising in terms of both total sulfur removal and processing cost. The principal chemical methods for coal desulfurization involve treatment with either oxidizing agents or basic media at elevated temperature and pressure. A description is given of some recent experimental results which show the feasibility of removing sulfur, particularly organic sulfur, from high-sulfur coals by a simple method of low-temperature chlorinolysis followed by hydrolysis and dechlorination. The chemical feasibility of sulfur removal by chlorinolysis rather than the detailed engineering process is emphasized.

Zinc ferrite (ZnFe 2O 4) nanocrystalline powder materials with various particle sizes were prepared by a unique solid-state combustion method. Phase purity of ZnFe 2O 4 was confirmed by X-ray diffraction studies. High resolution transmission electron microscopic analysis and selected area diffraction pattern also confirmed the correct crystalline phase formation. Particle size was determined from both the transmission electron microscopic images and also from the XRD peak broadening analysis. Oxidation states of different elements present in ZnFe 2O 4 were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Frequency dependent dielectric constant and a.c. conductivity were measured as a function of particle size and both of them were found to decrease with decreasing particle size. These studies indicated that good quality zinc ferrite nanocrystalline powdered materials can be synthesized at lowtemperature.

We have developed a lowtemperature SuperConducting Quantum Interference Device - SQUID measurement system for detection of defects deep under the surface of aluminum structures using eddy current techniques. The system uses a two dimensional planar inducer with two different excitation frequencies to induce a current in the sample. We have developed a data analysis software program that enabled us to distinguish between round defects (holes), straight defects (slots) and slots close to holes simulating cracks starting from rivets in aluminum structures. We were able to detect defects that are 8mm below the surface. We have also measured the change in phase of the detected signal as a function of depth of the defect. This relationship can be used to determine the depth of hidden flaws. Using this analysis software with the high temperature SQUID system at NASA Langley we were able to detect slots close to holes in layered aluminum sample.

The application of refrigeration at lowtemperatures ranging from production of liquid helium for medical imaging systems to cooling of infrared sensors on surveillance satellites is discussed. Cooling below about 15 K with regenerative refrigerators is difficult because of the decreasing thermal mass of the regenerator compared to that of the working material. In order to overcome this difficulty with helium gas as the working material, a heat exchanger plus a Joule-Thomson or other exponder is used. Regenerative magnetic refrigerators with magnetic solids as the working material have the same regenerator problem as gas refrigerators. This problem provides motivation for the development of nonregenerative magnetic refrigerators that span approximately 1 K to approximately 0 K. Particular emphasis is placed on high reliability and high efficiency. Calculations indicate considerable promise in this area. The principles, the potential, the problems, and the progress towards development of successful 4 to 20 K magnetic refrigerators are discussed.

A refrigeration system for producing very lowtemperatures is described. The system of the invention employs a binary mixture refrigerant in a closed constant volume, e.g., Freon and ethylene. Such mixture is compressed in the gaseous state and is then separated in a fractionating column element of the system. Thenceforth, the first liquid to separate is employed stagewise to cool and liq uefy successive portions of the refrigerant at successively lower temperatures by means of heat exchangers coupled between the successive stages. When shut down, all of the volumes of the system are interconnected and a portion of the refrigerant remains liquid at ambient temperatures so that no dangerous overpressures develop. The system is therefore rugged, simple and dependable in operation.

A catalyst and process useful at lowtemperatures (below about 160 C) and preferably in the range 80--120 C used in the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen are disclosed. The catalyst is used in slurry form and comprises a complex reducing agent derived from the component structure NaH--RONa-M(OAc)[sub 2] where M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, and Co and R is a lower alkyl group containing 1--6 carbon atoms. This catalyst is preferably used alone but is also effective in combination with a metal carbonyl of a group VI (Mo, Cr, W) metal. The preferred catalyst precursor is Nic (where M = Ni and R = tertiary amyl). Mo(CO)[sub 6] is the preferred metal carbonyl if such component is used. The catalyst is subjected to a conditioning or activating step under temperature and pressure, similar to the parameters given above, to afford the active catalyst.

This patent discloses a catalyst and process useful at lowtemperatures (150/sup 0/C) and preferably in the range 80 to 120/sup 0/C used in the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The catalyst components are used in slurry form and comprise (1) a complex reducing agent derived from the component structure NaH-ROH-M(OAc)/sub 2/ where M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, and Co and R is a lower alkyl group containing 1 to 6 carbon atoms and (2) a metal carbonyl of a group VI (Mo, Cr, W) metal. For the first component, Nic is preferred (where M = Ni and R = tertiary amyl). For the second component, Mo(CO)/sub 6/ is preferred. The mixture is subjected to a conditioning or activating step under temperature and pressure, similar to the parameters given above, to afford the active catalyst.

CO removal from spacecraft gas streams was evaluated for three commercial, lowtemperature oxidation catalysts: Carulite 300, Sofnocat 423, and Hamilton Sundstrand Pt1. The catalysts were challenged with CO concentrations (1-100 ppm) under dry and wet (50% humidity) conditions using 2-3 % O2. CO removal and CO2 concentration were measured at constant feed composition using a FTIR. Water vapor affected the CO conversion of each catalyst differently. An initial screening found that Caulite 300 could not operate in humid conditions. The presence of water vapor affected CO conversion of Sofnocat 423 for challenge concentrations below 40 ppm. The conversion of CO by Sofnocat 423 was 80% at CO concentrations greater than 40 ppm under both dry and moist conditions. The HS Pt1 catalyst exhibited CO conversion levels of 100% under both dry and moist conditions.

This report presents information on the location, physical characteristics, and water chemistry of low-temperature geothermal resources in Washington. The database includes 941 thermal (>20C or 68F) wells, 34 thermal springs, lakes, and fumaroles, and 238 chemical analyses. Most thermal springs occur in the Cascade Range, and many are associated with stratovolcanoes. In contrast, 97 percent of thermal wells are located in the Columbia Basin of southeastern Washington. Some 83.5 percent are located in Adams, Benton, Franklin, Grant, Walla Walla, and Yakima Counties. Yakima County, with 259 thermal wells, has the most. Thermal wells do not seem to owe their origin to local sources of heat, such as cooling magma in the Earth`s upper crust, but to moderate to deep circulation of ground water in extensive aquifers of the Columbia River Basalt Group and interflow sedimentary deposits, under the influence of a moderately elevated (41C/km) average geothermal gradient.

PVC is usually processed at temperature above 180& circ; C, however, it starts to degrade at 130& circ; C. If PVC can flow at temperatures below glass transition temperature (Tg), the manufacturing procedure will be energy-conserving and environment-friendly. We find that PVC powders with controlled inter-segment van der Waals attraction can be compressed into a transparent pellet with high modulus at lowtemperatures. The molecular mechanism underlying this phenomenon involves shear-induced unjamming transition. PVC chains are unjammed by cold-pressing freeze-dried powder with decreased packing density. Because the Tg of freeze-dried PVC is dramatically reduced to the test temperatures under compression, PVC chains are able to flow by applying pressure solely. These results help us better understanding glass transition and can possible to develop a theory for cold processes.

Thermal operations are an operational model of non-equilibrium quantum thermodynamics. In the absence of coherence between energy levels, exact state transition conditions under thermal operations are known in terms of a mathematical relation called thermo-majorization. But incorporating coherence has turned out to be challenging, even under the relatively tractable model wherein all Gibbs state-preserving quantum channels are included. Here we find a mathematical generalization of thermal operations at lowtemperatures, ‘cooling maps', for which we derive the necessary and sufficient state transition condition. Cooling maps that saturate recently discovered bounds on coherence transfer are realizable as thermal operations, motivating us to conjecture that all cooling maps are thermal operations. Cooling maps, though a less-conservative generalization to thermal operations, are more tractable than Gibbs-preserving operations, suggesting that cooling map-like models at general temperatures could be of use in gaining insight about thermal operations. PMID:26138621

The design and operating characteristics of a fully differential pressure transducer are described. The device is intended for use with He II heat transfer experiments where it operates in vacuum and at lowtemperatures (T<4.2 K). A movable electrode is attached to two sets of miniature bellows such that the electrode position is determined by the differential pressure across the device. The movable electrode is located between two fixed electrodes, thus forming a pair of variable capacitors. A dedicated charge amplifier is used to convert the pressure induced capacitance change to an ac output voltage. The sensitivity is roughly 5 μV/Pa. For the present application, the capacitor and electronics have acceptable performance, with a mean noise level of ±5 Pa.

Silver from ancient time is used as antimicrobial agent in the bulk form but now with the advancement in nanotechnology silver in the form of nanoparticles shown potential effect against microbes which make us easy to fight with many diseases plants and animals. In this work silver nanoparticles were synthesized by chemical routes using sodium borohydride as reducing agent at lowtemperature. The particles were characterized through UV-Visible spectroscopy as well as X-Ray Diffraction. The UV-visible spectra of silver nanoparticles exhibited absorption at 425 cm; the crystallite size of the particles is between 19nm to 39nm. EDAX graph shows two peaks of silver and oxygen. Water absorbed by silver nanoparticles was removed by the calcinations.

Since the infancy of NMR spectroscopy, sensitivity and resolution have been the limiting factors of the technique. Regular essential developments on this front have led to the widely applicable, versatile, and powerful spectroscopy that we know today. However, the Holy Grail of ultimate sensitivity and resolution is not yet reached, and technical improvements are still ongoing. Hence, high-field dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) making use of high-frequency, high-power microwave irradiation of electron spins has become very promising in combination with magic angle sample spinning (MAS) solid-state NMR experiments. This is because it leads to a transfer of the much larger polarization of these electron spins under suitable irradiation to surrounding nuclei, greatly increasing NMR sensitivity. Currently, this boom in MAS-DNP is mainly performed at minimum sample temperatures of about 100K, using cold nitrogen gas to pneumatically spin and cool the sample. This Perspective deals with the desire to improve further the sensitivity and resolution by providing "ultra"-lowtemperatures for MAS-DNP, using cryogenic helium gas. Different designs on how this technological challenge has been overcome are described. It is shown that stable and fast spinning can be attained for sample temperatures down to 30K using a large cryostat developed in our laboratory. Using this cryostat to cool a closed-loop of helium gas brings the additional advantage of sample spinning frequencies that can greatly surpass those achievable with nitrogen gas, due to the differing fluidic properties of these two gases. It is shown that using ultra-lowtemperatures for MAS-DNP results in substantial experimental sensitivity enhancements and according time-savings. Access to this temperature range is demonstrated to be both viable and highly pertinent. PMID:26920837

Since the infancy of NMR spectroscopy, sensitivity and resolution have been the limiting factors of the technique. Regular essential developments on this front have led to the widely applicable, versatile, and powerful spectroscopy that we know today. However, the Holy Grail of ultimate sensitivity and resolution is not yet reached, and technical improvements are still ongoing. Hence, high-field dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) making use of high-frequency, high-power microwave irradiation of electron spins has become very promising in combination with magic angle sample spinning (MAS) solid-state NMR experiments. This is because it leads to a transfer of the much larger polarization of these electron spins under suitable irradiation to surrounding nuclei, greatly increasing NMR sensitivity. Currently, this boom in MAS-DNP is mainly performed at minimum sample temperatures of about 100 K, using cold nitrogen gas to pneumatically spin and cool the sample. This Perspective deals with the desire to improve further the sensitivity and resolution by providing "ultra"-lowtemperatures for MAS-DNP, using cryogenic helium gas. Different designs on how this technological challenge has been overcome are described. It is shown that stable and fast spinning can be attained for sample temperatures down to 30 K using a large cryostat developed in our laboratory. Using this cryostat to cool a closed-loop of helium gas brings the additional advantage of sample spinning frequencies that can greatly surpass those achievable with nitrogen gas, due to the differing fluidic properties of these two gases. It is shown that using ultra-lowtemperatures for MAS-DNP results in substantial experimental sensitivity enhancements and according time-savings. Access to this temperature range is demonstrated to be both viable and highly pertinent.

Thermal cracking of kerogens and bitumens is widely accepted as the major source of natural gas (thermal gas). Decomposition is believed to occur at high temperatures, between 100 and 200°C in the subsurface and generally above 300°C in the laboratory. Although there are examples of gas deposits possibly generated at lower temperatures, and reports of gas generation over long periods of time at 100°C, robust gas generation below 100°C under ordinary laboratory conditions is unprecedented. Here we report gas generation under anoxic helium flow at temperatures 300° below thermal cracking temperatures. Gas is generated discontinuously, in distinct aperiodic episodes of near equal intensity. In one three-hour episode at 50°C, six percent of the hydrocarbons (kerogen & bitumen) in a Mississippian marine shale decomposed to gas (C1–C5). The same shale generated 72% less gas with helium flow containing 10 ppm O2 and the two gases were compositionally distinct. In sequential isothermal heating cycles (~1 hour), nearly five times more gas was generated at 50°C (57.4 μg C1–C5/g rock) than at 350°C by thermal cracking (12 μg C1–C5/g rock). The position that natural gas forms only at high temperatures over geologic time is based largely on pyrolysis experiments under oxic conditions and temperatures where low-temperature gas generation could be suppressed. Our results indicate two paths to gas, a high-temperature thermal path, and a low-temperature catalytic path proceeding 300° below the thermal path. It redefines the time-temperature dimensions of gas habitats and opens the possibility of gas generation at subsurface temperatures previously thought impossible. PMID:19236698

Thermal cracking of kerogens and bitumens is widely accepted as the major source of natural gas (thermal gas). Decomposition is believed to occur at high temperatures, between 100 and 200 degrees C in the subsurface and generally above 300 degrees C in the laboratory. Although there are examples of gas deposits possibly generated at lower temperatures, and reports of gas generation over long periods of time at 100 degrees C, robust gas generation below 100 degrees C under ordinary laboratory conditions is unprecedented. Here we report gas generation under anoxic helium flow at temperatures 300 degrees below thermal cracking temperatures. Gas is generated discontinuously, in distinct aperiodic episodes of near equal intensity. In one three-hour episode at 50 degrees C, six percent of the hydrocarbons (kerogen & bitumen) in a Mississippian marine shale decomposed to gas (C1-C5). The same shale generated 72% less gas with helium flow containing 10 ppm O2 and the two gases were compositionally distinct. In sequential isothermal heating cycles (approximately 1 hour), nearly five times more gas was generated at 50 degrees C (57.4 microg C1-C5/g rock) than at 350 degrees C by thermal cracking (12 microg C1-C5/g rock). The position that natural gas forms only at high temperatures over geologic time is based largely on pyrolysis experiments under oxic conditions and temperatures where low-temperature gas generation could be suppressed. Our results indicate two paths to gas, a high-temperature thermal path, and a low-temperature catalytic path proceeding 300 degrees below the thermal path. It redefines the time-temperature dimensions of gas habitats and opens the possibility of gas generation at subsurface temperatures previously thought impossible. PMID:19236698

This disclosure generally relates to a technique and apparatus for solar heating which may be adapted for heating residential, commercial or industrial buildings, and in which the functions of solar energy collection, storage and heat-exchange are combined in the same passive structure generally consisting of a plurality of cylindrical tubes preferably fabricated of glass-fiber reinforced polyester resin which are filled with a stationary heat absorbing medium, such as water, with their surfaces preferably coated with a high absorptance material on to which solar rays are directed through a solar ''transmittor'' or window , and which surfaces serve as heat-exchange elements from which heat may be extracted in a variety of ways, including passage of air and thermal siphoning, and with the tubes enclosed within an appropriate insulated chamber. Cooperative action with domestic or similar hot water systems may also be achieved.

This disclosure generally relates to a technique and apparatus for solar heating which may be adapted for heating residential, commercial or industrial buildings, and in which the functions of solar energy collection, storage and heat-exchange are combined in the same passive structure generally consisting of a plurality of cylindrical tubes preferably fabricated of glass-fiber reinforced polyester resin which are filled with a stationary heat absorbing medium, such as water, with their surfaces preferably coated with a high absorbtance material on to which solar rays are directed through a solar ''transmittor'' or window , and which surfaces serve as heat-exchange elements from which heat may be extracted in a variety of ways, including passage of air and thermal siphoning, and with the tubes enclosed within an appropriate insulated chamber. Cooperative action with domestic or similar hot water systems may also be achieved.

Electron transfer and proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions at electrochemical interfaces play an essential role in a broad range of energy conversion processes. The reorganization energy, which is a measure of the free-energy change associated with solute and solvent rearrangements, is a key quantity for calculating rate constants for these reactions. We present a computational method for including the effects of the doublelayer and ionic environment of the diffuse layer in calculations of electrochemical solvent reorganization energies. This approach incorporates an accurate electronic charge distribution of the solute within a molecular-shaped cavity in conjunction with a dielectric continuum treatment of the solvent, ions, and electrode using the integral equations formalism polarizable continuum model. The molecule-solvent boundary is treated explicitly, but the effects of the electrode-doublelayer and doublelayer-diffuse layer boundaries, as well as the effects of the ionic strength of the solvent, are included through an external Green's function. The calculated total reorganization energies agree well with experimentally measured values for a series of electrochemical systems, and the effects of including both the doublelayer and ionic environment are found to be very small. This general approach was also extended to electrochemical PCET and produced total reorganization energies in close agreement with experimental values for two experimentally studied PCET systems. PMID:27111050

We investigate processes in the electron-beam-return-current system in the impulsive phase of solar flares to answer a question about the formation of the n-electron distribution detected in this phase of solar flares. An evolution of the electron-beam-return-current system with an initial local density depression is studied using a three-dimensional electromagnetic particle-in-cell model. In the system the strong doublelayer is formed. Its electric field potential increases with the electron beam flux. In this electric field potential, the electrons of background plasma are strongly accelerated and propagate in the return-current direction. The high-energy part of their distribution at the high-potential side of the strong doublelayer resembles that of the n-distribution. Thus, the detection of the n-distributions, where a form of the high-energy part of the distribution is the most important, can indicate the presence of strong doublelayers in solar flares. The similarity between processes in solar flare loops and those in the downward current region of the terrestrial aurora, where the doublelayers were observed by FAST satellite, supports this idea.

This article proposes a potential automatic ligation (LigLAP) method to occlude vessels and ducts in several laparoscopic surgical procedures. Currently, stapling devices are widely used for this purpose. However, there are some complications associated with stapling devices, including biliary leak and tissue damage. In this article, we examine the feasibility of an alternative method that uses a double-layer suture to encircle and occlude a vessel. A heating element melts the outer layer of the suture at the cross-point of the suture to create a seal. Several electromechanical mechanisms have been proposed to carry out this ligation process. In addition, some parts have been prototyped for experimental verification and visualization. Several double-layered sutures have been created, and their tensile strength and sealing capabilities have been measured. Moreover, a simple leakage experiment has been performed to verify experimentally the idea of using the double-layer suture. The results show that the new suture and the thermal sealing method provide the required strength to occlude balloons filled with water. Although the results suggest that the proposed method and the double-layer suture may be used in surgical ligation processes, much more rigorous testing of leakage is required. PMID:25918125

A double-layer high-temperature superconductor (HTSC) arrangement was proposed and proved to be able to bring improvements to both levitation force and guidance force compared with present single-layer HTSC arrangement. To fully exploit the applied magnetic field by a magnetic rail, the thickness dependence of a double-layer HTSC arrangement on the levitation performance was further investigated in the paper. In this study, the lower-layer bulk was polished step by step to different thicknesses, and the upper-layer bulk with constant thickness was directly superimposed on the lower-layer one. The levitation force and the force relaxation of the double-layer HTSC arrangement were measured above a Halbach magnetic rail. Experimental result shows that a bigger levitation force and a less levitation force decay could be achieved by optimizing the thickness of the lower-layer bulk HTSC. This thickness optimization method could be applied together with former reported double-layer HTSC arrangement method with aligned growth sector boundaries pattern. This series of study on the optimized combination method do bring a significant improvement on the levitation performance of present HTS maglev systems.

This paper presents the first direct spectroscopic evidence for doublelayer or capacitive charging of carbon nanomaterial-based solid contacts in all-solid-state polymeric ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). Here, we used synchrotron radiation-X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SR-XPS) and SR valence band (VB) spectroscopy in the elucidation of the charging mechanism of the SCs. PMID:27405722

We present a continuation of our theoretical research into the influence of co-solvent polarizability on a differential capacitance of the electric doublelayer. We formulate a modified Poisson-Boltzmann theory, using the formalism of density functional approach on the level of local density approximation taking into account the electrostatic interactions of ions and co-solvent molecules as well as their excluded volume. We derive the modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation, considering the three-component symmetric lattice gas model as a reference system and minimizing the grand thermodynamic potential with respect to the electrostatic potential. We apply present modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation to the electric doublelayer theory, showing that accounting for the excluded volume of co-solvent molecules and ions slightly changes the main result of our previous simplified theory. Namely, in the case of small co-solvent polarizability with its increase under the enough small surface potentials of electrode, the differential capacitance undergoes the significant growth. Oppositely, when the surface potential exceeds some threshold value (which is slightly smaller than the saturation potential), the increase in the co-solvent polarizability results in a differential capacitance decrease. However, when the co-solvent polarizability exceeds some threshold value, its increase generates a considerable enhancement of the differential capacitance in a wide range of surface potentials. We demonstrate that two qualitatively different behaviors of the differential capacitance are related to the depletion and adsorption of co-solvent molecules at the charged electrode. We show that an additive of the strongly polarizable co-solvent to an electrolyte solution can shift significantly the saturation potential in two qualitatively different manners. Namely, a small additive of strongly polarizable co-solvent results in a shift of saturation potential to higher surface potentials. On

We present a continuation of our theoretical research into the influence of co-solvent polarizability on a differential capacitance of the electric doublelayer. We formulate a modified Poisson-Boltzmann theory, using the formalism of density functional approach on the level of local density approximation taking into account the electrostatic interactions of ions and co-solvent molecules as well as their excluded volume. We derive the modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation, considering the three-component symmetric lattice gas model as a reference system and minimizing the grand thermodynamic potential with respect to the electrostatic potential. We apply present modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation to the electric doublelayer theory, showing that accounting for the excluded volume of co-solvent molecules and ions slightly changes the main result of our previous simplified theory. Namely, in the case of small co-solvent polarizability with its increase under the enough small surface potentials of electrode, the differential capacitance undergoes the significant growth. Oppositely, when the surface potential exceeds some threshold value (which is slightly smaller than the saturation potential), the increase in the co-solvent polarizability results in a differential capacitance decrease. However, when the co-solvent polarizability exceeds some threshold value, its increase generates a considerable enhancement of the differential capacitance in a wide range of surface potentials. We demonstrate that two qualitatively different behaviors of the differential capacitance are related to the depletion and adsorption of co-solvent molecules at the charged electrode. We show that an additive of the strongly polarizable co-solvent to an electrolyte solution can shift significantly the saturation potential in two qualitatively different manners. Namely, a small additive of strongly polarizable co-solvent results in a shift of saturation potential to higher surface potentials. On

A doublelayer (DL) consists of a positive/negative Debye sheath, connecting two quasineutral regions of a plasma. These nonlinear structures can be found in a variety of plasmas, from discharge tubes to space plasmas. It has applications to plasma processing and space propulsion, and its concept is also important for areas such as applied geophysics. In the present work we investigate the ion-acoustic double-layers (IADLs). It is believed that these structures are responsible for the acceleration of auroral electrons, for example. The plasma distributions near a DL are usually non-Maxwellian and can be modeled via a κ distribution function. In its reduced form, the standard κ distribution is equivalent to the distribution function obtained from the maximization of the Tsallis entropy, the q distribution. The parameters κ and q measure the deviation from the Maxwellian equilibrium ("nonthermality"), with -κ=1/(1-q) (in the limit κ → ∞ (q → 1) the Maxwellian distribution is recovered). The existence of obliquely propagating IADLs in magnetized two-electron plasmas is investigated, with the hot electron population modeled via a κ distribution function [1]. Our analysis shows that only subsonic and rarefactive DLs exist for the entire range of parameters investigated. The small amplitude DLs exist only for τ=Th/Tc greater than a critical value, which grows as κ decreases. We also observe that these structures exist only for large values of δ=Nh0/N0, but never for δ=1. In our model, which assumes a quasineutral condition, the Mach number M grows as θ decreases (θ is the angle between the directions of the external magnetic field and wave propagation). However, M as well as the DL amplitude are reduced as a consequence of nonthermality. The relation of the quasineutral condition and the functional form of the distribution function with the nonexistence of IADLs has also been analyzed and some interesting results have been obtained. A more detailed

The LowTemperature Microgravity Physics Facility (LTMPF) is a multiple user and multiple-flight NASA facility that will provide a lowtemperature environment for about 4. 5 months on board the International Space Station (ISS).

primarily of radioactive wastes containing a very high aluminum concentration. Based on initial laboratory testing and previous sludge characterization, aluminum in this sludge could be dissolved at lowtemperature (no more than 65 deg. C) in a concentrated caustic solution. The amount of aluminum predicted to dissolve under these conditions ranged from 25% to 80%. An opportunity existed to remove a significant amount of aluminum prior to vitrification in DWPF and increase the level of understanding of the effects of caustic dissolution of aluminum at lower temperatures. This paper presents the results of a real waste laboratory demonstration and full-scale implementation of a lowtemperature aluminum dissolution process which should be considered as a viable means to reduce radioactive sludge mass and reduce the amount of waste to be vitrified. (authors)

This thesis presents, in three parts, topics dealing with the lowtemperature electro-magnetic surface properties of metals and ceramics. Part I discusses the development and operation of an apparatus to spatially resolve metallic surface potentials as a function of temperature between 2.8K and room temperature. This experiment operates under UHV conditions with a voltage resolution of 1 millivolt and a spatial resolution of 1200 microns. We use this equipment to search for temperature dependent changes in spatial fluctuations of the surface potential. A screening of these fluctuations by a surface conducting layer is suggested by the experiments of Lockhart, Witteborn, and Fairbank, who reported temperature dependent shielding of random electric fields inside a copper tube. Sharp changes with temperature in the microwave surface conductivity of copper and aluminum have also been reported. We have found some aluminum samples to be contaminated with sufficient tin to explain recent microwave results as superconducting impurity transitions. For copper, where both increased and decreased conductivities have been reported, we explain increasing conductivity results in the same way. The present experiment measures surface potential directly, but shows no evidence of temperature dependent shielding. Part II of this thesis presents a calculation of random fields outside a metal surface and their effect on TOF spectroscopy. We calculate the statistical properties of the fields in one-dimensional and cylindrical geometries, then use these results to investigate TOF effects. Calculated quantities include the autocovariance function of the potential, the rms electric field, corrections to the free particle time of flight, and the mean minimum energy required to transit the random potential. The results compare well with our numerical simulations, and with the available experimental data. In part III we investigate the 9.12 GHz complex surface impedance of bulk and thin film

Nowadays microfabrication techniques originating from micro-electro nics enable to create mechanical objects of micron-size. The field of Micro-Electro-Mechanical devices (MEMs) is continuously expanding, with an amazingly broad range of applications at room temperature. Vibrating objects (torsional oscillators, vibrating wires) widely used at lowtemperatures to study quantum fluids, can be replaced advantageously by Silicon MEMs. In this letter we report on the study of Silicon vibrating wire devices. A goal-post structure covered with a metal layer is driven at resonance by the Laplace force acting on a current in a magnetic field, while the induced voltage arising from the cut magnetic flux allows to detect the motion. The characteristics of the resonance have been studied from 10 mK to 30 K, in vacuum and in 4He gas. In this article, we focus on the results obtained above 1.5 K, in vacuum and gas, and introduce some features observed at lower temperatures. The resonant properties can be quantitatively understood by means of simple models, from the linear regime to a highly non-linear response at strong drives. We demonstrate that the non-linearity is mostly due to the geometry of the vibrators. We also show that in our device the friction mechanisms originate in the metallic layers, and can be fully characterized. The interaction with 4He gas is fit to theory without adjustable parameters.

A catalyst and process useful at lowtemperatures (below about 160.degree. C.) and preferably in the range 80.degree.-120.degree. C. used in the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is disclosed. The catalyst is used in slurry form and comprises a complex reducing agent derived from the component structure NaH--RONa--M(OAc).sub.2 where M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, and Co and R is a lower alkyl group containing 1-6 carbon atoms. This catalyst is preferably used alone but is also effective in combination with a metal carbonyl of a group VI (Mo, Cr, W) metal. The preferred catalyst precursor is Nic (where M=Ni and R=tertiary amyl). Mo(CO).sub.6 is the preferred metal carbonyl if such component is used. The catalyst is subjected to a conditioning or activating step under temperature and pressure, similar to the parameters given above, to afford the active catalyst.

This status report covers the fifty-second month of a project to develop a lowtemperature, reverse-Brayton cryocooler using turbomachines. This program consists of a Basic Phase and four Option Phases. Each of the Phases is directed to a particular load/temperature combination. The technology and fundamental design features of the components used in these systems are related but differ somewhat in size, speed, and some details in physical geometry. Each of the Phases can be carried out independently of the others, except that all of the Phases rely on the technology developed and demonstrated during the Basic Phase. The Basic Phase includes the demonstration of a critical component and the production of a prototype model cryocooler. The critical technology demonstration will be the test of a small turboalternator over a range of conditions at temperatures down to 6 K. These tests will provide design verification data useful for the further design of the other coolers. The prototype model cooler will be designed to provide at least 5 mW of cooling at 6 K. The heat rejection temperature for this requirement is 220 K or greater. The input power to the system at these conditions is to be less than 60 W.

A catalyst and process useful at lowtemperatures (below about 160 C) and preferably in the range 80--120 C used in the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen are disclosed. The catalyst is used in slurry form and comprises a complex reducing agent derived from the component structure NaH--RONa-M(OAc)[sub 2] where M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, and Co and R is a lower alkyl group containing 1-6 carbon atoms. This catalyst is preferably used alone but is also effective in combination with a metal carbonyl of a group VI (Mo, Cr, W) metal. The preferred catalyst precursor is NiC (where M = Ni and R = tertiary amyl). Mo(CO)[sub 6] is the preferred metal carbonyl if such component is used. The catalyst is subjected to a conditioning or activating step under temperature and pressure, similar to the parameters given above, to afford the active catalyst.

A catalyst and process useful at lowtemperatures (below about 160/sup 0/C) and preferably in the range 80 to 120/sup 0/C used in the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is disclosed. The catalyst is used in slurry form and comprises a complex reducing agent derived from the component structure NaH-RONa-M(OAc)/sub 2/ where M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, and Co and R is a lower alkyl group containing 1 to 6 carbon atoms. This catalyst is preferably used alone but is also effective in combination with a metal carbonyl of a group VI (Mo, Cr, W) metal. The preferred catalyst precursor is Nic (where M = Ni and R = tertiary amyl). Mo(CO)/sub 6/ is the preferred metal carbonyl if such component is used. The catalyst is subjected to a conditioning or activating step under temperature and pressure, similar to the parameters given above, to afford the active catalyst.

The development of satellite power systems capable of operating at lowtemperatures on the order of 77K would reduce the heating system required on deep space vehicles. The power supplies in the satellite power system must be capable of operating at these temperatures. This paper presents the results of a study into the operation of a boost converter at temperatures close to 77K. The boost converter is designed to supply an output voltage and power of 42 V and 50 W from a 28 V input source. The entire system, except the 28 V source, is placed in the environmental chamber. This is important because the system does not require any manual adjustments to maintain a constant output voltage with a high efficiency. The constant 42 V output of this converter is a benefit of the application of a CMOS microcontroller in the feedback path. The switch duty cycle is adjusted by the microcontroller to maintain a constant output voltage. The efficiency of the system varied less than 1% over the temperature range of 22 C to {minus}184 C and was approximately 94.2% when the temperature was {minus}184 C.

Air revitalization technologies maintain a safe atmosphere inside spacecraft by the removal of C02, ammonia (NH3), and trace contaminants. NH3 onboard the International Space Station (ISS) is produced by crew metabolism, payloads, or during an accidental release of thermal control refrigerant. Currently, the ISS relies on removing NH3 via humidity condensate and the crew wears hooded respirators during emergencies. A different approach to cabin NH3 removal is to use selective catalytic oxidation (SCO), which builds on thermal catalytic oxidation concepts that could be incorporated into the existing TCCS process equipment architecture on ISS. A lowtemperature platinum-based catalyst (LTP-Catalyst) developed at KSC was used for converting NH3 to H20 and N2 gas by SCO. The challenge of implementing SCO is to reduce formation of undesirable byproducts like NOx (N20 and NO). Gas mixture analysis was conducted using FTIR spectrometry in the Regenerable VOC Control System (RVCS) Testbed. The RVCS was modified by adding a 66 L semi-sealed chamber, and a custom NH3 generator. The effect of temperature on NH3 removal using the LTP-Catalyst was examined. A suitable temperature was found where NH3 removal did not produce toxic NO, (NO, N02) and N20 formation was reduced.

Woody plants in boreal to arctic environments and high mountains survive prolonged exposure to temperatures below -40°C and minimum temperatures below -60°C, and laboratory tests show that many of these species can also survive immersion in liquid nitrogen at -196°C. Studies of biochemical changes that occur during acclimation, including recent proteomic and metabolomic studies, have identified changes in carbohydrate and compatible solute concentrations, membrane lipid composition, and proteins, notably dehydrins, that may have important roles in survival at extreme lowtemperature (ELT). Consideration of the biophysical mechanisms of membrane stress and strain lead to the following hypotheses for cellular and molecular mechanisms of survival at ELT: (1) Changes in lipid composition stabilize membranes at temperatures above the lipid phase transition temperature (-20 to -30°C), preventing phase changes that result in irreversible injury. (2) High concentrations of oligosaccharides promote vitrification or high viscosity in the cytoplasm in freeze-dehydrated cells, which would prevent deleterious interactions between membranes. (3) Dehydrins bind membranes and further promote vitrification or act stearically to prevent membrane–membrane interactions. PMID:26539202

We have systematically investigated the influence of different bonding parameters on void formation in a low-temperature adhesive bonding process. As a result of these studies we present guidelines for void free adhesive bonding of 10 cm diameter wafers. We have focused on polymer coatings with layer thicknesses between 1 µm and 18 µm. The tested polymer materials were benzocyclobutene (BCB) from Dow Chemical, a negative photoresist (ULTRA-i 300) and a positive photoresist (S1818) from Shipley, a polyimide (HTR3) from Arch Chemical and two different polyimides (PI2555 and PI2610) from DuPont. The polymer material, the bonding pressure and the pre-curing time and temperature for the polymer significantly influence void formation at the bond interface. High bonding pressure and optimum pre-curing times/temperatures counteract void formation. We present the process parameters to achieve void-free bonding with the BCB coating and with the ULTRA-i 300 photoresist coating as adhesive materials. Excellent void-free and strong bonds have been achieved by using BCB as the bonding material which requires a minimum bonding temperature of 180 °C.

Recent years have witnessed many exciting breakthroughs in neutrino physics. The detection of neutrino oscillations has proved that neutrinos are massive particles but the assessment of their absolute mass scale is still an outstanding challenge in today particle physics and cosmology. Due to their abundance as big-bang relics, massive neutrinos strongly affect the large-scale structure and dynamics of the universe. In addition, the knowledge of the scale of neutrino masses, together with their hierarchy pattern, is invaluable to clarify the origin of fermion masses beyond the Higgs mechanism. The mass hierarchy is not the only missing piece in the puzzle. Theories of neutrino mass generation call into play Majorana neutrinos and there are experimental observations pointing to the existence of sterile neutrinos in addition to the three ones weakly interacting. Since lowtemperature detectors were first proposed for neutrino physics experiments in 1984, there have been impressive technical progresses: today this technique offers the high energy resolution and scalability required for leading edges and competitive experiments addressing the still open questions.

We designed and fabricated a bipolar-type electric doublelayer capacitor (EDLC) with a maximum 7.5 V operating voltage using a new concept in solid electrolytes. A cell having a high operating voltage, that is free from liquid leakage and is non-flammable is achieved by a bipolar design utilizing a solid polymer electrolyte made up of particles in a three-dimensional array, such as crystals composed of 75 wt% of hybrid particles decorated with a concentrated ionic liquid polymer brush (PSiP) and 25wt% of an ionic liquid (IL). The resulting solid film had sufficient physical strength and a high enough ionic conductivity to function as an electrolyte. Solidification as well as ionic conduction is due to the regular array of PSiPs, thereby producing a high ion-conductivity from a networked path between cores containing an appropriate amount of IL as a plasticizer. The demonstration cell shows a relatively good cycle durability and rate properties up to a 10C discharge process. It also has a very small leakage current in continuous charging and better self-discharge properties, even at 60 °C, compared with conventional cells. This paper demonstrates the first successful fabrication of a bipolar EDLC in a simple structure using this novel polymer solid electrolyte.

The Double-Layer Master-Slave Model (DMSM) is a suitable hybrid model for executing a workload that consists of multiple independent tasks of varying length on a cluster consisting of multicore nodes. In this model, groups of individual tasks are first deployed to the cluster nodes through an MPI based Master-Slave model. Then, each group is processed by multiple threads on the node through an OpenMP based All-Slave approach. The lack of thread safety of most MPI libraries has to be addressed by a judicious use of OpenMP critical regions and locks. The HPCVL DMSM Library implements this model in Fortran and C. It requires a minimum of user input to set up the framework for the model and to define the individual tasks. Optionally, it supports the dynamic distribution of task-related data and the collection of results at runtime. This library is freely available as source code. Here, we outline the working principles of the library and on a few examples demonstrate its capability to efficiently distribute a workload on a distributed-memory cluster with shared-memory nodes.

An ion beam generated by an annular doublelayer has been measured in a helicon thruster, which sustains a magnetised low-pressure (5.0 × 10-4 Torr) argon plasma at a constant radio-frequency (13.56 MHz) power of 300 W. After the ion beam exits the annular structure, it merges into a solid centrally peaked structure in the diffusion chamber. As the annular ion beam moves towards the inner region in the diffusion chamber, a reversed-cone plasma wake (with a half opening angle of about 30°) is formed. This process is verified by measuring both the radial and axial distributions of the beam potential and beam current. The beam potential changes from a two-peak radial profile (maximum value ˜ 30 V, minimum value ˜ 22.5 V) to a flat (˜28 V) along the axial direction; similarly, the beam current changes from a two-peak to one-peak radial profile and the maximum value decreases by half. The inward cross-magnetic-field motion of the beam ions is caused by a divergent electric field in the source. Cross-field diffusion of electrons is also observed in the inner plume and is determined as being of non-ambipolar origin.

A high density 'blue' mode has been observed when operating the Helicon DoubleLayer Thruster (HDLT) with xenon. Using a Langmuir probe and a retarding field energy analyser (RFEA), the plasma source and exhaust have been characterized at various radio frequency (RF) powers and operating pressures. When operating at low RF powers, the HDLT prototype is shown to be in a capacitively coupled mode. As the RF power is increased, a discrete mode transition occurs over a small RF power range (at about 625 W at 0.45 mTorr) and the plasma inside the source increases in density significantly and changes to a bright white/blue colour. This high density mode exhibits hysteresis, and radial measurements inside the source reveal a centrally peaked profile that is indicative of a helicon wave-sustained discharge. The quality, or Q, factor of the matching box is determined as a function of RF power and is shown to decrease in the high density mode, consistent with the increase in plasma density observed. The xenon exhaust of the HDLT prototype is investigated axially with the Langmuir probe and the RFEA and is shown to follow a Boltzmann expansion with an electron temperature of about 6 eV.

Direct thrust measurements are made of a helicon doublelayer thruster operating in a low magnetic field mode. The relationship between the imposed axial magnetic field and generated thrust is investigated for a radio frequency input power range 200-500 W for propellant flow rates of 16.5 and 20 sccm (0.46 and 0.55 mg s-1) of argon. The measured thrust shows a strong dependence on the magnetic field strength, increasing by up to a factor of 5 compared with the minimum thrust level recorded. A peak thrust of 0.4-1.1 mN depending on thruster operating conditions is obtained. This increase is observed to take place over a small range of peak magnetic field strengths in the region of 70-110 G. The magnitude of the thrust and the corresponding magnitude of the magnetic field at which the peak thrust occurs is shown to increase with increasing input power for a given propellant flow rate. The ion current determined using a retarding field energy analyser and the electron number density found using a microwave resonator probe both correlate with the observed trend in thrust as a function of applied magnetic field.

Large-scale problems that demand high precision have remarkably increased the computational time of numerical simulation models. Therefore, the parallelization of models has been widely implemented in recent years. However, computing time remains a major challenge when a large model is calibrated using optimization techniques. To overcome this difficulty, we proposed a double-layer parallel system for hydrological model calibration using high-performance computing (HPC) systems. The lower-layer parallelism is achieved using a hydrological model, the Digital Yellow River Integrated Model, which was parallelized by decomposing river basins. The upper-layer parallelism is achieved by simultaneous hydrological simulations with different parameter combinations in the same generation of the genetic algorithm and is implemented using the job scheduling functions of an HPC system. The proposed system was applied to the upstream of the Qingjian River basin, a sub-basin of the middle Yellow River, to calibrate the model effectively by making full use of the computing resources in the HPC system and to investigate the model's behavior under various parameter combinations. This approach is applicable to most of the existing hydrology models for many applications.

An electrostatic power generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by utilising the principle of variable capacitance. This change in capacitance is usually achieved by varying the gap or overlap between two parallel metallic plates. This paper proposes a novel electrostatic micro power generator where the change in capacitance is achieved by the movement of an aqueous solution of NaCl. A significant change in capacitance is achieved due to the higher than air dielectric constant of water and the Helmholtz doublelayer capacitor formed by ion separation at the electrode interfaces. The proposed device has significant advantages over traditional electrostatic devices which include low bias voltage and low mechanical frequency of operation. This is critical if the proposed device is to have utility in harvesting power from the environment. A figure of merit exceeding 10000(108μW)/(mm2HzV2) which is two orders of magnitude greater than previous devices, is demonstrated for a prototype operating at a bias voltage of 1.2 V and a droplet frequency of 6 Hz. Concepts are presented for large scale power harvesting. PMID:27255577

We report on spin transport in sputter-grown Ta films measured by ferromagnetic resonance. Spin diffusion length and spin mixing conductance are determined from magnetic damping measurements for a varying thickness of Ta layer 0 ≤dTa≤10 nm. The different boundary conditions of single- and double-magnetic-layer heterostructures Py |Ta and Py |Ta | [Py |Fe ] allow us to significantly narrow down the parameter space and test various models. We show that a common approach of using bulk resistivity value in the analysis yields inconsistent spin diffusion length and spin mixing conductance values for magnetic single- and double-layer structures. X-ray diffraction shows that bulk Ta is a combination of β -Ta and bcc-Ta . However, in the region of significant spin transport, ≲2 nm, there is an intermediate region of growth where the Ta lacks long-range structural order, as observed by transmission electron microscopy. Thickness-dependent resistivity measurements confirm that the bulk and intermediate regions have significantly different resistivity values. We find that the data can be well represented if the intermediate region resistivity value is used in the analysis. Additionally, the data can be fit if resistivity has the measured thickness dependence and spin diffusion length is restricted to be inversely proportional to resistivity. Finally, we rule out a model in which spin diffusion length is a constant, while the resistivity has the measured thickness dependence.

The ballistic perforation resistance of double-layered steel plates impacted by flat-nosed projectiles was investigated both experimentally and numerically. In the tests, 10 mm thick (intact or spaced by 200 mm gap space) targets of Q235A steel were impacted using a gas-gun at sub-ordnance velocity, and the ballistic limit velocity of the different target configurations was obtained. The Johnson-Cook strength and fracture models were used in the finite element simulations, where the model constants were calibrated by preliminary material tests and taken from open literature. In general, good agreement was obtained between the numerical simulations and the experimental results. It was found that the ballistic resistance of spaced targets suffers from large divergence due to the projectile's different residual attitude after perforation of the front plate, and that it seems the initial-residual velocity data yield to two groups and therefore give birth to two ballistic limit velocities. However, the overall ballistic resistance of the spaced targets is less than that of the in contact ones.

A theoretical investigation is performed into the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid as a function of the contact area ratio. It is shown that the electric doublelayer (EDL) formed at the interface of the graphene and the liquid causes an overlap of the conduction bands and valance bands and increases the density of state (DOS) at the Fermi energy (EF). In other words, a greater number of charge carriers are induced for transport and the graphene changes from a semiconductor to a semimetal. In addition, it is shown that the dependence of the DOS at EF on the contact area ratio has a bimodal distribution which responses to the experimental observation, a pinnacle curve. The maximum number of induced carriers is expected to occur at contact area ratios of 40% and 60%. In general, the present results indicate that modulating the EDL provides an effective means of tuning the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid. PMID:27464986

In order to determine light aberrations, Shack-Hartmann optical wavefront sensors make use of microlens arrays (MLA) to divide the incident light into small parts and focus them onto image planes. In this paper, we present the design and fabrication of long focal length MLA with various shapes and arrangements based on a doublelayer structure for optical wavefront sensing applications. A longer focal length MLA could provide high sensitivity in determining the average slope across each microlens under a given wavefront, and spatial resolution of a wavefront sensor is increased by numbers of microlenses across a detector. In order to extend focal length, we used polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) above MLA on a glass substrate. Because of small refractive index difference between PDMS and MLA interface (UV-resin), the incident light is less refracted and focused in further distance. Other specific focal lengths could also be realized by modifying the refractive index difference without changing the MLA size. Thus, the wavefront sensor could be improved with better sensitivity and higher spatial resolution. PMID:22346643

An ion beam generated by an annular doublelayer has been measured in a helicon thruster, which sustains a magnetised low-pressure (5.0 × 10{sup −4} Torr) argon plasma at a constant radio-frequency (13.56 MHz) power of 300 W. After the ion beam exits the annular structure, it merges into a solid centrally peaked structure in the diffusion chamber. As the annular ion beam moves towards the inner region in the diffusion chamber, a reversed-cone plasma wake (with a half opening angle of about 30°) is formed. This process is verified by measuring both the radial and axial distributions of the beam potential and beam current. The beam potential changes from a two-peak radial profile (maximum value ∼ 30 V, minimum value ∼ 22.5 V) to a flat (∼28 V) along the axial direction; similarly, the beam current changes from a two-peak to one-peak radial profile and the maximum value decreases by half. The inward cross-magnetic-field motion of the beam ions is caused by a divergent electric field in the source. Cross-field diffusion of electrons is also observed in the inner plume and is determined as being of non-ambipolar origin.

An analysis has been performed for the osmotic pressure of ionic liquids in the electric doublelayer (EDL). By using the electromechanical approach, we first derive a differential equation that is valid for computing the osmotic pressure in the continuum limit of any incompressible fluid in EDL. Then a specific model for ionic liquids proposed by Bazant et al. [M. Z. Bazant, B. D. Storey, and A. A. Kornyshev, Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 046102 (2011), 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.046102] is adopted for more detailed computation of the osmotic pressure. Ionic liquids are characterized by the correlation and the steric effects of ions and their effects are analyzed. In the low voltage cases, the correlation effect is dominant and the problem becomes linear. For this low voltage limit, a closed form formula is derived for predicting the osmotic pressure in EDL with no overlapping. It is found that the osmotic pressure decreases as the correlation effect increases. The osmotic pressures at the nanoslit surface and nanoslit centerline are also obtained for the low voltage limit. For the cases of moderately high voltage with high correlation factor, approximate formulas are derived for estimating osmotic pressure values based on the concept of a condensed layer near the electrode. In order to corroborate the results predicted by analytical studies, the full nonlinear model has been solved numerically.

Molecular dynamics simulations of the electrical doublelayer at AgCl/aqueous electrolyte (KCl) interfaces are presented, accompanied by a new force field and properties of bulk AgCl computed using planewave density functional theory. Long dynamics simulations were performed to estimate ion adsorption free energies at the AgCl surface. The simulations demonstrate formation of a bilayer hydration sheet composed of two sublayers of water molecules interconnected by hydrogen bonds. Potassium ions prefer to form an inner-sphere complex, whereas chloride ions prefer outer-sphere complexes. The adsorbed ions/water layers form a relatively rigid structure within the range of ionic strength considered, which confirms the applicability of the Helmholtz model in a high concentration regime. Profiles of the charge density, electric field and electrostatic potential across the simulation cell revealed that oscillations of water molecules govern these quantities. The electrostatic potential generated only by the electrolyte ions was used to study the quasi-Nernstian response of the silver chloride surface to the variation in the ionic strength.

During multi-bubble cavitation the bubbles tend to organize themselves into clusters and thus the understanding of properties and dynamics of clustering is essential for controlling technical applications of cavitation. Sound field measurements are a potential technique to provide valuable experimental information about the status of cavitation clouds. Using purpose-made, rugged, wide band, and small-sized needle hydrophones, sound field measurements in bubble clusters were performed and time-dependent sound pressure waveforms were acquired and analyzed in the frequency domain up to 20 MHz. The cavitation clusters were synchronously observed by an electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera and the relation between the sound field measurements and cluster behaviour was investigated. Depending on the driving power, three ranges could be identified and characteristic properties were assigned. At low power settings no transient and no or very low stable cavitation activity can be observed. The medium range is characterized by strong pressure peaks and various bubble cluster forms. At high power a stable doublelayer was observed which grew with further increasing power and became quite dynamic. The sound field was irregular and the fundamental at driving frequency decreased. Between the bubble clouds completely different sound field properties were found in comparison to those in the cloud where the cavitation activity is high. In between the sound field pressure amplitude was quite small and no collapses were detected. PMID:24953962

The effect of an axial magnetic field on laser driven ion acceleration from a thin overdense plasma slab is investigated. The magnetic field modifies the refractive index of the plasma and the axial ponderomotive force. The latter compresses the electrons until the space charge field thus created offsets it. When the foil thickness is just bigger than the length at which this happens, the compressed electrons and a thin ion layer detach from the foil forming a doublelayer that gets accelerated by the laser radiation pressure force. The optimum thickness of laser foil, DELTA{sub s}, for maximum acceleration is sensitive to the polarization of the laser pulse. For right circular polarization it increases, while for left circular polarization it decreases with the magnetic field. The ion energy gain is sensitive to a{sub 0}{sup 2}omega{sup 2}/DELTA{sub s}omega{sub p}{sup 2} (where a{sub 0} is the laser field strength, omega{sub p} is the plasma frequency, and omega is the laser frequency) and can be tuned by varying the magnetic field.

Weak ion-acoustic solitary waves (IASWs) in an unmagnetized quantum plasmas having two-fluid ions and fluid electrons are considered. Using the one-dimensional quantum hydrodynamics model and then the reductive perturbation technique, a generalized form of nonlinear quantum Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation governing the dynamics of weak ion acoustic solitary waves is derived. The effects of ion population, warm ion temperature, quantum diffraction, and polarity of ions on the nonlinear properties of these IASWs are analyzed. It is found that our present plasma model may support compressive as well as rarefactive solitary structures. Furthermore, formation and characteristics properties of IA doublelayers in the present bi-ion plasma model are investigated. The results of this work should be useful and applicable in understanding the wide relevance of nonlinear features of localized electro-acoustic structures in laboratory and space plasma, such as in super-dense astrophysical objects [24] and in the Earth's magnetotail region (Parks [43]. The implications of our results in some space plasma situations are discussed.

Applying the principle of field effect transistor to layered materials provides new opportunities to manipulate their electronic properties for interesting sciences and applications. Novel gate dielectrics like electronic doublelayer (EDL) formed by ionic liquids are demonstrated to achieve an electrostatic surface charge accumulation on the order of 1014 cm-2. To realize electric field-induced superconductivity, we chose a layered compound: ZrNCl, which is known to be superconducting by introducing electrons through intercalation of alkali metals into the van der Waals gaps. A ZrNCl-based EDL transistor was micro fabricated on a thin ZrNCl single crystal made by mechanical micro-cleavage. Accumulating charges using EDL gate dielectrics onto the channel surface of ZrNCl shows effective field effect modulation of its electronic properties. Sheet resistance of ZrNCl EDL transistor is reduced by applying a gate voltage from 0 to 4.5 V. Temperature dependence of sheet resistance showed clear evidence of metal-insulator transition upon gating, observed at a gate voltage higher than 3.5 V. Furthermore, gate-induced superconductivity took place after metal-insulator transition when the transistor is cooled down to about 15 K.

A two-step method consisting of solid-state microwave irradiation and heat treatment under NH₃ gas was used to prepare nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (N-RGO) with a high specific surface area (1007m²g⁻¹), high electrical conductivity (1532S m⁻¹), and low oxygen content (1.5 wt%) for electric double-layer capacitor applications. The specific capacitance of N-RGO was 291 Fg⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹, and a capacitance of 261 F g⁻¹ was retained at 50 A g⁻¹, indicating a very good rate capability. N-RGO also showed excellent cycling stability, preserving 96% of the initial specific capacitance after 100,000 cycles. Near-edge X-ray absorptionmore » fine-structure spectroscopy evidenced the recover of π-conjugation in the carbon networks with the removal of oxygenated groups and revealed the chemical bonding of the nitrogen atoms in N-RGO. The good electrochemical performance of N-RGO is attributed to its high surface area, high electrical conductivity, and low oxygen content.« less

Weak ion-acoustic solitary waves (IASWs) in an unmagnetized quantum plasmas having two-fluid ions and fluid electrons are considered. Using the one-dimensional quantum hydrodynamics model and then the reductive perturbation technique, a generalized form of nonlinear quantum Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation governing the dynamics of weak ion acoustic solitary waves is derived. The effects of ion population, warm ion temperature, quantum diffraction, and polarity of ions on the nonlinear properties of these IASWs are analyzed. It is found that our present plasma model may support compressive as well as rarefactive solitary structures. Furthermore, formation and characteristics properties of IA doublelayers in the present bi-ion plasma model are investigated. The results of this work should be useful and applicable in understanding the wide relevance of nonlinear features of localized electro-acoustic structures in laboratory and space plasma, such as in super-dense astrophysical objects [24] and in the Earth's magnetotail region (Parks [43]. The implications of our results in some space plasma situations are discussed.

A major challenge in the molecular simulation of electric doublelayer capacitors (EDLCs) is the choice of an appropriate model for the electrode. Typically, in such simulations the electrode surface is modeled using a uniform fixed charge on each of the electrode atoms, which ignores the electrode response to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte solution. In this work, we evaluate and compare this Fixed Charge Method (FCM) with the more realistic Constant Potential Method (CPM), [S. K. Reed et al., J. Chem. Phys. 126, 084704 (2007)], in which the electrode charges fluctuate in order to maintain constant electric potential in each electrode. For this comparison, we utilize a simplified LiClO4-acetonitrile/graphite EDLC. At low potential difference (ΔΨ ⩽ 2 V), the two methods yield essentially identical results for ion and solvent density profiles; however, significant differences appear at higher ΔΨ. At ΔΨ ⩾ 4 V, the CPM ion density profiles show significant enhancement (over FCM) of "inner-sphere adsorbed" Li(+) ions very close to the electrode surface. The ability of the CPM electrode to respond to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte is seen to significantly lower the energy (and barrier) for the approach of Li(+) ions to the electrode surface. PMID:25399127

The conversion of solar energy with simultaneous electric energy storage provides a promising means for optimizing energy utilization efficiency and reducing device volume. In this paper, a 3-dimensional mesoporous carbon coated branched TiO2 nanowire composite is rationally designed for direct conversion and storage of solar energy as electric double-layer capacitive energy. The 1-dimensional, crystalline TiO2 trunks serve as long light absorption and continuous charge transport pathways, and the high-density TiO2 branches can efficiently increase the contact area with the surface coated mesoporous carbon layers. In addition, the ordered and uniformed mesopores provide large pore sizes for electrolyte penetration, and a high surface area for charge absorption and storage. Under a 1-sun illumination and no external electric bias, this branched TiO2/mesoporous carbon composite exhibits specific capacitances of over 30 and 23.4 F g(-1), at current densities of 0.1 and 0.5 A g(-1), respectively. An excellent stability of >50 photocharging-electrical discharging cycles has also been demonstrated, suggesting the potential of further developing this hybrid material structure for simultaneous solar conversion and electric energy storage. PMID:25384600

Observations of flare-heated electrons in the corona typically suggest confinement of electrons. The confinement mechanism, however, remains unclear. The transport of coronal hot electrons into ambient plasma was recently investigated by particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations. Electron transport was significantly suppressed by the formation of a highly localized, nonlinear electrostatic potential in the form of a doublelayer (DL). In this work large-scale PIC simulations are performed to explore the dynamics of DLs in larger systems where, instead of a single DL, multiple DLs are generated. The primary DL accelerates return current electrons, resulting in high velocity electron beams that interact with ambient ions. This forms a Buneman unstable system that spawns more DLs. Trapping of heated return current electrons between multiple DLs strongly suppresses electron transport. DLs also accelerate ambient ions and produce strong ion flows over an extended region. This clarifies the mechanism by which hot electrons in the corona couple to and accelerate ions to form the solar wind. These new dynamics in larger systems reveal a more likely picture of DL development and their impact on the ambient plasma in the solar corona. They are applicable to the preparation for in situ coronal space missions like the Solar Probe Plus.

Detecting small targets is essential for mitigating the sea-based Infrared search and track (IRST) problem. It is easy to detect small targets in homogeneous backgrounds such as the sky. When targets are on the border line of heterogeneous backgrounds such as the horizon in the sky and sea surface, solving the problem of detection becomes difficult. This paper presents a novel spatial filtering method, called DoubleLayered-Background Removal Filter (DL-BRF), for achieving high detection rates and low false alarm rates. DL-BRF consists of a Modified-Mean Subtraction Filter (M-MSF) and a consecutive Local-Directional Background Removal Filter (L-DBRF). M-MSF enhances the target signal and reduces background noise. L-DBRF removes horizontal structures, which upgrade the signal-to-clutter ratio and background suppression factor. L-DBRF used after M-MSF enhances the synergistic performance of horizontal target detection. Additionally, the adaptive Hysteresis threshold-based scheme is a suitable detection method. We validate the superior performance of the proposed method via three types of evaluation tests, including a real test scenario.

A plasma doublelayer (DL) is a nonlinear electrostatic structure that carries a uni-polar electric field parallel to the background magnetic field due to local charge separation. Past studies showed that DLs observed in space plasmas are mostly associated with the ion acoustic instability. Recent Van Allen Probes observations of parallel electric field structures traveling much faster than the ion acoustic speed have motivated a computational study to test the hypothesis that a new type of DLs—electron acoustic DLs—generated from the electron acoustic instability are responsible for these electric fields. Nonlinear particle-in-cell simulations yield negative results, i.e., the hypothetical electron acoustic DLs cannot be formed in a way similar to ion acoustic DLs. Linear theory analysis and the simulations show that the frequencies of electron acoustic waves are too high for ions to respond and maintain charge separation required by DLs. However, our results do show that local density perturbations in a two-electron-component plasma can result in unipolar-like electric field structures that propagate at the electron thermal speed, suggesting another potential explanation for the observations.

Electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) are emerging energy storage devices that provide high power density and rapid charging rates, with higher energy density than conventional capacitors. Extensive research efforts have been devoted to develop novel, high performing electrode materials to improve device performance, particularly to increase energy density. A number of methods have been used to characterize and report the performance of EDLCs in literature. The lack of a consistent and representative normalization parameter and the absence of consistent electrochemical testing procedures make the comparison of performance data challenging. In this work, key factors that affect EDLC performance data are discussed. Consideration is given to potential normalization parameters: mass, volume, and specific surface area (SSA). As well, an investigation into the effects of charging rate, maximum operating voltage window, and electrochemical analysis technique is performed. This work demonstrates the dependence of measured capacitance on maximum voltage window and the variation in performance between two different electrode materials. Moreover, an inherent discrepancy between cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic cycling (GC) capacitance values at fast charging rates has been observed. We hope this effort will assist in the development of a much needed international protocol for accurate measurement and characterization of EDLC performance.

Vertically-oriented graphenes (VGs) have been demonstrated as a promising active material for electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), partially due to their edge-enriched structure. In this work, the 'edge effects', i.e., edges as the promoters of high capacitance, in VG based EDLCs are investigated with experimental research and numerical simulations. VGs with diverse heights (i.e., edge-to-basal ratios) and edge densities are prepared with varying the plasma-enabled growth time and employing different plasma sources. Electrochemical measurements show that the edges play a predominant role on the charge storage behavior of VGs. A simulation is further conducted to unveil the roles of the edges on the separation and adsorption of ions within VG channels. The initial charge distribution of a VG plane is obtained with density functional theory (DFT) calculations, which is subsequently applied to a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation system to gain the insights into the microscope EDLC structures. Compared with the basal planes, the edges present higher initial charge density (by 4.2 times), higher ion packing density (by 2.6 times), closer ion packing location (by 0.8 Å), and larger ion separation degree (by 14%). The as-obtained findings will be instructive in designing the morphology and structure of VGs for enhanced capacitive performances.

We study the electric doublelayer by combining the effects of ion finite size and dielectric decrement. At high surface potential, both mechanisms can cause saturation of the counter-ion concentration near a charged surface. The modified Grahame equation and differential capacitance are derived analytically for a general expression of a permittivity ε(n) that depends on the local ion concentration, n, and under the assumption that the co-ions are fully depleted from the surface. The concentration at counter-ion saturation is found for any ε(n), and a criterion predicting which of the two mechanisms (steric vs. dielectric decrement) is the dominant one is obtained. At low salinity, the differential capacitance as function of surface potential has two peaks (so-called camel-shape). Each of these two peaks is connected to a saturation of counter-ion concentration caused either by dielectric decrement or by their finite size. Because these effects depend mainly on the counter-ion concentration at the surface proximity, for opposite surface-potential polarity either the cations or anions play the role of counter-ions, resulting in an asymmetric camel-shape. At high salinity, we obtain and analyze the crossover in the differential capacitance from a double-peak shape to a uni-modal one. Finally, several nonlinear models of the permittivity decrement are considered, and we predict that the concentration at dielectrophoretic saturation shifts to higher concentration than those obtained by the linear decrement model. PMID:25638002

Core-shell-structured mesoporous silica spheres were prepared by using n-octadecyltrimethoxysilane (C18TMS) as the surfactant. Hollow mesoporous carbon spheres with controllable diameters were fabricated from core-shell-structured mesoporous silica sphere templates by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). By controlling the thickness of the silica shell, hollow carbon spheres (HCSs) with different diameters can be obtained. The use of ethylene as the carbon precursor in the CVD process produces the materials in a single step without the need to remove the surfactant. The mechanism of formation and the role played by the surfactant, C18TMS, are investigated. The materials have large potential in double-layer supercapacitors, and their electrochemical properties were determined. HCSs with thicker mesoporous shells possess a larger surface area, which in turn increases their electrochemical capacitance. The samples prepared at a lower temperature also exhibit increased capacitance as a result of the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) area and larger pore size. PMID:23929713

To initiate resistance switching phenomena, it is usually necessary to apply a strong electric field to a sample. This forming process poses very serious obstacles in real nanodevice applications. In unipolar resistance switching (URS), it is well known that the forming originates from soft dielectric breakdown. However, the forming in bipolar resistance switching (BRS) is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the forming processes in Pt/Ta2O5/TaOx/Pt and Pt/TaOx/Pt nanodevices, which showed BRS and URS, respectively. By comparing the double- and single-layer systems, we were able to observe differences in the BRS and URS forming processes. Using computer simulations based on an ‘interface-modified random circuit breaker network model’, we could explain most of our experimental observations. This success suggests that the BRS forming in our Pt/Ta2O5/TaOx/Pt double-layer system can occur via two processes, i.e., polarity-dependent resistance switching in the Ta2O5 layer and soft dielectric breakdown in the TaOx layer. This forming mechanism can be used to improve the performance of BRS devices. For example, we could improve the endurance properties of Pt/Ta2O5/TaOx/Pt cells by using a small forming voltage.

This work investigates two physics-based models that simulate the non-linear partial differential algebraic equations describing an electric doublelayer supercapacitor. In one model the linear dependence between electrolyte concentration and conductivity is accounted for, while in the other model it is not. A spectral element method is used to discretise the model equations and it is found that the error convergence rate with respect to the number of elements is faster compared to a finite difference method. The increased accuracy of the spectral element approach means that, for a similar level of solution accuracy, the model simulation computing time is approximately 50% of that of the finite difference method. This suggests that the spectral element model could be used for control and state estimation purposes. For a typical supercapacitor charging profile, the numerical solutions from both models closely match experimental voltage and current data. However, when the electrolyte is dilute or where there is a long charging time, a noticeable difference between the numerical solutions of the two models is observed. Electrical impedance spectroscopy simulations show that the capacitance of the two models rapidly decreases when the frequency of the perturbation current exceeds an upper threshold.

The failure mechanism of a concrete slab-soil double-layer structure subjected to an underground explosion was investigated by experimental and numerical methods in this paper. Two underground explosion depths of 150 and 350 mm were tested. The typical failure modes such as the conoid spall of concrete, the bulge of the concrete slab and the cavity in the soil were obtained experimentally. Numerical simulations of the experiments were performed using a hydrodynamic code to analyze the effects of both the stress wave and the expansion of the blast products. Based on the experimental and numerical results, the effects of explosive depth, blast wave front and expansion of the blast products on the failure modes and failure mechanisms were discussed. The underground explosion process at different explosion depths was also analyzed. The results show that attenuation of the stress wave in the soil is significant. The blast wave front and the expansion of the blast products play different roles at different explosion depths. At the explosion depth of 150 mm, the failure mode is mainly caused by a point load induced by the blast wave front, whereas at the depth of 350 mm a sphere-shaped load resulting from the expansion of the blast products is a key factor for failure.

Ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) films on silicon were prepared by microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition (MPCVD) method using argon-rich CH4/H2/Ar plasmas. The graphene sheets synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) were successfully transferred on to the UNCD surface to fabricate electron field emission (EFE) property-enhanced graphene/UNCD films. The surface morphology, structure and composition of the graphene/UNCD double-layered structures were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), Raman spectroscopy and grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GXRD). GXRD clearly shows the characteristic diffraction peaks of both diamond and graphene. The Raman spectrum shows the characteristic band of diamond at 1332cm‑1 and D, G and 2D bands of graphene at 1360, 1550 and 2610cm‑1, respectively. The EFE behavior of the composite films can be turned on at E0=2.2V/μm, attaining a current density of 0.065mA/cm2 at an applied field of 7.3V/μm.

The occurrence of electrons and holes in n-type copper oxides has been achieved by chemical doping, pressure, and/or deoxygenation. However, the observed electronic properties are blurred by the concomitant effects such as change of lattice structure, disorder, etc. Here, we report on successful tuning the electronic band structure of n-type Pr2−xCexCuO4 (x = 0.15) ultrathin films, via the electric doublelayer transistor technique. Abnormal transport properties, such as multiple sign reversals of Hall resistivity in normal and mixed states, have been revealed within an electrostatic field in range of −2 V to + 2 V, as well as varying the temperature and magnetic field. In the mixed state, the intrinsic anomalous Hall conductivity invokes the contribution of both electron and hole-bands as well as the energy dependent density of states near the Fermi level. The two-band model can also describe the normal state transport properties well, whereas the carrier concentrations of electrons and holes are always enhanced or depressed simultaneously in electric fields. This is in contrast to the scenario of Fermi surface reconstruction by antiferromagnetism, where an anti-correlation is commonly expected. PMID:27221198

The electric doublelayer capacitor (EDLC) should have an almost indefinite life, because the EDLC is charged and discharged by the electrostatic adsorption and desorption of ions on electrodes whose processing involves mass transfers without a chemical reaction. However, the actual life of an EDLC is finite, such that its performance begins to slowly degrade and is significantly deteriorated at some point. We have investigated this phenomenon in detail by analyzing changes in the species of the EDLC during its life. We found that reactions on the positive and negative electrode occurred in phase with the consumption of oxygen, carbon in the electrode materials, and anions in the electrolyte during EDLC charging to change the electrode potentials and the abundance of ions on the electrodes. A product and/or disappearance by the side reactions deteriorated the performance of the active materials. Here we suggest a life process during the float charge of the EDLC and a directional concept for extending its life while comparing experimental data with theoretical models of EDLC charging.

Shear stress caused by fluid flow is known to promote tissue development from cells in vivo. Therefore, perfusion cultures have been studied to investigate the mechanisms involved and to fabricate engineered tissues in vitro, particularly those that include blood vessels. Microfluidic devices, which function with fine machinery of chambers and microsyringes for fluid flow and have small culture areas, are conventionally used for perfusion culture. In contrast, we have developed a self-driven perfusion culture system by using a paper-based double-layered scaffold as the fundamental component. Gelatin microfibers were electrospun onto a paper material to prepare the scaffold system, in which the constant perfusion of the medium and the scaffold for cell adhesion/proliferation were functionally divided into a paper and a gelatin microfiber layer, respectively. By applying both the capillary action and siphon phenomenon of the paper-based scaffold, which bridged two medium chambers at different height levels, a self-driven medium flow was achieved and the flow rate was also stable, constant, and quantitatively controllable. Moreover, the culture area was enlargeable to the cm(2) scale. The endothelial cells cultivated on this system oriented along the medium-flow direction, suggesting that the shear stress caused by medium flow was effectively applied. This perfusion culture system is expected to be useful for fabricating three-dimensional and large engineered tissues in the future. PMID:27550929

Heterogeneous electron-transfer (ET) processes at solid electrodes play key roles in molecular electronics and electrochemical energy conversion and sensing. Electrode nanosization and/or nanostructurization are among the major current strategies for performance promotion in these fields. Besides, nano-sized/structured electrodes offer great opportunities to characterize electrochemical structures and processes with high spatial and temporal resolution. This review presents recent insights into the nanoscopic size and structure effects of electrodes and electrode materials on heterogeneous ET kinetics, by emphasizing the importance of the electric double-layer (EDL) at the electrode/electrolyte interface and the electronic structure of electrode materials. It is shown, by general conceptual analysis and recent example demonstrations of representative electrode systems including electrodes of nanometer sizes and gaps and of nanomaterials such as sp(2) hybridized nanocarbons and semiconductor quantum dots, how the heterogeneous ET kinetics, the electronic structures of electrodes, the EDL structures at the electrode/electrolyte interface and the nanoscopic electrode sizes and structures may be related. PMID:24871071

Variations in the electronic absorption (EA) and surface morphology of three types of phthalocyanine (Pc) thin film systems, i.e. copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) single layer, zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) single layer, and ZnPc on CuPc (CuPc/ZnPc) doublelayer film, treated with saturated acetone vapor were investigated. For the treated CuPc single layer film, the surface roughness slightly increased and bundles of nanorods were formed, while the EA varied little. In contrast, for the ZnPc single layer film, the relatively high solubility of ZnPc led to a considerable shift in the absorption bands as well as a large increase in the surface roughness and formation of long and wide nano-beams, indicating a part of the ZnPc molecules dissolved in acetone, which altered their molecular stacking. For the CuPc/ZnPc film, the saturated acetone vapor treatment resulted in morphological changes in mainly the upper ZnPc layer due to the significantly low solubility of the underlying CuPc layer. The treatment also broadened the EA band, which involved a combination of unchanged CuPc and changed ZnPc absorption.

Herein, we suggest a new approach to an electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) that is based on a proton-conducting ionic clathrate hydrate (ICH). The ice-like structures of clathrate hydrates, which are comprised of host water molecules and guest ions, make them suitable for applications in EDLC electrolytes, owing to their high proton conductivities and thermal stabilities. The carbon materials in the ICH Me{sub 4}NOH[DOT OPERATOR]5 H{sub 2}O show a high specific capacitance, reversible charge–discharge behavior, and a long cycle life. The ionic-hydrate complex provides the following advantages in comparison with conventional aqueous and polymer electrolytes: 1) The ICH does not cause leakage problems under normal EDLC operating conditions. 2) The hydrate material can be utilized itself, without requiring any pre-treatments or activation for proton conduction, thus shortening the preparation procedure of the EDLC. 3) The crystallization of the ICH makes it possible to tailor practical EDLC dimensions because of its fluidity as a liquid hydrate. 4) The hydrate solid electrolyte exhibits more-favorable electrochemical stability than aqueous and polymer electrolytes. Therefore, ICH materials are expected to find practical applications in versatile energy devices that incorporate electrochemical systems.

An interior permanent magnet (IPM) motor drive system which has regenerating capability augmented by electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) is proposed. In the proposed system, EDLCs are arranged in series with batteries so that a lesser number of the EDLCs and batteries will be required. The proposed system has two bi-directional voltage boosters: one is for both the batteries and EDLCs to control the dc-link voltage of a PWM inverter and the other is for only the EDLCs and is used to control the energy flow from and to the EDLCs. In this paper, a strategy to control the energy flow to and from the EDLCs is explained and its effectiveness is confirmed by simulation and experimental results. Furthermore, the efficiencies of the voltage booster, inverter, PM motor, and whole system are measured for the system with the basic configuration, i.e., which consists of only one bi-directional voltage booster and PWM inverter. Then, the steady-state characteristics are determined. Finally, the efficiency of the voltage boosters in the proposed system is determined, and the advantage of the proposed PM motor drive system is discussed.

The occurrence of electrons and holes in n-type copper oxides has been achieved by chemical doping, pressure, and/or deoxygenation. However, the observed electronic properties are blurred by the concomitant effects such as change of lattice structure, disorder, etc. Here, we report on successful tuning the electronic band structure of n-type Pr2‑xCexCuO4 (x = 0.15) ultrathin films, via the electric doublelayer transistor technique. Abnormal transport properties, such as multiple sign reversals of Hall resistivity in normal and mixed states, have been revealed within an electrostatic field in range of ‑2 V to + 2 V, as well as varying the temperature and magnetic field. In the mixed state, the intrinsic anomalous Hall conductivity invokes the contribution of both electron and hole-bands as well as the energy dependent density of states near the Fermi level. The two-band model can also describe the normal state transport properties well, whereas the carrier concentrations of electrons and holes are always enhanced or depressed simultaneously in electric fields. This is in contrast to the scenario of Fermi surface reconstruction by antiferromagnetism, where an anti-correlation is commonly expected.

An electrostatic power generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by utilising the principle of variable capacitance. This change in capacitance is usually achieved by varying the gap or overlap between two parallel metallic plates. This paper proposes a novel electrostatic micro power generator where the change in capacitance is achieved by the movement of an aqueous solution of NaCl. A significant change in capacitance is achieved due to the higher than air dielectric constant of water and the Helmholtz doublelayer capacitor formed by ion separation at the electrode interfaces. The proposed device has significant advantages over traditional electrostatic devices which include low bias voltage and low mechanical frequency of operation. This is critical if the proposed device is to have utility in harvesting power from the environment. A figure of merit exceeding 10000(108μW)/(mm2HzV2) which is two orders of magnitude greater than previous devices, is demonstrated for a prototype operating at a bias voltage of 1.2 V and a droplet frequency of 6 Hz. Concepts are presented for large scale power harvesting.

A two-step method consisting of solid-state microwave irradiation and heat treatment under NH3 gas was used to prepare nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (N-RGO) with a high specific surface area (1007 m(2) g(-1) ), high electrical conductivity (1532 S m(-1) ), and low oxygen content (1.5 wt %) for electrical double-layer capacitor applications. The specific capacitance of N-RGO was 291 F g(-1) at a current density of 1 A g(-1) , and a capacitance of 261 F g(-1) was retained at 50 A g(-1) , which indicated a very good rate capability. N-RGO also showed excellent cycling stability and preserved 96 % of the initial specific capacitance after 100 000 cycles. Near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy results provided evidenced for the recovery of π conjugation in the carbon networks with the removal of oxygenated groups and revealed chemical bonding of the nitrogen atoms in N-RGO. The good electrochemical performance of N-RGO is attributed to its high surface area, high electrical conductivity, and low oxygen content. PMID:25916491

The growth, structure of Pt(111) supported double-layer FeO and the adsorption of titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) molecules with tunable site and orientation were presented. According to the atomic-resolution STM image, the structure was rationalized as (8√3 × 8√3) R30°/Pt(111) nanostructure constructed by Fe species coordinated with different number of oxygen on top of non-rotated (8 × 8) FeO /Pt(111) structure. Due to the modulation of the stacking of Fe atoms in the second layer relative to the O atoms in the second layer and the underlying layer, the interface and total dipole moment periodically vary within (8√3 × 8√3) R30°/Pt(111) structure. The resulted periodically distributed dipole-dipole interaction benefits the growth of TiOPc molecules with area-selective sites and molecular orientations. Thus, this study provides a reliable method to govern the adsorption process of the polar molecules for potential applications in future functional molecular devices.

An electrostatic power generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by utilising the principle of variable capacitance. This change in capacitance is usually achieved by varying the gap or overlap between two parallel metallic plates. This paper proposes a novel electrostatic micro power generator where the change in capacitance is achieved by the movement of an aqueous solution of NaCl. A significant change in capacitance is achieved due to the higher than air dielectric constant of water and the Helmholtz doublelayer capacitor formed by ion separation at the electrode interfaces. The proposed device has significant advantages over traditional electrostatic devices which include low bias voltage and low mechanical frequency of operation. This is critical if the proposed device is to have utility in harvesting power from the environment. A figure of merit exceeding 10000(10(8)μW)/(mm(2)HzV(2)) which is two orders of magnitude greater than previous devices, is demonstrated for a prototype operating at a bias voltage of 1.2 V and a droplet frequency of 6 Hz. Concepts are presented for large scale power harvesting. PMID:27255577

With plenty of unique porous structure at micro-/nano scale, hierarchically porous carbons (HPCs) are promising for usage in advanced electric doublelayer supercapacitors (EDLCs) as the electrode materials. However, wide-range adoption of HPC for practical application is largely shadowed by its extremely complex synthesis process with considerably low production efficiency. Herein we reported a simple template-free, one-step sintering method, to massively produce the HPCs for high-performance EDLCs. Resorting to the 3D structure modification of the wide pore size distribution, high surface area of HPCs (up to 3000 m2 g-1) was achieved. By using 1 M Na2SO4 as electrolyte, the as-fabricated HPCs based EDLCs can be operated reversibly over a wide voltage window of 1.6 V with superior specific capacitance of 240 F g-1 under a current density of 0.5 A g-1. In the meanwhile, the EDLCs exhibit excellent rate capability (high power density of 16 kW kg-1 at 10.2 Wh kg-1) and long-term cycling stability with 9% loss of its initial capacitance after 2000 cycles. This output performance distinguished itself among most of the carbon-based EDLCs with neutral aqueous electrolyte. Thus, the template-free one-step sintering method produced HPCs for EDLCs represents a new approach for high-performance energy storage.

Negative capacitance (NC), predicted by various electrical doublelayer (EDL) theories, is critically reviewed. Physically possible for individual components of the EDL, the compact or diffuse layer, it is strictly prohibited for the whole EDL or for an electrochemical cell with two electrodes. However, NC is allowed for the artificial conditions of σ control, where an EDL is described by the equilibrium electric response of electrolyte to a field of fixed, and typically uniform, surface charge-density distributions, σ . The contradiction is only apparent; in fact local σ cannot be set independently, but is established by the equilibrium response to physically controllable variables, i.e., applied voltage ϕ ( ϕ control) or total surface charge q ( q control). NC predictions in studies based on σ control signify potential instabilities and phase transitions for physically realizable conditions. Building on our previous study of ϕ control [M. B. Partenskii and P. C. Jordan, Phys. Rev. E 77, 061117 (2008)], here we analyze critical behavior under q control, clarifying the basic picture using an exactly solvable “squishy capacitor” toy model. We find that ϕ can change discontinuously in the presence of a lateral transition, specify stability conditions for an electrochemical cell, analyze the origin of the EDL’s critical point in terms of compact and diffuse serial contributions, and discuss perspectives and challenges for theoretical studies not limited by σ control.

A two-step method consisting of solid-state microwave irradiation and heat treatment under NH₃ gas was used to prepare nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (N-RGO) with a high specific surface area (1007m²g⁻¹), high electrical conductivity (1532S m⁻¹), and low oxygen content (1.5 wt%) for electric double-layer capacitor applications. The specific capacitance of N-RGO was 291 Fg⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹, and a capacitance of 261 F g⁻¹ was retained at 50 A g⁻¹, indicating a very good rate capability. N-RGO also showed excellent cycling stability, preserving 96% of the initial specific capacitance after 100,000 cycles. Near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy evidenced the recover of π-conjugation in the carbon networks with the removal of oxygenated groups and revealed the chemical bonding of the nitrogen atoms in N-RGO. The good electrochemical performance of N-RGO is attributed to its high surface area, high electrical conductivity, and low oxygen content.

A theoretical investigation is performed into the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid as a function of the contact area ratio. It is shown that the electric doublelayer (EDL) formed at the interface of the graphene and the liquid causes an overlap of the conduction bands and valance bands and increases the density of state (DOS) at the Fermi energy (EF). In other words, a greater number of charge carriers are induced for transport and the graphene changes from a semiconductor to a semimetal. In addition, it is shown that the dependence of the DOS at EF on the contact area ratio has a bimodal distribution which responses to the experimental observation, a pinnacle curve. The maximum number of induced carriers is expected to occur at contact area ratios of 40% and 60%. In general, the present results indicate that modulating the EDL provides an effective means of tuning the electronic properties of graphene in the presence of liquid. PMID:27464986

This work reports the development of a MEMS bistable electromagnetic vibrational energy harvester (EMVEH) consisting of a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) spiral spring, doublelayer micro-coils and miniaturized NdFeB magnets. Furthermore, with respect to the spiral silicon spring based VEH, four different square micro-coil topologies with different copper track width and number of turns have been investigated to determine the optimal coil dimensions. The micro-generator with the optimal micro-coil generated 0.68 micro-watt load power over an optimum resistive load at 0.1g acceleration, leading to normalized power density of 3.5 kg.s/m3. At higher accelerations the load power increased, and the vibrating magnet collides with the planar micro-coil producing wider bandwidth. Simulation results show that a substantially wider bandwidth could be achieved in the same device by introducing bistable nonlinearity through a repulsive configuration between the moving and fixed permanent magnets.

A major challenge in the molecular simulation of electric doublelayer capacitors (EDLCs) is the choice of an appropriate model for the electrode. Typically, in such simulations the electrode surface is modeled using a uniform fixed charge on each of the electrode atoms, which ignores the electrode response to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte solution. In this work, we evaluate and compare this Fixed Charge Method (FCM) with the more realistic Constant Potential Method (CPM), [S. K. Reed et al., J. Chem. Phys. 126, 084704 (2007)], in which the electrode charges fluctuate in order to maintain constant electric potential in each electrode. For this comparison, we utilize a simplified LiClO4-acetonitrile/graphite EDLC. At low potential difference (ΔΨ ⩽ 2 V), the two methods yield essentially identical results for ion and solvent density profiles; however, significant differences appear at higher ΔΨ. At ΔΨ ⩾ 4 V, the CPM ion density profiles show significant enhancement (over FCM) of "inner-sphere adsorbed" Li+ ions very close to the electrode surface. The ability of the CPM electrode to respond to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte is seen to significantly lower the energy (and barrier) for the approach of Li+ ions to the electrode surface.

A major challenge in the molecular simulation of electric doublelayer capacitors (EDLCs) is the choice of an appropriate model for the electrode. Typically, in such simulations the electrode surface is modeled using a uniform fixed charge on each of the electrode atoms, which ignores the electrode response to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte solution. In this work, we evaluate and compare this Fixed Charge Method (FCM) with the more realistic Constant Potential Method (CPM), [S. K. Reed et al., J. Chem. Phys. 126, 084704 (2007)], in which the electrode charges fluctuate in order to maintain constant electric potential in each electrode. For this comparison, we utilize a simplified LiClO{sub 4}-acetonitrile/graphite EDLC. At low potential difference (ΔΨ ⩽ 2 V), the two methods yield essentially identical results for ion and solvent density profiles; however, significant differences appear at higher ΔΨ. At ΔΨ ⩾ 4 V, the CPM ion density profiles show significant enhancement (over FCM) of “inner-sphere adsorbed” Li{sup +} ions very close to the electrode surface. The ability of the CPM electrode to respond to local charge fluctuations in the electrolyte is seen to significantly lower the energy (and barrier) for the approach of Li{sup +} ions to the electrode surface.

An electric doublelayer capacitor (EDLC) was prepared with an activated carbon powder electrode with poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene) (PVdF-HFP) based gel electrolyte. Ethylene carbonate (EC) and propylene carbonate (PC) were used as plasticizer and tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF{sub 4}) was used as the supporting electrolyte. An optimized gel electrolyte of PVdF-HFP/PC/EC/TEABF{sub 4} - 23/31/35/11 mass ratio exhibited high ionic conductivity of 5 {times} 10{sup {minus}3} S/cm, high electrode capacitance, and good mechanical strength. An electrode consisting of activated carbon (AC) with the gel electrolyte as the binder (AC/PVdF-HFP based gel, 7/3 mass ratio) showed a higher specific capacitance and a lower ion diffusion resistance within the electrode than a carbon electrode, prepared with PVdF-HFP binder without plasticizer. This suggests that an electrode mixed with the gel electrolyte has a lower ion diffusion resistance inside the electrode. The highest specific capacitance of 123 F/g was achieved with an electrode containing AC with a specific surface area of 2500 m{sup 2}/g. A coin-type EDLC cell with optimized components showed excellent cycleability exceeding 10{sup 4} cycles with ca. 100% coulombic efficiency achieved when charging and discharging was repeated between 1.0 and 2.5 V at 1.66 mA/cm{sup 2}.

We report the structure of the electrical doublelayer, determined from molecular dynamics simulations, for a range of saline solutions (NaCl, KCl, MgCl2 and CaCl2) at both 0.16 and 0.60 mol kg(-1) on different facets of the gold and silver aqueous interfaces. We consider the Au/Ag(111), native Au/Ag(100) and reconstructed Au(100)(5×1) facets. For a given combination of metallic surface and facet, some variations in density profile are apparent across the different cations in solution, with the corresponding chloride counterion profiles remaining broadly invariant. All density profiles at the higher concentration are predicted to be very similar to their low-concentration counterparts. We find that each electrolyte responds differently to the different metallic surface and facets, particularly those of the divalent metal ions. Our findings reveal marked differences in density profiles between facets for a given metallic interface for both Mg(2+) and Ca(2+), with Na(+) and K(+) showing much less distinction. Mg(2+) was the only ion for which we find evidence of materials-dependent differences in interfacial solution structuring between the Ag and Au. PMID:25265591

Environmental conditions play an important role in conceptual studies of prebiotically relevant chemical reactions that could have led to functional biomolecules. The necessary source compounds are likely to have been present in dilute solution, raising the question of how to achieve selective concentration and to reach activation. With the assumption of an initial 'RNA World', the questions of production, concentration, and interaction of aldehydes and aldehyde phosphates, potential precursors of sugar phosphates, come into the foreground. As a possible concentration process for simple, uncharged aldehydes, we investigated their adduct formation with sulfite ion bound in the interlayer of positively charged expanding-sheet-structure double-layer hydroxide minerals. Minerals of this type, initially with chloride as interlayer counter anion, have previously been shown to induce concentration and subsequent aldolization of aldehyde phosphates to form tetrose, pentose, and hexose phosphates. The reversible uptake of the simple aldehydes formaldehyde, glycolaldehyde, and glyceraldehyde by adduct formation with the immobilized sulfite ions is characterized by equilibrium constants of K=1.5, 9, and 11, respectively. This translates into an observable uptake at concentrations exceeding 50 mM.

The occurrence of electrons and holes in n-type copper oxides has been achieved by chemical doping, pressure, and/or deoxygenation. However, the observed electronic properties are blurred by the concomitant effects such as change of lattice structure, disorder, etc. Here, we report on successful tuning the electronic band structure of n-type Pr2-xCexCuO4 (x = 0.15) ultrathin films, via the electric doublelayer transistor technique. Abnormal transport properties, such as multiple sign reversals of Hall resistivity in normal and mixed states, have been revealed within an electrostatic field in range of -2 V to + 2 V, as well as varying the temperature and magnetic field. In the mixed state, the intrinsic anomalous Hall conductivity invokes the contribution of both electron and hole-bands as well as the energy dependent density of states near the Fermi level. The two-band model can also describe the normal state transport properties well, whereas the carrier concentrations of electrons and holes are always enhanced or depressed simultaneously in electric fields. This is in contrast to the scenario of Fermi surface reconstruction by antiferromagnetism, where an anti-correlation is commonly expected. PMID:27221198

Metal ion separation is crucial to environmental decontamination, chromatography, and metal recovery and recycling. Theoretical studies have suggested that the ion distributions in the electric double-layer (EDL) region depend on the nature of the ions and the characteristics of the charged electrode surface. We believe that rational design of the electrode material and device structure will enable EDL-based devices to be utilized in the separation of aqueous metal ions. On the basis of this concept, we fabricate an EDL separation (EDLS) device based on sandwich-structured N-functionalized graphene sheets (CN-GS) for selective separation of aqueous toxic heavy metal ions. We demonstrate that the EDLS enables randomly distributed soluble ions to form a coordination-driven layer and electrostatic-driven layer in the interfacial region of the CN-GS/solution. Through tuning the surface potential of the CN-GS, the effective separation of heavy metal ions (coordination-driven layer) from alkali or alkaline earth metal ions (electrostatic-driven layer) can be achieved. PMID:26481603

The energy storage mechanism of electric double-layer capacitors is governed by ion electrosorption at the electrode surface. This process requires high surface area electrodes, typically highly porous carbons. In common organic electrolytes, bare ion sizes are below one nanometer but they are larger when we consider their solvation shell. In contrast, ionic liquid electrolytes are free of solvent molecules, but cation-anion coordination requires special consideration. By matching pore size and ion size, two seemingly conflicting views have emerged: either an increase in specific capacitance with smaller pore size or a constant capacitance contribution of all micro- and mesopores. In our work, we revisit this issue by using a comprehensive set of electrochemical data and a pore size incremental analysis to identify the influence of certain ranges in the pore size distribution to the ion electrosorption capacity. We see a difference in solvation of ions in organic electrolytes depending on the applied voltage and a cation-anion interaction of ionic liquids in nanometer sized pores.

The electrical charging process of a lipid membrane immersed in electrolytic solutions is of significance to a variety of applications including electroporation and electrodeformation. In these phenomena, the build-up of a potential difference across the membrane (the so-called transmembrane potential, or TMP) induces pore formation and membrane permeabilization (in electroporation) or deformation (in electrodeformation). The classical model treats the membrane as an equivalent capacitor-resistor system which is valid in the zero-thickness electrical doublelayer (EDL) limit. In this work, the effects of a finite EDL on the charging dynamics are investigated. Starting from the Nernst-Planck equations governing ionic transport, the membrane charging problem is solved in both planar and spherical geometries, and using both analytical and numerical methods. The results demonstrate that the effects of the EDL become more significant as the electrical conductivity of the electrolytic solution decreases, which is a natural consequence of an increased Debye length. The steric effect, which often arises in the limit of large zeta-potentials, is shown to be insignificant for physiological applications. The effective circuit equivalence of the EDL is calculated and validated. The results are discussed in comparison with experimental data on electroporation from the literature.

Performance control (PC) is a recently developed, observation based, design process that aims at rational and efficient selection of structural elements rather than investigating their usefulness through iterative processes. The basic notion behind PC is that structural response is mainly a function of design and detailing, rather than numerical computations. The design concept uses pre-selected target displacements and failure mechanisms as key control objectives. While elastic analysis is still the predominant design methodology for double-layer grids (DLG) and similar structures under service conditions, performance-based procedures could further enhance their functional uses up to plastic limit states. The current contribution presents a general technique for the estimation of maximum plastic displacements of twistless, orthotropic, DLG of regular formation, simply supported along the sides of a parallelogram, and subjected to monotonically increasing uniform distribution of normal nodal forces. In the interim, a new application for the uniqueness theorem has also been discussed. The proposed methodology is ideally suited for preliminary design as well as capacity analysis purposes. It lends itself well to both manual and spreadsheet computations. The applications of the proposed solutions have been illustrated through a number of generic examples. The paper does not address seismic conditions.