1.
1700 in Denmark
–
Events from the year 1700 in Denmark. February – The Great Northern War breaks out and will last until 1721, russia has joined a Danish-Pokish coalition the previous year against Sweden which forms an alliance with Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. August 4 – The Swedish King Charles XII lands with an army at Humlebæk north of Copenhagen, august 18 – The Peace of Travendal is concluded when Denmark signs a peace treaty at Traventhal House in Holstein. Denmark has to withdraw from Holstein and Sweden withdraws from Denmark, the peace will lat for the next 10 years. The coronation of Frederick IV and Queen Louise Benoît Le Coffre becomes Painter to the Danish Court, the first Danish census takes place from 1700 to 17001 but only statistical information about adult men is included. Only about half of it still exists, may 23 – Jens Juel, diplomat, statesman Hans van Steenwinckel the Youngest, architect

2.
16th century
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The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty

3.
17th century
–
The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania

4.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India

5.
1680s
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January, King Amangkurat II of Mataram personally stabbed Trunajaya, who had led a failed rebellion against Mataram, during a ceremonial visit. February – The Reverend Ralph Davenant dies, leaving £100 in his will to start up a new school for the boys of Whitechapel. May – The volcano Krakatoa erupts, probably on a small scale. July 8 – The first documented tornado in America kills a servant at Cambridge, August 21 – Pueblo Revolt, Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from the Spanish. August 24 – Comédie-Française is founded by decree of Louis XIV of France as La maison de Molière in Paris, november 14 – The Great Comet of 1680 is first sighted. November 17 – Whigs organize processions to burn effigies of the pope in London, chambers of Reunion decide on complete annexation of Alsace. The first Portuguese governor is appointed to Macau, the Swedish city of Karlskrona is founded, as the Royal Swedish Navy relocates there. January 3 – Treaty of Bakhchisarai between the Ottoman vassal Crimean Khanate and the Russian Empire, march 4 – Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania. April – Following the death of its last count, the Palatinate-Landsberg passes to the King of Sweden, may 15 – The Canal du Midi in France is opened officially as the Canal Royal de Languedoc. August 12 – The Ahom King Gadadhar Singha or Gadapani, who takes the Tai name Supaatphaa, August 31 – English perjurer Titus Oates is told to leave his state apartments in Whitehall, his fame begins to wane and he is soon arrested and imprisoned for sedition. September 30 – France annexes the city of Strasbourg, previously an imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. October 28 – A London woman is publicly flogged for the crime of involving herself in politics, December 22 – King Charles II of England signs a warrant for the building of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London for wounded and retired soldiers. Collections are made in England for needy French refugees, the bell Emmanuel in Notre Dame de Paris is recast. The Port of Honfleur in France is re-modelled by Abraham Duquesne, the basilica of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, designed by Baldassarre Longhena in 1631, is dedicated. Possible date – The last dodo bird is killed, march 11 – Work begins on construction of the Royal Hospital Chelsea for old soldiers in London, England. April 7 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, exploring rivers in America, reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River. April 9 – At the mouth of the Mississippi River, near modern Venice, Louisiana, Robert de La Salle buries an engraved plate, may 6 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to Versailles. May 7 – The reign of Peter the Great officially begins in Russia, may 11 – Moscow Uprising of 1682, A mob takes over the Kremlin and lynches the leading boyars and military commanders

6.
1690s
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January 6 – Joseph, son of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes King of the Romans. January 7 – The first recorded full peal is rung, at St Sepulchre-without-Newgate in the City of London, January 14 – The clarinet is said to have been invented in Nuremberg, Germany. February 3 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony issues the first paper money in North America, may 20 – England passes the Act of Grace, forgiving followers of the deposed James II. June 14 – King William III of England lands in Ireland to confront James II, June 8 – Siddi general Yadi Sakat razes the Mazagon Fort in Mumbai. July 10 – Anglo-Dutch navy defeated by the French in the Battle of Beachy Head, july 11 – Battle of the Boyne, north of Dublin. King William III of England defeats the deposed James II who returns to exile in France, the rebellion in Ireland continues for a further year until the Orange army gains full control. July 26 – French landing party raids and burns Teignmouth in Devon, however, with the loss of James IIs position in Ireland, any plans for a real invasion are soon shelved and Teignmouth is the last-ever French attack on England. September 25 – The only issue of Publick Occurrences is published in Boston, Massachusetts, October 6–12 October – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. October 8 – Ottomans recapture Belgrade during Great Turkish War, november 17 – Barclays Is founded in London, England. December – Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, december 29 – An earthquake hits Ancona in the Papal States of Italy. Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Carnojevic leads the first of the two Great Serbian Migrations into the Habsburg Empire, following Ottoman atrocities in Kosovo, the Hearth Tax is abolished in Scotland, one year after its abolition in England and Wales. Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiters atmosphere, arcangelo Corelli publishes his Concerti Grossi. The Barrage Vauban, a work in the city of Strasbourg was completed Possible year of the disappearance of the western part of the island of Buise in St. Peters Flood. March 5 – Nine Years War, French troops under Marshal Louis-Francois de Boufflers besiege the Spanish-held town of Mons, march 20 – Leislers Rebellion, A new governor arrives in New York – Jacob Leisler surrenders after a standoff of several hours. March 29 – The Siege of Mons ends in the city’s surrender, april 9 – A fire at the Palace of Whitehall in London destroys its Stone Gallery. May 6 – The Spanish inquisition condemns and forcibly baptizes 219 xuetas in Palma, when 37 try to escape the island, they are burned alive at the stake. May 16 – Jacob Leisler is hanged for treason, June 23 – Ahmed II succeeds Suleiman II as emperor of the Ottoman Empire. July 12 Pope Innocent XII becomes the 242nd pope, succeeding Pope Alexander VIII, Williamite War in Ireland, Battle of Aughrim, Protestant Williamite forces led by Godert de Ginkell decisively defeat Jacobites under the Marquis de St Ruth

7.
1700s (decade)
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January 26 – At approximately 9 p. m. the Cascadia earthquake occurred with an estimated moment magnitude of 8. 7–9.2. This megathrust earthquake ruptured about 1,000 kilometers of the Cascadia Subduction Zone, February 3 – The Lesser Great Fire destroys a substantial part of central Edinburgh, Scotland. February 12 – The Great Northern War begins with a joint invasion of Swedish territory in Germany and Latvia by Denmark, Sweden has control of the Baltic Sea and holds territory that includes Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany. To challenge its power, an alliance is formed between Tsar Peter I of Russia, King Frederick IV of Denmark and Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, Swedens ruler is the militaristic Charles XII, known as the Swedish Meteor. February 27 – Island of New Britain discovered by William Dampier in the western Pacific, March 1 – Protestant Germany and Denmark–Norway adopt the Gregorian calendar. March 1, March 11, February 29 – Swedish calendar adopted, early March – William Congreves comedy The Way of the World is first performed in London. March 25 – Treaty of London signed between France, England and Holland, april – Fire destroys many buildings in Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia, including two in the palace complex. May 5 Within a few days of John Drydens death, his last written work is performed as part of Vanbrughs version of The Pilgrim, William Penn begins monthly meetings for blacks advocating emancipation. July 11 – The Prussian Academy of Sciences is founded with Gottfried Leibniz as president, summer – Charles XII of Sweden counter-attacks his enemies by invading Zealand, assisted by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron under Sir George Rooke, rapidly compelling the Danes to submit to peace. August 18 – Peace of Travendal concluded between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal, on the same day, Augustus II, King of Poland, and Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, enter the war against Sweden. Late summer – A Russian army invades Swedish Estonia and besieges the town of Narva, November 1 – Charles II, last Spanish king of the House of Habsburg, dies insane at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid leaving no children. November 15 – Louis XIV accepts the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson Philip of Anjou, November 18 – Battle of Olkieniki, Lithuanian Civil War, victory for the anti-Sapieha coalition. November 23 – Pope Clement XI succeeds Pope Innocent XII as the 243rd pope, November 30 – Battle of Narva in Estonia. Having led his army of 8,000 on a march from Denmark to Estonia. December 28 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, is appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, mission San Xavier del Bac is founded in New Spain near Tucson, as a Spanish Roman Catholic mission. An inventory made for the Medici family of Florence is the first documentary evidence for a piano, an English translation of the novel Don Quixote, translated from the original by many hands and published by Peter Motteux, begins publication in London. While popular among readers, it eventually come to be known as one of the worst translations of the novel. The value of sales of English manufactured products to the Atlantic economy is £3.9 million, date – Lions become extinct in Libya

8.
1710s
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February 28 – Battle of Helsingborg, Fourteen thousand Danish invaders under Jørgen Rantzau are decisively defeated by an equally large Swedish army under Magnus Stenbock. April 10 – The worlds first copyright legislation, Britains Statute of Anne, april 19 – Anne, Queen of Great Britain, meets the Four Mohawk Kings. June – Protestant Swiss and German Palatines under the leadership of Christoph von Graffenried travel to Bath County in the Province of Carolina, the settlers displace the native town of Chattoka and found New Bern, named for von Graffenrieds hometown of Bern, Switzerland. June 8 – The Tuscarora nation sends a petition to the Province of Pennsylvania, protesting the seizure of their lands, October 13 – Queen Annes War, The French surrender ending the Siege of Port Royal gives the British permanent possession of Nova Scotia. In Sweden, the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala is founded as the Collegium curiosorum, John Smithwick begins brewing Smithwicks ale at Kilkenny, Ireland. Beijing becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Istanbul, january – Carys Rebellion, The Lords Proprietor appoint Edward Hyde to replace Thomas Cary as the governor of the North Carolina portion of the Province of Carolina. Hydes policies are deemed hostile to Quaker interests, leading former governor Cary, February – French settlers at Fort Louis de la Mobile celebrate Mardi Gras in Mobile by parading a large papier-mache ox head on a cart. The attack fails and Carys forces retreat, London première of Rinaldo by George Frideric Handel, the first Italian opera written for the London stage. July 21 – The Treaty of the Pruth is signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, july – Carys Rebellion, Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia dispatches a company of Royal marines to assist Governor Hyde. After hearing of this, Carys troops abandon all of their fortifications along the Pamlico River, Cary and many of his supporters are soon caught and sent to England as prisoners, ending Carys Rebellion. August 22 – The Quebec Expedition, a British attempt to attack Quebec as part of Queen Annes War, september 8 – The South Sea Company receives a Royal Charter in Britain. September 10 – John Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried,2 African American slaves and 2 Native Americans leave on an expedition from New Bern. September 14 – Tuscarora natives capture John Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried and their expeditionary party, september 16 – Tuscarora natives kill John Lawson. Christoph von Graffenried and one African American slave are known to have set free. October 14 – Yostos kills Tewoflos, becoming Emperor of Ethiopia, November 7 – Dutch East India Company ship Liefde runs aground and sinks on Shetland with the loss of all but one of her 300 crew. Alexander Pope publishes the poem An Essay on Criticism in London, John Shore invents the tuning fork. February 10 – A Huilliche rebellion begins in Chiloé Archipelago, February 30 – Sweden temporarily adopts February 30 as a day to adjust the Swedish Calendar back to the Julian calendar. May 19 – Peter the Great moves the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint Petersburg, may 22 – Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor crowned king of Hungary

9.
1720s
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February 11 – Sweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Stockholm. February 17 – Treaty of The Hague signed between Spain, Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic, ending the War of the Quadruple Alliance, february 29 – Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden resigns to let her husband Frederick I take over as king of Sweden. She had desired a joint rule, in a manner to William and Mary in Britain. March 24 – The Riksdag of the Estates elects Frederick I new King of Sweden, April – South Sea Bubble in England, A scheme for the South Sea Company to take over most of the unconsolidated national debt of Britain massively inflated share prices. July 12 – The Lords Justice in Great Britain attempt to curb some of the excesses of the markets during the South Sea Bubble. September – South Sea Bubble, The English stock market crashes with dropping prices for stock in the South Sea Company, november 16 – Pirate Calico Jack Rackham is brought to trial at Spanish Town in Jamaica, he is hanged at Port Royal two days later. Tuscarora people leave North Carolina as a result of European colonization, the Town on Queen Annes Creek, North Carolina is renamed Edenton in honor of North Carolina Governor Charles Eden, it is incorporated in 1722. Introduction of the Guild Regulation of 1720 in Sweden, the Kangxi Emperor announces that all western businessmen in China can trade only in Guangzhou. Edmond Halley is appointed as Astronomer Royal for England, the Academia Real da Historia is founded in Lisbon, Portugal. Il teatro alla moda, a pamphlet by Benedetto Marcello, is published anonymously in Venice. The first yacht club in the world, the Royal Cork Yacht Club, is founded in Ireland, january 6 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble in England publishes its findings. March 24 – Johann Sebastian Bachs Brandenburg concertos completed and dedicated to Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt, April – Pirates John Taylor and Olivier Levasseur capture the 700-ton Portuguese galleon Nossa Senhora do Cabo at Réunion. The total value of treasure on board is estimated as between £100,000 and £875,000, one of the largest pirate hauls ever, April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. May 8 – Pope Innocent XIII succeeds Pope Clement XI as the 244th pope, september 10 – The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War. November 2 – The Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias and this replaces the 176-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire. December 22 – Philip V of Spain signs in Lerma a Royal Decree transforming the Seminary of Saint Rose of Lima in Caracas into the Universidad Real y Pontificia de Caracas, regular mail service between London and New England is established. A suggestion box is developed under the shogun of Japan. March 8 – Battle of Gulnabad in Persia, Pashtun people of Afghanistan led by Mahmud Hotak decisively defeat forces of the Persian Safavid dynasty, April 5 – Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen lands on what is now Easter Island

10.
1694
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As of the start of 1694, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 5 – The ship Ridderschap van Holland is lost at sea after it departs the Cape of Good Hope, february 6 – The colony of Quilombo dos Palmares, Brazil, is destroyed. March 1 – The HMS Sussex treasure fleet of thirteen ships is wrecked in the Mediterranean off Gibraltar with the loss of approximately 1,200 lives. A total of £1.2 million is raised for the war effort against Louis XIV of France by the end of the year to establish the first-ever government debt, september 5 – The Great Fire of Warwick in England. Autumn – A major windstorm spreads the Culbin Sands over an area of farmland in Scotland. October 25 – Queen Mary II of England founds the Royal Hospital for Seamen at Greenwich, december – Thomas Tenison is appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. December 3 – The Parliament of England passes the Triennial Act requiring general elections every three years, december 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies of smallpox aged 32, leaving her husband King William III to rule alone but without an heir. Since he is also without a royal hostess, Marys sister Princess Anne is summoned back to court as his official heiress, the Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends. Notorious voyage of the English slave ship Hannibal in the Atlantic slave trade out of Benin, rascians establish the settlement which will become Novi Sad on the Danube. The Académie française publishes the first complete edition of its Dictionnaire in Paris

11.
1695
–
As of the start of 1695, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. It was also a cold and wet year. Contemporary records claim that wine froze in the glasses in the Palace of Versailles, february 6 – Mustafa II succeeds Ahmed II as Ottoman Emperor. April – The Parliament of England decides not to renew the Licensing Order of 1643 requiring press censorship, july 17 – The Bank of Scotland is founded by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland. August 8 – The Wren Building is started in Williamsburg, Virginia, august 13–15 – Nine Years War, Bombardment of Brussels by French troops. September 1 – Nine Years War, France surrenders Namur in the Spanish Netherlands to forces of the Grand Alliance led by King William III of England following the 2-month Siege of Namur. September 7 – English pirate Henry Every perpetrates one of the most profitable raids in history with the capture of the Grand Mughal ship Ganj-i-Sawai, in response, Emperor Aurangzeb threatens to put an end to all English trading in India. December 31 – A window tax is imposed in England, some windows are bricked up to avoid it. Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire, English manufacturers call for an embargo on Indian cloth and silk weavers picket the House of Commons of England. A £2 fine is imposed for swearing in England, after 23 years of construction, Spain completes Castillo de San Marcos to protect St. Augustine, Florida, from foreign threats. After many years of construction, the Potala Palace in Lhasa is completed, jean Deutz & Sn. floats the first sovereign bonds on the local market. The scheme is designed to fund a 1.5 million guilder loan to the Holy Roman Emperor, from this date on, European leaders commonly take advantage of the low interest rates available in the Dutch Republic and borrow several hundred millions on the Dutch capital market. The Great Famine of 1695–1697 begin in Swedish Estonia and spread across Finland, Latvia, Norway and Sweden

12.
1696
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As of the start of 1696, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – Great Recoinage of 1696, The Parliament of England passes the Recoinage Act in England, colley Cibbers play Loves Last Shift is first performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London in England. January 27 – In England, the ship HMS Royal Sovereign catches fire and burns at Chatham, january 29 – Peter the Great becomes sole tsar of Russia, upon the death of Tsar Ivan V. January 31 – In the Netherlands, undertakers revolt after funeral reforms in Amsterdam, march 7 – King William III of England departs from the Netherlands. April – Fire destroys the Gra Bet of Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia, may 31 – John Salomonsz is elected chief of Sint Eustatius. July 18 – The fleet of Tsar Peter The Great occupies Azov at the mouth of the Don River, july 29 – King Louis XIV of France and Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, sign a peace treaty. August 13 – The Dutch state of Drenthe makes William III of Orange its Stadtholder, august 22 – Forces of the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire clash near Andros. November 21 – John Vanbrughs play The Relapse, or Virtue in Danger is first performed at the Theatre Royal, december 7 – Connecticut Route 108, one of Connecticuts oldest highways is laid-out to Trumbull. December 19 – Jean-Francois Regnards Le Joueur premieres in Paris, december 24 – The Inquisition burns a number of Marrano Jews in Évora, Portugal. Pierre Le Moyne dIberville captures and destroys St. Johns, Newfoundland, polish replaces Ruthenian as an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A famine wipes out almost a third of the population of Finland, William Penn offers an elaborate plan for intercolonial cooperation largely in trade, defense, and criminal matters. Edward Lloyd probably begins publication of Lloyds News, a predecessor of Lloyds List, in London

13.
1697
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As of the start of 1697, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 8 – Scottish student Thomas Aikenhead became the last person in Great Britain to be executed for blasphemy when he is hanged outside Edinburgh, march 9 – Peter the Great of Russia sets out to travel in Europe officially incognito as Artilleryman Pjotr Mikhailov. March 13 – The Spanish conquest of Petén, and of Yucatán, is completed with the fall of Nojpetén, capital of the Itza Maya Kingdom, april 5 – Charles XII, the Swedish Meteor, becomes king of Sweden upon the death of his father, Charles XI. May 7 – The 13th century royal Tre Kronor castle in Stockholm burns to the ground, a large portion of the royal library is destroyed. June 1 – Augustus II the Strong becomes king of Poland, june 30 – The earliest known first-class cricket match takes place in Sussex. September 5 – Battle of Hudsons Bay, French warsship Pélican captures York Factory, september 11 – Battle of Zenta – Prince Eugene of Savoy crushes the Ottoman army of Mustafa II and effectively ends Turkish hopes of recovering lost ground in Hungary. September 20 – The Treaty of Ryswick signed by France and the Grand Alliance to end both the Nine Years War and King Williams War, the conflict having been inconclusive, the treaty is proposed because the combatants have exhausted their national treasuries. Louis XIV recognises William III as King of England & Scotland, in North America, the treaty returns Port Royal to France. In practice, the treaty is little more than a truce, it does not resolve any of the fundamental colonial problems, december 2 – St Pauls Cathedral is opened in London. December 14 – Charles XII of Sweden is crowned king at the age of 15, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty conquers Outer Mongolia. The Royal African Company loses its monopoly on the slave trade, christopher Polhem starts Swedens first technical school. The use of palanquins increases in Europe

14.
1700
–
As of the start of 1700, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. As of March 1, when the Julian calendar acknowledged a leap day and the Gregorian calendar did not, in Sweden, the year started in the Julian calendar and remained so until February 28. Then, by skipping the leap day, the Swedish calendar was introduced, letting February 28 be followed by March 1 and this calendar, being 10 days behind the Gregorian and 1 day ahead of the Julian, lasts until 1712. January 26 – At approximately 9 p. m. the Cascadia earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 8. 7–9.2. This megathrust earthquake ruptured about 1,000 kilometers of the Cascadia Subduction Zone, February 3 – The Lesser Great Fire destroys a substantial part of central Edinburgh, Scotland. February 12 – The Great Northern War begins with a joint invasion of Swedish territory in Germany and Latvia by Denmark, Sweden has control of the Baltic Sea and holds territory that includes Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany. To challenge its power, an alliance is formed between Tsar Peter I of Russia, King Frederick IV of Denmark and Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, swedens ruler is the militaristic Charles XII, known as the Swedish Meteor. February 27 – Island of New Britain discovered by William Dampier in the western Pacific, March 1 – Protestant Germany and Denmark–Norway adopt the Gregorian calendar. March 1, March 11, February 29 – Swedish calendar adopted, early March – William Congreves comedy The Way of the World is first performed in London. March 25 – Treaty of London signed between France, England and Holland, april – Fire destroys many buildings in Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia, including two in the palace complex. May 5 Within a few days of John Drydens death, his last written work is performed as part of Vanbrughs version of The Pilgrim, William Penn begins monthly meetings for blacks advocating emancipation. July 11 – The Prussian Academy of Sciences is founded with Gottfried Leibniz as president, summer – Charles XII of Sweden counter-attacks his enemies by invading Zealand, assisted by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron under Sir George Rooke, rapidly compelling the Danes to submit to peace. August 18 – Peace of Travendal concluded between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal, on the same day, Augustus II, King of Poland, and Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, enter the war against Sweden. Late summer – A Russian army invades Swedish Estonia and besieges the town of Narva, november 1 – Charles II, last Spanish king of the House of Habsburg, dies insane at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid leaving no children. November 15 – Louis XIV accepts the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson Philip of Anjou, november 18 – Battle of Olkieniki, Lithuanian Civil War, victory for the anti-Sapieha coalition. November 23 – Pope Clement XI succeeds Pope Innocent XII as the 243rd pope, november 30 – Battle of Narva in Estonia. Having led his army of 8,000 on a march from Denmark to Estonia. December 28 – Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, is appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, mission San Xavier del Bac is founded in New Spain near Tucson, as a Spanish Roman Catholic mission

15.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government

16.
Christian V of Denmark
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Christian V was king of Denmark and Norway from 1670 until his death in 1699. As king he wanted to show his power as absolute monarch through architecture and he was the first to use the 1671 Throne Chair of Denmark, partly made for this purpose. His motto was, Pietate et Justitia, Christian was elected successor to his father in June 1650. This was not a choice, but de facto automatic hereditary succession. Escorted by his chamberlain Christoffer Parsberg, Christian went on a trip abroad, to Holland, England, France. On this trip, he saw absolutism in its most splendid achievement at the young Louis XIVs court and he returned to Denmark in August 1663. From 1664 he was allowed to attend proceedings of the State College, hereditary succession was made official by Royal Law in 1665. ChristIan was hailed as heir in Copenhagen in August 1665, in Odense and Viborg in September, only a short time before he became king, he was taken into the Council of the Realm and the Supreme Court. He became king upon his fathers death on 9 February 1670 and he was the first hereditary king of Denmark, and in honor of this, Denmark acquired costly new crown jewels and a magnificent new ceremonial sword. The war exhausted Denmarks economic resources without securing any gains, to accommodate non-aristocrats into state service, he created the new noble ranks of count and baron. One of the elevated in this way by the king was Peder Schumacher, named Count Griffenfeld by Christian V in 1670. The results of the war efforts proved politically and financially unremunerative for Denmark, the damage to the Danish economy was extensive. After the Scanian War, his sister, Princess Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark, married the Swedish king Charles XI, Christian V was also often considered dependent on his councillors by contemporary sources. The Danish monarch did nothing to dispel this notion, in his memoirs, he listed hunting, love-making, war and maritime affairs as his main interests in life. Christian V introduced Danske Lov in 1683, the first law code for all of Denmark and it was succeeded by the similar Norske Lov of 1687. He also introduced the land register of 1688, which attempted to out the land value of the united monarchy in order to create a more just taxation. During his reign, science witnessed a golden age due to the work of the astronomer Ole Rømer in spite of the king’s personal lack of scientific knowledge and he died from the after-effects of a hunting accident and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral. Christian V had eight children by his wife and six by his Maîtresse-en-titre, Sophie Amalie Moth, Sophie was the daughter of his former tutor Poul Moth

17.
Niels Juel
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Niels Juel was a Danish admiral. He was the brother of the diplomat Jens Juel, Niels Juel was born the son of Erik Juel and Sophie Clausdatter Sehested, both were descendant of Danish nobility, who lived in Jutland where the father had a career as a local functionary and judge. The following year, after the occupation had ended, the family was reunited in Jutland and he served his naval apprenticeship under Maarten Tromp and Michiel de Ruyter, taking part in all the chief engagements of the First Anglo-Dutch War between England and the Netherlands. During a long indisposition at Amsterdam in 1655-1656 he acquired a knowledge of shipbuilding. He served with distinction during the Dano-Swedish Wars of 1658-60 and took a prominent part in the defence of Copenhagen against Charles X of Sweden, in 1661 Juel married Margrethe Ulfeldt. On the outbreak of the Scanian War he served at first under Adeler, juels operations were considerably hampered at this period by the conduct of his Dutch auxiliary, Philips van Almonde, who accused the Danish admiral of cowardice. A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelis Tromp son of Maarten with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line, Juel took a leading part in Cornelis Tromps great victory off Battle of Öland, which enabled the Danes to invade Scania unopposed. This victory, besides permanently crippling the Swedish navy, gave the Danes the self-confidence to become dependent on their Dutch allies. In the following year Cornelis Tromp was discharged by Christian V, personally Juel was the noblest and most amiable of men, equally beloved and respected by his sailors, simple, straightforward and unpretentious in all his ways. During his latter years he was known in Copenhagen as the good old knight. He is buried in the Church of Holmen, statue of Niels Juel This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed

18.
Store norske leksikon
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Store norske leksikon, abbreviated SNL, is a Norwegian language encyclopedia. The SNL was created in 1978 when the two publishing houses Aschehoug and Gyldendal merged their encyclopedias and created the company Kunnskapsforlaget, the name translates into English as Great Norwegian encyclopedia. Up until 1978 the two publishing houses of Aschehoug and Gyldendal, Norways two largest, had published Aschehougs konversasjonsleksikon and Gyldendals konversasjonsleksikon, respectively, the respective first editions were published in 1907–1913 and 1933–1934. The fourth edition consists of 16 volumes, a total of 12,000 pages and 280,000 entries, on 12 March 2010 Store Norske Leksikon announced that from 1 July 2010 there would be no new editions of Store Norske Leksikon, because of lacklustre sales. The main reason behind this decision was stated to be Wikipedia, SNL became available online since 2000 and had several hundred thousand subscribers, both private and institutional. The number of articles is about 150,000. Since 25 February 2009, the encyclopedia has been free. The online version of the Store norske leksikon

19.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

20.
History of Austria
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The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states, from the early Stone Age to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria, Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1806, when the Holy Roman Empire came to an end. When this empire collapsed in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main German speaking areas of the empire, however this union was forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles. Following the First Republic, Austrofascism tried to keep Austria independent from the German Reich, but in 1938 it was annexed by Nazi Germany with the support of the large majority of the Austrian people. After the Second World War Austria again became an independent republic as the Second Republic in 1955, the history of Austria raises a number of questions. Should it be confined to the current Republic of Austria, or to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria, should Austrian history include 1938–1945 when it did not exist. Within Austria there are regional variations, and parts of Austria have at various times wished to become part of adjacent countries. Human habitation of current Austria can be traced back to the first farming communities of the early Stone Age. In the late Iron Age it was occupied by a Celtic culture, at the end of the 1st century BC this became part of the Roman Empires lands to the south of the Danube, and was incorporated as the Province of Noricum around 40 AD. The most important Roman settlement was at Carnuntum, in the 6th century, another Germanic people, the Bavarii occupied these lands until it fell to the Frankish Empire in the 9th century. Around 800 AD Charlemagne established the outpost of Avar March in what is now Lower Austria, to hold back advances from Slavs and Avars. In the 10th century an eastern outpost of the Duchy of Bavaria, bordering Hungary, was established as the Marchia orientalis or Margraviate of Austria in 976 and this Eastern March, in German was known as Ostarrîchi or Eastern Realm, hence Austria. The first mention of Ostarrîchi occurs in a document of that name dated 996 CE, from 1156 the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa created an independent duchy under the House of Babenberg, until its extinction in 1246, corresponding to modern Lower Austria. The 15th and early 16th century saw expansion of the Habsburg territories through diplomacy and marriages to include Spain. This expansionism, together with French aspirations and the resultant Habsburg-French or Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry were important factors shaping European History for 200 years, by 1526 Ferdinand had also inherited the kingdoms of Bohemia, and Hungary after the Battle of Mohács which partitioned the latter. However the Ottoman Empire now lay directly adjacent to the Austrian lands, even after the unsuccessful first Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the Ottoman threat persisted for another one and a half centuries. The 16th Century also saw the spread of the Reformation, from around 1600 the Habsburg policy of recatholicisation or Catholic Renewal eventually led to the Thirty Years War. Originally a religious war, it was also a struggle for power in central Europe, eventually the pressure of the anti-Habsburg coalition of France, Sweden, and most Protestant German states contained their authority to the Austrian and Czech lands in 1648

21.
1697 in England
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Events from the year 1697 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – William III15 May – violent hail storm across Hertfordshire,20 September – the Treaty of Ryswick ends the War of the Grand Alliance. 2 December – first service held in St Pauls Cathedral since rebuilding work after the Great Fire of London began, john Vanbrughs play The Provoked Wife. Daniel Defoes An Essay upon Projects, favouring the implementation of income tax, francis Moore first publishes Old Moores Almanack

22.
History of Germany
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Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagnes heirs in 843, in 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. In the High Middle Ages, the dukes, princes. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the states became Protestant. The two parts of the Holy Roman Empire clashed in the Thirty Years War, which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians living in both states. The Thirty Years War brought tremendous destruction to Germany, more than 1/4 of the population,1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, feudalism fell away, the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, led to the rapid growth of cities and to the emergence of the Socialist movement in Germany. Prussia, with its capital Berlin, grew in power, German universities became world-class centers for science and the humanities, while music and the arts flourished. The new Reichstag, a parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific, Germany was the dominant power on the continent. By 1900, its rapidly expanding industrial economy passed Britains, allowing a naval race, Germany led the Central Powers in World War I against France, Great Britain, Russia and the United States. Defeated and partly occupied, Germany was forced to pay war reparations by the Treaty of Versailles and was stripped of its colonies as well as Polish areas and Alsace-Lorraine. The German Revolution of 1918–19 deposed the emperor and the kings and princes, leading to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. In the early 1930s, the worldwide Great Depression hit Germany hard, as unemployment soared, in 1933, the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler came to power and quickly established a totalitarian regime. Political opponents were killed or imprisoned, after forming a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939, Hitler and Stalin divided Eastern Europe. After a Phoney War in spring 1940 the German blitzkrieg swept Scandinavia, only the British Commonwealth and Empire stood opposed, along with Greece. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in 1942, the German invasion of the Soviet Union faltered, and after the United States had entered the war, Britain became the base for massive Anglo-American bombings of German cities. Germany fought the war on multiple fronts through 1942–1944, however following the Allied invasion of Normandy, millions of ethnic Germans fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion, and became the dominant economy in Western Europe

23.
History of Hungary
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For the history of the area before this period, see Pannonian basin before Hungary. The oldest archaeological site in Hungary is Vértesszőlős, where palaeolithic Oldowan pebble tools, the Roman Empire conquered territory west of the Danube River between 35 and 9 BC. From 9 BC to the end of the 4th century AD, Pannonia, among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila the Hun in 435 AD. Attila was regarded in past centuries as a ruler of the Hungarians. They entered what is now Hungary in the 7th century AD, the Avar Khaganate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure, and the Franks under Charlemagne managed to defeat the Avars to end their 250-year rule. Árpád was the leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood and he led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. Between 895 and 902 the whole area of the Carpathian Basin was conquered by the Hungarians, an early Hungarian state was formed in this territory in 895. The military power of the nation allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns, Prince Géza of the Árpád dynasty, who ruled only part of the united territory, was the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes. He aimed to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe by rebuilding the state according to the Western political and social models, Géza established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk as his successor. This decision was contrary to the dominant tradition of the time to have the eldest surviving member of the ruling family succeed the incumbent. By ancestral right, Prince Koppány, the oldest member of the dynasty, should have claimed the throne, Koppány did not relinquish his ancestral rights without a fight. After Gézas death in 997, Koppány took up arms, the rebels claimed to represent the old political order, ancient human rights, tribal independence and pagan belief. Stephen won a victory over his uncle Koppány and had him executed. Hungary was recognized as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I, Stephen was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád. Stephen was crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary in the first day of 1000 AD in the city of Esztergom. Pope Sylvester II conferred on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full authority over bishoprics. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power by eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old traditions or wanted an alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he initiated sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a feudal state, complete with forced Christianization

24.
1697 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1697 in Ireland. October 27 - A thunderstorm ignites the arsenal at Athlone Castle, banishment Act banishes all bishops of the Roman Catholic Church from Ireland. Celbridge Abbey in County Kildare is built by Bartholomew Van Homrigh, famine in the Scottish Borders leads to continued Scottish Presbyterian migration from Scotland to Ulster. Date - John Ryder, Archbishop of Tuam December 20 - Sir Arthur Gore, 1st Baronet, soldier and politician Francis Burke, Franciscan William FitzMaurice, 20th Baron Kerry, peer

25.
History of Malta
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Malta has a long history and has been inhabited since settlers from Sicily arrived around 5200 BC. Malta became an independent state in 1964, and a republic in 1974, since 2004 the country has been a member state of the European Union. Malta stands on a ridge that extends from North Africa to Sicily. At some time in the distant past, Malta was submerged, some caverns in Malta have revealed bones of elephants, hippopotami, and other large animals now found in Africa, while others have revealed animals native to Europe. People first arrived in Malta around 5200 BC and these first Neolithic people probably arrived from Sicily, and were mainly farming and fishing communities, with some evidence of hunting activities. They apparently lived in caves and open dwellings, during the centuries that followed there is evidence of further contacts with other cultures, which left their influence on the local communities, evidenced by their pottery designs and colours. One of the most notable periods of Maltas history is the temple period, the Ġgantija Temple in Gozo is one of the oldest free-standing buildings in the world. The name of the stems from the Maltese word ġgant. Many of the temples are in the form of five semicircular rooms connected at the centre. It has been suggested that these might have represented the head, arms and legs of a deity, the Temple period lasted until about 2500 BC, at which point the civilization that raised these huge monoliths seems to have disappeared. There is much speculation about what might have happened and whether they were wiped out or assimilated. After the Temple period came the Bronze Age, from this period there are remains of a number of settlements and villages, as well as dolmens — altar-like structures made out of very large slabs of stone. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity to the found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea. One surviving menhir, which was used to build temples, still stands at Kirkop, among the most interesting and mysterious remnants of this era are the so-called cart ruts as they can be seen at a place on Malta called Clapham Junction. These are pairs of parallel channels cut into the surface of the rock, one suggestion is that beasts of burden used to pull carts along, and these channels would guide the carts and prevent the animals from straying. The society that built these structures eventually died out or at any rate disappeared, phoenicians possibly from Tyre began to colonize the islands in approximately the 8th century BC as an outpost from which they expanded sea explorations and trade in the Mediterranean. The former settlement was known as Maleth meaning safe haven, the Maltese Islands fell under the hegemony of Carthage in around the 6th century BC, along with most other Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean

26.
History of Monaco
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Part of Ligurias history since the fall of the Roman Empire, from the 14th to the early 15th century the area was contested for primarily political reasons. Since that point, excepting a period of French occupation. The Rock of Monaco served as a shelter for the early humans from the end of the Paleolithic period, approximately 400,000 BC. Phocaeans from Massalia founded the colony of Monoikos, the Roman emperor Julian also wrote of Herculess construction of Monacos port and a coastal road. The road was dotted with altars to Hercules, and a dedicated to him was established on the Rock of Monaco. The name Port Hercules was subsequently used for the ancient port, monoeci meaning Single One or Monoikos meaning Single House could be a reference to Hercules or his temple, or the isolated community inhabiting the area around the rock. According to the travels of Hercules theme, also documented by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, after the Gallic Wars, Monoecus, which served as a stopping-point for Julius Caesar on his way to campaign in Greece, fell under Roman control as part of the Maritime Alps province. The Roman poet Virgil called it that castled cliff, Monoecus by the sea, either because Hercules drove off everyone else and lived there alone, or because in his temple no other of the gods is worshipped at the same time. No temple to Hercules has been found at Monaco, although the rocky ground, the port is mentioned in Pliny the Elders Natural History and in Tacitus Histories, when Fabius Valens was forced to put into the port. Monaco remained under Roman control until the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the city was then under the domain of Odoacer until his fall at the hands of the Ostrogoths in the late 5th century. Monaco was recaptured by the Romans during the reign of Justinian in the century and was held until its capture by the Lombards in the 7th century. Monaco then passed hands between the Lombards and Franks, though these raids left the area almost entirely depopulated, the Saracens were expelled in 975, and by the 11th century the area was again populated by Ligurians. In 1191, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI granted suzerainty over the area to the city of Genoa, on June 10,1215, a detachment of Genoese Ghibellines led by Fulco del Cassello began the construction of a fortress atop the Rock of Monaco. This date is cited as the beginning of Monacos modern history. The Grimaldis, descended from Otto Canella and taking their name from his son Grimaldo, were an ancient and prominent Guelphic Genoese family, francesco Grimaldi seized the Rock of Monaco in 1297, starting the Grimaldi dynasty, under the sovereignty of the Republic of Genoa. The Grimaldis acquired Menton in 1346 and Roquebrune in 1355, enlarging their possessions, in 1338 Monegasque ships under the command of Carlo Grimaldi participated, along with those of France and Genoa, in the English Channel naval campaign. Plunder from the sack of Southampton was brought back to Monaco, honoré II, Prince of Monaco secured recognition of his independent sovereignty from Spain in 1633, and then from Louis XIII of France by the Treaty of Péronne. The principality was re-established in 1814, only to be designated a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Monaco remained in this position until 1860, when by the Treaty of Turin, Sardinia ceded to France the surrounding county of Nice

27.
History of the Netherlands
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The history of the Netherlands is the history of seafaring people thriving on a lowland river delta on the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Records begin with the four centuries during which the region formed a border zone of the Roman empire. This came under increasing pressure from Germanic peoples moving westwards, during the Middle Ages, the descendants of the Carolingian dynasty came to dominate the area and then extended their rule to a large part of Western Europe. The region of the Netherlands therefore became part of Lower Lotharingia within the Frankish Holy Roman Empire, for several centuries, lordships such as Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Guelders and others held a changing patchwork of territories. There was no unified equivalent of the modern Netherlands, the Catholic kings of Spain took strong measures against Protestantism, which polarized the peoples of present-day Belgium and Holland. In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national companies based on entrepreneurship. During the 18th century the power and wealth of the Netherlands declined, a series of wars with the more powerful British and French neighbors weakened it. Britain seized the North American colony of New Amsterdam, turning it into New York, there was growing unrest and conflict between the Orangists and the Patriots. The French Revolution spilled over after 1789, and a pro-French Batavian Republic was established in 1795–1806, Napoleon made it a satellite state, the Kingdom of Holland, and later simply a French imperial province. After the collapse of Napoleon in 1813–15, an expanded United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created with the House of Orange as monarchs, also ruling Belgium, the King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, which revolted in 1830 and became independent in 1839. After an initially conservative period, in the 1848 constitution the country became a democracy with a constitutional monarch. Modern Luxembourg became officially independent from the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890, since 1890 it is ruled by another branch of the House of Nassau. The Netherlands was neutral during the First World War, but during the Second World War, the Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all the Jews. When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off supplies to much of the country. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies was conquered by Japan, Indonesia proclaimed its independence in 1945. The postwar years saw rapid economic recovery, followed by the introduction of a state during an era of peace. The Netherlands formed a new alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Benelux

28.
History of the Ottoman Empire
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The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I. As sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453, the state grew into a mighty empire, the empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat by the ] in World War I. The empire was dismantled by the Allies after the war ended in 1918, with the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities, one of the beyliks was led by Osman I, from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the known as Osmans Dream. According to his dream the tree, which was Osmans Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile, additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Atlas and the Balkan ranges. During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire, in this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean, Osmans son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia, the important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective, the Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, the capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a war that lasted from 1402 to 1413. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army to attack the Turks, the son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the Adriatic Sea, such as in Albania Veneta, during this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military, and on the sea, the state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia

29.
Papal States
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The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren

30.
History of Portugal
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The history of Portugal dates back to the Early Middle Ages. The country was weakened by the destruction of much of its capital city in an earthquake in 1755, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, in 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and the bankruptcy of the state. The new government instituted sweeping reforms and granted independence to all of Portugals African colonies in 1975. Portugal is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. It entered the European Economic Community in 1986, the word Portugal derives from the Roman-Celtic place name Portus Cale. Around 200 BC, the Romans took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, during the Dark Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale was already referred to as Portugal, the precise etymology of the name Cale is somewhat mysterious, although the most plausible origin points to Cale being a Celtic name, like many others found in the region. Indeed the word cale or cala meant port, an inlet or harbour, furthermore todays Gaelic word for harbour is indeed Cala. Some argue it is the stem of Gallaecia, again of Celtic derivation, another theory claims it derives from the word Caladunum. In any case, the particle Portu in the word Portucale was used as the basis of Porto, and port became the English name of the wine actually produced further inland, in the Upper Douro Valley region, but exported through Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia, a city on the bank of the river. The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals, and then by Homo sapiens, Neanderthals probably arrived 100,000 years BP. A Neanderthal tooth found at Nova da Columbiera cave in Estremadura is one of the oldest human fossils so far discovered, Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal in around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly throughout the country. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal leaving a remarkable cultural footprint, the Cynetes developed a written language, leaving many stelae, which are mainly found in the south of Portugal. Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence in Portugal is traceable, in outline, through archaeological

31.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert

32.
History of Russia
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The History of Russia begins with that of the Eastern Slavs. The traditional beginning of Russian history is 862 A. D. Kievan Rus, the state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning with the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus ultimately disintegrated as a state because of the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1237–1240, after the 13th century, Moscow became a cultural center. By the 18th century, the Tsardom of Russia had become the huge Russian Empire, expansion in the western direction sharpened Russias awareness of its separation from much of the rest of Europe and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform, peasant revolts were common, and all were fiercely suppressed. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861, but the peasant fared poorly, from its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. The Russian Federation began in January 1992 as the successor to the USSR. Russia retained its nuclear arsenal but lost its superpower status, Russias treatment of Ukraine led to severe economic sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union. In 2006,1. 5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools were discovered in the Dagestan Akusha region of the north Caucasus, arctic Russia was reached by 40,000 years ago. During the prehistoric eras the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists, in classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Remnants of these long gone steppe cultures were discovered in the course of the 20th century in places as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim. In the latter part of the 8th century BCE, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais, gelonus was described by Herodotos as a huge earth- and wood-fortified grad inhabited around 500 BCE by Heloni and Budini. At about the 2nd century CE Goths migrated to the Black Sea, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, a Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century. Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, the Khazars were the commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim Abbasid empire centered in Baghdad. They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire, and waged a series of wars against the Arab Caliphates. In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism, some of the ancestors of the modern Russians were the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pripet Marshes. The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves, one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod, scandinavian Norsemen, known as Vikings in Western Europe and Varangians in the East, combined piracy and trade throughout Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern Baltic to the Black, thus, the first East Slavic state, Rus, emerged in the 9th century along the Dnieper River valley

33.
History of San Marino
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The history of San Marino is typical for the Italian Peninsula, and yet helps explain its unusual characteristics as the sole remaining Italian microstate. San Marino is the only surviving Italian microstate, along with Vatican City and Lesotho it is one of the three states surrounded by a single other country. San Marino asserts its independence and various treaties of friendship have been signed with Italy since the latter’s unification, San Marino, the worlds fifth-smallest state, claims to be the worlds oldest surviving republic. There he built a chapel and monastery, later, the State of San Marino would bud from the centre created by this monastery. Living in geographical isolation from the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians at the time and it is certain that the region has been inhabited since prehistoric times, although evidence of the existence of a community on Mount Titano dates back only to the Middle Ages. That evidence comes from a monk named Eugippio, who reports in several documents going back to 511 that another monk lived here. In memory of the stonecutter, the land was renamed Land of San Marino, later papers from the 9th century report a well organized, open and proud community, the writings report that the bishop ruled this territory. In the Lombard age, San Marino was a fief of the dukes of Spoleto, the original government structure was composed of a self-governed assembly known as the Arengo, which consisted of the heads of each family. In 1243, the positions of Captains Regent were established to be the joint heads of state, the states earliest statutes date back to 1263. The Holy See confirmed the independence of San Marino in 1631, in quick succession, the lords of Montefeltro, the Malatesta of Rimini, and the lords of Urbino attempted to conquer the little town, but without success. As a result, Pope Pius II gave San Marino some castles, later that year, the town of Faetano joined the republic on its own accord. Since then, the size of San Marino has remained unchanged, as the political scientist Jorri Duursma notes, San Marino does not have an official Constitution as such. The first legal documents which mentioned San Marinos institutional organs were the Statutes of 1600, popular misunderstanding sometimes credits the country with a written constitution dating from 1600. San Marino faced many potential threats, thus a treaty of protection was signed in 1602 with Pope Clement VIII, which came into force in 1631. San Marino has been occupied by foreign militaries three times in its history, each for only a period of time. Two of these periods were in the feudal era, in 1503, Cesare Borgia occupied the republic until his death several months later. An alliance could have meant the loss of its liberty so a prudent course of action was taken, the Government of San Marino replied that it would do everything possible to fulfil the request, even though, in reality, the bishop was able to flee across the border. A solution was found by one of the Regents, Antonio Onofri, while grateful for the former, the offer of territorial expansion was politely declined by San Marino

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the first Europeans who managed to reach it, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.