The theremin (/ˈθɛrəmɪn/; originally known as the ætherphone/etherphone, thereminophone[1] or termenvox/thereminvox) is an electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact by the thereminist (performer). It is named after the Westernized name of its Soviet inventor, Léon Theremin (Термéн), who patented the device in 1928.

The theremin was originally the product of Soviet government-sponsored research into proximity sensors. The instrument was invented by a young Russian physicist named Lev Sergeyevich Termen (known in the West as Léon Theremin) in October 1920[2][3] after the outbreak of the Russian Civil War. After a lengthy tour of Europe, during which time he demonstrated his invention to packed houses, Theremin moved to the United States, where he patented his invention in 1928.[4] Subsequently, Theremin granted commercial production rights to RCA.

Although the RCA Thereminvox (released immediately following the Stock Market Crash of 1929), was not a commercial success, it fascinated audiences in America and abroad. Clara Rockmore, a well-known thereminist, toured to wide acclaim, performing a classical repertoire in concert halls around the United States, often sharing the bill with Paul Robeson.

During the 1930s, Lucie Bigelow Rosen was also taken with the theremin and together with her husband Walter Bigelow Rosen provided both financial and artistic support to the development and popularisation of the instrument.[5][6]

In 1938, Theremin left the United States, though the circumstances related to his departure are in dispute. Many accounts claim he was taken from his New York City apartment by NKVD agents (preceding the KGB),[7] taken back to the Soviet Union and made to work in a sharashka laboratory prison camp at Magadan, Siberia. He reappeared 30 years later. In his 2000 biography of the inventor, Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage, Albert Glinsky suggested the Russian had fled to escape crushing personal debts, and was then caught up in Stalin's political purges. In any case, Theremin did not return to the United States until 1991.[8]

After a flurry of interest in America following the end of the Second World War, the theremin soon fell into disuse with serious musicians, mainly because newer electronic instruments were introduced that were easier to play. However, a niche interest in the theremin persisted, mostly among electronics enthusiasts and kit-building hobbyists. One of these electronics enthusiasts, Robert Moog, began building theremins in the 1950s, while he was a high-school student. Moog subsequently published a number of articles about building theremins, and sold theremin kits that were intended to be assembled by the customer. Moog credited what he learned from the experience as leading directly to his groundbreaking synthesizer, the Moog. (Around 1955, a colleague of Moog's, electronic music pioneer Raymond Scott, purchased one of Moog's theremin subassemblies to incorporate into a new invention, the Clavivox, which was intended to be an easy-to-use keyboard theremin.)[9]

Since the release of the film Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey in 1993, the instrument has enjoyed a resurgence in interest and has become more widely used by contemporary musicians. Even though many theremin sounds can be approximated on many modern synthesizers, some musicians continue to appreciate the expressiveness, novelty, and uniqueness of using an actual theremin. The film itself has garnered excellent reviews.[10]

Both theremin instruments and kits are available from manufacturers such as Moog Music Inc., Burns Theremins, Harrison Instruments, Inc., Theremaniacs LLC, PAiA Corporation USA, and Jaycar Electronics. Some inexpensive theremins may only have a pitch control and may be harder to play accurately because of a relatively non-linear relationship between the distance of the hand and resultant pitch, as well as a relatively short span of hand-to-antenna distance for producing the available range of pitch.

Block diagram of a theremin. Volume control in blue-grey, pitch control in yellow and audio output in red.

The theremin is distinguished among musical instruments in that it is played without physical contact. The thereminist stands in front of the instrument and moves his or her hands in the proximity of two metal antennas. The distance from one antenna determines frequency (pitch), and the distance from the other controls amplitude (volume). Higher notes are played by moving the hand closer to the pitch antenna. Louder notes are played by moving the hand away from the volume antenna.

Most frequently, the right hand controls the pitch and the left controls the volume, although some performers reverse this arrangement. Some low-cost theremins use a conventional, knob operated volume control and have only the pitch antenna. While commonly called antennas, they are not used for receiving or broadcasting radio waves, but act as plates of capacitors.

The theremin uses the heterodyne principle to generate an audio signal. The instrument's pitch circuitry includes two radio frequencyoscillators set below 500 kHz to minimize radio interference. One oscillator operates at a fixed frequency. The frequency of the other oscillator is almost identical, and is controlled by the performer's distance from the pitch control antenna.

The performer's hand acts as the grounded plate (the performer's body being the connection to ground) of a variable capacitor in an L-C (inductance-capacitance) circuit, which is part of the oscillator and determines its frequency. In the simplest designs, the antenna is directly coupled to the tuned circuit of the oscillator and the 'pitch field' that is the change of note with distance, is highly nonlinear, as the capacitance change with distance is far greater near the antenna. In such systems, when the antenna is removed, the oscillator moves up in frequency.

To partly linearise the pitch field, the antenna may be wired in series with an inductor to form a series tuned circuit, resonating with the parallel combination of the antenna's intrinsic capacitance and the capacitance of the player's hand in proximity to the antenna. This series tuned circuit is then connected in parallel with the parallel tuned circuit of the variable pitch oscillator. With the antenna circuit disconnected, the oscillator is tuned to a frequency slightly higher than the stand alone resonant frequency of the antenna circuit. At that frequency, the antenna and its linearisation coil present an inductive impedance; and when connected, behaves as an inductor in parallel with the oscillator. Thus, connecting the antenna and linearising coil raises the oscillation frequency. Close to the resonant frequency of the antenna circuit, the effective inductance is small, and the effect on the oscillator is greatest; farther from it, the effective inductance is larger, and fractional change on the oscillator is reduced.

When the hand is distant from the antenna, the resonant frequency of the antenna series circuit is at its highest; i.e., it is closest to the free running frequency of the oscillator, and small changes in antenna capacitance have greatest effect. Under this condition, the effective inductance in the tank circuit is at its minimum and the oscillation frequency is at its maximum. The steepening rate of change of shunt impedance with hand position compensates for the reduced influence of the hand being further away. With careful tuning, a near linear region of pitch field can be created over the central 2 or 3 octaves of operation. Using optimized pitch field linearisation, circuits can be made where a change in capacitance between the performer and the instrument in the order of 0.01 picofarads produces a full octave of frequency shift.[11]

The mixer produces the audio-range difference between the frequencies of the two oscillators at each moment, which is the tone that is then wave shaped and amplified and sent to a loudspeaker.

To control volume, the performer's other hand acts as the grounded plate of another variable capacitor. As in the tone circuit, the distance between the performer's hand and the volume control antenna determines the capacitance and hence natural resonant frequency of an LC circuit inductively coupled to another fixed LC oscillator circuit operating at a slightly higher resonant frequency. When a hand approaches the antenna, the natural frequency of that circuit is lowered by the extra capacitance, which detunes the oscillator and lowers its resonant plate current.

In the earliest theremins, the RF plate current of the oscillator is picked up by another winding and used to power the filament of another diode-connected triode, which thus acts as a variable conductance element changing the output amplitude.[12] The harmonic timbre of the output, not being a pure tone, was an important feature of the theremin.[13] Theremin's original design included audio frequency series/parallel LC formant filters as well as a 3-winding variable-saturation transformer to control or induce harmonics in the audio output.[4]

Modern circuit designs often simplify this circuit and avoid the complexity of two heterodyne oscillators by having a single pitch oscillator, akin to the original theremin's volume circuit. This approach is usually less stable and cannot generate the low frequencies that a heterodyne oscillator can. Better designs (e.g., Moog, Theremax) may use two pairs of heterodyne oscillators, for both pitch and volume.[14]

Important in theremin articulation is the use of the volume control antenna. Unlike touched instruments, where simply halting play or damping a resonator in the traditional sense silences the instrument, the thereminist must "play the rests, as well as the notes", as Clara Rockmore observed.[15] If the pitch hand is moved between notes, without first lowering the volume hand, the result is a "swooping" sound akin to a swanee whistle or a glissando played on the violin. Small flutters of the pitch hand can be used to produce a vibrato effect. To produce distinct notes requires a pecking action with the volume hand to mute the volume while the pitch hand moves between positions.

Thereminists such as Carolina Eyck use a fixed arm position per octave, and use fixed positions of the fingers to create the notes within the octave, allowing very fast transitions between adjacent notes. Although volume technique is less developed than pitch technique, some thereminists have worked to extend it, especially Pamelia Kurstin with her "walking bass" technique[16] and Rupert Chappelle.

Recent versions of the theremin have been functionally updated: the Moog Ethervox, while functionally still a theremin, can also be used as a MIDI controller, and as such allows the artist to control any MIDI-compatible synthesizer with it, using the theremin's continuous pitch to drive modern synths.[17] The Harrison Instruments Model 302[18] Theremin uses symmetrical horizontal plates instead of a vertical rod and horizontal loop to control pitch and volume, with the volume increasing as the hand approaches the plate.

The critic Harold C. Schonberg described the sound of the theremin as "(a) cello lost in a dense fog, crying because it does not know how to get home."[19]

Maverick composer Percy Grainger chose to use ensembles of four or six theremins (in preference to a string quartet) for his two earliest experimental Free Music compositions (1935–37) because of the instrument's complete 'gliding' freedom of pitch.[25][26]

Theremins and theremin-like sounds started to be incorporated into popular music from the end of the 1940s (with a series of Samuel Hoffman/Harry Revel collaborations)[35] and this has continued, with varying popularity, to the present.[36]

Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin used a variation of the theremin (minus the loop) during performances of "Whole Lotta Love" and "No Quarter" throughout the performance history of Led Zeppelin, an extended multi-instrumental solo featuring theremin and bowed guitar in 1977, as well as the soundtrack for Death Wish II released in 1982.

The Lothars are a Boston-area band formed in early 1997 whose CDs have featured as many as four theremins played at once – a first for pop music.[41][42]

Although credited with a "Thereman" [sic] on the "Mysterons" track from the album Dummy, Portishead actually used a monophonic synthesizer to achieve theremin-like effects, as confirmed by Adrian Utley, who is credited as playing the instrument; he has also created similar sounds on the songs "Half Day Closing", "Humming", "The Rip", and "Machine Gun".[43]

Star Trek did not use a theremin. The Alexander Courage theme music composed for and employed on the original series was performed by a mixture of instruments with vocals to get "unearthly" sound.[51] The theremin-like sound theme was actually provided by renowned studio soprano Loulie Jean Norman until her voice was removed in later seasons.[52] Soprano Elin Carlson sang part of the theme when CBS-Paramount TV remastered the program's title sequence in 2006.[53]

In May 2007, the White Castle American hamburger restaurant chain introduced a television ad[54] centered around a live theremin performance by musician Jon Bernhardt of the band The Lothars. It is the only known example of a theremin performance being the focus of an advertisement.[55]

In October 2008, comedian, musician, and theremin enthusiast Bill Bailey played a theremin during his performance of Bill Bailey's Remarkable Guide to the Orchestra at the Royal Albert Hall, which has subsequently been televised. He has previously also written an article,[57] presented a radio show[58] and incorporated the theremin in some of his televised comedy tours.

The First Theremin Concert for Extraterrestrials was the world's first musical METI broadcast dispatched from the Evpatoria deep-space communications complex in Crimea,[60] and was sent seven years before NASA's Across the Universe (message). Seven different melodies were transmitted from audio-cassette recordings of the theremin being played by Lidia Kavina, Yana Aksenova, and Anton Kerchenko, all from the Moscow Theremin Center. These seven melodies were:

"Egress alone I to the Ride" by E. Shashina

The finale of the 9th Symphony by Beethoven

The Four Seasons: Spring, "Allegro" by Vivaldi

"The Swan" by Saint-Saens

"Vocalise" by Rachmaninoff

"Summertime" by Gershwin

Russian folk song "Kalinka-Malinka"

They were played in succession six times over the span of three days from August–September 2001 during the transmission of Teen Age Message, an interstellar radio message.[60]

The Ondes-Martenot, 1928, also uses the principle of heterodyning oscillators, but has a keyboard as well as a slide controller and is touched while playing.[61]

The Electro-Theremin (or Tannerin after Paul Tanner who played it in several productions including three tracks for The Beach Boys[62]), built by Bob Whitsell in the 1950s,[63] does not use heterodyning oscillators and has to be touched while playing, but it allows continuous variation of the frequency range and sounds similar to the theremin. The same instrument was also used to generate the outer space sounds for George Greeley's theme to the TV show My Favorite Martian.[64]

The Persephone, an analogue fingerboard synthesizer with CV and MIDI, inspired by the trautonium. The Persephone allows continuous variation of the frequency range from one to 10 octaves. The ribbon is pressure and position sensitive.

The Electronde, an early prototype of the theremin, invented in 1929 by Martin Taubman. It has an antenna for pitch control, a handheld switch for articulation and a foot pedal for volume control.[65]

The Syntheremin is an extension of the theremin.

The Croix Sonore (Sonorous Cross), is based on the theremin. It was developed by Russian composer Nicolas Obouchov in France, after he saw Lev Theremin demonstrate the theremin in 1924.

The terpsitone, also invented by Theremin, consisted of a platform fitted with space-controlling antennas, through and around which a dancer would control the musical performance. By most accounts, the instrument was nearly impossible to control. Of the three instruments built, only the last one, made in 1978 for Lydia Kavina, survives today.

The Z.Vex Effects Fuzz Probe, Wah Probe and Tremolo Probe, using a theremin to control said effects. The Fuzz Probe can be used as a theremin, as it can through feedback oscillation create tones of any pitch.

The Haken Continuum Fingerboard uses a continuous, flat playing surface along which the player slides his fingers to create the desired pitch and timbre values. Describable as "a continuous pitch controller that resembles a keyboard, but has no keys."

The MC-505 by Roland by being able to use the integrated D-Beam-sensor like a Theremin.

The Otamatone by the Cube Works company, which is played by sliding the fingers up and down a stem to control a three-level pitch sound.

The Audiocubes by Percussa are light emitting smart blocks that have four sensors on each side (optical theremin). The sensors measure the distance to your hands to control an effect or sound.[66]

A musical saw, also called a singing saw, is the application of a hand saw as a musical instrument. The sound creates an ethereal tone, very similar to the theremin. The musical saw is classified as a friction idiophone with direct friction (131.22) under the Hornbostel-Sachs system of musical instrument classification.

A three radio theremin (Super Theremin, スーパーテレミン) invented by Tomoya Yamamoto (山本智), composed of three independent radio sets. Radio set #1 is to listen and to record the signal at around 1600kHz. Radio set #2 is tuned at 1145kHz so that its local oscillator of around 1600kHz is to be received by radio set #1. Radio set #3 is also tuned at 1145kHz so that its local oscillator may produce the beat with radio set #2. Operator's hand movement around bar antenna of radio set #3 may affect the local oscillator to produce tonal change.[67]

The Chimaera is a digital offspring of theremin and touchless ribbon controller and based on distance sensing of permanent magnets. An array of linear Hall-effect sensors, each acting as an individual theremin in a changing magnetic field, responds to multiple moving neodymium magnets worn on fingers and forms a continuous interaction space in two dimensions.[69]

1.
Theremin (album)
–
Covenant is an electronic band formed in 1986 in Helsingborg, Sweden. The band is composed of Eskil Simonsson and Joakim Montelius alongside touring members Andreas Catjar. Their music comprises a mixture between synthpop and electronic body music and they have been releasing music since the early 1990s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, electronic music and several of its subgenres became a musical style among European underground culture. It gained favor initially within major cities and eventually trickled into the more secluded regions. This new wave of music was discovered at different instances by a group of living in Helsingborg. The friends carried this fascination with them to university life in the town of Lund. In between their academic endeavors and discussions of worldly affairs, they assembled a small recording studio in Nachmansons bedroom, in 1989, the name Covenant was selected for the group—a name derived from the unspoken spiritual bond the trio professed to share. As Covenant, the three produced their first publicly released track, The Replicant, by invitation of Swedish record label Memento Materia, the Replicant was released on a compilation album in 1992, and the track thrilled label executives, prompting them to ask for a full album. In 1994, the group compiled enough songs to release the album, Dreams was well received by critics and fans alike, and with its success, the boyhood friends decided to take their musical efforts more seriously. They upgraded and added equipment, relocated their studio. In 1995, Covenant performed at a festival in Germany at the request of Off-Beat Records, the band impressed Off-Beats attending A&R representative, who signed them to a record deal the following day. Excited by the prospect of broader exposure, the band members eased further away from their educational pursuits and devoted themselves to completing a new album, 1996s Sequencer. With Sequencer, the sought to improve upon the weaknesses they found in Dreams by combining sequencing, diverse melodies. It became an instant classic among many observers, some of whom declared it the best electro album of the decade. It would go on to be re-released a number of times throughout the world, later in the year, San Francisco-based record label 21st Circuitry agreed to distribute Covenants albums in the United States, expanding the bands reach in the process. As a result, the created the Theremin EP in 1997 specifically for North American release and started to accept tour dates throughout the US. The trios third album, Europa, debuted in 1998

2.
Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey
–
Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey is a 1993 documentary film directed by Steven M. Martin about the life of Leon Theremin and his invention, the theremin, a pioneering electronic musical instrument. Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey won the Documentary Filmmakers Trophy at the 1994 Sundance Film Festival and it was also nominated for an International Emmy as well as a BAFTA, the Huw Wheldon Award for the Best Arts Programme, one of the British Academy Television Awards. Janet Maslin of The New York Times called the film a fascinating, in a December 1995 review, Roger Ebert wrote, Watching Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey is a curious experience. You begin with interest, and then you pass through the stages of curiosity, fascination and disbelief, until in the last 20 minutes and it is the kind of movie that requires a musical score only the Theremin possibly could supply. Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey was released on DVD by MGM Home Video on April 1,2003, moog Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey at the Internet Movie Database List of reviews of Theremin from the Movie Review Query Engine

3.
Robert Moog
–
Robert Arthur Bob Moog, founder of Moog Music, was an American engineer and pioneer of electronic music, best known as the inventor of the Moog synthesizer. During his lifetime, Moog founded two companies for manufacturing electronic musical instruments, a native of New York City, Moog attended the Bronx High School of Science in New York, graduating in 1952. For his undergraduate education, Moog completed a 3-2 engineering program, earning a B. S. in physics from Queens College, from the Columbia University School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1957. He received his Ph. D. in engineering physics from Cornell University in 1965, in 1953 at age 19, Moog founded his first company, R. A. Moog Co. to manufacture theremin kits, during the 1950s, composer and electronic music pioneer Raymond Scott approached Moog, asking him to design circuits for him. Moog later acknowledged Scott as an important influence, later, in the 1960s, the company was employed to build modular synthesizers based on Moogs designs. In 1972 Moog changed the name to Moog Music. Throughout the 1970s, Moog Music went through changes of ownership. Poor management and marketing led to Moogs departure from his own company in 1977, in 1978 after leaving his namesake firm, Moog started making electronic musical instruments again with a new company, Big Briar. Their first specialty was theremins, but by 1999 the company expanded to produce a line of effects pedals called moogerfoogers. In 1999, Moog partnered with Bomb Factory to co-develop the first digital effects based on Moog technology in the form of plugins for Pro Tools software, despite Moog Musics closing in 1993, Moog did not have the rights to market products using his own name throughout the 1990s. Big Briar acquired the rights to use the Moog Music name in 2002 after a battle with Don Martin who had previously bought the rights to the name Moog Music. At the same time, Moog designed a new version of the Minimoog called the Minimoog Voyager, the Voyager includes nearly all of the features of the original Model D in addition to numerous modern features. The Moog synthesizer was one of the first widely used musical instruments. Early developmental work on the components of the synthesizer occurred at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, while there, Moog developed the voltage controlled oscillators, ADSR envelope generators, and other synthesizer modules with composer Herbert Deutsch. Moog created the first voltage-controlled subtractive synthesizer to utilize a keyboard as a controller, in 1966, Moog filed a patent application for his unique low-pass filter U. S. Patent 3,475,623, issued in October,1969 and he is a listed inventor on ten US patents. Moog had his theremin company manufacture and market his synthesizers, unlike the few other 1960s synthesizer manufacturers, Moog shipped a piano-style keyboard as the standard user interface

4.
Electronic instrument
–
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are called sound effects, the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy. Electronic musical instruments are now used in most styles of music. Development of new musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active. In the 18th-century, musicians and composers adapted a number of instruments to exploit the novelty of electricity. The former instrument consisted of an instrument of over 700 strings. The latter was an instrument with plectra activated electrically. However, neither instrument used electricity as a sound-source, the first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray. The Musical Telegraph used steel reeds oscillated by electromagnets and transmitted over a telephone line, Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, which consisted of a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field. A significant invention, which later had an effect on electronic music, was the audion in 1906. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube and which led to the generation and amplification of signals, radio broadcasting. Other early synthesizers included the Telharmonium, the Theremin, Jörg Magers Spharophon and Partiturophone, Taubmanns similar Electronde, Maurice Martenots ondes Martenot, only two models of this latter were built and the only surviving example is currently stored at the Lomonosov University in Moscow. It has been used in many Russian movies—like Solaris—to produce unusual, Hugh Le Caine, John Hanert, Raymond Scott, composer Percy Grainger, and others built a variety of automated electronic-music controllers during the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1959 Daphne Oram produced a method of synthesis, her Oramics technique, driven by drawings on a 35 mm film strip. In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium, using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This technology was used to design the Hammond organ

5.
Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist

6.
Electronic musical instrument
–
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are called sound effects, the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy. Electronic musical instruments are now used in most styles of music. Development of new musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active. In the 18th-century, musicians and composers adapted a number of instruments to exploit the novelty of electricity. The former instrument consisted of an instrument of over 700 strings. The latter was an instrument with plectra activated electrically. However, neither instrument used electricity as a sound-source, the first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray. The Musical Telegraph used steel reeds oscillated by electromagnets and transmitted over a telephone line, Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, which consisted of a diaphragm vibrating in a magnetic field. A significant invention, which later had an effect on electronic music, was the audion in 1906. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube and which led to the generation and amplification of signals, radio broadcasting. Other early synthesizers included the Telharmonium, the Theremin, Jörg Magers Spharophon and Partiturophone, Taubmanns similar Electronde, Maurice Martenots ondes Martenot, only two models of this latter were built and the only surviving example is currently stored at the Lomonosov University in Moscow. It has been used in many Russian movies—like Solaris—to produce unusual, Hugh Le Caine, John Hanert, Raymond Scott, composer Percy Grainger, and others built a variety of automated electronic-music controllers during the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1959 Daphne Oram produced a method of synthesis, her Oramics technique, driven by drawings on a 35 mm film strip. In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium, using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This technology was used to design the Hammond organ

7.
Antenna (radio)
–
In radio and electronics, an antenna, or aerial, is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a transmitter or radio receiver. In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals. Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio, typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors, electrically connected to the receiver or transmitter. These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a transverse electromagnetic field wave. Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive radio waves in all directions equally. The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. He published his work in Annalen der Physik und Chemie, the words antenna and aerial are used interchangeably. Occasionally the term aerial is used to mean a wire antenna, however, note the important international technical journal, the IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. In the United Kingdom and other areas where British English is used, the origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing his wireless system outdoors on his fathers estate near Bologna, Marconi discovered that by raising the aerial wire above the ground and connecting the other side of his transmitter to ground, the transmission range was increased. Soon he was able to transmit signals over a hill, a distance of approximately 2.4 kilometres, in Italian a tent pole is known as lantenna centrale, and the pole with the wire was simply called lantenna. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving elements were simply as aerials or terminals. Because of his prominence, Marconis use of the word spread among wireless researchers. In common usage, the antenna may refer broadly to an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure. Especially at microwave frequencies, an antenna may include not only the actual electrical antenna. An antenna, in converting radio waves to electrical signals or vice versa, is a form of transducer, Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic field

8.
Oscillation
–
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value or between two or more different states. The term vibration is used to describe mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum and alternating current power, the simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface, the system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium. However, in moving the back to the equilibrium position, it has acquired momentum which keeps it moving beyond that position. If a constant force such as gravity is added to the system, the time taken for an oscillation to occur is often referred to as the oscillatory period. All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible and this means there are dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. Thus, oscillations tend to decay with time there is some net source of energy into the system. The simplest description of this process can be illustrated by oscillation decay of the harmonic oscillator. In addition, a system may be subject to some external force. In this case the oscillation is said to be driven, some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow, at sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that enables an oscillation. The harmonic oscillator and the systems it models have a degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for two masses and three springs. In such cases, the behavior of each variable influences that of the others and this leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks mounted on a wall will tend to synchronise. This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665, more special cases are the coupled oscillators where energy alternates between two forms of oscillation

9.
Frequency
–
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, for example, if a newborn babys heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period—the time interval between beats—is half a second. Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as vibrations, audio signals, radio waves. For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, in physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by the Greek letter ν or ν. For a simple motion, the relation between the frequency and the period T is given by f =1 T. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz, named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, a previous name for this unit was cycles per second. The SI unit for period is the second, a traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute, abbreviated r/min or rpm. As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as ocean surface waves, short and fast waves, like audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency instead of period. Spatial frequency is analogous to temporal frequency, but the axis is replaced by one or more spatial displacement axes. Y = sin ⁡ = sin ⁡ d θ d x = k Wavenumber, in the case of more than one spatial dimension, wavenumber is a vector quantity. For periodic waves in nondispersive media, frequency has a relationship to the wavelength. Even in dispersive media, the frequency f of a wave is equal to the phase velocity v of the wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave. In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes, f = c λ. When waves from a monochrome source travel from one medium to another, their remains the same—only their wavelength. For example, if 71 events occur within 15 seconds the frequency is, the latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count. This is called gating error and causes an error in the calculated frequency of Δf = 1/, or a fractional error of Δf / f = 1/ where Tm is the timing interval. This error decreases with frequency, so it is a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts N is small, an older method of measuring the frequency of rotating or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope

10.
Amplitude
–
The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period. There are various definitions of amplitude, which are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the extreme values. In older texts the phase is called the amplitude. Peak-to-peak amplitude is the change between peak and trough, with appropriate circuitry, peak-to-peak amplitudes of electric oscillations can be measured by meters or by viewing the waveform on an oscilloscope. Peak-to-peak is a measurement on an oscilloscope, the peaks of the waveform being easily identified and measured against the graticule. This remains a common way of specifying amplitude, but sometimes other measures of amplitude are more appropriate. In audio system measurements, telecommunications and other areas where the measurand is a signal that swings above and below a value but is not sinusoidal. If the reference is zero, this is the absolute value of the signal, if the reference is a mean value. Semi-amplitude means half the peak-to-peak amplitude, some scientists use amplitude or peak amplitude to mean semi-amplitude, that is, half the peak-to-peak amplitude. It is the most widely used measure of orbital wobble in astronomy, the RMS of the AC waveform. For complicated waveforms, especially non-repeating signals like noise, the RMS amplitude is used because it is both unambiguous and has physical significance. For example, the power transmitted by an acoustic or electromagnetic wave or by an electrical signal is proportional to the square of the RMS amplitude. For alternating current electric power, the practice is to specify RMS values of a sinusoidal waveform. One property of root mean square voltages and currents is that they produce the same heating effect as direct current in a given resistance, the peak-to-peak value is used, for example, when choosing rectifiers for power supplies, or when estimating the maximum voltage that insulation must withstand. Some common voltmeters are calibrated for RMS amplitude, but respond to the value of a rectified waveform. Many digital voltmeters and all moving coil meters are in this category, the RMS calibration is only correct for a sine wave input since the ratio between peak, average and RMS values is dependent on waveform. If the wave shape being measured is greatly different from a sine wave, true RMS-responding meters were used in radio frequency measurements, where instruments measured the heating effect in a resistor to measure current. The advent of microprocessor controlled meters capable of calculating RMS by sampling the waveform has made true RMS measurement commonplace

11.
Volume (sound)
–
Loudness is the characteristic of a sound that is primarily a psycho-physiological correlate of physical strength. More formally, it is defined as, That attribute of auditory sensation in terms of sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud. The relation of physical attributes of sound to perceived loudness consists of physical, physiological and psychological components, in different industries, loudness may have different meanings, and different standards exist, each purporting to define the measurement. Some definitions such as LKFS refer to relative loudness of different segments of electronically reproduced sounds such as for broadcasting and cinema. Others, such as ISO 532A, ISO 532B, DIN45631 and it is sometimes stated that loudness is a subjective measure, often confused with physical measures of sound strength such as sound pressure, sound pressure level, sound intensity or sound power. It is often possible to separate the truly subjective components such as social considerations from the physical and physiological. Filters such as A-weighting attempt to adjust sound measurements to correspond to loudness as perceived by the typical human, A-weighting follows human sensitivity to sound and describes relative perceived loudness for at quiet to moderate speech levels, around 40 phons. However, physiological loudness perception is a more complex process than can be captured with a single correction curve. Not only do equal-loudness contours vary with intensity, but perceived loudness of a complex sound depends on whether its spectral components are closely or widely spaced in frequency. When generating neural impulses in response to sounds of one frequency, the ear is sensitive to nearby frequencies. Sounds containing spectral components in critical bands are perceived as louder even if the total sound pressure remains constant. The perception of loudness is related to sound level, frequency content. The human auditory system averages the effects of SPL over a 600–1000 ms interval, for sounds of duration greater than 1 second, the moment-by-moment perception of loudness will be related to the average loudness during the preceding 600–1000 ms. For sounds having a longer than 1 second, the relationship between SPL and loudness of a single tone can be approximated by Stevens power law in which SPL has an exponent of 0.6. More precise measurements indicate that loudness increases with a higher exponent at low and high levels, the sensitivity of the human ear changes as a function of frequency, as shown in the equal-loudness graph. Each line on this shows the SPL required for frequencies to be perceived as equally loud. It also shows that humans with normal hearing are most sensitive to sounds around 2–4 kHz, a complete model of the perception of loudness will include the integration of SPL by frequency. Historically, loudness was measured using an ear-balance audiometer in which the amplitude of a wave was adjusted by the user to equal the perceived loudness of the sound being evaluated

12.
Signal (electrical engineering)
–
A signal as referred to in communication systems, signal processing, and electrical engineering is a function that conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon. The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing states that the signal includes audio, video, speech, image, communication, geophysical, sonar, radar. Typically, signals are provided by a sensor, and often the form of a signal is converted to another form of energy using a transducer. For example, a microphone converts a signal to a voltage waveform. The formal study of the content of signals is the field of information theory. The information in a signal is accompanied by noise. The term noise usually means an undesirable random disturbance, but is extended to include unwanted signals conflicting with the desired signal. The prevention of noise is covered in part under the heading of signal integrity, the separation of desired signals from a background is the field of signal recovery, one branch of which is estimation theory, a probabilistic approach to suppressing random disturbances. Engineering disciplines such as electrical engineering have led the way in the design, study, and implementation of systems involving transmission, storage, definitions specific to sub-fields are common. For example, in theory, a signal is a codified message, that is. In the context of signal processing, arbitrary binary data streams are not considered as signals, in a communication system, a transmitter encodes a message to a signal, which is carried to a receiver by the communications channel. For example, the words Mary had a little lamb might be the message spoken into a telephone, the telephone transmitter converts the sounds into an electrical voltage signal. The signal is transmitted to the telephone by wires, at the receiver it is reconverted into sounds. In telephone networks, signalling, for example common-channel signaling, refers to number and other digital control information rather than the actual voice signal. Signals can be categorized in various ways, the most common distinction is between discrete and continuous spaces that the functions are defined over, for example discrete and continuous time domains. Discrete-time signals are often referred to as series in other fields. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as continuous signals even when the functions are not continuous. A second important distinction is between discrete-valued and continuous-valued, particularly in digital signal processing a digital signal is sometimes defined as a sequence of discrete values, that may or may not be derived from an underlying continuous-valued physical process

13.
Amplifier
–
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. An amplifier functions by taking power from a supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape. In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply based upon the properties of the input signal, an amplifier is effectively the opposite of an attenuator, while an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss. An amplifier can either be a piece of equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another device. Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are used in almost all electronic equipment. Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways, another is which quantity, voltage or current is being amplified, amplifiers can be divided into voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. A further distinction is whether the output is a linear or nonlinear representation of the input, amplifiers can also be categorized by their physical placement in the signal chain. The first practical device that could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest. Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s–1970s when the transistor, invented in 1947, today most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications. Before the invention of electronic amplifiers, mechanically coupled carbon microphones were used as amplifiers in telephone repeaters. After the turn of the century it was found that negative resistance mercury lamps could amplify, the first practical electronic device that could amplify was the Audion vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912. The terms amplifier and amplification were first used for this new capability around 1915 when triodes became widespread, the amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of electronics, the technology of active electrical devices. It made possible long distance lines, public address systems, radio broadcasting, talking motion pictures, practical audio recording, radar, television. For 50 years virtually all electronic devices used vacuum tubes. Early tube amplifiers often had positive feedback, which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable, much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s to 1940s. Other advances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Nyquist, the vacuum tube was the only amplifying device for 40 years, and dominated electronics until 1947, when the first transistor, the BJT, was invented. Today most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes are used in some high power applications such as radio transmitters. All amplifiers have gain, a factor that relates the magnitude of some property of the output signal to a property of the input signal

14.
Loudspeaker
–
A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer, which converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s is the speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg. The dynamic speaker operates on the basic principle as a dynamic microphone. Besides this most common method, there are several technologies that can be used to convert an electrical signal into sound. The sound source must be amplified or strengthened with a power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker. Speakers are typically housed in an enclosure or speaker cabinet which is often a rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The enclosures materials and design play an important role in the quality of the sound, where high fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeaker transducers are often mounted in the same enclosure, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. In this case the individual speakers are referred to as drivers, drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies are called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers, and those for low frequencies are called woofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, the term loudspeaker may refer to individual transducers or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers. To adequately reproduce a range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver. Individual drivers are used to different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers, woofers, mid-range speakers, tweeters, the terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the woofer and tweeter, home stereos use the designation tweeter for the high frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them as HF or highs. When multiple drivers are used in a system, a network, called a crossover. Loudspeaker driver of the type pictured are termed dynamic to distinguish them from earlier drivers, or speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems, or any of several other sorts. Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in 1861, it was capable of reproducing clear tones, alexander Graham Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker as part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed in 1877 by an improved version from Ernst Siemens. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven by compressed air, he sold the rights to Charles Parsons

15.
Movie soundtrack
–
In movie industry terminology usage, a sound track is an audio recording created or used in film production or post-production. Initially the dialogue, sound effects, and music in a film each has its own track, and these are mixed together to make what is called the composite track. A dubbing track is later created when films are dubbed into another language. This is also known as a M & E track containing all sound elements minus dialogue which is supplied by the foreign distributor in the native language of its territory. The contraction soundtrack came into public consciousness with the advent of so-called soundtrack albums in the late 1940s and these phrases were soon shortened to just original motion picture soundtrack. More accurately, such recordings are made from a music track, because they usually consist of the isolated music from a film, not the composite track with dialogue. The soundtrack to the 1937 Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the first commercially issued film soundtrack. It was released by RCA Victor Records on multiple 78 RPM discs in January 1938 as Songs from Walt Disneys Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and has since seen numerous expansions and reissues. The first live-action musical film to have a commercially issued soundtrack album was MGM’s 1946 film biography of Show Boat composer Jerome Kern, the album was originally issued as a set of four 10-inch 78-rpm records. Only eight selections from the film were included in this first edition of the album, in order to fit the songs onto the record sides the musical material needed editing and manipulation. Needless to say, it was several generations removed from the original, the playback recordings were purposely recorded very dry, otherwise it would come across as too hollow sounding in large movie theatres. This made these albums sound flat and boxy, the phrase is also sometimes incorrectly used for Broadway cast recordings. While it is correct in some instances to call a soundtrack a cast recording it is never correct to call a cast recording a soundtrack, contributing to the vagueness of the term are projects such as The Sound of Music Live. Which was filmed live on the set for an NBC holiday season special first broadcast in 2013, film score albums did not really become popular until the LP era, although a few were issued in 78-rpm albums. Like the 1967 re-release of the film, this version of the score was artificially enhanced for stereo, in recent years, Rhino Records has released a 2-CD set of the complete Gone With the Wind score, restored to its original mono sound. One of the film scores of all time was John Williams music from the movie Star Wars. Many film score albums go out-of-print after the films finish their theatrical runs, in a few rare instances an entire film dialogue track was issued on records. The 1968 Franco Zeffirelli film of Romeo and Juliet was issued as a 4-LP set, as a single LP with musical and dialogue excerpts, and as an album containing only the films musical score

16.
Spellbound (1945 film)
–
Spellbound is a 1945 American film noir psychological mystery thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. It tells the story of the new head of a mental asylum who turns out not to be what he claims, the film stars Ingrid Bergman, Gregory Peck, Michael Chekhov and Leo G. Carroll. It is an adaptation by Angus MacPhail and Ben Hecht of the novel The House of Dr. Edwardes by Hilary Saint George Saunders, Dr. Constance Petersen is a psychoanalyst at Green Manors, a mental hospital in Vermont. She is perceived by the doctors as detached and emotionless. The director of the hospital, Dr. Murchison, is being forced into retirement and his replacement is Dr. Anthony Edwardes, who turns out to be surprisingly young. Dr. Petersen notices that Dr. Edwardes has a phobia about sets of parallel lines against a white background. She also soon realizes, by comparing handwriting, that man is an impostor. He confides to her that he killed Dr. Edwardes and took his place and he suffers from massive amnesia and does not know who he is. Dr. Petersen believes he is innocent and suffering from a guilt complex and he disappears overnight, leaving a note for her. At the same time, it becomes public knowledge that Dr. Edwardes is an impostor, Dr. Petersen manages to track him down, and starts to use her psychoanalytic training to break his amnesia and find out what really happened. Pursued by the police, Dr. Petersen and the travel by train to Rochester, New York where they stay with Dr. Brulov. The two doctors analyze a dream that John Brown had and they deduce that Brown and Edwardes had been on a ski trip together, and that Edwardes had somehow died there. Dr. Petersen and Brown go to the Gabriel Valley ski resort, near the bottom of the hill, Browns memory suddenly returns. He recalls that there is a precipice in front of them and he stops them just in time. He also remembers a traumatic event from his childhood – he slid down a rail with his brother at the bottom, accidentally knocking him onto sharp-pointed railings. This incident had caused him to develop a guilt complex and he also remembers that his real name is John Ballantyne. All is understood now, and Ballantyne is about to be exonerated, Ballantyne is convicted of murder and sent to prison. A heartbroken Dr. Petersen returns to her position at the hospital, Murchison lets slip that he had known Edwardes slightly, and didnt like him, contradicting his earlier claims

17.
The Lost Weekend (film)
–
The Lost Weekend is a 1945 American film noir directed by Billy Wilder and starring Ray Milland and Jane Wyman. The film was based on Charles R. Jacksons 1944 novel of the name about an alcoholic writer. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Writing. It also shared the Grand Prix at the first Cannes Film Festival, in 2011, The Lost Weekend was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. Thursday - An alcoholic New York writer, Don Birnam, is packing for a vacation with his brother Wick. When Don’s girlfriend Helen comes to see them off, she mentions in passing that she has two tickets for a concert, to which Don urges Wick to accompany her. Don heads for Nat’s Bar, deliberately missing his train, and then back into the flat to drink some cheap whisky he has bought. Friday - Back at the bar, the owner, Nat, criticizes Don for treating Helen so badly and it was due to a mix-up of cloakroom tickets at the opera-house, where he had to wait for the person who had been given his coat-check in error. This was Helen, with whom he strikes up a romance, when he is due to meet her parents for lunch at a hotel, he loses his nerve and phones a message to her, crying off. Presently he confesses to her that he is two people ‘Don the writer’, whose fear of failure causes him to drink, and ‘Don the drunk’ who always has to be bailed out by his brother, Still, Helen devotes herself to helping him in his plight. Back in the present day, Don has moved on to another bar, where he is stealing money from a womans purse to pay his bill. In the flat, he finds a bottle he had stashed the previous night, saturday - Don is broke and all the pawnshops are closed for Yom Kippur. At Nat’s Bar, he is refused service, in desperation for money, he visits a girl who has had a long held crush on him, but stood her up during this latest binge. Leaving her flat, he falls down the stairs and is knocked unconscious, sunday - Don wakes up in an alcoholics’ ward where Bim Nolan, a cynical male nurse, mocks him and other guests at ‘Hangover Plaza’, but offers to help cure his delirium. Don refuses help, and succeeds in escaping from the ward while the staff are occupied with a violent patient, monday - Still broke, Don steals a bottle of whisky from a store, and spends the day drinking and hallucinating. Helen returns, alerted by a call from Dons landlady who can hear his screams, finding him in a delirious state, she vows to look after him and spends the night on his couch. Tuesday - Don slips out and pawns Helen’s coat - the thing which had first brought them together - in order to buy a gun and she trails him to the pawn shop and finds out from the pawnbroker that he traded the coat for a gun he had pawned earlier. She races to Dons apartment and catches him just before he is about to shoot himself in the bathroom and he tells her their relationship is over, and she glimpses the gun which he has hidden in the bathroom

18.
Midsomer Murders
–
Midsomer Murders is a British television detective drama that has aired on ITV since 1997. The show is based on Caroline Grahams Chief Inspector Barnaby book series, the current lead character is DCI John Barnaby, who works for Causton CID. Dudgeons character is the cousin of former lead character DCI Tom Barnaby. Dudgeon first appeared as randy gardener Daniel Bolt in the Series 4 episode Garden of Death, Dudgeon permanently joined the show in 2011 following Nettles departure. The Barnabys have worked several different sergeants throughout the run of the show, Sgt Gavin Troy, Sgt Dan Scott, Sgt Ben Jones, Sgt Charlie Nelson. Filming of Midsomer Murders began in Autumn 1996, with the first episode broadcast in the United Kingdom on 23 March 1997, the feature-length drama attracts many well known accomplished actors from the stage and screen in guest-starring roles. Anthony Horowitz and the producers, Betty Willingale and Brian True-May. Horowitz adapted the majority of the episodes from the original works by Caroline Graham. Current writers include Paul Logue, Chris Murray, Lisa Holdsworth, Rachel Cuperman, actor John Nettles retired at the end of 2010, after the 13th series of eight episodes, his last episode was Fit for Murder. Neil Dudgeon replaced him in the 14th series, playing Tom Barnabys cousin, DCI John Barnaby, in February 2016, it was announced that there would be a 19th series, consisting of six episodes. Nick Hendrix will play the role of Detective Sergeant Jamie Winter, returning too in the 19th series are Manjinder Virk as pathologist Dr Kam Karimore and Fiona Dolman as Sarah Barnaby. It was announced on 7 April 2017 that the show return to ITV for a 20th series, consisting of six episodes, with Annette Badlan as new pathologist. The pilot episode of Midsomer Murders was shown on 23 March 1997, as of 18 January 2017,114 episodes have been broadcast, comprising 19 series. Midsomer is an English fictional county, the county town is Causton, a middle-sized town where Detective Chief Inspector Barnaby lives with his wife, and where the Criminal Investigation Department is located. Much of the popularity of the series arises from the incongruity of sudden violence in a picturesque, individual episodes focus on institutions, rituals, and customs popularly seen as being characteristic of rural English counties. When Mrs Barnaby proposed they move out of Causton and suggested various villages, Dan Scott asked if the body count was, always this high around here, sir. Barnaby replied, It has been remarked upon, humour is a main feature of the series, with many of the actors playing up their high-camp characters. Causton is represented by the Town of Wallingford in Oxfordshire, Causton police station is represented by the former RAF Staff College, Bracknell

19.
Experimental music
–
The practice became prominent in the mid-20th century, particularly in North America. John Cage was one of the earliest composers to use the term and one of experimental musics primary innovators, utilizing indeterminacy techniques and seeking unknown outcomes. Also, in America, a distinct sense of the term was used in the late 1950s to describe computer-controlled composition associated with composers such as Lejaren Hiller. Harry Partch as well as Ivor Darreg worked with other tuning scales based on the laws for harmonic music. For this music they developed a group of experimental musical instruments. Musique concrète, is a form of music that utilises acousmatic sound as a compositional resource. Elements of experimental music include indeterminate music, in which the composer introduces the elements of chance or unpredictability with regard to either the composition or its performance. The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, under the leadership of Pierre Schaeffer, publication of Schaeffers manifesto was delayed by four years, by which time Schaeffer was favoring the term recherche musicale, though he never wholly abandoned musique expérimentale. John Cage was also using the term as early as 1955, according to Cages definition, an experimental action is one the outcome of which is not foreseen, and he was specifically interested in completed works that performed an unpredictable action. Rebners lecture extended the concept back in time to include Charles Ives, Edgard Varèse, nyman opposes experimental music to the European avant-garde of the time, for whom The identity of a composition is of paramount importance. David Cope also distinguishes between experimental and avant garde, describing music as that which represents a refusal to accept the status quo. That is, for the most part, experimental music studies describes a category without really explaining it and this was an attempt to marginalize, and thereby dismiss various kinds of music that did not conform to established conventions. In 1955, Pierre Boulez identified it as a new definition makes it possible to restrict to a laboratory. He concludes, There is no such thing as experimental music … and it is therefore not a genre, but an open category, because any attempt to classify a phenomenon as unclassifiable and elusive as experimental music must be partial. Furthermore, the indeterminacy in performance guarantees that two versions of the same piece will have virtually no perceptible musical facts in common. The term experimental music was used contemporaneously for electronic music, particularly in the early musique concrète work of Schaeffer, a number of early 20th-century American composers, seen as precedents to and influences on John Cage, are sometimes referred to as the American Experimental School. These include Charles Ives, Charles and Ruth Crawford Seeger, Henry Cowell, Carl Ruggles, for this music they both developed custom-built musical instruments often characterized as experimental instruments. La Monte Young is known for using this technique when he began working on his minimal drone pieces which consisted of layers of sounds in different pitches

20.
Rock music
–
It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis

21.
NBC Red Network
–
The NBC Red Network is a defunct American radio network. Launched in 1926, it, along with the NBC Blue Network, were the two radio networks of the National Broadcasting Company, and the first two commercial radio networks in the United States. CBS Radio was established a year later, in 1943, NBC was required to divest itself of its Blue Network, which would eventually become the American Broadcasting Company. The Red Network continued as the NBC Radio Network, the NBC Radio Network itself no longer exists under its original configuration, having been spun off and gradually dissolved into eventual corporate parent Westwood One. In 1923, the Radio Corporation of America acquired control of WJZ in Newark, New Jersey, from Westinghouse, as part of the purchase, RCA also gained the rights to rent AT&Ts phone lines for network transmission, and the technology for operating a quality radio network. On September 13,1926, RCA chairman of the board Owen D, Young and president James G. Harbord announced the formation of the National Broadcasting Company, Inc. to begin broadcasting upon RCAs acquisition of WEAF on November 15. The purpose of the National Broadcasting Company will be to provide the best programs available for broadcasting in the United States and it is hoped that arrangements may be made so that every event of national importance may be broadcast widely throughout the United States, announced M. H. Aylesworth, the first president of NBC, in the press release, although RCA was identified as the creator of the network, NBC was actually owned 50% by RCA, 30% by General Electric, and 20% by Westinghouse. The network officially was launched at 8 p. m. ET on Monday, carl Schlagel of the Metropolitan Opera opened the inaugural broadcast, which also featured Will Rogers and Mary Garden. The broadcast was made simultaneously on WEAF and WJZ, some of NBCs programming was broadcast that evening on WEEI WLIT, WRC, WDAF, and WWJ. noted by the different background color. NBC Blue would utilize this logo until their 1942 sale, on January 1,1927, NBC formally divided its programming along two networks. The two NBC networks did not have distinct identities or formats, the NBC Red Network, with WEAF as its flagship station and a stronger line-up of affiliated stations, often carried the more popular, big budget sponsored programs. The Blue Network and WJZ carried a somewhat smaller line-up of often lower-powered stations, NBC Blue often carried newer, untried programs, lower cost programs and un-sponsored or sustaining programs. In many cities in addition to New York, the two NBC affiliated stations were operated as duopolies, having the same owners and sharing the same staff, at this time, most network programs were owned by the sponsors and produced by their advertising agencies. The networks did not control or program their own schedules as they do now, Networks rented studio facilities to produce shows and sold air-time to sponsors. The only network produced programs were unsponsored programs used to fill unsold time periods, a similar two-part/two-color strategy appeared in the recording industry, dividing the market between classical and popular offerings. NBC Red then extended its reach into the midwest by acquiring two 50,000 watt clear-channel signals, Cleveland station WTAM on October 16,1930, on October 18,1931, Blue Network programming was introduced along the NBC Gold Network, which broadcast from San Franciscos KPO. In 1936 the Orange Network name was dropped and affiliate stations became part of the Red Network, the Gold Network adopted the Blue Network name

22.
Proximity sensor
–
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits a field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensors target, different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target, the maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined nominal range. Some sensors have adjustments of the range or means to report a graduated detection distance. Some know these process as thermosensation, proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object. Proximity sensors are used on smartphones to detect accidental touchscreen taps when held to the ear during a call. They are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing and this is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings. International Electrotechnical Commission 60947-5-2 defines the technical details of proximity sensors, a proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range is often used as a touch switch. Proximity sensors can be used to recognise air gestures and hover-manipulations, an array of proximity sensing elements can replace vision-camera or depth camera based solutions for the hand gesture detection. In particular, a car infotainment system in vehicle can employ the proximity sensors to cover the area over the screen. For example, LG Electronics has recently filed several patents addressing this advanced technology, sheet break sensing in paper machine. Automatic faucets Motion detector Occupancy sensor

23.
Russian Civil War
–
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire immediately after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, as many factions vied to determine Russias political future. In addition, rival militant socialists and nonideological Green armies fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites, eight foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces and the pro-German armies. The Red Army defeated the White Armed Forces of South Russia in Ukraine, the remains of the White forces commanded by Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel were beaten in Crimea and evacuated in late 1920. Lesser battles of the war continued on the periphery for two years, and minor skirmishes with the remnants of the White forces in the Far East continued well into 1923. Armed national resistance in Central Asia was not completely crushed until 1934, there were an estimated 7,000, 000–12,000,000 casualties during the war, mostly civilians. The Russian Civil War has been described by some as the greatest national catastrophe that Europe had yet seen, many pro-independence movements emerged after the break-up of the Russian Empire and fought in the war. Several parts of the former Russian Empire—Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the rest of the former Russian Empire was consolidated into the Soviet Union shortly afterwards. After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the Russian Provisional Government was established during the February Revolution of 1917, Political commissars were appointed to each unit of the army to maintain morale and ensure loyalty. In June 1918, when it became apparent that an army composed solely of workers would be far too small. Former Tsarist officers were utilized as military specialists, sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty, at the start of the war three-quarters of the Red Army officer corps was composed of former Tsarist officers. By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers, a Ukrainian nationalist movement was active in Ukraine during the war. More significant was the emergence of an anarchist political and military movement known as the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine or the Anarchist Black Army led by Nestor Makhno, some of the military forces were set up on the basis of clandestine officers organizations in the cities. The Czechoslovak Legions had been part of the Russian army and numbered around 30,000 troops by October 1917 and they had an agreement with the new Bolshevik government to be evacuated from the Eastern Front via the port of Vladivostok to France. The transport from the Eastern Front to Vladivostok slowed down in the chaos, under pressure from the Central Powers, Trotsky ordered the disarming and arrest of the legionaries, which created tensions with the Bolsheviks. The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks, hence, many of these countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be strangled in its cradle, the British and French had supported Russia during World War I on a massive scale with war materials. After the treaty, it looked like much of material would fall into the hands of the Germans. Under this pretext began allied intervention in the Russian Civil War with the United Kingdom, there were violent clashes with troops loyal to the Bolsheviks

24.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

25.
RCA
–
RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records

26.
Wall Street Crash of 1929
–
The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchanges crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the crash, was a time of wealth, while the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash, despite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25,1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced his company the National City Bank would provide $25 million in credit to stop the markets slide. Mitchells move brought a halt to the financial crisis and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June. The market had been on a run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, Stock prices have reached what looks like a high plateau. The optimism and financial gains of the bull market were shaken after a well publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that a crash was coming. The initial September decline was thus called the Babson Break in the press and this was the start of the Great Crash, although until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September Babson Break as a healthy correction and buying opportunity. On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud, the London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable, periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery. On October 24, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the bell on very heavy trading. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank, Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank and they chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf. With the bankers financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a block of shares in U. S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other blue chip stocks and this tactic was similar to one that ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide, the Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day

27.
Clara Rockmore
–
Clara Rockmore was a classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument. She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg, Clara Reisenberg was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Lithuanian Jews. She had two sisters, Anna and Nadia. Early in her childhood she emerged as a violin prodigy, at the age of four, she became the youngest ever student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied under the prominent violinist Leopold Auer. After the October Revolution the family moved back to Vilnius, and then to Warsaw, before obtaining visas, in America, Rockmore enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music. As a teenager, tendinitis affected her bow arm, attributed to childhood malnutrition, however, after meeting fellow immigrant Léon Theremin and being introduced to his electronic instrument, the theremin, she became its most prominent player. She performed widely and helped Theremin to refine his instrument, the album, which was produced by Bob Moog and Shirleigh Moog, featured Rockmores theremin playing with piano accompaniment by her sister Nadia. Rockmore’s approach to theremin playing emphasized physical and emotional control, as she described it herself in an interview, You must not only hit a note, but you must hit the center of it. You cannot register any of your internal emotion at all and you cannot shake your head, for instance, or sway back and forth on your feet. Although Léon Theremin had proposed to her several times, she married attorney Robert Rockmore and she died in New York City on May 10,1998, at age 87. Though her health had been in decline for almost a year, she declared her determination to live to see the birth of her great-grandniece. Rockmores classical training gave her an advantage over the many other performers of the time. The intonation control she acquired as a violinist and her innate absolute pitch were both helpful in playing the instrument and she had extremely precise, rapid control of her movements, important in playing an instrument that depends on the performers motion and proximity rather than touch. She also discovered that she could achieve a tone and control the vibrato by keeping the tips of her right-hand thumb. Clara owned an RCA theremin given to her and substantially modified by Theremin, through his modifications, the instruments normal 5 to 5.5 octave playable range was expanded by 1.5 octaves. Theremin made several other customizations including improvements to tonal quality and its responsiveness to hand movements, the tubes are also customized and labeled in Theremins own writing. This instrument was restored by Robert Moog in October 1998. This instrument can be viewed at the Clara Rockmore exhibit in the Artists Gallery of the Musical Instruments Museum in Phoenix, the instrument is on long-term loan to the museum by Peter Sherman of the Reisenberg family

28.
Paul Robeson
–
Paul Leroy Robeson was an American bass singer and actor who became involved with the Civil Rights Movement. He became politically involved in response to the Spanish Civil War, fascism and his advocacy of anti-imperialism, affiliation with communism, and criticism of the United States government caused him to be blacklisted during the McCarthy era. In 1915 Robeson won a scholarship to Rutgers College, where he was twice named a consensus All-American and was the class valedictorian. Almost eighty years later, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame and he received his LL. B. from Columbia Law School, while playing in the National Football League. At Columbia, he sang and acted in productions, and, after graduating, he became a figure in the Harlem Renaissance with performances in The Emperor Jones. Robeson first appeared outside the US in 1928 in the London premier of Show Boat, Robeson next appeared as Othello in London before becoming an international cinema star during the 1930s through roles in Show Boat and Sanders of the River. He became increasingly attuned to the sufferings of people of other cultures, despite being warned of his economic ruin if he became politically active, he set aside his theatrical career to advocate the cause of the Republican forces of the Spanish Civil War. He then became active in the Council on African Affairs, during World War II, he supported Americas war efforts and won accolades for his portrayal of Othello on Broadway. However, his history of supporting pro-Soviet policies brought scrutiny from the FBI, after the war ended, the CAA was placed on the Attorney Generals List of Subversive Organizations and Robeson was investigated during the age of McCarthyism. Due to his decision not to recant his public advocacy of pro-Soviet policies, he was denied a passport by the U. S. State Department and he moved to Harlem and published a periodical critical of United States policies. His right to travel was restored by the 1958 United States Supreme Court decision, Kent v. Dulles. In the early 1960s he retired and lived the years of his life privately in Philadelphia. Paul Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and his mother was from a prominent Quaker family of mixed ancestry, African, Anglo-American, and Lenape. Robeson had three brothers, William Drew, Jr. Reeve, and Ben, and one sister, in 1900, a disagreement between William and white financial supporters of Witherspoon arose with apparent racial undertones, which were prevalent in Princeton. William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, the loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs. Three years later when Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas A. M. E. Zion in 1910, where Robeson would fill in for his father during sermons when he was called away. His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored, prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers. He took a job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island

29.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

30.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

31.
Albert Glinsky
–
Albert Glinsky is an American composer and author. His music has been performed internationally by soloists, ensembles, and his book, Theremin, Ether Music and Espionage won the 2001 ASCAP Deems Taylor Award, and is regarded as the standard work on the life of Leon Theremin. In 2009 Glinsky was invited by the family of pioneer, Bob Moog, to create Moog’s authorized biography. Glinsky is the son of American sculptors, Cleo Hartwig and Vincent Glinsky and he grew up in Greenwich Village, attended the High School of Music and Art, and studied composition with Joan Tower and Otto Luening. He received his bachelor and master of music degrees in composition from the Juilliard School where his teacher was David Diamond. He earned his Ph. D. in composition from New York University and he is married to harpsichordist/pianist Linda Kobler. They have two children, son, Luka Glinsky, and daughter, Allegra Glinsky, Glinsky’s music has been recorded on the RCA Red Seal, Koch International Classics, Centaur, BMG Catalyst, and Leonore labels. His work is published by C. F, peters, E. C. Schirmer, and Hinshaw Press. The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that the Rhapsody, “effectively translates…‘folk-rock music and other popular musics’ into an orchestral format. ”In a similar vein, the composer’s piano Elegy was noted by The Washington Post as “a rhapsodic, syncopated classical jazz ballad that is splendidly crafted. ”Allan Kozinn, writing in the New York Times, termed the Elegy, “…a beautifully wrought fantasy, in which diverse influences show through but never dominate. Its central section is full of fascinating and unpredictable harmonic turns. ”Glinsky’s blending of pop and classical influences has also noted in Toccata-Scherzo, defined by American critic Alex Ross as “an encore-like showpiece driven by a pop pulse. ”Similarly, Glinsky’s Piano Concerto was characterized as “a modern classical work heavily influenced by contemporary pop. Or British concept rocker Kate Bush. ”Fanfare magazine remarked on the elements in the already heady jazz. His interest in ‘art rock’ artists, some of whom were using these instruments on their albums, the composer’s 1995 piece on the subject of homelessness, Day Walker, Night Wanderer, is a 45-minute dramatic work for chamber ensemble, solo vocalist, and an electronic score. It was commissioned for the Philadelphia-based new music ensemble, Relâche, Glinsky received two awards from the Alienor International Harpsichord Competition, and was a Ucross Foundation Resident Artist in Wyoming. He is a member of the American Composers Alliance. Recognized by The American Academy of Arts and Letters, Glinsky’s Hinrichsen Award citation calls his music, “vibrantly American in rhythm, accent, and in its soaring lyricism. ”Summing up Glinsky’s work, the American conductor, Walter Hendl wrote in 1994, “I consider Albert Glinsky to be one of the finest young American Composers. I performed the premiere of his symphonic poem, ‘Throne of the Third Heaven’ in 1989. I have heard and seen the score of his piano concerto, in my estimation, it compares most favorably with the Samuel Barber piano concerto. The London Times called it, a rediscovery of a forgotten man

32.
Moog Music
–
Moog Music is an American company based in Asheville, North Carolina which manufactures electronic musical instruments. The current Moog Music is the company to trade under that name. Based in Trumansburg, New York, Robert Moogs original company was founded as R. A, Moog Co. in 1953, manufacturing theremin kits and, later, modular synthesizer systems. This company would eventually become Moog Music in 1972, and through Bob Moogs collaboration with people like Herbert Deutsch, in November 1971, the company moved to Williamsville, New York. An old factory at the end of Academy Street was purchased. The company was renamed Moog Musonics, then Moog Music, in 1976 the company moved to much better facility on Walden Avenue in Cheektowaga. After becoming Moog Music, the company went through changes of ownership. Norlin produced a number of synthesizers under the Moog name in the late 1970s, poor management and marketing led to Bob Moogs departure from his own company in 1977. Moog Music was forced into bankruptcy in 1986, the company liquidated and officially ceased operation in 1993. Robert Moog re-entered the music industry after leaving Moog Music in 1977, Big Briar expanded its range to produce a variety of analog-electronic musical instruments, mainly effects pedals called moogerfoogers. In 1999, Big Briar partnered with Bomb Factory to co-develop software modeled plug-ins for Pro Tools TDM based on the moogerfooger effect pedal lines, Robert Moog worked closely with Bomb Factory to ensure the product would remain true to the classic Moog sound. Another company, Moog CE, was selling modules for the original 1970s systems and it was also in 2002 that Moog Music hired Michael Adams as Vice President in charge of business operations. After the companys name change, Moog released the Piano-Bar, a Don Buchla -designed device which converted the physical movement of the keys on a piano into MIDI information. The Voyager name was selected through a contest where keyboardists could submit their own ideas of potential names for the new Minimoog and it wasnt until later that Bob Moog regained the trademark rights to Moog and Minimoog in the UK. In 2006 Moog Music introduced a new 37 note,2 oscillator analog synthesizer and it would be the final Moog synthesizer to be designed by Moog himself. Upon its release, it was considered to be the heir to the Minimoog legacy. Robert Moog died in August 2005 due to complications arising from brain cancer, Michael Adams continued managing the company as its President. Hungarian band The Moog requested permission from Moog Music to use the name and this was granted on the condition that the band precede the name with The

33.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

34.
Synthesizer
–
A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers

35.
Moog synthesizer
–
The Moog company pioneered the commercial manufacture of modular voltage-controlled analog synthesizer systems in the mid 1960s. The Moog synthesizer gained wider attention in the industry after it was demonstrated at the Monterey International Pop Festival in 1967. The commercial breakthrough of a Moog recording was made by Wendy Carlos in the 1968 record Switched-On Bach, the success of Switched-On Bach sparked a slew of other synthesizer records in the late 1960s to mid-1970s. Later Moog modular systems featured various improvements, such as a scaled-down, the Moog company pioneered the commercial manufacture of modular voltage-controlled analog synthesizer systems. Moog became interested in the design and construction of electronic music systems in the mid-1960s while completing a Ph. D. in Engineering Physics at Cornell University. The burgeoning interest in his designs enabled him to establish a company to manufacture. Pioneering electronic music experimenters like Leon Theremin, Louis and Bebe Barron, Electronic music studios typically had many oscillators, filters and other devices to generate and manipulate electronic sound. Early electronic music performance devices like the Theremin were also limited in function. In the period from 1950 to the mid-1960s, studio musicians, Moog began to develop his synthesizer systems after he met educator and composer Herbert Deutsch at a conference in late 1963. Over the next year, with encouragement from Myron Hoffman of the University of Toronto, Moog and this specific definition means that adding or subtracting control voltage simply transposes pitch, a very valuable feature. At a time when digital circuits were still relatively costly and in a stage of development. In the Moog topology, each module has one or more inputs that accept a voltage of typically 10 V or less. Thus, frequency determines pitch, attenuation determines instantaneous loudness, for instance, control voltages can be added or subtracted in a circuit almost identical to an adder in such a computer. Inside a synthesizer VCO, an exponential function provides the 1 volt per octave control of an oscillator that basically runs on a volts/kHz basis. Positive voltage polarity raises pitch, and negative lowers it, the result is that, for example, a standard keyboard can have its output scaled to that of a quarter-tone keyboard by changing its output to one-half volt per octave, with no other technical changes. The central component was the oscillator, which generated the primary sound signal, capable of producing a variety of waveforms including sawtooth, square. The inputs and outputs of any module could be cross-linked with patch cords and, together with the control knobs and switches, could create a nearly infinite variety of sounds. As a result, ownership and use was at first mainly limited to such as educational institutions and major recording studios

36.
Raymond Scott
–
Raymond Scott was an American composer, band leader, pianist, engineer, recording studio maverick, and electronic instrument inventor. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated shorts, Scotts melodies may also be heard in contemporary shows like Ren and Stimpy, The Simpsons, Duckman, Animaniacs, The Oblongs, and Batfink. The only music Scott actually composed to accompany animation were three 20-second electronic commercial jingles for County Fair Bread in 1962, Scott was born in Brooklyn, New York to Russian Jewish immigrants, Joseph and Sarah Warnow. His older brother, Mark Warnow, a conductor, violinist, a 1931 graduate of the Juilliard School of Music, where he studied piano, theory and composition, Scott, under his birth name, began his professional career as a pianist for the CBS Radio house band. His older brother Mark conducted the orchestra, Harry reportedly adopted the pseudonym Raymond Scott to spare his brother charges of nepotism when the orchestra began performing the pianists idiosyncratic compositions. In 1935 he married Pearl Zimney, in late 1936, Scott recruited a band from among his CBS colleagues, calling it the Raymond Scott Quintette. It was a group, but the puckish Scott thought Quintette sounded crisper. The original sidemen were Pete Pumiglio, Bunny Berigan, Louis Shoobe, Dave Harris and they made their first recordings in New York on February 20,1937, for the Master Records label, owned by music publisher/impresario Irving Mills. The Quintette represented Scotts attempt to revitalize Swing music through tight, busy arrangements and reduced reliance on improvisation. He called this musical style descriptive jazz, and gave his works unusual titles like New Years Eve in a Haunted House, Dinner Music for a Pack of Hungry Cannibals, while popular with the public, jazz critics disdained it as novelty music. Scott believed strongly in composing and playing by ear and he composed not on paper, but on his band — by humming phrases to his sidemen, or by demonstrating riffs and rhythms on the keyboard and instructing players to interpret his cues. It was all done by ear, with no written scores, Scott, who was also a savvy sound engineer, recorded the bands rehearsals on discs and used the recordings as references to develop his compositions. He reworked, resequenced, or deleted passages, or added themes from other discs to construct finished works. Although Scott rigidly controlled the bands repertoire and style, he took piano solos, preferring to direct the band from the keyboard and leaving solos. He also had a penchant for adapting classical motifs in his compositions, the public, who bought his records by the millions, seemed indifferent to any controversy. One of Scotts best-known compositions is The Toy Trumpet, a cheerful pop confection that is recognizable to many people who cannot name the title or composer. In the 1938 film Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, Shirley Temple sings a version of the song with lyrics, trumpeter Al Hirts 1964 rendition with Arthur Fiedler and The Boston Pops has become a standard. Another oft-recorded Scott classic, In An Eighteenth-Century Drawing Room, is a pop adaptation of the theme from Mozarts Piano Sonata in C, K.545

37.
PAiA Electronics
–
PAiA Electronics, Inc. is an American synthesizer kit company that was started by John Simonton in 1967. Simonton founded the company in Oklahoma City in 1967 and began offering various small electronics kits through mail order, the first kit was a circuit board for the Cyclops Intrusion Detector for an article in the May 1968 issue of Popular Electronics. Starting in 1972 PAiA began producing analog synthesizer kits, in both modular and all-in-one form, PAiA began publishing Polyphony Magazine in 1975. It was later renamed to Electronic Musician and sold to Mix Publications in 1985, founder Simonton continued to run the company in Oklahoma until his death in November 2005. Product marketing, sales and development were transferred to Paia Corporation in Fall,2006, the company now operates facilities in Austin, Texas and Edmond, Oklahoma. In 1972, PAiA released the 2700 modular synthesizer series, which used push-buttons in lieu of a keyboard, a version with a keyboard, the 2720, was later released. The next modular series, the 4700s, featured an improved, the P4700J series was computer controlled that allowed polyphony for the first time on a PAiA modular synthesizer. As interest in modular synthesizers died down, PAiA stopped selling modular kits in the late 1980s and 1990s, in the early 2000s, they launched the 9700 modular synthesizer line. In 1974, PAiA released the Gnome, a small, simple, the next year they released the first programmable drum machine called the Programmable Drum Set. Later they released the Oz, another synthesizer, this time with an 18-key keyboard. In the 1990s PAiA released the FatMan Analog MIDI Synth, a MIDI capable, monophonic, analog synthesizer. For a time, the image of the synthesizer was that of an enormous modular system. PAiAs modular synthesizers, with prices starting under $1,000, were groundbreaking in their affordability, the P4700J used a PAIA8700 MOS6503 processor based controller. Larry Fast used this same controller running John Simontons Pink Tunes program on his Album Computer Experiments, Volume One

38.
Jaycar
–
Jaycar is an Australia-based retailer dealing in electronic components and related products for electronics enthusiasts. It was founded in 1981 when Gary Johnston, a former Dick Smith Electronics employee, Jaycar has over 90 stores and more than 200 authorised stockists and agents throughout Australia and New Zealand that carry products from Jaycars Electus Distribution wholesale division. In 2005, Jaycar received negative attention from its imported Taiwanese Choke-A-Chicken toy that squawked and slapped its wings when strangled around its neck, the RSPCA Queensland described the toy as grossly irresponsible. As of 2016, the Choke-A-Chicken is still listed in Jaycars catalogue, Johnston was quoted as saying If a woman walks into some bars in Sydney, she will be ogled. She will be treated as an object and thats the way it is and she doesnt have to walk into those bars. Boxer and model Lauren Eagle came to Johnstons defense, stating that You walk into a bar, men look at you, they stare at you, that’s just the way it is and that’s the truth. What they didn’t record was he did apologise…the comments were not appropriate. In October 2016, Jaycar was accused of copying the Arduino Experimenters kit, designed, Jaycar Sunswift III Element-14 / Farnell RS Components Official website Electus Distribution Jaycar New Zealand Jaycar USA/Canada Jaycar UK

39.
Capacitor
–
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, the nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit, if the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units is the farad, capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF to about 1 mF. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and it has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance, Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies, in resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in digital computers. Von Kleists hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric, von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine

40.
Heterodyne
–
Heterodyning is a radio signal processing technique invented in 1901 by Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden that creates new frequencies by combining or mixing two frequencies. Heterodyning is used to one frequency range into another, new one. The two frequencies are combined in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a tube, transistor, or diode. In the most common application, two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are mixed, creating two new signals, one at the sum f1 + f2 of the two frequencies, and the other at the difference f1 − f2 and these new frequencies are called heterodynes. Typically only one of the new frequencies is desired, and the signal is filtered out of the output of the mixer. Heterodynes are related to the phenomenon of beats in acoustics, a major application of the heterodyne process is in the superheterodyne radio receiver circuit, which is used in virtually all modern radio receivers. In 1901, Reginald Fessenden demonstrated a direct-conversion heterodyne receiver or beat receiver as a method of making continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible, fessendens receiver did not see much application because of its local oscillators stability problem. While complex isochronous electromechanical oscillators existed, a stable yet inexpensive local oscillator was not available until Lee de Forest invented the vacuum tube oscillator. In a 1905 patent, Fessenden stated that the stability of his local oscillator was one part per thousand. In radio telegraphy, the characters of text messages are translated into the short duration dots, Radio telegraphy was much like ordinary telegraphy. One of the problems was building high power transmitters with the technology of the day, when these damped waves were received by a simple detector, the operator would hear an audible buzzing sound that he could transcribe back into alpha-numeric characters. With the development of the arc converter radio transmitter in 1904, CW Morse code signals are not amplitude modulated, but rather consist of bursts of sinusoidal carrier frequency. When CW signals are received by an AM receiver, the operator does not hear a sound, the direct-conversion detector was invented to make continuous wave radio-frequency signals audible. The heterodyne or beat receiver has a local oscillator that produces a radio signal adjusted to be close in frequency to the signal being received. When the two signals are mixed, a frequency equal to the difference between the two frequencies is created. By adjusting the oscillator frequency correctly, the beat frequency is in the audio range. Thus the Morse code dots and dashes are audible as beeping sounds and this technique is still used in radio telegraphy, the local oscillator now being called the beat frequency oscillator or BFO. Fessenden coined the word heterodyne from the Greek roots hetero- different, an important and widely used application of the heterodyne technique is in the superheterodyne receiver, which was invented by U. S. engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong in 1918

Theremin (album)
–
Covenant is an electronic band formed in 1986 in Helsingborg, Sweden. The band is composed of Eskil Simonsson and Joakim Montelius alongside touring members Andreas Catjar. Their music comprises a mixture between synthpop and electronic body music and they have been releasing music since the early 1990s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, electroni

1.
Covenant performing live at Amphi Festival in 2011

2.
Eskil Solo at o2 Islington

3.
Andreas on synths at o2 Islington

Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey
–
Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey is a 1993 documentary film directed by Steven M. Martin about the life of Leon Theremin and his invention, the theremin, a pioneering electronic musical instrument. Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey won the Documentary Filmmakers Trophy at the 1994 Sundance Film Festival and it was also nominated for an International E

1.
Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey

Robert Moog
–
Robert Arthur Bob Moog, founder of Moog Music, was an American engineer and pioneer of electronic music, best known as the inventor of the Moog synthesizer. During his lifetime, Moog founded two companies for manufacturing electronic musical instruments, a native of New York City, Moog attended the Bronx High School of Science in New York, graduati

1.
Robert Moog

Electronic instrument
–
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instrume

1.
Ondes Martenot created by Maurice Martenot, 1928

2.
Diagram of the clavecin électrique

3.
Telharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill 1897

4.
Theremin (1924)

Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born

Electronic musical instrument
–
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker. An electronic instrument might include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, all electronic musical instrume

1.
Ondes Martenot created by Maurice Martenot, 1928

2.
Diagram of the clavecin électrique

3.
Telharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill 1897

4.
Theremin (1924)

Antenna (radio)
–
In radio and electronics, an antenna, or aerial, is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a transmitter or radio receiver. In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals. Antennas are essential components of al

2.
Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter submillimeter Array.

3.
Whip antenna on car, common example of an omnidirectional antenna

Oscillation
–
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value or between two or more different states. The term vibration is used to describe mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum and alternating current power, the simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight a

1.
Experimental Setup of Huygens synchronization of two clocks

2.
Two pendulums with the same period fixed on a string act as pair of coupled oscillators. The oscillation alternates between the two.

Frequency
–
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, for example, if a newborn babys heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period—the time interval betwe

1.
A resonant-reed frequency meter, an obsolete device used from about 1900 to the 1940s for measuring the frequency of alternating current. It consists of a strip of metal with reeds of graduated lengths, vibrated by an electromagnet. When the unknown frequency is applied to the electromagnet, the reed which is resonant at that frequency will vibrate with large amplitude, visible next to the scale.

2.
As time elapses – represented here as a movement from left to right, i.e. horizontally – the five sinusoidal waves shown vary regularly (i.e. cycle), but at different rates. The red wave (top) has the lowest frequency (i.e. varies at the slowest rate) while the purple wave (bottom) has the highest frequency (varies at the fastest rate).

4.
Modern frequency counter

Amplitude
–
The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period. There are various definitions of amplitude, which are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the extreme values. In older texts the phase is called the amplitude. Peak-to-peak amplitude is the change between peak and trough, with appropriate circ

Volume (sound)
–
Loudness is the characteristic of a sound that is primarily a psycho-physiological correlate of physical strength. More formally, it is defined as, That attribute of auditory sensation in terms of sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud. The relation of physical attributes of sound to perceived loudness consists of physical, p

1.
The horizontal axis shows frequency in Hz

Signal (electrical engineering)
–
A signal as referred to in communication systems, signal processing, and electrical engineering is a function that conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon. The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing states that the signal includes audio, video, speech, image, communication, geophysical, sonar, radar. Typically, signa

1.
A digital signal has two or more distinguishable waveforms, in this example, high voltage and low voltages, each of which can be mapped onto a digit. Characteristically, noise can be removed from digital signals provided it is not too large.

Amplifier
–
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. An amplifier functions by taking power from a supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape. In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply based upon the properties of the input signal, an amplifier i

Loudspeaker
–
A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer, which converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s is the speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg. The dynamic speaker operates on the basic principle as a dynamic microphone. Besides this most common method, there are several

1.
Kellogg and Rice in 1925 holding the large driver of the first moving-coil cone loudspeaker.

2.
The first moving-coil cone loudspeakers, developed by Edward Kellogg and Chester Rice in 1925. (left) Early prototype with electromagnet pulled back, showing voice coil attached to cone. (right) The first commercial version, sold with the RCA Radiola receiver, had only a 6 inch cone. In 1926 it sold for $250, equivalent to about $3000 today.

3.
A four-way, high fidelity loudspeaker system. Each of the four drivers outputs a different frequency range; the fifth aperture at the bottom is a bass reflex port.

4.
Exploded view of a dome tweeter.

Movie soundtrack
–
In movie industry terminology usage, a sound track is an audio recording created or used in film production or post-production. Initially the dialogue, sound effects, and music in a film each has its own track, and these are mixed together to make what is called the composite track. A dubbing track is later created when films are dubbed into anothe

1.
16 mm film showing a "variable area" sound track at right

Spellbound (1945 film)
–
Spellbound is a 1945 American film noir psychological mystery thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. It tells the story of the new head of a mental asylum who turns out not to be what he claims, the film stars Ingrid Bergman, Gregory Peck, Michael Chekhov and Leo G. Carroll. It is an adaptation by Angus MacPhail and Ben Hecht of the novel The

1.
Theatrical release poster

The Lost Weekend (film)
–
The Lost Weekend is a 1945 American film noir directed by Billy Wilder and starring Ray Milland and Jane Wyman. The film was based on Charles R. Jacksons 1944 novel of the name about an alcoholic writer. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Writing. It also shared the Grand

1.
Theatrical release poster

Midsomer Murders
–
Midsomer Murders is a British television detective drama that has aired on ITV since 1997. The show is based on Caroline Grahams Chief Inspector Barnaby book series, the current lead character is DCI John Barnaby, who works for Causton CID. Dudgeons character is the cousin of former lead character DCI Tom Barnaby. Dudgeon first appeared as randy ga

1.
Midsomer Murders

Experimental music
–
The practice became prominent in the mid-20th century, particularly in North America. John Cage was one of the earliest composers to use the term and one of experimental musics primary innovators, utilizing indeterminacy techniques and seeking unknown outcomes. Also, in America, a distinct sense of the term was used in the late 1950s to describe co

1.
Moodswinger, Yuri Landman

Rock music
–
It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usu

1.
Red Hot Chili Peppers in 2006, showing a quartet lineup for a rock band (from left to right: bassist, lead vocalist, drummer, and guitarist).

2.
Elvis Presley in a promotion shot for Jailhouse Rock in 1957

3.
Chubby Checker in 2005

4.
The Beach Boys performing in 1964

NBC Red Network
–
The NBC Red Network is a defunct American radio network. Launched in 1926, it, along with the NBC Blue Network, were the two radio networks of the National Broadcasting Company, and the first two commercial radio networks in the United States. CBS Radio was established a year later, in 1943, NBC was required to divest itself of its Blue Network, wh

Proximity sensor
–
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits a field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensors target, different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive

1.
Infrared proximity sensor.

Russian Civil War
–
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire immediately after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, as many factions vied to determine Russias political future. In addition, rival militant socialists and nonideological Green armies fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites, eight foreign nations intervened against th

1.
Clockwise from top: Soldiers of the Don Army in 1919; a White infantry division in March 1920; soldiers of the 1st Cavalry Army; Leon Trotsky in 1918; hanging of workers in Yekaterinoslav by the Austro-Hungarian Army, April 1918.

2.
Anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army in South Russia, January 1918

3.
Russian soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik Siberian Army in 1919

4.
American troops in Vladivostok during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (August 1918)

United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean,

1.
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764

2.
Flag

3.
The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620.

4.
The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776

RCA
–
RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut

2.
Original RCA logo. A later variation of this logo was revived by BMG after it bought RCA Records from GE, and is still used by Sony Music today.

3.
Ad for the beginning of regularly scheduled television broadcasting in New York City by RCA-NBC in April, 1939 via station W2XBS, the forerunner of today's WNBC

4.
Television test pattern created by RCA in 1939

Wall Street Crash of 1929
–
The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchanges crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the crash, was a time of wealth, while the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricult

1.
Crowd gathering on Wall Street after the 1929 crash

2.
Sir George Paish

3.
Unemployed men march in Toronto

Clara Rockmore
–
Clara Rockmore was a classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument. She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg, Clara Reisenberg was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Lithuanian Jews. She had two sisters, Anna and Nadia. Early in her childhood she emerged as a violi

1.
Clara Rockmore's Lost Theremin Album

Paul Robeson
–
Paul Leroy Robeson was an American bass singer and actor who became involved with the Civil Rights Movement. He became politically involved in response to the Spanish Civil War, fascism and his advocacy of anti-imperialism, affiliation with communism, and criticism of the United States government caused him to be blacklisted during the McCarthy era

1.
Robeson in 1942

2.
Birthplace in Princeton

3.
Robeson (far left) was Rutgers Class of 1919 and one of four students selected into Cap and Skull

4.
Robeson in football uniform at Rutgers, c. 1919

New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for int

1.
Clockwise, from top: Midtown Manhattan, Times Square, the Unisphere in Queens, the Brooklyn Bridge, Lower Manhattan with One World Trade Center, Central Park, the headquarters of the United Nations, and the Statue of Liberty

2.
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year England took control and renamed it "New York".

3.
The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolution, took place in Brooklyn in 1776.

4.
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.

Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started t

1.
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920

2.
Flag

3.
Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov, head of the NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was edited out of the image.

Albert Glinsky
–
Albert Glinsky is an American composer and author. His music has been performed internationally by soloists, ensembles, and his book, Theremin, Ether Music and Espionage won the 2001 ASCAP Deems Taylor Award, and is regarded as the standard work on the life of Leon Theremin. In 2009 Glinsky was invited by the family of pioneer, Bob Moog, to create

1.
Albert Glinsky

Moog Music
–
Moog Music is an American company based in Asheville, North Carolina which manufactures electronic musical instruments. The current Moog Music is the company to trade under that name. Based in Trumansburg, New York, Robert Moogs original company was founded as R. A, Moog Co. in 1953, manufacturing theremin kits and, later, modular synthesizer syste

World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directl

1.
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad

2.
The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930

3.
Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930

4.
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War

Synthesizer
–
A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers witho

Moog synthesizer
–
The Moog company pioneered the commercial manufacture of modular voltage-controlled analog synthesizer systems in the mid 1960s. The Moog synthesizer gained wider attention in the industry after it was demonstrated at the Monterey International Pop Festival in 1967. The commercial breakthrough of a Moog recording was made by Wendy Carlos in the 196

Raymond Scott
–
Raymond Scott was an American composer, band leader, pianist, engineer, recording studio maverick, and electronic instrument inventor. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated shorts, Scotts melodies may also be heard in contemporary shows like Ren and Stimpy, The Simpsons, Duckman, Animaniacs, The Oblongs, and Batfink. The only music Scott actual

1.
Raymond Scott

PAiA Electronics
–
PAiA Electronics, Inc. is an American synthesizer kit company that was started by John Simonton in 1967. Simonton founded the company in Oklahoma City in 1967 and began offering various small electronics kits through mail order, the first kit was a circuit board for the Cyclops Intrusion Detector for an article in the May 1968 issue of Popular Elec

Jaycar
–
Jaycar is an Australia-based retailer dealing in electronic components and related products for electronics enthusiasts. It was founded in 1981 when Gary Johnston, a former Dick Smith Electronics employee, Jaycar has over 90 stores and more than 200 authorised stockists and agents throughout Australia and New Zealand that carry products from Jaycar

1.
Jaycar Electronics

Capacitor
–
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most c

1.
Capacitor

2.
Miniature low-voltage capacitors (next to a cm ruler)

3.
A typical electrolytic capacitor

4.
4 electrolytic capacitors of different voltages and capacitance

Heterodyne
–
Heterodyning is a radio signal processing technique invented in 1901 by Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden that creates new frequencies by combining or mixing two frequencies. Heterodyning is used to one frequency range into another, new one. The two frequencies are combined in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a tube, transis

1.
1 MHz electronic oscillator circuit which uses the resonant properties of an internal quartz crystal to control the frequency. Provides the clock signal for digital devices such as computers.

2.
A popular op-amp relaxation oscillator.

3.
(left) Typical block diagram of a negative resistance oscillator. In some types the negative resistance device is connected in parallel with the resonant circuit. (right) A negative resistance microwave oscillator consisting of a Gunn diode in a cavity resonator. The negative resistance of the diode excites microwave oscillations in the cavity, which radiate out the aperture into a waveguide.

4.
A 120 MHz oscillator from 1938 using a parallel rod transmission line resonator (Lecher line). Transmission lines are widely used for UHF oscillators.

1.
A typical earthing electrode (left of gray pipe), consisting of a conductive rod driven into the ground, at a home in Australia. Most electrical codes specify that the insulation on protective earthing conductors must be a distinctive color (or color combination) not used for any other purpose.