European Kingdoms

Ancient Greece

Macedonia / Macedon

The Macedonians were of Hellenic stock, claiming legendary descent from
the Dorians who conquered Sparta
and much of Greece towards the end of the
Mycenaean period. Their name
is generally thought to mean 'highlander', which would be entirely
appropriate for their mountainous homeland. They probably arrived in
the northernmost parts of Greece on the tail-end of the Dorian influx during
the ninth century BC, coming in from the west and driving the
Thracians out of Mygdonia in
the process.

Neighbouring the friendly Hellenic kingdom of
Epirus on their western border,
The Macedonians also had Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east, and
Thessaly to the south. Like the Thracians, with whom they had many cultural
similarities, they were an aggressive people, perfectly suited to the more
mountainous land in which they settled. While they later become more
Hellenised from the fourth century, the more southerly Greeks regarded them
as being rough and ready, still semi-barbarians. Their culture bore some
similarities with that of their
Indo-European cousins, the
Celts, in that they would
seemingly fight anyone, especially each other. Partially symptomatic of a
culture that did not especially set out laws and which did not especially
respect any laws that were set out, Greek history is rife with rebellions,
pretenders, and civil wars, so much so that towards the end of the Hellenic
period they essentially self-destructed their empires, effectively handing
them over to Rome to
replace them as the dominant force in the ancient world.

Greek myth paints Caranus as the son of Temenus,
king of Argos, who in turn is the son of Aristomachus, the Dorian conqueror of
Laconia (although given dating
discrepancies between Caranus and Aristomachus, it is more likely that he
claims descent from the latter rather than being his actual son).

The ruins of Aigai (Aegae, modern Vergina), which was originally
an Illyrian base

According to the Chronicon by Eusebius, Caranus takes
his followers north to aid the king of the Orestae, who is at war with his
neighbours, the Eordaei. The Orestae (possibly an
Epirote tribe) occupy a
location in central northern Greece, immediately north-west of Mount Olympus
and west of the Eordaei.

The king promises Caranus half his territory in
return for his successful aid. The Orestae are indeed successful and the
king keeps his promise. Caranus takes possession of the territory, founding
the very beginnings of the Macedonian kingdom and reigning for thirty years,
eventually dying of old age. He is succeeded by his son. The Macedonians
appear to enjoy close and friendly relations with the Epirotes from the very
beginning, which supports the idea that the Orestae themselves are Epirotes.

c.770 - 740 BC

Caranus
/ Karanus

Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned 30 years

c.740 - 729 BC

Comus
/ Koinos / Coenus

Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned 12 years.

c.728 - 700 BC

Tyrmas
/ Tyrimmas

Son. Macedonian tribal king. Reigned 28 years.

Argead Kings of Macedoniac.700 - 305 BC

A Macedonian kingdom only emerged around the end of
the eighth century under the Argead line of kings. According to legend, they
migrated into the region from Argos under Caranus, hence Argead ('of Argos').
Once there they helped the king of the tribal Orestae to defeat a
neighbouring tribe and were given half the king's territory in thanks. This
must have been the eastern half, and three or four generations later, either Perdiccas or Argaeus
established a capital at Aigai (or Aegae, modern Vergina, near Veria), east
of both the former Orestae and their neighbours, the Eordaei, and close to
the northernmost point of the Aegean Sea. The
region was in a fertile plain in Lower Macedonia which was irrigated by two
rivers, the Axius and the Haliacmon. Under Alexander I the kingdom expanded
rapidly and, until the
fourth century, occupied an area approximately the same as the
modern Greek province of Macedonia.

c.700 - 678 BC

Perdiccas I

First historical king according to Herodotus.

678 - 640 BC

Argaeus I

Son. Founder of the Argeads.
Faced Galaurus' Illyrian invasion.

640 - 602 BC

Philip I

Son.

602 BC

The Illyrian invasions which
had begun during the reign of his father continue during Philip's reign. He
resists successive attempts to invade his small kingdom but is eventually
killed by them in battle. His infant son inherits the kingship.

602 - 576 BC

Aeropus I

Son. Infant at accession.

602 - 601 BC

The Macedonians are dispirited by the continual Illyrian attacks against
them, which have lately been joined by
Thracian attacks. Believing that the
presence of their king will strengthen then, the Macedonian army carries the
infant Aeropus into battle. The attempt works, and the Illyrians and
Thracians are finally driven from the region. The king reigns in apparent
peace thereafter.

There
is a period of
Persian overlordship, although Amyntas is still able to enter into an alliance with Hippias, tyrant of
Athens. Macedonia
remains a vassal until it manages to break free under the rule of
Alexander I.

513 -512 BC

Neighbouring
Thrace south of the Danube is conquered by the
Persians and is held for about fifty years.

498 - 454 BC

Alexander I

Son. Built up the kingdom from its tribal origins.

490 BC

In response to the
Athenian
support of revolts by
Salamis and the Ionians, Darius I invades mainland Greece, subduing the
Thracian tribes along the way
(all except the Satrai, precursors to the
Bessoi). Athens is
sacked, but only after its citizens withdraw safely, and subsequently the
invaders are defeated by Athens and Plataea at the Battle of Marathon in
August or September of the year.

A silver stater (or tetrobol) issued by Alexander I between
476-454 BC

480 - 479 BC

Invading
southern Greece in 480 BC, the
Persians are swiftly engaged by
Athens and
Sparta in the Vale of Tempe, and then stymied by a mixed force of Greeks
led by Sparta at Thermopylae. While Macedonia is a Persian vassal, it still
supplies the Greek city states with supplies and information regarding
Persian movements.

Athens, as the leader of the coalition of city states known as the Delian League,
then defeats the Persian navy at
Salamis, and after the Persian king Xerxes returns home, his army is decisively
defeated at the Battle of Plataea and kicked out of Greece, with many of the survivors
of Plataea being killed by Alexander's forces as they retreat to Asia Minor
by land. This defeat also allows the Macedonians to fully regain a freedom
that they may have established in 490 BC.

c.479 - 454 BC

During his reign, Alexander I leads the expansion of the kingdom's territory into Upper
Macedonia, conquering independent Macedonian tribes such as the Elmiotae
(immediately south-west of Aigai) and
the Lyncestae (to the north-west). He also takes other tribal centres including Eordaia
(home to the tribe that had been defeated by Caranus and the tribal
Macedonians in the early
eighth century), Bottiaea
(home to a possibly aboriginal people),
Pieria (immediately south of Aigai and bordered on its own south by
Pelasgiotis which is either home to a population of
Pelasgians or remembers
their former existence there in its name), Mygdonia (home to
Thracians), and Almopia (home to the Almops).

454 - 448 BC

Alcetas II

Son. An alcoholic, he was killed by Archelaus, his nephew.

454 BC

The Macedonian kingdom formed by Alexander begins to disintegrate under his
successors. The alcoholism of Alcetas, and the in-fighting between Perdiccas
and Phillipus allows the Macedonian and other subject tribes regain
autonomy. Perdiccas' subsequent reign sees him involved in the prelude to the
Peloponnesian Wars, in which he frequently switches sides between
Athens
and Sparta in
their growing conflict.

448 - 413 BC

Perdiccas II

Brother. Took the throne following the murder of his
brother.

434 BC

Phillipus

Brother. Challenged Perdiccas for the throne.

429 BC

Against the backdrop of the Second Peloponnesian War, Perdiccas is opposed
by Amyntas II, the son of either Phillipus or Menelaus. He seeks the support
of Sitalces, king of the
Odrysian
Thracians, but Perdiccas mediates with Seuthes, the son of Sitalces to obtain
peace between the Thracians and Macedonia. Amyntas is forced to wait for his
accession.

413 - 399 BC

Archelaus
I

Son of Perdiccas.
Gained the throne by murdering all rivals.

413 - 412 BC

One of the first acts of Archelaus is to stabilise relations with
Athens,
supplying it with wood with which to build a new fleet after its disastrous
defeat at
Syracuse. He
also stabilises the kingdom, improving its organisation and infrastructure
by building strongholds and roads. By the time of his (possibly accidental)
death during a hunt at the hands of Craterus, one of the royal pages,
Macedonia is a significantly stronger kingdom.

399 BC

Craterus / Crateuas

Royal page who killed the king. Seized throne for 4 days.

399 - 396 BC

Orestes

Son of Archelaus.

399 - 396 BC

Aeropus II

Guardian of Orestes.

396 - 393 BC

Archelaus II

Brother of Orestes. Patron of arts & literature.
Killed hunting.

393 - 392 BC

A period of confusion follows the unexpected death of Archelaus II. The
subsequent kings rule for brief periods, with little information regarding
them. The kingdom probably fractures under the strain of a virtual royal
civil war.

393 BC

Amyntas II

Son of Phillipus or Menelaus, brother of Perdiccas.

393 BC

Pausanias

Son of Aeropus II. Assassinated by Amyntas III.

393 BC

Amyntas III

Son of Arrhidaeus. Driven out by the Illyrians.

393 BC

Amyntas III is driven out of the kingdom by the Illyrians who are assisting
the pretender to the Macedonian throne, Argaeus. It takes the rightful king
just a year to regain his throne, with support from the Thessalians.

393 - 392 BC

Argaeus II

Pretender. Probably returned in 359 BC.

392 - 370 BC

Amyntas III

Restored. Died of
old age.

c.387 - 380 BC

During the first years of his reign
Amyntas III creates a fully unified Macedonian state which heralds a period
of greatness. Around this time he also establishes good relations with Cotys of the Thracian
Odrysian
kingdom which presages even closer relations under Philip II.

370 - 368 BC

Alexander II

Son. Assassinated by Ptolemy I.

368 - 360 BC

Perdiccas III

Brother. Forced to accept regent. Killed in battle by
Illyrians.

368 - 365 BC

Ptolemy I
Alorites / of Aloros

Brother-in-law and regent. Killed by Perdiccas III.

362 BC

Athens and
Sparta,
together with the Eleans and the Mantinaeans, are
defeated by the Thebans at the Battle of Mantinea. The battle is fought on 4
July, with the Thebans being supported by the Arcadians and the Boeotian League. The Spartan defeat paves the way for Macedonian supremacy later in
the century.

360 - 359 BC

Amyntas
IV

Infant son of Perdiccas III. Usurped by Philip II.

359 BC

As soon as Phillip II deposes his infant nephew and claims the throne for
himself, the pretender, Argaeus, attempts to secure the throne with
Athenian
support. Philip manages to persuade the Athenians not to
interfere. Argaeus gathers his supporters, along with some freelance
Athenians, and attempts to capture the capital by force but is repulsed.
While retreating back to his headquarters at Methone, he is ambushed by
Philip and defeated. He either dies during the fighting or is executed
afterwards.

359 BC

Argaeus
(II?)

Probably the same as the Argaeus of 393 BC.

359 - 336 BC

Philip II

Brother of
Perdiccas III. Assassinated.

359 BC

Philip makes an alliance with Cotys of the Thracian
Odrysian
kingdom. In the same year he marries Olympias, the niece of King Arybbas of
Epirus. The union is partly to
combine resources to ward off the dangerous Illyrian tribes to the
north-west, but it also cements an alliance between the two kingdoms that
helps to forge an empire.

With his conquest of Greece, Phillip II laid down the
foundations for the Hellenic empire

352 - 343 BC

The new ruler of the
Odrysian
kingdom makes an enemy of Philip so he undertakes a successful expedition into Thrace,
gaining ascendancy for a time. The Odrysian king subsequently throws off
Macedonian control, so a second expedition in 343 BC gains Philip complete
dominance by 341 BC.

338 - 337 BC

Philip defeats the Greek states at the Battle of Chaeronea and gains
overlordship over all of Greece, including
Athens,
Corinth and
Sparta. Athens
and other city states join the Corinthian League (or Hellenic League) which
is formed by Phillip to unify the military forces at his command so that he
can pressure
Persia.

336 BC

The invasion of
Persia has only just begun when Philip is assassinated at his capital in
October of the year. The court gathers for the celebration of the marriage
between Alexander I of
Epirus and Philip's daughter,
and Philip is killed by Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards.
Pausanias tries to escape and is pursued by three of Philip's bodyguards,
dying at their hands.

Great Kings of Macedonia

Thanks to foundations laid by his father, Phillip II, the Macedonians reached their
greatest extent under Alexander the Great, becoming for a short time the
greatest power in the world. Following Alexander's early death the kingdom broke up into several
Hellenic sections. Alexander's immediate successors held no real power, being mere
figureheads for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire,
and during the course of civil wars and negotiations for control of various
sections, the territories were divided up into separate kingdoms which were
firmly established by 305 BC.

The
Thracians
revolt against Macedonian rule so Alexander mounts a campaign which conquers
two of their tribes, bringing capitulation from the rest.

334 - 319 BC

Antipater

Viceroy & regent
of Macedonia during Alexander's conquests.

334 - 330 BC

Between 334-333 BC the various regions of Anatolia are taken from
Persia,
including
Cappadocia,
Lycia,
Lydia,
and
Phrygia. Between 333-332 BC
Harran,
Judah, and
Phoenicia
are captured, and between 332-330 BC
Persia
is conquered. It takes a further two years to subdue eastern areas around
Bactria
(330-328 BC), with the help of the
Sakas and
other subject groups and allies.

Alexander defeated the Persian king Darius III at the Battle of
Gaugamela in Mesopotamia in 331 BC

333 - 331 BC

While
Alexander is campaigning in Asia,
Sparta rebels
against Macedonian hegemony in Greece with allies from Elis, along with most
of Achaea and Arcadia. Antipater marches a large army south and defeats the
rebellion after a desperate struggle.

326 BC

Alexander's army enters western India through the passes of the Hindu
Kush, but the troops rebel against the prospect of more battles against
another great army, that of
Magadha,
on the Ganges. Alexander is forced to retreat, abandoning his hopes of
conquering India.

323 BC

Upon
the death of Alexander his two successors are retained as figureheads while
the empire is governed by Alexander's powerful generals. Perdiccas, the
leading cavalry commander, is the first general to rule, carrying the title
'Regent of Macedonia', first with Meleager, head of the infantry officers, as
his lieutenant, but alone after he has him murdered.

Eumenes of Cardia, Macedonian general and one of Alexander the
Great's 'successors' between whom a series of wars were fought

323 - 317 BC

Philip III Arrhidaeus

Son of Philip II. Feeble-minded. Titular king.

323 - 310 BC

Alexander IV

Son of Alexander and Roxana. Titular king.

323 - 321 BC

Perdiccas

Regent of
Macedonia.

322 - 320 BC

The First
War of the Diadochi (the successors - the generals of Alexander's army) sees
civil war break out between the generals, and Perdiccas is murdered by his own
generals during an invasion of
Egypt.
Philip III agrees terms with the murdering generals and appoints them as regents.

320 BC

Peithon and Arrhidaeus

Regents of
Macedonia.

320 BC

A new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the empire instead and
commander of the European section. Antigonus remains in charge of
Phrygia,
Lycia,
and
Pamphylia,
to which is added Lycaonia,
Syria
and
Canaan, making him commander of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains
Egypt,
Lysimachus retains Thrace,
while the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes - are given
the former
Persian provinces of
Babylonia,
Media, and
Susiana
respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former regent, receives Hellespontine Phrygia.

320 - 319 BC

Antipater

Restored as regent
of Macedonia.

319 - 317 BC

Polyperchon

Regent of
Macedonia. Deposed in the Second Diadochian War.

319 - 315 BC

The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi. He had
passed over his son, Cassander, in favour of Polyperchon as his successor
(possibly to avoid claims of dynasticism) but the two rivals go to war.
Polyperchon allies himself to Eumenes (Alexander's secretary, former satrap
of Cappadocia,
Mysia, and
Paphlagonia),
but is driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and flees to
Epirus with the infant Alexander
IV and his mother Roxana.

Philip III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC who is herself
killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander also captures Alexander IV
and Roxana and installs a governor in
Athens,
subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and murdered by his
own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee
Babylon
by Antigonus. The result is that Cassander controls the European territories
(including Macedonia), while the
Empire of Antigonus
controls those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred on Phrygia and extending as far as
Susiana).
Polyperchon remains in control of part of the Peloponnese.

317 - 306 BC

Cassander

Regent of
Macedonia. Son of Antipater. Claimed crown (305 BC).

314 - 311 BC

The Third War of the Diadochi results because the
Empire of Antigonus
has grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals so Antigonus is
attacked by Ptolemy
(Egypt),
Lysimachus (Thrace),
Cassander (Macedonia), and Seleucus
(Babylonia).
The latter re-secures Babylon itself and the others conclude peace terms with
Antigonus in 311 BC.

Antigonus continues to fight Seleucus for Babylon but he is defeated in 309
BC and withdraws. At around the same time, Cassander murders the fourteen
year-old Alexander IV and his mother, Roxana, ending the Argead line of
Macedonians.

308 - 301 BC

The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC Antigonus
proclaims himself king, so the following year the other generals do the same
in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet in his stronghold in the
Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander claims his territory. The war ends
in the death of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.

The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and
destructive Wars of the Diadochi which decided how
Alexander's empire would be divided

Lysimachus and Seleucus divide Antigonus' Asian territories between them,
with Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor (the
Lysimachian
empire, including
Pergamum),
and Seleucus the rest (the
Seleucidire,
including
Susania,
Babylonia,
Bactria,
and the
Indo-Greek provinces),
except Cilicia and
Lycia,
which go to Cassander's brother, Pleistarchus, and
Pontus,
which becomes independent, and Phrygia itself, which apparently remains with or is
reclaimed by Antigonus' son.
Cappadocia is briefly usurped by Amyntas before
Seleucus seizes control and permits the restoration of the native ruling
dynasty there. Ptolemy remains secure in
Hellenic Egypt,
Libya,
and Palestine.

Antipatrid Kings of Macedonia305 - 277 BC

During the lifetime of Alexander the Great, while he
was carving out his great
Greek empire, Antipater served as
his regent back home in Macedonia. Following Alexander's death, Antipater
continued to act as regent for the king's brother and son. He also passed
over his own son, Cassander, for the role of regent in favour of Polyperchon,
so Cassander went to war against this general to assert his own claim to the
Macedonian regency. He drove his rival out of Macedonia and captured
Alexander's son and wife, putting him in the powerful position of
controlling Alexander's European territories apart from the Peloponnese by
315 BC.

The remaining wars between Alexander's generals
did not change the ambitious Cassander's position in Greece, so he remained
regent until he killed Alexander's son and wife in 309 BC (he had already
killed Alexander's mother, Olympias, in 310 BC and had married Alexander's
half-sister, Thessalonica, to secure his right to succeed the Argeads). From
that point he was king of Macedonia in all but name, although he only
proclaimed himself as such in 305 BC after Antigonus (of
Phrygia)
had assumed the same title the year previously, forcing all the other
surviving generals to copy him. Cassander was now undisputable (although not
undisputed) king of Macedon, founding a new dynasty.

305 - 297 BC

Cassander

Regent (317-306
BC).
Proclaimed himself king of Macedonia.

297 BC

Cassander dies of dropsy, and his son, Philip, follows him due to natural
causes less than a year later. The new dynasty is already in trouble, as Cassander's other two sons are involved in a dynastic dispute, meanwhile
having to fend off Demetrius of the
Antigonids.

Alexander is ousted by Antipater, and turns to Demetrius of the
Antigonids for help. The Antigonid king ousts Antipater, and
subsequently has Alexander assassinated. Demetrius now rules Macedonia,
albeit with various strong rivals ranged against him.

The position of Demetrius as king is continually threatened, and eventually
the combined forces of Pyrrhus (of Epirus),
Ptolemy (of Egypt)
and Lysimachus (of Thrace),
assisted by the disaffected among his own subjects, oblige him to leave Macedonia in
288 BC. He passes into Asia and attacks Lysimachus' provinces but famine and plague
destroys large numbers of his forces and he is abandoned by his troops on the field of battle,
surrendering to Seleucus (of
Syria and
Babylonia). Lysimachus and Pyrrhus share Macedonia between them, but
soon begin to fight, and Pyrrhus is ejected.

This silver tetradrachm was issued by Lysimachus, and shows the
deified head of Alexander the Great on the obverse, with the
goddess Athena on the reverse

Ptolemy II is the eldest son of Ptolemy of
Egypt (it had been his younger brother who had ascended the Egyptian
throne as Ptolemy II in 285 BC), and stays at the court of Lysimachus of
Thrace until
the king is killed by Seleucus, who is hoping to extend his own empire.
Killing Seleucus in return, Ptolemy agrees an alliance with Pyrrhus of
Epirus and marries
Lysimachus' widow, Arsinoë, to gain the throne. Then he kills Arsinoë's
two sons for conspiracy against him and Arsinoë flees to Egypt to seek
protection from her brother-in-law.

Despite ruling both the
Lysimachian empire
and Macedonia, and having his main rival, the
Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas bottled up in his own capital,
Ptolemy is killed during an invasion of Greece by the hordes of the
proto-GalatianCelts.
The kingdom is plunged into anarchy as the Celts invade further into Greece,
and only the Aetolians seem to be able to take the lead in defending Greek
territory.

279 BC

Meleager

Brother. Deposed
by his troops after two months.

279 BC

Antipater II Etesias

Son of Cassander.
Restored. Ousted by Sosthenes.

279 BC

Macedonia is weakened by the reigns of four short-lived kings. Meleager is
forced to step down by his own troops after just two months, and his
replacement, the returning Antipater II, governs for just forty-five days
before being deposed by Sosthenes, a possible former officer in the army of
the Lysimachian
empire. Antipater remains a threat until he is defeated by the
Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas (probably by 277 BC). He flees to
his relatives in
Egypt where he lives out the remainder of his life.

279 - 277 BC

Sosthenes

Cousin? Army
commander, not made king. Killed.

279 - 277 BC

Sosthenes is elected king by the Macedonian army. His subsequent assumption
of the title of king is doubted, with it seeming more likely that he remains
strategos (military general). Apart from facing continual rivalry from
Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas, during his short period in command
Greece is still suffering from the invasion by
GalatianCelts. Following a
victory at Thermopylae, they are defeated by a force led by the Aetolians at Delphi in 278
BC, and then suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of Antigonus II in 277
BC. They retreat from Greece and pass through
Thrace to enter
into Asia Minor. The fate of Sosthenes is uncertain, but the vacant throne is soon
claimed by Antigonus II.

Antigonid Kings of Macedonia277 - 148 BC

Antigonus II of the Antigonids was originally based in
Phrygia, where his grandfather, the one-eyed Antigonus, had created an
empire out of the former conquests of Alexander the Great. Since then three
generations of Antigonids had constantly been at war with the other generals
of the Greek empire as each of them
jostled for superiority. Antigonus II defeated an army of invading
GalatianCelts in 277 BC
at a time when the Macedonian throne was weakened by continual changes of
occupier, and by the Galatian invasion itself.

Antigonus had already outlasted most of his rivals in Macedonia and the
Lysimachian
empire, and was now able to claim the vacant Macedonian throne, founding
a new ruling house in Macedonia and Thrace combined that would last until
Roman occupation ended
independent Greek rule. The fact that he was the grandson of Antipater and
the nephew of Cassander helped to reconcile most other Greek nobles to his
rule.

Just three years after claiming the Macedonian throne and uniting
Thrace to
it, Antigonus is attacked and easily defeated by Pyrrhus of
Epirus, the former ally of
Lysimachus. The Epirote king takes Macedonia for himself and rules it for
the last two years of his life.

The Celts invade again,
destroying the Thracian
kingdom and forcing the aristocracy to escape to the Greek colonies bordering
the Black Sea, which include
Pontus. The
kingdom of Galatia is created
in Anatolia by the victorious Celts.

272 BC

Pyrrhus goes to war against Antigonus for his lack of support during the war
against Rome, but finds
himself trapped inside the walls of Argos with Antigonus surrounding him with
superior forces. Trying to extricate himself, his unit of elephants is thrown
into confusion and causes further chaos in which Pyrrhus is struck by a tile
thrown by an old woman. Zopyrus, one of Antigonus' soldiers, kills the
Epirote king. His entire
veteran army goes over to the victorious Macedonian king, greatly increasing
his power.

272 - 239 BC

Antigonus
II Gonatas

Restored
following the death of Pyrrhus.

267 - 261 BC

The Chremonidean War is fought between a coalition of Greek city states led
by
Athens
and Sparta who
are fighting for the restoration of their independence from
Macedonian influence. They are aided by the Ptolemaic
Egyptians who are naturally threatened not only by Antigonus' apparently
peaceful rule of Greece, but by his friendship with the
Seleucid empire. He temporarily loses control of most of the Greek city
states to the south but, by 263 BC, has worn down both Athens and Sparta. Order and prosperity
are restored in Greece.

A coin showing the face of Macedonian king, Antigonus II Gonatas

261 - 256 BC

The interference by Ptolemy of
Egypt continues, triggering the Second Syrian War. Macedonia and
Antiochus II of the
Seleucid empire team up to combine their attacks. Egypt loses ground in
Anatolia and
Phoenicia,
and is forced to cede lands which include its ally, the city of Miletus.

239 - 229 BC

Demetrius
II Aetolicus

Son. May have been co-ruler from 257/256 BC.

235 BC

Determined to rule themselves rather than remain under the
rule of kings, the people of Epirus
form a republic called the Epirote League.
Their former royal family are exterminated between 235 and about 233 BC,
perhaps because their alliance with Macedonia is unpopular. It certainly
serves to gravely weaken Macedonia. However, during his reign, Demetrius is
able to extend the kingdom by taking Euboea, Magnesia, and Thessaly and its
surrounding territory, although not Dolopia and perhaps also Peparethos and
Phthiotic Achaia.

229 BC

Just a year after losing control of
Pergamum,
Demetrius dies shortly after a disastrous battle against the Dardanii on the
kingdom's northern border. His son, Philip, is an infant, so his cousin is
offered the throne as his guardian. He rescues the kingdom from collapse,
and defeats the Dardanii, so he is persuaded to marry the widowed queen and
take the throne for himself. It seems, however, that he is unable to keep
the recently conquered Thessaly (and
Phthia) within the
kingdom.

229 - 221 BC

Antigonus III Doson

Cousin. Son of Demetrius the Fair of Cyrene.

222 BC

Despite securing the throne for himself, Antigonus III appears to view
himself as a caretaker king for Philip V. He never tries to secure his own
sons as heirs to the throne. Instead, he builds on his cousin's gains by
re-establishing Macedonian power and dominance across the region, and in
this year he overwhelms the
Spartans at the
Battle of Sellasia, ending any serious attempt by the Spartans to oppose
Macedonian superiority in Greece.

221 BC

Although Greece is at peace, the Illyrians are a constant threat to the
northern borders. They invade Macedonia and Antigonus has to rush north to
defeat them in battle. He suffers a ruptured artery during the battle and
dies.

221 - 179 BC

Philip V

Son of Demetrius II.

215 - 205 BC

During the Second Punic War, Philip allies himself to
Carthage.
To avoid a possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedonia,
Rome dispatches a force
to tie down the Macedonians in the First Macedonian War. The war ends
indecisively in 205 BC with the Treaty of
Phoenicia.
Even though it is only a minor conflict, it opens the way for later
Roman military intervention in Greece.

Philip conquers the kingdom of
Thrace and
permanently appends it to Macedonia. It remains part of Macedonian territory
until the final end of the kingdom.

200 - 196 BC

The Second Macedonian War is triggered by claims made by
Pergamum
and Rhodes of a secret treaty between Macedonia and the
Seleucid empire that is designed to carve up
Egypt's
possessions. Rome launches
an attack and after a spell of indecisive conflict, Philip is defeated at
the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, while his general, Androsthenes, is
defeated near Corinth.
The Macedonian army is drastically reduced in size as a result of the defeat,
and Philip's standing as an important Greek king is greatly diminished.

This silver tetradrachm bears the head of Philip V of Macedonia,
one of its great later kings but one who was also the cause of
Roman intervention

179 BC

Philip invites in a massive contingent of warriors from the tribe of the
Bastarnae which resides
to the north of the Danube. Apparently they are long-time allies of his and
are needed to help him defeat the aggressive Dardanii, raiding
Thraco-Illyrians who are located along his northern border and whom his
diminished army is unable to defeat alone. However, the aged king dies
before his allies can arrive. Now unsupported and without supplies, the
Bastarnae pillage the land, although they are checked by
Thracians who
are on the defensive. About half their number return home while the rest
press on for Macedonia where they are quartered by Perseus, who uses them
in an attack on the Dardanii. The Bastarnae are ultimately defeated and
return homewards. While crossing the frozen Danube on foot, the ice gives
way and most of their number are drowned.

The use of the Bastarnae
to attack Macedonia's enemies has forewarned
Rome of Perseus' intention
to break the restrictions laid on his father following Macedonia's defeat
in 197-196 BC. Now Macedonia and Rome renew the fighting in the Third
Macedonian War. Despite a refusal of support from Antiochus IV of the
Seleucid empire, Perseus enjoys some initial success but is forced to
surrender following defeat at the First Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC.
He is taken prisoner and transported to Rome by the victorious Roman general,
Lucius Aemilius Paullus, along with his half-brother, Philippus, and his
infant son, Alexander.

168 - 150 BC

Roman rule of Macedonia
and Thrace
follows the defeat of Perseus. The Antigonids are removed from power and
the kingdom is dismantled and replaced by four republics.

Roman Governors of Macedonia & Thrace168 BC - AD 395

The rule of Macedonia and
Thrace by the
Roman republic followed the
defeat of Perseus, the last of the native Macedonian kings. All around the
eastern Mediterranean, the states that had been created by the Macedonian
empire were falling to Rome, as was Greece itself, and the loss of Macedonia
was a great blow for Greek freedom. Following their defeat at the First Battle
of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC, the Antigonids
were immediately removed from power and the kingdom was dismantled and
replaced by four republics.

Information on Roman governors seems to be very sparse, and multiple
rebellions and uprisings occurred in Macedonia, but more especially in
Thrace, which was still very tribal and prone to violent actions. The
situation there calmed down in the first century AD following the near
destruction of the Bessoi,
one of Thrace's most warlike tribes, but incursions by tribes from the
Danube area continued to be a serious problem.

Andriscus invades Macedonia from
Thrace in 149 BC
and defeats an army under the
Roman praetor, Publius
Juventius. Then he proclaims himself King Philip VI of Macedonia. In the
following year, his popular uprising is put down by the legions at the
Second Battle of Pydna, and they establish a permanent residence in Greece.
The Achaean League of Greek states rises up against this presence and is
swiftly destroyed. Rome also destroys
Corinth as an object
lesson and annexes Greece, including Macedonia and Thrace.

146 BC

The four client republics are dissolved and Macedonia officially becomes the
Roman province of Macedonia,
which also includes
Epirus, Thessaly, and areas of
Illyria, Paeonia, and
Thrace. With
these regions under tighter control, Rome is free to take a tougher line
against the recalcitrant
Scordisci tribe
in the Balkans and the various
Thracian tribes to the
east of Greece.

Having organised its forces in Greece,
Rome makes its first move
against the Scordisci by
launching an offensive that, to its surprise, fails. The Scordisci repulse
the attack and launch a counter-attack on Macedonia, although this is also
repulsed. Thanks to this stalemate a period of peace follows.

c.140 - 130 BC

Indo-Scythians
have long been pressing against the borders of the far distant Greek kingdom
of Bactria.
Now, following a long migration from the borders of the
Chinese
kingdoms, the Tocharians/Yuezhi start to invade Bactria from
Sogdiana to
the north. Within a decade, around the time of the death of
Indo-Greek King Menander in 130 BC, the Tocharians overrun Bactria and
end Greek rule there.

Although generally ascribed to 119 BC, Kazarov places this event in 117 BC.
After a general period of peace lasting for more than fifteen years, the
Scordisci manage to push all the way through the
Roman defences, reaching
the Aegean coast. The Roman governor of Macedonia, Pompeius, is killed
during an attack on Argos. A force led by Quaestor Marcus Annius finally
ends their adventure, pushing them back. A subsequent attack by the
Scordisci together with the
Thracian
Maedi tribe is also repulsed.

The involvement of the Maedi tribe in the second attack marks the beginning
of a new, more widespread involvement in the frequent campaigns between Romans
and barbarians. While the
Celts in
Thrace and the lower Balkans continue to offer the biggest threat to Roman
expansion, the native Balkan tribes frequently support them, especially the
Bastarnae,
Dardanii, and the free Thracian tribes (the
Bessoi, Denteletes, Maedi,
and Triballi). It takes this Macedonian raid to make Rome fully aware of the
severity of the threat to its security in the region.

115 BC

Following the scare of 119 BC, former consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus is
sent to Macedonia. Eburnus has established his reputation as a strict disciplinarian
(and later goes so far as to execute his own son for 'immorality' in 104 BC, for
which he is prosecuted). Plans are drawn up for the
Roman conquest of
Thrace, probably
by him (according to Orosius, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Valerius Maximus). As part
of this strategy a Roman fortress is established at Heracleae Sintica (modern
Rupite, near Petritch in south-western
Bulgaria)
with a garrison of two cohorts commanded by one Lucullus. Located on the strategic
Struma river valley, and possibly already inside
Celtic territory, it is the only
practical route for moving a large military force into western Thrace. The invasion
begins in 114 BC, led by Consul Gaius Porcius Cato.

Greater retaliation is delivered by
Rome when a
Roman army enters
Thrace
under the command of Marcus Minucius Rufus. According to several Roman writers and also
an inscription at Delphi (which is probably ordered by Rufus himself), both the
Scordisci and the Thracian
Bessoi tribe
are defeated. If true it would be the first Scordisci defeat since 135 BC, or even
earlier. The attack targets not only barbarian military means but, in a change to
previous encounters, targets the civilian populations in a rather brutal manner.
Rome triggers a pattern of increasing atrocities in its war against the tribes
in Thrace and the Balkans.

Interestingly, the campaign ignores the perils of the Struma Valley and instead
proceeds along the much more open River Hebrus river valley (the modern Maritsa),
which is much more suitable for a Roman army. It also seems to be aimed at the
heart of the territory controlled by the previously peaceful Bessoi tribe,
although it happily involves any other tribes, especially the Scordisci. As the
Bessoi live along the Hebrus they make an ideal target without the involvement
of dangerous forays away from the river valley. No territory is gained as a
result of the raid, but it lays down a marker for the future.

To take the gloss off the campaign's success, during their homeward march a large
part of the Roman army drowns when ice on the river breaks underfoot. The attack
on the Bessoi also turns them into one of Rome's most bitter enemies in Thrace,
and forces them into forging closer links with the
Celts in Thrace.

109 - 90 BC

While no further campaigns appear to be mounted by
Rome
during the closing years of the second century BC, the Scordisci and their
Thracian
allies, especially the Maedi, continue to attack Roman Macedonia.
These attacks continue into the early years of the first century BC.
Archaeology shows a dramatic increase in the levels of La Tène
militarisation during this period, as Scordisci society gears up to face the
continuing conflict.

This photo displays material gathered from the Scordisci warrior
burial at Montana in north-western Bulgaria

The constant warfare is also reflected in mass burials
such as the one found at Slana Voda, where a large number of
Celtic battle
casualties are buried at the same time. Hoards of Hellenic and Roman plunder
are notable from the same period, especially in the form of coins, alongside
Celtic issues which often depict attacks against Roman resources. Finds also
include a dense collection of La Tène swords in sites between the rivers Timok and Iskar in modern north-western
Bulgaria - the largest concentration
of such Celtic materials in Europe. Rome has sown the seeds of warfare and
is now reaping the whirlwind of endless attacks by the new enemies it has
made.

Rome's
forces in the Balkans have increasingly been feeling the strain of the
constant attacks on them. Now the dam bursts under the weight of yet another
combined attack by the Scordisci and Maedi. The Roman historian Florus
provides a detailed description of events. The Scordisci and Maedi,
supported by the
Thracian
Denteletes and by the
Dardanii, swarm through
Dalmatia, Macedonia,
and Thessaly, reaching as far as
Epirus on
the Adriatic. They vent the frustration of years of warfare against the
Romans by freely destroying and plundering, although Florus paints a
typically pro-Roman picture of barbarian atrocities, citing the Scordisci
especially as 'the cruellest of all the Thracians... and to their strength
was added cunning as well'. The attack deprives Rome of control over many
areas of the Balkans and northern Greece.

88 BC

By this time the Scordisci and their allies have swept through
northern Greece and have reached Dodona in
Epirus.
Roman
accounts have them destroying the temple of Zeus there, one which the Romans
themselves had destroyed in 167 BC and which, presumably, had been rebuilt
by the Greeks in the meantime. The Romans are suitably outraged by the
destruction of many other temples and similar sites that they had also
destroyed in the previous century while conquering Greece.

85 - 84 BC

Rome
is finally able to respond to their ongoing disaster in the Balkans and
Greece. Sula leads an army against the Scordisci, apparently 'punishing'
them according to Roman writers. Certainly prisoners are treated cruelly,
with fire and sword being used to inflict severe cruelties upon them (so
says Flores). However, Sula merely serves to further fan the flames. As
soon as he leaves for Asia, the
Celts and
Thracians
overrun the southern Balkans and northern Greece and penetrate the
Peloponnese. They reach Delphi by the end of 85 BC to vandalise many
of the religious sites there.

81 BC

Cornelius Scipio arrives to lead a fresh
Roman
campaign in the Balkans. Again, the effort appears punitive, with no
long-term strategy to secure the territory. The Scordisci and
Thracian tribes are undaunted by the action.

The new
Roman
governor of Macedonia, Appius Claudius Pulcher, leads a large army against
the Scordisci confederation - the same
Celts who had destroyed Cato's army
and garrison in 114 BC. This time, however, the Scordisci employ different
tactics. Pulcher's army is probably superior to Cato's, so he is allowed to
penetrate the Thracian
mountains unmolested. There, a vicious and drawn-out series of skirmishes and
small-scale battles takes place between Romans and natives, with the Celts
especially employing highly successful guerrilla tactics to wear down the
opposition. Following months of constant alerts, illness, and defeats,
Pulcher dies and the remains of his army withdraws from western Thrace.

Despite the disappointment of 76 BC,
Rome
is making gradual progress in other parts of
Thrace.
The campaigns of Cnaeus Scribonius Curio in western Thrace from 75 BC see
Roman forces penetrate the previously hostile Struma Valley to reach the
Danube. They take large numbers of prisoners along the way, including a
chieftain of the Maedi named Spartacus. Plutarch states that his wife is
also taken prisoner. Some ancient sources state that Spartacus is in fact a
Roman auxiliary who is later condemned to slavery, but all generally agree
on his Thracian origins.

The South Struma Valley, showing the kind of territory the
Romans had to pass through during their relatively successful
campaign of 75 BC

72 BC

Gaius Scribonius Curio occupies the lands of the Dardanii,
and expands the province as far north as the Danube.

In response to Rome's
incursions into the Danube delta, which are seen as a major threat by all
the peoples of the region, King Burebista of the Getae has united all of the
Getae into a single kingdom. He has also established overlordship of the
neighbouring Bastarnae and
Sarmatians. Burebista's powerful forces raid regularly into Roman-held territory.
In 62 BC the Greek cities rebel against Roman rule, and in the following year
the Bastarnae manage to isolate the Roman infantry of the inept proconsul of
Macedonia, Gaius Antonius (uncle to Mark Antony). The entire force is massacred.
The Roman hold over the region collapses.

Rabokentus of the Bessoi is mentioned by Cicero in relation to action that
is taken by Lucius Calpurnius Piso, to suppress unrest
in the province. Rabokentus is murdered by Piso after the latter accepts a
bribe from Kotys II of the
Astean,
a typical example of Roman officials playing off the native leaders against
one another.

42 BC

During his reign, Raskouporis of
Sapes has already granted assistance to both Pompey
and Caesar during their struggle for power. Now, immediately after the
murder of Julius Caesar, he supports the
Roman
republican faction under Brutus and Cassius against Mark Antony and
Octavian. In return, Brutus and Cassius lead campaigns against the tribal
Bessoi in the highlands in defence of their allies.

The
Bastarnae cross the
Haemus in support of the Scordisci in modern north-western
Bulgaria. They attack a
Thracian tribe known as the
Dentheletae who are allies of
Rome. General Marcus
Licinius Crassus, proconsul of Macedonia, goes to assist the Dentheletae with help from
the Getae under King Roles, and the Bastarnae withdraw. Crassus follows them and eventually
engages them in battle. Caught unawares, the Bastarnae are routed and their king is killed
in combat with Crassus. According to Roman writers, thousands of Bastarnae perish in the
ensuing slaughter.

28 BC

Dio Cassius Cocceianus reports that Marcus Licinius Crassus undertakes a
punitive expedition against the
Thracians
(in what is now southern
Bulgaria), mainly against the
Bessoi. The ancient sanctuary of Dionysos,
described by Herodotus, is captured, taken away from the Bessoi priests and priestesses,
and delivered to the
Astean, who are
Roman allies. The Bessoi do
not accept the settling of these Odrysian Thracians in their ancient sanctuary
and revolt. This first uprising is quickly suppressed.

Crassus also 'punishes' the Scordisci tribes
of north-western
Bulgaria. By this
time Rome has engaged the Thracian kingdom of
Sapes to act as a proxy
government over local Thracian affairs and to oversee the gradual Romanisation of the region.
It seems that Thracian resistance to Rome to any substantive degree has finally come to an end.

19 BC

King Kotys III of Sapes
is killed by Raskouporis II. Roimitalkes II, the son of the victorious king
is given the lands to the north of the Haemus in Thrace while Kotys' son,
Roimitalkes III gets the lands to the south, both ruling under the
guardianship of the Roman
governor of Macedonia.

16 BC

The
Celts of the
former Scordisci
confederation have one last surprise remaining for
Rome.
As imperial Rome stamps its authority on the Balkans, Celtic tribes swoop
down from the Thracian
mountains. They swarm into Macedonia and lay waste to the Roman province
once again. The attack surely comes from the Rhodope Mountains in south-western
Bulgaria,
making it the last hurrah of the Scordisci and providing Rome with a brutal
reminder that although the cities and plains may be civilised, the mountains
of central and western Thrace are still areas to be feared.

15 - 11 BC

Vologeses is a Dionysian priest (and possible king) who leads his fellow
mountain Bessoi in one
of the most prolonged uprisings against the
Romans. Their initial aim
is to free and re-conquer the sanctuary of Dionysos. Other Thracians join
the uprising, and it quickly grows into a storm. Dio Cassius relates that
a number of regions in Thrace are ravaged and the Odrysians of
Astean are persecuted
by the revolting Bessoi. Raskouporis II of Astean is killed and his relative,
Roimitalkes I of Sapes,
is forced to seek protection from the Romans. To suppress the uprising,
the Romans receive help from
Pamphylia,
and under Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, son of former Governor Lucius
Calpurnius Piso, they manage to quell the revolting Bessoi by drowning the
country in blood and fire.

AD 9

With the formation of the new
Roman provinces of
Dalmatia, Moesia and Thrace, the province of Macedonia acquires the physical
dimensions that it retains throughout the empire period. It also gains
safety and security at last, with the Thracian tribes fully pacified and
external threats kept away by the buffer provinces around it.

The Roman city of Stobi (now in the Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia) was a sophisticated and attractive Roman city in
Macedonia

c.10

The long-since isolated and very distant
Indo-Greek
kingdom disappears under
Indo-Scythian pressure.
It seems to be Rajuvula, kshatrapa in Mathura at this time, who invades what
is virtually the last free Indo-Greek territory in the eastern Punjab. He kills Strato
II and his son. Pockets of Greek population probably remain for some centuries under
the subsequent rule of the
Kushans and
Indo-Parthians, and
a possible enclave of Greek rule is apparently maintained briefly in
Gandhara.

The Peucini Bastarnae are
specifically mentioned in the invasion across the
Roman
frontier. Part of the barbarian coalition which includes
Goths and
Heruli, they use their knowledge
of boat building from several centuries of living on the Black Sea coast and
in the Danube estuary to help build a fleet in the estuary of the River Tyras
(now the Dniester). The force of which they are part sails along the coast to
Tomis in Moesia Inferior. They attack the town but are unable to take it.
Sailing on, they are frustrated twice more, at Marcianopolis and
Thessalonica in Macedonia.
Athens is also attacked, captured, and plundered by the Heruli (in
267-268). Finally, they move into Thrace where they are crushed by
Emperor Claudius II at Naissus in 269.

c.285 - 318

Following reforms by Roman
Emperor Diocletian at the end of the third century,
Epirus Vetus is removed from
the province of Macedonia. In the less well-recorded fourth century,
Macedonia itself is divided into Macedonia Prima (the south) and Macedonia
Salutaris (the north). In 318 they form part of the diocese of Macedonia,
one of three dioceses which is included in the praetorian prefecture of
Illyricum.

395

Greece becomes the
central segment of the
Eastern Roman empire.
It remains so until the
Byzantine empire's final
conquest in 1453 by the
Ottoman
empire. Only in the twentieth century does an independent
Greek kingdom rise out of two
millennia of Turkish occupation or Romanised empire.