Ancient Monuments of Kashmir

by Ram Chandra Kak

MONUMENTS
IN SRINAGAR AND ITS VICINITY

SANKARACHARYA
TEMPLE

The
Sankaracharya temple is situated on the summit of the Takht-i-Sulaiman
hill, to the south-east of Srinagar (Plate
IV). Neither the hill nor the temple preserves its ancient name; in
Hindu times the former bore the name of Gopadri, and the latter - or more
probably some earlier structure which occupied its place - that of Jyeshthegvara.
But the modern name of the hill seems to be of fairly long standing, as
it is mentioned by Catrou, and in a slightly altered form (Koh-i-Sulaiman)
by Abul Fazl. The temple is built on a high octagonal plinth approached
by a long flight of steps enclosed by two side-walls which originally bore
two Persian inscriptions. One of these was dated A.H. 1O69 =A.D. 1659.
Both inscriptions disappeared some time in the last few decades. The plinth
is surmounted by a low parapet wall 23' 6" long on each side, the inner
surface of which was originally adorned by a range of eighty-four round-headed
recesses enclosed in rectangular panels. The greater part of the wall has
now fallen. The shrine consists of a cell, circular inside, with a diameter
of 13' 2". Externally it is square with two projecting facets on each side
(Plate V). The surface is plain,
except for the salient and re-entering angles of the facets. The maximum
thickness of the walls in the middle of each facet is 8' 2". The interior
of the sanctum is covered by a modern ceiling "composed of flat stone slabs
and wooden boards, which rest on two lintels of the same material, themselves
supported on four columns in the centre of the room. The south-west column
bears two Persian inscriptions, one of which states that the column on
which it is engraved was carved by a mason named Bihishti in the year 54
- i.e., A.H. 1054, corresponding to A.D. 1644. The date falls in the reign
of Shah Jahan. It is obvious, therefore, that this ceiling with its columns
was erected in the time of that king." The original ceiling, which this
modern addition has hidden from view, is dome-shaped and built of horizontal
courses of kanait or kanjur (a kind of light and porous limestone). The
absence of the trefoiled entrance to the sanctum, and similar niches on
the other three sides, is remarkable. In this respect, as in the circular
interior plan, this temple is similar to the larger temple at Loduv. The
brick roof seems to have been constructed within the last century.

The date of
this temple has been a source of controversy among archaeologists. General
Cunningham and, after him, Lieut. Cole assigned it to the times of Jalauka
(whom they date 220 B.C.) on the strength of local tradition. This theory
has been rejected, firstly on architectural grounds, and secondly because
of the doubtful character of the tradition.

Another theory,
advanced by Fergusson, is that the temple was built in the reign of Jahangir.
He says that "the temple as it now stands was commenced by some nameless
Hindus, in honour of Siva, during the tolerant reign of Jahangir; and that
the building was stopped at the date engraved at the staircase, A.H. 1069
(A.D. 1659), the first year of the reign of the bigoted Aurangzeb. It was
then unfinished, and has consequently remained a ruin ever since, which
may give it an ancient look.'' But Fergusson's conclusion was based on
arguments which appear to have little foundation. Among other things the
Jesuit Catrou, who published his History of the Mughal Empire in 1708 A.D.,
only one year after Aurangzeb's death, says that the Kashmiris are descended
from the Jews. " Moses is a very common name there; and some Ancient Monuments
still to be seen discover 'em to be a People come out of Israel. For instance
the ruins of an Edifice built on a high mountain is called at this Day
the Throne of Solomon." Again, Bernier, who accompanied Aurangzeb to Kashmir
in 1665, writes of the existence of an "extremely ancient building, which
bears evident marks of having been a temple for idols, although named Tact-Souliman,
the Throne of Solomon." These statements show that as early as the beginning
of the reign of Aurangzeb the origin and authorship of the temple were
lost in the mists of antiquity. They also prove that the temple had already
fallen into disuse and ruin; and its construction, therefore, could not
have been begun in the reign of Jahangir and stopped by Aurangzeb.

Kalhana, in
his Rajatarangini (i, verse 341), definitely states that king Gopaditya
built a shrine of Jyeshthesvara on the Gopadri (modern Takht-i-Sulaiman),
but it cannot be asserted with certainty that the present temple is the
same as that which was built by Gopaditya. It appears, however, probable
that that shrine occupied the same position. Gopadityais date, and consequently
that of his buildings, is uncertain. But the conjecture that the present
temple must be at least a century or so earlier than that highly finished
example of Kashmir architecture, the Martand temple, seems plausible.

To the north
of the base is a low cell 10' 8" square, entered through a plain and nearly
circular-headed low doorway. The ceiling is flat and built of plain stone
slabs placed on long stone joists, which rest on remarkably long beams
supported on two octagonal columns.

To the south-east
of the temple base, slightly lower down the hill, is a tank 10' 1" square.

In the area
in front of the temple are the ruins of two Muslim structures, probably
the remains of the small mosque and garden mentioned by Bernier, and belonging
perhaps to the reign of Shah Jahan, when the Persian and Arabic inscriptions
in the temple were put up.

The temple
of Sankaracharya commands one of the finest views in the whole of Kashmir.
The view of the city with its green, turfed roofs, covered in the spring
with iris, tulip, and a variety of other flowers, is without a doubt unique.

KHANQAH OF SHAH
HAMADAN

The city of Srinagar
can best and most conveniently be seen from the river. The streets are
narrow and often muddy. The river and the canals, on the other hand, form
a very pleasant means of communication. As the visitor floats down the
sluggish streams many objects attract his attention. The large and imposing
palaces, the modern temples with tin-plated spires glittering in the sun,
the brawny, loquacious boatmen plying their little airy craft, their pretty
rosy-cheeked babies sprawling in the bottom, heedless of the shrill warnings
of the distracted mothers, the curious cantilever bridges which span the
river at short intervals - with these and the multifarious other objects
of interest and amusement which usually appeal to the newcomer in Kashmir,
the present monograph is not concerned. The attention of the reader is
therefore specially invited to the extremely large number of architectural
stones belonging to ancient Hindu temples which have now been built into
the retaining walls of the river banks.

Between the
third and fourth bridges on the right bank stands the Khanqah of Shah Hamadan,
or, to give him his proper name, Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Plate
VI). Tradition ascribes his origin to the city of Hamadan in Persia.
Legend further adds that Timur " was one night wandering in disguise about
the streets of his capital, Samarkand, and overheard an old man and his
wife talking over the prospects of starvation; upon which he took off an
armlet, threw it to them, and departed unseen. A pretender Syud, or descendant
of the prophet, asked them how they came by the armlet, and accused them
of having stolen it. The matter was made known to Timur, who sagaciously
decreed that the owner must be the person who could produce the fellow
armlet. He then displayed it in his own possession, and ordered the accuser
to undergo the ordeal of hot iron, which he refused, and was put to death
in consequence. Timur, moreover, put to death all the other pretender Syuds
in the country.

One, named
Syud Ali or Shah Hamadan, who really was a descendant of the prophet, accused
Timur of impiety, and told him that he would not remain in his country;
and by virtue of his sanctity he was able to transport himself through
the air to Kashmir. He descended where the Masjid now stands, and told
the Hindu fakir to depart. He refused, upon which Shah Hamadan said that
if he would bring him news from heaven, he would then believe that he was
a great man. The fakir, who had the care of numerous images, immediately
despatched one of them to heaven, upon which Shah Hamadan kicked his slipper
after it with such force that the image fell to the ground. He then asked
the fakir how he became so great a man; he replied, by doing charitable
actions; upon which Shah Hamadan thought him worthy of being made a convert
to Islam; and in a few days so many more followed his example that two
and a half kirwahs [kharwar=nearly two maunds] of Juneos, or sacred strings
worn by the Brahmans, were delivered up by the Hindu proselytes. The converted
fakir himself was called Shyk Baba Wuli [Shaikh Baba Wali], and a penance
of forty days performed at his shrine is considered the ne plus ultra of
the meritorious.'' Whatever the religious value of this story, it is certain
that the Sayyid must have been a personage of great importance, inasmuch
as a number of shrines throughout the valley have been dedicated to his
memory.

It is difficult
to determine the date of the present structure, but it is practically certain
that it does not belong to the time traditionally ascribed to the migration
of Sayyid Ali Hamadani to Kashmir. Baron von Hugel, who visited Kashmir
in 1835, speaks of it as a modern-looking building. But there is no doubt
that a mosque or some such religious edifice stood here at least as early
as the reign of Akbar; for Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari says that " Mir
Sayyid Ali Hamadani resided for some time in this city (Srinagar), and
a monastery founded by him still preserves his name."

Apart from
the cloisters, which have been added later, and the additions and alterations
that are being carried on by its present-day caretakers, the original building
is a square structure. Its chief structural peculiarity is that it is for
the most part built of wooden balks. The spaces between the balks are filled
by very small and carefully dressed bricks. Some of the doors and windows
are beautiful examples of wood carving, and the wooden cornice of the plinth
is an exquisite piece of workmanship.

The interior
consists of a single large hall 63' by 43'. On the southern and northern
sides are fourteen chambers which now serve the purpose of godowns. The
one in the north-west corner contains the tomb of the saint. The only decoration
in the interior is the very beautiful panelled wood-work on the walls,
to which age has imparted a rich brown colour. The dado consists of a number
of panels decorated with carved floral patterns. The larger panels in the
walls bear carved on them the names of God, which have been painted in
gold. A strong contrast with the sombre hue of the walls is furnished by
the glass and glazed work which decorates the external surface of the chamber
containing the mausoleum.

The ceiling
is supported in the centre on four wooden columns, covered with pieces
of wood arranged in fish-bone patterns which originally bore painted inscriptions.
Their bases have been carved with lotus leaves, and their capitals, which
are sixteen-sided, are adorned with acanthus (?) Ieaf decoration.

Two ladders
at the sides give access to thle balconies above. The upper floor does
not possess any points of interest.

Over the doorway
of the shrine is carved an inscription which gives 786 Hijra as the year
of Shah Hamadan's death. This date corresponds to A. D. 1384.

PATTHAR MASJID

" Of the Mughal
style as exemplified by buildings in Kashmir it is not necessary to say
much, because the style is practically the same as that at Agra, Delhi,
and Lahore. The only differences which suggest themselves are that a local
grey limestone was generally used in Kashmir for face work; and white marble,
owing no doubt to the difficulties of transport, is hardly ever seen.''
This stone is an excellent material for mouldings and for carving, and
is capable of receiving a very high polish, as is testified by the pillars
in the pavilion at Shalimar. Of the Mughal mosques in Kashmir, the Patthar
Masjid, "The Stone Mosque," so called in contradistinction to the indigenous
wooden mosques of the valley, is the largest surviving example (Plate
VII). The facade consists of nine arches, including the large arched
portico in the centre. The arched openings are enclosed in shallow decorative
cusped arches, which in their turn are enclosed in rectangular frames.
The horizontal construction of these arches is remarkable. All of them
have recently been closed up with rubble stone masonry.

The half-attached
" bedpost " columns in the two outer angles of the jambs of the entrance
are noteworthy. The plinth, which is now mostly underground, is surmounted
by a lotus-leaf coping.

The frieze
between the projecting cornice and the eaves is decorated with a series
of large lotus leaves, carved in relief, some of which have been pierced,
and thus made to serve the purpose of ventilation apertures. A flight of
steps in each jamb of the entrance gives access to the roof, which is,
as usual in Kashmir, sloping, except in the centre, where there was originally
a dome which was later dismantled by the Sikhs. The roof consists of twenty-seven
domes, the central one of which is the largest. The domes are mostly ribbed
inside, though there are some which are flat or waggon-vaulted.

The roof is
supported internally on eighteen extraordinarily massive square columns
having projections on two sides. The lower portion of the columns is built
of stone and the upper of brick covered by a thick coat of buff-coloured
lime plaster.

The enclosure
wall is built of brick masonry, with a coat of lime plaster, adorned by
a range of shallow arched niches.

The mosque
is said to have been built in A.D. 1623 by the Empress Nur Jahan. There
is a tradition that, being once questioned regarding the cost of its construction,
she pointed to her jewelled slippers and replied, "As much as that." The
jest was reported to the mullahs, who unanimously decreed that by this
sacrilegious allusion the mosque had become desecrated, and was unfit for
religious use. For this reason the Patthar Masjid has never been used as
a place of prayer.

TOMB OF ZAIN-UL-ABIDIN'S
MOTHER

A couple of furlongs
lower down the river, between the fourth and the fifth bridges, is the
Sri Ranbir Ganj, the busiest and most important trading mart in Kashmir.
Near it are seen the high and massive domes of the tomb of the mother of
Zain-ul-abidin, towering far above the gabled roofs of the surrounding
houses (Plate VIII).

The most attractive
chapter in the history of the Muslim rule in Kashmir is the reign of Zain-ul-abidin
(1421-1472). He was a patron of the arts and industries, and as tolerant
to his Hindu subjects as his father, Sikandar But-shikan, was bigoted.
But though he is said to have occasionally made pilgrimages to Hindu shrines,
he does not seem to have scrupled in using Hindu remains for his own purposes.
The superstructure alone of his mother's tomb was erected by him. The plinth
with its filleted torus cornice is entirely Hindu (Plate
LXXIV); so is the trefoiled entrance and its still undisturbed massive
jambs. In plan it is square, with the angles cut off and replaced by rectangular
projections. The superstructure follows the same plan, and consists of
a single chamber in the middle with projections recessed internally at
the angles, roofed over by five domes, the largest naturally being in the
centre.

" Its principal
features are the glazed and moulded blue bricks, which are studded at intervals
in the exterior walls, the semicircular brick projections, on the drum
of the main dome, and the moulded string-courses and sunk panels on the
drums of the cupolas."

The wooden
lintels of the ventilation apertures are remarkably well preserved.

Inside, hanging
from an iron plate attached to the apex of the central dome, is an iron
chain which has given rise to the misconception, common among the Hindus
of Kashmir, that the structure in its present shape was originally a Panchamukha
(five-faced or fiveheaded) temple, such chains being usually found in Hindu
shrines, attached to the principal bell.

Immediately
to the north of this building is a Hindu enclosure wall with gateway, which
contains a number of tombs, one of which is said to preserve the remains
of the king himself. This wall, like that of the Sankaracharya temple,
has been the object of much controversy. Cunningham and Cole ascribed it
to a date as early as the fourth or fifth century A.D. This theory was
contested by Fergusson, who, on the strength of the resemblance of the
miniature arches which decorate this wall to similar decorative features
in Muslim architecture, maintained that it was built by the Muslims themselves
at the time they erected the mausoleum. But it is probable that Cunningham
and Cole, who actually saw it, were nearer the truth than Fergusson, who
judged only from photographs. The wall is a real Hindu one, as its materials
and massiveness amply prove, though it is undoubtedly later than the fifth
century A.D. A further proof of its Hindu origin is the number of carved
stones still found round the site, which bear sculptured reliefs of Hindu
deities.

The whole group
is enclosed in a massive stone wall with a ridged coping.

This outer
wall, as well as its two entrances, one on the riverside and the other
opening on the road, likewise date back to Hindu times.

Since the time
of Zain-ul-abidin this enclosure has been used as a cemetery, and many
of the notabilities of Muslim Kashmir are interred here, among them the
famous Tartar invader Mirza Haidar Gurgan, the cousin of Babar, who made
his first raid into Kashmir from Turkistan and occupied it a second time
in the name of Humayun, during the latter's exile from Hindustan. The following
inscription on his tombstone gives the date of his death (A.H. 958= A.D.
1551).

Translation: "
At last the King Mirza Haidar Gurgan beat his royal drum (to announce his
departure) for the realm of martyrdom. Such was the will of God and (even)
the date of his union (with God) is contained in (the phrase) ' will of
God."'

PIR HAJI MUHAMMAD
SAHIB

Less than half
a mile from the ruins described above, on the way to the Jama' Masjid by
way of Safa Kadal, is another enclosure with a structure in the centre,
which is now doing duty as the tomb of Pir Haji Muhammad, a Muslim saint.
In plan it is similar to the tomb of Zain-ul-abidin's mother, the only
difference being that this has two flights of steps facing east and west,
and the latter has only one, which faces west. There is no doubt that the
plinth and the corners of the superstructure, as they are at present, are
in their original position, and have never been tampered with.

The spaces
between the stone pilasters at the corners have been filled in with screen
walls of kanjur masonry, the larger sides of which are decorated externally
with three closed panels. This appears to have been a later addition. A
curious fact about this structure is that the two flights of steps are
also later additions, though undoubtedly they have been transplanted from
some Hindu site. Proof for this conjecture is furnished by the fact that
the cornice of the plinth, a cyma recta, is not bonded with the masonry
of the stairs, and that carved stones evidently not originally intended
for the purpose have been used in the steps.

In the eastern
corner of the courtyard is a smaller enclosure partitioned off from the
main area; this also contains a trefoiled niche and some fluted columns.

There is a
small square Muslim brick tomb within the compound wall.

The position
of these ruins suggested to Sir Aurel Stein their " possible identity with
the temple of Vishnu Ranasvamin which Kalhana mentions as founded by King
Ranaditya. This temple must have enjoyed considerable celebrity up to a
comparatively late period.''

JAMA' MASJID

The history of
the Jama' Masjid of Srinagar is a singularly chequered one. Its original
conception and erection are ascribed to Sikandar But-shikan, who reigned
in Kashmir from A.D. 1390-91 to 1414-15. He is said to have laid its foundation
in A.D. 1398 and completed it in 1402. His illustrious son Zain-ul-abidin
is reported to have greatly exerted himself in adding to its aesthetic
attractions. He also established an Islamic school as an appendage to the
mosque, and endowed it with estates to enable it to defray the cost of
maintenance. In A.D. 1479 a large conflagration reduced it to ashes, and
the then reigning sovereign, Sultan Hasan Shah, set about its reconstruction
with greater splendour. Unfortunately the king died before completing his
task, which was brought to a successful end in A.D. 1503 by Ibrahim Magre,
Commander-in-Chief of the Kashmir forces, in the reigns of Muhammad Shah
and Fateh Shah. In the year I620, in the reign of Jahangir, a severe conflagration
again broke out in Srinagar and destroyed twelve thousand buildings, among
them the Jama' Masjid. The emperor, who is stated to have been in Kashmir
at the time, immediately directed its reconstruction, which was taken in
hand and completed in the space of seventeen years. Malik Haidar of Tsodur,
the historian of Kashmir, was entrusted with the execution of the work.
The inscription on the southern entrance, which was erected about this
time, gives the history of the mosque up to this date. In addition to restoration
of the mosque the emperor bestowed munificent grants of land, not only
for its upkeep, but also to provide subsistence allowance for the caretakers.
I'taqad Khan, a provincial governor of Kashmir during the reign of Shah
Jahan, was a gross tyrant. The emperor on a visit to Kashmir dismissed
him, and appointed Zafar Khan, the son of the Prime Minister, Asaf Khan,
as his successor. The latter drew up a list of the irregularities practised
in Kashmir by his predecessor, and submitted it to the emperor, who in
a royal farman, or decree, directed remission of all the petty exactions
which the former local governors had inflicted upon the inhabitants of
the valley. The royal farman was engraved on a block of black marble and
set up on the right wall of the southern gateway of the Jama' Masjid, for
the benefit of the public. The document is of extraordinary interest, not
only because it illustrates the ways and means to which some unscrupulous
governors, gifted with more ingenuity than conscience, had recourse in
their haste to amass a fortune, but also as an honourable testimony to
the emperor's solicitude for the welfare of his distant Himalayan dependency.

In A.D. I674
the mosque was for the third time destroyed by fire. It is stated that
when the emperor Aurangzeb heard of the accident, his first enquiry was
whether the chinars were safe; for he said " the mosque could be rebuilt
in a short time; a full-grown chinar can never be quickly replaced." He
impressed all the bricklayers and masons of the city into his service,
and had the mosque completed within the short period of three years. In
his restoration it is evident, both from the building itself and on the
authority of history, that the Mughal strictly adhered to the plan of the
original mosque of Sikandar Butshikan. Aurangzeb seems to have spent a
considerable sum of money on gilding and other evanescent embellishment
of - the mosque.

From the time
of Aurangzeb down to 1914 the structural history of the mosque is a record
of steady decay. The fitful repairs by the Afghan governors did not arrest
its downward progress to ruin. In the earlier part of the Sikh regime in
Kashmir the mosque was closed and its doors were blocked up. After a period
of twenty-one years, it was reopened by Ghulam Muhi-ud-din, the Sikh Governor,
who spent nearly a lakh and a half of rupees on its repair. In Dogra times
attempts were more than once made to put it into repair, but they do not
seem to have led to any appreciable result. Since the year 1913, however,
the Muslims of Kashmir, substantially aided by a grant from His Highness's
Government, have put forth their best energies for the achievement of the
difficult task, and it has recently been brought to a successful conclusion.

The mosque
is a quadrangle and roughly square in plan, its northern and southern sides
being 384' in length. Its principal features are the four minars, one in
the middle of each side (Plate
IX). They are covered by a series of pyramidal roofs, which terminate
in an open turret crowned by a high pinnacle (Plate
X). All these minars, except that to the west, which contains the pulpit,
cover spacious arched entrances which are plain but very imposing. The
southern entrance seems, as now, to have always been the one most commonly
used. This is borne out by the fact that the inscriptions - among them
Shah Jahan's farman, which would naturally be placed at the most frequented
spot in the mosque - have been built into the wall of this entrance. The
roof of each minar was supported on eight wooden columns, 50' in height
and over 6' in girth, whose modern substitutes still stand on the original
square limestone bases. The columns are plain and unornamented. The minars
are connected by spacious halls, the principal feature of which is the
vast array of 378 wooden columns which support the roof.

The western
minar differs from its companions of the other three sides in having slightly
larger dimensions and two stairs, one in each jamb of the arch, giving
access to the roof and each surmounted by a small brick dome. The gachh
(gypsum) plaster is inartistic and of recent date.

The compound
is bisected by two broad paths, planned after the manner of a formal Mughal
garden. At the point of their intersection has been built a small and insignificant
barahdari.

Formerly a
small canal which entered through the eastern entrance used to feed the
large, but now dilapidated, tank in the compound. The canal fell into disuse
when the Srinagar waterworks system was instituted. Its place is now taken
by an ordinary P.W.D. water-supply. The water from the tank flows down
a small ornamental stone chute, and passing out of the channel leaves the
mosque by an underground passage in the west wall. After a meandering course
of a quarter of a mile the pretty little rill, now replaced by the usual
gutters, emptied itself into the Mar canal. The streamlet was in existence
as recently as thirty years ago, and bore the name of Lachhma-kul. It was
originally brought from the Sindh by King Zain-ul-abidin, and its first
name was Zaina-Ganga.

The most charming
feature of the compound, apart from the singularly imposing aspect of the
arcaded front of the halls, is a group of shady chinars, which tradition
assigns variously to Zain-ul-abidin's and Hasan Shah's reigns. But there
seems to be little doubt that some, if not all of them, are of more recent
growth.

THE HARI PARBAT
FORT

The hill of Hari
Parbat (Plate XI), crowned
by the Pathan fort which is visible from every part of the city, has from
time immemorial been a place of great sanctity in Kashmir. The name is
the Kashmiri equivalent of the Sanskrit sarika-parvata, "the hill of Sarika"
(har= Indian maina). Legend, corroborated by modern science, informs us
that the valley was, in prehistoric times, a vast lake, which must have
been one of the most beautiful in the world. In this lake dwelt the water-demon
Jalodbhava. The Sarikamahatmya tells us, circumstantially, the story of
the defeat and destruction of this demon: how the monster wrought havoc
among the mountains of the adjacent districts, but being invulnerable in
his own element, and declining to fight at a disadvantage on land, continued
his life of depredation in impudent security for a long time; how the gods
fumed and stormed in impotent rage, and finally resolved to lay the matter
before the Almighty Mother Sati, the controller of the titanic forces of
nature; how she assumed the form of a Sarika bird (maina) and taking a
pebble in her beak dropped it at the spot where she knew the demon was
lying, lulled into false security; and finally how the pebble swelled into
gigantic proportions and crushed the demon by its weight. The pebble to
this day survives under the name of Hari Parbat, and a depression in the
ground outside the Sangin Darwaza of the fort wall is pointed out as the
spot wherefrom the panting breath of the demon forced its way out, as he
was struggling under the crushing weight over him. The legend adds that
the gods in grateful memory of their deliverance took up their abode here,
which accounts for the fact that every individual stone, large and small,
on this hill is reverenced by the orthodox Brahmans as the representative
of one of the thirty-three crores of gods which comprise the Hindu pantheon.

In modern times,
both Hindus and Muslims have appropriated parts of the hill for their shrines;
but neither the shrine of Chakresvari nor the ziarat of Makhdum Sahib possesses
any architectural interest. The fort which crowns the summit is a commonplace
structure (Plate XI), but this
cannot be said of Akbar's rampart and its gates, Kathi Darwaza and Sangin
Darwaza, and the mosque of Akhun Mulla Shah, which are well worth a visit.
The rampart, which is for the most part in ruins, is nearly 3 miles in
circumference. The Kathi Darwaza seems to have been the principal entrance,
judging from the fact that the inscriptions have been put up only here.
It is a very simple structure, comprising a domed chamber in the middle
with two side-recesses. Its only external decorations are rectangular and
arched panels and two beautiful medallions, in high relief, on the spandrels
of the arch.

Translation: The
foundation of the fort of Nagar-Nagar was laid in the reign of the just
sovereign, the king of kings, Akbar, unparalleled among the kings of the
world, past or future. He sent one crore and ten lakhs (of rupees) from
his treasury and two hundred Indian master-builders, all his servants.
No one was forced to work without remuneration. All obtained their wages
from his treasury. (In the) forty-fourth year after the accession of the
Emperor (and) 1006 after the prophet.

The second
inscription was erected by the officer in charge of the works and runs
as follows:

Translation: The
foundation of the fort of Nagar Nagar was completed, by favour of the Almighty,
under orders of the king of the world, Shadow of God, Emperor Akbar, and
through the instrumentality of Mir Muhammat Hussain, the least among the
servants of King Akbar. May the prosperity of this king enture for ever,
through the grace of the martyrs of the Faith. There is no Got but God.

The Sangin
Darwaza, "the stone gate," differs from Kathi Darwaza in being more ornate.
The exterior is decorated by two corbelled windows, and there are two stairs,
one on each side, which give access to the roof.

According to
tradition, which is still living, the construction of the Hari Parbat,
or, as Akbar named it, Nagar-Nagar, rampart was started as a relief work,
to alleviate the distress of the people during a famine. The historian
Suka states that the emperor, on hearing of the hardship inflicted upon
the citizens by the troops, who for want of accommodation had been quartered
upon them, had a cantonment built on the slopes of the Hari Parbat hill,
which from that time became a fiourishing settlement. Bernier, who saw
it three-quarters of a century later, speaks of it as "an isolated hill,
with handsome houses on its declivity, each having a garden."

AKHUN MULLA SHAH'S
MOSQUE

The little mosque
situated a little way up the hill below the shrine of Makhdum Sahib was
built by the crown prince Dara Shikoh, son of Shah Jahan, for his tutor
Akhun Mulla Shah (Plate XII).
It is built of a beautiful grey limestone. The stone lotus finial over
the pulpit is the only example of its kind surviving in Kashmir. The only
external decorations are the rectangular panels enclosing cusped arches.
" Its plan is singular, the design of the prayer chamber being repeated
on the east side of the courtyard and forming the gateway. On the north
and the south sides of the courtyard are arcades, treated in the same way
as the wings of the prayer chamber. Usually the arcades round the quadrangle
in front of a mosque are treated quite differently from any part of the
prayer chamber. The somewhat cramped proportions of the courtyard in this
case may be due to the slope of the hill on which it stands, and the difficulty
which would have been experienced in making the prayer chamber wider.''

On a lower
level are the ruins of the arched halls wherein pilgrims used to lodge.
A little further off is the hammam, which is now closed up. On the lintel
of its doorway is the following inscription:

Translation: The
date of the construction of the hammam and the mosque of Sultan Dara Shikoh.

Thy hammam
and thy mosque: one affords warmth and the other adorns the congregation.
The king tells the date of the foundation of both: the one is the place
of ablution and the other the place of worship.

The last line
contains the chronogram giving the date, A.H. 1059, corresponding to A.D.
1649.

CEMETERY OF BAHA-UD-DIN

Outside the rampart
at a distance of less than two furlongs from the mosque of Akhun Mulla
Shah is the cemetery of Baha-ud-din Sahib. It contains numerous Hindu remains,
among them the ruins of a massive gateway standing near the entrance, which
is traditionally believed to be a part of the " Pravaresa " temple built
by Pravaresena II. It also contains the graves of some of the most prominent
personages of Muslim Kashmir. One of the tombstones bears a bilingual Sanskrit
and Arabic inscription which mentions the name of Muhammad Shah, the puppet
ruler who was made king and dethroned no less than four times.

MOSQUE AND TOMB
OF MADIN SAHIB

Among the pre-Mughal
Muslim buildings of Kashmir, one of the most prominent is the mosque of
Madin Sahib at Zadibal. It is also interesting as it shows to perfection
the way in which the early Muslims used the materials of the Hindu temples.
The group of buildings at Vitsarnag and a number of others strewn about
the city belong to this series.

The base is
square and is built entirely of materials belonging to a plinth of a mediaeval
temple. Even the arrangement of courses is identical with that of the ordinary
temple base. The superstructure consists of four walls, adorned externally
with trefoiled brick niches. The upper foil is pointed, but in the case
of the doorway it is ogee-shaped. The corner pilasters of the walls as
well as pilasters of the niches stand upon bases, and are surmounted by
capitals which are purely Hindu in style. The spandrels of the arches of
the niches are decorated with beautiful tracery work. Their entablature
is distinctly Hindu. The cornice over the walls is composed of half a dozen
courses of wood, the most prominent feature of which is the double series
of dentils and metopes, the latter bearing delicate open-work carving.
Above these are the eaves, which are adorned with a row of wooden tongues
projecting downwards. The chamber is covered by a pyramidal earth and birch-bark
roof overgrown with a jungle of white and blue irises. On the apex of the
pyramid was the spire, the only remnants of which that exist are a single
long upright pole and a few pieces of timber. The entrance to the mosque
is, of course, through the east wall. The wooden doorway is elaborately
carved, and is flanked by two fluted stone columns originally belonging
to the adjoining Hindu ruins. The interior is plain. The ceiling of khatamband
(thin pieces of wood worked into geometrical patterns) is supported on
four multi-sided wooden columns.

To the north
of the mosque is the tomb of the saint. In ancient times it must have presented
a brilliant spectacle, as its entire wall surface was decorated with glazed
tiles, most of which have unfortunately been removed and sold out of Kashmir.
A few fragments are preserved in the Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar. When
Nicholls of the Archaeological Survey of India visited Kashmir in 1905,
he found considerable portions of the tile decoration in good preservation.
The left spandrel of the entrance arch was adorned with a very well executed
representation of a beast with the body of a leopard, changing at the neck
into the trunk of a human being, shooting apparently with a bow and arrow
at its own tail, while a fox is quietly looking on among flowers and "
cloud-forms." The "cloud-forms " are common in Chinese and Persian art.
The principal beast in the picture is about 4 feet long, and strikes quite
an heraldic attitude. The human chest, shoulders, and head are unfortunately
missing. The tail ends in a kind of dragon's head. As for the colours,
the background is blue, the trunk of the man is red, the leopard's body
is yellow with light green spots, the dragon's head and the fox are reddish-brown,
the flowers are of various colours. Besides the spandrels there is more
tile-work in the building. The jambs of the archway are lined with squares,
many of which have fallen out and been put back in the wrong place. None
of these is of any special interest, except that they show that tile-work
was used on masonry buildings in Kashmir before Mughal days. There is,
however, an interesting narrow border above the dado on the east facade
representing a flowing floral pattern interwoven with the heads of donkeys
and lions.

Both the tomb
and the mosque were built in memory of the same person, and the inscription
on the lintel of the entrance of the mosque records the date of its erection
as A.H. 888 (A.D. 1483) in the reign of Zain-ul-abidin. The tomb may have
been built a few years later, though it is not impossible that it was built
at the same time as the mosque, for among Muslims the practice of building
tombs during the lifetime of their future occupants is not uncommon.

Around these
two structures, and on the way between them and the Sangin Darwaza of the
fort, there are numerous Hindu remains, all of which have grievously suffered
at the hands of the iconoclast. Many of them have been converted into mosques,
though even these latter have now fallen into desuetude.

MUGHAL GARDENS

The valley of
Kashmir provided a magnificent field for the garden-planning genius of
the Imperial Mughals. Its salubrity of climate, its inexhaustible supply
of water, its grassy alluvial mountain slopes, presented opportunities
which the emperor's certainly did not neglect. Some of the most charming
spots in a valley which itself has deservedly obtained the title of the
" Paradise of the Indies " were selected as royal pleasure haunts; and
during the four successive reigns of the greatest of the Mughal emperors
a series of splendid gardens was constructed, which are famous in the world
for their natural charm and beauty of environment. Among the gardens on
the banks of the Dal, Chashma-i-Shahi, Nishat, and Shalimar are the best
preserved and most frequented. Remains of other gardens exist, but they
are far too ruinous to merit the attention of the modern visitor; among
these perhaps the most notable was the Bagh-i-Nagin, the garden of Akbar.
Nasim, situated opposite to the Shalimar Bagh, contains a splendid park
of shady old chinars.

CHASHMA-I-SHAHI

This is the smallest,
though not on that account the least attractive, of the Mughal gardens
of Kashmir. It is situated at a distance of five and a half miles from
Srinagar, a little less than a mile off the road to Nishat. The conformation
of the ground round about shows that the garden can never have been large,
but there is evidence to prove that it was not as circumscribed as it is
now. The two barahdaris as well as the surrounding wall and the side entrance
belong to recent times. The cascades, the plinths of the barahdaris, the
water-courses, tanks, and fountains, are genuine Mughal works, save, of
course, for the restorations. The lowest terrace has a tank in the centre
containing five fountains arranged as a quincunx. A flight of steps on
each side of the barahdari leads up to the second terrace and to the ground-floor
of the barahdari itself. This is one of the most favoured haunts of tourists
in spring and early summer, for the view it commands of the Dal lake is
one of the most charming that can be had anywhere, at any rate among those
which are easy of access. In spring, when the fields of the blossoming
rape-seed flank the verdant hill slopes with gold; when the snow-capped
mountains are being ceaselessly washed by melting snows and frequent showers;
when in sunny intervals white masses of downy clouds are seen floating
majestically in the translucent azure of the sky, their shadows trailing
after them as if caught by the sharp mountain peaks; when the lake is free
from weeds and reeds - beardless, as the Kashmiris call it - and its two
small islets of Rupalank and Sonalank, the Chahar-chinar, are like two
emeralds set in the sapphire shield of the Dal; when vast patches of the
slopes of the Chashma-i-Shahi hill and the Hari Parbat are covered with
red and white almond blossoms, the fortunate spectator stands entranced
as he gazes out of the arch of the barahdari, his feelings lulled by the
gentle murmur of the little fountain that plays in the centre of the hall.

The tank in
the second terrace contains only one fountain and a small carved chute,
down which the water of the channels in the upper terraces comes rippling
joyously. All these fountains, channels, and cascades are fed by the real
Chashma-i-Shahi, a truly " royal " spring, which perennially gives forth
its wealth of the coolest and purest water in a lotus basin built in the
centre of a Mughal platform. The pavilion which covers it is unusually
ugly and dilapidated. According to an inscription said to have been put
up at the gateway, the garden was constructed in the reign of Shah Jahan,
probably by the emperor himself. The exact wording of the verse which contained
the date is as follows:

Guftamash
bahr-i Chashma tarikhe,Guft bar go
kausar-i Shahi.

Translation: "
I enquired of him regarding the date of the spring; he replied, ' say kausar-i
shahi ' (the royal spring)."

The term kausar-i-shahi
is synonymous with Chashma-i-Shahi, and according to the abjad system of
reckoning gives the Hijra year l042, corresponding with A.D. 1632-33.

PARI MAHAL

The striking group
of arched terraces perched higher up on the mountain slope to the west
of Chashma-i-Shahi is Pari Mahal, " the fairies' abode," a ruined garden
palace, the construction of which is ascribed by tradition to the ill-starred
prince Dara Shikoh, who was beheaded in 1659 by order of his brother Aurangzeb.
Despite its dilapidated condition, it is easy to determine its principal
features; for the garden has, probably owing to its difficulty of access,
escaped the restoration to which the other Mughal gardens in Kashmir have
been subjected. Pari Mahal differs from other Kashmir gardens in that it
does not possess any cascades or water chutes, though it seems probable
that there were fountains in the tanks. Water was mainly conducted by underground
earthen pipes, though a few traces of open water-courses have also been
found. The garden consists of six terraces, with a total length of about
400'. The width of the terraces varies from 179' to 205'.

In the uppermost
terrace are the ruins of two structures, a barahdari facing the lake, and
a water reservoir built against the mountainside. The reservoir was fed
from above by a spring, which has since gone dry, and of which the only
extant remains are the fragmentary stone conduit and the retaining wall
against the hill-side. It is a simple chamber, built of rubble stones in
lime, with a facade of two small arches. Internally it measures 11' 3"
by 5', and has a recess in each of its walls. Water flowed through an arched
drain pierced in the front wall which is now partially blocked up. At each
corner of the terrace wall is a flight of steps leading to the lower terrace,
measuring 22' 3" by 4' 3" . In the middle of the second terrace exactly
in front of the barahdari is a large tank with brick sides measuring 39'
6" by 26' 6". The facade of the retaining wall is ornamented with a series
of twenty-one arches, including two of the side-stairs. The arches are
built in descending order of height from the centre. Each of them is surmounted
by a niche, the height of which increases in proportion to decrease in
the height of the arch. The central arch is covered with a coat of fine
painted plaster, which seems to have always served as a favourite board
for scribbling notices in pen and pencil. Various people have recorded
on this the date of their visit to the garden. Among them was the cruel
Azad Khan, a Pathan Governor. His amanuensis, Malik Sabir Munshi, has scribbled
the following sentence in black ink:

Translation:
''On the 29th of Rabi-us-sani s. 1199 (A.D.1784-85) the humble mendicant
Malik Sabir Munshi visited this abode of bliss in the suite of the most
honourable Sardar Azad Khan, Governor of the Province of Rashmir, while
(he was) on an expetition for pleasure and sport."

This terrace
seems to have been screened off from the lower court by a parapet wall,
which is still extant in parts.

The third terrace
is, architecturally, the most interesting portion of the garden. The entrance,
which is of the usual Mughal type, arched in front and behind with a central
domed chamber, is in the middle of the east wall, and is covered with a
coat of fine painted plaster. On either side of it are a series of spacious
rooms: the one to its north seems to have been the hammam. Fragments of
the water-pipe are still to be seen projecting from a corner of its domed
ceiling. Its interior is the most highly decorated of all the rooms in
Pari Mahal. On the south side of the entrance are two other chambers, but
it is difficult to say to what use they were put. Both of them have pipes
inserted into their ceilings, the one nearest the gateway having only one,
but the other, two; possibly the latter chamber was used as a kitchen.
The western half of the retaining wall has recently fallen; doubtless it
also contained chambers similar to those on the other side.

In the central
recess of the arcade is visible the originally hidden earthen pipe which
conveyed water from the terrace above. From it the water flowed through
an open channel and an underground pipe, which ran side by side, and entered
the barahdari at the middle of the broad end of the terrace. In all probability
the channel formed a tank in the centre of the principal chamber and then
emptied itself into the pipe which ran underground, of which traces are
still visible on the floor of the barahdari.

It is probable
that these three terraces were reserved solely for the prince's private
use.

The fourth
terrace has nothing remarkable in it except the ruins of the tank - perhaps
it was a tank within a barahdari - whose plinth projects far beyond the
line of the wall. About the middle of its north wall is the earthen pipe
which conducted water to the terrace below.

In the fifth
terrace a curious feature of the plinth of the barahdari, or the tank,
of the upper terrace is the numerous square holes with which the upper
half of its surface is perforated. They were probably intended to harbour
flocks of pigeons. The retaining wall is arcaded. The arcade is a double
one, the upper row of arches faced a corridor which ran on both sides of
the plinth of the barahdari.

The sixth and
the last terrace has a rectangular tank in the middle and octagonal bastions
at the ends. The lower end is not supported by any retaining wall.

The ruined
structure a few yards below seems to have been intended for a kind of a
guard house.

NISHAT BAGH

Returning from
the Chashma-i-Shahi to the main road, the visitor proceeds 2 1/2 miles
to Nishat Bagh. This is the most favoured resort of pieasure-seekers in
Kashmir. " Its twelve terraces, one for each sign of the zodiac, rise dramatically
high and higher up the mountain-side from the eastern shore of the lake.
The stream tears foaming down the carved cascades, and fountains play in
every tank and water-course, filling the garden with their joyous life
and movement. The flower beds on these sunny terraces blaze with colour
- roses, lilies, geraniums, asters, gorgeous tall-growing zinnias, and
feathery cosmos, pink and white. Beautiful at all times, when autumn lights
up the poplars in clear gold and the big chenars burn red against the dark
blue rocky background, there are few more brilliant, more breathlessly
entrancing sights than this first view of Asaf Khan's Garden of Gladness
'' (Plate XIII).

The lowest
terrace has unfortunately been cut off by the modern road, which has likewise
shorn Shalimar of part of its length. The two wooden doorways as well as
the gaudily painted barahdari on the third terrace are innovations which
date from the time of Wazir Pannu's governorship of Kashmir in the reign
of the late Maharaja Ranbir Singhji. These Mughal gardens of Kashmir owe
a heavy debt of gratitude to this gentleman, if not for restoring them
to their original grandeur, at any rate for arresting their further decay.
He also repaired them thoroughly according to his lights; and if his barahdaris
and porticoes do not bear comparison with similar structures of the Mughals,
not he but the times to which he belonged are responsible.

The brightest
and most fragrant spot in the garden is undoubtedly the second terrace,
with its thick groves of Persian lilacs, its high, broad, and vertical
cascade of sparkling water, and its beds of brilliant pansies. The twenty-three
small niches in the arched recess immediately behind the cascade were originally
intended to contain rows of lamps, whose flickering light, reflected and
multiplied in the transparent sheet of water behind which they lay, must
have presented a singularly pleasing spectacle at night.

Two flights
of stone steps which survive from the date of their original construction
give access to the third terrace. The barahdari is a two-storied structure.
In the middle of the lower floor " is a reservoir about fourteen feet square
and three feet deep, with five fountains, the one in the centre being the
only old stone fountain left in the garden. On a summer day there are few
more attractive rooms than the fountain hall of this Kashmir garden house.
The gay colours of the carved woodwork shine through the spray in delightful
contrast with the dull green running water. Through a latticed arch a glimpse
is caught of the brilliant garden terraces and their waterfalls flashing
white against the mountain side. Looking over the lake which glitters below
in the sunshine, the views of the valley are bounded by the distant snow-capped
peaks, the far country of the Pir Panjal. Climbing roses twine about the
painted wooden pillars, and nod their creamy flowers through the openings
of the lattice. All the long afternoon a little breeze ruffles the surface
of the lake and blows in the scent of the flowers, mingling it with the
drifting fountain spray; for the terrace below the pavilion is planted
after the old custom with a thicket of Persian lilac.''

Here begins
the long series of open terraces each rising higher than the one preceding
it - which terminates in the eleventh terrace at the upper end of the garden.
They are bisected by a broad watercourse, which on certain days in the
week is converted into a bounteous stream with numerous fountains playing
in its midst, saturating the atmosphere with their driving spray. A feature
of this garden are the beautiful marble thrones which span the water-courses
at intervals. These are now, as they undoubtedly were in Mughal times,
the favourite seats of visitors to the garden. The tank in the eleventh
terrace contains a group of twenty-five fountains. From this terrace a
flight of stone steps leads to the last, and, in the eyes of its Mughal
founder, Asaf Khan, the most sacred part of the garden, the zenana enclosure.
The low parapet wall which screened this terrace from the remainder of
the garden is still in existence. At the upper end of the footpath near
the pavilion is a remnant of the original brick pavement. An octagonal
tower is built at each end of the retaining wall of the terrace, and contains
a stair which leads down to the lower and more exposed parts of the garden.

Strolling down
the flower-bordered walks on the right side of the channel, the visitor
who makes his exit into the second terrace will notice two rather well-executed
elephants, standing on either side of a vase containing lotuses, carved
on the stone lintel of the doorway. The presence of these animals would
show, if other evidence were wanting, which is not the case, that the Nishat
Bagh was built before the time of Aurangzeb. Perhaps he did not enter the
garden, as it was a private one, and did not belong to the king, which
may also account for Bernier not mentioning it.

The original
approach to the garden was from the lake, which was also its lower boundary.
The old flight of stone steps which gave direct access to the garden is
still in an excellent state of preservation.

There is a
story that the emperor Shah Jahan, who visited Kashmir in 1633, "decided
that the garden was altogether too splendid for a subject, even though
that subject might happen to be his own prime minister and father-in-law.
He told Asaf Khan on three occasions how much he admired his pleasure-ground,
expecting that it would be immediately offered for the royal acceptance.
But if Shah Jahan coveted his neighbour's vine-yard, the Wazir was a no
less stiff-necked Naboth; he could not bring himself to surrender his cherished
pleasaunce to be ' a garden of herbs ' for his royal master, and he remained
silent. Then as now, the same stream supplied both the Royal Garden (Shahlimar)
and Nishat Bagh, which lies on the mountainffide between Shalimar and the
city of Srinagar. So Shah Jahan in his anger ordered the water-supply to
be cut off from Nishat Bagh, and was avenged, for the garden he envied
was shorn of all its beauty.

" Nothing is
more desolate than one of these great enclosures when their stone-lined
tanks and water channels are dry and empty. Asaf Khan, who was staying
in his summer palace at the time, could do nothing, and all his household
knew of his grief and bitter dis- appointment. One day, lost in a melancholy
reverie, he at last fell fast asleep in the shade by the empty water-course.
At length a noise aroused him; rubbing his eyes, he could hardly believe
what he saw, for the fountains were all playing merrily once more and the
long carved water-chutes were white with foam. A faithful servant, risking
his life, had defied the Emperor's orders, and removed the obstruction
from the stream. Asaf Khan rebuked him for his zeal and hastily had the
stream closed again. But the news reached the Emperor in his gardens at
Shalimar; whereupon he sent for the terrified servant and, much to the
surprise of the Court, instead of punishing him, bestowed a robe of honour
upon him to mark his admiration for this act of devoted service; at the
same time granting a sanad which gave the right to his master to draw water
from the garden from the Shalimar stream.''

SHALIMAR

Shalimar is, of
all the Mughal gardens in Kashmir, the one which has received the greatest
attention from the later rulers of the country. The Pathan and the Sikh
Governors occasionally used it as their pleasure resort, and when, from
the reign of Ranjit Singh, Europeans began to visit the valley with comparative
freedom, its marble pavilion was often assigned to them as a residence.
But in spite of this intermittent care, the destroying hand of time and
the wanton vandalism of some of the rulers themselves have robbed the summer
residence of Nur Jahan and Jahangir of a great part of its ancient charm.
An idea of what it was in the time of the Mughals may be gathered from
the tantalisingly short description of Francois Bernier, who visited Kashmir
in the suite of Aurangzeb in A.D. 1664:

" The most
beautiful of all these gardens is one belonging to the king, called Chah-limar.
The entrance from the lake is through a spacious canal bordered with green
turf and running between two rows of poplars: The length is about five
hundred paces, and it leads to a large summer-house placed in the middle
of the garden. A second canal, still finer than the first, then conducts
to another summer-house at the end of the garden. This canal is paved with
large blocks of freestone and its sloping sides are covered with the same.
In the middle is a long row of fountains, fifteen paces apart; besides
which there are here and there large circular basins or reservoirs, out
of which arise other fountains, formed into a variety of shapes and figures.

" The summer-houses
are placed in the midst of the canal, consequently surrounded by water
and between the two rows of large poplars planted on either side. They
are built in the form of a dome, and encircled by a gallery, into which
four doors open; two looking up or down the canal and two leading to bridges
that connect the buildings with both banks. The houses consist of a large
room in the centre with four smaller apartments, one at each corner. The
whole of the interior is painted and gilt, and on the walls of all the
chambers are inscribed certain sentences written in large and beautiful
Persian characters.

" The four
doors are extremely valuable; being composed of large stones and supported
by two beautiful pillars. The doors and pillars were found in some of the
idol temples demolished by Shah Jahan and it is impossible to estimate
their value. I cannot describe the nature of the stone, but it is far superior
to porphyry or any species of marble."

The large stone
doors now no longer exist; the domes have given place to a common shingle
roof; the gilding and paint and the inscription on the walls are now covered
or replaced by a coat of whitewash; the view of the lake is cut off by
an ugly stone wall; but in spite of these disastrous changes, the garden
still preserves its singular charm. In strong contrast with the buoyant
atmosphere of Nishat Bagh, with its sunlit terraces, its dashing cascades,
playing fountains and sparkling streams, is the soft gloom and the gliding
motion of the water-courses of the Shalimar, which is built on a comparatively
flat piece of ground. The garden was a royal residence, and the court seems
to have indelibly imprinted its spirit of decorum upon it. As the garden
was probably designed by the Empress Nur Jahan, who in point of beauty
and wit was the most pre-eminent lady in Muslim India, it would, perhaps,
be more appropriate to say that the garden reflects the image of that queen
of the harem, whom her fond lover designated the Light of the World.

The garden
originally consisted, as now, of three enclosures, the lower one of which,
however, has been considerably curtailed by the intrusion of the cart-road.
The outermost enclosure was used as the public garden, and its barahdari
was the Diwan-i-Am (the Hall of Public Audience). The small black marble
throne still stands over the water-fall in the centre of the canal which
flows through the building into the tank below.

" The second
garden is slightly broader, consisting of two shallow terraces with the
Diwan-i-Khas (the Hall of Private Audience) in the centre. The buildings
have been destroyed, but their carved stone bases are left, as well as
a fine platform surrounded by fountains. On the north-west boundary of
this enclosure are the royal bathrooms.

" At the next
wall, the little guard-rooms that flank the entrance to the ladies' garden
have been rebuilt in Kashmir style on older stone bases. Here the whole
effect culminates with the beautiful black marble pavilion built by Shah
Jahan, which still stands in the midst of its fountain spray; the green
glitter of the water shining in the smooth, polished marble, the deep rich
tone of which is repeated in the old cypress trees. Round this baradari
the whole colour and perfume of the garden is concentrated, with the snows
of Mahadev for a background. How well the Mughals understood the principle
that the garden, like every other work of art, should have a climax (Plate
XIV).

" This unique
pavilion is surrounded on every side by a series of cascades, and at night
when the lamps are lighted in the little arched recesses behind the shining
waterfalls it is even more fairy-like than by day."

HARWAN EXCAVATIONS

Harwan is the
name of a small village situated about 2 miles beyond the Shalimar garden.
The only distinction it at present enjoys is derived from its being the
site of the head-works of the magnificent water-supply system of Srinagar.
Though the name Harwan had been identified by Sir Aurel Stein with Shadarhadvana
(grove of six saints), a locality mentioned in the Rajatarangini, there
were no indications above ground pointing to the existence of important
monuments buried under the earth. It is true that over thirty years ago
a few moulded brick tiles had been exhumed in the course of construction
of the conduit which carries drinking water to Srinagar; but as these were
merely stray fragments no efforts were made to trace their origin. It is
only recently that this much-delayed task has been undertaken.

Fortunately,
at the very outset, the enquiry was facilitated by a lucky chance. It was
on a brilliant afternoon that the site was first surveyed. The hill-side
along which the water conduit runs was waving with long-stalked Indian
corn. But amid all those fields of luxuriant corn there existed a square
flat patch which was covered only with thin turf, and in which there grew
a solitary stunted plane tree. This plot of land, by reason of its apparent
unproductiveness, immediately attracted attention. On enquiry from the
neat-herd who was watering his cattle in the brook near by, it was ascertained
that this barren field owned the significant name of Kitur-i-Daj (field
of potsherds), because the entire field consisted of thickly packed sherds
- whence its barrenness. The question that naturally arose was how such
an abundance of potsherds could occur so high up the hill-side and so far
from the present inhabited areas. The only explanation (which eventually
turned out to be correct) was that in ancient times there had been dwellings
here - dwellings the nature of which could be ascertained only by excavation.

Within a few
days of the commencement of the excavation a number of walls came to light
(Plate XV). They were ordinary
rubble stone structures, at first sight scarcely distinguishable from the
modern mud-and-stone walls of peasants' dwellings in Kashmir. When the
operations had advanced, it was discovered that there was a method in the
arrangement of the stones - e.g., a number of large boulders was placed
in one row with intervening spaces between each pair of them. These spaces
were filled with smaller stones, so that the entire facade presented a
diaper effect. None of these stones was dressed. This style of construction
was given the name " diaper rubble " style (Plate
XVI). Among the buildings constructed in this style are (1) the triple
base of a medium-sized stupa, and (2) a set of rooms which might have served
as chapels, or for residential purposes. The stupa is built in the middle
of a rectangular courtyard facing north. While digging under its foundations
a copper coin of Toramana, the White Hun ruler, who flourished in about
the fifth century A.D., was discovered. From this piece of evidence it
was inferred that the " diaper rubble " stupa could not possibly be earlier
than the fifth century A.D., though it might be considerably later in date.

Immediately
around the stupa there was a narrow fringe of figured-tile pavement. A
close examination of it showed that (1) nearly all the pieces were fragmentary;
(2) though nearly all of them bore figures, no group of adjacent pieces
completed a motif; and (3) though some were flat and might have formed
part of a pavement, there were a few which bore mouldings in relief and
could only have belonged to walls. The obvious inference was that these
tiles were transplanted from a different structure, probably earlier, when
that structure had fallen into desuetude. The question now was to find
the structure to which they originally belonged.

In this area,
however, the rubble stone structures - e.g., the stupa ahd the chapels
- were not the only buildings that were exhumed. Side by side with them
were other buildings in quite different styles - for example, two adjacent
walls of what might have been the courtyard of some edifice of which no
trace came to light. These walls had a core of rubble stones, but their
facing consisted of closely packed small pebbles, transported from the
bed of the neighbouring torrent. The walls are built entirely in mud, but
the pebbles are so carefully packed that after the lapse of nearly two
thousand years the portion of the wall that remains standing presents a
very neat appearance. But the labour involved in collecting and fixing
such small pebbles in an extensive building must have been enormous. This
style of construction has, for want of a better name, been termed the "
pebble " style (Plate XVII).
Again, another enclosure wall in a far better state of preservation was
found. This is built in a peculiar style, which is evidently a cross between
the older pebble style and the later rubble style, and provides a strikingly
effective facade (Plate XIX).
It consists of a series of large, smooth-faced, irregularly shaped boulders
placed at intervals of 6" to 18" apart, the interspaces being filled with
small round or oval pebbles of 1" to 2" in diameter. It appears that the
builders' solicitude for the durability of their buildings in time overcame
their desire to acquire religious merit by devoting extra, though unnecessary,
labour in the construction of religious buildings.

Among the antiquities
that this area yielded, were a large number of broken fingers and toes
of terra-cotta figures, terra-cotta curls belonging to images of the Buddha,
of which no other remnant was found, and a few clay votive tablets bearing
in relief miniature stupas. These last are extremely interesting, inasmuch
as they give an idea of the kind of stupas that were built in Kashmir in
the early centuries of the Christian era. The stupa depicted on the tablets
had a triple base, all the three flights of steps leading up being in line
with one another, as is the case with the existing stupa at Harwan. From
the uppermost basement sprang a cylindrical dome with a bulging hemispherical
top, which was surmounted by a number of umbrellas, standing one over the
other, and diminishing in size until they end in a pointed finial. They
are supported by what appears to be a forest of poles radiating outwards.
To the finial were attached several long waving streamers. On one side
of the stupa, standing in the courtyard, or it may be on the first terrace
of the plinth, was a "lion" column. Below the representation of the stupa
on the plaque, the Buddhist creed, Ye dharma, etc., in Brahmi characters
of about the fourth century A.D., iS stamped in relief (Plate
XVIII).

A closer scrutiny
of the hill-side brought to light the fact that in the period to which
the ruins belong it was arranged in level terraces, on each of which stood
several buildings. There was a central flight of steps which connected
them, and gave access from one to the other. It is likely that it was continued
to the foot of the hill, along which runs a beautiful stream of clear water,
although the shrines were not wholly dependent for their drinking water
upon the stream. There cxist to this day two springs, one above and the
other near the ruins, and probably in the old days there was a larger number.

On the highest
of these terraces, which, by the way, grew excellent corn at the time of
excavation, there was a little mound whose general appearance seemed promising.
Nor did the operations, carried out later, belie that promise, for they
brought to light the most important of the buildings so far exhumed at
this site. It is a large apsidal temple, square in front and circular at
the back, built in the very picturesque diaper pebble style of masonry.
The temple accommodation consisted of a spacious rectangular antechamber
with a circular sanctum behind. No relic of any kind nor any trace of an
image was found, but this deficiency was made up by the wonderful pavement
of the courtyard round the temple, consisting of large moulded brick tiles
having various shapes and forming different patterns (Plate
XIX). The favourite pattern seems to have been a large disc consisting
of several concentric circles with a single central piece. Each circle
is composed of a series of arc-shaped tiles, each shmped with a special
motif. The principal motifs on the tiles so far discovered are (1) designs
consisting of frets, wavy lines, fish-bone patterns, conventional flowers,
and flower-designs consisting of different combinations of leaves; (2)
leaves of an aquatic plant common in the neighbouring Dal lake; leaves
of the lotus plant, some indigenous flowers in full bloom grouped in various
ways; (3) geese running or flying in rows with flower petals or leaves
in their bills; ducks; cocks or pheasants often placed in the centre of
a floral pattern; cocks fighting; (4) rams fighting; cows suckling their
young; elephants; deer looking with head turned backwards at the moon;
archers on- horseback chasing deer and shooting arrows at them; (5) a lady
carrying a flower vase; a dancing girl; a female musician beating a drum;
a soldier in armour hunting deer with bow and arrow; men and women conversing,
seated in a balcony; boys carrying a floral festoon on their shoulders.
That these tiles occupied exactly the position they were laid in by ancient
workmen is borne out by the fact that each one of them bears a number in
Kharoshthi script, the order of the tiles in a series being in strict accordance
with their consecutive numeral order. The obvious inference is that the
tile-pavement was not laid in a haphazard manner, but followed a set design,
probably drawn first by the architect on paper or parchment. The potter
who made the tiles and stamped them with decorative figures numbered them
before baking, to prevent the comparatively unskilled layer from making
mistakes and thereby spoiling the design. Incidentally it shows that in
ancient India, over fifteen centuries ago, labourers were expected to know
at least the rudiments of writing and reading. The existence of Kharoshthi
numerals also affords a reliable clue to the date of the tiles, and consequently
to that of the monuments. Kharoshthi script ceased to be in vogue in north-western
India, where it had principally flourished, about the fifth century A.D.
It follows therefore that the tiles belong to a period anterior to that
century, possibly a considerable period. The fact that the Kharoshthi numerals
at Harwan were intended for the guidance of common labourers indicates
that the script must have been at the highest pitch of popularity at the
time the tiles were made. I should accordingly place the date of the tiles,
and consequently that of the diaper pebble masonry with which they are
associated, at about A.D. 300. This conclusion receives further support
from the style of the human figures and other designs stamped on the tiles.
For example, the physiognomy and, to some extent, the dress of the men
and women are wholly unlike that of any of the races at present residing
in Kashmir, or for the matter of that in India. Their facial characteristics
bear close resemblance to those of inhabitants of the regions round about
Yarkand and Kashgar, whose heavy features prominent cheekbones, narrow,
sunk, and slanting eyes, and receding foreheads, are faithfully represented
on the tiles. Some of the figures are dressed in trousers and Turkoman
caps. The only period when Kashmir had any intimate connection with Central
Asia was during the supremacy of the Kushans in the early centuries of
the Christian era, when Kashmir formed part of the Kushan empire, which
extended from Mathura in India to Yarkand in Central Asia. Indeed, then
as now it appears to have occupied a pre-eminent position; inasmuch as
Kanishka (circa A.D. 125), the greatest of Kushan emperors, is said to
have convened here his great council of Buddhist divines. It may be that
some pious and prosperous Kushan built this shrine at Harwan, where, according
to the ancient history of Kashmir, resided the great Buddhist patriarch,
Nagarjuna. Further perhaps to increase his religious merit, and to show
his humility, the builder had the image of his own face and that of his
wife's stamped on the tiles so that the commonest people might tread on
them. Among the other decorative motifs which reveal foreign influence
are the figures of mailed horsemen with flying scarves tied to their heads,
which are strongly reminiscent of the contemporary Sassanian art of Persia.

The tile decoration
was not confined to the pavement only. Though very few moulded tiles belonging
to the facade have been found, their fragments prove thatl up to a certain
height at least, the facade also was decorated with tile-work. This is
further borne out by the discovery of a long platform at the back of the
courtyard, which almost throughout its length bears such decoration (Plate
XXI).

The peculiar
interest of the Harwan monuments lies in the fact that they are the only
remains of their kind in India (possibly in the world), and that they supply
a life-like representation of the features of those mysterious people,
the Kushans.

From the above
it is clear that the pebble style of buildings was the earliest in date.
It was followed by the diaper pebble style, which dates about A.D. 300.
This style was followed by the diaper rubble style, whose date is about
A.D. 500 and later.

The dimensions
of the tile pavement round the apsidal temple are 160' by 124' 6". The
tiles, as stated above, are decorated with a variety of motifs, the most
prominent of which are reproduced in the accompanying illustrations. It
will be noticed that a striking feature of the human figures on the tiles
is that the head is invariably shown in profile and the body facing front
(Plates XX-XLII).

YANDRAHOM MEGALITHS

From the Harwan
ruins, looking north-west, may be seen, situatcd on the plateau of Burzahom,
2 miles away, the only prehistoric remains, save stone implements, which
have so far been discovered in Kashmir. They consist of a group of eleven
megaliths, five of which are more or less erect: the rest have fallen.
As no excavations have yet been carried out at this site, it is impossible
to state precisely what they are and to what period they belong (Plate
XLIII).