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Introduction

NASA

When a gas is heated by many thousands of degrees, the individual atoms collide with enough violence to knock electrons free, resulting in a collection of positively charged ions and free, negatively charged electrons. The gas is said to be ionized, and when a sizable number of the atoms become ionized, the gas is called a plasma.

A plasma can also be formed by applying other forms of energy to a gas: irradiating it with ultraviolet or X-rays, for example, or bombarding it with high-speed electrons, ions, or other particles. Because the free electrons tend to recombine with the ions to once again form a neutral gas, however, a plasma can be maintained only if the energy is continuously applied.

Scientists have estimated that more than 99 percent of the matter in the universe exists in the plasma state. Plasma exists in and around the stars, including the Sun, and throughout interstellar space.

Properties

Plasma is sometimes called the fourth state of matter because plasmas possess remarkable properties not found in ordinary solids, liquids, and gases. Because the free electrons are extremely mobile, for example, plasmas are excellent conductors of heat and electricity.

Plasma is unique in the way in which it interacts with itself and with electric and magnetic fields. The motions of the free electrons set up electric currents in the plasma. A magnetic field is usually associated with the plasma and interacts with these electric currents. On a small scale the magnetic field causes the individual ions and electrons to move in circles around the magnetic field. If the plasma is very hot, the circular motion of the electrons may cause them to emit radio waves. A local disturbance of the plasma causes complicated oscillations that propagate as waves through the plasma.

On a large scale the magnetic field moves with the plasma and is said to be “frozen in.” The pressure of the field and the tension along the magnetic lines of force act on the plasma, causing it to move in complicated ways.

Conversely, the turbulent motions of the plasma may churn the field, thereby stretching, tangling, and wrapping the field back on itself and reducing it to thinner and thinner ribbons of magnetic flux. This action continues until the individual ribbons are dissipated, or until the field becomes strong enough to resist the motions, creating a complicated dynamic balance between the field and the plasma.

Around a rotating star or galaxy, the plasma’s convective motion systematically folds the magnetic field into loops, producing the magnetic fields observed around these bodies. The interaction of the Sun’s magnetic field with the motions of the plasma in and around the Sun causes such spectacular phenomena as sunspots, prominences, and flares.

Plasma Physics

Plasmas are produced in the laboratory by applying a high voltage (100 to 100,000 volts) across a tenuous gas contained within a rigid metal or ceramic vacuum chamber. In most instances electric currents flowing through coils that surround the vacuum chamber are used to produce a strong magnetic field. The temperature of the gas may reach 1,800,000° F (1,000,000° C) or more once the gas is fully ionized. This method of heating may be supplemented by bombarding the gas with ions, electrons, and sometimes microwaves.

Once the plasma is created, the strong electric current flowing through it produces its own magnetic field, which circles the plasma column. In a phenomenon known as the pinch effect, the tension in the circling lines of force compresses the plasma column. In addition, the pressure of the field causes the column to buckle, resulting in so-called sausage and kink instabilities. To counteract these effects, the magnetic field of the external current coil is used to help stabilize and confine the plasma column.

With the proper magnetic-field configuration, plasma physicists had hoped to confine the plasma within the field, away from the cold walls of the chamber, so that the temperature of the plasma might be raised to temperatures high enough to initiate nuclear fusion. If this were achieved, scientists believe that plasma might one day provide a major share of the world’s nuclear power. In practice this goal has proved elusive, however, because of the remarkable ability of the plasma to squirm out of the confining magnetic field. Despite a variety of innovative approaches, including exotic magnetic-field configurations and faster methods of creating and heating the plasma, the problem remains unsolved. (See alsophysics.)

Eugene N. Parker

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