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electronic Journal of Health Informatics
www.eJHI.net
2012; Vol 7(1):e8
Structured Pathology Reporting for Cancer
from Free Text: Lung Cancer Case Study
Anthony Nguyen1 , Michael Lawley1 , David Hansen1 , and Shoni Colquist2
1 The
Australian e-Health Research Centre, CSIRO ICT Centre, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Cancer Control Analysis Team, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
2 Queensland
Abstract
Objective: To automatically generate structured reports for cancer, including TNM (Tumour-NodeMetastases) staging information, from free-text (non-structured) pathology reports. Method: A
symbolic rule-based classification approach was proposed to identify symbols (or clinical concepts)
in free-text reports that were subsumed by items specified in a structured report. Systematized
Nomenclature of Medicine – Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) was used as a base ontology to provide
the semantics and relationships between concepts for subsumption querying. Synthesised values from
the structured report such as TNM stages were also classified by building logic from relevant structured
report items. The College of American Pathologists’ (CAP) surgical lung resection cancer checklist
was used to demonstrate the methodology. Results: Checklist items were identified in the free text
report and used for structured reporting. The synthesised TNM staging values classified by the system
were evaluated against explicitly mentioned TNM stages from 487 reports and achieved an overall
accuracy of 78%, 89% and 95% for T, N and M stages respectively. Conclusion: A system to generate
structured cancer case reports from free-text pathology reports using symbolic rule-based classification
techniques was developed and shows promise. The approach can be easily adapted for other cancer
case structured reports.
Keywords: Cancer Staging; Information Extraction; Lung Cancer; Natural Language Processing;
Synoptic Reporting; Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine
1
Introduction
ing a list of tumour site specific items for structured
reporting [3]. The value of the checklists have been
recognised by the American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer (ACS CoC) and has mandated, as
a minimum requirement, the documentation of checklist items in pathology reports at CoC-approved cancer
programs [3]. Although, the ACS does not require a specific format for pathology reports, the cancer checklist
provides a structured and standardised framework for
cancer pathology reporting. Major cancer centres and
institutions in USA and Canada have moved towards
structured cancer checklist data entry systems (e.g. [1]).
Surgical pathology cancer case reporting involves the
communication of an extensive amount of scientifically
validated clinical information for each tumour and tumour site [1]. To assist pathologists with the consistent
reporting of cancer specimens, the United Kingdom
through the Royal College of Pathologists (RCP) and the
United States through the College of American Pathologists (CAP) have developed and reviewed processes
for defining structured (or synoptic) reporting protocols.
In line with these developments the Royal College of
Pathologists of Australasia (RCPA) has initiated the
Structured reporting provides many advantages comdevelopment of protocols for the structured pathology pared to traditional free-text reports such as providing a
reporting of cancer [2].
summary of reportable clinical findings and decreased
In particular, CAP has produced checklists contain- variation in the content of cancer-related pathology reThe electronic Journal of Health Informatics (ISSN:1446-4381) is dedicated to the advancement of Health Informatics and information technology in health
care. eJHI is an international Open Access journal committed to scholarly excellence and has a global readership in all health professions and at all levels.
c Copyright of articles originally published in www.eJHI.net under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License is retained by the authors.
Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
ports (commonly caused by individual and institutional
variations, transcription errors during dictation, and insufficient and omitted clinical data in free text) [3]. Despite the benefits of structured reporting, a large portion
of historical data and free text practice still exists.
Motivated by the fact that retrospective structured
reporting (and staging) is important for clinical management and treatment planning of individual patients,
cancer notification and registration, and outcomes analysis of cancer management and intervention programs,
we have identified that automatically extracting structured report items from free text would help realise these
outcomes with reduced (or limited) manual intervention.
It is hypothesised that items from structured reports
such as the CAP cancer checklist can be extracted from
reports by determining whether these items subsume
clinical concepts identified in the free text. The extracted items can also be used to build logic to derive synthesised items such as cancer stage. The Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine – Clinical Terms
(SNOMED CT) [4] is an internationally recognised clinical terminology standard and was used as the base ontology for the identification of clinical concepts in free
text and subsumption querying. The lung cancer checklist relating to lung resections was used to demonstrate
the methodology.
2
Methods
The proposed structured reporting system builds upon
the Medical Text Extraction (MEDTEX) system [5],
developed using the General Architecture for Text Engineering (GATE) platform [6]. MEDTEX comprises
of analysis modules to pre-process the free text such
as identifying SNOMED CT concepts and their semantic types, as well as abbreviations/acronyms, shorthand
terms, and dimensions. It then uses contextual information such as medical negation phrases to negate relevant
disease and finding concepts. Additional modules were
developed to identify headings and sections, and apply
formal semantics to reason with the clinical concepts
for the extraction of items for structured reporting.
The CAP cancer checklist has been encoded with
SNOMED CT codes [3] and was used to identify items
to be extracted from free text for the structured report. In
particular, concepts identified in the free text were tested
for subsumption by the SNOMED CT encoded checklist items. The surgical lung cancer resection checklist
[7], based on the American Joint Committee on Cancer
(AJCC) 6th edition staging guidelines [8], was used to
illustrate the structured reporting methodology.
Synoptic items from the CAP cancer checklist re-
quired for accreditation purposes for the CoC including
an optional data element, Lymphatic (Small Vessel) Invasion, were implemented. Figure 1 shows the architecture of the lung resection cancer synoptic reporting
module. The lung resection cancer checklist is typically
used for pathological lung cancer staging.
SNOMED CT expressions were used to facilitate retrieval using subsumption querying. Expressions consist
of a single concept or a combination of concepts postcoordinated by the user according to SNOMED CT’s
compositional grammar. To test for the subsumption of
a candidate expression by a predicate expression, expressions were transformed to their normal forms and
concepts codes from the normal forms were tested for
subsumption using rules defined in the SNOMED CT
Transforming Expressions to Normal Forms publication
[9].
In the event that concepts were not fully modelled (i.e.
a concept’s defining relationships do not provide a sufficient characterisation of the concept for subsumption
testing), new concepts were created and modelled using
post-coordinated expressions conforming to the compositional grammar and thus creating a SNOMED CT
extension [9]. However, there are cases where the compositional grammar is insufficient to model the required
relationships between concepts (and hence it is not possible to create a SNOMED CT extension) in which case,
ad-hoc concepts were used to test for subsumption.
An example of a predicate and candidate expression
for a fully modelled SNOMED CT concept (i.e. predicate expression is the concept’s normal form) is shown
in Table 1, where the candidate expression is defined as
a template and is filled in by <procedure> and <topology> concepts identified in the free text, and <procedure.method> is the value of the “method” attribute
from <procedure>. These predicate and candidate expressions allow the identification (and thus filtering) of
lung resection reports for the extraction of lung resection checklist items.
Table 2 shows an example synoptic item’s concept
requiring the creation of a SNOMED CT extension. In
this case, concept model attributes were used to fully
model the concept such that the extension is a sufficient characterisation of the concept in the context of
the lung resection cancer checklist. Here, the candidate
expression would need to be subsumed by the predicate expression, which is the SNOMED CT extension.
In this example, <disease>, <morphology>, <margin>,
and <topology> are disease, morphology, surgical margin and topology concepts found in the free text, respectively, and <disease.associated morphology> is the
“associated morphology” attribute value in <disease>.
Note that the candidate expression is dependent on <dis-
2
Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
Figure 1: Cancer synoptic reporting module relating to surgical lung resections.
Concept
Predicate Expression
119746007 | lung excision |
71388002 | procedure | :
{260686004 | method | = 129304002 | excision – action |
,405813007 | procedure site – Direct | = 39607008 | lung structure | }
Candidate Expression <procedure> :
{260686004 | method | = <procedure.method>
,405813007 | procedure site – Direct | = <topology>}
Table 1: Example predicate and candidate expression used for subsumption querying.
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Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
ease> or <morphology>, <margin> and <topology>.
The same methodology in creating SNOMED CT extensions can be applied to other topologies where surgical
margins have been involved by malignant neoplasm.
The search for concepts in the free text for the population of candidate templates has a limited scope of
six terms (or concepts) bounded by conjunction phrases
and/or sentence boundaries within the relevant sections
of the free text. However, when four or more concepts
are identified and used to populate a candidate expression, then the six term scope restriction was removed
and the scope of search would be bounded by conjunction phrases and/or the start and end of the sentence.
3
Data Set
The data set was obtained from Queensland Health with
research ethics approval from the Queensland Health
Research Ethics Committee. A set of 114 reports pertaining to a random 100 lung cancer patients from a
corpus of 1205 de-identified pathology reports for 1054
lung cancer patients was used for system development.
The remaining 1091 (non-development) reports were
used for evaluation purposes.
As a measure of system performance, the synthesised TNM stages (T[X,is,0-4], N[X,0-3], M[X,1] [8])
were evaluated against reports with explicitly mentioned TNM stages. There were 491 of the 1091 nondevelopment reports that had TNM stages recorded in
them. Four of these reports were found to have TNM
stages only recorded in the “History” section and therefore were not relevant to the current lung resection examination detailed in the report. Discarding these 4
reports, there were a total of 487 reports which had at
least a TNM stage in the non-history sections of the free
text. The final TNM stage recorded in the report was
used as the ground truth stage for evaluations, and a MX
(metastasis cannot be evaluated) stage was assumed if
only T (tumour) and N (node) stages were recorded in
the free text.
4
Results
Overall TNM stage accuracy with respect to the TNM
stages recorded in the reports and those synthesised by
the proposed system is shown in Table 3.
It was also observed that other extracted information
from free text show promise with satisfactory results.
The extracted checklist items for each report was stored
as a XML document and can be associated with a style
sheet or parsed for visualisation. An example structured
report output by the system is shown in Figure 2.
4
5
Discussion
Examination of the structured reports show promise
with satisfactory results for all items extracted. Checklist items other than stage were not evaluated due to the
lack of readily available validation data. However, the
proposed methodology based on using the SNOMED
CT ontology and its semantics is the same for all structured report items. It is proposed that the lung resection
synoptic reporting system along with other structured
reports for other cancer types will be formally evaluated
against independent experts to determine the level of
accuracy of the system and the accuracy required for
practical deployment.
Overall TNM stage accuracy on the evaluation set
with respect to the TNM stages recorded in the reports
(Table 3) was very encouraging. Staging errors were
found to be a result of the occurrence of proximity
and/or possibility terms near relevant findings, and also
due to the fact that not all factors relevant to staging
were itemised in the checklist to synthesise a cancer
stage. These limitations were observed to also cause
errors in other structured report items. However, the proposed approach is flexible and extensible in that errors
can be fed back into the development process to improve system performance. For example, one solution
to address the proximity and possibility terms limitation
is to add these terms to the list of “pseudo-negation”
terms (i.e. phrases that are not reliable indicators of negatives) in MEDTEX’s negation detection module, and
use these phrases to neither assert a negative or positive
disease or finding concept.
The synthesised TNM stages was also evaluated
against a database of multidisciplinary team staging
decisions and a machine learning-based text classification system using support vector machines in [10].
Results from the proposed system against a database of
pathological TNM staging decisions were 72%, 78%,
and 94% for T, N, and M staging, respectively. The
system’s performance was also comparable to the support vector machine based classification approach. A
more detailed discussion and comparison between the
symbolic and machine learning based approaches can
be found in [10].
The proposed symbolic rule-based approach using
SNOMED CT can be easily adapted to other structured
reports for cancer. The methodology is currently used
for the extraction and coding of items relevant for the
notification of cancers such as basis of diagnosis, histological type and grade, cancer site and laterality from a
state-wide pathology repository [11]. The methodology
can also be used in health domains beyond cancer, and
is currently used for the identification of patients for ad-
Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
Concept
Normal
Form
Predicate
Expression
(SNOMED
CT
extension)
Candidate
Expression
384955008 | surgical bronchial margin involved by malignant neoplasm |
384955008 | surgical bronchial margin involved by malignant neoplasm | :
363714003 | interprets | = 15220000 | laboratory test |
64572001 | disease | :
116676008 | associated morphology | = 367651003 | malignant Neoplasm (Morphology) |
,363698007 | finding site | = 82868003 | surgical margins |
116676008 | associated morphology | = 367651003 | malignant Neoplasm (Morphology) |
,363698007 | finding site | = 955009 | bronchial structure |
64572001 | disease | + <disease> :
116676008 | associated morphology | = <disease.associated morphology>
,363698007 | finding site | = <margin>
116676008 | associated morphology | = <disease.associated morphology>
,363698007 | finding site | = <topology>
116676008 | associated morphology | = <morphology>
,363698007 | finding site | = <margin>
116676008 | associated morphology | = <morphology>
,363698007 | finding site | = <topology>
Table 2: Example SNOMED CT extension used for subsumption querying.
Figure 2: Example system annotated free text and structured pathology report.
5
Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
Stage
T
N
M
Reports
487
487
487
Accuracy % (95% CI)
78 (74–81)
89 (86–91)
95 (92–96)
3. College of American Pathologists. An overview
of the College of American Pathologists cancer
checklists. 2009.
Table 3: Accuracy of system with respect to TNM stages
recorded in reports.
vanced prostate cancer clinical trials [12]. Given the performance levels achieved, the system can be used for retrospective studies for the purposes of population-level
research. However, by employing a semi-automated
approach to extracting clinical information from free
text, the reliance on expert clinical staff can be lessened,
thus improving the efficiency and availability of health
information.
6
Conclusion
An automated symbolic rule-based system for generating structured reports from free-text pathology reports
was proposed. SNOMED CT concepts identified in
the free text were symbolically manipulated to postcoordinate SNOMED CT expressions for subsumption
querying against items in the structured report. The
method shows promise on lung cancer cases and its
utility will be evaluated on other clinical information
extraction tasks.
Acknowledgements
4. International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation. SNOMED clinical terms
user guide. 2008. Available from: http://www.
ihtsdo.org.
5. Nguyen AN, Lawley MJ, Hansen DP, Colquist S.
A simple pipeline application for identifying and
negating SNOMED Clinical Terminology in free
text. Health Informatics Conference, Canberra,
Australia, 2009. 188-193.
6. Cunningham H, Maynard D, Bontcheva K, Tablan
V. GATE: A framework and graphical development
environment for robust NLP tools and applications.
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL),
Philadelphia, USA, 2002.
7. College of American Pathologists. SNOMED
CT–encoded cap cancer checklist (v1.5). 2006.
8. Greene F, Page D, Fleming I, Fritz A, Balch C,
Haller D, Morrow M, Eds. AJCC cancer staging
manual. 6 ed. 2002; Springer: Chicago, IL.
9. Lawley M, Vickers D, Hansen D. Converting ad
hoc terminologies to SNOMED CT extensions.
Health Informatics Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2008. 133.
This research is a part of the Cancer Information Pro10. Nguyen A, Lawley M, Hansen D, Bowman R,
cessing and Reporting (CIPAR) project, a partnership
Clarke B, Duhig E, Colquist S. Symbolic Rulebetween CSIRO Australian e-Health Research Centre
based Classification of Lung Cancer Stages from
and Queensland Cancer Control Analysis Team (QCFree-Text Pathology Reports. Journal of the AmerCAT) within Queensland Health. The authors would
ican Medical Informatics Association, 2010; 17(4):
like to acknowledge: QCCAT staff for their help in pro440-445.
viding access to histopathology data for lung cancer
patients.
11. Nguyen A, Moore J, Lawley M, Hansen D,
Colquist S. Automatic Extraction of Cancer Characteristics from Free-Text Pathology Reports for
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Nguyen et al. | electronic Journal of Health Informatics 2012; Vol 7(1):e8
Correspondence
Dr. Anthony Nguyen
The Australian e-Health Research Centre
CSIRO ICT Centre
Level 5 – UQ Health Sciences Building 901/16
Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital
Herston Qld 4029, Australia
Phone: +61 (0)7 3253 3637
http://aehrc.com
[email protected]
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