Income and employment theory, a body of economic analysis concerned with the relative levels of output, employment, and prices in an economy. By defining the interrelation of these macroeconomic factors, governments try to create policies that contribute to economic stability. Modern interest in

security: Bonds: …the hybrid types is the income bond, which has a fixed maturity but on which interest is paid only if it is earned. These bonds developed in the United States out of railroad reorganizations, when investors holding defaulted bonds were willing to accept an income obligation in exchange for their…

Japan: Economic transformation: …significant boost by Ikeda Hayato’s Income Doubling Plan of 1960. This plan reaffirmed the government’s responsibility for social welfare, vocational training, and education, while also redefining growth to include consumers as well as producers. The second was the new industrial policy that emerged out of the Ministry of Trade and…

income tax: Rationale for taxation: …established standard of living (the income effect). To the extent that the tax reduces the reward for an extra hour’s work, it may make the taxpayer decide to work less and to indulge in more leisure (the substitution effect); presumably, the larger the income and the more steeply progressive the…

Income inequality, in economics, significant disparity in the distribution of income between individuals, groups, populations, social classes, or countries. Income inequality is a major dimension of social stratification and social class. It affects and is affected by many other forms of

George Bernard Shaw on socialism: Socialism: …into public property, and the division of the resultant public income equally and indiscriminately among the entire population. Thus it reverses the policy of Capitalism, which means establishing private or “real” property to the utmost physically possible extent, and then leaving distribution of income to take care of itself. The…

Income statement, In accounting, the activity-oriented financial statement issued by businesses. Covering a specified time, such as three months or one year, the income statement is a summary of revenues and expenses. It also lists gains and losses from other transactions, such as the sale of

United Kingdom: Cash benefits: …benefit of last resort is income support (formerly called the supplementary benefit); it is payable to individuals whose entitlement to insurance benefits has been exhausted or has left them with a very low income and to those who never had any entitlement to an insurance benefit. Other means-tested benefits assist…

Income tax, levy imposed on individuals (or family units) and corporations. Individual income tax is computed on the basis of income received. It is usually classified as a direct tax because the burden is presumably on the individuals who pay it. Corporate income tax is imposed on net profits,

Sixteenth Amendment, amendment (1913) to the Constitution of the United States permitting a federal income tax. Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution empowers Congress to “lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare

Distribution of wealth and income, the way in which the wealth and income of a nation are divided among its population, or the way in which the wealth and income of the world are divided among nations. Such patterns of distribution are discerned and studied by various statistical means, all of

utility and value: Changes in prices and incomes: ) may be called the income–consumption curve; it shows how the consumer’s purchases vary with his income. Normally the curve will have a positive slope, as EE′ does in Figure 5A, meaning that as a person grows wealthier he will buy more of each commodity. But the slope can be…

Incomes policy, collective governmental effort to control the incomes of labour and capital, usually by limiting increases in wages and prices. The term often refers to policies directed at the control of inflation, but it may also indicate efforts to alter the distribution of income among workers,

atmosphere: Radiation: …traditionally divided into two types: insolation from the Sun and emittance from the surface and the atmosphere. Insolation is frequently referred to as shortwave radiation; it falls primarily within the ultraviolet and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and consists predominantly of wavelengths of 0.39 to 0.76 micrometres (0.00002 to…

Incommensurables: The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios…

Incommensurables: The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios…

The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios

Mordecai Richler: …his screenplay in 1974; and The Incomparable Atuk (1963), which contains amusing descriptions of the powerful men who control the communications industries. Cocksure (1968) is concerned with an American attempt to take over a British publishing house. St. Urbain’s Horseman (1971; television miniseries 2007) concerns a Canadian director’s trial for…

Moon: Main groupings: …minerals and are thus called incompatible elements. They tend to remain uncombined in a melt—of either mare or highland composition—and to become concentrated in the last portions to solidify upon cooling. Lunar scientists gave these lavas the name KREEP, an acronym for potassium (chemical symbol K), rare-earth elements, and phosphorus…

Heterospecific mating, mating in which the man and woman have incompatible blood types, such that the woman may develop antibodies to her partner’s blood type. This mating causes difficulties in childbirth, since there is a chance that the child conceived in a heterospecific mating will have its

blood group: Identification of blood groups: …in saline solution is called incomplete. Such antibodies block the antigenic sites of the red cells so that subsequent addition of complete antibody of the same antigenic specificity does not result in agglutination. Incomplete antibodies will agglutinate red cells carrying the appropriate antigen, however, when the cells are suspended in…

flower: Form and types: …it is said to be incomplete. Stamens and pistils are not present together in all flowers. When both are present the flower is said to be perfect, or bisexual, regardless of a lack of any other part that renders it incomplete (see photograph). A flower that lacks stamens is pistillate,…

fracture: An incomplete, or greenstick, fracture occurs when the bone cracks and bends but does not completely break; when the bone does break into separate pieces, the condition is called a complete fracture. An impacted fracture occurs when the broken ends of the bone are jammed together…

insect: Types of metamorphosis: …hemimetabolous, are said to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The higher orders of insects, including Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, and bees), Diptera (true flies), and several others, are called holometabolous because larvae are totally unlike adults. These larvae undergo a series of molts with little change in…

chemical bonding: Incomplete-octet compounds:
Less common than hypervalent compounds, but by no means rare, are species in which an atom does not achieve an octet of electrons. Such compounds are called incomplete-octet compounds. An example is the compound boron trifluoride, BF3, which is used as an industrial…

chemical bonding: Incomplete-octet compounds:
Less common than hypervalent compounds, but by no means rare, are species in which an atom does not achieve an octet of electrons. Such compounds are called incomplete-octet compounds. An example is the compound boron trifluoride, BF3, which is used as an industrial…

incompleteness theorem: In 1931 G?del published his first incompleteness theorem, “über formal unentscheidbare S?tze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme” (“On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems”), which stands as a major turning point of 20th-century logic. This theorem established that it is impossible to use the axiomatic method…

incompleteness theorem: The second incompleteness theorem follows as an immediate consequence, or corollary, from G?del’s paper. Although it was not stated explicitly in the paper, G?del was aware of it, and other mathematicians, such as the Hungarian-born American mathematician John von Neumann, realized immediately that it followed as…

Bulk modulus, numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid or fluid when it is under pressure on all surfaces. The applied pressure reduces the volume of a material, which returns to its original volume when the pressure is removed. Sometimes referred to as the

Ouro Prêto: …massive colonial penitentiary contains the Museum of the Inconfidência, dedicated to the history of gold mining and culture in Minas Gerais. The colonial theatre, restored in 1861–62, is the oldest in Brazil. The city has many Baroque churches. Religious architecture and sculpture attained great perfection in the city under the…

Incongruent melting, liquefaction of a solid accompanied by decomposition or by reaction with the melt to produce another solid and a liquid that differs in composition from the original solid. For example, enstatite, a magnesium silicate (MgSiO3), melts incongruently at low pressures to form

predicate calculus: …These are, respectively, the tautologous, inconsistent, and contingent sentences of the predicate calculus. Certain tautologous sentence types may be selected as axioms or as the basis for rules for transforming the symbols of the various sentence types; and rather routine and mechanical procedures may then be laid down for deciding…

al-Ghazālī: …logic and culminated in the Tahāfut (The Inconsistency—or Incoherence—of the Philosophers), in which he defended Islām against such philosophers as Avicenna who sought to demonstrate certain speculative views contrary to accepted Islāmic teaching. In preparation for this major treatise, he published an objective account of Maqā?id al-falāsifah (The Aims of…

insurance: Other provisions: Perhaps the best-known is the incontestable clause, which provides that if a policy has been in force for two years the insurer may not afterward refuse to pay the proceeds or cancel the contract for any reason except nonpayment of premiums. Thus, if the insured made a material misrepresentation when…

Incontinence, inability to control the excretion of urine or feces. Starting and stopping urination relies on normal function in pelvic and abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and control nerves. Babies’ nervous systems are too immature for urinary control. Later incontinence may reflect disorders (e.g.,

defecation: Incontinence—the loss of control over the evacuative process—can develop with age; it may also result from surgical, obstetric, spinal, or other bodily injuries or with neurological impairment resulting from diabetes, stroke, or multiple sclerosis. Defecation may also be influenced by pain, fear, temperature elevation, and…

An Inconvenient Truth, American documentary film, released in 2006, featuring the multimedia presentation of former U.S. vice president Al Gore that formed the basis for his traveling lecture tour on the emerging human challenge of global warming and climate change. From the stage of a small

Claudio Monteverdi: Three decades in Venice: …Ulysses to His Country and The Coronation of Poppea—and both are masterpieces. Although they still retain some elements of the Renaissance intermezzo and pastoral, they can be fairly described as the first modern operas. Their interest lies in revealing the development of human beings in realistic situations. There are main…

acculturation: Incorporation refers to the free borrowing and modification of cultural elements and occurs when people of different cultures maintain contact as well as political and social self-determination. It may involve syncretism, a process through which people create a new synthesis of phenomena that differs from…

property: …had considerable difficulty in making intangible things the object of property. Some Western legal systems still deny the possibility of property in intangibles. In all Western legal systems, however, the great increase of wealth in the form of intangibles (stocks, bonds, bank accounts) has meant that property or property-like treatment…

philosophy of mind: Consciousness: …is said to have “incorrigible” (or uncorrectable) access to his own mental states. For many people, the existence of these conscious states in their own case is more obvious and undeniable than anything else in the world. Indeed, the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) regarded his immediate…

gnosticism: Adversus haereses: …the Father’s first self-thought), Foreknowledge, Incorruptibility, Eternal Life, and so forth. Among those spiritual entities is a perfect human named Adamas—a divine prototype of the earthly Adam of Genesis. Adamas is united with a consort, Perfect Knowledge (gnosis). The teaching thus provides a mythic account of how plurality (of divine…

Automobile racing aficionados had never denied that part of the attraction of their favourite sport was the element of perceived danger. The skill of the drivers, the talent of the car constructors, and the rules of auto racing’s sanctioning bodies were designed to balance the danger and thus

Steve Carell: …from a rival performer in The Incredible Burt Wonderstone and played an overbearing father figure in the coming-of-age tale The Way Way Back. That year he also reprised the role of Brick Tamland in Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues.

Incredible Hulk, American comic strip character created for Marvel Comics by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby. The towering, muscle-bound antihero debuted in the bimonthly series The Incredible Hulk in May 1962. The Hulk was a hybrid of two popular comic-book genres—monsters and superheroes.

Incredible Hulk: …character was the live-action drama The Incredible Hulk (1978–82). On that show, the character was played by two men, bodybuilder Lou Ferrigno as the Hulk and actor Bill Bixby as Banner. Oscar-winning director Ang Lee created the character’s first feature film, Hulk, in 2003. Another version, The Incredible Hulk, directed…

The Incredible Mr. Limpet, American comedic fantasy film, released in 1964, that featured Don Knotts in his first box-office hit as a leading man. This family movie combined live action with animation. Meek bookkeeper Henry Limpet (played by Knotts) has a passion for studying fish. When the United

The Incredible Shrinking Man, American science-fiction film, released in 1957, that features an inventive story, an intelligent script, and impressive special effects. After being exposed to a radioactive cloud, Scott Carey (played by Grant Williams) discovers that his body is shrinking. As he

Holly Hunter: …Incredibles (2004) and its sequel, Incredibles 2 (2018). Hunter earned nominations for both a Golden Globe (2008) and an Emmy (2009) for her starring role in the TV drama series Saving Grace (2007–10). She later appeared in the superhero movie Batman v. Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and won praise…

The Incredibles, computer-animated motion picture, released in 2004, about a family of superheroes. It was a great critical and commercial success for Pixar Animation Studios. The film was directed and written by Brad Bird, whose previous credits included the television show The Simpsons and the

Sebastián López de Arteaga: …the Crucifixion (1643), and the Incredulity of St. Thomas (1643). The latter two are excellent examples of the powerful tenebrism of his work. In the Crucifixion a starkly lit and attenuated Christ twists on the cross against a dark background. Similarly dramatic lighting in the Incredulity of St. Thomas highlights…

dendrochronology: …obtained by means of an increment borer, a simple metal tube of small diameter that can be driven into a tree to get a core extending from bark to centre. This core is split in the laboratory, the rings are counted and measured, and the sequence of rings is correlated…

government budget: Program budgeting and zero-base budgeting: …and then to decide on incremental expenditure for each program. Such an approach means, however, that the change is likely to increase, rather than decrease, expenditure and that little attention is paid to what the full existing program actually accomplishes.

Alejandro Aravena: …are known for building “incremental housing,” a form of basic affordable housing in economically vibrant urban locations and realized in part with government subsidies. Called “half a good house” by Aravena, that type of housing gave the most-disenfranchised citizens the opportunity to play a role in improving their economic…

Incremental repetition, a device used in poetry of the oral tradition, especially English and Scottish ballads, in which a line is repeated in a changed context or with minor changes in the repeated part. The device is illustrated in the following stanzas from the ballad “Lord

Incrementalism, theory of public policy making, according to which policies result from a process of interaction and mutual adaptation among a multiplicity of actors advocating different values, representing different interests, and possessing different information. Incrementalism was first

Western painting: Pagan Roman paintings: …were decorated in a so-called Incrustation, or First, style; that is, the imitation in painted stucco of veneers, or crustae (“slabs”), of coloured marbles. But in the second half of the 1st century bc, there suddenly appeared in Rome and in the Campanian cities (the most famous of which is…

Incubation, the maintenance of uniform conditions of temperature and humidity to ensure the development of eggs or, under laboratory conditions, of certain experimental organisms, especially bacteria. The phrase incubation period designates the time from the commencement of incubation to hatching.

Incubator, an insulated enclosure in which temperature, humidity, and other environmental conditions can be regulated at levels optimal for growth, hatching, or reproduction. There are three principal kinds of incubators: poultry incubators, infant incubators, and bacteriological incubators.

Megapode, (family Megapodiidae), any of 12 species of Australasian chickenlike birds (order Galliformes) that bury their eggs to hatch them. Most species rely on fermenting plant matter to produce heat for incubation, but some use solar heat and others the heat produced by volcanic action.

Incubus, demon in male form that seeks to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women; the corresponding spirit in female form is called a succubus. In medieval Europe, union with an incubus was supposed by some to result in the birth of witches, demons, and deformed human offspring. The legendary

Christianity: Inculturation: respecting places and peoples:
As the gospel has spread into new regions of the world, there has proven to be need and opportunity for fresh conceptions and formulations of the faith. The process of inculturation begins when missionaries first arrive in a region in…

Incunabula, books printed during the earliest period of typography—i.e., from the invention of the art of typographic printing in Europe in the 1450s to the end of the 15th century (i.e., January 1501). Such works were completed at a time when books—some of which were still being hand-copied—were

Incunabula, books printed during the earliest period of typography—i.e., from the invention of the art of typographic printing in Europe in the 1450s to the end of the 15th century (i.e., January 1501). Such works were completed at a time when books—some of which were still being hand-copied—were

lepidopteran: Annotated classification:
Family Incurvariidae (fairy, or leafcutter, moths)
Approximately 100 species worldwide; many are small brilliantly coloured diurnal flower visitors; male antennae often several times as long as forewings; mutualistic relationships of the yucca moths (Prodoxinae) with their food plants are notable as an example of coevolution; family sometimes…

lepidopteran: Annotated classification:
Superfamily Incurvarioidea
More than 500 species; all females with an extensible, piercing ovipositor for inserting eggs into plant tissue.
Family Incurvariidae (fairy, or leafcutter, moths)
Approximately 100 species worldwide; many are small brilliantly coloured diurnal flower visitors; male antennae often several times as long as forewings;

ear bone: …the malleus, or hammer, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup. Together they form a short chain that crosses the middle ear and transmits vibrations caused by sound waves from the eardrum membrane to the liquid of the inner ear. The malleus resembles a club more than a…

Lobamba: …events of Swaziland, the sacred Incwala (National Ceremony) and the Umhlanga (Reed Dance), are held annually at Lobamba. The Mlilwane Game Sanctuary and the Gilbert Reynolds Memorial Garden are situated about 6 miles (10 km) northwest. Pop. (1997) 3,625.

pharmaceutical industry: The Investigational New Drug application:
Two important written documents are required from a pharmaceutical firm seeking regulatory approval from the U.S. FDA. The first is the Investigational New Drug (IND) application. The IND is required for approval to begin studies of a new drug in humans.…

Italy: Theatre: …promoting Italian repertory, and the National Institute for Ancient Drama (Istituto Nazionale del Dramma Antico; INDA). In 1990 the government tightened its legislation on eligibility for funding, which severely affected fringe and experimental theatres. Financial constraints in subsequent years led to an increasing number of international coproductions.

Indra, in Hindu mythology, the king of the gods. He is one of the main gods of the Rigveda and is the Indo-European cousin of the German Wotan, Norse Odin, Greek Zeus, and Roman Jupiter. In early religious texts, Indra plays a variety of roles. As king, he leads cattle raids against the dasas, or

Elio Petri: …sopra di ogni sospetto (Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion). The film—a bitter parable about the degeneration of power—won an Oscar for best foreign film. He collaborated with the poet and director Nelo Risi for the television film Dedicato a Pinelli (1970; “Dedicated to Pinelli”), a moving remembrance of…

Myanmar: Drainage and soils: Indawgyi Lake, in the northern hills, runs some 15 miles (24 km) from north to south and 8 miles (13 km) from east to west; it is one of the largest natural inland lakes of Southeast Asia. Somewhat smaller is Inle Lake, stretching about 14…

Colleen McCullough: McCullough continued to publish, releasing An Indecent Obsession (1981; film 1985), about a ward for shell-shocked soldiers in World War II, and The Ladies of Missalonghi (1987), a romance set in Australia. In 1990 she published the first of her seven-book Masters of Rome series, The First Man in Rome.…

Zambia: Economy: …to be controlled by the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO). By January 1970 a majority holding had been acquired in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust (RST), which became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated…

Santa Cruz Island, second largest of the Galapagos Islands, in the eastern Pacific Ocean about 600 miles (965 km) west of mainland Ecuador. It is roughly circular in shape, has a central volcanic crater that rises to 2,300 feet (700 metres), and covers an area of 389 square miles (1,007 square km).

inheritance: Limits on freedom of testation: …of the following devices: dower, indefeasible share, community property, homestead, or family allowances. The most widespread is the indefeasible share, which guarantees to the surviving spouse a certain portion, usually expressed in terms of a fixed dollar amount plus a fraction or, under older statutes, as just a fraction, of…

calculus: Differentiation and integration: This is called the (indefinite) integral of the function y = x2, and it is written as ∫x2dx. The initial symbol ∫ is an elongated S, which stands for sum, and dx indicates an infinitely small increment of the variable, or axis, over which the function is being summed.…

Fabales: Characteristic morphological features: …split open when ripe (indehiscent), as with Robinia (locusts) and Cercis (redbud). In many Fabaceae—for instance, Melilotus (sweet clover)—the fruit has been reduced to a single-seeded indehiscent structure that resembles a tiny nutlet. In others, it is several-seeded and indehiscent but is divided transversely into single-seeded segments that break…

1000 Genomes Project: …less common, variants known as indels, which are insertions or deletions of DNA segments of varying size occurring at virtually any location in the genome. A number of known SNPs and indels have been implicated in human health and disease and are thought to be significant for understanding human ancestry…

insurance: Warranties: …contract law, the principle of indemnity. Under the principle of indemnity a person may recover no more than the actual cash loss; one may not, for example, recover in full from two separate policies if the total amount exceeds the true value of the property insured.

South Africa: The National Party and apartheid: The Indemnity Act (1961) made it legal for police officers to commit acts of violence, to torture, or to kill in the pursuit of official duties. Later laws gave the police the right to arrest and detain people without trial and to deny them access to…

Sara Paretsky: It was with Indemnity Only (1982) that her wisecracking, independent, passionate, and empathetic female private detective was created. That same year American writer Sue Grafton released the first entry in her alphabetically titled mystery series featuring female private investigator Kinsey Millhone. The two novelists were credited with breaking…

Germany: Bismarck’s national policies: the restriction of liberalism: …1866, the legislature approved the Bill of Indemnity, 230 to 75. By dividing the forces of reform and weakening their sense of purpose, Bismarck won as important a success in domestic affairs as the victory on the field of battle.

émigré: Their petitioning resulted in the Law of Indemnity of 1825, designed to reimburse the most needy of those who lost their lands. The gradual disappearance of the émigrés, along with King Louis-Philippe’s indifference to their cause, ended their influence.

Inspire your inbox –
Sign up for daily fun facts about this day in history, updates, and special offers.

Enter your email

By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Click here to view our Privacy Notice. Easy unsubscribe links are provided in every email.

Thank you for subscribing!

Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox.