This paper, using available published information and an
exploratory questionnaire, presents the difficulties associated with the
collation of official statistics on sea cucumber catch, effort and trade. It
highlights specific problems associated with the identification of catch
origins, illegal landings and trade, trans-boundary effects, taxonomic problems,
confusing beche-de-mer categorisation, inadequate monitoring and a lack of
internal national prioritisations and funding. It concludes with a clear
presentation of the issues that need to be addressed and an analysis of the
possible means by which to do so.

More and more in recent years, concern is being expressed at
the health of worldwide sea cucumber populations and their management and trade
(e.g. Bruckner et al., 2003). In this report, the author explores the
problems and issues that have contributed to the current situation. Information
was compiled from relevant, available literature, and is supported by the
results of an international questionnaire exercise. The questionnaire sought the
views and opinions of members of the Beche-de-mer Special Interest Group,
co-ordinated through the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, on the following
main questions related to their country's sea cucumber fisheries:

Do official
statistics, in your opinion, accurately reflect the level of catch and effort
that is taking place in this country/island?

Are you aware of illegal sea
cucumber fisheries and trade activities?

Are you confident that sea
cucumber landings originated from this country's waters? (Name the possible
origin of sea cucumbers landed in this country/island but not caught in its
waters).

How is beche-de-mer
categorised in official fisheries and trade statistics?

Are sea cucumber landings
monitored regularly?

Is a high level of priority
placed on sea cucumber fisheries by government, in terms of manpower and funds
(for monitoring, research and industry development)?

What do you consider to be the
main problems facing this country/island in terms of sea cucumber fisheries
management?

The author stresses that this was not a thorough questionnaire
exercise, but merely sought to provide information on specific aspects of sea
cucumber fisheries in different countries. Of the representatives contacted for
35 islands and countries (or internal states), 20 (57 %) replied. Each
representative had a recorded interest in sea cucumbers. These included
representatives from Argentina, American Samoa, Brazil, the Cook Islands, China,
Northern Mariana Islands, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Viet Nam, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Ecuador,
Kiribati, Cuba and Western and Northern Australia. The Cook Islands, Northern
Mariana and Marshall Islands' groups reported no organised fishery but only some
evidence of subsistence fishing, as did American Samoa and Brazil. Argentina and
Nauru reported no subsistence or commercial fishing activities. Representatives
from other countries did not respond, one possible explanation being that
contact details for the Special Interest Group require updating.

The holothurian resource

The Class Holothuroidea consists of around 1 200 species in
total (FAO, 1990). Of these, the number of species thought to be subject to
exploitation has risen over the past 10 years from 12 (Conand and Byrne, 1993)
to over 30 (Bruckner et al., 2003; Conand, 1999), the latter identified
as belonging to 3 families and 8 genera in total from the orders Dendrochirotida
and Aspidochirotida. The highest diversity of holothurians occurs in the tropics
where multi-species fisheries exist. Table 1 provides a snapshot of known target
species, based on responses from the questionnaire exercise. This is not a
definitive list.

Table 1. Target species, by country,
identified by respondents to the questionnaire exercise.

Country

Holothuria scabra

H. scabra (var. versicolor)

H. edulis

H. nobilis

H. coluber

H. atra

H. leucospilota

H. fuscopunctata

H. fuscogilva

H. grisea

Actinopyga miliaris

A. echinites

A. lecanora

A. mauritiana

Thelenota ananas

T. anax

Stichopus chloronotus

S. hermanni

S. horrens

S. fuscus

A. japonicus

Bohadschia vitensis

B. argus

B. graeffei

B. marmorata

Isostichopus badiomotus

Australia

- Western

X

X

- Northern

X

China PR

X

Cook Islands

X

X

X

X

X

Cuba

X

Ecuador (Galapagos)

X

Indonesia

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Kiribati

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Malaysia (Sabah)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Marshall Islands

X

X

New Caledonia (NP)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

N Mariana Islands

X

X

Papua New Guinea

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Philippines

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Solomon Islands

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Viet Nam

X

Despite this increase in economic importance and growing
concern about their overexploitation in many countries (Baine and Choo, 1999;
Conand et al., 1998; Ibarra and Soberon, 2002; Moore, 1998; Schoppe,
2000; Trianni, 2002), the population biology and ecology of many holothurian
species remains unclear. Conand (1999) notes the need for research to focus on
biology and ecology, and economics and management. Samyn (2000) calls for the
following improvements in our basic scientific understanding of holothurians,
based on experience in Kenya, in order to fully optimise conservation and
management plans:

correct
nomenclature and taxonomy;

systematics, including the
relationships between lineages and biogeographical distributions, and thus
ecological roles;

holothurian biodiversity in
narrow political areas and broader zoogeographical provinces; and

ecological
interactions.

Bruckner (2003) notes the inadequacy of existing biological
information on exploited species in most fisheries. Even in those countries with
regulated fisheries, information on growth, recruitment and mortality is scant,
except perhaps for high value species. The lack of such information seriously
impedes the determination of sustainable yields. Furthermore, the lack of any
detailed biological data, including biomass estimates and distribution,
undermines the ability to measure the effectiveness of voluntary or imposed
management measures, and in the absence of scientific justification, may also
breed mistrust and contempt among fishers.

Capture, processing and trade

Holothurians are consumed in a variety of ways, however, the
most significant product is the dried body wall, commonly known as beche-de-mer.
This form is particularly favoured by Chinese consumers. Species can be regarded
as high, medium or low value with respect to their market demand and processed
condition. High value species presently include the sandfish (Holothuria
scabra), the black teatfish (H. nobilis) and the white teatfish
(H. fuscogilva).

A variety of fishing techniques exist, including hand
collection at low tide, scuba and hookah in deeper waters and trawling and
spearing. Processing methods are well documented (e.g. SPC, 1994) and can vary
for different species and in different regions. Processing may be carried out by
the fishers themselves or by dedicated processors who may also export to
international markets such as Hong Kong SAR (China), Singapore and Taiwan
(Province of China). Fishers may also sell to processors who then sell to
exporters. Beche-de-mer is then exported to consumer countries. This valued
product may also be sold within the country of origin, depending on consumer
demand. Conand and Byrne (1993) and Conand (2001) describe the complexity of
routes between fisher and consumer as consisting of at least 5 levels, with
numerous interactions occurring between each level. These levels are identified
as:

(1) the natural resource and its
environment;

(2) capture by fisherman;

(3) processor/exporter/customs;

(4) international trader; and

(5) consumer.

It is not uncommon for a country to simultaneously have a
fishery, and also be exporting, importing and consuming beche-de-mer, e.g.
Malaysia (Baine and Choo, 1999).

It is this complexity and array of possible interactions that
makes it difficult to assess the status of a fishery. Conand and Byrne (1993)
and Conand (2001) for each of their identified levels of interaction, offer
potential sources of statistics. These are:

(1) scientific surveys;

(2) sampling of the catch;

(3) sampling of processed products and/or national export
statistics;

(4) international trade statistics; and

(5) national import statistics.

Unfortunately, the presence of accurate and reliable
statistics is a problem for most holothurian fisheries, a problem magnified by
the previously mentioned inadequacy of biological studies. Where statistics do
exist, they may also be erratic, confusing or have a dubious origin, such as the
contrast within national and between national and international statistics for
Malaysia (Baine and Choo, 1999). Tuwo and Conand (1992) note discrepancies in
international statistics for Indonesia. Kinch (2002) recognises differences
between production and export data in export figures for Papua New Guinea.
Possible reasons cited in this instance include incomplete datasets, point of
export not always equating to harvest point, and the lack of recordings of
wastage. Abdulla (1998) notes the unreliability of statistics in Mozambique,
while Holland (1994) highlights the lack of official data in the Solomon
Islands. These are only some examples.

Table 2 shows information recorded from the questionnaire
exercise, related to official statistics. Multiple entries against a
country/island represent responses from different sources within that
country/island. As can be seen there is a division of opinion on the accuracy of
official statistics in the Philippines. Problems highlighted include
non-declaration of fishing activities, lack of regulation, small operational
fisheries, unrecorded catches and lack of statistics for domestic distribution
of catch. Overall, official statistics are reported as representing between
50-100 % of total catch, depending on location.

Table 2. Comments on official statistics
provided by respondents to the questionnaire exercise.

Country

Do official statistics accurately reflect the level
of catch and effort?

Estimated percentage of overall catch

Australia (Northern)

Y

China PR

N

No fisheries statistics. Landings data collected for aquaculture.

50%

Cook Islands

N

No statistics. Unregulated fishery.

N/A

Cuba

Y

Ecuador (Galapagos)

Y

Isolated cases of illegal harvest.

95%

Indonesia*

N
N
N

50%
<50%

Kiribati

N Y

Fishermen's data cross-checked with customs.

80%

Malaysia

N

Substantial catch goes unrecorded.

Unknown

N. Caledonia (NP)

N

Do not declare their activities. Not registered as professionals.

N/A

N Mariana Islands

Y

Export permit conditions.

100%

Papua New Guinea

Y

All exporters are licensed with provision of monthly buying
summaries. Difficult to estimate fishing effort.

99%

Philippines

Y
N

Statistics mainly based on export volume. None for domestic.

60%

Solomon Islands

Y

95-100%

Viet Nam

N

No statistics. Small production.

Unknown

* Multiple entries against a country/island
represent responses from different sources within that
country/island.

A particular problem highlighted by Baine and Choo (1999) for
Malaysia is the categorisation of sea cucumber products. National statistics
show 2 categories, firstly "live, fresh, chilled or frozen" and secondly "dried,
salted, in brine, smoked or boiled" against which tonnage is recorded. There is
no separation, for example, between dried and salted, nor is there division into
species. Such statistics cannot be used to influence management decisions as
there is no way to accurately predict catch quantity or weight for individual
species. Similar problems in terms of categorisation have been reported in the
Northern Mariana Islands (Trianni, 2002), New Zealand, where sea cucumbers have
been grouped together with sea urchins (Morgan and Archer, 1999), and Vanuatu
(Jimmy, 1996). Table 3 indicates the different categories that are used to
classify beche-de-mer in the countries of respondents to the questionnaire
exercise. Caution is advised when interpreting this table as respondents from
within the Philippines and Indonesia have provided different answers to the
question posed. The author also notes that the question is not precise enough,
with the definition of "official" open for interpretation.

A further problem within Malaysia is the inability to
confidently identify the origin of catch. It is commonly known that exports from
Sabah may include holothurians harvested in the waters of the Philippines (Baine
and Choo, 1999). Another serious issue is the transboundary effects of a demand
for sea cucumber products on Pulau Langkawi, Malaysia. Overfishing in the waters
of this island has led to demand being met by fishermen from the neighbouring
island of Adang in Thailand. Unfortunately, this supply of sea cucumber has
meant illegal encroachment of Thai fishermen on internal marine reserve waters
(Bussarawit and Thongtham, 1999).

The questionnaire exercise, however, indicates that this may
not be a widespread problem. When asked about their confidence in the origin of
sea cucumber catches, respondents from Viet Nam, Kiribati, Northern Mariana
Islands, Ecuador, Philippines, Indonesia, Cuba, Solomon Islands and Australia
all answered that landings originated from within their country's waters. Some
possible exceptions include landings in Indonesia of sea cucumbers from
Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. The Philippines representative
also reported the possibility of Malaysian holothurians being landed in the
Philippines. The only outright negative response to the question concerned New
Caledonia where the respondent had no confidence in catches occurring solely
within its waters, although other possible countries of origin were not
suggested.

Illegal sea cucumber fishing is not a prolific problem in
countries with this resource. However, being such a lucrative market, it has
caused major problems in certain areas. Historically, the Galapagos Marine
Reserve in Ecuador has suffered high levels of illegal fishing, coinciding with
increased migration to the islands. Fishers have been provided

with boats and motors financed by mainland and foreign traders
(Martinez, 2001; Noble, 2001). The impetus to fish has been high and violent
clashes with the Galapagos National Park Service have occurred in the past.
Illegal fishing has also been recorded in Madagascar (Irwing, 1994), Malaysia
(Baine and Choo, 1999), Mexico (Ibarra and Soberon, 2002), Papua New Guinea
(Kinch, 2002) and Venezuela (Rodriguez and Marques Pauls, 1996). The
questionnaire exercise (Table 4) additionally identifies illegal activities in
New Caledonia, Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Marshall Islands and
Brazil as well as confirming such activities in Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.
Equally, illegal fishing is not thought to occur in the Cook Islands, Kiribati,
China PR, Ecuador (at present), and the Northern Territory of
Australia.

Table 4. Information on illegal fishing
supplied by respondents to the questionnaire exercise.

Country

Are you aware of illegal sea-cucumber fisheries and trade activities?

Australia (Northern)

N

Brazil

Y

Some private collection and consumption (Japanese).

China PR

N

Cook Islands

N

Suspicion that an opportunistic fishery may exist from transient fishermen.

Cuba

N

Ecuador (Galapagos)

N

Not at present.

Indonesia

Y

Indonesian fishermen fish in Australian waters.

Y

Fishing in foreign waters, smuggling pout of the country, deliberate
under reporting.

Kiribati

N

Amount exported is not high.

Malaysia

Y

Especially not sparing spawning and immature individuals.

Marshall Islands

Y

Occurs on some atolls although species remain abundant.

N. Caledonia (NP)

Y

Fishermen do not declare their activities. No regulation of trade.

N. Mariana Islands

Y

Some personal use despite moratorium.

Papua New Guinea

Y

Mainly through one vessel in a remote area of the country.

Philippines

N

No clear regulations so no illegal fishing. Fishers do illegally fish
Malaysian waters.

Y

Illegal fishing by trawl and some probable illegal exports.

Solomon Islands

N

All exporters are licensed - no limit on tonnes exported.

Viet Nam

Y

Regulation needed.

Management, Monitoring and Prioritisation

Adams (1993) presents South Pacific Commission (SPC)
recommendations regarding the management of individual South Pacific holothurian
fisheries. These recommendations are suggested by Adams (1993) as a basis for
possible general principles for beche-de-mer fisheries management. The following
list takes these recommendations and presents them in general terms:

Restriction of number of
export businesses and introduction of export quotas;

Education and instruction in
improved processing techniques; and

Establishment of sea ranching
programmes.

Table 5 summarises the types of management tools that have
been employed in some sea cucumber fisheries. This list does not represent
current management regimes but merely gives an indication of the range of
options that have been historically applied in different countries. More common
measures relate to closures, quotas and export restrictions. As can be seen, a
variety of management options have been employed in different combinations, or
at different times. This is a common in many fisheries. In Papua New Guinea, for
example, under the National beche-de-mer Fishery Management Plan, there is a
combination of access restrictions, closures, Total Allowable Catches (TACs),
Minimum Size Limits (MSLs) for 17 species, and storage and export licences
(Desurmont, 2003). On the other hand, the only regulations reported for New
Caledonia are self imposed by fishers and include harvesting seasons and size
limits (Anon, 1993). It should also be noted that 30 % of the countries in Table
5 have reported no regulations.

When reviewing available information on holothurian fisheries,
however, there are a number of readily identifiable general issues that should
concern us:

There are many
countries that have no regulations in place or if they do, a lack of funds and
manpower for monitoring and enforcement is seen as a common problem (Adams,
1992; Baine and Choo, 1999; Jimmy, 1996, Martinez, 2001; Trianni,
2002);

There is little in the
literature that provides information on the success or failure of management
initiatives, mainly as a result of relatively recent imposition of regulations
and management measures and the lack of any baseline data for
comparison;

Many of the problems discussed
earlier, such as the lack of basic ecological information, lack of education and
awareness programmes, combined records of species caught and uncertainty as to
the origin of catch (Baine and Choo, 1999; Rasolofonirina and Conand, 1998;
Samyn, 2000), all impede the adoption of effective management tools;

The growing economic importance of this resource and resulting
community dependencies will affect acceptance and adherence to regulations and
lead to internal disputes e.g. over territory (Kinch, 2002; Martinez, 2001);
and

Each fishery has different
characteristics and there is potentially little to learn from monitoring the
imposition of regulations in another fishery.

In more direct terms the following are offered as main causes
for concern in many holothurian fisheries:

1. Information on holothurian biology and ecology
is lacking, as are basic stock assessments;

2. Holothurian products are in high demand, with holothurian
fisheries potentially quite lucrative to fishers, particularly in the provision
of stable livelihoods;

3. Holothurian fisheries and trade routes are complex and
existing statistics do not inspire confidence when trying to estimate
catches;

4. Management in most instances has been reactive to dwindling
stocks presumably because of overfishing, with associated difficulties in
measuring the effectiveness of management measures;

5. Enforcement of regulations and monitoring is a problem
particularly in areas which are geographically isolated and in countries lacking
financial and human resources; and

6. There is a lack of education and awareness
programmes.

There have perhaps been two major consequences in the past
decade as a result of these main problems and the slow progress in addressing
them. Firstly, there has been increased interest in holothurian rearing and
restocking, in an attempt to perhaps deflect effort away from wild resources in
the future and/or to mediate for the social impact of dwindling wild resources.
Secondly, CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora) has become involved.

Table 6 summarises the main problems facing holothurian
fisheries, as identified by questionnaire respondents for their respective
countries. These are many and varied, ranging from a lack of basic information,
limited funds and lack of education to illegal fishing, overexploitation and
political bureaucracy.

Tables 7 and 8 provide details from the questionnaire exercise
on monitoring and prioritisation of holothurian fisheries within respondents'
countries. As can be seen, no monitoring exists in new Caledonia, the Cook
Islands, Viet Nam, Kiribati, the Philippines, Indonesia and the Northern
Territory of Australia. Where monitoring does occur it relates to administration
in the Solomon Islands, purchase and export in Papua New Guinea, catch rates in
Western Australia and conservation zones in China PR. It is only in the
Galapagos where a comprehensive "from sea to the market place" monitoring regime
exists. In terms of prioritisation of holothurian fisheries within these
countries, a high level of support is only provided in the Galapagos Islands,
Papua New Guinea, Kiribati, Cuba and China PR. In China PR this relates mainly
to aquaculture and sea ranching. It is worth noting that in Northern Australia,
industry funds stock assessment and monitoring.

Only at the time of export for paperwork purposes, not for stock management.

Viet Nam

N

No regulation.

* Multiple entries against a country/island
represent responses from different sources within that
country/island.

Table 8. Information on prioritisation
supplied by respondents to the questionnaire exercise.

Country

Is a high level of priority placed on sea cucumber fisheries by government
in terms of manpower and funds?

Australia (Northern)

N

Industry funds stock assessment and monitoring.

China PR

Y

Encouraged aquaculture and sea ranching, benefits wild resources.

Cook Islands

N

Occasional surveys on fishery feasibility. Recent proposals declined.

Cuba

Y

Ecuador (Galapagos)

Y

Sea cucumber fishery control plan.

Indonesia*

N

No priority.

N

N

Kiribati

Y

Important income generating activity.

Malaysia (Sabah)

N

N. Caledonia (NP)

N

Only funding of a repopulation programme.

N. Mariana Islands

N

Resource isn't that extensive.

Papua New Guinea

Y

Involves a high number of fishermen.

Philippines

N

Relative to other marine exports.

Solomon Islands

N

No management plan in place.

Viet Nam

N

* Multiple entries against a country/island
represent responses from different sources within that
country/island.

Discussion

As has been discussed throughout this paper there are many
problems with the current status and management of holothurian fishery
resources. These problems include a lack of information on the population
dynamics of exploited species (including taxonomic difficulties), a lack of
reliable fishery and trade statistics, illegal activities, a lack of effective
regulations, and low state level prioritisation of this resource with associated
knock-on effects on monitoring and enforcement. This final problem is one to
take particular note of, as many countries do not view holothurians as a high
priority resource, despite their ecological role and economic importance to
small communities. One must also take into consideration any possible lack of
interest from fishers and traders, with considerable evidence of widespread
"boom and bust" fishing activities in reaction to current high market demands.
This, however, can also be linked to a lack of educational awareness programmes.
It is difficult to identify general approaches to the problems facing
holothurian fisheries, as each fishery is unique and very dependent upon
political factors within specific states.

Over the last two decades, the global exploitation of sea
cucumbers has reached such high levels and raised such concern that a United
States of America call, with multi-party support, has been made to consider the
listing of the families Holothuridae and Stichopodidae in Appendix II of the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) (Bruckner et al., 2003). Following the CITES Conference of
Parties (COP 12) in November 2002 in Chile, a draft decision was agreed which
would look towards bringing experts together in workshops to discuss
conservation and biological and trade information. The Animals Committee of
CITES would examine the outcomes of these as well as additional material and
would develop recommendations and a discussion paper to provide guidance on
actions required to secure conservation status (Bruckner, 2003). However one
views the input of CITES, be it positively or negatively, be it through the eyes
of a conservationist, producer, importer, exporter, consumer, processor or
fisher, as a reality and reflects some international concerns at the current
status of sea cucumber populations and approaches to their management and
trade.

The involvement of CITES is one new approach to the problems
facing holothurian resources. It has a true international dimension, and is an
approach that needs consideration. An Appendix II classification refers to
species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction now, but that may
become so unless trade is closely controlled. International trade in Appendix II
species may be authorised by the granting of an export permit or re-export
certificate. No import permit is necessary. Permits or certificates should only
be granted if the relevant authorities are satisfied that certain conditions are
met, and that trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in
the wild.

Such a measure does have its positive aspects, particularly in
the provision of an international face to future management and trade in these
species. It offers a watchful eye and would promote more international
co-operation on sea cucumber fisheries management as well as more effective
country, and even fisheries specific, monitoring and control.

There is a need, however, for countries to be willing and able
to implement such a listing. There will always be the problem of illegal fishing
and trade, but this could also be exacerbated by any CITES classification when
viewed suspiciously by members of the beche-de-mer industry. This problem would
be exacerbated even further with a lack of state resources to enforce management
measures, coupled with political and other socio-economic issues that may be
unique to any given state. It is also difficult to see where CITES can help in
unravelling the complexities of fisheries and trade in these species.

There is much to be addressed in taking this route. Bruckner
et al. (2003) identifies a number of general areas that need to be
examined when considering the appropriateness of CITES, namely taxonomic
uncertainties within the families, the ability to distinguish taxa in the form
they are traded, the adequacy of biological information for making non-detriment
findings, the ability to make legal acquisition findings and research needs.
Each of these has its own extensive array of issues. To follow this route is a
considerable undertaking and will require extensive international discussions
and co-operation. It may well provide the necessary impetus for stronger action
from the scientific community on many of the basic issues underlying holothurian
resource management. On the other hand the potential impact on local communities
and economies must be thoroughly understood. It will be interesting and
informative to observe the progress and impact of the Appendix II listing of
Hippocampus spp. (seahorses), which comes into effect on 15 May
2004.

Acknowledgements

Many people have contributed to this paper through the
completion of questionnaires. I recognise their input and confidentiality. I
would also like to thank Chantal Conand for, as ever, some useful
comments.

Tuwo, A. & Conand, C. 1992. Developments in
beche-de-mer production in Indonesia during the last decade. Beche-de-Mer
Information Bulletin, 4:2-3.

Uthicke, S. & Benzie, J. 2000. The effect of
fishing on the population structure of holothurians: over exploitation of
Holothuria nobilis on the Great Barrier Reef. Abstract from the
10th International Echinoderm Conference 31 January - 4
February 2000, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.