This chapter begins by outlining two proposed modes of thought, which are characterized by opposite perceptions in at least four domains: saving versus consumption (which reflect notions of time and ...
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This chapter begins by outlining two proposed modes of thought, which are characterized by opposite perceptions in at least four domains: saving versus consumption (which reflect notions of time and work); decision-making and political hierarchy; degree and kind of kin category extension; and notions of land, place, and settlement. All of these have implications for understanding group structure, transhumance, migration, and so on. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Mesolithic thought persisted into the Neolithic. It argues that mode of thought is much slower to change than mode of production. Social relations retain the structures of hunter-gatherer times if these are deeply rooted in cultural understandings of sociality. The existence nearby of agro-pastoralists does not make former hunter-gatherers think more like agro-pastoralists; it may even accentuate the differences in their thinking by making each side more aware of what makes them, say, Mesolithic or Neolithic.Less

From Mesolithic to Neolithic modes of thought

Alan Barnard

Published in print: 2007-11-22

This chapter begins by outlining two proposed modes of thought, which are characterized by opposite perceptions in at least four domains: saving versus consumption (which reflect notions of time and work); decision-making and political hierarchy; degree and kind of kin category extension; and notions of land, place, and settlement. All of these have implications for understanding group structure, transhumance, migration, and so on. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Mesolithic thought persisted into the Neolithic. It argues that mode of thought is much slower to change than mode of production. Social relations retain the structures of hunter-gatherer times if these are deeply rooted in cultural understandings of sociality. The existence nearby of agro-pastoralists does not make former hunter-gatherers think more like agro-pastoralists; it may even accentuate the differences in their thinking by making each side more aware of what makes them, say, Mesolithic or Neolithic.

The development of agriculture after about 10,000 BC produced human-directed genetics and environments. Though fire was still used, solar energy was garnered from more concentrated sources as crops ...
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The development of agriculture after about 10,000 BC produced human-directed genetics and environments. Though fire was still used, solar energy was garnered from more concentrated sources as crops and domestic animals. Wind and water power were also harnessed. Outside the cultivable areas, pastoralism might tap wild vegetation with tame animals. Emphasis was placed on extending the productive area in order to feed growing populations and demanding elites. Stratification permeates the structures of society and in parallel the natural world becomes classified into types of resource. Not all of these are for subsistence since pleasure gardens and hunting reserves appear. The invention of writing further confers power on selected elites and also allows worldviews to be transmitted which confirm an hierarchy of the world in which humans are exceptional and entitled to the use of the rest of Earth's materials.Less

Pre-industrial agriculture

I. G. Simmons

Published in print: 2008-03-05

The development of agriculture after about 10,000 BC produced human-directed genetics and environments. Though fire was still used, solar energy was garnered from more concentrated sources as crops and domestic animals. Wind and water power were also harnessed. Outside the cultivable areas, pastoralism might tap wild vegetation with tame animals. Emphasis was placed on extending the productive area in order to feed growing populations and demanding elites. Stratification permeates the structures of society and in parallel the natural world becomes classified into types of resource. Not all of these are for subsistence since pleasure gardens and hunting reserves appear. The invention of writing further confers power on selected elites and also allows worldviews to be transmitted which confirm an hierarchy of the world in which humans are exceptional and entitled to the use of the rest of Earth's materials.

The pukaras occupied the largest and most imposing Late Intermediate period sites known in the northern basin. This is where one would have expected the Colla lords to reside, if there had been Colla ...
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The pukaras occupied the largest and most imposing Late Intermediate period sites known in the northern basin. This is where one would have expected the Colla lords to reside, if there had been Colla lords. There has been almost no excavation of the Colla sites of the Late Intermediate period. However, the surface architecture at the sites of the pukaras is often quite well preserved, allowing considerable insight into the internal structure of these late pre-Columbian communities. This chapter provides a detailed discussion of what the pukaras looked like. The structure of the pukara communities is revealed by intrasite layout and organization, showing that heterarchy and segmentation rather than hierarchy and centralization were emphasized. This chapter examines Late Intermediate period surface architecture to clarify how the pukaras worked, as defensive sites bound together by the threat of violence, as places of domestic residence and economic production, and as loci of ceremony.Less

Hierarchy and Heterarchy within Pukara Communities

Elizabeth N. Arkush

Published in print: 2011-01-02

The pukaras occupied the largest and most imposing Late Intermediate period sites known in the northern basin. This is where one would have expected the Colla lords to reside, if there had been Colla lords. There has been almost no excavation of the Colla sites of the Late Intermediate period. However, the surface architecture at the sites of the pukaras is often quite well preserved, allowing considerable insight into the internal structure of these late pre-Columbian communities. This chapter provides a detailed discussion of what the pukaras looked like. The structure of the pukara communities is revealed by intrasite layout and organization, showing that heterarchy and segmentation rather than hierarchy and centralization were emphasized. This chapter examines Late Intermediate period surface architecture to clarify how the pukaras worked, as defensive sites bound together by the threat of violence, as places of domestic residence and economic production, and as loci of ceremony.

Chapter 5 examines one of Sha Po’s most fascinating and important periods of cultural development, the Bronze Age, a period during which the local community was making wider and more specialised use ...
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Chapter 5 examines one of Sha Po’s most fascinating and important periods of cultural development, the Bronze Age, a period during which the local community was making wider and more specialised use of the coastal landscape. On the plateau there was some form of stilt-house settlement associated with the specialised manufacture of fine quartz rings, while on the backbeach we have the region’s best evidence for non-ferrous metallurgy in the form of in situ bronze casting. The evidence for craft specialisation tells us that society was undergoing change and could perhaps support the work of artisans through some form of surplus production of food. Moreover, access to more advanced technology and exotic materials are both indications of a widening of external contacts, trade, and exchange, while a heightened interest in personal ornamentation and display points towards greater competition and the emergence of social hierarchies.Less

Bronze Age: Technology, Trade, and Increasing Social Complexity

Mick AthaKennis Yip

Published in print: 2017-02-01

Chapter 5 examines one of Sha Po’s most fascinating and important periods of cultural development, the Bronze Age, a period during which the local community was making wider and more specialised use of the coastal landscape. On the plateau there was some form of stilt-house settlement associated with the specialised manufacture of fine quartz rings, while on the backbeach we have the region’s best evidence for non-ferrous metallurgy in the form of in situ bronze casting. The evidence for craft specialisation tells us that society was undergoing change and could perhaps support the work of artisans through some form of surplus production of food. Moreover, access to more advanced technology and exotic materials are both indications of a widening of external contacts, trade, and exchange, while a heightened interest in personal ornamentation and display points towards greater competition and the emergence of social hierarchies.

Kushite rule in Thebes lasted from 750 BC to 656 BC, and saw the revival of its fortunes in what was an era of turmoil and division in Egypt. Looking at structures of power and religious hierarchies, ...
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Kushite rule in Thebes lasted from 750 BC to 656 BC, and saw the revival of its fortunes in what was an era of turmoil and division in Egypt. Looking at structures of power and religious hierarchies, this chapter points to a religious renaissance that focussed on the cult of Amun. It also sheds light on building works, architecture, and burial practices of the Kushites.Less

Thebes under the Kushites

Robert G. Morkot

Published in print: 2014-06-30

Kushite rule in Thebes lasted from 750 BC to 656 BC, and saw the revival of its fortunes in what was an era of turmoil and division in Egypt. Looking at structures of power and religious hierarchies, this chapter points to a religious renaissance that focussed on the cult of Amun. It also sheds light on building works, architecture, and burial practices of the Kushites.

This chapter focuses on presenting data and interpretations resulting from three recent archaeology projects carried out in the northwest corner of Yucatan, Mexico. The surveys identified a total of ...
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This chapter focuses on presenting data and interpretations resulting from three recent archaeology projects carried out in the northwest corner of Yucatan, Mexico. The surveys identified a total of 140 sites with Preclassic occupations indicating a burgeoning degree of cultural complexity by the Middle Preclassic. These sites formed a three-tiered regional hierarchy which persisted until the beginning of the Late Preclassic period. Perhaps the most unexpected feature at these sites was the presence of 23 examples of ballcourt architecture dating to the Middle Preclassic period.Less

The Preclassic Settlement of Northwest Yucatan : Recharting the Pathway to Complexity

David S. AndersonFernando Robles CastellanosAnthony P. Andrews

Published in print: 2018-03-27

This chapter focuses on presenting data and interpretations resulting from three recent archaeology projects carried out in the northwest corner of Yucatan, Mexico. The surveys identified a total of 140 sites with Preclassic occupations indicating a burgeoning degree of cultural complexity by the Middle Preclassic. These sites formed a three-tiered regional hierarchy which persisted until the beginning of the Late Preclassic period. Perhaps the most unexpected feature at these sites was the presence of 23 examples of ballcourt architecture dating to the Middle Preclassic period.

The closing section of the volume contains commentary and considerations on the bioarchaeology of social complexity. The authors identify several broad themes and issues crosscutting the chapters and ...
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The closing section of the volume contains commentary and considerations on the bioarchaeology of social complexity. The authors identify several broad themes and issues crosscutting the chapters and offer constructive critiques for future bioarchaeological studies of hierarchy, heterarchy, and other expressions of social organization in antiquity. These include observations on sampling design, paleoepidemiological comparisons of ancient biological stress markers, greater bioarchaeology–mortuary archaeology integration, interpretation in bioarchaeology, and the potential shortcomings of typological expectations of ancient human health.Less

Bioarchaeology and Social Complexity : Departing Reflections and Future Directions

Haagen D. KlausMark Nathan CohenMarie Elaine DanforthAmanda R. Harvey

Published in print: 2017-04-11

The closing section of the volume contains commentary and considerations on the bioarchaeology of social complexity. The authors identify several broad themes and issues crosscutting the chapters and offer constructive critiques for future bioarchaeological studies of hierarchy, heterarchy, and other expressions of social organization in antiquity. These include observations on sampling design, paleoepidemiological comparisons of ancient biological stress markers, greater bioarchaeology–mortuary archaeology integration, interpretation in bioarchaeology, and the potential shortcomings of typological expectations of ancient human health.

This introductory chapter examines previous archaeological thinking regarding the origins, scales, forms of evidence, and nature of social complexity in the human past. As a relative newcomer to this ...
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This introductory chapter examines previous archaeological thinking regarding the origins, scales, forms of evidence, and nature of social complexity in the human past. As a relative newcomer to this topical area, bioarchaeological approaches are shown to bring unique theoretical and empirical perspectives on these issues. Unique strengths of the bioarchaeological approach include compelling ways of looking at power, hierarchy, and heterarchy, the embodiment of social realities into human behavior and biology, and avenues to bridge long-standing divides between mortuary archaeology and bioarchaeology. The authors also discuss a number of challenges in the bioarchaeology of social complexity, including how best to grapple with typological thinking and interpretation of social structures from human skeletal remains. The chapter closes with a preview summary of the following chapters in the volume.Less

Haagen D. KlausAmanda R. HarveyMark N. Cohen

Published in print: 2017-04-11

This introductory chapter examines previous archaeological thinking regarding the origins, scales, forms of evidence, and nature of social complexity in the human past. As a relative newcomer to this topical area, bioarchaeological approaches are shown to bring unique theoretical and empirical perspectives on these issues. Unique strengths of the bioarchaeological approach include compelling ways of looking at power, hierarchy, and heterarchy, the embodiment of social realities into human behavior and biology, and avenues to bridge long-standing divides between mortuary archaeology and bioarchaeology. The authors also discuss a number of challenges in the bioarchaeology of social complexity, including how best to grapple with typological thinking and interpretation of social structures from human skeletal remains. The chapter closes with a preview summary of the following chapters in the volume.

From ca. 2200 to 1430 B.C., the people at Cerro de la Encina participated in the El Argar culture of Bronze Age Europe, which was an emergent state-level society defined by rather clear ...
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From ca. 2200 to 1430 B.C., the people at Cerro de la Encina participated in the El Argar culture of Bronze Age Europe, which was an emergent state-level society defined by rather clear sociopolitical class divisions, settlement hierarchies, and gendered differentiation in mortuary treatments. The authors describe health variation and social status in a small sample of 30 individuals and aim to overcome this issue via cross-contextual comparisons of multiple lines of evidence including funerary treatment. The authors find that nearly all signs of elevated morbidity correlate to individuals in lower status funerary contexts. This chapter sheds new light on the potential biocultural consequences of emergent sociopolitical hierarchy in Spain and proposes new questions and research agendas for the bioarchaeology of Bronze Age Western Europe.Less

The Bioarchaeology of Early Social Complexity in Bronze Age Spain : Skeletal Biology and Mortuary Patterns in the El Argar Culture

Sylvia A. Jiménez-BrobeilMaría G. Roca

Published in print: 2017-04-11

From ca. 2200 to 1430 B.C., the people at Cerro de la Encina participated in the El Argar culture of Bronze Age Europe, which was an emergent state-level society defined by rather clear sociopolitical class divisions, settlement hierarchies, and gendered differentiation in mortuary treatments. The authors describe health variation and social status in a small sample of 30 individuals and aim to overcome this issue via cross-contextual comparisons of multiple lines of evidence including funerary treatment. The authors find that nearly all signs of elevated morbidity correlate to individuals in lower status funerary contexts. This chapter sheds new light on the potential biocultural consequences of emergent sociopolitical hierarchy in Spain and proposes new questions and research agendas for the bioarchaeology of Bronze Age Western Europe.

Chapter 4 focuses on the ritual practices connected with the burials at the Late Bronze Age cemetery at Dendra in the Argolid in Greece, ca. 1600–1100 B.C. During this time, the central Argolid ...
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Chapter 4 focuses on the ritual practices connected with the burials at the Late Bronze Age cemetery at Dendra in the Argolid in Greece, ca. 1600–1100 B.C. During this time, the central Argolid became an archaic state with a pronounced site hierarchy, with Mycenae at the top. In the settling process of this power structure, the various practices, including mortuary ritual, were characterized by competition and the negotiation of sociopolitical positions. Part of the material evidence connected with mortuary practices at the Dendra site and its surrounds is used in Schallin’s analysis of the components of the rituals as she proposes a possible scenario of how the burial practices were materialized at Dendra and how they can be seen as a constituent part in the strategies of elite legitimation. In short, Schallin examines material evidence to identify various components in the mortuary ritual at the Dendra cemetery while suggesting how this ritual linked with the network-type political system at Mycenae.Less

Rituals and Ceremonies at the Mycenaean Cemetery at Dendra

Ann-Louise Schallin

Published in print: 2016-08-23

Chapter 4 focuses on the ritual practices connected with the burials at the Late Bronze Age cemetery at Dendra in the Argolid in Greece, ca. 1600–1100 B.C. During this time, the central Argolid became an archaic state with a pronounced site hierarchy, with Mycenae at the top. In the settling process of this power structure, the various practices, including mortuary ritual, were characterized by competition and the negotiation of sociopolitical positions. Part of the material evidence connected with mortuary practices at the Dendra site and its surrounds is used in Schallin’s analysis of the components of the rituals as she proposes a possible scenario of how the burial practices were materialized at Dendra and how they can be seen as a constituent part in the strategies of elite legitimation. In short, Schallin examines material evidence to identify various components in the mortuary ritual at the Dendra cemetery while suggesting how this ritual linked with the network-type political system at Mycenae.