Extraterritoriality

extraterritoriality, also called exterritoriality, or diplomatic immunity ,
in international law, the immunities enjoyed by foreign states or international organizations and their official representatives from the jurisdiction of the country in which they are present. Extraterritoriality extends to foreign states or international organizations as entities and to their heads, legations, troops in passage, war vessels, mission premises, and other assets. It exempts them, while within the territory of a foreign sovereign, from local judicial process, police interference, and other measures of constraint. The term stems from the fiction that such persons or things are deemed not to be within the territory of the sovereign where they are actually present. This doctrine was originated by the French jurist Pierre Ayraut (1536–1601) and gained wide currency because of its adoption by the classical writers on the law of nations such as Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) and Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694). The word extraterritoriality or its foreign equivalent was not in use until the end of the 18th century. It gained a place in the legal vocabulary through its use, if not creation, by Georg Friedrich von Martens (1756–1821), whose treatise on the law of nations, published in 1788, acquired international repute and was promptly translated into several languages, including English.

The actual scope of the immunities comprised in the doctrine of extraterritoriality depends, according to the circumstances, on principles of customary international law as applied in a particular country, on specific statutory or executive regulation, or on international agreements. The right has been extended to merchant ships in foreign waters.

One of the classical cases leading to the emergence of the extraterritoriality doctrine was that of a foreign sovereign visiting a friendly country. It became recognized that no local jurisdiction, whether criminal or civil, could be exercised over the sovereign. The rule was later extended to republican heads of state.

The extraterritoriality of ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives is likewise of long standing. When, for example, during the reign of Queen Anne of Great Britain, the Russian ambassador was arrested for debt, an international incident ensued, and the famous Act Preserving the Privileges of Ambassadors (1708) was passed. The United States enacted a substantially identical statute in 1790. A United Nations Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities, held in Vienna in 1961, resulted in the signing of a Convention on Diplomatic Relations.

There appears to be general agreement that a diplomatic agent, during the term of his office, is totally exempt from both criminal and civil jurisdiction in the state where he is accredited. According to the Vienna Convention, this immunity extends both to the family of the diplomatic agent and to his staff. The mission and residential premises of diplomatic agents are immune not only from process by creditors but also from being entered by the police and other law enforcement officers. Whether and under what conditions they may be used to grant asylum to outsiders is controversial. An Inter-American Convention (1954) sanctions diplomatic asylum for political offenders and refugees.

Foreign consular officers do not enjoy exemptions from the local administration of justice to the same extent as the staffs of foreign diplomatic missions, and the law governing consular immunities is less a matter of settled customary international rules than of bilateral or multilateral treaties.

The United Nations, as a legal entity, its officials, and the members of the delegations of the member states to the United Nations enjoy extensive procedural, fiscal, and other immunities from the jurisdiction of the countries where they are present. In the vast majority of the member nations, the matter is regulated by the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, adopted by the General Assembly in 1946. Separate and special arrangements, however, govern in the United States and Switzerland because the United States includes the UN headquarters and Switzerland has UN offices at Geneva. In the United States the ranking resident representatives of the member states, as well as such resident members of their staffs as are agreed upon, are entitled, within the country, to the customary diplomatic immunities. Accordingly, for instance, they or their spouses may not be charged in U.S. courts with traffic violations. The officers and employees of the United Nations, if reported to and accepted as such by the State Department, are likewise entitled to certain privileges and exemptions, but only to acts performed by them in their official capacity. See alsoconsul.

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