6 ABSTRACT Olkinuora, Jaakko Henrik Byzantine Hymnography for the Feast of the Entrance of the Theotokos: An Intermedial Approach Studia Patristica Fennica 4, 448 pages. The present doctoral dissertation aspires to examine Byzantine hymnography from an intermedial approach, comparing it to homiletic and apocryphal literature, Byzantine music, and iconography. The research topic is the Feast of the Entrance of the Theotokos into the Temple, which is celebrated in the Byzantine Orthodox Church on November 21. The monograph is divided into four main chapters. The first includes an introduction to the methodology employed in the dissertation. The multi-disciplinary technique employed in this study consists of both traditional research methods used in the analysis of Byzantine literature and more contemporary approaches. In particular, the dissertation employs the recently introduced concept of metaesthetics, in order to explain the spiritual aspects of artistic creation, and intermediality, which has proved to be a useful tool for media studies and art history in recent years. Following the discussion of methodology, the study presents research on the historical context of the feast, the most important narrative sources, as well as a systematic listing of the hymnographic corpus, which consists of both published and unpublished hymnographic material. The second chapter consists of an intertextual study of the hymnography of the feast, connecting it to the Scriptures, Apocrypha, and, especially, the homiletic tradition. Special attention is given to the typological, allegorical, metaphorical, and symbolic images of Mary. In the next section, the study draws conclusions concerning the authorship of the hymns and the exchange of influences between hymnography and other literature. The final portion of the chapter seeks to create a deeper understanding of the functions of exegetical methods within Byzantine hymnography. The third chapter analyses the hymnography of the feast in its musical context. Firstly, this portion of the study summarizes the role of church singing in Byzantine theology, especially relating to its influence on the interpretation of the

7 vi Abstract contents of the hymns. This is followed by an intertextual analysis of the musical system of heirmoi-automela and the theological soundscape they create. Finally, the musical settings of two doxastika of the feast are analysed. This study is based on musical manuscripts dating between the 12 th and 19 th centuries, and seeks to demonstrate some of the rhetorical aspects of Byzantine composition techniques and their relation to the analysis of hymnographic texts. The fourth chapter covers the intermedial connections between hymnography and iconography in a broader context. In the initial portion, the Byzantine liturgy is examined as an iconotext, i.e. a co-operation of images and words. The concept of iconotext is examined within a two-dimensional approach: first, as the rhetorical ekphrasis of the events of the Entrance and the hymnographers desire to transmit a vivid image to believers, and, second, as a pictorial expression, the rhetorical methods of which are identical to those expressed in a hymnographic context. Lastly, the chapter explores connections between the theology of hymnography and the theology of the icon. In conclusion, the dissertation seeks to establish connections between and within the intertextual and thematic parallels of each art form. Another parallel can be found in the Byzantine understanding of rhetoric, which influenced all the art genres examined in this study. The most challenging part of the intermedial aspect of this study is the question of the exchange of influences between the different art forms. This difficulty is due to a lack of knowledge regarding the authorship of hymnographic texts, homilies, compositions, and paintings. Finally, the present study suggests that the idea of intertextuality and rhetorical figures is not limited to an aesthetic or artistic dimension. Rather, in a metaesthetic way, the hymnographer transmitted his spiritual vision, which is re-interpreted by the performer of the hymn and, ultimately, by the listener. The Byzantine liturgy as an intermedial environment enhances the process of a spiritual theoria in all the phases of the creation, performance, and perception of liturgical arts. The present study is the first extensive monograph on the hymnography of the feast of the Entrance of the Theotokos. A modern edition of previously unpublished hymns and their translation are included in the Appendices. Keywords: homiletics, Apocrypha, metaesthetics, rhetoric, intertextuality, exegesis, typology, Byzantine music, iconography

10 FOREWORD The inspiration for the present study originates in Thessaloniki, Greece, in the year At that time, my main interest of study was church music, but during my exchange year at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, I discovered the richness and beauty of the two dominant literary genres covered in this dissertation, hymnography and patristic homilies. Experiencing the contemporary use of these ancient texts in the original Greek within the context of liturgical worship, particularly in the monasteries of the Holy Mountain, brought me into contact with Byzantium and its modes of life that endure even in our present era. What struck me the most was the balance of the different elements in the liturgical experience of the Orthodox Church. Indeed, the hymnography, homilies, biblical readings, iconography, architecture, and other facets of worship seemed to synergistically co-operate in a way that was previously unknown to me. Two years later, I was pondering upon the continuation of my academic career after having finished my degree in church music. I definitely wanted to deepen my knowledge and understanding of Byzantine hymnography, however, narrowing down the exact subject I wished to study seemed utterly impossible. It was at this point, when the supervisor of the present dissertation, Dr Serafim Seppälä, suggested a more holistic approach to the field, concentrating on the intriguing case of the feast of the Entrance of the Theotokos. Thus, the framework for this book was formed. Due to the interdisciplinary character of my research, I have been fortunate enough to have the opportunity to consult a great number of scholars and experts from various fields, all of whom have made significant contributions to this study. Most of all, I want to thank whole-heartedly my supervisor, Hieromonk Dr Serafim Seppälä, not only for his valuable advise during the course of my post-graduate studies, but also for his significant support and encouragement in my academic and artistic pursuits since my high school years. I would also like to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr Maria

11 x Foreword Alexandru, who helped me to discover new methodological approaches to the corpus and offered me her expertise in laying the groundwork for the musical part of my research. I am also thankful to my reviewers, Dr Mary Cunningham and Dr Niki Tsironis, for their valuable comments and corrections to the manuscript. I am also greatly indebted to a number of scholars and colleagues, many of them my close friends, who generously gave me bibliographical material for my study, eagerly offered me their advice, and answered questions related to the difficulties of the research process. In particular, I would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to this study: Archbishop Job (Getcha) of Telmessos, Dr Achilleas Chaldaiakis, Dr Guillaume Dye, Dr Sydney Freedman, Dr Nicolae Gheorgiță, Dr Stefan Harkov, Rev. Johannes Karhusaari, Dr Alexandra Nikiforova, Dr Sara Peno, Dr Alexis Torrance, and doctoral candidates Karoliina Maria Schauman and Sarah Wagner-Wassen. I especially want to thank my dear friends, Dr Daniel Galadza and Dr Costin Moisil, for their valuable help in finding literature and primary sources. My teacher of Byzantine chant, Dr Ioannis Liakos, deserves particular thanks not only for his help with finding musical sources for this dissertation, but also for providing me with a toolkit, both practical and theoretical, for studying the various dimensions of the overlap between Byzantine music and hymnography. I also owe much to Mr Konstantinos Xenopoulos, archon iconographer of the Patriarchate of Alexandria, for introducing me to the philosophy and practice of Byzantine iconography. The publication of this thesis would not have been possible without the technical aid of my close friend, Mr Mikko Kuri. His technical support helped to overcome various technological obstacles during the course of my study. I would also like to thank doctoral candidate Jussi Junni for the beautiful layout of this book. I would like to express cordially my gratitude to Dr Nicholas Marinides for his valuable comments and help revising the modern editions of the hymnographic texts published in this dissertation, and for his great companionship on our pilgrimages. Additionally, my friend and colleague, Ms Meri Metsomäki, kindly checked my Finnish abstract. Most importantly, I am deeply grateful to Rev. Dr Demetrios Harper and his wife Marina for revi-

12 Foreword xi sing the present volume and offering their valuable advice on its contents, not to mention the numerous Skype conversations and dinners at their home in Thessaloniki. My hunt for relevant literature and manuscript sources has taken me to places around the globe. The exploration of majestic libraries has been one of the most impressive aspects of the research process for a country boy like me. I would like to thank the staff of the Library of Congress (Washington D.C.), Patriarchal Institute for Patristic Studies (Thessaloniki, Greece), French National Library (Paris), Manuscript Department of the National Library of Russia (St. Petersburg), Dumbarton Oaks Library (Washington D.C.), and the Library of the Holy and Stavropegial Monastery of St. Xenophontos (Mt. Athos) for their professional help in searching for relevant historical sources. This research would not have been possible without abundant financial support. I especially want to thank the following foundations for making this study possible with their generous scholarships: Fevronia Orfanos, Alfred Kordelin, and Brothers Kudrjavzew, as well as the Orthodox Church of Finland. Participating in international conferences has also played a significant role in the creation of this dissertation. Special thanks go to my dear friend and like-minded colleague, Dr Maria Takala-Roszczenko, who both introduced me to the world of academic conferences during my undergraduate studies and has provided me the best possible companionship while attending conferences in both Finland and abroad. The conferences related to this dissertation include, for example, the biannual conference of the International Society for Orthodox Church Music (2011 and 2013 in Joensuu, Finland) and the conference Theorie und Geschichte der Monodie, organised in Vienna, Austria (2014). I want to thank the organisers of these conferences for offering me the opportunity to speak on my research topic, as well as the participants for their valuable comments and encouragement, not to mention their friendship. During my post-graduate studies, I also received help from the research community at my own alma mater, University of Eastern Finland, most notably from other PhD students in Systematic Theology and Patristics. I especially want to thank doctoral candidate Ari Koponen for his comments on the contents and structure of my thesis; our collaboration has indeed been fruitful.

13 xii Foreword The demanding process of compiling an extensive monograph has, at times, been mentally strenuous. During the five years of my research, my friends have shown their support and encouraged me to strive constantly for higher goals. It is impossible to thank all of them separately. However, I want to mention my close friends who are also struggling with post-graduate studies in their own fields and have shared their knowledge and experiences with me. Namely, I would like to mention doctoral candidates Brandon Boor, Athanasios Gotsopoulos, Rev. Timo Hirvonen, Nusrat Jung, Senni Jyrkiäinen, and Eleftherios Soultanis. All of my academic pursuits would not have taken place without the support of my family. I want to thank my parents, Anita and Seppo Olkinuora, for giving me the best possible upbringing for the cultivation of my particular interests, and my sisters, Maija Partanen and Anna Olkinuora, who shared a most beautiful childhood and youth with me. Indeed, Anna has has proved to be a great help for the present study with her scholarly knowledge on discourse analysis. My eldest brother, Janne, is following my work with the other members of the Church Triumphant. In order conclude, I would like express my deepest gratitude to the monastic communities who have given me the best possible support and comments on my dissertation. After having led me to the world of patristics and hymnography in their practical form, they have shown their way of life to be a living imitation of the Theotokos s dwelling in the temple. I am greatly indebted to the monastic communities of the Xenophontos monastery and the brotherhood of the Koutloumousian cell of St. John the Theologian (Mt. Athos), convent of St. John the Forerunner in Akritochori (Greece), convent of the Holy Trinity in Lintula (Finland), and skete of St. John the Forerunner (Saaremaa, Estonia). I pray that God will always bless their ascetic struggle and help them imitate the pure life of the Mother of God. On the feast St. James, son of Zebedee April 30, 2015 In Joensuu, Finland Jaakko Olkinuora

14 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract... v Tiivistelmä...vii Foreword...ix Table of Contents...xiii List of Abbreviations...xvii 1. Introduction Aim of the research Methodological approaches and earlier studies Philological and palaeographical research Musicological research Theological research Current methodological approaches Intertextuality Intermedial approaches Metaesthetics towards a theology of hymnography Entrance of the Theotokos Narratives and sources History of the feast Liturgical context Primary hymnographic sources Published hymnography Unpublished hymnography...52

15 xiv Table of Contents 2. Hymnography and the Homiletic Tradition in Interaction An introduction to the homiletic tradition of the Feast Typological, allegorical, metaphorical, and symbolic images of the Entrance through hymnography and homiletics: an intertextual analysis The dwelling-place of God: Temple and Tabernacle The living ark The spiritual gate Mary as sacrifice The monastic bride of God Light in the feast of the Entrance Eucharistic typology Forefeast of the Annunciation The end of the Old Covenant Approaches to the overlap between hymnography and homiletics The problem of authorship The stream of influences The Entrance as a source of patristic exegetical thought Byzantine Music as a Source for the Interpretation of Hymnography Words and melodies in co-operation Patristic ideals for church singing and its perception Liturgical singing as exegetical activity Musical intertextuality in the hymnography of the Entrance: the selection of echoi and automela Prosomoia and kathismata Heirmoi and idiomela Musical analysis as a tool for understanding Byzantine hymnography...164

16 Table of Contents xv Methodology of analysis Doxastikon of the kekragaria of Great Vespers Doxastikon of the aposticha of Great Vespers Hymnography as Iconic Narration Byzantine worship as an iconotext An iconographic reading of the hymnography of the Entrance Pictorial rhetoric Ekphrastic dimensions in the stichera Kanon of the forefeast in Sinait. gr. 570: a mosaic of images Pictorial dialogues in the kanons A hymnographic reading of the iconography of the Entrance Iconography of the feast of the Entrance Thematic and intertextual parallels Rhetoricity of Byzantine iconography Theology of the icon as a source for the theology of hymnography Seventh Ecumenical Council A theology of hymnography? Conclusion Appendix I: Unpublished Hymnography for the Feast of the Entrance Appendix II: Transnotation of Μετὰ τὸ τεχθῆναι σε Appendix III: Transnotation of Σήμερον τὰ στίφη τῶν πιστῶν Bibliography...387

20 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. AIM OF THE RESEARCH Hymnography 1 is certainly one of the richest forms of Byzantine literature and continues to be a regularly performed form of poetry in the context of liturgical worship up until the present day. 2 By definition, a hymn is a poem on a religious topic, primarily intended for liturgical use and to be sung, but also including verse written for private devotional purposes. 3 The roots of this tradition stretch to the very beginning of Christianity. The practice of chanting hymns for the glory of God is attested to already in the Scriptures. Both the Old and the New Testament include a great variety of hymnographic texts, the most important being the book of Psalms, which formed the core of the services in the temple of Jerusalem. Later on, they, together with other 1 In this study, the term hymnography refers exclusively to Orthodox hymnography that was produced in or follows the tradition of the Byzantine Empire, and, unless otherwise mentioned, was composed originally in the Greek language. The primary portion of the hymnography used in the feast of the Entrance, the topic of this study, is derived from the third main period of Byzantine hymnographic creation, the era of the creation of the kanon (between the 8 th and 11 th centuries). Regarding the development of hymnographic forms, the first period, stretching from the 1 st to 4 th centuries, includes the creation of simple troparia. The second period (between the 5 th and 7 th centuries) is dominated by the birth of the kontakion, and the last period (from the 12 th century onwards) is characterized by imitation of earlier hymnographic forms. This division can be found in several hymnographic studies; for further reference and a general introduction to hymnographic studies, see the renowned studies Wellesz 1961, Τωμαδάκης 1965 and Μητσάκης In its original Greek form, Byzantine hymnography is used in Greek-speaking churches. New hymnography imitating the Byzantine form of Greek language is also constantly being created. Byzantine hymnography also forms the fundamental hymnographic repertoire of all non-greek speaking churches abroad that follow the Byzantine rite, including Russia, Georgia, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and others. 3 Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium 1991, vol. 2, 960.

21 2 INTRODUCTION biblical hymns and Hellenistic traditions, also constituted the basic repertoire of the early Christian liturgical life. 4 The Byzantine hymnographic tradition is an heir of this earlier practice. What is most striking in Byzantine hymnography as compared to other Christian hymnographic traditions is the richness of its expression and content, as well as the enormous amount of poems that have been composed throughout the history of the Church. The greater portion of the hymnography used today in the liturgical worship of the Byzantine rite was composed during the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils or in their wake. 5 At that time, the most important Byzantine homiletic texts were also developed. Consequently, hymnography reflects the theological debates of the era of its emergence and constitutes a testimony to Orthodox theological thought congruent to that represented in the homiletic tradition. From an aesthetic standpoint, the richness of the textual forms of hymnography is vast. This can be attributed to the fact that the Byzantine Orthodox hymnographic tradition borrows and further develops influences from both ancient Greek and Semitic traditions. Indeed, the Syriac roots of hymnography are of primary importance, as will also be shown during the course of the present study. 6 Moreover, it is noteworthy that several hymnographers of the Eastern Church are revered as saints, which also attests to the importance the Church accords to her hymnography. In addition, the Byzantine-rite churches have a strictly regulated order for the use of hymns, documented in the rubrics called typika, as compared to other Christian denominations. Despite the grandeur and vastness of Byzantine hymnographic tradition, it has not received adequate scholarly treatment in the field of Orthodox theology. All major authorities in the field of hymnography date from decades 4 See, for example, Wellesz 1961, The first and last of them being in Nicaea (in 325 and 787). One of the main themes of the last council was the veneration of icons: the iconoclast schism continued well until the 9 th century and the restoration of Orthodoxy took place in 843. Thus, I consider the era of the councils to stretch until the mid-9 th century. 6 The influence of Ephraim the Syrian and other Syrian hymnographers on the Byzantine Greek tradition has been studied especially in the case of the kontakion; see, for example, Grosdidier de Maton It is notable that in Syriac literature and theology hymnography holds an even more central position than in the Greek literary tradition.

22 INTRODUCTION 3 past. Until the present day, no one has challenged the works of, say, Tomadakis (1965), Mitsakis (1971), Trempelas (1978) and Wellesz (1961). However, there are still numerous open questions that have not been answered. The primary concerns are, for instance, the lack of critical editions, 7 as manuscript material is constantly being found around the world, and the question of authorship, which remains unsolved for the vast majority of the hymns. Secondly, scholarly research in hymnography seems to underestimate it as a theological literary genre; in addition to the philological study of hymnography, which is perhaps more widely developed, its theological analysis also requires more attention. The use of hymnography in theological literature is largely reduced to the level of mere quotations. Nevertheless, in the spiritual tradition of the Orthodox Church, there is a tradition of analysing hymnography more thoroughly. For example, Nikodemos the Hagiorite ( ) published his own, detailed theological commentaries on hymns. He draws intertextual connections between the Scriptures, hymnography, liturgics and homiletic tradition. 8 My initial interest in this dissertation arose from my own need to understand the role of hymnography in the dogmatic, spiritual, and aesthetic thought of the Orthodox Church as well as the structures and processes involved in creating, performing, and listening to hymns. To this end, I approach my subject from an intermedial perspective, established in contemporary media studies. In the context of liturgical worship, hymnography acts in co-operation with other liturgical arts. The fundamental idea of intermediality, as I understand it, is the assumption that the co-existence of different art genres provides further meaning and interpretational dimensions to each independent art genre. Thus, I examine the hymnographic corpus in relation to other literature (apocryphal texts and sermons), Byzantine music, and iconography. This dissertation seeks to answer the following question: How can the intermedial approach deepen our understanding of Byzantine hymnography and the research of it, and research relating thereto? 7 Most published Byzantine hymnography is printed in the liturgical books of the Greek-speaking churches. See footnote 145 below for further reference. 8 See Νικόδημος Ἁγιορείτης 1836.

23 4 INTRODUCTION This question can be divided into the following sub-questions: 1. What kind of thematic parallels can be found between the hymnography of the Entrance and the homiletic, musical, and iconographic tradition of the feast? 2. What intertextual connections appear in the studied art genres? Are these levels of linkage similar in all art forms, or do they vary? 3. Are there parallelisms between the studied art genres in terms of the forms and tools of presentation? 4. Can the transmission of ideas from one art genre to another be deciphered? I approach these questions through the prism of the Feast of the Entrance of the Theotokos into the Temple (November 21). I have chosen this feast because of its non-biblical background and the uncertainty of its historical background, thus bringing deserved attention to this celebration that has not yet been studied satisfactorily. The lack of exact information on the background of the feast makes recognizing intertextual and intermedial structures particularly challenging, yet, for the very same reason, fruitful and important for future scholarship. The feast of the Entrance is based entirely on the tradition of the Church, which forces us to reconstruct the theological ideas of the feast purely on the basis of the homiletic, hymnographic, and apocryphal tradition. One of the most important contributions of this study is the publication of a significant amount of formerly unpublished hymnography, the corpus of which will be presented in more detail in chapter The unpublished hymnography, however, is brought forward only as supporting material for my analysis and is examined in conjunction with already published hymnography. This dissertation consists of four main chapters which are divided into sub-chapters, each of the four main chapters being dedicated to one of the art genres reflected in the hymnography of the feast. Chapter 1 is an introduction that has two main aims: firstly, to present the history and hymnographic sources of the case study (the Entrance) and, secondly, to examine the methodological background of this research. Chapter 2 conducts a systematic

24 INTRODUCTION 5 analysis of the theological ideas that emerge from the hymnography of the Entrance in comparison with the homiletic and apocryphal textual tradition. Additionally, the various exegetical and other theological-analytic methods employed in hymnography are discussed. Chapter 3, in its turn, analyses the role of hymnography as musically composed and performed poetry. The research consists of a general discussion of the rendering of hymnography in its musical form in the context of the divine service, as well as the patristic ideal of church singing. A large portion of the chapter is dedicated to the study of musical forms and their impact on the rhetoric and theological interpretation of hymnography, approached through a description of the intertextuality employed in the Byzantine model melody system and a musical analysis of two compositions. Chapter 4 analyses the relationship between icons and hymnography in two ways. The first is the comparison of content and influences in the hymnography and iconography of the feast. The second aspect, taking a step back analytically, is the examination of hymnography from an iconic standpoint: rhetorical and theological structures in the hymnographic corpus at hand will be delineated and juxtaposed to their counterparts in the iconographic presentation of the feast. Finally, the conclusory section summarizes our findings for the research questions presented above. In the continuation of this chapter, I present an overview of the various methodological approaches that have formed the groundwork for the present study. I then proceed to a historical overview of the development of the feast of the Entrance, together with its most important narrative sources. In the third part, I introduce the hymnographic corpus studied for this research METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES AND EARLIER STUDIES Even though the following is meant to be an overview of the various methodological aspects of the dissertation, due to the multi-disciplinary character of the research, a methodological discussion will be continued throughout the whole work. The main motivation of this study has been to combine traditional methods of theological study with the more contemporary method of intermediality; the methodological innovation of this dissertation is to com-

25 6 INTRODUCTION bine the intermedial approach with the spiritual dimensions of Orthodox liturgical worship. Hymnography has traditionally been studied from three main standpoints. Inasmuch as it is poetical material, it has been a significant focus of study within the field of Byzantine philology. Additionally, hymnography as sung material has interested Byzantine musicologists. Finally, because of its function in divine worship and as a theological form of literature, hymnography is traditionally treated as a subject of both liturgical and patristic studies in the field of Byzantine theology. My main aim in the following pages is to provide a summary, together with a bibliography, for each field separately and to explain their importance for the present study. As the reader will note, a broader analysis of Byzantine hymnography requires not only a wide variety of methodological approaches, but also technical skills in various fields PHILOLOGICAL AND PALAEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH Greek hymnography is often treated as a subcategory of Classics. A philological approach to the study of hymnography sheds light on various facets of the text by examining syntax, metre, rhetoric, and palaeographical characteristics. To date, scholarly interest in the language and style of Byzantine hymnography has been reserved, to say the least. 9 Even critical editions of the extant manuscripts are rare. 10 Linguistic analysis does not play a significant role in the present study, but is nevertheless taken into account, especially in tracing the interplay of influences between the hymnographic, homiletic, apocryphal, and biblical traditions. 11 One can hope that future research will 9 One of the few studies in hymnographic languages is Mitsakis As Πάσχος (1999, 49) states, the language of hymnography varies from one author and/or form of poetry to another. He goes on to say that the language of hymnography must be closer to the spoken language of the era of its creation, drawing significant influence from the koine form of Greek. The liturgical language, however, includes also traits of other forms of Greek. 10 A contemporary critical edition of the iambic kanons of John of Damascus can be found in Skrekas Compiling critical editions of hymnography is very difficult because of the vast amount of material in manuscript form. In addition to liturgical textbooks and typika, musical manuscripts should also be taken into consideration. 11 The most important inspirations for this study of have been Hatzidakis 1892 ( immer noch grundlegend as Karayannopoulos [1982, vol. 1, 15] notes), Dieterich 1898, and Browning 1969.

26 INTRODUCTION 7 soon lead to the publication of more critical editions, making it possible to deal systematically with many stimulating questions surrounding hymnography, especially by treating significant nuances in the literary styles of individual hymnists and the unsolved question of authorship in many Byzantine hymns. 12 In the meantime, we can approach these questions through the general methods of grammatical analysis used in the historical forms of the Greek language. 13 A great ally in this pursuit is the knowledge of other languages such as Georgian, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian or Latin, languages which are essential to the understanding of the transmission of texts around the Byzantine Empire and to its neighbours. Indeed, an interesting topic for further research would be the examination of the transmission of the hymnography of the feast of the Entrance to other cultural groups, most significantly the Slavs and the Georgians. However, it will not be possible to cover this material in the present dissertation. In contrast, scholarly inquiry has already shed considerable light on the use of poetic metre in hymnography. 14 In general, the metrical structures in Byzantine hymnography are based on tonic metres rather than the prosodic metres of antiquity, though exceptions exist. 15 The automelon-prosomoion or heirmos-troparion systems of melodic and metric prototypes with their contrafacta, examined in chapter 3, are strongly marked by metrical structures, while metre in idiomela is more complex and requires considerable further attention. 16 Metre is also implicated in the overall formulaic structure Byzantine hymnography and of the melodies to which it is set. Thematic, syn- 12 This will be more closely discussed in chapter Such research has been done in Skrekas 2008, lxxxv cvii. 14 See, for example, Τρεμπέλας 1978, and Πάσχος 1999, An excellent recent study by Arvanitis (Αρβανίτης 2010) concentrates on the meaning of metricality in Byzantine hymnography in relation to the rhythmic interpretation of Byzantine chant. For the rhythm in Byzantine rhetorics, see Valiavitcharska When examining the translations of Byzantine hymnography into other languages, one can see that metrical structures are often considered to be of secondary importance in relation to an exact rendering of the meaning of the hymn. This is because of the dogmatic character of this poetry.

27 8 INTRODUCTION tactical and aural patterns often converge to produce formulaic expressions used in hymns, which will be frequently noted in the present study. 17 The arrangement of metrical structures in written texts, along with the rhythm of the words more generally, is considered as an aspect of rhetoric. 18 The term rhetoric refers both to a text or a speech with persuasive force, and to the rules that guide this process. In the case of hymnography, as we will see during the course of this study, the process of rhetoric creation also involves the liturgical performance of the text and involves many persons, something that makes it different from a simple speech that is delivered only once in a certain context. As for the second part of the definition rhetoric, there are no guides for composing hymnography; this tradition has only been transmitted orally and can only be extracted through the study of hymnographic texts, as will also happen in this dissertation. Even though rhetoric guides in the case of hymnography do not exist, it is necessary to consider rhetorical aspects also in this context. During the first decades after the birth of the Church, attitudes towards the classical rhetorical tradition in Christian proclamation were reserved. 19 However, rhetoric 17 Such formulaic patterns of speech are drawn either from the Scriptures, dogmatic texts, or the hymnographic tradition itself. A typical example of the first category is the kanon. The heirmoi often quote the Biblical odes according to which they are written, and these quotations are continued in the following troparia. For instance, in the 8 th ode of the first kanon of the Entrance, both the heirmoi and all the troparia conclude with the formula Εὐλογεῖτε, πάντα τὰ ἔργα Κυρίου τὸν Κύριον. Some of the other typical formulas that are used in the hymnography of the Entrance, drawn from the hymnographic tradition itself, are δωρηθῆναι ἡμῖν τὸ μέγα ἔλεος (doxastikon of the stichera kekragaria of the Small Vespers) and Χαίρετε λαοὶ καὶ ἀγαλλιᾶσθε (doxastikon of the Lite). 18 Good overall presentations of the art of rhetoric in the antiquity are Martin 1974 and Porter A study that includes an examination of Byzantine rhetoric is Kennedy 1983; for more detailed contributions on the subject of Byzantine rhetorics, see Jeffreys (ed.) For example, in 1 Cor 2:1 2: And I, brethren, when I came to you, came not with excellency of speech or of wisdom, declaring unto you the testimony of God. For I determined not to know any thing among you, save Jesus Christ, and him crucified. Despite Paul s words in this passage, his letters are highly rhetorical, and their purpose is to persuade the readers to lead a proper, Christian life. See Sample & Lampe 2010 for more discussion on Paul and rhetoric; for further discussion on the relationship between rhetoric and early Christianity, see Jeffreys (ed.) 2003, See also C. Schäublin s examination of the contribution of rhetoric to Christian hermeneutics in Kannengiesser 2006,

28 INTRODUCTION 9 came to assume an important place in Byzantine education, thanks to the general tendency to embrace and re-interpret Hellenistic literary and philosophical tradition 20 and, thus, cannot be omitted when studying Byzantine homiletics or hymnography. 21 The fathers were often educated in the Greek rhetorical tradition and employed rhetorical styles, especially in their exegetical writings. 22 One of the clearest indications of this rhetorical tradition was the use of an elevated form of language in all literature (the so-called diglossia or bilingualism). Indeed, the influence of the ancient rhetorical tradition on Byzantine homiletics has been studied far more extensively than that on hymnography. 23 This is perhaps because Greek rhetorical forms are more recognizable in the homiletic tradition than in hymnography. The genres and techniques The biblical quotations in this dissertation follow the King James Version. In the case of Old Testament, however, the Septuagint holds primary position. If the LXX version differs greatly from the KJV, I use other translations. Psalm references are made according to the numbering of the Septuagint. 20 See Kennedy 1983, When discussing the role of rhetoric in homiletics and hymnography with my colleagues, I have sometimes encountered negative attitudes towards rhetoric, the tendency to regard it as something that obscures the truth or facts in ecclesiastical texts. However, I consider the study of rhetoric an essential tool for understanding Byzantine literature. To quote Martha Vinson, it would be well to remember that rhetoric is, after all, the art of persuasion. Its primary purpose is thus not to convey unambiguous pieces of information in a neutral or unbiased way, but rather to articulate a particular point of view in a persuasive manner. [ ] But if rhetoric is not a reliable source of hard facts, what is it good for? Put another way, do Byzantine texts contain useful information and, if so, can one extract it in usable form? The answer on both questions is an unqualified yes. The use of rhetoric in the study of Byzantine texts helps to show that sometimes the rhetorical device itself becomes an essential message. Also, it helps to disclose intertextual relationships and the dating of the text (Vinson 2003, 10). Finally, persons holding high positions in the Byzantine church usually had a rhetorical education. A recent overall presentation of the role of rhetoric in the late Byzantine period can be found in Constantinides For example, Gregory of Nazianzos used the classical rhetoric tradition effectively when defending Orthodoxy through his writings and homilies (see Norris 1991). His reason for its use was the desire to communicate with different social groups (see Vinson 2003, 15). 23 Perhaps the most extensive presentations on the rhetorical tradition of Byzantine homilies are Valiavitcharska 2007 and 2013.

29 10 INTRODUCTION of hymns did not receive their inspiration exclusively from the classical tradition but were greatly affected by Semitic influences as evidenced, for example, in the use of dialogical form. 24 Nevertheless, Greek rhetorical modes and devices are still also employed in hymnographic texts. Studies on the rhetorical aspects of hymnography are few in number. 25 This could well be the consequence of caution from a spiritual point of view. The emphasis on the rhetorical character of the text might seem to cast a shadow on its dogmatic authority, due to the fact that hymns sometimes include generalization, exaggeration, or dramatization. 26 However, in spite of these artistic methods, hymnography cannot be considered as theologically inaccurate or dogmatically poor. Instead, it is crucial to detect the semantic mechanisms and functions within the poems on the genre s own terms. After all, the rhetorical devices and modes used in hymnography are not an 24 The dialogical form will be studied later in this dissertation in the analysis of the overlap between hymnography and homiletics in chapter and as a pictorial rhetoric method in chapter It is noteworthy that the dialogue is a particularly daring rhetorical form, because the preacher or hymnographer speaks with the voice of historical persons in the history of salvation; this conveys to believers the fact that he has authority to speak on these matters because he has beheld the events through spiritual theoria (cf. Cunningham 2003, 104: Dialogue [ ] allows the preacher actually to change the original words and dramatically to convey their hidden meaning. ). The concept of theoria will appear often during the course of the present study, and it will be discussed in the context of exegetical activity in chapter below. The term implies several meanings and research on the different variations of this important concept still continues. The word is already used in antiquity to mean contemplation and has come to indicate several different things in Christian language. The common element for these definitions is, however, the encounter of God in theoria. Thus, human reason transcends the limits of the nous and acquires deeper dimensions of vision, enjoying the presence of God. For further information on the understanding of theoria in the antiquity, see Nightingale 2004; for an introduction to the Eastern Christian ideas of theoria, see Hierotheos (Vlachos) For me, personally, the most interesting studies on the rhetoric of hymnography are Zervoudaki 2011 (on the topic of a rhetorical genre combined with hymnography), Κορακίδης 2006 (a whole volume on the relationship between rhetoric and hymnography), Cominos 1991 (on rhetoric in the works of Romanos the Melodist) and Ξύδης 1978 (an overall presentation of Byzantine hymnography, including a chapter on rhetoric). 26 Often, the main aim of a rhetorical text is not the transmission of pure information but merely to persuade.

30 INTRODUCTION 11 end in itself but rather aim at an effective transmission of theological ideas, which is precisely one of the basic premises of this literary genre. 27 Herein lies a significant difference between profane rhetoric, used by politicians and teachers, and ecclesiastical eloquence; the final persuasive action of the latter is, as the fathers understood it, not the promotion of personal agendas or political pursuits as in the former genre, but rather depends on the activity of the Holy Spirit, who inspires the preacher or hymnographer to choose the correct expressions in order to convey a spiritual message and guide believers along the right path. To re-articulate an idea presented by Korakidis, ecclesiastical literature can never be wholly submitted to the conventions of classical Greek rhetoric. According to the self-understanding of Byzantine spirituality, its contents, the words of divine truth, can never persuade a cold-hearted recipient who is a priori closed to this truth. True, Christian rhetorical persuasion implies the enlightenment of the nous by the Holy Spirit. 28 Rhetorical thinking, as I demonstrate in the course of this study, has left its mark on not only Byzantine literature but also other liturgical art forms, such as iconography and Byzantine liturgical music. Thus, it has emerged as one of the leading motives in my research. In particular, the role of rhetoric in the spiritual thought of hymnographers, preachers, and iconographers is considered. The philological study of hymnography also includes the use of palaeographical methods, which are particularly useful in answering questions of authenticity, authorship, dating, and textual history of a certain manuscript, and, as such, forms an important tool for every Byzantine scholar. In the present study, palaeography does not hold a central position. However, the palaeographical aspect has an important role in relation to liturgical manuscripts, 29 resulting in the discovery of previously unpublished hymnographic material that will be presented in chapter 1.5.2; these texts, along with their English translation, constitutes Appendix I of this dissertation. The compilation of a comparative, critical edition would have been well beyond the scope of this 27 See relevant discussion in Skrekas 2008, lii liii (and footnote 150). 28 See Κορακίδης 2006, My basis for the study of Greek manuscripts has been Gardthausen 1911/1913, Deevresse 1954, and Karayannopoulos 1982.

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