The Forensic Anthropology Training Manual

Why Rent from Knetbooks?

Because Knetbooks knows college students. Our rental program is designed to save you time and money. Whether you need a textbook for a semester, quarter or even a summer session, we have an option for you. Simply select a rental period, enter your information and your book will be on its way!

This training manual is designed to serve three purposes: to be used as a general introduction to the field of forensic anthropology; as a framework for training; and as a practical reference tool. The book will make readers aware of the challenges and responsibilities of the forensic scientist, the multidisciplinary nature of the work, and the international potential for the forensic sciences. The manual examines physical evidence, death investigation specialists, forensic anthropology, human Osteology, human Odontology, laboratory analysis, field methods, professional results, and human rights applications. For those seeking basic knowledge necessary to collect and process skeletonized human remains.

Preface

xv

Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

1

(8)

Introduction: The Problem of the Unidentified

2

(1)

Who are the ``missing, unidentified, and disappeared''?

2

(1)

Why is identification so difficult?

2

(1)

The Discipline of Forensic Anthropology

3

(3)

History of Forensic Anthropology

3

(2)

Educational Requirements

5

(1)

How is the work of an anthropologist different from the work of a pathologist or medical examiner?

6

(1)

Objectives of an Anthropological Investigation

6

(1)

Questions Basic to Personal Identification

6

(1)

Questions Regarding the Circumstances of Death

7

(1)

Cause and Manner of Death

7

(1)

Stages of an Investigation

7

(2)

Osteology, the Biology of Bone

9

(14)

Introduction

10

(1)

Why study human osteology?

10

(1)

What are the practical applications?

10

(1)

Structure and Function of the Skeletal System

10

(6)

Tissues: Communities of Cells with a Common Purpose

10

(1)

Connective Tissue: The Most Durable Tissue of the Body

11

(1)

Dense Connective Tissue: Holding Everything Together

11

(1)

Cartilage: A Strong but Flexible Connective Tissue

12

(1)

Bone: The Strongest, Least Flexible Connective Tissue

12

(4)

Classification and Description of Bones

16

(1)

By Location

16

(1)

By Size and Shape

16

(1)

By Origin

16

(1)

By Structure

16

(1)

Directional and Sectional Terms for the Human Body

17

(4)

Osteological Terms

21

(2)

The Skull and Hyoid

23

(39)

Introduction

24

(4)

Left / Right Recognition

24

(1)

Individualization

24

(1)

Origin and Growth

24

(4)

Frontal Bone

28

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

28

(1)

Individualization

28

(1)

Origin and Growth

28

(2)

Parietal Bones

30

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

30

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

30

(1)

Individualization

30

(1)

Origin and Growth

30

(2)

Occipital Bone

32

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

32

(1)

Individualization

32

(1)

Origin and Growth

32

(2)

Temporal Bones

34

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

34

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

34

(1)

Individualization

34

(1)

Origin and Growth

34

(2)

Zygomatic Bone (Malar)

36

(1)

Description, Location, Articulation

36

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

36

(1)

Individualization

36

(1)

Origin and Growth

36

(1)

Sphenoid

37

(1)

Description, Location, Articulation

37

(1)

Origin and Growth

37

(1)

Maxillae

38

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

38

(1)

Individualization

38

(1)

Origin and Growth

38

(2)

Mandible

40

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

40

(1)

Individualization

40

(1)

Origin and Growth

40

(2)

Nasals, Lacrimals, and Ethmoid

42

(2)

Age Changes in the Skull

44

(1)

Sex Differences in the Skull

44

(3)

Racial Analysis of the Skull

47

(4)

Individualization

50

(1)

Anthropometry

51

(2)

Frankfort Plane (a.k.a. Frankfort Horizontal)

51

(1)

Craniometric Points

51

(2)

Directions for Accurate Measurements

53

(7)

Measuring the Cranium

53

(2)

Measuring the Orbit

55

(1)

Measuring the Palate

56

(1)

Measuring the Mandible

56

(2)

Chord Measurements

58

(1)

Head Shape: Cephalic Indices and Discriminant Function Analyses

58

(1)

Computerized Analysis of Sex and Race: FORDISC

59

(1)

The Hyoid

60

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

60

(2)

The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

62

(16)

Introduction

63

(1)

Clavicle: The Collar Bone

63

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

63

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

64

(1)

Origin and Growth

64

(1)

Scapula: The Shoulder Blade

65

(4)

Description, Location, Articulation

65

(2)

Left / Right Recognition

67

(1)

Individualization: Handedness, Left / Right Dominance

67

(1)

Origin and Growth

68

(1)

Ribs

69

(7)

Description, Location, Articulation

70

(1)

Rib Sorting: Left / Right and Superior/Inferior Recognition

70

(3)

Individualization: Costo-Vertebral Articulations and Abnormalities

73

(1)

Age Determination with Ribs

73

(1)

Age Changes in Sternal Rib Ends of Males

74

(1)

Origin and Growth

75

(1)

Sternum: The Breast Bone

76

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

76

(1)

Individualization

76

(1)

Origin and Growth

76

(2)

The Vertebral Column

78

(13)

Introduction

79

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

79

(1)

Superior / Inferior Recognition

79

(1)

Individualization

79

(2)

Origin and Growth

81

(1)

Cervical Vertebrae (Atlas, Axis, and C3--C7)

82

(1)

Thoracic Vertebrae (T1--T12)

83

(1)

Lumbar Vertebrae (L1--L5)

84

(1)

Sacral Vertebrae (S1--S5 or Sacrum)

85

(1)

Coccygeal Vertebrae (Coccyx)

86

(1)

Reassembling the Vertebral Column, Step by Step

87

(1)

Sort First

87

(1)

Begin at the Top

87

(1)

Stop and Review the Results

87

(1)

The Aging Vertebral Body

87

(4)

Age Changes in Vertebral Bodies, Superior and Lateral Views

88

(1)

Age Changes in Older Vertebral Bodies: Osteophytic Growth

89

(2)

The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna---and Joints

91

(17)

Introduction

92

(1)

Joints

92

(2)

Structure, Function, and Movement of Joints

92

(2)

Synovial Joints, Types of Movement with Examples

94

(1)

Humerus: The Upper Arm

94

(4)

Description, Location, Articulation

94

(2)

Left / Right Recognition

96

(1)

Handedness

96

(1)

Sexual Differences

96

(1)

Origin and Growth

96

(2)

The Forearm

98

(2)

Radius

100

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

100

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

100

(1)

Handedness

100

(1)

Sexual Differences

100

(2)

Origin and Growth

102

(1)

Ulna

103

(5)

Description, Location, Articulation

103

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

103

(1)

Origin and Growth

103

(5)

The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

108

(8)

Introduction

109

(1)

Carpal Bones: Wrist Bones

110

(2)

Description, Location, Articulation

110

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

110

(1)

A Comparison of Carpal Characteristics

110

(2)

Origin and Growth

112

(1)

Metacarpal Bones: The Palm of the Hand

112

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

112

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

112

(1)

Origin and Growth

112

(1)

Sex

113

(1)

A Comparison of Metacarpal Characteristics

114

(1)

Phalanges of the Hand: Finger Bones

115

(1)

Description, Location, Articulation

115

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

115

(1)

Origin and Growth

116

(1)

A Method for Sorting Phalanges

116

(13)

The Pelvis (Innominate or Os Coxae)

117

(1)

Introduction

118

(1)

Innominate: Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis

118

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

118

(2)

Left / Right Recognition

120

(1)

Origin and Growth

120

(1)

Sexual Differences

121

(2)

Sexual Differences in the Pubis

121

(1)

Sexual Differences in the Ilium

122

(1)

Age Changes

123

(6)

Age Changes in the Pubic Symphysis

123

(1)

Analysis of the Pubic Symphysis

124

(1)

Age Changes in Pubic Symphyses of Males

125

(1)

Age Changes in the Auricular Surface of the Ilium

126

(3)

The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

129

(16)

Introduction

130

(1)

Femur: Upper Leg, Thigh Bone

130

(5)

Description, Location, Articulation

130

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

130

(2)

Sexual Differences in the Femur

132

(1)

Racial Differences in the Femur

132

(1)

Bones of Confusion

132

(1)

Origin and Growth

133

(2)

Patella: Kneecap

135

(1)

Description, Location, Articulation

135

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

135

(1)

Origin and Growth

135

(1)

Lower Leg: Tibia and Fibula

136

(2)

Tibia: Lower Leg, Shin Bone, Medial Ankle Bone

138

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

138

(1)

Sexual Differences in the Tibia

138

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

138

(2)

Origin and Growth

140

(1)

Fibula: Lower Leg, Lateral Ankle Bone

141

(4)

Description, Location, Articulation

141

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

141

(1)

Bones of Confusion

141

(1)

Origin and Growth

141

(4)

The Foot: Tarsal Bones, Metatarsal Bones, and Phalanges

145

(11)

Introduction

146

(1)

Tarsal Bones: Ankle and Arch of the Foot

147

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

147

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

147

(1)

Origin and Growth

147

(1)

A Comparison of Tarsal Characteristics

148

(2)

Metatarsal Bones: Foot Bones

150

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

150

(1)

A Comparison of Metatarsal Characteristics

150

(2)

Left / Right Recognition

152

(1)

Origin and Growth

152

(1)

Phalanges: Toe Bones

153

(3)

Description, Location, Articulation

153

(1)

Left / Right Recognition

153

(1)

Individualization

154

(1)

Origin and Growth

154

(1)

A Finger--Toe Comparison

155

(1)

Odontology (Teeth)

156

(29)

Introduction

157

(1)

Structure and Function of Teeth and Supporting Tissues

158

(4)

Directions, Surfaces, and Anatomy

159

(2)

Tooth Numbering Systems

161

(1)

Tooth Recognition

162

(2)

Tips for Distinguishing Similar Teeth

164

(2)

Distinguishing Maxillary Incisors from Mandibular Incisors

164

(1)

Distinguishing Maxillary Premolars from Mandibular Premolars

165

(1)

Distinguishing Maxillary Molars from Mandibular Molars

165

(1)

Complete Permanent Dentition

166

(2)

Recognizing Racial Traits

168

(1)

Shovel-Shaped Incisors

168

(1)

Carabelli's Cusp

168

(1)

Dental Aging

169

(7)

Formative Changes in Teeth

169

(1)

Infant and Toddler: Deciduous Dentition

170

(1)

Child: Mixed Dentition

171

(1)

Teenager and Adult: Permanent Dentition

172

(1)

Age Changes in Adult Teeth

173

(3)

Dental Anomalies

176

(1)

Dentistry and Oral Disease

177

(6)

Dental Caries

177

(1)

Periodontal Disease

178

(1)

Apical Abscess

179

(1)

Calculus Accumulation

179

(1)

Occlusion and Malocclusion

179

(1)

Dental Staining

180

(1)

``Meth Mouth'': Effects of Methamphetamine Use

181

(1)

The Edentulous Condition: Effects of Long-Term Tooth Loss

181

(1)

Congenital Dental Conditions

182

(1)

Dental Inventory Form

183

(2)

Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

185

(8)

Introduction

186

(1)

Physical Evidence

186

(3)

What Is Evidence?

186

(1)

How Is Evidence Used?

187

(1)

Challenges in Handling Physical Evidence

188

(1)

Death Investigation Specialists

189

(2)

Ballistic Specialists

190

(1)

Crime Scene Investigators

190

(1)

Criminalists

190

(1)

Drug Analysts

190

(1)

Fingerprint Specialists

190

(1)

Forensic Anthropologists

190

(1)

Forensic Pathologists

191

(1)

Questioned Document Examiners

191

(1)

Serologists and Geneticists (Forensic Biologists)

191

(1)

Toxicologists

191

(1)

Choosing the Correct Forensic Specialist

191

(2)

No Visual Identification Possible

192

(1)

Legal Consequence Unlikely

192

(1)

Laboratory Analysis

193

(39)

Introduction

194

(1)

Preparation for Analysis

194

(2)

Physical Facility

194

(1)

Equipment, Supplies, and Reference Materials

195

(1)

Evidence Management

196

(4)

Assign Case Number

196

(1)

Organize Database

197

(1)

Prepare Case File

197

(1)

Inventory the Evidence and Assign Additional Numbers if Necessary

198

(1)

Transfer Non-Anthropological Evidence to Appropriate Specialists

199

(1)

Prepare Evidence for Examination

199

(1)

Skeletal Analysis and Description

200

(24)

Minimum Number of Individuals

200

(1)

Age

200

(2)

Sex

202

(1)

Race

203

(1)

Handedness

204

(1)

Stature

205

(3)

Trauma

208

(12)

Disease and Pathology

220

(4)

Quality Check for Skeletal Analysis

224

(1)

Age Changes

224

(1)

Sexual Variation

224

(1)

Racial Variation

225

(1)

Stature Estimation

225

(1)

Trauma

225

(1)

Disease

225

(1)

Human Identification (ID)

225

(7)

Skeletal Identification: The Challenge

225

(1)

Identification Levels

226

(1)

Methods of Identification

227

(5)

Field Methods

232

(25)

Introduction

233

(1)

Pre-Planning for Field Work

233

(2)

Objectives

233

(1)

Legal Permission

234

(1)

Funding

234

(1)

Insurance

234

(1)

Security and Storage

234

(1)

Antemortem Information

235

(1)

The Interview

235

(1)

Medical Records

236

(1)

Antemortem Photographs

236

(1)

Preparation for Excavation and Disinterment

236

(2)

Numbering System

236

(1)

Data Record Forms

237

(1)

Equipment and Supplies

237

(1)

Burial Location and Scene Investigation

238

(2)

Remote Sensing

239

(1)

What to Look for Before Disturbing the Surface

239

(1)

Burial Classification

240

(2)

Surface Burial or Below-Surface Burial

240

(1)

Individual or Commingled Burial

241

(1)

Isolated or Adjacent Burial

241

(1)

Primary or Secondary Burial

241

(1)

Disturbed or Undisturbed Burial

242

(1)

The Excavation/Exhumation

242

(7)

Duty Assignments

242

(2)

Excavation Methods

244

(5)

Postmortem Interval (Time since Death) and Forensic Taphonomy

249

(7)

Immediate Postmortem Changes

249

(1)

The Process of Decomposition

249

(1)

Environmental Factors (Climate)

250

(2)

Carrion Feeders

252

(1)

Associated Plants

252

(1)

Funerary Practices

253

(2)

Other Preservation Factors

255

(1)

Other Evidence of Funerary Practices

255

(1)

Quality Check for Field Work

256

(1)

Has the entire scene been searched and sampled?

256

(1)

Are all human remains recognized and recovered?

256

(1)

Is the written documentation complete?

256

(1)

Can the entire scene and sequence of recovery be reconstructed from the photographic documentation?