A Personal Word To The Teacher And Student

The aim of this grammar is to introduce the student to the
structure of the Greek language in the briefest possible time.
Notice that structure and Greek language are being emphasized. It
is the language itself and not a grammar about that language that
the student who wishes to learn to read Greek needs to confront.
For that reason, the grammar itself is suppressed wherever
possible. And, if modern linguistics is correct in its fundamental
affirmations, the one needful thing in learning a new language is
familiarity with its grammatical structure. Such familiarity need
not be explicit; the learner needs to "know" the structure and
structure signals only in the sense that he is able, immediately
and without deliberation, to respond to them.

More recent methods of grammatical analysis and language
teaching bear directly upon a chronic condition I have mused as a
teacher of Greek. Although in almost daily touch with some Greek
text for twenty-five years, I find that each time I teach beginning
Greek from a traditional grammar, it is necessary for me to
recommit portions of that grammar to memory. There seems to be
little correlation between my ability to read and understand a
Greek text and the ability, say, to reproduce nominal and verbal
paradigms by heart. I was puzzled by this discrepancy in myself,
and by the fact that students who appeared to be able to handle a
Greek text with facility often did poorly on examinations over
Greek "grammar." The reverse condition has also frequently caught
my attention: students who appear to know the "grammar" are not
always able to read a Greek text with correlative ease. In the case
of the former, the difficulty may have been that the students
merely lacked the technical language with which to make their
functional knowledge explicit. Yet I took it to be the case that
more often than not those same students aspired to a working
knowledge of the language and not to a grammarian's portfolio. In
the case of the latter, knowledge of the "grammar" did not appear
to guarantee knowledge of the language. It then occurred to me that
traditional grammar might be something apart from the ability to
read Greek, in fact, might be an impediment to such
ability.

It was with some reluctance that I undertook to reassess the
status of traditional Greek grammar. A modest acquaintance with
modern linguistics was enough to convince me that a revolution had
taken place in the study and learning of language no less than in
the study and learning of mathematics.

I have endeavored to indicate the implications of
linguistics for the study of Greek in the Introduction (§§001-020).
There the reader will find some of the basic insights afforded by
linguistics as I see them in relation to Greek. I have endeavored
to express them without the use of technical language and probably
inadequately, by the rigorous standards of leading contemporary
linguists. For those who wish to see linguistics in action, a few
of the many books which may be consulted are listed in the Table of
Abbreviations under modern literature. I should like to emphasize
the importance of reading actual grammars rather than, or in
addition to, linguistic theory.

These brief remarks invite some further practical advice
about the character and organization of the grammar
itself.

The first admonition concerns frame of mind. Students who
have learned the grammar of some language in a traditional mode
will be tempted,in the earlier stages, to assume that they are not
learning grammar. They will feel uneasy that they cannot reproduce
third declension paradigms or the principal parts of irregular
verbs, probably because they think they know what grammar is. They
have to be convinced that they can learn a language and learn it
well, without first having learned traditional grammar by rote
memorization. The watershed comes after the first weeks: on the
other side of the divide, the skeptics become fresh converts with
all the passion normally attaching thereto. By this time they have
discovered that they do indeed know the system of morphological
variables, and know it with an assurance not normally attained
after months, if not years, of study. They will also have
discovered that they can read Greek, an achievement they did not
anticipate until months later.

The first admonition, therefore, is: have faith.

The grammar is constructed, in broad outline, as
follows:

(1) The student is introduced to the sight and sound of the
language by reading actual texts (the student is urged to have a
Greek text open before him as he proceeds). He is urged to make as
much of the sight and sound of the language as his instincts allow,
e.g. the meanings of cognate words, the structure of
sentences.

(2) The student is then taught the system of morphological
variables systematically, with a minimum amount of rote
memorization. He learns to recognize the forms of nouns, pronouns,
verbs and the like in actual texts. He is not asked to reproduce
paradigms, except for the few models he must fix in mind for
reference.

(3) After approximately twelve weeks (31 lessons),1[footnote
1 The rate at which lessons are assigned will of course vary. The
important thing is to keep the pace and not be deterred by the
temptation to master every morphological detail.] the student
begins to read actual but selected texts for content.2[footnote 2
The texts on which this grammar is based are recommended for
reading purposes: The Syntax is illustrated with words and
sentences drawn from this body of material. Of course, other
selections of moderate difficulty would serve equally well.] He
learns the commonly recurring structures of the language and
acquires vocabulary in context. By the time he has completed the
Short Syntax (lessons 31-62), he will have sufficient facility to
read Greek texts of moderate difficulty at sight. There will be
blanks, of course, but he will have learned to fill them in by
analogy (grammatical blanks) or context (lexical blanks), or by
turning to the grammar and lexicon for help. The aim of the program
is to achieve moderate reading proficiency at sight in one year of
study or less. This aim is based on the assumption that most
students, especially theological students, begin the study of Greek
relatively late in their academic programs.

While the grammar is programmed to be completed in slightly
more than one semester (24 weeks, 3 hours per week),3[footnote 3
The recommended rate of progress is optional. The teacher and
student may find a slightly slower (or even quicker) pace more
comfortable.] it is conceived as a beginning-intermediate grammar.
An explanation of this conception is in order, since the actual
text of the grammar may create some confusion in view of the stated
purpose.

Most beginning lesson grammars are used for a year, at most
two, and then discarded in favor of an intermediate or advanced
grammar. The inefficiency involved in learning to use second and
third grammars can be avoided, in part, by incorporating a second
level grammar into the first. The present grammar serves as a
beginning lesson grammar, but the material is treated exhaustively
at many points, especially in connection with morphology, so that
the text may also be used subsequently for reference. The
difference between the two types of material is indicated in the
text by marking the intermediate (and advanced) material, in the
Nominal and Verbal Systems, with ↑↓ to indicate which sections may
be skipped by the beginner. Several rather lengthy systematic
discussions are included but clearly marked: for reading and
reference only. Such sections, e.g. Introduction to the Nominal
System (§§100-115), are designed to provide adequate background and
rationale for what the student is learning. The student is not
asked, however, to learn the content of these sections. In
addition, the grammar is supplied with several appendices which
both teacher and student will find useful at all levels of study.
These, too, are included only for reference.

Exercises and directions for practice will appear separately
as a workbook. The exercises belong integrally to the program of
study represented by the lesson grammar. With a little experience,
the teacher will be able to devise his own exercises, making use of
those texts with which he wishes the student to become
acquainted.

This personal note might well conclude with the axioms that
the author has endeavored (sometimes vainly!) to keep constantly
before him in both teaching Greek and writing this
grammar:

(1) Since the object of the study of Greek is the use of the
language rather than its mortification, the student is advised to
devote his time to a mastery of the language rather than to a
mastery of the grammar.

(2) The student (and teacher!) should keep a Greek text
before him at all times. All learning should take place with an
actual text in view.

(3) The grammar and lexicon are reference works to be
consulted repeatedly rather than memorized. Keep them constantly at
hand, but always above or to the right and left of the Greek
text.

(4) Few things need be learned by rote memorization; where
memorization is necessary, the data must be absolutely
mastered.

(5) The student is advised to take every conceivable
shortcut reading the signals of the language: explicit, full
grammatical knowledge is no substitute for native response where
reading ability and comprehension are concerned.

(6) The student is urged to believe in the linguistic
"signposts," like those on a complicated Interstate, and to trust
his own reading of the markers. There will be fewer traffic jams
and slowups if the student allows himself to be guided by the
markers he sees and here, makes a guess there.

(7) A wrong turn is no disgrace: if the student misreads a
sign, the teacher will direct the way back to the highway, provided
the student has not already discovered his error. A wrong turn is
better than an idle wait on the shoulder studying the map.

Some indication of how this grammar was constructed may be
helpful to the user. This work, like most others, has its strengths
and weaknesses, and it does no harm to have some notion of them in
advance.

The lexical stock represented in Bauer served as the basics
for the morphology (the treatment of the nominal and verbal
systems). A complete and exhaustive compilation of the data was
made for this purpose. Part of the raw results of that compilation
may be found in Appendices II and III, which may prove of some
benefit to both student and instructor. The morphology attempts to
be exhaustive wherever possible. However, there appeared to be no
good reason to duplicate the advanced materials found in B1-D.
Frequency counts in the New Testament are derived from Bruce
Metzger's Lexical Aids.

The Syntax rests, to a large degree, on a fresh analysis of
a selected body of texts. In defining a body of texts for the
purpose of the Syntax, it seemed wise to make a selection that
would introduce students to the contours of the New Testament as
well as to the rudiments of Greek. This double function accounts
for the character of the selection (the list may be found pp
xxif.[In the Selected Texts section]).

In accordance with the aims of descriptive analysis, it was
determined to proceed empirically insofar as possible. Although the
body of selected texts was relatively small, the hand manipulation
of 2,000 sentences, although parsed on cards, proved to be slow and
highly inefficient. Nevertheless, segments of the Syntax reflect
the effort to read the grammatical signals occurring in a specific
compendium of actual Greek sentences without prejudice. When time
and strength ran out, it was necessary to fall back on the more
conventional use of lexicon and concordance. As a consequence, the
grammatical tradition reasserts itself at certain points in the
Syntax. The user will doubtless be able to discern which sections
represent original analysis, and which traditional categories. In
my own defense, I can only say that I finally decided it the better
part of wisdom to publish the fruit of ten years of labor rather
than wait upon additional years of work. Such a compromise, now
that the first complete edition is appearing, seems fairly modest
in retrospect. The present sense of relief at having come to a
preliminary conclusion does not relieve the necessity of pushing on
to further editions, based on further compilations of
data.

It had been my original intention to draw far more on texts
outside the New Testament and Apostolic Fathers than has in fact
been the case. If it proves possible to reduce a significant number
of Greek sentences to a code that can be manipulated by a computer,
it will be easily possible to work with a much larger body of data.
In that case, the promise of the title (hellenistic Greek) will
come to fulfillment; as it stands, it is more promise than
achievement.﻿There is, of course, a great risk in attempting a new
organization of Greek grammar, based on a fresh collection of data.
Those who are gracious enough to share the risk will hopefully make
suggestions for improvement, note errors of all proportions, and
contribute materially to the further editions which will hopefully
follow.

The numbering system devised for this Grammar requires
comment. It is basically a three digit system (§§001-999) with the
possibility of infinite expansion: each major section has been
assigned unused numbers, and indefinite subdivision is possible. In
addition to the convenience in numbering the first edition, the
system will permit subsequent editions to retain the same span of
numbers for the same sections (e.g. Nominal Word Clusters will
always be treated in §§680-779). Sections may be added or deleted
without having to renumber the entire Grammar.

The rationale underlying the system is simple. Introductory
paragraphs are indicated by 0 prefixed to a three digit number
(e.g. §0335). Paragraphs that are subsidiary to a preceding
paragraph or paragraphs, or which constitute notes or advanced
materials, are indicated by numbers suffixed to the three basic
digits before the point (e.g. §§3360, 3371). In addition, sections
may be further divided by numbers following the point (e.g. §409.1,
§4080.3). A note to a subsection is indicated by a second number
following the point (e.g. §929.70).

A Fellowship awarded by the American Council of Learned
Societies made it possible to bring this first complete edition to
a conclusion prior to taking up the next stage of the work;
computer and parsing code will occupy me during the balance of the
Fellowship period as I collect data for a further edition.

To Lola LaRue, Carol Durant, and Joann Armour, who typed
dauntlessly through one version after another, go my undying
thanks. Joann Armour produced the final copy for the camera with
unusual skill.

Robert W. Funk

Missoula, Montana
18 July 1973

Corrected Edition

For courteous and substantial help with the corrections in
this printing, I am especially indebted to Rod Whitacre
(Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary), Clarence B. Hale
(International Linguistic Center, Dallas), William G. Doty
(University of Massachusetts), Marrilla Hasseries (University of
Montana), Judy Hubbard (University of Waterloo), and my colleague,
Lane C. McGaughy. Without the help of these and other persons, many
a deceptive and deceiving mistake would have been
overlooked.

Many promising suggestions have been made for a revised
edition. While it was not possible to undertake a revision at this
time, eventually a thoroughly revised and augmented edition will be
issued, together with an abbreviated student edition. Meanwhile,
the patrons of this grammar are invited to share further in its
improvement.