Breach of promise is a common lawtort, abolished in many jurisdictions. It was also called breach of contract to marry,[1] and the remedy awarded was known as heart balm.

From at least the Middle Ages until the early 20th century, a man's promise of engagement to marry a woman was considered, in many jurisdictions, a legally binding contract. If the man were to subsequently change his mind, he would be said to be in "breach" of this promise and subject to litigation for damages.

The converse of this was seldom true; the concept that "it's a woman's prerogative to change her mind" had at least some basis in law (though a woman might pay a high social price for exercising this privilege, as explained below)—and unless an actual dowry of money or property had changed hands or the woman could be shown to have become engaged to a man only to be able to use large amounts of his money,[2] a man was only rarely able to recover in a "breach of promise" suit against a woman, were he even allowed to file one.

Changing social attitudes toward morals have led to the decline of this sort of action. Most jurisdictions, at least in the English-speaking, common law world, have become increasingly reluctant to intervene in cases of personal relationships not involving the welfare of children or actual violence. Many have repealed all laws regarding such eventualities;[1] whereas in others the statute allowing such an action may technically remain on the books but the action has become very rare and unlikely to be pursued with any probability of success. What is arising in its stead are judicial opinions and/or statutes permitting a breach of contract action for wedding expenses incurred when the nuptials are called off, or for loss of employment, moving and living expenses incurred by one party as a result of an engagement which is later broken.

A breach of promise suit required a legally valid marriage engagement.[3] Under Nevada law, this need not be in writing (as a prenuptial agreement is required to be), but may have been made verbally by both parties. All that is required is that each have promised the other to marry the other at some future time (no date certain is required). Generally, promises made by—but not to—people who had not reached the age of majority could be broken at any time, without penalty, as could the promise made by a married person (e.g., conditional upon the death of the current spouse), so long as the other party knew that the person was married at the time. Similarly, an engagement between people who were not legally permitted to marry (e.g., because of consanguinity laws) was invalid.[3]

Valid engagements could be broken without penalty by either party upon discovery of significant and material facts, such as previously unknown financial state (if completely concealed, rather than partially revealed: the Shell case in Georgia in 2008 permitted a jury award to the woman of $150,000 although the man breaking the engagement stated that he did so after paying $30,000 of her debts when he discovered she still owed more), bad character, fraud, too-close blood relations, or the absolute physical or mental incapacity of the betrothed.[3] In South Africa, engagements could be dissolved by mutual agreement. Impotence, sterility, criminality, and alcoholism also formed valid reasons to end an engagement. Additionally, the person refusing to marry was unable to sue for breach of promise.

Some of the original theory behind this tort was based on the idea that a woman would be more likely to give up her virginity to a man if she had his promise to marry her. If he seduced her and subsequently refused marriage, her lack of virginity would make her future search for a suitable husband more difficult or even impossible.[4]

However, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the main factors were compensation for the denial of the woman's expectations of becoming "established" in a household (supported by her husband's wealth) and possible damage to her social reputation, since there were a number of ways that the reputation of a young never-married woman of the genteel classes could be damaged by a broken engagement, or an apparent period of intimacy which did not end in a publicly announced engagement, even if few people seriously thought that she had lost her virginity. She might be viewed as having broken the code of maidenly modesty of the period by imprudently offering up her affections without having had a firm assurance of future marriage.

During the early 20th century, social standards changed so that a woman who had pre-marital sex was no longer considered to be "ruined" (a harbinger of the further societal changes which were to eventually undermine breach of promise).[not in citation given] During that time, half of American women lost their virginity during their marriage engagements.[4] Compensation was based on emotional distress and the woman's reduced opportunity for a future marriage. Damages were greatly increased if the couple had engaged in pre-marital sexual intercourse.[4]

In Hong Kong, similar to the situation in England, engagements to marry are not enforceable at law by legislation, damages for distress caused and reliance on the breach of promise are claimable, if the plaintiff suffers sufficiently serious consequences in light of the specific circumstances, for instance in Cheung Suk Man v So Shek Keung [1965] HKLR 485.

In Canada, the common law action has been abolished in some provinces by legislation, for example, in Saskatchewan, the action for breach of promise was formally abolished by legislation in 2010.[8]

In the United States, most states repealed breach of promise laws or limited them, beginning in 1935.[4] Partly as a result, expensive diamond engagement rings, previously uncommon, began to become commonplace, and formed a sort of financial security for the woman.[4]

South Carolina is one of the states that still recognizes a breach of promise action: Campbell v Robinson, 398 S.C. 12, 726 S.E. 2d 221 (Ct. App. 2012). However about one-half of U.S. states still permit such lawsuits, according to the National Paralegal College. Recent examples of suits include the jury award of $150,000 in the 2008 Shell case in Georgia, and $130,000 in the North Carolina jury trial December 17, 2010 in the case of Dellinger v. Barnes (No. 08 CVS 1006). Laws vary by state; in Illinois, for example, documented wedding expenses can be recovered, but damages for emotional distress are prohibited, and notice of an intent to sue must be provided within three months of the engagement being dissolved.[9]

France nominally did not permit breach of promise actions, holding that marriage must involve free consent from both parties, and if the engagement is legally binding, then free consent is not possible. However, any party may sue for losses as a result of improper behavior by an engaged person.[3]

In Scots law before 1812, damages were limited only to actual financial losses.[3]

After World War II, German, Spanish, and Italian law allowed for the recovery of actual damages incurred as a result of a failed engagement.[3]

Damages were generally permitted for expenses incurred on the expectation of a marriage, such as property transferred or wedding expenses;[3] in some jurisdictions, emotional distress, loss of social standing, and loss of virginity were also possible sources of damages.[3]

Some countries also allowed the woman to sue for loss of future income, that is, for money that she would have had, if her very wealthy fiancé had not broken off the engagement; in 20th-century reforms, this was generally abolished over fears of gold digging.[3]

One challenge in settling disputes for breach of promise was determining whether a gift made during the engagement was an absolute gift—one given permanently, with no strings attached—or a conditional gift, given in the expectation of the marriage taking place. If an engagement gift was given on a holiday, such as Valentine's Day or Christmas, the gift could be considered to be non-contingent, and given partially for reasons other than marriage, and thus does not have to be returned. Christmas presents are generally taken to be absolute gifts, and thus cannot be recovered if the engagement dissolves, but engagement rings are generally taken to be conditional gifts, at least under most circumstances, which means that they must be returned if the recipient no longer chooses to go through with the marriage.[3] Whether an engagement ring must be returned if the giver breaks off the engagement varies.[3]

Criminal conversation or "seduction" was a similar tort, arising from adultery, in which a married person could sue the person with whom his or her spouse had engaged in adultery.[1]Alienation of affections was another similar tort against a third party who encouraged the adultery, or who was otherwise responsible for the breakdown of the marriage.[1]

The social damage from receiving attention from a man is discussed in a passage from the 1801 novel Belinda by Maria Edgeworth, where an older woman is urging Miss Belinda Portman to give a suitor more time to attach her affections, though Belinda is worried that even by just passively accepting his attentions for a certain time, she might find herself "entangled, so as not to be able to retract", even "if it should not be in my power to love him at last":

"…after a certain time—after the world suspects that two people are engaged to each other, it is scarcely possible for the woman to recede: when they come within a certain distance, they are pressed to unite, by the irresistible force of external circumstances. A woman is too often reduced to this dilemma: either she must marry a man she does not love, or she must be blamed by the world—either she must sacrifice a portion of her reputation, or the whole of her happiness.… A young woman is not in this respect allowed sufficient time for freedom of deliberation."

Breach-of-promise actions were part of the standard stock-in-trade of comic writers of the 19th century (such as Charles Dickens in his Pickwick Papers, or Gilbert and Sullivan in Trial by Jury), but most middle- and upper-class families were reluctant to use them except in rather extreme circumstances (such as when a daughter became pregnant by a man who then refused to marry her), since they led to wide publicity being given to a scrutiny of intimate personal concerns, something which was strongly repugnant to the family feeling of the period (especially where young women were concerned).

^"Merillat, Former Army Eleven Captain, Is Sued for Breach of Promise". Indianapolis Star. 1915-11-23.

^"SHE SUES ARMY ATHLETE: Girl Claims Lieut. Merillat Jilted Her and Asks $20,000; Miss Van Ness, of Ohio, Says Officer Wed Another — Met Him at West Point Social Function". The Washington Post. 1915-11-23.

Common law
–
Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of t

1.
The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 395 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.

Trespass
–
Trespass is an area of criminal law or tort law broadly divided into three groups, trespass to the person, trespass to chattels and trespass to land. Trespass to the person historically involved six separate trespasses, threats, assault, battery, wounding, mayhem, and maiming. Trespass to chattels, also known as trespass to goods or trespass to pro

1.
Denning, LJ: "[I]n an ordinary fight with fists there is no cause of action to either of [the combatants] for any injury suffered."

Conversion (law)
–
Conversion is a common law tort. A conversion is an act by one person inconsistent with the ownership rights of another. It is a tort of strict liability in the United Kingdom and its criminal counterpart is not typically theft but rather criminal conversion, which differs from theft in the lack of intent to deprive the owner of possession of the p

1.
Buildings, silos and machinery attached to them can be converted if they are removed from the land.

2.
Animals can be converted if they are removed, co-mingled, or injured.

3.
Stock certificates, bonds and commercial paper can be the subject of an action in conversion

4.
Trees cannot be converted, but lumber, severed from the land can be.

Detinue
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In tort law, detinue is an action to recover for the wrongful taking of personal property. It is initiated by an individual who claims to have a right to their immediate possession than the current possessor. Detinue allows for a remedy of damages for the value of the chattel, historically, detinue came in two forms, detinue sur bailment and detinu

1.
Bracton described an early case of detinue where three pigs were unlawfully detained from a woman.

2.
Traditionally, clothes bailed then destroyed, led to an action in trespass. After Bracton an action in detinue applied, but not in every case.

3.
A case from 1200 directed the verdict against a bailee who claimed chattels in his keeping were stolen during a fire at his property.

4.
A case from 1292 debated whether an action in detinue could be brought against a widow.

Trover
–
Trover is a form of lawsuit in common-law countries for recovery of damages for wrongful taking of personal property. Trover belongs to a series of remedies for such wrongful taking, its distinctive feature being recovery only for the value of whatever was taken, not for the recovery of the property itself. Although actions in trover can be traced

1.
The law of trover greatly expanded during the reign of Henry VI of England, 1422–1461 and 1470–1471.

2.
Actions in trover were often applied to cases where chattels had been placed in bailment, such as goods transported on a ship (Russian frigate Shtandart pictured), which were lost, used or stolen.

4.
The case of Fouldes v Willoughby involved bailment of two horses let loose from a river ferry.

Negligence
–
Negligence is a failure to exercise the appropriate and or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances. The area of law known as negligence involves harm caused by failing to act as a form of carelessness possibly with extenuating circumstances. Someone who suffers loss caused by anothers negligence may be able to su

1.
A decomposed snail in Scotland was the humble beginning of the modern English law of negligence

2.
In Bolton v. Stone the English court was sympathetic to cricket players

Duty of care
–
In tort law, a duty of care is a legal obligation, which is imposed on an individual requiring adherence to a standard of reasonable care while performing any acts that could foreseeably harm others. It is the first element that must be established to proceed with an action in negligence, the claimant must be able to show a duty of care imposed by

1.
A notice informing potential entrants of limits to the duty of care

Public nuisance
–
In English criminal law, public nuisance is a class of common law offence in which the injury, loss or damage is suffered by the local community as a whole rather than by individual victims. In Kent v Johnson 21 FLR177203, Public nuisance is an act or omission. Which endangers the lives, safety, health, property or comfort of the public or by which

1.
Classes of crimes

Rylands v Fletcher
–
Rylands v Fletcher UKHL1 was a decision by the House of Lords which established a new area of English tort law. Fletcher employed contractors to build a reservoir, playing no role in its construction. When the contractors discovered a series of old coal shafts improperly filled with debris, Rylands brought a claim under negligence against Fletcher,

Defamation
–
Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not tec

Fraud
–
In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception withou

1.
A possibly fraudulent "work from home" advertisement.

2.
A fraudulent Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price on a speaker.

Restraint of trade
–
Restraint of trade is a common law doctrine relating to the enforceability of contractual restrictions on freedom to conduct business. It is a precursor of modern competition law, if the law has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must be obeyed. But no power short of the law ought to restrain his free discretion. Restraints of

Trespasser
–
In the law of tort, property, and criminal law a trespasser is a person who commits the act of trespassing on a property, that is, without the permission of the owner. Being present on land as a trespasser thereto creates liability in the trespasser, at the same time, the status of a visitor as a trespasser defines the legal rights of the visitor i

1.
"Trespassers will be shot" sign

Contract
–
A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agree

1.
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak, Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC

2.
The Carbolic Smoke Ball offer

3.
A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins

Criminal law
–
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety and it includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, the first civilizatio

1.
The Old Bailey in London (in 1808) was the venue for more than 100,000 criminal trials between 1674 and 1834, including all death penalty cases.

Evidence (law)
–
The law of evidence also known as the rules of evidence, encompasses the rules and legal principles that govern the proof of facts in a legal proceeding. These rules determine what evidence must or must not be considered by the trier of fact in reaching its decision, the trier of fact is a judge in bench trials, or the jury in any cases involving a

1.
Classes of crimes

Property law
–
Property law is the area of law that governs the various forms of ownership and tenancy in real property and in personal property, within the common law legal system. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property, movable property roughly corresponds to personal property, while immovable property corresponds to

Will (law)
–
For the devolution of property not disposed of by will, see inheritance and intestacy. Thus, the word will validly applies to personal and real property. A will may also create a testamentary trust that is only after the death of the testator. Throughout most of the world, disposal of an estate has been a matter of social custom, according to Pluta

Trust law
–
A trust is a relationship whereby property is held by one party for the benefit of another. A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers property to a trustee, the trustee holds that property for the trusts beneficiaries. Trusts exist mainly in common law jurisdictions and similar systems existed since Roman times and this may be done for tax avo

Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The med

Engagement
–
An engagement, betrothal, or fiancer is a promise to wed, and also the period of time between a marriage proposal and a marriage. During this period, a couple is said to be betrothed, intended, affianced, engaged to be married, future brides and grooms may be called the betrothed, a wife-to-be or husband-to-be, fiancée or fiancé, respectively. The

Marry
–
The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universa

Dowry
–
A dowry is a transfer of parental property at the marriage of a daughter. Dowry contrasts with the concepts of bride price and dower. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected, and

1.
Aussteuerschrank - a dowry cabinet, currently in a German museum.

2.
Jadeite Cabbage - Jin received it as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu, in 1889; originally displayed in Forbidden City (Beijing), it is now in National Palace Museum (Taipei City).

3.
The dowry for the three virgins (Gentile da Fabriano, c. 1425, Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome), the St. Nicholas legend.

4.
The Dowry - by 19th century Russian painter, Vasili Pukirev; dowry was a common practice through the 19th century.

English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language i

1.
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

Age of majority
–
The age of majority is the threshold of adulthood as recognized or declared in law. Most countries set the age of majority at 18, the word majority here refers to having greater years and being of full age as opposed to minority, the state of being a minor. The law in a jurisdiction may not actually use the term age of majority. The term typically

Consanguinity
–
Consanguinity is the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person, the laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual relations and marriage parties. Rules of Consanguinity are also use

Louis A. Merrilat
–
Louis Alfred Merry Merrilat, Jr. was an American football end and military officer. He played college football with Army and was selected as a first-team All-American in both 1913 and 1914 and he was wounded in battle while serving in France during World War I and later played in the National Football League for the Canton Bulldogs in the 1925 NFL

1.
Louis A. Merrilat

American football
–
The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team, if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the teams end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponents goalposts for a field goal. The te

End (American football)
–
An end in American and Canadian football is a player who lines up at either end of the line of scrimmage, usually beside the tackles. Rules state that an offensive formation must always consist of seven players on the line of scrimmage. The position was used in this sense until roughly the 1960s, on offense, an end who lines up close to the other l

1.
Mike Ditka catching a pass as an end at Pitt.

Clarence Darrow
–
Clarence Seward Darrow was an American lawyer, leading member of the American Civil Liberties Union, and prominent advocate for Georgist economic reform. He defended teenage thrill killers Leopold and Loeb in their trial for murdering 14-year-old Robert Bobby Franks, some of his other cases included defending Ossian Sweet, and John T. Scopes in the

Saskatchewan
–
Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern p

Engagement ring
–
An engagement ring is a ring indicating that the person wearing it is engaged to be married, especially in Western cultures. In Western countries, engagement rings are mostly by women. In some other men and women wear matching rings. In some cultures, engagement rings are used as wedding rings. A ring is presented as an engagement gift by a partner

3.
This wedding set contains two separate rings, either of which could be worn separately.

4.
This wedding set contains two separate rings that look incomplete separately.

South Carolina
–
South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vot

National Paralegal College
–
National Paralegal College is an online distance learning college offering paralegal certifications, associates, bachelors and masters degrees in legal studies. The college is located in Phoenix, Arizona and is accredited by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission. National Paralegal College was founded in 2002 by Director Mark Geller, Esq. f

1.
National Paralegal College

Gift
–
A gift or a present is an item given to someone without the expectation of payment. An item is not a gift, if that item, itself, is owned by the one to whom it is given. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is meant to be free, in many countries, the act of mutually exchanging money, goods, etc. may sustain socia

Christmas
–
In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate o

Adultery
–
Adultery is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. A single act of intercourse is generally sufficient to constitute adultery. Historically, many cultures have considered adultery to be a serious crime. Adultery often incurred severe punishment, usually for the woman and sometimes for the ma

1.
Public punishment of adulterers in Venice, 17th century

2.
Anne Boleyn was found guilty of adultery and treason and executed in 1536. There is controversy among historians as to whether she had actually committed adultery.

Maria Edgeworth
–
Maria Edgeworth was a prolific Anglo-Irish writer of adults and childrens literature. She was one of the first realist writers in literature and was a significant figure in the evolution of the novel in Europe. Maria Edgeworth was born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire and she was the second child of Richard Lovell Edgeworth and Anna Maria Edgeworth, M

Charles Dickens
–
Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literar

4.
Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the Marshalsea, published in the 1892 edition of Forster's Life of Dickens

Pickwick Papers
–
The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was Charles Dickenss first novel. He was asked to contribute to the project as a writer following the success of Sketches by Boz. Dickens increasingly took over the monthly publication after the original illustrator Robert Seymour had committed suicide. With the introduction of Sam Weller in chapter 10, th

Gilbert and Sullivan
–
Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan and to the works they jointly created. The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known. Sullivan

3.
One of Gilbert's illustrations for his Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown"

4.
An early poster showing scenes from The Sorcerer, Pinafore, and Trial by Jury

Trial by Jury
–
A jury trial, or trial by jury, is a legal proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact, which then direct the actions of a judge. It is distinguished from a trial in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions. Only the United States makes routine use of trials in a wide variety of non-criminal cases. The availability o

W.S. Gilbert
–
Sir William Schwenck Gilbert was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan. The most famous of these include H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre

1.
W. S. Gilbert

2.
One of Gilbert's illustrations for his Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown"

Arthur Sullivan
–
Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan MVO was an English composer. He is best known for his series of 14 operatic collaborations with the dramatist W. S. Gilbert, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado. The best known of his hymns and songs include Onward Christian Soldiers, the son of a military bandmaster, Sullivan composed his first anthem at ag

Mockumentary
–
A mockumentary or docucomedy is a type of movie or television show depicting fictional events but presented as a documentary. These productions are used to analyze or comment on current events and issues by using a fictional setting. While not always comedic, comedic mockumentaries are common, a dramatic mockumentary should not be confused with doc

Paul McCartney
–
Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE is an English singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer. With John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, he gained fame with the rock band the Beatles, largely considered the most popular. His songwriting partnership with Lennon is the most celebrated of the post-war era, after the bands break-up, he p

1.
Paul McCartney in 2010

2.
McCartney's former home, 20 Forthlin Road. The McCartney family moved into this address in 1955

3.
McCartney (second from left) with Lennon, Harrison and Starr, 1964

4.
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, "the most famous cover of any music album", wrote Beatles biographer Bill Harry.

Frasier
–
Frasier is an American sitcom that was broadcast on NBC for eleven seasons, premiering on September 16,1993, and concluding on May 13,2004. The program was created and produced by David Angell, Peter Casey, the series was created as a spin-off of Cheers, continuing the story of psychiatrist Frasier Crane as he returned to his hometown of Seattle an

1.
Frasier title screen from the pilot episode, "The Good Son", has a lit antenna spire at the Space Needle, one of the animated gags.

New York State Assembly
–
The New York State Assembly is the lower house of the New York State Legislature. The Assembly is composed of 150 members representing a number of districts. Assembly members serve two-year terms without term limits, the Assembly convenes at the State Capitol in Albany. The Speaker of the Assembly presides over the Assembly, the Speaker is elected

2.
New York State Assembly

Harvard Law School Library
–
Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance r

1.
Langdell Hall at night

2.
Harvard Law School

3.
Austin Hall

4.
Langdell in the winter

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review

2.
Trespass
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Trespass is an area of criminal law or tort law broadly divided into three groups, trespass to the person, trespass to chattels and trespass to land. Trespass to the person historically involved six separate trespasses, threats, assault, battery, wounding, mayhem, and maiming. Trespass to chattels, also known as trespass to goods or trespass to property, is defined as an intentional interference with the possession of personal property … proximately caus injury. Trespass to chattel does not require a showing of damages, simply the intermeddling with or use of … the personal property of another gives cause of action for trespass. Since CompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, various courts have applied the principles of trespass to chattel to resolve cases involving unsolicited bulk e-mail and unauthorized server usage. Trespass to land is today the tort most commonly associated with the term trespass, generally, it is not necessary to prove harm to a possessors legally protected interest, liability for unintentional trespass varies by jurisdiction. Trespass has also treated as a common law offense in some countries. There are three types of trespass, the first of which is trespass to the person, whether intent is a necessary element of trespass to the person varies by jurisdiction. Under English decision, Letang v Cooper, intent is required to sustain a trespass to the cause of action, in the absence of intent. In other jurisdictions, gross negligence is sufficient to sustain a trespass to the person, such as when a defendant negligently operates an automobile, intent is to be presumed from the act itself. Generally, trespass to the person consists of three torts, assault, battery, and false imprisonment, under the statutes of various common law jurisdictions, assault is both a crime and a tort. A person commits tortious assault when he engages in any act of such a nature as to excite an apprehension of battery, in some jurisdictions, there is no requirement that actual physical violence result—simply the threat of unwanted touching of the victim suffices to sustain an assault claim. Consequently, in R v Constanza, the court found a stalkers threats could constitute assault, similarly, silence, given certain conditions, may constitute an assault as well. However, in other jurisdictions, simple threats are insufficient, they must be accompanied by an action or condition to trigger a cause of action, incongruity of a defendants language and action, or of a plaintiffs perception and reality may vitiate an assault claim. In Tuberville v Savage, the defendant reached for his sword and told the plaintiff that f it were not assize-time, in its American counterpart, Commonwealth v. Eyre, the defendant shouted f it were not for your gray hairs, I would tear your heart out. In both cases, the courts held that despite a threatening gesture, the plaintiffs were not in immediate danger, Battery is any intentional and unpermitted contact with the plaintiffs person or anything attached to it and practically identified with it. The elements of common law varies by jurisdiction. Battery torts under Commonwealth precedent are subjected to a four point test to determine liability, is the sequence of events connecting initial conduct and the harmful contact an unbroken series

Trespass
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Denning, LJ: "[I]n an ordinary fight with fists there is no cause of action to either of [the combatants] for any injury suffered."
Trespass
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No trespassing lawn signs are common.
Trespass
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Douglas, J: " [E]very transcontinental flight would subject the operator to countless trespass suits."

3.
Conversion (law)
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Conversion is a common law tort. A conversion is an act by one person inconsistent with the ownership rights of another. It is a tort of strict liability in the United Kingdom and its criminal counterpart is not typically theft but rather criminal conversion, which differs from theft in the lack of intent to deprive the owner of possession of the property. In medieval times, a conversion would occur when bolts of cloth were bailed for safe keeping, many questions concerning joint ownership in enterprises such as a partnership belong in equity, and do not rise to the level of a conversion. Traditionally, a conversion occurs when some chattel is lost, then found by another who appropriates it to his own use without authority to do so. It has also applied in cases where chattels were bailed for safe keeping, conversion, as a purely civil wrong, is distinguishable from both theft and unjust enrichment. Theft is obviously an act inconsistent with anothers rights, and theft will also be conversion, but not all conversions are thefts because conversion requires no element of dishonesty. Conversion is also different from unjust enrichment, if one claims an unjust enrichment, the person who has anothers property may always raise a change of position defense, to say they have unwittingly used up the assets they were transferred. For conversion, there always must be an element of voluntarily dealing with anothers property, conversion has been described as a fascinating tort, albeit one which has largely eluded the attention of legal writers. The literature frequently laps over into that of trover, a conversion occurs when a person does such acts in reference to the personal property of another as amount, in view of the law, to his appropriating the property for himself. The action probably developed because there was no equivalent form of action in English law to the Roman law rei vindicatio and this was an action in protection of ones property, whereby a claimant could simply allege in court thats mine. Otherwise, conversion had its origin in the common law action in trover, the earliest cases are most likely lost. These probably involved cases when the finder of lost goods did not return them to the rightful owner, but used them himself or disposed of them to someone else. It became necessary to invent a new writ which covered the gap between action in trespass which lay for the taking of a chattel, and detinue which lay for its wrongful detention. The claim in conversion had become standardized by 1554 in the case of Lord Mounteagle v Countess of Worcester 2 Dyer 121a,73 ER265. The plaintiff was in possession of goods, he casually lost them, the defendant found the goods and did not return them. There is a distinction between trover and conversion, trover resolved the old procedural problem of wager of law which had developed as a form of licensed perjury, which made detinue unattractive to an honest plaintiff suing a dishonest defendant. Wager at law allowed testimony from witnesses, who might have nothing to do with the actual litigation

Conversion (law)
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Buildings, silos and machinery attached to them can be converted if they are removed from the land.
Conversion (law)
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Animals can be converted if they are removed, co-mingled, or injured.
Conversion (law)
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Stock certificates, bonds and commercial paper can be the subject of an action in conversion
Conversion (law)
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Trees cannot be converted, but lumber, severed from the land can be.

4.
Detinue
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In tort law, detinue is an action to recover for the wrongful taking of personal property. It is initiated by an individual who claims to have a right to their immediate possession than the current possessor. Detinue allows for a remedy of damages for the value of the chattel, historically, detinue came in two forms, detinue sur bailment and detinue sur trover. In detinue sur bailment, the defendant is in a bailment relationship with the claimant, the onus is on the bailee to prove that the loss of the chattel was not his or her fault. In detinue sur trover, the defendant can be any individual in possession of the chattel who refuses to return it to the claimant, a defendant could be a finder or a thief or any innocent third party, and the claimant need only have a better right to possession. Early writs and forms of action were exceptionally narrow in scope and this is reflective of the basic conservatism of the Common Law courts in the middle and late medieval period. This was in contrast with the Courts of Equity which were creative in producing novel writs for many new fact situations, compensation in those days was usually not in money. Wealth was measured in land, cattle, horses and furnishings, when a harm was done, it was often from the loss of these things. What the plaintiff wanted back was the land, cattle or even coins lent, maitland suggests that in the earliest time the writ of debt seems almost to have been designed to recover identical coins. The early writ of detinue was specifically designed for recovery of a chattel wrongfully detained, two facts marked the early common law actions. They were defective because of the field which was excluded. They were also defective because the plaintiff might well think himself entitled to a remedy, the defendant to a writ of debt or detinue might bring others with him who would swear that his denial of the claim was true. This was technically called his “wage of law” or “wager of law” and it was enough to dispose of the plaintiff’s claim. A common way to all writs, even the writ of right, as well as debt. If the jury found him in bed with his boots off, the custom was to delay the writ for a year, one of the oldest actions in the royal courts was replevin which had its roots in the law of customary courts. Strictly speaking, replevin in its form was a provisional remedy. Its provision was to procure for the plaintiff the return of chattels taken out of his possession until the right to their possession could be decided by a court of law. No doubt, it was designed to avoid quarrels likely to cause a breach of the peace pending a settlement of the dispute about the right to possession

Detinue
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Bracton described an early case of detinue where three pigs were unlawfully detained from a woman.
Detinue
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Traditionally, clothes bailed then destroyed, led to an action in trespass. After Bracton an action in detinue applied, but not in every case.
Detinue
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A case from 1200 directed the verdict against a bailee who claimed chattels in his keeping were stolen during a fire at his property.
Detinue
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A case from 1292 debated whether an action in detinue could be brought against a widow.

5.
Trover
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Trover is a form of lawsuit in common-law countries for recovery of damages for wrongful taking of personal property. Trover belongs to a series of remedies for such wrongful taking, its distinctive feature being recovery only for the value of whatever was taken, not for the recovery of the property itself. Although actions in trover can be traced to the time of Bracton, action in trover became a mature legal doctrine during the reign of Elizabeth I of England, 1558–1603. Early trover cases involved the keeping or taking of a bailment by the bailee, others concerned the use of lost chattels found by another. Early on, there was difficulty in dealing with situations where chattels held by a bailee were used by a third party, examples could be sheep, horses, farm goods, grains or other chattels left in the care of a person who was required to exercise ordinary care. If negligence led to damages, an action could be had, a third person might use the chattel, returning it in a damaged condition. The early common law had some difficulty in dealing with this kind of situation and this led to expansions of actions in trover. The theory of trover was that the defendant, by converting the chattel to his own use, had appropriated the plaintiffs property, the plaintiff was not required to accept the chattel when it was tendered back to him. He could recover damages for the value of the chattel at the time. The effect was that the defendant was compelled to buy the chattel at a forced sale, trover actions frequently concerned the finding of lost property. It could also involve cargo on ships, such as those lost at sea, trover often involved cases in which the most correct owner could be determined. For instance, if an envelope of bank notes or currency were to be found, often this would prove to be impossible. In that case, the finder would be the next best owner, trover cases have been described as finders keepers, losers weepers cases. Trover damages came to be measured by the value of the object. Sometimes, compensation for deprivation of use and compensation for other losses naturally and proximately caused by the taking could be added. The plaintiff could also recover interest that would have earned by the money value of the object. If the taker sold the object for more than its market value, however, selling the chattel could change the action to that of a true conversion which was a form of theft. If the taker had made improvements on the object, the value of improvements are not deducted from the plaintiffs recovery unless the taking was by mistake

Trover
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The law of trover greatly expanded during the reign of Henry VI of England, 1422–1461 and 1470–1471.
Trover
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Actions in trover were often applied to cases where chattels had been placed in bailment, such as goods transported on a ship (Russian frigate Shtandart pictured), which were lost, used or stolen.
Trover
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Action in trover became fully defined during the reign of Elizabeth I of England.
Trover
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The case of Fouldes v Willoughby involved bailment of two horses let loose from a river ferry.

6.
Negligence
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Negligence is a failure to exercise the appropriate and or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances. The area of law known as negligence involves harm caused by failing to act as a form of carelessness possibly with extenuating circumstances. Someone who suffers loss caused by anothers negligence may be able to sue for damages to compensate for their harm, such loss may include physical injury, harm to property, psychiatric illness, or economic loss. The law on negligence may be assessed in general terms according to a model which includes the assessment of duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause. Some things must be established by anyone who wants to sue in negligence and these are what are called the elements of negligence. Some say there are three elements – conduct, causation and damages, most say there are four – duty, breach, causation, and damages – or five – duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause, and damages. Each is correct depending on how much specificity is needed, but in practice, he goes on to warn, several varieties of confusion or conceptual mistakes have sometimes occurred. The legal liability of a defendant to a plaintiff is based on the failure to fulfil a responsibility, recognised by law. The first step in determining the existence of a legally recognised responsibility is the concept of an obligation or duty, may Donoghue and her friend were in a café in Paisley. The friend bought Mrs Donoghue a ginger beer float and she drank some of the beer and later poured the remainder over her ice-cream and was horrified to see the decomposed remains of a snail exit the bottlen. Donoghue suffered nervous shock and gastro-enteritis, but did not sue the owner, instead suing the manufacturer. The Scottish judge, Lord MacMillan, considered the case to fall within a new category of delict, the case proceeded to the House of Lords, where Lord Atkin interpreted the biblical ordinance to love thy neighbour as a legal requirement to not harm thy neighbour. In England the more recent case of Caparo Industries Plc v. Dickman introduced a threefold test for a duty of care. Harm must be reasonably foreseeable there must be a relationship of proximity between the plaintiff and defendant and it must be fair, just and reasonable to impose liability. However, these act as guidelines for the courts in establishing a duty of care, in Australia, Donoghue v Stevenson was used as a persuasive precedent in the case of Grant v Australian Knitting Mills. This was a case in the development of negligence law in Australia. Whether a duty of care is owed for psychiatric, as opposed to physical, harm was discussed in the Australian case of Tame v State of New South Wales, determining a duty for mental harm has now been subsumed into the Civil Liability Act 2002 in New South Wales. The application of Part 3 of the Civil Liability Act 2002 was demonstrated in Wicks v SRA, once it is established that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff/claimant, the matter of whether or not that duty was breached must be settled

Negligence
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A decomposed snail in Scotland was the humble beginning of the modern English law of negligence
Negligence
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In Bolton v. Stone the English court was sympathetic to cricket players
Negligence
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Negligence can lead to this sort of collision - a train wreck at Gare Montparnasse in 1895.

7.
Duty of care
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In tort law, a duty of care is a legal obligation, which is imposed on an individual requiring adherence to a standard of reasonable care while performing any acts that could foreseeably harm others. It is the first element that must be established to proceed with an action in negligence, the claimant must be able to show a duty of care imposed by law which the defendant has breached. In turn, breaching a duty may subject an individual to liability, the duty of care may be imposed by operation of law between individuals with no current direct relationship, but eventually become related in some manner, as defined by common law. Duty of care may be considered a formalisation of the social contract and it is not a requirement that a duty of care be defined by law, though it will often develop through the jurisprudence of common law. At common law, duties were limited to those with whom one was in privity one way or another. The idea of a duty of care that runs to all who could be foreseeably affected by ones conduct first appeared in the judgment of Brett MR in Heaven v Pender. Both MacPherson and Donoghue were product liability cases, and both expressly acknowledged and cited Bretts analysis as their inspiration, for instance, an engineer or construction company involved in erecting a building may be reasonably responsible to tenants inhabiting the building many years in the future. This point is illustrated by the decision of the South Carolina Supreme Court in Terlinde v. Neely 275 S. C. 395,271 S. E. 2d 768, later cited by the Supreme Court of Canada in Winnipeg Condominium Corporation No.36 v. Bird Construction Co.1 S. C. R. 85, The plaintiffs, being a member of the class for which the home was constructed, are entitled to a duty of care in construction commensurate with industry standards. In the light of the fact that the home was constructed as speculative, by placing this product into the stream of commerce, the builder owes a duty of care to those who will use his product, so as to render him accountable for negligent workmanship. There must be some limit to the duty of care. The High Court of Australia has deviated from the British approach, rather, Australian law first determines whether the case at hand fits within an established category of case where a duty of care has been found. For example, occupiers of a premises automatically owe a duty of care to any person on their premises, if this is not the case, then the plaintiff must prove that it was reasonably foreseeable that harm could result from the defendants actions. If so, the Court then applies a salient features test to determine whether the plaintiff is owed a duty of care, whether imposition of a duty would constitute an unreasonable burden on individual autonomy. The degree of vulnerability of the plaintiff to the defendants actions – their ability to guard against the harm, the degree of knowledge which the defendant had about the probability and likely magnitude of harm to the plaintiff. Special rules exist for the establishment of duty of care where the plaintiff suffered mental harm, to establish a duty of care, the plaintiff has to satisfy the requirement of CLA Act ss 27-33. In light of this, a number of individuals cannot claim injuries as well

Duty of care
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A notice informing potential entrants of limits to the duty of care

8.
Public nuisance
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In English criminal law, public nuisance is a class of common law offence in which the injury, loss or damage is suffered by the local community as a whole rather than by individual victims. In Kent v Johnson 21 FLR177203, Public nuisance is an act or omission. Which endangers the lives, safety, health, property or comfort of the public or by which the public are obstructed in the exercise or enjoyment of any right common to all. And also, Public Nuisance is an offense at some common law and by statute under some states, for example in case Kent v Johnson, Criminal Code s 230. Title to sue In the case Walsh v Ervin VLR361, as the principle is usually stated. In modern world, daily inconveniences and annoyances are part of unreasonable, however, there are some examples that shows even if it could cause interference to the public, there is no public nuisance. The test is not whether an obstruction has been caused,147, and cf. Fabbri v. Marris. The nuisance action began in twelfth century England as a criminal writ and it was used in cases that involved encroachments upon the King’s land or the blocking of public roads or waterways. The King sought to punish these criminal infringements, commonly known as “purprestures, ” through criminal proceedings. ”As these examples demonstrate, spencer describes the offence as. a rag-bag of odds and ends which we should nowadays call public welfare offences. But the common feature of the crime is that members of the public suffer a common injury through interference with rights which they enjoy as citizens, in Attorney General v PYA Quarries Ltd. It is, however, clear, in my opinion, that any nuisance is public which materially affects the reasonable comfort, in R v Madden 1 WLR1379 the defendant telephoned a bomb hoax to a steel works whose business was disrupted for about an hour. LR435 the defendant made 605 obscene telephone calls to 494 different women over a period of four years and this repetitive behaviour over a long period, intended to cause offence and alarm, was held the kind of behaviour which the public has an interest in condemning. This is not without its problems because each telephone call lacks the element of common injury, as a comparison, the cases of R v Ruffell 13 Cr. At each party there was major disruption and the noise of music. R.295 a group who agreed to secure the release of a restricted Broadmoor patient was convicted of conspiracy to effect a public nuisance. The court seems to have assumed that the public would have exposed to danger had the plan been put into effect. That the Crown had failed to any actual danger or common injury was not considered. Similarly, in R v Millward 8 Cr, app R209 the defendant made hundreds of telephone calls to a young woman police officer with whom he had become infatuated, at the police station where she worked

Public nuisance
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Classes of crimes

9.
Rylands v Fletcher
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Rylands v Fletcher UKHL1 was a decision by the House of Lords which established a new area of English tort law. Fletcher employed contractors to build a reservoir, playing no role in its construction. When the contractors discovered a series of old coal shafts improperly filled with debris, Rylands brought a claim under negligence against Fletcher, through which the case eventually went to the Exchequer of Pleas. The majority ruled in favour of Fletcher, no right to enjoy property exists in UK black-letter law, and it is this decision upon which stare decisis is built in the area. This doctrine was developed by English courts, and made an immediate impact on the law. Academics have criticised it, however, both for the damage such a doctrine could cause and for its limited applicability. In 1860, Thomas Fletcher paid contractors to build a reservoir on his land, Fletcher played no active role in the construction, instead contracting out to a competent engineer. While building it, the contractors discovered a series of old shafts and passages under the land filled loosely with soil and debris. Rather than blocking these shafts up, the contractors left them, on 11 December 1860, shortly after being filled for the first time, Fletchers reservoir burst and flooded Rylandss mine, the Red House Colliery, causing £937 worth of damage. Fletcher pumped the water out, but on 17 April 1861 his pump burst, at this point a mines inspector was brought in, and the sunken coal shafts were discovered. Rylands and the owner, Jehu Horrocks, brought a claim against Fletcher on 4 November 1861, the tort of trespass was inapplicable, as the flooding was deemed not to be direct and immediate, the tort of nuisance was rejected as this was a one-off event. The case was first heard by Mellor J and a jury in September 1862 at the Liverpool Assizes. The arbitrator decided that the contractors were liable for negligence, since they had known about the old mine shafts, Fletcher, however, had no way of knowing about the mine shafts and so was not. The case then went to the Exchequer of Pleas, where it was heard between 3 and 5 May 1865 and it was heard on two points. Firstly, whether the defendants were liable for the actions of the contractors and secondly and they decided for the first point that the defendants were not liable, but more split on the second point. Pollock CB, Martin B and Channell B held that the defendants were not liable, Fletcher appealed to the Exchequer Chamber of six judges. The prior decision was overturned in favour of the appellant Rylands, the House of Lords dismissed the appeal and agreed with the determination for Fletcher. The case was heard by the House of Lords on 6 and 7 July 1868

10.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed

11.
Fraud
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In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK

12.
Restraint of trade
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Restraint of trade is a common law doctrine relating to the enforceability of contractual restrictions on freedom to conduct business. It is a precursor of modern competition law, if the law has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must be obeyed. But no power short of the law ought to restrain his free discretion. Restraints of trade can also appear in post-termination restrictive covenants in employment contracts, the restraint of trade doctrine is based on the two concepts of prohibiting agreements that run counter to public policy, unless the reasonableness of an agreement could be shown. A restraint of trade is simply some kind of agreed provision that is designed to restrain anothers trade, to be a valid restraint of trade in the first place, both parties must have provided valuable consideration for their agreement to be enforceable. In Dyers Case a dyer had given a bond not to exercise his trade in the town as the plaintiff for six months. On hearing the plaintiffs attempt to enforce this restraint, Hull J exclaimed, per Dieu, if the plaintiff were here, the common law evolved with changing business conditions. So in the early 17th century case of Rogers v Parry it was held that a promise by a not to trade from his house for 21 years was enforceable against him since the time. It was also held that a man cannot bind himself to not use his trade generally and this was followed in Broad v Jolyffe and Mitchel v Reynolds where Lord Macclesfield asked, What does it signify to a tradesman in London what another does in Newcastle. In times of such slow communications and commerce around the country it seemed axiomatic that a general restraint served no purpose for ones business. This approach in England was confirmed by the House of Lords in Mason v The Provident Supply, in the US, the first significant discussion occurred in the Sixth Circuits opinion by Chief Judge William Howard Taft in United States v. Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. Judge Taft explained the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 as a codification of the English common-law doctrine of restraint of trade. The court distinguished between naked restraints of trade and those ancillary to the main purpose of a lawful contract. An example of the latter would be a non-competition clause associated with the lease or sale of a bakeshop, such a contract should be tested by a rule of reason, meaning that it should be deemed legitimate if necessary and ancillary. An example of the type of restraint would be the price-fixing. Taft said that we do not think there is any question of open to the courts to such a contract. The Supreme Court affirmed the judgment, during the following century, the Addyston Pipe opinion of Judge Taft has remained foundational in antitrust analysis. The 1911 decision of the Supreme Court in Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States relied on Tafts rule-of-reason analysis

13.
Trespasser
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In the law of tort, property, and criminal law a trespasser is a person who commits the act of trespassing on a property, that is, without the permission of the owner. Being present on land as a trespasser thereto creates liability in the trespasser, at the same time, the status of a visitor as a trespasser defines the legal rights of the visitor if they are injured due to the negligence of the property owner. The tort of trespass to land requires a physical invasion of the plaintiffs real property by the defendant or a refusal to leave when ordered to leave. For example, a person walking in a park who trips. The trespasser need not enter the land in person, indeed, if A and B are standing next to Cs land, and A pushes B onto the land without entering it himself, it is A who is liable for the trespass to Cs land. There must be some physical entry, however, causing noise, light, odors, or smoke to enter the land of another is not a trespass, but is instead a different tort, nuisance. For purposes of determining liability, the property rights extend above. Even a low-flying plane can trespass if it enters this usable space, a constructive trespass occurs when a person who has permission to be on the land overstays their welcome. Furthermore, a status as a trespasser arises as soon as he resists when the property owner tells him to leave the property. This is not a constructive trespass if the guest is unconscious, with respect to the duties owed to trespassers, there are two types of trespassers to consider. First, there is the undiscovered trespasser, to whom the property owner owes only a duty not to trap or wilfully harm the trespasser, at the outset, the concept of traps was narrowly defined. More recently, courts have engaged in some creativity, adopting a broader interpretation of a trap, second, there is the anticipated or discovered trespasser. To those parties, the landowner owes a duty of common humanity —a duty to them of deadly conditions on the land which would be hidden to them. A warning sign at the entrance to the land will suffice for this purpose, however, a property owner is under no duty to ascertain hazards on his property, and cannot be held liable for failing to discover a deadly hazard which injures a trespasser. Instead, the trespasser must prove that the property owner intentionally or wantonly injured the plaintiff to recover, the exception is a child who is trespassing to play on ultra-hazardous items on the land. Since these trespassers are considered anticipated they are excepted under the doctrine of attractive nuisance, in some regions of the world, a property owner may use reasonable force to prevent a person from trespassing on his, her or its land, or to expel a trespasser. However, a property owner may not force a trespasser off his land if doing so would expose the trespasser to a risk of serious injury, for example, a trespasser who takes shelter in a strangers barn during a powerful storm cannot be expelled until the storm is over. Many jurisdictions within the United States have passed statutes to modify or clarify the common law duties owed by a property owner to a trespasser

Trespasser
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"Trespassers will be shot" sign

14.
Contract
–
A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions

Contract
–
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak, Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC
Contract
–
The Carbolic Smoke Ball offer
Contract
–
A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins
Contract
–
German marriage contract, 1521 between Gottfried Werner von Zimmern (de) and Apollonia von Henneberg-Römhild

15.
Criminal law
–
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety and it includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, the first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians, another important early code was the Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law. Only fragments of the criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e. g. those of Solon. In Roman law, Gaiuss Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest, the first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England. The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements, capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life, government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a convicted of a crime. Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the law by punishments, retribution, deterrence. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each, retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal, Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to balance the scales. People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, thus, one who murders may be executed himself

16.
Evidence (law)
–
The law of evidence also known as the rules of evidence, encompasses the rules and legal principles that govern the proof of facts in a legal proceeding. These rules determine what evidence must or must not be considered by the trier of fact in reaching its decision, the trier of fact is a judge in bench trials, or the jury in any cases involving a jury. The law of evidence is also concerned with the quantum, quality, the rules vary depending upon whether the venue is a criminal court, civil court, or family court, and they vary by jurisdiction. The quantum of evidence is the amount of evidence needed, the quality of proof is how reliable such evidence should be considered, important rules that govern admissibility concern hearsay, authentication, relevance, privilege, witnesses, opinions, expert testimony, identification and rules of physical evidence. There are several types of evidence, depending on the form or source, Evidence governs the use of testimony, exhibits, documentary material, or demonstrative evidence, which are admissible in a judicial or administrative proceeding. The law must ensure certain guidelines are set out in order to ensure that evidence presented to the court can be regarded as trustworthy. The rules of evidence were developed several centuries and are based upon the rules from Anglo-American common law brought to the New World by early settlers. Their purpose is to be fair to both parties, disallowing the raising of allegations without a basis in provable fact and they are sometimes criticized as a legal technicality, but are an important part of the system for achieving a just result. Perhaps the most important of the rules of evidence is that, in general, there are several examples where presiding authorities are not bound by the rules of evidence. These include the military tribunals in the United States and tribunals used in Australia to try health professionals, in every jurisdiction based on the English common law tradition, evidence must conform to a number of rules and restrictions to be admissible. Evidence must be relevant – that is, it must be directed at proving or disproving a legal element, however, the relevance of evidence is ordinarily a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for the admissibility of evidence. For example, relevant evidence may be excluded if it is unfairly prejudicial, confusing, there is also general agreement that assessment of relevance or irrelevance involves or requires judgements about probabilities or uncertainties. Beyond that, there is little agreement, many legal scholars and judges agree that ordinary reasoning, or common sense reasoning, plays an important role. There is less agreement about whether or not judgements of relevance or irrelevance are defensible only if the reasoning that supports such judgements is made fully explicit. However, most trial judges would reject any such requirement and would say that some judgements can and must rest partly on unarticulated and unarticulable hunches, california Evidence Code section 352 also allows for exclusion to avoid substantial danger of undue prejudice. The United States has a complicated system of evidentiary rules, for example. In Professor Friedmans words, A trained judge would not need all these rules, and indeed, the law of evidence in systems that lack a jury is short, sweet, however, Friedmans views are characteristic of an earlier generation of legal scholars. Under English law, evidence that would otherwise be admissible at trial may be excluded at the discretion of the judge if it would be unfair to the defendant to admit it

Evidence (law)
–
Classes of crimes

17.
Property law
–
Property law is the area of law that governs the various forms of ownership and tenancy in real property and in personal property, within the common law legal system. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property, movable property roughly corresponds to personal property, while immovable property corresponds to real estate or real property, and the associated rights, and obligations thereon. The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law, in some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty. The word property, in usage, refers to an object owned by a person — a car, a book, or a cellphone —. In law, the concept acquires a more nuanced rendering, most broadly and concisely, property in the legal sense refers to the rights of people in or over certain objects or things. James Wilson, U. S. Supreme Court Justice and professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania, in 1790 and 1791, undertook a survey of the philosophical grounds of American property law. He proceeds from two premises, “Every crime includes an injury, every injury includes a violation of a right. ”The government’s role in protecting property depends upon an idea of right, Wilson traces the history of property in his essay On the History of Property. In his lecture, Of the natural rights of individuals, he articulates related contemporary theory. While he doubts this is so, he states, “In his unrelated state, man has a natural right to his property, to his character, to liberty. Or was it, by an establishment, to acquire a new security for the possession or the recovery of those rights…. ”He indicates a preference for the latter. In the opening sentence of On the History of Property, he quite clearly, “Property is the right or lawful power, which a person has to a thing. ”He then divides the right into three degrees, possession, the lowest, possession and use, and, possession, use. Further, he states, “Man is intended for action, useful and skilful industry is the soul of an active life. But industry should have her just reward and that reward is property, for of useful and active industry, property is the natural result. ”From this simple reasoning he is able to present the conclusion that exclusive, as opposed to communal property, is to be preferred. Wilson does, however, give a survey of communal property arrangements in history, not only in colonial Virginia, non-legally recognized or documented property rights are known as informal property rights. These informal property rights are non-codified or documented, but recognized among local residents to varying degrees, different parties may claim a competing interest in the same property by mistake or by fraud. For example, the party creating or transferring an interest may have a valid title, a court resolves the dispute by adjudicating the priorities of the interests. To transfer property is to such an act. Property rights are rights over things enforceable against all other persons, by contrast, contractual rights are rights enforceable against particular persons

18.
Will (law)
–
For the devolution of property not disposed of by will, see inheritance and intestacy. Thus, the word will validly applies to personal and real property. A will may also create a testamentary trust that is only after the death of the testator. Throughout most of the world, disposal of an estate has been a matter of social custom, according to Plutarch, the written will was invented by Solon. Originally it was a device intended solely for men who died without an heir, the English phrase will and testament is derived from a period in English law when Old English and Law French were used side by side for maximum clarity. Other such legal doublets include breaking and entering and peace and quiet, the conception of the freedom of disposition by will, familiar as it is in modern England and the United States, both generally considered common law systems, is by no means universal. In fact, complete freedom is the rather than the rule. Civil law systems often put some restrictions on the possibilities of disposal, advocates for gays and lesbians have pointed to the inheritance rights of spouses as desirable for same-sex couples as well, through same-sex marriage or civil unions. Opponents of such advocacy rebut this claim by pointing to the ability of same-sex couples to disperse their assets by will, types of wills generally include, nuncupative - oral or dictated, often limited to sailors or military personnel. Holographic will - written in the hand of the testator, in many jurisdictions, the signature, self-proved - in solemn form with affidavits of subscribing witnesses to avoid probate. Notarial - will in public form and prepared by a civil-law notary, servicemans will - will of person in active-duty military service and usually lacking certain formalities, particularly under English law. Reciprocal/mirror/mutual/husband and wife wills - wills made by two or more parties that make similar or identical provisions in favor of each other, unsolemn will - will in which the executor is unnamed. Will in solemn form - signed by testator and witnesses, some jurisdictions recognize a holographic will, made out entirely in the testators own hand, or in some modern formulations, with material provisions in the testators hand. The distinctive feature of a holographic will is less that it is handwritten by the testator, in Louisiana this type of testament is called an Olographic or Mystic will. It must be written, dated, and signed in the handwriting of the testator. Although the date may appear anywhere in the testament, the testator must sign the testament at the end of the testament, any additions or corrections must also be entirely hand written to have effect. In England, the formalities of wills are relaxed for soldiers who express their wishes on active service, a minority of jurisdictions even recognize the validity of nuncupative wills, particularly for military personnel or merchant sailors. However, there are constraints on the disposition of property if such an oral will is used

19.
Trust law
–
A trust is a relationship whereby property is held by one party for the benefit of another. A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers property to a trustee, the trustee holds that property for the trusts beneficiaries. Trusts exist mainly in common law jurisdictions and similar systems existed since Roman times and this may be done for tax avoidance reasons or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, incapacitated, or deceased. Trusts are frequently created in wills, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries, the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, but is obligated to act for the good of the beneficiaries. The trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise must turn over all profits from the trust properties, Trustees who violate this fiduciary duty are self-dealing. Courts can reverse self-dealing actions, order profits returned, and impose other sanctions, the trustee may be either an individual, a company, or a public body. There may be a trustee or multiple co-trustees. The trust is governed by the terms under which it was created, in most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed. A trust is created by a settlor, who transfers title to some or all of his or her property to a trustee, the trust is governed by the terms under which it was created. In most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or deed and it is possible for a single individual to assume the role of more than one of these parties, and for multiple individuals to share a single role. For example, in a living trust it is common for the grantor to be both a trustee and a beneficiary, while naming other contingent beneficiaries. Trusts have existed since Roman times and have one of the most important innovations in property law. Trust law has evolved through court rulings differently in different states, so statements in this article are generalizations, States are adapting the Uniform Trust Code to codify and harmonize their trust laws, but state-specific variations still remain. An owner placing property into trust turns over part of his or her bundle of rights to the trustee, separating the propertys legal ownership and control from its equitable ownership and benefits. This may be done for tax reasons or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, incapacitated, testamentary trusts may be created in wills, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries. While the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, in accepting the property title, the primary duties owed include the duty of loyalty, the duty of prudence, the duty of impartiality. A trustee may be held to a high standard of care in their dealings. In addition, a trustee has a duty to know, understand, the trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise must turn over all profits from the trust properties

20.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period

21.
Engagement
–
An engagement, betrothal, or fiancer is a promise to wed, and also the period of time between a marriage proposal and a marriage. During this period, a couple is said to be betrothed, intended, affianced, engaged to be married, future brides and grooms may be called the betrothed, a wife-to-be or husband-to-be, fiancée or fiancé, respectively. The duration of the courtship varies vastly, and is dependent on cultural norms or upon the agreement of the parties involved. Long engagements were once common in formal arranged marriages, and it was not uncommon for parents betrothing children to arrange marriages many years before the couple were old enough. Erusin changes the couples interpersonal status, while nissuin brings about the consequences of the change of status. This was later adopted in Ancient Greece as the gamos and engeysis rituals, Betrothal is a formal state of engagement to be married. Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a ceremony performed in public. The betrothal is now part of the Jewish wedding ceremony. As mentioned above, betrothal in Judaism is separate from engagement, breaking a betrothal requires a formal divorce, for adults, it may be anywhere from several hours to a period of several years. A year and a day are common in neo-pagan groups today, in the case of child marriage, betrothal might last from infancy until the age of marriage. The responsibilities and privileges of betrothal vary, in most cultures, the betrothed couple is expected to spend much time together, learning about each other. In some historical cultures, the betrothal was essentially a trial marriage, almost all cultures are loosening restrictions against physical contact between partners, even in cultures that normally had strong prohibitions against it. The betrothal period was considered to be a preparatory time, in which the groom built a house. A betrothal is considered to be a semi-binding contract, in some common law countries, including England and Wales and many US states, it was once possible for the spurned partner to sue the other for breach of promise or heart-balm. The Rite of Betrothal in the Anglican Communion is found within The Book of Common Prayer, the Anglican Communion, as well as the Methodist Church and Presbyterian Church, has questions & responses for family members in its Rite of Betrothal. In the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Rite of Betrothal is traditionally performed in the narthex of the church, the priest blesses the couple and gives them lit candles to hold. Then, after a litany, and a prayer at which everyone bows, he places the ring on the ring finger of the grooms right hand. The rings are exchanged three times, either by the priest or by the best man, after which the priest says a final prayer

22.
Marry
–
The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures

23.
Dowry
–
A dowry is a transfer of parental property at the marriage of a daughter. Dowry contrasts with the concepts of bride price and dower. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected, and demanded as a condition to accept a proposal, in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, Northern Africa. In some parts of the world, disputes related to dowry sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings, the custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husbands family. Dowries have a history in Europe, South Asia, Africa. A dowry is the transfer of property to a daughter at her marriage rather than at the owners death. A dowry establishes a type of fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of security in widowhood or against a negligent husband. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include such as linens. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice homogenous inheritance in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the bride price, drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women and these are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, in plough agriculture farming is largely mens work, this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with property and marriage tends to be monogamous. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to property within the group. There is a debate on Goodys theory. She notes that Goodys is a model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today

Dowry
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Aussteuerschrank - a dowry cabinet, currently in a German museum.
Dowry
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Jadeite Cabbage - Jin received it as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu, in 1889; originally displayed in Forbidden City (Beijing), it is now in National Palace Museum (Taipei City).
Dowry
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The dowry for the three virgins (Gentile da Fabriano, c. 1425, Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome), the St. Nicholas legend.
Dowry
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The Dowry - by 19th century Russian painter, Vasili Pukirev; dowry was a common practice through the 19th century.

24.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

25.
Age of majority
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The age of majority is the threshold of adulthood as recognized or declared in law. Most countries set the age of majority at 18, the word majority here refers to having greater years and being of full age as opposed to minority, the state of being a minor. The law in a jurisdiction may not actually use the term age of majority. The term typically refers to a collection of laws bestowing the status of adulthood, the age of majority does not necessarily correspond to the mental or physical maturity of an individual. Age of majority can be confused with the concept of the age of license. As a legal term of art, license means permission, thus, an age of license is an age at which one has legal permission from government to do something. The age of majority, on the hand, is legal recognition that one has grown into an adult. Many ages of license are correlated to the age of majority, one need not have attained the age of majority to have permission to exercise certain rights and responsibilities. Some ages of license are actually higher than the age of majority, for example, the age of license to purchase alcoholic beverages is 21 in all U. S. states. Another example is the age, which prior to the 1970s was 21. In the Republic of Ireland the age of majority is 18, also, in Portugal the age of majority is 18, but one must be at least 25 years of age to run for public office. A child who is legally emancipated by a court of competent jurisdiction automatically attains to their maturity upon the signing of the court order, only emancipation confers the status of maturity before a person has actually reached the age of majority. In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated, some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors, judaism,13 years of age for males and 12 years of age for females, such persons are considered adults Roman Catholic Church,18 years of age

Age of majority

26.
Consanguinity
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Consanguinity is the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person, the laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual relations and marriage parties. Rules of Consanguinity are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, the Knot System is a numerical notation that defines consanguinity. Issues of consanguinity arise in several aspects of the law, Laws prohibiting incest govern the degree of kinship within which marriage or sexual intercourse is permitted. These are almost universally prohibited within the degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not, marriage with aunts and uncles is legal in several countries. Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession, in general, the law favors inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions bar citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity with persons involved in the case, in many countries, laws prohibiting nepotism bar employment of, or certain kinds of contracts with, the near relations of public officers or employees. Under Roman civil law, which early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, in the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated. Eventually the nobility became too interrelated to marry as the pool of non-related prospective spouses became smaller and they had to either defy the churchs position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates. In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four. The method of calculating prohibited degrees was changed also, instead of the former practice of counting up to the common ancestor then down to the proposed spouse, the new law computed consanguinity by counting back to the common ancestor. After 1215 the general rule was that while fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, in fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity were relatively few. The connotations of degree of consanguinity varies by context, most cultures define a degree of consanguinity within which sexual interrelationships are regarded as incestuous. The rule is strict on the mothers side, where the limit is about four generations back. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups, islamThe category includes those one is forbidden to marry due to relationship of blood as well as some who are forbidden due to marital relations. And do not marry women whom your fathers married except what has already passed and it was indeed obscene, hateful and an evil way. And those already married except those whom your right hand possesses, and allowed for you are all besides these if you seek them with your property seeking chastity not fornication

Consanguinity
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Consanguinity of the kings of France as shown in Arbor genealogiae regum Francorum (Bernard Gui, early 14th century).

27.
Louis A. Merrilat
–
Louis Alfred Merry Merrilat, Jr. was an American football end and military officer. He played college football with Army and was selected as a first-team All-American in both 1913 and 1914 and he was wounded in battle while serving in France during World War I and later played in the National Football League for the Canton Bulldogs in the 1925 NFL season. He became a soldier of fortune, training Irans Persian Guard, working with the Chinese Army in the 1930s, a native of Chicago, Illinois, Merrilat was a cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, from June 1911 to June 1915. While serving as a cadet, Merrilat was an athlete, competing for Army in football, baseball, basketball. He gained fame as an end for the Army Black Knights football team and was selected as a first-team All-American in both 1913 and 1914, in 1913, he helped the Army defeat a Navy team that allowed only seven points in its other games. Army defeated Navy 22 to 9, as Merrilat scored 18 points on two passes and a 60-yard run. In 1914, Merrilat helped lead Army to an undefeated 9–0 season, in the final game of the season, Army defeated Navy 20 to 0, as Merillat blocked a punt in the end zone for a safety and scored on a 20-yard touchdown pass. After graduating, Merrilat served in the U. S. Army as a lieutenant from 1915 to 1916. In May 1917, one month after the entry of the United States into World War I and he sailed for France with the American Expeditionary Forces in March 1918 and was promoted to the rank of temporary major of the infantry in June 1918. He participated in the Battle of Château-Thierry, Second Battle of the Marne and he was severely wounded by airplane machine gun fire at Avocourt and sailed for the United States on December 24,1918. In 1925, Merrilat played one season of football for the Canton Bulldogs in the early days of the National Football League. In 1926, Merrilat and a partner, Jim Kinney, organized a basketball team in Canton. Professional basketball team is made up of the stars from several teams, Merrilat opined that his Canton team was one of the strongest in the country. Merrilat spent many years as a soldier of fortune, in Iran, he trained the Persian Guard. From Iran, Merrilat traveled to China where he was a general and trained more than 40,000 Chinese troops, Merrilat developed a reputation as a soldier with no equal as a troop trainer or an army builder. When World War II began, Merrilat reported to the French, after a few months, he left and became a captain in the French Foreign Legion where he reportedly served with bravery and distinction. Promoted to the rank of colonel, Merrilat was put in charge of the Armys forces at Miami Beach, Florida, during World War II. Ninety hotels in Miami Beach were taken over by the Army during the war, in November 1915, Merrilat became the subject of press coverage when he was sued by Helen Van Ness for breach of promise after breaking off an engagement

Louis A. Merrilat
–
Louis A. Merrilat

28.
American football
–
The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team, if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the teams end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponents goalposts for a field goal. The team with the most points at the end of a game wins, American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sports of association football and rugby football. The first game of American football was played on November 6,1869, during the latter half of the 1870s, colleges playing association football switched to the Rugby Union code, which allowed carrying the ball. American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States, Professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually, almost all of them men, in the United States, American football is referred to as football. The term football was established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season. The terms gridiron or American football are favored in English-speaking countries where other codes of football are popular, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, American football evolved from the sports of association football and rugby football. What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6,1869 between Rutgers and Princeton, two college teams, the game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried. It could, however, be kicked or batted with the feet, hands, head or sides, Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4. Collegiate play continued for years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school. Representatives of Yale, Columbia, Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19,1873 to create a set of rules for all schools to adhere to. Teams were set at 20 players each, and fields of 400 by 250 feet were specified, Harvard abstained from the conference, as they favored a rugby-style game that allowed running with the ball. An 1875 Harvard-Yale game played under rugby-style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes and these players introduced the sport to Princeton, a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to selling refrigerators to Eskimos. Princeton, Harvard, Yale and Columbia then agreed to play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system. These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, although Yale did not join until 1879, the introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences. Prior to the snap, the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position, however, a group of Princeton players realized that, as the snap was uncontested, they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring. In 1881, both teams in a game between Yale-Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records, each team held the ball, gaining no ground, for an entire half, resulting in a 0-0 tie

29.
End (American football)
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An end in American and Canadian football is a player who lines up at either end of the line of scrimmage, usually beside the tackles. Rules state that an offensive formation must always consist of seven players on the line of scrimmage. The position was used in this sense until roughly the 1960s, on offense, an end who lines up close to the other linemen is known as a tight end and is the only lineman who aside from blocking can run or catch passes. One who lines up some distance from the line is known as a split end. In recent years and the proliferation of the pass, the generic term wide receiver has come to define both split ends and flankers. The terms “split end” and “flanker” are often ditched today for terms like X and Z receivers, bill Carpenter was the first Lonesome end. On defense, there is a commonly used position called the defensive end and its primary role is to rush the passer, as well as to stop offensive runs to the outer edges of the line of scrimmage. However, as there are no rules regulating the formation of the defense, players at this position commonly take on, don Hutson of the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Green Bay Packers was one of the sports greatest. The self described other end opposite Hutson in college at Alabama was legendary coach Bear Bryant, gaynell Tinsley was another prominent of Hutsons time. Amos Alonzo Stagg of Yale and Arthur Cumnock of Harvard were ends on the first All-America team, Stagg went on to a hall of fame coaching career, some called Cumnock the greatest Harvard player of all time. Mike Ditka and Ron Sellers were some of the last to play the position in college, glossary of American football History of American football positions Tight end Defensive end Wide receiver

End (American football)
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Mike Ditka catching a pass as an end at Pitt.

30.
Clarence Darrow
–
Clarence Seward Darrow was an American lawyer, leading member of the American Civil Liberties Union, and prominent advocate for Georgist economic reform. He defended teenage thrill killers Leopold and Loeb in their trial for murdering 14-year-old Robert Bobby Franks, some of his other cases included defending Ossian Sweet, and John T. Scopes in the Scopes Monkey Trial, in which he opposed William Jennings Bryan. Called a sophisticated country lawyer, his wit made him one of the most famous American lawyers, Clarence Darrow was born in Kinsman, Ohio, on April 18,1857. He was the son of Amirus and Emily Darrow. Both the Darrow and the Eddy families had roots in colonial New England. Darrows father was an ardent abolitionist and a proud iconoclast and religious freethinker and he was known throughout the town as the village infidel. Emily Darrow was a supporter of female suffrage and a womens rights advocate. Darrow attended Allegheny College for only one year, over the summer the Panic of 1873 struck, and Darrow was determined to not be a financial burden to his father any longer. Over the next three years he taught in the winter at the school in a country community. Clarence attended Allegheny College and the University of Michigan Law School, while teaching, Darrow started to study the law on his own, and by the end of his third year of teaching, his family urged him to enter the law department at Ann Arbor. Darrow only studied there a year when he decided that it would be more cost effective to work. When he felt that he was ready, he took the Ohio Bar exam and he was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1878. The Clarence Darrow Octagon House, which was his home in the small town of Kinsman, Ohio. Darrow opened his first little office in Andover, Ohio, a farming town just ten miles from Kinsman. Having little to no experience, he started off slowly and gradually built up his career by dealing with the everyday complaints, in 1880, he married Jessie Ohl, and eight years later he moved to Chicago with his wife and young son, Paul. He did not have much business when he first moved to Chicago and he joined the Henry George Club and made some friends and connections in the city. Being part of the club gave him an opportunity to speak for the Democratic party on the upcoming election. He slowly made a name for himself through these speeches, eventually earning the standing to speak in whatever hall he liked and he was offered work as an attorney for the city of Chicago

31.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south

32.
Engagement ring
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An engagement ring is a ring indicating that the person wearing it is engaged to be married, especially in Western cultures. In Western countries, engagement rings are mostly by women. In some other men and women wear matching rings. In some cultures, engagement rings are used as wedding rings. A ring is presented as an engagement gift by a partner to their prospective spouse while they propose marriage or directly after a proposal is accepted. It represents an agreement to future marriage. In Western countries, it is worn on the left hand ring finger. Before agreeing to marry, a couple may choose to buy and wear pre-engagement rings, after marrying, the couple may wear both engagement rings and wedding rings, or if they prefer, only the wedding rings. Some brides have their engagement and wedding rings permanently soldered together after marriage, in many countries, engagement rings are placed on the ring finger of the left hand. At one time it was believed that this contained a vein that led to the heart. This idea was popularized by Henry Swinburne in A treatise of Spousals, the story seems to have its origin in the ancient Roman book Attic Nights by Aulus Gellius quoting Apions Aegyptiacorum, where the alleged vein was originally a nervus. The popular belief that an engagement ring was part of the bride price which represented purchase. In the second century BC, the Roman bride-to-be was given two rings, a one which she wore in public, and one made of iron which she wore at home while attending to household duties. At one time Roman citizens wore rings made of iron, in later years senators who served as ambassadors were given gold seal rings for official use when abroad. Later the privilege of wearing gold rings was extended to public officials, then to the knights, later to all freeborn. For several centuries it was the custom for Romans to wear iron rings at home, during this period a girl or woman might receive two engagement rings, one of iron and one of gold. The mid-7th century Visigothic Code required that when the ceremony of betrothal has been performed, and the ring shall have been given or accepted as a pledge, although nothing may have been committed to writing, the promise shall, under no circumstances, be broken. In 860 AD, Pope Nicholas I wrote a letter to Boris I of Bulgaria in reply to questions regarding differences between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox practices, Pope Nicholas describes how in the Western church the man gives his betrothed an engagement ring

Engagement ring
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A white goldwedding ring and a single- diamond, gold -banded engagement ring.
Engagement ring
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Engagement process in Azerbaijan
Engagement ring
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This wedding set contains two separate rings, either of which could be worn separately.
Engagement ring
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This wedding set contains two separate rings that look incomplete separately.

33.
South Carolina
–
South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation

34.
National Paralegal College
–
National Paralegal College is an online distance learning college offering paralegal certifications, associates, bachelors and masters degrees in legal studies. The college is located in Phoenix, Arizona and is accredited by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission. National Paralegal College was founded in 2002 by Director Mark Geller, Esq. founder of Legal Data Systems, Inc. and its first class was delivered on June 2,2003. The school introduced a synchronous learning format to online schooling by running a real time audio/visual online platform to deliver instruction, nPCs mission is to provide quality Internet-based education and training for students seeking careers in the paralegal field. NPC offers a Paralegal certificate and Associates degree in paralegal studies, all students must satisfy the four core courses, which are Torts & Personal Injury, Contracts, Professional Responsibility & Legal Ethics and Legal Research, Writing & Civil Litigation. A paralegal certificate requires 24 credits, all of which must be earned by taking paralegal courses, an associate degree requires 60 credits, of which at least 36 credits must be earned through paralegal courses. A Bachelors Degree required 120 credits, of which at least 45 credits must be earned through paralegal courses, both degrees require that at least 25% of the credits be earned through general education courses. NPC offers general education courses in the fields of business, accounting, finance, writing, mathematics, social sciences, NPC, through its graduate division, National Juris University, also offers masters degrees in legal studies, taxation and compliance law. NPC accepts transfer credit in the amounts, - Up to 9 credits towards a paralegal certificate. All must be substantive legal courses that are similar to courses that NPC offers. - Up to 36 credits, towards an associate degree, up to 24 of these can be general education credits, while a further 12 can be transferred in if they are substantive legal courses that are similar to paralegal courses that NPC offers. - Up to 87 credits towards a bachelors degree, up to 75 of these can be general education credits, while a further 12 can be transferred in if they are substantive legal courses that are similar to paralegal courses that NPC offers. Regionally accredited institutions sometimes do not accept credit from nationally accredited institutions, because state colleges and universities are regionally accredited, they may not accept the transfer of coursework from this institution should a student decide to transfer. However, according to a 2006 study by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission, moreover, National Paralegal Colleges courses are recommended for transfer credit by the National College Credit Recommendation Service. Over 1500 Colleges and Universities that have indicated a willingness to accept National CCRS credit recommendations, National Paralegal College educational courses are offered via synchronous learning. Each course includes bi-weekly, live, audio-visual classes using the Adobe Connect platform, other content made publicly available includes a series of legal analyses of the news prepared and delivered by National Paralegal College faculty. NPC maintains a number of licenses, memberships, accreditation and agreements, National Paralegal College website National Juris University website

National Paralegal College
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National Paralegal College

35.
Gift
–
A gift or a present is an item given to someone without the expectation of payment. An item is not a gift, if that item, itself, is owned by the one to whom it is given. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is meant to be free, in many countries, the act of mutually exchanging money, goods, etc. may sustain social relations and contribute to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy, by extension the term gift can refer to anything that makes the other happier or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness and kindness. Gifts are also first and foremost presented on occasions - birthdays and, in Western cultures, Christmas being the main examples, in many cultures gifts are traditionally packaged in some way. For example, in Western cultures, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a note which may note the occasion, the recipients name. In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck, although inexpensive gifts are common among colleagues, associates and acquaintances, expensive or amorous gifts are considered more appropriate among close friends, romantic interests or relatives. Gift giving occasions may be, An expression of love or friendship An expression of gratitude for a gift received, an expression of piety, in the form of charity. An expression of solidarity, in the form of mutual aid, custom, on occasions such as A birthday. A potlatch, in societies where status is associated with gift-giving rather than acquisition, Easter baskets with chocolate eggs, jelly beans, and chocolate rabbits are gifts given on Easter. Greek Orthodox Christians in Greece, will give gifts to family, muslims give gifts to family and friends, known as Eidi, on Eid al-Fitr and on Eid al-Adha. Jews give Hanukkah gifts to family and friends, hindus give Diwali and Pongal gifts to family and friends. Buddhists give Vesak gifts to family and friends, Gifts are given to among African American families and friends on Kwanzaa. Siblings Day Exchange of gifts between a guest and a host, often a traditional practice, lagniappe Retirement Gifts Congratulations Gifts Engagement Gifts Housewarming party Gifts Giving a gift to someone is not necessarily just an altruistic act. It may be given in the hope that the receiver reciprocates in a particular way and it may take the form of positive reinforcement as a reward for compliance, possibly for an underhand manipulative and abusive purpose. At common law, for a gift to have effect, it was required that there be intent by the donor to give a gift. In some countries, certain types of gifts above a certain amount are subject to taxation. For the United States, see Gift tax in the United States, in some contexts, gift giving can be construed as bribery

36.
Christmas
–
In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day

37.
Adultery
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Adultery is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. A single act of intercourse is generally sufficient to constitute adultery. Historically, many cultures have considered adultery to be a serious crime. Adultery often incurred severe punishment, usually for the woman and sometimes for the man, with penalties including capital punishment, mutilation, such punishments have gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in Western countries from the 19th century. In most Western countries, adultery itself is no longer a criminal offense, Adultery is not a ground for divorce in jurisdictions which have adopted a no-fault divorce model. In some societies and among certain religious adherents, adultery may affect the status of those involved. In countries where adultery is an offense, punishments range from fines to caning. A joint statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in states that. In Muslim countries that follow Sharia law for justice, the punishment for adultery may be stoning. There are fifteen countries in which stoning is authorized as lawful punishment, though in recent times it has been carried out only in Iran. In some jurisdictions, having sexual relations with the wife or the wife of his eldest son constitutes treason. The term adultery refers to acts between a married person and someone who is not that persons spouse. It may arise in criminal law or in family law, for instance, in the United Kingdom, adultery is not a criminal offense, but is a ground for divorce, with the legal definition of adultery being physical contact with an alien and unlawful organ. Extramarital sexual acts not fitting this definition are not adultery though they may constitute unreasonable behavior, the application of the term to the act appears to arise from the idea that criminal intercourse with a married woman. Tended to adulterate the issue of an innocent husband, and to expose him to support and provide for another mans. Thus, the purity of the children of a marriage is corrupted, the term adultery, rather than extramarital sex, implies a moral condemnation of the act, as such it is usually not a neutral term because it carries an implied judgment that the act is wrong. In the traditional English common law, adultery was a felony, although the legal definition of adultery differs in nearly every legal system, the common theme is sexual relations outside of marriage, in one form or another. Traditionally, many cultures, particularly Latin American ones, had double standards regarding male and female adultery

Adultery
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Public punishment of adulterers in Venice, 17th century
Adultery
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Anne Boleyn was found guilty of adultery and treason and executed in 1536. There is controversy among historians as to whether she had actually committed adultery.
Adultery
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Le supplice des adultères, by Jules Arsène Garnier, showing adulteresses being punished
Adultery
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Joan II of Navarre - her paternity and succession rights were disputed her whole life because her mother Margaret of Burgundy was claimed to have committed adultery

38.
Maria Edgeworth
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Maria Edgeworth was a prolific Anglo-Irish writer of adults and childrens literature. She was one of the first realist writers in literature and was a significant figure in the evolution of the novel in Europe. Maria Edgeworth was born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire and she was the second child of Richard Lovell Edgeworth and Anna Maria Edgeworth, Maria was thus an aunt of Francis Ysidro Edgeworth. She spent her years with her mothers family in England. When her father married his second wife Honora Sneyd in 1773, she went with him to his estate, Edgeworthstown, in County Longford, Maria was sent to Mrs. Lattafières school in Derby after Honora fell ill in 1775. After Honora died in 1780 Marias father married Honoras sister Elizabeth, Maria transferred to Mrs. Deviss school in London. Her fathers attention became focused on her in 1781 when she nearly lost her sight to an eye infection. Returning home at the age of 14, she took charge of her younger siblings and was home-tutored in law, Irish economics and politics, science. She also started her lifelong correspondences with learned men, mainly members of the Lunar Society and she became her fathers assistant in managing the Edgeworthstown estate, which had become run-down during the familys 1777–1782 absence, she would live and write there for the rest of her life. With their bond strengthened, Maria and her father began an academic collaboration of which she was the more able and nimble mind. Present at Edgeworthstown was a family, servants and tenants. She observed and recorded the details of daily Irish life, later drawing on this experience for her novels about the Irish and she also mixed with the Anglo-Irish gentry, particularly Kitty Pakenham, Lady Moira, and her aunt Margaret Ruxton of Black Castle. Margaret supplied her with the novels of Anne Radcliffe and William Godwin, in 1798 Richard married Frances Beaufort, daughter of Daniel Augustus Beaufort, who instigated the idea of travelling to England and the European continent. Frances, a younger than Maria, became her lifelong confidante. The family travelled first to London in 1800, in 1802 the Edgeworths toured the English midlands. They then travelled to the continent, first to Brussels and then to Consulate France and they met all the notables, and Maria received a marriage proposal from a Swedish courtier, Count Edelcrantz. Her letter on the subject seems very cool, but her stepmother assures us in the Augustus Hare Life and Letters that Maria loved him very much and they came home to Ireland in 1803 on the eve of the resumption of the wars and Maria returned to writing. Tales of Fashionable Life, The Absentee and Ormond are novels of Irish life, Edgeworth was an extremely popular author who was compared with her contemporary writers Jane Austen and Sir Walter Scott

39.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe

Charles Dickens
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Dickens in New York, 1867
Charles Dickens
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Charles Dickens's birthplace, 393 Commercial Road, Portsmouth
Charles Dickens
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2 Ordnance Terrace, Chatham, Dickens's home 1817 – May 1821
Charles Dickens
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Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the Marshalsea, published in the 1892 edition of Forster's Life of Dickens

40.
Pickwick Papers
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The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was Charles Dickenss first novel. He was asked to contribute to the project as a writer following the success of Sketches by Boz. Dickens increasingly took over the monthly publication after the original illustrator Robert Seymour had committed suicide. With the introduction of Sam Weller in chapter 10, the became the first real publishing phenomenon, with bootleg copies, theatrical performances, Sam Weller joke books. A firm of London publishers, Messrs. Chapman & Hall, was projecting a series of cockney sporting plates by illustrator Robert Seymour. There was to be a club, the members of which were to be sent on hunting and fishing expeditions into the country and their guns were to go off by accident, fishhooks were to get caught in their hats and trousers. All these and other misadventures were to be depicted in Seymours comic plates, only in a few instances did Dickens adjust his narrative to plates that had been prepared for him. Typically, he led the way with an instalment of his story. The story thus became the source of interest, and the illustrations merely of secondary importance. By this reversal of interest, Dickens transformed, at a stroke, simple as the process may appear, others who had tried the plan had all failed. Pierce Egan partially succeeded in his Tom and Jerry, a novel in which the pictures, in future years, however, Dickens was suspiciously eager to distance himself from suggestions that Pierce Egans Life in London had been a formative influence. Robert Seymour provided the illustrations for the first two instalments before his suicide, Robert Buss illustrated the third instalment, but his work was not liked by Dickens and the remaining instalments were illustrated by Phiz who went on to illustrate most of Dickens novels. The instalments were first published in form in 1837. Written for publication as a serial, The Pickwick Papers is a sequence of loosely related adventures, the action is given as occurring 1827–8, though critics have noted some seeming anachronisms. It has been stated that Dickens satirized the case of George Norton suing Lord Melbourne in The Pickwick Papers, the novels main character, Samuel Pickwick, Esquire, is a kind and wealthy old gentleman, the founder and perpetual president of the Pickwick Club. Their travels throughout the English countryside by coach provide the theme of the novel. A distinctive and valuable feature of the work is the accurate description of the old coaching inns of England. Its main literary value and appeal is formed by its numerous memorable characters, each character in The Pickwick Papers, as in many other Dickens novels, is drawn comically, often with exaggerated personality traits

Pickwick Papers
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Original cover issued in 1836
Pickwick Papers
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Autographed title page of a 1st edition copy in the possession of Brigham Young University available at Archive.org
Pickwick Papers
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Robert Seymour illustration depicting Pickwick addressing the club
Pickwick Papers
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Sam Weller and his father Tony Weller (The Valentine)

41.
Gilbert and Sullivan
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Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan and to the works they jointly created. The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known. Sullivan, six years Gilberts junior, composed the music, contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos and their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world. Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century. The operas have influenced political discourse, literature, film. Producer Richard DOyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration and he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works and founded the DOyly Carte Opera Company, which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivans works for over a century. Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 and his father, William, was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories, some of which included illustrations by his son. Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the Gilbertian style as follows, With great fluidity and freedom, First, within the framework of the story, he makes bizarre things happen, and turns the world on its head. Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff, the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes, and so on and his genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand, to blend the surreal with the real, and the caricature with the natural. In other words, to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a deadpan way. Gilbert developed his theories on the art of stage direction. At the time Gilbert began writing, theatre in Britain was in disrepute, Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre, especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas, or entertainments, for Thomas German Reed. At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments, Ages Ago, the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend, two years later, Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together. Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilberts theatrical style, Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842. His father was a bandmaster, and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight. In school he began to compose anthems and songs, in 1856, he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig, where he also took up conducting. His graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a suite of music to Shakespeares The Tempest. Revised and expanded, it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation and he began building a reputation as Englands most promising young composer, composing a symphony, a concerto, and several overtures, among them the Overture di Ballo, in 1870

Gilbert and Sullivan
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W. S. Gilbert
Gilbert and Sullivan
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Arthur Sullivan
Gilbert and Sullivan
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One of Gilbert's illustrations for his Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown"
Gilbert and Sullivan
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An early poster showing scenes from The Sorcerer, Pinafore, and Trial by Jury

42.
Trial by Jury
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A jury trial, or trial by jury, is a legal proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact, which then direct the actions of a judge. It is distinguished from a trial in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions. Only the United States makes routine use of trials in a wide variety of non-criminal cases. The availability of a trial by jury in American jurisdictions varies, as a result, this practice continues in American civil laws, but in modern English law, only criminal proceedings and some inquests are likely to be heard by a jury. Jury trials are of far less importance in countries that do not have a common law system, ancient Athens had a mechanism, called dikastaí, to assure that no one could select jurors for their own trial. For normal cases, the courts were made up of dikastai of up to 500 citizens. For capital cases—those that involved death, loss of liberty, exile, loss of civil rights, in such large juries, the unanimity rule would be unrealistic, and verdicts were reached by majority. Jurists cast a ceramic disk with an axle in its middle, thus the way they voted was kept secret because the jurists would hold their disk by the axle by thumb and forefinger, thus hiding whether its axle was hollow or solid. Since Periclean times, jurists were compensated for their sitting in court, the institution of trial by jury was ritually depicted by Aeschylus in the Eumenides, the third and final play of his Oresteia trilogy. In the play, the innovation is brought about by the goddess Athena, the god Apollo takes part in the trial as the advocate for the defendant Orestes and the Furies as prosecutors for the slain Clytaemnestra. In the event the jury is split six to six, and Athena dicates that in such a case, capital trials were held in front of juries composed of hundreds or thousands of people in the commitias or centuries, the same as in Roman trials. Roman law provided for the selection of judices, who would be responsible for resolving disputes by acting as jurors. High government officials and their relatives were barred from acting as judices and those previously found guilty of serious crimes were also barred as were gladiators for hire, who likely were hired to resolve disputes through trial by combat. A Swabian ordinance of 1562 called for the summons of jurymen, and various methods were in use in Emmendingen, Oppenau, and Oberkirch. Hauensteins charter of 1442 secured the right to be tried in all cases by 24 fellow equals, the modern jury trial was first introduced in the Rhenish provinces in 1798, with a court consisting most commonly of 12 citizens. In Constance the jury trial was suppressed by decree of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1786, an 1873 draft on criminal procedure produced by the Prussian Ministry of Justice proposed to abolish the jury and replace it with the mixed system, causing a significant political debate. In the Weimar Republic the jury was abolished by the Emminger Reform of 4 January 1924 and they had no professional lawyers, but many of their farmer-warriors, like Njal, the truth-teller, were learned in folk custom and in its intricate judicial procedure. A Danish town in England often had, as its main officers and these juries differed from the modern sort by being self-informing, instead of getting information through a trial, the jurors were required to investigate the case themselves

43.
W.S. Gilbert
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Sir William Schwenck Gilbert was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan. The most famous of these include H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre, The Mikado. The popularity of works was supported for over a century by year-round performances of them, in Britain and abroad, by the repertory company that they founded. Eleven of the Savoy operas continue to be performed in the English-speaking world and beyond by opera companies, repertory companies, schools. Lines from these works have become part of the English language, such as short, sharp shock, What, and Let the punishment fit the crime. Gilberts creative output included over 75 plays and libretti, and numerous stories, poems and lyrics. He also began to write burlesques and his first comic plays, developing a unique absurdist and he also developed a realistic method of stage direction and a reputation as a strict theatre director. M. S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance, in the 1880s, Gilbert focused on the Savoy operas, including Patience, Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Gilbert won the lawsuit, but the argument caused hurt feelings among the partnership. Although Gilbert and Sullivan were persuaded to collaborate on two last operas, they were not as successful as the previous ones, in later years, Gilbert wrote several plays, and a few operas with other collaborators. He retired, with his wife and ward, Nancy McIntosh, to a country estate, Gilbert died of a heart attack while attempting to rescue a young woman to whom he was giving a swimming lesson in the lake at his home. Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street, Strand, London and his father, also named William, was briefly a naval surgeon, who later became a writer of novels and short stories, some of which were illustrated by his son. Gilberts mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris, the daughter of Thomas Morris, Gilberts parents were distant and stern, and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them. They quarrelled increasingly, and following the break-up of their marriage in 1876, his relationships with them, especially his mother, Gilbert was nicknamed Bab as a baby, and then Schwenck, after his fathers godparents. As a child, Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents, who returned to settle in London in 1847. He then attended Kings College London, graduating in 1856, instead he joined the Civil Service, he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it. In 1859 he joined the Militia, a volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain, with which he served until 1878. In 1863 he received a bequest of £300 that he used to leave the service and take up a brief career as a barrister

44.
Arthur Sullivan
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Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan MVO was an English composer. He is best known for his series of 14 operatic collaborations with the dramatist W. S. Gilbert, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado. The best known of his hymns and songs include Onward Christian Soldiers, the son of a military bandmaster, Sullivan composed his first anthem at age eight. He was selected as soloist in the choir of the Chapel Royal. His graduation piece was a suite of music to Shakespeares The Tempest. When it was performed in London in 1862, it was an immediate sensation, Sullivan began his composing career with a series of ambitious works, interspersed with hymns, parlour ballads and other light pieces. Among his best received early pieces were a ballet, LÎle Enchantée, from 1861 to 1872, he supplemented his income by working as a church organist and music teacher, and writing hymns and songs. In 1866, Sullivan composed a comic opera, Cox and Box. His most successful work, the Overture di Ballo, premiered in 1870. Sullivans talent and native charm earned him friends in musical and social circles, including Queen Victorias son Alfred. In 1871, Sullivan wrote his first opera with W. S. Gilbert, Sullivan then produced his Festival Te Deum, an oratorio, The Light of the World, and incidental music for West End productions of several Shakespeare plays. He also had conducting and academic appointments, in 1875, producer Richard DOyly Carte reunited Gilbert and Sullivan to create a one-act piece, Trial by Jury, which was a surprise hit. Pinafore became a sensation, as did The Pirates of Penzance and Patience. Sullivan never married but had a love affair with an American socialite. After the death of his brother Fred in 1877, Sullivan supported Freds large family financially for the rest of his life, effectively adopting his nephew Bertie. Carte used his profits from the Gilbert and Sullivan partnership to build the Savoy Theatre in 1881, later hits in the series were Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Sullivan was knighted for his contributions to music in 1883 and his infrequent serious pieces during the 1880s included two cantatas, The Martyr of Antioch and The Golden Legend, his most popular choral work. Sullivans only serious opera, Ivanhoe, though successful in 1891, was little-heard after that

45.
Mockumentary
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A mockumentary or docucomedy is a type of movie or television show depicting fictional events but presented as a documentary. These productions are used to analyze or comment on current events and issues by using a fictional setting. While not always comedic, comedic mockumentaries are common, a dramatic mockumentary should not be confused with docudrama, a fictional genre in which dramatic techniques are combined with documentary elements to depict real events. Mockumentaries are often presented as documentaries, with B roll and talking heads discussing past events. Examples emerged during the 1950s when archival film footage became relatively easy to locate, a very early example was a short piece on the Swiss Spaghetti Harvest that appeared as an April fools joke on the British television program Panorama in 1957. The term mockumentary, which originated in the 1960s, was popularized in the mid-1980s when This Is Spinal Tap director Rob Reiner used it in interviews to describe that film. Mockumentaries are often partly or wholly improvised, as a style of acting helps to maintain the pretense of reality. Comedic mockumentaries rarely have laugh tracks, also to sustain the atmosphere, albert Brooks was also an early popularizer of the mockumentary style with his film Real Life,1979, a spoof of a PBS documentary. Woody Allens Take the Money and Run is presented in documentary-style with Allen playing a criminal, Virgil Starkwell. Jackson Beck, who used to narrate documentaries in the 1940s, fictional interviews are interspliced throughout, especially those of Starkwells parents who wear Groucho Marx noses and mustaches. The style of film was widely appropriated by others and revisited by Allen himself in films such as Zelig and Sweet. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the format has enjoyed considerable attention. In 1984, Christopher Guest co-wrote and starred in the mockumentary This is Spinal Tap, directed by Rob Reiner, films such as Waiting for Guffman, Best in Show, and A Mighty Wind, all written with costar Eugene Levy, were critical successes. Man Bites Dog is a 1992 Belgian black comedy crime mockumentary written, produced, and directed by Rémy Belvaux, André Bonzel, in 1995, directed by Peter Jackson and Costa Botes, Forgotten Silver claimed New Zealand director Colin McKenzie to be a pioneer in filmmaking. When the film was revealed to be a mockumentary, Jackson received criticism for tricking viewers. In 1999, Drop Dead Gorgeous by Michael Patrick Jann used the style to narrate a fictional small-town beauty pageant as a way to satirize Middle America. Dark Side of the Moon is a 2002 French mockumentary by director William Karel, the premise for the film is the theory that the television footage from the Apollo 11 Moon landing was faked and actually recorded in a studio by the CIA with help from director Stanley Kubrick. FUBAR is a 2002 Canadian mockumentary film, directed by Michael Dowse, the Confederate States of America is a 2004 mockumentary presenting an alternative history in which the Confederacy won the American Civil War

46.
Paul McCartney
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Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE is an English singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer. With John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, he gained fame with the rock band the Beatles, largely considered the most popular. His songwriting partnership with Lennon is the most celebrated of the post-war era, after the bands break-up, he pursued a solo career and formed the band Wings with his first wife, Linda, and Denny Laine. McCartney has been recognised as one of the most successful composers and performers of all time, More than 2,200 artists have covered his Beatles song Yesterday, more than any other copyrighted song in history. Wings 1977 release Mull of Kintyre is one of the all-time best-selling singles in the UK.5 million RIAA-certified units in the United States. McCartney, Lennon, Harrison and Starr all received The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1965, McCartney has released an extensive catalogue of songs as a solo artist and has composed classical and electronic music. He has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to subjects as animal rights, seal hunting, land mines, vegetarianism, poverty. He has married three times and is the father of five children, James Paul McCartney was born on 18 June 1942 in Walton Hospital, Liverpool, England, where his mother, Mary Patricia, had qualified to practise as a nurse. His father, James McCartney, was absent from his sons birth due to his work as a firefighter during World War II. Paul has one brother, Michael. Though the children were baptised in their mothers Catholic faith, their father was a former Protestant turned agnostic, McCartney attended Stockton Wood Road Primary School in Speke from 1947 until 1949, when he transferred to Joseph Williams Junior School in Belle Vale because of overcrowding at Stockton. In 1953, with three others out of ninety examinees, he passed the 11-Plus exam, meaning he could attend the Liverpool Institute. In 1954, he met schoolmate George Harrison on the bus from his home in Speke. The two quickly became friends, McCartney later admitted, I tended to talk down to him because he was a year younger. McCartneys mother Mary was a midwife and the primary wage earner, her earnings enabled them to move into 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton. She rode a bicycle to her patients, McCartney described an early memory of her leaving at about three in the morning streets, on 31 October 1956, when McCartney was fourteen, his mother died of an embolism. McCartneys loss later became a point of connection with John Lennon, whose mother, McCartneys father was a trumpet player and pianist, who had led Jim Macs Jazz Band in the 1920s. He kept a piano in the front room, encouraged his sons to be musical and advised Paul to take piano lessons

Paul McCartney
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Paul McCartney in 2010
Paul McCartney
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McCartney's former home, 20 Forthlin Road. The McCartney family moved into this address in 1955
Paul McCartney
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McCartney (second from left) with Lennon, Harrison and Starr, 1964
Paul McCartney
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Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, "the most famous cover of any music album", wrote Beatles biographer Bill Harry.

47.
Frasier
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Frasier is an American sitcom that was broadcast on NBC for eleven seasons, premiering on September 16,1993, and concluding on May 13,2004. The program was created and produced by David Angell, Peter Casey, the series was created as a spin-off of Cheers, continuing the story of psychiatrist Frasier Crane as he returned to his hometown of Seattle and started building a new life. Frasier stars Kelsey Grammer, David Hyde Pierce, John Mahoney, Jane Leeves, Peri Gilpin, psychiatrist Dr. Frasier Crane returns to his home town of Seattle, Washington, following the end of his marriage and his life in Boston. Frasier hires Daphne Moon as Martins live-in physical therapist and care giver, Frasier frequently spends time with his younger brother Niles, a fellow psychiatrist. Niles becomes obsessed with, and eventually falls in love with, Daphne, Frasier hosts The Dr. Frasier Crane Show, a call-in psychiatry show on talk radio station KACL. His producer Roz Doyle is very different from Frasier in many ways and she is down-to-earth, has basic tastes and, at least early in the series, has superficial relationships with many men. However, Roz and Frasier share a professional respect and over time they become best friends, Frasier and the others often visit the local coffee shop, Café Nervosa. The Crane sons, who possess fine tastes, intellectual interests, the brothers close relationship is often tense, and their sibling rivalry intermittently results in chaos. Niles Crane, Frasiers younger brother, also a psychiatrist, who works in private practice, Martin Crane, Frasier and Niless father, a police officer who was forced to retire by a gunshot wound to his hip that led to his living with Frasier. Daphne Moon, an English physiotherapist, hired by Frasier to help take care of Martin, Roz Doyle, the producer of Frasiers radio show, who becomes a close family friend. Eddie, Martin Cranes Jack Russell terrier, Bob Bulldog Briscoe, the male chauvinist, horny, boastful host of a sports radio talk show that followed Frasiers daily broadcast at KACL. He became a regular cast member for Seasons 4 through 6, noel Shempsky, KACL technical assistant and avid Star Trek aficionado who speaks Klingon, in love with Roz. Gil Chesterton, KACLs flamboyant, effeminate restaurant critic. Bebe Glazer, Frasiers manipulative, amoral agent, who is loathed by Frasiers family, the main cast remained unchanged for all 11 years. Grammer was briefly the highest paid actor in the United States for his portrayal of Frasier. Grammer had been the voice of Sideshow Bob on The Simpsons since 1990, in a 1997 episode, the characters brother, Cecil Terwilliger, was introduced, played by Pierce, as referenced in the episode title, Brother from Another Series. The episode contained numerous Frasier references, Pierce returned as Cecil for the second time alongside Grammer in the 2007 episode Funeral for a Fiend. The episode introduced the brothers father, Dr. Robert Terwilliger, cast member reunions also occurred on four episodes of Hot in Cleveland, which featured Leeves in the main cast along with Wendie Malick. In the Season 2 episode Unseparated at Birth and Season 3 episode Funeral Crashers, Gilpin appears in the episode I Love Lucci, and Tom McGowan appears in Love Thy Neighbor as a casting director

Frasier
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Frasier title screen from the pilot episode, "The Good Son", has a lit antenna spire at the Space Needle, one of the animated gags.

48.
New York State Assembly
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The New York State Assembly is the lower house of the New York State Legislature. The Assembly is composed of 150 members representing a number of districts. Assembly members serve two-year terms without term limits, the Assembly convenes at the State Capitol in Albany. The Speaker of the Assembly presides over the Assembly, the Speaker is elected by the Majority Conference followed by confirmation of the full Assembly through the passage of an Assembly Resolution. In addition to presiding over the body, the Speaker also has the leadership position. The minority leader is elected by party caucus, the majority leader of the Assembly is selected by, and serves at the pleasure of, the Speaker. The current Speaker is Democrat Carl Heastie of the 83rd Assembly District, the Majority Leader is Joseph Morelle of the 136th Assembly District. The Minority Leader is Republican Brian Kolb of the 131st Assembly District, the Assembly is dominated by the Democrats, who currently hold a 62-seat supermajority in the chamber. The Democrats have controlled the Assembly since 1975, †Elected in a special election Prominent past Assembly members include U. S. Senator Chuck Schumer, U. S. presidents Millard Fillmore and Theodore Roosevelt, U. S. vice presidents Aaron Burr and George Clinton, and New York governors George Pataki and Al Smith

New York State Assembly
New York State Assembly
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New York State Assembly

49.
Harvard Law School Library
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools

Harvard Law School Library
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Langdell Hall at night
Harvard Law School Library
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Harvard Law School
Harvard Law School Library
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Austin Hall
Harvard Law School Library
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Langdell in the winter