p. 592: The basic principle of moral development: Learning the rules and
experiencing satisfaction when conforming to them and discomfort or guilt when
violating them. What are the three components of morality?What is internalization? Note the developmental shift from
external control to internalization.

p. 593-594: Piaget’s stage theory:

The stage of moral realism: Know the concepts of moral absolutism, immanent
justice and the role of egocentrism. (All of these concepts are associated with moral realism.)
Note especially the importance of consequences for judgments of morality.

The
morality of reciprocity (age 11): Others' feelings and points of view become
important. Notice especially that intentions, not consequences, are critical to
morality.p. 594:
What is the point of the stories about John and Henry? Know which one is seen as
“naughtier” by children in the stage of moral realism and what their
reasoning is. (This has to do with how the child evaluates the moral relevance
of accidental versus intentional behavior and the relevance of the amount of
damage.)

p. 595: Note that in some cultures belief in immanent justice increases
rather than decreases. What's up with that?

p. 595: Was Piaget right about the cognitive capacities of
6-year-olds in their ability to judge the moral relevance of intentions? (Know
the Chandler et al. 1973 and the Bussey 1992 studies.)

p. 595: Kohlberg’s theory: Notice it’s cognitive focus: This is about moral
reasoning. Pay close attention to the Heinz story and understand how children’s
moral reasoning about Heinz changes over the 3 levels and stages 1–5 in Table
14-1. (We’ll skip Stage 6.) I will go over this in class. It is important to
grasp how children respond in the different stages.

p. 597: Note definitions of preconventional level, conventional level, and
postconventional level. Figure 14-1 shows that indeed there is a developmental
progression in the use of the various stages of moral reasoning.

p. 597-598: How does Gilligan contrast the moral judgments of males and females?
Note the responses of Jake and Amy to the Heinz dilemma. Also see the results of
the two studies by Walker on p. 629. But note that in fact boys and girls do not
in fact differ in moral reasoning on Kohlberg-like reasoning tasks. This means
that Gilligan may be right that girls have more of a caring orientation than
boys, but that this is not reflected in their reasoning on the stages presented
in Table 16-1.

Box 14-1: Contrast beneficence obligations (more typical of Indian Hindu
children) versus justice obligations (more typical of Americans). What were the
results of the study? Note that the style emphasizing individual rights and
justice implies that people will go against family obligations to honor abstract
rules of justice. At the very end of the box, the beneficence style is described
as more feminine. My view: It is part of the collectivist cultural complex.
Western societies are individualistic, most non-Western societies are
collectivist. Collectivism is associated with extended families and a strong
sense of social obligation to the family and other kin. In the latter, morality
is what's good for the family or kinship group. Hence the stealing is justified
if it helps the family.

Note that
Kohlberg (and Piaget) did not believe that parents influenced moral development
but Walker’s finding disagree with this. What parental practices are associated
with higher levels of moral reasoning?

p. 602: : Note that not everyone gets to Stage 5 (see also Figures 14-3). What
is the dominant pattern of adult moral reasoning? Note that it is easier to
advance a person’s moral reasoning than it is to lower it. Why does this fit
with a stage theory? Note that Kohlberg dropped Stage 6 from his scoring
because it was so rare. In the longitudinal study, no one got to Stage 6.

p. 603: Brief reference is made to Box 14-1 as suggesting that Kohlberg’s
focus on individual rights and obligations leads him to mis-describe moral
development in some cultures such as New Guinea and India. These are usually described as collectivist
cultures and are common in non-European parts of the world.

p. 605: Moral judgments and moral behavior are often unrelated, especially in
young children. On p. 606, the text notes that there is some linkage for older
children, but most adults do not get even to stage 5, and very few, if any, get
to stage 6. The text points out that a lot of our morally relevant action is
impulsive and not guided by rational thought such as stage reasoning. Notice
that the little girl who impulsively kicked her brother may be able to give a
good moral reason why she should not have acted this way. This shows there are
gaps between our impulsive behavior and our moral reasoning. But quite often
people use moral reasoning to justify morally questionable behavior. Lots of
smart people, such as lawyers, can reason at the highest levels on Kohlberg’s
stages, but they aren’t very nice people. Lots of moral reasoning is framing
things to convince other people that what you did was moral. Would you want a
person who reasons at Stage 1, 2, or 3 to be your lawyer?

pp. 606-607: What are self-regulation, the control phase, the self-control
phase, and the self-regulation phase? The last involves better ability to delay
gratification. Notice the age differences in how long children can delay
gratification.

Nice discussion of how parents shift control strategies to respond to
children’s changing cognitive abilities. Define passive inhibition system and
active inhibition system. Note the connection of effortful control (an aspect of
the active inhibition system) to internalization of rules. However, note that
fearful children can be more easily socialized to have a conscience, indicating
that the passive inhibition system is also involved. What type
of discipline is more effective with relatively fearless children?

pp. 608-609: The Affective Side of Morality: In the Kochanska (2002) study,
how did the 45 month-old children respond in the guilt-inducing situation?

Girls are more prone to guilt than boys. The text says it's because of societal
expectations, but I think it's deeper than that. What temperament is linked to
guilt? And what types of temperament are related to lack of guilt (antisocial
personality)? Note the link between power-assertive discipline and lack of
guilt.

p. 609: What were the findings in Burton's reanalysis of Hartshorne and
May's (1928) data? p. 610: What did Mischel find correlated with
children’s ability to delay gratification at age 4? Note this pattern continues
into adulthood.

p. 610: Define Prosocial behavior, altruism and know the difference.

p. 612: Note that children become more prosocial as they get older. Why would
changes in cognitive maturation (e.g., perspective taking) and emotional
knowledge (e.g., detecting emotional cues) be linked with increased prosocial
behavior?

pp. 615: Notice girls are more prosocial and more
empathic than boys. What data suggests that at least some of these differences are due to
people's conceptions of what boys and girls are supposed to be like rather than
what they really are? (Trust me, that's not the whole explanation.)

p.
615: E.O Wilson's Sociobiology is a classic. What is the point made here?
p. 616: Note that prosocial behavior and empathic concern are heritable.
Especially interesting is the study of Williams Syndrome.

What part of the
brain is implicated in PET scan studies of prosocial behavior?

pp. 620-621: What is Hoffman’s theory of how empathy motivates prosocial behavior.
Note that altruism is linked with perspective taking but that perspective taking
alone may not be enough to make people altruistic. (What other trait is
important according to Denham (1998)). This shouldn’t be too
surprising. Just because I can understand why someone else is feeling bad
doesn’t mean I want to help them. In fact, I suppose successful conmen are very
good at perspective taking.

p. 622: Define Instrumental aggression, hostile aggression, reactive
aggression, proactive aggression. Text refers reader to Chapter 12 (see Figure 12-4 on p. 515).
What cognitive deficits do aggressive children have and what type of situation
are these deficits most apparent? Note that there is some basis in reality for
the biased attributions of aggressive boys. This has been found for all ethnic
groups studied.

p. 623 Turning Points: What are aggressive children like in
infancy?: p. 624: How does aggression change with age?

Note that an aggressive child may show fighting at age 8, vandalism at age 12
and homicide at age 18.

Text describes aggression as
“moderately stable” for boys and girls and that it is as stable as intelligence.
This is quite stable. Obviously, the longer the interval between assessments,
the less stability. What are aggressive children and “ill-tempered” children
like as adults? Note the different findings for boys and girls in the Caspi et
al. 1987 study. (See also Figure 14-5 on p. 625.) Note that the study by Nagin
and Tremblay qualifies the results on stability.

pp. 625: Boys more physically aggressive than girls even in infancy and
cross-culturally. How does girls’ aggression differ from boys’? Define
relational aggression. Notice that children who engage in relational aggression
are more likely to be rejected by peers. See Figure 14-6: the sex difference in
aggression become much less if we include relational aggression.

p. 627: Note the huge sex difference in violent crime (Figure 14-7).

p. 627: Testosterone is linked to aggression beginning in adolescence.

627-628: What did Olweus find as the indirect pathway by which testosterone
affects aggression? What indirect pathway did Tremblay find?

What is an example of a reciprocal effect between dominance and
testosterone levels?

What hormone is linked to aggression in girls?

p. 628: What do twin studies show?
In the Cloninger study, notice that a conflict-filled environment seems to exacerbate the
predisposition to aggression: 40% of males adopted into homes where both
biological and adoptive parents were criminals became criminals themselves,
compared to lower rates for other combinations of biological and adoptive
parents.

What type of temperament is linked to aggression?

p. 629: Note African American families encourage daughters to be more
assertive than European American families. In what type of family is physical
punishment especially likely to be associated with aggression? (Deater-Deckard &
Dodge, 1997). Note that the effect is not found in African-American children.

pp. : What were Patterson’s results?
Note that this style of parenting happens even when children are behaving
appropriately. Are children passive victims in this process? Define coercive
parenting. Figure 14-8 on p. 632 shows Patterson’s model but notice that the text says the best model is a
bi-directional one that recognizes parent, sibling and child influence.