Anatomy self study

STUDY

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Listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds

auscultation

Histology

microscopic examination of tissue specimens

Harvey

scientist who first discovered the role of the heart, arteries and veins in blood circulation

Hooke

scientist who first observed cells under a microscope

law of nature

a level of knowledge that can be used to predict how matter and energy behave

a statement of theory

kind of statement intended to summarize what is already known, predict what might happen, and suggest directions for further study

Proper experimental design includes all of the following:

statistical treatment of the resultsmethods to prevent experimenter bias such as the double-bind methodthe control group receives similar treatment to that of the experimental group, except for the test variable

If a scientist were to speculate were to speculate about the causes of a phenomenon without any definite proof, it would be a

hypothesis

Evolution can be defined as a change in genetic composition. Which of the following terms describes the mechanism believed to be responsible for such changes?

natural selection

During human evolution, humans have developed which characteristics?

color and stereoscopic visionbipedalismprehensile hand

Humans are different from other primates because they have

bipedalism

The theory of evolution

explains the slight variance in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans

Situs invernus and horsehoe kidney are examples of

anatomical variation

A mass of similar cells that forms a discrete region of our body is a

tissue

What part of a feedback loop processes information and determines an appropriate response?

integrator

If you become overheated, which of the following negative feedback mechanisms are used to lower your body temperature?

sweating and vasodilation of surface blood vessels

Development is a characteristic of life that involves

differentiation

The tendency for the bodies of living things to maintain more of less stable internal conditions is called

homeostasis

If your blood pressure started to rise very rapidly, a set of activities that your body would undertake to reverse this potentially dangerous condition would probably begin. The process that would restore stability are called, collectively,

negative feedback

Eponym

a term coined from the names of people

Acronym

word composed of the first letter or first few letters of a series of words

Anatomy

study of structure

Physiology

study of function

Hypocrites

the "father of medicine," established a code of ethics for physicians that is still recited in modern form my many graduating medical students

The Zodiac Man is an illustration from a 15th century medical manuscript that reflects the medical belief in the influence of __ on parts of the body

astrology

inductive method

process of making numerous observations until ones feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them

Evolution

change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms

Reductionism

theory that a large complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its similar components

childbirth

an example of normal positive feedback that occurs in the body and is not life threatening or harmful

gross anatomy

structure that can be observed with the naked eye

homeo-

same

The simplest structures considered to be alive are

cells

Versalius

revolutionized the teaching of gross anatomy

theory

embodies the greatest amount of scientific information

hypothesis

an informed, uncertain, but testable conjecture

positive feedback

a self-amplifying chain of physiological events

Which of the following is NOT a human organ system?integumentarymuscularepithelialnervousendocrine

epithelial

Palpation

studying anatomy by touch

hetero-

different

dissection

cutting and separating tissues to reveal structural relationships

Robert Hooke

invented many components of the compound microscope and named the cell

deduction

a scientist predicts what the result of a certain experiment will be if his or her hypothesis is correct

psychosomatic effects

physiological effects of a person's mental state

homeostasis

tendency of the body to maintain stable internal conditions

Blood pH averages 7.4 but fluctuates from 7.35 to 7.45. A pH of 7.4 can therefore be considered the __ for this variable.

set point

Self corrective mechanisms in physiology care called __ loops

negative feedback loops

organ

simplest body structure composed of two or more types of tissue

Depth perception, or the ability to form three-dimensional images, is also called

stereoscopic vision

Our hands are said to be __ because they can encircle an object such as a branch or a tool. The presence of an __ thumb is important to this ability.

prehensile, opposable

auscult-

ausultation - listen

dis-

dissection - apart

homeo-

homeostasis - the same

metabolo-

metabolism- change

palp-

palpation - touch

physio-

physiology - nature

-sect

dissection - cut

-stasis

homeostasis - to stay

stereo-

stereoscopic - solid

tomo-

tomography - to cut

Auscultation

listening to heart & body sounds

Leeuwenhoek

a textile merchant who build microscopes to examine fabric

a scientific theory

founded on a large body of evidence and summarizes what is already known

volunteer patients

in treatment and control groups

negative feedback

self-corrective process with a beneficial effect on the body

inventions of Carl Zeiss and Ernest Abbe

necessary to the work of a modern histopathologist

There are more organelles than

cells in the body

scuba

acronym for self contained breathing apparatus

The great mobility of the primate shoulder joint

is an adaptation to the arboreal habitat

Which of the following is not an essential part of anatomical position?feet togetherfeet flat on the floorforearms supinatedmouth closedarms down to the sides

mouth closed

A ring shaped section of the small intestine would be a

transverse section

The tarsal region is distal to the

popliteal region

The greater momentum is superficial

to the small intestine

A midsagittal line passes through the

sternum, umbilicus, and mons pubis

The inguinal region is immediately medial to the

coxal region

WHich of the following regions is not part of the upper limb?plantarcarpalcubitalbrachialpalmar

Organs that lie within the abdominal cavity but not within the peritoneal cavity are said to have a

retroperitoneal position

The sternal region is medial

to the pectoral region

the pelvic cavity can be described as inferior

to the abdominal cavity in its position

the anterior pit of the elbow is the cubital region and the corresponding (but posterior) pit of the knee is the

popliteal region

ante-

antebrachium - before

cervico-

cervical - neck

epi-

epigastric-above

hypo-

hypochondriac-below

inguino-

inguinal-groin

intra-

intraperitoneal-within

parieto-

parietal-wall

peri-

peritoneum-around

retro-

retroperitoneal-behind

sagitto-

saggittal-arrow

A single sagittal section of the body can pass through

one lung but not through both

It would be possible to see both eyes

in one frontal section of the head

The knee is both superior and

proximal to the tarsal region

The diagrapragm is inferior to the

lungs

The esophagus is superior to the

stomach

The liver extends from the hypochondriac to the

epigastric region, superior to the lumbar region

The heart is in the

mediastinum

Both kidneys could be shown in a

single coronal section of the body

The peritoneum lines the outside

of the stomach and intestines

The sigmoid colon is in the

lower left quadrant

If the atomic weight of hydrogen =1 amu and oxygen = 16 amu, what is the molecular weight of water?

18

If an atom undergoes ionization to lose two electrons, what is its new charge?

positive two

Which of the forms of ionizing radiation from a source outside the body is the most dangerous?

gamma ray

Valance electrons

determine chemical bonding propertiesare electrons of the outermost shellhave a maximum number of eight

Which of the following is INCORRECT?Isotopes have identical chemical behaviors.Isotopes have different physical propertiesIsotopes have the same atomic weights but different atomic numbers.Unstable isotopes decay and release radiation.

Isotopes have the same atomic weights but different atomic numbers

The amount of an electrolyte that would neutralize one mole of H+ or OH- is always called

one equivalent (Eq)

What is the mEq/L of 2mM Fe^3 electrolyte solution?

6meEq

Chemical solutions that resist changes in pH are called

buffers

One molar solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH-molecular weight 40) would contain one liter of water and how much sodium hydroxide?

40g

When counting items we commonly refer to twelve of something as a dozen. What is the term used to describe Avogadro's number of 6.023 X 10 to the 23rd?

a mole

When a nicotinamide molecule picks up an extra electron, it becomes

reduced

The joining of two glucose molecules, with the subsequent removal of water to form maltose is an example of a

dehydration synthesis reaction

A catalyst would

reduce reaction time

What type of reaction is represented in the following chemical equation? AB->A+B

decomposition reaction

What carbohydrate is impossible for humans to digest?

cellulose

What conjugated carbohydrates are attached to cell surfaces?

glycolipids and glycoproteins

Triglyceride molecule

contains a glycerol moleculecontains three fatty acidshas a neutral pH

Primary function of elcosanoids

chemical signaling between cells

The removal of a phosphate group would yield

a large amount of energy

All of the following are lesser elements in our bodies except:potassiumsulfurnitrogenchlorine

nitrogen

The transfer of electrons from one atom to another is called

ionization

Molecules that freely dissolve in water are

hydophillic

ATP is commonly used as an

energy currency molecule for the cell

A substance that contains at least two different elements

is a chemical compound

An ionic bond is formed when

an anion meets a cation

The ionization of a sodium atom to produce Na+ is an example of

catabolism

The weakest and most temporary of the chemical bonds is

hydrogen bonds

hydrophilic

substance capable of dissolving freely in water

A carboxyl group is symbolized by

COOH

The only polysaccharide synthesized in the human body is

glycogen

The arrangement of a polypeptide into a fibrous or globular shape is called

tertiary structure

Which of the following functions is more characteristic of carbohydrates than of proteins?

energy storage

The feature that most distinguishes a lipid from a carbohydrate is that a lipid has

a lower ratio of oxygen to hydrogen

When an atom gives up an electron and acquires a positive charge, it is called a

cation

Dietary antioxidants are important because they neutralize

free radicals

Any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by it is a

catalyst.In the human body, enzymes serve this function.

All of the synthesis reactions in the body form a division of metabolism called

anabolism

A chemical reaction that joins two organic molecules into a larger one & produces water as a by-product is called

dehydration synthesis

-ose

sugar (suffix)

-ase

enzyme (suffix)

The amphiphilic lipids of cell membranes are called

phospholipids

cyclic adenosine monophosphate

chemical derived from ATP and a "second messenger" in cellular signaling

When oxygen is unavailable, cells employ a metabolic pathway called

anaerobic fermentation to produce ATP

substrate

a substance acted upon and changed by an enzyme

inspection

simply looking at the body's appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making clinical diagnosis from surface appearance (also involves touching and listening to the body)

Palpation

feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a pulse

Auscultation

listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds

Percussion

examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air

dissection

careful cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships

anatomy and dissection

both mean cutting apartuntil the 19th century, dissection was called anatomizing

cadaver

dead human body

comparative anatomy

study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends.

exploratory surgery

opening the body and taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be done about it

medical imaging techniques

methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery (have replaced a lot of exploratory surgery)

radiology

branch of medicine concerned with imaging

gross anatomy

structure that can be seen with the naked eye, whether by surface observation, radiology or dissection

histology (microscopic anatomy)

taking thinly sliced tissue specimens, staining them and observing them under a microscope

Histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Cytology

the study of the structure and function of individual cells

Ultrastructure

the fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by electron microscope

Hippocrates

the "father of medicine" established a code of ethics for physicians, still recited in modern form by graduating medical students

Aristotle

one of the first philosophers to write about anatomy and physiology

Method used for listening to a patient for a heart murmur

Auscultation

Method used for studying the microscopic structure of the liver

Histology

Method used for microscopically examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis

Histopathology

Method for learning the blood vessels of a cadaver

dissection

Method for performing a breast self-examination

Palpation

Claudius Galen

physician to the Roman gladiators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era. Dissected pigs, monkeys and other animals. Warned people that that science was a method of discovery and people should trust their own observations

Maimonides

Jewish rabbi, physician to the sultan, wrote 10 medical books and treatises on specific diseases

Ibn Sina aka Avicenna

wrote The Cannon of Medicine, the leading authority in European medical schools for over 500 years

Andreas Versalius

taught anatomy in Italy, human dissections were started again, first to publish accurate illustrations for teaching anatomy, published the first atlas of anatomy, De Humani Corporis Facrica

William Harvey

studied physiology, blood circulation, book De Motu Cordis (On the Motion of the Heart)

Michael Servetus and William Harvey

the first Western scientists to realize that blood must circulate continuously around the body, from the heart to the other organs and back to the heart again

Robert Hooke

made many improvements to the compound microscope, the first to see and name cells

most important breakthrough in biomedical history, all functions of the body are now interpreted as the effects of cellular activity

Scientific method

refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions.

Bacon and Descartes

argued against biased thinking and for more objectivity in science, echoes of Bacon's philosophy are in the scientific method - they are credited with putting science on the pay to modernity and inventing new habits of scientific thought

Inductive method (Bacon)

process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them.

hypothetico-deductive method

an investigator begins by asking a question and formulating a hypothesis

hypothesis

educated speculation or possible answer to the question.

A good hypothesis must be:

1. consistent with what is already known2. capable of being tested and possibly falsified by evidence

Falsifiability

if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong. If nothing could possibly prove it wrong, then it is not scientific.

The purpose of a hypothesis is

to suggest a method for answering a question.

From the hypothesis, a researcher makes a

deduction (If-then)If my hypothesis on epilepsy is correct then.....

Experiment: Sample Size

An adequate sample size controls for chance events and individual variations in response and puts more confidence in the outcome. (A drug tested on 5,000 people more trustworthy than drug tested on 5 people)

Experiment: Controls

experiments require comparison between treated and untreated individuals so they can judge whether the treatment has effect.

Control group:

subjects that are as much like the treatment group as possible except with respect to the variable being tested.

Experiment: Psychosomatic effects

Effects of the subject's state of mind on his or her physiology - can have an undesirable effect on experimental results if not controlled. therefore, a placebo is given, and neither group is to know what they are taking

Experiment: Experimenter bias

Experimenters may want result so much that their biases, even subconscious ones, can affect their interpretation of the data. The double blind method helps control this

Experiment: Statistical testing

Scientists use statistical tests applied to the data, like the chi-square test, the t test, or an analysis or variance.

peer review

a critical evaluation by other experts in that field. Ensures honesty, objectivity, and quality in science

fact

information that can be independently verified by any trained person (iron deficiency leads to anemia)

a law of nature

a generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave, result of inductive reasoning based on repeated, confirmed observations

the law of complementary base pairing: In the double helix of DNA, a chemical base adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine

law of nature (example)

Boyles law - under specified conditions, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

law of nature (example)

theory

explanatory statement of set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypothesis

Darwin

first well supported theory of human evolution, human evolution and features of anatomy and behavior that reveal our relationship to other animals

Evolution

change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms

Natural selection

the principal theory of how evolution works: some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over their competitors that enable them to produce more offspring. They pass these advantages on to their offspring and the characteristics are more and more common in successive generations. Genetic change is made that constitutes evolution.

Selection pressures

natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others (climate, predators, disease, competition, and the availability of food)

Adaptations

features of an organism's anatomy, physiology and behavior that have evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the organism to cope with the challenges of its environment.

Chimpanzees closest living relative is

homo sapiens (humans)

model

An animal species or strain selected for research on a particular problem (a mouse model for leukemia)

arboreal

treetop habitat

opposable

opposable thumb can cross the palm to touch the finger tips and enable primates to hold small objects and manipulate them more precisely than other mammals can.

prehensile

able to grasp branches by encircling them wit the thumb and fingers (opposable thumbs make the hands prehensile)

steroscopic

depth perception, the eyes of primates moved to a more forward facing position, which allowed for stereoscopic vision. This adaptation provided better hand-eye coordination in catching and manipulating prey, and leaping from tree to tree. Color vision, rare among mammals, is a primate hallmark

a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function

the body's largest organ

the skin

tissue

a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function

Four primary classes of tissues (CEMN):

ConnectiveEpithelialMuscular tissueNervous

Cells

the smallest units of an organism that carry out all of the basic functions of life: nothing simpler is considered alive

A cell is enclosed in a

plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins

Most cells have one nucleus and an

organelle that contains its DNA

Cytology

the study of cells and organelles

Organelles

microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions (i.e. mitochondria, centrioles and lysosomes)

molecules

particle composed of at least two atoms (organelles and other cellular components are composed of molecules)

macromolecules

the largest molecules, such as proteins, fats, and DNA

atoms

the smallest particles with unique chemical identities

reductionism

the theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components (Aristotle)

Holism

the complementary theory that there are emergent properties of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of separate parts-human beings are more than the sum of their parts. (To be most effective, a health care provider treats not merely a disease or an organ system, but a whole person)

Anatomical variation

human bodies are not all the same internally. Some people lack certain organs. Most have five lumbar vertebrae (bone of the lower spine), but some people have six and some people have four, etc..

situs inversus

the organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are reversed between right and left

dextrocardia

a selective right-left reversal of the heart

situs perversus

a single organ occupies an atypical position (i.e. a kidney located low in the pelvic cavity instead of high in the abdominal cavity)

Why would it be important for a person with situs inverses to have this noted on a MedicAlert bracelet?

So physicians can correctly diagnose conditions (organs of thoracic and abdominal cavities are reversed)

Organization

Living things exhibit a far higher level of organization than the nonliving world

Cellular composition

Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

Metabolism

Living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology or provide them with energy

the separation of wastes from the tissues and their elimination from the body

Responsiveness and movement

the ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli (changes in their environment) is called responsiveness, irritability or excitability. Responsiveness is evident in animals b/c of nerve and muscle cells

Homeostasis

the ability to maintain internal stability even when the environment around an organism changes

Development

any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organism

Development involves:

1. Differentiation - the transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task2. Growth - an increase in size

Growth

The growth of the body occurs through chemical change (metabolism)

Reproduction

All living organisms can produce copies of themselves

Evolution

All living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation and therefore evolve. This occurs because mutations (changes in DNA structure) and inevitable and b/c environmental selection pressures endow some individuals with greater reproductive success than others.

it is assumed that such values are for a health young adult unless otherwise stated (reference man and reference woman)

reference man

a health male 22 years old, 70kg (154 pounds), living at a temp of 20 degrees Celcius, engaging in light physical activity, and consuming 2,800 kcal per day.

reference woman

22 year old female, weight of 58kg (128 lb), living at a temp of 20 degrees Celcius, engaging in light physical activity and consuming 2,000 kcal per day

Cannon

coined the term homeostasis

Pathophysiology

the study of unstable conditions that result when our homeostasis controls go awry

Bernard

observed that the internal conditions of the body remain quite constant even when external conditions vary greatly.

dynamic equilibrium

balanced change, the internal state of the body, in with there is a certain set point or average value for a given variable and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point (i.e. 37 degrees celcius for body temp)

set point

average value for any given variable - 37 degrees celcius for body temp

negative feedback

a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it (key mechanism to maintaining health)

feedback loops

feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temp)

vasodilation

the widening of the blood vessels. When blood vessels of the skin dilate, warm blood flows closer to the body surface and loses heat to the surrounding air. If this is not enough to return your temp to normal, sweating occurs

vasconstriction

a narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin- serves to retain warm blood deeper in your body and reduce heat loss-if this is not enough, the brain activates shivering, muscle trimmers that generate heat

baroreceptors

sensory nerve endingsWhen you get out of bed, gravity causes some of your blood to drain away from your head and upper torso, resulting in falling blood pressure in this region, a local imbalance in your homeostasis-Baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure-Baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brainstem-Cardiac center accelerates heartbeat-Blood pressure rises to normal & homeostasis is restored

cardiac center

regulates heart rate

receptor

a structure that senses a change in the body (stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure)

integrating (control) center

a mechanism that processes information, relates it other available information, and makes a decision about what the appropriate response should be.

Integrating (control) center examples

cardiac center of the brain or -comparing what blood pressure is with what it should be and makes a decision what the resonse should be

effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action (ex. restoration of normal blood pressure)

positive feedback

self-amplifying cycle in which a physiolocial change leads to even greater change in the same direction, rather than producting the corrects effects of negative feedback. (ex. giving birth)

Positive feedback

can sometimes be harmful or life-threatening process b/c it can change the internal state of the body far from its homeostatic point (high fever)

suffix

added to the end of a word to alter its meaning

combing vowels

inserted to join roots and make the word easiter to pronounce (o in cardiomyopathy)

prefix

modify the core meaning of the word

acronyms

words composed of the first letter, or first few letters of a series of words

Roentgen

discovered X-rays, a form of high energy radiation, that can penetrate soft tissues of the body

Radiography

the process of examining the body with X-rays

radiography

used in denistry, mammography, diagnosis of fractures, and examination of the chest

Disadvantages of radiography

images of overlapping organs can be confusing, slight differences in tissue density are not easily detected, and X-rays can cause mutations leading to cancer and birth defects. Accounts for 1/2 of clinical imaging

Computed Tomography (CT scan)

sophisticated application of X-rays where the patient is moved through a ring-shaped machine that emits low-intensity X-rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the opposite side. An image of a "slice" of the body as thin as a coin is produced to contruct 3-D images of the body.

Cylinder chamber surrounded by large electromagnetic field 3,000 to 60,000 times as strong as the earth's. Hydrogen atoms in the tissues align themselves with the magnetic field. The MRI can see clearly through the skull and cpinal colum to produce images of the nervous tissues.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

a varition of MRI that visualizes moment to moment changes in tissue function. These scans of the brain show shifting patterns of activity as the brain applies itself to a specific sensory, mental or motor task. Has replacted the PET for visualizing brain function.

Sonography

second oldest and most widely used method of imaging. A handheld device held firmly to the skin produces high frequency ultrasound waves and receives the signals that echo back from internal organs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sonography

Not useful for examining bones or lungsGood for obstretrics where the images can be used to locate the placenta and evaulate fetal age, position and development. Avoids the harmful effects of X-rays and equipment is inexpensive and portable. Main disadvantage is that the image is not sharp.

Anatomical position

person stands erect, feet flat on floor close together, arms are held downward and spinated, palms and face directed forward

thyroid

superior to the heart

sternum

anterior to the heart

aorta

posterior to the heart

In anatomical position, the forearm is

supinated

supinated

roated, so that the palm faces anteriorly

When the forearm is pronated, the palm faces

posteriorly

A person is supine if

lying face up

A person is prone if

lying face down

The three major anatomical planes are

sagittal, frontal and transverse

Many views of the body are based on real or imaginy "slices" of the body called

sections or planes

A sagittal plane (aka median or mid-sagittal plane)

passes vertically through the body or an organ and divides it into right and left portions

The head and pelvic organs are commonly illustrated on the

median plane

A frontal (coronal) plane

also extends vertically, but is perpendicular to the sagittal plane and divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

A frontal section of the head

would divide it into one portion bearing the face and another bearing the back of the head

Contents of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are most commonly shown in the

frontal section (coronal plane)

A transverse (horizonal plane)

passes across the bodyor an organ perpendicular to is long axis, dividing the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions

CT scans are

transverse sections

directions terms

words that describe the location of one structure relative to another

Ventral

toward the front or belly

Dorsal

Toward the back or spine

Anterior

Toward the ventral side

Posterior

Toward the dorsal side

Cephalic

Toward the head or superior end

Rostral

Toward the forward or nose

Caudal

Toward the tail or inferior end

Superior

Above

Inferior

Below

Medial

Toward the median plane

Lateral

Away from the median plane

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or origin

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment or origin

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body

Contralateral

On the opposite side of the body

Superficial

Closer to the body surface

Deep

Farther from the body surface

The aorta is ventral to the

vertebral column

The vertebral column is

dorsal to the aorta

The sernum is

anterior to the heart

The esophagus is posterior to the

trachea

The cephalic end of the embryonic neural tube

develops in the brain

The forebrain is

rostral to the brainstem

The heart is superior to the

diaphragm

The liver is inferior to the

diaphragn

The heart is medial to the

lungs

the eyes are lateral to the

nose

The elbow is proximal to the

wrist

the fingernails are at the distal ends of the

fingers

The liver is ipsilateral to the

appendix

The spleen is contralateral to the

liver

the skin is superficial to the

muscles

the bones are deep to the

muscles

Axial region

head, neck (cervical region) and trunk

trunk

divided into the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the abdominal region below it

Microvilli are characterized by all of the following except they appear as a brush border. B) their primary function is absorption. C) they have a chloride pump. D) they increase the surface area of a cell.

they have a chloride pump.

In cystic fibrosis, the cilia become embedded in sticky mucus due to a malfunction of the

chloride pump

Membrane proteins that aid in communications from other cells are

receptors.

Microvilli

increase a cell's external surface area and are found on intestinal cells.

When blood pressure in capillaries forces water and dissolved solutes out into the tissue fluid, this is called