The Umdet ul-ahbar and the Turkic Narrative Sources
for the Golden Horde and the Later Golden Horde

Uli Schamiloglu

In memory of Tibor Halasi-Kun (1914-1991)

A series of Turkic narrative sources have come down to
us from the Later Golden Horde, the period of the successor
states to the Golden Horde including the xanates of the Crimea,
Kasimov, Kazan, and other political units in the 15th-18th
centuries. These narrative sources, mostly chronicles, are of
fundamental importance for the study of the history of Western
Eurasia in the 13th-18th centuries. As most of these works are
still available only in the original Turkic, they remain
inaccessible and sometimes even unknown to the mainstream of
modern scholarship. It seems appropriate, therefore, to briefly
survey these historical writings together with a closer
examination of one particular work, the Umdet ul-ahbar. It is
hoped that such a survey will encourage the integration of Turkic
sources into the study of the history of the states of Western
Eurasia.

If we consider the various factors which might be seen
as contributing towards the development of a major tradition of
court historiography in this period, the Golden Horde did, in
fact, incorporate some of these. One may argue (contrary to the
view of Schurmann) that a strong centralized state power did
develop. Numerous urban centers, including over time several
capitals, also existed. Finally, we know from the famous
traveler Ibn Batutta and other sources that these urban centers
served as home to religious institutions and the learned groups
usually associated with them. At the same time, certain factors
worked against the florescence of a literary culture and its
preservation. The Black Death, which struck the territories of
the Golden Horde late in the 1340s, must have included a very
high proportion of the learned groups in its heavy human toll.
The attacks on urban centers in the second half of the 14th
century, the final Russian conquest of many cities, and the later
history of fires in cities such as Kazan were also devastating in
terms of the survival of a literary heritage. This may help
explain why much of what survives of the literary culture of the
cities of the Golden Horde has come down to us from outside the
territories of the Golden Horde.

When enumerating the products of the Turkic literary
culture in Western Eurasia in this period, the best-known
examples are the edicts and diplomatic correspondence
collectively known as yarliqs. These are not strictly speaking
narrative sources and survive in original Turkic versions only
from the end of the 14th century. This does not mean, however,
that there were no internal documents written before the end of
the 14th century. Yarliqs issued as early as the 13th century
are preserved in translations into Russian and other languages
from the original "Mongolian" (which could also mean Turkic in
the Mongolian script which the Mongols borrowed from the Uygurs).
These translated documents offer the best evidence of an earlier
literary culture which has not survived in the original.

A small number of bellettristic and religious works
are also connected by various scholars with Old Saray or New
Saray (the successive capitals of the Golden Horde) or with some
of its other cities. These include Qutb's reworked Turkic
translation of the romantic poem Xusrev u Sirin (dedicated to the
Golden Horde xan Tinibeg, r. 1341-2); Xwarezmi's romantic poem
Mahabbetname; and the religious treatise Nehc
ul-feradis (generally considered to have been written in 1358 or 1360 by
one Mahmud b. Ali). Seyf-i Serayi's Gulistan bi-t-turki (a
reworking of the Persian work by Sa`di) falls into a somewhat different category
as a work written in Mamluk Egypt in 1391 by a native of Saray. There is also the
oral literary work (destan) Cumcume sultan (also known as the
Cumcumename) whose relationship to the Kesikbai bey of the Calayir
"ruling tribe" in that xanate, and one can therefore be sure that some of
the information in the source is cast from the perspective of the tribal
establishment of the state (the "land"), rather than from the opposing
perspective of the ruling ingisid line.

In sharp contrast to Kasimov, the only Turkic narrative
source to be connected with the xanate of Kazan is a brief
account relating to its conquest discovered by Zeki Velidi
Togan. Given the active relations between the various xanates
of the Later Golden Horde (one only need recall the many figures
that served as ruler in more than one xanate), it is likely they
shared many of the same traditions regarding the period up to the
foundation of the individual xanates. Written works could also
have been shared. Usmanov speculates, for example, that the work
of Rasid ad-Din might have found its way to Kasimov through the
xanate of Kazan. It has also been suggested that Cumcume
sultan, which the Crimean xan Sahib Giray ordered translated into
Turkish, may have found its way to the Crimea from Kazan.

Given the limited number of narrative sources available for the xanates of
Kasimov and Kazan, historians interested in these states should pay special
attention to the Crimean xanate. The most dramatic reason for this is the
rather large number of Turkic narrative sources which survive from this
xanate. In addition to the Umdet ul-ahbar, which will be described in greater
detail below, there is a series of other important works which have also been
published:

The Es-seb us-seyyar was written by Seyyid Muhammed Riza
(a member of the Crimean aristocracy, d. 1756). It was edited by
Mirza Kazembek in the first half of the 19th century and used by V.D. Smirnov in
his history of the Crimean xanate. The Gulbun-i hanan was composed
in 1811 by Halim Giray Sultan (d. 1823), a Cingisid descended from Mengli
Giray.

The Tarih-i Islam Giray Han was written by Haci Mehmed
Senai, who flourished in the 1640s. This work was edited and translated into
Polish by Z. Abrahamowicz as the History of Islam Giray Han III.

The Tarih-i Sahib Giray Han was written by Remmal Hoca, a
physician to Sahib Giray who later entered the service of Sultan Selim II. This
work, which has been made available by I. Gokbilgin in a transcription
accompanied by a French translation, pays particular attention to the upheaval in
the system of "ruling tribes" in the early Crimean xanate.

The Tarih-i Said Giray Han, a work from the 17th century
which has been studied by B. Kellner-Heinkele.

The Tevarih-i Dest-i Kipcak, composed ca. 1638, includes a
brief survey of the earlier Golden Horde as well as the later
period until the early 17th century. It has been made available
by A. Zajaczkowski together with its 18th-century French
translation.

Other sources include the Telhis ul-beyan fi kavanin al-i
Osman, which was utilized by Smirnov in his history of the
Crimean xanate, and the Tarih-i Muhammed Giray Han, which
covers the period 1684-1703. Although this listing is not
exhaustive, it is clear that the Crimean xanate offers a wealth
of narrative historical sources to a degree simply not available
for the other states of the Later Golden Horde.

Let us turn now to a closer look at one of these sources,
the Umdet ul-ahbar, and some examples of the kind of information
it can offer. This work, which covers the rise of the Mongol
empire and the history of the Crimean xanate, was written in
Ottoman Turkish (but with some Crimean Tatar elements) by
Abdulgaffar b. el-Hac Hasan b. el-Hac Mahmud b. el-Hac
Abdulvehhab el-Kirimi, a member of the Crimean ulema banished
from his home in A.H. 1157/1744-5 A.D. One partial edition of
this work, published by Necib Asim earlier this century under the
title Umdet ut-tevarih (Istanbul, A.H. 1343/1924-5 A.D.),
appeared as a supplement to the Turk tarih encumeni mecmuasi.
This edition was prepared on the basis of the manuscript of about
166 folia preserved in Istanbul in the Suleymaniye Library (Esad
Efendi no. 2331). Though the manuscript begins with a
substantial section surveying the history of the earlier Islamic
states, the printed edition includes only the final portion of
the original work covering in detail the rise of the Mongol world
empire, the Golden Horde, and the Crimean xanate. The work has
not been made available in any other language.

The Umdet ul-ahbar is based on a wide range of Arabic,
Persian, and Turkic sources for the different periods it
covers. One of Abdulgaffar Kirimi's most important sources for
the 13th-14th centuries was the Tarih-i Dost Sultan. This work,
supposed to have been written in Xwarezm in the 16th century,
survives in the library of Zeki Velidi Togan. (Another copy of
this work is the incomplete Tashkent manuscript known as the
Otemis Haci tarihi or as the Cingizname of Otemis Haci b.
Mevlana Muhammed Dosti). For the later periods, Abdulgaffar
Kirimi draws on various Crimean and Ottoman sources as well as on
his own first-hand knowledge.

The Umdet ul-ahbar has been utilized as a historical source
by only a handful of scholars. For the earlier period, Berthold
Spuler made use of the edition by Necib Asim in his history of
the Golden Horde, though he concludes that many of the accounts
in this work pertaining to the 13th-14th centuries are
legendary. More recently, Mustafa Kafali has relied on the
data contained in the the Umdet ul-ahbar as the basis of his
recent work on the the Golden Horde. (Both Spuler and Mustafa
Kafali were also able to consult the Togan manuscript of the
Tarih-i Dost Sultan.) Coming to the later period, the foremost
modern scholar of the various Turkic chronicles for the history
of the Crimean xanate has been Halil Inalcik. He has incorporated
the Umdet ul-ahbar and other Crimean sources in his now-classic
articles on the history of the Crimean xanate, which may serve as
a model for research based on the Turkic narrative histories and
diplomatic correspondence preserved for this period.
Otherwise, the Umdet ul-ahbar has been neglected in most studies
of the Golden Horde and the Later Golden Horde.

In its survey of the history of the 13th-14th centuries, the
Umdet ul-ahbar offers accounts of the reign of each of the rulers
of the Golden Horde, sometimes in great detail. It includes
descriptions of the role of the tribal nobility in the selection
and elevation of the various Cingisid xans of the Golden Horde.
For example, it refers to negotiations of the Golden Horde emirs
with Hulegu prior to the accession of Berke Xan (r. 1255-
1266):

His two princes [the sons of Batu] Saritak and Togan were left, but
Saritak then died. Since Togan was a small child, the consultation of
the celebrated emirs decided at this point to inform Hulegu, one of the
sons of Toluy from the party of the xan (zumre-i kaan). They sent him
according to the habit of Mongol custom a lock of hair and a sword
without a scabbard, and a shirt without a collar as though the ulus of
Coci had no ruler.

At the beginning of the reign of Tude Mengu (r. 1280-1287), it is
described that the emirs of the Dest-i Qipcaq had to swear an
oath of fealty to him, after which they participated
in the installation ceremony of ritual elevation. Similar
statements are made for other rulers as well, including the
accession to the throne of Ozbek Xan (r. 1313-1341):

Then two notable emirs seated the xan on a (rug of) white felt
according to cingisid custom and, raising him, installed him
on the throne. All the tribes came and gave the oath of fealty
in groups one after the other.

The Umdet ul-ahbar relates other information on the rulers as
well, including major source traditions on the piety of Berke and
the conversions to Islam of Ozbek Xan and Canibek.

The Umdet ul-ahbar is notable for offering information on
individuals connected with the major socio-political units
("ruling tribes") of the Golden Horde on which the traditional
sources for the earlier period are usually silent. One account
relating to the first half of the 13th century describes how Batu
sent siban with 30,000 soldiers and Bor Altay of the Taraqli
Qiyat as his ataliq against Mankup in the Crimea:

In the province of the Crimea there were all sorts of different
peoples, but most of them were Genoese infidels, and from among
the Tatars there were also some people called the As. These
soldiers attacked the fortress called Mankup, but the
aforementioned fortress was very strong. Since it was (situated)
on very steep mountains and its conquest was not an easy matter,
they entered it by ruse. He ordered that each of the soldiers
should take two stirrups in his hands apiece and begin beating
them together. Such a frightful clamor issued forth that those
who heard it were amazed. They did not cease this tumult for a
whole month and they refrained from fighting. The infidels of the
fortress heard this melodic noise and they were ready to neglect
the defense and protection of the ramparts of the fortress.
Following this manner of deception, with the rest of his troops
not stopping their clamor, he selected four-five thousand brave
and courageous young men and appointed Bor Altay bey as
commander-in-chief. In the middle of the night they advanced well
concealed. The As infidels were surprised and did not find a
place of refuge, and the fortress was captured, they say.

This is just one example in which an individual is described as
having a specific tribal affiliation, and there are other
references to individuals connected with the Qangli, the Sicivut,
and especially the Qiyat. In another example, the 14th-century
figure Mamay is called the nephew of Qiyat Astay bey of the right
flank.

The most important of the socio-political units functioning
as a "ruling tribe" in the various xanates of the Later Golden
Horde was the Sirin. The Sirin remained throughout the history of
the Crimea the dominant among the four (later five) "ruling
tribes" of the xanate up until the Russian annexation of the
Crimea at the end of the 18th century. Even when Sahin Giray
intended to streamline and centralize his administration in the
1770s by downgrading the role of the qarai beys (whose role in
electing the Cingisid xan is identical with that of the quriltays
in the earlier period) by usurping for himself the power of
designating his successor, he could not fully ignore the
importance of the Sirin and the Mansurs (earlier known as the
Mangits). Abdulgaffar Kirimi, who was a strong partisan of the
Sirin "ruling tribe", depicts the Sirin "ruling tribe" defending
the interests of the "land" against the interests of the Cingisid
Giray dynasty throughout the history of the Crimean xanate. As
such, the Umdet ul-ahbar is the history of the Sirin in the
Crimea, offering information which is particularly valuable for
the origins and later history of the leadership of the Sirin
"ruling tribe". It states, for example, that the Sirin are
descended from a particular branch of the As with a brand
or tamga. This is a unique statement in the sources regarding
the origin of this most important socio-political unit in the
states of the Later Golden Horde. By the expression As kabilesi
it is not clear, however, whether it is meant that they are
therefore descended from the Iranian Alans of the medieval Pontic
steppe (there is certainly no other "ruling tribe" with a similar
origin) or that the name has a geographical connotation.

The Umdet ul-ahbar describes the leaders of the Sirin,
Barin, Arcin and Qipcaq as joining Toqtamis as his has nokers or
"special companions". From this period on it is a rich source
for following the earliest leaders of the Sirin in the Crimea.
The first Sirin leader to cooperate with Toqtamis was orek Temir
b. Dangi bey, whose son Tegine was just as important in the Dest-
i Qipcaq (or Kipchak steppe) as his rival, the Mangit leader
Edigu. Beyond the genealogical information contained in the
narrative itself, there is a separate genealogical appendix at
the end of this work. Thus, the Umdet ul-ahbar is
indispensable for understanding the greater socio-political and
cultural unity beginning with the Golden Horde itself and
continuing through the time of the component states constituting
the Later Golden Horde.

It is only with the help of the Umdet ul-ahbar that it is
possible to understand that these later states continued certain
earlier Cingisid traditions, the most outstanding of which was
the Cingisid system of state organization. In this pattern of
state organization which I have termed the "four-bey system",
four socio-political units shared fully in the governing of the
state. The leaders of these four "ruling tribes" were
collectively known as the four qaraci beys; their direct
predecessors in the earlier Golden Horde were known as the ulus
beys. Another well-known passage in the Umdet ul-ahbar describes
the functioning of this system of government. I have published
a translation of this passage elsewhere and have argued that this
description is, in fact, the key which allows us to piece
together and reinterpret partial accounts of state organization
found in diverse sources for the 13th-14th centuries as well.

There are many questions regarding the history of both the
earlier Golden Horde, the Crimean xanate itself, and even the
other xanates of the Later Golden Horde to whose discussion the
Umdet ul-ahbar makes a contribution beyond these few illustrative
examples. Of course, I do not insist that all of the information
in this work is to be corroborated by information in other
sources. Nevertheless, this work and the other Turkic narrative
sources from the later period represent a contribution to the
preservation of historical traditions from the 13th-14th
centuries about which sometimes very little else is known. Some
of these traditions survive exclusively through works written in
Xwarezm, others survive through works written in the xanates of
the Later Golden Horde, and some survive as oral traditions, a
topic which I have not even considered in this essay. Taken
together, however, they represent what survives of the indigenous
historical traditions of the Golden Horde. It may be premature to
offer a bold new hypothesis on the state of historiography in the
Golden Horde. It is not too soon, however, to insist that the
study of the Turkic narrative sources mentioned in this essay is
essential for any study of the history of Western Eurasia in the
period of the Golden Horde as well as in the period of the Later
Golden Horde.