… From palynological records it can be concluded that an Iberian variety of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris var. iberica ) once existed in the upper belt of the Serra da Estrela. It is not known whether some small bushes or extended forests were concerned. It seems that the species already disappeared before the beginning of the Holocene period, some 10,000 years ago. Nowadays the only indigenous population of this tree species in Portugal occurs in the Serra do Gerês. In the eastern part of the Central Cordillera (Sierra de Guadarrama) forests predominated by Pinus sylvestris var. iberica still occur at high altitudes. The undergrowth in Spain is formed by Dwarf juniper Juniperus communis subsp. alpina) scrub, which is comparable to the present climax scrub of the Serra da Estrela (see chapter 3). Scots pine trees that now grow in the Estrela are non-indigenous species that have been planted by the forestry. Yellow Bird 's nest or Dutchman 's pipe Monotropa hypopitys) is a rare species that may have been a former constituent of the native pine forests. It is a short herb, totally lacking chlorophyll, living saprophytically on leaf mould. Nowadays it is a rare species in damp coniferous plantations in the middle belt .

Nowadays no Pedunculate oak forests are known in the area. Only some specimens of the Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) occur here and there in areas with relative strong oceanic influence in the middle belt. One example is a huge monumental specimen in front of the Capela da Senhora dos Verdes in Manteigas. Has it been conserved as a sacred tree or has it been merely saved because under its crown can be found shelter from sun or rain?

Once Pedunculate oak forests with evergreen elements must have had optimal occurrence in the subsector Beirense Litoral which slightly embraces the western piedmont area of the Serra da Estrela. The remarkable assemblage of temperate woodland species and evergreen elements must have lent these forests a luxurious appearance. It is assumed that following the variations of the climate (Glacials and Interglacials), mediterranean and temperate species could migrate and mix in western Beira Baixa because in contrast to other areas there was no significant east west oriented mountain chain that prevented such a shift. For instance during the last ice ages (Glacials) many species in Central Europe could not migrate fast enough southwards over the Pyrenees or the Alps and as a result they became extinct.

In North-America most of the mountain ranges are north south oriented. It is generally assumed that this is the reason why so many different oak and pine species occur in that part of the world.

Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) is a deciduous tree with typical woolly-haired twigs and large leaves which are densely woolly beneath and deeply cut into narrow acute lobes. Its range stretches from western France lip to Northwest Morocco with optimal occurrence in the Iberian Peninsula in areas with high precipitation (mainly mountains). Pyrenean oak forests have often been replaced by Sweet chestnut plantations because of the latter's additional source of food and supply of better timber. Fortunately many of the native forest species also thrive in the understorey of chestnut groves.

It is assumed that in the Estrela various kinds of Pyrenean oak forests have occurred in the past. Nowadays only small and degraded relict stands occur, making it difficult to assess the types concerned. The forests must have been best developed in the middle belt. In sheltered situations they may have mounted over 1.700 m. So far the highest record of a small Pyrenean oak tree is at about 1.850 m.

… The evergreen sclerophyllous Cork oak (Quercus suber) and Holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia) are both well adapted to summer drought, so typically for the Mediterranean macroclimate. Cork oak forests are usually more thermophile and hygrophile than Holm oak forests. This explains why Cork oaks occur optimally at the foot of the mountain in areas with high precipitation . In drier climates Cork oaks may occur under humid soil conditions. Holm oaks have fewer requirements and therefore a wider range. Cork oaks are useful trees, reason why they have not totally disappeared. Exploited and therefore protected they may be found growing close to farmhouses. Some stands can be ob served in the southern and north-eastern piedmont areas of the Serra da Estrela. These remnants have probably belonged to the group of Cork oak forest series occurring in the phytogeographical Luso-Extremadurensean subprovince, which reaches the eastern parts of the Estrela massif. A characteristic species of such climax woodlands is Sanguisorba hybrida.

Within the Park Holm oaks have their major distribution in the eastern parts, from the lower to the middle belt. The Holm oak forests have almost disappeared. In general merely shrubs occur, but a few small forests do exist, mostly in areas with difficult access. Examples can be found in the Vale das Cortes, Vale de Beijames, Vale de Sameiro, Vale do Mondego, especially in the area between Senhora de Assedasse and Quinta da Taberna, the area around the Cabeço da Mestra Brava and at relative high altitudes near the Toje peak in the Serra da Alvoaça. The aforementioned stands are remnants of forests that most probably resembled the Holm oak forests from the Luso-Extremadurensean subprovince. A characteristic species of such climax woodlands is Pyrus bourgaeana, a pear tree that is native in Nw-Africa and the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. In general there are two Holm oak species: Quercus rotundifolia and Quercus ilex. Quercus rotundifolia is restricted to the Iberian Peninsula. Quercus ilex has a more eastern distribution. It is native in Spain, France, Italy and parts of the Balkans. All the Holm oak trees in the Park refer to Quercus rotundifolia. ...

...There is some confusion about the identification of various Birch (Betula) species. The forestry introduced quite some Birch trees of different origin. Some of them include Downy birch (Betula pubescens) and several hybrids. The original species can be attributed to Betula celtiberica. Only very few specimens of Betula celtiberica can still be found in places with difficult access, e.g , near cliffs (sheltered from sun, fire and goats). The natural Birch forests probably occurred in the rainiest areas, often on humid soils, with preference for the higher parts of the middle belt. In sheltered situations they transgraded probably into the upper belt. From these edapho-climatic forests only a few scattered trees are left. The fringe of Birch forests in the Estrela must have been formed by broom scrub predominated by Genista florida (see chapter 3). Perhaps under a relative open canopy some of the following species would have grown there: Dawny leopard's-bane (Doronicum pubescens). Henrique's great wood-rush (Luzula sylvatica subsp. henriquesii). St Patrick's-cabbage (Saxifraga spathularis), Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), Crepis lampsanoides, Allium scorzonerifolium, Alpine leek (Allium victorialis) and White hellebore (Veratrum album). Both Allium species are now found in open but shady environments often next to frequent irrigated rocks. Most of the aforementioned species call up associations with tall forb vegetation from Scandinavia and high mountains. The Mediterranean influence in the Estrela is, certainly in the absence of a shady tree layer, too large to permit such luxurious vegetation. Moreover the altitude is too low to supply enough snow, from which during the vegetation season enough water can be drawn. However, such vegetation does exist in the higher parts of the Cordilheira Central in Spain. The forest service planted a considerable number of (non-local) Birch trees at several locations. One of these stands is at the famous pick-nick site of Covão da Ametade. Other stands are situated along the road to Nave de Santo Antonio and in the area north of the Mondeguinho.

Only seedlings or juveniles from strict indigenous specimens should be used for plantation in Par areas. It would be great if in all major Park areas of Portugal plant nurseries would be set up in order to grow strictly indigenous tree species for plantation aims….

… It is assumed that once Yew (Taxus baccata) forests occurred. There are hardly any Yew trees left and now at the best some clumped specimens can be found. Some may even having been planted. Yew forests are not well understood. There may he interference with Holly for ests (sec 2.1.3).

Taxus seems to find its optimal conditions on humid slopes, mostly along rivulets in the middle belt. Protection of these sites and undisturbed development may reveal the true character of Yew forests.

Yew trees can be found in the Vale de Zezere near Covão d'Amctade and near Fonte Paulo Luís Martins, Vale da Candieira, Garganta de Loriga, south of Penha dos Abutres near Cerro do Terroeiro, north of Rodeio Grande, Ribeira da Lagoa, Vale do Conde, and Poco do Inferno. ….

… Alder forests are edapho-hygrophilous climax forests predominated by Alder (Alnus glutinosa). They occur along the river s in the lower and medium belt . mostly on even ground and gentle slopes with deep and humid alluvial soils. Nowadays only degraded formations occur. As mentioned before their quasi disappearance is mainly the consequence of the rich ness and moisture of the soils. which make them suitable for hay meadows or horticultural exploitations. Competition with introduced tree species is another threat. Some exotic tree species, due to their strong regenerative force (e.g. Ailanthus altissima), started to appear subspontaneously outside the plantations occupying potential areas for riparian forests. This can be mainly observed in the western part of the Park.

Mostly depending on altitude two types of Alder stands exist: a relative species-poor one with Galium broterianum at higher altitudes. and a relative species-rich one with Balm-leaved figwort (Scrophularia scorodonia) and other species like Royal fern (Osmunda regalis) and Common vine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris) at lower altitudes. The Subspecies sylvestris is a native species with small bluish-black acid fruits, and usually 3 seeds. The subspecies vinifera has larger fruits that are sweet and vary in colour. with 2 or no seeds. It is the hybrid-cultivated form used for wine making. Alder contributes to a higher nutrient level of the soil. Its roots have buds in which bacteria (Actinomyces alni) grow that in symbiosis with the tree are able to fix nitrogen from the air.

Narrow-leaved Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) may be present in the tree layer. but in contrast to Alder it prefers higher situated places that are not waterlogged all year. In open and degraded formations willow species like Salix atrocinerea, Salix salviifolia and their hybrid (Salix x secalliana) often predominate. Willows are usually found in places where sometimes high currents may occur. These softwood species have a strong regenerative capacity. Such is a good adaptation to the strong erosive action of the rivers. which may turn into mighty torrents after heavy rainfall. The Weeping willow (Salix babylonica) is sometimes used as an ornamental tree. It is naturalised and now it can be sparsely found among the native willows. In the riparian forests there are quite some mosses and ferns, tall herbs, sprawlers, climbers and sub shrubs such as Brambles (Rubus spp.). Characteristic species of sedge tussocks frequently occur such as an Iberian endemic Subspecies of the Tufted sedge (Carex elatasubsp. reuteriana), a specific Bedstraw (Galium broterianum) and the Hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata). Examples of Alder forests can be found along the Ribeira do Freixo near Freixo da Serra, along the Mondego river between Videmonte and Vila Soeiro and beyond, along the Ribeira do Caldeirão and along the Alva river. ...

Osmunda regalis, Serra da Lousã

Osmunda regalis, Serra da Lousã

(Panícula bem visível)

Fraxinus angustifolia

…Once Narrow-leaved Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) forests must have occurred from the lower to the middle belt along most of the watercourses in the area. Nowadays only small patches remained. These small stands are found on gentle to relative steep slopes on soils with an alternate water table. A major part of the potential area of Narrow-leaved ash is occupied by meadows (see chapter 4), Narrow-leaved ash is frequently accompanied by Pyrenean oak. Rare tree species are Black poplar (Populus nigra). Betula celtibérica and Small-leaved Elm (Ulmus minor), Species such as Large lords-and-ladies (Arum itaticum), White bryony (Bryonia dioica), Elm-leaved Bramble (Rubus ulmifolius). Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and many others may be spotted. A very rare Speedwell, Veronica micrantha, was once observed in this type or woodland. Examples of Narrow-leaved ash stands can be found in the surroundings of Freixo da Serra (Freixo is Portuguese for Ash ), Corujeira, and in the Zêzere valley near Covais, and south of Penhas da Saúde....

...Portugal laurel (Prunus lusitanica subsp. lusitanica) is an evergreen shrub or tree with shiny dark green leathery perennial leaves, quite like those of the Laurel (Laurus nobilis) and therefore called lauroid or lauriphyllous. Trees with such characteristics occur at lower latitudes and form forests called laurisilvas. Prunus lusitanica subsp. hixa is known from Madeira and Canary Islands, Prunus lusitanicasubsp.azorica is known from Açores. They belong to a group of endemic lauriphyllous species that grow in Iaurissilvas in the Macaronesian region (Canary islands, Madeira, Açores).

Their continental counterpart Prunus lusitanica subsp. lusitanicaoccurs in Portugal, Spain and North-Morocco. It is used as an ornamental tree, for instance in parks in London and Paris. Portugal Iaurel is native in the southern part of the Estrela, where its need for warm and moist conditions is met in some deep valleys. There in the lower bell a few small stands occur along some watercourses, often in contact with alder galleries. Both formations are remnants of edapho-climatic forests. The Portugal laurel galleries of the Serra da Estrela have affinities with those from the Montes de Toledo in Spain. They can he observed along the Ribeira de Loriga, Ribeira do Alvoco, Ribeira da Teixeira, Ribeira de Valcovo and Ribeira de Balocas.

Once Portugal laurel may have also grown in Pedunculate oak forests with evergreen elements that formerly occurred in the western piedmont areas of the Serra da Estrela. Other evergreen shrubs or low trees like the Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) and the Laurustinus (Viburnum tinus) are often companions of the Portugal laurel. In the undergrowth you may encounter a southern subspecies of Ivy (Hedera helix subsp. canariensis). Laurel stands (Laurus nobilis) seem to be restricted to only two extremely small sites around Loriga and Alvoco da Serra. It is not known whether these stands are natural or whether they have been planted. Laurel seems to find its optimal conditions in sheltered humid situations along rivers in valleys in the southern part of the Park in the lower belt, as Portugal laurel does. ...

Ilex aquifolium

...Holly forests are not well understood. In the Serra da Estrela merely individual specimens of Holly (Ilex aquifolium) can be found. Some specialists consider them a relict of various forests with a field layer rich in Holly and sometimes with Yew (Taxus) (see also 2.3.2). Ilex is probably an old element from the palaeotropical or subtropical flora that later adapted to the new (Atlantic-Mediterranean) conditions. Holly seems to have its optimal conditions along rivers and slopes in valleys in the lower and medium belt. Individual trees can be observed in valleys in the southern part of the Park, e.g, Vale da Caniça near Ponte Jugais, Garganta de Loriga southwest of Penha do Gato and Covão da Nave, Vale de Loriga between Cabeca and Casal do Rei, Vale de Alvoco south of Penhas dos Abutres, north of Muralha and south of Aguincho, Ribeira da Lagoa, Vale da Candieira, and Souto do Concelho near Manteigas …

...Besides natural causes and fire management of shep herds there are other reasons why vegetation is set on fire. In the beginning of the century large parts of heathlands were conversed into highly flammable pine tree and Eucalyptus plantations. This policy forced shepherds to leave their pasture areas or to change their ways of living. The afforestation caused feelings of dissatisfaction amongst the shepherds and orher parts of the population. Retaliation may be one of the motives to set a plantation into fire, but for instance real estate developers may have profit and therefore a motive: burnt down vegetation has low value for nature conservation and may be easily acquired for construction works. Another, perhaps the most important motive, is the supply of large amounts of timber on the market: burnt trees are removed quickly otherwise they may be attacked by insects, moulds or mushrooms. This timber of minor quality is usually used to produce chipboards. The chipboard industry profits from a high supply because it brings about low timber prices.

An important aim of nature management is to create the largest possible biodiversity in the given circumstances. In some cases, if carefully used, burning seems to enlarge this diversity. Still very little is known about the effects of fire. Therefore we need to study the phenomenon of fire in order to apply a proper fire management to achieve a larger biodiversity. First of all uncontrolled fires should he avoided, because if we want to predict what happens after burning, we must study the situation before, during and the (long -term) development of nature after burning has taken place. ...

roboris), western meridional alliance that could be considered as geovicariant of the more septentrional Carpinion betuli Issler 1931]; thermo- to lower orotemperate, meso-supramediterranean and submediterranean subhumid to ultrahyperhumid hyperoceanic