CHAPTER XXXIV: OBSERVATIONS
CONCERNlNG
THE MEANES TO WARRE AFTER THE MANNER OF JULIUS CÆSAR

T
IS reported of divers chiefe Generals in warre, that they have
particularly
affected some peculiar book or other, as Alexander the Great
highly
esteemed Homer; Scipio, Africanus, Xenophon; Marcus Brutus,
Polybius;
Charles the Fifth, Philip de Comines: and it is
lately
averred that in some places, and with some men, Machiavell is
much
accompted of: But our late Marshall Strozzi, who had made
especiall
choice to love Cæsar, without doubt I thinke of all other
chose best, for truely he ought to be the breviary of all true
souldiers,
as being the absolute and perfect chiefe patterne of military
profession.
And God hee knowes with what grace and with what decorum he hath
embellished
this rich subject, with so pure a kinde of speech, so pleasing and so
absolutely
perfect, that to my taste there are no writings in the world which in
this
subiect may be compared to his. I will heere register certaine
particular
and rare parts concerning his maner of war, which yet remaine in my
memory.
His armie beeing somewhat afrighted upon the report that ranne of the
great
forces which K. Iuba brought against him, instead of abating
the
opinion his souldiers had conceived of it, and to diminish the meanes
or
forces of his enemie, having caused them to be assembled altogether,
thereby
to assure and encourage them, he tooke a cleane contrary course to that
which in like cases we are accustomed to do, for he had them trouble
themselves
no more to finde out the number of the forces which his enemies brought
against him, for himselfe had already true knowledge and certaine
intelligence
of them, and told them a number farre exceeding both the truth and
report
of them: following what Cyrus commandeth in Xenophon.
Forasmuch
as the deceit is not of like interest, for a man to finde his enemies
in
effect weaker than he hoped, then stronger indeed having once conceived
an opinion of their weaknesse. He enured all his souldiers simply to
obey,
without controling, gaine-saying, or speaking of their captaines
desseignes,
which he never communicated unto them, but upon the last point of
execution;
and was pleased, if by chance they had any inkling of them, so to
deceive
them. Presently to change his opinion: and having prefixed a place to
quarter
in at night, he hath often beene seene to march further, and lengthen
his
journey, namely if the weather were foule, or if it rained. The
Swizzers
in the beginning of his warres in Gaule, having sent toward him
to give them free passage through the Romane countries, and he being
resolved
by force to empeach them, did notwithstanding shew them very good
lookes,
and tooke certaine dayes respit to give them an answer. During which
time
he might have leisure to assemble his armie together. These poore
people
knew not how wel he could husband time: for he often repeated that the
skill to embrace occasions in the nick is the chiefest part of an
absolute
captaine: and truly the diligence he used in his exploit is incredible,
and the like was never heard of. If he were not over-consciencious in
that
under colour of some treatie, parle or accord, to take any advantage of
his enemies, he was as little scrupulous in that he required no other
vertue
in his souldiers but valour; and except mutinie and disobedience he
punished
not greatly other vices. After his victories he often gave them the
reines
to all licenciousness, for a while dispencing them from all rules of
military
discipline; saying, moreover, his souldiers were so well instructed
that
though they were in their gayest clothes, pranked up, muskt and
perfumed,
they would, notwithstanding, runne furiously to any combate. And in
truth
he loved to see them richly armed, and made them weare gilt, graven and
silvered armours, that their care to keepe them cleane and bright might
make them more fierce and readie to defend themselves. Speaking to
them,
he ever called them by the name of fellow soldiers, a name used at this
day by some captaines; which his successor Augustus afterward
reformed,
esteeming he had done it for the necessitie of his affaires, and to
flatter
the hearts of those which followed him but voluntarily;

but this custome was over-lowlie
for
the dignitie of an emperor and chiefe generall of an armie, and he
brought
up the fashion againe to cal them only souldiers. To this curtesie, Cæsar
did, notwithstanding intermixe a great severity to suppresse and keep
them
humble. His ninth legion having mutinied neere unto Placentia,
he
presently cassiered the same with great ignominie unto it,
notwithstanding
that Pompey were yet on foot and strong; and would not receive
it
into favour but with humble petition and entreaties. Hee did more
appease
them by authoritie and audacitie than by mildnesse and affabilitie.
Where
he speaketh of his passage over the river of Rheine, towards Germanie,
he saith that, deeming it unworthy the honour of the Romane people his
army should pass over in shippes, he caused a bridge to be built, that
so it might passe over drie-foot. There he erected that admirable
bridge
whereof he so particularly describeth the same: for he never more
willingly
dilates himselfe in describing any of his exploites then where he
endevoreth
to represent unto us the subtilitie of his inventions in such kindes of
manuall workes. I have also noted this his booke, that he much
accompteth
of his exhortations he made his souldiers before any fight, for where
he
would shew to have beene either surprised or urged, he ever alledgeth
this,
that he had not so much leisure as to make an oration to his souldiers
or armie: before that great battle against those of Tournay,
Cæser
(saith he) having disposed of the rest, ranne sodainely whither fortune
carried him, to exhort his men, and meeting with the tenth legion, he
had
not leisure to say any thing else unto them but that they should
remember
their former wonted vertue, they should nothing be danted, they should
stoutly resist the encounter of their adversaries; and forsomuch as
the enemie was come within an arrow-shot unto him, he gave the signal
of
the battel; and sodainely going elsewere to encourage others, he found
them already together by the eares: see here what himself saith of it
in
that place. Verely his tongue hath in diverse places much bestead, and
done him notable service, and even whilst he lived his military
eloquence
was so highly regarded that many of his armie were seene to copie and
keepe
his orations; by which meanes diverse volumes were filled with them,
and
continued many ages after his death, his speech and particular graces,
so that his familiar friends, and namely Augustus, hearing that
rehearsed which had beene collected of his, knew by the phrases and
words
what was his or not. The first time that with any publike charge he
issued
out of Rome, he came in eight dayes to the river of Rhone,
having ever one or two secretaries before him, who continually writ
what
he endited, and one behinde him that carried his sword. And surely if
one
did nothing but runne up and downe, he could very hardly attaine to
that
promptitude wherewith ever being victorious, having left Gaule,
and following Pompey to Brundusium, in eighteene dayes
he
subdued all Italie; returned from Brundusium to Rome,
and thence went even to the heart of Spaine, where he passed
many
extreme difficulties in the warres betweene Afranius and Petreius,
and at the long siege of Marseille; from whence he returned
into Macedon,
overthrew the Romane armie at Pharsalia; thence pursuing Pompey
he passed into Egypt, which he subdued; from Egypt he
came
into Syria, and into the countrie of Pontus; where hee
fought
with Pharnaces; thence into Affrica, where he defeated Scipio
and Iuba; and thence through Italie he returned into Spaine,
where he overthrew Pompeyes children.

Swifter then breed -yong
tiger, or
heav'ns flash,And as from mountaines top a
headlong
stone,Rent-off by winds, or by stormes
troublous dashWasht-off, or loos'd by age of
yeares
are gone,Crosse-carried with great force
that hill-like masseBounds on the earth, and rowles
with it in oneWoods, herds, and men, and all
that
neere it was

Speaking of the siege
of Avaricum,
he saith that it was his custome, both day and night, ever to be neere
and about such workemen as he had set a worke. In all enterprises of
consequence
he was ever the first skout-man or surveyer of any place; and his armie
never approched place which he had not viewed or survayed himselfe. And
if wee may believe Suetonius, at what time he attempted to
passe
over into England he was the first man that sounded the passage. He was
wont to say that he esteemed that victory much more which was conducted
by advise and managed by counsell, then by maine strength and force. In
the warre against Petreius and Afranius, fortune
presenting
an apparent occasion of advantage unto him, he saith that he refused
it,
hoping, with a little more time, but with lesse hazard, to see the
overthrow
of his enemie. Where he also plaid a notable part, to command all his
armie
to swimme over a river without any necessitie.

The Souldier rides that way
in hast
to fightWhich yet he would have feared
in
haste of flightHis limbs with water wet and
cold
before,With armes he covers, running
doth
restore.

I finde him somewhat
more
warie and considerate in his enterprises then Alexander; for
the
latter seemeth to seeke out, and by maine force to runne into dangers,
as an impetuous or raging torrent, which without heede, discretion, or
choise, shockes and checkinates whate'er it meeteth withall.

And to say truth, his hap
was
to be most employed in the spring time and first heate of his age:
whereas Cæsar
was well strucken in yeares when he beganne to follow armes. Alexander
was of a more cholerike, sanguine and violent constitution, while
humour
hee stirred up with wine, whereof Cæsar was very
abstinent.
But where occasions of necessitie were offered, and where the subject
required
it, there was never man that so little regarded his person. As for me,
me seemeth I reade in diverse of his exploits a certaine resolution
rather
to lose himselfe then to abide the brunt or shame to be overthrowne. In
that great battel which he fought against those of Turnay,
seeing
the vanguard of his army somewhat enclining to route, even as be was,
without
shield or target, he ranne headlong to the front of his enemies; which
many other times happened unto him. Hearing once how his men were
besieged,
he past disguised through the midst and thickest of his enemies campe,
so to encourage and awe them with his presence. Having crossed the way
to Dyrrhachium, with very few forces, and perceiving the rest
of
his army (the conduct whereof hee had left unto Antonius, to be
somewhat slow in comming, he undertooke all alone to repasse the sea,
notwithstanding
a violent and raging tempest; and secretly stole himselfe away to fetch
the rest of his forces: all the havens on that side, yea and all the
sea,
being possessed by Pompey. And concerning the enterprises he
underwent
with armed hand, there are divers of them, which in respect of the
hazard,
exceede all discourse of military reason: for, with how weake meanes
undertooke
he to subdue the kingdom of Egypt, and afterward to front the
forces
of Scipio and Iuba, which were tenne parts greater than
his?
Mee thinkes such men have had a kinde of more than humane confidence of
their fortune: and himselfe was wont to say that haughty enterprises
were
to be executed and not consuIted upon. After the battell of Pharsalia,
having sent his armie before into Asia and himselfe with onely
one
ship passing through the strait of Hellespont, he met on the
seas
with Lucius Cassius, attended on with ten tall shippes of warre;
he was so farre from shunning him, that he durst not only stay for him,
but with all haste make toward and summon him to yeeld himselfe to his
mercie, which he did. Having undertaken that furious siege of Alesia,
wherein were fourescore thousand men of defence, and all France
up in armes, with a resolution to runne upon him and raise the siege,
and
having an armie on foote of one hundred and nine thousand horse, and
two
hundred fortie thousand foote; what a fond hardy and outrageous
confidence
was it in him that he would never give over his attempt and resolve in
two so great difficulties together? Which he notwithstanding underwent;
and after he had obtained so notable a battell of those which were
without,
be soone reduced those that were besieged in the towne to his mercy.
The
very like happened to Lucullus at the siege of Tigranocerta,
against King Tigrane, but with an unlike condition, seeing his
enemies
demissenesse, with whom Lucullus was to deale. I will heere
note
two rare and extraordinary events touching the siege of Alesia;
the one, that the French men being all assembled together with a
purpose
to meet with Cæsar, having diligently survaied and
exactly
numbered all their forces, resolved in their counsell to cutte off a
great
part of this huge multitude for feare they might breed a confusion.
This
example is new, to feare to be over-many; yet if it be well taken, it
is
very likely that the bodie of an armie ought to have a
well-proportioned
greatnesse, and ordered to indifferent bounds. Whether it he for the
difficulty
to feed the same or to lead it in order and keepe it in awe, and we may
easily verifle by examples that these numerous and infinite armies have
seldome brought any notable thing to passe: according to Cyrus
his
saying in Xenophon. It is not the multitude of men, but the
number
of good men, that causeth an advantage: the rest rather breeding
confusion
and trouble than helpe or availe. And Bajazeth tooke the
chiefest
foundation of his resolution, against the advice of all his captaines,
to joyne fight with Tamburlane, onely because the innumerable
number
of men which his enemie brought into the field gave him an assured hope
of rout and confusion. Scanderbeg, a sufficient and most expert
judge in such a case, was wont to say that tenne or twelve thousand
trusty
and resolute fighting men ought to suffice any sufficient chieftaine of
warre to warrant his reputation in any kinde of military exploite. The
other point, which seemeth to be repugnant both unto custome and reason
of warre, is, that Vercingentorix, who was appointed chiefe
generall
of all the forces of the revolted Gaules, undertooke to immure
and
shutte himselfe into, Alesia. For he that hath the commandement
of a whole countrie ought never to engage himselfe, except in cases of
extremities and where all his rest and last refuge goeth on it, and
hath
no other hope left him but the defence of such a place. Otherwise he
ought
to keepe himselfe free, that so he may have meanes to provide in all
parts
of his government. But to returne to Cæsar: he became in
time
somewhat more slow, heedy, and considerate, as witnesseth his familiar
friend Oppius; deeming he should not so easily hazard the
honour
of so many victories, which one onely disaster or misencounter might
make
him lose. It is that the Italians are wont to say, when they will or
blame
or reproach any man with this overdaring or rash fond-hardinesse, which
is often seene in yong men, calling them bisognosi d'onore, as much to
say as needy of honour: and that being yet hungrie r greedy, and voyd
of
reputation, they have reason to seeke after it, whatsoever it may cost
them; which they should never doe that have already acquired the same.
There may be some just moderation in this desire of glory, and some
satietie
in this appetite as wel as in others; diverse doe so practize it. He
was
farre from that religion of the ancient Romans who in their warres
would
never prevaile but with meere and genuine vertue: but rather joyned
more
conscience unto it than nowadaies we should doe; and would never allow
of all meanes were he never so certaine to get the victory. In his
warres
against Ariovistus, whilest he was in parly with him, some
tumult
or insurrection happened between the two armies, which beganne by the
fault
or negligence of some of Ariovistus horsmen. In which
hurlie-burlie Cæsar
found himselfe to have a great advantage over his enemies, which
notwithstanding
he would not embrace, for feare he might be taxed or suspected to have
proceeded falsly or consented to any trechery. At what time soever hee
went to fight, he was accustomed to weare a very rich garment, and of a
sheene and garish colour, that so he might the better be marked. When
his
souldiers were neerest unto their enemies he restrained and kept them
very
short. When the ancient Græcians would accuse or taxe any man of
extreme insufficiencies they used this common proverbe, that he could
neither
reade nor swimme: and himselfe was of t his opinion, that the arte of
swimming
was most necessary and beneficiarie in war: and a souldier might reape
diverse commodities by it, if he were in haste, and to make speed, he
would
ordinarily swimme over al the rivers he met withal; and loved greatly
to
travell on foote, as Alexander the great was wont. In Egypt,
being on a time forced (to save himselfe) to leap into a little wherry
or bote, and so many of his people following him that he was in danger
to sink, he rather chose to fling himsel f into the sea, which he did;
and swimming came into his fleete, that was more than two hundred paces
from him, holding his writing tables in his left hand out of the water,
and with his teeth drawing his coate of armes after him, that his
enemies
might not enjoy it: and this did he being well stricken in yeares. No
generall
of warre had ever so much credit with his souldiers. In the beginning
of
his civill warres, his centeniers offered him every one at their owne
charges
to pay and find him a man at armes, and his footemen to serve him for
nothing,
and those that were best able, to defray the poore and needy. Our late
admirall of France, Lord Chastillon, in our late civill
warres
shewed such an example: for the Frenchmen of his army, at their proper
cost and charges, helped to pay such strangers as followed him. Few
examples
of so loving and earnest affection may bee found amongst those that
follow
the old manner of warre, and strictly hold themselves under the ancient
pollicie of their lawes. Passion hath more sway over us then reason:
yet
hath it chanced in the war against Hannibal, that, imitating
the
example of the Romane peoples liberalitie in the citie, the souldiers
and
captaines refused their pay, and in Marcellus his campe, those
were
called mercenary that tooke any pay. Having had some defeate neere unto
Dyrrachium, his souldiers came voluntarily before him, and offered
themselves
to be punished; so that he was more troubled to comfort then to chide
them.
One onely of his cohortes (whereof ten went to a legion) held fight
above
foure howres with foure of Pompeys whole legions, until it was
well-nigh
all defeated with the multitude and force of arrowes: and in his
trenches
were afterward found one hundred and thirtie thousand shafts. A
souldier
of his, named Scæva, who commanded one of the entrances, did so
invincibly
defend and keepe himselfe, that he had one of his eyes thrust out, and
one shoulder and one thigh thrust through, and his shield flawed and
pearced
in two hundred and thirtie severall places. It hath befallen to many of
his souldiers, being, taken prisoners, to chuse rather to die then
promise
to follow any other faction, or receive any other entertainment. Granius
Petronius, taken by Scipio in Affrike, after Scipio
had caused all his fellowes to bee put to death, sent him word that
gave
him his life, forsomuch as he was a man of ranke and a questor: Petronius
answered that Cæsars souldiers were wont to give life to
others,
and not accept it themselves; and therewithall with his owne hands
killed
himselfe. Infinite examples there are of their fidelitie. That part
which
they, acted who were besieged in Salona, a citie which tooke
part
with Cæsar against Pompey, must not be forgotten,
by
reason of a rare accident that there hapned. MarcusOctavius,
having long time beleagred the town, they within were reduced to such
extreamitie
and pinching necessitie of all things, that to supply the great want
they
had of men, most of them being alreadie or hurt or dead; they had set
all
their slaves at libertie, and for the beboofe of their engines were
compelled
to cut off all their womens haires, to make ropes with them; besides a
wonderfull lacke of victualls, resolving notwithstanding never to yeeld
themselves: after they had a long time lingered the siege, and that
Octavius
was thereby become more carelesse, and lesse heeding or attentive to
his
enterprise, they one day about high noone (having first ranged their
wives
and children upon the walles, to set the better face upon the matter)
rushed
out in such a furie upon the besiegers, that having put to rout and
defeated
the first, the second, and third corps de garde, then the fourth and
the
rest, and having forced them to quit their trenches, chased them even
to
their shippes: and Octavius with much adoe saved himselfe in Dyrrachium,
where Pompey was. I remember not at this time to have read of
any
other example where the beleagred doe in grosse beate the beleagrers,
and
get the maistry and possession of the field nor that a sallie hath
drawne
a meere and absolute victory of a battell into consequence.