^Windows 7 introduces a Content view which shows details as well as thumbnails

Twin-panel file managers have obligatory connected panels where action in one panel results in reaction in the second. Konqueror supports multiple panels divided horizontally, vertically or both, but these panels do not act as twin panels by default (the user has to mark the panels he wants to act as twin-panels).

Information on what networking protocols the file managers support. Note that many of these protocols might be supported, in part or in whole, by software layers below the file manager, rather than by the file manager itself; for example, the Mac OS X Finder doesn't implement those protocols, and the Windows Explorer doesn't implement most of them, they just make ordinary file system calls to access remote files, and Konqueror either uses ordinary file system calls or KIO slave calls to access remote files. Some functions, such as browsing for servers or shares, might be implemented in the file manager even if most functions are implemented below the file manager.

^ abNFS support requires either the freely downloadable Windows Services for UNIX or is built-in starting with Windows Vista Enterprise and Ultimate editions as Subsystem for Unix-based applications (SUA).

Information on what file searching features the file managers support. RegExp include the possibilities of nested Boolean searches, thus implicitly all file managers supporting RegExp search support also Boolean searches.

^ abAbility to save templates containing all search settings (file filter, metadata requirements etc.). Results of saves searches are always live, so not the results but the search conditions are saved.

^ abAlso known as iterative searches. For example the ability to finish one search and then perform a new search a) only within these results (intersect the two result sets / the requirements of both searches have to be met), 2) adding to these results (combine both result sets to a bigger set) or 3) subtract from those results (original result set reduced by intersection of result sets).

^User can change icon themes in preferences, which change the toolbar, file and folder icons. User can also change the color scheme to a pre-defined one or manually pick a color for each element (in preferences).

^The exact history is unknown. This date comes from changelog entries in the src/TODO file in the Git repository (SHA1: eb6b3842a), but it is probably earlier than that. Dec 1997 was release v4.1 already.

^ abDirectory Opus 5.82 Magellan II is the last commercial version available for Amiga. Full and registered version has been released for free with the AmiKit distribution. Directory Opus 4 is maintained separately under an open source license.

^The text interface, which can be partially graphical with some plugins, such as embedded image/video viewers, for example. But the text interface is only emulated with the ConEmu mod - it is graphical and TrueColor in reality.

^Mass Rename is a feature to rename large number of files in a convenient way and including a preview, see the screenshot for an example. Common options are subdirectory inclusion, wildcards, manual mode (offering to edit names as text files in editors), counters, time related fields (e.g. "date created"), path related fields (e.g. "parent directory name"), regular expressions, etc. See also: Batch renaming.

^Altap Salamander offers to show only selected files and hide unselected ones, also in picture viewer, etc. For selection, the usual wildcards and add/subtract/intersect with 1...N stored selections are offered.

^ACL is dependent on the type and version of file- and operating system. Altap Salamander offers quick access to owner, auditing and permission settings in WinXP with NTFS 5.

1.
File manager
–
A file manager or file browser is a computer program that provides a user interface to manage files and folders. Folders and files may be displayed in a tree based on their directory structure. Some file managers contain features inspired by web browsers, including forward, some file managers provide network connectivity via protocols, such as FTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV. This is achieved by allowing the user to browse for a server or by providing its own full client implementations for file server protocols. A term that predates the usage of file manager is directory editor, the term was used by other developers, including Jay Lepreau, who wrote the dired program in 1980, which ran on BSD. This was in inspired by an older program with the same name running on TOPS-20. Dired inspired other programs, including dired, the editor script, file-list file managers are lesser known and older than orthodox file managers. One such file manager is flist, which was first used in 1981 on the Conversational Monitor System and this is a variant of fulist, which originated before late 1978, according to comments by its author, Theo Alkema. The flist program provided a list of files in the users minidisk, the file attributes could be passed to scripts or function-key definitions, making it simple to use flist as part of CMS EXEC, EXEC2 or XEDIT scripts. Orthodox file managers or command-based file managers are text-menu based file managers, Orthodox file managers are one of the longest running families of file managers, preceding Graphical User Interface-based types. Developers create applications that duplicate and extend the manager that was introduced by PathMinder, the concept is more than thirty years old—PathMinder was released in 1984, and Norton Commander version 1.0 was released in 1986. Despite the age of this concept, file managers based on Norton Commander are actively developed, and dozens of implementations exist for DOS, Unix, Nikolai Bezroukov publishes his own set of criteria for an OFM standard. An orthodox file manager typically has three windows, two of the windows are called panels and are positioned symmetrically at the top of the screen. The third is the line, which is essentially a minimized command window that can be expanded to full screen. Only one of the panels is active at a given time, the active panel contains the file cursor. Panels are resizable and can be hidden, files in the active panel serve as the source of file operations performed by the manager. For example, files can be copied or moved from the panel to the location represented in the passive panel. This scheme is most effective for systems in which the keyboard is the primary or sole input device, the active panel shows information about the current working directory and the files that it contains

2.
Software license
–
A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses

3.
Altap Salamander
–
Altap Salamander is a shareware orthodox file manager for Microsoft Windows, originally inspired by Norton Commander. Its development was started in 1996 as a project by Petr Šolín during his studies at university. It was originally written in Watcom C++, later in Microsoft Visual C++6.0, the last freeware version,1.52, is still available for download from Altap website. The first shareware version 2.0 was released in 2001 by an established company Altap. Salamander 2.0 included support for viewer and archiver plugins, during the development of 2.5 version the plugin architecture was expanded to support file system plugins to support FTP and other protocols. The plugin SDK for 2.5 version allows plugin developers to create new viewer plugins, archiver plugins, file system plugins, custom column plugins known from Total Commander are not supported. Comparison of file managers The official site of Altap, authors of Altap Salamander Altap Salamander 3.0 Release Notes

4.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common

5.
Directory Opus
–
Directory Opus is a popular file manager program, originally written for the Amiga computer system in the early to mid-1990s. Directory Opus was originally developed by, and is written by. Directory Opus has evolved since its first release in 1990 as a basic file manager. The interface has evolved due to the amount of feedback that the users have given it. Some of the include, Single- or dual-panel exploring. Ability to maintain date created/modified timestamps for both files and folders, internal handling of ZIP, RAR, 7Zip and many other archive formats. Internal FTP handling, including advanced FTP and SSH, internal MTP handling for portable devices like phones and cameras. Flat-file display, where you can flatten a folder tree, powerful file selection and renaming tools, with advanced regex if needed. User-definable toolbars, menus, filetypes and filetype groups, preview panel, and preview of thumbnails. These are like virtual folders that contain links to the original files, versions 3 and 4 were published by Inovatronics. Versions since 5 have been published by GPSoftware, the full version of Magellan II is included for free with AmiKit package. Opus 6, 2001-06-18 Opus 8, 2004-10-04 Opus 9, 2007-04-27 Opus 10, 2011-04-30 Opus 11, 2014-03-03 Opus 12, GPSoftware released the older Amiga Directory Opus 4 source code in 2000 as open source under the GNU General Public License. AmigaOS4, AROS and MorphOS ports of this version were made available, Magellan II was released as open source under the AROS Public License in December 2012. net Directory Opus 5.8 for all Amigas on SourceForge. net

6.
Amiga
–
The Amiga is a family of personal computers sold by Commodore in the 1980s and 1990s. The Amiga provided a significant upgrade from earlier 8-bit home computers, the Amiga 1000 was officially released in July 1985, but a series of production problems meant it did not become widely available until early 1986. The best selling model, the Amiga 500, was introduced in 1987 and became one of the home computers of the late 1980s. The A3000, introduced in 1990, started the second generation of Amiga systems, followed by the A500+, finally, as the third generation, the A1200 and the A4000 were released in late 1992. The platform became particularly popular for gaming and programming demos and it also found a prominent role in the desktop video, video production, and show control business, leading to video editing systems such as the Video Toaster. The Amigas native ability to play back multiple digital sound samples made it a popular platform for early tracker music software. It was also an expensive alternative to the Apple Macintosh. Initially, the Amiga was developed alongside various Commodore PC clones, Commodore ultimately went bankrupt in April 1994 after the Amiga CD32 model failed in the marketplace. Since the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line, including Genesi, Eyetech, ACube Systems Srl, likewise, AmigaOS has influenced replacements, clones and compatible systems such as MorphOS, AmigaOS4 and AROS. The Amiga was so far ahead of its time that almost nobody—including Commodores marketing department—could fully articulate what it was all about. Today, its obvious the Amiga was the first multimedia computer, but in those days it was derided as a machine because few people grasped the importance of advanced graphics, sound. Nine years later, vendors are still struggling to make systems that work like 1985 Amigas, Jay Miner joined Atari in the 1970s to develop custom integrated circuits, and led development of the Atari 2600s TIA. Almost as soon as its development was complete, the team developing a much more sophisticated set of chips, CTIA, ANTIC and POKEY. With the 8-bit lines launch in 1979, Miner again started looking at a next generation chipset, Miner wanted to start work with the new Motorola 68000, but management was only interested in another MOS6502 based system. Miner left the company, and the industry, shortly thereafter, in 1982, Larry Kaplan was approached by a number of investors who wanted to develop a new game platform. Kaplan hired Miner to run the side of the newly formed company. The system was code-named Lorraine in keeping with Miners policy of giving systems female names, in case the company presidents wife. When Kaplan left the late in 1982 to rejoin Atari, Miner was promoted to head engineer

7.
Microsoft Windows
–
Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system

8.
Australian dollar
–
Within Australia, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign, with A$ or AU$ sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is subdivided into 100 cents, in 2011, the Australian dollar was the fifth most traded currency in the world, accounting for 7. 6% of the worlds daily share. It trades in the foreign exchange markets behind the US dollar, the euro, the yen. The currency is referred to by foreign-exchange traders as the Aussie dollar. With pounds, shillings and pence to be replaced by decimal currency on 14 February 1966, in 1963, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies, a monarchist, wished to name the currency the royal. Other proposed names included more exotic suggestions such as the austral, the oz, the boomer, the roo, the kanga, the emu, the digger, the quid, the dinkum and the ming. Menzies influence resulted in the selection of the royal, and trial designs were prepared and printed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, the Treasurer, Harold Holt, announced the decision in Parliament on 5 June 1963. The royal would be subdivided into 100 cents, but the existing names shilling, florin, the name royal for the currency proved very unpopular, with Holt and his wife even receiving death threats. On 24 July Holt told the Cabinet the decision had been a terrible mistake, on 18 September Holt advised Parliament that the name was to be the dollar, of 100 cents. The Australian pound, introduced in 1910 and officially distinct in value from the pound sterling since devaluation in 1931, was replaced by the dollar on 14 February 1966. The rate of conversion for the new currency was two dollars per Australian pound, or ten Australian shillings per dollar. The exchange rate was pegged to the pound sterling at a rate of $1 =8 shillings, in 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area, when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar and the Australian dollar did not follow. It maintained its peg to the US dollar at the rate of A$1 = US$1.12, on 27 September 2012, the Reserve Bank of Australia stated that they had ordered work on a project to upgrade the current banknotes. The upgraded banknotes will incorporate a number of new features so that they remain secure into the future, the first new banknotes were issued from the 1st of September 2016, with the remaining denominations to be issued in the coming years. In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 1,2,5,10,20 and 50 cents. The initial 50-cent coins contained high silver content and were withdrawn after a year after the value of the silver content was found to exceed the face value of the coins. One-dollar coins were introduced in 1984, followed by two-dollar coins in 1988, the one- and two-cent coins were discontinued in 1991 and withdrawn from circulation. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of decimal currency, the 2006 mint proof and uncirculated sets included one-, in early 2013, Australias first triangular coin was introduced, to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of Parliament House

9.
Dired
–
Dired is a computer program for editing file system directories. It typically runs inside the Emacs text editor as a specialized mode, Dired was the first file manager, or visual editor of file system information. The first version of Dired was written as a stand-alone program circa 1974 by Stan Kugell at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and it was incorporated into GNU Emacs from the earliest versions, and re-implemented in C and C++ on other operating systems. When run in Emacs, dired displays an ls-like file listing in an Emacs buffer, the list can be navigated using standard navigation commands. Several Emacs Lisp scripts have been developed to extend Dired in Emacs, there are also functions that make it possible to rename multiple files via Emacs search and replace capabilities or apply regular expressions for marking multiple files. Once marked, files can be operated on in various ways from deleting, to renaming, Dired manual at GNU. org Entry at the Emacs wiki, focuses mostly on the many scripts and tweaks that can modify the default Direds behavior

10.
Emacs
–
Emacs /ˈiːmæks/ and its derivatives are a family of text editors that are characterized by their extensibility. The manual for the most widely used variant, GNU Emacs, describes it as the extensible, customizable, self-documenting, development of the first Emacs began in the mid-1970s and continues actively as of 2017. Emacs has over 2,000 built-in commands and allows the user to combine these commands into macros to automate work, Emacs Lisp provides a deep extension capability allowing users and developers to write new commands using a dialect of the Lisp programming language. Extensions have been written to manage email, files, outlines, the original EMACS was written in 1976 by David A. Moon and Guy L. Steele, Jr. as a set of Editor MACroS for the TECO editor. It was inspired by the ideas of the TECO-macro editors TECMAC, the most popular, and most ported, version of Emacs is GNU Emacs, which was created by Richard Stallman for the GNU Project. XEmacs is a variant that branched from GNU Emacs in 1991, both GNU Emacs and XEmacs use Emacs Lisp and are for the most part compatible with each other. Emacs is, along with vi, one of the two contenders in the traditional editor wars of Unix culture. Both are among the oldest application programs still in use, unlike most modern text editors, TECO used separate modes in which the user would either add text, edit existing text, or display the document. This behavior is similar to that of the program ed. Richard Stallman visited the Stanford AI Lab in 1972 or 1974 and saw the labs E editor and he was impressed by the editors intuitive WYSIWYG behavior, which has since become the default behavior of most modern text editors. Stallman reimplemented this mode to run efficiently and then added a feature to the TECO display-editing mode that allowed the user to redefine any keystroke to run a TECO program. E had another feature that TECO lacked, random-access editing, TECO was a page-sequential editor that was designed for editing paper tape on the PDP-1 and typically allowed editing on only one page at a time, in the order of the pages in the file. Almost all modern editors use this approach, the new version of TECO quickly became popular at the AI Lab and soon accumulated a large collection of custom macros whose names often ended in MAC or MACS, which stood for macro. Two years later, Guy Steele took on the project of unifying the overly diverse macros into a single set, Steele and Stallmans finished implementation included facilities for extending and documenting the new macro set. The resulting system was called EMACS, which stood for Editing MACroS or, alternatively, Stallman picked the name Emacs because <E> was not in use as an abbreviation on ITS at the time. An apocryphal hacker koan alleges that the program was named after Emack & Bolios, the first operational EMACS system existed in late 1976. Stallman saw a problem in too much customization and de facto forking and he later wrote, EMACS was distributed on a basis of communal sharing, which means all improvements must be given back to me to be incorporated and distributed. The original Emacs, like TECO, ran only on the PDP-10 running ITS and its behavior was sufficiently different from that of TECO that it could be considered a text editor in its own right, and it quickly became the standard editing program on ITS. Mike McMahon ported Emacs from ITS to the TENEX and TOPS-20 operating systems, other contributors to early versions of Emacs include Kent Pitman, Earl Killian, and Eugene Ciccarelli

11.
GNU Project
–
The GNU Project /ɡnuː/ is a free-software, mass-collaboration project, first announced on September 27,1983 by Richard Stallman at MIT. GNU software guarantees these freedom-rights legally, and is free software. In order to ensure that the software of a computer grants its users all freedom rights, even the most fundamental and important part. Stallman decided to call this operating system GNU, basing its design on that of Unix, development was initiated in January 1984. In 1991, the kernel Linux appeared, developed outside of the GNU project by Linus Torvalds, combined with the operating system utilities already developed by the GNU project, it allowed for the first operating system that was free software, known as Linux or GNU/Linux. The projects current work includes development, awareness building, political campaigning and sharing of the new material. Richard Stallman announced his intent to start coding the GNU Project in a Usenet message in September 1983, when the GNU project first started they had an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, and a linker. The GNU system required its own C compiler and tools to be free software, by June 1987, the project had accumulated and developed free software for an assembler, an almost finished portable optimizing C compiler, an editor, and various Unix utilities. They had a kernel that needed more updates. Once the kernel and the compiler were finished, GNU was able to be used for program development, the main goal was to create many other applications to be like the Unix system. GNU was able to run Unix programs but was not identical to it, GNU incorporated longer file names, file version numbers, and a crashproof file system. The GNU Manifesto was written to support and participation from others for the project. Programmers were encouraged to take part in any aspect of the project that interested them, people could donate funds, computer parts, or even their own time to write code and programs for the project. The origins and development of most aspects of the GNU Project are shared in a narrative in the Emacs help system. It is the detailed history as at their web site. The GNU Manifesto was written by Richard Stallman to gain support, to implement these freedoms, users needed full access to code. Although most of the GNU Projects output is technical in nature, it was launched as a social, ethical, as well as producing software and licenses, the GNU Project has published a number of writings, the majority of which were authored by Richard Stallman. The GNU project uses software that is free for users to copy, edit and it is free in the sense that users can change the software to fit individual needs

12.
GNU General Public License
–
The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license

13.
Dolphin (file manager)
–
Dolphin is a free and open source file manager included in the KDE Applications bundle which contains applications used primarily with the KDE Plasma 5 desktop. Dolphin became the default file manager of KDE-based desktop environments in the fourth iteration and it could also be optionally installed on K Desktop Environment 3. Konqueror was replaced as the file manager for KDE SC4. Under previous K Desktop Environment versions, Konqueror had served both as the file manager and web browser. However, for many users have been critical of Konqueror as being too complex for simple file navigation. As a response, the two functions were divided into two separate applications, under KDE SC4, Dolphin was streamlined for browsing files, while sharing as much code as possible with Konqueror. Konqueror continues to be developed primarily as a web browser, in 2014, work started on porting Dolphin to KDE Frameworks 5. This is now complete and a Frameworks 5-based version was released as part of KDE Applications 15.08 in August 2015, as development of the KDE SC4 version was underway, the K Desktop Environment 3 version of Dolphin was discontinued. However, the continues to be unofficially available for K Desktop Environment 3 under the slightly modified name of “D3lphin”. D3lphin contains many bugfixes and a new sidebar, but is no longer maintained

14.
KDE
–
KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V

15.
DOS Navigator
–
DOS Navigator is a free orthodox file manager for MS-DOS, OS/2 and Windows. DOS Navigator is an early implementation of orthodox file manager. By implementing three additional types of file system, Xtree, Briefcase and list-based, DN opened a new generation of OFMs. Also an unlimited number of panels and many new important features make it one of the most powerful OFMs, the initial version of DN I was released in 1991, and written by Stefan Tanurkov, Andrew Zabolotny and Sergey Melnik. After that, DN was rewritten using Turbo Vision by Stefan Tanurkov and these versions are sometimes referred as DN II. In 1993, Slava Filimonov invited Stefan to join him to producing and publishing DN with joint efforts. Slava also contributed programming new components, design and made countless optimizations and he wrote a new software key protection system which remained unbreakable for almost four years after its introduction. DN II was actively developed until the start of 1995, until version 1.35 which should be considered as a milestone in OFM implementations, several other programmers participated in development after version 1.35. Starting from version 1.37, Slava Filimonov and Ilya Bagdasarov were in charge of bug-fixing, Filimonov and Bagdasarov solely maintained, developed and released versions 1.37 through 1.39. After they left, DN was maintained again by Stefan and newly acquired developer, in 1998, the development mostly took a bug-fixing direction as Ritlabs new product The Bat. became a more promising software product with much better commercial potential. The latest shareware version was 1.50, then, in late 1999, Ritlabs decided to make version 1.51 of the DOS Navigator completely free with freely available source code. Other groups still release software based on the DN open source code, including new features such as support for long filenames, and support for Linux. DN1.51650 KB Win32 OS/2 - Sources DOS Navigator Open Source Project DN OSP6.4.01 MB DOS/DPMI Necromancers DOS Navigator DN4.9.02004 for DOS included in UBCD v3

16.
EmelFM2
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EmelFM2 is an orthodox file manager which uses the GTK+2 widget toolkit for X11 on Unix-like operating systems. This layout is configurable - for example, the panes can be reorganized so that the panes are stacked vertically or it can be set to have only one directory pane. The colors, icons, included functions and file descriptor columns are all configurable, emelFM2 ships with the function keys bound to the common commands which keybindings can be customized. EmelFM2 can handle archives and mounted filesystems, every feature, including user-created functions, can be used through the GUI or with keyboard shortcuts. Comparison of file managers Official website Project page at Gnomefiles emelFM2

17.
Far Manager
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Far Manager is an orthodox file manager for Microsoft Windows and a clone of Norton Commander. Far Manager uses the Win32 console and has a user interface. Far Manager was created by Eugene Roshal, and has been under development by the Far Group since 2000, the projects Unicode branches are open-source. All branches are available as 32- and 64-bit builds, Far Manager is often viewed as a very customizable file manager and text editor, and a free alternative to Total Commander. Far Manager features an internal viewer and editor, customizable user menus, tree views, file search, compare, integrated help, and its standard functionality can be expanded with macros and plugins. Far Managers default interface combines two file panels with a command prompt, panels may be fully customized as to which columns are shown and in which order, and operations may be done to and from either panel. The file panels support wildcard selection, advanced filtering, sorting and highlighting, the file panels and the command prompt are both active at the same time, and most features can be accessed using keyboard shortcuts. Fars standard functionality can be extended with macros and plugins. Third-party plugins are available from the PlugRing repository and plugin announcement forum, wrappers are available which allow using some Total Commander plugins with Far Manager, and vice versa. As for now, port successfully builds and most common functions work as expected, ported and working plugins are farftp, colorer, multiarc, tmppanel. Far Manager is available under the revised BSD license, originally, Far Manager was available as 40 days shareware for everyone except for citizens of the former USSR countries, who could use it as freeware for non-commercial use only. On 26 October 2007, the code for the Unicode development version was released under the revised BSD license. On 17 May 2010 the 1. x branch has also released under the revised BSD license. Comparison of file managers WinSCP plugin ConEmu Official website

18.
File Commander
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File Commander is a text mode orthodox file manager for Microsoft Windows, OS/2 and Linux operating systems created and maintained by Brian Havard. It is a clone of Norton Commander, originally developed for OS/2 but ported to Microsoft Windows in 1997. Development started in 1993, which makes File Commander one of the oldest surviving text interface file managers, functionality has been greatly extended with features such as support for regular expressions in file selection, a powerful editor with undo/redo capabilities, network awareness, etc. In 1998 the OS/2 version was selected as The Best Disk/File Utility for OS/2 by the independent OS/2 e-Zine magazine, although stable releases are infrequent, the program is continuously updated, and current betas are available on the File Commander Development page. The latest version 2.50 beta is available for various UNIX operating systems including Linux, FreeBSD. Comparison of file managers Official website The Orthodox File Manager Paradigm, description of File Commander OS/2 e-Zine 1998 Readers choice for Disk / File Utilities

19.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office

20.
Finder (software)
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The Finder is the default file manager and graphical user interface shell used on all Macintosh operating systems. Described in its About window as The Macintosh Desktop Experience, it is responsible for the launching of other applications, and for the overall management of files, disks. It was introduced with the first Macintosh computer, and also exists as part of GS/OS on the Apple IIGS and it had been rewritten completely with the release of Mac OS X in 2001. In a tradition dating back to the Classic Mac OS of the 1980s and 1990s, the Finder uses a view of the file system that is rendered using a desktop metaphor, that is, the files and folders are represented as appropriate icons. It uses an interface to Apples Safari browser, where the user can click on a folder to move to it. Like Safari, the Finder uses tabs to allow the user to view multiple folders, there is a favorites sidebar of commonly used and important folders on the left of the Finder window. The modern Finder uses macOS graphics APIs to display previews of a range of files, such as images, applications and PDF files. The Quick Look feature allows users to examine documents and images in more detail from the finder by pressing the space bar without opening them in a separate application. The modern Finder displays some aspects of the system outside its windows. Mounted external volumes and disk image files can be displayed on the desktop, there is a trash can on the Dock in macOS, to which files can be dragged to mark them for deletion, and to which drives can be dragged for ejection. When a volume icon is being dragged, the Trash icon in the Dock changes to an icon in order to indicate this functionality. Finder can record files to optical media on the sidebar, the classic Mac OS Finder uses a spatial metaphor quite different to the more browser-like approach of the modern macOS Finder. In the classic Finder, opening a new folder opens the location in a new window and it also allows extensive customization, with the user being able to give folders custom icons matching their content. These must then be closed individually, holding down the option key when opening a folder would also close its parent, but this trick was not discoverable and remained under the purview of power users. Introducing Mac OS X in 2000, Steve Jobs criticized the original Finder, saying that it generates a ton of windows, Ars Technica columnist John Siracusa has been a long-standing defender of the spatial interface of the classic Mac OS Finder, and a critic of the new design. Daring Fireball blog author John Gruber has voiced similar criticisms, and the spatial metaphor from the original Mac Finder. and it ends up doing neither one very well. Third-party macOS software developers offer Finder replacements that run as stand-alone applications, such as Path Finder, Xfile and these replacements are shareware or freeware and aim to include and supersede the same functionality as the Finder. After Mac OS X10.4 Tiger the UNIX command line file management tools understand resource forks, there are minor differences between Finder versions and Classic OS to System 7

21.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line

22.
MacOS
–
Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface

23.
Gentoo (file manager)
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Gentoo is a free file manager for Linux and other Unix-like computer systems created by Emil Brink. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License, Gentoo is written in C using the GTK+ toolkit, and the two-pane concept. What makes gentoo stand out are its graphical configurability and its file typing and styling system, using the latter, gentoo identifies the type of your files and then uses the style youve defined for the type to determine how to display it in listings. The package includes a set of approximately one-hundred unique handcrafted icons for different types of files. Additionally, many users like it for its speed, as it is relatively lightweight, the word gentoo refers to a fast breed of penguin, the gentoo penguin. In spite of the name, it has nothing to do with the Gentoo Linux distribution, comparison of file managers Official website

24.
GNOME Commander
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GNOME Commander is a two panel graphical file manager for GNOME. It is built using the GTK+ toolkit and GnomeVFS or GVFS, user defined keyboard shortcuts Integrated command line The Gnome Commander is one of the file managers with two separate panels, based on the split-view interface of Norton Commander. This allows the simultaneous view of a source and destination directory for copying and moving files or directories and this also makes comparing directories very convenient. The number of windows on the desktop is thereby reduced, in Gnome Commander the two panels can be arranged either horizontally or vertically. Only the keyboard is required to work with Gnome Commander, which makes working processes much faster, using the mouse is still an option. Keyboard shortcuts and the behavior of certain mouse buttons are freely configurable, since Gnome Commander supports GnomeVFS, allowing access to network interfaces such as FTP, SMB, WebDAV and SSH. There is a system for folders and a built-in file viewer for text. An integrated command line enables commands directly as input to a terminal, the integrated Archive Manager plugin supports numerous data compression file formats such as ZIP files. Furthermore, a support for systems such as Exif, IPTC and ID3-Tags for audio and video files. This metadata can be used for example by means of a tool for renaming files. It is possible to define actions depending on certain file extensions, GNOME Commander is developed for the Linux platform. Packages are available for several Linux distributions

25.
Konqueror
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Konqueror is a free and open-source web browser and file manager that provides file viewer functionality for file systems such as local files, files on a remote FTP server and files in a disk image. It is a part of the KDE Software Compilation. Konqueror is developed by volunteers and can run on most Unix-like operating systems, Konqueror is licensed and distributed under the GNU General Public License version 2. The name Konqueror is a reference to the two primary competitors at the time of the browsers first release, first comes the Navigator, then Explorer, and then the Konqueror. It also follows the KDE naming convention, the names of most KDE programs begin with the letter K. Konqueror was released with version 2 of KDE on October 23,2000. With the release of KDE4, Konqueror was replaced as the file manager by Dolphin. Konqueror can utilize all KIOslaves installed on the users system, some examples include, FTP and SFTP/SSH browser SAMBA browser HTTP browser IMAP mail client ISO viewer VNC viewer A complete list is available in the KDE Info Centers Protocols section. Konqueror supports tabbed document interface and Split views, wherein a window can contain multiple documents in tabs, multiple document interfaces are not supported, however it is possible to recursively divide a window to view multiple documents simultaneously, or simply open another window. Konquerors user interface is somewhat reminiscent of Microsofts Internet Explorer, though it is more customizable and it works extensively with panels, which can be rearranged or added. For example, one could have an Internet bookmarks panel on the side of the browser window, and by clicking a bookmark. Alternatively, one could display a hierarchical list of folders in one panel, panels are quite flexible and can even include, among other KParts, a console window, a text editor, a media player. Panel configurations can be saved, and there are some default configurations, navigation functions are available during all operations. Most keyboard shortcuts can be remapped using a configuration. The address bar has extensive support for local directories, past URLs. Konqueror has been developed as a web browser project. It uses KHTML as its engine, which is compliant with HTML and supports JavaScript, Java applets, CSS, SSL. An alternative layout engine, kwebkitpart, is available from the Extragear, while KHTML is the default web-rendering engine, Konqueror is a modular application and other rendering engines are and have been available. Especially the WebKitPart that uses the KHTML-derived WebKit engine has seen a lot of support in the KDE4 series

26.
Krusader
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Krusader is an advanced orthodox file manager for KDE and other desktops in the Unix world. It supports extensive archive handling, mounted filesystem support, FTP, advanced search, viewer/editor, directory synchronisation, file content comparisons, batch renaming, etc. It supports the following formats, tar, ZIP, bzip2, gzip, RAR, ace, ARJ, LHA, 7z and RPM. Krusader is published under GNU General Public License, krusaders user interface is based on the orthodox file manager principle, also known as Commander-like file managers, the family of file managers based on the old Norton Commander interface. The orthodox file manager has two windows called panels where one is active and the other inactive, the idea is to manipulate files from active to inactive panel or within the active panel. Only the keyboard is required to do this, which makes the much faster. Using the mouse is still an option, krusaders deep integration into KDE allows it to provide several additional services. One of the tools that Krusader provides is the viewer-editor. Using the KParts object model, Krusader executes components that are capable of viewing specific filetypes and this makes it possible to view an office document directly from within Krusader. Any application that implements the KParts model correctly can be embedded in this fashion, Krusader is primarily developed for the Linux platform, but it is available for some other platforms. These include BSD and Apple Mac OS X, a Windows port is in beta

27.
Midnight Commander
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GNU Midnight Commander is a free cross-platform orthodox file manager. It was started by Miguel de Icaza in 1994 as a clone of the then popular Norton Commander, GNU Midnight Commander is part of the GNU project and is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Midnight Commander is an application with a text user interface. The main interface consists of two panels which display the file system, File selection is done using arrow keys, the insert key is used to select files and the function keys perform operations such as renaming, editing and copying files. Later versions of the Midnight Commander additionally have mouse support, such versions are aware of GPM and X terminal emulators which support mouse reporting. When running inside an X terminal, these versions can update the name of the window in which Midnight Commander runs, Midnight Commander also includes an editor called mcedit, which can be executed as a standalone program or from Midnight Commander using the F4 key. Users also have the option to replace mcedit with the editor of their choice, Midnight Commander can also rename groups of files, unlike a number of other file managers that can only rename one file at a time. This is convenient for manipulating large collections of files, e. g. to make them conform to a new naming convention, Midnight Commander can also move files to a different directory at the same time as it renames them. It lets the user specify the original and resulting file names using wildcard characters and this makes the power of regular expressions available for renaming files, with a convenient user interface. In addition, the user can select whether or not to use shell patterns or globs, all of these features are available by using the File > Rename/Move menu selection. Native support for UTF-8 locales for Unicode was added in 2009 to development versions of Midnight Commander, as of version 4.7.0, mc has had Unicode support

28.
GNOME Files
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GNOME Files, formerly and internally Nautilus, is the official file manager for the GNOME desktop. The nautilus name was a play on words, evoking the shell of a nautilus to represent a system shell. Nautilus replaced Midnight Commander in GNOME1.4 and has been the default from version 2.0 onwards, Nautilus was the flagship product of the now-defunct Eazel Inc. Released under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License, Nautilus was first released in 2001 and development has continued ever since. The following is a timeline of its development history, Version 1.0 was released on March 13,2001. Version 2.0 was a port to GTK+2.0, Version 2.2 included changes to make it more compliant with User Interface Guidelines. Version 2.4 switched the desktop folder to ~/Desktop to be compliant with freedesktop. org standards, in the version included with GNOME2.6, Nautilus switched to a spatial interface. Several Linux distributions have made browser mode the default, GNOME2.14 introduced a version of Nautilus with improved searching, integrated optional Beagle support and the ability to save searches as virtual folders. With the release of GNOME2.22, Nautilus was ported to the newly introduced GVfs, the 2.24 stable release of Nautilus adds some new features, mainly tabbed browsing and better tab completion. With GNOME2.30, Nautilus reverted from an interface to a browser navigational model by default. Besides, this is the last version that is based on GTK2 before the move to GNOME3.0 with GTK3, GNOME3.0 completely revamped the UX of Nautilus with focus on neat and elegant element like the sidebar and icons. Additionally, the Connect to Server dialog is also enhanced, Nautilus application name was renamed to Files, Though it is still called Nautilus internally in some distributions. These major changes led to a lot of criticism, and various such as Linux Mint decided to fork version 3.4. Version 3.8 included a new option to view files and folders as a tree, Version 3.10 introduced a slightly revamped UI design in which titlebars and toolbars were merged into a single element called header bars. Version 3.18 introduced integration with Google Drive and GOA settings, bookmarks, window backgrounds, notes, and add-on scripts are all implemented, and the user has the choice between icon, list, or compact list views. In browser mode, Nautilus keeps a history of visited folders, similar to web browsers, Nautilus can display previews of files in their icons, be they text files, images, sound or video files via thumbnailers such as Totem. Audio files are previewed when the pointer is hovering over them, in earlier versions, Nautilus included original vectorized icons designed by Susan Kare. Using the GIO library, Nautilus tracks modification of files in real time

29.
Eazel
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Eazel was a software company based in Mountain View, California from 1999 to 2001. The enterprise was staffed with former employees of Apple, Netscape, linuxcare, Microsoft, Red Hat and Sun Microsystems, among others. Mike Boich was CEO, Bud Tribble was VP of Engineering, Andy Hertzfeld was a principal designer, susan Kare, author of the original Macintosh icons, was brought in to design new vector graphics-based iconography. Eazels main achievement was the new Nautilus file manager for the GNOME desktop environment and its business plan involved monetizing online services to be offered through Nautilus such as storage, but it failed to do so before venture capital ran out. On March 13,2001, Eazel released Nautilus 1.0 and it attempted to sell its core development group but went out of business in May 2001. The Nautilus file manager has continued to be updated by the free and open source software community

30.
Norton Commander
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Norton Commander is a discontinued prototypical orthodox file manager, written by John Socha and released by Peter Norton Computing. NC is a manager which provides a text-based user interface on top of MS-DOS. It was officially produced between 1986 and 1998, the last MS-DOS version of Norton Commander,5.51, was released on July 1,1998. A related product, Norton Desktop, a shell for MS-DOS and Windows. It came in two variants, Norton Desktop for DOS and Norton Desktop for Windows, Norton Commander was easy to use because it had a constant view of two file manipulation objects at once. After starting the program the user sees two panels with file lists, each panel can be easily configured to show information about the other panel, a directory tree, or a number of other options. At the bottom of the screen, Norton Commander displays a list of commands that are extended on demand by the CTRL, thus, without heavy use of the mouse, the user is able to perform many file manipulation actions quickly and efficiently. Additionally, it includes a built-in text file viewer and text file editor. Windows 95 included a new shell called Windows Explorer and supported long filenames. Symantec released Norton Commander 5.51 to support long filenames using the standard Windows APIs, in order to preserve LFNs while working in real mode, Norton Commander 5.51 required the use of a Terminate and Stay Resident utility. Norton Commander did not have support for LFNs in real mode. Despite the decline in its use, Norton Commander was very popular during the DOS era, for example, the IntelliJ IDE has a Commander window that performs file manipulation using the same shortcut keys as Norton Commander. Enrique Salem lead the development of a File Manager and Program Manager released as Norton Desktop for Windows, Norton Commander for Windows was a Windows 95 variant of the classical DOS file manager. Version 1.0 was first released in 1996 and it supported both Windows 95 and Windows NT. This version fully integrated with Windows features such as the Recycle Bin, Quick View feature was supported via the included basic Quick View Plus. Version 1.02 added Windows 98 support, version 2.0 was released in 2000. It supports Windows 2000 and functions under Windows XP, Windows Vista, installer included Network Utilities, Norton Commander Scheduler, and the Norton Commander. Network Utilities allows for viewing devices and systems on network, connecting to remote systems, mapping network drives, network monitoring, the last Windows version of Norton Commander was 2.01

31.
Symantec
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Symantec Corporation /sɪˈmænˌtɛk/ is an American software company headquartered in Mountain View, California, United States. The company produces software for security, storage, backup and availability -, netcraft assesses Symantec as the most-used certification authority. Symantec is a Fortune 500 company and a member of the S&P500 stock-market index, the company also has development centers in Pune, Chennai and Bengaluru. On October 9,2014, Symantec declared it would split into two independent publicly traded companies by the end of 2015, one company would focus on security, the other on information management. On January 29,2016, the information-management business was spun-off as Veritas Technologies, the name Symantec is a portmanteau of the words syntax, semantics, and technology. Founded in 1982 by Gary Hendrix with a National Science Foundation grant, Symantec was originally focused on artificial intelligence-related projects, Hendrix hired several Stanford University natural language processing researchers as the companys first employees, among them Barry Greenstein. Hendrix also hired Jerry Kaplan as a consultant to build the database for Q&A. In 1984 it became clear that the natural language and database system that Symantec had developed could not be ported from DEC minicomputers to the PC. This left Symantec without a product, but with expertise in natural language database query systems, as a result, later in 1984 Symantec was acquired by another, smaller software startup company, C&E Software, founded by Denis Coleman and Gordon Eubanks and headed by Eubanks. C&E Software was in the process of developing an integrated file management, the merged company retained the name Symantec, and Eubanks became its chairman, Vern Raburn, the former CEO of the original Symantec, remained as CEO of the combined company. Soon after the merger, Eubanks and Raburn recruited Rod Turner into Symantec as its vice president for marketing, sales, product management. Turner had been in interviews and discussions with C&E Software in early 1984 about becoming the president of C&E and these discussions had ended when the two companies merged. The natural language system was named The Intelligent Assistant, Turner chose the name of Q&A for Symantecs flagship product, in large part because the name lent itself to use in a short, easily merchandised logo. Brett Walter designed the interface of Q&A. Q&A was released in November 1985, during 1986, Vern Raburn and Gordon Eubanks swapped roles, and Eubanks became CEO and president of Symantec, while Raburn became its chairman. Subsequent to this change, Raburn had little involvement with Symantec, Turner named it Six Pack because employees were to work six days a week, see six dealerships per day, train six sales representatives per store and stay with friends free or at Motel 6. Simultaneously, a promotion was run jointly with SofSell and this promotion was very successful in encouraging dealers to try Q&A. Eubanks also negotiated a sizable rent reduction on the space the company had leased in the days of the original Symantec

32.
DOS
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None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS

33.
PCMan File Manager
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PCMan File Manager is a file manager application developed by Hong Jen Yee from Taiwan which is meant to be a replacement for Nautilus, Dolphin and Thunar. PCManFM is the file manager in LXDE, also developed by the same author in conjunction with other developers. Since 2010, PCManFM has undergone a complete rewrite from scratch, build instructions, setup, released under the GNU General Public License, PCManFM is free software. It follows the specifications given by Freedesktop. org for interoperability, dissatisfied with GTK3, Hong Jen Yee experimented with Qt in early 2013 and released the first version of a Qt-based PCManFM on March 26,2013. He clarified, though, that means no departure from GTK in LXDE, saying “The Gtk+

34.
ROX Desktop
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The ROX Desktop is a graphical desktop environment for the X Window System. It is based on the ROX-Filer which is a drag and drop spatial file manager and it is free software released under the GNU General Public License. The environment was inspired by the interface of RISC OS. Programs can be installed or removed easily using Zero Install, the ROX Desktop is a desktop environment based on the ROX-Filer file manager. Files are loaded by dragging them to an application from the filer, applications are executable directories, and are thus also installed, uninstalled, and run through the filer interface. ROX has a link with Zero Install, a method of identifying and executing programs via a URL. It is inspired by the interface of RISC OS. The name ROX comes from RISC OS on X, the project was started by Thomas Leonard as a student at University of Southampton in 1999 and is still led by him in 2012. The desktop uses the GTK+ toolkit, like the GNOME and Xfce desktops, the design focuses on small, simple programs using drag-and-drop to move data between them. For example, a user might load a file into a spreadsheet from the web by dragging the data from the web browser to the archiver. A program would be installed in the way, by dragging the archive from the web to the archiver. Drag-and-drop saving allows the user to save the file to any directory they please, or directly to another application. ROX-Filer is a spatial file manager for the X Window System. It can be used on its own as a file manager and it is the file manager provided by default in certain Linux distributions such as Puppy Linux and Dyne, bolic, and was used in Xubuntu until Thunar became stable. ROX-Filer is built using the GTK+ toolkit, available under the terms of the GNU General Public License, ROX-Filer is free software. Comparison of X Window System desktop environments Package management system Notes ROX Desktop on SourceForge. net

Apple's first product, the Apple I, invented by Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak, was sold as an assembled circuit board and lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and wooden case.

The Apple II, introduced in 1977, was a major technological advancement over its predecessor.

The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or GPL) is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the …

Richard Stallman at the launch of the first draft of the GNU GPLv3 at MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. To his right is Columbia Law Professor Eben Moglen, chairman of the Software Freedom Law Center.