Cannabis (also known as marijuana,[1]weed,[2]pot,[3], grass,[4]herb,[5] and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via smoking, vaporizing, or ingestion). The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,[6] including at least 84 other cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),[7][8] and cannabigerol (CBG).

The genus cannabis is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.[9] The earliest recorded uses of cannabis date from the 3rd millennium BC.[10] At least three species are recognized: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. In modern times, cannabis is used for recreational or medicinal and religious or spiritual purposes.[citation needed]

Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of the world. According to a United Nations report, cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[11][12] In 2004, the U.N. estimated that global consumption patterns of cannabis indicated that approximately 4% of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually and that approximately 0.6% (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[13]

History and culture

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The potency of illicit cannabis plant material has consistently increased over time since 1995 from ~4% in 1995 to ~12% in 2014. The cannabidiol content has decreased on average from ~.28% in 2001 to <.15% in 2014, resulting in a change in the ratio of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol to cannabidiol from 14 times in 1995 to ~80 times in 2014.[14][15]

Chemistry

Cannabis plants contain a number of different specific compounds at various ratios. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;[16] at least 80 of these are cannabinoids,[17][18] chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[19] The most common cannabinoids are listed below:

Pharmacology

The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly known as THC.[20] Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play a role in the overall effect of cannabis.[21] The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN.[22] The entourage effect is a proposed mechanism by which compounds present in cannabis which are largely non-psychoactive by themselves modulate the overall psychoactive effects of the plant (these resulting principally from the action of the main psychoactive component of cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)).

THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects. Cannabidiol acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors.[23] THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors.[24] However, the role of these interactions and how they result in the cannabis high remains subject to on-going scientific investigation.

Drugs that activate the CB1 and CB2 receptors are known to upregulate and enhance 5-HT2A receptor activity.[25] The ERK1/ERK2 signaling pathway has been shown to mediate this effect, but the exact biochemical mechanism is unknown. This upregulation and enhancement of the 5-HT2A receptor is why cannabis potentiates the effects of psychedelic drugs.

Subjective effects

The effects listed below are based upon the subjective effects index and personal experiences of PsychonautWikicontributors. These effects should be taken with a grain of salt and will rarely (if ever) occur all at once, but heavier doses will increase the chances of inducing a full range of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become much more likely on higher doses and may include serious injury or death.

Physical effects

Sedation[26] - Although certain strains of cannabis (e.g. sativas) produce a mild sense of stimulation at low to moderate doses, its effects are primarily sedating and can even be hypnotic. These relaxing properties are suppressed by consciously forcing oneself to engage in physical activities. In terms of its stimulating effects, these subjective aspects of THC typically last 2-3 hours, whereas the half-life of CBD, which is more relaxing, is 9 hours.[27] Thus, the first dose of cannabis after a period of abstinence will tend to be far more stimulating than subsequent doses, which must compete with the relaxing effects of previous doses. Because the relaxation both persists much longer and shares many of the same pathways as the stimulation, regular ingestion of THC also leads to increased tolerance to its stimulating effects, but not to its relaxing effects.[citation needed]

Spontaneous bodily sensations - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable in both its style and intensity and does not manifest itself consistently. It depends entirely on the individual strain as well as dose and method of intake. In general, however, it can be described as a relatively pleasurable, sometimes warm, soft, intoxicating and all-encompassing sensation. It maintains a presence that quickly rises with the onset and hits its limit once the peak has been reached before slowly dissipating. At high dosages, it can cause some users to feel shaky or nerve-wracked.

Appetite enhancement - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years[28] and is known colloquially as "the munchies" in popular culture. Cannabis has been shown in recent studies to stimulate the release of the hormone ghrelin which is normally released by the stomach when empty as a signal for the brain to search for food [29]

Appetite suppression - This effect may present itself at the very beginning of the intoxication and is likely due mostly to the cannabinoid THCV.[30]

Bodily pressures - This can be described a subtle or distinct pressure felt behind one's eye(s).

Changes in felt gravity - At extremely high doses, many users report a feeling of being pulled backwards across vast distances (sometimes at powerful speeds). This sensation progressively increases in intensity and often eventually becomes unbearable if one leans backwards or lies down; however, it disappears altogether once the user sits up or leans forward.

Increased heart rate[26] - Decreased blood pressure can result in an increased heart rate, although this varies depending on the user.

Dry mouth[26] - This is known colloquially as "cotton mouth" in popular American and United Kingdom culture.

Increased perspiration - This effect is experienced almost exclusively with the convection of solvent extracted hash oil and appears almost immediately after one exhales. This is likely due to the high THC concentration and a relatively rapid onset that can result in a significant decrease in blood pressure, often causing the user to sweat.

Motor control loss - This substance causes a partial to moderate suppression of motor control which intensifies proportional to dose, but rarely results in a complete inability to walk and perform basic movements.

Muscle spasms - This effect is usually very subtle and is more likely to occur at high doses.

Nausea - At heavy dosages and overdoses, cannabis can be nauseating. This usually passes after the first 30 or 40 minutes of the intoxication and tends to transition later into nausea suppression.

Nausea suppression - Cannabis is effective for suppressing nausea induced by both general illness and substances. It is considered an effective treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)[31] and is a reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment.[32]

Pain relief - This substance has been reported as useful for treating certain headaches and chronic pain, including pain caused by neuropathy and possibly fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis.[33][34]

Perception of bodily lightnessorPerception of bodily heaviness - Depending on the specific strain of cannabis, one can find themselves with a body which can feel either physically heavier or lighter than it usually would in a style that is entirely dependent upon dose or tolerance of the individual.

Physical euphoria - This rarely exceeds mild to moderate levels of intensity, and although this effect may be present for many users there are also a number of individuals who report experiencing no euphoria at all. For some, this effect is notably more prominent with edible forms of cannabis.

Seizure suppression - There are many anecdotal reports of the successful treatment of seizures in epilepsy with the use of low THC/high CBD marijuana.[35][36][37] However, there is not enough scientific evidence to draw conclusions about its safety or efficacy. Studies in animals have found that cannabidiol,[38][39] tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),[40] and other cannabinoids have anticonvulsant properties.[41]

Vasodilation - THC decreases blood pressure which dilates the blood vessels and increases blood flow throughout the body. The arteries in the eyeball expand from the decreased blood pressure. Studies in the 1970s showed cannabis, when smoked or eaten, effectively lowers intraocular pressure by about 25%, as much as standard medications.[42] These enlarged arteries often produce a bloodshot red eye effect. It is precisely this effect on the human eye that makes cannabis an effective medicine for glaucoma.[43]

Visual effects

Cannabis inconsistently induces visual and hallucinatory states at higher doses. These hallucinations are very mild and ill-defined compared to the effect of hallucinogens like psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants.

Colour enhancement - This effect is often faint, but has been known to increase in its likeness and/or appearance among "regular" users of psychedelics.

Brightness alteration - THC has been shown to modulate the activity of cone cells in the eye. This can cause an increased sensitivity to light, causing one's vision to appear brighter than normal.

Tracers - This effect can be seen at high doses and is generally quite mild. It generally does not extend past level 2.

Geometry - Cannabis is capable of inconsistently inducing mild psychedelic geometry at extremely high doses within many users who also regularly use psychedelics. It is capable of inducing these in a visual style which seems to be an averaged out depiction of all the psychedelics one has used within the past. These rarely extend beyond level 4 and are considered to be mild, fine, small and zoomed out (but often well-defined).

Internal hallucination - The internal hallucinations of cannabis are extremely variable in their appearance depending on the dosage, tolerance and the individual's brain chemistry. They are very inconsistent and for some even rare but can be described as being fainter in appearance when compared to traditional psychedelics and do not seem to be as regularly composed of visual geometry. The most common way in which they manifest themselves is through hypnagogic scenarios. They are most common during high dosages in dark environments and can be comprehensively described through their variations as both lucid and delirious in believability, fixed in style, autonomous in controllability, equal in new experiences and memory replays in content and are primarily geometry-based in style.

Peripheral information misinterpretation - This very inconsistent effect tends to be mild and fleeting in contrast to other more powerful psychoactive substances. This effect rarely occurs on cannabis alone but when it does it is often in high dosages and/or when the individual has a low tolerance. It is more likely to manifest itself in certain environments as opposed to others and is more likely to happen if one has used stronger substances recently, typically within the past 24 to 36 hours.

Dream suppression - It is commonly reported that regular cannabis use before sleep results in a complete absence of dreams. A day or two of abstaining from cannabis results in an intensification of dreams for a short period of time. This claim is supported through studies that demonstrate that measurably reduced eye movement activity and REM states occur when one falls asleep in the THC condition. This state is strongly associated with dreaming. The same study also reported a REM rebound effect; there is more REM activity during the withdrawal from THC.[45]

Decreased libido and Increased libido - Although cannabis is commonly reported to increase sexual desire and heighten its pleasure it has also been reported to decrease one's libido as well. The decrease in libido typically only occurs during the onset of the intoxication whilst the increase in libido commonly occurs during the offset or after the peak effects. However, these components are inconsistent and it is possible for one of these effects to occur without the other.[citation needed]

Emotion enhancement - The most prominent cognitive component of the cannabis experience is the way in which it enhances the emotions one is already feeling proportional to dose. This can result in euphoria, extreme laughter, and increased immersion within tasks and activities or it can result in anxiety and paranoia depending on the user's current state of mind.

Focus suppression and Focus enhancement - This can depend on the user, dose, method or the strain of cannabis used. Higher doses tend to cause focus suppression while lower doses can increase one's focus.

Memory suppression - Cannabis is known to suppress short-term memory due to inhibition of glutamate neurotransmission in the hippocampus. This effect primarily effects short-term memory, making ego death or long-term memory suppression very unlikely.

Novelty enhancement - Although this effect is relatively consistent, it isn't as pronounced as with other psychedelics such as 2C-B, LSD or mescaline. This effect can become more noticeable and/or consistent if the individual regularly takes psychedelics.

Paranoia - All cannabinoids are capable of inducing paranoia at high doses or with chronic administration.

Psychosis - The prolonged usage of THC may increase one's disposition to psychosis[46], particularly in vulnerable individuals with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of schizophrenia).[47][48][49]

Sleepiness - This effect depends mostly on dose and/or strain of the plant and is most prominent after the peak subsides.

Auditory effects

Multi-sensory effects

Synaesthesia - This is a very rare and typically non-reproducible effect. It is particularly mild when compared to the states capable of being produced by other hallucinogens, particularly serotonergic psychedelics. Increasing the dosage can increase the likelihood for this effect to occur, but otherwise only seems to be possible among those who are already predisposed to synaesthetic states.

Combination effects

Psychedelics - Cannabis strongly intensifies the sensory and cognitive effects of all psychedelics. Extreme caution is advised when combining these substances as this can significantly increase the chances of a negative psychological reaction like anxiety, confusion and psychosis. Users are advised to start off with only a fraction of their usual cannabis dose and take long breaks between hits. Many users report that cannabis is effective at briefly recreating the peak of the experience if consumed during the come down phase.

Alcohol - When used with alcohol, cannabis often creates feelings of extreme nausea, double vision, dizziness and changes in gravity. It is generally recommended that people take the cannabis before drinking and not the other way around as this is reported to induce these effects less readily.

Strains and forms

Strains

Types of cannabis

Sativa and indica are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.

Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height.

The high produced from smoking indica bud is a strong physical "body high" that will make one sleepy or sedated and provides a deep relaxation feeling compared to a sativa high, which is known to be more energetic and uplifting.

Forms

Whole flower and leaf is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.[50][51]

Kief is a powder which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[52]

Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed kief.

Tinctures are cannabinoids which have been extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol).

Hash oil is obtained from the cannabis plant by solvent extraction, and contains the cannabinoids present in the highly concentrated natural oils of cannabis flowers and leaves.[53]

Cannabutter is one of many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to the variety of non-volatile solvents used. Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers.

Vaporizers heat herbal cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F), causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure).[56]

Cannabis tea contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter).[57] Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g., cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis.[58]

Edibles are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods.

Sublingual/buccal consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture).

Tincture

Topical consumption typically involves the use of either a cream or lip balm containing cannabinoids absorbed through the skin.

A joint/spliff prior to rolling with a paper handmade filter on the left.

A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled.

Edible weed brownies

Preparation methods

Preparation methods for this compound within our tutorial index include:

Medical use

Cannabis is an emerging treatment option for those suffering from many serious diseases, including cancer. Due to its pain relieving, nausea suppressing effects, cannabis can be useful for those undergoing radiation therapy and chemotherapy.[citation needed] Oral doses of cannabis are more effective in reducing nausea and vomiting[59].

In addition to the anti-nausea effects, the appetite enhancement effects of cannabis can combine with the antiemetic effects and make it more likely that the patient will gain or maintain weight through cancer treatment.[60]

Toxicity and harm potential

Cannabis is not known to cause brain damage, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. There are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute cannabis exposure.
Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a responsible context, cannabis produces little to no negative cognitive, psychiatric or physical consequences.[citation needed]

It is advised that those with severe pre-existing mental conditions should not ingest cannabis due to the way it strongly amplifies the user's current state of mind and emotions. The prolonged usage of THC and other cannabinoids may also increase one's disposition to mental illness and psychosis,[62] particularly in vulnerable individuals with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of schizophrenia).[63][64][65]

Lethal dosage

No fatal overdoses associated with cannabis use have been reported as of 2010.[66] A review published in the British Journal of Psychiatry in February 2001 said that "no deaths directly due to acute cannabis use have ever been reported."[67]

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has an extremely low toxicity and the amount that can enter the body through the consumption of cannabis plants poses no threat of death.
In lab animal tests, scientists have had much difficulty administering a dose of THC that is high enough to be lethal.
The dose of THC needed to kill 50% of tested rodents is very high,[68] 2.594 mol/kg, about 815.7 grams of THC per kilogram of body weight,[69] and human deaths from overdose are unheard of.[70]

At present, it is estimated that the LD50 of cannabis is around 1:20,000 or 1:40,000.
This means that, in order to induce death, a cannabis smoker would have to consume 20,000 to 40,000 times as much cannabis as is contained in one cannabis cigarette.
A user would theoretically have to smoke nearly 1,500 pounds of cannabis within about 15 minutes to induce a lethal response.

Dependence on cannabis is more common amongst heavy users. Cannabis use can lead to increased tolerance[72][73] and withdrawal symptoms upon stopping usage.[74][75][76] Prolonged cannabis usage requires the user to consume higher doses of the substance to achieve a common desirable effect, and reinforce the body's metabolic systems for synthesizing and eliminating it more efficiently.[77]

Tolerance to many of the effects of cannabis develops with prolonged and repeated use. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about 1 - 2 weeks for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 2 - 3 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). THC has been detected in heavy cannabis users after 77 days of drug abstinence (Ellis et al., 1985).[78]

Cannabis produces cross-tolerance with all cannabinoids, meaning that after the consumption of cannabis all cannabinoids will have a reduced effect. The mechanisms that create this tolerance to THC are thought to involve changes in cannabinoid receptor function.

Dangerous interactions

Although many psychoactive substances are reasonably safe to use on their own, they can quickly become harmful and even life-threatening when taken with other substances. The following section lists some known dangerous combinations, but it may not include all of them. Furthermore, a combination that seems to be harmless in low doses can still greatly increase the risk of injury or death when the doses are slightly increased. Independent research should always be conducted to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some interactions listed have been sourced from Tripsit.

Psychedelics - Cannabis has an unexpectedly strong and somewhat unpredictable synergy with the effects of psychedelics. Extreme caution is advised when using this combination as it can significantly increase the chances of a negative psychological reaction like anxiety, paranoia, panic attacks, and psychosis. Users are advised to start off with only a fraction of their normal cannabis dose and take long breaks between hits to avoid over intake.

aMT - Cannabis has an unexpectedly strong and somewhat unpredictable synergy with ΑMT. Small amounts can reduce nausea with aMT but care should be taken.

5-MeO-xxT - Cannabis has an unexpectedly strong and somewhat unpredictable synergy with 5-MeO-xxT.

Stimulants - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences