No representative assembly established so no move to universal franchise, but some times where some people could vote for bodies

1864- Zemstva established to express views of rural people at a local level, members elected by property qualification and therefore included landowners, some urban dwellers and wealthier peasants only

Elections to the Duma after 1905, but limited franchise

Elections to various bodies did exist under communists but highly controlled by the elite in govt. Under Stalin Central Committee was a collective body elected at the annual party congress, authorised to meet twice a year to act as supreme governing body. 71 members in 1934, over 200 by end

POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS:

Political parties allowed to exist under Tsars, although heavily controlled, from 1855-1917 groups emerged such as the People's Will, SRs, SDs, Liberals, Kadets and Octobrists. Under communists only one party existed

Before 1905, trade unions banned, 1905-1917 allowed to exist but limited powers. Under communists, trade unions valued but subordinate to the needs of the govt not the needs of the workers

1905 onwards soviets (worker's councils) appeared and tolerated. The Provisional Government formed a dual authority with the Petrograd Soviet. Soviets integral to Bolshevik takeover and integrated into communist political system

EXPRESSION OF VIEWS THROUGH THE MEDIA:

Both used censorship to control the freedom of expression

Successive govts retained the right to withdraw publications thought to include 'dangerous orientation' (criticism).

Government departments under the Tsars used their own newspapers (Ruskii) to publish official news

Relaxation of control under NII, some newspapers aimed at the proletariat appeared- Kopek.

Communists made great use of censorship. Stalin guided writers to produce work that showed 'socialist realism'

Khrushchev eased censorship, but most popular newspapers still govt- Pravda or Izvestiya

Religious freedoms

UNDER TSARS:

Orhtodox religion emanated from Russian Orthodox church

Non- Orthodox such as Old Believers, Sectarians, Catholics, Protestants, Jews and Muslims tolerated, some leaders encouraged them to convert

UNDER COMMUNISTS:

After revolution the Bolsheviks placed severe restrictions on the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church

'The Decree on the Seperation of the Church from the State and the School from the Church'

Withdrawal of state subsidies and prevented religious groups from possessing property

Set a pattern of repression of religion in Russi until the end of the period