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This guide was produced by the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
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Education Programs, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
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Secondary Education, Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program.

On June 13, after the tragic loss of life and
injuries at Thurston High School in Springfield, Oregon, President Clinton
directed the Department of Education and the Department of Justice to develop an
early warning guide to help "adults reach out to troubled children quickly
and effectively." This guide responds to that Presidential request. It is
our sincere hope that this guide will provide you with the practical help needed
to keep every child in your school out of harm's way.

America's schools are among the safest places
to be on a day-to-day basis, due to the strong commitment of educators, parents,
and communities to their children. Nevertheless, last year's tragic and sudden
acts of violence in our nation's schools remind us that no community can be
complacent in its efforts to make its schools even safer. An effective and safe
school is the vital center of every community whether it is in a large urban
area or a small rural community.

Central to this guide are the key insights that
keeping children safe is a community-wide effort and that effective schools
create environments where children and young people truly feel connected. This
is why our common goal must be to reconnect with every child and particularly
with those young people who are isolated and troubled.

This guide should be seen as part of an overall
effort to make sure that every school in this nation has a comprehensive
violence prevention plan in place. We also caution you to recognize that over
labeling and using this guide to stigmatize children in a cursory way that leads
to over-reaction is harmful. The guidelines in this report are based on research
and the positive experiences of schools around the country where the value and
potential of each and every child is cherished and where good practices have
produced, and continue to produce, successful students and communities.

We are grateful to the many experts, agencies,
and associations in education, law enforcement, juvenile justice, mental health,
and other social services that worked closely with us to make sure that this
report is available for the start of school this fall. We hope that you and your
students and staff, as well as parents and the community, will benefit from this
information.

Although most schools are safe, the violence that
occurs in our neighborhoods and communities has found its way inside the
schoolhouse door (Sheley, McGee, & Wright,
1995). However, if we understand what leads to violence and the types of
support that research has shown are effective in preventing violence, we can
make our schools safer.

Research-based practices can help school
communities-administrators, teachers, families, students, support staff, and
community members-recognize the warning signs early, so children can get the
help they need before it is too late. This guide presents a brief summary of the
research on violence prevention and intervention and crisis response in schools.
It tells school communities:

What to look for--the early
warning signs that relate to violence and other troubling behaviors.

What to do--the action steps
that school communities can take to prevent violence and other troubling
behaviors, to intervene and get help for troubled children, and to respond
to school violence when it occurs.

Sections in this guide include:

Section 1: Introduction. All
staff, students, parents, and members of the community must be part of
creating a safe school environment. Schools must have in place approaches
for addressing the needs of all children who have troubling behaviors. This
section describes the rationale for the guide and suggests how it can be
used by school communities to develop a plan of action.

Section 2: Characteristics of a School That Is Safe
and Responsive to All Children. Well functioning schools foster
learning, safety, and socially appropriate behaviors. They have a strong
academic focus and support students in achieving high standards, foster
positive relationships between school staff and students, and promote
meaningful parental and community involvement. This section describes
characteristics of schools that support prevention, appropriate
intervention, and effective crisis response.

Section 3: Early Warning Signs.
There are early warning signs that, when viewed in context, can signal a
troubled child. Educators and parents--and in some cases, students-can use
several significant principles to ensure that the early warning signs are
not misinterpreted. This section presents early warning signs, imminent
warning signs, and the principles that ensure these signs will not be
misinterpreted. It concludes with a brief description of using the early
warning signs to shape intervention practices.

Section 4: Getting Help for Troubled Children.
Effective interventions for improving the behavior of troubled children are
well documented in the research literature. This section presents research-
and expert-based principles that should provide the foundation for all
intervention development. It describes what to do when intervening early
with students who are at risk for behavioral problems, when responding with
intensive interventions for individual children, and when providing a
foundation to prevent and reduce violent behavior.

Section 5: Developing a Prevention and Response
Plan. Effective schools create a violence prevention and response
plan and form a team that can ensure it is implemented. They use approaches
and strategies based on research about what works. This section offers
suggestions for developing such plans.

Section 6: Responding to Crisis.
Effective and safe schools are well prepared for any potential crisis or
violent act. This section describes what to do when intervening during a
crisis to ensure safety and when responding in the aftermath of crisis. The
principles that underlie effective crisis response are included.

Section 7: Conclusion. This
section summarizes the guide.

Section 8: Methodology, Contributors, and Research
Support. This guide synthesizes an extensive knowledge base on
violence and violence prevention. This section describes the rigorous
development and review process that was used. It also provides information
about the project's Web site.

A final section lists resources that can be
contacted for more information.

The information in this guide is not intended as
a comprehensive prevention, intervention, and response plan--school communities
could do everything
recommended and still experience violence. Rather, the intent is to provide
school communities with reliable and practical information about what they can
do to be prepared and to reduce the likelihood of violence.

Most schools are safe. Although fewer than one
percent of all violent deaths of children occur on school grounds-indeed, a
child is far more likely to be killed in the community or at home (Kingery,
Coggeshall, & Alford, 1998) -- no school is immune.

The violence that occurs in our neighborhoods and
communities has found its way inside the schoolhouse door. And while we can take
some solace in the knowledge that schools are among the safest places for young
people, we must do more. School violence reflects a much broader problem, one
that can only be addressed when everyone--at school, at home, and in the
community--works together.

The 1997-1998 school year served as a dramatic
wake-up call to the fact that guns do come to school, and some students will use
them to kill. One after the other, school communities across the country-from
Oregon to Virginia, from Arkansas to Pennsylvania, from Mississippi to
Kentucky-have been forced to face the fact that violence can happen to them. And
while these serious incidents trouble us deeply, they should not prevent us from
acting to prevent school violence of any kind.

There is ample documentation that prevention and
early intervention efforts can reduce violence and other troubling behaviors in
schools (Coie & Jacobs, 1993; Elias & Tobias, 1996
). Research-based practices can help school communities recognize the warning
signs early, so children can get the help they need before it is too late. In
fact, research suggests that some of the most promising prevention and
intervention strategies involve the entire educational
community--administrators, teachers, families, students, support staff, and
community members--working together to form positive relationships with all
children (Cornell, 1998, Quinn,
Osher, Hoffman, and Hanley, 1998).

If we understand what leads to violence and the
types of support that research has shown are effective in preventing violence
and other troubling behaviors, we can make our schools safer.

This guide presents a brief summary of the
research on violence prevention and intervention and crisis response in schools
(see Section 8 for a review of methodology and information on how to locate the
research). It tells members of school communities-especially administrators,
teachers, staff, families, students, and community-based professionals:

What to look for--the early
warning signs that relate to violence and other troubling behaviors.

What to do--the action steps
that school communities can take to prevent violence and other troubling
behaviors, to intervene and get help for troubled children, and to respond
to school violence when it occurs.

The information in each section is not intended
as a comprehensive prevention, intervention, and response system or plan.
Indeed, school violence occurs in a unique context in every school and every
situation, making a one-size-fits-all scheme impossible. Moreover, school
communities could do everything
recommended and still experience violence. Rather, this guide is designed to
provide school communities with reliable and practical information about what
they can do to be prepared and to reduce the likelihood of violence.

Creating a safe school requires having in place
many preventive measures for children's mental and emotional problems (Quinn
et al., 1998) -- as well as a comprehensive approach to early identification
of all warning signs that might lead to violence toward self or
others. The term "violence" as used in this booklet,
refers to a broad range of troubling behaviors and emotions shown by
students-including serious aggression, physical attacks, suicide, dangerous use
of drugs, and other dangerous interpersonal behaviors. However, the early
warning signs presented in this document focus primarily on aggressive and
violent behaviors toward others. The guide does not attempt to address all of
the warning signs related to depression and suicide. Nevertheless, some of the
signs of potential violence toward others are also signs of depression and
suicidal risk, which should be addressed through early identification and
appropriate intervention (Maag & Forness, 1991; Poland, 1995; Reynolds, 1990).

All staff, students, parents, and members of the
community must be part of creating a safe school environment:

Everyone has a personal
responsibility for reducing the risk of violence. We must take steps to
maintain order, demonstrate mutual respect and caring for one another, and
ensure that children who are troubled get the help they need.

Everyone should have an
understanding of the early warning signs that help identify students who may
be headed for trouble.

Everyone should be prepared
to respond appropriately in a crisis situation.

Research and expert-based information offers a
wealth of knowledge about preventing violence in schools. The following sections
provide information-what to look for and what to do-that school communities can
use when developing or enhancing violence prevention and response plans (see
Section 5 for more information about these plans).

We hope that school communities will use this
document as a guide as they begin the prevention and healing process today, at
all age and grade levels, and for all students.

"Violence is a major concern to
parents, students, teachers, and the administration of any school. We have found that our
best plan starts with prevention and awareness. At our middle school, the school
psychologist, in conjunction with the assistant principal, has developed an
anti-intimidation and threat plan. Our school statistics reflect a dramatic decline in
violence from the 1996-97 to the 1997-98 school year. We treat each and every student with
respect. We are finding that they in turn are demonstrating a more respectful
attitude." G. Norma Villar Baker, Principal, Midvale, UT

Characteristics of a
School That Is Safe and Responsive to All Children

Well functioning schools foster learning, safety,
and socially appropriate behaviors. They have a strong academic focus and
support students in achieving high standards, foster positive relationships
between school staff and students, and promote meaningful parental and community
involvement. Most prevention programs in effective schools address multiple
factors and recognize that safety and order are related to children's social,
emotional, and academic development (Knoff & Batsche, 1995).

Effective prevention, intervention, and crisis
response strategies operate best in school communities that:

Focus on academic achievement.
Effective schools convey the attitude that all children can achieve
academically and behave appropriately, while at the same time appreciating
individual differences (Haynes,
Comer, & Hamilton-Lee, 1988; Walker,
1994/1995). Adequate resources and programs help ensure that
expectations are met. Expectations are communicated clearly, with the
understanding that meeting such expectations is a responsibility of the
student, the school, and the home (Sabo, 1995). Students who do not receive
the support they need are less likely to behave in socially desirable
ways.

Involve families in meaningful ways.
Students whose families are involved in their growth in and outside of
school are more likely to experience school success and less likely to
become involved in antisocial activities (Haynes et
al., 1988). School communities must make parents feel welcome in school,
address barriers to their participation, and keep families positively
engaged in their children's education. Effective schools also support
families in expressing concerns about their children-and they support
families in getting the help they need to address behaviors that cause
concern (Intercultural
Development Research Association, 1994).

Develop links to the community. Everyone
must be committed to improving schools. Schools that have close ties to
families, support services, community police, the faith-based community, and
the community at large can benefit from many valuable resources. When these
links are weak, the risk of school violence is heightened and the
opportunity to serve children who are at risk for violence or who may be
affected by it is decreased (Sheras,
Cornell, & Bostain, 1996; Takanishi, 1993).

Emphasize positive relationships among students and
staff. Research shows that a positive relationship with an adult
who is available to provide support when needed is one of the most critical
factors in preventing student violence (Blum &
Rinehart, 1998; Communities in
Schools, 1997; Garmezy, 1993; Parese, 1998). Students often
look to adults in the school community for guidance, support, and direction.
Some children need help overcoming feelings of isolation and support in
developing connections to others. Effective schools make sure that
opportunities exist for adults to spend quality, personal time with children
(Epstein, 1994; Furtwengler, 1996). Effective schools also
foster positive student interpersonal relations--they encourage students to
help each other and to feel comfortable assisting others in getting help
when needed.

Discuss safety issues openly.
Children come to school with many different perceptions--and
misconceptions--about death, violence, and the use of weapons. Schools can
reduce the risk of violence by teaching children about the dangers of
firearms, as well as appropriate strategies for dealing with feelings,
expressing anger in appropriate ways, and resolving conflicts (Bodine, Crawford,
& Schrumpf, 1995; Cornell, 1998; Poland, 1994). Schools also should teach
children that they are responsible for their actions and that the choices
they make have consequences for which they will be held accountable.

Treat students with equal respect.
A major source of conflict in many schools is the perceived or real problem
of bias and unfair treatment of students because of ethnicity, gender, race,
social class, religion, disability, nationality, sexual orientation,
physical appearance, or some other factor--both by staff and by peers (Benson, 1996;
Bowditch, 1993; McFadden,
Marsh, Price, & Hwang, 1992; Tobias,
1989). Students who have been treated unfairly may become scapegoats
and/or targets of violence. In some cases, victims may react in aggressive
ways (Batsche & Knoff, 1994).
Effective schools communicate to students and the greater community that all
children are valued and respected (Fine, 1986).
There is a deliberate and systematic effort-for example, displaying
children's artwork, posting academic work prominently throughout the
building, respecting students' diversity-to establish a climate that
demonstrates care and a sense of community.

Create ways for students to share their concerns. It
has been found that peers often are the most likely group to know in advance
about potential school violence (Greenbaum, 1988; Hamilton
Fish National Institute on School & Community Violence, 1988).
Schools must create ways for students to safely report such troubling
behaviors that may lead to dangerous situations. And students who report
potential school violence must be protected. It is important for schools to
support and foster positive relationships between students and adults so
students will feel safe providing information about a potentially dangerous
situation.

Help children feel safe expressing their feelings.
It is very important that children feel safe when expressing their needs,
fears, and anxieties to school staff. When they do not have access to caring
adults, feelings of isolation, rejection, and disappointment are more likely
to occur, increasing the probability of acting-out behaviors (Eccles
et al., 1993; Finn, 1989).

Have in place a system for referring children who
are suspected of being abused or neglected. The referral system
must be appropriate and reflect federal and state guidelines.

Offer extended day programs for children.
School-based before- and after-school programs can be effective in reducing
violence. Effective programs are well supervised and provide children with
support and a range of options, such as counseling, tutoring, mentoring,
cultural arts, community service, clubs, access to computers, and help with
homework (Gottfredson, 1997, Schinke,
Orlandi, & Cole, 1992).

Promote good citizenship and character.
In addition to their academic mission, schools must help students become
good citizens. First, schools stand for the civic values set forth in our
Constitution and Bill of Rights (patriotism; freedom of religion, speech,
and press; equal protection/nondiscrimination; and due process/fairness).
Schools also reinforce and promote the shared values of their local
communities, such as honesty, kindness, responsibility, and respect for
others. Schools should acknowledge that parents are the primary moral
educators of their children and work in partnership with them.

Identify problems and assess progress toward
solutions. Schools must openly and objectively examine
circumstances that are potentially dangerous for students and staff and
situations where members of the school community feel threatened or
intimidated. Safe schools continually assess progress by identifying
problems and collecting information regarding progress toward solutions (American Psychological
Association, 1993; Trump, 1998).
Moreover, effective schools share this information with students, families,
and the community at large.

Support students in making the transition to adult
life and the workplace. Youth need assistance in planning their
future and in developing skills that will result in success. For example,
schools can provide students with community service opportunities,
work-study programs, and apprenticeships that help connect them to caring
adults in the community. These relationships, when established early, foster
in youth a sense of hope and security for the future.

Research has demonstrated repeatedly that school
communities can do a great deal to prevent violence. Having in place a safe and
responsive foundation helps all children-and it enables school communities to
provide more efficient and effective services to students who need more support
(Cotton, 1995, Quinn
et al., 1998). The next step is to learn the early warning signs of a child
who is troubled, so that effective interventions can be provided.

"I just recently got out of the hospital. I was a
victim of a shooting at my school. I've been teaching for 20 years and I never thought it
could happen at my school. Some of the kids knew about it before it happened, but they
didn't want to say anything-they have a code of honor and they did not want to tattle
tale. But someone has to stand up, someone has to take a stand because, if you don't, then
somebody else is going to get hurt." Gregory Carter, Teacher, Richmond,
VA

"We must avoid fragmentation in implementing
programs. The concepts in preventing and responding to violence must be integrated into
effective school reform, including socially and academically supportive instruction and
caring, a welcoming atmosphere, and providing good options for recreation and
enrichment." Howard Adelman, Professor of Psychology, University of
California, Los Angeles

Why didn't we see it coming? In the wake of
violence, we ask this question not so much to place blame, but to understand
better what we can do to prevent such an occurrence from ever happening again.
We review over and over in our minds the days leading up to the incident--did
the child say or do anything that would have cued us in to the impending crisis?
Did we miss an opportunity to help?

There are early warning signs in most cases of
violence to self and others--certain behavioral and emotional signs that, when
viewed in context, can signal a troubled child (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994; Poland & Pitcher, 1990).
But early warning signs are just that-indicators that a student may need help.

Early warning signs can help frame concern for a
child. However, it is important to avoid inappropriately labeling or
stigmatizing individual students because they appear to fit a specific profile
or set of early warning indicators. It's okay to be worried about a child, but
it's not okay to overreact and jump to conclusions.

Teachers and administrators--and other school
support staff--are not professionally trained to analyze children's feelings and
motives. But they are on the front line when it comes to observing troublesome
behavior and making referrals to appropriate professionals, such as school
psychologists, social workers, counselors, and nurses. They also play a
significant role in responding to diagnostic information provided by
specialists. Thus, it is no surprise that effective schools take special care in
training the entire school community to understand and identify early warning
signs.

When staff members seek help for a troubled
child, when friends report worries about a peer or friend, when parents raise
concerns about their child's thoughts or habits, children can get the help they
need. By actively sharing information, a school community can provide quick,
effective responses.

Educators and families can increase their ability
to recognize early warning signs by establishing close, caring, and supportive
relationships with children and youth--getting to know them well enough to be
aware of their needs, feelings, attitudes, and behavior patterns. Educators and
parents together can review school records for patterns of behavior or sudden
changes in behavior.

Unfortunately, there is a real danger that early
warning signs will be misinterpreted. Educators and parents--and in
some cases, students--can ensure that the early warning signs are not
misinterpreted by using several significant principles to better understand
them. These principles include:

Do no harm. There are
certain risks associated with using early warning signs to identify children
who are troubled. First and foremost, the intent should be to get help for a
child early. The early warning signs should not to be used as rationale to
exclude, isolate, or punish a child. Nor should they be used as a checklist
for formally identifying, mislabeling, or stereotyping children. Formal
disability identification under federal law requires individualized
evaluation by qualified professionals. In addition, all referrals to outside
agencies based on the early warning signs must be kept confidential and must
be done with parental consent (except referrals for suspected child abuse or
neglect).

Understand violence and aggression within a
context. Violence is contextual. Violent and aggressive behavior as
an expression of emotion may have many antecedent factors-factors that exist
within the school, the home, and the larger social environment. In fact, for
those children who are at risk for aggression and violence, certain
environments or situations can set it off (Mayer, 1995; Rutherford & Nelson, 1995).
Some children may act out if stress becomes too great, if they lack positive
coping skills, and if they have learned to react with aggression.

View warning signs within a developmental context. Children
and youth at different levels of development have varying social and
emotional capabilities. They may express their needs differently in
elementary, middle, and high school (Cicchetti &
Richters, 1993; Loeber
et al., 1993; Mash
& Dozois, 1996; Patterson, 1992).
The point is to know what is developmentally typical behavior, so that
behaviors are not misinterpreted.

Understand that children typically exhibit multiple
warning signs. It is common for children who are troubled to
exhibit multiple signs. Research confirms that most children who are
troubled and at risk for aggression exhibit more than one warning sign,
repeatedly, and with increasing intensity over time (Gottfredson,
Sealock, & Koper, 1996; Loeber &
Farrington, 1998; Walker, Colvin,
& Ramsey, 1995). Thus, it is important not to overreact to single
signs, words, or actions.

It is not always possible to predict behavior
that will lead to violence (White,
Moffitt, Earls, Robins, & Silva, 1990). However, educators and
parents--and sometimes students--can recognize certain early warning signs. In
some situations and for some youth, different combinations of events, behaviors,
and emotions may lead to aggressive rage or violent behavior toward self or
others (Shields, Cicchetti,
& Ryan, 1994). A good rule of thumb is to assume that these warning
signs, especially when they are presented in combination, indicate a need for
further analysis to determine an appropriate intervention.

None of these signs alone is sufficient for
predicting aggression and violence. Moreover, it is inappropriate--and
potentially harmful--to use the early warning signs as a checklist against which
to match individual children. Rather, the early warning signs are offered only
as an aid in identifying and referring children who may need help. School
communities must ensure that staff and students only use the early warning signs
for identification and referral purposes-only trained professionals should make
diagnoses in consultation with the child's parents or guardian.

The following early warning signs are presented
with the following qualifications: They are not equally significant and they are
not presented in order of seriousness. The early warning signs include:

Excessive feelings of isolation and being
alone. Research has shown that the majority of children who
are isolated and appear to be friendless are not violent (Doll,
1996). In fact, these feelings are sometimes characteristic of children
and youth who may be troubled, withdrawn, or have internal issues that
hinder development of social affiliations (Garber,
Quiggle, Panak, & Dodge, 1991). However, research also has shown
that in some cases feelings of isolation and not having friends are
associated with children who behave aggressively and violently (Berndt, 1984).

Excessive feelings of rejection.
In the process of growing up, and in the course of adolescent development,
many young people experience emotionally painful rejection. Children who are
troubled often are isolated from their mentally healthy peers. Their
responses to rejection will depend on many background factors. Without
support, they may be at risk of expressing their emotional distress in
negative ways-including violence (Coie, Dodge,
& Kupersmidt, 1990, Rubin, Hymel, Lemare,
& Rowden, 1989). Some aggressive children who are rejected by
non-aggressive peers seek out aggressive friends who, in turn, reinforce
their violent tendencies.

Being a victim of violence.
Children who are victims of violence-including physical or sexual abuse-in
the community, at school, or at home are sometimes at risk themselves of
becoming violent toward themselves or others (Browne
& Finkelhor, 1986).

Feelings of being picked on and persecuted.
The youth who feels constantly picked on, teased, bullied, singled out for
ridicule, and humiliated at home or at school may initially withdraw
socially (Saarni, 1990). If not given adequate
support in addressing these feelings, some children may vent them in
inappropriate ways-including possible aggression or violence (Floyd, 1985; Greenbaum, 1988).

Low school interest and poor academic
performance. Poor school achievement can be the result of
many factors. It is important to consider whether there is a drastic change
in performance and/or poor performance becomes a chronic condition that
limits the child's capacity to learn. In some situations--such as when the
low achiever feels frustrated, unworthy, chastised, and
denigrated--acting out and aggressive behaviors may occur (Hinshaw, 1992). It is
important to assess the emotional and cognitive reasons for the academic
performance change to determine the true nature of the problem.

Expression of violence in writings and
drawings. Children and youth often express their thoughts,
feelings, desires, and intentions in their drawings and in stories, poetry,
and other written expressive forms. Many children produce work about violent
themes that for the most part is harmless when taken in context. However, an
overrepresentation of violence in writings and drawings that is directed at
specific individuals (family members, peers, other adults) consistently over
time, may signal emotional problems and the potential for violence (Berman &
Jobes, 1991). Because there is a real danger in misdiagnosing such a
sign, it is important to seek the guidance of a qualified professional--such
as a school psychologist, counselor, or other mental health specialist--to
determine its meaning.

Patterns of impulsive and chronic hitting,
intimidating, and bullying behaviors. Children often engage
in acts of shoving and mild aggression. However, some mildly aggressive
behaviors such as constant hitting and bullying of others that occur early
in children's lives, if left unattended, might later escalate into more
serious behaviors (Batsche & Knoff, 1994; Slaby & Guerra, 1988).

History of discipline problems.
Chronic behavior and disciplinary problems both in school and at home may
suggest that underlying emotional needs are not being met. These unmet needs
may be manifested in acting out and aggressive behaviors (Shields et al., 1994).
These problems may set the stage for the child to violate norms and rules,
defy authority, disengage from school, and engage in aggressive behaviors
with other children and adults (Loeber, 1983; Loeber, 1990; Loeber & Dishion, 1983).

Intolerance for differences and prejudicial
attitudes. All children have likes and dislikes. However, an
intense prejudice toward others based on racial, ethnic, religious,
language, gender, sexual orientation, ability, and physical appearance--when
coupled with other factors--may lead to violent assaults against those who
are perceived to be different (Prothrew-Stith, 1987).
Membership in hate groups or the willingness to victimize individuals with
disabilities or health problems also should be treated as early warning
signs.

Drug use and alcohol use.
Apart from being unhealthy behaviors, drug use and alcohol use reduces
self-control and exposes children and youth to violence, either as
perpetrators, as victims, or both (Cook, 1991).

Affiliation with gangs.
Gangs that support anti-social values and behaviors--including extortion,
intimidation, and acts of violence toward other students--cause fear and
stress among other students. Youth who are influenced by these groups--those
who emulate and copy their behavior, as well as those who become affiliated
with them--may adopt these values and act in violent or aggressive ways in
certain situations (Arthur & Erickson, 1992;
National School Safety Center, 1990;
Snyder,
Sickmund, & Poe-Yamogata, 1996). Gang-related violence and turf
battles are common occurrences tied to the use of drugs that often result in
injury and/or death.

Inappropriate access to, possession of, and use
of firearms. Children and youth who inappropriately possess
or have access to firearms can have an increased risk for violence (APA, 1993).
Research shows that such youngsters also have a higher probability of
becoming victims (Poland, 1993). Families can
reduce inappropriate access and use by restricting, monitoring, and
supervising children's access to firearms and other weapons. Children who
have a history of aggression, impulsiveness, or other emotional problems
should not have access to firearms and other weapons.

Serious threats of violence. Idle
threats are a common response to frustration. Alternatively, one of the most
reliable indicators that a youth is likely to commit a dangerous act toward
self or others is a detailed and specific threat to use violence (Keller & Tapasak, 1997;
Loeber, 1990). Recent
incidents across the country clearly indicate that threats to commit
violence against oneself or others should be taken very seriously. Steps
must be taken to understand the nature of these threats and to prevent them
from being carried out.

Unlike early warning signs, imminent warning
signs indicate that a student is very close to behaving in a way that is
potentially dangerous to self and/or to others. Imminent warning signs require
an immediate response.

No single warning sign can predict that a
dangerous act will occur. Rather, imminent warning signs usually are presented
as a sequence of overt, serious, hostile behaviors or threats directed at peers,
staff, or other individuals. Usually, imminent warning signs are evident to more
than one staff member--as well as to the child's family.

When warning signs indicate that danger is
imminent, safety must always be the first and foremost
consideration. Action must be taken immediately. Immediate intervention by
school authorities and possibly law enforcement officers is needed when a child:

Has presented a detailed plan (time, place,
method) to harm or kill others-particularly if the child has a history of
aggression or has attempted to carry out threats in the past.

Is carrying a weapon, particularly a firearm,
and has threatened to use it.

In situations where students present other
threatening behaviors, parents should be informed of the concerns immediately.
School communities also have the responsibility to seek assistance from
appropriate agencies, such as child and family services and community mental
health. These responses should reflect school board policies and be consistent
with the violence prevention and response plan (for more information see Section
5).

An early warning sign is not a predictor that a
child or youth will commit a violent act toward self or others. Effective
schools recognize the potential in every child to overcome difficult experiences
and to control negative emotions. Adults in these school communities use their
knowledge of early warning signs to address problems before they escalate into
violence.
Effective school communities support staff, students, and families in
understanding the early warning signs. Support strategies include having:

School board policies in place that support
training and ongoing consultation. The entire school community knows how to
identify early warning signs, and understands the principles that support
them (Dwyer, 1996).

School leaders who encourage others to raise
concerns about observed early warning signs and to report all observations
of imminent warning signs immediately (Dwyer, 1996).
This is in addition to school district policies that sanction and promote
the identification of early warning signs (Day &
Golench, 1997).

Each school community should develop a procedure
that students and staff can follow when reporting their concerns about a child
who exhibits early warning signs (Walker
& Severson, 1992). For example, in many schools the principal is the
first point of contact. In cases that do not pose imminent danger, the principal
contacts a school psychologist or other qualified professional, who takes
responsibility for addressing the concern immediately. If the concern is
determined to be serious--but not to pose a threat of imminent danger--the
child's family should be contacted. The family should be consulted before
implementing any interventions with the child. In cases where school-based
contextual factors are determined to be causing or exacerbating the child's
troubling behavior, the school should act quickly to modify them.

It is often difficult to acknowledge that a child
is troubled. Everyone--including administrators, families, teachers, school
staff, students, and community members--may find it too troubling sometimes to
admit that a child close to them needs help. When faced with resistance or
denial, school communities must persist to ensure that children get the help
they need.

Understanding early and imminent warning signs is
an essential step in ensuring a safe school. The next step involves supporting
the emotional and behavioral adjustment of children.

Use the Signs Responsibly

It is important to avoid
inappropriately labeling or stigmatizing individual students because they
appear to fit a specific profile or set of early warning indicators. It's okay
to be worried about a child, but it's not okay to overreact and jump to
conclusions.

"When doing consultation with school staff and
families, we advise them to think of the early warning signs within a context. We
encourage them to look for combinations of warning signs that might tell us the student's
behavior is changing and becoming more problematic." Deborah Crockett,
School Psychologist, Atlanta, GA

Use the Signs Responsibly

None of these signs alone is sufficient for
predicting aggression and violence. Moreover, it is inappropriate--and
potentially harmful--to use the early warning signs as a checklist against
which to match individual children.

Know the Law

The Gun Free Schools Act
requires that each state receiving federal funds under the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) must have put in effect, by
October 1995, a state law requiring local educational agencies to expel from
school for a period of not less than one year a student who is determined to
have brought a firearm to school.

Each state's law also must allow the chief
administering officer of the local educational agency to modify the expulsion
requirement on a case-by-case basis. All local educational agencies receiving
ESEA funds must have a policy that requires the referral of any student who
brings a firearm to school to the criminal justice or juvenile justice system.

"Being proactive and having the
ability to consult and meet with my school psychologist on an ongoing basis
has helped create a positive school environment in terms of resolving student
issues prior to their reaching a crisis level." J. Randy Alton, Teacher, Bethesda, MD J.
Randy Alton, Teacher, Bethesda, MD

Prevention approaches have proved effective in
enabling school communities to decrease the frequency and intensity of behavior
problems (Hunter & Elias, 1998).
However, prevention programs alone cannot eliminate the problems of all
students. Some 5 to 10 percent of students will need more intensive
interventions to decrease their high-risk behaviors, although the percentage can
vary among schools and communities (Sugai & Horner, in press).

What happens when we recognize early warning
signs in a child?

The message is clear: It's okay to be concerned
when you notice warning signs in a child-and it's even more appropriate to do
something about those concerns. School communities that encourage staff,
families, and students to raise concerns about observed warning signs--and that
have in place a process for getting help to troubled children once they are
identified--are more likely to have effective schools with reduced disruption,
bullying, fighting, and other forms of aggression.

Violence prevention and response plans should
consider both prevention and intervention. Plans also should provide all staff
with easy access to a team of specialists trained in evaluating serious
behavioral and academic concerns. Eligible students should have access to
special education services, and classroom teachers should be able to consult
school psychologists, other mental health specialists, counselors, reading
specialists, and special educators.

Effective practices for improving the behavior of
troubled children are well documented in the research literature. Research has
shown that effective interventions are culturally appropriate, family-supported,
individualized, coordinated, and monitored (Fradd,
Weissmantel, Corria, & Algozzine, 1990). Further, interventions are more
effective when they are designed and implemented consistently over time with
input from the child, the family, and appropriate professionals (Goldstein & Conoley,
1997; Martin
& Waltman Greenwood, 1995; Vickers & Minke, 1997).
Schools also can draw upon the resources of their community to strengthen and
enhance intervention planning.

When drafting a violence prevention and response
plan, it is helpful to consider certain principles that research or expert-based
experience show have a significant impact on success. The principles include:

Share responsibility by establishing a partnership
with the child, school, home, and community. Coordinated service
systems should be available for children who are at risk for violent
behavior. Effective schools reach out to include families and the entire
community in the education of children (APA, 1993; Drug Strategies, 1998). In
addition, effective schools coordinate and collaborate with child and family
service agencies, law enforcement and juvenile justice systems, mental
health agencies, businesses, faith and ethnic leaders, and other community
agencies (Skiba, Polsgrove,
& Nasstrom, 1995; Webster-Stratton,
1993).

Inform parents and listen to them when early
warning signs are observed. Parents should be involved as soon as
possible. Effective and safe schools make persistent efforts to involve
parents by: informing them routinely about school discipline policies,
procedures, and rules, and about their children's behavior (both good and
bad); involving them in making decisions concerning schoolwide disciplinary
policies and procedures; and encouraging them to participate in prevention
programs, intervention programs, and crisis planning (Cantor, Kivel,
& Creighton, 1997). Parents need to know what school-based
interventions are being used with their children and how they can support
their success.

Maintain confidentiality and parents' rights to
privacy. Parental involvement and consent is required before
personally identifiable information is shared with other agencies, except in
the case of emergencies or suspicion of abuse. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
(FERPA), a federal law that addresses the privacy of education records, must
be observed in all referrals to or sharing of information with other
community agencies. Furthermore, parent-approved interagency communication
must be kept confidential. FERPA does not prevent disclosure of personally
identifiable information to appropriate parties--such as law enforcement
officials, trained medical personnel, and other emergency personnel--when
responsible personnel determine there is an acute emergency (imminent
danger).

Develop the capacity of staff, students, and
families to intervene. Many school staff members are afraid of
saying or doing the wrong thing when faced with a potentially violent
student. Effective schools provide the entire school community--teachers,
students, parents, support staff--with training and support in responding to
imminent warning signs, preventing violence, and intervening safely and
effectively. Interventions must be monitored by professionals who are
competent in the approach. According to researchers, programs do not succeed
without the ongoing support of administrators, parents, and community
leaders (Gottfredson, 1997; Quinn
et al., 1998).

Support students in being responsible for their
actions. Effective school communities encourage students to see
themselves as responsible for their actions, and actively engage them in
planning, implementing, and evaluating violence prevention initiatives (Felner & Adan, 1988; Gottfredson, 1987).

Simplify staff requests for urgent assistance. Many
school systems and community agencies have complex legalistic referral
systems with timelines and waiting lists. Children who are at risk of
endangering themselves or others cannot be placed on waiting
lists.

Make interventions available as early as possible.
Too frequently, interventions are not made available until the student
becomes violent or is adjudicated as a youthful offender. Interventions for
children who have reached this stage are both costly, restrictive, and
relatively inefficient (Short & Shapiro, 1993).
Effective schools build mechanisms into their intervention processes to
ensure that referrals are addressed promptly, and that feedback is provided
to the referring individual.

Use sustained, multiple, coordinated interventions.
It is rare that children are violent or disruptive only in school (Horne & Sayger, 1990).
Thus, interventions that are most successful are comprehensive, sustained,
and properly implemented. They help families and staff work together to help
the child (Elliot,
Huizinga, & Azeton, 1985; Hawkins & Weiss, 1985).
Coordinated efforts draw resources from community agencies that are
respectful of and responsive to the needs of families. Isolated,
inconsistent, short-term, and fragmented interventions will not be
successful-and may actually do harm (Epstein,
Kutash, & Duchnowski, 1998).

Analyze the contexts in which violent behavior
occurs. School communities can enhance their effectiveness by
conducting a functional analysis of the factors that set off violence and
problem behaviors (Skiba,
Waldron, Bahamonde, & Michalek, 1998, May). In determining an
appropriate course of action, consider the child's age, cultural background,
and family experiences and values. Decisions about interventions should be
measured against a standard of reasonableness to ensure the likelihood that
they will be implemented effectively (Elliott,
Witt, & Kratochwill, 1996).

Build upon and coordinate internal school
resources. In developing and implementing violence prevention and
response plans, effective schools draw upon the resources of various
school-based programs and staff--such as special education, safe and drug
free school programs, pupil services, and Title I (Quinn
et al., 1998).

Violent behavior is a problem for everyone. It is
a normal response to become angry or even frightened in the presence of a
violent child. But, it is essential that these emotional reactions be
controlled. The goal must always be to ensure safety and seek help for the
child.

The incidence of violent acts against students or
staff is low. However, pre-violent behaviors-such as threats, bullying, and
classroom disruptions-are common. Thus, early responses to warning signs are
most effective in preventing problems from escalating (Walker et al.,
1995).

Intervention programs that reduce behavior
problems and related school violence typically are multifaceted, long-term, and
broad reaching (Kazdin, 1991). They also are
rigorously implemented. Effective early intervention efforts include working
with small groups or individual students to provide direct support, as well as
linking children and their families to necessary community services and/or
providing these services in the school (Kazdin, 1993; Reid, 1993).

Examples of early intervention components that
work include:

Providing training and support to staff,
students, and families in understanding factors that can set off and/or
exacerbate aggressive outbursts (Walker et al.,
1995).

Encouraging the family to make sure that
firearms are out of the child's immediate reach. Law enforcement officers
can provide families with information about safe firearm storage as well as
guidelines for addressing children's access to and possession of firearms (Berkowitz
& Lepage, 1967; Heide, 1997).

In some cases, more comprehensive early
interventions are called for to address the needs of troubled children. Focused,
coordinated, proven interventions reduce violent behavior. Following are several
comprehensive approaches that effective schools are using to provide early
intervention to students who are at risk of becoming violent toward themselves
or others.

Intervention Tactic: Teaching Positive
Interaction Skills

Although most schools do teach positive social
interaction skills indirectly, some have adopted social skills programs
specifically designed to prevent or reduce antisocial behavior in troubled
children. In fact, the direct teaching of social problem solving and social
decision making is now a standard feature of most effective drug and violence
prevention programs (Gresham
et al., 1998; Knoff &
Batsche, 1995; Lochman,
Dunn, & Klimes-Dougan, 1993). Children who are at risk of becoming
violent toward themselves or others need additional support. They often need to
learn interpersonal, problem solving, and conflict resolution skills at home and
in school. They also may need more intensive assistance in learning how to stop
and think before they react, and to listen effectively (Gresham
et al., 1998; Knoff &
Batsche, 1995).

Intervention Tactic: Providing
Comprehensive Services

In some cases, the early intervention may involve
getting services to families. The violence prevention and response team together
with the child and family designs a comprehensive intervention plan that focuses
on reducing aggressive behaviors and supporting responsible behaviors at school,
in the home, and in the community. When multiple services are required there
also must be psychological counseling and ongoing consultation with classroom
teachers, school staff, and the family to ensure intended results occur (Guerra, Tolan,
& Hammond, 1994; Osher
& Osher, 1996). All services-including community services-must be
coordinated and progress must be monitored and evaluated carefully (Poland, 1994).

Intervention Tactic: Referring the Child
for Special Education Evaluation

If there is evidence of persistent problem
behavior or poor academic achievement, it may be appropriate to conduct a formal
assessment to determine if the child is disabled and eligible for special
education and related services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). If a multidisciplinary team determines that the child is eligible for
services under the IDEA, an individualized educational program (IEP) should be
developed by a team that includes a parent, a regular educator, a special
educator, an evaluator, a representative of the local school district, the child
(if appropriate), and others as appropriate. This team will identify the support
necessary to enable the child to learn-including the strategies and support
systems necessary to address any behavior that may impede the child's learning
or the learning of his or her peers.

Children who show dangerous patterns and a
potential for more serious violence usually require more intensive interventions
that involve multiple agencies, community-based service providers, and intense
family support. By working with families and community services, schools can
comprehensively and effectively intervene.

Effective individualized interventions provide a
range of services for students. Multiple, intensive, focused approaches used
over time can reduce the chances for continued offenses and the potential for
violence (Scattergood,
Dash, Epstein, & Adler, 1998; Taylor-Greene
et al., 1997). The child, his or her family, and appropriate school staff
should be involved in developing and monitoring the interventions.

Nontraditional schooling in an alternative school
or therapeutic facility may be required in severe cases where the safety of
students and staff remains a concern, or when the complexity of the intervention
plan warrants it. Research has shown that effective alternative programs can
have long-term positive results by reducing expulsions and court referrals (Garrison,
1989). Effective alternative programs support students in meeting high
academic and behavioral standards (Morley, 1991; Oklahoma Technical Assistance
Center; Quinn
et al., 1998; Raywid, 1994).
They provide anger and impulse control training, psychological counseling,
effective academic and remedial instruction, and vocational training as
appropriate. Such programs also make provisions for active family involvement.
Moreover, they offer guidance and staff support when the child returns to his or
her regular school (Garrison, 1989).

Schoolwide strategies create a foundation that is
more responsive to children in general--one that makes interventions for individual
children more effective and efficient.

Effective and safe schools are places where there
is strong leadership, caring faculty, parent and community
involvement--including law enforcement officials--and student participation in
the design of programs and policies (Centers
for Disease Control & Prevention, 1993; Cornell, 1998). Effective and safe
schools also are places where prevention and intervention programs are based
upon careful assessment of student problems, where community members help set
measurable goals and objectives, where research-based prevention and
intervention approaches are used, and where evaluations are conducted regularly
to ensure that the programs are meeting stated goals (Gottfredson, 1997; National
Association of School Psychologists, 1998). Effective and safe schools are
also places where teachers and staff have access to qualified consultants who
can help them address behavioral and academic barriers to learning (Dwyer & Bernstein, 1998).

Effective schools ensure that the physical
environment of the school is safe, and that schoolwide policies are in place to
support responsible behaviors.

Characteristics of a Safe Physical
Environment

Prevention starts by making sure the school
campus is a safe and caring place. Effective and safe schools communicate a
strong sense of security. Experts suggest that school officials can enhance
physical safety by:

Adjusting scheduling to minimize time in the
hallways or in potentially dangerous locations. Traffic flow patterns can be
modified to limit potential for conflicts or altercations (Nelson, 1996).

Conducting a building safety audit in
consultation with school security personnel and/or law enforcement experts (Cornell, 1998; Crowe, 1990). Effective schools
adhere to federal, state, and local nondiscrimination and public safety
laws, and use guidelines set by the state department of education (Knapp,
1996).

Arranging supervision at critical times (for
example, in hallways between classes) and having a plan to deploy
supervisory staff to areas where incidents are likely to occur (Astor, 1996;
Nelson, 1996).

Prohibiting students from congregating in
areas where they are likely to engage in rule-breaking or intimidating and
aggressive behaviors (Nelson, 1996).

Having adults visibly present throughout the
school building. This includes encouraging parents to visit the school (Nelson, 1996).

In addition to targeting areas for increased
safety measures, schools also should identify safe areas where staff and
children should go in the event of a crisis.

The physical condition of the school building
also has an impact on student attitude, behavior, and motivation to achieve.
Typically, there tend to be more incidents of fighting and violence in school
buildings that are dirty, too cold or too hot, filled with graffiti, in need of
repair, or unsanitary.

Characteristics of Schoolwide Policies
that Support Responsible Behavior

The opportunities for inappropriate behaviors
that precipitate violence are greater in a disorderly and undisciplined school
climate. A growing number of schools are discovering that the most effective way
to reduce suspensions, expulsions, office referrals, and other similar
actions--strategies that do not result in making schools safer--is to emphasize
a proactive approach to discipline (Skiba, Peterson,
& Williams, 1997).

School communities that have undertaken
schoolwide approaches do the following things:

Develop a schoolwide disciplinary policy that
includes a code of conduct, specific rules and consequences that can
accommodate student differences on a case-by-case basis when necessary (Gottfredson,
1997; MacNaughton
& Johns, 1991; Quinn
et al., 1998). (If one already exists, review and modify it if
necessary.) Be sure to include a description of school anti-harassment and
anti-violence policies and due process rights.

Ensure that the cultural values and
educational goals of the community are reflected in the rules. These values
should be expressed in a statement that precedes the schoolwide disciplinary
policy (Williams, 1989).

Include school staff, students, and families
in the development, discussion, and implementation of fair rules (Cantor et al.,1997;
Trump, 1998). Provide schoolwide
and classroom support to implement these rules. Strategies that have been
found to support students include class discussions, schoolwide assemblies,
student government, and participation on discipline teams (Gottfredson, 1987; Payne, 1991). In addition, peer
mediation and conflict resolution have been implemented widely in schools to
promote a climate of nonviolence.

Recognizing the warning signs and responding with
comprehensive interventions allows us to help children eliminate negative
behaviors and replace them with positive ones. Active sharing of information and
a quick, effective response by the school community will ensure that the school
is safer and the child is less troubled and can learn.

"Partnerships with local community agencies have
created a safer school and community." Sally Baas, Educator, Coon
Rapids, MN

"Students should feel a sense of responsibility
to inform someone if they're made aware of an individual who may perform a violent act.
They should not feel like they are tattle telling, but more in the sense of saving
someone's life. Students should have a role on the school's violence prevention and
response team because they know what points of student life and school to target." Elsa
Quiroga, Graduate of Mount Eden High School and Student, University of California at
Berkeley

Tips for Parents

Parents can help create safe
schools. Here are some ideas that parents in other communities have tried:

Discuss the school's discipline policy with
your child. Show your support for the rules, and help your child
understand the reasons for them.

Involve your child in setting rules for
appropriate behavior at home.

Talk with your child about the violence he
or she sees-on television, in video games, and possibly in the
neighborhood. Help your child understand the consequences of violence.

Teach your child how to solve problems.
Praise your child when he or she follows through.

Help your child find ways to show anger that
do not involve verbally or physically hurting others. When you get angry,
use it as an opportunity to model these appropriate responses for your
child-and talk about it.

Help your child understand the value of
accepting individual differences.

Note any disturbing behaviors in your child.
For example, frequent angry outbursts, excessive fighting and bullying of
other children, cruelty to animals, fire setting, frequent behavior
problems at school and in the neighborhood, lack of friends, and alcohol
or drug use can be signs of serious problems. Get help for your child.
Talk with a trusted professional in your child's school or in the
community.

Keep lines of communication open with your
child-even when it is tough. Encourage your child always to let you know
where and with whom he or she will be. Get to know your child's friends.

Listen to your child if he or she shares
concerns about friends who may be exhibiting troubling behaviors. Share
this information with a trusted professional, such as the school
psychologist, principal, or teacher.

Be involved in your child's school life by
supporting and reviewing homework, talking with his or her teacher(s), and
attending school functions such as parent conferences, class programs,
open houses, and PTA meetings.

Work with your child's school to make it
more responsive to all students and to all families. Share your ideas
about how the school can encourage family involvement, welcome all
families, and include them in meaningful ways in their children's
education.

Encourage your school to offer before- and
after-school programs.

Volunteer to work with school-based groups
concerned with violence prevention. If none exist, offer to form one.

Find out if there is a violence prevention
group in your community. Offer to participate in the group's activities.

Talk with the parents of your child's
friends. Discuss how you can form a team to ensure your children's safety.

Find out if your employer offers provisions
for parents to participate in school activities.

"Our school system has created a student services
team-including the principal, a special educator, the school psychologist, other
behavioral support personnel, the child development specialist, and others-that meets
weekly to address safety and success for all students. Our teachers and families have easy
access to this team. As part of our plan, we conduct a campus-by-campus risk assessment in
coordination with city, county, and state law enforcement agencies. We provide
interventions for children who are troubled and connect them and their families to
community agencies and mental health services." Lee Patterson,
Assistant Superintendent, Roseberg, OR

Action Steps for Students

There is much students can do to
help create safe schools. Talk to your teachers, parents, and counselor to
find out how you can get involved and do your part to make your school safe.
Here are some ideas that students in other schools have tried:

Listen to your friends if they share
troubling feelings or thoughts. Encourage them to get help from a trusted
adult-such as a school psychologist, counselor, social worker, leader from
the faith community, or other professional. If you are very concerned,
seek help for them. Share your concerns with your parents.

Create, join, or support student
organizations that combat violence, such as "Students Against
Destructive Decisions" and "Young Heroes Program."

Work with local businesses and community
groups to organize youth-oriented activities that help young people think
of ways to prevent school and community violence. Share your ideas for how
these community groups and businesses can support your efforts.

Organize an assembly and invite your school
psychologist, school social worker, and counselor-in addition to student
panelists-to share ideas about how to deal with violence, intimidation,
and bullying.

Participate in violence prevention programs
such as peer mediation and conflict resolution. Employ your new skills in
other settings, such as the home, neighborhood, and community.

Work with your teachers and administrators
to create a safe process for reporting threats, intimidation, weapon
possession, drug selling, gang activity, graffiti, and vandalism. Use the
process.

Ask for permission to invite a law
enforcement officer to your school to conduct a safety audit and share
safety tips, such as traveling in groups and avoiding areas known to be
unsafe. Share your ideas with the officer.

Help to develop and participate in
activities that promote student understanding of differences and that
respect the rights of all.

Volunteer to be a mentor for younger
students and/or provide tutoring to your peers.

Know your school's code of conduct and model
responsible behavior. Avoid being part of a crowd when fights break out.
Refrain from teasing, bullying, and intimidating peers.

Be a role model-take personal responsibility
by reacting to anger without physically or verbally harming others.

Seek help from your parents or a trusted
adult--such as a school psychologist, social worker, counselor,
teacher--if you are experiencing intense feelings of anger, fear, anxiety,
or depression.

"Since we developed the high school peer
mediation program, we have seen a decline in physical fights. We are defusing potentially
dangerous situations." Terry Davis, School Psychologist, Natick,
MA

"Everyone is trained to use consistent language.
We remind students to stop and think. Students also know we will always follow through if
they make poor behavioral choices. As a result, we have been able to diffuse violent
situations." Annette Lambeth, Assistant Principal, Chester County, PA

"Appropriate behavior and respect for others are
emphasized at all times. However, despite our best efforts, unfortunate incidents do
occur. When they do, it is our responsibility to provide appropriate support to meet the
needs of every child." Carol S. Parham, Superintendent of Schools, Anne
Arundel County, MD

"The police are a school's greatest community
asset when effectively preventing and responding to school violence. Building a
relationship with law enforcement strengthens the school's ability to ensure safety."
Gil Kerlikowske, former Police Commissioner, Buffalo, NY

"Everyone follows the same discipline plan.
Everyone-including the lunch room workers and custodians-works as a team. There are always
times when children forget the rules. But there is immediate intervention by faculty and
staff, and even other children. The responsibility is on the students." Anna
Allred, Parent, Lakeland, FL

"It is necessary to provide training and support
to staff. We have provided inservices on behavior management systems that are effective in
regular classroom settings. These inservices have been of great benefit. Numerous schools
throughout our district presently use stop and think, conflict resolution, and peer
mediation." Denise Conrad, Teacher, Toledo, OH

A sound violence prevention and response plan
reflects the common and the unique needs of educators, students, families, and
the greater community. The plan outlines how all individuals in the school
community--administrators, teachers, parents, students, bus drivers, support
staff--will be prepared to spot the behavioral and emotional signs that indicate
a child is troubled, and what they will need to do. The plan also details how
school and community resources can be used to create safe environments and to
manage responses to acute threats and incidents of violence (Cornell, 1998; Poland, 1994).

An effective written plan includes:

Descriptions of the early warning signs of
potentially violent behavior and procedures for identifying children who
exhibit these signs.

Descriptions of effective prevention practices
the school community has undertaken to build a foundation that is responsive
to all children and enhances the effectiveness of interventions.

Descriptions of intervention strategies the
school community can use to help troubled children. These include early
interventions for students who are at risk of behavioral problems, and more
intensive, individualized interventions and resources for students with
severe behavioral problems or mental health needs.

A crisis intervention plan that includes
immediate responses for imminent warning signs and violent behavior, as well
as a contingency plan to be used in the aftermath of a tragedy.

The plan must be consistent with federal, state,
and local laws. It also should have the support of families and the local school
board.

Recommendations in this guide will prove most
meaningful when the entire school community is involved in developing and
implementing the plan (Colvin, Sugai,
& Kameenui, 1993; Cornell, 1998).
In addition, everyone should be provided with relevant training and support on a
regular basis (Riley, 1996).
Finally, there should be a clearly delineated mechanism for monitoring and
assessing violence prevention efforts.

It can be helpful to establish a school-based
team to oversee the preparation and implementation of the prevention and
response plan. This does not need to be a new team; however, a designated core
group should be entrusted with this important responsibility (Poland, 1994; Trump, 1998).

The core team should ensure that every member of
the greater school community accepts and adopts the violence prevention and
response plan (Poland, 1994; Trump, 1998). This buy-in is essential if
all members of the school community are expected to feel comfortable sharing
concerns about children who appear troubled. Too often, caring individuals
remain silent because they have no way to express their concerns.

Typically, the core team includes the building
administrator, general and special education teachers, parent(s), and a pupil
support services representative (a school psychologist, social worker, or
counselor), school resource officer, and a safe and drug-free schools program
coordinator. If no school psychologist or mental health professional is
available to the staff, involve someone from an outside mental health agency.
Other individuals may be added to the team depending on the task. For example,
when undertaking schoolwide prevention planning, the team might be expanded to
include students, representatives of community agencies and organizations, the
school nurse, school board members, and support staff (secretaries, bus drivers,
and custodians). Similarly, crisis response planning can be enhanced with the
presence of a central office administrator, security officer, and youth officer
or community police team member.

The core team also should coordinate with any
school advisory boards already in place. For example, most effective schools
have developed an advisory board of parents and community leaders that meets
regularly with school administrators. While these advisory groups generally
offer advice and support, that role can be expanded to bringing resources
related to violence prevention and intervention into the school.

Consider involving a variety of community leaders
and parents when building the violence prevention and response team:

Parent group leaders, such as PTA officers.

Law enforcement personnel.

Attorneys, judges, and probation officers.

Clergy and other representatives of the faith
community.

Media representatives.

Violence prevention group representatives.

Mental health and child welfare personnel.

Physicians and nurses.

Family agency and family resource center
staff.

Business leaders.

Recreation, cultural, and arts organizations
staff.

Youth workers and volunteers.

Local officials, including school board
members and representatives from special commissions.

Interest group representatives and grass roots
community organization members.

College or university faculty.

Members of local advisory boards.

Other influential community members.

The school board should authorize and support the
formation of and the tasks undertaken by the violence prevention and response
team.

While we cannot prevent all violence from
occurring, we can do much to reduce the likelihood of its occurrence. Through
thoughtful planning and the establishment of a school violence prevention and
response team, we can avert many crises and be prepared when they do happen.

"We need to give attention to the segment of the
population that includes bus drivers, secretaries, and cafeteria workers. They are a very
important yet often overlooked group of people who can provide support to children." Betty
Stockton, School Psychologist, Jonesboro, AR

Action Planning Checklist

Prevention-Intervention-Crisis
Response

What To Look For--Key
Characteristics of Responsive and Safe Schools

Does my school have characteristics that:

__ Are responsive to all children?

What To Look For--Early Warning
Signs of Violence

Has my school taken steps to ensure that all
staff, students, and families:

__ Understand the principles underlying the
identification of early warning signs?
__ Know how to identify and respond to imminent warning signs?
__ Are able to identify early warning signs?

What To Do--Intervention: Getting
Help for Troubled Children

Does my school:

__ Understand the principles underlying
intervention?
__ Make early intervention available for students at risk of behavioral
problems?
__ Provide individualized, intensive interventions for students with severe
behavioral problems?
__ Have schoolwide preventive strategies in place that support early
intervention?

What To Do--Crisis Response

Does my school:

__ Understand the principles underlying
crisis response?
__ Have a procedure for intervening during a crisis to ensure safety?
__ Know how to respond in the aftermath of tragedy?

Violence can happen at any time, anywhere.
Effective and safe schools are well prepared for any potential crisis or violent
act.
Crisis response is an important component of a violence prevention and response
plan. Two components that should be addressed in that plan are:

Intervening during a crisis to ensure safety.

Responding in the aftermath of tragedy.

In addition to establishing a contingency plan,
effective schools provide adequate preparation for their core violence
prevention and response team. The team not only plans what to do when violence
strikes, but it also ensures that staff and students know how to behave.
Students and staff feel secure because there is a well-conceived plan and
everyone understands what to do or whom to ask for instructions.

As with other interventions, crisis intervention
planning is built on a foundation that is safe and responsive to children.
Crisis planning should include:

Training for teachers and staff in a range of
skills-from dealing with escalating classroom situations to responding to a
serious crisis (Pitcher & Poland, 1992).

Reference to district or state procedures.
Many states now have recommended crisis intervention manuals available to
their local education agencies and schools.

Involvement of community agencies, including
police, fire, and rescue, as well as hospital, health, social welfare, and
mental health services. The faith community, juvenile justice, and related
family support systems also have been successfully included in such team
plans (Poland & Pitcher, 1990).

Provision for the core team to meet regularly
to identify potentially troubled or violent students and situations that may
be dangerous (Garfinkel
et al., 1988).

Effective school communities also have made a
point to find out about federal, state, and local resources that are available
to help during and after a crisis, and to secure their support and involvement
before a crisis occurs (Garfinkel
et al., 1988; Poland, 1994; Poland & Pitcher, 1990).

Weapons used in or around schools, bomb threats
or explosions, and fights, as well as natural disasters, accidents, and suicides
call for immediate, planned action, and long-term, post-crisis intervention.
Planning for such contingencies reduces chaos and trauma (Pitcher & Poland, 1992).
Thus, the crisis response part of the plan also must include contingency
provisions. Such provisions may include:

Evacuation procedures and other procedures to
protect students and staff from harm. It is critical that schools identify
safe areas where students and staff should go in a crisis. It also is
important that schools practice having staff and students evacuate the
premises in an orderly manner (Poland, 1994).

A process for securing immediate external
support from law enforcement officials and other relevant community
agencies.

All provisions and procedures should be monitored
and reviewed regularly by the core team.

Just as staff should understand and practice fire
drill procedures routinely, they should practice responding to the presence of
firearms and other weapons, severe threats of violence, hostage situations, and
other acts of terror. School communities can provide staff and students with
such practice in the following ways:

Provide inservice training for all faculty and
staff to explain the plan and exactly what to do in a crisis. Where
appropriate, include community police, youth workers, and other community
members.

Produce a written manual or small pamphlet or
flip chart to remind teachers and staff of their duties.

Practice responding to the imminent warning
signs of violence. Make sure all adults in the building have an
understanding of what they might do to prevent violence (e.g., being
observant, knowing when to get help, and modeling good problem solving,
anger management, and/or conflict resolution skills) and how they can safely
support each other.

Members of the crisis team should understand
natural stress reactions. They also should be familiar with how different
individuals might respond to death and loss, including developmental
considerations, religious beliefs, and cultural values (Lamb
& Dunne-Maxim, 1987).

Effective schools ensure a coordinated community
response. Professionals both within the school district and within the greater
community should be involved to assist individuals who are at risk for severe
stress reactions.

Schools that have experienced tragedy have
included the following provisions in their response plans:

Help parents understand children's reactions to
violence. In the aftermath of tragedy, children may experience
unrealistic fears of the future, have difficulty sleeping, become physically
ill, and be easily distracted-to name a few of the common symptoms (Pynoos,
Frederick, & Nader, 1987; Terr, 1985).

Help teachers and other staff deal with their
reactions to the crisis. Debriefing and grief counseling is just
as important for adults as it is for students.

Help students and faculty adjust after the crisis. Provide
both short-term and long-term mental health counseling following a crisis.

Help victims and family members of victims re-enter
the school environment. Often, school friends need guidance in how
to act. The school community should work with students and parents to design
a plan that makes it easier for victims and their classmates to adjust.

Help students and teachers address the return of a
previously removed student to the school community. Whether the
student is returning from a juvenile detention facility or a mental health
facility, schools need to coordinate with staff from that facility to
explore how to make the transition as uneventful as possible (Walker, 1995).

"Early intervention and quick response from our
school district team resulted in no one getting hurt." Pamela Cain,
Superintendent, Wirt County, WV

Crisis Procedure Checklist

A crisis plan must address many
complex contingencies. There should be a step-by-step procedure to use when a
crisis occurs. An example follows:

__ Assess life/safety issues immediately.
__ Provide immediate emergency medical care.
__ Call 911 and notify police/rescue first. Call the superintendent second.
__ Convene the crisis team to assess the situation and implement the crisis
response procedures.
__ Evaluate available and needed resources.
__ Alert school staff to the situation.
__ Activate the crisis communication procedure and system of verification.
__ Secure all areas.
__ Implement evacuation and other procedures to protect students and staff
from harm. Avoid dismissing students to unknown care.
__ Adjust the bell schedule to ensure safety during the crisis.
__ Alert persons in charge of various information systems to prevent confusion
and misinformation. Notify parents.
__ Contact appropriate community agencies and the school district's public
information office, if appropriate.
__ Implement post-crisis procedures.

Crises involving sudden violence in schools are
traumatic in large measure because they are rare and unexpected. Everyone is
touched in some way. In the wake of such a crisis, members of the school
community are asked--and ask themselves--what could have been done to prevent
it.

We know from the research that schools can meet
the challenge of reducing violence. The school community can be supported
through:

School board policies that address both
prevention and intervention for troubled children and youth.

Schoolwide violence prevention and response
plans that include the entire school community in their development and
implementation.

Training in recognizing the early warning
signs of potential violent behavior.

Procedures that encourage staff, parents, and
students to share their concerns about children who exhibit early warning
signs.

Procedures for responding quickly to concerns
about troubled children.

Adequate support in getting help for troubled
children.

Everyone who cares about children cares about
ending violence. It is time to break the silence that too often characterizes
even the most well-meaning school communities. Research and expert-based
information is available for school communities to use in developing and
strengthening programs that can prevent crises.

School safety is everyone's job. Teachers,
administrators, parents, community members, and students all must commit to
meeting the challenge of getting help for children who show signs of being
troubled.

"Coordinated school efforts can help. But the
solution does not just rest in the schools. Together we must develop solutions that are
community-wide and coordinated, that include schools, families, courts, law enforcement,
community agencies, representatives of the faith community, business, and the broader
community." Wilmer Cody, Kentucky Commissioner of Education

This guide synthesizes an extensive knowledge
base on violence and violence prevention. It includes research from a variety of
disciplines, as well as the experience and effective practices of teachers,
school psychologists, counselors, social workers, family members, youth workers,
and youth.

Much of the research found in this guide was
funded by federal offices whose senior staff were involved in supporting and
reviewing this document. They include:

Office of Special Education Programs, Office
of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of
Education.

Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, Office of
Elementary and Secondary Education, U.S. Department of Education.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention and National Institute for Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

National Institute of Mental Health and Center
for Mental Health Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The guide was produced by the Center for
Effective Collaboration and Practice of the American Institutes for Research in
collaboration with the National Association of School Psychologists. The project
was led by:

Kevin P. Dwyer, Principal
Investigator, National Association of School Psychologists

David Osher, Project
Director, American Institutes for Research

The guide was developed in collaboration with Cynthia
Warger of Warger, Eavy and Associates.

Each assertion in the guide is backed by
empirical data and/or expert consensus. Research references can be found on the
project's Web site at http://cecp.air.org/guide.

The guide was conceptualized by an
interdisciplinary expert panel. The writing team, led by Kevin P. Dwyer,
included members of the expert panel-George Bear, Norris Haynes, Paul Kingery,
Howard Knoff, Peter Sheras, Russell Skiba, Leslie Skinner, and Betty Stockton-in
addition to David Osher and Cynthia Warger. The writing team drew upon the other
expert panelists for guidance and for resources.

The first draft was reviewed for accuracy by the
entire expert panel as well as staff from the federal agencies. The federal
reviewers are listed on the project's Web site at http://cecp.air.org/guide.

The second draft was reviewed by family members,
teachers, principals, and youth, in addition to leaders of major national
associations. The expert panel reviewed the document again at this stage. These
reviewers are also listed on the project's Web site at http://cecp.air.org/guide.

Also On The Web

An annotated version of the guide with
references to support each assertion as well as references to
practical materials that can be employed to implement the recommendations
it contains.

Additional resources that can be employed to
implement the recommendations contained in the guide.

Links to other Web sites that provide useful
and usable information.

English and Spanish versions of the guide
that can be downloaded for dissemination.

Expert Panel Members

The expert panel included national
experts from a variety of disciplines, as well as principals, teachers, pupil
personnel staff, families, and youth:

Dwyer, K. P., (1998). Disciplining students
with disabilities. In National Association of School Psychologists, Behavioral
interventions: Creating a safe environment in schools, (pp.
18-21). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists.

Epstein, M. H., Quinn, K., &
Cumblad, C. (1997). Needs assessment of services for children and youth
with emotional or behavioral disorders: The perceptions of parents and service
providers. In C. Liberton, K. Kutash, and R. Friedman (Eds)., The 7th
Annual Research Conference Proceedings, A System of Care for Children's Mental
Health: Expanding the Research Base, (pp. 85-93). Tampa, FL:
University of South Florida, The Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health
Institute, Research and Training Center for Children's Mental Health.

Horner, R. H., Diemer, S. M.,
& Brazeau, K. C. (1992). Educational support for students with severe
problem behaviors in Oregon: A descriptive analysis from the 1987-1988 school
year. The Journal
of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 17, 154-169.

Keenan, S. M.
(1997). Program elements that support teachers and students with learning
behavior problems. In P. Zionts (Ed.), Inclusion strategies for students with learning and
behavior problems: Perspectives, experiences, and best practices. Austin,
TX: ProEd.

Levine, D. U. & Lezotte, L. W.,
(1990).Unusually effective schools: A review and analysis of research and practice.
The National Center for Effective Schools Research and Development, University
of Wisconsin. Madison, WI: Board of Regents of University of Wisconsin System.

Osher, D.
(1996).Working with students who are behaviorally challenging.
Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, American
Institutes for Research.

Osher, D. & Hanley, T. V.(forthcoming).
Implementing the SED national agenda: Promising programs and policies for children and
youth with emotional and behavioral problems. Washington, DC: Center for
Effective Collaboration and Practice, American Institutes for Research.

Osher,
D. & Hanley, T. V.(1996). Implications of the National Agenda to Improve
Results for Children and Youth with or at Risk of Serious Emotional Disturbance. Special
services in the schools, 10, 7-36.

Osher,
D. and Osher, T. (1996). The National Agenda for Children and Youth with SED. In
M. Nelson, R. Rutherford, and B. Wolford, Comprehensive
Collaborative Systems that Work for Troubled Youth: A National Agenda (pp.
149-164). Richmond, KY: National Coalition for Juvenile Justice Services.

Reichle, J.
(1990). National working conference on positive approaches to the management of excess
behavior: Final report and recommendations. Minneapolis, MN: Institute on
Community Integration, University of Minnesota.

Reid, J. B.
(1993). Prevention of conduct disorder before and after school entry: Relating
interventions to developmental findings. Development and Psychopathology, 5,
243-262.

Tolan,
P., & Guerra, N. (1994). What works in reducing adolescent violence: An
empirical review of the field. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Boulder,
Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.

U.S. Department of Education. (1994). National
agenda for achieving better results for children and youth with serious emotional
disturbance. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education, U.S. Department of
Education.

Webster-Stratton, C. (1993).
Strategies for helping early school-aged children with oppositional defiant and
conduct disorders: The importance of home-school partnerships. School Psychology Review, 22,
437-457.