The lives, roles, and rights of women in Chile have gone through many changes over time. Chilean women's societal roles have historically been impacted by traditional gender roles and a patriarchal culture, but throughout the twentieth century, women increasingly involved themselves in politics and protest, resulting in provisions to the constitution to uphold equality between men and women and prohibit sex discrimination.

Women's educational attainment, workforce participation, and rights have improved, especially since Chile became a democracy again in 1990. Chile legalized divorce in 2004 and is also one of the few countries to have elected a female president.[3] However, Chilean women still face many economic and political challenges, including income disparity, high rates of domestic violence, and lingering gender roles.

María de la Cruz, (1912–1995), Chilean political activist for women's suffrage, journalist, writer, and political commentator. In 1953, she became the first woman ever elected to the Chilean Senate

Women were granted the right to vote in 1931 and 1949 during Chile's presidential era.[4][5] Also during the era, thousands of women protested against socialistpresidentSalvador Allende in the March of the Empty Pots and Pans.[6] While under Augusto Pinochet's authoritarian regime, women also participated in las protestas, protests against Allende's plebiscite in which women voted "no."[4] During Chile's time under dictator Pinochet, the state of women's legal rights fell behind most of Latin America, even though Chile had one of the strongest economies in South America.[7] Chile returned to democracy in 1990, leading to changes in women's lives and roles within society.[8] Since the return to democracy, Chile's government has invested more political and economic resources to expand social welfare programs than before.[9] The Concertación political party has been in power since the end of Pinochet's dictatorship, and from 2006 to 2010, Michelle Bachelet of the party served as the first female President of Chile.[10][11]

Chile has been described as one of the most socially conservative countries of Latin America.[12][13][14]
In comparison to the United States, Chile did not have so many feminists among its evolution of women's intrusion to the political sphere. Chilean women esteemed Catholicism as their rites of passage, which initiated women's movements in opposition to the liberal political party's eruption in the Chilean government. The traditional domesticated setting that women were accustomed to was used as a patriarchal reasoning for women's restriction of women's votes. However, Chileans religious convictions as devout Catholics initiated their desire to vote against the adamant anticlerical liberal party. In 1875, Domitila Silva Y Lepe, the widow of a former provincial governor, read the requirements deeming "all adult Chileans the right to vote", and was the first woman to vote.[15] Other elitist Chilean women followed her bold lead, which resulted in the anticlerical liberal party of congress to pass a law denying women the right to vote. Despite this set back, Ms. Lepe and other elite women expressed their religious standings to the conservative party. The conservative party were favorable of the women because they knew their support would influence the conservative party's domination in politics. In 1912 Social Catholicism began to erupt.[15] Social Catholicism- upper class women's organization of working class women-was led by Amalia Errazuriz de Subercaseaux. She introduced the Liga de Damas Chilenas (League of Chilean Ladies) amongst 450 other upper-middle class women with intentions to "uphold and defend the interests of those women who worked for a living without attacking the principles of order and authority". Following this organization, many other elite women began socially constructed women's institutions. Amanda Labarca was also an elitist, but disagreed with the privileged women's subjection of working class women and founded the ladies reading club.[15] She believed women should be educated, regardless of their socioeconomic status to have a more influentially productive role in society.

Traditional gender role beliefs are prevalent in Chilean society, specifically the ideas that women should focus on motherhood and be submissive to men.[16] A 2010 study by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) reported that 62 percent of Chileans are opposed to full gender equality. Many of those surveyed expressed the belief that women should limit themselves to the traditional roles of mother and wife.[17] However, the 2012 World Development Report states that male attitudes toward gender equality are that "men do not lose out when women's rights are promoted."[18]

Catholicism is embodied wholly among Chilean family identities. Virgin Mary is the idolized example of motherhood. Her pure and sacrificial acts are to be embodied by Chilean mothers.[19] Traditionally, women are supposed to be the connoisseurs of endurance like the Virgin Mary. The biblical significance is portrayed through the traditional government of Chile. In the early 1900s, the gendered examples among Catholicism were embodied by the patriarchal government and suffrage of women. Women were domesticated and confined to the home. In the late 1940s women's issues were embraced by First Lady Rosa Markman de Gonzalez Videla in acknowledgement of Mothers centers, women gaining access to resources to fulfill their role as housewives, encouraged women as consumers to fight against high living costs, and to raise their interest in partaking in other avenues of public life within the country, such as work and political participation.[20] The First Lady's efforts to advocate the evolution of women reform led to the modern techniques of the women reform. In the 1960s, campaigns for the Christian democrat, Frei, emphasized women and women's issues. Voting had just become mandatory for all Chileans and was the first time in history registration for female voters increased from thirty-five percent to seventy-five percent. The Christian democratic change of government opened women's access to birth control. However, the government's emphasis on the modernization of women institutions and underlying issues of gender hierarchy, women in poverty were neglected. Restrictions within the women's institutions, mother centers, restricted mothers under 18. To further structurally cripple Chilean women, first lady Maria Ruiz Tagle de Frei supervised "proper functioning" of feminist organizations.[20] The Central Organization for Mothers (CEMA) was created as a formal structure to advise the underprivileged Chilean mothers.[20]Carmen Gloria Aguayo revolutionized the mother's centers during the period of conflict between change and tradition during the Christian democrat campaign.[20] Ms. Aguayo also headed the party's women's departments amongst forty-eight men and reflected the political direction of the initiatives: policies to protect the family- defending women's rights to work, to maternity leave, to equitable pay and occupation, a new opportunities for training and learning in the promised department for female labor studies. Because familial welfare was deemed important within the Chilean society, mothers have served as a political representation to have a voice in amongst the government.

Until recently, women lost their right to manage their own assets once they were married[23] and husbands received all of the wealth,[4] but that law has since changed and women can now administer their own assets.[23] A couple can also sign a legal agreement before marriage so that all assets continue to be owned by the one who brought them into the marriage.[23]

The Chilean Civil Code previously mandated that wives had to live with and be faithful and obedient to their husbands, but it is no longer in the law.[4] A married woman cannot be head of the household or head of the family in the same way as a man; however, married women are not required by law to obey their husbands.[24]

Chile legalized divorce in 2004, overturning an 1884 legal code.[25] The law that legalizes divorce is the New Civil Marriage Law which was first introduced as a bill in 1995. There had been previous divorce bills before, but this one managed to secure enough conservative and liberal support to pass.[7]

With divorce now being legal, four marital statuses exist within Chile: married, separated, divorced, and widow (er). Only the divorced and widow (er) statuses allow a new marriage.[26] Before the legalization of divorce, the only way to leave a marriage was to obtain a civil annulment which would only be granted by telling the civil registrar that the spouse had lied in some way concerning the marriage license, thereby voiding the marriage contract.[7]

In marriage, there are three types of assets: those of the husband, those of the wife, and the common assets that pertain to both. Land and houses in a marriage continue to be the property of the person who brought them to the marriage, but in order to sell them, both the husband and wife must sign.[23] In the case of divorce, both the man and woman are entitled to ownership of the marital home.[24] In the case of the death of a spouse, the surviving spouse, regardless of gender, has equal inheritance rights to the marital home.[24] If there is no will when the husband dies, the wife is given an equal category as the children for inheritance.[23] Before marriage, a couple can sign a legal document separating all assets so that the woman and man each administer her or his own; in this case, the husband cannot control his wife's assets.[23]

If women work outside the home independent of their husbands, acquire personal assets, and can prove that they came by these assets through their independent work, then these working women can accumulate these assets as their own, unable to be touched by husbands.[23]

Sons and daughters have equal inheritance rights to moveable and immovable property from their parents.[24] Unmarried men and women have equal ownership rights to moveable and immoveable property.[24]

In rural Chile, inheritance is the principle way in which land is acquired by both men and women, whether the land has titles or not.[23] Sometimes women cannot claim their inheritance to land without titles because the cost of legal documents is too high.[23]

Women were granted the right to vote in municipal elections in 1931[4] and obtained the right to vote in national elections on January 8, 1949, resulting in their ability to vote under the same equal conditions as men and increasing women's participation in politics.[5]

Both Chilean men and women qualify for a family allowance if they have dependent children under the age of eighteen (or twenty-four if in school). There are differences in entitlement requirements for the spouse-related family allowance since a man qualifies for a family allowance if he has a dependent wife, but a woman only qualifies for a family allowance if her husband is disabled.[9] Until a reform of paternity laws in 1998, children born outside marriage had less right to parental financial support and inheritance than children born within marriage.[7] A bill was passed in 2007 to give mothers direct access to child support payments.[7]

Working mothers of a certain low socioeconomic status and with proof of an employment contract and working hours receive subsidized child care through legislation passed in 1994. This system excludes: women whose household income is too high, unemployed women, women working in the informal sector, and women whose jobs are not by contract.[9] Chile offers paid maternity leave for women working in the formal sector, paying women 100 percent of their salary during the leave, and also allows women a one-hour feeding break each day until the child has reached the age of two.[9] Female workers unattached to the formal market and without an employment contract do not receive paid maternity leave.[9]

Postnatal maternity leave is now six months instead of the previous three.[27]

Women's literacy rates almost match those of men, with 97.4 percent of women being able to read, versus 97.6 percent of men (in 2015).[28] Chilean law mandates compulsory primary and secondary education for children, boys and girls.[24] In 2007, the World Bank declared that enrollment levels for boys and girls in primary and secondary education were at a "virtual parity."[22] Women's education in Chile is generally higher than neighboring countries.[22] In higher education, as of 2002, women had similar attendance rates as men, with women at 47.5 percent attendance, versus men at 52.5 percent.[29]

Chile has one of the lowest rate of female employment in all of Latin America, but women's workforce participation has steadily increased over the years.[30] As of 2016, the employment rate of women was 52%.[1] Despite the fact that 47.5% of students in college are women, many still choose to be homemakers rather than join the workforce.[8] A 2012 World Bank study showed that the expansion of public day care had no effect on female labor force participation.[18] The low number of women entering the labor force causes Chile to rank low amongst upper-middle class countries regarding women in the work force despite higher educational training.[22] In Chile, poorer women make up a smaller share of the workforce.[22] A 2004 study showed that 81.4 percent of women worked in the service sector.[29]

Women have increasingly moved out of unpaid domestic work and into the paid formal and informal labor markets.[9] Many female workers are in Chile's informal sector because national competition for jobs has increased the number of low-skill jobs.[9] In 1998, 44.8 percent of working-aged women in Chile worked in the informal sector while only 32.9 percent of men worked informally.[9]

For jobs that do not require higher education, women make 20 percent less money on average than men. For jobs requiring a university degree, the gap in pay increases to 40 percent. Women without a university degree make 83 percent of the income men make without a university degree.[29] The quadrennial 2004 National Socio-Economic Survey and World Bank report in 2007 say that the overall gender income gap stands at 33 percent (since women make 67 percent of men's salaries).[22]

Women were not involved in politics until 1934, when they could first use their municipal vote.[6] The municipal, and later national, vote caused women to involve themselves in politics more than before, pressuring the government and political parties.[4] With women's increased political importance, many parties established women's sections for support and tried to pursue women's votes, though it would take years for political parties to truly view women as important to politics.[6]

Chilean feminists gather in Santiago during Pinochet's regime

Gladys Marín (1941–2005), Chilean activist and political figure. She was Secretary-General of the Communist Party of Chile (PCCh) (1994–2002) and then president of the PCCh until her death

On December 1, 1971 thousands of women who were against the newly elected Salvador Allende marched through Santiago to protest government policies and Fidel Castro's visiting of Chile.[6] This march, known as the March of the Empty Pots and Pans, brought together many conservative and some liberal women as a force in Chilean politics,[6] and in 1977 Augusto Pinochet decreed the day of the march to be National Women's Day.[31] Women also made their voices heard in the late 1980s when 52 percent of the national electorate was female, and 51.2 percent of women voted "no" in Augusto Pinochet's plebiscite.[4] The women in these popular protests are considered to have played a central role in increasing national concern with the history of women's political activism.[32]

As of 2006, Chile was lower than eight other Latin American countries in regards to women in political positions.[10] With only a few women legislators, sustaining attention to the topic of women's rights a difficult task, especially in the Senate, where there are fewer female representatives than in the Chamber of Deputies.[7] Unlike neighboring Argentina, where 41.6 percent of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies is made up of women, only 15 percent of Chile's lower house is made up of female representatives.[10] Chile has no government mandate requiring that women must make up a certain percentage of party candidates.[8] Women's political representation is low but is on the rise in many political parties, and there is growing support for a quota law concerning women's representation.[7] The progressive parties of the Left have greater openness to the participation of women, evident in the Party for Democracy's and Socialist Party's quotas for women's representation as candidates for internal party office.[7]

In 2009, activists demanded that presidential candidates develop reforms that would improve work conditions for women. Reforms included maternity leave, flexible work schedules and job training.[8] Aimed at improving women's work opportunities, former president Michelle Bachelet made it illegal to ask for a job applicants' gender on applications and for employers to demand pregnancy tests be taken by employees in the public sector.[10]

Following these Chilean women, the contemporary phase of feminism was constructed through the social conflict between socialism and feminism.[33] The democratically elected president, Allende, was ousted on September 11, 1973 when a military coup invaded his palace, brutally excising all Popular Unity Government officials and resulting in Allende's debated suicide.[33] This revolution "The Chilean Road to Socialism" abruptly came to an end, revitalizing the foundation of the government. However, the foundation was hastily corrupted by patriarchal values. Prominent feminist sociologist Maria Elena Valenzuela argued, the military state can be interpreted as the quintessential expression of patriarchy: "The Junta, with a very clear sense of its interests, has understood that it must reinforce the traditional family, and the dependent role of women, which is reduced to that of mother.[33] The dictatorship, which institutionalizes social inequality, is founded on inequality in the family." [33] These inequalities began to agitate Chilean women. Women began to formulate groups opposing the patriarchal domination of the political sphere.

Michelle Bachelet was the first female president of Chile, leading the country between 2006 and 2010.[22] During her presidency, Bachelet increased the budget of the National Women's Service (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, SERNAM) and helped the institution gain funding from the United Nations Development Fund for Women.[7] Her administration had an active role in furthering opportunities and policies for and about women, creating or improving child care, pension reform and breastfeeding laws. During her presidency, Bachelet appointed a cabinet that was 50 percent female.[7]

The National Women's Service (SERNAM) has noticed that it is easier to get politicians to support and pass poverty-alleviation programs aimed at poor women than proposals that challenge gender relations.[7] Much of Chile's legislation concerning women's rights has been pushed by SERNAM: Between 1992 and 2010, sixty-four legislative proposals to expand women's legal equality were introduced by SERNAM.[7]

Historically the progressive parties of the Left have drawn more attention to women's rights.[7] Yet many political parties insincerely support women's agenda and the concept of gender equality, instead leaving any action to be taken by SERNAM or nongovernmental organizations.[4]

The National Women's Service is the political institution created in 1991 that crafts executive bills concerning women's rights.[7] Its Spanish name is Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, or SERNAM; it has established a program to aid female heads of households, a program for prevention of violence against women, and a network of information centers that focus on the issues of women's rights.[7] Its presence in Chile is important because it was established by law and is a permanent part of Chile's state structure.[34] As an institution it tends to focus much of its attention on certain segments of women: low-income women heads of households, women seasonal workers, domestic violence prevention, and teen pregnancy prevention.[34]

A common complaint that SERNAM has is that the top appointees are not women linked to the feminist community.[7] The institution also has restrictions when it comes to policy regarding women due to its state ties, as seen in 2000 when SERNAM favored but would not explicitly support the bill to legalize divorce because it was under the leadership of the Christian Democratic party. In 2002 it was finally allowed to support the bill.[7]

Centers for research began to emerge in the later part of the twentieth century, including the Centro de Estudios de la Mujer (The Women's Study Center) and La Morada.[32] The Women's Study Center is a nonprofit organization founded in 1984 and conducts research, trains women, has a consulting program, and tries to increase women's political participation.[35] La Morada is another nonprofit organization that works to expand the rights of women through political involvement, education, culture, and efforts to eradicate violence.[36]

Domestic violence in Chile is a serious issue affecting a large percentage of the population, especially among lower income demographics.[21] The Intrafamily Violence Law passed in 1994 was the first political measure to address violence in the home, but because the law would not pass without being accepted by both sides, the law was weak in the way it addressed victim protection and punishment for abusers.[7] The law was later reformed in 2005.[38] A 2004 SERNAM study reported that 50 percent of married women in Chile had suffered spousal abuse, 34 percent reported having suffered physical violence, and 16 percent reported psychological abuse.[21] According to another study from 2004, 90 percent of low-income women in Chile experience some type of domestic violence.[39] Due to the high prevalence of domestic violence, many Chilean women accept it as normal.[39] The legalization of divorce in 2004 won the approval of women throughout the country, especially those concerned about domestic violence, as women were previously unable to escape abusive relationships due to the divorce laws.[8]

From January to November 2005, 76,000 cases of family violence were reported to the Carabineros; 67,913 were reported by women, 6,404 by men, and approximately 1,000 by children.[21]

Rape, including spousal rape, is a criminal offense. Penalties for rape range from five to 15 years' imprisonment, and the government generally enforces the law.[21] In 2004 the Criminal Code was changed so that the age for statutory rape is 14; previously, the age was 12.[40] The law protects the privacy and safety of the person making the charge. In 2006 from January to November, police received reports of 1,926 cases of rape, compared with 2,451 cases in all of 2005; experts believed that most rape cases go unreported. The Ministry of Justice and the PICH have several offices specifically to provide counseling and assistance in rape cases.[21] A number of NGOs, such as La Morada Corporation for Women, provide counseling for rape victims.[32]

A 2005 law against sexual harassment provides protection and financial compensation to victims and penalizes harassment by employers or co-workers.[21] The law provides severance pay to anyone who resigns due to being a victim of sexual harassment if she/he has worked for the employer for at least one year.[41] During 2005 the Labor Directorate received 244 complaints of sexual harassment,[21] and in 2009 there were 82 complaints were received.[41] The majority of the complaints come from women.[42]

A 2005 study by Corporacion Humana and the University of Chile's Institute of Public Affairs revealed that 87 percent of women surveyed felt that women suffered discrimination. According to the survey, 95 percent believed women faced discrimination in the labor market, 67 percent believed they faced discrimination in politics, 61 percent felt that women were discriminated against by the media, and 54 percent within the family.[21]

Today, younger women are opting out of marriage and having fewer children than their predecessors.[8] The total fertility rate as of 2015 was 1.82 children born/woman.[43]
This is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and also lower than in previous years. A 2002 study reported that urban women averaged 2.1 children per woman, with women living in rural areas having more children, at 2.9. As of the 1990s, both urban and rural women were averaging fewer children than previously. For those women who do have children, after former president Michelle Bachelet's childcare mandates, childcare centers that provide free services are four times more numerous. Nursing mothers also have the legal right to breastfeed during the workday.[8] Women are less likely to seek divorces and marriage annulments.[44]

Women in Chile have long life expectancy, living an average of 80.8 years, about six years longer than men.[8][44]Sex education is rarely taught in schools and is considered "taboo" by many Chilean families. Friends and family usually are the main source of sex education.[16] In 1994, Chile decriminalized adultery.[45]

The HIV/AIDS rate in Chile was estimated in 2012 at 0.4% of adults aged 15–49.[46]
While cases of HIV and AIDS in women have stabilized internationally, Chile has seen a rise in HIV/AIDS infection. Societal beliefs about traditional women's roles as mothers leads to women being less likely to use contraceptives, increasing the opportunity for disease. Chilean women also often feel subordinate to men due to these traditional belief systems, making women less likely to negotiate for the use of condoms. In 2007, 28 percent of people with HIV/AIDS in Chile were women. Numbers of women living with HIV is lower than those with AIDS. A study by Vivo Positivo showed that 85 percent of women living with HIV/AIDS reported that they had little to no education or information about HIV/AIDS until diagnosis.[16]

A 2004 study found that Chilean women with HIV/AIDS were susceptible to coerced sterilization. Fifty-six percent of HIV-positive Chilean women reported being pressured by health-care workers to prevent pregnancy by being sterilized. Of the women who chose to be sterilized, half were forced or persuaded to do so. Women victims of domestic abuse face a higher risk of getting HIV, and in 2004, 56 percent of women who have HIV and 77 percent of women with HIV/AIDS were victims of domestic abuse, sexual abuse, or rape before their diagnosis.[16]

Between 1989 and 2017, Chile had some of the strictest abortion laws in the world, banning the procedure completely.[47] The current law allows abortion if the mother's life in danger, in case of lethal malformations of the fetus, or in cases of rape.[48]

This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(October 2017)

In 1999, Gladys Marín was one of the first women to be a presidential candidate in Chile.[5] The year before, she was the first person in Chile to charge Augusto Pinochet for crimes committed during his dictatorship.[5]

Sara Larraín was the other woman, along with Marín, to be one of the first female presidential candidates in Chile.[5]

1.
Michele Bachelet
–
Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria is a Chilean politician who has been President of Chile since 11 March 2014. She was previously president from 2006 to 2010, becoming the first woman in her country to do so, in December 2013, Bachelet was re-elected president with over 62% of the vote, bettering the 53. 5% she obtained in 2006. She is the first person since 1932 to win the presidency of Chile twice in competitive elections, Bachelet, a physician with studies in military strategy, was Health Minister and Defense Minister under her predecessor, Ricardo Lagos. She is a mother of three and describes herself as an agnostic. Aside from her native Spanish, she speaks, with varying levels of fluency, English, German, Portuguese. She is a member of the Socialist Party of Chile, Bachelet is the second child of archaeologist Ángela Jeria Gômez and Air Force Brigadier General Alberto Bachelet Martínez. He married Lely Johnson, the daughter of an English physician working in Chile and their son, Máximo Jeria Johnson, married Angela Gómez Zamora. Their union produced five children, the fourth of whom is Bachelet’s mother, Bachelet was born in La Cisterna, a middle class suburb of Santiago. She was named after French actress Michèle Morgan, Bachelet spent many of her childhood years traveling around her native Chile, moving with her family from one military base to another. She lived and attended school in Quintero, Cerro Moreno, Antofagasta. In 1962 she moved with her family to the United States and her family lived for almost two years in Bethesda, Maryland, where she attended Western Junior High School and learned to speak English fluently. Returning to Chile in 1964, she graduated high school in 1969 at Liceo Nº1 Javiera Carrera. In 1970, after obtaining a high score in the university admission test, she entered medical school at the University of Chile. She originally intended to study sociology or economics, but was prevailed upon by her father to study medicine instead and she has said she opted for medicine because it was a concrete way of helping people cope with pain and a way to contribute to improve health in Chile. Facing growing food shortages, the government of Salvador Allende placed Bachelets father in charge of the Food Distribution Office, when General Augusto Pinochet suddenly came to power via the 11 September 1973 coup détat, Bachelets father was detained at the Air War Academy under charges of treason. Following months of torture at Santiagos Public Prison, he suffered a cardiac arrest that resulted in his death on 12 March 1974. In 2013 Bachelet revealed she had been interrogated by DINA chief Manuel Contreras there, some days later, Bachelet was transferred to Cuatro Álamos detention center, where she was held until the end of January. Thanks to the assistance of Roberto Kozak, Bachelet was able to go into exile in Australia, of her torture, Bachelet said in 2004 that it was nothing in comparison to what others suffered

2.
President of Chile
–
The President of the Republic of Chile is the head of state and the head of government of the Republic of Chile. The President is responsible for government and state administration. It is also considered as one of the institutions that make up the Historic Constitution of Chile, under the current Constitution, the President is elected to serve for a period of four years, with immediate re-election being prohibited. The shorter period allows for parliamentary and presidential elections to be synchronized, the official seat of the President of Chile is the La Moneda Palace in the capital Santiago. The Constitution of 1980 and its amendments, establishes the requirements for becoming President. Originally the President must be a citizen of the country. The President must also be at least 35 years old, in addition, all the requirements for becoming a Senator apply. The president must meet all the requirements to qualify as a fully Chilean citizen with the right to vote and those are who have reached the age of eighteen years and who have never been sentenced to afflicting punishment. The loss of the right to vote is the main disqualification for the applicant, in the 2005 constitutional reform, some of these requirements were changed, The President now must have the Chilean nationality. The President must also be at least 35 years old, article 26 detail the electoral requirements. The President shall be elected by ballot, with an absolute majority of the votes validly cast. In order to win the election in the first round, the candidates party must receive more than 50 percent of the valid votes leaving out of the count blank. The election shall be held the third Sunday of November of the year immediately before the end of the administration of the President then holding office. Should there be more than two candidates in the election, none of them obtaining more than half of the votes validly cast. The second election, in the manner determined by law, shall be held the fourth Sunday after the first election, then, the candidate with the majority of valid votes in that round is elected president. Under the 1828 constitution, the President served for four years, in 1833, the presidential period was changed to five years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term, limited to two consecutive terms. Then by a reform in 1878, possibility for reelection became disallowed. Under the 1925 constitution, the President served for a six-year term, in the original text of the 1980 constitution, the President served for an eight-year term without the possibility of immediate reelection

3.
Women in government
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Women in government in the modern era are under-represented in most countries worldwide. Even though some progress has made during the last two centuries, and women are increasingly being politically elected to be heads of state and government. As of January 2017, the participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is 23. 3%. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase womens participation in government at all levels, increasing womens representation in the government can empower women and is necessary to achieve gender parity. This notion of womens empowerment is rooted in the capabilities approach. Female representatives not only womens rights, but also advance the rights of children. In national legislatures, there is a trend of women advancing gender. This advocacy has been seen in countries ranging from France, Sweden and the Netherlands, to South Africa, Rwanda, furthermore, a number of studies from both industrialized and developed countries indicate that women in local government tend to advance social issues. As of October 25,2013, the average of women in national assemblies is 21. 5%. At http, //www. quotaproject. org/quotas. cfm Although over 60% of countries have reached at least 10% women in their national legislature, by February 2006, only about 10% of sovereign nations had more than 30% women in parliament. The major English-speaking democracies are placed mostly in the top 40% of the ranked countries, New Zealand ranks at position 27 with women comprising 32. 2% of its parliament. Australia and Canada rank at position 46 out of 189 countries, the United Kingdom is ranked at 58, while the United States ranks 78. It should be noted not all of these lower and/or upper houses in national parliaments are democratically elected, for example. Paxton describes three factors that are the basis for why national level representation has become larger over the past several decades. The second is the factor, representation of women in office being based on a proportionality system. Some voting systems are built so that a party that gains 25% of the votes gains 25% of the seats, in these processes, a political party feels obligated to balance the representation within their votes between genders, increasing womens activity in political standing. Women face numerous obstacles in achieving representation in governance and their participation has been limited by the assumption that womens proper sphere is the private sphere. Whereas the public domain is one of authority and contestation, the private realm is associated with the family

4.
Secondary education
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Secondary education covers two phases on the ISCED scale. Level 2 or junior secondary education is considered the second and final phase of basic education, every country aims to provide basic education, but the systems and terminology remain unique to them. Secondary education typically takes place six years of primary education and is followed by higher education. In most countries it is compulsory for students between the ages 11 and 16, Compulsory education sometimes extends to age 19. In classical and mediaeval times secondary education was provided by the church for the sons of nobility and to boys preparing for universities, as trade required navigational and scientific skills the church reluctantly expanded the curriculum and widened the intake. As late as 1868, secondary schools were organised to satisfy the needs of different social classes with the labouring classes getting 4yrs, the merchant class 5yrs, only then did it become accepted that girls could be sent to school. The rights to an education were codified after 1945, and countries are still working to achieve the goal of mandatory. It is at this education level, particularly in its first cycle. Within a country these can be implemented in different ways, with different age levels, Level 1 and Level 2, that is primary education and lower secondary together form basic education. Though they may be dated they do provide a set of definitions. The educational aim is to complete provision of education, completing the delivery of basic skills. The end of secondary education often coincides with the end of compulsory education in countries where that exists. There are also vocational schools that last only three years. Secondary schools supply students with primary subjects needed for the work environment in Croatia. People who completed secondary school are classified as medium expertise, there are currently around 90 gymnasiums and some 300 vocational schools in Croatia. The public secondary schools are under the jurisdiction of regional government, the two secondary phases are the Gymnasium followed by Eniaio Lykeio or Unified Lyceum. The third phase is the Post-secondary education consisting of public institutions or universities. Due to historic reasons, the Czech school system is almost the same as the German school system, the school system is free and mandatory until age 15

5.
Employment-to-population ratio
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The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development defines the employment rate as the employment-to-population ratio. This is a ratio that measures the proportion of the countrys working age population that is employed. This includes people that have stopped looking for work, the International Labour Organization states that a person is considered employed if they have worked at least 1 hour in gainful employment in the most recent week. The National Bureau Of Economic Research states that the Great Recession ended in June 2009, during 2009 and 2010, however, many areas were still struggling economically, which is the reason the employment-population ratio is still used by both Americans and people around the world. Key terms that explain the use of the follow, Employed persons. Participant rate This represents the proportion of the population that is in the labor force, included in this group are all persons in the civilian noninstitutional population who are neither employed nor unemployed. The ratio is used to evaluate the ability of the economy to create jobs, having a high ratio means that an important proportion of the population in working age is employed, which in general will have positive effects on the GDP per capita. Nevertheless, the ratio does not give an indication of working conditions, number of hours worked per person, therefore, the analysis of the labour market must be done in conjunction with other statistics. This measure comes from dividing the civilian noninstitutionalized population who are employed by the total noninstitutionalized population, in general, a high ratio is considered to be above 70 percent of the working-age population whereas a ratio below 50 percent is considered to be low. The economies with low ratios are generally situated in the Middle East, employment-to-population ratios are typically higher for men than for women. Nevertheless, in the past decades, the ratios tended to fall for men and increase in the case of women, source, OECD. StatExtracts, except as noted Dependency ratio Female labor force in the Muslim world Labor-force participation rate List of countries by employment rate

6.
OECD
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The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1960 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index and are regarded as developed countries, in 1948, the OECD originated as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan. This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing programs for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. The OECDs headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, the OECD is funded by contributions from member states at varying rates. And had a budget of EUR363 million in 2015. It started its operations on 16 April 1948, and originated from the work done by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947 in preparation for the Marshall Plan, since 1949, it was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris, France. After the Marshall Plan ended, the OEEC focused on economic issues, in 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up under the OEEC. By the end of the 1950s, with the job of rebuilding Europe effectively done, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose and this reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members. It would also set to work away on bringing in Japan. Following the 1957 Rome Treaties to launch the European Economic Community, the Convention was signed in December 1960 and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961. It consisted of the European founder countries of the OEEC plus the United States and Canada, the official founding members are, During the next 12 years Japan, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation starting with the establishment of the OECD until its dissolution as a country, the OECD created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre, International Energy Agency, and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. Unlike the organizations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling organisation with an s in its name rather than organization, in 1989, after the Revolutions of 1989, the OECD started to assist countries in Central Europe to prepare market economy reforms. This programme also included an option for these countries. As a result of this, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, in the 1990s, a number of European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but, according to the Cypriot government, in 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become full members of the OECD. Slovenia also applied for membership that same year, in 2005, Malta applied to join the organisation. The EU is lobbying for admission of all EU member states, Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become a member of the organisation through the letter addressed by the Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría

7.
Women's history
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Womens history is the study of the role that women have played in history and the methods required to do so. The main centers of scholarship have been the United States and Britain, History was written mainly by men and about mens activities in the public sphere—war, politics, diplomacy and administration. Women are usually excluded and, when mentioned, are portrayed in sex-stereotypical roles such as wives, mothers, daughters. The study of history is value-laden in regard to what is considered historically worthy, other aspects of this area of study is the differences in womens lives caused by race, economic status, social status, and various other aspects of society. Changes came in the 19th and 20th centuries, for example, Women traditionally ran the household, bore and reared the children, were nurses, mothers, wives, neighbors, friends, and teachers. During periods of war, women were drafted into the market to undertake work that had been traditionally restricted to men. Following the wars, they invariably lost their jobs in industry and had to return to domestic, the history of Scottish women in the late 19th century and early 20th century was not fully developed as a field of study until the 1980s. In addition, most work on women before 1700 has been published since 1980, scholars are also uncovering womens voices in their letters, memoirs, poetry, and court records. In Ireland studies of women, and gender relationships more generally, had been rare before 1990, they now are commonplace with some 3000 books and articles in print. But approaches used by academics in the research of broadly based social histories has been applied to the field of womens history as well. The high level of research and publication in womens and gender history is due to the high interest within French society, in the Ancien Régime in France, few women held any formal power, some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the Enlightenment, the writings of philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau provided a program for reform of the ancien régime. Rousseaus conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology, Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a modern society. Salic law prohibited women from rule, however, the laws for the case of a regency, the queen could ensure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty. Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalised in order to supply the church, girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many local schools where working-class children - both boys and girls - learned to read, the better to know, love. The Enlightenment challenged this model, but no alternative was presented for female education

8.
Legal rights of women in history
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The legal rights of women refers to the social and human rights of women. One of the first womens rights declarations was the Declaration of Sentiments, the dependent position of women in early law is proved by the evidence of most ancient systems. In the Mosaic law, for monetary matters, womens and mens rights were almost exactly equal, a woman was entitled to her own private property, including land, livestock, slaves, and servants. A woman had the right to inherit whatever anyone bequeathed to her as a death gift, a woman could likewise bequeath her belongings to others as a death gift. Upon dying intestate, a womans property would be inherited by her if she had them, her husband if she was married. A woman could sue in court and did not need a male to represent her, in some situations, women actually had more rights than men. For example, captive women had to be ransomed prior to any male captives, when it came to specific religious or sacramental activities, women had fewer opportunities or privileges than men. For example, in monetary or capital cases women could not serve as witnesses, a woman could not serve as a kohen in the Temple. A woman could not serve as queen, the monarch had to be male, a divorce could only be granted by the husband, upon which time she would receive the Ketubah and the return of significant portions of her dowry. In Ancient Egypt, legally, a woman shared the rights and status as a man – at least. An Egyptian woman was entitled to her own property, which could include land, livestock, slaves and servants. She had the right to inherit whatever anyone bequeathed to her and she could divorce her husband, and sue in court. Most notably, a woman could do these legal matters without a male to represent her, however, on the whole, men vastly outnumbered women in most trades, including government administrators, the average woman still centered her time around the home and family. A few women became pharaohs, and women held important positions in government, in ancient Athenian law, women lacked many of the legal rights given to their male counterparts. They were excluded from appearing in law courts or participating in the assembly, historians doubt that this ideal could have been attained except by the richest women, however. Women in Classical Athens did have the right to divorce, though they lost all rights to any children they had by their husband upon divorce, Roman law similar to Athenian law, was created by men in favor of men. Women had no voice, and no public role which only improved after the 1st century to the 6th century BCE. Freeborn women of ancient Rome were citizens had legal privileges and protections that did not extend to non-citizens or slaves, Roman society, however, was patriarchal, and women could not vote, hold public office, or serve in the military

9.
Woman
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A woman is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. The term woman is sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age. Women with typical genetic development are usually capable of giving birth from puberty until menopause, the spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman. In Old English, wīfmann meant female human, whereas wēr meant male human, the medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form woman, while the initial element, which meant female, underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman. It is a misconception that the term woman is etymologically connected to womb. Womb is actually from the Old English word wambe meaning stomach, the symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex. It is a representation of the goddess Venuss hand-mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess. The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper, alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle above an equilateral cross. Womanhood is the period in a life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence. The word woman can be used generally, to any female human or specifically. The word girl originally meant young person of either sex in English, in particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Referring to a female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced. There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman, menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include, Neithhotep, the wife of Narmer, merneith, consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right, merit-Ptah, also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist. Peseshet, a physician in Ancient Egypt, puabi, or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, kugbau, a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as Kubaba

10.
Women and animal advocacy
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Women have played a central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The animal advocacy movement – embracing animal rights, animal welfare, Women are more likely to support animal rights than men.4 million people who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male. Women and animals were considered equally irrational and inferior in the past. She published The Perfect Way in Diet, advocating vegetarianism, and was vocal in her opposition to animal experiments. The affair however continued for years, making a name both for Lind af Hageby and for the society. Australian writer and academic Coral Lansbury writes that the suffragist movement in the United Kingdom became closely linked with the anti-vivisection movement, writing about the Brown Dog affair, she argues that the iconography of vivisection struck a chord with women. In 1944 the Vegan Society, a charity and the oldest vegan society in the world, was founded on 1 November in the UK by Elsie Sally Shrigley. The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, in 1951 the Animal Welfare Institute was founded by Christine Stevens. On November 22,1954, the Humane Society of the United States was founded by Marcia Glaser, Helen Jones, in 1962 the Animal Welfare Board of India was founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale. Brophy wrote, The relationship of homo sapiens to the animals is one of unremitting exploitation. We employ their work, we eat and wear them, to us it seems incredible that the Greek philosophers should have scanned so deeply into right and wrong and yet never noticed the immorality of slavery. Perhaps 3000 years from now it will seem equally incredible that we do not notice the immorality of our own oppression of animals, British political scientist Robert Garner writes that Ruth Harrisons book and Brigid Brophys article led to an explosion of interest in the relationship between humans and nonhumans. They decided to put together a symposium to discuss the theory of animal rights, around the same time, the British writer Richard D. Ryder wrote several letters to The Daily Telegraph criticizing animal experimentation, these letters were seen by Brophy, who put Ryder in touch with the Godlovitches and Harris. Harrison, Brophy, and Ryder subsequently became contributors to the Godlovitches symposium, in 1973 Dr. Shirley McGreal founded the International Primate Protection League in Thailand. In 1980 the English-born British/American animal rights activist Ingrid Newkirk co-founded People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In 1981 Feminists for Animal Rights was founded in California, it became an organization in the following years and was active nationwide for over two decades, but is now defunct. In 1984 Virginia McKenna OBE founded the Born Free Foundation together with her husband Bill Travers OBE, the Born Free Foundation is a dynamic international wildlife charity

11.
Female entrepreneurs
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Female entrepreneurs are said to encompass approximately 1/3 of all entrepreneurs worldwide. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas and business processes. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation. For example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian and they act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise. Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires, for Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur. The ‘norm’ of a healthy economy, in the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration. Before the 20th century, female operated small businesses as a way of supplementing their income, in many cases, they were trying to avoid poverty or were replacing the income from the loss of a spouse. At that time, the ventures that these women undertook were not thought of as entrepreneurial, many of them had to focus on their domestic responsibilities. The term entrepreneur is used to describe individuals who have ideas for products and/or services that turn into a working business. In earlier times, this term was reserved for men, in the 17th century, Dutch colonists who came to what is now known as New York City, operated under a matriarchal society. In this society, many women inherited money and lands, and through this inheritance, one of the most successful women from this time was Margaret Hardenbrook Philipse, who was a merchant, a ship owner, and was involved in the trading of goods. During the mid 18th century, it was popular for women to own certain businesses like brothels, alehouses, taverns, most of these businesses were not perceived with good reputations, because, it was considered shameful for women to be in these positions. Society frowned upon women involved in businesses, because, they detracted from the womens supposed gentle. During the 18th and 19th centuries, more came out from under the oppression of societys limits. Despite the disapproval of society, women such as Rebecca Lukens flourished, in 1825, Lukens took her family business of Iron works, and turned it into a profit-generating steel business. In the 1900s, due to a progressive way of thinking. Although these female entrepreneurs serviced mostly female consumers, they were making great strides

12.
Female education
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Female education is a catch-all term for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education, while the feminist movement certainly promoted the importance of the issues attached to female education the discussion is wide-ranging and by no means narrowly defined. It may include, for example, AIDS education, universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education, for example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelors degrees, 60% of masters degrees, and 50% of doctorates. Education for disabled women has also improved, in 2011, Giusi Spagnolo became the first woman with Down Syndrome to graduate college in Europe. Improving girls educational levels has been demonstrated to have clear impacts on the health and economic future of young women, the infant mortality rate of babies whose mothers have received primary education is half that of children whose mothers are illiterate. In the poorest countries of the world, 50% of girls do not attend secondary school, yet, research shows that every extra year of school for girls increases their lifetime income by 15%. Improving female education, and thus the potential of women, improves the standard of living for their own children. Yet, many barriers to education for girls remain, in some African countries, such as Burkina Faso, girls are unlikely to attend school for such basic reasons as a lack of private latrine facilities for girls. Education increases a level of health and health awareness. It can lead to rates of barrier and chemical contraceptive use. It has been shown, in addition, to increase communication with their partners and their employers. Education and Violence Against Women In Pakistan, a relationship was found between the formal level of education a woman attains and the likelihood of violence against that woman. The researcher used snowball convenient sampling, a method where participants are referred. Ethical and privacy issues made this the most convenient method, an informant played a major role in gathering information that was then cross-checked. The sample of victims of violence was made up of married women from ages 18–60 both from rural and urban communities, the study described different forms of physical violence that are already present and provided an idea of what women go through, even across communities. Education in this study was stressed to be the solution and a necessity in eliminating violence, a discussion of political and social barriers is needed. The relationship is a lot more complicated than it seems, women can be illiterate, immigrant Latina Women are a highly affected group by domestic violence

13.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement

14.
Women in conservatism in the United States
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Women in conservatism in the United States have advocated for social, political, economic, and cultural conservative policies since Anti-suffragism. Leading conservative women such as Phyllis Schlafly have expressed that women should embrace their privileged essential nature, Women first began to oppose suffrage in Massachusetts in 1868. They succeeded in blocking the proposal, and this caused the movement to gain momentum, the National Association Opposed to Women Suffrage was thus formed by Josephine Dodge in 1911 with approximately 350,000 members. This organization mostly consisted of women who were often wives of politicians. These women helped defeat nearly 40 suffrage proposals, and published the Womens Protest in order to voice their agenda nationwide. Dodge and the organization argued that women should stay out of politics in order to be efficient and diligent in work for which her nature. These anti-feminist beliefs are shaped the anti-suffrage crusade. A major source of womens activism was in Southern California in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in Orange County. These women mainly consisted of suburban warriors, or middle class housewives who feared that their Christian nation was under attack. Increasing Cold War tensions and fears of Communism allowed for women to mobilize groups such as the John Birch Society. They eventually backed politician Barry Goldwater and successfully campaigned for him to become the candidate for the Republican Party in 1964. However, Goldwater lost the election to Lyndon Johnson in a landslide. Still, his nomination illustrated the shift from moderation to more hardline stances in many members of the Republican Party and his campaign also showcased the success of conservative grassroots organizations and mobilization. After Goldwaters defeat, grassroots conservatives had to rethink their strategy, thus, conservative women soon turned to Ronald Reagan. He won over the support of the women of Orange County, however, there were some women that opposed him due to his more mainstream views. Cyril Stevenson, a prominent leader of the California Republican Assembly and these attempts failed, nevertheless, as Reagan was elected. However, a lower amount of women than men voted for Reagan when he was eventually elected President of the United States. Reagan gained the support of conservative women by attempting to close this gender gap

15.
Queen regnant
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An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire. A queen regnant possesses and exercises sovereign powers, a queen consort shares her husbands rank and titles, but does not share the sovereignty of her husband. The husband of a queen regnant traditionally does not share his wifes rank, however, the concept of a king consort is not unheard of in contemporary or classical periods. A queen dowager is the widow of a king, a queen mother is a queen dowager who is also the mother of a reigning sovereign. The Byzantine Empress Irene sometimes called herself basileus, emperor, rather than basilissa, empress and Jadwiga of Poland was crowned as Rex Poloniae, King of Poland. Among the Davidic Monarchs of the Kingdom of Judah, there is mentioned a queen regnant, Athaliah. The much later Hasmonean Queen Salome Alexandra was highly popular, accession of a regnant occurs as a nations order of succession permits. The scope of succession may be matrilineal, patrilineal, or both, or, rarely, open to general election when necessary, the right of succession may be open to men and women, or limited to men only or women only. Historically, many realms forbade succession by women or through a line in obedience to the Salic law. No queen regnant ever ruled France, for example, only one woman, Maria Theresa, ruled Austria. As noted in the list below of widely known ruling queens, in the waning days of the 20th century and early days of the 21st, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Luxembourg and the UK amended their acts of succession to absolute primogeniture. In some cases the change does not take effect during the lifetimes of people already in the line of succession at the time the law was passed, in 2011, the 16 Realms of the Commonwealth agreed to remove the rule of male-preference primogeniture. Once the necessary legislation was passed, this means that had Prince William had a daughter first, in China, Wu Zetian became the Chinese empress regnant and established the Zhou Dynasty after dismissing her sons. It should be noted, however, that Empress Wu used the title huangdi and in many European sources, although the Chrysanthemum Throne of Japan is currently barred to women, this has not always been the case, throughout Japanese history there have been eight empresses regnant. Again, the Japanese language uses the term josei tennō for the position which would be empress regnant in English, monarch Order of succession Queen consort Rani Regent Salic law Sultana Monter, William. The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300-1800, studies 30 women who exercised full sovereign authority in Europe

16.
Women's health
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Womens health refers to the health of women, which differs from that of men in many unique ways. Often treated as simply womens reproductive health, many argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women. These differences are further exacerbated in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and experiences, are further disadvantaged. Gender remains an important social determinant of health, since womens health is influenced not just by their biology but also by such as poverty, employment. Womens reproductive and sexual health places a burden on them. Comorbidity from other non reproductive disease such as cardiovascular disease contribute to both the mortality and morbidity of pregnancy, including preeclampsia. In addition infertility from many causes, birth control, unplanned pregnancy, unconsensual sexual activity. While the rates of the causes of death, cardiovascular disease, cancer. Lung cancer has overtaken all other types of cancer as the cause of cancer death in women, followed by breast cancer, colorectal, ovarian, uterine. While smoking is the cause of lung cancer, amongst nonsmoking women the risk of developing cancer is three times greater than amongst nonsmoking men. HPV vaccine together with screening offers the promise of controlling these diseases, other important health issues for women include cardiovascular disease, depression, dementia, osteoporosis and anemia. Womens experience of health and disease differ from those of men, biological differences vary all the way from phenotype to the cellular, and manifest unique risks for the development of ill health. The World Health Organization defines health as a state of physical, mental and social well-being. Womens health is an example of health, the health of a specific defined population. Womens health has been described as a quilt with gaps. The WHO considers that an emphasis on reproductive health has been a major barrier to ensuring access to good quality health care for all women. Conditions that affect men and women, such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, also manifest differently in women. Womens health is of concern due to widespread discrimination against women in the world

17.
Women in journalism
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As journalism became a profession, women were restricted by custom from access to journalism occupations, and faced significant discrimination within the profession. Nevertheless, women operated as editors, reporters, sports analysts and journalists even before the 1890s, the first woman in Denmark who published articles in Danish papers were the writer Charlotte Baden, who occasionally participated in the weekly MorgenPost from 1786 to 1793. In the 1870s, the movement started and published papers of their own, with women editors. In 1912, eight women were members of the reporters union Københavns Journalistforbund, five in the club Journalistforeningen i København and a total of 35 women employed as journalists in Denmark. The first woman in Finland to work as a journalist in Finland under her own name was Adelaïde Ehrnrooth, anne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer has been referred to as one of the most famous early 18th century female journalists in Europe. Her reports of the leading to the Peace of Utrecht were read all over Europe and admired for the distinction with which she reported on scandal. The first female journalist in Norway was Birgithe Kühle, who published the local paper Provincial-Lecture in Bergen between 1794 and 1795. In Sweden, Maria Matras, known as N. Wankijfs Enka, published the paper Ordinarie Stockholmiske Posttijdender in 1690–1695, margareta Momma became the first identified female journalist and chief editor as the editor of the political essaypaper Samtal emellan Argi Skugga och en obekant Fruentimbers Skugga in 1738. Hwad Nytt. between 1773 and 1795, from the 1880s, women became more common in the offices of the press, and when women was admitted to the Swedish Publicists Association in 1885,14 women were inducted as members. The pioneer generation of journalists were generally from the upper class who wished to earn their own income. Women were employed as translators and given the responsibility for the coverage of culture, nor was the struggle of life and competition so sharp, as it has later become. The women pioneers were generally treated with sympathy and interest, even by the men, of the seven biggest newspapers in Stockholm, six had female co-workers prior to 1900, and when Swedish Union of Journalists was founded in 1901, women were included from the start. Women covered World War I and the Russian revolution and several women journalists became famed role models such as Ester Blenda Nordström and Elin Brandell. During World War I, war time rationing made it necessary to cover household interests, in 1939, Elsa Nyblom became vice chairperson of the Publicistklubben. The informal discrimination changed when women started to expand the subjects treated at the womens sections. A noted example of development was Synnöve Bellander, editor of the womens section Hus och hem at Svenska Dagbladet in 1932–59. This development in the womens sections gradually transformed them to sections for family, the 1960s signified a great change. In 1970, Pernilla Tunberger became the first woman to be awarded Stora Journalistpriset and her writing analyzes the relevant events, personalities of key actors and consequences of the military struggles she observed

18.
Women in law enforcement
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Women in law enforcement agencies have typically been outnumbered by men. The first policewoman in Germany was recruited in 1903, the first in the USA appeared in 1910, since that time many law enforcement agencies have sought to reduce discrimination and increase the numbers of women working in this sector. Henriette Arendt was a German Policewoman in 1903 and their trial period was deemed successful and from 1910 onward, policewomen were employed in other Swedish cities. During the First World War a volunteer service was established by Margaret Damer Dawson and they had joined forces after seeing the trouble faced by refugees during the war. These volunteer women were allowed to patrol the streets of London. These Women Police Volunteers were trained and they were intended to assist women during the turmoil of the war, during The First World War The Womens Police Service, led by Margaret Damer Dawson, provided women officers to police the government munitions factories. Some Chief Constables and Watch Committees also choose to employ women police, two of the first were Hull and Southampton in 1915. As the end of the First World War several groups of womens police Voluntary Patrols were in major cities in Great Britain. These well-bred women patrolling the streets to help women and children, the Voluntary Womens Force at Bath, Somerset was created in 1912. Apart from Londons Metropolitan Police commissioning of a report by a female on females in custody in 1907, the Prison Service had involved women many years previously. Matrons had been employed as staff to look after women and children. They were usually the wives of serving police officers, two women in particular sought to point out the lack of a woman Constable presence was wrong. They each had a relative in political high office, one of these women was Edith Tancred. She became a campaigner for the requirement of women police, Peto later decided to take the administrative path within the Constabulary for promotion. Both Tancred and Peto were well placed in society to get their views heard and they were soon joined by three other women campaigners, and around 1911 started unofficial street patrols from an office in Bristol to maintain public morality and decency. In 1914 Peto had joined the National Union of Women Workers, florence Mildred White left her teaching post at the Godolphin School in 1914 to live and work in the newly created Bath office of the group, where Peto had become the Assistant Patrols Organizer. White stayed until May 1918, working under the supervision of Peto, sir Leonard Dunning, Her Majestys Inspector of Constabulary wrote an article in the police magazine in 1918. About two of the six pages of his annual Report concerned the employment of women into police work

19.
Women in the military
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Even though women serving in the military has often been diverse, a very small number of women in history have fought alongside men. In the American Civil War, there were a few women who cross-dressed as men in order to fight, fighting on the battlefront in disguise was not the only way women involved themselves in war. Some also served as nurses and aides, as increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues. More recently, from the beginning of the 1970s, most Western armies have begun to admit women to serve active duty in all of military branches, in 9 countries women are conscripted into military. Thousands of women served as nurses and in support roles in the major armies. The only nation to deploy female combat troops in substantial numbers was Russia, from the outset, female recruits either joined up in disguise or were tacitly accepted by their units. The most prominent were a contingent of front-line light cavalry in a Cossack regiment commanded by a female colonel, in 1917, the Provisional Government raised a number of Womens Battalions, with Bochkareva given an officers commission to command the first unit. They fought well, but failed to provide the value expected of them and were disbanded before the end of the year. In the later Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks employed some women infantry, in the 1918 Finnish Civil War, more than 2,000 women fought in the Womens Red Guards. All the main nations used women in uniform, the great majority performed nursing, clerical or support roles. Over 500,000 had combat roles in anti-aircraft units in Britain and Germany, in 1938, the British took the lead worldwide in establishing uniformed services for women, in addition to the small units of nurses that had long been in operation. In late 1941, Britain began conscripting women, sending most into factory work and some into the military, especially the Auxiliary Territorial Service and it began as a womans auxiliary to the military in 1938, and in 1941 was granted military status. Women had a role in handling anti-aircraft guns against German planes. The daughter of Prime Minister Winston Churchill was there, and he gushed that any general who saved him 40,000 fighting men had gained the equivalent of a victory. By August,1941, women were operating the instruments, they were never allowed to pull the trigger. By 1943,56,000 women were in Anti-Aircraft Command, most in units close to London where there was a risk of getting killed, the first kill came in April 1942. The Third Reich, contrary to belief, had similar roles for women. Women also served in units in the navy, air force

20.
Mother
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A mother is the female parent of a child. Mothers are women who inhabit or perform the role of bearing some relation to their children, thus, dependent on the context, women can be considered mothers by virtue of having given birth, by raising their child, supplying their ovum for fertilisation, or some combination thereof. Such conditions provide a way of delineating the concept of motherhood, women who meet the third and first categories usually fall under the terms birth mother or biological mother, regardless of whether the individual in question goes on to parent their child. Accordingly, a woman who meets only the condition may be considered an adoptive mother. The above concepts defining the role of mother are neither exhaustive nor universal, as any definition of mother may differ based on how social, cultural, and religious roles are defined. The parallel conditions and terms for males, those who are fathers do not, by definition, Mother and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, the modern English word is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr, from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr. Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati, Persian مادر, biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum. Typically a fetus develops from the zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the uterus until the fetus is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and this is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process, the mothers breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infants immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the childs life. Mother can often apply to an other than the biological parent. This is commonly either a mother or a stepmother. The term othermother or other mother is used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the childs primary mother. Adoption, in forms, has been practiced throughout history. Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes, in recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a point of view

21.
Women in piracy
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While piracy was predominantly a male occupation, a minority of pirates were women. On many ships, women were prohibited by the ships contract, because of the resistance to allowing women on board, many female pirates did not identify themselves as such. Anne Bonny, for example, dressed and acted as a man while on Captain Calico Jacks ship and she and Mary Read, another female pirate, are often identified as being unique in this regard. This article contains a list of female pirates who are recognized by historians, during the Golden Age of Piracy, many men had to leave home to find employment or set sail for economic reasons. This left women with the responsibilities of taking on male roles. The need for women to fill these roles led them to be granted rights that had historically been exclusive to men, Women were allowed to trade, own ships, and work as retailers. Often they were innkeepers or ran alehouses, in some seaside towns, laws were even written to allow widows to keep their husbands responsibilities and property. This was important to local economies, as alehouses and other establishments were centers of commerce. As heads of these establishments, women had an amount of freedom in business. At times, female business owners would even hide their clients when authorities came looking to arrest them for piracy, some women chose to marry pirates. These men were very wealthy, but their wives tended not to gain wealth as a result of their marriages, as it was difficult for pirates to send home wages. These womens houses and establishments were often used as havens for pirates. Women sometimes became pirates themselves, though they tended to have to disguise themselves as men in order to do so, Pirates did not allow women onto their ships very often. Many women of the time were unable to perform the demanding tasks required of the crew. Additionally, women were regarded as bad luck among pirates. It was feared that the members of the crew would argue. On many ships, women were prohibited by the ships contract, because of the resistance to allowing women on board, many female pirates did not identify themselves as such. Anne Bonny, for example, dressed and acted as a man while on Captain Calico Jacks ship and she and Mary Read, another female pirate, are often identified as being unique in this regard

22.
Reproductive rights
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Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion, Reproductive rights began to develop as a subset of human rights at the United Nations 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. States, though, have been slow in incorporating these rights in internationally legally binding instruments, issues related to reproductive rights are some of the most vigorously contested rights issues worldwide, regardless of the populations socioeconomic level, religion or culture. The issue of rights is frequently presented as being of vital importance in discussions. Reproductive rights are a subset of sexual and reproductive health and rights, in 1945, the United Nations Charter included the obligation to promote. Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without discrimination as to race, sex, language, however, the Charter did not define these rights. Three years later, the UN adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the first international document to delineate human rights. Parents have the right to determine freely and responsibly the number. The 1975 UN International Womens Year Conference echoed the Proclamation of Teheran, the twenty-year Cairo Programme of Action was adopted in 1994 at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo. The non-binding Programme of Action asserted that governments have a responsibility to meet individuals reproductive needs, the ICPD also addressed issues such as violence against women, sex trafficking, and adolescent health. Unlike previous population conferences, a range of interests from grassroots to government level were represented in Cairo. 179 nations attended the ICPD and overall eleven thousand representatives from governments, NGOs, international agencies, the ICPD did not address the far-reaching implications of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The Cairo Programme of Action was adopted by 184 UN member states, the Beijing Platform demarcated twelve interrelated critical areas of the human rights of women that require advocacy. The Platform framed womens reproductive rights as indivisible, universal and inalienable human rights, in relation to reproductive health, Principle 9 on The Right to Treatment with Humanity while in Detention requires that States shall. Nonetheless, African, Caribbean and Islamic Countries, as well as the Russian Federation, have objected to the use of these principles as Human Rights standards. The first legal textbook on reproductive rights law, Cases on Reproductive Rights and Justice by Melissa Murray, State abuses against reproductive rights have happened both under right-wing and left-wing governments. Some governments have implemented policies of forced sterilizations of undesirable population groups. It also includes the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion, in the exercise of this right, they should take into account the needs of their living and future children and their responsibilities towards the community

23.
Violence against women
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Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. At least one out of three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as states, many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization, in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from birth to old age. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials, d. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and these definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men, Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature and this is in part because many kinds of violence against women are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable, although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, it is clear that much of the violence was accepted, condoned and even legally sanctioned. This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century, the history of violence against women is closely related to the historical view of women as property and a gender role of subservience. Explanations of patriarchy and a world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated are cited to explain the scope. According to the UN, there is no region of the world, no country, several forms of violence are more prevalent in certain parts of the world, often in developing countries. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia, Female genital mutilation is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Abuse related to payment of bride price is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania

24.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them

25.
Women in the workforce
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Until modern times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted womens entry and participation in the workforce. Womens lack of access to education had effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid. Women were largely limited to low-paid and poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, or earned less pay than men for doing the same work. Women are viewed as the caregiver to children still to this day. The increasing rates of women contributing in the force has led to a more equal disbursement of hours worked across the regions of the world. However, in western European countries the nature of womens employment participation remains markedly different from that of men, for example, few women are in continuous full-time employment after the birth of a first child. Due to the lack of childcare and because women in Britain lose 9% of their wage after their first child and 16% after their second child. In the United States, womens earnings were 83 percent of male full-time workers in 2014. ”With the current norm in place, women are forced to juggle full-time jobs. As the Civil War raged in the U. S, much of her site visits were conducted in Philadelphia, New York and Boston. She distilled her research to list over 500 jobs that were open to women as well as the information about the jobs and she also indicated when employers offered their reasons for wage differentials based on gender. She dedicated her book to worthy and industrious women in the United States, striving to earn a livelihood, and the book garnered much attention by reviewers and scholars across the country. She sold her rights to the book to another publisher who put it out instead as an encyclopedia, The Employments of Women, A Cyclopaedia of Womans Work and it sold better once it was re-titled again in 1870 as How Women Can Make Money, Married or Single. In total, the different versions of the book ended up with 36 editions published between 1862 and 2006, and six editions of the adaptation in German. In the twentieth century, division of labor by gender has been studied most systematically in womens studies, occupational studies, such as the history of medicine or studies of professionalization, also examine questions of gender, and the roles of women in the history of particular fields. Women dominate as accountants, auditors, and psychologists and this body of law is called employment discrimination law, and gender and race discrimination are the largest sub-sections within the area. Laws specifically aimed at preventing discrimination against women have been passed in countries, see. Women still contribute to their communities in many regions mainly through agricultural work, in Southern Asia, Western Asia, and Africa, only 20% of women work at paid non-agricultural jobs. Worldwide, womens rate of employment outside of agriculture grew to 41% by 2008

26.
Women in science
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Women have made significant contributions to science from the earliest times. The historical, critical and sociological study of issues has become an academic discipline in its own right. The involvement of women in the field of medicine occurred in early civilizations. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries AD, during the Middle Ages, convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. While the eleventh century saw the emergence of the first universities, women were, for the most part, the attitude to educating women in medical fields in Italy appears to have been more liberal than in other places. The first known woman to earn a university chair in a field of studies, was eighteenth century Italian scientist. Although gender roles were defined in the eighteenth century, women experienced great advances in science. During the nineteenth century, women were excluded from most formal scientific education, in the later nineteenth century the rise of the womens college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Marie Curie, the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in 1903, went on to become a double Nobel Prize recipient in 1911, forty women have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2010. 17 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, the involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian, Merit-Ptah, described in an inscription as chief physician, is the earliest known female scientist named in the history of science, agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War. Agnodike was the first female physician to practice legally in fourth century BC Athens, the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. If we are to argue chemistry as the use of equipment and processes. Even during the time of the Egyptian dynasty, women were involved in applied chemistry, such as the making of beer, a good number of women have been recorded to have made major contributions to alchemy. Many of which lived in Alexandria around the 1st or 2nd centuries AD, such distillation equipment were called kerotakis and the tribikos. Hypatia of Alexandria, daughter of Theon of Alexandria, was a teacher at the Neoplatonic School in Alexandria teaching astronomy, philosophy. She is recognized to be the first known woman mathematician in history through her major contributions to mathematics. Hypatia is credited with writing three major treatises on geometry, algebra and astronomy, as well as the invention of a hydrometer, an astrolabe, there is even evidence that Hypatia gave public lectures and may have held some sort of public office in Alexandria

27.
Women in computing
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Historically, women in computing have had an effect on the evolution of the industry, with many of the first programmers during the early 20th century being female. Since July 2012 and previously an executive, usability leader. Ada Lovelace was the first person to publish an algorithm intended to be executed by the first modern computer, the Analytical Engine created by Charles Babbage. Grace Hopper was the first person to create a compiler for a language and one of the first programmers of Mark I computer. The regularly working programmers of the ENIAC computer in 1944, were six female mathematicians, Marlyn Meltzer, Betty Holberton, Kathleen Antonelli, Ruth Teitelbaum, Jean Bartik, Adele Goldstine was one of the teachers and trainers of the six original programmers of ENIAC computer. Adele died of cancer in 1964 at the age of 44, Smalltalk was later used by Apple to launch Apple Lisa in 1983, the first personal computer with GUI, and one year later its Macintosh. Windows 1.0, based on the principles, was launched a few months later in 1985. 1842, Ada Lovelace was an analyst of Charles Babbages analytical engine,1893, Henrietta Swan Leavitt joined the Harvard computers, a group of women engaged in the production of astronomical data at Harvard. She was instrumental in discovery of the variable stars, which are evidence for the expansion of the universe. 1926, Grete Hermann published the paper for computerized algebra. It was her thesis, titled The Question of Finitely Many Steps in Polynomial Ideal Theory. 1940s, American women were recruited to do calculations and program computers during WWII. 1943, Women worked as WREN Colossus operators during WW2 at Bletchley Park,1943, Many wives of scientists at Los Alamos were first organized as computers on the Manhattan Project. 1943, Gertrude Blanch led the Mathematical Tables Project group from 1938 to 1948,1946, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Frances Spence, Kay McNulty, Marlyn Wescoff, and Ruth Lichterman were the regularly working programmers of the ENIAC. Adele Goldstine, also involved in the programming, wrote the manual for the ENIAC. 1947, Irma Wyman worked on a missile guidance project at the Willow Run Research Center, to calculate trajectory, they used mechanical calculators. In 1947–48, she visited the U. S. Naval Proving Ground where Grace Hopper was working on similar problems,1948, Kathleen Booth is credited with writing the assembly language for the ARC2 computer. 1949, Grace Hopper, was a United States Navy officer and one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I and she developed the first compiler for an electronic computer, known as A-0

28.
Women in medicine
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Historically and presently, in many parts of the world, womens participation in the profession of medicine has been significantly restricted. However, womens informal practice of medicine in roles such as caregivers or as allied health professionals has been widespread, most countries of the world now provide women with equal access to medical education. However, not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities, and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties, Women did, however, continue to practice during this time. They continued to practice without formal training or recognition in England, Womens participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing. However, through the half of the twentieth century, women had gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969, by 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing US physicians. At the beginning of the twenty-first century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical student body. In 2007-2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48. 3% of those accepted. According to the American Association of Medical Colleges 48. 3% of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2009-10 were earned by women, however, the practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither school nor practice approach gender parity. In the United States, female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000,94. 6% of registered nurses in the United States were women, in health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011. Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i. e, faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in early civilizations. An Egyptian, Merit Ptah, described in an inscription as chief physician, is the earliest woman named in the history of science, agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in Greece before the Trojan War. Agnodike was the first female physician to practice legally in 4th century BC Athens, metrodora was a physician and generally regarded as the first medical writer. During the Middle Ages, convents were an important place of education for women, an example is the German abbess Hildegard of Bingen, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany and natural history

29.
Women in dentistry
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There is a long history of women in dentistry. Unknown, 16th century, In an early engraving by Lucas Van Leyden. 1855, Emeline Roberts Jones became the first woman to practice dentistry in the United States and she married the dentist Daniel Jones when she was a teenager, and became his assistant in 1855. 1866, Lucy Hobbs Taylor became the first woman to graduate from a dental college and she graduated from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery in 1869. 1874, Fanny A. Rambarger became the second American woman to earn the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery in 1874 and she worked in Philadelphia and limited her practice to women and children only. 1881, Margaret Caro became the first woman to be listed on the Dentists Register of New Zealand,1886, Margarita Chorné y Salazar became the first female dentist in Mexico. 1890, Ida Gray Rollins became the first African-American woman to earn a degree in the United States. 1892, The Womens Dental Association of the U. S. was founded in 1892 by Mary Stillwell-Kuesel with 12 charter members,1895, Lilian Lindsay became the first licensed female dentist in Britain. 1898, Emma Gaudreau Casgrain became the first licensed female dentist in Canada,1907, Frances Dorothy Gray became Australia’s first female Bachelor of Dental Science graduate from the Australian College of Dentistry, University of Melbourne, in 1907. 1920, Maude Tanner became the first recorded female delegate to the American Dental Association, aAWDs first president, M. Evangeline Jordan, was one of the first to limit her practice to children and was a founder of pedodontics. She graduated from the University of California School of Dentistry in 1898,1923, Anita Martin became the first woman inducted into the American dental honor society Omicron Kappa Upsilon. 1946, Lilian Lindsay became the first female president of the British Dental Association,1951, Helen E. Myers of Lancaster, Pa. A1941 graduate of Temple University, was commissioned as the U. S. Army Dental Corps’ first female officer in 1951. 1975, On July 1,1975, Jeanne Sinkford became the first female dean of an American dental school when she was appointed the dean of Howard University,1977, The American Association of Dental Schools had Nancy Goorey as its first female president in 1977. 1988, In 1988, the American Student Dental Association elected its first female president,1991, Geraldine Morrow became the first female president of the American Dental Association. 1997, Hazel J. Harper became the first female president of the National Dental Association,2001, Marjorie Jeffcoat became the first female editor of The Journal of the American Dental Association. Turner became the first female Chief of the U. S. Navy Dental Corps,2004, Sandra Madison, of Asheville, N. C. was elected as the first female president of the American Association of Endodontists. 2005, Michele Aerden became the first female president of the FDI World Dental Federation,2007, Laura Kelly became the first female president of the American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry

30.
Women in STEM fields
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STEM professions, like medicine, require higher education or training—especially in mathematics—in nearly all cases. Since the feminist revolution of the 1970s, the opportunities available to men and women in education have become broadly similar in most advanced economies. This has not yet translated to equal representation for women in the STEM professions on the ground, scholars are exploring the various reasons for the continued existence of this gender disparity in STEM fields. Those who view this disparity as resulting from discriminatory forces are also seeking ways to redress this disparity within STEM fields, some proponents view diversity as an inherent human good, and wish to increase diversity for its own sake, regardless of its historical origin or present cause. In the United States, research findings are mixed concerning when boys and girls attitudes about mathematics, analyzing several nationally representative longitudinal studies, one researcher found few differences in girls and boys attitudes towards science in the early secondary school years. Students aspirations to pursue careers in mathematics and science influence both the courses they choose to take in areas and the level of effort they put forth in these courses. A report by the U. S. Department of Education found that the gap in the aspirations of boys. Girls begin to lose self-confidence in middle school because they believe that men possess more intelligence in technical fields, the fact that men outperform women in spatial analysis, a skillset many engineering professionals deem vital, generates this misconception. Boys are more likely to gain spatial skills outside the classroom because they are encouraged to build. Research shows that girls can develop these skills with training. A1996 study of college freshmen by the Higher Education Research Institute shows that men and women differ greatly in their fields of study. The differences in the majors between male and female first-time freshmen directly relate to the differences in the fields in which men and women earn their degree. At the post-secondary level, women are less likely than men to earn a degree in mathematics, physical sciences, or computer sciences, the exception to this gender imbalance is in the life sciences. In Scotland, a number of women graduate in STEM subjects. This represents a £170 million per annum loss to Scotlands national income, although female college graduates shared in the earnings growth of all college graduates in the 1980s, they earned less on average than male college graduates. Some of the differences in salary are related to the differences in occupations entered by women and men, among recent science and engineering bachelors degree recipients, women were less likely than men to be employed in science and engineering occupations. There remains wage gap between men and women in comparable scientific positions, among more experienced scientists and engineers, the gender gap in salaries is greater than for recent graduates. Salaries are highest in mathematics, computer science, and engineering, an fact sheet published by UNESCO in March 2015 presented worldwide statistics of women in the STEM fields, with a focus on Asia and the Pacific region

31.
Women in space
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This article addresses the subject of women traveling above the Kármán line. This includes orbiting in the thermosphere through to travel in outer space, however, as of December 2016, no woman has traveled beyond low earth orbit. Women of many nationalities have worked in space, the first woman in space, Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, flew in 1963. Space programs were slow to employ women, and only began to include them from the 1980s, most women in space have been United States citizens, primarily with missions on the Space Shuttle. Three countries maintain active space programs that include women, China, Russia, and the United States of America. In addition, a number of other countries – Canada, France, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, South Korea, women in space face many of the same challenges faced by men, physical difficulties from non-Earth conditions and psychological stresses of isolation and separation. A number of women have traveled into space, although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in crewed space exploration, it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew. The first woman in space was a Soviet cosmonaut, Valentina Tereshkova launched with the Vostok 6 mission on June 16,1963. Russian Yelena V. Kondakova became the first woman to travel for both the Soyuz programme and the Space Shuttle, Yelena Serova became the first female Russian cosmonaut to visit the International Space Station on 26 September 2014. The Russian space program has hosted international cosmonauts. The United States did not have a woman in space until 1983, since then more than 40 American women have entered space. Most served on the various Space Shuttle flights from 1983 to 2011, Sally Ride was the third woman overall to go into space, launching on the space shuttle. Ride served on the STS-7 from June 18 to 24 in 1983, the first U. S. woman to go on an EVA was Kathryn Sullivan on the STS-41-G which launched on October 11,1984. The first woman to be on an ISS expedition crew was Susan Helms on Expedition 2 and she returned in October 2016, having spent 12 hours and 46 minutes on EVA and 115 days in space and 12 hours and 46 minutes in space as part of these missions. During her stay on ISS she also conducted numerous experiments including in the area of biology and she was the first woman, and first person to sequence DNA in space. In addition to U. S. citizens, US rockets have launched international astronauts, roberta Bondar and Julie Payette from Canada, Kalpana Chawla of India, and Chiaki Mukai and Naoko Yamazaki of Japan flew as part of the US space program. A number of other women have contributed to interest in space programs. In the early 2000s, Lori Garver initiated a project to increase the visibility and viability of commercial spaceflight with the AstroMom project

32.
Women in telegraphy
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Women in telegraphy have been evident since the 1840s. The introduction of systems of telegraphy in the 1840s led to the creation of a new occupational category. Duties of the telegrapher included sending and receiving messages, known as telegrams, using a variety of signaling systems. While telegraphy is often viewed as an occupation, women were also employed as telegraph operators from its earliest days. Telegraphy was one of the first communications technology occupations open to women, operation of this network required skilled operators at each station, capable of sending and receiving messages in Morse code. The shortage of qualified operators led to the hiring of women as well as men to fill a growing need for operators in the late 1840s as the telegraph spread across the country. She probably became aware of the telegraph and its potential from her previous work as an editor for the reform newspaper, phoebe Wood, sister of Morses associate Ezra Cornell and wife of telegraph entrepreneur Martin B. Wood, became the telegrapher in Albion, Michigan, in 1849, initially used to transmit personal messages, business transactions and news reports, the telegraph began to be used for train routing by the railroads as well in the 1850s. Elizabeth Cogley of Lewistown, Pennsylvania, became one of the earliest women to work as a railroad telegrapher when she was hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1855. The employment of women in the industry in the United States increased during the American Civil War as male telegraphers were drafted or joined the U. S. Military Telegraph Corps of the Union army, a few women served in the Military Telegraph Corps. Louisa Volker, the operator at Mineral Point, Missouri. According to the U. S. Census, the percentage of telegraphers who were women in the U. S. grew from four percent in 1870 to twenty percent in 1920, Telegraph service in Canada was provided both by private companies and the Government Telegraph Service. In Toronto in 1902,42 percent of the operators at the Great Northwestern Telegraph Company were women, at the offices of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the same city,28 percent of the operators were female in 1902. The percentage of the workforce that was female was somewhat lower in western Canada, in 1917,18 percent of the operators in Winnipeg were women. Many telegraphers from the United States came to Mexico to work for the railroads during the administration of Porfirio Diaz, including several American women. Abbie Struble Vaughan worked for the Mexican National Railroad and the Mexican Central Railroad from 1891 to 1911, Women began to work for a number of private telegraph companies in England in the 1850s, including the Electric Telegraph Company. The Telegraph School for Women was established in London in 1860, the Queens Institute for the Training and Employment of Educated Women began classes in telegraphy in Dublin in 1862, its graduates were employed by the Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company

33.
Women artists
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While women artists have been involved in making art throughout history, their work often has not been as well acknowledged as that of men. Often certain media are associated with artists, such as textile arts. Womens roles in relation to art, of course, vary in different cultures and communities, many art forms considered to be created predominantly by women have been historically dismissed from the art historical canon as craft, as opposed to fine art. Women artists faced challenges due to biases in the mainstream fine art world. They have often encountered difficulties in training, travelling and trading their work, collaboration on large projects was typical. Extrapolation to the artwork and skills of the Paleolithic era suggests that these cultures followed similar patterns, cave paintings of this era often have human hand prints, 75% of which are identifiable as womens. For about three years, the women – and only the women – of Mithila have been making devotional paintings of the gods. It is no exaggeration, then, to say that art is the expression of the most genuine aspect of Indian civilization. The earliest records of western cultures rarely mention specific individuals, although women are depicted in all of the art and some are shown laboring as artists. Ancient references by Homer, Cicero, and Virgil mention the prominent roles of women in textiles, poetry, music, Other women include Timarete, Eirene, Kalypso, Aristarete, Iaia, and Olympias. While only some of their work survives, in Ancient Greek pottery there is a hydria in the Torno Collection in Milan. It is attribute to the Leningrad painter from circa 460-450 B. C. Artists from the Medieval period include Claricia, Diemudus, Ende, Guda, Herrade of Landsberg and Hildegard of Bingen. In the early Medieval period, women worked alongside men. Manuscript illuminations, embroideries, and carved capitals from the period clearly demonstrate examples of women at work in these arts, documents show that they also were brewers, butchers, wool merchants, and iron mongers. Artists of the period, including women, were from a small subset of society whose status allowed them freedom from these more strenuous types of work. Women artists often were of two classes, either wealthy aristocratic women or nuns. Women in the category often created embroideries and textiles, those in the later category often produced illuminations. It is presumed that women were almost entirely responsible for this production, one of the most famous embroideries of the Medieval period is the Bayeux Tapestry, which was embroidered with wool and is 230 feet long

34.
Women in architecture
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Women in architecture have been documented for many centuries, as professional practitioners, educators and clients. Since architecture became organized as a profession in 1857, the number of women in architecture has been low, at the end of the 19th century, starting in Finland, certain schools of architecture in Europe began to admit women to their programmes of study. However, only in recent years have begun to achieve wider recognition with several outstanding participants including two Pritzker prizewinners since the turn of the millennium. However, despite the fact that some 40% of architecture graduates in the world are now women. Two European women stand out as examples of women playing an important part in architecture. She has been put forward as the architect of Wotton House in Buckinghamshire and it has also been suggested that she tutored Sir Christopher Wren. Wilbraham had to use male architects to supervise the construction work, there is now much research including that by John Millar to show she may have designed up to 400 buildings including 18 London churches previously attributed to her pupil Sir Christopher Wren. Sarah Losh was an English woman and landowner of Wreay and she has been described as a lost Romantic genius, antiquarian, architect and visionary. Her main work is St Marys Church, Cumbria, but she also constructed various associated buildings, Louise Blanchard Bethune from Waterloo, New York, was the first American woman known to have worked as a professional architect. In 1881, she opened an independent office partnered with her husband Robert Bethune in Buffalo and she was named the first female associate of the American Institute of Architects in 1888 and in 1889, she became its first female fellow. Another early practicing architect in the United States was Emily Williams from northern California, in 1901, together with her friend Lillian Palmer, she moved to San Francisco where she studied drafting at the California High School of Mechanical Arts. Encouraged by Palmer, she went on to build a number of cottages and houses in the area, including a home on 1037 Broadway in San Francisco. Theodate Pope Riddle grew up in a background in Farmington, Connecticut. Her early designs, such as that for Hill-Stead, were translated into working drawings by the firm of McKim, Mead and White, providing her with an apprenticeship in architecture. She was the first woman to become an architect in both New York and Connecticut and in 1926 was appointed to the AIA College of Fellows. A notable pioneer of the days was Josephine Wright Chapman. Chapman received no education in architecture but went on design a number of buildings before setting up her own firm. The architect of Tuckerman Hall in Worcester, Massachusetts, she is considered to be one of Americas earliest and most successful female architects, Romanian architect Virginia Andreescu Haret, first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture in 1919 and first woman as Romanian Architectural Inspector General

35.
Women in dance
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The important place of women in dance can be traced back to the very origins of civilization. In the Middle Ages, what has become known as ballet had its beginnings in Italian court festivals when women played the parts of men. It was however in late 17th-century France that the Paris Opera produced the first celebrated ballerinas, more recently, women have played a leading role in developing various forms of modern dance including flamenco and expressionist dance. Women have always played a predominant role in dance, as can be seen from its earliest history until the emergence of formal dances in the 15th century which developed into ballet, Cave paintings from as long ago as 6000 BC provide scenes of dancing women. Examples can be seen in the Addauta Cave near Palermo and in the Roca dels Moros in Catalonia, in Ancient Egypt, women performed ritual dances for religious ceremonies such as funerals, as illustrated by frescos on the pharaohs tombs. The oldest records of organised dance and of female dancers come from Egypt. Especially in the Old Kingdom, women were organised into groups known as khener, in the Indian subcontinent too, there is early evidence of dancing women, most notably a bronze statuette from Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley dating from around 2500 BC. While mens early participation in dancing rituals appears to have connected to hunting and fighting, womens dance was above all related to fertility. Dance in classical Crete and Greece seems to have influenced by the dances of Ancient Egypt. There are many examples of ancient Greek art from the 6th and 5th centuries BC depicting dancing women, the virgins of Delos danced in a circle to honour Apollo while Terpsichore was the Muse of dance. In Ancient Rome, female singers and dancers performed in the celebrations of Isis which included mystery plays representing the resurrection of Osiris. The Bible contains several accounts of women dancing, in particular the celebrations led by Miriam after the crossing of the Red Sea when women are said to have danced and played hand-drums, after David had returned from slaying Goliath, women came out singing and dancing. In the New Testament, Matthew tells the story of how Salome danced for Herod in order to be given the head of John the Baptist, in China too there is a long recorded history of women dancers since the Zhou Dynasty reaching a peak in the Tang Dynasty. The chorus dances performed by women in the Zhou dynasty were known as xi, the ancient theatrical spectacles called baixi probably involved dancing girls in dresses with fluttering silk sleeves. In 12th-century Japan, the Shirabyoshi were famous for their dancing, one of the most famous was the court dancer Shizuka who appears in the Japanese literature of the period. In the Middle Ages, with the spread of Christianity across Europe, in France and Italy, chain and circular dances such as the carole, and the tresque were popular from the 4th to 14th centuries. They were usually danced in a circle with men and women interspersed. In Italy, the lively saltarello from Naples became popular in the 14th and 15th centuries, groups of courtesans dressed as men performed the dance at masquerades

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