"Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla
(বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ)
in Bangla, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. Today it is
mainly divided between the independent nation of Bangladesh [গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী
বাংলাদেশ] (eastern Bengal), and the Indian federal republic's
constitutive state of West
Bengal [পশ্চিম বঙ], although some regions of the previous kingdom of Bengal (during
local monarchial regimes and British rule) are now part of the
neighbouring Indian states of Bihar [बिहार], Tripura [ত্রিপুরা] and Orissa
[ଓଡ଼ିଶା]."

"Bengal had been quite distant and cut off (by the rivers,
especially the Ganga [गंगा] and the
Brahmaputra [ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ]) from the mainland of India for ages. The history of
Bengal has not always followed that of the rulers of central parts
of India.

Ancient history

From the 6th
century BC, most of Bengal was apart of the powerful kingdom of Magadha,
which was an ancient
Indo-Aryan kingdom of
ancient India, mentioned in both the Ramayana
and the
Mahabharata. It was also one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time
of Buddha,
having risen to power during the reigns of Bimbisara
(c. 544-491
BCE) and his son
Ajatashatru (c. 491-460
BCE). Magadha spanned to include most of Bihar and much of Bengal.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahā
Janapadas (Sanskrit, "great country"). The Magadha empire included
republican communities such as Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies
under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided
into executive, judicial, and military functions. Bimbisara was friendly to both Jainism and Buddhism
and suspended tolls at the river ferries for all ascetics after the
Buddha was once stopped at the Ganges River
for lack of money.

In 326 BCE, the army of
Alexander the Great [Μέγας Αλέξανδρος] approached the boundaries of Magadha. The army,
exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at
the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis
(modern
Beas [ਬਿਆਸ]) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with
his officer, Coenus [Koινoς],
was convinced that it was better to return.

Magadha was the seat of the
Maurya Empire, founded by
Chandragupta Maurya, which extended over nearly all of South Asia
and parts of Persia
and
Afghanistan under
Ashoka the Great;
and, later, of the powerful Gupta
Empire, which extended over the northern
Indian subcontinent and parts of Persia and Afghanistan.

One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land
named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE. The
word is speculated to have come from Gangahṛd (Land with the Ganges in its
heart) and believed to be referring to an area in Bengal.

Early middle ages

The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka [শশাঙ্ক]
- reigning from 606.

More concrete evidence of Bengal becoming an independent political entity is
found in the 6th
century, with the first recorded independent king of Bengal - Shashanka -
reigning around 606.

The first
Buddhist
Pala
king of Bengal,
Gopala I came to
power in 750 in Gaur by
election.
This event is recognized as one of the first democratic
elections in South Asia
since the time of the Mahā
Janapadas. The dynasty's most powerful kings, Dharampala (reigned 775-810)
and Devapala (reigned 810-850)
united Bengal and made the Pala family one of the most important dynasties in
ninth-century India. Internecine strife during the reign of Narayanpala (reigned 854-908)
and administrative excesses led to the decline of the dynasty.

A brief revival of the kingdom under Mahipala I (reigned 977-1027) ended in
battle against the powerful, South Indian Chola [சோழர் குலம்]kingdom. The rise
of the Chandra dynasty in southern Bengal expedited the decline of the Palas,
and the last Pala king, Madanpala, died in 1161.

The Malla dynasty emerged in Bengal in the seventh century, although they
only rose to prominence in the 10th century under
Jagat Malla who moved his capital to Vishnupur.
Unlike the Buddhist Palas and Chandras, the Hindu
Mallas worshipped first the Hindu god Shiva, then the
Hindu god Vishnu.
The Mallas built temples and spectacular religious monuments during their rule
in Bengal.

Under the Sena dynasty, which lasted from 1095 to
1260,
Bengali [বাংলা] emerged as a distinct and important language in northern India, and
Hinduism began to displace older Buddhism.

Muslim rule

The
Turkic invasion of India (including Bengal) came in the early 13th century. The
invaders defeated the Sena king
Laxmansena at his capital,
Nabadwip in 1203 (1204?) The Deva family — the last Hindu dynasty to rule in
Bengal — ruled briefly in eastern Bengal, although they were suppressed by the
mid-fourteenth century.

During the early Muslim period, the former kingdom became known as the
Sultanate of Bangala, ruled intermittently from the
Sultanate of Delhi [دلی سلطنت]. The chaotic shifts in power between the
Afghan and Turkish
rulers of that sultanate came to an end when Moghul [دولتِ مغل] rule
became established in Bengal during the sixteenth century.

In 1534, the Afghan
Sher Shah Suri [شیر شاه سورى], or Farid Khan — a man of incredible military and political
skill — succeeded in defeating the superior forces of the Mughals under
Humayun [نصيرالدين همايون] at
Chausa (1539) and
Kannauj (1540).
Sher Shah fought back and captured both Delhi [दिल्ली] and
Agra [आगरा] as he
established the most powerful Bengali kingdom that would ever exist, stretching
far into
Panjab [Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب]. Sher Shah's administrative skill showed in his public works,
including the
Grand Trunk Road connecting
Sonargaon [সোনারগাঁও]
in Bengal with
Peshawar [پیشاور] in the Hindu Kush [هندوکش].
Sher Shah's rule ended with his death in 1545, although even
in those five years his reign would have a powerful influence on Indian society,
politics, and economics.

Shah Suri's successors lacked his administrative skill, and quarrelled over
the domains of his empire. Humayun, who then ruled a rump Mughal state, saw an
opportunity and in 1554 seized Lahore [لاہور] and
Delhi. Humayun's death in 1556 led to the
accession of Akbar [جلال الدین محمد اکب],
the greatest of the
Mughal emperors, who defeated the
Karani rulers of Bengal in 1576 and ruled
through governors.
Akbar exercised progressive rule and oversaw a period of prosperity (through
trade and development) in Bengal and northern India.

Bengal's trade and wealth so impressed the Moghuls that they called the
region the "Paradise of the Nations". Administration by governors appointed by
the court of the
Mughal Empire court (1575-1717)
gave way to four decades of semi-independence under the Nawabs [نواب] of
Murshidabad, who respected the nominal sovereignty of the Mughals in
Delhi. The Nawabs granted permission to the
French East India Company to establish a trading post at
Chandernagore in
1673, and the
British East India Company at
Calcutta [কলকাতা] in
1690.

When the British East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort
William (Calcutta), the Nawab,
Siraj Ud Daulah, at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the
leadership of Robert
Clive, British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March 1757 and seriously
defeated the Nawab on June 23 1757
at the
Battle of Plassey [পলাশীর যুদ্ধ], when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was
assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their own Nawab for
Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was
restored to the French in 1763. The Bengalis
attempted to regain their territories in 1765 in alliance
with the Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II, but were defeated again at the
Battle of Buxar (1765).

The center of Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to Calcutta
when the
Mughal Empire fell.

Dutch colonies

On 1608 the Dutch created their first Indian
colony. In 1625 Vereenigte Oostindische Companie of Holland, more
commonly known as the Jan Companie, established a settlement at
Chinsurah a few miles south of Bandel to trade in opium, salt,
muslin and spices. They built a fort called Fort Gustavius and a
church and several other buildings. A famous Frenchman, General
Perron who served as military advisor to the Mahrattas, settled in
this Dutch colony and built a large house here. The Dutch settlement
of Chinsurah survived until 1825 when the Dutch in their process of
consolidating their interests in modern day Indonesia, ceded
Chinsurah to the English in lieu of the island of Sumatra. Fort
Gustavius has since been obliterated from the face of Chinsurah and
the church collapsed recently due to disuse, but much of the Dutch
heritage remains. These include old barracks, the Governor's
residence, General Perron's house, now the Chinsurah College and the
old Factory Building, now the office of the Divisional Commissioner.

British rule

See also:
Bengal Renaissance and
Bengal Presidency

During British rule, Bengal experienced two devastating famines costing
millions of lives in
1770 and 1943.
Scarcely five years into the
British East India Company's rule, the catastrophic
Bengal famine of 1770, one of the greatest famines of history occurred. Up
to a third of the population died in 1770 and subsequent
years.

The
Indian Mutiny of 1857
replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the
British crown.

A centre of rice cultivation as well as fine cotton called muslin and the
world's main source of
jute fibre, Bengal, from the 1850s became one
of India's principal centres of industry, concentrated in the capital Kolkata (known
as Calcutta under the British, always called 'Kolkata' in the native
tongue of
Bengali) and its emerging cluster of suburbs. Most of the population
nevertheless remained dependent on
agriculture, and despite its leading role in Indian political and
intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts,
especially in the east. In 1877, when
Victoria took the title of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta
the capital of the British
Raj.

India's most populous province (and one of the most active provinces in
freedom fighting), in 1905 Bengal was divided by the British rulers for
administrative purposes into an overwhelmingly Hindu west (including
present-day Bihar
and Orissa) and
a predominantly
Muslim east (including Assam [অসম]) (1905
Partition of Bengal). Hindu - Muslim conflict became stronger through this
partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way
of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported
it by saying it was a big step forward for Muslim society where Muslims will be
majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture.
But owing to strong Hindu agitation, the British reunited east and west Bengal
in 1912, and made Bihar and Orissa a
separate province.

Another major famine occurred during the second world war, the
Bengal famine of 1943, in which an estimated 3 million people died.

Bengal Renaissance

The Bengal Renaissance took place throughout the
nineteenth century. During this period, Bengal
witnessed an
intellectual awakening that is similar to
Renaissance in Italy.
Under the impact of British
rule the Indian intellect learned to raise questions about life and beliefs.
It led to the creation of great literary works and questioning of established
socio-religious orthodoxy.

This is a very significant portion of the
History of Bengal. The major players leading this included:

Raja
Rammohun Roy [রাজা রামমোহন রায়] (1774-1833)

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31) and his radical disciples called Young
Bengal

Institutions such as the
Asiatic Society (est.1784),
Fort William College (1800),
Serampore College (1817), Hindu College (1817) (later rechristened
Presidency College), General Assembly's Institution (now known as
Scottish Church College)(1830), Calcutta School-book Society (1817),
Calcutta Medical College (1835),
University of Calcutta (1857), and
Bethune College (1879) contributed significantly to the Renaissance.

Partitions of Bengal

Main article:
Partition of Bengal

In the 20th
century, the partitions of Bengal, occurring twice, has left indelible marks on
the history and psyche of the people of Bengal. The
first partition occurred in 1905 and the
second partition was in 1947.

As partition of British India into Hindu and Muslim
dominions
approached in 1947,
Bengal again split into the state of West
Bengal of secular
India and a
Muslim region of East
Bengal under Pakistan,
renamed East
Pakistan in 1958.
East Pakistan (East Bengal) later rebelled against Pakistani military rule to
become independent republic of Bangladesh,
literally "Land of Bengal", after a
war of independence against the Pakistani army in 1971. West Bengal
remains a part of India. However, culturally and sociologically, the two
segments of Bengal share considerably more than just a single language.

Bengal (both West Bengal and Bangladesh) is now one of the most
densely populated regions of the world."

A country: the Kālingarattha. It is one of
the seven political divisions mentioned in the time of the mythical
king Renu and is given first in the list, its capital being Dantapura
and its king Sattabhū. (D.ii.235f; see also Mtu.iii.208; the Mtu.
also mentions a king Uggata of Dantapura, iii.364f).

It is not, however, included in the list of sixteen
Janapadas appearing in the
Anguttara Nikāya (A.i.213, etc.), but is found in the extended list of the Niddesa
(CNid.ii.37). A later tradition (Bu.xviii.6) states that after the
Buddha's death, a Tooth was taken from among his relics and placed
at Kālinga, where it was worshipped. From Kālinga the Tooth was
brought to Ceylon, in the time of King
Sirimeghavanna, by
Hemamālā, daughter of Guhasīva, king of Kālinga, and her husband
Dantakumāra, a prince of the Ujjeni royal family. In Ceylon the Tooth became the
"Palladium" of the Sinhalese kings. (Cv.xxxvii.92; see also
Cv.Trs.i.7, n.4; the
Dāthādhātuvamsa gives details, J.P.T.S.1884, pp.108ff).

The Jātakas contain various references to Kālinga. There was once
a great drought in Dantapura, and the king, acting on the advice of
his ministers, sent brahmins to the king of Kuru to beg the loan of
his state elephant,
Añjanavasabha, credited with the power of producing rain. On this occasion,
however, the elephant failed and the Kālinga king, hearing of the
virtues practised by the king and people of Dantapura, offered them
himself, upon which rain fell. See the
Kurudhamma Jātaka, J.ii.367ff, also DhA.iv.88f. A similar story is related in
the
Vessantara Jātaka, vi.487, where the Kālinga brahmins ask for and obtain
Vessantara's white elephant that he may stay the drought in Kālinga.

Another king of Kālinga was a contemporary of Aruna, the Assaka
king of Potali. The Kālinga king, in his eagerness for a fight,
picked a quarrel with Aruna, but was worsted in battle, and had to
surrender his four daughters with their dowries to Aruna (J.iii.3f).

The
Kālingabodhi Jātaka relates the story of another ruler of Kālinga while,
according to the
Sarabhanga Jātaka, a certain king of Kālinga (J.v.135f) went with two other
kings, Atthaka and
Bhīmaratta, to ask Sarabhanga questions referring to the fate of Dandakī. There
they heard the sage preach, and all three kings became ascetics.
Another king of Kālinga was Nālikīra, who, having ill-treated a holy
man, was swallowed up in the Sunakha-niraya, while his country was
laid waste by the gods and turned into a wilderness (Kālingārañña).
The Kālinga-arañña is referred to in the Upāli Sutta (M.i.378); the
story is related in J.v.144 and, in greater detail, in MA.ii.602ff.
In the
Kumbhakāra Jātaka (J.iii.376) the Kālinga king's name is Karandu.

From early times there seems to have been political intercourse
between the peoples of Kālinga and Vanga; Susīmā, grandmother of Vijaya,
founder of the Sinhalese race, was a Kālinga princess, married to
the king of Vanga (Mhv.vi.1; Dpv.ix.2ff). Friendly relations between
Ceylon and Kālinga were evidently of long standing, for we find in
the reign of Aggabodhi II. (601-11 A.C.) the king of Kālinga,
together with his queen and his minister, coming over to Ceylon
intent on leading the life of a recluse and joining the Order under
Jotipāla. Aggabodhi and his queen treated them with great honour
(Cv.xlii.44ff). Later, the queen consort of Mahinda IV. came from
Kālinga and Vijayabāhu I. married a Kālinga princess, Tilokasundarī
(Cv.lix.30). We are told that scions of the Kālinga dynasty had many
times attained to the sovereignty of Ceylon and that there were many
ties of relationship between the royal families of the two countries
(Cv.lxiii.7, 12f). But it was Māgha, an offspring of the Kālinga
kings, who did incomparable damage to Ceylon and to its religion and
literature (Cv.lxxx.58ff).

According to the inscriptions, Asoka, in the thirteenth year of
his reign, conquered Kālinga and this was the turning-point in his
career, causing him to abhor war (Mookerji: Asoka, pp.16, 37, 214).
Among the retinue sent by him to accompany the branch of the Sacred
Bodhi Tree on its journey to Ceylon, were eight families of Kālinga
(Sp.i.96).

Asoka's brother Tissa, later known as Ekavihāriya, spent his
retirement in the Kālinga country with his instructor Dhammarakkhita,
and there Asoka built for him the Bhojakagiri-vihāra (ThagA.i.506).

According to the
Vessantara Jātaka (J.vi.521), the brahmin village
Dunnivittha, residence of Jūjaka, was in Kālinga.

Kālinga is generally identified with the modern Orissa.
(CAGI.590ff; Law: Early Geography, 64; see also Bhandarkar: Anct.
Hist. of Deccan, p.12)."

"Kaliṅga was an ancient kingdom of central-eastern India,
in the province of Orissa. Kalinga was a rich and fertile land that
extended from the river
Subarnarekha to Godavari and from Bay of Bengal to Amarkantak range in the West.
The kingdom had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes
linking Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra
and
Java.

Colonists from Kalinga settled in far away places such as Sri Lanka,
Burma as well as the Indonesia archipelago. Even today Indians are
referred to as Klings in Malaysia because of this. Many Sri lankan
kings both Sinhalese and Tamil claimed decent from Kalinga dynasties.

Kalinga is mentioned in the Adiparva, Bhismaparva, Sabhaparva,
Banaprava of Mahabharat so also is the conquest of Karna. Kalinga
King Srutayu stated to have fought the Mahabharat war for the
Kauravas. Kalinga is also mentioned as Calingae in
Megasthenes' book on India - Indica:

"The Prinas and the Cainas (a tributary of the Ganges) are
both navigable rivers. The tribes which dwell by the Ganges are
the Calingae, nearest the sea, and higher up the Mandei, also
the Malli, among whom is Mount Mallus, the boundary of all that
region being the Ganges." (Megasthenes fragm. XX.B. in Pliny.
Hist. Nat. V1. 21.9-22. 1.)

"The royal city of the Calingae is called Parthalis. Over
their king 60,000 foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants
keep watch and ward in "procinct of war." (Megasthenes fragm.
LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11.)

The Kalinga script, derived from Brahmi, was used for writing.
Among the offshoots, Kalinga script had the maximum resemblance with
the parent script, Brahmi and later modified to Oriya script in the
beginning of the second millennium. This makes the Oriya Script as
the most unique and least distorted script among the Indic
scripts. )

This region was scene of the bloody war fought by the Mauryan
king
Asoka the Great of Magadha around 260 BCE, and whose death and destruction later
served as a precursor as one of the main centers of Buddhism.

Kharavela was a famous king of Kalinga during the
2nd century BCE, who, according to the
Hathigumpha inscription, attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek
king
Demetrius to retreat to Mathura."

"Orissa [ଓଡ଼ିଶା] (2001 provisional pop. 36,706,920),
60,162 sq mi (155,820 sq km) is a
state situated in the east coast of India.

Orissa is bounded on the north by
Jharkhand [झारखंड], on the north-east by
West Bengal [পশ্চিম বঙ্গ], on the east by the
Bay of Bengal, on the south by
Andhra Pradesh [ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్] and on the west by
Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ़].

The relatively unindented coastline (c.200 mi/320 km long) lacks
good ports except for the deepwater facility at Paradip. The narrow,
level coastal strip, including the
Mahanadi River delta, is exceedingly fertile. Rainfall is heavy
and regular, and two crops of rice (by far the most important food)
are grown annually. The state is known for its temples, especially
in the cities of Konark [कोनार्क],
Puri, and
Bhubaneswar [ଭୁବନେଶ୍ବର].

Orissa has several popular tourist destinations. Puri, with the
Jagannatha's temple on the sea, and Konark, with the Sun Temple,
are visited by thousands of westerners every year. Along with the
Lingaraja Temple of
Bhubaneswar, the Jagannatha Temple and the Sun Temple of Konark
are the must sees for anyone doing research on the archaeological
marvels of India.

The dense population, concentrated on the coastal alluvial plain,
is inhabited by the non-tribal speakers of the Oriya language. The
interior, inhabited largely by indigenous people (adivasis), is
hilly and mountainous. Orissa is subject to intense
cyclones; in October 1999,
Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and some 10,000 deaths.

Orissa is a littoral state with a long coastline and a storehouse
of mineral wealth. Because it has begun attracting massive foreign
investment in steel, aluminum, power, and refineries recently, the
state holds the promise of becoming one of India's major
manufacturing hubs in the near future. In spite of having seen
decades of neglect by the government in New Delhi in the past, the
state could emerge as one of the most significant FDI destinations
in the world, rivalling
Shenzhen [深圳] in
China.
Orissa is also a major outsourcing destination for
IT (Information Technology) and IT services firms.

Geography

The capital of Orissa is
Bhubaneswar[ଭୁବନେଶ୍ବର], famed for its magnificent temples numbering around
a thousand is known as the Cathedral City. The city of
Puri is nearby on the coast of the
Bay of Bengal. Puri is a famous holy city and the site of the
annual festival of the deity Jagannath and is one of the four Dhams
(holy places) of
Hinduism.

The
Eastern Ghats range and the
Chota Nagpur plateau occupy the western and northern portions of
the state, while fertile alluvial plains occupy the coastal plain
and the valleys of the
Mahanadi,
Brahmani, and
Baitarani rivers, which empty into the Bay of Bengal. These
alluvial plains are home to intensive rice
cultivation.

One of the greatest benefits of Orissa ‘s vast expanses of
unspoilt natural landscape has been its ability to offer a protected
yet natural habitat to the state’s incredible wildlife. There are
many wildlife sancturies in Orissa. The Similipal Tiger Reserve is a
vast expanse of lush green forest with waterfalls, inhabited by
tigers, elephants, and other wildlife. The
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has been protecting estuarine
crocodiles since 1975.

Chilka Lake, a brackish water coastal lake on the
Bay of Bengal, south of the mouth of the
Mahanadi River, is the largest coastal lake in India. It is
protected by the Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary, which harbors over 150
migratory and
resident
species of
birds.

Culture

The official language of the state, spoken by the vast majority
of the people is Oriya [ଓଡ଼ିଆ]. Oriya
belongs to the
Indo-Aryan branch of the
Indo-European
language family. It is very closely related to
Bengali [বাংলা ] and
Assamese [অসমীয়া]. A few tribal languages belonging to the
Dravidian and
Munda language families are still spoken by the
Adivasis (original inhabitants) of the state. The state has a
very opulent cultural heritage, one of the richest in India,
and the capital city of
Bhubaneswar is known for the exquisite temples that dot its
landscape. The famous classical dance form, Odissi
originated from Orissa. Odissi
music is considered to be an offshoot of the
Hindustani classical music of northern India, although some
aspects of Odissi
are quite distinct. There are many other popular cultural interests
include the well known Jagannatha Temple in Puri, known for its
annual Rath Yatra or Chariot Festival, the unique and beautiful
applique artwork of Pipili, silver filigree ornamental works from
Cuttack, the Patta chitras (silk paintings) and various
tribal influenced cultures.

Contemporary Orissa has a proud cultural heritage that arose due
to the intermingling of three great religious traditions -
Hinduism,
Buddhism and
Jainism. It has been further enriched by Islam
and
Christianity. The culture of the Adivasis (the original
inhabitants of India) is an integral part of modern Orissan
heritage.

History

Orissa has a history spanning a period of over 3000 years. In
ancient times, it was the proud kingdom of
Kalinga. Kalinga was a major seafaring nation that controlled
and traded with most of the sea routes in the Bay of Bengal. For
several centuries, a substantial part of South Asia & Southeast Aa]]
known as
Angkor Wat is a fine example of Orissan-influenced Indian
architecture, with asia, such as
Sri Lanka,
Cambodia,
Java,
Sumatra,
Bali,
Vietnam and
Thailand were colonized by people from Orissa. In
Malaysia, Indians are still referred as
Klings because of this. Many illustrious Sri Lankan kings such
as
Nisanka Malla and
Parakarama Bahu claim Kalinga origin. The King who destroyed the
Sinhalese Buddhist control of Northern Sri Lanka and established
a Hindu Kingdom in Jaffna [யாழ்ப்பாணம]
was known as Kalinga Magha. One theory holds that the name of the
country "Siam" [สยาม] for
Thailand is derived from Oriya/Sanskrit Shyamadesha. The
Angkor Wat in
Cambodia is Orissan, with local variations. Bali in Indonesia
still retains its Orissan-influenced Hindu heritage.

A major turning point in world history took place in Orissa. The
famous Kalinga war that led emperor Asoka
to embrace non-violence and the teachings of Buddha
was fought here in 261 BC. Later on, Asoka was instrumental in
spreading Buddhist philosophy all over Asia.

In the second century BC, Kalinga flourished as a powerful
kingdom under the Jaina
king, Kharavela. He ruled all the way down south to include parts of
the
Tamil country. It is he who was built the superb monastic caves
at Udayagiri and Khandagiri. Subsequently, the kingdom was ruled
under various monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Sasanka. It also
was a part of Harsha's empire. In 795 AD, the king Yayati united
Kalinga, Kosala and Utkala into a single empire. He also built the
famous Jagannath temple at Puri. King Narasimha Dev is reputed to
have built the magnificent Sun Temple in Konark. Although now
largely in ruins, the temple may have rivaled the
Taj Mahal in splendour.

The dynasties that ruled Orissa beginning in the third century BC
included:

Murundas Dynasty

Matharas Dynasty

Nala Dynasty

The Vigrahas and the Mudgalas

Sailodbhava Dynasty

Bhaumakaras Dynasty

Nandodbhavas Dynasty

Somavamsis Dynasty

The Eastern Gangas

Suryavamsi Dynasty

The
Moslems Kala Pahada(The converted Muslim) with the help Suleman
Karrani of Bengal
occupied Orissa in 1568 after defeating the last Hindu king
Mukundadeva.

The
Moguls [دولتِ مغل] conquered Bengal and Orissa in 1576; however, Orissa was
subsequently ceded to the
Marathas in 1751.

In 1803, the British under the
British East India Company occupied Orissa after the
Second Anglo-Maratha War. In 1823, Orissa was divided into the
three districts of
Cuttack,
Balasore and
Puri,
and a number of native tributary states. Orissa was administed as
part of the
Bengal Presidency. Following famine and floods in 1866, large
scale
irrigation projects were undertaken in the last half of the 19th
century. The coastal section was separated from Bengal and made into
the
Province of Bihar and Orissa in 1912, in response to local
agitation for a separate state for Oriya-speaking
peoples. In 1936, Bihar [बिहार]
and Orissa separated into separate provinces.

Following Indian independence, the area of Orissa was almost
doubled and the population was increased by a third by the addition
of 24 former
princely states. In 1950, Orissa became a constituent state in
the
Union of India.

Economy

Orissa's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at
$18 billion in current prices.

Following India's independence, Orissa has not been a focus of
investment by the central governments in
New Delhi, causing its infrastructure and educational standards
to lag behind the rest of the nation. About 20% of the road network
is paved. In rural areas over 65% of the
population have no access to safe drinking water.

Orissa has abundant natural resources and a large coastline. It
contains a fifth of India's coal, a
quarter of its
iron ore, a third of its
bauxite reserves and most of the
chromite! It is receiving unprecedented investments in steel,
aluminium, power, refineries and ports. India's topmost IT
consulting firms, including
Satyam Computer Services,TCS
(Tata Consultancy Services) and
Infosys have large branches in Orissa.

Orissa is projected to become one of the industrial powerhouses
of India in a decade's time. Recently 43 companies have lined up to
set up mammoth steel plants in the state, including POSCO of
South Korea which has agreed to construct a mammoth $12 billion
steel plant, which would be the largest investment in India in
history. The state is attracting huge investments in aluminum,
coal-based power plants, and petrochemicals. Although
Paradip is Orissa's only large port, the coastal towns of Dhamra
and Gopalpur are being developed into major ports as well. The
government of India has selected the coastal region of Orissa,
stretching from
Paradip in the north to
Gopalpur in the south to be developed as one of the five or six
Special Economic Regions (SERs) of the country with world class
infrastructure for rapid economic growth along the lines of the
Rotterdam, Houston, and Pudong regions.

The state also has huge tourism potential. It is blessed with
beautiful beaches and pristine forests containing exotic wildlife.
The landscape is dotted with temples and ancient monuments.

Demographics

Orissa has a
population of 32 million. About 87% of the
population live in the
villages and one third of the rural
population does not own any land other than homesteads.

The aborgines or tribes, known as
Adivasis, constitute 24% of the population, belonging to 62
different ethnic communities. Their traditional way of life centers
around the forest
ecosystem. Over the years collection of forest produce,
hunting and persuasion of other traditional ways of living have
become increasingly difficult, influencing socio-cultural life.
Issues with modernisation and industrial activities, such as mining,
construction of dams,
roads,
railways have grown to become a concern affecting their very
traditional livelihood and have displaced the Adivasi communities.

Religion, temples, and festivals

Perhaps the most well-known temple in Orissa is the Konark
Temple. This is also known as the Sun Temple and is famous for its
exquisite Orissan style of architecture. The Konark temple was built
in the 13th century A.D. It includes in its decoration many
vignettes of military life. The thousands of elephants marching
around the base of the temple are not figments of the imagination.
Rather, they demonstrate pride in the superb war elephants for which
Orissa was famous.

Another well known temple in Orissa is the Jagannath Temple,
which was built in the 12th Century A.D. It is located in Puri and
is associated with the Ratha Jatra (Chariot Festival) celebrated all
over northern India. Every year millions of devotees come to Puri
during the Ratha Jatra. It is a festival during which the three
deities, Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are brought out of the
Jagannath temple in chariots to tour the streets, providing a
glimpse to the thousands of devotees who throng the street.

The capital city of Bhubaneswar has some magnificent temples,
including the Lingaraja temple, and the Mukteswar temple. Maa
Charchika's Temple at Banki is one of the Shakta place of worship.
It is situated on Ruchika parbat near the Renuka river, in a place
called Banki near the two major cities, Cuttack and Bhubaneswar. The
Sunadei temple on the bank of river Mahanadi is an Orissan landmark.

Interesting facts about the state

The world's oldest coins were discovered in Sonepur, in
western Orissa. These priceless silver punch marked coins could
be as old as 1000 BC. They are preserved in the Orissa State
Museum.

Rasgolla, the sweet delicacy enjoyed all over India,
originated from Puri, Orissa. It became popular in Kolkata in
the nineteenth century and eventually spread across the rest of
the country.

The ancient people of
Kalinga sided with the
Kauravas during the great
Mahabharata war.

The city of Sambalpur in western Orissa was one of the
world's most prominent centers of diamond production. Travelers
from lands as far away as Greece used to visit the city.

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, was born and grew up in Cuttack
city in Orissa.

Bhubaneswar, the capital city was the home of over 600
magnificent temples in medieval times. It is called the "temple
city" of India.

Puri is one of the four Dhams - Hindu centers of pilgrimage.
Every year, millions throng all over Puri to witness the famous
Rath Yatra.

The Sinhala (people of Sri Lanka) are named after Raja Jai
Sinha, an ancient Oriya king.

The Jagannath temple kitchen in Puri is reputed to be the
largest kitchen in the world, with 400 cooks working around 200
hearths to feed over 10,000 people each day.

Politics

The state is governed by a chief minister and cabinet responsible
to an elected unicameral legislature and by a governor appointed by
the president of India.

Education

Orissa is home to many colleges and universities, deemed and
otherwise.

The ruins of a major ancient university and center of Buddhist
learning, Ratnagiri, was recently discovered in Orissa. Scholars
from far away lands, such as Greece, Persia and China used to study
philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and science at this famed
University. Taxila, Nalanda and Ratnagiri are the oldest
universities in the world. The ruins of Ratnagiri University have
not been fully excavated yet."

One of the four chief kingdoms of India at the
time of the Buddha, the others being Kosala, the kingdom of the Vamsas
and Avanti. Magadha formed one of the sixteen
Mahājanapadas and had its capital at Rājagaha or Giribbaja where Bimbisāra, and
after him
Ajātasattu, reigned. Later,
Pātaliputta became the capital. By the time of Bimbisāra, Anga, too, formed a
part of Magadha, and he was known as king of Anga Magadha (see, e.g.,
Vin.i.27 and ThagA.i.544, where Bimbisāra sends for Sona Kolivisa, a
prominent citizen of Campā, capital of Anga). But prior to that,
these were two separate kingdoms, often at war with each other (e.g.,
J.iv.454f).

Several kings of Magadha are mentioned by name in the Jātakas -
e.g., Arindama and
Duyyodhana. In one story (J.vi.272) the Magadha kingdom is said to have been
under the suzerainty of Anga. In the Buddha's day, Magadha (inclusive
of Anga) consisted of eighty thousand villages (Vin.i.179) and had a
circumference of some three hundred leagues (DA.i.148).

Ajātasattu succeeded in annexing Kosala with the help of the Licchavis,
and he succeeded also in bringing the confederation of the latter
under his sway; preliminaries to this struggle are mentioned in the
books (e.g., D.ii.73f., 86).

Under Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu, Magadha rose to such political
eminence that for several centuries, right down to the time of Asoka,
the history of Northern India was practically the history of Magadha.
(A list of the kings from Bimbisāra to Asoka is found in Dvy.369 ;
cp. DA.i.153; Mbv.96, 98).

At the time of the Buddha, the kingdom of Magadha was bounded on
the east by the river Campā (Campā flowed between Anga and Magadha;
J.iv.454), on the south by the Vindhyā Mountains, on the west by the
river Sona, and on the north by the Ganges. The latter river formed
the boundary between Magadha and the republican country of the
Licchavis, and both the Māgadhas and the Licchavis evidently had
equal rights over the river. When the Buddha visited Vesāli,
Bimbisāra made a road five leagues long, from Rājagaha to the river,
and decorated it, and the Licchavis did the same on the other side.
DhA.iii.439 f.; the Dvy. (1p.55) says that monks going from Sāvatthi
to Rājagaha could cross the Ganges in boats kept either by
Ajātasattu or by the Licchavis of Vesāli.

During the early Buddhist period Magadha was an important
political and commercial centre, and was visited by people from all
parts of Northern India in search of commerce and of learning. The
kings of Magadha maintained friendly relations with their neighbours,
Bimbisāra and Pasenadi marrying each other's sisters. Mention is
made of an alliance between Pukkusāti, king of Gandhāra and
Bimbisāra. When
Candappajjota of Ujjeni was suffering from jaundice, Bimbisāra sent him his own
personal physician, Jīvaka.

In Magadha was the real birth of Buddhism (see, e.g., the words
put in the mouth of Sahampatī in Vin.i.5, pātur ahosi Magadhesu
pubbe dhammo, etc.), and it was from Magadha that it spread after
the Third Council. The Buddha's chief disciples,
Sāriputta and
Moggallāna, came from Magadha.

In Asoka's time the income from the four gates of his capital
of
Pātaliputta was four hundred thousand kahāpanas daily, and in the Sabhā, or
Council, he would daily receive another hundred thousand kahāpanas
(Sp.i.52). The cornfields of Magadha were rich and fertile
(Thag.vs.208), and each Magadha field was about one gāvuta in extent.
Thus AA.ii.616 explains the extent of Kakudha's body, which filled
two or three Māgadha village fields (A.iii.122).

Buddhaghosa says (SNA.i.135 f ) that there are many fanciful
explanations (bahudhā papañcanti) of the word Magadha. One such is
that king Cetiya, when about to be swallowed up by the earth for
having introduced lying into the world, was thus admonished by those
standing round - "Mā gadham pavisa;” another that those who were
digging in the earth saw the king, and that he said to them: " Mā
gadham karotha." The real explanation, accepted by Buddhaghosa
himself, seems to have been that the country was the residence of a
tribe of khattiyas called Magadhā.

The Magadhabhāsā is regarded as the speech of the āriyans (e.g.,
Sp.i.255). If children grow up without being taught any language,
they will spontaneously use the Magadha language; it is spread all
over Niraya, among lower animals, petas, humans and devas
(VibhA.387f).

The people of Anga and Magadha were in the habit of holding a
great annual sacrifice to Māha Brahmā in which a fire was kindled
with sixty cartloads of firewood. They held the view that anything
cast into the sacrificial fire would bring a thousand fold reward.
SA.i.269; but it is curious that in Vedic, Brāhmana and Sūtra
periods, Magadha was considered as outside the pale of Ariyan and
Brahmanical culture, and was therefore looked down upon by
Brahmanical writers. But it was the holy land of the Buddhists. See
VT.ii.207; Thomas: op. cit., 13, 96.

Magadha was famous for a special kind of garlic (Sp.iv.920) and
the Magadha nāla was a standard of measure. (E.g., AA.i.101).

Magadha (मगध) was an ancient
Indo-Aryan kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. It was also one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha,
having risen to power during the reigns of Bimbisara (c. 544-491 BCE)
and his son
Ajatashatru (c. 491-460 BCE). The core of the kingdom was that portion of Bihar
lying south of the Ganges, with its capital at Rajagriha (modern
Rajgir). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and much of Bengal
with the conquest of Anga, and then expanded up the Ganges valley
annexing Kosala and Kashi. Magadha formed one of the sixteen
so-called
Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit, 'great country'). The Magadha empire included
republican communities such as Rajakumara. Villages had their own
assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their
administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military
functions. Bimbisara was friendly to both Jainism and Buddhism and
suspended tolls at the river ferries for all ascetics after the
Buddha was once stopped at the Ganges River for lack of money.

History

There is little certain information available on the early rulers
of Magadha. The most important sources are the Buddhist Chronicles
of Sri Lanka, the Puranas, and various Buddhist and Jain holy texts.
Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the
Śiśunāga dynasty for some 200 years, c. 550 - 350 B.C.E. The Śiśunāga dynasty
was overthrown by Ugrasena Mahāpadma Nanda, the first of the
so-called nine Nandas (a.k.a. the Nanda or Nava Nanda dynasty). He
was followed by his eight sons, whose names were (according to the
Mahābodhivamsa) Panduka, Pandugati, Bhūtapāla, Ratthapāla,
Govisānaka, Dasasiddhaka, Kevatta, and Dhana Nanda. According to the
Sri Lankan Chronicles, the Nanda dynasty was in power for mere 22
years, while the Puranas state that Mahāpadma ruled for 28 years and
his eight sons for only 12.

King Bimbisara of the Shishunaga dynasty led an active and
expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West
Bengal.

Siddhartha Gautama himself was born a prince of Kapilavatthu in Kosala
around 563 BCE. As the scene of many incidents in his life, Magadha
was a holy land.

After the death of Bimbisara at the hands of his son,
Ajatashatru, the widowed princess of Kosala also died of grief, causing King
Prasenajit to revoke the gift of Kashi and triggering a war between Kosala and
Magadha.
Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army; but in a peace
treaty he, his army, and Kashi were restored to Magadha, and he
married Prasenajit's daughter.

Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of Ajatashatru's war
with the
Licchavi republic. It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister, who for three
years worked to undermine the unity of the Licchavis at Vaishali. To
launch his attack across the Ganga River (Ganges), Ajatashatru had
to build a fort at a new capital called
Pataliputra, which the Buddha prophesied would become a great center of commerce.
Torn by disagreements the Licchavis were easily defeated once the
fort was constructed. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new
weapons – a catapult and a covered chariot with swinging mace that
has been compared to modern tanks.

In 326 BCE, the army of
Alexander the Great approached the boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted
and frightened by the prospect of facing another giant Indian army
at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and
refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his
officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return, and
turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean.

Magadha was also the seat of the
Mauryan Empire, founded by
Chandragupta, which extended over nearly all India under Asoka; and, later, of
the powerful Gupta
Empire. The capital of the Mauryan Empire,
Pataliputta (modern Patna), was begun as a Magadhan fortress and became the
capital sometime after Ajatashatru's reign. Chandragupta destroyed
the Nanda dynasty around 321 BCE, and became the
first king of the great Mauryan Empire.

Kings of Magadha

A list of kings according to the Sri Lankan
Chronicles follows:

Bimbisāra (ruled for 52 years)

Ajātaśatru (32 years; The Buddha is thought to have died in
the 8th year of Ajātaśatru's reign.)

Udāyin or Udāyibhadra (16 years)

Anuruddha (c. 4 years)

Munda (c. 4 years)

Nāgadāsaka (24 years)

Śiśunāga (18 years)

Kālāśoka (28 years)

Ten sons of Kālāśoka, Nandivardhana being the most prominent
(22 years). The names for the other eight are given in the
Mahābodhivamsa as follows: Bhaddasena, Korandavanna, Mangura,
Sabbañjaha, Jālika, Ubhaka, Sañjaya, Korabya, and Pañcamaka.

The Puranas give a rather different list with long reigns, making
the
Śiśunāga dynasty 321 years long:

Śiśunāga (ruled for 40 years)

Kākavarna (26 years)

Ksemadharman (36 years)

Ksemajit or Ksatraujas (24 years)

Bimbisāra (28 years)

Ajātaśatru (27 years)

Darśaka (24 years)

Udāyin (33 years)

Nandivardhana (40 years)

Mahānandin (43 years)

This article incorporates text from the
Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the
public domain."

"Bihar (बिहार in Devanagari) is a
state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the
country. Its capital is Patna [पटना]. Etymologically, the name
Bihar derives from the Sanskrit Vihara which means abode.
The Buddhist Vihara, which were the abode of the Buddhist monks,
dotted the area in the ancient and medieval periods.

To Bihar's north is the Kingdom of Nepal [नेपाल
अधिराज्य]. On its other three sides Bihar is surrounded by the
Indian states of Uttar Pradesh [Hindi: उत्तर प्रदेश, Urdu: اتر پردیش]
to the west, Jharkhand [झारखंड] to the south and West Bengal [পশ্চিম
বঙ্গ] to the east. Bihar lies in the very fertile Gangetic plains.
Culturally, it is a part of the Hindi [हिन्दी] heartland of India.
Bihar has the notorious reputation of being India's most lawless
state.

History

Ancient

Bihar has a very rich history. It was called
Magadha in ancient times. Its capital Patna, then known as
Pataliputra, was the center of the Mauryan empire, which dominated
the Indian subcontinent from 325 BC to 185 BC. Emperor Ashoka was
the most famous ruler of this dynasty. Bihar remained an important
place of power, culture and education during the next one thousand
years. The Vikramshila and Nalanda Universities, now defunct, were
one of the oldest and best centres of education.

Religions Originating in Bihar

Bihar is the birthplace of many religions,
including Buddhism and Jainism. Buddha attained Enlightenment at
Bodh Gaya [बोधगया], a town located in the modern day district of
Gaya [गया]. Mahavira [वर्धमान महावीर], the founder of Jainism, was
born in Vaishali. The word "Bihar" has its origin in the Sanskrit
word Vihara meaning Buddhist Monasteries. At one time these "viharas"
were strewn all over the landscape of Bihar, around villages and
cities.

Medieval

With the advent of foreign aggression and the
eventual foreign subjugation of India, the position of Bihar also
was adversely affected. Muhammad Bin Bakhtiar Khilji, a General of
Muhammad Ghori [محمد شہاب الدین غوری] captured Bihar in 12th
century. Bihar saw a brief period of glory for six years during the
rule of Sher Shah Suri [شیر شاه سورى], who was from Sasaram and
built the longest road of the Indian subcontinent, the Grand Trunk
Road, which starts from Calcutta [কলকাতা] and
ends at Peshawar [پیشاور] in Pakistan. During 1557-1576, Akbar [جلال
الدین محمد اکب], the Mughal [دولتِ مغل] emperor, annexed Bihar and
Bengal to his empire and made Bihar a part of Bengal. With the
decline of Mughals, Bihar passed under the control of the Nawabs
[نواب] of Bengal.

Modern

After the Battle of Buxar (1765), the British
East India Company obtained the diwani rights (rights to administer
and collect revenue, or tax administration / collection) for Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa. From this point onwards, Bihar remained a part
the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj until 1912, when Bihar was
carved out as a separate province. In 1935, certain portions of
Bihar were reorganised into the separate province of Orissa. Again,
in 2000, 18 administrative districts of Bihar were separated to form
the state of Jharkhand.

Babu Kunwar
Singh of Sasaram and his army, as well as countless other persons
from Bihar, contributed to the India's First War of Independence
(1857), also called the Sepoy Mutiny by some historians.

After his return from South Africa, Mahatma
Gandhi [મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી] started the freedom movement in India
by his satyagraha in the Champaran district of Bihar -- against the
British, who were forcing the local farmers to plant indigo which
was very harmful to the local soil. This movement by Mahatma Gandhi
received the spontaneous support of a cross section of people,
including Dr. Rajendra Prasad [डाक्टर राजेन्द्र प्रसाद], who
ultimately became the first President of India.

Timeline

560-480 BCE: Anga, Buddha

500 BCE: Foundation of world's first republic in Vaishali.

Before 325 BCE: Anga, Nanda clan in Magadha,
Licchavis in Vaishali

325-185 BCE: Maurya Dynasty

250
BCE: 3rd Buddhist Council

185 BCE-80 CE: Sunga Dynasty

80 -
240: Regional kings

240 - 600: Gupta Dynasty

600 -
650: Harsha Vardhana

750 - 1200: Pala Dynasty

1200:
Muhammad of Ghori's army, destroys the universities at Nalanda
and Vikramshila

2000: Bihar divided into two states -
north part remains "Bihar", southern becomes Jharkhand

Geography & climate

Geography Bihar is mainly a vast stretch of very fertile flat
land. It has several rivers: Ganga, Son, Bagmati, Kosi, Budhi
Gandak, and Falgu to name a few. Central parts of Bihar have some
small hills, for example the Rajgir hills. The Himalayan mountains
are to the north, in Nepal. To the south is the Chota Nagpur
plateau, which was part of Bihar until 2000 but now is part of a
separate state called Jharkhand.

Climate: Bihar is mildly cold in the winter (the lowest
temperatures being around 5 to 10 degrees Celsius; 41 to 50 degrees
Fahrenheit). Winter months are December and January. It is hot in
the summer (40 to 45 degrees Celsius; 104 to 114 degrees
Fahrenheit). April, May and the first half of June are the hot
months. The monsoon months of June, July, August, and September see
good rainfall. October, November, February, and March are very
pleasant months for climate.

Economy

Bihar's gross state
domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $19 billion in current
prices.

There was a division of Bihar in 2000, when
the industrially advanced and mineral-rich southern-half of the
state was carved out to form the separate state of Jharkhand. Since
then, the main economic activity of Bihar has been agriculture. The
new Bihar state produces about 60% of the output of the old Bihar
state.

Bihar is among the least developed states of
India and has a per capita income of $94 a year against India's
average of $255. A total of 42.6% live below the poverty line
against India's average of 26.1%. The blame for this stems from many
factors: a historical neglect from the center of Indian power, lack
of vision of the political classes, and inadequate investments in
agriculture, infrastructure and education. Many people believe that
mis-rule, caste-dominated politics and rampant corruption by
politicians have been the cause of the poverty in the state.

The economy is mainly based on agricultural and
trading activities. The vast swath of extremely fertile land makes
it ideal for agriculture. Despite a number of rivers and good
fertile soil, investment in irrigation and other agriculture
facilities has been grossly inadequate. Agriculture is mainly
dependent upon the vagaries of the nature.

Recently the dairy industry has picked up very
well in Bihar. There also have been some attempts to industrialize
the state: an oil refinery in Barauni, a motor scooter plant at
Fatuha, a power plant at Muzaffarpur and some agriculture-based
industries such as sugar and vegetable oil. However no sustained
effort has been made in this direction, and there is little success
in its industrialization.

Government & politics

Nominally Bihar is headed by a Governor, who is
appointed by the President of India. The real executive power rests
with the Chief Minister and the cabinet. The political party or the
coalition of political parties having a majority in the Legislative
Assembly forms the Government.

The head
of the bureaucracy of the State is called the Chief Secretary. Under
him is a hierarchy of officials drawn from the Indian Administrative
Service, Indian Police Service, and different wings of the State
Civil Services.

The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice.
Bihar has a High Court which has been functioning since 1916.

All the branches of the government are located
in the state capital, Patna.

See List of political parties in the state

Administrative

The state is
divided into 9 divisions and 37 districts, for administrative
purposes.

See also

Divisions of Bihar

Districts of Bihar

Transport & travel

Bihar has
three airports - Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport, Patna, Bhagalpur
Airport and Gaya. Patna airport is connected to Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Lucknow, and Ranchi. It is categorised as a restricted
international airport, with customs facilities to receive
international chartered flights. Gaya airport is a small
international airport connected to Colombo and Bangkok.

Bihar is well-connected by railway lines to the
rest of India. Most of the towns are interconnected among
themselves, and they also are directly connected to Kolkata, Delhi
and Mumbai. Patna, Bhagalpur and Gaya are Bihar's best-connected
railway stations.

The state has a vast
network of National and State highways. However the roads are not in
good condition.

For Buddhist pilgrims, the best option for
travel to Bihar is to reach Patna or Gaya, either by air or train,
and then travel to Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir and Vaishali. Sarnath
in Uttar Pradesh also is not very far.

Chhath, also called Dala Chhath - is a
major festival in Bihar, and is celebrated a week after
Deepawali. Chhath is the worship of the Sun God. Wherever people
from Bihar have migrated, they have taken with them the
tradition of Chhath, and now this festival is known even in a
metropolis like Calcutta, or New Delhi or Mumbai. Teej and
Chitragupta Puja are other local festivals celebrated with
fervour in Bihar.

Among other festivals the Shravani Mela of Sultanganj is of
great importance. Shravani Mela is organised every year in
July-August. Bihula-Bishari Puja of Anga region also is a great
festival of Bihar.

Sonepur cattle fair held approx 15 days after diwali is the
largest cattle fair in Asia

Bihar has a very old tradition of beautiful
folk songs, sung during important family occasions, such as marriage,
birth ceremonies, festivals, etc. They are sung mainly in group
settings without the help of any musical instruments.

Bihar also has a tradition of lively Holi
songs, filled with fun rhythms.

During the 19th century, when the condition
of Bihar worsened as a rule British misrule, many Biharis had to
migrate as indentured labourers to West Indian islands, Fiji, and
Mauritius. During this time many sad plays and songs called biraha
became very popular, in the Bhojpur area, and dramas on that theme
continue to be popular in the theaters of Patna.

Angika is the only one of the languages which can be used in the
Google Search Engine, Google-Angika has been available since 2004.
The oldest poetry of the Hindi language (e.g., poetries written by
Saraha, also known by the name
Sarahapa, were written in the Angika language during the
8th century.

Devaki Nandan Khatri, who rose to fame at the beginning of the
20th century on account of his novels such as
Chandrakanta and Chandrakanta Santati, was born in
Muzaffarpur, Bihar.

Vidyapati the great Maithli Poet, son
of ganga has contributed in various direction of maithili
literature, also has composed the most popular songs of all time

Folk Theatre

Theatre is another form in which the Bihari
culture expresses itself. Some forms of theater with rich traditions
are Reshma-Chuharmal, Bihula-Bisahari, Bahura-Gorin, Raja Salhesh,
Sama Chakeva, and Dom Kach. All of these theatre forms originate in
the Anga or
Ang area of Bihar.

Cinema

Bihar has a robust cinema industry for the
Bhojpuri language. There also is a small Maithili film industry.

Multimedia Films:
AUPS MULTIMEDIA is working on various multimedia projects on
glorious culture and life style of Bihar. The ancient golden history
of Bihar has to be shown via Film, Documentary and Multimedia Films.

The cuisine of Bihar is predominantly
vegetarian. However unlike Gujarat or some communities of the South,
non-vegetarian food has been acceptable in the society of Bihar, as
well, with even some sects of
Brahmins such as the
Mithila accepting fish as a food item. Traditional Bihar society
did not eat eggs and chicken, although other types of birds and
fowls were acceptable.

The staple food is “bhat, dal, roti, tarkari
and achar”, prepared basically from rice, lentils, wheat flour,
vegetables, and pickle. The traditional cooking medium is
mustard oil. "Kichdi", a broth of rice and lentils seasoned with
spices and served with several accompanying items, constitutes lunch
for Biharis on Saturdays.

Chitba and Pitthow which are prepared basically from rice, are special
foods of the Anga region.
Tilba and
Chewda of
Katarni rice also are special preparations of Anga.

Several other traditional salted snacks and
savouries popular in Bihar are Chiwra, Dhuska, Litti, Makhana and
Sattu.

There is a distinctive Bihari flavor to the
non-vegetarian cooking, as well, although some of the names of the
dishes may be the same as those found in other parts of north India.
Roll is a typical Bihar non-vegetarian dish. These are popular and
go by the generic name "Roll Bihari", in and around Lexington Avenue
(South) in New York City.

Historically, Bihar has been a major centre
of learning, home to the universities of
Nalanda (one of the earliest institutes in India) and
Vikramshila. Modern Bihar has an acutely-inadequate educational
infrastructure, creating a problem compounded by a growing
population. This has prompted many students to seek educational
opportunities in other states, such as
New Delhi and
Karnataka, especially for college education.

Bihar has the highest
illiteracy rate in India, with women's literacy being only 33.57
%. With the exception of a few leading private schools, the overall
standard of education in Bihar today is considered to be poor.

AUPS MULTIMEDIA is working for the betterment of education and
implementing technology in education in Bihar. Proper use of modern
science, technology and managemnet of the western world in
accordance with Indian culture and civilization will produce the
capable mind which can help and handle to manage the global world
with peace and can also support the balanced developement with the
spirit of VASUDHAIV KUTUMBKAM.

Schools

Bihar has a system of district schools
(called Zila schools), located at the headquarters of older
districts of Bihar. During the early 1980s the state government took
over management of most privately-run schools, and accorded them
government recognition. As in other states, the central government
runs a number of
Kendriya Vidyalayas (Central Schools) and
Jawahar Navodaya Schools for rural students. Private schools,
including school-chains and
Missionary Schools, also exist. Most of the government-run
schools in Bihar are affiliated with the Bihar School Examination
Board, whereas most of the private schools are affiliated with the ICSE
and CBSE
boards."

"Gujarat (Gujarati:
ગુજરાત, Hindi:
गुजरात,
Gujarāt, IPA
[guɟra:t];
also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath). Guzarat
is a Western phonetic corruption, and is not considered an official
term. Gujarat contains many of the former Princely states of India,
and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India
after Maharashtra. Gujarat borders Pakistan, and the states of
Rajasthan to the north-east, Madhya Pradesh to the east, Maharashtra
and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south. The
international border with Pakistan is to the north-west. The Arabian
Sea makes up the state's western coast. Its capital is Gandhinagar,
a planned city which is close to Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], the former
state capital and the current commercial center of Gujarat.

History

Gujarat Civilization begins as the Indus Valley
Civilization

Situated on the western
coast of India, the name of the state is derived from Gujjarātta
(Gurjar Rāshtra), which means the land of the Gujjars or Khazars. It
is believed that a tribe of Gujjars migrated to India around the 5th
century. The history of Gujarat, however, began much earlier.
Settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the
Harappan Civilization, have been found in the area now known as
Gujarat. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch,
served as ports and trading centres for the Maurya and Gupta empires.
After the collapse of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat
flourished as an independent Hindu kingdom. The Maitraka dynasty,
descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th
centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled
briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sind
sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. A
branch of the Pratihara clan ruled Gujarat after the eighth century.
In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat
from Iran.

960 AD to 1292 AD

The Solanki clan of Rajputs ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243.
Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital
at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with a
population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the
famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni [محمود
غزنوی]. After 1243, the Solkanis lost control of Gujarat to their
feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate
Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava
dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan.

1297 AD to ~1850 AD

In 1297 to 1298 Ala ud din Khilji [علاء الدین
خلجی], Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat
into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's [تیمور] sacking of Delhi at
the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's Muslim
governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son,
Sultan Ahmed Shah (ruled 1411 to 1442), established Ahmedabad as the
capital. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarat's most important trade
port. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when
the Mughal emperor Akbar [جلال الدین محمد اکب] conquered it and
annexed it to the Mughal Empire. It remained a province of the
Mughal empire until the Marathas conquered eastern and central
Gujarat in the 18th century; Western Gujarat (Kathiawar and Kutch)
were divided among numerous local rulers.

1614 to 1947

Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat,
acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman
and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company
established a factory in Surat [સુરત] in 1614, which formed their
first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay [मुंबई] after the
British acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested
control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second
Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads
of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British, and
acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local
self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of
Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a
direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to
1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and
northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into dozens of princely
states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat,
namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and Surat,
were ruled directly by British officials.

Indian Independence Movement

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic
participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma
Gandhi [મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી], Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel [સરદાર
વલ્લભભાઈ પટેલ], Morarji Desai [मोरारजी देसाई], K.M. Munshi,
Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas
all hailed from Gujarat. In addition, Mohammed Ali Jinnah [محمد على
جناح], Pakistan's first Governor-General, spoke Gujarati as his
mother tongue and his father was from what later became Gujarat.
Gujarat was also the site of some of the most popular revolts,
including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the
Salt Satyagraha.

Province Consolidation and Division after 1947

After India's independence in 1947, 217 princely
states of Kathiawar and Saurashtra, including the former kingdom of
Junagadh, were grouped together to form the province of Saurashtra,
with its capitol at Rajkot. On November 1, 1956, Saurashtra was
merged into Bombay State. The modern state of Gujarat was created on
May 1, 1960, out of the northern, predominantly Gujarati-speaking
portion of Bombay State. The southern, predominantly
Marathi-speaking portion became the state of Maharashtra
[महाराष्ट्र].

Post Independence

After Indian independence and the partition of India in 1947, the
new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat
into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former
princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state,
which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency
together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely
states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to
include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya
Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly
Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by
Marathi nationalists for their own state led to the split of Bombay
state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states
of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was
Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

In Gujarat a few new towns have been
established since Indian independence in 1947. Most of these are
more like settlements established near existing urban centres.
Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar are three rehabilitation
towns more like refugee settlements than self-sufficient towns. The
last two now form part of the city of Ahmedabad. Ankleswar and
Mithapur were two of the earlier industrial towns established in
Gujarat. A complex of three small townships for the oil refinery,
the Fertilizer Factory and Petro-chemicals plant also came up near
Vadodara. Kandla is the only new port town established in the state.

2001 Gujarat Earthquake

Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on
January 26, 2001 at 9:00, which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives,
injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40
million of the population. The economic and financial loss to
Gujarat and India is being felt even after almost half a decade.

2002 Gujarat Riots

The term 2002 Gujarat violence refers to the riots which were
triggered on February 27, 2002 by a vicious attack on a passenger
train, the Sabarmati Express, passing through the town of Godhra.
The train was forcibly stopped and attacked at Signal Falia near
Godhra Junction. Ladies Coach S6 bore the brunt of mob attack. In
the midst of attack, Coach S6 caught fire killing 59 passangers,
most of whom were women and children.

Many train passengers were Hindu activists
and pilgrims called Kar Sevaks returning from a disputed religious
site located in holy city of Ayodhya. The train was allegedly set to
fire by Muslim extremists. Hindu sympathisers often cite this as the
primary provocation or the "first use" of violence. However, Muslim
sympathisers allege that hindus riding the train were shouting
hindu-religious slogans. As a result, Muslims attacked the train.

Two years after the incident Railway Minister
Lalu Prasad Yadav appointed Justice Banerjee to investigate the
cause of fire. On the eve of election in Railway Minister's Native
State Bihar, Justice Banerjee submitted an interim report concluding
that the fire and attack are two separate events. It claimed, very
controversially, that the fire was likely started from within the
train, and not by a mob gathered outside the train This interim
report and Bin Laden Clones were used in Bihar Election to attract
Muslim votes. The Interim Report's credibilty is in serious doubt
due to timing of it's release and subsequent use in election
campaigning

Geography

Geography of Gujarat. Courtesy: NASA Earth Observatory

Gujarat is the westernmost state of India. It
is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and southwest, and
Pakistan to the north. The state of Rajasthan is to the northeast,
Madhya Pradesh to the east, and Maharashtra and the union territory
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south and southeast of Gujarat.

Climate & Natural Features

The relief is low in the most parts of the state
and involves diverse climate conditions. Though mostly dry, it is
desertic in the north-west, and wet in the southern districts due to
heavy monsoon season. With the construction of Sardar Sarovar on
Narmada River, a result of the largest dam in India, irrigation
facilities have improved immensely, with water being provided to the
most dry areas of Kutch and Saurashtra through a 550 km long canal,
an engineering marvel. With the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay,
Gujarat has about 1600 km of coastline, which is the longest
coastline of all Indian states.

Rivers

The major
rivers flowing through the state include the Narmada, Sabarmati, and
Mahi in central and northern Gujarat; Mithi, Khari, and Bhogavo in
Saurashtra; Tapi, Purna, Ambika, Auranga and Damanganga in the
southern part of the state.

National Parks

Gujarat is home to four National Parks, including Gir Forest
National Park, near Junagadh, Blackbuck National Park in Bhavnagar
District, Vansda National Park in Navsari District, and Marine
National Park on the Gulf of Kutch in Jamnagar District. The last
remaining Asian lions, famous for their dark black manes, live in
the area surrounding Girnar. In addition to these, there are twenty
one Wildlife sanctuaries.

Major Cities

The
major cities in Gujarat are Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], Vadodara (Baroda),
Surat [સુરત], Rajkot and Jamnagar. Ahmedabad, the commercial capital
of the state, is the sixth largest city of India. Other important
cities include Nadiad, Anand and Ankleshwar in central Gujarat,
Bharuch, Navsari, Vapi, and Valsad in the south; and Bhuj, and
Dwarka in Saurastra in the west."

Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon
or Lanka) is a
tropical island nation
off the
southeast coast of the Indian
subcontinent, about 31 kilometres (18.5 mi) south of India.
Many ancient Indian
Sanskrit and
Pali
texts refer to this island as
Sinhala or Simhaladvipa. The Arab
and the
Purtughese traders corrupted the name to Seilan Ceylone and
Ceilão etc. In English, the name is written as Sinhalese or
Singhalese. The Sinhala also refers to about 74% of the population
speaking the Sinhala language which belongs to the
Indo-Aryan family and is closely allied to the
Sanskrit,
Pali
and
Prakrit. The earliest colonists of Sri Lanka migrated from
northern India but controversy exists as to the provenance of the
early colonists; the traditions contain evidence for both the
northwestern and the northeastern parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
The first colonists, in all probability, hailed from the
Saurashtra in
Gujarat. Their ancestors are believed to have migrated earlier
from Sinhapura of upper Indus
near
Kamboja/Gandhara
region to the Saurashtra peninsula in
Gujarat via lower Indus. Before arriving in Sri Lanka, these
earliest known colonists called at
Soparaka located on the west coast of India and landed in Sri
Lanka at Tambapanni, near Puttalam on the day of on the day of
Parinibhana (decease) of the Buddha
(542 BCE or 486 BCE).

Ancient Kamboja : The Hub of Interantional Trade

Ancient Kambojas
were originally located in trans-Hindukush region in Pamirs and
Badakshan.
Later, sections of them crossed Hindukush
and occupied
Kunar and Swat
valleys north of river Kabol in
Cis-Hindukush area. With time, the trans-Hindukush section of the Kambojas
became known as
Parama-Kambojas while cis-Hindukush settlements became known as Kamboja
[1]. Important Caravan
routes such as the well known
Uttarapatha Caravan route (from Bahlika-Kamboja to
Pataliputra-Tamralipitika) and the
Kamboja Dvaravati Caravan route (from Kamboja to Dwaraka in Surashtra)
originated from Kamboja/Gandhara/Bahlika region which connected these
communities to eastern and western parts of ancient India. Third important
route originating from Kamboja is referred to by Sanskrit
poet
Kalidasa in his
Raghuvamsa and it ran from Pamir/Badakshan
to Trigarta, Rampur-Bushahar Kinnara, Nepal and to Kamarupa/Assam.[2]
After reaching west or east coast of India, the merchants from Gandhara,
Bahlika,
Kamboja,
Kashmira
were connected by sea routes to important places like Persian
gulf, southern India, Sri Lanka,
Burma and the
countries of the Far East. Ancient Buddhist text Petavathu, (Commentary)
also attests that ancient Kamboja was located on one of the great caravan
routes, and there was a road direct from Dvaraka to Kamboja
[3]. Besides, other Caravan routes leading to Persia in the
south-west, to Blacksea in the north-west, to Siberi in the north and to
China (china Silk route) in the north-east also joined at Kamboja/Bahlika
region. Thus the Kamboja indeed formed the hub of international trade. This
is the reason some ancient references attest the Kambojas as a community of
traders.

Kautilya's
Arthashastra lists the Kambojas with
Saurashtras and says that same form of politico-economic
constitutions (varta-shastr.opajivin) obtained in these two ancient martial
republics. It attests both of them to be living by warfare,
trade,
agriculture and cattle-culture
[4]

The
Brhat-Samhita of
Varaha Mihira also attests that the Kambojas were a
shastra-vartta nation i.e living by warfare, trade, agriculture and
cattle-culture.
[5]

Mahabharata also verifies the fact that the Kambojas lived by
warfare and varta when it states the Kambojas to be “as terrible as
Yama” (i.e. god of death) in warfare and “as rich as Kubera”
(i.e. the god of treasure).
[6]

Shipping Communities from Northwest

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea makes mention of several sea ports
beginning with
Barbaricum at the mouth of river Indus,
followed by Barygaza (Bharukachcha, modern
Bharoch), Soparaka (Sopara),
Calliena (Kalyan) and Muziris (in Kerala) etc
all located along the the west coast of India southwards. Besides these more
important sea-ports, there were also lesser ports like Sindan, Dvaravati, Cambay (Khambat),
Kamboika (Kambojika
–a landlocked port) and the Gandhar
(near Bharukachcha) etc. The important international ports of Barbaricum,
Bharukachcha, Dvaravati, and Soparaka were easily accessible to the traders
from north-west for international trade and the merchants from Kamboja,
Gandhara,
Kashmira,
Sindhu,
Sauvira, and
Saurashtra used to sail from these ports on the country’s western coast.
Huge trade ships carrying merchandise from Kamboja, Gandhara, Kashmira,
Sindhu, Sovira, Saurashtra etc are said to have been launching from these
ports directly to southern India, Sri Lanka,
south Myanmar
and
Suvarnabhumi.
[3]. The ports of Gandhara
and Kamboika
located in south-east
Saurashtra probably also served as residential headquarters for the
traders from Gandhara
and Kamboja.

Early
Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners
including the Kambojas, Kashmiras, Gandharas as being involved in trade in
horses
[7].

There is a Buddhistic
reference to a trader and Arhant named Bahya who was native of
Bharukachcha (modern Bhroach) in south-east Sauarashta/Gujarat
[8]. He engaged himself in trade, voyaging in a sea ship. Seven
times he sailed down the river Indus and
across the sea and returned safely home. On the eighth occasion, while on
his way to
Suvarnabhumi, his ship was wrecked, and he floated ashore on a plank,
reaching land near Soparaka
[9]. This ancient Buddhist
evidence powerfully verifies that the trade ships plied regularly between
(1) upper Indus
countries of Kamboja, Gandhara, Kashmira group and the sea ports of
Bharukachcha and Soparaka and (2) from Bharukachcha/Soparaka to Sri Lanka,
Suvarnabhumi and probably further to the Far East.

Buddhist Jatakas
also amply attest that there was a regular trade between Bharukaccha,
Soparaka and Suvarnabhumi
[10]

Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboj were in active trade
with eastern India, southern India, western India and as far as Ceylon.
This trade had been going as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850
CE) of Bengal,
king Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala
dynasty (1106 - 1152 CE) of Mysore and
king Vallabhadeva of Pandya kingdom (12th century CE) located in extreme
southern tip of India, had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry.

Dr Don Martino observes: 'The traders from north-west Kamboja had been
conducting trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west coast of India
since remote antiquity'
[11].

Dr E. Muller also says: "… (with time) the Kambojas had adopted the Mussalman
creed and used to trade all along the west coast of India from
Persian Gulf down to Ceylone
and probably further-east…"
[12]

'The diffusion of Indian Civilization and its "great tradition" to the
extreme south of the peninsula
occurred in the earliest stages not by land but by sea......In the half
millennium before Christ
there was sea traffic between the coasts of Gujarat
and Sind [Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ], and Ceylon,
which laid the basis for the development of civilization in that island......
The earliest attractions of the far southern coasts were pearls and gems,
which brought merchants, and ultimately the script, religions and the
dynastic traditions.....Hiun
Tsang refers to the international trading activities of the Simhalas and
several early Brahmi inscriptions in Ceylon
mention the
Kamboja merchants in Sinhala'
[13].

Kambojas in Sri Lanka

Inscriptional,
archaological and literary evidence exists which sufficientlt proves
that the
merchant class from Kambojas,
Yonas and some other
communities of northwest had reached Sri Lanka and settled there
centuries prior to Christian
era.

Inscriptional Evidence

Sinhalese
inscriptions from Koravakgala at Situlpahuwa in the Hambantota district
contain the word "Kaboja"' (Sanskrit:
Kamboja)
[14]. Another
epigraphic inscription found from Kaduruvava in Kurunagala District
attest the existence of one 'Kamboja Sangha' (Gote-Kabojhyana)
[15]. There is yet another important cave inscription located in
Bovattagala in
Anuradhapura which attests one 'Grand Trade Guild of the Kambojas' (Kabojhya
Mahapugyana)
[16]. A Mediaeval era Inscription found from Polonnaruva in 1887
near Vishnu Temple
relates to Maharaja Kalinglankeshwara Bahu Veer-raja Nissanka-Malla
Aprati Malla Chakravarati who caused one Charity House to be constructed
and named after him as Nissankamalla-Daan-Griha. The southern gate of
this Charity House is named as Kamboja Vasala.[17]
And lastly, an inscription relating to king Kirti-Nissanka Malla (1187-96)
was found in 1884 AD at Ruvanveli Dagva in
Anuradhapura
[18] which refers to a group of people called Kambodjin
whom the scholars have linked to the Kamboja
group which had embraced Muslim
faith during mediaeval age.[19]

These ancient Brahmi
inscriptions sufficiently attest that a 'Great Trade Corporation of the
Kambojiyas' (Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana) and a 'Sangha of the Kambojyas'
(Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na) were located in Sri Lanka. These inscriptions
additionally make reference to
republican titles or appellations like Praumaka (=Pramukha: i.e chief
of the Sanghas) and Gamika (=Gamini or Gramini, the village councilor,
the chieftain) of the Kambojiyas. The specialists have determined that
Kabojhiya, Kabojha or Kambodjin are corrupted forms of Sanskrit Kamboja
or Persian
Kambaujiya/Kambujiya.
Similarily, Gamika/Gamini is corruption of Sanskrit
Gramini or Gramaneya and Parumaka is a corruption of Sanskrit Pramukha.[20]

Scholars believe that these inscriptions date back to third or second
century BCE or earlier.
[21]
[22][23]
[24]
[25]. Scholars also say that the Kamboja of ancient Sinhalese
inscriptions can not be indicative of the Kambuja
of Indo-China since the later came into existence about 1000 years after the
date of these inscriptions
[26]

Literary Sources

There is
Buddhist reference to one Kamboja-gama i.e a village named
Kamboja in the
Rohana
province of
Anuradhapura. The Pali text
Sihalavatthu of about fourth century CE attests that a group of people
called the Kambojas were living in Rohana on the Island of
Tambapanni i.e Sri Lanka.
[27]
[28] 'In the past, the story goes, in the island of Tambapanni,
(also) called the
isle of Lanka, where the (three) Jewels were established, a certain
elder by the name of Maleyyadeva, famous for the excellence of his
supernatural power and knowledge, lived in Rohana province supported by (alms
given in) the village of Kamboja'
[29]

Buddhist text Sasanvamsa attests one Bhikshu
Tamalinda thera, son of Kamboja, living in ancient Sinhala.
[30]
[31]. It also attests that Kamboja king Srihamsya came from
Kamboja, took possession of the city of Ratanapura in south-west Sinhala and
slaughtered about three thousand Bhikshus
[32]
[33].

Ravana,
king of
Sri Lanka and the adversary of
Indo-Aryans is stated to have been a fan of raga
Kambhoji. Per
Tamil tradition, Ravana had once played this raga to praise god Siva.[34].
This south Indian tradition, though apparently rooted in mythology
still seems to hold a clue that the Kambojas colonists had influenced the
cultural and social lives of the ancient Sinhalese. This again verifies
ancient links of northwest Kambojas with Sri Lanka.

Several Iranian
records speak of an embassy
from Sri Lankan king to Iranian emperor Anusharwan (Ruled 531 AD-578 AD).
Sri Lankan king is reported to have sent the Persian
emperor ten elephants, two hundred thousand pierces of teakwood and seven
pearl divers. This again verifies the political and commercial intercourse
of the northwest with Sri Lanka.

Archeological Evidence

Sir James Fergussan observes that “the region of Kabol [کابل] (Kamboj),
Taxila
(Gandhar)
and
Kashmir had been, since ancient times, the center of snake-worship
which is evident from the wood and stone carvings found in this region"
[35]. Dr Fergussan further writes that "snake-worship has also
been practiced in ancient Sri Lanka . There are also ancient
inscriptions in Sri Lanka which attest the presence of Kambojas in the
island. One of the city-gate of Polonnaruva was named as
Kamboja-vassala. Evidence exists that there was a Naga-temple in
Polonnaruva. Besides, the archaological remains of ancient Naga-temples
have been found in other places in Sri Lanka also. Therefore, it is
probable that the Kambojas who had founded Kambuja colony
in Mekong had reached Indo-china via Sri Lanka”.[36]

The most famous and only known locale for
lapis lazuli since ancient times was in
Badakshan in north
Afghanistan which has been mined for over 6000 years. The Badakshan
province undoubtedly formed a part of ancient Kamboja (See:
Kamboja Location). Archeological finds of lapis lazuli (of Badakshan
type) from Sri Lanka conclusively connect it to Badakshan in
Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli. Numerous coins,
beads and
the
intaglios belonging to Bactria/Afghanistan
have also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Apart from lapis lazuli, coins
and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the
Kamboja/Gandhara/Bactria region are further revealed by other articles
of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A
fragment of a
Gandhara
Buddha
statute
in schist, (yet unpublished), was unearthed from the excavations at
Jetavanarama in
Anuradhapura. All these
archaeological finds conclusively establish a very close
relationship between Sri Lanka and the north-west communities,
especially, the Kambojans/Gandharans
of Afghanistan/Central
Asia.

Yavanas in Sri Lanka

That the
Kamboja
colonists did make it to Sri Lanka
is also proved from the fact that the Yavanas or
Yonas, their
neighbors in the north-west, are also attested to have founded a colony in
Sri Lanka centuries prior to Christian
era. If the Yavanas could do it, their immediate neighbors the Kambojas
could also do it. The Yavana presence in Sri Lanka is proved by the
following evidences:

Mahavamsa tradition asserts that King Pandukabhaya (ruled 337 BCE-305
BCE) built his capital city
Anuradhapura in the 4th century BCE. This city had gates, suburbs,
streets, places of worship and a separate place for the "Yonas" and the
house for Great Sacrifice; all these he laid out near the west gate.[37].
Mahavamsa also attests that Yona Mahadhammarakkhita came to Sri Lanka
with thirty thousand Yona monks to particiapate in the foundation ceremony
of Great Stupa at Anuradhapura
[38]. There are still more Buddhist
references testifying to the Yona presence in Sri Lanka
[39].

The above evidences amply prove that the Yavanas had reached Sri Lanka
centuries prior to Christian era---probably first as traders and later as Buddhist
missionaries. It also indicates that other nations like Persia[40],
Kashmira/Kamboja
etc were also similarly interacting with the Sinhalese.
The above several evidences---inscriptional and literary, incontrovertibly
prove that both the Kambojas and Yonas were actively intercoursing with Sri
Lanka. As seen from above, this intercourse was both missionary as well as
commercial.[41].

Ancestral Home of the Sinhalese

Mahavamsa Tradition

Mahavamsa
[42] attests that the ancestors
of the Sinhalese came from Sihapura (Sinhapura) located in Lala
Rattha (=Lata Rashtra).
Prince
Sihabahu had left his maternal grand father’s kingdom in Vanga and
founded a Sihapura in Lata Rashtra. He married Sihasivali and there were
born Vijaya and Sumitta and thirty more sons to her. With time, Sihabahu
consecrated Vijaya as prince-regent, but due to some misdemeanor of prince
Vijaya, the king had to banish him and his 700 followers from Sinhapura.
Story say that the king had caused their heads to be shaved (aradh-mundak)
before putting them on a ship and driving them away into the sea. The exiles
sailed past Bharukachcha and Soparaka
and finally landed at Tambapanni (Ceylon)
near Puttalam on the day of Parinibhana (decease) of the Buddha (542
BCE or 486 BCE). The exiles permanently settled on the island,
married local wives and established their kingdom which, in succeeding
generations, assumed the name as Sinhala, said to have been named after
Sinhapura, the ancestral city of the exiles. Read full story at:
[5]

Critical Review of Vijaya Legend

The Vijaya story is obviously unbelievable at its face value. However
some valuable information can be garnered. According to Mahavamsa,
Vanga princess,
the mother of Sihabahu was kidnapped when she was on way from Vanga to
Magadha. Divested of phantastic elements, the story indicates that the
wild kidnapper must have been living somewhere around Vanga, Kalinga
and Magadha.
Hence the Lala and Sihapura of prince Sihabahu must also be located some
where near
Magadha,
Kalinga and
Vanga. Chulavamsa does attest one Sinhapura located between Vanga
and Kalinga
[43]. It has been suggested to identify modern Singur of
Bengal with
Sinhapura and Lala with modern Rada (=western Bengal).
12th century Kalingavamsi king of Sri Lanka had announced that he came from
same Sinhapura where earlier prince Vijaya had come from[44].
All this evidence seems to connect the Sinhalese to east coast of India. But
if we accept that Vijaya and his party started their sea journey from some
sea-port of
Bengal, then it would be difficult to explain as to how the exiles had
passed, on their way to Sri Lanka, through Soparaka located on west cost of
India. The suggestion that Sihabahu, the son of a lion, had traveled all the
way from east coast to west coast to found a kingdom of Sihnhapura in Gujarat
is simply naive and also not validated from Mahavamsa details. Moreover, no
ancient evidence exists of a direct caravan route or else a direct
intercourse between Gujarat
and Bengal
in those ancient times. Since the Vanga princess was kidnapped on her way
from Vanga to Magadha, the kidnapper’s place of residence and therefore the
birth-place of king Sihabahu i.e Sihapura must lie somewhere close to Vanga
or Magadha and not in the far off Gujarat
about 1200 miles away. This simply does not sound probable. The gist of
the story is this: There are obvious contradictions in Mahavamsa
traditions. The geographical names which find place in the text do not help
us in reaching a definitive decision on the origin of the Sinhalese even
though the evidence is far more weighted in favor of the western coast of
India. Online
Encylopedia Britannica also observes as follows on Vijaya's arrival in
Sri Lanka: "Their landing in Sri Lanka at Tambapanni, near Puttalam,
would indicate their arrival from western India. Some early tribal names
occurring in Sri Lanka also suggest connections with northwestern India and
the Indus region. While considerable evidence points to western India as the
home of the first immigrants, it seems probable that a subsequent wave
arrived from the east around Bengal and
Orissa"
.
[45]
[46]

Location of Lata Rashtra

The ancestral home of Sinhalese, according to Mahavamsa tradition, was
Sihapura (Simhapura) in the Lala Rattha (Lata Rashtra)[47].
The name Lala (Lal) was applied in former times to Gujarat.
Its other variant is Lara or Lar. The ealy Arab
geographers called it Lar.
[48] It is the Larike of Ptolemy [Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος] .
According to Al Biruni [Persian: ابوریحان بیرونی;
Arabic: أبو الريحان البيروني],
Bhiroj (Bharukachcha) was the capital of Lardesh (Latadesh)
[49]. Lar seems to represent an old Sanskrit
name Lata (adj. Lataka, or Latika)
[50]
[51]. Ptolemy’s Larike is collocated with
Indo-Scythia situated in Indus delta. Larike
lied between the mouth of river Mahi and peninsula
of
Kathiawad
[52]. It extented from Bharoach to Gulf of Kachch
i.e modern
Gujarat. Ptolemy’s limits of Larike coincide with those with Lata-desa
of Sanskrit
texts (Apara-Malava-Pashcimena Lata-desa).
Jaina Bhagavati
Sutra
[53], also collocates Ladha with the Kachcha where Ladha obviously
is Lata . Bharukachcha has been stated as a beautiful city of Lada.
[54] The name Lathi of the former state of Kathiawad
preserves its earlier name.[55]
Lata desa is attested in 12th c AD Mysore
Inscriptions
[56]. Lata (=Ghata) is also attested in the 6th c
Garuda Purana which fixes it in south-west India as neighbor to the
Karanata, Ashmaka, Jimuta and Kamboja
(i.e this is the Kamboja
principality located in southern India somewhere)[57]

Thus Lala (Lara, or Lata) of ancient traditions is indeed the modern
Gujarat.

Location of Sinhapura

There is an
epic reference (MBH II.27.20) to one Simhapura kingdom
located on upper Indus
which shared borders with Kashmira, Trigartas, Daravas, Abisari, Urasa,
Balhikas Daradas and Kambojas[58].
See trans:
[6].

Seventh century Chinese
pilgrim
Hiun Tsang [玄奘] also attests one Simhapura (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on
the east bank of river Indus about 115 miles east of Taxila
[Urdu: ٹپکسلا ], thus localizing it in the upper doab of Jhelum
[Punjabi: ਜੇਹਲਮ, Urdu:
دریائے جہلم] /Chenab [(Punjabi:
ਚਨਾਬ,
Urdu: چناب ]. See the link:
[7].

Scholars locate this Sinhapura in south of Udiyana kingdom
in what today is called the Salt
Range in north-west Panjab.[61]
However Aurel Stein identifies Sinhapura with Lyfurti in the Ciandhala
valley southeast of Kashmir.
[62]

There is one place called Sihore near Gulf coast
Cambay in
south-east
Saurashtra. It had been a capital of the Gohil Rajputs in
the 17th century. The Charter of Maitraka
king Dhruvasena I (525 AD-545 AD) addresses this place as Sinhapura.[63].
There is also an ancient place name 'Hingur' located 40 miles east from the
apex of Delta
of Indus
which may also carry a relic of ancient Sinhapura of the Sinhalese
traditions (Hingur < Singur < Singhpur < Sinhapur)
[64].

The Delta
region of Indus
is still called Lar. According to Sir H. Elliot Lar in former times was
identical with Gujarat and it originally extended continuously over the
coast from the western part of the Indus Delta to beyond Bombay
[65]. During Ptolemy’s
times, the course of river Indus lied quite bit to the east and it emptied
into Rann of Kachch which was an open sea then. Those sailing from upper
Indus via water-route reached direct to the Lara, Lala or Lata-desa. The
Sinhapura of Sinhalese traditions was also located somewhere in this region.
Scholars say that 'Hingur' could well be a corrupted version of Sinhapura
[66].

Searching For Vanga in Northwest

Dr J. L. Kamboj has observed that the southern Indian recensions of
Mahabharata written in Telugu and
Malayalam letters contain one additional verse which may be of help in
resolving the issue of the original home of the Sinhalese. According to
southern Indian recensions of Mahabharata, Arjuna encounters Kashmira,
Lohita, Trigartas, Daravas, Kokonadas Abisari, Urga (Urasa = Hazara),
Sinhapura, Vanga, Suhma, Sumala, Balhikas, Daradas and Kambojas before
launching into
Transoxiana territories[67].
Since Arjuna’s Digvijaya compaign relates to north-west kingdoms only, hence
all these people or kingdoms must belong to the north-west. Thus, at least,
we get an epic evidence of one Vanga principality existing in northwest near
Sinhapura if the southern Indian recension of Mahabharata are to be
believed. In addition, Vaisantra Jataka also refers to one Vanga
Parvata
[68] where a prince from
Sibi kingdom was sent in exile. Since Sibis, Sivis (Rig
Vedic Sivas)---the Sibois of the classical
writings belonged to Jhang region
below the junction of Jhelum and
Chenab,
therefore, the Vanga Parvata of the Vaisantra Jataka and the
Vanga kingdom of the epic
must have been located somewhere in the north-west, and in all probability,
in the north of
Punjab. This invaluable evidence seems to resolve the issue of Vanga
near Sinhapura in the northwest since both these names occur in Arjuna’s war
compaign against the northwestern tribes.

In Nutshell

It is very likely that the Vanga of the
Sinhalese tradition initially was this Vanga of northwest India. As the
centuries rolled by, Sri Lanka saw newer waves of immigration from east
coast of India. The paradigm got shifted and the facts got mixed up with
myths. As a result, in the oral traditions of the Sinhalese, the Vanga of
north-west
Punjab was unconsciously replaced with the Vanga of eastern India. With
passage of time, more names like Kalinga
and Magadha
also were added in the oral tradition relating to earliest colonists. By the
time these traditions were reduced to writing in 6th century AD after about
1000 years of the event by Buddhist monk Mahanama
thero, brother of the Sri-Lankan King Dhatusena, the actual picture was very
much changed. It is undeniable that the oral accounts are always prone to
alterations and additions. Therefore, oral tradition about Vijaya and his
followers is also likely to have been altered and tuned to reflect the
historical, political and social realities which prevailed in India and Sri
Lanka around that time (i.e. 6th century AD). Or else, the later revisions
of
Mahavamsa may have been subject to alterations and interpolations by the
later Monks
under political influence from the ruling dynasties of later generations.
This is the reason we see glaring contradictions in the geographical setting
of the Sihabahu/Vijay story as incorporated in the Mahavamsa (Chapter VI).
Moreover, the actual story is too phantastic to be trusted at its face
value. The absence of references to the
northeastern states or its people in the most ancient
epigraphic inscriptions of Sri Lanka (the earliest known records of the
island) is a powerful indication that the immigrants from northeast India
were the later players in the game.

Royal vs Merchant Lineage

Though
Mahavamsa states that the ancestors of Sinhalese
i.e Vijay and his followers belonged to royal lineage,
but ancient Brahmi inscriptions of Sri Lanka imply that the earlier
Sinhalese settlers most likely belonged to the merchant
lineage. In the Amarakosha
[69], a Sarthavaha is described as the leader of merchants who
have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside
markets and is traveling in a caravan.
It is likely that Vijay, the ancestor of the Sinhalese was the earliest one
such Sarthavaha from Sinhapura of Gujarat
or the Sinhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara in Northwest India. Mahavamsa
story about Vijay may actually refer to his commercial voyage to
Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sri Lanka and then
permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil
groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried
on from the north-west following a well known
Kamboja Dvaravati Caravan route and thence-after, via west-coast
sea-route starting from Bharukachcha (Bhroach) in Gujarat.
The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of pearls (motis)
and it is still known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for
its precious stones. The merchants from northwest Kamboja/Gandhara had an
allurement for these specific products. The reference to Gamika/Gamini
(Sanskrit Gramini) obviously connects the earliest colonists to a mercantile
class. Gramini was not a royal title but was frequently used by the chiefs
of trade corporations or some other Sanghas in the northwest
India. This indicates that earlier colonists
were from traders groups. The occurance of title like Parumaka (pramukha) in
ancient Sinhalese inscriptions with reference to the Kambojas also points in
the same direction. Pramukha was a title assumed by the
Aristocracy in ancient India.

Gramaneyas vs Sinhalese

It has been pointed out that the republican
Gramaneyas referred to in the Sabhaparva of
Mahabharata[70]
may have been the ancestors of Sinhalese.[71]
The original home of the Gramaneyas seems to have been the Sinhapura of Gandhara/Kamboja,
but the people shifted to lower Indus and then, after defeat by Pandava Nakula,
moved to
Saurashtra Peninsula,
centuries prior to common era. There they seem to have founded a
principality and a city which they named Sinhapura probably to
commemorate their past connections with Sinhapura of upper Indus valley. In
all probability, Vijaya and his 700 followers, the earliest known Aryan
speakers of the island either belonged to the 'Sihore' (Sinhapura) of Kathiawad
or else to Hingur (Sinhapura) east off the Indus delta from
where they had sailed to Sri Lanka
and settled there as colonists.
Thus, it is argued by scholars that the name Simhapura, the eponymous
of the Sinhalese, may have been carried into Sri Lanka
(via Gujarat)
by these Gramaneyas, which is believed by some scholars to be a section of
north-west
Gandharas/Kambojas.
[72]
Epic
name Gramaneya is attested as Gramini in Panini's
Ashtadhyayi. Gramini as a royal title is not referred to in ancient Buddhist
or
Brahmanical literature. Panini attests Gramini as a republican
constitution prevalent among some Pugas (= Sanghas) of northwest.
Panini specifically connects term Gramini with the Puga
[73]. The Pugas derived their name after their leader or
Gramini
[74]. The Gramini type Pugas or Sanghas were mostly common in
upper Indus
in the area now known as
Afghanistan and northwest frontiers of Pakistan
i.e the land of Kambojas and Gandharas. Relics of Gramini type Pugas are
still seen in some
clans of the modern Afghans
[75]. It is of great importance to note that ancient inscriptions
of Sri Lanka powerfully attest both the Puga (Kabojhya
Maha-pugyana) as well as Gote (or Goshate = Sangha) of the
Kambojas (Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na). The title Gamini used by ancient
rulers of Sri Lanka is also attested for Kambojas (Gamika Kabojhaha)in
the ancient Sinhalese inscriptions[76].
The Sinhalese therefore, may have been Gramaneyas, and in general, the Kamboja
colonists themselves.

Sinhala vs Kamboja Relationship

Mahavamas attests that the earliest colonists of the island (Vijaya and
his 700 followers) had gotten their heads shaved (aradh-mundak=
wearing short hair style) before boarding the ship. Scholars see in
this reference a social custom of supporting short-cut hair among the
ancestors of the Sinhalas
[77]. Based on this social custom of the Sinhalese, Dr S.
Paranavitana sees close relations of the Sinhalese with the northwest
Kambojas and says that the Sinhalese had copied their short-hair style from
their close allies, the Kambojas.[78]

Sinhala is not attested as a tribal name.
The appellation was applied to the Aryan
speaking
colonists of Sri Lanka in commemoration of their past connections with
Sinhapura. Curiously enough, there are over 1200 ancient inscriptions in Sri
Lanka belonging to 3rd century and downwards but not a single one has any
reference to the name Sinhala. Prof Parnavitana’s argument that if the
Sinhalas were the dominant group in the island, it was not necessary to
mention their Sinhala identity in the inscriptions, does not sound very
logical and convincing. It is pure pleading. The first ever reference to
Sinhala occurs in 4th c AD text Dipavamsa.
This shows that the Sinhala appellation for the Aryan
speaking population of the island is of much later origin. But who were
these original colonists and what tribes did
they belong to? Unfortunately, neither Mahavamsa
nor
Dipavamsa nor any ancient inscriptions of Sri Lanka furnishes any
definitive clue on the ethnic
identity of the Sinhalese. According to scholars, the custom of supporting
short-hair style among the earliest colonists
seems to connect them to the Kamboja,
Yavana or
the Saka group
since only this ancient group is known to have supported short hair styles
as is evidenced by numerous Puranas “[79]
[80] . Short hair style among the Kambojas and Yavanas is also
attested by
Mahabharata
[81] as well as by Ganapatha on
Panini's
rule II.1.72
[82]. (1) Could the Sinhalese be Sakas who
once were a very powerful people in the northwest?
But neither ancient inscriptions nor any literary texts attest the Saka
colonists in Sri Lanka. (2) Or could they be Yavanas who, like the Kambojas,
also supported short-hair style? The Yavana settlement in Pandukabhyaya in
Anuradhapura is attested by several Buddhist
texts.
[83]. But it has to be remembered that both the Sakas and Yavanas
spoke a language which was different from the Aryan
language of the Sinhalese. Moreover, there is no reference to both these
people in the earliest written records i.e the inscriptions of the island.
Hence neither the Sakas nor the Yavanas could claim to be the ancestors of
the Sinhalese. This leaves only the Kambojas in the field. The Kambojas
were such a tribe,
a section of whom are known to have been Sanskrit
speakers; they had a social custom of supporting short hair styles; they
observed a
republican constitution like the Pugas, Gotes, Sanghas, Shrenis etc.
They find several references in ancient Brahmi
inscriptions whereas no reference whatsoever is found for the Sinhalas.
There are also references to their Gamika (Gamini or Gramini) and Parumaka (Pramukha)
epithets. It appears that these people called themselves Kambojas but the
original inhabitants of the island called them Sinhalas by virtue of their
former connections with Sinhapura (Dr J. L. Kamboj). In the succeeding
centuries, the name started to be applied to the island as well as to the
language these people spoke. An inscription found from Tonigala has a place
name called Twarakia which according to scholars, is corrupted form
Sanskrit Dwaraka.[84].
Needless to emphasize, the Kambojas are indisputably connected with Dwaraka
or Dvarvati also. Hence it is very likely that they had carried this name
too into the island in memorium of their past connections with that city.

Therefore, considering all the pros and cons, it seems very likely that
the earliest colonists of Sri Lanka may have been the Kambojas. The
prevalence of title Gramini (Prakrit Gamini, Gamika) among the Kambojas
seems to connect them with the Gramaneyas of the lower Indus valley
and the Graminis of the upper Indus valley. The Pugas of Panini were
a kind of Sanghas which Gramini constitution applied to. The Puga of the
Kambojas is powerfully attested in ancient Sinhalese inscriptions. Parumaka
(Pramukha) another title similar to Gamini is also attested for the Kambojas
in Sri Lanka (Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na parumaka-Gopalaha). The Gramaneya clan appears to
have originally migrated from Sinhapura which adjoined the Kamboja/Gandhara.
Probably, they were an earlier offsoot from the Kambojas.
This is because only the Kambojas as Aryan community is attested in Sri
Lanka. The Kambojas are known to have followed republican form constitution
in northern India ([85],
hence their republican constutions such as Puga and Gote (Sangha) and their
republican titles such as Gamika/Gamini (Gramini) and the Parumaka
(Pramukha) are exclusively attested in ancient Sinhalese inscriptions.

The forgoing discussion therefore, seems to connect the Sinhalese with
the Gramaneyas and the latter with the Kambojas.

^ Ancient Tamil traditions say that Ravana, king of Sinhala was
once cursed by god Shiva’s bull Nandi. Being enraged, Ravana wanted to
uproot Mount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva. But Shiva just pressed the
Mount with the right thumb of his right leg. Ravana got stuck. Narada
came and advised Ravana to praise Shiva to extricate himself of the
situation. Without any musical instruments, Ravana is said to have used
his body and the nerves as the musical strings and sang a song in the
raga Kamboji to praise Lord Siva

^ Adiparava of Mahabharata refers to one Naga king, Takshaka of Takshasila
(Gandhara),
who had killed king Parikshit, the descendant of the Pandavas.
Prikshata's son Janmejya revenged his father’s death by invading
Takshasila and killing all the Naga worshipper in Takshasila.

^ See: History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, p 665-666,
James Fergusson; See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country,
1981, p 361-62, Dr J. L. Kamboj

^ Mahavamas: “From Kashmira
came Uttina with 280,000 Bhikshus, from Pallavabhoga came Mahadeva with
460,000 Bhikshus and from Alasanda, the city of the Yonas, came the
thera (elder) Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirty thousand bhikkhus
to participate in the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa ("Great
stupa") at Anuradhapura” (Mahavamsa, 12.37-39).

^ 'The diffusion of Indian Civilization and its "great tradition"
to the extreme south of the
peninsula occurred in the earliest stages not by land but by sea......In
the half millennium before Christ
there was sea traffic between the coasts of Gujarat
and Sind,
and Ceylon,
which laid the basis for the development of civilization in that island......
The earliest attractions of the far southern coasts were pearls and gems,
which brought merchants, and ultimately the script, religions and the
dynastic traditions.....Hiun
Tsang refers to the international trading activities of the Simhalas
and several early Brahmi inscriptions in Ceylon mention the Kamboja
merchants in Sinhala' (Extracts taken from: The Beginnings of
Civilization in South India, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3
(May, 1970), pp. 603-616, Clarence Maloney)

^ See: Chulavamsa.LIX.46): Tilokasundarí, consort of Vijayabahu
I., was born in Síhapura (Cv.lix.46). It was to the north of Kalinga.
The south eastern district of Chutia Nagpur, to the west of Bengal, is
still called Singhabhum. Chullvamsa.Trans.I.213, n.1.

Phonetics shows that ancient Sinhalese is more allied to western
language than eastern.(Epigraphia Zeylanica, II, p 115, W. Geiger).
The change from ‘v’ to ‘b’ and ‘y’ to ‘j’ is speciality of eastern
Indian languages which is not found in Sinhalese and the western
Indian language. The change of ‘s’ to ‘h’ which is a speciality of
western languages is found in the Sinhalese language.

The comparative
linguistics show that the language of ancient Sinhalese is more
akin to western India. Comparative study of the languages of ancient
Sinhalese inscriptions and that of the edicts
of king
Ashoka with regard to phonetics and word formation seem to
connect the Sinhalese language more to the language used in Mansehra
and Shabazgarhi edicts of king Ashoka located in north-west frontier
province of
Pakistan (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p
345-46).

Ancient Sinhalese used Goyam (Godhumt) for rice. Rice is not the
staple diet in the northwest. This indicates that the Sinhalese
colonists came from northwest where Goyam (wheat) was staple diet.
In
Ceylon where rice was plenty, the colonists started using Goyam
for the rice too which seems again to connect them to the northwest.

Vijaya’s twin brother Sumitta, who was left behind at Sinhapura
after Vijaya was exiled was married to a princess from Madradesa
(Madda) which country was located between Ravi [Punjabi:
ਰਾਵੀ, Urdu:
راوی]and
Chenab in northern Punjab.
And the
Madras are closely connected with the Kambojas as is evident
from Vamsa Brahmanina of
Samaveda (Vamsa Brahamana 1.18-19). If Sihabahu belonged to Bengal,
then it is more difficult to explain the matrimonial alliance of
prince Sumitta with the princess of Madradesa.

On some tradition current during his times, the Chinese
pilgrim
Hiun Tsang wrote that the ship on which sister of Vijaya was
sent to exile landed in Persia.
Her descendants founded a kingdom which came to known as Strirajya.
Mahavamsa also states that ship on which the women exiles were
boarded landed in the island called Mahiladipaka.
Marco Polo who traveled in north-west of India attests one
Purushadvipa and one Mahiladvipa in his writings. All
these evidences again point out that the ancestors of Sinhalese had
been connected with west coast rather than east coast of India.

^ History and Culture of Indian Peole, Struggle of Empire, p 33;
Classical Age, p 132

^ Sinhala, as a personal name prevalent in Gandhara/Kamboja
region is attested from two Kharoshthi inscriptions belonging to 2nd c
BCE -- one inscribed on a pitcher found from Stupa in Takshasila
contains names of two brothers as Sihila (Sinhila) and Sinharakshita,
while the second inscribed on a base-relief in Loryan Tang refers to
Sihalaka (Sinhalaka) and Sinhamitra (Kharoshthi Insc., pp 87, 110, Dr.
Konow). Sihila is obviously corrupted form of Sinhala. Earlier, it was a
personal name but with time, it became class representative. It is
therefore supposable that in the place of origin of the Sinhalas, name
Sinhala may also have been used as personal name.

^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 351, Dr J. L.
Kamboj. Change from 'S' to 'h' is a speciality of the north-western
languages and it has also been noticed in the ancient Sinhalese language
(Dr Kamboj).

^ Dr Pranavitana writes: ‘If the shaven-headed Kambojas, as we
have seen above, were close allies of the ancient Sinhalas, then the
Sinhalas must have also copied the short-hair style of the latter; and
like the puranic legend of king Sagara vs the Sakas, Yavanas, and
Kambojas, a story was invented by the original inhabitants of the island
that the short hair style of the new colonists was due to the punishment
they had received at the hands of king Sihabahu of Sinhapura’ (See:
History of Ceylon, Vol I, Part 1, p 92, Dr S. Paranavitana; Ancient
Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 351-53, Dr J. L. Kamboj

^ Dr Pranavitana writes: ”The expression half shave does not
mean shaven over half of the head, but that their hair was cropped short.
This was normal social custom of these people just as it is among many
people in the west today and copying of westerners among civilized
people of Asia as well. The Indians who normally wore long hair (or else
supported a top knot)) must have invented a story of Sagara degrading
these tribes by having their head shaven or half shaven to show their
disapproval of the custom” (History of Ceylon, Vol I, Part 1, p 92, Dr
S. Paranavitana)

"The Gir Forest
National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary (also known as Sasan-Gir) is
best known as being the sole home of the pure Asiatic
Lions (Panthera leo persica). Measuring about 258 km² for the fully
protected area (the National Park) and 1153 km² for the Sanctuary,
the area is considered to be one of the most important
protected areas in Asia due to its supported species.

Established in 1965, the total area of 1412 km² is located about
65 km to the south-east of Junagadh city of the
Junagadh district in the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat state, India.

Today, the sustaining ecosystem of Gir, with its diverse flora
and fauna, is a result of the efforts of the Government forest
department, wildlife activists and NGOs. The forest area of Gir and
its lions were declared as "protected" in the early 1900's by the
then Nawab of the
princely state of Junagadh. This initiative resulted in the conservation of the
lions whose population had plummeted to only 15 through slaughter
for
trophy hunting.

The April 2005 census saw the highest lion-count in Gir at 359,
an increase of 32 compared to 2001. The lion breeding programme
covering the park and surrounding area has bred about 180 lions in captivity
since its inception."

"Sīhapura. A town in Lāla, from which Vijaya and his
followers went to Ceylon. It was founded by Sīhabāhu, who became its
first king (Mhv.vi.35; Dpv.ix.4, 5, 43).

Tilokasundarī, consort of Vijayabāhu I., was born in Sīhapura
(Cv.lix.46). It was to the north of Kālinga. The south eastern
district of Chutiā Nāgpur [heute im Bundesstaat Jharkhand (झारखंड)],
to the west of Bengal, is still called Singhabhūm. Cv.Trs.i.213,
n.1."

"Chota Nagpur Division, also known as the South-West
Frontier, was a former administrative division of
British India. It included most of the present-day state of Jharkhand [झारखंड]
as well as adjacent portions of West
Bengal [পশ্চিম বঙ্গ], Orissa, and
Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ].

Abb.: Lage von Jharkhand [झारखंड]

The division included five districts,
Hazaribagh,
Ranchi,
Palamau,
Manbhum, and Singhbhum. The administrative headquarters of the division was at Ranchi.
The total area of the division was 27,101 square miles, and the
population was 4,900,429 in 1901. In 1901 Hindus constituted 68.5%
of the total population, animists 22.7%, Muslims 5.7%,
Christians 2.9%, and 853 Jains. The
Chota Nagpur States, a group of
princely states, was under the political authority of the division's
commissioner.

Chota Nagpur division hilly and forested, and home to a great
diversity of peoples, including Biharis in the north, Oriyas in the
south, Bengalis in the east, Santals, Mundas, Oraons, Hos,
Bhumijs, and Gonds. The region came under the control of the British in the 18th
and 19th centuries, and was annexed to the
Bengal Presidency, the largest province of British India. After the
Kol rebellion of 1831-2, the division was extempted by Regulation XIII of 1833
from the general laws and regulations governing Bengal, and every
branch of the administration was vested in an officer appointed by
the supreme Government and called the Agent to the
Governor-General of India for the South-West Frontier. In 1854 the designation
of the province was changed to Chota Nagpur by Act XX of that year,
and was administered thereafter as a non-regulation province under
the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal Presidency. The title of the chief
administrative officer was changed from Agent to Commissioner, and
the officers in charge of the districts became Deputy Commissioners.
The Commissioner exercised general control over the Chota Nagpur
States.

In October 1906, five of the nine Chota Nagpur States were placed
under the authority of the
Central Provinces and two transferred to the
Orissa Tributary States, leaving only the states of Kharsawan and Saraikela
under the authority of the commissioner.

Chota Nagpur Division became part of the new province of
Bihar and Orissa when it was created in 1912. In 1936 the province was split
into the separate provinces of Bihar (which included present-day
Bihar and Jharkhand states) and Orissa, and the princely states were
placed under the authority of the
Eastern States Agency."

Mahavamsa
traditions reveal that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the
supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan population, had migrated from
some Simhapura country located in India proper (Mahavamsa,
6/34).

Mahabharata attests one Sinhapura principality located in
north-west of India. This Sinhapura figures prominently in Arjuna's
Digvijay of north-west countries. It is stated to be located
contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara, in Kashmir).

After the Sinhapura, the Epic makes reference to Bahlikas (Panjab?
or Bactrians?), Daradas and Kambojas, thus showing that the
Sinhapura of Mahabharata was located in the north-west adjacent to
Kambojas and Daradas of Upper Indus (See: MBH 2/27/18-22) .

Chetiya Jataka also locates one Simhapura in the west (Jataka
III, p 275).

Hiun Tsang [玄奘], seventh century Chinese visitor also attests one
Simhapura (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on east bank of river Indus about
115 miles east of Taxila, which localizes it in upper doab of Jhelum/Chenab
(Ref: Hiun Tsang, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I.
Trans. Samuel Beal, 1906, pp 142-150).

Sinhala, as a personal name is also attested from two
Kharoshthi inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Taksashila
in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Insc., pp 87, 110, Dr. Konow).

The appellative terms Gamika (=Gamini=Gramini) and
Parumaka (=Pramukha) and the corporational terms Puga (=Guild/Sangha)
and Gote (=Goshati=corporation) etc have been used
specifically in reference to Kambojas in the ancient inscriptions of
Sinhala. As attested by Kautiliya's
Arthashastra, these republican/corporational terms were applied to political,
military and commercial Sanghas or Guilds of the Kambojas of
Uttarapatha around 4th c BCE. Thus, this evidence suggests that Vijay Simha and
his 700 companions, the ancestors of the ancient Sinhalas may have
been from the Kambojan/Gandharan trade group.

The 'shaved-headed tradition' about Vijay and his companions has
been referred to in the Mahavamsa. This also alludes to their close
connections with the north-west and especially with the
shaved-headed Kambojan group."

The first Ariyan king of Ceylon. He was the eldest of the thirty
two sons of Sīhabāhu, king of Lāla, and of
Sīhasīvalī. Because of his evil conduct he, with seven hundred others, was
deported by the king, with their heads half shaved. Their wives and
children were deported with them. The children landed at Naggadīpa
and the women at Mahilādīpaka (MT. 264). Vijaya and the other men
landed at Suppāraka, but was obliged to leave owing to the violence
of his supporters.

According to Dpv.ix.26, Vijaya went from Suppāraka to Bhārukaccha,
where he stayed for three months. They reached Ceylon on the day of
the Buddha's death, received the protection of the deva Uppalavanna,
and thus escaped destruction by the Yakkhas. The Yakkhinī, Kuvenī,
fell in love with Vijaya, and he, with her assistance, killed the
Yakkhas of Lankāpura and Sirīsavatthu, and founded the city of
Tambapanni. Vijaya's chief ministers, Anurādha, Upatissa, Ujjena,
Uruvela and Vijita, founded separate colonies, named after
themselves.

Vijaya had two children by Kuvenī, Jīvahattha and Dīpellā; but
when he wished to be consecrated king, he sent for and obtained, for
his wife, a daughter of the Pandu king of Madhurā. Kuvenī, thereupon,
left him and was killed by the Yakkhas. Vijaya reigned for thirty
eight years and was succeeded by
Panduvāsudeva. For details of Vijaya's life, see Mhv.vi.38ff.; vii.6ff.; viii.1
3; Dpv.ix.6ff.

Younger brother of Vijaya and son of Sīhabāhu. His wife, Cittā,
was the daughter of the Madda King. He reigned in Sīhapura, and was
invited by Vijaya to Ceylon to succeed to the throne; but he sent,
instead, his son
Panduvāsudeva. He had two other sons. Mhv.vi.38; viii.2, 6, 10."

"Sopara was an ancient port town near the present day Bombay
[Mumbai मुंबई] exurb of Nala
Sopara. During ancient times, the town was the largest on India's west coast,
trading with
Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Cochin, Arabia and
Eastern Africa.

The name given to that district in Ceylon
where Vijaya landed after leaving Suppāraka (Mhv.vi.47; Dpv.ix.30).
It is said to have been so called because when Vijaya's followers,
having disembarked from the ship, sat down there, wearied, resting
their hands on the ground, they found them coloured by the red dust
that lay there. Later on Vijaya founded his capital in Tambapanni,
and following that the whole island came to bear the same name
(Dpv.vii.38-42). Tambapanni was originally inhabited by Yakkhas,
having their capital at Sirīsavatthu (q.v.). The Valāhassa Jātaka
(J.ii.129) speaks of a Tambapannisara. According to the Samyutta
Commentary (ii.83; but in VbhA.p.444 it is spoken of as tiyojana
satika), the Tambapannidīpa was one hundred leagues in extent.

Anurādhapura formed the Majjhimadesa in Tambapannidīpa, the rest
being the Paccantimadesa (AA.i.265).

In Asoka's Rock Edicts II. and XIII. Tambapanni is mentioned as
one of the Pratyanta desas, together with Coda, Pāndya, Satiyaputta,
Keralaputta, and the realm of Antiyaka Yonarāja, as an unconquered
territory with whose people Asoka was on friendly terms. Vincent
Smith (Asoka (3rd edn.), p.163; but see Ind. Antiq., 1919, p.195f )
identifies this, not with Ceylon, but with the river Tāmraparni in
Tinnevelly."

Sri Lanka is a country that has been known by many names. The
existence of the island has been known to the Indic, Chinese, Arabic,
and
Western civilisations for many millennia and the various names ascribed to the island
over time reflect this.

The island
was renamed Sri Lanka, meaning "resplendent land" in Sanskrit, in 1972, before
which it
was known by a variety of names. This represented a modern adoption of a name of ancient
lineage, deriving from the Ramayana, in which the island was simply
called Lanka. Other names using a form of Sri include
the traditional Sinhala Siri Laka and Shri Lanka,
preferred by the former Sri Lankanpresident Premadasa but never
gaining wider appeal.

In the Ramayana, it was also known as Lankadeepa,
with deepa meaning "island". Another traditional Sinhala names
for Sri Lanka was Lakdiva, with diva also meaning "island".
A further traditional name is Lakbima. Lak in both
cases is derived again from Lanka.

Of the same etymology, Sri Lanka is known locally in
Tamil as Ilankai [இலங்கை]. The appellation Lanka, however, was
unknown to the
Greeks, from whom most
Western names would be derived, and is not seen in any
Western names until 1972.

Sinhala and Sihalam

The
English name Ceylon and a host of other related words all most likely
trace their roots back to the Sanskrit sinha ("lion"). With
the Sanskrit sinha as its root, sinhala means "the
dwelling place of a lion". As lions have never lived on Sri Lanka in
the wild, sinhala is most often taken to mean a lion-like man
- a hero - presumably Vijaya's grandfather. The
Pâli form of the Sanskrit sinhala is sihalam (pronounced silam),
deriving from sinhala.

Salike

The
second-century
Greek geographer Ptolemy [Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος] called the inhabitants Salai and the island
Salike ("country of the Salai"), most widely believed
to derive from the
Pâli sihalam.

There are some alternative arguments as to the origin of
Salike. Some argue that another
Indian name for the island - Salabha ("rich island") - is its source.
Others argue that it came via the
Egyptian Siela Keh ("land of Siela"), even more similar to
Cosmas' Sielen and still of the same ultimate origin. Some scholars also
hold that it was merely a corruption, probably by the Greek sailors
who traveled to Sri Lanka, of Simhalaka.

Simoundou and related names

Ptolemy also
called the island Simoundou or Simundu (pronounced
Silundu), also believed to derive ultimately from the Sanskrit
sinhala. From Ptolemy we also learn that, relative to
Taprobanê, Simoundou was an ancient name for Sri Lanka (from Ptolemy's
perspective, and thus even more so now).

He also called it Palai-Simundu, which is believed to
either mean simply "Old Simundu", using the
Greek word for "old", or alternatively to derive from the Sanskrit
pali-simanta (meaning "head of the sacred law"), as Sri Lanka
had by that time become an important center of Buddhism.

Ceylon and related names

Also deriving from the Sanskrit
sinhala via the
Pâli sihalam, the
fourth-century Roman historian
Ammianus Marcellinus called the inhabitants of the island Serandives and
the
sixth-century
Greek sailor
Cosmas Indicopleustes ("Cosmas India-Voyager") called the island Sielen Diva
("island of Sielen"), with both -dives and Diva merely
forms of dwîpa, meaning "island". From Sielen derived
many of the other European forms: the
Latin Selan,
Portuguese Ceilão,
Spanish Celián,
French Selon,
Dutch Zeilan, Ceilan and Seylon, and of course the
English Ceylon. Further variants include Seylan, Zeylan and
Ceylan. Today, Ceylon and its
equivalents in other languages are still occasionally used.

This origin is shared with many other names, such as Serendiva,
Serendivus, Sirlediba, Sihala, Sinhale,
Seylan, Sinhaladveepa, Sinhaladweepa,
Sinhaladvipa, Sinhaladwipa,Simhaladveepa,
Simhaladweepa, Simhaladvipa, Simhaladwipa,
Sinhaladipa, Simhaladeepa, etc. Many of these names
appear to reflect nothing more than the numerous
orthographic variations in the way these names have been
transliterated into
Western languages, including changing the n to m, changing the a at the end of
Sinhala to an e, writing the vowel in the penultimate syllable
as an i or an ee, changing the v to a w, omitting vowels completely,
and so on.

The
tenth-century historian Abu Rihan
Muhammad bin Ahmad [Persian: ابوریحان بیرونی;
Arabic: أبو الريحان البيروني], or Alberuni, called the island Singal-Dip,
also derived from sinhala and a form of the word meaning "island".
However, in
Arabic, Sri
Lanka ultimately came to be known as Serendib or Sarandib,
which led to the
Persian Serendip (as used in the Persian fairy tale
The Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes were
always making
discoveries of things they were not seeking, from which
Horace Walpole in
1754 would ultimately coin the
English word
serendipity). An
Arabic form of more recent vintage than Sarandib, Sailan,
later came to be via predecessor words in
Arabic Tilaan and Cylone, also sharing the same root as
Ceylon.

Heladiva and related names

The names Heladiva and Heladveepa have two possible
origins, a point of hot debate between certain Sri Lankans. Some
argue that these are nothing more than an additional type of name
sharing the same origin as those related to Ceylon mentioned
above, simply having been shortened by dropping the Sin or
Sim. Others argue that the
Hela were a separate people living in Sri Lanka before the arrival of the
Indian invaders, the
Dravidians or specifically the Tamils of South
India. Those who make this distinguishment are more likely to use these names to
describe Sri Lanka.

Sivuhelaya may also be a name of similar origin, although
it is very obscure.

Tâmraparnî and related names

Other names have also
been used in the
West to describe the island. The Indian conqueror Vijaya named the island
Tâmraparnî ("copper-colored leaf"), a name which was adopted
into Pâli as Tambapanni. The accounts of
Alexander the Great's [Μέγας Αλέξανδρος]
officers and others like
forth-century BCE
Greek geographer
Megasthenes [Μεγασθενής], based on information they obtained from
Greek and Sri Lankan travellers, called Sri Lanka Taprobanê [Ταπραβάνη], generally
regarded as a
transliteration of Tâmraparnî. Later, the
seventeenth-century English poet John
Milton borrowed this for his epic
English-language poem Paradise Lost.

An alternative etymology for the
Greek Taprobanê is from the Sanskrit Tambrapani ("great pond" or "pond
covered with red lotus"), most likely in association with the great
tanks for which Sri Lanka is famed. A third is that it derived its name
from a river; the name of the river is Tāmaraparnī or Tamiravarani
or Taamravarni, which is North of Sri Lanka and is a
combination of the Sanskrit taamra ("coppery") and varna ("color").

Other names

Other names include the
Tamil Ilanare, the
Arabic Tenerism ("isle of delight"), and the
Chinese Pa-Outchow ("isle of gems"). The island has also earned at least
two nicknames. First, it came to be known as the "Island of Teaching"
due to the large number of Greeks and Chinese who travelled to the island
to learn of Buddhism. Second, due to its shape and location in the Indian
Ocean off the
southeastern coast of India, some also refer to the island as India's teardrop."

1. The island of Laṅkā was called Sīhala after the Lion (sīha);
listen ye to the narration of the origin of the island which I
(am going to) tell.

2. The daughter of the Vaṅga king cohabited in the forest with a
lion dwelling in the wilderness, and in consequence gave birth
to two children. 3. Sīhabāhu and Sīvalī were beautiful youths;
the name of their mother was Susimā, and their father was called
the Lion. 4. When their sixteenth year had elapsed, (Sīhabāhu)
departed from his cave, and then built a most excellent town
called Sīhapura. 5. The son of the Lion, a powerful king, ruled
over a great kingdom, in Lāḷaraṭṭha, in the most excellent town
of Sīhapura. 6. Thirty-two brothers were the sons of Sīhabāhu;
Vijaya and Sumitta were the eldest among them, beautiful princes.
7. Prince Vijaya was daring and uneducated; he committed most
wicked and fearful deeds, plundering the people. 8. The people
from the country and the merchants assembled; they went to the
king and complained against the bad conduct of Vijaya. 9. The
king, having heard their speech, full of anger, gave this order
to the ministers: „Remove ye that boy. 10. Let them remove from
the country all those attendants, his wives, children,
relations, maid-servants, man-servants, and hired workmen." 11.
He was then removed, and his relations were separated from him;
so they went on board ship, and (the ship) sailed away on the
sea. 12. „May they drift whereever they like; they shall not
show their faces again nor shall they ever come back to dwell in
our kingdom and country." 13. The ship in which the children had
embarked was helplessly driven to an island, the name of which
was then called Naggadīpa. 14. The ship in which the wives had
embarked was helplessly driven to an island, the name of which
was then called Mahilāraṭṭha. 15. The ship in which the men had
embarked went, sailing on the sea, losing her way and her
bearings, to the port of Suppāra. 16. The people of Suppāra then
invited those seven hundred men to disembark, and offered them
lavish hospitality and honours. 17. During this hospitable
reception Vijaya and all his followers unnoticed (?) committed
barbarous deeds. 18. They made themselves guilty of drinking,
theft, adultery, falsehood, and slander, of an immoral, most
dreadful, bad conduct. 19. (The people) indignant at such cruel,
savage, terrible and most dreadful deeds being committed against
themselves, consulted together: „Let us quickly kill those
rascals."

20. There is an island (formerly) called Ojadīpa, Varadīpa, or
Maṇḍadīpa, the (recent) name of which is Laṅkādīpa, and which is
(besides) known by the name of Tambapaṇṇi. 21.22. At the time,
when Sambuddha, highest of men, attained Parinibbāna, that son
of Sīhabāhu, the prince called Vijaya, having left the land
called Jambudīpa, landed on Laṅkādīpa."

VI., 1-38.—The founding
of Sīhapura and the ancestry of Sīhabāhu's son, Vijaya.

EM

VI., 1-47.— Same as in
M., but at greater length.

VI., 39-47.—Vijaya is expelled from
his country and lands in Laṅkā with 700. followers. Their
families stop elsewhere.

VI., 48-56—Same as in M.

According to MT.
(e.g. 246. 5, 247.12, 249.9.)Ak. dealt quite exhaustively with
the history of Vijaya and his ancestors and his deeds in Ceylon.
MT. itself, however, makes very few additions to the M. account.
Thus Sīhabāhu's mother is called Suppadevī (243.25, 247.18. Dpv.
IX.3 calls her Susīmā). Her cousin, who later married her, is
called Anura or Anurakkha (246.28) while the cave in which the
lion lived was, according to UVAk. eight fathoms (249.11). MT.
corrects M. and says (247.12 f) that no eatables were given by
Anura to Suppadevī and her children but only gruel (yāgu). EM.
does not take notice of any of these things."