Abstract 1
This paper analyzes the effects of increased shared computer access in
secondary schools in Peru. Administrative data are used to identify, through
propensity-score matching, two groups of schools with similar observable
educational inputs but different intensity in computer access. Extensive
primary data collected from the 202 matched schools are used to determine
whether increased shared computer access at schools affects digital skills and
academic achievement. Results suggest that small increases in shared computer
access, one more computer per 40 students, can produce large increases in
digital skills (0.3 standard deviations). No effects are found on test scores in
Math and Language.
JEL classifications: I21, I28
Keywords: Technology, Education, Digital skills, Impact evaluation

1

The corresponding author is Julián Cristia (email: jcristia@iadb.org). We acknowledge excellent comments and
suggestions by Matías Busso, Michelle Fryer, Sarah Humpage and Guilherme Sedlacek. We thank Leonardo
Elías and Juan Miguel Villa for excellent research assistance in this project.

1

1. Introduction
Governments around the world are making large investments in technology in education
programs. There is mounting research on the effects of these programs on learning in core
subjects such as Math and Language (for example, Cheung and Slavin, 2013). However, many
programs are mainly intended to develop students digital skills, that is, on preparing students
to effectively use technology in their lives. 2 Public programs that provide one personal laptop
to each student have shown sizable positive effects on digital skills (Malamud and PopEleches, 2011; Mo et al., 2012). However, these programs might be too costly for many
countries. 3 Alternatively, providing shared computer access at schools might give students
sufficient technology exposure at a fraction of the cost. Yet, there is little evidence of the
effects of such less expensive programs on the development of digital skills.
This paper examines whether moderate increases in school computer access affect
studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; digital skills. Additionally, we assess effects on test scores in Math and Language.
The methodology exploits cross-sectional variation in computer access across secondary
schools in Peru. This variation might be correlated with a host of important variables, raising
the possibility of biased estimates. We tackle this challenge in two steps. First, we focus the
analysis on public, urban and large schools. Avoiding comparing dissimilar schools, such as
private and public schools, may reduce the expected correlation in computer access and
baseline outcomes. Second, we exploit administrative data to generate, through propensityscore matching, two groups of schools with similar educational inputs other than computer
access. This matching exercise is implemented within departments to ensure that comparisons
are done across students living in the same geographical areas. We proceed to collect
extensive data from 202 selected schools on characteristics of students, teachers, and
principals, computer access and use, digital skills and test scores in Math and Language.
Finally, we estimate effects by comparing average outcomes between schools with high
computer access per student (treatment group) and those with low access (comparison group).

2

For example, Mark Hovatter, chief facilities executive of the Los Angeles Unified School District, said about
the district program to provide free iPads to all 640,000 students: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The most important thing is to try to prepare
the kids for the technology they are going to face when they are going to graduate.â&#x20AC;?
3
Low-cost laptops from the One Laptop per Child program cost about 200 dollars, compared with 48 dollars
spent per primary student yearly in low-income countries and 555 dollars in middle income countries (Glewwe
and Kremer, 2006).

2

As expected given how schools were selected, results generated from the data
collected confirm that schools in the treatment group have more intensive access to
technology resources. On average, treatment schools had 12 more computers and were 24
percentage points more likely to have Internet access compared with those in the comparison
group. Also, treatment schools had increased availability of computer labs and technology
coordinators (20 and 27 percentage points differences, respectively). Results indicate
significantly positive effects of increased school computer access on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; digital skills of
about 0.3 standard deviations (t-ratio 4.8). There is no evidence of effects on Math and
Language. Results are robust to the inclusion of student, teacher and principals controls.
Consistent with these estimated effects on outcomes, we show that growth in computer access
translated to increases in computer use only for teaching digital skills. Students in the
treatment group spent 0.8 more hours per week learning digital skills (t-ratio 3.8) and there
were no effects on the time used for Math and Language. This consistency between results on
time use and skills suggest that the estimates indeed correspond to causal effects.
The identification assumption of the paper is that the treatment and comparison
groups, in the absence of differences in computer access, should be similar in all dimensions.
Propensity-score matching techniques should generate treatment and comparison groups
balanced in the administrative variables used to predict treatment. However, these sets of
schools could differ significantly in other dimensions not measured in administrative records.
For example, treatment schools not only have greater access to computers but also cater to
more affluent students, have better teachers and more effective principals. This possibility
would introduce bias into the estimation of treatment effects. Because we collected rich data
on students, teachers and principals, after creating the treatment and comparison groups, we
can explore the validity of the identification strategy in depth. We can check balance in
dimensions not used in the matching exercise. In short, we use administrative data to generate
a suitable comparison group and primary data to check the identification strategy and estimate
effects.
Extensive balancing tests provide supportive evidence to the identification strategy
followed. Students in the two groups present similar socio-demographic characteristics such
as age, sex, parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; education and home assets. For example, 49 percent of treatment
studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mothers hold high school degrees compared with 47 percent in the comparison
3

group (66 percent versus 64 percent for studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; fathers). Similarly, the mean difference in
studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; age across groups is only 0.05 years (14.64 versus 14.69). Also reassuringly,
teachers and principals present similar socio-demographic characteristics, educational
background and experience. Still, it is well established that identifying treatment effects with
cross-sectional variation requires strict assumptions that might not hold in practice (LaLonde,
1986). Therefore, the results presented should be interpreted as suggestive, and more robust
evidence should be generated to confirm their validity.
This paper mainly contributes to the emerging literature documenting the effects of
expanding computer access on digital skills. 4 As noted, the available literature has analyzed
the effects of programs that have provided personal computers to students. Fairlie (2012)
studies the impact of a program for college students and finds a 17 percentage point increase
in self-reported computer mastery. Malamud and Pop-Eleches (2011) estimate that a program
that provided vouchers for the purchase of computers in Romania improved digital skills by
0.25 standard deviations. Mo et al. (2012) evaluate the impact of a program in China for
primary students and find an impact of 0.33 standard deviations on computer skills.
Beuermann et al. (2012) study a program in Peru and find an impact of 0.88 standard
deviations on skills specific to the use of the OLPC laptop but no effects on skills associated
with Windows or Internet use.
To benchmark the magnitude of the effects estimated in our study we can compare
them to those from the studies of Malamud and Pop-Eleches (2011) and Mo et al. (2012), who
measure effects on a similar outcome measure (digital skills in a Windows environment
expressed in standard deviations). The estimated effects are similar (around 0.3 standard
deviations), suggesting that programs that provide shared access to computers in schools
might generate similar effects compared with those that provide personal laptops. However, as
mentioned, programs that provide shared access in schools will be significantly less expensive
in monetary terms. In this evaluation, treatment schools have, on average, 12 additional
computers shared among about 500 students (namely, 1 computer per 40 students), compared
with the 1-1 ratio involved in programs distributing personal laptops. However, a
4

It also contributes to the emerging literature on the effects of increasing computer and internet access in schools
in test scores in Math and Language (Angrist and Lavy, 2002; Barrera-Osorio and Linden, 2009; Cristia et al.,
2012; Goolsbee and Guryan, 2008; Machin, McNally and Silva, 2007). A related literature has analyzed the
effects of specific software on these outcomes (Banerjee et al., 2007; Barrow, Markman and Rouse, 2009;
Dynarski et al., 2007; He, Linden and MacLeod, 2008; Linden, 2008; Rouse and Krueger, 2004).

4

comprehensive analysis should consider all associated costs and that models of shared
computer access at the school for acquiring digital skills will demand class time, reducing its
potential use for core subjects.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly describes how
technology has been introduced into public secondary schools in Peru. Section 3 presents the
research design including the administrative and primary data used, the matching procedure
and the empirical models estimated. Section 4 reports results on computer time use, digital
skills and academic achievement, and Section 5 concludes.

2. Technology in Public Secondary Schools in Peru
Prior to 1996, there had been limited efforts to promote technology access and use in
public schools in Peru. Between 1996 and 2001, several small-scale independent programs,
mainly targeting secondary schools, were launched. These programs funded some
technology resources (hardware, software, training and support) and required some
investments from participating schools to be included in the program. These investments
were typically funded by parents, private donations or other (non-public) sources of
funding. This requirement promoted ownership and sustainability of the investment but at
the expense of poor targeting (large public urban schools in more affluent areas received
more resources). In this context, computers were mainly used for acquiring digital skills,
for browsing the web, and for communication purposes.
In 2001, a highly publicized national technology in education program, Proyecto
Huascarán, was launched. Its objective was to increase the quality of the education sector by
incorporating the use of technology in the learning process. The program mainly targeted
secondary schools although some primary schools were also covered. Schools selected into
the program received hardware, software (Microsoft Office applications and digital media but
not interactive software) and teacher training, and they were prioritized to receive Internet
access. In addition, the program funded “innovation room coordinators” assigned to some
schools. These individuals, trained in information technology and pedagogy, were responsible
for ensuring the effective use of computer labs in subject areas. They were also expected to
organize training sessions in the schools to contribute to the development of subject teachers’

5

and principalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; digital skills. This structure suggests that the program sought to incorporate the
use of computers into core-subject teaching and not just enhance computer skills.
Regarding the procedure employed to select schools into the HuascarĂĄn program,
interviews with former government officials suggest that there were some guidelines, but no
strict protocol. Eligible schools had to be public and they should not have been covered by
previous governmental programs (data checks showed that both requirements were always
fulfilled). Within eligible schools, three factors were considered to select the final set of
schools: i) high enrollment levels, ii) ease of access to schools, iii) commitment by principals,
teachers and parents to support and sustain the initiative. Still, other factors may have been
considered. Between 2006 and 2008 (the period relevant to this study) there was little policy
action on technology in education in secondary schools as the government shifted its efforts to
implement the One Laptop per Child program in primary schools in rural areas.

3. Research Design
3.1. Administrative Data
The administrative data used in the study are produced by the Peruvian Ministry of Education
from yearly school censuses. Coverage is high, and the yearly non-response rate hovers
around 3 percent. Information is available on the following characteristics: location, private or
public status, the year the school opened, enrollment per grade, gender and overage status,
number of sections per grade, number of teachers and administrative staff, repetition and
dropout rates, physical infrastructure, textbooks, number of computers, the presence of a
network connection, Internet access and the existence of a computer lab. In the analysis, the
data used correspond to the year 2006. A few variables are not available from that year, in
which case data from previous years are used.
We construct a measure of computer access for each student at a school (Student ICT
Potential Access or SIPA), a linear transformation of the student-computer ratio computed as:
đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ??źđ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ??´đ?&#x2018; =

where s indexes the school. SIPA represents the average number of hours per week that
students would use computers if they were used continuously during class time and shared
between two students (students spend about 25 hours in school per week). Therefore, it
6

expresses technology access in weekly hours that computers could be used. For example, in a
school with 10 computers and 500 enrollees, if computers were used continuously by pairs of
students, the average student would use them 1 hour per week (10/500*2*25=1). Using this
measure of computer access permits the interpretation of changes in computer access as
changes in potential hours of computer use per week per student. Furthermore, this measure of
potential computer use provides an indication of efficiency when compared with actual
computer use. Between 2001 and 2006, SIPA increased from 0.8 to 2.2 hours per week in
secondary schools in Peru (Cristia, Czerwornko and Garofalo, 2013).
3.2. Sample Construction
This papers aims to estimate the effects of increased technology access on digital skills and
academic achievement. Generating plausible estimates of this causal relationship in a nonexperimental setting involves dealing with the fact that computer access may be correlated
with other factors affecting the outcome variables. We tackle this problem by collecting data
from two groups of schools similar in observed characteristics but different in technology
access. The procedure followed to construct the sample is described next.
We begin with schools that participated in the annual surveys conducted by the
Ministry of Education between 2001 and 2006, identifying public urban secondary schools
with 20 or more students in their third year. This simple include 2,333 schools. We further
restrict the sample to three departments, Lima, Puno and Ancash, to reduce the geographical
dispersion of the data collection process and survey costs (N=831). 5 Next, we order schools by
their SIPA in their departments and assign them to the following groups: i) low SIPA: below
the 50th percentile; ii) medium SIPA: between the 50th and 75th percentile; iii) high SIPA:
above the 75th percentile. We dropped schools with medium SIPA and defined those in the
high SIPA category as the “treatment group” and those in the low SIPA category as the
“comparison group.” Discarding schools with intermediate values of computer access allowed
starker contrasts in computer access between schools in defined treatment and comparison

5

There are 25 departments in Peru, similar to states in the United States. Lima accounts for about 30 percent of
national enrollment in secondary schools.

7

groups. Treatment schools have an average SIPA of 2.76 versus 0.43 in the comparison
group. 6 This is the “Pre-Matched” sample, which contains 633 schools.
Columns 1 and 2 in Table 1 present means of observable characteristics for schools in
the treatment (high SIPA) and comparison (low SIPA) groups in the Pre-Matched sample.
Column 3 documents that there are several statistically significant differences among these
groups. High SIPA schools tend to have lower enrollment and fewer students per teacher; they
are also less likely to have an assistant principal and more likely to have libraries, as well as
tend to be older. These differences motivate the use of propensity-score matching techniques
to balance observable covariates across groups. Therefore, we proceed to predict treatment
(namely, high SIPA) using a logistic regression and including the 20 variables presented in the
top panel of Table 1 as controls (linearly and squared), the cross-interactions between four key
variables (number of years operating, total enrollment, student-teacher ratio, Internet booth in
the town), department dummies and interactions among the four mentioned variables and
department indicators. We empirically explored including different sets of covariates,
estimating separate regressions for each department, but balancing tests suggested that the
chosen specification outperformed the alternatives analyzed.
We matched schools in the treatment and comparison groups by their predicted
propensity score using nearest neighbor matching without replacement and applying a caliper
of 0.02. As mentioned, we implemented the matching process within departments to ensure
that treatment effects were estimated by comparing schools in similar geographical areas. The
resulting sample included 282 schools, consisting of 141 pairs of matched schools. We
provided this list of schools to a specialized survey firm with the instruction of targeting pairs
of matched schools. If it was not possible to survey a school (because of its location or for
failure to obtain permission to apply the instruments), the pair was dropped. In addition, the
firm was instructed to collect data from about 140 schools in Lima, 30 in Ancash and 30 in
Puno. The final sample of matched surveyed schools contains 202 schools, consisting of 101
pairs. 7
6

Alternatively, schools could have been assigned to just two groups of low and high SIPA defined by the median
value. However, in this case mean SIPA for the treatment group would have been reduced to 2.05.
7
There were few instances of refusals to participate in the survey by schools. Therefore, the survey firm tended
to target schools clustered geographically to reduce data collection costs. Because the firm had to collect data
from complete pairs of matched schools these decisions should not affect the composition of treatment and
comparison groups. We document few differences in observable characteristics between the 282 “matched” and

8

Columns 4 to 6 in Table 1 suggest that the documented differences in the Pre-Matched
sample are reduced substantially when focusing on schools in the Matched and Surveyed
sample. None of the 20 indicators used in predicting the propensity score present statistically
significant differences between the treatment and comparison groups (Panel A). In addition,
administrative variables not used in the matching procedure also tend to balance across the
two groups (Panel B). The same pattern arises when analyzing the density distribution of the
propensity score. Figure 1 shows that the propensity score distribution for treatment
observations is shifted to the right versus those from the comparison group when focusing on
the Pre-Matched sample. In contrast, Figure 2 shows that both distributions are almost on top
of each other for the Matched and Surveyed sample. We complement these figures performing
two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for equality of the score distribution functions. For the
Pre-Matched sample the null of equality is rejected at the 1 percent level, although for the
Matched and Surveyed sample there is little evidence against this hypothesis (p-value of
0.949).
3.3 Primary Data
Primary data were collected in the 202 matched schools in November 2008. A third-grade
class was randomly selected within each school, and questionnaires were administered to
students, teachers, principals, and technology coordinators. A total of 4,897 students were
surveyed, 50.3 percent of whom attended treatment schools.
The central outcome for this paper is a measure of students’ digital skills. We applied a
technology competence test intended to capture students’ skills to use computers effectively.
The test was developed by experts from the Measurement Center of the Pontifical Catholic
University of Chile with strong experience in the design and application of psychometric
tests. 8 The test was a paper-based instrument that aimed to simulate the use of a computer
presenting screen shots and asking students how to perform certain tasks. Although it would
have been desirable to have applied a computer-based exam, this was not feasible because
some participating schools did not have the required resources. Therefore, a significant effort
was exerted to generate a valid and reliable instrument to measure students’ digital skills.
the 202 “matched and surveyed” schools, with the exception that the former tended to have lower average
enrollment (459 versus 508, respectively).
8
http://www.mideuc.cl.

9

The design of the test involved four steps. First, the areas and competencies to evaluate
were determined based on a syllabus used by the International Computer Driving License
Foundation (ICDL). This is an internationally recognized institution that certifies basic
technology skills in 148 countries and 25 languages. 9 The exam evaluated the following areas:
basic skills and file management, word processing, operating spreadsheets, and information
and communication. 10 Second, about 210 items were developed that emphasized practical skills
in operating computers and the Internet. Third, a pilot application involving about 500 students
was implemented in schools in Lima similar to those participating in the study. Fourth, results
from the pilot application were analyzed and standard procedures were applied to select those
items that satisfy desired psychometric properties. The resulting test included 54 items and
students were expected to complete it in one hour.
To shed light on the validity and reliability of the test, a field validation exercise was
performed in November 2008. In this exercise, 210 third-grade secondary students in Santiago,
Chile answered the developed paper-based test and completed the computer-based test
administered by the ICDL Foundation. The results indicate that the paper-based test is valid and
reliable. Regarding validity, scores in the paper-based test presented a correlation of 0.76 with
those generated from the computer-based exam. In terms of reliability, the paper-based test
presented a value of 0.94 in the Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alpha.
Students were also evaluated in Math and Spanish. These tests were designed for the
study using public items developed by the office in charge of designing and applying
standardized achievement tests in the Ministry of Education of Peru (Unidad de Medicion de
la Calidad). Additionally, students completed a self-administered questionnaire that collected
demographic data, computer access and use at home, and information on computer availability
and general use at school. In each class, students were randomly assigned to one of three
groups. One group of students had to complete an additional section that collected information
about the extent and type of computer use in Math. The second and third group had to
complete similar sections on the use of computers in their Language and technology classes.
Math, Spanish, and technology teachers of the selected students were also surveyed.
Information collected included demographic characteristics, technology access, use, training,
9

http://www.ecdl.com.
The test is intended to measure basic computer skills. As such, it might be considered as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;low-orderâ&#x20AC;? digital
skills test.
10

10

and skills self-perception. Data were also collected on the actual use of computers in the thirdgrade class. School principals reported information on demographic characteristics,
technology access, use, training, and skills self-perception and school inputs, focusing
particularly on those related to technology. Finally, technology coordinators, when available,
were surveyed to collect data on technology school inputs, extent, and type of use.
3.4 Empirical Models
Using the sample of matched and surveyed schools, we run OLS regressions to estimate mean
differences in the treatment and comparison groups across relevant variables. These variables
include the following: i) technology-related inputs at schools (for example, computer and
Internet access); ii) student, teacher and principal characteristics; iii) computer time use by
place (at school and out of school) and by subject (Technology, Math, Language); iv) test
scores in digital skills, Math and Language. Regressions are run under the following
specification:
(1)

where đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018; represents the outcome variable, đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018; is a dummy variable for treatment

assignment status, đ?&#x153;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018; represents the error term and i and s are student and school indices. The
coefficient đ?&#x203A;˝ is the parameter of interest and corresponds to an estimate of the average
difference. Standard errors are clustered at the school level in all regressions.

4. Results
4.1. Checking the Identification Strategy
The empirical strategy, if successful, should have generated two sets of schools with different
levels of access to technology but that are similar in several dimensions correlated with
educational outcomes. In this subsection we test these two conditions.
We start by examining differences in technology access between treatment and
comparison schools using the data collected for the study (Table 2). Panel A documents that
treatment schools have significantly higher access to technology inputs. SIPA in treatment
schools is 2.9 versus 1.3 in comparison schools. Similarly, treatment schools are, on average,
24 percentage points more likely to have internet access and 27 percentage points more likely
11

to have a technology coordinator. This is not surprising given how the treatment and
comparison groups were constructed. Nonetheless, it is important to document these
differences considering that the groups were constructed using 2006 administrative data,
which might have some measurement error, and that the primary data reported here were
collected in November 2008.
Panel B explores whether there are also differences in principals’ and teachers’
technology skills. Results indicate that principals and teachers in treatment schools are
significantly more likely to report that they learned to use computers at school (15 and 9
percentage points, respectively). This is consistent with treatment schools’ increased
likelihood of having technology coordinators and the expectation that these specialists provide
training to principals and subject teachers. However, there is little evidence suggesting that
principals and teachers in treatment schools had acquired more skills than their counterparts at
comparison schools. In addition, there are no statistically significant differences in teachers’
self-reported skills in general and pedagogical computer use, or in directors’ general and
administrative computer use. Additionally, results suggest that, in general, principals and
teachers have low confidence in their abilities to operate computers effectively. For example,
the average teacher reports being able to do 3.5 tasks among 8 listed tasks (2.9 tasks for
principals). 11 Summing up, treatment schools have better access to technology-related
resources (computer, internet and technology coordinators) but teachers and principals have
low levels of digital skills, similar across treatment and comparison schools.
We now turn to the second condition required for our empirical strategy: for schools in
the treatment group to be similar to those in the comparison group in relevant dimensions. To
provide evidence of this issue, we examine a range of characteristics of students, teachers and
principals. Table 3 shows that treatment and comparison students have similar demographic
characteristics and home assets. In terms of technology access, students in the treatment
schools are slightly more likely to have a computer at home (33 percent versus 28 percent, tratio 1.93). However, there is not a significant difference in computer access when finishing
primary school, which suggests that having greater access in secondary schools might have
11

Regarding general computer skills, teachers and principals answer whether they could do the following 8 tasks:
produce a letter, send an attachment, take pictures and show them in the computer, save documents in folders,
create a budget or student list in a spreadsheet, participate in Internet discussions, produce a simple presentation
and use the Internet to buy online.

12

caused some families to invest in computers at home. Note that because of the large sample
size (4,897 students in 202 schools) we can estimate mean characteristics and differences
across groups precisely.
Table 4 documents few differences in subject teacher characteristics between treatment
and comparison schools, regarding demographics, work experience or home assets. Teachers
in treatment schools are slightly less likely to have computers at home (76 percent versus 82
percent, t-ratio 1.45). Table 5 shows that principals in treatment schools present similar
characteristics to those in comparison schools. The only statistically significant difference is
found for home computer access, though in this case principals in treatment schools are less
likely to have this resource (87 percent versus 98 percent, t-ratio 3.03). The combined
evidence from Tables 3 to 5 indicates that treatment students, teachers and principals are
similar to their counterparts in comparison schools. This provides further validity to the
empirical strategy adopted and suggests limited potential bias in estimates of causal effects on
outcomes presented next. Therefore, we tentatively interpret differences in outcomes across
groups as evidence of the effects of greater technology access.
4.2 Effects on Computer Use
This subsection explores whether increased technology access in treatment schools has
translated into higher use, and, specifically, for what subjects. Table 6 shows the number of
weekly hours of computer time use reported by students, both at school and outside school.
Results indicate large effects of computer access on total use at school, though the increase is
concentrated on teaching digital skills. Treatment students spend about 2.1 hours per week
using computers at school compared with 1.0 hours for comparison students (t-ratio 5.15).
However, there are no differences in computer time use in Math or Language classes across
groups. The average time spent using computers to learn Math or Language is low and
virtually identical in treatment and control schools (0.3 hours per week). In contrast, the time
devoted to teaching digital skills is significantly higher in treatment schools versus
comparison schools (1.6 versus 0.8, respectively). Consistent with the few differences in
studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; characteristics documented earlier, particularly for home technology access, there is
no difference in the time spent using computers outside school.

13

Combining the estimates about total computer time use in school with information
about SIPA, we can get a rough estimation about the fraction of time that computers are
actually used. For treatment schools, computers seem to be used about 72 percent of the time
(2.1 hours used / 2.9 hours of potential use). The corresponding estimate for comparison
schools is 77 percent (1.0 / 1.3). These estimates should be interpreted with caution, as there
are strong assumptions underlying these estimates including that computers are always shared
by two students, that information reported by students about time use is accurate and that use
by third-graders is representative for all students in the school.
Table 7 complements these results by presenting estimates of average hours per week
that teachers report spending using computers in the Math, Language and technology classes.
Again, we document no statistically significant effects in time spent on Math and Language
using computers. However, subject teachers report much higher levels of computer use in their
classes compared with students (0.8 hours versus 0.3 hours). 12 Regarding time spent teaching
digital skills, there are no statistically significant differences across treatment and comparison
groups in the average time reported by technology coordinators in these activities. However,
note that this information was provided only by technology coordinators in schools that have
them. Table 2 documents that treatment schools are significantly more likely to have
technology coordinators. Therefore, combining these two factors (more technology
coordinators and the same average time that they are teaching when present), we expect that
students in treatment schools would have spent more time learning digital skills than those in
comparison schools.
In short, increased access to technology resources in treatment schools has led to more
time spent using computers to learn digital skills, with no effects on the time used to learn
Math or Language. These findings are consistent with experimental evidence from Colombia.
The evaluation of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Computadoras para Educarâ&#x20AC;? program showed that increased school
computer access produced an increase in the time devoted to learning digital skills with no
effects on computer use in Math or Language (Barrera-Osorio and Linden, 2009).

12

No objective data can be used to determine whether students or teachers are reporting this information
accurately. It is plausible that subject teachers might over-report computer time use if intensively using
technology resources is expected from them. However, there is ample evidence documenting that respondents
tend to over-report time spent in socially desirable activities and under-report those considered undesirable
(United Nations, 2005).

14

One potential explanation for these results is that subject teachers, on average
unprepared to effectively incorporate technology into instruction, decide not to increase the
time spent using computers when facing an expansion of computer access. In fact, in
comparison schools less than 30 percent of computer time was spent in teaching Math and
Language. This suggests that subject teachers in comparison schools may not have been
constrained in their use of computers because of low access levels. In economic terms,
possibly, the binding constraint for the use of technology in core subjects would be low
demand by teachers rather than limited supply. If so, to achieve increased technology use in
core subjects, more guidance to teachers about how to effectively use these resources might be
needed rather than expansion in computer access. Additionally, investments in digital content
can be expected to contribute to increasing demand for and effectiveness of computer use.
4.3 Effects on Digital Skills and Academic Achievement
This subsection explores whether the differential access to technology inputs generates effects
in digital skills and academic achievement. In theory, schools with higher levels of technology
inputs could have higher learning in Math and Spanish through two channels. First, if
instruction time when using computers generates more learning than traditional instruction, we
would expect schools with increased access to computers to generate more learning, provided
there is an increased use of computers for the particular subject. Treatment schools have more
available instruction time with computers but, as documented above, it does not translate into
increased use in Math and Spanish lessons. Therefore, we do not expect that treatment schools
will enjoy higher learning in these subjects through this channel. Second, even if the time used
in treatment and comparison schools were equal, there could be effects generated through
higher â&#x20AC;&#x153;computer use productivityâ&#x20AC;? in the treatment group. The instructional time using
computers could be similar, but learning might be faster in treatment schools because of a
better use of the available technology resources. However, we do not expect impacts through
this channel because we have already documented that teachers in the treatment group seem
similarly prepared (or unprepared) to integrate technology in the classroom. Additionally,
computer time spent in core subjects is so low that the difference in productivity would have
to be implausibly large to generate measurable impacts.

15

Given that we have documented that increased technology access translates into
increased use in teaching digital skills, we would expect to document positive impacts on
digital skills in treatment schools. However, note that the increase in average total time
devoted to computer use, inside and outside schools, seems to have moderately increased (8.5
versus 7.0 weekly hours for treatment and comparison students, respectively). The additional
use that students enjoy at school might not generate increased digital skills if there are
decreasing returns of computer use to digital skills partially because the software used in
school and outside school are similar. Therefore, whether increased access to computers in
schools for the treatment group translates into better digital skills is an empirical question.
We test these hypotheses by estimating OLS regressions of test scores in Math,
Spanish, and digital skills on a treatment indicator. Column 1 in Table 8 presents the results
without controls. As expected, we find no impacts in Math and Language. However, we do
find statistically significant positive impacts on digital skills. Students in the treatment group
outperformed those in comparison schools by 0.31 standard deviations. Columns 2, 3 and 4
report estimated effects when progressively controlling for student, subject teacher and
principal characteristics. 13 Adding these controls greatly reduces the standard errors, though
there are limited changes in estimated coefficients. Focusing on effects on digital skills, the
regression that includes all controls yields a virtually identical coefficient (0.31 standard
deviations,) though the standard error decreases to 0.06 (t-ratio 4.8). The robustness of results
across specifications provides further evidence for the validity of the empirical strategy
followed.
The results presented suggest that increased technology inputs in schools can be used
successfully to reduce differences in digital skills that might exist in the population. Such
differences could be associated with differential access to and use of computers by individuals
of different socioeconomic status (the so-called â&#x20AC;&#x153;digital divideâ&#x20AC;?). From a policy perspective it
is relevant to know whether there is heterogeneity of impacts across different individuals to
maximize effects through optimal program targeting. Hence, we next explore whether there
are heterogeneous effects on digital skills across groups.

13

Controls for students, teachers and principals characteristics included in the regressions are presented in Tables
3, 4 and 5, respectively. Access to computers and Internet at home are not included as controls in regressions
because they may be affected by computer access at school.

16

Table 9 presents evidence regarding differential impacts by three dimensions: access to
home computers before entering secondary school, gender and motherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education. We do not
find statistically significant evidence of differential impacts. However, the results document
the extent of the digital divide in this context. Students with computers at home before
entering secondary school outperformed those without computers by 0.27 standard deviations.
Additionally, results indicate that being male is associated with a 0.12 standard deviation
advantage, while having a mother with a high school diploma is associated with a 0.22
standard deviation increase. These results can be used to benchmark the estimated effects on
digital skills. The small increases in shared computer access documented in treatment schools
produced a positive effect of 0.31 standard deviations, larger than the documented differences
across students different baseline computer access, gender and motherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education.

5. Conclusions
This paper studies whether increases in technology inputs in secondary schools in Peru
translate into more hours of use of these resources in Math, Language and technology and into
learning in these areas. To this end, we applied matching techniques to rich administrative
census data for public urban schools to generate two sets of schools that are different in
technology access but similar on observable educational inputs. Next, we collected primary
data on these schools and verified that the empirical strategy followed achieved both stated
objectives. Schools in the treatment group have more than double the number of computers
than the comparison group (23 versus 11), increased Internet access (24 percentage points)
and increased availability of computer labs and technology coordinators (20 and 27
percentage points, respectively). We also document that important characteristics at the
student, teacher and principal levels are well balanced across groups.
We found that increased access to computers in the treatment group translated into
increases in time used to teach digital skills, but no increases are found in computer time
devoted to Math and Language. Consistent with the findings on use, we find no impacts for
Math and Spanish but large effects on digital skills. The estimated impacts are sufficiently
large to more than compensate for reductions in test scores in technology associated with not
having a computer at home before entering secondary school, being female or having a mother
with less than high school.
17

These results should be interpreted as suggestive rather than conclusive. We have
provided several pieces of evidence that suggest the validity of the empirical strategy
followed. However, it is important to recognize that this paper exploits only existing crosssectional variation in computer access, which might be associated with other (not observable)
determinants of educational outcomes. Further evidence, from randomized experiments, is
warranted before providing prescriptive policy recommendations to countries desiring to use
technology to improve educational outcomes.

Mimeographed. document.
Machin, S., S. McNally and O. Silva. 2007. “New Technology in Schools: Is There a Payoff?”
Economic Journal 117: 1145-1167.
Malamud, O., and C. Pop-Eleches. 2011. “Home Computer Use and the Development of
Human Capital.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126: 987-1027.
Mo, D. et al. 2013. “Can One-to-One Computing Narrow the Digital Divide and the
Educational Gap in China? The Case of Beijing Migrant Schools.” World
Development 46: 14-29.
Rouse, C. and A. Krueger. 2004. “Putting Computerized Instruction to the Test: a Randomized
Evaluation of a ‘Scientifically Based’ Reading Program.” Economics of Education
Review 23: 323-338.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2005. “Guide to Producing
Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work.” New York, United States:
United Nations.

20

Table 1. School Characteristics by Treatment Status

Enrollment
Enrollment 3rd year
Students/teachers
% Students in social programs
% Has principal
Number of assistant principal
Administrative staff
% Teachers with teaching degree
% Tenured teachers
Classrooms
% Has teacher lounge
% Has library
Language textbooks
Math textbooks
% Has water supply
% Has electricity
% Has sewage
Year school was established
% With Social Sciences focus
% Has Internet cafĂŠ in the city

N
211
422
101
101
Notes: Data from the 2006 school census are used. The Pre-Matched sample includes secondary public, urban schools in the
departments of Lima, Ancash and Puno (N=633). The Treatment group includes schools with high SIPA (computers/student)
and the Comparison group those with low SIPA. The Matched and Surveyed sample is a subset of schools from the PreMatched sample. Schools in the Treatment group were matched to those in the Comparison group using nearest neighbor
matching without replacement and a caliper of 0.02 (N=282). Primary data were collected from pairs of matched schools that
were accessible and that agreed to be surveyed (N=202). See Subsection 3.2 for details. Panel A reports statistics for
variables used to predict treatment whereas Panel B presents statistics for those not included. Columns (1), (2), (4) and (5)
presents means. Columns (3) and (6) presents t-ratios from regressions of the variable on a treatment dummy. Significance at
the one and five percent levels is indicated by ** and *, respectively.

N
101
101
Notes: Means and standard errors in brackets. Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. The selfreported technology skills variables for teachers and directors are constructed adding the number of activities
that the person reports to be able to do from a pre-specified list. For example, for general computer use it
includes the ability to open a file and create a folder. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated
by ** and *, respectively.

N
2,463
2,434
Notes: This table presents statistics and estimated differences between the treatment and comparison groups at
the student level. Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. Standard errors, reported in brackets,
are clustered at the school level. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated by ** and *,
respectively.

N
201
202
Notes: This table presents statistics and estimated differences between the treatment and comparison groups.
Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. Standard errors, reported in brackets, are clustered at the
school level. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated by ** and *, respectively.

N
101
101
Notes: This table presents statistics and estimated differences between the treatment and comparison groups.
Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. Standard errors, reported in brackets, are clustered at the
school level. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated by ** and *, respectively.

N
2,463
2,434
Notes: This table presents statistics and estimated differences between the treatment and comparison groups.
Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. Time use is measured as hours per week. Standard errors,
reported in brackets, are clustered at the school level. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated
by ** and *, respectively.

N
60
33
Notes: This table presents statistics and estimated differences between the treatment and comparison
groups. Primary data collected in November 2008 were used. Standard errors, reported in brackets, are
clustered at the school level. Significance at the one and five percent levels is indicated by ** and *,
respectively

Students' characteristics
N
Y
Y
Y
Teachers' characteristics
N
N
Y
Y
Principals' characteristics
N
N
N
Y
Notes: This table presents estimates of the effects of school shared technology access on test scores in digital
skills, Math and Language. The unit of observation is a student. Each cell corresponds to one OLS regression.
Labels in rows correspond to dependent variables. Regressions for digital skills, Math and Language include
4,583, 4,541 and 4,763 observations, respectively. Different sets of controls are included in each column. Controls
for students', teachers' and principals' characteristics included in the regressions are those presented in Tables 3, 4
and 5, respectively. Access to computers and Internet at home are not included as controls in regressions because
they may be affected by computer access at school. All tests have been normalized subtracting the mean and
dividing by the standard deviation of the comparison group. Standard errors, reported in brackets, are clustered at
the school level. Significance at the five and ten percent levels is indicated by ** and *, respectively.

Table 9. Heterogeneous Effects of Technology Access on Digital Skills

Treatment
Computer at home in last year of primary school
Computer at home in last year of primary school x Treatment
Male
Male x Treatment
Mother has high school degree
Mother has high school degree x Treatment

[1]

[2]

[3]

0.327**
[0.068]
0.277**
[0.050]
-0.104
[0.086]

0.322**
[0.072]

0.320**
[0.072]

0.124**
[0.040]
-0.028
[0.057]
0.218**
[0.044]
-0.028
[0.070]

N
4,583
4,583
4,583
Notes: This table presents estimates of the heterogeneous effects of school shared technology access on test scores in
digital skills, Math and Language. The unit of observation is a student. Each column corresponds to a separate
regression. All regressions include controls for students', teachers' and principals' characteristics. The variables
included are those presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Access to computers and Internet at home are not included as
controls in regressions because they may be affected by computer access at school. All tests have been normalized
subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation of the comparison group. Standard errors, reported in
brackets, are clustered at the school level. Significance at the five and ten percent levels is indicated by ** and *,
respectively.

the effects of shared school technology access on students' digital skills in peru

this paper analyzes the effects of increased shared computer access in secondary schools in peru. administrative data are used to identify, through propensity-score matching, two groups of schools with similar observable educational inputs but different intensity in computer access. extensive primary data collected from the 202 matched schools are used to determine whether increased shared computer access at schools affects digital skills and academic achievement. results suggest that small increases in shared computer access, one more computer per 40 students, can produce large increases in digital skills (0. 3 standard deviations). no effects are found on test scores in math and language.