With the help of Robbie Clutton’s SimpleBDD gem, my pair and I had structured our client’s tests into Cucumber-style Given/When/Then tests that our client product manager could read and understand. However, we felt that our improved high-level structure came at the expense of repetitive low-level methods. For instance, to allow both Given "Mary is signed in" and Given "Joe is signed in", we had to define both mary_is_signed_in and joe_is_signed_in. In any non-test situation, such egregious duplication would be textbook refactor material. In a test, however, being clear and obviously correct is valuable as tests don’t have tests. In addition, we couldn’t easily refactor to something like Given "User is signed in (Mary)" without sacrificing readability by our PM.