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This study synthesized fragmented accounts of observer bias in
the field research literature by defining and describing four
types of observer bias; by operationalizing one type of observer bias (reactivity) by identifying key independent and dependent variables; and by deriving hypotheses which can be tested by using qualitative and quantitative data from a large-scale
observational study of police (Project on Policing Neighborhoods).

Abstract:

The four types of observer bias identified in the study are
"reactivity," which involves research subjects reacting to the
presence of an observer, especially if the subject knows that
his/her behavior is under observation; "culture shock," which
refers to feelings of disorientation and anxiety that observers feel during the early stages of field research; "going native," which involves a process of conversion or resocialization of the observer during fieldwork; and "burnout, which refers to
inaccurate documentation of observational data at the later
stages of fieldwork due to the mentally and physically demanding
nature of data collection. An in-depth review of qualitative data
on reactivity for patrol officers involved in the Project on
Policing Neighborhoods revealed that reactivity was often
embedded within social exchanges between officers and observers;
these often involved social cues from patrol officers or explicit
changes in officer behavior. One key finding from the qualitative
analysis was that the level of reactivity within observational
data (in the form of social cues or explicit changes in patrol
officer behavior) depended on the specificity of the data.
Multivariate analyses were conducted to determine whether the
qualitative coding or other potential sources of reactivity
derived from the field research literature (i.e., observer sex,
status congruency, and time in the field) were isolated instances
or involved a systematic effect on patrol officer behavior in the
form of significant effects within multivariate equations.
Multivariate analyses were conducted at three units of analysis
and examined multiple aspects of patrol officer behavior.
Encounter-level multivariate analyses addressed the patrol
officer's decision to arrest and the use of force. Ride-level
multivariate analyses examined the level of aggressive patrol and
the amount of "goofing off" in which an officer engaged in per
shift. Ride segment multivariate analyses focused on variation in
patrol officer behavior in the context of a ride. Selected
findings from the multivariate analyses indicate that patrol
officers who expressed concerns about safety were less likely to
arrest suspects; patrol officers were more likely to use force
against citizens if the observer helped the police officer in
some capacity over the course of the shift; and patrol officers
were less likely to use force against citizens if they were less
familiar with the observer. Further, patrol officer behavior
during the first hour of the shift was significantly different
from his/her behavior during the rest of the shift. Overall, the
study indicates that reactivity could act as a systematic bias
and mask or alter the true relationships between independent and dependent variables, leading to mistaken inferences being drawn
from all studies that use observational data. Suggestions are
offered for how studies might reduce the bias associated with
officer reactivity. 98 tables, 4 figures, and 143 references

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