The Last Continent: Antarctic remains an enigma

Postmedia columnist Daphne Bramham crosses the notoriously rough Drake Passage from the Falkland Islands to South Georgia — known as the Serengeti of the Southern Ocean — to Antarctica. Her daily reports from the 18-day expedition will cover issues from climate change and micro plastics in the ocean to Japan’s continuing whale hunt, the antics of penguins and the world’s wild race to tour, and exploit, this last frontier.

PUNTA ARENAS, Chile — A continent at the bottom of the Southern Hemisphere was first imagined in the 2nd century as a counterbalance to the Arctic. Europeans first added it to their maps in the 1500s. But for nearly three centuries, Terra Australis Incognita remained purely speculative.

The last continent to be imagined, Antarctica was also the last to be discovered.

In 1773, Captain James Cook circumnavigated the Antarctic Circle, going farther south than any Europeans before him. He never saw Antarctica, but it didn’t stop him from believing.

“That there may be a continent or a large tract of land near the (south) pole, I will not deny,” he wrote in his diary. “On the contrary, I am of the opinion that there is.”

Half a century later, Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen confirmed Antarctica’s existence in 1820. He saw it, but couldn’t reach it because of sea ice. It wasn’t until 1822 that American sealer and explorer John Davis and his crew became the first known to have landed there.

The Antarctic has long been a figment of my imagination as well. Long before Happy Feet or Blue Planet, I dreamed of walking among penguins. I longed to see the albatross that so bedeviled the Ancient Mariner. And after reading Ernest Shackleton’s incredible account of putting the lives of his men and himself above the vain-glorious attainment of the South Pole, I wanted to see where they had been.

Even now that I am finally setting off to see it, I still have whimsical, medieval moments where I imagine that I might find myself clinging by my toes, upside down, to the bottom of the world in order to not fly off into the universe.

As the last continent to be discovered, Antarctica remains a mysterious, mystical and spectacularly beautiful place that often turns adventurers and rational scientists into poets when they are asked to describe it.

Antarctica remains largely unknown. It is the emptiest and coldest place on Earth, with a recorded low of -89.2 degrees, and the only continent with no permanent human settlements other than the research stations that are mainly clustered along its coast.

Uniquely, it remains the only landmass that humans have yet to exploit for its resources.

Because it’s tucked at the bottom of the globe, sliced into bits to fit on flat maps, most of us don’t fully appreciate that Antarctica is roughly equivalent in size to the United States and Mexico combined.

A vast, frozen desert punctuated by volcanoes and mountain ranges, its highest peak — Mount Vinson — was only discovered in 1957. At 4,897 metres, it is nearly 1,000 metres higher than Mount Robson in the Canadian Rockies.

The South Pole itself is 2,700 metres above sea level. That is 1,000 metres higher than Banff and Denver.

Surrounded by the roughest and most dangerous seas, few places on Earth are farther from Canada. Even a more or less straight-line flight from Calgary to the Antarctic Peninsula is more than 18,000 kilometres. So, perhaps it’s not surprising that our Antarctic involvement is limited.

The planned route for the One Ocean Expedition.PNG

Canada signed on to the Antarctic Treaty in 1988. The international accord came into effect in 1961 and guarantees that Antarctica will be open to scientific research, but closed to mineral extraction, nuclear testing and the disposal of radioactive waste.

Because Canada has no permanent research station and no formal Antarctic research plan, it is only a non-consultative member to the treaty and not at the table when governance, sovereignty, resource exploration, wildlife protection, tourism or the effects of climate change are discussed.

Yet as a polar nation, a growing number of Canadian researchers, political scientists and environmentalists are pushing for greater involvement because of the parallel and complementary issues faced by both the Arctic and the Antarctic — everything from sovereignty to sea-level rise.

Animals have always drawn people to the far south, whether they are whalers, researchers or, today, an increasing number of tourists. The convergence of the southern seas with Atlantic and Pacific oceans makes the Antarctic a rich feeding ground for marine mammals, from the biggest (blue whales) to the smallest and everything in between, including the mythic albatross and adorable penguins.

But human incursions over the past century have severely impacted both the wildlife and the oceans.

Over two million baleen whales have been killed in the Southern Ocean — along with more than 725,000 fin whales, over 360,000 blue whales and another 250,000 or so humpbacks.

Evidence suggests that the stocks are rebounding since the International Whaling Commission banned commercial whaling there in 1982 — a moratorium that Canada opposed and, as a result, resigned its membership in the commission.

But now there are growing concerns about the commercial fishing of other species, which is damaging the rich stock of krill — a small shrimp-like crustacean that is the primary food source for baleen whales, penguins and other wildlife.

Still, as I head out today from the Falkland Islands on an 18-day expedition through South Georgia to the South Orkney Islands, into the Weddell Sea and on to the Antarctic Peninsula, I’ve been told to expect to see plenty of minke and humpback whales, thousands of penguins, as well as many seabirds, including, perhaps, the wandering albatross with its nearly 3.5-metre wingspan.

The wealth of marine wildlife in South Georgia has led to it being described as the Serengeti of the Southern Ocean.

But it doesn’t mean that many of those animals aren’t at risk. Of the 18 species of penguins, 11 are endangered.

Albatrosses are the world’s most threatened birds. All 22 species are listed as endangered, vulnerable or “near-threatened.” Blue, sei and fin whales are all endangered.

The research and expedition vessel, the Akademik Ioffe.Ron Clifford /
PNG

There is a move to set aside a conservation area about twice the size of British Columbia in the Weddell Sea off the Antarctic Peninsula to protect marine mammals, fish, penguins and seabirds.

In January, Greenpeace launched a global campaign in support of the European Union’s sanctuary proposal to the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. In October, the proposal to protect 1.8 million square kilometres was blocked by China and Russia even though China had brokered a deal the previous year to designate a 1.5 million-square-kilometre area in the Ross Sea, on the opposite side of the continent, as off-limits to fishing for 35 years.

In addition to direct human interventions, climate change is affecting this region more than anywhere else. According to Polar Knowledge Canada, the Southern Ocean is warming at twice the rate of the global ocean, having absorbed over 65 per cent of the heat associated with global warming and taken up to half of the ocean uptake of anthropogenic carbon.

The Antarctic Peninsula is showing the worst effects. One spectacular example came in July when one of the 10 largest icebergs in history calved off the Larsen ice shelf and into the sea. At an estimated trillion tons of ice, it is half the size of Haida Gwaii and accounted for about 12 per cent of the ice shelf’s total area, leaving it at the lowest extent ever recorded.

It’s too early to say what it might mean for wildlife. But when an ice shelf collapsed in the Ross Sea on the other side of the Antarctic, it had devastating effects on an Adelie penguin colony. Only two chicks were born in the colony and an estimated 18,000 died because the parents weren’t able to access their feeding grounds.

The reasons for the collapsing ice shelves are twofold. Warming seawater melts them from below, while warmer air temperatures melt them from above.

Because the ice chunks come from shelves that are already floating, this isn’t directly contributing to sea rise — any more than a melting ice cube in a drink doesn’t overflow the glass.

But scientists believe the collapse of the ice shelves may contribute to sea-level rise because they act as barriers to underground river water and advancing glaciers reaching the ocean.

Along with all the research being done on specific animals, on climate change and ice, there is growing interest in the quality of the water in the Southern Ocean.

During the 18 days on board One Ocean Expedition’s Akademik Ioffe, I will be helping take water samples to ship back to Peter Ross’s West Vancouver lab, where they will be processed.

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The Last Continent: Daphne Bramham travels to Antarctica

A black-browed albatross was one of several hundred that soared and swooped around the ship, Akademik Ioffe, as it headed north from Antarctica to Ushuaia, Argentina. Albatrosses and other seabirds feed in the rich waters where three oceans meet – Atlantic, Pacific and the Southern Ocean. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A giant petrel dances on the wind currents near the tip of South America in the Drake Passage. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The notorious Cape Horn is usually shrouded in fog, mist and clouds and beaten with winds and waves. It's at the tip of South America, separated from Antarctica by the notoriously rough Drake Passage.Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal yawns and bares its teeth in a ghoulish grin while taking a rest from preying on penguins at Paradise Bay, Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – Water cascades down from an iceberg in the waters off the Antarctic Peninsula of Paradise Bay where minke and humpback whales, penguins and seals are all feeding on krill in advance of the coming winter.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a base at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale dives, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay.The fluke is as distinctive as a human fingerprint. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale surfaces, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay, Antarctica. Humpbacks were hunted nearly to extinction in the 20th century but are making a strong comeback since commercial whaling was banned in 1982. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Slumping glaciers and sea ice appear to engulf the Akademik Ioffe on a sunny summer day in February, Fournier Bay, Antarctica. It's an illusion. But, this part of Antarctica that is most affected by climate change with lower annual sea ice and a faster retreat of glaciers than other parts of the continent. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Water sampling being done on board Akademik Ioffe for Ocean Wise Conservation Association (aka Vancouver Aquarium). The photo of the vial shows a rather large fibre. The greenish tinge to it is from the algae and other phytoplanktons. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes back to eat the Adelie penguin that it just killed at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals grab them by the necks in the water and then slam them against the surface to flay the skin off them before eating them. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A leopard seal grabs an Adelie penguin in the water at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals aren't fast enough to catch them onshore or on ice flows where it's not uncommon to see the penguins and the leopard seals sharing space.Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes up for air after having killed an Adelie penguin chick at Hope Bay, Antarctica. The chicks have only recently fledged and are easy prey for these seals. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A clutch of Adelie penguin chicks have grown up enough that they now have to fend for themselves and can no longer rely on their parents to feed them. Their "Mohawk" haircuts are the remnants of the down that they must shed before they get their waterproofed feathers. The tufts on their head are usually the last thing to go because they can't reach it to slough it off. Daphne is at Hope Bay in Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Chinstrap penguins jump in the air as they swim through the Scotia Sea near to Elephant Island, where 22 of Ernest Shackleton's crew spent four months waiting to be rescued. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The peaks of Elephant Island pokes through the fog. Daphne Bramham/PNG

On the now eroded isthmus that joined Point Wild to Elephant Island, Ernest Shackleton's 22 crew spent a winter waiting for rescue.Daphne Bramham/PNG

Iceberg B15Z, which measures 24 kilometres long and 11 kilometres wide and 78 metres high, has been floating around Antarctica for more than 17 years since a huge chunk broke off the Ross Ice Sheet. Dapne Bramham/PNG

A group of curious fur seals stop playing in the surf just long enough to take a good look at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A moulting, female elephant seal rouses herself enough to take a look at what's happening on the beach at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. After giving birth, the females start to moult. Until their new skin and fur grows in, they can't go in the water because they're no longer waterproof. So, they fast even though they are feeding pups that must grow quickly if they are to survive when winter comes. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Unlike other penguins, the elegant kings live in large, permanent rookeries or colonies throughout the year. Some can be as large as half a million birds. So, they're easy enough to find because you can hear their calls from many kilometres away and, depending on the direction of the wind, you can often smell them a great distance as well. Daphne is at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A whale's skull, a remnant of the 20th century whale hunt lies in the grass at Grytzviken, South Georgia. This plant and its settlement where the heart of the whaling industry and the largest of six processing plants on the island. The plant closed in 1962.Daphne Bramham/PNG

STROMNESS, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – This abandoned whaling station in Stromness, South Georgia is where Ernest Shackleton, Thomas Crean and Frank Worsley arrived after 18 months of attempting to find help for the crew of the Endurance. Their tenacious search for help took them across a dangerous passage in an open sailboat and over one of South Georgia's highest mountains. But before they saw the whaling station, they heard its whistle blowing. Daphne Bramham/PNG

GRYTZVIKEN, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – The Petrel is one of the abandoned whaling ships that line the shore of Grytzviken, South Georgia. This was once the largest and busiest processing plant on the island. The harpoon gun is still on the bow of the ship. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The rusted beams of a former whale processing plant are silhouetted against a glacier at Grytzviken, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

SALISBURY PLAIN, South Georgia – A mating pair of king penguins do their ritual dance. Unlike most other species, kings aren't monogamous. Because of the short breeding season, they don't always wait for their mates to return before breeding. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Tens of thousands of king penguins occupy the rockery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia throughout the year. So, there are nesting pairs, fledglings and mating penguins all along the shore and up into the plain itself. An estimated half a million penguins are on this island including kings, macaronis, gentoos and chinstraps. Kings are 60 to 94 centimetres tall. Only emperor penguins, which nest further inland, are bigger. Daphne Bramham/PNG

This is what tens of thousands of king penguins look like from above on a ridge over the rookery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

King penguin chicks have shaggy brown coats that they shed in clumps before they get into the water for the first time. If they happen to fall into the water before that, they'll likely drown because their fluffy feathers aren't waterproofed. So, they hang around the rookery, waiting for the parents to come back and feed them. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. (Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – These moulting sea lions will stay here on this island in the Antarctic region for several weeks as they get a whole new outer skin. They seem unperturbed by the storm of life around them from a southern fur seal pup to king penguins that walk around them to the large seabirds that swoop in to take unsuspecting and vulnerable penguin chicks. Daphne Bramham is visiting Elsehul Bay,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

There are close to a million macaroni penguins in Elsehul Bay on South Georgia, but their numbers have fallen by about a half in the last 30 years. They lay their eggs on steep slopes and are easily recognizable with their lush yellow hair tufts. They were named macaroni in the 18th century after the dandies i n London who wore extreme fashions. The song, Yankee Doodle, makes reference to them – "he stuck a feather in his hat and called it macaroni."Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – King penguins are second only to emperors when it comes to their height and weight. It takes 14 months for a pair to raise a chick. The chicks at Elsehul Bay, South Georgia have already fledged and are no longer dependent on their parents for food. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A blizzard of birds – mostly cape petrels -- swoops and swirls just off the island in the Antarctic region where they come along with elephant seals, fur seals, king penguins and macaroni penguins to feed on plankton and krill. Elsehul Bay, South Georgia is such a rich feeding ground that it was the base for whaling in the last century. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. The reason for the care that's being taken is so that elephant seals like this one won't be infected or affected by anything from somewhere else. South Georgia [PNG Merlin Archive]Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. A particular culprit for carrying tiny bits is Velcro. So, it needs to be gone over with a wire brush or vacuumed.
Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, the Southern Sea. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. Any shoes or boots that are going ashore must be scrubbed and dipped in biocide and left to dry. Anyone going ashore must also sign a document saying that they are not bringing anything with them. Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, South Atlantic Ocean. (Daphne Bramham) [PNG Merlin Archive]/PNG

Three Magellenic penguins look out to the Scotia Sea. These penguins live only in temperate climates and not in Antarctica. But sometimes penguins range rather far afield. In one of half a dozen or more colonies on this privately owned island (which has been farmed by the same two families for years), there was a lone King penguin. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

In late afternoon when the parents return with food from the sea, it's a squawking, raucous place to be as the starving chicks try to get food from any returning adult. The adults, on the other hand, only feed their own chicks. While penguins may all look and sound alike to us, each has a unique voice. Daphne is on Bleaker Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

The rock-hopping penguin with its disco look does just that. It hops up the rocks from the sea using its clawed feet to feed the chicks that are now almost fully fledged. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year’s brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Ross, vice-president of research for the Ocean Wise Conservation Association, is one of the world’s leading micro-plastics researchers. Using a Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer to identify and measure down to 5/1,000th of a millimetre, he and his researchers hope to determine the amount of these tiny plastics in the Antarctic waters, as well as trace them back to their source.

They will also be able to discern changes in the Antarctic and Arctic oceans because, starting this season, water sampling will be done on all of One Ocean Expedition’s polar voyages.

Although humans have a brief history in Antarctica, there are thrilling stories of past and present explorers, adventurers and scientists. Some are well-known — Shackleton, Robert F. Scott, Roald Amundsen, Edmund Hillary and Robert Swan.

Over 18 days, as I visit a small sliver of the Antarctic and of the continent, I’ll retell some of the heroic explorers’ stories and unravel new ones about life in this place — described as being “like a fairytale” by Amundsen and as “a great sterile desert with no animals, trees, birds or even bacteria … nothing” by adventurer Ben Saunders, whose solo attempt to cross Antarctica on foot ended abruptly in early January.

I’ll also be writing about the animals I see, the experts and others I meet along the way, and about ice and snow and what it means for sea level rise close to home.

I hope to take you along on this adventure with daily stories about what I’m seeing, learning and experiencing.

Daphne Bramham is travelling as a guest of One Ocean Expeditions, which has neither reviewed nor approved her writing.

Five things you probably don’t know about the Antarctic

The two British ships, Erebus and Terror, that were lost under John Franklin’s command and only recently discovered in the Arctic after nearly a century of searching, were the same ships used by Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered Victoria Land and the sea that is named for him. He also named two mountains after the ships — Erebus and Terror.

The sled dogs used by explorer Ernest Shackleton on his ill-fated Trans-Antarctic expedition in 1915 on the SS Endurance were bred and trained in Gimli, Man. by John Isfeld. Seventy of the dogs perished, but of the 30 that survived, some ended up in New Zealand and the last three ended up in the London Zoo.

According to Maori oral tradition, its explorers (including women) reached the Antarctic waters as early as 650 A.D. But Danish-Norwegian explorer Caroline Mikkelsen was the first woman in the modern era to set foot on an Antarctic island in 1935. A mountain is named after her.

Up until 1969, the U.S. Navy refused to transport female scientists to the continent, and the U.S. National Science Foundation refused to allow women to work there.

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