2 Preface It is indeed a pleasure to be associated with the task of compiling the manual for the World Health Organization (India) and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (Government of India). This manual is a product of intense deliberations and the felt need to revise the course materials for training of General Duty Medical Officers being conducted as a part of training programmes undertaken by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (Government of India) at various apex institutes across the country. It is intended to cover as many areas as can be envisaged. There may be some degree of overlap in the information given between chapters, which the editors have not deleted in order to maintain the coherence of individual chapters. Any suggestions for topics that have not been covered and are important may be informed so that they may be addressed in the revised version. Though intended to be used primarily by the GDMO s, this manual may also be useful for others who are involved in the care of patients with substance use disorders. We look forward to any suggestions for improvement and changes. Rakesh Lal Ravindra Rao Indra Mohan October 2005

3 Foreword Substance Abuse is a complex problem having medical and social ramifications which impacts all social strata. It affects not only the user and their families but all sections of the society. Controlling substance abuse by way of demand reduction, provision of treatment services etc. has been a matter of priority for the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare for many years now. Recognizing that there is a paucity of experts in this field, the Ministry has made efforts so that in each State and Central Government Health Institutions, General Physicians are sensitized and trained to combat the problem. The task of managing this training was entrusted to the National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, AIIMS which has been conducting regular courses for medical officers on the subject of Substance Abuse for the past 15 years. A Manual had been developed to assist the GDMO s undergoing training in Due to the rapid advancements in this field, a need to revise the existing manual became necessary. I congratulate the National Drud Dependence Treatment Centre, AIIMS for bringing out this new edition of the training manual. I am sure it will be a useful tool for all persons concerned with the treatment and care of patients of Substance Use Disorder. Rita Teaotia Joint Secretary Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

4 Acknowledgements In the road to putting this manual together there were a number of persons and agencies that helped. At the outset I would like to gratefully acknowledge the funds provided by the World Health Organization (India). I would like to especially thank Dr Cherian Varghese at the WHO (I) who has been a guiding force all through. Thanks are also due to the Drug Abuse Cell at the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (Government of India) for the support and encouragement. Special mention must be made of the Joint Secretary, Ms. Rita Teaotia and Director, Mr Rajesh Bhushan. Acknowledgemnts are due to the Director as well as to the Dean, All India Institute of Medical Sciences for permission to carry out the work. Professor Rajat Ray, Chief, National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre deserves special gratitude for being the constant guide and critic and without his tireless assistance this work would not have been possible. Acknowledgements are also due to the participants of the National Workshop where the course materials revision was discussed and finalized. This work would just not have been possible without the timely help of the contributors and special thanks are due to each and every one of them. My associate editors, Dr. Ravindra Rao and Dr. Indra Mohan deserve special mention of gratitude for their tireless support and help in putting this case-book together. Rakesh Lal

5 Drug De-addiction Programmes in India 1 Rajesh Bhushan I. The context 1.1 The constitution of India under Article 47, enjoins that the state shall endeavor to bring about prohibition of the consumption, except for medical purposes, of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health. The various drug de-addiction programmes of Government of India have to be seen in this light. The Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in 1976 appointed a high powered committee to examine the problem of Drug De-Addiction and suggest future guidelines. The report of this high powered committee was submitted in 1977 and was laid on the floor of the Parliament. The Planning Commission and the Central Council of Health Ministers reviewed this report in The recommendations of the report emphasized the need to evolve appropriate strategies and to bring about better coordination among different Ministries and Departments working in this area. The Planning Commission and the Central Council of Health Ministers accepted this. 1.2 Drug addiction entails high cost to human health, social fabric and economy. In addition, Drug addiction has come to represent yet another danger over the past decades. This comes from the role which drug use plays in the spread of HIV/AIDS. It was in this context that the Drug Deaddiction Programme in the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare was started in the year In the area of Drug De-addiction and drug trafficking, the control on illicit drug trafficking and its production in India as well as coordination with international agencies is the responsibility of Ministry of Home Affairs. Rehabilitation of addicts as well as their counseling is the responsibility of Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment. Demand reduction by way of treatment and after care is the concern of Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The Drug De-addiction Programme of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare was started in , which was modified in as a scheme under Central sector assistance to States. 1.4 The role of Ministry of Health & Family Welfare in the area of Drug De-addiction is demand reduction by way of providing treatment services. Under the scheme a one time grant in aid of Rs lakhs is given for construction of Drug De-addiction Centres and a recurring grant of Rs lakhs is given to Drug De-addiction Centres established in North Eastern Regions. At present 122 such Centres have been established across the country including centres in Central Government hospitals and institutions. 43 such Centres have been established in the North Eastern Region. The six Drug-addiction Centres established in Central Government hospitals and institutions are at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, Dr. RML Hospital, New Delhi, Lady Hardinge Medical College, New 1

6 Drug De-addiction Programmes in India Delhi, PGI, Chandigarh, JIPMER, Pondicherry and NIMHANS, Bangalore. A national nodal centre has been established under the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi. This is located in Ghaziabad and has been designated as National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre. II. National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, AIIMS 2.1 National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, AIIMS was established during the year and was functioning at Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital, Hari Nagar.This has subsequently been shifted to its own building constructed at CGO Complex, Kamala Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad. It started outdoor facilities from and indoor facilities on A Community Clinic was established at Trilokpuri and this started functioning from Apart from rendering patient-care services, the centre is engaged in a number of research projects. III. Drug De-addiction Centre, PGI Chandigarh: 3.1 Drug De-Addiction Centre, PGI Chandigarh was established during The Centre has facilities for both outdoor and inpatient services. Additionally, it conducts drug-de-addiction awareness programmes, treatment camps, counseling and provides free medication. IV. Drug De-addiction Centre, National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro Sciences, Bangalore 4.1 Drug De-addiction Centre at NIMHANS, Bangalore was established during the year This Centre is functioning as a Regional Centre. A separate building has been constructed with a cost of Rs crores and currently houses 30 in patient beds. The centre conducts therapeutic group sessions for both inpatients and outpatients. 4.2 The De-addiction Centre caters to more than 50% of the patients seeking treatment for substance abuse problems in the city of Bangalore. The Centre also treats patients from different parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Referrals are also received from other states of the country including the North-Eastern States. Recently there have been several referrals from countries in the SAARC region and other countries as well. V. Convergence: 5.1 In a meeting held on in the chamber of Joint Secretary, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, it was decided that an effective linkage between the rehabilitation centres managed by NGOs funded by the Ministry of Social Justice could be established with the treatment centres supported by the Ministry of Health. The collaboration would be through the following modalities:- 5.2 Identification of NGOs to be linked with Drug De-addiction Centres would be done, Drug De-addition Centre wise. This action would be initiated and completed by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. 5.3 NGOs would recommend cases requiring treatment for Drug De-addiction to the Drug De-addiction Centres. The Drug De-addiction Centres in turn would refer patients after completion of treatment to identified NGOs for rehabilitation and monitoring. 5.4 Apart from detoxification services, which are provided by the Drug De-Addiction 2

7 Drug De-addiction Programmes in India Centres run by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the counseling of patients and their families would commence along with the treatment. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment would consider funding one counselor in each Drug De- Addiction Centre run by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. 5.5 All Health Secretaries of State Governments have been requested for issuing necessary directions to the Drug De-addiction Centres in this regard. VI. Evaluation 6.1 Under the Drug De-addiction Programme, so far 114 Drug De-addiction Centres have been established in various States. On the request of the Ministry, WHO has provided funds for the evaluation of centres. Evaluation of these Centres have been done by National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, AIIMS on the following parameters (a) to assess the status of functioning of Government De-addiction centres by assessing the patient load (b) treatment being provided (c) availability and utilization of equipment (d) staffing in terms of posts available and filled (e) on-site interview and (f) review of records of de-addiction centres. The evaluation had focussed on the states of Manipur, Nagaland and Rajasthan. The evaluation findings have served as a valuable input into the reformulation of the National Drug De-addiction Programme which is under consideration of the Ministry. VII. Five Year Plan Outlay 7.1 Approved outlay for 10 th Five Year Plan in respect of this programme is Rs crores, the break-up of which is given below:- Year Total Rs. in crores Outlay 3

8 Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder 2 Ravindra Rao, Indra Mohan, Rakesh Lal Summary Assessment forms the cornerstone in diagnosis and management of substance use disorder. The chapter is divided into two parts assessment and diagnosis. The assessment part begins with the discussion on necessity of assessment followed by stages, settings and levels of assessment. Finally it is described how the assessment is carried out (tools of assessment). In this chapter emphasis is given on the clinical tool(history and examination), as the laboratory investigation to aid in assessment is dealt with elsewhere. The diagnosis section begins with the meaning of some commonly employed terms, followed by description of the criteria for dependence and harmful use. Assessment Substance use disorder (SUD) affects individuals across various strata of society. The prevalence of SUD including alcohol, tobacco is high in general population across the world including India. Though there are experts in deaddiction centres to treat such patients, the fact remains that only a handful of patients are treated in these centres. Often deaddiction centres are the last point of contact in the patients chain of treatment seeking. In contrast, primary care physicians are often contacted initially for a number of physical problems associated with drug use. Thus physicians should have knowledge of treating patients in their setup. A proper assessment is necessary for treatment. It is also helpful in numerous other ways including: a) Screening of patients who may present only with physical problems but do not reveal drug use by themselves. b) Establishing a diagnosis c) Planning treatment d) Referral to a specialist for further treatment e) Assessment also serves to establish rapport and motivate client towards seeking treatment/ reduce harmful use/ abstinence. Assessment is not a one time phenomenon. This is carried out at various stages. Thus, the stages of assessment include a) Preintervention: where the purpose of assessment is to define the problem, formulate treatment, select an appropriate treatment from various modalities and motivate clients for treatment. b) Intervention: here assessment is done to monitor progress c) Post intervention: assess maintenance and abstinence status. Depending on the reasons for assessment and the settings in which the assessment is being carried out (inpatient v/s outpatient), there can 1

9 Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder be various levels of assessment. This can range from brief screening and basic assessment for diagnosis to specialized assessment for taking clinical decision regarding treatment and reassessment for continuing care. Stages of Assessment 1. Preintervention 2. Intervention 3. Post intervention Specificity/ Cost Broad focus/ Inexpensive Narrow focus/ Costly Levels of Assessment 1. Brief Screening 2. Basic Assessment 3. Specialized Assessment Screening: An initial function of assessment is identifying individuals who may either have a substance use problem or is at risk of developing one. Screening is usually applied to a large group of individuals and is brief by nature. It is usually applicable in those settings where the individuals are encountered for problems that may not appear to be related to substance use, yet the association of the problem with substance use may be strong. Such settings may include a general medical setup, emergency rooms, trauma centres, psychiatric setting, and antenatal checkup or in a legal setup (e.g. prison wards, individuals caught for drunken driving). These settings usually encounter individuals who may have a substance use problem but are not actively seeking treatment for the same. Efforts have been made to develop brief questionnaires and interviews so that many individuals with drug abuse problem may be identified in a relatively short period. Consequently a number of instruments have been developed towards this end. These instruments comprise of simple questions that have a yes/no or a most true/ not true answers. These instruments have been designed to have a high degree of sensitivity at the cost of specificity (thereby increasing false negativity). Some frequently used instruments are 1. CAGE: an acronym for 4 questions used to assess those with alcohol problem 2. MAST: Michigan Alcohol Screening Test 3. DAST: Drug Abuse Screening Test 4. AUDIT: Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test The usefulness of these instruments depends on the setting and the type of population in which these instruments are used. Tools of assessment Assessment can be carried out by various means. These are A) Clinical: Here, assessment is carried out by eliciting information as well as carrying out a detailed examination of the patient. The relevant information can be gathered from patient as well as persons associated with patients who are willing to be involved in the treatment and care of the patient. It has been observed that, at times, informants tend to under/over report the patient s drug abuse. However, informants can be a good source for corroborating other aspects of patients drug use with regards to 2

10 various complications (physical, social, familial, occupational) as well as patients attempts to leave the drug (abstinence). SUD has been considered as biopsychosocial problem. Hence assessment should be carried out in multiple domains focusing on physiological, behavioral, psychological and social factors associated with drug use. Clinically, assessment may be carried out in the following manner: History Assessment begins with collection of a. Patient s sociodemographic profile i.e. name, age, sex, marital status, qualification, occupation, type of family and place of residence. b. Details of drug use are then inquired into. This include Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder 1. age of initiation 2. various drugs used 3. frequency of drugs used 4. the quantity of drug taken usually (usual dose) 5. the time lag since the dose last used 6. need to increase the quantity of drug consumed in order to produce the same effect (tolerance) 7. the effect of the use of a particular drug and signs and symptoms of intoxication 8. presence/ absence of physiological/psychological symptoms and signs when the particular drug is not taken/ less than the usual amount of drug is being taken (withdrawls) 9. compelling need/ urge to take the substance c. Complications associated with drug use should be inquired. This can be in various spheres of patients life and gives the treating team, areas to be focused during rehabilitation. The areas probed are 1. physical: long term health hazards associated with drug use 2. psychological: chronic mental effects of continuous use of drug 3. financial: losses suffered/debts incurred 4. occupational: frequent absenteeism at work, constant change of job, memos issued, periods of unemployment 5. familial social: frequent fight with spouse/ other family members, neglect of responsibility at home, social outcast 6. Legal: involvement in illegal activities to sustain drug use, arrests/ charges on account of drug use, caught driving under intoxicated state, drinking brawl. d. High risk behaviors: presence of injection use with needle sharing and unsafe sexual practices e. Past abstinence attempts: herein inquiry should be made regarding 1. number of attempts made 2. duration of each attempt 3. reason for abstinence 4. whether treatment sought 5. nature of treatment sought: pharmacological, psychological or combined 6. reason for relapse The information collected would be very helpful in deciding further treatment plan and measures to be taken to prevent relapses f. Reason for seeking treatment and motivation level of individual: whether seeking treatment by self or brought forcibly by family member. Assessing level of motivation would help the clinician decide the type of intervention needed. g. Psychiatric illnesses such as a mood disorder, psychotic disorder and personality dis- 3

11 Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder order/ traits are common comorbid conditions accompanying substance use disorder. Presence of comorbid psychiatric illness should be specifically inquired and intervention modified accordingly. h. Presence of family history of SUD, psychiatric illness and the current living arrangements. Extent of social support should be assessed. i. Premorbid personality: especially presence/ absence of Antosocial personality disorder. Physical examination 1. Evidence of drug use with respect to a) Intoxication, b) Withdrawals and c) Route of drug use as evidenced by burn marks/ nicotine stains on fingers in cigarette use and heroin by inhalational route; injection marks in case of injection drug use (IDU). 2. Evidence of physical damage due to drug use: a systemic examination should be conducted for every drug user to rule out physical damage associated with drug use. This would provide an excellent opportunity to treat comorbid physical problem and also use this evidence to enhance motivation towards abstinence Mental status examination Though a detailed description is outside the purview of the current chapter, in mental status examination, attention is given to the general appearance and behavior of the patient (dressing, grooming, mannerism, motor activity, and eye contact), the nature of his affect (mood: happy, sad, anxious), speech (rate, volume, pitch, coherence, relevance), the content of the patient s thought (delusions, obsessions, depressive thought, suicidal ideas), perceptual disturbances (illusions, hallucinations) and cognitive functions of the patient. Finally, the motivation level of the patient is assessed.this can be assessed by inquiring into the reasons for seeking treatment. B) Investigations: While the details of laboratory measures in drug abuse settings in discussed elsewhere in the manual, it serves two purposes. 1. confirming presence/ absence of drugs of abuse 2. investigations for physical damage caused by these drugs Similar to examination, investigation provides an objective measure of the drug used and the extent to which drug use has caused damage to the body. This can be used effectively to enhance motivation of individuals who are in the state of denial with regards to their drug use. C) Instruments: These tools consist of a set of questions designed to assess one or more domains associated with drug abuse. This provides a more structured way of assessment of an individual. Several rating scales and instruments exist to assess different domains. Some of these instruments have high sensitivity so that they can be used for screening purpose. Instruments with high degrees of specificity confirm the diagnosis of SUD. Some instruments may require training to enable the individual to administer the particular instrument. Thus, it can be seen that assessment can be carried out using several sources of information as well as using different measures. Though investigations and rating scales can aid in assessment, a thorough clinical assessment serves a number of additional purposes including establishing rapport as well as increasing motivation of the individual. 4

12 Validity of self reports Many clinicians are of the impression that self report, especially in the area of substance use, may not be reliable because of a perceived notion that the substance user does not accurately report the extent of his substance use. However, research suggests that the possible distortion in self report is less problematic than it is feared to be. Self reports can be made more reliable by enhancing motivation and developing an empathic and non judgemental attitude towards drug user. Several factors have been suggested that increase the validity of self reports. 1. the patient is alcohol and drug free when interviewed 2. sufficient time has passed since last drink/ drug use to allow clear responses 3. confidentiality is assured. 4. the setting is non threatening and non judgemental. 5. the patient does not feel pressured to respond in a particular way. 6. the patient has no reason to distort reports (e.g. abstinence being a condition of parole). 7. the patient is aware that corroborating information is available and will be collected (e.g. breath test, report of spouse), and that this information from other sources will be used to confirm what he or she reports. 8. the questions are clearly worded and valid measurement approaches are used. 9. the assessment worker or therapist has a good rapport with the patient. 10. the person administering the measures should be able to communicate clearly with the patient. Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder DIAGNOSIS Before looking into features that make a diagnosis of SUD, it would be beneficial to see what constitutes a disease. A cluster of signs and symptoms occurring more than due to chance factor Syndrome Disease An etiology associated with occurrence of syndrome SUD, like most other psychiatric disorders, is still at the syndromal level. This is because there is no definite etiology to explain SUD. In the absence of a definite etiology, the diagnosis of SUD is based on a cluster of signs and symptom. Many hypothetical constructs or models exist to explain the occurrence of a particular syndrome. Some of these, for SUD, are moral model (use seen as sin, crime), characterological (use seen as a defect in personality), conditioning model (use as a result of classical and operant conditioning) and biomedical model (genetic and physiological/biological cause of SUD). However, it is not possible to explain the phenomenon of SUD based on one model exclusively. In the face of this, people of different schools of thought would diagnose SUD differently. Thus, a clinician ascribing to the biological model would place more importance to the biological changes caused by substance, while another of psychological school would place importance on the psychological factors to make a diagnosis of SUD. This naturally would lead to a variable diagnosis of SUD. To this effect the World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Psychiatric Association have independently proposed a cluster of factors to make a uniform diagnosis of SUD. These classificatory systems aim to be atheoretical. The current versions are polythetical, meaning that no single criterion 5

13 Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder is necessary or sufficient to make a diagnosis. Rather, the diagnosis is made by the presence of a fixed number of criteria out of the larger group. The most commonly followed diagnostic system is that published by WHO, the ICD 10 (International Classification of Diseases). ICD 10 classifies SUD into intoxication, harmful use, dependence syndrome, withdrawal state, psychotic disorder and amnestic syndrome. This chapter deals with the dependence syndrome and harmful use. Dependence syndrome Dependence syndrome has been defined in ICD 10 as A cluster of physiological, behavioural and cognitive phenomena in which use of a substance or a class of substances takes on a much higher priority for a given individual than other behaviours that once had greater value The criteria for substance dependence syndrome has been influenced by the criteria laid down by Edwards and Gross (1976) for the diagnosis of Alcohol dependence syndrome. Though Edwards and Gross laid down the criteria particularly for alcohol dependence, this has been used uniformly to diagnose all classes of substance dependence. The ICD 10 criteria specifies dependence as three or more experiences exhibited at some time during a one year period a) Tolerance: there is a need for significantly increased amounts of the substance to achieve intoxication or the desired effect, or a markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of the substance. For e.g., an individual would have started with 60ml of whisky to obtain pleasure, however with continuous use, he has to consume 180 ml of the same to obtain the same amount of high. b) Physiological withdrawal state: characteristic symptoms experienced on stoppage/ reduction of a substace after prolonged use. The patient uses the same (or closely related) substance to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms. Every class of substance produces its own set of signs/ symptoms of withdrawal. For e.g. alcohol withdrawal would produce tremors, sweating, nausea/ retching/ vomiting, insomnia, palpitations with tachycardia, hypertension, headache, psychomotor agitation and in severe cases, hallucination, disorientation and grand mal seizures. c) Impaired capacity to control substance use behavior in terms of its onset, termination or level of use as evidenced by the substance being often taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than intended; or by a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to reduce or control substance use. Thus, an individual may find it difficult to avoid using substances at particular place or time or also to limit himself to a particular predetermined amount. Some researchers are of the view that loss of control is the most important criterion determining substance use. d) Preoccupation with substance use, as manifested by important alternative pleasures or interests being given up or reduced because of substance use; or a great deal of time spent in activities necessary to obtain, take or recover from the effects of the substance. e) Continued use inspite of clear evidence of harmful consequences, as evidenced by continued use when the individual is actually aware, or may be expected to be aware, of the nature and extent of harm. f ) Strong desire to use substance (craving). This craving may occur spontaneously or induced by the presence of particular stimuli. Exposure to stimuli where or with whom the individual would have used the substance would lead to a strong desire to consume the substance. This is termed cue induced craving. Criteria (a) and (b) are physiological, while criteria (c), (d) and (f) are psychological in 6

14 nature. Thus, not one domain is sufficient to diagnose dependence. For e.g. cancer patients who are given opioid as analgesics may have tolerance and withdrawal. However they may not be diagnosed as having dependence syndrome unless they fulfill other criteria. The dependence syndrome criteria are not an all or none state, rather one that exists in degrees of severity. Harmful use ICD 10 uses the category of harmful use as a state that constitutes a) A pattern of substance use that is causing damage to health. The damage may be physical or mental. The diagnosis requires that actual damage should have been caused to the mental or physical health of the user. b) No concurrent diagnosis of the substance dependence syndrome for the same class of the substance. The DSM IV equivalent of this category is abuse. This includes social, legal and occupational consequence of drug use in addition to physical and mental harm. Because there may be cultural difference that may result in different impact on the social, legal and occupational front, ICD 10 has intently omitted these and stuck to the health damage only. Technique and style in assessment and diagnosis The traditional view regarding substance abusing population is that drug abusers are to a large extent unmotivated, are in a state of denial and resistant to change/ stop their drug using behavior. Thus, because of this view clinicians often assume a confrontational style and much of the efforts goes into making the patient accept/realize his drug use i.e. addict/ alcoholic label. However, such an approach would make the drug user move away from the treatment rather than towards it. Research has found that these labels and opinions regarding drug user is falsely based. Denial is not a personality of drug abuser, but a modifiable state. Treatment works, but the clinician should a. not insist that the individual accept the label of addict/ alcoholic b. express a warm and affective concern about the problem c. be non directive, non judgemental and supportive Such an approach goes a long way in effectively engaging a drug abuser in treatment process. Conclusion Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder The magnitude of SUD is enormous. However the experts to treat such patients are few. The primary physicians are better suited to form a cost effective alternative to this. While a comprehensive treatment requires a comprehensive evaluation, the assessment done is guided by a number of factors. Apart from diagnosing substance related problems, assessment provides a very good opportunity to develop rapport with patients. This goes a long way in management of SUD. Suggested Reading 1. Galanter M, Kleber HD, eds. The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment, American Psychiatric Press, Washington D.C.; Lowinson J, Ruiz P, Millman R, Langrod J, eds. Substance abuse, A comprehensive textbook, 4 th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; McCrady, B.S. & Epstein, E. eds. Addictions: A Comprehensive Guidebook. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999: Mood Disorders. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, (DSM-IV), Text Revision (2000), American Psychiatric Association:

15 Assessment and Diagnosis in Substance Use Disorder Suggested slides for OHP Slide 1 SUD is common among general population Specialised Deaddiction centres are able to treat only few patients and are often last point of contact Primary care physicians are often considered initially for problems other than SUD Slide 2 Reasons to assess patients Diagnosis and treatment Screening Referral to a specialist Establish rapport and increase motivation Slide 3 Stages of assessment Preintervention define problem and formulate a treatment plan Intervention monitor program Post intervention assess maintenance Setting inpatient v/s outpatient Slide 4 Levels of assessment Brief screening Basic assessment to diagnosis Specialised assessment to treat individuals Reassessment for continuing care Slide 5 Screening Applied to a large group Brief in duration Usually applied in high risk non treatment seeking individuals Questionnaires with a high degree of sensitivity available which are easy to apply appendix) Investigations for confirming substance use & establishing physical damage caused by substance use Questionnaires provides for structured assessment Self reports largely found to be reliable Slide 7 Diagnosis Syndrome = signs + symptoms, Disease = etiology ascribed to syndrome Psychiatric disorders, including SUD, are at syndrome level Uniform Criteria for diagnosis of SUD, proposed by WHO (ICD) and APA (DSM) Both criteria are polythetic in nature No single criterion necessary or sufficient Slide 8 ICD 10 criteria for dependence Tolerance Withdrawl Craving Difficulty in controlling substance use Continued use despite knowledge of harm Neglect of all pleasures or great deal of time spent on substance use Slide 9 Harmful use Substance use causing damage to physical or mental health Doesn t fulfill criteria of diagnosis anytime Abuse term used by DSM IV to describe legal, social, occupational and physical damage by substance use Slide 6 Tools of assessment Clinical Investigations Questionnaires Clinical history & examination (points provided in 8

16 Epidemiology of Substance Use 3 Hem Raj Pal, Amardeep Kumar Summary Data on substance use is required from different regions in the country as the likelihood of regional disparity in substance use is high. The recently completed project The extent, pattern and trends of drug abuse in India provides nationwide data of substance use among general population (NHS), treatment seeking substance using population (DAMS), hidden substance using population not seeking treatment (RAS) and certain special groups (FTS). The finding refutes certain previously held notions about substance use in India; e.g. IDU use being found all over India as opposed to previously held belief that only North- Eastern states are affected. Similarly picture from rural India is a worrying finding as it reflects heroin use and injection opioid use. Indulgence in unsafe sexual and injection drug use practices by a substantial proportion of our drug using population along with limited number of functional specialized drug dependence treatment centre is another cause of concern. Among licit drug use, doubling of per capita alcohol consumption over past two decades is another worrying finding. However, the findings of the project provide only baseline information for further study. It gives a wakeup call to policy makers as well as treating clinician to tackle the problem more effectively. Cost-effective screening instruments and intervention need to be developed to tackle the problem. There is a need to continuously monitor changing trends in substance abuse. Introduction Epidemiology is defined as the study of distribution and determinants of disease frequency in humans. This definition as applicable to substance use would be the study of distribution and determinants of substance use in humans. Information obtained from the epidemiology of substance use is as follows 1. Extent of substance use problem. 2. Nature and pattern of substance abusing behaviour. 3. Characteristics of persons abusing the substances. 4. Change in the trend of substance use over time. 5. Factors that may be associated with or etiologically related to substance use. The information obtained from the epidemiological studies helps in understanding the substance use problem in two ways 1. At a macro level for a policy maker whereby treatment and prevention related policy issues can be planned. 2. At a micro level for a clinician whereby information about risk factors and outcome can be obtained leading to effective treatment of substance use problem. Indicators of Substance Use Problem There are number of indicators pointing towards extent and magnitude of substance use problems in a population. Arbitrarily they can be divided into direct indicators and indirect indicators. Direct indicators Surveys In direct epidemiological studies or surveys researchers go into a community and 1

17 Epidemiology of Substance Use collect information about substance use pattern. This approach gives a reasonably accurate picture of extent of substance related problems.additionally,this approach has the advantage of finding out about substance users who are not seeking treatment. Surveys also obtain information about demographic variables, pattern of drug use, perception of risk associated with drug use, health and adverse psychological consequences and treatment history (if any). In India, the National Household Survey of Drug and Alcohol Abuse (NHS) sponsored by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India (MSJE, GOI) and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office for South Asia (UNODC, ROSA) has recently been completed. This survey was a part of larger project- the National Survey on Extent, Pattern and Trend of Drug abuse in India. This is the first study that aimed to generate national level prevalence estimates of drugs of abuse in India. Issues that need to be addressed while conducting a survey include: Where to conduct a study? A preliminary study needs to be carried out to identify high prevalence areas. Thereafter surveys focus on these areas. How to select a sample? For licit substances, surveys which select a sample representative of general population, generates most generalisable result and has usefulness in planning policies related to prevention and therapeutic intervention strategies. For illicit substances whose use are more prevalent in certain high-risk population such as students, slum-dwellers, drivers transportation workers and commercial sexworkers. Sample representative of general population has limited usefulness in terms of planning, focused preventive and therapeutic intervention strategies. For these groups of substances, a sample of high-risk population is more appropriate. How to obtain information? Most of the studies obtain information regarding substance use from the subjects. However due to certain limitations posed by this approach such as feasibility, misinformation, hidden phenomenon of illicit drug use, alternative techniques to obtain the information have also been developed. Two such techniques are: (a) Key information technique : This technique elicits information on substance use and its profile in the persons under survey from key informant. Key informant is usually person with respectability, knowledge and wisdom, and they are considered to be quite reliable source of information. Examples of key informants are Head of the Household (HOH), teachers, local community leaders, etc. (b) Snowball technique: This technique makes use of few identified substance users, who provide information about other users. The newly identified users are contacted to obtain information about other users and so on. This technique is particularly effective in surveys and studies looking for illicit substance use. What information is to be obtained? Depending upon the objectives of study and resources available, a variety of information could be obtained including nature of the substance being used, its pattern, adverse consequences, treatment history and perception of risk. Normally surveys do not generate a diagnosis of abuse and dependence. They focus on information such as ever use (any time in the past), recent use (past 1 year), and current use (past 1 month) of the substance 2

18 Epidemiology of Substance Use Whereas survey is a cross sectional study, surveillance is defined as the continuous scrutiny of the factors that determine the occurrence and distribution of disease and other conditions of illhealth i.e. use of substance. The main purpose of surveillance is to detect changes and identify trends. Indirect indicators Indirect indicators are those which do not directly provide information regarding substance use in a population, but they are elicited from the data already available somewhere. This data is then secondarily analyzed to gauge the extent of substance use problems. Some such indicators can be 1. Production and consumption of substances 2. Seizure of illicit drugs. 3. Drug related illness. 4. Reporting systems: Data obtained from persons attending heath services notably drug dependence treatment services can provide valuable indirect information regarding substance use problems in the community. India has no national system to monitor drug abuse currently. An attempt was made to develop and establish a National Drug Abuse Monitoring System (DAMS) as a part of larger project- the National Survey on Extent, Pattern and Trends of Drug Abuse in India. The study obtained data from 203 agencies across India. The major limitation of this approach is that it touches only the tip of the iceberg since not all substance users come for treatment. In order to assess the extent and magnitude of substance use in a community the best way is a direct epidemiological study or survey. GLOBAL SCENARIO Licit substances Alcohol Alcohol consumption has numerous health and social consequences and is an important contributor to death and disability. Alcohol is estimated to cause about 20-30% of oesophageal cancer, liver cancer, and cirrhosis of the liver, homicide, epilepsy, and motor vehicle accidents. Worldwide, alcohol causes 1.8 million deaths each year Globally alcohol consumption has increased in recent decades, with all or most of that increase being in developing countries Tobacco Tobacco continues to be the substance causing the maximum health damage globally. According to WHO estimates, there are around 1.1 thousand million smokers in the world; about one-third of the population aged 15 and over. While consumption is levelling off and even decreasing in some countries, worldwide more people are smoking, and smokers are smoking more cigarettes. Substantially fewer cigarettes are smoked per day per smoker in developing countries than in developed countries. However, this gap is fast narrowing and unless effective tobacco control measures take place, daily cigarette consumption in developing countries is expected to increase as economic development results in increased real disposable income. According to the World Health Report 2002, among industrialized countries where smoking has been common, smoking is estimated to cause over 90% of lung cancer in men and about 70% of lung cancer among women. In addition, in these countries, the attributable fractions are 56-80% for chronic respiratory disease and 22% for cardiovascular disease. 3

19 Epidemiology of Substance Use Worldwide, it is estimated that tobacco cause about 4.9 million deaths each year and unless current trends are reversed, that figure is expected to rise to 10 million deaths per year in another 20 years, 70% of those deaths occurring in developing countries. Illicit substances Opiates Reports by the UNDCP have shown that there has been a global increase in the production, transportation and consumption of opioids, mainly heroin. The worldwide production of heroin has almost tripled since Globally, it is estimated that 13.5 million people take opioids, including 9.2 million who use heroin. Although in recent time the production of heroin in 2002 was more or less at the same level as in 1998, regional shift has markedly reshaped the patterns of heroin abuse in the world. The rapid growth of opium production in Afghanistan has fuelled the development of a large heroin market in the region and, further, in Central Asia, the Russian Federation and East Europe. An increase in intravenous heroin abuse has led to an increased prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Cannabis Cannabis is by far the most widely cultivated, trafficked and abused illicit drug. Half of all drug seizures worldwide are cannabis seizures. The geographical spread of those seizures is also global, covering practically every country of the world. About 147 million people, 2.5% of the world population, consume cannabis (annual prevalence) compared with 0.2% consuming cocaine and 0.2% consuming opiates. In the present decade, cannabis abuse has grown more rapidly than cocaine and opiate abuse. Cannabis has become more closely linked to youth culture and the age of initiation is usually lower than for other drugs. Amphetamine type stimulants (ATS)- Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) refer to a group of drugs whose principal members include amphetamine and methamphetamine. However, a range of other substances also fall into this group, such as methcathinone, fenetylline, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, methylphenidate and MDMA or Ecstasy an amphetamine-type derivative with hallucinogenic properties. The use of ATS is a global and growing phenomenon and in recent years, there has been a pronounced increase in the production and use of ATS worldwide. Over the past decade, abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) has infiltrated its way into the mainstream culture in certain countries. Younger people in particular seem to possess a skewed sense of safety about the substances believing rather erroneously that the substances are safe and benign. For many countries, the problem of ATS is relatively new, but is rapidly growing and unlikely to go away. The geographical spread is widening, but awareness is limited and responses are neither integrated nor consistent. Recent data has shown a decline in ATS use in the regions of the Americas and Europe, while the highest levels of abuse worldwide have emerged in East Asia and Oceania. According to a review of ATS by UNDCP in 1996, there are about 20 countries in which the abuse of ATS is more widespread than that of heroin and cocaine combined. Japan, Korea and the Philippines all register 5-7 times the rate of ATS use compared with heroin and cocaine use. Smoking, sniffing and inhaling are the most popular methods of ATS use, but ways to take the drug vary widely across the region. In countries like Australia, where over 90 per cent of 4

20 Epidemiology of Substance Use those who report using ATS (mostly methamphetamine) inject, the drug represents a significant risk factor in the transmission of blood-borne viruses. Philippines and Viet Nam are also reporting signs that injecting methamphetamine is increasing while in Thailand the number of methamphetamine users now represents the majority of all new drug treatment cases. Cocaine Cocaine and its derivative crack provide an example of both the globalization of substance use and the cyclical nature of drug epidemics. Traditionally coca leaves have been chewed by people in the Andean countries of South America for thousands of years. Cocaine became widely available in North America in the 1970s and Europe in the 1980s. Prevalence rates for lifetime use of cocaine are typically 1-3% in developed countries, with higher rates in the United States and in the producer countries. Cocaine dependence has become a major public health problem, resulting in a significant number of medical, psychological and social problems, including the spread of infectious diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis and tuberculosis), crime, violence and neonatal drug exposure. Box 1 : Licit substances (alcohol and tobacco) are the most commonly used substances. Among illicit substances, heroin and cocaine have most serious health related effects. Heroin abuse is increasing in Central Asia, the Russian Federation and East Europe. Largely caused by IDU, HIV/AIDS epidemic has been expanding at an alarming rate in South-East Asia. ATS abuse is clearly shifting towards East and South-East Asia in recent years. INDIAN SCENARIO In 1999, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India (MSJE, GOI) and the United Nations International Drug Control Programme, Regional Office for South Asia (UNIDCP, ROSA) decided to undertake a large-scale national survey to obtain information on extent, pattern and magnitude of substance abuse in the country. The study had several components, which could be called carried out first time in India. For this purpose multiple indicators and several methods to assess the situation were chosen. The major components of this survey were National Household Survey (NHS), Drug Abuse Monitoring System (DAMS) and Rapid Assessment Survey (RAS). Additionally, focused studies on special populations like women, rural subjects, people living in border towns and prison population have also been carried out. Finally, burden as perceived by women due to drug abuse in the family has also been enquired into. National Household Survey (NHS) is one of the first nationwide surveys which aimed at determining prevalence of the use of licit (tobacco, alcohol and prescription medications) drugs & illicit (opiates and cannabis) drugs, studying some socio-demographic correlates of drug abuse and estimating the extent of drug dependence for alcohol and opiates for country as a whole.the survey was conducted to provide estimates of the prevalence at the national level drawing a sample of 40,000 males from 25 states of the country. The data was collected between March 2000 and November 2001 through face to face interviews with the respondents by trained interviewers. The diagnosis of dependence was arrived using WHO (ICD-10) criteria. The data for Drug Abuse Monitoring Survey (DAMS) component was obtained from con- 5

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