1.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg

2.
1867 in Canada
–
Events from the year 1867 in Canada. Macdonald marries his second wife Susan Agnes Bernard, march 29 – Queen Victoria gives royal assent to the British North America Act,1867. July 1 – The Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, july 1 – Sir John A. Macdonald becomes the first prime minister of the Dominion of Canada. July 1 - The Windsor Police Service is established, july 4 – Hiram Blanchard becomes premier of Nova Scotia, replacing Charles Tupper. July 15 – Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau becomes the first premier of Quebec, july 16 – J. S. Macdonald becomes the first premier of Ontario. August 7-September 20 – The 1867 Canadian election sees John A. Macdonalds Conservatives elected as government, september 3 – The 1867 Ontario election, J. S. Macdonald Liberal-Conservatives win a minority. September 18 – The 1867 Nova Scotia election November 6 – The 1st Canadian Parliament meets, November 7 – William Annand becomes premier of Nova Scotia, replacing Hiram Blanchard. December 7 – The first federal budget is presented by Finance Minister John Rose, andrew R. Wetmore becomes premier of New Brunswick, replacing Peter Mitchell. The 1867 Quebec election The Parliamentary Press Gallery is established, january 25 – Simon Fraser Tolmie, politician and 21st Premier of British Columbia February 2 – Charles E

3.
1872 in Canada
–
Events from the year 1872 in Canada. Head of state – Queen Victoria Governor general – John Young, april 25 - The first issue of the weekly Ontario Workman is published by the Toronto Trades Assembly. It is Canadas first labour newspaper, may 15 - In the first nationwide labour protest, marchers across the land press for the nine-hour workday. June 14 - The Trade Unions Act is passed in parliament, the Criminal Law Amendment Act is also passed, making picketing illegal. June 22 - A Grand Trunk Railway express passenger train from Toronto to Montreal derails near Shannonville, Ontario, the new Patent Act encourages import or licensing of technology and foreign patents by allowing legal use of patent in Canada if not registered in Canada within two years. An award of arbitration sets the boundary between Canada and the United States in the Gulf of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca

4.
18th century
–
The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India

5.
19th century
–
The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina

6.
20th century
–
The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States

7.
1830s
–
The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan

8.
1840s
–
The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa

9.
1850s
–
The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s

10.
1860s
–
The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869

11.
1870s
–
The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass

12.
1880s
–
The 1880s was a decade that began on January 1,1880, and ended on December 31,1889. They occurred at the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Most Western countries experienced an economic boom, due to the mass production of railroads. The modern city as well as the rose to prominence in this decade as well. The 1880s were also part of the Gilded Age, which lasted from 1874 to 1907, aceh War War of the Pacific Mahdist War 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War 13 September 1882 — British troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorate. American Indian Wars 20 July 1881 — Sioux chief Sitting Bull leads the last of his people in surrender to United States troops at Fort Buford in Montana. Frequent lynchings of African Americans in Southern United States during the years 1880–1890 and this would be followed over the next few decades by conquest of almost the entirety of the remaining uncolonised parts of the continent, broadly along the lines determined. 3 August 1881, The Pretoria Convention peace treaty is signed,1884, International Meridian Conference in Washington D. C. held to determine the Prime Meridian of the world. 1884–1885, Berlin Conference, when the western powers divided Africa, the United States had five Presidents during the decade, the most since the 1840s. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, may to August,1883, Krakatoa, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted cataclysmically,36,000 people were killed, the majority being killed by the resulting tsunami. September 1887, The Yellow river flooded and killed about 900,000 people, the 1880s were marked by several notable assassinations and assassination attempts,13 March 1881 — Assassination of the Tsar of the Russian Empire Alexander II of Russia. 19 September 1881 — James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States 2 March 1882 — Roderick Maclean fails to assassinate Queen Victoria,3 April 1882 — Bob Ford assassinates Jesse James, legendary outlaw. 6 May 1882 - Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland,1880, Oliver Heaviside of Camden Town, London, England receives a patent for the coaxial cable. In 1887, Heaviside introduced the concept of loading coils, in the 1890s, Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin would both create the loading coils and receive a patent of them, failing to credit Heavisides work. 1880–1882, Development and commercial production of lighting was underway. Thomas Edison of Milan, Ohio, established Edison Illuminating Company on December 17,1880, based at New York City, it was the pioneer company of the electrical power industry. Edisons system was based on creating a power plant equipped with electrical generators. Copper electrical wires would then connect the station with other buildings, Pearl Street Station was the first central power plant in the United States

13.
1890s
–
The phrase, The Gay Nineties, was not coined until the 1920s. This decade was also part of the Gilded Age, a phrase coined by Mark Twain, alluding to the seemingly profitable era that was riddled with crime and poverty. In the United States, the 1890s were marked by an economic depression sparked by the Panic of 1893. As of January 23,2017, there is only 1 verified living person who was born in the 1890s. On December 29,1890,365 troops of the US 7th Cavalry, supported by four Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou and Hunkpapa Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek, the Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to themselves in at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the very last of the Sioux to do. the process of disarming the Sioux, the 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of friendly fire as the shooting took place at point-blank range in chaotic conditions. Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with a number later dying from hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in history in which the most Medals of Honor have been awarded in the military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the American Indian Wars,1891, Chilean Civil War fought from January to September. José Manuel Balmaceda, President of Chile, and the Chilean Army loyal to him face Jorge Montts Junta, the latter was formed by an alliance between the National Congress of Chile and the Chilean Navy. 1891, Tobacco Protest in Qajar dynasty Persia, on March 20,1890, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Iran granted a concession to Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. In exchange, Talbot paid the shah an annual sum of £15,000 in addition to a quarter of the profits after the payment of all expenses. Now they were forced to seek permits from the Tobacco Régie as well as required to inform the concessionaires of the amount of tobacco produced, during the spring of 1891 mass protests against the Régie began to emerge in major Iranian cities. Initially it was the bazaaris who led the opposition under the conviction that it was their income, the reference to the Hidden Imam, a critical person in Shia Islam, meant that Shirazi was using the strongest possible language to oppose the Régie. Initially there was skepticism over the legitimacy of the fatwa, however Shirazi would later confirm the declaration,1892, The Johnson County War in Wyoming. Actually this range war took place in April 1892 in Johnson County, Natrona County, the combatants were the Wyoming Stock Growers Association and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association

14.
1866
–
As of the start of 1866, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Fisk University, a black university, is established in Nashville. The last issue of the abolitionist magazine The Liberator is published, january 6 – Ottoman troops clash with men of a Maronite leader Youssef Bey Karam at St. Doumit in Lebanon, the Ottomans are defeated. January 12 Royal Aeronautical Society is formed as The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in London, british auxiliary steamer SS London sinks in a storm in the Bay of Biscay on passage from the Thames to Australia with the loss of 244 people and only 19 survivors. January 18 – Wesley College, Melbourne is established, january 26 – Volcanic eruption in the Santorini caldera begins. February 7 – Battle of Abtao, A Spanish naval squadron fights a combined Peruvian-Chilean fleet, february 13 – The first daylight bank robbery in United States history during peacetime takes place in Liberty, Missouri. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by Jesse James and his gang, february 26 – The Calaveras Skull is discovered in California. Purported to be evidence of humans in North America during the Pliocene epoch, february 28 – The month concludes without having a full moon. April 4 – Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an attempt in the city of St Petersburg. April 8 – The kingdoms of Italy and Prussia form an alliance against the Austrian Empire, april 10 – The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh. May 2 – Battle of Callao, Peruvian defenders fight the Spanish fleet, may 7 – Student Ferdinand Cohen-Blind makes a failed attempt to assassinate Otto von Bismarck in Unter den Linden in Berlin. May 10 – London bank Overend, Gurney and Company collapses, may 16 – The United States Congress approves the minting of a nickel 5-cent coin, eliminating its predecessor, the half dime. May 24 – Battle of Tuyutí,32,000 soldiers of the Triple Alliance defeat 24,000 Paraguayan soldiers few miles north of the Paraná, Argentina in the Paraguayan War, may 26 – First production of the comic opera Cox and Box by F. C. Burnand and Arthur Sullivan at Moray Lodge, Kensington June 2 – Fenian forces skirmish with Canadian militia at the battles of Ridgeway, June 5 – Calculations indicate Pluto reaches its only aphelion between 1618 and August 2113. June 8 – The Canadian Parliament meets for the first time in Ottawa, June 11 – The Agra High Court is established. June 14 – The Austro-Prussian War begins, when the Austrians, June 20 – The Kingdom of Italy declares war on Austria. June 22 – In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates votes to replace itself by an elected 2-chamber Riksdag, June 27–June 29 – Battle of Langensalza, The Prussians defeat the Hanoverian army. July 1 – The first Constitution of Romania is issued, july 5 – Princess Helena, third daughter of Queen Victoria, marries Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein

15.
1867
–
As of the start of 1867, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world and it will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, in 1983. January 8 – African-American men are granted the right to vote in the District of Columbia, january 11 – Benito Juárez becomes Mexican president again. January 30 – Emperor Kōmei of Japan dies suddenly, age 36, january 31 – Maronite nationalist leader Youssef Bey Karam leaves Lebanon aboard a French ship for Algeria. February 3 – Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu abdicates, and the late Emperor Kōmeis son, Prince Mutsuhito becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan in a ceremony in Kyoto. February 7 – West Virginia University is established in Morgantown, West Virginia, February 13 – Covering of the Senne in Brussels begins. February 15 – First performance of Johann Strauss IIs waltz The Blue Danube at a concert of the Vienna Mens Choral Association, Strauss adapts it into its popular purely orchestral version for the International Exposition in Paris later this year. February 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal, February 19 – Battle of Inlon River in Hubei, China. February 22 – Indiana Daily Student established February 28 – After almost 20 years, funding resumes along with relations in 1984. March – The University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign is established, March 1 – Nebraska is admitted as the 37th U. S. state. March 5 – Fenian Rising in Ireland, March 16 – An article by Joseph Lister, outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, is first published in The Lancet. March 23 – William III of the Netherlands accepts an offer of 5,000,000 guilders from Napoleon III for the sale of Luxembourg, March 29 – The British North America Act receives royal assent, forming the Dominion of Canada in an event known as the Confederation. This unites the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia on July 1, ottawa becomes the capital, and John A. Macdonald becomes the Dominions first prime minister. March 30 – Alaska is purchased for $7.2 million from Alexander II of Russia, about 2 cent/acre, the news media call this Sewards Folly. April 1 – The Strait Settlement of Singapore, formerly ruled from Calcutta, sorosis, the first womens fraternity founded upon the mens fraternity model, with Pi Beta Phi as its motto, is founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois. In 1888, the motto becomes the name of the organization, may 1 – First political May Day march in Chicago May 7 – Alfred Nobel patents dynamite in the United Kingdom. May 11 Treaty of London, the powers of Europe reaffirm the neutrality of Luxembourg. The Duchy of Limburg is formally re-incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, First public performance of Cox and Box by Francis Burnand and Arthur Sullivan, at the Adelphi Theatre, London

16.
1868
–
As of the start of 1868, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia, Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials, January 5 – Paraguayan War, Brazilian Army commander Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias enters Asunción, Paraguays capital. Some days later he declares the war is over, nevertheless, Francisco Solano López, Paraguays president, prepares guerrillas to fight in the countryside. January 7 – Arkansas constitutional convention meets in Little Rock, January 9 – Penal transportation from Britain to Australia ends with arrival of the convict ship Hougoumont in Western Australia after an 89-day voyage from England. There are 62 Fenians among the transportees, January 10 – Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu declares the emperors declaration illegal and prepares to attack Kyoto. February – Foreign ministers meeting in Hyōgo are persuaded to recognise the restored Emperor Meiji of Japan with promises that harbours will be open in accordance with international treaties, february 13 – The British War Office sanctions the formation of what becomes the Army Post Office Corps. February 16 – In New York City the Jolly Corks organization is renamed the Benevolent, february 19 – in the Passage of Humaitá a Brazilian naval force succeeds in dashing past a Paraguayan fortress on the River Paraguay, considered by some the turning point in the Paraguayan War. February 24 Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, Three days after his action to dismiss United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Johnson is later acquitted by the United States Senate, the first parade to have floats takes place at Mardi Gras in New Orleans. March – French geologist Louis Lartet discovers the first identified skeletons of Cro-Magnon, the first early modern humans, at Abri de Crô-Magnon, a rock shelter at Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France. March 12 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Edinburgh, is shot in the back in Sydney, Australia, the prince survives and quickly recovers, OFarrell is executed on April 21 despite attempts by the prince to gain clemency for him. March 23 – The University of California is founded in Oakland, California, march 24 – The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company is formed. March 27 – The Lake Ontario Shore Railroad Company is organized in Oswego, march – The first transnational womens organization, Association internationale des femmes, is founded. April 1 – The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute is established in Hampton, April 7 – The Charter Oath, drawn up by his councilors, is promulgated at the enthronement of the Emperor Meiji of Japan, promising deliberative assemblies and an end to feudalism. April 9 – Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia massacres at least 197 of his own people at Magdala and these are prisoners incarcerated, for the most part, for very trivial offenses, and are killed for requesting bread and water. Tewodros commits suicide and Magdala is captured, ending the British Expedition to Abyssinia, April 11–July – Fall of Edo, the Japanese city is surrendered to the Emperor Meiji. The Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu submits to the Emperor, April 29 – General William Tecumseh Sherman brokers the Treaty of Fort Laramie between the federal government of the United States and the Plains Indians. May 10–14 – Battle of Utsunomiya Castle in Japan, forces of the Emperor Meiji resist the troops of the Tokugawa shogunate. May 16, May 26 – President Andrew Johnson is twice acquitted during his impeachment trial, may 26 – Fenian bomber Michael Barrett becomes the last person publicly hanged in the United Kingdom

17.
1869
–
As of the start of 1869, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, january 5 – Scotlands oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F. C. is founded. January 20 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton is the first woman to testify before the United States Congress, sisterhood, a philanthropic educational organization for women, is founded at Iowa Wesleyan College in Mount Pleasant, Iowa. January 27 – The Republic of Ezo is proclaimed on the northern Japanese island of Ezo by remaining adherents to the Tokugawa shogunate, february 5 – Prospectors in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia, discover the largest alluvial gold nugget ever found, known as the Welcome Stranger. February 20 – Ranavalona II, the Merina Queen of Madagascar, is baptized, february 26 – The 2½-year-old Mahbub Ali Khan begins a 42-year reign as Nizam of Hyderabad. March 1 – North German Confederation issues 10gr and 30gr value stamps, march 4 – Ulysses S. Grant is sworn in as President of the United States. March 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. March 9 – Southern Illinois University Carbondale is founded, march 24 – Titokowarus War ends with surrender of the last Māori troops at large in the South Taranaki District of New Zealands North Island. April 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York, may – In France, the opposition, consisting of republicans, monarchists and liberals, polls almost 45% of the vote in national elections. May 4–10 – Naval Battle of Hakodate, The Imperial Japanese navy defeats adherents of the Tokugawa shogunate, may 6 – Purdue University is founded in West Lafayette, Indiana. May 10 – The First Transcontinental Railroad in North America is completed at Promontory, Utah, may 15 – Womens suffrage, In New York, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton form the National Woman Suffrage Association, may 18 – One day after surrendering at the land Battle of Hakodate, Enomoto Takeaki turns over Goryōkaku to Japanese forces, signaling the collapse of the Republic of Ezo. May 22 – Sainsburys first store, in Drury Lane, London, is opened, may 26 – Boston University is chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. June 1 – The Cincinnati Red Stockings open the season as the first fully professional team. June 2 – Sherwood College is founded in Nainital, India, june 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, New York. June 27 – The fortress of Goryōkaku is turned over to Imperial Japanese forces, bringing an end to the Republic of Ezo, the Battle of Hakodate, june 30-July 2 – The first Estonian Song Festival takes place in Tartu. July 10 – The Swedish town Gävle is destroyed in a city fire, August 9 – August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht found the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany. August 27 – The University of Oxford win the first international race held on the River Thames against Harvard University

18.
1870
–
As of the start of 1870, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The first edition of The Northern Echo newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed. January 3 – Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins, january 6 – The Musikverein, Vienna, is inaugurated in Austria-Hungary. January 10 – John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil, january 15 – A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey. January 20 – SS City of Boston vanishes at sea with all 177 aboard, january 23 – U. S soldiers attack a peaceful camp of Piegan Blackfeet Indians led by chief Heavy Runner in the Marias Massacre. January 26 – Reconstruction Era, Virginia rejoins the Union, february – Denis Vrain-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris. February 1 – Goodna State School in Goodna, Queensland, Australia is founded, february 2 – It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant in the U. S. is just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human. February 3 – The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, february 9 – The U. S. Army Weather Bureau is created. February 10 Anaheim, California is incorporated, the YWCA is founded in New York City. February 12 – Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory, february 23 – Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union. February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, february 26 – In New York City, the first pneumatic subway is opened, Beach Pneumatic Transit. February 26 – The German Commerzbank is founded in Hamburg, february 27 – The circle of the sun flag of Japan is adopted as the national flag for Japanese merchant ships by proclamation of the Daijō-kan. February 28 – The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire, march – The Mitsubishi company is established in Japan as a shipping firm by Iwasaki Yatarō with Thomas Blake Glover. March 1 – Marshal Francisco Solano Lópezs last troops are cornered by those of the Triple Alliance at the Battle of Cerro Corá in Paraguay, lópez refuses to surrender and is killed, ending the Paraguayan War. March 4 – Thomas Scott is executed by Louis Riels provisional government during the Red River Rebellion in modern-day Manitoba, march 5 – First ever international Association football match, England v Scotland, takes place under the auspices of the Football Association at The Oval, London. March 10 – The Deutsche Bank is founded in Berlin, march 19 – The Ohio Legislature passes the Cannon Act, thereby establishing the Ohio Agriculture and Mechanical College, later Ohio State University. March 24 – Syracuse University is established and officially opens, march 30 The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving blacks the right to vote, is ratified. Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction, march 31 – Thomas Mundy Peterson is the first African-American to vote in an election

19.
1871
–
As of the start of 1871, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 18 – The member states of the North German Confederation, the King of Prussia is declared the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. January 21 – Giuseppe Garibaldis group of French and Italian volunteer troops in support of the French Third Republic win a battle against the Prussians in Dijon, february 9 – United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries is founded. March 7 – José Paranhos, Viscount of Rio Branco, becomes Prime Minister of the Empire of Brazil, march 21 – John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne marries Princess Louise. March 21 – Otto von Bismarck becomes first Chancellor of the German Empire, march 22 In North Carolina, William Holden becomes the first governor of a U. S. state to be removed from office by impeachment. The United States Army issues an order for the abandonment of Fort Kearny, march 26 – The Paris Commune is formally established in Paris. March 27 – The first rugby union International results in a 4–1 win by Scotland over England, march 29 First Surgeon General of the United States appointed. The Royal Albert Hall in London is opened by Queen Victoria, april – The Stockholms Handelsbank is founded. April 4 – New Jersey Detective Agency chartered, april 20 – U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Civil Rights Act. April 24 – Murder of servant girl Jane Clouson in Eltham, may 4 – The first supposedly Major League Baseball game is played. May 8 – The first Major League Baseball home run is hit by Ezra Sutton of the Cleveland Forest Citys, may 10 – Treaty of Frankfurt is signed confirming the frontiers between Germany and France. May 11 – The first trial in the Tichborne case begins in the London Court of Common Pleas, may 21 – Opening of the first rack railway in Europe, the Vitznau–Rigi Railway on Mount Rigi in Switzerland. May 30 – French Third Republic, Government suppression of the Paris Commune rebellion is completed, june 1 – Bombardment of the Selee River Forts, Koreans attack two United States Navy warships. June 10 – United States expedition to Korea, Captain McLane Tilton leads 109 members of the United States Marine Corps in a naval attack on the Han River forts on Ganghwa Island in Korea. June 18 – The University Tests Act removes restrictions limiting access to Oxford, Cambridge, july 20 British Columbia joins the confederation of Canada. C. W. Alcock proposes that a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association, july 21 – August 26 – First ever photographs of Yellowstone National Park region taken by the photographer William Henry Jackson during the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. July 22 – The foundation stone of the first Tay Rail Bridge is laid, july 28 – The Annie, the first boat ever launched on Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park region. August 29 – The abolition of the han system is carried out in Japan, August 31 – Adolphe Thiers becomes the President of the French Republic

20.
1872
–
As of the start of 1872, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 12 – Yohannes IV is crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in Axum, february 2 – The government of the United Kingdom buys a number of forts on the Gold Coast from the Netherlands. February 4 – A great solar flare and associated geomagnetic storm makes northern lights visible as far south as Cuba, february 13 – Rex, the most famous parade on Mardi Gras, parades for the first time in New Orleans for Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich of Russia. February 20 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens in New York City, march 1 – In the United States, Yellowstone National Park is established as the worlds first national park. March 5 George Westinghouse receives a United States patent for the failsafe automatic railway air brake, the Tichborne case is decided in London against the claimant Arthur Orton. March 11 – Work begins erecting the Seven Sisters Colliery in South Wales, march 16 –1872 FA Cup Final, In the first ever final of the FA Cup, the worlds oldest football competition, Wanderers F. C. defeat Royal Engineers A. F. C. 1–0 at The Oval in Kennington, London, march 26 – The 7. 4–7.9 Mw Lone Pine earthquake shakes eastern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X. Twenty-seven people were killed and fifty-six were injured. April 14 – The Third Carlist War begins in northern Spain, Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid, the Carlist pretender appoints General Rada commander-in-chief in Spain and calls for a general rising. May – The magazine Popular Science is first published in the United States, may 4 – Third Carlist War in Spain, The Carlist Army is defeated at the Battle of Oroquieta in Navarre. 1,000 government troops easily defeat the larger number of Carlists at Oroquieta. 50 Carlists are killed and Moriones take 700 prisoners but Don Carlos escapes, may 10 – Victoria Woodhull becomes the first woman nominated for President of the United States, although she is a year too young to qualify and does not appear on the ballot. May 22 Reconstruction, U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Amnesty Act of 1872 into law, restoring civil rights to all. Georges Bizets comic opera Djamileh is premièred at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, june – Rangers F. C. play their first ever game on the public pitches of Glasgow Green in Scotland. June 14 – Trade unions are legalised in Canada, july 4 – The Society of Jesus is pronounced illegal in the German Empire. August 22 – The Australian Overland Telegraph Line is completed, providing a link between Australia and the rest of the world for the first time. September – Thomas Hardy anonymously publishes his novel Under the Greenwood Tree, september 1 – A group of Icaiche Maya under Marcos Canul attack Orange Walk Town in British Honduras, the British send troops against them. September 18 – Upon the death of King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway, september 26 – The first Shriners Temple is established in New York City. October 1 The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College begins its first academic session, First case reports in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, of the Great Epizootic of 1872 which will substantially disrupt life in North America by mid-December

21.
History of Canada
–
The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have discovered through archaeological investigations. Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, the colony of New France was established in 1534 and was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in the Seven Years War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, in 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity named Canada. The new dominion expanded by incorporating parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland. Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain continued to set its foreign, with the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Canada became co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was repatriated in 1982, the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and three territories and is a democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canadians have supported multilateralism abroad, archeological and Aboriginal genetic evidence indicate that North and South America were the last continents into which humans migrated. During the Wisconsin glaciation,50, 000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge, from Siberia into northwest North America. At that point, they were blocked by the Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska. The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate, by 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada. The Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow Flats, and Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian archaeological sites in Canada, ice Age hunter-gatherers of this period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals. The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE, climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns, however, the receding glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater. Most population groups during the Archaic periods were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, however, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and includes the Ontario, Quebec, the introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada, the Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario, Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes

22.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
–
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, also known as the Battle of Quebec, was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years War. The culmination of a siege by the British, the battle lasted about 15 minutes. In the wake of the battle, the French evacuated the city, their military force in Canada. France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, the decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the Annus Mirabilis in Great Britain. As the Seven Years War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759, in 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon, the British took Louisbourg in August, causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands, and opening the sea route to attack Quebec. Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the month, costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign. When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British, French leadership, specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm, were unsettled by the British successes. However, Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared an attack for 1759. James Wolfe expected to lead 12,000 men, but was greeted by only approximately 7,000 regular troops,400 officers, Wolfes troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders. In preparation for the approach to Quebec, James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river. Cooks ship was one of the first ships up the river, sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up, eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île dOrléans on 28 June. Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership, the professional French troops, prior to the arrival of the British, a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies. Those supplies, along with 500 reinforcements, were likely behind the lengthened siege, in addition, a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous. On 31 July, the first serious attempt by Wolfes troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport, approximately 3,500 troops, supported by a heavy bombardment, attempted to land, but were caught under fire in the river shallows. Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack, Wolfe, I assure you, will make no progress… He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers. He predicted another attack would come within days, others in the French camp felt the campaign was over. For the remainder of the summer, Wolfes focus changed, possibly due to frustration with Montcalms tactics and his troops, along with American Rangers, attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence. An estimated 1,400 stone houses and manors were destroyed, the effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalms army out of its fortifications, but was unsuccessful

23.
Benjamin West
–
Benjamin West PRA was an Anglo-American painter of historical scenes around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years War. He was the president of the Royal Academy in London. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it and he said that Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude. West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in a house that is now in the borough of Swarthmore on the campus of Swarthmore College, as the child of an innkeeper. The family later moved to Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, where his father was the proprietor of the Square Tavern, Benjamin West was an autodidact, while excelling at the arts, he had little education and, even when president of the Royal Academy, could scarcely spell. From 1746 to 1759, West worked in Pennsylvania, mostly painting portraits, while West was in Lancaster in 1756, his patron, a gunsmith named William Henry, encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollins Ancient History. His resulting composition, which differs from the source, has been called the most ambitious. During this time West met John Wollaston, a painter who had immigrated from London. West was a friend of Benjamin Franklin, whose portrait he painted. Franklin was the godfather of Wests second son, Benjamin, in common with many artists architects and lovers of the fine arts at that time he conducted a Grand Tour. West expanded his repertoire by copying works of Italian painters such as Titian, in Rome he met a number of international neo-classical artists including German-born Anton Rafael Mengs, Scottish Gavin Hamilton, and Austrian Angelica Kauffman. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America and he stayed for a month at Bath with William Allen, who was also in the country, and visited his half-brother Thomas West at Reading at the urging of his father. In London he was introduced to Richard Wilson and his student Joshua Reynolds and he moved into a house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden. In 1765 he married Elizabeth Shewell, an American to whom he engaged in Philadelphia. All three prelates commissioned work from him, in 1766 West proposed a scheme to decorate St Pauls Cathedral with paintings. It was rejected by the Bishop of London, but his idea of painting an altarpiece for St Stephen Walbrook was accepted, at around this time he also received acclaim for his classical subjects, such as Orestes and Pylades and The Continence of Scipio. Benjamin West was known in England as the American Raphael and his Raphaelesque painting of Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge

24.
The Death of General Wolfe
–
It is an oil on canvas of the Enlightenment period. West made an additional and nearly identical painting of the scene for King George III in 1771. The Death of General Wolfe depicts the Battle of Quebec, also known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and this was a pivotal event in the Seven Years War and decided the fate of Frances colonies in North America. The battle was fought between the British Navy and Army and the French Army lasting only fifteen minutes, the British Army was commanded by General Wolfe. Though successful in holding the British line against the French and winning the battle, in death, General Wolfe gained fame as a national hero and became an icon of the Seven Years War and British dominance in late eighteenth century North America. West depicts General Wolfe as a Christ-like figure and this painting has a triangular composition, made by the top of the flag and the positions of the men. It resembles Christian Lamentation scenes, where Christ is held in the embrace of the Virgin Mary, captain Hervey Smythe is pictured holding Wolfes right arm. The depiction of the Indigenous warrior in the painting—kneeling with his chin on his fist, in art, the touching of ones face with ones hand is a sign of deep thought and intelligence. Some consider it an inspired by the noble savage concept. Original items of clothing that were used as a model for portraying the warrior in the painting can be found in the British Museums collection, on the ground in front of Wolfe are his musket, cartridge box, and bayonet. Wolfe went into battle armed as his men were, although his musket was of higher quality and his dress is also of note. He is wearing a red coat, a red waistcoat, red breeches, such dress was rather simple, especially for a commanding officer. Next to Wolfe, in the jacket, is Dr Thomas Hinde. The general later died in the doctors hands, in the background, and to the left of the men surrounding Wolfe, an approaching runner is depicted. In the painting, Fraser wears the Fraser tartan, which was worn by officers in that regiment. All in all four of the fourteen men depicted were actually at the battleground. The clothing West depicted in this scene was controversial at the time. Although the event was relatively recent—only eleven years prior—its subject matter made it an example of the genre of history painting

25.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
–
Aboriginal peoples in Canada, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis, although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are pejorative. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas, projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, the Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada, Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first peoples communities. National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to peoples of Canada. The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations, as they include Inuit, Métis, First Nations has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity, in conversation this would be I am Haida, or we are Kwantlens, in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. In this Act, Aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit, Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive, Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of Aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo, the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the area inhabited by the Inuit. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown

26.
New France
–
The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe

27.
Canada under British rule
–
Canada first came under British rule with the Treaty of Paris which ceded New France, of which Canada was a part, to the British Empire. Gradually, other territories, colonies, and provinces that were part of British North America would be added to Canada. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 enlarged the colony of Canada under the name of the Province of Quebec, with the Act of Union 1840 Upper and Lower Canada were joined to become the United Province of Canada. A number of other British colonies, such as Newfoundland and British Columbia, in North America, the Seven Years War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10,1763. As part of the treaty, France ceded all North American lands to Britain, except Louisiana, the Quebec Act became one of the Intolerable Acts that infuriated the thirteen British colonies in what would become the United States of America. In Acadia, the British had expelled French-speaking populations in 1755 from Acadia to Louisiana, creating the Cajun population, in the former French territory of Acadia, the British were confronted by a relatively large and well-established Catholic Mikmaq and Wabanaki Confederacy. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, much earlier than in what would become the rest of modern-day Canada, the Mikmaq never ceded land to either France or England. The first immigration of Protestants happened in the province with the founding of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutres War, which, in turn, led to the British expelling the Acadians from the region during the French and Indian War. As they later captured Cape Breton Island and Prince Edward Island, the few Acadians who managed to return to the area have created the contemporary Acadian society. Once the land was emptied, other settlements were formed by New England Planters, in 1775, American revolutionaries attempted to push their insurrection into Quebec. The habitants were divided, in areas, there was significant support. The Patriots laid siege to Fort Saint-Jean, capturing it and Montreal in November 1775 and they then marched on Quebec City, where an attempt to take the city on December 31,1775, failed. Following an ineffectual siege, the arrival of British troops in May 1776 sent the Patriots into retreat back toward Montreal, an attempt against British troops at Trois-Rivières failed, and the Patriots were driven from the province in June. Leaving with the army were about 250 Québécois in two regiments, James Livingstons 1st Canadian Regiment, and Moses Hazens 2nd Canadian Regiment. Quebeckers living in the forts of the Great Lakes region also massively sided with the Patriots and were instrumental in the taking of the fort by the Patriots. The only major event of their resistance was the Battle of Fort Cumberland, when Eddy and a force of Massachusetts Patriots, Acadians. The siege was broken and Eddys forces were scattered when British reinforcements arrived, Eddy and Allan continued to make trouble on the frontier between what are now Maine and New Brunswick from a base in Machias for several years. The Maritime provinces were affected by privateering, and raids on settlements by privateers in violation of their letters of marque

28.
Post-Confederation era
–
Post-Confederation Canada is the history of a new nation from its formation to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal and it was a rural country composed of small farms. With a population of 115,000, Montreal was the largest city, followed by Toronto, pigs roamed the muddy streets of Ottawa, the small new national capital. Besides subsistence agriculture, the economy was based on exports of lumber, fish and grain, factories were small, except for those making farm implements. Economic growth of total GNP averaged only 2.4 percent per year,1870 to 1896, then surged to 6.2 percent, part of that increase was due to population growth. The rate of growth of GNP per capita was 1. 3%,1870 to 1896, then surged to 2.6 percent, 1897-1913. The growth rate was respectable, but lower than that of the United States, politically, the Father of Confederation, John A. Macdonald and his Conservative Party dominated national politics until his death. The Liberals under Wilfrid Laurier were in power 1896 to 1911, Francophones had a distinct and traditionalistic culture, led by the landholders and the priests. The Anglophones took pride in their Britishness and in their refusal to be swallowed up by the United States, baseball and lacrosse were favorite sports. There were only two libraries in the entire new country, half the adults in Quebec could not read. Hard drinking in all ranks was the norm, in fact, politically, the new nation was defined by its practicality, realism, and stoicism, it had little interest in theory or aesthetics. Much more important was loyalty to family, church, political party, historians later emphasized the iconic phrase Peace, Order and Good Government as founding constitutional principles, but at the time it was rarely quoted. On the eve of the war in 1914, the national population had reached 8.1 million. Most of the growth had taken place in the new provinces, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta. The great national achievement was the building of railways that opened the prairies to settlement. The rich new farmlands made Canada a major exporter of wheat, issues of nationalism versus loyalty to the British Crown continued. So too did increasingly bitter disputes on issues, especially the role of the French language outside Québec

29.
Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
–
During the World wars and Interwar Years Canada experienced economic gain, more freedom for women and new technological advancements. On June 28,1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, at the time, Canadians were more concerned with events within their own country than European affairs, specifically in the Balkans where crises and wars had been brutal perennials for generations. Canada was facing its worst depression since the 1890s, Canadians hoped the Great Powers of Europe could keep the peace as they had done many times before in earlier disputes of the century. On July 29,1914, Britain warned its colonies to take precautions in case of war, most recent wars had begun with surprise attacks such as the Russo-Japanese War. Soldiers and Canadas few sailors manned Halifax fortifications and brought guns to command the St. Lawrence river, on August 2 armed militia mounted guard on bridges, canals, tunnels and railway stations in preparation. Canada got the news and Hughes was ecstatic, Britain was at war with Germany, Canada was then automatically at war, as she did not yet have control over her foreign policy — not that there were many dissenters. The war was popular even among French Canadians, including Henri Bourassa. Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier created a party truce for as long as Canada was in danger and had those dissenters in the liberal caucus hold their tongues, in no way was Canada prepared for this scale of war. Its economy could not support it for more than a few months before being hit hard by its cost, no one expected it to last longer than a few months though, many claiming it would be over by Christmas. Mass recruiting for the war began on August 6 with hundreds of telegrams notifying Militia colonel to begin recruiting men between the ages of 18 and 45. Hordes of British immigrants and the unemployed answered the call, ontario, hard hit by the depression, accounted for third of the recruits, while two thirds of the recruits were British born. Few recruits came from the Maritimes and just over 1,000 were French, the cities of Toronto, Winnipeg and Montreal sent enough men each for two battalions. By September 4 there were 32,000 men and 8,000 horses in camp, there was an immediate demand for equipment, uniforms and weapons. The Ross Rifle Company worked overtime as did the textile mills, with a force of 32,000 equipped and ready, it soon became apparent that Embarkation from the docks would be a nightmare. Extra ships had to be chartered to carry the additional men, battalions were marched on to ships only to be marched back off when they didnt fit. Units ignored orders and schedules and crowded the docks not wishing to wait. When it was all done, the last of 30 ships had cleared the harbour, leaving 863 horses,4,512 tons of baggage, vehicles and ammunition behind, the first Canadian casualties of the war occurred before these troops arrived in Europe. Sir Christopher Cradocks squadron was sunk at the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Chile, by the time that the First Contingent reached England on October 14 it became apparent the war would not be over by Christmas

30.
Outline of Canada
–
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Canada, Canada /ˈkænədə/ is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The lands have been inhabited for millennia by various groups of aboriginal peoples, beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War, in 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. Canada is a federation that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and it is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. ca International rankings of Canada Canada is. Unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent jurisdiction, note, Canada did not acquire any new land to create Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, or Nunavut. UN Human Development Program, Country Fact Sheet, Canada, Statistics — Country Sheet, Canada Canada travel guide from Wikivoyage Canada from The Canadian Encyclopedia

31.
Culture of Canada
–
The culture of Canada is a term that embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canadas history, its culture has influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canadas immigrant populations have incorporated into mainstream Canadian culture. The population has also influenced by American culture because of a shared language, proximity. Canada is often characterized as being progressive, diverse. Canadas federal government has often described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canadas culture draws from its range of constituent nationalities. Canadians identify with the institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the National park system. The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions and it has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. For tens of thousands of years, Canada was inhabited by Aboriginal peoples from a variety of different cultures, although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. Combined with late economic development in many regions, this comparably nonbelligerent early history allowed Aboriginal Canadians to have an influence on the national culture. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an part of Canadian language. Many places in Canada, both features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning village or settlement, the name of Canadas capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term adawe meaning to trade. The French originally settled New France along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of French Canadian culture. The British conquest of New France during the century brought 70,000 Francophones under British rule, creating a need for compromise. The migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution brought American colonial influences, following the War of 1812 a large wave of Irish, Scottish and English settlers arrived in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive, Canada until the 1940s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and political identities, and to some extent aboriginal

32.
Constitutional history of Canada
–
The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution patriated in 1982. Canadas constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history, on February 10,1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia, a year before, France had secretly signed a treaty ceding Louisiana to Spain to avoid losing it to the British. At the time of the signing, the French colony of Canada was already under the control of the British army since the capitulation of the government of New France in 1760. The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, the proclamation renamed Canada The Province of Quebec, redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions, the proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems, the requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire. When James Murray was commissioned as general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion and he officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established, on September 17,1764, the Courts of the Kings Bench and Common Pleas were constituted. Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray and they were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests, Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as licentious fanatics who would not be satisfied, the conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murrays removal, the merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec, in 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act. On October 29,1764,94 Canadian subjects submitted a petition demanding that the orders of the king be available in French, in May 1774 the British merchants trading in Quebec responded by submitting their case to the king

33.
Economic history of Canada
–
Canadian historians until the 1980s tended to focus on economic history, including labour history. In part this is because Canada has had far fewer political or military conflicts than other societies and this was especially true in the first half of the twentieth century when economic history was overwhelmingly dominant. Many of the most prominent English Canadian historians from this period were economic historians, such as Harold Innis, Donald Creighton, scholars of Canadian history were heirs to the traditions that developed in Europe and the United States, but frameworks that worked well elsewhere often failed in Canada. The heavily Marxist influenced economic history that dominates Europe has little relevance to most of Canadian history, a focus on class, urban areas, and industry fails to address Canadas rural and resource based economy. Similarly, the monetarist school that is dominant in the United States also has been difficult to transfer north of the border, the study of economic history in Canada became highly focused on economic geography, and for many years the dominant school of thought has been the staples thesis. This school of thought bases the study of the Canadian economy on the study of natural resources and this approach has since also become used outside of Canada in Australia and in many developing nations. Before the arrival of Europeans, the First Nations of what would become Canada had a large, furs, tools, decorative items, and other goods were often transported thousands of kilometres, mostly by canoe throughout the many rivers and lakes of the region. The earliest European settlements in Canada were the fisheries of the East Coast, boats from France, Portugal, Spain, and Great Britain would traverse the Atlantic, fish for a summer and then return laden with fish. The trade was dominated by fishers from southern Europe. In Catholic countries, demand for fish was much greater and it was from the northern nations of Britain and France that the first settlers came, however. Spain, Portugal and the south of France had abundant supplies of salt because in the warm climates it was a matter to evaporate seawater. They would thus bring barrels of salt with them to the grounds, salt the fish aboard ship. In the colder and wetter climate of the British Isles and northern France, to preserve the fish, they were dried by hanging them on large fish racks on the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. These drying stations were active for months of the year, and this economic idea sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of imperial investment in the colony itself. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés created in 1627, by the King of France, Louis XIII and these were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Harold Innis, based in the department at the University of Toronto. They argued that the Canadian Economy was primarily based on exports of a series of staples—fish, fur, timber, wheat—that shipped to Britain, the thesis explains Canadian economic development as a lateral, east-west conception of trade. Innis argued that Canada developed as it did because of the nature of its staple commodities, raw materials, such as fish, fur, lumber, agricultural products and this trading link cemented Canadas cultural links to Britain

34.
Former colonies and territories in Canada
–
A number of states and polities formerly claimed colonies and territories in Canada prior to the evolution of the current provinces and territories under the federal system. The colonization of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th century, France relinquished nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War to the British Empire. Britains imperial government over a century later then ceded the land to Canadian control in 1867 after confederation, since then, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999. The Mikmaq in todays Maritimes were governed as seven districts with their own district chiefs. To the west around the Great Lakes Council of Three Fires was formed in 796 CE according to oral history, the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, was united in 1142 CE according to their oral traditions. There was also the four or possibly five tribes of the Huron Confederacy, the Iron Confederacy of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of mixed Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux people. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and peoples of the Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively dense populations, some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities. Vinland – Markland – Helluland are the given to three lands possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in the Eiríks saga rauða. LAnse aux Meadows – settlement Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas the Portuguese Crown claimed it had rights in the Atlantic waters visited by explorer John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, in 1501 and 1502 Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real explored present day Newfoundland claiming the land in the name of Portuguese Empire. The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of Francis I of France. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived the winter, in 1604, the first year round permanent settlement was founded by Samuel de Champlain at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie Française which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men of whom 20 died from lack of food, the Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, New France. British America – – List of Hudsons Bay Company trading posts St and this was in response to intelligence that the Russians had begun to explore the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part of New Spain. Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel at Nootka Sound – The first colony in British Columbia, in 1799, Tsar Paul I proclaimed Russian title and established the Russian American Companys trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the creation of Russian America. The stated southward limit of Russian claims was 51 degrees north latitude, though no Russian settlements were established in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions frequented the North Coast. Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and a dominion after the Constitution Act of 1867, originally three provinces of British North America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada united to form the new nation. Full independence came with the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Canada Act in 1982, since 1867, Canadas external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999

35.
History of immigration to Canada
–
The history of immigration to Canada extends back thousands of years. Anthropologists continue to argue over various possible models of migration to modern-day Canada, the Inuit are believed to have arrived entirely separately from other indigenous peoples around 1200 CE. Indigenous peoples contributed significantly to the culture and economy of the early European colonies, statistics Canada has tabulated the effect of immigration on population growth in Canada from 1851 to 2001. On average, censuses are taken every 10 years, which is how Canadian censuses were first incremented between 1871 and 1901, beginning in 1901, the Dominion Government changed its policy so that census-taking occurred every 5 years subsequently. This was to document the effects of the campaign initiated by Clifford Sifton. In 2006, Canada received 236,756 immigrants. The top ten sending countries, by state of origin, were Peoples Republic of China, India, Philippines, Pakistan, United States, United Kingdom, Iran, South Korea, Colombia 5,382, and Sri Lanka. The top ten source countries were followed closely by France, and Morocco, with Romania, Russia, in 1828, during the Great Migration of Canada, Britain passed the first legislative recognition that it was responsible for the safety and well-being of immigrants leaving the British Isles. It was called An Act to Regulate the Carrying of Passengers in Merchant Vessels, the 1828 Act is now recognized as the foundation of British colonial emigration legislation. Canadian citizenship was created under the Immigration Act,1910. All other British subjects required permission to land, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution. Because of this, Canadians—and others living in countries that became known as Commonwealth realms—were known as subjects of the Crown, however, in legal documents, the term British subject continued to be used. Canada was the nation in the then British Commonwealth to establish its own nationality law in 1946. This took effect on January 1,1947, a British subject at that time was anyone from the UK or its colonies, or a Commonwealth country. Acquisition and loss of British subject status before 1947 was determined by United Kingdom law, on February 15,1977, Canada removed restrictions on dual citizenship. Many of the provisions to acquire or lose Canadian citizenship that existed under the 1946 legislation were repealed, Canadian citizens are in general no longer subject to involuntary loss of citizenship, barring revocation on the grounds of immigration fraud. There are a number of reports of contact made before Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. The presence of Basque cod fishermen and whalers, just a few years after Columbus, has also cited, with at least nine fishing outposts having been established on Labrador

36.
Military history of Canada
–
For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years War—the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, the Americans launched invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by Canadian forces, however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century, after Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canadas links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war. Canada has also played an important role in United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide and has committed more troops than any other country. The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence, resources, before European colonization, aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed relatively few casualties. Warfare was also common among indigenous peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density, inuit groups of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare, primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Those captured in fights were not always killed, tribes often adopted captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles, slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Slave-owning tribes of the societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida. Among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were slaves, according to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their plans to settle the area. Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450 and 1600, existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries. By the end of the 17th century, First Nations from the woodlands, eastern subarctic. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities, the bloodshed during conflicts was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among competing aboriginal groups. Two years after the French founded Port Royal in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, by 1706, the French population was around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors. This lack of immigration resulted in New France having one-tenth of the British population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s, La Salles explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered settlements

37.
History of monarchy in Canada
–
The history of monarchy in Canada stretches from pre-colonial times through to the present day. Through both these lineages, the present Canadian monarchy can trace back to the Anglo-Saxon period and ultimately to the kings of the Angles. Kings and queens reigning over Canada have included the monarchs of France, those of the United Kingdom, throughout the 18th century, via war and treaties, the Canadian colonies of France were ceded to King George III. The colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form the Dominion of Canada, Canada later became a fully independent country through the Constitution Act of 1982 proclaimed by Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada. The French monarch also moved quickly and it was in 1602 that Aymar de Chaste was appointed as Viceroy of Canada to represent King Henry IV, the Acadians refused, and were subsequently deported from the area in what became known as the Great Upheaval. This was regarded by American colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts that together led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. This conflict led some 46,000 people loyal to the Crown—dubbed United Empire Loyalists—to flee north from the United States, continuing today, Ontario residents descended from these original refugees retain the post-nominals UE, standing for United Empire. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent, Prince William arrived in Canada in July 1786, when he stated of the country, and more specifically, St. Johns, truly deplorable. A most dreadful, inhospitable and barren country, though, he changed his opinion after meeting the local women. He also became, in 1787, the first member of the Royal Family to visit Quebec, the Prince lived at Quebec City, where he oversaw the establishment of the Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, a project of personal interest to his father, the King. In 1792, when the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada took place, Prince Edward was said to have climbed up to where he could be heard and addressed the crowd, stating, Part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord, let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majestys beloved Canadian subjects and it was reportedly the first time the word Canadian, which had previously been reserved only for Francophones, was used in a manner that included all colonialists. Almost twenty years later, Prince Edwards only legitimate daughter, Victoria, was born on 24 May 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria as heir to the throne until, upon the death of William IV, at the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy. By the mid-1860s, neither the nor the location of the capital of the hypothetical new union had been settled. The proposal, however, caused worries in the Foreign and Colonial Office in London that such a title would provoke the republican United States, the new constitution vested in the Queen responsibility for peace, order, and good government, as DArcy McGee had desired. In practice, though, the Second Reform Act,1867, in the same year, Ruperts Land was ceded to the Crown in Right of Canada from the Hudsons Bay Company, pulling it into the jurisdiction of the Northwest Territories

38.
National Historic Sites of Canada
–
Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development

39.
Population of Canada
–
The historical growth of Canadas population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new country, Canada has been predisposed to be a very open society with regards to immigration. Canadians comprise about 0. 5% of the total population. The 2016 Canadian census counted a population of 35,151,728. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, despite the fact that Canadas population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canadas north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region. Scholars vary on the size of the aboriginal population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canadas Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians early interactions with First Nations, roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot, who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the population within the limits of Canada at the time. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, Aboriginal peoples numbered at 1,400,685, the European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high, the women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, Canadians had a diet for their time. The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America and it was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talons census there were 3,215 people in New France, the census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were established along the Saint Lawrence River. Mainly due to increase and modest immigration from Northwest France the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730, during the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth

40.
Territorial evolution of Canada
–
The Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1,1867, when the British colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were merged to form a single Dominion within the British Empire. Canada continued to expand across North America as other British colonies joined with or were ceded to Canada, eventually growing from four provinces to ten provinces, politically, Canada gained increasing independence in the 20th century, eventually becoming a fully sovereign state in 1982. The Northwest Territories have been made up of districts, but one of these. Because of this status, it is handled separately from the NWT on this list. After 1905 it no longer had any special status, and it was dissolved in 1999 when Nunavut was created. The maps used on this page, for simplicity, use the version of the borders of Labrador. For much of its history, Canada claimed Labrador extended only along the coast and it is Newfoundlands claim that is used. Matthews, Geoffrey J. Historical atlas of Canada, Volume 1, maps, 1667-1999 - Library and Archives Canada Territorial Evolution, 1670-2001 - Historical Atlas of Canada

Newfoundland and Canadian Government delegation signing the agreement admitting Newfoundland to Confederation in December 1948. Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent and Albert Walsh shake hands following signing of agreement.