The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (La mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même), most often called The Large Glass (Le Grand Verre), is an artwork by Marcel Duchamp over 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, and freestanding. Duchamp worked on the piece from 1915 to 1923, creating two panes of glass with materials such as lead foil, fuse wire, and dust, it combines chance procedures, plotted perspective studies, and laborious craftsmanship. Duchamp's ideas for the Glass began in 1913, and he made numerous notes and studies, as well as preliminary works for the piece, the notes reflect the creation of unique rules of physics, and myth which describes the work.

It is at first sight baffling in iconography and unclassifiable style. Yet this glass construction is not a discrete whole. The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even is also the title given to The Green Box notes (1934) as Duchamp intended the Large Glass to be accompanied by a book, in order to prevent purely visual responses to it.[1] The notes describe that his "hilarious picture" is intended to depict the erotic encounter between the "Bride," in the upper panel, and her nine "Bachelors" gathered timidly below in an abundance of mysterious mechanical apparatus in the lower panel.[2]The Large Glass was exhibited in 1926 at the Brooklyn Museum before it was broken during transport and carefully repaired by Duchamp. It is now part of the permanent collection at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Duchamp sanctioned replicas of The Large Glass, the first in 1961 for an exhibition at Moderna Museet in Stockholm and another in 1966 for the Tate Gallery in London.[3][4] The third replica is in Komaba Museum, University of Tokyo.[5]

The Large Glass consists of two glass panels, suspended vertically and measuring 109.25 in × 69.25 in (277.5 cm × 175.9 cm). The entire composition is shattered, but it rests sandwiched between two pieces of glass, set in a metal frame with a wooden base, the top rectangle of glass is known as the Bride's Domain; the bottom piece is the Bachelors' Apparatus. It consists of many geometric shapes melding together to create large mechanical objects, which seem to almost pop out from the glass and ever-changing background.

All forms on the glass are outlined with lead wire and filled in with earth tone oil paint, the colors range from pale grey to gold to dark brown and black. Some figures are bumpy and cloudy, and contain the dust left on them during the time which the unfinished work lay dormant, which seems to be an attempt at capturing the dynamic passage of time in a sedate work.

The Bride is a mechanical, almost insectile, group of monochrome shaded geometric forms located along the left-hand side of the glass, she is connected to her halo, a cloudy form stretching across the top. Its curvilinear outline and grey shading are starkly offset by the three undulating squares of unpainted glass evenly spaced over the central part of the composition, the Bride's solid, main rectangular form branches out into slender, tentacle-like projections. These include an inverted funnel capped by a half-moon shape, a series of shapes resembling a skull with two misplaced ears, and a long, proboscis-like extension stretching down almost as far as the horizon line between her domain and that of the bachelors', her top-located domain is almost completely monochrome, with a wash of beige comparable to the cool colors of a cloudy sky.

The Bachelors' earthbound, lower domain, referred to by Duchamp as "La Machine Célibataire" (The Bachelor Machine), is a collection of much warmer, earthier colors of brown and golden tones, the Bachelors' Domain centers on the nine "Malic Molds." These dark brown shapes have a central vertical line, some with horizontal ones across them. They resemble the empty carcasses of clothes hanging from a clothesline, much more than they do actual men, they are interconnected through a spider web of thin lines, tying them to the seven conical cylinders. The cylinders range in color, and move in stages from nearly transparent on the left side, to translucent in the middle, to almost opaque on the far right, the opaque ones have swirling dark brown and gold colors and are almost solid three-dimensional forms, whereas the translucent ones are more ghostly outlines. They are connected in a line from tip to base and form a half circle, this rainbow-like shape is impaled centrally by a pole which connects them to the "chocolate grinder" at the lower part of the glass, and to the X-shaped rods that dominate the top center of the Bachelors' Domain.

There is a chocolate grinder which consists of three drum-like structures, arranged in even spacing around a circular platform, they are appropriately chocolate brown in color, and are very textural, with a series of ridges running around their outside and spiraling out from the center. There are three tiny legs that barely seem to support the entire structure.

The rods interconnect to form a large X, and look like they recede into space. One end is smooth and cylindrical, while the other tapers at the end and is capped with a sphere, the spherical ends are connected to two more rods that run vertically down to yet another machine. It is a contraption similar to a waterwheel with spokes of a bicycle wheel, this is tilted away from the viewer, almost to the point that it is indistinguishable. This in turn is placed on two elongated ovals, which are almost like runners, these support the wheel, along with the framework of a metal box that encases it and intersects with the Bachelors' "feet".

On the right-hand side of the Bachelors' Domain are four faint, circular images, the top one is a perfect circle. A little below that are three circular images tilted away from the viewer, the first has twelve spokes, each spoke consisting of three lines. The middle is made of six concentric circles, the bottom is prickly-looking circle with a small hole in the middle, consisting of outward spiraling lines.

The composition's most dominating feature is the series of spider web cracks, running diagonally from the top right to bottom left of the Bride's Domain, and in an almost figure eight from the top left to bottom right of the Bachelors' Domain forming flowery, flowing designs. Neither cracks nor paint disrupt the right, central plane, which is devoid of decoration, and around which the action of the art plays out, these occurred when the piece was being moved from its first exhibition, and after effecting the repair, Duchamp decided he admired the cracks: an element of chance that enhanced what he had done intentionally, following the flow of energy in the work's composition.

The piece is placed in the Philadelphia Museum of Art gallery beside The Green Box, the selection of Duchamp's own notes on The Large Glass, it stands in front of a window, from which natural light creates a varying atmosphere depending on the time of day, the weather, and the season. It is also surrounded by his other works – both paintings and "readymades" – which form a background which the work otherwise is lacking; in this sense, this image of a frozen machine becomes extremely dynamic and engaging to the viewer.

Duchamp's art does not lend itself to simple interpretations, and The Large Glass is no exception; the notes and diagrams he produced in association with the project – ostensibly as a sort of guidebook – complicate the piece by, for example, describing elements that were not included in the final version as though they nevertheless exist, and "explaining" the whole assembly in stream-of-consciousness prose thick with word play and jokes. Dubbed The Green Box, this 'explanatory work' has been described as "No less ambiguously or freely interpretable than [The Large Glass] itself..." [6]

Linda Dalrymple Henderson picks up on Duchamp's idea of inventing a "playful physics" and traces a quirky Victorian physics out of the notes and The Large Glass itself; numerous mathematical and philosophical systems have been read out of (or perhaps into) its structures.[7]

Most critics, however, read the piece as an exploration of male and female desire as they complicate each other. One critic, for example, describes the basic layout as follows: "The Large Glass has been called a love machine, but it is actually a machine of suffering, its upper and lower realms are separated from each other forever by a horizon designated as the 'bride's clothes.' The bride is hanging, perhaps from a rope, in an isolated cage, or crucified. The bachelors remain below, left only with the possibility of churning, agonized masturbation."[8]

Marjorie Perloff interprets the painting as "enigmatic" in her book The Poetics of Indeterminacy: Rimbaud to Cage (Princeton UP: 1999). She concludes that Duchamp's "Large Glass is also a critique of the very criticism it inspires, mocking the solemnity of the explicator who is determined to find the key". Hence, she follows the school of deconstruction established by the French philosopher Derrida and helps to break down the hegemony of interpretation held by the Enlightenment bourgeoisie. To quote the artist: "I believe that the artist doesn't know what he does. I attach even more importance to the spectator than to the artist."[citation needed]

1.
Marcel Duchamp
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Duchamp has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his artists as retinal art. Instead, Duchamp wanted to use art to serve the mind, Marcel Duchamp was born at Blainville-Crevon in Normandy, France, and grew up in a family that enjoyed cultural activities. The art of painter and engraver Émile Frédéric Nicolle, his grandfather, filled the house, and the family liked to play chess, read books, paint. Of Eugene and Lucie Duchamps seven children, one died as an infant, Marcel Duchamp was the brother of, Jacques Villon, painter, printmaker Raymond Duchamp-Villon, sculptor Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, painter. At 8 years old, Duchamp followed in his brothers footsteps when he left home and began schooling at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille, two other students in his class also became well-known artists and lasting friends, Robert Antoine Pinchon and Pierre Dumont. For the next 8 years, he was locked into a regime which focused on intellectual development. Though he was not a student, his best subject was mathematics. He also won a prize for drawing in 1903, and at his commencement in 1904 he won a coveted first prize and he learned academic drawing from a teacher who unsuccessfully attempted to protect his students from Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and other avant-garde influences. However, Duchamps true artistic mentor at the time was his brother Jacques Villon, whose fluid, at 14, his first serious art attempts were drawings and watercolors depicting his sister Suzanne in various poses and activities. That summer he painted landscapes in an Impressionist style using oils. Duchamps early art works align with Post-Impressionist styles and he experimented with classical techniques and subjects. He studied art at the Académie Julian from 1904 to 1905, during this time Duchamp drew and sold cartoons which reflected his ribald humor. Many of the drawings use verbal puns, visual puns, or both, such play with words and symbols engaged his imagination for the rest of his life. In 1905, he began his military service with the 39th Infantry Regiment. There he learned typography and printing processes—skills he would use in his later work, due to his eldest brother Jacques membership in the prestigious Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture Duchamps work was exhibited in the 1908 Salon dAutomne. The following year his work was featured in the Salon des Indépendants, of Duchamps pieces in the show, critic Guillaume Apollinaire—who was to become a friend—criticized what he called Duchamps very ugly nudes. The group came to be known as the Puteaux Group, or the Section dOr, uninterested in the Cubists seriousness or in their focus on visual matters, Duchamp did not join in discussions of Cubist theory, and gained a reputation of being shy

2.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
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The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin, the various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor and decorative arts. The attendance figure for the museum was 751,797 in 2015, the museum is also one of the largest art museums in the world based on gallery space. The museum also administers the historic houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove. The museum and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia, as of 2017, the standard adult admission price is $20 which allows entrance to the main building and all annexes for two consecutive days. The museum is closed on Mondays except on some holidays, several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. Special exhibitions may have a charge for entrance. Philadelphia celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence with the 1876 Centennial Exposition and its art building, Memorial Hall, was intended to outlast the Exhibition and house a permanent museum. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art opened on May 10,1877 and its permanent collection began with objects from the Exhibition and gifts from the public impressed with the Exhibitions ideals of good design and craftsmanship. European and Japanese fine and decorative art objects and books for the Museums library were among the first donations, the location outside of Center City, however, was fairly distant from many of the citys inhabitants. Admission was charged until 1881, then was dropped until 1962, starting in 1882, Clara Jessup Moore donated a remarkable collection of antique furniture, enamels, carved ivory, jewelry, metalwork, glass, ceramics, books, textiles and paintings. The Countess de Brazzas lace collection was acquired in 1894 forming the nucleus of the lace collection, in 1893 Anna H. Wilstach bequeathed a large painting collection, including many American paintings, and an endowment of half a million dollars for additional purchases. Works by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and George Inness were purchased within a few years, in the early 1900s, the Museum started an education program for the general public, as well as a membership program. Fiske Kimball was the director during the rapid growth of the 1920s. After World War II the collections grew with gifts, such as the John D. McIlhenny, early modern art dominated the growth of the collections in the 1950s, with acquisitions of the Louise and Walter Arensberg and the A. E. Gallatin collections. The gift of Philadelphian Grace Kellys wedding dress is perhaps the best known gift of the 1950s, extensive renovation of the building lasted from the 1960s through 1976. Major acquisitions included the Carroll S. Tyson, Jr. and Samuel S. White III and Vera White collections,71 objects from designer Elsa Schiaparelli, in 1976 there were celebrations and special exhibitions for the centennial of the Museum and the bicentennial of the nation

3.
Brooklyn Museum
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The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum located in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. At 560,000 square feet, the museum is New York Citys third largest in physical size, the museum initially struggled to maintain its building and collection, only to be revitalized in the late 20th century, thanks to major renovations. Significant areas of the collection include antiquities, specifically their collection of Egyptian antiquities spanning over 3,000 years, African, Oceanic, and Japanese art make for notable antiquities collections as well. American art is represented, starting at the Colonial period. Artists represented in the collection include Mark Rothko, Edward Hopper, Norman Rockwell, Winslow Homer, Edgar Degas, Georgia OKeeffe, the museum also has a Memorial Sculpture Garden which features salvaged architectural elements from throughout New York City. The roots of the Brooklyn Museum extend back to the 1823 founding by Augustus Graham of the Brooklyn Apprentices’ Library in Brooklyn Heights, in 1890, under its director Franklin Hooper, Institute leaders reorganized as the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and began planning the Brooklyn Museum. The initial design for the Brooklyn Museum was four times as large as the actualized version, Daniel Chester French, the noted sculptor of the Lincoln Memorial, was the principal designer of the pediment sculptures and the monolithic 12. 5-foot figures along the cornice. The figures were created by 11 sculptors and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, by 1920, the New York City Subway reached the museum with a subway station, this greatly improved access to the once-isolated museum from Manhattan and other outer boroughs. The Brooklyn Institutes director Franklin Hooper was the museums first director and he was followed by Philip Newell Youtz, Laurance Page Roberts, Isabel Spaulding Roberts, Charles Nagel, Jr. and Edgar Craig Schenck. Thomas S. Buechner became the director in 1960, making him one of the youngest directors in the country. Buechner oversaw a major transformation in the way the museum displayed art and brought some one thousand works that had languished in the museums archives and put them on display. Buechner played a role in rescuing the Daniel Chester French sculptures from destruction due to an expansion project at the Manhattan Bridge in the 1960s. The Brooklyn Museum changed its name to Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1997, on March 12,2004, the museum announced that it would revert to its previous name. In April 2004, the museum opened the James Polshek-designed entrance pavilion on the Eastern Parkway façade, in September 2014, Lehman announced that he was planning to retire around June 2015. In May 2015, Creative Time president and artistic director Anne Pasternak was named the Museums next director, member institutions occupy land or buildings owned by the City of New York and derive part of their yearly funding from the City. The Brooklyn Museum also supplements its earned income with funding from Federal and State governments, as well as donations by individuals. Major benefactors include Frank Lusk Babbott, the museum is the site of the annual Brooklyn Artists Ball which has included celebrity hosts such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Liv Tyler. The Brooklyn Museum exhibits collections that seek to embody the rich heritage of world cultures

4.
Moderna Museet
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Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden, is a state museum for modern and contemporary art located on the island of Skeppsholmen in central Stockholm, opened in 1958. In 2009, the opened a new branch in Malmö in the south of Sweden. The museum was opened in 9 May 1958 and its first manager was Pontus Hultén. In May 2010, Daniel Birnbaum became the new director of the museum, in 2009, the museum opened a new branch in the house previously known as Rooseum in Malmö. The museum houses Swedish and international modern and contemporary art, including pieces by Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí, only three of the Picasso paintings have been recovered. Visiting the permanent collection was originally free of charge, but some of the exhibitions had entrance fees. The fees were reinstated in 2007, in 2005, former museum director Pontus Hultén bequeathed over 700 works of art to Moderna Museet, along with his archive and library. A few works of the collection are on display with the permanent collection. The museum has a park on the island with works by sculptors of diverse nationalities. In 1994–98, it was moved to another location, the Spårvägshallarna, in Stockholm while the new building on Skeppsholmen. The Pontus Hultén Study Gallery was designed by Renzo Piano, the museums restaurant is popular due to its beautiful location. The museum organizes and is a venue for contemporary art exhibitions throughout the year. In 2005, the hosted the successful onedotzero festival bringing a new younger audience to the museum with screenings, installations, talks. Official site – In Swedish and English

5.
Tate
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Tate is an institution that houses the United Kingdoms national collection of British art, and international modern and contemporary art. It is a network of four art museums, Tate Britain, London, Tate Liverpool, Tate St Ives, Cornwall and Tate Modern, London, Tate is not a government institution, but its main sponsor is the UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The name Tate is used also as the name for the corporate body. The gallery was founded in 1897, as the National Gallery of British Art, the Tate Gallery was housed in the current building occupied by Tate Britain, which is situated in Millbank, London. Tate Liverpool has the purpose as Tate Modern but on a smaller scale. All four museums share the Tate Collection, one of the Tates most publicised art events is the awarding of the annual Turner Prize, which takes place at Tate Britain. The original Tate was called the National Gallery of British Art, situated on Millbank, Pimlico, the idea of a National Gallery of British Art was first proposed in the 1820s by Sir John Leicester, Baron de Tabley. It took a step nearer when Robert Vernon gave his collection to the National Gallery in 1847, a decade later John Sheepshanks gave his collection to the South Kensington Museum, known for years as the National Gallery of Art. Henry Tate also donated his own collection to the gallery and it was initially a collection solely of modern British art, concentrating on the works of modern—that is Victorian era—painters. It was controlled by the National Gallery until 1954, in 1926 and 1937, the art dealer and patron Joseph Duveen paid for two major expansions of the gallery building. His father had paid for an extension to house the major part of the Turner Bequest. Henry Courtauld also endowed Tate with a purchase fund, by the mid 20th century, it was fulfilling a dual function of showing the history of British art as well as international modern art. In 1954, the Tate Gallery was finally separated from the National Gallery, later, the Tate began organising its own temporary exhibition programme. In 1979 with funding from a Japanese bank a large extension was opened that would also house larger income generating exhibitions. In 1987, the Clore Wing opened to house the major part of the Turner bequest, in 1988, an outpost in north west England opened as Tate Liverpool. This shows various works of art from the Tate collection as well as mounting its own temporary exhibitions. In 2007, Tate Liverpool hosted the Turner Prize, the first time this has been held outside London and this was an overture to Liverpools being the European Capital of Culture 2008. In 1993, another offshoot opened, Tate St Ives and it exhibits work by modern British artists, particularly those of the St Ives School

6.
University of Tokyo
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The University of Tokyo, abbreviated as Todai, is a research university located in Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan. The university has 10 faculties with a total of around 30,000 students,2,100 of whom are foreign and its five campuses are in Hongō, Komaba, Kashiwa, Shirokane and Nakano. It is the first of Japans National Seven Universities, the university was chartered by the Meiji government in 1877 under its current name by amalgamating older government schools for medicine and Western learning. It was renamed the Imperial University in 1886, and then Tokyo Imperial University in 1897 when the Imperial University system was created, in September 1923, an earthquake and the following fires destroyed about 700,000 volumes of the Imperial University Library. The books lost included the Hoshino Library, a collection of about 10,000 books, the books were the former possessions of Hoshino Hisashi before becoming part of the library of the university and were mainly about Chinese philosophy and history. In 1947, after Japans defeat in World War II, it re-assumed its original name, although the university was founded during the Meiji period, it has earlier roots in the Astronomy Agency, Shoheizaka Study Office, and the Western Books Translation Agency. These institutions were government offices established by the 徳川幕府 Tokugawa shogunate, kikuchi Dairoku, an important figure in Japanese education, served as president of Tokyo Imperial University. For the 1964 Summer Olympics, the university hosted the running portion of the pentathlon event. On 20 January 2012, Todai announced that it would shift the beginning of its academic year from April to September to align its calendar with the international standard, the shift would be phased in over five years. But this unilateral announcement by the president was received badly and the university abandoned the plans, according to the Japan Times, the university had 1,282 professors in February 2012. In 2014, the School of Science at the University of Tokyo introduced an undergraduate transfer program called Global Science Course. Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 1st in Asia, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 27th in the world in 2013 and 1st in the Asia University ranking in 2013. In 2015, Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked the institution 23rd in the world and it ranks 12th in the world according to the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings 2016. QS World University Rankings in 2011 ranked the University of Tokyo 25th in the world, in the 2011 QS Asian University Rankings, which employs a different methodology, the University of Tokyo came 4th. Currently, University of Tokyo holds ranks 9th & 11th respectively for Natural Sciences & Engineering, Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings ranked the University of Tokyo 12th in the world also 1st in Asia in 2016. Global University Ranking ranked the University of Tokyo 3rd in the world, Human Resources & Labor Review, a human competitiveness index & analysis published in Chasecareer Network, ranked the university 21st internationally and 1st in Asia in 2010. Mines ParisTech, Professional Ranking World Universities ranked the University of Tokyo 2nd in the world on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies, nature Publishing Index ranked the University of Tokyo 5th in the world in 2011. The main Hongo campus occupies the estate of the Maeda family

7.
Raymond Roussel
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Raymond Roussel was a French poet, novelist, playwright, musician, and chess enthusiast. Through his novels, poems, and plays he exerted an influence on certain groups within 20th century French literature, including the Surrealists, Oulipo. Roussel was born in Paris, the third and last child in his family, with a brother Georges, in 1893, at age 15, he was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire for piano. A year later, he inherited a fortune from his deceased father. At age 17, he wrote Mon Âme, a poem published three years later in Le Gaulois. By 1896, he had commenced editing his long poem La Doublure when he suffered a mental crisis, after the poem was published on June 10,1897 and was completely unsuccessful, Roussel began to see the psychiatrist Pierre Janet. In subsequent years, his inherited fortune allowed him to publish his own works and he wrote and published some of his most important work between 1900 and 1914, and then from 1920 to 1921 traveled around the world. He continued to write for the decade, but when his fortune finally gave out, he made his way to a hotel in Palermo. He is buried in Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris, Roussels most famous works are Impressions of Africa and Locus Solus, both written according to formal constraints based on homonymic puns. Roussel kept this compositional method a secret until the publication of his posthumous text, How I Wrote Certain of My Books, then I added to it words similar but taken in two different directions, and I obtained two almost identical sentences thus. The two sentences found, it was a question of writing a tale which can start with the first, as the group tours the estate, Canterel shows them inventions of ever-increasing complexity and strangeness. Again, exposition is followed by explanation, the cold hysteria of the former giving way to the innumerable ramifications of the latter. New Impressions of Africa is a 1, 274-line poem, consisting of four long cantos in rhymed alexandrines, from time to time, a footnote refers to a further poem containing its own depths of brackets. This impressive nest of brackets carries an assertion — or a recommendation, — buried by Roussel within a 644 alexandrine poem. Perhaps not surprisingly, Roussel was unpopular during his lifetime and critical reception of his works was almost unanimously negative, nevertheless, he was admired by the Surrealist group and other avant-garde writers, particularly Michel Leiris, André Breton and Marcel Duchamp. He began to be rediscovered in the late 1950s, by the Oulipo, French theorist Michel Foucaults only book-length work of literary criticism is on Roussel. A comprehensive exhibition of Roussels achievements entitled Locus Solus was exhibited within the Fundação de Serralves in Porto opening on March 24,2012. Special attention was granted to his connections with Man Ray, Salvador Dalí, and Marcel Duchamp

8.
Alfred Jarry
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Alfred Jarry was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play Ubu Roi. He also coined the term and philosophical concept of pataphysics, Jarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany. He was associated with the Symbolist movement and his play Ubu Roi is often cited as a forerunner of Dada, and to the Surrealist and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930. Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism and his texts present us with pioneering work in the fields of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy. At the lycée in Rennes when he was 15, he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called Les Polonais, the main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth, a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarrys later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous, at 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893 and that same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent. Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called my sacred herb or, when referring to absinthe, a story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour. When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline, eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience inspired his novel Days and Nights. Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking, symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and LYmagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarrys play Caesar Antichrist drew on this movement for material and this is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play, the spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Forts review Le Livre dart, of Jarrys 5-act play Ubu Roi, the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Rois savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, however, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de lŒuvre. On opening night, with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu stepped forward and intoned the opening word, Merdre

9.
Anti-Oedipus
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Anti-Oedipus, Capitalism and Schizophrenia is a 1972 book by French authors Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, respectively a philosopher and a psychoanalyst. It is the first volume of Capitalism and Schizophrenia, the second being A Thousand Plateaus, Deleuze and Guattari analyse the relationship of desire to reality and to capitalist society in particular, they address human psychology, economics, society, and history. Additionally, they develop a practice that they call schizoanalysis. D. Laing, David Cooper, and Pierre Clastres, friedrich Nietzsche is also an influence, Anti-Oedipus has been seen as a sequel to his The Antichrist. Anti-Oedipus became a sensation and a celebrated work, it has been compared to Lyotards Libidinal Economy. Deleuze and Guattaris schizoanalysis is a militant social and political analysis that responds to what they see as the tendencies of psychoanalysis. It proposes a functional evaluation of the investments of desire—whether revolutionary or reactionary—in a field that is social, biological, historical. Deleuze and Guattari develop four theses of schizoanalysis, Every unconscious libidinal investment is social, unconscious libidinal investments of group or desire are distinct from preconscious investments of class or interest. Non-familial libidinal investments of the field are primary in relation to familial investments. Social libidinal investments are distinguished according to two poles, a paranoiac, reactionary, fascisizing pole and a schizoid revolutionary pole, flags, nations, armies, banks get a lot of people aroused. In the terms of classical Marxism, desire is part of the economic, infrastructural base of society, they argue, not an ideological, unconscious libidinal investments of desire coexist without necessarily coinciding with preconscious investments made according to the needs or ideological interests of the subject who desires. It was not by means of a metaphor, even a paternal metaphor and it is not by means of a metaphor that a banking or stock-market transaction, a claim, a coupon, a credit, is able to arouse people who are not necessarily bankers. And what about the effects of money that grows, money that produces more money, there are socioeconomic complexes that are also veritable complexes of the unconscious, and that communicate a voluptuous wave from the top to the bottom of their hierarchy. And ideology, Oedipus, and the phallus have nothing to do with this, Desire produces even the most repressive and the most deadly forms of social reproduction. The traditional understanding of desire assumes an exclusive distinction between production and acquisition and this dominant conception, Deleuze and Guattari argue, is a form of philosophical idealism. Deleuze and Guattari argue that desire is a process of production that produces reality. On the basis of three passive syntheses, desire engineers partial objects, flows, and bodies in the service of the autopoiesis of the unconscious. In this model, desire does not lack its object, instead, desire is a machine, on this basis, Deleuze and Guattari develop their notion of desiring-production

10.
Daniel Paul Schreber
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Daniel Paul Schreber was a German judge who suffered from what was then diagnosed as dementia praecox. He described his 2nd mental illness, making also a reference to the 1st disorder in his book Memoirs of My Nervous Illness. The Memoirs became a book in the history of psychiatry. There is no account of his 3rd disorder, but some details about it can be found in the Hospital Chart. During his second illness he was treated by Prof. Paul Flechsig, Dr. Pierson, Schreber was a successful and highly respected judge until middle age when the onset of his psychosis occurred. He woke up one morning with the thought that it would be pleasant to succumb to sexual intercourse as a woman and he was alarmed and felt that this thought had come from somewhere else, not from himself. He even hypothesized that the thought had come from a doctor who had experimented with hypnosis on him and he believed his primary psychiatrist, Prof. Paul Flechsig, had contact with him using a nerve-language of which Schreber said humans are unaware. He believed that hundreds of souls took special interest in him. As his psychosis progressed, he believed that God was turning him into a woman, sending rays down to enact miracles upon him, Schreber was released from psychiatric hospitals around 1902, after the publication of his book. He reassumed his private activities, which he conducted very well up to 1907 and he went then through a final hospitalisation. Schreber died in 1911, in an asylum, though Schrebers book was made famous because of its value as a psychological memoir, the reason Schreber wrote the book was not for reasons of psychology. Schrebers purpose was expressed in its subtitle, In what circumstance can a person deemed insane be detained in an asylum against his declared will, although Freud never interviewed Schreber himself, he read his Memoirs and drew his own conclusions from it. Freud thought that Schrebers disturbances resulted from repressed homosexual desires, which in infancy were oriented at his father and brother, repressed inner drives were projected onto outside world and led to intense hallucinations which were first centred on his physician Dr. Flechsig, and then around God. During first phase of his illness Schreber was certain that Dr. Flechsig persecuted him and made attempts to murder his soul. In the next period of ailment he was convinced that God, consideration of the Schreber case led Freud to revise received classification of mental disturbances. He argued that the difference between paranoia and dementia praecox is not at all clear, since symptoms of both ailments may be combined in any proportion, as in Schrebers case. Therefore, Freud concluded, it may be necessary to introduce a new diagnostic notion, paranoid dementia, Freuds interpretation has been contested by a number of subsequent theorists, most notably Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari in their work Anti-Oedipus and elsewhere. Elias Canetti also devoted the closing chapters of his magnum opus Crowds

11.
Celibacy
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Celibacy is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of an official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation. In a wider sense, it is understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity. Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in all the major religions of the world. Ancient Judaism was strongly opposed to celibacy, similarly, the Romans viewed it as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with the sole exception granted to the Vestal Virgins. Christians in the Middle Ages and in particular Catholics believed that celibacy was a prerequisite for religious office, protestantism saw a reversal of this trend in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church never adopted it. The Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex as well, Muhammad denounced it, classical Hindu culture encouraged asceticism and celibacy in the later stages of life, after one has met his societal obligations. Jainism and Buddhism have been influenced by Hinduism in this respect, There were, however, significant cultural differences in the various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy. It was not well received in China, for example, where other religions such as Daoism were opposed to it. A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy, the English word celibacy derives from the Latin caelibatus, state of being unmarried, from Latin caelebs, meaning unmarried. This word derives from two Proto-Indo-European stems, *kaiwelo- alone and *libs- living, the words abstinence and celibacy are often used interchangeably, but are not necessarily the same thing. A. W. Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States there is no clear operational definition of celibacy. The concept of new celibacy was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book The New Celibacy, in a revised version of her book, she claims that abstinence is a response on the outside to whats going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside. According to her definition, celibacy is much more than not having sex and it is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment. This new perspective on celibacy is echoed by authors including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller. The rule of celibacy in the Buddhist religion, whether Mahayana or Theravada, has a long history, in Japan, celibacy was an ideal among Buddhist clerics for hundreds of years. But violations of clerical celibacy were so common for so long that, finally, in 1872, subsequently, ninety percent of Buddhist monks/clerics married

12.
Body without organs
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The body without organs is a concept used by French philosopher Gilles Deleuze. It usually refers to the reality underlying some well-formed whole constructed from fully functioning parts. At the same time, it may describe a relationship to ones literal body. Deleuze began using the term in The Logic of Sense, while discussing the experiences of playwright Antonin Artaud, Body without Organs later became a major part of the vocabulary for Capitalism and Schizophrenia, two volumes written collaboratively with Félix Guattari. In these works, the took on an expanded meaning, referring variously to literal bodies. The terms overloaded meaning is provocative, perhaps intentionally, Deleuze first mentions the phrase in a chapter of The Logic of Sense called The Schizophrenic and the Little Girl, which contrasts two distinct and peripheral ways of encountering the world. The Little Girl, explores a world of surfaces, the realm of social appearances. The Schizophrenic is by contrast an explorer of depths, one who rejects the surface entirely, for the Schizophrenic, words collapse, not into nonsense, but into the bodies that produce and hear them. Deleuze refers to a new dimension of the body, an organism without parts which operates entirely by insufflation, respiration, evaporation. This body is described as howling, speaking a language without articulation that has more to do with the primal act of making sound than it does with communicating specific words. In Deleuze and Guattaris collaboration, the describes a undifferentiated. It relates to the proto-world described in the mythology of different cultures. Deleuze and Guattari often use the example of the Dogon egg, the egg metaphor helps to suggest the gestation of a formation yet to come, and the potential formation of many actualities from a single origin. For Deleuze and Guattari, every actual body has a set of traits, habits, movements, affects. But every actual body also has a dimension, a vast reservoir of potential traits, connections, affects, movements. This collection of potentials is what Deleuze calls the BwO, unlike other social machines such as the Body of the Earth, the Body of the Despot or the Body of Capital, the full body without organs cannot inscribe other bodies. The body without organs is not an original primordial entity nor what is remains of a lost totality but is the residuum of a deterritorialized socius. To make oneself a body without organs, then, is to experiment with oneself to draw out

13.
Deconstruction
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Deconstruction is a name commonly associated with philosopher Jacques Derridas critical outlook over the relationship between text and meaning. Derridas approach consists in conducting readings of texts with an ear to what runs counter to the unity or intended sense of a particular text. The purpose is to expose that the object of language and what upon which any text is founded is irreducibly complex, unstable, many debates in continental philosophy surrounding ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, and philosophy of language refer to Derridas observations. Deconstruction also inspired deconstructivism in architecture and remains important within art, music, Jacques Derridas 1967 work Of Grammatology introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction. According to Derrida and taking inspiration from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, language as a system of signs, as a consequence meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs. Derrida refers to the — in this view, mistaken — belief that there is a self-sufficient, a concept then must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc. Further, Derrida contends that in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the coexistence of a vis-a-vis. One of the two terms governs the other, or has the hand, signified over signifier, intelligible over sensible, speech over writing, activity over passivity. The first task of deconstruction would be to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or a corpus of texts, but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense. They simply cannot be suspended once and for all, the hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. Deconstruction only points to the necessity of an analysis that can make explicit the decisions. To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition and this explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derridas original use of the word deconstruction was a translation of Destruktion, heideggers term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them. An assertion that texts outlive their authors, and become part of a set of cultural habits equal to, if not surpassing, the importance of authorial intent. A re-valuation of certain classic western dialectics, poetry vs. philosophy, reason vs. revelation, structure vs. creativity, episteme vs. techne, etc. To this end, Derrida follows a line of modern philosophers. However, like Nietzsche, Derrida is not satisfied merely with such an interpretation of Plato. Différance is the observation that the meanings of words come from their synchrony with other words within the language, understanding language according to Derrida required an understanding of both viewpoints of linguistic analysis

14.
Jacques Derrida
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Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together with hundreds of essays and he also influenced architecture, music, art, and art criticism. Particularly in his writings, Derrida addressed ethical and political themes in his work. Some critics consider Speech and Phenomena to be his most important work, others cite Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Margins of Philosophy. These writings influenced various activists and political movements and he became a well-known and influential public figure, while his approach to philosophy and the notorious difficulty of his work made him controversial. Derrida was the third of five children and his elder brother Paul Moïse died at less than three months old, the year before Derrida was born, leading him to suspect throughout his life his role as a replacement for his deceased brother. Derrida spent his youth in Algiers and in El-Biar, on the first day of the school year in 1942, French administrators in Algeria — implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government — expelled Derrida from his lycée. He secretly skipped school for a rather than attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers an instrument of revolt against family and his reading also included Camus and Sartre. In the late 1940s, he attended the Lycée Bugeaud and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, on his first day at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1952, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his masters degree in philosophy on Edmund Husserl and he then passed the highly competitive agrégation exam in 1956. Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and he spent the 1956–57 academic year reading Joyces Ulysses at the Widener Library, in June 1957, he married the psychoanalyst Marguerite Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence of 1954–1962, Derrida asked to teach children in lieu of military service, teaching French. Following the war, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne and his wife, Marguerite, gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. In 1964, on the recommendation of Louis Althusser and Jean Hyppolite, Derrida got a permanent teaching position at the ENS, in 1965 Derrida began an association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists, which lasted for seven years. Derridas subsequent distance from the Tel Quel group, after 1971, has attributed to his reservations about their embrace of Maoism. At the same colloquium Derrida would meet Jacques Lacan and Paul de Man, a second son, Jean, was born in 1967

15.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

16.
Richard Hamilton (artist)
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Richard William Hamilton CH was an English painter and collage artist. His 1955 exhibition Man, Machine and Motion and his 1956 collage Just what is it that makes todays homes so different, so appealing. Produced for the This Is Tomorrow exhibition of the Independent Group in London, are considered by critics, a major retrospective of his work was at Tate Modern until May 2014. Hamilton was born in Pimlico, London and this led to his entry into the Royal Academy Schools. Hamiltons early work was influenced by DArcy Wentworth Thompsons 1917 text On Growth. Also in 1952, he was introduced to the Green Box notes of Marcel Duchamp through Roland Penrose and it was also through Penrose that Hamilton met Victor Pasmore who gave him a teaching post based in Newcastle Upon Tyne which lasted until 1966. Among the students Hamilton tutored at Newcastle in this period were Rita Donagh, Mark Lancaster, Tim Head, Roxy Music founder Bryan Ferry, Hamiltons influence can be found in the visual styling and approach of Roxy Music. He described Ferry as his greatest creation, Ferry repaid the compliment, naming him in 2010 as the living person he most admired, saying he greatly influenced my ways of seeing art and the world. Hamilton gave a 1959 lecture, Glorious Technicolor, Breathtaking Cinemascope and Stereophonic Sound and he further developed that theme in the early 1960s with a series of paintings inspired by film stills and publicity shots. Hamiltons 1955 exhibition of paintings at the Hanover Gallery were all in form a homage to Duchamp. In the same year Hamilton organized the exhibition Man Machine Motion at the Hatton Gallery in Newcastle, Just what is it that makes todays homes so different, so appealing. Was created in 1956 for the catalogue of This Is Tomorrow, Just what is it that makes todays homes so different, so appealing. Is widely acknowledged as one of the first pieces of Pop Art and he thus created collages incorporating advertisements from mass-circulation newspapers and magazines. The success of This Is Tomorrow secured Hamilton further teaching assignments in particular at the Royal College of Art from 1957 to 1961, in the early 1960s he received a grant from the Arts Council to investigate the condition of the Kurt Schwitters Merzbau in Cumbria. The research eventually resulted in Hamilton organising the preservation of the work by relocating it to the Hatton Gallery in the Newcastle University, in 1962 his first wife Terry was killed in a car accident. The exhibition was shown at the Tate Gallery in 1966, in 1968, Hamilton appeared in a Brian De Palma film titled Greetings where Hamilton portrays a pop artist showing a Blow Up image. The film was the first film in the United States to receive a X rating, from the mid-1960s, Hamilton was represented by Robert Fraser and even produced a series of prints, Swingeing London, based on Frasers arrest, along with Mick Jagger, for possession of drugs. This association with the 1960s pop music continued as Hamilton became friends with Paul McCartney resulting in him producing the cover design

17.
Bottle Rack
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The Bottle Rack is an artwork created in 1914 by Dada artist Marcel Duchamp. Duchamp labeled the piece a readymade, a term he used to describe his collection of ordinary, Marcel Duchamp claimed to have bought the Bottle Rack at a department store called Bazar de lHôtel de Ville near the Paris city hall. The Bottle Rack was a typical, metal rack used for the drying of bottles, unlike the earlier Bicycle Wheel or Pharmacy, the Bottle Rack was not modified in any way, making it the first, true example of a readymade. The original piece was destroyed, mistaken as garbage due to its appearance, without any actual modifications by the artist, the Bottle Rack is iconic for being Duchamps first, true readymade. While Duchamp asserted that his readymades were done without any specific reason, art critics contend that the piece has sexual undertones of a Freudian nature

18.
Fountain (Duchamp)
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Fountain is a 1917 work produced by Marcel Duchamp. The piece was a urinal, which was signed R. Mutt. Fountain was displayed and photographed at Alfred Stieglitzs studio, and the published in The Blind Man. The work is regarded by art historians and theorists of the avant-garde, such as Peter Bürger,17 replicas commissioned by Duchamp in the 1960s now exist. Marcel Duchamp arrived in the United States less than two prior to the creation of Fountain and had become involved with Dada, an anti-rational, anti-art cultural movement. The artist brought the urinal to his studio at 33 West 67th Street, reoriented it to a position 90 degrees from its position of use. According to another version, Duchamp did not create Fountain, at the time Duchamp was a board member of the Society of Independent Artists. After much debate by the members about whether the piece was or was not art. Duchamp resigned from the Board in protest and he took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title and point of view – created a new thought for that object. In defense of the work being art, Wood also wrote, The only works of art America has given are her plumbing, Duchamp described his intent with the piece was to shift the focus of art from physical craft to intellectual interpretation. Menno Hubregtse argues that Duchamp may have chosen Fountain as a readymade because it parodied Robert J. Coadys exaltation of industrial machines as pure forms of American art. Coady, who championed his call for American art in his publication The Soil, Hubregtse notes that Duchamps urinal may have been a clever response to Coadys comparison of Crottis sculpture with the absolute expression of a—plumber. Shortly after its exhibition, Fountain was lost. According to Duchamp biographer Calvin Tomkins, the best guess is that it was out as rubbish by Stieglitz. The edition of eight was manufactured from glazed earthenware painted to resemble the original porcelain, the artwork is not a special object—it was mass-produced in a factory. The experience of art is not exciting and ennobling—at best it is puzzling, but over and above that, Duchamp did not select just any ready-made object to display. In selecting the urinal, his message was clear, Art is something you piss on, since the photograph taken by Stieglitz is the only image of the original sculpture, there are some interpretations of Fountain by looking not only at reproductions but this particular photograph. The use of the word Dada for the art movement, the meaning and it is not clear whether Duchamp or Freytag-Lorinhoven had in mind the German Armut, or possibly Urmutter

19.
L.H.O.O.Q.
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L. H. O. O. Q. is a work of art by Marcel Duchamp. First conceived in 1919, the work is one of what Duchamp referred to as readymades, the objet trouvé is a cheap postcard reproduction of Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa onto which Duchamp drew a moustache and beard in pencil and appended the title. Although many say it was pioneered by him, in 1887 Eugène Bataille created a Mona Lisa smoking a pipe, in a late interview, Duchamp gives a loose translation of L. H. O. O. Q. as there is fire down below. The masculinized female introduces the theme of reversal, which was popular with Duchamp. Interpreted its meaning as being an attack on the iconic Mona Lisa and traditional art, according to one commentator, The creation of L. H. O. O. Q. Profoundly transformed the perception of La Joconde, in 1919 the cult of Jocondisme was practically a secular religion of the French bourgeoisie and an important part of their self image as patrons of the arts. They regarded the painting with reverence, and Duchamps salacious comment and defacement was a stroke of epater le bourgeois. According to Rhonda R. Shearer the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly modelled on Duchamps own face, francis Picabia parodied L. H. O. O. Q in 1942 in his annotated Tableau Dada Par Marcel Duchamp. Salvador Dalí created his Self Portrait as Mona Lisa in 1954 and this work incorporated photographs of a wild-eyed Dalí showing his handlebar moustache and a handful of coins. Icelandic painter Erró then incorporated Dalís version of L. H. O. O. Q, into a 1958 composition that also included a film-still from Dalís Un Chien Andalou. Fernand Léger and René Magritte have also adapted L. H. O. O. Q, the use of computers permitted new forms of parodies of L. H. O. O. Q. One form of computerized parody using the Internet juxtaposes layers over the original, in one example, the original layer is Mona Lisa. The second layer is transparent in the main, but is opaque and this technology is described at the George Washington University Law School website. An example of technology is a copy of Mona Lisa with a series of different superpositions–first Duchamps moustache, then an eye patch, then a hat, a hamburger. This is a link to the graphic, rather, the person distributes only the material of the subsequent layers, the aggrieved copyright owner distributes the material of the underlying layer, and the end users system receives both. The end users system then causes a combination, in its computer RAM. The combination is a composite of the layers, framing and superimposition of popup windows exemplify this paradigm. Or Mona Lisa reproduce the elements of the original, thereby creating an infringing reproduction and this is a link to examples of the foregoing parodies, together with an explanation of the technology

20.
Readymades of Marcel Duchamp
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The readymades of Marcel Duchamp are ordinary manufactured objects that the artist selected and modified, as an antidote to what he called retinal art. By simply choosing the object and repositioning or joining, titling and signing it, Duchamp was not interested in what he called retinal art — art that was only visual — and sought other methods of expression. As an antidote to retinal art he began creating readymades at a time when the term was used in the United States to describe manufactured items to distinguish them from handmade goods. While published under the name of Marcel Duchamp, André Gervais nevertheless asserts that Breton wrote this particular dictionary entry, Duchamp only made a total of 13 readymades over a period of time of 30 years. He felt that he could avoid the trap of his own taste by limiting output, though he was aware of the contradiction of avoiding taste. Taste, he felt, whether good or bad, was the enemy of art and his conception of the readymade changed and developed over time. My intention was to get away myself, he said. Call it a game between I and me. Duchamp was unable to define or explain his opinion of readymades, much later in life Duchamp said, Im not at all sure that the concept of the readymade isnt the most important single idea to come out of my work. Robert Fulford described Duchamps ready-mades as expressing an angry nihilism, by submitting some of them as art to art juries, the public, and his patrons, Duchamp challenged conventional notions of what is, and what is not, art. Some were rejected by art juries and others went unnoticed at art shows, most of his early readymades have been lost or discarded, but years later he commissioned reproductions of many of them. Readymades - un-altered objects Assisted readymades Rectified readymades Corrected readymades Reciprocal readymades Bottle Rack,1914, two years later, through correspondence from New York with his sister, Suzanne Duchamp, in France he intended to make it a readymade by asking her to paint on it Marcel Duchamp. However, Suzanne, who was looking after his Paris studio, had already disposed of it, prelude to a Broken Arm,1915. External link Snow shovel on which he painted its title. The first piece the artist called a readymade, New to America, Duchamp had never seen a snow shovel not manufactured in France. With fellow Frenchman Jean Crotti he purchased it from a stack of them, took it to their studio, painted the title and from Marcel Duchamp 1915 on it. Many years later, a replica of the piece is said to have mistaken for an ordinary snow shovel. External link An unpainted chimney ventilator that turns in the wind, the title is a literal translation of the French phrase, tiré à quatre épingles, roughly equivalent to the English phrase dressed to the nines

21.
Anti-art
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Anti-art is a loosely used term applied to an array of concepts and attitudes that reject prior definitions of art and question art in general. Somewhat paradoxically, anti-art tends to conduct this questioning and rejection from the point of art. The term is associated with the Dada movement and is accepted as attributable to Marcel Duchamp pre-World War I around 1914. It was used to describe forms of art. An expression of anti-art may or may not take traditional form or meet the criteria for being defined as a work of art according to conventional standards. Indeed, works of anti-art may express an outright rejection of having conventionally defined criteria as a means of defining what art is, anti-artworks may reject conventional artistic standards altogether, or focus criticism only on certain aspects of art, such as the art market and high art. Some anti-artworks may reject individualism in art, whereas some may reject universality as an accepted factor in art. Additionally, some forms of anti-art reject art entirely, or reject the idea that art is a separate realm or specialization, anti-artworks may also reject art based upon a consideration of art as being oppressive of a segment of the population. Anti-art artworks may articulate a disagreement with the generally supposed notion of there being a separation between art and life, indeed, anti-art artworks may voice a question as to whether art really exists or not. Anti-art itself is not an art movement, however. This would tend to be indicated by the time it spans—longer than that usually spanned by art movements, some art movements though, are labeled anti-art. Theodor W. Adorno in Aesthetic Theory stated that. even the abolition of art is respectful of art because it takes the truth claim of art seriously. Anti-art has become accepted by the artworld to be art, although some people still reject Duchamps readymades as art, for instance the Stuckist group of artists. Anti-art can take the form of art or not and it is posited that anti-art need not even take the form of art, in order to embody its function as anti-art. Some of the forms of anti-art which are art strive to reveal the limits of art by expanding its properties. Some instances of anti-art are suggestive of a reduction to what might seem to be fundamental elements or building blocks of art, examples of this sort of phenomenon might include monochrome paintings, empty frames, silence as music, chance art. Anti-art is also seen to make use of highly innovative materials and techniques. These types of anti-art can be readymades, found art, détournement, combine paintings, appropriation, happenings, performance art, anti-art can involve the renouncement of making art entirely

22.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition

23.
Jacques Villon
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Jacques Villon was a French Cubist painter and printmaker. Born Emile Méry Frédéric Gaston Duchamp in Damville, Eure, in the Haute-Normandie region of France, he came from a prosperous, while he was a young man, his maternal grandfather Emile Nicolle, successful businessman and artist, taught him and his siblings. There, he studied law at the University of Paris, to distinguish himself from his siblings, Gaston Duchamp adopted the pseudonym of Jacques Villon as a tribute to the French medieval poet François Villon. His work appeared in the satirical weekly Le Courrier français, in 1903 he helped organize the drawing section of the first Salon dAutomne in Paris. In 1904-1905 he studied art at the Académie Julian, during the First World War, Villon worked as a cartographer for the army. At first, he was influenced by Edgar Degas and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, but later he participated in the fauvist, Cubist, by 1906, Montmartre was a bustling community and Jacques Villon moved to Puteaux in the quiet outskirts of Paris. There, he began to more of his time to working in drypoint. During this time he worked closely to develop his technique with other important printmakers such as Manuel Robbe and his isolation from the vibrant art community in Montmartre, together with his modest nature, ensured that he and his artwork remained obscure for a number of years. Villon was instrumental in having the group exhibit under the name Section dOr after the section of classical mathematics. Their first show, Salon de la Section dOr, held at the Galerie La Boétie in October 1912, in 1913, Villon created seven large drypoints in which forms break into shaded pyramidal planes. That year, he exhibited at the Armory Show in New York City and his works proved popular and all his art sold. From there, his reputation expanded so that by the 1930s he was known in the United States than in Europe. In May 2004, an oil painting by Villon dated 1913 entitled LAcrobate, an exhibition of Jacques Villons work was held in Paris in 1944 at the Galerie Louis Carré, following which he received honors at a number of international exhibitions. In 1938 he was named Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, in 1947 he was promoted to Officier of the Legion of Honor. In 1950, Villon received the Carnegie Prize, the highest award for painting in the world, the following year he was commissioned to design stained-glass windows for the cathedral at Metz, France. In 1956 he was awarded the Grand Prix at the Venice Biennale exhibition, Villon died in his studio at Puteaux. In 1967, in Rouen, his last surviving artist brother Marcel helped organize an exhibition called Les Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Marcel Duchamp, some of this family exhibition was later shown at the Musée National dArt Moderne in Paris. C. Art Gallery of New South Wales, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, leading private collections which include the works of Villon are the Joachim Collection of Chicago, the Vess Collection of Detroit, and the Ginestet Collection of Paris

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Raymond Duchamp-Villon
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Raymond Duchamp-Villon was a French sculptor. Duchamp-Villon was born Pierre-Maurice-Raymond Duchamp in Damville, Eure, in the Haute-Normandie region of France, of the six Duchamp children, four would become successful artists. He was the brother of Jacques Villon, painter, printmaker, Marcel Duchamp, painter, sculptor and author, Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, from 1894 to 1898 Raymond Duchamp-Villon lived in the Montmartre Quarter of Paris with his brother Jacques and studied medicine at the Sorbonne. Rheumatic fever forced him to abandon his studies in 1898 and it left him incapacitated for a time. This unforeseen event altered the course of his life as he began to pursue an interest in sculpture and he started by creating small statuettes and essentially became self-taught, achieving a high level of mastery and acumen. In 1902 and 1903, he exhibited at the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts but to himself from his artist brother. In 1905 Duchamp-Villon had his first exhibition at the Salon dAutomne, raymonds reputation was such that he was made a member of the jury of the sculpture section of the Salon dAutomne in 1907 and was instrumental in promoting the Cubist movement. All three of the Duchamp brothers then showed their work at the important Armory Show in New York City that helped introduce modern art to America, in 1913 he took part in exhibitions at the Galerie André Groult in Paris, the Galerie S. V. U. Mánes in Prague, and in 1914 at Der Sturm Gallery in Berlin, during World War I Raymond Duchamp-Villon served in the French army in a medical capacity, but still worked on his major cubist sculpture, The Horse. In late 1916, Raymond Duchamp-Villon contracted typhoid fever while stationed at the quarters in Champagne. As a result, he was taken to the hospital at Cannes where his burgeoning career came to an end with his death. In 1967, in Rouen, his last surviving artist brother Marcel helped organize an exhibition called Les Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Marcel Duchamp, some of this family exhibition was later shown at the Musée National dArt Moderne in Paris. Henry Holt and Company, Inc.1996, ISBN 0-8050-5789-7 Cubism La Maison Cubiste Tomkins, Calvin, Duchamp, A Biography. Henry Holt and Company, Inc.1996, ISBN 0-8050-5789-7 Raymond Duchamp-Villons Horse Smarthistory Raymond Duchamp-Villon in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website