Employers who force their female employees to wear high heels may be harming their health, scientists have suggested.

A new review by researchers at Aberdeen University, published in the journal BMC Public Health, has looked into the physical damage wearing high heels can do as well as the cultural and social effects of their wear – the first of its kind.

After examining a number of existing studies, the researchers found that wearing high heels are associated with musculoskeletal pain, hypersensitivity vasculitis (HV) and first-party injury "including to children." The physical effects can affect the body from "the spine to the toes," according to researchers.

Contradicting to some previous studies, they found no epidemiological evidence of a link with osteoarthritis or second-party injury.

When looking at the cultural and psychosexual effects, the researchers found a number of studies which suggested that wearing high heels increases a woman' attractiveness to men which "poses a potential opportunity or a dilemma" as it could come with benefits.

Dr. Max Barnish, who led the research, said in a release: "From our review, it is clear that despite the huge amount of evidence showing heels are bad for individuals' health, there are complex social and cultural reasons that make high heel wearing attractive."

However, the authors stressed that it is important "women's footwear choices are respected and that they are not pressurized into wearing high heels against their will."

Being forced to wear heels to work became a scandal in 2016 after London receptionist Nicola Thorp was sent home from her temping job at PricewaterhouseCoopers because she refused to adhere to the company's uniform of wearing heels, as she said they would hurt her feet.

Ms. Thorp then launched a petition to call on the UK parliament to make it illegal for a company to require women to wear heels at work. The petition reached more than 100,000 signatures and was debated in parliament. The government rejected a change in the law and responded in April by saying: "Company dress codes must be reasonable and must make equivalent requirements for men and women. This is the law and employers must abide by it."

Dr. Heather Morgan, a lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, said they were not instructing women to wear heels or not but were highlighting the health risks that come with it which employers should take into consideration.

"Of course we are not trying to tell anyone that they should or shouldn't wear high heels but we hope this review will inform wearers to help them weigh up the health risks with social benefits, as well as putting pressure on law makers to toughen up legislation so that no one is forced against their will to wear them in the workplace or in licensed public social venues."

Commenting on the findings, the College of Podiatry said the study shows that women are still being let down by the government.

"In the 21st century women should not be forced to wear high heeled shoes in the work place as part of a uniform. There is already a strong body of clinical evidence that indicates the medical and disabling effects of wearing a high heeled shoe over a prolonged period of time, and this study reinforces these facts."