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Sound design is one of the most important elements to provoke and stimulate emotions
in media, especially motion pictures, video games, and even advertising. Well thought-
out and planned appropriately, great sound design surprises, engrosses, and can move
us.
The terms “Sound Design” and “Sound Designer” or “Engineer” first came into use
around 1979 by none other than Francis Ford Coppola, while he was in postproduction
on “Apocalypse Now”. He wanted his audiences to feel like they were surrounded by
“helicopters in a jungle full of gunfire.” Ultimately, this film became the first film to be
multi-channel mixed using a computerized mixing board, and the first movie ever to be
screened with a totally new speaker concept; three speakers in front of the audience,
and two from behind, thus immersing the audience into the action as never before.
The title of “sound designer” was first bestowed upon the legendary Walter Murch, who
oversaw all the sound design for “Apocalypse Now ”. According to Coppola, the
responsibilities of a films sound designer include “being ultimately responsible for all
aspects of the film's audio track, from the dialogue and sound effects recording, re-
recording, and the final mix of the final track.”
Although Coppola coined the phrase, perhaps the true father of sound design was Luigi
Russolo. He first conceived of the idea of using sound to enhance visuals as far back as the start of the 20th century. Russolo was part of what is called the
“Futurist Movement”, a time where individuals celebrated machines and technology.
Russolo is considered to be the conceiver of using sounds and noise, rather than music,
to further the emotional impact of a film and other visuals effectively. With his unusual
work and his embracing of nonmusical noises, he set the foundation for generations of
sound designers to come.

“Forbidden Planet”, a 1956 film, is also considered a landmark in sound design. Louis
Barron was the designer behind the sound effects in this film. He actually built a “ring
modulator”, and then added effects, like reverb and delay.
The development of certain technologies, assisted by computer samples and sound
synthesis machines, such as the Moog synthesizer in the ‘60’s, helped to create a whole
new, more advanced, tapestry of sound. With the creation of sound libraries,
filmmakers, along with their sound designers, began to experiment more and more
using sound as an integral part of the post-production process.
Another film with historic importance in
the development of sound design is
Alfred Hitchcock's horror movie “The
Birds”. Released in 1963, Hitchcock
used a combination of real bird sounds
and electronically synthesized noises,
with the aim to audibly assault the
audience, especially during the attacks
of the birds. His idea worked brilliantly.
All this work and effort to improve and
enhance sound design can literally fall
on deaf ears and can only be fully
appreciated through top-quality
speakers or headphones. This started to
become important with the development
of surround sound. Many movie
theaters have upgraded to multi-channel sound playback systems like Dolby Atmos,
thus achieving the sense of 3-D immersion into the film experience.
Sound design has come a long way in its 100 year journey, to a place where sound
effects and other non-musical noises are no longer “back seat” novelties, but welcomed
as an integral part of the creative process. 1

Luminaries of Sound Design
The advances in sound design over the last several decades are due to the efforts and
determination of individuals who worked hard with endless creativity. Here is a brief
review of some of the incredible pioneers responsible for these achievements and
accomplishments:
William Kennedy Laurie Dickson (1860-1935) was a Scottish born inventor,
who assisted Thomas Edison in developing early motion picture cameras (called
Kinetoscopes.) The first celluloid film (essentially, 35 mm film, still in use today)
for this device was invented by Dickson. He worked side-by-side with Edison for
several years, developing a working prototype of the kinetoscope in 1891. In
1895, Dickson left the employee of Edison and moved onto other things. He
formed his own business, one that produced the mutoscope, essentially a hand
cranked peep-style movie machine. 2
George Groves (1901-1976) was a pioneer in film sound editing who also
played an important role in the technology that produced sound for the silent
screen. He's actually credited as being Hollywood's first “sound man”, and his
career with Warner Brothers lasted 46 years. He later went on to become their
Director of Sound, and subsequently won two Academy Awards. Prior to Warner
Brothers, Groves did research at Bell Laboratories. In 1925, Bell Laboratories
was acquired by Warner Brothers. George begin working for Vitaphone, a
subsidiary of WB, where he was assigned the responsibility of the soundtrack to
the John Barrymore picture “Don Juan”, which truly began his sound career. He
was also the father of ADR (Automatic Dialogue Replacement), and the use of
radio microphones. 3
Jack Foley (1891-1967) was the inventor and
developer of sound effects used in the production of
movies. He invented the addition of post-
production sound elements such as footsteps,
breaking glass, gunshots, crowd sounds, and the
like, thus coining the phrase “Foley artist.” Foley's
art involved creating real time sound effects, done
in time to the action on screen, in order to give a
realistic, all-encompassing, sense to the film. 4

Jimmy MacDonald (1906-1991) was born in Britain. He started off his career
as a voice actor, and quickly became the original head of the Disney sound
effects department. (Incidentally, he was the voice of Mickey Mouse from 1947-
1977, as well as many other characters throughout his sound effects career.)
Responsible for dozens of sounds (and character voices) used in earlier Disney
films, MacDonald developed a number of unique inventions to create all of his
specialized effects. 5
Carl Stalling (1891-1972) This American born artist is widely known for his
Warner Brothers Association with Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies (animated
short film series.) He began his career as a composer/arranger, averaging one
complete music score weekly for 22 years. Although he started his score-
composing career with Disney, he remained there all of two years. He had an
amazing, notable career with Warner Brothers, working with music and sound
cues in every capacity possible. Carl retired in 1958.6
Ben Burtt (1948 to present) An
American sound design
innovator, Ben attended USCLA
on a scholarship and graduated
with a Master’s degree in film
production. In the 1970’s, he
was hired by George Lucas and
Francis Ford Coppola, and
became their first sound
engineer. He pioneered modern sound design, predominantly for sci-fi and
fantasy film genres. He was a true innovator, and created the sound design on
such films as “Star Wars”, “ET the Extra-Terrestrial”, “WALL-E”, and “Indiana
Jones/Crystal Skull.” 7
Walter Murch (July 1943 to present) This American film editor and sound
designer started his career editing and mixing sound for Francis Ford Coppola in
1969, the year American Zoetrope was founded by both Coppola and George
Lucas. He then moved back and forth between working for Coppola and working
for Lucas. Murch oversaw sound design on movies such as Lucas’ “THX 1138”
and “American Graffiti.”, and Coppola's “the Godfather II” and “Apocalypse
Now”, for which he won his first Academy Award in 1979. Murch made many
significant contributions to the field of sound design. 8

American Zoetrope was founded by Francis Ford Coppola (with some
assistance from George Lucas, who is considered a cofounder) in 1969. Coppola
had recently returned from a tour of Europe, where he was
introduced to many types of early motion picture making
equipment, as well as alternative filmmaking gear. Once back in
the US, Coppola was inspired to build a totally unique, somewhat
divergent, sound facility.
Although Coppola and his world-famous winery are located in
Napa, California, American Zoetrope was founded in and is
presently located in the North Beach area of San Francisco. California.
Coppola chose the name "Zoetrope” for his company after receiving a zoetrope
as a gift. (A zoetrope is one of several pre-cinema animation devices.) American
Zoetrope quickly became one of the most famous ancillary motion picture
companies in the world. 9
Skywalker Sound was conceived of by George Lucas the in early 1970’s.
Originally called Sprocket Systems, the company was located in San Rafael,
California.
The first thing George Lucas did was
hire a young USCLA graduate named
Ben Burtt. Burtt was their first
"director of sound." The transition
of Sprocket Systems to Skywalker
Sound was official in 1987, and the
business moved to its present
location in Marin, California.
Lucas’ vision for Skywalker Sound was to build a facility "by a filmmaker, for
filmmakers”, thus becoming one of the largest, most versatile pre-production,
production, and post-production (“full-service”) institutions in the world.
Skywalker sound is definitely at the forefront of all the latest, newest and
greatest, technology. 10
(More information regarding these individuals/facilities will be covered further in
this paper).

From Silence to Surround Sound; People, Production, and Progress
Not long after 1918, in the early days of cinema, filmmakers were attempting to put
sound to their movies. Ernest von Siemens really began the evolution of sound being
introduced to film. He invented the dynamic transducer also known as the moving coil,
which then led to the development of the loudspeaker. The loudspeaker was a serious
improvement over all the old sound systems. 11
Considered the true father of movie sound design is Luigi Russolo. A true Futurist, he
wrote his manifesto entitled “The Art of Noises” in 1913, and went on to design and
construct several noise-generating devices, thus being able to form a noise orchestra,
and would perform with them. He and his brother, Antonio, actually recorded one of
the first “records” ever. (The first “record player” having been invented by Thomas
Edison and William Dickson.) 12
Thomas Edison is known for many civilization-changing
inventions throughout his life. With the assistance of
another motion picture luminary Bruce Dixon, one of
these inventions was the “Kinetoscope”, a device that
played back sound recordings which could accompany a
film on vinyl discs (which were, incidentally, invented by
Emile Burrell, as well as the carbon microphone.)
Tri-Ergon (a German-based conglomerate) was the next pioneer who stepped up to
make a noticeable development in sound technology. Rather than using vinyl discs,
their new device could record audio to a filmstrip, which would run synchronized to the
visual film. FOX purchased the rights to this technology in 1926, and used the
cumulative research and existing products to produce a more precise and functional
sound system named Movie Tone. The Movie Tone system produced considerably
better sound quality, utilizing the same style of recording onto filmstrips.
Another notable invention soon after, the Phono-Film, was pioneered by Lee De Forest.
His device worked much like the Tri-Ergon equipment did, but with slightly better sound
quality. This technology was also purchased by FOX, who combined both technologies
(Movie Tone and Phono-Film) and made a significant difference in the movie sound
experience. The combination of the two devices crushed their opponents Warner
Brothers, who, at this time, were still recording movie sound onto vinyl.

The company Bell Industries, had in its employ two very talented sound engineers;
George Groves and Stanley Watkins, who together invented the Vita-phone. They
changed dramatically the technique of recording to flat disc, which subsequently
became the front leader of sound recording devices.
The Vita-Phone was purchased by
Warner Bros. in 1925. It was an
integral piece of equipment in the
production of the film "Don Juan",
the first movie with synchronized
sound, thus positioning Groves in
giving him the honor to become the
first-ever sound mixer.
In 1925, a young music composer by the name of Carl Stalling joined forces with Walt
Disney, who was at the time producing animated shorts in Kansas City. Stalling scored
several early cartoon compositions, and even spoke Mickey Mouse's first words in "The
Carnival Kid" in 1929.
Carl left Disney after only two years. Finding New York production companies weren't
really in need of his services, he moved (in 1936) to California, where he joined Iwerks.
That year, Warner Brothers hired Iwerks for project, and Stalling left the company and
went to work for Warner Brothers, where he remained employed until his retirement in
1958.
George Groves was also a huge part in the development of sound dubbing. One way
he accomplished this was by using multiple automatic vinyl recordings. He would then
mix them together using a soundboard made of relays, in effect, like the early phone
systems.

The system that made the biggest impact at this time (1930) was called Sound on Film.
This system essentially ushered in the new era of “talkies.” Such as “The Jazz Singer”,
“Lights of New York”, and, as mentioned before, “Don Juan.” "Don Juan" was the first
film to combine sound effects with a soundtrack and spoken words. George Groves
was instrumental in every advancement and development in sound design in history so
far.
In 1936, Jack Foley created of the art of Foley, which he first utilized in the film
“Showboat". He introduced expanded sound effects, such as footsteps, doors
opening/closing, movement of people and objects, and the sounds of props. He would
record all of these effects in one session, recording to just one track. Jack Foley's
development certainly changed the path of sound design. (One incident that is a
favorite among sound engineers; Foley needed to add the sound of engine noises
emitting from a submarine, and formulated the brilliant idea to reverse a recording of
himself burping. It worked like a charm!)
Jimmy MacDonald was hired by Disney in 1934 to
oversee their new sound department, and his
developments at Disney made him one of the most
recognizable and respected sound designers around.
He is known for inventing hundreds of different devices
in order to capture any sound effect he needed to. He
had the distinct privilege of playing the voice of Mickey
Mouse for several decades, and his legacy is still
honored through hundreds and hundreds of Disney
sound effects he created, some sounds that Disney still
uses today.
Ben Burtt must be mentioned here. He experimented with sound effects and music,
and ended up becoming famous for producing all of the sound design for the Star Wars
films. He had the opportunity to create a whole new world through sound, and he rose
to this challenge and created one of the best sound tapestries ever. He is renown for
the number of sounds and soundtracks he has produced and mixed for many films
during the 80's and 90's. With this design and techniques frequently studied by up-
and-coming sound designers, this makes Ben one of the most influential sound
designers ever in the industry.

Burtt is best known for the following specific sound effects:

§ R2-D2’s beeps and whistles: vocalization by Burtt himself, made using an ARP
2500 synthesizer.

§ Darth Vader's breathing: created using a recording of Burtt breathing through a
Dacor scuba regulator.

§ ET the Extraterrestrial: Burtt recorded his wife as she was suffering from a cold.

§ He's a frequent user of the Wilhelm scream (more on that to come.)

§ Burtt has employed the ‘audio black hole’ technique in which there is a brief
moment of absolute silence followed by a large resident sound (such as the
seismic charges in "Star Wars Episode Two: Attack of the Clones".) 14
Walter Murch is another sound engineer who has created some of the most original and
critically acclaimed sound work. He created the sound canvas for such films as
"Apocalypse Now". He has won many awards, including an Oscar for his unique,
naturalistic style. He is infamous for foregoing music at certain parts in films, instead
choosing to create a world of sound, in order to immerse the viewer into the film.
Murch is mostly remembered for his sound design in the film "The Godfather", where
he used an inordinate amount of sound to depict the menacing, brooding environment
of the Italian gangsters. 15Throughout the most recent years in sound engineering, there have been brilliant
people and the creative things that they develop popping up all over the industry.
Here's a list of some of those people and inventions, and even an occasional anecdote:

Notable Examples of Equipment and Sound Design Development

§ DAW - Digital Audio Workstation isn't electronic, software driven, tool used for a
wide variety of configurations for sound. DAWs have made a great impact in the
world of sound design. With the invention of programs such as Pro Tools, Apple
Logic Pro, Avid Pro Tools, and Sony Acid, everyone from beginners to experts
can find a program suitable for their needs and experience level.

Various incarnations of DAWs have existed since the 1970's and 1980's. What
would be considered the first digital audio workstation came about in 1978. With
the advances in both hardware and software over the last 35 years, DAWs have
exponentially been developed and improved. 16
§ Film Genre Particulars and Differences in Sound Design - as sound design and
engineering has developed, different effects and even types of musical scores
have found their way to different genres of film. For example, science fiction
and fantasy movies and video games have sort of cornered the market on the
type of sounds associated with the genres. As mentioned previously in this
paper, sound designers like Ben Burtt paved the road for specific sci-fi sounds,
especially once associated with the Star Wars franchise, some Spielberg films,
and a bevy of other sci-fi inspired films. Western movies for example, rely
heavily on Foley work, as they are most frequently shot outside, where sound is
much less controllable. Comedies and dramas tend to rely heavily on voice
recording, so shooting on set whenever possible is preferable because of the
ability to control ambient noises. Many films of these genres use a lot of ADR
(automatic dialogue replacement, which is most often recorded on a soundstage,
with the original actors re-enacting their speaking roles from the film.)

In Conclusion
Sound creation, design, and engineering has come very far in the last 100 years.
Some of the earliest pioneers of sound made some of the most important
contributions. Over the years, as film sound went from vinyl discs to DAT machines
to DAWs, sound technology has exploded into the amazing, film-going experience is
today. With the introduction of IMAX, the field of sound design was prepared to
welcome this new, expansive film format.
It will be exciting to see what new, unimaginable advances still remain to be
discovered in sound engineering and design.
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