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Introduction

Alternatives are the essence of elections. The word election is derived from the Latin verb legere, meaning “to choose.” Elections are the process through which citizens choose who will represent them in government or what will be done about a particular issue. It is important, however, to distinguish between the form and the substance of elections. In some countries elections are held but voters do not have a free and genuine choice between at least two alternatives. Though most countries hold elections in at least the formal sense, in many of them the elections are not competitive. For instance, all but one party may be forbidden to participate, or certain opposition groups may be prohibited from running candidates for office. (See alsovoting.)

History of Elections

Elections were used in ancient Athens, in ancient Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman emperors. The modern form of elections dates only from the 1600s, when representative government began to emerge in Europe and North America. At that time society ceased to be controlled exclusively by aristocrats. Governing institutions such as the British Parliament came to be viewed as representing the interests of the people rather than the interests of the wealthy or the nobility. It became accepted that the powers of government rested on the consent of the citizens and that government needed to win that support at regular intervals. It was not clear, however, exactly who should be able to participate in elections. Some people called for full democracy, with all adults being able to vote. Adult male suffrage was assured across western Europe and North America by 1920. In many countries, though, women did not receive the right to vote until much later. Women were granted the right to vote in France in 1944, in Belgium in 1949, and in Switzerland in 1971. In some conservative Arab countries, women were denied voting rights into the 21st century. Women eventually gained the right to vote in Bahrain in 2002, Kuwait in 2005, and the United Arab Emirates in 2006. Women in Saudi Arabia were permitted to vote in local elections beginning in 2015. (See alsowoman suffrage; feminism.)

The right to vote may be limited by formal legal rules, as was the case before universal adult suffrage. This right may also be limited by the failure of citizens to exercise their right to vote. In many countries with free elections, large numbers of citizens do not vote. In Switzerland and the United States, for instance, fewer than half the citizens vote in most elections. This situation is not ideal, but the elections are still democratic. In these countries voters are given genuine alternatives among which to choose.

During the 18th century voting was generally restricted to the privileged, particularly the aristocracy. At the end of the 18th century both the American and French revolutions formally declared every citizen equal to every other. Still, voting continued to be the right of only a few. Even when universal suffrage was adopted, the ideal of “one person, one vote” was not achieved in all countries. Some countries adopted systems of plural voting, by which the votes of certain groups were given more weight. In the United Kingdom, for instance, university graduates and owners of businesses in areas other than those in which they lived could cast more than one ballot until 1948. Before World War I both Austria and Prussia had three classes of weighted votes that gave more votes to the upper classes. Until the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965 in the United States, legal barriers and intimidation effectively barred most African Americans—especially those in the South—from voting. In South Africa, blacks were denied the right to vote under apartheid, a government policy of racial segregation. This policy was in force between 1948 and the early 1990s.

During the 19th and 20th centuries competitive elections in western Europe became the norm. In most of eastern Europe between World War II and 1990, however, communist governments gave voters only one choice. Voters in such countries also could not cast their ballots in secret. Elections were used to show that the public overwhelmingly supported the government. However, not all elections in eastern Europe followed this model. In Poland, for instance, there was some degree of choice, with more names on the ballot than there were offices to fill.

In sub-Saharan Africa competitive elections based on universal suffrage were introduced in three distinct periods. In the 1950s and ’60s a number of countries held elections after gaining their independence. Many of them eventually became dictatorships. Some, however, such as Botswana and The Gambia, continued to hold competitive elections. In the late 1970s elections were introduced in several countries, including Ghana and Nigeria, after their military dictatorships were replaced. In the same period elections were begun in other countries, such as Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe, that had recently gained their independence. Beginning in the early 1990s, more than a dozen countries in Africa introduced competitive elections with universal suffrage. Among them were Benin, Mali, South Africa, and Zambia.

Competitive elections in Latin America also were introduced in phases. In the 1800s and early 1900s elections were held in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, and Uruguay. However, all of those countries later experienced years of dictatorship. Other countries first held free elections in the period roughly from 1943 to 1962. Again, though, many did not retain democratic governments. Beginning in the mid-1970s competitive elections were introduced (or reintroduced) gradually throughout most of Latin America.

In Asia competitive elections were held in many countries following the end of World War II. As in Africa, many of these countries had just won independence, and many later became dictatorships. Beginning in the 1970s competitive elections were reintroduced in a number of countries, including the Philippines and South Korea. Bhutan held the first democratic elections in its history in 2007–08.

Functions of Elections

Elections allow voters to select leaders and to hold them accountable for their performance in office. Requiring leaders to submit to regular elections is an essential element of democracy. And, in places where elections are competitive, elections allow wide public discussion of issues important to voters. Elections thus educate citizens and make government more responsive to the people. They also serve to legitimize the acts of those who wield power by giving their policies a stamp of public approval.

Types of Elections

Elections may be categorized in several ways. They may be grouped by the issue or office being voted on, by the level of government the election pertains to, and by whether the election is held to select candidates or to elect public officials.

Officeholders and Issues

When voters cast their ballots, there are sometimes dozens of candidates and parties seeking various public offices. Particularly in the United States, there also may be a number of public issues to vote on. Local tax increases for schools are among the most common. (For coverage of issue-oriented elections, seeinitiative, referendum, and recall.)

Elections for officeholders allow citizens to choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Thus, voters want to know what the candidates think about public issues. Every society is made up of a wide variety of groups—such as farmers, bankers, blue-collar workers, teachers, lawyers, corporation managers, owners of small businesses. For this reason, candidates running for public office must develop policies that address a diversity of issues.

An individual seeking the presidency of the United States, for example, must appeal to numerous groups within the country in order to win an election. In contrast, the prime minister of the United Kingdom is elected to the House of Commons from a single local constituency and then is chosen to head the government if his party wins. In countries such as Britain and others that have a parliamentary form of government, therefore, the party program, rather than the candidate, must appeal to the electorate, or voting public (seecabinet government).

In many countries political parties represent the various interests and groups within society. In the United States there are only two major parties: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. In most countries, however, there are several parties competing for the support of voters. Political parties provide the pools of talent from which candidates are drawn. Those who belong to a party believe that its candidates, if elected, can best serve the public interest.

Levels of Election

In every large democratic country elections take place at a variety of levels: local, state, and national. A local election may be a citywide affair, or it may include only part of a city. A special election for alderman, for instance, takes place within only one ward, or election district, of a city because that alderman serves that ward. In some countries elections may be held in one province or state without affecting the rest of the country.

Elections in the United States

In the United States nearly every political unit—from small towns, cities, counties, and states, to the entire country—holds elections. There is, however, only one national election every four years. It is for the offices of president and vice president. The rest of the general elections are really simultaneous state elections. Elections to national offices occur every two years, when the entire House of Representatives and one-third of the Senate are elected. Voters also get to choose governors and state legislators, as well as local representatives such as aldermen and mayors.

Geographic Districts

Most candidates for public office run in specific geographic districts. Each member of the House of Representatives, for instance, is elected from a district within a state. Each district contains roughly the same number of people. The United States holds a census every 10 years. On the basis of population shifts in the country, some states gain or lose seats in the House of Representatives. Districts within states are altered to account for population changes within that state. Most large cities are also divided into districts, which are sometimes called wards. In general, each district is entitled to one representative—usually called an alderman.

At-large Elections

Though most candidates in the United States are elected to represent a single district, some candidates, particularly at the local level, are elected at-large. If an alderman is elected at-large, he represents not a district but all the city residents. Similarly, a state legislator at-large represents all the people of the state. Outside the United States (and the United Kingdom), at-large elections are quite common, even for national legislatures. In the Netherlands, for instance, there are 150 members of the Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber), the lower house of the legislature. Each of these members represents the entire country rather than an individual district.

Primaries

In some countries political parties rather than voters choose candidates for political office. Even in the United States, some candidates are chosen by political conventions or by party leaders, though most are selected by voters. Elections to select candidates are called primaries. Primaries emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries as a means by which the people could choose their own candidates rather than having candidates forced on them by party bosses.

An election in which all individuals who declare themselves members of a political party are entitled to select candidates is called a direct primary. The Democratic Party held the first direct primary in 1842 in Pennsylvania. As perceived corruption in government grew toward the end of the 19th century, there were increasing demands for primary elections. Under the leadership of Governor Robert M. LaFollette, Wisconsin passed a direct primary law in 1903. In some later cases an indirect primary—in which voters choose delegates to a state party convention, and the convention chooses the candidates—was implemented.

States have different ways of running primaries. Some have what are called open primaries. In these primaries voters can ask for a ballot for either political party. Other states have closed primaries. In closed primaries voters can vote only in the primary of the political party of which they are registered members.

Prior to the 1970s, primary elections for presidential candidates were relatively unimportant. National nominating conventions chose presidential (and vice presidential) candidates. Though these conventions still formally select the candidates, primary elections have since come to play a significant role in presidential elections. Potential candidates often begin traveling across the country two or three years before a general election to generate public support for their views. One of the earliest primaries in election years is held in New Hampshire. A poor performance there (or in Iowa, which generally holds a caucus a week earlier) can drive a candidate from the race. A good performance there can give a candidate momentum for subsequent primaries.

Election Practices

Since the mid-19th century, election practices have become fairly standardized and formal in large democratic countries. Voters are registered according to where they live, and they are entitled to vote in secret. Some countries have made voting compulsory by law.

Before the late 19th century voting was not secret. Afterward, secret voting gradually became the norm. Secret voting is often called the Australian ballot because of its use in the Australian states of Victoria and South Australia. The eventual adoption of secret voting was due largely to increased literacy and a growing sense of individualism among citizens. Still, informal pressure, particularly from interest groups and political parties through advertising, continues to influence the decisions of voters. In the contemporary world, developing countries with low literacy rates and with strong ties to tradition have been slow to adopt secret voting.

Voting is done at polling places or by absentee ballot, in which a voter unable to vote on election day can mail his or her ballot to the proper authorities. In the United States common methods of balloting include the optical-scan method, in which a voter marks a selection with pen or pencil on a ballot that is tallied by a machine. Another method is punch-card ballots, in which the voter uses a pin to punch out holes in a ballot that is read by a machine. Also common are voting machines, in which voters push down a lever to indicate their choice, and touch-screen voting, in which voters indicate their selections on a computer screen. Although all forms of balloting are susceptible to errors, the most error-prone method is punch-card balloting. Punch cards were used in many districts in Florida in the disputed U.S. presidential election of 2000.

Election Participation

Electoral participation depends on many factors, including the type of electoral system, the social groups to which a voter belongs, the voter’s beliefs, and a host of other factors. In some countries, notably Australia and Belgium, electoral participation is legally required, and nonvoters can face fines. Those who favor compulsory voting argue that voting is not just a right but a duty.

The level and type of election have a great impact on the rate of electoral participation. Electoral turnout is greater in national than in state elections, and greater in the latter than in local elections. Whether an election is affiliated with a party (partisan) or not (nonpartisan) also affects turnout, as fewer people participate in nonpartisan elections. Supporters of political parties vote more often than those without a partisan identification.

Technicalities in the electoral law may deprive many potential voters of the right to vote. For example, people who change their legal residence may temporarily lose their vote because of residence requirements for voters in their new electoral district. Complicated voter-registration procedures also significantly reduce the size of the active electorate in the United States. By contrast, in many other countries the size of the electorate is maximized by government-initiated registration immediately prior to an election. Voter registration in the United States is largely left to the initiative of individuals and political parties. Attempts to increase U.S. voter registration were made in the 1990s through the implementation of “motor-voter laws.” These laws allowed citizens to register to vote when they received or renewed their driver’s licenses.

Relatively low levels of electoral participation are associated with low levels of education, occupational status, and income. Those groups in society that have most recently won the right to vote tend to vote at lower rates. For a significant period of time in the 20th century, women voted less frequently than men, though the difference no longer exists in most countries. The rates of participation of racial minorities are generally lower than those of majority groups. Members of the working class vote less frequently than those of the middle class. In many countries participation by young people is significantly lower than that of older people.

Voter participation varies from country to country. Approximately half of the voting-age population votes in presidential elections in the United States. In contrast, many European countries have participation rates exceeding 80 percent. Even within Europe, however, participation varies significantly. Since World War II Italy has averaged about 90 percent, whereas less than 40 percent of the electorate participates in elections in Switzerland. Overall, there has been a long-term decline in turnout in national elections in western democracies since the 1970s.

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