The region was a prominent spice exporter from 3000 BCE to 3rd century. The Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks from the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. During the Chera period, Kerala remained an international spice trading center. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for the European colonisation of India. After independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state. Later, the state was formed in 1956 by merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.

Kerala is the state with the lowest positive population growth rate in India; 3.44% and has a density of 860 people per km2. The state has the highest Human Development Index (HDI); 0.790 in the country according to the Human Development Report (2011).[3] It also has the highest literacy rate; 93.91%, the highest life expectancy; 77 years and the highest sex ratio; 1,084 women per 1000 men. A survey in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country. The state has witnessed significant emigration of its people, especially to the Gulf states during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture of the state is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.[5]

Production of pepper and natural rubber contributes to a significant portion of the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people of the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% of the state's income. The state's 145,704 kilometres (90,536 mi) of roads, constitute 4.2% of all Indian roadways. There are three existing, and one proposed, international airports. Waterways are also used for transportation. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine different languages; mainly English and Malayalam. Kerala is an important tourist destination, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism, and tropical greenery among its major attractions.

The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam ("declivity of a hill or a mountain slope") or chera alam ("Land of the Cheras"). Kerala may represent an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau fusing kera ("coconut palm tree") and alam ("land" or "location").[6] "Kerala" can also be derived from the word "Cheral" that refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings. In turn the word "Cheral" is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for "lake".[7]

The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics.[8] The word Kerala is first recorded (as Keralaputra means Cherathala makan or Cheraman) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by the Maurya emperorAshoka (274–237 BCE).[9] The rock inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra (Sanskrit for "son of Kerala"; or "son of Chera[s]", this is contradictory to a popular theory that etymology derives "Kerala" from "Kera"; coconut tree in Malayalam).[10] At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word.[11] The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to this Keralaputra as Celobotra.[12]

Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part the seas and reveal Kerala.

Dahsavthar stories of Hindu mythology, linked to Kerala by Aryan settlers from north. According to them, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parasurama, 6th avatar of Vishnu, hence Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram ("The Land of Parasurama"). Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari.[13] Consensus among scientific geographers agrees that a substantial portion of this area was under the sea in ancient times.[14] The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. The legend later expanded, and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with Keralolpathi, which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society, such as land tenure and administration, to the story of Parasurama.[15] In medieval times Kuttuvan may have emulated the Parasurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolize his lordship over it.[16]

Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an Asura and a prototypical king of justice, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas, driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to Patala (the netherworld) to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.[17] The Matsya Purana, which is among the oldest of the 18 Puranas,[18][19] uses the Malaya Mountains of Kerala (and Tamil Nadu) as the setting for the story of Lord Matsya, the first incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and King Manu, the first man and the king of the region.[20][21]

Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area in Idukki district. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).[22] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 6000 BCE.[23][24] Archaeological studies have identified many Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala.[25] The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.[26] Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;[27] historians suggest possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[28]

Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).

Kerala was a major spice exporter from as early as 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records.[29] Kerala, known for its spices, attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Arabs and Phoenicians also established their prominence in the Kerala trade during this early period.[30] The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra.[31] Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras, the first dominant dynasty based on Kerala.[32][33] These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as Tamilakam.[34] While the Cheras ruled the major part of modern Kerala, its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas,[35] which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi).[36] At later times the region fell under the control of the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. Ays and Mushikas were two other remarkable dynasties of ancient Kerala, whose kingdoms lay to the south and north of Cheras respectively.[37][38]

In the last centuries BCE the coast became prominent among the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially black pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In the foreign-trade circles the region was identified by the name Male or Malabar.[39]Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time.[40] The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces;[41] contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala have been Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the HellenisticPtolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Various Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.[42][43]

Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[44] Jewish connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE.[45][46][47] Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, started before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.[40] They intermarried with local people, resulting in formation of the Muslim Mappila community.[48] In the 4th century, some Christians also immigrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[49][50]Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas.[51][52] According to the legends of these communities, the earliest churches,[53]mosque,[54] and synagogue (1568 CE)[55] in India were built in Kerala.[48]

A Second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram, was established by Kulasekhara Varman, which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagerkovil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.[56][57] During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.[58] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period.[59] For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.[58]

The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land.[60] The social system became fractured with internal divisions on the lines of caste.[61] Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.[56] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into thirty small warring principalities; most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle. Later in the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all kingdoms up to Northern Kerala through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal, Malabar came under direct British rule until the Independence of India.[62][63]

This figure illustrates the path of Vasco da Gama heading for the first time to India (black line)

The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, became an influential activity for European traders.[64] Around the 15th century, the Portuguese began to dominate the eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival in KappadKozhikode in 1498.[65][66][67] The Zamorin of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and King of Kochi and allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses in Malabar coast.[68] However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from the attacks of Zamorin forces; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. In 1571, Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam fort.[69]

The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who during the conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi, gained control of the trade.[70] The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741.[71] An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.[72][73][74]Marthanda Varma annexed many northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala.[75]

The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[92] Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi)[93] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 km (22–75 miles).[94] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[95] The state is located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent and lies near the centre of the Indiantectonic plate; hence, it is subject to comparatively low seismic and volcanic activity.[96]Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[97][98] A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbor for spice transport.[99] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow.[95] 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[100] and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[101][102] The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks.[103] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level,[104] while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 m (8200 ft).[105]Anamudi, the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft).[106]

With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[115]:80 Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.[116] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[116] Southwest monsoon; The moisture-laden winds, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, it divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[117] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats in the state,[118] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[119][120] Northeast monsoon: The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed during this season and the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it in the east coast of peninsular India.[121][122] In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[123] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.[124] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During summer, the state is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[125]:26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[126] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[125]:65

The state's 14 districts are distributed among Kerala's six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 75 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,453 revenue villages.[135] Consequent to the 73rd and 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India, the local self-government institutions are to function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 978 Grama Panchayats, 60 Municipalities, six Corporations and one Township.[136]Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry,[137] though 647 kilometres (402 mi) remote from it,[138] is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides and Kozhikode District from one side.[139]

Legislature: The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies.[146] The state elects 20 and nine members for representation in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha respectively.[147]

The local self-government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction.[156] With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in the year 1994, the state implemented various reforms in the local self-governance.[157] Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local-government with Gram panchayat, Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming a hierarchy.[158] The acts ensure clear demarcation of power among these institutions.[156] However, Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed at par with Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation.[159] As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40 per cent of the state plan outlay to the local government.[160]

Kerala's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Gulf states, and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[166] In 2008, the Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who sent home annually a sum of US$6.81 billion, which is the highest among Indian states and more than 15.13% of remittance to India in 2008.[167] In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: $11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the $71 billion remittances to the country.[168] However, a study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested the state to look for other reliable sources instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[169]

The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking and insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.22% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.73%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.05%.[170][171] Nearly half of Kerala's people depend on agriculture alone for income.[172] Around 600 varieties[129]:5 of rice which are Kerala's most used staple food and cereal crop[173]:5 are harvested from 3105.21 km2; a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990.[173]:5 688,859 tonne paddy are also produced per year.[174] Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production,[175]:13 or 57,000 tonnes,[175]:6–7) rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[176]

Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people.[177] Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859-60.[178] The Central Coir Research Institute was also established in 1959 in Alleppy. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are 1,468,104 micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing 3,031,272 people.[179][180] The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.[181] A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[174] Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, home gardens, animal husbandry and business process outsourcing. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[182] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[183] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[184] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labor participation rate of only 13.5%,[185]:5, 13 as is the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[186] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[187]

The state's budget of 2012–2013 was ₹ 481.42 billion.[194] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹ 217.22 billion in 2010–2011; up from ₹ 176.25 billion in 2009–2010. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 19,308 million in 2010–2011.[194] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[195] A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion (₹ 20 billion).[196] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners in two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[197]

Agriculture in Kerala has passed through many phases. The major change occurred in the 1970s when production of rice reduced due to increased availability of rice supply all over India and decreased availability of labour supply.[198] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[199][200] Profitability of crops reduced due to shortage of farm labour, the high price of land and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[201]

Though the contribution of agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012-13, under the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.03% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the current fiscal (2013–14), the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.75%. The total growth of farm sector has recorded a 4.39% increase in 2012-13, over a paltry 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal. The primary sector comprising agriculture has a share of 9.34% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors has contributed 23.94% and 66.72% respectively.[217]

Ill-effects due to the usage of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides has gradually contributed to preferences for organic products and home farming, and as a result the Kerala government plans to shift to fully organic cultivation by 2016.[218][219]

With 590 km of coastal belt,[220] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[221] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[222] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[223] According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04.[224] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from the state.[225] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishery industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara.[226][227] The fish landings consist of a large variety: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.[225]

In 2015, the central government selected the following cities of Kerala state for a comprehensive development program called the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT):[228] Kochi, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Thrissur, Thiruvananthapuram, Kannur, Kollam, Cherathala, Kayamkulam, Kottayam, Palakkad, Alappuzha, Ottappalam, Kanhangad, Kasaragod, Changanassery, Chalakkudi and Kothamangalam.[citation needed]

KSRTC is the major agency providing long-haul public bus service in South Kerala.

Kerala has 145,704 kilometres (90,536 mi) of roads; it accounts for 4.2% of India's total. This translates to about 4.62 kilometres (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an average of 2.59 kilometres (1.61 mi) in the country. Roads in Kerala include 1,524 km of national highway; it is 2.6% of the nation's total, 4341.6 km of state highway and 18900 km of district roads.[229] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways: NH 47 and NH 17, and the eastern side is accessible through various state highways.[230] There is also a hill highway proposed, to make easy access to eastern hills.[231]National Highway 17 with the longest stretch of 421 km connects Edapally to Panvel; it starts from Kochi and passes through Kozhikode, Kannur, Kanhangad, Kasaragod and Uppala before entering Karnataka.[230] District Palakkad is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap, in the Western Ghats, which connects the Northern (Malabar) and Southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala to rest of India via road and rail. It has the state's largest check post Walayar through which all the major public and commercial transportation happens, to reach all other districts of Kerala.[232]

The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.[233] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala; it also oversees a few major district roads.[234][235] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[236] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 meters wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 meters wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access-controlled expressways.[237][238] NHAI has threatened the kerala state government that it will give high priority to other states in highway development as political commitment to the better highways has been lacking from the government,[239] although State had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the State's NHs.[240]

Kerala has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels.[200] There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1,687 kilometres (1,048 mi).[249] The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.[200] A 205 kilometres (127 mi) long canal, National Waterway 3, runs between Kottapuram and Kollam.[250]

Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population; at 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 370 persons per km2.[255] As of 2011, Kochi is the most populous city in Kerala.[256] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.64%.[255] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[255] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population density of coastal districts being 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[257] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[258] State's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[259]:10–12Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language.[260]Tamil, Kannada, Tulu, Hindi, Bengali, Mahl and various Adivasi (tribal) languages are also spoken.[261][262][263][264][265] As of early 2013, there are close to 2.5 million (7.5% of state population) migrant workers from other states of India in Kerala.[266]

There are a number of possible explanations for the position of women in Kerala. The primary reason was the democratic rise of the Communist Party of India in the state, culminating in the chief ministership of EMS Namboodiripad. His government helped to distribute land and implement education reforms.[301] Another reason is the tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household. As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[303] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate, which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations of both boys and girls. Low birth rate and high literacy rate are often the twin hallmarks of the healthy advancement of a society.[citation needed]

While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. Women who break the rules are often looked down on. Kerala is a state in flux where, despite the social progress made so far, gender still influences social mobility.[304][305][306]

As of 2014, Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.790[3] which comes under the "high" category and it is the highest in the country.[3] Comparatively higher spending of the government in primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty from the 19th century onward has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[307][308] report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[309][310] However, the Human Development Report, 2005 prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[307]

According to a 2005–2006 national survey and the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate among Indian states.[311][312] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011.[313] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[314] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[187] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[315][316] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[125][164]:48 The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[317] Third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in the list of "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facility.[318]Ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[319]:13siddha, and many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation with practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[320] These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[319]:5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments.[319]:15

Kerala has undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[165]:1 as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60,[164] and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1,000.[321] In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (TFR) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians; 1.78, and Muslims; 2.97.[322] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states; estimated from 12[125][321]:49 to 14[323]:5 deaths per 1,000 live births. According to Human Development Report 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was reported to be 597; higher than any other state of India. Many factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable female-to-male ratio, had contributed to it.[324] Kerala's female-to-male ratio of 1.058 is higher than that of the rest of India.[165]:2 The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International (2005)[325] and India Today (1997)[326]

The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.

Hardware training for students given by "IT@SCHOOL" project

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts including results—series expansion for trigonometric functions.[330][331] Following the instructions of the Wood's despatch of 1854, both the princely states, Travancore and Cochin, launched mass education drives with the support from different agencies mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives.[332] The efforts by leaders, Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru and Ayyankali, towards the socially discriminated castes in the state, with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and different congregations of Christian churches, led to development in the mass education of Kerala.[332]

In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as a completely literate state, though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%. As of 2007, the net enrollment in elementary education was almost 100 per cent and was almost balanced among different sexes, social groups and regions, unlike other states of India.[333] The state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007.[334] According to the first Economic Census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 km, 98.6% had a middle school within 2 km and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 km.[335] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has 93.91 percent literacy with the national literacy rate being 74.04 percent.[312]

The educational system prevailing in the state schooling is for 10 years, which are streamlined into lower primary, upper primary and secondary school stages with a 4+3+3 pattern.[333] After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce or science.[336] Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under-graduate (UG) programmes. The majority of the public schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board. Other familiar educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer English or Malayalam.[336] Though the education cost is generally considered low in Kerala,[337] according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households in Kerala was reported to be ₹ 41 for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in the household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.[338]

The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it's an integral part of Indian culture.[8] It has been elaborated through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[339] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[8] There are around 10,000 festivals celebrated in the state.[340] The Malayalam calendar, a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[341] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[342]

Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala, India. It is also the state festival of Kerala with State holidays on 4 days starting from Onam Eve (Uthradom) to the 4th Onam Day. Onam Festival falls during the Malayalam month of Chingam (Aug–Sep) and marks the commemoration of Vamana avatara of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of King Mahabali. Onam is reminiscent of Kerala's agrarian past, as it is considered to be a harvest festival.

The festival falls during the Malayalam month of Chingam (Aug–Sep) and marks the homecoming of the mythical King Mahabali who Malayalees consider as their King. It is one of the festivals celebrated with most number of cultural elements. Some of them are Vallam Kali, Pulikkali, Pookkalam, Onatthappan, Thumbi Thullal, Onavillu, Kazhchakkula, Onapottan, Atthachamayam etc.

Kerala has a large number of Hindu temples. Many of the temples have unique traditions and most hold festivals on specific days of the year. Temple festivals usually continue for a number of days. A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is then brought down only on the final day of the festival. Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol of the God in the temple is taken out on a procession around the country side atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to the God. Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam.

Development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[348] Development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[348]Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[339] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances.[349]Melam; including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music:[350] it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.[350] Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.[348] Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.[351]

Kerala cuisine has a multitude of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.[379] Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.[380] Breakfast dishes are frequently based on the rice preparations idli, puttu, Idiyappam, or pulse-based vada or tapioca.[381] These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payarpappadam, Appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.[206] Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar.[382]Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, that is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.[383] Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, unniyappam and kuzhalappam.[384][385][386] Sea food specialities include karimeen, prawn, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[387] Kerala is one of the few places in India where there is no communal distinction between the different food types. People of all religions share the same vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes.

Elephants have been an integral part of culture of the state. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephant in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals.[388] These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. About 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants.[340] In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the 'sons of the sahya.[389] The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.[135]

By 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, Kilithattukali etc.[401] However, Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", as an exception was practised as indigenous martial sport.[402] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.[401]

Its culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. National Geographic's Traveller magazine names Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[411][412] and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[413]Travel and Leisure names Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[411][414][415] In 2012, it overtook Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.[416] Kerala's beaches, backwaters, mountain ranges and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[417][418]

Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination to other states of the country.[419] In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism as an industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[420] Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.[421] Many advertisements branded Kerala with a catchy tagline Kerala, God's Own Country.[421] Today, Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[421] In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.[422] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[423]

Ayurvedic tourism became very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of Tourism Department.[419] Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives and in this segment it promotes mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major products.[424] As of 2005, the state's tourism industry was a major contributor to the state's economy, which is currently growing at a rate of 13.31%.[425] The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the ₹ 190 billion mark in 2011. Moreover, the industry provides employment opportunity to approximately 1.2 million people.[423]

^Hunter, William Wilson; James Sutherland Cotton; Richard Burn; William Stevenson Meyer; Great Britain India Office (1909). The Imperial Gazetteer of India11. Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2015.

^SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010. Small Industries Development Bank of India. 2010.

^N. Rajeevan (March 2012). "A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario". International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management2 (3).

^Kumar KG (8 October 2007). "Jobless no more?". Business Line. Retrieved 16 November 2012. A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007.

^Roy, Ranjan (1990). "Discovery of the Series Formula for by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha". Mathematics Magazine (Mathematical Association of America) 63 (5): 291–306.

^Pingree, David (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science", Isis83 (4): 554–563, doi:10.1086/356288, JSTOR234257, One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read any more the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus; but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.