1.
1842 in Norway
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Porsgrunn was granted full city status. Limited city status was granted in 1807, the Norwegian Missionary Society was founded in Stavanger. The eleventh Storting convened, following the 1841 election, ivar Aasen commenced his research on rural dialects all across Norway 16 March – Theodor Nilsen Stousland, politician. Dvergsdal, politician 16 March - Maurits Hansen, writer Henrik Anker Bjerregaard, poet, dramatist and judge

2.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him

3.
Oscar I of Sweden
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Oscar I was King of Sweden and Norway from 1844 to his death. Oscar was the son of French marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte and his wife. As Charles XIII & II of Sweden was without heirs, his father was elected Crown Prince of Sweden in 1810, Oscar and his mother moved from Paris to Stockholm where Oscar quickly learned the Swedish language. His mother, however, had difficulty adjusting to the Swedish court and she left Sweden in the summer of 1811 and did not return until 1823. Oscars father eventually succeeded Charles upon his death in 1818 as King Carl XIV John, seeking to legitimise the new dynasty, Oscars father had selected four European princesses as potential brides for his son. Oscar eventually married Josephine of Leuchtenberg in 1823 and had five children with her, during his fathers lifetime Oscar served as viceroy of Norway twice, in 1824 and 1833. Oscar was more liberal compared to his father and took progressive views on education, freedom of the press and he succeeded his father upon his death in 1844 and continued with his reform plans. Among these reforms was the inheritance rights for men and women. He also broke with his fathers foreign policy. Later, he introduced new flags and symbols for Sweden and Norway in an effort to show equality between his two kingdoms, in the 1850s, his health began to rapidly deteriorate, By September 1857, Oscar was paralyzed and his eldest son Carl was declared Regent. He was named Joseph after his godfather Joseph Bonaparte who was married to his mothers sister, Julie Clary. The latter name was chosen by Napoleon after one of the heroes in the Ossian cycle of poems, in August 1810, his father Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte was elected Crown Prince of Sweden. Oscar and his mother moved from Paris to Stockholm, Oscars father was the first ruler of the current House of Bernadotte and his mother was Désirée Clary, Napoleon Bonapartes first fiancée. Her sister, Julie Clary, was married to Napoleons brother, Désirée is said to have chosen Napoleon to be Oscars godfather. From King Charles XIII of Sweden, on the day of the adoption of his father, Oscar received the style of Royal Highness. He quickly acquired the Swedish language, on January 17,1816, he was elected an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1818, he was appointed chancellor of Uppsala University, where he spent one semester. In 1832-34 he completed the opera Ryno, the errant knight which had left unfinished on the death of the young composer Eduard Brendler. In 1839 he wrote a series of articles on popular education, twice during his fathers lifetime he was viceroy of Norway

4.
Skutterudite
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Named after the city of Skotterud, Norway, Skutterudite is a cobalt arsenide mineral that has variable amounts of nickel and iron substituting for cobalt with a general formula, CoAs3. Some references give the arsenic a variable formula subscript of 2-3, high nickel varieties are referred to as nickel-skutterudite, previously chloanthite. It is an ore mineral found in moderate to high temperature veins with other Ni-Co minerals. Associated minerals are arsenopyrite, native silver, erythrite, annabergite, nickeline, cobaltite, silver sulfosalts, native bismuth, calcite, siderite, barite and it is mined as an ore of cobalt and nickel with a by-product of arsenic. The crystal structure of this mineral has been found to have important technological uses for several compounds isostructural with the mineral, the mineral has a bright metallic luster, and is tin white or light steel gray in color with a black streak. The specific gravity is 6.5 and the hardness is 5. 5–6 and its crystal structure is isometric with cube and octahedron forms similar to that of pyrite. The arsenic content gives a garlic odor when heated or crushed and it was discovered in Skuterud Mines, Modum, Buskerud, Norway, in 1845. Smaltite is a synonym for the mineral, notable occurrences include Cobalt, Ontario, Skuterud, Norway, and Franklin, New Jersey in the United States. The rare arsenide minerals are classified in Danas sulfide mineral group, the crystal structure of the skutterudite mineral was determined in 1928 by Oftedahl to be cubic, belonging to space group Im-3. The unit cell can be considered to consist of eight smaller cubes made up of the Co atoms, six of these cubes are filled with square planar rings of As, each of which is oriented parallel to one of the unit cell edges. The As atoms then form octahedra with Co in the centre, in crystallographic terms, the Co atoms occupy the 8c sites, while the As atoms occupy the 24g sites. The position of the Co atoms within the cell is fixed. It has been shown that for the As-rings to be fully square, materials with a Skutterudite structure are studied as a low cost thermoelectric material with low thermal conductivity. Structural data for arsenides and antimonides, acta Chemica Scandinavica Series A28, 99-1031974

5.
Nickel
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Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the metals and is hard and ductile. Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earths inner core, use of nickel has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as an element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt. The elements name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel, an economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickels other important ore minerals include garnierite, and pentlandite, major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada, New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk in Russia. Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant, historically, it has been used for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, such as German silver. About 6% of world production is still used for corrosion-resistant pure-nickel plating. Nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy, Nickel has been widely used in coins, though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years. Nickel is one of four elements that are ferromagnetic around room temperature, alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys, about 60% of world production is used in nickel-steels, other common alloys and some new superalloys comprise most of the remainder of world nickel use, with chemical uses for nickel compounds consuming less than 3% of production. As a compound, nickel has a number of chemical manufacturing uses. Nickel is a nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site. Nickel is a metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. Its Curie temperature is 355 °C, meaning that bulk nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature, the unit cell of nickel is a face-centered cube with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm, giving an atomic radius of 0.124 nm

6.
Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively

7.
Modum
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Modum is a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Vikersund, the municipality of Modum was established on 1 January 1838. The area has a tradition of skiing with several famous skiers. Modum is home to one of the largest ski jumping hills in the world, the hill record, established in 2011 is an amazing jump of 246.5 metres. The municipality is named after the old Modum farm, since the first church was built here, the first element is móða which means river and the last element is heimr which means home, homestead, or farm. The name of the farm was changed to Buskerud. The coat-of-arms is from modern times and they were granted on 15 March 1985. The arms show three wavy silver lines “party per bend sinister” on a blue background and they represent the three main rivers in the municipality, Drammenselva, Snarumselva, and Simoa and the colour blue represents Blaafarveværket. The municipality is bordered in the north by Krødsherad and Ringerike, in the east by Hole and Lier, in the south by Øvre Eiker, the municipality has three main villages, Åmot, Geithus, and the municipality administrative center of Vikersund. Åmot is the point for the Kunstnerdal. Here is where the Blaafarveværket is located and that includes a cobalt museum, art institutions, and a children’s barn yard. Hanson, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly Nils P. no

8.
Buskerud
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Buskerud is a county in Norway, bordering Akershus, Oslo, Oppland, Sogn og Fjordane, Hordaland, Telemark and Vestfold. The county extends from the Oslofjord and Drammensfjorden in the southeast to Hardangervidda mountain range in the northwest, the county administration is located in Drammen. The county is named after the old manor Buskerud located on the west side of the Drammen River in Åmot, the first element is the genitive case of biskup, bishop, the last element is ruð n clearing, farm. The farm was one of the largest in Buskerud, and the name of the farm was probably Modum. At the time of the Reformation the farm property of the Crown at which time the farm then served as the residence of the kings bailiffs until 1668. Buskerud extends from Hurum at the Oslofjord to the Halling mountains, the county is conventionally divided into traditional districts. These are Hallingdal, Numedal, Ringerike, Lower Buskerud, which was part of Vestfold. Hallingdal consists of Flå, Nes, Gol, Hemsedal, Ål, Numedal consists of Flesberg, Rollag and Nore og Uvdal. Ringerike consists of Hole, Krødsherad, Modum, Ringerike and Sigdal, Western Vingulmark consists of Hurum and Røyken. Lower Buskerud consists of Drammen, Hurum, Kongsberg, Lier, Nedre Eiker, Røyken, the district is merged from parts that belonged to Vestfold and Vingulmark. Buskeruds western part is a plateau with forested valleys and high, grassy pastures, its eastern part contains a lowland basin with many lakes. Tyrifjorden and Krøderen are the biggest lakes, numedalslågen, the third longest river in Norway, starting in Hordaland, runs through Buskerud unto Vestfold where it reaches the sea, while river Begna sweeps into lake Sperillen. Buskerud was separated from Akershus as an amt of its own in 1685 and it then consisted of the present districts Eiker, Hallingdal, and Ringerike. The area of the present municipalities of Flesberg, Hurum, Kongsberg, Lier, Nore og Uvdal, Rollag, the name Buskeruds amt was changed to Buskerud fylke in 1919. The municipality of Skoger was transferred from Vestfold to Buskerud in 1964, the area Ringerike may once have been a small kingdom. During the 10th century, Norways kings Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson grew up at Bønsnes in Ringerike, in the valley of Numedal, silver has been mined in Kongsberg from the 17th century until discontinued in 1957. Weapons industry had developed in Kongsberg from 1814, and various high tech industry companies now represent the towns major employers. At Modum there was also Blaafarveværket, a cobalt pigment production works, today, agriculture, lumber, wood-pulp mills and other related industries are the countys main economic activities, ample hydroelectric power is produced by the rivers Begna and Rands

9.
Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions

10.
Erika Nissen
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Erika Nissen, née Lie, also known as Erika Røring Møinichen Lie Nissen, was a Norwegian pianist. She was born in Kongsvinger as the daughter of jurist Michael Strøm Lie and she was the sister of Thomasine Lie, who married Jonas Lie. She was the niece of Erik Røring Møinichen, her mothers brother and she made her concert debut in 1866 in Berlin, and played in Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Paris. She retired at the end of the 1870s to work as a music teacher, in 1894 she was granted an artists scholarship by the Norwegian state. She was engaged to Rikard Nordraak for a short time, in 1874 she married politician Oscar Nissen. Their marriage was dissolved in February 1895, after years of unhappy marriage. From 1892 to 1894 she had an affair with Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson

11.
Jakob Sverdrup (politician)
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Jakob Liv Rosted Sverdrup was a Norwegian bishop and politician. He served five terms in the Norwegian Parliament between 1877 and 1898, and was a member on several occasions. Originally a member of the Liberal Party, he joined the Moderate Liberal Party. He has been referred to as one of the most controversial figures in modern Norwegian history, Sverdrup, born in Christiania, was the first of Harald Ulrik Sverdrup and Caroline Suurs eight children, one of five sons. Raised in Balestrand in the county of Nordre Bergenhus Amt, his father was a prominent local figure in ecclesiastical and political affairs, as a priest, mayor, Johan Sverdrup, his uncle, was Prime Minister of Norway from 1884 to 1889. Jakob Sverdrup was close to his brother Georg Sverdrup, who emigrated to the United States in 1874 and his youngest brother Edvard Sverdrup became a professor of the MF Norwegian School of Theology in Oslo. Jakob Sverdrup fathered the academics Jakob Sverdrup, Jr. and Georg Johan Sverdrup and his daughter Aslaug Sverdrup took the doctors degree too, and was married to biologist Iacob Dybwad Sømme from January 1930 to 1942. Sverdrup enrolled as a student, and graduated with the cand. theol, inspired by Grundtvigianism, he founded a folk high school in Sogndal in 1871. In 1878 Jakob Sverdrup left Sogndal to become vicar in Leikanger, as a theologian, Sverdrup was a pietist, and sided with the laity movement, proposing that lay priests be given the right to preach. Together with Ole Vollan he had started the magazine Ny Luthersk Kirketidende in 1877, Sverdrup was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1877, representing the constituency of Nordre Bergenhus Amt. He was re-elected in 1880 and 1883, and joined the newly established Liberal Party, of which his uncle Johan was the founder, when the Liberal cabinet Sverdrup took over in 1884, Jakob Sverdrup was a candidate for the position as Minister of Education and Church Affairs. However, due to King Oscar II opposing this, Sverdrup was instead appointed a member of the Council of State Division in Stockholm, however, already on 1 August 1885 Sverdrup was appointed Minister of Church Affairs, replacing Elias Blix. He held this position for a year, but had become embroiled in controversy. In June 1885 the Norwegian Parliament had voted over whether to grant a pension to the novelist Alexander Kielland. A Christian conservative wing of the Liberal Party, informally spearheaded by Lars Oftedal, Kielland was seen as undermining Christian authority and morale in general. The decision was lambasted by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, who sent a similar application the next year. A commentator in the liberal newspaper Verdens Gang stated that Jakob Sverdrup was the mastermind of his uncles cabinet. Talks of Moderate and True Liberals had surfaced already ahead of the 1885 election, however, the controversy continued to grow, and in 1888 the cabinet members Hans Rasmus Astrup, Birger Kildal, Sofus Anton Birger Arctander and Elias Blix withdrew from their positions in protest

12.
Christian Holtermann Knudsen
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Christian Holtermann Knudsen was a Norwegian typographer, newspaper editor, publisher, trade unionist and politician for the Norwegian Labour Party. He is known as chairman of his party in three periods, and also founded what would become the main party newspaper. He served three terms in the Norwegian Parliament and he was born in Bergen as the son of a cooper. He finished an education in 1865, and worked for several printing presses in Kristiania. Most notably he worked for the weekly newspaper Almuevennen, as typographer for six years, in 1872 he was among the co-founders of the trade union Oslo Typografiske Forening. He chaired this organization from 1876 to 1878,1879 to 1882 and 1883 to 1885, in 1884 Knudsen established the newspaper Vort Arbeide, on behalf of the central committee. The first issue was released on 10 May 1884, and led to Knudsen being fired from Almuevennen and he also had to establish his own printing press since none of the existing printing presses wanted to be affiliated with a labourers newspaper. The fledgling project was marred by problems, and the burden of both writing, editing and printing lay chiefly on Knudsen. In 1885 he founded the association Socialdemokratisk Forening, which took over the newspaper. The name was changed from Vort Arbeide to Social-Demokraten in 1886, at the same time, Carl Jeppesen took over as editor-in-chief, although Knudsen would return as editor from 1892 to 1893. Knudsen expanded the printing press, and published books, many of which were frowned upon by the establishment. Kristian Stenruds books were controversial, and Hans Jægers book Fra Kristiania-Bohemen, jæger was sentenced to eighty days in jail, appealed to the Supreme Court and had it reduced to sixty days. Jægers defender, Ludvig Meyer, later became both editor-in-chief of Social-Demokraten and leader of the Labour Party, Knudsen also received a jail sentence, of eleven days, for publishing a piece about contraception in Social-Demokraten in 1887. Nonetheless, Knudsen became the official stamp printer in 1895, Knudsen, inspired by German theories, argued that socialism the only means to help the working estate. He became a co-founder of the Norwegian Labour Party in August 1887 in Arendal, like the trade unions, the early Labour Party contained both socialist and non-socialist elements. The most important political demand was universal suffrage, Knudsen was a member of the central committee from the beginning, and then became party leader from 1889 to 1890 and 1900 to 1903. From 1899 to 1926 he was a member of Kristiania city council and he was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1906, representing the constituency of Grünerløkken, and was re-elected in 1909 and 1912. For the first two terms he was the leader of the party group

13.
Ragna Nielsen
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Ragna Vilhelmine Nielsen was a Norwegian pedagogue, school headmistress, publicist, organizer, politician and feminist. Ragna Nielsen was born in Christiania as the daughter of Jørgen Axel Nicolai Ullmann and his wife, pedagogist, publicist, literary critic and she married Ludvig Nielsen in 1879, and settled with her husband in Tromsø. The couple was separated in 1884, when she moved back to Kristiania and she was the sister of politician Viggo Ullmann. As a child Ragna attended her mothers school for girls, from 1862, she received an assignment at Nissens school, where she taught until 1879. She was a teacher in Tromsø until 1884 and she established the school Fru Nielsens Latin- og Realskole in Kristiania in 1885. It was started as a school, but soon became a common school for both girls and boys. She was the first headmistress of a school in Norway. She chaired the Norwegian Association for Womens Rights for two periods, from 1886 to 1888, and from 1889 to 1895 and she was elected to the Kristiania City Council from 1901 to 1904. She co-founed the language organization Riksmålsforeningen in 1907, and chaired the organization from 1909 to 1910 and she was engaged in the spiritualism movement and a co-founder of Norsk Selskap for Psykisk Forskning in 1917. She co-founded the womens magazine Norske Kvinder i 1921, among her books are Norske kvinder i det 19de aarhundrede from 1904, Fra de smaa følelsers tid from 1907, and Sisyphos og de politiske partier from 1922

14.
Edvard Liljedahl
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Edvard Appoloniussen Liljedahl was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party. He was a member of the Council of State Division in Stockholm in 1889, Liljedahl died on October 10,1924 in Vik and is buried there. Edvard liljedahl received his degree from the Balestrand Teachers School in 1864 and he was a teacher and a church choir singer in Kirkebø from 1867 until 1889. He was a member of the cabinet in Stockholm from March 6,1889 until July 13,1889 and he became a postmaster in Aalesund in 1891 and then Bergen in 1901. He retired in 1904 and moved to his property Røitehola in Kirkebø and he had cleared the land himself during his parish clerk and member of parliament days, and had rented it out when he lived in Ålesund and Bergen. On a visit to Vik he purchased the Havnen farm from hotel owner Hopstock and he sold the Røitehola property to a quartermaster sergeant Mo. In Havnen there was only a barn and a cow barn plus a bathhouse when he took over the property. He had to build a farmhouse, cow barn, and a stall, Edvard cultivated more land in Havnen and planted a large number of fruit trees of which about half were pear and the rest apple and cherry trees. These trees became an important source of income in Havnen, in addition to Røitehola which had been cleared and planted with fruit trees, he also had another farm in Østrem which he sold, and owned another farm farther out in Sogn. In 1904 after his days were over, he went back to Kirkebø to live in Røitehola. After his employment as postmaster in Ålesund he purchased the Vågenes farm in Borgund but quickly sold it to his brother-in-law Magnus Ramslie and he then purchased the Spjelkavik farm, which was a large farm with several cottages, many forests, and mountain water. It ended up being too large and expensive to operate when he lived in Ålesund, so he sold it after a few years, contributing to his different farm purchases was his interest in fresh water fishing and hunting. He started fisheries in many lakes in Sogn and also in the large lake Uldalsvatn in Kirkebø and he also founded the Spjelkavik yarn and fish net factory, which grew to be a large a concern which contributed to the construction of many buildings and homes in the area. In Kirkebø he was a spokesman for many years, a member of the board for 14 years. He was a commissioner for 18 years. He was a member of Borgunds town council and Ålesunds city council and he was also a member of the school board in 1884 and the clergy pay board and enforced the laws in Romsdal county. He was a member of the Norwegian Parliament for the constituency Nordre Bergenhus amt from 1870–91, for Ålesund 1895-1905 and he was a member of the Council of State Division in Stockholm in 1889, and Minister of Education and Church Affairs in the cabinet Bratlie from 1912 to 1913. In 1868 the Kirkebø district had its first school and it was at the same place where the present one stands

15.
Hans Hein Theodor Nysom
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Hans Hein Theodor Nysom was a Norwegian politician with the Liberal Party, a cabinet minister and member of Norwegian Parliament. Nysom was born at Botne in Vestfold, Norway and he was a grandchild of priest and politician Hans Hein Nysom. He originally made a career in the military, but from 1874 he worked with canals, from 1884 to 1892 he was the chairman of the Norwegian Polytechnic Society. In 1891, he was appointed to the cabinet of Prime Minister Johannes Steens and he served as Minister of Auditing and Minister of Labour on 6 March 1891. On 27 November the same year he left the position as Minister of Auditing and he left the Ministry of Labour on 1 May 1893. He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1895, representing the constituency of Kristiania, on 17 February 1898 he became a member of the Council of State Division in Stockholm. He left on 28 February 1899 to become Minister of Labour, on 1 June 1900 he was again transferred to Stockholm, serving until November 1900. He then became Director-General of the Norwegian State Railways, handbog i norsk flødningsvæsen, with Axel Borchrevink and Gunnar Sætren

16.
Tinius Olsen
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Tinius Olsen was a Norwegian-born American engineer and inventor. He was the founder of the Tinius Olsen Material Testing Machine Company and he was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of The Franklin Institute in 1891 for his autographic testing machine. Tinius Olsen was born in Kongsberg, in the county of Buskerud and he was one of eight children of Ole Thorstensen and Helene Marie Hansdatter. His father and grandfather were makers of wooden gun stocks, Olsen graduated from the Horten Technical School in 1866. In 1874 he married swedish-born Charlotte Yhlen, Olsen first became the foreman of the machine department at a large naval machine shop. Olsen subsequently immigrated to the United States during 1869, starting in August 1869, Tinius worked as a designer for William Sellers & Co. He was later employed by the firm of Riehlé Brothers, scale, as the firm’s superintendent, Olsen was the principal designer of Riehl’s testing machines during the 1870s. In 1880, he submitted a patent application for a testing machine. Called the Little Giant it was presented to industrial expositions in Cincinnati and Atlanta during 1881, in 1891, Olsen was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal by the Franklin Institute for his invention. The Little Giant was a model which could accurately perform tension, transversality. The device was relatively cheap, compact, and simple to operate, forces were applied to a test specimen from both above and below. Upper and lower loading cross heads contained grips which held the specimen and crushed it, in 1880, Olsen started the Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Company to produce the device. Olsen was awarded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1907, Olsen retired from the company in 1929 and died during 1933 in Philadelphia. Olsen remembered his origin with gifts to his land including awards to Horten technical school, the Kongsberg church. Since 1928 his bust by local sculptor Trygve Thorberg has stood in Magasinparken city park in Kongsberg, Tinius Olsens school in Kongsberg was established on August 17,1959. Improvement In Testing Machines – United States Patent #213,586, issue date, Mar 1879 Testing Machine – United States Patent #228,214. Issue Date, June 1,1880 Recording Testing-Machine – United States Patent #445,476, issue date, Jan 27,1891 The company founded in 1880 by Tinius Olsen remains a specialist manufacturer and supplier of static tension and/or compression materials testing machines. The Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Company designs and manufactures testing machines for determining the properties of metals, plastics

17.
Norwegian Americans
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Norwegian Americans comprise Americans with ancestral roots from Norway. Norwegian immigrants went to the United States primarily in the half of the 19th century. There are more than 4.5 million Norwegian Americans according to the most recent U. S. census, Norwegian Americans currently comprise the 10th largest European ancestry group in the United States. Norsemen from Greenland and Iceland were the first Europeans to reach North America, leif Ericson reached North America via Norse settlements in Greenland around the year 1000. Norse settlers from Greenland founded the settlement of LAnse aux Meadows and Point Rosee in Vinland, in what is now Newfoundland and these settlers failed to establish a permanent settlement because of conflicts with indigenous people and within the Norse community. There was a Norwegian presence in New Amsterdam in the part of 17th century. Hans Hansen Bergen, a native of Bergen, Norway, was one of the earliest settlers of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam having immigrated in 1633, another of the first Norwegian settlers was Albert Andriessen Bradt who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1637. Pieter Van Brugh, Mayor of Albany, New York was the grandson of Norwegian immigrants, approximately 60 persons had settled in the Manhattan area before the British take-over in 1664. How many Norwegians that settled in New Netherland is not known, the Netherlands had strong commercial ties with the coastal lumber trade of Norway during the 17th century and many Norwegians immigrated to Amsterdam. Some of them settled in Dutch colonies, although never in large numbers, there were also Norwegian settlers in Pennsylvania in the first half of the 18th century, upstate New York in the latter half of the same century, and in New England during both halves. The earliest immigrants from Norway to America emigrated mostly because of religious motives, as Religious Society of Friends, organized Norwegian immigration to North America began in 1825, when several dozen Norwegians left Stavanger bound for North America on the sloop Restauration under the leadership of Cleng Peerson. To a great extent, this emigration from Norway was borne out of religious persecution, especially for Quakers and a local religious group. The ship landed in New York City, where it was at first impounded for exceeding its passenger limit. After intervention from President John Quincy Adams, the passengers moved on to settle in Kendall, New York with the help of Andreas Stangeland, many of these immigrants moved on from the Kendall Settlement, settling in Illinois and Wisconsin. In July of that year, a group of six dissenting families, seeking a haven from the official Norwegian state church, set sail from Stavanger in an undersized sloop, the Restaurationen. When it arrived in New York harbor after an arduous 14-week journey, the Restaurationen caused a sensation, local Quakers helped the destitute emigrants, who eventually established a community in upstate New York. Today, their descendants are known as sloopers. While about 65 Norwegians emigrated via Sweden and elsewhere in the years, no emigrant ships left Norway for the New World until the 1836 departures of the Den Norske Klippe

18.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators

19.
Invention
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An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention

20.
Sofus Arctander
–
Sofus Anton Birger Arctander was a politician with the Liberal Party of Norway and served as acting Prime Minister of Norway during 1905. Sofus Arctander was born in Christiania, Norway. was the son of Hans Steenbuch Arctander, when he was eight years old, hi family moved to Kristiansand in Vest-Agder. He was a teacher and librarian in Selje and Nordfjordeid. He took his a law degree at the University of Christiania in 1870, Arctander studied economy and philosophy at the University of Lund in 1871. Arctander lived at Hadsel in Nordland and he was deputy judge and then acting district stipendiary magistrate before establishing himself as a lawyer in 1875. In 1880 he became bailiff in Hadsel, in 1877, Arctander was elected deputy Member of the Parliament of Norway for the County of Nordland. From 1880 to 1884 he was a permanent member and he participated actively in the founding of the Liberal Party in 1882. Arctander was re-elected to Parliament for the period 1889-1891 and 1900-1906, Arctander subsequently become mayor of Kristiania 1908-1920. In 1887, he was promoted to Commander with Star of the Order of St. Olav, Arctander also was appointed a Grand Cross of the Order of Dannebrog and a Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star. He was a member and co-founder of the Nordlendingenes Forening. In 1912 he was awarded the Petter Dass Medal, Arctander died in the Lifjell Mountains of Telemark one day in August 1924, the exact date uncertain. He had been missing for days when he was found dead. He was married in 1881 with Maren Sophie Aars, daughter of Jens Ludvig Aars and they were the parents of Signy Arctander. Det norske statsråd 1814-, III Personer 1814-

21.
Ludwig Andreas Olsen
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Ludwig Andreas Olsen, also known as Louis Williams, was a United States Navy sailor and one of only 19 people to ever be awarded two Medals of Honor. Both awards were for peace-time actions rescuing fellow seamen, Olsen was born in Oslo, Norway, in 1845. He joined the Navy from California in 1870, under the name Louis Williams and he eventually achieved the rank of Captain of the Hold, an enlisted position that placed him in charge of keeping order in the ships hold. On 16 March 1883, aboard the screw sloop-of-war USS Lackawanna off Honolulu, Hawaii, Olsen jumped overboard and saved a fellow sailor from drowning. The next year, on 13 June 1884 off the coast of Callao, Peru, for each of these peace-time actions he was awarded a Medal of Honor, Fasseuer also received the medal for the 1884 rescue. Both medals were presented to Olsen on 18 October 1884, making him one of only 19 people to receive two Medals of Honor and one of only 14 people to receive two Medals of Honor for two separate acts. Both medals were awarded under the name he had enlisted with, olsens awards were for peace-time actions, it can be argued that today he would be awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal. Olsen died on 20 February 1886 and is buried in Cypress Hills National Cemetery, Section 6, Grave 12616, in Brooklyn, New York City, first Citation, For jumping overboard from the U. S. S. Lackawanna,16 March 1883, at Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, second Citation, Serving on board the U. S. S. Lackawanna, Williams rescued from drowning William Cruise, who had fallen overboard at Callao, list of Medal of Honor recipients during Peacetime This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History. Claim to Fame, Medal of Honor recipients

22.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress

23.
Medal of Honor
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The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U. S. Congress. There are three versions of the medal, one for the Army, one for the Navy, personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version. U. S. awards including the Medal of Honor do not have titles and while there is no official abbreviation. The Medal of Honor is the oldest continuously issued combat decoration of the United States armed forces, because the medal is presented in the name of Congress, it is often referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor. However, the name is Medal of Honor, which began with the U. S. Armys version. Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the Medal of Honor, in 1990, Congress designated March 25 annually as National Medal of Honor Day. The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army, although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War, the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U. S. 539 Certificates were approved for this period and this medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2,1918. Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross effective March 5,1934. There were no awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican-American War. Scott however, was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition, after Scott retired in October 1861, the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service. Senator James W. Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration, on May 15,1862, the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals with the words Personal Valor on the back from the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia. Senator Henry Wilson, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, the resolution was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12,1862. During the war, Townsend would have some medals delivered to recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the Medal of Honor. By mid-November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son, the Army version had The Congress to written on the back of the medal. Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze, which gave them a reddish tint,1863, Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration. On March 3, Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army, the Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25,1863 in his office. 1890, On April 23, the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington,1896, The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical

24.
Ole Andres Olsen
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Ole Andres Olsen was a Seventh-day Adventist minister and administrator. He was General Conference president from 1888 to 1897, born in Skogen, near Christiania, Norway, Olsen emigrated to the United States to Wisconsin at the age of 5. By the age of 9 his parents had begun to keep the seventh-day Sabbath, from 1876 to 1877 he attended school at Battle Creek College. In 1869 the Wisconsin Conference granted him a ministerial license, on June 2,1873, he was ordained as a minister. The following year he was elected president of the Wisconsin Conference and he served in a variety of administrative posts. At the 1888 General Conference session he was elected General Conference president, Olsen was one of the first individuals to advocate the formation of Union Conferences. After he was not reelected as president he went as a missionary to South Africa. In 1901 he was asked to head the work in Great Britain, Olsen died of a heart attack on January 29,1915. The 1888 General Conference Session elected Olsen as president, however, he was in Europe at the time and did not take on the presidency until May 1889. The 1889 General Conference session, held in October, gave Olsen the opportunity to bring about changes and his opening address set the pace. There should be translation of such literature into German. Establish laborers in Turkey, France, Italy, Austria, Holland, believers in Scandinavia want, and should have, schools established. Australasia, The Australasian Conference needed a manager so the leader, Tenny, could do more editing. Daniells, in New Zealand, needed an assistant, the canvassing work was getting started there and needed to be put on a business footing. South Africa, For South Africa, a Dutch laborer should go back with Wessels to work among the people of that nationality, There should be tracts in the Nguni languages. The United States, The work in the Southern United States needed attention, Olsen believed that canvassing, or book sales, would be the most successful type of work in the early years of the work there. Missions in the big American cities should get special help, the Bible school in Chicago deserved the conferences support. In 1889, three Colleges existed to serve the church, Battle Creek in Michigan, South Lancaster in Massachusetts, careful consideration should be given to a college in the Mid-West

25.
Seventh-day Adventist Church
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The denomination grew out of the Millerite movement in the United States during the mid-19th century and was formally established in 1863. Among its founders was Ellen G. White, whose writings are still held in high regard by the church. Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to common Protestant Christian teachings, such as the Trinity, distinctive teachings include the unconscious state of the dead and the doctrine of an investigative judgment. The church is known for its emphasis on diet and health, its understanding of the person, promotion of religious liberty. The world church is governed by a General Conference, with smaller regions administered by divisions, union conferences and it currently has a worldwide baptized membership of over 20 million people, and 25 million adherents. As of May 2007, it was the twelfth-largest religious body in the world, and it is ethnically and culturally diverse, and maintains a missionary presence in over 200 countries and territories. The church operates schools, hospitals, and publishing houses worldwide, as well as a humanitarian aid organization known as the Adventist Development. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several Adventist groups which arose from the Millerite movement of the 1840s in upstate New York, a phase of the Second Great Awakening. William Miller predicted on the basis of Daniel 8, 14–16, in the summer of 1844, Millerites came to believe that Jesus would return on October 22,1844, understood to be the biblical Day of Atonement for that year. When this did not happen, most of his followers disbanded and returned to their original churches. Hiram Edson and other Millerites came to believe that Millers calculations were correct and these Adventists came to the conviction that Daniel 8,14 foretold Christs entrance into the Most Holy Place of the heavenly sanctuary rather than his Second Coming. As the early Adventist movement consolidated its beliefs, the question of the day of rest. The foremost proponent of Sabbath-keeping among early Adventists was Joseph Bates, Bates was introduced to the Sabbath doctrine through a tract written by Millerite preacher Thomas M. Preble, who in turn had been influenced by Rachel Oakes Preston, a young Seventh Day Baptist. This message was accepted and formed the topic of the first edition of the church publication The Present Truth. They embraced the doctrines of the Sabbath, the heavenly sanctuary interpretation of Daniel 8,14, conditional immortality, among its most prominent figures were Joseph Bates, James White, and Ellen G. White. Ellen White came to occupy a central role, her many visions. The church was established in Battle Creek, Michigan, on May 21,1863. The denominational headquarters were moved from Battle Creek to Takoma Park, Maryland

26.
Helland (fiddle makers)
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The celebrated Norwegian fiddler Ole Bull played on Helland fiddles. During nearly 200 years and four generations the family counted 14 fiddle makers and it may well be the largest fiddle maker family in history. Olav Gunnarson Helland settled in Notodden, Telemark, Norway in 1896 and his fiddles are considered among the finest within the tradition. Knut Gunnarsson Helland and Gunnar Gunnarsson Helland emigrated to US in 1901 and settled in Chippewa Falls and they opened a fiddle workshop, Helland Brothers together. Knut died in 1920 and his brother Gunnar continued the business until 1927, John Gunnarson Helland settled in Skien, Telemark, Norway and ran a workshop and a music shop until his death in 1977. The other fiddle makers continued their work in Bø until the last, note on older Norwegian names, The second name is a patronymic. The third name is a name, derived from the farm where they lived. Jon Eriksson Helland Erik Jonsson Helland Jon Eriksson Helland II Knut Eriksson Helland Gunnhild Eriksdatter Helland married Gunnar Olavsson Helland, Gunnar took family name from the farm he got by marriage Olav Gunnarsson Helland Knut Gunnarsson Helland Gunnar Gunnarsson Helland John Gunnarsson Helland Eilev Jonsson Steintjønndalen. But he gave it up at an age when he left the area. There are still a number of good Hardanger fiddles left by him, the great Hardanger fiddle player Halvor Jøren from Bø brought one, named The Troll, with him to the US, where it disappeared. Bjørn Aksdal, Hardingfela, felemakerne og instrumentets utvikling, ISBN 978-82-519-2402-3 Bø-Soga,1 Kultursoga vol. Bø-Soga,2 farm- and family history, vol. 4», steinar Kyvik, Soga om fela Fonna 1946. Åsmund Nyhammer, Hardingfele i fire slektledd, newspaper article, interview in Bergens Arbeiderblad 5. Asbjørn Storesund, Bøherad, hardingfelas Cremona in Leik og Dans 1988 p. 57-71, Halvard Kaasa, how Norwegian is the hardanger fiddle

27.
Hardanger fiddle
–
A Hardanger fiddle is a traditional stringed instrument used originally to play the music of Norway. In modern designs, this type of fiddle is very similar to the violin, though with eight or nine strings and thinner wood. Four of the strings are strung and played like a violin, while the rest, aptly named understrings or sympathetic strings, the Hardingfele is used mainly in the southwest part of Norway, whereas the ordinary violin is found elsewhere. The Hardingfele is used for dancing, accompanied by rhythmic loud foot stomping and it was also traditional for the fiddler to lead the bridal procession to the church. Sometimes pieces of bone are used to decorate the pegs and the edges of the instrument, the earliest known example of the hardingfele is from 1651, made by Ole Jonsen Jaastad in Hardanger, Norway. Originally, the instrument had a rounder, narrower body, around the year 1850, the modern layout with a body much like the violin became the norm. Specifically, the Hardingfele is a D instrument, meaning that the Hardingfeles written C corresponds to D on a non-transposing instrument, the notes given below for tunings are therefore relative to the Hardingfeles written A, not to a concert A. The understrings are tuned to vibrate according to the main tuning, for example, when the main strings are tuned A-D-A-E, the understrings are tuned B-D-E-F♯-A. The tuning largely depends on the region in which the instrument is being played, in Norway, more than 20 different tunings are recorded. Most hardanger tunes are played in a common tuning, the hardanger fiddle can also be played in low bass, the word bass referring to the lowest string, the normal violin tuning. In certain regions the Gorrolaus tuning is sometimes used, another tuning is called troll tuning. Legend has it that the fiddler learned fanitullen tunes from the devil and this tuning limits the melodic range of the tunes and is therefore sparsely used. The technique of bowing a Hardingfele also differs from that used with a violin and its a smoother, bouncier style of bowing, with a lighter touch. The player usually bows on two of the strings at a time, and sometimes three. This is made easy by the flatness of the bridge. The strings of the fiddle are slimmer than those of the violin, the Hardingfele has had a long history with the Christian church. Well known early fiddle maker Isak Botnen is said to have learned some of his craft from church lay leader and school master Lars Klark, as well as the methods for varnishing from pastor Dedrik Muus. In many folktales the devil is associated with the Hardingfele, in many good players were said to have been taught to play by the devil

28.
Henrik Wergeland
–
Henrik Arnold Thaulow Wergeland was a Norwegian writer, most celebrated for his poetry but also a prolific playwright, polemicist, historian, and linguist. He is often described as a pioneer in the development of a distinctly Norwegian literary heritage. Though Wergeland only lived to be 37, his range of pursuits covered literature, theology, history, contemporary politics, social issues and his views were controversial in his time, and his literary style was variously denounced as subversive. He was the oldest son of Nicolai Wergeland, who had been a member of the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814, the father was himself pastor of Eidsvold and the poet was thus brought up in the very holy of holies of Norwegian patriotism. Wergelands younger sister was Camilla Collett and younger brother major general Joseph Frantz Oscar Wergeland, Henrik Wergeland entered The Royal Frederick University in 1825 to study for the church and graduated in 1829. That year, he became a symbol of the fight for celebration of the constitution at 17 May and he became a public hero after the infamous battle of the Square in Christiania, which came to pass because any celebration of the national day was forbidden by royal decree. Wergeland was, of course, present and became renowned for standing up against the local governors, later, he became the first to give a public address on behalf of the day and thus he was given credit as the one who initiated the day. His grave and statues are decorated by students and school children every year, notably, the Jewish community of Oslo pays their respects at his grave on 17 May, in appreciation of his efforts to allow Jews into Norway. In 1829 he published a volume of lyrical and patriotic poems, Digte, første Ring, in this book we find his ideal love, the heavenly Stella, which can be described as a Wergeland equivalent to Beatrice in Dantes poem Divina Commedia. Stella is in fact based on four girls, whom Wergeland fell in love with, the character of Stella also inspired him to endeavour on the great epic Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias. It was remodeled in 1845 as Mennesket, in these works, Wergeland shows the history of Man and Gods plan for humanity. The works are clearly platonic-romantic, and is based on ideals from the enlightenment. Thus, he criticizes abuse of power, and notably evil priests, in the end, his credo goes like this, Heaven shall no more be split after the quadrants of altars, the earth no more be sundered and plundered by tyrants sceptres. Bloodstained crowns, executioners steel torches of thralldom and pyres of sacrifice no more shall gleam over earth, the spirits of the earth now glow in freshened hearts. Freedom is the heart of the spirit, Truth the spirits desire, earthly spirits all to the soil will fall to the eternal call, Each in own brow wears his heavenly throne. Each in own heart wears his altar and sacrificial vessel, lords are all on earth, priests are all for God. At the age of twenty-one he became a power in literature, meanwhile, he was tireless in his efforts to advance the national cause. He established popular libraries, and tried to alleviate the poverty of the Norwegian peasantry

29.
Henrik Steffens
–
Henrik Steffens, was a Norwegian-born Danish philosopher, scientist, and poet. He was born at Stavanger, Norway, at the age of fourteen he went with his parents to Copenhagen, where he studied theology and natural science. In 1796 he lectured at the University of Kiel, and two later went to the University of Jena to study the natural philosophy of Friedrich Schelling. He went to Freiberg in 1800, and there came under the influence of Abraham Gottlob Werner and these lectures were a great success and a source of inspiration in Danish romanticism. They were attended by many who became leading Danish thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger. Despite – or perhaps because of – the deep impact made by his lectures and he moved back to Germany and took up a professorship at the University of Halle in 1804, to return to Denmark only occasionally. During the Battle of Leipzig he enlisted in the Prussian Army as a second lieutenant and he was professor of physics at Breslau from 1811 until 1832, when he accepted an invitation to Berlin. Steffens was one of the so-called Philosophers of Nature, a friend and adherent of Schelling, more than either of these two thinkers he was acquainted with the discoveries of modern science, and was thus able to correct or modify the highly imaginative speculations of Schelling. He held that, throughout the scheme of nature and intellectual life, as organisms rise higher in the scale of development, the sharper and more distinct become their outlines, the more definite their individualities. This principle he endeavoured to deduce from his knowledge of geology, in contrast to Lorenz Oken and his influence was considerable, and both Schelling and Schleiermacher modified their theories in deference to his scientific deductions. See Tietzen, Zur Erinnerung an Steffens, Petersen, Henrik Steffens, Dilthey and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. History of the literature of the Scandinavian North By Frederik Winkel Horn, Rasmus B

30.
Johan Reinhardt
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Johannes Christopher Hagemann Reinhardt was a professor in zoology at the University of Copenhagen. Born in Rendalen parish in Norway, his father, Johannes Henrik Reinhardt, was a priest and he was not baptized Johannes, but adopted the name later. In 1796, he returned to Copenhagen to study theology, but his tendencies pulled him away from this study and he became a disciple of Martin Vahl, with whose help Reinhardt in 1801 got the opportunity to travel abroad, where he stayed until 1806. At first, Reinhardt studied mineralogy at the academy of mining in Freiberg, later primarily zoology and anatomy in Göttingen and finally in Paris. He remained in Paris for a few more and tried to extend his rather insufficient knowledge by studying in the museums and by following Georges Cuviers lectures. In late 1806 he returned and immediately took over the management of the collection, in 1814, he married Mette Margrethe Nicoline Hammeleff, a daughter of titular councillor of state N. Hammeleff and Juliane Marie Hammeleff, born Pontoppidan. Reinhardt died on 31 October 1845 in Copenhagen

31.
1814 in Norway
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Events in the year 1814 in Norway. 1814 has historically considered the most important year in the history of Norway. Sovereignty was transferred from the King of Denmark to the King of Sweden, the Constitution of Norway was signed at Eidsvoll on May 17, later to be designated and celebrated as Norwegian Constitution Day. For a detailed account of the surrounding the re-formation of the country in modern times. 14 January – Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in exchange for Western Pomerania,11 February – Norways independence was proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the Kalmar Union. 16 February – The meeting of notables took place at Eidsvoll verk,10 April – The Norwegian Constituent Assembly convened at Eidsvoll. 12 April – The Royal Norwegian Navy was re-established,16 May – The Constitution of Norway was adopted by the Constituent Assembly. 17 May – The Constitution of Norway was signed and the Danish Crown Prince Christian Frederik was elected King of Norway by the Constituent Assembly,20 May – The last day in session for the Constituent Assembly. 26 July – The Swedish campaign against Norway started,14 August – The Convention of Moss was signed, ending the Swedish campaign against Norway with a Swedish victory. 4 November – The first session of the Norwegian Parliament elected Charles II as King in a union between Sweden and Norway. 17 December - Christian Colbjørnsen, chief justice

A rare 1884 photo showing the experimental recording of voice patterns by a photographic process at the Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Many of their experimental designs panned out in failure.