Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) comprised a set of scientific instruments placed by the astronauts at the landing site of each of the five Apollo missions to land on the Moon following Apollo 11 (Apollos 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17). Apollo 11 left a smaller package called the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package, or EASEP.

The instrumentation and experiments that would comprise ALSEP were decided in February 1966. Specifically, the experiments, institutions responsible, and principal investigators and coinvestigators were:[1]

The ALSEP was built and tested by Bendix Aerospace in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The instruments were designed to run autonomously after the astronauts left and to make long-term studies of the lunar environment. They were arrayed around a Central Station which supplied power generated by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) to run the instruments and communications so data collected by the experiments could be relayed to Earth. Thermal control was achieved by passive elements (insulation, reflectors, thermal coatings) as well as power dissipation resistors and heaters. Data collected from the instruments were converted into a telemetry format and transmitted to Earth.

The ALSEP was stored in the Lunar Module's Scientific Equipment (SEQ) Bay in two separate subpackages. The base of the first subpackage formed the Central Station while the base of the second subpackage was part of the RTG. A subpallet was also attached to the second subpackage which usually carried one or two of the experiments and the antenna gimbal assembly. On Apollo 12, 13, and 14, the second subpackage also stored the Lunar Hand Tool Carrier (HTC). The exact deployment of experiments differed by mission. The following pictures show a typical procedure from Apollo 12.

Picture

Description

Pete Conrad opens the SEQ bay doors through a system of lanyards and pulleys.

Alan Bean removes the second subpackage from the SEQ bay. This was accomplished by using the boom which can be seen extended and a pulley system to set it on the ground. By Apollo 17, astronauts felt that the use of the boom and pulley system complicated the operation. And as such, the entire system was removed for Apollo 17. On Apollo 11, Buzz Aldrin chose not to use the system because of a lack of time.

The first subpackage, which Conrad had removed from the SEQ bay earlier.

Bean lowers the RTG cask into a position where he can access it.

Bean is beginning to remove the dome off the RTG cask. He is using a specialized tool called the Dome Removal Tool (DRT). Note how he has already prepared the RTG for fueling and has already deployed the HTC. Conrad has already removed the subpallet from the RTG subpackage.

Bean discards the dome with the DRT still attached. Neither had a use afterward.

Bean is attempting to remove the fuel element from the cask using the Fuel Transfer Tool (FTT). Note one of the Universal Hand Tools (UHT) attached to the RTG subpackage. On Apollo 12, the fuel element stuck in the cask because of thermal expansion (Bean could feel the heat through his suit). Conrad pounded the side of the cask with a hammer while Bean successfully worked it loose. He then inserted it into the RTG and discarded the FTT.

Bean attaches the RTG subpackage to the carrybar in preparation for the traverse to the ALSEP deployment site. The carrybar would later be used as the mast for the antenna on the Central Station.

During the traverse to the ALSEP deployment site, Conrad took this picture. His shadow indicates that he is carrying the subpallet with one of the two UHTs.

Bean carries the ALSEP out to the deployment site.

Conrad holds the carrybar in his left hand while he releases the antenna gimbal assembly with a UHT.

This photo shows Jim Lovell training for Apollo 13. He is currently deploying a mock-up of the Central Station. The Station was spring-loaded. After releasing Boyd bolts, the top of the Station would spring up, deploying it. Note the various locations on top of it which held some of the experiments before deployment. They were also held down with Boyd bolts that were released with a UHT.[3]

The picture shows the Central Station from Apollo 16's ALSEP.The Central Station was essentially the command center for the entire ALSEP station. It received commands from Earth, transmitted data, and distributed power to each experiment. Communications with Earth were achieved through a 58 cm long, 3.8 cm diameter modified axial-helical antenna mounted on top of the Central Station and pointed towards Earth by the astronauts. Transmitters, receivers, data processors and multiplexers were housed within the Central Station. The Central Station was a 25 kg box with a stowed volume of 34,800 cubic cm. In addition, on Apollos 12 to 15, a Dust Detector was mounted on the Central Station which measured the accumulation of Lunar dust.

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG)

The picture shows the RTG from Apollo 14 with the Central Station in the background.The RTG was the power source for the ALSEP. It utilized the heat from the radioactive decay of plutonium-238 and thermocouples to generate approximately 70 watts of power. The base of the RTG was the base of the second ALSEP subpackage.

RTG Cask

The RTG cask stored the plutonium-238 fuel element. It was located to left of the SEQ bay. The cask was designed to withstand a launch vehicle explosion in the event of an abort or a re-entry into Earth's atmosphere (which is what occurred on Apollo 13). The picture shows Edgar Mitchell practicing the removal of the fuel element.

Through the use of seismology the internal structure of the Moon could be determined to several hundred feet underground. The ASE consisted of three major components. A set of three geophones was laid out in a line by an astronaut from the Central Station to detect the explosions.[4] A mortar package was designed to lob a set of four explosives from varying distances away from the ALSEP. Finally, an astronaut-activated Thumper was used to detonate one of 22 charges to create a small shock. The diagram shows the Thumper device.

The CCIG experiment was designed to measure the pressure of the Lunar atmosphere. It was originally designed to be part of the SIDE, but its strong magnetic field would have caused interference. The CCIG is on the right of the SIDE in the diagram.

Heat Flow Experiment (HFE)

The HFE was designed to make thermal measurements of the Lunar subsurface in order to determine the rate at which heat flows out of the interior.[5] The measurements could help determine the abundance of radioisotopes and help understand the thermal evolution of the Moon. The HFE consisted of an electronics box and two probes. Each probe was placed in a hole by an astronaut that was drilled to about 2.5 m deep.

An LRRR is used to reflect a laser beam from Earth, the round-trip timing of the beam is an accurate gauge of the distance to the Moon. The information is used to study Lunar recession due to tidal dissipation and the irregular motion of the Earth. The LRRRs are the only experiments still in use today. The above diagram shows the Apollo 11 version. Apollo 14's was similar to Apollo 11's. The lower diagram shows the larger Apollo 15 version.

Lunar Atmosphere Composition Experiment (LACE)

The LACE was designed to detect the composition of the Lunar atmosphere.

Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment (LEAM)

The LEAM was designed to detect secondary particles that had been ejected by meteorite impacts on the lunar surface and to detect primary micrometeorites themselves.[6] See Lunar soil for some experiment results.

Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment (LSPE)

The LSPE was similar to the ASE except the expected depth was to be several kilometers. It consisted of three major components. A set of four geophones was laid out near the ALSEP by an astronaut.[4] The LSPE antenna was used to send signals to the charges. There were eight charges, each consisting of various sizes ranging from 1/8 to 6 lbs. The charges were deployed during the rover traverses.

Lunar Surface Gravimeter (LSG)

The LSG was designed to make very accurate measurements of lunar gravity and its change over time. It was hoped the data could be used to prove the existence of gravitational waves.

Lunar Surface Magnetometer (LSM)

The LSM was designed to measure the Lunar magnetic field. The data could be used to determine electrical properties of the subsurface. It was also used to study the interaction of solar plasma and the Lunar surface.

Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE)

The PSE was designed to detect "moonquakes," either naturally or artificially created, to help study the structure of the subsurface.

Passive Seismic Experiment Package (PSEP)

Similar to the PSE, except it was self-supporting. This meant it carried its own power source (solar arrays), electronics, and communications equipment. In addition, the PSEP also carried a Dust Detector.

Solar Wind Spectrometer Experiment (SWS)

The SWS was designed to study solar wind properties and its effects on the Lunar environment.

Suprathermal Ion Detector Experiment (SIDE)

The SIDE was designed to measure various properties of positive ions in the Lunar environment, provide data on the plasma interaction between solar wind and the Moon, and to determine the electrical potential of the Lunar surface.

On Apollo 11, Buzz Aldrin simply carried the EASEP to the deployment site by using handles. This is different from the carrybar used on later missions.

Because of the risk of an early abort on the Moon, geologists persuaded NASA to permit only experiments that could be set up or completed in 10 minutes.[7] As a result, Apollo 11 did not leave a full ALSEP package, but left a simpler version called the Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package (EASEP). Since there was only one 2 hour 40 minute EVA planned, the crew would not have enough time to deploy a full ALSEP, which usually took one to two hours to deploy. Both packages were stored in the LM's SEQ bay.

Engineers designed the EASEP to deploy with one squeeze handle, and the Laser Ranging Retro Reflector (LRRR) also deployed within ten minutes. Despite the simpler design, the seismometer was sensitive enough to detect Neil Armstrong's movements during sleep.[7]

A recording of the Apollo 13 S-IVB's impact on the lunar surface as detected by the Apollo 12 Passive Seismic Experiment.

Because of the aborted landing, none of the experiments were deployed. However, the Apollo 13 S-IVB stage was deliberately crashed on the Moon to provide a signal for the Apollo 12 PSE.

Name

Notes

CPLEE

Stored on the first subpackage.

CCGE

Stored on the first subpackage.Only time the CCGE was flown.

HFE

Stored on the first subpackage.

PSE

Stored on the first subpackage.

The antenna gimbal assembly was stored on the first subpackage. The stool for the PSE, the ALSEP tools, carrybar, and the Lunar drill was stored on the subpallet. The HTC was stored on the second subpackage.

The above image shows the mortar device. The lower one shows Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell operating the Thumper.The mortar, geophones, and Thumper was stored on the first subpackage.Thirteen of the twenty-two Thumper charges were fired successfully.[4] Because of concerns about the deployment of the mortar, none of the four explosives were fired. There was an attempt to fire them at the end of the ALSEP's operational lifetime, but the charges failed to work after being dormant for so long.

The center of the picture shows the electronics box and the two wires going to each of the probes.Stored on the second subpackage.During the drilling operations for each of the holes, more resistance was encountered than expected. As a result, the probes could not be inserted to their planned depth. Accurate scientific data could not be obtained from the Apollo 15 experiment until the data could be compared to Apollo 17's.

LRRR

Stored in Quad III of the LM and brought to the ALSEP site via the Lunar rover.

LSM

Stored on the first subpackage.

PSE

Stored on the first subpackage.

SWS

Stored on the first subpackage.

SIDE/CCIG

The SIDE is on the left while the CCIG is attached on the right.Stored on the subpallet.Note the tilt of the SIDE. This was necessary because of the latitude of Apollo 15's landing site. Also note the boom connecting the SIDE and CCIG. This redesign was done because earlier crews complained about the difficulty to deploy the SIDE/CCIG when only wires connected the two experiments.

The antenna gimbal assembly was stored on the subpallet. The ALSEP tools, carrybar, and stool for the PSE was stored on the second subpackage.

The pictures show the mortar pack (top) and thumper (bottom). Note the new mortar base used to improve the experiment after problems were encountered with Apollo 14's.The mortar, geophones, and Thumper was stored on the first subpackage. The base of the mortar box was stored on the second subpackage.After three of the explosives were fired successfully, the pitch sensor went off scale. It was then decided not to fire the fourth explosive. Nineteen of the Thumper charges were successfully fired.[4]

HFE

The picture shows the one heat flow probe that was successfully deployed.Stored on the second subpackage.After successfully deploying one of the probes, Commander John Young inadvertently caught his foot on the cable to the experiment from the Central Station. The cable was pulled out of its connector on the Central Station. Although some technicians and astronauts on Earth believed that a repair was feasible, mission control ultimately decided that the time necessary for a repair could be put to better use on other work, and so the experiment was terminated.

The ALSEP system and instruments were controlled by commands from Earth. The stations ran from deployment until they were turned off on 30 September 1977 due primarily to budgetary considerations. Additionally, by 1977 the power packs could not run both the transmitter and any other instrument, and the ALSEP control room was needed for the attempt to reactivate Skylab. ALSEP systems are visible in several images taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter during its orbits over Apollo landing sites.

1.
Astronaut
–
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps

2.
Apollo program
–
Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets

3.
Apollo 11
–
Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20,1969, at 20,18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02,56,15 UTC and they spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moons surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16, and was the fifth manned mission of NASAs Apollo program. After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn Vs upper stage, Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface, the astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew in human spaceflight history, a previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969, charlie Duke, Capsule Communicator Ronald Evans Owen K. Garriott Don L. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, the Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon in Jules Vernes 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for peaceful lunar landing by the United States and he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too warlike and after some discussion, All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was used for the smaller Susan B

4.
Apollo 12
–
Apollo 12 was the sixth manned flight in the United States Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. It was launched on November 14,1969, from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, the landing site for the mission was located in the southeastern portion of the Ocean of Storms. Unlike the first landing on Apollo 11, Conrad and Bean achieved a landing at their expected location, the site of the Surveyor 3 unmanned probe. They carried the first color television camera to the surface on an Apollo flight. On one of two moonwalks, they visited the Surveyor and removed some parts for return to Earth, the mission ended on November 24 with a successful splashdown. It was the first rocket launch attended by an incumbent US president, thirty-six-and-a-half seconds after lift-off, the vehicle triggered a lightning discharge through itself and down to the Earth through the Saturns ionized plume. Protective circuits on the cells in the Service Module falsely detected overloads. A second strike at 52 seconds after launch knocked out the 8-ball attitude indicator, the telemetry stream at Mission Control was garbled. However, the continued to fly correctly, the strikes had not affected the Saturn V Instrument Unit. The loss of all three fuel cells put the CSM entirely on batteries, which were unable to maintain normal 75-ampere launch loads on the 28-volt DC bus, one of the AC inverters dropped offline. These power supply problems lit nearly every warning light on the control panel, Aaron made a call, Try SCE to aux, which switched the SCE to a backup power supply. The switch was fairly obscure, and neither Flight Director Gerald Griffin, CAPCOM Gerald Carr, nor Mission Commander Pete Conrad immediately recognized it. Lunar Module Pilot Alan Bean, flying in the seat as the spacecraft systems engineer. Aarons quick thinking and Beans memory saved what could have been an aborted mission, Bean put the fuel cells back on line, and with telemetry restored, the launch continued successfully. Once in Earth parking orbit, the crew checked out their spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The lightning strikes had caused no serious permanent damage, if they were indeed disabled, the Command Module would have crashed uncontrollably into the Pacific Ocean and killed the crew instantly. Since there was no way to figure out whether or not this was the case, the parachutes deployed and functioned normally at the end of the mission. After Lunar Module separation, the S-IVB was intended to fly into solar orbit, the S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system was fired, and the remaining propellants vented to slow it down to fly past the Moons trailing edge

5.
Apollo 14
–
Apollo 14 was the eighth manned mission in the United States Apollo program, and the third to land on the Moon. It was the last of the H missions, targeted landings with two-day stays on the Moon with two lunar EVAs, or moonwalks, Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February 5 in the Fra Mauro formation - originally the target of the aborted Apollo 13 mission. During the two lunar EVAs,42.80 kilograms of Moon rocks were collected, and several experiments were performed. Shepard hit two balls on the lunar surface with a makeshift club he had brought with him. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33½ hours on the Moon, with almost 9½ hours of EVA and he took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees. Shepard, Roosa, and Mitchell landed in the Pacific Ocean on February 9, Shepard was the oldest U. S. astronaut when he made his trip aboard Apollo 14. He is the astronaut from Project Mercury to reach the Moon. The mission was a triumph for Shepard, who had battled back from Ménières disease which grounded him from 1964 to 1968. He and his crew were originally scheduled to fly on Apollo 13 and this was done to allow Shepard more time to train for his flight, as he had been grounded for four years. NASAs long-range cameras, based 60 miles south in Vero Beach, had a shot of the remainder of the launch. Following the launch, the Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center was visited by U. S, vice President Spiro T. Agnew, Prince Juan Carlos of Spain, and his wife, Princess Sofía. At the beginning of the mission, the CSM Kitty Hawk had difficulty achieving capture, the sixth attempt was successful, and no further docking problems were encountered during the mission. After separating from the Command Module in lunar orbit, the LM Antares also had two serious problems, first, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from a faulty switch. NASA believed that the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a ball of solder had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit. The immediate solution — tapping on the next to the switch — did work briefly. The software modifications were transmitted to the crew via voice communication, after the astronauts cycled the landing radar breaker, the unit successfully acquired a signal near 18,000 feet, again just in time. Shepard then manually landed the LM closer to its intended target than any of the other six Moon landing missions, Mitchell believed that Shepard would have continued with the landing attempt without the radar, using the LM inertial guidance system and visual cues. Shepard and Mitchell named their landing site Fra Mauro Base, shepards first words, after stepping onto the lunar surface were, And its been a long way, but were here

6.
Apollo 15
–
Apollo 15 was the ninth manned mission in the United States Apollo program, the fourth to land on the Moon, and the eighth successful manned mission. It was the first of what were termed J missions, long stays on the Moon and it was also the first mission on which the Lunar Roving Vehicle was used. The mission began on July 26,1971, and ended on August 7, at the time, NASA called it the most successful manned flight ever achieved. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity, the mission landed near Hadley rille, in an area of the Mare Imbrium called Palus Putredinus. The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel farther from the Lunar Module than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected 77 kilograms of lunar surface material, Scott had attended the University of Michigan, but left before graduating to accept an appointment to the United States Military Academy. The crewmen did their work at either the United States Military Academy or the United States Naval Academy. C. Gordon Fullerton Joseph P. Allen Robert A. Parker Karl G.5 km Apogee,171.3 km Inclination,29. 679° Period,87. There had been a rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all United States Navy. Originally Apollo 15 would have been an H mission, like Apollos 12,13 and 14, but on September 2,1970, NASA announced it was canceling what were to be the current incarnations of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. To maximize the return from the missions, Apollo 15 would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first lunar rover. One of the changes in the training for Apollo 15 was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had trained in field geology. Scott and Irwin would train with Leon Silver, a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the Precambrian, Silver had been suggested by Harrison Schmitt as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of uranium into lead in the late 1950s, crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. The CAPCOM was accompanied by a group of geologists unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the descriptions to interpret the findings. The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970, the Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites — Hadley Rille or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway, to David Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being exploration at its finest

7.
Apollo 16
–
Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the United States Apollo space program, the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon and the first to land in the lunar highlands. The second of the so-called J missions, it was crewed by Commander John Young, Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12,54 PM EST on April 16,1972, the mission lasted 11 days,1 hour, and 51 minutes, and concluded at 2,45 PM EST on April 27. Young and Duke spent 71 hours—just under three days—on the lunar surface, during which they conducted three extra-vehicular activities or moonwalks, totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes, the pair drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle, the second produced and used on the Moon,26.7 kilometers. Mattingly spent 126 hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit, after Young and Duke rejoined Mattingly in lunar orbit, the crew released a subsatellite from the Service Module. During the return trip to Earth, Mattingly performed a spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the Service Module. Samples from the Descartes Formation and the Cayley Formation disproved a hypothesis that the formations were volcanic in origin and he never contracted the illness, but was nevertheless removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert, three days before the launch. Young, a captain in the United States Navy, had flown on three prior to Apollo 16, Gemini 3, Gemini 10 and Apollo 10, which orbited the Moon. One of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966, Duke had never flown in space before Apollo 16 and he served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a Capsule Communicator for Apollo 11. Although not officially announced, the backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise, William R. Pogue and Gerald P. Carr. However, after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were finalized in September 1970 this crew would not rotate to a mission as planned. Anthony W. England Karl G. Henize Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. Robert F. Overmyer Donald H. Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector, orbiting the Moon. On its gold-outlined blue border, there are 16 stars, representing the number. The insignia was designed from ideas submitted by the crew of the mission. Apollo 16 was the second of the Apollo type J missions, featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, increased scientific capability, Apollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material that had been ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin. Likewise, Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium and they had hoped that scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer. Two locations on the Moon were given consideration for exploration by the Apollo 16 expedition, the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris. The Cayley Formations age was approximated to be about the same as Mare Imbrium based on the frequency of impact craters

8.
Apollo 17
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Apollo 17 was the final mission of NASAs Apollo program, the enterprise that landed the first humans on the Moon. Apollo 17 was the first night launch of a U. S. human spaceflight and it was a J-type mission which included three days on the lunar surface, extended scientific capability, and the third Lunar Roving Vehicle. Evans took scientific measurements and photographs from orbit using a Scientific Instruments Module mounted in the Service Module, Cernan, Evans and Schmitt returned to Earth on December 19 after a 12-day mission. Apollo 17 is the most recent manned Moon landing and was the last time humans travelled beyond low Earth orbit, the mission broke several records, the longest moon landing, longest total extravehicular activities, largest lunar sample, and longest time in lunar orbit. Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and former X-15 pilot Joe Engle were assigned to the crew of Apollo 14. Engle flew sixteen X-15 flights, three of which exceeded the 50 mi border of space, following the rotation pattern that a backup crew would fly as the prime crew three missions later, Cernan, Evans, and Engle would have flown Apollo 17. Harrison Schmitt served on the crew of Apollo 15 and. However, Apollo 18 was cancelled in September 1970, following this decision, the scientific community pressured NASA to assign a geologist to an Apollo landing, as opposed to a pilot trained in geology. In light of pressure, Harrison Schmitt, a professional geologist, was assigned the Lunar Module Pilot position on Apollo 17. Scientist-astronaut Curt Michel believed that it was his own decision to resign, after it became clear that he would not be given a flight assignment, that mobilized this action. Subsequent to the decision to assign Schmitt to Apollo 17, there remained the question of which crew would become prime crew of the mission. NASA Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton ultimately assigned the crew of Apollo 14, along with Schmitt. The Apollo 15 prime crew received the backup assignment since this was to be the last lunar mission, however, when the Apollo 15 postage stamp incident became public in early 1972 the crew was reprimanded by NASA and the United States Air Force. Robert F. Overmyer Robert A. Parker C, three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmen of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet Saturn and a galaxy or nebula, the wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting mans established presence there. The gaze of Apollo and the direction of the eagles motion embody mans intention to further destinations in space. The patch includes, along with the colors of the U. S. flag, the image of Apollo in the mission insignia is a rendering of the Apollo Belvedere sculpture. The insignia was designed by Robert McCall, with input from the crew, since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration

9.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing

10.
Frank Press
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Frank Press is an American geophysicist. An advisor to four U. S. Presidents, he served two consecutive terms as President of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences. He is the author of 160 scientific papers and co-author of the textbooks Earth, Press served on Presidents Science Advisory Committee during the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations and was appointed by President Nixon to the National Science Board. In 1977 he was appointed President Jimmy Carters science advisor and Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, serving until 1981. Born in Brooklyn, New York, Press graduated with a B. S. degree from the City College of New York and completed his M. A. and Ph. D. degrees at Columbia University under Maurice Doc Ewing. As one of Ewings two assistant professors, Press was a co-founder of Lamont Geological Observatory in Palisades, N. Y, originally trained as an oceanographer, Press participated in research cruises on the sailing vessels RV Vema and RV Atlantis. In the early 1950s, Press turned to seismology, co-authoring with Ewing, in 1957, Press was recruited by Caltech to succeed founder Beno Gutenberg as director of the Seismological Laboratory, a position in which he remained until 1965. The appointment was controversial in that it passed over both Hugo Benioff and Charles Richter, then the senior professors, for a much younger outsider. Press was also involved in the construction of a lunar seismograph. He remained at MIT until 1976, during this time, his work included collaborations with Vladimir Keilis-Borok and Leon Knopoff on computer pattern matching techniques that could be applied to earthquake prediction. In 1976, Press became science advisor to President Jimmy Carter and director of the Office of Science, in 1981 he was elected president of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences. Re-elected in 1987, he served for a total of 12 years, in 1996, Press co-founded WAG, a global consulting company with clients that included some fifty leading universities. WAG played a role all phases of the founding of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Thuwal. Press chaired that universitys international advisory committee until 2010, Press is the recipient of 30 honorary degrees. Named in his honor are Mount Press, in the Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica, and Osedax frankpressi, News and World Report U. S. Siever, Raymond. W. H. Freeman, c2001 The role of geoscientists in providing advice to government officials Press. Abstracts with Programs – Geological Society of America, vol.30, no.7, pp.247,1998 Growing up in the Golden Age of Science Press, Frank. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, vol.23, pp. 1–9,1995 Patterns of seismic release in the Southern California region Press, Frank, Allen, Clarence

11.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university

12.
Georgia Institute of Technology
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The Georgia Institute of Technology is a public research university in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States. It is a part of the University System of Georgia and has campuses in Savannah, Georgia, Metz, France, Athlone, Ireland, Shenzhen, China. The educational institution was founded in 1885 as the Georgia School of Technology as part of Reconstruction plans to build an economy in the post-Civil War Southern United States. Initially, it offered only a degree in mechanical engineering, by 1901, its curriculum had expanded to include electrical, civil, and chemical engineering. In 1948, the changed its name to reflect its evolution from a trade school to a larger and more capable technical institute. Today, Georgia Tech is organized into six colleges and contains about 31 departments/units, with emphasis on science and it is well recognized for its degree programs in engineering, computing, business administration, the sciences, design, and liberal arts. Student athletics, both organized and intramural, are a part of student and alumni life, Georgia Tech fields eight mens and seven womens teams that compete in the NCAA Division I athletics and the Football Bowl Subdivision. Georgia Tech is a member of the Coastal Division in the Atlantic Coast Conference, the idea of a technology school in Georgia was introduced in 1865 during the Reconstruction period. However, because the American South of that era was mainly populated by workers and few technical developments were occurring. In 1882, the Georgia State Legislature authorized a committee, led by Harris and they were impressed by the polytechnic educational models developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science. On October 13,1885, Georgia Governor Henry D. McDaniel signed the bill to create, in 1887, Atlanta pioneer Richard Peters donated to the state 4 acres of the site of a failed garden suburb called Peters Park. The site was bounded on the south by North Avenue, and he then sold five adjoining acres of land to the state for US$10,000. This land was near Atlantas northern city limits at the time of its founding, the surrender of the city took place on the southwestern boundary of the modern Georgia Tech campus in 1864. The Georgia School of Technology opened in the fall of 1888 with two buildings, One building had classrooms to teach students, The second building featured a shop and had a foundry, forge, boiler room, and engine room. It was designed for students to work and produce goods to sell, on October 20,1905, U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited Georgia Tech. On the steps of Tech Tower, Roosevelt delivered a speech about the importance of technological education and he then shook hands with every student. Georgia Techs Evening School of Commerce began holding classes in 1912, the evening school admitted its first female student in 1917, although the state legislature did not officially authorize attendance by women until 1920. Annie T. Wise became the first female graduate in 1919 and was Georgia Techs first female faculty member the following year

13.
Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration on October 1,1958. NASA Ames is named in honor of Joseph Sweetman Ames, a physicist, at last estimate NASA Ames has over US$3.0 billion in capital equipment,2,300 research personnel and a US$860 million annual budget. Ames was founded to conduct research on the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, however, its role has expanded to encompass spaceflight. Ames plays a role in many NASA missions, Ames also develops tools for a safer, more efficient national airspace. The centers current director is Eugene Tu, the site is mission center for several key current missions and a major contributor to the new exploration focus as a participant in the Orion crew exploration vehicle. Although Ames is a NASA Research Center, and not a center, it has nevertheless been closely involved in a number of astronomy. The Pioneer programs eight successful missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and those two missions were trail blazers for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program brought about a return to the solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe. Lunar Prospector was the mission selected by NASA for full development. Based on Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer data, mission scientists have determined that there is indeed water ice in the craters of the Moon. The 11-pound GeneSat-1, carrying bacteria inside a laboratory, was launched on December 16,2006. The very small NASA satellite has proven that scientists can quickly design, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission to look for water on the moon was a secondary payload spacecraft. LCROSS began its trip to the moon on the rocket as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It launched in April 2009 on an Atlas V rocket from Kennedy Space Center, the Kepler mission is NASAs first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The Kepler mission will monitor the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets orbits, during such passes or transits, the planets will slightly decrease the stars brightness. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a joint venture of the U. S, the aircraft is supplied by the U. S. and the infrared telescope by Germany

14.
Marshall Space Flight Center
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The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center is the U. S. governments civilian rocketry and spacecraft propulsion research center. The largest NASA center, MSFCs first mission was developing the Saturn launch vehicles for the Apollo moon program, located on the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, MSFC is named in honor of General of the Army George Marshall. The center also contains the Huntsville Operations Support Center, a facility that supports ISS launch, payload, the HOSC also monitors rocket launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station when a Marshall Center payload is on board. The largest and best-known activity was called Operation Paperclip, in August 1945,127 missile specialists led by Wernher von Braun signed work contracts with the U. S. Armys Ordnance Corps. Most of them had worked on the V-2 missile development under von Braun at Peenemünde, Von Braun and the other Germans were sent to Fort Bliss, Texas, joining the Armys newly formed Research and Development Division Sub-office. Von Braun had long had a great interest in rocketry for space science, toward this, he was allowed to use a WAC Corporal rocket as a second stage for a V-2, the combination, called Bumper, reached a record-breaking 250 miles altitude. During World War II, the production and storage of shells was conducted by three arsenals nearby to Huntsville, Alabama. After the war, these were closed, and the three areas were combined to form Redstone Arsenal, a year later, the Secretary of the Army approved the transfer of the rocket research and development activities from Fort Bliss to the new center at Redstone Arsenal. Beginning in April 1950, about 1,000 persons were involved in the transfer, at this time, R&D responsibility for guided missiles was added, and studies began on a medium-range guided missile that eventually became the Redstone rocket. Over the next decade, the development on Redstone Arsenal greatly expanded. Many small free-flight and guided rockets were developed, and work on the Redstone rocket got underway, although this rocket was primarily intended for military purposes, von Braun kept space firmly in his mind, and published a widely read article on this subject. In mid-1952, the Germans who had worked under individual contracts were converted to civil service employees. Von Braun was appointed Chief of the Guided Missile Development Division, in September 1954, von Braun proposed using the Redstone as the main booster of a multi-stage rocket for launching artificial satellites. A year later, a study for Project Orbiter was completed, detailing plans, the Armys official role in the U. S. space satellite program was delayed, however, after higher authorities elected to use the Vanguard rocket then being developed by the Naval Research Laboratory. In February 1956, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency was established, von Braun was the director of the Development Operations Division. One of the programs was a 1, 500-mile, single-stage missile that was started the previous year. The first Jupiter IRBM flight took place from Cape Canaveral in March 1957 with the first successful flight to full range on 31 May, Jupiter was eventually taken over by the U. S. Air Force. The ABMA developed Jupiter-C was composed of a Redstone rocket first stage, while the Jupiter C capability was such that it could have placed the fourth stage in orbit, that mission had been assigned to the NRL

15.
Solar wind
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The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. This plasma consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with thermal energies between 1.5 and 10 keV. Embedded within the plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and its particles can escape the Suns gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. At a distance of more than a few radii from the sun. The flow of the wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock. The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the shock more than five times between 30 August and 10 December 2007, Voyager 2 crossed the shock about a billion kilometers closer to the Sun than the 13.5 billion kilometer distance where Voyager 1 came upon the termination shock. The spacecraft moved outward through the shock into the heliosheath. Other related phenomena include the aurora, the tails of comets that always point away from the Sun. The existence of flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare, george FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun and was reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910 British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the wind, without naming it. The idea never caught on even though Eddington had also made a similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year. In the latter case, he postulated that the material consisted of electrons while in his study of Comet Morehouse he supposed them to be ions. The first person to suggest that the material consisted of both ions and electrons was Kristian Birkeland. His geomagnetic surveys showed that activity was nearly uninterrupted. In 1916, Birkeland proposed that, From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, in other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later in 1919, Frederick Lindemann also suggested that particles of both polarities, protons as well as electrons, come from the Sun

16.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
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The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a federally funded research and development center and NASA field center in La Cañada Flintridge, California and Pasadena, California, United States. The JPL is managed by the nearby California Institute of Technology for NASA, the laboratorys primary function is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating NASAs Deep Space Network and they are also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies. The JPLs Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks, JPL traces its beginnings to 1936 in the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the Arroyo Seco. Malinas thesis advisor was engineer/aerodynamicist Theodore von Kármán, who arranged for U. S. Army financial support for this GALCIT Rocket Project in 1939. In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, Martin Summerfield, in 1943, von Kármán, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the Aerojet Corporation to manufacture JATO motors. The project took on the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory in November 1943, during JPLs Army years, the laboratory developed two deployed weapon systems, the MGM-5 Corporal and MGM-29 Sergeant intermediate range ballistic missiles. These missiles were the first US ballistic missiles developed at JPL and it also developed a number of other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the Aerobee sounding rocket. At various times, it carried out testing at the White Sands Proving Ground, Edwards Air Force Base. A lunar lander was developed in 1938-39 which influenced design of the Apollo Lunar Module in the 1960s. The team lost that proposal to Project Vanguard, and instead embarked on a project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a Jupiter-C rocket. They carried out three successful flights in 1956 and 1957. Using a spare Juno I, the two organizations then launched the United States first satellite, Explorer 1, on February 1,1958, JPL was transferred to NASA in December 1958, becoming the agencys primary planetary spacecraft center. JPL engineers designed and operated Ranger and Surveyor missions to the Moon that prepared the way for Apollo, JPL also led the way in interplanetary exploration with the Mariner missions to Venus, Mars, and Mercury. In 1998, JPL opened the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA, as of 2013, it has found 95% of asteroids that are a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earths orbit. JPL was early to employ women mathematicians, in the 1940s and 1950s, using mechanical calculators, women in an all-female computations group performed trajectory calculations. In 1961, JPL hired Dana Ulery as their first woman engineer to work alongside male engineers as part of the Ranger and Mariner mission tracking teams, when founded, JPLs site was a rocky flood-plain just outside the city limits of Pasadena. Almost all of the 177 acres of the U. S, the city of La Cañada Flintridge, California was incorporated in 1976, well after JPL attained international recognition with a Pasadena address

17.
Rice University
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William Marsh Rice University, commonly referred to as Rice University or Rice, is a private research university located on a 295-acre campus in Houston, Texas, United States. The university is situated near the Houston Museum District and is adjacent to the Texas Medical Center, Rice is generally considered the top university and the most selective institute of higher education in the state of Texas. Opened in 1912 after the murder of its namesake William Marsh Rice, Rice is now a university with an undergraduate focus. Its emphasis on education is demonstrated by a student body and 6,1 student-faculty ratio. The university has a high level of research activity for its size. Rice is noted for its science programs in the fields of artificial heart research, structural chemical analysis, signal processing, space science. It was ranked first in the world in materials science research by the Times Higher Education in 2010, Rice is a member of the Association of American Universities. Graduate programs are offered through the Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Business, School of Architecture, Shepherd School of Music, Rice students are bound by the strict Honor Code, which is enforced by a student-run Honor Council. Rice competes in 14 NCAA Division I varsity sports and is a part of Conference USA, intramural and club sports are offered in a wide variety of activities such as jiu jitsu, water polo, and crew. In 1891, Rice decided to charter a free-tuition educational institute in Houston, bearing his name, to be created upon his death, Rices will specified the institution was to be a competitive institution of the highest grade and that only white students would be permitted to attend. On the morning of September 23,1900, Rice, age 84, was dead by his valet. Shortly thereafter, a large check made out to Rices New York City lawyer. The lawyer, Albert T. Patrick, then announced that Rice had changed his will to leave the bulk of his fortune to Patrick, rather than to the creation of Rices educational institute. Rices friend and personal lawyer in Houston, James A. Baker, Jones was not prosecuted since he cooperated with the district attorney, and testified against Patrick. Patrick was found guilty of conspiring to steal Rices fortune and convicted of murder in 1901, Baker helped Rices estate direct the fortune, worth $4.6 million in 1904, towards the founding of what was to be called the Rice Institute. The board took control of the assets on April 29 of that year and he came recommended by Princetons president, Woodrow Wilson. In 1908, Lovett accepted the challenge, and was inaugurated as the Institutes first president on October 12,1912. Lovett undertook extensive research before formalizing plans for the new Institute, Lovett called for the establishment of a university of the highest grade, an institution of liberal and technical learning devoted quite as much to investigation as to instruction

18.
Curt Michel
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Frank Curtis Curt Michel, Ph. D. was an American astrophysicist, a professor of astrophysics at Rice University in Houston, Texas, a former United States Air Force pilot, and a NASA astronaut. Michel was born June 5,1934, to parents to Frank and he was married to Bonnie Hausman, a web technical specialist. He had two children, Alice and Jeff by his wife Beverly who predeceased him, and three grandchildren and his hobbies were photography, tennis, handball, and baseball. Michel died at the age of 80 on February 26,2015 and he was buried with full military honors at the Houston National Cemetery. McClatchy High School, located at Sacramento, California, in 1951, in 1955, he received a Bachelor of Science degree with honors in physics, and in 1962 he received a doctorate in physics, both from the California Institute of Technology. His thesis was Beta Spectra of the Mass 12 Nuclei and his thesis advisor was Thomas Lauritsen, also on his thesis committee was William Alfred Fowler. Michel was a fellow of the American Physical Society and a member of the American Geophysical Union, Michel was a junior engineer with the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company’s guided missile division before joining the Air Force in 1955. As an AFROTC graduate, he received training at Marana Air Force Base, Arizona. During his three years of service, Michel flew F-86D interceptors in the United States and in Europe. Feynman, along with work in theoretical astrophysics for William A. Fowler and he came to Houston in July 1963 and became a member of the faculty at Rice University. Michels efforts there were directed at researching and teaching space sciences, such as the interaction of solar winds, Michel accumulated 1,000 hours flying time with 900 hours in jet aircraft. Michel was selected as a NASA scientist-astronaut in June 1965 and he resigned from NASA in September 1969 without having being assigned to any spaceflight missions. After his resignation from NASA, Michel returned to teaching and research as Department Chairman of the physics and astronomy Department at Rice University in Houston, Texas. He was the Andrew Hays Buchanan Professor of Astrophysics from 1974 until his retirement in 2001, Michel spent a year from 2001 to 2002 in Japan at the Solar-Terrestrial Environment Laboratory of the University of Nagoya as a visiting professor. In 1964, he predicted the existence of spin “optical rotation” due to parity nonconserving weak interactions and this phenomenon was experimentally confirmed in 1980 and is used to study parity nonconserving weak interactions between neutrons and nuclei. Michel is best known for his work on pulsars and neutron star magnetospheres but his work also included solar wind interactions with the Moon and other bodies, in 2000, Michel officially retired from Rice but he continued to be active in research until his death in 2015. Michel is the author of the book Theory of Neutron Star Magnetospheres, Michel is the author of the book Handbook of High-Energy Astrophysics Experiments, Springer Verlag,2015 ISBN9781441965288. The Forgotten Astronauts, A rarely told Chapter of American Spaceflight History

19.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity

20.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail

21.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database

22.
Bendix Corporation
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It was also well known for the name Bendix, as used on home clothes washing machines, but never actually made these appliances. Bendix granted permission to his invention which was described as a New York device for the starting of explosive motors and this company made a low cost triple thread screw which could be used in the manufacture of other drive parts. By using this screw with the Eclipse Machine Company, Bendix had a foundation for his future business plans. Bendix in the 1920s owned and controlled many important patents for devices applicable to the industry, for example, brakes, carburetors. It acquired Bragg-Kliesrath brakes in the late 1920s, by 1940 Bendix had sales running around $40 million, and in 1948 General Motors sold its interest in Bendix as it wanted to focus on its expanding automotive operations. Bendix was formally founded in 1924 in South Bend, Indiana, at first it manufactured brake systems for cars and trucks, supplying General Motors and other automobile manufacturers. Bendix manufactured both hydraulic systems and a vacuum booster TreadleVac for its production lines for decades. In 1924 Vincent Bendix had acquired the rights to Henri Perrots patents for drum, in 1956, Bendix introduced Electrojector, a true multipoint electronic fuel injection system, which was optional on several 1958 models of automobiles built by Chrysler Corporation. In the 1960s, Bendix automotive brakes blossomed with the introduction of disc brakes. During the 1960s, Bendix also dabbled in bicycle hardware, producing a reliable, starting in the 1950s or before, Bendix Pacific designed, tested, and manufactured hydraulic components and systems, primarily for the military. In the same facility avionics and other hardware was designed, manufactured. Much of this operation was relocated to a new facility in Sylmar, telemetry components for the RIM-8 Talos surface-to-air missile included transmitters and oscillators in various frequency bands, the missile itself was designed and built by Bendix. They built and installed the system in all the ground stations for the first manned space flights. For this program developed the first cardio tachometer and respiration rate monitor system so that a ground-based physician could observe an astronauts vital signs. MK46 torpedo electronics also came from this facility, other diverse products included radar detectors in aircraft that identified ground missile tracking and ground missile launch at the aircraft. In the 1960s they produced an anti-lock brake system for aircraft using established technology similar to Dunlops earlier Maxaret. The technology is similar to the wheel and reluctor now used in cars. Bendix Scintilla manufactured MIL SPEC electrical connectors of many styles, criteria was met for hostile and non-hostile environments that provided seals against liquids and gasses

23.
Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Ann Arbor is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. The 2010 census recorded its population to be 113,934, the citys population was estimated at 117,070 as of July 2015 by the U. S. Census Bureau. The Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Washtenaw County, the city is also part of the larger Detroit–Ann Arbor–Flint, MI Combined Statistical Area with a population of 5,318,744. Ann Arbor was founded in 1824, named for wives of the villages founders, the University of Michigan moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837, and the city grew at a rapid rate in the early to mid-20th century. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as a center for left-wing politics, Ann Arbor became a focal point for political activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as various student movements. Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan, one of the foremost research universities in the United States, the university shapes Ann Arbors economy significantly as it employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. The citys economy is centered on high technology, with several companies drawn to the area by the universitys research and development infrastructure. In about 1774, the Potawatomi founded two villages in the area of what is now Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. On 25 May 1824, the plat was registered with Wayne County as Annarbour. Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of Bur Oak in the 640 acres of land purchased for $800 from the federal government at $1.25 per acre. The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allens sawmill, Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside 40 acres of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capital, but lost the bid to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan, since the universitys establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked. Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor, while the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish, and African-Americans. In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city, though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873. It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth, with new immigrants coming from Greece, Italy, Russia, Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling. Ann Arbors Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, during the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Ann Arbor also became a locus for left-wing activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, during the ensuing 15 years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city

24.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
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This generator has no moving parts. RTGs have been used as sources in satellites, space probes. Safe use of RTGs requires containment of the radioisotopes long after the life of the unit. The RTG was invented in 1954 by Mound Laboratories scientists Ken Jordan and they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2013. RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by Mound Laboratories in Miamisburg, the project was led by Dr. Bertram C. The first RTG launched into space by the United States was SNAP 3B in 1961 powered by 96 grams of plutonium-238 metal, one of the first terrestrial uses of RTGs was in 1966 by the US Navy at uninhabited Fairway Rock in Alaska. RTGs were used at that site until 1995, a common RTG application is spacecraft power supply. Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power units were used for probes that traveled far from the Sun rendering solar panels impractical. As such, they were used with Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Galileo, Ulysses, Cassini, New Horizons and the Mars Science Laboratory. RTGs were used to power the two Viking landers and for the scientific experiments left on the Moon by the crews of Apollo 12 through 17. Because the Apollo 13 moon landing was aborted, its RTG rests in the South Pacific Ocean, RTGs were also used for the Nimbus, Transit and LES satellites. By comparison, only a few vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors, the Soviet RORSAT series. In addition to spacecraft, the Soviet Union constructed many unmanned lighthouses, powered by strontium-90, they are very reliable and provide a steady source of power. In one instance, the compartments were opened by a thief. In another case, three woodsmen in Tsalendzhikha Region, Georgia came across two ceramic RTG heat sources that had stripped of their shielding. Two of the three were hospitalized with severe radiation burns after carrying the sources on their backs. The units were eventually recovered and isolated, there are approximately 1,000 such RTGs in Russia. All of them have long exhausted their 10-year engineered life spans and they are likely no longer functional, and may be in need of dismantling

25.
Apollo Lunar Module
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After completing its mission, the LM was discarded. It was capable of only in outer space, structurally and aerodynamically it was incapable of flight through the Earths atmosphere. The Lunar Module was the first manned spacecraft to operate exclusively in the vacuum of space. It was the first, and to date only, crewed vehicle to land on an object in the solar system other than the Earth. Six such craft successfully landed on the Moon between 1969 and 1972, a seventh provided propulsion and life support for the crew of Apollo 13 when their CSM was disabled by an oxygen tank explosion en route to the Moon. The LMs development was plagued with problems which delayed its first unmanned flight by about ten months, despite this, the LM eventually became the most reliable component of the Apollo/Saturn space vehicle, the only component never to suffer a failure that significantly affected a mission. The total cost of the LM for development and the produced was $21. 3B in 2016 dollars. At launch, the Lunar Module sat directly beneath the Command/Service Module with legs folded, there it remained through earth parking orbit and the Trans Lunar Injection rocket burn to send the craft toward the Moon. Soon after TLI, the SLA opened and the CSM separated, turned around, came back to dock with the Lunar Module, during the flight to the Moon, the docking hatches were opened and the LM Pilot entered the LM to temporarily power up and test its systems. Throughout the flight, he performed the role of an engineering officer, at this point, the engine was started again for Powered Descent Initiation. During this time the crew flew on their backs, depending on the computer to slow the crafts forward, Control was exercised with a combination of engine throttling and attitude thrusters, guided by the computer with the aid of landing radar. During the braking phase altitude decreased to approximately 10,000 feet, during final approach, the vehicle pitched over to a near-vertical position, allowing the crew to look forward and down to see the lunar surface for the first time. Finally the landing began, approximately 2,000 feet uprange of the targeted landing site. Beginning with Apollo 14, increased LM fuel was available for the powered descent and landing, by using the CSM engine to achieve the 50. After the spacecraft undocked, the CSM raised and circularized its orbit for the remainder of the mission. When ready to leave the Moon, the LM would separate the descent stage and fire the ascent engine to back into orbit. After a few course correction burns, the LM would rendezvous with the CSM and dock for transfer of the crew, having completed its job, the LM was separated and sent into solar orbit or to crash into the Moon. The Lunar Module was designed after NASA chose to reach the Moon via Lunar Orbit Rendezvous instead of the ascent or Earth Orbit Rendezvous methods

26.
Pete Conrad
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Charles Pete Conrad Jr. was an American naval officer and aviator, aeronautical engineer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut, and during the Apollo 12 mission became the third man to walk on the Moon. He set a space endurance record along with his Command Pilot Gordon Cooper on the Gemini 5 mission. After Apollo, he commanded the Skylab 2 mission, on which he, for this, President Jimmy Carter awarded him the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978. Pete Conrad was born on June 2,1930, in Philadelphia, the child and the first son of Charles Conrad Sr. and Frances De Rappelage Conrad. His mother wanted very much to name her newborn son Peter, in a compromise between two strong-willed people, the name on his birth certificate read Charles Conrad, Jr. but to his mother and virtually all who knew him, he was Peter. When he was 21, his fiancees father called him Pete and thereafter, for the rest of his life, to virtually everyone, he was Pete. The Great Depression wiped out the Conrad familys fortune, just as it had those of so many others, in 1942, the family lost their manor home in Philadelphia, and then moved into a small carriage house, paid for by Francess brother, Egerton Vinson. Eventually, Charles Sr. broken down by financial failures, left his family, from the beginning, Pete Conrad was clearly a bright, intelligent boy, but he continually struggled with his schoolwork. He suffered from dyslexia, a little understood at the time. Conrad attended the Haverford School, an academy in Haverford, Pennsylvania. Even after his familys financial downturn, his uncle Egerton supported his continued schooling at Haverford, however, Petes dyslexia continued to frustrate his academic efforts. After he failed most of his 11th grade exams, Haverford expelled him from school, Conrads mother refused to believe that her son was unintelligent, and she set about finding him a suitable school. She found Darrow School in New Lebanon, New York, there, Conrad learned how to apply a systems approach to learning, and thus found a way to work around his dyslexia. He learned more about the mechanics and workings of aircraft and aircraft engines, when he was 16, he drove almost 100 miles to help a flight instructor whose airplane had been forced to make an emergency landing. Thereafter, the instructor gave Conrad the flight lessons that he needed to earn his pilots certificate even before he graduated high school. Conrad continued flying while he was in college, not only keeping his pilots certificate and he graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Princeton in 1953, and received automatic commission as an Ensign in the U. S. Navy as a Naval ROTC graduate. Following his commission in 1953, Conrad was sent to Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida and he was also trained at the Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. He was designated a Naval Aviator in September 1954 and became a fighter pilot and he excelled in Navy flight school, and he served for several years as an aircraft carrier pilot in the Navy

27.
Alan Bean
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Alan LaVern Bean, is an American former naval officer and aviator, aeronautical engineer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut, he was the fourth person to walk on the Moon. He was selected to become an astronaut by NASA in 1963 as part of Astronaut Group 3 and he made his first flight into space aboard Apollo 12, the second manned mission to land on the Moon, at the age of thirty-seven years in November 1969. He made his second and final flight into space on the Skylab 3 mission in 1973, Bean was born March 15,1932, in Wheeler, the seat of Wheeler County in the northeastern Texas Panhandle. As a boy, he lived in Minden, the seat of Webster Parish in northwestern Louisiana, Bean graduated from R. L. Paschal High School in Fort Worth, Texas, in 1950. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1955, at UT he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity. He was commissioned a U. S. Navy Ensign through the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at UT Austin, after completing flight training, he was assigned to a jet attack squadron in Jacksonville, Florida. After a four-year tour of duty, he attended the U. S. Naval Test Pilot School and he then flew as a test pilot on several types of naval aircraft. Bean was a Boy Scout and he earned the rank of First Class, Bean logged more than 7,145 hours flying time, including 4,890 hours in jet aircraft. Bean was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Texas Wesleyan College in 1972, Bean was selected by NASA as part of Astronaut Group 3 in 1963. He was selected to be the command pilot for Gemini 10 but was unsuccessful in securing an early Apollo flight assignment. He was placed in the Apollo Applications Program in the interim, in that capacity, he is the first astronaut to dive in the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator and a champion of the process for astronaut training. When fellow astronaut Clifton Williams was killed in an air crash, Apollo 12 Commander Conrad, who had instructed Bean at the Naval Flight Test School years before, personally requested Bean to replace Williams. Bean was the lunar module pilot on Apollo 12, the lunar landing. In November 1969, Bean and Pete Conrad landed on the moons Ocean of Storms—after a flight of 250,000 miles and they explored the lunar surface, deployed several lunar surface experiments, and installed the first nuclear power generator station on the Moon to provide the power source. Dick Gordon remained in orbit photographing landing sites for future missions. Bean had planned on using a self-timer for his Hasselblad camera in order to take a photograph of himself and Pete Conrad while on the lunar surface near the Surveyor III spacecraft. Bean was hoping not only to record a wonderful photo, however, neither he nor Conrad could locate the timer in the tool carrier tote bag while at the Surveyor III site and thus lost the opportunity. Bean did not locate the self-timer until the end of the EVA when it was too late to use - at which point Bean threw it as hard as he could

28.
Jim Lovell
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James Arthur Jim Lovell Jr. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. He is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, Lovell was also the first person to fly in space four times. Born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1928, Lovell was the child of his mother Blanche, who was of Czech descent, and his father. For about two years, he and his mother resided with a relative in Terre Haute, Indiana and his mother then moved them to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout. As a child, Lovell was interested in rocketry, and built flying models, from the fall of 1946 to the spring of 1948, he attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison for two years under the Flying Midshipman program, where he joined the Alpha Phi Omega fraternity. While Lovell was attending pre-flight training in the summer of 1948, there were even worries that some or most of the pilots that graduated wouldnt have pilot billets to fill. He applied and was accepted to attend the United States Naval Academy in the fall of 1948 and he attended Annapolis for the full four years, graduating as an Ensign in the spring of 1952 with a B. S. degree. He then went to training at NAS Pensacola from October 1952 to February 1954. He married Marilyn Lillie Gerlach, the daughter of Lillie and Carl Gerlach, the two were high-school sweethearts at Juneau High School in Milwaukee. Marilyn initially was hesitant about dating Jim because he was two years older than she, but the two became inseparable after their first date. She transferred from Wisconsin State Teachers College to George Washington University in Washington D. C. so she could be near him while he was training in Annapolis and they married after his graduation from the Naval Academy on June 6,1952. They have four children, Barbara, James, Susan, due to her husband often being absent from the home because of training and missions, Marilyn was in charge of taking care of their household and four children. Their home life during the Apollo 13 mission of 1970 was portrayed in the 1995 film Apollo 13, Actress Kathleen Quinlan was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Marilyn Lovell. In 1999 the Lovell family opened Lovells of Lake Forest, a dining restaurant in Lake Forest. The restaurant displays many artifacts from Lovells time with NASA, as well as from the filming of Apollo 13 and his son James Jay Lovell III was the executive chef. He sold the restaurant to Jay and his wife Darice in 2006, the Lovell family announced that the restaurant building and surrounding property was on the market in February 2014. The restaurant closed on April 12,2015, and the property was auctioned on April 22,2015, upon completion of pilot training Lovell served at sea flying F2H Banshee night fighters from 1954 to 1957

29.
Plutonium-238
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Plutonium-238 is a radioactive isotope of plutonium that has a half-life of 87.7 years. Plutonium-238 is a very powerful alpha emitter and this makes the plutonium-238 isotope suitable for usage in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and radioisotope heater units. One gram of 238Pu corresponds to 1/238 moles, which is 2. 53×1021 plutonium atoms, considering its half-life t1/2 =87.7 years we can calculate its activity as A = λ N = ln ⁡2 t 1 /2 N =634 GBq. It is the number of 238Pu decays per second, each of the emitted alpha particles has kinetic energy 5.593 MeV or 8. 96×10-13 J which is quickly converted to heat when the particle decelerates in the material. Therefore each gram of 238Pu spontaneously generates 0.568 W of heat, Plutonium-238 was the first isotope of plutonium to be discovered. It was synthesized by Glenn Seaborg and associates in December,1940 by bombarding uranium-238 with deuterons, creating neptunium-238, Plutonium-238 decays to uranium-234 and then further along the radium series to lead-206. Plutonium-238 was produced by irradiating Neptunium-237, which is a by-product of the production of Plutonium-239 weapons-grade material, as produced by Savannah River in their weapons reactor, shut down in 1988, Plutonium-238 was mixed with about 16% Plutonium-239. The first application was its use in a weapons component made at Mound for the Weapons Design Agency Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Mound was chosen for this work because of its experience in producing the Polonium-210 fueled Urchin initiator and its work with several heavy elements in a Reactor Fuels program. Two Mound scientists spent 1959 at LLL in joint development while the Special Metallurgical Building was constructed at Mound to house the project, meanwhile the first sample of Plutonium-238 came to Mound in 1959. The weapons project was planned for about 1 kg/year of Pu-238 over a 3-year period, but the Pu-238 component could not be produced to the specifications despite a 2 year effort beginning at Mound in mid-1961. A maximum effort was undertaken with 3 shifts a day,6 days a week, a loosening of the specifications resulted in productivity of about 3%, and production finally began in 1964. Capt. R. T. Carpenter had chosen Pu-238 as the fuel for the first RTG to be launched into space as auxiliary power for the Transit IV Navy navigational satellite, June 29,1961. As of January 21,1963, the decision had yet to be made as to what isotope would be used to fuel the large RTGs for NASA programs. Then early in 1964 Mound scientists developed a different method of fabricating the weapon component that resulted in an efficiency of around 98%. When it was recognized that the source would not remain intact through cremation. An addition to the Special Metallurgical building weapon component production facility was completed at the end of 1964 for Pu-238 heat source fuel fabrication, a temporary fuel production facility was also installed in the Research Building in 1969 for Transit fuel fabrication. Pu-238 makes up one or two percent, but it may be responsible for much of the short-term decay heat because of its short half-life relative to other plutonium isotopes. Reactor-grade plutonium is not useful for producing Pu-238 for RTGs because difficult isotopic separation would be needed, in both cases, the targets are subjected to a chemical treatment, including dissolution in nitric acid to extract the plutonium-238

30.
Thermocouple
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A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the effect. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor, commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of measurement, thermocouples are self powered. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy, system errors of less than one degree Celsius can be difficult to achieve, Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry, applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the sensors in thermostats. At the time Seebeck referred to this as thermo-magnetism, the magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to thermo-electric current. In practical use, the voltage generated at a junction of two different types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire used, generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although current flows very little, power can be generated by a thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in a thermopile, is common, the standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the desired temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function E of the thermocouple, the measured voltage V, and the reference junctions temperature Tref, the solution to the equation E = V + E yields Tsense. These details are hidden from the user since the reference junction block, voltmeter. The Seebeck effect refers to an electromotive force whenever there is a gradient in a conductive material. The standard measurement configuration shown in the figure, shows four temperature regions and thus four voltage contributions, Change from T m e t e r to T r e f, Change from T r e f to T s e n s e, in the alumel wire. Change from T s e n s e to T r e f, Change from T r e f to T m e t e r, in the upper copper wire. The first and fourth contributions cancel out exactly, because these regions involve the same temperature change, as a result, T m e t e r does not influence the measured voltage. The second and third contributions do not cancel, as they involve different materials, an integral does not need to be performed for every temperature measurement

31.
Seismology
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Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. A related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes is paleoseismology, a recording of earth motion as a function of time is called a seismogram. A seismologist is a scientist who does research in seismology, scholarly interest in earthquakes can be traced back to antiquity. Early speculations on the causes of earthquakes were included in the writings of Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes of Miletus, Aristotle. In 132 CE, Zhang Heng of Chinas Han dynasty designed the first known seismoscope, in 1664, Athanasius Kircher argued that earthquakes were caused by the movement of fire within a system of channels inside the Earth. In 1703, Martin Lister and Nicolas Lemery proposed that earthquakes were caused by chemical explosions within the earth, the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, coinciding with the general flowering of science in Europe, set in motion intensified scientific attempts to understand the behaviour and causation of earthquakes. The earliest responses include work by John Bevis and John Michell, Michell determined that earthquakes originate within the Earth and were waves of movement caused by shifting masses of rock miles below the surface. From 1857, Robert Mallet laid the foundation of instrumental seismology and he is also responsible for coining the word seismology. In 1897, Emil Wiecherts theoretical calculations led him to conclude that the Earths interior consists of a mantle of silicates, surrounding a core of iron. In 1906 Richard Dixon Oldham identified the separate arrival of P-waves, S-waves and surface waves on seismograms, in 1910, after studying the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Harry Fielding Reid put forward the elastic rebound theory which remains the foundation for modern tectonic studies. The development of this depended on the considerable progress of earlier independent streams of work on the behaviour of elastic materials. In 1926, Harold Jeffreys was the first to claim, based on his study of waves, that below the mantle. In 1937, Inge Lehmann determined that within the liquid outer core there is a solid inner core. By the 1960s, earth science had developed to the point where a comprehensive theory of the causation of seismic events had come together in the now well-established theory of plate tectonics, seismic waves are elastic waves that propagate in solid or fluid materials. There are two types of waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves and Shear or Secondary waves. S-waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation, therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids, the two main surface wave types are Rayleigh waves, which have some compressional motion, and Love waves, which do not. Rayleigh waves result from the interaction of vertically polarized P- and S-waves that satisfy the conditions on the surface

32.
Geophone
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A geophone is a device that converts ground movement into voltage, which may be recorded at a recording station. The deviation of this voltage from the base line is called the seismic response and is analyzed for structure of the earth. The term geophone derives from the Greek word γῆ meaning earth, geophones have historically been passive analog devices and typically comprise a spring-mounted magnetic mass moving within a wire coil to generate an electrical signal. The response of a geophone is proportional to ground velocity. MEMS have a higher noise level than geophones and can only be used in strong motion or active seismic applications. The frequency response of a geophone is that of an oscillator, fully determined by corner frequency. Since the corner frequency is proportional to the root of the moving mass. It is possible to lower the corner electronically, at the price of higher noise. Although waves passing through the earth have a nature, geophones are normally constrained to respond to single dimension - usually the vertical. However, some require the full wave to be used. In analog devices, three moving coil elements are mounted in an arrangement within a single case. The majority of geophones are used in seismology to record the energy waves reflected by the subsurface geology. In this case the primary interest is in the motion of the Earths surface. However, not all the waves are upwards travelling, a strong, horizontally transmitted wave known as ground-roll also generates vertical motion that can obliterate the weaker vertical signals. By using large areal arrays tuned to the wavelength of the ground-roll the dominant noise signals can be attenuated, analog geophones are very sensitive devices which can respond to very distant tremors. These small signals can be drowned by larger signals from local sources and it is possible though to recover the small signals caused by large but distant events by correlating signals from several geophones deployed in an array. Signals which are registered only at one or few geophones can be attributed to unwanted, local events and it can be assumed that small signals that register uniformly at all geophones in an array can be attributed to a distant and therefore significant event. The sensitivity of passive geophones is typically 30 Volts/, so they are in general not a replacement for broadband seismometers, conversely, some applications of geophones are interested only in very local events

33.
Flux
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Flux is either of two separate simple and ubiquitous concepts throughout physics and applied mathematics. Within a discipline, the term is used consistently. Both concepts have mathematical rigor, enabling comparison of the underlying math when the terminology is unclear, for transport phenomena, flux is a vector quantity, describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of a substance or property. In electromagnetism, flux is a quantity, defined as the surface integral of the component of a vector field perpendicular to the surface at each point. As will be clear, the easiest way to relate the two concepts is that the surface integral of a flux according to the first definition is a flux according to the second definition. The word flux comes from Latin, fluxus means flow, as fluxion, this term was introduced into differential calculus by Isaac Newton. One could argue, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell, the specific quote from Maxwell is, In the case of fluxes, we have to take the integral, over a surface, of the flux through every element of the surface. The result of operation is called the surface integral of the flux. It represents the quantity which passes through the surface, according to the first definition, flux may be a single vector, or flux may be a vector field / function of position. In the latter case flux can readily be integrated over a surface, by contrast, according to the second definition, flux is the integral over a surface, it makes no sense to integrate a second-definition flux for one would be integrating over a surface twice. Thus, Maxwells quote only makes sense if flux is being used according to the first definition and this is ironic because Maxwell was one of the major developers of what we now call electric flux and magnetic flux according to the second definition. This implies that Maxwell conceived as these fields as flows/fluxes of some sort, given a flux according to the second definition, the corresponding flux density, if that term is used, refers to its derivative along the surface that was integrated. By the Fundamental theorem of calculus, the flux density is a flux according to the first definition. Given a current such as electric current—charge per time, current density would also be a flux according to the first definition—charge per time per area. Concrete fluxes in the rest of this article will be used in accordance to their acceptance in the literature. In transport phenomena, flux is defined as the rate of flow of a property per unit area, the area is of the surface the property is flowing through or across. Here are 3 definitions in increasing order of complexity, each is a special case of the following. In all cases the frequent symbol j, is used for flux, q for the quantity that flows, t for time

34.
Electron
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The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, the electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the include a intrinsic angular momentum of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant. As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of particles and waves, they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. Since an electron has charge, it has an electric field. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the Lorentz force law, electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by the use of electromagnetic fields, special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in applications such as electronics, welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors. Interactions involving electrons with other particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without, allows the composition of the two known as atoms, ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the cause of chemical bonding. In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of a quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms. Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge electron in 1891, electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons can be created through beta decay of isotopes and in high-energy collisions. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical, when an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be totally annihilated, producing gamma ray photons. The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur, along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanitys earliest recorded experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum, which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον

35.
Ion
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An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by chemical or physical means. In chemical terms, if an atom loses one or more electrons. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net charge and is known as an anion. Ions consisting of only a single atom are atomic or monatomic ions, because of their electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds, such as salts. In the case of ionization of a medium, such as a gas, which are known as ion pairs are created by ion impact, and each pair consists of a free electron. The word ion comes from the Greek word ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a charged ion. In Faradays nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device, arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faradays ions. Arrhenius proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current, ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. These stabilized species are commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts. Electrons, due to their mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms. Thus, anions are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron repel each other, as such, in general, cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of its electron cloud. One particular cation contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom. Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, an anion, from the Greek word ἄνω, meaning up, is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge. A cation, from the Greek word κατά, meaning down, is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, there are additional names used for ions with multiple charges

36.
Atmosphere of the Moon
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The atmosphere of the Moon is a very scant presence of gases surrounding the Moon. For most practical purposes, the Moon is considered to be surrounded by vacuum, the pressure of this small mass is around 3×10−15 atm, varying throughout the day, and in total weighs less than 10 metric tonnes. One source of the atmosphere is outgassing, the release of gases such as radon and helium resulting from radioactive decay within the crust. Another important source is the bombardment of the surface by micrometeorites, the solar wind. What little atmosphere the Moon has consists of some gases, including sodium and potassium. At sea level on Earth, each cubic centimeter of the atmosphere contains approximately 1019 molecules, on Earth, this is considered to be a very good vacuum. In fact, the density of the atmosphere at the Moons surface is comparable to the density of the outermost fringes of Earths atmosphere, where the International Space Station orbits. Argon-40, helium-4, oxygen and/or methane, nitrogen and/or carbon monoxide, the Moon may also have a tenuous atmosphere of electrostatically-levitated dust. See Moon dust for more details

37.
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
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The ongoing Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment measures the distance between Earth and the Moon using laser ranging. Lasers on Earth are aimed at retroreflectors planted on the Moon during the Apollo program, the time for the reflected light to return is measured. Similar measurements were obtained later the year by a Soviet team at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory using a Q-switched ruby laser. Successful lunar laser range measurements to the retroreflectors were first reported by the 3, the unmanned Soviet Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 rovers carried smaller arrays. Lunokhod 2s array continues to return signals to Earth, the Lunokhod arrays suffer from decreased performance in direct sunlight—a factor considered in reflector placement during the Apollo missions. The Apollo 15 array is three times the size of the left by the two earlier Apollo missions. Its size made it the target of three-quarters of the measurements taken in the first 25 years of the experiment. The distance to the Moon is calculated using this equation, distance = /2 In actuality. Nonetheless, the Earth–Moon distance has been measured with increasing accuracy for more than 35 years, the distance continually changes for a number of reasons, but averages 385,000.6 km. At the Moons surface, the beam is about 6.5 kilometers wide, the reflected light is too weak to see with the human eye. Out of 1017 photons aimed at the reflector, only one is received back on Earth every few seconds and they can be identified as originating from the laser because the laser is highly monochromatic. This is one of the most precise measurements ever made. As of 2002, work is progressing on increasing the accuracy of the Earth–Moon measurements to near millimeter accuracy, Lunar laser ranging measurement data is available from the Paris Observatory Lunar Analysis Center, and the active stations. Some of the findings of this experiment are, The Moon is spiraling away from Earth at a rate of 3.8 cm per year. This rate has been described as anomalously high, the Moon probably has a liquid core of about 20% of the Moons radius. The universal force of gravity is very stable, the experiments have constrained the change in Newtons gravitational constant G to ×10−13 per year. The likelihood of any Nordtvedt effect has been ruled out to high precision, einsteins theory of gravity predicts the Moons orbit to within the accuracy of the laser ranging measurements

38.
Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser

39.
Lunar soil
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Lunar soil is the fine fraction of the regolith found on the surface of the moon. Its properties can differ significantly from those of terrestrial soil, the process is largely one of mechanical weathering in which the particles are ground to finer and finer size over time. Some have argued that the soil is not correct in reference to the Moon because on the Earth, soil is defined as having organic content. However, standard usage among lunar scientists is to ignore that distinction, the term lunar soil is often used interchangeably with lunar regolith but typically refers to only the finer fraction of regolith, that which is composed of grains one centimeter in diameter or less. Lunar dust generally connotes even finer materials than lunar soil, there is no official definition of what size fraction constitutes dust, some place the cutoff at less than 50 micrometres in diameter, others at less than 10. These processes not only form lunar soil, they continue to change the physical and optical properties of the soil over time. Deposits of volcanic beads are thought to be the origin of Dark Mantle Deposits in other locations around the Moon. Over time, material is mixed both vertically and horizontally by impact processes, however, the contribution of material from great distances is relatively minor, such that the soil composition at any given location largely reflects the local bedrock composition. There are two differences in the chemistry of lunar regolith and soil from terrestrial materials. The first is that the Moon is very dry, as a result, those minerals with water as part of their structure such as clay, mica, and amphiboles are totally absent from the Moon. The second difference is that lunar regolith and crust are chemically reduced, in the case of the regolith, this is due in part to the constant bombardment of the lunar surface with protons from the solar wind. One consequence is that iron on the Moon is found in the metallic 0 and +2 oxidation state, whereas on Earth iron is primarily in the +2. The significance of acquiring knowledge of lunar soil properties is great. The load-carrying capability of the soil is an important parameter in the design of structures on Earth. Due to myriad meteorite impacts, the surface is covered with a thin layer of dust. The dust is electrically charged and sticks to any surface it comes in contact with, the soil becomes very dense beneath the top layer of regolith. Other factors which may affect the properties of soil include large temperature differentials, the presence of a hard vacuum. According to a proposed in 2005 by the Laboratory for Extraterrestrial Physics at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center

40.
Lunar rover
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A lunar rover or Moon rover is a space exploration vehicle designed to move across the surface of the Moon. Five countries have had rovers on the Moon, the Soviet Union, the panels were designed by Electronic and Communication Engineer Bryan Mapúa. The spacecraft which carried Lunokhod 1 was named Luna 17, the spacecraft soft-landed on the Moon in the Sea of Rains on November 1970. Lunokhod was the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on another celestial body, having worked for 11 months, Lunokhod 1 held the durability record for space rovers for more than 30 years, until a new record was set by the Mars Exploration Rovers. The Lunar Roving Vehicle was a battery-powered four-wheeled rover used on the Moon during the last three missions of the American Apollo program during 1971 and 1972, the LRV could carry one or two astronauts, their equipment, and lunar samples. Lunokhod 2 was the second and a monocrystalline-panel-powered of two unmanned lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of the Lunokhod program, the Luna 21 spacecraft landed on the Moon and deployed the second Soviet lunar rover Lunokhod 2 in January 1973. Lunokhod 2 intended to be followed by Lunokhod 3 in 1977, Yutu is a Chinese lunar rover which launched on 1 December 2013 and landed on 14 December 2013 as part of the Change 3 mission. It is Chinas first lunar rover, part of the phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program undertaken by China National Space Administration. The lunar rover is called Yutu, or Jade Rabbit, a name selected in an online poll. The rover encountered operational difficulties after the first 14-day lunar night, the Yutu rover might be the worlds first true hibernating robot on the moon. Barcelona Moon Team is a participating in the Google Lunar X Prize. Astrobotic Technology, a company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, plans to send a rover to the Moon in late 2017. Chinese mission with a launch date before 2020. The Chandrayaan-2 mission is the first lunar mission by India, consisting of a lunar orbiter. The rover weighing 50 kg, will have six wheels and will be running on solar power and it will land near one of the poles and will operate for a year, roving up to 150 km at a maximum speed of 360 m/h. The proposed launch date of the mission is 2018, planned Japanese robotic mission to the Moon will include an orbiter, a lander and a rover. It is expected to be launched in 2017, NASAs plans for future moon missions call for rovers that have a far longer range than the Apollo rovers. The All-Terrain Hex-Legged Extra-Terrestrial Explorer is a robotic lunar rover test-bed under development by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory

41.
Gravitational wave
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Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. The possibility of gravitational waves was discussed in 1893 by Oliver Heaviside using the analogy between the law in gravitation and electricity. In 1905 Henri Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves emanating from a body, Gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtons law of universal gravitation, since that law is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions propagate at infinite speed. On June 15,2016, a detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other observatories are under construction. In Einsteins theory of relativity, gravity is treated as a phenomenon resulting from the curvature of spacetime. This curvature is caused by the presence of mass, generally, the more mass that is contained within a given volume of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime will be at the boundary of its volume. As objects with mass move around in spacetime, the changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. In certain circumstances, accelerating objects generate changes in this curvature and these propagating phenomena are known as gravitational waves. As a gravitational wave passes an observer, that observer will find spacetime distorted by the effects of strain, distances between objects increase and decrease rhythmically as the wave passes, at a frequency corresponding to that of the wave. This occurs despite such free objects never being subjected to an unbalanced force, the magnitude of this effect decreases proportional to the inverse distance from the source. Inspiraling binary neutron stars are predicted to be a source of gravitational waves as they coalesce. However, due to the distances to these sources, the effects when measured on Earth are predicted to be very small. Scientists have demonstrated the existence of these waves with ever more sensitive detectors, the most sensitive detector accomplished the task possessing a sensitivity measurement of about one part in 5×1022 provided by the LIGO and VIRGO observatories. A space based observatory, the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, is currently under development by ESA, Gravitational waves can penetrate regions of space that electromagnetic waves cannot. They are able to allow the observation of the merger of black holes, such systems cannot be observed with more traditional means such as optical telescopes or radio telescopes, and so gravitational-wave astronomy gives new insights into the working of the Universe. In particular, gravitational waves could be of interest to cosmologists as they offer a way of observing the very early Universe. This is not possible with conventional astronomy, since before recombination the Universe was opaque to electromagnetic radiation, precise measurements of gravitational waves will also allow scientists to test more thoroughly the general theory of relativity

42.
Magnetic field of the Moon
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The magnetic field of the Moon is very weak in comparison to that of the Earth. Other major differences are that the Moon does not currently have a magnetic field. One hypothesis holds that the crustal magnetizations were acquired early in history when a geodynamo was still operating. The small size of the core, however, is a potential obstacle to promoting that hypothesis to the status of theory. Alternatively, it is possible that on a body such as the Moon. In support of this, it has noted that the largest crustal magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of the giant impact basins. It has been proposed such a phenomenon could result from the free expansion of an impact-generated plasma cloud around the Moon in the presence of an ambient magnetic field. For example, the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft mapped a mini-magnetosphere at the Crisium antipode on the far side. The mini-magnetosphere is 360 km across at the surface and is surrounded by a 300-km-thick region of enhanced plasma flux that results from the wind flowing around the mini-magnetosphere. Theres growing evidence that fine particles of moondust might actually float and this could create a temporary nighttime atmosphere of dust. The moondust atmosphere might also gather itself into a sort of diaphanous wind, drawn by differences in global charge accumulation, floating dust would naturally fly from the strongly negative nightside to the weakly negative dayside. This dust storm effect would be strongest at the Moons terminator, much of these details are still speculative, but the Lunar Prospector spacecraft detected changes in the lunar nightside voltage during magnetotail crossings, jumping from -200 V to -1000 V. Further characterization was done by the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer orbiter in late 2013, in the Space Odyssey series by Arthur C. Clarke, a monolith is found on the Moon near the crater Tycho by its unnaturally powerful magnetic field, gravity field of the Moon Topography of the Moon

43.
Photovoltaics
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A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted, the mount may be fixed, or use a solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky. Dust, clouds, and other things in the atmosphere also diminish the power output, another main issue is the concentration of the production in the hours corresponding to main insolation, which dont usually match the peaks in demand in human activity cycles. Unless current societal patterns of consumption and electrical networks mutually adjust to this scenario, electricity still need to be made up by other power sources, Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications, and standalone and grid-connected PV systems have been in use since the 1990s. They were first mass-produced in 2000, when German environmentalists and the Eurosolar organization got government funding for a ten thousand roof program, advances in technology and increased manufacturing scale have in any case reduced the cost, increased the reliability, and increased the efficiency of photovoltaic installations. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries, more than 100 countries now use solar PV. After hydro and wind powers, PV is the renewable energy source in terms of globally capacity. In 2014, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to 177 gigawatts, with current technology, photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 years in Southern Europe and 2.5 years in Northern Europe. The term photo-voltaic has been in use in English since 1849, photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery, the first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC, there is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of cells containing a photovoltaic material. Copper solar cables connect modules, arrays, and sub-fields, because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years. Solar photovoltaic power generation has long seen as a clean energy technology which draws upon the planet’s most plentiful. Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly in solar panels, Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions in Wp. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than other industrial sources of electricity. For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun, Solar trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter, static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path

44.
Buzz Aldrin
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Buzz Aldrin is an American engineer and former astronaut. As the Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 11, he was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon, and the person to walk on it. He set foot on the Moon at 03,15,16 on July 21,1969 and he is a former U. S. Air Force officer with the Command Pilot rating. Aldrin was born January 20,1930, in Mountainside Hospital, in Glen Ridge and his parents were Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr. a career military man, and Marion Aldrin, who lived in neighboring Montclair. He is of Scottish, Swedish, and German ancestry, Aldrin was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of Tenderfoot Scout. The nickname Buzz originated in childhood, the younger of his two elder sisters mispronounced brother as buzzer, and this was shortened to Buzz, Aldrin made it his legal first name in 1988. Aldrin graduated third in his class at West Point in 1951 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering and he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions in F-86 Sabres and shot down two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 aircraft, the June 8,1953, issue of Life magazine featured gun camera photos taken by Aldrin of one of the Soviet pilots ejecting from his damaged aircraft. That same year, he graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama and he flew F-100 Super Sabres as a flight commander at Bitburg Air Base, West Germany, in the 22d Fighter Squadron. In January 1963, Aldrin earned a Sc. D. degree in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, if only I could join them in their exciting endeavors. On completion of his doctorate, he was assigned to the Gemini Target Office of the Air Force Space Systems Division in Los Angeles before his selection as an astronaut, Aldrin was selected as a member of the third group of NASA astronauts in October 1963. Because test pilot experience was no longer a requirement, this was the first selection for which he was eligible, after the deaths of the original Gemini 9 prime crew, Elliot See and Charles Bassett, Aldrin and Jim Lovell were promoted to backup crew for the mission. He was confirmed as pilot on Gemini 12, the last Gemini mission and he set a record for EVA, demonstrating that astronauts could work outside spacecraft. Aldrin was chosen for the crew of Apollo 11 and made the first lunar landing with commander Neil Armstrong on July 20,1969. The next day, Aldrin became the person to walk on the Moon. Aldrins first words on the Moon were Beautiful view, then, in response to Armstrong asking, Isnt it magnificent. He was also the first person to urinate while on the Moon, there has been speculation about the extent of Aldrins desire at the time to be the first astronaut to walk on the Moon and its impact on his pre-flight, in-mission and post-flight actions. Also, Armstrong was the Mission Commander, and other astronauts who would command later Apollo missions were not sympathetic to Aldrins views

45.
Neil Armstrong
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Neil Alden Armstrong was an American astronaut and the first person to walk on the Moon. He was also an engineer, naval aviator, test pilot. Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was an officer in the U. S. Navy and he later completed graduate studies at the University of Southern California. A participant in the U. S. Air Forces Man in Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs and he made his first space flight as command pilot of Gemini 8 in March 1966, becoming NASAs first civilian astronaut to fly in space. He performed the first docking of two spacecraft, with pilot David Scott and this mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his reentry control fuel to prevent a dangerous spin caused by a stuck thruster, in the first in-flight space emergency. Armstrongs second and last spaceflight was as commander of Apollo 11, along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon. President Jimmy Carter presented Armstrong the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, Armstrong and his former crewmates received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009. Armstrong died in Cincinnati, Ohio on August 25,2012, at the age of 82, Armstrong was born on August 5,1930 near Wapakoneta, Ohio, the son of Stephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise Engel. He was of German, Irish, and Scottish ancestry, and had a sister, June. His father worked as an auditor for the Ohio state government, Armstrongs love for flying grew during this time, having gotten off to an early start when his father took his two-year-old son to the Cleveland Air Races. When he was five, he experienced his first airplane flight in Warren, Ohio on July 20,1936 when he and his father took a ride in a Ford Trimotor and his fathers last move was in 1944, back to Wapakoneta. Armstrong attended Blume High School and took flying lessons at the grassy Wapakoneta airfield and he earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday, then soloed later in August, all before he had a drivers license. Armstrong was active in the Boy Scouts and earned the rank of Eagle Scout, as an adult, he was recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with its Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award. Houston replied, Thank you, Apollo 11, Im sure that, if they didnt hear that, theyll get the word through the news. Among the very few items that Neil Armstrong carried with him to the Moon. In 1947, at age 17, Armstrong began studying engineering at Purdue University. He was the person in his family to attend college. He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the only engineer he knew dissuaded him from attending, telling Armstrong that it was not necessary to go all the way to Cambridge, Massachusetts, for a good education

46.
Apollo 13
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Apollo 13 was the seventh manned mission in the American Apollo space program and the third intended to land on the Moon. The mission was commanded by James A. Lovell with John L. Jack Swigert as Command Module Pilot, Swigert was a late replacement for the original CM pilot Ken Mattingly, who was grounded by the flight surgeon after exposure to German measles. The story of the Apollo 13 mission has been dramatized multiple times and that crew was composed of L. Gordon Cooper, Jr, Donn F. Eisele, Edgar D. Mitchell. Deke Slayton, NASAs Director of Flight Crew Operations, never intended to rotate Cooper and Eisele to another mission and he assigned them to the backup crew simply because of a lack of flight-qualified manpower in the Astronaut Office at the time the assignment needed to be made. Slayton felt Cooper had no more than a small chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command, if he did an outstanding job with the assignment. Thus, the original assignment Slayton submitted to his superiors for this flight was, shepard, Jr, Stuart A. Roosa, Edgar D. Mitchell. Seven days before launch, the Backup Lunar Module Pilot, Charlie Duke and this exposed both the prime and backup crews, who trained together. Mattingly was found to be the one of the other five who had not had rubella as a child. Three days before launch, at the insistence of the Flight Surgeon, Mattingly never contracted rubella and was assigned after the mission as Command Module Pilot to Youngs crew, which later flew Apollo 16, the fifth mission to land on the Moon. Vance D. Brand, Jack R. Lousma, Joseph P. Kerwin, Gene Kranz – White Team, Glynn Lunney – Black Team, Milt Windler – Maroon Team, Gerry Griffin – Gold Team. The astronauts mission insignia was sculpted as a medallion titled Steeds of Apollo by Lumen Martin Winter and was struck by the Franklin Mint. Mass, CSM Odyssey 63,470 pounds, LM Aquarius 33,490 pounds, Perigee,99.3 nautical miles, Apogee,100.3 nautical miles, Inclination,31. 817°, Period,88.19 min. The Apollo 13 mission was to explore the Fra Mauro formation, or Fra Mauro highlands and it is a widespread, hilly selenological area thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium. The next Apollo mission, Apollo 14, eventually made a flight to Fra Mauro. April 14,1970 UTC Oxygen tank explosion,03,07,53 UTC,173,790.5 nmi from Earth CSM power down, Crew was on board the USS Iwo Jima 45 minutes later. The mission was launched at the time,02,13,00 PM EST on April 11. An anomaly occurred when the second-stage, center engine shut down two minutes early. The engine shutdown was determined to be caused by severe pogo oscillations measured at a strength of 68 g, the vehicles guidance system shut the engine down in response to sensed thrust chamber pressure fluctuations

Plaque in Building 6 honoring George Eastman, founder of Eastman Kodak, who was revealed as the anonymous "Mr. Smith" who helped maintain MIT's independence

The MIT Media Lab houses researchers developing novel uses of computer technology and shown here is the 1982 building, designed by I.M. Pei, with an extension (right of photo) designed by Fumihiko Maki opened in March 2010

Inside 80 by 120 foot wind tunnel facing towards the intake. Aircraft or scaled models of them can be mounted on the three struts in the foreground which in this picture hold individual airplane wing portions.

The Mars Science Laboratory landing parachute under test in the 80 by 120 foot wind tunnel. Note the people in the lower-right corner of the image.

A pellet of <sup>238</sup>PuO2 as used in the RTG for the ''Cassini'' and ''Galileo'' missions. This photo was taken after insulating the pellet under a graphite blanket for several minutes and then removing the blanket. The pellet is glowing red hot because of the heat generated by radioactive decay (primarily α). The initial output is 62 watts.

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of …

A laser beam used for welding.

Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield

A helium–neon laser demonstration at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6. The pink-orange glow running through the center of the tube is from the electric discharge which produces incoherent light, just as in a neon tube. This glowing plasma is excited and then acts as the gain medium through which the internal beam passes, as it is reflected between the two mirrors. Laser output through the front mirror can be seen to produce a tiny (about 1 mm in diameter) intense spot on the screen, to the right. Although it is a deep and pure red color, spots of laser light are so intense that cameras are typically overexposed and distort their color.

Hydrogen atom (center) contains a single proton and a single electron. Removal of the electron gives a cation (left), whereas addition of an electron gives an anion (right). The hydrogen anion, with its loosely held two-electron cloud, has a larger radius than the neutral atom, which in turn is much larger than the bare proton of the cation. Hydrogen forms the only cation that has no electrons, but even cations that (unlike hydrogen) still retain one or more electrons are still smaller than the neutral atoms or molecules from which they are derived.

Equivalent notations for an iron atom (Fe) that lost two electrons, referred to as ferrous.

Mixed Roman numerals and charge notations for the uranyl ion. The oxidation state of the metal is shown as superscripted Roman numerals, whereas the charge of the entire complex is shown by the angle symbol together with the magnitude and sign of the net charge.

Flux describes the quantity which passes through a surface or substance. A flux is either a concept based in physics or …

The flux visualized. The rings show the surface boundaries. The red arrows stand for the flow of charges, fluid particles, subatomic particles, photons, etc. The number of arrows that pass through each ring is the flux.

The field lines of a vector field F through surfaces with unit normal n, the angle from n to F is θ. Flux is a measure of how much of the field passes through a given surface. F is decomposed into components perpendicular (⊥) and parallel ( ‖ ) to n. Only the parallel component contributes to flux because it is the maximum extent of the field passing through the surface at a point, the perpendicular component does not contribute. Top: Three field lines through a plane surface, one normal to the surface, one parallel, and one intermediate. Bottom: Field line through a curved surface, showing the setup of the unit normal and surface element to calculate flux.