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Introduction

Of all the animals, the horse has probably most closely shared in human adventures and has been most intimately allied with human progress. For thousands of years, the horse has participated in the pleasures, the dangers, and the hard work that have marked human life. Perhaps because of this long relationship, the horse holds a special place in humankind’s affection.

No one knows exactly when people and horses first became companions. Some historians believe that probably people hunted early horses as they did other game animals. Drawings, engravings, and sculptures of horses that date back many thousands of years may have been made by hunters and medicine men as offerings to the gods for a good hunt. Then perhaps people recognized the advantage of the horse’s fleetness, tamed the horse, and used it to pursue other animals for food. When food became scarce in one area, the horse helped people move and settle in other areas that were more productive.

Frank Verticchio

Gradually people found more and more uses for the horse and became increasingly dependent upon it. As this dependence grew, the horse became a partner in human life. It shared the dangers of war, the satisfactions of peace, the pomp and splendors of knighthood, and the sufferings and privations of exploring and settling new lands and wresting a living from the soil. The horse also made possible many pleasures. It carried people in hunting fields, in polo matches, and in races. It drew the wagons for circuses and traveling players, then often performed in the acts they presented. Pride in this magnificent beast has prompted people to show it off in horse shows, and admiration for the animal’s beauty and grace have inspired its portrayal in art and literature.

Until the early 1900s the horse was an integral part of everyday life. Then machines began to perform many of the jobs that horses had done, and the population of horses—especially in Europe and North America—dropped drastically. For example, in 1915 there were more than 21 million horses in the United States, but by 1955 their number had dropped to only a little more than 3 million. Although no census has been taken since the late 1950s, most experts agree that there was a strong increase in the population of light horses during the second half of the 20th century resulting from the growing interest in riding for pleasure and in breeding fine horses.

The horse is a hoofed, plant-eating mammal of the species Equus caballus. Although there is only one species of horse, there are numerous varieties, called breeds. Horses belong to the family Equidae, along with zebras and asses. This family is in turn part of the order of one- and three-toed hoofed mammals, Perissodactyla, which also includes rhinoceroses and tapirs.

The vast majority of horses alive today are domestic horses, which are bred and kept by people. Only two kinds of wild horses that were never domesticated survived in modern times. The tarpan, a wild horse of Europe, became extinct in the early 1900s. The subspecies known as Przewalski’s horse was last seen in the wild in the 1960s, in the area bordering Mongolia and China. Since then, however, individuals kept in zoos have been reintroduced into the wild. Other wild horses, such as the mustangs of western North America, are descended from domestic horses.

The Anatomy of the Horse

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The horse is a beautiful and utilitarian animal. Both its beauty and its utility result from the relationship among all its body parts in form and in function. The general shape and appearance of a horse is called conformation. Conformation includes the form and proportion of various parts of the animal’s body and the way they fit together to give overall balance and structural smoothness. Thus balance or proportion of the horse’s body is important because each part has a functional relationship to the rest of the parts.

Although breeders have developed horses of many different colors, sizes, and special attributes, all of the animals have a “horselike” appearance. In general, the horse is a relatively large animal that weighs about 1,000 pounds (450 kilograms) or more. It stands about 5.5 feet (170 centimeters) high at the shoulder and is about 9 feet (275 centimeters) long from the tip of its nose to its tail. It has a long, muscular neck; a large chest; a rather straight back; and powerful hindquarters. Its legs are strong and comparatively slender. In motion, the hind legs provide the propelling force and the front legs act primarily as supports.

The Horse’s Head and Body

The horse’s head and neck make up about two fifths of the total length of the animal. The head is held naturally at about a 45-degree angle to the neck. The head and neck act as a counterbalance as the center of gravity shifts when the animal is in motion.

The ears are proportionate to the head, neither too small nor so large that they look mulish. They are held upright and turned forward when the horse is alert. The horse can move his ears freely to pick up sounds from various directions.

The eyes are larger than those of any other land animal, and the horse has excellent long-range vision both at night and in the daytime. Each eye can see things above and below, behind as well as in front. A horse’s eyes see things separately. An object may be seen first with one eye, then with the other. Stationary objects, especially small ones, seen in this way seem to jump, and the horse may become frightened. Sometimes to keep the animal from being startled horsemen put pads called blinders, or blinkers, near the horse’s eyes to limit vision.

The nose has wide, flaring nostrils. A horse must get all its air through its nasal passages. It does not get extra breath through its mouth as do cows, dogs, sheep, and many other kinds of domestic animals. Even on a very hot day, or when the horse has been racing or working hard, it never pants with its tongue out. The reason for this probably is that a horse’s soft palate forms a musclelike curtain that separates the mouth cavity from the breathing passages except when the horse is swallowing.

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The horse has large jaws, and the teeth are large and strong. A mature male horse has 40 teeth, a mature female has 36. The front teeth, or incisors, are separated from the rear teeth, molars or grinders, by a wide and sensitive space, or bar. The bar forms the space into which the bit (part of the headgear used to control the horse) fits. Male horses also have two extra teeth called tushes. Horsemen examine a horse’s teeth to estimate the animal’s age. The teeth grow longer and at a more oblique angle with age, and the surfaces wear away.

The horse’s body is large and sleek. The wide chest contains the huge lungs and heart that are necessary equipment for an animal that must have great endurance for running or enormous power for pulling loads. The back is strong, well muscled, and rigid enough to provide the legs with freedom to move easily. A back that curves downward at the center is called swayback; one that curves upward is called roach, or hog, back.

The Horse’s Legs and Feet

The legs are long, strong, and comparatively slender. The front legs support weight, help maintain body balance and stability, and contribute to the forward movement of the animal. The part of the leg called the knee by horsemen is comparable to the wrist joint in humans. The hind legs are heavily muscled to provide the propelling force in running and the pushing force for pulling a heavy load. The central point for these forces lies in the hock joint, and this joint bears the burden for all forward movement. It is comparable to the ankle joint in humans.

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A horse’s foot is really a single toe, and the hoof is a thick toenail. The tip of the toe bone fits within the hoof, and the heel angles upward. The bone is so porous that it looks somewhat like pumice stone. The toe bone and two other bones make up the horse’s foot. All fit within and are protected by the hoof.

The hoof is a boxlike part made up of the same kind of material as that in a human’s fingernail. The part of the hoof that we see when the horse’s feet are on the ground is the wall. The wall protects the front and sides of the foot. It is longest and thickest in the front and decreases toward the back of the foot. Horseshoes are put on the underpart of the wall to help protect it from extensive wear. The shoes must be changed and the hoofs trimmed once a month. A hoof grows about one-third of an inch (8.5 millimeters) in four weeks.

When the horse’s foot is raised, the sole and the frog can be seen. The sole covers most of the undersurface of the foot and is arched to protect the bones and soft parts of the foot above it. The frog is a soft elastic section shaped like a triangle with its base at the heel and its apex pointing forward. It is a shock absorber, cushioning the jarring impact that occurs every time the animal’s foot comes in contact with the ground.

The Life History of a Horse

Walter Chandoha

A mature male horse is called a stallion, and the female is known as a mare. Young horses are known as foals. Male foals are called colts and females fillies.

Foals may be born at any time of the year, but many horse breeders prefer that birth take place in the springtime. Foals born in winter need more stable room as well as more food and care than do those born in milder weather. Foals born in spring can roam outdoors and nibble grass to supplement their diet. No matter what time of the year a foal is born, however, its first birthday is recorded as being the first day of January after its birth. So, New Year’s Day is the official birthday of every horse.

The Birth of a Foal

The gestation period—the length of time a mare carries the foal inside her body—is usually 11 to 12 months. The actual birth process takes only a short time—usually about 15 to 30 minutes. Normally a foal is born with its front feet first. One leg is extended; the other leg is slightly bent; and the head is thrust between the two legs. The newborn foal rests quietly for about 10 or 15 minutes, then tries to get up and is soon able to stand. Within a few hours after birth the foal is able to frisk about quite well on its gangly legs.

The legs of a newborn foal are almost as long as those of the mare, and grow only slightly during the horse’s lifetime. The rest of the animal’s body develops and the muscles of the legs become large and strong, but the big bones of the legs remain about the same size. Though it usually has grown to full height several years before, a horse is considered to be mature at seven years of age.

The Young Horse

A newborn foal begins to nurse as soon as it can stand up after birth. For the first six months of its life it depends mostly on the mare’s milk and on grain supplied by its owner for nourishment. It begins to supplement its diet by nibbling grass and clover, sometimes spreading its long legs wide somewhat like a giraffe. By the time the foal is six months old, it has grown enough to make grazing easier. Then it is weaned, or taken away from the mare. The process of weaning is begun by moving the mare to a new stall, away from the foal, so that the separation is final. If the foal sees, hears, or smells the mare again, the process must be started over.

Within a week or 10 days after birth, a foal has two upper and two lower incisor teeth. At a year old, it has six upper teeth and six lower ones. All of these are milk teeth, much shorter and smaller than the permanent ones. The horse begins to get its permanent teeth when it is about two and a half years old, but does not have all of them until it is about five years old. It is then said to have a “full mouth.”

The Training of a Horse

A horse’s training begins almost immediately after it is born. Trainers handle the foal and brush its thick, fuzzy coat frequently. By the time the animal is a month old, it has learned to wear a halter (straps on the head used for leading or tying the horse). As a yearling, it learns to respond to reins, and at two years old it is saddle-trained. When it is three, the colt begins specialized training for whatever career has been chosen for it—perhaps as a riding horse, polo horse, circus horse, or racehorse. But usually it is not required to do exhaustive work until it is about five years old.

One year of a horse’s life is equal to about three years of a human’s life. Seven years of a horse’s life would thus be comparable to 21 years in a human’s life. Horses cease to be useful for most kinds of work when they are about 23 or 24 years old, though they still may be able to do certain kinds of light work. The life span of a horse is considered to be 25 to 30 years, but some horses may live to be 40 or more.

The Horse Breeds

The animal we know today as the horse is the result of centuries of selective breeding. By careful selection breeders throughout history have developed various kinds of horses with a wide variety of characteristics to suit many different needs. The Great Horse of the Middle Ages, for example, was bred for size and strength to carry a heavily armored knight and his weapons into battle. The massive horses of such breeds are often called “cold blooded.” The Arabs bred lithe desert horses that were small and swift. These animals are often referred to as “hot blooded.” Cross-breeding of hot blooded and cold blooded horses for certain characteristics produced breeds ranging from riding horses to draft horses.

The Thoroughbred is considered by many to be the highpoint of elegance and fine selective breeding. Many persons mistakenly apply the name Thoroughbred to any purebred horse. But a Thoroughbred is a distinct breed of running horses that traces its ancestry through the male line directly back to three Eastern stallions: the Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Barb (or Godolphin Arabian). These horses had been imported into England before 1750 and were used by breeders to develop the famous Thoroughbred racing horse.

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For convenience the breeds of horses are often divided into three major groups: (1) ponies, (2) heavy, or draft, horses, and (3) light horses. Ponies are breeds of small horses, such as the Shetland, Welsh, Exmoor, and Highland, that stand less than 58 inches (147 centimeters) high. They are noted for gentleness and endurance. Heavy horses, such as the Shire, Clydesdale, Percheron, and Belgian horse, were bred for farm labor and for carrying heavy loads. They typically weigh more than 1,600 pounds (725 kilograms). Light horses are smaller than heavy horses but larger than ponies. They include many breeds, such as the Arabian, Thoroughbred, American Quarter Horse, Standardbred, Appaloosa, Palomino, American Saddlebred (or American saddle horse), Hanoverian, Cleveland Bay, and Lipizzaner.

Color and Markings of the Horse

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A person buying a horse for pleasure riding may choose the animal for the color and markings entirely according to individual taste. Horse breeders, however, consider color an important point in judging the value of a horse. Some breeds are required to have certain colors and patterns in order to be registered. Registries for such breeds as the Appaloosa and Pinto, for example, may not accept horses with undesirable colors or patterns.

Color is one of the most conspicuous features of a horse and is often the basis for description, such as bay, chestnut, or gray. These colors, however, differ somewhat from the usual conception of the color. Common colors used for horses include the following:

White face markings and leg markings may occur on horses of any coat color. The markings of the Appaloosa and Pinto horses, however, are distinctive. Appaloosa horses are often called “spotted horses.” They may have light coat patterns with dark spots or dark coat patterns with light spots. Pinto or paint horses have coats with large, splashy patterns. Brown and white patterns are called skewbald, and black and white ones are piebald.

The Lipizzaner

Many people consider the Lipizzaner, or Lipizzan, the most beautiful of all horses, the royalty of the horse breeds. Anyone who sees these magnificent animals cannot help but be impressed by their grace and dignity.

Perhaps the best known horses in the world are the Lipizzaners of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna. Here, perfectly trained horses perform difficult movements on and above the ground with the seemingly effortless grace of ballet dancers. These are not the artificial actions that are sometimes learned by horses for the circus or trick-riding rings. All the feats are based on the natural movements of a horse, those done by a playful horse frisking about in high spirits in an open pasture. Years of careful training perfect each of the movements done by the Lipizzaner.

“Lipizzaner” is almost synonymous with “white horse” in the minds of many people, and it is true that those chosen for performance at the Spanish Riding School are white. But some Lipizzaners may be chestnut, bay, or roan. Even the white horses are not born white. All are dark at birth and become white only at about the age of 4 years or as late as 10 years.

Lipizzaners mature much more slowly than do other breeds of horses. For the first four years of the colt’s life it runs free with the herd. Then a trainer, who has been specially trained, is chosen for the colt. He assumes complete responsibility for its care and training, and no one else is allowed to touch it.

Schooling for the Lipizzaner begins with a two-year initial training period. Usually only stallions are chosen. For the first three months, horse and trainer work on the rudiments of discipline, and the horse learns to trust the trainer completely. Schooling for the remainder of the two years consists chiefly of exercises that keep the stallion flexible and supple. When the Lipizzaner is 6 years old, training for performing figures begins. For the next two years the horse undergoes intensive individual schooling that will make him a star performer in the riding school. He will learn to balance perfectly on his hind legs in the levade, be stately in a cadenced quadrille, leap high above the ground in a courbette, and soar suspended in space in the capriole. For about the next 20 years, the Lipizzaner’s life consists almost entirely of practice and performance. When the horse can no longer perform in the show ring, he is used in teaching fledgling riders who hope to become masters of this special art of horsemanship.

The Gaits of the Horse

A horse’s gait is the way in which the animal moves its legs and places its hoofs to obtain forward movement. There are various kinds of gaits. Each produces a different kind of ride for the rider, and each may be used for a different purpose. Each gait also has a specific cadence or rhythmic beat. The cadence is the rhythm of the sound heard when the horse’s hoofs strike the ground.

The horse has three natural gaits. These are the walk, the trot, and the gallop—see the animation above. The walk is the slowest. It is a four-beat gait, meaning that one hears four distinct hoof beats as each foot strikes the ground separately. In this gait, the legs on one side move, one after the other, and then the legs of the other side move. The feet are lifted only a short distance and then usually are placed flat on the ground. The gait has an even cadence and gives a smooth ride with no feeling of jogging.

The trot is a two-beat gait. In the trot, diagonal pairs of legs move together: first the left front and right rear, and then the right front and left rear. The feet are lifted a little higher than in the walk and come down with the tip of the hoof striking the ground first. The gait gives the rider a slight feeling of jogging. When the speed increases to a fast trot, the jogging also increases and the rider then posts, lifting himself slightly out of the saddle with each jog.

The gallop, the fastest of the horse’s gaits, is a three-beat gait. The first beat is made by a hind foot. The second beat is made by the other hind foot coming down at the same time as the front foot diagonally across from it. The third beat is made by the other front foot. Then a period of suspension occurs when all four feet are off the ground. The series begins again when the first hind foot strikes the ground again for the first beat. The canter is a collected, or restrained, form of the gallop. It gives greater “lift” but less forward motion to the horse than does the gallop. The canter is sometimes called the slow gallop.

Other kinds of gaits are known as artificial gaits, which are usually variations of the natural gaits. Artificial gaits are obtained by selective breeding or by special training of certain breeds of horses. The rack and the slow gait are artificial gaits. The slow gait has several forms including the fox trot, the broken pace, the running walk, and the amble. The rack is a fast gait.

Sometimes horsemen speak of gaited horses, which can perform at least one artificial gait. The five-gaited American saddle horse, for example, can do a walk, a trot, a canter, one of the slow gaits, and a rack. The three-gaited Tennessee walking horse has a flat-footed walk, a running walk, and a slow canter.

These artificial gaits were developed by Southern planters in colonial times in what is now the United States. They give a smoother ride for the horseman than either the trot or pace, and the rider can spend longer hours in the saddle. The rack is, however, tiring for the horse. A western horse’s gaits include a walk, a slow gait, and a lope, which is a form of the canter.

Horsemanship—The Art of Riding

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Almost everyone has seen at the movies or on television graceful riders on saddle horses cantering along bridle paths or cowboys seated with careless ease on mustangs loping off into the sunset. It looks quite easy. But in the art of riding, as in any other kind of art, it takes an enormous amount of practice and patience to become a master. The thrill of being a disciplined rider on a disciplined horse, however, is well worth the effort.

An observant movie and television viewer will have noted that the equipment of the horse on the bridle path was different from that of the mustang. The novice rider will need to know something about a horse’s equipment before he can use it. A horse’s gear is called tack, which includes the saddle (the seat for the rider) and the bridle (the headgear on the horse that allows the rider to govern the animal). It is possible to ride a horse without either saddle or bridle, and sometimes student riders are required to do this to develop balance and confidence. For most riding, however, gear is used. The tack for riding includes, in addition to the saddle and bridle, a halter (straps on the head used for leading or tying the animal), a lead shank (a rope with a clip on the end), and, if the climate is cold, a stable blanket.

There are basically two major classes of tack—English and western—and there are many varieties in each of the classes. Horsemen choose their tack carefully to suit the type of riding they do. The choice will also depend upon how the horse is trained.

Some Types of Saddles

Many varieties of saddles have been developed, but all are built in basically the same way. The frame, often called the tree, of the saddle is made of wood, steel, or a combination of the two. The rigid frame is well padded and covered with leather. One or more wide straps called girths are attached. A girth passes under the horse’s body and is fastened to the opposite side. A leather strap for the stirrup is suspended from each side of the saddle. The flap, a wide, flat piece of leather, hangs between the stirrup strap and the horse’s side.

Saddles are contoured on the underside to fit a horse’s back and on the top side to fit the rider’s body. A saddle should be properly fitted to the horse so a rider’s weight is centered on the horse but not directly on the withers and the spine.

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English saddles are often called flat saddles because they are so gently contoured that the rider’s seat is almost flat. There are three basic types of flat saddles: (1) the forward seat or jumping saddle, (2) the modified forward saddle, and (3) the dressage saddle. The forward seat or jumping saddle has flaps that extend well forward over the horse’s shoulders. This saddle is preferred by many riders for open jumping. In the modified forward saddle the flaps do not extend quite so far forward as they do on the jumping saddle. This saddle is used for ordinary riding, for jumping, and for hunting. The dressage saddle has a deeper seat than do the other saddles.

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The western saddle has a deep seat, a high pommel from which the saddle horn rises, and a high, fanlike cantle. Rings and rawhide saddle strings are attached to hold a cowboy’s equipment. There are several different types of western saddles including parade saddles, cutting saddles, and roping saddles. Each is designed for the special use its name implies. Western saddles have little padding, so a heavy blanket or thick pad is usually placed under them.

Bridles—The Horse’s Headgear

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The bridle includes all the equipment a horse wears on his head: the bit, the reins, and the equipment that secures them to the horse. The bit is a horizontal metal bar placed in the horse’s mouth and held in place by a set of straps (the curb chain, crownpiece and browband, and cheekpiece) over and around the head. The reins are the lines held in the rider’s hand. They are connected to either side of the bit so that a tug on either side turns the animal in that direction.

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There are several different kinds of bridles. English bridles are known by the type of bit used. The snaffle bit and the pelham are the most common. The snaffle is a simple, jointed bit that works on the corners of the horse’s mouth. The pelham has two sets of rings for the reins and fits on the bars of the horse’s mouth. Many horses used for hunting and jumping wear snaffle bridles with running martingales. The reins run through the martingale and the bit and act on the bars instead of on the corners of the mouth.

The western bridle usually is fitted with some type of curb bit. The western curb bit, however, has longer shanks than the English and has no curb chain.

The Art of Riding

A novice soon learns that one of the basic skills in the art of riding is balance. A horseman stays on his mount by balance, not by gripping his mount with his legs or by using the reins as lifelines. To achieve and maintain his balance, the rider’s center of gravity must be directly over that of the horse. The horse’s center of gravity is in direct line with the girth of the saddle when the horse is standing still.

The Rider’s Position

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Horsemen call a rider’s position on the horse his “seat.” The rider sits erect in the deepest part of the saddle, which is over the stirrup leathers. In the flat saddle, the knees are bent and pushed ahead of the stirrup leathers. This places the angle of the thigh parallel to the angle of the horse’s shoulder blade. When properly seated, a rider’s ear, hip, and heel are in line, and the tip of the toe is directly under the point of the knee. His arms are relaxed but held so that a straight line could be drawn from the tip of the elbow along the forehand, wrists, and reins to the horse’s bit.

Communication and Control

A horse trained for riding has been taught the “language of the aids.” A rider must also learn this language so he can communicate with his mount. There are two kinds of aids—natural and artificial. The natural aids include the voice, the action of the hands on the reins, the use of the legs and heels, the use of the back, and the distribution of the rider’s weight. The artificial aids include the whip, the spur, and various types of equipment such as side reins and martingales.

The reins are one line of communication. A horse is trained to go in the direction of the tension put on the rein. Although a skilled horseman uses the reins for many effects, the novice uses them for two basic ones: (1) to direct, and (2) to lead. If the rider carries his right rein slightly to the right and pulls back (direct) or to the side (lead), the horse turns in the direction of the pull. If the rider pulls both reins straight back, the horse slows down or stops. Every rider must learn to keep very light contact on the horse’s mouth through a stretched rein. A slight increase of tension directs the horse, and immediate relaxation of tension when the horse begins to respond is the horse’s reward for obedience. Continued tension punishes the animal and may confuse him.

The reins indicate the direction of movement (turn, go forward, or back), but the leg aids indicate that motion should start. The horse moves away from the pressure of a leg or heel. When a rider applies pressure only with his left leg, the horse moves his haunches to the right. When pressure is applied with both legs, the horse begins to move forward.

The rider uses his weight to help the horse keep in balance and also to indicate a change of direction. A rider on a well-trained horse has only to step down in one stirrup and the horse will turn in that direction. When a rider shifts his weight backward slightly the horse will slow down. The rider uses his voice to encourage, to praise, or to admonish his mount.

Mounting and Dismounting

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There are four phases for mounting a horse properly. In dismounting the procedures are reversed. When the rider swings his right foot back over the horse he bears his weight on his hands, brings his feet together, then kicks his left foot out of the stirrup. He drops to the ground, turning slightly so that he lands facing the front of the horse. He then transfers the reins to his right hand.

The Western Seat

Western riding is primarily a working form of riding, and the horses are differently trained. The horse works on a loose rein, and the rider holds the reins in one hand and directs the horse with a neck rein. Horses used for western-type riding are especially trained to respond to neck reining. When the rider wishes to go to the right, he moves the hand holding the reins to the right. The horse feels the touch of the left rein on his neck and turns in the opposite direction—to the right. The touch of the right rein brings a move to the left.

The western rider sits deeply and firmly in the saddle. His aids are his weight and his legs. The stirrup straps are longer than those of a flat saddle, and the horseman rides with his knees only slightly bent. He maintains his center of gravity over the horse, however, and his feet are not pushed forward.

Caring For a Horse

The horse, like any other kind of animal, responds to proper care and good treatment. Caring for a horse requires considerable time and patience, however, and only persons who are willing to expend the time and have adequate space should consider keeping a horse at home. Many horsemen who enjoy owning their own mounts keep them at professional boarding stables to ensure proper care.

Housing a Horse

The minimum size box stall for a horse is 10 feet (3 meters) by 10 feet. Stalls must be large enough so that the horse can lie down and get up without injuring itself and can turn around comfortably. They also must have areas where bedding, feed, hay, and equipment can be stored. The walls of the stall should be constructed of 2-inch- (5-centimeter- ) thick oak boards to the height of 5 feet (1.5 meters). Above this, heavy wire or lighter boards can be used. The flooring can be of clay, sand, or cinders. At least three inches of bedding should be spread on the floor. Bedding soaks up moisture and provides the horse with a clean, dry bed.

Mangers, racks, or other containers for hay and grain should be placed on the walls at heights that are convenient for the horse to reach. Water should be available day and night.

One of the most time-consuming of all the chores necessary for the proper care of a horse is cleaning the stable. The stall and bedding must be cleaned daily. The bedding must be removed and replaced periodically.

Feeding a Horse

The amount and kind of feed a horse needs depends upon the size of the animal, his condition, and the kind of work that is demanded of him. For a pastured horse, the grass he nibbles may provide sufficient food. But most horses, especially working horses, need supplementary feed for energy.

Feed consists of hay supplemented by grain rations. Hay is a substitute for the pasture grass. Grain is a concentrated food and is given in small amounts several times a day. Water is also an important part of the horse’s diet, but grain swells when wet so the water should always be given first. Many horsemen follow the routine of small but frequent feedings in this sequence: water, hay, grain.

Grooming a Horse

A horse should be thoroughly groomed at least once a day. A well-groomed horse looks attractive, but grooming has a far more important function. It improves the animal’s circulation and helps tone the muscles. So, vigorous grooming is necessary.

Grooming tools include a cloth, a brush of rough straw, a soft body brush, a rubber or plastic currycomb, and a hoof-pick. All parts of the horse’s body must be groomed. The cloth is used first to remove surface dust and dirt. The soft brush cleans the face and lower legs where the hair is short. The currycomb and rough brush are used where the hair is long. The horse’s feet need special care to prevent infections. They should be cleaned every day and each time the horse is ridden. A hoof-pick is used to pick out hard materials such as packed manure and stones that collect under the foot.

Grooming gives the horseman an opportunity to closely inspect all parts of the horse’s body for any cuts, abrasions, or signs of disease. The stable should be equipped with first-aid articles. Home remedies can be used to treat superficial cuts and abrasions, but a veterinarian should be called to treat any other kind of injury or disease.

Saddling and Bridling a Horse

An important part of a horse’s care is proper saddling and bridling. To put on the bridle, slip it over the horse’s nose, guide the bit into the mouth, and slide the crownpiece over the ears. Adjust the noseband and browband. Fasten the throatlatch and the curb chain. Be sure that all parts of the bridle lie flat and are neither too loose nor too tight. To put on the saddle, lay it on the withers and slide it back into place. Attach the girth or cinch evenly on both sides. The girth should be neither too loose nor too tight. To test for proper fit, slip a hand between the body of the horse and the girth just below the saddle, then slide it down to the bottom. It should feel tight only where it passes under the horse. On western saddles with two cinches, the forward cinch is made very snug, the rear one less so. Cinches are fitted tighter than girths because of the work the horse does.

Evolution of the Horse

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Horses have a long and interesting history on Earth, and the study of their complex evolutionary development probably constitutes one of the most extensive and intensive searches done by scientists. As a result, the evolutionary story of the horse is perhaps the most complete of that of any of Earth’s animals.

Geologists believe that early humans appeared on Earth more than 4 million years ago—a very long time in terms of the way we count time but like a fraction of a second in terms of geologic time. Horses appeared on Earth long before people—about 55 million years ago, near the beginning of the Eocene epoch of Earth’s history. This fact has been so well established that fossils of these animals found in rock strata are used by scientists to date the rocks. These early horses lived on both the European and the North American continents. Evidence of possible ancestors in older rocks in North America, however, leads scientists to believe that probably the animals originated on that continent.

Eohippus—The Dawn Horse

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The modern horse with its sleek coat, straight back, arching neck, and long legs bears little resemblance to its ancient ancestors. This small ancestor was only about the size of an adult fox. In fact, when the first bones of these animals were found in 1838 and 1839, they were believed to be the bones of ancient monkeys or of the harelike animals called hyraxes or conies. The animal was given the scientific name Hyracotherium because of its resemblance to the hyrax; however, the genus name more commonly used for the animal is Eohippus.

The name Eohippus comes from two Greek words: eos, meaning “dawn,” and hippos, meaning “horse.” The name also reflects the fact that Eohippus occurs in the Eocene—the “dawn” portion of the most recent epoch of geologic time. Eohippus was an active and abundant animal, and many fossils have been found. However, almost all are fragmentary, and finding a complete skeleton is rare. For this reason, only a few skeletons have been reconstructed and mounted.

There were several different species of Eohippus, and they varied greatly in size. The smallest were about 10 inches (25 centimeters) high at the shoulder, and the largest were more than 20 inches high.

The body of Eohippus looked almost like that of a rabbit. The hindquarters were high, and the the arched back sloped downward toward the neck and head. The animal had a long, stout tail, which bears no resemblance to that of the modern horse. Modern horses have short tails; the whisk of hairs that grow from the tip make them appear long.

The head of this ancient animal was shaped almost like that of a dog. The snout was more pointed than broad as in that of the modern horse. The large eyes were set midway between the front and the back of the skull. The teeth were simple. The cheek teeth had a few cusps, more like our own molars than like the large, strong, heavily ridged teeth of the horse today.

The feet of Eohippus added to its doglike appearance. The front feet had four toes, and the hind feet had three. Each toe ended in its own small hoof. Tough pads, much like those of a dog, bore the animal’s weight.

Eohippus was well equipped to live in the world of its time. The small animal had short legs that were not built for speed, but it probably was fast for its size. Its light weight and spreading toes kept it from sinking into the soft earth.

Mesohippus—The Middle Horse

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Mesohippus probably is the best known fossil horse. Buried and preserved bones of these animals are abundant, especially in the Badlands of South Dakota. Mesohippus lived during the early and middle Oligocene epoch, which began nearly 34 million years ago.

Unlike Eohippus, Mesohippus looked much like a small modern horse. Although there were smaller and larger species, Mesohippus averaged about 24 inches (60 centimeters). The body was longer than that of Eohippus, and the back less arched but still not the straight, rigid back of the modern horse.

The head of Mesohippus had a more “horsy” appearance, though the face was still slender and almost snoutlike. The jaws were still shallow, but the typical horse muzzle probably had begun to develop. The eyes were positioned farther back on the head than in Eohippus. The teeth were larger and stronger than those of Eohippus. Also, a little gap was beginning to form behind the front teeth where today the horse has a large gap into which the bit fits.

The legs of Mesohippus were longer and more slender, but each foot still had several toes. Now, however, there were only three toes on the front feet as well as on the back feet. As in Eohippus, the center toe was the largest, and there were pads on the feet and between the toes.

Merychippus—The Transformation Horse

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Some of the most radical and rapid changes in the evolution of the horse took place during the middle and late Miocene epoch, from about 16 million to 5 million years ago. This is when Merychippus lived. Perhaps the most important were the changes in the structure of the teeth, which made it possible for horses to become grazers (grass eaters) rather than browsers (leaf eaters) as Eohippus and Mesohippus had been. Merychippus had molar teeth with high crowns. The teeth were covered with a strong bonelike substance called cement. Such teeth could grind the coarse grasses into edible masses for the animal.

Merychippus also showed other changes, somewhat less dramatic than those of the teeth. The animal grew about 40–42 inches (102–107 centimeters) high—as large as many modern ponies. It had a long muzzle, deep jaws, and eyes quite far back on the head. The body and leg proportions were not exactly the same in all species of Merychippus. Some were stocky, others slender. But in general, changes that had taken place in the legs and feet made these parts appear more nearly like those of horses today. Certain bones of the leg grew together, making each leg rigid but highly effective for carrying weight and for a more efficient forward motion. The feet still had three toes, but the weight of the animal was carried on a greatly enlarged and strongly hoofed central toe. The side toes were short and small, and the foot pads had disappeared.

Pliohippus—The One-Toed Grazing Horse

Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York

Several groups of horses descended from Merychippus. One of these was Pliohippus, a horse of the Pliocene epoch, which began about 5 million years ago. The modern horse, Equus, is a direct descendant of Pliohippus. Although, again, there are variations among some species, generally Pliohippus closely resembles the horse of today. Each foot of Pliohippus had only one hoofed toe. The others became slivers of bone (splints) that even in modern horses grow along the cannon bone of the leg. Differences between Pliohippus and the modern Equus lie mostly in the refinement of the details of the animals’ anatomy, which are used by scientists to separate them.

The Horse in History

The association between humans and horses probably began more than 4,000 years ago. In the beginning this association was not a companionable one. Prehistorians believe that humans hunted horses as a game animal.

SEF/Art Resource, New York

No one knows exactly when or where humans first tamed the horse. Some scientists believe that the first horses may have been domesticated in Central Asia, probably long before 2000 bc. The horse worked for humans as a draft animal for at least 1,000 years before the art of riding developed. However, some groups of nomads probably had small herds of these animals and rode them. It is said that when Greek traders first saw these mounted men in the Black Sea region, they believed them to be a strange animal, half horse and half man. The Greeks called them centaurs and developed many fables about these unusual beasts.

Horses in the Ancient World

War horses and chariots were used by the Mitanni in Syria and the Hittites in Anatolia by about 1600 bc. A remarkable book, the earliest known work devoted exclusively to horses, was written by a Mitanni horseman hired by a Hittite king. The clay tablets that comprise the book give detailed directions for the care and training of chariot horses.

In about 1700 bc the Hyksos from Syria and Palestine introduced domesticated horses into Egypt. By the 1500s bc, the Egyptians used horse-drawn vehicles, but few Egyptians rode horses. By 1000 bc the use of horses had spread westward from Egypt.

The Greeks viewed the horse as a heroic symbol, a wonder beast ridden by great warriors and by the gods. The Romans made great use of the horse, and vehicles carrying freight or passengers clattered over the streets of Rome. By 45 bc, all vehicles had been banned from within the city, and in other cities they were allowed only at night. Presumably the reason for this ban was because the vehicles endangered pedestrians and caused traffic jams.

As the use of horses spread throughout the ancient world, breeding programs were established to produce animals with special qualities to suit specific purposes. For example, a large, heavy horse was needed to carry an armored soldier into battle, but a small, light horse could be used for riding and racing. Generations of cross-breeding made pure strains rare.

Horses in the Medieval World

During the Middle Ages, experimentation in breeding horses continued. The growth of international trade increased the need for a reasonable means for the overland transportation of goods. Sturdy pack horses were desired to carry merchandise between towns and into the countryside. Large, strong draft horses were in demand for use in teams to draw carts of bulk merchandise over long distances. In addition, horses for the business of knighthood had to be developed. A well-equipped knight needed at least four different types of horses: (1) a charger, (2) a palfrey, (3) a courser, and (4) a battle horse.

Horses in American Conquest and Exploration

European explorers brought horses to the New World—the first in the Americas since the native horses had died out about 8,500 years before. The Spanish had royal horse farms operating in Jamaica by 1515, and Francisco Pizarro obtained horses from these farms for his expeditions to Peru. Stock farms in Cuba supplied horses to Hernán Cortés for the invasion of Mexico in 1519. Horses carried the Spanish explorers and colonizers in their push through southwestern and western North America.

The westward movement from eastern North America is usually symbolized by the covered wagon. Many of the wagons were drawn by oxen, but mounted explorers usually preceded them, and mounted scouts accompanied them. After the West began to open up, the wagons were replaced by stagecoaches that carried passengers and mail.

Until the early 1900s, horses supplied much of the transportation and much of the power for vehicles. Horses pulled the first railroad cars. In the cities, horses drew the garbage wagons, milk carts, and fire engines. On the farms, ranches, and plantations, they powered the plows and harvesting machines. Today, the automobile, truck, and tractor have largely replaced the horse, though the performance capability of these vehicles is still evaluated in horsepower.

Horses in Sport

The horse has long been a source of recreation for humans. The Persians were playing polo long before 600 bc. The ancient Greeks hunted wild boar and mountain lion on horseback. The ancient Romans conducted horse shows, which included chariot racing as well as trick riding. The English of the 12th century enjoyed thoroughbred racing and fox hunting. Circuses and rodeos still draw thousands of spectators.

As the horse became less important in warfare, as a beast of burden, and as a means of transportation because of increased mechanization, it became more important in sport. In the United States, after a drop in the horse population during the early 20th century, the number of horses bred and registered gradually increased. Today horses are used for pleasure riding, racing, hunting, and polo. Horse show competitions of various kinds are also popular. Many persons vie for top honors at rodeos, pony club rallies, and 4-H club meets as well as at the traditional horse shows. (See alsoequestrian sports.)

The Horse in the Arts

Hans Hinz, Basel

The horse has played an enormously important part in the daily life of humans since prehistoric times. So it is not surprising to find that the horse has been a favored subject for artists in every field throughout history. Even in prehistoric times, hunters scratched pictures of horses on the walls of caves. These drawings, some of which date back to about 18,000 bc, vividly depict in simple lines the animation and action of the animals. The cave artists also succeeded in showing the distinguishing characteristics of the wild horse such as the short body, thick neck with heavy head and upright mane, and short but graceful legs.

The Assyrians, whose land lay between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, were very interested in horses. Relief sculptures carved in stone depict the deeds of their warriors. Sophisticated and detailed carvings in the stone ruins of the ancient city of Calah in what is now Iraq show Assyrian war chariots.

Egyptians decorated their tombs with spindle-legged stylized horses. Those shown on tombs were often many times larger than life size. A small wooden statuette of a horse and rider, carved about 1500 bc, was found inside a tomb. The sculptured horse is much more graceful than those shown in the drawings by artists of this period.

Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The beauty and form of the horse seems to have inspired artists of almost every culture. We find Japanese screens, Russian icons, ancient Persian tapestries, and 16th-century East Indian miniatures showing the horse in action—some in warfare and others in such sports as polo and lion and tiger hunting.

Perhaps the most famous and beautiful sculptures of all time are those of the horses that form part of a frieze around the Parthenon in Athens. These sculptures, done by the Greek sculptor Phidias about 447 bc, express the Greek idea of perfection. They show young men riding bareback on graceful horses that are portrayed at all gaits as well as at the halt or performing dressage movements.

G.dallorto

Throughout the world, there are statues of history’s famous military men, always mounted with the charger at the levade, or prancing with arched neck. In Italy the museums and public squares of cities and towns are filled with statues of mounted and unmounted horses. Some of these date back to the 1st century bc. In Venice, Andrea del Verrocchio’s monument to the military leader Bartolomeo Colleoni, done in the late 15th century, shows the artist’s ability to portray in bronze the strength and straining energy of a military horse.

During the Middle Ages, tapestries were a popular art form. Many of the castles of Europe used tapestries not only as a decoration but as a practical measure to help cover the stone walls and keep out the cold. The tapestry scenes often included horses. Perhaps one of the best known is the Bayeux Tapestry, thought by some to have been designed by Queen Matilda to honor the success of her husband, William the Conqueror, when he invaded England in 1066. Two hundred horses are embroidered into this work of art.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Dutch, Flemish, and Spanish painters were interested in portraying the horse in sports. Sporting prints became extremely popular in England during the 18th and 19th centuries when many artists produced racing and hunting scenes. Many American artists used horses as subjects in some of their art. Among these were Frederic Remington, who is famous for his portrayals of pioneer life in the American West.

The mythology of almost every Western culture includes the horse as an important character. For example, in Greek mythology the sun god, Apollo, crossed the heavens each day in a chariot drawn by fiery steeds. Another famous Greek horse was Bellerophon’s flying horse Pegasus, who was placed among the stars. Norse myths tell the story of the hero Sigurd, who rides a brave stallion, Grani, through a wall of magic fire to rescue the heroine Brynhild. This same story occurs in German mythology and became the basis for Richard Wagner’s opera Siegfried.

The grace and beauty of the horse has inspired many poets. William Shakespeare’s famous poem Venus and Adonis paints superb word pictures of a stallion and a filly. Another poet, John Masefield, created two masterpieces describing the horse in sports. His Reynard the Fox tells of the thrills of a hunt, and Right Royal portrays the excitement of a horse race.

Novelists, too, have been inspired by the strength and spirit of this animal. Books about horses in fact and fiction are extremely popular with readers of all ages and many appear every year.

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