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This is a basic on-line grammar book.

It is for Spanish students of English who have just started to learn English or for those students at a middle, up to intermediate level. It concentrates on those areas of grammar which cause students the most difficulty. The explanations use simple everyday words. It can be used by students attending classes or by someone working alone at home. It covers the main areas and grammatical points and a lot of example sentences. In each grammatical point, an explanation is followed by some examples to make them easier to understand and remember. The explanations and rules are for British English. We have also added Spanish translations for those points which are often a problem for learners, in order to encourage self-learning. It tries to be a guide to help students to understand them. There are a lot of contrast and comparison among the main verbal tenses and there are a number of review pages. I would like to thank all the teachers whose grammar books helped me in the early stages of my teaching work, for their valuable examples of useful teaching. They were an example of what students need from a grammar book. They taught me that “teaching is a matter of heart”. Thanks to all the teachers who publish their works on line, a work that everybody can share, for their expertise and commitment. I have done my bit!. Special thanks for all my students, the previous, present and future ones, for all their help and encouragement.

MORE ON FUTURE. GENERAL REVIEW… (53 – 55)
Present Continuous / Will / Be going to. Present Simple with a future meaning. WILL / SHALL.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE… (55 )
Form. Uses. Time expressions.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE… (56 – 62)
Short and Long adjectives. Spelling: -ER / -EST endings. Comparison of adverbs. Irregular forms. Comparative and Superlative patterns. Than me / than I am. Less and leas. Much cheaper. Faster and faster. The cheaper, the better.

CONDITIONALS… (62 – 67)
First conditional. Second conditional. Third conditional. More uses. IF / WHEN / UNLESS / IN CASE.

THE –ING FORM AND THE INFINITIVE… (110 – 112) VERBS + -ING / TO-INFINITIVE… (112 – 116)
Verbs which can be followed by both –ing / to-infinitive.

IMPERATIVO… (116 – 117)
Let´s for suggestions. Form.

A / AN THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. (A / AN ARTÍCULO INDETERMINADO)
Use a before words like ship, taxi, cake, table, etc. which start with a consonant. • • • We need a taxi. A table for two, please. Have a cake.

Use an before words which start with a vowel (a, e, i, o or u), like alligator, example, ice cream, office, umbrella, etc. • • • There´s an alligator behind you! Can you think of an example? I want an ice-cream.

Do not use an before a word which begins with the sound of y in words like you and yellow. • • Is there a university here? He can´t speak a European language.

The words the university and European both start with the same sound as you and yellow: [ j ]. Compare a university with an umbrella. Umbrella starts with the sound [ ^ ]. Use an before words which start with a silent h. • • He´s an honest man. You´re an hour late.

Compare an hour with a horse. The h in horse is not silent. Use a or an if there are other examples of the same thing, and you are not thinking of a special or specific one. Look a this example: • I need a taxi.

The speaker knows there are many taxis and he does not need a special taxi. It´s not important what colour it is or how big it is for example. • Have a cake.

The speaker means there are a number of cakes and it is not important which one the other person chooses. Use a or an when you talk about a person or thing for the first time. • • Look! A snake! A boy asked me to dance.

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Use a or an followed by an adjective + noun when you talk about what sort or type of person somebody is (or what sort of thing something is). • • • You´re a pretty girl. It is an American car. It´s a cold day.

Use a or an before jobs and nationality nouns. • • • I´m an actress. He´s an English man. Brian´s a policeman.

Use a or an when you mean “one”, like this: • • A ticket to London, please. Come back in an hour.

Use a or an in phrases like these, when they mean “every” or “per”. • • • A hundred pounds a week. Two hundred kilometres an hour. Three times a day.

Do not use a or an before nouns in the plural. • • I don´t like dogs. We´ve got problems.

THE, THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. (THE, ARTÍCULO DETERMINADO)
Put the before nouns. The word the is the same with all nouns, singular and plural, masculine and feminine. Singular the girl the man the house Plural the girls the men the houses

•

I know the girl he´s with, but I don´t know the men.

You can also put the before uncountable nouns. • • The water is cold. The information was useful. 3

Use the when you talk about special or specific people or things. • • Shut the door! Tell the driver to stop here.

In these examples, the speaker is talking about a specific or particular door, driver, etc. The person he is talking to knows which door, driver, etc. he is talking about. In the example Shut the door! both know which door the speaker means. Use the the second time you talk about a person or thing. • I saw a man with a dog. The man was carrying the dog.

You say I saw a man with a dog because you talk about them for the first time. But you say The man was carrying the dog because you talk about them for the second time. • I had a hamburger and an apple for lunch. The apple was all right, but the hamburger was awful.

Use the before words like first, second, tenth, twentieth (ordinal numbers). • I live on the second floor.

Use the before words like tallest, oldest, most important, most expensive (superlatives). • • It is the highest building in the city. This is the most important day in my life.

Use the before musical instruments. • • I can play the piano. I don´t like the violin.

Use the before rives (the Amazon), groups of islands (the West Indies), seas or oceans (the Mediterranean, the Atlantic), chains of mountains (the Alps), and with some countries (the USA, the United Kingdom). Do not use the with meals (breakfast, lunch, etc.): • After breakfast I went to school.

Do not use the with days or months (Monday, March, etc.): • I´ll see you on Saturday.

Do not use the with colours (blue, red, yellow,etc.): • Blue is my favourite colour.

Do not use the with names: • • Peter´s eighteen. Mrs Houses was late.

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Do not use the with sports (football, tennis, etc.): • I hate football.

Do not use the with countries and continents (Italy, Spain, Europe, etc.): • France is bigger than Greece.

Do not use the with streets and roads: • • • Oxford Street. Bayswater Road. Lexington Avenue.

Do not use the with holidays (Christmas, Easter, etc.): • When is Easter this year?

Do not use the with nouns in the plural, if you mean all, and not just some or a special group: • Giraffes have long necks.

This means giraffes in general. If you want to talk about a special group or giraffes, use the: • The giraffes are over there!

We are only talking about the giraffes in this zoo. • • Potatoes make you fat. Cigarettes are bad for you.

Do not use the with uncountable nouns when the meaning is general, not specific. • • Bread is still quite cheap. (general) The bread in our local shop is still quite cheap. (specific)

Do not use the with the words school, church, college, university, prison, hospital, if you talk about what happens there, not about the buildings. Look at this example: • What did you learn at school today?

Here the speaker is asking about what happens at school, not about the building. Now look at this example: • The school is near the church.

Some / any
Use some before nouns in the plural, like this: some students, some banks. Some does not change with masculine and feminine nouns: some boys, some girls. Look at these two sentences. • • (1) Banks are open on Saturdays. (2) Some banks are open on Saturdays.

In sentence (1), you mean all banks. In sentence (2), you mean a number of banks, but it is not important how many. Here is another example: • • (3) London buses are red. (4) Some London buses are red.

In sentence (3), you mean all London buses. In sentence (4), you mean a few, or a certain number, but not all, London buses are red. Use some with uncountable nouns, like this: some water, some bread, some petrol, some work, some sand, etc. In these examples some means a certain quantity, but it is not important exactly how much. Use any, not some, after not (in negative sentences). • • There weren´t any taxis. (this means : “there were no taxis”) He didn´t give me any money. (this means: “he gave me no money”)

Use any, not some, in questions like these: • • • Do you want to ask any questions? Dis you take any photos? Have we got any money?

Any does not change. It is the same with all nouns (masculine and feminine, countable and uncountable). You can´t leave out the noun after some or any if you have talked about it before. • • Have you got any money? –No, I haven´t got any. I needed some new shoes, so I bought some.

If the noun is countable and singular use one. • I needed a new shirt, so I bought one. 10

Positive sentences Singular Plural There´s some sugar in this coffee There are some flowers in the garden

Negative sentences There isn´t any sugar in this coffee There aren´t any flowers in the garden

Questions Is there any sugar in this coffee? Are there any flowers in the garden?

You can use some in questions when you make offers, like this: • • Do you need some help? Would you like some coffee?

You also use some when you ask for something politely, like this: • • • • Would you post some letters for me, please? Can you lend me some money, please? Could you give me some information, please? Can I have some more potatoes, please?

WORD FORMATION (FORMACIÓN DE PALABRAS)
Word families. (Familias de palabras)
They are groups of words which share the same root. We form new words by adding a prefix or a suffix. Some of the most productive ones are ‐ence, ‐tion, and ‐ment. Son grupos de palabras que comparten la misma raíz a la que se le han añadido prefijos y sufijos para formar distintos tipos de palabras. Los sufijos ‐ence, ‐tion, y ‐ment son tres de los más productivos para formar nombres a partir de verbos. 11

Word order
There are two places where we can use and adjective: before a noun (a quiet restaurant) and after a linking verb (feeling romantic). Podemos usar el adjetivo delante de un nombre o detrás de un verbo. • • • Mary´s got a new car. It was a dark night. This is good coffee Mary´s car is new It was getting dark. This coffee tastes good.

Some linking verbs are: appear, be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smeel, stay, taste. We can use two or more adjectives together. • It´s a quiet little restaurant. Mike was wearing a dirty old coat.

We can put a word like very or quite before an adjective. • It was a very dark night. Peter was feeling quite romantic.

Very and quite are adverbs of degree.

Adjective used in one position only.
Most adjectives can be used in both positions – before a noun or after a linking verbs. But a few adjectives can go in one position but not in the other. La mayoría de los adjetivos pueden ser usado en ambas posiciones – delante del nombre o después de un verbo, pero unos pocos adjetivos pueden ir sólo en una posición y no en la otra. Here are some examples of adjectives which can only go before a noun: the main road, the only problem, an indoor game, the former footballer,… Some more examples are: chief (= main), elder (= older), eldest (= oldest), inner, outdoor, outer, principal (= main), upper. Here are some examples some adjectives which can only go after a linking verb: • • The baby is asleep. I´m really pleased to see you. Anne´s two brothers are very alike. Mary looked ill.

The old, the rich, etc...
There are some adjectives that we can use with the to talk about groups of people in society, e.g. the disabled, the blind. Here are some more examples. • • What can we do to feed the hungry? ¿Qué podemos hacer para alimentar a los hambrientos? It is our duty to care for the sick. Es nuestra obligación cuidar de los enfermos.

What adjectives can we use?
We can use some adjectives and other words in a phrase with the.

- To do with social or economic positions:

The disadvantaged, the homeless, the hungry, the poor, the privileged, the rich, the starving, the strong, the underprivileged, the unemployed, the weak The blind, the deaf, the dead, the disabled, the handicapped, the living, the sick The ederly, the middle-aged, the old, the over-sixties, the under-fives, the young

- To do with physical condition or health: - To do with age:

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We can sometimes use an adverb before the adjective. • • The very poor are left without hope. Los muy pobres se quedan sin esperanza. The severely disabled need full-time care. Los seriamente discapacitados necesitan cuidados a tiempo completo.

There are some adjective in this structure that normally have an adverb. • • The less fortunate cannot afford to go on holiday. Los menos afortunados no pueden permitirse ir de vacaciones. Should the mentally ill be allowed to live in the community? ¿Debería permitirse a los enfermos mentales vivir en la comunidad?

The young or the young people?
The young means “young people in general”. • The young have their lives in front of them. Los jóvenes tienen su vida por delante.

When we mean a specific persono r a specific group of people, then we use man, woman, people, etc. • • There was a young man standing on the corner. Había un hombre joven de pie en la esquina. I know the young woman in reception. Conozco a la chica joven de recepción.

ADJETIVOS ACABADOS EN -ED/-ING
Look at these examples: • The book is full of information. It´s very interesting.

The word interesting tells us what the book does to somebody-it interests somebody. A book can be interesting, boring, exciting or amusing, for example. • Mike is very interested in UFOs.

Sometimes we can add different suffises to the same noun in order to form different words. Con algunos sustantivos se pueden usar varios sufijos para formar distintas palabras. Care careful (cuidadoso) y careless (descuidado)

Adjective or adverb? (¿Adjetivo o adverbio?)
An adjective describes a noun. They say what something is like. e.g. a quiet voice, slow start, expensive clothes, etc… An adverb describes a verb. They say how, where, when, how often someone does something. e.g. he spoke quietly, she dresses expensively, they started the race slowly, etc. We can use adverbs in other ways. An adverb like really or very can be combined with an adjective or another adverb. • • It was really hot in the sun. Hacía muchísimo calor al sol. He checked his work very carefully. El comprobó su trabajo muy cuidadosamente.

An adverb like fortunately or perhaps says something about the whole situation. • • Perhaps Mary is working late. Quizás… Fortunately nothing was stolen. Afortunadamente… 16

The –ly ending
We form many adverb from and adjective + -ly. For example, politely, quickly, safely. But there are some special spelling rules: 1. We do not leave out e, e.g. nice Exceptions are true truly, whole 2. y ily after a consonant, e.g. easy Also angrily, happily, heavily, etc. nicely wholly easily, lucky luckily

An adjective can come after a linking verb such as be. ACTION VERB + ADVERB • • • Paul ate hungrily. The children played happily. The man stared coldy at us.

We use an adverb when the verb means that something happens. Some verbs like look, taste and appear can be either linking verbs or action verbs. linking verb + adjective Mike looked angry. The medicine tasted awful. The man appeared drunk. action verb + adverb He looked carefully at the signature. Emma tasted the drink nervously. A waiter appeared suddenly.

Friendly, likely, etc.
The ending –ly is the normal adverb ending. But a few adjective also end in –ly. It was a lively party. We had a lovely time. Mary was very friendly. Some more examples are: elderly, likely, lonely, silly, ugly. The words are adjectives, not adverbs. And we cannot add –ly. There is no such word as friendlily. But we can say in a friendly way / manner. • She spoke to us in a friendly way. 17

Hard, hardly, near, nearly, etc.
There are some pairs of adverbs like hard and hardly which have different meanings. Here are some examples: • I tried hard, but I didn´t succeed. • I´ve got hardly any money left. (hardly any = very little, almost none) • I found a phone box quite near. • I nearly fell asleep in the meeting. (nearly = almost) Some more examples: lately (= in the last few days / weeks), highly (= very), free (= without paying), freely (= uncontrolled).

Good and well
Good is an adjective, and well is its adverb. The opposites are bad an badly. adjective Peter is a good violinist. Our test results were good. I had a bad night. adverb He plays the violin very well. We all did well in the test. I slept badly last night.

Well can also be an adjective meaning “in good health”, the opposite of ill.

ADVERBS AND WORD ORDER (ADVERBIOS Y ORDEN DE PALABRAS)
There are three places in the sentences where an adverb can go. They are called front position (at the beginning of a sentence), mid position (in the middle of a sentence) and end position (at the end of a sentence). Los adverbios pueden ir en tres posiciones en una oración: al principio de la oración, en mitad de la oración o al final de la oración. front mid end away. hard.

Then the ship slowly sailed Outside it was obviously snowing

Mid position means close to the verb (junto al verbo). Here are some examples of adverbs in mid position. auxiliary The visitors Mary We You The pictures I She are has don´t should have adverb just always often never definitely really probably auxiliary main verb leaving. liked go take stolen. hate left Peter. to the cinema. risks. homework. the bag on the bus.

been

The adverb comes after the first auxiliary, e.g. are, has, don´t, …. If there is no auxiliary, then the adverb comes before the main verb, e.g. hate, left. When the verb be is on its own, the adverb usually comes after it. • • The boss is usually in a bad temper. You´re certainly tired.

When there is stress on the main verb be or on the auxiliary, then the adverb usually comes before it. • You certainly are a lot better today.

An adverb does not usually go between the verb and the direct object. We put it in end position, after the object. • • He ate his breakfast quickly. We played tennis yesterday.

But an adverb can go before a very long object. • The police examined carefully the contents of the dead man´s pockets.

Adverbs of manner.
They tell use how something happens, e.g. noisily, quickly. It usually goes in end position, but an adverb which ends in –ly can sometimes go in mid position. We asked permission politely / We politely asked permission. 20

No longer and any longer / any more.
No longer meands that something is finised. It goes in mid position. You can´t buy these cakes now. They no longer make them. I used to belong to the club, but I´m no longer a member. No longer can be a little formal. In informal speech we use not…any longer or not…any more. • • They don´t make these cakes any longer / any more. She doesn´t live here any longer / any more.

Quite or rather? When we make a favourable comment, we usually say quite, not rather. In unfavourable comment, we usually say rather, but quite is possible. • The book was rather boring / quite boring.

Rather in a favourable comment means “to a surprising or unusual degree”. • It´s rather warm for October. (it isn´t usually so warm).

We can use rather with a comparative but not quite. • The meal took rather longer than we expected.

With some adjectives, quite means “completely” or “totally”. • • The idea is quite absurd. (=totally absurd) What you said is quite wrong. (=completely wrong)

Too many, too much and enough go before a noun. • • • He spends too much time working. She went to too many parties. Did you bring enough money?

We use many with a plural noun and much with an uncountable noun. Enough goes after an adjective: The coffee isn´t strong enough. Enough goes before a noun: You didn´t put enough coffee in. We leave out the noun if the meaning is clear without it. • • Just add a little water. Not too much. Will need fifteen cups. Have we got enough?

We can use a phrase with for after too or enough. • • These puzzles are too difficult for children. This coat isn´t warm enough for winter.

We can also use a to-infinitive. • • It is too dangerous to walk home at night. Are you fit enough to run a marathon?

If the noun is plural and ends in s, put the apostrophe after the s. • • • The players´ shorts were a bit long. Las calzonas de los jugadores…. The boys´ names were Peter and John. Los nombres de los niños…. It´s a girls´ school. …un colegio de chicas.

If the noun is plural but does not end in s, for example irregular men, women, children…, put the apostrophe before the s. • There is a children´s swimming-pool. …una piscina de niños. 24

• •

The men´s toilet is over there. El sevicio de los hombres…. The women´s tennis final is on Saturday. La final de tenis de mujeres….

If the noun is a thing, not a person, use of. • • • They came to the end of the road. …al final del camino. We climbed to the top of the mountain. …la cima de la montaña. The windows of the house were broken. Las ventanas de la casa…

Very often you can put two nouns together, like this: the kitchen table, a garden wall, a car engine, the toilet door, the city centre…

Verbo to be (“Ser o Estar”)
Affirmative Long form I am You are He is She is It is We are You are They are Short form I´m You’re He´s She´s It´s We´re You´re They´re Negative Long form I am not You are not He is not She is not It is not We are not You are not They are not Short form I´m not You aren´t He isn´t She isn´t It isn´t We aren´t You aren´t They aren´t Interrogative Am I? Are you? Is he? Is she? Is it? Are we? Are you? Are they?

The verb Be has three different forms in the present: am, are and is. Use short forms when you speak. You can also use short forms when you write letters to a friend. It has two different meanings in spanish: ser o estar.

Short answers.
In English we can not answer yes or no alone. We must add the positive or negative forms of the verbs. En Inglés no podemos responder solo sí o no. Debemos añadir la forma positiva o negativa de los verbos. Am I tall? Is he / she / it in the bedroom? Are we / you / they doctors? Yes, I am. Yes, he / she / it is. Yes, we / you / they are. No, I´m not. No, he / she / it isn´t. No. we / you / they aren´t. 27

PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PRESENTE CONTINUO)
Affirmative I, am going He, she, it is going You, we, they are going Negative I am (I'm) not going He, she, it is not (isn't) going You, we, they are not (aren't) going Interrogative Am I going? Is he, she, it going? Are you, we, they going?

Uses:
An action in progress at the time of speaking. The mechanic is repairing the car now. A temporary action. He is travelling a lot this month. A definite plan for the future. I'm interviewing the actors tomorrow. + Monotonous and repetitive actions. +Para quejarse de acciones repetidas y monótonas • Why are you always yelling at me? ¿Por qué estás siempre gritándome?

PAST SIMPLE (PASADO SIMPLE)
Affirmative I, you worked He, she, it worked We, you, they worked Negative I, you did not (didn't) work He, she, it did not (didn't) work We, you, they did not (didn't) work Interrogative Did I, you work? Did He, she, it work? Did we, you, they work?

Uses:

A completed action in the past. Mark finished school in 2004. A series of completed actions in the past. When he worked as a journalist, he met interesting people and travelled to far away countries. + To tell how things were in the past. + Para contar cómo eran las cosas en el pasado. • In the Middle Ages, few people knew how to read and write. En la Edad Media poca gente sabía leer y escribir.

IRREGULAR VERBS: • Irregular verbs have a special Past form. You have to study them by heart.
The Past Simple forms are at the second column. Los verbos irregulares tienen una forma de pasado especial. Tienes que estudiarlos de memoria. Las formas de pasado simple están en la segunda columna.

INFINITIVE – PAST SIMPLE – PAST PARTICIPLE – MEANING Be was / were been ser / estar Become became become llegar a ser Begin began begun empezar, etc

She watched TV last night. She didn´t watch TV last night. Did she watch TV last night? Yes, she did / No, she didn´t.

He went to the party yesterday. He didn´t go to the party yesterday. Did he go to the party yesterday? Yes, he did / No, he didn´t.

USED TO (“Solía…” Hábitos pasados)
We use used to to talk about past habits or the things which people did in the past but not now. Look at this example • I used to work in London. Yo solía trabajar en Londres.

Notice that used to is followed by the infinitive without to. You can also use used to to talk about things which were true in the past but are not true now. • • I used to have a lot of hair. Yo solía tener mucho pelo. It used to be a small fishing village. Solía ser un pequeño pueblo pesquero.

Positivo: Sujeto + used to + verbo en infinitivo • • • I used to smoke. Now I don't smoke anymore. Yo solía fumar. Ahora ya no fumo. She used to swim when she lived in Africa. Ella solía nadar cuando vivía en África. They used to be good students. Now they are not. Ellos eran buenos estudiantes.

Negativo: Sujeto + did + not (o didn't) + use to • • • He didn't use to study. El no solía estudiar. I didn't use to do it. Yo no lo solía hacer. o Yo no lo hacía. We didn't use to read. Nosotros no solíamos leer.

BE USED TO (“estoy acostumbrado a…” HÁBITOS PRESENTES)
We use be used to to talk about present habits. Be used to que significa "estar acostumbrado/a a". Positivo: Sujeto + verbo to be + used to + sustantivo / verbo en -ing (nunca en infinitivo). • • • I am used to speaking in public. Estoy acostumbrado/a a hablar en público. They are used to eating bread. Ellos están acostumbrados a comer pan. We were quite used to him. Estábamos muy (bastante) acostumbrados a él.

PAST CONTINUOUS (PASADO CONTINUO)
Affirmative
I was working You were working He, she, it was working We, you, they were working

Negative
I was not (wasn't) working You were not (weren't) working He, she, it was not (wasn't) working We, you, they were not (weren't) working

Interrogative
Was I working? Were you working? Was he, she, it working? Were we, you, they working?

Uses:

An incomplete action in progress at a specific time in the past. Last year she was working as a waitress An incomplete action interrupted by another action. Bill was cooking dinner when someone knocked at the door. Two incomplete actions taking place at the same time in the past. They were listening to music while they were sunbathing.

More examples. Más ejemplos. • Carlos invited me to have a drink. Carlos me invitó a tomar una copa. • Juan didn't come to pick me up. Juan no vino a recogerme. • When did you go to the cinema? ¿Cuándo fuiste al cine? • It took them twenty minutes to arrive. Ellos tardaron veinte minutos en llegar • I couldn't buy what I wanted. No pude comprar lo que quería • He/She didn't know what to say to me. No supo qué decirme. • They sold the ship without thinking. Vendieron el barco sin pensarlo. • I drove about twenty hours. Conduje unas veinte horas. • Did you read his/her book? ¿Leiste su libro? • We had trouble finding you. Nos costó encontrarte. • I didn't find what I wanted. No encontré lo que quería. • When I met him, I didn't like him. Cuando lo conoci, no me cayó bien. • The man fell from the horse. El hombre se cayó del caballo. • It was very difficult to understand it. Era muy difícil comprenderlo. • I couldn't get to London on time. No pude llegar a Londres a tiempo. • I never thought he would come. Jamás pensé que él vendría. • I took my keys and left. Cogí mis llaves y me marché.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE (PRETERITO PERFECTO)
Affirmative I, you have talked He, she, it has talked We, you, they have talked Negative Interrogative I, you have not (haven't) talked Have I, you talked? He, she, it has not (hasn't) talked Has he, she, it talked? We, you, they have not (haven't) talked Have we, you, they talked?

Uses:
An action that took place at an unstated time in the past, but it is connected to the present • • I'm not going to the cinema with them tonight because I've already seen that film Broadway musicals have always been famous

An action that started in the past and continues to the present • • • The singer hasn't performed for over a month. She has had a TV Show since 1995 How long has the band toured around the world?

Positivo: Sujeto + have / has + just + participio pasado • She has just told me. Me lo acaba de contar

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS (PRETÉRITO PERFECTO COMPUESTO CONTINUO)
Affirmative I, you have been talking He, she, it has been talking We, you, they have been talking Negative I, you have not (haven't) been talking He, she, it has not (hasn't) been talking We, you, they have not (haven't) been talking talking?

Interrogative Have I, you been talking? Has he, she, it been talking? Have we, u, they been

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous (with how long, for and since) for actions repeated over a period of time. Puedes usar el presente perfecto continuo con how long, for y since para acciones repetida durante un periodo de tiempo. • • She has been playing tennis since she was eight. Ella ha estado jugando al tenis desde que tenía los ocho años. How long have you been smoking? ¿Cuanto tiempo llevas fumando?

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE (PLUSCUAMPERFECTO)
Affirmative I, you had eaten He, she, it had eaten We, you, they had eaten Negative I, you had not (hadn't) eaten He, she, it had not (hadn't) eaten We, you, they had not (hadn't) eaten Interrogative Had I, you eaten? Had he, she, it eaten? Had we, you, they eaten?

Uses:

An action which happened before another action in the past. Para indicar que una acción ocurrió antes que otra también pasada. • • I had never been to a live concert until I went to the Dido concert. No había estado nunca en un concierto en directo, hasta que fui al concierto de Dido. The actor had grown a beard before appearing in that film. El actor se había dejado crecer la barba antes de aparecer en esa película. already, by the time, after, before, until, never, just.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS (PRETÉRITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO CONTINUO)
Affirmative I, you had been eating He, she, it had been eating We, you, they had been eating Negative I, you had not (hadn't) been eating He, she, it had not (hadn't) been eating We, you, they had not (hadn't) been eating Interrogative Had I, you been eating? Had he, she, it been eating? Had we, you, they been eating?

Uses:
A continuous action which preceded another action in the past. Para expresar acciones prolongadas que estaban ocurriendo en el pasado antes de otra acción breve. • He had been writing the script for the show before I arrived.

FUTURE SIMPLE (FUTURO SIMPLE)
Affirmative I, you will stop He, she, it will stop We, you, they will stop Negative I, you will not (won't) stop He, she, it will not (won't) stop We, you, they will not (won't) stop Interrogative Will I, you stop? Will he, she, it stop? Will we, you, they stop?

¿Cómo se contrae Will? I will…………….....I'll You will…………..You'll He will…………… He'll She will…………. She'll It will…………….. It'll We will…………...We'll They will………... They'll

FUTURE CONTINUOUS (FUTURO CONTINUO)
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I, you will be travelling I, you will not (won't) be travelling Will I, you be travelling? He, she, It will be travelling He, she, it will not (won't) be travelling Will he, she, it be travelling? We, you, they will be travelling We, you, they will not (won't) be travelling Will we, you, they be travelling?

Uses:
An action in progress at specific time in the future. At this time tomorrow, we will be flying to Rome.

Time expressions:
At this time tomorrow, at this time next year, on Thursday. • • • • • I will be playing football at this time tomorrow. Yo estaré jugando al fútbol a esta hora mañana. You will be flying at seven tomorrow. Tú estarás volando a las siete mañana. He will be swimming on Friday. Él estará nadando el viernes. She will be taking an exam at this time tomorrow. Ella estará hacienda un examen mañana. It will be eating its bone all day. Estará comiendo su hueso todo el día. M

BE GOING TO (FUTURO DE INTENCIÓN)
Affirmative
I am going to do You are going to do He, she, it is going to do We, you, they are going to do

Negative
I am not (I'm not) going to do You are not (aren't) going to do He, she, it is not (Isn't) going to do We, you, they are not (aren't) going to do

Interrogative
Am I going to do? Are you going to do? Is he, she, it going to do? Are we, you, they going to do?

Uses:
Plans: Arthur is going to check his e‐mail this evening. Something about to happen: The shop is going to close in five minutes. 51

Time expressions:

This evening, later, next week, soon, at 10 o'clock, in the future, tomorrow, in an hour, now, tonight.

Positivo: Sujeto + am / are / is + "going to". • • • • I am (I'm) going to work . Yo voy a trabajar She is (She's) going to study. Ella va a estudiar. It is (It's) going to rain. Va a llover They are (They're) going to look. Ellos/Ellas van a mirar.

Negativo: Sujeto + am / are / is + not + "going to" • She is not (isn´t) going to work. Ella no va a trabajar. "going to"…?

When it is not certain that something will happen but it is just a prediction. Cuando quieras hablar de un futuro no planificado e incierto, debes utilizar will o won't (negativo). • If he comes early, we will go to the cinema. Si viene temprano, iremos al cine.

Will you have finished by next Tuesday? ¿Habrás terminado para el próximo martes?

PERFECT FUTURE (FUTURO PERFECTO COMPUESTO)
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I, you will have stopped I, you will not (won't) have stopped Will I, you have stopped? He, she, it will have stopped He, she, it will not (won't) have stopped Will he, she, it have stopped? We, you, they will have stopped We, you, they will not (won't) have stopped Will we, you, they have stopped?

Use:
A completed action at a specific time in the future. Para indicar que una acción habrá terminado en un momento concreto del futuro. • By this time next week, I will have finished all my exams. La semana próxima, a esta hora, habré acabado todos mis exámenes.

Time expressions.
by this time next week, by ten o'clock, by then, by August, by the end of May.

COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms (COMPARATIVOS Y SUPERLATIVOS)
We use the comparative to compare two people or things and the superlative to compare three or more people or things. • Jenny is younger than Mary. Jenny is the youngest of all her friends.

We use than with the comparative and the…of / in with the superlative. We use in with the superlative, usually when we refer to places. • London is bigger than leeds. It is the biggest city in England.

Some adjectives form their comparatives either by adding –er / -est or with more / most. Some of these are: clever, stupid, narrow, gentle. clever – cleverer – the cleverest OR clever – more clever – the most clever.

as…as is used to compare two people or things which are the same. • He´s as tall as Peter.

Not as / so… as is used in negative sentences. • He isn´t as / so rich as John.

Short and long adjectives
One-syllable and two-syllable adjectives (e.g. small, big, nice,…) usually have the –er, -est ending. • • Your hi-fi is bigger. This is the biggest computer.

But we use more, most before words ending in –ed. • Everyone was pleased at the results, but Mary was the most pleased.

We also use more, most with three-syllable adjectives (e.g. exciting) and with longer ones: more elegant, the most interesting project, the most reliable machine, … • The films was more exciting than the book.

The comparison of adverbs
Some adverbs have the same form as an adjective, e.g. early, fast, hard, high, late, long, near. They form the comparative and superlative with –er, -est. faster, fastest, harder, hardest, earlier, earliest. Many adverbs are an adjective + -ly, e.g. carefully, easily, nicely, slowly. they form the comparative and superlative with more, most, more easily, most easily, more carefully, most carefully.

We can use elder, eldest + noun instead of older, oldest, but only for people in the same family. • My elder / older sister got married last year.

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Comparing quantities
We use more, most and their opposites less and least to compare quantities. • • • • I haven´t got many books. You´ve got more than I have. The Hotel Bristol has the most rooms. Mary spends less on clothes than Laura does. Emma made the least mistakes.

Comparative and superlative patterns
There are a number of different sentence patterns with comparative and superlative forms, e.g. older than me, the sweetest man in the word,… We often use a phrase with than after a comparative. • • This restauranr is nicer than the Pizza House. The wine is more expensive than the coke.

We normally use the before a superlative. • • The quickest way is along this road. This question is the most difficult.

Note the pattern with one of. • Michael Jackson is one of the most famous pop singers.

We can use in or of after a superlative. We use in with places and with groups of people, e.g. team. • • He is the best player in the team. It´s the most expensive hotel in London.

We ofthen use a clause after a superlative. • • That was the most delicious fish (that) I´ve ever eaten. She is the nicest person you could meet.

We use as…as to say that things are equal or unequal. • • Our house is as big as yours. Today is warm. It isn´t as / so cold as yesterday.

Note that in a negative sentence we can also use so…as, but this is less common. Note also the same as (= “lo mismo que”). • The result of the match was the same as last year.

Than me / than I am
Both are correct, and they have the same meaning. • • You´re three years older than me. Her husband isn´t as tall as her.

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After than or as, a personal pronoun on its own has the object form, e.g. me, her • • You´re three years older than I am. Her husband isn´t as tall as she is.

But if the pronoun has a verb after it, then we use the subject form, e.g. I, she.

Less and least
Less and least are the opposites of more a most. We use less and least with both long and short words. • • A bus is less expensive than a taxi. I am the least musical person in the world.

Much cheaper
We can put a word or phrase (e.g. much, far, a bit) before a comparative to say how much faster, cheaper, etc something is. Look at these examples. • • • This sofa is a bit more comfortable. A bus is far cheaper than a taxi. It is much cheaper by train.

Before a comparative we can use much “mucho”, a lot “un montón”, far “con diferencia”, rather “bastante”, slightly “ligeramente”, a bit “un poco”, a little “un poco”.

Faster and faster, more and more expensive
We use expressions like these to say that something is increasing all the time. • • He was driving faster and faster. Everything gets more and more expensive.

The form depends on whether the comparative is with –er (e.g. faster) or with more (e.g. more expensive). We can also use less and less for something decreasing. • As we faced new problems, we felt less and less enthusiastic.

The cheaper, the better
This pattern is used to say that a change in one thing goes with a change in another. Look at these examples. • • • • The higher the price, the more reliable the product. The sooner we leave, the sooner we´ll get there. The faster you drive, the better. We are late. The cheaper holiday, the better one.

You can also start the sentence with “B will happen” and follow it with “If A happens”. The meaning of the sentence is the same. • • We´ll get wet if it rains. Nos mojaremos si llueve. I´ll come in if the water´s not too cold. Me meteré si el agua no está demasiado fría.

In all these examples, it is the part of the sentence after if (the if clause) which tells you what can happen or what is possible (“if A happens…”). The other part of the sentence is the result (“…B will happen”).

If-clause If If we If we If it If I Present Simple hurry, miss it, doesn´t rain, don´t practise,

main clause will we ´ll catch the bus. there ´ll be another one. we ´ll be having a picnic. I won´t get any better.

If you wore glasses, you´d see better. Second conditional.
Use if + the Past Simple (if you wore glasses…) to talk about things which are possible but not very probable. Then use would + a main verb for the result (…you´d see better). In other words, “ If A happened, B would happen.” • • If you went to England for a year, you´d learn a lot of English. Si tú fueras a Inglaterra durante un año, (tú) aprenderías un montón de inglés. If he won a lot of money, he´d travel round the world. Si él ganara un montón de dinero, (él) viajaría por todo el mundo.

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In these two examples it is not probable that the other person will go to England for a year or win a lot of money. You can also use if + the Past Simple to talk about things which are impossible. • • If you were taller, I would dance with you. Si fueras más alto, bailaría contigo. If I were you, I´d see a doctor. Si yo fuera tú, vería a un médico.

In these examples it is imposible for the boy to be taller or for “I” to be you. Notice that you can use either was or were after the 1st and 3rd persons singular in the if clause. Su estructura es if + pasado simple en la condición y condicional simple en el resultado. Expresa condiciones hipotéticas referidas al presente, es decir, que es poco probable que ocurran. Fíjate en que en castellano se usa el pretérito imperfecto de subjuntivo en lugar del pasado. Si el verbo de la oración subordinada es to be se suele utilizar were en todas las personas. In the same way as with the 1st conditional you can start the sentence with “B would happen” and follow it with “if A happened”. The meaning of the sentence is the same.

If we´d run, we´d have caught the bus. Third conditional.
Use if + the Past Perfect (if we had run…) to talk about things which did not happen in the past. Then use would have + a main verb for the result (…we would have caught it). In order words, “ If A had happened, B would have happened.” • • If I´d (I had) known it was your birthday, I´d (I would) have bought you a present. Si hubiera sabido que era tu cumpleaños, te habría comprado un regalo. If she´d asked me, I´d have come. Si ella me lo hubiera pedido, yo habría venido. (Ella no me lo pidió, por eso no vine.)

La estructura básíca es: if + pretérito pluscuamperfecto en la condición y condicional compuesto en el resultado. En este caso la hipótesis es imposible, pues se refiere al pasado y, por tanto, ya no puede realizarse. In the same way as with the 1st and 2nd conditionals, you can start the sentence with “B would have happened” and follow it with “if A had happened.” The meaning of the sentence is the same.

Conditionals (1)
Type 1: If we hurry, we´ll catch the bus. The verb in the if-clause (e,g, hurry ) is in the Present Simple, not the future. But we can use will in the if-clause when we make a request. • If you´ll just wait a moment, I´ll find someone to help you. (= Please wait a moment…)

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We can use the Present Continuous (e.g. are doing) or the Present Perfect (e.g. have done) in the if-clause. • • If we´re expecting visitors, the flat will need a good clean. If you´ve finished with the computer, I´ll put it away.

We sometimes use the Present Simple in both clauses. • • If you heat water, it boils. If Daniel has any money, he spends it.

This means that one thing always follows automatically from another. The if-clause usually comes first, but it can come after the main clause. • I´ll phone you if I hear any news.

More uses of type 1
We can use type 1 conditionals in offers and suggestions. • • If you need a ticket, I can get you one. If you feel like seeing the sights, we can take a bus tour.

We can also use them in warnings and threats. • • If you go on like this, you´ll make yourself ill. If you don´t apologize, I´ll never speak to you again.

Conditionals (2)
Type 2: If I ate cake, I´d get fat. As well as the Past Simple we can use the Past Continuous (e.g. was doing) in the if-clause. • If Rachel was playing her stereo, it wouldn´t be so quiet in here.

In a type 2 if-clause we sometimes use were instead of was, especially in the clause if I were you. • If I were you, I´d ask a lawyer for some advice.

If we had a calculator, we could work this out a lot quicker. If Rachel worked harder, she might do even better at her studies.

In the type 2 conditional, the action is less probable. Type 2 is less direct than type 1. The speaker is less sure that you want to do something.

More uses of type 2
We can use type 2 conditionals in offers and suggestions. • • If you needed a ticket, I could get you one. If you felt like seeing the sights, we could take a bus tour.

Conditionals (3)
Type 3: If we had gone earlier, we would have had better weather. The main clause often has would have. We can also use could have or might have. Las variantes posibles de esta estructura son could / might + infinitivo compuesto en la oración principal. • • If I´d had my mobile phone yesterday, I could have contacted you. We just caught the train. If we´d stopped to buy a newspaper, we might have missed it.

The short form ´d can be either had or would. • If you´d (= had) rung me, I´d (= would) have come to see you.

More uses of type 3
We use type 3 conditional to talk about things in the past happening differently from the way they really happened. This sometimes means criticizing people or pointing out their mistakes. • • If you´d been a bit more carefull, you wouldn´t have cut yourself. If Mary had set her alarm clock, she wouldn´t have overslept.

We can also use this structure to express regret about the past. • If I hadn´t fallen ill and missed the interview, I might have got the job.

We use the Present Simple for the future after linking words such as if, when, unless and in case.

If or when?
We use if for something that we think might happen. We use if (not when) for something impossible or imaginary. Usamos if para algo que creemos que podría suceder. Usamos if (no when) para algo imposible o imaginario. • • If you hear any news, can you ring me immediately? Si escuchas alguna noticia, ¿ puedes llamarme inmediatamente? If I were you, I´d refuse. Si yo fuera tu, me negaría.

We use when for something that we know will happen. Usamos when para algo que sabemos que sucederá. • I´ll make myself an omelette when I get home tonight. (I will get home tonight). Me haré una tortilla cuando llegue a mi casa esta noche.

We can use either if or when in contexts where they mean “every time”. • If / when you run, you use up energy. Si / Cuando tú corres, tu desgastas energía. (= Cada vez que corres…)

If and unless
If...not means the same as unless. • • I can´t see if I don´t wear glasses. = I can´t see unless I wear glasses. Yo no puedo ver si no llevo gafas. = No puedo ver a menos que lleve gafas. I wouldn´t say that if I didn´t believe it. = I wouldn´t say that unless I believed it. No diría eso si no lo creyera. = No diría eso si no lo creyera.

In case
Look at these examples: • • Take a sándwich with you in case you get hungry. Llévate un sandwich por sit e da hambre. Laura took two photos in case one of them didn´t come out. Laura sacó dos fotos por si una de ellas no valía.

We use in case to talk about doing something to avoid a possible problem later on. Usamos in case para hablar sobre hacer algo para evitar un posible problema más tarde. Compare if and in case. • • I´ll bring in the washing if it rains. (= I´ll bring it in at the time it starts raining.) Meteré la colada si llueve. I´ll bring in the washing in case it rains. (= I´ll bring it in now because it might rain later.) Meteré la colada por si llueve.

Wish and if only.
We can use I wish or if only to express a wish. If only is stronger an more emphatic than wish. We can use a clause with if only on its own, or we can add another clause. Posemos usar I wish o if only para expresar un deseo. If only es más fuerte y más enfático que wish. Podemos usar una oración con if only sólo, o podemos añadir otra proposición. • • If only I wasn´t so fat. Si no estuviera tan gorda. If only I wasn´t so fat, I would be able to get into these trousers. Si no estuviera tan gorda, sería capaz de meterme en estos pantalones.

Wish / If only… would expresses a wish for something to happen, or to stop happening. Expresa un deseo de que algo suceda o deje de suceder.

Wish…the past.
Wish and if only with a past-tense verb express a wish for things to be different. Expresa un deseo de que las cosas fueran diferentes. • I wish I lived in a big city. It´s so boring in the country. Desearía vivir en una gran ciudad. Es tan aburrido el campo.

We can use were instead of was. Were is used as the form of be in all wishes about the present. (This is a subjunctive form.) • If only I were taller, I might be better at basketball. Si fuera más alto, podría ser mejor en baloncesto.

Wish…the Past Perfect
We use wish and if only with the Past Perfect to express a wish about the past. Usamos wish y if only con el pasado perfecto para expresar un deseo sobre el pasado. • • I wish I´d got up earlier. Desearía haberme levantado más temprano. If only David had been a bit more careful, he´d have been all right. Si David hubiera sido un poc más cuidadoso, él habría estado bien.

We do not use would have for the past, but we can use could have. No usamos would have para el pasado, pero podemos utilizar could have. • I wish I could have been at the wedding, but I was in New York. Desearía poder haber estado en la boda, pero estaba en New York.

MODAL VERBS (VERBOS MODALES)
There is a special group of verbs called modals (modal auxiliaries). They usually go before the main verb. Subject Modal verb can could may might will would shall should ought to must need to Main verb

I You He They etc…

walk come leave try etc…

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The modals are different from the auxiliaries do, have and be, because they mean something. Los modales son diferentes de los verbos auxiliares (do, have, be), porque los verbos modales significan algo. Look at this sentence: He can speak English. Can here means “know how to”. But in the sentence: He is speaking, the word is has no meaning. Most modal verbs have more than one meaning. La mayoría de los verbos modales tiene más de un significado. • • Can he drive? = Does he know how to drive? (ability) Can he come with us? = Is it all right if he comes with us? (permission)

All these modal verbs share common characterictics. Estos verbos tienen algunas características comunes: They are usually used to refer to present or future situations. The only exception is going to be the modal verb could which is used for past situations. Normalmente se emplean para referirse a situaciones presentes o futuras a excepción del modal could que se usa en pasado They are invariable, I mean they don´t add an –s ending at the third person singular of present simple tense; they have an unique form for singular and plural and they haven´t got different forms for the infinitive, past participle or compound tenses. Son invariables: no añaden –s en la tercera persona de singular del presente, sólo tienen una forma tanto en singular como en plural, y no tienen infinitivo, participio ni tiempos compuestos. They make negative with not. They don´t need to use the auxilary do helping to form the negative and interrogative sentences, with the only exception of have to . No necesitan do para formar la negativa ni la interrogativa (salvo have to) They are never followed by a to-infinitive Nunca llevan detrás un infinitivo con to (menos be able to, have to, need to y ought to, que ya llevan incorporada esta preposición) Be able to, have to y need to son semimodales porque no comparten todas estas características, pero sí algunos usos de los verbos modales (obligación, habilidad, etc.) We are going to describe the different uses and meanings of the modal verbs, and of phrases with a modal function. Vamos a describir los diferentes usos y significados de lso verbos modales y frases con una función modal.

The verb Can:
He can drive. Talking about ability.
Look at these two sentences. They mean the same thing: • • He can drive. El puede conducir. He knows how to drive. El sabe cómo conducir.

Notice that can never has and –s at the end. Nota que can nunca lleva –s de tercera persona. • • • I can swim. Yo puedo nada. She can play tennis. Ella puede jugar al tenis. They can help us. Ellos pueden ayudarnos. 70

We form the negative like this: • • I can´t speak Spanish. Yo no puedo hablar español. She can´t drive. Ella no puede conducir.

When you write formal English use cannot. (= can + not) • • Babies cannot / can not walk. Los bebés no pueden caminar. Elephants cannot / can not jump. Los elefantes no pueden saltar.

We form questions like this: • • Can you understand Italian? ¿Puedes entender el italiano? Can he cook? ¿Puede (él) cocinar?

When you want to talk about things in the past (last year, in 1982,…) use I could…, I couldn´t (could not)… • • • He could play football when he was young. El podía jugar al fútbol cuando era joven. She could swim when she was one, but she couldn´t walk. Ella podía nada cuando tenía un año, pero no podía caminar. He couldn´t speak English last year. El no podía hablar inglés el año pasado.

Be able to es el verbo to be más un adjetivo able que significa "ser capaz de", tener una habilidad específica. Be able to se puede utilizar en todos los tiempos. Veamos algunos ejemplos: • • • • • Present: I am able to do it. Yo soy capaz de hacerlo. Past: You were able to swim Tú sabías (podías) nadar Present Perfect: She hasn't been able to come. Ella no ha podido venir. Future: They will be able to fly Ellos podrán volar. Conditional: I would be able to do it, if you let me Yo sería capaz (podría) de hacerlo, si tú me dejaras.

Can I use your telephone, please? Asking permission.
When you want to know if it is all right to do something, you normally use Can I…? • Can I use your telephone? ¿Puedo usar tu teléfono?

Can you help me, please? Making a request.
If you want to ask somebody to do something, you normally use: Can you…? • Can you help me, please? ¿Puede ayudarme, por favor?

Use Could you…? or Would you…? if you want to be very polite. Usa Could o Would si quieres ser más educado. • • Could you answer the phone, please? ¿Podrías responder al teléfono, por favor? Would you post this letter, please? ¿Me mandarías esta carta por correo, por favor?

You can answer these questions with: Yes, of course…, No, I´m sorry, I…

The verb Must:
You must stay in bed! Talking about obligation.
If you want to talk about rules, orders or duties, use: You must… You have (got) to… You should… You ought to… It´s late. You must do your homework. Es tarde. Debes hacer tus deberes. You have (got) to go to school. Tienes que ir al colegio. You should help him. Deberías ayudarlo. You ought to get a job. Tendrías que conseguir un trabajo.

When the speaker says You must…, he is ordering the other person to do something. Cuando el que habla usa You must…, él está ordenando a la otra persona que haga algo. If the speaker says You have (got) to…, he means that there is a rule or law which forces or obliges the other person to do something. Si el hablante dice You have (got) to…, él quiere decir que hay un regla o ley que fuerza u obliga a la otra persona a hacer algo. If the speaker says You should… or You ought to…, he thinks it is right for the other person, or the other person has a duty, to do something. Should and ought to mean the same. Si el hablante dice You should… o You ought to…, él cree que es lo correcto para la otra persona, o que la otra persona tiene un deber, u obligación de hacer algo. Should y ought to tendrían el mismo significado. If there are no rules, orders or duties you can say: You don´t have to… (but not You mustn´t…, You shouldn´t… or You oughtn´t to…). • • You don´t have to do your homework now. You can do it tomorrow. Tú no tienes que hacer tus deberes ahora. Puedes hacerlos mañana. You don´t have to help him. He can manage on his own. Tú no tienes que ayudarlo. Él puede apañárselas sólo.

If you want to ask about rules and orders, you can usually say: Must I…?, Have I got to…?, Do I have to…? or Should I…?. • • • • Must I go to bed now? ¿Debo acostarme ahora? Have I got to wear a seat belt? ¿Tengo que llevar cinturón de seguridad? Do I have to open it? ¿Tengo que abrirlo? Should we give him some money? ¿Deberíamos darle algún dinero?

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We must take an umbrella. Talking about necessity.
If you want to talk about things it is necessary to do, use I have to…, I must…, or I need to… • • • • He has to walk to school. (Es necesario para él caminar…) I must get a new passport. (Es necerario para mí conseguir…) I need to buy some petrol. (Es necesario para mí comprar…) He had to go to hospital. (Era necesario para él ir…)

If something is not necessary, use I don´t have to…, or I don´t need to… (but not I mustn´t…). • • We don´t have to run, we are not late. No necesitamos corer, no llegamos tarde. You don´t need to get there till 9 o´clock. No necesitas estar allí hasta las 9.

Compare these two sentences: We mustn´t run. (We are not allowed to run). We don´t have to run. (It´s not necessary for us to run). You can us questions like this: • • Do you have to walk to school? ¿Necesitas ir caminando al colegio? Do we need to do this again? ¿Necesitamos hacerlo otra vez?

He may bite! Talking about probability.
If you want to talk about the chances (risks) of something happening or not happening you can use may, could or might, but not can. • • • It could rain tomorrow. Podría llover mañana. It may crash. Puede chocar. We might win. Pdríamos ganar.

You can put NOT after may and might for the negative: 74

• •

She may not come. Ella podría no venir. They might not like it. A ellos podría no gustarle.

He can be very good! Talking about possibility.
You use can / could to say that situations or events are / were possible. • • • It can be quite cold in April. Puede hacer bastante frío en Abril. Smoking can damage your health. Fumar puede dañar tu salud. It could be very lonely on the island in those days. Se podia estar muy solo en la isla esos días.

You can ask questions about how posible / probable things are with can or could. • • Can this be true? ¿Puede ser cierto? Could it happen? ¿Podía suceder?

You can also ask: Do you think… will…? • Do you think they will come? ¿Crees que vendrán?

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Can I help you? Making offers.
If you want to do something for somebody, for example help somebody or buy somebody a drink, you can say: I´ll…, Shall I…?, Can I…?, Would you like…? • • • • I´ll carry that for you. Te lo llevaré. Shall I do the washing up? ¿Friego los platos? Can I give you a lift? ¿Te llevo? Would you like a cup of coffee? ¿Te gustaría una taza de café?

You should see a doctor. Giving advice.
If you want to advise someone what to do, you can say: You must…, You should…, You ought to… Must is stronger than should and ought to. • • • You must buy a new suitcase. Debes comprar una nueva maleta. You should be more careful. Deberías ser más cuidadoso. You ought to eat more fruit. Tendrías que comer más fruta.

If you want to advise somebody not to do something, you can say: You must not (mustn´t)…, or You should not (shouldn´t)… • • You mustn´t smoke so much. Tú no debes fumar tanto. You shouldn´t ask so many questions. No deberías hacer tantas preguntas.

Notice that mustn´t is stronger than shouldn´t. Oughtn´t to is very uncommon. If you want to ask for advice, you can say: Should I…?, Should we…? • • • • • • • • • • • • • Should we call an ambulance? ¿Deberíamos llamar a una ambulancia?

He can play the drums and the guitar. Ability in the present You can introduce her to my cousin.Suggestion Can you drive me home? Request He is able to play the drums and the guitar. Ability She can't win the Oscar. The other actress is better. Certainty that something is impossible Deducción negativa He could play the drums and the guitar. Ability in the past You could try asking for help. Polite request Javier Bardem may play the main character. Polite suggestion Javier Bardem might play the main character.Probability May I use your phone? Polite request Would you please drive me home? Polite request Would you like a drink? Offer

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• • • • • • • • • •

You must leave now. Obligation, necessity Learning Japanese must be very difficult. Certainty that something is true. Do you have to leave now? Obligation You need to leave quickly. Obligation, necessity She needn't wait for them Lack of obligation. You mustn't arrive late. Prohibition She doesn't have to wait for them. Lack of obligation You should improve your pronunciation Advice / opinion You ought to improve your pronunciacion Advice / opinion. Shall I help you with the project? Offer

Negativo Sujeto + must + not (mustn't) + verbo en infinitivo • • • I must not (mustn't) do it. Yo no debo hacerlo. She must not (mustn't) know it. Ella no debe saberlo It must not (mustn't) be good. (Ello) No debe ser bueno.

Pregunta Must + sujeto + verbo en infinitivo…? • • • Must I do it? ¿Debo (yo) hacerlo? Must she come? ¿Debe (ella) venir? Must it be that way? ¿Debe (ello) ser así?

REPORTED SPEECH (ESTILO INDIRECTO)
He said he was ill! Indirect or reported speech.
“I am ill” are the words he speaks. This is an example of direct speech. Direct speech is often in Inverted commas like this: “…”. If you write down or tell another person what he said, it changes to: He said he was ill. This is an example of indirect or reported speech. Notice that in this example the personal pronoun I changes to he. The verb also changes, from am (present) to was (past). In reported speech we give the meaning of what was said rather than the exact words. El estilo indirecto se utiliza para contar lo que alguien dijo pero sin citar exactamente sus palabras. Direct speech I´m American. I am visiting England I come from Dallas I have three Cadillacs Indirect speech He said he was American He said he was visiting England He said he came from Dallas He said he had three Cadillacs

Notice that in all these examples the verbs changes from present to past in indirect (reported) speech. Nota que en todos estos ejemplos los verbos cambian de presente a pasado en estilo indirecto.

Now look at these examples: Direct speech I flew to England on Concorde I´ve been to Oxford I´m going to watch a cricket match I´ll (will / shall) come back again soon Indirect speech He said he had flown to England on Concorde He said he had been to Oxford He said he was going to watch a cricket match He said he would come back again soon

Notice that in all these examples the tense of the verb changes. Modal verbs also change when you change from direct to indirect speech. Look at these examples: Direct speech I can swim I must go I will help I may come Indirect speech She said she could swim She said she had to go She said she would help She said she might come

Some other words also change when you change from direct to indirect speech. Changes from direct speech to reported speech depend on changes in the situation. We may have to make changes when we are reporting something another person has said, or when we report it in a different place or at different time. We can have changes in personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, adverbs of time demonstrative pronouns and so on. Here are some typical changes:

Person: I we my Desmonstrative: this these Place: here Time: now today yesterday tomorrow next week / year this week last week an hour ago

he / she they his / her that those there then, at the time that day, on Monday, etc the day before, the previous day the next / following day, on Saturday, etc the following week / year, etc that week the week before, the previous week an hour before / earlier, etc

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In reporting we use verbs such as announce, answer, explain, mention, promise, reply, say, suggest, tell, warn. The most common of these are say and tell. We can also report thoughts. • • We think the meal was expensive. Nick knew Rita wanted to be with someone else.

When we report statements, we often use that, but we can sometimes leave it out. • • You promised (that) you wouldn´t be late. Sarah was saying (that) there was a problem.

Tell or Say?
We use tell if we want to mention the hearer (the person spoken to). • • Sarah´s boss told her she could leave early. NOT Sarah´s boss told she could leave early. Daniel tells me he´s ready.

We use tell without an direct object (e.g. her, me) only in the expressions tell a story, tell the truth and tell a lie. We use say when we do not mention the hearer. • • Sarah´s boss say she could leave early. NOT Sarah´s boss said her she could leave early. Daniel says he´s ready.

We sometimes use to after say, especially when the words are not reported. • • The boss wanted to say something to Sarah. What did Matthew say to you?

When do we change the tense?
After a past tense verb (e.g. said), there is often a tense change. “It really is cold today” Vicky said it was cold.

If the statement is still up to date when we report it, then we have a choice. We can either leave the tense the same, or we can change it. • • You said you like / liked chocolate. Tú dijiste que te gusta / gustaba el chocolate. Claire told me her father owns / owned a racehorse. Claire me dijo que su padre posee / poseía un caballo de carreras.

If the statement is no longer up to date, then we change the tense. • Claire once told me that her father owned a racehorse. (He may no longer own one) Claire una vez me dijo que su padre poseía un caballo de carreras. (Puede que ya no lo tenga) 84

We usually change the tense if we think the statement is untrue or may be untrue. • You said you liked chocolate, but you aren´t eating any. Tú dijiste que te gustaba el chocolate, pero no estás comiendo ninguno.

Remember this:
When you change from direct to indirect (reported) speech the tenses change like this: Direct speech Present simple I visit Present continuous I am visiting Past simple I visited Past continuous I was visiting Present perfect simple I have visited Present perfect continuous I have been visiting Future going to I am going to visit Future will I will visit Indirect speech Past simple He visited Past continuous He was visiting Past perfect He had visited Past perfect continuous He had been visiting Past perfect simple He had visited Past perfect continuous He had been visitng Future in the past He was going to visit Future in the past He would visit

Examples:
Present Simple Students go to class every day. He said that students went to class every day.

Past Simple Students went to class every day. He said that students had gone to class every day. Future Simple Students will go to class every day. He said that students would go to class every day. Present Continuous Students are going to class every day. He said that students were going to class every day. Past Continuous Students were going to class every day. He said that students had been going to class every day. Present Perfect Simple Students have gone to class every day. He said that students had gone to class every day. Present Perfect Continuous Students have been going to class every day. He said that students had been going to class every day. 85

Past Perfect Simple Students had gone to class every day. He said that students had gone to class every day Past Perfect Continuous Students had been going to class every day. He said that students had been going to class every day.

He told us that Amy was studying for the exam. He said that Amy was studying for the exam. He said to us that Amy was studying for the exam. Nos dijo que Amy estaba estudiando ¨ para el examen.

I asked if he was all right. Indirect or reported questions.
When you change a question from direct to indirect (reported) speech the word order changes like this. Direct speech Are you all right? Indirect speech I asked if he was all right.

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Notice that in the direct question the verb (are) comes before the subject (you). In the indirect question, the verb (was) comes after the subject (she). In a reported question the subject comes before the verb, as in a statement. Here are some examples: • • • Can Lisa come? Is it raining? Will Granada win? He asked if Lisa could come. I asked if it was raining. He asked if Granada would win.

Asking for information.
To ask politely for information, we sometimes use a reported question after a phrase like Could you tell me…? or Do you know…? • • • Could you tell me what time the concert starts? ¿Podría decirme a qué hora comienza el concierto? Do you know if there´s a public phone in the building? ¿Sabe si hay un teléfono público en el edificio? Have you any idea how much a taxi would cost? ¿Tiene idea de cuánto costaría un taxi? Note the word order a taxi would cost. (the subject comes before the verb, as in a statement). 87

We use ask for when someone asks to have something. • “Can I have some brochures, please?” I asked (the travel agent) for some brochures. Yo pedí (al agente de viajes) algunos folletos.

It is also posible to report an order or request like this. • • A policeman told me (that) I had to move the car. Un policía me dijo que tenía que mover el coche. We asked our neighbours if they would mind turning the music down. Nosotros pedimos a nuestros vecinos si les importaría bajar la música.

We can also use an object + to-infinitive after advise, invite, remind and warn. • • “I think you should take a taxi”. Mark advised us to take a taxi. Mark nos aconsejó coger un taxi. “Don´t forget to ring me”. I reminded David to ring me. Recordé a David que me llamara.

We can use an ing-form after admit, apologize for, insist on and suggest. • • “I really must have a rest”. Emma insisted on having a rest. Emma insistió en descansar. “Shal we go to a nightclub?”. Claire suggested going to a nightclub. Claire sugirió ir a un club.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS (PRONOMBRES DE RELATIVO)
That´s the dog which bit me! Relative pronouns and clauses.
You can make two sentences into one, like this: • That’s the dog. The dog bit me. That´s the dog which bit me.

The word which is a relative pronoun. We use it because we do not want to say “the dog” again. Which stands in place of “the dog” and introduces the relative clause: “which bit me”. Here is another way to join two sentences into one: • That´s the boy. The boy hit me. That´s the boy who hit me.

In this example the relative pronoun is who. It ntroduces the relative clause “who hit me”. Use which when you talk about animals and things. Use who when you talk about people. 90

Remember this:
Animals and things People which who

When the pronoun is the object of the clause, you can use whom, instead of who, but this is very formal and uncommon: • The people whom we met yesterday are our new neighbours. Las personas que conocimos ayer son nuestros nuevos vecinos.

After a preposition you must use whom, not who. • The man to whom you spoke is the manager. El hombre con quién hablaste es el manager.

But it is less formal and more common tos say: The man who you spoke to is the manager. • The person who you have an appointment with will be back soon. (informal) La persona con la que tiene la cita volverá pronto.

You can use that instead of who or which in relative clauses. • • That´s the man who / that took my bag. Ese es el hombre que cogió mi mochila. These are the shoes which / that I bought yesterday. Esos son los zapatos que compré ayer.

Notice that that is the same with masculine, feminine, singular and plural nouns. It does not change. The possessive form of the relative pronouns is whose (cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas). You can use it about people, animals and things. • • • • He married a girl whose father was very rich. El se casó con una chica cuyo padre era muy rico. This is John whose mother works for us. Este es Juan cuya madre trabaja para nosotros. We saw a house whose windows were all broken. Vimos una casa cuyas ventanas estaban todas rotas. They gave her a horse whose legs were very short. Le dieron un caballo cuyas patas eran muy cortas.

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RELATIVE CLAUSES (ORACIONES DE RELATIVO)
The use of relative clauses.
There are two kinds of relative clauses: identifying clauses and non-identifying clauses or adding clauses. Identifying clauses identify which thing the speaker is talking about. • The man who lives next door to Melanie is rather strange.

The clause who lives next door to Melanie tells us which man we are reffering to. Without the relative clause the sentence would be incomplete. The man is rather strange makes sense only if we know which man. An identifying clause does not have commas around it. Most relative clauses are identifying. We use them both in speech and in writing. Non-identifying clauses or adding clauses add extra information about something which is already identified. • John, who lives next door to Melanie, is rather strange.

The clause who lives next door to Melanie adds information about John. But we can say the sentence on its own without the relative clause. John is rather strange makes sense because the name John identifies who we are talking about. An adding clause has commas around it. Instead of commas, we can use brackets() or dashes - -. If the adding clause is at the end of the sentence, we need only one comma or dash. • That´s John, who lives next door.

Adding clauses can be rather formal. We use them mainly in writing. They are common in news reports. In speech we often use to short sentences. John lives next door to Melanie. He´s rather strange. ¿Qué funciones hacen los “relatives pronouns” who/whom, which, that? Dos funciones que ya hemos mencionado, pero que repetiremos para que las memorices. Identifican a una persona o cosa. Este tipo de oraciones se llaman “identifying relative clauses” • • He is the person whom I spoke about. Él es la persona de la que hablé. The bag which you gave me. La bolsa que me diste.

Examples Rules
Defining relative clauses • • • • • The police can arrest anyone who / that commits a crime. Who / that refer to people. The boy spoke with an accent which / that sounded British. Which / that refer to things. This is the man whose identity can't be established. Whose refers to possession. Summer is the season when most people go on holiday. When refers to a moment in time. Vancouver is the city where they got married. Where refers to a particular place.

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Non‐defining relative clauses ‐ • • Emma, who was born in Canada, lived in Germany all her life. The film, which is based on a novel, is a great success.

THE PASSIVE (VOZ PASIVA)
The chicken was killed by the fox. Passive
Look at these two sentences:
subject verb object

(1)

The fox
subject

killed

the chicken.
verb agent

(2)

The chicken was killed by the fox.

In sentence (1) the subject is active. The fox does something. In sentence (2) the subject is passive. The chicken does nothing. Sentence (1) is an active sentence. Sentence (2) is a passive sentence. The two sentences mean the same. Use the passive when you think the object of the active sentence is more important than the subject. Look at this example: • All our chickens were killed by a fox. 95

The speaker uses the passive because the chickens are more important to him than the fox. This is what happen when a sentence changes from active to passive. A) The object of the active sentence, the chicken, changes places an becomes the subject in the passive sentence. B) The subject of the active sentence, the fox, changes places and becomes the agent after the preposition by. The agent in a passive sentence is the person or thing that does something. C) The verb killed in the active sentence becomes a passive verb. To make this verb passive, use the same tense of the verb be, that is, was. After the verb be comes the past participle of the verb kill, that is, killed.

A passive verb is a form of be + a past participle. e.g. was killed, is baked,
and so on. • Active: The president welcomed the king. Passive: The king was welcomed by the president. Active: The doctor examined the patients. Passive: The patients were examined by the doctor. Active: Two boys broke the window. Passive: The window was broken by two boys. Active: My wife drove the car. Passive: The car was driven by my wife.

•

•

•

Form all the passive tenses with the verb be + the past participle (-ed in regular verbs, 3rd column in irregular verbs). Present Simple • • Active: Many people in India speak English. Passive: English is spoken by many people in India. Active: Doctors help patients. Passive: Patients are helped by doctors.

Past Simple • Active: They built these flats in 1980. Passive: These flats were built in 1980. • Active: Doctors helped patients. Passive: Patients were helped by doctors. 96

Past Continuous • • Active: Two men were painting the house. Passive: The house was being painted by two men. Active: Doctors were helping patients. Passive: Patients were being helped by doctors.

Present Perfect Simple • • Active: They´ve shown this film before. Passive: This film has been shown before. Active: Doctors have helped patients. Passive: Patients have been helped by doctors.

Past Perfect Simple • • Active: The company had paid the bill. Passive: The bill had been paid by the company. Active: Doctors had helped patients. Passive: Patients had been helped by doctors.

Future be going to • • Active: Parliament is going to change the law. Passive: The law is going to be changed by Parliament. Active: Doctors are going to help patients. Passive: Patients are going to be helped by doctors.

Future Simple will • • Active: A guide will show you round the church. Passive: You will be shown round the church by a guide. Active: Doctors will help patients. Passive:Patients will be helped by doctors.

Modals Form passives with modals (must, can, should, may, ought to, might, etc…) like this: modal + be + past participle • • Active: Parliament must change the law. Passive: The law must be changed by Parliament. Active: Doctors should help patients. Passive: Patients should be helped by doctors.

Modal Perfect • Have to • Active: Doctors have to help patients. Passive: Patients have to be helped by doctors. 97 Active: Doctors must have helped patients. Passive: Patients must have been helped by doctors.

TO HAVE SOMETHING DONE
Compare these situations: • • Claire decorated the room. (She did the work herself). Claire had the room decorated. (A decorator did the work).

We can use have in a passive structure. Claire had the room decorated means that she arranged for a decorator to do it for her as a professional service. Look at these examples: HAVE You should He usually We You´ve Our neighbours are have has had had having SOMETHING your car his suits the television your hair a new garage DONE serviced cleaned repaired cut. built. regularly. at Superclean. last month.

CLAUSES and CONJUNCTIONS (PROPOSICIONES y CONJUNCIONES)
The following sentence has two clauses:

1
Tina is singing and

2
Peter is playing the guitar.

They are both main clauses. This means that they can stand alone as sentences: Tina is singing. Peter is playing the guitar.

Here are two more examples or sentences with two main clauses: main clause I cried We can walk but or main clause John laughed. We can take a taxi.

And “y”, but “pero” and or “o” are conjunctions. The following sentence also has two clauses, but this time there is a main clause and a subclause (subordinate clause): main clause I was at home subclause when he arrived.

A subclause cannot stand alone as a sentence. Only the first clause in the example above can stand by itself: I was at home. The subclause (when he arrived) can only be part of a sentence. It needs another clause to form a complete sentence. Here are some examples of sentences with a main clause and a subclause: main clause I was on the train He left school She lost her job We went to work They said subclause which crashed. when he was 16. because she was always late. although it was Sunday. that I was wrong.

Sometimes the subclause comes first in the sentence, but the meaning stays the same. Subclause When he was 16 main clause he left school.

And, but and or join two equal things together, for example two main clauses (see examples above) or two nouns (an apple and a banana). Conjunctions like if, when, because and although come first in subclauses.

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words like by, in, in front of, on. Notice that you cannot always use English prepositions in the same way as in your own language. It is therefore not always possible to translate prepositions. You can use a preposition + a noun when you say where you do something or where something is. Las preposiciones en ingles no siempre pueden ser usadas igual que en español; además no siempre es posible traducirlas. Puedes utilizar una preposición más un nombre para decir donde haces algo o donde está algo. • I live in a flat.

In this example in is a preposition of place. You can also use a preposition + a noun when you say when you do something or when something happens. Puedes también utilizar una preposición más un nombre al decir cuando haces algo o sucede algo. • My birthday is in June.

In this example in is a preposition of time. So prepositions can have different meanings or uses. Sometimes two or three words can make a preposition: next to, in front of, on top of. Las preposiciones pueden tener diferentes significados o usos.Algunas veces dos o tres palabras pueden formar una preposición.

Prepositions of movement.
Some prepositions describe the movement or action which takes place. They always follow a verb of movement, like walk, run, drive, sail, jump. Algunas preposiciones describen el movimiento o acción que tiene lugar. Siempre van detrás de un verbo de movimiento. • • • • • • • • • We walked up (hacia arriba) the hill and cycled down (hacia abajo) the other side. He climbed over (por encima) the wall and got into (hacia dentro) the room through (a través de) the window. We flew across (cruzando) the Atlantic in five hours. She walked along (a lo largo de) the road past (pasando) the hospital. He threw the bottle out of (fuera de) the window. Don´t try to run away from (alejandose de) me. We drove over (sobre) Brooklyn Bridge towards (hacia) Manhattan. He jumped on to (sobre) his motorbike and rode round (alrededor de) Trafalgar Square at (a) high speed. The ship sailed under (debajo de) the Golden Gate Bridge into (entrando en) San Francisco Bay. 102

Prepositions of place
Some prepositions describe where something or someone is. They always follow a verb like be, stand, lie and sit. Algunas preposiciones describen donde está algo o alguien. Siempre siguen a un verbo. There´s a picture above (encima de, sobre) the televisión. There are some flowers on (sobre) the table. There´s a photograph on top of (encima de) the bookcase. There´s a dog under (debajo de) the table. There´s a lamp behind (destrás de) the armchair. There are two children in front of (delante de) the television. There´s a light over (sobre) the table. There´s a vase of flowers below (debajo de) the light. There´s a bookcase beside / by / next to (junto a) the sofa. There are two children in (en) the room.

Prepositions of time
We use prepositions of time when we talk about when something happens (times, dates, etc.). Usamos preposiciones de tiempò para decir cuando ocurre algo (horarios, fechas, etc.).

o IN
With parts of the day………….We watch televisión in the evening. With months……………………My birthday is in July. With seasons…………………..It snows a lot in winter. With years………………………I left school in 1984. With centuries………………….My grandfather was born in the 19Th century. To say how soon something will happen……….I´ll see you in two days.

o AT
Wiith exact times……………….……..I get up at 7 o´clock and go to bed at midnight. With holidays / religious festival…….I only see my parents at Chistmas and sometimes at Easter. With “night”……………………………I can´t sleep at night. With “the beginning” and “the end”…I wasn´t there at the beginning of the lesson. With “the weekend”…………………..What did you do at the weekend?

o ON
With days……………….......................………I finish work early on Friday. With dates……………………….....................The meeting´s on 2nd May. With a day + morning, afternoon. etc ..……..I´ll see you on Monday afternoon.

o UNTIL / TILL
To mean “up to” a certain time……………...I slept until / till 9.30. We waited until / till they left.

o BY
To mean “before” or “not later than”……….I´ll be home by four. You must finish by the time I leave.

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o DURING
To mean “in” or “for” a period of time……..I woke up twice during the night. Notice you can only use during with an expression which answers the question “When?” (during the morning, during the summer, during November). You cannot use during with an expression which answers the question “How long?” (three days, ten weeks).

o FOR
Use for with a period or time………………I´ve been here for six months. It answer the question “How long?” They only stayed for five minutes.

We do not normally use a preposition after these verbs: answer, approach, control, demand, enter, expect, leave, reach, request • The president is entering the building. El president está entrando en el edificio.

About, of and to
We can use about after many verbs. Here are some of them: ask, complain, dream, enquire, hear, know, learn, protest, speak, talk, think, wonder • • Did you hear about the accident? Mark was talking about golf.

We do not use about after discuss. • We discussed the problem. Not We discussed about the problem.

Note the meaning of dream of, hear of and think of. • • • I´d never tell you a lie. I wouldn´t dream of it. Who´s Ron Mason? ~ I don´t know. I´ve never heard of him. Did you like the play? What did you think of it?

We can apologize to, complain to, talk to and write to a person. • • I´m writing to my sister. We talked to Mary about classical music.

We do not use to after phone. • I´m phoning the office. Not I´m phoning to the office.

Verb + object + preposition
We can use some verbs in the estructure: verb + object + preposition. 105

• •

People admired Cleopatra for her beauty. The trees protect the garden from the wind.

In the passive, the preposition comes after the verb. • • Cleopatra was admired for her beauty. The garden is protected from the wind.

Here are some more examples of verb + object + preposition. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Tom accused Nick of cheating at cards. Can I add something to your list? You should never aim / point a gun at someone. The player was arrested / punished for hitting and opponent. Let´s ask someone for directions. The passengers blamed / criticized the airline for the delay. I´ll have to borrow the money from my parents. If you compare these figures with / to last year, you can see the improvement. I congratulated Andrew on his excellent exam results. Melanie cut / divided / split the pudding into four portions. The cameras discourage / prevent motorists from speeding. You should insure your camera against theft. Victor translated the letter into English. Don´t forget to thank Tom for his help.

We can use about with tell and ask. • • Did I tell you about my operation? Ask your travel agent about cheap flights.

We inform we can use about or of. • You should inform every one about / of the decisión.

Look at these examples with warn. • • A sign warned motorists about / of the danger. (warn of / about a danger) A sing warned motorists about the hole in the road. (warn about something that might be dangerous)

With remind, there is a difference in meaning between about and of. • • Emma reminded me about my appointment. (= Emma told me not to forget.) Emma reminds me of my sister. (= Emma is like my sister.)

We can write, describe or explain something to a person. • • I´ve written several letters to the company. The woman described her attacker to the police.

Word order with phrasal verbs
When a phrasal verb has an object, the object can go either before or after the adverb. Cuando un verbo frasal tiene objeto, el objeto puede ir delante o detrás del adverbio. verb Anne I took wrote object her coat the number adverb off down or or Anne I verb took wrote adverb off down object her coat the number.

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A long object goes after the adverb. • The gang have carried out a number of bank raids in the last few months.

A pronoun (e.g. it, them) always goes before the adverb. • Anne felt hot in her coat, so she took it off.

Everyday situations.
Here are some phrasal verbs in everyday situations. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Come on, we´re going now. (= vamos…) Trevol dug up an old coin in the garden, (= desenterró) You have to fill in your name and address. (= rellenar) How did you get on in the test? (= ¿cómo te fue…?) I´m going out for the every. (= salir) Melanie poured tea for the guests and handed the cakes round. (=pasó) Hurry up. We haven´t got much time. (= date prisa) David hit his head on a lamppost and knocked himself out. (= quedarse sin sentido) John picked up the cassette and put it in the player. (= fue y cogió) You have to plug the machine in first. (= enchufar) I´m going to throw these old clothes away. (= tirar) We were too tired to wash up after the meal. (= fregar) Sarah woke up suddenly in the night. (= despertarse) Look out! It´s boiling over. (= cuidado / derramarse hirviendo)

Adverb meanings.
Look at these adverbs and their meanings. Remember that an adverb can have a number of different meanings. Mira estos adverbios y su significado. Recuerda que un adverbio puede tener varios significados. down (= becoming less) down (= completely to the ground) down (= stopping completely) down (= on paper) off (= away, departing) off (= disconnected) on (= connected) on (= wearing) on (= continuing) out (= away, disappearing) out (= to different people) out (= aloud) out (= from start to finish) up (= increasing) up (= completely) turn down the music / bring down the cost of living. knock a house down / cut down a tree the car broke down / a factory closing down copy down the words / write down the message / note down the details set off on a journey / see Emma off at the station / jump in the car and drive off / the plane took off / the pain is wearing off switch off the heater / cut off our electricity / the caller rang off switch on the kettle / turn on the TV / leave the lights on put a coat on / try the sweater on carry on working / drive on a bit further hang on / hold on a minute wash out the dirt / cross out a mistake / blow out the candle hand out free tickets / share out the winnings read out the article / call out anxiously write out the whole list / work out the answer price are going up / put up taxes / speak up so we can hear eat up these chocolates / fill up with petrol count up the money / tear up the paper

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Verb + adverb+ preposition.
A verb + adverb + proposition often has a special, idiomatic meaning which isn´t clear from the individual words. Un verbo + adverbio + preposición a menudo tiene un significado idiomático especial que no es claro por el significado de las palabras por separado. Look at these examples. verb So you´ve The old man I couldn´t David decided to It was nice to We Everyone Mary They have got simple meanings. come fell get get go look looked ran adverb in down through up out out up away preposition from on to onto into over at from the cold. the pavement. directory enquiries. the roof. the fresh air. the sea. the aeroplane. the fire.

Idiomatic meanings
call in on / drop in on (= pay short visits) catch up with (= reach the same place as) clamp down on (= take strong action against) come up against (= be stopped by) come up to / live up to (= be as good as expected) cry out for (= in great need of) cut back on (= reduce) cut down on (= reduce) do away with (= abolish) face up to (= not avoid) fall back on (= use if necessary) feel up to (= have enough energy for) fit in with (= go together with) get away with (= steal and take away) get on to (= contact) get on with (= start, continue) get on with (= have a good relationship with) get round to (= find the right time for) go back on (= break, fail to keep) go in for (= enter, compete in) go on with (= continue) hold on to (= keep your hands around) make up for (= compensate for) put up with (= tolerate) run out of (= have none left) send away for (= write to ask for) looking forward to (= thinking ahead with pleasure about) look out for / watch out for (= be careful about)

Uses
o It goes after the prepositions. Detrás de las preposiciones: at, by, of, throught, etc. • You can get some information by surfing the net. Puedes conseguir información navegando por la red.

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o It goes after the structures be / get used to. Detrás de be / get used to • • He is used to living alone. Está acostumbrado a vivir solo. I'm getting used to working at night. Me estoy acostumbrando a trabajar por la noche.

VERB + -ING / TO-INFINITIVE. (VERBOS SEGUIDOS DE GERUNDIO O INFINITIVO)
Some verbs can be followed either by an –ing form or an infinitive without a change of meaning. Algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos de gerundio o de infinitivo indistintamente sin que cambie su significado. • It started to rain / raining. Empezó a llover.

THE IMPERATIVE (IMPERATIVO)
Use the imperative of the verb when you give a command or warning. The imperative is the same as the infinitive of the verb, without to. It does not change if you talk to one person or many people. It is the same in the singular and the plural. • Shut the door! Go to sleep! Wait for me! Speak English! Go away!

In all these examples you can add the word please to the beginning or the end of the sentence. This makes the imperative more polite. • Please shut the door! Wait for me, please!

When you tell or warn somebody not to do something, use don´t + the infinitive of the verb. • Don´t worry. Don´t drive so fast. Don´t touch it!

Let´s go! Let´s for suggestions
Use let´s, which is short for let us, to make suggestions. • Let´s wait. Let´s sit down. Let´s have a drink.