In 1985, archaeologists from Bulgaria and Britain began a collaborative work with the initiation of two complementary projects. The first one was entitled ‘The Roman and late Roman city; Nicopolis ad ...
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In 1985, archaeologists from Bulgaria and Britain began a collaborative work with the initiation of two complementary projects. The first one was entitled ‘The Roman and late Roman city; Nicopolis ad Istrum’ (1985–1992) when the archaeological research of both teams was concentrated upon the Roman city and its late antique successor. The ‘City of Victory’ was founded by the emperor Trajan and is one of the largest archaelogical sites in the Balkans. The second programme represents a continuation and an expansion of the first and was entitled ‘The city and the village in the Roman and late Roman Empire: Nicopolis ad Istrum and nucleated settlement in its territory’ (1996–2002). It initiated work on the site of the late antique fortified settlement near the village of Dichin. Nicopolis, like the other cities in Thrace, was organized according to the Greek model, on similar lines to those found in the cities of Asia Minor. This influence is reflected in the character of the town, its plan, its agora and in its principal buildings.Less

The Two Anglo-Bulgarian Research Programmes and the Results of the Bulgarian Excavations

L. SLOKOSKA

Published in print: 2007-12-27

In 1985, archaeologists from Bulgaria and Britain began a collaborative work with the initiation of two complementary projects. The first one was entitled ‘The Roman and late Roman city; Nicopolis ad Istrum’ (1985–1992) when the archaeological research of both teams was concentrated upon the Roman city and its late antique successor. The ‘City of Victory’ was founded by the emperor Trajan and is one of the largest archaelogical sites in the Balkans. The second programme represents a continuation and an expansion of the first and was entitled ‘The city and the village in the Roman and late Roman Empire: Nicopolis ad Istrum and nucleated settlement in its territory’ (1996–2002). It initiated work on the site of the late antique fortified settlement near the village of Dichin. Nicopolis, like the other cities in Thrace, was organized according to the Greek model, on similar lines to those found in the cities of Asia Minor. This influence is reflected in the character of the town, its plan, its agora and in its principal buildings.

The eighth and final chapter briefly surveys the history of posthumous salvation after Augustine. Central is a story told about Pope Gregory the Great (sixth century), who supposedly uttered a prayer ...
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The eighth and final chapter briefly surveys the history of posthumous salvation after Augustine. Central is a story told about Pope Gregory the Great (sixth century), who supposedly uttered a prayer for the salvation of the pagan Roman emperor Trajan, who had lived in the second century. In Eastern Orthodoxy, this prayer is often combined with that of Thecla for Falconilla as two examples of God's mercy even upon dead pagans. In the west, because of Augustine's influence, the story is retold to include the resurrection of the body of Trajan, since without physical baptism, no one who lived after Christ can be saved.Less

Gregory the Great's Prayer for Trajan

Jeffrey A. Trumbower

Published in print: 2001-10-18

The eighth and final chapter briefly surveys the history of posthumous salvation after Augustine. Central is a story told about Pope Gregory the Great (sixth century), who supposedly uttered a prayer for the salvation of the pagan Roman emperor Trajan, who had lived in the second century. In Eastern Orthodoxy, this prayer is often combined with that of Thecla for Falconilla as two examples of God's mercy even upon dead pagans. In the west, because of Augustine's influence, the story is retold to include the resurrection of the body of Trajan, since without physical baptism, no one who lived after Christ can be saved.

Theophanes' Chronographia is a rich repository of material culled from earlier sources, put together soon after 810. He made extensive use of George of Pisidia's official history of Heraclius' ...
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Theophanes' Chronographia is a rich repository of material culled from earlier sources, put together soon after 810. He made extensive use of George of Pisidia's official history of Heraclius' Persian campaigns and based his account of the period following the assassination of Constans II (669) on Theophilus of Edessa (in a Greek translation) and the early eighth‐century source also used (more sparingly) by Nicephorus. This last work is identified as the political memoirs of the Patrician Trajan. While Theophanes may have reworked what he transmits (when his religious principles or prejudices were activated) and had to allocate precise dates, if necessary by guesswork, to every event recorded (because of his annalistic format), he supplies much unique information, notably about military operations 624–8, the fall of Khusro, and the climactic phase in the battle between Byzantium and Islam (692–718).Less

Later Historians: Theophanes

James Howard‐Johnston

Published in print: 2010-06-10

Theophanes' Chronographia is a rich repository of material culled from earlier sources, put together soon after 810. He made extensive use of George of Pisidia's official history of Heraclius' Persian campaigns and based his account of the period following the assassination of Constans II (669) on Theophilus of Edessa (in a Greek translation) and the early eighth‐century source also used (more sparingly) by Nicephorus. This last work is identified as the political memoirs of the Patrician Trajan. While Theophanes may have reworked what he transmits (when his religious principles or prejudices were activated) and had to allocate precise dates, if necessary by guesswork, to every event recorded (because of his annalistic format), he supplies much unique information, notably about military operations 624–8, the fall of Khusro, and the climactic phase in the battle between Byzantium and Islam (692–718).

One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This ...
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One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This book makes a thorough study of the form, content, and meaning of this infrequently studied monument. The author employs a new approach to the column, one that focuses on the process of its creation and construction, to uncover the cultural significance of the column to the Romans of the late second century ad. Using clues from ancient sources and from the monument itself, this book traces the creative process step by step from the first decision to build the monument through the processes of planning and construction to the final carving of the column's relief decoration. The conclusions challenge many of the widely held assumptions about the value of the column's 700-foot-long frieze as a historical source. By reconstructing the creative process of the column's sculpture, the author opens up numerous new paths of analysis not only to the Column of Marcus Aurelius but also to Roman imperial art and architecture in general.Less

The Column of Marcus Aurelius : The Genesis and Meaning of a Roman Imperial Monument

Martin Beckmann

Published in print: 2011-06-27

One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This book makes a thorough study of the form, content, and meaning of this infrequently studied monument. The author employs a new approach to the column, one that focuses on the process of its creation and construction, to uncover the cultural significance of the column to the Romans of the late second century ad. Using clues from ancient sources and from the monument itself, this book traces the creative process step by step from the first decision to build the monument through the processes of planning and construction to the final carving of the column's relief decoration. The conclusions challenge many of the widely held assumptions about the value of the column's 700-foot-long frieze as a historical source. By reconstructing the creative process of the column's sculpture, the author opens up numerous new paths of analysis not only to the Column of Marcus Aurelius but also to Roman imperial art and architecture in general.

The doctrine of purgatory from its earliest days has served the purpose of providing theological grounds for extending the hope of salvation to a wider range of persons. In its traditional form, ...
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The doctrine of purgatory from its earliest days has served the purpose of providing theological grounds for extending the hope of salvation to a wider range of persons. In its traditional form, however, it has not been understood as a second chance for salvation after death, but rather, only as chance for postmortem transformation and purging for persons who die in grace. Nevertheless, it is often popularly understood as a second chance to obtain salvation. This chapter explores the connections between the traditional doctrine of purgatory and theories of postmortem salvation. It cites several theologians who have construed purgatory in those terms, and argues that the traditional view should be modified to allow for postmortem conversion.Less

Purgatory and Theories of a “Second Chance”

Jerry L. Walls

Published in print: 2011-12-01

The doctrine of purgatory from its earliest days has served the purpose of providing theological grounds for extending the hope of salvation to a wider range of persons. In its traditional form, however, it has not been understood as a second chance for salvation after death, but rather, only as chance for postmortem transformation and purging for persons who die in grace. Nevertheless, it is often popularly understood as a second chance to obtain salvation. This chapter explores the connections between the traditional doctrine of purgatory and theories of postmortem salvation. It cites several theologians who have construed purgatory in those terms, and argues that the traditional view should be modified to allow for postmortem conversion.

The retail network of Rome included both the permanent markets of the macella, and the high- and low-frequency periodic markets of the nundinae and the mercatus. This chapter begins by tracing the ...
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The retail network of Rome included both the permanent markets of the macella, and the high- and low-frequency periodic markets of the nundinae and the mercatus. This chapter begins by tracing the development of the macella, contending that these were purpose-built luxury food markets, specialising in the sale of meat and fish, with the latter in particular often sold by auction. Although nundinae continued to operate in Rome into at least the Julio–Claudian period, little is known about their structure and organisation, but it is argued that they continued to play a role in the supply of fresh fruit and vegetables in particular, and may have taken on more of a wholesale function by the first century ad. The mercatus and the festival of the Sigillaria, on the other hand, were of minor significance in the retail system of Rome, meeting primarily a local need associated with religious celebrations in the city. Trajan's ‘market’ is also briefly considered, but it is argued that this structure is unlikely to have been a unified market building.Less

Markets and Fairs

Claire Holleran

Published in print: 2012-04-26

The retail network of Rome included both the permanent markets of the macella, and the high- and low-frequency periodic markets of the nundinae and the mercatus. This chapter begins by tracing the development of the macella, contending that these were purpose-built luxury food markets, specialising in the sale of meat and fish, with the latter in particular often sold by auction. Although nundinae continued to operate in Rome into at least the Julio–Claudian period, little is known about their structure and organisation, but it is argued that they continued to play a role in the supply of fresh fruit and vegetables in particular, and may have taken on more of a wholesale function by the first century ad. The mercatus and the festival of the Sigillaria, on the other hand, were of minor significance in the retail system of Rome, meeting primarily a local need associated with religious celebrations in the city. Trajan's ‘market’ is also briefly considered, but it is argued that this structure is unlikely to have been a unified market building.

This chapter focuses on material culture, using both Greek and Roman analogues in discussing the sculpture at National Heroes’ Acre in Zimbabwe. It compares the formal and thematic aspects of the ...
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This chapter focuses on material culture, using both Greek and Roman analogues in discussing the sculpture at National Heroes’ Acre in Zimbabwe. It compares the formal and thematic aspects of the continuous narrative of the Second Chimurenga (the struggle for freedom and independence from colonial rule) with those of classical monuments. Its analysis of technique, material, and form, draws on the Ara Pacis and Trajan’s Column, but it also considers comparative examples from ancient and modern sculpture that subvert a simple ‘classical influence’ model. In particular, the chapter addresses the relationship between Heroes’ Acre and the two thousand year old tradition of Korean public sculpture, as well as the monument to the People’s Heroes on Tiananmen Square in China, thus opening up further questions about patterns of migration of thematic and stylistic affinities in public sculpture.Less

Sculpture at Heroes’ Acre, Harare, Zimbabwe: Classical Influences?

Jessie Maritz

Published in print: 2007-10-11

This chapter focuses on material culture, using both Greek and Roman analogues in discussing the sculpture at National Heroes’ Acre in Zimbabwe. It compares the formal and thematic aspects of the continuous narrative of the Second Chimurenga (the struggle for freedom and independence from colonial rule) with those of classical monuments. Its analysis of technique, material, and form, draws on the Ara Pacis and Trajan’s Column, but it also considers comparative examples from ancient and modern sculpture that subvert a simple ‘classical influence’ model. In particular, the chapter addresses the relationship between Heroes’ Acre and the two thousand year old tradition of Korean public sculpture, as well as the monument to the People’s Heroes on Tiananmen Square in China, thus opening up further questions about patterns of migration of thematic and stylistic affinities in public sculpture.

This chapter examines Trajan's accession in terms of political deals and putting the chosen candidate in charge of the nearest army. On the evidence of prosopography, Trajan's military and political ...
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This chapter examines Trajan's accession in terms of political deals and putting the chosen candidate in charge of the nearest army. On the evidence of prosopography, Trajan's military and political career was much less distinguished than the official story suggests. He was not the obvious best man for the job. Pliny, in the Panegyricus, does what he can, and affirms that Trajan was persuaded to take supreme power only because his country so urgently needed him. If anyone was engaged in discussing government by ‘adoptive’ monarchy, as a way of combining dynastic stability with the choice of the most appropriate successor, such discussions had no effect on the accession of Trajan. Even his formal adoption by Nerva was minimized, for he kept his biological father's name.Less

An Emperor is Made: Senatorial Politics and Trajan’s Adoption by Nerva in 97

Werner Eck

Published in print: 2002-08-29

This chapter examines Trajan's accession in terms of political deals and putting the chosen candidate in charge of the nearest army. On the evidence of prosopography, Trajan's military and political career was much less distinguished than the official story suggests. He was not the obvious best man for the job. Pliny, in the Panegyricus, does what he can, and affirms that Trajan was persuaded to take supreme power only because his country so urgently needed him. If anyone was engaged in discussing government by ‘adoptive’ monarchy, as a way of combining dynastic stability with the choice of the most appropriate successor, such discussions had no effect on the accession of Trajan. Even his formal adoption by Nerva was minimized, for he kept his biological father's name.

As an ‘occasional’ genre, epigram encourages participation by keen amateurs (many of whose poems are reported by the Anthology as anonymous) as well as professional poets. This chapter explores the ...
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As an ‘occasional’ genre, epigram encourages participation by keen amateurs (many of whose poems are reported by the Anthology as anonymous) as well as professional poets. This chapter explores the range of production in the skoptic sub-genre through six of its better-known minor authors: Pollianos, Apollinarios, Trajan, Gaetulicus, Piso, and Leonides. Pollianos is shown to be a witty literary critic who invokes key Hellenistic epigrammatists and develops elaborate allusive metaphors, symptomatic of literary antiquarianism under Hadrian; Leonides (or Leonidas) crafts ‘isopsephic’ epigrams in which the total numerical value of the letters in each couplet is the same. This isopsephy tests modern editors' patience, but can also stimulate them to playful creativity. The three Roman authors are philhellene amateurs; their Greek verse is not always correct, and Piso's poem is not really skoptic at all, but they illustrate Greek epigram's convenience to the Roman élite as a light verse form.Less

Eἰσì καì ἐν Mούσῃσιν ’Eρινύες: Skoptic Oddments

GIDEON NISBET

Published in print: 2003-12-11

As an ‘occasional’ genre, epigram encourages participation by keen amateurs (many of whose poems are reported by the Anthology as anonymous) as well as professional poets. This chapter explores the range of production in the skoptic sub-genre through six of its better-known minor authors: Pollianos, Apollinarios, Trajan, Gaetulicus, Piso, and Leonides. Pollianos is shown to be a witty literary critic who invokes key Hellenistic epigrammatists and develops elaborate allusive metaphors, symptomatic of literary antiquarianism under Hadrian; Leonides (or Leonidas) crafts ‘isopsephic’ epigrams in which the total numerical value of the letters in each couplet is the same. This isopsephy tests modern editors' patience, but can also stimulate them to playful creativity. The three Roman authors are philhellene amateurs; their Greek verse is not always correct, and Piso's poem is not really skoptic at all, but they illustrate Greek epigram's convenience to the Roman élite as a light verse form.

This chapter examines the emperors’ oversight of public order in the Roman provinces, with special attention to the correspondence between Trajan and Pliny the Younger, when Pliny was governor of ...
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This chapter examines the emperors’ oversight of public order in the Roman provinces, with special attention to the correspondence between Trajan and Pliny the Younger, when Pliny was governor of Bithynia. Emperors typically did not seek out problems to fix in the provinces. Instead, they reacted to conflicts brought to their attention, often via petitions‐‐thus the term “petition‐and‐response” for the model of governance which largely started with Augustus (Chapter 4). The scattered evidence for emperors’ instructions (mandata) to provincial governors reveal that law and order were prime concerns. Among soldiers performing police tasks for the emperors, the frumentarii were an important specialized unit. During the third century, imperial anti‐Christian persecutions, which were partly enforced by police, show the state’s increasing willingness to assert control over citizens‐ lives.Less

“Let there be no violence contrary to my wish”: Emperors and Provincial Order

Christopher J. Fuhrmann

Published in print: 2011-12-13

This chapter examines the emperors’ oversight of public order in the Roman provinces, with special attention to the correspondence between Trajan and Pliny the Younger, when Pliny was governor of Bithynia. Emperors typically did not seek out problems to fix in the provinces. Instead, they reacted to conflicts brought to their attention, often via petitions‐‐thus the term “petition‐and‐response” for the model of governance which largely started with Augustus (Chapter 4). The scattered evidence for emperors’ instructions (mandata) to provincial governors reveal that law and order were prime concerns. Among soldiers performing police tasks for the emperors, the frumentarii were an important specialized unit. During the third century, imperial anti‐Christian persecutions, which were partly enforced by police, show the state’s increasing willingness to assert control over citizens‐ lives.