Chinese artist Ai Weiwei—who defined his position in art as that of an activist for the cause of social justice, compelled “to give a voice to people who might never be heard”—on Jan. 27, 2016, abruptly closed “Ruptures,” an exhibition of his work at the Faurschou Foundation in Copenhagen, to protest the decision by the Danish Folketing (parliament) to......

...the activities of the Reverend Charles E. Coughlin of Royal Oak, Mich., who regularly preached on radio; at a Front-sponsored anti-Semitic rally in New York City in May 1939, Father Coughlin’s Social Justice was distributed. The July 1939 issue of that magazine presented the Front’s expansion plan, but the group was soon quieted by a growing anti-Nazi sentiment as World War II began....

Beginning in the 1970s, David Harvey (Social Justice and the City, 1973), Manuel Castells (The Urban Question, 1977), and other scholars influenced by Marxism caused a major shift in the conception of urban cultural roles. Although they mainly worked on cities in advanced capitalist cultures, their approach had wide relevance. Rather than looking outward from the city to the urban......

in psychological theory, learning behaviour that is controlled by environmental influences rather than by innate or internal forces. The leading exponent of the concept of social learning, often called modeling, is the American psychologist Albert Bandura, who has undertaken innumerable studies showing that when children watch others they learn many forms of ...

...(M.S., 1932) before receiving a Ph.D. in psychology from Yale University in 1935. He remained at Yale’s Institute of Human Relations to continue his experiments on learning. In Social Learning and Imitation (1941) and Personality and Psychotherapy (1950), he and Dollard presented their results, which suggested that behaviour patterns were......

Before these different theoretical views can be discussed, however, some remarks must be made on the general aspects of the social structure of any society. Social life is structured along the dimensions of time and space. Specific social activities take place at specific times, and time is divided into periods that are connected with the rhythms of social life—the routines of the day,......

A second postwar current, “social literature,” or “critical realism,” arrived with the so-called Midcentury Generation, who were adolescents during the war; it expressed more vigorous, if necessarily covert, opposition to the dictatorship. In such works as La hoja roja (1959; “The Red Leaf”), which examines poverty and loneliness among the......

...minister of the new Federal Republic of Germany under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, Erhard was commissioned to continue his policies of reconstruction. In the following years he applied his “social market system” to the problems of economic renewal with phenomenal results, achieving what has often been called the German “economic miracle.” Based on free-market......

Social marketing employs marketing principles and techniques to advance a social cause, idea, or behaviour. It entails the design, implementation, and control of programs aimed at increasing the acceptability of a social idea or practice that would benefit the adoptors or society. Social ideas can take the form of beliefs, attitudes, and values, such as human rights. Whether social marketers......

Japan’s first socialist parties appeared in the mid-1920s; moderate factions of the country’s labour movement combined to form the Social Mass Party (Shakai Taishūtō) in 1932. The left failed to elect many candidates before World War II, and all of Japan’s traditional parties were dissolved in 1940....

...argued untiringly that mathematical probability was essential for social statistics. Quetelet hoped to create from these materials a new science, which he called at first social mechanics and later social physics. He wrote often of the analogies linking this science to the most mathematical of the natural sciences, celestial mechanics. In practice, though, his methods were more like those of......

Through social media, images of social justice reached an ever-widening and enthusiastically interactive audience, as seen in the response to Jonathan Bachman’s stunning photograph of Ieshia Evans being detained by police at a July 9, 2016, protest rally held shortly after the fatal shooting of Alton Sterling on July 5. In her long fluttering sundress, Evans stood straight and calm, presenting......

movement of individuals, families, or groups through a system of social hierarchy or stratification. If such mobility involves a change in position, especially in occupation, but no change in social class, it is called “horizontal mobility.” An example would be a person who moves from a managerial position in one company to a similar position in another. If, however, the move involves a change in ...

loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically either the implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure or values. Although social movements differ in size, they are all essentially collective. That is, they result from the more or less spontaneous coming together of people whose relationships are not defined by rules and procedures but who me...

...The Kids Are All Right (Lisa Cholodenko), with Annette Bening and Julianne Moore as a longtime lesbian couple whose two teenage children seek out their sperm-donor father. David Fincher’s The Social Network, written by Aaron Sorkin, investigated the Internet and the development of the social networking site Facebook. Featuring speedy dialogue, rounded characters, and a caustic......

rule or standard of behaviour shared by members of a social group. Norms may be internalized—i.e., incorporated within the individual so that there is conformity without external rewards or punishments, or they may be enforced by positive or negative sanctions from without. The social unit sharing particular norms may be small (e.g., a clique of friends) or may include all adult memb...

in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a society interact and live together. Social structure is often treated together with the concept of social change, which deals with the forces that change the social structure and the organization of society....

...University of Sydney (1925–31) he developed a vigorous teaching program involving research in theoretical and applied anthropology. His theory had its classic formulation and application in The Social Organisation of Australian Tribes (1931). Treating all Aboriginal Australia known at the time, the work cataloged, classified, analyzed, and synthesized a vast amount of data on......

In Social Organization (1909, reprinted 1956), Cooley outlined the objective consequences of his psychological views. He argued that the ideal of the moral unity of society, involving qualities of loyalty, justice, and freedom, was derived from face-to-face relationships in primary groups such as the family and neighbourhood or children’s play groups. In his last major......

Another form of parasitism, such as that practiced by some ants on ants of other species, is known as social parasitism. (Social parasitism is a condition where a parasitizing ant species depends upon the labour provided by a host ant species within the context of a mixed-species colony.) Parasites may also become parasitized; such a relationship, known as hyperparasitism, may be exemplified by......

...Álvaro Uribe Vélez (to the upper house). Uribe’s party, the right-of-centre Democratic Centre (CD), obtained an unexpectedly high 19 seats in the Senate—only 2 fewer than the Social Party of National Unity (PSUN), the largest force in the upper house and the party of Pres. Juan Manuel Santos....

Specific phobias are unreasonable fears of specific stimuli; common examples are a fear of heights and a fear of dogs. Social phobia is an unreasonable fear of being in social situations or in situations in which one’s behaviour is likely to be evaluated, such as in public speaking....

...argued untiringly that mathematical probability was essential for social statistics. Quetelet hoped to create from these materials a new science, which he called at first social mechanics and later social physics. He wrote often of the analogies linking this science to the most mathematical of the natural sciences, celestial mechanics. In practice, though, his methods were more like those of......

...Formal discipline, devotion to clarity through direct imagery, and a reduced vocabulary were stressed, and the social and human content increased. Leaders of postwar poesía social (social poetry) are sometimes referred to as a “Basque triumvirate”: Gabriel Celaya, a prewar Surrealist who became a leading spokesman for the opposition......

a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status. Besides being important in social theory, the concept of class as a collection of individuals sharing similar economic circumstances has been widely used in censuses and in studies of social mobility....

the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honour or prestige. Status may be ascribed—that is, assigned to individuals at birth without reference to any innate abilities—or achieved, requiring special qualities and gained through competition and individual effort. Ascribed status is typically based on sex, age, race, f...

...loyalty, justice, and freedom, was derived from face-to-face relationships in primary groups such as the family and neighbourhood or children’s play groups. In his last major work, Social Process (1918, reprinted 1966), he applied the Darwinian principles of natural selection and adaptation to collective (social) existence....

The culture of a movement encompasses norms and values. Norms are standardized expectations of behaviour developed by members. Values include the program and the ideology. The program is the scheme of change, the new social order that the movement proposes to bring about. The ideology is a body of ideas justifying the program and the strategy of the movement. It usually includes a......

any of a variety of governmental programs designed to protect citizens from the economic risks and insecurities of life. The most common types of programs provide benefits to the elderly or retired, the sick or invalid, dependent survivors, mothers, the unemployed, the work-injured, and families. Methods of financing and administration and the scope of coverage and benefits vary widely among count...

...of Paraguayans had access to safe drinking water, and in general the government has spent little on health care. About four-fifths of Paraguayans do not have health insurance. The state-run Institute of Social Provision (IPS) is funded by contributions from government, employers, and employees. It offers pensions, medical care, and subsidies during illness but reaches only a small......

the scientific study of the behaviour of individuals in their social and cultural setting. Although the term may be taken to include the social activity of laboratory animals or those in the wild, the emphasis here is on human social behaviour....

...Social Control (1901), on the reasons for and the means of societal limitation of the individual, was long regarded as a classic. Another widely read book by Ross was Social Psychology (1908), one of the first American works written specifically on that discipline. Sin and Society (1907) was his argument in favour of sociological......

trend in American art originating in about 1930 and referring in its narrow sense to paintings treating themes of social protest in a naturalistic or quasi-expressionist manner. In a broader sense, the term is sometimes taken to include the more general renderings of American life usually categorized as American Scene painting and Regionalism, which may or may not manifest socia...

...writers such as Barth, Barthelme, and Pynchon rejected the novel’s traditional function as a mirror reflecting society, a significant number of contemporary novelists were reluctant to abandon Social Realism, which they pursued in much more personal terms. In novels such as The Victim (1947), The Adventures of Augie March (1953), Herzog (1964),......

...crime). He generalized this concern into a theory of conflict that attempted to explain why some acts are defined and prosecuted as criminal whereas others are not. In The Social Reality of Crime (1970), for example, he concluded that public conceptions of crime are constructed in the political arena to serve political purposes. Taking a neo-Marxist appro...

A different social-reconstructionist movement was that of the kibbutzim (collective farms) of Israel. The most striking feature of kibbutz education was that the parents forgo rearing and educating their offspring themselves and instead hand the children over to professional educators, sometimes immediately after birth. The kibbutzim type of education developed for both practical and economic......

...timing for that remarkable policy change was propitious. For much of the decade since coming to power in 2006, Raúl Castro had sought to revive a moribund economy through a combination of reforms designed to expand small private enterprises (cuentapropismo), reduce government payrolls, encourage foreign investment, and promote private farming. The Cuban-U.S. rapprochement......

annually published directory purporting to list the socially prestigious members of society in 13 selected U.S. cities. It is administered and published in New York City by the Social Register Association, which refuses any interviews about its publication and which will not disclose the prerequisites to inclusion. The Social Register’s subjects are mostly white, Christian, well-connected, sponso...

group of researchers associated with the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am Main, Ger., who applied Marxism to a radical interdisciplinary social theory. The Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung) was founded by Carl Grünberg in 1923 as an adjunct of the University of Frankfurt; it was the first Marxist-oriented research centre affiliated with a major......

...labour—especially those between mental and manual labour and between agricultural and industrial labour. Perhaps the most significant and lasting of their contributions was the idea of “social revolution”—i.e., the idea that revolutionary political change cannot occur without radical changes in society and culture, specifically the elimination of social institutions that......

After the Russian Revolution, during the Civil War (1918–20), Turkmenistan was the scene of sporadic fighting between the Social Revolutionary Transcaspian Provincial Government and the Bolshevik troops trying to penetrate from Tashkent. The Social Revolutionaries were for a time supported by a small British force of 1,200 men with its headquarters in northeastern Iran. The British force......

any discipline or branch of science that deals with human behaviour in its social and cultural aspects. The social sciences include cultural (or social) anthropology, sociology, social psychology, political science, and economics. Also frequently included are social and economic geography and those areas of education that deal with the social contexts of learning and the relation of the school to ...

branch of philosophy that examines the concepts, methods, and logic of the social sciences. The philosophy of social science is consequently a metatheoretical endeavour—a theory about theories of social life. To achieve their end, philosophers of social science investigate both the practice of the social sciences and the nature of the entities that the social ...

any of the measures established by legislation to maintain individual or family income or to provide income when some or all sources of income are disrupted or terminated or when exceptionally heavy expenditures have to be incurred (e.g., in bringing up children or paying for health care). Thus social security may provide cash benefits to persons faced with sickness and disability, unemployment, c...

...not so simple. The law stated that the budget cuts had to be made from both defense-related programs and the nondefense side of the ledger. Some programs would be spared, such as military troop pay, Social Security, and Medicaid. In addition, agencies that did not rely on Congress to approve the purse strings remained unaffected, including the U.S. Postal Service and Amtrak. However, large part...

(Aug. 14, 1935), original U.S. legislation establishing a permanent national old-age pension system through employer and employee contributions; the system was later extended to include dependents, the disabled, and other groups. Responding to the economic impact of the Great Depression, five million old people in the early 1930s joined nati...

...The farmer enjoyed increased earnings; the worker, increased wages and shorter hours. Jobs were multiplied by a public works and housing program. The education system was revitalized. In 1938 the Social Security Act provided a state medical service, extended the pension system, and increased benefits. The expansion of secondary industry was accelerated after the outbreak of World War II in......

...Security, an explanatory guide to the act written for a lay audience. Burns’s talent for illuminating complex economic subjects served her well as a textbook writer. Her landmark textbook, Social Security and Public Policy (1956), investigates the factors involved in economic policy decisions through comparative analysis. Throughout her career, in addition to teaching and writing....

...body, but the effects upon each are different. This phenomenon is clearest in the case of identity theft. In the United States, for example, individuals do not have an official identity card but a Social Security number that has long served as a de facto identification number. Taxes are collected on the basis of each citizen’s Social Security number, and many private institutions use the......

...defining the time frame over which progressivity should be calculated; a given program may be regressive when examined using annual data but progressive when considered over a lifetime. For example, Social Security taxes in the United States are levied only up to an inflation-adjusted wage cap, meaning that wages beyond the cap are free of this particular tax. Considered on its own, then, the.....

any of numerous publicly or privately provided services intended to aid disadvantaged, distressed, or vulnerable persons or groups. The term social service also denotes the profession engaged in rendering such services. The social services have flourished in the 20th century as ideas of social responsibility have developed and spread....

...in social-welfare programs, a view not widely accepted in the United States until the New Deal of the 1930s. She popularized the doctrine through her books and teaching and in the pages of the Social Service Review, a highly regarded journal of which she was cofounder in 1927 and which she edited until 1948....

neighbourhood social welfare agency. The main purpose of a settlement is the development and improvement of a neighbourhood or cluster of neighbourhoods. It differs from other social agencies in being concerned with neighbourhood life as a whole rather than with providing selected services. The staff of a social settlement works with individuals and families and with groups. They do informal couns...

...Strindberg, George Bernard Shaw, and others. She was instrumental in introducing the American audience to many European playwrights, and her lectures on their work were published in 1914 as The Social Significance of the Modern Drama. She also lectured on “free love,” by which she meant an uncoerced attachment between two persons for whom conventions of law and church......

...childhood. It is through the reciprocal interactions between child and parent that the child learns to love, trust, and depend on other human beings. By two months of age, all normal infants show a social smile that invites adults to interact with them, and at about six months of age infants begin to respond socially to particular people to whom they have become emotionally attached....

...prior discovery of biological evolution, the facts are the reverse. Well before any clear idea of genetic speciation existed in European biology, there was a very clear idea of what might be called social speciation—that is, the emergence of one institution from another in time and of the whole differentiation of function and structure that goes with this emergence....

...and The Pilot (the organ of the Complete Suffrage Union), Spencer became in 1848 a subeditor of The Economist. In 1851 he published Social Statics, which contained in embryo most of his later views, including his argument in favour of an extreme form of economic and social laissez-faire. About 1850 Spencer became......

Two final manifestations of the social sciences in the 19th century are social statistics and social (or human) geography. At that time, neither achieved the notability and acceptance in colleges and universities that such fields as political science and economics did. Both, however, were as clearly visible by the latter part of the century as any of the other social sciences. And both were to......

the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honour or prestige. Status may be ascribed—that is, assigned to individuals at birth without reference to any innate abilities—or achieved, requiring special qualities and gained through competition and individual effort. Ascribed status is typically based on sex, age, race, f...

In societies that stress horizontal stratification into age sets, the qualities proper to a particular age are expressed in dances, as in those that keep young men physically fit and teach them the discipline necessary in warfare. The dances of young Zulu and Ndebele men in Southern Africa recall the victories of past warriors. Among the Owo-Yoruba the stately Totorigi dance is for senior men......

...and their members. In other words, Durkheim believed that individual human behaviour is shaped by external forces. Similarly, American anthropologist George P. Murdock, in his book Social Structure (1949), examined kinship systems in preliterate societies and used social structure as a taxonomic device for classifying, comparing, and correlating various aspects of......

in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a society interact and live together. Social structure is often treated together with the concept of social change, which deals with the forces that change the social structure and the organization of society....

in economics, the difference between the price a consumer pays for an item and the price he would be willing to pay rather than do without it. As first developed by Jules Dupuit, French civil engineer and economist, in 1844 and popularized by British economist Alfred Marshall, the concept depended on the assumption that degrees of consumer satisfaction (utilit...

...as residing not in the internal field of personality, as postulated by Sigmund Freud and Weber, but in the external field of the institutional structures developed by society. In The Social System (1951), he turned his analysis to large-scale systems and the problems of social order, integration, and equilibrium. He advocated a structural-functional analysis, a study......

in social science, the study of society as a complex arrangement of elements, including individuals and their beliefs, as they relate to a whole (e.g., a country). The study of society as a social system has a long history in the social sciences. The conceptual origins of the approach are generally traced to the 19th century, particularly in the work of English sociologist and p...

...Ethics), a large number of articles on various subjects thematically linked with the development of the Christian churches. Many of these were later integrated into his best known work, Die Soziallehren der christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen. In that work he explored the relationships between and within social and cultural groups in the context of the social ethics of the Christian....

In Social Theory and Social Structure (1949; rev. ed. 1968), Merton developed a theory of deviant behaviour based on different types of social adaptation. He defined the interrelationship between social theory and empirical research, advancing a structural-functional approach to the study of society and creating the concepts of manifest and latent function and dysfunction. Other......

Social, or milieu, therapy for institutionalized patients represents an extension of group therapeutic principles to make the mental hospital a therapeutic community, all aspects of which will help to restore the patients’ mental health. This involves the creation of a positive, supportive atmosphere and a full program of occupational, recreational, and educational activities. It also involves......

Ceremonies of social transformation include all the life-cycle ceremonies, since these involve social transitions for the subjects of the ritual and also for other persons. A man or woman who dies, for example, assumes a new social role as a spirit that may be socially important to the living, the bereaved spouse becomes a widow or widower, and the children have an unnamed but changed status as......

The general condition of the community in which milling is both frequent and widespread and in which rumour is recurrent is the crucible in which the more highly organized forms of collective behaviour develop. This condition, known as social unrest, can lead to outbursts of violence. The American urban black uprisings of the 1960s were preceded and accompanied by social unrest in the form of a......

...have become political master of Greece. The truth is that Isocrates was seeking merely a military leader. These earlier appeals came to nothing, and in the 350s, when Greece was divided first by the Social War, precipitated by the Athenian policy of sending cleruchies (colonizing groups) to Samos, the subjection of Cos and Naxos to Athenian jurisdiction, and the arbitrary demands of Athenian......

any of a number of small African birds of the family Ploceidae (order Passeriformes) that are extremely gregarious. This name is given particularly to Philetairus socius, which makes an “apartment house” in a tree: dozens of pairs of these little black-chinned birds cooperate year-round to maintain a thatchlike roof over the colony, which may contain 300 chambers (one per...

nongovernmental organization that represents international, national, and local organizations dedicated to social welfare, social development, and social justice. It was founded in Paris in 1928. Its international headquarters are in Utrecht, Neth., and Kampala, Ugan....

any of a variety of governmental programs designed to protect citizens from the economic risks and insecurities of life. The most common types of programs provide benefits to the elderly or retired, the sick or invalid, dependent survivors, mothers, the unemployed, the work-injured, and families. Methods of financing and administration and the scope of coverage and benefits vary widely among count...

any of numerous publicly or privately provided services intended to aid disadvantaged, distressed, or vulnerable persons or groups. The term social service also denotes the profession engaged in rendering such services. The social services have flourished in the 20th century as ideas of social responsibility have developed and spread....

...to whom it was given as a last resort. This policy was intended as a general deterrent to idleness. The poor-law relieving officer was the precursor of both the public assistance officials and the social workers of today in his command of statutory financial aid. The voluntary charitable agencies of the time differed on the relative merits of deterrent poor-law services on the one hand,......

...to stunt the human personality, pitting one man against another and driving the weaker to the wall. The first step toward a better society would be to guarantee work for everyone by establishing “social workshops” financed by the state. These workshops, controlled by the workers themselves, would gradually take over most production until a socialist society would come into being.......

Marxist revolutionary party ancestral to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Founded in 1898 in Minsk, the Social-Democratic Party held that Russia could achieve socialism only after developing a bourgeois society with an urban proletariat. It rejected the populist idea that the peasant commune, or mir, could be the basis of a socialist society tha...

Marxist revolutionary party ancestral to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Founded in 1898 in Minsk, the Social-Democratic Party held that Russia could achieve socialism only after developing a bourgeois society with an urban proletariat. It rejected the populist idea that the peasant commune, or mir, could be the basis of a socialist society tha...

The main weakness in the proposal to use disguised unemployment for the construction of major social-overhead-capital projects arises from an inadequate consideration of the problem of providing the necessary subsistence fund to maintain the workers during what may be a considerably long waiting period before these projects yield consumable output. This may be managed somehow for small-scale......

Infant stimulation programs have evolved to be more “infant-centred” and to incorporate a social-psychological component (SPC). Infant-centred programs focus on the infant’s communication to the caregiver about the types and amounts of sensory stimulation that the infant can tolerate—e.g., an infant’s eye-to-eye contact with a caregiver indicates tolerance of the stimulation,......

A different social-reconstructionist movement was that of the kibbutzim (collective farms) of Israel. The most striking feature of kibbutz education was that the parents forgo rearing and educating their offspring themselves and instead hand the children over to professional educators, sometimes immediately after birth. The kibbutzim type of education developed for both practical and economic......

in sociology, proposal that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime. The ideas underlying strain theory were first advanced in the 1930s by American sociologist Robert K. Merton, whose work on the subject became especially influential in the 1950s. Other researchers set forth similar ideas, inc...

...18% stake in Denmark’s biggest energy company, the largely state-owned DONG Energy. The controversial move in January led to the withdrawal of the far-left Socialist People’s Party (SF) from Social Democrat Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt’s three-party centre-left coalition government. Many had protested the U.S. bank’s plans for an 8 billion kroner ($1.4 billion) investment in the......

French cinema lost two of its veteran directors, Claude Chabrol and Eric Rohmer, in 2010. Another veteran, Jean-Luc Godard, continued to battle from the fringes with Film Socialisme (Socialism), a didactic collage mostly viewed by YouTube Web site visitors, in a version squeezed into four minutes. Olivier Assayas’s Carlos, which premiered jointly on the cinema screen and......

social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a ...

For most of his exile, Plekhanov resided in Geneva. In 1883, with several friends, he established the first Russian Marxian revolutionary organization, Liberation of Labour. In two major works, Socialism and Political Struggle (1883) and Our Differences (1885), he launched a destructive critique of populism and laid the ideological basis of Russian Marxism. Russia, he argued, had......

A third feature of Stalinism was the idea of “socialism in one country”—i.e., building up the industrial base and military might of the Soviet Union before exporting revolution abroad. To this end, Stalin rescinded the NEP, began the collectivization of Soviet agriculture, and embarked on a national program of rapid, forced industrialization. Specifically, he insisted that the......

In 1919, inspired by Russia’s October Revolution (1917), two U.S. communist parties emerged from the left wing of the Socialist Party of America (SPA): the Communist Party of America (CPA), composed of the SPA’s foreign-language federations and led by the sizeable and influential Russian Federation, and the Communist Labor Party of America (CLP), the predominantly English-language group. They......

During the next three years Mao waged such a struggle, primarily through the Socialist Education Movement in the countryside, and it was over the guidelines for that campaign that the major political battles were fought within the Chinese leadership. At the end of 1964, when Liu Shaoqi refused to accept Mao’s demand to direct the main thrust of class struggle against “capitalist......

...the building of new public housing, the emancipation of women, the expansion of educational services, and industrialization. In 1961 the PAP’s left-wing members broke away from the party to form the Barisan Sosialis (“Socialist Front”), and Lee subsequently broke his remaining ties with the communists. Henceforth Lee and his fellow moderates within the PAP would dominate Singaporean......

federation of socialist parties and trade unions that greatly influenced the ideology, policy, and methods of the European labour movement from the last decade of the 19th century to the beginning of World War I....

De Leon arrived in the United States in 1874. In 1890 he joined the Socialist Labor Party. Within a few years he became one of the leading figures in the party, editing its newspaper and helping to transform it into a disciplined national organization. He excoriated the labour union leadership of the day as insufficiently radical and in 1895 led a faction that seceded from the Knights of Labor,......

...in the Reichstag, and Liebknecht continued to be a thorn in Bismarck’s side. Bismarck’s determination to repress the socialists brought about the merger of the Lassalleans and Liebknechtians as the Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands (Socialist Labour Party) at Gotha in 1875. The Gotha Program, a compromise between the positions of the two parties—although criticized by Marx for......