Overview

Brief Summary

Prunus armeniaca, the apricot, is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree in the Rosaceae (rose family) native to western Asia and possibly China, where it has been domesticated and cultivated since around 2,000 B.C. for its delicious edible fruit. It is now grown in warm-temperate regions worldwide, but particularly in western Asia, the near East, and the Mediterranean.

Related species that produce fruits referred to as apricots include Prunus mandshurica (from Manchuria, Korea) and P. siberica (from Siberia, Manchuria, and northern China). There is also a purple apricot (P. dasycarpa) and a Japanese apricot (P. mume). The wild apricot, the progenitor of the domestic apricot, which is variously classified as Armeniaca vulgarism or grouped with P. armeniaca, has been classified as endangered, due to declining populations in its native areas of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and China.

Apricot trees are similar in appearance to peach trees (variously classified as P. communis, P. dulcis, or Amygdalus communis). They can grow to 30 m (over 100 ft) but are generally smaller in orchards, with a small, rounded crown, reddish brown twigs, with leaves that are oval to elliptical to rounded to subcordate (nearly heart-shaped), 5 to 7.5 cm (2 to 3 in) long, often pubescent (fuzzy-haired) on the underside around the leaf veins. The flowers, which open before the leaves, are white to pinkish, with 5 petals, around 2.5 cm (1 in) across. The early blooming makes it more susceptible to frost damage than peach trees, and thus it is generally not planted as far north. The fruits, which ripen to orange or yellowish orange, sometimes tinged with red, have soft flesh surrounding a hard, flattened stone, containing a kernel (seed) within.

Apricots, which are high in carotene (vitamin A) and vitamin C, as well as calcium, iron, and phosphorus, are eaten fresh or processed into juices (apricot nectar) and jams. They are popular in fruit salads, desserts, and baked goods, as well as some meat dishes. They are highly perishable as a fresh fruit, so are often canned or dried. The dried fruit may be eaten as a snack, or reconstituted by soaking and used for cooking. The kernels are also edible, although in limited quantities, as they may contain cyanide compounds. The kernels are also pressed to make apricot oil, which is used in cosmetics and massage oils.

Total commercial production of apricots in 2010 was 3.4 million metric tons. Turkey, Iran, Uzbekistan, Italy, and Algeria were the leading producers. Within the U.S., 90% of commercial apricot production is in California, where most of the production (valued at $47.5 million in 2010) was for canning and drying. Smaller amounts are grown in other western states and western Canada, and in northeastern states for local fresh markets and in home gardens.

Apricots are highly susceptible to insect damage, especially from Curculio beetles, and from brown rot disease (Monilinia fructicola fungus). In addition, fruits may crack when grown in humid climates, so they are considered difficult to cultivate in much of the Northeastern U.S.

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Biology

Wild apricot pollination is carried out by bees and insects, which are attracted to the abundant blossoms produced during March and April (2) (5). The fruits mature between June and July (2), eventually dropping to the ground, where the highly nutritious flesh and seeds provide an important food source for animals such as large field mice (Apodemus peninsulae), Chinese white-bellied rats (Niviventor confucianus) and David's rock squirrels (Sciurotamias davidianus). Many of these species transport the seeds to underground winter food caches, which facilitates the dispersal of the wild apricot, since any uneaten seeds may go on to germinate and produce new trees (6). Although its origins are believed to be central Asia, it remains unclear exactly when and where the first domestic cultivation of the wild apricot began. Certainly, by 100 B.C. it had been introduced into the Near East, expanding into much of Europe over the following centuries (7). Its fruits provide a valuable source of food, and its seeds have traditionally been used medicinally and as flavouring (3). Despite their nutritious content, the seeds of wild and domestic apricots contain varying amounts of a chemical which, when ingested, breaks down into the highly toxic hydrocyanic acid. While some controversial claims have been made that apricot seeds have anti-cancer properties, on a number of occasions excessive consumption has caused severe illness and even death (8).

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Description

Apricot trees are well known for their delicious fruits, and while cultivated varieties are commonly grown worldwide, their wild ancestor is now rare and in danger of extinction (1). The wild apricot is a small tree, usually between five to eight metres in height, with a crown shape that varies from spherical to oblong. The bark darkens with age, changing from reddish-brown to brown on the branches, and becoming greyish-brown on the trunk, with vertical splits appearing as the trunk grows and expands. Throughout much of the year the wild apricot presents an array of vibrant colours. In the spring, before the appearance of the leaves, the tree's winter buds blossom into a magnificent display of delicate white or pink flowers (2). In summer, the wild apricot bears numerous orange, ovoid fruits, generally smaller than that of the domestic varieties, clustered amongst its roundish, broad, green leaves (3). Apricot fruits are technically classified as drupes (2), a term describing any fruit with a fleshy outer layer enclosing a hard woody “stone” which contains a single seed (4).

This species has a very small area of occupancy. Its distribution is severely fragmented and there are continuing declines in area of habitat and number of mature individuals. Consequently it is classed as Endangered.

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Threats

Threats to the species, the origin of all cultivated apricots, include construction, development of tourism resorts, cutting for fuel wood, harvesting of fruit and the collection of germplasm by both national and international plant breeding companies.

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The Endangered wild apricot faces numerous threats to its survival. A combination of overexploitation as a fuel wood, and clearance for urban development—particularly tourist resorts—is rapidly diminishing the population of this already rare species (1). The problem is compounded by the fact that overgrazing, along with overharvesting of its fruit and seeds for food and by plant breeding companies, are reducing the wild apricot's reproductive success and preventing it from having any chance of recovery (1) (5).

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Management

Conservation

In 1984, the Chinese government listed the wild apricot in the Ily Valley as an Endangered Plant, and since then a number of studies have been carried out examining its ecology (5) (6). At the present time, however, there do not appear to be any practical measures directed towards protecting this species or restoring its populations in China. In contrast, in Kazakhstan, where the wild apricot is particularly rare, the “In-situ Conservation of Kazakhstan's Mountain Agrobiodiversity” project has targeted two large sites in the Tien Shan Mountains for National Park status. Once these have been established, the project's stakeholders plan to initiate a variety of innovative conservation strategies to preserve and restore the sites' wild apricot populations, as well as other native wild fruit trees (9).

The apricot is a small tree, 8–12 m (26–39 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm (16 in) in diameter and a dense, spreading canopy. The leaves are ovate, 5–9 cm (2.0–3.5 in) long and 4–8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) wide, with a rounded base, a pointed tip and a finely serrated margin. The flowers are 2–4.5 cm (0.8–1.8 in) in diameter, with five white to pinkish petals; they are produced singly or in pairs in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a drupe similar to a small peach, 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–1.0 in) diameter (larger in some modern cultivars), from yellow to orange, often tinged red on the side most exposed to the sun; its surface can be smooth (botanically described as: glabrous) or velvety with very short hairs (botanically: pubescent). The flesh is usually firm and not very juicy. Its taste can range from sweet to tart. The single seed is enclosed in a hard, stony shell, often called a "stone", with a grainy, smooth texture except for three ridges running down one side.[2][3]

The origin of the apricot is disputed. It was known in Armenia during ancient times, and has been cultivated there for so long, it is often thought to have originated there.[4][5] Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca (Armenian plum) derives from that assumption. For example, De Poerderlé, writing in the 18th century, asserted, "Cet arbre tire son nom de l'Arménie, province d'Asie, d'où il est originaire et d'où il fut porté en Europe ..." ("this tree takes its name from Armenia, province of Asia, where it is native, and whence it was brought to Europe ...").[6] An archaeological excavation at Garni in Armenia found apricot seeds in an Eneolithic-era site.[7] Despite the great number of varieties of apricots that are grown in Armenia today (about 50),[5] according to Vavilov its center of origin would be the Chinese region, where the domestication of apricot would have taken place. Other sources say that the apricot was first cultivated in India in about 3000 BC.[8]

Apricots have been cultivated in Persia since antiquity, and dried ones were an important commodity on Persian trade routes. Apricots remain an important fruit in modern-day Iran, where they are known under the common name of zard-ālū (Persian: زردآلو).

Egyptians usually dry apricots, add sweetener, and then use them to make a drink called amar al-dīn.

Dried organic apricot, produced in Turkey: The colour is dark because it has not been treated with sulfur dioxide (E220).

Although the apricot is native to a continental climate region with cold winters, it can grow in Mediterranean climates if enough cool winter weather allows a proper dormancy.[citation needed] The dry climate of these areas is good for fruit maturation. The tree is slightly more cold-hardy than the peach, tolerating winter temperatures as cold as −30°C or lower if healthy. A limiting factor in apricot culture is spring frosts: They tend to flower very early, meaning spring frost can kill the flowers. Furthermore, the trees are sensitive to temperature changes during the winter season. In China, winters can be very cold, but temperatures tend to be more stable than in Europe and especially North America, where large temperature swings can occur in winter. Hybridisation with the closely related Prunus sibirica (Siberian apricot; hardy to −50°C but with less palatable fruit) offers options for breeding more cold-tolerant plants.[11]

Prunus sibirica (Siberian apricot; hardy to −50°C but with less palatable fruit) offers options for breeding more cold-tolerant plants.

Apricot cultivars are most often grafted onto plum or peach rootstocks. The scion from an existing apricot plant provides the fruit characteristics, such as flavour and size, but the rootstock provides the growth characteristics of the plant.

Apricots have a chilling requirement of 300 to 900 chilling units. They are hardy in USDA zones 5 through 8. Some of the more popular US cultivars of apricots include 'Blenheim', 'Wenatchee Moorpark', 'Tilton', and 'Perfection'.

An old adage says an apricot tree will not grow far from the mother tree; the implication is that apricots are particular about the soil conditions in which they are grown.[citation needed] They prefer well-drained soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0. Some apricot cultivars are self-compatible and do not require pollinizer trees; others are not, such as Moongold and Sungold, which must be planted in pairs so that they can pollinate each other.

Apricots are susceptible to numerous diseases whose relative importance is different in the major production regions as a consequence of their climatic differences. Diseases include bacterial canker and blast, bacterial spot and crown gall, and an even longer list of fungal diseases, including brown rot, black knot, Alternaria spot and fruit rot, and powdery mildew. Other problems for apricots are nematodes, viral and phytoplasma diseases, including graft-transmissible problems.

The claims that laetrile or amygdalin have beneficial effects for cancer patients are not currently supported by sound clinical data. There is a considerable risk of serious adverse effects from cyanide poisoning after laetrile or amygdalin, especially after oral ingestion. The risk–benefit balance of laetrile or amygdalin as a treatment for cancer is therefore unambiguously negative.[14]

The scientific name armeniaca was first used by Gaspard Bauhin in his Pinax Theatri Botanici (page 442), referring to the species as Mala armeniaca "Armenian apple". It is sometimes stated that this came from Pliny the Elder, but it was not used by Pliny. Linnaeus took up Bauhin's epithet in the first edition of his Species Plantarum in 1753.[15]

The name apricot is probably derived from a tree mentioned as praecocia by Pliny. Pliny says "We give the name of apples (mala) ... to peaches (persica) and pomegranates (granata) ..."[16] Later in the same section he states "The Asiatic peach ripens at the end of autumn, though an early variety (praecocia) ripens in summer – these were discovered within the last thirty years ...".

The classical authors connected Greek armeniaca with Latin praecocia:[17]Pedanius Dioscorides' " ... Ἀρμενιακὰ, Ῥωμαιστὶ δὲ βρεκόκκια"[18] and Martial's "Armeniaca, et praecocia latine dicuntur".[19] Putting together the Armeniaca and the Mala obtains the well-known epithet, but there is no evidence the ancients did it; Armeniaca alone meant the apricot. Nonetheless, the 12th century Andalusian agronomist Ibn al-'Awwam refers to the species in the title of chapter 40 of his Kitab al-Filaha as والتفاح الارمني, "apple from Armenia", stating that it is the same as المشمش or البرقوق ("al-mishmish" or "al-barqūq").

Accordingly, the American Heritage Dictionary under apricot derives praecocia from praecoquus, "cooked or ripened beforehand" [in this case meaning early ripening], becoming Greek πραικόκιονpraikókion "apricot" and Arabic البرقوق al-barqūq, a term that has been used for a variety of different members of the genus Prunus (it currently refers primarily to the plum in most varieties of Arabic, but some writers use it as a catchall term for Prunus fruit).

However, in Argentina, Chile, and Peru, the word for "apricot" is damasco, which could indicate that, to the Spanish settlers of Argentina, the fruit was associated with Damascus in Syria.[21] The word damasco is also the word for "apricot" in Portuguese (both European and Brazilian, though in Portugal the word alperce is also used).

The Chinese associate the apricot with education and medicine. For instance, the classical word 杏壇 (literally: 'apricot altar') which means "educational circle", is still widely used in written language. Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher in 4th century BCE, told a story that Confucius taught his students in a forum surrounded by the wood of apricot trees.[22] The association with medicine in turn comes from the common use of apricot kernels as a component in traditional Chinese medicine, and from the story of Dong Feng (董奉), a physician during the Three Kingdoms period, who required no payment from his patients except that they plant apricot trees in his orchard on recovering from their illnesses, resulting in a large grove of apricot trees and a steady supply of medicinal ingredients. The term "Expert of the Apricot Grove" (杏林高手) is still used as a poetic reference to physicians.

The fact that apricot season is very short has given rise to the very common Egyptian Arabic and Palestinian Arabic expression "filmishmish" ("in apricot [season]") or "bukra filmishmish" ("tomorrow in apricot [season]"), generally uttered as a riposte to an unlikely prediction, or as a rash promise to fulfill a request.

The Turkish idiom "bundan iyisi Şam'da kayısı" (literally, the only thing better than this is an apricot in Damascus) means "it doesn't get any better than this". It is used when something is the very best it can be, like a delicious apricot from Damascus.

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Prunus armeniaca

Prunus armeniaca ("Armenian plum"),[2] the most commonly cultivated apricot species, also called ansu apricot,[1]Siberian apricot,[1]Tibetan apricot,[1] is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenusPrunus. The native range is somewhat uncertain due to its extensive prehistoric cultivation.

Prunus armeniaca is a small tree, 8–12 m (26–39 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm (16 in) in diameter and a dense, spreading canopy. The leaves are ovate, 5–9 cm (2.0–3.5 in) long and 4–8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) wide, with a rounded base, a pointed tip and a finely serrated margin. The flowers are 2–4.5 cm (0.8–1.8 in) in diameter, with five white to pinkish petals; they are produced singly or in pairs in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a drupe similar to a small peach, 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–1.0 in) diameter (larger in some modern cultivars), from yellow to orange, often tinged red on the side most exposed to the sun; its surface can be smooth (botanically described as: glabrous) or velvety with very short hairs (botanically: pubescent). The flesh is usually firm and not very juicy. Its taste can range from sweet to tart. The single seed is enclosed in a hard, stony shell, often called a "stone", with a grainy, smooth texture except for three ridges running down one side.[3][4]

The origin of the species is disputed. It was known in Armenia during ancient times, and has been cultivated there for so long, it is often thought to have originated there.[5][6] Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca (Armenian plum) derives from that assumption. For example, De Poerderlé, writing in the 18th century, asserted, "Cet arbre tire son nom de l'Arménie, province d'Asie, d'où il est originaire et d'où il fut porté en Europe ..." ("this tree takes its name from Armenia, province of Asia, where it is native, and whence it was brought to Europe ...").[7] An archaeological excavation at Garni in Armenia found apricot seeds in an Eneolithic-era site.[8] Despite the great number of varieties of apricots that are grown in Armenia today (about 50),[6] according to Vavilov its center of origin would be the Chinese region, where the domestication of apricot would have taken place. Other sources say that the apricot was first cultivated in India in about 3000 BC.[9]

Apricots have been cultivated in Persia since antiquity, and dried ones were an important commodity on Persian trade routes.

More recently, English settlers brought the apricot to the English colonies in the New World. Most of modern American production of apricots comes from the seedlings carried to the west coast by Spanish missionaries.

Today, apricot cultivation has spread to all parts of the globe with climates that support it.

The scientific name armeniaca was first used by Gaspard Bauhin in his Pinax Theatri Botanici (page 442), referring to the species as Mala armeniaca "Armenian apple". It is sometimes stated that this came from Pliny the Elder, but it was not used by Pliny. Linnaeus took up Bauhin's epithet in the first edition of his Species Plantarum in 1753.[12]

The name apricot is probably derived from a tree mentioned as praecocia by Pliny. Pliny says "We give the name of apples (mala) ... to peaches (persica) and pomegranates (granata) ..."[13] Later in the same section he states "The Asiatic peach ripens at the end of autumn, though an early variety (praecocia) ripens in summer – these were discovered within the last thirty years ...".

The classical authors connected Greek armeniaca with Latin praecocia:[14]Pedanius Dioscorides' " ... Ἀρμενιακὰ, Ῥωμαιστὶ δὲ βρεκόκκια"[15] and Martial's "Armeniaca, et praecocia latine dicuntur".[16] Putting together the Armeniaca and the Mala obtains the well-known epithet, but there is no evidence the ancients did it; Armeniaca alone meant the apricot. Nonetheless, the 12th century Andalusian agronomist Ibn al-'Awwam refers to the species in the title of chapter 40 of his Kitab al-Filaha as والتفاح الارمني, "apple from Armenia", stating that it is the same as المشمش or البرقوق ("al-mishmish" or "al-barqūq").

Accordingly, the American Heritage Dictionary under apricot derives praecocia from praecoquus, "cooked or ripened beforehand" [in this case meaning early ripening], becoming Greek πραικόκιονpraikókion "apricot" and Arabic البرقوق al-barqūq, a term that has been used for a variety of different members of the genus Prunus (it currently refers primarily to the plum in most varieties of Arabic, but some writers use it as a catchall term for Prunus fruit).

However, in Argentina, Chile, and Peru, the word for "apricot" is damasco, which could indicate that, to the Spanish settlers of Argentina, the fruit was associated with Damascus in Syria.[18] The word damasco is also the word for "apricot" in Portuguese (both European and Brazilian, though in Portugal the word alperce is also used).

The Chinese associate the apricot with education and medicine. For instance, the classical word 杏壇 (literally: 'apricot altar') which means "educational circle", is still widely used in written language. Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher in 4th century BCE, told a story that Confucius taught his students in a forum surrounded by the wood of apricot trees.[19] The association with medicine in turn comes from the common use of apricot kernels as a component in traditional Chinese medicine, and from the story of Dong Feng (董奉), a physician during the Three Kingdoms period, who required no payment from his patients except that they plant apricot trees in his orchard on recovering from their illnesses, resulting in a large grove of apricot trees and a steady supply of medicinal ingredients. The term "Expert of the Apricot Grove" (杏林高手) is still used as a poetic reference to physicians.

In Armenia, the wood of the apricot tree is used for making wood carvings such as the duduk, which is a popular wind instrument in Armenia and is also called the apricot pipe. Several hand-made souvenirs are also made from the apricot wood.

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Notes

Comments

Apricots are cultivated for their edible fruit throughout China and in most temperate parts of the world. The seeds are also edible and used medicinally. Because of its long history of cultivation in China, it is difficult to know for certain whether specific collections are really wild or escaped from cultivation, but probably the species originated in C Asia.