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cacao (Theobroma cacao), also called cocoa, tropical evergreentree (family Malvaceae, formerly Sterculiaceae) grown for its edible seeds, whose scientific name means “food of the gods” in Greek. Native to lowland rainforests of the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, cacao is grown commercially in the New World tropics as well as western Africa and tropical Asia. Its seeds, called cocoa beans, are processed into cocoa powder, cocoa butter, and chocolate. This article treats the cultivation of the cacao plant. For information on the processing of cocoa and the history of its use, see the article cocoa.

Natural history

Cacao grows in the forest understory to a height of 6–12 metres (20–40 feet), usually remaining at the lower end of this range. Its oblong leathery leaves measure up to 30 cm (12 inches) in length, and are periodically shed and replaced by new leaves that are strikingly red when young. Its flowers are either foul-smelling or odourless; they can be present at all times but appear in abundance twice a year. These flowers grow in clusters directly from the trunk and limbs and are about 1 cm (0.4 inch) in height and breadth. They can be white, rosy, pink, yellow, or bright red, depending on the variety, and are pollinated by tiny flies called midges in many areas.

After four years the mature cacao tree produces fruit in the form of elongated pods; it may yield up to 70 such fruits annually. The pods, or cherelles, range in colour from bright yellow to deep purple. They ripen in less than six months to a length up to 35 cm (14 inches) and a width at the centre of 12 cm (4.7 inches). Each pod has numerous ridges running along its length and holds 20 to 60 seeds, or cocoa beans, arranged around the long axis of the pod. The oval seeds are about 2.5 cm (1 inch) long and are covered with a sweet sticky white pulp.

Cacao thrives at altitudes of 30 to 300 metres (100 to 1,000 feet) above sea level in areas where temperatures do not range much below 20 °C (68 °F) or above 28 °C (82 °F). Rainfall requirements depend upon the frequency and distribution of rain and the degree of water retention by the soil; the minimum necessary rainfall is about 100 cm (39 inches) evenly distributed throughout the year, but 150–200 cm (59–79 inches) is optimal. Successful cultivation also requires deep well-drained soil that is porous and rich in humus. Protection against strong winds is necessary because of the tree’s shallow root system.

Cultivation

Because of the hazards of disease and pests, most of the world’s cacao is grown on small labour-intensive farms of less than two hectares (five acres) instead of large plantations through which these hazards can rapidly spread. However, even with the protection of their small isolated farms, cacao growers frequently experience losses ranging from 30 to 100 percent of their crops, usually to disease. Cacao can also be grown in pristine rainforests at low densities as a form of agroforestry, providing an economic use for protected land. In cultivating cacao, plants are first grown from seeds or cuttings and then transplanted. Other tree crops such as banana, palm, or rubber are often planted with the cacao to provide shade and wind protection for the young trees. Floral buds are removed from the trees until they are five years old. Commercial cocoa bean crop yields may vary from under 100 to over 3,000 kg per hectare (110 to 2,700 pounds per acre), with the world average being between 340 and 450 kg per hectare (300 and 400 pounds per acre).

Many varieties of cacao exist, and they can be grouped into three general divisions: forastero, criollo, and trinitario. Forastero varieties are most commonly used in commercial production, whereas criollo varieties are very susceptible to disease and are not widely grown. Trinitario is a hybrid of the forastero and criollo varieties and produces a flavourful bean that is used in high-quality dark chocolate. In Central America two related species (T. bicolor and T. angustifolium) are grown for their edible seeds, which are sometimes mixed with those of T. cacao to produce cocoa.

Pests and diseases

The most commonly destructive diseases of the cacao tree are pod rots. A pod rot called black pod is caused by a fungus (Phytophthora) that spreads rapidly on the pods under conditions of excessive rain and humidity, insufficient sunshine, and temperatures below 21 °C (70 °F). Control requires timely treatment with copper-containing fungicides and constant removal of infected pods. Witches’ broom (caused by Moniliophthora perniciosa) and frosty pod rot (caused by M. roreri) are serious diseases affecting crops in the Americas and West Indies and are of major concern to growers in Africa and Asia who seek to prevent their spread. Asian cacao trees are affected by a fungus (Oncobasidium theobroma) that causes the tree to dry out, starting from the branch tips—a condition called vascular streak dieback. Swollen shoot is a viral disease transmitted to the plant by mealybugs that has devastated Ghanaian and Nigerian cocoa crops.

Some common diseases such as cherelle (young pod) wilt, cushion galls, and dieback are not thoroughly understood and may result from a combination of physiological, viral, nutritional, and fungal conditions. Many different insects cause vegetative and crop damage to cocoa, especially mealybugs, true bugs (heteropterans), thrips, and scale insects. In Southeast Asia the cocoa pod borer, the larva of mosquito-like insect, is a common pest. Research is being done to develop disease-resistant varieties and effective biological control methods for insect pests.

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