Just Love Words

Oh, those feisty Indo-Europeans. Located some 5,000 years ago on the grassy steppes of Eurasia, just north of the Black and Caspian Seas, this ancient group of people gave us the English language—not just our language but most of Europe's and India's, as well.

So how did a tribe of nomadic herdsmen, and their language, come to dominate such a vast territory? The answer has to do with horses—and a human genetic mutation.*

Horses were indigenous to the grasslands, and the Indo-Europeans, at first, used them for meat. But some bright (and brave) soul figured out that horses could be ridden and used to herd their animals. Once on horseback, the Indo-Europeans found they could raise and control larger and larger herds.

Another bright soul realized that instead of killing off so many goats or sheep for food, they could spare some and use their milk. That idea happily coincided with the spread of an errant gene—a mutation that produced lactase, enabling humans to digest milk.

The herds thrived—as did the tribespeople, who grew in number and (most likely) stature. The increase in herds and people gave way to the need for more land, and thus began the trek eastward and westward.

And if you were in their way? Well, you didn't have horses—and they did—so you can guess who ended up with the land. Nonetheless, historians aren't sure how warrior-like the Indo-European tribes were, whether they conquered or settled in peacefully. Possibly both.

However it happened, the Indo-Europeans came to dominate the inhabitants of their new lands. Their language continued to spread eastward and westward over thousands of years and thousands of miles, morphing into separate dialects...and eventually into separate languages, including the early Germanic languages, the ancestor of our own.

What this means, astonishingly, is that today about 50% of the world's population speaks an Indo-European-derived language—3 billion of us—all from an ancient tribe of nomadic herders!

*This—and more, much more—is available on Kevin Stroud's wonderful podcast, The History of the English Podcast. Please take a week or two (or a month or two) to listen to his 50+ episodes. Stroud is a wonderfully lucid presenter and has put together a fascinating, detailed history of why our crazy language, English, is the way it is. If you love history and English, you'll be addicted. I am.

Also note the beautiful maps Stroud uses—two of which are included here. They were created for him by Louis Henwood. Thanks to both Kevin and Louis for their kind permission to use them.

What's an adverbial conjunction?Like regular conjunctions, adverbial conjunctions link two full sentences—but with a SEMICOLON before and a COMMA after. They're "adverbs" in that they describe precisely how the 2nd sentence relates to the 1st—the same way adverbs describe verbs. Remember adverbs?

—> She ate. How did she eat? She ate SLOWLY.—> He sang. How did he sing? He sang LOUDLY.

Some common adverbial conjuctions

also

however

nevertheless

anyway

indeed

nonetheless

consequently

instead

now

finally

likewise

otherwise

further

meanwhile

then

furthermore

moreover

therefore

Examples—

• It was too cold to enjoy the game ;however, she decided to go anyway.

The adverbial conjunction "however" indicates that the 2nd part of the sentence is in OPPOSITION to the first part. You could also use...nevertheless or nonetheless or still.

__________

• It was too cold to enjoy the game ;therefore, she decided not to go.

The adverbial conjunction "therefore" indicates that the 2nd part of the sentence is a CONSEQUENCE of the 1st part. You could also use...as a result or consequently.

__________

• It was too cold to enjoy the game ;furthermore , she didn't feel well.

The adverbial conjunction "furthermore" indicates that the 2nd part of the sentence is an ADDITION to the 1st part. You could also use...also or moreover.

__________

• It was too cold to enjoy the game ;instead, she went to the library.

The adverbial conjunction "instead" indicates that the 2nd part of the sentence is an ALTERNATIVE to the 1st part. You could also use...rather.

CAUTIONDon't confuse adverbial conjunctions when they're used as strict ADVERBS. Notice that in the following sentences they're offset by COMMAS. There's not a semicolon in sight.

• It was too cold, however, for the game.• However, it was too cold for the game.

"However" functions as an ADVERB—not an adverbial conjunction—because there is only one sentence here (S + V): "It was"...

__________

• She did not, therefore, want to go to the game.•Therefore, she did not want to go to the game.

"Therefore" functions as an ADVERB—not an adverbial conjunction—because there is only one sentence here (S + V): "She did (not) want"...

__________

• Furthermore, she did not feel well.

"Furthermore" functions as an ADVERB—not an adverbial conjunction—because there is only one sentence here (S + V): "She did (not) feel"...

People, what is wrong with you? Never have so many understood so little about a mere squiggle on a page.

Meet Semiramis, warrior princess of Assyria, ruler of the semicolon. She is here to help you...and you will not refuse her.

Have faith. With a little guidance, you too can master the semicolon—which means that you can don the costume and bear the title "Semiramis of the Semicolon." (Spear not included.)

—Semicolons—

Why use a semicolon? A semicolon connects two sentences. Think of it as a combination of a period and a comma. Notice the mark has one of each—top & bottom.

Why not use a comma?The comma is a 90-pound weakling. It's far too weak it can't hold two sentences together. If you use one, you've got yourself a nasty little comma splice.

Why not use a period?You can. Use a period to end the first sentence. Then start the second sentence.

The comma is too weak . It can't hold two sentences together.

When do you use a semicolon?Sometimes you want to link ideas—two sentences that are related to one another. In that case you can use a semicolon.

The comma is too weak ; it can't hold two sentences together.A semicolon is strong ; it can hold two sentences together.

What is a sentence?A sentence is a complete thought. A period signals the end of that thought. A semicolon can extend the thought—by linking it to another complete but related thought.

Remember—You must have two complete sentences in order to use the semicolon — S + V on the left ;S + V on the right.

Example—you have two (related) ideas...Use 2 sentences —> with a period: • It was too cold to enjoy the game . She decided not to go.Use 1 sentence —> with a semicolon: • It was too cold to enjoy the game ; she decided not to go.________________

Example—you have two (related) ideas...Use 2 sentences —> with a period: • It was too cold to enjoy the game . However, she decided to go anyway.

Use 1 sentence —> with a semicolon: • It was too cold to enjoy the game ; however, she decided to go anyway.

You don't have to use a semicolon to combine two sentences. You can also use a basic conjunction — and, but, so, for, or, not, yet — always (always, always) with a comma. • It was too cold to enjoy the game ,so she decided not to go. • It was too cold to enjoy the game ,but she decided to go anyway. • It was too cold to enjoy the game ,and she didn't want to go anyway.

It's no secret English is tough to learn. Some of it has to do with homophones and heterophones We've had fun before with words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings—homophones, like bare and bear.

This time we've got heterophones*—words that look alike but have diffferent pronounciations and meanings.

Don't You Just ♥ Words? —Heterophones—

Clara wound a bandage around his wound.

Every number makes my mind grow number.

The dump is full. Sorry, we must refuse your refuse.

Don't desert me in the desert.

Startled, the dove dove into the bushes.

It's ugly, but I don't object to the object.

No time like the present to present a good idea.

The oarsmen had a row about how to row.

She was too close to close the door.

A handsome buck does like his does.

There are lots of double words with different meanings. Some are spelled alike but sound differently (desert/desert) ... others sound alike but are spelled differently (ore/oar/or). Try a few on your own. It's a fun game for book clubs...or any wordsmiths.