Hasidic thought draws heavily on
Lurianic KabbalahLurianic Kabbalah and to an extent
is a popularization of it. Teachings emphasize God's immanence in the
universe, the need to cleave and be one with Him at all times, the
devotional aspect of religious practice, and the spiritual dimension
of corporeality and mundane acts. Hasidim, the adherents of Hasidism,
are organized in independent sects known as "courts" or dynasties ,
each headed by its own hereditary leader, a
RebbeRebbe . Reverence and
submission to the
RebbeRebbe are key tenets, as he is considered a
spiritual authority with whom the follower must bond to gain closeness
to God. The various "courts" share basic convictions, but operate
apart and possess unique traits and customs. Affiliation is often
retained in families for generations, and being Hasidic is as much a
sociological factor, entailing birth into a specific community and
allegiance to a dynasty of Rebbes, as it is a purely religious one.
There are several "courts" with many thousands of member households
each, and dozens of smaller ones. The total number of Hasidim, both
adults and children, is estimated to be above 400,000.

The terms hasid and hasidut, meaning "pietist" and "piety", have a
long history in Judaism. The
TalmudTalmud and other old sources refer to the
"Pietists of Old" (
Hasidim ha-Rishonim) who would contemplate an
entire hour in preparation for prayer. The phrase denoted extremely
devoted individuals who not only observed the Law to its letter, but
performed good deeds even beyond it.
AdamAdam himself is honored with the
title in tractate Eruvin 18b by
Rabbi Meir : "
AdamAdam was a great hasid,
having fasted for 130 years." The first to adopt the epithet
collectively were apparently the hasidim in
Second Temple periodSecond Temple period Judea
, known as
Hasideans after the Greek rendering of their name, who
perhaps served as the model for those mentioned in the Talmud. The
title continued to be applied as an honorific for the exceptionally
devout. In 12th-century
RhinelandRhineland , or
Ashkenaz in Jewish parlance,
another prominent school of ascetics named themselves hasidim; to
distinguish them from the rest, later research employed the term
Ashkenazi Hasidim . In the 16th century, when
KabbalahKabbalah spread, the
title also became associated with it.
Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah wrote in
his glossa on
Isaac LuriaIsaac Luria 's version of the
Shulchan AruchShulchan Aruch that, "One
who wishes to tap the hidden wisdom, must conduct himself in the
manner of the Pious."

The movement founded by
IsraelIsrael Ben Eliezer in the 18th century
adopted the term hasidim in the original connotation. But when the
sect grew and developed specific attributes, from the 1770s, the names
gradually acquired a new meaning. Its common adherents, belonging to
groups each headed by a spiritual leader, were henceforth known as
Hasidim. The transformation was slow: The movement was at first
referred to as "New Hasidism" by outsiders (as recalled in the
autobiography of
Salomon Maimon ) to separate it from the old one, and
its enemies derisively mocked its members as Mithasdim, " pretend
hasidim". Yet, eventually, the young sect gained such a mass following
that the old connotation was sidelined. In popular discourse, at
least, Hasid came to denote someone who follows a religious teacher
from the movement. It also entered
Modern HebrewModern Hebrew as such, meaning
"adherent" or "disciple". One was not merely a hasid anymore, observed
historian
DavidDavid Assaf, but a Hasid of someone or some dynasty in
particular. This linguistic transformation paralleled that of the word
tzaddik , "righteous", which the Hasidic leaders adopted for
themselves – though they are known colloquially as Rebbes or by the
honorific Admor. Originally denoting an observant, moral person, in
Hasidic literature tzaddik became synonymous with the often hereditary
master heading a sect of followers.

The lengthy history of Hasidism, the numerous schools of thought
therein, and particularly its use of the traditional medium of
homiletic literature and sermons – comprising numerous references to
earlier sources in the Pentateuch,
TalmudTalmud and exegesis as a means to
grounding oneself in tradition – as the almost sole channel to
convey its ideas, all made the isolation of a common doctrine highly
challenging to researchers. As noted by
Joseph Dan , "every attempt to
present such a body of ideas has failed." Even motifs presented by
scholars in the past as unique Hasidic contributions were later
revealed to have been common among both their predecessors and
opponents, all the more so regarding many other traits that are widely
extant – these play, Dan added, "a prominent role in modern
non-Hasidic and anti-Hasidic writings as well". The difficulty of
separating the movement's philosophy from that of its main
inspiration,
Lurianic KabbalahLurianic Kabbalah , and determining what was novel and
what merely a recapitulation, also baffled historians. Some, like
Louis Jacobs , regarded the early masters as innovators who introduced
"much that was new if only by emphasis"; others, primarily Mendel
Piekarz , argued to the contrary that but a little was not found in
much earlier tracts, and the movement's originality lay in the manner
it popularized these teachings to become the ideology of a
well-organized sect.

Among the traits particularly associated with Hasidism in common
understanding which are in fact widespread, is the importance of joy
and happiness at worship and religious life – though the sect
undoubtedly stressed this aspect and still possesses a clear populist
bent. Another example is the value placed on the simple, ordinary Jew
in supposed contradiction with the favouring of elitist scholars
beforehand; such ideas are common in ethical works far preceding
Hasidism. The movement did for a few decades challenge the rabbinic
establishment, which relied on the authority of
TorahTorah acumen, but
affirmed the centrality of study very soon. Concurrently, the image of
its Opponents as dreary intellectuals who lacked spiritual fervour and
opposed mysticism is likewise unfounded. Neither did Hasidism, often
portrayed as promoting healthy sensuality, unanimously reject the
asceticism and self-mortification associated primarily with its
rivals.
Joseph Dan ascribed all these perceptions to so-called
"
Neo-Hasidic " writers and thinkers, like
Martin BuberMartin Buber . In their
attempt to build new models of spirituality for modern Jews, they
propagated a romantic, sentimental image of the movement. The
"Neo-Hasidic" interpretation influenced even scholarly discourse to a
great degree, but had a tenuous connection with reality.

A further complication is the divide between what researchers term
"early Hasidism", which ended in the early 1800s, and established
Hasidism since then onwards. While the former was a highly dynamic
religious revival movement, the latter phase is characterized by
consolidation into sects with hereditary leadership. The mystical
teachings formulated during the first era were by no means repudiated,
and many Hasidic masters remained consummate spiritualists and
original thinkers; as noted by Benjamin Brown , Buber's once commonly
accepted view that the routinization constituted "decadence" was
refuted by later studies, demonstrating that the movement remained
very much innovative. Yet many aspects of early Hasidism were indeed
de-emphasized in favour of more conventional religious expressions,
and its radical concepts were largely neutralized. Some Rebbes adopted
a relatively rationalist bent, sidelining their explicit mystical,
theurgical roles, and many others functioned almost solely as
political leaders of large communities. As to their Hasidim,
affiliation was less a matter of admiring a charismatic leader as in
the early days, but rather birth into a family belonging to a specific
"court".

IMMANENCE

The most fundamental theme underlying all Hasidic theory is the
immanence of God in the universe, often expressed in a phrase from
Tikunei haZohar , Leit Atar panuy mi-néya (
AramaicAramaic : "no site is
devoid of it"). Derived from
Lurianic discourse, but greatly expanded
in the Hasidic one, this panentheistic concept implies that literally
all of creation is suffused with divinity. In the beginning, God had
to contract (
TzimtzumTzimtzum ) His omnipresence or infinity, the
Ein SofEin Sof .
Thus, a Vacant Void (Khalal panui) was created, bereft from obvious
presence, and therefore able to entertain free will, contradictions
and other phenomena seemingly separate from God Himself, which would
have been impossible within His original, perfect existence. Yet, the
very reality of the world which was created therein is entirely
dependent on its divine origin. Matter would have been null and void
without the true, spiritual essence it possesses. Just the same, the
infinite
Ein SofEin Sof cannot manifest in the Vacant Void, and must limit
itself in the guise of measurable corporeality that may be perceived.

Thus, there is a dualism between the true aspect of everything and
the physical side, false, but ineluctable, with each evolving into the
other: as God must compress and disguise Himself, so must humans and
matter in general ascend and reunite with the omnipresence. Elior
quoted
Shneur Zalman of Liadi , in his commentary
TorahTorah Or on Genesis
28:21, who wrote that "this is the purpose of Creation, from Infinity
to Finitude, so it may be reversed from the state of Finite to that of
Infinity".
KabbalahKabbalah stressed the importance of this dialectic, but
mainly (though not exclusively) evoked it in cosmic terms, referring
for example to the manner in which God progressively diminished
Himself into the world through the various dimensions, or
SephirotSephirot .
Hasidism applied it also to the most mundane details of human
existence. All Hasidic schools devoted a prominent place in their
teaching, with differing accentuation, to the interchanging nature of
Ein, both infinite and imperceptible, becoming Yesh, "Existent" –
and vice versa. They used the concept as a prism to gauge the world,
and the needs of the spirit in particular.
Rachel Elior noted:
"reality lost its static nature and permanent value, now measured by a
new standard, seeking to expose the Godly, boundless essence, manifest
in its tangible, circumscribed opposite."

One major derivative of this philosophy is the notion of devekut ,
"communion". As God was everywhere, connection with Him had to be
pursued ceaselessly as well, in all times, places and occasions. Such
an experience was in the reach of every person, who only had to negate
his inferior impulses and grasp the truth of divine immanence,
enabling him to unite with it and attain the state of perfect,
selfless bliss. Hasidic masters, well versed in the teachings
concerning communion, are supposed not only to gain it themselves, but
to guide their flock to it.
Devekut was not a strictly defined
experience; many varieties were described, from the utmost ecstasy of
the learned leaders to the common man's more humble yet no less
significant emotion during prayer.

Closely linked with the former is Bitul ha-Yesh, "Negation of the
Existent", or of the "Corporeal". Hasidism teaches that while a
superficial observance of the universe by the "eyes of the flesh"
(Einei ha-Basar) purportedly reflects the reality of all things
profane and worldly, a true devotee must transcend this illusory
façade and realize that there is nothing but God. It is not only a
matter of perception, but very practical, for it entails also
abandoning material concerns and cleaving only to the true, spiritual
ones, oblivious to the surrounding false distractions of life. The
practitioner's success in detaching from his sense of person, and
conceive himself as Ein (in the double meaning of 'naught' and
'infinite'), is regarded as the highest state of elation in Hasidism.
The true divine essence of man – the soul – may then ascend and
return to the upper realm, where it does not possess an existence
independent from God. This ideal is termed Hitpashtut ha-Gashmi'yut,
"the expansion (or removal) of corporeality". It is the dialectic
opposite of God's contraction into the world.

To be enlightened and capable of Bitul ha-Yesh, pursuing the pure
spiritual aims and defying the primitive impulses of the body, one
must overcome his inferior "Bestial Soul", connected with the Eyes of
the Flesh. He may be able to tap into his "Divine Soul" (Nefesh
Elohit), which craves communion, by employing constant contemplation,
Hitbonenot, on the hidden Godly dimension of all that exists. Then he
could understand his surroundings with the "Eyes of the Intellect".
The ideal adherent was intended to develop equanimity, or Hishtavut in
Hasidic parlance, toward all matters worldly, not ignoring them, but
understanding their superficiality.

Hasidic masters exhorted their followers to "negate themselves",
paying as little heed as they could for worldly concerns, and thus, to
clear the way for this transformation. The struggle and doubt of being
torn between the belief in God's immanence and the very real sensual
experience of the indifferent world is a key theme in the movement's
literature. Many tracts have been devoted to the subject,
acknowledging that the "callous and rude" flesh hinders one from
holding fast to the ideal, and these shortcomings are extremely hard
to overcome even in the purely intellectual level, a fortiori in
actual life.

Another implication of this dualism is the notion of "Worship through
Corporeality", Avodah be-Gashmi'yut. As the
Ein SofEin Sof metamorphosed into
substance, so may it in turn be raised back to its higher state;
likewise, since the machinations in the higher
SephirotSephirot exert their
influence on this world, even the most simple action may, if performed
correctly and with understanding, achieve the reverse effect.
According to
Lurianic doctrine, The netherworld was suffused with
divine sparks, concealed within "husks",
QliphothQliphoth . The glints had to
be recovered and elevated to their proper place in the cosmos.
"Materiality itself could be embraced and consecrated", noted Glenn
Dynner, and Hasidism taught that by common acts like dancing or
eating, performed with intention, the sparks could be extricated and
set free. Avodah be-Gashmi'yut had a clear, if not implicit,
antinomian edge, possibly equating sacred rituals mandated by Judaism
with everyday activities, granting them the same status in the
believer's eyes and having him content to commit the latter at the
expense of the former. While at some occasions the movement did appear
to step at that direction – for example, in its early days prayer
and preparation for it consumed so much time that adherents were
blamed of neglecting sufficient
TorahTorah study – Hasidic masters proved
highly conservative. Unlike in other, more radical sects influenced by
kabbalistic ideas, like the
SabbateansSabbateans , Worship through Corporeality
was largely limited to the elite and carefully restrained. The common
adherents were taught they may engage it only mildly, through small
deeds like earning money to support their leaders.

The complementary opposite of corporeal worship, or the elation of
the finite into infinite, is the concept of Hamshacha, "drawing down"
or "absorbing", and specifically, Hamschat ha-Shefa, "absorption of
effluence". During spiritual ascension, one could siphon the power
animating the higher dimensions down into the material world, where it
would manifest as benevolent influence of all kinds. These included
spiritual enlightenment, zest in worship and other high-minded aims,
but also the more prosaic health and healing, deliverance from various
troubles and simple economic prosperity. Thus, a very tangible and
alluring motivation to become followers emerged. Both corporeal
worship and absorption allowed the masses to access, with common
actions, a religious experience once deemed esoteric.

Yet another reflection of the Ein-Yesh dialectic is pronounced in the
transformation of evil to goodness and the relations between these two
poles and other contradicting elements – including various traits
and emotions of the human psyche, like pride and humility, purity and
profanity, et cetera. Hasidic thinkers argued that in order to redeem
the sparks hidden, one had to associate not merely with the corporeal,
but with sin and evil. One example is the elevation of impure thoughts
during prayer, transforming them to noble ones rather than repressing
them, advocated mainly in the early days of the sect; or "breaking"
oneself's character by directly confronting profane inclinations. This
aspect, once more, had sharp antinomian implications was and used by
the
SabbateansSabbateans to justify excessive sinning. It was mostly toned down
in late Hasidism, and even before that leaders were careful to stress
that it was not exercised in the physical sense, but in the
contemplative, spiritual one. This kabbalistic notion, too, was not
unique to the movement and appeared frequently among other Jewish
groups.

RIGHTEOUS ONE

While its mystical and ethical teachings are not easily sharply
distinguished from those of other Jewish currents, the defining
doctrine of Hasidism is that of the saintly leader, serving both as an
ideal inspiration and an institutional figure around whom followers
are organized. In the movement's sacral literature, this person is
referred to as the Tzaddiq , the Righteous One — often also known by
the general honorific Admor (acronym of
HebrewHebrew for "our master,
teacher and Rabbi"), granted to rabbis in general, or colloquially as
RebbeRebbe . The idea that, in every generation, there are righteous
persons through whom the divine effluence is drawn to the material
world is rooted in the kabbalistic thought, which also claims that one
of them is supreme, the reincarnation of
MosesMoses . Hasidism elaborated
the notion of the Tzaddiq into the basis of its entire system – so
much that the very term gained an independent meaning within it, apart
from the original which denoted God-fearing, highly observant people.

When the sect began to attract following and expanded from a small
circle of learned disciples to a mass movement, it became evident that
its complex philosophy could be imparted only partially to the new
rank and file. As even intellectuals struggled with the sublime
dialectics of infinity and corporeality, there was little hope to have
the common folk truly internalize these, not as mere abstractions to
pay lip service to. Ideologues exhorted them to have faith, but the
true answer, which marked their rise as a distinct sect, was the
concept of the Tzaddiq. A Hasidic master was to serve as a living
embodiment of the recondite teachings. He was able to transcend
matter, gain spiritual communion, Worship through Corporeality and
fulfill all the theoretical ideals. As the vast majority of his flock
could not do so themselves, they were to cleave to him instead,
acquiring at least some semblance of those vicariously. His commanding
and often — especially in the early generations — charismatic
presence was to reassure the faithful and demonstrate the truth in
Hasidic philosophyHasidic philosophy by countering doubts and despair. But more than
spiritual welfare was concerned: Since it was believed he could ascend
to the higher realms, the leader was able to harvest effluence and
bring it down upon his adherents, providing them with very material
benefits. "The crystallization of that theurgical phase", noted Glenn
Dynner, "marked Hasidism's evolution into a full-fledged social
movement."

In Hasidic discourse, the willingness of the leader to sacrifice the
ecstasy and fulfillment of unity in God was deemed a heavy sacrifice
undertook for the benefit of the congregation. His followers were to
sustain and especially to obey him, as he possessed superior knowledge
and insight gained through communion. The "descent of the Righteous"
(Yeridat ha-Tzaddiq) into the matters of the world was depicted as
identical with the need to save the sinners and redeem the sparks
concealed in the most lowly places. Such a link between his functions
as communal leader and spiritual guide legitimized the political power
he wielded. It also prevented a retreat of Hasidic masters into
hermitism and passivity, as many mystics before them did. Their
worldly authority was perceived as part of their long-term mission to
elevate the corporeal world back into divine infinity. To a certain
extent, the Saint even fulfilled for his congregation, and for it
alone, a limited Messianic capacity in his lifetime. After the
Sabbatean debacle, this moderate approach provided a safe outlet for
the eschatological urges. At least two leaders radicalized in this
sphere and caused severe controversy:
Nachman of BreslovNachman of Breslov , who
declared himself the only true Tzaddiq, and Menachem Mendel Schneerson
, whom many of his followers believed to be the Messiah. The Rebbes
were subject to intense hagiography, even subtly compared with
Biblical figures by employing prefiguration. It was argued that since
followers could not "negate themselves" sufficiently to transcend
matter, they should instead "negate themselves" in submission to the
Saint (hitbatlut la-Tzaddiq), thus bonding with him and enabling
themselves to access what he achieved in terms of spirituality. The
Righteous served as a mystical bridge, drawing down effluence and
elevating the prayers and petitions of his admirers.

The Saintly forged a well-defined relationship with the masses: they
provided the latter with inspiration, were consulted in all matters,
and were expected to intercede on behalf of their adherents with God
and ensure they gained financial prosperity, health and male
offspring. The pattern still characterizes Hasidic sects, though
prolonged routinization in many turned the Rebbes into de facto
political leaders of strong, institutionalized communities. The role
of a Saint was obtained by charisma, erudition and appeal in the early
days of Hasidism. But by the dawn of the 19th century, the Righteous
began to claim legitimacy by descent to the masters of the past,
arguing that since they linked matter with infinity, their abilities
had to be associated with their own corporeal body. Therefore, it was
accepted "there can be no Tzaddiq but the son of a Tzaddiq". Virtually
all modern sects maintain this hereditary principle. For example, the
Rebbes' families maintain endogamy and marry almost solely with scions
of other dynasties.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

Some Hasidic "courts", and not a few individual prominent masters,
developed distinct philosophies with particular accentuation of
various themes in the movement's general teachings. Several of these
Hasidic schools had lasting influence over many dynasties, while
others died with their proponents. In the doctrinal sphere, the
dynasties may be divided along many lines. Some are characterized by
Rebbes who are predominantly
TorahTorah scholars and decisors , deriving
their authority much like ordinary non-Hasidic rabbis do. Such
"courts" place great emphasis on strict observance and study, and are
among the most meticulous in the Orthodox world in practice. Prominent
examples are the House of
Sanz and its scions, such as
Satmar , or
Belz . Other sects, like
Vizhnitz , espouse a charismatic-populist
line, centered on the admiration of the masses for the Righteous, his
effervescent style of prayer and conduct and his purported
miracle-working capabilities. Fewer still retain a high proportion of
the mystical-spiritualist themes of early Hasidism, and encourage
members to study much kabbalistic literature and (carefully) engage in
the field. The various
Ziditchover dynasties mostly adhere to this
philosophy. Others still focus on contemplation and achieving inner
perfection. No dynasty is wholly devoted to a single approach of the
above, and all offer some combination with differing emphasis on each
of those.

In 1812, a schism occurred between the
Seer of Lublin and his prime
disciple, the Holy Jew of
PrzysuchaPrzysucha , due to both personal and
doctrinal disagreements. The Seer adopted a populist approach,
centered on the Righteous' theurgical functions to draw the masses. He
was famous for his lavish, enthusiastic conduct during prayer and
worship, and extremely charismatic demeanour. He stressed that as
Tzaddiq, his mission was to influence the common folk by absorbing
Divine Light and satisfying their material needs, thus converting them
to his cause and elating them. The Holy Jew pursued a more
introspective course, maintaining that the Rebbe's duty was to serve
as a spiritual mentor for a more elitist group, helping them to
achieve a senseless state of contemplation, aiming to restore man to
his oneness with God which
AdamAdam supposedly lost when he ate the fruit
of the Lignum Scientiae . The Holy Jew and his successors did neither
repudiate miracle working, nor did they eschew dramatic conduct; but
they were much more restrained in general. The
PrzysuchaPrzysucha School became
dominant in Central Poland , while populist Hasidism resembling the
Lublin ethos often prevailed in Galicia . One extreme and renowned
philosopher who emerged from the
PrzysuchaPrzysucha School was Menachem Mendel
of Kotzk . Adopting an elitist, hard-line attitude, he openly
denounced the folkly nature of other Tzaddiqim, and rejected financial
support. Gathering a small group of devout scholars who sought to
attain spiritual perfection, whom he often berated and mocked, he
always stressed the importance of both somberness and totality,
stating it was better to be fully wicked than only somewhat good.

The
ChabadChabad school, limited to its namesake dynasty, but prominent,
was founded by
Shneur Zalman of Liadi and was elaborated by his
successors, until the late 20th century. The movement retained many of
the attributes of early Hasidism, before a clear divide between
Righteous and ordinary followers was cemented.
ChabadChabad Rebbes insisted
their adherents acquire proficiency in the sect's lore, and not
relegate most responsibility to the leaders. The sect emphasizes the
importance of intellectually grasping the dynamics of the hidden
divine aspect and how they affect the human psyche; the very acronym
ChabadChabad is for the three penultimate
SephirotSephirot , associated with the
cerebral side of consciousness.

Another famous philosophy is that formulated by Nachman of Breslov
and adhered to by Breslov Hasidim. In contrast to most of his peers
who believed God must be worshiped through joy, Nachman portrayed the
corporeal world in grim colors, as a place devoid of God's immediate
presence from which the soul yearns to liberate itself. He mocked the
attempts to perceive the nature of infinite-finite dialectics and the
manner in which God still occupies the Vacant Void albeit not, stating
these were paradoxical, beyond human understanding. Only naive faith
in their reality would do. Mortals were in constant struggle to
overcome their profane instincts, and had to free themselves from
their limited intellects to see the world as it truly is.

Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov , a major Galician Tzaddiq, was a disciple of
the Seer of Lublin, but combined his populist inclination with a
strict observance even among his most common followers, and great
pluralism in matters pertaining to mysticism, as those were eventually
emanating from each person's unique soul.

Mordechai Yosef Leiner of
IzbicaIzbica promulgated a radical understanding
of free will, which he considered illusory and also derived directly
from God. He argued that when one attained a sufficient spiritual
level and could be certain evil thoughts did not derive from his
animalistic soul, then sudden urges to transgress revealed Law were
God-inspired and may be pursued. This volatile, potentially antinomian
doctrine of "Transgression for the Sake of Heaven" is found also in
other Hasidic writings, especially from the early period. His
successors de-emphasized it in their commentaries. Leiner's disciple
Zadok HaKohen of Lublin also developed a complex philosophic system
which presented a dialectic nature in history, arguing that great
progress had to be preceded by crisis and calamity.

PRACTICE AND CULTURE

REBBE AND "COURT"

The Hasidic community is organized in a sect known as "court"
(Hebrew: חצר, hatzer; Yiddish: האף, Hoif). In the early days of
the movement, a particular Rebbe's following usually resided in the
same town, and
Hasidim were categorized by their leaders' settlement:
a Hasid of Belz,
Vizhnitz and so forth. Later, especially after World
War II, the dynasties retained the names of their original Eastern
European settlements when moving to the West or Israel. Thus, for
example, the "court" established by
Joel TeitelbaumJoel Teitelbaum in 1905 at
Transylvania remained known after its namesake town,
Sathmar , even
though its headquarters lay in New York, and almost all other Hasidic
sects likewise – albeit some groups founded overseas were named
accordingly, like the
Boston (Hasidic dynasty) .

Akin to his spiritual status, the
RebbeRebbe is also the administrative
head of the community. Sects often possess their own synagogues, study
halls and internal charity mechanisms, and ones sufficiently large
also maintain entire educational systems. The
RebbeRebbe is the supreme
figure of authority, and not just for the institutions. The
rank-and-file
Hasidim are also expected to consult with him on
important matters, and often seek his blessing and advice. He is
personally attended by aides known as
GabbaiGabbai or Mashbak.

Many particular Hasidic rites surround the leader. On the Sabbath,
holidays, and celebratory occasions, Rebbes hold a Tisch (table), a
large feast for their male adherents. Together, they sing, dance, and
eat, and the head of the sect shakes the hands of his followers to
bless them, and often delivers a sermon. A Chozer, "repeater",
selected for his good memory, commits the text to writing after the
Sabbath, during which the action is forbidden . In many "courts", the
remnants of his meal, supposedly suffused with holiness, are handed
over and even fought upon. Often, a very large dish is prepared
beforehand and the
RebbeRebbe only tastes it before passing it to the
crowd. Apart from the gathering at noon, the third repast on Sabbath
and the "
Melaveh Malkah " meal when it ends are also particularly
important and an occasion for song, feasting, tales and sermons. A
central custom, which serves as a major factor in the economics of
most "courts", is the Pidyon, "Ransom", better known by its Yiddish
name
Kvitel , "little note": adherents submit a written petition,
which the master may assist with on behalf of his sanctity, adding a
sum of money for either charity or the leader's needs. Occasions in
the "court" serve as pretext for mass gatherings, flaunting the power,
wealth and size of each. Weddings of the leader's family, for example,
are often held with large multistoried stands (פארענטשעס,
Parentches) filled with
Hasidim surround the main floor, where the
RebbeRebbe and his relatives dine, celebrate and perform the Mitzvah tantz
. This is a festive dance with the bride: both parties hold one end of
a long sash, a Hasidic gartel , for reasons of modesty.

Allegiance to the dynasty and
RebbeRebbe is also a cause for tension and
violence. Notable feuds between "courts" include the 1926–34 strife
after
Chaim Elazar Spira of Munkatch cursed the deceased Yissachar Dov
Rokeach I of Belz; the 1980–2012 Satmar-
Belz collision after
Yissachar Dov Rokeach IIYissachar Dov Rokeach II broke with the Orthodox Council of Jerusalem
, which culminated when he had to travel in a bulletproof car; and
the 2006–present
Satmar succession dispute between brothers Aaron
Teitelbaum and
Zalman Teitelbaum , which saw mass riots. Like in other
Ultra-Orthodox groups,
Hasidim who wish to disaffiliate from the
community face threats, hostility and various punitive measures. A
related phenomenon is the recent rise of Mashpi'im ("influencers").
Once a title for an instructor in
ChabadChabad and Breslov only, the
institutionalized nature of the established "courts" led many
adherents to seek guidance and inspiration from persons who did not
declare themselves new leaders, but only Mashpi'im. Technically, they
fill the original role of Rebbes in providing for spiritual welfare;
yet, they did not usurp the title, and therefore could be
countenanced.

LITURGY

Most
Hasidim use some variation of
Nusach Sefard , a blend of
AshkenaziAshkenazi and
SephardiSephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi
Isaac LuriaIsaac Luria . Many dynasties have their own specific adaptation of
Nusach Sefard; some, such as the versions of the Belzer, Bobover, and
Dushinsky Hasidim, are closer to Nusach Ashkenaz, while others, such
as the Munkacz version, are closer to the old Lurianic. Many sects
believe that their version reflects Luria's mystical devotions best.
The
Baal Shem Tov added two segments to Friday services on the eve of
Sabbath: Psalm 107 before afternoon prayer , and Psalm 23 at the end
of evening service .

Hasidim lend great importance to kavana , devotion or intention, and
their services tend to be extremely long and repetitive. Some courts
nearly abolished traditional specified times by which prayers must be
conducted (zemanim), to prepare and concentrate. This practice, still
enacted in
ChabadChabad for one, is controversial in many dynasties, which
do follow the specifics of
Jewish Law on praying earlier, and not
eating beforehand. Another reglement is daily immersion in a ritual
bath by males for spiritual cleansing, at a rate much higher than is
customary among other Orthodox Jews.

APPEARANCE

Hasidic family in
Borough Park, BrooklynBorough Park, Brooklyn . The man is wearing a
shtreimel , and either a bekishe or a rekel . The woman is wearing a
wig, called a sheitel , as she is forbidden to show her hair in
public.

Within the Hasidic world, it is possible to distinguish different
Hasidic groups by subtle differences in dress. Some details of their
dress are shared by non-Hasidic Haredim. Much of Hasidic dress was
historically the clothing of all Eastern European Jews, influenced by
the style of Polish–Lithuanian nobility . Furthermore,
Hasidim have
attributed religious origins to specific Hasidic items of clothing.

Hasidic men most commonly wear dark overclothes. On weekdays, they
wear a long, black, cloth jacket called a rekel , and on Jewish Holy
Days , the bekishe zaydene kapote (Yiddish, lit., satin caftan), a
similarly long, black jacket, but of satin fabric traditionally silk.
Indoors, the colorful tish bekishe is still worn. Some
Hasidim wear a
satin overcoat, known as rezhvolke. A rebbe's rezhvolke might be
trimmed with velvet. Most do not wear neckties .

On the Sabbath , the Hasidic Rebbes traditionally wore a white
bekishe . This practice has fallen into disuse among most. Many of
them wear a black silk bekishe that is trimmed with velvet (known as
stro-kes or samet) and in Hungarian ones, gold-embroidered.

Various symbolic and religious qualities are attributed to Hasidic
dress, though they are mainly apocryphal and the clothes' origin is
cultural and historical. For example, the long overcoats are
considered modest, the
Shtreimel is supposedly related to shaatnez and
keeps one warm without using wool , and Sabbath shoes are laceless in
order not to have to tie a knot, a prohibited action. A gartel divides
the Hasid's lower parts from his upper parts, implying modesty and
chastity, and for kabbalistic reasons,
Hasidim button their clothes
right over left.
Hasidim customarily wear black hats during the
weekdays, as do nearly all Haredim today. A variety of hats are worn
depending on the group:
ChabadChabad often pinch their hats to form a
triangle on the top,
Satmar wear an open-crown hat with rounded edges,
and Samet (velvet) or biber (beaver ) hats are worn by many Galician
and Hungarian Hasidim.
RabbiRabbiMoshe Leib Rabinovich , Munkacser
RebbeRebbe , wearing a kolpik

Married
Hasidim don a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath, once
common among all wedded Eastern European Jewish males and still worn
by non-Hasidic
Perushim in Jerusalem. The most ubiquitous is the
Shtreimel , which is seen especially among Galician and Hungarian
sects like
Satmar or Belz. A taller
Spodik is donned by Polish
dynasties such as Ger . A
Kolpik is worn by unmarried sons and
grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath. Some Rebbes don it on special
occasions. The
DorohoiRebbeRebbe in his traditional rabbinical
Sabbath garb

There are many other distinct items of clothing. Such are the Gerrer
hoyznzokn—long black socks into which the trousers are tucked. Some
Hasidim from
Eastern GaliciaEastern Galicia wear black socks with their breeches on
the Sabbath, as opposed to white ones on weekdays, particularly Belzer
Hasidim.

Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's
face, male members of most Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sidelocks
called payot (or peyes). Some Hasidic men shave off the rest of their
hair. Not every Hasidic group requires long peyos, and not all Jewish
men with peyos are Hasidic, but all Hasidic groups discourage the
shaving of one's beard. Most Hasidic boys receive their first haircuts
ceremonially at the age of three years (only the Skverrer
Hasidim do
this at their boys' second birthday). Until then, Hasidic boys have
long hair.

Hasidic women wear clothing adhering to the principles of modest
dress in Jewish law . This includes long, conservative skirts and
sleeves past the elbow, as well as covered necklines. Also, the women
wear stockings to cover their legs; in some Hasidic groups, such as
Satmar or
Toldot Aharon , the stockings must be opaque. In keeping
with Jewish law , married women cover their hair, using either a
sheitel (wig), a tichel (headscarf), a shpitzel , a snood , a hat, or
a beret. In some Hasidic groups, such as
Satmar , women may wear two
headcoverings – a wig and a scarf, or a wig and a hat.

FAMILIES

Hasidic Jews, like many other Orthodox Jews, typically produce large
families; the average Hasidic family in the
United StatesUnited States has 8
children. This is followed out of a desire to fulfill the Biblical
mandate to "be fruitful and multiply ".

Most
Hasidim speak the language of their countries of residence, but
use Yiddish among themselves as a way of remaining distinct and
preserving tradition. Thus, children are still learning Yiddish today,
and the language, despite predictions to the contrary, is not dead.
Yiddish newspapers are still published, and Yiddish fiction is being
written, primarily aimed at women. Even films in Yiddish are being
produced within the Hasidic community. Some Hasidic groups, such as
Satmar or
Toldot Aharon , actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew,
which they consider a holy tongue. The use of
HebrewHebrew for anything
other than prayer and study is, according to them, profane. Hence,
Yiddish is the vernacular and common tongue for many
Hasidim around
the world.

Hasidic Tales are a literary genre, concerning both hagiography of
various Rebbes and moralistic themes. Some are anecdotes or recorded
conversations dealing with matters of faith, practice, and the like.
The most famous tend to be terse and carry a strong and obvious point.
They were often transmitted orally, though the earliest compendium is
from 1815.

Many revolve around the Righteous. The Baal Shem, in particular, was
subject to excess hagiography. Characterized by vivid metaphors,
miracles, and piety, each reflects the surrounding and era it was
composed in. Common themes include dissenting the question what is
acceptable to pray for, whether or not the commoner may gain
communion, or the meaning of wisdom. The tales were a popular,
accessible medium to convey to movement's messages.

The various Hasidic groups may be categorized along several
parameters, including their geographical origin, their proclivity for
certain teachings, and their political stance. These attributes are
quite often, but by no means always, correlated, and there are many
instances when a "court" espouses a unique combination. Thus, while
most dynasties from the former Greater Hungary and Galicia are
inclined to extreme conservatism and anti-
ZionismZionism ,
RebbeRebbe Yekutiel
Yehuda Halbertsam led the
Sanz-Klausenburg sect in a more open and
mild direction; and though
Hasidim from Lithuania and Belarus are
popularly perceived as prone to intellectualism,
DavidDavid Assaf noted
this notion is derived more from their Litvak surroundings than their
actual philosophies. Apart from those, each "court" often possesses
its unique customs, including style of prayer, melodies, particular
items of clothing and the like.

On the political scale, "courts" are mainly divided on their
relations to
ZionismZionism . The right-wing, identified with Satmar, are
hostile to the State of
IsraelIsrael , and refuse to participate in the
elections there or receive any state funding. They are mainly
affiliated with the
Orthodox Council of Jerusalem and the Central
Rabbinical Congress . The great majority belong to Agudas Israel,
represented in
IsraelIsrael by the United
TorahTorahJudaismJudaism party. Its Council
of
TorahTorah Sages now includes a dozen Rebbes. In the past, there were
Religious Zionist Rebbes, mainly of the Ruzhin line, but there are
virtually none today.

In 2005, Prof. Jacques Gutwirth estimated there were some 400,000
men, women, and children adhering to Hasidic sects worldwide, and that
figure was expected to grow due to high birth rates of Hasidic Jews.
About 200,000, he assumed, lived in the State of Israel, another
150,000 in the United States, and further 50,000 were scattered around
the world, especially in Britain, but also in
AntwerpAntwerp ,
MontrealMontreal ,
ViennaVienna , and other centers. In Israel, the largest Hasidic
concentrations are in the Ultra-Orthodox neighbourhoods of Jerusalem
– including
Ramot Alon ,
Batei UngarinBatei Ungarin et cetera – in the cities
of
Bnei BrakBnei Brak and El\'ad , and in the West Bank settlements of Modi\'in
Illit and
Beitar Illit . There is considerable presence in other
specifically Orthodox municipalities or enclaves, like Kiryat Sanz,
Netanya . In the United States, most
Hasidim reside in New York and
New JerseyNew Jersey , though there are small communities across the entire
country. In
BrooklynBrooklyn , Borough Park , Williamsburg , and Crown Heights
all house a particularly large population. So does the hamlet of
Monsey in upstate New York. In the same region,
New Square , Monroe ,
and
Kiryas Joel are rapidly growing all-Hasidic enclaves, one founded
by the
Skver dynasty and the other by Satmar. In Britain, Stamford
Hill is home to the largest Hasidic community in the country, and
there are others in London and
Prestwich in Manchester. In Canada,
Kiryas Tosh is a settlement populated entirely by Tosh Hasidim, and
there are more adherents of other sects in and around Montreal.

The largest sect in the world is
Satmar , founded in 1905 in the
namesake city in Hungary and based in Williamsburg,
BrooklynBrooklyn and
Kiryas Joel . Estimates claim as many as 120,000 adherents of all
ages.
Satmar is known for its conservatism and opposition to both
Agudas
IsraelIsrael and Zionism, inspired by the legacy of Hungarian
Ultra-Orthodoxy. The sect underwent a schism in 2006 and two competing
factions emerged, led by rival brothers
Aaron Teitelbaum and Zalman
Teitelbaum . The second-largest "court" worldwide is Ger , established
in 1859 at
Góra KalwariaGóra Kalwaria , near
WarsawWarsaw . Ger lists some 10,000
households in its
IsraelIsrael registry alone, and there are more abroad.
For decades, it was the dominant power in Agudas and espoused a
moderate line toward
ZionismZionism and modern culture. Its origins lay in
the rationalist
PrzysuchaPrzysucha School of Central Poland . The current Rebbe
is
Yaakov Aryeh Alter . Another major group is
Belz , established 1817
in namesake
Belz , south of
LvivLviv . An Eastern Galician dynasty drawing
both from the
Seer of Lublin 's charismatic-populist style and
"rabbinic" Hasidism, it espoused hard-line positions, but broke off
from the
Orthodox Council of Jerusalem and joined Agudas in 1979. It
has between 6,000 and 8,000 affiliated households, and is led by Rebbe
Yissachar Dov Rokeach . Yet another large dynasty is
Vizhnitz , a
charismatic sect founded in 1854 at
Vyzhnytsia ,
BukovinaBukovina , to which
some 7,000 families belong. A moderate sect involved in Israeli
politics, it is split into several branches, which maintain cordial
relations. The main partition is between Vizhnitz-
IsraelIsrael and
Vizhnitz-Monsey, headed respectively by Rebbes
IsraelIsrael Hager and his
uncle Mordecai Hager.

There are two other populous Hasidic sub-groups, which do not
function as classical Rebbe-headed "courts", but as decentralized
movements, retaining some of the characteristics of early Hasidism.
Breslov rose under its charismatic leader
Nachman of BreslovNachman of Breslov in the
early 19th century. Critical of all other Rebbes, he forbade his
followers to appoint a successor upon his death in 1810. His acolytes
led small groups of adherents, persecuted by other Hasidim, and
disseminated his teachings. The original philosophy of the sect
elicited great interest among modern scholars, and that led many
newcomers to
Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism ("repentants") to join it. Numerous
Breslov communities, each led by its own rabbis, now have thousands of
full-fledged followers and far more admirers and semi-committed
supporters.
Chabad-LubavitchChabad-Lubavitch , originating in the 1770s, did have
hereditary leadership, but always stressed the importance of
self-study rather than reliance on the Righteous. Its seventh and last
leader,
Menachem Mendel SchneersonMenachem Mendel Schneerson , converted it into a vehicle for
Jewish outreach. By his death in 1994, it had many more semi-engaged
supporters than
Hasidim in the strict sense, and they are still hard
to distinguish: Estimates for number of
ChabadChabad affiliates of all sorts
therefore range from 50,000 to 200,000. None succeeded Schneerson, and
the sect operates as a large network of communities with independent
leaders.

In the late 17th century, several social trends converged among the
JewsJews who inhabited the southern periphery of the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth , especially in contemporary
Western Ukraine . These
enabled the emergence and flourishing of Hasidism.

The first and most prominent was the popularization of the mystical
lore of
KabbalahKabbalah . For several centuries an esoteric teaching
practiced surreptitiously only by a narrow stratum of the highly
learned, it was transformed into almost household knowledge by a mass
of cheap pamphlets printed by both Jewish and Christian publishers
from the beginning of the century. The kabbalistic inundation was a
major influence behind the rise of the heretical
Sabbatean movement,
led by
Sabbatai Zevi , who declared himself
MessiahMessiah in 1665. The
propagation of
KabbalahKabbalah made the Jewish masses susceptible to Hasidic
ideas, themselves in essence a popularized version of the teaching –
indeed, Hasidism actually emerged when its founders determined to
openly practice it instead of remaining a secret circle of aesthetics
as was the manner of almost all past kabbalists. The correlation
between publicizing the lore and Sabbateanism did not escape the
rabbinic elite, and caused vehement opposition to the new movement.

Another factor was the decline of the traditional authority
structures. Jewish autonomy remained quite secured; later research
debunked
Simon Dubnow 's claim that the
Council of Four LandsCouncil of Four Lands ' demise
in 1746 was a culmination of a long process which destroyed judicial
independence and paved the way for the Hasidic rebbes to serve as
leaders (another long-held explanation for the sect's rise advocated
by Raphael Mahler , that the
Khmelnytsky UprisingKhmelnytsky Uprising effected economic
impoverishment and despair, was also refuted). However, the magnates
and nobles held much sway over the nomination of both rabbis and
communal elders, to such a degree that the masses often perceived them
as mere lackeys of the land owners. Their ability to serve as
legitimate arbiters in disputes – especially those concerning the
regulation of leasehold rights over alcohol distillation and other
monopolies in the estates – was severely diminished. The reduced
prestige of the establishment, and the need for an alternative source
of authority to pass judgement, left a vacuum which Hasidic
charismatics eventually filled. They transcended old communal
institutions, to which all the
JewsJews of a locality were subordinate,
and had groups of followers in each town across vast territories.
Often supported by rising strata outside the traditional elite,
whether nouveau riche or various low-level religious functionaries,
they created a modern form of leadership.

Historians discerned other influences. The formative age of Hasidism
coincided with the rise of numerous religious revival movements across
the world, including the
First Great AwakeningFirst Great Awakening in
New EnglandNew England , German
PietismPietism and the Russian
Old BelieversOld Believers who opposed the established
church. They all rejected the existing order, decrying it as stale and
overly hierarchic. They offered what they described as more spiritual,
candid and simple substitutes. Gershon
DavidDavid Hundert noted the
considerable similarity between the Hasidic conceptions and this
general background, rooting both in the growing importance attributed
to the individual's consciousness and choices.

IsraelIsrael ben Eliezer (ca. 1690–1760), known as the
Baal Shem Tov
("Master of the Good Name",
Acronym : "Besht"), is considered the
founder of Hasidism. Born apparently south of the
PrutPrut , in the
northern frontier of
MoldaviaMoldavia , he earned a reputation as a Baal Shem
, "Master of the Name". These were common folk healers who employed
mysticism, amulets and incantations at their trade. Little is known
for certain on ben Eliezer. Though no scholar, he was sufficiently
learned to become notable in the communal hall of study and marry into
the rabbinic elite, his wife being the divorced sister of a rabbi; in
his later years he was wealthy and famous, as attested by contemporary
chronicles. Apart from that, most is derived from Hasidic hagiographic
accounts. These claim that as a boy he was recognized by one "Rabbi
AdamAdamBaal Shem Tov" who entrusted him with great secrets of the Torah
passed in his illustrious family for centuries. the Besht later spent
a decade in the
Carpathian Mountains as a hermit, where he was visited
by the Biblical prophet
Ahijah the Shilonite who taught him more. At
the age of thirty-six, he was granted heavenly permission to reveal
himself as a great kabbalist and miracle worker.

By the 1740s, it is verified that he relocated to the town of
Medzhybizh and became recognized and popular in all
PodoliaPodolia and
beyond. It is well attested that he did emphasize several known
kabbalistic concepts, formulating a teaching of his own to some
degree. The Besht stressed the immanence of God and His presence in
the material world, and that therefore, physical acts, such as eating,
have actual influence on the spiritual sphere and may serve to hasten
the achievement of communion with the divine (devekut). He was known
to pray ecstatically and with great intention , again in order to
provide channels for the divine light to flow into the earthly realm.
The Besht stressed the importance of joy and contentment in the
worship of God, rather than the abstinence and self-mortification
deemed essential to become a pious mystic, and of fervent and vigorous
prayer as a means of spiritual elation instead of severe aestheticism
– though many of his immediate disciples reverted in part to the
older doctrines, especially in disavowing sexual pleasure even in
marital relations. In that, the "Besht" laid the foundation for a
popular movement, offering a far less rigorous course for the masses
to gain a significant religious experience. And yet, he remained the
guide of a small society of elitists, in the tradition of former
kabbalists, and never led a large public as his successors did. While
many later figures cited him as the inspiration behind the
full-fledged Hasidic doctrine, the Besht himself did not practice it
in his lifetime.

IsraelIsrael ben Eliezer gathered a considerable following, drawing to
himself disciples from far away. They were largely of elitist
background, yet adopted the populist approach of their master. The
most prominent was
RabbiRabbi Dov Ber the
Maggid (preacher). He succeeded
the former upon his death, though other important acolytes, mainly
JacobJacob Joseph of Polonne , did not accept his leadership. Establishing
himself in
Mezhirichi , the
Maggid turned to greatly elaborate the
Besht's rudimentary ideas and institutionalize the nascent circle into
an actual movement. Ben Eliezer and his acolytes used the very old and
common epithet hasidim , "pious"; in the latter third of the 18th
century, a clear differentiation arose between that sense of the word
and what was at first described as "New Hasidism", propagated to a
degree by the
Maggid and especially his successors.

Doctrine coalesced as
JacobJacob Joseph, Dov Ber and the latter's disciple
RabbiRabbiElimelech of Lizhensk composed the three magna opera of early
Hasidism, respectively: the 1780 Toldot Ya'akov Yosef, the 1781 Maggid
d'varav le-Ya'akov and the 1788 No'am Elimelekh. Other books were also
published. Their new teaching had many aspects. The importance of
devotion in prayer was stressed to such degree that many waited beyond
the prescribed time to properly prepare; the Besht's recommendation to
"elevate and sanctify" impure thoughts rather than simply repress them
during the service was expanded by Dov Ber into an entire precept,
depicting prayer as a mechanism to transform thoughts and feelings
from a primal to a higher state in a manner parallel to the unfolding
of the
SephirotSephirot . But the most important was the notion of the Tzaddiq
– later designated by the general rabbinic honrific Admor (our
master, teacher and rabbi) or by the colloquial
RebbeRebbe – the
Righteous One, the mystic who was able to elate and achieve communion
with the divine, but unlike kabbalists past, did not practice it in
secret, but as leader of the masses. He was able to bring down
prosperity and guidance from the higher Sephirot, and the common
people who could not attain such a state themselves would achieve it
by "clinging" to and obeying him. The Tzaddiq served as a bridge
between the spiritual realm and the ordinary folk, as well as a
simple, understandable embodiment of the esoteric teachings of the
sect, which were still beyond the reach of most just as old-style
KabbalahKabbalah before.

The various Hasidic Tzaddiqim, mainly the Maggid's disciples, spread
across
Eastern EuropeEastern Europe with each gathering adherents among the people
and learned acolytes who could be initiated as leaders. The Righteous'
"courts" in which they resided, attended by their followers to receive
blessing and council, became the institutional centers of Hasidism,
serving as its branches and organizational core. Slowly, various rites
emerged in them, like the Sabbath Tisch or "table", in which the
Righteous would hand out food scraps from their meals, considered
blessed by the touch of ones imbued with godly Light during their
mystical ascensions. Another potent institution was the
Shtibel , the
private prayer gatherings opened by adherents in every town which
served as a recruiting mechanism. The
Shtibel differed from the
established synagogues and study halls, allowing their members greater
freedom to worship when they pleased and also serving recreational and
welfare purposes. Combined with its simplified message, more appealing
to the common man, its honed organizational framework accounted for
the exponential growth of Hasidic ranks.

From its original base in
PodoliaPodolia and
VolhyniaVolhynia , the movement was
rapidly disseminated during the Maggid's lifetime and after his 1772
death. Twenty or so of Dov Ber's prime disciples each brought it to a
different region, and their own successors followed: Aharon of Karlin
(I) ,
Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk and
Shneur Zalman of Liadi were the
emissaries to the former Lithuania in the far north, while Menachem
Nachum Twersky headed to
ChernobylChernobyl in the east and Levi Yitzchok of
Berditchev remained nearby. Elimelech of Lizhensk, his brother Zusha
of Hanipol and
Yisroel Hopsztajn established the sect in Poland proper
. Vitebsk and
AbrahamAbraham Kalisker later led a small ascension to the Land
of
IsraelIsrael , establishing a Hasidic presence in the
GalileeGalilee .

The spread of Hasidism also incurred organized opposition. Rabbi
Elijah of Vilnius , one the greatest authorities of the generation and
a hasid and secret kabbalist of the old style, was deeply suspicious
of their emphasis on mysticism rather than mundane
TorahTorah study, threat
to established communal authority, resemblance to the Sabbatean
movement and other details he considered infractions. In April 1772,
He and the Vilnius community wardens launched a systematic campaign
against the sect, placing an anathema upon them, banishing their
leaders and sending letters denouncing the movement. Further
excommunication followed in
Brody and other cities. In 1781, during a
second round of hostilities, the books of
JacobJacob Joseph were burned in
Vilnius. Another cause for strife emerged when the
Hasidim adopted the
Lurianic prayer rite, which they revised somewhat to
Nusach Sefard ;
the first edition in
Eastern EuropeEastern Europe was printed in 1781 and received
approbation from the anti-Hasidic scholars of Brody, but the sect
quickly embraced the Kabbalah-infused tome and popularized it, making
it their symbol. Their rivals, named
Misnagdim , "opponents" (a
generic term which acquired an independent meaning as Hasidism grew
stronger) soon accused them of abandoning the traditional Nusach
Ashkenaz .

In 1798, Opponents made accusations of espionage against Shneur
Zalman of Liadi and he was imprisoned by the Russian government for
two months. Excoriatory polemics were printed and anathemas declared
in the entire region. But Elijah's death in 1797 denied the Misnagdim
their powerful leader. In 1804,
Alexander I of RussiaAlexander I of Russia allowed
independent prayer groups to operate, the chief vessel through which
the movement spread from town to town. The failure to eradicate
Hasidism, which acquired a clear self-identity in the struggle and
greatly expanded throughout it, convinced its adversaries to adopt a
more passive method of resistance, as exemplified by Chaim of Volozhin
. The growing conservatism of the new movement – which at some
occasions drew close to Kabbalah-based antinomian phraseology, as did
the Sabbateans, but never crossed the threshold and remained
thoroughly observant – and the rise of common enemies slowly brought
a rapprochement, and by the second half of the 19th century both sides
basically considered each other legitimate.

The turn of the century saw several prominent new, fourth-generation
tzaddiqim. Upon Elimelech's death in the now-partitioned Poland , his
place in
Habsburg Galicia was assumed by
Menachem Mendel of Rimanov ,
who was deeply hostile to the modernization the Austrian rulers
attempted to force on the traditional Jewish society (though this same
process also allowed his sect to flourish, as communal authority was
severely weakened). The rabbi of Rimanov hearkened the alliance the
hasidim would form with the most conservative elements of the Jewish
public. In Central Poland, the new leader was
JacobJacobIsaacIsaac Horowiz, the
"
Seer of Lublin ", who was of a particularly populist bent and
appealed to the common folk with miracle working and little strenuous
spiritual demands. The Seer's senior acolyte,
JacobJacobIsaacIsaac Rabinovitz
the "Holy Jew" of
PrzysuchaPrzysucha , gradually dismissed his mentor's
approach as overly vulgar and adopted a more aesthetic and scholarly
approach, virtually without theurgy to the masses. The Holy Jew's
"
PrzysuchaPrzysucha School" was continued by his successor
Simcha Bunim and
especially the reclusive, morose
Menachem Mendel of Kotzk . The most
controversial fourth-generation tzaddiq was the Podolia-based Nachman
of Breslov , who denounced his peers for becoming too
institutionalized, much like the old establishment their predecessors
challenged decades before, and espoused an anti-rationalist,
pessimistic spiritual teaching, very different from the prevalent
stress on joy.

The opening of the 19th century saw the Hasidic sect transformed.
Once a rising force outside the establishment, the tzaddiqim now
became an important and often dominant power in most of Eastern
Europe. The slow process of encroachment, which mostly begun with
forming an independent
Shtibel and culminated in the Righteous
becoming an authority figure (either alongside or above the official
rabbinate) for the entire community, overwhelmed many towns even in
Misnagdic stronghold of Lithuania, far more so in
Congress PolandCongress Poland and
the vast majority in Podolia,
VolhyniaVolhynia and Galicia. It began to make
inroads into
BukovinaBukovina ,
BessarabiaBessarabia and the westernmost frontier of
autochthonic pre-WWII Hasidism, in northeastern Hungary , where the
Seer's disciple
MosesMoses Teitelbaum (I) was appointed in
Ujhely .

Less than three generations after the Besht's death, the sect grew to
encompass hundreds of thousands by 1830. As a mass movement, a clear
stratification emerged between the court's functionaries and permanent
residents (yoshvim, "sitters"), the devoted followers who would often
visit the Righteous on Sabbath, and the large public which prayed at
Sefard Rite synagogues and was minimally affiliated.

All this was followed by a more conservative approach and power
bickering among the Righteous. Since the Maggid's death, none could
claim the overall leadership. Among the several dozens active, each
ruled over his own turf, and local traditions and customs began to
emerge in the various courts which developed their own identity. The
high mystical tension typical of a new movement subsided, and was soon
replaced by more hierarchical, orderly atmosphere.

The most important aspect of the routinization Hasidism underwent was
the adoption of dynasticism. The first to claim legitimacy by right of
descent from the Besht was his grandson, Boruch of
Medzhybizh ,
appointed 1782. He held a lavish court with
Hershel of Ostropol as
jester, and demanded the other Righteous acknowledge his supremacy.
Upon the death of
Menachem Nachum Twersky of
ChernobylChernobyl , his son
Mordechai Twersky succeeded him. The principle was conclusively
affirmed in the great dispute after Liadi's demise in 1813: his senior
acolyte
Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye was defeated by his son, Dovber
Schneuri , whose offspring retained the title for 181 years .

By the 1860s, virtually all courts were dynastic. Rather than single
tzaddiqim with followings of their own, each sect would command a base
of rank-and-file hasidim attached not just to the individual leader,
but to the bloodline and the court's unique attributes. Israel
Friedman of Ruzhyn insisted on royal splendour, resided in a palace
and his six sons all inherited some of his followers. With the
constraints of maintaining their gains replacing the dynamism of the
past, the Righteous or Rebbes/Admorim also silently retreated from the
overt, radical mysticism of their predecessors. While populist miracle
working for the masses remained a key theme in many dynasties, a new
type of "Rebbe-Rabbi" emerged, one who was both a completely
traditional halakhic authority as well as a spiritualist. The tension
with the
Misnagdim subsided significantly.

But it was an external threat, more than anything else, that mended
relations. While traditional Jewish society remained well entrenched
in backward Eastern Europe, reports of the rapid acculturation and
religious laxity in the West troubled both camps. When the
HaskalahHaskalah ,
the Jewish Enlightenment , appeared in Galicia and
Congress PolandCongress Poland in
the 1810s, it was soon perceived as a dire threat. The maskilim
themselves detested Hasidism as an anti-rationalist and barbaric
phenomenon, as did Western
JewsJews of all shades, including the most
right-wing Orthodox such as
RabbiRabbiAzriel Hildesheimer . In Galicia
especially, hostility towards it defined the
HaskalahHaskalah to a large
extent, from the staunchly observant
RabbiRabbiZvi Hirsch Chajes and
Joseph Perl to the radical anti-Talmudists like Osias Schorr . The
Enlightened, who revived
HebrewHebrew grammar , often mocked their rivals'
lack of eloquence in the language. While a considerable proportion of
the
Misnagdim were not adverse to at least some of the Haskala's
goals, the Rebbes were unremittingly hostile.

The most distinguished Hasidic leader in Galicia in the era was Chaim
Halberstam , who combined talmudic erudition and the status of a major
decisor with his function as tzaddiq. He symbolized the new era,
brokering peace between the small Hasidic sect in Hungary to its
opponents. At that country, where modernization and assimilation were
much more imminent than in the East, the local Righteous joined forces
with those now termed Orthodox against the rising liberals. Rabbi
MosesMoses Sofer of
Pressburg , while no friend to Hasidism, tolerated it
as he combated the forces which sought modernization of the Jews; a
generation later, in the 1860s, the Rebbes and the zealot
ultra-Orthodox
Hillel Lichtenstein allied closely.

Around the mid-19th century, over a hundred dynastic courts related
by marriage were the main religious power in the territory enclosed
between Hungary, former Lithuania, Prussia and inner Russia, with
considerable presence in the former two. In Central Poland, the
pragmatist, rationalist
PrzysuchaPrzysucha school thrived: Yitzchak Meir Alter
founded the court of Ger in 1859, and in 1876 Jechiel Danziger
established Alexander . In Galicia and Hungary, apart from
Halberstam's House of
Sanz ,
Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov 's descendants
each pursued a mystical approach in the dynasties of Zidichov ,
Komarno and so forth. In 1817,
Sholom Rokeach became the first Rebbe
of
Belz . At
BukovinaBukovina , the Hager line of Kosov -
Vizhnitz was the
largest court.

The
HaskalahHaskalah was always a minor force, but the Jewish national
movements which emerged in the 1880s, as well as Socialism, proved
much more appealing to the young. Progressive strata condemned
Hasidism as a primitive relic, strong, but doomed to disappear, as
Eastern European Jewry underwent slow yet steady secularization. The
gravity of the situation was attested to by the foundation of Hasidic
yeshivas (in the modern, boarding school-equivalent sense) to
enculturate the young and preserve their loyalty: The first was
established at
Nowy Wiśnicz by
RabbiRabbiShlomo Halberstam (I) in 1881.
These institutions were originally utilized by the
Misnagdim to
inoculate their youth from Hasidic influence, but now, the latter
faced a similar crisis. One of the most contentious issues in this
respect was
ZionismZionism ; the Ruzhin dynasties were quite favourably
disposed toward it, while Hungarian and Galician courts reviled it.

CALAMITY AND RENAISSANCE

Outside pressure was mounting in the early 20th century. In 1912,
many Hasidic leaders partook in the creation of the Agudas Israel
party, a political instrument intended to safeguard what was now named
Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism even in the relatively traditional East; the more
hard-line dynasties, mainly Galician and Hungarian, opposed the Aguda
as too lenient. Mass immigration to America, urbanization, World War I
and the subsequent
Russian Civil WarRussian Civil War uprooted the shtetl s in which
the local
JewsJews lived for centuries and were the bedrock of Hasidism.
In the new
Soviet UnionSoviet Union , civil equality first achieved and a harsh
repression of religion caused a rapid secularization. Few remaining
Hasidim, especially of
ChabadChabad , continued to practice underground for
decades. In the new states of the
InterbellumInterbellum era, the process was
only somewhat slower. On the eve of
World War IIWorld War II , strictly observant
JewsJews were estimated to constitute no more than a third of the total
Jewish population in Poland, the world's most Orthodox country. While
the Rebbes still had a vast base of support, it was aging and
declining.

The
HolocaustHolocaust hit the Hasidim, easily identifiable and almost unable
to disguise themselves among the larger populace due to cultural
insularity, particularly hard. Hundreds of leaders perished with their
flock, while the flight of many notable ones as their followers were
being exterminated – especially
Aharon Rokeach of
Belz and Joel
Teitelbaum of
Satmar – elicited bitter recrimination. In the
immediate post-war years, the entire movement seemed to teeter on the
precipice of oblivion. In Israel, the United States, and Western
Europe, the survivors' children were at best becoming Modern Orthodox
. While a century earlier the
HaskalahHaskalah depicted it as a medieval,
malicious power, now it was so weakened that the popular cultural
image was sentimental and romantic, what
Joseph Dan termed "Frumkinian
Hasidism" for it began with the short stories of Michael Levi
Rodkinson (Frumkin).
Martin BuberMartin Buber was the major contributor to this
trend, portraying the sect as a model of a healthy folk consciousness.
"Frumkinian" style was very influential, later inspiring the so-called
"
Neo-HasidismNeo-Hasidism ", and also utterly ahistorical.

Yet, the movement proved more resilient than expected. Talented and
charismatic Hasidic masters emerged, who reinvigorated their following
and drew new crowds. In New York, the
SatmarRebbeRebbe Joel Teitelbaum
formulated a fiercely anti-Zionist
HolocaustHolocaust theology and founded an
insular, self-sufficient community which attracted many immigrants
from Greater Hungary; already by 1961, 40% of families were newcomers.
Yisrael Alter of Ger created robust institutions, fortified his
court's standing in Agudas
IsraelIsrael and held tisch every week for 29
years. He halted the hemorrhage of his followers and retrieved many
Litvaks (the contemporary, less adverse epithet for Misnagdim) and
Religious Zionists whose parents were Gerrer
Hasidim before the war.
Chaim Meir Hager similarly restored
Vizhnitz .
MosesMosesIsaacIsaac Gewirtzman
founded the new
Pshevorsk (Hasidic dynasty) in
AntwerpAntwerp .

The most explosive growth was experienced in
Chabad-LubavitchChabad-Lubavitch , whose
head
Menachem Mendel SchneersonMenachem Mendel Schneerson adopted a modern (he and his disciples
ceased wearing the customary
Shtreimel ) and outreach-centered
orientation. At a time when most Orthodox and
Hasidim in particular
rejected proselytization, he turned his sect into a mechanism devoted
almost solely to it, blurring the difference between actual Hasidim
and loosely affiliated supporters until researchers could scarcely
define it as a regular Hasidic group. Another phenomenon was the
revival of Breslov , which remained without an acting Tzaddiq since
the rebellious
RebbeRebbe Nachman 's 1810 death. Its complex,
existentialist philosophy drew many to it.

Exorbitant fertility rates, increasing tolerance and multiculturalism
on behalf of surrounding society and the great wave of newcomers to
Orthodox JudaismOrthodox Judaism which began in the 1970s all cemented the movement's
status as very much alive and thriving. The clearest indication for
that, noted Joseph Dan, was the disappearance of the "Frumkinian"
narrative which inspired much sympathy towards it from non-Orthodox
JewsJews and others, as actual Hasidism returned to the fore. As numbers
grew, "courts" were again torn apart by schisms between Rebbes' sons
vying for power, a common occurrence during the golden age of the 19th
century.

* "Chasidim".
New International EncyclopediaNew International Encyclopedia . 1905.
* Benjamin Brown , Substitutes for Mysticism: A General Model for
the Theological Development of Hasidism in the Nineteenth Century
* Benjamin Brown , "But Me No Buts": The Theological Debate between
the
Hasidim and the Mitnagdim in Light of the Discourse Makers