LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

NGO - Non-governmental Organization

NPD - National Project Director

PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal

SACCOS - Savings and Credit Societies

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

The project "Improving Information on Women's Contribution to Agricultural
Production for Gender Sensitive Planning" was initiated as a follow-up to the FAO
Assistance in Support of Rural Women in Preparation for the Fourth Conference on Women
Project (Phase I), which provided technical and financial support before the Beijing
conference. In Tanzania, funding was provided to sub-contract the Women Study Group of the
Institute of Development Studies, University of Dar-es-Salaam, to carry out an in-depth
analysis of available information on rural women and to prepare a sectoral report on
Women, Agriculture and Rural Development. The study revealed that women's contribution to
agriculture and other economic activities is documented in neither national censuses nor
the national accounts. The study team recommended that the mainstreaming of gender issues
in the Ministry of Agriculture be given priority by the Government in order to increase
agricultural productivity, particularly in food crops, which are mainly produced by women.

Further assistance was provided by FAO to increase the involvement of the Ministries of
Agriculture in national-level preparations for Beijing, encouraging them to examine their
role in promoting gender-sensitive development policies and programmes. According to the
sectoral report, it was necessary to improve the quantity and quality of information and
statistical data on the economic value and output of rural women in agricultural
production and to raise awareness of gender issues in agriculture, particularly among
ministry staff. It was also essential to devise and implement more gender-sensitive
agricultural policies, programmes and projects and to consult rural women directly in
information collection and planning activities. Furthermore, the lack of
gender-disaggregated information on the role of men and women in agricultural production
impeded policy-makers and planners.

The GCP/URT/108/NOR project was initiated with the aim of strengthening the capacity of
staff within the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the Mainland and the Ministry
of Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources in Zanzibar to assess gender needs in
agricultural development. Gender is rarely taken into consideration in project designs and
most planners, decision-makers and policy-makers within these two key ministries have no
background in gender planning. The lack of gender awareness and the absence of
gender-disaggregated information were identified as the main problems hindering the
performance of the agricultural sector.

The integration of gender issues into ministry operations in the areas of service
delivery and project planning is crucial since planners and policy-makers need to be
conversant with the principles of gender analysis if they are to plan from a gender-aware
perspective. The absence of gender statistics perpetuates an unequal distribution of
resources between men and women and neglects women's expertise. As an immediate objective,
the project was intended to assess gender roles at household and community levels, thus
creating an awareness of imbalances that would enable communities to prepare
gender-sensitive plans.

Inappropriate policies and discriminatory legislation not only inhibit progress at
household level but also impede the path towards greater food security. Legislation and
policies ensuring equal access to resources, credit, education, training and extension are
essential if both men and women are to participate fully at all stages of economic
development. The project was therefore intended to improve the quantity and quality of
information and statistical data on the economic value and output of rural women in
agricultural production and rural development, to raise gender awareness among ministry
staff and to involve rural women in planning by consulting them directly during
information collection and planning activities.

It was recognized in the 1992 paper, "Policy on Women in Development in
Tanzania", that the main constraint to the advancement of women is the failure of the
national planning process to take into consideration their different development needs. It
was suggested that development planners be sensitized to the importance of gender by
providing them with guidelines on the formation of gender-sensitive plans and programmes.
The importance of a workable system that ensures the effective participation of women
throughout the planning and implementation of development plans was stressed. It was also
recognized that the monitoring, evaluation and feedback of women's participation should be
an essential part of the planning process.

1.2 OUTLINE OF OFFICIAL ARRANGEMENTS

The Project Document was signed by FAO on 28 March 1995. The project was scheduled to
last for one year with a financial contribution from the Government of Norway of $US 122
040 and a counterpart contribution in kind. FAO was designated as the executing agency and
the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the mainland and the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources in Zanzibar as the counterpart agency
responsible for project implementation.

The project became operational in October 1995 after the recruitment of the National
Project Director for the Mainland. As a result of subsequent project revisions, the
duration of the project was extended to 18 months. The total contribution by the
Government of Norway was adjusted to $US 185 546 and the project terminated on 30 June
1997.

1.3 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Development objective

The development objective of the project was to strengthen the institutional capacity
of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the Mainland and the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources in Zanzibar, enabling them to address more
effectively the needs of rural women in development planning. The main emphasis was on an
increased awareness and understanding of each community's varying development needs. The
project aimed at improving current knowledge of the type of training and support services
required by rural women and at identifying sustainable solutions that could be integrated
with budget allocations, policy, planning and programming.

1.3.2 Immediate objective

The project's immediate objective was to increase the understanding and awareness of
gender factors in agriculture and rural development among policy-makers, regional and
district planners, community development officers, extensionists and statisticians and to
increase their capacity to integrate such factors into planning processes.

2. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

2.1 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

The project was launched by FAO in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar in June 1995. Key
figures in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (Mainland) and the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources (Zanzibar) were contacted and briefed. The
National Project Director (NPD) for the Mainland was recruited in November 1995. She
attended participatory rural appraisal (PRA) training as part of project GCP/URT/103/NET
"Women in Irrigated Agriculture", conducted in Utengule Usangu in Mbeya Region.

The Steering Committee had its first meeting on 18 September 1995. Members of the
committee were drawn from the Planning Commission, the Bureau of Statistics, the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, the FAO Representation, the Ministry of Tourism and
Natural Resources and the Ministry of Land, Housing and Urban Development.

PRA exercises were planned to be conducted in three regions. Mbeya had been selected in
the Project Document, since the project was intended to collaborate with the FAO Women in
Irrigated Agriculture project being implemented in that region. The Steering Committee
selected Dodoma Region as the second PRA region.

Official recruitment of the NPD for Zanzibar took place in February 1996. This was
followed by the establishment of a Steering Committee to oversee the implementation of the
project in Zanzibar. At its first meeting, the Steering Committee selected Zanzibar North
as the third PRA region.

2.2 TRAINING AND INFORMATION COLLECTION

2.2.1 Training in participatory rural appraisal and gender
analysis

According to the Project Document, training was to be conducted in three regions, two
on the Mainland and one in Zanzibar. As an immediate objective, development practitioners
were to be trained in participatory rural appraisal methodologies and gender analysis
concepts in the regions of Mbeya (Ileje), Dodoma (Dodoma Rural) and Zanzibar North.

The first PRA and gender analysis training course was conducted in Mbeya, Ileje
District, Bulambya Ward in November 1995. The second exercise took place in Zanzibar North
in December 1996 and the third in Dodoma region, Mvumi Division, Dodoma Rural District.
Theoretical training was conducted in January 1997, followed by practical exercises in
April 1997.

The selection of Mvumi Division took into account the existence of donor-financed
projects such as the dairy project financed by the Diocese of Central Tanganyika and
Global 2000 under the Ministry of Agriculture. Bulambya Division in Ileje was selected
because of the existence of the non-governmental organization (NGO) COOPIBO, financed by
Belgium through the Ileje Food Crop Production Project and aimed at improving food
security in the lowlands in Ileje. In this division three villages were selected for the
PRA exercise: Isongole, Izuba and Ilulu. In Zanzibar, the exercises were conducted in
Kinyasini, Pwani Mchangani and Bumbwini villages. The aims of the PRA and gender analysis
training were to identify household structures prevalent in the study areas and to
determine gender roles in reproduction, production, community management and political
functions. PRA techniques have a high degree of community participation by raising
self-awareness, encouraging people to suggest viable solutions to pressing problems and
assisting them to analyse complex issues, problems and opportunities in order to prepare
their own Community Action Plans. Since women and men have different needs, these plans
were prepared according to gender.

The standard PRA tools of household interviews, focus group interviews and community
meetings were used to collect information. The involvement of rural development
practitioners was adopted in order to make them more aware of the need to understand
differing gender roles in rural communities when planning, thus increasing efficiency and
gender responsiveness in rural development policies and programmes.

2.2.2 Information collection

An assessment of the situation of women was performed on three farming systems in
Mbeya, Dodoma and Zanzibar. Information was collected to determine the limitations of
government policies intended to increase agricultural production by analysing
inter-personal relationships within households and interaction between men and women in
farm production for the different farming systems.

In determining women's contribution to agricultural production, the following issues
were investigated: division of labour between men and women in farm households; the impact
that division of labour has on women's and men's time allocation; division of labour
rigidities which make it difficult to substitute male and female labour across categories
of economic activity; male control of resources affecting economic interdependence; access
to other productive resources and to women's share of income and the impact this has on
productivity and income distribution.

2.2.2.1 Division of labour

The division of labour between men and women is a major constraint on increased food
production, particularly when the fact that men specialize in cash crop production leads
to a reduction of labour in the production of food crops. Rigid gender division of labour
between crops, rather than a flexible deployment of total family labour according to
seasonal requirement, is observed. Although domestic chores absorb a large proportion of
women's time, fewer resources are directed to women, who provide households with their
food.

Since the household exists to minimize the transaction costs related to achieving goals
in relation to livelihood security, reproduction, the upbringing of children and caring
for the elderly, a clear understanding of gender roles and their impact on the economic
conditions and well-being of these households is essential. As far as division of labour
is concerned, it was shown in Ileje that women do most of the work throughout the year.
During less labour-intensive periods, when harvests are in, water is abundant and field
work minimal, women engage in income-generating activities like beer-brewing or
mat-making.

Female-headed households are greatly affected by the problem of labour, since they
belong to low-resource groups usually affected by food shortages all year round. In such
cases women are forced to sell their labour for food. This has a multiplier effect on
their production as they spend most of their time working in others' fields to meet their
daily needs for food.

Gender-based division of labour was explored in order to identify obstacles to
agricultural productivity. Gender imbalances were assessed by means of daily routine
charts. It was shown that men have more leisure time than women, since men do not
substitute women for certain tasks, above all domestic chores. Women work more hours than
men, particularly during peak periods.

In order to address gender issues in rural households, gender disaggregation of
household tasks was undertaken, bearing in mind that new opportunities often increase
women's workload as a result of inflexible social perceptions.

Since rural households are not homogeneous, wealth-ranking exercises were conducted by
means of card sorting. Differences in resource ownership between well-off and low-resource
households have an impact on labour availability. The main source of labour in
low-resource households is that provided by its members, whereas middle and high-resource
households can hire labour during peak periods. Since low-resource households also provide
other farms with agricultural labour they are often unable to meet family food needs
themselves and are forced to continue to sell their labour. In Ileje, most of these
labourers are women, since it is seen as their responsibility to cope with the problem of
food shortages within the family.

Women in the Bulambya ward work in their family farms, where maize is grown, in the
morning and then on the production of beans, a crop grown by women without assistance from
their husbands. Domestic chores were also seen to be women's tasks, sometimes with
assistance from female children. The fact that men could not substitute women in carrying
out certain tasks, not only within the house but also in some aspects of agricultural
production, was observed. The varying engagement of women in farm work was superimposed on
the rigidity of their time commitment to household work. Once again, it was seen that
changes in the division of labour between men and women often intensify the work of women
while resulting in a loss of economic independence and social status, changes in cropping
patterns and farm technology. The fragmentation of women's time allocation has adverse
effects on household food security, leading to a reduction in the number of meals per day
in some of the households interviewed. It emerged that the frequency of eating was lower
during the cropping season.

Deforestation has also affected women's time allocation, since they are forced to
travel for more than three hours in search of fuelwood. This has a further effect on the
contribution of women to agricultural production and thus on food security. The production
of crops such as beans, which are considered women-only crops, is adversely affected by
the poor performance of women as a result of lack of time or poor health.

Most men agreed that women were overworked and claimed that, although they sometimes
assisted their wives in some domestic chores, they ran the risk of ridicule from the other
men. They also stated that they were not ready to accept orders from their wives in
carrying out traditional women's tasks.

On average, the men in all three villages contributed about 45% of the total hours
needed for farm operations in Ileje, Bulambya division, while women contributed an average
56%.

In activities on beans farms, only women are involved in the planting, weeding and
harvesting. Inter-cropping maize with beans is therefore disadvantageous to women as they
are forced to weed on their own. Interviews conducted with men in the three villages in
Ileje revealed that they only assist in land preparation, withdrawing as soon as the beans
are planted.

Experience showed that women in general contribute a larger share of labour input in
most agricultural production and that this is their main occupation.

2.2.2.2 Access to resources

Most women interviewed had limited access to land ownership or insecure land tenure.
Land title was held by their husbands, fathers and brothers according to customary laws.
When the husband died, the wife was forced to leave the family land unless she agreed to
be inherited by one of her husband's brothers or relatives. Most female-headed households
were observed to own marginal lands which were very small, ranging from 0.5-1 acre. The
existence of unequal land rights owing to cultural and religious discriminatory laws has
an impact on food productivity. Female-headed households were found to have less land and
labour than male-headed households. These households, which accounted for about 30% of the
households interviewed in Ileje District, were predominantly the result of divorces,
deaths and separation. On average, they owned plots of 0.5 acres, mostly marginal land
obtained from their parents, brothers or local chiefs. As a result, most female-headed
households were grouped as people with low resources, producing inadequate food to meet
household needs.

The lack of appropriate extension methodology to work with rural women has hindered
rural women's access to extension services. Women farmers have always been excluded from
the target audience of agricultural extension education programmes, although the Ministry
of Agriculture's extension service is currently implementing programmes targeted at both
female and male-headed households. In the areas under study, it was revealed that both
women and men are equally denied access to extension services in villages where there are
no extension agents. In Zanzibar, women claimed to have had no contact with extension
agents, while in Ileje the extension staff was available to both women and men when
necessary. The accessibility of extension services to women farmers was restricted
overall, however, since most women could not attend meetings as a result of their
increased workload. In the regional workshop, it was revealed that women's participation
is very low at meetings, particularly the contact group meetings adopted by the current
approach of the Extension Service Department. If extension agents were more
gender-sensitive they would be aware of the need to plan these meetings when women were
less busy.

In Ileje, interviews showed that, in places where extension workers were in full
operation, men and women could obtain equal services. Some women interviewed said that
there was no restriction on the part of their husbands, even though the extension workers
were men. Further talks with the extension officers revealed that contacts with women
farmers were a common phenomenon and that, as long as farmers trusted the extension
workers, no conflicts arose.

In cases where conflicts might arise, contact through groups provided an effective
means for disseminating extension knowledge. The only limitation is the timing of group
meetings, which frequently failed to consider the time limitations facing women farmers.

The accessibility of information to women farmers is aggravated by high illiteracy
rates among rural women. Since educated farmers are more likely to adopt modern
technologies and modern inputs, under-investment in women's education has high opportunity
costs.

There is a higher illiteracy rate among rural women than among their male counterparts.
Despite the policy of equal education for all children of school age, fewer girls than
boys attend primary school and those girls who receive primary education have fewer
opportunities to continue their education. This problem is aggravated by the existence of
gender imbalance in the division of labour. After school, most girls help their mothers
perform domestic tasks and have no time to study, while boys frequently have free time for
studying.

High illiteracy is a major constraint to the advancement of rural women as they cannot
adopt new agricultural practices. During the PRA exercise in Ileje it was revealed that
the women in some groups were forced to use the local vernacular, which had to be
translated to participants. When the extension worker does not know the local languages,
the difficulty of the task of disseminating extension messages is increased.

2.2.3 Decision-making and control over income

The power to make decisions is traditionally vested in the hands of men. Although women
and men have equal rights and opportunities constitutionally, women are under-represented
in the decision-making process.

In Ileje it was revealed that decision-making at household level continues to be male
dominated in all economic activities, even those in which women contribute most of the
labour. All decisions on the use of proceeds from economic activities and the depletion of
food reserves remain in the hands of men. Some women expressed the desire for by-laws that
would prevent men from risking household food security by selling food reserves.

In Dodoma, the decision-making powers were vested more in the hands of women, who were
responsible for deciding on the use of farm produce. Discussions revealed that men and
women decided together if proceeds from the farms should be sold, while the money from the
sale of the proceeds was counted as family property.

It was observed that women held key positions as village chairpersons, village
executive officers and division executive officers. Mvumi Division, where the exercises
were conducted, is under the leadership of a woman division executive officer. Women's
participation in committees indicates that the role of women in decision-making varies
considerably according to ethnic group.

2.3 REPORTS

After training in Ileje, two reports were prepared by the gender researcher and PRA
trainer. The first was a report on the methodology of gender-sensitive diagnostic studies
on women in agriculture. It provided an overview of the training and the process used in
analysing the findings and gave recommendations for further research. The report was
submitted to the FAO Representation in July 1996. A report on PRA methodology in Zanzibar
is currently being prepared.

The second was a research report for Ileje District, Mbeya region. This contains
information on women's contribution to agriculture, including data on the division of
labour, changes over time in the responsibilities of women and men, decision-making,
access to and control over resources, education, household composition, etc., as well as
rural women's views on issues of importance to their work in agriculture and related
activities. The report was submitted to FAO in May 1996. A research report on Zanzibar was
submitted to the FAO Representation in Tanzania in May 1997, while a report for PRA and
gender analysis in Dodoma is currently being finalized.

2.4 GENDER SENSITIZATION

2.4.1 Regional workshops

Three regional workshops were conducted in Mbeya, Dodoma and Zanzibar, during which the
PRA findings regarding community-level resource assessment and planning were presented. In
Mbeya region, a total of 23 participants attended a regional workshop, at which findings
from Ileje were presented. During the workshop, participants were encouraged to plan
according to a gender-sensitive perspective.

The participants were sensitized on the need to incorporate gender into their daily
activities. A video on gender roles at household level and the draft of a video filmed in
the PRA area in the Bulambya Division were examined. The participants prepared short and
long-term strategies for the improvement of gender roles in Mbeya region. Different
measures were recommended for the integration of gender issues in the agricultural sector.

2.4.2 Gender training for ministry staff

A total of 20 senior staff from the Ministry of Agriculture attended a three-day
training course on 22-24 May 1997, during which gender analysis concepts and principles
were presented. The staff were sensitized on the need to understand the gender needs of
farmers when allocating resources to the agricultural sector, while video presentations
showed participants how policies imposed on communities could lead to conflict. It was
suggested that more training courses of this type be conducted for ministry staff.
Participants also recommended that each technical department assign one member of staff to
make sure that gender issues are incorporated into programmes prepared by the Ministry of
Agriculture.

2.5 VIDEO PRODUCTION

A series of audiovisual and communication tools was produced to document the findings
of the PRA and to provide information to demonstrate the importance of participatory
approaches for gender-sensitive needs assessment.

The specific objective was to provide audiovisual support material for the training and
sensitization of ministerial staff and policy-makers in the agricultural and rural
development sectors. This would make them aware of the value of gender analysis and
participatory approaches when addressing the needs of rural women and of the need to
mainstream gender issues into agricultural and rural policies and planning and programme
development.

FAO selected the Video Production Unit under the Commissioner for Research and
Extension in the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources in Zanzibar as
the recipient organization. The unit was requested to film women's contribution to
agricultural production, including footage on production, processing, trading and
conservation.

A draft video for Ileje was presented to project staff and FAO personnel in May 1996.
Comments were made with guidelines on what the video should incorporate. The video was
used to raise awareness among technical personnel in the regional workshop conducted in
Mbeya. It will also be used in regional workshops in Zanzibar and Dodoma and in the
national workshop.

3. RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 INCREASING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Despite the fact that women play a key role in the agricultural sector, they have been
neglected in the planning of economic policies. This has exacerbated the subordination of
women and diminished the impact of polices designed to raise household output and income.

It is essential to allocate resources to both men and women in order to enhance
agricultural productivity. Most published data on rural economic activities have tended to
underestimate the role of women in farm work, food processing and other productive
activities. The collection of accurate gender-disaggregated information will improve
agricultural production and food security.

Women need to be made more visible in economic analysis by institutionalizing gender
awareness into government machinery. This will increase the Government's capacity to
analyse both inter-personal relationships within farm households and the interaction
between men and women in farm production for different farming systems.

3.2 GENDER-DISAGGREGATED INFORMATION

Currently, the data bank within the Ministry is not disaggregated by gender. In order
to ensure that planning considers women and men's concerns, planners should be equipped
with accurate gender-disaggregated information. Data of this type will give an indication
of the role of rural women in national development and will assist in drafting appropriate
policies to meet the specific development needs of rural women and men.

3.3 HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

In order to increase recognition that resource allocation within the household is
rarely equal, gender-role assessment needs to examine the power relations which govern men
and women's access to, and control over, resources. To promote gender equity calls for the
reorganization of the extension system, placing emphasis on researching issues of concern
to rural women and institutionalizing gender analysis training programmes for field
extension staff, statisticians and policy formulators and implementers.

Programmes in support of women in agriculture will focus on the following issues:
policy planning and research; training in gender analysis for government officials and
agricultural extension agents and the establishment of coordinating mechanisms among the
various bodies and organizations working with rural women; direct assistance to rural
women; and projects focusing on ways to increase women's productivity and income and thus
household food security.

Development practitioners should be helped to recognize the need to plan from a gender
perspective. This will facilitate the incorporation of gender concerns into agricultural
and rural development. Experience has shown that most ministry staff are unaware of gender
issues, revealing the need for gender sensitization at all levels. Training programmes for
field extension staff, statisticians, policy-makers and planners and gender-disaggregated
data collection also need to be established in order to create awareness among these
groups.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the Mainland and the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources in Zanzibar should create an enabling
environment in order to: raise gender awareness among technical personnel and
beneficiaries; establish regional coordinating committees for all institutions engaged in
the agricultural sector; explore available physical and human resources in the region to
conduct gender-sensitization seminars at all levels; introduce data collectors to PRA
skills; ensure gender balance in ownership and control of agricultural production and
resources by revising laws that discriminate on the basis of gender; create regional data
banks for gender-disaggregated data for planning processes; encourage village functional
officers to participate in the collection of such data.

Skills for gender analysis and participatory research methodologies need to be imparted
to staff located in villages so that community-based gender-needs assessment and the
documentation of gender roles can be carried out. Ministry staff, particularly
statisticians, need to become gender-sensitive in order to collect gender-disaggregated
information.

There is also a need to make women more visible in economic analysis by documenting
their activities and making the data visible to planners and policy-makers. This
information can assist the Government in targeting the farming community, thus improving
productivity. Programmes which are formulated without consideration of who performs which
task end in failure, particularly in areas where women's workload is increased.

3.3.1 Agricultural extension

In order to promote gender equity, the extension services need to be reorganized, with
increased emphasis given to issues of concern to rural women and men in agricultural
production. Field staff need to be trained in gender analysis and gender-needs assessment.
The extension service network which extends to village level should be the main focus for
training in gender-role assessment and documentation. Extension workers, who are generally
involved in the collection of information as enumerators, must understand the concept of
gender-needs assessment if they are to carry out policy impact analysis in rural areas.

It is also important for extension workers to be able to document gender roles at the
village level by keeping records of different farming systems. Although the curriculum in
training institutes now includes training on gender, extension workers need in-service
training.

The Ministry should make use of farmers' education publicity officers at regional
levels to film gender roles in the main farming system in the regions. These films can be
used during gender-needs assessment training exercises and gender-awareness campaigns. The
farmers' publicity officers themselves need to be gender-sensitive in order to film those
activities which illustrate imbalances within a given farming system.

In the absence of such documentation, gender-role sensitization often fails to convince
those who see no need to make changes in the existing traditions and norms that
discriminate against women. A change in attitude among people within the communities is
essential if the customs and traditions that hinder gender equality are to be modified.

3.3.2 Agricultural statistics

It is recommended that a mechanism be established to collect information by gender from
national to grassroots level. This information should take into account social, economic,
legal and technological aspects together with the short-term needs and constraints of both
men and women. The establishment of a gender documentation centre at the Ministry will
enable gender issues to be taken into account when establishing agricultural policies.

3.3.3 Agricultural research

Research activities should be extended to incorporate gender concerns. The fact that
such activities do not consider the indigenous technical knowledge possessed by
communities, particularly women, has denied women the chance to participate fully in
research and development.

3.3.4 Planning and policy-making

Planners and policy-makers are dependent on the information at their disposal. However,
owing to a lack of knowledge regarding the requirements of data users, data collectors do
not see the need to collect gender-disaggregated information. Both data collectors and
data users should be sensitized to gender issues by means of the information available.

It is essential to study the socio-economic mechanisms underlying relations between men
and women. The fact that each community has a unique set of social and natural resources
and social norms that determine access to, and control over, available resources means
that agricultural development must build on community-specific analyses.

3.3.5 Cooperation and networking

It is necessary to establish a system of coordination at all levels in order to
strengthen networking among those with common goals. Government institutions, NGOs and
community-based organizations should bear gender concerns in mind when planning.
Community-based functional officers should be involved in carrying out gender-needs
assessment. This will help the planning process to incorporate a gender perspective at
grassroots level.

Collaboration among those involved in gender issues in the rural areas should be
initiated by the Ministry. Seminars, workshops and training courses to promote gender
awareness should consider the part these people can play in the sharing or exchange of
information and experiences through a well established networking system.

The Ministry of Agriculture is currently implementing a number of projects in different
departments. These projects should be reoriented to consider gender issues.

It is recommended that PRA and gender analysis exercises be conducted in other farming
systems in the country. These will help to sensitize ministry staff on the basis of
information from the field.

3.4 CONCLUSIONS

The full integration of women in development issues fosters harmonious and sustainable
development. Those involved in the rural and related sectors or in planning and
implementing field programmes should be aware that increasing human resources involves
learning how to design policies that satisfy the essential needs and strategic interests
of both men and women.

For plans to be feasible at national level, changes should be initiated within the
community. They can thus take into consideration women's and men's tasks so as to allocate
existing resources for the benefit of both. They can also redirect planning approaches or
policies in order to provide women with greater access to productive resources.

The Ministry of Agriculture, which employs the majority of the population, should take
a lead in coordinating resource allocation to take the different roles of men and women
into account. Information on women's contribution, resource needs and constraints should
be integrated into all planning processes. Current legislation should be reviewed to
eliminate all discriminatory practices.

Women do not have equitable access to land and agricultural services such as credit,
agricultural inputs, training and extension, and marketing services. Few, if any, modern
tools or implements are available to poor rural households, and rural women's activities
in particular are almost always labour-intensive and time-consuming. Rural women thus have
a pressing need for appropriate labour-saving technology, both to reduce stress and to
give them more time for productive activities.

The contribution of women to household food security needs to be enhanced in order to
ensure their full participation in efforts to achieve agricultural growth, alleviate rural
poverty and improve food consumption and nutritional well-being. A number of specific
policy measures are needed to deal with the above issues. In formulating and implementing
such measures, the special case of female-headed households needs to be taken into
account. The Government should consider the following recommendations to overcome the
obstacles that women face in agricultural production.

Women and men should have equal opportunities to own land. Even though, according to
the new land policy, men and women already have the same rights, implementation of such a
policy might require sensitization campaigns to change attitudes.

Women's access to agricultural services not only needs to be facilitated but such
services should be geared to their specific needs. Credit and repayment terms should be
adapted to the enterprises that women undertake in a particular locality. Similarly, for
women to be adequately helped by agricultural extension, the training and extension
activities must be more relevant to their needs, the crops they produce, the livestock
they raise and the farming systems and time constraints within which they work.

An important measure to improve household food security is that of increasing food
production at the household level. The provision of remunerative prices and other economic
incentives such as improved seeds and fertilizers are essential if production is to be
increased. In addition, improved transportation and marketing facilities would encourage
rural households, including women, to produce surpluses above subsistence needs.

Rural women spend considerable time fetching water and firewood. The provision of water
supplies, alternative fuels and food processing technology should form essential
components of rural development programmes. Access for women to modern inputs, implements
and irrigation facilities needs to be enhanced. In order to avoid the undesirable
consequences of certain types of technology, such projects should be formulated in
consultation with the targeted beneficiaries.

Women's participation in the implementation of measures and programmes to promote food
security and to alleviate poverty could be significantly enhanced if they belonged to
organizations such as producer, marketing or service cooperatives. Efforts need to be made
to encourage women not only to join cooperatives but also to hold managerial positions.
Measures also need to be taken to encourage women to undertake, on a cooperative basis,
income-producing enterprises that may not be viable on an individual basis.

The Ministry of Agriculture on the Mainland is currently encouraging the formation of
Savings and Credit Societies (SACCOS) in rural areas. Women should be encouraged to
participate fully in their formation.

Government policies also need to be reviewed and, where necessary, reoriented to ensure
that the problems constraining the role of women in food security are fully addressed. An
important step in this direction would be to improve the statistical data base of the role
of women in food and agricultural production and in income-earning activities, including
wage labour and activities in the informal sector. The design of policy interventions for
women should take into account the economic role of men and women in the various
activities and provide information on resource endowments, activity patterns, income
sources, cropping patterns and husbandry practices of households in different
socio-economic groups in the target area.

Appendix 1

PROJECT STAFF

Name Function

T.P. Msaki National Project Director (Mainland)

A. Shaaban National Project Director (Zanzibar)

E. Mhina Consultant in Gender Development Research

G. Mwalemba Participatory Rural Appraisal Trainer

M. Mbilinyi Driver

Appendix 2

IN-SERVICE TRAINING

No. of

Focus Participants Date

Participatory rural appraisal

and gender analysis training,

Isongole, Ileje 18 4-27 Nov. 1995

Mbeya regional workshop

Mbeya 23 7-8 Nov. 1996

Participatory rural appraisal

and gender analysis training,

Mvumi 15 12-18 Jan. 1997

4-15 April 1997

Gender analysis training for staff of

Ministry of Agriculture (Mainland) 20

Appendix 3

DOCUMENTS PRODUCED DURING THE PROJECT

Tools and techniques to be used for participatory rural appraisal, G.F. Mwalemba.
Zanzibar, 1996.