Military

Further Reading

CHAPTER 10

MOVEMENT OVER SNOW AND ICE

Movement over snow- and ice-covered slopes presents its own unique problems. Movement on steeper slopes requires an ice ax, crampons, and the necessary training for this equipment. Personnel will also have to learn how to place solid anchors in snow and ice to protect themselves during these movements if roped. Snow-covered glaciers present crevasse fall hazards even when the slope is relatively flat, requiring personnel to learn unique glacier travel and crevasse rescue techniques.

All the principles of rock climbing, anchor placement, belays, and rope usage discussed throughout the previous chapters apply to snow and ice climbing as well. This chapter will focus on the additional skills and techniques required to move safely through snow-covered mountains and over glaciated terrain.

10-1. MOVEMENT OVER SNOW

The military mountaineer must be equally adept on both snow and ice due to route necessity and rapidly changing conditions. On steep slopes in deep snow, the climber may climb straight up facing the slope. The ice ax shaft, driven directly into the snow, provides a quick and effective self-belay in case of a slip—the deeper the shaft penetrates the snow, the better the anchor (Figure 10-1). It is usually best, however, to climb snow-covered slopes in a traversing fashion in order to conserve energy, unless there is significant avalanche danger.

Figure 10-1. Self-belay on snow.

a.The progression from walking on flat terrain to moving on steep terrain is the same as for moving over snow-free terrain. If the snow is packed the sole of the boot will generally hold by kicking steps, even on steep slopes. Where it is difficult to make an effective step with the boot, a cut made with the adze of the ice ax creates an effective step. In these situations crampons should be used for faster and easier movement.

b. When descending on snow, one can usually come straight downhill, even on steep terrain. Movement downhill should be slow and deliberate with the climber using an even pace. The heels should be kicked vigorously into the snow. The body may be kept erect with the aid of an ice ax, which may be jammed into the snow at each step for additional safety. Here again, crampons or step cutting may be necessary. A technique known as glissading may also be used as an easy method of descent and is covered in detail later in this chapter.

10-2. MOVEMENT OVER ICE

Ice is found in many areas of mountains when snow is present, and during the summer months also where perennial snowpack exists. Many times an ice area will be downslope of a snowfield and sometimes the ice pack itself will be lightly covered with snow. Even if using an ice ax and or crampons, movement will still be difficult without proper training.

10-3. USE OF ICE AX AND CRAMPONS

Movement over snow and ice is almost impossible without an ice ax and or crampons.

a.Ice Ax. When walking on snow or ice, the ice ax can be used as a third point of contact. When the terrain steepens, there are a number of ways to use the ice ax for snow or ice climbing. Some positions are more effective than others, depending on the intended result. You may find other ways to hold and use the ax, as long the security remains in effect.

(1) Cane Position. The ice ax can be used on gentle slopes as a walking stick or cane (Figure 10-2). The ax is held by the head with the spike down and the pick facing to the rear in preparation for self-arrest. When moving up or down gentle slopes the ice ax is placed in front as the third point of contact, and the climber moves toward it. When traversing, the ax is held on the uphill side, in preparation for a self-arrest.

Figure 10-2. Using the ice ax in the cane position.

(2) Cross Body Position or Port Arms Position. On steeper slopes the ax can be used in the port arms position, or cross body position (Figure 10-3). It is carried across the chest, upslope hand on the shaft, spike towards the slope. The head of the ax is held away from the slope with the pick to the rear in preparation for self-arrest. Ensure the leash is connected to the upslope hand, which allows the ax to be used in the hammer position on the upslope side of the climber. The spike, in this case, is used as an aid for maintaining balance.

Figure 10-3. Ice ax in the cross body or port arms position.

(3) Anchor Position. As the slope continues to steepen, the ax may be used in the anchor position (Figure 10-4). The head is held in the upslope hand and the pick is driven into the slope. The spike is held in the downhill hand and pulled slightly away from the slope to increase the "bite" of the pick into the ice. If the climber is wearing a harness, the pick can be deeply inserted in the ice or hard snow and the ax leash could be connected to the tie-in point on the harness for an anchor (ensure the ax is placed for the intended direction of pull).

Figure 10-4. Ice ax in the anchor position.

(4) Push-Hold Position. Another variation on steep slopes is the push-hold position (Figure 10-5). The hand is placed on the shaft of the ax just below the head with the pick forward. The pick is driven into the slope at shoulder height. The hand is then placed on the top of the ax head for use as a handhold.

Figure 10-5. Ice ax in the push-hold position.

(5) Dagger Position. The dagger position is used on steep slopes to place a handhold above shoulder height (Figure 10-6). The hand grasps the head of the ax with the pick forward and the shaft hanging down. The ax is driven into the surface in a stabbing action. The hand is then placed on the ax head for use as a handhold.

Figure 10-6. Ice ax in the dagger position.

(6) Hammer Position. The hammer position will set the pick deepest in any snow or ice condition (Figure 10-7). The ax is used like a hammer with the pick being driven into the slope. On vertical or near-vertical sections, two axes used in the hammer position will often be required.

Figure 10-7. Ice ax in the hammer position.

b. Crampons. Walking in crampons is not complicated but it does present difficulties. When walking in crampons, the same principles are used as in mountain walking, except that when a leg is advanced it is swung in a slight arc around the fixed foot to avoid locking the crampons or catching them in clothing or flesh. The trousers should be bloused to prevent catching on crampons. All straps should be secured to prevent stepping on them and, potentially, causing a fall. The buckles should be located on the outside of each foot when the crampons are secured to prevent snagging. Remember, when the crampon snags on the pants or boots, a tear or cut usually results, and sometimes involves the skin on your leg and or a serious fall.

(1) Two methods of ascent are used on slopes: traversing and straight up.

(a) A traverse on ice or snow looks much like any mountain walking traverse, except that the ankles are rolled so that the crampons are placed flat on the surface (Figure 10-8). On snow the points penetrate easily; on ice the foot must be pressed or stamped firmly to obtain maximum penetration. At the turning points of a traverse, direction is changed with the uphill foot as in mountain walking.

Figure 10-8. Correct and incorrect crampon technique.

(b) A straight up method is for relatively short pitches, since it is more tiring than a traverse. The climber faces directly up the slope and walks straight uphill. As the slope steepens, the herringbone step is used to maintain the flatfoot technique. For short steep pitches, the climber may also face downslope, squatting so the legs almost form a 90-degree angle at the knees, driving the spike of the ice ax into the slope at hip level, and then moving the feet up to the ax. By repeating these steps, the ax and crampon combination can be used to climb short, steep pitches without resorting to step cutting. This method can be tiring. The technique is similar to the crab position used for climbing on slab rock and can also be used for short descents.

(2) A technique known as "front-pointing" may be used for moving straight uphill (Figure 10-9). It is especially useful on steep terrain, in combination with the ice ax in the push-hold, dagger, or hammer position. Front-pointing is easiest with the use of more rigid mountain boots and rigid crampons. The technique is similar to doing calf raises on the tips of the toes and is much more tiring than flat-footing.

(a) The technique starts with the feet approximately shoulder width apart. When a step is taken the climber places the front points of the crampons into the ice with the toe of the boot pointing straight into the slope.

(b) When the front points have bitten into the ice the heel of the boot is lowered slightly so that the first set of vertical points can also bite. The body is kept erect, with the weight centered over the feet as in climbing on rock.

Figure 10-9. Front-pointing with crampons.

c. Vertical Ice. When a climb on ice reaches the 60- to 70-degree angle, two ice axes may be helpful, and will become necessary as the angle approaches 90 degrees. The same basic climbing techniques described in Chapter 6 should be applied. If leashes of the correct length and fit are attached to both axes, it may be possible to hang completely from the axes while moving the feet.

d. Descending with Crampons and Ice Ax. Whenever possible, descend straight down the fall line. As the slope steepens, gradually turn sideways; on steeper slopes, bend at the waist and knees as if sitting, keeping the feet flat to engage all vertical crampon points and keep the weight over the feet as in descending rock slab (Figures 10-10 and 10-11). On steep terrain, assume a cross body or port arms position with the ax, and traverse. The crab position or front-pointing may also be used for descending. Regardless of the technique used, always ensure the points of the crampons are inserted in the snow or ice and take short, deliberate steps to minimize the chance of tripping and falling down the slope.

Figure 10-10. Flat-footing in the crab position.

Figure 10-11. Use of ice ax in descent.

e. Normal Progression. The use of the ice ax and crampons follows a simple, logical progression. The techniques can be used in any combination, dictated by the terrain and skill of the individual. A typical progression could be as follows:

(1) Crampons. Use crampons in the following situations:

Walking as on flat ground.

Herringbone step straight up the slope.

Traverse with feet flat.

Backing up the slope (crab position).

Front-pointing.

(2) Ice Ax. Use the ice ax in these situations:

Cane position on flat ground.

Cane position on uphill side as slope steepens.

Port arms position with spike on uphill side.

Anchor position with pick on uphill side.

Push-hold position using front-pointing technique.

Dagger position using front-pointing technique.

Hammer position using front-pointing technique.

e. Climbing Sequence. Using most of these positions, a single ax can be "climbed" in steps to move upslope on low-angle to near vertical terrain (Figure 10-12). Begin by positioning the feet in a secure stance and placing the ax in the hammer position as high as possible. Slowly and carefully move the feet to higher positions alternately, and move the hand up the ax shaft. Repeat this until the hand is on top of the head of the ax. Remove the ax and place it at a higher position and begin again.

Figure 10-12. Climbing sequence.

f. Step Cutting. Step cutting is an extremely valuable technique that is a required skill for any military mountaineer (Figure 10-13). Using cut steps can save valuable time that would be spent in donning crampons for short stretches of ice and can, in some cases, save the weight of the crampons altogether. Steps may also have to be cut by the lead team to enable a unit without proper equipment to negotiate snow- or ice-covered terrain. As units continue to move up areas where steps have been cut they should continue to improve each step. In ascending, steps may be cut straight up the slope, although a traverse will normally be adopted. In descending, a traverse is also the preferred method. When changing direction, a step large enough for both feet and crampons must be made. Once the step is formed, the adze is best used to further shape and clean the step.

(1) Snow. On slopes of firm snow and soft ice, steps may be cut by swinging the ax in a near-vertical plane, using the inside corner of the adze for cutting. The step should be fashioned so that it slopes slightly inward and is big enough to admit the entire foot. Steps used for resting or for turning must be larger.

(2) Ice. Hard ice requires that the pick of the ax be used. Begin by directing a line of blows at right angles to the slope to make a fracture line along the base of the intended step. This technique will reduce the chance of an unwanted fracture in the ice breaking out the entire step. Next, chop above the fracture line to fashion the step. When using the pick it should be given an outward jerk as it is placed to prevent it from sticking in the ice.

(3) Step Cutting in a Traverse. When cutting steps in a traverse, the preferred cutting sequence is to cut one step at an arm's length from the highest step already cut, then cut one between those two. Cutting ahead one step then cutting an intermediate step keeps all of the steps relatively close to one another and maintains a suitable interval that all personnel can use.

(4) Handholds. If handholds are cut, they should be smaller than footholds, and angled more.

Figure 10-13. Step cutting and handhold cutting.

g. Self-Arrest. The large number of climbers injured or killed while climbing on snow and ice can be attributed to two major failings on the part of the climber: climbing unroped, and a lack of knowledge and experience in the techniques necessary to stop, or arrest, a fall (Figure 10-14). A climber should always carry an ice ax when climbing on steep snow or ice; if a fall occurs, he must retain possession and control of his ice ax if he is to successfully arrest the fall. During movement on steep ice, the ax pick will be in the ice solidly before the body is moved, which should prevent a fall of any significance (this is a self belay not a self-arrest).

CAUTION

Self-arrest requires the ax pick to gradually dig in to slow the descent. Self-arrest is difficult on steep ice because the ice ax pick instantly "bites" into the ice, possibly resulting in either arm or shoulder injury, or the ax is deflected immediately upon contact.

Figure 10-14. Self-arrest technique.

Figure 10-14. Self-arrest technique (continued).

(1) A climber who has fallen may roll or spin; if this happens, the climber must first gain control of his body, whether it is with his ice ax or simply by brute force. Once the roll or spin has been controlled, the climber will find himself in one of four positions.

Head upslope, stomach on the slope, and feet pointed downslope.

Head upslope, back to the slope, and feet pointed downslope.

Head downslope, stomach on the slope, and feet pointed upslope.

Head downslope, back to the slope, and feet pointed upslope.

(2) To place the body in position to arrest from the four basic fall positions the following must be accomplished.

(a) In the first position, the body is in proper relation to the slope for an arrest.

(b) In the second position, the body must first be rotated from face up to face down on the slope. This is accomplished by rolling the body toward the head of the ax.

(c) In the third position, the pick of the ice ax is placed upslope and used as a pivot to bring the body into proper position.

(d) In the fourth position, the head of the ax must be driven into the snow to the climber's side. This will cause the body to rotate into a head up, stomach down position.

(3) The final position when the arrest of the fall is completed should be with the head upslope, stomach on the slope, with the feet pointed downslope. If crampons are not worn, the toe of the boots may be dug into the slope to help arrest the fall. The ax is held diagonally across the chest, with the head of the ax by one shoulder and the spike near the opposite hip. One hand grasps the head of the ax, with the pick pointed into the slope, while the other hand is on the shaft near the spike, lifting up on it to prevent the spike from digging into the slope.

Note:

If crampons are worn, the feet must be raised to prevent the crampons from digging into the snow or ice too quickly. This could cause the climber to tumble and also, could severely injure his ankles and legs.

(4) When a fall occurs, the climber should immediately grasp the ax with both hands and hold it firmly as described above. Once sufficient control of the body is attained, the climber drives the pick of the ice ax into the slope, increasing the pressure until the fall is arrested. Raising the spike end of the shaft increases the biting action of the pick. It is critical that control of the ice ax be maintained at all times.

10-4. GLISSADING

Glissading is the intentional, controlled, rapid descent, or slide of a mountaineer down a steep slope covered with snow (Figure 10-15). Glissading is similar to skiing, except skis are not used. The same balance and control are necessary, but instead of skis the soles of the feet or the buttocks are used. The only piece of equipment required is the standard ice ax, which serves as the rudder, brake, and guide for the glissade. The two basic methods of glissading are:

a.Squatting Glissade. The squatting glissade is accomplished by placing the body in a semi-crouched position with both knees bent and the body weight directly over the feet. The ice ax is grasped with one hand on the head, pick, and adze outboard (away from the body), and the other hand on the shaft. The hand on the shaft grips it firmly in a position that allows control as well as the application of downward pressure on the spike of the ax.

b. Sitting Glissade. Using this method the glissader sits on the snow with the legs flat, and the heels and feet raised and pointed downslope. The ice ax is firmly grasped in the same manner as the squatting glissade, with the exception that the hand on the shaft must be locked against the hip for control. The sitting glissade is slower but easier to control than the squatting glissade.

c. Safety. A glissade should never be attempted on a slope where the bottom cannot be seen, since drop-offs may exist out of view. Also, a sitting glissade should not be used if the snow cover is thin, as painful injury could result.

Figure 10-15. Glissading techniques.

10-5. SNOW AND ICE ANCHORS

Ice and snow anchors consist of snow pickets, flukes, deadman-type anchors, ice screws, and ice pitons. Deadman anchors can be constructed from snowshoes, skis, backpacks, sleds, or any large items.

a.Ice Pitons. The ice piton is used to establish anchor points. The ice piton is not seen in modern ice climbing but may still be available to the military. The standard ice piton is made of tubular steel and is 10 inches in length. Ice pitons installed in pairs are a bombproof anchor; however, ice pitons have no threads for friction to hold them in the ice once placed and are removed easily. Safe use of ice pitons requires placement in pairs. Used singularly, ice pitons are a strong anchor but are easily removed, decreasing the perceived security of the anchor. Follow the instructions below for placing ice pitons in pairs.

(1) Cut a horizontal recess into the ice, and also create a vertical surface (two clean surfaces at right angles to each other).

(2) Drive one piton into the horizontal surface and another into the vertical surface so that the two pitons intersect at the necessary point (Figure 10-16).

(3) Connect the two rings with a single carabiner, ensuring the carabiner is not cross-loaded. Webbing or rope can be used if the rings are turned to the inside of the intersection.

(4) Test the piton pair to ensure it is secure. If it pulls out or appears weak, move to another spot and replace it. The pair of pitons, when placed correctly, are multidirectional.

Figure 10-16. Ice piton pair.

(5) The effective time and or strength for an ice piton placement is limited. The piton will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the pitons with ice chips once they have been placed. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the pitons should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice piton is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube must be removed before it freezes in position, making further use difficult.

c. Ice Screws. The ice screw is the most common type of ice protection and has replaced the ice piton for the most part (Figure 10-17). Some screws have longer "hangers" or handles, which allow them to be easily twisted into position by hand. Place ice screws as follows:

(1) Clear away all rotten ice from the surface and make a small hole with the ax pick to start the ice screw in.

(2) Force the ice screw in until the threads catch.

Figure 10-17. Placement of ice screw using the pick.

(3) Turn the screw until the eye or the hanger of the ice screw is flush with the ice and pointing down. The screw should be placed at an angle 90 to 100 degrees from the lower surface. Use either your hand or the pick of the ice ax to screw it in. If you have a short ax (70 centimeters or less), you may be able to use the spike in the eye or hanger to ease the turning. (Remember that you may only have use of one hand at this point depending on your stance and the angle of the terrain.)

(4) As with ice pitons, melting of the ice around a screw over a period of time must be considered. The effective time and or strength of an ice screw placement is limited. The screw will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the screw with ice chips once it has been emplaced. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the screws should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice screw is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube, must be removed before further use.

d. Horseshoe or Bollard Anchor. This is an artificial anchor shaped generally like a horseshoe (Figure 10-18). It is formed from either ice or snow and constructed by either cutting with the ice ax or stamping with the boots. When constructed of snow, the width should not be less than 10 feet. In ice, this width may be narrowed to 2 feet, depending on the strength of the ice. The length of the bollard should be at least twice the width. The trench around the horseshoe should be stamped as deeply as possible in the snow and should be cut not less than 6 inches into the ice after all rotten ice is removed. The backside of the anchor must always be undercut to prevent the rope from sliding off and over the anchor.

(1) This type of anchor is usually available and may be used for fixed ropes or rappels. It must be inspected frequently to ensure that the rope is not cutting through the snow or ice more than one-third the length of the anchor; if it is, a new anchor must be constructed in a different location.

(2) A horseshoe anchor constructed in snow is always precarious, its strength depending upon the prevailing texture of the snow. For dry or wind-packed snow, the reliability of the anchor should always be suspect. The backside of the bollard can be reinforced with ice axes, pickets, or other equipment for added strength.

Figure 10-18. Horseshoe or bollard anchor.

e. Pickets and Ice Axes. Pickets and ice axes may be used as snow anchors as follows.

(1) The picket should be driven into the snow at 5 to 15 degrees off perpendicular from the lower surface. If the picket cannot be driven in all the way to the top hole, the carabiner should be placed in the hole closest to the snow surface to reduce leverage. The picket may also be tied off with a short loop of webbing or rope as in tying off pitons.

(2) An ice ax can be used in place of a picket. When using an ice ax as a snow anchor, it should be inserted with the widest portion of the ax shaft facing the direction of pull. The simplest connection to the ax is to use a sling or rope directly around the shaft just under the head. If using the leash ensure it is not worn, frayed, or cut from general use; is strong enough; and does not twist the ax when loaded. A carabiner can be clipped through the hole in the head, also.

(3) Whenever the strength of the snow anchor is suspect, especially when a picket or ax cannot be driven in all the way, the anchor may be buried in the snow and used as a "dead man" anchor. Other items suitable for dead man anchor construction are backpacks, skis, snowshoes, ski poles, or any other item large enough or shaped correctly to achieve the design. A similar anchor, sometimes referred to as a "dead guy," can be made with a large sack either stuffed with noncompressible items or filled with snow and buried. Ensure the attaching point is accessible before burying. The direction of pull on long items, such as a picket or ax, should be at a right angle to its length. The construction is identical to that of the dead man anchor used in earth.

f. Equalized Anchors. Snow and ice anchors must be constantly checked due to melting and changing snow or ice conditions.

(1) Whenever possible, two or more anchors should be used. While this is not always practical for intermediate anchor points on lead climbs or fixed ropes, it should be mandatory for main anchors at all belay positions, rappel points, or other fixed rope installations. (Figure 10-19 shows an example of three snow pickets configured to an equalized anchor.)

(2) As with multipoint anchors on rock, two or more snow or ice anchors can be joined together with a sling rope or webbing to construct one solid, equalized anchor. A bowline on a bight tied into the climbing rope can also be used instead of sling ropes or webbing.

Figure 10-19. Equalized anchor using pickets.

10-6. ROPED CLIMBING ON ICE AND SNOW

When climbing on ice or snow team members tie into a climbing rope the same as when they climb on rock. When crevasses are expected, a three-man rope team is recommended.

a.Tie-In Method. For climbing on snow and ice, the tie-in procedure is normally the same as for rock climbing; however, when moving over snow-covered glaciers, the tie-in is modified slightly. (See paragraph 10-7, Movement on Glaciers, for more information).

b. Movement. For movement on gentle or moderate slopes where there is little chance of a serious fall, all climbers move simultaneously. Normally the climbers move in single file using the steps created by the lead climber and improving them when necessary. The rope between the climbers should be fully extended and kept reasonably tight. Should any member fall, he immediately yells "FALLING." The other rope team members immediately drop into a self-arrest position. The fallen climber also applies the self-arrest procedure. By using this method, called the "team arrest," the entire team as a whole arrests the fall of one member. On steeper slopes, and when crossing snow-covered crevasses where the snow bridges appear weak, the climbers use belayed climbing techniques as in rock climbing.

c. Belaying on Snow and Ice. The principles of belaying on ice and snow are the same as on rock. Generally, the high-force falls found in rock climbing are not present on snow and ice unless the pitch being climbed is extremely steep.

(1) Boot-Ax Belay. This belay can be useful in areas where the full length of the ice ax can penetrate the snow. The holding strength of the boot-ax belay is directly related to the firmness of the snow and to the strength of the ice ax shaft. The shaft of the ax is tilted slightly uphill and jammed into the snow. The belayer places his uphill foot against the downhill side of the ax for support. A bight formed in the rope is placed over the boot and around the shaft of the ice ax. The brake is applied by wrapping the rope around the heel of the boot (Figure 10-20).

Figure 10-20. Boot-ax belay.

(2) Body Belay. The body belay can be used on snow and ice, also. The principles are the same as for belays on rock—solid anchors must be used and a well-braced position assumed. The position can be improved by digging depressions into the snow or ice for a seat and footholds. A strong platform should be constructed for the standing body belay.

(3) Munter Hitch. This belay technique is also used on snow and ice. When using the hitch off of the anchor, a two-point equalized anchor should be constructed as a minimum.

d. Fixed Ropes. The use of fixed ropes on ice is recommended for moving units through icefall areas on glaciers or other steep ice conditions. The procedures for emplacing fixed ropes on ice are basically the same as on rock with the exception that anchors need more attention, both in initial placement and in subsequent inspection, and steps may have to be cut to assist personnel.

10-7. MOVEMENT ON GLACIERS

Movement in mountainous terrain may require travel on glaciers. An understanding of glacier formation and characteristics is necessary to plan safe routes. A glacier is formed by the perennial accumulation of snow and other precipitation in a valley or draw. The accumulated snow eventually turns to ice due to metamorphosis. The "flow" or movement of glaciers is caused by gravity. There are a few different types of glaciers identifiable primarily by their location or activity.

Valley glacier—resides and flows in a valley.

Cirque glacier—forms and resides in a bowl.

Hanging glacier—these are a result of valley or cirque glaciers flowing and or deteriorating. As the movement continues, portions separate and are sometimes left hanging on mountains, ridgelines, or cliffs.

Piedmont glacier—formed by one or more valley glaciers; spreads out into a large area.

Surging glacier—annual flow of the ice exceeds the melt; the movement is measurable over a period of time.

a.Characteristics and Definitions. This paragraph describes the common characteristics of glaciers, and defines common terminology used in reference to glaciers. (Figure 10-21 shows a cross section of a glacier, and Figure 10-22 depicts common glacier features.)

Figure 10-21. Glacier cross section.

Figure 10-22. Glacier features.

(1) Firn is compacted granular snow that has been on the glacier at least one year. Firn is the building blocks of the ice that makes the glacier.

(2) The accumulation zone is the area that remains snow-covered throughout the year because of year-round snowfall. The snowfall exceeds melt.

(3) The ablation zone is the area where the snow melts off the ice in summer. Melt equals or exceeds snowfall.

(4) The firn line separates the accumulation and ablation zones. As you approach this area, you may see "strips" of snow in the ice. Be cautious, as these could be snow bridges remaining over crevasses. Remember that snow bridges will be weakest lower on the glacier as you enter the accumulation zone. The firn line can change annually.

(5) A bergschrund is a large crevasse at the head of a glacier caused by separation of active (flowing) and inactive (stationary) ice. These will usually be seen at the base of a major incline and can make an ascent on that area difficult.

(6) A moat is a wall formed at the head (start) of the glacier. These are formed by heat reflected from valley wall.

(7) A crevasse is a split or crack in the glacier surface. These are formed when the glacier moves over an irregularity in the bed surface.

(8) A transverse crevasse forms perpendicular to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 30 degrees or more.

(9) Longitudinal crevasses form parallel to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier widens.

(10) Diagonal crevasses form at an angle to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found along the edges where a glacier makes a bend.

(11) A snow bridge is a somewhat supportive structure of snow that covers a crevasse. Most of these are formed by the wind. The strength of a snow bridge depends on the snow itself.

(12) Icefalls are a jumble of crisscross crevasses and large ice towers that are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 25 degrees or more.

(13) Seracs are large pinnacles or columns of ice that are normally found in icefalls or on hanging glaciers.

(15) The moraine is an accumulation of rock or debris on a glacier caused by rockfall or avalanche of valley walls.

(16) The lateral moraine is formed on sides of glacier.

(17) The medial moraine is in the middle of the glacier. This is also formed as two glaciers come together or as a glacier moves around a central peak.

(18) The terminal moraine is at the base of a glacier and is formed as moraines meet at the snout or terminus of a glacier.

(19) The ground moraine is the rocky debris extending out from the terminus of a glacier. This is formed by the scraping of earth as the glacier grew or surged and exposed as the glacier retreats.

(20) A Nunatak is a rock projection protruding through the glacier as the glacier flows around it.

(21) An ice mill is a hole in the glacier formed by swirling water on the surface. These can be large enough for a human to slip into.

(22) Pressure ridges are wavelike ridges that form on glacier normally after a glacier has flowed over icefalls.

(23) A glacier window is an opening at the snout of the glacier where water runs out of the glacier.

b. Dangers and Obstacles. The principle dangers and obstacles to movement in glacial areas are crevasses, icefalls, and ice avalanches. Snow-covered crevasses make movement on a glacier extremely treacherous. In winter, when visibility is poor, the difficulty of recognizing them is increased. Toward the end of the summer, crevasses are widest and covered by the least snow. Crossing snow bridges constitutes the greatest potential danger in movement over glaciers in the summer. On the steep pitch of a glacier, ice flowing over irregularities and cliffs in the underlying valley floor cause the ice to break up into ice blocks and towers, criss-crossed with crevasses. This jumbled cliff of ice is known as an icefall. Icefalls present a major obstacle to safe movement of troops on glaciers.

(1) Moving on glaciers brings about the hazard of falling into a crevasse. Although the crevasses are visible in the ablation zone in the summer (Figure 10-23), the accumulation zone will still have hidden crevasses. The risk of traveling in the accumulation zone can be managed to an acceptable level when ropes are used for connecting the team members (Figure 10-24). Crampons and an ice ax are all that is required to safely travel in the ablation zone in the summer.

Figure 10-23. Ablation zone of glacier in summer.

Figure 10-24. Rope teams moving in the accumulation zone of a glacier.

(2) When conditions warrant, three to four people will tie in to one rope at equal distances from each other. To locate the positions, if three people are on a team, double the rope and one ties into the middle and the other two at the ends. If four people are on a team, form a "z" with the rope and expand the "z" fully, keeping the end and the bight on each "side" of the "z" even. Tie in to the bights and the ends.

(3) Connect to the rope with the appropriate method and attach the Prusik as required. The rope should be kept relatively tight either by Prusik belay or positioning of each person. If the team members need to assemble in one area, use the Prusik to belay each other in.

(4) If a team member falls into a crevasse, the remaining members go into team arrest, assess the situation, and use the necessary technique to remove the person from the crevasse. The simplest and most common method for getting someone out of a crevasse is for the person to climb out while being belayed.

(5) All items should be secured to either the climber or the rope/harness to prevent inadvertent release and loss of necessary items or equipment. Packs should be secured to the rope/harness with webbing or rope. If traveling with a sled in tow, secure it not only to a climber to pull it, but connect it to the rope with webbing or rope also.

(6) If marking the route on the glacier is necessary for backtracking or to prevent disorientation in storms or flat-light conditions, use markers that will be noticeable against the white conditions. The first team member can place a new marker when the last team member reaches the previous marker.

c. Roped Movement. The first rule for movement on glaciers is to rope up (Figure 10-25). A roped team of two, while ideal for rock climbing, is at a disadvantage on a snow-covered glacier. The best combination is a three-man rope team. Generally, the rope team members will move at the same time with the rope fully extended and reasonably tight between individuals, their security being the team arrest. If an individual should break through a snow bridge and fall into a crevasse, the other members immediately perform self-arrest, halting the fall. At points of obvious weakness in the snow bridges, the members may decide to belay each other across the crevasse using one of the established belay techniques.

Figure 10-25. Preparation for roped movement.

(1) Even with proper training in crevasse rescue techniques, the probability exists that an individual may remain suspended in a crevasse for a fairly lengthy amount of time while trying to get himself out or while awaiting help from his rope team members. Because of this, it is strongly recommended that all personnel wear a seat/chest combination harness, whether improvised or premanufactured.

(2) Rope team members must be able to quickly remove the climbing rope from the harness(es) during a crevasse rescue. The standard practice for connecting to the rope for glacier travel is with a locking carabiner on a figure-eight loop to the harness. This allows quick detachment of the rope for rescue purposes. The appropriate standing part of the rope is then clipped to the chest harness carabiner.

(3) If a rope team consists of only two people, the rope should be divided into thirds, as for a four-person team. The team members tie into the middle positions on the rope, leaving a third of the rope between each team member and a third on each end of the rope. The remaining "thirds" of the rope should be coiled and either carried in the rucksack, attached to the rucksack, or carried over the head and shoulder. This gives each climber an additional length of rope that can be used for crevasse rescue, should one of the men fall through and require another rope. If necessary, this excess end rope can be used to connect to another rope team for safer travel.

Note:

The self-arrest technique used by one individual will work to halt the fall of his partner on a two-man rope team; however, the chance of it failing is much greater. Crevasse rescue procedures performed by a two-man rope team, by itself, may be extremely difficult. For safety reasons, movement over a snow-covered glacier by a single two-man team should be avoided wherever possible.

d. Use of Prusik Knots. Prusik knots are attached to the climbing rope for all glacier travel. The Prusiks are used as a self-belay technique to maintain a tight rope between individuals, to anchor the climbing rope for crevasse rescue, and for self-rescue in a crevasse fall. The Prusik slings are made from the 7-millimeter by 6-foot and 7-millimeter by 12-foot ropes. The ends of the ropes are tied together, forming endless loops or slings, with double fisherman's knots. Form the Prusik knot on the rope in front of the climber. An overhand knot can be tied into the sling just below the Prusik to keep equal tension on all the Prusik wraps. Attach this sling to the locking carabiner at the tie in point on the harness.

Note:

An ascender can replace a Prusik sling in most situations. However, the weight of an ascender hanging on the rope during movement will become annoying, and it could be stepped on during movement and or climbing.

e. Securing the Backpack/Rucksack. If an individual should fall into a crevasse, it is essential that he be able to rid himself of his backpack. The weight of the average pack will be enough to hinder the climber during crevasse rescue, or possibly force him into an upside down position while suspended in the crevasse. Before movement, the pack should be attached to the climbing rope with a sling rope or webbing and a carabiner. A fallen climber can immediately drop the pack without losing it. The drop cord length should be minimal to allow the fallen individual to reach the pack after releasing it, if warm clothing is needed. When hanging from the drop cord, the pack should be oriented just as when wearing it (ensure the cord pulls from the top of the pack).

f. Routes. An individual operating in the mountains must appreciate certain limitations in glacier movement imposed by nature.

(1) Additional obstacles in getting onto a glacier may be swift glacier streams, steep terminal or lateral moraines, and difficult mountain terrain bordering the glacier ice. The same obstacles may also have to be overcome in getting on and off a valley glacier at any place along its course.

(2) Further considerations to movement on a glacier are steep sections, heavily crevassed portions, and icefalls, which may be major obstacles to progress. The use of current aerial photographs in conjunction with aerial reconnaissance is a valuable means of gathering advance information about a particular glacier. However, they only supplement, and do not take the place of, on-the-ground reconnaissance conducted from available vantage points.

g. Crossing Crevasses. Open crevasses are obvious, and their presence is an inconvenience rather than a danger to movement. Narrow cracks can be jumped, provided the take off and landing spots are firm and offer good footing. Wider cracks will have to be circumvented unless a solid piece of ice joins into an ice bridge strong enough to support at least the weight of one member of the team. Such ice bridges are often formed in the lower portion of a crevasse, connecting both sides of it.

(1) In the area of the firn line, the zone that divides seasonal melting from permanent falls of snow, large crevasses remain open, though their depths may be clogged with masses of snow. Narrow cracks may be covered. In this zone, the snow, which covers glacier ice, melts more rapidly than that which covers crevasses. The difference between glacier ice and narrow snow-covered cracks is immediately apparent; the covering snow is white, whereas the glacier ice is gray.

(2) Usually the upper part of a glacier is permanently snow covered. The snow surface here will vary in consistency from dry powder to consolidated snow. Below this surface cover are found other snow layers that become more crystalline in texture with depth, and gradually turn into glacier ice. It is in this snow-covered upper part of a glacier that crevasses are most difficult to detect, for even wide crevasses may be completely concealed by snow bridges.

h. Snow Bridges. Snow bridges are formed by windblown snow that builds a cornice over the empty interior of the crevasse. As the cornice grows from the windward side, a counter drift is formed on the leeward side. The growth of the leeward portion will be slower than that to the windward so that the juncture of the cornices occurs over the middle of the crevasse only when the contributing winds blow equally from each side. Bridges can also be formed without wind, especially during heavy falls of dry snow. Since cohesion of dry snow depends only on an interlocking of the branches of delicate crystals, such bridges are particularly dangerous during the winter. When warmer weather prevails the snow becomes settled and more compacted, and may form firmer bridges.

(1) Once a crevasse has been completely bridged, its detection is difficult. Bridges are generally slightly concave because of the settling of the snow. This concavity is perceptible in sunshine, but difficult to detect in flat light. If the presence of hidden crevasses is suspected, the leader of a roped team must probe the snow in front of him with the shaft of his ice ax. As long as a firm foundation is encountered, the team may proceed, but should the shaft meet no opposition from an underlying layer of snow, a crevasse is probably present. In such a situation, the prober should probe closer to his position to make sure that he is not standing on the bridge itself. If he is, he should retreat gently from the bridge and determine the width and direction of the crevasse. He should then follow and probe the margin until a more resistant portion of the bridge is reached. When moving parallel to a crevasse, all members of the team should keep well back from the edge and follow parallel but offset courses.

(2) A crevasse should be crossed at right angles to its length. When crossing a bridge that seems sufficiently strong enough to hold a member of the team, the team will generally move at the same time on a tight rope, with each individual prepared to go into self-arrest. If the stability of the snow bridge is under question, they should proceed as follows for a team of three glacier travelers:

(a) The leader and second take up a position at least 10 feet back from the edge. The third goes into a self-belay behind the second and remains on a tight rope.

(b) The second belays the leader across using one of the established belay techniques. The boot-ax belay should be used only if the snow is deep enough for the ax to be inserted up to the head and firm enough to support the possible load. A quick ice ax anchor should be placed for the other belays. Deadman or equalizing anchors should be used when necessary.

(c) The leader should move forward, carefully probing the snow and evaluating the strength of the bridge, until he reaches firm snow on the far side of the crevasse. He then continues as far across as possible so number two will have room to get across without number one having to move.

(d) The third assumes the middle person's belay position. The middle can be belayed across by both the first and last. Once the second is across, he assumes the belay position. Number one moves out on a tight rope and anchors in to a self-belay. Number two belays number three across.

(3) In crossing crevasses, distribute the weight over as wide an area as possible. Do not stamp the snow. Many fragile bridges can be crossed by lying down and crawling to the other side. Skis or snowshoes help distribute the weight nicely.

i. Arresting and Securing a Fallen Climber. The simplest and most common method for getting someone out of a crevasse is for the person to climb out while being belayed. Most crevasse falls will be no more than body height into the opening if the rope is kept snug between each person.

(1) To provide a quick means of holding an unexpected breakthrough, the rope is always kept taut. When the leader unexpectedly breaks through, the second and third immediately go into a self-arrest position to arrest the fall. A fall through a snow bridge results either in the person becoming jammed in the surface hole, or in being suspended in the crevasse by the rope. If the leader has fallen only partially through the snow bridge, he is supported by the snow forming the bridge and should not thrash about as this will only enlarge the hole and result in deeper suspension. All movements should be slow and aimed at rolling out of the hole and distributing the weight over the remainder of the bridge. The rope should remain tight at all times and the team arrest positions adjusted to do so. It generally is safer to retain the rucksack, as its bulk often prevents a deeper fall. Should a team member other than the leader experience a partial fall, the rescue procedure will be same as for the leader, only complicated slightly by the position on the rope.

(2) When the person falls into a crevasse, the length of the fall depends upon how quickly the fall is arrested and where in the bridge the break takes place. If the fall occurs close to the near edge of the crevasse, it usually can be checked before the climber has fallen more than 6 feet. However, if the person was almost across, the fall will cause the rope to cut through the bridge, and then even an instantaneous check by the other members will not prevent a deeper fall. The following scenario is an example of the sequence of events that take place after a fall by the leader in a three-person team. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is number 1.)

(a) Once the fall has been halted by the team arrest, the entire load must be placed on number 2 to allow number 3 to move forward and anchor the rope. Number 3 slowly releases his portion of the load onto number 2, always being prepared to go back into self-arrest should number 2's position begin to fail.

(b) Once number 2 is confident that he can hold the load, number 3 will proceed to number 2's position, using the Prusik as a self belay, to anchor the rope. In this way the rope remains reasonably tight between number 2 and number 3. Number 3 must always be prepared to go back into self-arrest should number 2's position begin to fail.

(c) When number 3 reaches number 2's position he will establish a bombproof anchor 3 to 10 feet in front of number 2 (on the load side), depending on how close number 2 is to the lip of the crevasse. This could be either a deadman or a two-point equalized anchor, as a minimum.

(d) Number 3 connects the rope to the anchor by tying a Prusik with his long Prusik sling onto the rope leading to number 1. An overhand knot should be tied into the long Prusik sling to shorten the distance to the anchor, and attached to the anchor with a carabiner. The Prusik knot is adjusted toward the load.

(e) Number 2 can then release the load of number 1 onto the anchor. Number 2 remains connected to the anchor and monitors the anchor.

(f) A fixed loop can be tied into the slack part of the rope, close to number 2, and attached to the anchor (to back up the Prusik knot).

(g) Number 3 remains tied in, but continues forward using a short Prusik as a self-belay. He must now quickly check on the condition of number 1 and decide which rescue technique will be required to retrieve him.

(3) These preliminary procedures must be performed before retrieving the fallen climber. If number 3 should fall through a crevasse, the procedure is the same except that number 1 assumes the role of number 3. Normally, if the middle person should fall through, number 1 would anchor the rope by himself. Number 3 would place the load on number 1's anchor, then anchor his rope and move forward with a Prusik self-belay to determine the condition of number 2.

j. Crevasse Rescue Techniques. Snow bridges are usually strongest at the edge of the crevasse, and a fall is most likely to occur some distance away from the edge. In some situations, a crevasse fall will occur at the edge of the snow bridge, on the edge of the ice. If a fall occurs away from the edge, the rope usually cuts deeply into the snow, thus greatly increasing friction for those pulling from above. In order to reduce friction, place padding, such as an ice ax, ski, ski pole, or backpack/rucksack, under the rope and at right angles to the stress. Push the padding forward as far as possible toward the edge of the crevasse, thus relieving the strain on the snow. Ensure the padding is anchored from falling into the crevasse for safety of the fallen climber.

(1) Use of Additional Rope Teams. Another rope team can move forward and assist in pulling the victim out of a crevasse. The assisting rope team should move to a point between the fallen climber and the remaining rope team members. The assisting team can attach to the arresting team's rope with a Prusik or ascender and both rope teams' members can all pull simultaneously. If necessary, a belay can be initiated by the fallen climber's team while the assisting team pulls. The arresting team member closest to the fallen climber should attach the long Prusik to themselves and the rope leading to the fallen climber, and the assisting team can attach their Prusik or ascender between this long Prusik and the arresting team member. As the assisting team pulls, the Prusik belay will be managed by the arresting team member at the long Prusik.

Note:

Safety in numbers is obvious for efficient crevasse rescue techniques. Additional rope teams have the necessary equipment to improve the main anchor or establish new ones and the strength to pull a person out even if he is deep in the crevasse. Strength of other rope teams should always be used before establishing more time-consuming and elaborate rescue techniques.

(2) Fixed Rope. If the fallen climber is not injured, he may be able to climb out on a fixed rope. Number 1 clips number 3's rope to himself. He then climbs out using number 3's rope as a simple fixed line while number 2 takes up the slack in number 1's rope through the anchor Prusik for a belay.

(3) Prusik Ascending Technique. There may be times when the remaining members of a rope team can render little assistance to the person in the crevasse. If poor snow conditions make it impossible to construct a strong anchor, the rope team members on top may have to remain in self-arrest. Other times, it may just be easier for the fallen climber to perform a self-rescue. (Figure 10-26 shows the proper rope configuration.) The technique is performed as follows:

(a) The fallen climber removes his pack and lets it hang below from the drop cord.

(b) The individual slides their short Prusik up the climbing rope as far as possible.

(c) The long Prusik is attached to the rope just below the short Prusik. The double fisherman's knot is spread apart to create a loop large enough for one or both feet. The fallen climber inserts his foot/feet into the loop formed allowing the knot to cinch itself down.

(d) The individual stands in the foot loop, or "stirrup," of the long sling.

(e) With his weight removed from the short Prusik, it is slid up the rope as far as it will go. The individual then hangs from the short Prusik while he moves the long Prusik up underneath the short Prusik again.

(f) The procedure is repeated, alternately moving the Prusiks up the rope, to ascend the rope. Once the crevasse lip is reached, the individual can simply grasp the rope and pull himself over the edge and out of the hole.

(g) Besides being one of the simplest rope ascending techniques, the short Prusik acts as a self-belay and allows the climber to take as long a rest as he wants when sitting in the harness. The rope should be detached from the chest harness carabiner to make the movements less cumbersome. However, it is sometimes desirable to keep the chest harness connected to the rope for additional support. In this case the Prusik knots must be "on top" of the chest harness carabiner so they can be easily slid up the rope without interference from the carabiner. The long Prusik sling can be routed through the chest harness carabiner for additional support when standing up in the stirrup.

Figure 10-26. Prusik ascending technique.

(4) Z-Pulley Hauling System. If a fallen climber is injured or unconscious, he will not be able to offer any assistance in the rescue. If additional rope teams are not immediately available, a simple raising system can be rigged to haul the victim out of the crevasse. The Z-pulley hauling system is one of the simplest methods and the one most commonly used in crevasse rescue (Figure 10-27). The basic Z rig is a "3-to-1" system, providing mechanical advantage to reduce the workload on the individuals operating the haul line. In theory, it would only take about 33 pounds of pull on the haul rope to raise a 100-pound load with this system. In actual field use, some of this mechanical advantage is lost to friction as the rope bends sharply around carabiners and over the crevasse lip. The use of mechanical rescue pulleys can help reduce this friction in the system. The following describes rigging of the system. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is number 1.)

(a) After the rope team members have arrested and secured number 1 to the anchor, and they have decided to install the Z rig, number 2 will attach himself to the anchor without using the rope and clear the connecting knot used. Number 3 remains connected to the rope.

(b) The slack rope exiting the anchor Prusik is clipped into a separate carabiner attached to the anchor. A pulley can be used here if available.

(c) Number 3 will use number 2's short Prusik to rig the haul Prusik. He moves toward the crevasse lip (still on his own self-belay) and ties number 2's short Prusik onto number 1's rope (load rope) as close to the edge as possible.

(d) Another carabiner (and pulley if available) is clipped into the loop of the haul Prusik and the rope between number 3's belay Prusik and the anchor is clipped (or attached through the pulley). Number 3's rope becomes the haul rope.

(e) Number 3 then moves towards the anchor and number 2. Number 2 could help pull if necessary but first would connect to the haul rope with a Prusik just as number 3. If the haul Prusik reaches the anchor before the victim reaches the top, the load is simply placed back on the anchor Prusik and number 3 moves the haul Prusik back toward the edge. The system is now ready for another haul.

CAUTION

The force applied to the fallen climber through use of the Z-pulley system can be enough to destroy the harness-to-rope connection or injure the fallen climber if excess force is applied to the pulling rope.

Notes:

1.

The Z-pulley adds more load on the anchor due to the mechanical advantage. The anchor should be monitored for the duration of the rescue.

2.

With the "3-to-1" system, the load (fallen climber) will be raised 1 foot for every 3 feet of rope taken up during the haul.

Figure 10-27. Z-pulley hauling system.

10-8. GLACIER BIVOUAC PROCEDURES

When locating a bivouac site or a gathering area where the team might need or want to unrope, at least one person will need to "probe" the area for hidden crevasses. The best type of probe will be the manufactured collapsing probe pole, at least eight feet in length. Other items could be used but the length and strength of the probe is most important. Other rope team members will belay the probers. The prober is "feeling" for a solid platform to place the tent by pushing the probe as hard and deep as possible into the surface. Probing should be in 2-foot intervals in all directions within the site.

a.If the probe suddenly has no resistance while pushing down, a crevasse is present. Attempts to outline the crevasse can be futile if the crevasse is large. Normally, the best decision is to relocate the proposed bivouac area far enough away to avoid that crevasse. (Sometimes only a few feet one way or the other is all that's needed to reach a good platform.) Probe the tent site again after digging to the desired surface. Mark boundaries with wands or other items such as skis, poles, and so on.

b. Occasionally while probing, increased pressure will be noticed without reaching a solid platform. The amount of snowfall may be such that even after digging into the snow, the probe still doesn't contact a hard surface. Try to find a solid platform.

c. There should be no unroped movement outside the probed/marked areas. If a latrine area is needed, probe a route away from the bivouac site and probe the latrine area also. If a dugout latrine is necessary, probe again after digging.

d. Multiple tent sites can be connected, which keeps tents closer together. Probe all areas between the tents if you plan to move in those areas. Closer tents will make communicating between tent groups and rope teams easier.

e. If there is a chance for severe storms with high winds, snow walls may be constructed to protect the tent site from wind. The walls can be constructed from loose snow piled on the perimeter, or blocks can be cut from consolidated snow layers. In deep soft snow, digging three or four feet to find a consolidated layer will result in enough snow moved to build up decent walls around the tent site.

(1) For block construction, move the soft snow from the surface into the wall foundation areas (down to a consolidated layer of snow).

(2) Cut blocks approximately 1 by 1 by 2 feet, and construct the walls by interlocking the blocks with overlapping placements. The walls should be slightly higher than the tent. At a minimum, build walls on the windward side of the tent site.

(3) Snow walls can also provide shelter from wind for food preparation.