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Introduction

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A great water tollway often called the “Big Ditch,” the Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It weaves across a strip of tropical land where the Isthmus of Panama narrows in the shape of a long flattened letter S. The fame of the Panama Canal is not in its size, for it is only about 51 miles (82 kilometers) long. Rather, the canal is an engineering triumph over nature. It has also been a major influence on world trade. The canal is owned and administered by the country of Panama.

How the Canal Works

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In operating the Panama Canal there are never-ending problems. Some are similar to those of land highways. Increasing traffic has required widening the shipping lanes that traverse the waterway. Lighting has been put in for night safety. One-way traffic is necessary at times. Modern traffic-control systems have been installed.

The comparison with land travel, however, has limits. The Panama Canal, because of its location, size, and type of construction, has problems unlike those of any other transportation link in the world.

How the Canal Handles Ship Traffic

The locks of most canals elsewhere in the world are used for a single purpose—either to move ships up to a higher body of water or to move them down to a lower body. The Panama locks, however, literally take ships up the side of a hill and down again. From the air the locks look like giant steps. They are built in pairs for two-way traffic, though occasionally they guide parallel traffic in the same direction. Ships traveling through the canal’s original locks must pass through a series of three sets of locks. From Atlantic to Pacific, those are the Gatún, the Pedro Miguel, and the Miraflores locks. The latter two are part of the twisting Gaillard (Culebra) Cut, an 81/2-mile (12.6-kilometer) stretch that constitutes the narrowest portion of the canal. In addition, two new sets of three-step locks, one at either end of the canal, were built in 2007–16 to increase the canal’s capacity and to accommodate larger ships.

A transit, or passage of a ship through the canal, is planned carefully. While it is still far out at sea, an approaching vessel, depending upon its position, radios either the office of the port captain in Cristóbal, on the Atlantic side, or in Balboa, on the Pacific side. Marine traffic-control centers prepare transit plans. Some ships are classed as “clear cuts.” This means that the canal must be cleared of oncoming traffic and then certain sections opened only to one-way traffic. A daylight clear cut is a ship that can proceed safely only in the daytime in a one-way channel. A large ship or a vessel with dangerous cargo may fall into that category. Ships not restricted to daylight passage can move through the canal at night; lighting installed in some stretches of the canal facilitates night traffic. The locks-division chief keeps the control centers posted on any event that might change the transit scheduling.

The movement of a ship through a lock is called a lockage. Sometimes more than one vessel moves through a lock at the same time. That is called a tandem lockage.

Into the Lock Chamber

A ship from the Atlantic side traveling through the original locks enters the first Gatún lock chamber at sea level. Huge miter gates close behind. The gates are 7 feet (2 meters) thick, with compartments of concrete. The largest of the original Panama Canal gates, at Miraflores, weigh some 730 tons and are 82 feet (25 meters) high, as tall as a six-story building. Despite their size the gates are delicately balanced on their pintles, or pivot pins. A hydraulic drive swings each gate leaf.

A lockmaster walks on the wall beside the ship. Only on his order are the locks opened or closed or the water level changed. He uses hand signals or a telephone to give orders to the control-house operator. In the control house the operator watches indicators arranged on a miniature set of locks. When he presses a switch to open a pair of the giant lock gates outside, a pair of tiny gates on the control table duplicates the action. Indicators show the degree of opening of the water valves and the height of the water in each lock chamber.

Gravity Helps the Locks Work

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The water in the original locks flows by the force of gravity from one chamber to another through longitudinal culverts below the lock walls. Those culverts are 18 feet (5.5 meters) in diameter. Lateral culverts, which measure 31/2 feet (1.1 meters) in diameter, carry the water to openings in the chamber floor. The water rises until level with the water in the next chamber. A rising-stem gate valve shuts off the flow. The gates ahead open, and the ship moves into the next lock chamber, where the process will be repeated.

While the lockmaster is directing his crews, a canal pilot aboard the ship also has special duties. He is responsible for the safe navigation of the vessel. With radio signals or semaphore-like arm signals, he gives orders to the operators of the electric towing locomotives. Those engines, nicknamed “mules,” ride tracks on both sides of the original locks. The operators acknowledge the pilot’s signals with two taps on a bell.

The locomotives have a vital chore. They must keep the ship centered in the lock. Depending upon the size and type of the ship, from four to eight mules are needed for a lockage. Towing cables between the ship and the locomotives are kept taut during the lockage. The mules in front keep a forward pull on the cables. Those in the rear maintain a backward stress.

On each locomotive is a windlass with a drum to adjust the towing cables as water levels are changed. Slack is wound on the drum by a coiling motor. Friction slip disks permit the cables to yield at a 25,000-pound (11,340-kilogram) pull. The towing cables are under a severe strain during a lockage. They are one inch thick and are made of steel strands that have a total breaking strength of some 78,000 pounds (35,380 kilograms). Cogs prevent the locomotives from slipping as they climb the steep inclines from one lock-wall level to the next.

After a ship from the Atlantic side passes through the three Gatún locks, it is about 89 feet (27 meters) above sea level. At that height the vessel proceeds roughly 23 miles (37 kilometers) across the man-made Gatún Lake to Gamboa, where it enters Gaillard Cut, which crosses the Continental Divide. After traveling 8 miles (12.6 kilometers) down the cut, the vessel approaches the Pedro Miguel Lock, a single-chambered lock that lowers the vessel roughly 31 feet (9.4 meters) to Lake Miraflores. The ship then traverses a one-mile- (1.6-kilometer-) long channel to the two-chambered locks at Miraflores, which lower the vessel to sea level. After the ship passes out of the Miraflores Locks, it must navigate a final 7-mile (11-kilometer) passage before it reaches the Pacific Ocean.

Third Set of Locks Project

The Panama Canal’s capacity was doubled by the Third Set of Locks Project, completed in 2016. As part of the project, the sea entrances and some of the existing navigational channels were enlarged. Two larger lock complexes also were built to allow a new generation of supersized vessels, called “neo-Panamax” ships, to use the canal. The canal can now accommodate ships that are up to about 160 feet (50 meters) wide, 1,200 feet (365 meters) long, and 50 feet (15 meters) deep. One of the new lock systems is on the Pacific side of the canal, while the other is on the Atlantic side. An access channel was built to connect the new Pacific lock complex with the Gaillard Cut.

Each of the new locks has three levels. Some 190,000 tons of steel were entrenched in heavily reinforced concrete to build the lock chambers. The new lock complexes have 16 gates, which measure about 190 feet (58 meters) in length and up to 33 feet (10 meters) in width. The largest gate is more than 100 feet (30 meters) high. Unlike the miter gates of the original locks, the new locks use rolling gates.

New chambers and basins were built to control the water flowing from Gatún Lake. These were designed to minimize the turbulence of water flow and the disturbance to ships using the canal. Built with a water-saving design, the enormous new basins allow for a 60 percent reuse of water.

A Huge Water Supply Is Needed

Enormous quantities of water are needed to keep the Panama Canal locks operating. For a single ship traveling through the canal’s original locks, about 52 million gallons (200,000 kiloliters) of water are released into the oceans. The new locks use 48 million gallons (182 million liters) of water per trip. To keep the locks supplied with water, the early canal builders created Gatún Lake, which covers 163 square miles (422 square kilometers). The lake is held back by Gatún Dam, across the Chagres River. A smaller reserve of water to the east is Alajuela Lake (formerly Lake Madden). It was formed by Madden Dam, completed in 1935. Both dams also are used to generate electricity.

For proper lock operation, the level of Gatún Lake must be maintained at a sufficient height. The spillways of the two dams are regulated to control the water level. The expansion project completed in 2016 raised the maximum operating level of Gatún Lake to 89 feet (27 meters) above sea level. The goal was to increase the lake’s usable water reserves by a daily average of 165 million gallons (625 million liters).

Practical control of the lake’s height is possible only with advance information on the rainfall in the drainage basins, comprising about 1,300 square miles (3,370 square kilometers). Previously, workers regularly went by boat to read water-level and rain gauges, but the trips were long and difficult. An answer to that difficulty was found in hydrologic telemeters. Those devices are microwave radio transmitters that broadcast rainfall and river-level measurements from remote unmanned stations. The system may also be used for voice communication between maintenance workers at the distant stations and the main office at Balboa Heights, near Balboa.

Maintenance

Continual maintenance work on the canal and its facilities is needed to keep it in operation in a tropical climate. That work includes dredging channels, scheduling overhauls of locks, and repairing and replacing machinery. Because of heavy rainfall and unstable soils, landslides in the hills adjoining Gaillard Cut have been a problem on and off since the canal was built. Preventive measures and repairs frequently have been required to keep the channel open. A program to stabilize the channel’s banks was designed to draw away rainfall that might otherwise undercut its slopes. Two major landslides have occurred since 1970, the first in 1974 and the second in 1986; in both cases one-way traffic had to be imposed for a time in the affected area.

Another serious problem threatening the canal has been the increased silting of the rivers and streams of the watershed and, ultimately, of the canal itself. That problem has been caused by the slash-and-burn farming techniques practiced in the area. Although the canal watershed was still completely forested in the early 1950s, by the late 1970s it had been reduced by nearly 70 percent. The governments of both the United States and Panama have undertaken measures to control soil erosion.

Economics of the Canal

About 32 oceangoing vessels pass through the canal daily. Fees are charged per ton and are slightly lower for empty ships relative to those laden with cargo. Large commercial ships typically pay tens of thousands of dollars or more in fees. Following its transit through the canal in April 2010, the luxury liner Norwegian Pearl paid more than $375,000 in fees. The fees are well spent, for the trip of some 8 to 10 hours through the canal saves many miles and many days of travel. If there were no Panama Canal, a ship going from San Francisco, California, to New York City would have to sail down around the tip of South America—an additional 7,900 nautical miles, some of them in very rough seas. Refrigerated cargo ships from Australia use the Panama Canal as a shortcut in voyages to Great Lakes ports via the St. Lawrence Seaway.

An almost endless variety of commodities passes through the canal day after day. About 320 million tons of oceangoing commercial cargo are shipped through the canal in a single year. Major commodity groups include petroleum and petroleum products, grains, and chemical products. A significant development in canal cargo has been an increase in automobile trade. Over 4.2 million tons of automobiles are moved through the canal every year, most being transported from Japan to the United States.

Vessels using the canal sail under the flags of more than 70 countries. A small percentage of the world’s water shipping is routed through the canal. The greatest user is the United States, which transports much of its imports from Latin American neighbors through the watercourse.

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In fiscal 1915, the first year of operation, about 5 million tons of cargo were shipped through the Panama Canal. In 1924, 27 million tons were carried through it. Between 1925 and 1941 the annual tonnage varied between 18 million and 31 million. There was a dip in total cargo during World War II, but thereafter nearly every year showed an increase. The figure for 1950 was some 30 million tons. By the early 1960s the volume had almost doubled. During the late 1960s, largely as a result of the Suez Canal blockade, tonnage shipped through the Panama Canal rose to well over 100 million tons annually.

Military Importance of the Canal

If the Gatún Dam or locks were destroyed, the lake would drain. It would take several years for the lake to refill from the watersheds after the dam or lock repairs were made. Those facts have long been of concern to the military.

Wartime Threats to the Canal

The Panama Canal survived two world wars without damage. But what would another conflict bring? In recent years the United States has maintained a two-ocean navy, which somewhat diminishes the importance of the canal for U.S. warship transit. The canal, however, remains vital for carrying wartime supplies.

In 1989 part of the area around the canal itself was the scene of fighting during the United States’ invasion of Panama. For the first time in its history, the canal was shut down for one day so that ships traveling through it would not be damaged.

A Sea-Level Canal Is Considered

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A sea-level canal would be less vulnerable to ship-blocking damage than one depending upon locks. Engineers say a single lock to compensate for tidal changes might be required, but it would be in use only part of the time. A sea-level canal would also need less maintenance. When one side of each of the original pairs of locks is closed for repairs, traffic bottlenecks result.

A third set of locks was under construction 3,000 feet from the original locks, but the project was abandoned in 1942 because of World War II priorities. The work was not resumed after the war. Improvements that began in the 1960s included the widening of Gaillard Cut to permit two-way traffic through it. A consulting board suggested a study of possible sea-level routes using Colombia’s lower Atrato River and its tributaries. Other routes in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mexico have been proposed.

Estimates of the cost of a sea-level canal have ranged from $2.3 billion to more than $40 billion. The time required to build it has been placed at from 5 to 20 years, employing the usual methods of construction. With more-modern techniques the time could be much less.

History of the Canal’s Construction

A sea-level canal is not a new idea. It was considered when interest in a canal developed in the 16th century. In 1534 King Charles I of Spain ordered a survey to determine the possibility of a canal in the Panama region. He abandoned his plans when the Spanish governor there made an unfavorable report.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa had been the first European to see the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean, in 1513. He sighted the vast ocean from a peak some miles southeast of the eventual Panama Canal location. The Pacific port of the canal, Balboa, was named in his honor.

For years the Spaniards searched in vain for a natural waterway joining the two oceans. Eventually they brought their gold and silver from Peru and other South American colonies to Panama City on the Pacific side. Mule trains carried the treasure through narrow trails to Portobello or Nombre de Dios on the Caribbean. Ships there loaded the cargo for shipment to Spain. Pirates frequently raided Panama.

A Gold Rush Spurs Interest in a Canal

Growing world trade and the discovery of gold in California in 1849 boosted interest in cross-country transportation. There was no coast-to-coast railway in the United States. Gold-hungry throngs from the Eastern states went by ship to the Isthmus of Panama, then hiked overland to the Pacific, where they embarked to seek fortune in California.

In 1855 a railroad built by the United States was completed between Colón and the city of Panama. Malaria, yellow fever, and the bubonic plague took a heavy toll during the construction. Europeans and North Americans had especially poor resistance to those diseases. More than 800 railroad workmen are said to have died of disease before the project was completed. Reports of the death toll and other hardships, however, did not discourage those who dreamed of the next step—a water crossing.

Many Routes Are Proposed

More than 20 routes for such a crossing were proposed. Locations were surveyed in areas ranging from one end of the isthmus to the other. A number placed the proposed canal close to the routes mentioned for a new sea-level canal today. Rocky ridges were an obstacle. Some plans called for tunnels through them to accommodate stretches of the canal. One proposal was for a railway to carry fully laden ships across Mexico’s Isthmus of Tehuantepec on a mammoth platform drawn by steam engines. That plan, developed by Captain James Buchanan Eads, a prominent U.S. engineer, was given serious consideration.

In 1850 the United States Senate ratified the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Great Britain. That agreement provided for the neutrality of the canal whenever it was built. The Spanish-American War focused attention on the need for a way to move warships quickly between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

A French Attempt Ends in Failure

Actual construction of a sea-level canal was begun in 1882 by a French company under Ferdinand de Lesseps. He had completed the Suez Canal in 1869. By comparison, however, building the Suez Canal had been simple. Mismanagement, dishonesty, and terrible epidemics of disease in Panama forced the French company into bankruptcy in 1889. During seven years of digging, an estimated 22,000 men had died of tropical diseases. This was equivalent to wiping out the entire construction crew twice, for the total number of men employed at any one time did not average more than 10,000.

It was not yet known that the deadly malaria and yellow fever were caused by bites of certain mosquitoes. Serious errors were made in sanitation. French physicians were said to have ordered the legs of hospital beds placed in water to keep ants and other crawling bugs from the patients. The water became an additional breeding place for mosquitoes, which already were swarming in from marshes, streams, and pools in the hot rainy region.

U.S. Engineers Take On the Project

In June 1902 the United States agreed to buy the concession of the French company for $40 million if Colombia would cede a strip of land across the isthmus. A treaty was signed in 1903, but the Colombian senate was reluctant to ratify it. Angered company agents and Panamanian businessmen plotted secession from Colombia. With covert support from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, the Panamanians launched a successful revolution and declared Panama a republic. Two weeks later the United States signed a treaty with Panama. The United States agreed to pay the country $10 million plus $250,000 a year for the use, occupation, and administration of a 10-mile- (16-kilometer- ) wide strip along the canal, 5 miles on each side.

Credit goes to two U.S. Army colonels for succeeding where the French had failed. Colonel George Washington Goethals, as engineer in chief after 1907, directed construction. Colonel William Crawford Gorgas of the Medical Corps, as chief sanitary officer, led the battle against disease. Later both men became major generals.

The United States took possession of the canal property on May 4, 1904. The first 21/2 years were devoted to the careful preparation that brought health and efficiency when actual construction started.

Gorgas Conquers the Mosquito

Two medical discoveries had been made that prepared the way for the achievement of Colonel Gorgas. In 1897 Ronald Ross, an English army surgeon, had discovered that malaria is transmitted by the bite of the Anophelesmosquito. In 1901 Major Walter Reed, a surgeon in the U.S. Army, and his associates had proved that yellow fever is passed from person to person by the Aedes mosquito. Gorgas himself, while serving as chief sanitary officer in Havana, Cuba, had directed the development of practical methods of sanitation based on those discoveries. With that invaluable knowledge and experience as a guide, he set to work to make the Canal Zone a safe place for people to work, live, and raise their families.

Gorgas drained every lake, swamp, pond, and ditch that could be emptied. Over those that could not be drained, he spread a film of oil to destroy mosquito eggs and larvae. He cut grass jungles to the ground, destroyed vermin, and burned rubbish. He raised all buildings above the ground and screened windows, doors, and porches. He ordered householders to cover every vessel that held water.

All railway cars were screened, and a hospital car was added to every train. Hospitals were built for isolation and treatment. Cities were given sewers and pure water. Ships coming from disease-ridden areas were placed under strict quarantine. To guard against bubonic plague, rats and fleas were killed and houses made ratproof.

Gorgas began his work in June 1904. In late 1905 the last case of yellow fever occurred in the Canal Zone. The conquest of malaria was slower, but the number of cases dropped year by year. By 1914, when the canal was opened, only 82 out of each 1,000 employees were being hospitalized with malaria. During 1914 only 7 employees died of the disease. With an average of 39,000 employees during the 10 years of construction, the deaths from all causes averaged only 663 each year. That death rate of 17 per 1,000 was lower than the rate in many U.S. cities during the same period.

When he first went to Panama, Gorgas called it the most unhealthful place in the world. Today the former Canal Zone is said to be one of the world’s most healthful places. Few disease-carrying or pest insects are now found in the area. Here was one of the most impressive victories ever won by science against disease, and the cost of all the sanitary measures involved was about a penny a day for each inhabitant.

Equipment Is Assembled

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Construction preparations were carried out under the supervision of the Isthmian Canal Commission, appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt. John F. Stevens was chief engineer. To recruit the large workforce required, the commission set up agencies in the United States, Europe, and the West Indies. Meanwhile, buildings were started and equipment assembled to house, feed, and safeguard the employees. Unskilled or semiskilled workers were paid in silver coin, and the skilled craftsmen and those occupying executive, professional, and higher clerical positions were paid in gold. That classification of workers into “silver” and “gold” employees persisted long after the canal opened. Much later they were all paid in paper money.

The construction equipment that had to be assembled included mammoth steam shovels, locomotives, trackshifters, pile drivers, dredges, steamboats, and tugs. The railway was reorganized. A civil government for the Canal Zone was established, with courts, a police force, fire companies, and a customs and revenue service. A postal system was organized.

Goethals Takes Control

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When Stevens resigned in 1907, President Roosevelt appointed Colonel Goethals chief engineer and chairman of the Canal Commission. He had complete control of construction. From then on the work was done by the government under army supervision instead of by private contractors.

The construction of the canal was a 40-mile- (65-kilometer- ) long panorama of industry. Toiling under the blazing tropical sun in the mighty cuts were legions of sweating laborers. Some worked with pick, shovel, and crowbar; others with drill and dynamite in the stone cuts. Series of cableways and a network of railway tracks ran everywhere. Mighty derricks and cranes swung huge buckets of concrete through the air and lowered them into the forms to build locks and embankments. Powerful drills bored holes into solid rock at the rate of seven feet an hour. The arms of monster dipper dredges rose and fell from barges afloat in swamps and bays.

More than 100 steam shovels doing the work of 10,000 people dug up earth in 8-ton scoopfuls and dumped it into waiting railroad cars. One hundred fifteen locomotives hauled trains of those cars to the dumps. There a great plow traveled from one end of the train to the other, unloading 20 cars, each carrying 60 tons, in less than 10 minutes. The earth that was excavated totaled more than 238 million cubic yards (183 million cubic meters), enough to make a line of 70 pyramids each the size of the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. That earth was used to build Gatún Dam, fill low places, and build breakwaters for the new port of Balboa.

Dynamite charges of as much as 40,000 pounds (about 17,400 kilograms) at a time blasted away at mountains of the Continental Divide. Cuts averaging 120 feet (36.5 meters) deep were made there. A spirit of competition grew among the three construction divisions—the Central, Atlantic, and Pacific. The work progressed in the face of constant difficulties. Once there was an earthquake. Heavy rains that brought terrific landslides in Culebra Cut often undid the work of months. The Chagres River, flowing down the Atlantic side, was particularly troublesome because of its floods. That problem was solved when Gatún Dam was constructed from earth and rock. The finished dam is 11/2 miles (2.4 kilometers) long, 1/2mile (0.8 kilometer) wide at the base, and 100 feet (30 meters) wide at the top.

The Canal Is Completed

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On October 10, 1913, President Woodrow Wilson, 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) away in the White House in Washington, D.C., pressed a button. The resulting electric impulse flashed over cables to set off a charge of dynamite. That blew out a temporary dike. A flood of water rushed through a rock-walled rift in the mountains, and the Panama Canal was a dream realized.

The greatest engineering wonder of the world had been achieved by U.S. engineers at a cost of $380 million. The Canal Zone marked the historic day by placing a new motto on its official seal: “The Land Divided, the World United.” On August 15, 1914, the canal was opened to world commerce. The first ship through was the vessel Ancon, carrying guests of honor. After 400 years, the first explorers’ dream of a westward passage had come true.

The French company had planned a canal 74 feet (23 meters) wide. The United States set a minimum of 300 feet (90 meters). During the years, dredging has further enlarged some portions of the canal. Many stretches have been widened to at least 500 feet (150 meters). Gaillard Cut, twisting through deep passes, has continued to be a problem. In 1954 cracks appeared in Contractor’s Hill and threatened to slide a mountain of earth and rock into the canal. Almost 2.5 million cubic yards (1.9 million cubic meters) were excavated to reduce the hazard. The regular uprooting of water hyacinths is also necessary. The plants grow so rapidly they could choke off canal traffic.

Nature Island on Gatún Lake

As Gatún Lake filled in from the surrounding watershed, animals fled to the highest point of land. They climbed to what was to become Barro Colorado, the largest island on the lake. The island covers 3,600 acres (1,500 hectares). That retreat became a natural reservation. In 1923 James Zetek, a U.S. Department of Agriculture entomologist, recommended that the island be used for biological research. A congressional act set it aside for that purpose in 1940. Zetek became curator. It was first part of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1946 administration was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution.

On the island are more than 100 species of mammals, some 80 forms of reptiles, more than 1,000 types of insects, and more than 2,000 kinds of plants, as well as hundreds of varieties of fungi and algae. The preserve gradually became more significant as animal life elsewhere in Panama steadily retreated from expanding civilization.

Expansion in the 21st Century

Several projects to improve the Panama Canal were completed in the 20th century. Despite such improvements, many supertankers and large naval vessels were still too large to pass through the canal. Officials studied whether it would be better to widen the existing canal and locks or to construct a larger sea-level canal at another location. In the end, they concluded that building a sea-level canal would be too expensive and might damage the environment. Instead, in 2006 the government and voters of Panama backed the Third Set of Locks Project, an expansion program that ultimately cost $5.2 billion. Groundbreaking on the project began in September 2007. The construction was scheduled to end in 2014, in time for the canal’s 100th anniversary, but delays pushed the project completion to June 2016.

The project added two new sets of locks, one on each end of the canal, to allow the passage of supersized ships. The new lock systems were inspired by the Berendrecht lock in Antwerp, Belgium, and by water-saving basins used in canals in Germany. The project also increased the width of Gatún Lake’s navigational channels to 920 feet (280 meters) in the straight sections and 1,200 feet (366 meters) at the turning points. The maximum operating level of Gatún Lake was raised to increase its usable water reserves. Furthermore, the project included four phases of dry excavation that created a new Pacific access channel. The channel extends 3.8 miles (6.1 kilometers) to connect the new Pacific locks with the Gaillard Cut. The expansion project also widened and deepened the existing navigational channels and deepened the cut. Each sea-entrance navigation channel was widened to 738 feet (225 meters) and deepened to at least 18 feet (15.5 meters) below the lowest tide levels. The project doubled the canal’s capacity.

The canal expansion required an enormous amount of concrete. Two concrete plants operated 24 hours a day, six days a week. They were supported by a system of trucks, barges, conveyor belts, stockpiles, crushers, and coolers. At the height of construction, 8,000 tons of rock and sand were transported each day from the Pacific side to the Atlantic side by barge. The materials were then carried by as many as 60 trucks to the site. The rock and sand were added to concrete mixes and applied to different sections of the locks. An on-site quarry operation produced basalt for the concrete mixes.

Government of the Canal Zone

Today, the Panama Canal is governed by the Panama Canal Authority, an agency of the government of Panama. Until 1979 the United States governed the Panama Canal Zone. The Panama Canal Company, which operated the canal, was a corporation. Like a business corporation in the United States, the company had a president and a board of directors. It delivered annual reports to its “stockholder,” and its net income was referred to as “profit.”

The U.S. Army administered the canal and the zone surrounding it. The secretary of the Army was designated as the sole stockholder. The governor of the Canal Zone was a major general and was appointed by the president of the United States. He was also ex officio president of the Panama Canal Company. He was assisted by various department heads, who administered nearly all requirements of more than 10,000 full-time U.S. and Panamanian employees of the zone.

The Panama Canal Company formerly operated several 10,000-ton ocean liners, which composed the Panama Line. Those ships regularly carried government and commercial cargo and passengers between New York City and Cristóbal. In 1960, however, the United States government ordered the line to stop competing with private ships. After April 1961 only one ship was retained. It carried government cargo and passengers between New Orleans and Cristóbal.

A new treaty, which became effective on October 1, 1979, changed the governance of the area surrounding the canal. The Panama Canal Zone ceased to exist as a separate jurisdiction, and the area came under the control of the Panamanian government. The United States retained the use of only that land necessary to the operation and defense of the canal. The Panama Canal Company was replaced by the Panama Canal Commission, an agency with both U.S. and Panamanian membership.

The Panama Canal Authority took over management of the canal on December 31, 1999. It was created by an amendment to the Panamanian constitution as an autonomous agency of the Panamanian government. The Panama Canal Authority is charged with the administration, operation, conservation, maintenance, and modernization of the Panama Canal. It is also responsible for the care, maintenance, and preservation of water resources in the entire Panama Canal watershed. The watershed is essential to the operation of the canal, and it also supplies water to cities at either end of the canal route.

The Panama Canal Authority is governed by a board of directors that consists of 11 members. The chairman, who has the rank of minister of state for canal affairs, is selected by the president of Panama.

Political History

The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, made with Great Britain in 1901, reversed the neutrality provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The United States was given exclusive ownership of the canal and permitted to fortify it and its approaches (seeMcKinley, William, “The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty”).

The basic provisions of the 1903 treaty, which gave the United States the right to operate and control the canal, were not altered for 75 years. That treaty granted the use, occupation, and control of the Canal Zone to the United States “in perpetuity.” It further provided that those rights be possessed by the United States “as if it were the sovereign.” The wording of that phrase was singled out by Panamanians who insisted that Panama was the real sovereign. The United States referred to Panama as the titular (in name only) sovereign.

The history of the canal shows a number of minor treaty concessions to Panama. In 1936, after devaluation of the dollar, the United States increased the annual payment to Panama for use of the zone from $250,000 to $430,000. By the early 1970s the payments had risen to $2,330,000 a year.

A 1955 treaty restricted U.S. commissaries and post exchanges to zone residents. Previously they had drawn trade from Panamanians living outside the zone, and local merchants had complained. In addition, the United States agreed to build a $20 million bridge across the canal at Balboa as a link in the Pan American Highway. The 1955 treaty, confirmed by Congress in 1958, also promised equal pay and working conditions for Panamanian and U.S. employees of the zone.

In November 1959 Panamanians rioted, demanding that Panama’s flag be flown in the Canal Zone to show Panama’s titular sovereignty over the area. In 1963 an agreement provided that both flags be flown wherever the United States flag was displayed by civilian authorities. On January 7, 1964, students at Balboa High School in the Canal Zone raised the U.S. flag alone. That led to three days of rioting; U.S. troops were called out, and there were heavy casualties. Panama broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, but relations were resumed on April 4.

Late in 1964 the United States announced its willingness to negotiate a new treaty. In 1974 the United States and Panama reached an agreement on final negotiating principles and in 1977 signed two new treaties. Panamanian students rioted to protest continuing U.S. control of the canal, and there was strong opposition to the treaties in the United States. The treaties were approved by the Panamanians in a referendum in 1977, however, and were ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1978.

One treaty guaranteed the neutrality of the canal. The other treaty abolished the Canal Zone as a U.S. jurisdiction and prepared for the gradual takeover of the canal by Panama by the year 2000. With the treaty’s implementation on October 1, 1979, the canal came under the control of the Panama Canal Commission, an agency of five Americans and four Panamanians. Although the United States appointed all members of the commission, the Panamanian government recommended the Panamanian members. Until 1990 the administrator was to be from the United States, and after that date, from Panama. The annual payment to Panama was increased to $10 million, with a fixed annuity of $10 million, 30 cents for each ton of shipping, and an annual amount of up to $10 million to be paid out of profits. On December 31, 1999, control of the canal passed to Panama.

The need to improve or replace the canal has been discussed for many years. In 1985 the United States, Japan, and Panama signed an agreement to study the relative feasibility of three alternatives: widening the canal, constructing a new sea-level canal, and constructing additional transport systems with pipelines, a modernized railroad, and freeways. Many technological improvements have been made in the areas of traffic control, maintenance, and capacity expansion. Computers and a closed-circuit-television surveillance system are used to control traffic. For the first time, the canal was closed for about a day to prevent damage to ships when U.S. troops invaded Panama on December 20, 1989, in order to overthrow the regime of General Manuel Noriega. The 47.6-mile (76.6-kilometer) transcontinental railroad underwent major renovations and repairs during the 1990s and reopened in the fall of 2001.

The Third Set of Locks Project (see “Expansion in the 21st Century” above), a major expansion program, was completed in 2016. It inspired numerous articles, reports, and studies considering how the passage of supersized ships through the canal would affect global shipping patterns. In the United States, many East Coast ports undertook expansion and modernization programs in anticipation of increasing amounts of those large ships, which require deeper channels. However, the global recession in 2008 brought greater uncertainty about economic growth and trade.

Despite uncertainties in future shipping patterns, the Third Set of Locks Project brought global attention to Panama. Unlike in the original construction of the canal, the Panamanians controlled the expansion. The Panama Control Authority signed multiple partnership agreements with port authorities and other entities throughout the Americas and the world.

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