The concessions
accorded in Russia to the Jewish traders from Bukhara helped to disseminate
the notion that the situation of the Jews in the Russian Empire was good,
and when Russia conquered Central Asia in 1864–88 the Jews welcomed
the Russians and even aided them, for example in the conquest of Samarkand
(1868). According to the 1868 peace treaty, Bukhara, which had been decisively
defeated, became a vassal of Russia and other parts of its territories,
including Samarkand and several other towns with a Jewish population,
were incorporated into the region (kray) of Turkistan, which was annexed
directly to the Russian Empire. In the first few years, the Russians took
several measures to gain the allegiance of Central Asian Jewry, which
they regarded as the only loyal element within the native population.

The regime did not restrict Jewish autonomy, and only
added to the communal structure the office of official rabbi (kazyonny
ravvin), whose functions were similar to those of the official rabbis
in other areas of the Russian Empire. The Russian-Bukharan peace treaty
included three paragraphs that defined the rights of the Jews of Bukhara
to live freely in Russia, to trade freely there, and to purchase real
estate within its borders. In 1866 and 1872 it was decreed that the Jews
of Bukhara and two other states in Central Asia, Khiva and Khuqand, or,
in the Russian pronunciation Kokand (in the former, which became a Russian
vassal in 1873, there were, in effect, no Jews, while the latter was abolished
in 1876 and its territory annexed directly to Russia) would be granted
Russian citizenship even if they resided in these countries, on condition
that they join the trade guilds in Russia (thus exempting them from the
law that denied Russian citizenship to "alien" Jews).

This policy aided Bukharan Jewry in acquiring a powerful
status in trade relations, both with Central Asia and in trade with central
Russia. Bukharan Jews established trading companies which opened branches
in the large Russian cities as well as factories for the initial processing
of local products, especially cotton and silk (the most known of them—the
Va'adiyayev, the Potilahov and the Dividov companies). The local Jewish
trader and industrialist, familiar with local conditions, had the advantage
in competition with his Russian counterpart who was new to the area.

At the same time the Emir of Bukhara and his government
attempted to make of the Jews that remained within the borders of the
kingdom scapegoats for their defeat, persecuting them and extorting money
from them. These decrees resulted in the mass emigration of Jews from
Bukhara to Turkistan. The Jewish population increased greatly in Samarkand,
Tashkent and other cities. Fierce competition between the local Jewish
tradesmen and industrialists and their Russian rivals and the movement
of Jews from Bukhara to Turkistan were the main causes for the imposition
of discriminatory measures against the Jews of Central Asia as early as
the 1880s. In secret government circulars these measures were explained
unequivocably as necessary to protect the Russian traders and industrialists
and to limit the number of "native" Jews in the Turkistan region.

In the year when the Russian conquest of Central Asia
was completed (1888), the Russian authorities decreed the expulsion of
the Jews from all the towns of the Trans-Caspian kray, which covered approximately
the territory of the present-day Turkman Soviet Republic. However, implementation
was postponed indefinitely for fear of damaging the interests of the Russian
traders engaged in trade with the local Jews. At the same time a decree
was issued (but in a short period of time suspended) closing the synagogues
in Merv. In 1887–89 new regulations were issued that divided the
Bukharan Jews who lived in the Turkistan kray, into two categories: "native
Jews of the Turkistan kray", i.e., the Jews who had lived in what
was now the kray before the conquest and their direct descendants, and
those who could not prove that they or their ancestors were natives of
the kray.

The former were granted equal rights with the local Muslims,
while the latter (as well as the Jews from Iran and Afghanistan who were
in Turkistan) were regarded from a legal standpoint as foreign citizens.
Their rights were restricted and it was stipulated that by 1905 they were
"to return to their place of residence," i.e., within the borders
of the Bukharan khanate. From 1900 on they were permitted to reside only
in three border settlements—Osh, Katta-Qurghan and Petro-Alexandrovsk
(now T[rtkEl)—three townlets which were not industrially developed
and located away from the trade routes.

The possibility of obtaining Russian citizenship, accorded
in regulations between 1866 and and 1872, remained merely theoretical
and its realization became very difficult. In 1892 the general governor
of the Turkistan region issued a secret circular severely restricting
the entry into the region of Jews residing within the boundaries of Bukhara.
Czar Nicholas II himself added a note to the protocol of the government
session held on November 20, 1898, defining the policy of the regime in
Central Asia towards the Jews as follows:

To protect the General Governorship (region)
of Turkistan and the General Governorship of the Steppes (i.e., the
Kazak and Kirgiz areas conquered by Russia in the second half of the
19th century) from the harmful activities of the Jews, so long as this
is possible.

However, already in 1900 it was evident that it would
not be possible to implement the proscription. The authorities were confronted
by the mutual responsibility of the members of the community, who protected
the "aliens" in their midst and covered up for them, thus preventing
the attempt to banish individuals, and even groups of Jews. The Jews were
also aided by the lack of organization and the confusion in the Russian
administration of the region. Moreover, the lower echelons of officialdom,
whose task it was to carry out these orders, often accepted bribes and
ignored the presence of the "aliens." Implementation of the
decree was thus postponed first till 1909 and then till 1910, and in the
meantime, the chief rabbi of Turkistan, R. Salomon Tajer, intervened in
this matter.

He appealed to the government, using the assistance of
advocates who were well-versed in the law and wealthy Bukharan traders,
and thus the town Khuqand, Marghelan, and Samarkand were added to the
list of places where residence was permitted. In 1910 the committee of
Count Pahlen, entrusted with the task of examining the situation in the
Turkistan region, recommended that additional decrees be issued against
the Jews residing there. One of the high officials of the local regime
announced publicly in that same year that the Jews are "robbers of
the people" and "counterfeiters of documents."

He ended his statement thus: "It is to be expected
that the people itself will issue a sentence against the Jews." This
was an open call to the masses to terrorize the Jews. Indeed, already
in January 1911 a memorandum to the authorities by a high official reported
that "the local population [i.e., the Muslims] demands that all the
Jews be banished," and that it "requests permission to massacre
them." During these years the press and literature of local Muslim
modernists (jadids) displayed hostility towards the Jew (and the Armenian),
the "robber", and usually depict an image of a Jewish tradesman
"robbing" the local Muslim tradesmen of their profits, since
the latter do not know how to compete with him.

With the outbreak of World War I, there was a violent
upheaval within the Muslim population of Central Asia, that in 1916 became
an open revolt which the Czarist army managed to subdue only with great
difficulty. The Jewish problem thus lost some of its urgency. But even
during the course of World War I, as is attested in secret documents of
the period, the rulers continued to formulate decrees directed against
the Jews.

The Russian conquest aided in the establishment of a
stratum of tradesmen and industrialists within Bukharan Jewry that was
limited in number but had significant economic power and ability to compete.
Nevertheless, the new conditions brought about the impoverishment of the
masses of Bukharan Jewry since the importation of the cotton and silk
cloths that were produced in Russian industrial enterprises resulted in
the elimination of the major occupation of the Jews of Bukhara—the
dyeing of cloths. The impoverished craftsmen turned to other professions.
Thus, by the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, hairdressing
and shoe-shining and repairing became the almost exclusive monopoly of
the Jews in Central Asia; many of them also became petty traders.

The advent of the Russian regime brought changes also
in the field of education. Alongside the khomlo (heder), schools were
established that taught some basic principles of secular culture. The
teachers were mostly Bukharan Jews who had been educated in Jerusalem,
where a Bukharan community had been established. In addition secular schools
supported by the regime were established "Russian—native Jewish
schools," in which the language of instruction was Russian. The first
periodical in the language of the Bukharan Jews, entitled Rahamim, began
to appear in 1910 in the town of Skobelev (now Ferghana) and continued
to be published until 1916.