All about blood types - ABO and Rh blood groups. Who donates to whom? How are blood types inherited? What are the medical issues involved with transfusions? DON'T memorize that donor / recipient table - watch this video instead!
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VIDEO DETAILS:
Blood Groups: ABO and Rh
Blood Group Systems
32 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion
The most important of these: ABO blood group system and Rh blood group system
Discovery of ABO Blood Types
ABO blood types were discovered in 1900 by Dr. Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna
He wondered why some patients died as a result of blood transfusions and others did not
Inheritance
Blood types are inherited genetic traits (like eye color, hair color, etc.)
ABO Analogy: Donuts and Sprinkles
donut = red blood cell
A sprinkles = A antigens
B sprinkles = B antigens
no sprinkles = no antigens (plain donut)
What are the antigens chemically?
Alleles in the ABO System
i = base (plain donut)
IA = encodes A antigens
IB = encodes B antigens
Allele Combinations
ii
IAIA or IAi
IBIB or IBi
IAIB
Antigens and Antibodies
The antigens you have on your blood cells are recognized by your immune system as SELF antigens
If foreign antigens are discovered in your body, antibodies (or immunoglobulins) will be made by B cells of the immune system
Antibody Structure
Antigen + Antibody = agglutination reaction
Agglutination = the clumping of particles
Latin: agglutinare meaning 'to glue'
Mixing of all blood groups and the result
KEY: CANNOT transfuse if foreign antigens are introduced!!!
The Rh Antigen
Inherited in Mendelian fashion!
Medical issue: Rh- mother and Rh+ fetus
Good News...
Rho(D) Globulin Treatment
("RhoGAM")

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This video will guide you on how to test blood group at home with the help of Anti A, B and D (Rh) monoclonal antibody reagents.
Blood typing procedure:
1. Mix! First mix the each drop of blood with three different reagents including either of the three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies!
2. Look for agglutination! Then you look at what has happened. ...
3. Figure out the ABO blood group! ...
4. Figure out the Rh blood group! ...
5. Figure out the blood type!
Blood is often grouped according to the ABO blood typing system. This method breaks blood types down into four categories:
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O
Rh +ve or -ve
Blood typing is also done to tell whether or not you have a substance called Rh factor on the surface of your red blood cells. If you have this substance, you are considered Rh+ (positive). Those without it are considered Rh- (negative). Rh typing uses a method similar to ABO typing.
Normal Results
ABO typing:
If your blood cells stick together when mixed with:
• Anti-A serum, you have type A blood
• Anti-B serum, you have type B blood
• Both anti-A and anti-B serums, you have type AB blood
If your blood cells do not stick together when anti-A and anti-B are added, you have type O blood.
RH typing:
• If your blood cells stick together when mixed with anti-Rh serum, you have type Rh-positive blood.
• If your blood does not clot when mixed with anti-Rh serum, you have type Rh-negative blood.
The last slide blood group is B -ve as you can see clumping/agglutination with Anti-B reagent and no agglutination with rest 2
Considerations
There are many antigens besides the major ones (A, B, and Rh). Many minor ones are not routinely detected during blood typing. If they are not detected, you may still have a reaction when receiving certain types of blood, even if the A, B, and Rh antigens are matched.
A process called cross-matching followed by a Coombs' test can help detect these minor antigens and is routinely done prior to transfusions, except in emergency situations.

This video will guide you on how to test your own blood group at home with the help of the fluids. These are actually anti body to A, B and D (which is Rh factor). So here we will test the blood groups by using our solutions. So I pricked my finger, put 3 drops of blood on slide and then solution was put in form of drop. Then the drops are mixed. Then see for agglutination reaction in form of clumping. Then compare with the pics given in the video and see how different blood groups look like. My blood group is B-ve.

Blood typing made easy with explanation on ABO blood groups and Rh factor for nurses (blood transfusions).
There are 8 total blood types from four blood groups (A, B, AB, O). In nursing we transfuse blood, but before we do this we have to collect blood from the patient who will be receiving the blood transfusion. The patient's blood will be typed and crossmatched with a donor. The donor’s blood must be compatible with our patient to prevent a transfusion reaction.
To understand blood typing, you have to understand the relationship between antigens and antibodies.
What are red blood cell antigens? They are either present or absent on the surface of RBC. All red blood cells have them EXCEPT Type O RBCs. Antigens are proteins that can elicit an immune response when they come into contact with its corresponding antibodies. Therefore, they stimulate antibodies to defend the body.
So, when the same red blood cell antigens and antibodies get together it will cause an IMMUNE RESPONSE called agglutination. This is where the RBCs will glue together, hence clump together. Therefore, it is VERY important a person is not transfused with the wrong blood type.
Blood Types: Recipient and Donor
A blood type: has only A antigens on its surface with B antibodies in the plasma.
Type A: donates to A and AB and recipient of O and A
B blood type: has only B antigens on its surface with A antibodies in the plasma.
Type B: donates to B and AB and recipient of O and B
AB blood type: has both A and B antigens on its surface with NO antibodies in it plasma.
Type AB: donates to only other ABs but recipient of O, A, B, and AB...known as the "UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT"
O blood type: has NO antigens on its surface with A and B antibodies in its plasma.
Type O: donates to all types but only recipient of other O....known as the "UNIVERSAL DONOR".
Rh factors: either present or absent on the red blood cells surface.
If these factors are present on the RBC the patient is Rh POSTIVIE, but if these factors are absent the patient is Rh NEGATIVE.
If a patient is Rh positive they can receive either Rh+ or RH- blood. While Rh negative patients can receive only Rh- blood.
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Paul Andersen explains the importance of blood types in blood transfusions. He starts with a brief discussion of blood antigens and antibodies. He describes how the ABO differs from the Rh blood type. He shows you how to solve simple genetic problems using Punnett squares. He then talks about the percentage distribution of the different types and the problems that may result during pregnancy.
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It’s often said that despite humanity’s many conflicts, we all bleed the same blood. It’s a nice thought, but not quite accurate. In fact, our blood comes in a few different varieties. Natalie S. Hodge defines the four major blood types and sheds light on why some bloods can mix while others cannot.
Lesson by Natalie S. Hodge, animation by Brad Purnell.

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Sources:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2261/
http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/landsteiner/readmore.html
http://anthro.palomar.edu/blood/Rh_system.htm
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002223.htm
http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/101/motm.do?momID=21
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/inheritance/blood/
http://www.northshore.org/community-events/donating-blood/blood-types/
http://www.redcrossblood.org/learn-about-blood/blood-types

ABO Blood Types
They were discovered in 1900 and 1901 at the University of Vienna by Karl Landsteiner in the process of trying to learn why blood transfusions sometimes cause death and at other times save a patient. In 1930, he belatedly received the Nobel Prize for his discovery of blood types.
All humans and many other primates can be typed for the ABO blood group. There are four principal types: A, B, AB, and O. There are two antigens and two antibodies that are mostly responsible for the ABO types. The specific combination of these four components determines an individual's type in most cases. The table below shows the possible permutations of antigens and antibodies with the corresponding ABO type ("yes" indicates the presence of a component and "no" indicates its absence in the blood of an individual).
For example, people with type A blood will have the A antigen on the surface of their red cells (as shown in the table below). As a result, anti-A antibodies will not be produced by them because they would cause the destruction of their own blood. However, if B type blood is injected into their systems, anti-B antibodies in their plasma will recognize it as alien and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells in order to cleanse the blood of alien protein.
Individuals with type O blood do not produce ABO antigens. Therefore, their blood normally will not be rejected when it is given to others with different ABO types. As a result, type O people are universal donors for transfusions, but they can receive only type O blood themselves. Those who have type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies. Their blood does not discriminate against any other ABO type. Consequently, they are universal receivers for transfusions, but their blood will be agglutinated when given to people with every other type because they produce both kinds of antigens.
It is easy and inexpensive to determine an individual's ABO type from a few drops of blood. A serum containing anti-A antibodies is mixed with some of the blood. Another serum with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining sample. Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the ABO type. It is a simple process of elimination of the possibilities. For instance, if an individual's blood sample is agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the anti-B antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.
Research carried out in Heidelberg, Germany by Ludwik Hirszfeld and Emil von Dungern in 1910 and 1911 showed that the ABO blood types are inherited. We now know that they are determined by genes on chromosome 9, and they do not change as a result of environmental influences during life. An individual's ABO type results from the inheritance of 1 of 3 alleles (A, B, or O) from each parent. The possible outcomes are shown below:
Both A and B alleles are dominant over O. As a result, individuals who have an AO genotype will have an A phenotype. People who are type O have OO genotypes. In other words, they inherited a recessive O allele from both parents. The A and B alleles are codominant. Therefore, if an A is inherited from one parent and a B from the other, the phenotype will be AB. Agglutination tests will show that these individuals have the characteristics of both type A and type B blood.

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Blood Groups
A total of 30 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).[2] A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of the many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Across the 30 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found, but many of these are very rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups.
Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease. An example of this rare phenomenon is the case of Demi-Lee Brennan, an Australian citizen, whose blood group changed after a liver transplant.[9][10] Another more common cause in blood-type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (e.g., a type A patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the donor's type.
Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome.Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen.The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria
Blood compatibility:There are many types of blood; however, the most important ones are ABO and Rhesus factor. While a person is said to be Rh +ve or Rh ve based on the presence or absence of the Rhesus factor respectively, the ABO grouping has four types of blood, namely A, B, AB, and O, depending upon the absence or presence of Anti-A and/or Anti-B antibodies. Thus, a person whose blood group is O Rh ve can donate blood to practically anyone in an emergency and is hence known as a universal donor, whereas someone who is AB Rh +ve can receive blood from anyone and is therefore called a universal recipient. This information is vital in order to prevent adverse reactions due to incompatible blood transfusions.
Rh incompatibility occurs during pregnancy when the mother is Rh ve and the fetus is Rh +ve. Usually, the first pregnancy goes unaffected unless mixing of maternal and fetal blood takes place. Subsequent pregnancies can definitely more risky with higher levels of complications in the fetus and even intrauterine death.
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In this video lecture we will understand..
What are agglutination reactions?
Difference between Precipitation and Agglutination reactions.
Types of agglutination reactions and their importance in diagnostic immunology.

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An adult human has about 4--6 litres of blood circulating in the body. Blood consists of several types of cells including White Blood Corpuscles or WBC and Red Blood Corpuscles or RBC floating around in fluid called plasma. There are certain protein molecules called antigens located on the surface of the red blood cells and antibodies which are in the blood plasma. The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of these antigens and antibodies.
Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. According to the ABO blood grouping system discovered by Karl Landsteiner, there are four types of blood groups.

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The second common blood grouping uses the Rhesus factor (Rh factor), so called because it was first discovered in Rhesus monkeys. Rhesus factor is in addition to the ABO groups. This factor is simply present or absent on the redcells. Unlike the ABO system there are no naturally occurring antibodies in the plasma, but antibodies may develop in a Rhesus negative individual if they are exposed to Rhesus positive blood.
Recipients who are Rhesus negative should therefore only receive Rhesus negative blood. If they were to be given Rhesus positive blood there would beno reaction on the first occasion, but the introduction of Rhesus antigens would cause the recipient to produce Rhesus factor antibodies. This means if the patient were to be given Rhesus positive blood on a second occasion, the new Rhesus factor antibodies would bind to the donated Rhesus factor antigen, leading to agglutination. Therefore Rhesus negative recipients may only receive Rhesus negative blood. However, in theory, Rhesus positive patients may receive Rhesus negative blood, as the red cells contain no antigens.
Once the Rhesus factor is taken into account it means that O negative is the universal donor and AB positive the universal recipient. The Rhesus factor is sometimes referred to as the D factor. This is because the most active component of the Rhesus factor antigen is termed the D factor.

SSC CGL Biology Blood Group, Antigens and Antibodies - complete course on biology for SSC CGL. This lesson caters to the current syllabus of SSC CGL in particular. This lesson will provide us with the complete notes on Biology for the upcoming SSC CGL Exam and other competitive exams. Biology always plays a vital role in the competitive exams. Around 6 to 7 questions are asked from this section. The lesson has been prepared in a way that it covers most minute of the details in a very simple way without much exaggeration.
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What is HEMAGGLUTINATION? What does HEMAGGLUTINATION mean? HEMAGGLUTINATION meaning - HEMAGGLUTINATION definition - HEMAGGLUTINATION explanation.
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Source: Wikipedia.org article, adapted under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ license.
Hemagglutination, or haemagglutination, is a specific form of agglutination that involves red blood cells (RBCs). It has two common uses in the laboratory: blood typing and the quantification of virus dilutions in a haemagglutination assay.
Blood type can be determined by using antibodies that bind to the A or B blood group antigens in a sample of blood.
For example, if antibodies that bind the A blood group are added and agglutination occurs, the blood is either type A or type AB. To determine between type A or type AB, antibodies that bind the B group are added and if agglutination does not occur, the blood is type A. If agglutination does not occur with either antibodies that bind to type A or type B antigens, then neither antigen is present on the blood cells, which means the blood is type O.
In blood grouping, the patient's serum is tested against RBCs of known blood groups and also the patient's RBCs are tested against known serum types. In this way the patient's blood group is confirmed from both RBCs and serum. A direct Coombs test is also done on the patient's blood sample in case there are any confounding antibodies.
Many viruses attach to molecules present on the surface of RBCs. A consequence of this is that at certain concentrations, a viral suspension may bind together (agglutinate) the RBCs, thus preventing them from settling out of suspension. Since agglutination is not linked to infectivity, attenuated viruses can therefore be used in assays while an additional assay such as a plaque assay must be used to determine infectivity.
By serially diluting a virus suspension into an assay tray (a series of wells of uniform volume) and adding a standard amount of blood cells, an estimation of the number of virus particles can be made. While less accurate than a plaque assay, it is cheaper and quicker (taking just 30 minutes).
This assay may be modified to include the addition of an antiserum. By using a standard amount of virus, a standard amount of blood cells, and serially diluting the antiserum, one can identify the concentration of the antiserum (the greatest dilution which inhibits hemagglutination).

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This video discusses about properties of antigens and antibodies and their interaction pattern and also the importance of antigen antibody complex in detecting diseases by immunoassay.
An immune complex is formed from the integral binding of an antibody to a soluble antigen. The bound antigen and antibody act as a specific epitope, and is referred to as a singular immune complex. After an antigen-antibody reaction, the immune complexes can be subject to any of a number of responses, including complement deposition, opsonization, phagocytosis, or processing by proteases. Red blood cells carrying CR1-receptors on their surface may bind C3b-decorated immune complexes and transport them to phagocytes, mostly in liver and spleen, and return to the general circulation.
Immune complexes may themselves cause disease when they are deposited in organs, e.g. in certain forms of vasculitis. This is the third form of hypersensitivity in the Gell-Coombs classification, called Type III hypersensitivity.
Immune complex deposition is a prominent feature of several autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, cryoglobulinemia, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma and Sjögren's syndrome.

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DMS introduced agglutination-based typing cards more than a decade ago: the first commercially available in-office test for blood typing cats. Very soon, a new test based on immuno-chromatographic techniques will also be available. Either choice will provide you with ease of use and rapid, easy to read results.
There are three feline blood types: A, B and AB. Cats have naturally occurring antibodies to antigens not on their red cells. Thus cats with type A blood have antibodies to type B antigens, and cats with type B blood have antibodies to type A antigens. Cats with type AB blood have both A and B antigens on the erythrocyte membrane and do not have naturally occurring antibodies to either type A or B blood.
The A type is the most common in cats. The prevalence of type B blood differs by breed. Breeds with a greater than 10% incidence of type B blood include:
Abyssinian 16% Japanese Bobtail 16%
Birman 18% Persian 14%
British SH 36% Scottish Fold 19%
Cornish Rex 33% Somali 18%
Devon Rex 41% Sphynx 17%
Cats with type AB blood are rare.
Believe it or not...most cats are not blood typed.
What are the risks of not blood typing cats?
Transfusion Risks
Cats that are transfused, even once, with an incompatible blood type, are at risk for a transfusion reaction. Cats with B erythrocytes exhibit an immediate and catastrophic systemic anaphylactic reaction and a Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction ("HTR") when transfused with type A blood, because of their natural high-titered anti-A antibody Death is extremely likely.
Cats with A erythrocytes and natural low-titered anti-B antibody will exhibit only a mild reaction when transfused with type B blood, but the transfused cells will have a shortened life span. The recipient will develop moderate titers of anti-B antibody that will result in a serious reaction if a subsequent incompatible transfusion is administered.
In general, you don't know a cat needs a transfusion (to treat a blood disorder or trauma) until it's an emergency. Knowing the patient’s blood type can help prevent an iatrogenic emergency.
Mating Risks
Serious problems can result from accidental or mismatched mating.
A mating of a type B queen with a type A tom will result in their type A kittens being at risk for neonatal isoerythrolysis (“NI”), commonly known as “fading kitten syndrome”. The maternal naturally occurring, highly titered anti-A antibody occurs in the colostrum where it can be absorbed by the newborn kittens. The absorbed antibody attacks the kittens’ type A erythrocytes. Although the kittens can seem normal at birth, they develop signs after nursing, fade and die within the first days of life. Determining the blood type of the queen and the tom prior to mating, coupled with appropriate genetic counseling, can minimize the risk of NI. Furthermore, immediate blood type determination of the newborn kittens will alert the client to remove the kittens and to begin surrogate nursing where necessary.
The conclusions are clear:
• All cats should be blood typed.
• No cats should be mated before blood typing.
• All kittens resulting from incompatible matings should be blood typed at birth so that surrogate nursing can be started where necessary and the kittens allowed to thrive.

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A Coombs test (also known as Coombs' test, antiglobulin test or AGT) is either of two clinical blood tests used in immunohematology and immunology. The two Coombs tests are the direct Coombs test (DCT, also known as direct antiglobulin test or DAT), and the indirect Coombs test (also known as indirect antiglobulin test or IAT).
The direct Coombs test is used to test for autoimmune hemolytic anemia; i.e., a condition of a low count of red blood cells (aka RBCs) caused by immune system lysis or breaking of RBC membranes causing RBC destruction.
In certain diseases or conditions, an individual's blood may contain IgG antibodies that can specifically bind to antigens on the RBC surface membrane, and their circulating RBCs can become coated with IgG alloantibodies and/or IgG autoantibodies. Complement proteins may subsequently bind to the bound antibodies and cause RBC destruction.[1] The direct Coombs test is used to detect these antibodies or complement proteins that are bound to the surface of red blood cells; a blood sample is taken and the RBCs are washed (removing the patient's own plasma) and then incubated with anti-human globulin (also known as "Coombs reagent"). If this produces agglutination of RBCs, the direct Coombs test is positive, a visual indication that antibodies (and/or complement proteins) are bound to the surface of red blood cells.
The indirect Coombs test is used in prenatal testing of pregnant women and in testing blood prior to a blood transfusion. It detects antibodies against RBCs that are present unbound in the patient's serum. In this case, serum is extracted from the blood sample taken from the patient. Then, the serum is incubated with RBCs of known antigenicity; that is, RBCs with known reference values from other patient blood samples. If agglutination occurs, the indirect Coombs test is positive.[2]
The two Coombs tests are based on the fact that anti-human antibodies, which are produced by immunizing non-human species with human serum, will bind to human antibodies, commonly IgG or IgM. Animal anti-human antibodies will also bind to human antibodies that may be fixed onto antigens on the surface of red blood cells (also referred to as RBCs), and in the appropriate test tube conditions this can lead to agglutination of RBCs. The phenomenon of agglutination of RBCs is important here, because the resulting clumping of RBCs can be visualised; when clumping is seen the test is positive and when clumping is not seen the test is negative.
Common clinical uses of the Coombs test include the preparation of blood for transfusion in cross-matching, screening for atypical antibodies in the blood plasma of pregnant women as part of antenatal care, and detection of antibodies for the diagnosis of immune-mediated haemolytic anemias.
Examples of alloimmune hemolysis[edit]
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (also known as HDN or erythroblastosis fetalis)
Rh D hemolytic disease of the newborn (also known as Rh disease)
ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn (the indirect Coombs test may only be weakly positive)
Anti-Kell hemolytic disease of the newborn
Rh c hemolytic disease of the newborn
Rh E hemolytic disease of the newborn
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This video focuses on discussing various types of antigen antibody reactions and their clinical importance.
The word affinity is used to describe the strength of binding between one antibody binding site and an antigenic determinant (epitope or hapten). The association constant is the mathematical value that is the measure of the strength of binding.
Anibody molecules are multivalent and antigens are also often multivalent. This multivalency tends to increase the strength of the interaction, and this really represents the true state of affairs. This overall binding energy that results in the binding of a multivalent antibody with a multivalent antigen is called the functional affinity or the avidity.

The ASLO latex test is a rapid agglutination test on the blade for the qualitative and semi-quantitative detection of anti-streptolysin O in human serum samples. Group A hemolytic streptococcus, Group C hemolytic streptococcus or group G hemolytic streptococcus produces streptolysin, a haemolytic exotoxin to which the human body releases anti-streptolysin antibodies.
This detection method uses a suspension of streptolysin-coated latex particles (antigen) that will come into contact with the serum of the patient suspected of being infected (anti-streptolysin O antibodies). If the antibodies are present in the sample, the agglutination reaction occurs and the test is considered positive.
After 1-2 weeks of infection with Streptococcus, the anti-streptolysin antibody level can be detected, the maximum level reaching after 3-6 weeks.

CRP blood test is used to measure the amount of c-reactive protein in blood which is related to inflammation in the body. Watch as Dr. Ankush describes about C-Reactive protein test, its normal range and what information can be obtained from the results.
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UPDATE:
Yes I know, this was a bad video. I didn't do it properly because I didn't collect the blood correctly. The blood came out too quickly instead of being a drop which you gently squeeze out like you're supposed to. I was too busy filming this video! Last year I managed to do the blood test again EXCEPT I did it properly since I wasn't distracted with filming a video. The 3rd circle agglutinated properly this time meaning that I was O positive! Please don't take this video too seriously, I did a really bad job haha :)
I was curious about what blood type I am....
I recently ordered an Eldon Home Blood Type Testing kit! They cost around $10. Make sure you search around the web though. I found a website where it was based in the USA and only shipped in North America. International shipping costed $50+! Luckily I found another company which was based in the UK so shipping only costed $5 :)
I wasn't doing the blood test as well I as I could've been doing because I was filming. Please excuse the blood splattering outside the circles and the bad technique. I am terrible at multitasking...
I found out that I was O but the Rhesus factor test was inconclusive. The circle was sort of agglutinating but I couldn't really tell. The booklet said that any weak agglutinate being produced must be retested. So I am either O negative or O positive. On the other hand, my sister also did the blood test. Luckily, her blood produced strong agglutinates when mixed with the antibodies on the card.

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This video tutorial talks about different immunological assays and antibody test methods and their importance in clinical biology. It also explains different features of antigen antibody reactions and their role in identifying diseases.

Anti-streptolysin O (ASO or ASLO) is the antibody made against streptolysin O, an immunogenic, oxygen-labile streptococcal hemolytic exotoxin produced by most strains of group A and many strains of groups C and G Streptococcus bacteria. The "O" in the name stands for oxygen-labile; the other related toxin being oxygen-stable streptolysin-S. The main function of streptolysin O is to cause hemolysis (the breaking open of red blood cells) — in particular, beta-hemolysis.
Increased levels of aso titre in the blood could cause damage to the heart and joints. In most cases, penicillin is used to treat patients with increased levels of aso titre.
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Widal test is still a common way of diagnosing enteric fever cases in several countries. Although tube agglutination is the standard, some manufacturers have adapted it for slide agglutination. This video shows qualitative as well as quantitative test on a kit that can be used for both slide as well as tube agglutination. Procedure displayed here is as per manufacturer's directions. Procedure of tube agglutination test varies across kits. Kits designed exclusively for tube agglutination have different procedures.

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Do you know what your blood type is? It’s a pretty basic health question with a pretty bizarre history. We take a look at some ill-fated blood experiments from yesteryear, and try to figure out why it is that all blood isn’t alike. And, our intrepid video director Cory Zapatka takes the question into his own hands with a blood typing kit and a needle...
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Latex agglutination tests have been in use since 1956 t o detect a wide range of analytes in the clinical laboratory. When spectrophotometers and nephelometers are used in place of the human eye to detect agglutination, it is possible to measure quantitatively and to develop sensitive particle immunoassays. Latex particles may be build from different organic materials to a desired diameter, and may be functionalized with chemical groups to facilitate attachment of molecules
Proteins and other molecules may be passively adsorbed to the latex particles or covalently coupled to functional groups.
Some described automated latex agglutination tests have sensitivities of a few picograms of analyte.

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The hemagglutination assay (or haemagglutination assay; HA) is a method of quantification for viruses or bacteria by hemagglutination. It is an easy, simple and rapid method which can be applied to large numbers of samples. The hemagglutination assay and its extension, the hemagglutination inhibition assay, were invented in 1941--42 by American virologist George Hirst.[1][2]
The hemagglutination assay of a virus, in contrast to other forms of virus quantification such as a plaque assay or 50% Tissue Culture Infective Dose, does not give any measure of viral infectivity, because no virus replication is required in this assay. The same may not be true when using HA for bacteria.
The detailed conditions depend on the type of virus or bacteria being assayed since certain pH values and ionic strengths can impact the activity of the proteins of interest in a difficult to predict manner.
Normally, a virus dilution (e.g. 2-fold from 1:4 to 1:4096) will be applied to an RBC dilution (e.g. 0.1% to 0.7% in steps of 0.2%) for approx. 30 min, often at 4 °C, otherwise viruses with neuraminidase activity will detach the virus from the RBCs. Then the lattice forming parts will be counted and the titer calculated.
Virus concentration in virions per millilitre = 107 x HA titer.[3]
The titer of a hemagglutination assay is determined by the last viable "lattice" structure found. This is because it is at the point where, if diluted anymore, the amount of Virus particles will be less than that of the RBCs and thus not be able to agglutinate them together.
For bacteria, depending on species, a bacterial dilution will be applied to an equal part RBC dilution and then incubated for 30 min to an hour at an optimal growth temperature before being observed.[4]

ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES
Definition:
Blood group system
A series of antigens exhibiting similar serological and physiological characteristics, and inherited according to a specific pattern.
Importance of the ABO system:
Most important (clinically significant) Blood Group System for transfusion practice
Why?
This is the only blood group system in which antibodies are consistently, predictably, and naturally present in the serum of people who lack the antigen. Therefore ABO compatibility between donor and recipient is crucial since these strong, naturally occurring A and B antibodies are IgM and can readily activate complement and cause agglutination. If ABO antibodies react with antigens in vivo, result is acute hemolysis and possibly death.
Indications for ABO grouping:
ABO grouping is required for all of the following individuals:
Blood Donors-since it can be life threatening to give the wrong ABO group to the patient.
Transfusion recipients-since we need to know the donor blood is ABO compatible.
Transplant Candidates and Donors-ABO antigens are found in other tissues as well. Therefore the transplant candidates and donors must be compatible.
Prenatal Patients-To determine whether the mothers may have babies who are suffering from ABO-HDN. It is also beneficial to know the ABO group should she start hemorrhaging.
Newborns (sometimes) If the baby is demonstrating symptoms of Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn, the ABO group needs to be determined along with Rh and others.
Paternity testing Since the inheritance of the ABO Blood Group System is very specific, this serves as one of the first methods to determine the likelihood that the accused father is the father or not.

This short animation demonstrates measuring serum antibody with an agglutination assay. This resource was developed by Cary Engleberg of the University of Michigan. It is part of a larger learning module about laboratory methods for clinical microbiology. The full learning module, editable animation, and video transcript are available at http://open.umich.edu/education/med/oernetwork/med/microbiology/clinical-microbio-lab/2009. Copyright 2009-2010, Cary Engleberg. This is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial 3.0 License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/.
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