David Hackett Fischer (born December 2, 1935) is University Professor and Earl Warren Professor of History at Brandeis University. Fischer's major works have covered topics ranging from large macroeconomic and cultural trends (Albion's Seed,The Great Wave) to narrative histories of significant events (Paul Revere's Ride,Washington's Crossing) to explorations of historiography (Historians' Fallacies, in which he coined the term "historian's fallacy").

In addition to these literary awards, he has been recognized for his commitment to teaching with the 1990 Carnegie Prize as Massachusetts Professor of the Year and the Louis Dembitz Brandeis Prize for Excellence in Teaching.[1]

1.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority

2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

3.
History
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History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents

4.
Washington's Crossing (book)
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Washingtons Crossing is a Pulitzer Prize-winning book written by David Hackett Fischer and part of the Pivotal Moments in American History series. He follows up with more than 180 pages, divided into appendices, source citations, using as his starting point, the famous painting Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emmanuel Leutze, Fischer continues through the shift in momentum resulting from this campaign. He shows that before the crossing, the British were intent upon attacking and defeating the revolutionaries, after the crossing and subsequent campaign, the British focused on being attacked. The goal-oriented spirit still guides Americas warfare, to win the war, the Americans policy of humanity to their defeated opponents was so attractive that large numbers of the Hessian enemy stayed in America, and more returned with their families following the war. Fischers work is admired as one of the most comprehensive books on the critical, the book was published in February 2004 and it won the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for History

5.
Albion's Seed
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The argument is that the culture of each of the groups persisted, to provide the basis for the modern United States. Fischer describes Albions Seed as a modified Teutonic germ theory within the framework of the Frontier Thesis, fischer covers voting patterns and dialects of speech in four regions that span from their Atlantic colonial base to the Pacific. Fischer states that the purpose is to examine the complex cultural processes at work within the four folkways during the time period. Albions Seed argues, The legacy of four British folkways in early America remains the most powerful determinant of a society in the United States. The term folkways was originally conceived of by William Graham Sumner, then they become regulative for succeeding generations and take on the character of a social force. They arise no one knows whence or how and they grow as if by the play of internal life energy. They can be modified, but only to a limited extent, in time they lose power, decline, and die, or are transformed. While they are in vigor they very largely control individual and social undertakings, yet they are not organic or material. They belong to a system of relations, conventions. More specifically, Fischers definition of folkways are that they are highly persistent. Even where they have acquired the status of a tradition they are not necessarily very old, folkways are constantly in the process of creation, even in our own time. Building Ways, Prevailing forms of architecture and high architecture. Family Ways, The structure and function of the household and family, marriage Ways, Ideas of the marriage-bond, and cultural processes of courtship, marriage and divorce. Gender Ways, Customs that regulate social relations between men and women, sex Ways, Conventional sexual attitudes and acts, and the treatment of sexual deviance. Child-Rearing Ways, Ideas of child nature and customs of child nurture, naming Ways, Onomastic customs including favoured forenames and the descent of names within the family. Age Ways, Attitudes towards age, experiences of aging and age relationships, death Ways, Attitudes towards death, mortality rituals, mortuary customs and mourning practices. Religious Ways, Patterns of religious worship, theology, ecclesiology, magic Ways, Normative beliefs and practices concerning the supernatural. Learning Ways, Attitudes toward literacy and learning, and conventional patterns of education, food Ways, Patterns of diet, nutrition, cooking, eating, feasting and fasting

6.
Earl Warren
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Earl Warren was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. Warren is the person elected to three consecutive terms as Governor of California, and with those three elected terms he is second only to Jerry Brown for total gubernatorial wins in California. Before holding these positions, he was the District Attorney for Alameda County, California, Warren was the nominee of the Republican Party for Vice President in 1948, as the running mate of Thomas E. Dewey. He was appointed to chair what became known as the Warren Commission, which was formed to investigate the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Earl Warren was born in Los Angeles, on March 19,1891, to Mathias H. Warren, a Norwegian immigrant whose family name was Varren, and his wife, Crystal. Mathias Warren was an employee of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After he was blacklisted for joining in a strike, the moved to Bakersfield, California. Matthias worked in a repair yard, and Earl had summer jobs in railroading. Earl Warren grew up in Bakersfield, where he attended Washington Junior High and his father was murdered there by an unknown person during a robbery. In 1912 Warren graduated with a B. A. in political science from the University of California, in 1914 he earned his J. D. at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law. He was a member of The Gun Club secret society, and the Sigma Phi Society, as an undergraduate, Warren also played clarinet in the Cal Band. Warren maintained a friendship with fellow Cal student Robert Gordon Sproul. In 1948, at the Republican National Convention, Sproul would nominate Warren for Vice President, Warren was admitted to the California bar in 1914. Warren worked a year for Associated Oil Company in San Francisco, then joined Robinson & Robinson, in August 1917, Warren enlisted in the U. S. Army for World War I service. Assigned to the 91st Division at Camp Lewis, Washington, 1st Lieutenant Earl Warren was discharged in 1918. After the war, he served as a clerk of the Judicial Committee for the 1919 Session of the California State Assembly, then as the Deputy City Attorney in Oakland, Warren came to the attention of powerful Republican Joseph R. Knowland, publisher of The Oakland Tribune. He was strongly influenced by California Governor Hiram Johnson and other leaders of the Progressive Era to oppose corruption, in 1925, Warren was appointed as the District Attorney of Alameda County. Warren was re-elected to three four-year terms, Warren vigorously investigated allegations that a deputy sheriff was taking bribes in connection with street-paving arrangements

7.
Brandeis University
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Brandeis University /ˈbrændaɪs/ is an American private research university in Waltham, Massachusetts,9 miles west of Boston. Founded in 1948 as a non-sectarian, coeducational institution sponsored by the Jewish community, the university is named after Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish Justice of the U. S Supreme Court. In 2015, it had an enrollment of 5,532 students on its suburban campus spanning over 235 acres. The institution offers more than 43 majors and 46 minors, the university has a strong liberal arts focus and a quarter of its students come from outside the United States. Brandeis was tied for 34th among national universities in the United States in the U. S. News & World Report rankings, Forbes listed Brandeis as 36th nationally for research and 37th for entrepreneurship. Times ranks it 185th globally while USA Today ranks it among the top 10 in the country for economics, the university is also home to the Heller School, ranked as one of the top 10 policy schools in the United States. Middlesex University was a school located in Waltham, Massachusetts. The founder, Dr. John Hall Smith, died in 1944, Smiths will stipulated that the school should go to any group willing to use it to establish a non-sectarian university. Within two years, Middlesex University was on the brink of financial collapse, ruggles Smith, was desperate for a way to save something of Middlesex University. He learned of a New York committee headed by Dr. Israel Goldstein that was seeking a campus to establish a Jewish-sponsored secular university. Goldstein agreed to accept Smiths offer, proceeding to recruit George Alpert, Alpert had worked his way through Boston University School of Law and co-founded the firm of Alpert and Alpert. Alperts firm had an association with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He was influential in Bostons Jewish community and his Judaism tended to be social rather than spiritual. He was involved in assisting children displaced from Germany, Alpert was to be chairman of Brandeis from 1946 to 1954, and a trustee from 1946 until his death. By February 5,1946, Goldstein had recruited Albert Einstein, Einstein believed the university would attract the best young people in all fields, satisfying a real need. In March 1946, Goldstein said the foundation had raised ten-million dollars that it would use to open the school by the following year, the foundation purchased Middlesex Universitys land and buildings for two-million dollars. The charter of this operation was transferred to the Foundation along with the campus, the founding organization was announced in August and named The Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, Inc. The new school would be a Jewish-sponsored secular university open to students and faculty of all races and religions

8.
Historiography
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Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups, in 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities,1,644 identified themselves with social history and 1,425 identified themselves with political history. In the early period, the term historiography meant the writing of history. In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden, England, the Scottish post is still in existence. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of article, history is taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Before writing, there was only oral history or oral tradition, in China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered and may date back to around late 2nd millennium BCE. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius, zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder, over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty, the tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo. It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, the latter work is now lost. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi, the first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720

9.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House

10.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides

11.
Johns Hopkins University
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The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president

12.
Mores
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Mores include an aversion for societal taboos, such as incest. The mores of a society usually predicate legislation prohibiting their taboos, often, countries will employ specialized vice squads or vice police engaged in suppressing specific crimes offending the societal mores. Folkways, in sociology, are norms for routine or casual interaction and this includes ideas about appropriate greetings and proper dress in different situations. In short, mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a line between right and rude, both mores and folkways are terms coined by William Graham Sumner in 1906. The English word morality comes from the same Latin root mōrēs, however, mores do not, as is commonly supposed, necessarily carry connotations of morality. Rather, morality can be seen as a subset of mores, held to be of importance in view of their content. The Greek terms equivalent to Latin mores are ethos or nomos, as with the relation of mores to morality, ethos is the basis of the term ethics, nomos give the suffix -onomy, as in astronomy. Such religious or sacral customs may vary, coping with the differences between two sets of cultural conventions is a question of intercultural competence. Differences in the mores of various nations are at the root of ethnic stereotype, or in the case of reflection upon ones own mores, autostereotypes

13.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine

14.
Continental Army
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14,1775, the Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war, most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne and this became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796. The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies, and after 1776, when the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the leading to the war. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23,1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of an army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar, on July 18,1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of consent for those under twenty-one. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days, after Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, as a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army, early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men, turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Major General Philip Schuylers ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada, the Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to the length of the war to avoid the crises that depleted forces

15.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand

16.
Society of the Cincinnati
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Now in its third century, the Society promotes the public interest in the revolution through its library and museum collections, publications, and other activities. It is the oldest hereditary society in the United States, the concept of the Society of the Cincinnati was that of Major General Henry Knox. The first meeting of the Society was held in May 1783 at a dinner at Mount Gulian in Fishkill, New York, the meeting was chaired by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton, and the participants agreed to stay in contact with each other after the war. Membership was generally limited to officers who had served at least three years in the Continental Army or Navy, it included officers of the French Army and Navy above certain ranks. Officers in the Continental Line who died during the War were also entitled to be recorded as members, Members of the considerably larger fighting forces comprising the Colonial Militias and Minutemen were not entitled to join the Society. Later in the 18th century, the Societys rules adopted a system of primogeniture wherein membership was passed down to the eldest son after the death of the original member, each officer may be represented by only one descendant at any given time, following the rules of primogeniture. The requirement for primogeniture made the society controversial in its early years, the Society is named after Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, who left his farm to accept a term as Roman Consul and served as Magister Populi. He assumed lawful dictatorial control of Rome to meet a war emergency, when the battle was won, he returned power to the Senate and went back to plowing his fields. The Societys motto reflects that ethic of service, Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam. The Society has had three goals, To preserve the rights so dearly won, to promote the union of the states, and to assist members in need, their widows. Within 12 months of the founding, a constituent Society had been organized in each of the 13 states, of about 5,500 men originally eligible for membership,2,150 had joined within a year. King Louis XVI ordained the French Society of the Cincinnati, which was organized on July 4,1784. Up to that time, the King of France had not allowed his officers to wear any foreign decorations, George Washington was elected the first President General of the Society. He served from December 1783 until his death in 1799, the second President General was Alexander Hamilton. Upon Hamiltons death due to his duel with Aaron Burr, the third President General of the Society was Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, in 1808, he ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States against James Madison. Its members have included military and political leaders, including 23 signers of the United States Constitution. James Armstrong, Samuel Elbert, George Mathews, John Milton, bernardus Swartwout, Cornelius Swartwout, BG Philip Van Cortlandt, Frederick Von Weisenfels. Count Axel von Fersen, Baron Curt von Stedingk, on June 19,1783, the General Society of the Cincinnati adopted the bald eagle as its insignia

17.
Pulitzer Prize for History
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The Pulitzer Prize for History, administered by Columbia University, is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It has been presented since 1917 for a book about the history of the United States. Thus it is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, the Pulitzer Prize program has also recognized some historical work with its Biography prize, from 1917, and its General Non-Fiction prize, from 1952. Finalists have been announced from 1980, ordinarily two others beside the winner, in its first 97 years to 2013, the History Pulitzer was awarded 95 times. Two prizes were given in 1989, none in 1919,1984, four people have won two each, Margaret Leech, Bernard Bailyn, Paul Horgan and Alan Taylor. 1980, Been in the Storm So Long by Leon F. Litwack The Plains Across by John B. Unruh The Urban Crucible by Gary B, media related to Pulitzer Prize for History winners at Wikimedia Commons

18.
Irving Kristol Award
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The Irving Kristol Award is the highest honor conferred by the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research. The award is given for notable intellectual or practical contributions to improved public policy and social welfare and it replaced the Francis Boyer Award in 2003. The award was named for Kristol as a tribute to his influence on public issues and as an intellectual mentor to several generations of conservatives. The Kristol Award is presented at AEIs Annual Dinner, a dinner in Washington. President George W. Bush spoke at the first Kristol Award presentation in 2003, bushs speech, only days before the commencement of the Iraq war, laid out his promise to launch military action even if the United Nations Security Council did not authorize it. Former vice president Dick Cheney and former Spanish prime minister Jose Maria Aznar have also presented the award, Kristol Award recipients occasionally make news with their speeches. John Howard, who had a few months before been defeated in the Australian elections, criticized his successor as minister, Kevin Rudd, over industrial relations. All recipients are given a token of esteem engraved with a citation for their achievements, list of winners of the Irving Kristol Award

19.
American Enterprise Institute
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The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, known simply as the American Enterprise Institute, or AEI, is a conservative think tank based in Washington, D. C. Its research is dedicated to issues of government, politics, economics, AEI is an independent nonprofit organization supported primarily by grants and contributions from foundations, corporations, and individuals. Arthur C. Brooks has served as president of AEI since January 2009, some AEI staff members are considered to be among the leading architects of the Bush administrations public and foreign policy. More than twenty staff members served either in a Bush administration policy post or on one of the many panels. Perry, Danielle Pletka, Michael Rubin, Gary Schmitt, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jim Talent, Peter J. Wallison, Bill Lenner, AEI takes no institutional positions on policy issues or on any other issues. This distinguishes AEI from other tanks, such as The Heritage Foundation. Although the institute is often cited as a counterpart to the left-leaning Brookings Institution. From 1998 to 2008, they co-sponsored the AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, AEI is the most prominent think tank associated with American neoconservatism, in both the domestic and international policy arenas. However, AEI is not officially neoconservative, AEI staff member Norman J. AEI staff have taken strong stances against the farm bill and agricultural subsidies. A2007 document authored by Bruce Gardner claimed that There is no need for farm subsidies, according to the 2011 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report, AEI is number 17 in the Top Thirty Worldwide Think Tanks and number 10 in the Top Fifty United States Think Tanks. AEI grew out of the American Enterprise Association, which was founded in 1938 by a group of New York businessmen led by Lewis H. Brown, aEI’s founders included executives from Eli Lilly, General Mills, Bristol-Myers, Chemical Bank, Chrysler, and Paine Webber. To this day, AEA’s board is composed of top leaders from major business, AEA’s early work in Washington involved commissioning and distributing legislative analyses to Congress, which developed AEA’s relationships with Melvin Laird and Gerald Ford. Brown eventually shifted AEA’s focus to commissioning studies of government policies and these subjects ranged from fiscal to monetary policy and from health care to energy, and authors included Earl Butz, John Lintner, former New Dealer Raymond Moley, and Felix Morley. Brown died in 1951, and AEA languished, in 1952, a group of young policymakers and public intellectuals—including Laird, William Baroody Sr. Paul McCracken, and Murray Weidenbaum—met to discuss resurrecting AEI. In 1954, Baroody became executive president of the association. Under Baroody’s leadership, AEA developed as a prototypical Washington think tank, took the shape it has today. Baroody began to publicize and distribute AEA’s publications effectively and he also raised money for AEA, expanding its financial base beyond the business leaders on the board. The American Enterprise Institute —which had been renamed in 1962—remained a marginal operation with little influence in the national politics until the 1970s

20.
Champlain's Dream
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Champlain’s Dream, The European Founding of North America is a biography written by American historian, David Hackett Fischer and published in 2008. It is a biography of French soldier, spy, master mariner, explorer, cartographer, artist and Father of New France and he is also remembered for having survived 27 crossings of the North Atlantic in 37 years - without ever losing a ship. Despite never being the official of New France, Champlain functioned as an absolute ruler and as Fischer shows. Champlains dreams as an explorer and cartographer are documented in his own writings - one of them was to find a North American passage to China, ostensibly, his overarching dream was to establish a successful French colony in the New World. This required Champlain to, secure political support in the French court Between 1535 and 1601, Champlain carefully studied the experiences of earlier explorers like Jacques Cartier and Pierre de Chauvin. But then, he needed to convince men like the duc de Sully, other noblemen of the time would have preferred domestic reforms to expansion abroad and Champlain stayed alert to their machinations. Even after all of this was done and the colonies began to run smoothly, he had to regulate unlicensed trade on the rivers, but as Fischer puts forward in this book, Champlains dream went further than that. He envisioned that this colony would be a place people of different cultures could live together in amity and concord. He dreamed of collective action, humanistic ideals like peace and tolerance, Fischer makes frequent reference to Champlains grand design or his sweeping vision. What Fischer seeks to do in book, after articulating this aspiration, is ask a series of questions about why this man believed in it. Fischer rejects the view that Champlain was just another European mercenary looking to seize lands, growing up in port city of Brouage Fischer describes the unique character of Brouage, the town of Champlains youth as the salty broth in which our hero was cooked. Due to its economy and cosmopolitan nature, the man historians know as Champlains father managed to work his way up from a humble ships pilot to a naval captain in the Kings Marine. Thus, Champlains early life was one of opportunity and upwards mobility. Brouage was in a region that was suspicious of Paris. This upbringing inculcated in Champlain an exceptional curiosity about cultural differences and he learned Dutch, English and Spanish in school and from his neighbors and the art of navigation from his father. The religious turbulence of his youth Even the small town of Brouage was not immune from the clashes between Calvinists and Roman Catholics that occurred after the Protestant Reformation. Fischer writes about an incident in which a port city sent barges full of sand. After 1628, Brouage was even turned into a garrison by Cardinal Richelieu, Even though historians cannot confirm whether Champlain was a Protestant or a Catholic, his writings show the influence of a deep Christian faith

21.
Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City

22.
Quebec City
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Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec

23.
Pritzker Literature Award
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The Pritzker Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing is a literary award given annually by the Pritzker Military Museum & Library. First awarded in 2007, it is an achievement award for military writing. The prize is valued at $100,000, making it one of the richest literary prizes in the world,2007, James M. McPherson 2008, Allan R.2010 Award Ceremony, video broadcast on C-SPAN, Oct.21. 2010 Discussion by two previous Pritzker Military Library Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement award winners, Rick Atkinson and Sir Max Hastings, on Sunday, February 3,2013

24.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request

25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

26.
Pulitzer Prize
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The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction

27.
Joseph Ellis
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Joseph John Ellis is an American historian and professor whose work focuses on the lives and times of the founders of the United States of America. American Sphinx, The Character of Thomas Jefferson won a National Book Award and Founding Brothers and he received his B. A. from the College of William and Mary, where he was initiated into Theta Delta Chi. He earned his M. A. and Ph. D. from Yale University in 1969 and he taught at the United States Military Academy at West Point. Ellis later joined the faculty at Mount Holyoke College, in 1979 he was full professor. He is also a Ford Foundation Professor and his work has concentrated on the Founding Fathers of the United States, including biographies of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, the Revolution and the early Federalist years. Ellis served as dean of faculty at Mount Holyoke, following that, for part of 1984, he also served as Acting President while President Elizabeth Topham Kennan was on leave. Ellis was suspended without pay from his chair in 2001. Ellis currently teaches at the Commonwealth Honors College at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst and he lives in Amherst, Massachusetts with his wife Ellen Wilkins Ellis, and is the father of three adult sons. Together with histories of the founding of the republic, since 1993 Ellis has written biographies about individual early presidents and, in 2010, interested in how men shaped and were shaped by their times, he writes with a novelists emphasis on character. As a result of his research, Ellis believed that Adams was under-appreciated as president, he worked to reveal the mans contributions and character. His book, Passionate Sage, The Character and Legacy of John Adams, led to a revival of interest in Adams, in his book American Sphinx, The Character of Thomas Jefferson, Ellis explored the character and personality of Jefferson, and his many contradictions. He emphasized how important privacy was to him, and how the president and statesman preferred to work behind the scenes in politics, through letters, meetings, Ellis noted Jeffersons success in this style. In relation to one of the questions about his private life, whether Jefferson had a liaison with his slave Sally Hemings. His deep analysis of Jeffersons character led him to conclude that the statesman did not have the liaison. On November 5,1998, Dr. Eugene Foster and his team published the results of Y-DNA analysis of Jefferson male-line descendants and descendants of others reputed to be associated with him. Foster reported that DNA results showed a match between the Jefferson male line and the descendant of Eston Hemings, given that and other historical evidence, they concluded that Thomas Jefferson was the father of Eston and probably of Sally Hemings other children. In His Excellency, George Washington, Ellis sought to penetrate myth, Ellis described how Washingtons experiences in earlier leadership contributed to his actions and development as president. Ellis wrote that we do not need another epic, but rather a fresh portrait focused tightly on Washingtons character, which the critic Jonathan Yardley said he had achieved

28.
Rick Atkinson
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Lawrence Rush Rick Atkinson IV is an American author who has won Pulitzer Prizes in history and journalism. After working as a reporter, editor, and foreign correspondent for The Washington Post. His six books include narrative accounts of four different American wars and his Liberation Trilogy, a history of the American role in the liberation of Europe in World War II, concluded with the publication of The Guns at Last Light in May 2013. In 2010, he received the $100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing, Atkinson was born in Munich to Margaret and Larry Atkinson, who was a U. S. Army officer. He grew up on military posts around the world, including stints in Salzburg, Georgia, Idaho, Pennsylvania, California, Hawaii, Kansas, and Virginia. Turning down an appointment to West Point, he instead attended East Carolina University on a full scholarship and he received a master of arts degree in English language and literature from the University of Chicago in 1975. C. In November 1983, Atkinson was hired as a reporter on the staff of the Washington Post. He subsequently wrote about issues, the 1984 presidential election–he covered Rep. Geraldine Ferraro. In 1985, he became deputy editor, overseeing coverage of defense, diplomacy. In 1991, he was the lead writer during the Persian Gulf War. Two years later he joined the staff as bureau chief in Berlin, covering not only Germany and NATO. Atkinson left the world in 1999 to write about World War II. Ford Award for Distinguished Reporting on National Defense and he held the Omar N. Bradley Chair of Strategic Leadership at the United States Army War College and Dickinson College in 2004–2005, and remains an adjunct faculty member at the war college. Atkinsons first book, written while on leave from the Post, was The Long Gray Line, a 1989 review in Time magazine called it brilliant history, and Business Week reviewer Dave Griffiths called it the best book out of Vietnam to date. Author James Salter, reviewing the book for The Washington Post Book World, wrote, Enormously rich in detail and written with a novelists brilliance, in 1993, Atkinson wrote Crusade, The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War. In a review, The Wall Street Journal wrote, No one could have been prepared to write a book on Desert Storm. While with the 101st Airborne Division south of Baghdad in April 2003, as a result of his time with Gen. Atkinson was the lead essayist in Where Valor Rests, Arlington National Cemetery, published by the National Geographic Society in 2007. In 2013 Atkinson was working on a trilogy about the American Revolution 1775–1781, helmerich Distinguished Author Award While working in Kansas City, Atkinson met Jane Ann Chestnut of Lawrence, Kansas, then a first-year dental student

29.
Hank Klibanoff
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Hank Klibanoff is an American journalist, now a professor at Emory University. He and Gene Roberts won the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for History for the book The Race Beat, The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, hank Klibanoff was born and raised in Florence, Alabama. He got a start in journalism delivering newspapers by bicycle. He graduated from Coffee High School in Florence and attended Washington University in St. Louis and he studied journalism at the Medill School of Northwestern University. He was managing editor of the Atlanta Journal-Constitution until June 24,2008 and he had been deputy managing editor for The Philadelphia Inquirer, where he worked for 20 years. He had also been a reporter for six years in Mississippi, Klibanoff is currently the director of the journalism program at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, as well as the project managing editor of the Civil Rights Cold Case Project. Klibanoff is father to three girls, Caroline, Eleanor and Corinne, he is married to Laurie Leonard, hank Klibanoff at Library of Congress Authorities, with 1 catalog records

30.
Annette Gordon-Reed
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Annette Gordon-Reed, is an American historian and law professor. Gordon-Reed is noted for changing scholarship on Thomas Jefferson regarding his relationship with Sally Hemings, Gordon-Reed was born in Texas to Bettye Jean Gordon and Alfred Gordon. She became interested in Thomas Jefferson as a student in elementary school and she graduated from Dartmouth College in 1981 and Harvard Law School in 1984, where she was a member of the Harvard Law Review. Gordon-Reed is married to Hon. Robert R. Reed, Justice of the Supreme Court of the State of New York and she lives on the Upper West Side of New York with her husband and two children, Gordon and Susan. Gordon-Reed spent her career as an associate at Cahill Gordon & Reindel. She speaks or moderates at numerous conferences across the country on history and she was previously Wallace Stevens Professor of Law at New York Law School and Board of Governors Professor of History at Rutgers University, Newark. In 2010, she joined Harvard University with joint appointments in history and law, in 2012, she was appointed the Charles Warren Professor of American Legal History at HLS. In 2014, she was the Harold Vyvyan Harmsworth Visiting Professor at Queens College, by the mid-1970s, Fawn M. Brodie wrote the first biography of Jefferson to seriously examine the evidence related to Sally Hemings, she thought the Hemings-Jefferson liaison was likely. Gordon-Reed drew on her training to apply context and reasonable interpretation to the sparse documentation. The writer Christopher Hitchens in Slate described her analysis as brilliant, Gordon-Reed identified a set of unexamined assumptions that had governed many Jefferson scholars investigations. These assumptions were that people tell the truth, black people lie, slave owners tell the truth. She similarly cross-checked oral traditions among Hemings descendants with primary sources such as Jeffersons papers, Gordon-Reed noted that all of Sally Hemings children were freed, as Madison said Jefferson had promised. Her analysis led her to conclude that Jefferson and Hemings did have a sexual relationship. Reprinted in 1999, her new edition of the book has a foreword incorporating the 1998 DNA study, in addition, it conclusively showed there was no match between the Hemings descendant and the descendants of the Carr line, so neither of the nephews could have been the father. The findings received national attention, with PBS devoting a lengthy program to the issues, major groups re-assessed their evaluation of historical evidence related to this issue. In 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, which operates Monticello, announced that its internal study had concluded that Jefferson was likely the father of Eston and it has since changed its exhibits, programming, academic research and other materials to reflect this. The William and Mary Quarterly devoted an issue to the topic in 2001, some historians disagree, the newly formed Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society commissioned an independent report and scholars associated with it have continued to argue with the consensus. This memoir of Vernon Jordan, the rights activist, written with him

31.
Eric Foner
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Eric Foner is an American historian. His free online courses on The Civil War and Reconstruction, published in 2014, are available from Columbia University on ColumbiaX, in 2011 Foners The Fiery Trial, Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the Lincoln Prize, and the Bancroft Prize. Foner previously won the Bancroft in 1989 for his book Reconstruction, Americas Unfinished Revolution, in 2000, he was elected president of the American Historical Association. Eric Foner describes his father as his first great teacher, and recalls how, deprived of his livelihood while I was growing up, he supported our family as a freelance lecturer. I also imbibed a way of thinking about the past in which visionaries and underdogs—Tom Paine, Wendell Phillips, Eugene V. Debs, and W. E. B. Du Bois—were as central to the drama as presidents and captains of industry. Foner went to Columbia University for his B. A. he was majoring in physics until he took a seminar with James P. Shenton on the Civil War. It probably determined that most of my career has focused on that period. A year later, in 1963, Foner graduated summa cum laude as a history major and he studied at Oxford as a Kellett Fellow, he received a B. A. from Oriel College in 1965. Foner returned to Columbia for his Ph. D, where he worked under Richard Hofstadter, from 1973-1982 Foner served as a professor in the history department at City College and Graduate Center at City University of New York. In 1976-1977 he was a professor of American History at Princeton University. In 1980 he was Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at the University of Cambridge and he served as president of the Organization of American Historians in, and of the American Historical Association. He is one of two persons to serve as president of the Organization of American Historians, American Historical Association. Foner serves on the boards of Past and Present and The Nation. Foner has written for The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, London Review of Books, in addition, he has spoken about history on television and radio, including Charlie Rose, Book Notes, and All Things Considered. He has appeared in documentaries on PBS and The History Channel. Foner contributed an essay and conversation with John Sayles in Past Imperfect, History According to the Movies and he was the historian in Freedom, A History of US on PBS in 2003. Foner has long considered a leading authority on the Reconstruction Era of American history

32.
Manning Marable
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William Manning Marable was an American professor of public affairs, history and African-American Studies at Columbia University. Marable founded and directed the Institute for Research in African-American Studies and he authored several texts and was active in progressive political causes. At the time of his death, he had completed a biography of human rights activist Malcolm X titled Malcolm X, A Life of Reinvention, Marable was born and raised in Dayton, Ohio. His parents were graduates of Central State, an historically black university in nearby Wilberforce. His mother was a minister and held a Ph. D. In April 1968, at the behest of his mother, 17-year old Marable covered the funeral of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Atlanta and he graduated from Jefferson Township High School shortly thereafter. Marable received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Earlham College and went on to earn his masters degree and Ph. D. in history, at the University of Wisconsin, Marable served as Chair of Movement for a Democratic Society. Marable served on the Board of Directors for the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network, Marable was also a member of the New York Legislatures Amistad Commission, created to review state curriculum regarding the slave trade. Marable was a critic of Afrocentrism, in a 2008 column, Marable endorsed Senator Barack Obamas bid for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination. Marable, who was diagnosed with sarcoidosis, underwent a lung transplant as treatment in summer 2010. Marable died of complications from pneumonia on April 1,2011, marables biography of Malcolm X concluded that Malcolm X exaggerated his early criminal career, and engaged in a homosexual relationship with a white businessman. He also concluded that some of the killers of Malcolm X are still alive and were never charged, Malcolm X, A Life of Reinvention was nominated for the National Book Award, and The New York Times ranked it among the 10 Best Books of 2011. It was one of three nominees for the inaugural Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction presented by the American Library Association for the best adult non-fiction and it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for History in 2012. Manning Marable interview via Tavis Smiley Marable Memorial Film Interview with Marable on New Books in Biography McMillian, John

33.
Elizabeth A. Fenn
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Elizabeth Anne Fenn is an American historian whose book Encounters at the Heart of the World, A History of the Mandan People won the 2015 Pulitzer Prize for History. She serves as the Walter S. and Lucienne Driskill chair in Western American History at University of Colorado-Boulder, Fenn received a bachelor of arts degree in history from Duke University in 1981, then attended Yale University, finishing her masters in 1985. Fenn originally planned to write her dissertation on millenarianism in Native American culture, pox Americana, her dissertation about the 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic, was written while working part-time, and completed in 1999. Fenn was interviewed on national news outlets about biological warfare after the September 11 attacks. Prior to joining the University of Colorado at Boulder in 2012, Fenn taught at George Washington University from 1999 to 2002 and Duke from 2002 to 2012. She married Peter H. Wood in 1999. ——, Wood, Peter H. Natives & Newcomers, pox Americana, The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82. Encounters at the Heart of the World, A History of the Mandan People, faculty page at UC-Boulder Appearances on C-SPAN

34.
T. J. Stiles
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T. J. Stiles is an award-winning American biographer who lives in Berkeley, California. His book The First Tycoon, The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt won a National Book Award and his book Custers Trials, A Life on the Frontier of a New America received the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for History. Stiles was born and raised in Foley, Minnesota, a farming community. He graduated from Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota with Distinction in History, after receiving a Master of Arts and a Master of Philosophy, he took a position in publishing at Oxford University Press. In the 1990s, Stiles edited a series of anthologies of primary sources on American history, Stiles also wrote for periodicals, authoring pieces for Smithsonian, Denver Post, and the Los Angeles Times. In 2002, Stiles published Jesse James, Last Rebel of the Civil War and this was a widely noted reassessment of the legendary outlaw, focusing on his life and historical role, rather than his folk-culture status. The book received a review in the New York Times Book Review. In 2009, after seven years of work, Stiles published his second biography The First Tycoon and this book was also widely and very favorably reviewed. It went on to win the 2009 National Book Award for Nonfiction, writing in the Boston Globe, Matthew Price found it to be a biography of stunning richness and sophistication. Turns the focus squarely on Custer and away from the terminus that has defined his legacy. The book has been named a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography and it received the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for History. It was also a finalist for the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography, Stiles is a member of the Society of American Historians. In 2011, Stiles received a Guggenheim Fellowship, from 2004 to 2005, Stiles held the Gilder Lehrman Fellowship in American History at the Dorothy and Lewis B. Cullman Center for Scholars and Writers at the New York Public Library and he has also received a Distinguished Alumni Award from Carleton College. Stiles has published reviews and essays. He has written for the New York Times Book Review, the Washington Post, the San Francisco Chronicle, the Minneapolis Star-Tribune, Salon. com, The Atlantic online, and he is a popular public speaker and has appeared on several television documentaries. He served as a consultant and on-screen interview subject in the PBS series The American Experience, for the films Jesse James and Grand Central and he also taught nonfiction creative writing at Columbia University, and belonged to the faculty of the 2014 World Economic Forum annual meetings. Currently, Stiles serves on the council of the Authors Guild

35.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.

The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, known simply as the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), …

Vice President Dick Cheney delivers his remarks on the war on terror, arguing against a withdrawal from Iraq, during a speech, Nov. 21, 2005, at the American Enterprise Institute. Michael Rubin is on the right in the front row.