Xiao Xiu

Xiao Xiu (Chinese: 蕭秀; pinyin: Xiāo xiù), styled Prince Anchengkang (Chinese: 安成康王; pinyin: Ancheng Kang Wang, also translated as Prince Kang of Ancheng) (475–518),[1]
was a younger half-brother of Emperor Wu, the first emperor of China's Liang Dynasty (who had the personal name of Xiao Yan). According to the Liang Shu, he was the 7th son of the Xiao Yan's father Xiao Shunzhi.[1]

Xiao Xiu is said to have been a disciple of the Buddhist monk Daodu (道度, 462–527).[1]

^Albert E. Dien, «Six Dynasties Civilization». Yale University Press, 2007
ISBN0-300-07404-2. Partial text on Google Books. P. 190. A reconstruction of the original form of the ensemble is shown in Fig. 5.19.

2.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty

3.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks

4.
Emperor Wu of Liang
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Emperor Wu of Liang, personal name Xiao Yan, courtesy name Shuda, nickname Lianer, was the founding emperor of the Liang Dynasty of Chinese history. His reign, until the end, was one of the most stable, Emperor Wu created universities and extending the Confucian civil service exams, demanding that sons of nobles study. He was well read himself and wrote poetry and patronized the arts, although for governmental affairs he was Confucian in values, he embraced Buddhism as well. He himself was attracted to many Indian traditions and he banned the sacrifice of animals and was against execution. It was said that he received the Buddhist precepts during his reign, the Emperor is the namesake of the Emperor Liang Jeweled Repentance, a widely read and major Buddhist text in China and Korea. Emperor Liang himself died while under house arrest, with some believing that Hou starved him to death. Xiao Yan was born in 464, during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of Liu Song, for Xiao Shunzhis contributions, Xiao Daocheng created him the Marquess of Linxiang and made him a general. Lady Zhang died in 471, predating Xiao Shunzhis becoming a marquess during Southern Qi, Xiao Yan had six other brothers born of Xiao Shunzhis concubines. One of them, Xiao Xiu is now mainly remembered because of his comparatively well-preserved funerary statuary ensemble near Nanjing, around 481 or 482, Xiao Yan married Chi Hui, the daughter of the Liu Song official Chi Ye and the Princess Xunyang. She bore him three daughters—Xiao Yuyao, Xiao Yuwan, and Xiao Yuhuan, but no sons. Wang was said to be impressed by Xiao Yans talents and appearance, and he said, Mr. Xiao will be Shizhong before he turns 30. When Xiao Luan later took the throne, Xiao Yan was created the Baron of Jianyang, in 495, when Northern Wei forces invade, Xiao Yan was on the frontline fighting Northern Wei troops, and he distinguished himself under the command of Wang Guangzhi. In 497, with Northern Wei again attacking, Xiao Yan was one of the generals that Emperor Ming sent to aid the embattled Yong Province and it was at Xiangyang that Xiao Yans wife Chi Hui died in 499. Xiao Yan would not take another wife for the rest of his life, the six officials each handled important matters of state according to their will and paid the young emperor little deference, drawing his ire. Xiao Yaoguang, who wanted to be himself and feared being the next target. This led to a rebellion by the senior general Chen Xianda from his post at Jiang Province, in fear, the general Pei Zhaoye, who controlled Shouyang as the governor of Yu Province, surrendered Shouyang to Northern Wei in 500, despite Xiao Yans counsel against it. Xiao Baojuan sent Cui Huijing to try to recapture Shouyang, Cui was initially successful, surrounding Xiao Baojuans troops inside the palace complex. However, Xiao Yi, upon hearing news of Cuis rebellion and he routed Cuis forces, and Cui was killed while trying to escape

5.
Liang dynasty
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The Liang dynasty, also known as the Southern Liang dynasty, was the third of the Southern Dynasties during Chinas Southern and Northern Dynasties period. Located in central China, north of Lake Dongting, the Liang dynasty was followed by the Chen dynasty, during the Liang dynasty, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Book of Liang. The ending date for Liang dynasty itself is a matter of controversy among historians, many historians consider the end of Emperor Jings reign in 556, when he was forced to yield the throne to Chen Baxian, who established Chen dynasty, to be Liangs end date. Others regard the abolition of Western Liang in 587 to be the end of Liang. A Liang scion named Xiao Xian attempted to revive the Liang dynasty during the collapse of the Sui dynasty and he was defeated and executed by Emperor Gaozu of Tang. Tombs of a number of members of the ruling Xiao family, with their sculptural ensembles, the best surviving example of the Liang dynastys monumental statuary is perhaps the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu, a brother of Emperor Wu, located in Qixia District east of Nanjing. Tombs of the Liang Dynasty King of Liang Book of Liang Book of Zhou History of Northern Dynasties History of Southern Dynasties Zizhi Tongjian Media related to Liang dynasty at Wikimedia Commons

6.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha

7.
Spirit way
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A spirit way is the ornate road leading to a Chinese tomb of a major dignitary. The term is sometimes translated as spirit road, spirit path or sacred way. The spirit way is lined on both sides by a succession of statues, pillars, and stelae, the statues along the spirit way depict real and mythical animals, as well as civilian and military officials. Spirit ways were a feature of tombs by the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty. This layout, with few exceptions, has persisted since then through the history of the spirit road. A characteristic feature of an East Han spirit road were monumental towers, the feline-based fantastic creatures were known under a variety of names, among which the most common were tianlu, bixie and qilin. As in later dynasties, the creatures were facing the road, as on the later spirit ways, the stone animals on the Eastern Han spirit roads must have been followed by human statues, but very few of those have survived. A pair of well-preserved stone officials from that period are now kept at the Temple of Confucius, the coffin was lowered into the grave on ropes passed through holes made in each slab. After the burial, those wooden slabs would be placed upright on top of the tomb, in reminder of that old custom, early spirit way stelae have a round hole in the middle of their upper parts. The fall of the Han Empire was followed by a period of upheaval, the Wei and Western Jin rulers seemed to have frowned upon funeral art extravagance of the fallen Han Dynasty, generally shunning above-ground statuary at their tomb sites. Around thirty of their tomb statuary groups, in degrees of preservation, are known to modern researchers. They are located primarily in the eastern and southeastern suburbs of Nanjing and in Danyang, the Southern Dynasties regimes, with their smaller economic base than the mighty Han, did not create as numerous and as grandiose funeral ensembles as the Qin and Han. The use of spirit ways under these dynasties was limited to emperors, the new Buddhist and Daoist currents in the spiritual life of south China greatly influenced the art of sculpture as well. The newly reinterpreted feng shui principles called more attention to orienting the tomb with respect to the terrain than to the strict north-south axis. A typical Southern Dynasties spirit way was quite short and included a pair of giant winged felines, a pair of columns, and these felines, whom connoisseurs called the most noble creatures to guard any tomb in Asia came in two varieties. While both fantastic species must have derived from the Han era animal statuary, experts distinguish the twos pedigrees. The stocky bixie is thought to have evolved from the statues of Han-era tombs in Sichuan and Shandong, however. It is not clear any more what the symbolism of the tongue was, it has been variously interpreted as a prayer for rain

8.
Qixia District
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Qixia District is one of 11 districts of Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu province, China, straddling both sides of the Yangtze River. It has an area of 80 km2 and a population of 400,000, Qixia Mountain is in Qixia District. Qixia Temple, a Southern Tang Buddhist temple, is there, during the Qing dynasty, the Qianlong Emperor praised it as the most elegant mountain in Jinling. A number of Liang dynasty tombs are in the district, primarily in, among them, particularly well known is that of Xiao Xiu, containing one of the best surviving sets of the periods statuary. Qixia District includes northern and northeastern parts of the greater Nanjing area, the government of Qixia District administers five subdistricts and three towns. They are, Yaohua Maigaoqiao Yanziji Maqun Qixia Longtan Jingan Baguazhou Qixia Town is an important land and it is connected to the Shanghai-Nanjing Railway. The No.312 National Highway and Qixia Highway runs through it, Qixia district is the location of the Xianlin University City which hosts ten major universities from Jiangsu province. Nanjing International School is a Pre-k -12 school for foreign students The Japanese Weekend School of Nanjing, Qixia is 16 km from Nanjing City Central Business District and 40 km from Nanjing Lukou International Airport

9.
Nanjing
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Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having served as the capitals of various Chinese dynasties, kingdoms and republican governments dating from the 3rd century CE to 1949. When being the capital of a state, for instance, the ROC, Nanjing is particularly known as Jinling or Ginling and the old name has been used since the Warring States period in Zhou Dynasty. Located in Yangtze River Delta area and the center of east China and it has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honour of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award and National Civilized City. Nanjing boasts many high-quality universities and research institutes, with the number of universities listed in 100 National Key Universities ranking third, the ratio of college students to total population ranks No.1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing is one of the three Chinese top research centers according to Nature Index, Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library, Nanjing Museum and Art Museum. Archaeological discovery shows that Nanjing Man lived in more than 500 thousand years ago, zun, a kind of wine vessel, was found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing in about 5000 years ago. According to a legend quoted by an artist in Ming dynasty, Chen Yi, Fuchai, King of the State of Wu, later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng on the outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi in the part of present-day Nanjing. It was renamed Moling during reign of Qin Shi Huang, since then, the city experienced destruction and renewal many times. Nanjing was later the city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang. This city would soon play a role in the following centuries. Shortly after the unification of the region, the Western Jin dynasty collapsed, First the rebellions by eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebellions and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of the Jin dynasty in the north. Its the first time that the capital of the moved to southern part. During the period of North–South division, Nanjing remained the capital of the Southern dynasties for more than two and a half centuries, during this time, Nanjing was the international hub of East Asia. Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households, assuming an average Nanjing household had about 5.1 people at that time, the city had more than 1.4 million residents. As the old capital of China, many legendary stories happened here, residents in Nanjing all have the warmest affection for this city. Throughout glory and darkness in past centuries, Nanjing becomes a low-key city, GDP growth rate significantly exceeds the average rate in China for decades, which also maintain a fast developing model. Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu, the period of division ended when the Sui Dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town

10.
Pixiu
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Pixiu, is a Chinese mythical hybrid creature, commonly, but incorrectly referred to in the West by the Greek word chimera, is considered to be a very powerful protector to practitioners of Feng Shui. It resembles a strong, winged lion, Pixiu is an earth and sea variation, particularly an influential and auspicious creature for wealth. It is said to have a voracious appetite towards only gold, silver, therefore, traditionally to the Chinese, Pixiu has always been regarded as an auspicious creature that possessed mystical power capable of drawing Cai Qi from all directions. Because of this, according to Chinese zodiac, it is helpful for those who are going through a bad year. There are two different types of Pixiu, a male and a female, the physical difference is seen by their antlers. The one with two antlers is the female of the species and is called a “Bìxié” and the one with one antler is the male of the species and is called a “Tiān lù, Tiān lù - is in charge of wealth. Displaying Tiān lù at home or in the office is said to prevent wealth from flowing away and it is also believed that Bìxié has the ability of assisting anyone who is suffering from bad Feng Shui that is due to having offended the Grand Duke Jupiter. Pixiu craves the smell of gold and silver and it likes to bring his money in his mouth. Statues of this creature are often used to attract wealth in feng shui, today, Pixiu are also a popular design on jade pendants. Their fantastic legend has been passed down through two-thousand years of Chinese lore. They have the head of a Chinese dragon, the bold body of a lion and, historically, depending on whether it is a male or female. Ancient Chinese descriptions, depictions and stone carvings of Pixiu from the Han dynasty show the male with a single antler, as with the Chinese Phoenix, the common image today is a representation of a single sex with one antler. Pixiu have protruding eyes and sharp teeth and its strong body resembles a Chinese lion and its feet have paws and claws. There is one ancient, stone sculpture variation found with hooves, many have a bifurcated tail that hangs low and downward, covering their buttocks and rectums, a representative metaphor that they hold gold inside their stomachs but will not let it out. Looking at the posture of Pixiu, the creature seems to project a sense of strength, elegance, likewise it has a big, opened mouth ready to gobble up gold and fortunes for its master. Because of this, a Pixiu statue is often employed in the home as a way of receiving and keeping fortunes, one story of the Pixiu tells that it violated a law of Heaven by defecating on the floor of Heaven. When it was out, it was punished by a spanking executed by the Jade Emperor. The spanking was hard enough to cause its rectum to be permanantly sealed, the Jade Emperor further declared that the diet of the Pixiu would be restricted to gold, silver and jewels

11.
Bixi
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Bixi or Bi Xi, is a figure from Chinese mythology. One of the 9 sons of the Dragon King, he is depicted as a dragon with the shell of a turtle and they are also used at the bases of bridges and archways. Sculptures of Bixi are traditionally rubbed for good luck, which can cause conservation issues and they can be found throughout East Asia in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia, and even the Russian Far East. The tradition of tortoise-mounted stelae originated no later than early 3rd century, according to the 1957 survey by Chêng Tê-kun, the earliest extant tortoise-borne stele is thought to be the one at the tomb of Fan Min, in Lushan County, Yaan, Sichuan. Victor Segalen had earlier identified the stele as a Han dynasty monument, present-day authors agree, the bixi tradition flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties. He tightened the rules in 1396, leaving only the highest nobility, the type of dragons crowning the tortoise-born stele, and the type and number of other statuary at the tomb site, were prescribed by the same regulations as well. At the Hongwu Emperors own mausoleum, a huge bixi holding the so-called Shengde stele welcomes visitors at the Sifangcheng pavilion at the entrance of the mausoleum complex. The Hongwu Emperors tortoise tradition was continued by the later Ming and Qing emperors, occasionally, a foreign head of state was honored with a bixi as well, as it happened to the sultan of Brunei Abdul Majid Hassan, who died during his visit to China in 1408. The sultans grave, with a suitably royal bixi-based monument, was discovered in Yuhuatai District south of Nanjing in 1958, after an ancient Christian stele was unearthed in Xian in 1625, it, too, was put on the back of a tortoise. In 1907, this so-called Nestorian Stele was moved to the Stele Forest Museum along with its tortoise and these days, long-lost bixi continue to be unearthed during archaeological excavations nad construction work. Among the most remarkable finds is the discovery of a huge 1200-year-old in Zhengding in June 2006, the stone turtle is 8.4 m long,3.2 m wide, and 2.6 m tall, and weighs 107 tons. It has since moved to Zhengdings Kaiyuan Temple. The concept of a tortoise-borne, dragon-crowned stele was early adopted by Chinas northern neighbors and it is now in the provincial capital, Tsetserleg. Among them, the most accessible one is probably Bayanchur Khans s Terhin-Gol stele, later, the Jurchen Jin dynasty and the Mongol Yuan dynasty erected tortoise-based monuments as well, some of which have been preserved in Russias Ussuriysk and Mongolias Karakorum. In Japan, this form of tortoise-supported stele is primarily at the graves of prominent Kamakura period figures. Another large collection of tortoise-borne stelae, spanning 17th through 19th centuries, otherwise, the form does not seem to have been particularly popular in earlier or later times. In Korea, tortoise-borne stelae are known already during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, monuments of this type have been preserved from the later Goryeo dynasty as well, such as the Stele of Bongseon Honggyeongsa. Vietnam also has a tradition of tortoise-born stelae, where they commemorate emperor Lê Lợi as well as the graduates of the Confucian academy at Hanois Temple of Literature

12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

13.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

14.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation