Sample records for isomorphous germanium salts

Germanium is an important semiconductor material, or metalloid which, by definition, is a material whose electrical properties are halfway between those of metallic conductors and electrical insulators. This paper describes the properties, sources, and market for germanium.

Describes some simple experiments related to the properties of crystals. Illustrates isomorphism using single crystals of alum. Presents experiments for determining how various mixture compositions affect the growth of salt crystals. (WRM)

4-Nitrobenzoic acid (PNBA) has proved to be a useful ligand for the preparation of metal complexes but the known structures of the alkali metal salts of PNBA do not include the rubidium salt. The structures of the isomorphous potassium and rubidium polymeric coordination complexes with PNBA, namely poly[μ2-aqua-aqua-μ3-(4-nitrobenzoato)-potassium], [K(C7H4N2O2)(H2O)2]n, (I), and poly[μ3-aqua-aqua-μ5-(4-nitrobenzoato)-rubidium], [Rb(C7H4N2O2)(H2O)2]n, (II), have been determined. In (I), the very distorted KO6 coordination sphere about the K(+) centres in the repeat unit comprise two bridging nitro O-atom donors, a single bridging carboxylate O-atom donor and two water molecules, one of which is bridging. In Rb complex (II), the same basic MO6 coordination is found in the repeat unit, but it is expanded to RbO9 through a slight increase in the accepted Rb-O bond-length range and includes an additional Rb-O(carboxylate) bond, completing a bidentate O,O'-chelate interaction, and additional bridging Rb-O(nitro) and Rb-O(water) bonds. The comparative K-O and Rb-O bond-length ranges are 2.7352 (14)-3.0051 (14) and 2.884 (2)-3.182 (2) Å, respectively. The structure of (II) is also isomorphous, as well as isostructural, with the known structure of the nine-coordinate caesium 4-nitrobenzoate analogue, (III), in which the Cs-O bond-length range is 3.047 (4)-3.338 (4) Å. In all three complexes, common basic polymeric extensions are found, including two different centrosymmetric bridging interactions through both water and nitro groups, as well as extensions along c through the para-related carboxylate group, giving a two-dimensional structure in (I). In (II) and (III), three-dimensional structures are generated through additional bridges involving the nitro and water O atoms. In all three structures, the two water molecules are involved in similar intra-polymer O-H...O hydrogen-bonding interactions to both carboxylate and water O-atom acceptors. A

This paper reports on five students' explorations of structural relationships between problem situations that they worked on over several years as participants in a long-term study. In particular, we describe the case of students who recognized isomorphisms between and among two problem situations and who used particular features of the problems…

We investigate the computational complexity of the Boolean Isomorphism problem (BI): on input of two Boolean formulas F and G decide whether there exists a permutation of the variables of G such that F and G become equivalent. Our main result is a one-round interactive proof for BI, where the verifier has access to an NP oracle. To obtain this, we use a recent result from learning theory by Bshouty et.al. that Boolean formulas can be learned probabilistically with equivalence queries and access to an NP oracle. As a consequence, BI cannot be {sigma}{sup p}{sub 2} complete unless the Polynomial Hierarchy collapses. This solves an open problem posed in [BRS95]. Further properties of BI are shown: BI has And- and Or-functions, the counting version, No. BI, can be computed in polynomial time relative to BI, and BI is self-reducible.

The creation of isomorphic activities can be accomplished when an instructor with a broad repertoire of activities applies a clear definition of purpose to a strong understanding of the clients involved. Experiential education is based on the use of experience to increase human potential. In order to capitalize on specific behaviors for focused…

In this article, the author examines the intersections of three concepts, form, feeling, and isomorphism, in the work of Susanne Langer, as they are fundamental to an understanding of her aesthetic theory and to the construction of a philosophy of music and music education. These three concepts hold meanings that differ among musicians and…

In the Graph Isomorphism (GI) problem two N-vertex graphs G and G' are given and the task is to determine whether there exists a permutation of the vertices of G that preserves adjacency and maps G --> G'. If yes (no), then G and G' are said to be isomorphic (non-isomorphic). The GI problem is an important problem in computer science and is thought to be of comparable difficulty to integer factorization. We present a quantum algorithm that solves arbitrary instances of GI, and which provides a novel approach to determining all automorphisms of a graph. The algorithm converts a GI instance to a combinatorial optimization problem that can be solved using adiabatic quantum evolution. Numerical simulation of the algorithm's quantum dynamics shows that it correctly distinguishes non-isomorphic graphs; recognizes isomorphic graphs; and finds the automorphism group of a graph. We also discuss the algorithm's experimental implementation and show how it can be leveraged to solve arbitrary instances of the NP-Complete Sub-Graph Isomorphism problem.

Phenomena differing in nature may have mathematical descriptions identical in form; examples are the similarities between the expressions for Fick's first law and Fourier's law, which describe mass and energy transfer correspondingly. One can thus use model isomorphism in simulation, which can accelerate the process, since it is merely necessary to check that the model fit is adequate. The author has compared two forms of simulation: from model isomorphism and from studies on kinetics and dynamics in application to oxidized-bitumen production, as the material is important, and increased output has a bearing on improving oil refining. This model is adequate and can be derived from the isomorphism principle as well as from the kinetics and dynamics. The principle does not replace research on the process but enables one to derive models more rapidly for processing petroleum fractions characterized by complicated compositions and reactions.

We study a routing problem that arises on SIMD parallel architectures whose communication network forms a toroidal mesh. We assume there exists a set of k message descriptors (xi, yi), where (xi, yi) indicates that the ith message's recipient is offset from its sender by xi hops in one mesh dimension, and yi hops in the other. Every processor has k messages to send, and all processors use the same set of message routing descriptors. The SIMD constraint implies that at any routing step, every processor is actively routing messages with the same descriptors as any other processor. We call this isomorphic routing. Our objective is to find the isomorphic routing schedule with least makespan. We consider a number of variations on the problem, yielding complexity results from O(k) to NP-complete. Most of our results follow after we transform the problem into a scheduling problem, where it is related to other well-known scheduling problems.

We consider the emerging problem of comparing the similarity between (unlabeled) pedigrees. More specifically, we focus on the simplest pedigrees, namely, the 2-generation pedigrees. We show that the isomorphism testing for two 2-generation pedigrees is GI-hard. If the 2-generation pedigrees are monogamous (i.e., each individual at level-1 can mate with exactly one partner) then the isomorphism testing problem can be solved in polynomial time. We then consider the problem by relaxing it into an NP-complete decomposition problem which can be formulated as the Minimum Common Integer Pair Partition (MCIPP) problem, which we show to be FPT by exploiting a property of the optimal solution. While there is still some difficulty to overcome, this lays down a solid foundation for this research. PMID:25860335

In the graph isomorphism (GI) problem two N-vertex graphs G and G' are given and the task is to determine whether there exists a permutation of the vertices of G that preserves adjacency and transforms G →G'. If yes, then G and G' are said to be isomorphic; otherwise they are nonisomorphic. The GI problem is an important problem in computer science and is thought to be of comparable difficulty to integer factorization. In this paper we present a quantum algorithm that solves arbitrary instances of GI and which also provides an approach to determining all automorphisms of a given graph. We show how the GI problem can be converted to a combinatorial optimization problem that can be solved using adiabatic quantum evolution. We numerically simulate the algorithm's quantum dynamics and show that it correctly (i) distinguishes nonisomorphic graphs; (ii) recognizes isomorphic graphs and determines the permutation(s) that connect them; and (iii) finds the automorphism group of a given graph G. We then discuss the GI quantum algorithm's experimental implementation, and close by showing how it can be leveraged to give a quantum algorithm that solves arbitrary instances of the NP-complete subgraph isomorphism problem. The computational complexity of an adiabatic quantum algorithm is largely determined by the minimum energy gap Δ (N) separating the ground and first-excited states in the limit of large problem size N ≫1. Calculating Δ (N) in this limit is a fundamental open problem in adiabatic quantum computing, and so it is not possible to determine the computational complexity of adiabatic quantum algorithms in general, nor consequently, of the specific adiabatic quantum algorithms presented here. Adiabatic quantum computing has been shown to be equivalent to the circuit model of quantum computing, and so development of adiabatic quantum algorithms continues to be of great interest.

Overview -- Germanium is a hard, brittle semimetal that first came into use a half-century ago as a semiconductor material in radar units and as the material from which the first transistor was made. Today it is used principally as a component of the glass in telecommunications fiber optics; as a polymerization catalyst for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a commercially important plastic; in infrared (IR) night vision devices; and as a semiconductor and substrate in electronics circuitry. Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting, although it also has been recovered at some copper smelters and from the fly ash of coal-burning industrial powerplants. It is a highly dispersed element, associated primarily with base-metal sulfide ores. In the United States, germanium is recovered from zinc smelter residues and manufacturing scrap and is refined by two companies at four germanium refineries. One of the four refineries is dedicated to processing scrap. In 2000, producers sold zone-refined (high-purity) germanium at about $1,250 per kilogram and electronic-grade germanium dioxide (GeO2) at $800 per kilogram. Domestic refined production was valued at $22 million. Germanium is a critical component in highly technical devices and processes. It is likely to remain in demand in the future at levels at least as high as those of 2000. U.S. resources of germanium are probably adequate to meet domestic needs for several decades.

Passivation of predominantly crystalline semiconductor devices (12) is provided for by a surface coating (21) of sputtered hydrogenated amorphous semiconductor material. Passivation of a radiation detector germanium diode, for example, is realized by sputtering a coating (21) of amorphous germanium onto the etched and quenched diode surface (11) in a low pressure atmosphere of hydrogen and argon. Unlike prior germanium diode semiconductor devices (12), which must be maintained in vacuum at cryogenic temperatures to avoid deterioration, a diode processed in the described manner may be stored in air at room temperature or otherwise exposed to a variety of environmental conditions. The coating (21) compensates for pre-existing undesirable surface states as well as protecting the semiconductor device (12) against future impregnation with impurities.

Dataflow graphs are a generalized model of computation. Uninterpreted dataflow graphs with nondeterminism resolved via probabilities are shown to be isomorphic to a class of Petri nets known as free choice nets. Petri net analysis methods are readily available in the literature and this result makes those methods accessible to dataflow research. Nevertheless, combinatorial explosion can render Petri net analysis inoperative. Using a previously known technique for decomposing free choice nets into smaller components, it is demonstrated that, in principle, it is possible to determine aspects of the overall behavior from the particular behavior of components.

Dataflow graphs are a generalized model of computation. Uninterpreted dataflow graphs with nondeterminism resolved via probabilities are shown to be isomorphic to a class of Petri nets known as free choice nets. Petri net analysis methods are readily available in the literature and this result makes those methods accessible to dataflow research. Nevertheless, combinatorial explosion can render Petri net analysis inoperative. Using a previously known technique for decomposing free choice nets into smaller components, it is demonstrated that, in principle, it is possible to determine aspects of the overall behavior from the particular behavior of components.

General characteristics of the lithium-drifted germanium photodiode-Dewar-preamplifier system and particular operating instructions for the device are given. Information is included on solving operational problems.

In her response to Mary Reichling's article "Intersections: Form, Feeling, and Isomorphism, Anne Sinclair believes that the exploration of form, feeling, and isomorphism in the writings of Susanne Langer accomplishes its goal to examine and elucidate aspects of these concepts. Sinclair finds several of the ideas presented very engaging. Musical…

We compute the Wiener index and the Hosoya polynomial of the Cayley graph of some cyclic groups, with all possible generating sets containing four elements, up to isomorphism. We find out that the order 17 is the smallest case providing two non-isomorphic 4-regular circulant graphs with the same Wiener index. Some open problems and questions are listed.

We present a new energy-minimization framework for the graph isomorphism problem that is based on an equivalent maximum clique formulation. The approach is centered around a fundamental result proved by Motzkin and Straus in the mid-1960s, and recently expanded in various ways, which allows us to formulate the maximum clique problem in terms of a standard quadratic program. The attractive feature of this formulation is that a clear one-to-one correspondence exists between the solutions of the quadratic program and those in the original, combinatorial problem. To solve the program we use the so-called replicator equations--a class of straightforward continuous- and discrete-time dynamical systems developed in various branches of theoretical biology. We show how, despite their inherent inability to escape from local solutions, they nevertheless provide experimental results that are competitive with those obtained using more elaborate mean-field annealing heuristics. PMID:10578039

There has been growing interest in recent years over the investigation of bulk acoustic waves (BAWs) which propagate along certain directions in anisotropic crystals with a minimum of diffraction. One application of these BAWs is for multichannel acousto-optic devices. The fact that the beams propagate with the minimum diffraction implies that the channels in such a device can be closely packed. Since surface acoustic waves (SAWs) are constrained to be within roughly one acoustic wavelength from the surface, the possibility exists to deposit thin films of isotropic or anisotropic material on the substrate and embue the aggregate multilayer structure with properties not present in the beginning substrate material. The characteristic investigated in this article is the velocity anisotropy which, as is known, predominates SAW diffraction. Specifically, we present a method whereby self-collimating SAWs can be generated on surfaces even though the substrate material itself does not exhibit this behavior. We discuss the particular case of a ZnO layer on (001)-cut <110>-propagating GaAs for which a fair amount of slowness surface data exists. Finally, using angular spectrum of plane waves diffraction theory, we present data which substantiate the claim that self-collimating can more accurately be viewed as isomorphic because the SAW beam profile can propagate without changing its shape.

The location of the melting line (ML) of the Lennard-Jones (LJ) system and its associated physical properties are investigated using molecular dynamics computer simulation. The radial distribution function and the behavior of the repulsive and attractive parts of the potential energy indicate that the ML is not a single isomorph, but the isomorphic state evolves gradually with temperature, i.e., it is only "locally isomorphic." The state point dependence of the unitless isomorphic number, X ˜ , for a range of static and dynamical properties of the LJ system in the solid and fluid states, and for fluid argon, are also reported. The quantity X ˜ typically varies most with state point in the vicinity of the triple point and approaches a plateau in the high density (temperature) limit along the ML.

The high-magnetic-field crystal growth facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center will be briefly described. This facility has been used to grow bulk germanium by the Bridgman technique in magnetic fields up to 5 Tesla. The results of investigations of ampoule material on the interface shape and thermal field applied to the melt on stability against convection will be discussed.

This paper describes an encapsulation technology that should significantly improve the viability of germanium gamma-ray detectors for a number of important applications. A specialized vacuum chamber has been constructed in which the detector and the encapsulating module are processed in high vacuum. Very high vacuum conductance is achieved within the valveless encapsulating module. The detector module is then sealed without breaking the chamber vacuum. The details of the vacuum chamber, valveless module, processing, and sealing method are presented.

The thermodynamic behavior of the simple binary mixtures in the vicinity of critical line has a universal character and can be mapped from pure components using the isomorphism hypothesis. Consequently, based upon the principle of isomorphism, critical phenomena and similarity between P-ρ-T and T-η-(viscosity)-P relationships, the viscosity model has been developed adopting two cubic, Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) and Peng-Robinson (PR), equations of state (EsoS) for predicting the viscosity of the binary mixtures. This procedure has been applied to the methane-butane mixture and predicted its viscosity data. Reasonable agreement with the experimental data has been observed. In conclusion, we have shown that the isomorphism principle in conjunction with the mapped viscosity EoS suggests a reliable model for calculating the viscosity of mixture of hydrocarbons over a wide pressure range up to 35 MPa within the stated experimental errors. PMID:26680701

Koebner isomorphic response describes the phenomenon of histopathologically identical skin lesions of a preceding cutaneous disease appearing in sites of trauma. Wolf isotopic response describes the phenomenon of a new skin disease appearing in the site of an unrelated cutaneous disease. Neither of the phenomena has been reported in relation to systemic lupus erythematosus. This report describes a 17-year-old girl with systemic lupus erythematosus exhibiting particularly severe cutaneous involvement confined primarily to sun-exposed areas presenting with a dermatomal band of atrophic, scaling, erythematous papules, and plaques on her left shoulder extending down her left arm after herpes zoster eruption. The histopathologil result showed lupus erythematosus. This phenomenon is best considered as a Koebner isomorphic response, although Wolf isotopic response has some clinical relevance as well. Koebner isomorphic and Wolf isotopic responses are discussed as related to this case. PMID:22639953

Previous work recognized a new framework for the equations of a multifluid plasma, wherein each species can be described by a set of equations remarkably similar to the Maxwell equations of classical electrodynamics. This paper extends the previous effort to form an exact isomorphism between the multifluid theory and classical electrodynamics. The major benefits of the new formulation are that the explicit coupling between different species is minimized, and theorems and techniques of classical electrodynamics can be immediately applied to the new multifluid formulation. We introduce the exact isomorphism and investigate some of the immediate consequences from classical electrodynamics. To provide a visualization of the isomorphism, previous 1D and 2D numerical simulations are postprocessed and presented to illustrate the generalized fields and source terms.

The MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR is a large array of ultra-low background high-purity germanium detectors, enriched in 76Ge, designed to search for zero-neutrino double-beta decay (0νββ). The DEMONSTRATOR will utilize 76Ge from Russia, and the first one gram sample was received from the supplier for analysis on April 24, 2011. The Environmental Molecular Sciences facility, a DOE user facility at PNNL, was used to make the required isotopic and chemical purity measurements that are essential to the quality assurance for the MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR. The results of this first analysis are reported here.

David Stevenson's thoughts regarding Reichling's essay are offered in this article, and he begins his response by saying that Mary J. Reichling's essay regarding the three concepts, form, feeling, and isomorphism, is lucid, well structured, and aptly supported by research of other music education philosophers. He points out that Reichling states…

We introduce a grid cell microcircuit hypothesis. We propose the ‘grid in the world’ (evident in grid cell discharges) is generated by a ‘grid in the cortex’. This cortical grid is formed by patches of calbindin-positive pyramidal neurons in layer 2 of medial entorhinal cortex (MEC). Our isomorphic mapping hypothesis assumes three types of isomorphism: (i) metric correspondence of neural space (the two-dimensional cortical sheet) and the external two-dimensional space within patches; (ii) isomorphism between cellular connectivity matrix and firing field; (iii) isomorphism between single cell and population activity. Each patch is a grid cell lattice arranged in a two-dimensional map of space with a neural : external scale of approximately 1 : 2000 in the dorsal part of rat MEC. The lattice behaves like an excitable medium with neighbouring grid cells exciting each other. Spatial scale is implemented as an intrinsic scaling factor for neural propagation speed. This factor varies along the dorsoventral cortical axis. A connectivity scheme of the grid system is described. Head direction input specifies the direction of activity propagation. We extend the theory to neurons between grid patches and predict a rare discharge pattern (inverted grid cells) and the relative location and proportion of grid cells and spatial band cells. PMID:24366133

In industrial aqueous solutions, germanium generally occurs in trace amounts amid high concentrations of other metals, such as zinc, copper and iron. Separation of germanium from these metals as well as its isolation from gallium and indium pose a real challenge to the hydrometallurgist. After a brief discussion of the aqueous chemistry of germanium, this paper reviews the flowsheet of the Apex Mine in Utah. The Apex property was the only mine in the world to be operated primarily for production of gallium and germanium, but apparently closed due to great operating difficulties. Several process variants proposed for the treatment of the Apex ore, including bioleaching methods, are addressed. Following a more general description of the behavior of germanium in hydrometallurgical zinc processing streams, available technology for its recovery from aqueous solutions is summarized. Precipitation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, electrowinning, ion flotation and liquid-membrane separation are all outlined in terms of the aqueous chemistry of germanium. Finally, the production of high purity germanium dioxide and metal is briefly discussed. 61 refs.

Germanium is enriched in the following geologic environments: 1. (1) iron meteorites and terrestrial iron-nickel; 2. (2) sulfide ore deposits, particularly those hosted by sedimentary rocks; 3. (3) iron oxide deposits; 4. (4) oxidized zones of Ge-bearing sulfide deposits; 5. (5) pegmatites, greisens, and skarns; and 6. (6) coal and lignitized wood. In silicate melts, Ge is highly siderophile in the presence of native iron-nickel; otherwise, it is highly lithophile. Among silicate minerals, Ge is concentrated in those having less polymerized silicate tetrahedra such as olivine and topaz. In deposits formed from hydrothermal solutions, Ge tends to be enriched mostly in either sulfides or in fluorine-bearing phases; it is thus concentrated both in some hydrothermal sulfide deposits and in pegmatites, greisens, and skarns. In sulfide deposits that formed from solutions having low to moderate sulfur activity, Ge is concentrated in sphalerite in amounts up to 3000 ppm. Sulfide deposits that formed from solutions having higher sulfur activity allowed Ge to either form its own sulfides, particularly with Cu, or to substitute for As, Sn, or other metals in sulfosalts. The Ge in hydrothermal fluids probably derives from enrichment during the fractional crystallization of igneous fluids, or is due to the incorporation of Ge from the country rocks, particularly from those containing organic material. Germanium bonds to lignin-derivative organic compounds that are found in peat and lignite, accounting for its common concentration in coals and related organic material. Germanium is precipitated from water together with iron hydroxide, accounting for its concentration in some sedimentary and supergene iron oxide deposits. It also is able to substitute for Fe in magnetite in a variety of geologic environments. In the oxidized zone of Ge-bearing sulfide deposits, Ge is concentrated in oxides, hydroxides, and hydroxy-sulfates, sometimes forming its own minerals. It is particularly

The fracture toughness and slow crack growth parameters of germanium supplied as single crystal beams and coarse grain disks were measured. Although germanium is anisotropic (A=1.7), it is not as anisotropic as SiC, NiAl, or Cu, as evidence by consistent fracture toughness on the 100, 110, and 111 planes. Germanium does not exhibit significant slow crack growth in distilled water. (n=100). Practical values for engineering design are a fracture toughness of 0.7 MPam and a Weibull modulus of m=6+/-2. For well ground and reasonable handled coupons, fracture strength should be greater than 30 MPa.

The title hafnium germanium telluride, HfGeTe4, has been synthesized by the use of a halide flux and structurally characterized by X-ray diffraction. HfGeTe4 is isostructural with stoichiometric ZrGeTe4 and the Hf site in this compound is also fully occupied. The crystal structure of HfGeTe4 adopts a two-dimensional layered structure, each layer being composed of two unique one-dimensional chains of face-sharing Hf-centered bicapped trigonal prisms and corner-sharing Ge-centered tetra­hedra. These layers stack on top of each other to complete the three-dimensional structure with undulating van der Waals gaps. PMID:21202163

The known properties of nitrogen as an impurity in, and as an alloy element of, the germanium network are reviewed in this article. Amorphous and crystalline germanium-nitrogen alloys are interesting materials with potential applications for protective coatings and window layers for solar conversion devices. They may also act as effective diffusion masks for III-V electronic devices. The existing data are compared with similar properties of other group IV nitrides, in particular with silicon nitride. To a certain extent, the general picture mirrors the one found in Si-N systems, as expected from the similar valence structure of both elemental semiconductors. However, important differences appear in the deposition methods and alloy composition, the optical properties of as grown films, and the electrical behavior of nitrogen-doped amorphous layers. Structural studies are reviewed, including band structure calculations and the energies of nitrogen-related defects, which are compared with experimental data. Many important aspects of the electronic structure of Ge-N alloys are not yet completely understood and deserve a more careful investigation, in particular the structure of defects associated with N inclusion. The N doping of the a-Ge:H network appears to be very effective, the activation energy of the most effectively doped samples becoming around 120 meV. This is not the case with N-doped a-Si:H, the reasons for the difference remaining an open question. The lack of data on stoichiometric β-Ge3N4 prevents any reasonable assessment on the possible uses of the alloy in electronic and ceramic applications.

Bourdieusian Field Theory (BFT) provided decisive inspiration for the early conceptual formulation of New Institutionalism (NI). This paper attempts to reinvigorate the stalled intellectual dialogue between NI and BFT by comparing NI's concept of isomorphism with BFT's notion of homology. I argue that Bourdieu's understanding of domination-oriented social action, transposable habitus, and a non-linear causality, embodied in his neglected concept of homology, provides an alternative theorization of field-level convergence to New Institutionalism's central idea of institutional isomorphism. To showcase how BFT can be useful for organizational research, I postulate a habitus-informed and field-conditioned theory of transference to enrich NI's spin-off thesis of 'diffusion'. I propose that while NI can benefit from BFT's potential of bringing social structure back into organizational research, BFT can enrich its social analysis by borrowing from NI's elaboration of the symbolic system of organizations. PMID:27218878

{sup 119}Sn and {sup 129}Te ({sup 129}I) Moessbauer spectroscopy showed that chalcogen-enriched Ge{sub 100-y}X{sub y} (X = S, Se, Te) glasses are constructed of structural units including two-coordinated chalcogen atoms in chains such as Ge-X-Ge- and Ge-X-X-Ge-. Germanium in these glasses is only tetravalent and four-coordinated, and only chalcogen atoms are in the local environment of germanium atoms. Chalcogen-depleted glasses are constructed of structural units including two-coordinated (in Ge-X-Ge- chains) and three-coordinated chalcogen atoms (in -Ge-X-Ge- chains). Germanium in these glasses stabilizes in both the tetravalent four-coordinated and divalent three-coordinated states, and only chalcogen atoms are in the local environment of germanium atoms.

On-chip optical interconnection is considered as a substitute for conventional electrical interconnects as microelectronic circuitry continues to shrink in size. Central to this effort is the development of ultracompact, silicon-compatible, and functional optoelectronic devices. Photodetectors play a key role as interfaces between photonics and electronics but are plagued by a fundamental efficiency-speed trade-off. Moreover, engineering of desired wavelength and polarization sensitivities typically requires construction of space-consuming components. Here, we demonstrate how to overcome these limitations in a nanoscale metal-semiconductor-metal germanium photodetector for the optical communications band. The detector capitalizes on antenna effects to dramatically enhance the photoresponse (>25-fold) and to enable wavelength and polarization selectivity. The electrical design featuring asymmetric metallic contacts also enables ultralow dark currents (approximately 20 pA), low power consumption, and high-speed operation (>100 GHz). The presented high-performance photodetection scheme represents a significant step toward realizing integrated on-chip communication and manifests a new paradigm for developing miniaturized optoelectronics components. PMID:20230043

The operator solution of the anomalous chiral Schwinger model is discussed on the basis of the general principles of Wightman field theory. Some basic structural properties of the model are analyzed taking a careful control on the Hilbert space associated with the Wightman functions. The isomorphism between gauge noninvariant and gauge invariant descriptions of the anomalous theory is established in terms of the corresponding field algebras. We show that (i) the {Theta}-vacuum representation and (ii) the suggested equivalence of vector Schwinger model and chiral Schwinger model cannot be established in terms of the intrinsic field algebra. {copyright} 1997 Academic Press, Inc.

Equivalence classes of gapped Hamiltonians compatible with given symmetry constraints, such as those underlying topological insulators, can be defined in many ways. For the non-chiral classes modeled by vector bundles over Brillouin tori, physically relevant equivalences include isomorphism, homotopy, and K-theory, which are inequivalent but closely related. We discuss an important subtlety which arises in the chiral Class AIII systems, where the winding number invariant is shown to be relative rather than absolute as is usually assumed. These issues are then analyzed and reconciled in the language of K-theory.

The surface of single crystal, cold-wall CVD-grown germanium nanowires was studied by synchrotron radiation photoemission spectroscopy (SR-PES) and also by conventional XPS. The as-grown germanium nanowires seem to be hydrogen terminated. Exposure to laboratory atmosphere leads to germanium oxide growth with oxidation states of Ge{sup 1+}, Ge{sup 2+}, Ge{sup 3+}, while exposure to UV light leads to a predominance of the Ge{sup 4+} oxidation state. Most of the surface oxide could be removed readily by aqueous HF treatment which putatively leaves the nanowire surface hydrogen terminated with limited stability in air. Alternatively, chlorine termination could be achieved by aq. HCl treatment of the native oxide-coated nanowires. Chlorine termination was found to be relatively more stable than the HF-last hydrogen termination.

Germanium is a moderately volatile and siderophile element that follows silicon in its compatibility during partial melting of planetary mantles. Despite its obvious usefulness in planetary geochemistry germanium is not analyzed routinely, with there being only three prior studies reporting germanium abundances in Martian meteorites. The broad range (1-3 ppm) observed in Martian igneous rocks is in stark contrast to the narrow range of germanium observed in terrestrial basalts (1.5 plus or minus 0.1 ppm). The germanium data from these studies indicates that nakhlites contain 2-3 ppm germanium, while shergottites contain approximately 1 ppm germanium, a dichotomy with important implications for core formation models. There have been no reliable germanium abundances on chassignites. The ancient meteoritic breccia, NWA 7533 (and paired meteorites) contains numerous clasts, some pristine and some impact melt rocks, that are being studied individually. Because germanium is depleted in the Martian crust relative to chondritic impactors, it has proven useful as an indicator of meteoritic contamination of impact melt clasts in NWA 7533. The germanium/silicon ratio can be applied to minerals that might not partition nickel and iridium, like feldspars. We report germanium in minerals from the 3 known chassignites, 2 nakhlites and 5 shergottites by LAICP- MS using a method optimized for precise germanium analysis.

Quantum annealing is a proposed combinatorial optimization technique meant to exploit quantum mechanical effects such as tunneling and entanglement. Real-world quantum annealing-based solvers require a combination of annealing and classical pre- and post-processing; at this early stage, little is known about how to partition and optimize the processing. This article presents an experimental case study of quantum annealing and some of the factors involved in real-world solvers, using a 504-qubit D-Wave Two machine and the graph isomorphism problem. To illustrate the role of classical pre-processing, a compact Hamiltonian is presented that enables a reduced Ising model for each problem instance. On random N-vertex graphs, the median number of variables is reduced from N2 to fewer than N log2 N and solvable graph sizes increase from N = 5 to N = 13. Additionally, error correction via classical post-processing majority voting is evaluated. While the solution times are not competitive with classical approaches to graph isomorphism, the enhanced solver ultimately classified correctly every problem that was mapped to the processor and demonstrated clear advantages over the baseline approach. The results shed some light on the nature of real-world quantum annealing and the associated hybrid classical-quantum solvers. PMID:26053973

Quantum annealing is a proposed combinatorial optimization technique meant to exploit quantum mechanical effects such as tunneling and entanglement. Real-world quantum annealing-based solvers require a combination of annealing and classical pre- and post-processing; at this early stage, little is known about how to partition and optimize the processing. This article presents an experimental case study of quantum annealing and some of the factors involved in real-world solvers, using a 504-qubit D-Wave Two machine and the graph isomorphism problem. To illustrate the role of classical pre-processing, a compact Hamiltonian is presented that enables a reduced Ising model for each problem instance. On random N-vertex graphs, the median number of variables is reduced from N2 to fewer than N log2 N and solvable graph sizes increase from N = 5 to N = 13. Additionally, error correction via classical post-processing majority voting is evaluated. While the solution times are not competitive with classical approaches to graph isomorphism, the enhanced solver ultimately classified correctly every problem that was mapped to the processor and demonstrated clear advantages over the baseline approach. The results shed some light on the nature of real-world quantum annealing and the associated hybrid classical-quantum solvers.

Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere are approaching historically unprecedented levels from burning fossil fuels to meet the ever-increasing world energy demand. A rapid transition to clean energy sources is necessary to avoid the potentially catastrophic consequences of global warming. The sun provides more than enough energy to power the world, and solar cells that convert sunlight to electricity are commercially available. However, the high cost and low efficiency of current solar cells prevent their widespread implementation, and grid parity is not anticipated to be reached for at least 15 years without breakthrough technologies. Semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) show promise for cheap multi-junction photovoltaic devices. To compete with photovoltaic materials that are currently commercially available, NCs need to be inexpensively cast into dense thin films with bulk-like electrical mobilities and absorption spectra that can be tuned by altering the NC size. The Group II-VI and IV-VI NC communities have had some success in achieving this goal by drying and then chemically treating colloidal particles, but the more abundant and less toxic Group IV NCs have proven more challenging. This thesis reports thin films of plasma-synthesized Ge NCs deposited using three different techniques, and preliminary solar cells based on these films. Germanium tetrachloride is dissociated in the presence of hydrogen in a nonthermal plasma to nucleate Ge NCs. Transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction indicate that the particles are nearly monodisperse (standard deviations of 10-15% the mean particle diameter) and the mean diameter can be tuned from 4-15 nm by changing the residence time of the Ge NCs in the plasma. In the first deposition scheme, a Ge NC colloid is formed by reacting nanocrystalline powder with 1-dodecene and dispersing the functionalized NCs in a solvent. Films are then formed on substrates by drop-casting the colloid and allowing it to dry

This study examines isomorphic and diversifying changes in Turkish private higher education institutions. Within and across the institutions isomorphic changes are common while diverse patterns appear among institutions with semi-elite characteristics. Within the limits of the national centralized system the semi-elite universities emerged as…

Many students or teachers ask themselves: Being given a natural number n, how many non-isomorphic groups of order n exists? The answer, generally, is not yet given. But, for certain values of the number n have answered this question. The present work gives a method to determine of all non-isomorphic groups of order 16 and gives descriptions of all…

Constructing rooted phylogenetic networks from rooted phylogenetic trees has become an important problem in molecular evolution. So far, many methods have been presented in this area, in which most efficient methods are based on the incompatible graph, such as the CASS, the LNETWORK, and the BIMLR. This paper will research the commonness of the methods based on the incompatible graph, the relationship between incompatible graph and the phylogenetic network, and the topologies of incompatible graphs. We can find out all the simplest datasets for a topology G and construct a network for every dataset. For any one dataset 𝒞, we can compute a network from the network representing the simplest dataset which is isomorphic to 𝒞. This process will save more time for the algorithms when constructing networks. PMID:27547759

A new experimental technique found coloured-hearing synaesthetes to possess localised isomorphism between pitch and colour. We found significantly more consistency in synaesthetes' pitch-colour matches than controls, with matches unaffected by musical experience, not facilitated by absolute pitch (AP) and responded to on the basis of pitch alone, without interference from note-name information. Synaesthetes also placed their colour responses to quartertones (notes falling between adjacent semitones) significantly closer to the RGB midpoint of their responses to the semitones lying either side. This is partial evidence for a direct, localised pitch-colour correspondence. Criteria for possible between-synaesthete similarities in patterning are also discussed, with limited evidence for localised patterning presented. PMID:16683490

Social relations involve both face-to-face interaction as well as telecommunications. We can observe the geography of phone calls and of the mobility of cell phones in space. These two phenomena can be described as networks of connections between different points in space. We use a dataset that includes billions of phone calls made in Colombia during a six-month period. We draw the two networks and find that the call-based network resembles a higher order aggregation of the mobility network and that both are isomorphic except for a higher spatial decay coefficient of the mobility network relative to the call-based network: when we discount distance effects on the call connections with the same decay observed for mobility connections, the two networks are virtually indistinguishable. PMID:26713730

Cerium (Ce) undergoes a significant ({approx}16%) volume collapse associated with an isomorphic fcc-fcc phase transformation when subject to compressive loading. We present here a new Embedded Atom Method (EAM) potential for Cerium that models two minima for the two fcc phases. We show results from its use in Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations of Ce samples subjected to shocks with pressures ranging from 0.5 to 25 GPa. A split wave structure is observed, with an elastic precursor followed by a plastic wave. The plastic wave causes the expected fcc-fcc phase transformation. Comparisons to experiments and MD simulations on Cesium (Cs) indicate that three waves could be observed. The construction of the EAM potential may be the source of the difference.

Constructing rooted phylogenetic networks from rooted phylogenetic trees has become an important problem in molecular evolution. So far, many methods have been presented in this area, in which most efficient methods are based on the incompatible graph, such as the CASS, the LNETWORK, and the BIMLR. This paper will research the commonness of the methods based on the incompatible graph, the relationship between incompatible graph and the phylogenetic network, and the topologies of incompatible graphs. We can find out all the simplest datasets for a topology G and construct a network for every dataset. For any one dataset , we can compute a network from the network representing the simplest dataset which is isomorphic to . This process will save more time for the algorithms when constructing networks. PMID:27547759

In this thesis I explore two different types of limits on the time complexity of quantum computation---that is, limits on how much time is required to perform a given class of quantum operations on a quantum system. Upper limits can be found by explicit construction; I explore this approach for the problem of determining whether two graphs are isomorphic. Finding lower limits, on the other hand, usually requires appeal to some fundamental principle of the operation under consideration; I use this approach to derive lower limits placed by the requirements of relativistic causality on the time required for implementation of some nonlocal quantum operations. In some situations these limits are attainable, but for other physical spacetime geometries we exhibit classes of operations which do not violate relativistic causality but which are nevertheless not implementable.

Social relations involve both face-to-face interaction as well as telecommunications. We can observe the geography of phone calls and of the mobility of cell phones in space. These two phenomena can be described as networks of connections between different points in space. We use a dataset that includes billions of phone calls made in Colombia during a six-month period. We draw the two networks and find that the call-based network resembles a higher order aggregation of the mobility network and that both are isomorphic except for a higher spatial decay coefficient of the mobility network relative to the call-based network: when we discount distance effects on the call connections with the same decay observed for mobility connections, the two networks are virtually indistinguishable. PMID:26713730

Energetic particles can produce interstitial-vacancy pairs in a crystal by knocking the atoms from their normal positions. Detectors are unique among semiconductor devices in depending on very low concentrations of electrically active impurities, and also on efficient transport of holes and electrons over relatively large distances. Because the dense regions of damage produced by energetic particles may result in donors and/or acceptors, and also provide trapping sites for holes and electrons, detectors are very sensitive to radiation damage. In addition to these effects occurring within the detector, radiation may also change the characteristics of the exposed surfaces causing unpredictable effects on the detector leakage current. Radiation-induced surface degradation has rarely, if ever, been observed for germanium detectors. The possibility of minimizing hole trapping in charge collection by the use of a high-purity germanium coaxial detector configured with the p (+) contact on the coaxial periphery is discussed.

Largely completed thermometer-calibration cryostat and probe allows six germanium resistance thermometers to be calibrated at one time at superfluid-helium temperatures. In experiments involving several such thermometers, use of this calibration apparatus results in substantial cost savings. Cryostat maintains temperature less than 2.17 K through controlled evaporation and removal of liquid helium from Dewar. Probe holds thermometers to be calibrated and applies small amount of heat as needed to maintain precise temperature below 2.17 K.

Epitaxial layers of germanium doped with gallium made by chemical vapor deposition. Method involves combination of techniques and materials used in chemical vapor deposition with GeH4 or GeCl4 as source of germanium and GaCl3 as source of gallium. Resulting epitaxial layers of germanium doped with gallium expected to be highly pure, with high crystalline quality. High-quality material useful in infrared sensors.

The article provides information on germanium, an element with electrical properties between those of a metal and an insulator. Applications of germanium include its use as a component of the glass in fiber-optic cable, in infrared optics devices and as a semiconductor and substrate used in electronic and solar applications. Germanium was first isolated by German chemist Clemens Winkler in 1886 and was named after Winkler's native country. In 2008, the leading sources of primary germanium from coal or zinc include Canada, China and Russia.

This paper is the fourth in a series devoted to identifying and explaining the properties of strongly correlating liquids, i.e., liquids where virial and potential energy correlate better than 90% in their thermal equilibrium fluctuations in the N V T ensemble. For such liquids we here introduce the concept of "isomorphic" curves in the phase diagram. A number of thermodynamic, static, and dynamic isomorph invariants are identified. These include the excess entropy, the isochoric specific heat, reduced-unit static and dynamic correlation functions, as well as reduced-unit transport coefficients. The dynamic invariants apply for both Newtonian and Brownian dynamics. It is shown that after a jump between isomorphic state points the system is instantaneously in thermal equilibrium; consequences of this for generic aging experiments are discussed. Selected isomorph predictions are validated by computer simulations of the Kob-Andersen binary Lennard-Jones mixture, which is a strongly correlating liquid. The final section of the paper relates the isomorph concept to phenomenological melting rules, Rosenfeld's excess entropy scaling, Young and Andersen's approximate scaling principle, and the two-order parameter maps of Debenedetti and co-workers. This section also shows how the existence of isomorphs implies an "isomorph filter" for theories for the non-Arrhenius temperature dependence of viscous liquids' relaxation time, and it explains isochronal superposition for strongly correlating viscous liquids.

This report describes the recycling flow of germanium in the United States in 2000, as well as other germanium material flow streams. Germanium was recycled mostly from new scrap that was generated during the manufacture of germanium-containing fiber optic cables and from new and old scrap products of germanium-containing infrared imaging devices. In 2000, about 11.5 metric tons of germanium was recycled, about 40 percent of which was derived from old scrap. The germanium recycling rate was estimated to be 50 percent, and germanium scrap recycling efficiency, 76 percent.

A formally axiomatic approach to the phenomenon of isomorphism is considered. Empirical facts of isomorphism are investigated as subsets. The wide spread of isomorphism has the property for all xP(x). The construction of subsets in the 'main element-impurity element' coordinates revealed a structure that made it possible to statistically estimate the symmetry and dissymmetry of elements of this structure, construct the probability space ({omega}, F, P), and divide this space into sectors reflecting the dimension of atomic/ionic radii.

Five isomorphic fluorescent uridine mimics have been subjected to two-photon (2P) excitation analysis to investigate their potential applicability as non-perturbing probes for the single-molecule detection of nucleic acids. We find that small structural differences can cause major changes in the two-photon excitation probability, with the 2P cross sections varying by over one order of magnitude. Two of the probes, both furan-modified uridine analogs, have the highest 2P cross sections (3.8 GM and 7.6 GM) reported for nucleobase analogs, using a conventional Ti:sapphire laser for excitation at 690 nm; they also have the lowest emission quantum yields. In contrast, the analogs with the highest reported quantum yields have the lowest 2P cross sections. The structure-photophysical property relationship presented here is a first step towards the rational design of emissive nucleobase analogs with controlled 2P characteristics. The results demonstrate the potential for major improvements through judicious structural modifications. PMID:24604669

The reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is accompanied by the formation of liquid high-level radioactive waste (HLW). To increase the safety of handling HLW, it is proposed to extract actinide isotopes (An) and REE from them. These elements may be incorporated into crystalline matrices, e.g., based on ferrites with garnet structure, and then disposed in a geologic repository. The actinide-REE fraction is characterized by a complex composition. In addition to major components (An and REE), Al, Si, Na, and Sn occur therein in small amounts (a few wt %). Possible incorporation of the admixtures into ferrite garnets, as well as their effect on the phase composition of matrices and Th, Ce, Gd, and La contents were studied. It was shown that admixtures enter into garnet by means of isomorphic replacement. The properties of samples change only when admixtures are added in amounts exceeding their concentrations in HLW. The ability of ferrite garnets to accumulate significant amounts of An, REE, and admixture elements makes them suitable for use as matrices in immobilizing actinide-REE HLW of complex composition.

Configurational entropy plays a central role in thermodynamic scenarios of the glass transition. As a measure of the number of basins in the potential energy landscape, configurational entropy for a glass-forming liquid can be evaluated by explicitly counting distinct inherent structures. In this work, we propose a graph-theory based method to examine local structure and obtain the corresponding entropy of hard-particle systems. Voronoi diagrams of associated clusters are classified using a graph isomorphism algorithm. The statistics of these clusters reveal structural motifs such as icosahedron-like order, and also allow us to calculate the structural entropy SG. We find the structural entropy of an n-particle subsystem grows linearly with n. Thus the structural entropy per particle can be obtained from the slope dSG/dn. Our results are consistent with previous values for configurational entropy obtained via thermodynamic integration. Structural entropies per particle are measured for hard-disk and hard-sphere polydisperse systems, and extrapolated for monodisperse hard disks, all of which are nonzero at the dynamic glass transition. PMID:27510729

Robert E. Scott in his ``Chaos theory and the Justice Paradox'', William & Mary Law Review, v 35, I 1, 329 (1993) wrotes''...As we approach the 21-st Century, the signs of social disarray are everywhere. Social critics observe the breakdown of core structure - the nuclear family, schools, neighborhoods & political groups''. For completions for ``soliton'' first coined by Morikazu TODA, comparing the ``Soliton on Scott-Russell aqueduct on the Union Canal near Heriot-WATT University, July 12, 1995 to Michael Stock works: ``a Fine WATT-Balance: Determination of Planck constant & Redefinition of Kilogram'', January 2011, we can concludes the inherencies between `chaos' & `soliton'. Further through ``string theory'' from Michio KAKU sought statements from Peter Mayr: Stringy world brane & Exponential hierarchy'', JHEP 11 (2000): ``if the 5-brane is embedded in flat 10-D space time, the 6-D Planck mass on the brane is infinite'' who also describes the relation of isomorphicity & ``string theory'', from whom denotes the smart city. Replace this text with your abstract body. Incredible acknowledgments to HE. Mr. Drs. P. SWANTORO & HE. Mr. Dr-HC Jakob OETAMA.

Germanium is a hard, brittle semimetal that first came into use over a half-century ago as a semiconductor material in radar units and in the first transistor ever made. Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting, but it has also been recovered at some copper smelters and from the fly ash of coal-burning industrial power plants.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy is one of the most economical and wide-ranging tools for monitoring the environment for radiological impact. This report examines the problems involved in applying germanium detectors to the analysis of environmental samples. All aspects of germanium spectr...

Recently, the authors reported that alkyl vinyl ethers and terminal alkynes are readily germylated by germanium tetrahalides in the presence of a tertiary amine. To extend the range of applicability of this reaction and to obtain additional information on its mechanism, the authors study reactions of ketene acetals with germanium tetrachloride and tetrabromide in the presence of triethylamine.

A new SESAME multiphase germanium equation of state (EOS) has been developed using the best available experimental data and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The equilibrium EOS includes the Ge I (diamond), the Ge II (β-Sn) and the liquid phases. The foundation of the EOS is based on density functional theory calculations which are used to determine the cold curve and the Debye temperature. Results are compared to Hugoniot data through the solid-solid and solid-liquid transitions. We propose some experiments to better understand the dynamics of this element

The goal of the Majorana Demonstrator project is to search for 0νββ decay in 76Ge. Of all candidate isotopes for 0νββ, 76Ge has some of the most favorable characteristics. Germanium detectors are a well established technology, and in searches for 0νββ, the high purity germanium crystal acts simultaneously as source and detector. Furthermore, p-type germanium detectors provide excellent energy resolution and a specially designed point contact geometry allows for sensitive pulse shape discrimination. This paper will summarize the experiences the MAJORANA collaboration made with enriched germanium detectors manufactured by ORTEC®®. The process from production, to characterization and integration in MAJORANA mounting structure will be described. A summary of the performance of all enriched germanium detectors will be given.

The goal of the Majorana Demonstrator project is to search for 0νββ decay in 76Ge. Of all candidate isotopes for 0νββ, 76Ge has some of the most favorable characteristics. Germanium detectors are a well established technology, and in searches for 0νββ, the high purity germanium crystal acts simultaneously as source and detector. Furthermore, p-type germanium detectors provide excellent energy resolution and a specially designed point contact geometry allows for sensitive pulse shape discrimination. This paper will summarize the experiences the MAJORANA collaboration made with enriched germanium detectors manufactured by ORTEC®®. The process from production, to characterization and integration in MAJORANAmore » mounting structure will be described. A summary of the performance of all enriched germanium detectors will be given.« less

Although metaphorical and conceptual connections between the human brain and the financial markets have often been drawn, rigorous physical or mathematical underpinnings of this analogy remain largely unexplored. Here, we apply a statistical and graph theoretic approach to the study of two datasets – the time series of 90 stocks from the New York stock exchange over a 3-year period, and the fMRI-derived time series acquired from 90 brain regions over the course of a 10-min-long functional MRI scan of resting brain function in healthy volunteers. Despite the many obvious substantive differences between these two datasets, graphical analysis demonstrated striking commonalities in terms of global network topological properties. Both the human brain and the market networks were non-random, small-world, modular, hierarchical systems with fat-tailed degree distributions indicating the presence of highly connected hubs. These properties could not be trivially explained by the univariate time series statistics of stock price returns. This degree of topological isomorphism suggests that brains and markets can be regarded broadly as members of the same family of networks. The two systems, however, were not topologically identical. The financial market was more efficient and more modular – more highly optimized for information processing – than the brain networks; but also less robust to systemic disintegration as a result of hub deletion. We conclude that the conceptual connections between brains and markets are not merely metaphorical; rather these two information processing systems can be rigorously compared in the same mathematical language and turn out often to share important topological properties in common to some degree. There will be interesting scientific arbitrage opportunities in further work at the graph-theoretically mediated interface between systems neuroscience and the statistical physics of financial markets. PMID:22007161

The first year's effort on this project has been primarily devoted to the design and construction of a low-pressure chemical vapor deposition system for growth of the germanium nitride layers. The gas manifold layout is shown schematically, as is the reactor assembly, and the vacuum pumping assembly. The generator-cavity system is capable of delivering 0-600 W of microwave power at 2.45 GHz. The power generating section has been constructed from components contained in a portable home microwave oven and the cavity was assembled from easily machinable pieces. The cw magnetron source was mounted directly on a cylindrical microwave cavity. The plasma was contained in an on-axis 20-mm o.d. quartz tube. Design tradeoffs and operating information are discussed.

A method for providing a route for the synthesis of a Ge(0) nanometer-sized material from. A Ge(II) precursor is dissolved in a ligand heated to a temperature, generally between approximately 100.degree. C. and 400.degree. C., sufficient to thermally reduce the Ge(II) to Ge(0), where the ligand is a compound that can bond to the surface of the germanium nanomaterials to subsequently prevent agglomeration of the nanomaterials. The ligand encapsulates the surface of the Ge(0) material to prevent agglomeration. The resulting solution is cooled for handling, with the cooling characteristics useful in controlling the size and size distribution of the Ge(0) materials. The characteristics of the Ge(II) precursor determine whether the Ge(0) materials that result will be nanocrystals or nanowires.

We have fabricated several germanium immersion gratings by single crystal, single point diamond flycutting on an ultra-precision lathe. Use of a dead sharp tool produces groove corners less than 0.1 micron in radius and consequently high diffraction efficiency. We measured first order efficiencies in immersion of over 80% at 10.6 micron wavelength. Wavefront error was low averaging 0.06 wave rms (at 633 nm) across the full aperture. The grating spectral response was free of ghosts down to our detection limit of 1 part in 10{sup 4}. Scatter should be low based upon the surface roughness. Measurement of the spectral line profile of a CO{sub 2} laser sets an upper bound on total integrated scatter of 0.5%.

We have fabricated several germanium immersion gratings by single crystal, single point diamond flycutting on an ultra-precision lathe. Use of a dead sharp tool produces groove corners less than 0.1 micron in radius and consequently high diffraction efficiency. We measured first order efficiencies in immersion of over 80% at 10.6 micron wavelength. Wavefront error was low averaging 0.06 wave rms (at 633 nm) across the full aperture. The grating spectral response was free of ghosts down to our detection limit of 1 part in 104. Scatter should be low based upon the surface roughness. Measurement of the spectral line profile of a CO II laser sets an upper bound on total integrated scatter of 0.5%.

Germanium is an essentially nontoxic element, with the exception of only a few compounds. However, if dissolved concentrations in drinking water are as high as one or more parts per million chronic diseases may occur.

The Miura fold pattern, or the Miura-ori, is a flat-foldable origami pattern with various applications in engineering and architecture. In addition to free-form variations, scholars have proposed a number of symmetric derivatives for this classic fold pattern over recent years. In a previous work, the authors of this paper studied isomorphic variations on the Miura-ori which led to the development of an ‘isomorphic family’ for this fold pattern. In this paper, we study non-isomorphic variations on the Miura-ori in order to develop a ‘non-isomorphic family’ for this pattern. Again we start with the Miura-ori, but reduce the symmetry by migrating from the original symmetry group to its subgroups, which may also include the enlargement of its unit cell. We systematically design and classify the non-isomorphic symmetric descendants of the Miura-ori which are either globally planar, or globally curved, flat-foldable tessellations.

We show that an algorithm based on the dynamics of interacting quantum particles is more powerful than the corresponding algorithm for non-interacting particles. Specifically, our algorithm attempts to determine whether two graphs are isomorphic. We focus on strongly regular graphs (SRGs), a class of graphs with particularly high symmetry. By studying the dynamical evolution of two-particle quantum walks on pairs of non-isomorphic SRG's, we show that interacting particles can distinguish non-isomorphic graphs that noninteracting particles cannot. First, we prove that quantum walks of two noninteracting particles cannot distinguish pairs of non-isomorphic SRG's. Next, we demonstrate numerically that two interacting bosons are more powerful, in that their quantum walks distinguish all non-isomorphic pairs of SRGs we tried, including those with up to 64 vertices. Finally, we find a set of operators that determine these evolutions. This work was supported in part by ARO and DOD (W911NF-09-1-0439). J.K.G. acknowledges support from the NSF.

The quest for metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) with higher carrier mobility has triggered great interest in germanium-based MOSFETs. Still, the performance of germanium-based devices lags significantly behind that of their silicon counterparts, possibly due to the presence of defects such as dangling bonds (DBs) and vacancies. Using screened hybrid functional calculations we investigate the role of DBs and vacancies in germanium. We find that the DB defect in germanium has no levels in the band gap; it acts as a negatively charged acceptor with the (0/-1) transition level below the valence-band maximum (VBM). This explains the absence of electron-spin-resonance observations of DBs in germanium. The vacancy in germanium has a much lower formation energy than the vacancy in silicon and is stable in a number of charge states, depending on the position of the Fermi level. We find the (0/-1) and (-1/-2) transition levels at 0.16 and 0.38 eV above the VBM; the spacing of these levels is explained based on the strength of intraorbital repulsion. We compare these results with calculations for silicon, as well as with available experimental data.

We describe a Monte Carlo study examining the impact of assuming item isomorphism (i.e., equivalent construct meaning across levels of analysis) on conclusions about homology (i.e., equivalent structural relations across levels of analysis) under varying degrees of non-isomorphism in the context of ordinal indicator multilevel structural equation models (MSEMs). We focus on the condition where one or more loadings are higher on the between level than on the within level to show that while much past research on homology has ignored the issue of psychometric isomorphism, psychometric isomorphism is in fact critical to valid conclusions about homology. More specifically, when a measurement model with non-isomorphic items occupies an exogenous position in a multilevel structural model and the non-isomorphism of these items is not modeled, the within level exogenous latent variance is under-estimated leading to over-estimation of the within level structural coefficient, while the between level exogenous latent variance is overestimated leading to underestimation of the between structural coefficient. When a measurement model with non-isomorphic items occupies an endogenous position in a multilevel structural model and the non-isomorphism of these items is not modeled, the endogenous within level latent variance is under-estimated leading to under-estimation of the within level structural coefficient while the endogenous between level latent variance is over-estimated leading to over-estimation of the between level structural coefficient. The innovative aspect of this article is demonstrating that even minor violations of psychometric isomorphism render claims of homology untenable. We also show that posterior predictive p-values for ordinal indicator Bayesian MSEMs are insensitive to violations of isomorphism even when they lead to severely biased within and between level structural parameters. We highlight conditions where poor estimation of even correctly specified

The purpose of this study was to analyze the introduction of the performance-based pay system (PPS) in Korean national universities through the perspective of institutional isomorphism. Using three isomorphism concepts of coercive, mimetic, and normative, and further framing the PPS within the overarching theoretical frameworks of governmentality,…

In this paper, we explore the use of isomorphic problem pairs (IPPs) to assess introductory physics students' ability to solve and successfully transfer problem-solving knowledge from one context to another in mechanics. We call the paired problems "isomorphic" because they require the same physics principle to solve them. We analyze written…

Previous research has highlighted the occurrence of isomorphic tendencies--convergences in terms of formal organizational structure--in higher education systems in times of uncertainty and under external pressure to change. It has been repeatedly claimed that the Australian university system largely followed a logic of isomorphic change in the…

A process for selective separation of germanium-68 from proton irradiated molybdenum targets is provided and includes dissolving the molybdenum target in a hydrogen peroxide solution to form a first ion-containing solution, contacting the first ion-containing solution with a cationic resin whereby ions selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, niobium, technetium, selenium, vanadium, arsenic, germanium, zirconium and rubidium remain in a second ion-containing solution while ions selected from the group consisting of rubidium, zinc, beryllium, cobalt, iron, manganese, chromium, strontium, yttrium and zirconium are selectively adsorbed by the first resin, adjusting the pH of the second ion-containing solution to within a range of from about 0.7 to about 3.0, adjusting the soluble metal halide concentration in the second ion-containing solution to a level adapted for subsequent separation of germanium, contacting the pH-adjusted, soluble metal halide-containing second ion-containing solution with a dextran-based material whereby germanium ions are separated by the dextran-based material, and recovering the germanium from the dextran-based material, preferably by distillation.

This invention is comprised of a process for selective separation of germanium-68 from proton irradiated molybdenum targets is provided and includes dissolving the molybdenum target in a hydrogen peroxide solution to form a first ion-containing solution, contacting the first ion-containing solution with a cationic resin whereby ions selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, niobium, technetium, selenium,vanadium, arsenic, germanium, zirconium and rubidium remain in a second ion-containing solution while ions selected from the group consisting of rubidium, zinc, beryllium, cobalt, iron, manganese, chromium, strontium, yttrium and zirconium are selectively adsorbed by the first resin, adjusting the pH of the second ion-containing solution to within a range of from about 0.7 to about 3.0, adjusting the soluble metal halide concentration in the second ion-containing solution to a level adapted for subsequent separation of germanium, contacting the pH-adjusted, soluble metal halide-containing second ion-containing solution with a dextran-based material whereby germanium ions are separated by the dextran-based material, and recovering the germanium from the dextran-based material, preferably by distillation.

A process for selective separation of germanium-68 from proton irradiated molybdenum targets is provided and includes dissolving the molybdenum target in a hydrogen peroxide solution to form a first ion-containing solution, contacting the first ion-containing solution with a cationic resin whereby ions selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, niobium, technetium, selenium, vanadium, arsenic, germanium, zirconium and rubidium remain in a second ion-containing solution while ions selected from the group consisting of rubidium, zinc, beryllium, cobalt, iron, manganese, chromium, strontium, yttrium and zirconium are selectively adsorbed by the first resin, adjusting the pH of the second ion-containing solution to within a range of from about 0.7 to about 3.0, adjusting the soluble metal halide concentration in the second ion-containing solution to a level adapted for subsequent separation of germanium, contacting the pH-adjusted, soluble metal halide-containing second ion-containing solution with a dextran-based material whereby germanium ions are separated by the dextran-based material, and recovering the germanium from the dextran-based material, preferably by distillation.

Isomorphism identification is a difficult problem in kinematic chains (KC). There are a number of methods proposed by many researchers to detect the isomorphism and inversion of kinematic chain but each has its own shortcomings. Purpose of this paper is to give an efficient and reliable method for detection of isomorphism and inversion among the KC which can be less time consuming among many other related techniques. An attempt has been made to provide satisfactory solution to detection of isomorphism by using Hamming method. The Hamming Number is computed by using the direct method of writing the Hamming matrix, which save time and effort. Link Hamming string which is defined as the string obtained by concatenating the link Hamming number and the frequency of individual Hamming numbers in that row is then formed. Finally, chain Hamming string defined as the string obtained by the concatenation of the chain Hamming number and the link Hamming strings in descending order is formed. This method is implemented on the nine links two degree of freedom.

This study examined the practices of 24 community-based rape prevention programs. Although these programs were geographically dispersed throughout one state, they were remarkably similar in their approach to rape prevention programming. DiMaggio and Powell's (1991) theory of institutional isomorphism was used to explain the underlying causes of…

Research on delay discounting has focused largely on nondrug reinforcers in an isomorphic context in which choice is between alternatives that involve the same type of reinforcer. Less often, delay discounting has been studied with drug reinforcers in a more ecologically valid allomorphic context where choice is between alternatives involving different types of reinforcers. The present experiment is the first to examine discounting of drug and nondrug reinforcers in both isomorphic and allomorphic situations using a theoretical model (i.e., the hyperbolic discounting function) that allows for comparisons of discounting rates between reinforcer types and amounts. The goal of the current experiment was to examine discounting of a delayed, nondrug reinforcer (food) by male rhesus monkeys when the immediate alternative was either food (isomorphic situation) or cocaine (allomorphic situation). In addition, we sought to determine whether there was a magnitude effect with delayed food in the allomorphic situation. Choice of immediate food and immediate cocaine increased with amount and dose, respectively. Choice functions for immediate food and cocaine generally shifted leftward as delay increased. Compared to isomorphic situations in which food was the immediate alternative, delayed food was discounted more steeply in allomorphic situations where cocaine was the immediate alternative. Notably, discounting was not affected by the magnitude of the delayed reinforcer. These data indicate that how steeply a delayed nondrug reinforcer is discounted may depend more on the qualitative characteristics of the immediate reinforcer and less on the magnitude of the delayed one. PMID:25938515

Research on delay discounting has focused largely on non-drug reinforcers in an isomorphic context in which choice is between alternatives that involve the same type of reinforcer. Less often, delay discounting has been studied with drug reinforcers in a more ecologically valid allomorphic context where choice is between alternatives involving different types of reinforcers. The present experiment is the first to examine discounting of drug and non-drug reinforcers in both isomorphic and allomorphic situations using a theoretical model (i.e., the hyperbolic discounting function) that allows for comparisons of discounting rates between reinforcer types and amounts. The goal of the current experiment was to examine discounting of a delayed, non-drug reinforcer (food) by male rhesus monkeys when the immediate alternative was either food (isomorphic situation) or cocaine (allomorphic situation). In addition, we sought to determine whether there was a magnitude effect with delayed food in the allomorphic situation. Choice of immediate food and immediate cocaine increased with amount and dose, respectively. Choice functions for immediate food and cocaine generally shifted leftward as delay increased. Compared to isomorphic situations in which food was the immediate alternative, delayed food was discounted more steeply in allomorphic situations where cocaine was the immediate alternative. Notably, discounting was not affected by the magnitude of the delayed reinforcer. These data indicate that how steeply a delayed non-drug reinforcer is discounted may depend more on the qualitative characteristics of the immediate reinforcer and less on the magnitude of the delayed one. PMID:25938515

The Kadison–Kastler problem asks whether close C*-algebras on a Hilbert space must be spatially isomorphic. We establish this when one of the algebras is separable and nuclear. We also apply our methods to the study of near inclusions of C*-algebras. PMID:20080723

The paper discusses the process of shortening career path to leadership positions in academia that could serve as an example of mimetic isomorphism, where university tries to apply business-like quick result-oriented strategies. This strategy incentivizes young faculty to stay in universities and keep loyalty to academia. This process could also…

Parallel process and isomorphism are two supervisory concepts that are often discussed independently but rarely discussed in connection with each other. These two concepts, philosophically, have different historical roots, as well as different implications for interventions with regard to the supervisory triad. The authors examine the difference…

Are the phonological representations of printed and spoken words isomorphic? This question is addressed by investigating the restrictions on onsets. Cross-linguistic research suggests that onsets of rising sonority are preferred to sonority plateaus, which, in turn, are preferred to sonority falls (e.g., bnif, bdif, lbif). Of interest is whether…

Large-area, tracking, semiconductor detectors with excellent spatial and spectral resolution enable exciting new access to soft (0.2-5 MeV) gamma-ray astrophysics. The improvements from semiconductor tracking detectors come with the burden of high density of strips and/or pixels that require high-density, low-power, spectroscopy quality readout electronics. CMOS ASIC technologies are a natural fit to this requirement and have led to high-quality readout systems for all current semiconducting tracking detectors except for germanium detectors. The Compton Spectrometer and Imager (COSI), formerly NCT, at University of California Berkeley and the Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar flares (GRIPS) at Goddard Space Flight Center utilize germanium cross-strip detectors and are on the forefront of NASA's Compton telescope research with funded missions of long duration balloon flights. The development of a readout ASIC for germanium detectors would allow COSI to replace their discrete electronics readout and would enable the proposed Gamma-Ray Explorer (GRX) mission utilizing germanium strip-detectors. We propose a 3-year program to develop and test a germanium readout ASIC to TRL 5 and to integrate the ASIC readout onto a COSI detector allowing a TRL 6 demonstration for the following COSI balloon flight. Our group at NRL led a program, sponsored by another government agency, to produce and integrate a cross-strip silicon detector ASIC, designed and fabricated by Dr. De Geronimo at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The ASIC was designed to handle the large (>30 pF) capacitance of three 10 cm^2 detectors daisy-chained together. The front-end preamplifier, selectable inverter, shaping times, and gains make this ASIC compatible with a germanium cross-strip detector as well. We therefore have the opportunity and expertise to leverage the previous investment in the silicon ASIC for a new mission. A germanium strip detector ASIC will also require precise timing of the signals at

Ge:Ga blocked-impurity-band (BIB) detectors with long wavelength thresholds greater than 190 microns and peak quantum efficiencies of 4 percent, at an operating temperature of 1.8 K, have been fabricated. These proof of concept devices consist of a high purity germanium blocking layer epitaxially grown on a Ga-doped Ge substrate. This demonstration of BIB behavior in germanium enables the development of far infrared detector arrays similar to the current silicon-based devices. Present efforts are focussed on improving the chemical vapor deposition process used to create the blocking layer and on the lithographic processing required to produce monolithic detector arrays in germanium. Approaches to test the impurity levels in both the blocking and active layers are considered.

Summary Group-IV nanocrystals have emerged as a promising group of materials that extends the realm of application of bulk diamond, silicon, germanium and related materials beyond their traditional boundaries. Over the last two decades of research, their potential for application in areas such as optoelectronic applications and memory devices has been progressively unraveled. Nevertheless, new challenges with no parallel in the respective bulk material counterparts have arisen. In this review, we consider what has been achieved and what are the current limitations with regard to growth, characterization and modeling of silicon and germanium nanocrystals and related materials. PMID:25383290

Overcoating constriction microbridges with semiconducting germanium provides additional thermal conductivity at liquid-helium temperatures to reduce the effects of self-heating in these Josephson junctions. Microwave-induced steps were observed in the I-V characteristics of an overcoated Dayem bridge fabricated in a 15-nm-thick niobium film; at least 20 steps could be counted at 4.2 K. No steps were observed in the I-V characteristics of the bridge prior to overcoating. In addition, the germanium overcoat can protect against electrical disturbances at room temperature.

Six slices of ultra-pure germanium were irradiated with thermal neutron fluences between 7.5 x 10 to the 16th and 1.88 x 10 to the 18th per sq cm. After thermal annealing the resistivity was measured down to low temperatures (less than 4.2 K) and found to follow the relationship rho = rho sub 0 exp(Delta/T) in the hopping conduction regime. Also, several junction FETs were tested for noise performance at room temperature and in an insulating housing in a 4.2 K cryostat. These FETs will be used as first stage amplifiers for neutron-transmutation-doped germanium bolometers.

Germanium-based nanomaterials have emerged as important candidates for next-generation energy-storage devices owing to their unique chemical and physical properties. In this Review, we provide a review of the current state-of-the-art in germanium-based materials design, synthesis, processing, and application in battery technology. The most recent advances in the area of Ge-based nanocomposite electrode materials and electrolytes for solid-state batteries are summarized. The limitations of Ge-based materials for energy-storage applications are discussed, and potential research directions are also presented with an emphasis on commercial products and theoretical investigations. PMID:27281435

Measurements of tunnel conductance versus bias, capacitance versus bias, and internal photoemission were made in the systems aluminum-oxide-amorphous germanium and aluminium-oxide-amorphous silicon. A function was extracted which expresses the deviation of these systems from the aluminium-oxide-aluminium system.

The model commonly used to describe dopant precipitation in silicon-germanium alloys is discussed. The results of an experimental program are fit to the model in order to determine the long-term behavior of the thermoelectric properties of the n-type 80 at. % Si/20 at. % Ge alloy. Thermoelectric property projections to twelve years of operating time are given.

Proper conditions for copper staining of germanium crystals include a low solution temperature of 3 degrees C, illumination of the sample by infrared light, and careful positioning of the light source relative to the sample so as to minimize absorption of the infrared light.

This report describes the effects of the germanium fraction in hydrogenated amorphous silicon-germanium alloys on various parameters, especially those that are indicators of film quality, and the impact of deposition methods, feedgas mixtures, and other deposition parameters on a SiGe:H and a-SiGe:H:F film characteristics and quality. Literature data show the relationship between germanium content, hydrogen content, deposition method (various glow discharges and CVD), feedgas lmixture, and other parameters and properties, such as optical band gap, dark and photoconductivities, photosensitivity, activation energy, Urbach parameter, and spin density. Some of these are convenient quality indicators; another is the absence of microstructure. Examining RF glow discharge with both a diode and triode geometry, DC proximity glow discharge, microwave glow discharge, and photo-CVD, using gas mixtures such as hydrogen-diluted and undiluted mixtures of silane/germane, disilane/germane, silane/germaniumtetrafluoride, and others, it was observed that hydrogen dilution (or inert gas dilution) is essential in achieving high photosensitivity in silicon-germanium alloys (in contradistinction to amorphous hydrogenated silicon). Hydrogen dilution results in a higher photosensitivity than do undiluted gas mixtures. 81 refs., 42 figs., 7 tabs.

The n-channel Germanium junction field effect transistor (Ge-JFET) was designed and fabricated for cryogenic applications. The Ge-JFET exhibits superior noise performance at liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K). From the device current voltage characteristics of n-channel JFETs, it is seen that transconductance increases monotonically with the lowering of temperature to 4.2 K (liquid helium temperature).

Statistical power is the ability to detect a significant effect, given that the effect actually exists in a population. Like most statistical concepts, statistical power tends to induce cognitive dissonance in hepatology researchers. However, planning for statistical power by an a priori sample size calculation is of paramount importance when designing a research study. There are five specific empirical components that make up an a priori sample size calculation: the scale of measurement of the outcome, the research design, the magnitude of the effect size, the variance of the effect size, and the sample size. A framework grounded in the phenomenon of isomorphism, or interdependencies amongst different constructs with similar forms, will be presented to understand the isomorphic effects of decisions made on each of the five aforementioned components of statistical power. PMID:27073717

Statistical power is the ability to detect a significant effect, given that the effect actually exists in a population. Like most statistical concepts, statistical power tends to induce cognitive dissonance in hepatology researchers. However, planning for statistical power by an a priori sample size calculation is of paramount importance when designing a research study. There are five specific empirical components that make up an a priori sample size calculation: the scale of measurement of the outcome, the research design, the magnitude of the effect size, the variance of the effect size, and the sample size. A framework grounded in the phenomenon of isomorphism, or interdependencies amongst different constructs with similar forms, will be presented to understand the isomorphic effects of decisions made on each of the five aforementioned components of statistical power. PMID:27073717

The stabilities of gaseous germanium and tin vanadates were confirmed by high temperature mass spectrometry, and its structures were determined by quantum chemical calculations. A number of gas-phase reactions involving these gaseous salts were studied. On the basis of the equilibrium constants, the standard formation enthalpies of gaseous GeV2O6 (-1520 ± 42 kJ mol(-1)) and SnV2O6 (-1520 ± 43 kJ mol(-1)) were determined at a temperature of 298 K. PMID:25947046

We theoretically investigate the properties of extended phase-matching (EPM) for spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) in four kinds of potassium titanyl phosphate isomorphs ( i.e., KTiOPO4, KTiOAsO4, RbTiOPO4, and RbTiOAsO4 crystals). The technique is based on Type II 2nd-order nonlinear optic interaction in periodically poled ferroelectric domain structures, where a single photon with a frequency of 2 ω generates a pair of photons with frequencies of ω that are orthogonally polarized with respect to each other. Under EPM, both quasi-phase matching (QPM) and group velocity (GV) matching between interacting waves are efficiently satisfied for the generation of a pair of polarization-entangled bi-photon states with frequencies of ω. Our simulation results show that the generated photon pairs have broad spectral bandwidths of over 69 - 95 nm in tele-communication bands, which are much broader than those of the typical non-EPM case ( e.g., ~ sub-nm bandwidth when only the QPM, not the GV matching, is achieved). We will describe the EPM properties of the four kinds of KTP isomorphs in terms of interaction type, GV matching wavelength, domain poling period, and spectral bandwidth. We highlight that the KTP isomorphs have nice potential as suitable components for constituting new quantum information processing systems.

Hospitals engage in medical referral system relations voluntarily, by virtue of their own service capacities. These capacities include medical technology, equipment supply, and patient management, which are assessed individually by medical institutions in efforts to control costs and maintain efficiency in tertiary hospitals. This study assessed referral networks according to the institutional isomorphism theory of new economic sociology. As a result, the referral networks were shown to exhibit emergent structural hierarchy via cumulative clustering by established year and were not affected by attributive variables such as region, bed number, and year of establishment. In particular, the networks evidenced institutional isomorphism with certain central hospitals. As a consequence, personal indices were shown to decrease in accordance with its period, and only the structural index increased. Normative pressures cause organizations to become hierarchically homogenized, in accordance with the principle of organizational learning in specialized fields. Therefore, normative isomorphism on the basis of public domains should be considered an inherent factor in the development of referral networks. PMID:20436330

We report on the spin transport properties in p-doped germanium (Ge-p) using low temperature magnetoresistance measurements, electrical spin injection from a ferromagnetic metal and the spin pumping-inverse spin Hall effect method. Electrical spin injection is carried out using three-terminal measurements and the Hanle effect. In the 2-20 K temperature range, weak antilocalization and the Hanle effect provide the same spin lifetime in the germanium valence band (≈1 ps) in agreement with predicted values and previous optical measurements. These results, combined with dynamical spin injection by spin pumping and the inverse spin Hall effect, demonstrate successful spin accumulation in Ge. We also estimate the spin Hall angle θ(SHE) in Ge-p (6-7 x 10(-4) at room temperature, pointing out the essential role of ionized impurities in spin dependent scattering. PMID:26988255

The electromagnetic properties of neutrinos, which are either trivial or negligible in the context of the Standard Model, can probe new physics and have significant implications in astrophysics and cosmology. The current best direct limits on the neutrino millicharges and magnetic moments are both derived from data taken with germanium detectors with low thresholds at keV levels. In this paper, we discuss in detail a robust, ab initio method: the multiconfiguration relativistic random-phase approximation, that enables us to reliably understand the germanium detector response at the sub-keV level, where atomic many-body physics matters. By using existing data with sub-keV thresholds, limits on the reactor antineutrino's millicharge, magnetic moment, and charge radius squared are derived. The projected sensitivities for next-generation experiments are also given and discussed.

We describe a coded-aperture based, gamma-ray imager that uses a unique hybrid germanium detector system. A planar, germanium strip detector, eleven millimeters thick is followed by a coaxial detector. The 19 x 19 strip detector (2 mm pitch) is used to determine the location and energy of low energy events. The location of high energy events are determined from the location of the Compton scatter in the planar detector and the energy is determined from the sum of the coaxial and planar energies. With this geometry, we obtain useful quantum efficiency in a position-sensitive mode out to 500 keV. The detector is used with a 19 x 17 URA coded aperture to obtain spectrally resolved images in the gamma-ray band. We discuss the performance of the planar detector, the hybrid system and present images taken of laboratory sources.

We report on the spin transport properties in p-doped germanium (Ge-p) using low temperature magnetoresistance measurements, electrical spin injection from a ferromagnetic metal and the spin pumping-inverse spin Hall effect method. Electrical spin injection is carried out using three-terminal measurements and the Hanle effect. In the 2-20 K temperature range, weak antilocalization and the Hanle effect provide the same spin lifetime in the germanium valence band (≈1 ps) in agreement with predicted values and previous optical measurements. These results, combined with dynamical spin injection by spin pumping and the inverse spin Hall effect, demonstrate successful spin accumulation in Ge. We also estimate the spin Hall angle {θ\\text{SHE}} in Ge-p (6-7× {{10}-4} ) at room temperature, pointing out the essential role of ionized impurities in spin dependent scattering.

Electronic spectroscopy was used to obtain gas phase spectrum of the germanium carbide molecule in emission from a corona excited supersonic expansion source. The (2) 3pi -- X 3pi electronic transition was observed around the 21250 cm-1 region. In this system, vibrational bands and the rotational lines of the O = 0, 1, and 2 components were obtained and analyzed. The equilibrium transition energy is found at 21120.3 cm-1 and the fundamental vibrational frequency for the lowest energy ground state O = 2 component is 795.3 cm -1. This is the first spectroscopic observation of germanium carbide. An unsuccessful attempt to obtain the first electronic emission spectrum of aluminum boride is also described.

Germanium telluride undergoes rapid transition between polycrystalline and amorphous states under either optical or electrical excitation. While the crystalline phases are predicted to be semiconductors, polycrystalline germanium telluride always exhibits p-type metallic conductivity. We present a study of the electronic structure and formation energies of the vacancy and antisite defects in both known crystalline phases. We show that these intrinsic defects determine the nature of free-carrier transport in crystalline germanium telluride. Germanium vacancies require roughly one-third the energy of the other three defects to form, making this by far the most favorable intrinsic defect. While the tellurium antisite and vacancy induce gap states, the germanium counterparts do not. A simple counting argument, reinforced by integration over the density of states, predicts that the germanium vacancy leads to empty states at the top of the valence band, thus giving a complete explanation of the observed p-type metallic conduction.

An analysis is presented that shows the desirability and feasibility of using a xenon fill in the initial stages of operation of a silicon-germanium radioisotope thermoelectric generator to be used in outer-planetary exploration. The xenon cover gas offers protection against oxidation and against material sublimation, and allows the generator to deliver required power throughout the prelaunch and launch phases. The protective mechanisms afforded by the xenon cover gas and the mechanization of a xenon supply system are also discussed.

Highly ordered Ge films are prepared directly on single crystal Si substrates by applying an aqueous coating solution having Ge-bound polymer onto the substrate and then heating in a hydrogen-containing atmosphere. A coating solution was prepared by mixing water, a germanium compound, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and polyethyleneimine to form a first aqueous solution and then subjecting the first aqueous solution to ultrafiltration.

The goal of this project was to investigate possible ways of increasing the size of cryogenic Ge detectors. This project identified two possible approaches to increasing the individual cryogenic Ge detector size. The first approach relies on using the existing technology for growing detector-grade (high-purity) germanium crystals of dislocation density 100-7000 cm{sup -2}. The second approach is to consider dislocation-free Ge crystals.

Based on a detailed statistical analysis of chemical data published in the scientific literature, estimates were made of the minimum amounts of recoverable Ge contained within sulphidic zinc ores and coals, given current processing technologies. It is expected that at least 119 kt (˜7 kt in zinc ores and ˜112 kt in coal) of recoverable germanium exist within proven reserves (at present stage of knowledge) at grades in excess of 100 ppm in sphalerite and 200 ppm in coal, while at least 440 kt (˜50 kt in zinc ores and ˜390 kt in coal) should become recoverable in the future, being associated to coal reserves at 8-200 ppm Ge and zinc resources containing in excess of 100 ppm Ge in sphalerite. Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) deposits are expected to be the most important hosts of germanium-rich sphalerite, while both brown and hard coals are expected to be equally important as hosts of germanium. The approach taken in this publication shows that reliable minimum estimates for the availability of by-product metals lacking suitable reserve/resource data may be attained by using robust statistical methods and geochemical data published in the scientific literature

Extending chip performance beyond current limits of miniaturisation requires new materials and functionalities that integrate well with the silicon platform. Germanium fits these requirements and has been proposed as a high-mobility channel material, a light emitting medium in silicon-integrated lasers, and a plasmonic conductor for bio-sensing. Common to these diverse applications is the need for homogeneous, high electron densities in three-dimensions (3D). Here we use a bottom-up approach to demonstrate the 3D assembly of atomically sharp doping profiles in germanium by a repeated stacking of two-dimensional (2D) high-density phosphorus layers. This produces high-density (1019 to 1020 cm−3) low-resistivity (10−4Ω · cm) metallic germanium of precisely defined thickness, beyond the capabilities of diffusion-based doping technologies. We demonstrate that free electrons from distinct 2D dopant layers coalesce into a homogeneous 3D conductor using anisotropic quantum interference measurements, atom probe tomography, and density functional theory. PMID:26256239

The MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR is a large array of ultra-low background high-purity germanium detectors, enriched in 76Ge, designed to search for zero-neutrino double-beta decay (0{nu}{beta}{beta}). The DEMONSTRATOR will utilize 76Ge from Russia. The first one-gram sample was received from the supplier for analysis on April 24, 2011. The second one-gram sample was received from the supplier for analysis on July 12, 2011. The third sample, which came from the first large shipment of germanium from the vendor, was received from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) on September 13, 2011. The Environmental Molecular Sciences facility, a DOE user facility at PNNL, was used to make the required isotopic and chemical purity measurements that are essential to the quality assurance for the MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR. The results of these analyses are reported here. The isotopic composition of a sample of natural germanium was also measured twice. Differences in the result between these two measurements led to a re-measurement of the second 76Ge sample.

Extending chip performance beyond current limits of miniaturisation requires new materials and functionalities that integrate well with the silicon platform. Germanium fits these requirements and has been proposed as a high-mobility channel material, a light emitting medium in silicon-integrated lasers, and a plasmonic conductor for bio-sensing. Common to these diverse applications is the need for homogeneous, high electron densities in three-dimensions (3D). Here we use a bottom-up approach to demonstrate the 3D assembly of atomically sharp doping profiles in germanium by a repeated stacking of two-dimensional (2D) high-density phosphorus layers. This produces high-density (1019 to 1020 cm-3) low-resistivity (10-4Ω · cm) metallic germanium of precisely defined thickness, beyond the capabilities of diffusion-based doping technologies. We demonstrate that free electrons from distinct 2D dopant layers coalesce into a homogeneous 3D conductor using anisotropic quantum interference measurements, atom probe tomography, and density functional theory.

Semiconductor nanowires offer new opportunities to study physical phenomena in low-dimensional nanostructures. They also possess technologically useful properties for applications in electronics, optics, sensing, and thermoelectrics. Germanium nanowires are of particular interest, because of germanium's compatibility with standard silicon integrated circuit fabrication processes, its high electronic carrier mobilities, and the low temperature required for germanium nanowire growth. In this work, epitaxially-aligned germanium nanowires are grown on silicon substrates by chemical vapor deposition through the vapor-liquid-solid mechanism. Uniform nanowire diameters between 5 and 50 nm are obtained through the use of monodisperse gold colloids as catalysts. The crystallographic orientation of the nanowires, their strain, and their heteroepitaxial relationship with the substrate are characterized with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD). A process for removing the gold catalysts from the tips of the germanium nanowires is demonstrated. Silicon shells are then heteroepitaxially deposited around the wires to fabricate radial heterostructures. These shells passivate the germanium nanowire surface, create electronic band offsets to confine holes away the surface where they can scatter or recombine, and induce strain which could allow for the engineering of properties such as band gap and carrier mobilities. However, analogous to planar heteroepitaxy, surface roughening and misfit dislocations can relax this strain. The effects of coaxial dimensions on strain relaxation in these structures are analyzed quantitatively by TEM and synchrotron XRD, and these results are related to continuum elasticity models. Lessons learned generated two successful strategies for synthesizing coherent core-shell nanowires with large misfit strain: chlorine surface passivation and growth of nanowires with low-energy sidewall facets. Both approaches avoid the strain

The relation between the critical compressibility factors Zc of the Lennard-Jones fluid and the Lattice Gas (Ising model) is derived within the global isomorphism approach. On this basis, we obtain the alternative form for the value of the critical compressibility factor which is different from widely used phenomenological Timmermans relation. The estimates for the critical pressure Pc and Zc of the Lennard-Jones fluid are obtained in case of two and three dimensions. The extension of the formalism is proposed to include the Pitzer's acentric factor into consideration.

Germanium, element No.32, was discovered in 1886 by Clemens Winkler. Its first broad application was in the form of point contact Schottky diodes for radar reception during WWII. The addition of a closely spaced second contact led to the first all-solid-state electronic amplifier device, the transistor. The relatively low bandgap, the lack of a stable oxide and large surface state densities relegated germanium to the number 2 position behind silicon. The discovery of the lithium drift process, which made possible the formation of p-i-n diodes with fully depletable i-regions several centimeters thick, led germanium to new prominence as the premier gamma-ray detector. The development of ultra-pure germanium yielded highly stable detectors which have remained unsurpassed in their performance. New acceptors and donors were discovered and the electrically active role of hydrogen was clearly established several years before similar findings in silicon. Lightly doped germanium has found applications as far infrared detectors and heavily Neutron Transmutation Doped (NTD) germanium is used in thermistor devices operating at a few milliKelvin. Recently germanium has been rediscovered by the silicon device community because of its superior electron and hole mobility and its ability to induce strains when alloyed with silicon. Germanium is again a mainstream electronic material.

A unique spin depolarization mechanism, induced by the presence of g-factor anisotropy and intervalley scattering, is revealed by spin-transport measurements on long-distance germanium devices in a magnetic field longitudinal to the initial spin orientation. The confluence of electron-phonon scattering (leading to Elliott-Yafet spin flips) and this previously unobserved physics enables the extraction of spin lifetime solely from spin-valve measurements, without spin precession, and in a regime of substantial electric-field-generated carrier heating. We find spin lifetimes in Ge up to several hundreds of nanoseconds at low temperature, far beyond any other available experimental results.

Scanning X-ray micro-diffraction has been used as a non-destructive probe of the local crystalline quality of a thin suspended germanium (Ge) membrane. A series of reciprocal space maps were obtained with ∼4 μm spatial resolution, from which detailed information on the strain distribution, thickness, and crystalline tilt of the membrane was obtained. We are able to detect a systematic strain variation across the membranes, but show that this is negligible in the context of using the membranes as platforms for further growth. In addition, we show evidence that the interface and surface quality is improved by suspending the Ge.

The gas phase spectrum of the germanium carbide radical has been observed at low temperature in emission from a corona excited supersonic expansion source. Many vibrational bands involving the Ω = 0, 1, and 2 components of the (2) 3Π-X 3Π system were recorded and analyzed. The equilibrium transition energy is found at 21120.3 cm -1, in good agreement with theoretical predictions. The fundamental vibrational frequency for the lowest energy ground state Ω = 2 component is 795.3 cm -1.

In this study, we introduce a new paradigm for group IV nanocrystal surface chemistry based on room temperature surface activation that enables ionic ligand exchange. Germanium nanocrystals synthesized in a gas-phase plasma reactor are functionalized with labile, cationic alkylammonium ligands rather than with traditional covalently bound groups. We employ Fourier transform infrared and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies to demonstrate the alkylammonium ligands are freely exchanged on the germanium nanocrystal surface with a variety of cationic ligands, including short inorganic ligands such as ammonium and alkali metal cations. This ionic ligand exchange chemistry is used to demonstrate enhanced transport inmore » germanium nanocrystal films following ligand exchange as well as the first photovoltaic device based on an all-inorganic germanium nanocrystal absorber layer cast from solution. This new ligand chemistry should accelerate progress in utilizing germanium and other group IV nanocrystals for optoelectronic applications.« less

The intrinsic gettering (IG) effects in a germanium-doped Czochralski (GCz) silicon wafer have been investigated through a processing simulation of dynamic random access memory making and an evaluation on IG capability for copper contamination. It has been suggested that both the good quality defect-free denuded zones (DZs) and the high-density bulk microdefect (BMD) regions could be generated in GCz silicon wafer during device fabrication. Meanwhile, it was also indicated that the tiny oxygen precipitates were hardly presented in DZs of silicon wafer with the germanium doping. Furthermore, it was found in GCz silicon wafer that the BMDs were higher in density but smaller in size in contrast to that in conventional Cz silicon wafer. Promoted IG capability for metallic contamination was therefore induced in the germanium-doped Cz silicon wafer. A mechanism of the germanium doping on oxygen precipitation in Cz silicon was discussed, which was based on the hypothesis of germanium-related complexes.

The rapid increase in resistance of high purity semi-conducting germanium with decreasing temperature in the superfluid helium range of temperatures makes this material highly adaptable as a very sensitive thermometer. Also, a germanium thermometer exhibits a highly reproducible resistance versus temperature characteristic curve upon cycling between liquid helium temperatures and room temperature. These two factors combine to make germanium thermometers ideally suited for measuring temperatures in many cryogenic studies at superfluid helium temperatures. One disadvantage, however, is the relatively high cost of calibrated germanium thermometers. In space helium cryogenic systems, many such thermometers are often required, leading to a high cost for calibrated thermometers. The construction of a thermometer calibration cryostat and probe which will allow for calibrating six germanium thermometers at one time, thus effecting substantial savings in the purchase of thermometers is considered.

We introduce a new paradigm for group IV nanocrystal surface chemistry based on room temperature surface activation that enables ionic ligand exchange. Germanium nanocrystals synthesized in a gas-phase plasma reactor are functionalized with labile, cationic alkylammonium ligands rather than with traditional covalently bound groups. We employ Fourier transform infrared and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies to demonstrate the alkylammonium ligands are freely exchanged on the germanium nanocrystal surface with a variety of cationic ligands, including short inorganic ligands such as ammonium and alkali metal cations. This ionic ligand exchange chemistry is used to demonstrate enhanced transport in germanium nanocrystal films following ligand exchange as well as the first photovoltaic device based on an all-inorganic germanium nanocrystal absorber layer cast from solution. This new ligand chemistry should accelerate progress in utilizing germanium and other group IV nanocrystals for optoelectronic applications. PMID:26796765

For a finite-dimensional simple Lie algebra {{g}}, we use the vertex tensor category theory of Huang and Lepowsky to identify the category of standard modules for the affine Lie algebra {{widehat{{g}}}} at a fixed level {ℓin{N}} with a certain tensor category of finite-dimensional {{g}}-modules. More precisely, the category of level ℓ standard {{widehat{{g}}}}-modules is the module category for the simple vertex operator algebra {L_{widehat{{g}}}(ℓ, 0)}, and as is well known, this category is equivalent as an abelian category to {{D}({g},ℓ)}, the category of finite-dimensional modules for the Zhu's algebra {A{(L_{widehat{{g}}}(ℓ, 0))}}, which is a quotient of {U({g})}. Our main result is a direct construction using Knizhnik-Zamolodchikov equations of the associativity isomorphisms in {{D}({g},ℓ)} induced from the associativity isomorphisms constructed by Huang and Lepowsky in {{L_{widehat{{g}}}(ℓ, 0) - {mod}}}. This construction shows that {{D}({g},ℓ)} is closely related to the Drinfeld category of {U({g})}[[h

It is well known that chiral symmetry breaking (χSB) in QCD with Nf = 2 light quark flavors can be described by orthogonal groups as O(4) → O(3), due to local isomorphisms. Here we discuss the question how specific this property is. We consider generalized forms of χSB involving an arbitrary number of light flavors of continuum or lattice fermions, in various representations. We search systematically for isomorphic descriptions by nonunitary, compact Lie groups. It turns out that there are a few alternative options in terms of orthogonal groups, while we did not find any description entirely based on symplectic or exceptional Lie groups. If we adapt such an alternative as the symmetry breaking pattern for a generalized Higgs mechanism, we may consider a Higgs particle composed of bound fermions and trace back the mass generation to χSB. In fact, some of the patterns that we encounter appear in technicolor models. In particular if one observes a Higgs mechanism that can be expressed in terms of orthogonal groups, we specify in which cases it could also represent some kind of χSB of techniquarks.

Phase I of the Germanium Detector Array (GERDA) experiment, searching for the neutrinoless double beta (0νββ) decay of 76Ge, was completed in September 2013. The most competitive half-life lower limit for the 0νββ decay of 76Ge was set (T-0ν1/2 > 2.1 · 1025 yr at 90% C.L.). GERDA operates bare Ge diodes immersed in liquid argon. During Phase I, mainly refurbished semi-coaxial high purity Ge detectors from previous experiments were used. The experience gained with handling and operating bare Ge diodes in liquid argon, as well as the stability and performance of the detectors during GERDA Phase I are presented. Thirty additional new enriched BEGe-type detectors were produced and will be used in Phase II. A subgroup of these detectors has already been used successfully in GERDA Phase I. The present paper gives an overview of the production chain of the new germanium detectors, the steps taken to minimise the exposure to cosmic radiation during manufacturing, and the first results of characterisation measurements in vacuum cryostats.

Recent advances in silicon photonics have aided the development of on-chip communications. Power consumption, however, remains an issue in almost all integrated devices. Here, we report a 10 Gbit per second waveguide avalanche germanium photodiode under low reverse bias. The avalanche photodiode scheme requires only simple technological steps that are fully compatible with complementary metal oxide semiconductor processes and do not need nanometre accuracy and/or complex epitaxial growth schemes. An intrinsic gain higher than 20 was demonstrated under a bias voltage as low as -7 V. The Q-factor relating to the signal-to-noise ratio at 10 Gbit per second was maintained over 20 dB without the use of a trans-impedance amplifier for an input optical power lower than -26 dBm thanks to an aggressive shrinkage of the germanium multiplication region. A maximum gain over 140 was also obtained for optical powers below -35 dBm. These results pave the way for low-power-consumption on-chip communication applications.

The germanium crystals used for the fabrication of nuclear radiation detectors are required to have a purity and crystalline perfection which is unsurpassed by any other solid material. These crystals should not have a net electrically active impurity concentration greater than 10/sup 10/cm/sup -3/ and be essentially free of charge trapping defects. Such perfect crystals of germanium can be grown only because of the highly favorable chemical and physical properties of this element. However, ten years of laboratory scale and commercial experience has still not made the production of such crystals routine. The origin and control of many impurities and electrically active defect complexes is now fairly well understood but regular production is often interrupted for long periods due to the difficulty of achieving the required high purity or to charge trapping in detectors made from crystals seemingly grown under the required conditions. The compromises involved in the selection of zone refining and crystal grower parts and ambients is discussed and the difficulty in controlling the purity of key elements in the process is emphasized. The consequences of growing in a hydrogen ambient are discussed in detail and it is shown how complexes of neutral defects produce electrically active centers.

The effect of the formation conditions of pegmatites in the Mama-Chuya mica belt on the distribution of isomorphic Al, Ti, and Ge impurities in quartz detected by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) has been estimated using the isogen method, which takes into account the relationship between this distribution and geological time. It has been revealed that each of the studied types of pegmatite veins is described by special isogens that reflect interrelations between concentrations of various isomorphic impurities. The typification of veins, enrichment of parental melt in water, and other factors affect the isogens. New potentialities of the isogen method for genetic analysis of quartz have been established.

Hydrogenated amorphous germanium (a-Ge:H) and germanium carbide (a-Ge(1-x)Cx:H) films were prepared by rf sputtering of a polycrystalline Ge target in a vacuum approximately 4 x 10 to the 7th Torr at various rf power 50 less than or equal to P less than or equal to 600 W (0.27 to 3.3 W/sq cm), target-substrate distance 1 less than or equal to d less than or equal to 7 minutes, varying partial pressures of Ar, H2, and C3H8, and flow rates f. The vibrational and opto-electronic properties such as infrared (IR) absorption, optical gap, electron-spin-resonance (ESR) signals, and conductivities vary with deposition conditions. The photoconductivity sigma sub ph, in particular, was carefully monitored as a function of the deposition conditions to optimize it.

Silicon and silicon germanium are the archetypical elemental and alloy semiconductor materials for nanoelectronic, sensor, and photovoltaic applications. The investigation of radiation induced defects involving oxygen, carbon, and intrinsic defects is important for the improvement of devices as these defects can have a deleterious impact on the properties of silicon and silicon germanium. In the present review, we mainly focus on oxygen-related defects and the impact of isovalent doping on their properties in silicon and silicon germanium. The efficacy of the isovalent doping strategies to constrain the oxygen-related defects is discussed in view of recent infrared spectroscopy and density functional theory studies.

We report on the ongoing investigation of magnetron sputtered germanium on silicon for photonics applications. Direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering has been used to deposit germanium layers on silicon at low growth temperatures and medium range vacuum levels. Standard photolithography has been used to make germanium photodetectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range. Electrical characterization, more specifically current-voltage measurements indicate that the devices function as intended. Sputtered silicon waveguides have also been fabricated and evaluated for possible applications in photonics integration. The sputtering-based developments in our present research are expected to provide for a flexible and economically viable manufacturing process for such devices.

The Ultra-High Rate Germanium (UHRGe) project at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) is conducting research to develop a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector that can provide both the high resolution typical of germanium and high signal throughput. Such detectors may be beneficial for a variety of potential applications ranging from safeguards measurements of used fuel to material detection and verification using active interrogation techniques. This report describes some of the initial radiation transport modeling efforts that have been conducted to help guide the design of the detector as well as a description of the process used to generate the source spectrum for the used fuel application evaluation.

Silicon and silicon germanium are the archetypical elemental and alloy semiconductor materials for nanoelectronic, sensor, and photovoltaic applications. The investigation of radiation induced defects involving oxygen, carbon, and intrinsic defects is important for the improvement of devices as these defects can have a deleterious impact on the properties of silicon and silicon germanium. In the present review, we mainly focus on oxygen-related defects and the impact of isovalent doping on their properties in silicon and silicon germanium. The efficacy of the isovalent doping strategies to constrain the oxygen-related defects is discussed in view of recent infrared spectroscopy and density functional theory studies.

Isomorphic biphasic algal life cycles often occur in the environment at ploidy abundance ratios (Haploid:Diploid) different from 1. Its spatial variability occurs within populations related to intertidal height and hydrodynamic stress, possibly reflecting the niche partitioning driven by their diverging adaptation to the environment argued necessary for their prevalence (evolutionary stability). Demographic models based in matrix algebra were developed to investigate which vital rates may efficiently generate an H:D variability at a fine spatial resolution. It was also taken into account time variation and type of life strategy. Ploidy dissimilarities in fecundity rates set an H:D spatial structure miss-fitting the ploidy fitness ratio. The same happened with ploidy dissimilarities in ramet growth whenever reproductive output dominated the population demography. Only through ploidy dissimilarities in looping rates (stasis, breakage and clonal growth) did the life cycle respond to a spatially heterogeneous environment efficiently creating a niche partition. Marginal locations were more sensitive than central locations. Related results have been obtained experimentally and numerically for widely different life cycles from the plant and animal kingdoms. Spore dispersal smoothed the effects of ploidy dissimilarities in fertility and enhanced the effects of ploidy dissimilarities looping rates. Ploidy dissimilarities in spore dispersal could also create the necessary niche partition, both over the space and time dimensions, even in spatial homogeneous environments and without the need for conditional differentiation of the ramets. Fine scale spatial variability may be the key for the prevalence of isomorphic biphasic life cycles, which has been neglected so far. PMID:24658603

The vapor-liquid-solid growth process for synthesis of group-IV semiconducting nanowires using silane, germane, disilane and digermane precursor gases has been investigated. The nanowire growth process combines in situ gold seed formation by vapor deposition on atomically clean silicon (111) surfaces, in situ growth from the gaseous precursor(s), and real-time monitoring of nanowire growth as a function of temperature and pressure by a novel optical reflectometry technique. A significant dependence on precursor pressure and growth temperature for the synthesis of silicon and germanium nanowires is observed, depending on the stability of the specific precursor used. Also, the presence of a nucleation time for the onset of nanowire growth has been found using our new in situ optical reflectometry technique.

The first observation of the paramagnetic resonance of electrons at dislocations in germanium single crystals is reported. Under subband gap optical excitation, two sets of lines are detected: four lines about the <111> axes with g/sub perpendicular to/ = 0.34 and g/sub parallel/ = 1.94, and 24 lines with g/sub perpendicular to/ = 0.73 and g/sub parallel/ = 1.89 about <111> axes with the six-fold 1.2/sup 0/ distortion. This represents the first measurement of the disortion angle of a dislocation dangling bond. The possibility that the distortion results from a Peierls transition along the dislocation line is discussed.

Theoretical studies on the GenCm (n =1,2; m =1-3) microclusters have been performed using the state of the art calculations. Several alternative structures of these clusters were studied to locate the lowest-energy isomers. It is observed that the structures of the complexes result from the competition between ionic Ge-C, conjugated covalent C-C, and metallic Ge-Ge bonds. The ionization of the molecules enhances the ionic character of the Ge-C bond and has significant structural consequences. Using theoretically determined partition functions, thermodynamic data are computed and experimental enthalpies are enhanced. The ab initio atomization energies of germanium carbides compare well with corrected experimental functions. The experimental appearance potentials are well reproduced by the theoretical ionization potentials.

Neutron and gamma-ray detection is used for non-proliferation and national security applications. While lower energy resolution detectors such as NaI(Tl) have their place, high purity germanium (HPGe) also has a role to play. A detection with HPGe is often a characterization due to the very high energy resolution. However, HPGe crystals remain small and expensive leaving arrays of smaller crystals as an excellent solution. PNNL has developed two similar HPGe arrays for two very different applications. One array, the Multisensor Aerial Radiation Survey (MARS) detector is a fieldable array that has been tested on trucks, boats, and helicopters. The CASCADES HPGe array is an array designed to assay samples in a low background environment. The history of HPGe arrays at PNNL and the development of MARS and CASCADES will be detailed in this paper along with some of the other applications of HPGe at PNNL.

Neutron and gamma-ray detection is used for non-proliferation and national security applications. While lower energy resolution detectors such as NaI(Tl) have their place, high purity germanium (HPGe) also has a role to play. A detection with HPGe is often a characterization due to the very high energy resolution. However, HPGe crystals remain small and expensive leaving arrays of smaller crystals as an excellent solution. PNNL has developed two similar HPGe arrays for two very different applications. One array, the Multisensor Aerial Radiation Survey (MARS) detector is a fieldable array that has been tested on trucks, boats, and helicopters. The CASCADES HPGe array is an array designed to assay samples in a low background environment. The history of HPGe arrays at PNNL and the development of MARS and CASCADES will be detailed in this paper along with some of the other applications of HPGe at PNNL.

Neutron and gamma-ray detection is used for non-proliferation and national security applications. While lower energy resolution detectors such as NaI(Tl) have their place, high purity germanium (HPGe) also has a role to play. A detection with HPGe is often a characterization due to the very high energy resolution. However, HPGe crystals remain small and expensive leaving arrays of smaller crystals as an excellent solution. PNNL has developed two similar HPGe arrays for two very different applications. One array, the Multisensor Aerial Radiation Survey (MARS) detector is a fieldable array that has been tested on trucks, boats, and helicopters. The CASCADESmore » HPGe array is an array designed to assay samples in a low background environment. The history of HPGe arrays at PNNL and the development of MARS and CASCADES will be detailed in this paper along with some of the other applications of HPGe at PNNL.« less

Tin atoms produced by radioactive decay of {sup 119mm}Sn and {sup 119}Sn impurity atoms in the structure of Ge{sub x}S{sub 1-x} and Ge{sub x}Se{sub 1-x} glasses are stabilized in the form of Sn{sup 2+} and Sn{sup 4+} ions and correspond to ionized states of the amphoteric two-electron center with negative correlation energy (Sn{sup 2+} is an ionized acceptor, and Sn{sup 4+} is an ionized donor), whereas the neutral state of the Sn{sup 3+} center appears to be unstable. {sup 119}Sn atoms produced by radioactive decay of {sup 119m}Te impurity atoms in the structure of Ge{sub x}S{sub 1-x} and Ge{sub x}Se{sub 1-x} glasses are stabilized at both chalcogen sites (they are electrically inactive) and germanium sites.

Investigations related to expertise in problem solving and ability to transfer learning from one context to another are important for developing strategies to help students perform more expertlike tasks. Here we analyze written responses to a pair of nonintuitive isomorphic problems given to introductory physics students and discussions with a…

In this article we compare students' understanding of vector concepts in problems with no physical context, and with three mechanics contexts: force, velocity, and work. Based on our "Test of Understanding of Vectors," a multiple-choice test presented elsewhere, we designed two isomorphic shorter versions of 12 items each: a test…

We have successfully developed and fielded an electromechanically cooled germanium radiation detector (EMC-HPGe) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). This detector system was designed to provide optimum energy resolution, long lifetime, and extremely reliable operation for unattended and portable applications. For most analytical applications, high purity germanium (HPGe) detectors are the standard detectors of choice, providing an unsurpassed combination of high energy resolution performance and exceptional detection efficiency. Logistical difficulties associated with providing the required liquid nitrogen (LN) for cooling is the primary reason that these systems are found mainly in laboratories. The EMC-HPGe detector system described in this paper successfully provides HPGe detector performance in a portable instrument that allows for isotopic analysis in the field. It incorporates a unique active vibration control system that allows the use of a Sunpower Stirling cycle cryocooler unit without significant spectral degradation from microphonics. All standard isotopic analysis codes, including MGA and MGA++ [1], GAMANL [2], GRPANL [3]and MGAU [4], typically used with HPGe detectors can be used with this system with excellent results. Several national and international Safeguards organisations including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) have expressed interest in this system. The detector was combined with custom software and demonstrated as a rapid Field Radiometric Identification System (FRIS) for the U.S. Customs Service [5]. The European Communities' Safeguards Directorate (EURATOM) is field-testing the first Safeguards prototype in their applications. The EMC-HPGe detector system design, recent applications, and results will be highlighted.

Crystals grown without contact with a container have far superior quality to otherwise similar crystals grown in direct contact with a container. In addition to float-zone processing, detached- Bridgman growth is a promising tool to improve crystal quality, without the limitations of float zoning or the defects introduced by normal Bridgman growth. Goals of this project include the development of the detached Bridgman process to be reproducible and well understood and to quantitatively compare the defect and impurity levels in crystals grown by these three methods. Germanium (Ge) and germanium-silicon (Ge-Si) alloys are being used. At MSFC, we are responsible for the detached Bridgman experiments intended to differentiate among proposed mechanisms of detachment, and to confirm or refine our understanding of detachment. Because the contact angle is critical to determining the conditions for detachment, the sessile drop method was used to measure the contact angles as a function of temperature and composition for a large number of substrates made of potential ampoule materials. Growth experiments have used pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) and fused silica ampoules with the majority of the detached results occurring predictably in the pBN. Etch pit density (EPD) measurements of normal and detached Bridgman-grown Ge samples show a two order of magnitude improvement in the detached-grown samples. The nature and extent of detachment is determined by using profilometry in conjunction with optical and electron microscopy. The stability of detachment has been analyzed, and an empirical model for the conditions necessary to achieve sufficient stability to maintain detached growth for extended periods has been developed. We have investigated the effects on detachment of ampoule material, pressure difference above and below the melt, and Si concentration; samples that are nearly completely detached can be grown repeatedly in pBN. Current work is concentrated on developing a

Boron doped germanium nanowires were synthesized using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with Au nanoparticles as nucleating centers, germanium tetrachloride as the source of germanium and B 2H 6 gas as source of boron impurity. Au nanoparticles were deposited on Si using 3-aminopropyltriethylsilane (APTES). The single crystal Ge nanowires with diameters ranging from 19 to 200 nm were grown in a controllable manner. Effects of Au nanoparticle size, argon gas flow, temperature and duration of growth on diameter and length of nanowires were investigated. This is the first report on thermoluminescence (TL) properties of boron doped germanium nanowires. Glow curves were fitted using computerized glow curve deconvolution program and seven overlapped peaks were obtained. Further the response of synthesized nanowires to different dose levels of UV was studied and linear response regime was determined.

Silicon Germanium, SiGe, is an important emerging semiconductor material. In order to optimize growth techniques for SiGe production, such as Liquid Phase Diffusion, LPD, or Melt Replenishment Czochralski, a good understanding of the transport phenomena in the melt is required. In the context of the Liquid Phase Diffusion growth technique, the transport phenomena of silicon in a silicon-germanium melt has been explored. Experiments isolating the dissolution and transport of silicon into a germanium melt have been conducted under a variety of flow conditions. Preliminary modeling of these experiments has also been conducted and agreement with experiments has been shown. In addition, full LPD experiments have also been conducted under varying flow conditions. Altered flow conditions were achieved through the application of a variety of magnetic fields. Through the experimental and modeling work better understanding of the transport mechanisms at work in a silicon-germanium melt has been achieved.

Research has been continued on hot silicon, germanium and carbon atoms. Progress in the period November 16, 1985 to November 15, 1986 is reviewed in the following areas: (1) Recoil atom reaction studies. (2) Reactions of thermally generated free atoms.

Group IV Nanowires have strong potential for several biomedical applications. However, to date their use remains limited because many are synthesised using heavy metal seeds and functionalised using organic ligands to make the materials water dispersible. This can result in unpredicted toxic side effects for mammalian cells cultured on the wires. Here, we describe an approach to make seedless and ligand free Germanium nanowires water dispersible using glutamic acid, a natural occurring amino acid that alleviates the environmental and health hazards associated with traditional functionalisation materials. We analysed the treated material extensively using Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), High resolution-TEM, and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Using a series of state of the art biochemical and morphological assays, together with a series of complimentary and synergistic cellular and molecular approaches, we show that the water dispersible germanium nanowires are non-toxic and are biocompatible. We monitored the behaviour of the cells growing on the treated germanium nanowires using a real time impedance based platform (xCELLigence) which revealed that the treated germanium nanowires promote cell adhesion and cell proliferation which we believe is as a result of the presence of an etched surface giving rise to a collagen like structure and an oxide layer. Furthermore this study is the first to evaluate the associated effect of Germanium nanowires on mammalian cells. Our studies highlight the potential use of water dispersible Germanium Nanowires in biological platforms that encourage anchorage-dependent cell growth. PMID:25237816

This paper discusses the results of a program on the modification of silicon-germanium alloys by means of small extraneous material additions in order to improve their figures-of-merit. A review of the properties that constitute the figure-of-merit indicates that it is the relatively high thermal conductivity of silicon-germanium alloys that is responsible for their low values of figure-of-merit. The intent of the effort discussed in this paper is therefore the reduction of the thermal conductivity of silicon-germanium alloys by minor alloy additions and/or changes in the basic structure of the material. Because Group III and V elements are compatible with silicon and germanium, the present effort in modifying silicon-germanium alloys has concentrated on additions of gallium phosphide. A significant reduction in thermal conductivity, approximately 40 to 50 percent, has been demonstrated while the electrical properties are only slightly affected as a result. The figure-of-merit of the resultant material is enhanced over that of silicon-germanium alloys and when fully optimized is potentially better than that of any other presently available thermoelectric material.

This paper describes optical, durablility and environmental performance of a germanium carbide based durable antireflection coating. The coating has been demonstrated on germanium and zinc selenide infra-red material however is applicable to other materials such as zinc sulphide. The material is deposited using a novel reactive closed field magnetron sputtering technique, offering significant advantages over conventional evaporation processes for germanium carbide such as plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition. The sputtering process is "cold", making it suitable for use on a wide range of substrates. Moreover, the drum format provide more efficient loading for high throughput production. The use of the closed field and unbalanced magnetrons creates a magnetic confinement that extends the electron mean free path leading to high ion current densities. The combination of high current densities with ion energies in the range ~30eV creates optimum thin film growth conditions. As a result the films are dense, spectrally stable, supersmooth and low stress. Films incorporate low hydrogen content resulting in minimal C-H absorption bands within critical infra-red passbands such as 3 to 5um and 8 to 12um. Tuning of germanium carbide (Ge(1-x)Cx) film refractive index from pure germanium (refractive index 4) to pure germanium carbide (refractive index 1.8) will be demonstrated. Use of film grading to achieve single and dual band anti-reflection performance will be shown. Environmental and durability levels are shown to be suitable for use in harsh external environments.

A method of semiconductor diode fabrication is disclosed which relies on the epitaxial growth of a precisely doped thickness layer of gallium arsenide or germanium on a semi-insulating or intrinsic substrate, respectively, of gallium arsenide or germanium by either molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) or by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The method involves: depositing a layer of doped or undoped silicon dioxide on a germanium or gallium arsenide wafer or substrate, selectively removing the silicon dioxide layer to define one or more surface regions for a device to be fabricated thereon, growing a matched epitaxial layer of doped germanium or gallium arsenide of an appropriate thickness using MBE or MOCVD techniques on both the silicon dioxide layer and the defined one or more regions; and etching the silicon dioxide and the epitaxial material on top of the silicon dioxide to leave a matched epitaxial layer of germanium or gallium arsenide on the germanium or gallium arsenide substrate, respectively, and upon which a field effect device can thereafter be formed.

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Highly crystalline germanium (Ge) nanocrystals in the size range 2--10 nm were grown in inverse micelles and purified and size-separated by high pressure liquid chromatography with on-line optical and electrical diagnostics. The nanocrystals retain the diamond structure of bulk Ge down to at least 2.0 nm (containing about 150 Ge atoms). The background- and impurity-free extinction and photoluminescence (PL) spectra of these nanocrystals revealed rich structure which was interpreted in terms of the bandstructure of Ge shifted to higher energies by quantum confinement. The shifts ranged from {minus}0.1 eV to over 1 eV for the various transitions. PL in the range 350--700 nm was observed from nanocrystals 2--5 nm in size. The 2.0 nm nanocrystals yielded the most intense PL (at 420 nm) which is believed to be intrinsic and attributed to direct recombination at {Gamma}. Excitation at high energy (250 nm) populates most of the conduction bands resulting in competing recombination channels and the observed broad PL spectra.

The electronic transport properties of germanium oligomers catenating into linear chains (linear Ge chains) have been theoretically studied using first principle methods. The conduction mechanism of a Ge chain sandwiched between gold electrodes was analyzed based on the density of states and the eigenstates of the molecule in a two-probe environment. Like that of silicon chains (Si chains), the highest occupied molecular orbital of Ge chains contains the extended σ-conjugation of Ge 4p orbitals at energy levels close to the Fermi level; this is in contrast to the electronic properties of linear carbon chains. Furthermore, the conductance of a Ge chain is expected to decrease exponentially with molecular length L. The decay constant β, which is defined as e{sup −βL}, of a Ge chain is similar to that of a Si chain, whereas the conductance of the Ge chains is higher than that of Si chains even though the Ge–Ge bond length is longer than the Si–Si bond length.

Up to now, detached growth was observed mainly under microgravity, i.e. under the absence of hydrostatic pressure that hinders the formation of a free melt meniscus. the detached growth of germanium doped with gallium was obtained under 1 g conditions, the growth was performed in quartz-glass ampoule. Part of the crystal grew without wall contact, the detached growth was observed in-situ with a CCD-camera as well as after the growth process in form of growth lines and the formation of <111> facets on the crystal surface. GeSi crystal (oriientation: <111>, maximum silicon content: 4 at%, seed material: Ge) was grown in a pBN crucible (excluding the possibility of in-situ monitoring of the growth process). The grown crystal exhibits three growth facets, indicating also wall free growth. Surface analysis of the crystals (NDIC, SEM) and characterization of crystal segregation (EDAX, resistivity measurement) and defect structure (EPD, x-ray diffraction measurements) will be presented.

A post-experimental identification/purification procedure similar to that described in Zhang et al. [(2015), IUCrJ, 2, 322-326] has been proposed for use in the treatment of multiphase protein serial crystallography (SX) diffraction snapshots. As a proof of concept, the procedure was tested using theoretical serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) data from a mixture containing native and derivatized crystals of a protein. Two known proteins were taken as examples. Multiphase diffraction snapshots were subjected to two rounds of indexing using the program CrystFEL [White et al. (2012). J. Appl. Cryst. 45, 335-341]. In the first round, an ab initio indexing was performed to derive a set of approximate primitive unit-cell parameters, which are roughly the average of those from the native protein and the derivative. These parameters were then used in a second round of indexing as input to CrystFEL. The results were then used to separate the diffraction snapshots into two subsets corresponding to the native and the derivative. For each test sample, integration of the two subsets of snapshots separately led to two sets of three-dimensional diffraction intensities, one belonging to the native and the other to the derivative. Based on these two sets of intensities, a conventional single isomorphous replacement (SIR) procedure solved the structure easily. PMID:26627658

Nowadays, there is a greater need for energy efficient and stable underwater sensor networks (UWSNs). Underwater sensors usually do not have enough power, so the goal of underwater sensor networks is to make the network have a long lifetime. An underwater heterogeneous sensor network (UWHSN) is one way to cluster the sensors, and the application of UWHSNs is simple and fast, but robots, lifetime and energy-partition are all drawbacks of UWHSNs. In this paper we propose the underwater isomorphic sensor network (UWISN) clustering technology. By analyzing the characteristics of UWISNs, we determine that an UWISN has strong expansibility, mobility, energy-efficiency and long lifetime. An UWISN adopts normal sensor nodes to be cluster heads, and these cluster heads communicate with each other. This paper seeks the optimal number of clusters and uses FCM to elect cluster heads and establish the network. In addition, an idea of real cluster heads and the method to elect them have been proposed. Finally, the simulation results show that the solution is effective and UWISNs can improve the energy consumption of an UWSN. PMID:25019636

Berry and Wang [Phys. Rev. A 83, 042317 (2011)] show numerically that a discrete-time quan- tum random walk of two noninteracting particles is able to distinguish some non-isomorphic strongly regular graphs from the same family. Here we analytically demonstrate how it is possible for these walks to distinguish such graphs, while continuous-time quantum walks of two noninteracting parti- cles cannot. We show analytically and numerically that even single-particle discrete-time quantum random walks can distinguish some strongly regular graphs, though not as many as two-particle noninteracting discrete-time walks. Additionally, we demonstrate how, given the same quantum random walk, subtle di erences in the graph certi cate construction algorithm can nontrivially im- pact the walk's distinguishing power. We also show that no continuous-time walk of a xed number of particles can distinguish all strongly regular graphs when used in conjunction with any of the graph certi cates we consider. We extend this constraint to discrete-time walks of xed numbers of noninteracting particles for one kind of graph certi cate; it remains an open question as to whether or not this constraint applies to the other graph certi cates we consider.

Berry and Wang [Phys. Rev. A 83, 042317 (2011)] show numerically that a discrete-time quan- tum random walk of two noninteracting particles is able to distinguish some non-isomorphic strongly regular graphs from the same family. Here we analytically demonstrate how it is possible for these walks to distinguish such graphs, while continuous-time quantum walks of two noninteracting parti- cles cannot. We show analytically and numerically that even single-particle discrete-time quantum random walks can distinguish some strongly regular graphs, though not as many as two-particle noninteracting discrete-time walks. Additionally, we demonstrate how, given the same quantum random walk, subtle di erencesmore » in the graph certi cate construction algorithm can nontrivially im- pact the walk's distinguishing power. We also show that no continuous-time walk of a xed number of particles can distinguish all strongly regular graphs when used in conjunction with any of the graph certi cates we consider. We extend this constraint to discrete-time walks of xed numbers of noninteracting particles for one kind of graph certi cate; it remains an open question as to whether or not this constraint applies to the other graph certi cates we consider.« less

Garnet gemstones were collected from parts of Eastern Ghats geological formations of Andhra Pradesh, India and their gemological studies were carried out. Their study of chemistry is not possible as they represent mixtures of isomorphism nature, and none of the individual specimens indicate independent chemistry. Hence, non-destructive instrumental methodology of external PIXE technique was employed to understand their chemistry and identity. A 3 MeV proton beam was employed to excite the samples. In the present study geochemical characteristics of garnet gemstones were studied by proton induced X-ray emission. Almandine variety of garnet is found to be abundant in the present study by means of their chemical contents. The crystal structure and the lattice parameters were estimated using X-Ray Diffraction studies. The trace and minor elements are estimated using PIXE technique and major compositional elements are confirmed by XRD studies. The technique is found very useful in characterizing the garnet gemstones. The present work, thus establishes usefulness and versatility of the PIXE technique with external beam for research in Geo-scientific methodology. PMID:23041780

We investigate the quantum dynamics of particles on graphs (“quantum random walks”), with the aim of developing quantum algorithms for determining if two graphs are isomorphic (related to each other by a relabeling of vertices). We focus on quantum random walks of multiple noninteracting particles on strongly regular graphs (SRGs), a class of graphs with high symmetry that is known to have pairs of graphs that are hard to distinguish. Previous work has already demonstrated analytically that two-particle noninteracting quantum walks cannot distinguish nonisomorphic SRGs of the same family. Here, we demonstrate numerically that three-particle noninteracting quantum walks have significant, but not universal, distinguishing power for pairs of SRGs, proving a fundamental difference between the distinguishing power of two-particle and three-particle noninteracting walks. We show analytically why this distinguishing power is possible, whereas it is forbidden for two-particle noninteracting walks. Based on sampling of SRGs with up to 64 vertices, we find no difference in the distinguishing power of bosonic and fermionic walks. In addition, we find that the four-fermion noninteracting walk has greater distinguishing power than the three-particle walk on SRGs, showing that increasing the particle number increases the distinguishing power. However, we also show analytically that no noninteracting walk with a fixed number of particles can distinguish all SRGs, thus demonstrating a potential fundamental difference in the distinguishing power of interacting versus noninteracting walks.

In this paper, we propose a new algorithm based on a quantum walk search model to distinguish strongly similar graphs. Our algorithm computes a signature for each graph via the quantum walk search model and uses signatures to distinguish non-isomorphic graphs. Our method is less complex than those of previous works. In addition, our algorithm can be extended by raising the signature levels. The higher the level adopted, the stronger the distinguishing ability and the higher the complexity of the algorithm. Our algorithm was tested with standard benchmarks from four databases. We note that the weakest signature at level 1 can distinguish all similar graphs, with a time complexity of O({{N}3.5}), which that outperforms the previous best work except when it comes to strongly regular graphs (SRGs). Once the signature is raised to level 3, all SRGs tested can be distinguished successfully. In this case, the time complexity is O({{N}5.5}), also better than the previous best work.

Hydrogenated amorphous germanium (a-Ge:H) and germanium carbide (a-Ge/sub 1-x/C/sub x/:H) films were prepared by rf sputtering of a polycrystalline Ge target in a vacuum /approximately/ 4 /times/ 10/sup /minus/7/ Torr at various rf power 50 less than or equal to P less than or equal to 600 W (0. 27-3.3 W/cm/sup 2/), target-substrate distance 1 less than or equal to d less than or equal to 7'', varying partial pressures of Ar, H/sub 2/, and C/sub 3/H/sub 8/, and flow rates f. The vibrational and opto-electronic properties such as infrared (IR) absorption, optical gap, electron-spin-resonance (ESR) signals, and conductivities vary with deposition conditions. The photoconductivity sigma/sub ph/, in particular, was carefully monitored as a function of the deposition conditions to optimize it. 96 refs., 49 figs., 7 tabs.

During Bridgman growth of semiconductors detachment of the crystal and the melt meniscus has occasionally been observed, mainly under microgravity (microg) conditions. An important factor for detached growth is the wetting angle of the melt with the crucible material. High contact angles are more likely to result in detachment of the growing crystal from the ampoule wall. In order to achieve detached growth of germanium (Ge) and germanium-silicon (GeSi) crystals under 1g and microg conditions, sessile drop measurements were performed to determine the most suitable ampoule material as well as temperature dependence of the surface tension for GeSi. Sapphire, fused quartz, glassy carbon, graphite, SiC, pyrolytic Boron Nitride (pBN), AIN, and diamond were used as substrates. Furthermore, different cleaning procedures and surface treatments (etching, sandblasting, etc.) of the same substrate material and their effect on the wetting behavior were studied during these experiments. pBN and AIN substrates exhibited the highest contact angles with values around 170 deg.

While the electrical conductivity of bulk-scale group 14 materials such as diamond carbon, silicon, and germanium is well understood, there is a gap in knowledge regarding the conductivity of these materials at the nano and molecular scales. Filling this gap is important because integrated circuits have shrunk so far that their active regions, which rely so heavily on silicon and germanium, begin to resemble ornate molecules rather than extended solids. Here we unveil a new approach for synthesizing atomically discrete wires of germanium and present the first conductance measurements of molecular germanium using a scanning tunneling microscope-based break-junction (STM-BJ) technique. Our findings show that germanium and silicon wires are nearly identical in conductivity at the molecular scale, and that both are much more conductive than aliphatic carbon. We demonstrate that the strong donor ability of C-Ge σ-bonds can be used to raise the energy of the anchor lone pair and increase conductance. Furthermore, the oligogermane wires behave as conductance switches that function through stereoelectronic logic. These devices can be trained to operate with a higher switching factor by repeatedly compressing and elongating the molecular junction. PMID:26373928

Infrared transparent amorphous hydrogenated alloys of germanium and carbon (germanium carbide) have been deposited by plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition (PACVD) using germane (GeH4 ) and butane (C 4Hid as the feedstocks and by reactive sputtering of germanium with a CH1g-Ar plasma. The effects of varying various deposition conditions have been assessed on a number of coating properties . Germanium Carbide has good environmental durability and can be deposited in thick layers. Using PACVD it can be deposited with any refractive index in the range 2 to 4 while the sputtering process is limited to indices in the range 3 to 4 . One advantage of the sputtering process is the high deposition rates achievable which can be up to '-lOum/h compared with lum/h for the PACVD process. When used in conjunction with "diamond-like" carbon (a-'C:H) , germanium carbide offers the prospect of rnultilayer antireflection coatings for 8 to 12 urn optics with durabilities which hitherto have been impossible to achieve. Antireflection coatings for zinc sulphide windows which are subject to hostile environmental conditions have been investigated and the performance of the coatings is presented. The factors affecting the practical realisation of these coatings on a production scale are discussed.

The feasibility of transferring hydrogen-implanted germanium to silicon with a reduced thermal budget is demonstrated. Germanium samples were implanted with a splitting dose of 5×1016 H2+ cm-2 at 180 keV and a two-step anneal was performed. Surface roughness and x-ray diffraction pattern measurements, combined with cross-sectional TEM analysis of hydrogen-implanted germanium samples were carried out in order to understand the exfoliation mechanism as a function of the thermal budget. It is shown that the first anneal performed at low temperature (≤150 °C for 22 h) enhances the nucleation of hydrogen platelets significantly. The second anneal is performed at 300 °C for 5 min and is shown to complete the exfoliation process by triggering the formation of extended platelets. Two key results are highlighted: (i) in a reduced thermal budget approach, the transfer of hydrogen-implanted germanium is found to follow a mechanism similar to the transfer of hydrogen-implanted InP and GaAs, (ii) such a low thermal budget (<300 °C) is found to be suitable for directly bonded heterogeneous substrates, such as germanium bonded to silicon, where different thermal expansion coefficients are involved.

In this paper we present a detailed theoretical investigation of integrated racetrack Raman lasers based on the germanium material system operating in the mid-infrared beyond the germanium two-photon absorption cut-off wavelength of 3.17 μm. The effective Raman gain has been estimated in waveguides based on germanium-on-silicon, germanium-on-SOI and germanium-on-Si3N4 technology platforms as a function of their crystallographic orientations. Furthermore, general design guidelines have been determined by means of a comparative analysis of Raman laser performance, i.e. the threshold power, polarization and directionality of the excited Stokes signals as a function of racetrack cavity length and directional-coupler dimensions. Finally, the emitted Raman laser power has been evaluated as a function of overall propagation losses and operative wavelengths up to 3.8 μm, while the time dynamics of Raman lasers has been simulated assuming continuous and pulse waves as input pump signals. PMID:26191733

The goal of this project was to increase the authors understanding of the interplay between the kinetic and electronic energy of free atoms and their chemical reactivity by answering the following questions: (1) what is the chemistry of high-energy carbon silicon and germanium atoms recoiling from nuclear transformations; (2) how do the reactions of recoiling carbon, silicon and germanium atoms take place - what are the operative reaction mechanisms; (3) how does the reactivity of free carbon, silicon and germanium atoms vary with energy and electronic state, and what are the differences in the chemistry of these three isoelectronic atoms This research program consisted of a coordinated set of experiments capable of achieving these goals by defining the structures, the kinetic and internal energy, and the charge states of the intermediates formed in the gas-phase reactions of recoiling silicon and germanium atoms with silane, germane, and unsaturated organic molecules, and of recoiling carbon atoms with aromatic molecules. The reactions of high energy silicon, germanium, and carbon atoms created by nuclear recoil were studied with substrates chosen so that their products illuminated the mechanism of the recoil reactions. Information about the energy and electronic state of the recoiling atoms at reaction was obtained from the variation in end product yields and the extent of decomposition and rearrangement of primary products (usually reactive intermediates) as a function of total pressure and the concentration of inert moderator molecules that remove kinetic energy from the recoiling atoms and can induce transitions between electronic spin states. 29 refs.

We carry out density-functional-theory calculations to study the stability of germanium multivacancies. We use supercells containing 216 atomic sites and simulate two configurations called the “part of hexagonal ring” (PHR) and fourfold configurations of the tri-, tetra-, and pentavacancies. We find that the fourfold configurations of the tetra- and pentavacancies are the most stable and these configurations are also the most stable in the case of silicon. However, we find that the PHR and fourfold configurations have similar energies in the case of the germanium trivacancy. These results are in contrast to those of the silicon trivacancy; the fourfold configuration has substantially lower energy than the PHR configuration. This difference between germanium and silicon is expected to originate from the fact that the four bonds in the fourfold configurations in the germanium trivacancy are weaker than those in the silicon one. By calculating dissociation energies, we find that the silicon tetravacancy is not easy to dissociate, whereas the germanium tetravacancy is not very stable compared with the silicon one.

Gamma-ray imaging with position-sensitive germanium detectors offers the advantages of excellent energy resolution, high detection efficiency, and potentially good sptial resolution. The development of the amorphous-semiconductor electrical contact technology for germanium detec...

Hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon germanium thin films (nc-SiGe:H) is an interesting alternative material to replace hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si:H) as the narrow bandgap absorber in an a-Si/a-SiGe/nc-SiGe(nc-Si) triple-junction solar cell due to its higher optical absorption in the wavelength range of interest. In this paper, we present results of optical, structural investigations and electrical characterization of nc-SiGe:H thin films made by hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD) with a coil-shaped tungsten filament and with a disilane/germane/hydrogen gas mixture. The optical band gaps of a-SiGe:H and nc-SiGe:H thin-films, which are deposited with the same disilane/germane/hydrogen gas mixture ratio of 3.4:1.7:7, are about 1.58 eV and 2.1 eV, respectively. The nc-SiGe:H thin film exhibits a larger optical absorption coefficient of about 2-4 in the 600-900 nm range when compared to nc-Si:H thin film. Therefore, a thinner nc-SiGe:H layer of sim500 nm thickness may be sufficient for the narrow bandgap absorber in an a-Si based multiple-junction solar cell. We enhanced the transport properties as measured by the photoconductivity frequency mixing technique. These improved alloys do not necessarily show an improvement in the degree of structural heterogeneity on the nanometer scale as measured by small-angle X-ray scattering. Decreasing both the filament temperature and substrate temperature produced a film with relatively low structural heterogeneity while photoluminescence showed an order of magnitude increase in defect density for a similar change in the process.

Detachment of the melt meniscus from the crucible during semiconductor Bridgman growth experiments has been observed in recent years, especially under microgravity experiments. Under earth conditions, the hydrostatic pressure counteracts the mechanism, whereby it is more difficult to achieve detached Bridgman growth. Attempts to get stable detached growth under terrestrial conditions have been discussed in the literature and have been the subject of recent experiments in our own group. The advantage of crystals grown without wall contact is obvious: In general, they possess a higher crystal quality than conventional Bridgman grown crystals with wall contact. However, due to the interaction of different parameters such as the wetting behavior of the melt with the crucible, and the dependence of the growth angle with the shape of the melt meniscus, the mechanism leading to detachment is very complicated and not completely understood. We have grown several doped and undoped Germanium crystals with the detached Bridgman and the normal Bridgman growth technique. Pyrolytic boron nitride containers were used for all growth experiments. In the detached grown crystals the typical gap thickness between the pBN crucible and the crystal is in the range of 10 to 100 micrometers, which was determined by performing profilometer measurements. Etch pit density measurements were also performed and a comparison between detached and attached grown crystals will be given. An interesting feature was detected on the surface of a detached grown crystal. Strong surface striations with an average axial distance of 0.5 mm were observed around the whole circumference. The maximum fluctuation of the gap thickness is in the range of 5-10 micrometers. These variations of the detached gap along the crystal axis can be explained by a kind of stiction of the melt/crucible interface and thus by a variation of the meniscus shape. This phenomenon leading to the fluctuation of the gap thickness will be

Detachment of the melt meniscus from the crucible during semiconductor Bridgman growth experiments has been observed in recent years especially, under microgravity experiments. Under earth conditions, the hydrostatic pressure counteracts the mechanism, whereby it is more difficult to achieve detached Bridgman growth. Attempts to get stable detached growth under terrestrial conditions have been discussed in the literature and have been the subject of recent experiments in our own group. The advantage of crystals grown without wall contact is obvious: In general, they possess a higher crystal quality than conventional Bridgman grown crystals with wall contact. However, due to the interaction of different parameters such as the wetting behavior of the melt with the crucible, and the dependence of the growth angle with the shape of the melt meniscus, the mechanism leading to detachment is very complicated and not completely understood. We have grown several doped and undoped Germanium crystals with the detached Bridgman and the normal Bridgman growth technique. Pyrolytic boron nitride containers were used for all growth experiments. In the detached grown crystals the typical gap thickness between the pBN crucible and the crystal is in the range of 10 to 100 microns, which was determined by performing profilometer measurements. Etch pit density measurements were also performed and a comparison between detached and attached grown crystals will be given. An interesting feature was detected on the surface of a detached grown crystal. Strong surface striations with an average axial distance of 0.5mm were observed around the whole circumference. The maximum fluctuation of the gap thickness is in the range of 5-10 microns. These variations of the detached gap along the crystal axis can be explained by a kind of stiction of the melt/crucible interface and thus by a variation of the meniscus shape. This phenomenon leading to the fluctuation of the gap thickness will be

High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors housed in copper cryostats and shielding materials are used in measurements of the extraordinarily rare nuclear decay process, neutrinoless double-beta decay (0νββ), and for dark matter searches. Cosmogenic production of 68Ge and 60Co in the germanium and copper represent an irreducible background to these experiments as the subsequent decays of these isotopes can mimic the signals of interest. These radioactive isotopes can be removed by chemical and/or isotopic separation, but begin to grow-in to the material after separation until the material is moved deep underground. This work is motivated by the need to have a reliable, experimentally benchmarked simulation tool for evaluating shielding materials used during transportation and near-surface manufacturing of experiment components. The resulting simulations tool has been used to enhance the effectiveness of an existing transport shield used to ship enriched germanium from the separations facility to the detector manufacturing facility.

Germanium is commonly used for optical components in the infrared, but the high refractive index of germanium causes significant losses due to Fresnel reflections. Anti-reflection (AR) surfaces based on subwavelength "moth's eye" gratings provide one means to significantly increase optical transmission. As found in nature, these gratings are conformal to the curved surfaces of lenslets in the eye of the moth. Engineered optical systems inspired by biological examples offer possibilities for increased performance and system miniaturization, but also introduce significant challenges to both design and fabrication. In this paper, we consider the design and fabrication of conformal moth's eye AR structures on germanium freeform optical surfaces, including lens arrays and Alvarez lenses. Fabrication approaches and limitations based on both lithography and multi-axis diamond machining are considered. Rigorous simulations of grating performance and approaches for simulation of conformal, multi-scale optical systems are discussed.

Here, the authors show a method to fabricate a macroporous structure in which the pores, essentially identical, arrange regularly in a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice. The result is a network of air spheres in a germanium medium. This structure presents the highest dielectric contrast ({epsilon}{sub Ge}/{epsilon}{sub air} = 16) ever achieved in the optical regime in such periodic structures, which could result in important applications in photonics. The authors employ solid silica colloidal crystals (opals) as templates within which a cyclic germanium growth process is carried out. Thus, the three-dimensional periodicity of the host is inherited by the guest. Afterward, the silica is removed and a germanium opal replica is obtained.

High quality single crystal silicon-germanium-on-insulator has the potential to facilitate the next generation of photonic and electronic devices. Using a rapid melt growth technique we engineer tailored single crystal silicon-germanium-on-insulator structures with near constant composition over large areas. The proposed structures avoid the problem of laterally graded SiGe compositions, caused by preferential Si rich solid formation, encountered in straight SiGe wires by providing radiating elements distributed along the structures. This method enables the fabrication of multiple single crystal silicon-germanium-on-insulator layers of different compositions, on the same Si wafer, using only a single deposition process and a single anneal process, simply by modifying the structural design and/or the anneal temperature. This facilitates a host of device designs, within a relatively simple growth environment, as compared to the complexities of other methods, and also offers flexibility in device designs within that growth environment. PMID:25656076

The outer planetary exploration missions studied by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory require silicon-germanium radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) in which the factors of safety are as low as is compatible with the reliable satisfaction of the power needs. Work on silicon germanium sublimation performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory is presented. Analytical modeling work on the solid-diffusion process involved in the steady-state (free) sublimation of silicon germanium is described. Analytical predictions are made of the sublimation suppression which can be achieved by using a cover gas. A series of accelerated (high-temperature) tests which were performed on simulated hardware (using four SiGe couples) to study long-term sublimation and reaction mechanisms are also discussed.

In this paper, silver thin films deposited on SiO2 substrates with a germanium wetting layer fabricated by electron-beam evaporation were studied. The characterization methods of XTEM, FTIR, XRD and XRR were used to study the structural properties of silver thin films with various thicknesses of germanium layers. Silver films deposited with very thin (1-5nm) germanium wetting layers show about one half of improvement in the crystallite sizes comparing silver films without germanium layer. The surface roughness of silver thin films significantly decrease with a thin germanium wetting layer, reaching a roughness minimum around 1-5nm of germanium, but as the germanium layer thickness increases, the silver thin film surface roughness increases. The relatively higher surface energy of germanium and bond dissociation energy of silver-germanium were introduced to explain the effects the germanium layer made to the silver film deposition. However, due to the Stranski-Krastanov growth mode of germanium layer, germanium island formation started with increased thickness (5-15nm), which leads to a rougher surface of silver films. The demonstrated silver thin films are very promising for large-scale applications as molecular anchors, optical metamaterials, plasmonic devices, and several areas of nanophotonics.

Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals typically have ligands attached to their surfaces that afford solubility in common solvents but hinder charge transport in nanocrystal films. Here, an alternative route is explored in which bare germanium nanocrystals are solubilized by select solvents to form stable colloids without the use of ligands. A survey of candidate solvents shows that germanium nanocrystals are completely solubilized by benzonitrile, likely because of electrostatic stabilization. Films cast from these dispersions are uniform, dense, and smooth, making them suitable for device applications without postdeposition treatment.

The AGATA spectrometer is an array of highly segmented high purity germanium detectors. The spectrometer uses pulse shape analysis in order to track Compton scattered γ-rays to increase the efficiency of nuclear spectroscopy studies. The characterisation of two high purity germanium detector capsules for AGATA of the same A-type has been performed at the University of Liverpool. This work will examine the uniformity of performance of the two capsules, including a comparison of the resolution and efficiency as well as a study of charge collection. The performance of the capsules shows good agreement, which is essential for the efficient operation of the γ-ray tracking array.

Classical molecular dynamics simulations are used to study the structure of densified germanium dioxide (GeO2). It is found that the coordination number of germanium changes with increasing density (pressure) while pressure released systems exhibit only a marked angular change in local structure as compared to the virgin system. The structural modification with pressure appears to be stepwise and gradually affects long-range (through the reduction of the long-range correlations as seen from the shift of the first sharp diffraction peak), intermediate-range (by angular reduction) and finally short-range structure (by tetrahedron distortion).

GALATEA is a test facility designed to investigate bulk and surface effects in high purity germanium detectors. A vacuum tank houses a cold volume with the detector inside. A system of three precision motorized stages allows an almost complete scan of the detector. The main feature of GALATEA is that there is no material between source and detector. This allows the usage of alpha and beta sources to study surface effects. A 19-fold segmented true-coaxial germanium detector was used for commissioning. A first analysis of data obtained with an alpha source is presented here.

Interest in the synthesis of semiconductor nanoparticles has been generated by their unusual optical and electronic properties arising from quantum confinement effects. We have synthesized silicon and germanium nanoclusters by reacting Zintl phase precursors with either silicon or germanium tetrachloride in various solvents. Strategies have been investigated to stabilize the surface, including reactions with RLi and MgBrR (R = alkyl). This synthetic method produces group IV nanocrystals with passivated surfaces. These nanoparticle emit over a very large range in the visible region. These particles have been characterized using HRTEM, FTIR, UV-Vis, solid state NMR, and fluorescence. The synthesis and characterization of these nanoclusters will be presented.

Cosmogenic production in germanium crystals grown on the surface can limit the sensitivity for the next generation deep underground experiments in searching for rare event physics beyond the Standard Model. One of the best solutions to eliminate unwanted cosmogenics is to produce the germanium crystals and detectors in an underground environment. The goal of this project is to create state-of-the-art detectors to advance neutrinoless double-beta decay and dark matter exploration research and technology while simultaneously paving the way for infrastructure to support an underground laboratory for zone refining, crystal growth, and detector fabrication. The greatest challenge in the growth of germanium crystals is a lack of precise control of individual crystal properties such as the impurity distribution, the dislocation density, and the crystalline structure. With knowledge gained from the pioneers in the field of crystal growth, the researchers have developed a novel technique to grow detector-grade crystals. In this paper, we will report detector-grade large-size germanium crystal growth at the University of South Dakota. Cosmogenic production in germanium crystals grown on the surface can limit the sensitivity for the next generation deep underground experiments in searching for rare event physics beyond the Standard Model. One of the best solutions to eliminate unwanted cosmogenics is to produce the germanium crystals and detectors in an underground environment. The goal of this project is to create state-of-the-art detectors to advance neutrinoless double-beta decay and dark matter exploration research and technology while simultaneously paving the way for infrastructure to support an underground laboratory for zone refining, crystal growth, and detector fabrication. The greatest challenge in the growth of germanium crystals is a lack of precise control of individual crystal properties such as the impurity distribution, the dislocation density, and the

We demonstrate the combination of germanium microdisks tensily strained by silicon nitride layers and circular Bragg reflectors. The microdisks with suspended lateral Bragg reflectors form a cavity with quality factors up to 2000 around 2 μm. This represents a key feature to achieve a microlaser with a quasi-direct band gap germanium under a 1.6% biaxial tensile strain. We show that lowering the temperature significantly improves the quality factor of the quasi-radial modes. Linewidth narrowing is observed in a range of weak continuous wave excitation powers. We finally discuss the requirements to achieve lasing with these kind of structures.

A silicon germanium (SiGe) semiconductive alloy is grown on a substrate of single crystalline Al.sub.2O.sub.3. A {111} crystal plane of a cubic diamond structure SiGe is grown on the substrate's {0001} C-plane such that a <110> orientation of the cubic diamond structure SiGe is aligned with a <1,0,-1,0> orientation of the {0001} C-plane. A lattice match between the substrate and the SiGe is achieved by using a SiGe composition that is 0.7223 atomic percent silicon and 0.2777 atomic percent germanium.

The antennal lobe (AL) of insects, like the olfactory bulb of vertebrates, is characterized by discrete modules of synaptic neuropil called glomeruli. In some insects (e.g. moths and cockroaches) a few glomeruli are sexually dimorphic and function in labeled lines for processing of sensory information about sex pheromones. Controversy still exists, however, about whether projection (output) neurons (PNs) of glomeruli in the main AL are also narrowly tuned. We examined this critical issue in the AL of the moth Manduca sexta. We used intracellular recording and staining techniques to investigate the chemosensory tuning of PNs innervating an identifiable, sexually isomorphic glomerulus, G35, in the main AL. We found that the morphological features and chemosensory tuning of G35-PNs were nearly identical in females and males. G35-PNs responded to low concentrations of the plant-derived volatile compound cis-3-hexenyl acetate (c3HA), but the sensitivity threshold of female PNs was lower than that of male PNs. The propionate and butyrate homologues of c3HA could evoke excitatory responses, but only at moderate-to-high concentrations. Other plant volatiles did not evoke responses from G35-PNs. Moreover, PNs innervating glomeruli near G35 (in females) showed little or no response to c3HA. Female G35-PNs were hyperpolarized by (±)linalool, a compound that excites PNs in an adjacent glomerulus, thus providing evidence for lateral-inhibitory interactions between glomeruli. Our results show that PNs arborizing in an identified glomerulus in the main olfactory pathway are morphologically and physiologically equivalent in both sexes and have characteristic, limited molecular receptive ranges that are highly conserved across individuals. PMID:16135759

The external appearance of a crystal of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), usually referred to as a crystal habit, has a substantial impact on the API's physicochemical and physiochemical properties and, subsequently, its pharmaceutical performance. In this work, we investigate the role of different parameters of antisolvent crystallization impacting on the itraconazole (ITR) crystal habit and how this crystal habit manipulation, including crystal intergrowth, can affect crystal interactions with water molecules. Three distinct isomorphic crystal habits of ITR, a twinned blade-shaped (CHtw), a plate-shaped (CHpl), and a flat sheet-shaped with dendritic ends (CHsh), were obtained by controlling crystallization conditions. A liquid-liquid crystalline phase separation was observed as an intermediate stage preceding crystal growth. The March-Dollase parameter was used as a quantitative description of the preferred orientation, where CHsh exhibited the highest preferred orientation. The three crystal habits were evaluated for their wettability and water vapor distribution, at 37 °C, using the Young-Nelson fitting model. CHtw crystals sorbed a statistically significantly higher amount of water than CHpl and CHsh, which was attributed to the presence of crystal defects due to the twinning boundary. On the other hand, the amount of water adsorbed on the surface of CHpl and CHsh crystals was comparable and it was about twice that adsorbed on CHtw crystals. This was related to the abundance of hydrophilic chemical functionalities on the (010) facet of CHpl and CHsh as supported by the full interaction map carried out using Mercury software. This study expands investigations of the impact of crystal habit manipulation on API's functional properties beyond the well-known solubility improvement approaches. PMID:26275018

The antennal lobe (AL) of insects, like the olfactory bulb of vertebrates, is characterized by discrete modules of synaptic neuropil called glomeruli. In some insects (e.g., moths and cockroaches), a few glomeruli are sexually dimorphic and function in labeled lines for processing of sensory information about sex pheromones. Controversy still exists, however, about whether projection (output) neurons (PNs) of glomeruli in the main AL are also narrowly tuned. We examined this critical issue in the AL of the moth Manduca sexta. We used intracellular recording and staining techniques to investigate the chemosensory tuning of PNs innervating an identifiable, sexually isomorphic glomerulus, G35, in the main AL. We found that the morphological features and chemosensory tuning of G35-PNs were nearly identical in females and males. G35-PNs responded to low concentrations of the plant-derived volatile compound cis-3-hexenyl acetate (c3HA), but the sensitivity threshold of female PNs was lower than that of male PNs. The propionate and butyrate homologs of c3HA could evoke excitatory responses but only at moderate-to-high concentrations. Other plant volatiles did not evoke responses from G35-PNs. Moreover, PNs innervating glomeruli near G35 (in females) showed little or no response to c3HA. Female G35-PNs were hyperpolarized by (+/-)linalool, a compound that excites PNs in an adjacent glomerulus, thus providing evidence for lateral-inhibitory interactions between glomeruli. Our results show that PNs arborizing in an identified glomerulus in the main olfactory pathway are morphologically and physiologically equivalent in both sexes and have characteristic, limited molecular receptive ranges that are highly conserved across individuals. PMID:16135759

Several families of periodic orbits exist in the context of the circular restricted three-body problem. This work studies orbital motion of a spacecraft among these periodic orbits in the Earth-Moon system, using the planar circular restricted three-body problem model. A new cylindrical representation of the spacecraft phase space (i.e., position and velocity) is described, and allows representing periodic orbits and the related invariant manifolds. In the proximity of the libration points, the manifolds form a four-fold surface, if the cylindrical coordinates are employed. Orbits departing from the Earth and transiting toward the Moon correspond to the trajectories located inside this four-fold surface. The isomorphic mapping under consideration is also useful for describing the topology of the invariant manifolds, which exhibit a complex geometrical stretch-and-folding behavior as the associated trajectories reach increasing distances from the libration orbit. Moreover, the cylindrical representation reveals extremely useful for detecting periodic orbits around the primaries and the libration points, as well as the possible existence of heteroclinic connections. These are asymptotic trajectories that are ideally traveled at zero-propellant cost. This circumstance implies the possibility of performing concretely a variety of complex Earth-Moon missions, by combining different types of trajectory arcs belonging to the manifolds. This work studies also the possible application of manifold dynamics to defining a suitable, convenient end-of-life strategy for spacecraft placed in any of the unstable orbits. The final disposal orbit is an externally confined trajectory, never approaching the Earth or the Moon, and can be entered by means of a single velocity impulse (of modest magnitude) along the right unstable manifold that emanates from the Lyapunov orbit at L_2.

Earth based experiments on the science of detached crystal growth are being conducted on germanium and germanium-silicon alloys (2 at% Si average composition) in preparation for a series of experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The purpose of the microgravity experiments includes differentiating among proposed mechanisms contributing to detachment, and confirming or refining our understanding of the detachment mechanism. Because large contact angle are critical to detachment, sessile drop measurements were used to determine the contact angles as a function of temperature and composition for a large number of substrates made of potential ampoule materials. Growth experiments have used pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) and fused silica ampoules with the majority of the detached results occurring predictably in the pBN. The contact angles were 173 deg (Ge) and 165 deg (GeSi) for pBN. For fused silica, the contact angle decreases from 150 deg to an equilibrium value of 117 deg (Ge) or from 129 deg to an equilibrium value of 100 deg (GeSi) over the duration of the experiment. The nature and extent of detachment is determined by using profilometry in conjunction with optical and electron microscopy. The stability of detachment has been analyzed, and an empirical model for the conditions necessary to achieve sufficient stability to maintain detached growth for extended periods has been developed. Results in this presentation will show that we have established the effects on detachment of ampoule material, pressure difference above and below the melt, and silicon concentration; samples that are nearly completely detached can be grown repeatedly in pBN.

Gallium doped germanium is suitable for applications in the detection of far infrared radiation. Measurements were made on experimental photoconductors (PCs), accumulation mode charge injection devices (AMCIDs), and the SSPC (a switched, sampled PC alternative to the AMCID). The results indicate that the SSPC, which had a responsivity near 1.5 amp/watt, is desirable for use in two dimensional detector arrays.

Germanium detectors with sub-keV sensitivities open a window to study neutrino physics to search for light WIMP dark matter. We summarize the recent results on spin-independent couplings of light WIMPs from the TEXONO experiment at the Kuo-Sheng Reactor Neutrino Laboratory.

Despite the dominant position of silicon in semiconductor electronics, its use is ultimately limited by its incompatibility with other semiconducting materials. Strained-layer epitaxy overcomes problems of crystallographic compatibility and produces high-quality heterostructures of germanium-silicon layers on silicon. This opens the door to a range of electronic and photonic devices that are based on bandstructure physics. PMID:17842673

Currently, twenty-eight gallium, thirty-one germanium, thirty-five lutetium, and thirty-six hafnium isotopes have been observed and the discovery of these isotopes is described here. For each isotope a brief synopsis of the first refereed publication, including the production and identification method, is presented.

This paper describes an efficient chemical route for the synthesis of visible light emitting nanocrystals of germanium (ncGe). The synthesis started by heating Ge(II) iodide at 300 °C in argon atmosphere. Spectroscopic characterizations confirmed the formation of diamond cubic lattice structures of ncGe. By grafting hydrophobic chains on the ncGe surface, the dispersions in nonpolar solvents of the ncGe became very stable. The as-synthesized ncGe showed the bluish white photoluminescence (PL) feature, but it was found that the PL spectrum is composed of many different emission spectra. Therefore, the color-tuning of white light emission is demonstrated through the witting removal of extra ncGe with unfavorable emission feature by making full use of column chromatographic techniques. - Highlights: • Visible light emitting nanocrystals of germanium was synthesized by chemical reduction of germanium iodide. • White light emission was achieved by control over size distribution of germanium nanocrystals. • Tuning the color of white light was achieved by separation of nanocrystals by emission.

A microphonics noise cancellation system and method for improving the energy resolution for mechanically cooled high-purity Germanium (HPGe) detector systems. A classical adaptive noise canceling digital processing system using an adaptive predictor is used in an MCA to attenuate the microphonics noise source making the system more deployable.

Germanium and carbon ions represent a significant portion of total ion implantation steps in the process flow. Very often ion source materials that used to produce ions are chemically aggressive, especially at higher temperatures, and result in fast ion source performance degradation and a very limited lifetime [B.S. Freer, et. al., 2002 14th Intl. Conf. on Ion Implantation Technology Proc, IEEE Conf. Proc., p. 420 (2003)]. GeF{sub 4} and CO{sub 2} are commonly used to generate germanium and carbon beams. In the case of GeF{sub 4} controlling the tungsten deposition due to the de-composition of WF{sub 6} (halogen cycle) is critical to ion source life. With CO{sub 2}, the materials oxidation and carbon deposition must be controlled as both will affect cathode thermionic emission and anti-cathode (repeller) efficiencies due to the formation of volatile metal oxides. The improved ion source design Extended Life Source 3 (Eterna ELS3) together with its proprietary co-gas material implementation has demonstrated >300 hours of stable continuous operation when using carbon and germanium ion beams. Optimizing cogas chemistries retard the cathode erosion rate for germanium and carbon minimizes the adverse effects of oxygen when reducing gas is introduced for carbon. The proprietary combination of hardware and co-gas has improved source stability and the results of the hardware and co-gas development are discussed.

Modified matrix volatilization (MV) method has been described to characterize high purity germanium material of 7 N (99.99999%) purity. Transport of both, the chlorine gas generated in-situ in this method and the argon gas (carrier) is fine controlled by means of a mass flow controller. This enabled both uniform reaction of chlorine gas with the germanium matrix and smooth removal of germanium matrix as its chloride. This resulted in improvement in the reproducibility of the analytical results. The use of quartz reaction vessel has lead to the reduction in the process blank levels. The combined effect of these modifications in the MV setup has resulted in very consistent and low process blanks and hence improved detection limits of this method. Applicability of the method has been expanded to rare earth elements and other elements after examining their recoveries. The quantification is done by using inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometer (ICP-QMS) and continuum source graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (CS-GFAAS). In the absence of certified reference materials for high pure germanium, the accuracy of the method is established by spike recovery tests. The precision of the method has been found to vary from 1 to 30% for concentrations between 1 and 30 ng g(-1). The limits of detection (LOD) for the target analytes are found to be between 18 and 0.033 ng g(-1). PMID:26695261

An effort to optimize gallium-doped germanium photoconductors (Ge:Ga) for use in space for sensitive detection of far infrared radiation in the 100 micron region is described as well as the development of cryogenic apparatus capable of calibrating detectors under low background conditions.

We present a novel method for germanium doping of gallium nitride by in-situ chlorination of solid germanium during the hydride vapour phase epitaxy (HVPE) process. Solid germanium pieces were placed in the doping line with a hydrogen chloride flow directed over them. We deduce a chlorination reaction taking place at 800 ° C , which leads to germanium chloroform (GeHCl3) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4). The reactor shows a germanium rich residue after in-situ chlorination experiments, which can be removed by hydrogen chloride etching. All gallium nitride crystals exhibit n-type conductivity, which shows the validity of the in-situ chlorination of germanium for doping. A complex doping profile is found for each crystal, which was assigned to a combination of localised supply of the dopant and sample rotation during growth and switch-off effects of the HVPE reactor.

Infrared antireflection coatings for silicon and germanium substrates and some of the associated problems are addressed in this thesis. One of the first problems identified and investigated was that of the adhesion of ZnS films to germanium substrates. The cleaning of the Ge discs was evaluated by means of Auger spectroscopy. The main contaminant species found were carbon, oxygen and in the case of germanium substrates sulphur. No sulphur was found on silicon substrates. A wash in a series of organic solutions followed by a bake inside the vacuum chamber lead to much improved though still not acceptable adhesion of ZnS films to germanium substrates. The influence of a contact layer between the substrate and ZnS was investigated. Firstly, metal contact layers (Ni, Cr, Cu) were tried to improve the adhesion of the ZnS films. These samples (germanium-metal-zinc sulphide) were annealed in air in order to transfer the germanium -metal film to a germanide region and thus high optical transmission at long wave-lengths. Slight absorption still results even after the annealing of these samples. A dielectric material, Y_2O_3 , was therefore tested replacing the metal films. The system Ge-Y_2O_3 -ZnS in conjunction with an organic wash and vacuum bake lead to excellent adhesion of the ZnS layers to the germanium substrates. The next problem area addressed was that of a low refractive index material replacement for ThF _4. Four materials were investigated, i.e. ZnS, PbF_2, Y_2O _3 and YF_3. The refractive indices found for these compounds in thin film form at a wavelength of 10 μm is 2,18 for ZnS, 1,7 for PbF_2, 1,42 for Y_2O_3 and 1,3 for YF_3. From these results YF_3 was chosen as low refractive index material in the coating designs. Multi-layer coatings incorporating ZnS, Ge and YF_3 films were designed and evaporated. Measured reflectance values below 0,2% were obtained from 9 μm to 11 mum. These systems were stable and robust. Finally, a silicon ball lens was

Image data are increasingly encountered and are of growing importance in many areas of science. Much of these data are quantitative image data, which are characterized by intensities that represent some measurement of interest in the scanned images. The data typically consist of multiple images on the same domain and the goal of the research is to combine the quantitative information across images to make inference about populations or interventions. In this paper, we present a unified analysis framework for the analysis of quantitative image data using a Bayesian functional mixed model approach. This framework is flexible enough to handle complex, irregular images with many local features, and can model the simultaneous effects of multiple factors on the image intensities and account for the correlation between images induced by the design. We introduce a general isomorphic modeling approach to fitting the functional mixed model, of which the wavelet-based functional mixed model is one special case. With suitable modeling choices, this approach leads to efficient calculations and can result in flexible modeling and adaptive smoothing of the salient features in the data. The proposed method has the following advantages: it can be run automatically, it produces inferential plots indicating which regions of the image are associated with each factor, it simultaneously considers the practical and statistical significance of findings, and it controls the false discovery rate. Although the method we present is general and can be applied to quantitative image data from any application, in this paper we focus on image-based proteomic data. We apply our method to an animal study investigating the effects of opiate addiction on the brain proteome. Our image-based functional mixed model approach finds results that are missed with conventional spot-based analysis approaches. In particular, we find that the significant regions of the image identified by the proposed method

This work concerns the isomorphous substitution of coordination polymers (CPs) and its effect on the optical and electrochemical properties. The application of CPs in electrochemical sensing was studied as well. Isomorphous coordination polymers, [Co{sub x}Zn{sub 1−x}tyr]{sub n} (tyr=L-tyrosine), where x (0–1) was controlled by the Co/Zn ratios of raw materials, were successfully synthesized via a hydrothermal method, as proved by XRD and EDS results. Their UV–vis DRS and fluorescence spectra change gradually along with the composition. Cyclic voltammograms of modified electrodes, [Co{sub x}Zn{sub 1−x}tyr]{sub n}/GCE, show that as more and more Zn replaced Co, the current signal decreases greatly and the potential shifts negatively. Much attention was paid to [Cotyr]{sub n} due to its highest sensitivity. Refreshable modified carbon paste electrode, [Cotyr]{sub n}-CPE, was used to determine nitrite, and showed pretty good performance as evidenced by chronoamperometry. The response was made very fast within mere 5 s. The linear detection range was from 5.00×10{sup −5} to 3.45×10{sup −3} M, with sensitivity of 263.4 mA mol{sup −1} L cm{sup −2}. The detection limit was found to be 2.00×10{sup −5} M. The sensor also showed good antiinterference and reproducibility. - Graphical abstract: Evolution of the optical and electrochemical properties of isomorphic coordination polymers [Co{sub x}Zn{sub 1−x}tyr]{sub n} along with the changing of x was studied. The CP also showed perfect performance in the electrochemical determination of nitrite. - Highlights: • Isomorphous substitution of coordination polymers (CPs). • Substitution-caused evolution of optical and electrochemical properties of CPs. • Application of CPs in electrochemical sensing, an incipient area. • Perfect performance of CPs in electrochemical determination of nitrite.

Earth based experiments on the science of detached crystal growth are being conducted on germanium and germanium-silicon alloys (2at% Si average composition) in preparation for a series of experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS) to differentiate among proposed mechanisms contributing to detachment. Sessile drop measurements were first carried out for a large number of substrates made of potential ampoule materials to determine the contact angles and the surface tension as a function of temperature and composition. The process atmosphere and duration of the experiment (for some cases) were also found to have significant influence on the wetting angle. Growth experiments have used pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) and fused silica ampoules with the majority of the detached results occurring predictably in the pBN. The contact angles were 173 deg (Ge) and 165 deg (GeSi) for pBN. For fused silica, the contact angle decreases to an equilibrium value with duration of measurement ranging from 150 to 117 deg (Ge), 129 to 100 deg (GeSi). Forming gas (Ar + 2% H2) and vacuum have been used in the growth ampoules. With gas in the ampoule, a variation of the temperature profile during growth has been used to control the pressure difference between the top of the melt and the volume below the melt caused by detachment of the growing crystal. The stability of detachment has been modeled and substantial insight has been gained into the reasons that detachment has most often been observed in reduced gravity but nonetheless has occurred randomly even there. An empirical model for the conditions necessary to achieve sufficient stability to maintain detached growth for extended periods has been developed and will be presented. Methods for determining the nature and extent of detachment include profilometry and optical and electron microscopy. This surface study is the subject of another presentation at this Congress. Results in this presentation will show that we have

Nonvolatile memory (NVM) with silicon dioxide/silicon nitride/silicon oxynitride (ONO(n)) charge trap structure is a promising flash memory technology duo that will fulfill process compatibility for system-on-panel displays, down-scaling cell size and low operation voltage. In this research, charge trap flash devices were fabricated with ONO(n) stack gate insulators and an active layer using hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon germanium (nc-SiGe:H) films at a low temperature. In this study, the effect of the interface trap density on the performance of devices, including memory window and retention, was investigated. The electrical characteristics of NVM devices were studied controlling Ge content from 0% to 28% in the nc-SiGe:H channel layer. The optimal Ge content in the channel layer was found to be around 16%. For nc-SiGe:H NVM with 16% Ge content, the memory window was 3.13 V and the retention data exceeded 77% after 10 years under the programming condition of 15 V for 1 msec. This showed that the memory window increased by 42% and the retention increased by 12% compared to the nc-Si:H NVM that does not contain Ge. However, when the Ge content was more than 16%, the memory window and retention property decreased. Finally, this research showed that the Ge content has an effect on the interface trap density and this enabled us to determine the optimal Ge content. PMID:27483856

The demand for germanium in the field of semiconductor, electronics, and optical devices is growing rapidly; however, the resources of germanium are scarce worldwide. As a secondary material, coal fly ash could be further recycled to retrieve germanium. Up to now, the conventional processes to recover germanium have two problems as follows: on the one hand, it is difficult to be satisfactory for its economic and environmental effect; on the other hand, the recovery ratio of germanium is not all that could be desired. In this paper, an environmentally-friendly vacuum reduction metallurgical process (VRMP) was proposed to recover germanium from coal fly ash. The results of the laboratory scale experiments indicated that the appropriate parameters were 1173K and 10Pa with 10wt% coke addition for 40min, and recovery ratio germanium was 93.96%. On the basis of above condition, the pilot scale experiments were utilized to assess the actual effect of VRMP for recovery of germanium with parameter of 1473K, 1-10Pa and heating time 40min, the recovery ratio of germanium reached 94.64%. This process considerably enhances germanium recovery, meanwhile, eliminates much of the water usage and residue secondary pollution compared with other conventional processes. PMID:27015376

The position resolution of the interaction point of a gamma ray within the volume of a planar germanium crystal is under investigation. A 16x16 planar double-sided strip detector of high-purity germanium, measuring 92×92×20 mm, with 16 horizontal strips on one face and 16 vertical strips on the other, is used. Comparing the strongest strip signal from each side of the detector allows for a X-Y pixelation of the gamma ray interaction in the crystal. Energy and efficiency calibrations are performed with standard 152Eu and 133Ba sources placed at fixed distances from the detector face. The measured efficiency of each pixel is compared to calculated geometric efficiencies. Next steps involve the analysis of two-pixel events which pick out Compton scatters within the planar crystal. Results and status report will be presented. Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry and Auger electron spectrometry depth profiling were used to determine impurity distributions in sputter deposited tungsten films over N-type and P-type 80/20 silicon-germanium elements of thermoelectric devices. These analyses showed that silicon, oxygen, sodium, boron, and phosphorous were present as impurities in the tungsten film. All these impurities except oxygen and sodium came from the substrate. Oxygen was gettered by the tungsten films, while sodium was possibly the result of sample handling. Further, the results from this study indicate that an oxide build-up, primarily at the tungsten/silicon-germanium interface of the N-type materials, is the major contributor to contact resistance in thermoelectric devices.

The efficient use of silicon germanium thermoelectric material for radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) is achieved by operation at relatively high temperatures. The insulation technique which is most appropriate for this application uses multiple layers of molybdenum foil and astroquartz. Even so, the long term operation of these materials at elevated temperatures can cause material interaction to occur within the system. To investigate these material interactions, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory is currently testing a number of thermoelectric modules which use four silicon germanium thermoelectric couples in conjunction with the multifoil thermal insulation. The paper discusses the results of the ongoing four-couple module test program and correlates test results with those of a basic material test program.

Germanium is being actively considered by the semiconductor community as a mainstream material for nanoelectronic applications. Germanium has advantageous materials properties; however, its dopant-defect interactions are less understood as compared to the mainstream material, silicon. The understanding of self- and dopant diffusion is essential to form well defined doped regions. Although p-type dopants such as boron exhibit limited diffusion, n-type dopants such as phosphorous, arsenic, and antimony diffuse quickly via vacancy-mediated diffusion mechanisms. In the present review, we mainly focus on the impact of intrinsic defects on the diffusion mechanisms of donor atoms and point defect engineering strategies to restrain donor atom diffusion and to enhance their electrical activation.

The behavior of lattice defects generated as a result of the neutron-transmutation-doping of germanium was studied as a function of annealing conditions using deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and mobility measurements. DLTS and variable temperature Hall effect were also used to measure the activation of dopant impurities formed during the transmutation process. In additioon, a semi-automated method of attaching wires on to small chips of germanium (< 1 mm/sup 3/) for the fabrication of infrared detecting bolometers was developed. Finally, several different types of junction field effect transistors were tested for noise at room and low temperature (approx. 80 K) in order to find the optimum device available for first stage electronics in the bolometer signal amplification circuit.

The driving force behind much of the work in this dissertation was to gain further understanding of the unique olefin to carbene isomerization observed in the thermolysis of 1,1-dimethyl-2-methylenesilacyclobutane by finding new examples of it in other silicon and germanium compounds. This lead to the examination of a novel phenylmethylenesilacyclobut-2-ene, which did not undergo olefin to carbene rearrangement. A synthetic route to methylenegermacyclobutanes was developed, but the methylenegermacyclobutane system exhibited kinetic instability, making the study of the system difficult. In any case the germanium system decomposed through a complex mechanism which may not include olefin to carbene isomerization. However, this work lead to the study of the gas phase thermochemistry of a series of dialkylgermylene precursors in order to better understand the mechanism of the thermal decomposition of dialkylgermylenes. The resulting dialkylgermylenes were found to undergo a reversible intramolecular {beta} C-H insertion mechanism.

Germanium detectors with unprecedented capabilities are needed for detecting ultra-rare events in future neutrinoless double-beta decay experiments, searches for dark matter, environmental monitoring programs, national security applications, and potentially neutrino astrophysics. An ideal detector would combine ultra-low background capabilities, minimal electronic instrumentation, extremely low energy threshold, and the ability to perform event reconstruction to determine the interaction type or the spatial distribution of ionization following an interaction. A germanium detector with a special, very low capacitance, contact geometry and presumably a deliberately contrived impurity profile could provide all these capabilities. We present an analysis of the detector impurity concentration profiles and their impact on the depletion voltage, capacitance and charge collection times for such detectors.

The overall performance of an intrinsic germanium well detector for /sup 125/I measurements was investigated in a program of environmental surveillance. Concentrations of /sup 125/I and /sup 131/I were determined in thyroids of road-killed deer showing the highest activities of /sup 125/I in the animals from the near vicinity of Oak Ridge National Laboratory. This demonstrates the utility of road-killed deer as a bioindicator for radioiodine around nuclear facilities. 6 refs., 2 figs., 3 tabs.

The fundamental structure--property relationship of semiconductor quantum dots has been investigated. For deposited germanium nanocrystals strong quantum confinement effects have been determined with synchrotron radiation based x-ray absorption and photoemission techniques. The nanocrystals are condensed out of the gas phase with a narrow size distribution and subsequently deposited in situ onto various substrates. The particles are crystalline in the cubic phase with a structurally disordered surface shell and the resulting film morphology depends strongly on the substrate material and condition. The disordered surface region has an impact on the overall electronic structure of the particles. In a size-dependent study, the conduction and valence band edge of germanium nanocrystals have been measured for the first time and compared to the bulk crystal. The band edges move to higher energies as the particle size is decreased, consistent with quantum confinement theory. To obtain a more accurate analysis of confinement effects in the empty states, a novel analysis method utilizing an effective particle size for the x-ray absorption experiment, which allows a deconvolution of absorption edge broadening effects, has been introduced. Comparison of the present study to earlier studies on silicon reveals that germanium exhibits stronger quantum confinement effects than silicon. Below a critical particle size of 2.3 {+-} 0.7 nm, the band gap of germanium becomes larger than that of silicon--even if it is the opposite for bulk materials. This result agrees phenomenologically with effective mass and tight binding theories but contradicts the findings of recent pseudopotential calculations. The discrepancy between theory and experiments is attributed to the differences in the theoretical models and experimental systems. The experimentally observed structural disorder of the particle surface has to be included in the theoretical models.

Germanium detectors with reverse polarity coaxial electrodes have been shown to exhibit improved resistance to radiation damage as compared with conventional electrode devices. However, the production of reverse electrode devices involves the development of new handling and fabrication techniques which has limited their wider application. We have developed novel techniques which lead to a device which is simple to fabricate, environmentally passivated and surface state adjusted.

A supercritical fluid-liquid solid (SFLS) nanowire growth process using alkanethiol-coated Au nanoparticles to seed silicon nanowires was developed for synthesizing silicon nanowires in solution. The organic solvent was found to significantly influence the silicon precursor decomposition in solution. 46.8 mg of silicon nanowires with 63% yield of silicon nanowire synthesis were achieved while using benzene as a solvent. The most widely used metal for seeding Si and Ge nanowires is Au. However, Au forms deep trap in both Si and Ge and alternative metal seeds are more desirable for electronic applications. Different metal nanocrystals were studied for Si and Ge nanowire synthesis, including Co, Ni, CuS, Mn, Ir, MnPt 3, Fe2O3, and FePt. All eight metals have eutectic temperatures with Si and Ge that are well above the nanowire growth temperature. Unlike Au nanocrystals, which seed nanowire growth through the formation of a liquid Au:Si (Au:Ge) alloy, these other metals seed nanowires by forming solid silicide alloys, a process we have called "supercritical fluid-solid-solid" (SFSS) growth. Moreover, Co and Ni nanoparticles were found to catalyze the decomposition of various silane reactants that do not work well to make Si nanowires using Au seeds. In addition to seeding solid nanowires, CuS nanoparticles were found to seed silica nanotubes via a SFSS like mechanism. 5% of synthesized silica nanotubes were coiled. Heterostructured nanomaterials are interesting since they merge the properties of the individual materials and can be used in diverse applications. GeTe/Te heterostructures were synthesized by reacting diphenylgermane (DPG) and TOP-Te in the presence of organic surfactants. Aligned Te nanorods were grown on the surface facets of micrometer-size germanium telluride particles.

We have developed germanium detector technologies for use in the Nuclear Compton Telescope (NCT) - a balloon-borne soft γ-ray (0.2-10 MeV) telescope to study astrophysical sources of nuclear line emission and polarization. The heart of NCT is an array of twelve large volume cross strip germanium detectors, designed to provide 3-D positions for each photon interaction with ~1mm resolution while maintaining the high spectral resolution of germanium. Here we discuss the detailed performance of our prototype 19x19 strip detector, including laboratory tests, calibrations, and numerical simulations. In addition to the x and y positions provided by the orthogonal strips, the interaction depth (z-position) in the detector is measured using the relative timing of the anode and cathode charge collection signals. We describe laboratory calibrations of the depth discrimination using collimated sources with different characteristic energies, and compare the measurements to detailed Monte Carlo simulations and charge collection routines tracing electron-hole pairs from the interaction site to the electrodes. We have also investigated the effects of charge sharing and loss between electrodes, and present these in comparison to charge collection simulations. Detailed analysis of strip-to-strip uniformity in both efficiency and spectral resolution are also presented.

The main characterization is the measurement of electrical properties such as carrier concentration, carrier mobility, resistivity of germanium crystal, as well as to identify whether the crystal is n-type or p-type. Van der pauw Hall effect measurement is conducted at room temperature and 77 K separately for measuring electrical properties for shallow level impurities. The results show that the ionized impurity level of crystals grown in our lab has reached about 1010 /cm3. The accumulated data are applied with theoretical analysis. The study of mobility reveals the different scattering mechanisms involved with impurities and lattice vibrations of the crystal. Theoretical calculations have been performed with reasonable parameter assumption and then compared with experimental data. It is found that neutral impurity concentration constrains mobility at 77 K while ionized impurity is within the acceptable range (below 1012/cm3) in germanium crystals. Mobility can increase significantly when neutral impurity concentration is below 1014/cm3. Therefore, a large reduction of neutral impurity is a desirable approach for obtaining larger mobility, which would improve timing response of germanium detectors. Sponsored by Department of Energy- DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the State of South Dakota.

Aluminum and germanium form a simple eutectic system with no stable intermetallic phase, and limited mutual solubility. We report the formation of a metastable rhombohedral,{gamma}{sub 1} phase by mechanically alloying aluminum and germanium powders. This phase, which appears for compositions between 20 and 50 at. % germanium, has also been observed in rapidly quenched alloys, but there is disagreement as to its composition. By measuring the heat of crystallization as a function of composition, we determined the composition of the {gamma}{sub 1} phase to be Al{sub 70}Ge{sub 30}. We also produced Al{sub 70}Ge{sub 30} by arc melting the pure elements, followed by splat-quenching at a cooling rate in the range of 10{sup 8} K s{sup {minus}1}. This method produced two metastable phases, one of which was found to be the {gamma}{sub 1} phase obtained by mechanical alloying. The other was a monoclinic phase reported earlier in the literature as {gamma}{sub 2}.

High-purity germanium crystal growth is challenging work, requiring the control of individual crystal properties such as the impurity distribution, the dislocation density, and the crystalline structure. Currently, we grow high-purity germanium crystals by the Czochralski method in our laboratory in order to understand the details of the growing process, especially for large diameter crystals. In this paper, we report the progress of detector-grade germanium crystal growth at the University of South Dakota.

In recent years Li-batteries have attracted significant interests for a variety of applications such as portable electronics and electric vehicle (EV) batteries due to their high energy densities. Key challenges in advancing the technology lie in specific energy density, the long term cycle properties, and durability at elevated temperature. In present study, we were motivated to prepare high capacity Li-battery by creating regular arrays of germanium nanoparticles (GeNPs, 1600 mAh/g) to replace commercial graphite anode (370 mAh/g). Thermoset polymers were employed to prepare GeNPs/polymer composites with tunable NP loadings and spacings, followed by carbonization process to prepare GeNPs/carbon composite anode material. Due to the large volume change of GeNPs with charge/discharge cycles, the regular arrays of GeNPs are turned out to be a crucial parameter in obtaining enhanced cyclability. The GeNPs/carbon anode materials were cycle tested in a half cell configuration using Lithium foil as a counter electrode and lithium salt doped PS-PEO block copolymers as electrolytes. High capacity and rate capability were achieved, which demonstrate the role of nano-sized and regularly-arrayed anode active materials in obtaining the improved battery performance.

Recently, manifold dynamics has assumed an increasing relevance for analysis and design of low-energy missions, both in the Earth-Moon system and in alternative multibody environments. With regard to lunar missions, exterior and interior transfers, based on the transit through the regions where the collinear libration points L1 and L2 are located, have been studied for a long time and some space missions have already taken advantage of the results of these studies. This paper is focused on the definition and use of a special isomorphic mapping for low-energy mission analysis. A convenient set of cylindrical coordinates is employed to describe the spacecraft dynamics (i.e. position and velocity), in the context of the circular restricted three-body problem, used to model the spacecraft motion in the Earth-Moon system. This isomorphic mapping of trajectories allows the identification and intuitive representation of periodic orbits and of the related invariant manifolds, which correspond to tubes that emanate from the curve associated with the periodic orbit. Heteroclinic connections, i.e. the trajectories that belong to both the stable and the unstable manifolds of two distinct periodic orbits, can be easily detected by means of this representation. This paper illustrates the use of isomorphic mapping for finding (a) periodic orbits, (b) heteroclinic connections between trajectories emanating from two Lyapunov orbits, the first at L1, and the second at L2, and (c) heteroclinic connections between trajectories emanating from the Lyapunov orbit at L1 and from a particular unstable lunar orbit. Heteroclinic trajectories are asymptotic trajectories that travels at zero-propellant cost. In practical situations, a modest delta-v budget is required to perform transfers along the manifolds. This circumstance implies the possibility of performing complex missions, by combining different types of trajectory arcs belonging to the manifolds. This work studies also the possible

We present our investigations into the fabrication of three-dimensional microoptical elements by the direct femtosecond laser writing of a germanium-silicon photosensitive hybrid material. Germanium glass composites are very interesting for optical applications as they are photosensitive, and maintain high optical transparency in the visible and near-infrared bands of the spectrum. Here, we have used a germanium containing hybrid material to make nanophotonic structures and microoptical elements such as photonic crystal templates, prisms and spatial polarization plates, both on flat surfaces and fiber tips. Our results show that this germanium silicate composite is an excellent material for microoptics fabrication.

The sodium electrochemistry of evaporatively deposited tin, germanium, and alloys of the two elements is reported. Limiting the sodium stripping voltage window to 0.75 V versus Na/Na+ improves the stability of the tin and tin-rich compositions on repeated sodiation/desodiation cycles, whereas the germanium and germanium-rich alloys were stable up to 1.5 V. The stability of the electrodes could be correlated to the surface mobility of the alloy species during deposition suggesting that tin must be effectively immobilized in order to be successfully utilized as a stable electrode. While the stability of the alloys is greatly increased by the presence of germanium, the specific Coulombic capacity of the alloy decreases with increasing germanium content due to the lower Coulombic capacity of germanium. Additionally, the presence of germanium in the alloy suppresses the formation of intermediate phases present in the electrochemical sodiation of tin. Four-point probe resistivity measurements of the different compositions show that electrical resistivity increases with germanium content. Pure germanium is the most resistive yet exhibited the best electrochemical performance at high current densities which indicates that electrical resistivity is not rate limiting for any of the tested compositions. PMID:25158125

Germanium nanoparticles (Ge NPs) may be fascinating for their electronic and optoelectronic properties, as the band gap of Ge NPs can be tuned from the infrared into the visible range of solar spectru. Further functionalization of those nanoparticles may potentially lead to numerous applications ranging from surface attachment, bioimaging, drug delivery and nanoparticles based devices. Blue luminescent germanium nanoparticles were synthesized from a novel top-down mechanochemical process using high energy ball milling (HEBM) of bulk germanium. Various reactive organic molecules (such as, alkynes, nitriles, azides) were used in this process to react with fresh surface and passivate the surface through Ge-C or Ge-N bond. Various purification process, such as gel permeation chromatography (GPC), Soxhlet dailysis etc. were introduced to purify nanoparticles from molecular impurities. A size separation technique was developed using GPC. The size separated Ge NPs were characterize by TEM, small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), UV-vis absorption and photoluminescence (PL) emission spectroscopy to investigate their size selective properties. Germanium nanoparticles with alkyne termini group were prepared by HEBM of germanium with a mixture of n-alkynes and alpha, o-diynes. Additional functionalization of those nanoparticles was achieved by copper(I) catalyzed azide-alkyne "click" reaction. A variety of organic and organometallic azides including biologically important glucals have been reacted in this manner resulting in nanopartilces adorned with ferrocenyl, trimethylsilyl, and glucal groups. Additional functionalization of those nanoparticles was achieved by reactions with various azides via a Cu(I) catalyzed azide-alkyne "click" reaction. Various azides, including PEG derivatives and cylcodextrin moiety, were grafted to the initially formed surface. Globular nanoparticle arrays were formed through interparticle linking via "click" chemistry or "host-guest" chemistry

Salt is the last relic of the ocean where life was born. Its presence has influenced the whole gamut of history and its name is linked to hundred of geographical locations. Its importance for nutrition is supported by the discovery of Aeneolithic salt cellars. Salt cellars and pyramids of salt have been included in paintings and other works of art. In Japan where salt was and still is obtained from the sea, a salt culture has developed that can be traced in the rituals of everyday life, including meal preparation, sports, and Shinto ceremonies. PMID:9350697

The vapor-liquid-solid growth process for synthesis of group-IV semiconducting nanowires using silane, germane, disilane and digermane precursor gases has been investigated. The nanowire growth process combines in situ gold seed formation by vapor deposition on atomically clean silicon (111) surfaces, in situ growth from the gaseous precursor(s), and real-time monitoring of nanowire growth as a function of temperature and pressure by a novel optical reflectometry technique. A significant dependence on precursor pressure and growth temperature for the synthesis of silicon and germanium nanowires is observed, depending on the stability of the specific precursor used. Also, the presence of a nucleation time for the onset of nanowire growth has been found using our new in situ optical reflectometry technique. Thermal annealing of the deposited gold seeds prior to nanowire growth is shown to lead to ripening of the gold seeds and the formation of pillars several nanometers in height under the seeds. These pillars are demonstrated to result from the catalytic collection of surface Si adatoms and provide a method to obtain 100% vertical growth of nanowires on Si (111) substrates. The growth of nanowire heterostructures has also been investigated with specific attention paid to the strain induced within these structures. Strain in axial and core-shell Si/Ge nanowire heterostructures provides a unique opportunity for modifying bandstructures of specific nanoscale heterostructures. Specific precursor selection adds an additional control by which we are able to grow specific heterostructures---axial or core-shell. Axial heterowires form more easily by catalyzing silane at the Au eutectic seed, while core-shell heterowires grow more easily by stabilizing lateral growth using disilane or digermane. Strain mapping of nanowires based on geometric phase analysis of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy lattice imaging reveals large strains present in core-shell Si

The discovery of a surprisingly high deuterium/hydrogen ratio on Venus immediately led to the speculation that Venus may have once had a volume of surface water comparable to that of the terrestrial oceans. The authors propose that the evaporation of this putative ocean may have yielded residual salt deposits that formed various terrain features depicted in Venera 15 and 16 radar images. By analogy with models for the total evaporation of the terrestrial oceans, evaporite deposits on Venus should be at least tens to hundreds of meters thick. From photogeologic evidence and in-situ chemical analyses, it appears that the salt plains were later buried by lava flows. On Earth, salt diapirism leads to the formation of salt domes, anticlines, and elongated salt intrusions - features having dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 km. Due to the rapid erosion of salt by water, surface evaporite landforms are only common in dry regions such as the Zagros Mountains of Iran, where salt plugs and glaciers exist. Venus is far drier than Iran; extruded salt should be preserved, although the high surface temperature (470/sup 0/C) would probably stimulate rapid salt flow. Venus possesses a variety of circular landforms, tens to hundreds of kilometers wide, which could be either megasalt domes or salt intrusions colonizing impact craters. Additionally, arcurate bands seen in the Maxwell area of Venus could be salt intrusions formed in a region of tectonic stress. These large structures may not be salt features; nonetheless, salt features should exist on Venus.

... seasonings. Pepper, garlic, herbs, and lemon are good choices. Avoid packaged spice blends. They often contain salt. Use garlic and onion powder, not garlic and onion salt. Do not eat foods with monosodium glutamate (MSG). When you go out ...

A molten salt electrolyte/separator for battery and related electrochemical systems including a molten electrolyte composition and an electrically insulating solid salt dispersed therein, to provide improved performance at higher current densities and alternate designs through ease of fabrication.

The conceptual breakthroughs in understanding salt tectonics can be recognized by reviewing the history of salt tectonics, which divides naturally into three parts: the pioneering era, the fluid era, and the brittle era. The pioneering era (1856-1933) featured the search for a general hypothesis of salt diapirism, initially dominated by bizarre, erroneous notions of igneous activity, residual islands, in situ crystallization, osmotic pressures, and expansive crystallization. Gradually data from oil exploration constrained speculation. The effects of buoyancy versus orogeny were debated, contact relations were characterized, salt glaciers were discovered, and the concepts of downbuilding and differential loading were proposed as diapiric mechanisms. The fluid era (1933-{approximately}1989) was dominated by the view that salt tectonics resulted from Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities in which a dense fluid overburden having negligible yield strength sinks into a less dense fluid salt layer, displacing it upward. Density contrasts, viscosity contrasts, and dominant wavelengths were emphasized, whereas strength and faulting of the overburden were ignored. During this era, palinspastic reconstructions were attempted; salt upwelling below thin overburdens was recognized; internal structures of mined diapirs were discovered; peripheral sinks, turtle structures, and diapir families were comprehended; flow laws for dry salt were formulated; and contractional belts on divergent margins and allochthonous salt sheets were recognized. The 1970s revealed the basic driving force of salt allochthons, intrasalt minibasins, finite strains in diapirs, the possibility of thermal convection in salt, direct measurement of salt glacial flow stimulated by rainfall, and the internal structure of convecting evaporites and salt glaciers. The 1980`s revealed salt rollers, subtle traps, flow laws for damp salt, salt canopies, and mushroom diapirs.

Mariner 9 photographs of Mars indicate that significant erosion has occurred on that planet. Although several possible erosion mechanisms have been proposed, most terrestrial weathering mechanisms cannot function in the present Martian environment. Salt weathering, believed to be active in the Antarctic dry valleys, is especially suited to Mars, given the presence of salts and small amounts of water. Volcanic salts are probably available, and the association of salts and water is likely from both thermodynamic and geologic considerations.

Variable-temperature cryostats developed to study radiation damage to, and annealing of, germanium gamma-ray detectors. Two styles: one accommodates large single detector and one accommodates two medium-sized detectors. New cryostats allow complete testing of large-volume germanium gamma-ray detectors without breaking cryostat vacuum and removing detectors for annealing.

Graphene nanoribbon arrays, methods of growing graphene nanoribbon arrays and electronic and photonic devices incorporating the graphene nanoribbon arrays are provided. The graphene nanoribbons in the arrays are formed using a scalable, bottom-up, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique in which the (001) facet of the germanium is used to orient the graphene nanoribbon crystals along the [110] directions of the germanium.

Graphical abstract: Catenated germanium compounds are employed as molecular precursors for germanium(0) nanoparticles. The size of the nanoparticles, and their fluorescence spectra, depend on the number of catenated germanium atoms present in the precursor. - Highlights: • We have used oligogermanes for the size-specific synthesis of germanium(0) nanoparticles. • The size of the nanomaterials obtained depends directly on the degree of catenation present in the oligogermane precursor. • The nanoparticles are shown to exhibit size-dependent fluorescence. • Oligogermanes will function as useful precursors for the synthesis of a variety of nanomaterials. - Abstract: Germanium nanoparticles were synthesized in solution from novel oligogermane molecular precursors. The size of the nanoparticles obtained is directly related to the number of catenated germanium atoms present in the oligogermane precursor and the nanoparticles exhibit size-dependent fluorescence. The germanium nanoparticles were also characterized by TEM, powder XRD, FTIR, EDS and XPS methods. This method appears to be a promising new route for the synthesis of germanium nanoparticles since the size of the materials obtained can be controlled by the choice of the oligogermane used as the precursor.

This paper investigates the heterogeneity of crystals of n- and p-type conductivity with a carrier concentration above 1014 cm-/sup 3/ at 77 K, that are doped with tellurium, germanium, cadmium, and silicon. Cadmium is the weak acceptor, whereas germanium and silicon show amphoteric properties, being located mainly at the sublattice points of the Group V element.

A technique has been developed for patterning thin metallic films that are, in turn, used to fabricate microelectronics circuitry and thin-film sensors. The technique uses germanium thin films as lift-off masks. This requires development of a technique to strip or undercut the germanium chemically without affecting the deposited metal. Unlike in the case of conventional polymeric lift-off masks, the substrate can be exposed to very high temperatures during processing (sputter deposition). The reason why polymeric liftoff masks cannot be exposed to very high temperatures (greater than 100 C) is because (a) they can become cross linked, making lift-off very difficult if not impossible, and (b) they can outgas nitrogen and oxygen, which then can react with the metal being deposited. Consequently, this innovation is expected to find use in the fabrication of transition edge sensors and microwave kinetic inductance detectors, which use thin superconducting films deposited at high temperature as their sensing elements. Transition edge sensors, microwave kinetic inductance detectors, and their circuitry are comprised of superconducting thin films, for example Nb and TiN. Reactive ion etching can be used to pattern these films; however, reactive ion etching also damages the underlying substrate, which is unwanted in many instances. Polymeric lift-off techniques permit thin-film patterning without any substrate damage, but they are difficult to remove and the polymer can outgas during thin-film deposition. The outgassed material can then react with the film with the consequence of altered and non-reproducible materials properties, which, in turn, is deleterious for sensors and their circuitry. The purpose of this innovation was to fabricate a germanium lift-off mask to be used for patterning thin metal films.

Silicon and germanium are perhaps the two most well-understood semiconductor materials in the context of solid state device technologies and more recently micromachining and nanotechnology. Meanwhile, these two materials are also important in the field of infrared lens design. Optical instruments designed for the wavelength range where these two materials are transmissive achieve best performance when cooled to cryogenic temperatures to enhance signal from the scene over instrument background radiation. In order to enable high quality lens designs using silicon and germanium at cryogenic temperatures, we have measured the absolute refractive index of multiple prisms of these two materials using the Cryogenic, High-Accuracy Refraction Measuring System (CHARMS) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, as a function of both wavelength and temperature. For silicon, we report absolute refractive index and thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) at temperatures ranging from 20 to 300 K at wavelengths from 1.1 to 5.6 pin, while for germanium, we cover temperatures ranging from 20 to 300 K and wavelengths from 1.9 to 5.5 microns. We compare our measurements with others in the literature and provide temperature-dependent Sellmeier coefficients based on our data to allow accurate interpolation of index to other wavelengths and temperatures. Citing the wide variety of values for the refractive indices of these two materials found in the literature, we reiterate the importance of measuring the refractive index of a sample from the same batch of raw material from which final optical components are cut when absolute accuracy greater than k5 x 10" is desired.

A double acceptor binding three holes has been observed for the first time with photoconductive far-infrared spectroscopy in beryllium-doped germanium single crystals. This new center, Be(+), has a hole binding energy of about 5 meV and is only present when free holes are generated by ionization of either neutral shallow acceptors or neutral Be double acceptors. The Be(+) center thermally ionizes above 4 K. It disappears at a uniaxial stress higher than about a billion dyn/sq cm parallel to (111) as a result of the lifting of the valence-band degeneracy.

We present results on quasidiffusion studies in large, 3 inch diameter, 1 inch thick [100] high purity germanium crystals, cooled to 50 mK in the vacuum of a dilution refrigerator, and exposed with 59.5 keV gamma-rays from an Am-241 calibration source. We compare data obtained in two different detector types, with different phonon sensor area coverage, with results from a Monte Carlo. The Monte Carlo includes phonon quasidiffusion and the generation of phonons created by charge carriers as they are drifted across the detector by ionization readout channels.

Germanium nanowires (NWs) were grown onto Ge(111) substrates by the vapor-liquid-solid process using gold droplets. The growth was carried out in a molecular beam epitaxy chamber at substrate temperatures between 370 Degree-Sign C and 510 Degree-Sign C. The resulting nanowire growth rate turns out to be highly dependent on the substrate temperature exhibiting the maximum at T = 430 Degree-Sign C. The temperature dependence of growth rate can be attributed to surface diffusion both along the substrate and nanowire sidewalls. Analyzing the diffusive material transport yields a diffusion length of 126 nm at a substrate temperature of 430 Degree-Sign C.

To improve the processes employed for preparing single crystals with fixed electrophysical properties it is necessary to have information about the coefficients of diffusion of the impurities present in the melts. In this paper data on the diffusion of Fe, Co, and Ni in liquid germanium, starting from its melting point up to 1380/degree/K, are presented. The coefficients of diffusion of Fe, Co, and Ni in liquid Ge were determined by the capillary method. It was established that the change in the structure of liquid helium as a function of the temperature is responsible for the characteristic features of diffusion in the systems studied.

Low capacitance, large volume, high purity germanium (HPGe) radiation detectors have been successfully employed in low-background physics experiments. However, some physical processes may not be detectable with existing detectors whose energy thresholds are limited by electronic noise. In this paper, methods are presented which can lower the electronic noise of these detectors. Through ultra-low vibration mechanical cooling and wire bonding of a CMOS charge sensitive preamplifier to a sub-pF p-type point contact HPGe detector, we demonstrate electronic noise levels below 40 eV-FWHM.

We present an investigation of contact properties of a germanium (Ge) nanowire based nanoelectromechanical (NEM) switch in its ON state. The contact stiffness in the ON state was evaluated by detecting the nanowire’s resonance frequency. It was found that the resonance frequency increases when electric current flows through the nanowire/counter electrode contact area. The reason for modification in the contact area is referred to as electric-current-induced processes in the native oxide layer covering the nanowires. The presented resonance shift method is a simple way to indicate strengthening of the nanowire/counter electrode contact area without disassembling the contact.

We present an investigation of contact properties of a germanium (Ge) nanowire based nanoelectromechanical (NEM) switch in its ON state. The contact stiffness in the ON state was evaluated by detecting the nanowire's resonance frequency. It was found that the resonance frequency increases when electric current flows through the nanowire/counter electrode contact area. The reason for modification in the contact area is referred to as electric-current-induced processes in the native oxide layer covering the nanowires. The presented resonance shift method is a simple way to indicate strengthening of the nanowire/counter electrode contact area without disassembling the contact. PMID:25902759

The authors study the Au-catalyzed chemical vapor growth of germanium (Ge) nanowires in the presence of phosphine (PH3), used as a dopant precursor. The device characteristics of the ensuing nanowire field effect transistors (FETs) indicate n-type, highly doped nanowires. Using a combination of different nanowire growth sequences and their FET characteristics, the authors determine that phosphorus incorporates predominately via the conformal growth, which accompanies the acicular, nanowire growth. As such, the Ge nanowires grown in the presence of PH3 contain a phosphorus doped shell and an undoped core. The authors determine the doping level in the shell to be ≃(1-4)×1019cm-3.

A photodiode with 0.55 ± 0.1 A/W responsivity at a wavelength of 1176.9 nm has been fabricated in a 45 nm microelectronics silicon-on-insulator foundry process. The resonant waveguide photodetector exploits carrier generation in silicon-germanium within a microring which is compatible with high-performance electronics. A 3 dB bandwidth of 5 GHz at -4 V bias is obtained with a dark current of less than 20 pA.

This study on the effect of different concentrations of germanium dioxide (GeO2) on the specific growth rate (SGR), pigment contents, protein content and amino acid composition of Spirulina platensis showed that Ge was not the essential element of this alga; that GeO2 could speed up growth and raise protein content of S. platensis, and could possibly influence the photosynthesis system. The concentration range of GeO2 beneficial to growth of S. platensis is from 5 100mg/l. GeO2 is proposed to be utilized to remove contamination by Chlorella spp. usually occurring in the cultivation of Spirulina.

This letter reports a synthetic route adaptable for the continuous, large-scale production of germanium (Ge) nanocrystals for emerging electronic and optoelectronic applications. Using an ultrasonic aerosol pyrolysis approach, diamond cubic Ge nanocrystals with dense, spherical morphologies and sizes ranging from 3to14nm are synthesized at 700°C from an ultrasonically generated aerosol of tetrapropylgermane (TPG) precursor and toluene solvent. The ultimate crystal size demonstrates a near linear relationship within the range of TPG concentrations investigated, while the shape of the measured size distributions predicts multiple particle formation mechanisms during aerosol decomposition and condensation.

Research has been continued on hot silicon, germanium and carbon atoms. The results of experiments directed toward attaining the goals of this research program are briefly presented for the period September 1, 1987 to January 31, 1989 in sections entitled: (1) The mechanism of hydrogen acquisition by high energy silicon atoms. (2) The mechanism of disilene formation in the reactions of recoiling silicon atoms with silane. (3) The contribution of ionic processes to the primary reactions of recoiling silicon atoms. (4) The role of phosphine in hydrogen acquisition by recoiling silicon atoms. (5) Mechanism of reaction of recoiling carbon atoms with aromatic molecules.

We have observed a stress-induced decrease of over ten orders of magnitude in the low-temperature electrical resistivity of copper- doped germanium single crystals. The application of large uniaxial stresses in a <001> direction leas to a change in the copper ground- state wavefunction from the highly localized (1s){sup 3} to the much more extended (1s){sup 2}(2s){sup 1} configuration. We attribute the decrease in the resistivity to impurity band conduction by the 2s - holes of the high pressure configuration.

Germanium nanomaterials have many potential applications based on their size-tunable optical and electronic properties, for example in photodetectors, photovoltaics and non-volatile memory. In this work, the synthesis of Ge nanoparticles by two different methods based on tailorability through the substituent chemistry of the Ge precursors is explored. In Chapter Two, the effect of the organic substituent upon thermal decomposition of organogermanium oxides (RGeO1.5)n to yield oxide-embedded germanium nanocrystals (Ge-NCs) is investigated. Substituents with stable radical formation or the presence of beta-hydrogen are found to facilitate NC formation at lower temperatures. Lower temperature limits germanium production to a pathway based on disproportionation only, and not -- as previously -- also on hydrogen reduction of germanium oxides. The organic substituent also introduces tailorability of organogermanium oxide properties, such as melting points. For R = n-butyl, benzyl, these are lowered below the disproportionation temperature, yielding melts containing Ge-NCs. The knowledge gained in the substituent study is applied to solution synthesis of Ge-NCs in Chapter Three. The n-butyl substituent, which formed Ge-NC from (nBuGeO1.5)n at 300 °C, can eliminate by radical and beta-hydride elimination pathways. In the molecular compounds nBuxGeH4-x (x = 1-4), reductive elimination also becomes possible. We propose this leads to the decrease in decomposition temperature of nBu xGeH4-x from x = 4 to x = 1. In the second section of this thesis, Chapter Four, the catalytic activity of metal-decorated iron/iron-oxide core-shell nanoparticles (M/Fe Fe xOy) in Heck and Suzuki couplings is investigated. Electroless deposition of noble metals on Fe FexOy generates the catalyst. The catalytic activity of Pd/Fe FexOy is improved over standard heterogeneous catalysts (e.g., Pd/C) in Heck coupling of styrene and bromobenzene. Leaching studies in Suzuki coupling of bromobenzene with

Using high-resolution far-infrared Fourier transform absorption spectroscopy and Hall effect measurements, the evolution of the shallow acceptor and donor impurity levels in germanium during and after the neutron transmutation doping process was studied. The results show unambiguously that the gallium acceptor level concentration equals the concentration of transmutated Ge-70 atoms during the whole process indicating that neither recoil during transmutation nor gallium-defect complex formation play significant roles. The arsenic donor levels appear at full concentration only after annealing for 1 h at 450 C. It is shown that this is due to donor-radiation-defect complex formation. Again, recoil does not play a significant role.

We report on the development of Germanium-on-SOI waveguides for mid-infrared wavelengths. The strip waveguides have been formed in 0.85 and 2 μm thick Ge grown on SOI substrate with 220 nm thick Si overlayer. The propagation loss for various waveguide widths has been measured using the Fabry-Perot method with temperature tuning. The minimum loss of ~8 dB/cm has been achieved for 0.85 μm thick Ge core using 3.682 μm laser excitation. The transparency of these waveguides has been measured up to at least 3.82 μm. PMID:27410120

We report preliminary results of a study of the activation volume for diffusion of arsenic in germanium. High-temperature high-pressure anneals were performed in a liquid argon pressure medium in a diamond anvil cell capable of reaching 5 GPa and 750 C,l which is externally heated for uniform and repeatable temperature profiles. Broadening of an ion-implanted arsenic profile was measured by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry. Hydrostatic pressure retards the diffusivity at 575 C, characterized by an activation volume that is +15% of the atomic volume of Ge. Implications for diffusion mechanisms are discussed.

Gallium-doped germanium far infrared detectors were evaluated at low temperatures and low background simulating the space environment. Signal and noise characteristics were determined for detector temperatures in the 2K to 4K range. Optimum performance occurs at about 2.5K for all devices tested. The minimum average NEP in the 40-130 micron region was found to be approximately 4 x 10 to the minus 17th power watt Hz(-1/2) at a frequency of 1 Hz.

In this paper, we present the results of a study on the effects of exogenous antioxidant germanium (Ge) on seed germination and seedling growth, and its role as a radical scavenger that regulates related enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT), under salt stress. Seeds were incubated in 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 mM NaCl to determine the salt tolerance of the Lycium ruthenicum Murr seedlings and from the results, the critical and ultimate salt concentrations were chosen for the next experiment. Subsequently, two treatments (seeds soaked in Ge and Ge added to salt) with four concentrations of GeO2 (0, 5, 10 and 20 μM) were used with the critical (150 mM) and ultimate salt concentrations (250 mM). The results demonstrated that salt alone inhibited seed germination significantly (≥150 mM) and reduced seedling growth (≥200 mM). The addition of exogenous Ge to the salt solution, as well as soaking the seeds in Ge, attenuated the salt stress effects in a manner dependent on the dose of Ge, as indicated by the increased percentage of seeds that germinated and improved seedling growth. The addition of Ge also showed a significant reversal of salt stress on the activities of antioxidant enzymes, with a decrease in SOD and POD activity, but an increase in CAT activity with 150 mM NaCl, and enhancement of SOD, POD and CAT with 250 mM NaCl. Correspondingly, the level of malondialdehyde was decreased significantly by each Ge treatment under salt stress. Further, for L. ruthenicum, adding 10 Ge and seeds soaked in 5 Ge were the most effective treatments. To our knowledge, this is the first report to show the protective effects of exogenous Ge against salt-induced oxidative damage in L. ruthenicum seed germination and seedling growth. Thus, L. ruthenicum can be used in areas with salty soil and Ge can promote the plants' salt tolerance. PMID:26360466

We fabricate a suspended germanium cross-shaped microstructure to biaxially enhance residual tensile strain using a germanium epilayer directly grown on a silicon-on-insulator substrate. Such a suspended germanium system with enhanced biaxial tensile strain will be a promising platform for incorporating optical cavities toward the realization of germanium lasers. We demonstrate systematic control over biaxial tensile strain and photoluminescence peaks by changing structural geometry. The photoluminescence peaks corresponding to the direct recombination between the conduction Γ valley and two strain-induced separated valence bands have been clearly assigned. A maximum biaxial strain of 0.8% has been achieved, which is almost half of that required to transform germanium into a direct band-gap semiconductor.

A silicon-compatible light source is the final missing piece for completing high-speed, low-power on-chip optical interconnects. In this paper, we present a germanium nanowire light emitter that encompasses all the aspects of potential low-threshold lasers: highly strained germanium gain medium, strain-induced pseudoheterostructure, and high-Q nanophotonic cavity. Our nanowire structure presents greatly enhanced photoluminescence into cavity modes with measured quality factors of up to 2000. By varying the dimensions of the germanium nanowire, we tune the emission wavelength over more than 400 nm with a single lithography step. We find reduced optical loss in optical cavities formed with germanium under high (>2.3%) tensile strain. Our compact, high-strain cavities open up new possibilities for low-threshold germanium-based lasers for on-chip optical interconnects. PMID:26907359

We present a novel process for integrating germanium with silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers. Germanium is implanted into SOI which is then oxidized, trapping the germanium between the two oxide layers (the grown oxide and the buried oxide). With careful control of the implantation and oxidation conditions this process creates a thin layer (current experiments indicate up to 20-30nm) of almost pure germanium. The layer can be used potentially for fabrication of integrated photo-detectors sensitive to infrared wavelengths, or may serve as a seed for further germanium growth. Results are presented from electron microscopy and Rutherford back-scattering analysis, as well as preliminary modelling using an analytical description of the process.

Binding of alginate from Macrocystis pyrifera (kelp) to germanium and polystyrene substrata conditioned with mussel adhesive protein (MAP) from Mytilis edulis, to germanium substrata conditioned with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and polylysine, and to germanium substrata coated with aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS) was investigated using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. Binding of alginate to MAP appears to be proportional to surface coverage for levels tested. Distinct spectral features appear in the region associated with pyranose ring vibrations upon binding of alginate to MAP, polylysine, and APS, indicating that lysine residues play a prominent role in promoting irreversible adsorption with perturbation of pyranose ring atoms. BSA does not appear to enhance alginate adsorption over that observed on clean germanium and no new spectral features appear as a result of binding. The level of irreversible binding of alginate to germanium and polystyrene substrata conditioned with MAP is similar.

The evolution of mechanical stresses during the cycling of lithium phosphorous oxynitride (LiPON) coated germanium thin film electrodes was monitored using substrate curvature measurements. By coating germanium thin films with LiPON, morphology evolution, e.g. crack and island formation, can be strongly suppressed. LiPON-coated germanium thin film electrodes can retain their planar form during cycling, resulting in a clear and reproducible stress response originating primarily from the electrochemical processes occurring during lithiation and delithiation. Together with the electrochemical data, stress measurements were used to infer mechanisms underlying the alloying of lithium with germanium. The stress signatures associated with individual phases, crystallization, and amorphization of lithium-germanium alloys are reported and discussed.

Adhesion and friction studies were conducted with thin films of the group IV elements silicon, germanium, tin, and lead ion plated on the nickel (011) substrate. The mating surface was gold (111). Contacts were made for the elements in the clean state and with oxygen present. Adhesion and friction experiments were conducted at very light loads of 1 to 10 g. Sliding was at a speed of 0.7 mm/min. Friction results indicate that the more covalently bonded elements silicon and germanium exhibit lower adhesion and friction than the more metallic bonded tin and lead. The adhesion of gold to germanium was observed, and recrystallization of the transferred gold occurred. Plastic flow of germanium was seen with sliding. Oxygen reduced, but did not eliminate, the adhesion observed with germanium and silicon.

A series of Ge(1-x)Si(x) crystal growth experiments are planned to be conducted in the Low Gradient Furnace (LGF) onboard the International Space Station. The experiments are part of the investigation "Influence of Containment on the Growth of Silicon-Germanium" (ICESAGE). The primary objective of the research is to determine the influence of containment on the processing-induced defects and impurity incorporation in germanium-silicon alloy crystals. A comparison will be made between crystals grown by the normal and "detached" Bridgman methods and the ground-based float zone technique. Crystals grown without being in contact with a container have superior quality to otherwise similar crystals grown in direct contact with a container, especially with respect to impurity incorporation, formation of dislocations, and residual stress in crystals. "Detached" or "dewetted" Bridgman growth is similar to regular Bridgman growth in that most of the melt is in contact with the crucible wall, but the crystal is separated from the wall by a small gap, typically of the order of 10-100 microns. Long duration reduced gravity is essential to test the proposed theory of detached growth. Detached growth requires the establishment of a meniscus between the crystal and the ampoule wall. This meniscus can exist over a much larger range of processing parameters in microgravity and the meniscus is more stable under microgravity conditions. The plans for the flight experiments will be described.

A borehole sonde (~1.7 m long; 7.3 cm diameter) using a 200 mm2 planar intrinsic germanium detector, mounted in a cryostat cooled by removable canisters of frozen propane, has been constructed and tested. The sonde is especially useful in measuring X- and low-energy gamma-ray spectra (40–400 keV). Laboratory tests in an artificial borehole facility indicate its potential for in-situ uranium analyses in boreholes irrespective of the state of equilibrium in the uranium series. Both natural gamma-ray and neutron-activation gamma-ray spectra have been measured with the sonde. Although the neutron-activation technique yields greater sensitivity, improvements being made in the resolution and efficiency of intrinsic germanium detectors suggest that it will soon be possible to use a similar sonde in the passive mode for measurement of uranium in a borehole down to about 0.1% with acceptable accuracy. Using a similar detector and neutron activation, the sonde can be used to measure uranium down to 0.01%.

Electrical properties of neutron-transmutation-doped germanium (NTD Ge) and nearly uncompensated gallium-doped germanium have been measured as functions of net-impurity concentration (2 x 10/sup 15/cm/sup -3/ less than or equal to N/sub A/ - N/sub D/ less than or equal to 5 x 10/sup 16/cm/sup -3/) and temperature (0.3 K less than or equal to T less than or equal to 300 K). The method of impurity conduction as a function of carrier concentration and compensation was investigated in the low temperature hopping regime. For nearest neighbor hopping, the resistivity is expected to vary as rho = rho/sub 0/exp(..delta../T) while Mott's theory of variable range hopping predicts that rho = rho/sub 0/exp(..delta../T)/sup 1/4/ in the low temperature limit. In contrast, our results show that the resistivity can best be approximated by rho = rho/sub 0/exp(..delta../T)/sup 1/2/ in the hopping regime down to 0.3 K.

LLNL has successfully fabricated small (1.5 cm{sup 2} area) germanium immersion gratings. We studied the feasibility of producing a large germanium immersion grating by means of single point diamond flycutting. Our baseline design is a 63.4o blaze echelle with a 6 cm beam diameter. Birefringence and refractive index inhomogeneity due to stresses produced by the crystal growth process are of concern. Careful selection of the grating blank and possibly additional annealing to relieve stress will be required. The Large Optics Diamond Turning Machine (LODTM) at LLNL is a good choice for the fabrication. It can handle parts up to 1.5 meter in diameter and 0.5 meter in length and is capable of a surface figure accuracy of better than 28 nm rms. We will describe the machine modifications and the machining process for a large grating. A next generation machine, the Precision Optical Grinder and Lathe (POGAL), currently under development has tighter specifications and could produce large gratings with higher precision.

LLNL has successfully fabricated small (1.5 cm2 area) germanium immersion gratings. We studied the feasibility of producing a large germanium immersion grating by means of single point diamond flycutting. Our baseline design is a 63.4° blaze echelle with a 6 cm beam diameter. Birefringence and refractive index inhomogeneity due to stresses produced by the crystal growth process are of concern. Careful selection of the grating blank and possibly additional annealing to relieve stress will be required. The Large Optics Diamond Turning Machine (LODTM) at LLNL is a good choice for the fabrication. It can handle parts up to 1.5 meter in diameter and 0.5 meter in length and is capable of a surface figure accuracy of better than 28 nm rms. We will describe the machine modifications and the machining process for a large grating. A next generation machine, the Precision Optical Grinder and Lathe (POGAL), currently under development has tighter specifications and could produce large gratings with higher precision.

New technologies for making gamma ray detectors position sensitive have many applications in space science, medical imaging, homeland security, and in nuclear structure research. One promising approach uses high-purity germanium wafers with the planar surfaces segmented into orthogonal strip patterns forming a Double-Sided Strip Detector (DSSD). The combination of data from adjoining strips, or pixels, is physics-rich for Compton image formation and polarization studies. However, sensitivity to charge loss and various kinds of cross-talk [1] have limited the usefulness of first generation devices. We are investigating new contact technologies, developed by PhDs Co [2], based on amorphous-germanium and yttrium contacts RF sputter deposited to a thickness of ˜ 1000 å. New techniques allow both physical and photolithographic segmentation of the contacts with inter-strip gap widths of 0.25 mm. These modifications should improve all aspects of charge collection. The new detector technology employs the same material and fabrication technique for both the n- and p- contacts, thus removing artificial asymmetry in the data. Results from tests of cross-talk, charge collection, and scattering asymmetry will be presented and compared with older technologies. This mechanically cooled counter, NP-7, seems to represent a breakthrough.[4pt] [1] S. Gros et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A 602, 467 (2009).[0pt] [2] E. Hull et al Nucl Inst Meth A 626, 39 (2011)

The new generation experiments to search for the neutrinoless double beta decay of 76Ge (Q{beta}{beta}=2039keV) using enriched germanium detectors, need to reach a background level of {approx}10-3 c keV-1 kg-1 y-1 in the Region of Interest (RoI: 2-2.1 MeV) that would have, for 70 kg of germanium enriched to 86% in 76Ge, 3 keV of FWHM and 5 years of measuring time, a sensitivity on the effective neutrino mass of {<=} 40 meV. To reduce the background level close to the value needed, we have to combine several techniques. Three of the most important points to study are: segmentation and granularity of the crystal and spatial resolution of the detector directly correlated with an offline Pulse Shape Analysis (PSA). Preliminary studies about these strategies for background reduction were developed during last months, obtaining some promising results.

This report describes progress on the construction of two ultra-low-background cryostats that are part of the NA-22 funded “Radionuclide Laboratories” (RN Labs) project. Each cryostat will house seven high-purity germanium crystals (HPGe). These cryostats are being built from a limited set of materials that are known to have very low levels of radioactive impurities. The RN Labs instrument is designed to take advantage of low background performance, high detection efficiency, and γ-γ coincidence signatures to provide unprecedented gamma spectroscopy sensitivity. The project is focused on improving gamma analysis capabilities for nuclear detonation detection (NDD) applications. The instrument also has the potential for basic nuclear physics research. Section 1 provides the background for the project. Section 2 discusses germanium crystal acceptance testing. Design problems were found after the first delivery of new detectors from the vendor, Canberra Semiconductors. The first four crystals were returned for repair, resulting in a delay in crystal procurement. Section 3 provides an update on copper electroforming. In general, electroforming parts for RN Labs has proceeded smoothly, but there have been recent problems in electroforming three large copper parts necessary for the project. Section 4 describes the first round of testing for the instrument: anti-cosmic scintillator testing, electronics testing, and initial vacuum testing. Section 5 concludes with an overall description of the state of the project and challenges that remain.

A description of the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) detector Monte Carlo (MC) is given along with a comparison to calibration data obtained in 3" diameter, 1" thick [100] germanium crystals. Prompt phonons are generated from electron-recoil interactions along with Luke phonons created by charges as they drift through the crystal via our ionization channels' electric field. The MC phonon transport is described by quasidiffusion, which includes anisotropic propagation, isotope scattering and anharmonic decay, until the phonons are absorbed in either the Transition Edge Sensor based phonon channels or lost in surface interactions. Charge creation is a powerful discriminator for electron-recoil and nuclear-recoil events and also surface interaction rejection. Unlike holes, electrons transports obliquely to the electric field in our detectors due to the germanium [100] crystal orientation and the indirect semiconductor band structure. We are improving the agreement between MC and calibration data in different detector designs, which provides a powerful consistency test of our phonon and charge models. )

The control of phosphorus (P) diffusion in germanium (Ge) is essential for the realisation of ultrashallow n-type junctions in Ge. This work reports a detailed study of the effect of fluorine (F) co-implantation on P diffusion in Ge. P and F profiles were characterized by secondary ion mass spectroscopy. The ion implantation damage was investigated using cross sectional transmission electron microscopy. It is shown that F co-implantation reduces the implanted P profile width and reduces both intrinsic and extrinsic P diffusion in Ge. A defect mediated mechanism for the strong influence of F co-implantation on P diffusion in Ge is proposed and invokes the formation of F{sub n}V{sub m} clusters in the F-amorphized Ge layer. A fraction of these F{sub n}V{sub m} clusters decorate the interstitial type end-of-range defects in the re-grown Ge layer and the rest react during re-growth with interstitial germanium atoms diffusing back from the amorphous crystalline interface. The Ge vacancies are then annihilated and mobile interstitial F is released and out diffuses from the surface. This results in a re-grown Ge layer which has a low vacancy concentration and in which the P diffusion rate is reduced. These results open the way to the realization of enhanced Ge n-type devices.

Magmatic and non-magmatic iron meteorites are thought to be formed respectively by processes of metal- silicate segregation, and complex impacts on undifferentiated parent bodies. These processes are inferred from variations of siderophile element concentrations, such as Ge, Ni, Ir. Germanium is moderately siderophile, with metal-silicate partition coefficients which depend on oxygen fugacity. Germanium is also moderately volatile, and fractionation would be expected during high temperature processes. In order to investigate the extent of elemental and isotopic fractionation of germanium during metal-silicate equilibria and impact processes, we use a double approach including (1) Ge isotopic measurements of iron meteorites from non-magmatic and magmatic groups [1], and (2) experimental investigations of the isotopic fractionation associated with germanium transfer from an oxidized silicate liquid to a metallic phase under various fO2 conditions. Experiments were performed in a 1 atm vertical drop quench furnace, with starting materials corresponding to a glass of 1 bar An-Di euctectic composition doped with ˜ 4,000 ppm reference Ge standard, and pure Ni capsules as the metal phase. The assembly was heated at 1355°C for t =2 to 60 hrs over a range of fO2 from 4 log units below, to 2.5 log units above, the IW buffer. Metal and silicate phases were then mechanically separated. For isotopic measurements, the metal phase of these experiments and the selected iron meteorites were dissolved in high-purity dilute nitric acid. Chemical purification of Ge, and isotopic measurements using the Isoprobe MC-ICPMS follow Luais (2007). Germanium isotopic measurements of Fe-meteorites show that δ74Ge of magmatic irons are constant (δ74Ge=+1.77±0.22‰, 2σ), but heavier than non-magmatic irons (IAB : +1.15±0.2‰; IIE : -0.27 to +1.40±0.2‰). Time series experiments at the IW buffer show that there is a clear continuous increase in δ 74Ge in the metal as a function of time

The Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) has seen great changes in the last years following the beginning of full time science operations in 2011. The three first generation instruments, namely the SALTICAM imager, the Robert Stobie Spectrograph (RSS) and its multiple modes and finally in 2014, the new High Resolution Spectrograph (HRS), have commissioned it. The SALT community now eagerly anticipate the installation and commissioning of the near-infrared arm of RSS, likely to commence in 2016. The the third "Science with SALT" conference was held at the Stellenbosch Institute of Advanced Study from 1-5 June 2015. The goals of this conference were to: -Present and discuss recent results from SALT observations; -Anticipate scientific programs that will be carried out with new SALT instrumentation such as RSS-NIR; -Provide a scientific environment in which to foster inter-institutional and inter-facility collaborations between scientists at the different SALT partners; -Provide an opportunity for students and postdocs to become more engaged in SALT science and operations; -Encourage the scientific strategic planning that will be necessary to insure an important role for SALT in an era of large astronomical facilities in the southern hemisphere such as MeerKAT, the SKA, LSST, and ALMA; -Consider options for future instrumentation and technical development of SALT; and, -Present, discuss, and engage in the SALT Collateral Benefits program led by SAAO. Conference proceedings editors: David Buckley and Anja Schroeder

Germanium ion implantation was investigated for crystallinity enhancement during solid phase epitaxial regrowth (SPE) using high current implantation equipment. Electron back-scatter diffraction(EBSD) measurement showed numerical increase of 19 percent of <100> signal, which might be due to pre-amorphization effect on silicon layer deposited by LPCVD process with germanium ion implantation. On the other hand, electrical property such as off-leakage current of NMOS transistor degraded in specific regions of wafers, which implied non-uniform distribution of donor-type impurities into channel area. It was confirmed that arsenic atoms were incorporated into silicon layer during germanium ion implantation. Since the equipment for germanium pre-amorphization implantation(PAI) was using several source gases such as BF3 and AsH3, atomic mass unit(AMU) contamination during PAI of germanium with AMU 74 caused the incorporation of arsenic with AMU 75 which resided in arc-chamber and other parts of the equipment. It was effective to use germanium isotope of AMU 72 to suppress AMU contamination, however it led serious reduction of productivity because of decrease in beam current by 30 percent as known to be difference in isotope abundance. It was effective to use enriched germanium source gas with AMU 72 in order to improve productivity. Spatial distribution of arsenic impurities in wafers was closely related to hardware configuration of ion implantation equipment.

The formation of voids on the surface of heavily implanted germanium has been known for more than 30 years. Recently there is a renewed interest in germanium due to its potential application in the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Here we report the observation of germanium oxide microcrystals formed on the surface of tellurium implanted into a germanium substrate. The Ge target used was a (1 0 0) polished single crystalline germanium wafer and the implantation was carried out at room temperature with Te ions at 180 keV and a fluence of 3.6 × 1015 at/cm2. Under scanning electron microscope (SEM), the surface of the Ge substrate is evenly covered by microcrystals with a diameter about 1-2 μm and a coverage density of ∼107 particles/cm2. The initially smooth surface of the polished germanium substrate becomes very rough and mostly consists of voids with an average diameter of 40-60 nm, which is consistent with reports of heavily implanted germanium. The composition of the microcrystals was studied using energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and atom probe tomography (APT) and will be presented. Preliminary results indicate that tellurium is not detected in the microcrystals. The origin of the microcrystals will be discussed.

In this article we compare students' understanding of vector concepts in problems with no physical context, and with three mechanics contexts: force, velocity, and work. Based on our "Test of Understanding of Vectors," a multiple-choice test presented elsewhere, we designed two isomorphic shorter versions of 12 items each: a test with no physical context, and a test with mechanics contexts. For this study, we administered the items twice to students who were finishing an introductory mechanics course at a large private university in Mexico. The first time, we administered the two 12-item tests to 608 students. In the second, we only tested the items for which we had found differences in students' performances that were difficult to explain, and in this case, we asked them to show their reasoning in written form. In the first administration, we detected no significant difference between the medians obtained in the tests; however, we did identify significant differences in some of the items. For each item we analyze the type of difference found between the tests in the selection of the correct answer, the most common error on each of the tests, and the differences in the selection of incorrect answers. We also investigate the causes of the different context effects. Based on these analyses, we establish specific recommendations for the instruction of vector concepts in an introductory mechanics course. In the Supplemental Material we include both tests for other researchers studying vector learning, and for physics teachers who teach this material.

The crystal structure of Aspergillus niger acid alpha-amylase was solved by a combination of multiple isomorphous replacement and molecular replacement methods. The atomic coordinates of Aspergillus oryzae (TAKA) alpha-amylase (entry 2TAA in the Protein Data Bank) and experimental diffraction data from a new monoclinic crystal form of TAKA alpha-amylase, were used during the procedure. Sequence identity between the two proteins is approximately 80%. The atomic parameters derived from the molecular replacement solution were too inaccurate to initiate least-squares crystallographic refinement. The molecular model was extensively revised against the experimental electron density map calculated at 3 A resolution. Subsequent crystallographic refinement of this model using synchrotron data to 2.1 A resolution led to a conventional R factor of 16.8%. The structure conforms well to expected stereochemistry with bond lengths deviating from target values by 0.031 A, and planar groups showing a root-mean-square deviation from ideal planes of 0.025 A. PMID:1930834

Compact maintenance free mechanical cooling systems are being developed to operate large volume (~570 cm3, ~3 kg, 140% or larger) germanium detectors for field applications. We are using a new generation of Stirling-cycle mechanical coolers for operating the very largest volume germanium detectors with absolutely no maintenance or liquid nitrogen requirements. The user will be able to leave these systems unplugged on the shelf until needed. The flip of a switch will bring a system to life in ~1 hour for measurements. The maintenance-free operating lifetime of these detector systems will exceed five years. These features are necessary for remote long-duration liquid-nitrogen free deployment of large-volume germanium gamma-ray detector systems for Nuclear Explosion Monitoring (NEM). The Radionuclide Aerosol Sampler/Analyzer (RASA) will greatly benefit from the availability of such detectors by eliminating the need for liquid nitrogen at RASA sites while still allowing the very largest available germanium detectors to be utilized. These mechanically cooled germanium detector systems being developed here will provide the largest, most sensitive detectors possible for use with the RASA. To provide such systems, the appropriate technical fundamentals are being researched. Mechanical cooling of germanium detectors has historically been a difficult endeavor. The success or failure of mechanically cooled germanium detectors stems from three main technical issues: temperature, vacuum, and vibration. These factors affect one another. There is a particularly crucial relationship between vacuum and temperature. These factors will be experimentally studied both separately and together to insure a solid understanding of the physical limitations each factor places on a practical mechanically cooled germanium detector system for field use. Using this knowledge, a series of mechanically cooled germanium detector prototype systems are being designed and fabricated. Our collaborators

The photolysis of triphenylsulfonium, tris(4-methylphenyl)sulfonium, tris(4-chlorophenyl)sulfonium, several monosubstituted (4-F, 4-Cl, 4-Me, 4-MeO, 4-PhS, and 4-PhCO), and disubstituted (4,4{prime}-Me{sub 2} and 4,4{prime}-(MeO){sub 2}) triphenylsulfonium salts was examined in solution. It was found that direct irradiation of triphenylsulfonium salts produced new rearrangement products, phenylthiobiphenyls, along with diphenyl sulfide, which had been previously reported. Similarly, the triarylsulfonium salts, with the exception of the (4-(phenylthio)phenyl)diphenylsulfonium salts produced new rearrangement products, phenylthiobiphenyls, along with diphenyl sulfide, which had been previously reported. Similarly, the triarylsulfonium salts, with the exception of the (4-(phenylthio)phenyl)diphenylsulfonium salts, gave the new rearrangement products. The mechanism for direct photolysis is proposed to occur from the singlet excited states to give a predominant heterolytic cleavage along with some homolytic cleavage.

The medical history of salt begins in ancient times and is closely related to different aspects of human history. Salt may be extracted from sea water, mineral deposits, surface encrustations, saline lakes and brine springs. In many inland areas, wood was used as a fuel source for evaporation of brine and this practice led to major deafforestation in central Europe. Salt played a central role in the economies of many regions, and is often reflected in place names. Salt was also used as a basis for population censuses and taxation, and salt monopolies were practised in many states. Salt was sometimes implicated in the outbreak of conflict, e.g. the French Revolution and the Indian War of Independence. Salt has also been invested with many cultural and religious meanings, from the ancient Egyptians to the Middle Ages. Man's innate appetite for salt may be related to his evolution from predominantly vegetarian anthropoids, and it is noteworthy that those people who live mainly on protein and milk or who drink salty water do not generally salt their food, whereas those who live mainly on vegetables, rice and cereals use much more salt. Medicinal use tended to emphasize the positive aspects of salt, e.g. prevention of putrefaction, reduction of tissue swelling, treatment of diarrhea. Evidence was also available to ancient peoples of its relationship to fertility, particularly in domestic animals. The history of salt thus represents a unique example for studying the impact of a widely used dietary substance on different important aspects of man's life, including medical philosophy. PMID:7847480

This investigation involves the comparison of results achieved from three types of crystal growth of germanium and germanium-silicon alloys: (1) Float zone growth (2) Bridgman growth (3) Detached Bridgman growth crystal The fundamental goal of the proposed research is to determine the influence of containment on the processing-induced defects and impurity incorporation in germanium-silicon (GeSi) crystals (silicon concentration in the solid up to 5 at%) for three different growth configurations in order to quantitatively assess the improvements of crystal quality possible by detached growth.

We report a new method of using the plasma time difference, which results from the plasma effect, between the nuclear and electronic recoil events in high-purity germanium detectors to distinguish these two types of events in the search for rare physics processes. The physics mechanism of the plasma effect is discussed in detail. A numerical model is developed to calculate the plasma time for nuclear and electronic recoils at various energies in germanium detectors. It can be shown that under certain conditions the plasma time difference is large enough to be observable. The experimental aspects in realizing such a discrimination in germanium detectors is discussed.

We characterized the performance of planar germanium detectors developed in the University of South Dakota (USD). The planar detectors were made from high purity germanium crystals with amorphous germanium contacts. These detectors were developed possible for the neutrinoless double beta-decay measurements and dark matter search underground. They were tested in a temporary cryostat to investigate the depletion voltage, leakage current, efficiency and resolution using a 60Co γ ray source. This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the state of South Dakota.

The present invention provides a method for detecting ionizing radiation. Exposure of silver salt AgX to ionizing radiation results in the partial reduction of the salt to a mixture of silver salt and silver metal. The mixture is further reduced by a reducing agent, which causes the production of acid (HX) and the oxidized form of the reducing agent (R). Detection of HX indicates that the silver salt has been exposed to ionizing radiation. The oxidized form of the reducing agent (R) may also be detected. The invention also includes dosimeters employing the above method for detecting ionizing radiation.

Epstein, Paulette; Mahapatra, Rupak; CDMS at Texas A&M University Team

2011-10-01

Texas A&M University is working on improving the current production rate, quality, and reproducibility of fabricated detectors, specifically for the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) to detect particles called WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles). An automated sputtering system is used to deposit amorphous silicon and high quality tungsten and aluminum thin-films on 3 inch by 1 inch germanium substrates to demonstrate repeatable depositions with desired properties, such as, accurate thickness, desirable critical temperature, and good sensitivity at low energy. These techniques can then be used in the future to improve detectors, not only for the search for Dark Matter, but for other areas of research in nuclear and particle physics. Funded by DOE and NSF-REU Program.

Atomic-sized fluorescent defects in diamond are widely recognized as a promising solid state platform for quantum cryptography and quantum information processing. For these applications, single photon sources with a high intensity and reproducible fabrication methods are required. In this study, we report a novel color center in diamond, composed of a germanium (Ge) and a vacancy (V) and named the GeV center, which has a sharp and strong photoluminescence band with a zero-phonon line at 602 nm at room temperature. We demonstrate this new color center works as a single photon source. Both ion implantation and chemical vapor deposition techniques enabled fabrication of GeV centers in diamond. A first-principles calculation revealed the atomic crystal structure and energy levels of the GeV center. PMID:26250337

We have integrated a small, highly-reliable, electro-mechanical cryo-cooler with a high-resolution germanium detector for portable/field applications. The system weighs 6.8 kg and requires 40 watts of power to operate once the detector is cooled to its operating temperature. The detector is a 500 mm(exp 2) by 20-mm thick low-energy configuration that gives a full-width at half maximum (FWHM) energy resolution of 523 eV at 122 keV, when cooled with liquid nitrogen. The energy resolution of the detector, when cooled with the electro-mechanical cooler, is 570 eV at 122 keV. We have field tested this system in measurements of plutonium and uranium for isotopic and enrichment information using the MGA and MGAU analysis programs without any noticeable effects on the results.

This work reports on the reliability assessment of germanium (Ge) gate stacks with promising initial electrical properties, with focus on trap generation under a constant electric stress field (Estress). Initial Ge gate stack properties do not necessarily mean highly robust reliability when it is considered that traps are newly generated under high Estress. A small amount of yttrium- or scandium oxide-doped GeO2 (Y-GeO2 or Sc-GeO2, respectively) significantly reduces trap generation in Ge gate stacks without deterioration of the interface. This is explained by the increase in the average coordination number (Nav) of the modified GeO2 network that results from the doping.

Dilute germanium carbides (Ge1- x C x ) offer a direct bandgap for compact silicon photonics, but widely varying properties have been reported. This work reports improved band structure calculations for Ge1- x C x using ab initio simulations that employ the HSE06 exchange-correlation density functional. Contrary to Vegard's law, the conduction band minimum at Γ is consistently found to decrease with increasing C content, while L and X valleys change much more slowly. The calculated Ge bandgap is within 11% of experimental values. A decrease in energy at the Γ conduction band valley of (170 meV ± 50)/%C is predicted, leading to a direct bandgap for x > 0.008. These results indicate a promising material for Group IV lasers.

The Gamma-Ray Infrastructure For Fundamental Investigations of Nuclei, GRIFFIN, is a new experimental facility for radioactive decay studies at the TRIUMF-ISAC laboratory. The performance of the 16 high-purity germanium (HPGe) clover detectors that will make up the GRIFFIN spectrometer is reported. The energy resolution, efficiency, timing resolution, crosstalk and preamplifier properties of each crystal were measured using a combination of analog and digital data acquisition techniques. The absolute efficiency and add-back factors are determined for the energy range of 80-3450 keV. The detectors show excellent performance with an average over all 64 crystals of a FWHM energy resolution of 1.89(6) keV and relative efficiency with respect to a 3 in . × 3 in . NaI detector of 41(1)% at 1.3 MeV.

Sudden excursions of unusually large magnitude (>1 μm), "giant pop-ins," have been observed in the force-displacement curve for high load indentation of crystalline germanium (Ge). A range of techniques including Raman microspectroscopy, focused ion-beam cross sectioning, and transmission electron microscopy, are applied to study this phenomenon. Amorphous material is observed in residual indents following the giant pop-in. The giant pop-in is shown to be a material removal event, triggered by the development of shallow lateral cracks adjacent to the indent. Enhanced depth recovery, or "elbowing," observed in the force-displacement curve following the giant pop-in is explained in terms of a compliant response of plates of material around the indent detached by lateral cracking. The possible causes of amorphization are discussed, and the implications in light of earlier indentation studies of Ge are considered.

The paper reports the results of measurements (Seebeck and Hall coefficients, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity) on silicon-germanium (Si-20 at. pct Ge) alloy with boron phosphide, B(6.5)P) as an additive, prepared as described by McLane et al. (1986). The power factor (Seebeck coefficient squared divided by electrical resistivity) and the thermal conductivity of SeGe/B(6.5)P material were found to be lower than for the 'standard' SiGe (Si-22 at. pct Ge) material. However, no net improvement was achieved in the figure-of-merit of the sample tested. It is suggested that structural inhomogeneities, revealed by a SEM examination, might be responsible for this lack of improvement.

Our paper reports a diameter-independent Young’s modulus of 91.9 ± 8.2 GPa for [111] Germanium nanowires (Ge NWs). When the surface oxide layer is accounted for using a core-shell NW approximation, the YM of the Ge core approaches a near theoretical value of 147.6 ± 23.4 GPa. The ultimate strength of a NW device was measured at 10.9 GPa, which represents a very high experimental-to-theoretical strength ratio of ~75%. Furthermore, with increasing interest in this material system as a high-capacity lithium-ion battery anode, the presented data provide inputs that are essential in predicting its lithiation-induced stress fields and fracture behavior.

This paper reports a diameter-independent Young’s modulus of 91.9 ± 8.2 GPa for [111] Germanium nanowires (Ge NWs). When the surface oxide layer is accounted for using a core-shell NW approximation, the YM of the Ge core approaches a near theoretical value of 147.6 ± 23.4 GPa. The ultimate strength of a NW device was measured at 10.9 GPa, which represents a very high experimental-to-theoretical strength ratio of ∼75%. With increasing interest in this material system as a high-capacity lithium-ion battery anode, the presented data provide inputs that are essential in predicting its lithiation-induced stress fields and fracture behavior.

We demonstrate terahertz (THz) split-ring resonator (SRR) designs with incorporated germanium telluride (GeTe) thin films. GeTe is a chalcogenide that undergoes a nonvolatile phase change from the amorphous to crystalline state at approximately 200 °C, depending on the film thickness and stoichiometry. The phase change also causes a drop in the material's resistivity by six orders of magnitude. In this study, two GeTe-incorporated SRR designs were investigated. The first was an SRR made entirely out of GeTe and the second was a gold SRR structure with a GeTe film incorporated into the gap region of the split ring. These devices were characterized using THz time-domain spectroscopy and were heated in-situ to determine the change in the design operation with varying temperatures.

In this article, we present the abnormal compression and plastic behavior of germanium during the pressure-induced cubic diamond to β-tin structure transition. Between 8.6 GPa and 13.8 GPa, in which pressure range both phases are co-existing, first softening and followed by hardening for both phases were observed via synchrotron x-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. These unusual behaviors can be interpreted as the volume misfit between different phases. Following Eshelby, the strain energy density reaches the maximum in the middle of the transition zone, where the switch happens from softening to hardening. Insight into these mechanical properties during phase transformation is relevant for the understanding of plasticity and compressibility of crystal materials when different phases coexist during a phase transition.

Germanium (Ge) is a group-IV indirect band gap semiconductor, and therefore bulk Ge cannot emit light efficiently. However, the direct band gap energy is close to the indirect one, and significant engineering efforts are being made to convert Ge into an efficient gain material monolithically integrated on a Si chip. In this article, we will review the engineering challenges of developing Ge light sources fabricated using nano-fabrication technologies compatible with complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor processes. In particular, we review recent progress in applying high-tensile strain to Ge to reduce the direct band gap. Another important technique is doping Ge with donor impurities to fill the indirect band gap valleys in the conduction band. Realization of carrier confinement structures and suitable optical cavities will be discussed. Finally, we will discuss possible applications of Ge light sources in potential photonics-electronics convergent systems.

In the crystal growth lab of South Dakota University, we are growing high purity germanium (HPGe) crystals and using the grown crystals to make radiation detectors. As the detector grade HPGe crystals, they have to meet two critical requirements: an impurity level of ∼109 to 10 atoms /cm3 and a dislocation density in the range of ∼102 to 104 / cm3. In the present work, we have used the following four characterization techniques to investigate the properties of the grown crystals. First of all, an x-ray diffraction method was used to determine crystal orientation. Secondly, the van der Pauw Hall effect measurement was used to measure the electrical properties. Thirdly, a photo-thermal ionization spectroscopy (PTIS) was used to identify what the impurity atoms are in the crystal. Lastly, an optical microscope observation was used to measure dislocation density in the crystal. All of these characterization techniques have provided great helps to our crystal activities.

We investigated the impacts of growth rate, time-temperature profile, thermal gradient on the dislocation distribution in large high-purity germanium crystal (12 cm in diameter) grown via Czochralski along <100>orientation. The time-temperature profiles of the crystal grown at different input power were investigated using direct measurements and computational modeling. The effect of crystallization speed on dislocation density is discussed from the context of thermal gradient during growth. Several samples from the grown crystals were used for this investigation. We measured dislocation density across the entire cross-section of the grown crystal through the microscope. By measuring and calculating the dislocation density, we were able to identify the denseness and the type of dislocation, which allows us to study how the thermal stress impacts the dislocation generation and distribution across the large grown crystals. This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the state of South Dakota.

Here we describe a lithography scheme based on the local anodic oxidation of germanium film by a scanning atomic force microscope in a humidity-controlled atmosphere. The oxidation kinetics of the Ge film were investigated by a tapping mode, in which a pulsed bias voltage was synchronized and applied with the resonance frequency of the cantilever, and by a contact mode, in which a continuous voltage was applied. In the tapping mode we clearly identified two regimes of oxidation as a function of the applied voltage: the trench width increased linearly during the vertical growth and increased exponentially during the lateral growth. Both regimes of growth were interpreted taking into consideration the Cabrera-Mott mechanism of oxidation applied to the oxide/Ge interface. We also show the feasibility of the bottom-up fabrication process presented in this work by showing a Cu nanowire fabricated on top of a silicon substrate.

A study is presented of the instrumental background in astrophysical gamma-ray spectrometers using isotopically enriched germanium detectors. Calculations show that the beta-decay background, which is the largest component between approximately 0.1 and 1.0 MeV in balloonborne and satellite spectrometers, is dominated by the activation of Ge-74. This component can be reduced by an order of magnitude using detectors enriched to more than 80 percent in (Ge-70). The predicted reduction in the total background for current balloonborne instruments is more than a factor of 1.7 between 0.2 and 1.0 MeV. For future satellite instruments, the reduction in this energy range is by more than a factor of 5.

Atomic-sized fluorescent defects in diamond are widely recognized as a promising solid state platform for quantum cryptography and quantum information processing. For these applications, single photon sources with a high intensity and reproducible fabrication methods are required. In this study, we report a novel color center in diamond, composed of a germanium (Ge) and a vacancy (V) and named the GeV center, which has a sharp and strong photoluminescence band with a zero-phonon line at 602 nm at room temperature. We demonstrate this new color center works as a single photon source. Both ion implantation and chemical vapor deposition techniques enabled fabrication of GeV centers in diamond. A first-principles calculation revealed the atomic crystal structure and energy levels of the GeV center. PMID:26250337

The germanium plasma produced by the fundamental harmonics (1064 nm) of Nd:YAG laser in single and double pulse configurations have been studied spectroscopically. The plasma is characterized by measuring the electron temperature using the Boltzmann plot method for neutral and ionized species and electron number density as a function of laser irradiance, ambient pressure, and distance from the target surface. It is observed that the plasma parameters have an increasing trend with laser irradiance (9-33 GW/cm2) and with ambient pressure (8-250 mbar). However, a decreasing trend is observed along the plume length up to 4.5 mm. The electron temperature and electron number density are also determined using a double pulse configuration, and their behavior at fixed energy ratio and different interpulse delays is discussed.

A series of (100)-oriented gallium-doped germanium crystals has been grown by the vertical Bridgman method and under the influence of a rotating magnetic field (RMF). Time-dependent flow instabilities occur when the critical magnetic Taylor number (Tm(sup c)) is exceeded, and this can be observed by noting the appearance of striations in the grown crystals. Tm(sup c) decreases as the aspect ratio of the melt increases, and approaches the theoretical limit expected for an infinite cylinder. Intentional interface demarcations are introduced by pulsing the RMF on and off The RMF has a marked affect on the interface shape, changing it from concave to nearly flat as the RMF strength is increased.

Comparison of Germanium Telluride (GeTe) Crystals grown on Earth (left) and in space (right) during the Skylab SL-3 mission. These crystals were grown using a vapor transport crystal growth method in the Multipurpose Electric Furnace System (MEFS). Crystals grown on earth are needles and platelettes with distorted surfaces and hollow growth habits. The length of the ground-based needle is approximately 2 mm and the average lenth of the platelets is 1 mm. The dull appearance of the Skylab crystals resulted from condensation of the transport agent during the long cooling period dictated by the Skylab furnace. In a dedicated process, this would be prevented by removing the ampoule from the furnace and quenching the vapor source.

We report on the noise analysis of high performance germanium quantum dot (Ge QD) photodetectors with responsivity up to ˜2 A/W and internal quantum efficiency up to ˜400%, over the 400-1100 nm wavelength range and at a reverse bias of -10 V. Photolithography was performed to define variable active-area devices that show suppressed dark current, leading to a higher signal-to-noise ratio, up to 105, and specific detectivity D * ≃ 6 × 10 12 cm Hz 1 / 2 W-1. These figures of merit suggest Ge QDs as a promising alternative material for high-performance photodetectors working in the visible to near-infrared spectral range.

A series of (100)-oriented gallium-doped germanium crystals have been grown by the Bridgman method and under the influence of a rotating magnetic field (RMF). The RMF has a marked affect on the interface shape, changing it from concave to nearly flat. The onset of time-dependent flow instabilities occurs when the critical magnetic Taylor number is exceeded, and this can be observed by noting the appearance of striations in the grown crystals. The critical magnetic Taylor number is a sensitive function of the aspect ratio and, as the crystal grows under a constant applied magnetic field, the induced striations change from nonperiodic to periodic, undergo a period-doubling transition, and then cease to exist. Also, by pulsing the RMF on and off, it is shown that intentional interface demarcations can be introduced.

We demonstrate large-area (∼600 μm), (111)-oriented, and high-crystallinity, i.e., pseudo-single-crystalline, germanium (Ge) films at 275 °C, where the temperature is lower than the softening temperature of a flexible substrate. A modulated gold-induced layer exchange crystallization method with an atomic-layer deposited Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} barrier and amorphous-Ge/Au multilayers is established. From the Raman measurements, we can judge that the crystallinity of the obtained Ge films is higher than those grown by aluminum-induced-crystallization methods. Even on a flexible substrate, the pseudo-single-crystalline Ge films for the circuit with thin-film transistor arrays can be achieved, leading to high-performance flexible electronics based on an inorganic-semiconductor channel.

A series of (100)-oriented gallium-doped germanium crystals have been grown by the Bridgman method and under the influence of a rotating magnetic field (RMF). Time-dependent flow instabilities occur when the critical magnetic Taylor number (Tm(sup c) is exceeded, and this can be observed by noting the appearance of striations in the grown crystals. The experimental data indicate that Tm(sup c) increases as the aspect ratio of the melt decreases. Modeling calculations predicting Tm(sup c) as a function of aspect ratio are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data. The RMF has a marked affect on the interface shape, changing it from concave to nearly flat as the RMF strength is increased. Also, by pulsing the RMF on and off, it is shown that intentional interface demarcations can be introduced.

Monocrystalline semiconductor lattices with a buried porous semiconductor layer having different chemical composition is discussed and monocrystalline semiconductor superlattices with a buried porous semiconductor layers having different chemical composition than that of its monocrystalline semiconductor superlattice are discussed. Lattices of alternating layers of monocrystalline silicon and porous silicon-germanium have been produced. These single crystal lattices have been fabricated by epitaxial growth of Si and Si-Ge layers followed by patterning into mesa structures. The mesa structures are strain etched resulting in porosification of the Si-Ge layers with a minor amount of porosification of the monocrystalline Si layers. Thicker Si-Ge layers produced in a similar manner emitted visible light at room temperature.

A method for manufacturing flexible Nb.sub.3 (Al,Ge) multifilamentary superconductive material in which a sintered porous niobium compact is infiltrated with an aluminum-germanium alloy and thereafter deformed and heat treated in a series of steps at different successively higher temperatures preferably below 1000.degree. C. to produce filaments composed of Nb.sub.3 (Al,G3) within the compact. By avoiding temperatures in excess of 1000.degree. C. during the heat treatment, cladding material such as copper can be applied to facilitate a deformation step preceding the heat treatment and can remain in place through the heat treatment to also serve as a temperature stabilizer for supeconductive material produced. Further, these lower heat treatment temperatures favor formation of filaments with reduced grain size and, hence with more grain boundaries which in turn increase the current-carrying capacity of the superconductive material.

Photodetectors based on germanium which do not require cooling and can provide good near-infrared (NIR) detection performance offer a low-cost alternative to conventional infrared sensors based on material systems such as InGaAs, InSb, and HgCdTe. As a result of the significant difference in thermal expansion coefficients between germanium and silicon, tensile strain incorporated into Ge epitaxial layers deposited on Si utilizing specialized growth processes can extend the operational range of detection to 1600 nm and longer wavelengths. We have fabricated Ge based PIN photodetectors on 300 mm diameter Si wafers to take advantage of high throughput, large-area complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology. This device fabrication process involves low temperature epitaxial deposition of Ge to form a thin p+ (boron) Ge seed/buffer layer, and subsequent higher temperature deposition of a thicker Ge intrinsic layer. This is followed by selective ion implantation of phosphorus of various concentrations to form n+ Ge regions, deposition of a passivating oxide cap, and then top copper contacts to complete the PIN detector devices. Various techniques including transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) have been employed to characterize the material and structural properties of the epitaxially grown layers and fabricated detector devices, and these results are presented. The I-V response of the photodetector devices with and without illumination was also measured, for which the Ge based photodetectors consistently exhibited low dark currents of around ~1 nA at -1 V bias.

The growing importance of salt in the energy, subsurface storage, and chemical and food industries also increases the challenges with prediction of geometries, kinematics, stress and transport in salt. This requires an approach, which integrates a broader range of knowledge than is traditionally available in the different scientific and engineering disciplines. We aim to provide a starting point for a more integrated understanding of salt, by presenting an overview of the state of the art in a wide range of salt-related topics, from (i) the formation and metamorphism of evaporites, (ii) rheology and transport properties, (iii) salt tectonics and basin evolution, (iv) internal structure of evaporites, (v) fluid flow through salt, to (vi) salt engineering. With selected case studies we show how integration of these domains of knowledge can bring better predictions of (i) sediment architecture and reservoir distribution, (ii) internal structure of salt for optimized drilling and better cavern design, (iii) reliable long-term predictions of deformations and fluid flow in subsurface storage. A fully integrated workflow is based on geomechanical models, which include all laboratory and natural observations and links macro- and micro-scale studies. We present emerging concepts for (i) the initiation dynamics of halokinesis, (ii) the rheology and deformation of the evaporites by brittle and ductile processes, (iii) the coupling of processes in evaporites and the under- and overburden, and (iv) the impact of the layered evaporite rheology on the structural evolution.

The patent describes a molten salt electrolyte/separator for battery and related electrochemical systems including a molten electrolyte composition and an electrically insulating solid salt dispersed therein, to provide improved performance at higher current densities and alternate designs through ease of fabrication. 5 figs.

Compositions which inhibit corrosion and alter the physical properties of concrete (admixtures) are prepared from salt mixtures of hydroxycarboxylic acids, carboxylic acids, and nitric acid. The salt mixtures are prepared by neutralizing acid product mixtures from the oxidation of polyols using nitric acid and oxygen as the oxidizing agents. Nitric acid is removed from the hydroxycarboxylic acids by evaporation and diffusion dialysis.

Experimental data on the electrical resistivity and Seebeck coefficient of n-type and p-type silicon-germanium alloys are analyzed in terms of a solid-state dopant precipitation model proposed by Lifshitz and Slyozov (1961). Experimental findings on the time and temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of these two types of alloy indicate that the thermal conductivity of silicon-germanium alloys changes with time, contrary to previous hypothesis. A preliminary model is presented which stipulates that the observed thermal conductivity decrease in silicon-germanium alloys is due partly to dopant precipitation underlying the electrical property changes and partly to enhanced alloying of the material. It is significant that all three properties asymptotically approach equilibrium values with time. Total characterization of these properties will enable the time change to be fully compensated in the design of a thermoelectric device employing silicon-germanium alloys.

We report the formation of novel asymmetric membrane electrode containing micron-size (~5 μm) germanium powders through a self-assembly phase inversion method for high capacity lithium ion battery anode. 850 mA h g-1 capacity (70%) can be retained at a current density of 600 mA g-1 after 100 cycles with excellent rate performance. Such a high retention rate has rarely been seen for pristine micron-size germanium anodes. Moreover, scanning electron microscope studies reveal that germanium powders are uniformly embedded in a networking porous structure consisting of both nanopores and macropores. It is believed that such a unique porous structure can efficientlymore » accommodate the ~260% volume change during germanium alloying and de-alloying process, resulting in an enhanced cycling performance. Finally, these porous membrane electrodes can be manufactured in large scale using a roll-to-roll processing method.« less

The Raman and IR absorption spectra of single crystals of germanium isotopes 72Ge, 73Ge, 74Ge, and 76Ge in the region of phonon absorption and interband electronic transitions are studied at room temperature. The dependence of the Raman peak position on the atomic mass has the form ν ~ M -1/2. The shifts of the phonon absorption peaks of individual isotopes with respect to germanium of natural isotopic composition natGe are determined. With increasing average atomic mass of germanium, these peaks shift to longer wavelengths. In the region of interband electronic transitions, the intrinsic absorption edge of 76Ge is observed to shift by 1 meV to higher energies with respect to Ge of natural isotopic composition. For isotopes with atomic masses close to that of natural germanium (72Ge,73Ge, 74Ge), we found no significant difference in the band gap width at room temperature.

High-purity germanium crystals were grown in a hydrogen atmosphere using the Czochralski method. The axial and radial distributions of impurities in the crystals were measured by Hall effect and Photo-thermal ionization spectroscopy (PTIS). Amorphous semiconductor contacts were deposited on the germanium crystals to make detectors. Three planar detectors were fabricated from three crystals with different net carrier concentrations (1.7, 7.9 and 10x1010 cm-3). We evaluated the electrical and spectral performance of three detectors. Measurements of gamma-ray spectra from 137Cs, 241Am and 60Co sources demonstrate that the detectors have excellent energy resolution. The relationship between the impurities and detector's energy resolution was analyzed. Keywords: High-purity germanium crystal, High-purity germanium detector This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the state of South Dakota..

This report describes an automated jet electropolishing technique, using modified commercial equipment, for the production of germanium TEM specimens. This technique allows rapid and reliable thinning of large areas and results in clean surfaces.

Using first principles density functional theory calculations, the present paper reports systematic total energy calculations of the electronic properties such as density of states and magnetic moment of pristine and iron and manganese doped two dimensional hexagonal germanium sheets.

A 13-day long duration balloon flight carrying a germanium detector was flown from Williams Field, Antartica in December 1992. After recovery of the payload the activity induced in the detector was measured.

We report the formation of novel asymmetric membrane electrode containing micron-size (~5 μm) germanium powders through a self-assembly phase inversion method for high capacity lithium ion battery anode. 850 mA h g-1 capacity (70%) can be retained at a current density of 600 mA g-1 after 100 cycles with excellent rate performance. Such a high retention rate has rarely been seen for pristine micron-size germanium anodes. Moreover, scanning electron microscope studies reveal that germanium powders are uniformly embedded in a networking porous structure consisting of both nanopores and macropores. It is believed that such a unique porous structure can efficiently accommodate the ~260% volume change during germanium alloying and de-alloying process, resulting in an enhanced cycling performance. Finally, these porous membrane electrodes can be manufactured in large scale using a roll-to-roll processing method.

Compact maintenance free mechanical cooling systems are being developed to operate large volume high-resolution gamma-ray detectors for field applications. To accomplish this we are utilizing a newly available generation of Stirling-cycle mechanical coolers to operate the very largest volume germanium detectors with no maintenance. The user will be able to leave these systems unplugged on the shelf until needed. The maintenance-free operating lifetime of these detector systems will exceed 5 years. Three important factors affect the operation of mechanically cooled germanium detectors: temperature, vacuum, and vibration. These factors will be studied in the laboratory at the most fundamental levels to insure a solid understanding of the physical limitations each factor places on a practical mechanically cooled germanium detector system. Using this knowledge, mechanically cooled germanium detector prototype systems will be designed and fabricated.

Compact maintenance free mechanical cooling systems are being developed to operate large volume germanium detectors for field applications. To accomplish this we are utilizing a newly available generation of Stirling-cycle mechanical coolers to operate the very largest volume germanium detectors with no maintenance. The user will be able to leave these systems unplugged on the shelf until needed. The flip of a switch will bring a system to life in ~ 1 hour for measurements. The maintenance-free operating lifetime of these detector systems will exceed 5 years. These features are necessary for remote long-duration liquid-nitrogen free deployment of large-volume germanium gamma-ray detector systems for Nuclear Explosion Monitoring. The Radionuclide Aerosol Sampler/Analyzer (RASA) will greatly benefit from the availability of such detectors by eliminating the need for liquid nitrogen at RASA sites while still allowing the very largest available germanium detectors to be reliably utilized.

To survive in a saline environment, halophytes have evolved many strategies to resist salt stress. The salt glands of recretohalophytes are exceptional features for directly secreting salt out of a plant. Knowledge of the pathway(s) of salt secretion in relation to the function of salt glands may help us to change the salt-tolerance of crops and to cultivate the extensive saline lands that are available. Recently, ultrastructural studies of salt glands and the mechanism of salt secretion, particularly the candidate genes involved in salt secretion, have been illustrated in detail. In this review, we summarize current researches on salt gland structure, salt secretion mechanism and candidate genes involved, and provide an overview of the salt secretion pathway and the asymmetric ion transport of the salt gland. A new model recretohalophyte is also proposed. PMID:27446195

We demonstrated direct band gap (DBG) electroluminescence (EL) at room temperature from n-type bulk germanium (Ge) using a fin type asymmetric lateral metal/Ge/metal structure with TiN/Ge and HfGe/Ge contacts, which was fabricated using a low temperature (<400 °C) process. Small electron and hole barrier heights were obtained for TiN/Ge and HfGe/Ge contacts, respectively. DBG EL spectrum peaked at 1.55 μm was clearly observed even at a small current density of 2.2 μA/μm. Superlinear increase in EL intensity was also observed with increasing current density, due to superlinear increase in population of elections in direct conduction band. The efficiency of hole injection was also clarified.

Besides cardiovascular disease, a high salt intake causes other adverse health effects, i.e., gastric and some other cancers, obesity (risk factor for many cancer sites), Meniere's disease, worsening of renal disease, triggering an asthma attack, osteoporosis, exacerbation of fluid retention, renal calculi, etc. Diets containing high amounts of food preserved by salting and pickling are associated with an increased risk of cancers of the stomach, nose and throat. Because gastric cancer is still the most common cancer in some countries (especially in Japan), its prevention is one of the most important aspects of cancer control strategy. Observations among Japanese immigrants in the U.S.A. and Brazil based on the geographic differences, the trend in cancer incidence with time, and change in the incidence patterns indicate that gastric cancer is closely associated with dietary factors such as the intake of salt and salted food. The findings of many epidemiological studies suggest that high dietary salt intake is a significant risk factor for gastric cancer and this association was found to be strong in the presence of Helicobacter (H.) pylori infection with atrophic gastritis. A high-salt intake strips the lining of the stomach and may make infection with H. pylori more likely or may exacerbate the infection. Salting, pickling and smoking are traditionally popular ways of preparing food in Japan and some parts of Asia. In addition to salt intake, cigarette smoking and low consumption of fruit and vegetables increase the risk of stomach cancer. However, it is not known whether it is specifically the salt in these foods or a combination of salt and other chemicals that can cause cancer. One study identified a mutagen in nitrite-treated Japanese salted fish, and chemical structure of this mutagen suggests that it is derived from methionine and that salt and nitrite are precursors for its formation. Working under conditions of heat stress greatly increased the workers

In the course of 2012, a facility for the fast screening of germanium detectors called HEROICA (Hades Experimental Research Of Intrinsic Crystal Appliances) has been installed at the HADES underground laboratory in the premises of the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK•CEN, in Mol (Belgium). The facility allows performing a complete characterization of the critical germanium detectors' operational parameters with a rate of about two detectors per week.

Germanium detectors are the best choice for gamma ray spectrometry because of their good energy resolution and high efficiency compared to any other gamma rays spectrometers. Due to their high sensitivity and good energy resolution, these kinds of detector have a range of application. There is a significant number of particles detection experiments going on which used germanium detectors all around the world. These also have applications in non-proliferation and medical diagnosis. Thus, germanium detectors have a wide range of applications both research and industry. The Center for Ultra-Low Background Experiment in the Dakotas (CUBED) at the University of South Dakota is developing the facilities to fabricate germanium detectors. It is requires to characterize the germanium detector properties, especially electrical properties. In this project I design and developed a cryogenic chamber for the CUBED group which is able to rest any type of radiation detectors of different sizes and shapes. The cryostat chamber is able to provide low pressure and low temperature for the testing of the germanium detector sample. Leakage current measurements have been done for several detector samples by using this cryostat chamber. Several kinds of electrical properties such as depletion voltage, breakdown voltage, electronics noise, impurity concentration etc. can be derived from these experiments in the future.

Germanium is a semiconducting metalloid element used in optical fibers, catalysis, infrared optics, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes. The need for Ge in these markets is considered to increase by a steady ~1% on a yearly basis. Its economic importance, coupled with the identified supply risks, has led to the classification of germanium as a critical raw material within Europe. Since the early 1950s, Umicore Electro-Optic Materials has supplied germanium-based materials solutions to its markets around the world. Umicore extracts germanium from a wide range of refining and recycling feeds. The main objectives of this study were to quantify the potential environmental impacts of the production of germanium from production scraps from the photovoltaic industry and to compare them with the potential impacts of the primary production of germanium from coal. The data related to the secondary production are Umicore-specific data. Environmental impact scores have been calculated for the impact categories recommended by the International reference life cycle data system. The comparison of the primary and secondary production highlights the benefit linked to the recycling of metals.

Water purification using organic salts. Feed water is mixed with at least one organic salt at a temperature sufficiently low to form organic salt hydrate crystals and brine. The crystals are separated from the brine, rinsed, and melted to form an aqueous solution of organic salt. Some of the water is removed from the aqueous organic salt solution. The purified water is collected, and the remaining more concentrated aqueous organic salt solution is reused.

The constitutive model used to describe the deformation of crushed salt is presented in this report. Two mechanisms -- dislocation creep and grain boundary diffusional pressure solution -- are combined to form the basis for the constitutive model governing the deformation of crushed salt. The constitutive model is generalized to represent three-dimensional states of stress. Upon complete consolidation, the crushed-salt model reproduces the Multimechanism Deformation (M-D) model typically used for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) host geological formation salt. New shear consolidation tests are combined with an existing database that includes hydrostatic consolidation and shear consolidation tests conducted on WIPP and southeastern New Mexico salt. Nonlinear least-squares model fitting to the database produced two sets of material parameter values for the model -- one for the shear consolidation tests and one for a combination of the shear and hydrostatic consolidation tests. Using the parameter values determined from the fitted database, the constitutive model is validated against constant strain-rate tests. Shaft seal problems are analyzed to demonstrate model-predicted consolidation of the shaft seal crushed-salt component. Based on the fitting statistics, the ability of the model to predict the test data, and the ability of the model to predict load paths and test data outside of the fitted database, the model appears to capture the creep consolidation behavior of crushed salt reasonably well.

Silicon, germanium, and their alloys, which provide the leading materials platform of microelectronics, are extremely inefficient light emitters because of their indirect fundamental energy band gap. This basic materials property has so far hindered the development of group-IV photonic-active devices, including light emitters and diode lasers, thereby significantly limiting our ability to integrate electronic and photonic functionalities at the chip level. Theoretical studies have predicted that tensile strain in Ge lowers the direct energy band gap relative to the indirect one, and that, with sufficient strain, Ge becomes direct-band gap, thus enabling facile interband light emission and the fabrication of Group IV lasers. It has, however, not been possible to impart sufficient strain to Ge to reach the direct-band gap goal, because bulk Ge fractures at much lower strains. Here it is shown that very thin sheets of Ge(001), called nanomembranes (NMs), can be used to overcome this materials limitation. Germanium nanomembranes (NMs) in the range of thicknesses from 20nm to 100nm were fabricated and then transferred and mounted to a flexible substrate [a polyimide (PI) sheet]. An apparatus was developed to stress the PI/NM combination and provide for in-situ Raman measurements of the strain as a function of applied stress. This arrangement allowed for the introduction of sufficient biaxial tensile strain (>1.7%) to transform Ge to a direct-band gap material, as determined by photoluminescence (PL) measurements and theory. Appropriate shifts in the emission spectrum and increases in PL intensities were observed. The advance in this work was nanomembrane fabrication technology; i.e., making thin enough Ge sheets to accept sufficiently high levels of strain without fracture. It was of interest to determine if the strain at which fracture ultimately does occur can be raised, by evaluating factors that initiate fracture. Attempts to assess the effect of free edges (enchant

Compositions of matter, a method of providing chemical energy by burning said compositions, and methods of making said compositions are described. These compositions are amine salts of nitroazoles. 1 figure.

Electrodialysis technology for recovering salt from aluminum salt cake is being developed at Argonne National Laboratory. Salt cake, a slag-like aluminum-industry waste stream, contains aluminum metal, salt (NaCl and KCl), and nonmetallics (primarily aluminum oxide). Salt cake can be recycled by digesting with water and filtering to recover the metal and oxide values. A major obstacle to widespread salt cake recycling is the cost of recovering salt from the process brine. Electrodialysis technology developed at Argonne appears to be a cost-effective approach to handling the salt brines, compared to evaporation or disposal. In Argonne's technology, the salt brine is concentrated until salt crystals are precipitated in the electrodialysis stack; the crystals are recovered downstream. The technology is being evaluated on the pilot scale using Eurodia's EUR 40-76-5 stack.

HEROICA (Hades Experimental Research Of Intrinsic Crystal Appliances) is an infrastructure to characterize germanium detectors and has been designed and constructed at the HADES Underground Research Laboratory, located in Mol (Belgium). Thanks to the 223 m overburden of clay and sand, the muon flux is lowered by four orders of magnitude. This natural shield minimizes the exposure of radio-pure germanium material to cosmic radiation resulting in a significant suppression of cosmogenic activation in the germanium detectors. The project has been strongly motivated by a special production of germanium detectors for the GERDA experiment. GERDA, currently collecting data at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso of INFN, is searching for the neutrinoless double beta decay of 76Ge. In the near future, GERDA will increase its mass and sensitivity by adding new Broad Energy Germanium (BEGe) detectors. The production of the BEGe detectors is done at Canberra in Olen (Belgium), located about 30 km from the underground test site. Therefore, HADES is used both for storage of the crystals over night, during diode production, and for the characterization measurements. A full quality control chain has been setup and tested on the first seven prototype detectors delivered by the manufacturer at the beginning of 2012. The screening capabilities demonstrate that the installed setup fulfills a fast and complete set of measurements on the diodes and it can be seen as a general test facility for the fast screening of high purity germanium detectors. The results are of major importance for a future massive production and characterization chain of germanium diodes foreseen for a possible next generation 1-tonne double beta decay experiment with 76Ge.

Monte Carlo simulation is an important tool used to develop a better understanding of important physical processes. This thesis describes three Monte Carlo simulations used to understand germanium detector response to low energy nuclear recoils and radiogenic backgrounds for direct dark matter searches. The first simulation is the verification of Barker-Mei model, a theoretical model for calculating the ionization efficiency for germanium detector for the energy range of 1 - 100 keV. Utilizing the shape analysis, a bin-to-bin comparison between simulation and experimental data was performed for verifying the accuracy of the Barker-Mei model. A percentage difference within 4% was achieved between data and simulation, which showed the validity of the Barker-Mei model. The second simulation is the study of a new type of germanium detector for n/gamma discrimination at 77 K with plasma time difference in pulse shape. Due to the poor time resolution, conventional P-type Point Contact (PPC) and coaxial germanium detectors are not capable of discriminating nuclear recoils from electron recoils. In this thesis, a new idea of using great detector granularity and plasma time difference in pulse shape to discriminate nuclear recoils from electron recoils with planar germanium detectors in strings was discussed. The anticipated sensitivity of this new detector array is shown for detecting dark matter. The last simulation is a study of a new type of germanium-detector array serving as a PMT screening facility for ultra-low background dark matter experiments using noble liquid xenon as detector material such LUX/LZ and XENON100/XENON1T. A well-shaped germanium detector array and a PMT were simulated to study the detector response to the signal and background for a better understanding of the radiogenic gamma rays from PMTs. The detector efficiency and other detector performance were presented in this work.

Salt Lake City, Utah, will host the 2002 Winter Olympic Games. The city is located on the southeastern shore of the Great Salt Lake and sits to the west of the Wasatch Mountains, which rise more than 3,500 meters (10,000 feet) above sea level. The city was first settled in 1847 by pioneers seeking relief from religious persecution. Today Salt Lake City, the capital of Utah, is home to more than 170,000 residents. This true-color image of Salt Lake City was acquired by the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), flying aboard Landsat 7, on May 26, 2000. The southeastern tip of the Great Salt Lake is visible in the upper left of the image. The furrowed green and brown landscape running north-south is a portion of the Wasatch Mountains, some of which are snow-capped (white pixels). The greyish pixels in the center of the image show the developed areas of the city. A number of water reservoirs can be seen east of the mountain range. Salt Lake City International Airport is visible on the northwestern edge of the city. About 20 miles south of the airport is the Bingham Canyon Copper Mine (tan pixels), the world's largest open pit excavation. See also this MODIS image of Utah. Image courtesy NASA Landsat7 Science Team and USGS Eros Data Center

Defect states in n-type Sb-doped germanium were investigated by deep-level transient spectroscopy. Cobalt-60 gamma rays were used to generate isolated vacancies and interstitials which diffuse and react with impurities in the material to form four defect states (E{sub 37}, E{sub 30}, E{sub 22}, and E{sub 21}) in the upper half of the bandgap. Irradiations at 77 K and 300 K as well as isothermal anneals were performed to characterize the relationships between the four observable defects. E{sub 37} is assigned to the Sb donor-vacancy associate (E-center) and is the only vacancy containing defect giving an estimate of 2 × 10{sup 11 }cm{sup −3} Mrad{sup −1} for the uncorrelated vacancy-interstitial pair introduction rate. The remaining three defect states are interstitial associates and transform among one another. Conversion ratios between E{sub 22}, E{sub 21}, and E{sub 30} indicate that E{sub 22} likely contains two interstitials.

One method of improving the transverse spatial coherence of x-ray lasers (XRLS) is by adaptive spatial filtering of XRL apertures using geometric shaping in the form of bowtie or wedge XRLS. However, we must maintain the desired geometric shapes in exploding foil or slab configurations during the lasing period. As a first step toward understanding Lasing in such geometries we study the behavior of simple stripe XRLs. Past experience with stripe XRLs deposited on thick plastic substrates resulted in significantly weaker laser intensities as compared to line-focused slab XRLs. Possible reasons for this intensity reduction of stripe XRLs could include mixing at the laser boundary, and changes in plasma, kinetics, and hydrodynamic properties which affect laser gains and propagation. We will present experimental and theoretical characterizations of germanium line-focused and stripe XRLs. Key experimental parameters we will study include images of emission profiles of the laser blow-off, angular divergences, XRL output intensities, and ionization balances as we vary XRL designs. We will compare the experimental results with two-dimensional (2-D) laser deposition and hydrodynamics simulations using LASNEX, and study the changes in ionization balances and level populations from post-processing LASNEX results.

First principles calculations using hybrid density functional theory have been performed to examine the electronic and geometric structure properties of single-walled silicon (SWSiNT) and germanium (SWGeNT) nanotubes. Finite clusters XmHn^ (X = Si or Ge) are used to model the nanotubes (e.g. the smallest SWSiNT is modeled as Si60H12). Hydrogen termination is done to simulate the effect of longer tubes as well as to take care of end effects. A pseudopotential basis set has been used for the silicon atoms^1 and complete geometry optimizations of the structures has been carried out using the Gaussian 03 suite of programs.^2 Computer simulations predict that the existence and stability of the nanotubes are highly dependent on the ratio of the sp^2 to sp^3 hybridization. Results will be presented on cohesive energies, HOMO- LUMO gaps, and other electronic structure properties and their dependence on the tube diameter. We will discuss the density of states (DOS) to explain the possible metallic or semi-conducting character of the tubes. Detailed comparisons with published data in the literature will also be presented. * Work supported, in part, by the Welch Foundation, Houston, Texas (Grant No. Y-1525). ^1 P. J. Hay and W. R. Wadt, J. Chem. Phys. 82, 270 (1985). ^2 Gaussian03, Revision A.1, M. J. Frisch et al., Gaussian Inc., Pittsburgh, PA , 2003.

Germanium combined with high-κ dielectrics has recently been put forth by the semiconductor industry as potential replacement for planar silicon transistors, which are unlikely to accommodate the severe scaling requirements for sub-45-nm generations. Therefore, we have studied the atomic layer deposition (ALD) of HfO2 high-κ dielectric layers on HF-cleaned Ge substrates. In this contribution, we describe the HfO2 growth characteristics, HfO2 bulk properties, and Ge interface. Substrate-enhanced HfO2 growth occurs: the growth per cycle is larger in the first reaction cycles than the steady growth per cycle of 0.04nm. The enhanced growth goes together with island growth, indicating that more than a monolayer coverage of HfO2 is required for a closed film. A closed HfO2 layer is achieved after depositing 4-5HfO2 monolayers, corresponding to about 25 ALD reaction cycles. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy images show that HfO2 layers thinner than 3nm are amorphous as deposited, while local epitaxial crystallization has occurred in thicker HfO2 films. Other HfO2 bulk properties are similar for Ge and Si substrates. According to this physical characterization study, HfO2 can be used in Ge-based devices as a gate oxide with physical thickness scaled down to 1.6nm.

High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors will be used in future space missions for gamma-ray measurements and will be subject to interactions with energetic particles. To simulate this process, several large-volume n-type HPGe detectors were incrementally exposed to a particle fluence of up to 10 to the 8th protons/sq cm (proton energy: 1.5 GeV) at different operating temperatures (90 to 120 K) to induce radiation damage. Basic scientific and engineering data on detector performance were collected. During the incremental irradiation, the peak shape produced by the detectors showed a significant change from a Gaussian shape to a broad complex structure. After the irradiation, all detectors were thoroughly characterized by measuring many parameters. To remove the accumulated radiation damage, the detectors were stepwise-annealed at temperatures below 110 C, while kept in their specially designed cryostats. This study shows that n-type HPGe detectors can be used in charged-particle environments as high-energy resolution devices until a certain level of radiation damage is accumulated and that the damage can be removed at moderate annealing temperatures and the detector returned to operating condition.

The effects of radiation damage from proton bombardment of the four HEAO C-1 high purity germanium detectors have been measured and compared to predictions. Because of the presence of numerous gamma-ray lines in the detector background spectra and because of the relatively long exposure time of the HEAO 3 satellite to cosmic-ray and trapped protons, it has been possible to measure both the energy and time dependence of radiation damage. After 100 d in orbit, each of the four detectors has been exposed to approximately 3 x 10 to the 7th protons/sq cm, and the average energy resolution at 1460 keV had degraded from 3.2 keV fwhm to 8.6 keV fwhm. The lines were all broadened to the low energy side although the line profile was different for each of the four detectors. The damage-related contribution to the degradation in energy resolution was found to be linear in energy and proton influence.

There are several applications for which it is desirable to calculate the locations and energies of individual gamma-ray interactions within a high purity germanium (HPGe) detector. These include gamma-ray imaging and Compton suppression. With a segmented detector this can be accomplished by analyzing the pulse shapes of the signals from the various segments. We examine the fundamental limits to the spatial resolution attainable with this approach. The primary source of error is the series noise of the field effect transistors (FETs) at the inputs of the charge amplifiers. We show how to calculate the noise spectral density at the output of the charge amplifiers due to an optimally selected FET. This calculation is based only on the detector capacitance and a noise constant for the FET technology. We show how to use this spectral density to calculate the uncertainties in parameters, such as interaction locations and energies, that are derived from pulse shape analysis using maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) applied to filtered and digitized recordings of the charge signals. Example calculations are given to illustrate our approach. Experimental results are given that demonstrate that one can construct complete systems, from detector through data analysis, that come near the theoretical limits.

We report on the current of our work on x-ray microcalorimeters for use as high resolution x-ray spectrometers. To maximize the x-ray collecting area and the signal to noise ratio, the total heat capacity of the device must be minimized. This is best achieved if the calorimeter is divided into two components, a thermal sensor and an x-ray absorber. The thermal sensor is a neutron transmutation doped (NTD) germanium resistor made as small as possible to minimize the heat capacity of the calorimeter. The thermistor can be attached to a thin x-ray absorber with large area and low heat capacity fabricated from superconducting materials such as niobium. We discuss results from our most recent studies of such superconducting absorbers and present the x-ray spectra obtained with these composite microcalorimeters at a temperature of 0.1 K. An energy resolution of 19 eV FWHM has been measured. 14 refs., 3 figs.

From signal transduction of living cells to oxidation and corrosion of metals, mechanical stress intimately couples with chemical reactions, regulating these biological and physiochemical processes. The coupled effect is particularly evident in electrochemical lithiation/delithiation cycling of high-capacity electrodes, such as silicon (Si), where on one hand lithiation-generated stress mediates lithiation kinetics, and on the other electrochemical reaction rate regulates stress generation and mechanical failure of the electrodes. Here we report for the first time the evidence on the controlled lithiation in germanium nanowires (GeNWs) through external bending. Contrary to the symmetric core-shell lithiation in free-standing GeNWs, we show bending GeNWs breaks the lithiation symmetry, speeding up lithaition at the tensile side while slowing down at the compressive side of the GeNWs. The bending-induced symmetry breaking of lithiation in GeNWs is further corroborated by chemomechanical modeling. In the light of the coupled effect between lithiation kinetics and mechanical stress in the electrochemical cycling, our findings shed light on strain/stress engineering of durable high-rate electrodes and energy harvesting through mechanical motion.

Single-point diamond turning of silicon and germanium was investigated in order to clarify the role of cutting depth in coaxing a ductile chip formation in normally brittle substances. Experiments based on the rapid withdrawal of the tool from the workpiece have shown that microfracture damage is a function of the effective depth of cut (as opposed to the nominal cutting depth). In essence, damage created by the leading edge of the tool is removed several revolutions later by lower sections of the tool edge, where the effective cutting depth is less. It appears that a truly ductile cutting response can be achieved only when the effective cutting depth, or critical chip thickness, is less than about 20 nm. Factors such as tool rake angle are significant in that they will affect the actual value of the critical chip thickness for transition from brittle to ductile response. It is concluded that the critical chip thickness is an excellent parameter for measuring the effects of machining conditions on the ductility of the cut and for designing tool-workpiece geometry in both turning and grinding.

We propose qubits based on shallow donor electron spins in germanium structures with phononic gap. We consider a phononic crystal formed by periodic holes in Ge plate or a rigid cover / Ge layer / rigid substrate structure with gaps approximately a few GHz. The spin relaxation is suppressed dramatically, if the Zeeman frequency omegaZ is in the phononic gap, but an effective coupling between the spins of remote donors via exchange of virtual phonons remains essential. If omegaZ approaches to a gap edge in these structures, a long-range (limited by detuning of omegaZ) resonant exchange interaction takes place. We estimate that ratio of the exchange integral to the longitudinal relaxation rate exceeds 10(exp 5) and lateral scale of resonant exchange 0.1 mm. The exchange contribution can be verified under microwave pumping through oscillations of spin echo signal or through the differential absorption measurements. Efficient manipulation of spins due to the Rabi oscillations opens a new way for quantum information applications.

High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors will be used in future space missions for gamma-ray measurements and will be subject to interactions with energetic particles. To simulate this process several large-volume n-type HPGe detectors were incrementally exposed to a particle fluence of up to 10{sub 8} protons cm{sup {minus}2} (proton energy: 1.5 GeV) at different operating temperatures (90 to 120 K) to induce radiation damage. Basic scientific as well as engineering data on detector performance were collected. During the incremental irradiation, the peak shape produced by the detectors showed a significant change from a Gaussian shape to a broad complex structure. After the irradiation all detectors were thoroughly characterized by measuring many parameters. To remove the accumulated radiation damage the detectors were stepwise annealed at temperatures T {le} 110{degrees}C while staying specially designed cryostats. This paper shows that n-type HPGe detectors can be used in charged particles environments as high-energy resolution devices until a certain level of radiation damage is accumulated and that the damage can be removed at moderate annealing temperatures and the detector returned to operating condition.

The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) utilizes large mass, 3-inch diameter x 1-inch thick target masses as particle detectors. The target is instrumented with both phonon and ionization sensors and comparison of energy in each channel provides event-by-event classification of electron and nuclear recoils. Fiducial volume is determined by the ability to obtain good phonon and ionization signal at a particular location. Due to electronic band structure in germanium, electron mass is described by an anisotropic tensor with heavy mass aligned along the symmetry axis defined by the [111] Miller index (L valley), resulting in large lateral component to the transport. The spatial distribution of electrons varies significantly for detectors which have their longitudinal axis orientations described by either the [100] or [111] Miller indices. Electric fields with large fringing component at high detector radius also affect the spatial distribution of electrons and holes. Both effects are studied in a 3 dimensional Monte Carlo and the impact on fiducial volume is discussed.

The MAJORANA Demonstrator, currently being constructed at Sanford Underground Research Facility in Lead, South Dakota, is an array of germanium detectors which will be used to search for neutrinoless double beta decay, which would demonstrate that neutrinos have a Majorana mass term and lepton number is not conserved. An important characteristic of semiconductor detectors is the crystal axis orientation, because the propagation of electromagnetic signals is attenuated by the location of the interaction relative to the axis of the crystal. Conventionally, a goniometer is used to position a collimated low energy gamma source in many small increments around the detector to measure the rise time at each position. However, due to physical constraints from the casing of the Demonstrator, a different method must be developed. At the University of Washington this summer, I worked with a 76 Ge point-contact detector. I found the crystal axis orientation first with Americium 241, a lower energy gamma source. Then, I used a higher energy source, Thorium 232, in conjunction with the only a few angular reference points to also calculate rise time. Also, I wrote code to process the data. The success of this method will be evaluated and discussed. NSF

We have measured the inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE) in n-Ge at room temperature. The spin current in germanium was generated by spin pumping from a CoFeB/MgO magnetic tunnel junction in order to prevent the impedance mismatch issue. A clear electromotive force was measured in Ge at the ferromagnetic resonance of CFB. The same study was then carried out on several test samples, in particular, we have investigated the influence of the MgO tunnel barrier and sample annealing on the ISHE signal. The reference CFB/MgO bilayer grown on SiO2 exhibits a clear electromotive force due to anisotropic magnetoresistance and anomalous Hall effect, which is dominated by an asymmetric contribution with respect to the resonance field. We also found that the MgO tunnel barrier is essential to observe ISHE in Ge and that sample annealing systematically leads to an increase of the signal. We propose a theoretical model based on the presence of localized states at the interface to account for these observations. Finally, all of our results are fully consistent with the observation of ISHE in heavily doped n-Ge with a spin Hall angle around 0.001. JCRS acknowledges the Eurotalent CEA program.

The creation of a specific heavy ion residue via heavy ion fusion can usually be achieved through a number of beam and target combinations. Sometimes it is necessary to choose combinations with rare beams and/or difficult targets in order to achieve the physics goals of an experiment. A case in point was a recent experiment to produce {sup 152}Dy at very high spins and low excitation energy with detection of the residue in a recoil mass analyzer. Both to create the nucleus cold and with a small recoil-cone so that the efficiency of the mass analyzer would be high, it was necessary to use the {sup 80}Se on {sup 76}Ge reaction rather than the standard {sup 48}Ca on {sup 108}Pd reaction. Because the recoil velocity of the {sup 152}Dy residues was very high using this symmetric reaction (5% v/c), it was furthermore necessary to use a stack of two thin targets to reduce the Doppler broadening. Germanium targets are fragile and do not withstand high beam currents, therefore the {sup 76}Ge target stacks were mounted on a rotating target wheel. A description of the {sup 76}Ge target stack preparation will be presented and the target performance described.

Quantitative Anger-camera tomography requires correction for Compton scattering. The Anger camera spectral-fitting technique can measure scatter fractions at designated positions in an image allowing for correction. To permit verification of those measurements for {sup 131}I, the authors have determined scatter fractions with a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector and various phantom configurations. The scatter fraction values for {sup 99m}Tc were also measured and are compared to results from Monte Carlo simulation. The phantom consisted of a 22.2 cm diameter {times} 18.6 cm high cylinder filled with water and a 6 cm diameter water-filled sphere placed at various locations inside the cylinder. Radioisotope is added to either the sphere or the cylinder. The source is collimated by an Anger camera collimator and the active area of the HPGe detector is defined by a 0.6 cm diameter hole in a lead shielding mask. Corrections include accounting for the HPGe detector efficiency as a function of gamma-ray energy, the finite energy resolution of detector and the HPGe detector energy resolution compared to that for a NaI(Tl) Anger camera.

A CF-1000BRL series portable Air Particle Sampler with filter paper as filter media was placed in one indoor and one outdoor location at 100 LPM flow rate on six dates under alternating rainy and warm weather conditions over the course of sixteen days in May 2013. The machine running times spanned between 6 to 69 hours. Each filter paper was then put in a germanium gamma ray detector, and the counts ranged from 93000 to 250000 seconds. The spectra obtained were analyzed by the CANBERRA Genie 2000 software, corrected using a background spectrum, and calibrated using a 20.27 kBq activity multi-nuclide source. We graphed the corrected counts (from detector analysis time)/second (from air sampler running time)/liter (from the air sampler's flow rate) of sharp, significantly big peaks corresponding to a nuclide in every sample against the sample number along with error bars. The graphs were then used to compare the samples and they showed a similar trend. The slight differences were usually due to the different running times of the air sampler. The graphs of about 22 nuclides were analyzed. We also tried to recognize the nuclei to which several gamma rays belonged that were displayed but not recognized by the Genie 2000 software.

The lowest possible thermal conductivity of silicon-germanium (SiGe) bulk alloys achievable through alloy scattering, or the so-called alloy limit, is important to identify for thermoelectric applications. However, this limit remains a subject of contention as both experimentally-reported and theoretically-predicted values tend to be widely scattered and inconclusive. In this work, we present a possible explanation for these discrepancies by demonstrating that the thermal conductivity can vary significantly depending on the degree of randomness in the spatial arrangement of the constituent atoms. Our study suggests that the available experimental data, obtained from alloy samples synthesized using ball-milling techniques, and previous first-principles calculations, restricted by small supercell sizes, may not have accessed the alloy limit. We find that low-frequency anharmonic phonon modes can persist unless the spatial distribution of Si and Ge atoms is completely random at the atomic scale, in which case the lowest possible thermal conductivity may be achieved. Our theoretical analysis predicts that the alloy limit of SiGe could be around 1-2 W m(-1) K(-1) with an optimal composition around 25 at% Ge, which is substantially lower than previously reported values from experiments and first-principles calculations. PMID:27398924

Several (111)-oriented, Ga-doped germanium crystals were grown in pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) containers by the Bridgman and the detached Bridgman growth techniques. Growth experiments in closed-bottom pBN containers resulted in nearly completely detached-grown crystals, because the gas pressure below the melt can build up to a higher pressure than above the melt. With open-bottom tubes the gas pressure above and below the melt is balanced during the experiment, and thus no additional force supports the detachment. In this case the crystals grew attached to the wall. Etch pit density (EPD) measurements along the axial growth direction indicated a strong improvement of the crystal quality of the detached-grown samples compared to the attached samples. Starting in the seed with an EPD of 6-8 x 10(exp 3)/square cm it decreased in the detached-grown crystals continuously to about 200-500/square cm . No significant radial difference between the EPD on the edge and the middle of the crystal exists. In the attached grown samples the EPD increases up to a value of about 2-4 x 10(exp 4)/square cm (near the edge) and up to 1 x 10(exp 4)/square cm in the middle of the sample. Thus the difference between the detached- and the attached-grown crystals with respect to the EPD is approximately two orders of magnitude.

Germanium (111)-oriented crystals have been grown by the vertical Bridgman technique, in both detached and attached configurations. Microstructural characterization of these crystals has been performed using synchrotron white beam x-ray topography (SWBXT) and double axis x-ray diffraction. Dislocation densities were measured from x-ray topographs obtained using the reflection geometry. For detached-grown crystals, the dislocation density is 4-6 x 10(exp 4) per square centimeter in the seed region, and decreases in the direction of growth to less than 10(exp 3) per square centimeter, and in some crystals reaches less than 10(exp 2) per square centimeter. For crystals grown in the attached configuration, dislocation densities were on the order of 10(exp 4) per square centimeter in the middle of the crystals, increasing to greater than 10(exp 5) per square centimeter near the edge. The measured dislocation densities are in excellent agreement with etch pit density results. The rocking curve linewidths were relatively insensitive to the dislocation densities. However, broadening and splitting of the rocking curves were observed in the vicinity of subgrain boundaries identified by x-ray topography in some of the attached-grown crystals.

The solid state structure of the lapacholate (Lap-) complexes with Zn(II), Cd(II) and Mn(II) were determined by X-ray diffraction methods. [Zn(Lap)2(DMF)(H2O)] crystallizes in the triclinic space group P 1 bar with a = 10.5051(4), b = 12.8020(4), c = 13.0394(4) Å, α = 60.418(2), β = 83.904(2), γ = 86.206(2)°, and Z = 2 molecules per unit cell. The isomorphous complexes [M(Lap)2]n (M: Cd, Mn) crystallize in the tetragonal space group P43212 with a = b = 13.5770(6) Å, c = 14.5730(6) Å (Cd), and a = b = 13.3539(4), c = 14.7148(4) Å (Mn), and Z = 4. In [Zn(Lap)2(DMF)(H2O)] the Zn(II) ion is in a distorted octahedral environment coordinated to two different and nearly perpendicular Lap- molecules acting as bidentate ligands through their adjacent carbonyl and phenol oxygen atoms. The remaining two cis-coordination sites are occupied by water and DMF molecules. [M(Lap)2]n (M: Cd, Mn) isomorphous complexes are also octahedral and present a supra-molecular arrangement in the lattice. There is only one independent Lap- molecule that coordinates the metal through all three ligand binding sites, giving rise to a 3-D structure of [M(Lap)2]n complexes that extends throughout the crystal lattice. The lapachol binding to metal is also revealed by the IR spectra. In fact, the carbonyl Cdbnd O stretching frequency is appreciable red-shifted in the complexes as compared to uncoordinated lapachol ligand. As expected, the IR and UV-Vis spectra of the isomorphous pair of complexes closely resemble to each other. Up to above 300 °C there are significant differences in the TGA of the Zn complex when compared with the isomorphous pair: while the former shows the loss of the secondary ligands (water and DMF), the latter exhibits a plateau signaling the lesser labile character of the lapacholate ligand.

We have prepared germanium carbide (Ge1-xCx) films on Si(0 0 1) by radio frequency (RF) reactive sputtering a pure Ge(1 1 1) target in a CH4/Ar mixture discharge, and found that the sp3 hybridized carbon atoms in the Ge1-xCx film can be significantly increased in two ways. One is by increasing the Ge content via increasing the RF power during the film deposition, which can lead to a transition from sp2 C-C to sp3 C-Ge bonding in the film. Another is by increasing the Ar ion energy in a discharge Ar/CH4 gas by applying the negative bias voltage, which plays an important role in inducing the compressive stress in film. We find that when the compressive stress increases above a critical value of 2.2 GPa, an abrupt transition from sp2 C-C to sp3 C-C bonding occurs in the Ge1-xCx film, which is a consequence of energy minimization.

Germanium is a highly promising anode material for lithium-ion batteries as a consequence of its large theoretical specific capacity, good electrical conductivity, and fast lithium ion diffusivity. In this work, Co3O4 nanowire array fabricated on nickel foam was designed as a nanostructured current collector for Ge anode. By limiting the voltage cutoff window in an appropriate range, the obtained Ge anode exhibits excellent lithium storage performance in half- and full-cells, which can be mainly attributed to the designed nanostructured current collector with good conductivity, enough buffering space for the volume change, and shortened ionic transport length. More importantly, the assembled Ge/LiCoO2 full-cell shows a high energy density of 475 Wh/kg and a high power density of 6587 W/kg. A high capacity of 1184 mA h g(-1) for Ge anode was maintained at a current density of 5000 mA g(-1) after 150 cycles. PMID:25629917

The optical emission of germanium-based luminescent and/or laser devices can be enhanced by tensile strain and n-type doping. In this work, we study by simulation the interplay between electrical transport and optical gain in highly n-doped and intrinsic germanium p-n heterostructure diodes under tensile strain. The effects of strain and doping on carrier mobilities and energy distribution are taken into account. Whereas the n-doping of Ge enhances the filling of the indirect L and Brillouin zone-center conduction band states, the n-doping also reduces the carrier injection efficiency, which is detrimental for the achievement of optical gain at reduced current densities. For applied biaxial strains larger than 1.25%, i.e., far before reaching the cross-over from indirect to direct band gap regime, undoped germanium exhibits a lower optical gain threshold as compared to doped germanium. We also show that the threshold current needed to reach transparency in germanium heterostructures has been significantly underestimated in the previous works.

Germanium (Ge) is a preferred material in the fabrication of high-performance gamma radiation detector for spectroscopy in nuclear physics. To maintain an intrinsic region in which electrons and holes reach the contacts to produce a spectroscopic signal, germanium crystals are usually doped with lithium (Li) ions. Consequently, hyperpure germanium (HPGe) should be prepared before the doping process to eliminate the interference of unexpected impurities in the Li dopant. Zone-refining technique, widely used in purification of ultra-pure materials, is chosen as one of the purification steps during detector-grade germanium production. In the paper, numerical analysis has been conducted to analyze heat transfer, melt flow and impurity segregation during a multi-pass zone-refining process of germanium in a Cyberstar mirror furnace. By modifying the effective redistribution coefficients, axial segregations of various impurities are investigated. Marangoni convection is found dominant in the melt. It affects the purification process through modifying the boundary layer thickness. Impurity distributions along the ingot are obtained with different conditions, such as pass number, zone travel rate, initial impurity concentration, segregation coefficient, and hot-zone length. Based on the analysis, optimization of the purification process design is proposed.

Rice plants accumulate high concentrations of silicon. Silicon has been shown to be involved in plant growth, high yield, and mitigating biotic and abiotic stresses. However, it has been demonstrated that inorganic arsenic is taken up by rice through silicon transporters under anaerobic conditions, thus the ability to efficiently take up silicon may be considered either a positive or a negative trait in rice. Germanium is an analogue of silicon that produces brown lesions in shoots and leaves, and germanium toxicity has been used to identify mutants in silicon and arsenic transport. In this study, two different genetic mapping methods were performed to determine the loci involved in germanium sensitivity in rice. Genetic mapping in the biparental cross of Bala × Azucena (an F6 population) and a genome wide association (GWA) study with 350 accessions from the Rice Diversity Panel 1 were conducted using 15 μM of germanic acid. This identified a number of germanium sensitive loci: some co-localised with previously identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) for tissue silicon or arsenic concentration, none co-localised with Lsi1 or Lsi6, while one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was detected within 200 kb of Lsi2 (these are genes known to transport silicon, whose identity was discovered using germanium toxicity). However, examining candidate genes that are within the genomic region of the loci detected above reveals genes homologous to both Lsi1 and Lsi2, as well as a number of other candidate genes, which are discussed. PMID:26356220

In this article, a hydrometallurgical method for the selective recovery of germanium from fly ash (FA) has been tested at pilot plant scale. The pilot plant flowsheet comprised a first stage of water leaching of FA, and a subsequent selective recovery of the germanium from the leachate by solvent extraction method. The solvent extraction method was based on Ge complexation with catechol in an aqueous solution followed by the extraction of the Ge-catechol complex (Ge(C{sub 6}H{sub 4}O{sub 2}){sub 3}{sup 2-}) with an extracting organic reagent (trioctylamine) diluted in an organic solvent (kerosene), followed by the subsequent stripping of the organic extract. The process has been tested on a FA generated in an integrated gasification with combined cycle (IGCC) process. The paper describes the designed 5 kg/h pilot plant and the tests performed on it. Under the operational conditions tested, approximately 50% of germanium could be recovered from FA after a water extraction at room temperature. Regarding the solvent extraction method, the best operational conditions for obtaining a concentrated germanium-bearing solution practically free of impurities were as follows: extraction time equal to 20 min; aqueous phase/organic phase volumetric ratio equal to 5; stripping with 1 M NaOH, stripping time equal to 30 min, and stripping phase/organic phase volumetric ratio equal to 5. 95% of germanium were recovered from water leachates using those conditions.

Thermal properties of molten salt systems are of interest to electrorefining operations, pertaining to both the Fuel Cycle Research & Development Program (FCR&D) and Spent Fuel Treatment Mission, currently being pursued by the Department of Energy (DOE). The phase stability of molten salts in an electrorefiner may be adversely impacted by the build-up of fission products in the electrolyte. Potential situations that need to be avoided, during electrorefining operations, include (i) fissile elements build up in the salt that might approach the criticality limits specified for the vessel, (ii) electrolyte freezing at the operating temperature of the electrorefiner due to changes in the liquidus temperature, and (iii) phase separation (non-homogenous solution). The stability (and homogeneity) of the phases can be monitored by studying the thermal characteristics of the molten salts as a function of impurity concentration. Simulated salt compositions consisting of the selected rare earth and alkaline earth chlorides, with a eutectic mixture of LiCl-KCl as the carrier electrolyte, were studied to determine the melting points (thermal characteristics) using a Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The experimental data were used to model the liquidus temperature. On the basis of the this data, it became possible to predict a spent fuel treatment processing scenario under which electrorefining could no longer be performed as a result of increasing liquidus temperatures of the electrolyte.

The 2nd workshop on Germanium (Ge) detectors and technology was held at the University of South Dakota on September 14-17th 2014, with more than 113 participants from 8 countries, 22 institutions, 15 national laboratories, and 8 companies. The participants represented the following big projects: (1) GERDA and Majorana for the search of neutrinoless double-beta decay (0νββ) (2) SuperCDMS, EDELWEISS, CDEX, and CoGeNT for search of dark matter; (3) TEXONO for sub-keV neutrino physics; (4) AGATA and GRETINA for gamma tracking; (5) AARM and others for low background radiation counting; (5) as well as PNNL and LBNL for applications of Ge detectors in homeland security. All participants have expressed a strong desire on having better understanding of Ge detector performance and advancing Ge technology for large-scale applications. The purpose of this workshop was to leverage the unique aspects of the underground laboratories in the world and the germanium (Ge) crystal growing infrastructure at the University of South Dakota (USD) by brining researchers from several institutions taking part in the Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) together with key leaders from international laboratories and prestigious universities, working on the forefront of the intensity to advance underground physics focusing on the searches for dark matter, neutrinoless double-beta decay (0νββ), and neutrino properties. The goal of the workshop was to develop opportunities for EPSCoR institutions to play key roles in the planned world-class research experiments. The workshop was to integrate individual talents and existing research capabilities, from multiple disciplines and multiple institutions, to develop research collaborations, which includes EPSCor institutions from South Dakota, North Dakota, Alabama, Iowa, and South Carolina to support multi-ton scale experiments for future. The topic areas covered in the workshop were: 1) science related to Ge

A series of Ge(sub 1-x) Si(sub x) crystal growth experiments are planned to be conducted in the Low Gradient Furnace (LGF) onboard the International Space Station. The primary objective of the research is to determine the influence of containment on the processing-induced defects and impurity incorporation in germanium-silicon alloy crystals. A comparison will be made between crystals grown by the normal and "detached" Bridgman methods and the ground-based float zone technique. Crystals grown without being in contact with a container have superior quality to otherwise similar crystals grown in direct contact with a container, especially with respect to impurity incorporation, formation of dislocations, and residual stress in crystals. "Detached" or "dewetted" Bridgman growth is similar to regular Bridgman growth in that most of the melt is in contact with the crucible wall, but the crystal is separated from the wall by a small gap, typically of the order of 10-100 microns. Long duration reduced gravity is essential to test the proposed theory of detached growth. Detached growth requires the establishment of a meniscus between the crystal and the ampoule wall. The existence of this meniscus depends on the ratio of the strength of gravity to capillary forces. On Earth, this ratio is large and stable detached growth can only be obtained over limited conditions. Crystals grown detached on the ground exhibited superior structural quality as evidenced by measurements of etch pit density, synchrotron white beam X-ray topography and double axis X-ray diffraction.

Space-based radiometric observations of key hydrological parameters (e.g., soil moisture) at the spatial and temporal scales required in the post-2002 era face significant technological challenges. These measurements are based on relatively low frequency thermal microwave emission (at 1.4 GHz for soil moisture and salinity, 10 GHz and up for precipitation, and 19 and 37 GHz for snow). The long wavelengths at these frequencies coupled with the high spatial and radiometric resolutions required by the various global hydrology communities necessitate the use of very large apertures (e.g., greater than 20 m at 1.4 GHz) and highly integrated stable RF electronics on orbit. Radio-interferometric techniques such as Synthetic Thinned Array Radiometry (STAR), using silicon germanium (SiGe) low power radio frequency integrated circuits (RFIC), is one of the most promising technologies to enable very large non-rotating apertures in space. STAR instruments are composed of arrays of small antenna/receiving elements that are arranged so that the collecting area is smaller than an equivalent real aperture system, allowing very high packing densities for launch. A 20 meter aperture at L-band, for example, will require greater than 1000 of these receiving elements. SiGe RFIC's reduce power consumption enough to make an array like this possible in the power-limited environment of space flight. An overview of the state-of-the-art will be given, and current work in the area of SiGe radiometer development for soil moisture remote sensing will be discussed.

Germanium and silicon have lagged behind more popular II-VI and IV-VI semiconductor materials in the emerging field of semiconductor nanocrystal thin film devices. We report germanium and silicon nanocrystal field-effect transistors fabricated by synthesizing nanocrystals in a plasma, transferring them into solution, and casting thin films. Germanium devices show n-type, ambipolar, or p-type behavior depending on annealing temperature with electron and hole mobilities as large as 0.02 and 0.006 cm2 V-1 s-1, respectively. Silicon devices exhibit n-type behavior without any postdeposition treatment, but are plagued by poor film morphology.

The growth technology of Silicon-germanium (Si-Ge) alloys and the possible advantages of growth in microgravity is reviewed. The Si-Ge alloys have a continuous variation of bandgap energy from the germanium bandgap to the silicon bandgap. The unusual two slope behavior of Eg versus composition is due to the differences in the conduction band structure between Si and Ge. Below 17% (atomic), the germanium band structure dominates; and above it, the bands are "silicon like". It is found that the growth of Si-Ge alloys in microgravity is very attractive. In particular, the float zone method, in which a liquid zone of controlled starting composition, used to grow a large amount of useful alloy crystal. Large temperature gradients and relatively flat growth interfaces are necessary to obtain homogeneous crystal growth.

A simple column chromatographic method was developed to isolate (77)As (94±6% (EtOH/HCl); 74±11 (MeOH)) from germanium for potential use in radioimmunotherapy. The separation of arsenic from germanium was based on their relative affinities for different chromatographic materials in aqueous and organic environments. Using an organic or mixed mobile phase, germanium was selectively retained on a silica gel column as germanate, while arsenic was eluted from the column as arsenate. Subsequently, enriched (76)Ge (98±2) was recovered for reuse by elution with aqueous solution (neutral to basic). Greater than 98% radiolabeling yield of a (77)As-trithiol was observed from methanol separated [(77)As]arsenate [17]. PMID:26947162

X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements have been employed to determine structural and bonding changes, as a function of the lithium content/state of charge, of germanium nanowires used as the active anode material within lithium ion batteries (LIBs). Our data, collected throughout the course of battery cycling (operando), indicate that lithium incorporation within the nanostructured germanium occurs heterogeneously, preferentially into amorphous regions over crystalline domains. Maintenance of the molecular structural integrity within the germanium nanowire is dependent on the depth of discharge. Discharging to a shallower cutoff voltage preserves partial crystallinity for several cycles. PMID:25616130

In zone-refining of high-purity germanium crystals, the influential parameters include vacuum level, container of germanium ingot, ambient gases, zone travel speed, zone length, etc. In the present work, the influences of zone length and zone travel speed on the purity level of the zone-refined ingot have been investigated with many experiments. The impurity level in the zone-refined ingot was characterized by van der pauw hall measurement. The shallow impurities are measured with a photothermal ionization spectroscopy (PTIS), which identifies existence of boron, aluminum and phosphor as three main impurities, in the zone-refined germanium ingot. Utilizing the multiple experiments, we have optimized the zone length and zone travel speed. We demonstrate our experimental results with solidification theory of metals.

The observation of neutrinoless double-beta decay would determine whether the neutrino is a Majorana particle and provide information on the absolute scale of neutrino mass. The MAJORANA Collaboration is constructing the DEMONSTRATOR, an array of germanium detectors, to search for neutrinoless double-beta decay of 76Ge. The DEMONSTRATOR will contain 40 kg of germanium; up to 30 kg will be enriched to 86% in 76Ge. The DEMONSTRATOR will be deployed deep underground in an ultra-low-background shielded environment. Operation of the DEMONSTRATOR aims to determine whether a future tonne-scale germanium experiment can achieve a background goal of one count per tonne-year in a 4-keV region of interest around the 76Ge neutrinoless double-beta decay Q-value of 2039 keV.

The occurrence of gas in salt mines and caverns has presented some serious problems to facility operators. Salt mines have long experienced sudden, usually unexpected expulsions of gas and salt from a production face, commonly known as outbursts. Outbursts can release over one million cubic feet of methane and fractured salt, and are responsible for the lives of numerous miners and explosions. Equipment, production time, and even entire mines have been lost due to outbursts. An outburst creates a cornucopian shaped hole that can reach heights of several hundred feet. The potential occurrence of outbursts must be factored into mine design and mining methods. In caverns, the occurrence of outbursts and steady infiltration of gas into stored product can effect the quality of the product, particularly over the long-term, and in some cases renders the product unusable as is or difficult to transport. Gas has also been known to collect in the roof traps of caverns resulting in safety and operational concerns. The intent of this paper is to summarize the existing knowledge on gas releases from salt. The compiled information can provide a better understanding of the phenomena and gain insight into the causative mechanisms that, once established, can help mitigate the variety of problems associated with gas releases from salt. Outbursts, as documented in mines, are discussed first. This is followed by a discussion of the relatively slow gas infiltration into stored crude oil, as observed and modeled in the caverns of the US Strategic Petroleum Reserve. A model that predicts outburst pressure kicks in caverns is also discussed.

Salt scaling is superficial damage caused by freezing a saline solution on the surface of a cementitious body. The damage consists of the removal of small chips or flakes of binder. The discovery of this phenomenon in the early 1950's prompted hundreds of experimental studies, which clearly elucidated the characteristics of this damage. In particular it was shown that a pessimum salt concentration exists, where a moderate salt concentration (˜3%) results in the most damage. Despite the numerous studies, the mechanism responsible for salt scaling has not been identified. In this work it is shown that salt scaling is a result of the large thermal expansion mismatch between ice and the cementitious body, and that the mechanism responsible for damage is analogous to glue-spalling. When ice forms on a cementitious body a bi-material composite is formed. The thermal expansion coefficient of the ice is ˜5 times that of the underlying body, so when the temperature of the composite is lowered below the melting point, the ice goes into tension. Once this stress exceeds the strength of the ice, cracks initiate in the ice and propagate into the surface of the cementitious body, removing a flake of material. The glue-spall mechanism accounts for all of the characteristics of salt scaling. In particular, a theoretical analysis is presented which shows that the pessimum concentration is a consequence of the effect of brine pockets on the mechanical properties of ice, and that the damage morphology is accounted for by fracture mechanics. Finally, empirical evidence is presented that proves that the glue-small mechanism is the primary cause of salt scaling. The primary experimental tool used in this study is a novel warping experiment, where a pool of liquid is formed on top of a thin (˜3 mm) plate of cement paste. Stresses in the plate, including thermal expansion mismatch, result in warping of the plate, which is easily detected. This technique revealed the existence of

Germanium detector arrays are needed for low-level counting facilities. The practical applications of such user facilities include characterization of low-level radioactive samples. In addition, the same detector arrays can also perform important fundamental physics measurements including the search for rare events like neutrino-less double-beta decay. Coaxial germanium detectors having segmented outer contacts will provide the next level of sensitivity improvement in low background measurements. The segmented outer detector contact allows performance of advanced pulse shape analysis measurements that provide additional background reduction. Currently, n-type (reverse electrode) germanium coaxial detectors are used whenever a segmented coaxial detector is needed because the outer boron (electron barrier) contact is thin and can be segmented. Coaxial detectors fabricated from p-type germanium cost less, have better resolution, and are larger than n-type coaxial detectors. However, it is difficult to reliably segment p-type coaxial detectors because thick (~1 mm) lithium-diffused (hole barrier) contacts are the standard outside contact for p-type coaxial detectors. During this Phase 1 Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) we have researched the possibility of using amorphous germanium contacts as a thin outer contact of p-type coaxial detectors that can be segmented. We have developed amorphous germanium contacts that provide a very high hole barrier on small planar detectors. These easily segmented amorphous germanium contacts have been demonstrated to withstand several thousand volts/cm electric fields with no measurable leakage current (<1 pA) from charge injection over the hole barrier. We have also demonstrated that the contact can be sputter deposited around and over the curved outside surface of a small p-type coaxial detector. The amorphous contact has shown good rectification properties on the outside of a small p-type coaxial detector. These encouraging

A method for doping semiconductors used for far infrared lasers with non-hydrogenic acceptors having binding energies larger than the energy of the laser photons. Doping of germanium or silicon crystals with beryllium, zinc or copper. A far infrared laser comprising germanium crystals doped with double or triple acceptor dopants permitting the doped laser to be tuned continuously from 1 to 4 terahertz and to operate in continuous mode. A method for operating semiconductor hole population inversion lasers with a closed cycle refrigerator.

We present first principles electronic structure calculations and photoemission measurements of the change in the valence band DOS of germanium as its dimensions are reduced from the bulk to the nanoscale. By comparing the calculated broadening of the s and s--p band peaks and the energy of surface dangling bonds to the measured DOS we identify the most likely structure of these nanoparticles. We propose that, in contrast to recent interpretations, small 2-3 nm germanium nanoparticles prepared by gas phase aggregation have a distorted diamond structure core and a thermally disordered surface.

This document presents results of an investigation of the material and geometry choice for the transport shield of germanium, the active detector material used in 76Ge neutrinoless double beta decay searches. The objective of this work is to select the optimal material and geometry to minimize cosmogenic production of radioactive isotopes in the germanium material. The design of such a shield is based on the calculation of the cosmogenic production rate of isotopes that are known to cause interfering backgrounds in 76Ge neutrinoless double beta decay searches.

Microhardness and Hall effect are investigated in germanium crystals, doped with donor- and acceptor-type elements at different ratios of the doping components. In the constructed composition-property diagrams, the presence of singular points is revealed, which corresponds to an equiatomic ratio between the donors and acceptors. From a comparison of the results with data, obtained earlier on complexly doped semiconductors (Ge, Si, InP, InAs), the possibility of the formation of donor-acceptor clusters of the (AlSb) type is demonstrated in a germanium-based solid solution.

Germanium tetrafluoride has long been the standard dopant gas of choice for germanium implantation processes. While this material maintains several positive attributes (e.g., it is a nonflammable gas that is easily delivered to an ion source), its use can result in extremely short ion source lifetimes. This is especially the case for the situation when an ion implanter runs solely or predominantly GeF4. Presented here is an examination of various potential solutions to the short source life problem, some of which enable significant improvement.

Within the quest for direct band-gap group IV materials, strain engineering in germanium is one promising route. We present a study of the strain distribution in single, suspended germanium nanowires using nanofocused synchrotron radiation. Evaluating the probed Bragg reflection for different illumination positions along the nanowire length results in corresponding strain components as well as the nanowire's tilting and bending. By using these findings we determined the complete strain state with the help of finite element modelling. The resulting information provides us with the possibility of evaluating the validity of the strain investigations following from Raman scattering experiments which are based on the assumption of purely uniaxial strain. PMID:26753909

The 100 meter drop tube at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center has been used for a series of experiments with niobium-germanium alloys. These experiments were conducted with electromagnetic levitation melting in a 200 torr helium environment. Liquid alloys experienced large degrees of undercooling prior to solidification in the drop tube. Several interesting metastable structures were observed. However, the recalescence event prevented extended solid solubility of germanium in the A-15 beta phase. Liquids of eutectic composition were found to undercool in the presence of solid alpha and solid Nb5Ge3.

Ordered germanium hut islands are grown by molecular-beam epitaxy on high twist angle molecular bonded silicon (001) substrates (twist angle higher than 20 deg.). We show that the growth organization is induced by an array of interfacial tilt dislocations. Plan-view transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy observations show that the orientation and period of the tilt dislocation array determine the orientation, period, and length of elongated germanium hut islands. The strain field generated by an array of tilt dislocations is proposed as the driving force of the reported organization.

Removal of the long-lived {sup 222}Rn daughters ({sup 210}Pb, {sup 210}Bi and {sup 210}Po) from stainless steel and germanium surfaces was investigated. As cleaning technique etching was applied to samples in a form of discs exposed earlier to a strong radon source. Reduction of the {sup 210}Pb activity was tested using a HPGe spectrometer, for {sup 210}Bi a beta spectrometer and for {sup 210}Po an alpha spectrometer was used. According to the conducted measurements all the isotopes were removed very efficiently from germanium. Results obtained for stainless steel were worse but still better than those achieved for copper.

The temperature dependent nuclear hyperfine interaction of 111Cd-carbon complex in germanium has been studied using the perturbed γ- γ angular correlation (PAC) method. The parameters of the hyperfine interaction representing substitutional carbon-cadmium complex in germanium ( ν Q1=207(1) MHz ( η=0.16)) shows dependence on temperature. The formation and thermal stability of the complex has been reported by the same author earlier. It was found in this study that the quadrupole coupling constant of the interaction increases at sample temperature below 293 K. The results are encouraging toward better understanding of the complex in the host matrix.

This work demonstrates and describes for the first time an unusual strain-relaxation mechanism by the formation and self-assembly of well-ordered tin wires during the thermal annealing of epitaxial Ge0.83Sn0.17-on-Ge(001) substrate. Fully strained germanium-tin alloys (Ge0.83Sn0.17) were epitaxially grown on Ge(001) substrate by molecular beam epitaxy. The morphological and compositional evolution of Ge0.83Sn0.17 during thermal annealing is studied by atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy. Under certain annealing conditions, the Ge0.83Sn0.17 layer decomposes into two stable phases, and well-defined Sn wires that are preferentially oriented along two orthogonal ⟨100⟩ azimuths are formed. The formation of the Sn wires is related to the annealing temperature and the Ge0.83Sn0.17 thickness, and can be explained by the nucleation of a grain with Sn islands on the outer front, followed by grain boundary migration. The Sn wire formation process is found to be thermally activated, and an activation enthalpy (Ec) of 0.41 eV is extracted. This thermally activated phase transformation, i.e., 2D epitaxial layer to 3D wires, occurs via a mechanism akin to "cellular precipitation." This synthesis route of Sn wires opens new possibilities for creation of nanoscale patterns at high-throughput without the need for lithography.

This work demonstrates and describes for the first time an unusual strain-relaxation mechanism by the formation and self-assembly of well-ordered tin wires during the thermal annealing of epitaxial Ge{sub 0.83}Sn{sub 0.17}-on-Ge(001) substrate. Fully strained germanium-tin alloys (Ge{sub 0.83}Sn{sub 0.17}) were epitaxially grown on Ge(001) substrate by molecular beam epitaxy. The morphological and compositional evolution of Ge{sub 0.83}Sn{sub 0.17} during thermal annealing is studied by atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy. Under certain annealing conditions, the Ge{sub 0.83}Sn{sub 0.17} layer decomposes into two stable phases, and well-defined Sn wires that are preferentially oriented along two orthogonal 〈100〉 azimuths are formed. The formation of the Sn wires is related to the annealing temperature and the Ge{sub 0.83}Sn{sub 0.17} thickness, and can be explained by the nucleation of a grain with Sn islands on the outer front, followed by grain boundary migration. The Sn wire formation process is found to be thermally activated, and an activation enthalpy (E{sub c}) of 0.41 eV is extracted. This thermally activated phase transformation, i.e., 2D epitaxial layer to 3D wires, occurs via a mechanism akin to “cellular precipitation.” This synthesis route of Sn wires opens new possibilities for creation of nanoscale patterns at high-throughput without the need for lithography.

... mountains surrounding Salt Lake City are renowned for the dry, powdery snow that results from the arid climate and location at the ... should be used with the red filter placed over your left eye. The canyons and peaks of the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains are ...

A study investigated the effects of suggestopedic accelerative learning and teaching (SALT) on the spelling achievement, attitudes toward school, and memory skills of fourth-grade students. Subjects were 20 male and 28 female students from two self-contained classrooms at Kennedy Elementary School in Rexburg, Idaho. The control classroom and the…

Thallium ( I ) , soluble salts ; CASRN Various Human health assessment information on a chemical substance is included in the IRIS database only after a comprehensive review of toxicity data , as outlined in the IRIS assessment development process . Sections I ( Health Hazard Assessments for Noncarc

Uranium , soluble salts ; no CASRN Human health assessment information on a chemical substance is included in the IRIS database only after a comprehensive review of toxicity data , as outlined in the IRIS assessment development process . Sections I ( Health Hazard Assessments for Noncarcinogenic Eff

Nickel , soluble salts ; CASRN Various Human health assessment information on a chemical substance is included in the IRIS database only after a comprehensive review of toxicity data , as outlined in the IRIS assessment development process . Sections I ( Health Hazard Assessments for Noncarcinogenic

The details of construction and assembly of a cerous magnesium nitrate (CMN) paramagnetic thermometer are presented. The thermometer is a small unit consisting of a primary, two secondaries, the salt pill, and thermal links. The thermometer calibration changes very little on successive coolings and is reliable to 35 mK. A typical calibration curve is also presented.

This paper presents a summary discussion of the approaches that have been and will be taken in design of repository facilities for use with disposal of radioactive wastes in salt formations. Since specific sites have yet to be identified, the discussion is at a general level, supplemented with illustrative examples where appropriate. 5 references, 1 figure.

A method and apparatus for removing metal contaminants from the spent salt of a molten salt oxidation (MSO) reactor is described. Spent salt is removed from the reactor and analyzed to determine the contaminants present and the carbonate concentration. The salt is dissolved in water, and one or more reagents may be added to precipitate the metal oxide and/or the metal as either metal oxide, metal hydroxide, or as a salt. The precipitated materials are filtered, dried and packaged for disposal as waste or can be immobilized as ceramic pellets. More than about 90% of the metals and mineral residues (ashes) present are removed by filtration. After filtration, salt solutions having a carbonate concentration >20% can be spray-dried and returned to the reactor for re-use. Salt solutions containing a carbonate concentration <20% require further clean-up using an ion exchange column, which yields salt solutions that contain less than 1.0 ppm of contaminants.

A method for removing actinide contaminants (uranium and thorium) from the spent salt of a molten salt oxidation (MSO) reactor is described. Spent salt is removed from the reactor and analyzed to determine the contaminants present and the carbonate concentration. The salt is dissolved in water, and one or more reagents are added to precipitate the thorium as thorium oxide and/or the uranium as either uranium oxide or as a diuranate salt. The precipitated materials are filtered, dried and packaged for disposal as radioactive waste. About 90% of the thorium and/or uranium present is removed by filtration. After filtration, salt solutions having a carbonate concentration >20% can be dried and returned to the reactor for re-use. Salt solutions containing a carbonate concentration <20% require further clean-up using an ion exchange column, which yields salt solutions that contain less than 0.1 ppm of thorium or uranium.

... reduce the salt in your diet and for information, strategies, and tools you need to lead a healthier ... reduce the salt in your diet and get information, strategies, and tools you need to lead a healthier ...

Germanium and REEs are strategic elements that are used for high tech devices and engineered systems, however these elements are hardly concentrated into mineable ore deposits. Since these elements occur widely dispersed in the earth crust with concentrations of several mgṡkg‑1 (Ge 1.6 mgṡkg‑1, Nd 25 mgṡkg‑1) a new possibility to gain these elements could be phytomining, a technique that uses plants to extract elements from soils via their roots. Since knowledge about accumulating plant species is quite limited we conducted research on the concentrations of strategic elements in wood and leaves of fast growing tree species (Salix spec., Populus spec., Betula pendula, Alnus glutinosa, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus). In total 35 study sites were selected in the mining affected area around Freiberg (Saxony, Germany), differing in their species composition and degree of contamination with toxic trace metals (Pb, As, Cd). On each site plant tissues (wood and leaves, respectively) of different species were sampled. In addition soil samples were taken from a soil depth of 0 - 30 cm and 30 - 60 cm. The aim of our work was to investigate correlations between the concentrations of the target elements in plant tissues and soil characteristics like pH, texture, nutrients and concentrations in six operationally defined soil fractions (mobile, acid soluble, oxidizable, amorphic oxides, crystalline oxides, residual or siliceous). Concentrations of elements in soil extracts and plant tissues were measured with ICP-MS. The element Nd was selected as representative for the group of REEs, since this element showed a high correlation with the concentrations of the other REE We found that the concentration of Nd in the leaves (0.31 mgṡkg‑1Nd) were several times higher than in herbaceous species (0.05 mgṡkg‑1 Nd). The concentration of Ge in leaves were ten times lower than that of Nd whereas in herbaceous species Nd and Ge were in equal magnitude. Within

There is increasing interest in development of high speed, low noise and readily fieldable near infrared (NIR) single photon detectors. InGaAs/InP Avalanche photodiodes (APD) operated in Geiger mode (GM) are a leading choice for NIR due to their preeminence in optical networking. After-pulsing is, however, a primary challenge to operating InGaAs/InP single photon detectors at high frequencies1. After-pulsing is the effect of charge being released from traps that trigger false ("dark") counts. To overcome this problem, hold-off times between detection windows are used to allow the traps to discharge to suppress after-pulsing. The hold-off time represents, however, an upper limit on detection frequency that shows degradation beginning at frequencies of ~100 kHz in InGaAs/InP. Alternatively, germanium (Ge) single photon avalanche photodiodes (SPAD) have been reported to have more than an order of magnitude smaller charge trap densities than InGaAs/InP SPADs2, which allowed them to be successfully operated with passive quenching2 (i.e., no gated hold off times necessary), which is not possible with InGaAs/InP SPADs, indicating a much weaker dark count dependence on hold-off time consistent with fewer charge traps. Despite these encouraging results suggesting a possible higher operating frequency limit for Ge SPADs, little has been reported on Ge SPAD performance at high frequencies presumably because previous work with Ge SPADs has been discouraged by a strong demand to work at 1550 nm. NIR SPADs require cooling, which in the case of Ge SPADs dramatically reduces the quantum efficiency of the Ge at 1550 nm. Recently, however, advantages to working at 1310 nm have been suggested which combined with a need to increase quantum bit rates for quantum key distribution (QKD) motivates examination of Ge detectors performance at very high detection rates where InGaAs/InP does not perform as well. Presented in this paper are measurements of a commercially available Ge APD

This thesis presents the fabrication and characterization of silicon/silicon-germanium quantum wells, quantum dots, and quantum point contacts. These systems are promising for quantum computing applications due to the long predicted spin lifetimes. In addition, the valley states in Si/SiGe two-dimensional electron gases (2DEGs) are a novel phenomenon in regards to nanostructures, and characterizing these states is also necessary for potential computing applications. However, working with these heterostructures---especially in regards to metal Schottky gating---has proved historically challenging such that single electron transistors had not been achieved at the onset of this research. The first quantum dots in Si/SiGe are presented, defined completely by CF4 reactive ion etch without the use of metal gates. Etch-defined 2DEG side gates are used to modulate the potential of the quantum dot. Results for various metal gating schemes are also presented, culminating in the first Schottky-gated quantum dots in Si/SiGe. Differing from the etch-defined dots, the tunnel junctions of the metal-etch hybrid dot are fully tunable by the voltage applied to the top gates. Hall measurements of multiple heterostructures are presented, providing evidence that many of the challenges associated with gating Si/SiGe can be attributed to undepleted dopants in the supply layer. These dopants screen the top gates but can be detected as a parallel conduction channel in Hall measurements taken at a 2 K. A fully top-gate defined quantum dot was fabricated on an optimized Si/SiGe heterostructure, and the single particle excited states were resolved for the first time in Si/SiGe. Finally, quantum point contacts were defined by metal top gates, and the conduction was mapped out over a large range of magnetic field and voltages on the gates. The positions of the conductance steps are used to extract the valley splitting---a quantity that had been measured in a bulk 2DEG but not in a nanostructure

Acoustooptic interaction in a germanium Bragg cell, which was operated as an acoustic resonator, was measured at 119 microns relative to 10.6 microns. The figure of merit of the material was found to be approximately 20 percent higher in the far infrared. The performance of various acoustooptic materials in the far infrared is briefly discussed. 5 references.

A new chloride generation system was designed for the direct, sensitive, rapid and accurate determination of the total germanium in complex matrices. It was aimed to improve the detection limit of chloride generation technique by increasing the vapor pressure of germanium tetrachloride (GeCl(4)). In order to do so, a novel joint vapor production and gas-liquid separation unit equipped with a home-made oven was incorporated to an ordinary nitrous oxide-acetylene flame atomic absorption spectrometer. Several variables such as reaction time, temperature and acid concentration have been investigated. The linear range for germanium determination was 0.1-10 ng mL(-1) for 1 mL sampling volume with a detection limit (3s) of 0.01 ng mL(-1). The relative standard deviation (RSD) was 2.4% for nine replicates of a 1 ng mL(-1) germanium solution. The method was validated by the analysis of one non-certified and two certified geochemical reference materials, respectively, CRM GSJ-JR-2 (Rhyolite), and GSJ-JR-1 (Rhyolite), and GBW 07107 (Chinese Rock). Selectivity of the method was investigated for Cd(2+), Co(2+), Cu(2+), Fe(3+), Ga(3+), Hg(2+), Ni(2+), Pb(2+), Sn(2+), and Zn(2+) ions and ionic species of As(III), Sb(III), Te(IV), and Se(IV). PMID:21315908

Germanium and GaAs crystals were investigated for studies on photovoltaic effects, chemical etching and epitaxial growth according to the overall objective to assess the defect structure of single crystalline materials. A brief survey of basic theory and topographical techniques is provided; examples of topographs are presented.

We present a combined experimental and theoretical study of ruthenium doped germanium clusters, RuGen(-) (n = 3-12), and their corresponding neutral species. Photoelectron spectra of RuGen(-) clusters are measured at 266 nm. The vertical detachment energies (VDEs) and adiabatic detachment energies (ADEs) are obtained. Unbiased CALYPSO structure searches confirm the low-lying structures of anionic and neutral ruthenium doped germanium clusters in the size range of 3 ≤ n ≤ 12. Subsequent geometry optimizations using density functional theory (DFT) at PW91/LANL2DZ level are carried out to determine the relative stability and electronic properties of ruthenium doped germanium clusters. It is found that most of the anionic and neutral clusters have very similar global features. Although the global minimum structures of the anionic and neutral clusters are different, their respective geometries are observed as the low-lying isomers in either case. In addition, for n > 8, the Ru atom in RuGen(-/0) clusters is absorbed endohedrally in the Ge cage. The theoretically predicted vertical and adiabatic detachment energies are in good agreement with the experimental measurements. The excellent agreement between DFT calculations and experiment enables a comprehensive evaluation of the geometrical and electronic structures of ruthenium doped germanium clusters. PMID:27439955

We present an all-dielectric germanium nanosystem exhibiting a strong third order nonlinear response and efficient third harmonic generation in the optical regime. A thin germanium nanodisk shows a pronounced valley in its scattering cross section at the dark anapole mode, while the electric field energy inside the disk is maximized due to high confinement within the dielectric. We investigate the dependence of the third harmonic signal on disk size and pump wavelength to reveal the nature of the anapole mode. Each germanium nanodisk generates a high effective third order susceptibility of χ((3)) = 4.3 × 10(-9) esu, corresponding to an associated third harmonic conversion efficiency of 0.0001% at an excitation wavelength of 1650 nm, which is 4 orders of magnitude greater than the case of an unstructured germanium reference film. Furthermore, the nonlinear conversion via the anapole mode outperforms that via the radiative dipolar resonances by about 1 order of magnitude, which is consistent with our numerical simulations. These findings open new possibilities for the optimization of upconversion processes on the nanoscale through the appropriate engineering of suitable dielectric materials. PMID:27331867

We present a combined experimental and theoretical study of ruthenium doped germanium clusters, RuGen− (n = 3–12), and their corresponding neutral species. Photoelectron spectra of RuGen− clusters are measured at 266 nm. The vertical detachment energies (VDEs) and adiabatic detachment energies (ADEs) are obtained. Unbiased CALYPSO structure searches confirm the low-lying structures of anionic and neutral ruthenium doped germanium clusters in the size range of 3 ≤ n ≤ 12. Subsequent geometry optimizations using density functional theory (DFT) at PW91/LANL2DZ level are carried out to determine the relative stability and electronic properties of ruthenium doped germanium clusters. It is found that most of the anionic and neutral clusters have very similar global features. Although the global minimum structures of the anionic and neutral clusters are different, their respective geometries are observed as the low-lying isomers in either case. In addition, for n > 8, the Ru atom in RuGen−/0 clusters is absorbed endohedrally in the Ge cage. The theoretically predicted vertical and adiabatic detachment energies are in good agreement with the experimental measurements. The excellent agreement between DFT calculations and experiment enables a comprehensive evaluation of the geometrical and electronic structures of ruthenium doped germanium clusters. PMID:27439955

A simple Mg-thermal reduction reaction is reported to synthesize germanium (Ge) nanoparticles with a uniform size at a low temperature of 400 °C in an autoclave. The as-prepared Ge nanoparticles exhibit promising anode applications in lithium ion batteries with high capacity and excellent cycling stability. PMID:26813100

Metallic germanium is an ideal anode for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), owing to its high theoretical capacity (1624 mA h g(-1) ) and low operating voltage. Herein, we highlight recent advances in the development of Ge-based anodes in LIBs, although improvements in their coulombic efficiency (CE), capacity retention, and rate performance are still required. One of the major concerns facing the development of Ge anodes is the controlled formation of microstructures. In this Focus Review, we summarize Ge-based materials with different structural dimensions, that is, zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), three-dimensional (3D), and even monolithic and macroscale structures. Moreover, the design of Ge-based oxide materials, as an effective route for achieving higher Li-storage capacities and cycling performance, is also discussed. Finally, we briefly summarize new types of Ge-based materials, such as ternary germanium oxides, germanium sulfides, and germanium phosphides, and predict that they will bring about a reformation in the field of LIBs. PMID:26990878

The experimental approach to attaining the goals of this research program is briefly outlined and the progress made in the last year is reviewed in sections entitled: (a) primary steps in the reaction of recoiling silicon and germanium atoms and the identification of reactive intermediates in the recoil reactions; (b) thermally induced silylene and germylene reactions; (c) ion-molecule reaction studies.

The formation of a denuded zone (DZ) by conventional furnace annealing (CFA) and rapid thermal annealing (RTA) based denudation processing is investigated and the gettering of copper (Cu) atoms in germanium co-doped heavily phosphorus-doped Czochralski (GHPCZ) silicon wafers is evaluated. It is suggested that both a good quality defect-free DZ with a suitable width in the sub-surface area and a high density bulk micro-defect (BMD) region could be formed in heavily phosphorus-doped Czochralski (HPCZ) silicon and GHPCZ silicon wafers. This is ascribed to the formation of phosphorus-vacancy (P-V) related complexes and germanium-vacancy (GeV) related complexes. Compared with HPCZ silicon, the DZ width is wider in the GHPCZ silicon sample with CFA-based denudation processing but narrower in the one with two-step RTA pretreatments. These phenomena are ascribed to the enhancing effect of germanium on oxygen out-diffusion movement and oxygen precipitate nucleation, respectively. Furthermore, fairly clean DZs near the surface remain in both the HPCZ and GHPCZ silicon wafers after Cu in-diffusion, except for the HPCZ silicon wafer which underwent denudation processing with a CFA pretreatment, suggesting that germanium doping could improve the gettering of Cu contamination.

Externally segmented germanium detectors promise a breakthrough in gamma-ray imaging capabilities while retaining the superb energy resolution of germanium spectrometers. An angular resolution of 0.2 deg becomes practical by combining position-sensitive germanium detectors having a segment thickness of a few millimeters with a one-dimensional coded aperture located about a meter from the detectors. Correspondingly higher angular resolutions are possible with larger separations between the detectors and the coded aperture. Two-dimensional images can be obtained by rotating the instrument. Although the basic concept is similar to optical or X-ray coded-aperture imaging techniques, several complicating effects arise because of the penetrating nature of gamma rays. The complications include partial transmission through the coded aperture elements, Compton scattering in the germanium detectors, and high background count rates. Extensive electron-photon Monte Carlo modeling of a realistic detector/coded-aperture/collimator system has been performed. Results show that these complicating effects can be characterized and accounted for with no significant loss in instrument sensitivity.

High-purity Germanium (HPGe) detectors have reached an unprecedented level of sophistication and are still the best solution for high-resolution gamma spectroscopy. In the present work, we will show the results of the characterization of new surface treatments for the production of these detectors, studied in the framework of our multidisciplinary research program in HPGe detector technologies.

A generalized numerical model for the phonon-assisted optical interband transition based on the Green's function formalism was developed and implemented to investigate optical processes in germanium and silicon media intended for on-chip light emitter and laser applications. High-fidelity full band structures obtained from the empirical pseudopotential method, self-energies, and the corresponding spectral density functions for the phonon-perturbed electron and holes have been computed numerically as a function of strain, temperature, and doping level. Validation has been carried out by showing the model's ability to accurately reproduce the measured temperature dependent absorption coefficient data for both germanium and silicon. Absorption coefficients, radiative recombination rates of germanium and silicon active media were investigated with different biaxial tensile strain, doping concentrations and injection conditions. Furthermore, when the model is employed to compute the optical gain in strained germanium, we find that the use of tensile strain and high injection are the preferable approaches to obtain population inversion. At the same time, strong absorption from the spin-orbit to the heavy-hole band limits the maximum injection density that can be applied. Finally, when applied to study silicon, the proposed model also successfully reproduces the experimentally observed radiative recombination peak due to the two-phonon process.

The paper presents fabrication details for an intrinsic germanium photodiode developed for study of atmospheric constituents, the airglow and auroras in the 1-2 micron spectral range. Attention is given to cutting of the single crystal, spreading of the lithium dispersion, sputtering of a gold coating, and surface passivation. A wavelength response curve is presented.

Thermophysical properties of molten germanium such as the density, the thermal expansion coefficient, the hemisphereical total emissivity, the constant pressure specific heat capacity, the surface tension, and the electrical resistivity have been measured using the High Temperature Electrostatic Levitator at JPL.

Complexes of germanone containing formal Ge=O→M bonds (M=Zn, B, Ge, Sn) were isolated and characterized. The compounds were prepared through a novel synthetic route using a germanium μ-oxo dimer 3 as the starting material. This method circumvents the need to employ germanones to prepare complexes of germanones. PMID:27238633

We present a combined experimental and theoretical study of ruthenium doped germanium clusters, RuGen‑ (n = 3–12), and their corresponding neutral species. Photoelectron spectra of RuGen‑ clusters are measured at 266 nm. The vertical detachment energies (VDEs) and adiabatic detachment energies (ADEs) are obtained. Unbiased CALYPSO structure searches confirm the low-lying structures of anionic and neutral ruthenium doped germanium clusters in the size range of 3 ≤ n ≤ 12. Subsequent geometry optimizations using density functional theory (DFT) at PW91/LANL2DZ level are carried out to determine the relative stability and electronic properties of ruthenium doped germanium clusters. It is found that most of the anionic and neutral clusters have very similar global features. Although the global minimum structures of the anionic and neutral clusters are different, their respective geometries are observed as the low-lying isomers in either case. In addition, for n > 8, the Ru atom in RuGen‑/0 clusters is absorbed endohedrally in the Ge cage. The theoretically predicted vertical and adiabatic detachment energies are in good agreement with the experimental measurements. The excellent agreement between DFT calculations and experiment enables a comprehensive evaluation of the geometrical and electronic structures of ruthenium doped germanium clusters.

The authors have substituted aliovalent transition-metal (M = Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, Co) and lanthanide (Ln = Er) ions that absorb visible light onto the titanium sites of the nonlinear optical materials KTiOPO{sub 4} (KTP) and RbTiOAsO{sub 4} (RTA). The substitution formally creates a charge deficiency on the Ti site. To compensate for this, the authors have substituted aliovalent counterions on the titanium (Nb), phosphorus (S, Se, Cr, Mo, W, Re) oxygen (F), or potassium (Ca, Sr, Ba, Pb) sites. The resulting new materials expand the KTiOPO{sub 4} structure field for partial replacement of one or more ions. The M and Ln ions alter the optical absorption and second harmonic properties of the materials. The ions reduce the second harmonic intensities of the isomorphs and second harmonic radiation to be phase matched at slightly shorter wavelengths than in the undoped host.

Depending on the method of NaCl application, whether gradual or in a single step, plants may experience either salt stress or salt shock, respectively. The first phase of salt stress is osmotic stress. However, in the event of salt shock, plants suffer osmotic shock, leading to cell plasmolysis and leakage of osmolytes, phenomena that do not occur with osmotic stress. Patterns of gene expression are different in response to salt stress and salt shock. Salt stress initiates relatively smooth changes in gene expression in response to osmotic stress and a more pronounced change in expression of significant numbers of genes related to the ionic phase of salt stress. There is a considerable time delay between changes in expression of genes related to the osmotic and ionic phases of salt stress. In contrast, osmotic shock results in strong, rapid changes in the expression of genes with osmotic function, and fewer changes in ionic-responsive genes that occur earlier. There are very few studies in which the effects of salt stress and salt shock are described in parallel experiments. However, the patterns of changes in gene expression observed in these studies are consistently as described above, despite the use of diverse plant species. It is concluded that gene expression profiles are very different depending the method of salt application. Imposition of salt stress by gradual exposure to NaCl rather than salt shock with a single application of a high concentration of NaCl is recommended for genetic and molecular studies, because this more closely reflects natural incidences of salinity. PMID:23186621

The growth of silicon and germanium nanowires and their nanowire heterostructures has been investigated using the gold catalyzed vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism. The Au catalyst particles were deposited under ultra high vacuum (UHV) conditions onto vicinal Si(111) surfaces using physical vapor deposition. Nanowires were grown in a home built UHV-chemical vapor deposition (CVD) chamber using silane, disilane, germane, and digermane as gas precursors. Silicon nanowire morphology was determined to be dependent on the stability of the gold catalyst particle at the tip of the nanowire. Specifically, silicon nanowires grow along <111> orientations when gold wets the nanowire sidewalls and along <112> orientations when gold does not wet the nanowire sidewalls except under a very narrow pressure range. The dependence of gold coverage on CVD parameters on the sidewalls of <111> and <112> silicon nanowires was also determined revealing a liquid metal wetting of cylinders phenomenon. A new "seedless" VLS mechanism for nanowire growth was also determined in which the Stranski-Krastanov planar gold layer on Si(111) dewets under certain CVD conditions resulting in 15 nm diameter gold seeds that then form nanowires via the VLS mechanism. Both core/shell and axial nanowire heterostructures were also investigated with a focus on the effect of nanowire orientation on heterostructure formation. For core/shell heterostructures, only the <110> germanium core/silicon shell heterostructures were determined to form with smooth shell deposition while all other orientations underwent shell roughening. Various germanium core diameters and silicon shell thicknesses for <110> germanium core/silicon shell heterostructures were analyzed to determine the effect of nanowire diameter on shell coherency limits and to determine the strain within the nanowire heterostructures. Lastly, axial nanowire heterostructures were investigated to determine the ability to form axial heterostructures using

Because of the excellent electrical properties that are obtained at the interfaces between silicon and thermally grown "native" oxides and nitrides, metal-insulator -semiconductor field effect transistors (MISFET's) have become the basic elements in fast high density computer memories as well as a primary structure for probing semiconductor surface charge transport phenomena. As silicon surface mobilities approach the bulk mobility a physical constraint is also being approached with respect to speed and density. Other semiconductors with higher bulk mobilities have, therefore, been suggested as replacements for silicon: gallium arsenide because of its very high room temperature electron mobility and germanium because it is one of the few well studied semiconductors with electron and hole mobilities of nearly the same magnitude. Unlike silicon, Ge and GaAs do not react readily wit oxygen or nitrogen to form uniform layers of interface passivating "native" insulators. In this study, techniques are reported for making native insulators on gallium arsenide and germanium. On gallium arsenide, the insulator is an oxide formed by a plasma oxidation technique (POX). On germanium, oxides have been formed by a high pressure oxidation technique (HPO) and these subsequently have been converted to nitrides (or oxynitride) by reaction with ammonia gas. Details of the formation techniques and basic characterization of the insulators and insulator/semiconductor interface electrical properties are present. Surface mobilities of about 20% of the bulk values were measured for MISFET's constructed on both GaAs and Ge using native oxides as the insulator. Fixed interface charge density in the low to mid 10('11)/cm('2) and midgap densities of states in the high 10('11)/cm('2)-eV range were also measured on similar MIS capacitors. On germanium nitride structures fixed surface charge density and interface density of states were both measured to be on the order of 10('10). Characterization

This graph shows the relative abundances of sulfur (in the form of sulfur tri-oxide) and chlorine at three Meridiani Planum sites: soil measured in the small crater where Opportunity landed; the rock dubbed 'McKittrick' in the outcrop lining the inner edge of the crater; and the rock nicknamed 'Guadalupe,' also in the outcrop. The 'McKittrick' data shown here were taken both before and after the rover finished grinding the rock with its rock abrasion tool to expose fresh rock underneath. The 'Guadalupe' data were taken after the rover grounded the rock. After grinding both rocks, the sulfur abundance rose to high levels, nearly five times higher than that of the soil. This very high sulfur concentration reflects the heavy presence of sulfate salts (approximately 30 percent by weight) in the rocks. Chloride and bromide salts are also indicated. Such high levels of salts strongly suggest the rocks contain evaporite deposits, which form when water evaporates or ice sublimes into the atmosphere.

Salt (NaCl) is a universal mineral commodity used by virtually every person in the world. Although a very common mineral today, at one time it was considered as precious as gold in certain cultures. This study traces the material flow of salt from its origin through the postconsumer phase of usage. The final disposition of salt in the estimated 14,000 different uses, grouped into several macrocategories, is traced from the dispersive loss of salt into the environment to the ultimate disposal of salt-base products into the waste stream after consumption. The base year for this study is 1990, in which an estimated 196 million short tons of municipal solid waste was discarded by the US population. Approximately three-fourths of domestic salt consumed is released to the environment and unrecovered while about one-fourth is discharged to landfills and incinerators as products derived from salt. Cumulative historical domestic production, trade, and consumption data have been compiled to illustrate the long-term trends within the US salt industry and the cumulative contribution that highway deicing salt has had on the environment. Salt is an important component of drilling fluids in well drilling. It is used to flocculate and to increase the density of the drilling fluid in order to overcome high down-well gas pressures. Whenever drilling activities encounter salt formations, salt is added to the drilling fluid to saturate the solution and minimize the dissolution within the salt strata. Salt is also used to increase the set rate of concrete in cemented casings. This subsector includes companies engaged in oil, gas, and crude petroleum exploration and in refining and compounding lubricating oil. It includes SIC major groups 13 and 29. 13 refs., 14 figs., 6 tabs.

In natural salt playa or in evaporation pools for the salt extraction industry, one can sometimes see surprising regular structures formed by ridges of salt. These ridges connect together to form a self-organized network of polygons one to two meters in diameter, which we call salt polygons. Here we propose a mechanism based on porous media convection of salty water in soil to explain the formation and the scaling of the salt polygons. Surface evaporation causes a steady upward flow of salty water, which can cause precipitation near the surface. A vertical salt gradient then builds up in the porous soil, with heavy salt-saturated water lying over the less salty source water. This can drive convection when a threshold is reached, given by a critical Rayleigh number of about 7. We suggest that the salt polygons are the surface expression of the porous medium convection, with salt crystallizing along the positions of the convective downwellings. To study this instability directly, we developed a 2D analogue experiment using a Hele-Shaw cell filled with a porous medium saturated with a salt solution and heated from above. We perform a linear stability analysis of this system, and find that it is unstable to convection, with a most unstable wavelength that is set by a balance between salt diffusion and water evaporation. The Rayleigh number in our experiment is controlled by the particle size of our model soil, and the evaporation rate. We obtain results that scale with the observation of natural salt polygons. Using dye, we observe the convective movement of salty water and find downwelling convective plumes underneath the spots where surface salt ridges form, as shown in the attached figure.

Removal and deposition efficiencies of the long-lived 222Rn daughters during etching from and onto surfaces of standard and high purity germanium were investigated. The standard etching procedure of Canberra-France used during production of high purity n-type germanium diodes was applied to germanium discs, which have been exposed earlier to a strong radon source for deposition of its progenies. An uncontaminated sample was etched in a solution containing 210Pb, 210Bi and 210Po. All isotopes were measured before and after etching with appropriate detectors. In contrast to copper and stainless steel, they were removed from germanium very efficiently. However, the reverse process was also observed. Considerable amounts of radioactive lead, bismuth and polonium isotopes present initially in the artificially polluted etchant were transferred to the clean high purity surface during processing of the sample.

This dissertation addresses the issue of composition modulation in sputtered amorphous metal-germanium thin films with the aim of understanding the intermediate range structure of these films as a function of composition. The investigative tool used in this work is anomalous small-angle X-ray scattering (ASAXS). The primary focus of this investigation is the amorphous iron-germanium (a-Fe{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x}) system with particular emphasis on the semiconductor-rich regime. Brief excursions are made into the amorphous tungsten-germanium (a-W{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x}) and the amorphous molybdenum-germanium (a-Mo{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x}) systems. All three systems exhibit an amorphous structure over a broad composition range extending from pure amorphous germanium to approximately 70 atomic percent metal when prepared as sputtered films. Across this composition range the structures change from the open, covalently bonded, tetrahedral network of pure a-Ge to densely packed metals. The structural changes are accompanied by a semiconductor-metal transition in all three systems as well as a ferromagnetic transition in the a-Fe{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x} system and a superconducting transition in the a-Mo{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x} system. A long standing question, particularly in the a-Fe{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x} and the a-Mo{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x} systems, has been whether the structural changes (and therefore the accompanying electrical and magnetic transitions) are accomplished by homogeneous alloy formation or phase separation. The application of ASAXS to this problem proves unambiguously that fine scale composition modulations, as distinct from the simple density fluctuations that arise from cracks and voids, are present in the a-Fe{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x}, a-W{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x}, and a-Mo{sub x}Ge{sub 100-x} systems in the semiconductor-metal transition region. Furthermore, ASAXS shows that germanium is distributed uniformly throughout each sample in the x<25 regime of all three systems.

Lithium-based cells are promising for applications such as electric vehicles and load-leveling for power plants since lithium is very electropositive and light weight. One type of lithium-based cell utilizes a molten salt electrolyte and is operated in the temperature range of about 400.degree.-500.degree. C. Such high temperature operation accelerates corrosion problems and a substantial amount of energy is lost through heat transfer. The present invention provides an electrochemical cell (10) which may be operated at temperatures between about 100.degree.-170.degree. C. Cell (10) comprises an electrolyte (16), which preferably includes lithium nitrate, and a lithium or lithium alloy electrode (12).

Lithium-based cells are promising for applications such as electric vehicles and load-leveling for power plants since lithium is very electropositive and light weight. One type of lithium-based cell utilizes a molten salt electrolyte and is operated in the temperature range of about 400 to 500/sup 0/C. Such high temperature operation accelerates corrosion problems and a substantial amount of energy is lost through heat transfer. The present invention provides an electrochemical cell which may be operated at temperatures between about 100 to 170/sup 0/C. The cell is comprised of an electrolyte, which preferably includes lithium nitrate, and a lithium or lithium alloy electrode.

Lithium-based cells are promising for applications such as electric vehicles and load-leveling for power plants since lithium is very electropositive and light weight. One type of lithium-based cell utilizes a molten salt electrolyte and is operated in the temperature range of about 400.degree.-500.degree. C. Such high temperature operation accelerates corrosion problems and a substantial amount of energy is lost through heat transfer. The present invention provides an electrochemical cell (10) which may be operated at temperatures between about 100.degree.-170.degree. C. Cell (10) comprises an electrolyte (16), which preferably includes lithium nitrate, and a lithium or lithium alloy electrode (12).

Metal complex salts may be used in lithium ion batteries. Such metal complex salts not only perform as an electrolyte salt in a lithium ion batteries with high solubility and conductivity, but also can act as redox shuttles that provide overcharge protection of individual cells in a battery pack and/or as electrolyte additives to provide other mechanisms to provide overcharge protection to lithium ion batteries. The metal complex salts have at least one aromatic ring. The aromatic moiety may be reversibly oxidized/reduced at a potential slightly higher than the working potential of the positive electrode in the lithium ion battery. The metal complex salts may also be known as overcharge protection salts.

Electrochromic salts. Electrochromic salts of dicationic viologens such as methyl viologen and benzyl viologen associated with anions selected from bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl)imide, and tris(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)methide are produced by metathesis with the corresponding viologen dihalide. They are highly soluble in molten quarternary ammonium salts and together with a suitable reductant provide electrolyte solutions that are used in electrochromic windows.

The present study investigated whether salt appetite in the elderly is impaired similar to thirst because of the commonality of their physiological substrates and whether alterations in salt appetite are related to mood. Elderly (65-85 years, n 30) and middle-aged (45-58 years, n 30) men and women were compared in two test sessions. Thirst, psychophysical ratings of taste solutions, dietary Na and energy intakes, seasoning with salt and sugar, number of salty and sweet snacks consumed, preferred amounts of salt in soup and sugar in tea, and an overall measure of salt appetite and its relationship with mood, nocturia and sleep were measured. Elderly participants were found to be less thirsty and respond less to thirst. In contrast, no impairment of salt appetite was found in them, and although they had a reduced dietary Na intake, it dissipated when corrected for their reduced dietary energy intake. Diet composition and Na intake were found to be similar in middle-aged and elderly participants, despite the lesser intake in elderly participants. There were no age-related differences in the intensity of taste or hedonic profile of Na, in salting habits, in tests of salting soup, or number of salty snacks consumed. No relationship of any measure of salt appetite with mood measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, frequency of nocturia, or sleep duration was observed. The age-related impairment of the physiology of mineralofluid regulation, while compromising thirst and fluid intake, spares salt appetite, suggesting that salt appetite in humans is not regulated physiologically. Intact salt appetite in the elderly might be utilised judiciously to prevent hyponatraemia, increase thirst and improve appetite. PMID:25287294

An electrolyte system suitable for a molten salt electrolyte battery is described where the electrolyte system is a molten nitrate compound, an organic compound containing dissolved lithium salts, or a 1-ethyl-3-methlyimidazolium salt with a melting temperature between approximately room temperature and approximately 250.degree. C. With a compatible anode and cathode, the electrolyte system is utilized in a battery as a power source suitable for oil/gas borehole applications and in heat sensors.

Electrochromic salts. Electrochromic salts of dicationic viologens such as methyl viologen and benzyl viologen associated with anions selected from bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl)imide, and tris(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)methide are produced by metathesis with the corresponding viologen dihalide. They are highly soluble in molten quarternary ammonium salts and together with a suitable reductant provide electrolyte solutions that are used in electrochromic windows.

Electrochromic salts. Electrochromic salts of dicationic viologens such as methyl viologen and benzyl viologen associated with anions selected from bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl)imide, and tris(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)methide are produced by metathesis with the corresponding viologen dihalide. They are highly soluble in molten quarternary ammonium salts and together with a suitable reductant provide electrolyte solutions that are used in electrochromic windows.

Over the past century, salt has been the subject of intense scientific research related to blood pressure elevation and cardiovascular mortalities. Moderate reduction of dietary salt intake is generally an effective measure to reduce blood pressure. However, recently some in the academic society and lay media dispute the benefits of salt restriction, pointing to inconsistent outcomes noted in some observational studies. A reduction in dietary salt from the current intake of 9-12 g/day to the recommended level of less than 5-6 g/day will have major beneficial effects on cardiovascular health along with major healthcare cost savings around the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) strongly recommended to reduce dietary salt intake as one of the top priority actions to tackle the global non-communicable disease crisis and has urged member nations to take action to reduce population wide dietary salt intake to decrease the number of deaths from hypertension, cardiovascular disease and stroke. However, some scientists still advocate the possibility of increased risk of CVD morbidity and mortality at extremes of low salt intake. Future research may inform the optimal sodium reduction strategies and intake targets for general populations. Until then, we have to continue to build consensus around the greatest benefits of salt reduction for CVD prevention, and dietary salt intake reduction strategies must remain at the top of the public health agenda. PMID:25061468

The deposition behavior of HfO2 by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition on germanium has been investigated. HfO2 films can be deposited on Ge with equally good quality as compared to high-k growth on silicon. Surface preparation is very important: compared to an HF-last, NH3 pretreatments result in smoother films with strongly reduced diffusion of germanium in the HfO2 film, resulting in a much better electrical performance. We clearly show that much thinner interfacial layers can be obtained, approximately half the thickness of what is typically found for depositions on silicon, suggesting the possibility of more aggressive equivalent oxide thickness/leakage scaling.

The potential applications of germanium and its alloys in infrared silicon-based photonics have led to a renewed interest in their optical properties. In this letter, we report on the numerical determination of Auger coefficients at T = 300 K for relaxed and biaxially strained germanium. We use a Green's function based model that takes into account all relevant direct and phonon-assisted processes and perform calculations up to a strain level corresponding to the transition from indirect to direct energy gap. We have considered excess carrier concentrations ranging from 1016 cm-3 to 5 × 1019 cm-3. For use in device level simulations, we also provide fitting formulas for the calculated electron and hole Auger coefficients as functions of carrier density.

To improve the search for neutrinoless double beta decay, the next-generation experiments will increase in source mass and continue to reduce backgrounds in the region of interest. A promising technology for the next generation experiment is large arrays of Germanium p-type point contact detectors enriched in 76-Ge. The experience, expertise and lessons learned from the MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR and GERDA experiments naturally lead to a number of research and development activities that will be useful in guiding a future experiment utilizing Germanium. We will discuss some R&D activities including a hybrid cryostat design, background reduction in cabling, connectors and electronics, and modifications to reduce assembly time. We acknowledge the support of the U.S. Department of Energy through the LANL/LDRD Program.

There are unanswered questions regarding neutrino physics that are of great interest for the scientific community. For example the absolute masses, the mass hierarchy and the nature of neutrinos are unknown up to now. The discovery of neutrinoless double beta decay (0νββ) would prove the existence of a Majorana mass, which would be linked to the half-life of the decay, and would in addition provide an elegant solution for the small mass of the neutrinos via the seesaw mechanism. Because of an existing discovery claim of 0νββ of 76Ge and the excellent energy resolution achievable, germanium is of special interest in the search for 0νββ . In this article the state of the art of germanium 0νββ search, namely the GERDA experiment and MAJORANA demonstrator, is presented. In particular, recent results of the GERDA collaboration, which strongly disfavour the above mentioned claim, are discussed.

We apply first principles density functional computational methods to study the structures, densities of states (DOS), and higher occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) – lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) gaps of selected free-standing Ge semiconductor quantum dots up to 1.8nm. Our calculations are performed using numerical atomic orbital approach where linear combination of atomic orbital was applied. The surfaces of the quantum dots was passivized by hydrogen atoms. We find that surface passivation does affect the electronic properties associated with the changes of surface state, electron localization, and the energy gaps of germanium nanocrystals as well as the confinement of electrons inside the quantum dots (QDs). Our study shows that the energy gaps of germanium quantum dots decreases with the increasing dot diameter. The size-dependent variations of the computed HOMO-LUMO gaps in our quantum dots model were found to be consistent with the effects of quantum confinement reported in others theoretical and experimental calculation.

Here we demonstrate production of three types of germanium containing nanoparticles (NPs) by laser pyrolysis of GeH4 and characterize their sizes, structures and composition. Pristine Ge NPs were fabricated with 50 standard cubic centimeter per minute (sccm) of GeH4 and 25 sccm of SF6 as a photosensitizer gas, while sulfur-coated Ge NPs were produced with 25 sccm of GeH4 and 50 sccm of SF6. The laser pyrolysis of SiH4/GeH4 mixtures produced Si1-xGex alloy NPs. Effects of key process parameters including laser intensity and gas flow rates on NP properties have been investigated. The ability of the laser pyrolysis technique to flexibly produce a variety of germanium-containing NPs, as illustrated in this study shows promise for commercial-scale production of new nanomaterials as high purity dry powders. PMID:26152899

We have observed enhanced direct-gap light emission from undoped and n-doped germanium microdisks on silicon. The enhancement is attributed mainly to increased carrier density due to surface passivation of the dry-etched sidewall. The enhancement factor increases as the disk size decreases, approaching 4 for microdisks with radii of 1 µm. To achieve maximum enhancement and not modify the geometric structure of resonators, 450-500 °C is found to be the best temperature window. Thermal oxidation is also effective for the degraded interface induced by sputtered Al2O3. These results indicate that thermal oxidation is a promising method suitable for fabrication of low-threshold germanium lasers.

Micro-strip gas chambers (MSGCs) were constructed in the Solid-State Electronics Laboratory of the University of Michigan and their performance was studied. Many efforts have been made in the past to construct MSGCs that yield high absolute gas gain and stable gas gain. Introducing a thin germanium layer has been effective for passivation but difficulties associated with the poor adhesiveness of the thin layer have been a serious obstacle. This paper reports on a new method used to overcome these difficulties. Unlike the conventional coating method the thin germanium layer was successfully deposited between the strip lines. This technique requires a careful geometric alignment of a second photomask with the original micro-strip structure. The resulting detector performance was noteworthy and an absolute gas gain of 2 {center_dot} 10{sup 4} was easily achieved by the new chamber. The chamber`s gain instability was also reduced significantly compared with those without interstitial coating.