Contents

To reduce unemployment and yield a better division of labor, in a context where some people work long hours while some others are unemployed. A 10.2% decrease in the hours extracted from each worker would, theoretically, require firms to hire correspondingly more workers, a remedy for unemployment.[citation needed]

To take advantage of improvements in productivity of modern society to give workers some more personal time to enhance quality of life.[citation needed]

Another reason was that the Jospin government took advantage of the changes introduced with the 35-hour working week to relax other workforce legislation.

(See working time for further discussion of the health and leisure-related reasons for limited work weeks.)

The 35-hour working week is controversial in France. Generally speaking, left wing parties and trade unions support it, while conservative parties and the MEDEF employers' union oppose it. Critics of the 35-hour working week have argued that it has failed to serve its purpose because an increase in recruitment has not occurred.[citation needed]

In their view, the reluctance of firms to take on new workers has instead simply increased per-hour production quotas.[citation needed] According to right-wing parties and economic commentators, the main reason why French firms avoid hiring new workers is that French employment regulations around labour flexibility make it difficult to lay off workers during a poor economic period.[citation needed]

The Raffarin government, some members of which were vocal critics of the law, gradually pushed for further relaxation of the legal working time requirements. On 22 December 2004, the French Parliament extended the maximum number of overtime hours per year from 180 to 220; on 31 March 2005, another law extended the possibilities of overtime hours.

1.
Lionel Jospin
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Lionel Jospin is a French politician, who served as Prime Minister of France from 1997 to 2002. Jospin was the Socialist Party candidate for President of France in the elections of 1995 and 2002 and he was narrowly defeated in the final runoff election by Jacques Chirac in 1995. Lionel Jospin was born to a Protestant family in Meudon, a suburb of Paris and he is the son of Robert Jospin. He attended the Lycée Janson-de-Sailly before studying at the Institut détudes politiques de Paris and he was active in the UNEF students union, protesting against the war in Algeria. He completed his service as an officer in charge of armoured training in Trier. After his graduation from the ENA in 1965, he entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as secretary of Foreign Affairs and he became in charge of economic cooperation there, and worked with Ernest-Antoine Seillière, future leader of the MEDEF employers union. Integrating François Mitterrands circle, he became the second highest-ranking member of the party in 1979, in 1984, when Laurent Fabius was chosen as Prime minister, a rivalry appeared between these two political heirs of Mitterrand. It broke out when they competed for the leadership of the 1986 legislative campaign, in 1988, after Mitterrands re-election, he left the PS leadership, and, though the President considered naming him Prime Minister, he was nominated Minister of Education. His rivalry with Fabius intensified and caused a crisis, notably during the Rennes Congress. Indeed, the mitterrandist group in the party split because Jospin followers allied with the factions to prevent the election of Fabius as First Secretary. As a member of the National Assembly, Jospin served first as a representative of Paris, Jospin lost his seat in the National Assembly in the Socialists landslide defeat in the 1993 legislative election and announced his political retirement. In 1993, Lionel Jospin was appointed ministre plénipotentiaire, 2nd class and he was, however, not appointed to any embassy. Finally, he came back and claimed the necessity to take stock of the mitterrandist inheritance so as to restore the credibility of the Socialist Party, in this, he was selected to be the Socialist candidate for President in 1995, against the PS leader Henri Emmanuelli. Following the Socialists landslide defeats of 1992–1994, Jospin was considered to have little chance of victory, but he did surprisingly well, leading the first round and losing only very narrowly to Jacques Chirac in the final runnoff election. Despite defeat, his performance was seen to mark a revival of the Socialists as a force in French politics. He built a new coalition with the other left-wing parties, the French Communist Party, the Greens, the Left Radical Party, two years later, Chirac decided to call an early election for the National Assembly, hoping for a personal endorsement. But the move backfired as the Plural Left obtained a parliamentary majority, Jospin is a Member of the Club of Madrid. Jospin served as Prime Minister during Frances third cohabitation government under President Jacques Chirac from 1997 to 2002, despite his previous image as a rigid socialist, Jospin went on selling state-owned enterprises, lowered the VAT rate, income tax and company tax

2.
Martine Aubry
–
Martine Louise Marie Aubry is a French politician. She was the First Secretary of the French Socialist Party from November 2008 to April 2012 and her father, Jacques Delors, served as Minister of Finance under President François Mitterrand and was also President of the European Commission. Aubry joined the PS in 1974 and was appointed Minister of Labour by Prime Minister Édith Cresson in 1991, however, she became Minister of Social Affairs when Lionel Jospin was appointed Prime Minister in 1997. Aubry stepped down from her Cabinet post in 2001 to be elected Mayor of Lille in place of Pierre Mauroy, Aubry subsequently lost her seat in the National Assembly in the general election of 2002. In March 2008, she was reelected Mayor of Lille, with 66. 55% of the votes, in November 2008, Aubry was elected to lead the Socialist Party, narrowly defeating Ségolène Royal. While Royal disputed the results, the Socialist Party declared on November 25,2008 that Aubry had won the contested election. On 28 June 2011, Martine Aubry announced she would seek the Socialist nomination to run in the 2012 presidential election, ultimately losing to François Hollande, her predecessor as First Secretary. Born in Paris, Aubry is the daughter of Jacques Delors, French Minister of Finance and European Commission President, Aubry was educated at the lycée Notre-Dame-des-Oiseaux and the lycée Paul-Valéry. She holds a degree in science from Panthéon-Assas University. She did additional studies, gaining a diploma from the Institut des Sciences Sociales du Travail, between 1973 and 1975, Aubry studied at the École nationale dadministration. She married Xavier Aubry, they later divorced and she is married to Jean-Louis Brochen. In 1975 Aubry became an administrator at the Ministry of Labor. During this period, she was active within the French Democratic Confederation of Labour and she became a professor at ÉNA in 1978. In addition, she was seconded to the State Council between 1980 and 1981, in 1984, she investigated French asbestos policy for the Comité Permanent Amiante. The groups deputy director, Jean-Luc Pasquier, testified before the courts to account for the groups members actions, after the defeat of the socialists in the French legislative election of 1986, Aubry was named Master of Requests at the State Council. From 1989-91 she worked as Assistant Director at Pechiney, working with Jean Gandois and she was involved with the opening of a plant at Dunkerque and the closure of the aluminium works at Noguères. Aubry was named Minister of Labour, Employment and Vocational Training by Édith Cresson, according to Jean-Luc Pasquier, she supported the controlled use of asbestos whilst all other members of the EEC supported an outright ban. She caused the French veto of a European decree against the use of asbestos, France did not ban asbestos until 1997

3.
Socialist Party (France)
–
The Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in France, and the largest party of the French centre-left. The PS is one of the two major political parties in France, along with the Republicans. The Socialist Party replaced the earlier French Section of the Workers International in 1969, the PS is a member of the Party of European Socialists, the Socialist International and the Progressive Alliance. The PS first won power in 1981, when its candidate François Mitterrand was elected President of France in the 1981 presidential election, under Mitterrand, the party achieved a governing majority in the National Assembly from 1981 to 1986 and again from 1988 to 1993. In 2007, the candidate for the presidential election, Ségolène Royal, was defeated by conservative UMP candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. Then, the Socialist party won most of regional and local elections, in 2016, the party had 42,300 members. In 2014, the party had 60,000 members, in 2012 the party had 173,486 members. The defeat of the Paris commune greatly reduced the power and influence of socialist movements in France and its leaders were killed or exiled. Frances first socialist party, the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France, was founded in 1879 and it was characterised as possibilist because it promoted gradual reforms. Two parties split off from it, in 1882, the French Workers Party of Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, at the same time, the heirs of Louis Auguste Blanqui, a symbol of the French revolutionary tradition, created the Central Revolutionary Committee led by Édouard Vaillant. There were also some declared socialist deputies such as Alexandre Millerand, in 1899, the participation of Millerand in Pierre Waldeck-Rousseaus cabinet caused a debate about socialist participation in a bourgeois government. In 1905, during the Globe Congress, the two merged in the French Section of the Workers International. Leader of the group and director of the party paper LHumanité. The party was hemmed in between the liberals of the Radical Party and the revolutionary syndicalists who dominated the trade unions. Together with the Radicals, who wished to install laicism, the SFIO was a component of the Left Block without to sit in the government, in 1906, the General Confederation of Labour trade union claimed its independence from all political parties. The French socialists were strongly anti-war, but following the assassination of Jaurès in 1914 they were unable to resist the wave of militarism which followed the outbreak of World War I and they suffered a severe split over participation in the wartime government of national unity. In 1919 the anti-war socialists were heavily defeated in elections, the right wing, led by Léon Blum, kept the old house and remained in the SFIO. In 1924 and in 1932, the Socialists joined with the Radicals in the Coalition of the Left, the question of the possibility of a government participation with Radicals caused the split of neosocialists at the beginning of the 1930s

4.
Working time
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Working time is the period of time that a person spends at paid labor. Unpaid labor such as personal housework or caring for children or pets is not considered part of the working week, many countries regulate the work week by law, such as stipulating minimum daily rest periods, annual holidays, and a maximum number of working hours per week. Working time may vary person to person, often depending on location, culture, lifestyle choice. For example, someone who is supporting children and paying a large mortgage will need to work hours to meet basic costs of living than someone of the same earning power without children. Because fewer people than ever are having children, choosing part time work is becoming more popular, standard working hours refers to the legislation to limit the working hours per day, per week, per month or per year. If an employee needs to work overtime, the employer will need to pay overtime payments to employees as required in the law. Generally speaking, standard working hours of countries worldwide are around 40 to 44 hours per week, maximum working hours refers to the maximum working hours of an employee. The employee cannot work more than the level specified in the working hours law. Kung Bushmen was estimated to work two-and-a-half days per week. Aggregated comparisons show that on average the working day was less than five hours, subsequent studies in the 1970s examined the Machiguenga of the Upper Amazon and the Kayapo of northern Brazil. Popular perception is still aligned with the old consensus that hunter-gatherers worked far in excess of modern humans forty-hour week. Peasants and farm laborers moved from areas to work in urban factories. Before collective bargaining and worker protection laws, there was an incentive for a company to maximize the return on expensive machinery by having long hours. Records indicate that work schedules as long as twelve to sixteen hours per day, recent articles supporting a four-day week have argued that reduced work hours would increase consumption and invigorate the economy. However, other state that consumption would decrease. Other arguments for the week include improvements to workers level of education. Reduced hours also save money on day care costs and transportation and these benefits increase workforce productivity on a per-hour basis. The workweek, in most of the world, dropped steadily. The limitation of working hours is also proclaimed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the decline continued at a faster pace in Europe, for example, France adopted a 35-hour workweek in 2000

5.
Leisure
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Leisure has been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores and it also excludes time spent on necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. From a research perspective, this approach has the advantages of being quantifiable and comparable over time, Leisure as experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice. It is done for its own sake, for the quality of experience, other classic definitions include Thorsten Veblens of nonproductive consumption of time. Different disciplines have definitions reflecting their common issues, for example, sociology on social forces and contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states, Leisure studies and sociology of leisure are the academic disciplines concerned with the study and analysis of leisure. Recreation differs from leisure in that it is an activity that includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts. The distinction between leisure and unavoidable activities is not a rigidly defined one, e. g. people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasure as well as for long-term utility, a distinction may also be drawn between free time and leisure. A related concept is that of leisure, which involves leisurely activities in social settings, such as extracurricular activities, e. g. sports. Another related concept is that of family leisure, relationships with others is usually a major factor in both satisfaction and choice. Leisure has historically been the privilege of the upper-class and it spread as well to the United States, although that country had a reputation in Europe for providing much less leisure despite its wealth. Immigrants to the United States discovered they had to work harder than they did in Europe, economists continue to investigate why Americans work longer hours. In a recent book, Laurent Turcot argue that leisure was not created in the 19th century but is imbricated in the world since the beginning of history. In Canada, leisure in the country is related to the decline in work hours and is shaped by moral values, and the ethnic-religious and gender communities. In a cold country with long nights, and summers extended daylight, favorite leisure activities include horse racing, team sports such as hockey, singalongs, Rollerskating. The churches tried to steer leisure activities, by preaching against drinking and scheduling annual revivals, rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage. Leisure by the mid 19th century was no longer an individualistic activity, in the French industrial city of Lille, with a population of 80,000 in 1858, the cabarets or taverns for the working class numbered 1300, or one for every three houses. Lille counted 63 drinking and singing clubs,37 clubs for players,23 for bowling,13 for skittles. The churches likewise have their social organizations, each club had a long roster of officers, and a busy schedule of banquets festivals and competitions

6.
Controversy
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Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – turned in a direction, from contra – against – and vertere – to turn, or versus, hence. The most applicable or well known controversial subjects, topics or areas are politics, religion, philosophy, parenting and sex. Other prominent areas of controversy are economics, science, finances, culture, education, the military, society, celebrities, organisation, the media, age, gender, Controversy in matters of theology has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to the phrase odium theologicum. In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a case, while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil. For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution states that the judicial Power shall extend, to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party. Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benfords law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, in other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the biases of biased assimilation. Similar effects on reasoning are seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference, in addition, the preferences of the agent also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation shown above. Argument Bipartisanship Dialectic ProCon. org Scandal Brian Martin, The Controversy Manual

7.
Mouvement des Entreprises de France
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The Mouvement des entreprises de France, or the Movement of the Enterprises of France, is the largest employer federation in France. Established in 1998, it replaced the Conseil national du patronat Français, or the National Council of the French Employers and it has more than 750,000 member firms,90 percent of them being small and medium enterprises with fewer than 50 employees. MEDEF is engaged in lobbying at local, regional, national, every year, MEDEF International organises a number of delegations of French business leaders with tangible projects to targeted countries, especially developing countries. MEDEF espouses “sustainable development”, raising awareness to the fact that environmental protection can also feature among their competitive advantages. Its current president, nicknamed the “boss of the bosses”, is Pierre Gattaz, CEO of Radiall and he succeeded Laurence Parisot, CEO of IFOP, elected in 2005, who was the first woman to lead the MEDEF. Pierre Gattaz is the son of Yvon Gattaz, who was president of the CNPF in the 1980s, Union of Industrial and Employers Confederations of Europe Union des industries et métiers de la métallurgie Lisbon Agenda Official site of the MEDEF

8.
Raffarin
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Jean-Pierre Raffarin is a French conservative politician and Senator for Vienne. Jean-Pierre Raffarin served as the Prime Minister of France from 6 May 2002 to 31 May 2005, however, after Raffarin resigned, he said that his decision was not based on the outcome of the vote. Opinion polls following his resignation suggested that Raffarin was one of Frances least popular Prime Ministers since the Fifth Republic was established in 1958 and he was also Vice President of the Senate from 2011 to 2014. Born 3 August 1948, Raffarin grew up in Poitiers as the son of a prominent national figure and he studied law at Panthéon-Assas University and later graduated from ESCP Europe business school. He started his career in marketing. In the 1970s, his first political commitment was in the association of Valéry Giscard dEstaings young supporters, in the 1980s, he started a career in local politics in Poitou-Charentes region. With the support of René Monory, the political leader. Seven years later, he was elected senator of Vienne département, Minister of Small and Medium Enterprises, Commerce and Craft, 1995–1997. Electoral mandates European Parliament Member of European Parliament, 1989–1995, Senate of France Senator of Vienne, Elected in 1995, but he stays minister / 1997–2002 / Re-elected in 2004, but he stays Prime minister / Since 2005. Elected in 1995, re-elected in 1997,2004,2005,2008, Regional Council President of the Regional Council of Poitou-Charentes, 1988–2002. Vice-President of the Regional Council of Poitou-Charentes, 2002–2004, municipal Council Deputy-mayor of Chasseneuil-du-Poitou, 1995–2001. Political functions Vice-President of the Union for a Popular Movement, Since 2007, during the 1995 presidential campaign, while most UDF politicians supported Édouard Balladur, he chose the winning candidacy of Jacques Chirac. In return, he was nominated Minister of Small and Medium-sized Companies, Commerce, at the same time, the pro-Chirac UDF members founded the Popular Party for French Democracy. Then, he returned in the Republican Party, became Liberal Democracy in 1997 and he was vice-president of DL until 2002. During the 2002 presidential campaign, he advocated the union of the right behind the incumbent President Chirac, after his re-election, Chirac wished to give a sign of political renewal. Furthermore, elected in a second round by a majority of left-wing voters, he searched for a moderate to lead the cabinet. Raffarin participated in the formation of the Union for a Popular Movement and his political policies combined authority and moderate economical liberalism – that is, the support of laissez-faire economic policies. In 2003 he launched reforms of the public retirement scheme and of decentralisation, during the summer of 2003 the country experienced an unusual heat wave which caused the death of nearly 15,000 people

9.
French Parliament
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The French Parliament is the bicameral legislature of the French Republic, consisting of the Senate and the National Assembly. Each assembly conducts legislative sessions at a location in Paris, the Palais du Luxembourg for the Senate. Each house has its own regulations and rules of procedure, however, they may occasionally meet as a single house, the French Congress, convened at the Palace of Versailles, to revise and amend the Constitution of France. Parliament meets for a single, nine-month session each year, under special circumstances the President can call an additional session. As a result, the government normally is from the political party as the Assembly. Rare periods during which the President is not from the political party as the Prime Minister are usually known as cohabitation. The President rather than the prime minister heads the Cabinet of Ministers, the government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can link its term to a text which it proposes, and unless a motion of censure is introduced and passed. However, this procedure has been limited by the 2008 constitutional amendment, Legislative initiative rests with the National Assembly. Members of Parliament enjoy parliamentary immunity, both assemblies have committees that write reports on a variety of topics. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power, however, the latter possibility is almost never exercised, since the majority can reject a proposition by the opposition to create an investigation commission. Since 2008, the opposition may impose the creation of a commission once a year. However, they still cant lead investigations if there is a judiciary case going on already, the word Parliament, in the modern meaning of the term, appeared in France in the 19th century, at the time of the constitutional monarchy of 1830–1848. It is never mentioned in any constitutional text until the Constitution of the 4th Republic in 1948, before that time reference was made to les Chambres or to each assembly, whatever its name, but never to a generic term as in Britain. Frank R. Baumgartner, Parliaments Capacity to Expand Political Controversy in France, Legislative Studies Quarterly, Vol.12,1, pp. 33–54 Marc Abélès, Un ethnologue à lAssemblée. An anthropological study of the French National Assembly, of its personnel, lawmakers, codes of behaviors, official website Site of the CHPP and of Parlement, Revue dhistoire politique

10.
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
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The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 is a federal statute of the United States. Several exemptions exist that relieve an employer from having to meet the minimum wage, overtime. The largest exceptions apply to the white collar exemptions that are applicable to professional. Exemptions are narrowly construed, as an employer must prove that the employees fit plainly and unmistakably within the exemptions terms, the Fair Labor Standards Act applies to any individual employed by an employer but not to independent contractors or volunteers because they are not considered employees under the FLSA. Some employers similarly mislabel employees as volunteers, Courts look at the economic reality of the relationship between the putative employer and the worker to determine whether the worker is an independent contractor. Courts use a similar test to determine whether a worker was concurrently employed by more than one person or entity, for example, a farm worker may be considered jointly employed by a labor contractor and a grower. If an employee is entitled to overtime, the employer must pay them one, employees employed in a ministerial role by a religiously affiliated employer are not entitled to overtime under the act. During World War II, the Army-Navy E Award for excellence in war production required maintaining the fair labor standards established under the Act, if the employees wage does not equal minimum wage, including tips, the employer must make up the difference. However, the employee must be allowed to keep all tips, a tip pool may also contain only employees who customarily and regularly receive tips. The phrase customarily and regularly signifies a frequency which must be greater than occasional, while the nomenclature of a job title is not dispositive, the job of busboy is explicitly validated for tip-pool inclusion by an authoritative source. A busboy performs a part of customer service without much direct interaction. The Fair Labor Standards Act was originally drafted in 1932 by Senator Hugo Black, Blacks proposal to require employers to adopt a thirty-hour workweek met stiff resistance. In 1938, a version of Senator Blacks proposal was passed that adopted an eight-hour day. According to the act, workers must be minimum wage. Children under eighteen cannot do certain jobs, and children under the age of sixteen cannot work during school hours. The Fair Labor Standards Act affected 700,000 workers, in response, Congress passed the Portal-to-Portal Act narrowing the Supreme Courts decision. The 1947 Portal-to-Portal Act specified exactly what type of time was considered compensable work time. In general, as long as an employee is engaging in activities that benefit the employer, regardless of when they are performed and it also specified that travel to and from the workplace was a normal incident of employment and should not be considered paid working time

11.
First Employment Contract
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The contrat première embauche was a new form of employment contract pushed in spring 2006 in France by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin. Actually, President Jacques Chirac declared that the law would be put on the statute book, article 8 of the 31 March 2006 Equality of Opportunity Act, establishing the CPE, was repealed by a 21 April 2006 law on the Access of Youth to Professional Life in Firms. The rest of the Equality of Opportunity Act, whose dispositions were also contested by the protests, was maintained. CPE was introduced by the Government as an amendment to the Statute on the Equality of Opportunities law. This law was proposed by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin allegedly to tackle a 23% unemployment rate among the young, the bill was examined by the French National Assembly between 31 January and 9 February. The amendment was adopted by the Assembly around 2 AM on 9 February 2006, since Villepins UMP party had an absolute majority in the Assembly, there was no chance that such a motion could be adopted. Predictably, a motion of censure was proposed by the opposition and was rejected by the Assembly on 21 February. The Law was then examined by the Senate between 23 February and 5 March, at which date the Senate approved it, the law was then adopted on 8 March by the Assembly, and on 9 March by the Senate. Because opposition members of the Assembly and the Senate requested constitutional review of the text, the Council considered the law constitutional, but made a number of reservations, on 30 March. Those reservations impose guidelines under which the law was to be applied, meanwhile, the law was disapproved by a sizable proportion of the French population. Massive street protests began, mostly by students from schools and universities. The protest movement was certainly the biggest seen in France since 1968, the whole act was signed into law on 31 March by president Jacques Chirac. On 10 April, as the protests were still getting bigger, the government completely withdrew the law, the CPE sparked debates among the political classes, and drew massive protests from students in the streets of France, along with sudden strikes. Criticism was levied at both the substance of the CPE and the way it was enacted, instead of putting the clauses creating CPE inside the bill it was proposing to Parliament, the government chose to submit it as an amendment of its own text. This bypasses some compulsory legal review by the Conseil dÉtat and reduces the time available for examination by members of the Parliament, such a move hardly ever occurs, since both the Assembly and the Prime Minister are from the same majority. Use of 49-3 is seen as an infringement on the prerogatives of Parliament and is thus reserved for exceptional cases. As many have pointed out, especially when the Prime Minister announced the use of 49-3, although the CPE is the primary target of the student movement against the law, other measures of the Statute on the Equality of Opportunities have also been contested. Among them, allowing apprenticeships from as young as 14 years old, night work from the age of 15 and this last measure has been for a long time in the program of the far-right movement Front National, thus also explaining part of the popular protests

12.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure

13.
Skilled worker
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A skilled worker is any worker who has special skill, training, knowledge, and ability in their work. A skilled worker may have attended a college, university or technical school, or, a skilled worker may have learned their skills on the job. Examples of skilled labor include software development, paramedics, police officers, soldiers, physicians, crane operators, drafters, painters, plumbers, craftsmen, cooks and these workers can be either blue-collar or white-collar workers, with varied levels of training or education. In the northern region of the United States, craft unions may have served as the catalyst to ferment a strong solidarity in favor of skilled labor in the period of the Gilded Age, the Knights argued that the specialization of industrialization had undermined the bargaining power of skilled labor. The period between 1901 and 1925 signals the rise and fall of the Socialist Party of America which depended on skilled workers. Skilled workers were the heart of the movement before World War I but during the 1920s, they lost much of their enthusiasm. In the 20th century, in Nazi Germany, the class was subdivided into, agricultural workers, unskilled and semi-skilled workers, skilled craft workers, other skilled workers. After the end of World War II, West Germany surpassed France in the employment of skilled labor needed at a time when industrialization was sweeping Europe at a fast pace. West Germanys preponderance in the training of skilled workers in technical schools, was the factor to outweigh the balance between the two countries. In the first decade of the 21st century, the wage of a highly skilled machinist in the United States of America is $3,000 to $4,000 per month. In China, the wage for a factory worker is $150 a month. While most jobs require some level of skill, skilled workers bring some degree of expertise to the performance of a given job. For example, a worker who inspects new televisions for whether they turn on or off can fulfil this job with little or no knowledge of the inner workings of televisions. However, someone who repairs televisions would be considered a worker, since such a person would possess the knowledge to be able to identify. In addition to the use of the term, various agencies or governments. Such definitions can affect matters such as immigration, licensure and eligibility for travel or residency, citizenship and Immigration Services, skilled worker positions are not seasonal or temporary and require at least two years of experience or training. Skilled work varies in type, education requirements and availability, such differences are often reflected in titling, opportunity, responsibility and salary. Both skilled and non-skilled workers are vital and indispensable for the smooth-running of a free-market and/or capitalist society, generally, however, individual skilled workers are more valued to a given company than individual non-skilled workers, as skilled workers tend to be more difficult to replace

14.
Temporary work
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Temporary work or temporary employment refers to an employment situation where the working arrangement is limited to a certain period of time based on the needs of the employing organization. Temporary employees are sometimes called contractual, seasonal, interim, casual staff, outsourcing, freelance, in some instances, temporary, highly skilled professionals refer to themselves as consultants. Temporary workers may work full-time or part-time depending on the individual situation, in some instances, temporary workers receive benefits, but usually benefits are only given to permanent employees as a cost-cutting measure by the employer to save money. Not all temporary employees find jobs through an employment agency. A temporary work agency, temp agency or temporary staffing firm finds, other companies, in need of short-term workers, contract with the temporary work agency to send temporary workers, or temps, on assignments to work at the other companies. Temporary employees are used in work that has a cyclical nature. There has indeed been a paradigm shift since the 1940s in the way firms utilize the temporary worker. Throughout the Fordist era, temporary workers made up a rather marginal proportion of the labor force in North America. In contrast, in the Post-Fordist period, characterized by neoliberalism, deindustrialization and the dismantling of the welfare state, in this paradigm, the idea of the temporary worker as a stopgap solution to permanent labor became an entirely normative employment alternative to permanent work. As the market began to transform from Fordism to a regime of capital accumulation, the social regulation of labor markets. This transformation has been characterized by a restructuring that emphasized flexibility within spaces of work, labor markets, employment relationships, wages. Most governments in Western Europe started to deregulate temporary work, and indeed, global processes of neoliberalism and market rule contributed greatly to this increasing pressure put on local labor markets towards flexibility. This greater flexibility within labor markets is important at the level, particularly within OECD countries. The temporary labor industry is worth over €157 billion per year, the biggest temporary work agencies are most profitable in emerging economies of the Global North, and those that have undergone market liberalization, deregulation and regulation. The desire to market flexible, adaptable temporary workers has become a driving, through this process, the ideal temporary worker has today become largely imagined, produced and marketed by temporary agencies. The role of an agency is as a third party between client employer and client employee. This third party, handles remuneration, work scheduling, complaints, taxes, client firms request the type of job that is to be done, and the skills required to do it. Client firms can also terminate an assignment and are able to file a complaint about the temp, Work schedules are determined by assignment, which is determined by the agency and can last for an indeterminate period of time, extended to any point and cut short

15.
Laborer
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A laborer or labourer — see variation in English spelling — is a person who works in one of the construction trades, traditionally considered unskilled manual labor, as opposed to skilled labor. Laborers are also employed outside of the industry, in fields such as road paving, shoveling snow, digging graves, chain gangs. In the division of labor, laborers have all blasting, hand tools, power tools, air tools, and small heavy equipment, the 1st century BC engineer Vitruvius writes in detail about laborer practices at that time. In his experience a good crew of laborers is just as valuable as any aspect of construction. Other than the addition of pneumatics, laborer practices have changed little, with the advent of advanced technology and its introduction into the construction field, the laborers have been quick to include much of this technology as being laborers work. In addition, a five gallon bucket with additional tools, toolbelt suspenders, water jug, personal safety equipment, for example full leather boots, high strength pants - Carhartt or jeans - socks, lip balm, and climate specific outerwear, are provided by the individual. These other classifications typically include the heavy equipment operators, ironworkers, carpenters, masons, teamsters/truck drivers, in addition, work that typically was shunned by journeymen of other trade unions tradesman/craftsman or was given to their apprentices is generally done by laborers in the absence of apprentices. An example is the operators who in the division of labor have all the equipment, the same is true for most other trades except the ironworkers who are notorious for protecting their work and not wanting anyone else to touch their steel, tie-wire or Kliens. The advantage to this system is that many laborers gain sufficient experience working with another trade to journeyman-in while earning a higher wage than an apprentice. Many foremen will gradually give a laborer extra responsibility until they are performing at a journeyman level, Union, heavy construction and highway construction laborers earn on average $25. 47/h compared to 13. 72/h for non-union laborers. It is not uncommon for young engineers, construction managers. However, unlike engineers, laborers are not usually employed full-time year round, the additional pay they receive is often balanced out by the lesser unemployment checks they receive while out of work. These unemployment checks supplement the winter pay laborers often earn as independent contractors, on average young engineers earn 40,000 to 60,000 while union laborers on average earn 50,000 to 80,000. Engineers are not immune to being out of work, in heavy civil work some are employed on a project basis and they are not guaranteed a place on any subsequent projects, though this is in practice often the case. The value of work put in place by laborers and the value of avoided rework, Union laborers earn more than unfree labor and can be an avenue for those who are uneducated and with no resources to become educated and with resources. There are dangers associated with laboring, many laborers are severely injured or killed in accidents each year while performing work duties. Alcoholism, drug use, and drug abuse are common although most companies require drug screening for all new hires, if a laborer is injured on the job they are immediately given a drug test. If the test results are then they are ineligible for any Workers compensation benefits

16.
Wage labour
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Wage labour is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells his or her labour power under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a market where wages are market determined. A wage labourer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her power in this way. In modern mixed economies such as those of the OECD countries, the most common form of wage labour currently is ordinary direct, or full-time. However, wage labour takes many forms, and explicit as opposed to implicit contracts are not uncommon. Economic history shows a variety of ways, in which labour is traded and exchanged. The differences show up in the form of, Employment status – a worker could be employed full-time, part-time and he or she could be employed for example temporarily for a specific project only, or on a permanent basis. Part-time wage labour could combine with part-time self-employment, the worker could be employed also as an apprentice. So the labour might be performed on a more or less voluntary basis, or on a more or less involuntary basis, in which there are many gradations. Method of payment – The work done could be paid in cash or in kind, in some cases, the worker might be paid in the form of credit used to buy goods and services, or in the form of stock options or shares in an enterprise. Method of hiring – the worker might engage in a labour-contract on his or her own initiative, but he or she may also hire out their labour via an intermediary to a third party. In this case, he or she is paid by the intermediary, in some cases, labour is subcontracted several times, with several intermediaries. Another possibility is that the worker is assigned or posted to a job by a political authority, many Socialists see wage labour as a major, if not defining, aspect of hierarchical industrial systems. Most opponents of the institution support worker self-management and economic democracy as alternatives to wage labour and to capitalism. As some opponents of wage labour take influence from Marxist propositions, many are opposed to private property, wage labour has long been compared to slavery by socialists. As a result, the wage slavery is often utilised as a pejorative for wage labour. According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations

17.
Recruitment
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Recruitment is a core function of human resource management. Recruitment refers to the process of attracting, selecting and appointing suitable candidates for jobs within an organization. Recruitment can also refer to processes involved in choosing individuals for unpaid positions, internet-based technologies to support all aspects of recruitment have become widespread. From these the relevant information is captured in such documents as job descriptions, often, a company already has job descriptions for existing positions. Where already drawn up, these documents may require review and updating to reflect current requirements, prior to the recruitment stage, a person specification should be finalized. Sourcing is the use of one or more strategies to attract or identify candidates to fill job vacancies and this initial research for candidates—also called name generation—produces contact information for potential candidates, whom the recruiter can then discreetly contact and screen. Various psychological tests can assess a variety of KSAOs, including literacy, assessments are also available to measure physical ability. Recruiters and agencies may use applicant tracking systems to filter candidates, along with tools for psychometric testing. In many countries, employers are legally mandated to ensure their screening and selection processes meet equal opportunity, employers are likely to recognize the value of candidates who encompass soft skills such as interpersonal or team leadership. Many companies, including organizations and those that recruit from a range of nationalities, are also often concerned about whether candidate fits the prevailing company culture. The word disability carries few positive connotations for most employers, research has shown that employer biases tend to improve through first-hand experience and exposure with proper supports for the employee and the employer making the hiring decisions. As for most companies, money and job stability are two of the factors to the productivity of a disabled employee, which in return equates to the growth. Hiring disabled workers produce more advantages than disadvantages, there is no difference in the daily production of a disabled worker. IRS grants companies Disabled Access Credit when they meet eligibility criteria, many major corporations recognize the need for diversity in hiring to compete successfully in a global economy. Other organizations, for universities and colleges, have been slow to embrace diversity as an essential value for their success. Recruitment Process Outsourcing, or commonly known as RPO is a form of business process outsourcing where a company engages a third party provider to all or part of its recruitment process. Advantages include the familiarity with the employee and their competencies insofar as they are revealed in their current job. It can be quicker and have a lower cost to hire someone internally, niche firms tend to focus on building ongoing relationships with their candidates, as the same candidates may be placed many times throughout their careers

18.
Employment contract
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An employment contract or contract of employment is a kind of contract used in labour law to attribute rights and responsibilities between parties to a bargain. The contract is between an employee and an employer and it has arisen out of the old master-servant law, used before the 20th century. But generally, the contract of employment denotes a relationship of economic dependence, a contract of employment usually defined to mean the same as a contract of service. The purpose of the line is to attribute rights to some kinds of people who work for others. This could be the right to a wage, holiday pay, sick leave, fair dismissal, a written statement of the contract, the right to organise in a union. In Roman law the equivalent dichotomy was that between locatio conductio operarum and locatio conductio operis, the terminology is complicated by the use of many other sorts of contracts involving one person doing work for another. Instead of being considered an employee, the individual could be considered a worker or as having an employment relationship or a professional or a dependent entrepreneur, different countries will take more or less sophisticated, or complicated approaches to the question. Main articles, Labour economics and Contemporary slavery Anarcho-syndicalists and other socialists who criticise wage slavery, to treat abilities in this manner is also implicitly to accept that the exchange between employer and worker is like any other exchange of material property. The answer to the question of how property in the person can be contracted out is no such procedure is possible. Labour power, capacities or services, cannot be separated from the person of the worker like pieces of property, united States,209 U. S. ” Mark Freedland, The Personal Employment Contract Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-924926-1

19.
Job fair
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A job fair, also referred commonly as a career fair or career expo, is speed dating for companies and professionals job seekers. A job fair is an event in which employers, recruiters, likewise, online job fairs are held, giving job seekers another way to get in contact with probable employers using the internet. In colleges, job fairs are commonly used for entry-level job recruitment, job seekers use this opportunity to meet with them and attempt to stand out from other people and get an overview of what it’s like to work for a company or a sector that seem interesting to them. Career expositions usually include company or organization tables or booths where resumes can be collected, often sponsored by career centers, job fairs provide a convenient location for students to meet employers and perform first interviews. Online job fairs offer many of the conveniences of regular career fairs. An online job fair uses a platform which allows employers to discuss with potential new nominees for the job they’re offering. This is a way of interacting with them virtually and practical to get to know who they are. A virtual career fair include many such as video, live chats, downloadable material. After having applied online to positions, many people are also trying their luck with in-person job fairs