The 12 cm tornautomatpjäs m/70 ("12 cm automatic turret gun model 1970"), also known as ERSTA (Ersättning Tungt Artilleri or "Replacement Heavy Artillery") was developed to defend vital points like seaports from enemy landing ships, as well as area denial and fire support, even on a nuclear battlefield. Due to political cost-cutting requirements, the number of 12/70 batteries built in Sweden was limited to 6. For the same reason, some protection aspects were abandoned.

In the 1960s, the Swedish Coastal Artillery sought to replace several older heavy artillery systems. A study called ERSTA (Ersättning Tungt Artilleri – "Replacement Heavy Artillery") was initiated to ascertain which alternative (conventional artillery, rocket artillery or missiles) would be best for heavy coastal defense.

The ERSTA study was a 1960s Swedish coastal defense study aimed at determining what would become the next heavy coastal defense system. A 120 mm automatic gun system was eventually selected.

Rb 08 anti-ship missile installations were seriously considered but abandoned, possibly because much of that project may have been exposed to the Soviet Union by Stig Wennerström, the spy who also leaked vital information about the air defense system STRIL 60.

Several locations were studied and suggested for 12/70 batteries, and 10 locations were eventually selected and constructed in two series. In the end, due to funding issues, only the first series of six batteries was built starting in 1971. Additional cost-cutting measures had to be taken so EMP protection was severely reduced and the supporting installation of each gun was made smaller by replacing the full featured kitchen with a less capable galley and reducing the overall size of the crew quarters.

Each 12/70 battery consists of three fully independent gun emplacements, a command center, ranging stations and a close-in defense system with AA guns, mortar positions and troop shelters. There were 2 different kinds of 12/70 installation, known by their Bofors designations TAPJ 9101 and TAPJ 9102 (TAPJ is an acronym for TornAutomatPJäs). The 9101 system was designed to be installed in a large hole blasted in the bedrock, while 9102 was a variant which did not require such a deep hole and would be installed in a large hole dug in soil, i.e., where no stable rock was available. On both variants the hole is plugged with several meters of densely reinforced special concrete.

The 12/70 gun is a fully automatic, water-cooled vertical sliding wedge design mounted in an armored turret which is electrically traversed under computer control while the elevation motor is controlled manually (presumably a cost-cutting measure). It is fed from a magazine several meters below ground where the crew uses special air-cushion carts to feed cartridges onto a loading table. From the loading table the cartridge is fed through a hoist system and loaded into the gun using a pendulum loader. Spent cartridges are passed down a chute into a space at the bottom of the gun well, which is over 18 m (59 ft) deep on tapj 9101 and a few meters less on tapj 9102. The turret is manned by three men (gun commander, traverse operator and elevation operator) with the rest of the gun crew working in the magazine or the installation below.

To protect the gun system from ground shockwaves and overpressure in case of a nuclear detonation, the barrel is lowered into its storage position in a special "ground attachment fork" and the turret is hydraulically lowered and anchored to its foundation. The muzzle is automatically sealed when the barrel is lowered into storage position. During a nuclear attack, the turret crew may not stay in the turret because of the initial radiation, but they may reoccupy it and be ready to fight immediately after the attack thanks to a special liner which reduces induced radiation to such a point that it is safe to immediately reoccupy the turret.

Each gun emplacement is supported by an installation which contains power supply, accommodation and a galley. This enables at least 60 days endurance when cut off from the outside world. It consists of a steel-framed structure placed on rubber cushions for protection from ground shockwaves. On a type 9101 emplacement, this installation is a 3-story structure placed below the magazine.

The command and control center is a larger installation consisting of a 5-story building of a similar design which also has a more capable kitchen and a sickbay with surgery capability. In addition to cables and ordinary radio masts, the 12/70 command features reserve masts which are normally stored in silos below ground and may be raised as needed.

The 12/70 system marked the first use of the ArtE 724 digital fire control system. This may be fed information from several type of ranging stations, chiefly a radar system called HSRR which consists of a radar antenna normally stored below ground under an armored hatch. At least two surveillance radars are attached to the battery, and when a target is detected the HSRR may be raised and used for ranging reducing the time it is exposed above ground.

The other main ranging instrument is a laser rangefinder called AML 702 installed along with a low-light TV camera in an armored turret called the "laser eye". This can be remote controlled from the ranging station or command center and takes the place of the periscopes used in older installations.

A second series of four ERSTA batteries was planned but never realized as political priorities changed in the late 1970s, downplaying the threat of a nuclear attack. The fire control and radar systems meant for series #2 were redirected to a few older installations that were modernized in the mid-1980s as a very cheap and effective way to improve performance.

The Swedish 12/70 system was slated for modernization in the early 2000s but with the 1999 decision to abandon all invasion defense it was selected for scrapping instead. One gun emplacement, gun #3 at Landsort, has been declared a State Construction Memorial and will be preserved, although it is unclear if it can be shown to the public other than on special occasions due to its remote location, modern accessibility requirements etc.

In the late 1980s eight guns were exported to Norway, where they were installed in two 3-gun batteries and one 2-gun battery between 1989 and 1994. Unlike the Swedish installations the Norwegians decided to implement EMP protection and enlarge the supporting installations in order to improve crew comfort. The Norwegian installations, being about 10 years newer, also feature a more modern fire control and communications system. All guns were mothballed in 2001, 7 of the guns were dismantled in 2012/2013. One gun at Meløyvær Fortress is preserved along with the command central as a museum.

1.
Bofors
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Bofors AB is a Swedish arms manufacturing company. The name has been associated with the industry and artillery manufacturing for more than 350 years. Located in Karlskoga, Sweden, the company originates from the trip hammer mill Boofors. The modern corporate structure was created in 1873 with the foundation of Aktiebolaget Bofors-Gullspång, a leading Swedish steel producer by the early 1870s, Bofors expanded into weapons manufacture when steel produced by the Siemens-Martin process began to be used for gun manufacture. The companys first cannon workshop was opened in 1884, Bofors most famous owner was Alfred Nobel, who owned the company from 1894 until his death in December 1896. Nobel played the key role in reshaping the iron and steel producer to a modern cannon manufacturer. The powder manufacturer AB Bofors Nobelkrut, later an explosives and general producer, was created in 1898 as a wholly owned subsidiary. By 1911, AB Bofors-Gullspång had outcompeted, bought and closed down its Finspång Swedish competitor in cannon manufacture, the companys name was shortened to AB Bofors in 1919. In 1986, a million contract between the Government of India and Swedish arms company Bofors was signed for the supply of 410155 mm field howitzers. In 1987, Swedish Radio alleged that Bofors paid illegal commissions to top Indian politicians, the scandal contributed to the defeat of Rajiv Gandhi in elections three years later. In 1999, Saab AB purchased the Celsius Group, then the parent company of Bofors, in September 2000, United Defense Industries of the United States acquired Bofors Weapons Systems, while Saab retained the missile interests. This automatic cannon is often called the Bofors gun and saw service on both land and sea. It became so known that anti-aircraft guns in general were often referred to as Bofors guns. Another well-known gun made by the company was the Bofors 37 mm anti-tank gun and it was built under licence in Poland and the United States and was also used in a variety of tanks, including the 7TP and M3A3 Stuart

2.
Gun barrel
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A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore

3.
Caliber
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In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents

4.
Action (firearms)
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In firearms terminology, an action is the mechanism that handles the ammunition or the method by which that mechanism works. Breech-loading weapons have actions, actions are not present on muzzleloaders. The mechanism that fires a muzzle-loader is called the lock, actions can be categorized in several ways, including single action versus double action, break action versus bolt action, and others. The term action can also short, long, and magnum if it is in reference to the length of the rifle’s receiver. The short action rifle usually can accommodate a cartridge length of 2.8 in or smaller, the long action rifle can accommodate a cartridge of 3.34 in, and the magnum action rifle can accommodate cartridges of 3.6 in, or longer in length. Manual operation is a term describing any type of firearm action that is loaded one shot at a time by the user rather than automatically. For example, break action is a form of operation using a simple hinge mechanism that is manually unlatched by the operator. These are actions wherein the breechblock lowers or drops into the receiver to open the breech, there are two principal types of dropping block, the tilting block and the falling block. In a tilting or pivoting block action, the breechblock is hinged on a pin mounted at the rear, when the lever is operated, the block tilts down and forward, exposing the chamber. The best-known pivoting block designs are the Peabody, the Peabody–Martini, the original Peabody rifles, manufactured by the Providence Tool Company, used a manually cocked side-hammer. The 1871 Martini–Henry which replaced the trapdoor Snider–Enfield was the standard British Army rifle of the later Victorian era, charles H. Ballards self-cocking tilting-block action was produced by the Marlin Firearms Company from 1875, and earned a superlative reputation among long-range Creedmoor target shooters. Surviving Marlin Ballards are today highly prized by collectors, especially those mounted in the elaborate Swiss-style Schützen stocks of the day. A falling-block action is a firearm action in which a solid metal breechblock slides vertically in grooves cut into the breech of the weapon. Examples of firearms using the falling block action are the Sharps rifle, in a rolling block action the breechblock takes the form of a part-cylinder, with a pivot pin through its axis. The operator rotates or rolls the block to open and close the breech, it is a simple, rugged, a break action is a type of firearm where the barrel are hinged and can be broken open to expose the breech. The earliest metallic-cartridge breechloaders designed for military issue began as conversions of muzzle-loading rifle-muskets. The upper rear portion of the barrel was filed or milled away, an internal angled firing pin allowed the re-use of the rifles existing side-hammer. The Allin action made by Springfield Arsenal in the US hinged forward, france countered in 1866 with its superior Chassepot rifle, also a paper-cartridge bolt action

5.
Breech-loading weapon
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A breech-loading gun is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel. Modern mass production firearms are breech-loading, early firearms, on the other hand, were almost entirely muzzle-loading. In field artillery, breech loading allows the crew to reload the gun without exposing themselves to fire or repositioning the piece. The main challenge for developers of breech-loading firearms was sealing the breech and this was eventually solved for smaller firearms by the development of the self-contained metallic cartridge. For firearms too large to use cartridges, the problem was solved by the development of the interrupted screw, breech-loading swivel guns were invented in the 14th century. The breech-loading swivel gun had a rate of fire, and was especially effective in anti-personnel roles. Breech-loading firearms are known from the 16th century, Henry VIII possessed one, which he apparently used as a hunting gun to shoot birds. More breech-loading firearms were made in the early 18th century, one such gun known to have belonged to Philip V of Spain, and was manufactured circa 1715, probably in Madrid. It came with a ready-to load reusable cartridge, patrick Ferguson, a British Army officer, developed in 1772 the Ferguson rifle, a breech-loading flintlock firearm. Later on into the century there were attempts in Europe at an effective breech-loader. There were concentrated attempts at improved cartridges and methods of ignition, the cartridge was loaded through the breech and fired with a needle. The needle-activated central-fire breech-loading gun would become a feature of firearms thereafter. The corresponding firearm was also developed by Pauly, Pauly made an improved version, which was protected by a patent on 29 September 1812. In 1846 another Paris Frenchman, Benjamin Houllier, patented the first fully metallic cartridge containing powder in a metallic shell, Houllier commercialised his weapons in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard or Charles Robert. In English-speaking countries the Flobert cartridge corresponds to the.22 BB, the first centrefire cartridge was introduced in 1855 by Pottet, with both Berdan and Boxer priming. The Dreyse Zündnadelgewehr or Dreyse needle gun, was a single-shot breech-loading rifle using a rotating bolt to seal the breech and it was so called because of its. 5-inch needle-like firing pin, which passed through a paper cartridge case to impact a percussion cap at the bullet base. It began development in the 1830s under von Dreyse and eventually a version of it was adopted by Prussia in the late 1840s. The paper cartridge and the gun had numerous deficiencies, specifically, however, the rifle was used to great success in the Prussian army in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866

6.
Rifled breech loader
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The spin imparted by the guns rifling gives projectiles directional stability and increased range. Loading from the rear of the gun leaves the crew exposed to enemy fire, allows smaller gun emplacements or turrets. This was both a safety issue and one of gun performance - all the propellant gas was needed to accelerate the projectile along the barrel. The second problem was speed of operation - how to close the breech before firing, two solutions were developed more or less in parallel, the screw breech block and sliding wedge or sliding block. Hence, unlike with a rifle cartridge, the breech mechanism itself somehow needed to provide obturation. Hence if the block circumference was divided into two sets of threads and gaps, the only needed to be rotated ¼ turn to lock it instead of several turns. The tradeoff was that only ½ the blocks circumference was threaded, until the 19th century, only muzzle-loaders were used. In 1837 Martin von Wahrendorff patented a design for a breech-loader with a cylindrical breech plug secured by a horizontal wedge, independently, Giovanni Cavalli first proposed a breech-loader gun in 1832 to the Sardinian Army, and first tested such a gun in 1845. Advances in metallurgy in the industrial era allowed for the construction of rifled breech-loading guns that could fire at a greater muzzle velocity. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, a degree of obturation was achieved via a cup on the face of the block being forced into a recessed ring on the chamber face. Whatever obturation that was achieved relied on manual labour rather than the power of the guns firing, however, the British Army and Navy preferred to revert to muzzle-loaders until larger high-powered breech-loaders with secure obturation systems that were relatively simple to operate were developed. In the meantime the French persevered with trying to develop breechloaders which combined faster loading than muzzle-loaders, high power, safety, the Lahitolle 95 mm cannon of 1875 with an interrupted screw breech met the first three requirements to a great extent and partially solved the obturation problem. Finally the de Bange system introduced in 1877 solved the problem with an asbestos pad impregnated with grease which expanded and sealed the breech on firing. The de Bange system formed the system for all subsequent screw breeches to the present day. Britain adopted the de Bange breech when it returned to breechloaders in the early 1880s after some experiments with the inferior Armstrong cup obturation system. Loading required the 3 operations in reverse and this was hence termed a three motion block and was slow to operate. While working as a designer for Thorsten Nordenfelt in London. This allowed the block to be unscrewed and swung out in two motions - the two motion interrupted screw breech, bofors continued to use this in medium artillery into the 20th century

7.
Gun laying
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Gun laying is the process of aiming an artillery piece, such as a gun, howitzer or mortar on land, or at sea, against surface or air targets. It may be laying for direct fire, where the gun is aimed similarly to a rifle, or indirect fire, the term includes automated aiming using, for example, radar-derived target data and computer-controlled guns. Gun laying means moving the axis of the bore of the barrel in two planes, horizontal and vertical. A gun is traversed – rotated in a horizontal plane – to align it with the target, Gun laying is a set of actions to align the axis of a gun barrel so that it points in the required direction. This alignment is in the horizontal and vertical planes, Gun laying may be for direct fire, where the layer sees the target, or indirect fire, where the target may not be visible from the gun. Gun laying has sometimes called training the gun. Laying in the vertical plane uses data derived from trials or empirical experience, for any given gun and projectile types, it reflects the distance to the target and the size of the propellant charge. It also incorporates any differences in height between gun and target, with indirect fire, it may allow for other variables as well. With indirect fire the horizontal angle is relative to something, typically the guns aiming point, depending on the gun mount, there is usually a choice of two trajectories. The dividing angle between the trajectories is about 45 degrees, it varies due to gun dependent factors. Below 45 degrees the trajectory is called low angle, above is high angle, the differences are that low angle fire has a shorter time of flight, a lower vertex and flatter angle of descent. All guns have carriages or mountings that support the barrel assembly, early guns could only be traversed by moving their entire carriage or mounting, and this lasted with heavy artillery into World War II. Mountings could be fitted into traversing turrets on ships, coast defences or tanks, from circa 1900 field artillery carriages provided traverse without moving the wheels and trail. The carriage, or mounting, also enabled the barrel to be set at the elevation angle. With some gun mounts it is possible to depress the gun, some guns require a near-horizontal elevation for loading. An essential capability for any elevation mechanism is to prevent the weight of the barrel forcing its heavier end downward and this is greatly helped by having trunnions at the centre of gravity, although a counterbalance mechanism can be used. It also means the elevation gear has to be enough to resist considerable downward pressure. However, mortars, where the forces were transferred directly into the ground

8.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

9.
Electromagnetic pulse
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An electromagnetic pulse, also sometimes called a transient electromagnetic disturbance, is a short burst of electromagnetic energy. Such a pulses origination may be a natural occurrence or man-made and can occur as a radiated, electric or magnetic field or an electric current. The management of EMP effects is an important branch of electromagnetic compatibility engineering, weapons have been developed to create the damaging effects of high-energy EMP. These are typically divided into nuclear and non-nuclear devices, such weapons, both real and fictional, have become known to the public by means of popular culture. An electromagnetic pulse is a short burst of electromagnetic energy and its short duration means that it will be spread over a range of frequencies. Pulses are typically characterized by, The type of energy, the range or spectrum of frequencies present. Pulse waveform, shape, duration and amplitude, the last two of these, the frequency spectrum and the pulse waveform, are interrelated via the Fourier transform and may be seen as two different ways of describing the same pulse. In general, only acts over long distances, with the others acting over short distances. There are a few exceptions, such as a solar magnetic flare, a pulse of electromagnetic energy typically comprises many frequencies from DC to some upper limit depending on the source. The range defined as EMP, sometimes referred to as DC to daylight, excludes the highest frequencies comprising the optical and ionizing ranges. Some types of EMP events can leave a trail, such as lightning and sparks. The waveform of a pulse describes how its instantaneous amplitude changes over time, real pulses tend to be quite complicated, so simplified models are often used. Such a model is shown either as a diagram or as a mathematical equation. Most pulses have a sharp leading edge, building up quickly to their maximum level. The classic model is a curve which climbs steeply, quickly reaches a peak. However, pulses from a switching circuit often approximate the form of a rectangular or square pulse. In a pulse train, such as from a digital clock circuit, EMP events usually induce a corresponding signal in the victim equipment, due to coupling between the source and victim. Coupling usually occurs most strongly over a narrow frequency band

10.
Galley (kitchen)
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The galley is the compartment of a ship, train, or aircraft where food is cooked and prepared. It can also refer to a kitchen on a naval base. A galley is the kitchen aboard a vessel, usually laid out in an efficient typical style with longitudinal units and this makes the best use of the usually limited space aboard ships. It also caters for the rolling and heaving nature of ships, for this reason galley stoves are often gimballed, so that the liquid in pans does not spill out. They are also equipped with bars, preventing the cook from falling against the hot stove. A small kitchen on deck was called a caboose or camboose, originating from the Dutch, kombuis, in English it is a defunct term used only for a cooking area that is abovedecks. The Douglas Aircraft DC-3 was the first airplane with a galley for food service. Aircraft in operation today mainly use the airline service trolley system. The first airplane kitchen was invented by Werner Sell of Germany in 1930, in 1955 Sell also began fitting train coaches with kitchens, from 1960 on with the newly developed convection oven. Such kitchens increase storage space by working vertically, with hanging pots, dish racks, strictly, the term refers to a kitchen with the units in two facing lines, but is often used to refer to U-shaped kitchens as well. 10,000 units were installed in Frankfurt, and it was the most successful, Chief cook Chief steward Stewards assistant

11.
Sick bay
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A sick bay is a compartment in a ship, or a section of another organisation, such as a school or college used for medical purposes. The sick bay and the medicine chest should be locked, with the keys only being available to the medical officer. The term is also applied ashore by the United States Navy and Marine Corps to treatment clinics on naval stations, sick bays appear in popular science fiction franchises, such as Battlestar Galactica and Star Trek, as the medical facility on board a starship

12.
Landsort
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Landsort is a Swedish village with a lighthouse on the island of Öja. The tower was built in 1689, with a conical iron section added in 1870. Open fires, serving as beacons, have been lit at the site since early times, Landsort is the southernmost point of the Stockholm archipelago. The first lighthouse in the sense was lit in 1651 and, until the current tower was raised. The tower of 1689 was constructed to carry an open fire, in 1840, a colza oil lamp was installed. A flame consumed paraffin from 1887 but in 1938 the beacon was electrified, today the Swedish Maritime Administration owns and runs the lighthouse. During World War II and the Cold War, Landsort was a base for the Swedish coastal artillery. The Swedish weather service SMHI operates a station at Landsort. The southern end of the island has a oceanic climate with several maritime features. One of those is the summer, called seasonal lag. There is a very low diurnal temperature variation, which results in very mild nights year-round compared with nearby cities. Winters are more prone to cold than summers are to heat, during months in which ice is not a risk, all-time lows are much milder than during adjacent months. The area has a microclimate, with relatively low precipitation for the reference period of 1961-1990. In spite of it being an extreme maritime climate by Swedish standards, in summer, Landsort is isolated from heat waves affecting the east coast, with temperatures rarely going above 25 °C. Between 2002 and 2016 there were only 14 such occurrences, at a 0.9 days average, the chilly temperatures are especially marked by May temperatures often staying 10 degrees lower or more than during coastal or inland warm periods. Summers are rather short, with June being relatively chilly and rapid cooling starting from September onwards, in spite of the cool summer days, Landsort has never reported September frost, a very unusual occurrence for Swedish weather stations. Overnight lows can be extremely mild, during a late summer 2002 heat wave, Landsort did not fall below 16.2 °C the entire August. On the other extreme, during a 2006 heat wave affecting the southern mainland

13.
Gotland
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Gotland, Gutland in the local dialect Gutnish, is a province, county, municipality, and diocese of Sweden. The province includes the islands of Fårö and Gotska Sandön to the north. The population is 57,221, of which about 23,600 live in Visby, the island of Gotland and the other areas of the province of Gotland make up less than one percent of Swedens total land area. From a military viewpoint, it occupies a location in the Baltic sea. The island is the home of the Gutes, and sites such as the Ajvide Settlement show that it has occupied since prehistory. This is consistent with the spread of peoples from the Middle East at about that time. Early on, Gotland became a center, with the town of Visby the most important Hanseatic city in the Baltic Sea. In late medieval times, the island had twenty district courts, each represented by its elected judge at the island-ting, new laws were decided at the landsting, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. Gutasaga contains legends of how the island was settled by Þieluar, according to some historians, it is therefore an effort not only to write down the history of Gotland, but also to assert Gotlands independence from Sweden. In 1361, Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark invaded the island, the Victual Brothers occupied the island in 1394 to set up a stronghold as a headquarters of their own in Visby. At last, Gotland became a fief of the Teutonic Knights, an invading army of Teutonic Knights conquered the island in 1398, destroying Visby and driving the Victual Brothers from Gotland. The number of Arab dirhams discovered on the island of Gotland alone is astoundingly high, in the various hoards located around the island, there are more of these silver coins than at any other site in Western Eurasia. The total sum is almost as great as the number that has been unearthed in the entire Muslim world, the Berezan Runestone, discovered in 1905 in Ukraine, was made by a Varangian trader named Grani in memory of his business partner Karl. It is assumed that they were from Gotland, the Mästermyr chest, an important artefact from the Viking Age, was found in Gotland. The authority of the landsting was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order, then sold to Eric of Pomerania, in late medieval times, the ting consisted of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants. Since the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, the island has remained under Swedish rule, the Order never regained its territory, and eventually it reestablished itself in Rome as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. On 22 April 1808, during the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, a Russian army landed on the shores of Gotland near Grötlingbo. Under command of Nikolaus Andrejevich Bodisco 1,800 Russians took the city of Visby without any combat or engagement, and occupied the island

14.
Ystad
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Ystad is a town, and the seat of Ystad Municipality, Skåne County, Sweden, with 18,350 inhabitants in 2010. The settlement dates back to the 11th century and the town has become a busy ferryport, local administrative centre and it is associated with the fictional detective Kurt Wallander whose stories, by Henning Mankell, are set primarily in Ystad and nearby communities. In 1285, the name was written Ystath. Its original meaning is not fully understood, but the y is probably related to an old word for the yew tree, while -stad is town, in Danish times before 1658 the spelling was Ysted. Ystad was not mentioned in documents until 1244, in a record of King Erics visit to the town with his brother, a Franciscan monastery, Gråbrödraklostret, was founded in 1267, and Ystad joined the Hanseatic League in the 14th century. The charter of 1599 gave the town the right to export oxen, Ystad, together with all of Scania, was transferred from Denmark to Sweden following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. By 1866 Ystad had a connection and it was established as a garrison town in the 1890s. After World War II, ferry services to Poland and to the Danish island of Bornholm were opened, in 1658, Ystads population was about 1,600 and, by 1850 it had reached 5,000. The increased importance brought by the railway and the garrison in the 1890s drove the population above 10,000, Ystad is the setting of the Swedish crime drama Wallander. There is a port with ferry and train services. The ferry port has services to the Danish island of Bornholm and to Świnoujście, in Poland, the town is on the railway line between Malmö and Simrishamn and has direct rail services to Copenhagen via the Øresund Bridge. The most popular sport in Ystad is handball, with two big clubs, Ystads IF is in Elitserien whilst IFK Ystad is situated in Division 1. Several famous handball players have played one or other of these clubs, the only newspaper published at present in Ystad is the Ystads Allehanda, which also covers the neighbouring municipalities of Skurup, Tomelilla, Simrishamn and Sjöbo. The newspaper was founded in 1873, one of Swedens most well-preserved medieval monasteries, the Greyfriars Abbey, lies in Ystad. The town also has a large medieval church, the Church of the Virgin Mary. Both are highly influenced by Gothic Hansa architecture and are among the best examples in Sweden of Brick Gothic, in addition, there are areas of surviving medieval town architecture, like the Latin school and several town houses. The city is included in the European Route of Brick Gothic. Nilsson, Swedish born American actress Sara Li born Sara Linnea Larsson, Swedish singer Frans Jeppsson-Wall, the Municipality´s official site Ystads Allehandas site

15.
Trelleborg
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Trelleborg is a locality and the seat of Trelleborg Municipality, Skåne County, Sweden, with 28,290 inhabitants in 2010. It is the southernmost town in Sweden, the earliest written record of Trelleborg is from 1257, when Trelleborg was presented as a wedding gift from the Danish royal family to the Swedish Prince Valdemar. It was soon reconquered by the Danes, and it belonged to Denmark until 1658, in medieval times, Trelleborg had an important part in herring fishing. Trelleborg became an important merchant city as merchants from Germany came to trade herring, in 1619 following a devastating fire, the Danish King decided that one merchant city on the coast was sufficient and revoked Trelleborgs status as a merchant city in favour of Malmö. Not until 1840 was Trelleborg allowed to become a merchant city, mostly this was thanks to the work of a few stubborn men, who had continuously been petitioning the Swedish Riksdag with these requests since 1658. The local government reform of 1971 made Trelleborg the seat of Trelleborg Municipality, the first written record of the name is from 1291, Threlæburgh. The name is found in places in Scandinavia. Borg means castle or stronghold and träl can mean thrall, remains of the original stronghold were excavated in 1988. The name may also have originated from the stronghold that remains in the center of the city. Strongholds like that have found at several places around Scandinavia, mostly in the south of Sweden and Denmark. The name is likely to have originated from that borg, during the First World War, and after the February Revolution in Russia 1917, did Germanys hope of a separate peace treaty with Russia rise. But the new Russian temporary leader Alexander Kerensky declined, in August 1917 did Lenin and his entourage arrive to Scania, on this historically important journey, through the train ferry line between Saßnitz and Trelleborg. Much of it has been the work of the influential businessman Johan Kock, other important industries he established were Akzo Nobel Inks, Today called Flint Group Sweden, manufacturing printing inks, and DUX, who make beds. Later in the 1950s, Perstorp Industries was established in Trelleborg and it manufactures flooring boards, Trelleborg continues to be a working-class-oriented city and is politically a traditional stronghold for the Swedish Social Democratic Party. However, since the latest elections in 2006 the Social Democratic Party is in opposition in the municipality and it is today often visited by people travelling from Sweden to Germany because of the ferries to Rostock, Sassnitz, and Lübeck - Travemünde in Germany. The ferries carry passengers on one-day journeys, cars with vacationing families, and heavy trucks on their way through Europe. In April 1917, Lenin arrived with the ferry from Sassnitz to Trelleborg on his way from exile back to Russia to lead the Revolution, Today Trelleborg has the second largest seaport of Sweden, behind Gothenburg. Every year it more than 10 million metric tonnes of cargo

16.
Harstad
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Harstad is the second-most populated municipality in Troms county, Norway. It is mostly located on the island of Hinnøya. The municipal center is the town of Harstad, the most populous town in Central Hålogaland, the town was incorporated in 1904. Villages in the municipality include Elgsnes, Fauskevåg, Gausvik, Grøtavær, Kasfjord, Lundenes, Nergården, the municipality is located on many islands in southern Troms county. Most of the municipality is located on the island of Hinnøya. The municipality contains several islands, including Arnøya, Gressholman, Helløya, Kjeøya, Kjøtta, Kjøttakalven, Flatøya, Meløyvær, Måga, Rogla, Lille Rogla. Harstad is bordered by the municipality Kvæfjord to the west and Tjeldsund to the south, the city itself is located on the northeastern part of on Hinnøya, it is the only city on the island, and is popularly known as Vågsfjordens perle. The highest mountain in Harstad is Sætertinden, which is 1,095 m above sea level and it is located near the village of Sandtorg in southern Harstad. The 412-metre tall mountain, Nupen, is located in the part of the municipality on the border with Kvæfjord. Despite being located north of the Arctic Circle, Harstad features an oceanic climate with relatively mild winters. The city experiences warmer winters than major cities located 25 to 30 degrees farther south in latitude in the northern hemisphere such as Beijing, Chicago, summers in Harstad are cool, with average high temperatures seldom breaking the 22 °C mark. Since the new station opened in August 2002, July 2014 was the warmest month with 6 days above 27 °C. The record low of −16.1 °C was recorded in February 2010, the city enjoys the midnight sun during the summer months, from 22 May to 18 July. There is also a period from early May to early August with twilight for a few hours each night as the sun just dips below the horizon, the polar night, when the sun is always below the horizon, lasts from 30 November to 12 January. At this time, there are 3–4 hours of dawn and dusk around noon, from late January, the period of daylight rapidly increases, reaching 12 hours by March and 18 hours in April. Harstad is located in the midst of the aurora borealis zone, and the aurora can often be seen on clear nights, the town of Harstad was established as a municipality on 1 January 1904 when it was separated from the municipality of Trondenes. The initial population of the town of Harstad was 1,246, on 1 January 1964, the municipalities of Sandtorg, Trondenes, and Harstad were merged to form a new, combined municipality with a population of 17,882. Prior to the merger, Harstad had 3,808 residents, on 1 January 2013, the municipality of Bjarkøy was merged with Harstad, forming a new, larger municipality of Harstad

17.
Narvik
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Narvik or Áhkanjárga is the third-largest town and municipality in Nordland county, Norway by population. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Narvik, other villages in the municipality include Ankenesstranda, Beisfjord, Bjerkvik, Bjørnfjell, Elvegård, Skjomen, Håkvik, Hergot, Straumsnes, and Vidrek. The Elvegårdsmoen army camp is located near Bjerkvik, Narvik is located on the shores of the Ofotfjorden. The municipality is part of the district of Ofoten of Northern Norway. The municipality of Narvik was established on 1 January 1902 when the village of Narvik received status as a town and was separated from the large municipality of Ankenes. Initially, the town-municipality of Narvik had 3,705 residents, on 1 January 1974, the municipality of Ankenes was merged with the town-municipality of Narvik, forming a new, larger municipality of Narvik. After the merger, the new municipality of Narvik had 19,780 residents, on 1 January 1999, a small area of Narvik was transferred to Evenes. The town is named after the old Narvik farm, since the town is built on its ground, the Norse form of the name was probably *Knarravík, and the first element is then the genitive pluralis of knarr merchant ship – the last element is vík inlet. The name Knarravík is found several places along the Norwegian coast, Narvik was originally called Victoriahavn after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, however Sweden’s Crown Princess Victoria was also honoured. The coat-of-arms is from modern times, they were granted on 1 June 1951, the arms show a gold-coloured anchor on a red background. The anchor symbolises Narviks status as an important port, see also, Coats-of-arms of Lillesand and Nøtterøy The history of Narvik as a settlement began in the Stone Age. Not very much is known about these people, but the Vikings lived in this area, the history of modern Narvik begins in the 1870s, when the Swedish government began to understand the potential of the iron ore mines in Kiruna, Sweden. Obtaining iron ore from Kiruna had one significant problem in that there was no suitable Swedish port, the nearest Swedish port, Luleå, has limitations. It is covered with ice all winter, it is far from Kiruna, therefore, Narvik was founded as an all-year ice free port for the Kiruna and Gällivare iron mines. During the construction of the railway, the port was called Victoriahavn until 1898. The town was founded in 1902. The Ofotbanen railway line connects Narvik to Kiruna in Sweden, passing through the mountains dividing the two countries, locals use the Swedish slang words morsan and farsan, a testimony to the close ties with Sweden. The port of Narvik proved to be valuable in the early years of World War II

18.
Trondheim
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Trondheim, historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It has a population of 187,353, and is the third most populous municipality in Norway and it is the third largest city in the country, with a population of 169,972 inhabitants within the city borders. The city functions as the centre of Sør-Trøndelag county. Trondheim lies on the shore of Trondheim Fjord at the mouth of the river Nidelva. The settlement was founded in 997 as a trading post, from 1152 to 1537, the city was the seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros, since then, it has remained the seat of the Lutheran Diocese of Nidaros and the Nidaros Cathedral. The current municipality dates from 1964, when Trondheim merged with Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda, for the ecclesiastical history, see Archiepiscopate of Nidaros Trondheim was named Kaupangen by Viking King Olav Tryggvason in 997. Shortly thereafter it came to be called Nidaros, in the beginning it was frequently used as a military retainer of King Olav I. It was frequently used as the seat of the king, and was the capital of Norway until 1217, people have been living in the region for thousands of years as evidenced by the rock carvings in central Norway, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and the Corded Ware culture. In ancient times, the Kings of Norway were hailed at Øretinget in Trondheim, Harald Fairhair was hailed as the king here, as was his son, Haakon I, called the Good. The battle of Kalvskinnet took place in Trondheim in 1179, King Sverre Sigurdsson, some scholars believe that the famous Lewis chessmen, 12th-century chess pieces carved from walrus ivory found in the Hebrides and now at the British Museum, may have been made in Trondheim. Trondheim was the seat of the Archdiocese of Nidaros for Norway from 1152, due to the introduction of Lutheran Protestantism in 1537, the last Archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, had to flee from the city to the Netherlands, where he died in present-day Lier, Belgium. The city has experienced major fires. Since much of the city was made of wooden buildings, many of the fires caused severe damage. Great fires ravaged the city in 1598,1651,1681,1708, twice in 1717,1742,1788,1841 and 1842, however, the 1651 fire destroyed 90% of all buildings within the city limits. The fire in 1681 led to an almost total reconstruction of the city, overseen by General Johan Caspar von Cicignon, broad avenues like Munkegaten were created, with no regard for property rights, in order to stop the next fire. At the time, the city had a population of roughly 8000 inhabitants, after the Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658, Trondheim and the rest of Trøndelag, became Swedish territory for a brief period, but the area was reconquered 10 months later. The conflict was settled by the Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660. During World War II, Trondheim was occupied by Nazi Germany from 9 April 1940, the home of the most notorious Norwegian Gestapo agent, Henry Rinnan, was in Trondheim

19.
130 53 TK
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13053 TK or 130 TK is a Finnish fixed, heavy artillery piece, manufactured by Tampella. The caliber is 130 mm.13053 TK is the weapon of the Finnish coastal artillery. The maximum range with high-explosive fragmentation shells is 25 kilometers and with special sea target shells it is over 30 km, the initial velocity of the shot is around 860 m/s depending on the shell and amount of propellant used. When firing temporary bursts with auto-loader the gun can fire 3 shots in 20 seconds, the gun weighs 16 tons and the length of the barrel is 6818 mm. The gun is manned by 3 NCOs and 7 servicemen, the development of the 130 TK started in the 1970s and lasted for 10 years. In 1971, the Finnish national defence committee suggested that the main current coastal artillery gun would be replaced by the end of the 1970s. A development contract was signed with Tampella in 1975 and it was decided that the calibre would be 130 mm, since the mobile coastal artillery used towed guns of same calibre. A prototype was constructed on the island of Isosaari in 1980, the Finnish Defence Forces signed a series production contract with Tampella in 1982. The first battery was installed in 1984 and the final in 1990, the spaces required for the gun, such as room for the gun crew and ammunition storage was built inside the base rock with concrete casemates for shaping. The 13053 TK will probably be the last fixed coastal defence gun in the Finnish inventory, initially, there were no special sea target shells, instead, regular fragmentation shells were used with timed, immediate and delayed fuses for differences in desired effect. A first attempt to develop sea target shells failed in the 1980s, a fresh start was done in the beginning of the 1990s for payload shells similar to some anti-tank shells. Targeting for these guns is done by a team either using a laser range. The triangulation method is safer as there is nothing transmitted towards the target as in the laser rangefinder case, the coordinates or directional information in the case of triangulation are sent to a calculation unit which then calculates the targeting solution for the guns. This is an operation since the targets are moving. The gun itself can be directed manually with the coming from the central calculation unit or fully automatically based on the data received via a data bus from the central calculator. The gun is also capable of autonomous operation with its own laser rangefinder. Enqvist, Ove, Itsenäisen Suomen rannikkotykit 1918–1998, Sotamuseo,1999, näin syntyi maailman — tai ainakin Suomen — paras rannikkotykki —130 TK-projektin alkamisesta 20 vuotta

20.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian

21.
Tampella
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Oy Tampella Ab was a Finnish heavy industry manufacturer, a maker of paper machines, locomotives, military weaponry, as well as wood-based products such as packaging. The company was based mainly in the city of Tampere, until 1963 the company was called Tampereen Pellava- ja Rauta-Teollisuus Osake-Yhtiö. In Swedish it was called Tammerfors Linne-&Jern-Manufakt. A. B, in 1993 the company’s forest and packaging business was bought by Enso-Gutzeit Oy. Tampereen Pellava- ja Rautateollisuus Oy was a based on the merger in 1861 of two factories - a linen mill and foundry - situated by the Tammerkoski rapids. After a modest start it grew to become an institution employing thousands of people in the centre of Tampere alone, in the 1950s the companys name was shortened to Tampella. The company went into decline during the 1980s and eventually went bankrupt in 1990 and this was at a time just before the economic recession of the early 1990s. After bankruptcy the companys operations were split and sold to various, mostly international, among the companys products was the manufacture of linen, in later times this was not an important product, but the company continued it for apparently historic reasons. However, its concern was iron and steel products. These included grave crosses, guns, mining drills, paper machines, locomotives, steam boilers, the company also produced cardboard and packaging at its Inkeroinen mill. The industrial activity, under the new ownership, in the centre of Tampere gradually ceased, soon after this most of the buildings in the industrial complex were demolished, though some had already been demolished. Other buildings were converted to new uses, but most were demolished to make way for blocks of flats. Together with an Israeli cooperative organisation Solel Boneh, Tampella also founded the Israeli defence contractor Soltam, 122K/60,122 mm field cannon, prototype 122K/57,15 pieces of 122K/60 manufactured

22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

Early types of breech loaders from the 15th and 16th century on display at the Army Museum in Stockholm.

Henry VIII breech loading hunting gun, 16th century. The breech block rotates on the left on hinges, and is loaded with a reloadable iron cartridge. Thought to have been used as a hunting gun to shoot birds. The original wheellock mechanism is missing.

Breech-loading firearm that belonged to Philip V of Spain, made by A. Tienza, Madrid circa 1715. It came with a ready-to-load reusable cartridge. This is a miquelet system.

Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.