JOURNAL OF SPORTS PEDAGOGY AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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First published in 2015 in Champaign, Illinois, USA
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ISSN: 2381-7100
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Scope and Concerns
GAME LOGIC
…………………………………
Sport’s psycho-social motivations are built around a variety of game logics. Games are spaces of
recreation and leisure; they are places of not-work; they stand outside the immediately
functional, productive logics of employment and citizenship. However, they also reflect and
reinforce the moral meanings of broader society: the values of energetic commitment; the virtue
of developing skill; the challenge of striving to achieve; the rigors of competition; the rewards
afforded to effort; the ethics of formal equality of opportunity (the ‘level playing field); the
vicissitudes of chance; magnanimity in loss; and in team sports the ethics of collaboration. The
virtues of the “sporting spirit” are complement aspirational values in a wide variety of practices
in education, work and civic participation.
Yet the spirit of sport sits in tension with other complex and at times contradictory forces,
ostensibly less part of its “true spirit” but which nevertheless at times seem intrinsic to its gaming
logic. Is sport ritualized aggression, quasi-military in its formation, and to the extent that it is, is
it a catharsis or catalyst sublimating other problems? Are values of competition a necessary and
proper reflection of the motivations that drive market societies, or do they represent “survival of
the fittest” logic in which a few perennially win at the expense of the many who, game logic
dictates, must lose? To what extent does game logic also tempt transgression of rules, from
cheating to doping? How do we negotiate racism, sexism, homophobia and denigratory
nationalism in sports?

BODY LOGIC
…………………………………
Sport also rests on a range of body logics. One logic is one of health, a counterpoint to work
which for the majority of modern people is largely sedentary. Sport is a necessary antidote.
Another logic is that of body image, captured visually in the ideal type of the physically fit man
or woman. Another logic is body-to-body contact, the strictly delimited violence of contact sports
or bodily co-ordination in sports of graceful movement. Another is the subtle or not-so-subtle
expression of sexuality in sport.
However, sitting in tension with these idealizations are difficulties and challenges intrinsic to
the logic of the sporting body itself. How do we make sports accessible to, and inclusive of,
bodies outside of the ideal body type? How do we deal with the tendency to lionize unnatural
extremes in the sporting body, and the over-exercise, drugs or assistive technologies which may
be used to produce extreme effects? How do we reduce violence in sport and connected with
sport? How do we address the perils of the sexualization of sport? How do we negotiate
polyvalent sexualities?

AESTHETIC LOGIC
…………………………………
There are multiple aesthetics to sport, too. Sporting activities are driven by stories. The game is
an open-ended, participatory narrative. It is a journey in time and space—the race or the match,
for instance. Sporting achievements fold into everyday life narratives. Then there is the intrinsic
aesthetic of movement, of graceful or impressively forceful bodies in time and space, of being
outdoors or in a specially designed indoor spaces. Sport is also driven by ritual: formalised
beginnings, stages and ends for participants and the stuff of spectacle and entertainment for
viewers. This is the raw material for representation in conversation, media, advertising and the
arts-through discourses, imageries, sounds and tactile sensations. Sport’s sites of representation
are print, television, radio, the internet--indeed any and all media, each with its characteristic
forms and all in a state today of radical transformation.
However, sitting in tension with a positive aesthetics are the often crude functionalism of
sporting spaces, the rabid commercialization of popular sport, the passivity of the spectacle and
limited and differential access to the media for different sports or categories of player.

ORGANIZATIONAL LOGIC
…………………………………
Sports are forms of social organization. They depend upon, and are always supported by,
institutional infrastructures and processes of management. Physical facilities are needed. Players
need to learn to play. They need times and places to practice, and coaches to lead. These are the
pragmatics of doing sport, and doing it well. This is the stuff of sports education, sports medicine
and sports management, practiced by and for amateurs as well as professionals.
However, how does organization logic at times lead to excessive commercialism or even
exploitation? When it does it become overburdened by bureaucracy? When does leisure become
work in a way that perhaps defeats the purpose of sport-as-leisure?
The International Conference on Sport and Society and its companion journal, book series
and online community are places for the systematic examination a relationship in which sport
oft-times enhances social life, while at other times it reflects broader social challenges as well as
raising challenges unique to sport itself. These are the discussion forums of this knowledge
community.

Table of Contents
Australian Parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perceptions of the Issues Faced by their Adolescent High
Performance Sports Children in Balancing School and Sport ....................................1
Maureen O'Neill, Angela Calder, and Bill Allen
Respect in Sport: The Perceived Impact on Parental Behavior
in Minor Hockey ............................................................................................................13
Julie Booke and Joe Pavelka

Australian Parents’ Perceptions of the Issues
Faced by their Adolescent High Performance
Sports Children in Balancing School and Sport
Maureen O'Neill, Australian Catholic University, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Angela Calder, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Bill Allen, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Abstract: The daily pressures faced by high-performance athletes who are still at school and juggling two full-time
workloads are observed firsthand by their parents. As part of a larger study involving a 360o view of this issue, 19
athletes, 10 teachers, and 10 parents of Australian secondary school high-performance athletes were interviewed. This
study reports on the parents' perspectives. Nine mothers and one father were interviewed about their views of the issues
faced by their child in juggling commitments to both school and sport. Children of these parents performed at national or
international levels in sport and attended either a non-government or government Australian secondary school.
Interviews were recorded with a Livescribe™ pen and data was analysed with NVivo 10SP6 TM to reveal themes of
parental concerns. The most important issues that all parents identified were related to sibling relationships, physical
demands faced by their child, financial sacrifices, and the pushy parent. A comparison of these findings with our
previously published data from 19 Australian high-performance school-age athletes revealed some similarities and some
differences between the perceptions of parents and athletes. Common issues identified by both groups related to physical
stresses, financial sacrifices, and over the top parents. However, issues emphasised strongly by athletes but noted only
minimally or not identified at all by parents included problems for the athletes with bullying at school, a reduced social
life, management problems with schoolwork, and exposure to alcohol and drug-taking situations. Sibling rivalry and
conflict were issues noted by all nine mothers but not reported as an issue by athletes. These different perceptions
highlight areas that may reflect their relative importance to athletes and parents and this may have an impact on the
effectiveness of the support parents provide for their child. Recommendations from this study include raising awareness
of the athlete’s different views with parents and reinforcing the monitoring strategies parents can use to complement
those used by coaches and teachers to gain a more comprehensive approach to assessing their child’s adaptation to
stress.
Keywords: High-performance Athletes, School-age Athletes, Parents’ Views

Simpkins et al. 2010) rather than targeting parents’ perceptions about the pressures their child
encounters in balancing school and sport (Harwood and Knight 2009). The importance of parents
in providing emotional and tangible support for their talented children is well documented (Baker
et al. 2003; Dorsch, Smith and McDonough 2009; Leff and Hoyle 1995) as is the influence of the
family (Appleton, Hall and Hill 2010; Coté 1999) although some studies have indicated that
fathers and mothers play different roles in providing this support (Appleton, Hall and Hill 2010;
Kirk et al.1997b; Simpkins et al. 2010; Wolfenden and Holt 2005; Wuerth and Alfermann 2004).
However parental support can also be a source of stress for their sporting children through overinvolvement in the sport, unrealistic expectations and negative comments (Gould et al. 2008;
Holt et al. 2008; Reeves, Nicholls and McKenna 2009; Wolfenden and Holt 2005). A few
researchers have also noted that parental support for a talented child often requires extra effort
and family sacrifice than that allocated for less talented or non-sporting siblings and this has led
to rivalry and conflict within the family unit (Harwood and Knight 2009; Kirk et al.1997b;
Wolfenden and Holt 2005). Specific stresses experienced by parents in providing the necessary
support for their talented children include organisation and time commitments (Kirk et al.1997b),
extra financial burdens (Harwood & Knight 2009; Kirk et al. 1997a), dealing with coaches and
other parents (Kerr and Stirling 2012), providing emotional and motivational support (Gould,
Dieffenbach and Moffett 2002) and voicing concerns about future careers for their talented sports
child (Wolfenden and Holt 2005).
Although positive parental support and encouragement contribute to an athlete’s self-esteem
and enjoyment for sport, talented school-age athletes are still faced with a complex balancing act
(Godber 2012; Wilding 2014). Stresses reported by Australian high-performance school-age
athletes in coping with these dual roles (Kirk et al. 1997a; Penney and Hay 2008) align with
similar stresses identified by school-age athletes in other countries (Godber 2012; Radke and
Coalter, 2007; Wilding 2014). Previously we have reported on five categories of pressures and
stress identified by 19 Australian high-performance school-age athletes (O’Neill, Allen and
Calder 2013). Pressures aligned with physical issues related to fatigue, muscle soreness,
insufficient sleep, and appropriate and timely nutrition. Time management problems identified by
athletes related to stresses associated with training, preparation for competitions, school
assignments, classes and exams, attending or missing social activities with friends,
procrastination and spending time on social media. Psychological pressures were also an issue
particularly in relation to being bullied at school or to jealous school peers (O’Neill, Allen and
Calder 2014). Financial pressures created a feeling of guilt for most athletes as they felt that their
sporting goals put massive financial strains on their families. These financial stresses were
exacerbated by lost income for parents who spent large amounts of time transporting their child
to training at the expense of working (Kirk et al 1997a; Wilding 2014). Finally, athletes
identified the sacrifices they personally had to make in forgoing a social life in order to train and
compete (O’Neill, Allen and Calder 2013).
Consequently, the aim of this project was to identify any gaps between parents and athletes
views about how high-performance school-age athletes cope with juggling two lives. Any
differing perceptions between the two groups may highlight areas of parental support that are not
congruent with athletes’ views and such disparities may impact on the effectiveness of parental
support, an observation noted in other research comparing parents and athletes perspectives with
regards to social support (Park and Kim 2014). Our study aimed to identify any similarities and
discrepancies in the perceptions of parents and athletes and provide recommendations that
parents could adopt in order to maximise the effectiveness of their support for their talented
sporting school-age children.

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O'NEILL ET AL.: AUSTRALIAN PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS

Method
Participants
Ten parents of Australian high-performance school-age athletes were interviewed, nine female
and one male (Table 1). Parents were selected from recommendations by various sporting
organisations and from school teachers who taught high-performance athletes in either a
government or a non-government school. Participants came from the eastern states of Australia
and were selected because they were the parents of current or former high-performance schoolaged athletes competing at national events for their age or at open competitions such as World
Championships, Olympic Games or Commonwealth Games.
Participant
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10

Gender
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
F
F
F

Table 1: Parent Demographics (N=10)
Child’s school type
High-performance child at school
Non-government
Mother of 15yr old current swimmer
Non-government
Mother of 15yr old current gymnast
Government
Mother of 15yr old current netballer
Government
Mother of 15yr old former dancer
Non-government
Mother of 17yr old former surf life saver
Government
Mother of 15yr old current soccer player
Non-government
Father of 16yr old former rugby union player
Non-government
Mother of 17yr old current swimmer
Government
Mother of 17yr old current tennis player
Non-government
Mother of 17yr old former gymnast

Six participants were parents of current junior athletes and four were parents of former
athletes. A wide range of sports were represented by the children from the parent cohort. These
included individual sports as diverse as swimming, gymnastics, surf lifesaving, dancing, and
tennis, and from team sports including soccer, netball and rugby union. The children of six of the
participating parents attended non-government schools and four attended government schools.
Ethics approval for this research was obtained from the named institutional Human Ethics
Committee. To that extent participants were de-identified and coded numerically.

Data Collection
Data was collected by semi-structured interviews using a LivescribeTM pen to record responses.
The main questions posed were focused on the parents’ perceptions of what their highperformance school-age children experienced in balancing life as a student and as an athlete. For
example, What problems does your child encounter? This approach allowed each participant to
incorporate any information they felt was relevant concerning their child’s needs and problems.
The interviews were transcribed and returned to the relevant participant for confirmation before
data analysis began.

Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted using NVivo 10SP6TM. A four-stage schedule was used to analyse
the data through descriptive, topic, analytic, and drawing conclusion stages (Edhlund 2011;
Sinkovics and Alfoldi 2012). This process involved data being sorted from lower to higher order
themes through four stages. NVivo statistical and analytical tools known as queries were used to
discern and interpret the data from each participant with reference to each of these themes.

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JOURNAL OF SPORTS PEDAGOGY AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Results
Although all efforts were made to interview both parents only one father (P7) was available for
this study. Each of the families involved indicated that their busy schedules meant that most
fathers simply did not have enough time for an interview and that mothers were often more
acquainted with the daily organisation schedules of the child. A common comment from fathers
declining to be interviewed was;
let mum do the interview as she knows all the details
Additionally fathers work demands made them less accessible than the mothers in this study
as was evidenced in the interview with the sole male participant that occurred in the boarding
lounge of a busy international airport. All of the parents interviewed identified themselves as the
primary caregivers for their child.
Table 2: Similarities between Parents’ and Athletes’* Responses
Main issues identified by parents
Parents (n10)
Sibling relationships
Sibling rivalry and conflict
9 (all mothers)
Physical demands
Fatigue
All
Nutrition
All
Sleep
2
Financial difficulties
Financial hardships and sacrifices for the family
All
Parents juggling work and child’s sport commitments
All
Over the top and pushy parents
7
Source: *Data adapted from O’Neill, Allen and Calder 2013

Similarities in Parents’ and Athletes’ Responses
Parents identified issues relating to four major themes: sibling relationships, physical demands on
the child, finances, and over the top parents (Table 2). These issues corresponded strongly with
those identified by athletes interviewed within the same study and published previously (O’Neill,
Allen and Calder 2013).

Sibling Relationships
All nine mothers interviewed indicated that they exempted the high-performance athlete from the
same household duties that other siblings were expected to do and all added that there was
conflict between siblings as a result. Most mothers felt this exemption was necessary for the
high-performance athlete who needed switch off time from physically demanding commitments
to training. The exempted domestic duties then often became the responsibility of the other
siblings in the family. For example, the mother of a school-age gymnast (P2) commented about
the need to support their talented athlete by allowing the child to get out of doing chores or by
making allowances for this talented child. The mother commented:
There are times when we have to make allowances for XXXX not to do some of the
chores. At these times we then remind her about the allowances she has been given at
home. (P2)

4

O'NEILL ET AL.: AUSTRALIAN PARENTSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; PERCEPTIONS

This mother was very aware of favouring one child over the other but simply explained that
the whole family had to make exemptions due to the need of this one child to be a highperformance athlete. P2 admitted that this situation had unleashed unpleasant resentment and
anger between the siblings and added that this left her with a degree of guilt for the resulting
conflict.
I blame myself for the resentment of the child who is not our high-performance child as
I simply assumed she would accept all the extra duties and not be unhappy with this
knowing her sister who is our high-performance athlete, canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t possibly be expected to
do chores after the physically draining day she has had. (P2)
Sibling rivalry was also raised by other mothers.
There has been some resentment from the older siblings in the household that are not
elite athletes and often times the older sister has sometimes made comment about the
times I have made allowances of XXXX for not doing or being diligent with her chores
so the older sister has to do them instead. (P4)
Expecting the older sister to take these chores on and this is a subject that has come up
on numerous occasions. (P5)
The mother of a soccer athlete acknowledged the burden placed upon the child who was not
the high-performance child and indicated that it was important for parents:
To be mindful that you are not putting one child up on a pedestal and making the other
child carry the burden of chores. (P6)

Physical Demands on the Child
Fatigue: The physical state of fatigue was mentioned by all parents. This was typically expressed
as their son or daughter was often exhausted or extremely weary (P5).
They come home, eat and they are so exhausted. (P10)
I constantly see how exhausted my daughter is after training. (P2)
Nutrition: Linked closely with the state of physical fatigue were the nutritional needs of the
athlete. Organising and cooking healthy hearty meals (P2) and preparing food for the week was
mentioned by all mothers interviewed. One mother shared her admiration for her young 15 year
old high-performance swimmer as she discussed how her child cooked and created a food plan
for the week:
Some days she (athlete) cooks stir fry, pizzas and other meals that add up to five days of
meals. She then stores it in the fridge and then it is ready to just heat, so this way her
food is organised for her to take to each early morning session. (P1)
However, only one parent emphasised the importance of good food to be available for their
child throughout the school day:
My son needs good school lunch options plus a good variety of meals at night. (P4)
Sleep: In addition to a good diet, sleep was reported by two parents as being an important
issue due to the fatiguing demands on the talented sports child. P3 highlighted the need for a

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sleep room at school for athletes as a result of the cumulative fatigue from early morning training
and the demands of a full day at school and training after school. This mother suggested that this
type of room should be quite separate to the nominated school sick room. Student athletes would
benefit from a room that was hygienic and safe and allowed the athlete to simply chill out or
catch up on a much needed power nap during the day in order to cope with the hectic demands of
training before and after school as well as classes at school.

Finances
Financial stress involving sacrifices that impacted on the whole family was reported by all
parents. The mother of a high-performance tennis player commented that the high costs
associated with providing for her child also encompassed:
The tennis school charging additionally for all competitions and tournaments and so the
tournament expenses and the tennis school became so costly. (P9)
Financial issues were especially stressful for single parents required to work full time and
still provide all the organisational support for their children.
It is always a struggle. (P4)
To commit to gymnastics as a parent you almost had to be a non-working parent as I am
a single fulltime working mother it was always a struggle. I think if they allowed for
some levels to be split over 1 and 1/2 years it would have been better. (P2)
Financial assistance was occasionally available to some families in the form of subsidies
offered to those families by their childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school to help pay for representative sport:
We receive some financial support from our school P and C if you make a regional level
or beyond in a team or as an individual you get an amount of money to fund your
representative levies and this increases the higher you go. To date we have been
financed for each representation my daughter has done. (P9)
The one father in this study reflected that as a former elite school-age athlete himself, he was
now able to realise that financing sport as a parent was difficult:
I now realise the financial strain it must have placed on my parents trying to afford to
finance all the sporting fees and other requirements such as equipment and food I
needed in the sport I was competing in. (P7)
Interestingly all parents recognised that their high-performance school aged athlete child
reported experiencing stress or guilt feelings as a result of the financial demands their sporting
commitments placed on their families.

Over the Top (Excessively Passionate) Parents and Pushy Parents
Another finding was the awareness parents clearly noted about the behaviour of other parents as
spectators. In the words of most participants (P3, P4, P6, P7, P8, P9, P10) those parents who are
over passionate in support of their children on the field are tagged as over the top parents.
So we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need over the top parents ruining this for high-performance athletes. Over
the top parents try to over protect and live their own dreams through their own children.
This is certainly not needed for school-age athletes. (P3)

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O'NEILL ET AL.: AUSTRALIAN PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS

One mother (P7) spoke of instances of parents yelling bad language and threats from the side
line at the athletes on the field. The sole father (P7) described the poor behaviour of parents he
had witnessed on the football field. In the words of this father an unsavoury melee occurred as a
result of the over the top parents simply being too intense with the game their children were
playing.
Now as a parent standing on the side lines watching my son I’m shock and embarrassed
about some of the bad behaviour of over the top parents. During one state school boy’s
final a melee happened on the field where parents actually jumped the fence and started
hitting the players on the field. This is simply unacceptable and beyond excusing it as
‘parent passion’. It’s sad…to me it’s about the inability of such desperate parents who
simply didn’t make it and are imposing it upon their children to do so...really just so sad.
(P7)
P8 suggested that only the parents that pushed the image of their child forward at the school
got attention and certainly achieved school scholarships:
My daughter did apply for a school scholarship and they never granted her one even
though she was representing Australia in the sport of sprint kayaking. The ones that got
it had parents that were pushy. (P8)

Differences between Parents’ and Athletes’ Responses
When the data from parents in this study were compared with data from a group of Australian
high-performance athletes comprising nine current and ten former national and international
school aged athletes (O’Neill, Allen and Calder 2013) several similarities (Table 2) and
differences were evident (Table 3).
Table 3. Differences between Parents’ and Athletes’* Responses
Other issues identified mainly by athletes
Parents
Athlete (n19)*#
(n10)
Time management
Athlete balancing school, sport, family and friends
3
All
School work
Having to catch up on missed classes
3
All
Juggling missed school assignments
None
All
mentioned
Social
Limited or non-existent social life
2
All
Jealousy and bullying from school peers and teachers
None
12 (all females)#
mentioned
Alcohol & Drug taking by the athlete or their peers
None
All
mentioned
Sources: Data adapted from *O’Neill, Allen and Calder 2103 and # O’Neill, Allen and Calder 2014

All 19 athletes but only three parents reported time management issues related to athletes’
balancing school, sport, family and social lives. In particular the impact that training had on
reducing athletes social time with peers and friends was a concern for all athletes but was
mentioned by only three parents (O’Neill Allen and Calder 2103). No parents identified issues
relating to school peers being envious but all 12 female athletes reported that they had
experienced jealousy or bullying from peers and even some teachers (O’Neill Allen and Calder
2014). Similarly parents were either not aware or chose not to indicate that their child was

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dealing with issues related to alcohol and/or social drugs despite the fact that some of the athletes
interviewed admitted to using marijuana or engaging in binge drinking.

Discussion
Our findings support results from other research involving parents of high-performance school
age athletes. For example the disproportionate representation of mothers to fathers in our
investigation is typical of the unequal representation of mothers and fathers reported in other
studies (Appleton Hall and Hill 2010; Simpkins et al. 2010; Wolfenden and Holt 2005; Wuerth
and Alferman 2004). This unequal parental representation is a reflection of the different family
roles undertaken by each parent with mothers taking on a larger domestic role almost as an
extension of their maternal responsibilities while fathers concentrate on being the main income
providers (Kirk et al. 2006). Hence the responses of the sole father (P7) in this study were less
about day-to-day domestic concerns within the family e.g. sibling rivalry (Table 2) and more
about external issues impacting on the athlete, such as the behaviours of over the top parents.
Whilst it is important to have the views of both parents, information from the primary domestic
source i.e. nine mothers, afforded a more comprehensive view of daily issues within the family
environment.

Similarities between Parent and Athlete responses
The observations of mothers in this study corresponds with the opinions of Australian highperformance school age athletes themselves about the pressures and problems they face in
balancing school and sport. (Table 2) In particular both groups recognised that enormous
workloads and physical stresses result in constant daily fatigue for the athlete. This demanding
situation is compounded by adolescent growth issues and so extra attention needs to be paid to
the health, nutrition and well-being of these individuals. Adolescent athletes subjected to long
term physical and psychological stresses are at greater risk of physical and psychological
problems such as injuries, overtraining or burnout than are their less active school peers (Gould
and Dieffenbach 2002; Wilding 2014). Consequently it is vital for parents to have comprehensive
observational measures to assess their child’s responses to stress on a daily basis in order to
detect any potential problems at an early stage and apply interventional strategies to minimise
these problems.
While it is well documented that parents are well motivated to provide emotional and
tangible support for their talented child (Baker et al. 2003; Dorsch, Smith and McDonough 2009;
Leff and Hoyle 1995) they rarely receive any formal training about what and how to monitor
their child’s responses to stress. It is assumed that supportive parents already possess the
appropriate knowledge and skills to observe and respond to their child’s stresses but this may not
be the case (Kerr and Stirling 2012). National Sporting Organisations could provide parents with
a list of key markers to gauge their child’s responses to physical and psychological stresses.
Parents could record these signs and symptoms daily in an electronic diary similar to those used
by athletes and coaches (Calder 2006). Such observations when coupled with those recorded
daily by the athlete, coach and school teachers can provide a comprehensive 360 o view of the
athlete’s responses to stress and act as an early warning tool to detect any indications of
maladaptation or excessive stress. Early detection and early intervention is essential for the
health and wellbeing of high-performance athletes of any age but more so when they are going
through adolescence.
All mothers in this study reported that the extra attention and monies required to support
their talented child lead to family conflict or rivalry (Table 2). This finding corresponds to former
studies that have reported sibling rivalry and conflict due to unequal amounts of time, money,
and attention being allocated to children in the family (Harwood and Knight 2009; Kirk at al.
1997b). Interestingly none of the current athletes in the larger study reported this to be an issue
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O'NEILL ET AL.: AUSTRALIAN PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS

for them only the former athletes whose reflections of the past indicated that there were financial
concerns for their family (Table 2). This discrepancy in reports from parents and athletes may be
a reflection of their respective views on the issue (Gould Dieffenbach and Moffett; 2002) with
athletes focusing on the support they received rather than any ensuing conflict or rivalry with
siblings. Sibling rivalry and sibling support for talented athletes has been reported in a few
studies (Coté 1999; Gould Dieffenbach and Moffett 2002) but this aspect is worthy of more
focused examinations in relation to the short and long term impacts this may have on the
individuals within the family and the family unit as a whole.
Increased family sacrifices in terms of money and time were issues reported in previous
research (Dorsch Smith and McDonough 2009; Harwood & Knight 2009; Kirk et al. 1997a;
Wilding 2014) and these were also common to parents in our study. Financial demands were
especially stressful for single mothers who fulfilled both domestic and financial provider roles
for their child. Interestingly all ten parents reported that their child did feel a sense of guilt for the
financial costs that their sporting commitments placed on the household and these family
sacrifices added extra psychological pressures on the athlete. The discrepancy between parents’
reports and those from athletes highlights the need to explore the impact of this issue in more
depth especially if financial pressures result in a sense of guilt and emotional stress for athletes.
Another source of psychological stress noted by most parents and all former athletes in the
larger study involved the behaviours of other parents at training or competitions. Parents and
athletes comments about over the top or pushy parent behaviours correspond with reports from
other researchers (Gould et al. 2008; Kerr and Stirling 2012; Reeves, Nicholls and McKenna
2009; Wolfenden and Holt 2005). Interestingly, this type of behaviour was not reported by
athletes about their own parents but was still regarded as an external source of pressure they and
their parents faced.

Differences between Parent and Athlete Responses
Time management was an issue noted by all athletes but only three parents identified this as an
issue for their child (Table 3). The challenges involved with combining two workloads and the
extra stress from catching up with missed classes and assignments may have been so obvious to
parents like the elephant in the room that time management pressures were taken as inevitable.
Several parents acknowledged that their child had good time management and planning skills but
most parents failed to acknowledge that this was still a stressful issue for their child.
The most startling differences between parent and athletes responses related to the pressures
athletes experienced in their social lives particularly in relation to their school peers. While most
athletes reported they were prepared to make sacrifices to have more time to follow their sporting
ambitions (O’Neill Allen and Calder 2013) they were not prepared for the negativity, jealousy
and bullying they experienced at school. Although this was not reported as an issue by the seven
male athletes in our larger study neither was it mentioned by any parents interviewed in this
study, yet all twelve female athletes identified this as a major problem they had encountered
(O’Neill Allen and Calder 2014). Similarly issues related to alcohol and social drug use were
reported by all 19 athletes but not mentioned by any parents.
The psychological stresses associated with these social issues can have a detrimental impact
on the athlete’s health and self-esteem and undermine the efforts of parents to provide a
supportive environment for the athlete. However, the discrepancies between athletes’ reports and
parents perceptions is not uncommon. Other researchers have reported situations where parents
expend significant effort to support their children but gaps between the parents’ perspectives and
child’s identified needs can render parental support less effective than it could be with a
comprehensive view from the perspectives of both parties (Park and Kim 2014).
It is unclear whether parents are unaware of these differences or whether they are aware of
these issues but do not rate these as serious enough to warrant reporting. In some cases athletes

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might hide stressful information from their parents to minimize parental anxiety about them
especially if it involves antisocial behaviours like drug taking. This discrepancy of views needs
examining in more detail to identify whether there is a communication breakdown between
athlete and parents or why parents do not rate these as stressful situations for the athlete. Results
from such a study could offer insights into these different perspectives and provide
recommendations to enable more effective parental support for athletes. The main limitations of
this study relate to the small sample size and the unequal representation of mothers. Ideally both
parents’ views would have provided a more comprehensive perspective, however in all cases the
primary caregiver was the parent interviewed. Consequently a larger parent cohort from a wider
range of Australia states would enhance the breadth and depth of the existing data.

Conclusion
This study was conducted as part of a larger study exploring parents and athletes’ views about
the pressures and stresses that high-performance school age athletes experience in juggling two
lives. The parental perspectives reported in this study complement information from other studies
that have reported on the athlete’s perspectives balancing sport and school commitments. Issues
identified by both parents and athletes recognised stresses related to athlete time management,
financial stress on the family and physical demands on the athlete. However several social issues
faced by athletes relating to bullying and drug use were not acknowledged as issues by parents,
and this potentially could lead to less effective parental support if their perceptions are not
congruent with athlete needs. Further research examining the disparities between parent and
athletes perceptions is needed to elucidate the reasons for these different views.
Parents are in an ideal position to monitor athletes stress responses on a daily basis, and as
such they are better positioned than coaches or teachers who have less frequent contact with
athletes. Dedicated parental support for high-performance athletes who are still at school is most
effective if parents are aware of all the issues affecting the athlete. We recommend the adoption
of a 3600 approach to monitoring athlete stresses. This involves combining information from the
athlete, parents, coach and teachers in order to provide the most comprehensive overview of the
state of health and well-being of the athlete. This holistic approach addresses the development of
the athlete in both their sport and education lives and enables parents to provide for the best
support required. Accordingly our research has contributed to this area of study by reporting on
parents’ views about athlete issues with balancing sport and school. Integrating the views of
parents and athletes with those from teachers and coaches is the next stage in this process.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the participants and their families for their support for this study.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Maureen O'Neill: Researcher and Lecturer, School of Education and Office of Research and
Education, Australian Catholic University and the University of the Sunshine Coast,
Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
Angela Calder: Lecturer, Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore,
Queensland, Australia
Dr. Bill Allen: Senior Lecturer of Education, School of Education, University of the Sunshine
Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia

12

Respect in Sport: The Perceived Impact on
Parental Behavior in Minor Hockey
Julie Booke, Mount Royal University, Canada
Joe Pavelka, Mount Royal University, Canada
Abstract: The reported increase of unethical conduct in all levels of sport diminishes the value of sport and risks turning
away participants and fans at all levels. This paper focuses on root causes of inappropriate behavior in sport related to
parental involvement. Literature suggests that negative parent behavior affects the safety and enjoyment of participating
athletes. In an effort to deal with negative behaviors, Respect Group developed the Respect in Sport (RiS) education
program geared to parents. The aim of this research is to explore the effectiveness of RiS and its impact on a group of
minor hockey parents in Calgary, Canada. A survey was administered to all parents/guardians who completed the RiS
program after a three-year period. Three key findings include: 1) Increased awareness—Parents report they are more
aware of their behavior and that of others’ in relation to what is supportive and what is not. 2) Need for more integration—
Study participants identify that real change will only come when the program is imbedded into the culture of the sport.
Some wish to see the program made mandatory annually to increase cultural integration. 3) More accountability—
Participants explain they believe the program is a step forward in improving respect and reducing maltreatment. The
findings provide valuable insight in the development of mitigative strategies to address inappropriate parent behaviour.
The findings may also be transferable to other sports and support education as a way to affect positive, albeit incremental
change in sport culture.
Keywords: Respect, Sport Culture, Parental Behaviour

reduction of maltreatment. Hockey Calgary and Respect Group define maltreatment as: behaviors
that are abusive, involve bullying or neglect (ibid.).
Furthermore, inappropriate parental behaviour has been linked to the creation of a negative
and stress-laden environment that discourages youth participation (Omli and LaVoi 2009). In this
regard, negative parental behaviours can be conceptually linked to Leisure Constraint Theory and
specifically inter-personal level constraints (Jackson, 2005). Leisure Constraints Theory is widely
employed to understand and explain reasons why individuals do not participate in leisure. Interpersonal level constraints is one of three levels of constraint and it specifically involves constraints
presented by an individual’s significant others. Though the focus of this research is not leisure
constraints oriented, inappropriate parental behaviour in youth sport and inter-personal leisure
constraints presents a logical conceptual link to be explored in greater detail.
In September 2010, Hockey Calgary instituted the RiS parent program, requiring one
parent/guardian of each player to complete the online program or their child(ren) would not be
permitted to play. Perry Cavanagh (Past President Hockey Calgary) explained, “the objective of
requiring one parent/guardian from each family to complete the RiS program is not to change the
behaviors of the 2% of really bad parents, but rather to educate and empower the other 98%” (Perry
Cavanagh, email message, April 11, 2011). Since its inception, the mandatory RiS program has
spread across Canada.
In an effort to understand the perceived impact of the RiS program, we conducted a long-term
evaluation of the perceived effects of the RIS program, on parent behavior, among parents of minor
hockey players in Calgary. Our research questions were: what is the perceived impact of the
mandatory RiS program on parent behavior in minor hockey? And did the implementation of the
RiS program change the culture of minor hockey?

Literature Review
There are major concerns over the effects of parental behaviors at children’s sporting events.
While “most parents who are involved… are interested in the redeeming benefits sports have to
offer” (Wheeler 2008, 132), others exhibit poor behavior, often targeted at the children who
play/compete. Negative parental behaviors have the effect of creating background anger, which
impacts not only the children involved, but also the sport environment beyond the child, in question
(Omli and LaVoi 2011). Ongoing negative behaviors can also influence whether a child remains
involved in a sport or leaves early (Arthur-Banning et al., 2009).
In 2000, Sports Illustrated published an article titled Out of Control (Nack and Munson, 2000)
highlighting the growing problem of inappropriate and dangerous parental behavior at youth sports
games. The article reported numerous incidents of parent-to-parent and parent-to-coach violence,
but the article was precipitated by a particularly violent incident whereby a father beat his son’s
hockey coach to death, at a rink, in a small town north of Boston. The Sports Illustrated article
brought to light an issue well known to youth sport participants and parents throughout North
America. Later, in 2005, a group of youth sport experts, associated with the US-based Citizenship
Through Sports Alliance rated parental behavior and involvement in youth sports as unacceptable
and in need of improvement.
An early US-based study by Randall and Mackenzie (1987, 205) reported that, at soccer
games, 12.5% of the time, parents engaged in verbal behavior of which 19.8% were positive in
nature, and 5.8% were negative. A later study using a similar framework assessed 296 parents of
netball, hockey, cricket, t-ball, and rugby, and reported a ratio of 4:3:2 of negative/neutral/positive,
sideline comments by parents (Kidman, Mckenzie, and Mckenzie 1999, 6). Blom and Drane (2008)
using the validated Parent Observation Instrument for Sports Events (POISE) carried out a similar
study of sideline comments by parents in two Mississippi cities. While they acknowledge the
debate of reliability related to what is categorized positive, neutral, and negative, they reported
that, overall, 52% of parental sideline comments were positive while 32% of comments were

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negative. Blom and Drane (2008) acknowledge a lack of systematic academic review of this topic,
but evidence indicates that the issue of inappropriate parental behavior related to youth sports has
increased. Common rhetoric among parents and coaches is that only 2% of parents are actually
negative (Perry Cavanagh, email message April 11, 2011). While perception may be that 2% is
small percentage of sport parents, and thus the issue is not important or prevalent, however, the
impacts of those 2%, as discussed above, can be extreme, and far-reaching. Thus, there is a strong
need for the RiS program and for information to evaluate its perceived effectiveness in creating a
more favorable sport environment for minor hockey players.

Parental Influence
Hedstrom and Gould (2004) present research and discuss of how parental involvement in youth
sport can shape a child’s development, and impact critical elements including their motivation,
competence and emotional responses. Positive parental involvement can improve a child’s
interpretation of the experience as to whether winning is all-important or if one’s effort and
competence is more important (Smoll, Cumming, and Smith 2011). In tennis, positive parental
involvement has been reported by tennis coaches as providing financial support, logistical support
and transportation, generally making sacrifices, and imparting hard work and positive attitudes
(Gould et al. 2006). In the same study tennis coaches reported positive parental involvement as
notably adding to the child’s enjoyment, performance and self-esteem. Parents further support their
children by encouraging post-game debriefings to encourage the child to evaluate and interpret
their own performance (Gano-Overway 2001). LaVoi and Babkes-Stellino (2008) claim that the
greatest impact parents have on their children’s sport development is that they can positively
influence their child’s beliefs about themselves and subsequent expectations about themselves. It
is clear parents possess a unique ability to influence their child’s sport experience and parents
generally influence children’s sport experience by the behaviors they model (Hedstrom and Gould
2004).
Negative parental influence tends to minimize the possibility of the positive developmental
benefits of sport. For example, Kidman, Mckenzie, and Mckenzie (1999) claim parental sideline
coaching and comments can reduce athletes’ motor performance, inhibit learning as they try to
follow competing instructions and impact self-worth. Too much emphasis on winning by parents
(and coaches) can negate the educational benefits accrued to the athlete. Negative parental
behaviours also have the effect of creating background anger which impacts the sport environment
beyond the individual child in question (Omli and LaVoi 2009) and prolonged negative behaviours
can also determine whether a child remains involved in a sport or leaves early (Arthur-Banning et
al., 2009). Hedstrom and Gould (2004, 31) claim the most common problem behaviors from
parents who over emphasize winning (goal focus versus an effort focus); and place unrealistic
parental expectations placed on the child; those engage in sideline coaching; overly criticize the
child’s performance and those who pamper their children.
Smoll, Cumming, and Smith (2011) offer a similar list of problematic parent behaviors that
includes being disinterested; overly critical; screaming from bench; acting as sideline coaches; and
being overly protective. But they suggest that the most common problem between parents and
coaches is a difference in opinion as to the child’s ability. It is not just the sport experience that
parents can influence but the debriefing of the activity is argued to be as important if not more so.
Elliot and Drummond (2015) examined the way parents of young footballers (soccer players) in
Australia debriefed their child’s activity and found that the post weekend ‘assessing’ of the child’s
activity generally resulted in a negative experience for the child. On the other hand many of those
parents believed their post experience de-briefing to be a demonstration of involvement in their
child’s sport. Their research found that three main categories of post-game reward or interaction
parents had with their child athletes. They include presentation of rewards or awards from a small
plaque to getting a dollar for each goal scored; second involved the use of junk food as a reward

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and third was the post-game debrief that are characterized as a talk on the long drive home and
generally involved a sandwich approach to debriefing (compliment—criticism—compliment)
approach.
Some authors have speculated the motive for parental involvement in sports may actually be
the root of the problem. Kidman, Mckenzie, and Mckenzie (1999) explain that the amount of
involvement a parent exhibits in their child’s sport activities may be due to their lack of
participation in sport as a child; they may be trying to experience sport involvement through their
children. Smoll, Cumming, and Smith (2011) suggest that parent-coach problems may arise from
a reverse dependency phenomenon, whereby parents define their self-worth through the actions of
their children. Coakly (2006) adds children’s sport achievements are clearly visible and even
publicized within sport circles/neighborhoods which may lead parents to harbor a sense of
obligation to invest in their child’s participation and perceived full potential which, if ignored, may
represent a moral failure. It is not difficult to surmise how the reverse dependency phenomenon
may result in sport stress for the child.

Leisure Constraints
At a time when youth physical activity is encouraged at every level it is important to understand
what may discourage sport participation in youth. The literature thus far is clear that parents have
a substantive role both positive and negative, in the sport lives of their children. A good way to
understand the role parents play is through the lens of Leisure Constraints Theory. The first
cohesive model of leisure constraints emerged in 1991 in the form of the Hierarchical Model of
Leisure Constraint developed by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991). The model includes three
basic levels of leisure constraint: intra-personal, inter-personal and structural. Intra-personal
constraints are internal the individual and related to one’s values. Inter-personal level constraints
are based on the influence of others in the leisure decision-making process. Structural level
constraints refer to aspects of the structure such as time, money and, opportunity that may constrain
leisure activity. The Leisure Constraints model is best suited to understanding what aspect of the
internal (personal traits and motivation) and external (physical, social and structural) environments
are being negotiated and how (Jackson 2000).
Leisure constraints can also be understood in their opposite form as facilitators. Raymore
(2002), proposed the concept of leisure facilitators in contrast to leisure constraints. For example,
she proposed intra-personal facilitators become individual traits and beliefs that promote the
formation of leisure preferences and encourage participation. Inter-personal facilitators follow a
similar, but social theme. Structural facilitators are proposed to be aspects of the environment that
directly support leisure preferences and participation such as access, facilities, skill, awareness,
lower cost, more time, etc.
Parental influence as noted earlier in this section plays to both leisure constraints and
facilitators. For instance, the way in which tennis parents support their children can be interpreted
as leisure facilitators as per Raymore (2002) that is, overcoming cost and driving/transportation
hurdles while the moral support is an example of an inter-personal facilitator. On the other hand,
inappropriate parental behaviour resulting in an anger-laden environment is an example of an interpersonal leisure constraint whereby the behaviour of a significant other discourages further
participation.
The RiS program launched by Hockey Calgary recognizes the problem of inappropriate
parental behavior and aims to educate parents to align their expectations of the child’s experience
appropriately, to their child’s level of development and play. The program also encourages parents
to think about their role in creating a safe environment for their children, the coaches, and the
referees who arbitrate kids games (Blair 2010). The RiS program is the first of its kind in Canada
(Maki 2012). Few similar programs do exist, for example the PLAYS (Parents Learning about
Youth Sports) based in Minnesota (LaVoi, Omli, and Wiese-Bjornstal 2008) takes a similar

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approach to teaching parents about how to create positive sport participation climates. However,
there is little research evidence of the impact of these programs on parent behavior, from the
perspective of those who are required to complete them. The youth sport climate, as reported in
the literature, can have important impacts on childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitudes, behaviors, self-confidence and
willingness to continue participating in sport. Thus, the aim of this research is to assess whether
parents of young hockey players perceive the mandatory RiS education program as impactful on
negative parent behaviors, encouraging the empowerment of those observing and being targeted
by those negative behaviors, thereby contributing to a change in the culture of minor hockey.

Methods
The Participants
Hockey Calgary requires one parent or guardian from each family to complete the RiS program.
After three years of the RiS program implementation over 20,000 Calgary parents/guardians have
completed the RiS program. All those who completed the RiS program between 2010 and 2013,
were invited to participate in this study; all told 6.8% or 1008 individuals participated in this study.
Of these 1008 participants, 46% identified as mothers and 54% identified at fathers.
A mixed methods, cross sectional design was used to complete this study. Both quantitative
and qualitative research methods were employed in an effort to gather a wide range of information.
Quantitative research methods were used to gather generalizable data from all those who
participated in the RiS program, while qualitative methods were used to gather more in-depth
information on the parent experience, to obtain a deeper understanding of the perceived impact of
the RiS program on parent behavior.

Questionaire/data collection tools and measurement development
The study was developed in collaboration with a Hockey Calgary executive, the developers of the
RiS program and academic faculty from a University. Discussions surrounding the objective of the
RiS program, the reasons for implementation, and intended outcomes were undertaken. From these
discussions, questions were developed and reviewed by academics in the field of Physical
Education and Recreation Studies. Once satisfied the questions were shared with Hockey Calgary
and Respect Group to further validate the intent of survey items. Selected individuals, within each
organization, again examined the survey items to further content validity. Once questionnaire items
were finalized and research ethics was obtained an email was sent via Hockey Calgary to all parents
and/or guardians who completed the RiS education program and provided a link to the online
survey.
The survey included demographic questions and both closed and open-ended questions. The
closed-ended questions were based on level of agreement on a five point Likert scale. The openended questions allowed survey participants the opportunity to comment and provide more
information on their Likert scale responses.

Data Analysis
All data was obtained and contained in digital files pulled directly from the online survey tool. The
data was analyzed in two steps. Analysis of the quantitative data was conducted first. Quantitative
data gathered from the online survey were analyzed and are presented using descriptive statistics.
This provides the reader with a visual representation of how study participants rated their thoughts
on the impact of the mandatory RiS program on various questions that focused on the goals and
objectives of the RiS program. The statistics of the parent perceptions were then compared to the
goals of the program, to assess whether they are being met. Qualitative data were then analyzed
using thematic coding and constant comparative technique. The constant comparative method of
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analysis involves reading and rereading of all verbatim responses provided by study participants
(Marshall and Rossman 2011), searching for patterns, regularities and interesting information, and
comparing each highlighted theme or regularity to the rest of the data (Marshall and Rossman,
2011). During this process, information was coded and notes kept (Merriam 2002). All data were
read and reread by at least two researchers, to improve consistency and dependability. Once all
data for each individual question was read and analyzed, meaningful data from each individual
question was compared against the others (Charmaz 2005) in an effort to find overall key themes.

Results
Three main themes were uncovered from this research. Each theme is supported by both the
qualitative and quantitative findings and is described below.
•

The first theme is awareness. Parents believe completing the online program made them
more aware of their behavior:
Parent #1: “I think it has raised the level of awareness of what is acceptable and
unacceptable behavior at the rink.”
Parent #2: “It rarely was the person who needed it. But saying this, there is more
awareness that maltreatment of coaches, players, officials is unacceptable.”

Taking the time to listen and complete the program teaches appropriate behavior and
communication during and surrounding play, for example how to speak to children after an
unsuccessful game, brought forth a better understanding of appropriate behaviors and further
created the opportunity for parents to feel more confident to speak up if they observed inappropriate
behaviors;
Parent #3: “Has brought awareness of the issues to the forefront and many are
more likely to speak up”
Parent #4: “Parents are aware of how they are expected to act and other parents
are willing to speak up to those not following those guidelines.”
Figure 1 presents parent responses to the question of whether they would be more likely to
speak up if they witnessed maltreatment than before completing the program. It is evident, even at
this rudimentary level that parents are more likely to speak up about the subject, suggesting they
have greater confidence to address the issue following completion of the program.

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Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree
disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure1: Since completing the RiS program I am more likely to speak up if I witness
maltreatment.
Figure 1 results show that approximately 46% of the sample agrees or strongly agrees that
since completing the RiS program they are more likely to speak up in light of inappropriate parental
behaviors while just under 15% believe otherwise.
•

The second theme is integration, and refers to a need identified by parents for the
program to be integrated into the sport’s culture. Study participants indicated support for
the program, and see it as a necessity. They also identify ways in which they believe
improvements to respectful behavior in sport can truly be achieved. The idea of better
integration includes requiring all parents complete the program. Further, many
respondents suggested the program be expanded to include grandparents, players,
coaches, referees, or anyone that comes into the rink;
Parent #5: “You need to make people do it again every year to remind them of
the content. And my answers reflect that my son moved up to a different level
where they are more competitive.”
Parent #6: “Continuing to require this program be completed by parents, coaches
and older players.”
Parent #7: “Making it mandatory for both parents to take the program before the
beginning of each season.”

However, there is a consensus among participating parents that it is a small number of parents
who are very disruptive/disrespectful and are perceived as being very difficult to affect. But, the
program is perceived as effective enough that parents believe this minority would benefit from
taking the program, for example:
Parent #8: “I think it needs to be taken by BOTH parents. Often the parent who
is more hostile hasn’t taken the course.”
Further supporting the need for better integration Parent #9 explains:
Parent #9: “No parent is immune to emotion or always understands or
demonstrates the right behaviors. Our children learn by how we behave, not
always by what we say.”

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Requiring all parents/guardians to complete the program is one step in better integrating the
program, and may be a step to changing or reinforcing the learning. Further, that starting with
parents of the youngest players would instill a better pattern of behavior and expectations among
parents that may be more likely to persist throughout their children’s sport career.
When asked how often the program should be required, the vast majority of study participants
lean towards the need to complete the program, or some aspect of the program more than once.
The following figure presents the findings from this question.
It should never
have been
implemented
8%
Once
22%

Every year
32%

Every three
Every other year
years
21%
17%
Figure 2: How often do you feel the RiS program should be completed?
Figure 2 results indicate that 32% of the sample would prefer to see the program annually; 22%
would prefer to carry out the program only once; 21% prefer to do the RiS program every second
year; 17% would prefer to complete the program every third year and 8% believe it should never
have been implemented at all.
•

The final theme is that the program is a step forward in improving respect and reducing
maltreatment in minor hockey. However, also identified is the need for increased
accountability from key stakeholders (coaches, referees, and administrators). The
program will not be successful in meeting the objectives unless sanctions are enforced;
Parent #10: “But only if the consequences are implemented,” “needs to be
enforced” or “Enforce respect, make parents, coaches and players more
accountable for their bad behaviors.”

In addition, parents need more safe opportunities to report maltreatment and know that their child
or they would not be disadvantaged, for example one study participant explains:
Parent #11: “If you speak up your kid will be BLACK LISTED and never play
on AA or AAA or none of the other parents will talk to you as everyone seems
to think their kid is going to the NHL and coaches have all the power.”
One suggestion, which came forth in the data, was the idea of:
Parent #12: “Getting more representatives to attend games and have the
authority to deal with the issues that arise.”
Parent #13: “It would be better to have ‘indoctrination’ as a mandatory
requirement when registering. Having off-ice officials, visibly marked as off-ice

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officials empowered to enforce and have public outcomes of incidents (sort of
like what Shanahan does with Player Safety in NHL) to give a motivation to
adjust behaviours.”
Overall, this theme highlighted the need for “more teeth” to help change the culture of minor
hockey.
One final question worthy of discussion focused on the skills parents developed as a result of
completing the RiS program. Survey participants were asked about their ability to create realistic
expectations for their children. The research literature and mainstream media put forth the notion
that parents behave negatively towards their children, referees and coaches because they believe
their child is bound for the NHL or they are living their dream through their children. It was of
interest to see if the RiS program could provide knowledge, skills or just reminders on how to treat
children appropriately, especially since minor hockey should be fun.

Figure 3: After completing the Respect in Sport program I feel I am better able to create realistic expectations for my
child(rens) experience as a hockey player including ice time, skill development and role on the team.

Figure 3 indicates that approximately 47% of the sample believes they are better able to convey
positive and realistic expectations to their children while 20% believe this not to be the case.
The three main themes uncovered in the data focused on the positive changes and potential
changes implementing the RiS program has had on parent behavior and the culture of minor
hockey. While the majority of comments were positive it would be unfair to disregard the negative
comments. The negative comments associated with the implementation of the program, primarily
focused on program delivery method (online) for example:
Parent #14: “I applaud the intention. However, an on-line means to
communicate the message is of questionable value. Without a visible means of
enforcement and implementation (policing in other words), this program is a
waste of money.”
Parent #15: “The current internet format is useless. I took it twice while cleaning
my house and still got the answers correct. The wrong people take this course
and the bad parents are not the ones taking it.”
Other negative comments focused on the fact that the information is commonsense and that
the parent that really needs the program may not be the one taking it:

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Parent #16: “I think that it should be a requirement for those parent/guardians
who are not respectful of the process. I know it would be difficult to implement
but with families faced with potentially having to pay for this course in addition
to increasing hockey fees, it seems as though the non-offenders are being
punished for the few who do.”
Overall, the qualitative responses, which are further supported by the quantitative responses,
show parents to be utilizing the information, an interest in continuing to include and even increase
the focus on respect and the need for more program incorporation to move the respect issue further.

Discussion
This study provides important information to current sport programs that require parents to
complete a RiS or similar program, or to those sports/programs thinking about including a focus
on respect. Current mainstream media reports, for example, Macleans magazine in Canada, .
included a general interest article titled “How parents (and their lawyers) are killing minor hockey”
(2014) and informal discussions with key stakeholders, including administrators, referees, and
parents identify a need to improve behaviors at sporting events and the findings from this study
show that the RiS program is a step in the right direction.
While not perfect, the RiS program provides parents with basic skills and knowledge that can
be used to monitor their own behavior, as well as to recognize and acknowledge the appropriate
and inappropriate behaviors of others. Furthermore, the RiS program provides a foundation on
which individuals can rely and feel more comfortable reporting negative behavior. For example:
Parent #17: “it (the program) gives us permission to be brave and ask someone
to be quiet. Other parents might support us.”
In addition, further implementation of the program might ensure that more people are aware
of how to report negative behavior. This idea was supported by 56% of study participants who said
they are now more aware of where to report negative behaviors. When asked if the RiS program
should be included in other sports 78% state that it should be mandatory in all sports, as long as it
is transferable and parents are not required to complete the same program over and over for each
sport that their child(ren) are involved in.

Conclusion
This study looked at the perceived impact of a mandatory respect program on parent behavior in
minor hockey, specifically in a large Canadian city. The online program was made mandatory in
Calgary, Canada in 2010 and since then over 20,000 individuals within Calgary minor hockey has
completed the program. As well, the inclusion of the RiS program has spread across Canada (e.g.
provinces of Manitoba, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Prince Edward
Island) and across many other sports (Garth Stonier, email message, October 21, 2014). The
purpose of this study was to examine if requiring parents to complete a mandatory program would
impact both the way parents behave and the culture of minor hockey. The findings revealed that
the RiS program is a step in the right direction, but more work and focus on respect is in order to
truly change the culture. Many survey respondents identified that while they may be more likely
to speak up if witnessing maltreatment, or may be more conscientious of their behavior there is a
need to continue focusing on respect, continuing to require the RiS program, including “refreshers”
throughout the hockey season. The findings from this study were shared with Hockey Calgary and
The Respect Group Inc. who have used the information in various ways. Hockey Calgary is
currently examining ways to encourage more than one parent to complete the program, informing

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parents that the RiS online program is a tool in which they can return again and again to refresh
their knowledge, seek information, etc. Hockey Calgary is also looking at ways to focus and reward
positive behavior, rather than just punishing the negative, and creating safe opportunities to report
maltreatment.
The limitations in this study included participant response rate, and the inability to gather
pre/post data. As stated above, over 1000 individuals participated in this study. While the number
in itself is quite large, it is only 6.8% of the potential population. However, general survey response
rates are typically low, and the sample itself is still large enough to have good confidence. The idea
of this study was developed upon hearing a radio ad requesting/reminding parents to complete the
RiS program, thus after the implementation of the data. Furthermore, Hockey Calgary did not have
past incident reports that could have been reviewed using document analysis methods. Due to this
limitation, study participants were asked about their perception on the impact of the RiS program
on parent behavior and the culture of hockey.
The paper also highlights the conceptual link between parental behaviour and leisure
constraints and provides another portal to examine the critical issue of youth participation in sport
and what elements facilitate and detract from continued youth participation.
Currently, two future research projects are being developed. The first study is looking to
examine the impact a player program would have on respect within the game. The study design
will include both focus group discussions prior to the implementation of a player focused program
and post implementation. The second study will examine the implementation of the RiS program
from the perspective of minor hockey association leadership team. Completing these two studies
in conjunction with this current study will provide information from all key stakeholders within
the minor hockey system.
In conclusion, the goal of the RiS program is to empower positive parents, create a foundation
of knowledge on respectful behavior and remind us all that participation and focus in minor sport
(in this case, specifically minor hockey) should be fun.

The Journal of Sports Pedagogy and Physical
Education is one of the four thematically focused
journals that support the Sport and Society
knowledge communityâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;its journal collection, book
series, and online community.
The Journal of Sports Pedagogy and Physical
Education focuses on learning about and through
sport. It publishes articles examining how sports
programs in schools and communities promote
learning, tolerance, social cohesion, and community
development.
The Journal of Sports Pedagogy and Physical
Education is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal.