Tourism in Mongolia

Tourism in Mongolia was extremely limited by the Communist Government, but has been expanding following the 1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia in the wake of the collapse of the USSR and the Revolutions of 1989. Mongolia is a unique and relatively unexplored travel destination that offers a great combination of scenic natural features, a wide variety of untouched landscapes, nomadic life style and culture. Travel organizations in Mongolia date back to half a century ago, but the private sector-based tourism is barely twenty years old. Now Mongolia boasts 403 travel companies, 320 hotels, 317 resorts and tourist camps, all employing the graduates from over 56 educational establishments.[1] Mongolia takes an active part in United Nations World Tourism Organization, of which it is a member party.

Foreign tourist number

To boost foreign investment in tourism, the Government of Mongolia offers special tax exemption equaling up to 10 percent of the total investment if offered for construction of high-rated hotels and tourist complexes. Licenses for tourism business were abolished and service provided by tour operators for expatriate visitors is now exempt from VAT. Standards and regulations are largely non-restrictive, with no complicated layers of bureaucracy issuing permission and exercising control.

In January 2013, the Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism of Mongolia approved official slogan for Mongolia's tourism called “Go Nomadic, Experience Mongolia” [3] which, it believes, will properly position help boost tourism industry in Mongolia. However, after a year the Ministry replaced the official slogan to new "Mongolia - Nomadic by Nature.[4]

On March 5th, 2014 during ITB Berlin 2014 exhibition in Germany, officials from the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Mongolia signed an agreement to become official partner country for ITB Berlin 2015.[5]

The Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism of Mongolia has been restructured into the Ministry of Environment, Green Development and Tourism in December, 2014 as a result of country's government cabinet change.[6]

Activity travels available include trekking, climbing, bird watching, horse riding, rafting, camel riding, yak caravan and overland motorcycle tours. Many of these tours focus strongly on ecology and wildlife, and almost all of them include the Gobi Desert as one of their destinations; apart from its numerous native animal species, the desert is famous for its fossilised dinosaur bones and eggs. Mongolia's lakes represent another good hiking destination, as do the Four Holy Peaks surrounding Ulaanbaatar or the Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, in the Umnugobi.[7] The economy of Mongolia is expecting "unstoppable" growth as its natural resources are tapped,[8] which will enable further investment in infrastructure.

The main festival is world-famous Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and is held on July 11 to July 13 in honor of the Democratic Revolution. Naadam consists of three Mongolian traditional sports: archery, long-distance horse-racing, and Mongolian wrestling; in 2013, The Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism of Mongolia published Mongolia Tourism Calendar of Events 2013, in which the Ministry collected all public events related to Mongolian tourism and culture.[13] Many events included in the calendar, which is also available for download online, are repeat events.

Chinggis Khaan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar is the major international airport in the country, offering scheduled flights to and from Russia, China, South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Germany and Turkey.

MIAT Mongolian Airlines is the national flag air carrier and serves only international destinations such as Moscow, Frankfurt, Berlin, Paris, Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Busan, Singapore, Tokyo, Osaka (operated during summer time) and chartered flights.

1.
Mongolian People's Republic
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Mongolia, officially the Mongolian Peoples Republic is the period of Mongolian history which existed between 1924 and 1992 as a landlocked unitary sovereign socialist state in East Asia. It was ruled by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party and maintained links with the Soviet Union throughout its history. Geographically, it was bordered by China to its south, the Soviet Union to its north, from 1691 to 1911, Outer Mongolia was ruled by the Manchu Qing dynasty. In the first decade of the 20th century, the Qing government began implementing the so-called New Policies, upset by the prospect of the colonization akin to the developments in Inner Mongolia during the 19th century, the Mongolian aristocracy turned to the Russian Empire for support. In August 1911, a Mongol delegation went to Saint Petersburg, when they returned, the Xinhai Revolution that eventually led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty had begun. In the Khiagt agreement of 1915, China, Russia and Mongolia agreed on Mongolias status as autonomy under Chinese suzerainty, according to an Associated Press dispatch, some Mongol chieftains signed a petition asking China to retake administration of Mongolia and end Outer Mongolias autonomy. The Tusiyetu Khan Aimaks Prince Darchin Chin Wang was a supporter of Chinese rule while his younger brother Tsewang was a supporter of Ungern-Sternberg. It was under Chinese occupation that the Mongolian Peoples Party was founded and once again looked to the north, this time to Soviet Russia, for help. In the meantime, White Russian troops led by Roman Ungern von Sternberg had occupied Khuree in early March 1921, the Peoples Party founded a new government, but kept the Bogd Khaan as nominal head of state. In the following years through some violent power struggles, Soviet influence got ever stronger, and after the Bogd Khaans death, the government took control of the Bogda Khans seal after his death according to the 26 November 1924 Constitution of the Mongolian Peoples Republic. It was proposed that Zhang Zuolins domain take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogda Khan, between 1925 and 1928, the new regime became established. At the time, Mongolia was severely underdeveloped, industry was nonexistent and all wealth was controlled by the nobility and religious establishments. The population numbered less than a people and was shrinking due to nearly half of all Mongolian males living in monasteries. In 1928, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and comintern ordered the building of socialism, in 1934, Peljidiin Genden visited Moscow and angrily accused Stalin of Red imperialism. He subsequently died in the Great Purge after being tricked into taking a holiday on the Black Sea, after 1932, the implementation of a command economy was scaled back. In 1936, Stalin then ordered the liquidation of the countrys Buddhist institutions, meanwhile, Japanese incursions in Manchuria were a casus belli for Moscow to station troops in Mongolia. At the same time, the Great Purge spilled into Mongolia, among those killed included Genden, Anandyn Amar, Demid, and Losol. After the removal of Genden from power, Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan, the purges led to the almost complete eradication of Tibetan Buddhism in the country, and cost an estimated 30, 000–35,000 lives, equivalent to about five percent of Mongolias population

2.
Mongolian Revolution of 1990
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It was spearheaded by mostly younger people demonstrating on Sükhbaatar Square in the capital Ulaanbaatar. It ended with the authoritarian government resigning without bloodshed, some of the main organizers were Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, Erdeniin Bat-Üül, and Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar. This was the beginning of the end of the 70-year period of socialism in Mongolia, although a multi-party system was established, the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party actually remained in power until 1996. Nevertheless, reforms were implemented and the transition to a market economy begun, the revolution was inspired by the reforms in the Soviet Union, and by the similar revolutions in Eastern Europe in late 1989. There were pro-independence movements in 1911 against the policy of the late Qing dynasty. Finally, the Mongolian Peoples Party took power in Mongolia in 1921 with the help of the Soviet Union, after White Russian, in 1924, the party renamed itself the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party. Over the following decades, Mongolia was always very closely aligned with the Soviet Union, young people in Mongolia wanted a change in the society, the way the government was conducting its business. They began to meet and discuss secretly, for example, during his studies in the USSR, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj learned about Glasnost, the concepts such as freedom of speech and economic liberties. After returning to Mongolia, he met other like-minded people and tried to present those ideas to a wider audience and he told the audience We consider that Perestroika is a timely and brave step. Youths contribution to this matter is not by supportive talks. Our contribution is our objectives to be fulfilled, following democracy and transparency and contributing to glasnost. These are the objectives of an initiatives group-an organization that shall work, after the congress I hope we will gather and discuss with you about it in this. The organization shall be based on public, voluntary and democratic principles, the chairman of the congress stopped Elbegdorjs speech and warned him not to say such things. It was 1989 and Mongolia had been a communist country for 68 years, at that time, it was alleged that every other person was an unofficial communist party spy who would report people who expressed opinions other than socialism and communism. During the break of the congress, two young individuals Dari, sukhbaatar and Chimediin Enkhee met Elbegdorj and the three agreed to found a democratic movement and to secretly spread the news to other young people. Later the three met and united with ten other individuals and they are known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolias Democratic Revolution and they met many times and brought new friends and new supporters to join them secretly. One night they placed ads of their demonstration in streets. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, there, Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union

3.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26,1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and that evening at 7,32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag. Previously, from August to December, all the individual republics, the week before the unions formal dissolution,11 republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing the CIS and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR also signalled the end of the Cold War, on the other hand, only the Baltic states have joined NATO and the European Union. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11,1985, Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, the reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23,1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the power ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and this liberalisation, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. Under Gorbachevs leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, in May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices of vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachevs plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, however, Gorbachev soon faced the same adverse economic reaction to his prohibition as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev. Alcohol production migrated to the market, or through moonshining as some made bathtub vodka with homegrown potatoes. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms. The latter, disparaged as Mr Nyet in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs, gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, as he was considered an old thinker. In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger, at the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23,1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin, Gorbachev continued to press for greater liberalization. The CTAG Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers, Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss and its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords

4.
Revolutions of 1989
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The Revolutions of 1989 were part of a revolutionary wave in the late 1980s and early 1990s that resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe and beyond. The period is called the Autumn of Nations, a play on the term Spring of Nations sometimes used to describe the Revolutions of 1848. Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century and these culminated in the early 20th century, when several states and colonies formed their own communist parties. Many of the countries involved had hierarchical structures with monarchic governments, Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes in the late 19th/early 20th century states, as such, communism was repressed. Its champions suffered persecution while people were discouraged from adopting it and this had been the practice even in states which identified as exercising a multi-party system. The Russian Revolution of 1917 saw the first communist state in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, during the period between the world wars, communism had been on the rise in many parts of the world, especially in towns and cities. This led to a series of purges in many countries to stifle the movement, violent resistance to this repression led to a decrease in support for communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the early stages of World War II, both Nazi Germany and the USSR invaded and occupied the countries of Eastern Europe after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany then turned against and invaded the USSR, the battles of this Eastern Front were the largest in history. The USSR joined with the Allies and in conferences at Tehran and Yalta, the USSR fought the Germans to a standstill and finally began driving them back, reaching Berlin before the end of the war. Nazi ideology was violently anti-communist, and the Nazis brutally suppressed communist movements in the countries it occupied, Communists played a large part in the resistance to the Nazis in these countries. As the Soviets forced the Germans back, they assumed control of these devastated areas. After World War II, the Soviets ensured that communists loyal to Moscow took power in the countries it occupied, the Soviets retained troops throughout these territories. The Cold War saw these states, bound together by the Warsaw Pact, have continuing tensions with the capitalist west, the Chinese Revolution established communism in China in 1949. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, a spontaneous nationwide anti-authoritarian revolt, similarly in 1968, the USSR repressed the Prague Spring by organizing the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 had led to the formation of the independent trade union, Solidarity, led by Lech Wałęsa, during the mid-1980s, a younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation. After decades of growth, the Soviet Union was now facing a period of economic decline and needed Western technology. The costs of maintaining its military, the KGB, subsidies to client states etc. further strained the moribund Soviet economy. The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of glasnost in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika

5.
Mongolia
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Mongolia /mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ is a landlocked unitary sovereign state in East Asia. Its area is equivalent with the historical territory of Outer Mongolia. It is sandwiched between China to the south and Russia to the north, while it does not share a border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia is separated from it by only 36.76 kilometers. At 1,564,116 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 18th largest and it is also the worlds second-largest landlocked country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea. The country contains very little land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the countrys population, approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic, horse culture is still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists, the non-religious population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic Kazakhs, the majority of the states citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic, the area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty, after the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty, shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was declared as a Soviet satellite state, after the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago. Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic, the Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname the Lascaux of Mongolia. The venus figurines of Malta testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, the wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC

6.
Value-added tax
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VATs raise about a fifth of total tax revenues both worldwide and among the members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. As of 2014,160 of the worlds approximately 193 countries employ a VAT, there are two main methods of calculating VAT, the credit-invoice or invoice-based method and the subtraction or accounts-based method. The credit-invoice method is the most widely employed method, used by all national VATs except for Japan. The subtraction method VAT is currently used by Japan, although subtraction method VATs. With both methods, there are exceptions in the method for certain goods and transactions, created for either pragmatic collection reasons or to counter tax fraud. Initially directed at businesses, it was extended over time to include all business sectors. In France, it is the most important source of state finance, in this way, the total tax levied at each stage in the economic chain of supply is a constant fraction of the value added by a business. The standard way to implement a value-added tax involves assuming a business owes some fraction on the price of the product minus all taxes paid on the good. By the method of collection, VAT can be accounts-based or invoice-based, under the invoice method of collection, each seller charges VAT rate on his output and passes the buyer a special invoice that indicates the amount of tax charged. Buyers who are subject to VAT on their own sales, consider the tax on the purchase invoices as input tax, the difference between output tax and input tax is paid to the government. Under the accounts based method, no such specific invoices are used, instead, the tax is calculated on the value added, measured as a difference between revenues and allowable purchases. Most countries today use the method, the only exception being Japan. By the timing of collection, VAT can be either accrual or cash based, cash basis accounting is a very simple form of accounting. When a payment is received for the sale of goods or services, a deposit is made, cheques are written when funds are available to pay bills, and the expense is recorded as of the cheque date—regardless of when the expense had been incurred. The primary focus is on the amount of cash in the bank, little effort is made to match revenues to the time period in which they are earned, or to match expenses to the time period in which they are incurred. Accrual basis accounting matches revenues to the period in which they are earned. While it is more complex than cash basis accounting, it provides more information about your business. The accrual basis allows you to track receivables and payables, the accrual basis allows you to match revenues to the expenses incurred in earning them, giving you more meaningful financial reports

7.
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
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The Mongolian-Manchurian grassland covers an area of 887,300 square kilometers. To the northeast and north, the Selenge-Orkhon and Daurian forest steppes form a zone between the grassland and the forests of Siberia to the north. On the southwest, the grasslands extend to the Yellow River, the dominant flora consists of medium to tall grasslands, dominated by feather grass, sheeps fescue, Aneurolepidium chinense, Filifolium sibiricuman, and Cleistogenes sqarrosa. The drier regions surrounding the Gobi host drought-tolerant grasses, together with forbs and low, the southwestern slopes of the Greater Khingan range support pockets of broadleaf deciduous forest, of either Mongolian oak, or a mixture of poplar, Siberian silver birch, and willow. The brown eared-pheasant is the endemic bird in the ecoregion. The bobak marmot, also known as the marmot, inhabits the area The gray wolf lives here. The Mongolian gazelle is numerous here, the Przewalskis horse is reintroduced here

8.
Desert
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A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation, about one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the regions where little precipitation occurs. Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation falls, by the temperature that prevails. Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces, although rain seldom occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and this picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms. Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface, rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes, other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones. These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place, other desert features include rock outcrops, exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate, there may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers. Where these are found, oases can occur, plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment. Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves, water-resistant cuticles, some annual plants germinate, bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture. Animals need to cool and find enough food and water to survive. Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day and they tend to be efficient at conserving water, extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine. Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods and they then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy. People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding lands for millennia. Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available, the cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification. Many trade routes have been forged across deserts, especially across the Sahara Desert, large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara

9.
Backpacking (travel)
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Backpacking is a form of low-cost, independent travel. Backpacking may include wilderness adventures, local travel and travel to nearby countries while working from the country in which they are based, the definition of a backpacker has evolved as travellers from different cultures and regions participate. A2007 paper said backpackers constituted a group with respect to the diversity of rationales. They also displayed a commitment to a non-institutionalised form of travel. Backpacking as a lifestyle and as a business has grown considerably in the 2000s as a result of low-cost airlines, seventeenth-century Italian adventurer Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri has been suggested as one of the worlds first backpackers. Some backpackers follow the trail today. Technological developments and improvements have contributed to changes in backpacking, traditionally, backpackers did not travel with expensive electronic equipment like laptop computers, digital cameras and PDAs because of concerns about theft, damage and additional luggage weight. However, the desire to stay connected, coupled with breakthroughs in lightweight electronics, has given rise to a trend that has been termed flashpacking, of importance to some backpackers is a sense of authenticity. Backpacking is perceived as being more than a holiday, but a means of education, backpackers want to experience the real destination rather than the packaged version often associated with mass tourism, which has led to the assertion that backpackers are anti-tourist. For many young people in Northern Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Israel, in Canada, it is quite common for gap-year students to visit Europe. Backpackers are less commonly from China, India, the United States, Japan and South Korea, particularly taking into account their large populations. But it is gradually becoming more popular among affluent people from those countries. Backpacking trips were undertaken either in a gap year between high school and university, or between the latter and the commencement of work. However the average age of backpackers has gradually increased over time, Backpacking has been criticised, with some criticism dating back to travellers behaviour along the Hippie Trail. For example, the host countries and other travellers may disagree with the actions of backpackers, however, the perception of backpackers seems to have improved as backpacking has become more mainstream. Resources provide information about topics as the language, culture, food and history, provide listings of accommodation and places to eat. Digital format guidebooks are becoming popular, especially since the advent of smart phones and lightweight netbooks. Adventure travel Grand Tour Hostelling International Walking tour Travel pack Backpacking at DMOZ

10.
Gobi Desert
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The Gobi Desert is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia, the Gobi is most notable in history as part of the great Mongol Empire, and as the location of several important cities along the Silk Road. The Gobi is a rain shadow desert, formed by the Himalayan mountain range blocking rain-carrying clouds from the Indian Ocean reaching the Gobi territory, the Gobi measures over 1,600 km from southwest to northeast and 800 km from north to south. The desert is widest in the west, along the joining the Lake Bosten. It occupies an arc of land 1,295,000 km2 in area as of 2007, it is the fifth-largest desert in the world, much of the Gobi is not sandy but has exposed bare rock. The Gobi is a desert, with frost and occasionally snow occurring on its dunes. Besides being quite far north, it is located on a plateau roughly 910–1,520 metres above sea level. An average of approximately 194 millimetres of rain falls annually in the Gobi, additional moisture reaches parts of the Gobi in winter as snow is blown by the wind from the Siberian Steppes. These winds cause the Gobi to reach extremes of temperature ranging from −40 °C or −40 °F in winter to 45 °C or 113 °F in summer, the climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined with rapid changes of temperature of as much as 35 °C. These can occur not only seasonally but within 24 hours, in southern Mongolia, the temperature has been recorded as low as −32.8 °C. In contrast, in Alxa, Inner Mongolia, it rises as high as 37 °C in July, average winter minimums are a frigid −25 °C while summertime temperatures are warm to hot, with highs that range up to 50 °C. Most of the falls during the summer. Hence, the icy sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer plus early January, the Gobi Desert is the source of many important fossil finds, including the first dinosaur eggs. They are occasionally visited by snow leopards, brown bears, drought-adapted shrubs in the desert included gray sparrows saltwort, gray sagebrush, and low grasses such as needle grass and bridlegrass. Several large nature reserves have established in the Gobi, including Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park, Great Gobi A. The area is vulnerable to trampling by livestock and off-road vehicles, in Mongolia, grasslands have been degraded by goats, which are raised by nomadic herders as source of cashmere wool. The economic trends of livestock privatization and the collapse of the economy have caused people to return to subsistence rural lifestyles. Large copper and gold deposits located at Oyuu Tolgoi, about 80 kilometres from the Chinese border into Mongolia, are being investigated for development as mining operations

11.
Ulaanbaatar
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Ulaanbaatar, formerly anglicised as Ulan Bator /ˌuːlɑːn ˈbɑːtər/ is Mongolias capital and largest city. A municipality, the city is not part of any aimag, located in north central Mongolia, the municipality lies at an elevation of about 1,310 meters in a valley on the Tuul River. It is the cultural, industrial and financial heart, the centre of Mongolias road network. The city was founded in 1639 as a nomadic Buddhist monastic center, in 1778, it settled permanently at its present location, the junction of the Tuul and Selbe rivers. Before that, it changed location twenty-eight times, with each location being chosen ceremonially, in the twentieth century, Ulaanbaatar grew into a major manufacturing center. Ulaanbaatar has been given names in its history. Before 1911, the name was Ikh Khüree or Daa Khüree. The Chinese equivalent, Dà kùlún, was rendered into Western languages as Kulun or Kuren, upon independence in 1911, with both the secular government and the Bogd Khans palace present, the citys name changed to Niĭslel Khüree. It is called Bogdiin Khuree in the folk song Praise of Bogdiin Khuree, in western languages, the city at that time was most often referred to as Urga. When the city became the capital of the new Mongolian Peoples Republic in 1924, on the session of the 1st Great Peoples Khuraldaan of Mongolia in 1924, a majority of delegates expressed their wish to change the capital citys name to Baatar Khot. However, under the pressure of the Soviet activist of Communist International, Turar Ryskulov, in Europe and North America, Ulaanbaatar continued to be generally known as Urga or Khure until 1924, and Ulan Bator afterwards. The Russian spelling is the Russian phonetic equivalent of the Mongolian name and this form was defined two decades before the Mongolian name got its current Cyrillic script spelling and Ulaanbaatar transliteration. These Upper Paleolithic people hunted mammoth and wooly rhinoceros, the bones of which are found abundantly around Ulaanbaatar, a number of Xiongnu era royal tombs have been discovered around Ulaanbaatar, including the tombs of Belkh Gorge near Dambadarjaalin monastery and tombs of Songinokhairkhan. Located on the banks of the Tuul River, Ulaanbaatar has been well within the sphere of Turco-Mongol nomadic empires throughout history, the palace is said to be where Genghis Khan stayed with Yesui Khatun before attacking the Tangut in 1226. In 1651 Zanabazar returned to Mongolia from Tibet and founded seven aimags in Urga, as a mobile monastery-town, it was often moved to various places along the Selenge, Orkhon and Tuul rivers, as supply and other needs would demand. During the Dzungar wars of the late 17th century, it was moved to Inner Mongolia. As the city grew, it moved less and less and they have several thousand tents about them, which are removed from time to time. The Urga is much frequented by merchants from China and Russia, by Zanabazars death in 1723, Urga was the Mongolias preeminent monastery in terms of religious authority

12.
Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park
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Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park is a national park in southern Mongolia. The park was established in 1993, and expanded to its current size in 2000, the park, at nearly 27,000 square kilometres, is the largest national park in Mongolia, stretching 380 km from east to west and 80 km from north to south. The park is named for the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains, which translates to the Three Beauties, the name is derived from three subranges, the East, Middle and West Beauty. The range forms the eastern half of the park, the park lies on the northern edge of the Gobi desert. The higher elevations contain areas of steppe, and reach elevations of up to 2,600 metres, a number of rare plants and animals are found in the park, including the elusive snow leopard and the Gobi camel. Areas of sand dunes are found, most famously the Khongoryn Els - the Singing Sands, another major tourist destination is Yolyn Am, which is connected with Dalanzadgad by paved road and a mountain valley that contains a large ice field through most of the year. The park is accessed via the town of Dalanzadgad, which has airport service to Ulaanbaatar. The park is a haven for endangered species like the argali sheep, snow leopard. The eponymous mountains of the park are inhabited by the magnificent lammergeier, or bearded vulture

13.
Economy of Mongolia
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Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on agriculture and livestock. Mongolia also has mineral deposits, copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of Gross domestic product, disappeared almost overnight in 1990–91, Mongolia was driven into deep recession. Reform has been back by the ex-communist MPRP opposition and by the political instability brought about through four successive governments under the DUC. Economic growth picked up in 1997–99 after stalling in 1996 due to a series of disasters and increases in world prices of copper. Public revenues and exports collapsed in 1998 and 1999 due to the repercussions of the Asian financial crisis, in August and September 1999, the economy suffered from a temporary Russian ban on exports of oil and oil products. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, the international donor community pledged over $300 million per year at the last Consultative Group Meeting, held in Ulaanbaatar in June 1999. Recently, the Mongolian economy has grown at a fast pace due to an increase in mining, however, because much of this growth is export-based, Mongolia is suffering from the global slowdown in mining caused by decreased growth in China. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolias trade was with the former Soviet Union, Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants. The former Soviet Union served as the market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolias industrial sector became increasingly important, by 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the countrys exports, principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials. In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with non-communist Asia and the West, as of 1 January 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices. Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform, privatization of small shops and enterprises has largely been completed in the 1990s, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun, tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in late 1991. Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, during that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994–95, GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks to largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3. 5% in 1996–99 due to the Asian financial crisis, the 1998 Russian financial crisis, Mongolias gross domestic product growth fell from 3. 2% in 1999 to 1. 3% in 2000

14.
Natural resources
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy

15.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure

16.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing

17.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians

18.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula

19.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon

20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

21.
Kazakhstan
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Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in northern Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is the worlds largest landlocked country, and the ninth largest in the world, Kazakhstan is the dominant nation of Central Asia economically, generating 60% of the regions GDP, primarily through its oil/gas industry. It also has vast mineral resources, Kazakhstan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, the terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. Kazakhstan has an estimated 18 million people as of 2014, Given its large area, its population density is among the lowest. The capital is Astana, where it was moved in 1997 from Almaty, the territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country as part of the Mongolian Empire, following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakh emerged as a distinct group, the Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century, they nominally ruled all of Kazakhstan as part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times, in 1936, it was made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, part of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan has worked to develop its economy, especially its dominant hydrocarbon industry. Kazakhstans 131 ethnicities include Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Germans, Tatars, the Kazakh language is the state language, and Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes. The name Kazakh comes from the ancient Turkic word qaz, to wander, the name Cossack is of the same origin. The Persian suffix -stan means land or place of, so Kazakhstan can be translated as land of the wanderers. Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age, the regions climate, archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the regions vast steppes. Central Asia was originally inhabited by the Scythians, the Cuman entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. Under the Mongol Empire, the largest in history, administrative districts were established. These eventually came under the rule of the emergent Kazakh Khanate, throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south, at its height the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania

22.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

23.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

24.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia

25.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

26.
Naadam
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Naadam is a traditional festival in Mongolia. The festival is locally termed eriin gurvan naadam the three games of men. The games are Mongolian wrestling, horse racing, and archery, women have started participating in the archery and girls in the horse-racing games, but not in Mongolian wrestling. In 2010, Naadam was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO, Naadam is the most widely watched festival among Mongols, and is believed to have existed for centuries in one fashion or another. It later served as a way to train soldiers for battle, the three games of wrestling, horse racing and archery had been recorded in the 13rd century book The Secret History of the Mongols. During the Qings rule, Naadam became a festival held by sums. Now it formally commemorates the 1921 Revolution when Mongolia declared itself independent of China, Naadam also celebrates the achievements of the new state. Naadam was celebrated as a Buddhist/shaman holiday until secularization in the 1930s under the communist influence of the Soviet Union, in Mongolia, the biggest festival is held in the Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar during the National Holiday from July 11 –13, in the National Sports Stadium. Naadam begins with an elaborate introduction ceremony featuring dancers, athletes, horse riders, after the ceremony, the competitions begin. The competitions are mainly horseback riding, Naadam is also organized in different regions of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in July and August. In the Tuva Republic, Naadam is held officially in 15 August, the three sports are called Danshig games. They became the great celebration of the new nation, where the nobility got together to dedicate to the Jabzundamba Khutugtu, genghis Khans nine horse tails, representing the nine tribes of the Mongols, are still ceremonially transported from Sukhbaatar Square to the Stadium to open the Naadam festivities. At these opening and closing ceremonies, there are parades of mounted cavalry, athletes. Another popular Naadam activity is the playing of games using shagai, sheep anklebones that serve as game pieces, in the larger Nadaam festivals, tournaments may take place in a separate venue. A total of 512 or 1024 wrestlers meet in a tournament that lasts nine or ten rounds. Mongolian traditional wrestling is a competition in which wrestlers lose if they touch the ground with any part of their body other than their feet or hands. When picking pairs, the wrestler with the greatest fame has the privilege to choose his opponent, wrestlers wear two-piece costumes consisting of a tight shoulder vest and shorts. Only men are allowed to participate, each wrestler has an encourager called a zasuul

27.
Archery
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Archery is the sport, practice or skill of using a bow to propel arrows. The word comes from the Latin arcus, historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In modern times, it is mainly a competitive sport and recreational activity, a person who participates in archery is typically called an archer or a bowman, and a person who is fond of or an expert at archery is sometimes called a toxophilite. The bow and arrow seems to have invented in the later Paleolithic or early Mesolithic periods. The oldest signs of its use in Europe come from the Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic, about 10, 000–9000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft, there are no definite earlier bows, previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark, bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins. In the Levant, artifacts that could be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, the Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads. Classical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Parthians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, akkadians were the first to use composite bows in war according to the victory stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad. The Welsh longbow proved its worth for the first time in Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy, in the Americas archery was widespread at European contact. Archery was highly developed in Asia, the Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was well known for its regiments of skilled archers. Central Asian tribesmen and American Plains Indians became extremely adept at archery on horseback, lightly armoured, but highly mobile archers were excellently suited to warfare in the Central Asian steppes, and they formed a large part of armies that repeatedly conquered large areas of Eurasia. Shorter bows are more suited to use on horseback, and the bow enabled mounted archers to use powerful weapons. It is possible that barbarian peoples were responsible for introducing archery or certain types of bows to their civilized counterparts—the Xiong-nu, similarly, short bows seem to have been introduced to Japan by northeast Asian groups. The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, albeit efforts were made to preserve archery practice. In Wales and England, for example, the government tried to practice with the Longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognised that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years War, early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very susceptible to wet weather

28.
Horse racing
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Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys or driven over a set distance for competition. Horse races vary widely in format, often, countries have developed their own particular horse racing traditions. Variations include restricting races to particular breeds, running over obstacles, running over different distances, running on different track surfaces, Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practised in civilisations across the world since ancient times. Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece, Babylon, Syria and it also plays an important part of myth and legend, such as the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology. Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 648 BC and were important in the other Panhellenic Games. This was despite the fact that racing was often dangerous to both driver and horse as they frequently suffered serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries, fifteen to 20 riderless horses, originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, ran the length of the Via del Corso, a long, straight city street, in about 2½ minutes. In later times, Thoroughbred racing became, and remains, popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle, Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. The various forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat. There are many different types of racing, including, Flat racing. Jump racing, or Jumps racing, also known as Steeplechasing or, in the UK and Ireland, National Hunt racing, Harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky. Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Arabian, Paint, Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS. In harness racing, Standardbreds are used in Australia, New Zealand and North America, light cold blood horses, such as Finnhorses and Scandinavian coldblood trotter are also used in harness racing within their respective geographical areas. There also are races for ponies, both flat and jump and harness racing, Flat racing is the most common form of racing seen worldwide. Track surfaces vary, with turf most common in Europe, dirt more common in North America and Asia, individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards up to two and a half miles, with distances between five and twelve furlongs being most common. Short races are referred to as sprints, while longer races are known as routes in the United States or staying races in Europe

29.
Mongolian wrestling
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Mongolian wrestling, known as Bökh, is the folk wrestling style of Mongols in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and other regions where touching the ground with anything other than a foot loses the match. Wrestling is the most important of the Mongolian cultures historic Three Manly Skills, Genghis Khan considered wrestling to be an important way to keep his army in good physical shape and combat ready. The court of Qing Dynasty held regular wrestling events, mainly between ethnic Manchu and Mongol wrestlers, there are several different versions, Mongolian, Buryatian, Oirat and Inner Mongolian. Khalkha bökh, Mongolian wrestling, Khalkha wrestling - traditional Khalkha Mongolian wrestling, khuresh - traditional Tuvan jacket wrestling, in southern Siberia. Khalkha Mongolian and Tuvan wrestlers wear almost the same jacket, cave paintings in the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia dating back to Neolithic age of 7000BC show grappling of two naked men and surrounded by crowds. The art of Bökh appears on bronze plates discovered in the ruins of the Xiongnu empire, originally, Bökh was a military sport intended to provide mainly strength, stamina and skills training to troops. Wrestling became a key factor when deciding the candidate rankings in imperial martial exams plus outstanding wrestlers were entitled to high distinctions, Buri Bokh belonged to the Jurkhin tribe. Formerly Buri Bokh was able to hold on to Belgutei by one hand, drop him to the ground by one leg, Buri Bokh was a nationally famous wrestler. However on this occasion when Buri Bokh and Belgutei were made to wrestle each other Buri Bokh fell on the ground despite being an undefeated champion. Belgutei managed with great effort to press Buri Bokh down at the shoulder and he then glanced at Genghis Khan from the corner of his eye. Genghis Khan bit his lower lip, Belgutei understood the meaning of this, held Buri Bokh firmly, jerked him at the chest and buttocks and broke his back. Buri Bokh said with his broken, I never lost a match to Belgutei. I fell purposefully to please the Khan out of fear but now I have lost my life, Belgutei broke his back, dragged him and then left his body. The eldest of the seven sons of Kabul Khan was Okhinbarkhag, the third son was Khutugt Monkhor. Whenever Buri Bokh wrestled he far outperformed the sons of Bartanbaatar and he was close friends with the brave sons of Barkhag. This was how the national wrestling champion Buri had his back broken by Belgutei, the location was an open public square in front of a temple in the middle of the city. Thousands of spectators had gathered all around and these were kept in order by police agents. Ladies of high rank were jostling their way through the midst of the crowd, in front of the throne stood two attendants with ceremonial tiger-skins slung over their shoulders

30.
Miss World
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Miss World is the oldest running international beauty pageant. It was created in the United Kingdom by Eric Morley in 1951, since his death in 2000, Morleys widow, Julia Morley, has co-chaired the pageant. Alongside with its rival, the Miss Universe and Miss Earth contests, the current Miss World is Stephanie Del Valle of Puerto Rico who was crowned on 18 December 2016 in Washington, D. C. In 1951, Eric Morley organised a bikini contest as part of the Festival of Britain celebrations that he called the Festival Bikini Contest, the event was popular with the press, and was dubbed Miss World by the media. The swimsuit competition was intended as a promotion for the bikini which had recently been introduced onto the market. When the 1951 Miss World pageant winner, Kerstin Kiki Hakansson from Sweden, was crowned in a bikini, the pageant was originally planned as a Pageant for the Festival of Britain, but Eric Morley decided to make the Miss World pageant an annual event. Morley registered the Miss World name as a trademark, and all future pageants were held under that name. Objection to the bikini led to its replacement in all future pageants with what was accepted as more modest swimwear, håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini. In Miss World 2013 all participants wore a one-piece swimsuit plus a traditional sarong below the waist as a compromise with local culture, Miss World Order or I’ll give you the results in reverse order. Morley announced the Miss World winners in the order No 3, No 2 and this keeps the tension up and avoids the anticlimax if Nos 2 and 3 are announced after the winner. In 1959, the BBC started broadcasting the pageant, the pageants popularity grew with the advent of television. During the 1960s and 1970s, Miss World would be among the most watched programs of the year on British television, however, in 1970, the Miss World contest in London was disrupted by womens liberation protesters armed with flour bombs, stink bombs, and water pistols. In the 1980s, the pageant repositioned itself with the slogan Beauty With a Purpose, with added tests of intelligence, however, there have been various objections to the contest. Although it still enjoys success worldwide, it was no longer broadcast in BBC since 1980, Eric Morley died in 2000, and his wife, Julia, succeeded as chairwoman of the Miss World organisation. The first black African Miss World winner, Agbani Darego of Nigeria, was crowned in 2001 and it also sells its Talent, Beach Beauty and Sports events as television specials to broadcasters. In 2002 the pageant was slated for Abuja, the city of Nigeria to host its final. In the Miss World 2014 ceremony, Aishwarya Rai was crowned Most Successful Miss World by the Miss World Organisation and she attended the celebration with her husband Abhishek Bachchan, daughter Aaaradhya and mother Brinda Rai. The Miss World Organisation owns and manages the annual Miss World Finals, since its launch in 1951, the Miss World organisation has raised more than £250 million for childrens charities that help disabled and underprivileged children

31.
Golden Eagle Festival
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The Golden Eagle Festival or Eagle Festival, is an annual traditional festival held in Bayan-Ölgii aimag, Mongolia. Prizes are awarded for speed, agility and accuracy, as well as for the best traditional Kazakh dress, the Eagle Festival is held during the first weekend in October, run by the Mongolian Eagle Hunters Association. Other sporting activities include horse racing, archery and the highly entertaining Bushkashi - goatskin tug of war on horseback, the Eagle Festival is featured in the 2016 documentary The Eagle Huntress, in which the 13-year-old Kazakh girl Aisholpan becomes the first female to enter and win the competition. A smaller festival, the Altai Kazakh Eagle Festival, is held each year in the nearby village of Sagsai in the last week of September. It follows much the pattern as the larger Golden Eagle Festival. Official Website Panoramic Journeys - Eagle Festival Soma, Takuya, ‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, pp. 103–111. ‘Ethnoarhchaeology of Horse-Riding Falconry’, The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2012 - Official Conference Proceedings, ‘The Art of Horse-Riding Falconry by Altai-Kazakh Falconers’. In HERITAGE2012 - Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Heritage and Sustainable Development, edited by Rogério Amoêda, Sérgio Lira, & Cristina Pinheiro, porto, Green Line Institute for Sustainable Development. ‘Horse-Riding Falconry in Altai-Kazakh Nomadic Society, Anthropological Researches in Summertime Activities of Falconers, japanese Journal of Human and Animal Relation 32, pp. 38–47. ‘Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers’, Falco, The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, ‘Ethnoarchaeology of Ancient Falconry in East Asia’, The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 - Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 81–95. ‘Hunting Arts of Eagle Falconers in the Altai-Kazakhs, Contemporary Operations of Horse-Riding Falconry in Sagsai County, japanese Journal of Human and Animal Relation 35, pp. 2003. 『地球に好奇心：大草原にイヌワシが舞う～モンゴル・カザフ族 鷹匠の親子～』, NHKエンタープライズ, NHK-BS2 Television,2010. 『アジアンスマイル, 僕とイヌワシの冬物語～モンゴル・サグサイ村～』, NHKエンタープライズ, NHK BS1 Television

32.
Nowruz
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It has been celebrated for over 3,000 years in Western Asia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Black Sea Basin and the Balkans. It marks the first day of the first month in the Iranian calendar, Nowruz is the day of the vernal equinox, and marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere. It usually occurs on 21 March or the previous or following day, the moment the sun crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day is calculated exactly every year, and families gather together to observe the rituals. Although having Iranian and religious Zoroastrian origins, Nowruz has been celebrated by people from diverse ethno-linguistic communities for thousands of years and it is a secular holiday for most celebrants that is enjoyed by people of several different faiths, but remains a holy day for Zoroastrians. The term Nowruz is a Persian compound word, consisting of the words now, now, which means new and descends from Proto-Indo-European *néṷos, is cognate with English new, German neu, Latin novus, Russian novyj and Sanskrit náva. Ruz, which day in Modern Persian, is descended from Proto-Iranian *raučah-. The original meaning of the word, however, was light and it is related to Armenian loys, English light, Latin lux, Sanskrit rúci and Slovenian luč. The Persian pronunciation differs in the dialects of the language. While the eastern dialects have preserved the diphthong nau, the western dialects usually pronounce it with the diphthong now, a variety of spelling variations for the word Nowruz exist in English-language usage. Random House provides the spelling Nowruz, merriam-Webster recognizes only the spelling Nauruz. Nowruz is partly rooted in the tradition of Iranian religions, such as Mitraism and Zoroastrianism, in Mitraism, festivals had a deep linkage with the suns light. The Iranian festivals such as Mehrgan, Tirgan, and the eve of Chelle ye Zemestan also had an origin in the Sun god, Zoroastrian practices were dominant for much of the history of ancient Iran. In Zoroastrianism, the seven most important Zoroastrian festivals are the six Gahambar festivals and Nowruz, between sunset on the day of the sixth Gahambar and sunrise of Nowruz, Hamaspathmaedaya was celebrated. This and the Gahambars are the only named in the surviving text of the Avesta. The 10th-century scholar Biruni, in his work Kitab al-Tafhim li Awail Sinaat al-Tanjim, besides the Iranian calendar, various festivals of Greeks, Jews, Arabs, Sabians, and other nations are mentioned in the book. In the section on the Iranian calendar, he mentions Nowruz, Sadeh, Tirgan, Mehrgan, according to him, It is the belief of the Iranians that Nowruz marks the first day when the universe started its motion. It has been suggested that the famous Persepolis complex, or at least the palace of Apadana and it was an important day during the time of the Achaemenids, where kings from different nations under the Achaemenid Empire used to bring gifts to the King of Kings of Iran. It was, therefore, an auspicious occasion for the ancient Iranian peoples

33.
Tsagaan Sar
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The Mongolian Lunar New Year, commonly known as Tsagaan Sar, is the first day of the year according to the Mongolian lunisolar calendar. The festival of the Lunar New Year is celebrated by the Mongols along with the people of the Arctic, the White Moon festival is celebrated on the first through third days of the first lunar month. Tsagaan Sar is one of the most important Mongolian holidays, the customs of Tsagaan Sar is much different depending on the region. In Mongolia around the New Year for example, families burn candles at the altar symbolizing Buddhist enlightenment, also people greet each other with holiday-specific greetings such as Амар байна уу. meaning Are you living peacefully. Mongols also visit friends and family on this day and exchange gifts, a typical Mongol family will meet in the home dwelling of the eldest in the family. Many people will be dressed in full garment of national Mongol costumes, when greeting their elders during the White Moon festival, Mongols perform the zolgokh greeting, grasping them by their elbows to show support for them. The eldest receives greetings from each member of the family except for his/her spouse, during the greeting ceremony, family members hold long, typically blue, silk cloths called a khadag. After the ceremony, the family eats sheeps tail, mutton, rice with curds, dairy products. It is also typical to drink airag and exchange gifts, the day before Tsagaan Sar is called Bituun, the name of the lunar phase of a new or dark moon. The lunar phases are Bituun, Shined, Tergel, and Huuchid, on the Bituun day, people thoroughly clean around home, herders also clean the livestock barns and shades, to meet the New Year fresh. In the evening, families gather together—usually immediate family, in contrast to the large feast gatherings of White Moon day — and see out the old year eating dairy products, traditionally, Mongolians settle all issues and repay all debts from the old year by this day. Depending on the region, the food is much different, the Mongol calendar in the Tegus Buyantu system is a lunisolar calendar. The Tegus Buyantu astrology was developed by Mongol high priest Luvsandanzanjantsan, Tsagaan Sar is celebrated on the first through third days of the first lunar month

34.
Hotel Mongolia
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Hotel Mongolia is a hotel in the form of a mock castle near Gachuurt village, in the Bayanzürkh district of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. It claims to be the resort hotel in the country. Built in 2003, it is surrounded by a wall with gates on the 4 sides. Inside the fortress are Asian style houses and yurts, which serve as hotel rooms, there is a restaurant in the central palace. The hotel lies on the bank of the Tuul River, the southern gate links to a riverside beach and an open sky stage for rock performances. The hotel is designed to resemble the ancient capital of Karakorum, the hotel is furnished in handmade carvings. One of the attractions is the Silver Tree fountain inspired by the Silver Tree of the ancient city of Karakorum, the central gatehouse displays an exhibition of the coins brought from all parts of the Mongol Empire. The complex is a venue for festivals, wedding celebrations. It hosted the 10th Conference of Sakyadhita, the International Association of Buddhist Women, in July 2008

35.
Sky Resort
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Sky Resort is a ski resort located near Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The resort is sited on Bogd Khan Uul, with a base of 1,379 metres and it is owned and operated as a joint venture by MCS Group with Petrovis, Skytel company and Kerry group, and is located on Bogd Khan Uul. The resort is a recreation destination and offers a wide range of outdoor activities. A golf course was opened in summer 2012 and set to be fully operational in 2013. Ski season is open from November to March or April depending on weather conditions. Night skiing as well as different package tours are also offered, sky Resort is approximately 13 kilometres from Ulaanbaatar. The closest airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport

36.
Transport in Mongolia
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The transportation system in Mongolia consists of a network of railways, roads, waterways, and airports. The Trans-Mongolian Railway connects the Trans-Siberian Railway from Ulan Ude in Russia to Erenhot, the Mongolian section of this line runs for 1110 km. A spur line connects Darkhan to the mines of Erdenet. A separate railway line is in the east of the country between Choibalsan and the Trans-Siberian at Borzya, however, that line is closed to passengers beyond the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot. For domestic transport, daily trains run from Ulaanbaatar to Darkhan, Sukhbaatar, Mongolia uses the 1,520 mm track system. The total length of the system 1,810 km, in 2007, rail transport carried 93% of Mongolian freight and 43% of passenger turnover. In 2007, only about 2600 km of Mongolias road network were paved, another 3900 km are graveled or otherwise improved. This network of paved roads was expanded to 4,800 km in 2013, the vast majority of Mongolias official road network, some 40,000 km, are simple cross-country tracks. Construction is underway on an east-west road that incorporates the road from Ulaanbaatar to Arvaikheer, private bus and minibus companies offer service from Ulaanbaatar to most aimag centers. In September and December 2014 roads connecting Dalanzadgad town of Ömnögovi Province, buses are the main mode of public transportation in Ulaanbaatar. There is no set time table, but buses pass stops at approximately 15-minute intervals, buses runs between 7, 00am and 10, 00pm. In July 2013, Ulaanbaatar Urban Transport Service with Chinggis Khaan International Airport launched a bus connecting the airport. However, the service was stopped as of September 2013 for unknown period, there is transport between cities of Mongolia offering buses of all sizes from minivans to large coach buses. There are few licensed taxi companies such as Ulaanbaatar taxi, Noyon taxi, there are a few local taxi companies in smaller cities such as Darkhan, Erdenet, Baganuur and Zuunmod. And there are many drivers with private unlicensed cars who act as taxis, a typical fare is MNT 700-800 per kilometer, taxi drivers tend to ask for more especially if the client is a foreign national. However, many unofficial taxis use the EasyRide platform to take orders, Mongolia has 580 km of waterways, but only Lake Khövsgöl has ever been heavily used. The Selenge and Orkhon rivers are navigable but carry little traffic, Lake Khovsgol has charter boats for tourists. The lakes and rivers freeze over in the winter and are open between May and September

37.
Rail transport in Mongolia
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Rail transport in Mongolia is an important means of travel in the landlocked nation with few paved roads. According to official statistics, rail transport carried 93% of Mongolian freight, the Mongolian rail system employs 12,500 people. The national operator is UBTZ, traditionally known as Mongolian Railway. This can be a source of confusion, since MTZ is a company established in 2008. The Mongolian Railway College is located in Ulaanbaatar, the Trans-Mongolian Railway connects the Trans-Siberian Railway from Ulan Ude in Russia to Erenhot and Beijing in China through the capital Ulan Bator. The Mongolian section of line runs for 1,110 kilometres. The Trans-Mongolian Railway runs through Mongolia on 1,520 mm Russian gauge track, a separate railway line exists in the east of the country between Choibalsan and the Trans-Siberian at Borzya, however, that line is closed to passengers beyond the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot. This line used to have a line to the uranium mine at Mardai, however this spur line was torn up. For domestic transport, daily trains run from Ulaanbaatar to Darkhan, Sukhbaatar, Mongolia uses the 1,520 mm with a total system length of 1,810 kilometres. Mongolian railways transported 20.5 million tons of freight in 2013, most common locomotives are M62 variants, including five rebuilt 2Zagal double engines. Other engines include TEM2 and TE116 variants, Dash-7 and one Evolution locomotive on lease from GE, in October 2010, Ulaanbaatar Railway ordered 35 2TE116UM diesel freight locomotives from Transmash. UN Map UNHCR Map Transport in Mongolia Official site Railway Authority of Mongolia

38.
Chinggis Khaan International Airport
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Chinggis Khaan International Airport is the international airport serving Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, situated 18 km southwest of the capital. It is the largest international air facility in the country, the airport was first established as Buyant-Ukhaa airport on 19 February 1957. In 1958, international flights began with flights to Irkutsk and Beijing using Ilyushin Il-14 aircraft, regular flights from the airport started in 1961. The terminal was upgraded to make it suitable for traffic in 1986. Between 1994 and 1997 a further upgrade of construction and air navigation was achieved with the assistance of the Asian Development Bank. The US$50 million construction project was carried out by the successful bidder, the airport was named after Chinggis Khaan to celebrate the 800th anniversary of the establishment of a Mongolian State on 21 December 2005. The airport is due for replacement in 2016-2017 by the new Khöshigt Valley Airport, the airline Aero Mongolia has its head office on the third floor of the main airport building. The Air Accident Investigation Bureau Mongolia has its office on the airport property. There is also one cargo hangar at Chinggis Khaan International Airport

39.
MIAT Mongolian Airlines
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MIAT Mongolian Airlines is the Mongolian national airline, headquartered in the MIAT Building in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia. The airline operates scheduled services from its base at Chinggis Khaan International Airport near Ulaanbaatar. MIAT Mongolian Airlines was established in 1956 and it began operations with the help of Aeroflot and began flights on 7 July 1956 using an Antonov An-2 from Ulaanbaatar to Irkutsk. The airline also used Soviet-built Ilyushin Il-14s for flights to destinations like Beijing. During the 1960s and 1970s, the airline obtained Antonov An-24, a Tupolev Tu-154 jet on lease from Aeroflot was introduced in the late 1980s. In 1992, MIAT bought five Chinese Harbin Y-12 commuter aircraft and acquired a Boeing 727-200 from Korean Air, an Airbus A310 was leased in 1998, and a new Boeing 737 was leased in 2002 to replace the aging 727-200 fleet. Between 2003 and 2008, MIATs An-24 and An-26 fleet was gradually retired, in April 2008, MIAT received its second Boeing 737-800 aircraft on lease from CIT Aerospace. In July 2008, MIAT ended scheduled domestic flights completely, in June 2009, the airline temporarily resumed scheduled domestic flights to Mörön and Khovd using its Boeing 737-800 aircraft. In late 2009, MIAT flew charter flights to Hong Kong and Sanya, in June 2010, the airlines flights were brought to a halt due to a mechanics strike. However, the situation was resolved with the replacement of the CEO, in early 2011, MIAT signed an agreement with Air Lease Corporation to lease two former China Eastern Boeing 767-300ERs until 2013. The first aircraft entered service in May 2011 with the following in November 2011. In 2011 the Airbus A310 was retired after serving MIAT Mongolian Airlines for 13 years, in June 2011, MIAT began regular flights to Hong Kong. The company also ordered three aircraft, a Boeing 767-300ER and two Boeing 737-800s, to be delivered in 2013 and 2016 respectively. The order marks the first time in two decades that MIAT has chosen to expand its fleet by purchasing new aircraft straight from the rather than leasing them. 17 September 1973, Antonov An-24B BNMAU-4206 crashed into the side of a mountain in the Hovd Province of Mongolia during approach,1 May 1979, Antonov An-24B BNMAU-1202 ran off the runway on landing at Erdenet Airport. 26 January 1990, Antonov 24RV BNMAU-10208 crashed into terrain near Ulaangom Airport at night,23 April 1993, Antonov An-26 BNMAU-14102 flying from Buyant Ukhaa Airport, Ulan Bator crashed into the side of Marz Mountain during descent into Tosontsengel Airport, Mongolia. All 32 passengers and crew died,10 June 1997, Harbin Y-12 JU-1020 crashed after encountering windshear whilst landing at Mandalgobi Airport, killing seven of 12 on board. 26 May 1998, Harbin Y-12 JU-1017 crashed into a mountain near Erdenet due to overloading, killing all 28 passengers

40.
Hunnu Air
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Hunnu Air is a Mongolian domestic airline that began scheduled flights in 2011. The company changed its name from Mongolian Airlines Group in April 2013 to avoid confusion with the similarly named Mongolian international flag carrier MIAT Mongolian Airlines, Hunnu Air is backed by the mining company Mongolyn Alt Group and the Bodi Group. The airline was launched as Mongolian Airlines on 2 December 2011 following the acquisition of Monnis Air Services, the airline purchased two Fokker 50 aircraft in 2011 and operated its first scheduled domestic flight on 2 January 2012. Other domestic routes were opened from Ulaanbaatar to Murun, Choibalsan, Khvod. With the leasing of two Airbus A319 aircraft, delivered in January 2012, it was able to launch services to Tokyo and subsequently Bangkok, Shanghai, in July 2013 a third Fokker 50 was acquired. Hunnu Air also operated flights to destinations such as Jeju, Hainan. Hunnu Air introduced its first long-haul direct flight from Ulaanbaatar to Paris for the period of 2014, with one technical stop. The airline planned to acquire an Airbus A330 aircraft and relaunch long-haul direct flights in 2015 to include Singapore, the two Airbus A319s were repossessed by their owner late in 2014, putting plans for expansion in doubt. Hunnu Air operates within Mongolia and to China from its Chinggis Khaan International Airport base, as of July 2016, the Hunnu Air fleet includes the following aircraft, Airbus A319

41.
Shanghai Pudong International Airport
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Shanghai Pudong International Airport is one of two international airports of Shanghai and a major aviation hub of China. Pudong Airport mainly serves international flights, while the other major airport Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport mainly serves domestic. Located about 30 kilometres east of the city center, Pudong Airport occupies a 40-square-kilometre site adjacent to the coastline in eastern Pudong, the airport is operated by Shanghai Airport Authority. The airport is the hub for China Eastern Airlines and Shanghai Airlines. It is also the hub for privately owned Juneyao Airlines and Spring Airlines, the DHL hub, opened in July 2012, is said to be the biggest express hub in Asia. Pudong Airport has two passenger terminals, flanked on both sides by four parallel runways. Pudong Airport is a hub for both passenger and cargo traffic. With 3,440,279.7 metric tonnes handled in 2016, Pudong Airport also served a total of 66,002,414 passengers in 2016, making it the second busiest airport in China, 5th busiest in Asia and the 9th busiest in the world. By the end of 2016, Pudong Airport hosted 104 airlines serving more than 210 destinations, Shanghai Pudong is the busiest international hub of China, about half of its total passenger traffic is international. Pudong Airport is connected to Shanghai Metro Line 2 and the Shanghai Maglev Train via Pudong International Airport Station, prior to the establishment of Pudong International Airport, Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport was the primary airport of Shanghai. Construction of the first phase of the new Shanghai Pudong International Airport began in October 1997 and it covers an area of 40 square kilometres and is 30 kilometres from downtown Shanghai. The first phase of the airport has one 4E category runway along with two parallel taxiways, an 800, 000-square-metre apron, seventy-six aircraft positions and a 50,000 m2 cargo warehouse. A second runway was opened on March 17,2005, in November 2011, Pudong Airport received approval from the national government for a new round of expansion which includes two runways. The 3, 800-meter fourth runway, along with an auxiliary taxiway, the 3, 400-meter fifth runway, along with a new traffic tower, will cost 4.65 billion yuan. Construction was completed in 2015 and has doubled the capacity of the airport, the airport has 70 boarding bridges along with 218 parking positions. Terminal 1 was opened on October 1,1999 along with a 4000m runway and it was built to handle the demand for traffic and to relieve Shanghai Hongqiao International Airports traffic. Terminal 1 is shaped like Osaka Kansai International Airports terminal, but it is shorter, the exterior of the terminal is shaped like waves. The capacity of Terminal 1 is 20 million passengers and it currently has 204 check-in counters, thirteen luggage conveying belts and covering an area of 280,000 square meters

20–21 March 1981, issue of Wieczór Wrocławia (This Evening in Wrocław). Blank spaces remain after the government censor pulled articles from page 1 (right, "What happened at Bydgoszcz?") and from the last page (left, "Country-wide strike alert"), leaving only their titles. The printers—Solidarity-trade-union members— decided to run the newspaper as is, with blank spaces intact. The bottom of page 1 of this master copy bears the hand-written Solidarity confirmation of that decision.