This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.(August 2010)

20 February – The first Anglo-Tranjordanian treaty is concluded following which the Emirate of Transjordan becomes nominally independent, while Britain retains a degree of control over foreign affairs, armed forces, communications and state finances. The treaty fails to respond to Transjordanian demands for a fully sovereign and independent state.

1.
British Mandate of Palestine
–
Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine

2.
1927 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1927 in the British Mandate of Palestine. The effects are severe in Jerusalem and Nablus, but damage and fatalities are also reported in many other areas, including parts of Transjordan. 1 November - The Palestine pound, the currency of the British Mandate of Palestine between 1927 and 1948, goes into circulation, the founding of the kibbutz Beit Zera. The founding of the kibbutz Ein Shemer, the founding of the kibbutz Shefayim. The founding of the moshav Hadar, one of the four communities of Jewish agriculturalists that combined in 1964 to form Hod Hasharon. 16 January - Elazar ben Tsedaka ben Yitzhaq, Samaritan High Priest 2004–2010,2 May - Amos Kenan, Israeli columnist, painter, sculptor, playwright and novelist. 16 June - Yaakov Hodorov, Israeli football goalkeeper,5 October - Meir Feinstein, Irgun fighter and one of the Olei Hagardom. Full date unknown Said al-Muragha, Palestinian Arab, former member of the PLO, daud Turki, Israeli Arab Communist poet and political activist, convicted of treason after it was discovered that he headed an extensive espionage and sabotage organization. 2 January - Asher Zvi Hirsch Ginsberg, Russian -born Hebrew essayist and one of the foremost pre-state Zionist thinkers, known as the founder of Cultural Zionism

3.
1926 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1926 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 1 April - The Transjordan Frontier Force is formed as a border guard to defend the northern and southern borders of the Transjordan region. The founding of the kibbutz Ramat David, the founding of the moshav Beit Shearim by a group of Jewish immigrants from Yugoslavia. The founding of the agricultural settlement Bayit VaGan, which was geared towards Orthodox Jews. The founding of the moshav Karkur, one of the two communities of Jewish agriculturalists that combined in 1969 to form Pardes Hanna-Karkur. 10 January - Musallam Bseiso, Palestinian Arab thinker, intellectual, journalist,17 January - Yitzhak Modai, Israeli politician. 5 February - Avner Shaki, Israeli politician,5 March - Shimon Tzabar, Israeli artist, author, poet and Haaretz columnist. 20 June - Rehavam Zeevi, Israeli general, politician and historian,30 June - Uriel Ofek, Israeli childrens writer. 17 July - Shlomo Morag, Israeli professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,2 August - George Habash, Christian Palestinian Arab nationalist, founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. 18 June - Avshalom Haviv, Irgun fighter and one of the Olei Hagardom 19 June - Meir Pail, Palmach officer,26 July - Meir Nakar, Irgun fighter and one of the Olei Hagardom. 4 August - Hillel Omer, Israeli poet and writer,24 August – Nissim Aloni, Israeli playwright. 29 September – Amos de-Shalit, Israeli nuclear physicist,23 November - Rafi Eitan, Israeli politician and former intelligence officer

4.
1925 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1925 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 1 May - The founding of the kibbutz Givat HaShlosha by group of Jewish immigrants from Poland,1 June - The first edition of the Hebrew-language daily newspaper Davar is published under the name Davar - Iton Poalei Eretz Yisrael. 6 December - Second Assembly of Jewish Representatives elected, the founding of the moshav Ramatayim, one of the four original communities of Jewish agriculturalists that combined in 1964 to form Hod Hasharon. 6 January - Uzi Narkiss, distinguished Israeli nuclear physicist,10 March - Mordechai Alkahi, Irgun member and one of the Olei Hagardom. 9 April - Kamal Nasser, Palestinian Arab politician, PLO leader, writer,14 May - Yuval Neeman, Israeli physicist and politician. 25 May - Moshe Gidron, Israeli military officer, major general in the IDF.7 June - Reuven Shefer,24 December - Yafa Yarkoni, Israeli singer. 25 December - Geulah Cohen, former Israeli politician and journalist, full date unknown Walid Khalidi, Palestinian Arab historian who has written extensively on the Palestinian exodus

5.
1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 23 May – The religious Zionist youth movement Bnei Akiva is founded in Jerusalem,23 July - The Pro-Wailing Wall Committee is established by Joseph Klausner, Professor of Modern Hebrew Literature at the Hebrew University, to defend Jewish rights at the Western Wall. 14 August - In the evening, Klausner and a Mizrachi representative address a meeting of several thousand at the Yeshrun synagogue in Jerusalem after which the walks to the Western Wall. The protesters raise the Zionist flag and sing the Hatikvah,17 August – A Jewish youth, Avraham Mizrahi, is killed during a minor dispute and an Arab youth picked at random is stabbed in retaliation. 19 Jews are killed, a synagogue and other houses are destroyed and burned,29 August –1929 Palestine riots, The 1929 Safed massacre occur. 18 Jews are killed by Arabs and 80 others wounded, the main Jewish street in Safed is looted and burned. The founding of the agricultural settlement Pardes Hanna by the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association, the settlement is named after Hannah Rothschild, daughter of Nathan Mayer Rothschild. The Zionist Commission renames itself as the Palestine Zionist Executive,11 January - Rafael Eitan, eleventh chief of staff of the IDF.11 January - David Maimon, Israeli general, head of the Israel Prison Service. 3 March - Mordechai Eliyahu, Israeli rabbi, former Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel,31 May - Menahem Golan, Israeli film director and producer. 25 July - Yosef Alon, Israeli pilot, co-founder of the Israeli Air Force,4 November - Shaike Ophir, Israeli actor, mime, comedian and entertainer. 14 December - Shlomo Argov, Israeli diplomat Full date unknown Ibrahim Dakkak, comay, J and Cohn-Sherbok, L. Routledge Whos Who in Jewish history After the Period of the Old Testament. A History of Palestine, From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel, the Mufti of Jerusalem, Al-Hajj Amin Al-Husayni and the Palestinian National Movement. One Palestine Complete, Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, the Triumph of Military Zionism, Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right

6.
1930 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1930 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 17 June -3 Arab Palestinians hanged for their part in the August 1929 riots,25 other prisoners, two of them Jewish, had their death sentences commuted. The day was remembered by Palestinians as Red Tuesday, the founding of the kibbutz Naan by 42 members of the Noar HaOved youth group, on lands purchased from the Arabic village Al-Naani. 6 May - Mordechai Gur, tenth Chief of Staff of the IDF.13 July - Naomi Shemer,7 December - Dani Karavan, Israeli sculptor and painter. 10 December - Muhammad Youssef al-Najjar, Palestinian Arab militant and leader of Black September,22 December - Amnon Kapeliouk, Israeli journalist and author. Full date unknown Gad Avigad, Israeli biochemist,17 June - Mohammad Khaleel Jamjoum

7.
1931 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1931 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 5 January - Third Jewish Assembly of Representatives election,10 April - The right-wing revisionist Zionist armed underground paramilitary group Irgun is founded by Avraham Tehomi together with several other former Haganah commanders. 11 April - Three members of kibbutz Yagur were killed by members of a local Arab gang,18 November - The 1931 census of Palestine is carried out by the Mandate authorities under the direction of Major E. Mills. 22 December - Two members of Nahala Moshav, a man and his son, the attack is attributed to members of the Black Hand Gang. The founding of the kibbutz Ein HaHoresh by Hashomer Hatzair members from Eastern Europe who reclaimed the land,27 November - Jacob Ziv, Israeli computer scientist. Full date unknown Naim Attallah, Palestinian Arab businessman and writer, farouk Kaddoumi, Palestinian Arab, senior member of Fatah. Taha Muhammad Ali, Israeli Arab poet,16 April - Rachel Bluwstein, Russia-born Palestinian Jewish poet

8.
1928
–
January – English bacteriologist Frederick Griffith reports the results of Griffiths experiment, indirectly proving the existence of DNA. January 1 Estonia changes its currency from the mark to the kroon, abolition of domestic slavery in the British Protectorate of Sierra Leone comes into effect. Eastern Bloc emigration and defection, Boris Bazhanov, Joseph Stalins personal secretary, January 6–7 – The River Thames floods in London,14 drown. On January 7 the moat at the Tower of London is completely refilled by the river, January 12 – Convicted American murderer Ruth Snyder is executed at Sing Sing. January 17 – The OGPU arrests Leon Trotsky in Moscow, he assumes a status of passive resistance, January 26 – The volcanic island Anak Krakatau appears. January 31 – Leon Trotsky is exiled to Alma-Ata, february 8 – British inventor John Logie Baird broadcasts a transatlantic television signal from London to Hartsdale, New York. February 11–19 – The 1928 Winter Olympics are held in St. Moritz, Switzerland, sonja Henie of Norway wins her first gold medal in womens figure skating. February 12 – Heavy hail kills 11 in Britain, february 20 – The Japanese general election produces a hung parliament. February 25 – Charles Jenkins Laboratories of Washington, D. C. becomes the first holder of a license from the Federal Radio Commission. March 12 – In California, the St. Francis Dam north of Los Angeles fails, March 15 March 15 incident, The Japanese government cracks down on socialists and communists. Chinese warlord Shi Yousan sets fire to the Shaolin Monastery in Henan, destroying some of its ancient structures, March 21 – Charles Lindbergh is presented with the Medal of Honor for his first Transatlantic flight. March 26 – The China Academy of Art is founded in Hangzhou, april 10 – Pineapple Primary, The United States Republican Party primary elections in Chicago are preceded by violence, bombings and assassination attempts. April 12 – A bomb attack against Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in Milan kills 17 bystanders, april 12–14 – The first ever east–west transatlantic flight by aeroplane takes place from Dublin, Ireland, to Greenly Island, Canada, using German Junkers W33 Bremen. April 14 – Two earthquakes in Chirpan and Plovdiv in Bulgaria destroy more than 21,000 buildings, april 19 – The last section of the original Oxford English Dictionary is completed and published. April 22 – An Ms 6.0 earthquake affects southern Greece with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX, leaving 20 dead, a non-destructive tsunami was also observed. April 28 –28 inches of snow fall in southern-central Pennsylvania, may 3 – Jinan incident, An armed conflict between the Imperial Japanese Army allied with Northern Chinese warlords against the Kuomintangs southern army, occurs in Jinan, China. May 7 – Passage of the Representation of the People Act in the United Kingdom lowers the age for women from 30 to 21 giving them equal suffrage with men from July 2. May 10 – The first regular schedule of television programming begins in Schenectady, may 15 The Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia commences operations

9.
Herbert Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer
–
Field Marshal Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE was a senior British Army officer of the First World War. He joined his regiment in India and became adjutant of his battalion on 29 April 1879, promoted to captain on 29 May 1882, he accompanied his battalion to the Sudan in 1884 as part of the Nile Expedition. Plumer was present at the battle of El Teb in February 1884 and the battle of Tamai in March 1884 and he spent from 1886 to 1887 attending the Staff College, Camberley, before being appointed Deputy-Assistant Adjutant-General in Jersey on 7 May 1890. He became deputy assistant adjutant-general at Aldershot with promotion to lieutenant colonel on 8 May 1897. He was promoted to colonel on 29 November 1900 and was given command of a mixed force which captured General Christiaan de Wets wagon train at Hamelfontein in February 1901. Plumer arrived back in the United Kingdom in April 1902, few officers have rendered better service. Promoted to major general on 22 August 1902, he was appointed Commander of the 4th Brigade within I Army Corps later the same year and he became General Officer Commanding 10th Division within IV Army Corps and General Officer Commanding Eastern District in December 1903. He became Quartermaster-General to the Forces in February 1904, General Officer Commanding 7th Division in April 1906, promoted to lieutenant general on 4 November 1908, he went on to be General Officer Commanding-in-Chief for Northern Command in November 1911. Plumer was sent to France in February 1915 and given command of V Corps which he led at the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915. He took command of the Second Army in May 1915 and, having promoted to full general on 11 June 1915. The battle started with the explosion of a series of mines placed by the Royal Engineers tunnelling companies beneath German lines. The detonation created 19 large craters and was described as the loudest explosion in human history, after the mines were fired, Plumers soldiers left their trenches and advanced 3,000 yards. In November 1917 Plumer was given command of the British Expeditionary Force sent to the Italian Front after the disaster at Caporetto. Early in 1918, Plumer was sought by Lloyd George for the position of Chief of the Imperial General Staff as a replacement for William Robertson, Plumer instead commanded Second Army during the final stages of the war, during the German Spring Offensive and the Allied Hundred Days Offensive. Plumer became General Officer Commanding-in-Chief the British Army of the Rhine in December 1918 and he was promoted to field marshal on 31 July 1919 and was created Baron Plumer of Messines and of Bilton on 18 October 1919. In October 1925 he became High Commissioner of the British Mandate for Palestine and he resisted Arab pressure to reverse commitments made by the British in the Balfour Declaration and dealt firmly with both the Zionists and the Arab Nationalists. On 24 July 1927 he conducted the ceremony for the Menin Gate memorial at Ypres in Belgium. Plumer was created Viscount Plumer for his long and distinguished services on 3 June 1929

10.
John Chancellor (British administrator)
–
Lieutenant Colonel Sir John Robert Chancellor GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO was a British soldier and colonial official. He also served as Principal Assistant Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defence From 1922–1923, in 1898 he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. In 1909 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and he was knighted in the 1913 Kings Birthday Honours when he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George. In the 1922 Dissolution Honours List he was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and he was appointed a Knight of Justice in the Venerable Order of Saint John on 19 December 1928. In 1928, he became High Commissioner of the British Mandate of Palestine, where he was perceived as being cool to Zionism, though he admired some Zionist leaders, in particular Pinchas Rutenberg, in general Chancellors attitude towards Jews was negative. He wrote to his son that truly the Jews are an ungrateful race and his attitude towards Arabs was politically supportive but paternalistic, he wrote to his son they are like children, and very difficult to help. While he was in London in 1929, Arab riots protesting Jewish immigration broke out, on his return, he initially condemned Arab attacks but was subsequently less critical. He helped write the Lord Passfields White Paper of 1930, which aimed to reinterpret the Balfour Declaration in order to back away from a commitment to the creation of a Jewish state, in 1931, Jerusalems Straus Street was renamed Chancellor Avenue in his honour. The street reverted to its name after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. In 1937 he was appointed chairman of the Livestock Commission, which was set up following the passing of the Livestock Industry Act,1937. In the 1947 Kings Birthday Honours he was created a Knight Grand Cross in the Civil Division of the Order of the British Empire for services to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Chancellor Avenue in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, now Harare, Zimbabwe, was named after him, however, his grandson, Alexander Chancellor, suggested that it be changed on account of it now being the street on which Robert Mugabe, President of Zimbabwe now lives. World Statesmen - Mauritius World Statesmen - Israel

11.
Emirate of Transjordan
–
The Emirate of Transjordan, also hyphenated as Trans-Jordan and previously known as Transjordania or Trans-Jordania, was a British protectorate established in April 1921. There were many urban settlements east of the Jordan River, the largest one in Al-Salt, the Hashemite dynasty ruled the protectorate, as well as the neighbouring Mandatory Iraq. In 1949 the countrys name was changed to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Under the Ottoman Empire, most of Transjordan was part of the Syria Vilayet, the inhabitants of northern Transjordan had traditionally associated with Syria, and those of southern Transjordan with the Arabian Peninsula. During World War I, Transjordan saw much of the fighting of the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule. Assisted by the British army officer T. E. Lawrence, in the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, Transjordan was allocated to Britain. In March 1920, the Hashemite Kingdom of Syria was declared by Faisal I of Iraq in Damascus which encompassed most of what later became Transjordan, at this point, the southern part of Transjordan was part of the Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz. Transjordan became, for a time, a no mans land. In August 1920, Sir Herbert Samuels request to extend the frontier of British territory beyond the River Jordan, following Curzons instruction Samuel set up a meeting with Transjordanian leaders where he presented British plans for the territory. The local leaders were reassured that Transjordan would not come under Palestinian administration, without facing opposition Abdullah and his army had effectively occupied most of Transjordan by March 1921. His Majestys Government are responsible under the terms of the Mandate for establishing in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people, the western boundary of the Turkish vilayet of Damascus before the war was the River Jordan. Palestine and Trans-Jordan do not, therefore, stand upon quite the same footing, at the same time, the two areas are economically interdependent, and their development must be considered as a single problem. Further, His Majestys Government have been entrusted with the Mandate for Palestine, in default of this assumption Trans-Jordan would be left, under article 132 of the Treaty of Sèvres, to the disposal of the principal Allied Powers. Some means must be found of giving effect in Trans-Jordan to the terms of the Mandate consistently with recognition, the Cairo Conference of March 1921 was convened by Winston Churchill, then Britains Colonial Secretary. With the mandates of Palestine and Iraq awarded to Britain, Churchill wished to consult with Middle East experts, an additional outstanding question was the policy to be adopted in Transjordan to prevent anti-French military actions from being launched within the allied British zone of influence. The Hashemites were Associated Powers during the war, and a solution was urgently needed. The two most significant decisions of the conference were to offer the throne of Iraq to emir Faisal ibn Hussein, Abdullah was then appointed Emir of the Transjordania region in April 1921. It was approved by Curzon on 31 March 1921, and the final draft of the mandate was forwarded to the League of Nations on 22 July 1922

12.
Abdullah I of Jordan
–
Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, King of Jordan, born in Mecca, Hejaz, Ottoman Empire, was the second of three sons of Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca and his first wife Abdiyya bint Abdullah. He was educated in Constantinople and Hejaz, from 1909 to 1914, Abdullah sat in the Ottoman legislature, as deputy for Mecca, but allied with Britain during World War I. In 1910, Abdullah persuaded his father to stand, successfully, for Grand Sharif of Mecca, in the following year he became deputy for Mecca in the parliament established by the Young Turks, acting as an intermediary between his father and the Ottoman government. In 1914, Abdullah paid a visit to Cairo to meet Lord Kitchener to seek British support for his fathers ambitions in Arabia. This correspondence in turn led to the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans, during the Arab Revolt of 1916–18, Abdullah commanded the Arab Eastern Army. Abdullah began his role in the Revolt by attacking the Ottoman garrison at Ta’if on 10 June 1916, the garrison consisted of 3,000 men with ten 75-mm Krupp guns. Abdullah led a force of 5,000 tribesmen but they did not have the weapons or discipline for a full attack, instead he laid siege to town. In July he received reinforcements from Egypt in the form of howitzer batteries manned by Egyptian personnel and he then joined the siege of Medina commanding a force of 4,000 men based to the east and north-east of the town. In early 1917, Abdullah ambushed an Ottoman convoy in the desert, in August 1917, Abdullah worked closely with the French Captain Muhammand Ould Ali Raho in sabotaging the Hejaz Railway. Having heard of Abdullahs plans, Winston Churchill invited Abdullah to a tea party where he convinced Abdullah to stay put and not attack Britains allies. Churchill told Abdullah that French forces were superior to his and that the British did not want any trouble with the French, on 8 March 1920, Abdullah was proclaimed King of Iraq by the Iraqi Congress but he refused the position. After his refusal, his brother who had just been defeated in Syria and was in need of a kingdom, although Abdullah established a legislative council in 1928 its role remained advisory leaving him to rule as an autocrat. Prime Ministers under Abdullah formed 18 governments during the 23 years of the Emirate, Abdullah set about the task of building Transjordan with the help of a reserve force headed by Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Peake, who was seconded from the Palestine police in 1921. The force, renamed the Arab Legion, in 1923 was led by John Bagot Glubb between 1930 and 1956, during the Second World War Abdullah was a faithful ally of the British, maintaining strict order within Transjordan, and helping to suppress a pro-Axis uprising in Iraq. His army, the Arab Legion assisted in the occupation of Iraq, Abdullah embarked on negotiations with the British to gain independence, on 25 May 1946 the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan was proclaimed independent and Abdullah crowned king in Amman. Abdullah, alone among the Arab leaders of his generation, was considered a moderate by the West and it is possible that he might have been willing to sign a separate peace agreement with Israel, but for the Arab Leagues militant opposition. Abdullah supported the Peel Commission in 1937, which proposed that Palestine be split up into a small Jewish state, the Arabs within Palestine and the surrounding Arab countries objected to the Peel Commission while the Jews accepted it reluctantly. Ultimately, the Peel Commission was not adopted, in 1947, when the UN supported partition of Palestine into one Jewish and one Arab state, Abdullah was the only Arab leader supporting the decision

13.
Palestine Arab Congress
–
Between 1919 and 1928, seven congresses were held in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa and Nablus. Despite broad public support their executive committees were never recognised by the British. After the British defeat of Ottoman forces in 1918, the British established military rule, the Palestine Arab Congress and its organizers in the Muslim-Christian Associations were formed when the countrys Arab population began coordinated opposition to British policies. It was presided over by Aref al-Dajani, president of the Jerusalem Muslim-Christian Society, also present were Izzat Darwaza and Yusef al-Isa, editor of Falastin. Most delegates were from the class, and were evenly divided into pro-British. The Congress rejected political Zionism, agreeing to accept British assistance if it did not impinge on Arab sovereignty in Palestine, Palestine was envisaged as part of an independent Syrian state, governed by Faisal of the Hashemite family. Failing to elect a committee, the congress agreed to meet in three months and representatives attended the General Syrian Congress in Damascus on 8 June 1919. The second congress was held in secret on 31 May 1920, according to one source, the delegates met in Damascus on 27 February 1920. The third congress opened on 4 December and it was attended by 36 delegates, including Pasha Aref Dajani the Mayor of Jerusalem 1918, Sheik Suleiman al-Taji Al-Faruqi and head of the Catholic community Bullus Shehadeh. The congress was opened by Haifas mufti, Muhammad Murad, recently deposed mayor of Jerusalem Musa al-Husayni was elected president and chairman of the nine-member executive committee, a post he held until his death in 1934. The congress called for Palestine to be ruled under identical terms as those of the Mandate of Iraq, other resolutions, Called for Palestine to be part of the independent Arab state promised in the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence. Calls for unity with Syria were dropped, since the area was now under French control, condemned the notion of a homeland for the Jewish people. Objected to the recognition of the World Zionist Organisation as an official body, declared the British administration illegal, since the League of Nations had not yet reached a decision about the status of the territory. Some delegates, such as Daoud Isa, complained that the congress was not sufficiently radical, after the congress the executive committee met British High Commissioner Herbert Samuel, who insisted that they accept British policy on the Jewish national homeland to receive official recognition. The British claim that the congress was not representative led to a campaign by the Muslim-Christian Associations to raise public awareness. Churchill agreed to meet the delegation, but refused to discuss any issues until after the conference, the fourth congress, on 25 June 1921, was attended by about 100 delegates who voted to send a six-man delegation to London. The delegates arrived in London in September and met with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on their way, they met Pope Benedict XV in Vatican City and attempted to meet with delegates to the League of Nations in Geneva. Responsding to the congress, High Commissioner Herbert Samuel promised that the British would never impose a policy contrary to their religions, their political, the fifth congress opened on 22 August 1922, after the return of the London delegation

14.
Amman
–
Amman is the capital and most populous city of Jordan, and the countrys economic, political and cultural centre. Situated in north-central Jordan, Amman is the centre of the Amman Governorate. The city has a population of 4,007,526, today, Amman is considered to be among the most liberal and westernized Arab cities. It is a major tourist destination in the region, particularly among Arab, the earliest evidence of settlement in the area is a Neolithic site known as Ain Ghazal. Its successor was known as Rabbath Ammon, which was the capital of the Ammonites, then as Philadelphia and it was initially built on seven hills but now spans over 19 hills combining 27 districts, which are administered by the Greater Amman Municipality headed by its mayor Aqel Biltaji. Areas of Amman have either gained their names from the hills or valleys they lie on, such as Jabal Lweibdeh, East Amman is predominantly filled with historic sites that frequently host cultural activities, while West Amman is more modern and serves as the economic center of the city. Approximately 2 million visitors arrived in Amman in 2014, which ranked it as the 93rd most visited city in the world, Amman has a relatively fast growing economy, and it is ranked Beta− on the global city index. Moreover, it was named one of the Middle East and North Africas best cities according to economic, labor, environmental, the city is among the most popular locations in the Arab world for multinational corporations to set up their regional offices, alongside Doha and only behind Dubai. It is expected that in the next 10 years these three cities will capture the largest share of multinational corporation activity in the region. Amman derives its name from the 13th century BC when the Ammonites named it Rabbath Ammon, over time, the term Rabbath was no longer used and the city became known as Ammon. The influence of new civilizations that conquered the city changed its name to Amman. In the Hebrew Bible, it is referred to as Rabbat ʿAmmon, however, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom who reigned from 283 to 246 BC, renamed the city to Philadelphia after occupying it. The name was given as an adulation to his own nickname, in the outskirts of Amman, one of the largest known ancient settlements in the Near East was discovered. The site, known as Ain Ghazal which is situated on a valley-side, dates back to 7250 BC and it was a typical average sized aceramic Neolithic village that accommodated around 3,000 inhabitants. Its houses were rectangular mud-bricked buildings that included a main square living room, the site was discovered in 1974 as construction workers were working on a road crossing the area. By 1982 when the excavations started, around 600 meters of road ran through the site, despite the damage brought by urban expansion, the remains of Ain Ghazal provided a wealth of information. These statues are human figures made with white plaster, the figures have painted clothes, hair, and in some cases ornamental tattoos. Thirty-two figures were found in two caches, fifteen of them full figures, fifteen busts, and two fragmentary heads, three of the busts were two-headed, the significance of which is not clear

15.
Western Wall
–
The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall. The Western Wall is considered due to its connection to the Temple Mount. Because of the status quo policy, the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray, though it is not the holiest site in the Jewish faith, which lies behind it. The original, natural and irregular-shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever-larger Temple compound to be built at its top, on top of this box-like structure Herod built a vast paved esplanade which surrounded the Temple. Of the four retaining walls, the one is considered to be closest to the former Temple. The term Wailing Wall is not used by Jews and increasingly many others who consider it derogatory, in a broader sense, Western Wall can refer to the entire 488 metre-long retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. The wall has been a site for Jewish prayer and pilgrimage for centuries, from the mid-19th century onwards, attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews, but none was successful. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. This period ended on June 10,1967, when Israel gained control of the following the Six-Day War. Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza. The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term ha-kotel ha-maaravi, the Western Wall, the name Wailing Wall, and descriptions such as wailing place, appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century. The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German and this term itself was a translation of the Arabic el-Mabka, or Place of Weeping, the traditional Arabic term for the wall. This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn, at some time in the 19th century, the Arabs began referring to the wall as the al-Buraq Wall. This was based on the tradition that inside the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed, al-Buraq. The tradition on which this is based only states that the Prophet, or the angel Jibrail, tethered the steed at the gate of the mosque, meaning, at the gate of the Temple Mount. Israeli archaeologist Meir Ben-Dov concluded that the Muslim association with Western Wall began in the nineteenth century in response to renewed Jewish identification with the site. The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187-foot exposed section of ancient wall situated on the flank of the Temple Mount

16.
Jerusalem
–
Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem

17.
Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco

18.
Al Aqsa Mosque
–
Al-Aqsa Mosque, also known as Al-Aqsa and Bayt al-Muqaddas, is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam and is located in the Old City of Jerusalem. Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa during the Night Journey, Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration, when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba. The mosque was destroyed by an earthquake in 746 and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in 754. His successor al-Mahdi rebuilt it again in 780, another earthquake destroyed most of al-Aqsa in 1033, but two years later the Fatimid caliph Ali az-Zahir built another mosque which has stood to the present day. When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, they used the mosque as a palace and the Dome of the Rock as a church, but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin in 1187. More renovations, repairs and additions were undertaken in the centuries by the Ayyubids, Mamluks, Ottomans, the Supreme Muslim Council. Today, the Old City is under Israeli control, but the remains under the administration of the Jordanian/Palestinian-led Islamic Waqf. Al-Masjid al-Aqsa translates from Arabic into English as the farthest mosque, for centuries, al-Masjid al-Aqsa referred not only to the mosque, but to the entire sacred sanctuary, while al-Jami al-Aqsa referred to the specific site of the mosque. This changed during the period of Ottoman rule when the complex came to be known as al-Haram al-Sharif. The al-Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount, referred to by Muslims today as the Haram al-Sharif, at the time of the Second Temple, the present site of the mosque was occupied by the Royal Stoa, a basilica running the southern wall of the enclosure. The Royal Stoa was destroyed along with the Temple during the sacking of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, however, remains identified as those of the Nea Church were uncovered in the south part of the Jewish Quarter in 1973. Analysis of the beams and panels removed from the mosque during renovations in the 1930s shows they are made from Cedar of Lebanon. Radiocarbon dating indicates a range of ages, some as old as 9th-century BCE. These included a mosaic like those used in Byzantine churches, the current construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque is dated to the early Umayyad period of rule in Palestine. However, Arculf visited Palestine during the reign of Muawiyah I and this latter claim is explicitly supported by the early Muslim scholar al-Muthahhar bin Tahir. According to several Muslim scholars, including Mujir ad-Din, al-Suyuti, and al-Muqaddasi, however, the entire Haram al-Sharif was meant to represent a mosque. The bridge would have spanned the street running just outside the wall of the Haram al-Sharif to give direct access to the mosque. Direct access from palace to mosque was a feature in the Umayyad period

19.
Kibbutz
–
A kibbutz is a collective community in Israel that was traditionally based on agriculture. The first kibbutz, established in 1909, was Degania, today, farming has been partly supplanted by other economic branches, including industrial plants and high-tech enterprises. Kibbutzim began as utopian communities, a combination of socialism and Zionism, in recent decades, some kibbutzim have been privatized and changes have been made in the communal lifestyle. A member of a kibbutz is called a kibbutznik, in 2010, there were 270 kibbutzim in Israel. Their factories and farms account for 9% of Israels industrial output, worth US$8 billion, some Kibbutzim had also developed substantial high-tech and military industries. For example, in 2010, Kibbutz Sasa, containing some 200 members, the kibbutzim were founded by members of the Bilu movement who emigrated to Palestine. The first kibbutz was Degania Alef, founded in 1909, joseph Baratz, one of the pioneers of the kibbutz movement, wrote a book about his experiences. We were happy enough working on the land, but we knew more and more certainly that the ways of the old settlements were not for us. This was not the way we hoped to settle the old way with Jews on top and Arabs working for them, anyway, we thought that there shouldnt be employers. There must be a better way, though Baratz and others wanted to farm the land themselves, becoming independent farmers was not a realistic option in 1909. Ottoman Palestine was a harsh environment, the Galilee was swampy, the Judaean Mountains rocky, and the south of the country, the Negev, was a desert. To make things more challenging, most of the settlers had no farming experience. The sanitary conditions were also poor, malaria, typhus and cholera were rampant. Bedouins would raid farms and settled areas, sabotage of irrigation canals and burning of crops were also common. Living collectively was simply the most logical way to be secure in an unwelcoming land, finally, the land had been purchased by the greater Jewish community. From around the world, Jews dropped coins into Jewish National Fund Blue Boxes for land purchases in Palestine, in 1909, Baratz, nine other men, and two women established themselves at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee near the Arab village of Umm Juni/Juniya. These teenagers had hitherto worked as day laborers converting wetlands for human development, as masons and their dream was now to work for themselves, building up the land. They called their community Kvutzat Degania, now Degania Alef, the founders of Degania endured backbreaking labor, The body is crushed, the legs fail, the head hurts, the sun burns and weakens, wrote one of the pioneers

20.
Beit HaShita
–
Beit HaShita is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located between Afula and Beit Shean, it falls under the jurisdiction of Gilboa Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 1,215. The built-up area of Beit Hashita ranges from sea level to 70 meters below, during the Ottoman era, a village named Shutta was located at the site of the kibbutz. It has been suggested that Shutta was marked on the map Pierre Jacotin compiled in 1799, misnamed as Naim. While travelling in the region in 1838, Edward Robinson noted Shutta as a village in the area of Tamra. In 1881, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described Shutta as a adobe village on rising ground, surrounded by hedges of prickly pear. The kibbutz traces its origin to a meeting held in Hadera in 1928, by Kvuzat HaHugim of the HaMahanot HaOlim movement from Haifa. The first members lived at nearby Ein Harod until 1934, when establishment of the kibbutz began at its present location about 1 km east of the village of Shatta. The land of the kibbutz, part of the land of Shutta including the village itself, was purchased by the Palestine Land Development Company from its Arab owners in 1931. The tenants contested the purchase, claiming to be the rightful owners, the fate of the tenants and workers, numbering more than 200, became a matter of dispute between the government, the sellers, and the buyers. The case led to a 1932 amendment of the law to better protect evicted tenants, the kibbutz was later named after the biblical town Beit Hashita, where the Midianites fled after being beaten by Gideon, thought to be located where Shatta was. It falls under the jurisdiction of Gilboa Regional Council, in 1945, Beit hash Shitta had 590 inhabitants, all Jews. It was noted that Shatta was an alternative name, in 1948, Beit HaShita took over 5,400 dunams of land from the newly depopulated Arab villages of Yubla and Al-Murassas. Eleven kibbutz members fell during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the largest number as a percentage of the population than any town in Israel. Beit Hashita produced cotton, wheat, melons, olives and citrus fruits, there was also a dairy barn, chickens and a fish farm. In the 1960s, Beit HaShita established a factory which produces and markets pickles, olives. The factory also produces syrups for making juices under the brand name Vitaminchick, the factory was bought from the kibbutz in 1998 by the Israeli food manufacturer, Osem. Beit Hashita served as the basis for the 1981 English language book Kibbutz Makom, many of the member families of the kibbutz are secular

21.
Haifa
–
Haifa, is the third-largest city in the State of Israel, with a population of 278,903 in 2015. The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area and it is also home to the Baháí World Centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Bahai pilgrims. Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel, the settlement has a history spanning more than 3,000 years, the earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam, a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age. In the 3rd century CE, Haifa was known as a dye-making center, over the centuries, the city has changed hands, being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians, Persians, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, British, and the Israelis. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Haifa Municipality has governed the city, as of 2016, the city is a major seaport located on Israels Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63.7 square kilometres. It lies about 90 kilometres north of Tel Aviv and is the regional center of northern Israel. According to researcher J. Kis-Lev Haifa is considered a haven for coexistence between Jews and Arabs. Two respected academic institutions, the University of Haifa and the Technion, are located in Haifa, in addition to the largest k-12 school in Israel, the city plays an important role in Israels economy. It is home to Matam, one of the oldest and largest high-tech parks in the country, Haifa also owns the underground rapid transit system located in Israel. Haifa Bay is a center of industry, petroleum refining. Haifa formerly functioned as the terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan. With locals using it to refer to a tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains. The name Efa first appears during Roman rule, some time after the end of the 1st century, Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud, a work central to Judaism. Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesareas 4th-century work, Onomasticon, is said to be another name for Sycaminus, references to this city end with the Byzantine period. Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tel Shikmona upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon. Haifa is mentioned by the mid-11th-century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw, the Crusaders, who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century, call it Caiphas, and believe its name related to Cephas, the Aramaic name of Simon Peter. Other spellings in English have included Caipha, Kaipha, Caiffa, Kaiffa and Khaifa.5 miles to the east. The new village, the nucleus of modern Haifa, was first called al-imara al-jadida by some, but others residing there called it Haifa al-Jadida at first, the ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear

22.
Ariel Sharon
–
Ariel Sharon was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Sharon was incapacitated by a stroke in January 2006, Sharon was a commander in the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War, Sharon was considered the greatest field commander in Israels history, and one of the countrys greatest military strategists and tacticians. After his assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him The King of Israel. Upon retirement from the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud and he became the leader of the Likud in 2000, and served as Israels prime minister from 2001 to 2006. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank, however, as Prime Minister, in 2004–05 Sharon orchestrated Israels unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip. Facing stiff opposition to this policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the election and was widely interpreted as planning on clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank. After suffering a stroke on January 4,2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in January 2014. Sharon was born on February 26,1928 in Kfar Malal and his mother, Vera, was from a family of Russian Subbotnik Jewish origin. His parents met while at university in Tiflis, where Sharons father was studying agronomy and they immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist governments growing persecution of Jews in the region. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus, The Scheinermans eventual ostracism. They were expelled from the local clinic and village synagogue. The cooperatives truck wouldnt make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce, Sharon grew up to be bilingual in both Hebrew and Russian languages. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed, as a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. Sharons unit of the Haganah became engaged in serious and continuous combat from the autumn of 1947, without the manpower to hold the roads, his unit took to making offensive hit-and-run raids on Arab forces in the vicinity of Kfar Malal. In units of thirty men, they would hit constantly at Arab villages, bridges and bases, Sharon wrote in his autobiography, We had become skilled at finding our way in the darkest nights and gradually we built up the strength and endurance these kind of operations required

23.
Prime Minister of Israel
–
The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of the Israeli government and the most powerful figure in Israeli politics. Although the President of Israel is the head of state, his powers are largely ceremonial. The official residence of the minister, Beit Rosh Hamemshala is in Jerusalem. The current prime minister is Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud, the person to hold the position. Following an election, the president nominates a member of the Knesset to become prime minister after asking party leaders whom they support for the position, the nominee then presents a government platform and must receive a vote of confidence in order to become prime minister. In practice, the minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the governing coalition. Between 1996 and 2001, the minister was directly elected. The office of prime minister came into existence on 14 May 1948, the date of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, david Ben-Gurion, leader of Mapai and head of the Jewish Agency became Israels first prime minister. The position became permanent on 8 March 1949, when the first government was formed, Ben-Gurion retained his role until late 1953, when he resigned in order to settle in the Kibbutz of Sde Boker. He was replaced by Moshe Sharett, however, Ben-Gurion returned in a little under two years to reclaim his position. He resigned for a time in 1963, breaking away from Mapai to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol took over as head of Mapai and prime minister and he became the first prime minister to head the country under the banner of two parties when Mapai formed the Alignment with Ahdut HaAvoda in 1965. In 1968 he also became the party leader to command an absolute majority in the Knesset, after Mapam and Rafi merged into the Alignment. On 26 February 1969, Eshkol became the first prime minister to die in office, however, Allons stint lasted less than a month, as the party persuaded Golda Meir to return to political life and become prime minister in March 1969. Meir was Israels first woman minister, and the third in the world. Meir resigned in 1974 after the Agranat Commission published its findings on the Yom Kippur War, Yitzhak Rabin took over, though he also resigned towards the end of the eighth Knessets term following a series of scandals. Rabins wife, Leah, was found to have had an overseas bank account. Menachem Begin became the first right-wing prime minister when his Likud won the 1977 elections and he resigned in 1983 for health reasons, passing the reins of power to Yitzhak Shamir

24.
Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)
–
The Directorate of Military Intelligence, often abbreviated to Aman, is the central, overarching military intelligence body of the Israel Defense Forces. Aman was created in 1950, when the Intelligence Department was spun off from the IDFs General Staff, Aman is an independent service, and not part of the ground forces, Navy or the Air Force. It is one of the entities of the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Mossad. It is currently headed by Major General Herzi Halevi and it includes the special forces unit Sayeret Matkal, and the elite training course Havatzalot Program. The IDFs Intelligence Corps, abbreviated as Haman and headed by a general, has been detached from Aman since the Yom Kippur War. In April 2000, the newest IDF corps was founded, the Combat Intelligence Collection Corps and it was designed to fulfill some of Amans former combat intelligence functions, and is also headed by a Brigadier General. Although it falls under the jurisdiction of the GOC Army Headquarters it also falls under Amans professional jurisdiction. Field security at the level of the General Staff, and the training, direction and operation of the Collection Agencies. Drawing maps, providing the direction and supervision for the dissemination of maps, the development of special measures for intelligence work. The development of doctrine in the realms of research, collection. Staff responsibility for military attachés overseas, Yadlin, who had been serving as the IDFs military attaché in Washington, D. C. was a combat pilot, former head of the air forces Air Intelligence Directorate, and Halutzs deputy. Yadlin was appointed as Aman Director on January 5,2006, in November 2010 Yadlin was replaced by Major General Aviv Kochavi. org on Aman Israeli Intelligence in the 1967 War, By Doron Geller, JUICE, The Jewish Agency for Israel, Education Dept. Israeli Intelligence and the Yom Kippur War of 1973, By Doron Geller, JUICE, The Jewish Agency for Israel, the Yom Kippur War, the IDF version, by Amir Oren, for Haaretz Intelligence service under scrutiny, by Dan Baron, for the Jewish Telegraphic Agency

25.
Israeli Air Force
–
The Israeli Air Force operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28,1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, as of May 2012 Aluf Amir Eshel serves as the Air Force Commander. The Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, using commandeered or donated civilian aircraft and obsolete, eventually, more aircraft were procured, including Boeing B-17s, Bristol Beaufighters, de Havilland Mosquitoes and P-51D Mustangs. The Israeli Air Force played an important part in Operation Kadesh, on June 5,1967, the first day of the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force executed Operation Focus, crippling the opposing Arab air forces and attaining air supremacy for the remainder of the war. Shortly after the end of the Six-Day War, Egypt initiated the War of Attrition, on October 7,1973, the IAF conducted Operation Tagar against Egyptian air bases of the Egyptian Air Defence Force. Although initially successful, with 10 bases hit, the urgency of the fighting on the Golan heights forced the operations suspension, since that war most of Israels military aircraft have been obtained from the United States. Among these are the F-4 Phantom II, A-4 Skyhawk, F-15 Eagle, the Israeli Air Force has also operated a number of domestically produced types such as the IAI Nesher, and later, the more advanced IAI Kfir. On June 7,1981, eight IAF F-16A fighters covered by six F-15A jets carried out Operation Opera to destroy the Iraqi nuclear facilities at Osiraq, on June 9,1982, the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation Mole Cricket 19, crippling the Syrian air defence array. The IAF continued to mount attacks on Hezbollah and PLO positions in south Lebanon, on October 1,1985, In response to a PLO terrorist attack which murdered three Israeli civilians in Cyprus, the Israeli air force carried out Operation Wooden Leg. The strike involved the bombing of PLO Headquarters in Tunis, by F-15 Eagles, in 1991, the IAF carried out Operation Solomon which brought Ethiopian Jews to Israel. In 1993 and 1996, the IAF participated in Operation Accountability and Operation Grapes of Wrath and it took part in many missions since, including during the 2006 Lebanon War, Operation Cast Lead, Operation Pillar of Cloud and Operation Protective Edge. On September 6,2007, the Israeli Air Force successfully bombed an alleged Syrian nuclear reactor in Operation Orchard, squadron markings usually go on the tail fin. Forerunners of the Israeli Air Force were the Palestine Flying Service established by the Irgun in 1937, and Sherut Avir, the Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, shortly after Israel declared statehood and found itself under attack. The force consisted of a hodge-podge of commandeered or donated civilian aircraft converted to military use, a variety of obsolete and surplus ex-World War II combat-aircraft were quickly sourced by various means to supplement this fleet. Creativity and resourcefulness were the foundations of early Israeli military success in the air, Israels new fighter-arm first went into action on May 29,1948, assisting efforts to halt the Egyptian advance from Gaza northwards. Four newly arrived Avia S-199s, flown by Lou Lenart, Modi Alon, Ezer Weizman and Eddie Cohen, although damage to the enemy was minimal, two aircraft were lost and Cohen killed, nevertheless the attack achieved its goal and stopped the Egyptians. After un-assembled planes were strafed on the ground on May 30th at Ekron airfield the fighters were moved to makeshift strip located around the current Herzliya Airport. The Israeli Air Force scored its first aerial victories on June 3 when Modi Alon, flying Avia D.112, the first dogfight against enemy fighters took place a few days later, on June 8, when Gideon Lichtaman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire

26.
Yaacov Agam
–
Yaacov Agam is an Israeli sculptor and experimental artist best known for his contributions to optical and kinetic art. Yaacov Agam was born Yaakov Gibstein in Rishon LeZion, then Mandate Palestine and his father, Yehoshua Gibstein, was a rabbi and a kabbalist. In 1951 Agam went to Paris, France, where he still lives and he has a daughter and two sons, one of whom is the photographer Ron Agam. Agams first solo exhibition was at the Galerie Craven, Paris, in 1953, in 1964, Agam wrote his artistic credo, unchanged since then. My aim is to show what can be seen within the limits of possibility which exists in the midst of coming into being, Agams work is usually abstract, kinetic art, with movement, viewer participation and frequent use of light and sound. His works are placed in public places. He is also known for a type of print known as an Agamograph, the lenticular technique was executed in large scale in the 30 ft square Complex Vision which adorns the facade of the Callahan Eye Foundation Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama. Agam had an exhibition in Paris at the Musée National dArt Moderne in 1972. His works are held in museum collections including the Museum of Modern Art. He is the subject of two films by American filmmaker Warren Forma, Possibilities of Agam and Agam and. In 1996, he was awarded the Jan Amos Comenius Medal by UNESCO for the Agam Method for visual education of young children and he designed and created the winners trophy for the 1999 Eurovision Song Contest that was held in Jerusalem. In 2009, at age 81, Agam created a monument for the World Games in Kaohsiung and it consists of nine 10m high hexagon pillars positioned in diamond or square formation. The sides of the pillars are painted in different patterns and hues, one of Agams more notable creations is the Hanukkah Menorah at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 59th Street in New York City, sponsored by the Lubavitch Youth Organization. The 32-foot-high, gold colored,4,000 pound steel structure is recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the Worlds Largest Hanukkah Menorah and it uses real oil lamps, which are lighted every year during Hanukkah with the aid of cherry-picking machines. In May 2014, Agams piece Faith- Visual Pray was presented to Pope Francis by El Al Israel Airlines president, the piece included significant symbols of both Jewish and Christian faiths. Agam is the highest-selling Israeli artist, Visual arts in Israel List of public art in Israel Ragon, Michel. Agam,54 mots cles pour une lecture polyphonique dAgam, origins and Development of Kinetic Art. Studio Vista and New York Graphic Society, works by or about Yaacov Agam in libraries Yaacov Agams Bio

27.
Netiva Ben-Yehuda
–
Netiva Ben Yehuda was an Israeli author, editor and media personality. She was a commander in the pre-state Jewish underground, Palmach, Netiva Ben Yehuda was born in Tel Aviv, in Mandate Palestine, on 26 July 1928. Her father was Baruch Ben-Yehuda, director general of the first Israeli ministry of education and she joined the Palmach at the age of 19 and was trained in demolition, bomb disposal, topography, and scouting. Her duties included transferring ammunition, escorting convoys, and training recruits and she commanded a sapper unit, and fought in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. She left the army in 1949, Ben-Yehuda considered competing in discus throwing at the Olympics, but a bullet injury to her arm kept her from pursuing an athletic career. She studied at the Bezalel Academy of Art and Design in Jerusalem, Ben Yehuda was a freelance editor, and in 1972 published The World Dictionary of Hebrew Slang. Between 1981 and 1991 she published her Palmah trilogy, a series of three based on her own experience in the War of Independence. She was a resident of Palmach Street in the capital, Ben Yehuda died on 28 February 2011 at the age of 82. Ben Yehuda wrote over 30 books, including a Hebrew slang dictionary, Ben-Yehuda was the host of a late-night Israel Radio show for 14 years. She played old-time Israeli songs and talked with callers, in 2004, Ben Yehuda received the Yakir Yerushalayim award from the city of Jerusalem. On the subject of the Palmach, I dont think there has ever been any other underground movement in the world in which male chauvinism triumphed so powerfully

28.
Irgun
–
The Irgun was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandate Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah, when the group broke from the Haganah it became known as the Haganah Bet, or alternatively as haHaganah haLeumit or Hamaamad. Irgun members were absorbed into the Israel Defense Forces at the start of the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, the Irgun is also referred to as Etzel, an acronym of the Hebrew initials, or by the abbreviation IZL. The Irgun policy was based on what was then called Revisionist Zionism founded by Zeev Jabotinsky, the Irgun has been viewed as a terrorist organization or organization which carried out terrorist acts. Irguns tactics appealed to many Jews who believed that any action taken in the cause of the creation of a Jewish state was justified, the Irgun was a political predecessor to Israels right-wing Herut party, which led to todays Likud party. Likud has led or been part of most Israeli governments since 1977, members of the Irgun came mostly from Betar and from the Revisionist Party both in Palestine and abroad. The Revisionist Movement made up a backing for the underground organization. Zeev Jabotinsky, founder of Revisionist Zionism, commanded the organization until he died in 1940 and he formulated the general realm of operation, regarding Restraint and the end thereof, and was the inspiration for the organization overall. An additional major source of inspiration was the poetry of Uri Zvi Greenberg. The number of members of the Irgun varied from a few hundred to a few thousand, most of its members were people who joined the organizations command, under which they carried out various operations and filled positions, largely in opposition to British law. Most of them were people, who held regular jobs. Therefore, the Irgun tended to ignore the decisions made by the Zionist leadership, the Irgun put out numerous advertisements, an underground newspaper and even ran the first independent Hebrew radio station – Kol Zion HaLochemet. As members of an armed organization, Irgun personnel did not normally call Irgun by its name. In the first years of its existence it was primarily as Ha-Haganah Leumit, and also by names such as Haganah Bet, Irgun Bet, the Parallel Organization. Later on it became most widely known as המעמד, the anthem adopted by the Irgun was Anonymous Soldiers, written by Avraham Stern who was at the time a commander in the Irgun. Later on Stern defected from the Irgun and founded Lehi, the Irguns new anthem then became the third verse of the Betar Song, by Zeev Jabotinsky. The Irgun gradually evolved from its origins into a serious. The movement developed a hierarchy of ranks and a sophisticated command-structure and it developed clandestine networks of hidden arms-caches and weapons-production workshops, safe-houses, and training camps

29.
Amotz Zahavi
–
Amotz Zahavi is an Israeli evolutionary biologist, a Professor Emeritus at the Zoology Department of Tel Aviv University, and one of the founders of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. His main works are in the evolution of signals, particularly those that indicate fitness, Amotz Zahavi received his Ph. D from Tel Aviv University in 1970. He is married to Avishag Zahavi, a biologist and a co-investigator, evolved by sexual selection, these act as signals of the status of the organism, functioning to e. g. attract mates. He expanded it with theories on honest signalling and the idea that selection would favour signals that impose a higher cost, mate selection - a selection for a handicap. The handicap principle, a piece of Darwins puzzle. ISBN 0-19-510035-2 List of Israel Prize recipients Professor Amotz Zahavi at Tel Aviv University

30.
Gil Aldema
–
Gil Aldema was an Israeli composer and conductor. Aldema was born in Givatayim in Mandate Palestine on September 17,1928 and he graduated from the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Mannes College of Music in New York. Aldema taught music at Hadassim youth village, later he worked as a program producer and arranger for the Israel Broadcasting Authority. He composed and arranged songs for folk-ensembles and choirs, in 2004, Aldema was awarded the Israel Prize, for Hebrew song. Menashe Ravina and Shlomo Skolsky, Who is who in ACUM, authors, Composers and Music publishers, biographical notes and principal works. Societe dAuteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique en Israel,1965

31.
Shaike Ophir
–
Shaike Ophir was an Israeli film actor and comedian, and the countrys first mime. Yeshayahu Goldstein-Ophir was born in Jerusalem and his family roots in the city go back to the mid-19th century. He studied acting as an adolescent, but left school in the 1940s to join the Palmach, during Israel’s War of Independence he escorted convoys to the besieged city of Jerusalem, and took part in naval battles. Ophir, a smoker, died from lung cancer in 1987. Ophir was married twice and had two children, one from each spouse and his daughter, Karin Ophir, is also an actress. Thanks to his skills he was accepted to the Chezbatron. In the 1950s, he made a name for himself as a multi-talented performer and he had even recorded a few hit songs during this period. During the late 1950s and early 1960s Ophir occasionally guest-starred in American TV shows such as Shirley Temples Storybook, Ophir acted in 28 films, wrote, directed and starred in several variety shows and was an accomplished mime, appearing alongside Marcel Marceau. He also starred in other Ephraim Kishon films, including Ervinka, Blaumilch Canal and The Fox in the Chicken Coop, in 1977 he starred opposite Melanie Griffith in The Garden. In 1985, Ophir starred in an adaptation of Janusz Korczaks childrens novel King Matt the First. The childrens play was successful and ran for three years. Over this period Ophir was diagnosed with cancer, to which he succumbed in 1987. Ophir was a director for HaGashash HaHiver. He also directed the Israeli movie Hamesh Maot Elef Shahor, and he wrote and performed many sketches and comedy routines, many of which are still popular in Israel today. He also did a series of Arabic-instruction TV programs that ran through the 1980s and he also appeared in the Chuck Norris film, The Delta Force. The Israeli Film Academy award is named the Ophir Award in his honor, Shaike Ophir at the Internet Movie Database Shaike Ophir, filmography

32.
Mordechai Bar-On
–
Mordechai Bar-On is an Israeli historian and former IDF Chief Education Officer and politician. Born in Tel Aviv during the Mandate era, Bar-On was a member of the IDFs first officer training course in 1948 and he became a platoon commander and company commander in the Givati Brigade, and in 1954 established the Academic Pool. The following year he became head of the History Department of the General Staff, from 1961 until 1963 he served as the deputy Chief Education Officer in the Education and Youth Corps, before becoming its head in 1963. After leaving the IDF, he worked for the Jewish Agency for Israel, heading its Youth and he became one of the leaders of the Peace Now movement, and was elected to the Knesset in 1984 on the Ratz list. However, he resigned from the Knesset on 26 November 1986, mordechai Bar-On on the Knesset website

33.
Shulamit Aloni
–
Shulamit Aloni was an Israeli politician. She founded the Ratz party, was leader of the Meretz party, in 2000, she won the Israel Prize. Shulamit Adler was born in Tel Aviv and her mother was a seamstress and her father was a carpenter, both descended from Polish rabbinical families. She was sent to boarding school during World War II while her parents served in the British Army, as a youth she was a member of the socialist Zionist Hashomer Hatzair youth movement and the Palmach. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War she was involved in struggles for the Old City of Jerusalem and was captured by Jordanian forces. Following the establishment of the state of Israel, she worked with child refugees and she taught school while studying law. She also worked as an attorney and hosted a radio show Outside Working Hours that dealt with human rights and she also wrote columns for several newspapers. She contributed the piece Up the down escalator to the 1984 anthology Sisterhood Is Global, The International Womens Movement Anthology, Shulamit Aloni died at age 85, on 24 January 2014. In 1965 Aloni was elected to the Knesset on the list of the Alignment, an alliance of Mapai and Ahdut HaAvoda, and subsequently founded the Israel Consumers Council and she left the Alignment in 1973 and established the Citizens Rights Movement, which became known as Ratz. The party advocated electoral reform, separation of religion and state and human rights, Ratz initially joined the Alignment-led government with Aloni as Minister without Portfolio but she resigned immediately in protest at the appointment of Yitzhak Rafael as Minister of Religions. Ratz briefly became Yaad – Civil Rights Movement when independent MK Aryeh Eliav joined the party, throughout the 1970s Aloni attempted to create a dialogue with Palestinians in hopes of achieving a lasting peace settlement. During the 1982 Lebanon War she established the International Center for Peace in the Middle East, in the run-up to the 1984 elections, Ratz aligned with Peace Now and the Left Camp of Israel to increase its size in the Knesset to five seats. In 1992, she led Ratz into an alliance with Shinui and Mapam to form the new Meretz party, Aloni became Minister of Education under Yitzhak Rabin but was forced to resign after a year due to her outspoken statements on matters of religion. She was reappointed Minister of Communications and Science and Culture and served until 1996 when she retired from party politics, Aloni was a board member of Yesh Din, an organisation focusing on human rights in the occupied Palestinian territories. She defended U. S. President Jimmy Carters use of the apartheid in the title of his book, Palestine. Later, Aloni said, I hate to cover up things that should be open to the sun, in 1998, Aloni received a special lifetime award of the Emil Grunzweig Human Rights Award by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel. In 2000, she received the Israel Prize, for her achievements and special contribution to society. Democracy in Shackles, Am Oved List of Israel Prize recipients Shulamit Aloni on the Knesset website

34.
Khaled al-Hassan
–
Khaled al-Hassan was an early adviser of Yasser Arafat, PLO leader and a founder of the Palestinian political and militant organization Fatah. Khaled was the brother of Hani al-Hassan. Al-Hassan was born in Haifa in 1928 and he and his family lived there until they were exiled as refugees after Israels capture of the city in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, which he participated in on the side of Palestinian Arab forces. His family settled in Sidon, Lebanon, but he left for Egypt and he was briefly detained in Egypt just for being Palestinian according to him. After being released, he reunited with his family in Lebanon where he lived briefly, in 1949 he formed the short-lasing commando group Tahrir Filastin. A year later he moved to Syria, during this time, al-Hassan worked as a teacher in Damascus and he helped found the Islamic Liberation Party in 1952. Syrian authorities threatened to arrest him that year for attempting to set up another Palestinian commando group, there, he worked as a civil servant, typist, and later as Secretary-General of the Municipal Council Board in the country until 1967. He was awarded Kuwaiti citizenship in the mid-1950s, al-Hassan was one of the original founders of Fatah and in Kuwait, he managed to establish a network of Palestinian activists. In 1962, al-Hassan, Yasser Arafat, Khalil al-Wazir and Salah Khalaf established a magazine called Filastuna, Nida al-Hayat. According to al-Hassan, the Kuwaiti Fatah group was known before the Fatah groups in Europe, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Gaza and Iraq because of the magazine which was based in Tripoli, Lebanon. Fatah had formed a Central Committee which became the body of the movement and of the ten members. In 1968, al-Hassan was elected to the Palestine Liberation Organization Executive Committee after Fatah took control of the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1968. Early that year, al-Hassan persuaded Saudi King Faisal to enforce the tax which required Palestinians in that country to pay a percentage of their income to the PLO. This, in turn, supplied the PLO with 60 million riyal yearly, from 1973, until his death, al-Hassan was chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee of the Palestinian National Council and was thus considered the first foreign minister of the PLO. Al-Hassan called election of a Palestinian provisional government capable of ending the PLO’s isolation after the First Intifada in 1991 and he opposed the way Arafat and PLO officials handled the Oslo Agreements. Al-Hassan suffered from cancer since 1991 and died from it on October 8,1994 at the age of 66, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation, People, Power, and Politics Cambridge University Press

35.
Fatah
–
Fataḥ, formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement is a Palestinian nationalist political party and the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization. Fatah is generally considered to have had an involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had been identified with the leadership of its founder Yasser Arafat. Since Arafats departure, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent, in the 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas. However, the Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank, the full name of the movement is حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني ḥarakat al-taḥrīr al-waṭanī al-Filasṭīnī, meaning the Palestinian National Liberation Movement. From this was crafted the reverse acronym Fatḥ meaning opening, conquering, the word fatḥ or fatah is used in religious discourse to signify the Islamic expansion in the first centuries of Islamic history –as in Fatḥ al-Sham, the conquering of the Levant. Fatah also has significance in that it is the name of the 48th sura of the Quran which, according to major Muslim commentators. (During the peaceful two years after the Hudaybiyyah treaty, many converted to Islam, increasing the strength of the Muslim side and it was the breach of this treaty by the Quraysh that triggered the conquest of Mecca. This Islamic precedent was cited by Yasser Arafat as justification for his signing the Oslo Accords with Israel. The founders included Yasser Arafat, then head of the General Union of Palestinian Students at Cairo University, Salah Khalaf, Khalil al-Wazir, Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the Six-Day War in 1967. Fatah joined the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1967 and it was immediately allocated 33 of 105 seats in the PLO Executive Committee. Founder Yasser Arafat became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, after the position was ceded to him by Yahya Hammuda. According to the BBC, Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the committee of the PLO in 1969. The towns name is the Arabic word for dignity, which elevated its symbolism to the Arab people, the operation was in response to attacks against Israel, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias into the occupied West Bank. Knowledge of the operation was well ahead of time. On the night of 21 March, the IDF attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry, armored vehicles, Fatah held its ground, surprising the Israeli military. As Israels forces intensified their campaign, the Jordanian Army became involved, by the end of the battle, nearly 150 Fatah militants had been killed, as well as twenty Jordanian soldiers and twenty-eight Israeli soldiers. Despite the higher Arab death toll, Fatah considered themselves victorious because of the Israeli armys rapid withdrawal, after their victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan

36.
Bracha Eden
–
Bracha Eden and Alexander Tamir were Israeli duo pianists and teachers. Bracha Eden was born in Jerusalem, Alexander Tamir was born as Alexander Wolkovsky in Vilnius, Lithuania. In 1942, as a boy, he composed a Yiddish song called Shtilar, shtilar. The song was set as a lullaby in order to confuse the Nazi occupiers, many of the intended singers were killed before they could compete. The story of this episode and Tamirs recent return to his birthplace has been told in the Israeli film Ponar and he changed his name to Tamir after settling in Jerusalem after World War II. Some of the earlier recordings, originally issued under names Bracha Eden and Alexander Tamir now appear under the names Bracha Eden. They met while studying at the Rubin Academy with Alexander Schroeder, Schroeder encouraged them to play as a duo and they formed their piano duo team in 1952. They continued their studies with Vronsky & Babin in the United States and their duo debut was in 1954 in Israel. They won the 1957 Vercelli Competition and toured regularly in many countries and they later became senior professors at the Rubin Academy, and Tamir was at one time dean of the academy. They founded the Max Targ Chamber Music Center in Ein Kerem in 1968, and Tamir founded the Young Artists Competition and he is a member of the board of the International Federation of Chopin Societies. During the 1990s they began to perform and teach regularly in China, Russia, and Poland, Bracha Eden died on 23 May 2006. Very little is recorded about the life of Bracha Eden and she was the elder partner and appears to have been very shy of publicity. In her professional life she was, perhaps, completely overshadowed by her partner and their partnership, the music they produced, was truly amongst the most accomplished of all duet soloists. They were awarded the Grand Prix du Disque for their recording of Brahms Sonata in F minor for Two Pianos, Op. 34b. They gave the American premiere of Lutosławskis Paganini Variations and, at the suggestion of Stravinsky himself, were the first to perform and they also recorded the four Brahms symphonies in the composers own transcription for two pianos. They have also presented neglected works for two pianos, including music by Clementi, Dussek and Hummel, Alexander Tamir has made several transcriptions for piano duo and duet and has written a few works for piano duo

37.
Mandatory Palestine
–
Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine

British Mandate of Palestine
–
Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars e

1927 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1927 in the British Mandate of Palestine. The effects are severe in Jerusalem and Nablus, but damage and fatalities are also reported in many other areas, including parts of Transjordan. 1 November - The Palestine pound, the currency of the British Mandate of Palestine between 1927 and 1948, goes into circulation, the founding of

1.
A 6.2-magnitude earthquake occurs in the regions of Palestine and Transjordan

3.
A house in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem which was completely destroyed during the 1927 Jericho earthquake

4.
A destroyed house in the Mount of Olives, 1927

1926 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1926 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 1 April - The Transjordan Frontier Force is formed as a border guard to defend the northern and southern borders of the Transjordan region. The founding of the kibbutz Ramat David, the founding of the moshav Beit Shearim by a group of Jewish immigrants from Yugoslavia. The founding of the

1.
Lord Plumer with the archbishop of Naples and the Latin Patriarch, Jerusalem 1926

1925 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1925 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 1 May - The founding of the kibbutz Givat HaShlosha by group of Jewish immigrants from Poland,1 June - The first edition of the Hebrew-language daily newspaper Davar is published under the name Davar - Iton Poalei Eretz Yisrael. 6 December - Second Assembly of Jewish Representatives elect

1.
The opening ceremony of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1 April 1925

1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 23 May – The religious Zionist youth movement Bnei Akiva is founded in Jerusalem,23 July - The Pro-Wailing Wall Committee is established by Joseph Klausner, Professor of Modern Hebrew Literature at the Hebrew University, to defend Jewish rights at the Western Wall. 14 August - In the even

1.
A survivor mourning in the aftermath of the massacre in Hebron.

1930 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1930 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 17 June -3 Arab Palestinians hanged for their part in the August 1929 riots,25 other prisoners, two of them Jewish, had their death sentences commuted. The day was remembered by Palestinians as Red Tuesday, the founding of the kibbutz Naan by 42 members of the Noar HaOved youth group, on

1931 in the British Mandate of Palestine
–
Events in the year 1931 in the British Mandate of Palestine. 5 January - Third Jewish Assembly of Representatives election,10 April - The right-wing revisionist Zionist armed underground paramilitary group Irgun is founded by Avraham Tehomi together with several other former Haganah commanders. 11 April - Three members of kibbutz Yagur were killed

1.
Rachel Bluwstein

1928
–
January – English bacteriologist Frederick Griffith reports the results of Griffiths experiment, indirectly proving the existence of DNA. January 1 Estonia changes its currency from the mark to the kroon, abolition of domestic slavery in the British Protectorate of Sierra Leone comes into effect. Eastern Bloc emigration and defection, Boris Bazhano

1.
A 1928 Ford Model A

2.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto

3.
Walter Mondale

4.
Jeanne Moreau

Herbert Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer
–
Field Marshal Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE was a senior British Army officer of the First World War. He joined his regiment in India and became adjutant of his battalion on 29 April 1879, promoted to captain on 29 May 1882, he accompanied his battalion to the Sudan in 1884 as part of the Nile Expedition.

1.
Plumer in 1917

2.
Wartime sketch of General Plumer

3.
Alessio Ascalesi, the Archbishop of Naples, with Herbert Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer, and Luigi Barlassina, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, on the right, 11 August 1926

John Chancellor (British administrator)
–
Lieutenant Colonel Sir John Robert Chancellor GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO was a British soldier and colonial official. He also served as Principal Assistant Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defence From 1922–1923, in 1898 he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. In 1909 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and he was knight

1.
Chancellor in Palestine, 1931.

2.
Detail

Emirate of Transjordan
–
The Emirate of Transjordan, also hyphenated as Trans-Jordan and previously known as Transjordania or Trans-Jordania, was a British protectorate established in April 1921. There were many urban settlements east of the Jordan River, the largest one in Al-Salt, the Hashemite dynasty ruled the protectorate, as well as the neighbouring Mandatory Iraq. I

1.
Herbert Samuel's proclamation in Salt, August 1920, for which he was admonished by Curzon

2.
Flag

3.
1930 Transjordan stamp showing king (then emir) Abdullah.

Abdullah I of Jordan
–
Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, King of Jordan, born in Mecca, Hejaz, Ottoman Empire, was the second of three sons of Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca and his first wife Abdiyya bint Abdullah. He was educated in Constantinople and Hejaz, from 1909 to 1914, Abdullah sat in the Ottoman legislature, as deputy for Mecca, but allied with Britain dur

1.
Abdullah I

2.
Abdullah I of Transjordan during the visit to Turkey with Turkish President Mustafa Kemal

3.
Coronation of King Abdullah in Amman. Right to left: King Abdullah, Emir 'Abd al-Ilah (Regent of the Kingdom of Iraq), and Emir Naif (King Abdullah's youngest son), 25 May 1946.

Palestine Arab Congress
–
Between 1919 and 1928, seven congresses were held in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa and Nablus. Despite broad public support their executive committees were never recognised by the British. After the British defeat of Ottoman forces in 1918, the British established military rule, the Palestine Arab Congress and its organizers in the Muslim-Christian Assoc

1.
Third Congress

2.
Fourth congress

3.
Fifth congress

4.
Sixth congress

Amman
–
Amman is the capital and most populous city of Jordan, and the countrys economic, political and cultural centre. Situated in north-central Jordan, Amman is the centre of the Amman Governorate. The city has a population of 4,007,526, today, Amman is considered to be among the most liberal and westernized Arab cities. It is a major tourist destinatio

1.
Amman city landmarks, from right to left and above to below: the Abdali Project dominating Amman's skyline as seen from Sport city, Temple of Hercules at Amman Citadel, King Abdullah I Mosque and Raghadan Flagpole, Abdoun Bridge, Umayyad Palace, Ottoman Hejaz Railway station and Roman theater.

2.
Rujm Al-Malfouf Ammonite watch tower

3.
View of Qasr Al-Abd

4.
Hand of Hercules at the temple of Hercules in Amman Citadel.

Western Wall
–
The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall. The Western Wall is considered due to its connection to the Temple Mount. Because of the status quo policy, the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray, though it is not

1.
Western Wall

2.
Aerial view of the Temple Mount, with Western Wall at left center.

3.
Panorama of the Western Wall with the Dome of the Rock (left) and al-Aqsa mosque (right) in the background

4.
The Western Wall and Dome of the Rock

Jerusalem
–
Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the

1.
From upper left: Jerusalem skyline viewed from Givat ha'Arba, Mamilla, the Old City and the Dome of the Rock, a souq in the Old City, the Knesset, the Western Wall, the Tower of David and the Ottoman Old City walls

4.
Stepped Stone Structure in Ophel / City of David, the oldest part of Jerusalem

Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims

Al Aqsa Mosque
–
Al-Aqsa Mosque, also known as Al-Aqsa and Bayt al-Muqaddas, is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam and is located in the Old City of Jerusalem. Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa during the Night Journey, Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth

1.
Al-Aqsa Mosque Masjid al-Aqsa

2.
The mosque along the southern wall of Haram al-Sharif

3.
The doors of the Saladin Minbar, early 1900s. The minbar was built on Nur al-Din 's orders, but installed by Saladin

4.
The dome of the mosque in 1982. It was made of aluminum (and looked like silver), but replaced with its original lead plating in 1983

Kibbutz
–
A kibbutz is a collective community in Israel that was traditionally based on agriculture. The first kibbutz, established in 1909, was Degania, today, farming has been partly supplanted by other economic branches, including industrial plants and high-tech enterprises. Kibbutzim began as utopian communities, a combination of socialism and Zionism, i

Beit HaShita
–
Beit HaShita is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located between Afula and Beit Shean, it falls under the jurisdiction of Gilboa Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 1,215. The built-up area of Beit Hashita ranges from sea level to 70 meters below, during the Ottoman era, a village named Shutta was located at the site of the kibbutz. It ha

1.
Beit HaShita

Haifa
–
Haifa, is the third-largest city in the State of Israel, with a population of 278,903 in 2015. The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area and it is also home to the Baháí World Centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Bahai pilgrims. Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel, the settlement has a history spanning more t

1.
Western Haifa from the air

2.
חֵיפָה ‎

3.
Jars excavated at Tell Abu Hawam

4.
Mount Carmel before 1899

Ariel Sharon
–
Ariel Sharon was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Sharon was incapacitated by a stroke in January 2006, Sharon was a commander in the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War, Sharon was considered the greatest

Prime Minister of Israel
–
The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of the Israeli government and the most powerful figure in Israeli politics. Although the President of Israel is the head of state, his powers are largely ceremonial. The official residence of the minister, Beit Rosh Hamemshala is in Jerusalem. The current prime minister is Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud, the pe

1.
Incumbent Benjamin Netanyahu since 31 March 2009

Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)
–
The Directorate of Military Intelligence, often abbreviated to Aman, is the central, overarching military intelligence body of the Israel Defense Forces. Aman was created in 1950, when the Intelligence Department was spun off from the IDFs General Staff, Aman is an independent service, and not part of the ground forces, Navy or the Air Force. It is

1.
Intelligence Corps badge.

2.
Old Aman logo

Israeli Air Force
–
The Israeli Air Force operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28,1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, as of May 2012 Aluf Amir Eshel serves as the Air Force Commander. The Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, using commandeered or donated civilian aircraft and obsolete, e

1.
Gloster Meteor

2.
Israeli Air Force

3.
Mirage IIIC at the Israeli Air Force Museum in Hatzerim. A veteran of fighting during the 1960s and 1970s, the aircraft bears 13 victory markings

4.
A-4N Skyhawk

Yaacov Agam
–
Yaacov Agam is an Israeli sculptor and experimental artist best known for his contributions to optical and kinetic art. Yaacov Agam was born Yaakov Gibstein in Rishon LeZion, then Mandate Palestine and his father, Yehoshua Gibstein, was a rabbi and a kabbalist. In 1951 Agam went to Paris, France, where he still lives and he has a daughter and two s

1.
Yaacov Agam in front of a building he decorated in Tel Baruch, Tel Aviv, Israel

Netiva Ben-Yehuda
–
Netiva Ben Yehuda was an Israeli author, editor and media personality. She was a commander in the pre-state Jewish underground, Palmach, Netiva Ben Yehuda was born in Tel Aviv, in Mandate Palestine, on 26 July 1928. Her father was Baruch Ben-Yehuda, director general of the first Israeli ministry of education and she joined the Palmach at the age of

1.
Netiva Ben-Yehuda, 2008

Irgun
–
The Irgun was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandate Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah, when the group broke from the Haganah it became known as the Haganah Bet, or alternatively as haHaganah haLeumit or Hamaamad. Irgun members were absorbed int

1.
Irgun emblem. The map shows both Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan, which the Irgun claimed in its entirety for a future Jewish state. The acronym "Etzel" is written above the map, and "raq kach" ("only thus") is written below.

2.
Ze'ev Jabotinsky, who formulated the movement's ideology and was Supreme Commander of the Etzel

3.
Avraham Tehomi, the first Commander of the Irgun

4.
The ship Parita unloading immigrants at the beach in Tel Aviv

Amotz Zahavi
–
Amotz Zahavi is an Israeli evolutionary biologist, a Professor Emeritus at the Zoology Department of Tel Aviv University, and one of the founders of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. His main works are in the evolution of signals, particularly those that indicate fitness, Amotz Zahavi received his Ph. D from Tel Aviv University in

1.
Amotz Zahavi

Gil Aldema
–
Gil Aldema was an Israeli composer and conductor. Aldema was born in Givatayim in Mandate Palestine on September 17,1928 and he graduated from the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Mannes College of Music in New York. Aldema taught music at Hadassim youth village, later he worked as a program producer and arranger for the Israel Broadcasting Authority

1.
Gil Aldema

Shaike Ophir
–
Shaike Ophir was an Israeli film actor and comedian, and the countrys first mime. Yeshayahu Goldstein-Ophir was born in Jerusalem and his family roots in the city go back to the mid-19th century. He studied acting as an adolescent, but left school in the 1940s to join the Palmach, during Israel’s War of Independence he escorted convoys to the besie

1.
Shaike Ophir performing with actress Ziva Rodan, 1951

2.
Shaike Ophir and his first wife, Ohela Halevi, 1954

Mordechai Bar-On
–
Mordechai Bar-On is an Israeli historian and former IDF Chief Education Officer and politician. Born in Tel Aviv during the Mandate era, Bar-On was a member of the IDFs first officer training course in 1948 and he became a platoon commander and company commander in the Givati Brigade, and in 1954 established the Academic Pool. The following year he

1.
Mordechai Bar-On

Shulamit Aloni
–
Shulamit Aloni was an Israeli politician. She founded the Ratz party, was leader of the Meretz party, in 2000, she won the Israel Prize. Shulamit Adler was born in Tel Aviv and her mother was a seamstress and her father was a carpenter, both descended from Polish rabbinical families. She was sent to boarding school during World War II while her par

1.
Shulamit Aloni

2.
Shulamit Aloni as a young woman with her mother.

3.
The Grave of Shulamit Aloni

Khaled al-Hassan
–
Khaled al-Hassan was an early adviser of Yasser Arafat, PLO leader and a founder of the Palestinian political and militant organization Fatah. Khaled was the brother of Hani al-Hassan. Al-Hassan was born in Haifa in 1928 and he and his family lived there until they were exiled as refugees after Israels capture of the city in the 1948 Arab-Israeli W

1.
Khaled al-Hassan

2.
Al-Hassan (taller man) behind Yasser Arafat and Yousef an-Najjar at the Palestinian National Council (PNC) summit in Cairo, December 1970

3.
Mahmoud Rabbani and Khaled al-Hassan (1980)

Fatah
–
Fataḥ, formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement is a Palestinian nationalist political party and the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization. Fatah is generally considered to have had an involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had

1.
Yasser Arafat was the main founder of Fatah and led the movement until his death in 2004.

2.
Fatah فتح

Bracha Eden
–
Bracha Eden and Alexander Tamir were Israeli duo pianists and teachers. Bracha Eden was born in Jerusalem, Alexander Tamir was born as Alexander Wolkovsky in Vilnius, Lithuania. In 1942, as a boy, he composed a Yiddish song called Shtilar, shtilar. The song was set as a lullaby in order to confuse the Nazi occupiers, many of the intended singers we

1.
Bracha Eden and Alexander Tamir with Ed Sullivan (left), 1958

Mandatory Palestine
–
Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars e

1.
Dynamics of the relative proportion of Mongoloid elements among the ancient and contemporary population of Kazakhstan based on male craniological data from Paleolithic till today.

2.
The location of Kazakhstan

3.
A cataphract -style parade armor of a Saka royal from the Issyk kurgan.

4.
Kazakhs deliver a white horse as a gift to the Qianlong Emperor of China (1757), soon after the Qing expelled the Mongols from Xinjiang. Soon, intensive trade started in Yining and Tacheng, Kazakh horses, sheep and goats being traded for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics.

1.
The proclamation on the forming of the independent Federation of Malaysia by Lee Kuan Yew (top) for Singapore, Tun Fuad Stephens (centre) for North Borneo and Stephen Kalong Ningkan (bottom) for Sarawak. However, Singapore was pulled out less than two years after the merger due to racial issues.

2.
The discovery of a skull which estimates say is around 40,000 years old on Niah Caves in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo.

3.
The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.