Perfect for professors, students, those considering careers in intelligence, and current/former officers seeking to see what changes are taking place across a wide spectrum of intelligence disciplines.

AFIO's Guide to the Study of Intelligence helps instructors teach about the large variety of subjects that make up the field of intelligence. This includes secondary school teachers of American History, Civics, or current events and undergraduate and graduate professors of History, Political Science, International Relations, Security Studies, and related topics, especially those with no or limited professional experience in the field. Even those who are former practitioners are likely to have only a limited knowledge of the very broad field of intelligence, as most spend their careers in one or two agencies at most and may have focused only on collection or analysis of intelligence or support to those activities.

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Guide to the Study of Intelligence

A project of AFIO's
Academic Exchange Program (AEP)

Project Director: Peter C. Oleson
Chair, AFIO Academic
Exchange Program
Former Associate Professor,
The University of Maryland University College (UMUC)

Teaching or Seeking to learn more about the world of Intelligence?

AFIO's Guide to the Study of Intelligence
Are You Using It?The Guide consists of more than 65 articles on all aspects of intelligence. It is intended to help instructors become familiar with intelligence-related subjects. Guide articles, written by both academic experts and seasoned practitioners, are introductions to the subject with recommended readings for further study.
They are free for academic use.

For a complete list of what articles are available as of 22 December 2015, see list below or view this pdf.

Newly added draft or typeset/published articles since October 2016 are the following:

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Why can’t we keep national security secrets? James Bruce, an expert in denial and deception, examines in his article, “Keeping US National Security Secrets: Why is This So Hard?,” the damage done by both spies and leakers, and raises questions as to whether our system of security is outmoded in today’s IT world.

• Intelligence and diplomacy have an intimate relationship. But it is not always harmonious. As Ambassador G. Philip Hughes and Peter Oleson explain in their article, “Diplomacy & Intelligence: Strange Bedfellows,” the two are mutually dependent, are beneficial for the nation when they work together, but often cause problems for each other.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Dr. Robert Clark in his article on protecting intelligence sources and methods tries to explain the confusing maze of classification and compartmentation of sensitive intelligence. He traces the origins of security classification, how it is applied to the various INTs, and the modern compartmentation system.

• After World War I the US became a major target for foreign espionage. Former FBI counterintelligence officer David Major and co-author Professor Peter Oleson trace the modern history of foreign espionage against America and highlight many of the major counterintelligence cases that have occurred.

• Intelligence reached a zenith in World War II. Professor Peter Oleson’s examination of the impact of intelligence in World War II details how the Allies, whose pre-war intelligence capabilities were minimal, suffered from Axis surprises but eventually prevailed by breaking Axis codes and ciphers and building an international intelligence behemoth.

• How is intelligence handled in the White House? What are the president’s principal concerns? How does the National Security Advisor and the NSC staff impact the intelligence provided to the president? David Shedd, former Senior Director and Special Assistant to the President for Intelligence Programs on the National Security Council staff and later senior ODNI official and acting director of DIA, answers these questions in his interview with AFIO’s John MacGaffin and Peter Oleson.

•Dr. Eleni C. Braat of the University of Leiden in the Netherlands writes of the dysfunction of Dutch intelligence prior to and during WW II and its many transitions during and following the Cold War.

• The British have a rich history in intelligence from the era of Elizabeth I to the present. Drs. Huw Dylan and Michael S. Goodman of King’s College, London, explain the "British way of intelligence" in their article that covers the history, organization, functioning and oversight of the British intelligence establishment.

• Historian Michael Fredholm recounts the long history of Swedish intelligence and the significant role it played in WW II and the Cold War.

• The history, structure, and political environment for French intelligence differs markedly from that of the US or even other western countries' services. French intelligence has gone through a significant transformation in recent years. Philippe Hayez and Hedwige Regnault de Maulmin explain the evolution of French intelligence and the recent push for a national intelligence community.

• There is little written about Mexico’s intelligence. Professor José Medina González Dávila writes about the evolution of the Mexican intelligence and security services since the Mexican Revolution of 1920-1921. He outlines the various intelligence organizations and discusses the relationships between them and their challenges.

This Guide to the Study of Intelligence offers suggestions for instructors teaching various topics for which intelligence is an important component. The intent is to remove some of the veil that has made the secret history of intelligence opaque and obscured many of the complexities of the intelligence field. The target audience includes secondary school teachers of American History, Civics, or current events and undergraduate professors of History, Political Science, International Relations, and related topics, particularly those with no or limited professional experience in the field. The authors of the individual articles in The Guide try to identify the important learning points for students and the materials that an instructor can use to teach. AFIO solicited its members, academics, and experts to contribute to The Guide.

The Guide’s articles address the following areas:

• The role and influence of intelligence in history from ancient times to the modern world.

• Intelligence theory, techniques, and applications, including an explanation of the various collection disciplines (such as human source intelligence), types of analysis, and support to various missions.

• Intelligence and policy, addressing intelligence as an instrument of national power, the threat of espionage against the United States, the issues of counterintelligence, counterterrorism, counter-proliferation, and the employment of covert action.

• The management of intelligence, including organizational and reform issues and oversight by the Executive Branch, Congress, Judiciary, and the press.

• Intelligence and ethics, addressing issues of domestic intelligence and free societies, covert action, and perceptions versus reality in popular culture and its impact.

As more articles are published about the field of intelligence and relevant declassified sources become available, the website will be used to keep The Guide readers up-to-date.

The explosion of books about intelligence by former practitioners, journalists, and others - including many by AFIO members - poses a problem of selection for educators. We hope to provide a solution, or at least make an educator’s task easier. Our assumption is that those who will rely most on The Guide have little to no experience in the intelligence field. The field is extremely broad. Most former members of the intelligence community have been associated with one or at most two agencies and are unlikely to have had in-depth exposure to multiple disciplines. For those former intelligence community members who are now teaching, we hope that this Guide will supplement their personal experiences and knowledge and thereby benefit their students.

Much that has been written about intelligence is speculative, inaccurate, or reflects a philosophical bias. We strive with The Guide to identify sources of educational material that are accurate and reliable in a field chock-a-block with strong opinions. We note, however, that many details about intelligence topics remain classified, so often only part of the story is known or can be shared. Educators need to understand this and remember that over time, as more facts become known, observations and conclusions about past events may change.

In order to be useful to instructors, we have attempted to be brief with each article. Of course, this means that the topics addressed in The Guide are not comprehensive. The Guide is intended as a starting point for educators to gain an understanding of the most significant learning objectives and relevant books, articles, and other materials. Our hope is as time passes that instructors will contribute their insights and recommendations to the AFIO website associated with The Guide to the Study of Intelligence by sending their suggestions and comments to us via email at guide@afio.com.

AFIO is indebted to its members, scholars, and former practitioners who have contributed articles and comments for The Guide. Thank you.

Contents

Professor Peter Oleson’s initial article, “Getting Started,” and this additional explanation I provided with release of Part III, is aimed principally at those who know little about intelligence, except for what has been depicted in popular media or the news. He identifies the extensive use of intelligence today in support of national and homeland security, law enforcement, and business. He highlights several books and Internet sources that provide reliable information and insight into the intelligence field that are a good starting place for educators.

• Penn State professor, Dr. Edward J. Glantz, P.E., outlines the use of intelligence in the American Civil War. His “Guide to Civil War Intelligence” addresses human agents on both sides and the growth of signals intercepts and technical means (i.e., balloons) for intelligence gathering.

• After World War I the US became a major target for foreign espionage. Former FBI counterintelligence officer David Major and co-author Professor Peter Oleson trace the modern history of foreign espionage against America and highlight many of the major counterintelligence cases that have occurred. This is draft #2 released 31 Aug 2015.

•Intelligence reached a zenith in World War II. Professor Peter Oleson’s examination of the impact of intelligence in World War II details how the Allies, whose pre-war intelligence capabilities were minimal, suffered from Axis surprises but eventually prevailed by breaking Axis codes and ciphers and building an international intelligence behemoth.

• Thomas Spencer and F.W. Rustmann, Jr. in their article"The History of the States Secret Privilege" address the conflict between our open society and state secrets. They detail the conflicts that emerged early in our constitutional history and cases that have shaped today's secrecy policies.

• Historian Mark Stout, PhD, explains how World War I witnessed the birth of modern intelligence. His recommended readings for instructors covers most of the major belligerents.

• Michael Sulick, former director of the National Clandestine Service, reviews various aspects of intelligence during the Cold War.He identifies the major spies on each side that had significant impact, the impact of advances in technical intelligence collection, especially satellite collection, and the use of covert action. He further addresses the relationship of politics and intelligence analysis and the shortcomings in analysis, especially by the KGB.

• Professor Wheeler continues to provide historical insights on the international evolution of intelligence in his “Guide to the History of Intelligence: 1800-1918," which addresses the age of industrialization and the establishment of nation-states’ permanent intelligence organizations.

• In his “A Note About Historiography,” Professor Wheeler cautions readers about the inherent limitations of intelligence histories and emphasizes the need to distinguish between fact and opinion and truth and fiction.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked:Dr. Robert Clark has written three of the fundamental textbooks on intelligence analysis and collection. His article, "Perspectives on Intelligence Collection," examines how collectors and analysts perceive the intelligence disciplines (INTs), why "stovepipes" came about, and the often-confusing and conflicting terminology used in the Intelligence Community. His article is fundamental to understanding how the complex processes of collection and analysis of intelligence function.

• Appreciating signals intelligence can be difficult for students. In “A Guide to Teaching Signals Intelligence,” Lawrence Dietz presents different approaches for teaching the topic and practical exercises for students.

• The “Guide to Imagery Intelligence (IMINT)” by retired Air Force imagery specialist Robert E. Dupré covers the growth of imagery intelligence from the invention of photography in the 1830s through the world wars to today’s multispectral and radar imagery and commercial imagery satellites.

• Dr. Tom Fingar was the first Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Analysis. Many of the current Intelligence Community initiatives for analysis began on his watch. His article, “All-Source Analysis,” provides a snapshot of the current state of national intelligence analysis, addresses the many modern challenges, and the rationale underlying today’s analytical transformation.

• Political scientist Tobias Gibson outlines in his article, "A Guide to Intelligence Oversight Design," the complex oversight that exists within the Executive, Legislative, and Judicial Branches of the US Government.

• Dr. Jan Goldman has focused on the ethical aspects of intelligence and is the editor of the International Journal of Intelligence and Ethics. His newly updated article on teaching about intelligence and ethics surveys the literature relevant to the debate over the ethics of intelligence that has evolved over the years. He presents a rich list of readings on the topic.

• “Analysis is the most important aspect of intelligence,” writes former Assistant DCI for Analysis and Production, Dr. Mark Lowenthal in his “Intelligence Analysis, Guide to Its Study.” He highlights the analytical process and its challenges.

•The gathering of intelligence from space is no longer the hush-hush topic it once was. In his article, I Can See It From Afar; I Can Hear It From Afar, Dr. Robert McDonald, director of the Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance at the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), described the origins and evolution of space-based reconnaissance and its contributions to intelligence.

• Intelligence analysis changed dramatically after the Al-Qaida attacks of 9/11. The mission of identifying and tracking individual terrorists and their networks required a more tactical focus by intelligence analysts and the collection of new forms of information. To do this required the fusion of information from many agencies both within the US and in war zones overseas. Philip Mudd, the former deputy director of CIA's Counter Terrorist Center (CTC) and senior intelligence advisor to the FBI, describes the many changes in his article "Understanding Terrorism Analysis."

• Professor Robert Norton provides an introduction to the use of openly available information for intelligence purposes in his “Guide to Open Source Intelligence.” His detailed footnotes and bibliography provide many avenues for further research and reading.

• Gene Poteat's article Counterintelligence, Homeland Security and Domestic Intelligence provides many insights into the history of counterintelligence in the US, some of its successes and many of its failures. It is sobering to consider some of the potential consequences he identifies. As such Poteat's article complements Michele Van Cleave's explanation of what counterintelligence is.

• Cyber espionage has become a daily news topic. But how did this come about? Doug Price in his article on "The Evolution of Cyber Intelligence" traces how computers became intelligence targets and the methods used to access them evolved along with the spread of the Internet. He also discusses the subject of cyber counterintelligence.

•John Sano, the former deputy director of the National Clandestine Service, addresses the generational and technological changes that challenge HUMINT managers in his article, The Changing Shape of HUMINT.

• Former National Counterintelligence Executive Michelle Van Cleave explains the complex world of counterintelligence, what it is and is not, in her article "What is Counterintelligence?" As an instrument of statecraft she explains its defensive and offensive characteristics and identifies many failures when US national secrets were stolen by foreign intelligence services as well as successes. She emphasizes how critical the analysis of foreign intelligence services is and explains the close relationship between counterintelligence and deception operations.

• Why can’t we keep national security secrets? James Bruce, an expert in denial and deception, examines in his article, “Keeping US National Security Secrets: Why is This So Hard?,” the damage done by both spies and leakers, and raises questions as to whether our system of security is outmoded in today’s IT world.

• Numerous books have been written about the Central Intelligence Agency and National Security Agency; far fewer about their community counterpart, the Defense Intelligence Agency. In “The History of the Defense Intelligence Agency” its 17th director, LTG Ronald Burgess, recounts the development and evolution of the organization.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Dr. Robert Clark in his article on protecting intelligence sources and methods tries to explain the confusing maze of classification and compartmentation of sensitive intelligence. He traces the origins of security classification, how it is applied to the various INTs, and the modern compartmentation system.

• World War II was the first conflict in which deaths from disease were fewer than combat casualties. Medical intelligence came into its own at the start of the war and contributed to lessening disease-related casualties. Jonathan Clemente, M.D., writes about the evolution of medical intelligence in the Army and the Intelligence Community and the roles of today's National Center for Medical Intelligence.

• While the 9/11 Commission of 2004 on the terrorist attacks on the US is well known, the 2005 WMD Commission is less well known. Yet the WMD Commission, officially the "Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction" and unofficially the "Silberman-Robb Commission," has had a significant impact on the Intelligence Community. More widely focused than on just the failure to understand the Iraqi WMD program, the WMD Commission made many recommendations to improve the collection, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence, putting meat on the bones of the 9/11 Commission recommendations. Elbridge Colby and Stewart Baker, both staff members of the WMD Commission, in their article provide considerable insight into this most significant commission.

• Preventing the spread of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) is a central focus of the Intelligence Community. In her article on Counterproliferation, Rowena Rege Fischer details the international regime constructed to counter the proliferation of WMD which intelligence supports and the challenges faced.

• The use of intelligence techniques has spread far beyond the national security and law enforcement communities. Business enterprises facing challenging and complex global competition have embraced business intelligence efforts to help guide their strategic planning, investment, marketing, and other efforts. A good example is this case study of Motorola Corporation by former CIA analyst and later leader of Motorola's Corporate Competitive Intelligence group, Jenny Fisher.

• Carl Ford, Secretary of State Colin Powell's intelligence officer, explains how the department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research focused its intelligence support on meeting the secretary's needs. He notes in his Perspective on Intelligence Support to Foreign Policy how the intelligence system is often not well geared to supporting policymakers.

• Arthur E. Gerringer and Josh Bart examine law enforcement intelligence in their article, "A Guide to Law Enforcement Intelligence," and explain some of the similarities and differences with national security intelligence.

• In "Intelligence Support for Military Operations," former Military Intelligence officer and Defense Intelligence Agency analyst, Karl Haigler addresses the complex topic of intelligence support for military operations. He addresses today’s challenges of intelligence support to counterinsurgency and cyber threats.

• Jan Herring, a founding member of the Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals and National Intelligence Officer for Science and Technology, discusses the privatization of intelligence, the merger of public and private intelligence concerns, and the future environment for intelligence officers in his article Educating the Next Generation of Intelligence Professionals.

• Intelligence and diplomacy have an intimate relationship. But it is not always harmonious. As Ambassador G. Philip Hughes and Peter Oleson explain in their article, “Diplomacy & Intelligence: Strange Bedfellows,” the two are mutually dependent, are beneficial for the nation when they work together, but often cause problems for each other.

•In their article, Decision Advantage, Decision Confidence, John MacGaffin and Peter Oleson explore the philosophy of why intelligence is important. They provide historical examples of where intelligence had decisive influence on critical decisions and address the necessary elements of intelligence for advantage and confidence.

•How is intelligence handled in the White House? What are the president’s principal concerns? How does the National Security Advisor and the NSC staff impact the intelligence provided to the president? David Shedd, former Senior Director and Special Assistant to the President for Intelligence Programs on the National Security Council staff and later senior ODNI official and acting director of DIA, answers these questions in his interview with AFIO’s John MacGaffin and Peter Oleson.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Increasingly the private sector is employing intelligence techniques to support organizational goals and operations. John McGonagle recounts the growth of competitive intelligence, how it is employed, and some of the issues associated with it in the private sector.

• University of Maryland Professor Bill Nolte was the first chancellor of the National Intelligence University and career National Security Agency official. He reviews the never-ending efforts to “reform” intelligence that began soon after the enactment of the National Security Act in 1947 and the consequent reorganizations of the Intelligence Community.

• The use of intelligence has spread far beyond the traditional national security community and is used by federal, state, and local entities focused on homeland security and law enforcement. Intelligence is also employed extensively in the global business community. The Guide's editor Peter Oleson explains Who uses intelligence, how, and for what in his article.

• Industrial espionage has grown significantly to where it has become a priority national concern. The theft of American technology and trade secrets has enhanced adversaries and weakened US industries. Edward M. Roche, PhD, JD explains the dimensions of industrial espionage today and provides many examples and explanations of the underlying motivations, often by insiders.

• Former Secret Service agent Robert Smith's article on the evolution of law enforcement intelligence addresses how it is very much a part of national security strategy today. He documents national policy on information sharing and the scope of intelligence-led policing at the federal, state, and local levels today.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Since the attacks on 9/11 our traditional definitions of intelligence have evolved. National intelligence now encompasses both foreign and domestic aspects due to the cross border characteristic of modern terrorism. National Intelligence University professor William Spracher addresses some of the issues that have arisen in his article: Homeland Security and Intelligence: Fusing Sometimes Incompatible Missions.

• Updated - Final version as printed now linked: Retired CIA officer and SUNY Albany professor James Steiner evaluates the need for education and training of first responders and others in Homeland Security Intelligence and how it can help them with their missions.

• Intelligence liaison is an age-old practice between nations and intelligence services. Danish scholar, Adam Svendsen, who has studied this practice extensively, explains the historical evolution of liaison and the many demands that drive it the 21st Century.

• Everything occurs somewhere on the earth. The synthesis of imagery with cartography and many other sources of information is the foundation of geospatial intelligence. NGA’s chief historian, Dr. Gary Weir, recounts the history of how GEOINT evolved and how it has been used for many purposes.

• Covert action is what captures students' (and the public's) imagination when discussing intelligence. Long time operative, diplomat, policymaker, and academic Jon A. Wiant demystifies the subject with his Guide article A Guide to Teaching About Covert Action. He explains the link of covert action to national security policy, much of its history, governing policies, and presents a rich reading list for the interested.

• Dr. Eleni C. Braat of the University of Leiden in the Netherlands writes of the dysfunction of Dutch intelligence prior to and during WW II and its many transitions during and following the Cold War.

• The British have a rich history in intelligence from the era of Elizabeth I to the present. Drs. Huw Dylan and Michael S. Goodman of King’s College, London, explain the "British way of intelligence" in their article that covers the history, organization, functioning and oversight of the British intelligence establishment.

• Historian Michael Fredholm recounts the long history of Swedish intelligence and the significant role it played in WW II and the Cold War.

• The history, structure, and political environment for French intelligence differs markedly from that of the US or even other western countries' services. French intelligence has gone through a significant transformation in recent years. Philippe Hayez and Hedwige Regnault de Maulmin explain the evolution of French intelligence and the recent push for a national intelligence community.

• Canada and the United States share a long border and many of the same security concerns. Canadian scholars Stéphane Lefebvre and Jeremy Littlewood, Ph.D. in their “Guide to Canadian Intelligence Issues” explain the Canadian intelligence system. Readers in the US will note some similarities and distinct differences in the approach to intelligence taken in Canada. The authors present a rich menu for further reading.

• There is little written about Mexico’s intelligence. Professor José Medina González Dávila writes about the evolution of the Mexican intelligence and security services since the Mexican Revolution of 1920-1921. He outlines the various intelligence organizations and discusses the relationships between them and their challenges.

• Much in the news for its cyber activities, Chinese intelligence practices differ significantly from others. Italian scholar Dr. Stefania Paladini of Coventry University outlines the structure of the PRC’s intelligence services and their approach with some case studies.

• Dr. Robert W. Pringle is an expert on the Russian intelligence services. His article, “Guide to Soviet and Russian Intelligence Services,” addresses their long history from the time of Tsars to today’s Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki (SVR), the foreign intelligence service, and Federal'naya sluzhba bezopasnosti Rossiyskoy Federatsii (FSB), the internal federal security service.

• Since the 1979 revolution Iran's supreme leaders have created a complex and overlapping intelligence and covert action structure. The various organizations have the dual missions of protecting the mullahs' revolutionary government and promoting Iran's international goals. Professor Carl Wege explains the unique and complex structure in his article Iran's Intelligence Establishment.

Other articles of interest to instructors and teachers include:

• What motivated people like Aldridge Ames, Robert Hanssen, or Edward Snowden to betray their country? As psychiatrist David Charney and co-author and CIA case officer John Irvin explain, the explanations are complex and individual. Their "Guide to the Psychology of Espionage" details attempts to understand such motivations.

• Dr. Stephen Marrin, a professor of intelligence studies at Brunel University, London, and former intelligence analyst, in his article "Why Teach About Intelligence" discusses the evolution of intelligence studies and how such studies contribute to more traditional courses on civics, comparative government, history, and other fields.

• While much study is focused on intelligence policies, policy implementation always requires dedicated resources. Many policy debates are contested in the resource allocation process - called programming and budgeting. Professor Robert Mirabello’s article, "Guide for the Study of Intelligence: Budget and Resource Management," explains the complex and sometimes arcane programming and budgeting process for the Intelligence Community. Understanding this oft-subterranean topic is essential to understanding intelligence policies.

• The information age and the Worldwide Web have made it challenging to keep up with what is published about the intelligence field. Professor Peter Oleson in his article, Staying Informed, has tried to focus on resources that are generally reliable for educators and others to maintain currency on topics of particular interest. Readers who have suggestions on other resources should email them to guide@afio.com.

How does international law govern intelligence collection or covert actions? Attorney Ernesto Sanchez explores many of the treaties, conventions, and International Court of Justice determinations in his article on international law and intelligence.

The Guide to the Study of Intelligence remains a work in progress. Comments on specific articles and suggestions for additional articles should be addressed to Peter Oleson, chairman of the Academic Exchange Program and editor of The Guide at guide@afio.com.