Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. American Psychological Association (2013), "the discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged" (para. 1). American Psychological Association (2013), "in every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, "the understanding of behavior" is the enterprise of psychologists" (para. 1).

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Wednesday, February 27, 2013

Research and statistics employ such meaningful roles in
psychology whereas without both psychology may not exist. In psychology
the importance of research is to help understand human beings and behaviors,
but without research questions concerning human beings and behavior would go
unanswered. Thoughts and theories concerning human beings and behaviors would go
unanswered as well. Using and relying on the scientific method, psychology uses
the research and statistics gathered to prove or disprove thoughts and
theories. The importance of statistics in psychology is that they help in
determining if research findings are not substantive or substantive. Not only
do research and statistics play a part in psychology, the roles of the
scientific method, primary data, and secondary data contribute as well.

Research and the Scientific
Method

Research is the collection and evaluation of information or data
about a particular subject (Nordquist, 2013). Psychology research is about
values, variables, and scores. Values are categories or numbers, variables are
characteristics or conditions that can have different values, and scores are a
particular individual’s value on a variable (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009).
Psychological processes confirmed by research to occur outside one’s awareness
with several associations between behaviors, and feelings, or situations
guiding one’s behavior, either unconsciously or implicitly (Kowalski &
Westen, 2011). There are several types of research methods, which include
archival research, naturalistic observation, survey research, and case studies.
Feldman, (2010) “research is the systematic inquiry aimed toward the discovery
of new knowledge, which is the main element of the scientific method in
psychology” (p. 26).

The Scientific Method is a set of procedures and principles used
by researchers in developing questions, collecting data, and reaching
conclusions (Cherry, 2013). Feldman, (2010) “the scientific method, which
encompasses the process of identifying, asking, and answering questions, is
used by psychologists, and by researchers from every other scientific
discipline, to come to an understanding about the world.” (p. 25). When, psychologists
take this approach they systematically acquire understandings and knowledge
about behavior and other phenomena that may be of interest. Within the
scientific method there are four steps, which are step one to identify
questions of interest, step two is formulating an explanation, step three is to
carry out research, designed to support or disprove the explanation, and step
four is to communicate any findings (Feldman, 2010).

Comparing and Contrasting Primary
and Secondary Data

In research data is either primary data or secondary data, and
which type of data depends on the information’s source. Primary data or original
material, such as a study or an account of an interview or lab experiment or
field experiment performed by an author, which not interpreted by anyone other
than the original creator (Duffy, 2012). Secondary data is data, which is not
collected by the user but by another individual. Therefore, one uses another
individual’s results collected beforehand. Primary data interprets and analyzes
primary resources by using them to explore their meanings or to explain certain
events of the past (Duffy, 2012). When tailored to a researcher’s specific
needs, primary research provides researchers with the most up-to-date and
accurate data. Duffy (2012), “secondary sources are produced after the events
or primary sources they comment upon, and their authors tend to be modern
scholars or commentators rather than eyewitnesses of what they write about”
(para. 3).

Primary sources types include observations, interviews, case
studies, surveys, experiments, questionnaires, and stories. Although secondary
sources include textbooks, articles in journals, scholarly books, and online
databases. This is already researched information provided by other sources. This
time-consuming and expensive means to acquire primary data leaves it open to
personal bias or experimenter bias. However, its validity remains intact by any
individual therefore one assumes secondary data’s validity is lesser. Unlike
primary data, secondary data is less time-consuming, relatively cheap, and easily
accessible. Data whether primary or secondary, is assumed as the lowest unit of
information from which other analysis may be achieved (Duffy, 2012).

The Role of Statistics in Research

Statistics are a branch of mathematics focusing on the analysis,
organization, and interpretation of a group of numbers (Aron, Aron, &
Coups, 2009). In research statistics are necessary for researchers to make
sense of numbers and data collected when conducting research, and to organize
gathered information (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009). Statistical methods are
also used by researchers to make sense of numbers and data collected, such as
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics procedures
summarize and describe a group of numbers from a research study (Aron, Aron,
& Coups, 2009). Inferential statistics procedures draw conclusions in a
research study and beyond that study because of scores. Statistics enable
researches to present data in clearly and precisely, which allows other
researchers to read and understand other researcher’s work. Another importance
benefit of statistics in research is that they help to determine if research
findings are correct or incorrect. Statistics also help psychologist read and
understand other researcher’s work.

Conclusion

The roles research and statistics play in psychology are just as
important as the roles that the scientific method, primary data, and secondary
data play in research and statistics. To understand the research process and to
include different kinds of statistical analysis used one enables the
consumption of psychology.

Saturday, February 23, 2013

The two main types of data are
quantitative data and qualitative data. There are several differences between
quantitative data and qualitative data, but one can find value in both types of
data. Quantitative data refers to a certain type of information, which can
be expressed numerically or counted (Cherry, 2013). Quantitative data
is frequently collected in experiments, statistically analyzed, and manipulated
(Cherry, 2013). There are several different ways to represent quantitative
data, such as in charts, tables, histograms, and visually in graphs. An
examples of quantitative data would be an exact count, such as "18"
veterans commit suicide each day, "126" each week, and
"6,552" each year who suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) (Expedition Balance, 2010). Quantitative data is often
contrasted with qualitative data. Qualitative data is not stated or exactly
measured in terms of numbers, therefore if a soldier is interviewed about
another soldier who suffers from PTSD and he or she is asked what they thought
about the mental state of the other soldier, his or her response is referred to
as qualitative data. Qualitative data is not concrete, although it offers a
beneficial insight, whereas quantitative data provides immediate
feedback.

Monday, February 11, 2013

Behaviorism is the study of behavior founded by John B. Watson.
The main concern of behaviorism is observable behavior, rather than internal
matters, such as emotions and thinking. Observable or external behavior can be
scientifically and objectively measured, while internal matters, like thinking are
eliminated or explained through behavioral terms (McLeod, 2007). John B. Watson,
B.F. Skinner, and Edward Tolman were three early psychologists studying
behaviorism. The main focus of study for Watson and Skinner was behaviorism,
although Tolman’s focus of study was cognitive behaviorism. Each of these three
psychologists developed perspectives related to behaviorism. The perspectives
of Watson, Skinner, and Tolman are similar in some aspects but different in
others and all their perspectives contributed to the evolution of behaviorism,
and relate to modern-day psychology. This paper will provide information to explain
the perspectives of John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Edward Tolman as well as compare
and contrast their perspective similarities and differences.

Perspectives of John B.
Watson

John B. Watson, an American psychologist, who in American
psychology was the founder of behaviorism as a school of thought (Goodwin,
2008). When Watson published the article “Psychology as the behaviorist views
it” in 1913, the movement of behaviorism in psychology began its rise (McLeod, 2012).
As for American psychologist, Watson was the first to publicize the behavioral
approach. Watson viewed psychology as a science of observable behaviors. Cherry
(2013), “Watson was one of the strongest advocates for behaviorism, suggesting
that psychology should be objective and focus on the study of human behaviors”
(para. 2). Watson believed in first observing behavior and predicting and determining
the casual relationships. A proposal of Watson based on Pavlov’s observations
was that the process of classical conditioning could explain any aspect of
human psychology. Classical conditioning involves association, which the paring
of two stimuli produce a learned response.

McLeod (2012), “everything from speech to emotional responses were
simply patterns of stimulus and response” (para. 3). McLeod (2012), “Watson
believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different
experiences of learning” (para. 4). Pavlov applied classical conditioning to
animals, and Watson wanted to apply it to humans. McLeod (2012), “in a famous
(though ethically dubious) experiment Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that it
did” (para. 12). In modern-day psychology, Watson’s perspectives are important to
understanding the causes of behaviors.

Perspectives of B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist and behaviorist who founded
radical behaviorism. The purpose of radical behaviorism was to understand
behavior and define it as the outcome of environmental experiences, which reinforced
consequences. Skinner developed the distinction between operant and classical conditioning
(Goodwin, 2008). His main focus was on investigating operant conditioning. Skinner’s
belief was that to understand behavior one has to look at the causes of an
action and its consequences, which he called operant conditioning (McLeod, 2007).
Based on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, Skinner developed his theory of
operant conditioning. Operant conditioning means changing behaviors by using reinforcement
provided after a desired response (McLeod, 2007). Reinforced behavior normally
strengthens or repeats, and unreinforced behavior normally fades out or extinguishes.

Skinner recognized three types of operants or responses from the
environment that may follow behavior, such as neutral operants, reinforcers,
and punishers. In modern-day psychology, Skinner’s perspectives contribute to the
understanding the causes of behaviors, and the relationship between operant
conditioning and behaviors.

Perspectives of Edward C.
Tolman

Edward C. Tolman, an American psychologist and cognitive behaviorist
famously known for studies on behavioral psychology. Tolman recognized the work
of Watson’s behaviorism, but he did not believe in reducing behavior to simple glandular
and muscular stimuli and responses (White, 2010). Instead Tolman believed that cognitive
purpose were just one of the key elements of behavior (White, 2010). Tolman give
emphasis to studying behavior. He also believed cognition and learning involved
the entire organism rather than single elements of stimuli and muscular
response (White, 2010). Tolman believed that behavior is goal-directed and purposive,
which was the core of the theory of learning he developed (Goodwin, 2008). Goals
or motives drive behaviors, and until those goals or motives are met behaviors
will continue.

White (2010), “Tolman's combination of theoretical speculation
with laboratory testing proved that learning was not dependent upon
reinforcement but occurred on unconscious levels in an cognitive and purpose
driven manner” (para. 5). Tolman did not believe in conditioned behavior. In
modern-day psychology, Tolman’s perspectives provide an understanding for the
causes of behaviors and help to understand the process of learning.

Compare and Contrast

The perspectives of Watson, Skinner, and Tolman were somewhat
similar seeing that their work focused on behaviors influenced by the
environment. Their work allowed behaviorism to kept making forward strides toward
applicable uses in society (White, 2010). Watson and Skinner focused behaviorism,
and Tolman focused on cognitive behaviorism. Their perspectives however did
differ in some ways also. Watson and Skinner both believed in conditioned behavior.
Watson thought so through classical conditioning, Skinner thought so through operant
conditioning. However, Tolman did not believe in conditioned behavior conditioned.
As for the existence of consciousness or the mind, Watson denied it. However, Skinner
believed in the existence of the mind, although he thought it was more
productive to study observable behavior instead of internal mental events
(McLeod, 2007). Watson, Skinner, and Tolman all developed similar but differing
perspectives, which enabled behaviorism to develop in different directions.

Conclusion

Psychologist such as Watson, Skinner, and Tolman led the way in the
study and understanding of behaviorism. The beliefs, of these men about
behavior were similar but also different. Behavior influenced by the
environment was the focus of Watson, Skinner, and Tolman however they took
different approaches to this conclusion. One man did not believe in conditioned
behavior and the other two did. Concerning modern-day psychology, theses men
developed perspectives still used today to help understand and further
psychology.

Saturday, February 9, 2013

My understanding is that violence on television
affects certain groups on an emotional as opposed to an intellectual level. It
can influence aggressive behavior in a few people, and most of these will be
children and adolescents who are still developing, people with low impulse
control, and those who already have some predisposition to violence. One strategy for critical viewing when watching
violent television shows would be to keep fantasy and reality separate in one's
mind. When watching a character on television resolve a problem with violence,
think about what the real life ramifications would be for the violence and how
likely such an act would have been to solve the problem.

I am a supporter of PETA, although I do not
agree with all of their beliefs but their beliefs and work has made a
difference in how animals are treated. Animals are unable to speak for
themselves so someone has to speak for them. My stance on animal testing is I
do not like it at all, but I believe and know it is sometimes necessary when it
comes to preserving life in humans and nonhuman animals. I think that we should
avoid animal testing on frivolous things and reserve that for situations where
serious health risks could exist for human beings if animals are not involved
in the research. I strongly believe that animals with higher brain
function such as certain primates should be left out of animal testing. They
have a greater capacity for suffering due to their higher levels of
self-awareness in comparison to other non-human animals.

I
believe this is operant conditioning. The friend was reward with life instead
of death in the car crash because she did not wear her seatbelt. Since the
promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, she
continually does not wear her seatbelt. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior, such as not wearing the seatbelt, and a
consequence for that behavior, such as not dying in the car cash.

Ethics
play a vital role in experimentation. With ethics in place, an institutional
review board must ensure that experimental procedures are appropriate,
obtaining informed consent from all subjects is a must, participants must be
protected from harm and discomfort, all experimental data must be treated
confidentially, and one has to explain the experiment and the results to the
participants afterward. As for animals in experimentation, an institutional
animal care and use committee must conclude that it is necessary to use animals
as subjects in experiments, and to determine appropriate procedures for the
care of the animals.

Some ethical issues associated with John
B. Watson’s conditioning of phobic responses were that Little Albert was unable
to give informed consent, and he did not have the right to withdraw. With
confidentiality of results, with the age of Little Albert, he was unable to
give permission allowing his name or any of the result to be made public and he
was to young to be debriefed afterward about the experiment and results. At
such a young age, Little Albert's emotional state was not reversed to where it
was before the experiment took place, therefore he developed a fear of anything
that was white or fluffy.

Sunday, February 3, 2013

Psychological disorders (mental disorders) are health conditions characterized by alterations in one’s behavior, or mood, and thinking, or a combination thereof. Which can be associated with the distress and impairment of one’s daily functioning, therefore, affecting one’s daily life. Psychological disorders can be debilitating for one who suffers from them. In the United States, surveys suggest that almost 1 of every 5 adults receives treatment for psychological disorders in the course of a year (Comer, 2011).

Marla, a 42-year-old Hispanic female who is an accountant, came into the mental health clinic, seems to exhibit symptoms that she suffers from an anxiety disorder. Marla has complaints of sleeping problems, experiencing a jumpy feeling all of the time, an inability to concentrate, and her symptoms are causing problems with her job performance, which, all points to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). To determine if Marla does indeed suffer from an anxiety disorder or type of anxiety disorder, a clinical assessment needs to be performed, and the given information from the clinical assessment needs to be compared to the criteria set in the DSM-IV.

Clinical assessments are used be clinicians in determining why and how one behaves abnormally and are a means for how one might seek help (Comer, 2011). Clinicians use clinical assessments also in evaluating one’s progress after one has been in treatment for a while and to decide whether the treatment should be changed (Comer, 2011). The developed techniques and tools of clinical assessments fall into three categories, which are clinical interviews, tests, and observations (Comer, 2011). The purpose of clinical interviews is to collect detailed information about the one’s problems and feelings, lifestyle and relationships, other personal history, and to ask about the one’s expectations of therapy and the motives one has for seeking therapy (Comer, 2011).

Clinical tests are used as a means of gathering informational aspects of one’s psychological functioning, therefore, broader information can be inferred (Comer, 2011). Personality and response inventories, projective, psychophysiological, neurological, neuropsychological, and intelligence tests are the six test commonly used by clinicians. Clinical observations are used by clinicians to systematically observe a patient’s behavior (Comer, 2011). Three types of technique are used in observing patient, which are naturalistic observation, analog observation, and self-monitoring. For accuracy and usefulness clinical interviews, tests, and observations have to be standardized, as well as have clear reliability and validity (Comer, 2011). To standardize a technique it has to be to set in a way where similar steps can be followed whenever it is administered, reliability refers to the consistency of assessment measures, and validity refers to how a technique must accurately measure what it is supposed to measure (Comer, 2011).

During intake it is explained to Marla that the symptoms she is experiencing require further analysis, because her symptoms are apparent in the criteria of several psychological disorders, such as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), stress disorders, and anxiety disorders. Therefore, to reach the proper diagnosis Marla needs to participate in a clinical assessment. In this assessment, Marla will participate in a clinical interview, will be tested, and observed to determine the proper diagnoses. Once the proper diagnoses is determine there will be an effective treatment plan established.

The first step in diagnosis of Marla is a clinical interview. Depending on how Marla answers the questions reflects directly on the persistent issues that are affecting her daily life. Therefore Marla’s answers assist in the analysis and diagnosis of her issues. In conducting the clinical interview with Marla I considered asking the following questions:

•Why are you seeking therapy and do you think it can be a means of help for you?

•What do you think you want or need from therapy and what are your expectations regarding therapy?

•What type of person do you think you are as far as your behaviors, traits, and personality?

•What was your childhood like and what was your home environment like?

•What is your life like now and what is your home and work environment like?

•Do you have a relationship with a significant other, and if so how is the relationship going?

•What are your interactions like others, such as family and friends, and coworkers?

•Do you suffer from any mental illness and have you experienced any feelings of depression, anxiousness, or thoughts of suicide? If so, how long have you been experiencing these feelings?

•As far as you know is there a history of mental illness, depression, or anxiety in your family?

•Are you currently taking any medications, if so which ones, and do you drink alcohol, or use any recreational drugs?

Through the given information of Marla’s clinical assessment, where she participated in clinical interviews, tests, and observations and following the given information provided by the DSM-IV’s criteria, Marla likely is suffering from an anxiety disorder, the specific type of is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

In the United States anxiety disorders are the most common mental disorders, and in any given year around 18 percent of the adult population suffer from one or another of the six anxiety disorders identified by DSM-IV-TR, while close to 29 percent of all people develop one of the disorders at some point in their lives (Comer, 2011). Anxiety by itself is not a disorder, although it does become a disorder when one experiences chronic symptoms that interfere with one’s daily life and ability to function. Anxiety disorders fall into a set of separate diagnoses, depending upon the symptoms and severity of the anxiety the person experiences, therefore Marla’s symptoms point to generalized anxiety disorder (Hauser, 2005).

Excessive worry is the key feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). According to the DSM checklist one with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) will experience excessive or ongoing anxiety and worry, for at least six months, about numerous events or activities, has difficulty controlling the worry, and at least three of the following symptoms, which are restlessness, easy fatigue, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance (Comer, 2011). One also suffers from significant distress or impairment. When one experiences excessive anxiety in most circumstances and worries about almost anything, it is described as free-floating anxiety (Comer, 2011). Free-floating anxiety describes anxiety that does not have an association with a particular event or object, or situation; therefore it is brought on without a specific trigger (DeepDiveAdmin, 2011).

In the United States more than 6 million people suffer from generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 60 percent are women while 40 percent are men, and it is estimated that 8 to 9 percent of the population will develop generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) during the course of one’s life, and over 10 percent of the diagnosed will seek treatment in a mental-health clinic (DeepDiveAdmin, 2011).

Through the biological model, generalized anxiety disorder’s origin can be explained. Proponents of the biological model believe that a full understanding of one’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior must therefore include an understanding of one’s biological basis (Comer, 2011). Therefore, biological treatments are the more effective. Biological theorists view abnormal behavior as an illness, such as generalized anxiety disorder, which is brought on by malfunctioning parts of the organism (Comer, 2011). Malfunctioning parts of the organism are usually considered the brain anatomy or brain chemistry, therefore their malfunctioning is the cause of abnormal behavior. Through research clinicians have discovered connections between certain psychological disorders such as generalized anxiety disorders, and problems in specific areas of the brain (Comer, 2011).

The specific areas of the brain, such as neurons in the cerebrum, which includes brain structures such as the basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala, corpus callosum, and cerebral cortex are where abnormal functioning takes place and psychological disorders can be traced (Comer, 2011). Researchers and studies point toward psychological disorders in relation to problems in the transmission of messages from one neuron to another neuron, therefore abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters can lead to specific mental disorders (Comer, 2011). Abnormal chemical activity in the body’s endocrine system also can be related to mental disorders as well (Comer, 2011). Biological abnormalities that are the cause of or are related to psychological disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder may be the end result of genetics, evolution, and viral infections.

Potential treatments for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) through the biological model are biologically based. The leading biological treatments used for psychological disorders are drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, psychosurgery, and a combination thereof. Drug therapy consists of the use of psychotropic medications, which impact the central nervous system. Psychotropic medications have four major psychotropic drug groups. The four psychotropic drug groups are antianxiety, antidepressant, antibipolar, and antipsychotic drugs. Antianxiety drugs (minor tranquilizers or anxiolytics) are prescribed to reduce anxiety and tension. Antidepressant drugs are prescribed to improve one’s mood who is depressed. Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers) are prescribed to steady the mood of one that suffers from a bipolar disorder. Antipsychotic drugs are prescribed to reduce the confusion, hallucinations, and delusions of psychotic disorders, disorders (such as schizophrenia) marked by a loss of contact with reality (Comer, 2011).

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is primarily used for one who suffers from depression. This biological treatment, consist of attaching two electrodes to one’s forehead, then an electrical current of 65 to 140 volts is passed briefly through the brain, therefore causing a brain seizure that lasts up to a few minutes (Comer, 2011). Once seven to nine Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) sessions are completed, which are spaced two or three days apart, one may feel considerably less depressed (Comer, 2011). Comer, (2011) “the treatment is used on tens of thousands of depressed persons annually, particularly those whose depression fails to respond to other treatments” (p. 36). Psychosurgery (neurosurgery) is brain surgery for mental disorders, which is considered experimental and is only used when certain severe disorders continue for years without responding to any other form of treatment (Comer, 2011).

Case studies are an in-depth study of one, such as Marla. Case studies are used to analyze almost all aspect of the one's history and life in order to find causes and patterns for certain behaviors. Case studies are subjective, therefore clinical assessments are used to delve deeper into what causes one’s behavior and which psychological disorder is responsible for those behaviors. Once a psychological disorder is diagnosis one should refer to the models of abnormality. Through the models of abnormality one can find the origins of psychological disorders and treatments. Marla’s case study pointed toward generalized anxiety disorder, and with a clinical assessment that was confirmed. Through the biological model, the origin of Marla’s psychological disorder of generalized anxiety disorder is explained and treatments are found.

Sigmund Freud, (1856 – 1939) Austrian scholar, physiologist, neurologist,
psychologist, and influential thinker of the 20th century is the father of
psychoanalysis and founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. Freud’s
research and knowledge allowed him to develop thoughts and theories, which laid
the foundation for several continuing schools of thought in psychology. The theoretical
positions of Freud were concepts of repression, unconscious, and infantile
sexuality. Ground-breaking at the time, these concepts accounted for the
structure of the mind. Freud’s concepts were a tool for teaching and for
understanding the psychological development in patients, and used for diagnosis
and treatment of abnormal mental conditions (Stipkovich, 2012). Some
individuals consider Freud’s theories and thoughts radical but different versions
of the fundamentals of psychoanalysis traced to his original work.

Freud’s theories, concepts, human actions diagnosis, human dreams diagnosis,
and cultural artifacts unequivocally contain relevance proving accomplishment in
his research (Stipkovich, 2012). This also showed a positive influence in
different disciplines, such as psychology, semiotics, and anthropology. Stipkovich
(2012), “despite all of Freud’s influences, interests and accomplishments, his
claim that psychoanalysis is a successful science of the mind, is still a
subject of many debates and even more controversy” (p. 1). ). Freud's theories
and concepts helped shape the views of memory, sexuality, childhood,
personality, and therapy, which laid the foundation for some to contribute to
his legacy and for other’s to develop theories and concepts in opposition of
his work.