Hedp_a_443705_o

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 45(1), 15–27, 2010Copyright C Division 15, American Psychological AssociationISSN: 0046-1520 print / 1532-6985 onlineDOI: 10.1080/00461520903433539
Cognitive–Situative Divide and Combining
In this article we propose that in order to advance our understanding of motivation in collab-orative learning we should move beyond the cognitive–situative epistemological divide andcombine individual and social processes. Our claim is that although recent research has recog-nized the importance of social aspects in emerging and sustained motivation in collaborativelearning activities, the social is mainly conceived as a unidirectional source of influence onindividual motivation. In the article we examine the significance of motivation in research oncollaborative learning. We discuss two characterizations of the role of the social in concep-tualizations of motivation, namely, social influence and social construction, and outline ourcase for moving beyond the cognitive–situative divide and combining individual and socialprocesses in research on motivation. Finally, we present illustrations from recent research onmotivation in collaborative learning that has attempted to bridge the cognitive–situative divideacross theoretical perspectives or using different methods.
In this article we argue that in order to advance our under-
social interactions in a group learning activity. We propose
standing of motivation in collaborative learning, both indi-
that research on motivation in collaborative learning move
vidual and social processes need to be considered. Our claim
beyond the cognitive–situative epistemological divide and
is that although recent research has recognized the impor-
combine individual and social processes theoretically and
tance of social aspects in the development of motivation in
collaborative learning activities, the social is generally con-
Our proposal is based on the assumption that in collabo-
ceived as a unidirectional source of influence on individual
rative learning, individual group members represent interde-
motivation. Although this approach is conceptually useful
pendent self-regulating agents (cognitive angle) who at the
as it can reveal the mediating role of (meta)cognitions on
same time constitute a social entity that creates affordances
individual engagement, it is not sufficient in our view to un-
and constraints for engagement in the activity (situative an-
derstand how motivation emerges and is sustained through
gle). It is our contention that a situative angle focusing ongroup processes is necessary to capture the social construc-tion and enactment of motivation but that it needs to be
Correspondence should be addressed to Sanna J¨arvel¨a, Department of
complemented by a cognitive angle, which taps into the me-
Educational Sciences and Teacher Education, P.O. Box 2000, 90014 Uni-versity of Oulu, Finland. E-mail: sanna.jarvela@oulu.fi
diating role of individual members’ metacognitive reflections
and interpretations. Supported by the theoretical argument
Although the motivational benefits of learning with oth-
that social and individual processes occur concurrently and
ers are well documented (Blumenfeld, Kempler, & Krajcik,
represent distinct systemic levels (Volet, Vauras, & Salonen,
2006), less is known about how motivation emerges and is
2009), we argue that these processes are in need of joint
sustained in collaborative learning activities. Motivation in
consideration to advance our understanding of motivation in
learning is generally defined as the psychological drive that
leads to cognitive engagement and ultimately achievement.
The article is divided into five sections. We first examine
The literature on self-regulation of learning (e.g., Boekaerts,
the significance of motivation in research on collaborative
Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001,
learning. We review studies reporting the multiple socio-
2007) has conceptualized motivation in two complemen-
emotional challenges experienced by groups and individu-
tary ways, first as the direction and drive for self-regulated
als as they participate in group learning activities, and the
learning (e.g., through goal orientation, personal goals, mo-
consequent need for regulation of motivation and engage-
tives, or learning intentions) and second as an integral
ment. The second section examines two conceptualizations
part of effective self-directed learning, which needs to be
of motivation that attend to its social nature, namely, social
regulated to sustain productive engagement (e.g., Wolters,
influence and social construction. The strengths and limita-
1998). The extent to which these conceptualizations are ad-
tions of each conceptualization for understanding motivation
equate to understand the role of motivation in socially chal-
in collaborative learning are discussed. We note a similar,
lenging collaborative learning activities has not been fully
ongoing epistemological debate on the respective roles of
the psychological and the social in research on learning and
As widely documented in the educational literature (e.g.,
conceptual change. The third section outlines our case for
Blumenfeld, Marx, Soloway, & Krajcik, 1996; Bosworth &
moving beyond the cognitive–situative divide and combin-
Hamilton, 1994; Burdett, 2003; Pauli, Mohiyeddini, Bray,
ing individual and social processes in research on motivation
Michie, & Street, 2007; Salomon & Globerson, 1989; Webb
in collaborative learning. We argue that individuals as inter-
& Palincsar, 1996), groups can face multiple types of social
dependent self-regulating agents with metacognitive capac-
challenges, which interfere with the social process of learn-
ities, and the group as a social system with its own dynam-
ing and task completion. Research in university contexts has
ics, need to be conceived as jointly coregulating motivation
revealed that challenges can range from perceived incompat-
and engagement in collaborative learning. The fourth sec-
ibility of personality characteristics to emerging problems in
tion presents illustrations from recent research of motivation
social relationships. During a group learning activity, for ex-
in collaborative learning that have attempted to bridge the
ample, challenges can arise due to differences in respective
cognitive–situative divide across theoretical perspectives or
goals, priorities and expectations, or conflicts generated by
using different methodologies. The fifth section summarizes
interpersonal dynamics, such as different styles of working
our argument and presents directions for future research.
or communicating, the tendency of some individuals to relyon others to do their share of the work, and power dynamicsamong members (Arvaja, Salovaara, H¨akkinen, & J¨arvel¨a,2007). Groups that are culturally diverse can face further
challenges due to greater differences in background charac-
teristics. These can include language and familiar communi-cation style, as well as prior cultural-educational experiences,
Research on real-life collaborative and cooperative learning
which leave students unprepared to break out of their zone
has increased dramatically over the last two decades, with
of comfort and interact with less familiar peers (e.g., Volet
strong theoretical and empirical support for the cognitive and
& Ang, 1998; Volet & Karabenick, 2006).
motivational benefits of collaborative, as opposed to com-
Groups and individuals also face challenges generated
petitive and individualistic learning activities (e.g., Webb,
by the cognitive processes required in collaborative learn-
Nemer, & Ing, 2006). Students’ productive engagement in
ing, such those involved in creating a common ground in
collaborative interactions (e.g., Barron, 2003; Van Boxtel,
shared problem solving (e.g., M¨akitalo, H¨akkinen, J¨arvel¨a,
van der Linden, & Kanselaar, 2000), socially shared coreg-
& Leinonen, 2002), negotiating multiple perspectives, and
ulation (e.g., Salonen, Vauras & Efklides, 2005; Vauras,
handling complex concepts (e.g., Feltovich, Spiro, Coulson,
Iiskala, Kajamies, Kinnunen, & Lehtinen, 2003), and elab-
& Feltovich, 1996). Finally, challenges can also be triggered
orative cognitive partnerships (e.g., King, 1998, 2002) is
by circumstances external to the task itself. For example,
viewed as facilitated by the group’s coordinated engagement
group members may experience practical hurdles that con-
in the shared problem space (Roschelle & Teasley, 1995).
strain their full engagement and participation (e.g., J¨arvenoja
Achieving such coordination is not an easy process, as each
& J¨arvel¨a, 2009; Volet & Mansfield, 2006). These challenges
group member is a self-regulating agent with unique cog-
place significant emotional pressure on individuals to restore
nitions and emotions, which can create major challenges to
their wellbeing, maintain motivation, and achieve personal
motivation in social interactive contexts.
The actual process of collaborative learning therefore rep-
Research grounded in a sociocognitive perspective has
resents a major source of situational appraisals, which have
investigated the significance of the social environment on
a significant impact on motivation. When individuals’ char-
motivational beliefs, achievement motivation, goals, and ap-
acteristics, goals, and situational demands clash and create
praisals. This work is diverse, not only in terms of the mo-
conflicts, strong negative emotions are aroused, forcing in-
tivational constructs under investigation but also in the way
dividuals to exercise control over their emotions, their mo-
the social environment has been conceptualized. It has been
tivation, and sometimes their social environment. Given the
argued that multiple levels of contexts need to be considered
challenging nature of most group activities, the regulation
to understand the complexity of macro- and microlevel influ-
of personal emotions is needed for continued engagement
ences on learning and motivation, including the nested nature
and progress toward goal achievement (Boekaerts & Corno,
of some of these contexts (Gurtner, Monnard, & Genoud,
2005; Efklides & Volet, 2005; J¨arvenoja & J¨arvel¨a, 2005;
2001; Volet, 2001). Social contexts and their influences can
Salonen et al., 2005; Wolters, 2003).
range from microlevel influences of the peer group (Salo-
Overall, although motivation is an essential component
nen et al., 2005), to meso-level influences of classroom goal
of successful collaborative learning, students’ motivation is
structures (Urdan, Kneisel, & Mason, 1999) and teacher dis-
continually challenged. Based on the collaborative and coop-
course (Krapp & Lewalter, 2001; Turner, Meyer, Midgley, &
erative learning literature, many challenges to group mem-
Patrick, 2003), through to broad cultural-educational influ-
bers’ productive participation appear to be socio-emotional in
ences at the macrolevel of educational systems and societal
nature and emerging through interactions during the activity.
values (Salili, 1996; Triandis, 1995). Consistent across stud-
Examining the role of the social in current conceptualizations
ies is evidence that individual motivation and engagement
of motivation is therefore critical for a better understanding
in learning activities, whether self-reported in questionnaires
of its significance in productive collaborative learning.
and interviews or inferred from observations, can be relatedin a meaningful way to the norms, values, or characteristicsof those social contexts.
Research on social goals and social goal orientation is
another body of literature from a sociocognitive perspective
that reflects the social influence characterization. There issubstantial evidence that students’ goals to engage in learn-
According to Nolen and Ward (2008), two distinct charac-
ing activities are not only directed at the task or their own
terizations of the role of the social in conceptualizations of
performance but also reflect the social context of which they
motivation can be identified. The first considers motivation as
are an integral part. This is highlighted in the range of so-
a characteristic of individuals, which is socially influenced by
cial goals identified in the literature, for example, social
the context. The second considers motivation as socially con-
approval goals, social responsibility goals, social interac-
structed through interactions, and conceptualizes individuals
tion goals, social relationship goals, social status goals, con-
and context as inseparable and mutually constitutive.
textual goals, or prosocial goals (Boekaerts, de Koning, &Vedder, 2006; Ford, 1992; J¨arvel¨a & Salovaara, 2004; Ur-dan & Maehr, 1995; Wentzel, 1991). At the macrolevel, it
is well documented that differences in cultural-educational
The view that motivation is socially influenced has been the
and societal values are reflected in levels of achievement
most prominent perspective in research on learning for the
motivation and social responsibility goals (Dowson & McIn-
last few decades (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2007). This char-
erney, 2003; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). At the microlevel, the
acterization is based on the assumption that motivation is a
impact of social influences is reflected in goals to gain peer
psychological phenomenon and that the social context has
acceptance or social status, to please the teacher or parents,
an impact on individuals’ motivation to engage in learning
or alternatively to avoid getting in trouble (Boekaerts, 2002;
activities. A substantial body of empirical research supports
Mansfield, in press; Wentzel, 1999). Students’ interpreta-
this assumption. Most of that research is grounded in a so-
tions of their interactions with peers have revealed how their
ciocognitive perspective on the role of individual motivation
goals are shaped through those interactions (Boekaerts &
within self-regulated learning theory and its individual-in-
Minnaert, 2006) and how the actions of group members can
context extension to accommodate the significance of con-
have both positive and negative influences on individual moti-
texts. According to Nolen and Ward (2008), recent work
vation (J¨arvenoja & J¨arvel¨a, 2005; Volet & Mansfield, 2006).
from a sociocultural perspective also represents the social
The view that the social environment exerts an influence on
influence characterization, because the focus is on mediated
individual motivation has led Wosnitza and Volet (2009) to
individual action, internalization of the social world, or indi-
claim that in a collaborative learning activity, learning, per-
vidual appropriation as an outcome of participation in social
formance, and affect goals can be in the service of others or
interactions, rather than on a negotiated, coconstructed social
the group as a whole (“we” type goals) rather than just at the
To date, research on the role of the social in motivation
from a sociocognitive perspective has predominantly used
The second conceptualization of motivation that reflects its
self-report data. This reflects the assumption that the im-
social nature is the social construction perspective, which
pact of social influences is mediated by cognitions and in-
builds upon the idea that motivation emerges through inter-
terpretations and that these can provide useful indicators of
actions in a social situation (J¨arvel¨a & Volet, 2004; Nolen &
a person’s motives and drives to engage in a learning ac-
Ward, 2008). This situative perspective is based on the as-
tivity. It is worth noting that studies examining social in-
sumption that motivation is a social phenomenon and that
fluences on motivation across macrolevel types of contexts
actual engagement represents enacted motivation. This
(e.g., family, school, educational system, cultural group) have
process-oriented perspective views engagement, or enacted
implicitly conceptualized social influences as having an uni-
motivation, as socially created and maintained through an ac-
directional impact, whereas work examining the impact of
tive and ongoing process of socially shared or coregulation.
social influences at the classroom level has often recognized
The social system that individuals are part of is assumed
that during interactions, individuals and contexts may exert
to provide affordances and constraints for members to fully
reciprocal influences on each other (Gurtner et al., 2001).
engage, to stay at the periphery until ready, or alternatively
The idea of reciprocal influences is reminiscent of recip-
to avoid engagement (Hickey, 2003; McCaslin & Hickey,
rocal determinism, which has a long history within social
2001). By conceptualizing motivation as coconstructed and
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1989). The social influence per-
negotiated among the collective, interactive, and even shared
spective on motivation is consistent with Bandura’s complex
activity of group members (J¨arvel¨a & J¨arvenoja, in press;
model of causation, which postulated dynamic and recip-
J¨arvenoja & J¨arvel¨a, 2009), the social construction perspec-
rocal interactions between personal factors, behaviors, and
tive distinguishes itself from reciprocal determinism. More
the environment, each exerting a source of influence on the
specifically, the social construction perspective on motiva-
tion does not postulate reciprocal sources of influence that
Recent work framed in a sociocultural perspective has
individuals may exert on each other but instead assumes that
also examined how the social, conceptualized as actual so-
groups as social entities coconstruct their collective engage-
cial interactions that students engage in, influences motiva-
ment in joint activities. Accordingly, from a social construc-
tion. For example, Walker and colleagues (Pressick-Kilborn
tion perspective, social and individual processes are con-
& Walker, 2002; Walker, Pressick-Kilborn, Arnold, &
ceptualized as occurring simultaneously, as they represent
Sainsbury, 2004) argued that situational and personal inter-
adaptive processes that take place concurrently at different
ests are created through participation in meaningful class-
systemic levels (Volet et al., 2009).
room activities, which provide affordances and constraints
In the context of collaborative learning, it is expected that
for the development of individual motivation and engage-
participants bring along their motivational beliefs, tenden-
ment. To investigate this process, Pressick-Kilborn and
cies, and goals and that these will play a mediating role in
Walker examined the social norms and meanings that make
their actual engagement in the group activity. From a situative
up classroom activities and the role that these play in indi-
perspective (Nolen & Ward, 2008), however, and consistent
viduals’ displayed interest, alongside the meaning that indi-
with the social construction conceptualization of motivation
viduals themselves make from that interest. This approach
it is argued that the extent to which a group engages produc-
revealed how the environment can constrain or enable the de-
tively in the activity cannot be predicted from the aggregated
velopment of individual interest through a process of “canal-
motivational characteristics of its members (Hickey, 2003).
ization.” Canalization by the social world refers to the ways
As revealed in research on collaborative learning, each group
in which other people, consistent with their values and goals,
generates its own social dynamics and it is through mem-
channel a learner’s activities in certain ways. Through the no-
bers’ interactions that engagement, as enacted motivation,
tion of canalization Valsiner (1992) explained how the social
is afforded or constrained (J¨arvenoja & J¨arvel¨a, 2009). This
world and the opportunities available to individuals create the
raises the importance of better understanding the “dynamics
context in which interest may emerge. The importance given
and interpersonal coordination of shared and self-regulatory
to social interactions and participation in the sociocultural
processes” (Vauras, Salonen, & Kinnunen, 2009), which take
perspective brings this approach close to the social construc-
place in collaborative learning activities.
tion characterization. A key difference, however, is the focus
Consistent with its focus on social interactions and par-
on the intraindividual process of internalization, which is
ticipation in group activities, this social conceptualization
assumed to lead to the development of individual interest
of motivation has led to research at the microlevel of learn-
and motivation (cf. Vygotsky, 1978). This is in contrast to
ing and the use of process data obtained from collaborative
the social construction characterization, which is concerned
learning activities. For example, J¨arvel¨a and her colleagues
with how members of a group, constituted as a social system,
have been analysing the socioemotional aspects of peer in-
cocontribute to their engagement in a collaborative learning
teraction and group learning and illustrated how students’
motivational accounts of the interaction reflect changes in
engagement (J¨arvel¨a, J¨arvenoja, & Veermans, 2008; J¨arvel¨a,
in a collaborative learning activity cannot be underestimated,
Veermans, & Leinonen, 2008). Similarly, Vauras and col-
especially if the (meta)cognitions and subjective interpreta-
leagues’ (Vauras et al., 2009) microgenetic analyses revealed
tions of all participants are elicited. Whether these alternative
how individuals’ cognitive, affective, and motivational be-
epistemological approaches are theoretically compatible and
haviours during real-time activities were related to change
can be integrated in research on motivation in collaborative
processes in their social relationship patterns. Nolen’s (2006,
learning is informed by a parallel, ongoing debate in regard
2007) research also examined the social construction of mo-
to research on learning and development (e.g., Anderson,
tivation but over an extended period, with a view to capturing
Reder, & Simon, 1996; Billett, 1996; Greeno, 1997; Sfard,
trajectories of motivation to read and write. Her ethnographic
1998; Volet, 2001), self-related studies (Martin, 2007) and
observations of different classroom interactions at several
more recently, research on conceptual change (2007 special
points in time revealed how students’ motivations were co-
issue of the Educational Psychologist, Vol. 42, No. 1).
constructed and negotiated with their teachers and each other.
As argued by Mercer (2007) in regard to research on con-
They also found evidence of trajectories from peripheral to
ceptual change, the way forward may be to “devise ways of
central engagement, which could be interpreted in relation
researching the processes of developing understanding that
to teacher-learners’ shared goal for writing. In sum, the so-
are sensitive to both the cultural contexts in which learning
cial construction conceptualization of motivation provides a
[in this case, motivation] takes place and to the psycholog-
useful theoretical perspective to examine motivation as an
ical mechanisms involved when individuals reinterpret the
enacted, dynamic, and social process.
world in the light of new experience” (p. 77). We pursue asimilar position in the next section, as we present our casefor the conceptual usefulness of combining individual and
Strengths and Limitations of the Two Social
social processes in research on motivation in collaborative
Understanding Motivation in CollaborativeLearning
Overall, the major difference between the two characteriza-
tions of the role of the social in conceptualizations of moti-
vation is that the social influence approach construes moti-
vational constructs as the psychological processes that driveengagement and views them as influenced by the social con-
Our case for combining individual and social processes in
text (cognitive/sociocognitive angle). In contrast, the social
research on motivation in collaborative learning is based on
construction approach views these motivational constructs as
two assumptions: first, that groups of students engaged in
social processes of engagement that emerge through interac-
collaborative learning activities form dynamic, constantly
tions (situative angle). Each approach has distinct strengths
evolving and challenging social systems, and second that
and limitations to explain why individuals and groups engage
individual group members can be conceptualized as inter-
productively in a collaborative learning activity. The social
dependent, self-regulating agents with metacognitive capac-
construction perspective is conceptually attractive to frame
ities. Based on these assumptions, it is claimed that reducing
the emerging, enacted and constantly renegotiated nature of
research to individual motivational constructs, even if ag-
motivation in actual, time-framed collaborative learning ac-
gregated at the group level, without paying attention to the
tivities. This conceptualization, therefore, blends well with
significance of emerging and evolving social processes, or
the situative perspective on learning in activity, which em-
alternatively reducing research to the group’s actual engage-
phasizes cognitive–interactional (Greeno, 2006) and coregu-
ment in the collaborative activity without paying attention
latory (Volet et al., 2009) processes. A major limitation of the
to the significance of mediating individual processes should
social construction approach, however, is the lack of attention
be avoided. Instead, we argue for the importance of con-
given to the mediating role of individuals’ (meta)cognitions
sidering the complex interplay of concurrent individual and
on their engagement and participation, an issue highlighted
social processes in research on motivation in collaborative
in Summers and Volet’s (2009) recent research. This limita-
tion is one of the strengths of the social influence approach,
First is the assumption that collaborative learning activ-
especially where a distinction is made between motivational
ities take place in evolving and challenging social systems,
constructs at several levels of specificity, for example, over-
which leads to interest in capturing the social, enacted, and
all inclinations such as achievement motivation, tendencies
process nature of motivation. From this perspective, the group
such as motivational beliefs regarding a particular form of
is considered as a social system engaged in a meaningful ac-
instruction, and situation-specific appraisals, such as moti-
tivity and deploying social processes to regulate interactions
vation for an immediate learning activity (Boekaerts, 1999;
toward completion of the activity. As widely documented in
Volet, 2001). The mediating role of (meta)cognitions and sub-
the literature on collaborative learning, as well as in micro-
jective interpretations for understanding group engagement
genetic studies of group dynamics, groups as social systems
can experience disturbances and ongoing challenges. These
the processes which characterize the relationship between
require coordination of interactions to maintain the system
individuals and their context. They focused on teacher dis-
as a whole and to restore engagement.
course and its impact on classroom goals and individual stu-
Second is the assumption that collaborative learning is
dent engagement. In this descriptive study, the data collected
constituted of interdependent individuals with metacogni-
included observational field notes and audio recordings of
tive and agentic capacities. From this perspective, research
classroom interactions during mathematics lessons, as well
on motivation needs to capture the individual processes that
as survey data on student goals and perceptions. By observ-
regulate and sustain individual engagement in the joint ac-
ing the same students across 2 years with different math
tivity. As documented in the literature on group learning,
instructors the researchers were able to argue that students’
socioemotional challenges generated during collaborative
motivation to participate was determined by the interaction
learning activities force individuals to cope psychologically
of their personal goals with the affordances and constraints
with their emotions to restore their motivation and engage-
on participation created by the teachers’ actions. Their anal-
ment. These psychological processes are therefore subjec-
ysis shows how individual constructs of motivation interact
tively adaptive to their social context. This is consistent with
with the environment and how social interaction influences
the view that individuals who constitute social systems rep-
resent self-regulating agents who are concerned, consciously
One of Turner and Patrick’s data examples shows
or not, about maintaining their integrity (coping) as well as
how teachers’ high-level supportive motivational discourse
their role (participation) in the social system, which they
prompts student mastery orientation and emphasizes effort
constitute. In some cases individual regulation processes can
(in a situation where the students explained their home-
be coordinated with peers, or even mutually shared with the
work problems). For example, during a homework check,
the teacher answered a student’s question about grading this
Next, we present illustrations of studies that attempted to
way: “No, I give you points if you did it, but I can see that you
bridge the “cognitive–situative divide” in research on mo-
tried. I can see that is almost all done, so I can see that you
tivation in collaborative learning from different theoretical
worked on that. That is what I give you points for and we go
perspectives or using different methodologies.over it in class and you need to correct it yourself” (Turner& Patrick, 2004, p. 1778). With this kind of qualitative datain their 2-year study they were able to show that studentsinteractions with the teacher and the classroom context in-
creased students’ engagement and participation from the 1st
year to the 2nd. Their data show how student participation
in classroom interaction reflects unique interactions between
personal factors of individual cognition (e.g., goals) and theopportunities and constraints of the classroom context (e.g.,
Bridging the Cognitive–Situative Divide From
teacher scaffolding). The problematic issue with this kind
of approach is that although it provides information about
The purpose of this section is to examine empirical work
the influence of teachers’ actions on student motivation, it
that bridges the cognitive–situative divide between different
is not possible to identify the reciprocal influence of student
theoretical perspectives. All these studies combine a focus on
behavior on teachers from teacher discourse data. Also, the
group processes and individual accounts of motivation, but
perspective on student engagement is very holistic and the
the interpretation of these processes is grounded in different
interacting factors of motivation and cognition in student en-
theoretical perspectives. The aim is to show that regardless
gagement are merged and difficult to identify (cf. J¨arvel¨a,
of the theoretical grounding, sociocognitive or sociocultural,
research with a combined focus on both psychological and
Studies that focus more systemically on interacting peers
social processes of motivation can enrich our understanding
in social settings have been conducted by Salonen and Vauras
of motivation in collaborative learning.
and their colleagues (Salonen et al., 2005; Vauras, Salonen,
In their studies on classroom interaction Turner and her
Lehtinen, & Lepola, 2001). They posit that motivation is, in
colleagues (Turner et al., 1998; Turner et al., 2003; Turner
part, a response to various situational demands but that stu-
& Patrick, 2004) have considered the role of context as af-
dent learning trajectories are formed through ongoing trans-
fording or constraining opportunities for individual student
actions between student and teacher. They view the individ-
motivation. In their studies the individual is seen as em-
ual, others in the context, and other characteristics of the
bedded in context, but the aim of the research has been to
context (e.g., norms, values) as all playing an active part in
explain individuals’ motivation as a function of the learn-
ing situation. In a multimethod study of student participation
In one of their studies, Vauras et al. (2003) investi-
in mathematics classes, Turner and Patrick (2004) studied
gated shared regulation and motivation of fourth-grade col-
motivation with an “influence” metaphor in conceptualizing
laborating peers when solving mathematical problems in
a technology-based game environment. Their analyses of
also important for understanding the way thatvad learners
high-ability students took the students’ individual social and
and their peers regulate each other’s activities, and their mo-
cognitive competencies into account, as well as aspects of the
tivated engagement in those activities.
peer interactions and quality of collaboration. Their detailed
Arnold and Walker (2008) examined the impact of an
analyses of peer interactions during the problem-solving ac-
intervention designed to enhance student academic regula-
tivity revealed how a pair of students showed not only self-
tory activities in fifth-grade primary school classrooms. The
regulative activity and task orientation (e.g., checking their
intervention took the form of a teachers’ professional de-
understanding) but also reciprocal regulation (e.g., giving
velopment program that addressed the theory and practice
signals to the partner if they were not ready to move on;
of creating student regulated learning environments, after
Vauras et al., 2003, p. 27). Throughout the collaboration
which the teachers established these environments in their
their typical discussions included utterances like “Hey, wait
own classrooms over a period of 6 months. The study in-
a minute. . . . ,” “No, but look at this. It is . . . ,” “I have to
volved 131 students located across five classrooms in two
check. . . . ,” and “How so?” They also wanted to check if the
schools, with two classes in the same school constituting
other agreed and was ready to move on, for example, “What
the intervention group and the remaining three classes in
shall we put on here?” and “Shall we write . . . ?” (Vauras
the other school forming the control group. Following the
intervention, quantitative, and qualitative data were exam-
Vauras and her colleagues’ analysis, employing both an
ined for changes in students’ metacognitive and cognitive
individual cognitive perspective and an analysis of social pro-
skills, academic achievement, and motivation that were ex-
cesses, showed that socially shared regulation contributed to
pected to result from the intervention. Quantitative data fo-
high-quality, peer-mediated learning among high-ability stu-
cused on students’ cognition (individual perspective) was
dents. They noticed that self-regulated activities (e.g., high
obtained via assessment instruments and student self-report
awareness and regulation of own thinking) guided the two
surveys administered before and after the intervention. Data
girls’ work throughout the sessions. However, in their data
focusing on social processes, observation, and the record-
it was difficult to interpret the overall regulation of problem
ing of teacher and student discourse, as well as inter-
solving in the peer interaction by using only the concepts
views, was used to investigate the nature of teacher scaf-
of self- or other-regulation or shared regulation, because the
folding of student regulated learning, collaborative group
joint activity could not be reduced to mere individual activ-
functioning and the level and nature of student regulatory
ity and the nature of the shared regulation depended on the
type of task or the problem at hand. A limitation to the gen-
Their results point to the social context as the develop-
eralizability of Vauras et al.’s findings, and of detailed case
mental source of self-regulation and provide support for
interaction studies in general, is that the context appeared to
the contention that teacher scaffolding, involving an empha-
be “an ideal condition for peer interaction” and therefore did
sis on collaborative learning and opportunities for coreg-
not reflect the more complex real-life situation of students’
ulation, provided an appropriate context for students to
learn and deploy academic regulatory strategies. They no-
The contributions from a sociocultural perspective on mo-
ticed that collaborative activities carried out by teachers
tivation, by Walker and colleagues (Pressick-Kilborn, Sains-
and students in the classroom facilitated transformative in-
bury, & Walker, 2005; Walker, in press; Walker et al., 2004)
ternalization (learning) and externalization (deployment) of
avoid the reduction of personal phenomena to social interac-
coregulatory skills, from which self-regulation could subse-
tion and recognize the agency of the individual. Their studies
quently emerge. Walker and his colleagues’ studies (Pressick-
focus on the process of internalization, which is active, con-
Kilborn et al., 2005; Walker, in press; Walker et al., 2004)
structive, and transformative (Walker et al., 2004), so that the
provide support for the conceptualization of motivation as a
goals, values, and standards constructed by the learner can-
fundamentally social phenomenon, with individual motiva-
not be considered to be transmitted by others. Rather, goals,
tion emerging from social participation. These studies show
standards, and values are actively modified or changed by
that methods such as discourse maps of interactions, obser-
the learner in the process of internalization. When standards
vations, and interviews afford insights into the mechanisms
and values have been internalized by a learner they are sub-
by which the social becomes individual through the pro-
sequently externalized in the form of motivated action, be-
cesses of transformative internalization and externalization.
havior, and language, so that internalization may be inferred
Not examined in Walker and his colleagues’ work, however,
from these expressions of classroom engagement. The nature
are the social processes of the group as a whole (the situa-
and quality of interpersonal relationships between students
tive angle), because the main focus is on the interactions of
and their teachers and peers are therefore important in so-
individuals that constitute the group. In the final section, we
ciocultural perspectives on motivation as they influence the
provide an illustration of how individual and social regula-
internalization and externalization of motivational standards
tion of motivation in collaborative learning can be captured
and values. Interpersonal relations and intersubjectivity are
Bridging the Cognitive–Situative Divide Using
participants’ verbal and nonverbal behaviors and social in-
teractions are used to make inferences about their social andpsychological processes of motivation. Indicators of mean-
This section illustrates how the cognitive–situative divide can
ingful behaviours and interactions include, for example, in-
be bridged methodologically using different data sources.
dividual body language, facial expressions, nature and inten-
Each data source can be used to capture both individual
sity of eye contact, sudden momentary changes in gestures
and social processes of motivation. Selected data from a
as members relate to each other, and collective movements
study by J¨arvel¨a, J¨arvenoja, et al. (2008) provide the basis
of members shifting closer or further apart from each other,
for this illustration. The aim of that study was to explore how
as well as consistency in verbal and nonverbal interactions at
socioemotional challenges emerging during a collaborative
both individual and collective levels.
learning activity were regulated at individual and group lev-
In this short episode, there were several meaningful indi-
els to sustain motivation and complete the task. Three data
cators of challenges to shared motivated engagement as well
sources were used, namely, video recording, a specially de-
as regulation of motivation, for example, when Jukka cocked
signed questionnaire, and focus group interviews.
his eyebrows and leaned backward away from Henna, fol-
The three-part illustration presented next is based on the
lowed by the other students supporting Jukka’s comment,
collaborative learning activity of one group in a 50-min ses-
and Henna subsequently turning away from the group. Even
sion. Participants were four preservice teacher education
though this particularly unsettling incident lasted only about
students (two male [Timo, Jukka] and two female [Riina,
1 min, there were clear indications, looking at the group mem-
Henna]) involved in the analysis of a classroom case study.
bers’ facial expressions, that everyone had realized Henna’sfeelings had been hurt. The subsequent verbal contributions
Video Recording of Actual Group Interactions
that immediately follow, accompanied with a sudden changein body language, highlight that group members were now
Analyses of students’ actual social interactions while work-
concerned about the impact of their behaviors and were in-
ing on the task (video data) were intended to demonstrate
directly trying to make up for their unfortunate earlier com-
the extent to which the combination of verbal and nonver-
ments. This was evident in their softening of their initial
bal interactions may be used to infer evidence of individual
negative remarks and their bringing in examples from their
and social regulation of motivation. One short episode (about
own experiences. Such behaviors can be interpreted as ev-
5 min) was selected for this illustration as it enables a more
idence of social and individual regulation of motivation to
fine-grained analysis of individual and social processes. What
address the socioemotional challenge. Henna’s subsequent
happened is described first, as recorded on video.
facial expression and gradual change in body language sug-gest that she was sensitive to the others’ attempts to make up,
The group appears to be working smoothly and everyone
and made an individual effort to cope with her emotions and
appears confident to contribute. One member, Henna, tellsa story from her early childhood. The other three members
ultimately restore her motivation to participate in the group
laugh and question Henna’s ability to remember things from
early childhood. Henna gives another example, which the
In regard to this particular episode, it can be argued that
others question again. After this incident, Henna looks a
the rapidity and effectiveness with which group members
little upset and stops participating in the conversation. Riina
collectively and individually addressed the emerging chal-
takes the initiative of asking everyone in an engaging tone,
lenge and eventually restored their engagement was due to
“How do we comment on this case?” The attention of the
their prior successful history of shared motivation as a group,
group is again on the case, however, the confident atmosphere
as observed before the incident. The video data show limited
is not restored immediately. Little by little the group starts
struggle to restore the positive emotional atmosphere and
joking again. This restores the group discussion and even
sense of togetherness within the group. The renewed use of
Henna appears focused on the task again. Group members
jokes and positive responses to each other’s opinions provide
can be observed laughing at each other’s jokes, asking foreach other’s opinion and supporting each other’s ideas. At
further evidence of effective social regulation for continued
the end of the whole session, everyone appears confident
shared engagement throughout the remaining time of their
again and the task is completed. It looks like everyone is
satisfied with the group’s analysis of the case.
Specially Designed Questionnaire Eliciting
The video data shows how the group’s apparent keen-
Individual Interpretations of Selected Events
ness to work on the task was suddenly challenged by a so-cial incident that disturbed the emotional balance within the
The potential of questionnaire data to capture individual and
group, how group members reacted and handled the situa-
social regulation of motivation is illustrated using the Adap-
tion, and how motivation was eventually restored. The point
tive Instrument for Regulation of Emotions (AIRE). This
here is that the video data allowed this continuity of related
instrument (see J¨arvenoja, Volet, & J¨arvel¨a, 2009, for full
situated events to be scrutinized. Detailed observations of
conceptual grounding and description of its components) is
specifically designed to elicit students’ personal goals for
an actual collaborative learning activity, their perceptions
of socioemotional challenges during that activity, their ac-counts of individual and group-level attempts to regulate the
The potential of focus group interview data to capture in-
immediate emotions evoked by these challenges, and their
dividual and social regulation of motivation is now exam-
ined, using as illustration the actual focus group interview
In the AIRE questionnaire, socioemotional challenges are
conducted with the four students right after their collabora-
identified through students’ initial ratings of 14 socially chal-
tive learning activity. This group interview revealed several
lenging situations (scenarios), which were generated after an
meaningful types of individual regulatory processes (deter-
extensive review of the empirical literature on collabora-
mination to remain open, effort to be flexible, reevaluation
tive learning and group work. The scenarios fall into five
of own ideas and roles), and shared regulatory processes
broad categories corresponding to differences in personal
(engagement in joint decision making, pursuit of common
priorities, styles of working and communication, team work,
goals). Remarkably, the way individual processes were ex-
collaborative processes and external constraints. After rating
pressed by students suggests that individual regulatory pro-
their experience of the 14 possible social challenges, stu-
cesses were perceived as shared processes at the same time.
dents identify what they see as the two biggest challenges
This was evident in the use of “we” instead of “I” in most stu-
in their own group, namely, the challenges that triggered
dents’ statements—for example, “We had this certain level
the strongest emotions among group members. In regard to
which we wanted to reach and we didn’t make it too com-
the two biggest socioemotional challenges, students then
plicated after we reached that.” This was also evident in
rate the self, co-, and socially shared regulatory processes
the students’ answers to the interviewers’ questions during
that were employed for dealing them. In the final section of
the group interview, with many instances of several students
the questionnaire, students are invited (alongside other ques-
building upon each other’s answers to provide a joint ex-
tions) to rate how satisfied they are with their experience
planation, for example, “First we discussed . . . (one student)
in that particular group learning activity. The AIRE ques-
. . . but then we decide together that we will choose this case
tionnaire is therefore explicitly designed to obtain data on
because it sounds the best . . . (second student) . . . yes! (third
individual and social processes of the regulation of motiva-
student)” The similarity of this phenomenon with what was
tion. The regulatory processes presented for rating are cus-
observed in the video data of students’ actual interactions
tomised around the specific socioemotional challenges that
while working on the task was quite remarkable. This is to
students perceived in their group, so that the questionnaire
say that when individuals communicate their assumptions,
data best capture students’ actual experiences of a current
members can add to, continue, agree, or disagree with each
other’s explanations, allowing the group to construct shared
With regards to the group in the previous illustration,
assumptions, and a more comprehensive and accurate in-
and consistent with the observations of their interactions
terpretation of their situated activity. A critical issue with
throughout their learning activity (video data), these stu-
this type of data, however, is whether they reflect fairly and
dents’ responses to the AIRE questionnaire revealed evi-
equally the interpretations of the whole group or just its most
dence of both self- and socially shared regulation strategies.
The point is that the questionnaire data “traced” mental pro-
In summary, each of the three data sources and method-
cesses that were not observable but were nevertheless influ-
ologies revealed evidence of both individual and social reg-
ential in the construction of motivation at both individual
ulation of motivation, and in this respect illustrates how
and group levels. Remarkably, all four students identified
the cognitive–situative divide can be bridged methodolog-
teamwork activities as the major challenge in their group,
ically. By their nature, these data sources tend to privilege
and the reason for adopting regulation strategies. Further-
access to either individual regulation over social regulation
more, three of the four students’ ratings of shared regula-
of motivation (e.g., questionnaire data) or social regulation
tion items were remarkably similar, highlighting a shared
over individual regulation (e.g., video data), which calls for
understanding of how the group coped with emerging chal-
the value of combining findings obtained through different
lenges. Finally, all four students expressed satisfaction with
methodologies. In this illustration, the video data showed
their experience in the collaborative learning activity, with
how shared motivation was successfully initiated, sustained
two students fully satisfied and two just satisfied (which
for a while, then challenged and eventually restored through
included Henna). These findings were consistent with the
the groups’ effective regulatory processes. In addition, the
video data, which revealed an overwhelmingly positive at-
use of the AIRE and the focus group interview revealed how
titude and effective social and individual regulation when
group members, individually and as a group, were able recog-
needed throughout the whole collaborative learning activity.
nize the socially challenging nature of the situation and how
In sum, it appears that a carefully designed questionnaire
they constructed a common motivational grounding for their
can be used to capture individual and social processes of
shared goals. These types of data revealed individual and
group interpretations that could not have been extrapolated
from the actual process data. A critical issue with this type of
ways, in an attempt to address the fundamental issue of where
data analysis, however, is for the researcher to remain con-
the psychological self ends and the social begins. In our own
scious that these data represent “collections of indicators” of
work, we found that an aggregation of multiple subjective
motivation from different data perspective. The combination
accounts of self-regulation processes, combined with obser-
of individual and social perspectives, therefore, should not
vations of coregulated processes, was invaluable to under-
lead to overgeneralization. Rather, it presents opportunities
standing motivation as a social process.
for revealing ambiguities and contradictions that are critical
We are still short of understanding how motivation arises
to increase validity in data analysis.
in social contexts, such as collaborative learning. For ex-ample, it is not clear from current research why individu-als choose to employ particular strategies and how group
members or the shared social context stimulate the ori-
gin of new motivational and cognitive activity (Winne &Hadwin, 2008). What makes it effective and can it be pre-
In this article we proposed that research on motivation in
dicted? The data illustrations in this article were mainly
collaborative learning should move beyond the cognitive–
drawn from situations that provided a short timeline of how
situative epistemological divide and combine individual and
group members interpreted the situation and the extent to
social processes. Supported by illustrations from recent stud-
which they seemed to develop a common view of the shared
ies, we suggest the study of motivation as an individual psy-
motivational processes. A longitudinal design, similar to
chological concept embedded within the social, shared, and
the one used by Boekaerts and Minnaert (2006), for exam-
ple, would enrich the description of students’ motivational
One of the major current conceptual challenges is how best
changes as a function of time, within and across learning
to study the social processes of motivation in dynamic, so-
episodes, and explain these changes in more detail. The cur-
cially challenging collaborative learning activities. A broad
rent data illustrations unveiled responses to an evolving social
review of educational research concerned with motivation
situation, but probes would be needed to elicit why individu-
reveals a range of assumptions about the origins of motiva-
als choose particular strategies over others and what it means
tion and the associated cognitive processes. These include
to use those strategies in the developing collaborative culture
the specific characteristics of a situation or context (Corno
of the group. Collaboration between researchers who study
& Mandinach, 2004), the sociocultural milieu (McInerney
individual psychological processes and those specializing in
& Van Etten, 2002), the dual psychological and social phe-
social psychology and group dynamics has the potential to
nomena (J¨arvel¨a & Volet, 2004), and individualistic thoughts
(Winne, 2004). Some strong contextual considerations have
From a methodological viewpoint, observations or videos
located motivation outside the individual and claimed that
are well suited to examine the social construction of motiva-
the primary motivators of engagement reside within the tacit
tion and emotions during learning, for example, coregulation
collective knowledge that defines communities of practice
(Hickey, 2003). Our approach has been to conceptualize mo-
complemented by interviews, where participants provide ex-
tivation as a process of engagement and participation in a
planations for their own engagement in the group dynamics
social activity, which is situated and dynamic—not decontex-
(sociocognitive perspective). Combining data sources and
tualized and static—because it is ongoing, constantly shaped,
methods of analysis is expected not only to provide a more
and reshaped as the activity unfolds.
comprehensive understanding of such psychosocial phenom-
How can motivation be operationalized and investigated
ena but also to unveil possible contradictions, ambiguities,
as a combined individual–social phenomenon? And how
and paradoxes, which a single approach would not reveal (Er-
can the complex, interactive, and multilayered nature of the
cikan & Roth, 2006). In the present illustrations, triangulation
social context be studied empirically? In spite of advances
of the observations, dynamic questionnaire responses, and
in conceptualizations of self-regulation and motivation as
interviews provided a way to establish how closely the ques-
social and contextual phenomena (e.g., Nolen & Ward, 2008),
tionnaire items mirrored students’ experiences. Other types
challenges still remain. There is a risk of oversimplify-
of self-report data, such as diaries, journals, and experience-
ing these complex psychosocial phenomena in empirical
sampling methods, can provide further insight into some of
work through a reductionist approach that operationalizes
the invisible yet powerful aspects of social dynamics and
motivation in terms of either individual motivational con-
interactions that cannot be accessed via observational data
structs or social processes of engagement. Theoretical sup-
(Butler, 2006). The point is, following Greeno (2006), that
port for an integrative perspective of individual and social
actual recordings of the interactions would provide informa-
regulation can be found in living systems theory (Miller,
tion about shared and contested goals, power dynamics, and
1978; Volet et al., 2009). Moreover, a dialogue between re-
other important aspects of motivation in social context.
searchers grounding their work in sociocognitive and socio-
In summary, research on motivation has taken new av-
cultural perspectives should be pursued in more elaborated
enues in conceptual and methodological development to
grasp the dynamics of motivation in multiple contexts and
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