Genus and specific epithet, bot are underline or italicized. Genus is always capitalized

What are organisms classified into?

Bacteria, Archea, and Eukarya

Who is Robert Hooke?

He observed that cork was composed of “little boxes”; he introduced the term cell. His discovery marked the beginning of cell theory (all living things are composed of cells).

Who is the first to observe live organisms using a simple microscope?

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

What is spontaneous generation?

Some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter

Who demonstrated that maggots appear when flies are able to lay eggs on decaying meat?

Francesco Redi

Who claimed that microorganisms could arise spontaneously from heated nutrient broth?

John Needham

Who repeated Needham’s experiment and suggested that Needham’s result were due to microorganisms in the air entering his broth?

Lazzaro Spallanzani

Who introduced the concept of biogenesis?

Rudolf Virchow

What is biogenesis?

Living cells can arise only from preexisting living cells

Who is Louis Pasteur?

He demonstrated that microorganisms are in the air everywhere and offered proof of biogenesis. He used a long-necked flasks, bent the necks into S-shape curved, which trapped any airborne microorganisms. His discoveries led to the development of aseptic techniques.

Who found that yeasts ferment sugars to alcohol and that bacteria can oxidize the alcohol to acetic acid?

Pasteur

What heating process is used to kill bacteria in some alcoholic beverages and milk?

Pasteurization

Who showed a casual relationship between microorganisms and disease?

Bassi and Pasteur

Who introduce aseptic surgery?

Joseph Lister

Who proved that microorganisms cause disease?

Robert Koch

Koch’s postulates

A sequence of experimental steps for directly relating a specific microbe to a specific disease

Who demonstrated that inoculation with cowpox material provides human with immunity to smallpox?

Edward Jenner

Who introduced salvarsan? What is it used for?

Paul Ehrlich. It is used to treat syphilis

Who is Alexander Fleming?

He observed that the Penicillium fungus inhibited the growth of bacterial culture.

Penicillin

Antibiotic from fungus

Bactriology

The study of bacteria

Mycology

The study of fungi, includes medical, agricultural, and ecological branches

Parasitology

The study of protozoa and parasitic worms

Immunology

The study of immunity

Virology

The study of virus

How did the idea of spontaneous generation come about?

People came to believe that living organisms arise form nonliving matter because they would see flies coming out of manure, maggots coming out of dead animals, and microorganisms appearing in liquids after a day or two.

What are the structure of an atom?

Electrons (e-), Nucleus → protons (p+), neutron (n0)

What are protons?

The atomic number

What it the atomic weight?

The total number of protons and neutrons

Ionic bond

An attraction between ions of opposite charge that holds them together to form a stable molecule. Weaker ionic bond are important in biochemical reactions such as antigen-antibody reactions

Covalent bond

A bond formed by two atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons. Covalent bonds are the most common type of chemical bond in organisms and are responsible for holding together the atoms of most molecules in organisms

Hydrogen bond

A relatively weak bond in which a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to one oxygen or nitrogen atom is attracted to another oxygen or nitrogen atom. Hydrogen bonds do not bind atoms into molecules, but rather serve as bridges between different molecules or different portions of the same molecule, for example, within proteins and nucleic acids.

Endergonic reaction

A chemical reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases

Exergonic reaction

A chemical reaction that releases more energy that it absorbs

Synthesis reaction

When two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combinr to form new and larger molecules

A + B → AB

Pathways of synthesis in living organisms are collectively called anabolic reactions, or anabolism

Decomposition reactions

The reverse of a synthesis reaction

AB → A + B

Decomposition reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively called catabolic reactions or catabolism

Exchange reactions

Part synthesis and part decomposition

AB + CD → AD + BC

Reversible reaction

When the end product can revert to the original molecule

A+B ⇔ AB

Inorganic compound

Usually small, ionically bonded molecules

Example: common acids, bases and salts

Organic compounds

Always contains carbon and hydrogen

Mostly or entirely covalently bonded, and many of them are large molecules

All organisms require a carbon source. What does chemoheterotrophs use, what does autotrophs use?

chemoheterotrophs use an organic molecule

autotrophs use carbon dioxide

What is a culture medium?

any material prepared for the growth of bacteria in a laboratory

What is a culture?

microbes that grow and multiply in or on a culture medium

a common solidifying agent for a culture medium is called

agar

What is a chemically defined medium?

one in which the exact chemical composition is known

what is a complex media?

one in which the exact chemical composition varies slightly from batch to batch

On the basis of preffered temperature, what are the three primary groups? (Define each)

Psychrophiles: cold-loving microbes

Mesophiles: moderate-temperature-loving microbes

thermophiles: heat-loving microbes

What are the 5 groups on the basis of preferred temperature range?

Psychrophiles

Pschrotophs

Mesophilrs

Thermophiles

Hyperthermophiles

What is the optimum growth of mesophiles?

25-40° C

Psychrophiles

cold-loving microbes

-8° C (minimum growth temperature)

15°C (optimum growth temperature)

19° C (maximum growth temperature)

Psychrotrophs

do not grow well at low temperature, except in comparison with other organisms

able to degrade food

0° C (minimum growth temperature)

22°C (optimum growth temperature)

31°C (maximum growth temperature)

Mesophiles

moderate-temperature-loving microbe

10°C (minumum growth temperature)

37°C (optimum growth temperature)

58°C (maximum growth temperature)

most common type of microbe

include most of the common spoilage and disease organisms

Thermophiles

heat-loving microbes

39°C (minimum growth temperature)

62°C (optimum growth temperature) about the temperature of hot tap water

72°C (maximum growth temperature)

Hyperthermophiles

66°C (minimum growth temperature)

93°C (optimum growth temperature)

110°C (maximum growth temperature)

most live in hot springs associated with volcanic activity

What are acidophiles?

bacteria that are remarkably tolerant of acidity

During what phase of growth there is little or no change in the number of cells but metabolic activity is high?

Lag phase

During what phase, the bactria mulstiply at the fastest rate possible under the conditions provided?

Log phase

During what phase, there is an equilibrium between cell division and death?

stationary phase

During what phase, the number of deaths exceeds the number of new cells fomed?

Death phase (logarithmic decline phase)

What are/is the use of selective media, and differential media?

selective media: inhibits unwanted organisms with salts, dyes, or other chemical which allows growth of only the desired microbes

differential media are used to distinguish different organisms

What is an enrichment culture used for?

to encourage the growth of a particular microorganism in a mixed culture

How can microbes be preserved for long periods of time?

by deepfreezing or lyophilization (freezing-drying)

In a hypertonic solution what does most microbes undergo?

Plasmolysis

What can halophiles tolerate?

high salt concentrations

What is plasmolysis? How does this happen?

loss of water from a cell in a hypertonic environment.

Cellular water passes through the plasma membrane which goes into the high solute concentration. This happens when the microbial cell is in a solution whose concentration of solutes is higher than in the cell.

what are obligate halophile (extreme halophiles) ?

an organism that requires high osmotic pressures such as high concentrations of NaCl (in order for growth to occur)

What are faculative halophiles?

organisms that does not require high salt concentration but are able to grow at salt concentrations up to 2%.

a few species can tolerate even 15% salt

define agar

a complex polysacharride derived from a marine alga and used as a solidifying agent in culture media

Why is carbon needed for the chemical requirements of microbial growth?

Carbon is the structural backbone of living matter. It is needed for all the organic compounds that make up a living cell. Half the dry weight of a typical bactrial cell is carbon

Why is nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus needed for the chemical requirements of microbial growth?

Nitrogen makes up 14% of the dry weight of bacterial cell, and sulfur and phosphorus together constitue about another 4%

Nitrogen is primarily used to form the amino group of the amino acids of proteins.

Sulfer is used to synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids and vitamins such as thiamine and biotin. Important natural sources of sulfur: sulfate ion (SO42-), hydrogen sulfide, and the sulfur-containing amino acids

Phosphorus is essential for the synthesis of nucleic acids and the phospholipids of cell membranes. phosphate ion (PO43-)

When are organic molecules oxidized?

during respiration

Where is energy generated from?

the electron transport chain

What is the final/terminal electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?

O2

What is the terminal electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration?

sulfate, carbonate, phosphate

In cellular respiration from one molecue glucose, oxidaion produces how many molecules of the following:
NADH
FADH2ATP

6 molecules NADH

2 molecules FADH2

2 molecules ATP

How are electrons brought to the electron transport chain?

NADH

In aerobic prokaryotes how many ATP molecules can be produced from complete oxidation of glucose molecule in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain?

38 ATP

In (aerobic) eukaryotes how many ATP molecules can be produced from complete oxidation of glucose molecule in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain?

36 ATP

What is the end-product of glycolysis?

Pyruvic acid

What are the two major types of glucose catabolism? Describe each.

Cellular respiration, in which glucose is completely broken down and fermentation, in which it is partially broken down

What are enzymes?

proteins, produced by licing cells, that catalyze chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

What happens to enzyme at high temperature?

Enzyme undergo denaturation and lose their catalytic properties.

What happen to enzymes at low temperature?

The reaction rate decreases.

Where is most of cell's energy produced?

from the oxidation of carbohydrates

What is the most commonly used carbohydrate?

glucose

How many ATP and NADH molecules are produced from one glucose molecule?

2 ATP

2 NADH

Catabolism

refers to the chemical reactions that result in the breakdown of more complex organix molecules into simpler substance.

Anabolism

refers to chemical reactions in which simpler substance ar combined to form more complex molecules

Where is the energy for chemical reaction stored in?

ATP

What is the conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy? What is the chemical energy used for?

Photosynthesis

the chemical energy is used for carbon fixation

Define metabolism.

the sum of all chemical reactions within a living organism

What are 2 reactions of metabolism?

catabolism and anabolism

What are the components of an enzyme?

cofactor (or coenzyme; if cofactor is organic) & apoenzyme.

What happens if the the cofactor is removed from a holoenzyme?

the apoenzyme will not function

What are the two most important coenzymes in cellular metabolism? What does both compound contain and its function?

a coenzyme that contains a derivative of pantothenic acid, another B vitamin. CoA plays and important role in the synthesis and breakdown of fats and in a series of oxidizing reactions called the Krebs cycle.

4. Competitive inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active site of the enzyme. Noncompetitive inhibitors act on other parts of the apoenzyme or on the cofactor and decrease the enzyme's ability to combine with the normal substrate by altering the shape of the active site.

What is phosphorylation?

Energy released during certain metabolic reactions can be trapped to form ATP from ADP and P (a single phosphate ion). Addition of P to a molecule

List and provide examples of three types of phosphorylation reactions that generate ATP

substrate-level phosphorylation, a high-energy P from an intermediate in catabolism is added to ADP.

oxidative phosphorylation, energy is released as electrons are passed to a series of electron acceptors (an electron transport chain) and finally O2 or another inorganic compound.

photophosphorylation, energy from light is trapped by chlorophyll, and electrons are passed through a series of electron acceptors. The electron transfer releases energy used for the synthesis of ATP.

what is oxidation-reduction?
Explain what is meant by oxidation-reduction

a coupled reaction in which one substance is oxidized and one is reduced

1. Oxidation is the removal of one or more electrons from a substrate. Protons (H+) are often removed with the electrons.

2. Reduction of a substrate refers to its gain of one or more electrons.

3. Each time a substrate is oxidized, another is simultaneously reduced.

4. NAD+ is the oxidized form; NADH is the reduced form.

5. Glucose is a reduced molecule; energy is released during a cell's oxidation of glucose.

Describe the mechanism of enzymatic activity

When an enzyme and substrate combine, the substrate is transformed, and the enzyme is recovered. Enzymes are characterized by specificity, which is a function of their active sites.

competitive inhibitors

fill the active site of an enzyme and compete with the normal substrate for the active site. this is possible because its shape and chemical structure are similar to those of the normal substrate

noncompetitive inhibitors

do not compete with the substrate for the enzyme's active site; instead, they interact with another part of the enzyme

feedback inhibition

inhibition of an enzyme in a particular pathway by the accumulation of the end-product of the pathway; also called end-product inhibition

stops the cell form making more of a substance than it needs and thereby wasting chemical resources

acts on the first enzyme in a metabolic pathway

Define metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactins within a living organism

what are the two classes of chemical reaction

release energy- catabolism

require energy- anabolism

Describe/Define catabolism. Give example

Catabolism is the breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler ones

releases energy

are called catabolic or degradative reactions

hydrolytic reactions (use water in which chemical bonds are broken)

exergonic (produce more energy than the consume)

example: cells break down sugars into CO2 and H2O

Describe/Define Anabolism.
Give example

Anabolism is the building of complex organic molecule from simpler ones

Catabolic reactions provide the building blocks for anabolic reactions and furnish the energy needed to drive anabolic reactions.

How is energy-requiring and energy-releasing reaction made possible in the 2 types of chemical reactions?

through the molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

ATP __(1)___ energy derived from __(2)___ reactions and __(3)___ it later to drive _(4)____ reactions and perform other cellular work.

1. stores

2. catabolic

3. releases

4. anabolic

ATP molecule consist of:

adenine

ribose

3 phosphate group

When the terminal phosphate group splits from ATP what is formed?

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

The principal properties of a group of proteins involved in almost all biologically important chemical reaction is/are:

enzymes

When does chemical reaction occur?

when chemical bonds are formed or broken

What must happen for reactions to take place?

atoms, ions, or molecules must collide

Define collision theory

explains how chemical reactions occur and how certain factors addect the rates of those reactions

What is the basis of collision theory?

all atoms, ions, and molecules are continuously moving and are thus continuously colliding with one another

What factors determine whether a collision will cause a chemical reaction?

the velocities of the colliding particles, their energy, and their specific chemical configurations

The collision energy required for a chemical reaction is its _____, which is the amount of energy needed to disrupt the stable electronic configuration of any speific molecule so that the electrons can be rearranged.

activation energy

The _____ is the frequency of collisions containing sufficient energy to bring about a reaction- depends on the number of reactant molecules at or above the activatin energy level.

reaction rate

What is one way to increase the reaction rate of a substance?

raise its temperature

What are catalysts?

substances that can speed up a chemical reaction without being permanently altered themselves

In living cells, what serves as biological catalysts?

enzymes

Identify the role of ATP as an intermediate between catabolism and anabolism.