Cooperative Banking – CAIIB Elective -- Updates
PROJECT FUNDING TECHNIQUES AND REQUIREMENT ASSESSMENT
Introduction
Project approach could be applied for a small investment or a large investment. It is a flexible approach to
development wherein each 'project' is considered to be an independent unit having its own costs and benefits.
Careful project preparation and analysis is important for efficient use of financial resources. In the liberalized
environment and in the wake of financial sector reforms, the importance of project approach has further
increased. The need and importance of project approach, the project cycle and its various stages, discounted
cash flow techniques and important viability parameters like NPV, BCR and IRR are now discussed.
Project Approach-Definition, Importance and Limitations
The word ‘projects’ has different connotations in different contexts. In general, project means a location
specific activity with specific objectives, time and cost limitations and of non-repetitive nature. In the context
of financing and banking, a project is considered an investment activity, in which financial resources are used
for creating capital assets that produce benefits over an extended period of time.
From this definition, setting up of a poultry farm is a project but cultivation of field crop like wheat or paddy is
not a project because in a poultry farm, the investment leads to a stream of income over a period of time,
whereas the expenditure on cultivation of wheat or paddy leads to production of crop during a particular season
and not beyond. Since projects are concerned with creation and acquisition of capital assets, it is also, at times,
called capital expenditure or capital investment or capital project. Another tern used is 'scheme', but a scheme
is smaller in scale than a project.
There are two types of costs - 'investment' cost and 'production' costs. An investment cost in one project may
be a production cost in the other. For example, fertilizer is a production cost in paddy but is investment cost in
a project where rubber plantation is taken up, which takes some time to start yielding and then generates
income during next several years. Thus, the only difference which distinguishes the two is the time span during
which the income is generated.
Projects could be broadly of two types, expansion of existing units and establishing a new unit. There could be
an area development project or individual project. In area development projects, the unit cost and the
investment items remain more or less the same or standard but large number of such units are financed, e.g.,
when Rubber Board prepares a project for developing an area (covering 2-3 states) for rubber plantation, it
consists of several smaller units (one or more units per farmer) of standard investment. The individual
borrower oriented projects are mostly commercial in nature and could be implemented by individual, corporate
or partnership firms; the entrepreneur prepares the project as per his requirement. Examples of such projects
are a commercial poultry project and floriculture project.
Importance and Advantages of Project Appraisal
Project Appraisal is important as resources (especially financial) for development are scarce. By project
analysis priorities are fixed. The benefits and costs for each project can be identified and viability of the project
computed. Being an independent unit, it can be closely monitored and followed up separately. Thus,
accountability and responsibility can be fixed which is difficult in other cases. The project format gives an idea
of costs on year to year basis so that those who have to provide the resources can plan for the same. The
project analysis brings out the effect of the project on various 'participants' or affected parties, so that the
adversely affected parties could be suitably compensated. The Project Approach analyses sensitivity and risk
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aspects of the project and indicates the effect of such risk factors on return on investment and profitability. The
project format encourages systematic examination and selection of the best possible alternative.
Limitations of the Project Format
The project approach has several advantages but it is not free from limitations, The limitations are: a)
identifying costs and benefits of project and quantifying them, b) quality and reliability of data used in project
analysis, c) validity of techno-economic parameters assumed for analysis, d) change in technology during the
implementation of the project, e) difficulty in risk assessment, f) unforeseen changes in prices affecting the
project estimates.
In spite of several limitations, project approach is useful in identifying the best project among several
alternatives. However, the decision for investment in a project is based on the judgment of those, responsible
for the evaluation of the project. Project analysis is a useful tool for arriving at a judgment in a more systematic
manner.
Project Cycle
Project cycle has five stages – identification, formulation, appraisal, implementation and monitoring and
evaluation.
(i) Identification: Identification could be from several sources: progressive farmers, entrepreneurs,
technical experts, local leaders, bankers, mass media, extension agencies and national policies and
plans.
(ii) Formulation: Preparation of feasibility study is the first step in analysis. Advanced techniques of
project planning like Programme Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) and Critical path
Method (CPM) are used in capital intensive and complex project and those with longer gestation
period (the period between starting of implementation of the project and income generation).
(ii) Appraisal: After preparation, every project is appraised by an independent agency. This includes
analysis and scrutiny of each and every aspect, details and assumptions made in the project. Generally
banks have to undertake the appraisal of project before financing. The appraisal is also assigned to
specialized agencies in case of complex project. The appraisal is conducted from several aspects like
technical, financial, commercial, managerial, economic, distributive and environmental. Even within
financial appraisal, there are various types of analysis.
(iv) Implementation: Implementation basically means translating the proposal into a ground level project.
The phases of the implementation are: a) pre development phase, this involves getting registration,
licenses and loan disbursement, b) development phase, construction of structures and starting up of
production, and c) operational phase starts with production and concludes when the economic life of
the project comes to an end.
(v) Monitoring and Evaluation: The final phase in project cycle is the monitoring and evaluation.
Monitoring keeps track of the project, usually done by collecting certain performance indicators about
the project to check whether the project is performing according to the plan, identifying problem areas
and finding possible solutions. There are two types of monitoring which banks undertake: a) desk
monitoring based on collected data and b) field monitoring, based on actual field visit. Evaluation is
conducted for the purpose of learning lessons of success and failure from the project. There are several
organizations (like NABARD or training establishments) which conduct such evaluation studies and
publish them for wider circulation.
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Technical Feasibility
This involves studying the agro-climatic suitability of the area for the project, appropriateness of the chosen
equipment, machinery and technology, availability of raw material, power and other inputs, appropriateness of
technology chosen from social point of view, availability of infrastructure for the project, the techno economic
assumptions and parameters used for analyzing costs and benefits and viability provision for treatment of
effluents, training of manpower, legal requirement on documentation, license and registration.
The technical feasibility is generally examined by technical specialists in the organizations. In case of highly
specialized projects, the banks seek opinions or get the projects appraised through experts like consultants, or
organizations like Technical Consultancy Organizations (TCOs), NABARD and Development Finance
Institutions.
Organizational and Managerial Aspects
The organizational and managerial aspects evaluate the managerial capacity of the organization or the
entrepreneur, responsible for implementing the project. Even if very good technology is chosen for the project,
it may fail due to lack of or inadequate managerial capability. In small agricultural and other projects the
entrepreneur is responsible for taking care of all these aspects. It is important for the banker to judge the
borrower's managerial capability and also his financial capability (worth). In case of cost escalation he should
be in a position to meet the additional financial requirement for the project.
Commercial Aspects Including Marketing
Commercial aspects of a project include arrangement for supply of inputs for the initiation and operation of the
project and marketing of outputs. Some experts prefer to have a separate marketing module and would treat it
as the most important aspect of appraisal. In this context, a commonly used term is backward and forward
linkages.
Relationship of Backward and Forward Linkages with the Product
Backward linkages are supply of inputs, labour and such other items, which go into the production process.
Forward linkages, necessary after the production process is completed, are transporting, processing, storage
and marketing. However, the nature of the linkage changes along with the nature of the project, for example,
processed milk is a forward linkage in case of a dairy plant, whereas it is a backward linkage for an ice-cream
factory.
In marketing of outputs, the basic issues are: a) demand of the products at present and in future, b) market
structure, segmentation and competition, c) source of demand - domestic and export, d) market share of the
project, e) size of the market, whether large enough to absorb additional production without affecting the price,
f) linkage of domestic market with international market, g) consumer behavior, h) price elasticity, and i)
marketing arrangements, distribution channels and policies.
Financial Analysis
(a) Investment and Cash Flow Concept
The primary aim of financial analysis is to determine whether the project satisfies the investment criteria of
generating acceptable level of profitability. The project should be able to service the debt and ensure expected
returns to the investor. The important aspects which are examined while conducting financial appraisal are
investment outlay, means of financing, projected financial statements, viability and profitability, break-even
point analysis, sensitivity analysis and risk analysis.
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Cash flow statement is the basis for financial analysis. In the initial period there is a negative cash flow
because of investment in capital assets, but after the project takes off, the cash flow becomes positive due to
the increased income.
Investment is generally required in the initial years, which is a cash outflow for the project. In the operational
phase, there is inflow from the business, which results in positive cash flow till the project is wound up. In the
last year, the inflow is higher due to the residual value adding to the cash inflow.
The period from start of the project till its winding up is known as project life and will vary from project to
project. Generally, projects with more than 20 years life are analyzed for financial cost and benefits for 20
years only, as the benefits accruing after that have a negligible present value.
(b) Discounted Cash Flow Technique
A project normally having long life, the cash flow spans over a long period. Since the value of money will not
be the same in all years, the cash flow of all future years cannot be treated equally. The difference in the 'value'
of money arises mainly due to its capacity to earn if it is invested today. This is known as 'time value of
money' and is an important concept in financial appraisal of projects. Time value of money is estimated by
'discounting' the future cash flows to their present value. One can 'reduce' future benefits and cost streams to
their 'present worth' or 'present value' with the technique called discounted cash flow technique. This is
simplified by finding discount factors which is computed by following formula:
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d= where d = discount factor for Re. 1 and r is the rate of interest
(1  r )n
n = Number of periods which could be years or months
Thus, the discount factor at 10 % per annum after one year will be
1 1 1
d=   = 0.909
 10 
1
(1  0.1)
1
(1.1)1
1  100 
 
This discount factor of 0.909 means that Re. 1 which going to be received after 1 year will have its ‘Present
value’ as Rs. 0.909 today. This computation can be done by using discount tables.
Estimation of an Appropriate Discount Rate
The discount rate to be used in project analysis has to be based on opportunity cost or the weighted cost of
borrowing. Thus, the discount rate should generate resources in future at a rate that will allow repayment of all
borrowed funds and also a reasonable and acceptable rate of return to the entrepreneur.
The discount rate can be of two types – real and nominal. The real discount rate could be expressed as the
discount rate after adjusting inflation rate.
(1  i)
Thus, real rate of discount (D) =
(1  p)
where i = Nominal Rate,
p = Annual Average increase of prices.
In Indian conditions, in general, for agricultural and rural development project a rate of 15% was considered
appropriate and was advised for computing Net Present Value (NPV) and Benefit Cost Ratio.
(c) Measures of Financial Viability -- NPV, BCR and IRR
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Financial viability is measured by net present value, benefit cost ratio, internal rate of return and debt service
coverage ratios.
Net Present Value (NPV) representing wealth creation by the Project, is calculated by taking the discounted
sum of the stream of cash flows during the project life. In symbolic terms we can express NPV of a project as
under:
C1 C2 Cn
NPV =   ...   Invst.
(1  r ) (1  r ) 3
(1  r ) n
where C = Cash Flows for different periods, r = Discount Rate and Invest. = Initial Investment
In other words, NPV represents the difference between the present value of the cost and benefit streams.
A project is considered viable if the NPV is positive at a given discount rate and vice-versa. When two or more
mutually exclusive projects are being appraised, the project with the highest NPV should be selected. Among
the discounted techniques, NPV is considered the most important parameter for assessing viability.
(i) Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR): BCR is the ratio of discounted value of benefit and discount value of cost.
It can be expressed as under:-
Summation of discounted value of Benefits
BCR =
Summation of discounted value of Costs
The project is viable when BCR is one or more than one and is unviable when it is less than one.
(ii) Internal Rate of Return (IRR): IRR represents the returns internally generated by the project. This is
also the rate which makes the net present value equal to 0. The calculation of IRR is a process of trial
and error. Normally, the process starts with the minimum discount rate and as the discount rate is
increased the NPV will come down and becomes 0 or negative. If NPV is positive at one rate and
negative at the immediate next rate (for example if NPV is positive at 20% discount rate and is
negative at 25%), ‘Interpolation Method’ could be used for finding out the exact IRR by the following
formula.
L + (H – L) × (NPV at L)
Exact IRR by interpolation method =
{(NPV at L) – (NPV at H)}
Where, IRR = Internal Rate of Return; L = Lower discount rate where NPV was positive; H = Higher
discount rate at which NPV was negative.
The project is considered viable if the IRR is more than the acceptable rate for the entrepreneur which
could be the opportunity cost for his funds. In case of agricultural and rural development projects
generally the prescribed IRR for viability is 15% in India and other developing countries.
(d) Sensitivity Analysis, Scenario Analysis and Risk Analysis
Sensitivity Analysis
Projects are sensitive to fluctuation in values of critical variables like costs of inputs and prices of outputs. It is
important to examine how sensitive is the project to fluctuations in the values of these variables because the
basic assumptions taken for projections of balance sheet, cash flow statements for future years have an element
of uncertainty. Different projects may, however, get affected differently from changes in the assumption of
cost and return items. Sensitivity analysis helps us in finding out that how sensitive is the project to these
fluctuations. Sensitivity analysis involves identification of crucial variable relating to costs and returns,
specification of alternative values of the crucial variables and re-computation of the NPV and IRR by using the
alternative values. A project, which is highly sensitive to even small fluctuations in cost and price, is a risky
project for financing.
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Scenario Analysis
Sensitivity analysis takes care of only one or two variable which is at times inadequate. This limitation is
partially overcome by what is known as scenario analysis, where scenario of certain prices, cost and other
variables are created and the financial parameters are computed.
Risk Analysis
Even though through sensitivity analysis and scenario analysis techniques, some of the uncertainties in the
project are taken care, both these types of analysis have limitation that they have deterministic values for the
variables. In a significant improvement over these methods, under risk analysis, probabilistic analysis is done
by identification of key risk variables, finding out values of each risk variable, assigning probabilities for each
value to each of the risk variables, using these values for risk analysis and finding out the probability of
negative outcome of the project, i.e. what is the probability that the NPV of the project will be negative.
The risk analysis adds valuable information to the project analysis and it is an important tool in this respect but
to take up investment or not depends on the risk taking capacity of the entrepreneur which will vary from
person to person. Therefore, it is judgmental in nature.
Economic Appraisal
The objective of economic appraisal is to examine the project from the entire economy's point of view to
determine whether the project will improve the economic welfare of the country. Economic appraisal is
traditionally not conducted in banks or financial institutions. It is generally conducted by agencies like the
World Bank and the development agencies of the Government for the projects having huge investment and
profound implication for the economy. Examples of the projects where economic analysis is conducted are big
dams, forestry projects and big industrial projects.
Social/distributive Appraisal
For an analysis of a project to be complete, it should include not only the financial and economic but also
social appraisal. The social analysis consists of two parts: measurement of the distribution of the income due to
the project and identification of the impact on the basic needs objectives of the society.
The steps involved in social appraisal are: conducting financial analysis, economic analysis and appraisal of
distributional effect of the net benefits (externalities) of the project. Here, the affected parties like farmers,
dealers of the goods, existing operators and Government are to be identified. One party (like farmers whose
lands will be irrigated in the case of a dam) is a gainer but the other (like those who are displaced due to the
dam) is a loser.
After social and distributive analysis it may emerge that a project is financially unviable but socially and
economically is viable. In such situations the decisions to undertake the project would depend upon the goals
of the Government. If the Government believes that the positive externalities are worth the negative financial
cash flow, it may decide to implement the project.
Environmental Aspects
Developing countries including India are now becoming increasingly aware of the urgency to integrate
environmental concerns into their project formulations and appraisal. This has led to the increased importance
being attached to the environmental aspects in the projects and now most of the banks and financial institutions
insist on what is known as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The essence of EIA is a prediction of the
consequences to the natural environment from development projects.
The emphasis in EIA is on those consequences of the projects which are relatively well known and whose
magnitudes can be easily estimated. Conditional, uncertain or probabilistic aspects of the impacts are not
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considered. Another elaborate analysis called Environmental risk Assessment (ERA) is used to differentiate a
new and additional analysis in which the probabilistic element is explicitly addressed.
In India, the consciousness has already come at the policy level. A separate ministry has been formed and
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was passed by the Government of India. Further, Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) has been formed for ensuring proper implementation of the provisions of the Act. Most
of the industries are covered by the Act and therefore such industries have to seek clearance not only before
setting up of industries but also on a regular basis from the state level PCBs. State level PCBs implement the
standards set by CPCB. Reserve Bank of India has also directed the banks not to extend certain credit facilities
to industries which have deleterious effects on the environment. Thus, environmental aspects of the projects
are becoming very important in project appraisal.
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