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Taken together, these results demonstrated that SN can inhibitROSproduction induced either directly by LPS stimulation or indirectly by MPP+-mediated reactive microgliosis, and lend further evidence to the idea that superoxide production, rather than TNF-?

Our observation that MPP+-mediated neurotoxicity is significantly less in PHOX-/- animals [41], and that SN does not protect DA neurons from MPP+-mediated toxicity in neuron-enriched or neuron-astroglial cultures (Fig. 3), supports the notion that SN protects MPP+-induced neurotoxicity mainly through the inhibition of ROSproduction, which in turn slows down the self-propelling cycle and prevents further neuronal death.