Human factors and ergonomicsHuman factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as Human Factors),
is the application of psychological and physiological principles to
the (engineering and) design of products, processes, and systems. The
goal of human factors is to reduce human error, increase productivity,
enhance safety and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction
between the human and the thing of interest. [1]
The field is a combination of numerous disciplines, such as
psychology, sociology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design,
physiology, anthropometry, interaction design, visual design, user
experience, and user interface design. In research, human factors
employs the scientific method to study human behavior so that the
resultant data may be applied to the four primary goals. In essence,
it is the study of designing equipment, devices and processes that fit
the human body and its cognitive abilities. The two terms "human
factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.[2][3][4]
The
International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics or human
factors as follows:[5]

ErgonomicsErgonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned
with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements
of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data
and methods to design to optimize human well-being and overall system
performance.

Human Factors is employed to fulfill the goals of occupational health
and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such
things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and
equipment.
Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain
injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over
time and can lead to long-term disability.
Human factors and ergonomicsHuman factors and ergonomics is concerned with the "fit" between the
user, equipment, and environment. It accounts for the user's
capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks,
functions, information, and the environment suit that user.
To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, human
factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job (activity) being
done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape,
and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how
it is presented, accessed, and changed).
ErgonomicsErgonomics draws on many
disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including
anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial
engineering, industrial design, information design, kinesiology,
physiology, cognitive psychology, industrial and organizational
psychology, and space psychology.

3.1 In ancient societies
3.2 In industrial societies
3.3 In aviation
3.4 During the Cold War
3.5 Information age

4 Human Factors organizations

4.1 Related organizations

5 Practitioners
6 Methods

6.1 Weaknesses

7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Etymology[edit]
The term ergonomics (from the Greek ἔργον, meaning "work", and
νόμος, meaning "natural law") first entered the modern lexicon
when Polish scientist
Wojciech JastrzębowskiWojciech Jastrzębowski used the word in his
1857 article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach
poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e.
Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural
Science).[6] The introduction of the term to the English lexicon is
widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the 1949
meeting at the UK's Admiralty, which led to the foundation of The
ErgonomicsErgonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he
had been engaged during and after World War II.[7]
The expression human factors is a predominantly North American[8] term
which has been adopted to emphasise the application of the same
methods to non-work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical
or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to
humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems.
The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially
synonymous.[2]
Domains of specialization[edit]
ErgonomicsErgonomics comprise three main fields of research: Physical, cognitive
and organisational ergonomics.
There are many specializations within these broad categories.
Specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual
ergonomics. Specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics
may include usability, human–computer interaction, and user
experience engineering.
Some specialisations may cut across these domains: Environmental
ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment as
characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light.[9]
The emerging field of human factors in highway safety uses human
factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road
users – car and truck drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc. – and
use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce traffic
collisions. Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of
fatal collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular
interest is how road users gather and process information about the
road and its environment, and how to assist them to make the
appropriate decision.[10]
New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, "user trial
engineer" may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in
user trials.[citation needed] Although the names change, human factors
professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of
equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health,
safety, and productivity.
According to the International
ErgonomicsErgonomics Association, within the
discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization:
Physical ergonomics[edit]

Physical ergonomics: the science of designing user interaction with
equipment and workplaces to fit the user.

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the
anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as
they relate to physical activity.[5] Physical ergonomic principles
have been widely used in the design of both consumer and industrial
products. Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field,
particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or
disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and temporary) or carpal
tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to
those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a
device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed
products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such
disorders, and to treat pressure-related chronic pain.[citation
needed]
One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is
musculoskeletal disorder. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders
(WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and
work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they
are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms.[11] Every
year, 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly
600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss
work.[12] Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of
worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or
pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs
are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful
exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions;
or use of vibrating equipment.[13] The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics
programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity
and decrease employee turnover.[14] Therefore, it is important to
gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most
problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical
records, and job analyses.[13]
Cognitive ergonomics[edit]
Main article: Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as
perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect
interactions among humans and other elements of a system.[5] (Relevant
topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance,
human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to
human-system and
Human-Computer InteractionHuman-Computer Interaction design.)
Organizational ergonomics[edit]
Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of
socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures,
policies, and processes.[5] (Relevant topics include communication,
crew resource management, work design, work systems, design of working
times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics,
cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework,
and quality management.)
History of the field[edit]
In ancient societies[edit]
The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid
within the context of the culture of Ancient Greece. A good deal of
evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used
ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs, and
workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the
description
HippocratesHippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be
designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged.[15] The
archaeological record also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties
made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic
principles.
In industrial societies[edit]
In the 19th century,
Frederick Winslow TaylorFrederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the
"scientific management" method, which proposed a way to find the
optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he
could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were
shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal
shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached.[16] Frank and
Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to
develop the "time and motion study". They aimed to improve efficiency
by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this
approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying
from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity
from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.[16]
However, this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused
on the well being of the worker. At the First Conference on Scientific
Organization of Labour (1921)
Vladimir BekhterevVladimir Bekhterev and Vladimir
Nikolayevich Myasishchev criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that
"The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it [Taylorism],
but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a
maximum of efficiency coupled with a minimum of health hazards,
absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round
personal development of the working people."[17] Myasishchev rejected
Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a machine. Dull
monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a corresponding
machine can be developed. He also went on to suggest a new discipline
of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the re-organisation
of work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's mentor, Bekhterev,
in his final report on the conference, merely changing the name to
"ergonology"[17]
In aviation[edit]
Prior to World War I, the focus of aviation psychology was on the
aviator himself, but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in
particular, the design of controls and displays, and the effects of
altitude and environmental factors on the pilot. The war saw the
emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and
measurement methods. Studies on driver behaviour started gaining
momentum during this period, as
Henry FordHenry Ford started providing millions
of Americans with automobiles. Another major development during this
period was the performance of aeromedical research. By the end of
World War I, two aeronautical labs were established, one at
Brooks Air Force Base, Texas and the other at Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base outside of Dayton, Ohio. Many tests were conducted to
determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots
from the unsuccessful ones. During the early 1930s, Edwin Link
developed the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more
sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another
significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects
of illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the
identification of the Hawthorne Effect, which suggested that
motivational factors could significantly influence human
performance.[16]
World War II marked the development of new and complex machines
and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators' cognition. It
was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of matching
individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment had to
take into account human limitations and take advantage of human
capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness
and hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the
success or failure of a task. There was substantial research conducted
to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be
accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical
research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the
study done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective
configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits.
Much of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of
making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use. The
entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern
lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional
aircraft flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943
Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this
so-called "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and
differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane
cockpits. After the war, the Army Air Force published 19 volumes
summarizing what had been established from research during the
war.[16]
In the decades since World War II, Human Factors has continued to
flourish and diversify. Work by
Elias Porter and others within the
RAND CorporationRAND Corporation after WWII extended the conception of Human Factors.
"As the thinking progressed, a new concept developed—that it was
possible to view an organization such as an air-defense, man-machine
system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the
behavior of such an organism. It was the climate for a
breakthrough."[18] In the initial 20 years after the World
War II, most activities were done by the "founding fathers":
Alphonse Chapanis, Paul Fitts, and Small.[citation needed]
During the Cold War[edit]
The beginning of the
Cold WarCold War led to a major expansion of Defense
supported research laboratories. Also, many labs established during
WWII started expanding. Most of the research following the war was
military-sponsored. Large sums of money were granted to universities
to conduct research. The scope of the research also broadened from
small equipments to entire workstations and systems. Concurrently, a
lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry. The
focus shifted from research to participation through advice to
engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the period saw a
maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with the
development of the computer and computer applications.[16]
The
Space AgeSpace Age created new human factors issues such as weightlessness
and extreme g-forces. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and
its effects on the mind and body were widely studied[citation needed]
Information age[edit]
The dawn of the
Information AgeInformation Age has resulted in the related field of
human–computer interaction (HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for
and competition among consumer goods and electronics has resulted in
more companies and industries including human factors in their product
design. Using advanced technologies in human kinetics, body-mapping,
movement patterns and heat zones, companies are able to manufacture
purpose-specific garments, including full body suits, jerseys, shorts,
shoes, and even underwear.
Human Factors organizations[edit]
Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human
factors specialists and ergonomists is The Chartered Institute of
ErgonomicsErgonomics and Human Factors, formally known as the Institute of
ErgonomicsErgonomics and Human Factors and before that, The
ErgonomicsErgonomics Society.
The
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) was founded in 1957.
The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of
knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are
applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds.
The
International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of
ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The
mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and
practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of
application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the
International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2
affiliated societies.
Related organizations[edit]
The
Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) was founded by the coal
industry in 1969. From the outset the IOM employed an ergonomics staff
to apply ergonomics principles to the design of mining machinery and
environments. To this day, the IOM continues ergonomics activities,
especially in the fields of musculoskeletal disorders; heat stress and
the ergonomics of personal protective equipment (PPE). Like many in
occupational ergonomics, the demands and requirements of an ageing UK
workforce are a growing concern and interest to IOM ergonomists.
The International
Society of Automotive EngineersSociety of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is a
professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in
the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries. The
Society is a standards development organization for the engineering of
powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks, boats,
aircraft, and others. The
Society of Automotive EngineersSociety of Automotive Engineers has
established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and
elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with
established Human Factors principles. It is one of the most
influential organizations with respect to
ErgonomicsErgonomics work in
Automotive design. This society regularly holds conferences which
address topics spanning all aspects of Human
Factors/Ergonomics.[citation needed]
Practitioners[edit]
Human factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds, though
predominantly they are psychologists (from the various subfields of
industrial and organizational psychology, engineering psychology,
cognitive psychology, perceptual psychology, applied psychology, and
experimental psychology) and physiologists. Designers (industrial,
interaction, and graphic), anthropologists, technical communication
scholars and computer scientists also contribute. Typically, an
ergonomist will have an undergraduate degree in psychology,
engineering, design or health sciences, and usually a masters degree
or doctoral degree in a related discipline. Though some practitioners
enter the field of human factors from other disciplines, both M.S. and
PhD degrees in Human Factors
EngineeringEngineering are available from several
universities worldwide.
Methods[edit]
Until recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics
ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive
usability labs.[19] Some of the more common Human Factors methods are
listed below:

Ethnographic analysis: Using methods derived from ethnography, this
process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical
environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses
on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology
or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in
the design process.[20]
Focus Groups are another form of qualitative research in which one
individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the
technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one-to-one
interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large
quantity of deep qualitative data,[21] though due to the small sample
size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias.[22] Can be
used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on
the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can
be extremely costly.
Iterative design: Also known as prototyping, the iterative design
process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, to correct
problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process,
these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this
article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new
design. Trends among users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This
can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible
in the design process before designs become too concrete.[20]
Meta-analysis: A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body
of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form
hypotheses to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a
meta-analysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from
individual variables.[22]
Subjects-in-tandem: Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a
series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The
technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed
off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations
than is often possible with the participants separately. This is
observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability
difficulties. This process is usually recorded.[citation needed]
Surveys and questionnaires: A commonly used technique outside of Human
Factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that
they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low
cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The
validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the
questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by
definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect
self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the
population further.[22]
Task analysis: A process with roots in activity theory, task analysis
is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system
or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or
process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is
generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed,
and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and
observational process. Best used early in the design process.[22]
Think aloud protocol: Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this
is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use
technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a
researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can
be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task
performance, but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user.
Also useful for utilizing experts to better understand procedural
knowledge of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups,
but tends to be more specific and subjective.[23]
User analysis: This process is based around designing for the
attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the
characteristics that define them, creating a persona for the user.
Best done at the outset of the design process, a user analysis will
attempt to predict the most common users, and the characteristics that
they would be assumed to have in common. This can be problematic if
the design concept does not match the actual user, or if the
identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from. This
process is, however, usually quite inexpensive, and commonly used.[22]
"Wizard of Oz": This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has
seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon the Wizard of Oz
experiment, this technique involves an operator who remotely controls
the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual
computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly
changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to
undertake.
Methods analysis is the process of studying the tasks a worker
completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down
into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described.
Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining
tasks occur.
Time studies determine the time required for a worker to complete each
task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are
considered "event based" studies because time measurements are
triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.[24]
Work sampling is a method in which the job is sampled at random
intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a
particular task.[24] It provides insight into how often workers are
performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.
Predetermined time systems are methods for analyzing the time spent by
workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used
predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement (MTM).
Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST.
Industry specific applications based on PTS are Seweasy,MODAPTS and
GSD as seen in paper: Miller, Doug, Towards Sustainable Labour Costing
in UK Fashion Retail (5 February 2013). Available at SSRN:
http://ssrn.com/abstract=2212100 or doi:10.2139/ssrn.2212100
.[citation needed]
Cognitive walkthrough: This method is a usability inspection method in
which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to
identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators
are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify
how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is
integrated.[25]
Kansei method: This is a method that transforms consumer's responses
to new products into design specifications. As applied to
macroergonomics, this method can translate employee's responses to
changes to a work system into design specifications.[25]
High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People (HITOP): This
is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change
to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and
organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to
efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.[25]
Top modeler: This model helps manufacturing companies identify the
organizational changes needed when new technologies are being
considered for their process.[25]
Computer-integrated Manufacturing, Organization, and People System
Design (CIMOP): This model allows for evaluating computer-integrated
manufacturing, organization, and people system design based on
knowledge of the system.[25]
Anthropotechnology: This method considers analysis and design
modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from
one culture to another.[25]
Systems analysis tool (SAT): This is a method to conduct systematic
trade-off evaluations of work-system intervention alternatives.[25]
Macroergonomic analysis of structure (MAS): This method analyzes the
structure of work systems according to their compatibility with unique
sociotechnical aspects.[25]
Macroergonomic analysis and design (MEAD): This method assesses
work-system processes by using a ten-step process.[25]
Virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology (VMRSM): This
method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for
workstation design.[26]

Weaknesses[edit]
Problems related to measures of usability include the fact that
measures of learning and retention of how to use an interface are
rarely employed and some studies treat measures of how users interact
with interfaces as synonymous with quality-in-use, despite an unclear
relation.[27]
Although field methods can be extremely useful because they are
conducted in the users' natural environment, they have some major
limitations to consider. The limitations include:

Usually take more time and resources than other methods
Very high effort in planning, recruiting, and executing compared with
other methods
Much longer study periods and therefore requires much goodwill among
the participants
Studies are longitudinal in nature, therefore, attrition can become a
problem.[28]

Directory of Design Support Methods Directory of Design Support
Methods
EngineeringEngineering Data Compendium of Human Perception and Performance
Index of Non-Government Standards on Human Engineering...
Index of Government Standards on Human Engineering...
Human Factors
EngineeringEngineering resources
Human Factors in aviation
NIOSH Topic Page on
ErgonomicsErgonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
Office
ErgonomicsErgonomics Information from European Agency for Safety and
Health at Work
Human Factors Standards & Handbooks from the University of
Maryland Department of Mechanical Engineering
Human Factors and
ErgonomicsErgonomics Resources

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