Note: The
following is only one of forty-five studies of world
sources found in Chapter 12 of Richard Hughes' book, Ruby & Sapphire. If
you like what you see, order a
copy direct from the publisher.

India

India has long been synonymous with
gemstones. Beryls, pearls, carnelians and Golconda's storied
diamonds were but a few of the precious substances which for
millennia drew visitors to the subcontinent. To the ancient Romans,
the East, specifically India, was the repository of all wealth.
Indians not only sold their mineral treasures to Rome, but were
leaders in developing the technologies that allowed such deposits
to be exploited. India's rulers were also the world's
greatest gem collectors, amassing riches of incalculable value.

No
land save Sri Lanka has venerated the corundum gems longer
than India. In fact, the term corundum is derived from
the Sanskrit word kurand (see page
29). Since the earliest times, ruby and sapphire in
India have ranked among the Maharatnani ('great gems').
India's ancient jewelers divided gems into two main
groups: Maharatnani ('great gems') and Uparatnani ('secondary
gems'). In the former class was placed diamond, pearl,
ruby, sapphire and emerald. Early Sanskrit texts dealt
with ratnapariksa ('investigation of gems,' or 'gemology'),
and divided blue sapphire ('nilamani')
into two varieties, indranila and mahanila.
The former was described as rarer and more precious, displaying
a rainbow blue, while the latter apparently included stones
of a darker hue (Brown, 1956). According to Holland (1898),
three classes of sapphires were recognized by Indian jewelers:
deep blue, those with a tinge of green (subj-pun nílá)
and those with a tinge of red (lál-pun nílá).

Figure 1 A
selection of both rough and cut sapphires from the
famous Kashmir mine. The cut stones range from 6–14
ct. (Photo: Henry Hänni/SSEF)

Supernatural
powers were attributed to gems in India. One way this was manifested
was the interdependence between gems and planets. Ruby, associated
with the Sun, was the Lord of Gems, for the Sun lorded over all
the planets. Sapphire was associated with Saturn (Wojtilla, 1973).

The
earliest Sanskrit texts mention only Sri Lanka as a source
of ruby and sapphire. Somewhat later, Kalinga (northeast
India, between the valleys of the Mahanadi and Godavari
rivers) and Kalpur (Kalpura; in central India) are added,
but neither are today sources of corundum. About 1884,
a buried treasure of some sixty rough sapphires was unearthed
from a mound amongst the temples atop the sacred hill of
Mahendragiri, in the Ganjam district of Kalinga. They were
probably placed there as a votive offering at some unknown
date in the past. After being cut in Madras, they were
examined in by the Geological Survey of India, and pronounced
to be of good quality (Brown, 1956).

Timeline
of Kashmir sapphire

1879–82

Blue sapphires are
first discovered in the Padar region of Kashmir,
allegedly where a landslip had uncovered their
occurrence (Mallet, 1882; Shepard, 1883; Ball,
1885b; La Touche, 1890).

1882

Sapphires begin to appear in Simla. The Maharajah
of Kashmir intervenes by sending a regiment of
sepoys to take control of the mines (Ball, 1885b).
Delhi jewelers buy up more than two lakhs (#20,000)
worth of stones (Mallet, 1882).

1882–87

The glory days of the Kashmir sapphire mine.
During this period, crystals as large as 5" (12.7
cm) long by 3" (7.62 cm) wide are found
(La Touche, 1890).

1887–88

Declining revenues cause the Maharajah of Kashmir
to ask the British Indian Government for assistance.
T.D. La Touche is dispatched to the mines to
undertake the first detailed geologic survey
of the area. He finds the "Old Mine" exhausted
and turns his attention to placers on the valley
floor, where systematic sampling via pits is
done. Placer yields are found to decrease at
the lower end of the valley, and below the 1
m level. During 1887, his team finds one parti-colored
piece of rough weighing ~6 oz (933 ct)[a]
(La Touche, 1890).

1889–1905

Official mining halts, but local
poachers continue to dig (Minerals Yearbook, 1906).

1906–08

C.M.P. Wright and the Kashmir
Mineral Co. lease the mines. Wright reworks the
placer deposits and obtains a number of fine
stones. He digs a trench a few hundred meters
south of the Old Mine, but eventually gives up,
due to the difficulties of mining in such an
inhospitable area. Wright's trench later
becomes known as the "New Mine" (Middlemiss,
1931). One stone reportedly sells for #2000 (Heron,
1930).

1911

Lala Joti Parshad visits the mines
as Mining and Prospecting Officer. He mines the
southwest opening of the New Mines, but results
are poor (Middlemiss, 1931).

1920

Sohnu Shah of Jammu leases the
mines, with poor results. This apparently confirms
the belief that the mines are exhausted (Middlemiss,
1931).

1924

Pandit Labhu Ram, Junior Assistant
Superintendent Mineral Survey, maps the area
of the Old and New Mines. This results in much
useful information on where sapphire is found in
situ (Middlemiss, 1931).

1926

Lala Jagan Nath of Jammu is given
a prospecting license and obtains 5,500 tolas
(~64 kgs) of sapphire. His license is revoked
due to certain irregularities (Middlemiss, 1931).

1927

Lala Joti Parshad and Pandit Labhu
Ram of the Kashmir government extract 39,029
tolas (~454 kgs) of material from Lala Jagan
Nath's trench at the New Mines in 15 days.
Cutting the material, however, produces disappointing
results (Middlemiss, 1931).

1928–32

With the exception of poachers,
no mining is done (Brown & Dey, 1955).

Outbreak of World War II results
in declining production (Atkinson & Kothavala,
1983).

1944

Geologist R.V. Gaines and R.C.
Rice, on leave from the US Army in Calcutta,
visit the mines. Theirs is the first trip by
Western geologists in many years. They find the
mine guarded by a team of police (Gaines, 1946).

The Maharajah of Kashmir's
political power is broken (Atkinson & Kothavala,
1983).

1977–79

The Indian government discusses
leasing the mines, without success (Anonymous,
1977b, 1978, 1979a, 1979c).

1981

D. Atkinson and R.Z. Kothavala
make the first visit by outside geologists to
the area in many years. Their reports are the
best accounts of the mines published to date
(Atkinson & Kothavala, 1983, 1985).

1982–present

Government continues to discuss
leasing the mines, but without success. Muslim
guerrilla activity in the mining area increases
and, as of 1994, the mining region was considered
rebel territory (Cap Beesley, pers. comm., Dec.
5, 1994).

a. Although La Touche did not specifically say so, it is
assumed these are Troy (apothecary) ounces. [return to
Timeline]

While
India's use of impure corundum as an abrasive appears to stretch
back at least a millennia or more (see page
199), the country's history of gem corundum production
is relatively brief. Low-grade ruby has been mined for an indefinite
period, but India did not enter the major leagues of gem corundum
production until the 1880s, with the discovery of sapphire in Kashmir.
It is to these mines that we now turn.

Kashmir sapphires – blue
velvet

The famous sapphires of Kashmir
are mined from a remote region high in the Great Himalayan
mountains of northwestern India. Lying at an elevation
of approximately 4,500 m, they are located in the small
Kudi ('rock') Valley, near the hamlet of Sumjam
(Soomjam), in the Padar (Paddar) region of Kashmir. The
district of Zanskar, which has been incorrectly listed
as the source of the sapphires, lies just to the north
(Ball, 1885b; Steve Karpa, pers. comm., 1990).

History of the Kashmir mine

Exactly when sapphires were first
discovered in Kashmir is unknown. Ball (1885b) lists it as about
1879 or 1880, but La Touche (1890) gives 1881 or 1882. The following
is one of the earliest accounts of the discovery of sapphires
in Kashmir:

There are two versions of the discovery
of the corundum deposits at Sungchang in Zanskar, one being that
they were exposed by a hill-side slipping, the other that they were
discovered by hunters. Their value was so little known that the villagers
bartered them for a trifle to Lahouli traders, who in their turn
vainly endeavored to exchange them for grain in Kulu. On their value
becoming known, there was a rush of jewelers from Delhi and other
places; and they speedily rose to 100 rs. per tola = about #20 stg.
per oz., for good specimens, at which rate they have remained; at
present none are to be had, all the stock brought down has been sold,
and the mine is strictly guarded by one of the Maharajah's Dogra
regiments. So far as I can learn, the matrix is a schistose or slaty
rock….

The Maharajah has recently released from prison and largely
rewarded two native hunters, who had been imprisoned for dealing in sapphire,
on condition of their showing him two other deposits, one of blue and
the other of red corundum. I have no information regarding these deposits.
A small fragment of the red corundum has, however, found its way to Kulu; it
is true oriental ruby, perfectly clear, and of a beautiful water.

A. Grahame Young, Kulu, Aug. 8, 1882
(from
Shepard, 1883)

Another version of the discovery
was told to Albert Ramsay (1934):

In India my eyes have been dazzled
by such jewels as never have been seen in the Western world. When
I was last in the Srinagar palace of the Maharaja of Jammu and
Kashmir thirty trays were brought before me, and if I were to say
that any one tray, sent to market, would fetch a million dollars,
I would be giving only a faint impression of the astonishing wealth
and beauty of those treasures of an Indian gentleman.

A handsome man is Colonel His Highness Maharaja Sir Hari
Singh. In the afternoon he had shown me his sapphires and told me the story of
how they were found.

It seemed that in the old days a band of men with beards
dyed red found some blue stones exposed by a landslide in the hills of Kashmir.
These men had come from Afghanistan, part of a mule caravan on its way to Delhi.
The stones, as curiosities, were put away in the bags on one of the mules, and
then, in Delhi, they were traded for salt. Thereafter they were sold to someone
who recognized them to be rough sapphires: and they were resold and resold and
resold, until finally, in Calcutta, they brought in rupees a price which was
equal to $400,000. The news of this transaction got back to the maharaja of that
time, who discovered that the sapphires had been picked up in his own Kashmir
hills. In great wrath he went to Calcutta and demanded them. Every single transaction
in the long train had to be undone. The man who had sold the sapphires gave back
the $400,000, and so it went through many towns, until, at Delhi, a merchant
received back a few bags of salt. Today, I should think, those Kashmir sapphires
are worth $3,000,000. One of them is as large as an eggplant. For one of the
smaller fragments I offered His Highness $25,000. He just laughed at me; he does
not want to part with any object in his beloved collection, but, oh, how I should
like to buy some of those treasures!

Albert Ramsay (with Boyden Sparkes),
1934

Figure 2 View
of the Kashmir sapphire mines. Taken in 1887–8,
this is among the earliest photos of the fabled deposit.
(From La Touche, 1890)

Still another version is that
of T.D. La Touche (1890):

The existence of sapphires in considerable
quantities in some part of the North-West Himalayas was first brought
to light in 1881, or early in 1882, when some were brought into
Simla by traders from Lahol, who stated that they had been obtained
from a spot among the mountains on the borders of Zanskar, where
a landslip had laid bare the rocks beneath the soil, and disclosed
the presence of the gems. Various stories are told of the original
discovery; according to one of these, which was told me on the
spot, a certain shikari, having lost the flint from his gun while
out hunting, or, as is the custom of the natives when in want of
a light for their pipes, looking for a handy fragment of quartz
or other hard rock to strike a light with, picked up a small sapphire,
and finding that it answered his purpose better than the ordinary
fragments of quartz he was in the habit of using, carried it about
with him for some time, and eventually sold it to a Laholi trader,
by whom it was taken to Simla, where its value was recognised.
Enquiries were then made, which resulted in the discovery of the
spot where the shikari had picked up the stone, and for some time,
until guards were posted near the locality by the Maharajah of
Kashmir, in whose territory it lies, large quantities of the stones
were brought to Simla and sold at absurdly low prices, the Laholis
only asking about one rupee per seer for them. Another
story runs to the effect that a number of traders who had arrived
in the Simla bazaar with borax from Rupshu were emptying their
baskets in a merchant's shop, when a stone fell out and was
thrown by the merchant into the street. The well-known jeweller,
Mr. Jacobs [1], happened
to be passing at the time, and, so the story goes, was struck by
the stone. Picking it up, perhaps with the intention of returning
it, he saw what it was, and on the merchant's claiming it,
when he saw that there was something unusual about it, bought it
for a small sum. This latter story, if it is to be relied on, would
seem to point to the existence of another and as yet unknown locality
for the gems, somewhere in Rupshu; otherwise it would be difficult
to account for the presence of the sapphire among the borax, which
is brought to Simla along a route that does not pass anywhere near
the known locality in Padar. Various stories have been circulated
of the discovery of sapphires in Kulu and other portions of the
North-West Himalayas, but up to the present time none of these
have been confirmed.

T.D.
La Touche, 1890

In the beginning, sapphires
were so abundant that one person reported seeing about 1 cwt. (~50.8
kg) of them in the possession of a native (Brown, 1956).

Gradually, as they were carried by
traders to distant points, especially to Simla, their value became
known, and the agents of jewellers commenced a brisk competition,
till most of the available stones had been bought up. The Maharajah
of Cashmere then intervened by sending a regiment of sepoys, with
their officers, to take possession of the mines; and, it would
appear, with carte blanche to harry the inhabitants who
had, or who were suspected of having, any of the stones in their
possession. Indeed, so thoroughly did they fulfil their mission,
that any one they laid hands upon who was found to have money,
was suspected of either having sold or being about to purchase
sapphires, was thereupon despoiled, and if not arrested and confined,
was placed under observation.

The effect, as described by the few Europeans, principally
missionaries, who live in the country, has been to cause those who knew, or thought
they knew, other localities where similar stones were to be found to remain silent,
and to conceal evidence of their knowledge so as to escape oppression.

Valentine Ball, 1885b

Theft of stones was a
constant problem, and remains so today, with "gangs of hardy
smugglers" appearing out of nowhere, ever ready to take
advantage of the extreme remoteness of the locale to pilfer stones
(Middlemiss, 1931). Due to the altitude, conditions were difficult
at the mines. Even in the best years, mining was limited to the
three short summer months of July-September, being covered in
snow at other times. Some years, barely 30 days of mining were
possible, due to snow.

In the year 1887, on finding
a steady decrease in revenues from the mines, the Maharajah approached
the Government of India for assistance in assessing and developing
the site. T.H.D. (T.D.) La Touche, a trained geologist, was dispatched
to the site in September of that year. His account (La Touche,
1890) was the first scientific description of the area.

Upon his arrival, La Touche found that material was obtained
from two different sites. The first of these, now termed the "Old Mine," was
a group of shallow pits sunk into an actinolite-tremolite rock containing small
pegmatite lenses, high on the northeast wall of Kudi Valley. The vast majority
of fine stones were found in these lenses. Sapphires were also mined from the
placers 250 m below the Old Mine, on the valley floor, but were generally of
lower quality.

La Touche also traced the pegmatite-bearing rock through
the ridge to the north side, and did discover large blocks of corundum-bearing
granite. However, despite La Touche's ingenious attempt to create a landslip
to trace the source of these blocks, it was not found. Since that time others
have also attempted to locate sapphire-bearing lenses on the opposite side, but
without success.

At the time of La Touche's visit, the Old Mine was
practically exhausted. Although another site (termed the 'New Mine'),
was later found, it produced little. What this means is that virtually all of
the large fine Kashmir sapphires in existence were taken from the site known
as the Old Mine during the period from 1881–1887. In just six years, this
mine produced such a quantity of fine stones that they achieved a reputation
second to none among sapphires. So fine was their quality that, today, they remain
the standard against which all others are measured. Utterly incredible, but absolutely
true.

Finding the Old Mine exhausted, La Touche turned his
attention to the placers below, and worked them with mostly mediocre results.
One success, however, was the discovery of a 6 oz (933 ct) parti-colored giant.
In 1888, he was back for another try, but found little.

Figure 4 The
sapphire washing apparatus constructed by La Touche
at the Kashmir mine. Taken in 1887–8, this is
the earliest photo known of mining at this storied
location. (From La Touche, 1890)

From
1889 to 1906 there was a lull in official mining, with the only
digging being that of poachers. In 1906, the Maharajah leased the
mines to private interests. C.M.P. Wright reworked the placers
after much study and obtained many fine stones. 1907 brought the
discovery of the New Mine, a few hundred meters southeast of the
Old Mine. Wright, however, was eventually forced to abandon his
efforts, due to the many difficulties encountered in mining in
such an inhospitable region. Active efforts did not resume until
1924.

In 1926, Lala Jagan Nath reopened the New Mine and extracted
over 60 kg of corundum. His license was revoked for irregularities just one year
later. 1927 was to be the last gasp of the Kashmir sapphire mines. Over 450 kg
was taken from the New Mine in just 15 days, but few fine cut stones above 10
ct resulted. Middlemiss, in his report of 1931, had great hopes for the mines.
These were based, in part, on the potential of discovering the sapphire outcrop
on the opposite side of the ridge. Unfortunately, his hopes were never realized.

In 1944, geologist R.V. Gaines and R.C. Rice, both on
leave from the US Army in Calcutta, visited the mines. They found most openings
had been walled up and sealed to prevent poaching. As a further hindrance, in
addition to the permanent police post at Kudi, a platform was erected on the
ridge overlooking the mines. This platform was named the "Black House," in
allusion to the bleak and lonely life of the three policemen stationed there
(Gaines, 1946). It later burned and has not been rebuilt (Atkinson & Kothavala,
1983).

Today the adits are heavily barred to prevent entry and
the entire valley is closely watched by a small team of police stationed at its
mouth year round (Atkinson & Kothavala, 1983; Steve Karpa, pers. comm., 1990).

Since 1927, the mines have been worked intermittently,
but with no real success. Every few years the Kashmir Government makes noises
about leasing out the mines, but so far these attempts have not come to fruition
(Anonymous, 1977b, 1978, 1979a, 1979c). From 1889 to 1906 there was a lull in
official mining, with the only digging being that of poachers. In 1906, the Maharajah
leased the mines to private interests. C.M.P. Wright reworked the placers after
much study and obtained many fine stones. 1907 brought the discovery of the New
Mine, a few hundred meters southeast of the Old Mine. Wright, however, was eventually
forced to abandon his efforts, due to the many difficulties encountered in mining
in such an inhospitable region. Active efforts did not resume until 1924.

In 1926, Lala Jagan Nath reopened the New Mine and extracted
over 60 kg of corundum. His license was revoked for irregularities just one year
later. 1927 was to be the last gasp of the Kashmir sapphire mines. Over 450 kg
was taken from the New Mine in just 15 days, but few fine cut stones above 10
ct resulted. Middlemiss, in his report of 1931, had great hopes for the mines.
These were based, in part, on the potential of discovering the sapphire outcrop
on the opposite side of the ridge. Unfortunately, his hopes were never realized.

In 1944, geologist R.V. Gaines and R.C. Rice, both on
leave from the US Army in Calcutta, visited the mines. They found most openings
had been walled up and sealed to prevent poaching. As a further hindrance, in
addition to the permanent police post at Kudi, a platform was erected on the
ridge overlooking the mines. This platform was named the "Black House," in
allusion to the bleak and lonely life of the three policemen stationed there
(Gaines, 1946). It later burned and has not been rebuilt (Atkinson & Kothavala,
1983).

Today the adits are heavily barred to prevent entry and
the entire valley is closely watched by a small team of police stationed at its
mouth year round (Atkinson & Kothavala, 1983; Steve Karpa, pers. comm., 1990).

Since 1927, the mines have been worked intermittently,
but with no real success. Every few years the Kashmir Government makes noises
about leasing out the mines, but so far these attempts have not come to fruition
(Anonymous, 1977b, 1978, 1979a, 1979c).

Figure 5 The
location and geology of the famous Kashmir sapphire
mines near Sumjam. Rubies are mined near Gharan in
Afghanistan / Tajikistan, as well as near Aliabad in
Pakistan. (Modified from Atkinson & Kothavala,
1983; based on Middlemiss, 1931)

Description
of the deposit

Mining methods at the Kashmir mines have always been primitive, due to the
altitude and remote location. Still today, the mines remain accessible only
by foot or helicopter. The closest roadhead is at Kishtwar, 6–8 days' march
from the mines. Much of the journey is over narrow mountain paths fit only
for man and small pack animals. In many places large rivers must be crossed,
spanned only by hanging bridges not designed for large loads. This, as much
as anything, has ensured that mining methods remain primitive.

The sapphires of Kashmir occur in outcrops high on the
wall of the Kudi Valley. Within an actinolite-tremolite rock, small pegmatite
lenses occur, and it is within these lenses that the sapphires are found. Originally
a landslip exposed the sapphires at the surface, allowing discovery. At first,
huge quantities were obtained by simple digging. In places they were as thick
as "plums in a pudding," and sometimes of enormous sizes. Many of the
finest stones were obtained by the Maharajah and were stored at the Kashmir State
Treasury. A number of authorities reported that large sacks and chests containing
literally a king's ransom worth of rough and cut sapphires lay hidden away
in the Kashmir State Treasury Chambers. The material, culled from 40 years' production,
was quite literally the cream of the crop. C.S. Middlemiss (1931) described this
hoard as follows:

We are aware that one of these outcrops,
namely that of the Old Mine, continued yielding gemstone [sic]
for an appreciable time, and gave an extremely good output of very
large stones from about the year 1881 to about 1887. This is a
historical fact and is well known to many living people. A few
specimens of sapphire then collected are still preserved, jealously
guarded by the State, in the toshakhana [treasury], and
have been seen by the writer. Of these there is at least one large
piece, bigger than a polo or croquet ball, and others smaller all
of a rich blue colour. There are also many cases of cut gems of
pendant size which are superficially as large as florins.

C.S.
Middlemiss, 1931

Incredible!
Bigger than a croquet ball. What became of these stones? We just
do not know. Although many merchants visited Jammu and Srinagar
with the intention of purchasing some or all of these stones, their
offers were refused (Halford-Watkins, 1935). The present author
recalls reading about a caretaker trying to steal this treasure
about 1978–82, taking one piece each day in his lunch pail.
He was caught and the stolen goods apparently recovered. Since
then, nothing further has been heard of the "hoard of Kashmir." All
we can do is wait and hope.

Uncorroded
Crystal

Corroded
Crystal

Figure 6 The
famous Kashmir sapphire mines produce two different
types of rough. Some of the crystals display heavily
corroded surfaces, while in others the original crystal
surfaces are largely intact. Like the ottu sapphires
from Sri Lanka, the color in Kashmir sapphires lies
mainly along the crystal faces, with the core of the
crystal being colorless. Unfortunately, in the corroded
crystals this vital color layer is largely absent,
making them poorly suited for cutting. Both corroded
and uncorroded crystals have proven satisfactory for
heat treatment. (Redrawn by the author from Middlemiss,
1931)

Middlemiss also discussed the
failure of all the first geologists on the scene to describe the
actual occurrence from which these fine stones emanated:

But of the details of the in situ
rock occurrence whence these magnificent trophies were won
we unfortunately know hardly anything, nor have we any recent
descriptions by the Mineral Survey or Mining Engineer of the
nature of the quarry, pits or other openings made by the early
pioneers at this place. It is a curious fact that all the geological
and mining men who have visited and reported on these mines,
from La Touche downwards, though agreeing as to the position
of the Old Mine workings, have one and all seemed to shirk any
description of them. Are they rock-face workings, irregular burrowings,
tunnels, pits or what, what is their extent and how deep from
the surface do they go? We simply do not know! La Touche, in
his published paper simply says "here the face of the rock
has been laid bare by a landslip, and at first the sapphires
were taken out of the granite itself: but when I visited the
mines this patch of rock had ceased to yield any for some time,
nor did the closest search bring any more to light". Labhu
Ram in his report says "the Old Mine is also located in
the same actinolite-tremolite mass that contains the New Mines….
No trace of pegmatite veins is found near it and the mine has
not yielded any stones for very many years since the late eighties".
Later on in his report he discusses the point whether or not
the sapphire may have had a different source altogether to that
of the New Mines "having been derived either from the garnetiferous
gneiss bands found exposed above and below the mine, or directly
from the actinolite-tremolite schist".

None of the others who visited the mines, including the
Mining Engineer, have anything to say at all on this matter.

This is all very unsatisfactory; but at least we may
conclude that very large sapphire pieces were got from this point of the rectangular
area mentioned above, although details as to its matrix, mode of occurrence and
the nature of the workings remain obscure.

C.S.
Middlemiss, 1931

Evidently,
those who did have a chance to observe the workings at the Old
Mine were so impressed by what was found that they completely forgot
to describe the workings. This means that we know little about
how these incredible stones were obtained. Today all that remains
of the Old Mine are a few shallow burrows dug into the rock.

About 100 m from the Old Mine are a series of shallow
adits distributed over a small area. In the early 1980s, much blasting had been
done to get at the sapphire-bearing pegmatite (Atkinson & Kothavala, 1983).

Kashmir
sapphires compared

Overview

In the 30–40
year period during which the mines were intensively worked, Kashmir sapphires
achieved a reputation second to none. Today, with the exception of estate sales,
fine Kashmir sapphires are virtually unobtainable, mute testimony of the degree
to which they are coveted. Outside the collection seen in the Jammu and Kashmir
State Treasury, few cut stones of greater than 65 ct have been reported (Schwieger,
1990). Crystals are sometimes of enormous size. Mallet (1882) reported on one
which measured 1 ft (30 cm) in length.

The
treasures of Kashmir –
Mother lode, or mother of futility?

Is
the Kashmir mine played out, or do riches still await
those patient enough to explore further? The possible
answer lies in the nature of the occurrence. Kashmir
sapphires occur as the result of pegmatites cutting
through a limestone. Heat from the intrusion has resulted
in metamorphism of the limestone to marble, with corundum
forming at the fringes. Such heat does not normally
occur in one area only. Thus the discovery of sapphire
in Kashmir is possibly more widespread than what has
so far been discovered. While La Touche reported that
placer yields were found to decrease at the lower end
of the valley, and below the 1 m level, it is possible
that he was testing only the fringes of the deposit
(Delmer Brown, pers. comm., 30 Nov., 1994). Similarly,
the primary pockets in which the sapphires are found
are probably scattered throughout the fringes of actinolite-tremolite
band. Typically, the nature of such pocket-based occurrences
is feast or famine, and history is replete with examples
where such mines were abandoned just a few meters or
days' work short of paydirt.

In the case of the Kashmir sapphire mine, a logical course
of exploration would involve mapping the extent of the intrusions within the
limestone. Then it would be a matter of bringing in appropriate equipment and
getting down to work. As the Russians have shown with their Siberia diamond mines,
extreme weather is not a barrier for those who have the drive to succeed. A road
could be constructed from the mine to a lower-altitude area with plentiful water
for washing the sapphire ore. This ore could then be stockpiled in the winter
months, for later washing in summer. But with the Kashmir mines, location and
access are just convenient excuses for a lack of action. The real barriers to
mining in this area are the backward economic policies of the central government,
and the political problems which have resulted from the conflicts with Pakistan.
Until these problems are solved, the famous sapphires of Kashmir will continue
to repose in their icy tomb.

Color

Kashmir
sapphires range from near colorless through a deep blue, with the
occasional pink to purple stone found. The large fine gems of years
gone by were generally cut from the blue areas of much larger crystals.
Those specimens that possess smooth faces contain this blue layer
intact. However, many pieces feature heavily corroded surfaces
and thus the blue layer is only partially present, if at all. The
following description of Kashmir sapphire by Jaipur gem trader,
Rajroop Tank tallies well with the author's experience:

KASHMIR:--The Sapphires of
Kashmir form an exclusive class of their own. In the Jewel trade
it is customary to attach the appellation 'Kashmir' to
any fine Sapphire regardless of its geographical origin. This is
an indication of the outstanding qualities of Kashmir Sapphires.
The colour of these Sapphires resembles the beautiful hue of the
peacock's neck. Even a small concentration of that fine colour
illuminates the entire structure of the Gem.

It may, however, be noted that the product of the Kashmir
mines suffers more from flaws and blemishes than that of many other mines. The
Gems of Kashmir mines often have window, hole, or cavity in their texture, and
they also suffer at times from ambiguity of colours. It requires special skill
to cut the Jewels as the crystals are covered with a hard crust of earth and
it is difficult to know beforehand the internal structure. If a specimen is free
from cavity or window and does not exhibit ambiguity of colour it can be cut
into an excellent Gem. The produce of the old mine in Kashmir did not suffer
from so many blemishes, but the Sapphires of that mine are no longer available….
Kashmir Sapphires generally remain thick after cutting. Stars are not found in
them.

Rajroop Tank, n.d., Indian Gemmology

Figure
7 Blue
velvet—inclusions of Kashmir sapphires
Top
left. Most distinctive of
the Kashmir sapphire inclusions
are the rounded zircon crystals
with tiny accompanying black uraninite
crystals.
Top
right. Healed fissure with
flat, strongly recrystallized cavities
(negative crystals) in a Kashmir
sapphire. Some of these cavities
contain tiny opaque crystals of
unknown identity. 50x.
Below
left. Pargasite crystal
in Kashmir sapphire.
Below
right. Tiny hexagonal crystals
with thin-film satellite haloes
in a Kashmir sapphire. These are
similar to those found in Thai/Cambodian
rubies. (Photos: Henry Hänni/SSEF)

New Mine & placer
sapphires

Sapphires found at the New Mines differ
in one important respect from those of the Old Mine, and this
difference is important in understanding Kashmir material. New
Mine material comes in two types, both of which are coated with
a tenacious white clay. In almost all, the blue color is found
mainly at the outer crystal edges, especially the tips. Virtually
all are spindle-shaped hexagonal bipyramids, as shown in Figure
6. Other than the blue tips and faces, the rest of the crystal
is typically colorless (the New Mines also produce the occasional
stone with blue tips and a pink core). What this means is fine
blue stones must be cut from the tips of the crystals, similar
to the way in which Sri Lanka's ottu sapphires are
cut. Witness the statement by Parkinson (1952):

I am quite satisfied that many of
the so-called "Kashmir sapphires" are actually of Ceylon
origin; certainly they are not mined in Kashmir.

To this author, it seems that
Parkinson saw a stone that looked like it was from Ceylon, and
so assumed it was. Many faceted Kashmir sapphires bear a certain
resemblance to Sri Lankan ottu stones.

One
of the ways in which ottu stones are typically cut is to lay the table facet
parallel to a pyramid face, along the intensely colored area at that face (see
Figure 9.3 on page 200). While this produces a larger stone, it also produces
an overly blackish color, as well as losing the velvety softness. Many Kashmir
sapphires display this color. [2]

Figure 8 Kashmir
sapphires, such as the stone above, are often cut as
sugarloaf cabochons. Note also the blackish color, which
many Kashmir sapphires display. (Photo: Mouawad, Geneva)

In the
vast majority of New Mine and placer stones, the blue faces have
been corroded away. Rather than having flat, well-formed faces,
most have deeply pitted faces; thus the colored areas are, by and
large, missing due to surface corrosion. When the faces are intact,
fine stones can be cut. This fact alone may account for the great
scarcity of fine Kashmir sapphires, as the Old Mine, where evenly-colored
stones were apparently more common, has produced virtually nothing
since 1887.

Old Mine sapphires

Probably
the only detailed description ever recorded of Old Mine material was that of
Grahame Young of Kulu, which is reproduced here:

…The facts I have collected regarding
the first discovered deposit are derived from an examination
I made of about an hundred weight [1 cwt. = 50.8 kgs] of the
crystals; their owner would not allow me to apply any tests,
but I used a compound lens magnifying 30 diameters.

A.
Grahame Young, Kulu, Aug. 8, 1882 (from Shepard, 1883)

The above was written
prior to the discovery of either the New Mine or valley placers.
Extrapolating, we can surmise that at least some Old Mine
material contained substantial internal coloration (nos. III.
and IV. above). From this location of color in the crystal, we
can further extrapolate that the polished shapes of those Old
Mine stones with substantial internal color would differ from
New Mine stones. In fact, many of the Kashmir sapphires today
sold at auction are cut as "sugarloaf" cabochons. While
this is in contrast to Tank's statement that Kashmir sapphires
generally remain thick after cutting, he was probably familiar
only with New Mine material. The author's own experience
with New Mine material also agrees with Tank's, in that
gems are often strongly zoned and cut with deep pavilions, similar
to Sri Lankan ottu sapphires. But apparently the Old Mine
produced some material which would allow both more even coloration
and, thus, stones cut to normal proportions.

In summary, it is impossible to say, based on evenness
of coloration and shape, that an individual stone came from the Old or New Mine.
Both mines produced the ottu-type material so similar to that from Sri
Lanka. But based on the historical record, the Old Mine appears to have produced
far more of the top-grade, evenly-colored material.

Heat treatment

Heat
treatment can produce dramatic results with Kashmir sapphire. One large lot examined
by the author both before and after burning showed a success rate better than
even the best Sri Lankan geuda material. Nearly every piece had been transformed
to a rich blue color. Why aren't we seeing this material in the market?
The answer is simple. No rough. Even low-grade material is scarce, and no mining
is being done at present.

Characteristics of
Kashmir sapphire

The following is based on the studies of Gübelin (1953, 1973), Gübelin & Koivula
(1986), Hänni (1990a), Phukan (1966) and Schwieger (1990), as well
as the author's own studies on a 1 kg lot of Kashmir material.

Crystal
habit

Kashmir sapphires bear a strong resemblance
to those of Sri Lanka, with almost all being spindle-shaped hexagonal bipyramids.
Some of these are flattened slightly. However, the Kashmir stones often consist
of intergrowths, with one crystal twisted around another, or even as multiple
intergrowths of as many as ten or more crystals grown together in a single mass.
Kashmir sapphire rough is easily recognized due to its distinctive mode of occurrence.
Coated with a white clay-like matrix, which fills the pits of heavily corroded
surfaces, this clay-like material also appears to be included in many stones
with irregular cavities just beneath the crystal surfaces. So tenaciously does
it cling to the skin that hydrofluoric acid is required for its removal. [3]
Most crystals are small, in the 1–4 ct range, and some feature small brown
tourmaline prisms [4] and mica flakes
adhering to their surfaces, or intergrown with them.

Figure 9 The
turbid, rutile-based zoning that is the hallmark of
Kashmir sapphires. (Photo: Henry Hänni/SSEF)

Solids

Kashmir
sapphires contain solid inclusions of a number of types, but
these are generally small, requiring magnifications of up to
100x to resolve their morphology. Most distinctive are the small,
slightly corroded, colorless crystals of zircon. Commonly adhering
to these are tiny black crystals of uraninite. Uraninite also
occurs alone, typically with radiating stress fractures.

Occurring with the sapphires are dark green and brown
prisms of tourmaline. These may be found growing right up against the sapphire
and are occasionally included within the gem itself. Euhedral allanite crystals
have also been encountered, as well as long needles of pargasite (amphibole).
Specimens examined by the author have also displayed inclusions of what appears
to be mica. Unidentified brown crystals of large size have been seen by the author
in one specimen.

Cavities

Among the
most distinctive inclusions of the Kashmir sapphires are the negative crystal
guests. These tend to occur in patterns and in many cases contain small black
crystals growing within. These black crystals are prismatic in habit and may
possibly be tourmaline. The negative crystals containing black crystals within
represent the most distinctive inclusion feature of the Kashmir sapphires examined
by the author.

• Near colorless to a deep blue (almost black), including
a highly prized, rich "velvety" blue that is considered
sapphire nirvana to connoisseurs
• Rarely pink to purple
• Six-rayed stars have been reported

Geologic
formation

Sapphire occurs at the contact zone of a pegmatite intruded
into a marble, in association with actinolite-tremolite.
They are most abundant where the intrusions are quartz-free
and surrounded by the actinolite-tremolite. The crystals
are found in lenticular pockets of kaolinized plagioclase
feldspar.

Crystal habit

Spindle-shaped hexagonal bipyramids are most
common, sometimes terminated by the basal pinacoid. Most
crystals are coated with a tenacious white kaolin clay. Dark
brown tourmaline crystals are often found adhering to the
crystal surfaces. The color generally lies near the tips
and exterior surfaces of crystals, similar to ottu sapphires
from Sri Lanka. Two distinct crystal types are found:
• Euhedral crystals, with flat faces, where the color layer is intact
• Corroded crystals where the color layer has been partly or completely
dissolved. The blue color of such crystals often appears as mottled blue spots.

• Straight, angular growth zoning parallel
to the faces along which it formed. In Kashmir stones this
is often composed of alternating clear and turbid zones.
Such turbidity is responsible for the "velvety" appearance
of many Kashmir stones.
• Color zoning is often restricted to the areas just beneath crystal faces;
such stones are termed "ottu" in Sri Lanka

• Rutile in fine clouds of generally
tiny crystals, parallel to the hexagonal prism (3 directions
at 60/120°) in the basal plane. This rutile tends to
be much finer than that found in Burmese and Sri Lankan
sapphires. Often only tiny particles are seen; these may
occur in tiny "snowflake" patterns.
• Clusters of dust-like inclusions (probably rutile) which may resemble
snowflakes
• Twinning needles parallel to the rhombohedron edges

a.
Table 1 is based on the author's first-hand experience,
along with published reports of Gübelin (1953, 1973), Gübelin & Koivula
(1986), Hänni (1990a), Phukan (1966) and Schwieger (1990). [return to
Table 1]

Growth
zoning

Due to the irregular distribution of color
in Kashmir rough, cut stones will also often display strong
color zoning, similar to Sri Lankan material.

Exsolved inclusions

The hallmark of the Kashmir sapphire is its velvety texture,
a slight haziness which, under magnification, is revealed as
numerous fine particles oriented in three directions at 60/120°
in the basal plane. The identity of these tiny exsolved inclusions
has in the past been the subject of much dispute (see Phukan,
1966; Gübelin, 1953). While their exact identity is still
yet to be determined, today it is generally accepted that they
consist of exsolved rutile (Hänni, 1990a; Schwieger, 1990).

The exsolved rutile of Kashmir sapphires
differs from that of Burma and Sri Lankan stones in terms of
the size of the crystals. Many appear as tiny dots in snowflake
patterns, and magnification of 40x or more is often required
to resolve individual crystals. Due to its extremely fine nature,
Kashmir rutile provides subtle light scattering without materially
affecting transparency, giving these gems their velvety appearance.

This haziness is present in virtually every piece examined
by the author, but is not the sole province of the Kashmir stone. Sapphires from
Sri Lanka, Thailand (especially Kanchanaburi) and Pailin may also exhibit a certain
milkiness, making confusion a real possibility. The haziness in Kashmir stones,
however, is extremely fine in nature, not enough to seriously degrade the clarity,
but just enough to impart the distinctive velvety luster to the stones (see Hänni,
Fig. 1, p. 69, for an excellent illustration of this effect).

Figure 10 Map
of India showing the principle corundum localities.
Major mines are located in Kashmir, Orissa, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu States.

Other corundum localities
in India

Kashmir is not the only locality in India producing corundum. Other sources
exist, but are of lesser importance in world markets, due to the lower
qualities of production. Other Indian corundum localities are given in Table
2 (based on Iyer & Thiagarajan, 1961, Kuriyan, 1993a-b, Viswanatha,
1982).

Figure 11 Fine
rubies have recently been found in India's Orissa
State, as the above photos show. (Photos: Bart Curren/ICA)

Indian ruby

For many years India has been the world's biggest supplier of low-end
ruby cabochons and star rubies. These localities include:

Andhra Pradesh. Low-quality
ruby (including stars) has been reported from a number of areas in Andhra Pradesh
state. These include Anantapur, Krishna, Kurnool, and Warangal (Fernandes & Joshi,
1995).

Bihar. Facet-grade ruby
has been reported from an unknown locality in Bihar. The percentage of facet-grade
material has been reported up to 25% of total production (Durlabhji, 1994).

Kangayam (Tamil Nadu). Facet-grade
ruby occurs in the Kangayam area of the state of Tamil Nadu, of which Madras
is the capital. Stones from this area are of a reddish color with a slight darkish
tint, but are generally heavily included. This source also produces star rubies.

Karnataka (including Mysore). Another
important ruby source in India. Gems come mainly from the Channa-Patna area,
but lack transparency and so are suitable only for cabochons and beads.

The Indian star rubies are generally heavily included,
and so of poor color and transparency. They do possess sharp stars; however due
to the lack of transparency the color is poor, and so they are usually but a
few dollars per carat, or less.

Figure 12 A
large, low-quality star ruby from India's Mysore
district. While such material is a staple of the low-end
gem trade, today India also produces some better material.
(Photo: Royal Ontario Museum)

Orissa. In
the early 1980s, important gem strikes were made in Orissa, eastern
India. These included both ruby and sapphire. Ruby is found at
Jhillingdhar, Hinjhrilbahal, Charbati, Rabaandangar and Odashali
in Kalahandi district, while sapphire is found at Amera and Karlakot
in Kalahandi, and Sangamara in Balangir district. To date, with
the exception of the ruby mine at Jhillingdhar, most mining is
done by small teams of locals (Kuriyan, 1993a-b). Rough ruby
is of variable shapes, from distorted hexagonal crystals to rolled
pebbles. They often have a coating of greenish-black or brown
material. Facetable material is said to be relatively rare. Sambalpur
district has also been reported as a source of ruby in Orissa
(Durlabhji, 1994).

Because of their poor clarity, Indian star rubies they
are often dyed and oiled. Most are filled with cracks, polysynthetic twin lamellae
and parting planes which allow penetration of oils and/or dyes. The Indian trade
magazine, Journal of Gem Industry (Anonymous, 1976), suggested that "the
packing material used in wrapping these stones
should never be absorbent, if good customer relations are desired." Perhaps
even better customer relations would result from omitting these dyes and oils
altogether.

Maharajahs – India's
fantastic fetish prince

mong
the greatest collectors of jewels were India's
princes--the maharajahs.[a]
According to Kipling, providence created the maharajahs
simply to offer mankind a spectacle. And what a spectacle
it was! Sport and sex were their preferred pastimes,
but jewels were their passion.

The Maharajah of Baroda exemplified the princely state
of mind. His court tunic was spun of gold, with only one family in his state
allowed to weave its threads. The family's fingernails were grown long and
then notched like the teeth of a comb, all the better to caress the golden threads
to perfection. Among his most precious treasures were a collection of tapestries
made entirely of pearls, into which were woven ornate designs of rubies and emeralds.

Jaipur's maharajah lorded over one of the largest
and richest of India's princely states. Somewhere in the Jaigarh fort, on
a peak above the palace, the private treasure of the Jaipur princes lay buried,
guarded by an especially belligerent Rajput tribe, the Minas. Once per lifetime,
each maharajah was allowed to visit the treasure and select a single item. Man
Singh chose from the private treasure a bird of solid gold studded with rubies
of extraordinary fire, so heavy that a woman could hardly lift it. Unfortunately,
independence came before the last maharajah, Jai Singh, could choose. Even so,
he did not do without. His jewels included a triple-stringed necklace of red
spinels, the stones having been contributed by various Mughal emperors, each
bigger than a pigeon's egg, along with three huge emeralds, the largest
of which weighed 490 ct. Among the world's greatest polo players, Jai Singh
died in appropriate form, atop his polo pony, one of the three richest men in
England.

None of the Indian princes amassed greater treasure than
the Nizams of Hyderabad. Presiding over one of the largest states (half the size
of France), their dominion included Golconda, in former times the world's
diamond center. They were the first to enter into alliance with the British,
but later became indebted, thus allowing the British to gobble up Berar, a valuable
part of their domain. For support during the Indian Mutiny of 1857, the British
wrote off that debt and awarded the Nizam the Order of the Star of India. Berar,
however, remained in British hands, causing the Nizam to remark, "Generosity
is uppermost in the minds of my British allies, even though their mathematics
are a trifle weak."

Among the titles of the seventh Nizam, Lieutenant General
His Exalted Highness Sir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur, were included "Regulator
of the Country, Victorious in Battle, the Aristotle of his Age, Shadow of God
and Faithful Ally of the British." While Osman Ali may not have been the
world's richest man, he certainly qualified as the world's greatest
miser. His wealth included two lime-sized diamonds of over 180 ct each; in keeping
with his frugal nature, one was used as a paperweight. The Nizam's pearl
collection was said to be so vast that it alone would cover the sidewalks of
Piccadilly Circus, and he owned over seventy million dollars in gold. But despite
his vast assets, visitors to the palace would be presented with only one cup
of tea, one biscuit, and one cigarette. After they left, the Nizam would drink
any remaining tea, eat the crumbs of the biscuit and smoke the cigarette butts
to the end. Over ten million dollars in cash was stashed in his basement, earning
negative interest, as rats gnawed their way through thousands each year.

A believer in the unani medical system of ancient
Greece, Hyderabad became the only place in the world with free clinics and a
hospital devoted to unani medicine, which involved good health through ingesting
powdered jewels. No maharajah followed this course better than an early prince
of Mysore. Informed by a Chinese sage that the finest aphrodisiacs contained
crushed diamonds, he succeeded in quickly depleting the state treasuries in his
princely quest for potence.

The Nizam of Hyderabad was a Muslim reigning over a largely-Hindu
population, but no one could accuse him of lack of faith. Hyderabad law forbade
the destruction of any legal records or newspapers in which the name Mohammed
had been published. Since many of his Muslim subjects carried this name, the
edict created a prodigious amount of paperwork, with wire baskets placed in the
streets so the public could properly dispose of papers bearing the prophet's
name.

Let us not forget the Maharajah of Patiala. He possessed
a breastplate containing 1,001 diamonds. Until the 20th century, it was the custom
for him to appear once a year before his subjects, wearing nothing but the diamond-encrusted
breastplate, complemented by his sexual scepter, in regal erection.

The seventh Maharajah of Patiala's harem numbered
350. So obsessed was Bhupinder Singh with desires of the flesh, that he devoted
an entire wing of his harem to a laboratory, where exotic cosmetics, perfumes
and love potions were mixed. A team of British, French and Indian plastic surgeons
stood on call, ever ready to alter the proportions of a favorite member of the
harem according to the Maharajah's whim. Alas, it was not enough. In the
end, Bhupinder Singh died of a most trite ailment--boredom.

But India's maharajahs had more on their minds than
just jewels and sex. Witness the Maharajah of Gwalior, whose passion was electric
trains. His palace was rigged up in a style that would surpass even a schoolboy's
most fantastic Christmas-eve fantasies. Guests at his banquets were served by
crystal trains running on silver rails, controlled by the Maharajah at an enormous
control panel. And if you displeased him during dinner, the dessert train might
well pass you by. During one fête in honor of the British Viceroy, the
control panel short-circuited, causing food trains to careen wildly, sloshing
gravy and other condiments all over the guests. It was, as Collins and Lapierre
remarked, "a catastrophe without parallel in the annals of railroading."

Are
the maharajahs simply relics
of a bygone era? Not really,
for they've been reincarnated
in the oil sheikdoms of the
Middle East. While visiting
the European chalet of one
of the Middle East's most
important jewelers, my host
was interrupted by a call from
the secretary of an Arab monarch: "Do
you remember the blue diamond
you sold the King last year?
He would like another one just
like it, with exactly the same
color, to make matched cuff
links. The weight is 8.13 ct
and its measurements are…" After
telling the secretary that
such a request was impossible
to fill, my host hung up. Alas,
the phone soon rang again,
with the secretary imploring
that the King "really
wants it." Turning
to me, the jeweler remarked
that the monarch wanted to
be "more than king." Then
he quickly made plans to leave
the next morning for Antwerp.

Figure 13 H.H.
the Maharajah of Patiala, ca. 1924,
in regal splendor. Sikh Sir Bhupinder
Singh, the Magnificent, was the seventh
Maharajah of Patiala and father of
the Chancellor of the Chamber of Princes.
His pearl necklace was insured by Lloyd's
of London for over $1 million, and
he possessed a breastplate made up
of 1,001 diamonds. According to Collins & Lapierre
(1975): "From his earliest adolescence,
Bhupinder Singh demonstrated a remarkably
refined aptitude for an equally worthy
princely pastime, sex. As he came into
maturity his devotion to his harem
eventually surpassed even his passions
for jewels, polo and hunting. He personally
supervised the steady accumulation
of its inmates, selecting new recruits
with a connoisseur's appreciation
of variety in appearance and accomplishment
in action. By the time the institution
reached its fullest fruition, it contained
350 ladies.

"During the torrid Punjab summers, the harem moved
outdoors in the evening to Bhupinder's pool. The prince stationed a score
of barebreasted girls like nymphs at intervals around its rim. Chunks of ice
bobbing in the pool's water gave the hot air a delicious chill while the
Maharaja floated idly about, coming to port from time to time to caress a breast
or have a sip of whiskey…." (Photo: from Johnston & Guest, 1937)

a. This account of the maharajahs
is based largely on Lord (1971), Collins & Lapierre
(1975) and Allen & Dwivedi (1984). [return to "Maharajahs"]

Notes

No doubt
this is Alexander M. Jacob, for whom the 162-ct Jacob ('Imperial')
diamond is named. Variously supposed to be a Persian, Jew,
Armenian, Russian and/or a British agent, he was then the most
important trader of jewels and antiquities in India. Said to be
a master of white magic, he operated out of a small, incense-filled
shop in Simla, summer capital of the British Raj. Jacob was the
inspiration for Lurgan Sahib in Kipling's Kim, as well
as F. Marion Crawford's Mr. Isaacs (Crawford, 1882;
Lord, 1971). [ return to
chapter text ]

An illustration of this is in 8. Contrast it
with Figures 1 and 3,
which shows the classic Kashmir color and velvety luster. See also Figure 3 in
Schwieger (1990), which shows 22 faceted Kashmir sapphires, nearly all of which
display this blackish color. [ return to
chapter text ]

See page 110 for cautions on the use of this
acid. [ return to
chapter text ]