Minister’s Foreword

The Australian Government has been working hard to improve the lives of Australian women and their families, since taking office in December 2007.

While many women are doing well and enjoy the benefits of the enormous effort over the generations, it is clear that challenges remain.

Women in Australia 2009, the fifth in the series, provides a useful statistical summary of these challenges. This document provides useful information on women’s economic outcomes, education and training, health, housing and leadership.

Women in Australia 2009 reiterates that women spend less time in the paid workforce, are more likely to work fewer hours and more likely to have interrupted career patterns due to caring responsibilities, in comparison to men.

Women in Australia 2009 is designed to be a reference for people interested in gender equality, and to underpin future policies, programs and projects that will help women achieve an equal place in society.

The Government is working to address these challenges through the following three key priority areas:

improving women’s economic outcomes and financial independence;

ensuring women’s voices are heard at all levels of decision-making; and,

reducing violence against women.

Greater equality economically and socially between women and men will be good for the whole community.

I hope that organisations and individuals interested in improving gender equality find Women in Australia 2009 a valuable resource.

Chapter 1 - Demographics

Population characteristics

Population size

As at 30 March 2008, Australia’s estimated resident female population was 10,700,779, representing 50.3 per cent of the total population.1

At the 2006 Census count, there were 455,031 Indigenous Australians, comprising 224,079 men and 230,952 women.2

Sex ratio

At 30 June 2007, the sex ratio for the total population of Australia was 98.8 males per 100 females. Table 1.1 shows that the sex ratio varies across regions. There are fewer men than women in all States and Territories except in Western Australia and the Northern Territory where there are 102.1 and 107.9 men respectively to every 100 women.

Table 1.1: Australian population sex ratio by region, 2007

Region

Sex ratio

New South Wales

98.1

Victoria

97.9

Queensland

99.7

South Australia

97.6

Western Australia

102.1

Tasmania

97.3

Northern Territory

107.9

Australian Capital Territory

98.1

Australia

98.8

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008, Population by Age and Sex, Australian States and Territories, June 2007, Catalogue No. 3201.0, ABS, Canberra, Table 5.

Population growth

In the 12 months to 30 June 2007, Australia’s population grew by 1.5 per cent, the highest rate of growth since 1988. The female population grew by 1.5 per cent and the male population grew by 1.6 per cent. The highest rate of population growth continued to occur in Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory.3

Population age

As at 30 June 2007, the median age (the age at which half of the population is younger and half older) of Australia’s population was 36.8 years. Australia’s female population is older than the male population, with a median age of 37.6 years for women compared to 36.1 years for men.4

The higher median age of women compared to men is attributed to the higher proportion of women than men aged 65 years and over in the population. Women and men in this age group represent 7.2 per cent and 5.9 per cent of the total population respectively.5

Country of birth

According to 2006 Census data, 23.9 per cent of Australia’s female population was overseas-born.6

Figure 1.1 shows the top 10 countries of birth for the female overseas-born population. The largest migration flow of women has been from the United Kingdom, with women from that country accounting for nearly one-quarter (23 per cent) of all overseas-born Australian women.

Family households

During the 2006 Census of Population and Housing, 7,596,185 households were counted. Of those, 67.4 per cent comprised family households, a decrease from 68.8 per cent in 2001.7

Family types

The total number of families counted in 2006 was 5,219,168, an increase of 12 per cent (from 4,655,919) since 1996. From 1996 to 2006, couple families with children decreased from 50 per cent to 45 per cent of all families. Over the same period, couple families without children increased from 34 per cent to 37 per cent. Between 1996 and 2006, one-parent families increased from 14.5 per cent to 15.8 per cent of all families.8

Of the 823,254 one-parent families in Australia in 2006, 683,862 (83.1 per cent) were headed by women.

Lone person households

From 1996 to 2006, lone person households increased from 22 per cent to 23 per cent of all households.9 Women comprised 54.5 per cent of all lone persons, but the gender imbalance is dependent upon age. Figure 1.2 shows that up to the age of 54 years, there are more men than women living alone. After age 55, the gender imbalance is reversed, especially after age 65, where there are 2.4 women living alone to every one man living alone.

Figure 1.2: Lone person households by age group and gender, 2006

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006, 2006 Census of Population and Housing Australia, Census Tables, Relationship in Household by Age by Sex - Australia, Catalogue No. 2068.0, ABS, Canberra.

Marriages

Number of marriages

In 2007, there were 116,322 registered marriages, representing an increase of 2,100 (1.8 per cent) from 2006. This is the highest number of marriages registered in one year since 1990.10

Crude marriage rate

The crude marriage rate (number of marriages per 1,000 people) increased to 5.5 in 2004 from a record low of 5.3 in 2001 and then fell slightly to 5.4 in 2005. It rose to 5.5 again in 2006 and remained steady at that level in 2007.11

Age at marriage

The trend towards older age at marriage has continued in 2007, however, the median age at marriage stablised in 2005 for women and in 2006 for men. The median age at marriage for women in 2007 was 29.3 years, rising from 27.5 years in 1997. For men, the median age at marriage was 31.6 years in 2007, rising from 29.7 years in 1997 (See Figure 1.3).

Previous marital status at marriage

The previous marital status of people married has remained relatively stable over the past 20 years. In 2007, 77.7 per cent of people married had not been married previously. For men, this applied to 76.8 per cent of all marriages. A further 1.7 per cent of men had been widowed and 21.5 per cent had been divorced prior to marriage. For women, 78.5 per cent had not been previously married. A further 1.8 per cent had been widowed prior to marriage and 19.6 per cent had been divorced prior to marriage.12

Cohabitation prior to marriage

The marriage data for 2007 reflect a continuation of the trend for more Australian couples to cohabit prior to marriage. In 1975, only 16 per cent of couples cohabited prior to marriage, increasing to 27 per cent in 198313 and to 67 per cent in 1998.14 In 2007, 76.8 per cent of the 116,322 couples who registered a marriage in 2007 indicated that they had lived together prior to marriage.15

De facto relationships

Between 1996 and 2006, the census count of people aged 15 years and over in de facto relationships rose by 62.7 per cent from 763,660 to 1,242,793. In 2006, de facto partners represented 14.8 per cent of all people living as socially married – that is, all those either in a registered marriage or a de facto relationship, (up from 10 per cent in 1996).16

In 2006, the median age of men in de facto relationships was 35.3 years while the median age of women was 33.3 years. In 1996, the comparative medians were 34.4 years and 32.0 years respectively.17

Births

Number of births

There were 285,200 births registered in Australia in 2007. This was the highest number of births ever registered in Australia.18

Fertility rate

Australia’s total fertility rate (TFR) in 2007 was 1.93 babies per woman, the highest since 1981 (1.94 babies per woman).19

Fertility rates increased for all age groups of women between 2006 and 2007. Women aged between 30 and 34 years continued to record the highest fertility of all age groups in 2007, with 126.6 babies per 1,000 women. This was the highest rate recorded for women in this age group since 1962. The fertility rates in 2007 for women aged 35 to 39 years (68.1 babies per 1,000 women) and for women aged 20 to 24 years (55.8 babies per 1,000 women) were the highest rates for women in those age groups since 1950 and 1990 respectively.20

Teenage fertility was 16.0 babies per 1,000 women in 2007, which was slightly higher than in 2006 (15.3 babies per 1,000 women).21

Indigenous births and fertility

In 2007, there were 14,200 births registered in Australia (5 per cent of all births) where at least one parent identified themselves as being of Indigenous origin on the birth registration statement.22

Between 2006 and 2007, the TFR for Indigenous women increased from 2.1 babies per woman to 2.4 babies per woman. Women under the age of 30 years accounted for 70 per cent of the total fertility rate for Indigenous women, compared to 46 per cent of the total fertility rate for all Australian women.23

Completed fertility and childlessness

The 2006 Census provides information on completed fertility, which is the average number of children ever born to women. Completed fertility has declined over the last 25 years. In 1981, women aged 40 to 44 years had an average of 2.8 children per woman. Women of the same age in 2006 had an average of 2.0 children per woman.24

The proportion of women aged 40 to 44 years with no children has increased over time, from 9 per cent in 1981 to 16 per cent in 2006.25

Divorce

Number of divorces

The number of divorces granted in Australia has been decreasing each year since reaching a peak in 2001 (See Figure 1.4). The trend continued in 2007 with 47,963 divorces granted, down from 51,375 in 2006.26

Crude divorce rate

The crude divorce rate is the number of divorces granted during a calendar year per 1,000 estimated resident population at 30 June. As shown by Figure 1.5, the crude divorce rate has declined steadily since 2001. In 2007, the crude divorce rate was 2.3, declining from 2.5 in 2006.27

Age at divorce

The median age for men granted divorce in 2007 was 44.2 years, compared with 41.3 years for women. The median age at divorce has been increasing steadily for both men and women over the past 20 years. This trend continued in 2007, with the median ages increasing by 0.3 years for men and 0.2 years for women.28

Divorces involving children

Over the last 20 years, the proportion of divorces involving children under the age of 18 years has been decreasing although this decline has slowed in recent years. The proportion of divorces involving children was 49.3 per cent in 2007, down from 50.1 per cent in 2006. The total number of children affected by divorce also decreased from 48,396 in 2006 to 44,371 in 2007.29

Length of marriage for divorcing couples

In 2006 and 2007, the median length of marriage to separation was 8.9 years, up from 8.8 years in 2005. The median length of marriage to divorce was 12.5 years in 2006 and 2007, slightly lower than 12.6 in 2005. However, over the last 20 years, there has been a steady increase in the median length of marriage to both separation and divorce.30

Deaths

Number of deaths

There were 137,900 deaths registered in Australia in 2007, 3.1 per cent more than the number registered in 2006 (133,700). Male deaths (70,600) outnumbered female deaths (67,300), resulting in a sex ratio of 104.9 male deaths for every 100 female deaths.31

There were 2,400 deaths registered in Australia in 2007 where the deceased person was identified as being of Indigenous origin.32

Standardised death rate

The standardised death rate in 2007 (six deaths per 1,000 standard population) was the same as in 2005 and 2006 and is the lowest on record. The standardised death rate was lower for women (4.9) than for men (7.2). The highest standardised death rate for women in 2007 was in the Northern Territory (6.9), followed by Tasmania (6.0). The lowest standardised death rate for women in 2007 was recorded in the Australian Capital Territory (4.7).33

Age at death

The median age at death in 2007 was 77.5 years for men and 83.5 years for women, an increase of 6.1 years and 5.3 years over the median age at death for men and women respectively since 1987.34

Life expectancy

A boy born in 2005–2007 can expect to live 79.0 years while a girl can expect to live 83.7 years.35

Indigenous life expectancy at birth for 1996–2001 is estimated to be 59.4 years for men and 64.8 years for women.36

Infant deaths

In 2007, there were 1,200 infant deaths (deaths of children less than one year of age) registered in Australia. This was a decrease of 60 infant deaths (or 4.7 per cent) over the number registered in 2005.38 Over the past 20 years, male infant deaths have outnumbered female infant deaths and in 2007, there were 660 male infant deaths and 550 female infant deaths.

Chapter 2 - Education and Training

Secondary education

In Australia, school attendance is compulsory up to the age of at least 15 years. In Tasmania and South Australia, school attendance is compulsory until the age of 16 years and in Queensland and Western Australia, it is now compulsory for people aged 15-17 years to remain in school or to participate in an approved education and training pathway (which may involve employment).1

In most Australian States and Territories, non-compulsory secondary education usually coincides with the final two years of secondary school or college (Years 11 and 12).

In 2007, there were 987,273 full-time students in Years 7 to 10. Just over half (51.0 per cent) were boys. At the same time there were 438,963 students in Years 11 and 12 and the gender imbalance was reversed (Figure 2.1). Girls comprised 51.7 per cent of all Year 11 and 12 students.2

In 2007, there were 147,181 full-time Indigenous students enrolled in secondary education. Girls comprised 48.9 per cent of all Indigenous secondary students.3

The 2007 student numbers include some revised data based on advice from the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 27 January 2009.

*Year 7 is the last year of primary school in some States and Territories, and the first year of secondary in others.

Figure 2.2 shows that girls are more likely than boys to continue onto Years 11 and 12. In 2007 the gender difference in the apparent retention rate from Year 10 to Year 12 for full-time students was just over 10 percentage points (80.8 per cent for girls and 70.6 per cent for boys).

Figure 2.2: Apparent retention rates* of full-time students across secondary school years

Educational attainment

Level of highest non-school qualification

In May 2008, 7.47 million Australians had a non-school qualification. This included 3.65 million women, accounting for 52.6 per cent of all Australian women aged 15 to 64 years.4 The proportion of Australian women with a non-school qualification has increased from 50.6 per cent in 2007.5

As shown by Figure 2.3, a Bachelor degree is the most common form of non-school qualification for women, whereas a Certificate III or IV is the most common qualification among men. The number of women is equal to or exceeds the number of men across all qualification levels, except among those with Certificate III or IV and Postgraduate qualifications.

Figure 2.3: Population aged 15-64 years by level of highest non-school qualification and gender, 2007

Figure 2.4 shows clear gender differences in the main fields of study among those with a non-school qualification. Management and commerce was the main field of study for about one-third of all women with a non-school qualification. Society and culture, Health and Education were also common main fields of study for women. Men’s qualifications were clustered in the Engineering and related technologies and Management and commerce fields of study. Men were also more likely than women to hold qualifications in the fields of Agriculture, environment and related studies, Architecture and building, and Information technology.

Figure 2.4: Population aged 15-64 years by main field of highest non-school qualification and gender, 2007

Higher education participation

Higher education enrolments

In 2007, women accounted for 55.0 per cent of all higher education students6 and Indigenous women represented 66.2 per cent of all Indigenous higher education students.7

As shown by Figure 2.5, in 2007, women comprised the majority of students enrolled in all levels of study, excepting Master’s courses. Relative to their overall respective shares in higher education enrolments (55:45 in favour of women), women were underrepresented and men were overrepresented in Master’s and Doctorate levels of study.

Figure 2.5: Distribution of students within each higher education course level by gender, 2007

Figure 2.6 shows the number of students enrolled in higher education courses across all levels in 2007 according to broad fields of education. Nearly twice as many women as men were enrolled in Society and culture courses. Women’s enrolments in Health and Education courses outnumbered men’s by nearly 3:1 Men outnumbered women in Information technology and Engineering courses by 4:1 and 5.5:1 respectively.

Figure 2.6: Students enrolled in higher education courses by broad field of education and gender, 2007

Higher education award completions

In 2007, women accounted for 55.9 per cent of all award course completions.8

Table 2.1 shows the number of courses completed by women in 2007 as a proportion of all courses by level of study. Although the number of award completions by women outnumbered completions by men, relative to their overall share of annual completions, women were underrepresented in Postgraduate completions overall, especially in Master’s and Doctoral levels, and overrepresented in Graduate Diplomas.

Figure 2.7 shows the number of completed higher education courses in 2007 for male and female students according to the broad fields of education. The number of completions for women was greater than or nearly equal to the number of completions for men for all courses with the exception of Architecture and building, Engineering and related technologies and Information technology. Figure 2.5 also shows that almost twice as many women as men completed Society and culture courses and approximately three times as many women as men completed Health and Education courses.

Figure 2.7: Course completions by broad field of education and gender, 2007

Graduate work and salaries

Bachelor graduates’ employment prospects

Every year, Graduate Careers Australia conducts the Graduate Destination Survey to determine the work and study destinations and salaries of new Bachelor degree graduates and postgraduates.

Table 2.2 shows that in April 2008, in comparison to male graduates, female graduates were less likely to be available for full-time employment and are more likely to be in part-time or casual employment. Male graduates were slightly more likely than female graduates to have undertaken further full-time study.

Table 2.2: Activities of Bachelor degree graduates in April of the year after graduation, by gender, 2008

Available for full-time employment
(%)

In full- time study
(%)

In part-time or casual employment, not seeking full-time employment (%)

Of all Bachelor graduates who were available for full-time employment, 85.2 per cent were in full-time employment at the time of the survey, with a further 9.6 per cent working on a part-time or casual basis while continuing to seek full-time employment. An additional 5.2 per cent were not employed and still looking for full-time employment four months after completing their qualification.9

Similar proportions of female Bachelor graduates (85.0 per cent) and male Bachelor graduates (85.5 per cent) were in full-time employment at the time of the survey.10

Postgraduate course completers’ employment prospects

Among postgraduate course completers, the proportion of women available for full-time employment was substantially lower than the corresponding proportion of men. This gender difference in full-time employment availability was evident across all levels of postgraduate awards, but was more marked among those awarded a Postgraduate Diploma or Postgraduate Certificate (see Table 2.3). This disparity was due to a considerably higher proportion of women compared to men working part-time or casually and not looking for full-time work.

Table 2.3: Main activity of postgraduate course completers by level of award and gender, 2007

Available for full-time employment (%)

In full- time study (%)

In part-time or casual employment, not seeking full-time employment
(%)

Among postgraduate course completers who were available for full-time employment in 2007, men were slightly more likely than women to be in full-time employment across all levels of postgraduate awards (see Table 2.4).

Table 2.4: Activities of postgraduates available for full-time employment by level of award and gender, 2007

Bachelor graduate starting salaries

In 2008, the median starting salary for female Bachelor graduates aged less than 25 and in their first full-time employment in Australia was $45,000, up from $42,000 in 2007,11 but lower than median full-time annual salary for male Bachelor graduates in 2008 ($47,000). In 2008, the median annual salary for female Bachelor graduates was 95.7 per cent of the median male Bachelor graduate salary, up from 93.3 per cent in 2007, but lower than the high of 97.5 per cent in 2005.12

Gender differences in Bachelor graduate starting salaries vary between fields of study. As shown by Table 2.5, only in the field of accounting were Bachelor graduate starting salaries equal between men and women. Male and female Bachelor graduate salaries were nearly equal in the fields of physical sciences (98.1 per cent), education (97.9 per cent), law (97.9 per cent), and pharmacy (pre-registration) and agricultural science (97.7 per cent). In the fields of earth sciences, social work and engineering, the median salaries for female Bachelor graduates were higher than that of male Bachelor graduates (122.4 per cent, 105.6 per cent and 101.9 per cent respectively).

Women earned markedly less than men in the fields of art and design (87.8 per cent), optometry (88.2 per cent), architecture and building (88.9 per cent), dentistry (92 per cent), and medicine (94.3 per cent).13

Postgraduate degree completers starting salaries

In 2007, the median annual salaries for all postgraduate degree completers in full-time employment, regardless of age or whether this was their first full-time position, are shown in Table 2.6. The data show that the median annual salaries were higher for men than for women across each of the three award levels. The disparity in median salaries between male and female postgraduate degree completers ranged from $13,000 at the Postgraduate Diploma/Certificate and Coursework Master’s levels to $2,000 at the Research Master’s/PhD levels.

The overall difference between male and female median annual salaries among postgraduate degree completers in full-time employment results in a gender pay gap of 17.1 per cent, which is slightly higher than the gender pay gap in average weekly ordinary-time earnings in the general population of full-time employees in May 2008 (16.5 per cent),14 but is substantially wider than the gender pay gap in median annual earnings of 4.3 per cent among Bachelor graduates in April 2008.15 See Chapter 3 – Economic security and financial independence for a discussion on the gender pay gap.

There were few fields of education in which the median salaries for female postgraduates exceeded the median salaries for male postgraduates. At the Postgraduate Diploma/Certificate level, female graduates earned more than male graduates in the fields of architecture, social science and geology. At the Coursework Master’s level, women earned more than men in the fields of education of visual/performing arts, psychology, social work and pharmacy. Within the Research Master’s/PhD cohort, female graduates earned more than male graduates in the field of visual/performing arts only.16

Vocational education and training

In 2007, 47.7 per cent of all students enrolled in vocational education and training (VET) courses were women (794,200).17

In 2007, there were differences between men and women in chosen fields of study for vocational education and training (Table 2.7).

Table 2.7: Vocational education and training students by field of education and gender, 2007

Women

Men

Natural and physical sciences

0.4

0.3

Information technology

1.4

2.9

Engineering and related technologies

3.4

29.0

Architecture and building

1.0

11.9

Agriculture, environmental and related studies

2.2

6.1

Health

6.6

3.8

Education

3.8

2.5

Management and commerce

27.1

14.1

Society and culture

15.2

4.7

Creative arts

3.3

2.0

Food, hospitality and personal services

13.1

7.4

Mixed field programmes

14.1

9.9

Not known

8.3

5.3

Total

100.0

100.0

Source: National Centre for Vocational Education Research 2008, Australian vocational education and training statistics: Students and Courses, 2007, NCVER, Adelaide, Table 5.

The most common courses undertaken by men were in the fields of Engineering and related technologies, Architecture and building, and Management and commerce. Women were concentrated in the fields of Management and commerce, Society and culture, Food, hospitality and personal services, and Mixed field programmes.

Australian apprenticeships and traineeships

Commencements

The number of women who commenced a new apprenticeship or traineeship in the 12 months to 31 August 2008 was 115,800, 5 per cent higher than the 110,300 commencements recorded for women in the 12 months prior to 31 August 2007.18

In-training

In 2007, there were 136,850 women in apprentices and traineeships, representing 33.0 per cent of all apprentices and trainees in-training.19

Table 2.8 shows the number of men and women in apprenticeships and traineeships in 2007 by occupation group. Just over 61 per cent of all male apprenticeships and traineeships were in the Tradespersons and related workers occupation group, compared to 16.5 per cent of female apprenticeships and traineeships. Women’s apprenticeships and traineeships were concentrated in the Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers occupation group.

Table 2.8: Apprenticeships and traineeships in-training by occupation group and gender, 2007

Chapter 3 - Economic security and financial independence

Women’s labour force participation

Labour force participation rate

As at August 2008, just over five million Australian women were in the labour force, representing 57.8 per cent of all women aged 15 years and over and 45.3 per cent of Australia’s total labour force.1

International comparison

The data in Figure 3.1 indicate large cross-national differences in the involvement of women in paid work in 2007. Female labour force participation rates were as high as 86.4 per cent in Iceland and fell to 27.2 per cent in Turkey. Australia’s female labour force participation rate was ranked 13th out of 30 OECD countries. The labour force participation of women in Australia was higher than the OECD average, and was comparable to the United Kingdom and the United States.2

Women’s labour force participation by age

Women have a different pattern of labour force participation by age from men (Figure 3.2). Participation rates for women are lower than those for men at all ages except in the 15-19 years of age group. Participation rates for women by age exhibit a dip between the ages of 25 and 44 years, which is not evident for men. However, participation profiles for men and women are similar in some ways. Both show relatively low participation rates among younger people and declining participation among older age groups.

For both men and women, the relatively low participation rates for people aged 15-19 years is largely explained by the high proportion of students in this age group.3 Declining participation in older age groups may be related to several factors, including retirement, poor health and/or disability.4

Figure 3.2: Labour force participation rate by gender and age group, July 2008

The main drivers of the dip in labour force participation of women aged between 25 and 44 years are caring for children and other caring and household responsibilities. Australia has one of the lowest labour force participation rates for women in these age ranges compared with other OECD countries. Across 30 OECD countries in 2007, Australia’s labour force participation rate was ranked 22nd for women aged 25 to 34 years and 21st for women aged 35 to 44 years. For these age ranges, the labour force participation rate for women is comparable to countries such as the United States, New Zealand and Greece.5

Labour force participation of mothers

Figure 3.3 shows that the presence of and the number of dependent children aged 0 to 17 years lower the labour force participation rate of women, but increase it for men. Among women with no dependent children, the labour force participation rate is fairly equal to the labour force participation rate of men.

Figure 3.3: Labour force participation rate for men and women aged 20-54 years by number of dependent children, 2006

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006 Census of Population and Housing, (data available upon request).

The age of the youngest child also affects the labour force participation of mothers. As shown by Figure 3.4, in 2006, the labour force participation rate for mothers of infants aged 0-4 years was 52.2 per cent and this increased to 71.5 per cent for mothers of children who had reached school age. The labour force participation rate of mothers steadily climbed to 82 per cent for mothers with a youngest child in the mid-teenage years.

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006, Census of Population and Housing, (data available upon request).

As shown by Table 3.1, the effect of caring for children labour force participation is greater for lone mothers than for partnered mothers.

Table 3.1: Labour force participation rate of mothers aged 20-54 years by partner status, age of youngest child and number of children aged 0-17 years, 2006

Labour force participation rate (%)

Partnered mothers

Lone mothers

Age of youngest child (years)

0-4

54.5

38.6

5-9

73.4

64.7

10-14

79.5

73.0

15-17

82.6

80.1

Number of dependent children

One

71.7

66.3

Two

70.0

61.3

Three

60.9

49.0

Four or more

43.9

31.4

Total

67.7

61.0

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006, Census of Population and Housing, (data available upon request).

Trends in the labour force participation of mothers with young children

According to Census data,6 between 1996 and 2006, the participation rate of mothers with children under 15 years of age rose from 59 per cent to 64 per cent. Table 3.2 shows that the increase in labour force participation was particularly pronounced for lone mothers.

Education and labour force participation

Table 3.3 shows a relationship between education level and labour force participation for Australian women. In 2006, women with a postgraduate qualification had the highest labour force participation rate. The labour force participation rate for women with a Bachelor degree was 14 percentage points higher than for women whose highest level of qualification was a Year 12 secondary education.

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006, Census of Population and Housing, (data available upon request).

Indigenous women and labour force participation

Indigenous women have a lower labour force participation rate than non-Indigenous women.7 In 2007, the estimated labour force participation rate for Indigenous women was 47.9 per cent8 , compared to 57.6 per cent for the total Australian female population.9

Unlike the labour force participation rate for all women (Figure 3.2), the labour force participation rate for Indigenous women increases rather than dips during the ages of 25 and 44 years (Figure 3.5).

Industries and occupations in which women work

Figure 3.6 shows that the labour force in Australia continues to be segmented according to gender. A greater number of women are employed in the Health and community services and Education industries, whereas men comprise the majority of employees in the Construction, Manufacturing, Mining, Transport and storage, and Wholesale trade industries.

The distributions of the male and female labour forces by occupation are shown in Figure 3.7. A greater number of women are employed as Elementary and Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers compared to men. Men comprise the majority of Labourers and related workers and Intermediate production and transport workers.

The number of women and men employed as Associate professionals and Professionals are similar. However, men outnumber women employed as Managers and administrators and Tradespersons.

Figure 3.6: The number of employed men and women by industry, August 2008

Women employed part time

As at August 2008, nearly 2.2 million women worked part-time, representing 44.5 per cent of all employed women and 71.9 per cent of the part-time workforce.10 Part-time work is based on hours worked: defined as those who usually worked less than 35 hours a week (in all jobs). It is not based on the type of work they are doing, e.g. there are “casuals” who are employed full-time. Figure 3.8 shows that the proportion of women employed part-time work is higher than the proportion of men employed part-time among all age groups, especially between the ages of 35 and 54 years.

Figure 3.8: Part-time employees as a proportion of all employed men and women by age group, July 2008

Figure 3.9 demonstrates the mix of full-time and part-time employment for women within occupations. Part-time work is the dominant form of employment for women in lower skilled occupations such as Clerical, sales and service workers, although part-time work is also common among female Professionals.

Figure 3.9: The number of employed women by full-time/part-time employment status and occupation, August 2008

Figure 3.10 shows the mix of full-time and part-time employment for women within industries. Within the Health and community services, Education, Property and business services, and Retail trade industries, more women are employed part-time than full-time.

The female full-time labour force

Table 3.4 shows the occupational distribution of men and women employed full-time. Nearly one-third (32.5 per cent) of male employees are concentrated in lower-skilled occupations compared to 38.9 per cent of female employees. Women are clearly clustered in the Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers field in the lower-skilled occupations. In the higher-skilled occupations, over half of women (51.1 per cent) are employed as Associate professionals, Professionals or Managers and administrators, which is a higher representation than the 43.9 per cent of men employed in those occupations. A larger proportion of men than women are employed full-time as Managers and administrators and Tradespersons.

Hours worked

Table 3.5 shows the average weekly full-time and part-time hours in August 2008 worked by men and women. The data show that among the full-time employed, men work longer hours per week than women across all industries and occupations. On average, men employed full-time spend an additional four hours per week at work than women. Among part-time employees, women work slightly longer weekly hours (0.6) than men.

Table 3.5: Actual average weekly hours worked by full-time and part-time status, industry, occupation and gender, August 2008

Wage setting arrangements

As shown by Table 3.6, wage setting arrangements are different for men and women. The most common methods of setting pay are collective agreements for women and individual arrangements for men. A higher proportion of women than men are paid by award only. Awards are more common among part-time than full-time employees and individual arrangements are more common for full-time employees than for part-time employees.

Table 3.6: Proportion of employees by methods of setting pay, full-time and part-time status, and gender, May 2006

Women and small business

The following section reviews the findings from the 2005 and 2006 Australian Bureau of Statistics’ Characteristics of Small Business surveys.11

The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a small business operator as a person who operates a non-agricultural business with less than 20 employees.

In June 2006, 32 per cent of small business operators were women, down slightly from 33 per cent in 2005.

Age differences in female small business operators

In June 2006, 60 per cent of all female small business operators were aged between 30 and 50 years. A further 31 per cent of all female small business operators were aged greater than 50 years and 9 per cent were aged less than 30 years.

Gender differences in hours worked by small business operators

In June 2006, 61 per cent of female small business operators worked part-time hours (defined as working less than 35 hours per week), compared with 20 per cent of male small business operators (Table 3.7). The proportion of female small business operators working part-time was considerably higher than the proportion of the total female labour force employed part-time as at June 2006 (45.2 per cent).12

Table 3.7: Small business operators by hours worked and gender

Hours worked

2005 (%)

2006 (%)

Men

Full-time

80

80

Part-time

20

20

Women

Full-time

40

39

Part-time

60

61

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008, Australian Small Business Operators – Findings from the 2005 and 2006 Characteristics of Small Business Surveys, 2005-06, Catalogue No. 8127.0, ABS, Canberra.

Gender pay gap

In Australia in May 2008, the average total weekly earnings for all employees were $702.30 for women and $1,075.10 for men.13 These estimates produce a ratio of female to male earnings of 65.3 per cent, which equates to a gender pay gap of 34.7 per cent.

When only full-time employees are considered, the ratio increases to 80.5 per cent and when overtime hours are excluded, it increases further to 83.8 per cent,14 reflecting that employed women are more likely than men to work part-time15 and less likely to work overtime hours.

When differences between men and women in the number of hours worked are controlled among full-time non-managerial employees, women’s earnings are closer to men’s still, but a gender earnings gap of 9.8 per cent remains (ratio = 90.2 per cent).16

Trends in the gender pay gap

Figure 3.11 shows trends over the last 25 years in the ratio of female to male average full-time adult ordinary-time weekly earnings. There has been a trend towards a higher ratio, although this has been gradual and there have been some reversals at times. The ratio has ranged between 81.3 per cent in 1984 to a peak of 84.9 per cent in 2004 and 2005. Over the last three years, there has been a decline in the ratio, to 83.9 per cent in May 2008.

Gender pay gap by industry

An analysis of aggregated gender pay gap data can mask large variations in the earnings differentials between different groups of men and women. For example, the size of the gender wage gap varies according to the industry of employment. As shown by Figure 3.12, two industries are marked by a very low ratio of female to male average weekly full-time earnings:

The Finance and insurance industry, despite recording higher than average weekly wages for women ($1,148.80), shows a gender pay gap of 32.4 per cent.

In the Health and community services industry, women’s average weekly wages of $971.30 are just 70.4 per cent of men’s average earnings.

Figure 3.12 also demonstrates different movements over time in the gender pay gap across industries. Between 1984 and 2008, the gender pay gap narrowed in 11 of the 16 broad industry groups and widened in five of the 16 broad industry groups. The gender pay equity ratio declined in the Health and community services industry by 9.6 percentage points and by 3.8 percentage points in the Finance and insurance industry.

Figure 3.12: Female average weekly full-time ordinary time earnings as a proportion of male average weekly full-time ordinary time earnings, May 1984 and May 2008

Gender pay gap by occupation

In Figure 3.13 gender pay ratios based on average hourly ordinary-time earnings by occupational groups are provided for full-time adult non-managerial employees. The most recent data are from 2006. The data show that the gender pay gap was widest among Tradespersons and Associate professionals. The gender wage gap was narrowest among Elementary clerical, sales and service workers, followed by Professionals. Between 1996 and 2006, the gender pay gap widened among Tradespersons, Labourers, Advanced clerical and service workers, and Associate professionals. It narrowed among Professionals, Intermediate and Elementary clerical, sales and service workers, and Intermediate production and transport workers.

Figure 3.13: Gender earnings ratio by occupation group based on average hourly ordinary-time earnings for full-time adult non-managerial staff, Australia, 1996 and 2006

Gender pay gap by employment status

Table 3.8 shows the average hourly cash earnings for non-managerial employees by employment status. Among full-time employees, where hourly earnings are highest for women (and men), the wage gap is the widest. Among part-time employees, the wages of women are slightly higher than the wages of men.

Gender pay gap by wage setting arrangement

Women paid by award only (that is, women whose pay was set by an award and were not paid more than the award rate of pay) earn the lowest average hourly rate of pay, but the use of this arrangement results in the narrowest gender pay gap. The highest average income outcomes for women were generated under registered collective agreements, and these arrangements were associated with the second smallest gender pay gap (10.5 per cent) after awards (-0.3 per cent). The widest gender wage gap (18.9 per cent) was associated with registered individual agreements.

Women’s retirement

In 2007, there were 3.1 million people aged 45 years and over who were retired from the labour force, comprising 1.8 million women and 1.3 million men.17

Age at retirement

The average age at retirement for people aged 45 years and over was 58 years for men and 47 years for women. Figure 3.14 shows that 60 per cent of women had retired before the age of 55 years compared to 28 per cent of men. Over one-third of women had retired between the ages of 45 and 49 years.

Figure 3.14: Retired people aged 45 years and over, age at retirement by gender, 2007

Main source of income at retirement

In 2007, the main source of income for retired women and men was government pensions and allowance (67 per cent of retired women and 65 per cent of retired men).18 Figure 3.15 shows that in comparison to women who had retired more than four years ago, more recent retirees were less likely to have government pensions and allowances and more likely to have superannuation, an annuity or an allocated pension as their main source of income.

Nearly 18 per cent of women who had recently retired had no (or negative) income. This proportion declined for women who had been retired for longer.

Figure 3.15: Women aged 45 years and over who have retired, main source of personal income by time since retirement, 2007

Women’s superannuation savings

Superannuation coverage

In 2007, 75.7 per cent of all men aged 15 years and over in Australia had superannuation coverage, compared to 66.3 per cent of women aged 15 years and over.19 Superannuation coverage for men and women according to age is shown in Figure 3.16. Higher proportions of women and men aged 25 to 54 years had superannuation coverage than people aged 55 years and over. Across all age groups, a higher proportion of men than women were covered by superannuation.

Figure 3.16: Men and women with superannuation coverage by age group, 2007

In 2007, 2.8 million women and 1.6 million men aged 15 years and over reported not being covered by superannuation.20 However, as shown by Figure 3.17, since 2000, the proportion of women with no superannuation coverage has decreased across all age groups.

Figure 3.17: Women aged 15 years and over with no superannuation coverage by age group, 2007

Note: Ages 70 and over not shown as 2000 data only collected on persons aged 15-69.

Superannuation balances

In 2007, the average superannuation balances for Australians aged 15 years and over with superannuation coverage were $87,589 for men and $52,272 for women.21

Other information on women’s average superannuation balances has been provided from an analysis of the Australian Bureau of Statistics Surveys of Income and Housing conducted by the Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia. Those data have been reproduced in Table 3.10.

Average superannuation balances achieved by 2006 for Australians aged 25 to 64 years were $69,050 for men and $35,520 for women. Between 2004 and 2006, average superannuation balances increased by 48.7 per cent, from $23,900, for women and by 30.3 per cent, from $56,400, for men.

Table 3.10: Average superannuation balance for men and women aged 25-64 years by age, 2006

Chapter 4 - Leadership

Women in Parliament

Thirty years ago, there were only six women in the Senate and none in the House of Representatives. In 2008, there are 27 women in the Senate and 40 in the House of Representatives, representing 27.6 per cent of all Commonwealth Parliamentarians.1 As at 30 October 2008, there were three female Parliamentary Secretaries out of a total of 12 and seven female Ministers out of a total of 30, including one holding the position of Deputy Prime Minister for the first time. This represents 23 per cent of Ministerial positions and 20 per cent of Cabinet members.

The Australian Capital Territory has the highest percentage of female parliamentarians in a state or territory parliament, with 41.2 per cent. New South Wales and Western Australia have the lowest percentage at 28.1 per cent and 28 per cent respectively.2

Australian Public Service

Women comprise the majority of those employed in the Australian Public Service (APS), at 57 per cent of the current workforce.4

In 2007, women made up only 36.1 per cent of the Senior Executive Service (SES) of the APS.5 As shown by Figure 4.1, women’s participation diminished towards the higher senior executive positions, with the percentage of women ranked at the lowest senior executive levels (SES Band 1) (37.6 per cent) substantially higher than the percentage of women at the highest senior executive rank (SES Band 3) (27.5 per cent).

Throughout the APS structure, men outnumbered women in the executive levels while women outnumbered men in the lower levels.6

Figure 4.1: Employees of the Australian Public Service Senior Executive Service by gender, 2006-07

Source: Australian Public Service Commission 2007, State of the Service Report 2006-07, APSC, Canberra, Section 5.

Private company directors and managers

Since 2002, the Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency (EOWA) has conducted a biennial census to measure the status of women on boards and women executive managers in the nation’s top 200 companies listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). Figure 4.2 shows the status of women in leadership positions as at 1 February 2008. Only four boards (2.0 per cent) had a woman as Chair (up from two in the 2004 Census), and six companies had a female CEO (3.0 per cent, the same as in 2004).

Board directors

The number of women holding leadership positions in the private sector has decreased at all levels from 2006. In 2008, women held 8.3 per cent of board directorships in ASX 200 companies (125 seats out of 1,505) compared with 8.7 per cent in 2006.7 This is lower than other Western countries (Figure 4.3). Although the number of board positions has increased since the 2006 Census, the number of seats held by women was not reflected in this increase.

Over half (51 per cent) of companies had no women on their boards at all, and only 11.5 per cent of companies had two or more women on their board.8 Only 6 per cent of companies had 25 per cent or more female board directors, which is half the percentage of 2006.

Executive managers

Women were better represented in the executive manager ranks of ASX200 companies, but the number of female executive managers had still fallen from 2006. Women held 10.7 per cent of executive manager positions, down from 12 per cent in 2006. Nearly half of all ASX 200 companies (45.5 per cent) had no female executive managers and less than a quarter had two or more female executive managers.9

Women’s leadership by industry group

Figure 4.4 shows the representation of women as board directors and executive managers by industry group. The insurance, retailing and banking industries had the highest representation of women on boards, while the retailing, telecommunications and software industries had the highest percentage of female executive managers. Capital goods, materials, and food beverage and tobacco industries had the lowest proportion of women executive managers and few women sitting on boards.10

Women and the law

Three of the seven High Court Justices are women.11 This is the first time that three women have sat on the bench of the High Court.

Victoria is currently the only State to have a female Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. It is also the State with the second lowest percentage of women serving on the bench of the Supreme Court at 19 per cent. The Northern Territory had the lowest representation of women at around 11 per cent. Queensland and South Australia have the highest percentage of female Supreme Court Justice at around 30 per cent. The remainder of the States and Territories have an average of around 20 per cent female Supreme Court Justices.12

Vice Regal women

Australian Honours

Since its introduction in 1960, 11 women have been named the Australian of the Year.14 The most recent female winner was Dr Fiona Wood AM, in 2005.

Over the past 10 years women have comprised around a third of recipients of the General Division of the Order of Australia. Appointments to the Order of Australia confer the highest recognition for outstanding achievement and service. Figure 4.5 shows the number of women as a percentage of those who have been appointed to the Order of Australia over the past decade.15

Figure 4.5: Women as a percentage of appointments to the Order of Australia

Source: Australian Honours and Awards Secretariat 1999-2008, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra (data available on request).

Higher education

The number of women holding Vice Chancellor positions has steadily increased from two in 1996 to 12 in 2004 (Figure 4.6).16 Women also held around 30 per cent of Deputy Vice Chancellor positions in 2005, compared to less than 20 per cent in 1996.17

Data on homeless women

The two main sources of national data on homeless women is the Chamberlain and Mackenzie ‘Counting the Homeless’ report2 and the reports published by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare on the Supported Accommodation Assistance Program (SAAP) national data collection.3

The 2006 ‘Counting the Homeless’ report showed that in 2006 104,676 people were identified as homeless. Women comprised 44 per cent of the homeless population, which is slightly higher than the proportion in 2001 (42 per cent).

Table 5.1 shows that when both men and women become homeless, they tend to stay with friends and relatives. When this option is not appropriate, women are more likely than men to seek out crisis accommodation such as that provided by the Supported Accommodation Assistance Program (SAAP), than sleep rough or try to find a bed in a boarding house.

Table 5.1: Different segments of the homeless population by gender, 2006

The SAAP National Data Collection is the main source of data on the provision of specialist homelessness services. SAAP data do not capture information about homeless people who do not approach a SAAP service, only use mainstream services, or receive homelessness services other than those funded under SAAP. On Census night in 2006, 19,849 of the 104,676 homeless people (19.0 per cent) were accommodated in SAAP services.4

In 2006-07, an estimated 187,900 people received substantial SAAP support. This included 118,800 clients consisting of 103,000 adults, 15,800 unaccompanied children aged between 0-17 years and 69,100 accompanying children. Female clients (61 per cent) outnumbered male clients (39 per cent).5

As shown by Figure 5.1, the largest groups of clients were those in the age groups ranging between 15 and 39 years, with women comprising the majority of clients in each age group. Indeed, until the age of 54 years, there were more female than male clients in every age group. From the age of 55 onwards, there were slightly more men than women.

Cultural and linguistic diversity of female SAAP clients

As shown by Table 5.2, the majority of SAAP clients were born in Australia and did not identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people accounted for 18 per cent of all SAAP clients in 2006-07. This group was overrepresented in SAAP when compared to its population size. On the other hand, women born overseas were underrepresented in SAAP relative to their population size. A greater proportion of female clients than male clients identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander or was born overseas.

Level of support

Clients may seek homelessness assistance on more than one occasion throughout any year. In 2006-07, the 118,000 SAAP clients were provided with 207,700 periods of support at an average of 1.75 support periods per client. However, the majority of clients (73 per cent) had only one occasion of support.6

Men averaged 1.9 periods of support compared to an average of 1.65 support periods for each woman.7

Women with accompanying children

In 2006-07, women with accompanying children accounted for 22.3 per cent of all SAAP support periods, whereas men with accompanying children sought assistance in 1.3 per cent of all support periods.8

Domestic and family violence related homelessness

Extent of domestic and family violence related homelessness

It is difficult to estimate the total number of women who experience domestic and family violence related homelessness (see Women in Australia 2007, Chapter 7, Women and Crime for the most recent estimates of the incidence of violence against Australian women).

Statistics show that domestic or family violence is one of the major reasons for women seeking SAAP assistance. This is especially the case for women with children, who reported domestic or family violence as the main reason for seeking assistance in 55 per cent of their support periods in 2006-07. Sexual, physical or emotional abuse was the main reason given in a further 2.6 per cent of support periods for women accompanied by children.

Unaccompanied women aged 25 years and over also most commonly gave domestic or family violence as the main reason for seeking assistance (in 37 per cent of their support periods). Unaccompanied women aged younger than 25 years cited domestic or family violence as the second most frequently reported reason for seeking assistance (16 per cent of their support periods) after relationship breakdown.9

Demographic profile of female SAAP clients escaping domestic violence

As shown by Table 5.3, 24 per cent of female SAAP clients escaping domestic violence in 2003-04 were Indigenous and 57 per cent were born in Australian but did not identify as Indigenous. A further 15 per cent were born in predominantly non-English speaking countries (English proficiency group 2) and 4 per cent were born in predominantly English speaking countries (English proficiency group 1).

On average, Indigenous Australian women were younger than other SAAP clients escaping domestic violence and overseas born clients were, on average, older than Australian born clients.

Referral source

Women escaping domestic violence were referred to SAAP agencies by a telephone or crisis referral agency in around 14 per cent of support periods (Figure 5.2). In around 11 per cent of support periods, women escaping domestic violence were referred by the police or another legal unit. The most common source of referral to a SAAP agency was self-referral (34 per cent of support periods).

Economic circumstances of women escaping domestic violence

In 2003-04, 71.5 per cent of women affected by domestic and family violence in closed SAAP support periods were not in the labour force. A further 16.7 per cent presented as unemployed. A small proportion were employed (3.8 per cent employed full-time and 8 per cent employed part-time).

Table 5.4 shows that the main source of income for female SAAP clients escaping domestic violence in 2003-04 was a Government pension or benefit, with 82.8 per cent of female SAAP clients affected by domestic violence in this category, with a further 0.6 per cent awaiting a government pension or benefit and 5.7 per cent presenting with no income at all.

Table 5.4 further shows there was almost no change in employment status before and after support for female SAAP clients escaping domestic violence. After SAAP support, a government pension or benefit continued to be the main source of income for women escaping domestic violence. The proportion of all women in the SAAP domestic violence group receiving a government pension or benefit increased after support and the proportion of women affected by domestic violence with no income decreased.

Table 5.4: Economic circumstances of female SAAP clients escaping domestic violence before and after support (% of closed support periods)

Chapter 6 - Women's Health and Wellbeing

Self-assessed health status

Self-assessed health is a commonly used measure of health status. The most recent data on the health status of Australians are available from the Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 General Social Survey where respondents aged 18 years and over rated their own health on a five point scale ranging from poor to excellent.

Gender differences in health status

In 2006, just over half of women aged 18 years and over (57.9 per cent) considered their health status to be excellent or very good. As shown in Figure 6.1, self-assessed ratings of very good or excellent health were similar for men (57.3 per cent) and women (57.9 per cent), but men were somewhat more likely to report good health (27.3 per cent) than women (25.9 per cent) and women (16.2 per cent) were slightly more likely than men (15.4 per cent) to report poor health.

Self-assessed health by age

Ratings of self-assessed health vary by age. The percentage of women who rated their health as poor or fair increased with age, while those who considered their health to be excellent or very good peaked at ages 25 to 34 years and then declined with increasing age (Table 6.1).

Mental Health

The 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (SMHWB), conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, provides lifetime and 12-month prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the Australian population aged 16 to 85 years. The assessment of mental disorders is based on the definitions and diagnostic criteria of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10). Prevalence of mental disorders is the proportion of people in a given population who meet the diagnostic criteria of a mental disorder at a point in time. The SMHWB focuses on the more common or high prevalence classes of mental disorders: Anxiety disorders (e.g. Panic disorder); Affective disorders (e.g. Depression); and Substance Use disorders (e.g. alcohol and drug harmful use and dependence).

Gender differences in lifetime prevalence of mental disorder

In Australia in 2007, 48.1 per cent of men (3.8 million) had experienced mental illness at some point in their life, compared to 43 per cent of women (3.5 million).

Prevalence of the mental disorders differed by gender (see Figure 6.2). The most common diagnosis for women was an Anxiety disorder, followed by Affective disorder. For men, the most common diagnosis was Substance Use disorder, followed by Anxiety disorder. Women experienced higher rates than men of Anxiety and Affective disorders. However, men had 2.5 times the rate of Substance Use disorders compared to women.

Figure 6.2: Lifetime mental disorders by major disorder group and gender, Australia, 2007

Gender differences in 12-month prevalence of mental disorder

In the SMHWB, 12-month diagnoses were derived based on lifetime diagnosis and the presence of symptoms of that disorder in the 12 months prior to the survey interview.

In 2007, one in five (3.2 million) Australians had a 12-month mental disorder. Contrary to lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in Australia, women experienced higher rates than men of mental disorders in the previous 12 months (See Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3 also shows that the most common 12-month mental disorders for women were Anxiety disorders, followed by Affective disorders. Anxiety disorder was also the most common form of 12-month mental disorder for men, followed by Substance Use disorders. Although Anxiety disorders were the most common 12-month mental disorders among men and women, the prevalence rate was higher among women than men. Women also experienced higher rates than men of Affective disorders, whereas men experienced higher rates than women of Substance Use disorders.

Figures 6.4 and 6.5 show that the prevalence of 12-month mental disorders varied by age and the age variations differed by gender. Among women, 12-month Anxiety disorders had the highest prevalence across all age groups, with the prevalence remaining stable at around 21 per cent between the ages of 16 and 54 years, and then declined with age. The prevalence of Affective disorders among women remained similar between the ages of 16 and 54 years (at around 8 per cent) and then declined with age. The prevalence of 12-month Substance Use disorders for women was highest among those aged 16 to 24 years.

Figure 6.3: 12-month mental disorders by major disorder group and gender, Australia, 2007

Although Anxiety disorders had the highest prevalence for both men and women across most age groups, the prevalence of Anxiety disorders was higher among women than men across all age groups. Women in the 16–24 and 25-34 years of age groups experienced around twice the prevalence of 12-month Anxiety disorders compared with men in the same age groups.

The prevalence of Substance Use disorders was higher for men than for women across all age groups, especially among those aged between 25–34 years, where men experienced more than three times the prevalence of 12-month Substance Use disorders compared with women. The prevalence for 12-month Affective disorders was higher for women than for men in all age groups except in the 35-44 years of age group where prevalence rates were similar for men and women (8.4 per cent and 8.3 per cent respectively).

Causes of death

Gender differences in the leading causes of death

The top 10 causes of deaths shown in Table 6.2 accounted for 53.7 per cent of all male and 56.9 per cent of all female deaths in Australia in 2006. Table 6.2 also shows that the leading causes of death varied by gender.

Ischaemic heart diseases were the leading causes of both male and female deaths. However, there were 113 male deaths per 100 female deaths from this cause.

Trachea and lung cancer was the second leading cause of male deaths (fourth for female deaths). Lung cancer was the most common cause of cancer deaths among men and lung cancer has now overtaken breast cancer as the most common cancer death for women.1 Breast cancer was the fifth leading cause of death among women.

There were more female than male deaths due to strokes, and Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Heart failure is the eighth ranked cause of death among women, but it does not appear in the top 10 causes of death among men.

Other causes of death where a high proportion of deaths were female included Influenza and pneumonia (55 per cent), arthritis and musculoskeletal diseases (69 per cent), and mental health disorders (64 per cent).2

Premature deaths

The potential years of life lost (PYLL) from a disease or injury is a measure of premature mortality. For example, at current average life expectancy levels in developed countries all deaths before age 75 might be considered untimely and to involve a loss of potential years of life. Thus, from this perspective, a person dying on his/her 40th birthday loses 35 potential years of life.3

Gender differences in leading causes of PYLL

Table 6.3 shows that the potential years of life lost from a disease or injury due to premature mortality in 2005 was greater for men than for women.

Table 6.3 also shows the top five leading specific causes of PYLL in 2005. Coronary heart disease was the leading cause of PYLL among male deaths and breast cancer was the highest contributor to premature mortality among women. Suicide, land transport accidents and lung cancer all feature in the top five leading specific causes of PYLL for men and women, although these causes are larger contributors to premature mortality among men than women.

Table 6.3: Five leading specific causes of potential years of life lost (PYLL), Australia, 2005

Burden of disease and injury

The burden of disease and injury is measured using the ‘disability-adjusted life year’ (DALY). The DALY measures the years of life lost due to premature death coupled with years of ‘healthy’ life lost due to disability.4 One DALY is equivalent to one lost year of healthy life.

The total burden of disease and injury in Australia in 2003 was 2.63 million DALYs.5 Men accounted for more of the burden of disease and injury (1.4 million DALYs) than women (1.3 million DALYs).6

Table 6.4 shows gender differences in the leading specific causes of healthy life lost. Ischaemic heart disease was the leading specific cause of healthy life lost for men and anxiety and depression were the largest contributors to healthy life lost among women. Dementia, breast cancer, and asthma were in the top 10 specific causes of healthy life lost for women, but not for men. Suicide and self-inflicted injuries was ranked eighth for men, but these causes did not rank in the top 10 for women.

Major risks to health

The 14 risks to health in Table 6.5 were among the top contributors to the burden of disease and injury in Australia in 2003.7 The 14 risks in combination explained 35.1 per cent of the total male burden and 29.1 per cent of the total female burden.

Gender differences in the burden attributable to health risks

Table 6.5 shows that tobacco, high blood pressure, high body mass, physical inactivity and high blood cholesterol were the leading causes of both the male and female burden of disease and injury, although these risks accounted for a larger share of the male burden than the female burden. The harmful effects of alcohol, low fruit and vegetable consumption, and illicit drugs were also larger contributors to the male burden than to the female burden. Intimate partner violence and child sexual abuse accounted for a larger proportion of the female burden than the male burden.

*The attribution of burden to intimate partner violence for men was not calculated due to insufficient evidence on prevalence and risk among men.

**The burden attributable to these health risks in combination is not the sum of burden from each risk. The combined effects have been expressly calculated.

Gender differences in tobacco use

In 2007, 16.6 per cent of Australians aged 14 years and over reported smoking cigarettes on a daily basis.8 Women were less likely (15.2 per cent) than men (18 per cent) to be daily smokers, but this was not the case across all ages - among Australians aged 14 to 19 years, female teenagers were more likely than male teenagers to smoke cigarettes on a daily basis (Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.6 also shows that for both men and women, the least prevalent age group for daily smoking was 14 to 19 years, followed by men and women in the 60 years and over age group. Between the age groups of 14-19 years and 20-29 years, daily smoking rates rose sharply for both men and women and were highest among men in this age group. Male daily smoking rates then declined with age. For women, daily smoking rates decreased between the age groups of 20-29 years and 30-39 years, but increased again at ages 40 to 49 years, where women in this age group were more likely to be daily smokers than in any other age group.

Figure 6.6: Daily tobacco smoking among men and women aged 14 years and over by age group, 2007

Daily smoking rates have declined over time for both men and women, although they have declined slightly more sharply for men than for women, resulting in a steady narrowing of the gender gap in daily smoking rates (see Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7: Trends in daily tobacco smoking among men and women aged 14 years and over, 1991 - 2007

Gender differences in risk of harm from alcohol consumption

Risk of short term alcohol-related harm

The short-term risk of harm from alcohol consumption is measured by the level of consumption on any drinking occasion. ‘Low risk’ is defined as the consumption on any one occasion of up to six standard drinks for adult men and up to four standard drinks for adult women. For men, the consumption of seven to 10 drinks on one occasion is considered ‘risky’ and 11 or more drinks on one occasion is considered ‘high risk’. For women, five to six standard drinks on one occasion is ‘risky’ and seven or more ‘high risk’.9

Table 6.6 shows that in 2007, 38.7 per cent and 30.5 per cent of Australian men and women aged 14 years and over respectively drank in a pattern that is considered risky or high risk for alcohol-related harm in the short term. This included 9.3 per cent of men and 6.2 per cent of women who drank at risky or high risk levels at least weekly, 14.3 per cent of men and 10.9 per cent of women who drank at risky or high risk levels for harm in the short term at least monthly (but not as often as once a week), and 15.1 per cent of men and 13.4 per cent of women who consumed alcohol at risky or high risk levels once or more a year (but not as often as monthly).

Table 6.6 further shows that men were more likely than women to consume alcohol at risky or high risk levels for short term harm across all age groups, except among those aged 14 to 19 years, where nearly three in every ten young women put themselves at risk of alcohol-related harm in the short term at least once a month.

The consumption of alcohol at risky or high risk levels for short term harm peaked at ages 20 to 29 years for both men and women and then declined with age.

Table 6.6: The proportion of the population aged 14 years and over at risk of alcohol related harm in the short term by age, gender, and level and frequency of risk, Australia, 2007

Risk of long term alcohol-related harm

The long-term risk of alcohol related harm is estimated from regular daily patterns of consumption. For adult men, the consumption of up to 28 standard drinks per week is considered ‘low risk’, 29 to 42 per week ‘risky’, and 43 or more per week ‘high risk’. For adult women, the consumption of up to 14 standard drinks per week is considered ‘low risk’, 15 to 28 per week ‘risky’ and 29 or more per week ‘high risk’.10

Table 6.7 shows that in 2007, 10.1 per cent of men and 10.4 per cent of women aged 14 years and over consumed alcohol at levels that are considered risky or high risk of long term alcohol related harm. For men, the peak occurred at ages 20 to 29 years, where 9.3 per cent drank at risky levels and 6.2 per cent drank at high risk levels. For women, the peak also occurred at ages 20 to 29 years, where 11 per cent consumed alcohol at risky levels and a further 5.4 per cent consumed alcohol at high risk levels.

Across all age groups (except among those aged 60 years and over), women were more likely than men to consume alcohol at levels considered risky to health in the long term. At all ages, except for young adults aged 14 to 19 years, men were more likely than women to consume alcohol at high risk levels for long term harm.

Table 6.7: The proportion of the population aged 14 years and over at risk of alcohol related harm in the long term by age, gender, and level of risk, Australia, 2007

Gender differences in physical inactivity

According to the National Physical Activity Guidelines for Australians, adults require at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity, on most, preferably all, days to generate sufficient health benefits.11

In 2007, equal proportions of men and women reported undertaking very low levels of physical activity (less than 100 minutes) or no physical activity in the week prior to the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing.12 More women than men reported undertaking physical activity at low levels (100 minutes to less than 1,600 minutes), whereas more men than women undertook moderate/high levels of physical activity in the week prior to the survey (over 1,600 minutes) (Table 6.8).

Gender differences in high body mass

The body mass index, or BMI, is a measure of total body fat based on height and weight. It is calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in metres squared (m2). BMI values are used to classify adults into weight categories as listed in Table 6.9.

Based on responses to questions relating ^to height and weight in the Australian Bureau of Statistics National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing in 2007, 54.2 per cent of Australia’s population aged 16 to 85 years was categorised as overweight or obese.13

As shown in Table 6.10, a higher number and proportion of men than women were categorised as overweight, whereas a higher number and proportion of women were categorised as obese.

Table 6.10: Overweight and obese population aged 16 to 85 years by gender, Australia, 2007

Between 1995 and 2007, the proportion of Australian women classified as overweight has increased from 21.4 per cent to 25.1 per cent. However, obesity levels among Australian women have grown at a faster rate, almost doubling from 11 per cent in 1995 to 21.3 per cent in 2007. In 1995, there were similar proportions of men and women in Australia categorised as obese. Since 2001, obesity has been more common among women than among men.14

The overweight/obesity rate among women aged 15 years and above in Australia was ranked fifth in OECD countries in 2005 at 49.6 per cent (see Figure 6.8). It was lower than for women in the United States (61.8 per cent) and the United Kingdom (56.3 per cent), but similar to women in New Zealand (50.2 per cent) and Greece (48.1 per cent).15

Figure 6.8 Overweight and obese female population aged 15 years and over in OECD countries, 2005 or latest available year

National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Alcohol Guidelines: health risks and benefits, NHMRC, Canberra. The alcohol risk guidelines are currently being revised by the National Health and Medical Research Council.

National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Alcohol Guidelines: health risks and benefits, NHMRC, Canberra. The alcohol risk guidelines are currently being revised by the National Health and Medical Research Council.

Data for 25 of the 30 OECD countries is self-report survey data. Only Australia, the Czech Republic, Luxembourg, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States have data in the OECD database that is based on actual measurement of weight and height. The difference in survey methodologies limits data comparability, as estimates arising from the actual measurement of weight and height are more accurate and significantly higher than those based on self-report (by around 5-6 percentage points on average). Thus, a significant influence on Australia’s high ranking of 5th arises from survey methodology. The six countries using measured data are all in the top 10 countries for overweight/obesity. If Australia were to be compared on a similar methodological basis to the majority (25) of OECD countries, using self-report data from the ABS National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 2007, then Australia’s OECD ranking would be 7th instead of 5th. If the ABS National Health Survey 2004-05 data were used, Australia would be ranked 10th.