Commonly Asked Questions About
The Canada Lynx
General
What is a Canada lynx?
The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis),
the only lynx in North America, is a
rare forest-dwelling cat of northern
latitudes. Lynx feed primarily on
snowshoe hares but also will eat small
mammals and birds. Its range extends
from Alaska, throughout much of
Canada, to the boreal forests in the
northeastern United States, the Great
Lakes, the Rocky Mountains, and the
Cascade Mountains. The Lynx is a
medium-sized cat, similar to the bobcat,
but appears somewhat larger. It has
longer hind legs and very large well-furred
paws, which make it highly
adapted to hunting snowshoe hares in
the deep snow typical throughout its
range. It also has long tufts on the ears
and a short, black-tipped tail. Adult
males average 22 pounds in weight and
33.5 inches in length with an average
weight for females at 19 pounds and 32
inches in length.
What kind of habitats do lynx require?
In the eastern and Great Lakes States,
lynx live in southern boreal forests that
are considered mixed deciduous-coniferous
forests. In the western
States they live in spruce/fir forests at
higher elevations. Downed logs and
windfalls provide cover for denning
sites, escape, and protection from
severe weather. Earlier successional
forest stages provide habitat for the
lynx’s primary prey, the snowshoe hare.
The size of lynx home ranges vary and
have been documented between 3 to 300
square miles. Lynx are capable of
moving extremely long distances in
search of food or to establish new home
ranges. Lynx populations rise and fall
following the cyclic highs and lows of
snowshoe hare populations. When hare
populations are low, the change in the
lynx’s diet causes the productivity of
adult female lynx and survival of young
to nearly cease.
Why are lynx so rare in the contiguous
United States?
In the contiguous United States, lynx
populations occur at naturally low
densities; the rarity of lynx at the
southern portion of the range compared
to more northern populations in Canada
is normal. The rarity of lynx is based
largely on limited availability of its
primary prey, snowshoe hare. At
southern latitudes, low snowshoe hare
densities are likely a result of the
naturally patchy, transitional boreal
habitat. Such habitat prevents hare
populations from achieving high
densities similar to those in the
extensive northern boreal forest. Lynx
in the contiguous United States are
part of a larger metapopulation whose
core is located in central Canada.
Range And Status
What is the size of the lynx population?
Because the lynx is such a rare animal
and there are no reliable population
estimates for any region, the size of the
total population in the contiguous
United States is unknown.
What is the range of the lynx in the
contiguous United States?
The range of the lynx in the contiguous
United States includes 14 States—
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New
York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana,
Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Lynx
infrequently dispersed into Nevada,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa,
Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia.
With available information, it is
difficult for us to determine whether
resident lynx populations existed
historically or currently in many States
within the contiguous United States.
We have conclusive evidence that
resident populations of lynx currently
exist in Montana, Washington, and
likely Maine. We suspect resident
populations occurred historically in
Minnesota, Wyoming, and New
Hampshire, but current information is
inadequate to determine whether these
States currently support resident
populations of lynx. It is likely the
native resident lynx population in
Colorado has been extirpated. We have
inadequate information to determine
whether resident lynx populations
occurred historically or currently
within New York, Vermont, Michigan,
Wisconsin, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon.
What is the status of lynx in individual
States? (What is the official State
status of the lynx?)
Maine—(Lynx are listed as a species of
special concern.) In 1999, nine lynx
were radio-collared and kittens found.
We conclude a resident lynx population
likely exists in Maine.
New Hampshire—(Listed as
Endangered in 1980.) Numerous
historic records but information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population currently exists.
Vermont—(Listed as Endangered in
1972.) Information is inadequate to
determine whether a resident
population existed historically, now
believed to be extirpated.
New York—(Protected small game with
no open season.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically,
now believed to be extirpated. A
reintroduction effort during 1987-1989
apparently failed to establish a
breeding population.
Minnesota—(Protected game animal
with no open season since 1984.) We
suspect a resident population existed
historically but information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population currently exists.
Wisconsin—(Species of concern, taking
prohibited.) Information is inadequate
to determine whether a resident
population existed historically or
currently.
Michigan—(Listed as Endangered in
1974, again in 1987.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Washington—(Listed as Threatened in
1993.) Lynx occupy five of the six areas
considered to be lynx management
zones by the State of Washington. We
conclude a resident lynx population
exists in Washington.
Oregon—(Unregulated.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Idaho—(Furbearer with no open
season.) Although numerous historic
reports, information is inadequate to
determine whether a resident
population existed historically or
currently.
Montana—(Classified as a Furbearer
with closed season.) We conclude a
resident lynx population exists in
Montana.
Utah—(Sensitive.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Wyoming—(Protected as nongame with
no open season since 1973.) We suspect
a resident population existed
historically in northwestern Wyoming;
however, although two lynx have been
recently collared in Wyoming, available
evidence is inadequate for us to clearly
determine whether a resident
population currently exists.
Colorado—(Listed as Endangered in
1975.) Historically a resident
population existed, likely now
extirpated. Reintroduction effort
initiated in 1999.
Management
Considerations
What is the ownership or management
of lynx habitat in the contiguous United
States?
A substantial amount of lynx habitat is
on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management lands—(Cascades
[99 percent], Northern Rockies [72
percent], Southern Rockies [82
percent], Great Lakes [19 percent], and
Northeast [7 percent]). The majority of
lynx habitat in the Great Lakes and
Northeast is under private, State, or
county management.
In the west, lynx habitat on large
proportions of these Federal lands is
managed in “nondevelopmental” status.
Lands within nondevelopmental
allocations are managed to allow
natural ecological processes to
dominate. Nondevelopmental lands
contain large portions of wilderness or
other natural areas. Timber harvest and
road building typically do not occur or
are very limited in lands managed in
nondevelopmental allocations. The
percent of western lynx habitat in
nondevelopmental allocations is—
Cascades, 85 percent; Northern
Rockies, 41 percent; and Southern
Rockies, 23 percent.
Has a change in fire management
affected the lynx?
Based on available information on fire
suppression and upon available habitat
assessments, we conclude that at the
present time, fire suppression effects
are less significant in lynx habitats than
in many other forest types in the west
and, therefore, the effects of fire
suppression are not threatening
western lynx populations at this time.
Fire did not play a historically
significant role in the Northeast;
therefore, we conclude that fire
suppression does not threaten lynx in
the Northeast. In the Great Lakes, fire
suppression may have regional or local
impacts but does not currently threaten
the contiguous United States lynx
population.
What effect has the increased human
access into lynx habitat had on lynx?
Human activities, such as winter
maintenance of roads and trails,
snowmobiling and skiing create packed
snow trails that allow coyotes to access
traditional lynx winter habitat.
However, we have no evidence that
competition with coyotes, or other
potential competitors such as bobcats or
mountain lions, is negatively affecting
lynx populations.
How has trapping affected the lynx
population?
One of the primary reasons we
proposed to list lynx, based on available
information at the time, was our
conclusion that the low numbers of lynx
in the contiguous United States were
the residual effects of overtrapping that
was believed to have occurred in the
1970s and 1980s, in response to
unprecedented high
pelt prices. However,
we now understand
that low numbers of
lynx in the
contiguous United
States occur not as a
result of
overtrapping, but
because lynx and
their prey are
naturally limited by
fragmented habitat,
topography, and
climate compared to
that in the core of the
lynx range in central
Canada.
Does competition
with other species
negatively affect
lynx in the
contiguous United
States?
We know that
coyotes have greatly
expanded their range
and that packed snow
trails facilitate the
movement of coyotes
into formerly
inaccessible deep
snow habitats
occupied by lynx.
Additionally,
mountain lion
numbers appear to have increased.
Lynx co-evolved with mountain lions
and bobcats and, in most areas, have
coexisted with coyotes for many
decades. We found no evidence that
competition with species such as
coyotes, mountain lions, or bobcats is
negatively affecting lynx at a
population-level scale.
Are lynx affected by roads?
Lynx movements may be negatively
influenced by high traffic volumes on
roads that bisect suitable lynx habitat.
We suspect that highways with high
traffic volumes and associated suburban
developments inhibit movements
within home ranges and dispersal and
may contribute to loss of habitat
connectivity. Otherwise, however, roads
do not appear to be a significant direct
cause of lynx mortality. We found no
information demonstrating that forest
roads negatively impact resident lynx
populations.
Final Listing
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has
determined that the Canada lynx will
be listed as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act.
What factors does the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service consider as
significant threats to the continued
existence of the lynx in the lower 48
States?
We conclude the single factor
threatening the contiguous United
States distinct population segment of
the lynx is the inadequacy of existing
regulatory mechanisms, specifically the
lack of guidance to conserve lynx in
National Forest Land and Resource
Management Plans and Bureau of Land
Management Land Use Plans and the
potential for these plans to allow or
direct actions that adversely affect
lynx. New information available since
publication of the proposed rule found
that the majority of lynx habitat,
particularly in the Northern Rocky
Mountains/Cascades and Southern
Rocky Mountain regions, is located on
Federal lands. Federal land
management assumes the largest role
in the conservation of lynx in the
contiguous United States because of the
preponderance of lynx habitat available
on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management lands.
When does the listing go into effect?
The listing goes into effect 30 days
after publication of the final rule in the
Federal Register.
What determines if a species meets the
definition of endangered or
threatened?
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
must determine if the presence of one
or more of the five factors listed below
have caused a species’ status to decline
to where it meets the definition of
endangered or threatened:
The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range.
Overutilization for commercial,
recreational, scientific, or educational
purposes.
Disease or predation.
Inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms.
Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
Endangered is defined as any species
which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion
of its range.
Threatened refers to any species which
is likely to become an endangered
species within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion
of its range.
What protection does the lynx receive
from listing as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act?
The Endangered Species Act requires
Federal Agencies to conserve
endangered and threatened species and
to consult with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service on any actions that
might affect the lynx.
Upon listing, lynx in the contiguous
United States are protected from
“take.” “Take” is defined as: to harass,
harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill,
trap, capture or collect. Harm may
include significant habitat modification
where it actually kills or injures a listed
species through impairment of essential
behavior (e.g., feeding, breeding or
sheltering). Taking is prohibited unless
authorized by a special 4(d) rule that
would provide for the conservation of lynx.
Final Listing—Distinct
Population Segments (DPS)
What is a distinct vertebrate
population as defined by the
Endangered Species Act?
Under the Endangered Species Act,
populations of species can be listed
individually as threatened or
endangered if they are separated or
discrete from other populations and
they represent populations with
significant biological or ecological
value. Once it has been determined that
a population has these two elements
and therefore meets the definition of a
distinct population, the specific
population is then evaluated using the
five listing factors used to determine if
it meets the definition of either
threatened or endangered (described
above). This policy applies to vertebrate
animals that may be endangered or
threatened in part of their range but
are more numerous elsewhere. The
Endangered Species Act protects
species, subspecies, and “any distinct
population segment of any species of
vertebrate fish or wildlife” which are
endangered or threatened.
In the case of the lynx, a distinct
population segment means that lynx in
the lower 48 United States are
considered discreet in that this
population is delineated by an
international political boundary that
coincides with differences in status and
management. In addition, the
population of lynx in the lower 48
States are considered significant
because loss of this population would
significantly reduce the range of the
species.
Why does the distinct population
segment delineation stop at the
Canadian border?
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s
policy on vertebrate population
segments allows for the identification
of distinct population segments
following international boundaries
under certain circumstances. With the
lynx, there appears to be a difference in
the population status and management
practices of lynx north of the United
States border.
How important are the different regions
to the persistence of the contiguous
United States distinct population
segment?
Within the contiguous United States,
the relative importance of each region
to the persistence of the Distinct
Population Segment (DPS) varies. The
Northern Rockies/Cascades Region
supports the largest amount of lynx
habitat and has the strongest evidence
of persistent occurrence of resident
lynx populations, both historically and
currently. In the Northeast (where
resident lynx populations continue to
persist) and Southern Rockies regions,
the amount of lynx habitat is naturally
limited and does not contribute
substantially to the persistence of the
contiguous United States DPS. Much of
the habitat in the Great Lakes Region
is naturally marginal and may not
support prey densities sufficient to
sustain lynx populations. As such, the
Great Lakes Region does not currently
contribute substantially to the
persistence of the contiguous United
States DPS. Collectively, the
Northeast, Great Lakes, and Southern
Rockies do not constitute a significant
portion of the range of the DPS. We
conclude the Northern Rockies/
Cascades Region is the primary region
necessary to support the continued
long-term existence of the contiguous
United States DPS. However, the role
that each region plays in the long-term
conservation of the species will be
explored further in recovery planning
for the species
Listing Impacts
Will listing the lynx shut down logging,
recreational development, and other
activities on Federal lands?
No. In the vast majority of cases,
modifications to reviewed projects are
possible that reduce or eliminate
impacts to listed species, allowing
projects to continue. The Lynx
Conservation Assessment and Strategy,
developed by the U.S. Forest Service,
Bureau of Land Management, and U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, provides
guidelines for Federal Agencies to
analyze and minimize effects of planned
and ongoing projects on lynx and lynx
habitat and recommends lynx
conservation measures. Compliance
with the National Forest Management
Act and Federal Land Policy and
Management Act will reduce any
restrictions necessary under the
Endangered Species Act.
What effect does timber harvest have
on the lynx?
Timber harvest activities and
precommercial thinning may reduce the
quality of snowshoe hare habitat in
local areas of the Northern Rockies/
Cascades and Southern Rockies and
thus may negatively affect lynx at local
scales. However, based on the large
proportion of lynx habitat managed in
nondevelopmental status (such as
designated Wilderness) compared to
the proportion of managed lynx forest
types affected, current regional effects
of timber harvest and thinning appear
to occur at levels that are not likely
threatening western lynx populations.
What impacts will the listing have on
private, State, or County timber
harvest?
In the Northeast and Great Lakes, most
lynx habitat is in private, State, or
County ownership and timber harvest
and associated activities may be
detrimental to lynx on these lands.
Modifications to private timber
management may be necessary in areas
where lynx denning is known to occur.
Non-federal landowners also have the
option of entering into a Habitat
Conservation Agreement which will
provide for the conservation of the lynx
while allowing timber harvest and
protection against incidental take.
How will the listing affect trapping in
the contiguous United States?
Trapping of lynx will be illegal upon
the date the listing goes into effect. All
States (with the exception of Oregon)
and many Tribes within the contiguous
United States had already closed their
lynx trapping and hunting seasons prior
to the lynx being listed under the
Endangered Species Act.
We have been working with States and
Tribes to ensure that their trapping and
hunting programs for species other
than lynx do not result in the take of
lynx. One option we are planning is the
issuance of a special 4(d) rule to address
conservation of the species by States
and Tribes in order to minimize the
potential for lynx to be incidentally
taken while ensuring that the legal
hunting and trapping programs can
continue.
Conservation Agreement
The Forest Service has signed a
Conservation Agreement with the Fish
and Wildlife Service which will
promote the conservation of lynx and
its habitat on federal lands. It identifies
actions the Forest Service will take to
reduce or eliminate adverse effects or
risk to the lynx and its habitat. These
actions are a result of considering the
new information about the Canada lynx
contained in the Lynx Science Report
and the Lynx Conservation Assessment
Strategy.
What has been accomplished to
address lynx conservation on Federally
managed lands?
The Forest Service, the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM), National Park
Service (NPS), and the Service
recognized that Federal agencies have a
significant role in the conservation of
lynx. They established a Lynx Steering
Committee in 1998 consisting of
representatives from each agency. The
Steering Committee provides oversight
and guidance to teams established to
address various lynx conservation
issues on Federal lands. One team
developed the Lynx Conservation
Assessment and Strategy; another team
developed the Science Report; a third
team prepared a biological assessment
to evaluate the effects of Forest Service
and BLM Land Management Plans on
lynx. All of these efforts are intended to
plan and implement sound conservation
actions and management decisions for
lynx on Federal lands.
Why was the Lynx Conservation
Assessment and Strategy developed?
How will it be used in Section 7
consultations?
The Lynx Conservation Assessment
and Strategy (LCAS) was developed to
provide a consistent and effective
approach to conserving lynx on Federal
lands in the contiguous United States.
It was developed by the Forest Service,
Bureau of Land Management (BLM),
National Park Service, and the Service.
The overall goals of the LCAS were to
recommend lynx conservation
measures, provide a basis for reviewing
the adequacy with regard to lynx
conservation of Forest Service and
BLM land and resource management
plans, and facilitate conferencing and
consultation under section 7 of the Act,
should the lynx be listed. It will also
provide a blueprint to guide recovery
efforts.
What was the determination of the
draft biological assessment (DBA) of
the effects of National Forest Service
and BLM Land Management Plans on
lynx?
The DBA determined that Federal land
management plans are likely to
adversely affect the lynx. The DBA
identified potential effects resulting
from 57 Forest Service Land and
Resource Management Plans (Plans)
and 56 BLM Land Use Plans (Plans)
within the 16-State area where lynx
were proposed for listing. The direction
found in the Plans was compared to
direction proposed in the LCAS. If it
was determined that a Plan may
adversely affect either an individual
lynx or a population segment through
failure to meet any one of the
programmatic conservation measures
in the LCAS, then the Plan was deemed
overall as likely to adversely affect
lynx. In other words, a risk was deemed
harmful to lynx if the possibility of any
adverse effect existed due to Plan
direction or if the Plans did not address
lynx conservation issues.
The Federal agencies chose a
conservative approach in determining
whether Plans might result in adverse
effects to lynx. The determination was
based only on what the Plans directed
or allowed, not on a quantitative
assessment of the effects to lynx from
actual actions as a result of past or
current implementation of the Plans.
We acknowledge that many activities
allowed by Plans, such as timber
harvest and road construction, are
never carried out for a variety of
reasons, such as funding limitations and
environmental, wildlife or policy
considerations.
The DBA evaluated 15 criteria that
may contribute to some level of adverse
effects to either an individual lynx or a
population segment through failure to
meet any one of the programmatic
conservation measures in the LCAS.
These criteria were denning habitat,
foraging habitat, habitat conversion,
precommercial thinning, fire
management, landscape patterns, forest
roads, developed recreation, non-winter
dispersed recreation, winter dispersed
recreation, minerals and energy, habitat
connectivity, land tenure adjustments,
management coordination, and
monitoring. Individually, these criteria
may not impart substantial impacts on
the DPS, however, current Plans do
allow actions that cumulatively could
result in significant detrimental effects
to the DPS. We cannot predict the
future levels of impacts to lynx that
would result from continued
implementation of current Plans.
However, the DBA concludes that there
is reasonable potential for adverse
effects to lynx as a result of actions
directed or allowed by existing Plans.
Special 4(d) Rule
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
included in the final listing a special
4(d) rule that will allow for the take and
export of lawfully obtained captive-bred
lynx.
What are the requirements for captive-bred
lynx?
The special rule provides for the take of
lawfully obtained captive-bred lynx
without permit. It allows us to issue
CITES export permits for captive-bred
lynx and captive-bred lynx skins,
properly tagged with valid CITES
export tag.
What about State and Tribal hunting
and trapping programs?
The Service has also developed an
addition to the special 4(d) rule that
will address the take of lynx that may
result incidentally from State and
Tribal regulated hunting and trapping
programs. This addition to the special
rule is in the review process and is
expected to be published soon followed
by a public comment period.

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Commonly Asked Questions About
The Canada Lynx
General
What is a Canada lynx?
The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis),
the only lynx in North America, is a
rare forest-dwelling cat of northern
latitudes. Lynx feed primarily on
snowshoe hares but also will eat small
mammals and birds. Its range extends
from Alaska, throughout much of
Canada, to the boreal forests in the
northeastern United States, the Great
Lakes, the Rocky Mountains, and the
Cascade Mountains. The Lynx is a
medium-sized cat, similar to the bobcat,
but appears somewhat larger. It has
longer hind legs and very large well-furred
paws, which make it highly
adapted to hunting snowshoe hares in
the deep snow typical throughout its
range. It also has long tufts on the ears
and a short, black-tipped tail. Adult
males average 22 pounds in weight and
33.5 inches in length with an average
weight for females at 19 pounds and 32
inches in length.
What kind of habitats do lynx require?
In the eastern and Great Lakes States,
lynx live in southern boreal forests that
are considered mixed deciduous-coniferous
forests. In the western
States they live in spruce/fir forests at
higher elevations. Downed logs and
windfalls provide cover for denning
sites, escape, and protection from
severe weather. Earlier successional
forest stages provide habitat for the
lynx’s primary prey, the snowshoe hare.
The size of lynx home ranges vary and
have been documented between 3 to 300
square miles. Lynx are capable of
moving extremely long distances in
search of food or to establish new home
ranges. Lynx populations rise and fall
following the cyclic highs and lows of
snowshoe hare populations. When hare
populations are low, the change in the
lynx’s diet causes the productivity of
adult female lynx and survival of young
to nearly cease.
Why are lynx so rare in the contiguous
United States?
In the contiguous United States, lynx
populations occur at naturally low
densities; the rarity of lynx at the
southern portion of the range compared
to more northern populations in Canada
is normal. The rarity of lynx is based
largely on limited availability of its
primary prey, snowshoe hare. At
southern latitudes, low snowshoe hare
densities are likely a result of the
naturally patchy, transitional boreal
habitat. Such habitat prevents hare
populations from achieving high
densities similar to those in the
extensive northern boreal forest. Lynx
in the contiguous United States are
part of a larger metapopulation whose
core is located in central Canada.
Range And Status
What is the size of the lynx population?
Because the lynx is such a rare animal
and there are no reliable population
estimates for any region, the size of the
total population in the contiguous
United States is unknown.
What is the range of the lynx in the
contiguous United States?
The range of the lynx in the contiguous
United States includes 14 States—
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New
York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana,
Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Lynx
infrequently dispersed into Nevada,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa,
Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia.
With available information, it is
difficult for us to determine whether
resident lynx populations existed
historically or currently in many States
within the contiguous United States.
We have conclusive evidence that
resident populations of lynx currently
exist in Montana, Washington, and
likely Maine. We suspect resident
populations occurred historically in
Minnesota, Wyoming, and New
Hampshire, but current information is
inadequate to determine whether these
States currently support resident
populations of lynx. It is likely the
native resident lynx population in
Colorado has been extirpated. We have
inadequate information to determine
whether resident lynx populations
occurred historically or currently
within New York, Vermont, Michigan,
Wisconsin, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon.
What is the status of lynx in individual
States? (What is the official State
status of the lynx?)
Maine—(Lynx are listed as a species of
special concern.) In 1999, nine lynx
were radio-collared and kittens found.
We conclude a resident lynx population
likely exists in Maine.
New Hampshire—(Listed as
Endangered in 1980.) Numerous
historic records but information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population currently exists.
Vermont—(Listed as Endangered in
1972.) Information is inadequate to
determine whether a resident
population existed historically, now
believed to be extirpated.
New York—(Protected small game with
no open season.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically,
now believed to be extirpated. A
reintroduction effort during 1987-1989
apparently failed to establish a
breeding population.
Minnesota—(Protected game animal
with no open season since 1984.) We
suspect a resident population existed
historically but information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population currently exists.
Wisconsin—(Species of concern, taking
prohibited.) Information is inadequate
to determine whether a resident
population existed historically or
currently.
Michigan—(Listed as Endangered in
1974, again in 1987.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Washington—(Listed as Threatened in
1993.) Lynx occupy five of the six areas
considered to be lynx management
zones by the State of Washington. We
conclude a resident lynx population
exists in Washington.
Oregon—(Unregulated.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Idaho—(Furbearer with no open
season.) Although numerous historic
reports, information is inadequate to
determine whether a resident
population existed historically or
currently.
Montana—(Classified as a Furbearer
with closed season.) We conclude a
resident lynx population exists in
Montana.
Utah—(Sensitive.) Information is
inadequate to determine whether a
resident population existed historically
or currently.
Wyoming—(Protected as nongame with
no open season since 1973.) We suspect
a resident population existed
historically in northwestern Wyoming;
however, although two lynx have been
recently collared in Wyoming, available
evidence is inadequate for us to clearly
determine whether a resident
population currently exists.
Colorado—(Listed as Endangered in
1975.) Historically a resident
population existed, likely now
extirpated. Reintroduction effort
initiated in 1999.
Management
Considerations
What is the ownership or management
of lynx habitat in the contiguous United
States?
A substantial amount of lynx habitat is
on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management lands—(Cascades
[99 percent], Northern Rockies [72
percent], Southern Rockies [82
percent], Great Lakes [19 percent], and
Northeast [7 percent]). The majority of
lynx habitat in the Great Lakes and
Northeast is under private, State, or
county management.
In the west, lynx habitat on large
proportions of these Federal lands is
managed in “nondevelopmental” status.
Lands within nondevelopmental
allocations are managed to allow
natural ecological processes to
dominate. Nondevelopmental lands
contain large portions of wilderness or
other natural areas. Timber harvest and
road building typically do not occur or
are very limited in lands managed in
nondevelopmental allocations. The
percent of western lynx habitat in
nondevelopmental allocations is—
Cascades, 85 percent; Northern
Rockies, 41 percent; and Southern
Rockies, 23 percent.
Has a change in fire management
affected the lynx?
Based on available information on fire
suppression and upon available habitat
assessments, we conclude that at the
present time, fire suppression effects
are less significant in lynx habitats than
in many other forest types in the west
and, therefore, the effects of fire
suppression are not threatening
western lynx populations at this time.
Fire did not play a historically
significant role in the Northeast;
therefore, we conclude that fire
suppression does not threaten lynx in
the Northeast. In the Great Lakes, fire
suppression may have regional or local
impacts but does not currently threaten
the contiguous United States lynx
population.
What effect has the increased human
access into lynx habitat had on lynx?
Human activities, such as winter
maintenance of roads and trails,
snowmobiling and skiing create packed
snow trails that allow coyotes to access
traditional lynx winter habitat.
However, we have no evidence that
competition with coyotes, or other
potential competitors such as bobcats or
mountain lions, is negatively affecting
lynx populations.
How has trapping affected the lynx
population?
One of the primary reasons we
proposed to list lynx, based on available
information at the time, was our
conclusion that the low numbers of lynx
in the contiguous United States were
the residual effects of overtrapping that
was believed to have occurred in the
1970s and 1980s, in response to
unprecedented high
pelt prices. However,
we now understand
that low numbers of
lynx in the
contiguous United
States occur not as a
result of
overtrapping, but
because lynx and
their prey are
naturally limited by
fragmented habitat,
topography, and
climate compared to
that in the core of the
lynx range in central
Canada.
Does competition
with other species
negatively affect
lynx in the
contiguous United
States?
We know that
coyotes have greatly
expanded their range
and that packed snow
trails facilitate the
movement of coyotes
into formerly
inaccessible deep
snow habitats
occupied by lynx.
Additionally,
mountain lion
numbers appear to have increased.
Lynx co-evolved with mountain lions
and bobcats and, in most areas, have
coexisted with coyotes for many
decades. We found no evidence that
competition with species such as
coyotes, mountain lions, or bobcats is
negatively affecting lynx at a
population-level scale.
Are lynx affected by roads?
Lynx movements may be negatively
influenced by high traffic volumes on
roads that bisect suitable lynx habitat.
We suspect that highways with high
traffic volumes and associated suburban
developments inhibit movements
within home ranges and dispersal and
may contribute to loss of habitat
connectivity. Otherwise, however, roads
do not appear to be a significant direct
cause of lynx mortality. We found no
information demonstrating that forest
roads negatively impact resident lynx
populations.
Final Listing
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has
determined that the Canada lynx will
be listed as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act.
What factors does the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service consider as
significant threats to the continued
existence of the lynx in the lower 48
States?
We conclude the single factor
threatening the contiguous United
States distinct population segment of
the lynx is the inadequacy of existing
regulatory mechanisms, specifically the
lack of guidance to conserve lynx in
National Forest Land and Resource
Management Plans and Bureau of Land
Management Land Use Plans and the
potential for these plans to allow or
direct actions that adversely affect
lynx. New information available since
publication of the proposed rule found
that the majority of lynx habitat,
particularly in the Northern Rocky
Mountains/Cascades and Southern
Rocky Mountain regions, is located on
Federal lands. Federal land
management assumes the largest role
in the conservation of lynx in the
contiguous United States because of the
preponderance of lynx habitat available
on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management lands.
When does the listing go into effect?
The listing goes into effect 30 days
after publication of the final rule in the
Federal Register.
What determines if a species meets the
definition of endangered or
threatened?
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
must determine if the presence of one
or more of the five factors listed below
have caused a species’ status to decline
to where it meets the definition of
endangered or threatened:
The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range.
Overutilization for commercial,
recreational, scientific, or educational
purposes.
Disease or predation.
Inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms.
Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
Endangered is defined as any species
which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion
of its range.
Threatened refers to any species which
is likely to become an endangered
species within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion
of its range.
What protection does the lynx receive
from listing as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act?
The Endangered Species Act requires
Federal Agencies to conserve
endangered and threatened species and
to consult with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service on any actions that
might affect the lynx.
Upon listing, lynx in the contiguous
United States are protected from
“take.” “Take” is defined as: to harass,
harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill,
trap, capture or collect. Harm may
include significant habitat modification
where it actually kills or injures a listed
species through impairment of essential
behavior (e.g., feeding, breeding or
sheltering). Taking is prohibited unless
authorized by a special 4(d) rule that
would provide for the conservation of lynx.
Final Listing—Distinct
Population Segments (DPS)
What is a distinct vertebrate
population as defined by the
Endangered Species Act?
Under the Endangered Species Act,
populations of species can be listed
individually as threatened or
endangered if they are separated or
discrete from other populations and
they represent populations with
significant biological or ecological
value. Once it has been determined that
a population has these two elements
and therefore meets the definition of a
distinct population, the specific
population is then evaluated using the
five listing factors used to determine if
it meets the definition of either
threatened or endangered (described
above). This policy applies to vertebrate
animals that may be endangered or
threatened in part of their range but
are more numerous elsewhere. The
Endangered Species Act protects
species, subspecies, and “any distinct
population segment of any species of
vertebrate fish or wildlife” which are
endangered or threatened.
In the case of the lynx, a distinct
population segment means that lynx in
the lower 48 United States are
considered discreet in that this
population is delineated by an
international political boundary that
coincides with differences in status and
management. In addition, the
population of lynx in the lower 48
States are considered significant
because loss of this population would
significantly reduce the range of the
species.
Why does the distinct population
segment delineation stop at the
Canadian border?
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s
policy on vertebrate population
segments allows for the identification
of distinct population segments
following international boundaries
under certain circumstances. With the
lynx, there appears to be a difference in
the population status and management
practices of lynx north of the United
States border.
How important are the different regions
to the persistence of the contiguous
United States distinct population
segment?
Within the contiguous United States,
the relative importance of each region
to the persistence of the Distinct
Population Segment (DPS) varies. The
Northern Rockies/Cascades Region
supports the largest amount of lynx
habitat and has the strongest evidence
of persistent occurrence of resident
lynx populations, both historically and
currently. In the Northeast (where
resident lynx populations continue to
persist) and Southern Rockies regions,
the amount of lynx habitat is naturally
limited and does not contribute
substantially to the persistence of the
contiguous United States DPS. Much of
the habitat in the Great Lakes Region
is naturally marginal and may not
support prey densities sufficient to
sustain lynx populations. As such, the
Great Lakes Region does not currently
contribute substantially to the
persistence of the contiguous United
States DPS. Collectively, the
Northeast, Great Lakes, and Southern
Rockies do not constitute a significant
portion of the range of the DPS. We
conclude the Northern Rockies/
Cascades Region is the primary region
necessary to support the continued
long-term existence of the contiguous
United States DPS. However, the role
that each region plays in the long-term
conservation of the species will be
explored further in recovery planning
for the species
Listing Impacts
Will listing the lynx shut down logging,
recreational development, and other
activities on Federal lands?
No. In the vast majority of cases,
modifications to reviewed projects are
possible that reduce or eliminate
impacts to listed species, allowing
projects to continue. The Lynx
Conservation Assessment and Strategy,
developed by the U.S. Forest Service,
Bureau of Land Management, and U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, provides
guidelines for Federal Agencies to
analyze and minimize effects of planned
and ongoing projects on lynx and lynx
habitat and recommends lynx
conservation measures. Compliance
with the National Forest Management
Act and Federal Land Policy and
Management Act will reduce any
restrictions necessary under the
Endangered Species Act.
What effect does timber harvest have
on the lynx?
Timber harvest activities and
precommercial thinning may reduce the
quality of snowshoe hare habitat in
local areas of the Northern Rockies/
Cascades and Southern Rockies and
thus may negatively affect lynx at local
scales. However, based on the large
proportion of lynx habitat managed in
nondevelopmental status (such as
designated Wilderness) compared to
the proportion of managed lynx forest
types affected, current regional effects
of timber harvest and thinning appear
to occur at levels that are not likely
threatening western lynx populations.
What impacts will the listing have on
private, State, or County timber
harvest?
In the Northeast and Great Lakes, most
lynx habitat is in private, State, or
County ownership and timber harvest
and associated activities may be
detrimental to lynx on these lands.
Modifications to private timber
management may be necessary in areas
where lynx denning is known to occur.
Non-federal landowners also have the
option of entering into a Habitat
Conservation Agreement which will
provide for the conservation of the lynx
while allowing timber harvest and
protection against incidental take.
How will the listing affect trapping in
the contiguous United States?
Trapping of lynx will be illegal upon
the date the listing goes into effect. All
States (with the exception of Oregon)
and many Tribes within the contiguous
United States had already closed their
lynx trapping and hunting seasons prior
to the lynx being listed under the
Endangered Species Act.
We have been working with States and
Tribes to ensure that their trapping and
hunting programs for species other
than lynx do not result in the take of
lynx. One option we are planning is the
issuance of a special 4(d) rule to address
conservation of the species by States
and Tribes in order to minimize the
potential for lynx to be incidentally
taken while ensuring that the legal
hunting and trapping programs can
continue.
Conservation Agreement
The Forest Service has signed a
Conservation Agreement with the Fish
and Wildlife Service which will
promote the conservation of lynx and
its habitat on federal lands. It identifies
actions the Forest Service will take to
reduce or eliminate adverse effects or
risk to the lynx and its habitat. These
actions are a result of considering the
new information about the Canada lynx
contained in the Lynx Science Report
and the Lynx Conservation Assessment
Strategy.
What has been accomplished to
address lynx conservation on Federally
managed lands?
The Forest Service, the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM), National Park
Service (NPS), and the Service
recognized that Federal agencies have a
significant role in the conservation of
lynx. They established a Lynx Steering
Committee in 1998 consisting of
representatives from each agency. The
Steering Committee provides oversight
and guidance to teams established to
address various lynx conservation
issues on Federal lands. One team
developed the Lynx Conservation
Assessment and Strategy; another team
developed the Science Report; a third
team prepared a biological assessment
to evaluate the effects of Forest Service
and BLM Land Management Plans on
lynx. All of these efforts are intended to
plan and implement sound conservation
actions and management decisions for
lynx on Federal lands.
Why was the Lynx Conservation
Assessment and Strategy developed?
How will it be used in Section 7
consultations?
The Lynx Conservation Assessment
and Strategy (LCAS) was developed to
provide a consistent and effective
approach to conserving lynx on Federal
lands in the contiguous United States.
It was developed by the Forest Service,
Bureau of Land Management (BLM),
National Park Service, and the Service.
The overall goals of the LCAS were to
recommend lynx conservation
measures, provide a basis for reviewing
the adequacy with regard to lynx
conservation of Forest Service and
BLM land and resource management
plans, and facilitate conferencing and
consultation under section 7 of the Act,
should the lynx be listed. It will also
provide a blueprint to guide recovery
efforts.
What was the determination of the
draft biological assessment (DBA) of
the effects of National Forest Service
and BLM Land Management Plans on
lynx?
The DBA determined that Federal land
management plans are likely to
adversely affect the lynx. The DBA
identified potential effects resulting
from 57 Forest Service Land and
Resource Management Plans (Plans)
and 56 BLM Land Use Plans (Plans)
within the 16-State area where lynx
were proposed for listing. The direction
found in the Plans was compared to
direction proposed in the LCAS. If it
was determined that a Plan may
adversely affect either an individual
lynx or a population segment through
failure to meet any one of the
programmatic conservation measures
in the LCAS, then the Plan was deemed
overall as likely to adversely affect
lynx. In other words, a risk was deemed
harmful to lynx if the possibility of any
adverse effect existed due to Plan
direction or if the Plans did not address
lynx conservation issues.
The Federal agencies chose a
conservative approach in determining
whether Plans might result in adverse
effects to lynx. The determination was
based only on what the Plans directed
or allowed, not on a quantitative
assessment of the effects to lynx from
actual actions as a result of past or
current implementation of the Plans.
We acknowledge that many activities
allowed by Plans, such as timber
harvest and road construction, are
never carried out for a variety of
reasons, such as funding limitations and
environmental, wildlife or policy
considerations.
The DBA evaluated 15 criteria that
may contribute to some level of adverse
effects to either an individual lynx or a
population segment through failure to
meet any one of the programmatic
conservation measures in the LCAS.
These criteria were denning habitat,
foraging habitat, habitat conversion,
precommercial thinning, fire
management, landscape patterns, forest
roads, developed recreation, non-winter
dispersed recreation, winter dispersed
recreation, minerals and energy, habitat
connectivity, land tenure adjustments,
management coordination, and
monitoring. Individually, these criteria
may not impart substantial impacts on
the DPS, however, current Plans do
allow actions that cumulatively could
result in significant detrimental effects
to the DPS. We cannot predict the
future levels of impacts to lynx that
would result from continued
implementation of current Plans.
However, the DBA concludes that there
is reasonable potential for adverse
effects to lynx as a result of actions
directed or allowed by existing Plans.
Special 4(d) Rule
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
included in the final listing a special
4(d) rule that will allow for the take and
export of lawfully obtained captive-bred
lynx.
What are the requirements for captive-bred
lynx?
The special rule provides for the take of
lawfully obtained captive-bred lynx
without permit. It allows us to issue
CITES export permits for captive-bred
lynx and captive-bred lynx skins,
properly tagged with valid CITES
export tag.
What about State and Tribal hunting
and trapping programs?
The Service has also developed an
addition to the special 4(d) rule that
will address the take of lynx that may
result incidentally from State and
Tribal regulated hunting and trapping
programs. This addition to the special
rule is in the review process and is
expected to be published soon followed
by a public comment period.