Selections
of Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman Calligraphy: Ottoman
Calligraphers and Their Works

Ottoman calligraphers
mastered certain kinds of designs that came to characterize the Ottoman school
of calligraphy from the 16th century onward.[i] They also practiced naskh and nastacliq scripts and, like their Persian counterparts, transcribed the Qur’an,
produced single sheets of calligraphic exercises (karalama),[ii] and compiled albums of calligraphies. Some of their favored calligraphic
formats included single panels (levhalar)
containing a description (hilya or hilye) of the Prophet Muhammad,
découpage work, and mirror-work calligraphy. Furthermore, beautiful handwriting (hüsn-i
hatt) was practiced by calligraphers in their personal albums of letter
exercises (mufradat) and appeared in
diplomas (ijaza or icâzet) granting them permission to sign
their own works.

One of the most
prevalent Ottoman calligraphic forms is the hilya panel, in which the Prophet Muhammad’s physical and moral qualities are
described.[iii] The text, typically attributed to the
Prophet’s son-in-law, cAli,
tends to appear on a large single sheet of paper in a format devised by the
celebrated Ottoman calligrapher Hafiz Osman (d. 1698). Some hilyas,
however, draw upon Byzantine traditions of icon-making because they are
produced as wooden triptychs with lateral wings that can be opened or
shut. Hilyas applied to wooden panels, such as one signed by Dihya Salim
al-Fahim and dated 1718 (1-88-154.13), typically hung on the walls
of private residences and served as devotional and imaginative “aniconic icons”
of the Prophet Muhammad.[iv]

Ottoman calligraphers
experimented with the boundaries of their chosen medium at the same time that
they tackled the intricacies of design and form. They mastered the art of découpage, in which a piece of paper forms a pattern
through cutting and thus is linked to the procedures of creating stencils and
pounces (a fine powder used in creating stenciled patterns). This type
of work was not new to Ottoman calligraphers, as subtractive methods were
employed for calligraphy pages and book doublures— the ornamental lining, often
of leather, on the inside of a book-cover—during the Timurid period
(1370-1506).[v] One of the best known Timurid découpage projects
existed in the now dispersed Divan (Compendium of Poems) of Sultan Husayn Mirza calligraphed by Sultan cAli al-Mashhadi in 1492 (1-87-154.152).

Ottoman calligraphers
took découpage a step further by creating intricate cutouts sometimes shaped
like a mosque niche (mihrab)
containing mirror-work inscriptions (1-84-154.6). Inscriptions reflecting one another (mütenâzir)— as if they were mirror
images— demonstrated a particular kind
of expertise. A calligrapher specializing
in this technique, such as Muhammad Ibrahim, active ca. 1720-30, might even
include his holograph seal impression (1-85-154.93 and 1-86-154.130). Like hilyas,
these mütenâzir panels probably served as wall decorations in homes
or dervish lodges (tekkes). The
latter demonstrates how a variety of Ottoman calligraphic pieces could be
viewed in relatively public places.

Other Ottoman examples
of calligraphy obviously belonged to the personal appurtenances of calligraphers. For example, a diploma (ijaza or icâzet) of
competence in calligraphy, although originally restricted in usage, could be so
beautifully executed that it was considered a work of art and therefore worthy
of collection and display. An ijaza includes a calligrapher’s chain of teachers and is testament to the tutorial
system of master-pupil and the transmission of calligraphic knowledge in the
Islamic world. Many items, such as one
executed by cAli Ra’if Efendi
in 1791 (1-88-154.129), include a selected text, for
example, a saying (hadith) of the
Prophet written by the calligrapher seeking his diploma, as well as the
approval of his teacher(s) and colleagues.

KEYS: Descriptive Record Enlarge Image

Decoupage panel with mirror image inscriptions

Calligraphic panel with the inscription " Ali is the vicegerent of God" written in a mirror image.

A diploma declaring an individual's competency in Arabic script calligraphy.