Pakistan, with a total area of 796 100 km², is located in Southern
Asia. It is bordered by India in the east, China in the north-east, Afghanistan in the
north and north-west, Iran in the south-west and the Arabian Sea to the south. Pakistan is
divided into four provinces, namely the Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province (NWFP)
and Balochistan.

The country can be divided into five physiographic regions:

The Himalayan mountain ranges in the north-western part on the border
with India and China. The highest peak, the Godwin-Austin (7 610 m) is part of the
Trans-Himalayan Range;

The Hindu Kush and the Western Mountains in the north on the border with
Afghanistan. The Tirichmir (7 690 m) is the highest peak in the Hindu Kush range;

The Potwar Plateau, just south of Islamabad. The elevation varies from
300 to 600 m. South of the Potwar Plateau is the Salt Range;

The Indus Plain, stretching from the Salt Range to the Arabian Sea. This
flat plain is largely made up of alluvium, over 300 m deep, deposited by the Indus river
and its tributaries;

The Balochistan Plateau in the south-west of the country, with an average
altitude of about 600 m. Dry hills run across the plateau from north-east to south-west. A
large part of the northwest is desert.

The total cultivable area was estimated at 29.9 million hectares in
1990, which is 37% of the total area, mainly concentrated in the Indus plain. In 1990, the
total cultivated area was estimated at almost 16.6 million hectares, or 55% of the
cultivable area, of which 16.1 million ha consisted of annual crops and almost 0.5 million
ha consisted of permanent crops.

The total population is 141 million (1995), of which 65% is rural.
Average population density is 177 inhabitants per km², but the population is mainly
concentrated in the Indus plain. Average annual population growth is estimated at about
3.2%. In 1992, agriculture accounted for 26% of GDP and provided employment to 48% of the
labour force. It supplies most of the country's food, but is also the source of raw
materials for major domestic industries, particularly for cotton products which account
for 80% of export earnings.

TABLE 1 - Basic statistics and population

Physical areas:

Area of the country

1995

79 610 000

ha

Cultivable area

1990

29 900 000

ha

Cultivated area

1990

16 556 000

ha

- annual crops

1990

16 100 000

ha

- permanent crops

1990

456 000

ha

Population:

Total population

1995

140947000

inhabitants

Population density

1995

177

inhab./km²

Rural population

1995

65

%

Water supply coverage:

Urban population

1990

82

%

Rural population

1990

42

%

TABLE 2 - Water: sources and use

Renewable water resources:

Average precipitation

494

mm/yr

393.3

km³/yr

Internal renewable water resources

248.0

km³/yr

Total (actual) renewable water resources

1995

418.27

km³/yr

Dependency ratio

1995

40.7

%

Total (actual) renewable water resources per
inhabitant

1995

2 968

m³/yr

Total dam capacity

-

106 m³

Water withdrawal:

- agricultural

1991

150600

106 m³/yr

- domestic

1991

2 500

106 m³/yr

- industrial

1991

2 500

106 m³/yr

Total water withdrawal

155600

106 m³/yr

per inhabitant

1991

1 277

m³/yr

as % of total {actual) renewable water
resources

37.2

%

Other water withdrawal

-

106 m³/yr

Average groundwater depletion

-

106 m³/yr

Wastewater - Non-conventional water sources:

Wastewater:

- produced wastewater

-

106 m³/yr

- treated wastewater

-

106 m³/yr

- reused treated wastewater

-

106 m³/yr

Desalinated water

-

106 m³/yr

CLIMATE AND WATER RESOURCES

Climate

Pakistan lies in the subtropical arid zone and most of the country is
subjected to a semi-arid climate. June is the hottest month in the plains and July in the
mountainous areas, with temperatures over 38°C, while the mean monthly minimum is only
4°C in December/January. Average annual precipitation is estimated at 494 mm, but is
uneven over much of the Indus basin. It reaches up to 1 500 mm in the north. Most of the
rainfall in Pakistan originates from summer monsoons.

Water resources

Pakistan can be divided into three hydrological units:

the Indus basin, covering more than 566 000 km² (or 71% of the
territory), comprising the whole of the provinces of the Punjab, Sindh and NWFP and the
eastern part of Balochistan. The Indus river has 2 main tributaries, the Kabul on the
right bank and the Panjnad on the left bank. The Panjnad is the resulting flow of five
main rivers (literally Punjab means 'five waters'): the Jhelum and Chenab, known as the
western rivers, and the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej known as the eastern rivers.

the Karan desert in the west of Balochistan (in the west of the country),
which is an endorheic basin covering 15% of the territory. The Mashkel and Marjen rivers
are the principal source of water in the basin. The water is discharged in the
Hamun-i-Mashkel lake, in the south-west at the border with Iran.

the arid Makran coast along the Arabian Sea covering 14% of the territory
in its southwestern part (Balochistan province). The Hob, Porali, Hingol and Dasht are the
principal rivers of this coastal zone.

TABLE 3 - Irrigation and drainage

Irrigation potential

-

ha

Irrigation:

1. Full or partial control irrigation:
equipped area

1990

14327000

ha

- surface irrigation

-

ha

- sprinkler irrigation

-

ha

- micro-irrigation

-

ha

% of area irrigated from groundwater

1989

34.0

%

% of area irrigated from surface water

1989

66.0

%

% of area irrigated from non-conventional
sources

1989

0.0

%

% of equipped area actually irrigated

-

%

2. Spate irrigation area

1990

1 402 448

ha

3. Equipped wetland and inland valley bottoms
(i.v.b.)

-

ha

Total irrigation (1 +2+3)

1990

15729448

ha

- as % of cultivated area

95

%

4. Flood recession cropping area

1990

1 230 552

ha

Total water managed area (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)

1990

16960000

ha

- as % of cultivated area

102

%

- increase over last 10 years

1980-90

14

%

- power irrigated area as % of water managed
area

-

%

Full or partial control irrigation
schemes: Criteria

Large-scale schemes > - ha

-

ha

Medium-scale schemes

-

ha

Small-scale schemes < - ha

-

ha

Total number of households in irrigation

Irrigated crops

Total irrigated grain production

-

tons

as % of total grain production

-

%

Harvested crops under irrigation (full or
partial control)

-

ha

- permanent crops: total

-

ha

- annual crops: total

-

ha

. wheat

1992

6 497 400

ha

. cotton

-

ha

.

-

ha

.

-

ha

. other annual crops

-

ha

Drainage - Environment:

Drained area

1992

5 100 165

ha

as % of cultivated area

31

%

- drained areas in full or partial control
irrigated areas

1992

5 100 165

ha

- drained areas in equipped wetland and i.v.b

-

ha

- other drained areas

-

ha

- total drained area with subsurface `rains

-

ha

- total drained area with surface drains

-

ha

Flood-protected area

-

ha

Area salinized by irrigation

-

ha

Population affected by water-borne diseases

-

inhabitants

The internal renewable water resources are estimated at 248 km³/year.
Surface runoff is estimated at 243 km³, while groundwater resources are about 55 km³,
most being the baseflow of the river system.

The Indus basin has a total drainage area of 1.06 million km², of which
56% lies in Pakistan, and the other 44% in China, Afghanistan and India. Because of the
importance of irrigation in the Indus plain, the water balance of the Indus basin has been
carefully studied, which is not the case for the other basins. Therefore most of the
results found refer only to the Indus basin. The mean annual inflow into the country
through the western rivers (the Indus, including the Kabul tributary, the Jhelum and the
Chenab) amounted to 170.27 km³ in 1995. The mean annual natural inflow into the country
through the eastern rivers (the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej) is estimated at 11.1 km³,
but this is reserved for India, according to the 1960 Indus Water Treaty.

Given the seasonal nature of the Himalayan runoff, roughly 85% of annual
flows are in the Kharif season (summer), and only 15 % in the Rabi season (winter).

Dams and hydropower

In 1986 there were 40 dams with a height of over 15 metres in Pakistan.
In 1992, 12 other dams were under construction. The two major dams are Tarbela (13.7 km³
of maximum reservoir capacity and 12.0 km³ of active reservoir capacity) and Mangla (7.2
km³ and 5.9 km³ respectively), both being also eqipped for electricity generation. In
1994, hydropower represented 49.9% of total installed capacity, and 47.5% of total energy
generation, Tarbela dam alone represents 36.7% of the total. The gross theoretical
hydropower potential was estimated in 1991 at 150 000 GWh/year.

Water withdrawal

Total water withdrawal in 1991 was estimated at 156 km³, of which 97%
for agricultural purposes. (Figure 1). Groundwater abstraction for agriculture has been
roughly estimated at 55 km³/year, which is approximately the volume of groundwater
renewable resources. However, in some areas, development appears to have reached the point
where groundwater is being mined. Most urban and rural water is supplied from groundwater.
Over 50% of the village water supply is obtained through hand pumps installed by private
households. In saline groundwater areas, irrigation canals are the main source of domestic
water.

The water managed areas in Pakistan are estimated at 16 960 000 ha in
1990, and can be divided according to the following classification (Figure 2):

Full or partial control irrigation schemes, covering a total area of 14
327 000 ha comprising:

the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS), which is by far the largest
irrigation system in Pakistan, covering areas in all provinces. In 1993, irrigated areas
in the IBIS were estimated at 13 972 500 ha (Figure 3);

in NWFP, about 7 800 ha are irrigated through pump lifts. They are
maintained by the Provincial Irrigation Department (PID);

in northern parts of NWFP, irrigation is practiced by means of contour
channels offtaking from the locally available water sources, often steep side streams or
springs. Most of these schemes which cover about 26 700 ha are owned and operated directly
by the beneficiaries through traditional social organizations;

in Balochistan, about 50 000 ha are irrigated from about 800 karezes
(tunnels or underground channel tapping an aquifer) and perennial springs. They are
generally small group-operated schemes, with a size ranging between 50 and 400 ha;

in Balochistan, about 130 000 ha of small group-operated schemes are
irrigated from infiltration galleries or small weirs in rivers;

in Balochistan, about 130 000 ha are irrigated by individuals pumping
from tubewells and 10 000 ha from open wells.

Spate irrigation, covering a total area of 1 402 448 ha. In Pakistan,
these areas are known as Rod Kohi in NWFP and Punjab, or Bandat in Balochistan, and are
often called flood irrigation. This kind of irrigation relies on the floods of the hill
torrents. Wherever possible. the runoff is harnessed for irrigation by weirs or temporary
diversion structures. Farmers divert the spate flow onto their fields by constructing
breachable earth bunds (called gandas) across the rivers, or by constructing stone/gravel
spurs leading towards the centre of the river. Captured water flows from field to field
and when the soil profile is saturated, the lower bund is breached to release water into
another field. Annual average cropping intensity is 20%.

Flood recession cropping areas, covering a total area of 1 230 552 ha
(Figure 4). In Pakistan these areas are known as Sailaba, and are often called falling
flood irrigation areas. Sailaba cultivation is carried out on extensive tracts of land
along the rivers and hill streams subject to annual inundation. It utilizes the moisture
retained in the root zone after the flood subsides together with sub-irrigation due to the
capillary rise of groundwater and any rain.

Apart form these water managed areas, some attempts have been made to
develop water harvesting, which is known in Pakistan as Khushkaba.

In 1989, 305 231 tubewells were used for irrigation in Pakistan, most of
them being privately owned and using diesel (Figure 6).

The total water managed area of 16.96 million ha is higher than the
total cultivated area (16.56 million ha). This is due to the fact that not all the water
managed areas are actually cultivated. This is especially the case for spate irrigation
and flood recession cropping areas. The main irrigated crops are wheat, rice and cotton.
Due to inadequate water availability in winter (storage capacity is too small) and at the
beginning and end of summer, cropping intensity is exceptionally low.

The Indus Basin Irrigation System

The 4000 year old Indus civilization has its roots in irrigated
agriculture. The abandoned creeks of the meandering river, inundated during the flood
season, are supposed to have served as the irrigation channels of the ancient systems. The
first controlled all-year irrigation began in 1859 with the completion of the Upper Bari
Doab Canal emanating from the Madhopur headworks on the Ravi river. The Sukkur barrage,
completed in 1932, is considered as the first modern hydraulic structure on the downstream
Indus river.

Although irrigation takes place in other areas of Pakistan, information
on the history and development of irrigation generally refers to the Indus Basin
Irrigation System (IBIS). Development of irrigation in the lndus basin has progressed in
the form of discrete barragecontrolled systems. With water rather than land being the main
constraint, the irrigation systems were generally designed to use the available river
supplies for bringing the largest possible areas under crops, with minimum water provided
to bring the crops to maturity.

The IBIS is characterized by its supply-based structure. The was
designed to distribute water with minimum human interference. There are few structures to
regulate canal flow. No escapes are provided at the tail end of the system and the surplus
flows have to be absorbed within the systems. Drain construction has not kept pace with
requirements, while infrastructure development has often obstructed natural drainage
flows.

With almost 14 million ha, the IBIS is the largest contiguous irrigation
system in the world. It consists of an extensive network of barrages, canals and
watercourses. The total length of the canals is about 61 000 km with communal
watercourses, farm channels, and field ditches covering another 1.6 million km. In the
Indus system, river water is diverted by barrages and weirs into main canals and
subsequently branch canals, distributaries and minors. The flow to the farm is delivered
by the watercourses (there are over 107 000 watercourses) which are supplied through
outlets (moghas) from the distributaries and minors. The mogha is designed to allow a
discharge that self-adjusts to variations in the parent canal. Within the watercourse
command (an area ranging from 80 to 280 ha), farmers receive water proportional to their
land holding. The entire discharge of the watercourse is given to one farm for a specified
period on a seven day rotation. The rotation schedule, called warabandi, is established by
the Provincial Irrigation Department, unless the farmers can reach a mutual agreement.

Operation and maintenance

The public sector operates the irrigation systems above the moghas. Each
season, the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) of the Federal Government
estimates water availability for the following season. Provincial Irrigation Departments
(PID) inform WAPDA of provincial water demands at specific locations. WAPDA releases water
from the reservoirs to meet demands as closely as possible. The limited reservoir capacity
of the systems does not allow the full regulation of rivers for irrigation.

The operation and maintenance expenditure is collected by levying water
charges and/or drainage taxes. In Punjab and NWFP, water charges are assessed by PID. In
Sindh and Balochistan, they are assessed by the Provincial Revenue Department (PRD).
Currently, water and drainage charges are not linked to operation and maintenance needs.
They are, moreover, collected in all regions by PRD, and are deemed to be part of
provincial revenues. The gap between operation and maintenance expenditures and recoveries
through water charges is high (44%) and increasing. The difficulties faced in cost
recovery have resulted in very poor operation and maintenance which, together with
deliveries at less than the designed levels and illegal diversion, has led to major
inequalities in the distribution of surface water. In reality, water often does not reach
users toward the tail end of system, which can partly explain the increasing groundwater
extraction.

In March 1991, an agreement was reached between the provinces on the
apportionment of the Indus waters to replace a much older agreement. The new agreement has
released the provincial canal systems from the need to be in operation all the time so as
to protect or establish future rights. Now that the supplies have been apportioned,
including the formula for sharing any surplus river flows, the provincial systems are free
to move toward more efficient water use.

The first Water Users Associations (WUA) were created in 1981 under the
World Bank-supported On-Farm Water Management Programme. They were formed at the
watercourse level, with a primary objective of rehabilitating the watercourses. By 1991,
there were some 17000 WUA, representing about 16% of all watercourses, with a membership
of 85000 farmers.

Irrigation water withdrawal and water losses

Over the past 20 years, groundwater use has been a major factor in
increasing agricultural production. Groundwater tubewells not only supply additional water
but have provided flexibility to match surface water supplies with crop water
requirements. However, because of uncontrolled and rapid private sector development of
groundwater (6% annual growth), there is a danger of excessive lowering of water tables
and intrusion of saline water into freshwater aquifers. Within the IBIS, total water
availability at the farm gate has significantly increased in the last 15 years (Figure 7),
and changed slightly in its composition, with a higher use of groundwater extracted by
tubewells. In 1975, surface water represented 70% of the total water available,
groundwater provided through private tubewells 22.5% and groundwater provided through
public tubewells 7.5%. In 1990, the figures were 63%, 27% and 10% respectively.

The Water Resources Section of the Planning and Development Division has
estimated average water losses from canal head to outlet at 25 %, and from outlet to farm
gate at 15 %.

Waterlogging, drainage, salinity and flood protection

The increasing diversion of river flows has significantly changed the
hydrological balance of the irrigated areas in the past century. Initially, irrigation
systems were developed without any provision for drainage. Seepage from irrigation canals
and watercourses, and the deep percolation of this water have gradually raised the
groundwater table, causing waterlogging and salinity.

It is estimated that about 2.39 million ha had water tables within 1.5
metres of the surface level in June 1989 (which resulted in 4.92 million ha in October
1989, just after the monsoon season), such areas being considered as 'disaster areas' by
the government and given high priority for drainage (Figure 8). Since the 1960s, great
efforts have been made to provide drainage in the irrigated areas. In 1992, the total
drained area was estimated at 5.10 million ha (Figure 9).

According to the Soil Survey of Pakistan (19851990), 1.78 million
hectares are considered as severely saline, and 0.18 million hectares as very severely
saline (Figure 10), but the survey does not indicate which part is due to irrigation. From
1959 onwards, about 50 Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) have been
initiated to provide a lasting solution to the problem of waterlogging and salinity
through subsurface drainage.

There are about 5 200 km of flood control works, whose maintenance falls
under the responsibility of the PID.

Authority (WAPDA), created in 1958 as a semi-autonomous body, is
responsible for planning and execution of schemes pertaining to:

generation, transmission and distribution of power;

irrigation, water supply and drainage;

prevention of waterlogging and reclamation of waterlogged and saline
lands;

flood control;

inland navigation.

In power projects, WAPDA acts as the owner with responsibility for
implementation as well as operation and maintenance of the power stations and distribution
systems. In other projects, the authority acts as the government agency for the execution
of schemes (including drainage schemes), which upon completion are transferred to
Provincial Irrigation Departments (PID) for operation and maintenance. However, WAPDA
remains responsible for the operation and maintenance of large multipurpose reservoirs and
inter-provincial link canals.

The PIDs have historically been responsible for all water-sector
activities at the provincial level, including planning, development, and the operation and
maintenance of irrigation, drainage, flood control and reclamation works. However, the
role of WAPDA has progressively grown in relation to several of these activities.
Currently, the main responsibility of the PIDs relates to the operation and maintenance of
the irrigation, drainage and flood-control systems. Under the provision of the Irrigation
and Drainage Act, the PID is responsible for all aspects of the distribution and use of
irrigation supplies including on-farm use; however, in practice, the responsibility ends
at the end of the watercourse (mogha).

The Provincial Agriculture Departments (PAD) are mainly responsible for
organizing input distribution and the extension service to farmers, and notably farm
management. The PADs are responsible for the implementation of the on-farm water
management programme. Farmers are responsible for operation and maintenance of
watercourses and field canals.

The Indus River System Authority (IRSA) has recently been established,
with headquarters at Lahore, to provide continuing interaction and a resolution of any
disputes among the four provinces on matters relating to sharing the Indus waters. The
IRSA is comprised of one representative from each province and a member from the federal
Government.

The office of the Chief Engineering Advisor provides advisory services
to the Ministry of Water and Power through its Water Engineering and Power Engineering
sections, and coordinates the inter-provincial activities related to flood-control works.
It acts also as the convertor and coordinator of the Dam Safety Council.

The 1967 Land Reform Act established a register of Rights which is a
cadastral register for land and water rights.

TRENDS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Irrigation is central to Pakistan's economy. In the irrigation
subsector, measures are expected to be taken to increase water availability, water
reliability, equity of water distribution and irrigation efficiency, to reduce
waterlogging and salinity, to limit the over-exploitation of the fresh groundwater
resources, and to improve cost recovery.

River flows are almost fully utilized, except during the flood period in
Kharif. The utility of flood water is very marginal unless additional storage is provided
in the system to broaden the supply period. According to a World Bank report, Pakistan
does not have enough reservoir capacity in its irrigation system to store seasonal waters.
Additional storage would also be necessary for providing the flexibility needed by the
shift from a supply-based operation system towards a demand-based one. Several sites have
already been identified, plans being ready for one of them (the Kalabagh darn).

For most of the multi-purpose reservoirs priority is given to
irrigation. The recent increase in thermal generation capacity has reduced the potential
conflicts between water releases from reservoirs for hydropower generation and irrigation.
Most of the annual storage is required for irrigation, not for hydropower, but conflicts
do still arise at times.

Waterlogging and salinity have been identified by the authorities as one
of the main issues to be addressed in a near future. The elimination of waterlogging in
disaster areas has been set as one of the main targets for the 8th Five-Year Plan
(1993-98). Under the Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects, attempts were made to meet
the subsurface drainage needs through deep tubewells.

Groundwater extraction by tubewell may cause serious environmental
problems and in certain areas, increasing exploitation by tubewells causes water tables to
fall at the rate of about 0.3 metres per year.

In a 1994 report, the World Bank proposed changing the Government's
approach, and commercializing (in order to later privatize) all water services. The
proposed strategy comprises:

market-determined incentives for irrigation and on-farm drainage;

establishment of Farmers Organizations;

drawing up enforceable property rights to water, the first steps being
the establishment of communal water rights, which would later be translated into
enforceable individual rights;

establishment on a canal command basis of public utilities responsible
for operation and maintenance, cost recovery and future investment;

legalization of water markets.

The expected results would be: greater transparency in the cost of water
leading to a greater efficiency in use, greater equity in distribution, and relief of
pressure on groundwater resources.