2 Logical Expressions Several of C s statements must test the value of an expression to see if it is true or false false. For example, an if statement might need to test the expression i<j; a true value would indicate that i is less than j. In many programming languages, an expression such as i < j would have a special Boolean or logical type. In C, a comparison such as i<jyields an integer: either 0 (false) or 1 (true). 3 Relational Operators C s relational operators: < less than > greater than <= less than or equal to >= greater than or equal to These operators produce 0 (false) or 1 (true) when used in expressions. The relational operators can be used to compare integers and floating-point numbers, with operands of mixed types allowed. 4 2

3 Relational Operators The precedence of the relational operators is lower than that of the arithmetic operators. For example, i + j<k-1means (i+j)<(k-1). The relational operators are left associative. 5 The expression Relational Operators i < j < k is legal, but does not test whether j lies between i and k. Since the < operator is left associative, this expression is equivalent to (i < j) < k The 1 or 0 produced by i<jis then compared to k. The correct expression is i<j&&j<k. 6 3

4 Equality Operators C provides two equality operators: == equal to!= not equal to The equality operators are left associative and produce either 0 (false) or 1 (true) as their result. The equality operators have lower precedence than the relational operators, so the expression i < j == j < k is equivalent to (i < j) == (j < k) 7 Logical Operators More complicated logical expressions can be built from simpler ones by using the logical operators:! logical negation && logical and logical or The! operator is unary, while && and are binary. The logical operators produce 0 or 1 as their result. The logical operators treat any nonzero operand as a true value and any zero operand as a false value. 8 4

5 Logical Operators Behavior of the logical operators:!expr has the value 1 if expr has the value 0. expr1 && expr2 has the value 1 if the values of expr1 and expr2 are both nonzero. expr1 expr2 has the value 1 if either expr1 or expr2 (or both) has a nonzero value. In all other cases, these operators produce the value 0. 9 Logical Operators Both && and perform short-circuit evaluation: they first evaluate the left operand, then the right one. If the value of the expression can be deduced from the left operand alone, the right operand isn t evaluated. Example: (i!= 0) && (j / i > 0) (i!= 0) is evaluated first. If i isn t equal to 0, then (j/i>0)is evaluated. If i is 0, the entire expression must be false, so there s no need to evaluate (j/i>0). Without short-circuit evaluation, division by zero would have occurred. 10 5

6 Logical Operators Thanks to the short-circuit nature of the && and operators, side effects in logical expressions may not always occur. Example: i > 0 && ++j > 0 If i>0is false, then ++j > 0 is not evaluated, so jisn t incremented. The problem can be fixed by changing the condition to ++j>0&&i>0or, even better, by incrementing j separately. 11 Logical Operators The! operator has the same precedence as the unary plus and minus operators. The precedence of && and is lower than that of the relational and equality operators. For example, i<j&&k==mmeans (i<j)&& (k == m). The! operator is right associative; && and are left associative. 12 6

7 The if Statement The if statement allows a program to choose between two alternatives by testing an expression. In its simplest form, the if statement has the form if ( expression ) statement When an if statement is executed, expression is evaluated; if its value is nonzero, statement is executed. Example: if (line_num == MAX_LINES) line_num = 0; 13 The if Statement Confusing == (equality) with = (assignment) is perhaps the most common C programming error. The statement if (i == 0) tests whether i is equal to 0. The statement if (i = 0) assigns 0 to i, then tests whether the result is nonzero. 14 7

8 The if Statement Often the expression in an if statement will test whether a variable falls within a range of values. To test whether 0 i < n: if (0 <= i && i < n) To test the opposite condition (i is outside the range): if (i < 0 i >= n) 15 Compound Statements In the if statement template, notice that statement is singular, not plural: if ( expression ) statement To make an if statement control two or more statements, use a compound statement. A compound statement has the form { statements Putting braces around a group of statements forces the compiler to treat it as a single statement. 16 8

9 Example: Compound Statements { line_num num = 0; page_num++; A compound statement is usually put on multiple lines, with one statement per line: { line_num = 0; page_num++; Each inner statement still ends with a semicolon, but the compound statement itself does not. 17 Compound Statements Example of a compound statement used inside an if statement: if (line_num == MAX_LINES) { line_num = 0; page_num++; Compound statements are also common in loops and other places where the syntax of C requires a single statement. 18 9

10 The else Clause An if statement may have an else clause: if ( expression ) statement else statement The statement that follows the word else is executed if the expression has the value 0. Example: if (i > j) max = i; else max = j; 19 The else Clause When an if statement contains an else clause, where should the else be placed? Many C programmers align it with the if at the beginning of the statement. Inner statements are usually indented, but if they re short they can be put on the same line as the if and else: if (i > j) max = i; else max = j; 20 10

12 The else Clause Some programmers use as many braces as possible inside if statements: if (i > j) { if (i > k) { max = i; else { max = k; else { if (j > k) { max = j; else { max = k; 23 The else Clause Advantages of using braces even when they re not required: Makes programs easier to modify, because more statements can easily be added to any if or else clause. Helps avoid errors that can result from forgetting to use braces when adding statements to an if or else clause

13 Cascaded if Statements A cascaded if statement is often the best way to test a series of conditions, stopping as soon as one of them is true. Example: if (n < 0) printf("n is less than 0\n"); else if (n == 0) printf("n is equal to 0\n"); else printf("n is greater than 0\n"); 25 Cascaded if Statements Although the second if statement is nested inside the first, C programmers don t usually indent it. Instead, they align each else with the original if: if (n < 0) printf("n is less than 0\n"); else if (n == 0) printf("n is equal to 0\n"); else printf("n is greater than 0\n"); 26 13

14 Cascaded if Statements This layout avoids the problem of excessive indentation when the number of tests is large: if ( expression ) statement else if ( expression ) statement else if ( expression ) statement else statement 27 Program: Calculating a Broker s Commission When stocks are sold or purchased through a broker, the broker s commission often depends upon the value of the stocks traded. Suppose that a broker charges the amounts shown in the following table: Transaction size Commission rate Under $2,500 $ % $2,500 $6,250 $ % $6,250 $20,000 $ % $20,000 $50,000 $ % $50,000 $500,000 $ % Over $500,000 $ % The minimum charge is $

16 if (commission < 39.00f) commission = 39.00f; printf("commission: $%.2f\n", commission); return 0; 31 The Dangling else Problem When if statements are nested, the dangling else problem pobe may ayoccu: occur: if (y!= 0) if (x!= 0) result = x / y; else printf("error: y is equal to 0\n"); The indentation suggests that the else clause belongs to the outer if statement. However, C follows the rule that an else clause belongs to the nearest if statement that hasn t already been paired with an else

17 The Dangling else Problem A correctly indented version would look like this: if (y!= 0) if (x!= 0) result = x / y; else printf("error: y is equal to 0\n"); 33 The Dangling else Problem To make the else clause part of the outer if statement, we can enclose the inner if statement in braces: if (y!= 0) { if (x!= 0) result = x / y; else printf("error: y is equal to 0\n"); Using braces in the original if statement would have avoided the problem in the first place

18 Conditional Expressions C s conditional operator allows an expression to produce one of two values depending on the value of a condition. The conditional operator consists of two symbols (? and :), which must be used together: expr1? expr2 : expr3 The operands can be of any type. The resulting expression is said to be a conditional expression. 35 Conditional Expressions The conditional operator requires three operands, so it is often referred to as a ternary operator. The conditional expression expr1? expr2 : expr3 should be read if expr1 then expr2 else expr3. The expression is evaluated in stages: expr1 is evaluated first; if its value isn t zero, then expr2 is evaluated, and its value is the value of the entire conditional expression. If the value of expr1 is zero, then the value of expr3 is the value of the conditional

19 Example: int i, j, k; Conditional Expressions i = 1; j = 2; k = i > j? i : j; /* k is now 2 */ k = (i >= 0? i : 0) + j; /* k is now 3 */ The parentheses are necessary, because the precedence of the conditional operator is less than that of the other operators discussed so far, with the exception of the assignment operators. 37 Conditional Expressions Conditional expressions tend to make programs shorter but harder to understand, so it s probably best to use them sparingly. Conditional expressions are often used in return statements: return i > j? i : j; 38 19

20 Conditional Expressions Calls of printf can sometimes benefit from condition expressions. Instead of if (i > j) printf("%d\n", i); else printf("%d\n", j); we could simply write printf("%d\n", i > j? i : j); Conditional expressions are also common in certain kinds of macro definitions. 39 Boolean Values in C89 For many years, the C language lacked a proper Boolean type, and there e is none defined ed in the C89 standard. One way to work around this limitation is to declare an int variable and then assign it either 0 or 1: int flag; flag = 0; flag = 1; Although this scheme works, it doesn t contribute much to program readability

21 Boolean Values in C89 To make programs more understandable, C89 programmers often define macros with names such as TRUE and FALSE: #define TRUE 1 #define FALSE 0 Assignments to flag now have a more natural appearance: flag = FALSE; flag = TRUE; 41 Boolean Values in C89 To test whether flag is true, we can write if (flag == TRUE) or just if (flag) The latter form is more concise. It also works correctly if flag has a value other than 0 or 1. To test twhether flag is false, we can write if (flag == FALSE) or if (!flag) 42 21

22 Boolean Values in C89 Carrying this idea one step further, we might even define a macro that can be used as a type: #define BOOL int BOOL can take the place of int when declaring Boolean variables: BOOL flag; It s now clear that flag isn t an ordinary integer variable, but instead represents a Boolean condition. 43 Boolean Values in C99 C99 provides the _Bool type. A Boolean variable can be declared by writing _Bool flag; _Bool is an integer type, so a _Bool variable is really just an integer variable in disguise. Unlike an ordinary integer variable, however, a _Bool variable can only be assigned 0 or 1. Attempting to store a nonzero value into a _Bool variable will cause the variable to be assigned 1: flag = 5; /* flag is assigned 1 */ 44 22

23 Boolean Values in C99 It s legal (although not advisable) to perform arithmetic on _Bool variables. It s also legal to print a _Bool variable (either 0 or 1 will be displayed). And, of course, a _Bool variable can be tested in an if statement: if (flag) /* tests whether flag is 1 */ 45 Boolean Values in C99 C99 s <stdbool.h> header makes it easier to work with Boolean values. It defines a macro, bool, that stands for _Bool. If <stdbool.h> is included, we can write bool flag; /* same as _Bool flag; */ <stdbool.h> also supplies macros named true and false, which stand for 1 and 0, respectively, making it possible to write flag = false; flag = true; 46 23

25 The switch Statement A switch statement may be easier to read than a cascaded if statement. switch statements are often faster than if statements. Most common form of the switch statement: switch ( expression ) { case constant-expression : statements case constant-expression : statements default : statements 49 The switch Statement The word switch must be followed by an integer expression the controlling expression inin parentheses. Characters are treated as integers in C and thus can be tested in switch statements. Floating-point numbers and strings don t qualify, however

26 The switch Statement Each case begins with a label of the form case constant-expression : A constant expression is much like an ordinary expression except that it can t contain variables or function calls. 5is a constant expression, and 5+10is a constant expression, but n + 10 isn t a constant expression (unless n is a macro that represents a constant). The constant expression in a case label must evaluate to an integer (characters are acceptable). 51 The switch Statement After each case label comes any number of statements. No braces are required around the statements. The last statement in each group is normally break

28 The Role of the break Statement Executing a break statement causes the program to break out of the switch statement; execution continues at the next statement after the switch. The switch statement is really a form of computed jump. When the controlling expression is evaluated, control jumps to the case label matching the value of the switch expression. A case label is nothing more than a marker indicating a position within the switch. 55 The Role of the break Statement Without break (or some other jump statement) at the end of a case, control o will flow into the next case. Example: switch (grade) { case 4: printf("excellent"); case 3: printf("good"); case 2: printf("average"); case 1: printf("poor"); case 0: printf("failing"); default: printf("illegal grade"); If the value of grade is 3, the message printed is GoodAveragePoorFailingIllegal grade 56 28

29 The Role of the break Statement Omitting break is sometimes done intentionally, but it s usually yjust an oversight. It s a good idea to point out deliberate omissions of break: switch (grade) { case 4: case 3: case 2: case 1: num_passing++; /* FALL THROUGH */ case 0: total_grades++; break; Although the last case never needs a break statement, including one makes it easy to add cases in the future. 57 Program: Printing a Date in Legal Form Contracts and other legal documents are often dated in the following ow gway: Dated this day of, 20. The date.c program will display a date in this form after the user enters the date in month/day/year form: Enter date (mm/dd/yy): 7/19/14 Dated this 19th day of July, The program uses switch statements to add th (or st or nd or rd ) to the day, and to print the month as a word instead of a number

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