12. IMPACTS ON NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN

Transcription

1 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN 12. IMPACTS ON NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN Gerardo Benito, Jordi Corominas and José Manuel Moreno Natural disasters are defined as natural phenomena occurring within a limited space and period of time, causing disruption to peoples lives (Olcina and Ayala-Carcedo 2002). In Spain, from 1971 to 2002, natural disasters caused material damages of over 3,400 million Euros (>110 million Euros per annum, according to the Consortium of Insurance Compensation 2003, figures expressed according to December 31 st 2001 values), causing over 1,680 deaths (according to Olcina et. al. 2002; including the 794 casualties in the 1962 floods in Catalonia). During the last decade, coinciding with the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction ( ), these damages have increased considerably, almost in an exponential manner (see damage statistics in Piserra et al., this volume), with material damages of over 515 million Euros and 480 fatalities (according to the Consortium of Insurance Compensation 2003 and Olcina et al. 2002, respectively). This upward tendency of damages caused by natural disasters supports the idea that extreme events associated with the effects of climate change are occurring with greater frequency. In this respect, we must disassociate the frequency and magnitude of natural disasters from the socio-economic impact and perception by the media, which, frequently, responds more to the intensive occupation of the territory (exposure to risk of property and people) and the reduced thresholds of social tolerance to natural hazards. The climate-related natural hazards with the greatest impact in Spain, affecting terrestrial areas, include floods, droughts, landslides, avalanches, lightening, forest fires, gales, blizzards, hail, storms, cold spells, heat waves and subsidence affecting buildings and civil engineering works. The greatest losses of human life in the last five decades have resulted from flooding (1,525 fatalities), cold spells (>40 fatalities), heat waves (>300 fatalities), landslides (>39 fatalities), avalanches (>17 fatalities), wind storms (>15 fatalities), and lightening (>2,100 fatalities). This chapter will deal with the possible impacts of climate change in relation to certain natural disasters, in particular floods, landslides and avalanches, lightening and forest fires. 505

5 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN ABSTRACT The characteristics of climate and relief on the Iberian peninsula favour the generation of floods. In Spain, these floods have historically had serious socio-economic impacts, with over 1,525 fatalities in the last five decades. Floods are the consequence of abnormal weather at a limited spatial-temporal scale and, so far, cannot be simulated with the physical models that predict the different scenarios of future climate change. Possible scenarios of the impact of climate change on flood regimes can be diagnosed through the use of millennial scale relationships of flood response to changes in climate, these obtained from geological and documentary data. In Atlantic basins, the generation, duration and magnitude of floods are very much associated with changes in winter rainfall. Palaeoflood and documentary flood records show greater frequency of ordinary and extraordinary events during the initial and final phases of cold periods such as the Little Ice Age ( ). In the instrumental period (1910 to the present), Atlantic rivers underwent a decline in the frequency of extraordinary floods, although the magnitude of the most catastrophic floods has remained the same, despite the flood control effect of reservoirs. This upward trend of hydrological variability is expected to continue in the forthcoming decades (medium level uncertainty) if we take into account the intensification of the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). In the case of rivers Duero and Ebro, peak discharges might be affected by the sudden snowmelt resulting from sudden variations in winter and spring temperatures. In Mediterranean basins, past flood series indicate that extreme floods occur during periods of high irregularity of both seasonal and annual rainfall. In recent periods (the seventies and eighties) an increase has been observed in intense rainfall episodes, some of which have caused extraordinary floods. These recent floods reached maximum discharges above those recorded in gauging stations in the first half of the 20 th Century (prior to the construction of reservoirs). In this sense, existing data indicate (high uncertainty level) that the temperature rise could increase the irregularity of the flood and drought regime and cause the generation of flash floods in Mediterranean basins. The areas vulnerable to floods are located close to town centres and tourist resorts (particularly in the Mediterranean). There has been a considerable increase in these vulnerable areas as a consequence of increased exposure resulting from the spread of urban areas, new construction works (e.g. roads, railways, canals) and from human activity close to water courses. The socioeconomic sectors that could be affected by increased flood hazards are tourism, transport and distribution, and, to a lesser degree, the insurance sector. The main adaptation options are based on better understanding of the preventive measures, aimed at improving land planning, and on prediction systems currently operating in some basins. Among the main research needs, we can highlight the reconstruction of past flood series, analysis of instrumental gauging series, and the development of coupled regional climatehydrology models that can provide reliable scenarios of hydrological extremes, considering the particularities of the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. 509

6 510 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN

7 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN 12.A.1. INTRODUCTION Given the climatic, topographic and geologic conditions of the Iberian Peninsula, flooding episodes and prolonged periods of drought constitute normal hydrological phenomena with which society has to live. Floods are the natural risk with the greatest economic and social impact that can be generated in a short space of time (hours or days), although, if we are dealing solely with economic losses, drought impact in crops and losses in hydroelectric power generation can lead to higher economic costs (Pujadas 2002). Since the floods in Valencia in 1957, there has been, on average, one serious flood every 5 years (CTEI 1983). The 10 most important events with regard to compensation paid out by the Consortium of Insurance Compensation (CCS) have occurred recently, six in the 1980s and four in the 1990s (see see Chapter 15). The impact of climate change resulting from the greenhouse effect in relation to flooding constitutes one of the main uncertainties of all the reports drafted to date by international bodies. The latest report written by the IPCC (IPCC 2001) indicates that the increases in greenhouse gasses and aerosols in the atmosphere will cause an increase in climatic variability and extreme events in many parts of the world. In Europe, the frequency and severity of floods could increase, especially in the largest river basins in central and Western Europe, due to the concentration of rainfall in winter and spring months (IPCC 1996). Likewise, increased temperatures at the end of spring and during summer could lead to an increase in torrential rainfall of a convective nature in small basins and, therefore, to increased risk of flash flooding, especially in mountain areas and in Mediterranean regions. The Acacia Report (Parry 2000) indicates that the main risk in southern European countries derives from flash floods caused by torrential rains. This report informs that for the year 2020, abnormally hot summers, like the one that occurred in 2003, will be between four and five times more frequent than at present. In spite of all these conjectures, in reality none of the global or regional atmospheric circulation models are capable of generating reliable scenarios of the changes to be expected in relation to extreme events, and these statements are based on the idea that climate change will alter the whole volume of monthly rainfall in the same proportion, without considering rainfall concentration over short time periods (for example at hourly or daily timescales). 12.A.2. CLIMATIC SENSITIVITY 12.A.2.1. Present climatic sensitivity of floods The magnitude and frequency of floods vary in different drainage basins, depending on their morphometric variability, network scale and, in particular, the type of circulation patterns generating the floods (Benito et al. 1996; 1997; Fig. 12.A.1). During winter, flows from the west and northwest dominate, and are closely related to a high frequency of zonal circulation at high altitude. This situation conditions to a greater degree the areas affected by Atlantic air masses, mainly the rivers Duero and Tagus and basins in Galicia and Cantabria. The latter areas, however, are more influenced by intense rainfall caused by northern advection, which also affects the headwaters of the Ebro and the Duero. The Guadiana and Guadalquivir basins, although affected by these disturbances, register the most noteworthy episodes when circulation acquires an intense southern component, which is usually associated with the presence of low pressure in the Gulf of Cadiz bringing very wet flows from the southwest. At the end of winter, when the circumpolar vortex becomes weaker and the setting of an undulating circulation pattern occurs (a change on main flow towards south and southwesterly directions takes place, presenting their higher frequency at the end of spring. This type of circulation is responsible for large volumes of rainfall in the East and Southeast of Spain, mainly 511

8 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN in the Mediterranean basins of the Júcar, Segura, Ebro and the Eastern Pyrenees and southern rivers. In Mediterranean basins, the advance of air masses from the Atlantic that are relatively colder than the sea can increase instability and facilitate the formation of convective systems. The highest number of cold pools is generated during this season (Llasat and Puigcerver 1990), occurring mainly in the western part of Spain (Llasat 1991) and which can be associated in some cases with moderate rainfall. Some rivers in Spain also present a second flow peak during spring, due to sudden snowmelt that occurs mainly at the riverheads in mountain areas (Fig. 12.A.1). Summer is characterised by scarce rainfall throughout much of Spain, especially to the south of the Cantabrian Range. In northern Spain (Galicia, Cantabria and the Basque Country), however, on exceptional occasions there can be flooding associated with northern flows and with the presence or lack of cold pools. Intense, short-lived rainfall episodes affect usually the Pyrenees and the Catalonian coast at this time of year, responsible for flash floods in arroyos and ephemeral streams. The contribution of these rainfall events to the hydrological budget of these mountain catchments is nevertheless small, due to the short time duration of these rainfall events and small catchment areas. The total rainfall contribution of these summer events to the basins is low, due to their short duration and small area. Finally, during autumn, there is an increase of the west and northwest circulation, as well as of the southwest type. Situations from the southeast at low atmospheric levels and the southwest at high altitude (associated with the presence of a high altitude trough or cold pool), with advection of very hot and humid air at low levels, are very favourable for the development of organised convective systems, which generate floods (Jansà et al 1996). These systems affect mainly the Mediterranean coast, leading to events that generate floods in rivers of the Eastern Pyrenees, the Júcar and Segura basins and also in the Ebro basin and southern rivers. In the case of the Mediterranean rivers that drain the Iberian Range (Júcar, Segura and Turia), the highest peak discharges are recorded during this period. Indeed, the average discharge of these rivers can be multiplied by up to 11,000 times during the largest floods (Masach 1950). Analysis of the series of annual maximum discharges recorded at gauging stations indicates a decrease in the peaks of ordinary floods over the last 40 years (Fig. 12.A.2). This decrease in peak discharge is partly due to the construction of dams, built mostly between the 1950s and 1960s, currently exceeding one thousand dams (1,133 including weirs), with a storage capacity of over 56,000 hm 3. This flood control effect of reservoirs, however, is insufficient in the case of the largest floods, such as those recorded in Mediterranean basins in 1982 and 1987, or in the Atlantic basins in the year As can be seen in Figure 12.A.2, these floods presented the highest peak discharges in the systematic gauging records (last 50 years). It is evident that hydraulic infrastructures have modified the natural trends of maximum discharges, which hinders hydroclimatic analysis of instrumental series. In some cases, the series of maximum discharges have been restored to their natural regime to eliminate the noise artificially caused by the inclusion of the reservoirs, although there are very few studies of this type in Spain. We should, therefore, be somewhat cautious when interpreting the tendency of flood discharges recorded in the last 30 years in regulated rivers, in relation to the effects of climate change. In the Atlantic basins, flood generation, duration and magnitude, are closely related to changes in winter rainfall. Although the relationships between mean discharge, rainfall and peak discharge are not straightforward in these basins, the extremely wet years (Fig. 12.A.3), correspond to years with high peak discharges. The heaviest rainfall in the Atlantic basins occurs when the zonal circulation is displaced towards lower latitudes (35-45º N) and the Occidental Iberian Peninsular Coast is affected by the entry of successive frontal systems, thus generating heavy and persistent rainfall in the basins of the Duero, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. A southerly wet air flow associated with an undulating flow circulation pattern is often responsible for intense rainfall over the Guadiana and Guadalquivir basins. In 512

10 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN Fig. 12.A.2. Annual series of flood discharge in the rivers Duero (Toro), Tagus (Alcántara), Guadalquivir (Alcalá del Río) and Llobregat (Martorell). 12.A.2.2. Effects of climatic variability on hydrological risks based on past series Alternating warm and cold periods has been described for the last thousand years (e.g. the Medieval Warm Period, around AD and the Little Ice Age, around AD , Flohn 1993). In the same way floods and droughts have also varied, in response to these climate changes. Geologic and documentary records make possible the reconstruction of the frequency and even the magnitude of these extreme events. Geologic records are based on studies of the sediments deposited by rivers during floods (Benito et al. 2003a) and they enable us to go back in time up to 10,000 years ago (the Holocene). With regard to documentary records, archives of public and ecclesiastical administrations, at country, regional or local level are used. Three types of registers are obtained from these documentary sources: i) complete and continuous series from the 16 th Century till present time; ii) discontinuous series between the 14 th and the 15 th Century, and iii) occasional events since classical times through the use of Greco-Roman and scattered Christian medieval and Arab documents (Benito et al. 2004; Barriendos and Coeur 2004). In all cases, it can be seen that floods are not evenly distributed in time, rather there are periods in which an abnormal concentration of atmospheric circulation patterns generate extreme events and respond to changing climatic situations. 514

11 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN Fig.12.A.3. Temporal variation in annual rainfall (mm) in mainland Spain and classification of years according to their deviation from the mean (656 mm) for the period 1940/ /03 (hydrological year October to September). It is generally assumed that for the past 3,000 years the general circulation of the atmosphere has presented similar characteristics to those at present and it is, therefore, in this period that analysis of climate flood relationships is of greatest interest. During this period, hydrological response was affected both by climatic variability and human activities, especially during the last 1,700-2,000 years with the establishment of agricultural societies that set in motion intense deforestation processes. It is evident, however, that the generation of floods in medium-sized to large-size basins responds to excessive rainfall in these basins, with a moderate or less important role played by human activity in terms of the infiltration capacity of soils. Palaeoflood records show an abnormal concentration of extreme events in different basins in the Mediterranean environment from 2860 to 2690 years B.P. ("before present"), that is, between 850 and 550 B.C. (Thorndycraft et al Fig. 12.A.4). This period precedes or is close in time, to a cold and wet phase around 2,650 years ago (van Geel et al. 1999), which is associated with variations in the emission of solar radiation. In the River Llobregat, the magnitude of the floods generated in this period practically doubles those recorded in the 20 th Century and can only be compared to some observed in the 17 th Century (Thorndycraft et al. 2004; Fig. 12.A.4). 515

12 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN Fig. 12.A.4. Estimated discharges of the largest floods that occurred in the last 3,000 years in the medium-lower reaches of the river Llobregat using geologic records (red), together with those recorded in gauging stations in Martorell (black) and Castellvell (blue) (modified from Thorndycraft et al. 2004). Sediment records of palaeofloods covering the last 2,000 years indicate an abnormally high frequency of large floods during AD , AD and AD periods. The resolution of the radiocarbon dating technique for the last 300 years is poor, and this last period could, therefore, reflect dating errors. These periods correlate in time with those obtained from documentary records, which show an increase in the frequency of floods of large magnitude in the Atlantic basins of the Iberian Peninsula during the periods and (Benito et al. 1996; 2003b; Fig. 12.A.5). The climatic conditions prevailing in these periods with a high frequency of floods are difficult to estimate. In historic climatology, the terms Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age have been used to define two secular climatic episodes involving warming and cooling, respectively, which have occurred in the last 1,000 years. However, a number of recent studies show that the start and duration of these periods vary regionally. The study of floods and climate during the Little Ice Age (LIA) in the Iberian Peninsula has been studied also using historical documentary sources. These studies indicate an intense climatic variability, characterised by periods of increased frequency of torrential rains, reflected in catastrophic flooding, as well as by an increased frequency of prolonged droughts. This abnormal behaviour usually lasted for 30 or 40 years (Fig. 12.A.6), being the periods of and the ones where the highest flooding severity was registered (Barriendos and Martín Vide 1998). Regarding droughts, it is more difficult to define distinct periods due to their complex spatial distribution, but they were clearly more frequent in the middle 16 th ( ) and 17 th centuries ( ), less severs in , as well as between and (Barriendos 2002). The existence of periods with flood frequency together with droughts should also be mentioned. To date only one such period is known, between 1760 and 1800, but its effects spread throughout much of Western and Central Europe, with a clear impact on agricultural production and even social crises in different countries (Barriendos and Llasat 2003). 516

13 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN Fig. 12.A.5. Distribution of historic floods in Spain during different periods (according to Benito et al. 1996). Fig. 12.A.6. Frequency of extraordinary and catastrophic floods at Catalonia rivers (NE Spain). Values obtained from the application of a smoothed Gaussian weighted filter to times series (10 and 30 years) to the standardised mean (data from M. Barriendos). 517

14 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN One aspect worth mentioning with regard to the LIA is the identification of extreme hydrological events that have not been recorded during the modern instrumental period (Fig. 12.A.7), but that can be repeated in future, under future climate scenarios and likely to cause unforeseen impacts. This appears to be the case of continuous torrential rains, causing catastrophic flooding in January-February of and 1897 in the Atlantic basins (Guadalquivir, Guadiana, Tagus, Duero; Benito et al. 1996; 2003b) or the event of November 1617 in Mediterranean basins (Barriendos 1995; Fig. 12.A.6). Also identified are exceptional episodes of other phenomena that are more difficult to appreciate with regard to duration and magnitude, such as the continental cold spell from December 1788 to January 1789 (Barriendos et al. 2000). Fig. 12.A.7. Peak discharges estimated for palaeofloods and documentary floods of the River Tagus at Aranjuez (after Benito et al. 2003), and data recorded at the gauging station (since 1911 in yellow). 12.A.3. MAIN IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE Even minor changes in climate can affect the number of hydrological extremes recorded in a year, their interannual frequency, as well as the duration, volume and peaks of recorded floods. Atmospheric patterns generating floods are complex and it is difficult to establish a direct and clear relationship between climate and floods. Different indices have been established to define the position of zonal circulation in Europe in general and in Western Europe in particular. Among these indices the North Atlantic Oscillation index (NAO) is one of the most used and is defined as the standardised difference in pressure at sea level between two regional pressure centres: (1) a low pressure centre in Iceland and (2) a high pressure centre in the Azores (Walker and Bliss 1932; van Loon and Rogers 1978). Associations have been observed between these pressure differences and the distribution of winter rainfall and discharge in the Atlantic basins of the Iberian Peninsula (Trigo et al. 2003), particularly in the river Guadalquivir (Fig. 12.A.8). Periods with the NAO in a negative phase are associated with humid/wet conditions in the western Mediterranean and northern Africa (Wanner et al. 1994) and cold air in northern Europe. A study of the wintertime correlation between the NAO index and total winter precipitation in the different regions of Spain for the period October 1897 to September 1998 shows (Table 12.A.1) that the most sensitive areas to NAO are the basins on the Centre-North (Duero-Tagus) and Centre-South (Guadiana- Guadalquivir) of the Iberian Peninsula. Recent studies have shown that the NAO index decreases during secular maximums of solar activity and increases during periods of decreased solar activity (Kirov and Georgieva 2002). 518

15 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN Fig. 12.A.8. Left: Relationships between total annual rainfall and rainfall during the months of December- February (winter) in Seville (Gaudalquivir basin). Right: Winter precipitation versus North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAO). Table 12.A.1. Pearson s correlation coefficients between the NAO index (from December to March) and winter total precipitation in different pluviometric regions (after Barrera 2004) Region NAO index (DJFM) Northwest -0,43 North -0,51 Northeast -0,59 Centre-North -0,62 Centre-South -0,72 Levante/East coast -0,45 Canary Isles -0,42 Given the complexity involved in the modelling of hydrological extremes through the use of atmospheric general circulation models, the response of floods and droughts can be estimated in scenarios of global change through the establishment of relationships between the NAO, solar activity and the magnitude and frequency of floods. Figure 12.A.9 shows the temporal variation in the NAO index, reconstructed by Luterbacher et al. (2002), and floods with discharges of over 3,500 m 3 s -1 for the historic series of the Guadalquivir in Seville. A strong correlation is generally observed between periods with a higher number of extreme floods and periods of a negative NAO, as expected, given the correlation between rainy years and years with large floods in the Guadalquivir basin. However, negative NAO index values are not always related to the existence of extraordinary floods. The link between the NAO index and extreme floods, can also be detected in certain episodes, obtained through historic documents for the basins of the Tagus (Benito et al. 2003b and 2004) and Guadiana (Ortega and Garzón 2004), as well as a correlation between some flood periods and moments of maximum solar activity (Vaquero 2004). 519

16 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN Fig. 12.A.9. Number of floods with peak discharges over 3,500 m 3 s -1 and variation in the mean of the NAO index for winter months (Dec-Jan-Feb) since AD 1500, with a smoothing filter for 3-year intervals. NAO index values after Luterbacher et al. (2002). Scenarios and predictions of future variations in this index are currently being generated with the use of climate simulation models (GCMs), which can be used to establish the patterns of future flood behaviour in Atlantic rivers. The projection of this index in relation to climate change resulting from the greenhouse effect is unclear and it is not agreed whether the tendency during the positive NAO phase in the 1980s and 1990s, when compared with the one from the period, will be maintained or will intensify during the first half of the 21 st Century. Presently half of the models predict a positive intensification of the index associated with global change, whereas the other half predict that the NAO index will remain at levels comparable to those of the last few decades. In both cases, if the NAO index increases or if it remains at the levels of past decades, we can expect a clear downward tendency of extraordinary floods in the Atlantic basins of the Iberian Peninsula in relation to the frequency patterns existing during the second half of the last century. This projection appears to tally with the GCM, which predict a 10% decrease in rainfall, which could lead to a decrease in the frequency of extreme floods in the basins of the large Atlantic rivers (Table 12.A.2). In the rivers Duero and Ebro, peak discharges could be affected by phenomena of rapid snowmelt as a consequence of sharp temperature rises during winter months and at the start of spring (Table 12.A.2). On the other hand, taking into account the last 400 years (Fig. 12.A.9), a high variability of the NAO is observed, even during episodes of global warming (e.g. the decades following the LIA). This NAO variability may produce an increase in hydrological variability within a scenario of climate change. Regarding the Mediterranean basins, where the mechanisms established between climate and floods are more complex, no valid indices have been established or models developed to enable predictions to be made within a scenario of climate change. It is assumed that an increase in summer temperatures will likely favour the generation of storms (Table 12.A.2). These local storms may cause flash floods in small basins. In these cases, the temperature differences between the Mediterranean and the continent will favour convective rainfall over mountainous areas, especially in autumn. 520

17 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN In the Mediterranean rivers, palaeoflood and historical flood series indicate that extreme floods have occurred during episodes of irregular rainfall, both at seasonal and annual scales (droughts followed by flooding events; e.g years B.P., and the start of the LIA). In recent times, an increase has been observed in the generation of intense rainfall, as occurred in the 1980s in the Mediterranean area of the Iberian Peninsula, which was interpreted as a response to climate change. However, this tendency was reversed in the 1990s, which reveals the complexity involved in the generation of extreme events. Table 12.A.2. Qualitative analysis of the response by different basins in Spain to possible impacts of climate change. Possible impact of climate change Change in zonal circulation (positive NAO) Increased cold pools Generation of convective rainfall Sharp temperature changes Guadalquivir Guadiana Tagus -Extremes (higher discharges) +Ordinary +Flash floods +Flash floods Duero North Ebro Internal basins Catalonia -Extremes +Ordinary +Floods caused by the snowmelt +Irregularity of extremes +Flash floods +Flash floods +Floods caused by the snowmelt of + Irregularity of extremes Levante/South + Irregularity of extremes floods/droughts +Flash floods +Flash floods +Floods caused by the snowmelt 12.A.4. MOST VULNERABLE AREAS Apart from the likely increase in extreme events resulting from climate change, the areas more vulnerable to hydrological risks are those where there is also greater sensitivity or exposure of property. In this sense, vulnerability to floods in Spain should not be seen exclusively in terms of natural hazards related to a change on climate, but also in terms of the uncontrolled housing development of the last few decades. A priori, the type of area that is highly sensitive to hydrological extremes involves highly populated areas with recent housing development and with sensitive socio-economic sectors such as tourism and industry. Climate models predictions indicate an intensification of dry periods in summer and whereas the winter total precipitation should remain similar to the present, although concentrated in a shorter number of months. Studies conducted during the last decades indicate that the events with the biggest socioeconomic impact are flash floods, which affect medium or small-sized basins. The areas with the highest statistically probability of being affected by flash floods, are located in the Mediterranean coastal belt, inland areas of the Ebro valley and other small catchments in the Iberian Peninsula present these characteristics. Moreover, in the case of the highest climatological and hydrological sensitive area of the Mediterranean coastal belt, with a high population density and high economical dynamics, the vulnerability is higher. (Fig. 12.A.10). In certain cases, with a moderate or low threat of extreme events, there can be a high degree of vulnerability due to greater exposure related to a lower social awareness of the problem. Likewise, torrential areas with frequent extreme events could present a lower degree of vulnerability if the necessary measures have been taken to lessen the risk. In general terms it can be said that, although the number and magnitude of hydrological extremes have decreased in recent decades, when compared to the first half of 20 th Century, the estimated global damages were substantially greater (see see Chapter 15) due to the increased vulnerability and 521

18 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN exposure of human activities along to the fluvial systems, as a consequence of the spread of urban areas. Fig. 12.A.10. A: Map of conflictive areas due to flooding in Spain (source: Civil Protection). Legend: Red: High risk; GreIn: intermediate risk; Yellow: Low risk. B: Percentage of risk areas and economic losses in different basins (Pujadas 2002). In some basins a high percentage of losses is observed in comparison to the proportion of risk areas, which reflect their high vulnerability to floods. 12.A.5. MAIN ADAPTATIONAL OPTIONS The climatic, hydrological, physiographic and socio-economic variability of Spain prevent a generalised application of adaptational options throughout all the regions of the country. The best adaptational option lies in advances in the systems and methodologies of prevention and prediction (warning systems for medium and large-sized basins), and in the planning and management of risk situations. These best practices can be applied at three levels: At the technical level, improvements are needed in the systems of protection of exposed property, based on structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures are generally applied to protect areas with a certain level of human activity, such as housing development, from the effects of floods. Non-structural and preventative measures should be promoted and based on regulations aimed at controlling construction in flood prone areas once the necessary protection measures have been developed. It should be pointed out that structural interventions to water courses (dams, weirs, channels and warning systems in real time) can never guarantee absolute protection. At the political and management level, there should be more legislative control in the improvement of risk planning within town and industrial plans. In this respect, current legislation and sectorial regulation dealing with the hydrologic context and the Spanish Land and Valuation Law (Ley del Suelo y Valoraciones) are very ambiguous and ineffective. These laws should contemplate the compulsory application of the directives indicated by risk maps within the different scopes of town and land-use planning. The Water Law should clarify the definition of the river channel and flooded zone according to criteria based on geomorphological, hydrological, historical and ecological elements. The characteristics of the natural drainage network should be maintained, especially with regard to drainage capacity and sediment delivery, thus avoiding interventions that can block flows and promoting the environmental recovery of river areas. 522

19 IMPACTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN SPAIN At an educational level, there is a need to inform the population of the risk of natural disasters, encouraging prevention and reduced exposure. Subjects related to risk and prevention should be taught at school and information should be given on how to act in the event of a catastrophe. In this respect, previously flooded areas and the associated socio-economic consequences should be considered in the design of any policy or strategy aimed at dealing with floods. 12.A.6. REPERCUSSIONS FOR OTHER SOCIOECONOMIC SECTORS OR AREAS Insurance sector. In Spain, the insurance cover for catastrophes, in particular for flood damage, is based on the application of a non-differentiated premium for all risks covered and for the whole country, this being handled by the Consortium of Insurance Compensation (CCS). Consequently, increased flood damage would not affect the private insurance sector to any great degree, because all insured parties pay a fixed amount, regardless of their degree of exposure to the risk (Table 12.A.3). In the case of drought damages, the private insurance and reinsurance companies could be affected economically due, fundamentally, to agricultural insurance. Energy sector. This sector would be affected mainly in situations of prolonged drought, especially in the context of electricity generation (Table 12.A.3). Floods, when they occur, can negatively affect the transport and distribution of energy, whereas they can have a positive effect on the generation of hydroelectric energy, because floods can seasonally increase water resources. Tourism sector. Flooding and news thereof in national and international media negatively affects the tourism sector (Table 12.A.3). For instance, tourism in the Tena valley (central Pyrenees) after the flood in the Arás stream, in which 87 people were killed, showed a decrease in the years following the catastrophe. Drought conditions have less impact on tourism, which may occasionally, though, be favoured by prolonged hot periods. Industry and Transport sector. The transport and distribution sector is very sensitive to increases in floods, as these can cause the temporary closure of communication routes (Table 12.A.3). Periods of drought favour the transport and distribution sector but can negatively affect companies that require large amounts of water in their production processes. Table 12.A.3. Degree of positive (+) and negative (-) impact in different socio-economic sectors. 0: No impact; 1: low; 2: medium; 3: high Sector affected Floods Droughts Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Insurance Energy (hydroelectric and biomass) Tourism Industry Transport and distribution A.7. MAIN UNCERTAINTIES AND GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE In Spain, advances are being made in the characterisation of scenarios of average rainfall and/or temperature extremes, which could be valid for the basins in which floods are related to 523

20 NATURAL HAZARDS OF CLIMATIC ORIGIN the frequency of zonal circulation in winter months, as is the case of the Atlantic basins. In the case of the Mediterranean basins, however, there is a high degree of uncertainty, due to the fact that it is difficult to model the complex interactions in the Mediterranean environment related to extreme events. These models require long time series of extreme phenomena in order to explain the response of floods to climate variability. Palaeofloods and documentary data can provide evidence of extreme hydrological events in Spain in relation to climatic variability in the last few millennia. Likewise, the study of rainfall series for the pre-industrial period (prior to the 20 th Century) allows the natural component of climatic variability to be separated from the greenhouse effect, since the start of intensive CO 2 emissions. 12.A.8. DETECTING THE CHANGE Around the world different authors have emphasized the high level of sensitivity of floods to slight climate variations. The detection of minor climate change can be observed in large modifications in the magnitude and frequency of extreme events. If we analyse available time series of floods over the last 2,500 years, the frequency and magnitude of floods occurred mainly at times of climate transition. Noteworthy among these, due to the increase and severity of the flooding, are the periods and in the Mediterranean (Barriendos and Martín Vide 1998) and in , in Atlantic basins. In the 20 th Century, two periods were observed with increased magnitude and frequency of floods in Atlantic basins, namely and , with a decrease in the peak discharges of extraordinary floods in the last 25 years. In the Mediterranean, great irregularity was observed in the patterns, with increased cold pools in the 1980s, which generated historic maximum discharges in 1982 and 1987, and a reduction thereof in the 1990s. From 1990 to 2000, there has been an increase in convective rainfall, which causes flash floods in small basins, such as those in Yebra and Almoguera (Guadalajara), Biescas (Huesca), Alicante, and Badajoz, and which had dramatic social consequences (207 fatalities). This change in the pattern of flood magnitude and frequency in Atlantic and Mediterranean basins may be interpreted as a sign of changes in the present climate. 12.A.9. POLICY IMPLICATIONS Regardless of the severity of future climate change, hydrological extremes (floods and droughts) constitute the most obvious manifestation of climate and hydrology in Spain. Legislation must therefore deal with regard to dealing with land-use planning problems, including taking climate change into account in relation to hydrological risks. However, certain modifications are needed in the legal aspects of natural hazards. The political implications of climate change in natural hazards should involve improved management and legislation in risk-related aspects (Basic Directive of Civil Protection Planning), improved legislation in laws related to land planning (Water Law and Land Law), improvement and application of Watershed Management Plans, and the development of Technical Regulations for Dam and Reservoir Safety. Technical studies developed for the application of legislation should, wherever necessary, analyse the effects of climate change on floods and establish response strategies contemplating new scenarios of extreme events in relation to resources and land management. In relation to floods, regulations should be revised in order to determine potential flooding zones and risk analysis within the land planning process, taking the floods that have occurred in the past into account. At present, the Land Law (Legislative Royal Decree1/1992) and the Water Law (Law 29/1985, dated August 2 nd ) and the Regulations on the Hydraulic Public Domain (Royal Decree 849/1986), dated April 11 th ) are too ambiguous in relation to extraordinary floods. 524

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