LiaoningWade-Giles romanization Liao-ningsheng (province) in the Northeast region of China (formerly called Manchuria). It is bounded to the northeast by the province of Jilin, to the east by North Korea, to the south by the Yellow Sea, to the southwest by the province of Hebei, and to the northwest by the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The provincial capital is Shenyang (formerly Mukden), in east-central Liaoning.

The area, a region of early Chinese settlement in the Northeast, was known as Shengjing in Qing, or Manchu, times (1644–1911/12). The area was redefined in 1907 and named Fengtian; in 1929 the boundaries were altered and it was renamed Liaoning (roughly, “Liao Peace”). From 1947 to 1954 the territory was divided into a western province, Liaoxi, and an eastern province, Liaodong. In 1954, however, a northern zone was detached and it was reestablished as a single province. It achieved its present form in 1956, when the former province of Jehol (Rehe) was partitioned and a portion added to Liaoning. Liaoning, Liaoxi, and Liaodong all take their names from the Liao River, which flows through the centre of the province. Precedents for the names date to Han times. Area 58,300

square miles (

151,000

square km). Pop.

(2010 prelim

.

) 43,746,323.

Land

Liaoning consists essentially of a central lowland, with Shenyang at its centre, flanked by mountain masses to east and west. A southward extension of the eastern highlands forms the Liaodong Peninsula. There are four main topographical regions: the central plains, the Liaodong Peninsula, the western highlands, and the eastern mountain zone.

Relief and drainage

The central plains, constituting part of the Northeast Plain, are the most important area in the province. Structurally, the depression that it occupies is continuous with that of the North China Plain to the southwest, but, topographically, the Liaoning plains are erosional rather than depositional in character. The relief of the plains is undulating but low, and natural drainage is inadequate in many places, creating swamps, some of which have been drained. Undeveloped areas include swamps and sand formations.

The Liaodong Peninsula is a rugged, mountainous area with a rocky coast. The usual elevation of the land is 1,000 to 1,500 feet (300 to 450 metres) above sea level. The rock types are highly mixed, a fact that tends to create a complex and varied topography. Structurally, the peninsula represents a part of the same fold system as Shandong. The coastline is experiencing submergence.

Western Liaoning, fringing the northern shore of Liaodong Bay between Shanhaiguan (Hebei) and Jinzhou, is predominantly a highland area. Those highlands comprise the broken and eroded fringe of the Mongolian Plateau. They rise in Liaoning to general heights of about 1,500 feet (450 metres). Toward the sea the mountains have been intensely eroded by fast-flowing rivers, so that a complex mass of valleys and ridges has been formed.

The eastern mountain zone lies to the east of Shenyang. The least-developed part of the province, it consists of a complex mountain mass, extending northward into Jilin province, with elevations averaging about 1,500 feet.

Soils

The soils of the middle of the Liao lowland are of the calcareous alluvial type; those of the peripheries to east and west are of brown forest types; and those of the northern peripheries are red earths. The swamps have gley soils (having a sticky layer of clay under the waterlogged surface). The soils of the peninsula, like the rock types and the topography, are highly mixed and varied. Most of the best soils there are of brown forest type or of red or yellow loess (an unstratified wind-borne loamy deposit). There has been serious soil erosion, and skeletal soils occur on the steeper slopes.

Climate

Temperature extremes and precipitation amounts vary with proximity to the coast. At Dalian (Dairen), at the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, the January mean temperature is 23 °F (−5 °C) and that for July is 74 °F (23 °C); for Shenyang, in central Liaoning, the respective mean temperatures are 10 °F (−12 °C) and 77 °F (25 °C). At Dalian there are about 200 frost-free days, while at Shenyang there are between 160 and 180 frost-free days per year. Precipitation in Liaoning as a whole diminishes consistently from southeast to northwest. Average annual precipitation is about 2 to 40 inches (50 to 1,000 mm), three-fourths of it falling between June and September and almost none from December through February. The summer rainfall is often torrential, but everywhere the scarcity of spring precipitation tends to leave crops short of water.

Plant and animal life

Most of the landscape of the central plains consists of cultivated fields. Wild animals are scarce, apart from rodents. Locusts are the most destructive pest.

The natural vegetation of the Liaodong Peninsula is not well preserved, because of the extent of cultivation and settlement. The forests that remain, mostly on the eastern sides of the hills, contain birches, limes, elms, and pines, together with typical Manchurian trees—oaks, apples, and ashes. On the western sides, trees are scarce. Wild animal life is now meagre, almost limited to rodents. However, a nature reserve centred on Mount Laotie, at the southern tip of the peninsula, is a major stopover for southbound migratory birds from northeastern Asia in autumn. Thousands of birds from more than 200 species, including red-crowned cranes (Grus japonensis) and mandarin ducks (Aix galericulata), rest there before flying farther south. In addition, nearby Snake Island (Shedao), just off the tip of the peninsula, is a breeding ground for thousands of Halys pit vipers (Gloydius halys).

Vegetation is highly mixed in western Liaoning and includes oaks, birches, pines, limes, and spruces. In former times, especially between 1911 and 1948, there was much indiscriminate cutting and thinning of the forests there, so that many areas now have scattered woodland where formerly thick forests stood. The animal life of the western highlands is impoverished by the extent of both forest clearance and human settlement, but it includes wolves, foxes, marmots, and some kinds of deer.

In Liaoning the majority of the population is recorded as Han (Chinese). The bulk of the national minority population is Manchu (Man), located mainly in the eastern part of the province and north of the Liaodong Peninsula, mainly in six Manchu autonomous counties scattered through the region. The second significant minority is that of the Mongols, who are located toward the frontier of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region to the west. Broadly speaking, the Hui (Chinese Muslim) minority follows the Manchu in its distribution. There are two autonomous counties representing the Mongolian minority nationality. One is centred on the coal town of Fuxin, and the other is in the southwest at Kazuo. A small Korean minority is located near the Korean frontier.

Apart from the registered minority populations, many of the Han people of modern Liaoning have origins that are wholly or partly non-Han, usually Mongol or Manchu. Many of them are now totally assimilated into the Chinese sector of the population, in language and custom as well as in the adoption of contemporary Han lifestyles.

All the large cities are industrial, and some have experienced spectacular growth since the 1950s. They include Shenyang (Mukden), Dalian, Fushun, and Anshan.

Economy

The economy of Liaoning is by far the strongest in the Northeast and is one of the strongest provincial economies in China. Liaoning is one of the country’s principal industrial provinces. One reason for the high level of development in Liaoning is the high level of capitalization, based both on investments made under the government since 1949 and on important foreign investments made between 1896 and 1945, mainly by the Japanese.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agricultural advances in Liaoning have been less spectacular than industrial development. There are several reasons for this. Investment has always been much heavier in industry than in farming. The province’s inheritance from the Japanese phase was much less valuable in agriculture than in industry. Liaoning also suffers both from natural calamities, such as spring droughts, and from inefficient cultivation methods in many places, which result in lower agricultural yields. Exceptional opportunities for employment in industry also tend to deprive agriculture of much of the best labour, in spite of policies designed to prevent this. Yet, in much of Liaoning, topography and soils and even climate are quite favourable to agriculture, and the degree of farm mechanization, irrigation, and chemical fertilization is high by Chinese standards. Liaoning now exports grain, but it still must import much of its food.

The summer in Liaoning is not long. Few places, consequently, produce two crops per year. The central plain is the best farming area, and the Liaodong Peninsula, with its shorter winter, has a diversified agriculture. Peanuts (groundnuts), sugar beets, and fruit (notably, apples and pears) are among the province’s major crops. Part of the cultivated area is used for industrial crops (primarily cotton and tobacco) or for export crops (such as apples); the rest is used for grain, vegetables, and soybeans. Higher-yielding corn (maize) and rice, formerly grown mainly in the east and southeast, have tended to supplant millet and kaoliang (a variety of grain sorghum) in the plains. The chestnut-leaved oak feeds the tussah silkworm; Liaoning is China’s major producer of tussah silk.

The forests support commercial lumbering, but the supply of mature old-growth trees is limited, due to previous overexploitation, and the output of lumber from these sources is low. However, a vigorous and large-scale reforestation effort has been under way since 1949. More than half of the total wooded areas of the province now consist of these forest plantations, and these support Liaoning’s lumbering industry.

Livestock and poultry raising are increasingly important. Pigs are bred mainly in the south and central parts, and in the west other animals are raised. Fishing in the Yellow Sea and coastal aquaculture, especially sea cucumbers around the Liaodong Bay, are major income-earning activities.

Resources and power

Liaoning province is rich in mineral resources, notably iron ore and coal. Most of the iron ores of Liaoning are concentrated in a triangular area to the south of Shenyang. These ores are generally easy to mine but are of relatively poor quality; ores of better quality occur in the northeastern part of the province. Coal is more widespread, and its distribution partly overlaps that of iron. Coal is exploited in three main areas to the north, east and southeast, and west of Shenyang. Fushun, east of Shenyang, and Fuxin, to the west, have two of the most important collieries in China. Both were exploited under the Japanese but have been expanded since the communists came to power. Apart from its use as fuel and in smelting, coal is used in Liaoning to produce synthetic petroleum. Petroleum is also produced from oil shale, which occurs in the Fushun area and in western Liaoning, generally overlying coal seams. The Liao River oil field, first developed in the late 1960s, has become one of China’s largest onshore producers.

Rich reserves of manganese ore occur in western Liaoning and in the southeast. In the eastern mountain area there are substantial deposits of boron, lead, and zinc; smaller similar deposits occur in the west, together with an important deposit of molybdenum. Important concentrations of magnesite are found around Haicheng, southwest of Shenyang. There are also reserves of other minerals, including bauxite, gold, and diamonds, and sea salt is produced.

Liaoning is a major regional producer of electric power. Much of this is generated by large coal-fired thermal plants in Shenyang, Dalian, and other cities, but a growing proportion consists of hydroelectricity. Liaoning exports some of its production to neighbouring provinces.

Manufacturing

During the mid-1950s considerable capital investment was made in Liaoning, primarily in heavy industry. In heavy industrial production, Liaoning long ranked first among the provinces of China, producing, in addition to pig iron and steel, a substantial part of China’s cement, crude oil, and electrical power. Apart from iron and steel, the industries of Liaoning include nonferrous-metal processing, machinery manufacture, and chemical manufacture, as well as such light industries as those producing textiles, foodstuffs, and paper.

The primary focus of investment in Liaoning had been the industrial network centred on the Anshan iron and steel complex. Prior to the 1980s, Anshan, south of Shenyang, was the industrial heart of Liaoning and was one of China’s principal steel centres; taken as a whole, it was the biggest single enterprise in industrial investment ever established in China up to the expansion of industrial growth after 1980. Shenyang, also a key industrial city, has been granted provincial-level powers in economic planning. It has a wide and varied range of heavy and light industries, notably machinery and electronics. Fushun is part of the Shenyang complex, its industries are based mainly on coal and oil shale. Liaoyang, directly south of Shenyang, is a chemical fibre and textile centre. Dalian, near the tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, is of obvious strategic importance. It has the best harbour in the Northeast and is a major Chinese port. Modern engineering industries have been developed there, including shipbuilding and locomotive production. Dalian also has provincial-level economic authority and is one of China’s coastal cities open to foreign investment. Western Liaoning, centred on Jinzhou, is less advanced than the Shenyang-Anshan area or Dalian, but it has valuable mineral resources and some industries. The new cities of Tieling, in northern Liaoning, and Panjin, at the Liao River delta, have their major industries based on rich local resources of coal and oil, respectively.

Transportation

The rail transportation facilities of Liaoning are among the best in China, and the annual tonnage transported is one of the highest for any province. The railway system is centred in Shenyang, from there extending northeast to Changchun (Jilin) and further to Harbin (Heilongjiang), southeast to Dandong and further to North Korea, south to Dalian, southwest to Shanhaiguan (Hebei) and further to Beijing, and northwest to Tongliao (Inner Mongolia).

Highways in the province are extensive, also with Shenyang as the centre. Shenyang has an extensive system of express highways, and it has been linked to Beijing, Dalian, and Changchun.

Navigation by sea or river carries almost none of the internal traffic of Liaoning, but sea navigation is of great importance for transport to other parts of China and the world. Dalian is the largest port, followed by Yingkou, Huludao, and Donggang.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

From 1950 to 1954 Liaoning, divided into Liaodong and Liaoxi, was under the jurisdiction of the Northeast Administrative Commission. In 1954 the province was reunited, and Liaoning was brought under direct central government rule. After the Cultural Revolution the province subsequently led the national effort to modernize its industrial plants and open its doors to trade with the outside world. Liaoning province is now divided into 14 prefecture-level municipalities (dijishi), and below that level the province is further divided into districts (shixiaqu), counties (xian), autonomous counties (zizhixian), and county-level municipalities (xianjishi).

Education

Liaoning’s economically advanced society has developed significant educational and scientific resources. Coverage of nine-year compulsory education had reportedly reached 100 percent of the population in both urban and rural areas by the early 21st century. There are more than 60 universities, colleges, and other postsecondary educational institutions in the province. Notable ones include Dalian University of Technology (1949) and Dalian Maritime University (1953), both in Dalian, and Northeastern University (1923) in Shenyang. However, nationwide reforms of the education system have resulted in higher costs for tuition, fees, and housing, making it more difficult for people from poorer working-class families to obtain a college education.

Cultural life

Though Sinitic in tradition, Liaoning’s culture has been shaped by a kind of “outsider” perspective. Long periods of non-Han rule and the late onset of significant migration to the area have given Liaoning a frontier character. Many of the clan-centred traditions of central and South China have been attenuated in this still mobile society, where roots are less established and the nuclear family predominates. In addition, as an arena of competition for influence by the Japanese and the Russians, the province has a degree of cosmopolitanism lacking in many other areas of China.

Liaoning has a number of sites of scenic and historical interest, including three designated by UNESCO in 2004 as World Heritage sites: the Imperial Palace of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) in Shenyang, added to the site (designated 1987) encompassing the Forbidden City in Beijing; three tombs of Manchu rulers near Shenyang, also added to an existing site (designated 2000) preserving tombs of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing dynasties in other provinces; and ruins of one of the capital cities of the ancient Koguryŏ kingdom at Wunu Mountain in eastern Liaoning, which were collectively designated with other Koguryŏ city sites and tombs in neighbouring Jilin province. In addition, the easternmost section of the extant Great Wall (named a World Heritage site in 1987) runs along the southwestern corner of the province.

Famous local handicrafts, such as jade carvings from Xiuyan, agates from Jinzhou, and shell carvings and glassware from Dalian, are also of great interest to the large numbers of tourists who visit the province annually.