Reasearch

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What Research is not.

Mere information gathering

Mere transportation of facts from one location to another

Merely rummaging for information

A catchword used to get attention

Research is?

a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information (data) to increase understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested.

Characteristics of Research are?

Originates with a question or problem

Requires clear articulation of a goal Requires a specific plan for proceeding Usually divides the principal problem into manageable subproblems Is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis Accepts certain critical assumptions Requires the collection and interpretation of data Is, by its nature, cyclical or helical

Hypothesis?

A logical supposition, a reasonable

guess, an educated conjecture

Provides a tentative explanation for a

phenomenon under investigation

May direct thinking to possible sources

of information necessary to resolve the research problem and its subproblems

Theory

An organized body of concepts and

principles intended to explain a

particular phenomenon

Tentative explanations that new data

either support or do not support

Apt to drive further research

Assumptions.

Self-evident truths

The bedrock upon which the study must

rest

Vitally important to the quality of the study

Methodology

Dictates how data are acquired

Arranges data in logical relationships

Sets up the approach for refining and

synthesizing data

Suggests how data will be interpreted

Yields one or more conclusions that lead

to expansion of knowledge

Data Interpretation?

Inevitably subjective

Depends entirely on researcher’s hypotheses,

assumptions, and logical reasoning processes

Essential to the research process

Different minds often find different meanings

in the same set of facts

Research Developmental Steps?

An initial question is asked.

The initial question is formally stated as a problem.

The problem is divided into subproblems.

Preliminary data are gathered.

A tentative hypothesis is formed.

Data are systematically collected.

Data is processed and interpreted.

A discovery is made—a conclusion is reached.

The tentative hypothesis is supported or not

supported.

The cycle is complete.

Types of Research Reports?

juried, or refereed or nonjuried or nonrefereed

Juried or Refereed Research report

research report has been judged by respected colleagues in one’s field and deemed to be of sufficient quality and importance to warrant publication.

nonjuried, or nonrefereed research report

is one that appears in a journal or on the Internet without first being screened by one or more experts. Some nonjuried reports are excellent; others are not.

1.Is the research article juried or nonjuried?

2.Does the article have a stated research question?

3.Does the article describe collection of new data?

4.Is the article logically organized and easy to follow?

5.Does the article contain a section that describes and integrates previous studies on the topic?

(One object is so many times as big or bright or tall or heavy as another)

Characterized by equal measurement units

(similar to an interval scale)

Has an absolute zero point (0 = total absence

of the quality being measured)

Can express values in terms of multiples and

fractional parts

Ratios are true ratios (ex. Yardstick)

Relatively rare outside the physical sciences

What are the four scales of measurement?

Nominal scale: One object is different from another.

Ordinal scale: One object is bigger or better or more of anything than another.

Interval scale: One object is so many units (degrees, inches) more than another.

Ratio scale: One object is so many times as big or bright or tall or heavy as another.

Validity

the extent to which a measurement instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

the consistency with which a measurement instrument yields a cerrtain result when the entity being measured hasn’t changed.

3 statistics of tools of research

Principal

Descriptive

Inferential

Principle Functions of Statistics:

describe the data, and draw inferences from the data

Descriptive Statistics

summarize the general nature of the data obtained.

Inferential Statistics

help the researcher make decisions about the data.

The Human mind as a tool or research?

Critical Thinking

Deductive Logic

Inductive Reasoning

The Scientific Method

Theory Building

Critical Thinking =

evaluating arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth. May take a variety of forms: - verbal reasoning - argument analysis - decision making - critical analysis of prior research

Deductive Logic:

begins with one or more premises—statements or assumptions that the researcher initially takes to be true; valuable for generating research hypotheses and testing theories.

Inductive Reasoning:

begins with an observation of a specific event to draw conclusions about entire classes of objects or events (i.e., observe a sample and then draw conclusions about he population from which the sample has been taken).

The Scientific Method:

the means whereby insight into the unknown is sought by

1. identifying a problem that defines the goal of one’s quest;

2. positing a hypothesis that, if confirmed, resolves the problem;

3. gathering data relevant to the hypothesis; and

4. analyzing and interpreting the data to see whether they support the hypothesis and resolve the research question.

Theory Building:

is based on facts rather than naïve beliefs and subjective impressions about the world: - involves thinking actively and intentionally about the phenomena at hand, - yields hypotheses to be tested, - tends to be a slow process, - usually involves collaboration with others.

Language enables?

effective thinking

Words enhance thinking by:

reducing the world’s complexity, allowing abstraction of the environment, enhancing the power of thought, facilitating generalization and inference drawing in new situations.

Research projects can be one of two types

Basic or applied

Basic Research is

intended to enhance basic knowledge about the physical, biological, psychological, or social world or to shed light on historical, cultural, or esthetic phenomena.

Applied Research is?

intended to address issues that have immediate relevance to current practices, procedures, and policies; intended to human decision making about practical problems; occasionally address questions in one’s immediate work environment (action research).

Criteria for Identification of a Suitable Research Problem

The research problem should address

an important question so that the answer

will make a difference.

The research problem should advance the

frontiers of knowledge by leading to new

ways of thinking, suggesting possible

applications, or paving the way for further

research in the field.

Situations to Avoid When Considering A Research Problem

Research projects should not be a use for achieving self-enlightenment.

A problem whose sole purpose is to compare two sets of data is not a suitable research problem.

Calculating a correlation coefficient between two sets of data to show a relationship between them is not acceptable as a problem for research.

Problems that result in a yes or no answer are not suitable problems for research.

Stating the Research Problem

State the problem clearly and completely.

Think through the feasibility of the project that the problem implies.

Say precisely what you mean. - Absolute honesty and integrity are the rule!

State the problem in a way that reflects an open mind about its solution.

Edit your work.

Subproblem:

the subparts of the main problem that are an integral part of the main problem.

Pseudo-subproblems:

procedural issues that involve decisions that must be made before resolving the research problem and its subproblems.

Characteristics of Subproblems

Each subproblem should be a completely

researchable unit.

Each subproblem must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data.

The subproblems must add up to the totality of the problem.

Subproblems should be small in number.

Delineation of the Problem

State the hypotheses and/or research questions.

Null hypotheses

Delimit the research.

Define the terms. State the assumptions

Hypotheses are essential in what kind of research?

experimental research

Research questions are more common in what kind of research?

qualitative research.

Both hypotheses and research questions provide?

guidance for the kind of data that should be collected.

Both hypotheses and research questions suggest?

how data should be analyzed and interpreted.

Hypotheses and research questions may originate where?

in the subproblems

Hypotheses and research questions provide what?

a position from which the rsearcher may initiate an exploration of the problem.

Hypotheses and research questions act as?

checkpoints against which to test the findings that the data reveal.

Delimitations of the research are statements

about what the researcher is not going to do

the researcher will not do is to become involved in data extraneous to the research problem.

What are assumptions?

basic to the research problem.

if have a material bearing on the problem should be openly and unreservedly set forth.

is necessary for others to evaluate the conclusions of the study.

reveals what the researcher may be taking for granted with respect to the problem.

Steps in writing the first steps of the proposal:

State the subproblems.

Write the hypotheses/questions.

Write the delimitations.

Write the definitions of terms.

Write the assumptions.

Describe the importance of the study.

Type the proposal

Benefits of Conducting a Literature Review

new ideas, perspectives, and approaches that may not have occurred to you.

inform you about other researchers who conduct work in the same area.

can show you how others have handled methodological and design issues in studies similar to your own.

eveal sources of data that you may not have known existed.

introduce you to measurement tools that other researchers have developed and used effectively.

reveal methods of dealing with problem situations that may be similar to difficulties you are facing.

help you interpret and make sense of your findings

bolster your confidence

Research Planning:

the general approach to planning a research study; may be similar across disciplines.

Research Methodology:

the techniques one uses to collect and analyze data; may be specific to a particular academic discipline.

Universality:

the research project should be one that might be carriedout by any competent person. The researcher is a catalyst who collects, organizes, and reports what the collected data seem to indicate

Replication:

the research should be repeatable; any other competent person should be able to take the problem and, collecting data under the same circumstances and within the same parameters you haveused, achieve results comparable to yours.

Control:

the researcher must isolate, or control, factors that are central to the research problem; control is important for replication and consistency within the research design.

DATA:

Data are not absolute reality but manifestations of reality.

Data are transient and ever changing.

Data is primary or secondary.

Data must meet certain criteria to be admitted to study; any data not meeting the criteria are excluded from the study.

Primary data

is the layer closest to the truth.

Secondary data

are derived, not from the truth, but from primary data

Identifying Appropriate Measurement
Instruments

We pin down data by measuring it in some way.

Measurement instruments provide a basis on which the entire research effort rests.

A research effort employing faulty measurement tools is of little value in solving the problem under investigation.

In planning the research project, the nature of the measurement instruments should be clearly identified.

Instrumentation should be described in explicit, concrete terms.

Instruments should have a reasonable degree of validity and reliability.

Face Validity:

the extent to which an instrument looks like it’s measuring a particular characteristic; relies on subjective judgment.

Content Validity:

the extent to which a measurement instrument is a representative sample of the content areabeing measured.

Construct Validity:

the extent to which an instrument measures a characteristic that cannot be directly observed but is assumed to exist (a construct, such as intelligence).

Criterion Validity:

the extent to which the results of an assessment correlate with another, related measure.

Multitrait-multimethod approach:

two or more different characteristics are each measured using two or more different approaches. The two measures of the same characteristic should be highly related.

Table of specifications:

the researcher constructs a two-dimensional grid listing the specific topics and behaviors that reflect achievement in the domain.

Judgment by a panel of experts:

several experts in a particular area are asked to scrutinize an instrument to to ascertain its validity for measuring the characteristic in question.

Interrater reliability:

the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating the same product or performance give identical judgments.

Internal consistency reliability:

the extent to which all of the items within a single instrument yield similar results.

Equivalent forms reliability:

the extent to which two different versions of the same instrument yield similar results.

Test-retest reliability:

the extent to which a single instrument yields the same results for the same people on two different occasions.

Quantitative Research:

involves looking at amounts, or quantities, of one or more variables of interest. Researchers attempt to measure variables in some way.

Qualitative Research:

involves looking at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot easily be reduced to numerical values. Researchers attempt to examine nuances and complexities of a particular phenomenon.

Internal Validity:

the extent to which the design and data of a research study allow the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about cause-and-effect and other relationships within the data.

External Validity:

the extent to which the results of a research study apply to situations beyond the study itself; the extent to which conclusions can be generalized.

Strategies to Increase Internal Validity

Conduct a controlled laboratory study

Conduct a double-blind experiment

Use unobtrusive measures

Use triangulation

Strategies to Increase External Validity

Conduct the study in a real-life setting.

Use a representative sample.

Replicate the study in a different context.

Validity in Qualitative Research

Use triangulation.

Spend extensive time in the field.

Conduct a negative case analysis.

Use thick description.

Seek feedback from others.

Ethical Issues in Research
Assurances

Honesty with professional colleagues

Internal Review Board (IRB)

Protection from harm

Informed consent

Right to privacy

Professional code of ethics

The Research Proposal

Essential to successful research

Includes

- clearly stated problem and subproblems

- articulated hypotheses and/or questions

- precise definitions of terms

- carefully spelled out delimitations

- explanation of the purpose of the study

- specific details about all aspects of data collection and interpretation