Uzbekistan

Preface

At the end of 1991, the collapse of the Soviet Union transformed the
fifteen republics of that union into independent states with various
capabilities for survival. Among them were the five republics of Central
Asia: Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
Until that time, Central Asia had received less attention from the outside
world than most of the other Soviet republics, simply because it was the
most remote part of the Soviet Union. Aside from their incidental coverage
in the 1991 Soviet Union: A Country Study , the Central Asian
republics have received no treatment in this series. Since their
independence, these republics have attracted considerable attention in the
West, largely because of the improved opportunities for exploitation of
their rich natural resources, notably oil and natural gas. As the fourth
of the six-volume subseries covering all the post-Soviet states, this
volume brings new information about a region of enhanced relevance in the
world's economy and geopolitical structure.

The marked relaxation of information restrictions, which began in the
late 1980s and has continued into the mid-1990s, allows the reporting of
much more complete information on Central Asia than what was available one
decade ago. Scholarly articles and periodical reports have been especially
helpful in accounting for most aspects of the five republics' activities
since they achieved independence. The authors have provided a context for
their current evaluations with descriptions of the historical, political,
and social backgrounds of the countries. In each case, the author's goal
was to provide a compact, accessible, and objective treatment of five main
topics: historical background, the society and its environment, the
economy, government and politics, and national security. Brief comments on
some of the more useful, readily accessible sources used in preparing this
volume appear at the end of each chapter. Full references to these and
other sources used by the authors are listed in the Bibliography.

In most cases, personal names have been transliterated from the
vernacular according to the transliteration system of the United States
Board on Geographic Names (BGN). Some names, such as Boris N. Yeltsin and
Joseph V. Stalin, are rendered in the conventional form widely used in
Western sources. The same distinction has been applied to geographic
names: the BGN spelling is used for the vast majority, but a few, such as
the largest cities, Tashkent and Moscow, are given in their widely used
conventional forms. Some geographical names regrettably are missing
diacritics because the typesetting software being used cannot produce all
the necessary characters (although they do appear on the maps).
Organizations commonly known by their acronyms (such as the
IMF--International Monetary Fund) are introduced by their full names, in
both vernacular and English forms where appropriate. Adjectives derived
from the name of a republic ("Kazakstani" and "Uzbekistani,"
for example) are used in all cases except where such a term denotes
persons or groups of a specific ethnic origin. In the latter cases, the
adjective is in the form "Kazak" or "Uzbek." The same
distinction applies to the proper nouns for citizens of a republic ("Kazakstanis,"
for example) as distinguished from individuals of an ethnic group ("Kazaks").

A chronology at the beginning of the book combines significant
historical events of the five countries. To amplify points in the text and
provide standards of comparison, tables in the Appendix offer statistics
on aspects of the five societies and national economies. Measurements are
given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided in the
Appendix.

The body of the text reflects information available as of March 1996.
Certain other portions of the text, however, have been updated beyond that
point. The Introduction discusses significant events and trends that have
occurred since the completion of research; the Country Profiles and the
Chronology include updated information as available; and the Bibliography
lists recently published sources thought to be particularly helpful to the
reader.

Table A. Chronology of Significant Events

Period

Description

EARLY HISTORY

Fifth century B.C.

Bactrian, Soghdian, and Tokharian states dominate area of
present-day Uzbekistan, including cities of Bukhoro (Bukhara) and
Samarqand (Samarkand) and begin profit from trade on Silk Route.
Province of Mawarannahr begins long period of prosperity in eastern
Uzbekistan.

Fourth-third centuries B.C.

Kyrgyz tribes invade northern China.

329 B.C.

Alexander the Great captures Maracanda (Samarqand) in conquest of
southern Central Asia from Persian Achamenid Empire.

First century A.D.

Han Dynasty of China trades with Soghdians and Bactrians of Central
Asia.

First-fourth centuries A.D.

Present-day Tajikistan ruled by Buddhist Kushans, who spread their
faith to Soghdians.

ca. A.D. 500

Feudal society emerges in present-day Kyrgyzstan.

EIGHTH-TENTH CENTURIES

750

Arabs complete conquest of Central Asia with victory over Chinese
at Talas River, imposing Islam and new culture.

Communist Party of Uzbekistan reorganized, renamed People's
Democratic Party of Uzbekistan.

December

Nazarbayev elected president of Kazakstan, which declares
independence from Soviet Union; five Central Asian states sign Alma-Ata
Declaration formally establishing Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS); Communist Party of Turkmenistan renamed Democratic Party of
Turkmenistan, retains political domination; Uzbekistan elects new
parliament and Karimov its first president.

"Cult of personality" of Niyazov extended in Turkmenistan
with renaming of streets, buildings, and city of Krasnovodsk
(Turkmenbashy).

Repression of opposition and media increases in Uzbekistan; by
December, only state organs can register.

January

New Kazakstani constitution adopted, names Kazak official state
language; Akayev requests government emergency measures to end
Kyrgyzstan's drastic economic decline. Kazakstani government forms
National Council for Economic Reform; government of Tajikistan makes
criminal charges against opposition leader Hajji Akbar Turajonzoda.

Sporadic cease-fires, peace talks, and resumption of fighting in
Tajikistan.

February

Kazakstan and Kyrgyzstan sign ten-year partnership and cooperation
agreement with European Union (EU); parliamentary elections in
Tajikistan boycotted by opposition; first of three election rounds for
new bicameral parliament of Kyrgyzstan.

March

Referendum extends Karimov's term as president of Uzbekistan to
2000; Kazakstani parliament resigns, Nazarbayev begins rule by decree.

April

Referendum extends Nazarbayev's term to 2000.

May

Tajikistan introduces new currency, Tajikistani ruble.

June

Two Turkmen opposition leaders sentenced to prison terms.

August

Kazakstan's new constitution approved by popular referendum.

December

Parliamentary elections held in Kazakstan under protest by
opposition parties.

Rahmonov of Tajikistan consolidates power by organizing National
Security Council under presidential control and by antinarcotics
campaign in rebel stronghold Gorno-Badakhshan, using nominally neutral
Russian border troops.

August

Presidents of Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan sign accord for
creation of single economic market by 1998; UN-sponsored cease-fire of
July is broken by heavy fighting in Tajikistan's central region, as
rebels renew thrust toward Dushanbe.

October

Antigovernment United Tajikistan Opposition proposes National
Reconciliation Council including 80 percent opposition and 20 percent
government members; Tajikistan government rejects formula. Japan commits
US$140 million to upgrade three airports in Uzbekistan and US$200
million for infrastructure and medical centers in Kazakstan; bilateral
accords with Iran and Russia reaffirm Turkmenistan's "permanent
neutrality."

Turkmenistan's Nabiyev confers in Moscow with Prime Minister
Chernomyrdin, reaching no agreement on natural gas deliveries to Russia
or on ownership of Caspian Sea resources.

October-November

Rebel forces open corridors from Afghanistan into eastern
Tajikistan, threatening to take full control of eastern and central
regions; government forces offer weak resistance.

November

Acute energy shortage brings winter rationing of electric power and
heat in Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

Kazakstan begins shipping oil from its Tengiz field by tanker
across Caspian Sea for resale by Iran; 2 million tons to be shipped
annually until new export pipeline completed; two Japanese firms agree
to build $US138 million telephone network in Uzbekistan; at meeting of
Central Asian Economic Union, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan sign
mutual defense treaty and discuss mutual convertibility of currencies;
Topchubek Turgunaligev, head of opposition Erkin Party in Kyrgyzstan,
sentenced to prison for embezzlement as political repression tightens.

January-March

Six rounds of peace talks between Tajikistan government and
United Tajikistan Opposition yield significant agreements on
reintegration of political and military organizations.