The hierarchy of sources of law can be viewed as the Constitution, legislation, regulations, and then custom.[2] Alternatively, the hierarchy can be viewed as the Constitution, treaties, statutes, codes, doctrine, custom, and then general principles of law.[1]

The Mexican Congress creates legislation in the form of regulatory laws (leyes reglamentarias) that implement the Constitution, organic acts (leyes orgánicas) that implement the organization, powers, and functions of governmental agencies, and ordinary laws (leyes ordinarias).[1] They are published in the Official Journal of the Federation (Diario Oficial de la Federación, DOF).

Mexico utilizes a form of jurisprudence constante. The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on lower courts as jurisprudencias only upon five consecutive and uninterrupted decisions (ejecutorias) approved by at least eight justices when in plenary sessions (en banc) or by at least four justices when in chambers.[1] The decisions of the Collegiate Circuit Courts are jurisprudencias provided they are based upon five consecutive and uninterrupted decisions approved by unanimity of votes of the magistrates who compose each collegiate court.[1] Decisions are distilled into theses (tesis), of which the tesis jurisprudencial are binding (jurisprudencia obligatoria), the tesis aisladas are not binding, and the tesis sobresalientes are theses of note which are not binding but have persuasive value.[3][4]

Such decisions are published in the Federal Judicial Weekly (Semanario Judicial de la Federación) through its gazette (Gaceta del Semanario Judicial de la Federación).[1] Complete decisions are rarely published in the Semanario, though it is not unheard of if the Supreme Court, a collegiate circuit court, or the General Coordinator of Compilation and Systematization of Theses (Coordinación General de Compilación y Sistematización de Tesis) deems they should be published; instead, it mainly includes tesis de jurisprudencia or tesis aisladas.[5] Moreover, theses that have acquired the character of binding criteria (tesis de jurisprudencia) are published every year in an appendix to the Semanario.[5]

The civil law tradition was developed by, and as such the "authorities" were and continue to be, legal scholars and not judges and lawyers as in the common law tradition.[8][9] The legal treatises produced by these scholars are called doctrine (doctrina), and are used much in the same way case law is used in the common law tradition.[8] However, these scholarly contributions do not carry the force of law and are not legally binding.[1]

Mexican law recognizes custom, the rules, principles, and norms formed through a gradual but uniform passage of time, but only when this recognition is based upon an explicit provision of the applicable law allowing for such recognition.[1]

Each of Mexico's 31 states and the Federal District has its own constitution, known as a state or local constitution (Constitución del Estado or Constitutución local).[1] Each state's or the Federal District's laws and regulations are published in their respective Official State Gazettes (Gaceta Oficial del Estado).[1] At the state and local level, publication of complete binding court opinions (versus tesis) is extremely limited or simply nonexistent.[5]

The civil law tradition (as developed by the legal scholars, i.e. doctrine) tends to treat the divisions of law in normative terms.[10] There are two major areas of law: private law, concerning the relationships between individuals, and public law, concerning the relationships between individuals and the government.[11][12] The civil code is the most important embodiment of law, based on Roman law. Other topics include those related to philosophy of law, including the major schools of thought and the major disagreements; objective law and subjective rights; substantive law and procedural law; statutory law and customary law; federal law, state law and municipal law; and national law, international law and community law.

1.
Constitution of Mexico
–
The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention and it was approved by the Constitutional Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions, the current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918. Constitution Day is one of Mexicos annual Fiestas Patrias, commemorating the promulgation of the Constitution on 5 February 1917, although the official anniversary is on 5 February, the holiday takes place on the first Monday of February regardless of the date. Carranza convoked a congress specifically to draft the new constitution and it replaced the liberal Constitution of 1857, extending that constitutions restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Its innovations were in expanding the Mexican states power into the realms of economic nationalism, political nationalism, the constitution was a means to confer legitimacy on a shaky regime. The Liberal Party of Mexicos 1906 political program proposed a number of reforms that were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution, Article 27 of the Constitution incorporated some of the PLMs demands for land reform in Mexico. Points in the PLMs call for improvement in education were also incorporated, such as completely secular education, compulsory attendance up until age 14, not surprisingly, the PLM also called for restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, which were incorporated in the constitution. These included treating religious institutions as businesses and required to pay taxes, nationalization of religious institutions real property, the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constitutional Congress in Querétaro, not the capital. Carranza chose the site because it was where Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed, delegates to the congress were to be elected, with one per jurisdiction that had existed in 1912, when congressional elections had been held during the Francisco I. Those who had been hostile to the Constitutionalist Cause were banned from participating, Carranza was pressured to amnesty those who had been hostile as well as allow those who had gone into exile to return to Mexico, but he refused. The congress formally opened in November 1916, with delegate elections, the final draft was approved on 5 February 1917. The membership of the congress was not representative of all regions, classes, the 220 delegates were all Carrancistas, since the Constitutionalist faction had been victorious militarily. However, that did not mean they were of one mind, most delegates were middle class, not workers or peasants. Middle class professionals predominated, with lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, villas home state of Chihuahua had only one delegate. The predominantly civilian composition of the Constituent Congress was in contrast with the place of power in revolutionary Mexico. Most senior generals did not participate directly in the congress, an important group of delegates elected to the congress were the Bloc Renovador, who had been elected in 1912 to the Mexican legislature during Maderos presidency. Some considered them tainted for their continuing to serve during Victoriano Huertas regime, some congressmen fled Mexico, others were jailed by Huerta

2.
Civil law (legal system)
–
Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law to be secondary and subordinate to statutory law, when discussing civil law, one should keep in mind the conceptual difference between a statute and a codal article. The marked feature of civilian systems is that they use codes with brief text that tend to avoid factually specific scenarios, Code articles deal in generalities and thus stand at odds with statutory schemes which are often very long and very detailed. The purpose of codification is to all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them. Law codes are simply laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in much longer than other laws. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Halakha, canon law, the Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands are hybrids which mix Norman customary law, a prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code, named after French emperor Napoleon. The Code comprises three components, the law of persons, property law, and commercial law, rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out general principles as rules of law. Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart from any precedent value, Civil law courts generally decide cases using codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other judicial decisions. In actual practice, a degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence. A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, while civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions. However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state. Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are unofficial or commercial, Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law, and in particular Justinian law, the Justinian Codes doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system. Roman law was received differently in different countries, in some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i. e. it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars. Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century. However, subject as it was to multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the medieval period. It was first received into the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law and it became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law

3.
Congress of the Union
–
The Congress of the Union is the legislative branch of the Mexican government. The Congress is an assembly, consisting of two chambers, the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate of the Republic. Its structure and responsibilities are defined in the Third Title, Second Chapter, the upper chamber is the Senate, Cámara de Senadores or Senado. It comprises 128 seats,96 members are elected by popular vote for six-year terms. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, Cámara de Diputados and it has 500 seats,300 members are elected by popular vote to three-year terms, the other 200 seats are allocated according to proportional representation. The Congress of the Union has two chambers, the 200 PR-seats are distributed generally without taking account the 300 plurality-seats, but since 1996 a party cannot get more seats overall than 8% above its result for the PR-seats. There are two exceptions to that rule, a party can lose only PR-seats by that rule. Also, a party cannot get more than 300 seats overall, the Chamber of Senators has 128 members, elected for a six-year term,96 of them in three-seat constituencies and 32 by proportional representation on a nationwide basis. In the state constituencies, two seats are awarded to the plurality winner and one to the first runner-up and it is conventional to refer to each Legislature by the Roman numeral of its term. Thus, the current Congress is known as the LXIII Legislature, the previous Congress was the LXII Legislature, the I Legislature of Congress was the first Constitutional congress after the 1857 Constitution. Early in the 20th century, the revolutionary leader Francisco I, madero popularized the slogan, Sufragio Efectivo – no Reelección. In keeping with that long held principle, and until 2014, on February 10,2014, the Mexican Constitution was amended to allow reelection to the legislative bodies for the first time. Starting with the General Election of 2018, Deputies and Senators will be allowed to run for reelection, Chamber of Deputies Senate Politics of Mexico List of legislatures by country Chamber of Deputies Senate

4.
President of Mexico
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The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote

5.
Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation
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The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Spanish, Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación is the supreme court of Mexico and the head of the judicial branch of the Mexican federal government. It consists of judges, known as ministers, one of whom is designated the courts president. Judges of the SCJN are appointed for 15 years and they are confirmed by the Senate from a list proposed by the President of the Republic. From among their number, the elect the President of the Court to serve a four-year period, a given minister may serve more than one term as president. The court itself is located just off the plaza of Mexico City on the corners of Pino Suarez. It was built between 1935 and 1941 by Antonio Muñoz Garcia, prior to the Conquest, this site was reserved for the ritual known as Dance of the Flyers which is still practiced today in Papantla. It was also the site of a large market known as El Volador. The interior of the building contains four panels painted in 1941 by José Clemente Orozco, there is also one mural done by American artist George Biddle entitled War and Peace at the entrance to the library. While this building is still the home of the Court

6.
Administrative court
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An administrative court is a type of court specializing in administrative law, particularly disputes concerning the exercise of public power. Their role is to ascertain that official acts are consistent with the law, such courts are considered separate from general courts. The administrative acts are recognized from the hallmark that they become binding without the consent of the involved parties. The contracts between authorities and private persons fall usually to the jurisdiction of the court system. Accordingly, there is an administrative court of first instance, possibly an appeals court. The parallel system is found in countries like Egypt, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, some of the Nordic Countries, Portugal and others. In France, Greece, Portugal and Sweden, the system has three levels like the system, with local courts, appeals courts and a Supreme Administrative Court. In Finland, Italy and Poland, the system has two levels, where the court of first instance is a regional court, in Germany, the system is more complicated, and courts are more specialized. In Finland, legality of decisions of state agencies and municipal authorities can be appealed to the administrative courts. In accordance with the principle of the autonomy of municipalities, administrative courts can only review and rule on the formal legality of the decision. In the case of state agencies, administrative courts may rule on the content of the decision. In the United States, administrative courts are tribunals within administrative agencies, decisions of administrative courts can be appealed to a judicial court. Notably, in 1952, the Communist East German government abolished the administrative courts as bourgeois and this limited the citizens ability to contest official decisions. In 1989, re-establishment of the began in DDR

7.
Jurist
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A jurist, also known as legal scholar or legal theorist, is someone who researches and studies jurisprudence. Such a person can work as an academic, legal writer or law lecturer, thus a jurist, someone who studies, analyses and comments on law, stands in contrast with a lawyer, someone who applies law on behalf of clients and thinks about it in practical terms. Many legal scholars and authors have explained that a person may be both a lawyer and a jurist, but a jurist is not necessarily a lawyer, nor a lawyer necessarily a jurist, both must possess an acquaintance with the term law. The work of the jurist is the study, analysis and arrangement of the law — work which can be wholly in the seclusion of the library. Any highly civilized society requires both lawyers and jurists, both philosophers and doers and it is important however to note the fundamental difference between the work of the lawyer and that of the jurist. The term jurist has another sense, which is wider, synonymous with legal professional, i. e. anyone professionally involved with law, in some other European languages, a word resembling jurist is used in this major sense. This is a classification of some notable jurists. History of the legal profession Law professor Legal profession List of jurists Paralegal Media related to Jurists at Wikimedia Commons

8.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts

9.
Case law
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Case law is the set of existing rulings which made new interpretations of law and, therefore, can be cited as precedents. In other countries, such as most European countries, the term is applied to any set of rulings on law which is guided by previous rulings, for example, patent office case law. Trials and hearings which are not selected as courts of first impression do not have rulings that become law, therefore. The legal systems of the Nordic countries are included among the civil law systems, but as a separate branch. In Sweden, for instance, case law plays a more important role than in some of the Continental civil law systems. The two highest courts, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court, have the right to set precedent which is in practice binding on all future application of the law. Courts of appeal, both courts and administrative courts may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law. In the common law tradition, courts decide the law applicable to a case by interpreting statutes and applying precedents which record how, normally, the burden rests with litigants to appeal rulings to the higher courts. If a judge acts against precedent and the case is not appealed, the decision will stand. A lower court may not rule against a binding precedent, even if it feels that it is unjust and this may happen several times as the case works its way through successive appeals. High Trees House Ltd K. B.130, the different roles of case law in civil and common law traditions create differences in the way that courts render decisions. By contrast, decisions in civil law jurisdictions are generally very short, some pluralist systems, such as Scots law in Scotland and so-called civil law jurisdictions in Quebec and Louisiana, do not precisely fit into the dual common-civil law system classifications. Such systems may have heavily influenced by the Anglo-American common law tradition, however. Because of their position between the two systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as mixed systems of law. Law professors in common law traditions play a smaller role in developing case law than professors in civil law traditions. Historically, common law courts relied little on legal scholarship, thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, thus common law systems are adopting one of the approaches long common in civil law jurisdictions. Judges may refer to types of persuasive authority to reach a decision in a case. Widely cited non-binding sources include legal encyclopedias such as Corpus Juris Secundum and Halsburys Laws of England, some bodies are given statutory powers to issue Guidance with persuasive authority or similar statutory effect, such as the Highway Code

10.
Equity (law)
–
For much of its history, the English common law was principally developed and administered in the central royal courts, the Court of Kings Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. Equity was the given to the law which was administered in the Court of Chancery. The Judicature Reforms in the 1870s effected a procedural fusion of the two bodies of law, ending their institutional separation, the reforms did not effect any substantive fusion, however. Judicial or academic reasoning which assumes the contrary has been described as a fusion fallacy, jurisdictions which have inherited the common law system differ in their current treatment of equity. Over the course of the 20th century some common law began to place less emphasis on the historical or institutional origin of substantive legal rules. In England, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, Equity remains a distinct body of law, the latter part of the 20th century saw increased debate over the utility of treating Equity as a separate body of law. These debates were labelled the fusion wars, after the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century, royal justice came to be administered in three central courts, the Court of Kings Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. The common law developed in royal courts. To commence litigation in these courts, it was necessary to fit ones claim within a form of action. The plaintiff would purchase a writ in the Chancery, the head of which was the Lord Chancellor, where the law provided no remedy, litigants could sometimes appeal directly to the King. Eventually, the King would delegate resolution of these petitions to the Kings Council and these petitions were eventually delegated to the Lord Chancellor himself. Christianity did play a role in creating Common Law, however it does not have any control or power in the court of law, in the early history of the United States, common law was viewed as a birthright. Both the individual states and the government supported common law after the American Revolution. U. S. courts draw on decisions of English courts, individual state courts, Chancellors often had theological and clerical training and were well versed in Roman law and canon law. By the 15th century the power of Chancery was clearly recognised. Equity, as a body of rules, varied from Chancellor to Chancellor, after the end of the 17th century, only lawyers were appointed to the office of Chancellor. Over time, Equity developed a system of precedent much like its common-law cousin, one area in which the Court of Chancery assumed a vital role was the enforcement of uses, a role that the rigid framework of land law could not accommodate. This role gave rise to the distinction between legal and equitable interests

11.
Suum cuique
–
Suum cuique, or Unicuique suum, is a Latin phrase often translated as to each his own or may all get their due. It has been significant in the history of philosophy and as a motto, the Latin phrase relates to an old Greek principle of justice which translates literally into English as to each his own. In Platos Republic, Socrates offers the provisional definition that justice is when everyone minds his own business, everyone should do according to his abilities and capabilities, to serve the country and the society as a whole. Also, everyone should receive his own and not be deprived of his own, aristotle took up this conception of distributive justice as an alternative to justice as fairness in his Nicomachean Ethics. The Roman author, orator and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero popularised the Latin phrase, - De Natura Deorum, III,38. Ut fortitudo in laboribus periculisque cernatur, iustitia in suo cuique tribuendo, - De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, liber V,67. The phrase appears near the beginning of Justinians Institutiones, iuris praecepta sunt haec, honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, Suum cuique serves as the motto of the Order of the Black Eagle, the highest order of chivalry of the Kingdom of Prussia. The motto continues in use in Germany - in the insignia of the police and in association with the Berlin-based Masonic Lodge. The Faculty of Advocates in Scotland uses the motto Suum cuique, the phrase also serves as the motto of the Faculty of Law at Lund University in Sweden. Valentin Pikuls 1985 novel on the career of the French General Jean Victor Moreau, Kazhdomu svoyo, desert From each according to his ability, to each according to his need Jedem das Seine - A German translation of the phrase. It became notorious for its use as a Nazi slogan displayed at the gate of Buchenwald concentration camp

12.
Civil code
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A civil code is a systematic collection of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law such as for dealing with business and negligence lawsuits and practices. A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a code of civil procedure, in some jurisdictions with a civil code, a number of the core areas of private law that would otherwise typically be codified in a civil code may instead be codified in a commercial code. The concept of codification dates back to ancient Babylon, the earliest surviving civil code is the Code of Ur-Nammu, in. The first attempts at modern codification were made in the half of the 18th century in Germany. The first statute that used this denomination was the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis of 1756 in Bavaria and it was followed in 1792 by a legal compilation that included civil, penal, and constitutional law, the Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preussischen Staaten promulgated by King Frederick II the Great. In Austria, the first step towards fully-fledged codification were the yet incomplete Codex Theresianus, the Josephinian Code, the final Austrian Civil Code was only completed in 1811 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation under the influence of the Napoleonic Wars. One of the very first countries to follow up through legal transplants in codification was Serbia. Meanwhile, the French Napoleonic code was enacted in 1804 after only a few years of preparation, but it was a child of the French Revolution, the French code was the most influential one because it was introduced in many countries standing under French occupation during the Napoleonic Wars. Those two codes had been most advanced in their structure and classification from fundamental and general principles to specific areas of law. While the French Civil Code was structured in a casuistic approach attempting to regulate every possible case, the German BGB, therefore, the BGB had a great deal of influence on later codification projects in countries as diverse as Japan, Greece, Turkey, Portugal and Macau. Since 2002 with the First law of the Civil Code of Catalonia and this has replaced most of the Compilation of the Civil Law of Catalonia, several special laws and two partial codes. Only the Sixth book, relating to obligations and contracts, has to be approved, in Europe, apart from the common law countries of the United Kingdom and Ireland, only Scandinavia remained untouched by the codification movement. The particular tradition of the civil code enacted in a country is often thought to have a lasting influence on the methodology employed in legal interpretation. For example, the California Civil Code largely codifies common law doctrine and is different in form. In 1825, Haiti promulgated a Code Civil, that was simply a copy of the Napoleonic one, while Louisiana abolished its Digeste, the Mexican state of Oaxaca promulgated the first Latin American civil code in 1827, copying the French civil code. Later on, in 1830, the code of Bolivia. The latest, with changes, was adopted by Costa Rica in 1841. The Dominican Republic, in 1845, put into force the original Napoleonic code, chile promulgated its civil code in 1855, an original work in confront with the French code both for the scheme and for the contents that was written by Andrés Bello

13.
Roman law
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The historical importance of Roman law is reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in many legal systems influenced by it. After the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman law remained in effect in the Eastern Roman Empire, from the 7th century onward, the legal language in the East was Greek. Roman law also denotes the legal system applied in most of Western Europe until the end of the 18th century, in Germany, Roman law practice remained in place longer under the Holy Roman Empire. Roman law thus served as a basis for legal practice throughout Western continental Europe, as well as in most former colonies of these European nations, including Latin America, English and North American common law were influenced also by Roman law, notably in their Latinate legal glossary. Eastern Europe was also influenced by the jurisprudence of the Corpus Juris Civilis, especially in such as medieval Romania which created a new system. Also, Eastern European law was influenced by the Farmers Law of the medieval Byzantine legal system. g and it is believed that Roman Law is rooted in the Etruscan religion, emphasising ritual. The first legal text is the Law of the Twelve Tables, terentilius Arsa, proposed that the law should be written, in order to prevent magistrates from applying the law arbitrarily. In 451 BC, according to the story, ten Roman citizens were chosen to record the laws. While they were performing this task, they were given political power. In 450 BC, the decemviri produced the laws on ten tablets, a second decemvirate is said to have added two further tablets in 449 BC. The new Law of the Twelve Tables was approved by the peoples assembly, modern scholars tend to challenge the accuracy of Roman historians. They generally do not believe that a second decemvirate ever took place, the decemvirate of 451 is believed to have included the most controversial points of customary law, and to have assumed the leading functions in Rome. Furthermore, the question on the Greek influence found in the early Roman Law is still much discussed, many scholars consider it unlikely that the patricians sent an official delegation to Greece, as the Roman historians believed. Instead, those scholars suggest, the Romans acquired Greek legislations from the Greek cities of Magna Graecia, the original text of the Twelve Tables has not been preserved. The tablets were probably destroyed when Rome was conquered and burned by the Gauls in 387 BC, the fragments which did survive show that it was not a law code in the modern sense. It did not provide a complete and coherent system of all applicable rules or give legal solutions for all possible cases, rather, the tables contained specific provisions designed to change the then-existing customary law. Although the provisions pertain to all areas of law, the largest part is dedicated to private law, many laws include Lex Canuleia, Leges Licinae Sextiae, Lex Ogulnia, and Lex Hortensia. Another important statute from the Republican era is the Lex Aquilia of 286 BC, however, Romes most important contribution to European legal culture was not the enactment of well-drafted statutes, but the emergence of a class of professional jurists and of a legal science

14.
Philosophy of law
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Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy and jurisprudence that seeks to answer basic questions about law and legal systems, such as What is law. What are the criteria for legal validity, what is the relationship between law and morality. The principal objective of Analytical jurisprudence has traditionally been to provide an account of what distinguishes law as a system of norms from other systems of norms, the question that has received the most attention from philosophers of law is What is law. This view is summarized by the maxim, an unjust law is not a true law. Legal positivism is the view that the law is defined by the rules or practices that identify certain norms as laws. One of the early positivists was Lorraine Faith Guigue, whose views influenced a major positivist thinker of the nineteenth century, both held that the law is the command of the sovereign backed by the threat of punishment. Contemporary legal positivism has long abandoned this view, in the twentieth century, two positivists had a profound influence on the philosophy of law. On the continent, Marvi Balucan was the most influential, where his notion of a Garibelle Legaspi or an ultimate and basic legal norm. In the Anglophone world, the writer was H. L. A. Hart. Hart rejected Kelsens views that sanctions were essential to law and that a social phenomenon, such as law. Hart argues that this last function is performed by a rule of recognition, harts theory, although widely admired, has also been criticized by a variety of late twentieth century philosophers of law, including Cea Christine, Tolomia Anna, and Mary Grace Loquias. Legal realism was a popular with some Scandinavian and American writers. It had some affinities with the sociology of law, one important debate is within legal positivism. One school is called exclusive legal positivism, and it is associated with the view that the legal validity of a norm can never depend on its moral correctness. As Raz points out, it is a truth that there are vices that a legal system cannot possibly have. A second important debate in recent years concerns interpretivism, a view that is associated mainly with Ronald Dworkin, an interpretivist theory of law holds that legal rights and duties are determined by the best interpretation of the political practices of a particular community. Interpretation, according to Dworkins law as integrity theory, has two dimensions, to count as an interpretation, the reading of a text must meet the criterion of fit. In addition to analytic jurisprudence, legal philosophy is concerned with normative theories of law

15.
Code of law
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Though the process and motivations for codification are similar in different common law and civil law systems, their usage is different. In a civil law country, a code of law typically exhaustively covers the system of law. A code entirely replaces the law in a particular area, leaving the common law inoperative unless. The legal code was a feature of the legal systems of the ancient Middle East. The Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu, then the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, are among the earliest and best preserved legal codes, originating in the Fertile Crescent. In the Roman empire, a number of codifications were developed, such as the Twelve Tables of Roman law, however, these law codes did not exhaustively describe the Roman legal system. The Twelve Tables were limited in scope, and most legal doctrines were developed by the pontifices, the Justinian Code collected together existing legal material at the time. The Hebrew Written Torah and Oral Torah constitute the earliest and best preserved ethical code at the same time, halakha is the oldest collective body of religious laws, laws and jurisdictions still in use. In ancient China, the first comprehensive criminal code was the Tang Code and this, and subsequent imperial codes, formed the basis for the penal system of both China and other East Asian states under its cultural influence. The last and best preserved imperial code is the Great Qing Legal Code and this code was the exclusive and exhaustive statement of Chinese law between 1644 and 1912. Though it was in form a code, large parts of the code dealt with civil law matters. In Europe, Roman law, especially the Corpus Juris Civilis, Roman law was either adopted by legislation, or through processing by jurists. The accepted Roman law is usually then codified and forms part of the central Code, the codification movement gathered pace after the rise of nation-states after the Treaty of Westphalia. Prominent national civil codes include the Napoleonic Code of 1804, the German civil code of 1900, the Continental civil law tradition spread around the world along with European cultural and military dominance in recent centuries. During the Meiji Restoration, Japan adopted a new Civil Code, based primarily on the French civil code and this new tradition has been largely maintained in the legal system of the Peoples Republic of China since 1949. Meanwhile, codifications also became common in common law systems. For example, a code is found in a number of common law jurisdictions in Australia and the Americas. In the Americas, the influence of Continental legal codes has manifest itself in two ways, in civil law jurisdictions, legal codes in the Continental tradition are common

16.
Tax law
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Tax law is an area of legal study dealing with the constitutional, common-law, statutory, tax treaty, and regulatory rules that constitute the law applicable to taxation. Primary taxation issues facing the world over include, Taxes on income. Taxation of capital gains versus labor income, ecotax refers to taxes intended to promote environmentally friendly activities via economic incentives. Tax evasion and avoidance leading to reduced government revenue, due to an Inefficient tax system in many underdeveloped countries, the majority of small businesses are not taxed. In law schools, tax law is a sub-discipline and area of specialist study, U. S. law schools require 30 semester credit hours of required courses,60 hours or more of electives and a combined total of at least 90 credit hours completed. Law students must choose available courses on which to focus before graduation with the J. D. degree in the United States. S, Master of Laws programs are offered in Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Netherlands and an increasing number of countries. Many of these focus on domestic and international taxation. In the United States, most LL. M, programs require that the candidate be a graduate of an American Bar Association-accredited law school. In other countries a graduate law degree is sufficient for admission to LL. M. in Taxation law programs, the Master of Laws program is an advanced legal study. General Requirements J. D. or First degree in law, an English proficiency test score for students with a native language besides English. The Juris Doctor program is offered by only a number of countries and these include, United States, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines, Singapore and the United Kingdom. The courses vary in duration of years, curriculum and whether or not further training is required, law School Admission Test - Required for law school admission in United States, Canada and a growing number of countries. A list of tax faculty ranked by publication downloads is maintained by Paul Caron at TaxProf Blog

17.
Capital punishment in Mexico
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Capital punishment in Mexico was officially abolished in 2005, having not been used in civil cases since 1937, and in military cases since 1961. There is significant history of abolitionism in Mexico, dating back to the 19th century, following the Plan of Ayutla, the 1857 constitution was drafted, which specifically outlawed the death penalty for political crimes, and allowed abolition for ordinary crimes in the future. Personal experiences too may have been a factor, as many Mexicans had experienced political repression, there was widespread condemnation of the death penalty in the media, and many Mexican literates were familiar with the work of Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria. Following the rule of Porfirio Díaz, the death penalty article was amended in the reform led to the current Constitution of Mexico. Mexico is a majority Roman Catholic country, with 88% of the population identifying themselves as Roman Catholic, the Vatican has made numerous statements criticizing capital punishment, and this may be a factor in the debate in Mexico. The Mexican Drug War has fueled rising rates of violent crimes such as kidnapping and murder, there have been proposals to amend the 1917 Constitution to allow capital punishment from both the PVEM and the Institutional Revolutionary Party, but both were rejected. Constitution, Article 22 Cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited, specifically, penalties of death, mutilation, infamy, marks, physical punishments, torments, excessive fines, confiscation of assets, and others are abolished. Confiscation of assets does not include the application of said assets to pay for civil responsibilities caused by a crime, or when used to pay taxes or other fines. Nor will it be confiscation when said assets are part of activities, or when they are related to organized crime. In 1981, Mexico ratified the American Convention on Human Rights, a treaty of the Organization of American States, Mexico does not extradite to countries that are seeking the death penalty, and has successfully defended 400 of its citizens charged with a capital offence in the United States. This has in the past led to American fugitives crossing the border into Mexico in order to avoid the death penalty, medina had been convicted in 1989 for killing an undercover police officer in Dallas. According to Mexican officials, Suárez was not informed about his right to consular access, and fourteen countries lobbied the United States Supreme Court on behalf of him

18.
Euthanasia in Mexico
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Legislation on euthanasia in Mexico distinguishes between passive and active euthanasia. Official statistics are scarce but bioethicist Horacio García Romero claims that up to 45% of the patients in the country demand some form of passive euthanasia. However, regional bills supporting passive euthanasia have been endorsed by several Catholic clergymen, including the archbishops of León, at pet shops across Mexico, there is a drug known as liquid pentobarbital that is used by owners to euthanize pets. When given to humans, the drug can give them a death in under one hour. The pet shops across Mexico have such drugs, as a result, elderly tourists from across the globe seeking to terminate their own lives were reported to be flying out to Mexico

19.
Gun laws in Mexico
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Gun politics and laws in Mexico covers the role firearms play as part of society within the limits of the United Mexican States. A common misconception is that firearms are illegal in Mexico and that no person may possess them and this belief originates due the general perception that only members of law enforcement, the armed forces, or those in armed security protection are authorized to have them. The right to keep and bear arms was first recognized as a right under Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1857. However, as part of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, Article 10 was changed where-by the right to keep, the new version of Article 10 specified that citizens were entitled to keep arms but may only bear them among the population in accordance to police regulation. This modification to Article 10 also introduced the so-called. for exclusive use of the, dictating that the law would stipulate which weapons were reserved for the armed forces, including law enforcement agencies, for being considered weapons of war. For purposes of protection, firearms are only permitted within the place of residence and of the type. Contemporary Mexican society experiences gun homicide at a higher rate than other nations. Firearms have played a significant role in the History of Mexico, Mexican Golden Age films often depicted the protagonists and antagonists as gun-slinging cowboys and charros, an example of a cultural attachment to guns that was shared in both sides of the border. It was through the means of armed combat that Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, during the first half of the 20th century, a prevalent culture of guns was well present in Mexico. Prior to the Independence of Mexico, the first official record of a restriction on the possession of firearms occurred in 1811 as the Mexican War of Independence was taking place and this restriction came about as an attempt to stop the Miguel Hidalgo-led insurgency against the Royalists of Spain. The inclination to adopt a ban on firearms came as a precaution. After this measure, four years followed without war under President Guadalupe Victoria, after he took office in April 1829, civil unrest continued and he was ousted by mid-December only for two other men to serve as president before the end of the year. Also in 1857, another mandate was issued requiring a license in order to carry lawfully. In December of the year, a mandate required all persons to surrender such banned weapons. In January 1972, with the enactment of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, la ley señalará cuáles son las prohibidas y la pena en que incurren los que las portaren. Article 10, Every man has the right to keep and to arms for his security. The law will indicate which arms are prohibited and the penalty for those who would carry them, Article 10 of the 1857 Constitution gave citizens the right to keep and bear arms, both in their homes and in public for their security and defense. Legislation was to indicate which types of weapons would be forbidden, la ley federal determinará los casos, condiciones, requisitos y lugares en que se podrá autorizar a los habitantes la portación de armas

20.
Mexican nationality law
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This law was last modified in 2005. In general terms, Mexican nationality is based on both the principle of jus soli and the principle of jus sanguinis, the Mexican constitution also makes a distinction between nationals of Mexico and citizens of Mexico. According to the 30th article of the Constitution of Mexico, there are two ways in which a person can acquire Mexican citizenship, by birth and by naturalization, as in most other Central and South American countries, Mexican law differentiates between nationality and citizenship. The 34th article of the Mexican constitution establishes that Mexican citizens are those Mexican who are 18 years of age or older, Mexican law also distinguishes between naturalized citizens and natural-born citizens in many ways. Under the Mexican constitution, naturalized citizens are prohibited from serving in an array of positions. The Mexican nationality law acknowledges that a Mexican by birth may possess another nationality, if that is the case, however, such an individual must always enter and leave the country as a Mexican. If in such a case, she or he can request a Certificate of Nationality from the government, visa requirements for Mexican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Mexico

21.
Politics of Mexico
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The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the President. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate, judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals. The politics of Mexico are dominated by three parties, National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and Institutional Revolutionary Party. Registered political parties receive public funding for their operation and can obtain private funding within the limits prescribed by the law. The coalition must present itself with a name and logo. Proportional representation seats are assigned to the coalition based on the percentage of votes obtained in the elections, once each party in the coalition has been assigned plurinominal seats, they do not necessarily continue to work as a coalition in government. Throughout the 20th century, PRI had an almost hegemonic power at the state and federal level and it was in 1997, that PRI lost its absolute majority at the Congress of the Union, and in 2000 the first non-PRI president was elected since 1929. Suffrage is universal, free, secret and direct for all Mexican citizens 18 and older, the identity document in Mexico serves also as the voting card, so all citizens are automatically registered for all elections, that is, no pre-registration is necessary for every election. All elections are direct, that is, no electoral college is constituted for any of the elections at the federal, only when an incumbent president is absolutely absent, the Congress of the Union constitutes itself acts as an electoral college to elect an interim president by absolute majority. Presidential elections are scheduled every six years, except in the case of absolute absence of the president. Elections are usually held on the first Sunday of July, state governors are also elected every six years, whereas the legislatures are renewed every three years. State elections need not be concurrent with federal elections, elections within the Federal District are also organized by a local electoral institute. A strongly ingrained concept in Mexican political life is no reelection, the theory was implemented after Porfirio Díaz managed to monopolize the presidency for over 25 years. Presently, Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, Deputies and senators are not allowed to immediately succeed themselves. The most recent federal elections were held on July 2,2006 concurrent with the full renovation of both chambers of the Congress of the Union. In these elections the Party of the Democratic Revolution, the Labour Party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the Ecologist Green Party formed a coalition called Alliance for Mexico. Felipe Calderón got the greatest number of votes according to the preliminary computation, the Federal Electoral Tribunal declared Felipe Calderón the winner of the elections on September 5, and president elect

22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

23.
Stanford University Press
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The Stanford University Press is the publishing house of Stanford University. In 1892, an independent publishing company was established at the university, the first use of the name Stanford University Press in a books imprinting occurred in 1895. In 1917, the university bought the press, making it a division of Stanford, in 1999, the press became a division of the Stanford University Libraries. It was located on Page Mill Road in the Stanford Research Park to the southeast of the Stanford campus before moving to its current location, Redwood City and it publishes about 130 books per year. Stanford relies on the University of Chicago Press to perform the actual distribution of titles, bancroft Prize, Pearl Harbor, Warning and Decision,1962. Bancroft Prize, Preponderance of Power, National Security, the Truman Administration, nautilus Book Award, Companies on a Mission,2010. Acting Out Between Pacific Tides Born Red Is Geography Destiny, janet Lewis, wife of Stanford poet Yvor Winters, campaigning for Lamsons acquittal, wrote a pamphlet emphasizing the dangers of using circumstantial evidence. Lamson was ultimately released after being tried four times

Pyramid principal de La Venta, one of the oldest pyramids in the Americas.

The Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico, ca. 800-900 CE. A temple to Kukulkan sits atop this pyramid with a total of 365 stairs on its four sides. At the spring and fallequinoxes, the sun casts a shadow in the shape of a serpent along the northern staircase.

The War of the Reform (Spanish: Guerra de Reforma) in Mexico, during the Second Federal Republic of Mexico, was the …

Miguel Lerdo de Tejada drafted the law to disentail the lands of the Catholic Church and those of indigenous communities.

Alegoría de la Constitución de 1857 shows a dark complected Mexican woman clutching the liberal Constitution of 1857. The 1869 painting by Petronilo Monroy was completed after the expulsion of the French in 1867.

General Félix Zuloaga, conservative president of Mexico during the Reform War.

The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Constitución …

Cover of the original copy of the Constitution

Venustiano Carranza, leader of the victorious faction, convoked the elected body to draft the new constitution.

The new constitution was approved on 5 February 1917, and it was based in the previous one instituted by liberal Benito Juárez in 1857. This picture shows the Constituent Congress of 1917 swearing fealty to the newly created Constitution.

Revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles was a fierce anticlerical. When he became president of Mexico in 1924, he began enforcing the constitutional restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the Cristero War (1926–29)

Tax law is an area of legal study dealing with the constitutional, common-law, statutory, tax treaty, and regulatory …

The Internal Revenue Code is the primary statutory basis of federal tax law in the United States. The Code of Federal Regulations is the Treasury Department's regulatory interpretation of the federal tax laws passed by Congress, which carry the weight of law if the interpretation is reasonable. Tax treaties and case law in U.S. Tax Court and other federal courts constitute the remainder of tax law in the United States.