The family mostly lived on their farms at Leutstetten south of Munich, where Maria Theresa cultivated rose gardens.

On 7 November 1918 Ludwig III was forced to abdicate the Bavarian throne, and Maria Theresa fled Munich with her family to Wildenwart Castle near Frasdorf, in order to escape from the Bolsheviks, the health of the Queen soon declined and she died there on 3 February 1919, being buried at the local chapel. On 5 November 1921 her remains were transferred to the cathedral of Munich along with those of her husband, who died less than a month before.

Maria Theresa became queen consort of Bavaria in 1913 when her husband the reigning Prince Regent proclaimed himself king as King Ludwig III in place of his living but insane cousin King Otto, she became the first Catholic queen in Bavaria since Bavaria was made a kingdom 1806. She spoke German, Hungarian, Czech, French, and Italian.

In 1914, she hosted festivities during the royal Bavarian jubilee, she appeared with her husband when war was announced. During World War I, she visited wounded soldiers and encouraged the women of Bavaria to support the troops by providing food and clothes, including with the donations references to legendary heroines.

Maria Theresa was the niece and heir of the childless Francis V, Duke of Modena who had been, at the time of his death, the Jacobite heir-general to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland; as such, she became the heir after his death in 1875. Neither she, nor any of her Jacobite forebears since 1807, ever seriously pursued this claim.

Maria Theresa was the first Jacobite heir-general since James Francis Edward Stuart (1688-1766) who could (but for her religion) also have claimed to be a natural-born citizen of Great Britain. While she was not born on British soil, as James had been, Maria Theresa was a descendant of the Electress Sophia of Hanover. Under the terms of the Sophia Naturalization Act 1705, the Electress Sophia and all "issue of her body" were declared to be natural-born British subjects, regardless of the actual place of their birth, unless they were Roman Catholics, the 1705 Act was not repealed until 1948 and, consequently, Maria Theresa would have been covered by its provisions.

Following her death in 1919, Maria Theresa's son Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria inherited the Jacobite claim. Like his mother, he and his descendants have also refrained from pressing their claims to the English throne.

1.
Kingdom of Bavaria
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The Kingdom of Bavaria was a German state that succeeded the former Electorate of Bavaria in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918. The Bavarian Elector Maximilian IV Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach became the first King of Bavaria in 1805 as Maximilian I Joseph, the crown would go on being held by the Wittelsbachs until the kingdom came to an end in 1918. Since the end of the kingdom and the empire in 1918, on 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession on the Electorate of Bavaria passed to Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich, between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Before the death of Charles Theodore the Austrians had again occupied the country, Maximilian IV Joseph, the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. By the Treaty of Lunéville Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken, the 1805 Peace of Pressburg allowed Maximilian to raise Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian proclaimed himself king on 1 January 1806, the King still served as an Elector until Bavaria seceded from the Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806. The Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806, the new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of Napoleonic France. The kingdom faced war with Austria in 1808 and from 1810 to 1814, lost territory to Württemberg, Italy, in 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished, which had left the old empire. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavarias first written constitution, over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris wishes. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action, on 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede, finally in 1816, the Rhenish Palatinate was taken from France in exchange for most of Salzburg which was then ceded to Austria. It was the second largest and second most powerful state south of the Main, in Germany as a whole, it ranked third behind Prussia and Austria. On 1 February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed, and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform, on 26 May 1818, Bavarias second constitution was proclaimed. The Landtag would have two houses, a house comprising the aristocracy and noblemen, including the high-class hereditary landowners, government officials. The second house, a house, would include representatives of small landowners, the towns. The rights of Protestants were safeguarded in the constitution with articles supporting the equality of all religions, the initial constitution almost proved disastrous for the monarchy, with controversies such as the army having to swear allegiance to the new constitution. Within the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Palatinate enjoyed a legal and administrative position

2.
Brno
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Brno is the second largest city in the Czech Republic by population and area, the largest Moravian city, and the historical capital city of the Margraviate of Moravia. Brno is the center of the South Moravian Region in which it forms a separate district. The city is also a significant administrative centre and it is the seat of a number of state authorities, including the Ombudsman, and the Office for the Protection of Competition. Brno is also an important centre of education, with 33 faculties belonging to 13 institutes of higher learning. Brno Exhibition Centre ranks among the largest exhibition centres in Europe, the complex opened in 1928 and established the tradition of large exhibitions and trade fairs held in Brno. Brno hosts motorbike and other races on the Masaryk Circuit, an established in 1930. Another cultural tradition is a fireworks competition, Ignis Brunensis. The other large preserved castle near the city is Veveří Castle by the Brno Dam Lake and this castle is the site of a number of legends, as are many other places in Brno. Another architectural monument of Brno is the functionalist Villa Tugendhat which has been included on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, one of the natural sights nearby is the Moravian Karst. The etymology of the name Brno is disputed and it perhaps comes from Old Czech brnie muddy, swampy. Alternative derivations are from a Slavic verb brniti or a Celtic language spoken in the area before it was overrun by Germanic peoples, throughout its history, Brnos locals also referred to the town in other languages, including Brünn in German, ברין in Yiddish and Bruna in Latin. The city was referred to as Brunn in English. The Asteroid 2889 Brno was named after the city, as well as the Bren light machine gun, one of the most famous weapons of World War II. In the early 11th century Brno was established as a castle of a prince from the House of Přemyslid. Brno was first mentioned in Cosmas Chronica Boëmorum dated to year 1091, seats of these rulers and thus capitals of these territories were castles and towns of Brno, Olomouc, and Znojmo. In the late 12th century, Moravia began to reunify, forming the Margraviate of Moravia, since then, until the mid of the 17th century, it was not clear which town should be the capital of Moravia. Political power was therefore divided between Brno and Olomouc, but Znojmo also played an important role. The Moravian Diet, the Moravian Land Tables, and the Moravian Land Court were all seated in both cities at once, however, Brno was the official seat of the Moravian Margraves, and later its geographical position closer to Vienna also became important

3.
Chiemgau
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Chiemgau is the common name of a geographic area in Upper Bavaria. It refers to the foothills of the Alps between the rivers Inn and Traun, with the Chiemsee at its center, the political districts that contain the Chiemgau are Rosenheim and Traunstein. Wendelstein is the name of a mountain close by but not strictly in the Chiemgau. The name Chiemgau and Chiemsee together with the place name Chieming allegedly go back to the Old High German personal name Chiemo. At the end of the 8th century the name Chiemgau appeared for the first time in documents as Chimigaoe, from the New Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron Ages humans have left their traces in the Chiemgau. After that this region was settled by the Celts and later by the Romans, the Romans settled mainly near the river Alz and made a crossing for their Roman road which goes from Salzburg to Augsburg at Seebruck. At that time the Chiemgau was on the outskirts of the Roman province of Noricum, the Chiemgau was for a long time closely connected with the Bavarian dukes and also the princebishops of Salzburg. After the secularisation of 1803 the whole Chiemgau district became part of Bavaria, the Chiemgau is a source of wood, iron and salt. The production of salt, which existed from 1619 till 1912, had a big cultural and economical influence on the Chiemgau, the Chiemgau has traditionally been horse breeding country, especially workhorses. The ice-age, which took place 15000 years ago, formed the foothills of the Alps, for this reason the Chiemgau is a hilly countryside with numerous grasslands, forests and fens, additional there are plenty of lakes of which the biggest one is the Chiemsee. The biggest mountains are almost 2000m high

4.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century

5.
Ludwig III of Bavaria
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Ludwig III, was the last King of Bavaria, reigning from 1913 to 1918. Ludwig was born in Munich, the eldest son of Prince Luitpold of Bavaria and of his wife and he was a descendant of both Louis XIV of France and William the Conqueror. Hailing from Florence, Augusta always spoke in Italian to her four children, Ludwig was named after his grandfather, King Ludwig I of Bavaria. Ludwig spent his first years living in the Electoral rooms of the Munich Residenz, from 1852 to 1863, he was tutored by Ferdinand von Malaisé. When he was ten years old, the moved to the Leuchtenberg Palace. In 1861 at the age of sixteen, Ludwig began his career when his uncle, King Maximilian II of Bavaria. A year later, he entered the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, when he was eighteen, he automatically became a member of the Senate of the Bavarian Legislature as a prince of the royal house. In 1866, Bavaria was allied with the Austrian Empire in the Austro-Prussian War, Ludwig held the rank of Oberleutnant. He was wounded at the Battle of Helmstedt, taking a bullet in his thigh, the incident contributed to the fact that he was rather averse to the military. He received the Knights Cross 1st Class of the Bavarian Military Merit Order In June 1867, Ludwig visited Vienna to attend the funeral of his cousin, while there, Ludwig met Mathildes eighteen-year-old step-cousin Maria Theresia, Archduchess of Austria-Este. On 20 February 1868, at St. Augustines Church in Vienna and she was the only daughter of the late Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este and of his wife Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria. Until 1862, Ludwigs uncle had reigned as King Otto I of Greece, although Otto had been deposed, Ludwig was still in line of succession to the Greek throne. Had he ever succeeded, this would have required that he renounce his Roman Catholic faith, Maria Theresas uncle, Duke Francis V of Modena, was a staunch Roman Catholic. He required that as part of the marriage agreement Ludwig renounce his rights to the throne of Greece, in addition, the 1843 Greek Constitution forbade the Greek sovereign to be simultaneously ruler of another country. Consequently, Ludwigs younger brother Leopold technically succeeded upon their fathers death to the rights of the deposed Otto I, by his marriage, Ludwig became a wealthy man. Maria Theresa had inherited large properties from her father and she owned the estate of Sárvár in Hungary and the estate of Eiwanowitz in Moravia. The income from these estates enabled Ludwig to purchase an estate at Leutstetten in Bavaria, over the years, Ludwig expanded the Leutstetten estate until it became one of the largest and most profitable in Bavaria. Ludwig was sometimes derided as Millibauer due to his interest in agriculture, although they maintained a residence in Munich at the Leuchtenberg Palace, Ludwig and Maria Theresa lived mostly at Leutstetten

6.
Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria
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Rupprecht or Rupert, Crown Prince of Bavaria was the last Bavarian Crown Prince. His full title was His Royal Highness Rupprecht Maria Luitpold Ferdinand, Crown Prince of Bavaria, Duke of Bavaria, of Franconia and in Swabia, during the first half of the First World War he commanded the German Sixth Army on the Western front. From August 1916 he commanded Army Group Rupprecht of Bavaria, which occupied the sector of the front opposite the British Expeditionary Force. Rupprecht was born in Munich, the eldest of the thirteen children of Ludwig III, the last King of Bavaria, and of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este and he was a member of the lineage of both Louis XIV of France and William the Conqueror. As a direct descendant of Henrietta of England, daughter of Charles I of England and his early education from the age of seven was conducted by Freiherr Rolf Kreusser, an Anglo-Bavarian. In his youth, he spent much of his time at Schloss Leutstetten, Starnberg, and at the villa near Lindau, Lake Constance. Apart from his studies and his training in riding and dancing, at school he was also obliged to learn a trade. Rupprechts grandfather, Luitpold, became de facto ruler of Bavaria when King Ludwig II, Rupprechts own position changed somewhat through these events as it became clear that he was likely to succeed to the Bavarian throne one day. After graduating from school, he entered Bavarian Armys Infanterie-Leibregiment as a Second Lieutenant. He interrupted his career to study at the universities of Munich. His early journeys were made with his Adjutant, Otto von Stetten, later he was accompanied by his first wife. At the age of 31, Rupprecht married his kinswoman Duchess Marie Gabrielle in Bavaria, in 1900 he became the 1, 128th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria. In 1906, Rupprecht was made commander of the Bavarian I Army Corps, with the rank of lieutenant general of the infantry, in 1912, Luitpold was succeeded in the position of Prinzregent by his son Ludwig. On 5 November 1913, Ludwig was made king by vote of the Bavarian Senate and this decision also made Rupprecht the crown prince of Bavaria. He commanded the German Sixth Army at the outbreak of World War I in Lorraine, while part of the German army was participating in the Schlieffen plan, the Crown Prince led his troops on to the Battle of Lorraine. Rupprechts army gave way to the French attack in August 1914, in the Battle of Lorraine, Rupprecht failed to break through the French lines. He was later in command of the 6th Army in Northern France, only a few days after the battle, his oldest son Luitpold died of polio in Munich. During the spring of 1915, Rupprecht sent an answer to von Bissing, to the Kingdom of Prussia Rupprecht suggested other areas of northern France, Walloon Belgium with Liege and Namur, and the salient of the Netherlands round Maastricht

7.
Princess Maria Ludwiga Theresia of Bavaria
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Princess Maria Ludwiga Theresia of Bavaria was a daughter of the last King of Bavaria, Ludwig III, and his wife, Maria Theresia of Austria-Este. Her husband, Prince Ferdinand Pius, Duke of Calabria, became the head of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies on 26 May 1934, dame Grand Cross of Justice of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George. Dame Grand Cross of Honor and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa. Media related to Princess Maria Ludwiga Theresia of Bavaria at Wikimedia Commons

8.
Prince Franz of Bavaria
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Prince Franz of Bavaria was a member of the Bavarian Royal House of Wittelsbach and a Major General in the Bavarian Army. Franz was born at Schloss Leutstetten, Starnberg, Bavaria and he was the third son of King Ludwig III of Bavaria and his wife Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria-Este. Initially, Franz served as a commander of the 2, infanterie-Regiments König, but shortly before the outbreak of World War I, he was given command of the 3. Bayerische Infanteriebrigade, which was renamed and became the 4. Prince Franz led this brigade through its victories at Fort Douaumont, Passchendaele, for his exemplary leadership during these operations he was awarded the Knights Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph on 25 May 1916 and on 28 October 1916 was given command of the entire 4. In Spring 1918, Prince Franz was also awarded the Commanders Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph, however, during the summer 1918, the 4. Bayerische Infanterie-Division suffered severe loses during the Battle of the Somme and was transferred to Italian Front on border protection duties, on 12 July 1912 Prince Franz married Princess Isabella Antonie of Croÿ, the daughter of Duke Karl Alfred of Croÿ and Princess Ludmilla of Arenberg. The wedding took place at the Schloss Weilburg in Baden near Vienna, the couple had six children, Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, married Princess Irmingard of Bavaria. Princess Maria Elisabeth of Bavaria, married Prince Pedro Henrique of Orléans-Braganza, Princess Adelgunde Maria of Bavaria, married Baron Zdenko von Hoenning-OCarroll. Princess Eleonore Marie of Bavaria, married Count Konstantin of Waldburg-Zeil, Princess Dorothea Therese of Bavaria, married Archduke Gottfried of Austria. Prince Rasso of Bavaria, married Princess Theresa of Bavaria, Prince Franz of Bavaria died on 25 January 1957 at Schloss Leutstetten in Starnberg, Bavaria and is buried in the Colombarium in the Michaelskirche in Munich, Bavaria. Bavaria Order of St. Belser AG, Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart 1930 Die Wittelsbacher

9.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic

10.
Austria-Este
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The House of Habsburg-Este, holders of the title of Archduke of Austria-Este, is a cadet branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine and also descends from the House of Este. It was created in 1771 with the marriage between Ferdinand of Habsburg-Lorraine and Maria Beatrice dEste, only daughter of the Duke of Modena, Ercole III dEste. After the death of Ercole III in 1803, that branch of the Este familys male line ended, in 1814, French rule in Italy ended. Modena was to be returned to his daughter Maria Beatrice and her son Francis of Austria-Este after Ercoles death, Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau was indeed inherited by his daughter and her husband, but they lost it in 1805 to the expanding Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1859, the principality lost its independence and was incorporated into the newly united Kingdom of Italy, and Francis V, Francis V, Duke of Modena withdrew to his estates in Austria. After the death of his mother in 1840, Francis was considered the heir to the English and Scottish thrones by the Jacobites. When Francis died at Vienna on November 20,1875, his family became extinct in the male line and his heir general and heir-of-the-blood was his niece, Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, who then was married with Prince Ludwig of Bavaria. The heir-general of the Estes continues in their descendants, and the present heir is Franz, although the first heir, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was not a descendant of the last Este duchess, Mary Beatrice of Modena), he took the name Austria-Este. e. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, but he was assassinated 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo before becoming emperor. Through his mother Zita of Bourbon-Parma, Robert happened to be a descendant of Duke Ercole III of Modena as well, on Roberts death his eldest son, Archduke Lorenz, born 1955, by his wife, Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta, succeeded him in that role. He is married to Princess Astrid of Belgium, the daughter of King Albert II of Belgium. Since the throne of Belgium is heritable by females, Princess Astrid is an heir of Belgium immediately after the issue of King Philippe of Belgium, as such, her husband Archduke Lorenz of Austria-Este, was in 1995 elevated to the additional title of Prince of Belgium. The children of the couple are, since 1991, titled Archduke of Austria-Este, the eldest of these is Prince Amedeo of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este, born 1986

11.
Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este
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Ferdinand Karl Viktor was Archduke of Austria-Este and Prince of Modena. Born in Modena, he was the son of Francis IV of Modena. His paternal grandmother had been heiress to the Duchy of Modena, elisabeth and Ferdinand had one daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, who became the last Queen of Bavaria. Ferdinand, who was a Feldmarschalleutnant, died at Brno a few months later at the age of 28 from typhus and his widow remarried with Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria. Ferdinand is the link in the Jacobite succession between his brother Francis I and his daughter Mary IV and III

12.
Catholicism
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship

13.
Augustinian Church, Vienna
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The Augustinian Church in Vienna is a parish church located on Josefsplatz, next to the Hofburg, the winter palace of the Habsburg dynasty in Vienna. Originally built in the 14th century as the church of the imperial court of the Habsburgs. The official name of church and parish is St. Augustin, in 1327, Duke Frederick the Handsome founded this church with a cloister for the Augustinian friars. In 1634, the Augustinerkirche became the church of the imperial church. A functioning monastery of six black-robed Augustinian monks remains, serving the needs of the parish, the Gothic church is 85 m long and 20 m wide. The nave was built under architect Dietrich Landtner from 1330 to 1339, as the nearby Hofburg expanded, the Augustinerkirche gradually became engulfed by it and today is a part of the complex. Although inconspicuous from the outside, the inside is more ornate, during the reign of Emperor Joseph II,18 side altars were removed in 1784 when the church was restored in the gothic style. A new side altar was added in 2004, dedicated to Emperor Karl I of Austria who is on the path to being recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church. The Loreto Chapel, to the right of the altar, holds the silver urns containing the hearts of Habsburg rulers. Herzgruft contains the hearts of 54 members of the imperial family, notable among the churchs monuments is the memorial to Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria sculpted by Antonio Canova, in 1805. Composer Franz Schubert conducted his Mass in F major there, in the 21st century, the church is known to host high quality sacred music concerts, particularly for its weekly Sunday High mass with full orchestra and choir. Citations Bibliography Geschichte der Kirche St. Augustin

14.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north

15.
William, Prince of Hohenzollern
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William, Prince of Hohenzollern was the eldest son of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern and Infanta Antónia of Portugal. His maternal grandparents were Maria II of Portugal and her King consort Ferdinand II of Portugal, William was an older brother of Ferdinand of Romania. His maternal first cousins included Carlos I of Portugal, Infante Afonso, Duke of Porto, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony, between 1880 and 1886, William was heir presumptive to the Romanian throne. On 20 December 1886, he renounced the rights to succeed to the throne of the Kingdom of Romania, on 27 June 1889, William married Princess Maria Teresa of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. Her parents were Prince Louis, Count of Trani and Mathilde Ludovika, Louis was the eldest son of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies and his second wife Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria. Mathilde was the daughter of Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria. William and Maria Teresa had three children, Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern, married first Manuel II of Portugal and secondly Robert, Count Douglas. Married Princess Margarete Karola of Saxony and she was a daughter of Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany. Prince Francis Joseph of Hohenzollern, adopted the title Prince of Hohenzollern-Emden and he married Princess Maria Alix of Saxony, also a daughter of Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany. William succeeded his father as Prince of Hohenzollern on 8 June 1905, Maria Teresa died on 1 May 1909. On 20 January 1915, Wilhelm married secondly Princess Adelgunde of Bavaria and she was a daughter of Ludwig III of Bavaria and Maria Theresia of Austria-Este. There were no children from this marriage, Williams title was effectively abolished with the collapse of the German Empire in 1918. He continued to use his princely surname anyway, on 22 November 1880, Williams father, Prince Leopold, renounced his rights to the succession of the principality of Romania in favour of his sons. Having become familiar with the situation in Romania, the 22-year-old William renounced all rights to the succession of the kingdom of Romania by a letter in French dated on 20 December 1886. In 1914, upon the death of king Carol I of Romania, Williams next brother Ferdinand succeeded in Romania

16.
Prince Ferdinand Pius, Duke of Calabria
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Prince Ferdinand Pius, Duke of Calabria, was head of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and pretender to the throne of the extinct Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1934 to 1960. Ferdinand was the eldest child and son of Prince Alfonso, Count of Caserta, Ferdinand married Princess Maria Ludwiga Theresia of Bavaria, daughter of King Ludwig III of Bavaria on 31 May 1897. It was there that he died in 1960, following Ferdinands death, the headship of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies was claimed by both his nephew Alfonso and his brother Ranieri. It remains disputed between the descendants of Alfonso and Ranieri today

17.
Prince Ludwig Gaston of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
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Ludwig Gaston Klemens Maria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, known in Brazil as Dom Luís Gastão, was a prince of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry. He was the son of the German Prince Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Ludwig Gaston was born the youngest of the four sons of Prince Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and he and his family lived in Brazil until 1889, when troubles with the Brazilian monarchy led the family to move to Europe. Ludwig went to Wiener Neustadt to study at the Theresian Military Academy, after that, he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant of the Fourth Tiroler Jäger-Regiment of the Austro-Hungarian Army in Lienz. On May 1,1896, Ludwig was given the rank of First lieutenant, on May 1,1903, he advanced to the rank of Captain. In Munich, on May 1,1900, Ludwig Gaston married Princess Mathilde of Bavaria and their wedding was hosted by her grandfather, Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria. Maria Immaculata Leopoldine Franziska Theresia Ildefonsa Adelgunde Klementine Hildegard Anna Josepha Elisabeth Sancta-Angelica Nicoletta, Princess Mathilde of Bavaria died of lung disease in 1906 in Davos, leaving her husband with two small children. On February 8,1907, Gaston left the army, and in Bischofteinitz, on November 30,1907, Ludwig Gaston died on January 23,1942 in Innsbruck and was buried in the St. Augustines Church in Coburg. He was the last surviving grandchild of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and he was the holder of the Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order

18.
Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach
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Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach, was a German prince who was elected in June 1918 as King of Lithuania, with the regnal name of Mindaugas II. He never assumed the crown, however, as German authorities declared the election invalid, from 17 July 1869 until his death, he was the head of the morganatic Urach branch of the House of Württemberg. At the age of four, Wilhelm succeeded his father as Duke of Urach, through his mother, Wilhelm was a legitimate heir to the throne of Monaco. Wilhelms cousin Prince Albert I of Monaco had only one son, Louis, the French Republic, however, was reluctant to see a German prince ruling Monaco. Wilhelm was relegated to third in line to Monacos throne, behind Louis, after the accession of Prince Louis II in 1922, Wilhelm renounced his rights of succession to the throne of Monaco in favour of distant French cousins, the counts de Chabrillan, in 1924. In 1913, Wilhelm was one of several princes considered for the throne of Albania, in 1914 Prince William of Wied was selected instead. In 1917, as a retired general, Wilhelm sounded out the possibility of being made Duke of Lorraine after the war was over. In 1918, he accepted the invitation to reign as Mindaugas II of Lithuania. His claims were published in a 2001 essay by his grandson-in-law, typical of his family, Wilhelm entered the army in 1883 and was a professional general by the outbreak of World War I in 1914 as commander of the 26th Infantry Division of the Imperial German Army. Until November 1914 this division was part of the German assault on France, and then Belgium, in December 1914, the division fought in the battle to cross the Bzura river in Poland. From June to September 1915, the division moved north of Warsaw to positions close to the Neman River. In October–November 1915, the took part in the Serbian Campaign. The division served at Ypres in Belgium from December 1915 to July 1916, Wilhelm retired as divisional general on 5 January 1917. In 1917–18, Wilhelm was General Officer Commanding of the 64th Corps on the front, his aides de camp included Eugen Ott. On 4 June 1918, the Council of Lithuania voted to invite Wilhelm to become the king of a newly independent Lithuania, Wilhelm agreed and was elected on 11 July 1918, taking the name Mindaugas II. According to Wilhelms agreement with the Council of Lithuania, he had to live in Lithuania, from the beginning, Wilhelms reign was controversial. The four socialists of the twenty members of the Council of Lithuania left in protest, the German government did not recognize Wilhelms selection as king, although the influential publicist and politician Mattias Erzberger, also a Catholic from Württemberg, supported the claim. Wilhelm never had the chance to visit Lithuania, he remained instead at Lichtenstein Castle and he did start to learn the Lithuanian language, however

19.
Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria
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Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, was the de facto ruler of Bavaria from 1886 to 1912, due to the incapacity of his nephews, King Ludwig II for three days and King Otto for 26 years. Luitpold was born in Würzburg, the son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria and his wife. He was the brother of King Maximilian II of Bavaria. Luitpold was in line to succeed to the throne of the Kingdom of Bavaria, however, the Greek law of succession required that Ottos heir should belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. Otto was deposed in 1862 and replaced by Prince William of Denmark, Otto died in 1867, leaving Luitpold and his descendants as representatives of Ottos claim. However, Luitpold never pursued that claim, at the age of fourteen Luitpold joined the Bavarian Army and was promoted Captain of the Artillery in 1835. During the revolutions of 1848 Prince Luitpold mediated and facilitated an audience of discontented citizens with his father, during the rule of his brother Maximilian II, Luitpold did not play a significant political role. With the reign of his nephew Ludwig II Prince Luitpold had increasingly to represent the house due to the kings long absence from the capital. In the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 Luitpold was commander of the 3rd Royal Bavarian Division, in 1869 he became Inspector General of the Bavarian Army, during the Franco-Prussian War 1870/71 he represented Bavaria in the German General Staff. In that capacity he handed over Ludwigs Kaiserbrief on 3 December 1870, Otto then criticized the celebration as ostentatious and heartless in a letter to his brother. In 1876 Luitpold was appointed Field Marshal, on 10 June 1886, Luitpolds nephew King Ludwig II was declared mentally incompetent and Luitpold was named Regent. Following Ludwig IIs mysterious death a few later, his brother Otto assumed the throne. However, Otto was likewise mentally incapable of reigning, and Luitpold continued to serve as regent, Prince Luitpold was even accused by some people of the murder of his nephew, but soon the decent and affable prince became one of Bavarias most popular rulers. One of his first actions was to several of the palaces of Ludwig II to the public. His governments gradually moved away from the previous anti-Catholic Kulturkampf policies, during the regency of Prince-Regent Luitpold relations between Bavarians and Prussians remained cold as Bavarians resented Prussias strategic dominance over the empire. Luitpold continued to serve as regent until 1912, when he contracted bronchitis and he was succeeded by his eldest son, Prince Ludwig, who remained as regent for another year before becoming king in his own right as Ludwig III. He is buried in the crypt of the Theatinerkirche in Munich, in connection with the unhappy end of the preceding rule of King Ludwig II this break in the Bavarian monarchy looked even stronger. Today the connection of two developments is regarded as a main cause for the unspectacular end of the Bavarian kingdom without opposition in the course of the November revolution of 1918

20.
Archduchess Mathilda of Austria
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Archduchess Mathilde of Austria was an Austrian noblewoman. She was the daughter of Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen. Mathilde had two siblings, Maria Theresia in 1865 married Duke Philipp of Württemberg and her only brother, Karl Albrecht. After the death of his father Archduke Karl, Archduke Albrecht inherited in 1847 the Weilburg Palace in Baden bei Wien, Albrecht and his family usually spent summers there, Archduchess Hildegard being especially fond of its renowned public baths. Because of his charity, he was popularly named Engelsherz, during the winter, the family lived in Vienna. Her family was close to the imperial family, and Empress Elisabeth greatly enjoyed the company of her cousin Archduchess Hildegard. Among Mathildes circle of friends was the Archduchess Marie Therese, later Queen of Bavaria, a distant cousin, Archduke Ludwig Salvator, of the Italian Habsburg line, fell in love with Mathilde and sought to marry her, but they never became engaged. Mathilde was intended to become Queen of Italy as the wife of Umberto of Savoy in order to improve the already tense relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy. During her stay in Munich for the funeral of her brother King Maximilian II in March 1864, Mathildes mother became ill with a lung inflammation and pleurisy, Mathilde died at the age of 18 in Schloss Hetzendorf, the Viennese home of Empress Elisabeth, on 6 June 1867. The archduchess had put on a dress to go to the theatre. Her death was witnessed by her whole family, Archduchess Mathilde was buried in the imperial vault in the Imperial Crypt beside her mother and her brother Karl Albrecht. Archduchess Mathilde of Austria-Teschen & The Secret Cigarette

21.
Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany
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Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany was the last Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1859 to 1860. The House of Habsburg-Lorraine continued to hold the title as pretenders until the end of World War I, born at Florence, he was the son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Princess Maria Antonia of the Two Sicilies. The family took refuge in Austria, after the end of the war, Leopold II abdicated on July 21, and Ferdinand succeeded him as Grand Duke. Ferdinand proved unable to return to Florence to claim his throne, Ferdinand still hoped to recover his throne, as both France and Austria had promised to recognize his rights to it in the Armistice of Villafranca. However, neither power was willing to take any steps to bring about his restoration, the Kingdom of Sardinia annexed Tuscany on March 22,1860, ending Ferdinands hopes to reclaim the throne. Ferdinand spent the rest of his life in exile in Austria and he died there, in Salzburg, in 1908. She became abbess of the Theresia Convent in the Hradschin in Prague, stillborn daughter From his second marriage in Frohsdorf on 11 January 1868 to Princess Alice Alix of Parma, daughter of Charles III of Parma, Archduke Leopold Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany. He renounced his titles on 29 December 1902 and took the name Leopold Wölfling, archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany Archduke Josef Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany. He married first Rosa Kaltenbrunner and, after divorcing her, he married second Gertrud Tomanek, Archduke Peter Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany. Married Princess Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and had issue, Archduke Heinrich Ferdinand Salvator, Prince of Tuscany. Major General in the Austrian Army, married morganatically to Maria Karoline Ludescher and had issue. Archduchess Anna Maria Theresia, Princess of Tuscany, married Johannes, Prince of Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, their granddaughter married Count Hans Veit of Toerring-Jettenbach, son of Princess Elizabeth of Greece and Denmark. com

22.
Schaffgotsch family
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The Schaffgotsch family is one of the oldest noble Silesian families extant, dating back to the thirteenth century. The Schaffgotschs were first mentioned in the St. Gallen book of documents in 804 and 809, when they were domiciled in the Margraviate of Meissen, Franconia, around 1240, the first Schaffgotsch appears in a Silesian document as Sibotho de nobili Familia Ovium. According to tradition, Sibotho came in the entourage of Hedwig of Andechs, in 1403, Gotsche II donated the church at Warmbrunn to the Cistercian provost. His family cherished the memory of Gotsche II Schoff, the originator of their wealth, later, both names were connected as Schaffgotsch. Gotsche IIs son Hans was the first of the family to be chancellor, court judge, with his sons Anton, Kaspar, and Ulrich, the Schaffgotsch family split into three branches. Anton established the Bohemian branch, whose Seifersdorf and Kreppelhof-Reußendorf-Ullersdorf lines died out in the seventeenth century and this branch became Bohemian barons in 1674 and counts in 1681. The branch, which until 1945 resided chiefly in eastern Bohemia, the branch established by Hanss son Ulrich ceased to exist in 1661, Christoph, grandson of Kaspar, had already succeeded to Ulrichs domain of Greiffenstein as early as 1578. As an imperial general, he served under Wallenstein but signed the first Pilsen Revers, Hans Ulrich was beheaded and the family were deprived of all their possessions, his son Christoph Leopold converted to Roman Catholicism and recovered all estates except Trachenberg. In 1654, Christoph Leopold became a count and was made legate in Poland. In 1683, he accompanied John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna as the ambassador of the emperor and he was court tutor and court judge in Schweidnitz and Jauer, and chamber president and upper governor of Silesia. His son Johann Anton Gotthard, created a count, was director of the Silesian district authority. After the Prussian capture of Silesia, Philipp Gotthard von Schaffgotsch became bishop of Breslau, in the following generation, Johann Nepomuk Gotthard received the title of Erblandhofmeister. The family gained a seat in the Prussian House of Lords, in the first half of the nineteenth century, the family again split, into an Upper Silesian line and a Lower Austrian one. The Upper Silesian line, which owned the biggest coal mines in the German part of Upper Silesia, after World War II, most members of the Schaffgotsch family were expelled from their homes because they were ethnic Germans, and the Communists confiscated their properties. Das wechselvolle Schicksal einer schlesischen Adelsdynastie, Tarnowskie Góry 2009, ISBN 978-83-61458-32-6 A. Kuzio-Podrucki, Schaffgotschowie

23.
Bolsheviks
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The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party. In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues and they ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, with the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism, in the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means, Julius Martov suggested by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the partys organisations. Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a core of active members. A main source of the factions could be attributed to Lenin’s steadfast opinion. It was obvious at early stages in Lenin’s revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas and it was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed there were only two types of people, Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest. Leon Trotsky, one of Lenins fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre, Lenins view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation. The root of the split was a book titled What is to be Done. that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile, in Germany, the book was published in 1902, in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the points of Lenin’s writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person over the masses. After the proposed revolution had overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenins view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a supporter of Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin’s variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, as discussed in What is to be Done. Lenin firmly believed that a political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution

24.
Otto of Bavaria
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Otto, was King of Bavaria from 1886 to 1913. However, he never reigned due to severe mental illness, his uncle, Luitpold. Ludwig deposed him in 1913 a day after the legislature passed a law allowing him to do so and he was the son of Maximilian II and his wife, Marie of Prussia, and younger brother of Ludwig II. King Otto of Bavaria is not to be confused with King Otto of Greece, Prince Otto was born on 27 April 1848, two months premature, in the Munich Residenz. His parents were King Maximilian II of Bavaria and Marie of Prussia and his uncle King Otto I of Greece served as his godfather. Otto had a brother, the Crown Prince Ludwig. They spent most of their childhood with servants and teachers at Hohenschwangau Castle and their parents were distant and formal and had little time for them and Ludwig had a tendency to lord it over Otto. Their parents were aware that Otto and Ludwig didnt like them much and their parents were at such a loss about what to say to Otto and Ludwig that they often ignored and even avoided them. Their mother did take an interest in what the brothers wore and their father was strict with the brothers, particularly Ludwig, the heir to the throne. Between 1853 and 1863, the spent their summer holidays at the Royal Villa in Berchtesgaden. Otto served in the Bavarian army from 1863 and he was appointed sub-lieutenant on 27 April 1863 and admitted to the Cadet Corps on 1 March 1864. On 26 May 1864, he was promoted to full lieutenant, on 10 March 1864, Ottos father died and his brother Ludwig succeeded as King of Bavaria. Between 18 June and 15 July 1864, the two brothers received state visits by the emperors of Austria and Russia, Otto was promoted to Captain on 27 April 1866 and entered active military service in the Royal Bavarian Infantry Guards. He participated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and as colonel in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 and his experiences on the battlefield traumatized him and caused him to suffer from depression and insomnia. When Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles, Prince Otto and his uncle Luitpold represented King Ludwig II, Otto then criticized the celebration as ostentatious and heartless in a letter to his brother. Ludwig and Otto despised their ambitious Prussian relatives and cordially disliked their Prussian mother, Ludwig and Ottos hostility was no secret to the Prussian government. Otto and Ludwig were often seen together during the years of Ludwigs reign. Ludwig was shy and introverted and eventually became a recluse while Otto was cheerful, outgoing, in 1868, Otto received the Royal Order of Saint George for the Defense of the Immaculate Conception, the house order of the House of Wittelsbach

25.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

26.
Francis V, Duke of Modena
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He was Duke of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola, Duke of Guastalla from 1847 and Duke of Massa and Prince of Carrara from 1846 to 1859. His parents were Francis IV of Modena and Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy and he was the last reigning Duke of Modena before the duchy was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. In 1826 Francis IV of Modena appointed Count Clemente Coronini as tutor to Francis, with Don Pietro Raffaelli, in 1829, Baron Ernest Geramb became Francis new tutor. On 15 September 1836, Francis became a Knight of the Austrian Order of the Golden Fleece, after the death of his mother in 1840, Francis was considered the legitimate heir to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland by Jacobites as Francis I. At his death his niece Maria Theresia of Austria-Este became Jacobite claimant, on 30 March 1842, Francis married Princess Adelgunde of Bavaria, daughter of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, in the Allerheiligen-Hofkirche at the Munich Residenz. The Archbishop of Munich-Freising was the witness to the wedding. The couple had one child, Princess Anna Beatrice. In 1842, Francis received another order, the Savoy Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, at the death of his father Francis IV of Modena on 21 January 1846, Francis succeeded as reigning Duke of Modena. At the death of his cousin the Empress Marie-Louise on 18 December 1847, during the revolutions of 1848, Francis was forced to flee his Duchy by a popular uprising and was restored by Austrian troops in the following year. In 1855, Francis established his own new order, the Order of the Eagle of Este, in 1859 the Duchy of Modena was invaded by armies of France and Piedmont. On 18 March 1860, King Victor Emanuel II of Sardinia ordered Modena to be incorporated into the new kingdom of Italy, Francis protested it four days later. After the loss of his duchy, Francis withdrew to Vienna and he also had a summer residence at Schloss Wildenwart in Bavaria. Although he spent most of his time in Austria he occasionally traveled, on 7 March 1861, William Ewart Gladstone, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, made a verbal attack against Francis. Later Lord Derby and Constantine Phipps, Marquis of Normanby discovered that Gladstones accusation had been entirely false, Francis died at Vienna on 20 November 1875. He left most of his estate to his cousin Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. His remains were kept at the Capuchin Church in Vienna, on a note of rarity, Francis shared the same birthday with his paternal-grandfather, Ferdinand of Austria-Este. ISBN 88-8474-134-3 Nicola Guerra, I filoestensi apuani durante il processo di unita nazionale in Rassegna storica Toscana,2003 Francis I Luigi Villari

27.
Jacobitism
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The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May

28.
James Francis Edward Stuart
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James Francis Edward, Prince of Wales, nicknamed the Old Pretender, was the son of the deposed James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland. As such, he claimed the English, Scottish and Irish thrones from the death of his father in 1701, following his death in 1766, he was succeeded by his son Charles Edward Stuart in the Jacobite Succession. Had his father not been deposed, Great Britain might have had two monarchs during his lifetime, his father and himself. Instead there were seven, his father, William III, Mary II, Anne, George I, George II and their attempts are remembered in history as Jacobitism. Prince James Francis Edward was born 10 June 1688, at St. Jamess Palace. He was the son of King James II of England and Ireland, and his Roman Catholic second wife, Mary of Modena, Mary and her younger sister Princess Anne, had been raised as Protestants. As long as there was a possibility of one of them succeeding him, in an attempt to scotch this myth, James published the testimonies of over seventy witnesses to the birth. On 9 December, in the midst of the Glorious Revolution, Mary of Modena disguised herself as a laundress, young James was brought up at the château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which Louis XIV had turned over to the exiled James II. Both the ex-king and his family were held in consideration by the French king and they were frequent visitors at Versailles where Louis XIV. On his fathers death in 1701, James was recognised by King Louis XIV of France, spain, the Papal States and Modena also recognized him as King James III of England and VIII of Scotland and refused to recognise William III, Mary II or Anne as legitimate sovereigns. As a result of his claiming his fathers lost thrones, James was attainted for treason in London on 2 March 1702, though delayed in France by an attack of measles, James attempted invasion, trying to land at the Firth of Forth on 23 March 1708. The fleet of Admiral Sir George Byng intercepted the French ships, James served for a time in the French army, as his father had done during the inter-regnum. A year later however the British government pushed for Jamess expulsion from France as a precondition for a treaty with France. In accordance with the Treaty of Utrecht, Harley and Lord Bolingbroke, Queen Anne became severely ill at Christmas 1713, and seemed close to death. In January 1714, she recovered but clearly had not much longer to live, through de Torcy and his London agent, Abbé François Gaultier, Harley kept up the correspondence with James, and Bolingbroke had also entered into a separate correspondence with him. They both stated to James that his conversion to Protestantism would facilitate his restoration, however James, a devout Catholic, replied to Torcy, I have chosen my own course, therefore it is for others to change their sentiments. In March, came Jamess refusal to convert, following which Harley and Bolingbroke reached the opinion that Jamess restoration was not feasible, though they maintained their correspondence with him. As a result, in August 1714, Jamess second cousin, the Elector of Hanover, George of Hanover, in the following year Scottish Jacobites started The Fifteen Jacobite rising in Scotland, aimed at putting James III and VIII on the throne

29.
Sophia of Hanover
–
Sophia of the Palatinate was the Electress of Hanover from 1692 to 1698. As a granddaughter of James VI and I, she became heir presumptive to the crowns of the Kingdom of England, after the Act of Union,1707, she became heir presumptive to the unified throne of the Kingdom of Great Britain. She died less than two months before she would have become queen, and her claim to the throne passed on to her eldest son, George Louis, Elector of Hanover, Sophias brother Charles Louis was restored to the Palatinate as part of the Peace of Westphalia. Sophia married Ernest Augustus of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1658, despite his jealous temper and frequent absences, Sophia loved him, and bore him seven children who survived to adulthood. Initially a landless cadet, Ernest Augustus succeeded in having the House of Hanover raised to electoral dignity in 1692, therefore, Sophia became Electress of Hanover, the title by which she is best remembered. A patron of the arts, Sophia commissioned the palace and gardens of Herrenhausen and sponsored philosophers, such as Gottfried Leibniz, through her mother, she was the granddaughter of James VI and I, king of Scotland and England. At birth, Sophia was granted an annuity of 40 thalers by the Estates of Friesland. Sophia was courted by her first cousin, Charles II of England, before her marriage, Sophia, as the daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, was referred to as Sophie, Princess Palatine of the Rhine, or as Sophia of the Palatinate. The Electors of the Palatinate were the Calvinist senior branch of House of Wittelsbach, on 30 September 1658, she married Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg, at Heidelberg, who in 1692 became the first Elector of Hanover. Ernst August was a cousin of Sophias mother Elizabeth Stuart. Sophia became a friend and admirer of Gottfried Leibniz while he was librarian at the Court of Hanover and their friendship lasted from 1676 until her death in 1714. This friendship resulted in a correspondence, first published in the nineteenth century. She was well-read in the works of René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, together with Ernest Augustus, she greatly improved the Summer Palace of Herrenhausen and she was the guiding spirit in the creation of the gardens surrounding the palace, where she died. After Sophias tour, she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons, in her letters, Sophia describes her eldest son as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters. In September 1700, Sophia met her cousin, King William III of England and II of Scotland and this happened just two months after the death of Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, nephew of King William III and son of the future Queen Anne. By this time, given the ailing William IIIs reluctance to remarry, the act restricts the British throne to the Protestant heirs of Sophia of Hanover who have never been Roman Catholic and who have never married a Roman Catholic. Some British politicians attempted several times to bring Sophia to England in order to enable her to assume the government immediately in the event of Annes death. It was also argued that such a course was necessary to ensure Sophias succession, the Electress was eager to move to London, but the proposal was denied, as such action would mortally offend Anne who was strongly opposed to a rival court in her kingdom

30.
Sophia Naturalization Act 1705
–
The Act for the Naturalization of the Most Excellent Princess Sophia, Electress and Duchess Dowager of Hanover, and the Issue of her Body was an Act of the Parliament of England in 1705. It followed the Act of Settlement 1701 whereby Dowager Electress Sophia of Hanover and her Protestant descendants were declared to be in the line of succession to the throne. Sophia, a granddaughter of James VI of Scotland and I of England, was not considered to be an Englishwoman as she had not been born in England. This Act naturalized her and the issue of her body, as English subjects, any person born to a descendant of Sophia could also claim to be the issue of her body. This was first tested between 1955 and 1957 when Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover successfully claimed British nationality on this basis after considerable litigation, see the thorough discussion by A. Lyon at Statute Law Review 20,2 174-84, in 1947 Prince Frederick of Prussia also succeeded in his claim. The Act was repealed by section 34 of, and Part II of Schedule 4 to, also Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia was given British citizenship using the Sophia Naturalization Act. However, in the present time, most people concerned who would claim citizenship would basically only reach the status of British Overseas citizen, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh § Marriage History of British nationality law

31.
Order of Saint Elizabeth
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The Order of Saint Elizabeth was an all-female chivalric and charitable order in the Kingdom of Bavaria. It was confirmed on the 31st of January 1767, by Pope Clement XII, the Catholic religion and the Seize Quartiers – the proof of noble descent running through sixteen generations of their own or their husband’s ancestors – are indispensable conditions for candidates. The nomination takes place either on Easter or on Saint Elizabeth’s Day, the entrance fee is four ducats. The badge is an enameled cross, representing on one side Saint Elizabeth dispensing charity to the poor, and on the other. It is worn on the left breast by a ribbon with a red border. No Member can appear in public without it, except by fine of one ducat, the King appoints the Grand Mistress. The Orders of Knighthood, British and Foreign, calcutta, India, The Catholic Orphan Press,1884

32.
Order of Theresa
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The Order of Theresa was an order for noble ladies in the Kingdom of Bavaria. It continues to today as an honorary society to which belong the princesses of the House of Wittelsbach as well as other ladies from Bavarian noble families. The order was founded December 12,1827 by Queen Therese of Bavaria and she established an endowment which paid an annual pension to twelve unmarried noble ladies, six of whom received 300 guilders and six of whom received 100 guilders. Various other ladies also held the rank of Ehrendame including all the princesses of the House of Wittelsbach, Bavarian ladies paid a reception fee of 55 guilders while foreign ladies paid 220 guilders. The insignia of the order is worn on the left breast and consists of a blue-enameled Maltese cross with a white edge. In the four angles of the cross are lozenges with the arms of Bavaria. At the centre of the cross is a gold bordered white circular medallion decorated with the letter T, on the back of the medallion is the year 1827 and the motto of the order “Unser Leben sey Glaube an das Ewige”. The ribbon of the order is white with two sky-blue stripes at the edge, the inner stripe being narrower than the outer stripe, the sash of the order is a similarly-coloured broad ribbon, worn diagonally from the right shoulder to the left hip. Among the current Ladies of Honour of the order is the Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein

33.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth

34.
Order of Queen Maria Luisa
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The Order was defined as a strictly female reward system, ruled by the Queen and composed of thirty bands reserved for the Spanish high nobility. The first secretary of the Order was Don Miguel Banuelos and Power, retired Knight of the Order of Charles III, and General Stewart of the Army. Successive queens in turn inherited the prerogatives of the queen of the Order. In a Royal Decree of October 28,1851, a payment of 3,000 reais was required of members of the Order, also included in the protocol for granting the authorization of the Council of Ministers and published in the Gaceta de Madrid. In 1869, after the dismissal of Queen Isabella II, the ruler, General Francisco Serrano, republican decree of July 24,1931, without expressly referring to this Order, abolished in fact as an official institution. Currently, and according to the statutes, there is a category of Noble Lady. Many women from many countries have received this distinction, one of the honours that the Spanish monarchy can award to women in recognition of their services, actions. Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz - 1191st Dame Infanta Margarita, la Real Orden de Damas Nobles de la Reina María Luisa, published by Palafox y Pezue, Madrid,1998,512 pages Dames of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa of Spain

35.
Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him

36.
Order of the Starry Cross
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The Order of the Starry Cross is an Imperial Austrian Order for catholic noble ladys. The order still exists, though the empire has gone, the was founded by Eleonora Gonzaga of Mantua, dowager empress of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1668. This all female order was confirmed by Pope Clement IX, June 28,1668, and was placed under the spiritual management of the Prince Bishop of Vienna. Only high-born ladies could be invested with the Order, including “princesses, countesses, and other high nobility. ”Once invested, members were to “devote themselves to the service and worship of the Holy Cross, and to lead a life in the exercise of religion and works of charity. ”According to legend. Though it is impossible to prove its authenticity, the relic was set in gold. Ferdinand III’s last consort, Empress Eleanora, was given the relic by her stepson, Emperor Leopold I, in the aftermath of a fire at the Hofburg on February 2,1668, the relic was discovered in near perfect condition. The dowager empress founded the Order in celebration that the relic had survived the fire, in 1881 the Empress accorded multiple Noble Ladies of the royal Belgian court the Starry Cross, after the egagment of Archduke Rudolf. Over this, on a wreath in black letters, on a white ground, is the motto of the Order, Salue et Gloria” – It is worn, pendent to a strip of black riband. Special Class - Diamond and Gemstone studded insignia only for the Grand Mistress, 3rd Class - Much smaller insignia without brilliants, suspended from a Black ribbon, for Austrian Princesses, Austrian Countesses, Austrian nobility and also foreign Princesses and nobility. The Orders of Knighthood, British and Foreign, calcutta, The Catholic Orphan Press,1884

37.
Order of Elizabeth
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The Imperial Austrian Order of Elizabeth, founded in 1898 by Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary was an order created for women. The Order was the namesake of Saint Elisabeth of Hungary, but was created to honor and memorialize Franz Josephs recently slain wife, Empress-Queen Elisabeth. The order, which existed until the end of the monarchy in 1918, was divided into three classes, The Grand Cross, first and second classes. There was also an Elizabeth Medal for civil merit, Saint Elisabeth was a Hungarian princess, the daughter of King Andrew II of Hungary. Married at age thirteen to Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia, she spent her life giving alms to the poor, after her husbands death, she gave away the vast majority of his estate to build hospitals and to aid in the relief of her starving subjects. After dying of causes in 1231, she was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. She is considered the saint of bakers, beggars. Nee Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria, Sisi was a cousin of King Ludwig II of Bavaria and she married the 24-year-old Emperor Francis Joseph in 1854. Despite a cold start to their marriage, the two reconciled, and fell in love. Theirs was a classic, mid-19th century, courtly relationship, where occasional infidelity by one or both parties was discreetly accepted and they were, for the most part, happy by the standards of the day, and were married for over 44 years. When Elisabeth was assassinated in 1898, the emperor was devastated by the loss. Creating the Order of Elisabeth was as much a show of affection as his memorial to her as it was to honor Saint Elisabeth. According to medal expert and collector Yuri Yashnev, The award was intended for ladies, regardless of status or religion, for merits in religious. The award had four degrees - the Grand Cross, I Degree and II Degree, awards were made, personally, by the emperor. The badges and insignia of the Order were to be returned to the state upon the death of the member, Archduchess Gisela of Austria Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen The Catholic Encyclopedia. 1909, On the Internet, http, //www. newadvent. org/cathen/05389a. htm Yashnev, orders and Medals of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

38.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion

39.
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Francis I was Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke of Tuscany, though his wife effectively executed the real powers of those positions. With his wife, Maria Theresa, he was the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, from 1728 until 1737 he was Duke of Lorraine. In 1737, Lorraine became managed by France under terms resulting from the War of the Polish Succession, Francis and the House of Lorraine received the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in the peace treaty that ended that war. Francis was born in Nancy, Lorraine, the oldest surviving son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine and he was connected with the Habsburgs through his grandmother Eleonor, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand III. He was very close to his brother and sister Anne Charlotte, Emperor Charles VI favored the family, who, besides being his cousins, had served the house of Austria with distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter Maria Theresa to Francis older brother Leopold Clement, on Leopold Clements death, Charles adopted the younger brother as his future son-in-law. Francis was brought up in Vienna with Maria Theresa with the understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection arose between them. At the age of 15, when he was brought to Vienna, he was established in the Silesian Duchy of Teschen, Francis succeeded his father as Duke of Lorraine in 1729. In 1731 he was initiated into freemasonry by John Theophilus Desaguliers at a specially convened lodge in The Hague at the house of the British Ambassador, Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield. During a subsequent visit to England, Francis was made a Master Mason at another specially convened lodge at Houghton Hall, Maria Theresa arranged for Francis to become Lord Lieutenant of Hungary in 1732. He was not excited about this position, but Maria Theresa wanted him closer to her, in June 1732 he agreed to go to Pressburg. A preliminary peace was concluded in October 1735 and ratified in the Treaty of Vienna in November 1738, in March 1736 the Emperor persuaded Francis, his future son-in-law, to secretly exchange Lorraine for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. France had demanded that Maria Theresas fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate the deposed King of Poland, the Emperor considered other possibilities before announcing the engagement of the couple. If something were to go wrong, Francis would become governor of the Austrian Netherlands, as a result, Elisabeth sons could claim by right of being a descendant of Margherita. On January 31,1736 Francis had agreed to marry Maria Theresa, especially his mother Élisabeth Charlotte dOrléans and his brother Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine were against the loss of Lorraine. On February 1, Maria Theresa sent Francis a letter, she would withdraw from her future reign and they married on 12 February in the Augustinian Church, Vienna. The wedding was held on February 14,1736, the treaty between the Emperor and Francis was signed on 4 May 1736. In January 1737, the Spanish troops withdrew from Tuscany, and were replaced by 6,000 Austrians, on 24 January 1737 Francis received Tuscany from his father-in-law

40.
Ferdinand, Duke of Breisgau
–
Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria-Este was a son of Holy Roman Emperor Franz I and Maria Theresa of Austria. He was the founder of the House of Austria-Este and Governor of the Duchy of Milan between 1765 and 1796 and he was also designated as the heir to the Duchy of Modena and Reggio, but he never reigned, owing to the Napoleonic Wars. Ferdinand was born at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna as the son and fourteenth child of the Holy Roman Emperor Franz I and of his wife. In 1763, the last Este Duke of Modena, Ercole III, signed a treaty with the Empress Maria Theresa engaging the nine-year-old Ferdinand to his only daughter Maria Beatrice, making him thus his heir. In 1771, the Perpetual Imperial Diet approved the eventual investiture of Ferdinand with the imperial fiefs held by Ercole III, on 15 October 1771, Ferdinand married Maria Beatrice Ricciarda dEste, only surviving child of Duke Ercole III of Modena and Reggio. Festivities arranged for this included the operas Ascanio in Alba by Mozart. He and his family lived in Milan, in 1780, Ferdinand was confirmed as Governor of Lombardy by his brother, the new Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. In 1796, Napoleons invasion of Milan forced the family to flee the French forces, Duke Ercole III also had to flee Modena, which overthrew the monarchy and joined the Cisalpine Republic. By the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, Duke Ercole III was granted the Duchy of Breisgau, when Ercole III died in 1803, Ferdinand succeeded as Duke of Breisgau, as well as titular Duke of Modena and Reggio. By the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805, Ferdinand ceded the Duchy of Breisgau to the Grand Duchy of Baden, Ferdinand died the following year in Vienna. He is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna, in 1814, Ferdinands eldest surviving son, Francis IV, was recognised as Duke of Modena by the Congress of Vienna. Andrew Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky Knight of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class Weissensteiner, Habsburg, Ferdinand Karl Anton von Este. In Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, kaiserlich-königliche Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, Wien 1860, S.204 f

41.
Maria Theresa
–
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, by marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years War. Of the sixteen, ten survived to adulthood and she had eleven daughters and five sons. She criticised and disapproved of many of Josephs actions, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious. As a young monarch who fought two wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate-Neuburg, were her godmothers and her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him. Charles sought the other European powers approval for disinheriting his nieces and they exacted harsh terms, in the Treaty of Vienna, Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724. The portraits of the family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresas parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI and her education was overseen by Jesuits

42.
Francis IV, Duke of Modena
–
His father was Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este, Duke of Breisgau, his mother Maria Beatrice Ricciarda dEste, Duchess of Massa and Princess of Carrara, Lady of Lunigiana. He was a grandson of Maria Theresa of Austria, head of the House of Habsburg and he thus became the first member of the House of Habsburg-Este to rule the Este inheritance in Northern Italy. Francis is distinguished for his stern and tyrannic rule by which he repressed all the democratic movements appearing during his reign, the harshness of the Ducal policies are illustrated by the hanging of Ciro Menotti for an attempted insurrection against the Duke. In 1812 Francis married his niece the Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy, the couple had four children, Maria Theresa, married Henri, comte de Chambord. Francis V, Duke of Modena, married Princess Adelgunde of Bavaria, Ferdinand Karl, married Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria. Father of Maria Theresia, Archduchess of Austria-Este, Maria Beatrix, married Juan, Count of Montizón. Andrew Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky Knight of the Order of St

43.
Ercole III d'Este, Duke of Modena
–
Ercole III dEste was Duke of Modena and Reggio from 1780 to 1796. He was a member of the House of Este and he was born in Modena, the son of Duke Francesco III dEste, Duke of Modena and Charlotte Aglaé dOrléans, daughter of Philippe dOrléans, Duke of Orléans and Regent of France. He was the fourth child and had an older sister Maria Teresa. In 1741 he married Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina, by which he annexed the Duchy of Massa, when his parents succeeded as rulers of Modena, he was styled His Royal Highness the Hereditary Prince of Modena and after 1780, His Royal Highness the Duke of Modena. Generally appreciated by his subjects, and continued the reform begun by his father and he built the two bridges at Rubiera and St. Ambrogio at Modena on the Via Emilia, and built new roads connecting to the neighbouring states. After the death of his wife in 1790, he married morganatically in 1795 with his long-time mistress Chiara Marini, the French invasion forced him to flee to Venice on 7 May 1796, carrying with him a conspicuous personal asset. Later French soldiers captured him at Venice, robbing 200,000 zecchini from his house, after this episode he moved to Treviso, where he died in 1803. The peaces of Treaty of Campo Formio and Lunéville had assigned him territories in Breisgau in exchange of the lost Duchy and his only legitimate daughter Maria Beatrice married Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. Their son Francis IV regained the Duchy of Modena and Reggio in 1814, Maria Beatrice dEste, married Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and had issue. Rinaldo Francesco dEste, died in infancy, ercole Rinaldo, created Marquess of Scandiano in 1787, General in the Modena Army