The Uniwateraw Decwaration of Independence (UDI) was a statement adopted by de Cabinet of Rhodesia on 11 November 1965, announcing dat Rhodesia,[n 1] a British territory in soudern Africa dat had governed itsewf since 1923, now regarded itsewf as an independent sovereign state. The cuwmination of a protracted dispute between de British and Rhodesian governments regarding de terms under which de watter couwd become fuwwy independent, it was de first uniwateraw break from de United Kingdom by one of its cowonies since de United States Decwaration of Independence nearwy two centuries before. The UK, de Commonweawf and de United Nations aww deemed Rhodesia's UDI iwwegaw, and economic sanctions, de first in de UN's history, were imposed on de breakaway cowony. Amid near-compwete internationaw isowation, Rhodesia continued as an unrecognised state wif de assistance of Souf Africa and Portugaw.

The Rhodesian government, which mostwy comprised members of de country's white minority of about 5%, was indignant when, amid decowonisation and de Wind of Change, wess devewoped African cowonies to de norf widout comparabwe experience of sewf-ruwe qwickwy advanced to independence during de earwy 1960s whiwe Rhodesia was refused sovereignty under de newwy ascendant principwe of "no independence before majority ruwe" ("NIBMAR"). Most white Rhodesians fewt dat dey were due independence fowwowing four decades' sewf-government, and dat de British government was betraying dem by widhowding it. This combined wif de cowoniaw government's acute rewuctance to hand over power to bwack Rhodesians—de manifestation of raciaw tensions, Cowd War anti-communism and de fear dat a dystopian Congo-stywe situation might resuwt—to create de impression dat if de UK did not grant independence, Rhodesia might be justified in taking it uniwaterawwy.

A stawemate devewoped between de British and Rhodesian prime ministers, Harowd Wiwson and Ian Smif respectivewy, between 1964 and 1965. Dispute wargewy surrounded de British condition dat de terms for independence had to be acceptabwe "to de peopwe of de country as a whowe"; Smif contended dat dis was met, whiwe de UK and bwack Rhodesian weaders hewd dat it was not. After Wiwson proposed in wate October 1965 dat de UK might safeguard future bwack representation in de Rhodesian parwiament by widdrawing some of de cowoniaw government's devowved powers, den presented terms for an investigatory Royaw Commission dat de Rhodesians found unacceptabwe, Smif and his Cabinet decwared independence. Cawwing dis treasonous, de British cowoniaw governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, formawwy dismissed Smif and his government, but dey ignored him and appointed an "Officer Administering de Government" to take his pwace.

Whiwe no country recognised de UDI, de Rhodesian High Court deemed de post-UDI government wegaw and de jure in 1968. The Smif administration initiawwy professed continued woyawty to Queen Ewizabef II, but abandoned dis in 1970 when it decwared a repubwic in an unsuccessfuw attempt to win foreign recognition, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Rhodesian Bush War, a guerriwwa confwict between de government and two rivaw communist-backed bwack Rhodesian groups, began in earnest two years water, and after severaw attempts to end de war Smif concwuded de Internaw Settwement wif non-miwitant nationawists in 1978. Under dese terms de country was reconstituted under bwack ruwe as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979, but dis new order was rejected by de guerriwwas and de internationaw community. The Bush War continued untiw Zimbabwe Rhodesia revoked its UDI as part of de Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979. Fowwowing a brief period of direct British ruwe, de country was granted internationawwy recognised independence under de name Zimbabwe in 1980.

Whitehaww's powers over Soudern Rhodesia under de 1923 constitution were, on paper, considerabwe; de British Crown was deoreticawwy abwe to cancew any passed biww widin a year, or awter de constitution however it wished. These reserved powers were intended to protect de indigenous bwack Africans from discriminatory wegiswation and to safeguard British commerciaw interests in de cowony,[4] but as Cwaire Pawwey comments in her constitutionaw history of de country, it wouwd have been extremewy difficuwt for Whitehaww to enforce such actions, and attempting to do so wouwd have probabwy caused a crisis.[7] In de event, dey were never exercised. A generawwy co-operative rewationship devewoped between Whitehaww and de cowoniaw government and civiw service in Sawisbury, and dispute was rare.[4]

The 1923 constitution was drawn up in non-raciaw terms, and de ewectoraw system it devised was simiwarwy open, at weast in deory. Voting qwawifications regarding personaw income, education and property, simiwar to dose of de Cape Quawified Franchise, were appwied eqwawwy to aww, but since most bwacks did not meet de set standards, bof de ewectoraw roww and de cowoniaw parwiament were overwhewmingwy from de white minority of about 5%.[8][9] The resuwt was dat bwack interests were sparsewy represented if at aww, someding dat most of de cowony's whites showed wittwe interest in changing;[8] dey cwaimed dat most bwacks were uninterested in Western-stywe powiticaw process and dat dey wouwd not govern properwy if dey took over.[10] Biwws such as de Land Apportionment Act of 1930, which earmarked about hawf of de country for white ownership and residence whiwe dividing de rest into bwack purchase, tribaw trust and nationaw areas, were variouswy biased towards de white minority.[8] White settwers and deir offspring provided most of de cowony's administrative, industriaw, scientific and farming skiwws, and buiwt a rewativewy bawanced, partiawwy industriawised market economy, boasting strong agricuwturaw and manufacturing sectors, iron and steew industries and modern mining enterprises.[11] Everyday wife was marked by discrimination ranging from job reservation for whites to petty segregation of trains, post office qweues and de wike.[12] Whites owned most of de best farmwand, and had far superior education, wages and homes, but de schoowing, heawdcare, infrastructure and sawaries avaiwabwe to bwack Rhodesians were neverdewess very good by African standards.[13]

In de wider Imperiaw context, Soudern Rhodesia occupied a category unto itsewf because of de "speciaw qwasi-independent status" it hewd.[14] The Dominions Office, formed in 1925 to handwe British rewations wif de dominions of Austrawia, Canada, New Zeawand, Newfoundwand, Souf Africa and de Irish Free State, awso deawt wif Soudern Rhodesia, and Imperiaw Conferences incwuded de Soudern Rhodesian Prime Minister awongside dose of de dominions from 1932.[14] This uniqwe arrangement continued fowwowing de advent of Commonweawf Prime Ministers' Conferences in 1944.[15] Soudern Rhodesians of aww races fought for Britain in de Second Worwd War, and de cowoniaw government graduawwy received more autonomy regarding externaw affairs.[4] During de immediate post-war years, Soudern Rhodesian powiticians generawwy dought dat dey were as good as independent as dey were, and dat fuww autonomy in de form of dominionship wouwd make wittwe difference to dem.[16] Post-war immigration to Soudern Rhodesia, mainwy from Britain, Irewand and Souf Africa, caused de white community to sweww from 68,954 in 1941 to 221,504 in 1961. The bwack popuwation grew from 1,400,000 to 3,550,000 over de same period.[9]

Bewieving fuww dominion status to be effectivewy symbowic and "dere for de asking",[16] Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins (in office from 1933 to 1953) twice ignored British overtures hinting at dominionship,[17] and instead pursued an initiawwy semi-independent Federation wif Nordern Rhodesia and Nyasawand, two cowonies directwy administered from London, uh-hah-hah-hah.[17] He hoped dat dis might set in motion de creation of one united dominion in souf-centraw Africa, emuwating de Federation of Austrawia hawf a century before.[n 3] The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasawand, defined in its constitution as indissowubwe,[19] began in 1953, mandated by de resuwts of a mostwy white referendum, wif Soudern Rhodesia, de most devewoped of de dree territories, at its head, Huggins as Federaw Prime Minister and Sawisbury as Federaw capitaw.[20][n 4]

Coming at de start of de decowonisation period, de Federation of sewf-governing Soudern Rhodesia wif two directwy ruwed British protectorates was water described by de British historian Robert Bwake as "an aberration of history—a curious deviation from de inevitabwe course of events".[22] The project faced bwack opposition from de start, and uwtimatewy faiwed because of de shifting internationaw attitudes and rising bwack Rhodesian ambitions of de wate 1950s and earwy 1960s, often cowwectivewy cawwed de Wind of Change.[23] Britain, France and Bewgium vastwy accewerated deir widdrawaw from Africa during dis period, bewieving cowoniaw ruwe to be no wonger sustainabwe geopowiticawwy or edicawwy. The idea of "no independence before majority ruwe", commonwy abbreviated to "NIBMAR", gained considerabwe ground in British powiticaw circwes.[24] When Huggins (who had been recentwy ennobwed as Lord Mawvern) asked Britain to make de Federation a dominion in 1956, he was rebuffed. The opposition Dominion Party responded by repeatedwy cawwing for a Federaw uniwateraw decwaration of independence (UDI) over de next few years.[25] Fowwowing Lord Mawvern's retirement in wate 1956, his successor Sir Roy Wewensky pondered such a move on at weast dree occasions.[n 5]

Attempting to advance de case for Soudern Rhodesian independence, particuwarwy in de event of Federaw dissowution,[25] de Soudern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Edgar Whitehead brokered de 1961 constitution wif Britain, which he dought wouwd remove aww British powers of reservation over Soudern Rhodesian biwws and acts,[27] and put de country on de brink of fuww sovereignty.[28] Despite its containing no independence guarantees, Whitehead, Wewensky and oder proponents of dis constitution presented it to de Soudern Rhodesian ewectorate as de "independence constitution" under which Soudern Rhodesia wouwd become a dominion on a par wif Austrawia, Canada and New Zeawand if de Federation dissowved.[29] White dissenters incwuded Ian Smif, MP for Gwanda and Chief Whip for de governing United Federaw Party (UFP) in de Federaw Assembwy, who took exception to de constitution's omission of an expwicit promise of Soudern Rhodesian independence in de event of Federaw dissowution, and uwtimatewy resigned his post in protest.[28] A referendum of de mostwy white ewectorate approved de new constitution by a majority of 65% on 26 Juwy 1961.[30] The finaw version of de constitution incwuded a few extra provisions inserted by de British, one of which—Section 111—reserved fuww powers to de Crown to amend, add to or revoke certain sections of de Soudern Rhodesian constitution by Order in Counciw at de reqwest of de British government. This effectivewy negated de rewinqwishment of British powers described ewsewhere in de document, but de Soudern Rhodesians did not initiawwy notice it.[31]

The bwack Rhodesian movement in Soudern Rhodesia, founded and organised by urban bwack ewites during de wate 1950s,[32] was repeatedwy banned by de cowoniaw government because of de powiticaw viowence, industriaw sabotage and intimidation of potentiaw bwack voters dat characterised its campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah.[33] The principaw nationawist group, wed by de Buwawayo trade unionist Joshua Nkomo, renamed itsewf wif each post-ban reorganisation, and by de start of 1962 was cawwed de Zimbabwe African Peopwe's Union (ZAPU).[34][n 6] Attempting to win bwack powiticaw support, Whitehead proposed a number of reforms to raciawwy discriminatory wegiswation, incwuding de Land Apportionment Act, and promised to impwement dese if his UFP won de next Soudern Rhodesian ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[40] But intimidation by ZAPU of prospective bwack voters impeded de UFP's efforts to win deir support,[41] and much of de white community saw Whitehead as too radicaw, and soft on what dey saw as bwack extremism. In de December 1962 Soudern Rhodesian ewection, de UFP was defeated by de Rhodesian Front (RF), a newwy formed awwiance of conservative voices headed by Winston Fiewd and Ian Smif, in what was widewy considered a shock resuwt.[42] Fiewd became Prime Minister, wif Smif as his deputy.[43]

Meanwhiwe, secessionist bwack Rhodesian parties won ewectoraw victories in Nordern Rhodesia and Nyasawand,[43] and Harowd Macmiwwan's Conservative administration in Britain moved towards breaking up de Federation, resowving dat it had become untenabwe. In February 1962, de British Secretary of State for Commonweawf Rewations, Duncan Sandys, secretwy informed de Nyasawand nationawist weader Hastings Banda dat secession wouwd be awwowed. A few days water, he horrified Wewensky by tewwing him dat "we British have wost de wiww to govern".[44] "But we haven't", retorted Juwian Greenfiewd, Wewensky's Law Minister.[45][n 7] Macmiwwan's Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State, R A Butwer, who headed British oversight of de Federation,[47] officiawwy announced Nyasawand's right to secede in December 1962.[19] Four monds water, he informed de dree territories dat he was going to convene a conference to decide de Federation's future.[48]

As Soudern Rhodesia had been de UK's wegiswative partner in forming de Federation in 1953, it wouwd be impossibwe (or at weast very difficuwt) for Britain to dissowve de union widout Soudern Rhodesia's co-operation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Fiewd couwd derefore potentiawwy hamstring de British by refusing to attend de conference untiw dey pwedged to grant his country fuww independence.[48] According to Fiewd, Smif and oder RF powiticians, Butwer made severaw such guarantees orawwy to ensure deir co-operation at de conference, but repeatedwy refused to give anyding on paper.[n 8] The Soudern Rhodesians cwaimed dat Butwer justified his refusaw to give a written promise by saying dat binding Whitehaww to a document rader dan his word wouwd be against de Commonweawf's "spirit of trust"—an argument dat Fiewd eventuawwy accepted.[49] "Let's remember de trust you emphasised", Smif warned, according to Fiewd's account wagging his finger at Butwer; "if you break dat you wiww wive to regret it."[50] Soudern Rhodesia attended de conference, which was hewd at Victoria Fawws over a week starting from 28 June 1963, and among oder dings it was agreed to formawwy wiqwidate de Federation at de end of de year.[51] In de House of Commons afterwards, Butwer fwatwy denied suggestions dat he had "oiwed de wheews" of Federaw dissowution wif secret promises to de Soudern Rhodesians.[49]

Fiewd's government was startwed by Britain's announcement in October 1963 dat Nyasawand wouwd become fuwwy independent on 6 Juwy 1964. Whiwe no date was set for Nordern Rhodesian statehood, it was generawwy surmised dat it was going to fowwow shortwy dereafter. Smif was promptwy sent to London, where he hewd a round of inconcwusive Soudern Rhodesian independence tawks wif de new British Prime Minister, Sir Awec Dougwas-Home.[n 9] Around de same time, de presence and significance of Section 111 of de 1961 constitution emerged in Soudern Rhodesia, prompting specuwation in powiticaw circwes dat a future British government might, if it were so incwined, go against previous conventions by wegiswating for Sawisbury widout its consent, widdrawing devowved powers or oderwise awtering de Soudern Rhodesian constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah. Fearing what de Labour Party might do if it won de next British generaw ewection (which was projected for wate 1964), de Soudern Rhodesians stepped up deir efforts, hoping to win independence before Britain went to de powws, and preferabwy not after Nyasawand.[53] The Federation dissowved as scheduwed at de end of 1963.[53]

The British government's refusaw to grant independence to Soudern Rhodesia under de 1961 constitution was wargewy de resuwt of de geopowiticaw and moraw shifts associated wif de Wind of Change, coupwed wif de UK's wish to avoid opprobrium and woss of prestige in de United Nations (UN) and de Commonweawf.[54] The issue gained internationaw attention in Africa and worwdwide as a fwashpoint for qwestions of decowonisation and racism.[55] By de earwy 1960s, generaw consensus in de post-cowoniaw UN—particuwarwy de Generaw Assembwy, where de communist bwoc and de Afro-Asian wobby were cowwectivewy very strong—roundwy denounced aww forms of cowoniawism, and supported communist-backed bwack Rhodesian insurgencies across soudern Africa, regarding dem as raciaw wiberation movements. Amid de Cowd War, Britain opposed de spread of Soviet and Chinese infwuence into Africa, but knew it wouwd become an internationaw pariah if it pubwicwy expressed reservations or backed down on NIBMAR in de Soudern Rhodesia qwestion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[56] Once de topic of Soudern Rhodesia came to de fore in de UN and oder bodies, particuwarwy de Organisation of African Unity (OAU), even maintaining de status qwo became regarded as unacceptabwe internationawwy, causing de UK government a great deaw of embarrassment.[57]

In de Commonweawf context, too, Britain knew dat simpwy granting independence to Soudern Rhodesia was out of de qwestion as many of de Afro-Asian countries were awso Commonweawf members. Statehood for Sawisbury widout majority ruwe wouwd spwit de Commonweawf and perhaps cause it to break up, a disastrous prospect for British foreign powicy.[54] The Commonweawf repeatedwy cawwed on Britain to intervene directwy shouwd Soudern Rhodesian defiance continue,[58] whiwe wiberaws in Britain worried dat if weft unchecked Sawisbury might drift towards Souf African-stywe apardeid.[59] Anxious to avoid having to choose between Soudern Rhodesia and de Commonweawf, Whitehaww attempted to negotiate a middwe way between de two, but uwtimatewy put internationaw considerations first, regarding dem as more important.[54]

At party wevew, de Labour Party, in opposition untiw October 1964, was overtwy against Soudern Rhodesian independence under de 1961 constitution and supportive of de bwack Rhodesian movement on ideowogicaw and moraw grounds. The Liberaw Party, howding a handfuw of parwiament seats, took a simiwar stance. The Conservative Party, whiwe awso fowwowing a powicy of decowonisation, was more sympadetic to de Soudern Rhodesian government's position, and incwuded members who openwy supported it.[60][n 10]

The Soudern Rhodesian government found it bizarre dat Britain was making independent states out of Nordern Rhodesia and Nyasawand, wess devewoped territories wif wittwe experience of sewf-ruwe, whiwe widhowding sovereign statehood from Soudern Rhodesia, de Federation's senior partner, which had awready been sewf-governing for four decades and which was one of de most prosperous and devewoped countries in Africa. The principwe of majority ruwe, de basis for dis apparent inconsistency, was considered irrewevant by de Soudern Rhodesians.[63] They had presumed dat in de event of Federaw dissowution dey wouwd be first in wine for independence widout major adjustments to de 1961 constitution, an impression confirmed to dem by prior intergovernmentaw correspondence, particuwarwy de oraw promises dey cwaimed to have received from Butwer. When it did not prove fordcoming dey fewt cheated.[64] Sawisbury contended dat its predominantwy white wegiswature was more deserving of independence dan de untried bwack Rhodesian weaders as it had proven its competence over decades of sewf-ruwe.[65]

The RF cwaimed dat de bwoody civiw wars, miwitary coups and oder disasters dat pwagued de new majority-ruwed African states to de norf, many of which had become corrupt, autocratic or communist one-party states very soon after independence,[66] showed dat bwack Rhodesian weaders were not ready to govern, uh-hah-hah-hah. Infwuenced strongwy by de white refugees who had fwed souf from de Congo, it presented chaotic doomsday scenarios of what bwack Rhodesian ruwe in Soudern Rhodesia might mean, particuwarwy for de white community.[67] Proponents of de RF stand downpwayed bwack Rhodesian grievances regarding wand ownership and segregation, and argued dat despite de raciaw imbawance in domestic powitics—whites made up 5% of de popuwation, but over 90% of registered voters—de ewectoraw system was not racist as de franchise was based on financiaw and educationaw qwawifications rader dan ednicity.[68] They emphasised de cowony's proud war record on Britain's behawf,[69] and expressed a wish in de Cowd War context to form an anti-communist, pro-Western front in Africa awongside Souf Africa and Portugaw.[70]

These factors combined wif what RF powiticians and supporters saw as British decadence, chicanery and betrayaw to create de case dey put forward dat UDI, whiwe dubious wegawwy and wikewy to provoke internationaw uproar, might neverdewess be in deir eyes justifiabwe and necessary for de good of de country and region if an accommodation couwd not be found wif Whitehaww.[71]

Fiewd's faiwure to secure independence concurrentwy wif de end of de Federation caused his Cabinet's support for him to waver during wate 1963 and earwy 1964.[53] The RF caucus in January 1964 reveawed widespread dissatisfaction wif him on de grounds dat de British seemed to be outwitting him. The Prime Minister was put under immense pressure to win de cowony's independence.[71] Fiewd travewwed to Engwand water dat monf to press Dougwas-Home and Sandys for independence, and raised de possibiwity of UDI on a few occasions, but returned empty-handed on 2 February.[72]

The RF united behind Fiewd after Sandys wrote him a terse wetter warning him of de wikewy Commonweawf reaction to a decwaration of independence, but de Prime Minister den wost his party's confidence by faiwing to pursue a possibwe route to at weast de facto independence devised by Desmond Lardner-Burke, a wawyer and RF MP for Gwewo. During March 1964, de Legiswative Assembwy in Sawisbury considered and passed Lardner-Burke's motion dat de Governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, shouwd submit a petition to de Queen reqwesting awteration of Section 111 of de 1961 constitution so dat de Royaw Assent described derein wouwd be exercised at de reqwest of de Soudern Rhodesian government rader dan dat of its British counterpart. This wouwd bof remove de possibiwity of British wegiswative interference and pave de way for an attempted assumption of independence by Order in Counciw.[n 11]

The RF's intention was partwy to test wheder or not de British wouwd attempt to bwock dis biww after Gibbs had granted Royaw Assent to it,[75] but dis issue never came to a head because Sandys persuaded Fiewd not to forward it to Gibbs for ratification on de grounds dat it had not been unanimouswy passed.[76]Lord Sawisbury, one of Soudern Rhodesia's main supporters in Britain, despaired at Fiewd's wack of action, tewwing Wewensky dat as he saw it "de simpwe time to have decwared independence, wheder right or wrong, wouwd have been when de Federation came to an end".[74] The RF hierarchy interpreted dis watest backtrack by Fiewd as evidence dat he wouwd not seriouswy chawwenge de British on de independence issue, and forced his resignation on 13 Apriw 1964.[74] Smif accepted de Cabinet's nomination to take his pwace.[77]

Smif, a farmer from de Midwands town of Sewukwe who had been seriouswy wounded whiwe serving in de British Royaw Air Force during de Second Worwd War, was Soudern Rhodesia's first native-born Prime Minister.[n 12] Regarded in British powiticaw circwes as a "raw cowoniaw"—when he took over, Smif's personaw experience of de UK comprised four brief visits—he promised a harder wine dan Fiewd in independence tawks.[77] The RF's repwacement of Fiewd drew criticism from de British Labour Party, whose weader Harowd Wiwson cawwed it "brutaw",[81] whiwe Nkomo described de new Smif Cabinet as "a suicide sqwad ... not interested in de wewfare of aww de peopwe but onwy in deir own".[82] Smif said he was pursuing a middwe course between bwack Rhodesian ruwe and apardeid so dat dere wouwd stiww be "a pwace for de white man" in Soudern Rhodesia;[83] dis wouwd benefit de bwacks too, he cwaimed.[84] He hewd dat de government shouwd be based "on merit, not on cowour or nationawism",[84] and insisted dat dere wouwd be "no African nationawist government here in my wifetime".[85]

Sawisbury's bwunt refusaw to be part of de Wind of Change caused de Soudern Rhodesian miwitary's traditionaw British and American suppwiers to impose an informaw embargo,[86] and prompted Whitehaww and Washington to stop sending Soudern Rhodesia financiaw aid around de same time.[n 13] In June 1964, Dougwas-Home informed Smif dat Soudern Rhodesia wouwd not be represented at de year's Commonweawf Prime Ministers' Conference, despite Sawisbury's record of attendance going back to 1932,[n 14] because of a change in powicy to onwy incwude representatives from fuwwy independent states. This decision, taken by Britain to preempt de possibiwity of open confrontation wif Asian and bwack African weaders at de conference, deepwy insuwted Smif.[89] Lord Mawvern eqwated Britain's removaw of Soudern Rhodesia's conference seat wif "kicking us out of de Commonweawf",[90] whiwe Wewensky expressed horror at what he described as "dis cavawier treatment of a country which has, since its creation, staunchwy supported, in every possibwe way, Britain and de Commonweawf".[88]

At 10 Downing Street in earwy September 1964, impasse devewoped between Dougwas-Home and Smif over de best way to measure bwack pubwic opinion in Soudern Rhodesia. A key pwank of Britain's Soudern Rhodesia powicy was dat de terms for independence had to be "acceptabwe to de peopwe of de country as a whowe"—agreeing to dis, Smif suggested dat white and urban bwack opinion couwd be gauged drough a generaw referendum of registered voters, and dat ruraw bwack views couwd be obtained at a nationaw indaba (tribaw conference) of chiefs and headmen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Dougwas-Home towd Smif dat awdough dis proposaw satisfied him personawwy, he couwd not accept it as he did not bewieve de Commonweawf, de United Nations or de Labour Party wouwd awso do so. He stressed dat such a move towards accommodation wif Smif might hurt de Conservatives' chances in de British generaw ewection de next monf, and suggested dat it might be in Smif's best interests to wait untiw after de ewection to continue negotiations. Smif accepted dis argument. Dougwas-Home assured Smif dat a Conservative government wouwd settwe wif him and grant independence widin a year.[91]

Attempting to form a viabwe white opposition to de Rhodesian Front, de UFP resurrected itsewf around Wewensky, renamed itsewf de Rhodesia Party, and entered de Arundew and Avondawe by-ewections dat had been cawwed for 1 October 1964. Perturbed by de prospect of having to face de powiticaw heavyweight Wewensky in parwiament at de head of de opposition, de RF poured huge resources into winning bof of dese former UFP safe seats, and fiewded Cwifford Dupont, Smif's deputy, against Wewensky in Arundew.[n 15] The RF won bof seats comfortabwy, and de Rhodesia Party soon faded away. Spurred on by dis success, Smif organised de indaba for 22 October, and cawwed a generaw independence referendum for 5 November 1964.[92] Meanwhiwe, Wiwson wrote a number of wetters to bwack Soudern Rhodesians, assuring dem dat "de Labour Party is totawwy opposed to granting independence to Soudern Rhodesia so wong as de government of dat country remains under de controw of de white minority".[95]

Harowd Wiwson repwaced Dougwas-Home in October 1964, and proved a formidabwe opponent of Smif.

Labour defeated de Conservatives by four seats in de British generaw ewection on 15 October 1964, and formed a government de next day. Bof Labour and de Conservatives towd Smif dat a positive resuwt at de indaba wouwd not be recognised by Britain as representative of de peopwe, and de Conservatives turned down Sawisbury's invitation to send observers. Smif pressed on, tewwing parwiament dat he wouwd ask de tribaw chiefs and headmen "to consuwt deir peopwe in de traditionaw manner", den howd de indaba as pwanned.[96] On 22 October, 196 chiefs and 426 headmen from across de country gadered at Domboshawa, just norf-east of Sawisbury, and began deir dewiberations. Smif hoped dat Britain, having taken part in such indabas in de past, might send a dewegation at de wast minute, but none arrived, much to his annoyance, particuwarwy as de British government's Commonweawf Secretary Ardur Bottomwey was onwy across de Zambezi in Lusaka at de time.[97][n 16]

Whiwe de chiefs conferred, Nordern Rhodesia became independent Zambia on 24 October 1964, emuwating Nyasawand, which had achieved statehood as Mawawi dree monds earwier. Reasoning dat it was no wonger necessary to refer to itsewf as "Soudern" in de absence of a nordern counterpart, Soudern Rhodesia began cawwing itsewf simpwy Rhodesia.[n 17] The same day, de commander of de Rhodesian Army, Major-Generaw John "Jock" Anderson, resigned, announcing pubwicwy dat he was doing so because of his opposition to UDI, which he said he couwd not go awong wif because of his oaf of awwegiance to de Queen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Interpreting dis as a sign dat Smif intended to decware independence if a majority backed it in de referendum, Wiwson wrote a stiff wetter to Smif on 25 October, warning him of de conseqwences of UDI, and demanding "a categoricaw assurance fordwif dat no attempt at a uniwateraw decwaration of independence on your part wiww be made".[99] Smif expressed confusion as to what he had done to provoke dis, and ignored it.[99]

When de indaba ended on 26 October, de chiefs and headmen returned a unanimous decision to support de government's stand for independence under de 1961 constitution, attesting in deir report dat "peopwe who wive far away do not understand de probwems of our country".[99] This verdict was rejected by de nationawist movement on de grounds dat de chiefs received governmentaw sawaries; de chiefs countered dat de bwack MPs in parwiamentary opposition awso received such sawaries, but stiww opposed de government.[99] Mawvern, who was becoming perturbed by de RF's actions, dismissed de indaba as a "swindwe", asserting dat de chiefs no wonger had any reaw power; de British simpwy ignored de whowe exercise.[100] On 27 October, Wiwson reweased a firm statement regarding Britain's intended response to UDI, warning dat Rhodesia's economic and powiticaw ties wif Britain, de Commonweawf and most of de worwd wouwd be immediatewy severed amid a campaign of sanctions if Smif's government went ahead wif UDI.[99] This was intended to discourage white Rhodesians from voting for independence in de referendum,[101] for which de RF campaign swogan was "Yes means Unity, not UDI".[102] Wiwson was pweased when Dougwas-Home, his weading opponent in de House of Commons, praised de statement as "rough but right".[103] On 5 November 1964, Rhodesia's mostwy white ewectorate voted "yes" to independence under de 1961 constitution by a margin of 89%,[n 18] prompting Smif to decware dat de British condition of acceptabiwity to de peopwe as a whowe had been met.[105]

Smif wrote to Wiwson de day after de referendum, asking him to send Bottomwey to Sawisbury for tawks. Wiwson repwied dat Smif shouwd instead come to London, uh-hah-hah-hah.[105] The British and Rhodesians exchanged often confrontationaw wetters for de next few monds. Awwuding to de British financiaw aid pwedged to Sawisbury as part of de Federaw dissowution arrangements, Wiwson's High Commissioner in Sawisbury, J B Johnston, wrote to de Rhodesian Cabinet Secretary Gerawd B Cwarke on 23 December dat "tawk of a uniwateraw decwaration of independence is bound to drow a shadow of uncertainty on de future financiaw rewations between de two governments".[106] Smif was furious, seeing dis as bwackmaiw, and on 13 January 1965 wrote to Wiwson: "I am so incensed at de wine of your High Commissioner's wetter dat I am repwying directwy to you ... It wouwd appear dat any undertakings given by de British government are wordwess ... such immoraw behaviour on de part of de British government makes it impossibwe for me to continue negotiations wif you wif any confidence dat our standards of fair pway, honesty and decency wiww prevaiw."[107]

The two premiers were brought togeder in person in wate January 1965, when Smif travewwed to London for Sir Winston Churchiww's funeraw. Fowwowing an episode concerning Smif's non-invitation to a wuncheon at Buckingham Pawace after de funeraw—noticing de Rhodesian's absence, de Queen sent a royaw eqwerry to Smif's hotew to retrieve him, reportedwy causing Wiwson much irritation—de two Prime Ministers inconcwusivewy debated at 10 Downing Street. They differed on most matters, but agreed on a visit to Rhodesia de next monf by Bottomwey and de Lord Chancewwor, Lord Gardiner, to gauge pubwic opinion and meet powiticaw and commerciaw figures.[108] Bottomwey and Gardiner visited Rhodesia from 22 February to 3 March, cowwected a wide cross-section of opinions, incwuding some from bwack Rhodesians, and on returning to Britain reported to de House of Commons dat dey were "not widout hope of finding a way towards a sowution dat wiww win de support of aww communities and wead to independence and prosperity for aww Rhodesians".[109] Bottomwey awso condemned bwack-on-bwack powiticaw viowence, and dismissed de idea of introducing majority ruwe drough miwitary force.[109]

The RF cawwed a new generaw ewection for May 1965 and, campaigning on an ewection promise of independence, won aww 50 "A"-roww seats (de voters for which were mostwy white).[n 19]Josiah Gondo, weader of de United Peopwe's Party, became Rhodesia's first bwack Leader of de Opposition. Opening parwiament on 9 June, Gibbs towd de Legiswative Assembwy dat de RF's strengdened majority amounted to "a mandate to wead de country to its fuww independence", and announced dat de new government had informed him of its intent to open its own dipwomatic mission in Lisbon, separate from de British embassy dere. The British and Rhodesians argued about dis uniwateraw act by Sawisbury, described by de historian J R T Wood as de "veritabwe straw in de wind",[86] awongside de independence issue untiw Portugaw accepted de mission in wate September, much to Britain's fury and Rhodesia's dewight.[111] Hoping to bring Smif to heew by stonewawwing him, Wiwson's ministers dewiberatewy dewayed and frustrated de Rhodesian government in negotiations.[112] Rhodesia was again excwuded from de Commonweawf Prime Ministers' Conference in 1965. The UK's refusaw of aid, de Lisbon mission, de informaw arms embargo and oder issues combined wif dis to cause de Rhodesian government's sense of awienation from Britain and de Commonweawf to deepen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[87] In his memoirs, Smif accused de British of "resorting to powitics of convenience and appeasement".[113] Wiwson, meanwhiwe, became exasperated by what he saw as Rhodesian infwexibiwity, describing de gap between de two governments as "between different worwds and different centuries".[114]

Wiwson: "We are not giving up. Too much is at stake ... I know I speak for everyone in dese iswands, aww parties, aww our peopwe, when I say to Mr Smif, 'Prime Minister, dink again'."Smif: "After 43 years of proving our case we are towd dat we cannot be master in our own house. Is it not incredibwe dat de British government has awwowed our case to deteriorate into dis fantastic position? ... I bewieve I shouwd say to Mr Wiwson: 'Prime Minister, dink again!'"

-- Wiwson and Smif cawwed on each oder drough tewevised statements to "dink again" on 13 October 1965[115]

Amid renewed rumours of an impending Rhodesian UDI, Smif travewwed to meet Wiwson in London at de start of October 1965, tewwing de press dat he intended to resowve de independence issue once and for aww.[116] Bof de British and de Rhodesians were surprised by de warge numbers of Britons who came out to support Smif during his visit.[117] Smif accepted an invitation from de BBC to appear on its Twenty-Four Hours evening news and current affairs programme, but Downing Street bwocked dis at de wast minute.[117] Fowwowing wargewy abortive tawks wif Wiwson, de Rhodesian Prime Minister fwew home on 12 October.[118] Desperate to avert UDI, Wiwson travewwed to Sawisbury two weeks water to continue negotiations.[119]

During dese discussions, Smif referred to de wast resort of a UDI on many occasions,[120] dough he said he hoped to find anoder way out of de qwandary. He offered to increase bwack wegiswative representation by expanding de ewectorate awong de wines of "one taxpayer, one vote"—which wouwd enfranchise about hawf a miwwion, but stiww weave most of de nation votewess—in return for a grant of independence.[119] Wiwson said dis was insufficient, and countered dat future bwack representation might be better safeguarded by Britain's widdrawaw from de cowoniaw government of de power it had hewd since 1923 to determine de size and makeup of its parwiament. The Rhodesians were horrified by dis prospect, particuwarwy as Wiwson's suggestion of it seemed to dem to have removed de faiwsafe awternative of keeping de status qwo.[121] Before de British Prime Minister weft Rhodesia on 30 October 1965, he proposed a Royaw Commission to gauge pubwic opinion in de cowony regarding independence under de 1961 constitution, possibwy chaired by de Rhodesian Chief Justice Sir Hugh Beadwe, which wouwd report its findings to bof de British and Rhodesian Cabinets.[122] Wiwson confirmed in de House of Commons two days water dat he intended to introduce direct British controw over de Rhodesian parwiamentary structure to ensure dat progress was made towards majority ruwe.[123]

Stawemate drew cwoser as de Rhodesian Cabinet resowved dat since Wiwson had ruwed out maintenance of de status qwo, its onwy remaining options were to trust in de Royaw Commission or decware independence.[124] When de terms for de commission's visit were presented to Smif, he found dat contrary to what had been discussed during de British Prime Minister's visit, de Royaw Commission wouwd operate on de basis dat de 1961 constitution was unacceptabwe to de British government, and dat Britain wouwd not commit itsewf to accepting de finaw report. Smif said dese conditions amounted to a "vote of no confidence in [de commission] before dey commenced", and derefore rejected dem.[125] "The impression you weft wif us of a determined effort to resowve our constitutionaw probwem has been utterwy dissipated", he wrote to Wiwson on 5 November. "It wouwd seem dat you have now finawwy cwosed de door which you pubwicwy cwaimed to have opened."[120]

Amid frantic efforts by Beadwe and oders on bof sides to revive de Royaw Commission, de Rhodesian government had Gibbs announce a state of emergency de same day on de grounds dat bwack Rhodesian insurgents were reportedwy entering de country. Smif denied dat dis foreshadowed a decwaration of independence,[126] but de pubwishing of his wetter to Wiwson in de press provoked a worwdwide storm of specuwation dat UDI was imminent.[120] Smif wrote again to Wiwson on 8 November, asking him to appoint de Royaw Commission under de terms dey had agreed in Sawisbury and to commit de British government to accepting its ruwing, but Wiwson did not immediatewy repwy.[127] On 9 November, de Rhodesian Cabinet sent a wetter to Queen Ewizabef II, assuring her dat Rhodesia wouwd remain woyaw to her personawwy "whatever happens".[128]

The Rhodesian Minister for Justice and Law and Order, Desmond Lardner-Burke, presented de rest of de Cabinet wif a draft for de decwaration of independence on 5 November 1965. When Jack Howman, Minister of Tourism and Information, said dat he was awso preparing a draft, de Cabinet decided to wait to see his version too. The ministers agreed dat if an independence procwamation were issued, dey wouwd aww sign it.[126] On 9 November, de Cabinet jointwy devised an outwine for de procwamation document and de accompanying statement to be made by Smif.[128] The finaw version of de decwaration of independence was prepared by a sub-committee of civiw servants headed by Gerawd Cwarke, de Cabinet Secretary,[1] wif de United States Decwaration of Independence of 1776, de onwy oder such procwamation ever issued by British cowoniaws, used as a modew.[129] Strongwy awwuding to Thomas Jefferson's text droughout, de Rhodesians used one phrase verbatim—"a respect for de opinions of mankind"[130]—but no reference was made to de assertion dat "aww men are created eqwaw", nor to de "consent of de governed", two omissions water stressed by a number of commentators.[131]

Attached to de decwaration of independence was a copy of de 1961 constitution amended for de circumstances, which became de 1965 constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de eyes of de Smif administration, dis document removed Whitehaww's remaining audority over Rhodesia. However, de Smif government stiww professed woyawty to Ewizabef II, and accordingwy de document reconstituted Rhodesia as a dominion wif Ewizabef as "Queen of Rhodesia". The new constitution created de concept of awwegiance to de "Constitution of Rhodesia," and introduced de post of Officer Administering de Government, a viceregaw figure empowered to sign passed wegiswation into waw on behawf of de monarch if she did not appoint a Governor-Generaw.[129]

The Rhodesian Cabinet waited in vain for Wiwson's repwy for de rest of 9 November and de next day. After briefwy meeting Smif wate on 10 November,[132] Johnston warned Wiwson dat evening dat de Rhodesians seemed poised to decware independence in de morning. The British Prime Minister tried repeatedwy to caww Smif, but did not get drough untiw Smif was awready chairing a Cabinet meeting on de independence issue around 08:00 Centraw Africa Time (06:00 in London) on 11 November. Wiwson attempted to tawk Smif out of uniwateraw action by tewwing him de status qwo couwd continue, and de two argued inconcwusivewy about de proposed Royaw Commission, uh-hah-hah-hah. Returning to his Cabinet meeting, Smif reported de conversation to his ministers, and, after debating for a whiwe, de Cabinet came to de concwusion dat Wiwson was simpwy attempting to buy more time and dat dere was no sign of actuaw progress. Smif asked if Rhodesia shouwd decware its independence, and had each Cabinet minister answer in turn. According to Smif's account, "each one, qwietwy but firmwy, widout hesitation, said: 'Yes'."[133]

At 11:00 wocaw time on 11 November 1965, Armistice Day, during de traditionaw two minutes' siwence to remember de fawwen of de two Worwd Wars, Smif decwared Rhodesia independent and signed de procwamation document, wif Dupont and de oder 10 ministers of de Cabinet fowwowing. The timing was intended to emphasise de sacrifices Rhodesia had made for Britain in wartime.[134] As Ken Fwower water said, "de rebewwion was made to appear as dough it was not a rebewwion".[129] Smif and his ministers stiww pwedged awwegiance to Queen Ewizabef II, whose officiaw portrait hung prominentwy behind dem as dey signed; de decwaration even ended "God Save The Queen".[129] Four junior members of de Cabinet—Lance Smif, Ian Diwwon, Andrew Dunwop and P K van der Byw—did not sign, but were incwuded in de officiaw photograph.[135]

Whereas in de course of human affairs history has shown dat it may become necessary for a peopwe to resowve de powiticaw affiwiations which have connected dem wif anoder peopwe and to assume amongst oder nations de separate and eqwaw status to which dey are entitwed:

And Whereas in such event a respect for de opinions of mankind reqwires dem to decware to oder nations de causes which impew dem to assume fuww responsibiwity for deir own affairs:

Now Therefore, We, The Government of Rhodesia, Do Hereby Decware:

That it is an indisputabwe and accepted historic fact dat since 1923 de Government of Rhodesia have exercised de powers of sewf-government and have been responsibwe for de progress, devewopment and wewfare of deir peopwe;

That de peopwe of Rhodesia having demonstrated deir woyawty to de Crown and to deir kif and kin in de United Kingdom and ewsewhere drough two worwd wars, and having been prepared to shed deir bwood and give of deir substance in what dey bewieved to be de mutuaw interests of freedom-woving peopwe, now see aww dat dey have cherished about to be shattered on de rocks of expediency;

That de peopwe of Rhodesia have witnessed a process which is destructive of dose very precepts upon which civiwization in a primitive country has been buiwt, dey have seen de principwes of Western democracy, responsibwe government and moraw standards crumbwe ewsewhere, neverdewess dey have remained steadfast;

That de peopwe of Rhodesia fuwwy support de reqwests of deir government for sovereign independence but have witnessed de consistent refusaw of de Government of de United Kingdom to accede to deir entreaties;

That de Government of de United Kingdom have dus demonstrated dat dey are not prepared to grant sovereign independence to Rhodesia on terms acceptabwe to de peopwe of Rhodesia, dereby persisting in maintaining an unwarrantabwe jurisdiction over Rhodesia, obstructing waws and treaties wif oder states and de conduct of affairs wif oder nations and refusing assent to waws necessary for de pubwic good, aww dis to de detriment of de future peace, prosperity and good government of Rhodesia;

That de Government of Rhodesia have for a wong period patientwy and in good faif negotiated wif de Government of de United Kingdom for de removaw of de remaining wimitations pwaced upon dem and for de grant of sovereign independence;

That in de bewief dat procrastination and deway strike at and injure de very wife of de nation, de Government of Rhodesia consider it essentiaw dat Rhodesia shouwd attain, widout deway, sovereign independence, de justice of which is beyond qwestion;

Now Therefore, We The Government of Rhodesia, in humbwe submission to Awmighty God who controws de destinies of nations, conscious dat de peopwe of Rhodesia have awways shown unswerving woyawty and devotion to Her Majesty de Queen and earnestwy praying dat we and de peopwe of Rhodesia wiww not be hindered in our determination to continue exercising our undoubted right to demonstrate de same woyawty and devotion, and seeking to promote de common good so dat de dignity and freedom of aww men may be assured, Do, By This Procwamation, adopt, enact and give to de peopwe of Rhodesia de Constitution annexed hereto;

God Save The Queen

Given under Our Hand at Sawisbury, dis ewevenf day of November in de Year of Our Lord one dousand nine hundred and sixty-five.

Prompted by de government, de Rhodesian Broadcasting Corporation towd de pubwic to stand by for an important announcement from de Prime Minister at 13:15 wocaw time. Smif went first to Government House to inform Gibbs dat his Cabinet had decwared independence,[129] den to Pockets Hiww Studios in east Sawisbury to announce UDI to de nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. He read de procwamation awoud, den stated dat independence had been decwared because it had become "abundantwy cwear dat it is de powicy of de British government to pway us awong wif no reaw intention of arriving at a sowution which we couwd possibwy accept ... I promised de peopwe of dis country dat I wouwd continue to negotiate to de bitter end and dat I wouwd weave no stone unturned in my endeavours to secure an honourabwe and mutuawwy accepted settwement; it now fawws to me to teww you dat negotiations have come to an end".[136]

Smif said dat he bewieved dat he wouwd be remiss in his duty if he awwowed Rhodesia to continue to "drift in its present parawysing state of uncertainty", and dat fowwowing Britain's abandonment of de Federation his government was determined dat "de same wiww never be awwowed to happen here". He cwaimed dat UDI did not mark "a diminution in de opportunities which our African peopwe have to advance and prosper in Rhodesia", described "raciaw harmony in Africa" as part of his agenda and condemned bwack Rhodesian activities as attempts to "bwackmaiw de British government into ... handing de country over to irresponsibwe ruwe". He den attempted to assuage fears dat economic sanctions might destroy de economy, and asked Rhodesians to stand firm: "The mantwe of de pioneers has fawwen on our shouwders ... In de wives of most nations dere comes a moment when a stand has to be made for principwes, whatever de conseqwences. This moment has come to Rhodesia ... de first Western nation in de wast two decades to say 'so far and no furder'." He concwuded wif an assertion dat de decwaration of independence was "a bwow for de preservation of justice, civiwisation and Christianity".[137]

The front page of de Rhodesia Herawd's 12 November 1965 edition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Note de bwank spaces where content was removed by state censors.

By de time Smif and Dupont arrived at Government House to see Gibbs, Whitehaww had instructed de Governor to formawwy dismiss Smif and his ministers for treason, uh-hah-hah-hah. Gibbs compwied widout hesitation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Smif and his ministers ignored dis, howding dat under de new 1965 constitution Gibbs "no wonger ha[d] any executive powers in Rhodesia", and his reserve power to sack dem no wonger existed.[138] The Rhodesian government hoped dat Gibbs might obwigingwy resign in wight of his impotent situation, but he did not; fowwowing orders from London, he remained at his post at Government House. Gibbs towd de Rhodesian miwitary's senior officers, some of whom were troubwed by de perceived choice between Queen and country, to remain at deir posts to maintain waw and order.[139] Wiwson briefwy fwirted wif de idea of sending Lord Mountbatten to Rhodesia to support Gibbs as a direct representative of de Queen, but dis was dropped after Gibbs asked for somebody "higher up" in de royaw famiwy instead.[140] "Not wikewy", Wiwson retorted.[140]

The Rhodesian government accompanied UDI wif emergency measures dat it said were intended to prevent awarm, unrest and de fwight of peopwe and capitaw. Press censorship and petrow rationing were imposed, import wicences were cancewwed and emigration awwowances were cut to £100. News of UDI was generawwy received cawmwy by de wocaw citizenry, apart from some isowated incidents of passing cars being stoned in de bwack townships outside Buwawayo. A few expected dissenters were arrested, most prominentwy Leo Baron, Nkomo's wawyer, whose winks wif bwack Rhodesians and communists were seen by audorities as "subversive".[139] Baron, de younger broder of de scientist Jacob Bronowski, was arrested nine minutes after UDI was made.[139]

What was it dat couwd make a country twice de size of Britain wif hawf de popuwation of London pit itsewf against de massive weight of worwd opinion? Rights or wrongs aside, dere was someding spwendid about de gesture.

Wewensky, who had opposed UDI, stated dat he fewt it was neverdewess "de duty of every responsibwe Rhodesian to support de revowutionary government" as he bewieved de onwy awternative was a descent into anarchy.[139] João de Freitas Cruz, de Portuguese consuw-generaw in Sawisbury, reacted to de news wif wiwd excitement; visiting de Smif residence water in de day, he decwared "Onwy Rhodesians couwd do dis!"[142] A statement from ZAPU's Jason Moyo, who was in London at de time, denounced UDI as an act of "treason and rebewwion" and asserted dat "de wives particuwarwy of four miwwion unarmed Africans are in jeopardy".[143] Davis M'Gabe of de Zimbabwe African Nationaw Union (ZANU) said dat "For aww dose who cherish freedom and a meaningfuw wife, UDI has set a cowwision course which cannot be awtered. [It has] marked de turning point of de struggwe for freedom ... from a constitutionaw and powiticaw one to primariwy a miwitary struggwe."[144] Most major Christian denominationaw weaders in de country pubwicwy rejected UDI and de assertion dat it defended Christianity, wif de exception of de wocaw Dutch Reformed Church, which stated dat it was apowiticaw and dereafter refrained from comment.[145]

A week after UDI, Smif's government announced dat Dupont, de Deputy Prime Minister, had resigned from de Cabinet to accept de post of Officer Administering de Government created by de 1965 constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[140] Smif asked de Queen by wetter to appoint a Governor-Generaw to supersede Gibbs, recommending Dupont, but was ignored.[146] Dupont neverdewess effectivewy repwaced de Governor. The Smif administration assigned him de Governor's officiaw residence at Government House, but no attempt was made to forcibwy remove Gibbs and his entourage; de post-UDI government stated dat de Officer Administering de Government wouwd wive at Governor's Lodge instead "untiw Government House, at present temporariwy occupied by Sir Humphrey Gibbs in a private capacity, becomes avaiwabwe".[140]

The Speaker of de Rhodesian parwiament, A R W Stumbwes, reconvened de Legiswative Assembwy on 25 November, resowving dat if he did not dere wouwd be chaos. He feared dat Gibbs might dramaticawwy wawk into de chamber in an attempt to stop de proceedings, but Gibbs did no such ding. The parwiamentary opposition opened de meeting by asking wheder de assembwy was wegaw.[147]Ahrn Pawwey, de wone white opposition MP, announced dat as he saw it, "certain Honourabwe Members in cowwusion have torn up de constitution under which dis House meets. The proceedings have no wegaw vawidity whatsoever".[148] Stumbwes overruwed dis objection and two more interruptions from Pawwey, and suggested dat any members wif reservations might weave.[147] Pawwey continued his woud protests untiw he was forcibwy ejected by de Sergeant-at-Arms, shouting "This is an iwwegaw assembwy! God save de Queen!"[148] Gondo and eight oder opposition MPs fowwowed Pawwey out;[147] aww ten of dem rejoined de Legiswative Assembwy in February 1966.[n 20]

Gibbs received dreatening wetters from de Rhodesian pubwic, and on 26 November 1965 Smif's government cut off de tewephones at Government House, and removed de ceremoniaw guard, de officiaw cars "and even de typewriters", Wood records.[140] Gibbs neverdewess refused to step down or to weave Government House, issuing a statement dat he wouwd remain dere "as de wawfuw Governor of Rhodesia untiw such time as constitutionaw government is restored, which I hope wiww be soon, uh-hah-hah-hah."[140] He stayed at his post, ignored by de post-UDI government, untiw de decwaration of a repubwic in 1970.[140]

Wiwson was astonished by Smif's actions, and found de timing of de decwaration to coincide wif de Armistice Day siwence deepwy insuwting.[115] Describing Sawisbury as "heww-bent on iwwegaw sewf-destroying",[114] de British Prime Minister, supported in de Commons by de Liberaws and most Conservatives, cawwed on Rhodesians to ignore de post-UDI government.[114] Widin hours of UDI, de UN Generaw Assembwy passed a condemnatory resowution, by 107-to-two—Souf Africa and Portugaw voted against, and France abstained—decrying Rhodesia's actions and cawwing on Britain to end "de rebewwion by de unwawfuw audorities in Sawisbury".[150] The UN Security Counciw de next day adopted Resowution 216, which denounced de decwaration of independence as iwwegaw and racist, and cawwed on aww states to refuse recognition and assistance to de Rhodesian government. Security Counciw Resowution 217, fowwowing on 20 November, condemned UDI as an iwwegitimate "usurpation of power by a racist settwer minority", and cawwed on nations neider to recognise what it deemed "dis iwwegaw audority" nor to entertain dipwomatic or economic rewations wif it. Bof of dese measures were adopted by ten votes to none wif France abstaining.[151]

Rhodesian bwack nationawists and deir overseas supporters, prominentwy de OAU, cwamoured for Britain to remove Smif's government wif a miwitary invasion, but Britain dismissed dis option because of various wogisticaw issues, de risk of provoking a pre-emptive Rhodesian strike on Zambia, and de psychowogicaw probwems dat were wikewy to accompany any confrontation between British and Rhodesian troops in what Smif said wouwd be a "fratricidaw war".[152] Wiwson instead resowved to end de Rhodesian rebewwion drough economic sanctions; dese principawwy comprised de expuwsion of Rhodesia from de Sterwing area, a ban on de import of Rhodesian sugar, tobacco, chrome and oder goods, and an oiw boycott of Rhodesia. When de Rhodesians continued to receive oiw, Wiwson attempted to directwy cut off deir main suppwy wines, namewy de Portuguese Mozambican ports at Beira and Lourenço Marqwes, by posting a Royaw Navy sqwadron to de Mozambiqwe Channew in March 1966. This bwockade, de Beira Patrow, was endorsed de fowwowing monf by UN Security Counciw Resowution 221.[153] The United Nations proceeded to institute de first mandatory trade sanctions in its history wif Security Counciw Resowutions 232 (December 1966) and 253 (Apriw 1968), which reqwired member states to cease aww trade and economic winks wif Rhodesia.[154]

Wiwson predicted in January 1966 dat de various boycotts wouwd force Smif to give in "widin a matter of weeks rader dan monds",[155] but de British and UN sanctions had wittwe effect on Rhodesia, wargewy because Souf Africa and Portugaw went on trading wif de breakaway cowony, providing it wif oiw and oder key resources.[156] Cwandestine "sanction-busting" trade wif oder nations awso continued, initiawwy at a reduced wevew, and de diminished presence of foreign competitors hewped domestic industries to swowwy mature and expand. Rhodesia dus avoided de economic cowwapse predicted by Wiwson and graduawwy became more sewf-sufficient.[157] The Rhodesian government set up a string of front howding companies in Switzerwand, Luxembourg and Liechtenstein to hewp keep trade open, wif some success; goods dat had previouswy been imported from Britain were repwaced by Japanese, French and West German eqwivawents. Even many OAU states, whiwe bombarding Rhodesia wif vitriow, continued importing Rhodesian food and oder products.[158] The United States created a formaw exception in its embargo wif de Byrd Amendment of 1971, under which de US repwaced its import of chrome from de Soviet Union wif Rhodesian chrome ore. This breach of de UN sanctions, passed by de US Congress on de back of anti-communist Cowd War considerations, was warmwy wewcomed by severaw white Souderners in Congress; it aided de Rhodesian economy untiw 1977, when de newwy ewected President Jimmy Carter successfuwwy pushed Congress to repeaw it.[159]

Rhodesia House, de Rhodesian High Commission in London, represented Smif's government in de UK untiw 1969, and became a reguwar target for powiticaw activists.

Officiaw dipwomatic recognition by oder countries was key for Rhodesia as it was de onwy way it couwd regain de internationaw wegitimacy it had wost drough UDI.[62] Recognition by de UK itsewf drough a biwateraw settwement wouwd be de "first prize", in Smif's words, as it wouwd end sanctions and constitutionaw ambiguity and make foreign acceptance, at weast in de West, far more wikewy.[160] Considering deir country a potentiawwy important pwayer in de Cowd War as a "bastion against communism" in soudern Africa,[161] de RF posited dat some Western countries might recognise UDI even widout a prior Angwo-Rhodesian rapprochement. Specificawwy, it expected dipwomatic recognition from Souf Africa and Portugaw, and dought dat France might recognise Rhodesia to annoy Britain and create a precedent for an independent Quebec.[62] But awdough Souf Africa and Portugaw gave economic, miwitary and wimited powiticaw support to de post-UDI government (as did France and oder nations, to a wesser extent), neider dey nor any oder country ever recognised Rhodesia as a de jure independent state.[162] Rhodesia's unsuccessfuw attempts to win Western support and recognition incwuded offers to de US government in 1966 and 1967, ignored by Lyndon B Johnson's administration, to provide Rhodesian troops to fight awongside de Americans and oder anti-communist forces in Vietnam.[163]

Britain widdrew most of its High Commission staff from Sawisbury in de days fowwowing UDI, weaving a smaww skeweton staff to man a "residuaw mission" intended to hewp Gibbs keep de British government informed of wocaw happenings.[142] Severaw countries fowwowed Britain's wead and cwosed deir consuwates in Sawisbury, wif one prominent exception to dis being de United States, which retained its consuwate-generaw in post-UDI Rhodesia, rewabewwing it a "US Contacts Office" to circumvent de probwem of dipwomatic recognition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[n 21] Souf Africa and Portugaw maintained "Accredited Dipwomatic Representative" offices in Sawisbury, which were embassies in aww but name, whiwe Rhodesia kept its pre-UDI overseas missions in Pretoria, Lisbon and Lourenço Marqwes. Unofficiaw representative offices of de Rhodesian government awso existed in de US, Japan and West Germany, whiwe a citizen of Bewgium was empwoyed to represent Rhodesian interests dere. The Rhodesian High Commission in London, wocated at Rhodesia House on de Strand, remained under de controw of de post-UDI government and effectivewy became its representative office in de UK.[164] Like de Souf African Embassy on Trafawgar Sqware, Rhodesia House became a reguwar target for powiticaw demonstrations. These continued even after Britain forced de office to cwose in 1969.[165]

Because UDI cwaimed to make Rhodesia independent under de Queen as an effective dominion, many countries justified deir retention of missions in Rhodesia concurrentwy wif deir non-recognition of de state by pointing out dat de envoys' accreditation was to de Queen and not to Smif's government per se. But Rhodesia moved away from its originaw wine of independence as a constitutionaw monarchy and towards repubwicanism during de wate 1960s, hoping to end ambiguity regarding its cwaimed constitutionaw status and ewicit officiaw foreign recognition, uh-hah-hah-hah. In March 1970, after de ewectorate had voted "yes" in a referendum de previous year bof to a new constitution and to de abandoning of symbowic ties to de Queen, Smif's government decwared Rhodesia a repubwic. Far from prompting recognition, dis wed aww countries apart from Portugaw and Souf Africa to widdraw deir consuwates and missions, as de justification of royaw accreditation couwd no wonger be used.[164] After Portugaw's Carnation Revowution in 1974, de Rhodesian mission in Lisbon was cwosed in May 1975, wif its counterpart in Lourenço Marqwes fowwowing a monf water on Mozambican independence. Portugaw awso widdrew its own remaining officiaws from Rhodesia, weaving Souf Africa as de onwy country wif winks to Sawisbury. Rhodesia's dipwomatic activities were dereafter greatwy diminished.[166]

The Rhodesian High Court's nine Appewwate and Generaw Division judges initiawwy neider rejected UDI nor openwy supported it. The Chief Justice Sir Hugh Beadwe, of de Appewwate Division, announced simpwy dat de judges wouwd go on carrying out deir duties "according to de waw".[140] This originawwy noncommittaw stance evowved over time, wargewy pivoting around wegaw cases argued at de High Court in Sawisbury between 1966 and 1968. The first of dese, Madzimbamuto v. Lardner-Burke N. O. and Oders, concerned Daniew Madzimbamuto, a bwack Rhodesian who was detained widout triaw by de Rhodesian government on 6 November 1965, de day after de decwaration of a state of emergency and five days before UDI, on de grounds dat he might pose a danger to de pubwic. Desmond Lardner-Burke, de Rhodesian Minister of Justice and Law and Order, prowonged de state of emergency in February 1966, prompting Madzimbamuto's wife to appeaw for his rewease, arguing dat since de United Kingdom had decwared UDI iwwegaw and outwawed de Rhodesian government wif de Soudern Rhodesia Act 1965, de state of emergency (and, by extension, Madzimbamuto's imprisonment) had no wegaw basis.[167]

The Generaw Division of de Rhodesian High Court ruwed on 9 September 1966 dat wegaw sovereignty way wif de British government, but dat to "avoid chaos and a vacuum in de waw" de Rhodesian government shouwd be considered to be in controw of waw and order to de same extent as before UDI. In February 1968, ruwing on Madzimbamuto's appeaw, Beadwe concwuded dat de Smif administration wouwd be recognised by de wocaw judiciary as de de facto government by virtue of its "effective controw over de state's territory", but dat de jure recognition wouwd be widhewd as dis was not "firmwy estabwished".[167] Madzimbamuto appwied for de right to appeaw to de British Privy Counciw; de Rhodesian Appewwate Division promptwy ruwed dat he had no right to do so,[168] but de Privy Counciw considered his case anyway.[169]

In wate February 1968, considering de fate of James Dhwamini, Victor Mwambo and Duwy Shadreck, dree bwack Rhodesians convicted of murder and terrorist offences before UDI, Beadwe ruwed dat Sawisbury retained its pre-UDI powers regarding executions and couwd carry out deaf sentences. Whitehaww announced on 1 March dat at de reqwest of de UK government, de Queen had exercised de royaw prerogative of mercy and commuted de dree deaf sentences to wife imprisonment. Dhwamini and de oders appwied for a permanent stay of execution on dis basis. At de hearing for Dhwamini and Mwambo on 4 March 1968, Beadwe argued dat he saw de statement from London as a decision by de UK government and not de Queen hersewf, and dat in any case de 1961 constitution had transferred de prerogative of mercy from Britain to de Rhodesian Executive Counciw. "The present government is de fuwwy de facto government and as such is de onwy power dat can exercise de prerogative", he concwuded. "It wouwd be strange indeed if de United Kingdom government, exercising no internaw power in Rhodesia, were given de right to exercise de prerogative of cwemency."[170] The Judge President Sir Vincent Quenet and Justice Hector Macdonawd agreed, and de appwication was dismissed. Justice John Fiewdsend of de High Court's Generaw Division resigned in protest, writing to Gibbs dat he no wonger bewieved de High Court to be defending de rights of Rhodesian citizens. Dhwamini, Mwambo and Shadreck were hanged on 6 March.[170]

On 23 Juwy 1968, de Privy Counciw in London ruwed in Madzimbamuto's favour, deciding dat orders for detention made by de Rhodesian government were invawid regardwess of wheder de 1961 or 1965 constitution was considered effective. It decwared de watter, "revowutionary" constitution iwwegaw, and ruwed dat de former was overridden by de Soudern Rhodesia Act 1965, which had effectivewy outwawed de Rhodesian wegiswative, administrative and wegaw audorities in British waw. Lord Reid, dewivering de majority opinion (Lord Pearce dissented), argued dat de "usurper" government, dough de effective master of Rhodesia, couwd not be considered wawfuw as de UK government was stiww attempting to regain controw and it was impossibwe to say wheder or not it wouwd succeed. He ruwed dat onwy Whitehaww couwd determine what constituted de maintenance of "waw and order" in Rhodesia, and dat de Rhodesian emergency measures were unwawfuw as dey had been formawised by de Officer Administering de Government, a post-UDI figure who was, in British eyes, unconstitutionaw. Reid concwuded dat Madzimbamuto was iwwegawwy detained.[169] Harry Davies, one of de Rhodesian judges, announced on 8 August dat de Rhodesian courts wouwd not consider dis ruwing binding as dey no wonger accepted de Privy Counciw as part of de Rhodesian judiciaw hierarchy. Justice J R Dendy Young resigned in protest at Davies' ruwing on 12 August and four days water was sworn in as Chief Justice of Botswana.[171]

The Rhodesian High Court granted fuww de jure recognition to de post-UDI government on 13 September 1968, whiwe rejecting de appeaws of 32 bwack Rhodesians who had been a monf earwier convicted of terrorist offences and sentenced to deaf. Beadwe decwared dat whiwe he bewieved de Rhodesian judiciary shouwd respect ruwings of de Privy Counciw "so far as possibwe", de judgement of 23 Juwy had made it wegawwy impossibwe for Rhodesian judges to continue under de 1961 constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah. He asserted dat de court derefore faced a choice between de 1965 constitution and a wegaw vacuum, de watter of which he fewt he couwd not endorse.[172] Referring to de Privy Counciw's decision dat de UK might yet remove de post-UDI government, he said dat "on de facts as dey exist today, de onwy prediction which dis court can make is dat sanctions wiww not succeed in overdrowing de present government ... and dat dere are no oder factors which might succeed in doing so".[167]

Macdonawd, a member of Beadwe's ruwing panew, argued dat since UDI, de British government had acted unconstitutionawwy and iwwegawwy regarding Rhodesia by invowving de United Nations in what shouwd have been wegawwy considered a domestic probwem, and had concurrentwy abdicated its right to de awwegiance of de Rhodesian peopwe by waging economic war against de country and encouraging oder nations to do de same. To support dis argument, Macdonawd referred to de assertion by de 17f-century Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius dat "de purpose of governing and de purpose of destroying cannot subsist togeder".[173] Since Britain was in a state of economic war against Rhodesia, de court concwuded, it couwd not at de same time be regarded as governing it.[173] UDI, de associated 1965 constitution and de government were dereafter considered de jure by de Rhodesian wegaw system.[167]

The British Commonweawf Secretary, George Thomson, promptwy accused de Rhodesian judges of breaching "de fundamentaw waws of de wand",[172] whiwe Gibbs announced dat since his position as Governor existed under de 1961 constitution, which awwowed appeaws to de Privy Counciw, he couwd onwy reject de Rhodesian court ruwing.[172] The Rhodesian judges continued regardwess. Their recognition of de post-UDI order carried over to de 1969 repubwican constitution, adopted in 1970.[167]

Vestiges of British ties were removed piecemeaw by de government over de decade fowwowing UDI, and repwaced wif symbows and terminowogy intended to be more uniqwewy Rhodesian, uh-hah-hah-hah.[175] A siwver "Liberty Beww", based on de beww of de same name in Phiwadewphia, was cast during 1966 and rung by de Prime Minister each year on Independence Day (de anniversary of UDI), de number of chimes signifying de number of years since de decwaration of independence.[176] The Union Jack and Rhodesia's Commonweawf-stywenationaw fwag—a defacedSky Bwue Ensign wif de Union Jack in de canton—continued to fwy over government buiwdings, miwitary bases and oder officiaw wocations untiw 11 November 1968, de dird anniversary of UDI, when dey were superseded by a new nationaw fwag: a green-white-green verticaw triband, charged centrawwy wif de Rhodesian coat of arms.[177] The Union Jack continued to be ceremoniawwy raised at Ceciw Sqware in Sawisbury on 12 September each year as part of de Pioneers' Day howiday, which marked de anniversary of de estabwishment of Sawisbury (and, by extension, Rhodesia) in 1890.[178]

Since Ewizabef II was stiww de Rhodesian head of state in de eyes of Smif's administration untiw 1970, "God Save de Queen" remained de Rhodesian nationaw andem, and continued to accompany officiaw occasions such as de opening of de Rhodesian parwiament. This was intended to demonstrate Rhodesia's continued woyawty to de Queen, but de use of de unmistakabwy British song at Rhodesian state occasions soon seemed "fairwy ironic", as The Times put it.[179] Sawisbury started wooking for a repwacement andem around de same time as its introduction of de new fwag,[180] and in 1974, after four years widout an andem ("God Save de Queen" was formawwy dropped in 1970), repubwican Rhodesia adopted "Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia", an andem coupwing originaw wyrics wif de tune of Beedoven's "Ode to Joy".[181] The country's head of state under de repubwican constitution was de President of Rhodesia, de first of whom was Dupont.[182]

State press censorship, which had been introduced on UDI, was wifted in earwy Apriw 1968.[183]Decimawisation occurred on 17 February 1970, two weeks before Rhodesia's reconstitution as a repubwic, wif de new Rhodesian dowwar repwacing de pound at a rate of two dowwars to each pound.[184] Fowwowing de repubwic's formaw decwaration de next monf, de Rhodesian miwitary removed nomencwaturaw and symbowic references to de Crown—de Royaw Rhodesian Air Force and Royaw Rhodesia Regiment dropped deir "Royaw" prefixes, new branch and regimentaw fwags were designed, and de St Edward's Crown surmounting many regimentaw embwems was expunged in favour of de "wion and tusk", a motif from de coat of arms of de British Souf Africa Company dat had been used in Rhodesian miwitary symbowism since de 1890s. The air force's new roundew was a green ring wif de wion and tusk on a white centre.[182] Later dat year, a system of new Rhodesian honours and decorations was created to repwace de owd British honours. Rhodesia's powice force, de British Souf Africa Powice, was not renamed.[185]

Wiwson towd de British House of Commons in January 1966 dat he wouwd not enter any kind of diawogue wif de post-UDI Rhodesian "iwwegaw regime" untiw it gave up its cwaim of independence,[186] but by mid-1966 British and Rhodesian civiw servants were howding "tawks about tawks" in London and Sawisbury.[187] By November dat year, Wiwson had agreed to negotiate personawwy wif Smif.[188] The two Prime Ministers unsuccessfuwwy attempted to settwe aboard HMS Tiger in December 1966 and HMS Fearwess in October 1968. After de Conservatives returned to power in Britain in 1970, provisionaw agreement was reached in November 1971 between de Rhodesian government and a British team headed by Dougwas-Home (who was Foreign Secretary under Prime Minister Edward Heaf), and in earwy 1972 a Royaw Commission chaired by Lord Pearce travewwed to Rhodesia to investigate how acceptabwe de proposaws were to majority opinion, uh-hah-hah-hah. After extensive consuwtation, de commission reported dat whiwe whites, cowoureds and Asians were wargewy in favour of de presented terms, most bwacks rejected dem. The deaw was derefore shewved by de British government.[189]

The Rhodesian Bush War, a guerriwwa confwict pitting de Rhodesian Security Forces against de Zimbabwe African Nationaw Liberation Army (ZANLA) and de Zimbabwe Peopwe's Revowutionary Army (ZIPRA), de respective armed wings of ZANU and ZAPU, began in earnest in December 1972, when ZANLA attacked Awtena and Whistwefiewd Farms in norf-eastern Rhodesia.[190] The 1974 Carnation Revowution in Portugaw, which over de next year repwaced Portuguese support for Smif wif an independent, Marxist–Leninist Mozambiqwe on Rhodesia's eastern frontier, greatwy swung de war's momentum in favour of de nationawists (particuwarwy ZANU, which was awwied wif Mozambiqwe's governing FRELIMO party), and caused de sanctions on Rhodesia to finawwy begin having a noticeabwe effect.[191] Dipwomatic isowation, de sanctions, guerriwwa activities and pressure from Souf Africa to find a settwement wed de Rhodesian government to howd tawks wif de various bwack Rhodesian factions. Abortive conferences were hewd at Victoria Fawws (in 1975) and Geneva (1976).[192] Despite ideowogicaw and tribaw rifts, ZANU and ZAPU nominawwy united as de "Patriotic Front" (PF) in wate 1976 in a successfuw attempt to augment overseas support for de bwack Rhodesian cause.[193]

By de mid-1970s, it was apparent dat white minority ruwe couwd not continue forever. Even Vorster reawized dat white ruwe in a country where bwacks outnumbered whites 22:1 was not a reawistic option, uh-hah-hah-hah.[194] Smif, who was decisivewy re-ewected dree times during de 1970s, eventuawwy came to dis concwusion as weww. He announced his acceptance in principwe of one man, one vote during Henry Kissinger's Angwo-American initiative in September 1976, and in March 1978 concwuded de Internaw Settwement wif non-miwitant nationawist groups headed by Bishop Abew Muzorewa, de Reverend Ndabaningi Sidowe and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. This settwement, boycotted by de PF and rejected internationawwy,[195] wed to muwtiraciaw ewections and Rhodesia's reconstitution under majority ruwe as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979. Muzorewa, de ewectoraw victor, took office as de country's first bwack Prime Minister at de head of a coawition Cabinet comprising 12 bwacks and five whites,[196] incwuding Smif as minister widout portfowio.[197] Dismissing Muzorewa as a "neocowoniaw puppet",[198] ZANLA and ZIPRA continued deir armed struggwe untiw December 1979, when Whitehaww, Sawisbury and de Patriotic Front settwed at Lancaster House. Muzorewa's government revoked UDI, dereby ending de country's cwaim to be independent after 14 years, and dissowved itsewf. The UK suspended de constitution and vested fuww executive and wegiswative powers in a new Governor, Lord Soames, who oversaw a ceasefire and fresh ewections during February and March 1980. These were won by ZANU, whose weader Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister when de UK granted independence to Zimbabwe as a repubwic widin de Commonweawf in Apriw 1980.[199]

^ abcRenamed Zimbabwe in 1980.[2] The officiaw name of de cowony under British waw was Soudern Rhodesia, but de cowoniaw government switched to using de name Rhodesia in October 1964, when Nordern Rhodesia changed its name to Zambia concurrentwy wif its independence from Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[3]

^Powers reserved to de British government at Whitehaww under de 1923 constitution concerned foreign affairs, awterations to de constitution, de British-appointed Governor's sawary, and biwws regarding native administration, mining revenues and raiwways. Laws rewevant to dese subjects had to receive assent from de Governor (and, by extension, Whitehaww), but aww oder biwws couwd be passed by Sawisbury widout interference.[4]

^The originaw vision shared by Huggins and his Nordern Rhodesian counterpart Sir Roy Wewensky was a unitary amawgamation of de two Rhodesias dat wouwd eventuawwy become a dominion, uh-hah-hah-hah. British powiticians rejected dis idea, asserting dat bwack Nordern Rhodesians wouwd never accept it, but agreed to consider a Federation on de condition dat neighbouring Nyasawand was awso incwuded.[18]

^Soudern Rhodesian powiticians from various parties water cwaimed dat had Federation not occurred, Soudern Rhodesia wouwd have been a dominion by 1955.[21]

^Wif Nordern Rhodesia and Nyasawand under direct British controw, a Federaw UDI wouwd have been far more compwicated and difficuwt to execute dan one by Soudern Rhodesia awone. Indeed, it was partwy because of dis dat Wewensky deemed it infeasibwe.[26]

^Zimbabwe, derived from de name appwied by de Shona peopwe to de ancient ruined city today referred to as Great Zimbabwe, was adopted by de bwack Rhodesian movement between 1960 and 1962 as deir preferred name for a majority-ruwed Soudern Rhodesia.[35] ZAPU was banned by de Whitehead administration in 1962 because of its viowent activities,[36] but it continued operating neverdewess, pubwicwy cawwing itsewf de Peopwe's Caretaker Counciw (PCC). Severaw prominent members weft to form de rivaw Zimbabwe African Nationaw Union (ZANU) in 1963. ZANU and ZAPU were respectivewy backed by China and de Soviet Union, and infwuenced to various degrees by Chinese Maoism and Soviet Marxism–Leninism.[37] Fowwowing an escawation in internecine powiticaw viowence between de two movements, a spate of industriaw sabotage and civiw disobedience and de powiticawwy motivated kiwwing of a white man, Petrus Oberhowzer, by ZANU insurgents, bof PCC and ZANU were banned by Smif's government in August 1964, wif most of each party's weaders concurrentwy jaiwed for criminaw offences or oderwise restricted.[38] Bof movements dereafter based demsewves overseas.[39]

^Wewensky was so shaken by Sandys' statement dat he suffered a migraine. Lord Awport, de UK's High Commissioner to de Federation, reportedwy weft de meeting and vomited.[46]

^In particuwar, Fiewd and Smif cwaimed dat Butwer towd dem at Victoria Fawws on 27 June 1963 dat in return for deir hewp in winding up de Federation, Soudern Rhodesia wouwd be granted "independence no water dan, if not before, de oder two territories ... in view of your country's wonderfuw record of Responsibwe Government over de past forty years ... and above aww de great woyawty you have awways given to Britain in time of war".[49]

^Dougwas-Home was onwy a few days into his premiership fowwowing Macmiwwan's resignation on grounds of iww heawf. At one point during de meeting on 31 October 1964 he towd Smif dat dough he opposed uniwateraw action, he fewt Soudern Rhodesia couwd "decware hersewf independent, [and] wouwd be widin her rights to do so".[52] Scandawised, British civiw servants widhewd record of dis comment from deir Soudern Rhodesian counterparts.[52]

^In particuwar, a smaww but vocaw phawanx of stridentwy pro-Sawisbury Conservative peers emerged in de House of Lords, incwuding Lord Sawisbury (after whose grandfader de Soudern Rhodesian capitaw was named), Lord Coweraine and Lord Grimston.[61] Togeder wif an anciwwary group of simiwarwy minded Conservative MPs in de Commons, headed by Major Patrick Waww, dese became referred to as de "Rhodesia Lobby".[62]

^The Lardner-Burke biww proposed dat a two-dirds majority in de Legiswative Assembwy wouwd prompt automatic consent for awterations from de Governor, who wouwd den sign dem into waw on behawf of de Queen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[73]Wiwwiam Harper, de Minister of Water Devewopment and Roads, posited dat if dis passed, Sawisbury wouwd be abwe to procwaim an independent repubwic outside de Commonweawf wif a two-dirds majority in parwiament.[74]

^Roy Wewensky, who hewd de Federaw premiership from 1956 to dissowution in 1963, was awso born in Soudern Rhodesia. Before Smif, Soudern Rhodesia had had seven Prime Ministers, dree of whom (incwuding Fiewd) had been born in Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. The country's first two Prime Ministers, Charwes Coghwan (1923–27) and Howard Moffat (1927–33), were respectivewy born in Souf Africa and Bechuanawand,[78] whiwe Garfiewd Todd (1953–58) was originawwy from New Zeawand.[79]Edgar Whitehead (1958–62) was born at de British Embassy in Germany, where his fader was a dipwomat.[80]

^Britain towd Soudern Rhodesia dat dis was because de British economy was in troubwe. When Sawisbury pointed out dat de UK was stiww giving aid to oder countries, Whitehaww impwied dat financiaw assistance might resume if progress was made towards an independence settwement acceptabwe to Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[87]

^During de bitterwy fought campaign,[92] Wewensky was fawsewy personified by his opponents as representing appeasement of Britain and bwack extremists, and heckwed at pubwic concourses wif cries of "communist", "traitor" and "coward";[93] one man even screamed "you bwoody Jew" at Wewensky during a debate.[94]

^Sawisbury passed wegiswation to shorten de name, but Britain ruwed dis uwtra vires as de waws naming de country were British acts passed at Westminster. Sawisbury went on using de shortened name in an officiaw manner anyway,[3] whiwe de British government, de United Nations and oder overseas bodies continued referring to de country as Soudern Rhodesia. This situation continued droughout de UDI period.[98]

^Turnout was 61% of de 105,444 registered voters (89,886 whites, 12,729 bwacks and 2,829 cowoureds and Asians). There were 58,091 bawwots in favour, 6,096 against and 944 spoiwt papers. Most ewigibwe non-whites reportedwy abstained.[104]

^The ewectoraw system devised in de 1961 constitution repwaced de common voters' roww wif two rowws, de "A" roww and de "B" roww, de watter of which had wower qwawifications intended to make it easier for prospective voters to enter de powiticaw system. There were 50 "A"-roww constituencies and 15 warger "B"-roww districts, wif a compwicated mechanism of "cross-voting" awwowing "B"-roww voters to swightwy infwuence "A"-roww ewections and vice versa. This system was deoreticawwy non-raciaw, but in practice de "A" roww was wargewy white and de "B" roww was awmost aww bwack.[110]

^When dey den repeatedwy referred to Smif's government as "de iwwegaw regime" during parwiamentary discussions, Stumbwes ruwed de term out of order.[149]

^Austrawia and Canada shut down deir trade missions in Sawisbury, whiwe Finwand, Sweden and Turkey cwosed deir honorary consuwates. Denmark, France, Itawy, Japan and de United States widdrew deir heads of mission, but kept deir offices open, uh-hah-hah-hah. Austria, Bewgium, Greece, de Nederwands, Norway, Portugaw and Switzerwand retained deir representative missions in Sawisbury at de same wevews as before UDI.[164]

^This overaww design dated back to 1923, but a darker bwue fiewd was used untiw 1964, when de shade was wightened to make de Rhodesian fwag more recognisabwe.[174]