Icelandic national costume

Icelandic women in the 18th century faldbúningur with tail-caps. The one to the right omits the jacket and is thus wearing a upphlutur.

Icelandic national costume, collectively known in Icelandic as Þjóðbúningurinn has enjoyed various levels of popularity since the term was coined in Iceland in the 19th century, during the fight for independence. Since 2001 the national costume is regulated by Þjóðbúningaráð (The National Costume Authority), which preserves the correct techniques of making them and instructs people.

The five following types of costume are all recognized as Icelandic National costumes. However both the kyrtill and skautbúningur were designed in the 19th century from scratch as ceremonial costumes, while the faldbúningur, peysuföt and the upphlutur are traditional daily wear of Icelandic women in olden times.

Icelandic woman in the 18th century faldbúningur with the spaðafaldur cap.

The Faldbúningur is an older type of costume worn by women since at least the 17th century and well into the 19th. In its most recognized form it incorporated a hat decorated with a curved sheet-like ornament protruding into the air and exists in two variants. One of which is the krókfaldur and the other is the spaðafaldur. Previously a large hat decorated with gold-wire bands was worn with it, as well as ruff which is the reason for the faldbúningur's wide collar, which was designed to support it. Later, around the start of the 18th century women started to wear the much simpler tail-cap with it.[1]

The Peysuföt are black woollen clothes commonly worn by women in the 18-19th century. They usually consisted of a twill skirt and a jacket of fine knitted woollen yearn with a black tail cap. It is believed that this costume was invented when women, desiring simpler working clothes than the faldbúningur, started to use male articles of clothing. This includes both the tail-cap and the peysa which originally was a jacket with a single row of buttons, but evolved into this costume and eventually discarded with the buttons.[2]

The Upphlutur is a woman's costume, consisting of bodice that can be coloured in bright colours such as red or blue, but often black. Its headpiece is a tail cap. The costume is basically the undergarment of the faldbúningur which evolved into a costume of its own right.[3]

The Kyrtill is a costume for women, designed by the artist Sigurður Guðmundsson in the 19th century. It was designed to look like Viking age costumes. It however incorporates a hat similar to the one on the skautbúningur. While Sigurður's vision of the Viking age costume remains popular, costumes designed to more closely resemble archaeological finds have gained some popularity as well.[4]

The Skautbúningur was also designed by Sigurður Guðmundsson. It was conceived as a modernized variation of the faldbúningur, which had fallen out of use by the middle of the 19th century. It incorporates a complicated hat inspired by the ones traditionally used with the faldbúningur.[5]

Búningur karla or the Men's costume exists in three or four radically different versions. The þjóðbúningur karla is the only direct descendant of traditional daily wear of Icelandic men, while the other were designed from the start as ceremonial costume.

The one considered most traditional consists of woollen breeches or trousers, a usually double buttoned vest and a double buttoned jacket called treyja. Sometimes a peysa with a single row of buttons is used in lieu of the vest and treyja. On the head is a tail cap, though historically different hats were also used. This costume was usually black, navy blue or dark green, although the vest, which was usually brighter was sometimes red, some regions stood out, using white wool instead of the darker colors. It is identical to the clothing Icelandic men commonly wore from the 17th until the 19th century.[6]

In the middle of the 19th century, when many Icelandic men had taken to using continental clothing, Sigurður Guðmundsson, an Icelandic artist, designed a costume for men which closely resembles 10th century Nordic clothing. While it attained some popularity at the time, it eventually disappeared until at the end of the 20th century when Viking culture and traditions have enjoyed increased popularity.[6]

An Icelandic man wears the hátíðarbúningur formal costume on his wedding day along with a boutonnière.

Although not a traditional costume, the hátíðarbúningur was conceived as a modernized version of the men's traditional national costume and is frequently worn instead of a tuxedo to formal events. It is the result of a competition for an updated (i.e., more pragmatic) version of the men's national costume held in 1994 in correlation with the 50th anniversary of Iceland's independence from Denmark and the establishment of the republic. Some have critiqued the design of the hátíðarbúningur, claiming that it bears greater resemblance to the Faroese national costume in its styling. Regardless, the hátíðarbúningur continues to enjoy widespread popularity among Icelanders.[6]

Sigurður Guðmundsson also designed another costume in the middle of the 19th century, which was commonly worn by students. It consisted of a black jacket, white shirt and black knee-breeches with horizontally striped or solid colored white socks.[6]

Although today, modern shoes are often used with the National Costumes, traditionally shoes made of either fish or sheep-skin, with woollen inlets, were worn with the costumes. These shoes are known as roðskór and sauðskinsskór respectively.[8] Some people also use 18th or 19th century type leather shoes with buckles similar to the footwear commonly used with the Faroese and Norwegian National Costumes.

Icelandic 17th century ecclesiastical/noble costume. The women wear a proto-faldbúningur, with gold-banded hats and ruff, this is however not the oldest type.

Two women, the one to the left is wearing skautbúningur and the one to the right is wearing a kyrtill.

People inside a house in early 19th century costume. The women wear the faldbúningur with tail-caps, while the men are wearing pantaloons instead of breeches or trousers.

People going to church. The women wear the faldbúningur with various headpieces. The man to the left is wearing pantaloons while a man to the right is wearing breeches.

Traditional clothing of seamen worn over land-clothes. It is made of sewn leather and further insulated with fish-liver oil.

Man wearing sea clothing. The type of shirt pattern he is wearing underneath became popular in the 19th century.

People at the harbour in early 19th century costume.

Early 19th century people in Reykjavík. The man on the right is wearing his suspenders in an unusual manner on top of his vest. The night-watch to the left is wearing European costume, albeit with traditional Icelandic shoes made of sheep-leather.

A picture from a 17th-century manuscript depicting Egill Skallagrímsson. On this picture he is wearing 16-17th century costume and carrying a Falchion.

A woman wearing the faldbúningur with a spaðafaldur cap.

Women in faldbúningur with the spaðafaldur cap. The man is wearing a treyja of a later type with a collar and trousers.

In olden times these clothes, except the skautbúningur, kyrtill and hátíðarbúningur, were worn daily by people of all ages and classes. Today they are worn by many on ceremonial occasions such as the National day, Birthdays and Weddings.

1.
Icelandic language
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Icelandic /aɪsˈlændɪk/ is a North Germanic language, the language of Iceland. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages, historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the colonisation of the Americas. Icelandic, Faroese, Norn, and Western Norwegian formerly constituted West Nordic, Danish, Eastern Norwegian, modern Norwegian Bokmål is influenced by both groups, leading the Nordic languages to be divided into mainland Scandinavian languages and Insular Nordic. Most Western European languages have reduced levels of inflection, particularly noun declension. In contrast, Icelandic retains a four-case synthetic grammar comparable to, Icelandic is distinguished by a wide assortment of irregular declensions. Icelandic also has many instances of oblique cases without any governing word, for example, many of the various Latin ablatives have a corresponding Icelandic dative. The vast majority of Icelandic speakers—about 320, 000—live in Iceland, more than 8,000 Icelandic speakers live in Denmark, of whom approximately 3,000 are students. The language is spoken by some 5,000 people in the United States. Notably in the province of Manitoba, while 97% of the population of Iceland consider Icelandic their mother tongue, the language is in decline in some communities outside Iceland, particularly in Canada. Icelandic speakers outside Iceland represent recent emigration in almost all cases except Gimli, Manitoba, the state-funded Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies serves as a centre for preserving the medieval Icelandic manuscripts and studying the language and its literature. Since 1995, on 16 November each year, the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson is celebrated as Icelandic Language Day, the oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100 AD. Much of the texts are based on poetry and laws traditionally preserved orally, the most famous of the texts, which were written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are the Icelandic Sagas. They comprise the historical works and the eddaic poems, the language of the sagas is Old Icelandic, a western dialect of Old Norse. Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, though more archaic than the other living Germanic languages, Icelandic changed markedly in pronunciation from the 12th to the 16th century, especially in vowels. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-creation of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions. Various archaic features, as the letter ð, had not been used much in later centuries, rasks standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th-century changes include the use of é instead of je, apart from the addition of new vocabulary, written Icelandic has not changed substantially since the 11th century, when the first texts were written on vellum

2.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese

3.
National costume
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A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the peasantry of Europe came to serve as models for all that appeared genuine. Their dress crystallised into so-called typical forms, and enthusiasts adopted that attire as part of their symbolism, in areas where Western dress codes have become usual, traditional garments are often worn at special events or celebrations, particularly those connected with cultural traditions, heritage or pride. International events may cater for non-Western attendees with a dress code such as business suit or national dress. In modern times, there are instances where traditional garments are required by sumptuary laws, in Bhutan, the traditional Tibetan-style clothing of gho and kera for men, kira and toego for women, must be worn by all citizens, including those not of Tibetan heritage. In Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear the abaya in public. Tibet – Chuba Inner Mongolia – Deel Japan – Kimono, Junihitoe, also, all aboriginal tribes have a distinct tribal costume. Every ethnic group in the country has their national costume, kebayas, sarongs and the Beskap jacket of the Javanese and the Kain batik and dance costumes of Bali are some examples. Vietnam – Áo giao lĩnh, Áo dài, Áo tứ thân, abkhazia – Chokha Armenia – Each region has its own style of folk costume. Kuwait – Thawb Oman – Dishdasha Ossetia – Chokha Qatar – Kandura Palestine – Keffiyeh, Taqiyah, Saudi Arabia – Thawb, Ghutrah, Agal, Bisht, Abaya, Jilbab, Niqab Syria – Dishdasha Turkey – Fez, Kaftan, Shalvar. United Arab Emirates – Kandura Yemen – Similar to Saudi Arabia, scotland – Highland dress, Kilt or trews, tam oshanter or Balmoral bonnet, doublet, Aboyne dress, and brogues or ghillies. Greek fishermans caps in many villages by the Aegean sea. Italy – Italian folk dance costumes, Roman clothing, Toga, Stola South Tyrol – Tracht, slovenia – Gorenjska noša Spain – Every autonomous region has its own national costume. For example, Bavarias well-known Tracht, Lederhosen and Dirndl, liechtenstein – Tracht, Dirndl Netherlands – Dutch cap, Klompen, poffer Switzerland – Every canton has its own specific design of a national costume. A good example is seen in the attire of Paul Bunyan. Deep South and other parts of the American South – Traditional Southern US wear includes white seersucker suits and string ties for men and these short pants remained commonplace among young urban American boys until the mid 20th century. Nantucket – Summer residents of Nantucket will often wear Nantucket Reds, amish, the Pennsylvania Dutch and some sects of Mormon fundamentalism preserve traditional 19th century clothing styles

4.
Ruff (clothing)
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A ruff is an item of clothing worn in Western Europe from the mid-sixteenth century to the mid-seventeenth century. The ruff, which was worn by men, women and children and they served as changeable pieces of cloth that could themselves be laundered separately while keeping the wearers doublet from becoming soiled at the neckline. Later ruffs were separate garments that could be washed, starched, ruffs were often coloured during starching, vegetable dyes were used to give the ruff a yellow, pink or mauve tint. Ruffs could make it difficult to eat during mealtimes, similar to the cangue, by the end of the sixteenth century, ruffs were falling out of fashion in Western Europe, in favour of wing collars and falling bands. The fashion lingered longer in the Dutch Republic, where ruffs can be seen in well into the seventeenth century. The ruff was banned in Spain under Philip IV, ruffs remain part of the formal attire of bishops and ministers in the Church of Denmark and are generally worn for services. They were abolished by the Church of Norway in 1980, although some conservative ministers such as Børre Knudsen continued to wear them, ruffs are optional for trebles in Anglican church choirs. In the twentieth century, the ruff inspired the name of the Elizabethan collar for animals, janet Arnold, Queen Elizabeths Wardrobe Unlockd, W. S. Maney and Son Ltd. Leeds 1988. How To Starch a Ruff Part I of IV Portraiture illustrating development from modest 1530s ruffs to the gigantic ruffs of the 1590s 17th century millstone ruff at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

5.
Icelandic tail-cap
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The Icelandic tail-cap or skotthúfa is a typical part of the Icelandic national costume. Originally it was worn by men, but starting in the 18th century women started to wear it along with the peysa. Later it was adopted for the bodice-dress, the mens version is usually striped, while the womens is almost always black. While the mens version was knitted from coarse wool the womens version used a small string with a tassel made of fine wool. In the beginning of the 19th century, the tail-cap was rather deep, the tassel and cap are connected with a tassel-cylinder made of silver or gold. The cap is pinned in the hair by means of a black knitting-pin but if the woman wears plaits, the end of them are fastened under the cap in the neck with a typical cap-pin

6.
Viking age
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The Viking Age is the period from the late 8th century to the mid-11th century in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, following the Germanic Iron Age. It is the period of history when Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonisation and conquest. Three Viking ships had beached in Weymouth Bay four years earlier, the Viking devastation of Northumbrias Holy Island was reported by the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York, who wrote, Never before in Britain has such a terror appeared. Vikings were portrayed as violent and bloodthirsty by their enemies. The chronicles of medieval England portrayed them as rapacious wolves among sheep, the first challenges to the many anti-Viking images in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Pioneering scholarly works on the Viking Age reached a readership in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britains Viking past, linguistics traced the Viking-Age origins of rural idioms and proverbs. New dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled more Victorians to read the Icelandic Sagas, the Vikings who invaded western and eastern Europe were chiefly pagans from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They also settled in the Faroe Islands, Ireland, Iceland, peripheral Scotland, Greenland and their North Germanic language, Old Norse, became the mother-tongue of present-day Scandinavian languages. By 801, a central authority appears to have been established in Jutland. In Norway, mountainous terrain and fjords formed strong natural boundaries, communities there remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By 800, some 30 small kingdoms existed in Norway, the sea was the easiest way of communication between the Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. It was in the 8th century that Scandinavians began to build ships of war, the North Sea rovers were traders, colonisers and explorers as well as plunderers. There are various theories concerning the causes of the Viking invasions, for people living along the coast, it would seem natural to seek new land by the sea. Another reason was that during this period England, Wales and Ireland, the Franks, however, had well-defended coasts and heavily fortified ports and harbours. Pure thirst for adventure may also have been a factor, a reason for the raids is believed by some to be over-population caused by technological advances, such as the use of iron, or a shortage of women due to selective female infanticide. Although another cause could well have been caused by the Frankish expansion to the south of Scandinavia. Consequently, these Vikings became raiders, in search of subsistence, There is ongoing debate among scholars as to why the Scandinavians began to expand during the 8th through 11th centuries

7.
Viking
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe

8.
Tuxedo
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The suit is typically black or midnight blue and commonly worn with a formal shirt, shoes and other accessories, most traditionally in the form prescribed by the black tie dress code. Dinner jacket in the context of menswear first appeared in England around 1887, in the 1960s it became associated in the United States with white or colored jackets specifically. Tuxedo in the context of menswear originated in the US around 1888 and it was named after Tuxedo Park, a Hudson Valley enclave for New York’s social elite where it was often seen in its early years. The term was capitalized until the 1930s and at first referred only to the jacket, when the jacket was later paired with its own unique trousers and accessories in the 1900s the term began to be associated with the entire suit. In French, Italian, Portuguese, German, Polish, Russian, Turkish and this name is in reference to the jacket’s early similarity to Victorian smoking jackets. The suit with accompanying accessories is sometimes nicknamed a penguin suit given its resemblance to the black body. Other slang terms include monkey suit and, since 1918, soup, men also sought a similar alternative to the formal evening tailcoat worn every evening. The jacket was tailored for use at Sandringham, the Princes informal country estate and was described as a smoking jacket and it was originally intended for warm weather use but soon spread to informal or stag winter occasions. As it was simply an evening tailcoat substitute, it was worn all the same accoutrements as the tailcoat including the trousers. The most famous reference originates from Tuxedo Park, an upstate New York countryside enclave for Manhattans wealthiest citizens. Although it is not known whether this garment was a jacket or a conventional dinner jacket. An essay in the Tuxedo Park archives attributes the jackets importation to America to resident James Brown Potter a merchant banker who had worked in London for Brown Brothers specifically, however this claim for Potter cannot be verified through independent sources. Period newspaper accounts indicate that at first the jacket was worn by young mavericks to gatherings considered strictly formal and this led the American establishment to reject it out of hand. It was only by 1888 that polite society accepted its role solely as a summer, the earliest tuxedo jackets were of the same black material as the dress coat with one, two or no buttons and a shawl collar faced in satin or ribbed silk. By the turn of the century the peaked lapel was equally popular. When trousers were sold with the jacket they were of the same material, edwardian dandies often opted for Oxford grey or a very dark blue for their evening wear. By World War I, the option had fallen out of favour but the midnight blue alternative became increasingly popular. Notch lapels, imported from the business suit, were a brief vogue in the 1920s

9.
Denmark
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Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth

10.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics

11.
Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The land of the Faeroes is rugged, and these islands have an oceanic climate, windy, wet, cloudy. Despite this island groups northerly latitude, temperatures average above freezing throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream, between 1035 and 1814, the Faeroes were part of the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway. In 1814, the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the islands, the Faroe Islands have been a self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark since 1948. The Faroese have control of most domestic matters, areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, the police department, the justice department, currency, and foreign affairs. However, as they are not part of the customs area as Denmark, the Faroe Islands have an independent trade policy. The islands also have representation in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation, the people of the Faroe Islands also compete as national team in certain sports. In Danish, the name Færøerne may reflect an Old Norse word fær, the morpheme øerne represents a plural of ø in Danish. The Danish name thus translates as the islands of sheep, in Faroese, the name appears as Føroyar. Oyar represents the plural of oy, older Faroese for island, the modern Faeroese word for island is oyggj. In the English language, their name is sometimes spelled Faeroe, archaeological evidence shows settlers living on the Faroe Islands in two successive periods prior to the arrival of the Norse, the first between 400 and 600 and the second between 600 and 800. Scientists from the University of Aberdeen have also found early cereal pollen from domesticated plants, archaeologist Mike Church noted that Dicuil mentioned what may have been the Faroes. He also suggested that the living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia. A Latin account of a made by Brendan, an Irish monastic saint who lived around 484–578. This association, however, is far from conclusive in its description, Dicuil, an Irish monk of the early 9th century, wrote a more definite account. 800, bringing Old West Norse, which evolved into the modern Faroese language, according to Icelandic sagas such as Færeyjar Saga, one of the best known men in the island was Tróndur í Gøtu, a descendant of Scandinavian chiefs who had settled in Dublin, Ireland. Tróndur led the battle against Sigmund Brestursson, the Norwegian monarchy, a traditional name for the islands in Irish, Na Scigirí, possibly refers to the Skeggjar Beards, a nickname given to island dwellers

12.
Falchion
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A falchion is a one-handed, single-edged sword of European origin, whose design is reminiscent of the Chinese dadao, and modern machete. Falchions are found in different forms from around the 13th century up to, in some versions the falchion looks rather like the weapon-seax and later the sabre, and in other versions the form is irregular or like a machete with a crossguard. The blade designs of falchions varied widely across the continent and through the ages, unlike the double-edged swords of Europe, few actual swords of this type have survived to the present day, fewer than a dozen specimens are currently known. A number of weapons superficially similar to the falchion existed in Western Europe, including the Messer, hanger, two basic types of falchion can be identified, One of the few surviving falchions is shaped very much like a large meat cleaver, or large bladed machete. This type is illustrated in art The type seems to be confined to the 13th and 14th centuries. However apart from the profile they present a thin blade. Current theories are that they were the anti-cloth armour weapon of the day, the majority of the depictions in art reflect a design similar to that of the großes Messer. A surviving example from Englands 13th century was just under 2 pounds in weight, of its 37.5 inches length,31.5 inches are the straight blade which bears a cusped or flare-clipped tip similar to the much later kilij of Turkey. This blade style may have influenced by the Turko-Mongol sabres that had reached the borders of Europe by the 13th century. This type of sword continues in use into the 16th century, though it is now debated that it is an actual influence of the Turko-Mongol type sabres. It is now categorized as an independent development as the 13th century sabres dont have this type of cusp, in addition, there are a group of 13th- and early 14th-century weapons sometimes identified with the falchion. These have a blade mounted on a wooden haft 1–2 ft long. These are seen in illustrations in the mid-13th-century Maciejowski Bible. It is sometimes presumed that these swords had a quality and status than the longer. It is possible that some falchions were used as axe-like tools between wars and fights, since they were pieces of equipment. The Falchion sword – a wonderful curved sword

13.
Lopapeysa
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It is believed that the sweaters are patterned on Greenlandic womens costume, or even inspired by South American, Turkish or Swedish textile patterns. It is characterized by a yoke design – that is, a decorative circle surrounding the neck opening. The sweater is knitted in a circle, meaning that there is no difference between the front and the back, unless a zipper is added. The yarn used, lopi, is made from the wool of Icelandic sheep, lopi is remarkable in that it is not spun, so it contains more air than spun yarn and as a consequence it has better insulation properties. This also makes more difficult to handle than spun yarn. The colors can be artificial, but undyed wool of various colors is available, the Icelandic wool has earned an international reputation for its warmth, lightness and insulation abilities so that even when wet, it keeps you warm. As a breed, the Iceland sheep is unique - the purity of the strain has been protected by centuries of isolation, by the same token, the wool it produces has no counterpart anywhere. Evolving over 1,100 years of exposure to the sub-Arctic climate, the outer fibers are long, glossy, tough and water resistant, while the inner ones are fine, soft and insulating, providing a high resistance to cold. A further striking characteristic of the Iceland sheep is its natural colors, black, grey, together, these create the distinctive look of Icelandic knitwear, one of the best-known examples of which is the lopi. Mariusgenser Lusekofte Selburose Þjóðbúningurinn - Icelandic national costume Icelandic tail-cap

14.
Bunad
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Bunad is a Norwegian umbrella term encompassing, in its broadest sense, a range of both traditional rural clothes as well as modern 20th-century folk costumes. In its narrow sense the word refers only to clothes designed in the early 20th century that are loosely based on traditional costumes. The word bunad in itself is a 20th-century invention, however, in Norway national romanticist ideas had a more lasting impact, as seen in the use of folk inspired costumes. The bunad movement has been carried forward by all over the country. Designers such as Lise Skjåk Bræk have developed entire lines of costumes based on the bunad tradition, in the field of folk costumes it is common to differentiate between bunad and folk costume, the latter being the local dress in previous times with all its variations and use. Modern interpretations of these costumes have often modified or done away with parts of the traditional dresses in order to align them with a more conventional idea of beauty. For example, few Norwegians still use the headdresses and headpieces that were a part of the costumes, preferring instead to show their hair. There is a debate about the extent to which bunads must conform to the standards. Some groups argue that bunads must be sewn and worn according to standards, others advocate a more creative. Bunads are nowadays often viewed as a symbol, ranging in the price of $2, 000−10,000, depending on the desired design, material, embroidery, gold, silver. The price also depends on whether the customer buys from a company like Husfliden. In recent years, Chinese companies have starting selling cheaper bunads made in China and it has caused concern that these China bunads may undermine the authenticity and the desirability of the bunads. In recent years, its use has reached far outside folk dancing, folk music, accepted as proper gala attire, it is increasingly common to see people, and especially women, dressed in bunad. The former Norwegian foreign minister, Thorvald Stoltenberg, made history by presenting his accreditation as ambassador to Margrethe II of Denmark dressed in a bunad. Moreover, people tend to wear bunads to festive celebrations such as anniversaries and birthdays, there is ongoing debate about the official status of various outfits, and what allowed variations are. Due to ongoing discussions on the status of bunads, it is not possible to state accurately the number of different types of bunads in Norway, but most estimates place the number at around 200. In 1947 an official institution, the National Committee for Bunad-related Questions was organized to act in a capacity on all questions dealing with bunads in Norway. That function is assigned to the Norwegian Institute for Costume and Folk Costume

15.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

16.
History of Iceland
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The recorded history of Iceland began with the settlement by Viking explorers and their slaves from the east, particularly Norway and the British Isles, in the late ninth century. Iceland was still uninhabited long after the rest of Western Europe had been settled, recorded settlement has conventionally been dated back to 874, although archaeological evidence indicates Gaelic monks had settled Iceland before that date. The land was settled quickly, mainly by Norwegians who may have been fleeing conflict or seeking new land to farm, by 930, the chieftains had established a form of governance, the Althing, making it one of the worlds oldest parliaments. Towards the end of the tenth century Christianity came to Iceland through the influence of the Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason. During this time Iceland remained independent, a known as the Old Commonwealth. Norway, in turn, was united with Sweden and then Denmark, eventually all of the Nordic states were united in one alliance, the Kalmar Union, but on its dissolution, Iceland fell under Danish rule. The subsequent strict Danish–Icelandic Trade Monopoly in the 17th and 18th centuries was very detrimental to the economy, Icelands subsequent poverty was aggravated by severe natural disasters like the Móðuharðindin or Mist Hardships. During this time the population declined, Iceland remained part of Denmark, but in keeping with the rise of nationalism around Europe in the nineteenth century an independence movement emerged. The Althing, which had suspended in 1799, was restored in 1844. However Iceland shared the Danish Monarchy until World War II, although Iceland was neutral in the Second World War, the United Kingdom peacefully occupied it in 1940 to forestall a Nazi occupation, after Denmark itself was overrun by the German Wehrmacht. Because of the strategic position in the North Atlantic, the allies occupied the island until the end of the war. In 1944, and declared itself an independent nation. Following the Second World War Iceland was a member of both the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Its economy grew rapidly due to fishing, although this was marred by conflicts with other nations like the Cod Wars. Following rapid financial growth, the 2008–11 Icelandic financial crisis occurred, Iceland continues to remain outside the European Union. Icelands history has also marked by a number of natural disasters. Iceland is also a young country in the geological sense. The oldest stone specimens found in Iceland date back to ca.16 million years ago, in geological terms, Iceland is a young island

17.
Outline of Iceland
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Iceland, Iceland – sovereign island nation located in the North Atlantic Ocean between continental Europe and Greenland. It is considered part of Northern Europe and it is the least populous of the Nordic countries, having a population of about 329,000. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active on a scale, this defines the landscape in various ways. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterized by fields, mountains and glaciers. Warmed by the Gulf Stream, Iceland has a temperate climate relative to its latitude and provides a habitable environment and nature

18.
Military history of Iceland
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This is a brief overview of historical warfare and recent developments in what today constitutes the Republic of Iceland. The armies being divided into units by the quality the warriors, at the end of this period the number of chieftains had diminished and their power had grown to the detriment of their followers. This resulted in a series of major feuds known as Age of the Sturlungs in the 13th century. During and before the war more than 21 fortresses were built, the battle consisted of little less than 1000 men with the average casualty rate of 15%. This low casualty rate has been attributed to the mentality that permeated Icelandic society. As well as the requirements of Christianity to get a pardon from a cleric for each fiend smitten, while executions after battle were uncommon, they were extensive when they happened. Amphibious operations were important part of warfare in Iceland in this time, especially in the Westfjords, the largest of these was an engagement of a few dozen ships in Húnaflói known as Flóabardagi. One side employing smaller longships as well as boats and the other large Knaars, other larger merchant ships, at the end most of the chieftains had been slain and only one of the original chieftains who started the war remained. It had nonetheless become evident that no one chieftain was powerful enough to all the others. This led the Icelandic betri bændur of the South, North and Western Iceland to submit to the Norwegian crown, all inhabitants of a sýslumaður´s fief were obligated to follow them in battle against invaders. The king rarely asked for expeditionary forces to help defend Norway, there are however a few documented occasions of Icelandic expeditionary armies coming to the kings aid. As the church became more powerful its bishops and priests became more militant, the Bishops own sveinar could expect to become priests after their military service. The two bishops became de facto Ecclesiastical Counts or Kirkjugreifar, responsible for law enforcement and overall command of military defences, Icelandic noblemen became wary of the Bishops powers in the late 15th century and protested. Other firearms, such as the hand gonne, known as haki or hakbyssa in Iceland, since the king of Denmark had embraced Lutheranism in the early 16th century he had campaigned to convert his realms from Catholicism to Lutheranism. In the 1540s it was Icelands turn, Lutheran bishop was elected as the bishop of Skálholt diocese and bitter conflict ensued. Although the bloodshed didnt come close to that in the Civil War fought in the 13th century it was considerable as the bishops fielded armies of thousands. In a bid to isolate Skálholt, Icelands last Catholic bishop, Jón Arason of Hólar, although initially successful in capturing Sauðafell he was later defeated by Daðis army and captured with his sons. Jón Arason and his sons were then transported to Skálholt and beheaded there in 1550, a year later a Danish mercenary force mostly consisting of Landsknechts arrived to support the policy of conversion

19.
Prohibition in Iceland
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Prohibition in Iceland went into effect in 1915 and lasted, to some extent, until 1 March 1989. The ban had originally prohibited all alcohol, but from 1935 onward only applied to strong beer, in a 1908 referendum, Icelanders voted in favour of a ban on all alcoholic drinks, going into effect 1 January 1915. Strong beer, however, was not included in the 1935 vote in order to please the temperance lobby—which argued that because beer is cheaper than spirits, it would lead to more depravity. As international travel brought Icelanders back in touch with beer, bills to legalise it were moved in the Icelandic parliament. Soon after, beer approached legalisation in parliament—a full turnout of the house of Icelands parliament voted 13 to 8 to permit the sales. Following the end of prohibition, some Icelanders have celebrated Beer Day on 1 March, some people may take part in a rúntur, with a few bars staying open until 4,00 a. m. the next day. The legalisation of beer remains a significant cultural event in Iceland as beer has become the most popular alcoholic beverage, international Beer Day Brennivín Beer in Iceland Vínbúð Icelandic Tourist Board

20.
List of rulers of Iceland
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This is a list of rulers of Iceland, ruling from 1262 to 1944. Iceland was settled in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, principally by people of Norwegian, in 930, the ruling chiefs established a republican constitution and an assembly called the Althing - the oldest parliament in the world. Iceland remained independent until 1262, when it entered into a treaty established a union with the Norwegian monarchy. In the late 14th century Norway and Denmark entered into a union, following a constitutional referendum between 20 and 23 May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944. Since Denmark was still occupied by Germany, many Danes felt offended that the step should have taken at the time. Still, the King of Denmark, Christian X, sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people, jørgen Jørgensen, Jörundur hundadagakonungur, a Danish adventurer that proclaimed himself temporary king during some months of 1809. List of Norwegian monarchs List of Danish monarchs List of Swedish monarchs List of Finnish monarchs List of Greenlandic rulers

21.
Monarchy of Iceland
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The Monarchy of Iceland, was the system of government in which an hereditary monarch was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Iceland from 1918 to 1944. Under a personal union, due to the Act of Union, the monarchy lasted until 17 June 1944, when a national referendum established a constitutional republic in its place. The monarchy of Iceland was created by the Act of Union of 1918 which transformed the former Danish overseas possession of Iceland into an independent sovereign constitutional monarchy, Iceland adopted a new constitution following the referendum in 1944 which abolished the monarchy. Although many Danes felt offended that Iceland should take such a step at that time, by the Grace of God, King of Iceland, Denmark, the Wends and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Lauenburg and Oldenburg. Nobility in Iceland List of rulers of Iceland Iceland, Home Rule and Sovereignty at Encyclopædia Britannica

22.
Settlement of Iceland
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The settlement of Iceland is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the 9th century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of land in Scandinavia. Unlike the British Isles, Iceland was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants, on the basis of Íslendingabók by Ari Thorgilsson, and Landnámabók, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. Historian Gunnar Karlsson notes that these sources are unreliable in terms of dating settlement. Almost everything known about the first settlers comes from Íslendingabók, and Landnámabók, estimates of the number of initial settlers range between 311 and 436. The Íslendingabók of Ari Thorgilsson claims that the Norse settlers encountered Gaelic monks from a Hiberno-Scottish mission when they arrived in Iceland, there is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from the British Isles at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno-Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave. The oldest known source which mentions the name Iceland is an 11th-century Gothic rune carving, the first written source to mention the existence of Iceland is a book by the Goidelic monk Dicuil, De mensura orbis terrae, which dates back to 825. Dicuilus claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of Thule and they said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from ones clothing. While the veracity of this source may be questioned, there is doubt that the inhabitants of the British Isles were aware of a sizeable land mass far up north. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450 kilometres from the Faroes which had visited by Irish monks in the 6th century. A cabin in Hafnir was abandoned between 770 and 880, showing that it was well before the traditional settlement date of 874. It is thought to have been an outpost only inhabited part of the year, the Landnámabók claims that the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil was a viking by the name of Naddoddr. Naddoddr stayed for only a period of time, but gave the country a name. He was followed by the Swede Garðar Svavarsson, who was the first to stay over winter, at some time around 860, a storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. Garðar approached the island from the east, sailed westward along the coast and then up north and he completed a full circle, circumnavigating the island and establishing that the landmass in question was indeed an island. He departed the following summer, never to return but not before giving the island a new name -- Garðarshólmur, one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, close to Skjálfandi, Landnámabók maintains that Náttfari was not a permanent settler

23.
Icelandic Commonwealth
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With the probable exception of Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 870. The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure, the first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains, the office of the goði was called the goðorð. The goðorð was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries, thus, a free man could choose to support any of the goðar of his district. The supporters of the goðar were called Þingmenn, in exchange for the goði protecting his interests, the Þingmaðr would provide armed support to his goði during feuds or conflicts. The Þingmenn were also required to attend regional and national assemblies, on a regional level, the goðar of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The goðar also served as the leaders of the Alþingi, the assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence and it began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway and he spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr’s Law, which would form the basis for Icelands national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók, the first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir. The Alþingi served as a gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the Lögrétta, the council of the assembly. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 goðar and their advisors and they also appointed a Lawspeaker once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg, located at the center of Þingvellir, the descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson, the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of allsherjargoði and had the role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year. Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called fjörðungar, each of these was ruled by nine goðar. The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts and this judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the goðar. These courts tried individual cases and served as a judicial authority to the regional courts. The rulings of the judges had to be virtually unanimous

24.
Christianisation of Iceland
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Iceland was Christianized in the year 1000 AD, when Christianity became the religion by law. In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka, the vast majority of the initial settlers of Iceland during the settlement of Iceland in the 9th and 10th centuries AD were pagan, worshipping the Æsir. Icelands adoption of Christianity is traditionally ascribed to the year 1000, aris account of the events surrounding the conversion seems to be reliable, although he was born 67 years after the conversion, he cites first-hand sources. Beginning in 980, Iceland was visited by several missionaries, the first of these seems to have been an Icelander returning from abroad, one Thorvald Konradsson. Accompanying Thorvald was a German bishop named Fridrek, about whom little is known, thorvaldurs attempt to convert Icelanders met with limited success. He was the subject of ridicule and was forced to flee the country after a conflict in which two men were killed by Thorvald. When Olaf Tryggvason ascended the throne of Norway, the effort to Christianize Iceland intensified, King Olaf sent an Icelander named Stefnir Thorgilsson back to his homeland to convert his fellow countrymen. Stefnir violently destroyed sanctuaries and images of the heathen gods – this made him so unpopular that he was declared an outlaw. After Stefnirs failure, Olaf sent a priest named Thangbrand, Thangbrand was an experienced missionary, having proselytized in Norway and the Faroe Islands. His mission in Iceland from c and he managed to convert several prominent Icelandic chieftains, but killed two or three men in the process. Thangbrand returned to Norway in 999 and reported his failure to King Olaf and he refused Icelandic seafarers access to Norwegian ports and took as hostages several Icelanders then dwelling in Norway. This cut off all trade between Iceland and its trading partner. Some of the hostages taken by King Olaf were the sons of prominent Icelandic chieftains, in the 11th century, three Armenian bishops, Petros, Abraham and Stephannos are recorded by Icelandic sources as Christian missionaries in Iceland. Their presence has been explained in terms of the service of King Harald Hardrada of Norway as a Varangian in Constantinople, the Icelandic Commonwealths limited foreign policy consisted almost entirely of maintaining good relations with Norway. The Christians in Iceland used the Kings pressure to step up efforts at conversion, the two rival religions soon divided the country and threatened civil war. This state of affairs reached a point the next summer during the meeting of the Althing. Fighting between adherents of the rival religions seemed likely until mediators intervened and the matter was submitted to arbitration, the law speaker of the Althing, Thorgeir Thorkelsson, the gothi of Ljósavatn, was acceptable to both sides as mediator, being known as a moderate and reasonable man. Thorgeir accepted responsibility for deciding whether Iceland should become Christian, with the condition that both parties abide by his decision, when this was agreed, he spent a day and a night resting under a fur blanket, contemplating

25.
Nobility in Iceland
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Nobility in Iceland may refer to the following, Icelandics who belonged to the aristocracy of the Icelandic Republic. Icelandics who belonged to the Norwegian nobility, Icelandics who belonged to the Danish nobility. During the Norse settlement of Iceland, beginning in ca.874,930, chieftains and aristocratic families from Western and Northern Norway arrived to the island. They had refused to accept Harald I Halfdanson as their king, instead abandoning their chieftain seats and petty kingdoms. One of these seats was Borg in Lofoten, during this time a rich amount of poetry and literature was created, among others by poet Sighvatr Sturluson and by poet and historian Snorri Sturluson. The aforementioned families are extensively described in literature, for example in the Sturlunga saga. Between 1262 and 1814 Iceland was a part of the Kingdom of Norway, the process that turned Iceland into a province had begun already in the 12th century. In the 12th and the 13th centuries several Icelandic men travelled to and were included at the Royal Court in Norway, illustrating the growing connection between Iceland and Norway, Jón’s mother was Þóra Magnúsdóttir, a daughter of King Magnus III Olafson of Norway. In 1220 Snorri Sturluson, an son of Jón and a member of the Sturlunga family. In 1235 Snorri’s nephew Sturla Sighvatsson also accepted vassalage under the King of Norway, unlike his uncle, Sturla worked actively for bringing Iceland under the Norwegian Crown, warring on chieftains who refused to accept the King’s demands. In 1262, following the Old Covenant, the independent republic became an earldom under the Kingdom of Norway, gissur Þorvaldsson of the Haukdælir was created Earl of Iceland in 1262, indicating and imposing that he should rule Iceland on behalf of Norway’s king. It is known that approximately 20–30 Icelandic men had the title of knight in the following centuries, the first noble titles are known since 1277. These titles were not inherited, but rather expressed each person’s function. The medieval aristocracy to which some Icelandics belonged was originally known as the hird and this was divided into three classes, of which the first had three ranks. The first class was hirdmann with lendmann as the 1st rank, skutilsvein as the 2nd rank, below them were the classes gjest and kjertesvein. The hird’s organisation is described in the King’s Mirror and the Codex of the Hird, during the second half of the 13th century continental European court culture began to gain influence in Norway. In 1277 King Magnus VI Haakonson of Norway introduced continental titles in the hird, lendmen were now called barons and it is difficult to determinate exactly how many knights and squires there were in the 14th and the early 15th century in Norway. When King Haakon V signed a treaty with the Danish king in 1309, it was sealed by 29 Norwegian knights

26.
Age of the Sturlungs
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The Age of the Sturlungs or the Sturlung Era was a 42–44 year period of internal strife in mid-13th century Iceland. It may have been the bloodiest and most violent period in Icelandic history and it is documented in the Sturlunga saga. This period is marked by the conflicts of powerful chieftains, goðar, who amassed followers and did battle, and is named for the Sturlungs, at the end of the era, the Icelandic Commonwealth ceased to exist and Iceland became a vassal of Norway. Historians generally regard the year 1220 as the first year of the Age of the Sturlungs, Power in the country had consolidated within the grasp of a few family clans. Many Icelandic chieftains became his vassals and were obliged to do his bidding—in exchange they received gifts, followers, consequently, the greatest Icelandic chieftains were soon affiliated with the King of Norway in one way or the other. In the Icelandic Commonwealth, power was mostly in the hands of the goðar, Iceland was effectively divided into farthings. Within each farthing were nine Goði-dominions, the North farthing had an additional three dominions due to its size. The Goði-chieftains protected the farmers in their territory, and exacted compensation or vengeance if their followers rights were violated, in exchange, the farmers pledged their support to the Goði, both by voting in his favor in the Alþingi parliament and by taking up arms against his enemies. The powers of the Goði-chieftains, however, were neither permanent nor inherited and this status came about by a combination of respect, honour, influence and wealth. The chieftains constantly had to demonstrate their qualities as leaders, either by giving gifts to their followers or by holding great feasts, if the chieftain was seen as failing in any respect, his followers could simply choose another, more qualified Goði to support. The greatest chieftains of the 12th and 13th century started amassing great wealth and this may be one of the causes of the civil war. The Age of Sturlungs began in 1220, when Snorri Sturluson, chieftain of the Sturlung clan and one of the great Icelandic saga writers, the king insisted that Snorri help him bring Iceland under the sovereignty of Norway. Snorri returned home, and although he became the countrys most powerful chieftain. According to one historian, we do not know whether inactivity was due to lack of will or his conviction that the case was hopeless, in 1235, Snorris nephew Sturla Sighvatsson also accepted vassalage under the king. Sturla was more aggressive, He sent his back to Norway. However, Sturla and his father Sighvatur were soundly defeated by Gissur Þorvaldsson, the chief of the Haukdælir, the Battle of Örlygsstaðir was the largest armed conflict in the history of Iceland—the Sturlungs had 1000 armed men and the Ásbirningar had 1200 armed men. More than 50 people were killed, after this crushing defeat, Gissur and Kolbeinn became the most powerful chieftains in the country. Snorri Sturluson returned home to Iceland, having fallen out of favor with the due to his support for Earl Skúli in an attempted coup

27.
Icelandic Reformation
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The Icelandic Reformation took place in the middle of the 16th century. Iceland was at time a territory ruled by Denmark. The Icelandic Reformation ended with the execution of Jón Arason, Catholic bishop of Hólar, Christian III became king of Denmark in 1535. That same year, on October 30,1536, he established the Danish Lutheran Church. The Catholic bishops in Iceland at the time were Ögmundur Pálsson of Skálholt and they were both powerful leaders who had originally been bitter enemies, but with the approaching threat of Lutheranism, they found common cause as allies against religious reform. Denmark had been embroiled in war during the dissolution of the Kalmar Union. Luthers influence had already reached Iceland before King Christians decree, the Germans fished near Icelands coast, and the Hanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church in Hafnarfjörður as early as 1533, through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. Ögmundur Pálsson, bishop of Skálholt, was at this point old and he had in his service several young men who had been educated in Germany and introduced to Protestantism. Many of them were in favour of reform, although they kept such views from the bishop. In 1538, when the decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop Ögmundur and his clergy denounced it. In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform, von Mervitz seized a monastery in Viðey with the help of his sheriff, Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were excommunicated by Ögmundur. Later, that summer, the sheriff and his men stopped in Skálholt. His supporters then gathered forces and attacked Dietrich, killing him, one of the young men in the service of bishop Ögmundur was Oddur Gottskálksson, son of Gottskálk Nikulásson, a former bishop of Hólar. Oddur returned to Iceland from his studies in Germany in 1535, aged 20 and he is said to have done the bulk of the translation in the barn of the farm adjoining the Skálholt see. Oddurs New Testament was printed in Roskilde in 1540, and is the oldest preserved printed work in the Icelandic language, another of these German-educated young men was Gissur Einarsson, who was secretly in favour of religious reformation. In 1539, bishop Ögmundur, who was almost blind now, made him his successor, the old bishop came to regret his decision when his protégés Lutheran views surfaced

28.
Icelandic independence movement
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The Icelandic Independence movement was the collective effort made by Icelanders to achieve self-determination and independence from the Kingdom of Denmark throughout the 19th and early 20th century. Iceland received a constitution and limited home rule in 1874, a minister for Icelandic affairs was appointed to the Danish cabinet in 1904. Full independence was granted in 1918 through the Danish-Icelandic Act of Union and this was followed by the severance of all ties to Denmark with the declaration of the republic in 1944. Through the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, following the strife of the Age of the Sturlungs, Icelanders had relinquished sovereignty to Haakon IV. Iceland remained under Norwegian kingship until 1380, when the death of Olav IV of Norway extinguished the Norwegian male royal line, Norway then became part of the Kalmar Union with Sweden and Denmark, in which Denmark was the dominant power. Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Icelands fish and homespun wool and this created a dramatic deficit in Icelands trade, and as a result, no new ships for continental trading were built. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries of Europe, while attempts have been made to find evidence of pre-19th century nationalist sentiments, not much comprehensive evidence has been found of nationalism as we understand it today. The most notable of these were the so-called Fjölnismenn—poets and writers for the journal Fjölnir— Brynjólfur Pétursson, Jónas Hallgrímsson, Konráð Gíslason, meanwhile, an independence movement developed under Jón Sigurðsson. In 1843, a royal decree re-established a national parliament, the Althing and it claimed continuity with the Althing of the Icelandic Commonwealth, which had remained for centuries as a judicial body and had been abolished in 1800. The advocates of Icelandic independence pursued their aims peacefully, soliciting Danish officials via legal means, the struggle for independence reached its height in 1851 when the Danes tried to pass new legislation, the requests of which the Icelanders ignored. The Icelandic delegates, under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, passed their own proposal, much to the displeasure of the Kings agent and this caused Sigurðsson to rise up with his fellow delegates and utter the phrase Vér mótmælum allir. Icelandic farmers worried that various social restrictions in Icelandic society would be abolished, the Icelandic independence movement was peaceful from its start in the post-Napoleonic period to the accomplishment of independence in 1944. Common explanations for the nature of Icelands independence struggle include. The accommodating responses of Denmark to Icelandic demands, the unwillingness of Denmark to respond violently, in part due to a respect for Icelandic culture but also an unwillingness to shoulder the costs of quelling the Icelandic independence movement. The peaceful trends in the Nordic region after the Napoleonic Wars, in 1874, a thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. By the end of the 19th century, the efforts made on behalf of Iceland had their desired result. The constitution, written in 1874, was revised in 1903, hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister of Iceland from 31 January 1904 until 31 March 1909. The Act of Union, signed on 1 December 1918 by Icelandic and Danish authorities, recognized Iceland as a sovereign state

29.
Kingdom of Iceland
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The Kingdom of Iceland was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place. Iceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, in 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. The constitution, written the year, was revised in 1903. A minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was responsible to the Althing. On 1 December 1918, the Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark, the Kingdom of Iceland established its own flag and coat of arms and asked that Denmark represent its foreign affairs and defence interests. The Act would be reviewed in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement to continue it could not be reached, the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. A year later, on 15 May 1941 the Althing adopted a law creating the position of regent for Sveinn Björnsson in order to represent the monarchy. During the first year of World War II, Iceland strictly enforced a position of neutrality, on 10 May 1940, Operation Fork was launched by the United Kingdom when military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour and began an invasion of Iceland. The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a flagrant violation of Icelandic neutrality, on the day of the invasion, Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson read a radio announcement instructing Icelanders to treat the British troops as guests. The Allied occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war, at its peak, Britain had approximately 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in Reykjavík and other strategically important places. In July 1941, it coerced the Althing into accepting an American–Icelandic defence agreement, as many as 40,000 American soldiers were then stationed on the island, outnumbering the native population of adult men. Following a constitutional referendum in May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944, many Danes felt offended at its timing, as Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The deposed king in Copenhagen, Christian X, nonetheless sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people, nobility in Iceland Icelandic independence movement Danish realm Constitution of Denmark Greenlandic independence Faroese independence Iceland, Home Rule and Sovereignty at Encyclopædia Britannica

30.
Iceland in World War II
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At the beginning of World War II, Iceland was a sovereign kingdom in personal union with Denmark, with King Christian X as head of state. Iceland officially remained neutral throughout World War II, however, the British invaded Iceland on 10 May 1940. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, on 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic, which it remains to this day. German interest in Iceland in the 1930s grew from nothing at all to proportions found by the British government to be alarming, the Third Reichs overtures began with friendly competition between German and Icelandic football teams. When war began, Denmark and Iceland declared neutrality and limited visits to the island by military vessels, during the German occupation of Denmark, contact between the countries was disrupted. Initially, the Kingdom of Iceland declared itself to be neutral, following the invasion of Denmark on 9 April 1940 Iceland opened a legation in New York City. Iceland, however, unlike Norway, did not closely enforce limitations within its territorial waters, many Axis merchant vessels seeking shelter within the neutral waters around Iceland were sunk by Allied warships. The Chief of the Capital Police Forces, Agnar Kofoed-Hansen, started to train the National Defence forces in early 1940, the British imposed strict export controls on Icelandic goods, preventing profitable shipments to Germany, as part of its naval blockade. London offered assistance to Iceland, seeking cooperation as a belligerent and an ally, the German diplomatic presence in Iceland, along with the islands strategic importance, alarmed the British. The initial force of 746 British Royal Marines commanded by Colonel Robert Sturges was replaced on 17 May by two regular army brigades, in June the first elements of Z Force arrived from Canada to relieve the British, who immediately returned to the defence of the UK. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, by agreement with Iceland, icelands strategic position along the North Atlantic sea-lanes, perfect for air and naval bases, could bring new importance to the island. Iceland cooperated with the British and then the Americans, but officially remained neutral throughout World War II, during the war, drifting mines became a serious problem for Icelanders, as well as the Allied forces. The first Icelandic Explosive Ordnance Disposal personnel were trained in 1942 by the British Royal Navy to help deal with the problem, the British forces also supplied the Icelandic Coast Guard with weapons and ammunition, such as depth-charges against Axis U-boats. During the war, drifting mines and German U-boats damaged and sank a number of Icelandic vessels, icelands reliance on the sea, to provide nourishment and for trade, resulted in significant loss of life. In 1944, British Naval Intelligence built a group of five Marconi wireless direction-finding stations on the coast west of Reykjavík, the stations were part of a ring of similar groups located around the North Atlantic to locate wireless transmissions from U-boats. On 10 February 1944, German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor from the I. /KG40, stationed in Norway, on 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic. Approximately 230 Icelanders lives were lost in World War II hostilities, most were killed on cargo and fishing vessels sunk by German aircraft, U-boats or mines. The presence of British and American troops in Iceland had a impact on the country

31.
Invasion of Iceland
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The invasion of Iceland, codenamed Operation Fork, was a British military operation conducted by the Royal Navy and Royal Marines during World War II to occupy and deny Iceland to Germany. At the start of the war, Britain imposed strict controls on Icelandic goods, preventing profitable shipments to Germany. Britain offered assistance to Iceland, seeking cooperation as a belligerent and an ally, the German diplomatic presence in Iceland, along with the islands strategic importance, alarmed the British. After failing to persuade the Icelandic government to join the Allies, the initial force of 746 British Royal Marines commanded by Colonel Robert Sturges disembarked at the capital Reykjavík. Meeting no resistance, the troops moved quickly to disable communication networks, secure strategic locations, requisitioning local transport, the troops moved to Hvalfjörður, Kaldaðarnes, Sandskeið, and Akranes to secure landing areas against the possibility of a German counterattack. In 1918, after a period of Danish rule, Iceland had become an independent state in personal union with Denmark. The newly born Kingdom of Iceland declared itself a country without a defence force. The treaty of union allowed for a revision to begin in 1941, by 1928, all Icelandic political parties were in agreement that the union treaty would be terminated as soon as possible. On 9 April 1940, German forces launched Operation Weserübung, invading both Norway and Denmark, Denmark was subdued within a day and occupied. Iceland was invited to join Britain in the war as a belligerent, the Icelandic government rejected the offer. On 12 April, in Operation Valentine, the British took over the Faroe Islands, following the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, the British government became increasingly concerned that Germany would soon try to establish a military presence in Iceland. They felt that this would constitute a threat to British control of the North Atlantic. Just as importantly, the British were eager to obtain bases in Iceland for themselves to strengthen their Northern Patrol, planning conquest of Iceland for next week. As the military situation in Norway deteriorated, the Admiralty came to the conclusion that Britain could no longer do without bases in Iceland, on 6 May, Winston Churchill presented the case to the War Cabinet. Churchill maintained that if negotiations with the Icelandic government were attempted. A surer and more effective solution was to land troops unannounced, the War Cabinet approved the plan. The expedition was organized hastily and haphazardly, much of the operational planning was conducted en route. The force was supplied with few maps, most of poor quality, no one in the expedition was fully fluent in the Icelandic language

32.
Iceland in the Cold War
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In 1986, Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. Five years later, in 1991, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia. Early in World War II, the neutral Kingdom of Iceland had declined an offer of British protection. A month after the occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany in 1940, in 1941, the British arranged for the United States to take over occupation of the country so that British troops could be used in other arenas of the war. After pressure from the British, the Icelandic government eventually agreed to US occupation, the United States supported the founding of the Republic of Iceland in 1944 and promised to withdraw its troops once the war ended, but failed to do so when Nazi Germany was defeated in 1945. As World War II was winding down, the United States tried to persuade Icelandic statesmen to agree to permanent American military basing in Iceland, the pro-Western Icelandic Prime Minister Ólafur Thors considered such an agreement impossible at the time due to public opposition. When the Americans made a formal basing request in October 1945, in September 1946, the United States and Iceland negotiated over a more moderate basing agreement. These negotiation concluded on 7 October 1946, as the so-called Keflavík Agreement was signed, the US would be allowed to keep civilian staff in the country to oversee military shipping to mainland Europe. The agreement was passed into law by the Althing with 32 votes against 19, all 20 MPs from the Independence Party supported the agreement along with six each from the Progressive Party and the Social Democratic Party. These latter two also had MPs who voted against the agreement. Every MP from the Socialist Party voted against the agreement,500 people protested against this agreement. The headquarters for the Independence Party was attacked with rocks and protesters tried to storm the building while the Independence Party held a meeting indoors, in the wake of this rift, the Cold War shaped Icelandic politics for the next decades. A sense of global turmoil and internal threat led Icelandic statesmen to reconsider Icelands security arrangements. The Czechoslovak coup détat in February 1948 made the world seem less peaceful, the Icelandic coalition government of the Independence Party, the centrist Progressive Party and the Social Democrats began to look for security guarantees for Iceland. Basing US military on Icelandic soil was domestically unfeasible at the time, when negotiations for a Scandinavian Defense Union fell apart, Iceland followed Denmark and Norway into NATO. The Althing approved Icelands NATO membership on 30 March 1949 with 37 votes against 13, the Socialist Party was the only Icelandic political party opposed to NATO membership. Large protests occurred outside of Parliament on Lækjartorg and Austurvöllur in downtown Reykjavík, fighting broke out and soon escalated into a riot, police assaulted dispersed them with tear gas. 12 persons needed medical care, including six seriously injured policeman,20 individuals were sentenced for their part in the riots but none of them sentenced to prison

33.
Cod Wars
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The Cod Wars were a series of confrontations between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights in the North Atlantic. Each of the disputes ended with Icelands victory, as a result, British fishing communities lost access to rich areas and were devastated, with thousands of jobs lost. Since 1982, a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone has been the United Nations standard, the term cod war was coined by a British journalist in early September 1958. None of the Cod Wars meets any of the thresholds for a conventional war, though. There is only one confirmed death during the Cod Wars, an Icelandic engineer accidentally killed in the Second Cod War while repairing damage on an Icelandic gunboat, a variety of explanations for the occurrence of the Cod Wars have been put forward. Lessons drawn from the Cod Wars have been applied to international relations theory, fishermen from the British Isles began to fish in international waters near Iceland in and around 1400. From the early 16th century onwards, English sailors and fishermen were a presence in the waters off Iceland. Some Icelandic historians view the history of Icelands struggle for control of its resources in ten episodes. The first of these Cod Wars was a dispute between Norway and England in 1415–1425 over the trading with Iceland, which was in violation of Norways monopoly on the Icelandic trade. This dispute ended when the English arrested Eric of Pomeranias officials in Iceland, the agreement reached in 1976 is considered the final and tenth Cod War. With increases in range of fishing enabled by steam power in the part of the 19th century. Their large catches in Icelandic waters attracted more regular voyages across the North Atlantic, in 1893, the Danish Government, which had governed Iceland and the Faroe Islands, claimed a fishing limit of 50 nmi around their shores. British trawler owners disputed this claim and continued to send their ships to the waters near Iceland, in 1896 the United Kingdom made an agreement with Denmark which allowed for British vessels to use any Icelandic port for shelter, provided they stowed their gear and trawl nets. In return, British vessels were not to fish in Faxa Bay east of a line from Ílunýpa, in April 1899 the steam trawler Caspian was fishing off the Faroe Islands when a Danish gunboat tried to arrest her for allegedly fishing illegally inside the limits. The trawler refused to stop and was fired upon, eventually the trawler was caught but, before the skipper left his ship to go aboard the Danish gunboat, he ordered the mate to make a dash for it after he went on to the Danish ship. The Caspian set off at full speed, the gunboat fired several shots at the unarmed boat but could not catch up with the trawler, which returned heavily damaged to Grimsby, England. On board the Danish gunboat, the skipper of the Caspian was lashed to the mast, a court held at Thorshavn convicted him on several counts, including illegal fishing and attempted assault, and he was jailed for thirty days. The issue was left largely unresolved, the reduction in fishing activity brought about by the hostilities of the First World War effectively ended the dispute for a time

34.
Great Recession in Iceland
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Relative to the size of its economy, Icelands systemic banking collapse was the largest experienced by any country in economic history. The crisis led to an economic depression in 2008–2010 and significant political unrest. In the years preceding the crisis, three Icelandic banks, Kaupthing, Landsbanki and Glitnir, multiplied in size and this expansion was driven by ready access to credit in international financial markets, in particular short-term financing. As the international financial crisis unfolded in 2007–2008, investors perceived the Icelandic banks to be increasingly risky, trust in the banks gradually faded, leading to a sharp depreciation of the Icelandic króna in 2008 and increased difficulties for the banks in rolling over their short-term debt. At the end of the quarter of 2008, Icelands external debt was 9.553 trillion Icelandic krónur. The assets of the three banks totaled 14.437 trillion krónur at the end of the second quarter 2008, on 29 September 2008, it was announced that Glitnir would be nationalised. However, subsequent efforts to restore faith in the system failed. In the following days, new banks were founded to take over the operations of Kaupthing, Landsbanki. The old banks were put into receivership and liquidation, resulting in losses for their shareholders, outside Iceland, more than half a million depositors lost access to their accounts in foreign branches of Icelandic banks. The international bailout support programme led by IMF officially ended on 31 August 2011, the financial crisis had a serious negative impact on the Icelandic economy. The national currency fell sharply in value, foreign currency transactions were virtually suspended for weeks, a new era with positive GDP growth started in 2011, and has helped foster a gradually declining trend for the unemployment rate. The Icelandic króna had declined more than 35% against the euro from January to September 2008, inflation of consumer prices was running at 14%, and Icelands interest rates had been raised to 15. 5% to deal with the high inflation. On the night of Wednesday,8 October 2008, the Central Bank of Iceland abandoned its attempt to peg the Icelandic króna at 131 krónur to the euro after trying to set this peg on 6 October. The next day, the bank introduced restrictions on the purchase of foreign currency within Iceland. From 9 October to 5 November, the European Central Bank quoted a reference rate of 305 krónur to the euro, the Central Bank of Iceland set up a temporary system of daily currency auctions on 15 October to facilitate international trade. The value of the króna is determined by supply and demand in these auctions, the first auction sold €25 million at a rate of 150 krónur to the euro. Commercial króna trading outside Iceland restarted on 28 October, at a rate of 240 krónur to the euro. The foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank of Iceland fell by US$289 million during October 2008, the external rate as quoted by the European Central Bank was lower still

35.
Geography of Iceland
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Iceland has extensive volcanic and geothermal activity. The rift associated with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which marks the division between the Eurasian Plate and North American tectonic plates, runs across Iceland from the southwest to the northeast and this geographic feature is prominent at the Þingvellir National Park, where the promontory creates an extraordinary natural amphitheatre. The site was the home of Icelands parliament, the Alþing and it is a common misconception that Þingvellir are at the juncture between the North American and Eurasian continental plates. However, they are in fact at the juncture of the North American continental plate, about half of Icelands land area, which is of recent volcanic origin, consists of a mountainous lava desert and other wasteland. Around 10.2 per cent of the land area is covered by glaciers. Twenty per cent of the land is used for grazing, while only 1 per cent is cultivated, Iceland has lost most of the woodland that previously covered large areas of the country, but an ambitious reforestation programme is currently underway. Today, however, there are small patches of the original birch forests left. The inhabited areas are on the coast, particularly in the southwest, while the highlands are all. Because of the Gulf Streams moderating influence, the climate is characterized by damp, cool summers and relatively mild, reykjavík has an average temperature of 12 °C in July and 1 °C in January. The closest are the Balleny Islands off Antarctica, claimed by New Zealand, the antipodes of the northernmost of these, Young Island, lie between Flatey and Grímsey Islands off the north central Icelandic coast, about 10 km from either. A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it, the island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of types, many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with approx, media related to Geography of Iceland at Wikimedia Commons

36.
List of cities and towns in Iceland
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This is a list of cities and towns in Iceland. Some cities, such as Hafnarfjörður and Akranes, are also municipalities and these municipalities would share the same name and attributes. However, most recognized municipalities consist of cities or towns. Therefore, municipalities for which there is no city or town of the name are not included here. In the case of Árborg, for example, the entries are the city of Selfoss, there are also a few municipalities in which there are no cities or towns, and are thus not included in the list below. Although the English term has no definition in Iceland, settlements with populations in excess of 1,000 are generally considered to be cities. Cities shaded in green in the table are their respective regional capitals. The population of Ólafsvík fell below 1,000 in 2016, the city of Njarðvík was incorporated into neighboring Keflavík in 2010. This is a partial and incomplete list of Icelandic towns and their populations, sparsely settled areas or settlements with only a few hundred inhabitants are usually known as villages. is Municipalities and Urban Settlements in Iceland Regions of Iceland

37.
Climate of Iceland
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The climate of Iceland is subarctic near the southern coastal area and tundra inland in the highlands. The island lies in the path of the North Atlantic Current and this effect is aided by the Irminger Current, which also helps to moderate the island’s temperature. The weather in Iceland can be notoriously variable, the aurora borealis is often visible at night time during the winter. The Icelandic winter is mild for its latitude. The southerly lowlands of the average around 0 °C in winter. The lowest temperatures in the part of the island range from around −25 to −30 °C. The lowest temperature on record is −39.7 °C, the average July temperature in the southern part of the island is 10–13 °C. Warm summer days can reach 20–25 °C, the highest temperature recorded was 30.5 °C at the Eastern fjords in 1939. Annual average sunshine hours in Reykjavík are around 1300, which is similar to towns in Scotland and Ireland, the prevailing wind direction is easterly. Generally speaking, wind speeds tend to be higher in the highlands, wind speed in the lowlands reaches 18 m/s on 10-20 days per year but upwards of 50 days per year at places in the highlands. The strongest measured 10 minute sustained wind speed is 62.5 m/s, heavy dust storms can be generated by strong glacial winds, and can be very strong. Up to 10 t of material can be in motion per transect per hour and these storms are very frequent in the early summer in the arid highland areas north of the Vatnajökull glacier. Thunderstorms are extremely rare in Iceland, with fewer than five storms per year in the part of the island. They are most common in early or late summertime and they can be caused by warm air masses coming up from the continent, or deep lows from the southwest in wintertime. Lightning can usually be observed in connection with ash plumes erupting from the island’s volcanoes, there is a persistent area of low pressure near Iceland known as the Icelandic Low, found between Iceland and Greenland. This area affects the amount of air brought into the Arctic to the east, and it is part of a greater pressure system known as the North Atlantic Oscillation

38.
Geology of Iceland
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The geology of Iceland is unique and of particular interest to geologists. Iceland lies on the divergent boundary between the Eurasian plate and the North American plate. It also lies above a hotspot, the Iceland plume, which is believed to have caused the formation of Iceland itself, the result is an island characterised by repeated volcanism and geothermal phenomena such as geysers. This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in India, the eruption has been estimated to have killed over six million people globally, making it one of the deadliest volcanoes, with Tambora being number one. In the period 1965 to 1969 the new island of Surtsey was created on the southwest coast by a volcanic eruption and these Pliocene and late Pleistocene deposits are composed of silt and sandstones, with fossils preserved in the lower layers. The primary fossil types found in the Tjörnes beds are marine mollusc shells, vegetational changes Past climate Origin of the strata Fossil preservation The tectonic structure of Iceland is characterized by various seismically and volcanically active centers. Iceland is bordered to the south by the Reykjanes Ridge segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, rifting in the southern part of Iceland is focused in two main parallel rift zones. The Reykjanes Peninsula Rift in SW Iceland is the continuation of the Reykjanes Ridge that connects to the Western Volcanic Zone. The more active Eastern Volcanic Zone represents a rift jump, although it is unclear how the propagation of the main rifting activity has occurred. The offset between the WVZ and the EVZ is accommodated by the South Iceland Seismic Zone, a characterized by high earthquake activity. The EVZ transitions northward into the Northern Volcanic Zone, which contains Krafla volcano, the NVZ is connected to the Kolbeinsey Ridge by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone, another major center of seismicity and deformation. Glaciers cover approximately 11% of Iceland, the largest of which is Vatnajökull, as many glaciers overlie active volcanoes, subglacial eruptions can pose hazards due to sudden floods produced by glacial meltwater, known as jökulhlaups. Icelandic glaciers have generally been retreating over the past 100 years, with Vatnajökull having lost as much as 10% of its volume. G

39.
Highlands of Iceland
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The Highlands of Iceland cover most of the interior of Iceland. This results largely in a surface of grey, black or brown earth, lava, a few oasis-like areas, such as Herðubreiðarlindir near Askja, are found only in proximity to rivers. Most of the glaciers, such as Vatnajökull, Langjökull and Hofsjökull, are also part of the Icelandic Highlands. Vegetation is only found on the shores of the glacier rivers, there is also the danger of glacier runs. Some of the most interesting parts of Iceland with volcanic activity are to be found in the Highlands, such as Landmannalaugar, the Highlands can be crossed only during the Icelandic summer). For the rest of the year the roads are closed. The best known highland roads are Kaldidalur, Kjölur and Sprengisandur, most highland roads require four-wheel drive vehicles, because it is necessary to ford rivers. However, the Kjölur route can easily be traversed in a car and is therefore one of the more popular highland roads. Off-road driving is forbidden entirely in Iceland where there is no snow, including the Highlands, volcanology of Iceland Media related to Highlands of Iceland at Wikimedia Commons Photos from www. islandsmyndir. is Photos and information Actual road conditions

40.
List of lakes of Iceland
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This is a list of lakes of Iceland. Iceland has over 20 lakes larger than 10 km², and at least 40 others varying between 2.5 and 10 km² in size and this list also includes a few smaller lakes and ponds that are considered notable. The figures for many of the lakes are unreliable. Also, some larger lakes vary considerably in size between years or seasons or, for the reservoirs, according to the needs of power plants, some power plant reservoirs may not be present despite being larger than listed lakes. Litlisjór,9.2 km²,17 m Kleifarvatn,9.0 km², >90 m Breiðárlón,8 km²

Icelandic language
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Icelandic /aɪsˈlændɪk/ is a North Germanic language, the language of Iceland. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages, historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the colonisation of the Americas. Icelandic, Faroese, Norn, and Western Norwegian forme

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A page from the Landnámabók

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regions where Icelandic is the language of the majority

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Photograph taken from page 206 of Colloquial Icelandic.

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Eyjafjallajökull, one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland, situated to the north of Skógar and to the west of Mýrdalsjökull, is Icelandic for "glacier of Eyjafjöll"

Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plate

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Norsemen Landing in Iceland – a 19th Century depiction by Oscar Wergeland.

National costume
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A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the

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Faroese folk dance club with some members in national costumes.

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Ugandan women in gomesi

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Somali woman in traditional attire

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Berber boys in folk wear

Ruff (clothing)
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A ruff is an item of clothing worn in Western Europe from the mid-sixteenth century to the mid-seventeenth century. The ruff, which was worn by men, women and children and they served as changeable pieces of cloth that could themselves be laundered separately while keeping the wearers doublet from becoming soiled at the neckline. Later ruffs were s

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Ruff of c. 1575. Detail from the Darnley Portrait of Elizabeth I.

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Tally iron, or goffering iron, for ironing lace and making ruff collars. Long rod to the right, curved stand for the rod to the left. From York Castle Museum

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Philip III of Spain ca. 1615. Detail from a portrait by Velázquez

Icelandic tail-cap
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The Icelandic tail-cap or skotthúfa is a typical part of the Icelandic national costume. Originally it was worn by men, but starting in the 18th century women started to wear it along with the peysa. Later it was adopted for the bodice-dress, the mens version is usually striped, while the womens is almost always black. While the mens version was kn

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19th century Icelandic woman wearing a deep tail cap

Viking age
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The Viking Age is the period from the late 8th century to the mid-11th century in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, following the Germanic Iron Age. It is the period of history when Scandinavian Norsemen explored Europe by its seas and rivers for trade, raids, colonisation and conquest. Three Viking ships had

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History of Scandinavia

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Viking Voyages in the North Atlantic

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Viking era towns of Scandinavia

Viking
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East

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Sea-faring Danes depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund. Pierpont Morgan Library.

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Travels of the Vikings

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Blar a' Bhuailte, site of the Vikings' last stand in Skye

Tuxedo
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The suit is typically black or midnight blue and commonly worn with a formal shirt, shoes and other accessories, most traditionally in the form prescribed by the black tie dress code. Dinner jacket in the context of menswear first appeared in England around 1887, in the 1960s it became associated in the United States with white or colored jackets s

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A double-breasted dinner suit

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Illustration of English peaked lapel and shawl collar dinner jackets, 1898. As substitutes for tailcoats, dinner jackets were originally worn with full dress accessories

Denmark
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Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of

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The gilded side of the Trundholm sun chariot dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.

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Flag

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The Ladby ship, the largest ship burial found in Denmark.

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Larger of the two Jelling stones, raised by Harald Bluetooth.

Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval

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Vaishali was the capital of the Vajjian Confederacy, an early republic.

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A map of the Roman Republic

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Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Neptune offers the wealth of the sea to Venice, 1748–50. This painting is an allegory of the power of the Republic of Venice.

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Beginning of the Republic of Metz. Election of the first Head-Alderman in 1289, by Auguste Migette. Metz was then a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Emperor.

Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The

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Tinganes in Tórshavn, seat of a part of the Faroese government.

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Flag

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Queen Margrethe II, monarch of the Unity of the Realm, during a visit to Vágur in 2005.

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NASA satellite image of the Faroe Islands.

Falchion
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A falchion is a one-handed, single-edged sword of European origin, whose design is reminiscent of the Chinese dadao, and modern machete. Falchions are found in different forms from around the 13th century up to, in some versions the falchion looks rather like the weapon-seax and later the sabre, and in other versions the form is irregular or like a

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Falchion

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Image of the Battle of the Golden Spurs, showing men with falchions

Lopapeysa
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It is believed that the sweaters are patterned on Greenlandic womens costume, or even inspired by South American, Turkish or Swedish textile patterns. It is characterized by a yoke design – that is, a decorative circle surrounding the neck opening. The sweater is knitted in a circle, meaning that there is no difference between the front and the bac

Bunad
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Bunad is a Norwegian umbrella term encompassing, in its broadest sense, a range of both traditional rural clothes as well as modern 20th-century folk costumes. In its narrow sense the word refers only to clothes designed in the early 20th century that are loosely based on traditional costumes. The word bunad in itself is a 20th-century invention, h

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Woman's bunad from Hardangerfjord. The headpiece, called a skaut, is worn by married women from Hardanger. Other headpieces are worn by Hardanger women, including beaded caps worn by young girls, and headband-like wraps worn by young unmarried women.

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Traditional folk clothing of eastern Telemark, 1880s

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Hardanger bunad with a bridal crown (brudekrone)

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Hulda Garborg in bunad

Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving c

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Wayback Machine

History of Iceland
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The recorded history of Iceland began with the settlement by Viking explorers and their slaves from the east, particularly Norway and the British Isles, in the late ninth century. Iceland was still uninhabited long after the rest of Western Europe had been settled, recorded settlement has conventionally been dated back to 874, although archaeologic

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Ingólfr commands his high seat pillars to be erected in this painting by Johan Peter Raadsig.

Outline of Iceland
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Iceland, Iceland – sovereign island nation located in the North Atlantic Ocean between continental Europe and Greenland. It is considered part of Northern Europe and it is the least populous of the Nordic countries, having a population of about 329,000. Iceland is volcanically

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The location of Iceland

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The Flag of Iceland

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An enlargeable satellite image of Iceland

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Jökulsárlón, a glacial lake in Iceland

Military history of Iceland
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This is a brief overview of historical warfare and recent developments in what today constitutes the Republic of Iceland. The armies being divided into units by the quality the warriors, at the end of this period the number of chieftains had diminished and their power had grown to the detriment of their followers. This resulted in a series of major

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An illustration of Hákon, King of Norway, and Skule Bårdsson, from Flateyjarbók

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The Great Seal of King Hákon V

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Confrontation between the frigate HMS Scylla and the Icelandic gunboat Odinn (1976)

Prohibition in Iceland
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Prohibition in Iceland went into effect in 1915 and lasted, to some extent, until 1 March 1989. The ban had originally prohibited all alcohol, but from 1935 onward only applied to strong beer, in a 1908 referendum, Icelanders voted in favour of a ban on all alcoholic drinks, going into effect 1 January 1915. Strong beer, however, was not included i

List of rulers of Iceland
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This is a list of rulers of Iceland, ruling from 1262 to 1944. Iceland was settled in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, principally by people of Norwegian, in 930, the ruling chiefs established a republican constitution and an assembly called the Althing - the oldest parliament in the world. Iceland remained independent until 1262, when it ent

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the Old

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Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iceland

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Eric II

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Haakon V

Monarchy of Iceland
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The Monarchy of Iceland, was the system of government in which an hereditary monarch was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Iceland from 1918 to 1944. Under a personal union, due to the Act of Union, the monarchy lasted until 17 June 1944, when a national referendum established a constitutional republic in its place. The monarchy of Iceland was create

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Kristján X

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Royal Coat of arms

Settlement of Iceland
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The settlement of Iceland is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the 9th century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of land in Scandinavia. Unlike the British Isles, Iceland was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabi

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Norsemen landing in Iceland, by Oscar Wergeland (1909).

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A page from a skin manuscript of Landnámabók, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies in Reykjavík

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Eyjafjallajökull glacier

Icelandic Commonwealth
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With the probable exception of Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 870. The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure, the first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains, the off

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Map of Iceland by Abraham Ortelius (c. 1590)

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Family clans

Christianisation of Iceland
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Iceland was Christianized in the year 1000 AD, when Christianity became the religion by law. In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka, the vast majority of the initial settlers of Iceland during the settlement of Iceland in the 9th and 10th centuries AD were pagan, worshipping the Æsir. Icelands adoption of Christianity is traditionally

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Armenian manuscript of 1053. Work of Johannes in Iceland.

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10th century Eyrarland statue of Thor, the Norse god of thunder, found in Iceland.

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A 19th-century depiction of the Alþing of the Commonwealth in session at Þingvellir

Nobility in Iceland
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Nobility in Iceland may refer to the following, Icelandics who belonged to the aristocracy of the Icelandic Republic. Icelandics who belonged to the Norwegian nobility, Icelandics who belonged to the Danish nobility. During the Norse settlement of Iceland, beginning in ca.874,930, chieftains and aristocratic families from Western and Northern Norwa

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In this imaginary painting of 1850 Norwegian Ingólfr Arnarson is depicted taking possession of the site of Reykjavík. Painter: Johan Peter Raadsig

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Original page from the King’s Mirror.

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Icelandic-Danish Henrich Hielmstierne, a member of the Danish nobility.

Age of the Sturlungs
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The Age of the Sturlungs or the Sturlung Era was a 42–44 year period of internal strife in mid-13th century Iceland. It may have been the bloodiest and most violent period in Icelandic history and it is documented in the Sturlunga saga. This period is marked by the conflicts of powerful chieftains, goðar, who amassed followers and did battle, and i

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A man swears vassalage to the King of Norway. From the Skarðsbók manuscript

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An illustration of Hákon, King of Norway, and Skule Bårdsson, from Flateyjarbók

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Family clans

Icelandic Reformation
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The Icelandic Reformation took place in the middle of the 16th century. Iceland was at time a territory ruled by Denmark. The Icelandic Reformation ended with the execution of Jón Arason, Catholic bishop of Hólar, Christian III became king of Denmark in 1535. That same year, on October 30,1536, he established the Danish Lutheran Church. The Catholi

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Memorial at the place of execution of Catholic bishop Jón Arason, in Skálholt in southern Iceland

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King Christian III of Denmark was a Lutheran

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Modern-day Viðey, formerly the seat of a Catholic monastery

Icelandic independence movement
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The Icelandic Independence movement was the collective effort made by Icelanders to achieve self-determination and independence from the Kingdom of Denmark throughout the 19th and early 20th century. Iceland received a constitution and limited home rule in 1874, a minister for Icelandic affairs was appointed to the Danish cabinet in 1904. Full inde

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Portrait of Jónas Hallgrímsson, contributor to Fjölnir.

Kingdom of Iceland
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The Kingdom of Iceland was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place. Iceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, in 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowl

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Flag

Iceland in World War II
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At the beginning of World War II, Iceland was a sovereign kingdom in personal union with Denmark, with King Christian X as head of state. Iceland officially remained neutral throughout World War II, however, the British invaded Iceland on 10 May 1940. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, on 17 Ju

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Arrival of US troops in Iceland in January 1942

Invasion of Iceland
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The invasion of Iceland, codenamed Operation Fork, was a British military operation conducted by the Royal Navy and Royal Marines during World War II to occupy and deny Iceland to Germany. At the start of the war, Britain imposed strict controls on Icelandic goods, preventing profitable shipments to Germany. Britain offered assistance to Iceland, s

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King Christian X was said by Time to be "less unpopular in Iceland than any other Danish sovereign has ever been". Nevertheless, the great majority of Icelanders were eager to establish a republic.

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Initial British aims were to destroy all landing grounds (blue) and secure key harbours (red). Due to transportation problems it was more than a week before troops arrived in the north of the country.

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HMS Berwick was the command ship of the operation.

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The Supermarine Walrus, though it proved ultimately unsuitable for operations in Iceland, had the advantage that it could land almost anywhere.

Iceland in the Cold War
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In 1986, Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. Five years later, in 1991, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia. Early in World War II, the neutral Kingdo

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The US-manned Keflavík Air Base in 1982. The United States maintained a military presence in Iceland throughout the Cold War.

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Fighting breaks out between anti- and pro- NATO supporters, and police. The windows of the House of the Althing have been smashed. March 30th 1949.

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United States F-15 at Keflavík Air Base.

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Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Höfði, Reykjavík in 1986.

Cod Wars
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The Cod Wars were a series of confrontations between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights in the North Atlantic. Each of the disputes ended with Icelands victory, as a result, British fishing communities lost access to rich areas and were devastated, with thousands of jobs lost. Since 1982, a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic

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Coventry City and ICGV Albert off the Westfjords

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A net cutter, first used in the Second Cod War.

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Icelandic patrol ship ICGV Óðinn and British frigate HMS Scylla clash in the North Atlantic

Great Recession in Iceland
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Relative to the size of its economy, Icelands systemic banking collapse was the largest experienced by any country in economic history. The crisis led to an economic depression in 2008–2010 and significant political unrest. In the years preceding the crisis, three Icelandic banks, Kaupthing, Landsbanki and Glitnir, multiplied in size and this expan

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Former headquarters of Landsbanki in Reykjavík and current headquarters of NBI, founded by FME from the ruins of Landsbanki.

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The value of the OMX Iceland 15 from January 1998 to October 2008

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Some of the 6000 protesters in front of the Alþingishús, seat of the Icelandic parliament, on 15 November 2008.

Geography of Iceland
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Iceland has extensive volcanic and geothermal activity. The rift associated with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which marks the division between the Eurasian Plate and North American tectonic plates, runs across Iceland from the southwest to the northeast and this geographic feature is prominent at the Þingvellir National Park, where the promontory create

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Dettifoss, located in northeast Iceland. It is the largest waterfall in Europe in terms of volume discharge, with an average water flow of 200 m 3 /second.

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Satellite image of Iceland

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A geyser in Iceland

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True colour satellite image of Iceland in winter

List of cities and towns in Iceland
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This is a list of cities and towns in Iceland. Some cities, such as Hafnarfjörður and Akranes, are also municipalities and these municipalities would share the same name and attributes. However, most recognized municipalities consist of cities or towns. Therefore, municipalities for which there is no city or town of the name are not included here.

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Reykjavík, Capital of Iceland

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Map of Iceland

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Kópavogur

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Akureyri

Climate of Iceland
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The climate of Iceland is subarctic near the southern coastal area and tundra inland in the highlands. The island lies in the path of the North Atlantic Current and this effect is aided by the Irminger Current, which also helps to moderate the island’s temperature. The weather in Iceland can be notoriously variable, the aurora borealis is often vis

Geology of Iceland
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The geology of Iceland is unique and of particular interest to geologists. Iceland lies on the divergent boundary between the Eurasian plate and the North American plate. It also lies above a hotspot, the Iceland plume, which is believed to have caused the formation of Iceland itself, the result is an island characterised by repeated volcanism and

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Geographic regions

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Contents

Highlands of Iceland
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The Highlands of Iceland cover most of the interior of Iceland. This results largely in a surface of grey, black or brown earth, lava, a few oasis-like areas, such as Herðubreiðarlindir near Askja, are found only in proximity to rivers. Most of the glaciers, such as Vatnajökull, Langjökull and Hofsjökull, are also part of the Icelandic Highlands. V

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Desert dominates the central highlands, through which the Kjölur road winds its way

List of lakes of Iceland
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This is a list of lakes of Iceland. Iceland has over 20 lakes larger than 10 km², and at least 40 others varying between 2.5 and 10 km² in size and this list also includes a few smaller lakes and ponds that are considered notable. The figures for many of the lakes are unreliable. Also, some larger lakes vary considerably in size between years or se