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It is a difficult question; a partial answer is developed here through sketching possible futures of the new World Bank-supported forestry project. These speculative sketches are inspired by what Robert Chambers (1983) once called the two cultures of ‘negative academics’ (criticising projects because that’s how they survive in academics) and ‘positive practitioners’ (highlighting the creative and positive achievements of their activities). 1 The ‘negative academic’s’ view of the future The negative academic foresees future developments as follows.

It is now no longer necessary to make a case for the inclusion of participatory principles in project planning and management, and this can partly be seen as the result of sustained efforts on the parts of academics as well as practitioners to promote the mainstreaming of this agenda. Perhaps the greatest strength of the participatory approach is its seemingly inclusive agenda and its apparent ability to accommodate a range of different perspectives. This may also be 16 Bhaskar Vira and Roger Jeffery seen by some as a significant source of weakness if existing patterns of power and structural relationships reproduce themselves, despite adopting the participatory rhetoric.

All others were to be evicted – and conflicts increased. Communist leaders such as A. K. Gopalan actively participated in the settlers’ struggle through means such as hunger strikes. Very often, settlers succeeded in keeping their land, or to get land at other localities, to the annoyance of the Forest Department. Forest conversion was not only continued illegally by people (who participated with those supporting them), but legally by the authorities (participating with others). In the second case study area further south (as well as in many other places), the Forest Department clear–felled natural forests to establish eucalyptus plantations, with the support of the World Bank – a new alliance which had been identified for participation.