Bhutan has a total area of about 46 500 km2.
About 80 percent of the country's population is rural. Forests form the single
largest resource of the country covering about 72 percent and form integral part
of the farming system of the local people. Household incomes are low with
average income per person less than a dollar per day. Most of the rural people
are subsistence farmers. Current government initiatives for involving local
people in natural resource management include social forestry programmes
consisting of community forestry and social forestry. Recently the Ministry of
Agriculture adopted the community-based natural resource management, as a
guiding principle for natural resource management in the country and the efforts
to devolve power through decentralization are encouraging developments. Besides
many grassroots projects involving local people in natural resource management
and utilization initiated by both national and international NGOs are a step in
the right direction. Research should be made more pro-poor and concentrate on
finding ways for the forestry sector to meet the in needs through development of
appropriate technologies and advocacy for the rights of the rural people.
Similarly other actors such as training institutes, policy makers and
development organizations have clear and paramount roles to play to make
forestry pro-poor and assist in poverty alleviation.

COUNTRY BACKGROUND

Bhutan is a landlocked mountainous country with a total area
of 46 500 km2 in the eastern Himalayas. It ranges in altitude from
about 300 m in the south to over 7000 m in the north. The wide variation in
altitude means a corresponding variation in range of climatic conditions from
hot and humid tropical and subtropical conditions in the south to tundra
conditions in perpetual snow and ice in the high Himalaya zone (Gyamtsho 1996).
There is substantial variation within these ranges and the climate and rainfall
characteristics change dramatically within short distances and a simultaneous
variation in diversity of vegetation within a limited geographical area. Ohsawa
(1987) defines six vegetation types that correspond to six climatic zones (Table
1).

Owing to her mountainous terrain, Bhutan is very sparsely
populated. The total population of Bhutan is estimated around 700 000 and a
population density of 14 persons per km2, with majority of the people
still living in the rural areas. With the current population growth rate of 3.1
percent the country's population is likely to double by the year 2020 posing
serious implications to the Bhutan's environmental resources (RGOB
2001a).

The Bhutanese economy is still essentially agrarian.
Agriculture contributed about 38 percent of the GDP of Nu 18 514.1 million in
1999, this have fallen from about 43 percent in 1990 (Table 2).

Table 2. Composition of GDP (1980-90-98)

Sector

(percent real GDP)

1980

1990

1998

Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing

55.7

42.7

36.7

Mining and quarrying

0.6

0.9

2.4

Manufacturing

3.2

8.1

11.1

Electricity, water and gas

0.2

7.8

11.0

Construction

7.9

8.1

10.6

Wholesale, retail trade, restaurant and hotels

10.9

6.6

7.0

Transport, storage and communications

4.3

7.1

7.5

Financing, insurance and real estate

6.3

7.7

5.1

Community, social and personal services (Govt.)

10.8

11.0

8.6

Source: Central Statistical Organization (CSO),
RGOB (2001).

A surge in hydropower development and associated industries in
the 1980s has increased the share of the mining, manufacturing and electricity
from 4 percent of GDP in 1980 to about 25 percent by 1998 according to a report
by the Planning Commission (RGOB 2000). The report further states that during
the period 1990-99 the maximum growth was recorded by the mining and quarrying
sector reaching about 12 percent per annum, followed by the manufacturing sector
with an annual growth of about 11 percent while agriculture and allied
industries recorded the slowest growth of about 3 percent. The GDP grew at an
average rate of about 18 percent from 1996 to 1999 with the highest rate
achieved in 1997 (22 percent) and is currently about 14 percent (RGOB
2001a)

The RNR (Renewable Natural Resources) sector includes
agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry falling under the Ministry of
Agriculture and continues to be the largest contributor to the GDP and is also
the major source of employment and livelihood for the Bhutanese
people.

Land area suitable for agriculture is estimated to be about 8
percent which contributes about 38 percent of the GDP and employs about 80
percent of the population (Dorjee 1995). Maize is the principle crop followed by
paddy, the former grown extensively in the eastern and southern sub-tropical
areas where the absence of irrigation and poor soil fertility limits paddy
cultivation (Gyamtsho 1996). Cash crops grown for export include apples,
oranges, cardamom, mangoes etc. Agriculture contributed about 17.9 percent of
the GDP in 2000 (RGOB 2001a). Livestock rearing is done not just for milk and
meat production but extends to draught power, organic farmyard manure (FYM) and
its contribution to GDP in 2000 is estimated to be 7.6 percent (RGOB 2001a).
Cattle dominated by the indigenous siri (Bos indicus) is the most
important type of livestock and reared throughout the country, while yaks
(Bos grunniens) provide the only means of livelihood for inhabitants of
high altitude areas where harsh environments limit crop production and other
means of livelihood (Gyamtsho 1996).

Forest products accounted for 10.4 percent of the GDP in 2000
with a growth rate of 5.9 percent for eighth five-year plan (1997-2002) (RGOB
2001a). The growth rate in seventh plan period was 22.5 percent, the growth
being checked by the government decree that ordered a maintenance of at least 60
percent forest cover at all times in an effort for conservation (RGOB 1995). The
main wood product from the forests is firewood: still the most predominant form
of energy for cooking, lighting and heating especially in the rural areas.
Commercial timber production accounts for only a fraction of the estimated 169
million m3 annual growth and logging concentrated more in the
accessible areas, particularly where there are motor roads (Gyamtsho 1996). Wood
based manufacturing firms and industries albeit growing in numbers are still few
and mainly engaged in sawing and carpentry.

FORESTS: EXTENT AND LEGAL STATUS

Forests constitute about 72 percent (an area of 29 044
km2) and represent the single largest natural resource of the country
(Table 3).

Table 3. Land cover categories

Category

Area (km2)

% of total

Conifer forest

10 636

26.6

Broadleaf forest

13 793

34.4

Mixed forests

1358

3.4

Scrub forests

3258

8.1

Pastures

1564

3.9

Agricultural land

3146

7.9

Snow and glaciers

2989

7.5

Water spreads

304

0.8

Rock outcrops

2008

5.0

Others

1020

2.5

Source: LUPP (1994) (adapted from Dorjee
1995).

The geographical distribution and area proportion of the
forests is very heterogeneous (Table 4). Forests in the Bhutanese context
consist of shrub vegetation of hard leaved species, intensively grazed tree
stands and true forest stands. Conifer forest is the most dominant type of
forest types in Bhutan with temperate hardwoods the second most
common.

Table 4. Composition of forest cover in
Bhutan

Forest type

Area (ha)

% cover

Fir

3453.02

11.9

Mixed conifer

4,868.27

16.7

Blue pine

1,285.93

4.4

Chir pine

1,008.99

3.5

Broadleaf with conifer

1,357.88

4.7

Broadleaf

13,747.82

47.3

Plantations

64.26

0.2

Scrub forests

3,258.12

11.2

Total

29,044.29

100

Source: LUPP (1995) (adapted from Dorjee
1995).

Much of the forest is degraded in terms of quality especially
near the homesteads (Tshering 2000). Due to a generally poor transport facility
wood is normally collected wherever found closest to roads. This entailed
pushing the edge of the forest further away from settlements and only in some
cases such clearings have been colonized by invasive and hardy species of pines
(Pinus spp.) and rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.).

Till 1969, all lands were regarded as common property unless
explicitly claimed as private land. Similarly forests were also deemed common
property whose use was dictated by the village customs and traditions. However,
this changed in 1969 with the Forest Act, which decreed all land not privately
owned to be Government Reserved Forests (RGOB 1969). The Government then had
absolute ownership of trees and other forest products even on private land
(Wangchuk 1995). All utilization and management of the forest is controlled by
the Department of Forest and its functional divisions. However, with the passage
of time and the changing priorities and demand on the forest resources, the
Forest Act, 1969 was considered inadequate to deal with the increasing
complexities. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995 was subsequently
approved by the parliament which forms the legal basis for social forestry and
community forestry.

Being an entirely mountainous country except for the southern
part, most of the country's forests are on hills and vulnerable sites. About
80percent of the total forest areas are on hills and vulnerable sites. A
combination of the steep terrain constrains utilization of forests commercially
as evidenced from the fact that most of the degraded forests are in the southern
Dzongkhags (Negi 1983).

RATE OF CHANGE OF FOREST COVER

Although a correct estimate on forest cover change is missing,
most of the authors agree that much of the forest cover in Bhutan has remained
largely intact (Norbu 2000, Pradhan 2001). However varying estimates of forest
cover are quoted by different authors, which range from about 64 percent to
about 72 percent. Official figures are in the range of 56 percent to 60 percent.
Because of the protection afforded by the Department of Forests with its
stringent rules combined with lesser incidence of forest fires and other
catastrophes, forest covers are perceived to have increased by many of the
Bhutanese (Tshering 2003). Local people explain this by indicating that past
fallow lands and surrounding bare lands are now covered by invasive species such
as Blue pine and Rhododendrons. Although the forest areas may have slightly
increased as vouched by the local people, many of the forest especially near the
homestead are degraded in terms of quality. Local people report that tree
products especially firewood and timber have progressively decreased from the
forests over the last few decades with them having to walk much longer and spend
more time now to get the same amount of product they used to get few years ago
(Tshering 2000).

POVERTY IN BHUTAN

There has been no attempt made so far to measure poverty using
a definitive set of indicators. However data on a large number of poverty
related indicators are collected and reveal that Bhutan has been successful in
tackling and reducing certain types of poverty, particularly access to basic
social services and infrastructure. This is evidenced from the increase in the
Human Development Index (HDI) from 0.325 in 1984 to 0.581 in 1995 (RGOB 2000).
Albeit there is a lack of national agreement on a definitive set of relevant
poverty indicators for Bhutan, a rapid poverty assessment carried out by the
Planning Commission with assistance from the UNDP states unambiguously that
household incomes are low in our country. The average income per person is low
at Nu. 40 which is less than a dollar per person per day (RGOB 2001). There is
also a significant difference in income between the urban and rural areas with
average household income per person are Nu. 70 in urban areas and Nu. 33 in
rural areas. The Gini coefficient has been calculated at 0.365 (RGOB
2000).

The UNDP through a discussion paper recommends complementing
and expanding the current set of poverty indicators already collected in Bhutan
into a more rounded comprehensive set suitable for several purposes of
monitoring poverty (UNDP 2002). The paper also lists activities such as
expanding the human poverty outcome indicators, establishing a set of poverty
lines and ascertaining the perception of the poor on their poverty. Hopefully
such an exercise would make more meaningful and robust data available on poverty
in the country in future.

SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF FOREST DWELLERS

The majority of the forest dwellers are subsistence farmers
practicing an integrated mixture of arable farming and livestock rearing backed
intricately by the forests. Main crops cultivated are cereals such as rice and
wheat, the former being the staple and the preferred food in many parts of the
country. Other crops include fruits, vegetables and oilseeds. Livestock include
cattle, pigs, poultry, and horses and in the higher areas yaks (Tshering
2003).

Five categories of land holding for agricultural purposes
exist namely, chuzhing (wetland), kamzhing (dryland), tseri (fallow land),
pangshing (pasture land) and tsesa (kitchen garden). Thanks to the small
population and the relatively later entry into the development sphere, most
people in Bhutan own some amount of land. The Government has stringent rules on
maintaining this status quo with a policy of land ceiling of 25 acres or 10 ha
for any household. The households with less than 5 acres of land are also not
allowed sell their land. As such forest dwellers should in principle own at
least own some land and those who owned less than 5 acres in the past should
still own the same amount of land. Chuzhing, till recently, was the most sought
after land type with rice as a preferred staple crop of most Bhutanese people.
However, now with the ability to grow more crops for cash income and the
availability of imported rice from neighbouring countries like India and
Thailand, there is a huge trend of land conversion towards dryland, one that is
of major concern for the Ministry of Agriculture's mission of food
self-sufficiency.

Forests constitute an essential support for the local people's
economic activities: for agriculture, composts, farm implements, bedding
materials and fodder for livestock; as only and never ending source of wood
energy for cooking and water and space heating; and as a source of local
enterprise of generating income through activities such as collection and sale
of wild edibles, manufacture of handicrafts, etc.

Five categories of livelihood sources are important for these
people: agricultural crop production, livestock production, forest products,
on-farm tree products and non-agricultural activities. Agricultural crop
production is the predominant source of livelihood. Paddy and maize are the
major staple crops. Other crops grown include wheat, barley, potatoes,
vegetables etc. Livestock kept are mainly cattle and horses, poultry and some
goats. Non-agricultural activities contributing to household income include
off-farm wage labour, petty business such as trading and retailing, and porter
charges (for both tourist and government officials). On-farm trees are grown for
the major tree products including fodder, firewood, fruits and nuts, and
timber.

Property ownership in rural areas is mostly determined by
inheritance (RGOB 2001b). In the western and eastern parts of the country,
daughters usually took care of the parents and inherited parental property.
Parental property of the household such as land, ancestral houses etc. are as
such usually registered under the women's name. Decisions with regard to land
are made by women and men are married into the family of the wives and cultivate
land belonging to the women. Property ownership and inheritance in the southern
parts of the country are however different. Sons inherit property and take care
of the parents while daughters are wedded and sent to the in-laws home. Most of
the household decisions relating to productive task are mainly taken by men and
so explains men being the main decision maker in labour related matters
(Tshering 2003).

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF FORESTS

Five different types of forest management systems exist in
Bhutan. Selective clear cutting system where individual tree and group selection
for harvesting and regeneration forms the core of the system. Most Forest
Management Units (FMU) are managed following this system of management
especially in areas serving the local use functions. Clear cutting systems
include large scale, strip and wedge, and shelter wood clear cutting.
Large-scale clear cutting system is not practiced in Bhutan for a variety of
reasons, among the chief ones being also the inaccessibility of large areas.
Strip clear-cut systems are amenable to cable crane logging which are
predominantly practiced and as such is the most preferred clear-cut management
system. Agroforestry systems include both forest and farm intercropping systems.
Forest intercropping systems is mainly "tseri" or shifting cultivation and farm
intercropping comprise of growing trees on-farm boundaries, or deliberate
intercropping with certain crops. Social forestry systems include community
forest, community plantations and private forest.

Lots of other systems exist in the last two categories, which
are not readily recognized. The majority of forests in Bhutan are state owned
although with the advent of social forestry programmes, private and communal
ownership of forests in terms of private forestry and community forestry are
emerging.

INVOLVING COMMUNITIES IN NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

Involvement of local people in natural resource management or
specifically management of forests started in Bhutan in 1979, when His Majesty
the King, recognizing the importance of community involvement in the protection
and management of forest resources, commanded the Department of Forestry to
prepare a scheme to involve the local people in planting of trees in their own
private land or village lands (SFES 1996).

The Department of Forestry then initiated a series of social
forestry activities across the country. In 1993, following a National Workshop
on Social Forestry and Forestry Extension held in Lingmethang, Eastern Bhutan in
1992 (RGOB 1993), community forestry and private forestry were recommended for
implementation. Thus private forestry and community forestry schemes today
constitute the social forestry programme as the main operational focus of the
national-level forestry extension programme (Desmond 1996). Subsequently, the
Forest and Nature Conservation (FNC) Act of 1995 contained the legal basis for
policies and regulations providing tenure on common forest resources to local
user groups. The FNC Act 1995, included a chapter on community forestry and
defined community forestry as 'any area of Government Reserved Forest designated
for management by a local community in accordance with the rules issued under
this act (Wangchuk 1998). The provisions of the act beside other things allowed
the Ministry of Agriculture to make rules for the establishment of community
forestry on Government reserved land (RGOB 1995). The Social Forestry Rules,
2000 were approved by the National Assembly in the summer of 2000, which defines
rules for private and community forestry activities by the people.

The goals of the social forestry programme in Bhutan are as
follows (from FSD 1996, quoted by Bodt 2002):

To maintain the
biological diversity and ecological functions of the land (protection
function)

To maintain or improve the
sustainable supply of forest products in order to contribute positively to
self-sufficiency and the economies in rural areas (production
function);

To improve and strengthen
rural institutions which are interested in the sustainable use of the forests
and to ensure equitable decision making processes, implementation and the
equitable distribution of forest benefits (social and economic
function).

These goals have been largely derived from the following
objectives:

To transfer the
responsibilities for the management, implementation, development and utilization
to the local users;

To strengthen the technical,
institutional and organizational skills and the capacity of the local
users;

To assist the forest users in
developing forest based home and cottage industries.

The sequence of events and the goals and objectives of the
social forestry programme outlined above clearly indicates the Government's
commitment to involve the people in the management of natural resources. The
main assumption of such a move has been that if the forests are owned and
managed by the users, the sustainability of the resource would improve (Wangchuk
1998). Twenty three community forests (15 community plantations and eight
natural forest and plantations) have been handed over to the communities.
Although the Dzongkhag Forest Offices are receiving a lot of requests for
private forests, approval has been hindered so far due to the on-going cadastral
survey, which has not finalized its results yet (Kinley, pers. comm
2003).

This commitment of the Government in involving the people in
managing the natural resources is also reflected in the major emphasis and
interest the Government has shown in development of a framework for Community
Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM). The CBNRM framework promotes
understanding and importance and scope for CBNRM in Bhutan and suggest
strategies for accelerating the translation of CBNRM objectives and policies
into practice. Consequently a National CBNRM workshop held in February 2003
identified as possible action research projects such as community forestry,
non-wood forest products, pasture, forest grazing and watershed management (RGOB
2003) whereby local communities would be involved in the management of natural
resources. The action research projects identified will be operationalised in
2003.

Besides, the Integrated Conservation Development Programme
(ICDP) of the various national parks under the Department of Forests and those
implemented by the Royal Society for Protection of Nature (RSPN) has within them
elements emphasizing on the enlisting of the local people for the management of
natural resources. Smaller projects by the United Nations Development Programme
working directly with the grassroots stakeholders also address the issue of
involving communities.

CONSTRAINTS FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION OF FOREST
DWELLERS

Constraints for poverty alleviation of forest dwellers are
many and vary according the kind of poverty one is dealing with. For instance,
one clear constraint of poverty alleviation, particularly with regard to the
'poverty of income' is the fact that most of the forest dwellers are far-flung
and remote with no or very little access to markets and income generating
enterprises.

Lack of employment opportunities for these people, especially
during the off-season is also a constraint. Majority of the rural people depend
on off-farm employment during the lean seasons to offset their shortages.
Moreover for some of these people, off-farm employment is the only source of
cash income, very much necessary for buy the necessities of their daily
life.

The size of the households also plays a paramount role in
contributing towards the poverty of forest dwellers. More often than not, health
advocacies on advantages of small families and family planning do not reach
these people. Families average 10-15 for most of these households. With limited
resource to fall back on and lack of employment opportunities, these households
self-drag themselves into the poverty trap.

Education has been recognized as the key for children of the
poor families to break out of the cycle of poverty. However not all of the
children of the poor can benefit from education for various reasons. Their
villages are so far away from the nearest school. Although education is free in
Bhutan, there are still some expenses that need to be incurred for instance
buying school dress or stationery, etc., some poor parents cannot afford to meet
these expenses; because activities of individual household member brings home so
little, all members have to contribute, thus keeping children away from
school.

Specifically related to forestry, local appropriation of
forest products are hindered because forest and forest products belong to the
state. When required rural people need to go through lengthy processes of
applying for permits which entailing long and repeated travels out of their
villages. This means high transaction cost for them and consequently the
opportunity of forest and forest products to contribute towards generating
income is limited. Further penetration of market and commercial forces (often
much bigger and powerful than the local population) into the forest and the
helplessness of the local people to protect their forest has lead to degradation
of the forest in terms of their quality - crucial products such as bamboo which
have huge scope for generating income for the rural people, particularly the
poor who are more often employed in this than the rich, are exhausted for
commercial large scale exploitation (cf. Tshering 2001).

VISION FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

There are several factors at different levels that offer
opportunities for forests to play a role in poverty reduction. Devolution of
powers for local development through decentralization whereby from the ninth
five year plan (2003 - 2007) gups are entrusted with full executive and
financial powers for planning and implementing development in their geogs. Much
of the guiding principles for such a move are already in place. Most
developmental works are now decentralized with power for decision-making on
these activities vested with the local leaders and organizations such as the gup
and the Geog Yargye Tshogchung (GYT). The GYT is also allowed to retain taxes
collected for their geogs. This is encouraging as forest and forest based rents
can accrue to the local people particularly to the poor although proper
monitoring and evaluation is a must so that these benefits do not get captured
fully by the local elites.

The policy and legal frameworks are also encouraging for
community forestry and small scale tree growing by farmers as private forestry.
This can greatly increase the local access to forest resources and management of
natural forests. However, long chains of bureaucratic hurdles and lack of
connections especially for the poor becomes a deterrent. Besides there is still
a lot of confusion regarding the social forestry rules even among the
professional foresters due to a slow and reluctant institutional change in the
national forest agencies. A proactive role from the policy to break this caution
and further the community forestry programme is crucial. Private forestry and
community forests have a lot to offer to the rural poor especially with the
growing demand for timber and wood products within the country.

Small scale wood-based industries can offer poor people some
form of off-farm employment which can generate the much needed cash income for
the resource strapped rural poor. This is particularly because the poor owns
less land and as such have more time to work off-farm.

Forestry rules at present subsidize non-timber forest product
appropriation by the rural people. There is a growing demand for non-timber
forest products both within and outside the country. Rural poor people can earn
cash income through sale of non-timber products such as bamboo mats and baskets.
The poor are very often more likely to be engaged in such activities and as such
facilitating manufacture and sale of these products are no doubt
pro-poor.

Forest-based tourism, payments for off-site ecological
functions, carbon storage and sequestration etc. offer promising future
prospects for local people to tap by involving in tree growing and forest
management through community forestry and private forestry.

ROLE OF RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING

The recognition that forestry sector needs to deliver goods
and services not only for the national development but should also concentrate
on the needs of the marginalized poor forest dwellers should be explicitly spelt
in research statements and objectives. Research should be targeted to the farmer
level so that research can address the needs of the poor. Current forest
research at best remains irrelevant to the poor people. Attempts to incorporate
the needs of the poor in conducting topical research would go a long way in the
poverty alleviation effort in the country. Research into understanding the
interactions between the rural people and the forests should be emphasized and
involvement of the local people in forest management should be promoted and
advocated backed with empirical and scientific proof. Research should work
together with other stakeholders to influence policy decisions that support
poverty and forestry inter-linkages. Constant review and conduct of forestry
research to generate information that would enable policy makers make informed
decisions should be done by research managers. Possible topics for research that
would aim to do this include people's perceptions about forest resources,
indigenous knowledge systems, indigenous institutions, etc. It is the poor who
depend mostly have and depend on indigenous knowledge systems, promotion of this
would get the poor to participate and benefit from research (Tshering
2003).

Research areas and topics for forest and poverty put forward
by CIFOR (Table 5) are also relevant for Bhutan although priority accorded to
each topic may be different.

There is a general lack of clarity on the contribution that
forests make towards poverty alleviation due mostly to lack of proper forest
valuation methods and lack of base line data. Forestry research should put
forward convincing statements regarding the magnitude of forest contribution.
Globalization and other emerging trends could bring in immense benefits for the
poor. For instance farmers could trade carbon credits with companies for trees
grown in private forestry or community forestry. Research and extension should
explore and help farmers forge such links.

Forest products (subsistence and income in household livelihood strategies.

High

Number of completed research projects

b.

Small scale wood based processing enterprises

High

Few anecdotal studies

c.

Economy wide benefits of forest based rents

Medium

Currently debate on green accounting

d.

On-site ecological services from forests and trees

Medium

Few watershed studies

2. Emerging market trends and opportunities

e.

Globalization, trade liberalization and markets

Low

None

f.

Small holder tree planting and private sector partnerships

Medium

None

g.

Payments for environmental services

Medium

Debate on-going

3. Cross-cutting institutional and extra- sectoral issues

h.

Local resource control and land tenure

Medium

Few studies conducted

i.

Decentralization, governance and market deregulation

Medium

Anecdotal evidences as part of other studies

j.

Integrating forest into macroeconomic and poverty strategies

Medium

Advocacy by donor agenciese.g. UNDP.

Source: Adapted from Angelsen and Wunder
(2003).

However research is very often determined by the interest of a
number of stakeholders viz. research funding organization, national agencies
etc. and unless these organizations actively and proactively put poverty
alleviation on their agenda for research, research described in the earlier
paragraphs and Table 5 would not be possible. Further national forestry
programmes should take full stock of the importance of incorporating poverty
alleviation strategies in forestry plans and policies. Policy plays an important
role in any developmental effort. An enabling policy framework goes a long way
in determining the success of development initiatives. It is important that
policy interventions take into account priorities and strategies for poverty
alleviation. Policy makers can consider a major shift in strategies in poverty
alleviation and forestry to consider the role of forest carefully and
critically. Enabling policies can activate local confidence and incorporate
local community participation in forest management through community forestry,
private forestry and other forms of partnership.

International organizations such as the UNDP and other donors
can help in building the capacity of the local forest research and planning
units to conduct poverty related research and help plan forestry programmes to
focus on poverty alleviation. Empowerment of the rural poor through capacity
building and advocacy can also help in giving them a voice and proper 'lobby
weight' for negotiating access and rights with the government forestry
agencies.

Training institutes such as the Natural Resources Training
Institue (NRTI) should consider modifying the curriculum to include syllabus on
the role that forests play in poverty alleviation strategies.

All in all, a well thought out plan of action incorporating
the broader interest of national development, forest conservation and poverty
alleviation through the involvement of all relevant stakeholders and working on
these plans together would make the role of forests in poverty alleviation more
meaningful, well received and effectively implemented.

RGOB. 1993. Social Forestry and Forestry Extension: A
Report on the National Workshop on Social Forestry and Forestry Extension, 19-21
Nov. 1992, Linmethang Mongar. Thimphu, Department of Forestry, Ministry of
Agriculture.

Wangchuk, D. 1995. Factors that affect local participation in community
forestry: a case study of success/failures of community forestry woodlots in
Punakha Dzongkhag. Inter. Inst. of Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences,
Enschede, the Netherlands. (Msc thesis)