San Remo Peace Conference of Allied Powers
endorses the French and British mandate over the Levant, with Britain holding the mandate in Palestine, Transjordan and
Mesopotamia (renamed Iraq, created out of the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad & Mosul); Syria & Lebanon to France,
plus a 25% share in the proceeds of Iraqi oil.

June, 1920

After Arnold Wilson, the High Commissioner to Iraq, refuses
to allow any degree of self-government, an extensive tribal revolt begins; Wilson replaced by Percy Cox who takes a more
conciliatory stance.

Aug 23, 1921`

British give Iraq to Feisal in lieu of Syria and Saudi
Arabia. He is made king of a constitutional monarchy. Reduction in the British garrison in Iraq, replaced by air force
squadrons. Nuri al-Sa‘id is chief of staff of Iraq, rising to PM in 1929.

Dec. 16, 1925

League of Nations Council fixes border between Turkey and
Iraq, placing the Mosul region in Iraq against the wishes of the Kurdish population, as determined by a League of
Nations Committee.

1927

British strike oil at Kirkuk, N.Iraq, the largest find in
the world so far. Its exploitation is transferred to the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929, which built pipelines to
Tripoli and Haifa by 1934

Nov 16 1930

16Nov: Anglo-Iraqi Treaty is ratified, with Nuri al-Sa‘id
(PM since 1929; signed by him in Jun30) ensuring its passage through Parliament: Iraq is independent but must allow RAF
presence, grant Britain land & resources, & coordinate foreign policy with Britain for 25 years.

October 1932

Formal independence for Iraq (implemented in 1932), under
Faysal I & membership of League of Nations but Pan-Arabist groups to oppose the concessions to
Britain. Kurdish opposition under Berzendji crushed by RAF by May31.

1932

International oil exploitation in the Arab
Gulf: the Standard Oil Company of California (Socal; from 1944, Arabian American Oil Company, Aramco) makes discoveries
in Bahrain; obtains (through the mediation of St John Philby) an exclusive 60 year concession in the Hasa region of the
Saudi Arabian Gulf shores (May 33; half of it subsequently sold to the Texas Oil Company) and makes discoveries, firstly
at Dhahran (1935) and then much more substantially in eastern Arabia (1938); commercial production began at Dammam.

Sept 8, 1933

King Faysal of Iraq dies; succeeded by his son Ghazi.
Background is rising popular support for General Bakr Sidqi, who conducted a pogrom in Sumayl that killed 600 Assyrians.

October 1936

Gen Bakr Sidqi launches a military coup in Iraq, backed by
Hikmat Sulayman (who becomes PM), overthrowing government of Yasin al-Hashimi, promising social reform & bringing
the Ahali group into government.

August 11, 1937

Iraq's military leader Bakr Sidqi is assassinated in Mosul
after Ahali and nationalist military officers withdraw support on 19Jun37; Sulayman resigns as PM. Jamil al-Midfa’i
takes over as PM, but quickly alienates the military.

"The Seven" (or the "Golden Square (4)")
announce a coup in Iraq, and install Nuri al-Sa‘id as PM. Nuri remained close to the monarchy and Britain under
Ghazi I (d.Apr39 in a car accident) & Faysal II (4yrs old at succession, under the regency of Prince ‘Abd al-Ilah); and
attempted to dissolve the Seven and reestablish civilian control.

Iraqi coup by "The Seven," re-installing Rashid ‘Ali al-Kaylani
as the head of a government of “National Defence”. Nuri al-Sa‘id and Faysal II flee. At first, Rashid ‘Ali signals
intention to adhere to Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, but The Seven refuse the passage of British troops as required under the
Treaty, and articulate pro-Axis positions; also supported by Palestinian pro-Axis leader Haj Amin El Husseini who had
fled to Iraq.

May 2, 1941

Britain invades Iraq to restore pro-British government.
Rashid ‘Ali requests, and obtains, German support and other Axis support, but it is ineffective; Ali escaped to Tehran
(29 May), then Germany (Nov 41) & Saudi Arabia (May 1945). Husseini likewise escaped to Germany.
Click for details of Mufti, British Intervention and the Farhud

June 1941

Farhud - civil order breaks down in Baghdad : became
known as the ): extensive pogrom against Jews (120-600 killed, 2100 injured) & looting of their property by soldiers.
The British ambassador, Kinahan Cornwallis, refused to allow British troops to enter the city until the pogrom was over.
Click for details of British Intervention and the Farhud

July 14, 1958

Qasim Coup in Iraq. King Faysal, Nuri As-Said and
crown prince of Iraq are killed, together with Deputy PM Ibrahim Hashim & Defence Minister Sulayman Tuqan of the
Federation; ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim becomes PM of Iraq. Qasim was initially Nasserist, & there was pressure from his deputy
‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif (supported by ‘Aflaq, who moves to Baghdad; but discouraged by Nasser) to join the UAR. However, but
Iraqi communist party, Shi‘a majority (Qasim himself was of half-Shi‘a parentage) & ethnic minorities urge Qasim to
reject UAR: vying for leadership in Arab world turns Iraq against UAR.

March 1959

Qasim withdraws Iraq from the Baghdad Pact , leaving the way
open for Iran to sign a military cooperation agreement with the US, providing for American defense of Iran, which in
turn leads Iran to reassert its claim that the Shatt al-Arab thalweg constitutes the international boundary.

July 27, 1959

Qasim constitution promotes the notion of a
partnership of Arabs & Kurds in Iraq and allows the return of Mustafa Barzani (the KDP’s leader) from the SU and
legalizes KDP in 1960.

July 1959

Qasim breaks with communist party in Iraq: 500,000 had
demonstrated for Communist role in government (1May), but after between 31 & 79 are killed in Kirkuk in fighting between
Turkomans & mostly ICP-supporting Kurds in Kirkuk, Qasim publicly blames the ICP: leading communists are arrested, &
party is persecuted thereafter, despite political liberalization in other spheres from Jan 60.

Oct 7, 1959

Failed Ba‘thist coup attempt on Qasim in Iraq; Qasim is
injured and his driver killed. 78 Ba‘thists are tried, but one of them, Saddam Hussein, escapes to Syria & then Egypt.

June 19, 1961

Kuwait, under al-Sabah family and a British protectorate
from 1899, declares independence from Britain;

June 25, 1961

Qasim calls for ‘the return of Kuwait to the Iraqi homeland’
(25Jun), opposed by Egypt to prevent Iraqi dominance.

July, 1961

UK sends troops to Kuwait, replaced by Arab League
contingent, which stayed for 2 years. Kuwait joins Arab League (July) despite tension with Iraq; and was admitted into
UN on 14 May 63.

Sept 1961

After Qasim rejects Mustafa Barzani's autonomy plan, he
launches a major offensive against Kurds in Iraq; escalates through into early 1962, ceasefire from 1964 to April 1965,
& peaks from Oct65-Jan66.

Feb 8, 1963

Qasim overthrown in Iraq by Ba‘ath party coup, led by
‘Abd al-Salam ‘Arif, who installs himself as President; Qasim executed by firing squad on 9Feb (the "Ramadan
revolution"). ‘Arif also recognises the independence of Kuwait (Oct).

Iraq, under PM ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz,
agrees to ceasefire with Kurdish population, seemingly bringing to an end the 6 year war; a 12 point agreement
officially recognizes the Kurdish language & representation of Kurds in the civil administration. But mutual
dissatisfaction results in gradual breakdown of the agreement from the end of the year.

July 17, 1968

Repeated coups in Iraq bring Ba‘thists under
Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr to power, first in alliance with non-Ba‘thist elements and then (30Jul) in Ba‘thist power monopoly,
led by the 15-member Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). Public ownership of land is encouraged; agricultural
cooperatives and collective farms are established. Saddam Hussein (b.1937), who had been imprisoned by ‘Arif from 1963-8
for Ba‘thist activism in organising the party militia, becomes a member of the RCC (Nov69) and its deputy chair.

November, 1968

Kurdish rebellions (1961-9) against Iraqi government peak,
with appeals by Kurdish Democratic Party to UN for intervention (in 18Nov memo), followed by major attack on Kirkuk oil
refinery (Mar69).

April 19, 1969

Iran unilaterally abrogates the 1937 Frontier
Treaty with Iraq. Iraq responds by expelling resident Iranians & establishing "Popular Front for the Liberation of
Arabistan", claiming that Khuzistan ("Arabistan") was unjustly surrendered to Iran by the Ottomans.

British withdraws from the Gulf territories:
UAE formed as a federation on 2Dec, under presidency of Abu Dhabi’s Shaykh Zayid. Iraq, in competition for the
leadership of the Gulf region, denigrates Iran by stressing its Arabist credentials, breaks off relations with Iran &
UK, expelled Iranian nationals, turns to Soviet Union for support.

May 14,1972

Iraqi Ba‘thist leadership brings communists
into government after Iraqi-Soviet 15 year Treaty of Friendship & Cooperation of Apr 72. Nationalization of Iraqi
Petroleum Company (Jun). After extended negotiations, the Iraqi Communist Party join the Baa‘th in a National
Progressive Front in1973. This lasted until 1979.

March 13, 1974

Negotiations between Mustafa Barzani’s KDP and
the Iraqi government break down after the Kurdish Autonomous Region is only half the area the KDP demanded, and excludes
oil-rich Kirkuk. Iraq earned 60% of its oil revenues from Kurdish-majority areas.

1974-1976

Renewal of hostilities with Kurds in N.Iraq,
but crushed by Iraqi government (1974-5), with razing of Zakho and Qala’at Diza. 800 villages along the Iran-Iraq border
are evacuated (1976). 130,000 Kurds flee to Iran.

December 1974

Strong Shi‘a political demonstrations against
Ba‘thist rule in Iraq; led by members of al-Da'wa al-Islamiyya (established 1969 with support of Muhsin Hakim, the most
senior Shi'a ayatollah; strongest in Najaf-Karbala region). 5 Shi‘a leaders are executed.

January 1975

Iran sends 2 regiments into KDP-controlled
areas of Iraq; war averted through Turkish, then Algerian, mediation.

March 6, 1975

Algiers accord -
Iraq and Iran agree to first: carry out a final delineation of their land boundaries in accordance with the
Constantinople Protocol of 1913 and the Proceedings of the Border Delimitation Commission of 1914. and to demarcate
their river boundaries according to the thalweg (median river course) line. It was understood from this by Iraq that
Iran would withdraw from certain border territories.

June 13, 1975

Iraq and Iran sign an agreement regulating their borders and
water rights based on the Algiers accord.

February 1977

Shi‘a riots in Najaf after police interfered
with a religious procession from Najaf to Karbala: 2k arrested, 8 executed.

July 16, 1979

Saddam Hussein replaces Ahmad Hasan Bakr as
President of Iraq after dispute over Bakr favored closer links with Syria; Hussein cites Bakr's poor health, places him
under house arrest and blames Syria for plotting a coup (28 July). Bakr dies, possibly due to poisoning, in 1982.

Under strong Iranian counterattack, despite
flow of arms from SU & France & money from GCC to Iraq, Saddam Hussein offers to withdraw from Iran in order to end the
conflict. Iran makes peace conditional on payment of reparations; and launches major offensive in the south ( from 29Apr
); but fails in bid in to take Basra (Jul) & Mandali (Oct).

Iran received 508 US-made Tow missiles, as
part of secret arms-for-hostages deal with US. 4000 more missiles authorised by Reagan on 17Jan86, supplied through
Israel. US arrests 10 officials involved (22Apr86). The sales are finally revealed by al-Shira'a newspaper (Beirut) on
3Nov86, creating the international "Irangate" scandal.

Jan 17, 1986

4000 more missiles for Iran authorized by
Reagan, supplied through Israel.

February 1986

Iran captures Fao peninsula, in S.Iraq; many
Iranians now set the objective of capturing Najaf and Karbala, and installing an Islamic government in Baghdad.

Reports of chemical warfore attacks on Kurdish villages
and guerrilla fighters became more frequent and detailed. Clinical evidence as well as soil samples, confirmed the use
of mustard gas and the nerve agent tabun against the Kurdish population. Although the exact number of casualties is not
certain, it is generally believed that several thousand Kurdish civilians and Iranian soldiers in the area were killed
and several thousands more injured.

Feb 27, 1988

Iraq resumes ‘war of the cities’; Iraq replies
to Iranian attacks on Baghdad by hitting Tehran for the first tim

March 16, 1988

Iraq uses chemical weapons against Kurds
supporting Iran in Halabja, killing 4000, an attack which begins the Anfal campaigns against Kurdish villages (formally
continuing until 6 Sept, though attacks continued until 1989). Approximately 50,000 to 180,000 Kurds are killed in
this campaign, and 1,276 villages are destroyed.

April 16-18, 1988

Iraq recaptures Fao peninsula, using large
quantity of chemical weapons; similar attack on Mehran (17-22Jun).

Joint U.S.-Soviet statement made that “we must demonstrate beyond any doubt
that aggression cannot and will not pay.” (George Bush and Brent Scrowcroft, A World Transformed [New York:
Knopf, 1998], p. 368)

Sept 13, 1990

UN resolution
666 asks for continuous information on the humanitarian situation within Kuwait and Iraq.

UN resolution
674 reiterates the condemnation of Iraqi treatment of foreign nationals and demands their release.

Nov 6, 1990

American congressional elections take place.

Nov 8, 1990

The United States announces that it is doubling its troop presence in the
region to over 400,000.

Nov 19, 1990

Iraq begins significant reinforcement of its troops in Kuwait.

Nov 29, 1990

UN resolution
678 authorizes the use of "all means necessary" after January 15, 1991, to enforce previous UN resolutions,
including that requiring Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait.

Dec 6, 1990

Iraq decides to release all foreign nationals held since the invasion.

January 9, 1991

Secretary of State James Baker meets Iraqi Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz in
Geneva in unsuccessful effort to find a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Baker delivers a letter from President Bush
to President Hussein. Aziz reads but refuses to forward it.

January 12, 1991

The U.S. Congress authorizes the use of force. The Senate vote is 52–47 in
favor.

January 15, 1991

UN issues a deadline for Iraqi withdrawal.

January 17, 1991

The allied attack ("Operation Desert Storm") begins with an Apache
helicopter strike at 2:38 A.M. Palestinian groups - PFLP & PLF support Iraq, with PLF
sending troops to assist Iraq; Faruq al-Qaddumi, Yasir ‘Arafat & 84% of West Bankers in al-Nadwa poll in
mid-Aug90 indicate solidarity with Iraq; 58% of West Bankers support Iraq's invasion in same survey) » subsequent
expulsion of 300,000 Palestinian workers from Kuwait; Jordanians & Yemenis expelled also from Saudi). Saudi closes its
border with Jordan, and suspends all foreign aid to it (as does US). All other Arab States oppose Iraq's actions.

January 18, 1991

First Scuds hit Israel. Navy aircraft losses during attack on Scud sites leads
to recriminations about low-altitude bombing tactics. First American air attacks are launched from Turkey

Uprising of Kurds and Shi'a in Iraq, based
on US encouragement. Begins in Basra, in early Mar. Major cities in South & Kurdish areas come under rebel control
(government has continuous control over only a third of governorates). Southernn revolt crushed by 29Mar with recapture
of Samawa & Northern revolt by early Apilr. Approx 1.5m Kurds flee into N & E Iraq, Turkey, Iran.

April 3, 1991

UN Security Council Resolution 687 establishes the terms of the peace, including return of Kuwaiti property and prisoners, economic
sanctions, and Iraqi disarmament. Iraq is to provide a list of all weapons of mass destruction in its possession. UNSCOM
inspectors are to ascertain that the arms have been surrendered.

October, 1991

President Bush informs congress that he
is escalating covert operations in Iraq, under the direction of Frank Anderson, head of CIA's Directorate of Operations
Near East division.

June 1992

Iraqi National Congress established by 300
delegates in Vienna as the opposition umbrella body, on the initiative of Ahmad Chalabi. Bush informing Congress (Oct91)
that he was escalating covert operations in Iraq, under the direction of Frank Anderson, head of CIA's Directorate of
Operations Near East division.

Rivalry between Kurdistan Democratic Party &
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, coalition partners for 5 years, breaks out into open conflict in Northern Iraq. INC,
brokers truce, but fighting continues until Sept, and intermittently thereafter despite peace plan of November 94. 3000
killed by Jun96, with PUK controlling half the territory but 2/3rds of the population.

Two of Saddam Hussein’s sons-in-law, Lt. Gen.
Hussein Kamil (former director of Iraq's Military Industrialization Establishment, in charge of WMD program) and Saddam
Kamil defect to Jordan with Saddam's daughters; Hussein Kamil takes crates of documents revealing past concealment of
WMD capacities, and provides these to UNSCOM. Iraq responds by revealing a major store of documents that showed that
Iraq had begun an unsuccessful crash programme to develop a nuclear bomb (20Aug).

August 20, 1995

Under pressure, Iraq reveals a major store of
documents that showed that Iraq had begun an unsuccessful crash program to develop a nuclear bomb.

Feb 23, 1996

Iraqi defectors Hussein and Saddam Kamil are
shunned by Iraqi opposition groups, and agree to return to Iraq, where they are promptly assassinated.

June 26, 1996

Attempted coup in Iraq, organised by the Iraqi National
Accord and coordinated in part by CIA operatives within UNSCOM, fails when 120 coup plotters are arrested (& laregly
executed) by the Iraqi regime.
28July: 72-hour incursion by Iranian forces into Kurdish “safe haven”, focused on Mas’ud Barzani’s KDP camp at Koi
Sanjaq. Iraq takes up a stronger stance against Iran’s ally, Jalal Talabani’s PUK.

Iraq, working with the KDP, occupies Irbil (12
miles into NFZ) & destroys Western-backed opposition bases. The KDP takes over most of Iraqi Kurdistan, and Iraqi forces
withdraw (2Sept). Saddam Hussein lifts internal economic embargo on the Kurdish region.

Sept 3-4, 1996

US launches military strikes against Sn Iraq &
extends Sn no-fly zone to 33rd parallel, the suburbs of Baghdad. Little international backing for these actions, exc
from UK. UN postpones implementation of SCR986.

Sept-Oct. 1996

PUK offensive, with Iranian help, in N Iraq
recaptures most areas lost in recent KDP offensive, except Irbil, by 21Oct. Ceasefire between PUK & KDP on 23Oct,
brokered by US & UK.

Dec 10, 1996

Oil flows for the first time since 1990 from
Iraq, through Turkish pipeline. SCR986 (14Apr 95) had permitted exports under the oil-for-food program. In six months, $lbn
of revenue generated will be spent on food & medicine for 18 million Iraqis living under Baghdad rule; $260m goes to 3m
people in Kurdish areas, only $17 m permitted for essential infrastructure. Since Aug 1990, estimates indicate that
750,000 people have died through malnutrition and lack of medicines; currently, 10,000 a month.

Iraq demands US members of UNSCOM leave Iraq;
all UNSCOM inspectors withdrawn (13Nov).

Nov 13, 1997

All UNSCOM inspectors withdrawn from Iraq, but
allowed back later that month.

Sept, 1998

UNSCOM Inspector Scott Ritter resigns. Initially claims that
US/UN did not act to help UNSCOM investigate suspected Iraqi weapons sites, later claims that the entire inspection
program is unwarranted and Iraq has no WMD.

Extensive US & British bombardment of Iraq
in ‘Operation Desert Fox’, after UNSCOM head reports Iraq’s failure to fully cooperate; after end of the operation, Iraq
again refuses UNSCOM permission to reenter Iraq, and US & UK continue bombardment, aimed at Iraq’s air defense capacity.

Following Sept 11, 2001 terror attacks on World Trade
Towers, US President Bush declares a War on Terror, targeting Iraq as a major player in an "Axis of Evil." Evidence for
Iraqi involvement in the attacks is sketchy, but includes a probable contact between hijacker Mohamed Atta and an Iraq
official in Czechoslovakia, as well as evidence of defectors that prospective hijackers were trained at Salman Pak base.

Sept 14, 2001

Deputy secretary of defense, Paul Wolfowitz, says that it is
"not just simply a matter of capturing people, [but] ending states who sponsor terrorism". Wolfowitz gained stature
after the Iraqi attack on Kuwait, which he had correctly pointed out as a possibility in 1979. Speculation grows that
Iraq may have had a hand in training the hijackers. James Woolsey, CIA director from 1993-95, speaks of the potential
for a "very fruitful marriage between Saddam and Bin Laden".

Sept 20, 2001

British and US jets bomb surface to air missile batteries in
southern Iraq. A Ministry of Defense official denies any connection to the September 11 attacks.

Sept 21, 2001

US officials tell the Washington Times that Saddam Hussein
made contact with Bin Laden days before the attacks. Later, it is verified after repeated denials that hijacker Mohamed
Atta met with Iraqi officials in Czechoslovakia. Iraqi defectors claim that hijackers were trained in a mockup Boeing
707 at the Salman Pak base in Iraq.

Jan 29, 2002

US President George Bush lists Iraq, Iran, North Korea and
Syria as part of an "axis of evil" in his state of the nation speech to Congress. "By seeking weapons of mass
destruction, these regimes pose a grave and growing danger," he says and shifts the focus of US foreign policy from
terror groups to governments.

US President George W. Bush addresses a special session of
the UN, calls for multilateral action against Iraq. Iraq responds by announcing it will allow inspections
unconditionally, but quickly retracts the offer, making it conditional on no new US resolutions.

UN Security Council Resolution 1441 calls on Iraq to
cooperate with UN inspection teams and not to obstruct UN forces. Iraq must declare all weapons of mass destruction in
its possession by December 8, 2002. UNMOVIC inspection teams began inspecting sites in Iraq.

Dec 7, 2002

Iraq submits documentation as required by UN Security
Council Resolution 1441 that details the disposal of weapons of mass destruction. the document claims that Iraq has
disposed of all such weapons. Shortly thereafter, US experts examining the documentation claim it is not complete and
convincing.

War begins with US raid on meeting of Saddam with his advisors. Saddam is
apparently unhurt. US forces invade southern Iraq, meeting relatively light resistance, but by March 22 are bogged down
at Um Qasr and Basra in the south and Nasariyeh on the road to Baghdad.

April 9, 2003

Baghdad falls to US troops.

May 1, 2003

President Bush declares an end to the Iraq war.

May 28, 2003

A defiant letter from Saddam Hussein to the Iraqi people indicates that US
assassination attempts have failed. Resistance to US occupation from unidentified sources includes sabotage of
infrastructure and suicide bombings of US soldiers.

July 14, 2003

First meeting of US - appointed Iraqi interim council

July 22, 2003

Uday and Qusay Hussein, sons of Saddam killed in a shootout with US troops.

Aug, 2003

Increasing evidence shows that US and British governments "improved"
intelligence estimates to make a case that Iraq was still stockpiling WMD.

Aug 19, 2003

UN compound bombed by unknown Iraqi forces, killing at least 20.

Aug 22, 2003

Capture of Ali Majid ("Chemical Ali") by US forces is announced. Ali was
questioned about WMD programs but has not revealed any new information.

UN SC Resolution 1511 on Iraq - recognizes the
legitimacy of the American supported provisional Iraqi government, and authorizes UN aid to Iraq under US supervision,
while at the same time calling for submission of a time-table for Iraqi self governance.

Dec 13, 2003

Saddam Hussein captured alive by US forces.

Mar 1, 2004

Iraqi interim constitution agreed upon by interim government and approved by
US.

Insurgency by radical Shi'a leader Moqtada Sadr and his "Mehdi Army." Fighting
in Najaf and Falluja.

June 7, 2004

UN SC Resolution 1546 on Iraq - recognizes the legitimacy of the interim
Iraqi government and calls on UN members to support it.

June 24, 2004

About one hundred people are killed in coordinated attacks throughout Iraq.
Terror attacks are an almost daily occurrence as the date on which sovereignty is to be handed over to the Iraqis
approaches.

June 28, 2004

Iraqi PM Iyad Allawi takes power for sovereign Iraq in a modest ceremony
held two days before the deadline. US Administrator Paul Bremer leaves Iraq. NATO promises aid to Iraq in training
security forces.

August, 2004

Coalition forces attack the holy city of Najaf, where extremist Shi'a leader
Moqtada Sadr and his Mehdi army have fortified themselves. The situation is resolved by a peace brokered by Ayatollah
Ali Sistani, who gains considerable prestige. Sadr subsequently agrees to disarm his militia and participate in the
Iraqi elections.

November, 2004

Coalition and Iraqi forces begin attack on rebel forces in Fallujah, reputedly
led by Abu-Musab al Zarqawi, pegged by the US as a member of Al-Qaeda.. Numerous civilians are killed in the attacks and
Arab sources report damage to mosques and hospitals; UN Secretary General Kofi Annan cautions against the attacks, but
Iraqi PM Ayad Alawi replies that the attack is necessary to restore order and allow for elections scheduled in January.
Alawi declares martial law after a series of attacks in various Iraqi cities.

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