dark red
= first recorded or earlier spellings of Scandinavian place-names;green
= names or words in OE, ON, OHG or
cognate languages;

purple
= Modern Scandinavian, German, Dutch or English words.

Abbreviations

ODan.
= Old Danish; OE = Old English; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse;
OSwed. =
Old Swedish; PN = Proto-Norse; WN = Old West Norse.

*Note: this article
is as expansive
and detailed as possible pending access to the multi-volume reference
works
such as Norske Gaardnavne,
Danmarks Stednavne
and Sveriges Ortnamn.

*Note:This article is only intended
to be a general survey of many of the more prominent place-names
containing theophoric or supranormal elements, and is intended to spur
the interested lay reader to further research. It is in no way intended
to be comprehensive or represent the latest scholarship on the subject.

Heathen place-names and Scandinavia

As
the old gods and heathen cults lasted longest in Scandinavia, and
especially in
Sweden
(well into the 1100s) we would expect to find most evidence of
heathen-derived
names in this part of the world. And this is in fact the case. Most
Scandinavian theophoric place-names (those involving a god-name) have
the name
of the god as the first element, and most commonly have the name for afarm
(often ON bý or OSwed. tuna)
as a second. We know that any
toponyms bearing indisputable heathen elements are not likely to be
younger
than 900-1000 AD, and depending upon the elements with which the names
are
compounded, are able to supply onomasticians with valuable pointers for
dating
settlements and the place-name elements which form their names.

Theophoric
place-names are often formed with the names of gods are associated with
fertility, good hunting, fishing, fair weather and growth (especially Frey
and Thor, but also Freya,
Ull and Njörd)
and some names imply that the
divinity was thought to be resident in the land (althought not
exclusively of
course). Alternatively a man may have dedicated his land to a god, and
in
return get good crop yields. He had the additional option of blaming
the god if
the crops failed, and hence could to some degree avoid responsibility.
Natural
features (rather than man-made ones) are also commonly compounded with
theophoric names: woodland,stony outcrop,hill,island,headland
and lake
to name some more common examples
(headlands, according to J. A. Huisman, were often believed to be
haunted by
spirits (therefore a type of hill-cult) and most holy capes were later
had a
heathen shrine or monastery built on them). Especially common with
regard to
outdoor cult practices are: lundr
“grove” and hörgr
“stony outcrop” (cf. OE hearg).
Rites were probably also conducted
in the larger woods and forests, and as Danish historian Johannes
Steenstrup
points out, so with the lund
“maaske er det samme Tilfældet ved
den større Skov, With…” (p.17), although certain theophoric
place-names
combining -ved
(ODan. with)
are much less common. Early Christian legal codes from Norway and Sweden
reinforce the view of
widespread outdoor worship by expressly prohibiting the execution of
ritual
ceremonies on mounds, in groves and woods, by stones and in
sanctuaries.

Later
Christian interference means that many names of the *Þórsberg
type that refer to a specific deity or are clearly heathen, may have
been
replaced by the less obviously heathen *Helgaberg
type. Nevertheless, place-names
provide us with a more reliable picture of the old faith as it was
practised
among the people than the learned ON literary sources of several
centuries
later (written by Christian historians). Christianity did not suceed in
erasing
the legacy of the heathen past from place-names as it did rather more
effectively from the general lexicon, folk beliefs and customs. Many
theophoric
place-names point to the relationship between a former heathen
cult-stead and
present Christian parish. These names indicate a continuity of belief.
The farm
or homestead used as a heathen shrine often became the local or
regional
centre, despite the later change in religion. In many cases a heathen
place of
worship must have given way to a Christian one, probably built on the
same spot
or near to where the heathen site had originally been.

Regarding
the veneration of particular gods in particular
countries, the approximate trends within Scandinavia
break down like this:

is
correct in stating that of Germanic place-names, Odin seems to have
been best
commemorated in the Scandinavian lands. He seems to have been
especially
popular in Denmark
and many names survive, the best-known
being Odense
(Fyn).
But as we go north, and west in particular, Odin soon becomes less
visible. In Sweden
he is not uncommon, appearing in
compounds with -åker
“field” and -lunda
“grove” which are especially associated with him in that country.
However, Odin
never occurs with the element -tuna
“farmstead” (of a special kind) and
this suggests the cult of this god was late in coming to Sweden.
In Norway,
Odin
is very rare and in Iceland
and the Faroes
he is never found, possibly because Thor
was popular in these places and Odin
was more the god of aristocrats, which
didn't generally apply to these colonies. Exceptions noted, Odin-names
in Scandinavia,
spread out as they are, tend
to suggest that he was both chief-god (although not necessarily the
most
popular) and battle-god and had a general cult across the mainland
nations
before Christianity was introduced. The distribution of names in Óðinn
has led some to speculate that his cult spread from the south from the
period
c.200-400 AD onwards and he was little known before the Viking Age. His
apparent rather late arrival in Sweden
and Norway
and inability to
reach Iceland
at all tends to support this view, although it can be dangerous to draw
sweeping conclusions like this from place-name evidence alone. In
general, the
evidence of place-names suggests that Odin,
although nominally chief of the gods, was overshadowed by Thor - the god of the common man - in
most parts of heathen Scandinavia.
Huisman’s claim of the Odin
place-names that they “…echter
zal een groot deel op theofore mansnamen teruggaan” (p.12)
hardly seems
likely, since personal names in Odin-
have never been very popular.

Tyr
: the old Germanic god of war (Old
Norse Týr,
Old English Tîw)
occurs in Denmark
in place-names compounded with ved
“wood” and lund
“grove”. He is little mentioned in Icelandic
literature, is not recorded in place-names there, and aside from one
place in
western Norway, Tyr
is absent from Norway and Sweden,
which suggests he had a small cult following and he was early on the
decline as
a cult figure. In Denmark
he clearly had a greater role as a venerated deity.

Thor
: is very widespread as a first or
second compounding element across the whole of Scandinavia,
but seems especially popular in the west. Proto-Norse *ÞunraR
was originally not a personal being but thunder, or the impersonal
power which
brought it. In Denmark,
he appears compounded with -ager
and -lund,
the former probably coming to mean
“cultivated land”. He appears in Sweden
commonly, being compounded with -tuna
and -åker
(there are 5 examples of Torsåker
in Sweden).
As in Denmark
it seems he had an agrarian role
there. In Norway
the name is also a common element,
however it is only once compounded with -åker,
which suggests that Þór
was not an agrarian god there. This compound is only notable in Eastern
Scandinavia
(Denmark
and Sweden),
where Thor
became a ferility god. In Iceland
there are 18 examples of Þór,
5 of which end in -nes
“headland” and 5 in -höfn
“harbour”. The remainder describe natural features. Tórshavn
is the capaital of the Faroes
but there seems to be only one other theophoric place-name in this
island
group. The place-names from *Þórsberg,
like the German Donnersberg,
suggest Thor was worshipped on
hills
and rocks.

Ull
: god of hunting and skiing, is given
prominence to in Norway
(especially the south) and Sweden
(especially central Sweden),
where
he is very popular. In Sweden
his name is most often associated with sanctuaries and spots of public
worship
such as -vi,
-hör(etc. – from hargher),
-lund
and -åker (also appearing with-tuna),
while in Norway
he tends to be associated
with meadows and pastures, e.g. -eng,
-land,
-vin
and -tveit.
Ull
is very rare or non-existent in Denmark.
Place-names suggest that the cult of Ull
and *Ullinn was once very popular,
especially in eastern and central Sweden.

Frey
and Freya
: are also widespread across Scandinavia.
In
some parts of Sweden
the former had a huge public cult
status, as is known from the rites that occured at the great temple at Uppsala.
In Sweden
he appears compounded with elements
such as -tuna
among others. In Denmark,
Frey
is found occasionally in such names as
Frøs Herred
(Sønderjylland) “Frey's county “. In Iceland
he appears twice, in Freysnes
“Frey's headland”, and once in Freyshólar
“Frey's hill”. In general, male
deities appear much more often than female ones and Freya
is the only goddess who shows up with any kind of frequency.

Njörd
: the old god of the sea (Old Norse Njörðr),
is also a common name involved in compounds, especially with words
denoting island.
He is common in eastern Sweden
and along the west coast of Norway
and was worshipped widely in these countries. In Sweden
he occurs with -ö
“island” and -tuna
“farmstead”, among others. In Norway
and in Iceland
he appears in ON *Njarð(ar)vík
“Njörd's inlet” four times and twice respectively. In Denmark
he is rather less common but can be
found in Nærum
(earlier Niarðar-rum)
“Njörd's site”.

Finally,
Balder
is sporadic everywhere, but Heimdall is very rare. Place-names reveal little about
the nature of
the cult of Balder
except that he was associated with
hills and rocks and perhaps with fertility (see Bollesager
in Denmark).
Frigg is very
rare in
Scandinavian place-names, despite her important position as Odin’s wife in Norse mythology, and most
of the alleged instances of her name are doubtful.

In
summary:
Thor, popular everywhere,
was more popular in western Scandinavia,
although he was never seen as an agrarian god. He seems to have been
more the
god for the common working man, or the traveller. Odin
was popular in Denmark
and Sweden
but not in
western Scandinavia.
He seems to have been the
god of poets, warriors and aristocrats. Frey,
Freya, Njörd
and Ull were
popular all over, the last of these especially in Norway
and Sweden.
Finally, the gods Tyr, Balder, Heimdall
and Frigg do not
seem to have had great cult status anywhere.

Taken
as a whole, Viking-Age Scandinavian place-names tend to suggest that
cultic
rituals and heathen worship were either conducted in the kind of
open-air
natural sites described below or in the main room of a farmstead, the
latter
being what (the generally widespread) Hof-
or Hov-
usually seems to denote. The occasional accounts of heathen shrines or
rites
from the 13th century Icelandic Sagas have largely been dismissed as
the
fanciful, ill-informed and impartial beliefs of much later Christian
writers.
The Sagas have been attacked as being an unreliable source for Viking
secular
history, let alone religious history. Frequently cited concepts of a
chief or
district temple and the so-called “temple tax” were probably also the
misguided
notions of Christian Icelanders (or others - perhaps even Adam of
Bremen's
account of the “Great Temple at Uppsala”) and based upon elements of
later
ecclesiastical legislation and organisation. Icelandic prose literature
is
generally considered to be a poor source from which to extract reliable
information about heathen worship, although some stanzas in the Eddic
Poems are
of great value in this regard. Place-names and archaeology therefore
have a
great role to play in helping to reconstruct the pre-Christian past of
our
forefathers. Even with the place-name evidence (which, it must be said
is
rather overwhelming), care must be taken not to misinterpret the nature
of the
evidence. The numerous names involving hof
in Norway
and Iceland,
for example, which later became parishes, gave rise to the popular
claim that
Christian churches were often built on former heathen sites but this
has hardly
been confirmed by archaeological excavations. Scandinavian literature
has
similarly little to say on this theme and the entire corpus of
documentary
literature only provides one lone mention of a former vé
(a sacred heathen site of unknown qualities) becoming the site of a
Christian
church. Such in fact may have been the exception rather than the rule,
and it
now seems sensible to reject the former generally widely held belief
that many
Christian sites were once pagan.

Norway

This
section relies heavily on the work
of Magnus Olsen and especially his articles on “Norge” in Nordisk Kultur 26 and Nordisk
Kultur 5. The figures quoted below are taken from
the former of these,
although I have not reproduced those which Olsen is in any reasonable
doubt
about. Alleged theophoric toponyms have been cross-checked using the
superb and
recently updated Norsk
stadnamnleksikon edited by Sandnes and Stemshaug.

The
total number of theophoric or else
heathen related place-names in Norway
is staggering and Magnus Olsen reckons on 600+, most of which are gardnavne
(“farm-names”). The most common gods recorded in these Norwegian
place-names
are: Thor, Frey or Freya and Ull.

In
cases where ambiguity arose (many),
Olsen explains that it has been necessary to work carefully with the
extant
sources and take the local topography into account before coming to a
conclusion. Among the Norwegian landscape, a much smaller number of
nature-names (naturnavne),
field-names (marknavne)
and names of very minor localities (smånavne)
also preserve heathen elements. A
major problem here, as in all place-name study, is that only the more
sizeable
or important places and habitations have generally been mentioned in
the
contemporary sources. Gardnavne
and gardbruksnavne
are especially important in illuminating Norwegian social history
because their
given names are often of great antiquity and there are some 50,000 of
them in Norway.

A
further problem preventing certain
interpretation of some place-names is polysemy and this can
particularly be a
problem when we are lacking early written forms which might otherwise
have
decided for one interpretation or another. Commonly problematic
elements in
this regard are place-names beginning: Tors-
(deity-name Þórr
or personal name Þórir?),
Helga-
(heilagr
“holy” or personal name Helgi?),
Ve-
(ON vé
“shrine” or viðr
“wood”?). In some cases even a survey of the local topography has not
proved
conclusive.

The
most common elements compounded to
theophoric names are: -vang
“pasture”; -åker
“field” (might represent an older type of cult performed under the open
sky); -ness
“headland”; -vin
“meadow” (names
in ON -vin
are ancient and central as gard-names;
note Stemhaug’s observation about the frequency of this element in
theophoric
compounds: “Heidne gudenamn og ord som
vitnar om heiden gudsdyrking er det derimot flust av…”
(p.95). The many vin-
names with a first element referring to heathen cult clearly classifies
this
element as one belonging to several centuries before the Scandinavians’
conversion to Christianity); -heim
“home(stead)” and -land.
Magnus Olsen claims to have found 47 Norwegian examples of the compound
type
“god-name + land”,
as for example in Frøysland
and Torsland.
There are very few examples in Norway
of compounds in -lund
“grove” which
is common in Sweden and Denmark.
This suggests public rites in groves were less common there than
elsewhere.
Cult in Norwegian place-names appears as richly nuanced and having an
imtimate
connection with rural and urban social life from the later Iron Age
onward. It
is mainly the numerous farm and settlement names dotted around the
landscape
which reveal the former existence of 100s of larger and smaller shrines
and
cult centres.

In
the catalogue of instances given
below, one or more examples may be given of a modern place-name
incorporating
the featured element, followed by a list (in the Old Norwegian
forms) of the
first elements with which that element is found compounded. The figures
in
brackets show the number of instances that the compound occurs and are
inclusive of the modern examples if such are given.

For
reference, a glossary of the Old Norwegian compounding elements is
given (these
forms correspond exactly with the Old Norse, and very closely to the
Old
Swedish and Old Danish elements translated elsewhere in the
Scandinavian
section of this article):

Odin
(ONorw. Óðinn)
can be found in for example in Onsøy
(Fredrikstad municipality,
Østfold - older Óðinsøy; a farm Onsøya in Trondheim
municipality, Sør-Trøndelag)
“Odin's isle” and Onsøya
in Skaun municipality, Sør-Trøndelag,
which must be an earlier supposed *Óðinsvin
“Odin's meadow”. Nationwide he is
found compounded with: -akr
(3 – Odensåker
a farm in Våler municipality, Østfold;
Onsaker
a small settlement in Jevnaker muncipality, Oppland; Onsaker
a farm in Hole municipality, Buskerud),
-ey
(4), -hof
(1), -land
(2 - e.g. Osland
in Askvoll municipality,
Sogn og Fjordane was recorded as Odensland
in 1322; ON *Óðinsland),
-salr
(2) and -vin
(3). De Vries
mentions an Odinsberg
but at present I cannot confirm this
apparently minor nature name, in addition to a lost toponym from the
Fjordene Odhenslandh
“the open land of Odin” (cf. the lost Swedish parallel names below). De
Vries
correctly adds Onsrud
(gard
in Ullensaker municipality,
Akershus) to Olsen's total from earlier *Óðinshof
“shrine to Odin” (1331: a Odenshofue;
the form Onsrud
is first known from 1666 and the second element derives from ON ruð
“clearing”). The lack of names compounding Óðinn
in southwest Norway
(most Odin names are in southeast Norway) corresponds to
the situation in Iceland,
where
no names with this deity are certain. This makes sense when we remember
that
most of the original settlers of Iceland
came from west Norway.
His wife in Norse mythology, Frigg,
is according to Magnus Olsen found
once in Norway with -setr
(1 – now lost, found in Hegra parish,
Stjørdalen municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag, recorded as Fryggiosætre
in Aslak
Bolts jordebok from the 1400s) and his sons Váli
and Víðarr
are found with -skjölf
(1) and -hof
(1 - at Vang, in Hamar municipality,
Hedemarken), -skjölf
(1) respectively. The frequent
farm-names (with around 100 instances) of Våle
or Våler appear not to derive
from Váli but can be taken to
be forms descended from ON *váll “the stumps and roots
of burnt trees” (Sandnes, 1975).

Thor
(ONorw. Þórr)
was the god most venerated in Norway.
Quite many examples exist, here are a few: Torshaug
(farm in Trondheim municipality, Sør-Trøndelag; a mound in Smøla municipality, Møre og Romsdal; a small
settlement in Gjerdrum
municipality, Akershus; a farm in Kongsvinger municipality, Hedmark, a
farm in
Tynset municipality, Hedmark; a hill in Etnedal municipality, Oppland;
a farm
in Målsev municipality, Troms)
“Thor's (burial) mound”, Torshov
(10 instances in the Oslofjord region (e.g. 1376: þorshof
) – e.g. 2 farms in Enebakk municipality, 2 farms in Lørenskog
municipality, 2
farms in Gjerdrum municipality, a part of the city of Oslo, a farm in
Hamar
municipality, Løten municipality and Jevnaker municipality) and at
least 14
others elsewhere - “Thor's shrine”), Torsnes
(1) a farm in Våler municipality,
Østfold; c.1400: þorsnæs;
2) a farm in Jondal municipality,
Hordaland; c.1360: þorsnæs;
3) a settlement in Balestrand
municipality, Sogn og Fjordane; 4) a farm in Haugesund municipality,
Rogaland;
5) a small settlement in Tysnes municipality, Hordaland; 6) a small
settlement
in Vindafjord muncipality, Rogaland; 7) a
headland in Karlsøy muncipality, Troms; 8) a settlement in Ås
muncipality,
Akershus; 9) headland in Nome muncipality, Telemark)
“Thor's headland”, Torsøy
(a settlement in Larvik muncipality,
Vestfold) “Thor's island”, Totland,
gard
and parish in Vågsøy municipality,
Sogn og Fjordane
(c.1360: i Þothlandi
(dative)); ON *Þórsland -
Totland
is found at ten sites from Sirdal to Nordfjord, most often in Hordaland
and the
majority have early orthographies which support the interpretation of Þórr
+ land, e.g. pastureland in
Aurland muncipality, Sogn og Fjordane, a settlement in Bømlo
municipality,
Hordaland, a small settlement in Samnanger muncipality, Hordaland, 2
small
settlements in Lindås muncipality, Hordaland, a small settlement in
Masfjorden
muncipality, Hordaland, a small settlement in Lierne municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag. (Most instances of *Þórsland are found in western
Norway, the region from which most Icelandic settlers emigrated and
helps
explain Thor’s supremacy in Iceland).
Torsåker
“Thor's field”. Torsberg
(a small settlement in Skiptvet municipality, Østfold; a small
settlement in Drammen
municipality,
Buskerud) “Thor’s hill”. In total, Thor
is found compounded with: -akr
(1), -áss
(1), -berg/björg
(2), -ey
(1), -haugr
(7), -hof
(10), -land
(8), -nes
(9), -setr
(2 – Torset,
Buskerud, and Møre og Romsdal), -vangr
(1), -vík
(2 - both Møre og Romsdal), -völlr
(1) and -þveit
(1). De Vries adds two which he claims
descend from ON *Þórsvin
“Thor's meadow”: Tori
(a farm in Gjerdrum muncipality, Akershus;
a farm in Stokke municipaliy, Vestfold).
Place-names
in Norway
tend to suggest that his cult grew stronger as we approach the onset of
Christianity.

Tyr
(ONorw. Týr)
is practically
unknown in Norway
(just as
he appears to have been in Sweden
- compare to his presence in Denmark)
and this point to his cult being seen as antiquated and irrelevant in
this
country. Indeed, the further west toward Iceland
one goes, the less Tyr
is in evidence. His role it seems had early on been usurped by Odin
in these countries. In Norway
he is found only once, compounded with -nes
(Tysnes
- municipality
and gard
in Hordaland; ON *Týsnes).
Sandnes (1975) adds a suspect Tislauan,a
farm in Melhus municipality in Sør-Trøndelag, but I have no more
information on
this alleged theophoric topoynym at the present time.

Balder
(ONorw. Baldr)
is more in evidence in Norway
than both Denmark
and Sweden,
although he could hardly be called a commonplace theophoric element. He
is
found mainly compounded with natural features: -berg
(1 - Basberg
in Tønsberg municipality, Vestfold; ON
*Baldrsberg),
-ey
(1), -fjörðr
(1), -heimr
(1 - Baldersheim,
Fusa municipality, Hordaland; 1300s: Ballheimfrom
ON *Baldrsheimr),
-hóll
(1 - Balleshol
in Ringsaker municipality, Hedmark; ON *Baldrshóll),
-nes
(1 - Balsnes
in Hitra municipality, Sør-Trøndelag; 1342: Baldrsnes)
and -vík
(1).

The
name of the god Ullr
(and the side-form or closely related deity Ullinn)
appears remarkably frequently in Norwegian place-names, so it is to be
regretted that so little known for sure about him. He is mentioned in
Icelandic
sources only in passing and it can be assumed that along with Njörðr
he belongs to the oldest group of gods. His name is associated mainly
with
natural features but is also found in conjunction with arable land,
e.g.
pastures. Examples are Ullensvang
(municipality
in Hordaland; ON *Ullinnsvangr)
“Ull's plain”, Ullensaker
(1) gard
in Akershus; 1300: Ullinshofs sokn,
1343: Ullinshofue
= ON *Ullinshof;
we find Ullensagger
first in 1500s; 2) Ullensaker
(Nordland) “Ull's field”; 3) Ullensaker
a farm in Nordre Land municipality,
Oppland; 4) Ulsåker
in Hemsedal, a municipality
in Buskerud “Ull's field” - all
representing ON *Ullinsakr),
Ullinsin
in Vågå, Gudbrandsdalen, Oppland and Ullern
(c.1400: iUllarini)
apart of Oslo;
a farm in Ullensaker municipality; a farm in Hole municipality, Buskerud(ON *Ullinsvin and *Ullarvin respectively).
As Ullr
he is compounded with: -áll
(1), -berg
(1), -dalr
(1 - Ulldalen
in Telemark), -eng
(1), -ey
(4 - e.g. Ullerøy,
a peninsula in Sarpsborg municipality,
Østfold - (1349: Vllaræy
= ON *Ullarey);
Ullerøy,
island and gard
in Farsund municipality,
Vest-Agder - (1594: Vllerø);
Ullerøy,
island in Lillesand municipality,
Øst-Agder; Ullarøy,
in Sør-Odalen, a municipality
in Hedemark), -hváll
(1 - Ullevål,
area of Oslo, Akershus (1309: Ullaruale);
ON *Ullarhváll),
-land
(11 - e.g. Ulleland
a farm in Kvinesdal municipality,
Vest-Agder; a farm in Øvre Eiker municipality, Buskerud; Ulland
a farm in Lillehammer municipality, Oppland; a farm in Flekkefjord
municipality, Vest-Agder; a farm in Kvinesdal municipality, Vest-Agder;
a farm
in Lierne municipality, Nord-Trøndelag), -nes
(1 - Ullenes
in Rogaland), -vík
(3 cases of Ullevik -
1 in Vestfold, 1 in Nome municipality, Telemark and 1 in Sunnmøre), -vin
(6 – Ullen
(< *Ullarvin)
is common in the Østlandet) and -þveit
(3). Sandnes (1975) mentions an Ullershov, a farm in
in Nes municipality,
Akershus. In side-form Ullinn
we have: -akr
(3), -hof
(3 - e.g. Ullinhof
in Nes, Romerike, Akershus; de Vries
mentions a lost Ullinshof,
once a parish in Nes, Ringerike,
Buskerud), -vangr
(1 – Ullensvang, a municipality
in Hordaland) and -vin
(1). A fjord and parish name in Tromsø municipality,
Tromsø, Ullsfjorden,
may contain the god-name Ullinn.
Ulla
in Haram municipality,
Møre og Romsdal; c.1520: Ullen according
to Sandnes/Stemshaug preserves a now lost name of a local brook whose
name (*Ullin)
was formed by a nominal verb derivative of ON vella“well
up, seethe” + vin
“meadow”, and therefore has nothing to do with the god-name Ullinn.
Ulleren
in Sør-Odal municipality, Hedemark (1393:
Ullernis
sokn, c.1400: Vllerni; ON *Ullerni, therefore not the
same as Ullern above),
may compound the god-name Ullr
but Olaf Rygh’s suggestion of a lost
river-name *Ull
and suffix -erni
find more favour with Sandnes and Stemshaug. In Samnanger municipality
in Hordaland, we find a Totland,
Ulland
and Frøland
in close proximity (from Þórr,
Ullr
and Frøy
+ land
respectively) and these suggest a local centre of heathen cult, with Frey and Thor
in particular representing fertility and agricultural
interests.

The
old Scandinavian equivalent to
Neptune, father of Frey and Freya
and one of the Vanir,
Njörd
(ONorw. Njörðr)
is relatively common in Norway
- as we
might expect in a country where the coastal districts and maritime
activity
have been so important. Place-names especially along the west coast of Norway
attest
to the popularity of his cult there. Other inland places named after
him have
an obvious connection with water, e.g. heads of rivers or islands in
lakes. The
present Norwegian island of Tysnesøyen
(Tynes municipality,
Hordaland) was once known as Njarðarlög
(Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar: ór Niarðar log,
or Niarð laug;
probably “bath of Njörd” - the present name derives from ON *Týrsnesey
“headland on an island consecrated to Tyr”). This island and the
several others
known to be, or have been, connected with this god were probably held
as sacred
land, in addition to the water surrounding them: Nerøy
in Herøy municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (1430-40: Nærdøy,
1514-21: Nordøy),
Nærøymunicipality
and island in Nord-Trøndelag (ON *Njarðey);
a parish in Aurland municipality,
Sogn og Fjordane - ON *Njarðey,
Nærøya
an island in Flora municipality, Sogn
og Fjordane, Nærøya
(an island in Nærøy municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag (Landnámabók: Niardey,
c.1293: Niarðey),
Nærøya
in Hemne municipality,
Sør-Trøndelag (1430-40: Nierdøy,
1723: Nerøy),
Nærøya
an island and a farm in Øksnes municipality,
Nordland (1567: Nierdøy,
1610: Nærøy)
- these last three probably compound Njarð-,
the stem form of Njörðr.
Other examples are Norderhov
(parish in Ringerike municipality,
Buskerud; 1329: Niærderhov,
1367: Nærdrhov,
c.1400: Nierdarhov,
c.1430: Nørdrhov),
Norderhov, a farm in Vålermunicipality,
Hedemark (1317: a Nærdrhofue)
and the same in Løten municipality, Hedemark
- all represent ON *Njarðarhof
“shrine to Njörd”. Compounded with ON -heimr
we have for example Njærheim,
a gard
and parish in Nærbø in Hå municipality,
Rogaland (1445: aNairdheme),
as well as the names Nærum a farm in Rygge municipality, Østfold
and a farm in Skien municipality, Telemark;
Nereim
in Fjellberg, Hordaland (1326: Niardhæims; ON *Njarð(ar)heimr)
and the same is a farm in Suldal municipality,
Rogaland, and Nærem in
Vestnes municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (1430-40: Nerdheime),
while with -land
I could mention Nærland
(a farm in Hå municipality,
Rogaland (right next to Njærheim);
1520-70: Nerland; ON *Njarð(ar)land)
and the same in Finnøy municipality,
Rogaland.
In total Njörd
is found compounded with the following elements: -akr
(1 – Nordråk
in Søndre Land municipality,
Oppland), -ey
(7 – common in western Norway < ON
*Njarð(ar)ey),
-heimr
(7), -hof
(3), -hóll
(1) Nardo,
an area of Trondheim municipality,
Sør-Trondelag; c.1430: i Niærdole;
ON *Njarðhóll),
-land
(5), -lög
(1), -vík
(5 at least,
indicating Njörðr’s
role as guardian of seafarers - e.g.
Narvikmunicipality
in Nordland (1567: Nardvik,
Norvik,
1610: Narvik;
probably ON *Njarðarvík),
Nervika
a gard
in Etne municipality,
Hordaland (1315: iNiarduikum,
1520-70: Nerwigh;
ON *Njarðvíkr),
Nelvika
a gard
in Smøla on Edøy, Nordmøre (1514-21: Nervik,
1723: Nelvik)and
Nærvika
a gard
in Askvoll municipality, Sogn og
Fjordane (1300s: Niærdvik,
1514-21: Nervik),
Nærvik
(gard
in Kinn, Sogn og Fjordane (1603: Nervik)),-vin
(1 - apparently
Nerdrum
in Fet municipality, Romerike, Akerhus (1363: á Niæðarini; ON *Njarðarvin)).
There are therefore at least 30 Njörðr-names
in the Norwegian landscape.

Concerning
the article by Þórhallur
Vilmundarsson (“Kultnavn eller ej?”), I am suspicious of the rather
sweeping
changes in sound and form to many of the place-names, if they are to
conform to
his theories. Vilmundarsson
simply demands too much: “der var
rigeligt mange krumspring i de lydhistoriske udviklinger, der var
nødvendige
for at komme fra beliggenhedsangivende adjektiver eller adverbier til
former
med Njarð-
og Nær.”,
as one recipient of his lecture commented. That
Nørðri-,
Nyrðri-
and Norðr-
can become Njarð-
sounds reasonable, but it is hard to believe that Nær-,
Neðri-
and Niðr-
can give rise to Njarð-
(as they either lack the vital medial -r-
or terminal -ð).
Neither am I convinced that comparing the situation in Norway with that of Iceland,
while interesting and in
some ways relevant, is very useful. Certainly the names in Norway are likely to be
at least several
centuries older than those in Iceland
and the local and cultural environments will be different.
Vilmundarsson's
theories on the relative proximities of the place-names are
interesting, and
corresponding to Neðri-
etc., we have Upper- and Lower- in England,
but in
my opinion, the sound changes required to allow this are too radical.

The
author appears to promise a general
discussion on cultic place-names but precedes to give only a rather
narrow
discussion on names supposedly deriving from the genitive of ON Njörðr
(and then mainly confined to Norway)
- hardly a wide-ranging critique of the work of Olsen, de Vries,
Knudsen, Hald,
Lárusson, Sigmundsson and others.

Frey
(ONorw. Freyr)
and Freya
(ONorw. Freyja)
were also known, but not nearly as popular as Frey
was in Sweden,
where he had a huge following as a fertility god. Names in Frey or Freya
are
especially frequent in the Vestlandet, in Trøndelag and in the
southeast, the
last of these because of the agricultural importance of the region. In
addition
to the several instances of Frøysland
(e.g. 1 – farm in Nordre Land
municipality, Oppland; 2 – village
in Mandal municipality,
Vest-Agder; 3 – farm in
Søgne municipality, Vest-Agder; 4 – farm in Førde municipality, Sogn og
Fjordane), we
also have stem-form compound Frøyland
“Frey's land” (e.g. in Sandnes
municipality, near Stavanger, Rogaland; farm in Farsund municipality,
Vest-Agder; a farm in Sokndal municipality, Rogaland; a farm in Time
municipality, Rogaland), Frøysa
in Stranda municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (c.1430: af Frøsin
- i.e. Frøy
+ vin),
Fretland
(Sogndal municipality, Sogn og Fjordane) “Frey's open land”, Fresvik
(a farm in Vik municipality,
Sogn og Fjordane) “Frey's inlet” (ON *Frøysvík),
Frøyshov
(a farm in Hole municipality, Buskerud) “Frey's shrine” (1335: á Fræysini
< ON *Frøysvin
“Frey's meadow”), Frøysnes,
gard
in Bygland municipality,
Øst-Agder (ON *Frøysnes)
and Frøysåker
“Frey's field” in Gol municipality, Buskerud, and finally of ON *Frøyssetr,
12 modern examples survive - e.g. Frøyset,
a parish in Masfjorden municipality,
Hordaland (although this may in fact
contain Freya,
not Frey),
a farm in Stryn municipality, Sogn og Fjordane, and a farm in Rauma
municipality,
Møre og Romsdal, while Frøset
is found in Nord-Trøndelag (farm in
Steinkjer municipality), Sør-Trøndelag (farm in Trondeim municipality;
farm in
Midtre Gauldal municipality), and Nordland (found recorded in such
early forms
as Frøisæter).
Frey
is found compounded with: -akr
(2 - Frøysåk
in Land, Oppland and Frøysåker
in Gol, Hallingdal, Buskerud; de Vries cites a further instance in
Nordland
which cannot be confirmed yet), -hlíð
(2 instances of Frøsli
in eastern Norway), -hof
(2 - Frøshov
a farm in Trøgstad municipality,
Østfold and Frøyshov
in Hole municipality, Buskerud), -land
(7), -laug
(1) Frøytlog,
gard
in Sokndal municipality,
Rogaland - probably ON *Frøyslaug
but may be *Frøyslög
“Frey's law”), -nes
(1), -setr
(12 - a lost Fryggiosætre
recorded in 1435 in Nord-Trøndelag is
added to these by de Vries), -steinn
(1), -teigr
(1) Fresti,
gard
in Ramnes municipality,
Vestfold; c.1400: i Frøysteigh),
-vík
(3 (4?) - Frøvik
in Vindafjord municipality,
Rogaland and Fresvik
above; there is also a Fresvik
a farm in Ullensvangmunicipality,
Hordaland), -vin
(3 – e.g. Frøysin),
-völlr
(1 - Fresvoll
a farm in Ringsaker municipality,
Hedmark; Sandnes in Norsk
Stadsnamnleksikon augments
Olsen's findings with the following comments: “Gudenamnet
Frøy
eller Frøya
har vi kanskje i gardsnamna Fresvall,
Frøvoll,
Frivoll”
(p.498) and these must be considered possible at the present time - de
Vries
mentions a Frøvold
in Sigdal municipality,
Ringerike, Buskerud, which I assume
is an older spelling of the Frøvoll
mentioned by Sandnes. There is also a Fresvoll,
which is a farm in Sør-Odal municipality,
Hedmark and the same is the name of
pastureland in Tinn municipality, Telemark),
-þveit
(1 - Frøtvet,
a farm in Røyken municipality, Buskerud).
In all some 20 farm-names point to the god and many of the place-names
compounding him occur in southeast Norway,
which was an important
agricultural region. The more recent discussion provided by de Vries
would lead
me to believe that there are some 17 sites descended from ON *Frøysland,
with forms like Frøyland
and Frøysland
along the Norwegian west coast (6 in Rogaland (including 3 Frø(y)land):
1 - Sogndal; 2 - Hetland; 3 - Time; 4 - Vikedal; 5 - Nerstrand; 6 -
Vats; 1 in
Samnanger, Hordaland (Frøland);
1 in Hjørundfjord, Søndmøre; 1 in
Vanse, Vest-Agder), a number found in eastern Norway (3 in Østfold: 1 -
Våler;
2 - Trøgstad; 3 - Askim; 1 in Hjartdal, Telemark; 1 in Solum, Grenland;
1 in
Skedsmo, Romerike, Akerhus; 1 in Herrestad, Bohuslän) and a Frøysland
in the north in Nordland. The two Frøyshov
(< *Freyshof)
suggest public worship of him during the period just before
Christianity (de
Vries cites a third case, Frøyhov
in Nord-Trøndelag). Possible is Frøystøl
in Tinn municipality,
Telemark, where -støl
means modern Norwegian seter.
Jan de Vries adds to Olsen's tally with two toponyms Olsen apparently
overlooked compounding Freyr
+ staðr “place,
spot”, Frøystad
in Sunnmøre, Møre og Romsdal (earlier
form Fröstad),
and Frøstad in Frosta municipality, Nord-Trøndelag.Freya
is also rather common (especially on
the west coast), appearing with these elements: -berg
(3 - e.g. Freberg),
-hof
(3), -land(ir)
(9), -nes
(4 - e.g. Frøynes
in Ullensvang municipality,
Hordaland; a headland in
Bremanger municipality, Sogn og Fjordane),
-setr
(2), -vík
(3), -þveit
(2 - e.g. Frostvet
near Larvik, Vestfold). A further case
supplied by de Vries is Freim
near Ullensvang, Hordaland, which
appears to compound ON Freyjar
+ heimr
and denote “homestead of Freya”. Frøynes and Ullensvang in Hardanger, Hordaland are neighbouring
parishes and point
to an ancient cult-centre in this rural region.

Enøberg is
mentioned by de Vries in connection
with the lesser female deity Iðunn,
however I cannot yet confirm this
possibility nor provide more specific information on provenance in Norway
(cf. the
dubious Danish claim in this regard, Enø
in Sorøområdet, Sjælland). He also
mentions a Forsetlund (on
Onsøy, east side of Oslofjorden,
Fredrikstad municipality,
Østfold) “Forseti's grove” (ON *Forsetalundr),
which along with Magnus Olsen, he
believes is connected to the relatively minor deity Forseti (judge
among the Æsir).
The uptake of this deity in West
Norse regions has a very interesting history. The medieval 'Vita Sancti
Willebrordi' (“The Life of Saint Willebrord”) tells of a journey which
the
Anglo-Saxon missionary Willebrord makes at the end of the 8th century
to an
island which lies on the border between Denmark
and Friesland. The
island was called Fositesland
and was named after the Frisian god Fosite.
What was described was probably the
present day island of Helgoland.
The concordance in name between the chief Frisian god Fosite
and the Norse god Forseti
is obvious. Jan de Vries claims this
concordance shows that round about the year 700, there were cultural
relations
between Friesland and southern Norway, so that the cult of Fosite
has spread northwards in the Oslofjord area and Olsen's remarks
anticipate this
claim: “Man mener at Forseti
… er en omtydning av frisisk Fosite,
og at denne guds optreden i
Norden er å føre tilbake til frisernes handelsferder.” (Olsen
1926, p.241).

In
Old Norse there were two groups of
the gods, the Æsir
(singular Ás)
and the Vanir.
The former of these includes those gods we now associte with the Norse
pantheon, and in Norway
are
preserved by the name of the capital itself, Oslo,
which the Danes called Christiania
before the Norwegians regained their independence. In its old forms is
it
recorded as both Áslo
and Óslo,
but it is the East Norse form, Óslo,
that began to predominate from the
1500s onwards. The name probably means “meadow of the gods” (ON áss, óss “god”
+ *ló “meadow”
(the
latter is the same element preserved in Lom
in
Gudbrandsdalen, Oppland)), although other explanations have been put
forward
such as those that interpret the initial element as ON áss
“rocky ridge”.

Minor
female nature-deities or
guardians called in Old Norse literature dís
(plural dísir)
are known to appear a few times in
Norwegian place-names in connection with natural features: -hreys
(1), -vin
(5). They are also believed to appear
twice in Swedish place-names (see below). Compounded with -vin
(therefore ON *Dísavin)
we find for example Disen,
an part of Oslo,
as well as four Disen
in the Østlandet (1 - in Aker, Viken;
2 - Nes municipality,
Akerhus; 3 – a farm in Sør Odal municipality,
Hedmark; 4 – a farm in Modum municipality,
Buskerud). Disenå
in Sør-Odal municipality,
Hedmark, compounded the place-name Disen
(see directly above) with ON á
“river”.

Some
place-names with Gud-
or God-
refer to the role of temple priest
and district chieftain from pre-Chistian times (ON goði),
who is better known from Icelandic sources than from continental
Scandinavian
ones, in which little about the goðar
is mentioned. But in Norwegian
place-names, however, we are dealing with the ONorw. word for “god” guð
(or goð):
Godøy
e.g. (1) island and gard
in Giske municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (1351: Gudæy);
2) gard
in Bodø municipality,
Nordland - ON Goðey
and originally an island name) “god's-island”, Guåker
“god's-field”, Guddal
(parish in Fjaler municipality,
Sognefjorden; ON Guðdalir
= guð
+ dalr
“valley”) “god's-valley”, Gudvangen
(gard
in Aurland municipality,
Sognefjorden; ON guð
+ vangr)
“god's-plain”, Gudå
- a river which has given name to a gard
in Meråker municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag, probably meaning “river consecrated to the gods”.
However, in
some cases, it has proven difficult to choose between goð/guð
and goði.
The interpretation “god” has been common elsewhere - see the section
for Denmark
below,
for example, where the meaning goði
seems not to occur. Compounded either
with goði
or guð,
goð
we find: -á
(1), -akr
(3), -dalr
(3), -ey
(3), -heimr
(3 – Stemshaug mentions a Gudum (< ON *Guðheimr)),
-vangr
(1) and -vin
(6). In the genitive guðs-
and therefore certainly denoting “god” there are: -áss
(1), -land
(4), -lundr
(3), -þveit
(1).
We can note in passing that a compound denoting “shrine, god-house” ON *Guðrann
(1 - modern Gurann
in Botne, Vestfold) is only known from
place-names and is not found in the ancient literature.

Adjective
“holy” - Old Norwegian and
Norse heilagr
- is a rather common prefix in the
Norwegian landscape. It usually refers to land or a dwelling-place,
e.g.: Helgen,
gard
and parish in Nome municipality,
Telemark (ON *Helgin,
i.e. heilagr
+ vin)
“holy meadow”, Helgheim,
gard
and parish in Jølster municipality,
Sognefjorden and Helgum,
Gran municipality,
Oppland, both (ON *Helgheimr,
i.e. heilagr
+ heimr)
“holy homestead” - the same applies to Haljem,
gard
and settlement in Os municipality,
Hordaland (1427: Halgheimir)
and Helgheim
in Gran, Oppland, while Helgøya
(1) island, gard
and parish in Karlsøy municipality,
Tromsø - ON *Helgey
suggests a former cultic site; 2)
island and gard
in Finnøy municipality,
Rogaland (1361: i Helghiæy)
- probably ON helgi
“shrine” + ey;
3) island in
Mjøsa, Ringsaker municipality,
Hedemarken (medieval Eyin helga
- probably an old cultstead). The gardHovinsholm
is on the south point of the island (ON Hovin)).
Of gardnavne
we find: -akr
(1), -bólstaðr
(13), -heimr
(5), -land
(44), -setr
(6 – Stemshaug mentions a Helset),
-vin
(1) and -völlr
(1). Heilagr
+ land
is a very common gardnavn
across the whole of Norway,
but
especially in Rogaland and Hordaland. This compound is frequently met
with in the
modern form Helland,
but also Helgaland,
Helgeland
and Hægeland
(this last one has 10 sites in
Vest-Agder - e.g. a parish in Vennesla municipality,
ON *Helgaland).
Most of these cases will indeed be ON *Helgaland
but a few will contain the personal-name Helge
or the female equivalent Helga
- but only a few, since personal-names
are seldom compounded with -land.
Other possibilities regarding
interpretation of some are ON *Helluland
i.e. ON hella
“flat-stone” or ON *Helliland
from ON hellir
“cave”. As can be seen from the figures given above, -bólstaðr
is another frequent compounding element and is found in several forms
as Hægebostad(gard
and municipality
in Vest-Agder (1435: a Hægabostaþum;
ON *Helgabólstaðir)),Hellbostad,Helgebostad(in Hitra,
Sør-Trøndelag)andHellebost(e.g. in Dale, Sunnfjord, Sogn og Fjordane),
all denoting
“the holy dwelling”.One
not mentioned by Olsen but
suggested by Sandnes/Stemshaug is Helligvær,
an island group in Bodø municipality,
Nordland (1417: Helghawær;
ON heilagr
+ vær
“fishing
station”).

There
are also names of very small
localities using this prefix (e.g. -á,
-áss
and -berg)
- for example Helgåa
a river in Verdal municipality,
Nord-Trøndelang (ON heilagr
+ á,
with heathen associations) - but many
may be products of later Christian times and so it is difficult to give
figures
on these.

The
compounded or simplex element hov,
Old Norse/Old Norwegian hof,
which denotes a heathen shrine or cult-centre (and is the most common
word for
such in the sagas), is rare as an element in Denmark and Sweden but is
particularly common in Norway,
where uncompounded Hov
appears about 85 times. It is found so
densely in areas of the Østlandet that Magnus Olsen has speculated
about the
existence of“hov-kretser” in late heathen times.
Sandnes/Stemshaug provide a
useful snapshot of the situation regarding this place-name element:

However,
it is hardly likely that all
of these names originally meant simply “shrine” and most would have
referred to
a small building, an area of a farmstead or even a room devoted to
heathen
worship. There is no evidence of independent purpose-built shrines of
pagan
worship being widespread in Scandinavia and there is no evidence at all
for the
word having this meaning outside Scandinavia (in older and West
Germanic, hof
meant “farm”,
cf. German Hof).
As these 85 Hovs
are farms, an original meaning along the lines of “farm where cult
meetings
were held by the locals” might be more appropriate, while some of the
older
Norwegian hov-names
may simply denote “farm”. Magnus
Olsen (p.24 in Nordisk Kultur 5
[see sources]) provides some information about the relation of the hov
to the vang
(see below), as well as implicitly
suggesting that quite often place-names denoting former heathen worship
are
found in close proximity to one another:

Surviving
examples of simplex Hov
are for example 1) gard
and parish in Fet municipality,
Akershus (Sandnes (1975) mentions
that this is neighboured by the gardLøken
(< ON Leikvin)
and in heathen times would have been
a shrine and a leikvoll
(field for dancing) together. The
church was also built here); 2) gard
and parish in Søndre Land municipality,
Oppland; 3) gard
in Tjeldsund municipality,
Nordland. Hove,
preserving the old dative ending, is also found in many places e.g. a gard
in Selje municipality,
Sognefjorden. The simplex form Hof
is also well evidenced, e.g. 1) a municipality
in Vestfold; 2) gard
and parish in Sunndal municipality,
Møre og Romsdal. Hovet
in Hol municipality,
Buskerud is probably named from an extinct farm nearby (1528: Haff).
Hovstad
and Hofstad
- both “shrine-place, place of heathen
worship” - are common as gardsnavne,
e.g. Hoffstad
in Roan municipality,
Sør-Trøndelang (1520: Hopestad)
and Hovstad
in Stjørdalen municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag (c.1430: afHofstadhom);
both are probably ON hof
+ staðir.
Hovin,
combining ON hof
+ vin
“meadow”, is
found in many places, especially in the Østlandet, e.g. 1) gard
and parish in Spydeberg municipality,
Østfold; 2) gard
and parish in Ullensaker municipality,
Østfold; 3) gard
and parish in Tinn municipality,
Telemark; 4) gard
in Melhus municipality,
Sør-Trøndelag. As with heilagr,
-land
is a very common element in combination
with -hof,
as we might expect from cults involved with outdoor worship, fertility
and
crop-yield: Hovland
is especially frequent in the
Vestlandet, e.g. in Ullensvang municipality,
Hordaland (ON *hofland).

Twenty-four
names originally belonging to
farms are compounded with Thor
according to Magnus Olsen, modern Torshov,
Old Norwegian *Þórshof
and six of these have become parishes.
Place-names having clear heathen associations such as those in hov-,
often became parishes in Christian times. Olsen has calculated that
every 9th
main parish church in Norway had been built on, or near, a site called hof,
hofvin,
-hof
or vangr
and which had been a heathen cult-stead prior to Christianity's
arrival. The
inclusion of annex churches reduces the figure to 1 in 14 of all
medieval
parishes - a smaller but still very significant figure. If Olsen's
estimates
are correct, archaeological evidence has failed to support them so far.
In south-east Norway
21 places are compounded with a god-name and hov.
Examples: Torshov
(e.g. in Hadeland) “Thor's shrine”
(Old Norwegian Þórshof),
Frøyshov
“Frey's shrine”, Ullinshov
(e.g. in Nes, Romerike, Akerhus) and Ullershov
“Ull's shrine” (ONorw. *Ullinshof
and *Njarðarhof
are probably of great antiquity). Many though are place-names where the
veneration is not deity-specific: Hofnes
“shrine headland”, Hoftun
“homestead by a shrine” (ONorw. *Hoftún
- 3 instances, cf. OE tûn
“homestead, enclosure”), Hovstad
“shrine place”, Halstenhov
(=personal name?), Hofvin
(23 instances). Magnus Olsen has found
41 examples in Norway of Hovland
(and 4 of Hofsland)
“open land with a shrine” and these are especially common in Rogaland,
Hordaland and Sogn og Fjordane, as well as two of *Hofsetr,
to give the Old Norwegian form. Thus the figures break down as follows:
Hof
(85), -heimr
(1), -land
(45), -setr
(2 – e.g. Hovset),
-staðir
(uncertain), -tún
(3), -vin
(23 – most are around the
Oslofjorden). Unfortunately I do not have figures for the “deity-name +
hof
“ instances but
with at least 24 in Þórr-
alone (with several in the Oslo area),
there must be
many. The dearth of “deity-name + hof
“ in Iceland concords with the
situation in west Norway, where the term is also not found compounded
with
god-names and it is believed there was a mutual cultic heritage in the
two
areas, differing from the situation in eastern Norway, Sweden and
Denmark. The
frequency hof
is met with in place-names in Norway
and Iceland
certainly lends support to this view.

Old
Norwegian and ON hörgr
(cf. ODan. *harg(h),
OE hearg,
OHG harug < Gmic. *haruga)
is especially common in Norway
and Iceland,
and at least in
Norway,
is a problematic word. In some cases, it may denote “shrine,
cult-stead” -
probably a relatively crude cultic meeting-place in the open air using
a rocky
outcrop or cairn. According to Sandnes/Stemshaug, it developed in
meaning from
“crag with steep vertical faces” through “rocky outcrop”, “heap of
stones”,
“cairn”, to (perhaps in some cases anyway) “stone altar” with “heathen
shrine”
finally appearing in early Christian times. It is found uncompounded in
Norway
once (Horg
in Melhus municipality,
Sør-Trøndelag). With -vin
it appears 8 times in the Østlandetas Horgen.
Sandnes and Stemshaug are much less
certain than Olsen was that these sites once denoted places of heathen
cult –
instead they prefer the earlier and secular meanings of hörgr “crag with perpendicular faces” or “steep rocky
hill” and
claim this interpretation fits the Norwegian terrain much better,
pointing out
that many names of mountains end in -horgi.
In this way they explain Horg
(above), the 8 cases of Horgen (in the case of these with the transitional
meaning of “stony
mound, rocky outcrop”),
as well as Horge
in Austevoll municipality, Hordaland and Lærdal municipality, Sogn og
Fjordane,
Horgjem
in Rauma municipality (< *Hörgheimr
according to Sandnes (1975) with the
first element meaning “cairn”), More og Romsdal and Horjem
in Snåsa municipality, Nord-Trøndelag. Sandnes had already in 1975
mentioned
the names of some moutains in Sør-Trøndelag called Horgi,
Horga
and Horg,and indicated his belief that hörgr points to steep rock faces or rocky hills.
Some seem now to be questioning whether the Norwegian instances of Hor(g)-
were ever a part of pre-Christian religious landscape, suggesting
instead that
their names are much older and purely secular. In some of these names,
however,
hörgrmay denote “heathen shrine, sacred
spot”, developed from an earlier meaning of “stone altar”.

In
addition to being found in Old
English, hörgr
as a term for a sacred site is also
known from Old High German harug
“sacred grove” and it is clear from
this that it is an older term than hof,
which is only found (for certain) as
a term denoting a heathen site in parts of Sweden, as well as widely in
Norway
and Iceland. In Denmark
(as
far as is known) and certainly among the West Germanic tribes, hof
was not used as special word for a purpose-built temple-building (they
appeared
not to have such a word) but was undoubtedly used in reference to
secular
buildings, often farms.

Vé
in Old Norse and Norwegian meant
“shrine, holy place” (Proto Scandinavian *wiha < Gmic. *wîha)
but exactly what kind of site this
referred to (natural or purpose-built construction) is still not clear.
Examples in modern Norway: Ve (e.g. in Flå
municipality in Hallingdal, Buskerud and in Årdal municipality, Sogn og
Fjordane),
Vea
(gard
in Vaksdal municipality,
Hordaland (1328: i Vehom
(dat.pl.)) from ON vé),
Veberg
“holy hill”, Veøy(a)
(island and
parish in Molde municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (c.1400-50: Vidhøy,
Vidøy
was probably mistaken for ON viðr
“wood”; ON *Véey)
“holy island” and Vestad
“sanctuary-place”. The complete
figures appear to be: Vé
(8 (2 uncertain)), -berg
(1?), -bólstaðr
(1), -dalr
(4), -ey
(1), -ló
(1), -setr
(?), -staðr
(1?), -steinn
(1), -strönd
(1) and -vatn
(1), Sandnes and Stemshaug offer a doubtful case: Vevang,
a gard
in Eide municipality,
Møre og Romsdal (c.1520: Veffanger)
is a possible but unlikely ON *vévangr.
Many modern place-names which might
appear on first sight to stem from ON vé
no doubt have
much more prosaic derivations, such as Vevika
from earlier ved-
< ON viðr
“wood”, and the same for Veum
in Fyresdal municipality, Telemarken and Fredrikstad municipality,
Østfold (the
former in the plural viðir).
Sandnes and Stemshaug point out that
the vast majority of modern names in Ve-
derive from ON viðr
and not vé (p.484).

Vang
(ONorw. vangr),
now means “field, plain” in modern Norwegian. In heathen times this
might well
have denoted a plain where certain rituals or rites were performed,
although
its existence by no means certainly indicates the presence of former
cult,
especially when it is not attributed to a specific deity name. They can
more
reasonably assumed to have been cultic sites if they later became sites
for
churches or churches were built near them although this is by no means
a
certain test of validity. This comment applies equally well to the
other
examples discussed in this article. Simplex Vang
is known for
example from 1) a parish in Hamar municipality,
Hedemarken (1358: a Vange)
and 2) a municipality
in Oppland (1341: Vangs sokn)
- both ON vangr,
while Vangen
from the same noun is a gard
and parish in Aurland municipality,
Sognefjorden (1338:a Vanghenum i Aurlande).
As a compounding element it is more significant, e.g. Ullensvang
“Ull's plain”, Vangseng
“meadow plain”, Vangsnes
(gard
and parish in Vik municipality,
Sognefjorden (c.1400: a Wangsnesi
(dative)) from ON vangsni
“ploughshare” + nes),
Hovsvangen
(Oppland) “plain with a shrine”, Gudvangen
(Sognefjorden) “god's plain”. Found
compounded as first elements with vangr
are: guð-
(1), hofs-
(1?), Þórs-
(1), Ullins-
(1).

Uncompounded
Old Norwegian and Norse lundr
(modern Norwegian lund)
“grove” upon which a church has later been built (or else closeby) may
possibly
have been a holy grove in heathen times. This becomes almost a
certainty when
that grove is linked to a theophoric name. On Norwegian soil I have no
figures
for uncompounded Lund
but it is rather common, e.g. 1) area of Kristiansands municipality,
Vest-Agder; 2) municipality
in Rogaland; 3) gard
in Nærøy municipality,
Nord-Trøndelag. Sandnes and Stemshaug make some useful comments about
the
status of lund
in Norway
(which applies well elsewhere) and this is tied into the three examples
just
given above:

Dative
form Lunde
is found for example as 1) a parish name in Nomemunicipality,
Telemark (1399: Lunda Sokn;
ON *Lundar sókn)
and 2) a parish in Øvre Sirdal,
Sirdal municipality,
Vest-Agder. A derivative of simplex lundr
is to be found in Lunder,
a parish in Ringerike municipality,
Buskerud (c.1400: Lyndi),
where ON lyndi
means “place where there is a grove”.

Lundr
appears compounded with the son of Balder,
Forseti,
in the genitive Forseta-
(1 - on Onsøy,
eastside of Olsofjorden, Østfold) and
with “god” Guðs-
(3). To these, Sandnes and Stemshaug
add the common name Lundeby,
e.g. a gard
in Eidsberg municipality,
Østfold from ON *Lundarbýr
“farm near or at the grove”).

A
word not found in living use in
historical Scandinavian but also known from Swedish place-names and
English
ones is ONorw. *al
(from Gmic *alh or
*alg(i)
- Gothic alhs,
OSwed.*al(a),
OE ealh (cf. OE ealgian “protect, defend”))
which appears in Norwegian place-names a few times as Æl-
or Elg-
(the latter from probable side-form *alg).
With -vin
it is found contracted in the
place-names Ælin
(4) (i.e.*al-vin)
and mutated in ON *Elgjartún
(1?) (i.e. *alg(ar)-tún),
the latter of which has probably become such common Østlandet forms as Elton
(a gard
in Vestre Toten municipality,
Oppland), Eltun,
Elgeton
and Elgetun.
Olsen conceives of an ON *elgr
cognate to Gothic alhs
but the jury is still out on this
issue. To Olsen's instances, Sandnes and Stemshaug add Elgeseter,
an area in Trondheim
(medieval Ælgisætr;
ON *Elgisetr
- first element is probably Gmic *alg(i)
and there must
have been a cultstead there in heathen times) and Elnes,
a gard
in Nittedal municipality,
Akershus (probably ON *Elgjarnes).
This term for cultic site is at any rate clearly of great antiquity and
very
likely denoted a more primitve type of cultic place or construction
than hörgr,
hof
or vé.

Old
Norwegian and Old Norse salr
“hall” is only found in the names of settled districts. It is twice
found
compounded with Odin:
Óðinns-
(1) in Østfold and 2) in Steinkjer municipality,
N-Trøndelag). As such, its significance is unclear.

Sandnes
and Stemshaug reject any notion
of heliolatry being reflected in Norwegian place-names of the type Sol-
(there are for example more than 100 instances of Solberg
or Solbjørg
in Norway),
regarding this as mere speculation (cf. the section on Denmark).
None of the several toponyms in Sol-
that they consider are regarded as
having any heathen associations and their first element can always be
explained
in other, more prosaic ways.

The
highest mountain range in Norway,
Jotunheimen between Gudbrandsdalen, Valdres and Sogn,
takes its name from ON jötunn
“giant” and heimr
“home, dwelling” and is a literary creation used by the poet A. O.
Vinje in one
of his works of 1862. This name was inspired by the remarks of a
geologist made
some years earlier, who likened the range to the German Riesengebirge.
Vinje took his inspiration from ON mythology in
which Jötunheimr
was the home of the giants. As a
Norwegian word,jøtun
is purely literary, but jutul
and jøtul
are found in Nynorsk dialects from ON *jøtull
(Sandnes/Stemshaug).

An
alternative way of presenting the
material (and perhaps clearer to some) is by affixed element. Thus the
entire
corpus of material, with forms from Sandnes and de Vries added to those
of
Olsen, breaks down as follows:

The
present section on Denmark
uses
primarily Kristian Hald's excellent Vore
Stednavne as a source but much use has also been
made of the chapters
on “Danmark” by Gunnar Knudsen in Nordisk
Kultur 26 and by the same author in Nordisk
Kultur 5. Alleged theophoric toponyms have been
cross-checked in the
excellent and up-to-date Stednavneordbog
by Bent Jørgensen and Houken's Håndbog
i danske stednavne has also proved useful as a
second opinion. Finally,
Hald's chapter on “Kultminder og folketro i stednavne” in Stednavne og Kulturhistorie
has been very useful in
supplying many instances of cult and mythology preserved in the smaller
nature-names and has been the only source discussing belief in the
lower
mythology as reflected in Danish toponyms.

There
are a large number of Danish place-names
which involve theophoric names or references to heathen worship. The
sites
included cover the whole range of importance from large cities like Odense
(captial of Fünen) and Thisted
to small towns and hill-names,
field-names and rivernames such as Gudenå
“divine stream”. Quite a few sognenavne
(parish-names) provide evidence of heathen worship and some sognebyer
(parish district towns) could have been the sites of earlier heathen
cult
places, with the churches later erected in their stead. There is no way
this
could apply to all parish towns however, and the following sites
suggesting
former heathen cult practice never became parish-names: Torslunde,
Onsved,
Tislund,
Nærum,
Vivede,
Vibøge
and Vedde.
Also telling is the fact that Vojens
“Odins' shrine” (ODan.*Othinswî)
only became a sognnavn
in 1914! (I’ve been there – it’s nothing more than a large village). So
the
notion that numerous old pagan sites were consecrated and renamed by
the church
in later periods may be far-fetched. The work done by Olaf Olsen [see
booklist]
argues against the tenability of this argument. Excavations that have
thus far
been conducted in and around Danish churches have not revealed much
evidence
that they were built on earlier pagan sites. The evidence from Denmark
at
least suggests that such was rarely, if ever, the case. Jelling church
for
example, situated near the justly famous Jelling runic monuments, has
been
excavated and evidence of earlier wooden buildings' foundations has
been
uncovered. It is now known that a wooden church or even two often
preceded a
later Romanesque church on a site. However we cannot fully dismiss the
notion
of the continued use into Christian times of sites which were
considered holy
during the heathen period. A similar argument highlighting the fact
that
barrows and heathen-period runestones often exist in close proximity to
Danish
churches (156 out of 263 known barrows are near to churchyards) - and
therefore
these sites were once heathen - also has its inherent weaknesses.
Barrows are a
rather common feature of the Danish landscape anyway and only a small
fraction
of these barrows date from the Viking Age (probably the very largest
ones).
Like churches, barrows were usually built on the high ground and this
would
further explain their frequent proximity to the local parish church.
Despite
these objections, continued use of the pre-Viking-Age barrows through
heathen
times and into Christian times as sites of religious function cannot be
entirely rejected but their presence near later Christian sites hardly
validates the theory that churches usually occupied earlier pagan
sites.

The
names referred to in this section
will cover not only present Denmark
but also the once Danish (now Swedish) provinces of Skåne and Halland,
as well
as former parts of the Danish kingdom that stretched into South Schleswig as far as the
Eider. Many of the forms recorded from the
southern regions were first done so by North German Hansa officials and
hence
reflect a (Low) Germanised spelling, rather than a genuinely Old Danish
one,
e.g. Flensborg
(Schleswig-Holstein) was first
recorded as Flensburg
and the region
of Slesvig
as Schleswig.
First, however, a few notes on the history of theophoric place-name
study in Denmark
are
appropriate.

As
early as Saxo Grammaticus, some observations of traces of heathen cult
in
Danish place-names are being made. However Saxo's remarks are for the
most part
naive or just plain wrong. In the 1600s, interest for Nordic antiquity
and
heritage was revived in Denmark
(and elsewhere in Scandinavia) as a result of the cultural renaissance
that was
sweeping across Europe.
The first man to
seriously concern himself with cultic place-names in Denmark
was antiquarian and
linguist Ole Worm. But his claims of heathen traces in place-names,
like Saxo's
much briefer remarks before, were often over-enthusiastic and sometimes
ridiculous. Many who followed Worm adhered to his unreliable views and
it was
not until Peter Syv in the 1700s that some critical scrutiny was
brought to
bear. Syv recognised that many of the supposed theophoric place-names
could
much more reasonably be supposed to contain the personal names of men.
Many men
of the heathen age (and indeed later) bore names which were not
identical with
(since this was a sacrilege) but closely modelled on or derived from
the names
of their favoured deieties. As Aage Houken puts it:

So
parents might call their child Øthæn
but not Odin
(thus *Øthænslof
> Ønslev),
Torstein
but not Tor
and Frøsten orFrøger
rather than Frøj
(Frey). In this way, as Johannes
Steenstrup puts it (p.16) “Paa en afledet Maade bærer dernæst
et stort Antal
Landsbyer Mærke af vor hedenske Fortid...” and although not
theophoric
toponyms in any true sense, these place-names with theophoric personal
names as
their initial element still, albeit indirectly, bear testimony of the
veneration of heathen gods.

Since,
however, it is not possible to
find personal names in all cases
where a theophoric name is probable, some must
be from the names of the deities themselves, rather than from the names
of men
derived thereof.

The
first worthwhile treatment of the
theme of theophoric place-names in Denmark
was written by Oluf Nielsen
in his Spor af den hedenske
Gudsdyrkelse. Nielsen, after a thorough examination
of the sources,
established that there were far fewer theophoric place-names in Denmark
than
previously thought, and his work is still of value even today.

Contemporary
researchers have been much
more sober about the existence of theophoric place-names than their
predecessors
of the previous two centuries. Johannes Steenstrup divided Danish
theophoric
place-names into three groups according to the significance of the
elements the
deity names combined with. Thus we have:

Steenstrup
hypothesised that elements
from 2) cannot have been compounded with god-names. Human habitations,
he
argued, are only found combined with the personal-names of men. Those
settlement-names which appear to be compounded with god-names can
easily be
explained as personal names - Balder,
Idun
and Oden
(among others) are all known as
personal names from medieval Denmark
and Sweden.
Steenstrup's observations regarding the types of environs associated
with
god-names seem to me borne out not only from the names I have listed
from Denmark,
but also Sweden,
Norway
and even England.
Gods
are almost without exception associated with natural phenomena (if we
count
fields as such) and not human constructions, with the rather common
“shrine”
denotations being an obvious exception to the rule (but many of these
may not
have been “buildings” as such but open-air meeting places). In other
claims,
Steenstrup is on shakier ground. His assertion that deity names are
nowhere
connected to rivers (but only springs and wells) cannot be certainly
validated
from the extant evidence. We should note that Jan de Vries admits only
those in
3) - with a few exceptions - i.e. sites which refer specifically to
cult-places
and not natural features or younger habitation names. But in this he is
surely
wrong. There is ample evidence to suggest that deities were directly
associated
with natural features such as hills, streams, fields, groves and woods
- as can
be seen from the examples below. Needless to say though, such natural
sites of
veneration as these, probably not involving any permanent structural
features,
are almost impossible to verify archaeologically.

Svend
Aakjær has done a great deal of
work with assumed cultic names in naturnavne
(the names of natural features like
streams, hills, springs) and has used as his source - for the most part
- the
village land registers (markbøger)
of the 1600s, which record these
features incidently. His results shed some interesting light on the
possible
relationships between nature names and cult in Denmark but the
relatively
recent nature of the forms recorded in the markbøger
means that to draw absolute conclusions is risky. Late surviving forms
of
nature names often give rise to several etymological possibilities.
(Worth
noting is Knudsen's caution about attaching too much import to the
relatively
young marknavne,
while Johan Sahlgren and Jan de Vries
have both argued that a name can only be cultic when it has a certainly
cultic
element as a second element - e.g. vi-
in place-names can often be ved
“wood” (ODan. with)
or ODan. wîthi
“willow tree”. Genuine theophoric names presumably enter into marknavne
to a very limited extent but many aspects of the lower mythology are
quite
frequently preserved in them. Despite the fact that many of the marknavne
are medieval, and not a few early modern, the possibility still exists
that a
small fraction of them go back to the Viking Age - which is far enough
back to
allow them to contain heathen related or mythological elements).

Høje
(eminences) provide the greatest
number of cultic toponyms, with around 54% of the total nature-names.
Of these,
-bjærg
constitutes about 32% (e.g. Gudbjærg,
Helligbjærg,
Torsbjærg,
Onsbjærg
and Vidbjærg
(ODan. wî))
and almost
all the remaining 22% are found with -høj
“hill” as the
second element (e.g. Vihøj,
Onshøj,
Torshøj,
Hellehøj).
Mose
“moor” and kær “marsh”
constitute the next largest
group with about 34% of the total. Thus we find Vonsmose,
Torsmose,
Hovmose,
Hellemose,
Hellekær.
With a much smaller part are eng
“meadow” and holm
“islet”, while sø
“lake”, bæk
“brook”, kilde
“spring” together form another small element. Very surprising is that
such
natural places where cultic rites were traditionally held i.e. lund
“grove”, skog
and ved
“wood, forest”
(ODan. with)
make up such a small part of the
total.

As
mentioned earlier, when looking for
the name Þór
we are faced with the problem that
this was also a popular personal name for men. It is can therefore be
impossible to decide if we are dealing with a holy site at which the
god was
venerated or merely reference to the local land owner. In Denmark this may be
even more the case than in Norway,
for
example, where this god was more popular and likely to have a
relatively larger
role to play as a place-name element. Note the cautionary remark of
Huisman:

The
god's name Þór
probably appears in Torslunde
(7 instances, 2 of which are sognenavne,
e.g. Sjælland - Reerslev Sogn & Kundy Sogn; Lolland - Købelev
Sogn) “Thor's
sacred grove” (1308: Torslundæ),
Torsager
(2 instances, 1 is a sognnavn,
i.e. Djursland, Jylland) “Thor's
field” (1231: Thorsakar),
Torshøj
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) “Thor's hill” is a modern name, Torsø
(Hovlbjærg Herred, Viborgområdet, Jylland) “Thor's hill” (1351: Thorhøj
- prob. mistake for *Thorshøj;
1423: Torsyø;
1467: Torsøø)
- there is also a Torsølund
(1486: Torsyølwndh)
in the same place - , Thorsø
(Djursland, Jylland) (1442: Tharssyø,
1468: Tordsiø),
Torssjö
(Skåne, Sweden) “Thor's lake”, Tårs
(Børglum Herred, Vendsyssel,
Nørrejylland) “Thor's lake” (1264: Thorse;
1408: Thoorssæ)
- 2 instances of Tårs
in Lolland are probably *Tornnæs
“tower-headland” -. Besides these there a quite a new place-names of
local
areas and so forth which may
contain
the god-name Þór,
e.g. Torsbjerg
and Torsmose but
it is more reasonable to assume
personal-names in these. The well-known Torsbjerg
(or Tåsbjærg)
in Angel, however, is first recorded
in sources from 1700 and as local Plattdütsch speakers pronounce it /Toss'barg/, it cannot reasonably be
thought to contain the god-name. A lost Thorslund
near Odense (Fyn) was first recorded in 1245 (as this was a forest name
near
the old cultic site of Odense
(“Odin's shrine”), there can be little
doubt that this was also a cultic site), and the name of an island, Tåsinge,
was according to Valdemars JordebogThosland
in his time, and therefore a suspected Thor-name, i.e. ODan.*Thorsland.
Further possible instances of Þór
but which could equally well contain
personal-names (especially those in which Tor-
appears in the
stem-form) or other elements are: Torø
(Fyn)
probably in fact “island with an elevated area” (Valdemars Jordebog: Thorø),
Turø
(Valdemars Jordebog: Thorømaior),
Torøje
(1397: Thorøwefrom*ODan.
Thorshøgh)
and Torrig
(Lolland)
probably contains element either ODan. torf
“turf” or thorn
“hawthorn” (1447: Thorwigh).
Certainly from personal-names or nouns denoting natural features are Torslev
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) (1408:Thørsløv),
Toreby
(2 instances on Lolland:
1) Musse Herred -
1231: Thoræbyfrom
the man's name Thôri;
2) Ryde Sogn - 1473: Tornby
from ODan. thorn
“hawthorn”) and Tureby
(Præstøområdet, Sjælland) (1323: Thurebyfrom
the man's name Thûri)
- theophoric names are seldom (if
ever) found compounded with settlement names, especially later ones
like -by.
Many other names (settlement and nature names) in Tor(s)-
can be explained by personal-names beginning in Tor-,
an element
which was very common, as well as being found in a string of
appellatives and
other words. Thor
has been seen in many place-names and
his name can easily be mixed up with the many personal names derived
from his,
such as Tore,
Torsten
and Toke.
Furthermore, Gudmund Schütte's theory
that theophoric names may appear compounded in place-names in their
stem-form
has lead to many mistaken interpretations, e.g. Torhøj,
Torløkke
and Tordys.
These most certainly contain
personal-names. DeVries claims there are several examples of Torsdal
in Jylland but I cannot find any evidence of them so far. Most probably
they
contain personal-names.

Tyr
the Norse and Germanic god of war
(ODan.Tî
- written Ti,
ON Týr,
OE Tîw)
is a little less common and it is
possible that by the time some of the later places were named, his cult
was
already old. Nevertheless, his is the second most common theophoric
name
element in Danish place-names and his cult must have been strong (the
most
common being Thor).
The Danes seemed to have cultivated
him more than the Norwegians and Swedes - judging at any rate from the
place-name evidence. There are many examples of Tî
in Denmark
being compounded with with
“wood” and lund
“grove”. His name usually appears as Ti(s)-
in such place-names as: Tim
(Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) “Tyr's
homestead” (older Tyym
from 1325; ODan.*Timheimr),
Tibirke
(Frederiksborg Amt, Sjælland) “Tyr's birch” (1208: Tibirkæ),
Tikøb
(Frederiksborg Amt, Sjælland) “Tyr's wood purchase” (1164: Tiwithcop,
i.e. Tî
“Tyr” + with
“wood” + køb
“purchase”), Tilst
(Hasle Herred, Århusområdet, Jylland) “Tyr's road” (1203: Tislæst),
Tisbjerg
(Als) “Tyr's hill”, Tise
(Salling, Jylland) “Tyr's wood” (1503:
Tiiswed)
- Tise
in Børglum Herred, Vendsyssel,
Nørrejylland (1369: Thisæ)
is doubtful because of the th-
spelling and is probably ODan.*thî
“bondwoman” -, Tiset
(2 instances in Jylland - 1) Haderslevområdet; 1409: Tiiswid;
2) Århusområdet; 1494: Tisszwid)
“Tyr's wood” seem fairly certain
(both compounded with ODan. with
“wood”), Tislum
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) “Tyr's grove” (1340: Tydslund),
Tisvilde
(Frederiksborg Amt, Sjælland) “Tyr's spring” (1389: Tiswillæ),
Thisted
has two instances (Thyholm, Jylland; 1376: Tystath)
and (Viborgområdet, Jylland; 1497: Thistedtt)
“Tyr's place”, Tislund
(Jylland) “Tyr's grove” is found in four separate locations: i) a sognenavn near Haderslev, Nørre-Rangstrup
Herred, Haderslevområdet, Jylland (1325: Tiislwnd);
ii) Brørup Sogn, Esbjergområdet, Jylland (1392: Tyslund);
iii) once a forest and thing-stead
at
Handewitt (earlier Hanved Sogn),
near Flensborg in Sydslesvig; iv)
once a forest near Ringsted, Sjælland (1148: Thislund),
Tisted
(Himmerland, Nørrejylland) “Tyr's place” (1467: Tiistet),
Tissø
(vest Sjælland) “Tyr's lake” (1452: Tisøe).

Balder,
radiant son of
Odin and Frigg,
is generally agreed to be found in Ballesager
(locally known as Boldesager)
(Esbjergområdet, Jylland) “Balder's open land” (1566: Boldersagger;corresponding
to ODan.*Baldrsakr).
Two now disappeared names: 1387: Baldirs æng
(Børglum Herred, Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) and 1485: Bollershøwe
(Hassing Herred; ODan.*Baldrshøgh),
as well as current Baldersbrønde
(Københavns Amt, Sjælland) “-spring, well” (1321: Baldorpsbrynnæ)
and Bollerslev
“-heritage” contain personal names
(the last two Balli
and Balder
respectively). Possibly containing
the god-name is Boldershøj
(Agerskov Sogn, Haderslevområdet,
Sønderjylland) “Balder's hill”? (1700s: Boldershøy,
Bollershøy),
while South Jutish Baldersbæk
is to be considered a very unlikely
candidate. A couple of nature-names found in Sønderjylland, Boldersmark
“field” and Bolderstoft
“enclosure” probably compound the
South Jutish male name Bolle
in the genitive as their first
element.

Ulborg Herred
“Ulborg County” may hide the name of
the Old Norse god Ullr
(found as Vlburgheret
in 1231), however this god is known to have been not much venerated in
Denmark,
even though an Eddic poem counts him among the 12 foremost members of
the Æsir
(he was primarily, if not exclusively, a Swedish-Norwegian god, where
his name
is found thickest in Uppland and around Oslofjorden). For this reason
it may
well be that the names in Ul-
actually refer to uld
“wool” and likewise many names which at first sight appear to contain Ullr
in reality contain only ulv-
“wolf”. The parish-name Ulbjerg
(Rinds herred, Himmerland, Nørrejylland) (1363: Wlbiergh,
1401: Wolbierg)
almost certainly contains only ODan. ull
“wool” (Jørgensen prefers to read ODan. slette
“plain” (cf. ON völlr)
and thus “hill on the plain”). Ulborg Herred
is probably the only Danish place-name that refers to this god - if
indeed it
really does.

Njörd
the most important fertility god and a
member of the Vanir
has his name preserved in a number of
toponymns but he was generally better known in Norway
and Sweden.
ODan. Niærth
(cf. ON Njörðr)
appears in Nærum
(Søllerød Sogn, Københavns Amt,
Sjælland) “Njörd's homestead” (1186: Niartherum,
1193: Niartharum;
ODan. Niarthar
(gen. sing.) + hêm)
and twice in (Nørre
and Sønder)
Nærå
(Odenseområdet, Fyn) “Njörd's hill” (1304: Niærthøu;
1383: Nærdøwæ;ODan.*Niærthhøghæ).
Also possible is the parish-name Nørager
(Djursland, Jylland) “Njörd's open land?” (1334: Nærakær;
1338: Næragær)
but old forms may simply show
delabialising with Nørre-.
There is some support from two
runestones from Fyn
containing the compound nurakuþi
“Nore-god” that a by-name for Njörd,
*Nori,
is found in Nørre Herred
(Salling, Jylland) “Njörd's County?” (1231:
Nørgæheret,
Valdemars Jordebog: Nørgæhereth;
1407: Norgehæreth)
and (Vester
and Øster)
Nordlunde
(Lolland) “Njörd's grove?” (1354:
Nørlunde)
but neither Jørgensen nor Hald make any mention of this theory.

His
son, Frey
(ON Freyr,
ODan.*Frøj),
normally appears in place-names as Frø(s)-
and his name
required the genitive in -s. An old
Common Germanic word forms the root of this god-name, cf. Gothic Frauja
“lord”. This god of fertility appears in Frøs Herred
(Haderslevområdet, Jylland) “Frey's County” (1231: Frøsheret;
Valdemars Jordebog: Frøshæreth)
and Frøsmose
(Fjenneslev Sogn, Alsted Herred, Sjælland) “Frey's moor”
(Knytlingasaga: Freysmosi;
1343: Frøsmose).
A Frøsbjerg
“Frey's hill” and a Frøshøj
“Frey's hill” are also known from Denmark.
The 3
instances of Frøslev
in Denmark
contain either ODan. frø
“lord” (the same word as *Frøj)
or a compound of the god-name and
ODan.*wê(r)
“heathen
priest” - (1) Mors,
Vestjylland - 1412: Frøsløff;
2) Præstøområdet, Sjælland - 1291: Fræslef;
3) northwest of Flensborg,
Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland - 1472: Frossleue).
A name recorded in a markbog
compounding *Frøj
appears to be Frøes Kilde Aaszen
and has given rise to modern Frøskilde
(Fyrendal Sogn, Sorøområdet, Sjælland)
“Frey's spring”. The local names Frøkær
“frog-marsh” and Frømose
“frog-moor” however both contain ODan. frødh
“frog”.

His
sister and Njörd's daughter, Freya
(ON Freyja,
ODan.*Frøja),
normally appears in place-names as Frø
- without
the -s genitive because she is
feminine. Thus we find Frølund
(Gellerup Sogn, Hammerum Herred,
Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) “Freya's grove” (1497: Frølund),
Frølunde
(Tårnborg Sogn, Slagelse Herred, Sorøområdet, Sjælland) “Freya's grove”
(1485: Frølunde)
and Frøbjerg
(Assensområdet, Fyn)
“Freya's hill” (1383: Frøbyærgh).
Jan de Vries also argues for a Frøbjerg
with this meaning on Sjælland. A disputed place-name is the gårdFrøjk
(Måbjærg Sogn, Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) in which some (such as Aakjær)
have
sought to see *Frøja
(1418: Frøydewikh,
1586: Frøicke)
but this is rejected by Houken, who
argues that the -d-
in the spelling from 1418 excludes this
possibility (Jørgensen reads ODan. frødh
“frog” as the first element and Hald
ODan. viik
“creek” as the second). The name of a herred,
Hindborg
(Salling, Jylland) (1231: Hærnburg,
Valdemars Jordebog: Hærnburghæreth)
possibly involves a by-name for Freya,
known from both Old Danish and Old
Icelandic sources: ODan. Hærn,
ON Hörn but
more likely compounds ODan.*hærn
“elevation, hill” (Jørgensen, Hald).
Names containing Frue
“lady”, have been ruled out as
referring to Freya-cult and without doubt stem from later Catholic
times.

The
name Hel,
in Norse mythology goddess of death and ruler of Niflheimr
(the underworld) is thought to be preserved in Helligsø
(Thyholm, Jylland) “Hel's lake” (1410: Helliszøe).
ON Borr,
ODan. Bor,
father of Odin
in Norse mythology, some toponymists have found in the parish-name Boeslunde
(Sorøområdet, Sjælland) “Borr's grove?” (1231: Borslund)
but this probably compounds ODan. borth
“edge, rim” (Jørgensen). Also
possible, but doubtful is Bovlund
(Agerskov Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland)
“Borr's grove?” (1266: Borlund).
Goddess and guardian of the apples
of rejuvination, Iðunn,
has been claimed to be the first
element of Enø
(Sorøområdet, Sjælland) “Idunn's
island?” (Valdemars Jordebog: Ithænø)
but Jørgensen has a more likely
explanation (p.71). Gudmund Schütte has also seen her name in two
instances of Jebjerg
(1- Randersområdet - 1342: Ebyærgh,
from ODan.*Ekbiargh;
2 - Salling - 1390: Jebergh)
“Idun's hill”(?) but Jørgensen
prefers (probably quite rightly) to read ODan. ek
“oak” and hence
“hill with oak trees”, which sounds much more likely. Houken agrees
with this
interpretation of Jørgensen, at least in the Salling case. A final case
of a
minor god having been claimed to be found in a Danish place-name is
that of the
ON god of the sea Hléyr (a
by-name for Ægir).
This name, according to Oluf Nielsen, appears in the genitive in Læsø
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) which is itself recorded in Old West Norse
sources
(1200s: Hlérsey).
Danish forms of the same period lack
the -r-
however (c.1200: Lessø,
1219: Lesø,
Leshø,
1231: Læsø)
and this gives room for some doubt
(coupled with the complete lack of a parallel in Denmark
- or anywhere in Scandinavia,
as far as I
know). Kristian Hald and Jørgensen both prefer to see a supposed ODan.*læs
(which answers to OE læs
“grass meadow”) compounded with ø
“island”. Basing an interpretation on a form which is lacking from Old
Danish
(and indeed OSc. to my knowledge) and supposing a parallel to a West
Germanic
word is certainly risky, but their conjecture still seems more
reasonable than
Nielsen's fantastic claim and must be accepted until a better
interpretation is
offered.

Place-names
in unspecified Gud-
“god” (ODan. guth)
have been identified in about ten
place-names, although there is always a risk of possible confusion with
later
Christian developments. It has to be said though that the naming of
natural
features of the landscape or settlements after the divinity or related
aspects
of the faith was felt in the Christian tradition to be blasphemous and
most
names beginning with this element are almost certainly heathen. Safely
referring to a pre-Christian god we may assign: Gudensø
(Jylland) “divine lake”, Gudenå
(4 sites - Randersområdet;
Skanderborgområdet; Viborgområdet; Vejleområdet - all in Jylland)
“divine
stream, river” (Knytlingasaga: Goðnarfjörðr;
1478: Gwden
- original river name was Guden
with the second element -å
“small river, stream” added later), Gudbjerg
(Svendborgområdet, Fyn) “divine hill”
(1423: Gudberre,
1433:Gudhberghe),
Gudhjem
(Bornholm) “divine settlement, homestead” (1547: Gudium;
ODan.*Guthhêm
- could have been a settlement around
a goði-temple or a divinely protected settlement), Gudme
(Svendborgområdet, Fyn) “divine settlement, homestead” (1231: Guthumheret;
ODan.*Guthhêm),
Gudsø
(Vejleområdet, Jylland) “divine inlet” (1524: Gutzwiig
- present name is modernised assumption based upon a misinterpretation
in the
early modern period of the original Old Danish name), Gudum
(Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) “divine settlement, homestead” (1266: Guthum;
ODan.*Guthhêm),
Gudum
(Sorøområdet, Sjælland) “divine settlement, homestead” (c.1170: Guthum),
Gudum
(Himmerland, Jylland) “divine settlement, homestead” (1379: Guthemlund),
Lille
Gundsø
(Roskildeområdet, Sjælland) “(Little)
divine lake” (1282: Guthingsio
- Gundsølille
is a village near Lake Gundsø),
Gundsømagle
(Roskildeområdet, Sjælland) “(Great) divine lake” (1282: Guthingsio
- Gundsømagle
is a village near Lake Gundsø).
A lost nature-name (known from the local markbog)
is Guid Bierig(Mørke
Sogn, Øster Lisbjerg herred; cf. Gudbjerg
above) “divine hill”? but this late
form is harder to separate from possible etymologies with profane
meaning.

Danish
place-names containing the
adjective hellig
“holy, sacred” (ODan. hêlagh)
are also quite numerous, especially in Jylland (in passing we can note
that
local versions of Helgenæs
are found in Norway,
Sweden,
Iceland
and Finland,
as well as Denmark).
They generally manifest
themselves in names beginning Hel-,
or in the dialect form Helle-.
The word hellig
and the place-names derived from it
are not be be confused with that deriving from the goddess Hel
[see above]. The given toponyms all refer to pre-Christian customs and
worship
of various kinds, since to name a place as being holy in Christian
times was
considered blasphemous. Thus we find: Hellebæk
(Frederiksborg Amt, Sjælland) “holy brook” (1582: Hellebeck),
Hellehøj
(Thyholm, Jylland) “holy hill”, Hellesø
(Als) “holy lake”, Helgenæs
(Djursland, Jylland) “holy headland” (c.1186: Helghænes),
Hellenæs
(Lolland) “holy headland” (1420: Helnes),
Hellerød
(Thyholm, Jylland) “holy strand” (1564: Hieller
- modern form is a false reconstruction, probably with Hillerød
(Sjælland) as a model), Helleskov
(Jylland) “holy forest”, Hellested
(Præstøområdet, Fyn) “holy place” (1261: Hælgæstathæ),
Helleved
(Notmark Sogn, Als) “holy wood” (1569: Helwit
(Germanised spelling)), Hellighøje
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) “holy
hills”, Helligkilde
(Thyholm, Jylland) “holy spring”
(1360: Hellekield
- modern form is a romantic
reconstruction), Hellum
(Himmerland, Jylland) “holy
settlement” (1231: Hellyumheret),
Hellum
(Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) “holy settlement” (1465: Helym)
- both ODan. hellig
+ hêm,
Helnæs
(Assensområdet, Fyn)
“holy headland” (1231: Hælghænæs)
and Helleholm
(Agersø) “holy islet”. Care has to be
taken with this element - as many others - because the source of many
other Hel(l)-
names (or even some of these) may be in personal names such as Helge,
words like Helvede
“hell” or personal names compounded
with hêlagh
which have later become contracted.
Note that Helligsø
(Thyholm, Jylland) “Hel's lake” (1410:
Helliszøe)
was later not recognised as denoting the goddess and taken to mean
“holy”.
Equal caution is needed, for example, when interpreting the Icelandic
place-names supposedly incorporating this element (see below).

An
element relating to heathen worship
that appears quite often in Denmark
is the local parallel to ON vé
(ODan.wî,
wé,
with rather common side-form wæ)
“heathen shrine, sanctuary”. There
are several examples: Vedde
(Munke-Bjærgby Sogn, Sorøområdet,
Sjælland) “shrine at a forest-clearing” (c.1250: Wæthwetæ,
i.e. Vé
+ thwetæ
cf. the English “Danelaw” place-name element thwaite),
Vemb
(Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) “shrine homestead” (c.1325: Weæm),
Viborg
(Viborgområdet, Jylland) “shrine hill” (1075: Wiberg
- berg
“hill” was later misinterpreted as borg
“town”), Viby
(2 sites on Fyn -1) Bjerge Herred,
Assensområdet -1447: Wiby;
Odensenområdet - 1430: Viby)
“settlement by a shrine” (ODan. Wiby),
Vibøge
(Tandslet Sogn, Als, Jylland) “shrine by beech trees” (1245: Wibøki),
Viuf
(Vejleområdet, Jylland) “shrine...?” (1330: Wigøth,
second element gøth
is unexplained but possibly a
corruption of ODan.*guth),
Vium
(2 sites)
“shrine homestead” (Salling, Jylland - 1400: Vyvm;
Viborgområdet, Jylland - 1442: Wium)
and Vivede
(Hylleholt Sogn, Præstøområdet, Sjælland) “forest with a shrine” (1380:
Wiuede),
Viengevej
(north of Århus, Jylland) “meadow-shrine road” and in Vä
(Skåne, Sweden) we have a likely example of uncompounded Vé
“shrine, sanctuary”. A disappeared village (from Vindinge Sogn, Tune
Herred), Visby
“settlement by
a shrine” was probably called originally *Vi
or *Vindingevi
since in 1085 it is recorded as Winnincgawe
but by the 1200s this had been
compounded with -by
- (N.B. Gotland's famous Visby
was also originally only called Vi).
Other names with initial Vi-
probably derive from ODan. with
“wood” (cf. ON viðr),
wîthi
“willow” or wîk
“inlet” and it is difficult to
separate them out. The name of a local natural feature, Viemose
“moor with a heathen shrine” (?) has been rejected by Hald, who prefers
to read
ODan. wîthi
“willow tree” and therefore “willow
moor”. Hald does admit that a simplex nature name Vi
could denote
“sanctuary” and such is the name of a locality in the vicinity of Husby
in
Angeln (1714: Wiehe),
whose somewhat elevated situation
rules out the alternative derivation from vidje
“osier willow”.

Hov,
Old Norse hof,
arguably does not appear in Denmark.
All names supposingly incorporating this element are at any rate
heavily
disputed. Critics argue that in all instances of hov
appearing in a
Danish place-name, it denotes either “hill” or “small harbour”. However
in Hove
(2 sites) some have sought to find a plural form of hov (1)
Københavns
Amt, Sjælland - 1164-78: Hofwum;
2) Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland - c.1325: Houæ).
But again, this may have simply denoted “elevated ground”, using a word
which
has cognates in other Germanic languages (and therefore reducing the
“shrine”
argument somewhat), although it appears that in Norway
this word developed in
meaning from “little hill” to “(elevated) shrine”. A further contested
example
in Denmark
is Hovby
(Fakse Herred, Præstøområdet,
Sjælland) “settlement by a shrine?” (1348: Howby)
but Jørgensen prefers to find ODan.*hô
“trough, vessel”. As a further note of
caution we can remark that five instances of Hov
are all
dismissed by Jørgensen: (1) Langeland, Fyn - 1231: Ho,
1347: Hov
- the earliest spelling rules out hof
and points to a noun formed from ODan. adjective *hô
and therefore
signifying “the towering one”; 2) Randersområdet, Jylland - 1340: Haug
- a compound with ODan.*hô
“high” and høgh
“hill”, therefore “the high-hill”; 3) Thyholm, Jylland - 1458: Hoo
- is identical with ODan.*hô
“trough, vessel”; 4) Vendsyssel,
Nørrejylland - 1548: Hov,
1552: Hwo
- is probably ODan.*hô
“trough, vessel”; 5) Århusområdet,
Jylland - 1608: Haa Havn
- is ODan.*hô
“trough,
vessel” and havn
“harbour”, therefore “the trough-forming
harbour”. Hovum
(Jylland) and Hovborg
(Esbjergområdet, Jylland) have been championed by some but are
doubtful, the
latter being either ODan.*hô
“trough” or ODan.*hô
“wood” + borg,
according to Jørgensen (1451: Hoborg,
c.1525: Hoffbor).
Houken mentions a Hobro
(near Onsild, Randersområdet, Jylland) “bridge incorporating a
shrine”(?) which
he points out is named after the bridge which spanned the Onsild river
(1421: Hobroo,
1498: Hoffbro).
This bridge would lead to a hill on
which Odin was venerated - ODan.*Othinshillæ
i.e. modern Onsild.
This is unconvincing because of the recent nature of the oldest forms
(especially the fact the spelling which might suggest a Danish
eqiuvalent to ON
hof
only appears in the youngest form!) and for the fact that such a name
would be
unique in Danish toponymy - even if it is near to a certain former
heathen
site. One of the possibilities stated above must be seen in it.

Old
Danish *hargh,
*hørgh
(ON hörgr,
OE hearg, OHG harug)
forms no theophoric compounds on Danish soil and it is therefore
difficult to
decide whether examples of the name have heathen connotations or merely
imply
its secular meaning “stony ground” (the theophoric sense probably
translates as
“stone altar”). Place-names which are claimed to preserve this element
are Harre (Salling,
Jylland) (Valdemars Jordebog: Hargæheret;
1386:Harre),
Harreby
(Haderslevområdet, Jylland) “settlement by a stony outcrop” (1206: Harghby,
1481:Hareby)
and Hørby
(3 sites - 1) Himmerland, Jylland - 1452: Hørby;
2) Holbækområdet, Sjælland - 1316: Hørby;
3) Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland - 1408: Hørby)
“settlement by a stony outcrop”. Also possible are Harris
and Harrild
(Nørrejylland). A number of other
sites which have been championed to contain the heathen sense of this
element
in reality have been found to contain profane elements such as havre
“oats”, hare
“hare” or hør
“flax”. As with the other names thought to compound terms for “shrine,
sanctuary”, the oldest forms are the only ones capable of deciding with
any
certainty that a place-name may be connected to former heathen cult. It
is
almost impossible and very dangerous to use more recent forms as
religious
historical evidence. Only those instances compounded with a god-name
can be
considered certain.

Suspected
heathen heliolatry
(sun-worship) has been the interpretation of two Danish parishes called
Solbjerg
“sun-hill” and there at least 6 sites with this name (1)
Esbjergområdet,
Jylland - 1292: Solbiærigh;
2) Himmerland, Jylland; 3)
Holbækområdet, Sjælland - 1228: Solbiargi;
4) Københavns Amt, Sjælland - 1186: Solbiarge;
5) Mors, Jylland;
6) Århusområdet, Jylland).
Those which have become the names of villages must be very ancient and
it is
not inconceivable that they might at one time have been connected with
heathen cult.
Solhøj
“sun-hill” is also known from Sønderjylland but this may be much
younger.
Another element which appears to be very old (perhaps antedating the
belief in
the Æsir)
is found in modern toponyms as spå-
and is identical with modern Danish spå
“to prophesize, predict”. Finding this
element in the place-names of a locality would suggest that the ancient
inhabitants of the area would look to certain natural features to
provide them
with indications for future weather trends, crop yield and perhaps even
other
types of events. Such a naturally prophetic ability appears to be
associated
with water. Thus we find a Spåbæk
in Vinding Sogn, Ringkøbing Amt,
Vestjylland “brook where prophecies are given” (1610: Spabeck)
and the same in Nørre Omme Sogn also in Ringkøbing Amt, Vestjylland.
Both of
these are now settlement names (suggesting that they are of some
antiquity) and
are no longer used of the local brooks. The implication is that the
brook's
level and condition can predict a dry or wet summer. Spåmose
(Franekær Sogn, Langeland) “moor or marsh where prophecies are given”
is found
in a markbog
as Spaa Mosze.

The
following place-names: Ølby
(Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland (c.1325: Ølby)
and Roskildeområdet, Sjælland (1302: Ølby)),
Ål
(Esbjergområdet, Jylland; 1325: Aal),
Åle
(Skanderborgområdet, Jylland; 1432: Aall),
Ålum
(Viborgområdet,
Jylland; 1231: Alum)
and Albøge
(Djursland, Jylland; 1469: Albøgi),
it has been claimed by some, include
the same mysterious word alu
(ODan.*al)
found on
Proto-Norse runic inscriptions and which probably corresponds to Gothic
alhs
“shrine”, OSwed.al(a)
and OE ealh
“shrine”. However, this word cannot be proven for certain to exist in
Danish
place-names and it appears unlikely that it was used as a theophoric
name
element in Denmark
(but see Sweden
and Finland
below). The word itself has
not survived in the Scandinavian languages. De Vries and Houken reject
all of
these and Jørgensen explains them by either Jutish ål
“furrow; water
channel” or øl
“beer” (in the case of the two Ølbys),
exceptAlbøge which
he seems to agree involves ODan.*al
“heathen shrine” and ODan.*bøki
“beech-tree” (Hald also entertains the
possbility of Albøge
from *al).Jørgensen also admits the possibility
of Albjerg
(Svendborgområdet, Fyn)
compounding ODan.*al
and biargh
“hill” - as does Houken. The earliest form is 1473: Albiergh
and the name might mean “hill with, or by, a heathen shrine”.

Thietmar
of Merseburg testified (1012
AD) that Lejre
(Roskildeområdet, Sjælland) was a
centre for sacrifical offerings but it is very uncertain that the name
itself
has cultic connotations. Those who have sought to find evidence of
heathen cult
in other names with this (or a similar) element, including a series of
nature-names, are on very controversial ground.

The
names of small localities and
nature-names seem to give a huge amount of affirmation to the belief
that
sacrificial offerings and heathen festivals were held in the open air
at
specific sites. Names such as the following are found across Denmark: Blodager
(Søborg Sogn, Randersområdet, Jylland), Blodeng
(Søborg Sogn,Randersområdet,
Jylland), Blodhøj
(Salløv, Roskildeområdet, Sjælland - among others) “field/meadow/hill
where
sacrifices were made”, Blodbjærg
“hill where sacrifices were made”, Blodbold
literally “blood-brave” (i.e. a site where people were accustomed to
spilling
blood, a sacrificial spot), Blodmose
(near Holstebro, Ringkøbing Amt,
Jylland) “moor where sacrifices were made”, Blodkær
“marsh or moor where sacrifices were made”, Blodsig
“heath pond at which sacrifices were made”, Blodholm
(in Lyngby, Roskildeområdet, Sjælland) “islet where sacrifices were
made”, Blodsten
“rock at which sacrifices were made”, Gildbjærg
“hill at which festivities were held”, Gildhøj
“hill at which festivities were held”, Gildsig
“heath pond at which festivities were held”, Gildebrønde
“spring or well at which festivities were held”, Gjeldmose
“moor on which festivities were held”, Drabbold
literally “slaughter-brave” (i.e. a site where people were not afraid
to kill
or sacrifice), Mordbjærg
“hill where sacrifices (lit.
“murders”) were performed”, Morddal
“valley where sacrifices (lit.
“murders”) were performed”, Mordhøj “hill
where sacrifices (lit. “murders”)
were performed”. Hald is doubtful of any of the Blod-
names and
prefers to see various compounds in blå-
“blue”. An interesting case is Dejbjerg
(Ringkøbing Amt, Jylland) “hill of the dead” (c.1325: Døthbyergh).
In heathen times places of the dead were probably held to be sacred and
this
site may have been the location of cultic rituals. Heathen rites on
hills have
been associated by Aakjær with the holding of the thing
and he claims these two activities are interrelated.

Since
we have dealt with the lower
orders of mythology and Germanic folk-belief in the Icelandic, English,
Dutch
and German sections, they ought to be treated here. Belief in the lower
orders
of mythical beings survived in the folklore of the ordinary people long
after remembrance
of the heathen gods had passed away. Such elements ought then be
detectable in
relative abundance in the place-names of small localities and
nature-names. And
this is indeed the case - traces of theophoric names, rituals or
sanctuaries
are not very significant in Danish marknavne
but references to the lower mythology
and later folk beliefs are quite common.

Beginning
with giants,
ODan. iötun
(cf. ON jötunn,
OE eoten)
gives a Jutish side-form jynd-
(found in the local term jyndovn
(standard Danish stendysse)
“dolmen”), from which we can mention Jyndbjerg
(Mammen Sogn, Viborgområdet, Jylland)
“giant's hill” and Jyndevad
(Burkal Sogn, Tønderområdet,
Sønderjylland) “ford where giants live” (1230-45: Jotenwath,
1238: Jønewath,
1245: Iøthnewath, 1504: Jvnnewow).
Also appearing are Stor Jenild
and Liten Jenild
(Hover Sogn, Vejleområdet, Jylland)
which are hill names and compound ODan. iöten
+ hillæ
“hill”. Modern Danish jætte
“giant”, known from ODan. in the plural form iætther
(cf. ON jötunn),
is found in a now lost name Jætthavne Aas
(Køng Sogn, Præstøområdet, Sjælland) “ridge in the giant's garden”
according to
the local markbog.
Old Danish vættæ
(cf. ON véttr,
vættr)
“being, sprite, wight” is found compounded with a number of names for
hills. In
Kirkerup Sogn, Sorøområdet, Sjælland, we find a Vættebjerg
“sprite's hill” and two lost names are also known: Wett Høy Aasz
(Drøsselbjerg Sogn, Holbækområdet, Sjælland) and Wæte Høyesz Aaz(Herlufsholm
Sogn, Sorøområdet,
Sjælland) both according to their respective markbøger
and meaning “sprite hill's ridge”. This name for a mischievous and
secretive
being is especially frequent in Sjælland and used there to denote
subterranean
beings living in the hills.

Dwarves,
another staple
element of Germanic folk belief and lower mythology (in the West Norse
scheme
of things at any rate, they had a rather significant role) are to be
found in a
number of Danish nature-names. Dværghøj
“dwarf's hill” is found five times in
Sønderjylland, where a less certain Dværgholt
“dwarf's copse”(?) is also known. This
same Dværgholt is
found three times in Tolne Sogn,
Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland, while in the same parish, Dverretved
“dwarf's forest clearing” is the name of a village and there seems
little doubt
the two are related. A now lost toponym containing this element is
found in a markbog
from Estvad Sogn, Ringkøbing Amt, Vestjylland, whereDuere dalsz aarsz Giøe
is recorded. As a place-name element, dværg-
appears to be characteristically Jutish, as Kristian Hald rightfully
points
out. Associated with dwarves was their great skill in metalworking and
their
reputation for being hoarders of treasure. A belief that dwarves
undertook
metalworking in the hills where they supposedly lived is preserved in
such
names as Smedebjerg,
Smedehøj
and Smedjehøj
all “smith's hill”, of which a number
of examples are known. Dwarves' reputation for hoarding treasure led to
the
belief that one could hear them locking their treasure chests up in the
hills.
This belief is the origin of the rather common Kistehøj
“chest-hill”, which is found three times in Nordslesvig, as well as -
for
example - in Hornbæk Sogn, Frederiksborg Amt, Sjælland (known as early
as
1164). A couple of now lost names from markbøger
are Kiste høys agre
(Nørager Sogn,
Djursland, Jylland) “field in the environs of chest-hill” and Kist Høys Fald
(Hasle Sogn, Bornholm) which means the same.

Elves
are very well represented in local
names for natural features. ODan. ælf
“elf” survived as the dialect form el
until at least 1800 and as such appears in a number of names in the
landscape.
However, simplex el
is often difficult to distinguish from
the tree name el
“alder”. Fairly certain (because alder
trees rarely grow on hills) is Ellehøj
“elf hill”, which is found in a number
of instances. On the other hand, Ellekær
“marsh” and Ellemose
“moor” must represent the tree name. The island Helgenæs
(Djursland, Jylland) offers a Ellemandsbjerget
“hill of the elf-man” (1595: Ellemansbirg)
which seems certain, as does Elle Mands Bierge,
a now lost name from a markbog
from Mårslet Sogn, Århusområdet,
Jylland. Another lost name from a markbog
is Ellemandsz Holm
“elf-man's islet” from Køng Sogn, Præstøområdet, Sjælland. Also certain
seems
to be Ellekons Høj
(Gjellerup Sogn, Ringkøbing Amt,
Vestjylland) “elf-woman's hill”.

Bjergfolk
which translates rather vaguely into
English as “rock-dwellers”, is the theme underlying several names
denoting
local natural features. As such, the name appears to refer to the kin
of
dwarves and perhaps also vætter
as a whole. There are numerous
examples of Mand(s)bjerg
and Mand(s)høj
across the Danish landscape. Mandbjerg
“hill inhabited by a rock-dweller” is
the name of a village in Sønderjylland (just south of Toftlund,
Haderslevområdet) and the name of a hill in Øster-Velling Sogn,
Viborgområdet,
Jylland. A Mandhøj
“hill inhabited by a rock-dweller” is
the name of an eminence in Ibsker Sogn, Bornholm.
Several now lost names recorded in markbøger
can be mentioned: Mands biergs Agere
(Herlev Sogn, in Københavns Amt, Sjælland) “field of the rock-dweller”,
Mandtz Høge
(Trige Sogn, Århusområdet, Jylland) “hill inhabited by a man” and the
curious Stue Mands Aaszen
(Særløse Sogn, Roskildeområdet, Sjælland) “man who lives in a chamber
in the
river”. Under this heading we might also include the many toponyms for
local
features which are compounded with trold
“troll” (ON troll)
and it seems difficult to draw a distinction in meaning between these
and the bjergfolk.
There are many instances of Troldhøj
“hill inhabited by a troll” in Nordslesvig,
as well as cases of Troldkær
“marsh visited by a troll”. Care has
to be taken with South Jutish toponyms, since a more recent meaning
there of trold
has been “(the) Devil”.

Finally,
we ought to note the warning
of Gunnar Knudsen, who cautions against the over-enthusiastic “finding”
of
supposed very ancient cultic (i.e. pre-Norse pantheon) elements in
Danish
place-names. He confesses some reservations in interpreting stolpe,
stav
and stok
as phallic symbols and points out that
elements supposedly denoting fire-worhip (ild,
lys
and skin)
are dubious since fire certainly had
many other uses and plain skin
would be anomalous as a place-name
element. Furthermore, hjul
and ring
as supposed evidence of heliolatry he argues as far more likely to
refer to
agricultural or other implements. The many place-names incorporating
animal
elements are not certain evidence of cultic practice or sacrifice. True
enough
both men and animals were given as offerings at Lejre,
but he requires that a second element denoting “sacrificial place” be
present
before a place-name with an animal element can be reasonably considered
as
having former connections to cult.

-----------------------

*
Note: In order to avoid
confusion and demonstrate continuity of usage, the place-names in the
former
Danish provinces of Skåne, Halland etc. (now in present day Sweden) have been
included in the sections for
both Denmark
and Sweden.

Sweden

This
section on Sweden
has as
its main informants Oskar Lundberg's chapter on “Sverige” in Nordisk Kultur 26 and
that of the
same name by Gösta Franzén in Nordisk
Kultur 5. A good deal of further information and
instances of
theophoric toponyms have been culled from de Vries' Altgermanische
Religionsgeschichte.

Names
such as Torslunda
and Odenslunda
and even contracted Onslunda
have never completely disappeared from folk-memory as former cultic
places.
Olaus Petri, writing in the 1600s, mentions helgelundar
and the element vi-
has been long recognised as denoting
a holy place or shrine from names like Odensvi
and Torsvi.

During
the revival of learning in the
1500s and 1600s, Scandinavia's
ancient
religion became better known and speculations were inspired about
heathen
cultic traces in Swedish place-names. Johan Loccenius in 1654
recognised Ulleråker
in the vicinity of Uppsala
as having mythical or cultic significance, although he drew the wrong
assumptions about the meaning of Ull-.
However no reasonable scientific
investigation was conducted on the theme until 1878 when Magnus
Lundgren
published his Språkliga intyg om
hednisk gudatro i Sverige. Partly inspired by the
pioneering work in Norway
done by
Olaf Rygh and later Magnus Olsen, the study of Swedish place-names has
really
taken off over the course of the present century. A noted onomastician
(and
also in equal measure for his work on English place-names) has been
Eliert
Ekwall. The great Swedish linguist and runologist Elias Wessén has also
been a
noteworthy contributor to this field. Wessén has put forth the view
that of
those theophoric Swedish place-names which later become parishes, the
evidence
suggests that those in Ull-
and När-
are the most
ancient. From the Svea-provinces names in Ull-
and När-
(i.e. Njörd) extend down into Östergötland and quite a few appear in
the
northeasternmost part of this region. He further claims that subsequent
to
these, the cults of Thor, Frey and Freya became the
prevailing ones in Sweden
and the cult of Odin is therefore
the
youngest. Wessén posits therefore three successive waves of cultic
influence
spreading across Sweden,
probably from Denmark
in the south. Studies on the distribution of the various names have
suggested
that names with Ull-
and När-
denote a
central position within cultural inhabited areas, where towns later
arose,
especially in Östergötland. The more ancient cult of these two deities
appears
to have been common in Norway
and north and eastern Sweden
but is rare or absent from southwest Sweden
or Denmark.
Place-name evidence therefore suggests a cultural division across Scandinavia, north of which the
older cult remained for
longer or was more popular but
to the south the cult of Frey, Thor and later Odin
replaced it. Fertility-cult in eastern Sweden's
central habitations revolved around Ull,
Thor
and particulary, Frey, as the
famous Uppsala
temple suggests. Southwest Sweden
is less rich in specific deity-names
than the rest of the country and this supports the notion of a
different
cultural milleu there. Odin,
however,
is the most common deity name in this region.

Frey-names are more
numerous than in Norway,
and indeed this god of fertility and crops was the most popular in this
country, as Adam of Bremen explains in his account of the great temple
at Uppsala.
There are many
instances of *Freysvé
and *Freyslundr.
In Svealand he is especially associated with agricultural elements,
e.g. Frösåker
(< *Freysakr)
and this agricultural region was probably the centre of a Frey cult over a long period. Examples
are: Fröstuna
(northeast Sweden)
“Frey's farmstead”, Frösön
(on Storsjö nr. Östersund, Jämtlands
Län) “Frey's island”, Frösvi
(nr. Västervik, Kalmar Län) and
Frösve
(nr. Skövde, Skaraborgs Län) “Frey's
shrine” (parallel to WN *Freysvé),
Fröseke
(2 instances in Småland – e.g. nr. Alstermo, Kronobergs Län) “Frey's oak grove”, Frösäter
(Medelpad) “Frey's hill pasture” (cf. Norwegian Frøset,
Frøyset),
Frösdal
(Ångermanland) “Frey's valley”, Fröstland
(Bjärta socken, Ångermanland) “Frey's
open land”, Fröslunda
(2 instances in Uppsala Län – 1) nr.
Orsundsbro, 2) nr. Fjärdhundra) and Frösslunda
(on Öland, Ölands Län) “Frey's grove”
(WN *Freyslundr).
There are two examples each of Friggeråker
(one in Östergötland, the other near Falköping, Skaraborgs Län,
Västergötland)
“Frey's open land” and Frösåker
(Uppland; Västmanland; corresponding
to WN *Freysakr).
Frö(s)-
is also known to be compounded with -fors
“waterfall”, -klint
“hill”, -mosse
“moor” and -näs
“headland”. De Vries adds a Fredsberg
from Västergötland (a hill nr.
Töreboda, Skaraborgs Län), which was recorded in medieval times as Frösbiærgh
(i.e. “Frey's hill” - see the Freya parallels below) and a Fröshamar
(Västmanlands Län) “protruding mountain ridge of Frey”.

His
sister Freya
as an element is numerous and varied - especially in Uppland - and
evidenced in
such names as Frötuna
(nr. Norrtälje, Stockholms Län and nr.
Uppsala, Uppsala Län, both Uppland; 4 in Västergötland: 1 - Askim; 2 -
Kind; 3
- Gällstad; 4 - Tidavad; 2 in Södermanland: 1 - Sorunda; 2 -
Stenkvista)
“Freya's farmstead”, Frövi
“shrine to Freya” (corresponding to WN
*Freyjuvé
and implying public worship; 1 - near
Högsby, Småland; 2 - near Edsberg, Närke; 3 - near Skultuna,
Västmanland), Fröjel
(Gotlands Län, Gotland) “shrine to Freya” (1300s: Fröale),
Fröåkra
(near Lyrestad, Skaraborgs Län, Västergötland) “Freya's open land”
(note the
identical lost names from Västergötland, Friggjarakr
and Friggiærakær,
the latter from near Gudhem), Fröäng
(near Västre Skedvi, Västmanland) “Freya's meadow” and Frövättern
“Freya's lake” is known from both Värmland and Närke. Other natural
features
also testify to the strength of her cult: Fröjaberg
(Skåne), Fröaberg
(Halland), Fröberga
(on Selön, Södermansland Län; Östergötlands Län, Östergötland) all
“Freya's
hill”, Fröbäcken
(nr. Nysätra, Västerbottens Län,
Västergötland) “Freya's brook”, A number of place-names corresponding
to WN *Freyjulundr
and implying public open-air veneration also exist in the modern form Frölunda
(2 in Stockholms Län – 1) nr. Järna and 2) nr. Kungsängen; a locality
in
Göteborg, Göteborgs och Bohus Län). There are besides found a number of
instances of Frölland
“Freya's open land” (2 near Edsta,
Gävleborgs Län) in Sweden
(2 in Helsingland: 1 - Hög; 2 - Forsa; 1 - Timrå, Medelpad; 1 - Säbrå,
Ångermanland). There are at least 8 instances of Frösjön
“Freya's lake” in Sweden (5 in Småland; 2 in Södermanland; 1 in Uppland
and 1
in Västergötland), while 2 cases of Frövik
(Småland and Dalsland) further
illustrate her cultic associations with water. Corresponding to the Fröjel
given above (OSwed.*Fröal),
de Vries supplies Friel
(nr. Tun, Skaraborgs Län - from older Frøial),
Fryele
in Jönköpings Län, Småland and Fröall
some waste ground in Ångermanland,
while of Friggaskulle
(Sävedals härad, Västergötland)
“Freya's hillock” [?] he remarks “ist
kaum ein ursprunglicher Kultname”. Finally, de Vries cites an
alleged
Freya-name in Fristad
from Östergötland (nr. Norrköping,
Östergötlands Län - earlier Frigiastadum)
whose name would then denote “Freya's
site, place”. This must be considered possible until further
information is
forthcoming. A bye-name for Freya,
which is also found in Denmark (see
above) and Icelandic sources, is thought to be the first element in Härnevi
(4 instances in Uppland: 1 - near Bro; 2 - near Enköping, Uppsala Län;
3 - near
Rasbo; 4 - Husaby near Uppsala was earlier Hærnawi)
“Hern's shrine”, Järnevi
(Nässja socken, Dahlshärad,
Östergötland) also “Hern's shrine” and Järneberga
(Nässja socken, Dahlshärad, Östergötland) “Hern's hill”. Frö-
is also known to be compounded with -fors
“waterfall”, -klint
“hill”, -mosse
“moor” and -näs
“headland” (e.g. on Öland, Ölands Län; nr. Stjärnhov, Södermansland
Län; nr.
Nynäshamn, Stockholms Län), while a Friggesäter
near Rönö is probably formed from the
personal-name Fridhger
(de Vries).

In
total Sweden boasts 8 Fröslunda (in
central Sweden and on Öland), 6 Frölunda,
5 Frötuna,
1 Fröstuna,
8 Frösvi
, 4 Frövi,
as well as 2 Frösåker,
1 Fröshult
and 1 Fröjel.
If this were not ample testimony to the cult both enjoyed in Sweden,
there
are in Edsberg socken, Närke, 2 villages called Frövi
and Frösvi
while the same is found in Romfartuna
socken and Skultuna socken, both in Västmanland. These tend to suggest
a firm
connection between the cults of the siblings.

Jan
de Vries mentions two instances of
Swedish toponyms compounding the name of Mimr
as a first element. Both of these, Mimeså
and Mimesjöen,
are associated with water (river and lake). Frankly, I remain highly
sceptical of
a topographical reference to this minor mythological figure until
further data
can be obtained.

Finally,
we can note the probable
appearance of minor female deities from old northern mythology - the dís
(plural dísir),
which are found in two sites from
Östergötland, Disevid (near
Heda) “shrine dedicated to the dísir”
(older Disavi)
and Diseberg
(near Ekeby, Östergötland) “hill of the dísir”.
Corresponding to Norwegian Disen,
Disin
(ON *Dísavin)
is Swedish Disasen
“meadow of the dísir”
near Brastad, Bohuslän. De Vries
mentions an apparently now lost Swedish assembly name Dísaþing
“thing-stead of the dísir”
from Uppland.

The
adjective denoting “holy” or
“sacred” when referring to heathen sites appears not to be as common in
Sweden
as in as Denmark
or Iceland.
Connected to natural features are for example Helgesjön
(nr. Undersåker, Jämtlands Län) and Helgasjön
(nr. Växjö, Kronobergs Län) “holy
lake”, Helgö
(2 in Stockholms Län – 1) nr. Mora, 2)
nr. Ekero; Småland) “holy island” and Helge å
“holy river” (nr. Östanå, Skåne Län; nr. Gärds Köpinge, Skåne Län; nr.
Älmhult,
Kronobergs Län). Referring presumably to man-made (or else adapted)
sites are Helvi
(Gotland) (1280: Helghawi)
and a Helvis
(Gotland) both
“holy shrine”. The first
element Gud-
tends to imply the cultivation of
many gods (as opposed to one specific named deity) and may therefore
also be
said to carry a meaning corresponding to “divine” or “sacred”. Gudhem
is found in 2 cases in Västergötland (e.g. nr. Falköping, Skaraborgs
Län;
Danish Gudhjem is the same name).

Elements
which are not theophoric in
the strict sense of the word but are nevertheless the most widespread
across
the whole of Scandinavia are vé,
hörgr
and hof
(to give their ON forms). Sweden
is quite rich in sites suggesting these three significations for
“cult-place,
shrine” but especially the first mentioned: vé,
OSwed. vi,
væ
“heathen shrine, sanctuary”. Many of these refer to the cultivated
deity
directly. Thus we find: Frösvi
“Frey's shrine”, Frövi
“Freya's shrine” (lack of genitive case indicates the feminine), Mjärdevi
“Njörd's shrine” (OSwed. *Niærdhavi),
Odensvi
“Odin's shrine”, Torsvi
“Thor's shrine” and Ullevi
“Ull's shrine”. In Alguvi
(Kaga socken) we have “shrine dedicated
to all the gods” and “shrine of the Goths” has been read in Göteve
(nr. Falköping, Skaraborgs Län) but this not accepted by all. On Gotland a Hellvi
“holy shrine” (1280: Helghawi)
and a Hellvis
are known. Plain uncompounded
instances of the word are also found and appear as Vä
in the modern
orthography - Vä
(nr. Kristianstad, Skåne Län), Vä
(nr. Reftele, Jönköpings Län, Småland) and Vä
(Tärby socken,
Ås härad, Västergötland). Visby,
the pretty and ancient but ruined capital of the Swedish island
of Gotland,
is clearly a compound of OSwed. viand by “settlement”,
although the town was at the very beginning called merely Vi.

Old
Swedish *hargher
(ON hörgr,
ODan. *hargh,*hørgh)
appears in quite a few compounds. For
example, Odensala
(Uppland) “Odin's shrine” (OSwed. *Odhenshargh),
Hörby
(Skåne Län - cf. Danish Harreby)
“settlement by a shrine or stony
outcrop” (medieval Hørghby)
and is also found in simplex form in Höör
(Skåne Län) “stony outcrop” or (possibly) “shrine” (1145: Hørg).
The last two of these are considerably more uncertain, since neither
are found
with god-names and one is compounded with a settlement name while the
other
stands alone. In both it is more natural to see the profane meaning of
“stony
outcrop”.

Old
Norse Hof,
Swedish Hov(-),
is rather less common than in
Iceland, where it is the most common name element relating to heathen
cult and
probably belongs to the end of the heathen period. It is also quite
often found
uncompounded in Norway.
In Sweden,
uncompounded Hov
is for example found in Växjötrakten
and Storsjön, Jämtland, as well as nr. Båstad, Skåne Län, nr. Värnamo
and nr.
Ölmstad, Jönköpings Län, on Bolmsö, Kronobergs Län, nr. Annelund and
nr.
Almestad, Älvsborgs Län, nr. Vadstena and nr. Söderköping,
Östergötlands Län,
and nr. Upplanda, Uppsala
Län. But Hov
is mainly a West Norse phenonemon and
is thought to be absent from Denmark
in this meaning. Care has to be taken not to by fooled by Swedish
place-names Hovgården,
which stem from the Middle Ages or later and refer to the hovmän
or mounted warrior.

Corresponding
to Gothic alhs
“shrine” and OE ealh
“shrine” (cf. OE ealgian
“protect, defend”) is OSwed. al(a) (Proto-Norse
*alh).
This word denoting a heathen sanctuary
has left a few reminders of its existence in the landscape in Götala
(near Skara, Skaraborgs Län, Västergötland; nr. Skänninge,
Östergötlands Län), Friel
and Fröjel
both “Freya's shrine” (the latter of
these OSwed.*Fröal,
recorded in the 1300s asFröale).
The town of Motala,
Östergötlands Län, is composed of mot
“towards, against” and OSwed. al(a)
“shrine” and therefore probably denotes something like “the place where
people
meet at the shrine” (Wührer).

Sites
presumably
once featuring a sacred grove are denoted by -lund(a)
(ON lundr)
and are not uncommon in Sweden.
There
are many examples of simplex Lund,
especially in the eastern and central parts of the country. In
uncompounded Lund
(Skåne Län) we
have the capital city of the province
of Skåne
and of this, Wührer remarks:
“… während Lund
die schöne Universitätsstadt, seinen Namen von lundr,
neuschwed. auch lund
“Hain”, wahrscheinlich ursprünglich
kultisch gemeint, herleitet.”
(colours mine). Lunde
is found as the name of at least 3
sites in the central-east Sweden,
and Lunden
is found as the name of at least 4 sites in the south-west part of the
country.
When -lund(a) is found compounded with another
element, especially a settlement name like -by, it is much less likely to have originally
been the
site of a sacred grove. The
compound Närlunda
“Njörd's grove” (OSwed. *Nærdhalunda)
speaks for itself.

As
a second element in theophoric
place-names, -tuna
“farmstead” (cf. OE tûn
“enclosure”) is almost exclusively confined to Sweden
(although it appears in Norway
with Hof-).
It is never found with Odin
and is therefore assumed to be older
than his cult. Its significance as a theophoric place-name element has
probably
to do with crop fertility and abundance, just as -åker
below. The
heathen Swedish landowner might cultivate
Thor (particularly associated with
this second element), Frey, Njörd or Freya
with the hope of a positive return to his
estate's productivity. Thus we find Torstuna
(Uppland) “Thor's farmstead”, Ulltuna
and Ullentuna
both mean “Ull's farmstead”, as does Ultuna
(Bondekyrka socken, Ulleråkers härad, Uppland), Fröstuna
(northeast Sweden)
“Frey's
farmstead”, Frötuna
(northeast Sweden)
“Freya's farmstead” and Närtuna
(northeast Sweden)
“Njörd's farmstead”. As an
element in theophoric place-names, -tuna
is typically northeast Swedish and is
most dense in the Mälar-region.

Modern
Swedish åker
denoted “open land” (i.e. cultivated land) in Old Swedish, and the
association
between crop yield and deities is evidenced in a number of theophoric
names
combining with this place-name element. In pre-Christian SwedenFrey in particular was worshipped as a god of
fertility and
harvest, but a few of the other gods also become associated with an
agrarian
role. In this country, as in Denmark,
both Odin and Thor
are associated with place-names denoting crop growing and this
suggests that their cults were late in coming to Sweden.
For Frey
we have two examples each of Friggeråker
and Frösåker,
for FreyaFröåkra,
while Odin
is found in Odensåker
(2 sites), Thor
in Torsåker
or Torsåkra
(5 sites in all!) and finally Ull
appears twice in Ulleråker.

The
waterfall in Västergötland called
the Trollhättan (Älvsborgs Län),
near the mouth of the Göta Älv
river, may possibly preserve some pre-Christian
folklore in its first element. Wührer provides an account of recent
scholarship
(p.17): the second element means “mountain peak” and is often found in
the
names of the northernmost mountains. The first element has been
variously
explained, perhaps simply from troll
(thus Hellquist), or from Germanic *troðla,
truðhan
“step, tread, stamp” (thus Sievers) or perhaps from
Germanic *truzla,
Gnutish trysa
“strong, powerful, advancing” and
therefore referring to the speed of the flow of water (thus Falk-Torp).
According to Huisman, the island in the swamp occupied by Grendel in Bêowulf is now called Trollholm
“demon island”, while the swamp itself is called Halekier
“holy bog”. The village nearby is called Vixö
“lake that has a shrine connected to
it” (apparently from the genitive of OSwed. vi
+ sjö).
Huisman’s claims in this matter must been regarded as
questionable until further evidence is forthcoming.

Iceland

This
section on Iceland is indebted to Ólafur Lárusson's seminal discussion
of
theophoric names (“Island”) in Nordisk
Kultur 26 and equally useful, has been Svavar
Sigmundsson's discussion
and critique in his recent article “Átrúnaður og örnefni” [see
booklist].
Lárusson's section on “Island”
in Nordisk Kultur 5
has also been
useful. Facts are taken from Lárusson's articles unless stated
otherwise.

A
glossary to some of the more frequently cited Icelandic toponymic
elements may
be helpful at this point (for more, see the Old Norse place-name
element
glossary in the Norway
section):

Iceland
has few directly theophoric place-names compared to other countries in Scandinavia but many less
specific place-names which hint
at fomer heathen cult in the land. Many of these are compounded with
features
in the landscape. Judging from the place-names Þór
was the most popular god, but the heathen element most obvious in
Icelandic
toponymy is Hof,
from Old Norse hof
(although like western Norway, never
with a deity-name), with Goð-
making a good second-place. Hörg-
is also rather common as a prefix. Among the other major deities, we
must count
Freyr
second and Njörðr
third and this apparent pecking-order
among the gods, with Þór
and not Óðinn
as pre-eminent, is contrary to the mythology expounded later by Snorri
Sturluson.

Progress
in the subject between the account given by Ólafur Lárusson in Nordisk Kultur 5 (upon
which most
of the following account is based) and the very readable revaluation
given by
Svavar Sigmundsson is summed up by Sigmundsson thus (p.241):

There
have been some specialised studies by Stefán Einarsson, Sveinn
Níelsson,
Gabriel Turville-Petre and Þórhallur Vilmundarsson, as well as Ólafur
Briem's
general study on Heiðinn siður á
Íslandi (1945, 1985) but no overall critique of
Lárusson until
Sigmundsson in 1990. Bearing in mind Icelanders' great interest in
their
heathen past this is perhaps surprising. Svavar Sigmundsson provides
some
timely criticism to the observations of Lárusson and the others
mentioned, in
addition to adding a few more instances to the number of Icelandic
examples.

An
account of heathen and supranormal traces in place-names in Iceland
has to
be given with some reservations, since not all the available material
has been
collected and analysed. Local research has not been extensive enough,
for
example in excavations of sites whose names suggest they were once a hof
or hörgr.
The situation is made still less certain by the sparse appearance of
theophoric
place-names in extant medieval Icelandic sources combined with the
Icelanders'
great love of their own past. This love for their own antiquity has
resulted in
names with antiquarian meanings making appearances in comparatively
recent
times. The Old Norse language used at the time the first place-names
were
coined differs little from the Icelandic of today and this leads to
extra
difficulties in trying to determine the age of a place-name that has
heathen
overtones. Nevertheless, the instances cited in this article are
generally
agreed to be sites which contain genuine traces of fomer heathen cult
and
various manifestations of folk-belief from the Icelandic past. As is
the case
with Norway
and elsewhere, the early farms and similar types of settlement are the
most
frequent and important bearers of theophoric names and elements.

In
examining Icelandic theophoric toponyms (just as with those from
elsewhere), we
can make a distinction between primary theophoric
names and secondary
ones. The former refers to a base word or term, whereas the latter is
derived from
the primary but tells the scholar nothing extra about the nature of the
cult.
Thus Hof
can be considered a primary name
(often the first element of a farm-name) but the Hofsá
or Hofsdalur
in its vicinity, while interesting, is
merely a derivation from the primary term and gives no essential or
significant
additional information.

Thor,
Old Norse Þór,
was very popular among the early settlers to Iceland,
many of whom are reckoned to have come from south-western Norway
where
the cult of Thor perhaps had its strongest representation. Places in
Iceland
using Thor
as an element are numerous and are
spread over the whole country: Þórshöfn (5
sites - Stafnes, Gullbringu- og
Kjósarsýsla; Mýrdalur, Skaptafellssýsla; Fáskrúðsfjörður,
Suður-Múlasýsla;
Vopnafjörður, Norður-Múlasýsla and Þistilfjörður, Þingeyjarsýsla)
“Thor's
harbour”, Þórsárdalur
“Thor's-river valley”, Þórsmörk (Fljótshlíð,
Rangárvallasýsla - a nature reserve) “Thor's clearing”, Þórsá
(Helgafellssveit, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla and Vatnsnes,
Húnavatnssýsla)
“Thor's river”, Þórsnes
(5 sites all by the sea except Vellir
(near a river) - Viðey, Gullbringu- og Kjósarsýsla; Helgafellssveit,
Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla; Glæsibæjarhreppur, Eyjafjarðarsýsla;
Vellir,
Suður-Múlasýsla and Fáskrúðsfjörður, Suður-Múlasýsla) “Thor's
headland”, Þórseyri
(Öxarfjörður, Þingeyjarsýsla) “Thor's sandbank”, Þórshólar
(Helgafellssveit, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla) “Thor's hill”, Þórshnúa
(Eyrarsveit, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla) and Þórssteinn
(Helgafellssveit, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla) “Thor's stone”. More
doubtful
are: Þórisjökull
“Thor's glacier?” (this probably
compounds the personal name Þórir),
Þórsvatn
(Tunga, Norður-Múlasýsla; 1500s: Þórisvatn)
“Thor's lake?” and Þórshamar
(Breiðavík, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla) “Thor's crag”. Sometimes Thor
will appear without the genitive in -s: Þór-.
Of these there are 2 each of Þórdalur
“Thor's valley” and Þórfell
“Thor's mountain” and 1 each of Þórhóll
“Thor's hillock” and Þórvík
“Thor's inlet”. However these
non-genitive instances could equally be preserving contracted versions
of
earlier personal names in Þóris-
or Þóru-
and the problem is complicated by the fact that both deity names and
personal
names are found compounded without the genitive case. According to
Svavar
Sigmundsson of the around 25 place-names in Þór-
or Þórs-,
some will be variants of Þórir-,
probably a variant of the deity-name and thus many of the names in Þórir-
quite likely refer to the god (p.241). To reinforce his point he refers
to the
work of Halldór Halldórsson who claims no Icelandic man was called Þór
until late last century - therefore we are unlikely to be dealing with
personal
names. The frequency of Þór
compounded with the elements -höfn
and -nes
suggest that he was regarded as god of seafaring by the
Icelanders and the small number of farms named after him suggest he was
mainly
cultivated out in nature or at the hof.

Unlike
the case in Norway,
there
are no examples of Þór
+ akr
or other agricultural names in Iceland
and this suggests he was not worshipped as an agrarian god there.
However
western Norway
does have a parallel to Icelandic Þórsnes.
No places involving his name later
became parishes in Iceland.

Other
strictly theophoric place-names are less common in Iceland:

Baldr,
son of Odin
and most radiant of the gods very likely appears in two identical
settlement
names in the north of the country, Baldursheimur
(Hörgárdalur, Eyjafjarðarsýsla and
Mývatnssveit, Þingeyjarsýsla), which mean “Balder's homestead” (not of
course
implying that Balder was thought to live there! - both later had
churches built
at their sites). The second element -heimr
is uncommon in Iceland
and could therefore have been brought
from Norway
- a Ballesheim
(ON *Baldrsheimr)
is known from north Hordaland (Sigmundsson, p.244). Place-names in Baldur-
are likely to be named after the figure from Norse mythology since Baldur
is not recorded as a personal name until the 1850s according to Halldór
Halldórsson (see Sigmundsson, p.244). It seems then almost certain that
some of
the early heathen settlers of Iceland
cultivated Balder.
Baldr
also occurs as the name of a rock (!)
and in modern Icelandic, Baldur
is now quite a common personal name.

The
fertility god Freyr
can be traced in two different names
occuring in the south-east of the country, Freyshólar
(Vellir, Suður-Múlasýsla) “Frey's hill”and Freysnes
(Öræfi, Skaptafellssýsla and Lagarfljót, Fell, Norður-Múlasýsla)
“Frey's
headland”. A name in which is probably (much) more recent is Freyfaxahamar
(Hrafnkelsdalur, Norður-Múlasýsla) “Freyfaxi's crag” (a horse owned by
Hrafnkell Freysgoði - see Hrafnkellssaga).
No churches have been built on sites in Frey-.
One parallel to the two instances of
Freysnes
is known in Norway.

Njörd,
the sea-god (ON Njörðr)
is found in the place-name Njarðvík
(1 - Vatnsleysuströnd, Gullbringu- og
Kjósarsýsla, 1269: niarvík,
1270: niardvík;
2 - Norður-Múlasýsla, Sturlubók/Hauksbók: Niardvík,
Hauksbók: Niarðvík)
“Njörd's inlet”. He was considered the god of fertility and navigation
but
Icelandic place-names suggest only the latter. Churches were later
built at
both sites. Genitives in Njarðar-
known from Scandinavia
represent an older stage of his cult (Sigmundsson, p.243). It is not
impossible
that the two instances of Njarðvík
in Iceland
were named in imitation of those from western Norway.
A Njarðartún
(Njarðvík, Norður-Múlasýsla) is probably from more recent times.

Conspicuous
is the lack of an Icelandic place-names commemorating Óðinn.
As god of war, it appears that the peace-loving Icelanders had no use
for him.
Svavar Sigmundsson, quoting a comment made by the great critic Gabriel
Turville-Petre, suggests that the pioneer Icelanders were also fleeing
the cult
of Óðinn
as well as the political ambition of Harald Finehair. There
may well be some truth in this and the god has some representation in
Norwegian
place-names [see above]. Slightly harder to reconcile, bearing in mind
Icelanders' great talent and delight in poetry, is that Odin
is nowhere represented for this aspect of his role. Icelandic
court-poets
venerated the god as their muse and originator of their art. A nickname
for Odin,
known both from Icelandic texts and English place-names (see the
section on England),
was Grimr
“the masked one” - presumably applicable when Óðinn
was travelling incognito. Place-names which ostensibly appear to
represent this
persona such as Grímsá
“Grim's brook”, Grímsey
“Grim's island” or Grímsnes
“Grim's headland” have been explained
by Svavar Sigmundsson as being compounds with the rather common man's
name Grímr,
rather than the Odin-figure.
This is regretible but almost
certainly correct - cf. the many place-names in the old Danelaw which
compound
this personal name. In England,
Grim
is only known for certain from Saxon areas.

Several
other names are known which at first may appear to be theophoric but on
closer
examination reveal themselves to contain personal or object names. Of
this type
a few examples will suffice: Týrsengi
(Máfahlíð, Fróðárhreppur, Snæfellsnes
og Hnappadalssýsla) “Tyr's meadow?” can hardly refer to the god Týr
(however, Svavar Sigmundsson is more willing to entertain the idea than
Lárusson (p.244)) and in Lokastaðir
(Fnjóskadalur, Þingeyjarsýsla), Lokahvammur
(Goðdalur, Skagafjarðarsýsla), Lokatindur
(Mjóifjörður, Suður-Múlasýsla), Loki
(hill name - Þistilfjörður, Þingeyjarsýsla) and Loki
(single rock - Hreiðarsstaður, Fell, Norður-Múlasýsla) we almost
certainly have
nicknames and not the god-name Loki.
The many place-names in Ullar-
may at first sight reveal veneration of the ancient (and little known)
god Ullr
(e.g. Ullarfoss (next to Goðafoss),
Ullarhóll,
Ullargil,
Ullarklettur
(next to Goðaklettur),
Ullarvötn),
however far more likely is that
these names merely combine the element ull
“wool”, as some of the Danish
place-names which begin with Ul-
[see above]. Place-names in Ullar-
in the vicinity of other apparently theophoric names (e.g. in Goða-,
see above) are no certain indication (Sigmundsson, p.244), although
Turville-Petre
prefers to believe they are. For the sake of completeness, Ullar-
may be found compounded with: -foss,
-gil,
-hamar,
-hóll,
-holt,
-hvammur,
-klettur,
-lækur,
-melur,
-sker,
-tjörn,
-vað,
-vík,
-vötn.
It is not impossible that one or more of these may be preserving the
name of
the god Ullr
but the side-form Ullinn,
is found nowhere in Iceland, whereas
both forms of the name are quite common in Norway. Such would tend to
support
the view that this god's veneration was an old phenomenon and was not
carried
to Iceland
by the original settlers.

Other
deity-names are not known for certain in Iceland.
Some place-names in Ránar-
and Ægis-
may preserve the names of the minor gods Rán
and Ægir
(the latter appearing in Snorri and the poetry as god of
the sea). There are also many locations beginning with Hel(jar)-,
which could refer to the goddess Hel
[see section on Denmark].
However, an often cited farm-name Elivogar
(Seyluhreppur, Skagafjarðarsýsla),
does not contain her name but is derived from él
“hail (storm)”.

Surtr,
a leading giant who battled with Freyr
at ragnarök
(see the Eddic poem Völuspá
“The Sybil's Prophecy”) is given his recognition as being a part of
cherished
Icelandic mythology and folklore in Surtsey
(south Iceland) “Surt's island” which
lies just off the southern Icelandic coast, and probably Surtshellir
“Surt's cave”, which is known from one of the earliest Icelandic
documents, Landnámabók
(“The Book of Settlements”). The giant kills Frey
and survives the final battle to set fire to the heavens and the earth
- which
eventually leads to the dawn of a new world. Surtsey
is a recently formed (1963) volcanic island and is aptly named since Surtr
was probably regarded by the heathen Icelanders as a fire-giant who
inhabited
the underworld. Two other names in Surts-
however are not connected with the
giant: Surtsstaðir
derives from a personal name and Surtsteigur
is of unknown origin but might be connected with the Old Norse word for
“black”
svartr.

According
to Gabriel Turville-Petre [see booklist], in northwest Iceland
there
are some rocks known as the Landdísasteinar
“stones of the land-dísir”, which are
believed to have been considered protected by these nature spirits.

Three
place-names are thought to compound ON rögn,
regin
“god”. Rögnaá
“divine river” and Rögnamúli
“divine promontory” are both at
Heggstaðir, Kolbeinsstaðahreppur, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla. Ragnaborg
(Fljótsdalur, Suður-Múlasýsla) probably translates as “divine rock”
(i.e. of
the gods). Eggert Ólafsson has claimed a further example in Ragnahellir
(Bervíkurhraun, under Snæfellsjökull) “cave of the gods”.

There
are many Icelandic place-names compounding the prefix (only) element Goð-
“god, deity”(ON goð)
or much more commonly in the genitive
plural form Goða-.
However at least some of latter (if not all) will refer
to the heathen temple priest and local chief, the goði,
also found in a few Norwegian place-names. One such name which
definitely
denotes goði
is Goðaskógur
(Þingvallasveit, Árnessýsla). An
opinion expressed by Þórhallur Vilmundsson, suggests that some names
may
instead be compounding the ON adjective góður
“good, fine”, which is conceivable
when refering to arable land or land well disposed to settlement.
However this
interpretation is questionable. From those which may well mean “god”, 3
are
farm-names: Goðadalur
“valley of the gods” (Bjarnarfjörður,
Strandasýsla) and Goðdalir
(Skagafjarðarsýsla - this one became
the name of a main parish), Goðhóll
(a smallholding in Kálfatjörn parish,
Vatnsleysuströnd, Gullbringu- og Kjósarsýsla) “god-hill” but most
describe
natural features e.g. Goðafoss
(4 sites, probably of great antiquity
- e.g. Skjálfandafljót, Þingeyjarsýsla),”waterfall of the gods” -
probably
suggesting that heathens went out into the country to worship, in
addition to
some 21 other sites (which all occur in the southeast and nowhere else)
named Goðaborg(ir)
“rocky hill of the gods”, Goðafjall
“mountain of the gods”, Goðaborgarfjall,
Goðaborgartindur
“rocky hill summit of the gods” and Goðatindur
“peak of the gods”. All of these are names of hills except Goðaborg
which are small cliffs. Tradition maintains that they once had shrines
standing
on their tops but the inaccessibility of most of them probably means
these are
mere folk-tales. Goð(a)
is found compounded with the following natural features: -á,
-borg(ir),
-borgarfjall,
-borgartindur,
-botn(ar),
-dalur,
-dæld,
-fjall,
-foss,
-gangur,
-gil,
-hóll,
-hvammur,
-klettur
(Hamrar, Grímsnes, Árnessýsla), -lág(ar),
-land,
-laut,
-nes,
-skarð,
-skógur,
-steinn,
-sund,
-tindur,
-tunga,
-vað,
-vík,
-völlur
. Many of these are in close proximity to a farm which either name or
tradition
suggests had once been the site of a shrine, but the same reservations
apply as
with the names in Hof-.
Outside of the examples and elements
given above, other compounds with Goð(a)-
are rare, e.g. Goðaleiði
(Goðdalur, Bjarnarfjörður, Strandasýsla), Goðatún
“gods' enclosure” (Þingmúli,
Skriðdalur, Suður-Múlasýsla).

There
are twenty-four farm or settlement names called Hof
spread across Iceland, Old Norse hof,
an element which often denotes a
former site of heathen worship - although a handful of these are
uncertain (Hof-
may at times have the alternative meaning “hillock”, so one needs to
proceed
with caution. Those examples given here are all certain, unless stated
otherwise). Furthermore, there are 13 Hofstaðir
“sanctuary-place”, 11 of which are
farm-names. Svavar Sigmundsson notes that 16 farms called Hof
or Hofstaðir
later became parishes (p.247). Others are of medium size or smaller and
we may
assume that a shrine stood in these places during the heathen period.
Two cases
of Hofgarðar
“shrine enclosure” are known (one of
these is an abandoned settlement in Bárðardalur, Þingeyjarsýsla), as
well as
one each of the following spread across the land: Hofakur
“shrine field”, Hofdæli
“shrine valley”, Hofsá
“shrine brook” (a farm-name), Hoffell
“shrine mountain”, Hofströnd
“shrine shore” (a farm-name) and Hofteigur
“shrine grassland”. Nine of these farm
or settlement names in hof
are said to have been inhabited by the
original settlers of Iceland
(Landnámamenn) - 7 Hof,
1 Hofstaðir
and 1 Hoffell.
No instances in Iceland
in “deity-name + hof
“ exist. Some settlement names have
acquired secondary Hof-
names: Hofsá
(Svarfaðardalur, Eyjafjarðarsýsla), Hofsborg
and Hofsbær
(Vopnafjörður, Norður-Múlasýsla), Hofsnes
(Öræfi, Skaptafellssýsla). Hof
also appears in individual farm names
which first sprang up in later centuries: Háahof
(a smallholding within the Hofgarðar
estate, Staðarsveit, Snæfellsnes og Hnappadalssýsla), Hraunshof
(a smallholding in the Hraun (“lava”) estate, Ölfus, Árnessýsla), Hoftún
(a smallholding in the Kökkur estate, Flói, Árnessýsla).

Hof
is sometimes found uncompounded in the
vicinity of a farm or settlement which does not itself bear a
theophoric name.
In such cases the interpretation of “shrine” or “cult-stead” is even
more
certain. It is also found in the plural form Hofin
and in the genitive plural in names such as Hofaborg,
Hofadalur,
Hofatjörn
(Holt, Fróðárhreppur, Snæfellsnes og
Hnappadalssýsla). Occassionally it is found as a second element -hof,
as in Fífuhof
(Krossavík, Arnarfjörður, Barðastrandarsýsla) or Sönghof
(Sönghofsfjall, Ósfjöll, Norður-Múlasýsla). Other names with Hof-
are rare, e.g. Hofgerði
(Bakki, Öxnadalur, Eyjafjarðarsýsla). The remaining names found with hof-
are nature names, e.g. Hofgil
“shrine gorge”, Hofhóll
“shrine hill”, Hofkinn
“shrine mountain slope” and Hofklettur
“shrine rock”. The whole catalogue of
natural features hof-
is found linked with are: -á
(e.g. Skógar, Austur-Eyjafjöll, Rangárvallasýsla and Seljaland,
Vestur-Eyjafjöll, Rangárvallasýsla), -fell
(e.g. Fáskrúðsfjörður,
Suður-Múlasýsla), -flöt,
-gil,
-hamar,
-hóll
(5), -kinn,
-klettur,
-reitur,
-teigur,
-tjörn,
-torfa
and -vogur.
Hofhóll
with its 5 separate instances is the most frequent of these
however and the others are less frequent. Some of these are found in
the
vicinity of a farm called Hofstaðir
and it might be the case that some
were formed in later times owing to a tradition about a shrine on the
estate.
They are most convincing when found unconnected to other theophoric
names on a
site. Icelanders have also informed me of a Hofsjökull
“shrine glacier” in southern Iceland
(Skagafjörður), although the connection between place and alleged
function is
not clear.

Thus
far, Hofstaðir
in Mývatnssveit has received most
archaeological investigation and the evidence found so far suggests it
was used
as a shrine of some kind (Sigmundsson, p.247). The large number of
sites named Hof(-)
or Hofstaðir
which later became parishes Lárusson
suggests were once heathen holy sites which Christians later adopted as
their
own, but the excavations done so far have not supported this theory.

Some
20 names compounding Goð-
and/or Hof-
refer directly to a shrine or cultic
meeting-place, e.g. Hofhús,
Hoftópt(ir),
Goðahof,
Goðhofstópt,
Goðahús,
Goðatópt(ir),
Goðatættur.
Ruins have been found in most of
these places which tradition would have us believe are sanctuary or
temple
ruins and some 100 archaeological sites across Iceland have been the
focus of
similar claims. But local geography points against at least some of
them being
former temple sites and those excavations that have been done have
proved
inconclusive. Furthermore, an examination of the relevant topographical
literature reveals that almost all of these so-called traditions date
back to
the antiquarianism and national Romanticism of the previous century.
The
strongest candidate for being the ruins of a former temple site are the
remains
at Hofstaðir
in Mývatnssveit which were excavated
in 1908.

A
slightly less common appellative meaning “heathen shrine, sanctuary”
(or more
precisely, “líklega blótstaðir undir
berum himni” - Sigmundsson, p.249) is Hörgur
(ON hörgr,
cf. ODan. *hørgh,
*hargh,
OSwed. *hargher,
OE hearg, OHG
harug).
Ólafur Lárusson in his article on Icelandic place-names, lists 7
settlement/farm
names: Hörgsdalur
(Síða, Skaptafellssýsla and
Skútustaðahreppur, Þingeyjarsýsla- 1 of these later a parish) “shrine
valley”, Hörgsholt
(Hrunamannahreppur, Árnessýsla and Miklaholtshreppur, Snæfellsnes- og
Hnappadalssýsla - 1 of these later a parish) “shrine at a stony ridge”,
Hörgshlíð
(Mjóifjörður, Ísafjarðarsýsla) “shrine hillside”, Hörghóll
(Vesturhóp, Húnavatnssýsla) “shrine hillock” and Hörgsland
(Síða, Skaptafellssýsla) “shrine land”, as well as some other names of
natural
features which one might less readily associate with sites of worship: Hörgsá
(Hörgárdalur, Eyjafjarðarsýsla; Jökulsárhlíð, Norður-Múlasýsla and
Síða,
Skaptafellssýsla) “shrine brook”, Hörgaeyri
(Heimaey, Vestmannaeyjar - later a
parish), Hörgshylur
(Andakíll, Borgarfjarðarsýsla) “shrine
near a river trench” and Hörgsnes
(Hjarðarnes, Barðastrandarsýsla)
“shrine headland”. Hörsey
and Hörsvík
(both at Kaldrananes, Bjarnarfjörður, Strandasýsla) were probably
originally Hörgsey
“island with a shrine” and Hörgsvík
“inlet with a shrine”. In many cases,
names with this element (which is rather common) are more likely to
have a
purely secular meaning of “gravel bed”, for this is what the base term
means.
As mentioned in the section on Denmark
above, hörgr
may have only in some cases denoted a stony outcrop used as
a primitive cult-stead or meeting-place. Somewhat dubious are Hörgurnar
and Hörghús
(Reykjadalur, Þingeyjarsýsla). Not mentioned by Lárusson,
but supplied by Sigmundsson, are Hörgur
in Stóruvellir in Bárðardalur and Hörgur
in Nónhörgurás in the same region (p.249). As is the case with hof-,
hörgr-
is not found compounded with any
specific god-names and the names of deities, as a rule, tend to appear
compounded with nature-names (rather than farm-names). One might argue
that
this fact weakens the case for assuming a heathen connection - in Iceland
at
least (but cf. OSwed. *Odhenshargh
above). Hörgr-
compounds or simplexes which later became the sites of churches have a
much
stronger case. The extant sources are ambiguous regarding the nature
and
meaning of this term.

Names
of sites or natural features containing the adjectives heilagr
or helgr
“holy” are fairly numerous in the landscape. Some of these,
however, may alternatively contain the personal names Helga
or Helgi
and it is very difficult to be sure one way or the other.
Ólafur Lárusson claims the existence of Helgafell
(e.g. Mosfellssveit, Gullbringu- og
Kjósarsýsla and Garðahreppur, Gullbringu- og Kjósarsýsla) “holy hill”
in 8
individual instances. From Eyrbyggja saga
we know that this name was associated
with heathen cult. As personal names are very seldom compounded with -fell,
we can rule out the possibility of Helga
or Helgi
as first elements here. It is possible that other cases of Helgafell
were named after this one, as the name is not found in Norway
(Sigmundsson, p.247). One of these, Helgafell
in Reykjadal, later had a church
erected on the site. The remaining cases are natural features: Helgá
(Hofströnd, Borgarfjörður, Norður-Múlasýsla and Munkaþverá,
Eyjafjarðarsýsla)
“holy brook”, Helgey
(Akureyjar, Dalasýsla and
Reykhólaeyjar, Barðastrandarsýsla) “holy island”, Helgadalur
(Mosfellssveit, Gullbringu- og Kjósarsýsla) “holy valley” and Helganes
“holy headland”. According to Svavar Sigmundsson (p.247), only one
place-name
in Iceland
undoubtedly contains the adjective heilagr:
Heilagsdalur
(Mývatnsöræfi) “holy valley”, whereas
the element is certain in many continental Scandinavian place-names.

The
final element which can be considered directly connected to heathenism
is ON blót
“sacrifice, offering; idolatry; cursing” which presumably bears the
first of
these meanings when it is found in modern Icelandic place-names
unchanged as Blót-.
The element is always found compounded with natural features of the
landscape
so we probably are dealing with a primitive open-air cult practice. I
assume
names in blót
are older than those refering to more permanent
cult-places. Some names in Blót-
may have been the result of an
assumed connection with Hof-
names (or others indicative of heathen
worship) already in the locality but uncertainty will prevail until
excavations
are carried out. Thus we have: Blótabólsholt
(Seiluhreppur, Skagafjarðarsýsla), Blótbjörk
(Björk, Grímsnes, Árnessýsla), Blóthóll
(Kvennabrekka, Miðdalur, Dalasýsla), Blóthvammur
(Heiðnarey, Múlahreppur, Barðastrandarsýsla) “sacrifice place at a
grassy
hollow”, Blótkelda
(3 cases - Hofteigur, Jökuldalur,
Norður-Múlasýsla; Möðrudalur, Fjöll, Norður-Múlasýsla and Hof,
Kjalarnes,
Gullbringu- og Kjósarsýsla) “offer place at a spring”, Blótastígur
(Heimaey, Vestmannaeyjar) “sacrifice place at a path”, Blótsteinn
(3 cases - Hof, Hjaltadalur, Skagafjarðarsýsla; Bersatunga, Saurbær,
Dalasýsla
(tradition says there was a shrine here) and Heiðnarey, Múlahreppur,
Barðastrandarsýsla) “offer-stone”. Added to Lárusson's catalogue by
Svavar
Sigmundsson are Blóti,
a fishing pool in Blanda and Blóti
on the bank of the Geirlandsá at Prestbakki in Síða, where ancient
ruins are to
be found. Blótabólsholt
and Blótastígur
however could contain a by-name Blóti-.

Old
Norse vé
“shrine, cult-centre”, fairly common in continental
Scandinavian place-names - both compounded and simplex - is not known
in Iceland,
where presumably its meanings have been
adequately covered by hof
and hörgr
or compounds involving them. However, a Véskvíar
exists in Kambsmýrar, Flateyjardalur,
south-Þingeyjarsýsla but whether or not this contains vé
is very controversial (Sigmundsson, p.249). In Iceland,
vangr
is only found as an outer field-name in some farms in the west of the
country
(e.g. Hærrivangur,
Neðrivangur)
and is unlikely to have cult
significations in this capacity.

It
is possible that the several toponyms involving ON lundr
(2 farms: Lundur
in Lundarreykjadal and Lundur
in Fljótshverfi) may have had some religious function but by no means
certain.
The Landnámabók
mentions heathen activity at a Lundr
in Fnjóskadalur (Sigmundsson, p.245). Lundarbrekka
in Bárðardalur later became a parish.
It certainly seems to be the case that, whatever the status of the lundr
to the Icelanders, it never took on the significance that it had among,
for
example, the pagan Swedes.

Belief
in the lower supernatural beings and various kinds of sub-human
creatures
during the Icelandic past has also left its mark in the place-names of
the
land. Of the numerous examples that could be cited, I will confine
myself to: Tröllagil
“giant's gorge”, Heiðnabjarg
“heathens' rock”, Þursasker
“giant's skerry”, Jötunsfell
“giant's mountain”, Risalág
“giant's hollow”, Gýgjarfoss
“giantess' waterfall”, Stórkonugil
“giantess' gorge”, Herkonugil
“warrior woman's gorge”, Álfaborg
“elf's rocky hill”, Huldufólkssteinn
“fairy-folk's boulder”, Álfkonuklöpp
“elf-woman's stepping-stone”, Hólkonuhnjúkur
“hill-woman's summit”, Dverghamrar
“dwarves' steep cliffs”, Draugastapar
“ghost rock”, Útburðargil
“exposed infant's gorge”, Púkabreið
“fiend's lava plain”, Djöflalág
“devil's hollow” and Skrattanes
“warlock's (or devil's) headland”.
Place-names therefore show us that dwarves had their place in early
Icelandic
folk-belief, even if there is no trace of them by the time the sagas
are
written down. For more names like these see the article by Ólafur
Lárusson in Nordisk Kultur 5.

Of
passing interest we can note a couple of 20th century place- or
building-names
which include theophoric elements. In Þingvellir
(the site of the ancient parliament,
the Alþing)
there is a restaurant and hotel called Valhöll
“hall of the slain” i.e. the hall which the mightiest warriors
hand-picked by Odin
would fight and feast, awaiting their final battle at ragnarök.
Ásbyrgi
“divine enclosure” (ON áss
“god”) is a nature reserve in northern Iceland
and Baldurshagi
is apparently the name of a house.

Having
considered and revaluated the evidence, a reasoned conclusion is
reached by
Svavar Sigmundsson which is worth repeating here:

This
may well apply not just to Iceland
but to Scandinavia,
England
and the continental
Germanic countries as well.

Faroe
Isles

This
section draws its evidence from the article “Færöerne” by Chr. Matras
in Nordisk Kultur 5,
in addition to
Jakob Jakobsen’s excellent article “Strejflys over Færøske Stednavne”,
while
Per Hovda’s skillful account largely draws on the work of Jakobsen.
Steensen,
as a non-linguist, has to be regarded as unreliable.

The
name that first comes to mind when one considers this theme in the
Faroes is
the name of the capital, Tórshavn
(Streymoy, 1403-7: þórshafn)
“Thor's harbour”. Hósvík
on Streymoy shows a characteristic
Faroese sound-change from ON þ-
(cf. Faroese Hósdagur
(Thursday) < ON Þórsdagr,
Faroese hesin
< ON þessi,
Faroese har
< ON þar)
and descends from ON *Þórsvík
“Thor’s inlet” (cf. Icelandic Þórvík).

Chr.
Matras mentions a hill on Eysturoy called Lokkafelli,
which he claims to be derived from
the ON “god” of mischief, Loki(modern Faroese Loki).
While not impossible, Loki
appears nowhere else (for certain) in Scandinavia,
so Matras’ claim seems unlikely.

Another
place-name with possible connections to pre-Christian cult to be found
in these
islands appears to be Hov
(Suðuroy), with a dative form of í Hovi (recorded in the saga as at Hofi), now a settlement of well over 200 people.
Matras considers the heathen
interpretation to be reasonable, even likely:

Steensen
also considers it likely that this site was once a “Gudehov”
(modern Faroese hov
does indeed mean a heathen shrine).
The saga tells us that the chieftain Hafgrímr
lived here. However the original meaning
may well be the older one of “farm” (as in the West Germanic lands) and
this
site was the main farm on the island in saga times (no possibility of
the
heathen interpretation is even entertained by Hovda and this
possibility is
passed over by Jakobsen). Steensen also mentions a certain Hørg
on Suðuroy (and entertains the notion of this being the former site of
a
heathen shrine) but this is likely to have a secular and rather prosaic
meaning.

Jakob
Jakobsen adds some interesting examples which he considers to be
indicative of
heathen cultic activity and belief on the islands during the earliest
times:

Heljareyga(Streymoy) andHeljarholmean “holy river” and
“holy hollow” respectively.TheNánestheory must be viewed with some circumspection,
but if true,
it would denote something like “headland of the dead”. Also mentionable
are Halgadalur near Fuglafjørður, Eysturoy, probably “holy
valley”, Hálgafelli (southwest of Klaksvík, Borðoy) “holy hill”
and Halgafelstindur also on Eysturoy “holy mountain peak”.

Worth
noting are a few references to the lower mythology among the islands’
natural
features. On Kalsoy there is a Trøllanes
“troll’s headland” and then a Trøllhøvdi
just offSandoy
“troll’s head”, the
later so called because of the appearance the islet may have when
approaced by
ship from the northeast. On Eysturoy there is a Trølldalur
“troll’s valley” and a Trøllagjógv
on Suðuroy “troll’s ravine” (ON troll
+ gjögr
“cleft, rift”). A cape on the southeast coast of Vágar is called Trøllkonufingur
“the troll-woman’s finger”. In central
Streymoy we find a Gívrufjall
“giantess’ mountain” from Farose gívur
“giantess, ogress” (ultimately ON gífr
“witch, hag” + fjall)
and also a Gívrufelli
on the north of that island with the
same meaning. Finally, in the highland regions of eastern Eystroy we
find a Dvørgjaskarð
“dwarves’ mountain pass” (ON *Dvergarskarð;
dwarves were commonly held to dwell
in the mountains in the old folk-beliefs).

Baltic Regions

Although
Finland
is only geographically part of Scandinavia, and Estonia
is neither geographically
nor culturally a part of it, I nevertheless decided to include some
examples
from these countries both because they are interesting and because they
show
undeniable heathen Scandinavian influence. Swedish vikings were already
penetrating into Baltic rivers and settling the western coastal strip
of Finland
in the 600s AD, well before Sweden
formally
became a Christian state in the 1100s. These Swedish vikings
subsequently went
further afield, going on to form the Russian state itself further to
the east.
They must have used Baltic trading ports like Staraja Ladoga as
stopping off
points on their journeys further east and some of this pre-Christian
colonising
and trading activity has been reflected in local place-names. Care
however is
needed, in guarding against over-zealous interpretation of supposed
theophoric
names. Jan de Vries refers directly to the evidence of this region:

Finland:
From the Old Norse pantheon, Týr,
Freyr,
Óðinn
and Þór
are all undoubtedly preserved in Finnish place-names. Týr
became a suffix, usually appearing as -teivas.
In Österbotten we find Frösjön
“Frey's lake”, Torsö
“Thor's island”, Torsön
“Thor's lake” and in Finnish Nyland
another Torsö.
Gothic alhs,
Swedish -al
“shrine”, appears in two Finnish
place-names, one of which is Tenala
(Västra Nyland) and the other Viiala,
which has borne the name since 1410 at least.

Old
Swedish vi,
væ
“heathen shrine, sanctuary” is also
quite a common element in Finland.
In Österbotten (Malax) there is a Viborg
(cf. the Danish site) and a Vias.
Furthermore, Viiainen
was known in 1541 as Wiasby.

The
Finnish parish-name Jomala
(Åland) looks suspiciously like the old Finnish word meaning “god” jumala,
but it is not clear that the Finnish word and the name of the parish
are
related. This possibility remains heavily disputed and is complicated
by
several similar sounding Swedish-derived Finnish place-names in the
area.

Travelling
eastwards into the Baltic
Sea from the most southwesterly part of Finland
(HangöCape)
there is a group of islands
bearing names reflecting heathen viking activity. An old Danish
itinerary from
the 1100s informs us that ships passed along these islands on the route
to
Reval (Estonia),
Aldeigju
(once Staraja Ladoga by LakeLadoga) and
Novgorod (Russia).
This
must have been the case before Christianity was introduced into Finland,
otherwise the names would never have been formulated. The people on the
islands
and neighbouring shoreline must have been heathens. Thus we have: Odensö
“Odin's island”, Torsö
“Thor's island” and Gullö
“Gull's island” (Gull is another
name
for Freyr).
In addition to these, some island
names bear testimony to those who lived there or visited: Russarö
“island of the Rus”, Danskog
“place of the Danes”, Jussarö
“Jutes' island” (dubious etymology) and Skedö
“Skeid island” (ON skeið
was a type of viking ship and thus
this place served as a harbour). On the Finnish mainland other
Scandinavian
derived place-names suggest a former heathen culture: Trollshöfda
“The Troll's Head” (i.e. a high cliff where trolls lived) and several
places
ending in -bollstad
“heathen shrine”, e.g. Mjölbollstad
and Träbollstad.

In
Estonia,
in the north-west part of that country there is apparently a Odensholm
“small island
of Odin”,
which clearly refers to the chief of the heathen gods and is a
testament to the
age and continuity of early medieval Swedish settlements along the
coast of Estonia.
In
native Estonian the island is called Osmusaar.

*Credits:
Many thanks to Svavar
Sigmundsson of the Örnefnastofnun
Íslands (The Place-name Institute
of Iceland)
for his expert and helpful
comments on the Iceland
section.
Thanks too to Guðmundur Skarphéðinsson and Guðjón
Torfi Sigurðsson
for their answering of my occasional enquiries about Icelandic names.