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PNG Development Group G. Randers-Pehrson, et. al.PNG 1.2 July 1999 PNG (Portable Network Graphics) Speciﬁcation, Version 1.2For list of authors, see Credits (Chapter 19).Status of this DocumentThis is a revision of the PNG 1.0 speciﬁcation, which has been published as RFC-2083 and as a W3C Rec-ommendation. The revision has been released by the PNG Development Group but has not been approvedby any standards body.The PNG speciﬁcation is on a standards track under the purview of ISO/IEC JTC 1 SC 24 and is expectedto be released eventually as ISO/IEC International Standard 15948. It is the intent of the standards bodies tomaintain backward compatibility with this speciﬁcation. Implementors should periodically check the PNGonline resources (see Online Resources, Chapter 16) for the current status of PNG documentation.AbstractThis document describes PNG (Portable Network Graphics), an extensible ﬁle format for the lossless,portable, well-compressed storage of raster images. PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF andcan also replace many common uses of TIFF. Indexed-color, grayscale, and truecolor images are supported,plus an optional alpha channel. Sample depths range from 1 to 16 bits.PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications, such as the World Wide Web, so it is fullystreamable with a progressive display option. PNG is robust, providing both full ﬁle integrity checking andsimple detection of common transmission errors. Also, PNG can store gamma and chromaticity data forimproved color matching on heterogeneous platforms.This speciﬁcation deﬁnes the Internet Media Type “image/png”.

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6 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION1 IntroductionThe Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format provides a portable, legally unencumbered, well-compressed,well-speciﬁed standard for lossless bitmapped image ﬁles.Although the initial motivation for developing PNG was to replace GIF (CompuServe’s Graphics InterchangeFormat), the design provides some useful new features not available in GIF, with minimal cost to developers.GIF features retained in PNG include: • Indexed-color images of up to 256 colors. • Streamability: ﬁles can be read and written serially, thus allowing the ﬁle format to be used as a com- munications protocol for on-the-ﬂy generation and display of images. • Progressive display: a suitably prepared image ﬁle can be displayed as it is received over a communi- cations link, yielding a low-resolution image very quickly followed by gradual improvement of detail. • Transparency: portions of the image can be marked as transparent, creating the effect of a non- rectangular image. • Ancillary information: textual comments and other data can be stored within the image ﬁle. • Complete hardware and platform independence. • Effective, 100% lossless compression.Important new features of PNG, not available in GIF, include: • Truecolor images of up to 48 bits per pixel. • Grayscale images of up to 16 bits per pixel. • Full alpha channel (general transparency masks). • Image gamma information, which supports automatic display of images with correct brightness/ contrast regardless of the machines used to originate and display the image. • Reliable, straightforward detection of ﬁle corruption. • Faster initial presentation in progressive display mode.PNG is designed to be: • Simple and portable: developers should be able to implement PNG easily. • Legally unencumbered: to the best knowledge of the PNG authors, no algorithms under legal challenge are used. (Some considerable effort has been spent to verify this.) • Well compressed: both indexed-color and truecolor images are compressed as effectively as in any other widely used lossless format, and in most cases more effectively.

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2. DATA REPRESENTATION 7 • Interchangeable: any standard-conforming PNG decoder must read all conforming PNG ﬁles. • Flexible: the format allows for future extensions and private add-ons, without compromising inter- changeability of basic PNG. • Robust: the design supports full ﬁle integrity checking as well as simple, quick detection of common transmission errors.The main part of this speciﬁcation gives the deﬁnition of the ﬁle format and recommendations for encoderand decoder behavior. An appendix gives the rationale for many design decisions. Although the rationale isnot part of the formal speciﬁcation, reading it can help implementors understand the design. Cross-referencesin the main text point to relevant parts of the rationale. Additional appendixes, also not part of the formalspeciﬁcation, provide tutorials on gamma and color theory as well as other supporting material.The words “must”, “required”, “should”, “recommended”, “may”, and “optional” in this document are tobe interpreted as described in [RFC-2119], which is consistent with their plain English meanings. The word“can” carries the same force as “may”.See Rationale: Why a new ﬁle format? (Section 12.1), Why these features? (Section 12.2), Why not thesefeatures? (Section 12.3), Why not use format X? (Section 12.4).PronunciationPNG is pronounced “ping”.2 Data RepresentationThis chapter discusses basic data representations used in PNG ﬁles, as well as the expected representation ofthe image data.2.1 Integers and byte orderAll integers that require more than one byte must be in network byte order: the most signiﬁcant byte comesﬁrst, then the less signiﬁcant bytes in descending order of signiﬁcance (MSB LSB for two-byte integers, B3B2 B1 B0 for four-byte integers). The highest bit (value 128) of a byte is numbered bit 7; the lowest bit(value 1) is numbered bit 0. Values are unsigned unless otherwise noted. Values explicitly noted as signedare represented in two’s complement notation.Unless otherwise stated, four-byte unsigned integers are limited to the range 0 to 231 − 1 to accommodatelanguages that have difﬁculty with unsigned four-byte values. Similarly, four-byte signed integers are limitedto the range −(231 − 1) to 231 − 1 to accommodate languages that have difﬁculty with the value −231 .See Rationale: Byte order (Section 12.5).

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8 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION2.2 Color valuesColors can be represented by either grayscale or RGB (red, green, blue) sample data. Grayscale data repre-sents luminance; RGB data represents calibrated color information (if the cHRM chunk is present) or uncal-ibrated device-dependent color (if cHRM is absent). All color values range from zero (representing black)to most intense at the maximum value for the sample depth. Note that the maximum value at a given sampledepth is 2sampledepth − 1, not 2sampledepth.Sample values are not necessarily proportional to light intensity; the gAMA chunk speciﬁes the relation-ship between sample values and display output intensity, and viewers are strongly encouraged to compensateproperly. See Gamma correction (Section 2.7).Source data with a precision not directly supported in PNG (for example, 5 bit/sample truecolor) must bescaled up to the next higher supported bit depth. This scaling is reversible with no loss of data, and it reducesthe number of cases that decoders have to cope with. See Recommendations for Encoders: Sample depthscaling (Section 9.1) and Recommendations for Decoders: Sample depth rescaling (Section 10.4).2.3 Image layoutConceptually, a PNG image is a rectangular pixel array, with pixels appearing left-to-right within each scan-line, and scanlines appearing top-to-bottom. (For progressive display purposes, the data may actually betransmitted in a different order; see Interlaced data order, Section 2.6.) The size of each pixel is determinedby the bit depth, which is the number of bits per sample in the image data.Three types of pixel are supported: • An indexed-color pixel is represented by a single sample that is an index into a supplied palette. The image bit depth determines the maximum number of palette entries, but not the color precision within the palette. • A grayscale pixel is represented by a single sample that is a grayscale level, where zero is black and the largest value for the bit depth is white. • A truecolor pixel is represented by three samples: red (zero = black, max = red) appears ﬁrst, then green (zero = black, max = green), then blue (zero = black, max = blue). The bit depth speciﬁes the size of each sample, not the total pixel size.Optionally, grayscale and truecolor pixels can also include an alpha sample, as described in the next section.Pixels are always packed into scanlines with no wasted bits between pixels. Pixels smaller than a byte nevercross byte boundaries; they are packed into bytes with the leftmost pixel in the high-order bits of a byte, therightmost in the low-order bits. Permitted bit depths and pixel types are restricted so that in all cases thepacking is simple and efﬁcient.PNG permits multi-sample pixels only with 8- and 16-bit samples, so multiple samples of a single pixel arenever packed into one byte. All 16-bit samples are stored in network byte order (MSB ﬁrst).

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2. DATA REPRESENTATION 9Scanlines always begin on byte boundaries. When pixels have fewer than 8 bits and the scanline width isnot evenly divisible by the number of pixels per byte, the low-order bits in the last byte of each scanline arewasted. The contents of these wasted bits are unspeciﬁed.An additional “ﬁlter-type” byte is added to the beginning of every scanline (see Filtering, Section 2.5). Theﬁlter-type byte is not considered part of the image data, but it is included in the datastream sent to the com-pression step.2.4 Alpha channelAn alpha channel, representing transparency information on a per-pixel basis, can be included in grayscaleand truecolor PNG images.An alpha value of zero represents full transparency, and a value of 2bitdepth − 1 represents a fully opaquepixel. Intermediate values indicate partially transparent pixels that can be combined with a background imageto yield a composite image. (Thus, alpha is really the degree of opacity of the pixel. But most people referto alpha as providing transparency information, not opacity information, and we continue that custom here.)Alpha channels can be included with images that have either 8 or 16 bits per sample, but not with images thathave fewer than 8 bits per sample. Alpha samples are represented with the same bit depth used for the imagesamples. The alpha sample for each pixel is stored immediately following the grayscale or RGB samples ofthe pixel.The color values stored for a pixel are not affected by the alpha value assigned to the pixel. This rule is some-times called “unassociated” or “non-premultiplied” alpha. (Another common technique is to store samplevalues premultiplied by the alpha fraction; in effect, such an image is already composited against a blackbackground. PNG does not use premultiplied alpha.)Transparency control is also possible without the storage cost of a full alpha channel. In an indexed-colorimage, an alpha value can be deﬁned for each palette entry. In grayscale and truecolor images, a single pixelvalue can be identiﬁed as being “transparent”. These techniques are controlled by the tRNS ancillary chunktype.If no alpha channel nor tRNS chunk is present, all pixels in the image are to be treated as fully opaque.Viewers can support transparency control partially, or not at all.See Rationale: Non-premultiplied alpha (Section 12.8), Recommendations for Encoders: Alpha channel cre-ation (Section 9.4), and Recommendations for Decoders: Alpha channel processing (Section 10.8).2.5 FilteringPNG allows the image data to be ﬁltered before it is compressed. Filtering can improve the compressibilityof the data. The ﬁlter step itself does not reduce the size of the data. All PNG ﬁlters are strictly lossless.

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10 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONPNG deﬁnes several different ﬁlter algorithms, including “None” which indicates no ﬁltering. The ﬁlter al-gorithm is speciﬁed for each scanline by a ﬁlter-type byte that precedes the ﬁltered scanline in the precom-pression datastream. An intelligent encoder can switch ﬁlters from one scanline to the next. The method forchoosing which ﬁlter to employ is up to the encoder.See Filter Algorithms (Chapter 6) and Rationale: Filtering (Section 12.9).2.6 Interlaced data orderA PNG image can be stored in interlaced order to allow progressive display. The purpose of this feature is toallow images to “fade in” when they are being displayed on-the-ﬂy. Interlacing slightly expands the ﬁle sizeon average, but it gives the user a meaningful display much more rapidly. Note that decoders are required tobe able to read interlaced images, whether or not they actually perform progressive display.With interlace method 0, pixels are stored sequentially from left to right, and scanlines sequentially from topto bottom (no interlacing).Interlace method 1, known as Adam7 after its author, Adam M. Costello, consists of seven distinct passesover the image. Each pass transmits a subset of the pixels in the image. The pass in which each pixel istransmitted is deﬁned by replicating the following 8-by-8 pattern over the entire image, starting at the upperleft corner: 1 6 4 6 2 6 4 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 6 4 6 3 6 4 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7Within each pass, the selected pixels are transmitted left to right within a scanline, and selected scanlinessequentially from top to bottom. For example, pass 2 contains pixels 4, 12, 20, etc. of scanlines 0, 8, 16, etc.(numbering from 0,0 at the upper left corner). The last pass contains the entirety of scanlines 1, 3, 5, etc.The data within each pass is laid out as though it were a complete image of the appropriate dimensions.For example, if the complete image is 16 by 16 pixels, then pass 3 will contain two scanlines, each containingfour pixels. When pixels have fewer than 8 bits, each such scanline is padded as needed to ﬁll an integralnumber of bytes (see Image layout, Section 2.3). Filtering is done on this reduced image in the usual way,and a ﬁlter-type byte is transmitted before each of its scanlines (see Filter Algorithms, Chapter 6). Notice thatthe transmission order is deﬁned so that all the scanlines transmitted in a pass will have the same number ofpixels; this is necessary for proper application of some of the ﬁlters.Caution: If the image contains fewer than ﬁve columns or fewer than ﬁve rows, some passes will be entirelyempty. Encoders and decoders must handle this case correctly. In particular, ﬁlter-type bytes are associatedonly with nonempty scanlines; no ﬁlter-type bytes are present in an empty pass.

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2. DATA REPRESENTATION 11See Rationale: Interlacing (Section 12.6) and Recommendations for Decoders: Progressive display (Section10.9).2.7 Gamma correctionPNG images can specify, via the gAMA chunk, the power function relating the desired display output withthe image samples. Display programs are strongly encouraged to use this information, plus information aboutthe display system they are using, to present the image to the viewer in a way that reproduces what the image’soriginal author saw as closely as possible. See Gamma Tutorial (Chapter 13) if you aren’t already familiarwith gamma issues.Gamma correction is not applied to the alpha channel, if any. Alpha samples always represent a linear fractionof full opacity.For high-precision applications, the exact chromaticity of the RGB data in a PNG image can be speciﬁed viathe cHRM chunk, allowing more accurate color matching than gamma correction alone will provide. If theRGB data conforms to the sRGB speciﬁcation [sRGB], this can be indicated with the sRGB chunk, enablingeven more accurate reproduction. Alternatively, the iCCP chunk can be used to embed an ICC proﬁle [ICC]containing detailed color space information. See Color Tutorial (Chapter 14) if you aren’t already familiarwith color representation issues.See Rationale: Why gamma? (Section 12.7), Recommendations for Encoders: Encoder gamma handling(Section 9.2), and Recommendations for Decoders: Decoder gamma handling (Section 10.5).2.8 Text stringsA PNG ﬁle can store text associated with the image, such as an image description or copyright notice. Key-words are used to indicate what each text string represents.ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1) is the character set recommended for use in the text strings appearing in tEXt andzTXt chunks [ISO/IEC-8859-1]. It is a superset of 7-bit ASCII. If it is necessary to convey characters outsideof the Latin-1 set, the iTXt chunk should be used instead.Character codes not deﬁned in Latin-1 should not be used in tEXt and zTXt chunks, because they have noplatform-independent meaning. If a non-Latin-1 code does appear in a PNG text string, its interpretationwill vary across platforms and decoders. Some systems might not even be able to display all the charactersin Latin-1, but most modern systems can.Provision is also made for the storage of compressed text.See Rationale: Text strings (Section 12.10).

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12 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION3 File StructureA PNG ﬁle consists of a PNG signature followed by a series of chunks. This chapter deﬁnes the signatureand the basic properties of chunks. Individual chunk types are discussed in the next chapter.3.1 PNG ﬁle signatureThe ﬁrst eight bytes of a PNG ﬁle always contain the following (decimal) values: 137 80 78 71 13 10 26 10This signature indicates that the remainder of the ﬁle contains a single PNG image, consisting of a series ofchunks beginning with an IHDR chunk and ending with an IEND chunk.See Rationale: PNG ﬁle signature (Section 12.12).3.2 Chunk layoutEach chunk consists of four parts:Length A 4-byte unsigned integer giving the number of bytes in the chunk’s data ﬁeld. The length counts only the data ﬁeld, not itself, the chunk type code, or the CRC. Zero is a valid length. Although encoders and decoders should treat the length as unsigned, its value must not exceed 231 − 1 bytes.Chunk Type A 4-byte chunk type code. For convenience in description and in examining PNG ﬁles, type codes are restricted to consist of uppercase and lowercase ASCII letters (A–Z and a–z, or 65–90 and 97–122 decimal). However, encoders and decoders must treat the codes as ﬁxed binary values, not character strings. For example, it would not be correct to represent the type code IDAT by the EBCDIC equivalents of those letters. Additional naming conventions for chunk types are discussed in the next section.Chunk Data The data bytes appropriate to the chunk type, if any. This ﬁeld can be of zero length.CRC A 4-byte CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) calculated on the preceding bytes in the chunk, in- cluding the chunk type code and chunk data ﬁelds, but not including the length ﬁeld. The CRC is always present, even for chunks containing no data. See CRC algorithm (Section 3.4).The chunk data length can be any number of bytes up to the maximum; therefore, implementors cannot as-sume that chunks are aligned on any boundaries larger than bytes.

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3. FILE STRUCTURE 13Chunks can appear in any order, subject to the restrictions placed on each chunk type. (One notable restrictionis that IHDR must appear ﬁrst and IEND must appear last; thus the IEND chunk serves as an end-of-ﬁlemarker.) Multiple chunks of the same type can appear, but only if speciﬁcally permitted for that type.See Rationale: Chunk layout (Section 12.13).3.3 Chunk naming conventionsChunk type codes are assigned so that a decoder can determine some properties of a chunk even when it doesnot recognize the type code. These rules are intended to allow safe, ﬂexible extension of the PNG format,by allowing a decoder to decide what to do when it encounters an unknown chunk. The naming rules are notnormally of interest when the decoder does recognize the chunk’s type.Four bits of the type code, namely bit 5 (value 32) of each byte, are used to convey chunk properties. Thischoice means that a human can read off the assigned properties according to whether each letter of the typecode is uppercase (bit 5 is 0) or lowercase (bit 5 is 1). However, decoders should test the properties of an un-known chunk by numerically testing the speciﬁed bits; testing whether a character is uppercase or lowercaseis inefﬁcient, and even incorrect if a locale-speciﬁc case deﬁnition is used.It is worth noting that the property bits are an inherent part of the chunk name, and hence are ﬁxed for anychunk type. Thus, BLOB and bLOb would be unrelated chunk type codes, not the same chunk with differentproperties. Decoders must recognize type codes by a simple four-byte literal comparison; it is incorrect toperform case conversion on type codes.The semantics of the property bits are:Ancillary bit: bit 5 of ﬁrst byte 0 (uppercase) = critical, 1 (lowercase) = ancillary. Chunks that are not strictly necessary in order to meaningfully display the contents of the ﬁle are known as “ancillary” chunks. A decoder encountering an unknown chunk in which the ancillary bit is 1 can safely ignore the chunk and proceed to display the image. The time chunk (tIME) is an example of an ancillary chunk. Chunks that are necessary for successful display of the ﬁle’s contents are called “critical” chunks. A decoder encountering an unknown chunk in which the ancillary bit is 0 must indicate to the user that the image contains information it cannot safely interpret. The image header chunk (IHDR) is an example of a critical chunk.Private bit: bit 5 of second byte 0 (uppercase) = public, 1 (lowercase) = private. A public chunk is one that is part of the PNG speciﬁcation or is registered in the list of PNG special- purpose public chunk types. Applications can also deﬁne private (unregistered) chunks for their own purposes. The names of private chunks must have a lowercase second letter, while public chunks will always be assigned names with uppercase second letters. Note that decoders do not need to test the

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14 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION private-chunk property bit, since it has no functional signiﬁcance; it is simply an administrative con- venience to ensure that public and private chunk names will not conﬂict. See Additional chunk types (Section 4.4), and Recommendations for Encoders: Use of private chunks (Section 9.8).Reserved bit: bit 5 of third byte Must be 0 (uppercase) in ﬁles conforming to this version of PNG. The signiﬁcance of the case of the third letter of the chunk name is reserved for possible future ex- pansion. At the present time all chunk names must have uppercase third letters. (Decoders should not complain about a lowercase third letter, however, as some future version of the PNG speciﬁcation could deﬁne a meaning for this bit. It is sufﬁcient to treat a chunk with a lowercase third letter in the same way as any other unknown chunk type.)Safe-to-copy bit: bit 5 of fourth byte 0 (uppercase) = unsafe to copy, 1 (lowercase) = safe to copy. This property bit is not of interest to pure decoders, but it is needed by PNG editors (programs that modify PNG ﬁles). This bit deﬁnes the proper handling of unrecognized chunks in a ﬁle that is being modiﬁed. If a chunk’s safe-to-copy bit is 1, the chunk may be copied to a modiﬁed PNG ﬁle whether or not the software recognizes the chunk type, and regardless of the extent of the ﬁle modiﬁcations. If a chunk’s safe-to-copy bit is 0, it indicates that the chunk depends on the image data. If the pro- gram has made any changes to critical chunks, including addition, modiﬁcation, deletion, or reorder- ing of critical chunks, then unrecognized unsafe chunks must not be copied to the output PNG ﬁle. (Of course, if the program does recognize the chunk, it can choose to output an appropriately modiﬁed version.) A PNG editor is always allowed to copy all unrecognized chunks if it has only added, deleted, modiﬁed, or reordered ancillary chunks. This implies that it is not permissible for ancillary chunks to depend on other ancillary chunks. PNG editors that do not recognize a critical chunk must report an error and refuse to process that PNG ﬁle at all. The safe/unsafe mechanism is intended for use with ancillary chunks. The safe-to-copy bit will always be 0 for critical chunks. Rules for PNG editors are discussed further in Chunk Ordering Rules (Chapter 7).For example, the hypothetical chunk type name bLOb has the property bits: bLOb <-- 32 bit chunk type code represented in text form |||| |||+- Safe-to-copy bit is 1 (lowercase letter; bit 5 is 1) ||+-- Reserved bit is 0 (uppercase letter; bit 5 is 0) |+--- Private bit is 0 (uppercase letter; bit 5 is 0) +---- Ancillary bit is 1 (lowercase letter; bit 5 is 1)Therefore, this name represents an ancillary, public, safe-to-copy chunk.See Rationale: Chunk naming conventions (Section 12.14).

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 153.4 CRC algorithmChunk CRCs are calculated using standard CRC methods with pre and post conditioning, as deﬁned by ISO3309 [ISO-3309] or ITU-T V.42 [ITU-T-V42]. The CRC polynomial employed is x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1The 32-bit CRC register is initialized to all 1’s, and then the data from each byte is processed from the leastsigniﬁcant bit (1) to the most signiﬁcant bit (128). After all the data bytes are processed, the CRC registeris inverted (its ones complement is taken). This value is transmitted (stored in the ﬁle) MSB ﬁrst. For thepurpose of separating into bytes and ordering, the least signiﬁcant bit of the 32-bit CRC is deﬁned to be thecoefﬁcient of the x31 term.Practical calculation of the CRC always employs a precalculated table to greatly accelerate the computation.See Sample CRC Code (Chapter 15).4 Chunk SpeciﬁcationsThis chapter deﬁnes the standard types of PNG chunks.4.1 Critical chunksAll implementations must understand and successfully render the standard critical chunks. A valid PNGimage must contain an IHDR chunk, one or more IDAT chunks, and an IEND chunk.4.1.1 IHDR Image headerThe IHDR chunk must appear FIRST. It contains: Width: 4 bytes Height: 4 bytes Bit depth: 1 byte Color type: 1 byte Compression method: 1 byte Filter method: 1 byte Interlace method: 1 byteWidth and height give the image dimensions in pixels. They are 4-byte integers. Zero is an invalid value. Themaximum for each is 231 − 1 in order to accommodate languages that have difﬁculty with unsigned 4-bytevalues.Bit depth is a single-byte integer giving the number of bits per sample or per palette index (not per pixel).Valid values are 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16, although not all values are allowed for all color types.

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16 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONColor type is a single-byte integer that describes the interpretation of the image data. Color type codes repre-sent sums of the following values: 1 (palette used), 2 (color used), and 4 (alpha channel used). Valid valuesare 0, 2, 3, 4, and 6.Bit depth restrictions for each color type are imposed to simplify implementations and to prohibit combina-tions that do not compress well. Decoders must support all valid combinations of bit depth and color type.The allowed combinations are: Color Allowed Interpretation Type Bit Depths 0 1,2,4,8,16 Each pixel is a grayscale sample. 2 8,16 Each pixel is an R,G,B triple. 3 1,2,4,8 Each pixel is a palette index; a PLTE chunk must appear. 4 8,16 Each pixel is a grayscale sample, followed by an alpha sample. 6 8,16 Each pixel is an R,G,B triple, followed by an alpha sample.The sample depth is the same as the bit depth except in the case of color type 3, in which the sample depthis always 8 bits.Compression method is a single-byte integer that indicates the method used to compress the image data. Atpresent, only compression method 0 (deﬂate/inﬂate compression with a sliding window of at most 32768bytes) is deﬁned. All standard PNG images must be compressed with this scheme. The compression methodﬁeld is provided for possible future expansion or proprietary variants. Decoders must check this byte andreport an error if it holds an unrecognized code. See Deﬂate/Inﬂate Compression (Chapter 5) for details.Filter method is a single-byte integer that indicates the preprocessing method applied to the image data be-fore compression. At present, only ﬁlter method 0 (adaptive ﬁltering with ﬁve basic ﬁlter types) is deﬁned.As with the compression method ﬁeld, decoders must check this byte and report an error if it holds an unrec-ognized code. See Filter Algorithms (Chapter 6) for details.Interlace method is a single-byte integer that indicates the transmission order of the image data. Two valuesare currently deﬁned: 0 (no interlace) or 1 (Adam7 interlace). See Interlaced data order (Section 2.6) fordetails.4.1.2 PLTE PaletteThe PLTE chunk contains from 1 to 256 palette entries, each a three-byte series of the form:

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 17 Red: 1 byte (0 = black, 255 = red) Green: 1 byte (0 = black, 255 = green) Blue: 1 byte (0 = black, 255 = blue)The number of entries is determined from the chunk length. A chunk length not divisible by 3 is an error.This chunk must appear for color type 3, and can appear for color types 2 and 6; it must not appear for colortypes 0 and 4. If this chunk does appear, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk. There must not be more thanone PLTE chunk.For color type 3 (indexed color), the PLTE chunk is required. The ﬁrst entry in PLTE is referenced by pixelvalue 0, the second by pixel value 1, etc. The number of palette entries must not exceed the range that canbe represented in the image bit depth (for example, 24 = 16 for a bit depth of 4). It is permissible to havefewer entries than the bit depth would allow. In that case, any out-of-range pixel value found in the imagedata is an error.For color types 2 and 6 (truecolor and truecolor with alpha), the PLTE chunk is optional. If present, it providesa suggested set of from 1 to 256 colors to which the truecolor image can be quantized if the viewer cannotdisplay truecolor directly. If neither PLTE nor sPLT is present, such a viewer will need to select colors on itsown, but it is often preferable for this to be done once by the encoder. (See Recommendations for Encoders:Suggested palettes, Section 9.5.)Note that the palette uses 8 bits (1 byte) per sample regardless of the image bit depth speciﬁcation. In par-ticular, the palette is 8 bits deep even when it is a suggested quantization of a 16-bit truecolor image.There is no requirement that the palette entries all be used by the image, nor that they all be different.4.1.3 IDAT Image dataThe IDAT chunk contains the actual image data. To create this data: 1. Begin with image scanlines represented as described in Image layout (Section 2.3); the layout and total size of this raw data are determined by the ﬁelds of IHDR. 2. Filter the image data according to the ﬁltering method speciﬁed by the IHDR chunk. (Note that with ﬁlter method 0, the only one currently deﬁned, this implies prepending a ﬁlter-type byte to each scan- line.) 3. Compress the ﬁltered data using the compression method speciﬁed by the IHDR chunk.The IDAT chunk contains the output datastream of the compression algorithm.To read the image data, reverse this process.There can be multiple IDAT chunks; if so, they must appear consecutively with no other intervening chunks.The compressed datastream is then the concatenation of the contents of all the IDAT chunks. The encoder candivide the compressed datastream into IDAT chunks however it wishes. (Multiple IDAT chunks are allowed

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18 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONso that encoders can work in a ﬁxed amount of memory; typically the chunk size will correspond to the en-coder’s buffer size.) It is important to emphasize that IDAT chunk boundaries have no semantic signiﬁcanceand can occur at any point in the compressed datastream. A PNG ﬁle in which each IDAT chunk containsonly one data byte is valid, though remarkably wasteful of space. (For that matter, zero-length IDAT chunksare valid, though even more wasteful.)See Filter Algorithms (Chapter 6) and Deﬂate/Inﬂate Compression (Chapter 5) for details.4.1.4 IEND Image trailerThe IEND chunk must appear LAST. It marks the end of the PNG datastream. The chunk’s data ﬁeld isempty.4.2 Ancillary chunksAll ancillary chunks are optional, in the sense that encoders need not write them and decoders can ignorethem. However, encoders are encouraged to write the standard ancillary chunks when the information isavailable, and decoders are encouraged to interpret these chunks when appropriate and feasible.The standard ancillary chunks are described in the next four sections. This is not necessarily the order inwhich they would appear in a PNG datastream.4.2.1 Transparency informationThis chunk conveys transparency information in datastreams that do not include a full alpha channel.4.2.1.1 tRNS TransparencyThe tRNS chunk speciﬁes that the image uses simple transparency: either alpha values associated with paletteentries (for indexed-color images) or a single transparent color (for grayscale and truecolor images). Al-though simple transparency is not as elegant as the full alpha channel, it requires less storage space and issufﬁcient for many common cases.For color type 3 (indexed color), the tRNS chunk contains a series of one-byte alpha values, correspondingto entries in the PLTE chunk: Alpha for palette index 0: 1 byte Alpha for palette index 1: 1 byte ...etc...

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 19Each entry indicates that pixels of the corresponding palette index must be treated as having the speciﬁedalpha value. Alpha values have the same interpretation as in an 8-bit full alpha channel: 0 is fully transparent,255 is fully opaque, regardless of image bit depth. The tRNS chunk must not contain more alpha values thanthere are palette entries, but tRNS can contain fewer values than there are palette entries. In this case, thealpha value for all remaining palette entries is assumed to be 255. In the common case in which only paletteindex 0 need be made transparent, only a one-byte tRNS chunk is needed.For color type 0 (grayscale), the tRNS chunk contains a single gray level value, stored in the format: Gray: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1(If the image bit depth is less than 16, the least signiﬁcant bits are used and the others are 0.) Pixels of thespeciﬁed gray level are to be treated as transparent (equivalent to alpha value 0); all other pixels are to betreated as fully opaque (alpha value 2bitdepth − 1).For color type 2 (truecolor), the tRNS chunk contains a single RGB color value, stored in the format: Red: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1 Green: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1 Blue: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1(If the image bit depth is less than 16, the least signiﬁcant bits are used and the others are 0.) Pixels of thespeciﬁed color value are to be treated as transparent (equivalent to alpha value 0); all other pixels are to betreated as fully opaque (alpha value 2bitdepth − 1).tRNS is prohibited for color types 4 and 6, since a full alpha channel is already present in those cases.Note: when dealing with 16-bit grayscale or truecolor data, it is important to compare both bytes of the samplevalues to determine whether a pixel is transparent. Although decoders may drop the low-order byte of thesamples for display, this must not occur until after the data has been tested for transparency. For example, ifthe grayscale level 0x0001 is speciﬁed to be transparent, it would be incorrect to compare only the high-orderbyte and decide that 0x0002 is also transparent.When present, the tRNS chunk must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and must follow the PLTE chunk, if any.4.2.2 Color space informationThese chunks relate the image samples to the desired display intensity.4.2.2.1 gAMA Image gammaThe gAMA chunk speciﬁes the relationship between the image samples and the desired display output in-tensity as a power function: sample = light outgamma

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20 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONHere sample and light out are normalized to the range 0.0 (minimum intensity) to 1.0 (maximum in-tensity). Therefore: sample = integer sample/(2bitdepth − 1)The gAMA chunk contains: Gamma: 4 bytesThe value is encoded as a 4-byte unsigned integer, representing gamma times 100000. For example, a gammaof 1/2.2 would be stored as 45455.The gamma value has no effect on alpha samples, which are always a linear fraction of full opacity.If the encoder does not know the image’s gamma value, it should not write a gAMA chunk; the absence of agAMA chunk indicates that the gamma is unknown.Technically, “desired display output intensity” is not speciﬁc enough; one needs to specify the viewing con-ditions under which the output is desired. For gAMA these are the reference viewing conditions of the sRGBspeciﬁcation [sRGB], which are based on ISO standards [ISO-3664]. Adjusting for different viewing con-ditions is a complex process normally handled by a Color Management System (CMS). If this adjustmentis not performed, the error is usually small. Applications desiring high color ﬁdelity may wish to use ansRGB chunk (see the sRGB chunk speciﬁcation, Paragraph 4.2.2.3) or an iCCP chunk (see the iCCP chunkspeciﬁcation, Paragraph 4.2.2.4).If the gAMA chunk appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and it must also precede the PLTE chunkif present. An sRGB chunk or iCCP chunk, when present and recognized, overrides the gAMA chunk.See Gamma correction (Section 2.7), Recommendations for Encoders: Encoder gamma handling (Section9.2), and Recommendations for Decoders: Decoder gamma handling (Section 10.5).4.2.2.2 cHRM Primary chromaticitiesApplications that need device-independent speciﬁcation of colors in a PNG ﬁle can use the cHRM chunk tospecify the 1931 CIE x,y chromaticities of the red, green, and blue primaries used in the image, and thereferenced white point. See Color Tutorial (Chapter 14) for more information.The cHRM chunk contains: White Point x: 4 bytes White Point y: 4 bytes Red x: 4 bytes Red y: 4 bytes Green x: 4 bytes Green y: 4 bytes Blue x: 4 bytes Blue y: 4 bytes

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 21Each value is encoded as a 4-byte unsigned integer, representing the x or y value times 100000. For example,a value of 0.3127 would be stored as the integer 31270.cHRM is allowed in all PNG ﬁles, although it is of little value for grayscale images.If the encoder does not know the chromaticity values, it should not write a cHRM chunk; the absence of acHRM chunk indicates that the image’s primary colors are device-dependent.If the cHRM chunk appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and it must also precede the PLTE chunkif present.An sRGB chunk or iCCP chunk, when present and recognized, overrides the cHRM chunk.See the sRGB chunk speciﬁcation (Paragraph 4.2.2.3), the iCCP chunk speciﬁcation (Paragraph 4.2.2.4),Recommendations for Encoders: Encoder color handling (Section 9.3), and Recommendations for Decoders:Decoder color handling (Section 10.6).4.2.2.3 sRGB Standard RGB color spaceIf the sRGB chunk is present, the image samples conform to the sRGB color space [sRGB], and should bedisplayed using the speciﬁed rendering intent as deﬁned by the International Color Consortium [ICC].The sRGB chunk contains: Rendering intent: 1 byteThe following values are deﬁned for the rendering intent: 0: Perceptual 1: Relative colorimetric 2: Saturation 3: Absolute colorimetricPerceptual intent is for images preferring good adaptation to the output device gamut at the expense of col-orimetric accuracy, like photographs.Relative colorimetric intent is for images requiring color appearance matching (relative to the output devicewhite point), like logos.Saturation intent is for images preferring preservation of saturation at the expense of hue and lightness, likecharts and graphs.Absolute colorimetric intent is for images requiring preservation of absolute colorimetry, like proofs (pre-views of images destined for a different output device).An application that writes the sRGB chunk should also write a gAMA chunk (and perhaps a cHRM chunk)for compatibility with applications that do not use the sRGB chunk. In this situation, only the followingvalues may be used:

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22 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION gAMA: Gamma: 45455 cHRM: White Point x: 31270 White Point y: 32900 Red x: 64000 Red y: 33000 Green x: 30000 Green y: 60000 Blue x: 15000 Blue y: 6000When the sRGB chunk is present, applications that recognize it and are capable of color management [ICC]must ignore the gAMA and cHRM chunks and use the sRGB chunk instead.Applications that recognize the sRGB chunk but are not capable of full-ﬂedged color management must alsoignore the gAMA and cHRM chunks, because the applications already know what values those chunks shouldcontain. The applications must therefore use the values of gAMA and cHRM given above as if they hadappeared in gAMA and cHRM chunks.If the sRGB chunk appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and it must also precede the PLTE chunkif present. The sRGB and iCCP chunks should not both appear.4.2.2.4 iCCP Embedded ICC proﬁleIf the iCCP chunk is present, the image samples conform to the color space represented by the embeddedICC proﬁle as deﬁned by the International Color Consortium [ICC]. The color space of the ICC proﬁle mustbe an RGB color space for color images (PNG color types 2, 3, and 6), or a monochrome grayscale colorspace for grayscale images (PNG color types 0 and 4).The iCCP chunk contains: Profile name: 1-79 bytes (character string) Null separator: 1 byte Compression method: 1 byte Compressed profile: n bytesThe format is like the zTXt chunk. (see the zTXt chunk speciﬁcation, Paragraph 4.2.3.2). The proﬁle namecan be any convenient name for referring to the proﬁle. It is case-sensitive and subject to the same restrictionsas the keyword in a text chunk: it must contain only printable Latin-1 [ISO/IEC-8859-1] characters (33–126 and 161–255) and spaces (32), but no leading, trailing, or consecutive spaces. The only value presentlydeﬁned for the compression method byte is 0, meaning zlib datastream with deﬂate compression (see Deﬂate/Inﬂate Compression, Chapter 5). Decompression of the remainder of the chunk yields the ICC proﬁle.

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 23An application that writes the iCCP chunk should also write gAMA and cHRM chunks that approximate theICC proﬁle’s transfer function, for compatibility with applications that do not use the iCCP chunk.When the iCCP chunk is present, applications that recognize it and are capable of color management [ICC]should ignore the gAMA and cHRM chunks and use the iCCP chunk instead, but applications incapable offull-ﬂedged color management should use the gAMA and cHRM chunks if present.A ﬁle should contain at most one embedded proﬁle, whether explicit like iCCP or implicit like sRGB.If the iCCP chunk appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and it must also precede the PLTE chunkif present.4.2.3 Textual informationThe iTXt, tEXt, and zTXt chunks are used for conveying textual information associated with the image. Thisspeciﬁcation refers to them generically as “text chunks”.Each of the text chunks contains as its ﬁrst ﬁeld a keyword that indicates the type of information representedby the text string. The following keywords are predeﬁned and should be used where appropriate: Title Short (one line) title or caption for image Author Name of image’s creator Description Description of image (possibly long) Copyright Copyright notice Creation Time Time of original image creation Software Software used to create the image Disclaimer Legal disclaimer Warning Warning of nature of content Source Device used to create the image Comment Miscellaneous comment; conversion from GIF commentFor the Creation Time keyword, the date format deﬁned in section 5.2.14 of RFC 1123 is suggested, but notrequired [RFC-1123]. Decoders should allow for free-format text associated with this or any other keyword.Other keywords may be invented for other purposes. Keywords of general interest can be registered with themaintainers of the PNG speciﬁcation. However, it is also permitted to use private unregistered keywords.(Private keywords should be reasonably self-explanatory, in order to minimize the chance that the same key-word will be used for incompatible purposes by different people.)The keyword must be at least one character and less than 80 characters long. Keywords are always interpretedaccording to the ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1) character set [ISO/IEC-8859-1]. They must contain only printableLatin-1 characters and spaces; that is, only character codes 32–126 and 161–255 decimal are allowed. Toreduce the chances for human misreading of a keyword, leading and trailing spaces are forbidden, as areconsecutive spaces. Note also that the non-breaking space (code 160) is not permitted in keywords, since itis visually indistinguishable from an ordinary space.

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24 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONKeywords must be spelled exactly as registered, so that decoders can use simple literal comparisons whenlooking for particular keywords. In particular, keywords are considered case-sensitive.Any number of text chunks can appear, and more than one with the same keyword is permissible.See Recommendations for Encoders: Text chunk processing (Section 9.7) and Recommendations for De-coders: Text chunk processing (Section 10.11).4.2.3.1 tEXt Textual dataTextual information that the encoder wishes to record with the image can be stored in tEXt chunks. EachtEXt chunk contains a keyword (see above) and a text string, in the format: Keyword: 1-79 bytes (character string) Null separator: 1 byte Text: n bytes (character string)The keyword and text string are separated by a zero byte (null character). Neither the keyword nor the textstring can contain a null character. Note that the text string is not null-terminated (the length of the chunk issufﬁcient information to locate the ending). The text string can be of any length from zero bytes up to themaximum permissible chunk size less the length of the keyword and separator.The text is interpreted according to the ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1) character set [ISO/IEC-8859-1]. The textstring can contain any Latin-1 character. Newlines in the text string should be represented by a single linefeedcharacter (decimal 10); use of other control characters in the text is discouraged.4.2.3.2 zTXt Compressed textual dataThe zTXt chunk contains textual data, just as tEXt does; however, zTXt takes advantage of compression.The zTXt and tEXt chunks are semantically equivalent, but zTXt is recommended for storing large blocksof text.A zTXt chunk contains: Keyword: 1-79 bytes (character string) Null separator: 1 byte Compression method: 1 byte Compressed text: n bytesThe keyword and null separator are exactly the same as in the tEXt chunk. Note that the keyword is not com-pressed. The compression method byte identiﬁes the compression method used in this zTXt chunk. The onlyvalue presently deﬁned for it is 0 (deﬂate/inﬂate compression). The compression method byte is followed bya compressed datastream that makes up the remainder of the chunk. For compression method 0, this datas-tream adheres to the zlib datastream format (see Deﬂate/Inﬂate Compression, Chapter 5). Decompression

25.
4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 25of this datastream yields Latin-1 text that is identical to the text that would be stored in an equivalent tEXtchunk.4.2.3.3 iTXt International textual dataThis chunk is semantically equivalent to the tEXt and zTXt chunks, but the textual data is in the UTF-8 en-coding of the Unicode character set instead of Latin-1. This chunk contains: Keyword: 1-79 bytes (character string) Null separator: 1 byte Compression flag: 1 byte Compression method: 1 byte Language tag: 0 or more bytes (character string) Null separator: 1 byte Translated keyword: 0 or more bytes Null separator: 1 byte Text: 0 or more bytesThe keyword is described above.The compression ﬂag is 0 for uncompressed text, 1 for compressed text. Only the text ﬁeld may be com-pressed. The only value presently deﬁned for the compression method byte is 0, meaning zlib datastreamwith deﬂate compression. For uncompressed text, encoders should set the compression method to 0 and de-coders should ignore it.The language tag [RFC-1766] indicates the human language used by the translated keyword and the text. Un-like the keyword, the language tag is case-insensitive. It is an ASCII [ISO-646] string consisting of hyphen-separated words of 1–8 letters each (for example: cn, en-uk, no-bok, x-klingon). If the ﬁrst word is two letterslong, it is an ISO language code [ISO-639]. If the language tag is empty, the language is unspeciﬁed.The translated keyword and text both use the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode character set[ISO/IEC-10646-1], and neither may contain a zero byte (null character). The text, unlike the otherstrings, is not null-terminated; its length is implied by the chunk length.Line breaks should not appear in the translated keyword. In the text, a newline should be represented bya single line feed character (decimal 10). The remaining control characters (1–9, 11–31, and 127–159) arediscouraged in both the translated keyword and the text. Note that in UTF-8 there is a difference betweenthe characters 128–159 (which are discouraged) and the bytes 128–159 (which are often necessary).The translated keyword, if not empty, should contain a translation of the keyword into the language indi-cated by the language tag, and applications displaying the keyword should display the translated keyword inaddition.

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26 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION4.2.4 Miscellaneous informationThese chunks are used for conveying other information associated with the image.4.2.4.1 bKGD Background colorThe bKGD chunk speciﬁes a default background color to present the image against. Note that viewers arenot bound to honor this chunk; a viewer can choose to use a different background.For color type 3 (indexed color), the bKGD chunk contains: Palette index: 1 byteThe value is the palette index of the color to be used as background.For color types 0 and 4 (grayscale, with or without alpha), bKGD contains: Gray: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1(If the image bit depth is less than 16, the least signiﬁcant bits are used and the others are 0.) The value isthe gray level to be used as background.For color types 2 and 6 (truecolor, with or without alpha), bKGD contains: Red: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1 Green: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1 Blue: 2 bytes, range 0..2bitdepth − 1(If the image bit depth is less than 16, the least signiﬁcant bits are used and the others are 0.) This is the RGBcolor to be used as background.When present, the bKGD chunk must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and must follow the PLTE chunk, if any.See Recommendations for Decoders: Background color (Section 10.7).4.2.4.2 pHYs Physical pixel dimensionsThe pHYs chunk speciﬁes the intended pixel size or aspect ratio for display of the image. It contains: Pixels per unit, X axis: 4 bytes (unsigned integer) Pixels per unit, Y axis: 4 bytes (unsigned integer) Unit specifier: 1 byteThe following values are deﬁned for the unit speciﬁer:

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 27 0: unit is unknown 1: unit is the meterWhen the unit speciﬁer is 0, the pHYs chunk deﬁnes pixel aspect ratio only; the actual size of the pixelsremains unspeciﬁed.Conversion note: one inch is equal to exactly 0.0254 meters.If this ancillary chunk is not present, pixels are assumed to be square, and the physical size of each pixel isunknown.If present, this chunk must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk.See Recommendations for Decoders: Pixel dimensions (Section 10.2).4.2.4.3 sBIT Signiﬁcant bitsTo simplify decoders, PNG speciﬁes that only certain sample depths can be used, and further speciﬁes thatsample values should be scaled to the full range of possible values at the sample depth. However, the sBITchunk is provided in order to store the original number of signiﬁcant bits. This allows decoders to recover theoriginal data losslessly even if the data had a sample depth not directly supported by PNG. We recommendthat an encoder emit an sBIT chunk if it has converted the data from a lower sample depth.For color type 0 (grayscale), the sBIT chunk contains a single byte, indicating the number of bits that weresigniﬁcant in the source data.For color type 2 (truecolor), the sBIT chunk contains three bytes, indicating the number of bits that weresigniﬁcant in the source data for the red, green, and blue channels, respectively.For color type 3 (indexed color), the sBIT chunk contains three bytes, indicating the number of bits that weresigniﬁcant in the source data for the red, green, and blue components of the palette entries, respectively.For color type 4 (grayscale with alpha channel), the sBIT chunk contains two bytes, indicating the numberof bits that were signiﬁcant in the source grayscale data and the source alpha data, respectively.For color type 6 (truecolor with alpha channel), the sBIT chunk contains four bytes, indicating the numberof bits that were signiﬁcant in the source data for the red, green, blue, and alpha channels, respectively.Each depth speciﬁed in sBIT must be greater than zero and less than or equal to the sample depth (which is8 for indexed-color images, and the bit depth given in IHDR for other color types).A decoder need not pay attention to sBIT: the stored image is a valid PNG ﬁle of the sample depth indicatedby IHDR. However, if the decoder wishes to recover the original data at its original precision, this can bedone by right-shifting the stored samples (the stored palette entries, for an indexed-color image). The encodermust scale the data in such a way that the high-order bits match the original data.If the sBIT chunk appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk, and it must also precede the PLTE chunk ifpresent.

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28 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONSee Recommendations for Encoders: Sample depth scaling (Section 9.1) and Recommendations for De-coders: Sample depth rescaling (Section 10.4).4.2.4.4 sPLT Suggested paletteThis chunk can be used to suggest a reduced palette to be used when the display device is not capable ofdisplaying the full range of colors present in the image. If present, it provides a recommended set of colors,with alpha and frequency information, that can be used to construct a reduced palette to which the PNG imagecan be quantized.This chunk contains a null-terminated text string that names the palette and a one-byte sample depth, followedby a series of palette entries, each a six-byte or ten-byte series containing ﬁve unsigned integers: Palette name: 1-79 bytes (character string) Null terminator: 1 byte Sample depth: 1 byte Red: 1 or 2 bytes Green: 1 or 2 bytes Blue: 1 or 2 bytes Alpha: 1 or 2 bytes Frequency: 2 bytes ...etc...There can be any number of entries; a decoder determines the number of entries from the remaining chunklength after the sample depth byte. It is an error if this remaining length is not divisible by 6 (if the sPLTsample depth is 8) or by 10 (if the sPLT sample depth is 16). Entries must appear in decreasing order offrequency. There is no requirement that the entries all be used by the image, nor that they all be different.The palette name can be any convenient name for referring to the palette (for example, “256 color includingMacintosh default”, “256 color including Windows-3.1 default”, “Optimal 512”). It may help applicationsor people to choose the appropriate suggested palette when more than one appears in a PNG ﬁle. The palettename is case-sensitive and subject to the same restrictions as a text keyword: it must contain only printableLatin-1 [ISO/IEC-8859-1] characters (33–126 and 161–255) and spaces (32), but no leading, trailing, or con-secutive spaces.The sPLT sample depth must be 8 or 16.The red, green, blue, and alpha samples are either one or two bytes each, depending on the sPLT sampledepth, regardless of the image bit depth. The color samples are not premultiplied by alpha, nor are theyprecomposited against any background. An alpha value of 0 means fully transparent, while an alpha valueof 255 (when the sPLT sample depth is 8) or 65535 (when the sPLT sample depth is 16) means fully opaque.The palette samples have the same gamma and chromaticity values as those of the PNG image.Each frequency value is proportional to the fraction of pixels in the image that are closest to that palette entryin RGBA space, before the image has been composited against any background. The exact scale factor is

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4. CHUNK SPECIFICATIONS 29chosen by the encoder, but should be chosen so that the range of individual values reasonably ﬁlls the range0 to 65535. It is acceptable to artiﬁcially inﬂate the frequencies for “important” colors such as those in acompany logo or in the facial features of a portrait. Zero is a valid frequency meaning the color is “leastimportant” or that it is rarely if ever used. But when all of the frequencies are zero, they are meaningless(nothing may be inferred about the actual frequencies of the colors).The sPLT chunk can appear for any PNG color type. Note that entries in sPLT can fall outside the color spaceof the PNG image; for example, in a grayscale PNG, sPLT entries would typically satisfy R=G=B, but this isnot required. Similarly, sPLT entries can have nonopaque alpha values even when the PNG image does notuse transparency.If sPLT appears, it must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk. There can be multiple sPLT chunks, but if so theymust have different palette names.See Recommendations for Encoders: Suggested palettes (Section 9.5) and Recommendations for Decoders:Suggested-palette and histogram usage (Section 10.10)4.2.4.5 hIST Palette histogramThe hIST chunk gives the approximate usage frequency of each color in the color palette. A hIST chunk canappear only when a PLTE chunk appears. If a viewer is unable to provide all the colors listed in the palette,the histogram may help it decide how to choose a subset of the colors for display.The hIST chunk contains a series of 2-byte (16 bit) unsigned integers. There must be exactly one entry foreach entry in the PLTE chunk. Each entry is proportional to the fraction of pixels in the image that have thatpalette index; the exact scale factor is chosen by the encoder.Histogram entries are approximate, with the exception that a zero entry speciﬁes that the correspondingpalette entry is not used at all in the image. It is required that a histogram entry be nonzero if there are anypixels of that color.When the palette is a suggested quantization of a truecolor image, the histogram is necessarily approximate,since a decoder may map pixels to palette entries differently than the encoder did. In this situation, zeroentries should not appear.The hIST chunk, if it appears, must follow the PLTE chunk, and must precede the ﬁrst IDAT chunk.See Rationale: Palette histograms (Section 12.15) and Recommendations for Decoders: Suggested-paletteand histogram usage (Section 10.10).4.2.4.6 tIME Image last-modiﬁcation timeThe tIME chunk gives the time of the last image modiﬁcation (not the time of initial image creation). Itcontains:

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30 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION Year: 2 bytes (complete; for example, 1995, not 95) Month: 1 byte (1-12) Day: 1 byte (1-31) Hour: 1 byte (0-23) Minute: 1 byte (0-59) Second: 1 byte (0-60) (yes, 60, for leap seconds; not 61, a common error)Universal Time (UTC, also called GMT) should be speciﬁed rather than local time.The tIME chunk is intended for use as an automatically-applied time stamp that is updated whenever theimage data is changed. It is recommended that tIME not be changed by PNG editors that do not changethe image data. The Creation Time text keyword can be used for a user-supplied time (see the text chunkspeciﬁcation, Paragraph 4.2.3).4.3 Summary of standard chunksThis table summarizes some properties of the standard chunk types. Critical chunks (must appear in this order, except PLTE is optional): Name Multiple Ordering constraints OK? IHDR No Must be first PLTE No Before IDAT IDAT Yes Multiple IDATs must be consecutive IEND No Must be last Ancillary chunks (need not appear in this order): Name Multiple Ordering constraints OK? cHRM No Before PLTE and IDAT gAMA No Before PLTE and IDAT iCCP No Before PLTE and IDAT sBIT No Before PLTE and IDAT sRGB No Before PLTE and IDAT bKGD No After PLTE; before IDAT hIST No After PLTE; before IDAT tRNS No After PLTE; before IDAT pHYs No Before IDAT sPLT Yes Before IDAT tIME No None iTXt Yes None

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5. DEFLATE/INFLATE COMPRESSION 31 tEXt Yes None zTXt Yes NoneStandard keywords for text chunks: Title Short (one line) title or caption for image Author Name of image’s creator Description Description of image (possibly long) Copyright Copyright notice Creation Time Time of original image creation Software Software used to create the image Disclaimer Legal disclaimer Warning Warning of nature of content Source Device used to create the image Comment Miscellaneous comment; conversion from GIF comment4.4 Additional chunk typesAdditional public PNG chunk types are deﬁned in the document “Extensions to the PNG 1.2 Speciﬁcation,Version 1.2.0” [PNG-EXTENSIONS]. Chunks described there are expected to be less widely supported thanthose deﬁned in this speciﬁcation. However, application authors are encouraged to use those chunk typeswhenever appropriate for their applications. Additional chunk types can be proposed for inclusion in thatlist by contacting the PNG speciﬁcation maintainers at png-info@uunet.uu.net or at png-group@w3.org.New public chunks will be registered only if they are of use to others and do not violate the design philosophyof PNG. Chunk registration is not automatic, although it is the intent of the authors that it be straightforwardwhen a new chunk of potentially wide application is needed. Note that the creation of new critical chunktypes is discouraged unless absolutely necessary.Applications can also use private chunk types to carry data that is not of interest to other applications. SeeRecommendations for Encoders: Use of private chunks (Section 9.8).Decoders must be prepared to encounter unrecognized public or private chunk type codes. Unrecognizedchunk types must be handled as described in Chunk naming conventions (Section 3.3).5 Deﬂate/Inﬂate CompressionPNG compression method 0 (the only compression method presently deﬁned for PNG) speciﬁes deﬂate/inﬂate compression with a sliding window of at most 32768 bytes. Deﬂate compression is an LZ77 derivativeused in zip, gzip, pkzip, and related programs. Extensive research has been done supporting its patent-freestatus. Portable C implementations are freely available.Deﬂate-compressed datastreams within PNG are stored in the “zlib” format, which has the structure:

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32 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION Compression method/flags code: 1 byte Additional flags/check bits: 1 byte Compressed data blocks: n bytes Check value: 4 bytesFurther details on this format are given in the zlib speciﬁcation [RFC-1950].For PNG compression method 0, the zlib compression method/ﬂags code must specify method code 8 (“de-ﬂate” compression) and an LZ77 window size of not more than 32768 bytes. Note that the zlib compressionmethod number is not the same as the PNG compression method number. The additional ﬂags must not spec-ify a preset dictionary. A PNG decoder must be able to decompress any valid zlib datastream that satisﬁesthese additional constraints.If the data to be compressed contains 16384 bytes or fewer, the encoder can set the window size by roundingup to a power of 2 (256 minimum). This decreases the memory required not only for encoding but also fordecoding, without adversely affecting the compression ratio.The compressed data within the zlib datastream is stored as a series of blocks, each of which can represent raw(uncompressed) data, LZ77-compressed data encoded with ﬁxed Huffman codes, or LZ77-compressed dataencoded with custom Huffman codes. A marker bit in the ﬁnal block identiﬁes it as the last block, allowingthe decoder to recognize the end of the compressed datastream. Further details on the compression algorithmand the encoding are given in the deﬂate speciﬁcation [RFC-1951].The check value stored at the end of the zlib datastream is calculated on the uncompressed data representedby the datastream. Note that the algorithm used is not the same as the CRC calculation used for PNG chunkcheck values. The zlib check value is useful mainly as a cross-check that the deﬂate and inﬂate algorithmsare implemented correctly. Verifying the chunk CRCs provides adequate conﬁdence that the PNG ﬁle hasbeen transmitted undamaged.In a PNG ﬁle, the concatenation of the contents of all the IDAT chunks makes up a zlib datastream as speciﬁedabove. This datastream decompresses to ﬁltered image data as described elsewhere in this document.It is important to emphasize that the boundaries between IDAT chunks are arbitrary and can fall anywherein the zlib datastream. There is not necessarily any correlation between IDAT chunk boundaries and deﬂateblock boundaries or any other feature of the zlib data. For example, it is entirely possible for the terminatingzlib check value to be split across IDAT chunks.In the same vein, there is no required correlation between the structure of the image data (i.e., scanline bound-aries) and deﬂate block boundaries or IDAT chunk boundaries. The complete image data is represented by asingle zlib datastream that is stored in some number of IDAT chunks; a decoder that assumes any more thanthis is incorrect. (Of course, some encoder implementations may emit ﬁles in which some of these structuresare indeed related. But decoders cannot rely on this.)PNG also uses zlib datastreams in iTXt, zTXt, and iCCP chunks, where the remainder of the chunk followingthe compression method byte is a zlib datastream as speciﬁed above. Unlike the image data, such datastreamsare not split across chunks; each iTXt, zTXt, or iCCP chunk contains an independent zlib datastream.Additional documentation and portable C code for deﬂate and inﬂate are available from the Info-ZIP archivesat ftp://ftp.cdrom.com/pub/infozip/.

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6. FILTER ALGORITHMS 336 Filter AlgorithmsThis chapter describes the ﬁlter algorithms that can be applied before compression. The purpose of theseﬁlters is to prepare the image data for optimum compression.6.1 Filter typesPNG ﬁlter method 0 deﬁnes ﬁve basic ﬁlter types: Type Name 0 None 1 Sub 2 Up 3 Average 4 Paeth(Note that ﬁlter method 0 in IHDR speciﬁes exactly this set of ﬁve ﬁlter types. If the set of ﬁlter types isever extended, a different ﬁlter method number will be assigned to the extended set, so that decoders neednot decompress the data to discover that it contains unsupported ﬁlter types.)The encoder can choose which of these ﬁlter algorithms to apply on a scanline-by-scanline basis. In theimage data sent to the compression step, each scanline is preceded by a ﬁlter-type byte that speciﬁes theﬁlter algorithm used for that scanline.Filtering algorithms are applied to bytes, not to pixels, regardless of the bit depth or color type of the im-age. The ﬁltering algorithms work on the byte sequence formed by a scanline that has been represented asdescribed in Image layout (Section 2.3). If the image includes an alpha channel, the alpha data is ﬁltered inthe same way as the image data.When the image is interlaced, each pass of the interlace pattern is treated as an independent image for ﬁlteringpurposes. The ﬁlters work on the byte sequences formed by the pixels actually transmitted during a pass,and the “previous scanline” is the one previously transmitted in the same pass, not the one adjacent in thecomplete image. Note that the subimage transmitted in any one pass is always rectangular, but is of smallerwidth and/or height than the complete image. Filtering is not applied when this subimage is empty.For all ﬁlters, the bytes “to the left of” the ﬁrst pixel in a scanline must be treated as being zero. For ﬁltersthat refer to the prior scanline, the entire prior scanline must be treated as being zeroes for the ﬁrst scanlineof an image (or of a pass of an interlaced image).To reverse the effect of a ﬁlter, the decoder must use the decoded values of the prior pixel on the same line,the pixel immediately above the current pixel on the prior line, and the pixel just to the left of the pixel above.This implies that at least one scanline’s worth of image data will have to be stored by the decoder at all times.Even though some ﬁlter types do not refer to the prior scanline, the decoder will always need to store eachscanline as it is decoded, since the next scanline might use a ﬁlter that refers to it.

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34 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONPNG imposes no restriction on which ﬁlter types can be applied to an image. However, the ﬁlters are notequally effective on all types of data. See Recommendations for Encoders: Filter selection (Section 9.6).See also Rationale: Filtering (Section 12.9).6.2 Filter type 0: NoneWith the None() ﬁlter, the scanline is transmitted unmodiﬁed; it is necessary only to insert a ﬁlter-type bytebefore the data.6.3 Filter type 1: SubThe Sub() ﬁlter transmits the difference between each byte and the value of the corresponding byte of theprior pixel.To compute the Sub() ﬁlter, apply the following formula to each byte of the scanline: Sub(x) = Raw(x) - Raw(x-bpp)where x ranges from zero to the number of bytes representing the scanline minus one, Raw() refers to theraw data byte at that byte position in the scanline, and bpp is deﬁned as the number of bytes per completepixel, rounding up to one. For example, for color type 2 with a bit depth of 16, bpp is equal to 6 (three samples,two bytes per sample); for color type 0 with a bit depth of 2, bpp is equal to 1 (rounding up); for color type4 with a bit depth of 16, bpp is equal to 4 (two-byte grayscale sample, plus two-byte alpha sample).Note this computation is done for each byte, regardless of bit depth. In a 16-bit image, each MSB is predictedfrom the preceding MSB and each LSB from the preceding LSB, because of the way that bpp is deﬁned.Unsigned arithmetic modulo 256 is used, so that both the inputs and outputs ﬁt into bytes. The sequence ofSub values is transmitted as the ﬁltered scanline.For all x < 0, assume Raw(x) = 0.To reverse the effect of the Sub() ﬁlter after decompression, output the following value: Sub(x) + Raw(x-bpp)(computed mod 256), where Raw() refers to the bytes already decoded.6.4 Filter type 2: UpThe Up() ﬁlter is just like the Sub() ﬁlter except that the pixel immediately above the current pixel, ratherthan just to its left, is used as the predictor.To compute the Up() ﬁlter, apply the following formula to each byte of the scanline:

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6. FILTER ALGORITHMS 35 Up(x) = Raw(x) - Prior(x)where x ranges from zero to the number of bytes representing the scanline minus one, Raw() refers to theraw data byte at that byte position in the scanline, and Prior(x) refers to the unﬁltered bytes of the priorscanline.Note this is done for each byte, regardless of bit depth. Unsigned arithmetic modulo 256 is used, so that boththe inputs and outputs ﬁt into bytes. The sequence of Up values is transmitted as the ﬁltered scanline.On the ﬁrst scanline of an image (or of a pass of an interlaced image), assume Prior(x) = 0 for all x.To reverse the effect of the Up() ﬁlter after decompression, output the following value: Up(x) + Prior(x)(computed mod 256), where Prior() refers to the decoded bytes of the prior scanline.6.5 Filter type 3: AverageThe Average() ﬁlter uses the average of the two neighboring pixels (left and above) to predict the valueof a pixel.To compute the Average() ﬁlter, apply the following formula to each byte of the scanline: Average(x) = Raw(x) - floor((Raw(x-bpp)+Prior(x))/2)where x ranges from zero to the number of bytes representing the scanline minus one, Raw() refers to theraw data byte at that byte position in the scanline, Prior() refers to the unﬁltered bytes of the prior scanline,and bpp is deﬁned as for the Sub() ﬁlter.Note this is done for each byte, regardless of bit depth. The sequence of Average values is transmitted asthe ﬁltered scanline.The subtraction of the predicted value from the raw byte must be done modulo 256, so that both the inputsand outputs ﬁt into bytes. However, the sum Raw(x-bpp)+Prior(x) must be formed without overﬂow(using at least nine-bit arithmetic). floor() indicates that the result of the division is rounded to the nextlower integer if fractional; in other words, it is an integer division or right shift operation.For all x < 0, assume Raw(x) = 0. On the ﬁrst scanline of an image (or of a pass of an interlaced image),assume Prior(x) = 0 for all x.To reverse the effect of the Average() ﬁlter after decompression, output the following value: Average(x) + floor((Raw(x-bpp)+Prior(x))/2)where the result is computed mod 256, but the prediction is calculated in the same way as for encoding.Raw() refers to the bytes already decoded, and Prior() refers to the decoded bytes of the prior scanline.

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36 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION6.6 Filter type 4: PaethThe Paeth() ﬁlter computes a simple linear function of the three neighboring pixels (left, above, upperleft), then chooses as predictor the neighboring pixel closest to the computed value. This technique is due toAlan W. Paeth [PAETH].To compute the Paeth() ﬁlter, apply the following formula to each byte of the scanline: Paeth(x) = Raw(x) - PaethPredictor(Raw(x-bpp), Prior(x), Prior(x-bpp))where x ranges from zero to the number of bytes representing the scanline minus one, Raw() refers to theraw data byte at that byte position in the scanline, Prior() refers to the unﬁltered bytes of the prior scanline,and bpp is deﬁned as for the Sub() ﬁlter.Note this is done for each byte, regardless of bit depth. Unsigned arithmetic modulo 256 is used, so that boththe inputs and outputs ﬁt into bytes. The sequence of Paeth values is transmitted as the ﬁltered scanline.The PaethPredictor() function is deﬁned by the following pseudocode: function PaethPredictor (a, b, c) begin ; a = left, b = above, c = upper left p := a + b - c ; initial estimate pa := abs(p - a) ; distances to a, b, c pb := abs(p - b) pc := abs(p - c) ; return nearest of a,b,c, ; breaking ties in order a,b,c. if pa <= pb AND pa <= pc then return a else if pb <= pc then return b else return c endThe calculations within the PaethPredictor() function must be performed exactly, without overﬂow.Arithmetic modulo 256 is to be used only for the ﬁnal step of subtracting the function result from the targetbyte value.Note that the order in which ties are broken is critical and must not be altered. The tie break order is:pixel to the left, pixel above, pixel to the upper left. (This order differs from that given in Paeth’s article.)For all x < 0, assume Raw(x) = 0 and Prior(x) = 0. On the ﬁrst scanline of an image (or of a passof an interlaced image), assume Prior(x) = 0 for all x.To reverse the effect of the Paeth() ﬁlter after decompression, output the following value: Paeth(x) + PaethPredictor(Raw(x-bpp), Prior(x), Prior(x-bpp))

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7. CHUNK ORDERING RULES 37(computed mod 256), where Raw() and Prior() refer to bytes already decoded. Exactly the samePaethPredictor() function is used by both encoder and decoder.7 Chunk Ordering RulesTo allow new chunk types to be added to PNG, it is necessary to establish rules about the ordering require-ments for all chunk types. Otherwise a PNG editing program cannot know what to do when it encounters anunknown chunk.We deﬁne a “PNG editor” as a program that modiﬁes a PNG ﬁle and wishes to preserve as much as possibleof the ancillary information in the ﬁle. Two examples of PNG editors are a program that adds or modiﬁestext chunks, and a program that adds a suggested palette to a truecolor PNG ﬁle. Ordinary image editorsare not PNG editors in this sense, because they usually discard all unrecognized information while readingin an image. (Note: we strongly encourage programs handling PNG ﬁles to preserve ancillary informationwhenever possible.)As an example of possible problems, consider a hypothetical new ancillary chunk type that is safe-to-copyand is required to appear after PLTE if PLTE is present. If our program to add a suggested PLTE does notrecognize this new chunk, it may insert PLTE in the wrong place, namely after the new chunk. We couldprevent such problems by requiring PNG editors to discard all unknown chunks, but that is a very unattractivesolution. Instead, PNG requires ancillary chunks not to have ordering restrictions like this.To prevent this type of problem while allowing for future extension, we put some constraints on both thebehavior of PNG editors and the allowed ordering requirements for chunks.7.1 Behavior of PNG editorsThe rules for PNG editors are: • When copying an unknown unsafe-to-copy ancillary chunk, a PNG editor must not move the chunk relative to any critical chunk. It can relocate the chunk freely relative to other ancillary chunks that occur between the same pair of critical chunks. (This is well deﬁned since the editor must not add, delete, modify, or reorder critical chunks if it is preserving unknown unsafe-to-copy chunks.) • When copying an unknown safe-to-copy ancillary chunk, a PNG editor must not move the chunk from before IDAT to after IDAT or vice versa. (This is well deﬁned because IDAT is always present.) Any other reordering is permitted. • When copying a known ancillary chunk type, an editor need only honor the speciﬁc chunk ordering rules that exist for that chunk type. However, it can always choose to apply the above general rules instead. • PNG editors must give up on encountering an unknown critical chunk type, because there is no way to be certain that a valid ﬁle will result from modifying a ﬁle containing such a chunk. (Note that

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38 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION simply discarding the chunk is not good enough, because it might have unknown implications for the interpretation of other chunks.)These rules are expressed in terms of copying chunks from an input ﬁle to an output ﬁle, but they apply inthe obvious way if a PNG ﬁle is modiﬁed in place.See also Chunk naming conventions (Section 3.3).7.2 Ordering of ancillary chunksThe ordering rules for an ancillary chunk type cannot be any stricter than this: • Unsafe-to-copy chunks can have ordering requirements relative to critical chunks. • Safe-to-copy chunks can have ordering requirements relative to IDAT.The actual ordering rules for any particular ancillary chunk type may be weaker. See for example the orderingrules for the standard ancillary chunk types (Summary of standard chunks, Section 4.3).Decoders must not assume more about the positioning of any ancillary chunk than is speciﬁed by thechunk ordering rules. In particular, it is never valid to assume that a speciﬁc ancillary chunk type occurswith any particular positioning relative to other ancillary chunks. (For example, it is unsafe to assume thatyour private ancillary chunk occurs immediately before IEND. Even if your application always writes itthere, a PNG editor might have inserted some other ancillary chunk after it. But you can safely assume thatyour chunk will remain somewhere between IDAT and IEND.)7.3 Ordering of critical chunksCritical chunks can have arbitrary ordering requirements, because PNG editors are required to give up if theyencounter unknown critical chunks. For example, IHDR has the special ordering rule that it must alwaysappear ﬁrst. A PNG editor, or indeed any PNG-writing program, must know and follow the ordering rulesfor any critical chunk type that it can emit.8 Miscellaneous Topics8.1 File name extensionOn systems where ﬁle names customarily include an extension signifying ﬁle type, the extension “.png” isrecommended for PNG ﬁles. Lowercase “.png” is preferred if ﬁle names are case-sensitive.

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8. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS 398.2 Internet media typeThe Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has registered “image/png” as the Internet Media Typefor PNG [RFC-2045], [RFC-2048]. For robustness, decoders may choose to also support the interim mediatype “image/x-png” that was in use before registration was complete.8.3 Macintosh ﬁle layoutIn the Apple Macintosh system, the following conventions are recommended: • The four-byte ﬁle type code for PNG ﬁles is “PNGf”. (This code has been registered with Apple for PNG ﬁles.) The creator code will vary depending on the creating application. • The contents of the data fork must be a PNG ﬁle exactly as described in the rest of this speciﬁcation. • The contents of the resource fork are unspeciﬁed. It may be empty or may contain application- dependent resources. • When transferring a Macintosh PNG ﬁle to a non-Macintosh system, only the data fork should be trans- ferred.8.4 Multiple-image extensionPNG itself is strictly a single-image format. However, it may be necessary to store multiple images within oneﬁle; for example, this is needed to convert GIF animation ﬁles. The PNG Development Group has deﬁnedand approved a multiple-image format based on PNG, called “Multiple-image Network Graphics (MNG)”[MNG]. This is considered a separate ﬁle format and has a different signature. PNG-supporting applicationsmay or may not choose to support the multiple-image format.See Rationale: Why not these features? (Section 12.3).8.5 Security considerationsA PNG ﬁle or datastream is composed of a collection of explicitly typed “chunks”. Chunks whose contentsare deﬁned by the speciﬁcation could actually contain anything, including malicious code. But there is noknown risk that such malicious code could be executed on the recipient’s computer as a result of decodingthe PNG image.The possible security risks associated with private chunk types and future chunk types cannot be speciﬁedat this time. Security issues will be considered when evaluating chunks proposed for registration as publicchunks. There is no additional security risk associated with unknown or unimplemented chunk types, becausesuch chunks will be ignored, or at most be copied into another PNG ﬁle.

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40 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONThe text chunks contain keywords and data that is meant to be displayed as plain text. The iCCP, sPLT, andsome public “extension” chunks contain keywords meant to be displayed as plain text. It is possible that ifa decoder displays such text without ﬁltering out control characters, especially the ESC (escape) character,certain systems or terminals could behave in undesirable and insecure ways. We recommend that decodersﬁlter out control characters to avoid this risk; see Recommendations for Decoders: Text chunk processing(Section 10.11).Every chunk begins with a length ﬁeld, making it easier to write decoders invulnerable to fraudulent chunksthat attempt to overﬂow buffers. The CRC at the end of every chunk provides a robust defense against acci-dentally corrupted data. Also, the PNG signature bytes provide early detection of common ﬁle transmissionerrors.A decoder that fails to check CRCs could be subject to data corruption. The only likely consequence of suchcorruption is incorrectly displayed pixels within the image. Worse things might happen if the CRC of theIHDR chunk is not checked and the width or height ﬁelds are corrupted. See Recommendations for Decoders:Error checking (Section 10.1).A poorly written decoder might be subject to buffer overﬂow, because chunks can be extremely large, up to231 − 1 bytes long. But properly written decoders will handle large chunks without difﬁculty.9 Recommendations for EncodersThis chapter gives some recommendations for encoder behavior. The only absolute requirement on a PNGencoder is that it produce ﬁles that conform to the format speciﬁed in the preceding chapters. However, bestresults will usually be achieved by following these recommendations.9.1 Sample depth scalingWhen encoding input samples that have a sample depth that cannot be directly represented in PNG, the en-coder must scale the samples up to a sample depth that is allowed by PNG. The most accurate scaling methodis the linear equation output = ROUND(input * MAXOUTSAMPLE / MAXINSAMPLE)where the input samples range from 0 to MAXINSAMPLE and the outputs range from 0 to MAXOUTSAMPLE(which is 2sampledepth − 1).A close approximation to the linear scaling method can be achieved by “left bit replication”, which is shiftingthe valid bits to begin in the most signiﬁcant bit and repeating the most signiﬁcant bits into the open bits. Thismethod is often faster to compute than linear scaling. As an example, assume that 5-bit samples are beingscaled up to 8 bits. If the source sample value is 27 (in the range from 0–31), then the original bits are: 4 3 2 1 0 --------- 1 1 0 1 1

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENCODERS 41Left bit replication gives a value of 222: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ---------------- 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 |=======| |===| | Leftmost Bits Repeated to Fill Open Bits | Original Bitswhich matches the value computed by the linear equation. Left bit replication usually gives the same valueas linear scaling and is never off by more than one.A distinctly less accurate approximation is obtained by simply left-shifting the input value and ﬁlling thelow order bits with zeroes. This scheme cannot reproduce white exactly, since it does not generate an all-ones maximum value; the net effect is to darken the image slightly. This method is not recommended ingeneral, but it does have the effect of improving compression, particularly when dealing with greater-than-eight-bit sample depths. Since the relative error introduced by zero-ﬁll scaling is small at high sample depths,some encoders may choose to use it. Zero-ﬁll must not be used for alpha channel data, however, since manydecoders will special-case alpha values of all zeroes and all ones. It is important to represent both those valuesexactly in the scaled data.When the encoder writes an sBIT chunk, it is required to do the scaling in such a way that the high-orderbits of the stored samples match the original data. That is, if the sBIT chunk speciﬁes a sample depth of S,the high-order S bits of the stored data must agree with the original S-bit data values. This allows decodersto recover the original data by shifting right. The added low-order bits are not constrained. Note that all theabove scaling methods meet this restriction.When scaling up source data, it is recommended that the low-order bits be ﬁlled consistently for all samples;that is, the same source value should generate the same sample value at any pixel position. This improvescompression by reducing the number of distinct sample values. However, this is not a requirement, and someencoders may choose not to follow it. For example, an encoder might instead dither the low-order bits, im-proving displayed image quality at the price of increasing ﬁle size.In some applications the original source data may have a range that is not a power of 2. The linear scalingequation still works for this case, although the shifting methods do not. It is recommended that an sBIT chunknot be written for such images, since sBIT suggests that the original data range was exactly 0..2S − 1.9.2 Encoder gamma handlingSee Gamma Tutorial (Chapter 13) if you aren’t already familiar with gamma issues.Encoders capable of full-ﬂedged color management [ICC] will perform more sophisticated calculations thanthose described here, and they may choose to use the iCCP chunk. Encoders that know that their imagesamples conform to the sRGB speciﬁcation [sRGB] should use the sRGB chunk and not perform gammahandling. Otherwise, this section applies.

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42 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONThe encoder has two gamma-related decisions to make. First, it must decide how to transform whateverimage samples it has into the image samples that will go into the PNG ﬁle. Second, it must decide whatvalue to write into the gAMA chunk.The rule for the second decision is simply to write whatever value will cause a decoder to do what you want.See Recommendations for Decoders: Decoder gamma handling (Section 10.5).The ﬁrst decision depends on the nature of the image samples and their precision. If the samples representlight intensity in ﬂoating-point or high-precision integer form (perhaps from a computer image renderer),then the encoder may perform “gamma encoding” (applying a power function with exponent less than 1)before quantizing the data to integer values for output to the ﬁle. This results in fewer banding artifacts ata given sample depth, or allows smaller samples while retaining the same visual quality. An intensity levelexpressed as a ﬂoating-point value in the range 0 to 1 can be converted to a ﬁle image sample by sample = intensityencoding exponent integer sample = ROUND(sample ∗ (2bitdepth − 1))If the intensity in the equation is the desired display output intensity, then the encoding exponent is the gammavalue to be written to the ﬁle, by the deﬁnition of gAMA (See the gAMA chunk speciﬁcation, Paragraph4.2.2.1). But if the intensity available to the encoder is the original scene intensity, another transformationmay be needed. Sometimes the displayed image should have higher contrast than the original image; in otherwords, the end-to-end transfer function from original scene to display output should have an exponent greaterthan 1. In this case, gamma = encoding exponent / end to end exponentIf you don’t know whether the conditions under which the original image was captured (or calculated) warrantsuch a contrast change, you may assume that display intensities are proportional to original scene intensities;in other words, the end-to-end exponent is 1, so gamma and the encoding exponent are equal.If the image is being written to a ﬁle only, the encoder is free to choose the encoding exponent. Choosinga value that causes the gamma value in the gAMA chunk to be 1/2.2 is often a reasonable choice because itminimizes the work for a decoder displaying on a typical video monitor.Some image renderers may simultaneously write the image to a PNG ﬁle and display it on-screen. The dis-played pixels should be appropriate for the display system, so that the user sees a proper representation ofthe intended scene.If the renderer wants to write the displayed sample values to the PNG ﬁle, avoiding a separate gamma en-coding step for ﬁle output, then the renderer should approximate the transfer function of the display systemby a power function, and write the reciprocal of the exponent into the gAMA chunk. This will allow a PNGdecoder to reproduce what the ﬁle’s originator saw on screen during rendering.However, it is equally reasonable for a renderer to compute displayed pixels appropriate for the display de-vice, and to perform separate gamma encoding for ﬁle storage, arranging to have a value in the gAMA chunkmore appropriate to the future use of the image.

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENCODERS 43Computer graphics renderers often do not perform gamma encoding, instead making sample values directlyproportional to scene light intensity. If the PNG encoder receives intensity samples that have already beenquantized into integers, there is no point in doing gamma encoding on them; that would just result in furtherloss of information. The encoder should just write the sample values to the PNG ﬁle. This does not imply thatthe gAMA chunk should contain a gamma value of 1.0, because the desired end-to-end transfer function fromscene intensity to display output intensity is not necessarily linear. The desired gamma value is probably notfar from 1.0, however. It may depend on whether the scene being rendered is a daylight scene or an indoorscene, etc.When the sample values come directly from a piece of hardware, the correct gamma value can in principlebe inferred from the transfer function of the hardware and the lighting conditions of the scene. In the caseof video digitizers (“frame grabbers”), the samples are probably in the sRGB color space, because the sRGBspeciﬁcation was designed to be compatible with video standards. Image scanners are less predictable. Theiroutput samples may be proportional to the input light intensity because CCD (charge coupled device) sen-sors themselves are linear, or the scanner hardware may have already applied a power function designed tocompensate for dot gain in subsequent printing (an exponent of about 0.57), or the scanner may have cor-rected the samples for display on a monitor. The device documentation might describe the transformationperformed, or might describe the target display or printer for the image data (which might be conﬁgurable).You can also scan a calibrated target and use calibration software to determine the behavior of the device.Remember that gamma relates ﬁle samples to desired display output, not to scanner input.File format converters generally should not attempt to convert supplied images to a different gamma. Storethe data in the PNG ﬁle without conversion, and deduce the gamma value from information in the source ﬁleif possible. Gamma alteration at ﬁle conversion time causes re-quantization of the set of intensity levels thatare represented, introducing further roundoff error with little beneﬁt. It’s almost always better to just copythe sample values intact from the input to the output ﬁle.If the source ﬁle format describes the gamma characteristic of the image, a ﬁle format converter is stronglyencouraged to write a PNG gAMA chunk. Note that some ﬁle formats specify the exponent of the functionmapping ﬁle samples to display output rather than the other direction. If the source ﬁle’s gamma value isgreater than 1.0, it is probably a display system exponent, and you should use its reciprocal for the PNGgamma. If the source ﬁle format records the relationship between image samples and something other thandisplay output, then deducing the PNG gamma value will be more complex.Regardless of how an image was originally created, if an encoder or ﬁle format converter knows that the im-age has been displayed satisfactorily using a display system whose transfer function can be approximated bya power function with exponent display exponent, then the image can be marked as having the gammavalue: gamma = 1 / display exponentIt’s better to write a gAMA chunk with an approximately right value than to omit the chunk and force PNGdecoders to guess at an appropriate gamma.On the other hand, if the encoder has no way to infer the gamma value, then it is better to omit the gAMAchunk entirely. If the image gamma has to be guessed at, leave it to the decoder to do the guessing.

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44 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONGamma does not apply to alpha samples; alpha is always represented linearly.See also Recommendations for Decoders: Decoder gamma handling (Section 10.5).9.3 Encoder color handlingSee Color Tutorial (Chapter 14) if you aren’t already familiar with color issues.Encoders capable of full-ﬂedged color management [ICC] will perform more sophisticated calculations thanthose described here, and they may choose to use the iCCP chunk. Encoders that know that their image sam-ples conform to the sRGB speciﬁcation [sRGB] are strongly encouraged to use the sRGB chunk. Otherwise,this section applies.If it is possible for the encoder to determine the chromaticities of the source display primaries, or to makea strong guess based on the origin of the image or the hardware running it, then the encoder is strongly en-couraged to output the cHRM chunk. If it does so, the gAMA chunk should also be written; decoders can dolittle with cHRM if gAMA is missing.Video created with recent video equipment probably uses the CCIR 709 primaries and D65 white point[ITU-R-BT709], which are: R G B White x 0.640 0.300 0.150 0.3127 y 0.330 0.600 0.060 0.3290An older but still very popular video standard is SMPTE-C [SMPTE-170M]: R G B White x 0.630 0.310 0.155 0.3127 y 0.340 0.595 0.070 0.3290The original NTSC color primaries have not been used in decades. Although you may still ﬁnd the NTSCnumbers listed in standards documents, you won’t ﬁnd any images that actually use them.Scanners that produce PNG ﬁles as output should insert the ﬁlter chromaticities into a cHRM chunk.In the case of hand-drawn or digitally edited images, you have to determine what monitor they were viewedon when being produced. Many image editing programs allow you to specify what type of monitor you areusing. This is often because they are working in some device-independent space internally. Such programshave enough information to write valid cHRM and gAMA chunks, and should do so automatically.If the encoder is compiled as a portion of a computer image renderer that performs full-spectral rendering,the monitor values that were used to convert from the internal device-independent color space to RGB shouldbe written into the cHRM chunk. Any colors that are outside the gamut of the chosen RGB device should beclipped or otherwise constrained to be within the gamut; PNG does not store out-of-gamut colors.If the computer image renderer performs calculations directly in device-dependent RGB space, a cHRMchunk should not be written unless the scene description and rendering parameters have been adjusted to

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENCODERS 45look good on a particular monitor. In that case, the data for that monitor (if known) should be used to con-struct a cHRM chunk.There are often cases where an image’s exact origins are unknown, particularly if it began life in some otherformat. A few image formats store calibration information, which can be used to ﬁll in the cHRM chunk.For example, all PhotoCD images use the CCIR 709 primaries and D65 white point, so these values canbe written into the cHRM chunk when converting a PhotoCD ﬁle. PhotoCD also uses the SMPTE-170Mtransfer function. (PhotoCD can store colors outside the RGB gamut, so the image data will require gamutmapping before writing to PNG format.) TIFF 6.0 ﬁles can optionally store calibration information, which ifpresent should be used to construct the cHRM chunk. GIF and most other formats do not store any calibrationinformation.It is not recommended that ﬁle format converters attempt to convert supplied images to a different RGB colorspace. Store the data in the PNG ﬁle without conversion, and record the source primary chromaticities if theyare known. Color space transformation at ﬁle conversion time is a bad idea because of gamut mismatchesand rounding errors. As with gamma conversions, it’s better to store the data losslessly and incur at most oneconversion when the image is ﬁnally displayed.See also Recommendations for Decoders: Decoder color handling (Section 10.6).9.4 Alpha channel creationThe alpha channel can be regarded either as a mask that temporarily hides transparent parts of the image, oras a means for constructing a non-rectangular image. In the ﬁrst case, the color values of fully transparentpixels should be preserved for future use. In the second case, the transparent pixels carry no useful data andare simply there to ﬁll out the rectangular image area required by PNG. In this case, fully transparent pixelsshould all be assigned the same color value for best compression.Image authors should keep in mind the possibility that a decoder will ignore transparency control. Hence,the colors assigned to transparent pixels should be reasonable background colors whenever feasible.For applications that do not require a full alpha channel, or cannot afford the price in compression efﬁciency,the tRNS transparency chunk is also available.If the image has a known background color, this color should be written in the bKGD chunk. Even decodersthat ignore transparency may use the bKGD color to ﬁll unused screen area.If the original image has premultiplied (also called “associated”) alpha data, convert it to PNG’s non-premultiplied format by dividing each sample value by the corresponding alpha value, then multiplying bythe maximum value for the image bit depth, and rounding to the nearest integer. In valid premultiplied data,the sample values never exceed their corresponding alpha values, so the result of the division should alwaysbe in the range 0 to 1. If the alpha value is zero, output black (zeroes).

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46 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION9.5 Suggested palettesSuggested palettes can appear as sPLT chunks in any PNG ﬁle, or as a PLTE chunk in truecolor PNG ﬁles.In either case, the suggested palette is not an essential part of the image data, but it may be used to presentthe image on indexed-color display hardware. Suggested palettes are of no interest to viewers running ontruecolor hardware.When sPLT is used to provide a suggested palette, it is recommended that the encoder use the frequency ﬁeldsto indicate the relative importance of the palette entries, rather than leave them all zero (meaning undeﬁned).The frequency values are most easily computed as “nearest neighbor” counts, that is, the approximate us-age of each RGBA palette entry if no dithering is applied. (These counts will often be available for free asa consequence of developing the suggested palette.) Because the suggested palette includes transparencyinformation, it should be computed for the uncomposited image.Even for indexed-color images, sPLT can be used to deﬁne alternative reduced palettes for viewers that areunable to display all the colors present in the PLTE chunk.An older method for including a suggested palette in a truecolor PNG ﬁle uses the PLTE chunk. If this methodis used, the histogram (frequencies) should appear in a separate hIST chunk. Also, PLTE does not includetransparency information, so for images of color type 6 (truecolor with alpha channel), it is recommendedthat a bKGD chunk appear and that the palette and histogram be computed with reference to the image as itwould appear after compositing against the speciﬁed background color. This deﬁnition is necessary to en-sure that useful palette entries are generated for pixels having fractional alpha values. The resulting palettewill probably be useful only to viewers that present the image against the same background color. It is rec-ommended that PNG editors delete or recompute the palette if they alter or remove the bKGD chunk in animage of color type 6.For images of color type 2 (truecolor without alpha channel), it is recommended that PLTE and hIST becomputed with reference to the RGB data only, ignoring any transparent-color speciﬁcation. If the ﬁle usestransparency (has a tRNS chunk), viewers can easily adapt the resulting palette for use with their intendedbackground color. They need only replace the palette entry closest to the tRNS color with their backgroundcolor (which may or may not match the ﬁle’s bKGD color, if any).If PLTE appears without bKGD in an image of color type 6, the circumstances under which the palette wascomputed are unspeciﬁed.For providing suggested palettes, sPLT is more ﬂexible than PLTE in the following ways: • With sPLT, there can be multiple suggested palettes. A decoder may choose an appropriate palette based on name or number of entries. • In an RGBA (color type 6) PNG, PLTE represents a palette already composited against the bKGD color, so it is useful only for display against that background color. The sPLT chunk provides an un- composited palette, which is useful for display against backgrounds of the decoder’s choice. • Since sPLT is a noncritical chunk, a PNG editor can add or modify suggested palettes without being forced to discard unknown unsafe-to-copy chunks.

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENCODERS 47 • Whereas sPLT is allowed in PNG ﬁles of color types 0, 3, and 4 (grayscale and indexed), PLTE cannot be used to provide reduced palettes in these cases. • More than 256 entries can appear in sPLT.An encoder that uses sPLT may choose to write a PLTE/hIST suggested palette as well, for backward com-patibility with decoders that do not recognize sPLT.9.6 Filter selectionFor images of color type 3 (indexed color), ﬁlter type 0 (None) is usually the most effective. Note that colorimages with 256 or fewer colors should almost always be stored in indexed color format; truecolor format islikely to be much larger.Filter type 0 is also recommended for images of bit depths less than 8. For low-bit-depth grayscale images,it may be a net win to expand the image to 8-bit representation and apply ﬁltering, but this is rare.For truecolor and grayscale images, any of the ﬁve ﬁlters may prove the most effective. If an encoder uses aﬁxed ﬁlter, the Paeth ﬁlter is most likely to be the best.For best compression of truecolor and grayscale images, we recommend an adaptive ﬁltering approach inwhich a ﬁlter is chosen for each scanline. The following simple heuristic has performed well in early tests:compute the output scanline using all ﬁve ﬁlters, and select the ﬁlter that gives the smallest sum of absolutevalues of outputs. (Consider the output bytes as signed differences for this test.) This method usually outper-forms any single ﬁxed ﬁlter choice. However, it is likely that much better heuristics will be found as moreexperience is gained with PNG.Filtering according to these recommendations is effective on interlaced as well as noninterlaced images.9.7 Text chunk processingA nonempty keyword must be provided for each text chunk (iTXt, tEXt, or zTXt). The generic keyword“Comment” can be used if no better description of the text is available. If a user-supplied keyword is used,be sure to check that it meets the restrictions on keywords.Text stored in tEXt or zTXt chunks is expected to use the Latin-1 character set. Encoders should provide char-acter code remapping if the local system’s character set is not Latin-1. Encoders wishing to store charactersnot deﬁned in Latin-1 should use the iTXt chunk.Encoders should discourage the creation of single lines of text longer than 79 characters, in order to facilitateeasy reading.It is recommended that text items less than 1K (1024 bytes) in size should be output using uncompressed textchunks. In particular, it is recommended that the text associated with basic title and author keywords shouldalways be output with uncompressed chunks. Lengthy disclaimers, on the other hand, are ideal candidatesfor compression.

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48 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONPlacing large text chunks after the image data (after IDAT) can speed up image display in some situations,since the decoder won’t have to read over the text to get to the image data. But it is recommended that smalltext chunks, such as the image title, appear before IDAT.9.8 Use of private chunksApplications can use PNG private chunks to carry information that need not be understood by other applica-tions. Such chunks must be given names with lowercase second letters, to ensure that they can never conﬂictwith any future public chunk deﬁnition. Note, however, that there is no guarantee that some other applicationwill not use the same private chunk name. If you use a private chunk type, it is prudent to store additionalidentifying information at the beginning of the chunk data.Use an ancillary chunk type (lowercase ﬁrst letter), not a critical chunk type, for all private chunks that storeinformation that is not absolutely essential to view the image. Creation of private critical chunks is discour-aged because they render PNG ﬁles unportable. Such chunks should not be used in publicly available soft-ware or ﬁles. If private critical chunks are essential for your application, it is recommended that one appearnear the start of the ﬁle, so that a standard decoder need not read very far before discovering that it cannothandle the ﬁle.If you want others outside your organization to understand a chunk type that you invent, contact the main-tainers of the PNG speciﬁcation to submit a proposed chunk name and deﬁnition for addition to the list ofspecial-purpose public chunks (see Additional chunk types, Section 4.4). Note that a proposed public chunkname (with uppercase second letter) must not be used in publicly available software or ﬁles until registrationhas been approved.If an ancillary chunk contains textual information that might be of interest to a human user, you should notcreate a special chunk type for it. Instead use a text chunk and deﬁne a suitable keyword. That way, theinformation will be available to users not using your software.Keywords in text chunks should be reasonably self-explanatory, since the idea is to let other users ﬁgure outwhat the chunk contains. If of general usefulness, new keywords can be registered with the maintainers ofthe PNG speciﬁcation. But it is permissible to use keywords without registering them ﬁrst.9.9 Private type and method codesThis speciﬁcation deﬁnes the meaning of only some of the possible values of some ﬁelds. For example,only compression method 0 and ﬁlter types 0 through 4 are deﬁned. Numbers greater than 127 must be usedwhen inventing experimental or private deﬁnitions of values for any of these ﬁelds. Numbers below 128 arereserved for possible future public extensions of this speciﬁcation. Note that use of private type codes mayrender a ﬁle unreadable by standard decoders. Such codes are strongly discouraged except for experimentalpurposes, and should not appear in publicly available software or ﬁles.

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECODERS 4910 Recommendations for DecodersThis chapter gives some recommendations for decoder behavior. The only absolute requirement on a PNGdecoder is that it successfully read any ﬁle conforming to the format speciﬁed in the preceding chapters.However, best results will usually be achieved by following these recommendations.10.1 Error checkingTo ensure early detection of common ﬁle-transfer problems, decoders should verify that all eight bytes ofthe PNG ﬁle signature are correct. (See Rationale: PNG ﬁle signature, Section 12.12.) A decoder can haveadditional conﬁdence in the ﬁle’s integrity if the next eight bytes are an IHDR chunk header with the correctchunk length.Unknown chunk types must be handled as described in Chunk naming conventions (Section 3.3). An un-known chunk type is not to be treated as an error unless it is a critical chunk.It is strongly recommended that decoders should verify the CRC on each chunk.In some situations it is desirable to check chunk headers (length and type code) before reading the chunkdata and CRC. The chunk type can be checked for plausibility by seeing whether all four bytes are ASCIIletters (codes 65–90 and 97–122); note that this need be done only for unrecognized type codes. If the totalﬁle size is known (from ﬁle system information, HTTP protocol, etc), the chunk length can be checked forplausibility as well.If CRCs are not checked, dropped/added data bytes or an erroneous chunk length can cause the decoder toget out of step and misinterpret subsequent data as a chunk header. Verifying that the chunk type containsletters is an inexpensive way of providing early error detection in this situation.For known-length chunks such as IHDR, decoders should treat an unexpected chunk length as an error. Fu-ture extensions to this speciﬁcation will not add new ﬁelds to existing chunks; instead, new chunk types willbe added to carry new information.Unexpected values in ﬁelds of known chunks (for example, an unexpected compression method in the IHDRchunk) must be checked for and treated as errors. However, it is recommended that unexpected ﬁeld valuesbe treated as fatal errors only in critical chunks. An unexpected value in an ancillary chunk can be handledby ignoring the whole chunk as though it were an unknown chunk type. (This recommendation assumes thatthe chunk’s CRC has been veriﬁed. In decoders that do not check CRCs, it is safer to treat any unexpectedvalue as indicating a corrupted ﬁle.)10.2 Pixel dimensionsNon-square pixels can be represented (see the pHYs chunk), but viewers are not required to account for them;a viewer can present any PNG ﬁle as though its pixels are square.Conversely, viewers running on display hardware with non-square pixels are strongly encouraged to rescaleimages for proper display.

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50 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION10.3 Truecolor image handlingTo achieve PNG’s goal of universal interchangeability, decoders are required to accept all types of PNG im-age: indexed-color, truecolor, and grayscale. Viewers running on indexed-color display hardware need to beable to reduce truecolor images to indexed format for viewing. This process is usually called “color quanti-zation”.A simple, fast way of doing this is to reduce the image to a ﬁxed palette. Palettes with uniform color spac-ing (“color cubes”) are usually used to minimize the per-pixel computation. For photograph-like images,dithering is recommended to avoid ugly contours in what should be smooth gradients; however, ditheringintroduces graininess that can be objectionable.The quality of rendering can be improved substantially by using a palette chosen speciﬁcally for the image,since a color cube usually has numerous entries that are unused in any particular image. This approach re-quires more work, ﬁrst in choosing the palette, and second in mapping individual pixels to the closest avail-able color. PNG allows the encoder to supply suggested palettes, but not all encoders will do so, and thesuggested palettes may be unsuitable in any case (they may have too many or too few colors). High-qualityviewers will therefore need to have a palette selection routine at hand. A large lookup table is usually themost feasible way of mapping individual pixels to palette entries with adequate speed.Numerous implementations of color quantization are available. The PNG reference implementation, libpng,includes code for the purpose.10.4 Sample depth rescalingDecoders may wish to scale PNG data to a lesser sample depth (data precision) for display. For example,16-bit data will need to be reduced to 8-bit depth for use on most present-day display hardware. Reductionof 8-bit data to 5-bit depth is also common.The most accurate scaling is achieved by the linear equation output = ROUND(input * MAXOUTSAMPLE / MAXINSAMPLE)where MAXINSAMPLE = 2sampledepth − 1 MAXOUTSAMPLE = 2desired sampledepth − 1A slightly less accurate conversion is achieved by simply shifting right bysampledepth - desired sampledepth places. For example, to reduce 16-bit samples to 8-bit,one need only discard the low-order byte. In many situations the shift method is sufﬁciently accurate fordisplay purposes, and it is certainly much faster. (But if gamma correction is being done, sample rescalingcan be merged into the gamma correction lookup table, as is illustrated in Decoder gamma handling, Section10.5.)

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECODERS 51When an sBIT chunk is present, the original pre-PNG data can be recovered by shifting right to the sampledepth speciﬁed by sBIT. Note that linear scaling will not necessarily reproduce the original data, becausethe encoder is not required to have used linear scaling to scale the data up. However, the encoder is requiredto have used a method that preserves the high-order bits, so shifting always works. This is the only case inwhich shifting might be said to be more accurate than linear scaling.When comparing pixel values to tRNS chunk values to detect transparent pixels, it is necessary to do thecomparison exactly. Therefore, transparent pixel detection must be done before reducing sample precision.10.5 Decoder gamma handlingSee Gamma Tutorial (Chapter 13) if you aren’t already familiar with gamma issues.Decoders capable of full-ﬂedged color management [ICC] will perform more sophisticated calculations thanwhat is described here. Otherwise, this section applies.For an image display program to produce correct tone reproduction, it is necessary to take into account therelationship between ﬁle samples and display output, and the transfer function of the display system. Thiscan be done by calculating sample = integer sample/(2bitdepth − 1.0) display output = sample(1.0/gamma) display input = inverse display transfer(display output) framebuf sample = ROUND(display input * MAX FRAMEBUF SAMPLE)where integer sample is the sample value from the ﬁle, framebuf sample is the value to write intothe frame buffer, and MAX FRAMEBUF SAMPLE is the maximum value of a frame buffer sample (255 for8-bit, 31 for 5-bit, etc). The ﬁrst line converts an integer sample into a normalized 0-to-1 ﬂoating-point value,the second converts to a value proportional to the desired display output intensity, the third accounts for thedisplay system’s transfer function, and the fourth converts to an integer frame buffer sample.A step could be inserted between the second and third to adjust display output to account for the differ-ence between the actual viewing conditions and the reference viewing conditions. However, this adjustmentrequires accounting for veiling glare, black mapping, and color appearance models, none of which can bewell approximated by power functions. The calculations are not described here. If viewing conditions areignored, the error will usually be small.Typically, the display transfer function can be approximated by a power function with exponentdisplay exponent, in which case the second and third lines can be merged into display input = sample(1.0/(gamma∗display exponent)) = sampledecoding exponentso as to perform only one power calculation. For color images, the entire calculation is performed separatelyfor R, G, and B values.

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52 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONThe value of gamma can be taken directly from the gAMA chunk. Alternatively, an application may wish toallow the user to adjust the appearance of the displayed image by inﬂuencing the value of gamma. For exam-ple, the user could manually set a parameter called user exponent that defaults to 1.0, and the applicationcould set gamma = gamma from file / user exponent decoding exponent = 1.0 / (gamma * display exponent) = user exponent / (gamma from file * display exponent)The user would set user exponent greater than 1 to darken the mid-level tones, or less than 1 to lightenthem.It is not necessary to perform transcendental math for every pixel. Instead, compute a lookup table that givesthe correct output value for every possible sample value. This requires only 256 calculations per image (for8-bit accuracy), not one or three calculations per pixel. For an indexed-color image, a one-time correctionof the palette is sufﬁcient, unless the image uses transparency and is being displayed against a nonuniformbackground.If ﬂoating-point calculations are not possible, gamma correction tables can be computed using integer arith-metic and a precomputed table of logarithms. Example code appears in the “Extensions to the PNG Speciﬁ-cation” document [PNG-EXTENSIONS].When the incoming image has unknown gamma (gAMA, sRGB, and iCCP all absent), choose a likely defaultgamma value, but allow the user to select a new one if the result proves too dark or too light. The defaultgamma can depend on other knowledge about the image, like whether it came from the Internet or from thelocal system.In practice, it is often difﬁcult to determine what value of the display exponent should be used. In systemswith no built-in gamma correction, the display exponent is determined entirely by the CRT (cathode ray tube).Assume a CRT exponent of 2.2 unless detailed calibration measurements of this particular CRT are available.Many modern frame buffers have lookup tables that are used to perform gamma correction, and on thesesystems the display exponent value should be the exponent of the lookup table and CRT combined. Youmay not be able to ﬁnd out what the lookup table contains from within an image viewer application, so youmay have to ask the user what the display system’s exponent is. Unfortunately, different manufacturers usedifferent ways of specifying what should go into the lookup table, so interpretation of the system “gamma”value is system-dependent. The Gamma Tutorial (Chapter 13) gives some examples.The response of real displays is actually more complex than can be described by a single number (the displayexponent). If actual measurements of the monitor’s light output as a function of voltage input are available,the third and fourth lines of the computation above can be replaced by a lookup in these measurements, toﬁnd the actual frame buffer value that most nearly gives the desired brightness.10.6 Decoder color handlingSee Color Tutorial (Chapter 14) if you aren’t already familiar with color issues.

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECODERS 53In many cases, decoders will treat image data in PNG ﬁles as device-dependent RGB data and display itwithout modiﬁcation (except for appropriate gamma correction). This provides the fastest display of PNGimages. But unless the viewer uses exactly the same display hardware as the original image author used,the colors will not be exactly the same as the original author saw, particularly for darker or near-neutral col-ors. The cHRM chunk provides information that allows closer color matching than that provided by gammacorrection alone.Decoders can use the cHRM data to transform the image data from RGB to CIE XYZ and thence into a per-ceptually linear color space such as CIE LAB. They can then partition the colors to generate an optimalpalette, because the geometric distance between two colors in CIE LAB is strongly related to how differentthose colors appear (unlike, for example, RGB or XYZ spaces). The resulting palette of colors, once trans-formed back into RGB color space, could be used for display or written into a PLTE chunk.Decoders that are part of image processing applications might also transform image data into CIE LAB spacefor analysis.In applications where color ﬁdelity is critical, such as product design, scientiﬁc visualization, medicine, ar-chitecture, or advertising, decoders can transform the image data from source RGB to the display RGB spaceof the monitor used to view the image. This involves calculating the matrix to go from source RGB to XYZand the matrix to go from XYZ to display RGB, then combining them to produce the overall transformation.The decoder is responsible for implementing gamut mapping.Decoders running on platforms that have a Color Management System (CMS) can pass the image data,gAMA, and cHRM values to the CMS for display or further processing.Decoders that provide color printing facilities can use the facilities in Level 2 PostScript to specify imagedata in calibrated RGB space or in a device-independent color space such as XYZ. This will provide bet-ter color ﬁdelity than a simple RGB to CMYK conversion. The PostScript Language Reference manual[POSTSCRIPT] gives examples. Such decoders are responsible for implementing gamut mapping betweensource RGB (speciﬁed in the cHRM chunk) and the target printer. The PostScript interpreter is then respon-sible for producing the required colors.Decoders can use the cHRM data to calculate an accurate grayscale representation of a color image. Con-version from RGB to gray is simply a case of calculating the Y (luminance) component of XYZ, which isa weighted sum of the R, G, and B values. The weights depend on the monitor type, i.e., the values in thecHRM chunk. Decoders may wish to do this for PNG ﬁles with no cHRM chunk. In that case, a reasonabledefault would be the CCIR 709 primaries [ITU-R-BT709]. Do not use the original NTSC primaries, unlessyou really do have an image color-balanced for such a monitor. Few monitors ever used the NTSC primaries,so such images are probably nonexistent these days.10.7 Background colorThe background color given by bKGD will typically be used to ﬁll unused screen space around the image, aswell as any transparent pixels within the image. (Thus, bKGD is valid and useful even when the image doesnot use transparency.) If no bKGD chunk is present, the viewer will need to make its own decision about asuitable background color.

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54 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONViewers that have a speciﬁc background against which to present the image (such as Web browsers) shouldignore the bKGD chunk, in effect overriding bKGD with their preferred background color or backgroundimage.The background color given by bKGD is not to be considered transparent, even if it happens to match thecolor given by tRNS (or, in the case of an indexed-color image, refers to a palette index that is marked astransparent by tRNS). Otherwise one would have to imagine something “behind the background” to com-posite against. The background color is either used as background or ignored; it is not an intermediate layerbetween the PNG image and some other background.Indeed, it will be common that bKGD and tRNS specify the same color, since then a decoder that does not im-plement transparency processing will give the intended display, at least when no partially-transparent pixelsare present.10.8 Alpha channel processingIn the most general case, the alpha channel can be used to composite a foreground image against a backgroundimage; the PNG ﬁle deﬁnes the foreground image and the transparency mask, but not the background image.Decoders are not required to support this most general case. It is expected that most will be able to supportcompositing against a single background color, however.The equation for computing a composited sample value is output = alpha * foreground + (1-alpha) * backgroundwhere the alpha value and the input and output sample values are expressed as fractions in the range 0 to1. This computation should be performed with intensity samples (not gamma-encoded samples). For colorimages, the computation is done separately for R, G, and B samples.The following code illustrates the general case of compositing a foreground image over a background image.It assumes that you have the original pixel data available for the background image, and that output is to aframe buffer for display. Other variants are possible; see the comments below the code. The code allows thesample depths and gamma values of foreground and background images to be different, and not necessarilysuited to the display system. Don’t assume everything is the same without checking.This code is standard C, with line numbers added for reference in the comments below: 01 int foreground[4]; /* image pixel: R, G, B, A */ 02 int background[3]; /* background pixel: R, G, B */ 03 int fbpix[3]; /* frame buffer pixel */ 04 int fg maxsample; /* foreground max sample */ 05 int bg maxsample; /* background max sample */ 06 int fb maxsample; /* frame buffer max sample */ 07 int ialpha; 08 float alpha, compalpha; 09 float gamfg, linfg, gambg, linbg, comppix, gcvideo;

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56 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION 29 linfg = pow(gamfg, 1.0/fg gamma); 30 gambg = (float) background[i] / bg maxsample; 31 linbg = pow(gambg, 1.0/bg gamma); /* * Composite. */ 32 comppix = linfg * alpha + linbg * compalpha; /* * Gamma correct for display. * Convert to integer frame buffer pixel. */ 33 gcvideo = pow(comppix, 1.0/display exponent); 34 fbpix[i] = (int) (gcvideo * fb maxsample + 0.5); 35 } 36 }Variations: 1. If output is to another PNG image ﬁle instead of a frame buffer, lines 21, 22, 33, and 34 should be changed to be something like: /* * Gamma encode for storage in output file. * Convert to integer sample value. */ gamout = pow(comppix, outfile gamma); outpix[i] = (int) (gamout * out maxsample + 0.5); Also, it becomes necessary to process background pixels when alpha is zero, rather than just skipping pixels. Thus, line 15 will need to be replaced by copies of lines 17–23, but processing background instead of foreground pixel values. 2. If the sample depths of the output ﬁle, foreground ﬁle, and background ﬁle are all the same, and the three gamma values also match, then the no-compositing code in lines 14–23 reduces to nothing more than copying pixel values from the input ﬁle to the output ﬁle if alpha is one, or copying pixel values from background to output ﬁle if alpha is zero. Since alpha is typically either zero or one for the vast majority of pixels in an image, this is a great savings. No gamma computations are needed for most pixels. 3. When the sample depths and gamma values all match, it may appear attractive to skip the gamma de- coding and encoding (lines 28–31, 33–34) and just perform line 32 using gamma-encoded sample val- ues. Although this doesn’t hurt image quality too badly, the time savings are small if alpha values of zero and one are special-cased as recommended here. 4. If the original pixel values of the background image are no longer available, only processed frame buffer pixels left by display of the background image, then lines 30 and 31 need to extract intensity from the frame buffer pixel values using code like:

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECODERS 57 /* * Convert frame buffer value into intensity sample. */ gcvideo = (float) fbpix[i] / fb maxsample; linbg = pow(gcvideo, display exponent); However, some roundoff error can result, so it is better to have the original background pixels available if at all possible. 5. Note that lines 18–22 are performing exactly the same gamma computation that is done when no alpha channel is present. So, if you handle the no-alpha case with a lookup table, you can use the same lookup table here. Lines 28–31 and 33–34 can also be done with (different) lookup tables. 6. Of course, everything here can be done in integer arithmetic. Just be careful to maintain sufﬁcient precision all the way through.Note: in ﬂoating-point arithmetic, no overﬂow or underﬂow checks are needed, because the input samplevalues are guaranteed to be between 0 and 1, and compositing always yields a result that is in between theinput values (inclusive). With integer arithmetic, some roundoff-error analysis might be needed to guaranteeno overﬂow or underﬂow.When displaying a PNG image with full alpha channel, it is important to be able to composite the imageagainst some background, even if it’s only black. Ignoring the alpha channel will cause PNG images thathave been converted from an associated-alpha representation to look wrong. (Of course, if the alpha channelis a separate transparency mask, then ignoring alpha is a useful option: it allows the hidden parts of the imageto be recovered.)Even if the decoder author does not wish to implement true compositing logic, it is simple to deal with imagesthat contain only zero and one alpha values. (This is implicitly true for grayscale and truecolor PNG ﬁles thatuse a tRNS chunk; for indexed-color PNG ﬁles, it is easy to check whether tRNS contains any values otherthan 0 and 255.) In this simple case, transparent pixels are replaced by the background color, while othersare unchanged.If a decoder contains only this much transparency capability, it should deal with a full alpha channel by con-verting it to a binary alpha channel, either by treating all nonzero alpha values as fully opaque or by dithering.Neither approach will yield very good results for images converted from associated-alpha formats, but it’sbetter than doing nothing. Dithering full alpha to binary alpha is very much like dithering grayscale to black-and-white, except that all fully transparent and fully opaque pixels should be left unchanged by the dither.10.9 Progressive displayWhen receiving images over slow transmission links, decoders can improve perceived performance by dis-playing interlaced images progressively. This means that as each pass is received, an approximation to thecomplete image is displayed based on the data received so far. One simple yet pleasing effect can be obtainedby expanding each received pixel to ﬁll a rectangle covering the yet-to-be-transmitted pixel positions belowand to the right of the received pixel. This process can be described by the following pseudocode:

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58 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION Starting Row [1..7] = { 0, 0, 4, 0, 2, 0, 1 } Starting Col [1..7] = { 0, 4, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0 } Row Increment [1..7] = { 8, 8, 8, 4, 4, 2, 2 } Col Increment [1..7] = { 8, 8, 4, 4, 2, 2, 1 } Block Height [1..7] = { 8, 8, 4, 4, 2, 2, 1 } Block Width [1..7] = { 8, 4, 4, 2, 2, 1, 1 } pass := 1 while pass <= 7 begin row := Starting Row[pass] while row < height begin col := Starting Col[pass] while col < width begin visit (row, col, min (Block Height[pass], height - row), min (Block Width[pass], width - col)) col := col + Col Increment[pass] end row := row + Row Increment[pass] end pass := pass + 1 endHere, the function visit(row,column,height,width) obtains the next transmitted pixel and paintsa rectangle of the speciﬁed height and width, whose upper-left corner is at the speciﬁed row and column, usingthe color indicated by the pixel. Note that row and column are measured from 0,0 at the upper left corner.If the decoder is merging the received image with a background image, it may be more convenient just topaint the received pixel positions; that is, the visit() function sets only the pixel at the speciﬁed row andcolumn, not the whole rectangle. This produces a “fade-in” effect as the new image gradually replaces theold. An advantage of this approach is that proper alpha or transparency processing can be done as each pixelis replaced. Painting a rectangle as described above will overwrite background-image pixels that may beneeded later, if the pixels eventually received for those positions turn out to be wholly or partially transparent.Of course, this is a problem only if the background image is not stored anywhere offscreen.10.10 Suggested-palette and histogram usageFor viewers running on indexed-color hardware trying to display a truecolor image, or an indexed-color im-age whose palette is too large for the framebuffer, the encoder may have provided one or more suggestedpalettes in sPLT chunks. If one of them is found to be suitable, based on its size and perhaps its name, the

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10. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DECODERS 59decoder can use that palette. Note that suggested palettes with a sample depth different from what the de-coder needs can be converted using sample depth rescaling (See Recommendations for Decoders: Sampledepth rescaling, Section 10.4).When the background is a solid color, the decoder should composite the image and the suggested paletteagainst that color, then quantize the resulting image to the resulting RGB palette. When the image uses trans-parency and the background is not a solid color, no suggested palette is likely to be useful.For truecolor images, a suggested palette might also be provided in a PLTE chunk. If the image has a tRNSchunk and the background is a solid color, the viewer can adapt the suggested paletted for use with this back-ground color. To do this, replace the palette entry closest to the tRNS color with the background color, orjust add a palette entry for the background color if the viewer can handle more colors than there are paletteentries.For images of color type 6 (truecolor with alpha channel), any PLTE chunk should have been designed fordisplay of the image against a uniform background of the color speciﬁed by bKGD. Viewers should probablyignore the palette if they intend to use a different background, or if the bKGD chunk is missing. Viewers canuse the suggested palette for display against a different background than it was intended for, but the resultsmay not be very good.If the viewer presents a transparent truecolor image against a background that is more complex than a singlecolor, it is unlikely that the PLTE chunk will be optimal for the composite image. In this case it is best toperform a truecolor compositing step on the truecolor PNG image and background image, then color-quantizethe resulting image.In truecolor PNG ﬁles, if both PLTE and sPLT appear, the decoder can choose from among the palettes sug-gested by both, bearing in mind the different transparency semantics mentioned above.The frequencies in sPLT and hIST chunks are useful when the viewer cannot provide as many colors as areused in the palette. If the viewer is short only a few colors, it is usually adequate to drop the least-used colorsfrom the palette. To reduce the number of colors substantially, it’s best to choose entirely new representativecolors, rather than trying to use a subset of the existing palette. This amounts to performing a new colorquantization step; however, the existing palette and frequencies can be used as the input data, thus avoidinga scan of the image data.If no suggested palettes are provided, a decoder can develop its own, at the cost of an extra pass over theimage data. Alternatively, a default palette (probably a color cube) can be used.See also Recommendations for Encoders: Suggested palettes (Section 9.5).10.11 Text chunk processingIf practical, decoders should have a way to display to the user all text chunks found in the ﬁle. Even if thedecoder does not recognize a particular text keyword, the user might be able to understand it.Text in the tEXt and zTXt chunks is not supposed to contain any characters outside the ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1)character set (that is, no codes 0–31 or 127–159), except for the newline character (decimal 10). But decoders

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60 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONmight encounter such characters anyway. Some of these characters can be safely displayed (e.g., TAB, FF,and CR, decimal 9, 12, and 13, respectively), but others, especially the ESC character (decimal 27), couldpose a security hazard because unexpected actions may be taken by display hardware or software. To preventsuch hazards, decoders should not attempt to directly display any non-Latin-1 characters (except for newlineand perhaps TAB, FF, CR) encountered in a tEXt or zTXt chunk. Instead, ignore them or display them in avisible notation such as “nnn”. See Security considerations (Section 8.5).Even though encoders are supposed to represent newlines as LF, it is recommended that decoders not rely onthis; it’s best to recognize all the common newline combinations (CR, LF, and CR-LF) and display each as asingle newline. TAB can be expanded to the proper number of spaces needed to arrive at a column multipleof 8.Decoders running on systems with non-Latin-1 character set encoding should provide character code remap-ping so that Latin-1 characters are displayed correctly. Some systems may not provide all the charactersdeﬁned in Latin-1. Mapping unavailable characters to a visible notation such as “nnn” is a good fallback.In particular, character codes 127–255 should be displayed only if they are printable characters on the de-coding system. Some systems may interpret such codes as control characters; for security, decoders runningon such systems should not display such characters literally.Decoders should be prepared to display text chunks that contain any number of printing characters betweennewline characters, even though encoders are encouraged to avoid creating lines in excess of 79 characters.11 Glossaryab Exponentiation; a raised to the power b. Note that zero raised to any positive power is zero.Alpha A value representing a pixel’s degree of transparency. The more transparent a pixel, the less it hides the background against which the image is presented. In PNG, alpha is really the degree of opacity: zero alpha represents a completely transparent pixel, maximum alpha represents a completely opaque pixel. But most people refer to alpha as providing transparency information, not opacity information, and we continue that custom here.Ancillary chunk A chunk that provides additional information. A decoder can still produce a meaningful image, though not necessarily the best possible image, without processing the chunk.Bit depth The number of bits per palette index (in indexed-color PNGs) or per sample (in other color types). This is the same value that appears in IHDR.Byte Eight bits; also called an octet.

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11. GLOSSARY 61Channel The set of all samples of the same kind within an image; for example, all the blue samples in a truecolor image. (The term “component” is also used, but not in this speciﬁcation.) A sample is the intersection of a channel and a pixel.Chromaticity A pair of values x,y that precisely specify a color, except for the brightness information.Chunk A section of a PNG ﬁle. Each chunk has a type indicated by its chunk type name. Most types of chunks also include some data. The format and meaning of the data within the chunk are determined by the type name.CIE ´ International Commission on Illumination (Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage).CIE XYZ A device-independent color space in which each component is the sum of a weighted power distribution over the visible spectrum. The Y component is luminence (see below).CIE LAB A perceptually linear color space.Composite As a verb, to form an image by merging a foreground image and a background image, using transparency information to determine where the background should be visible. The foreground image is said to be “composited against” the background.CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check. A CRC is a type of check value designed to catch most transmis- sion errors. A decoder calculates the CRC for the received data and compares it to the CRC that the encoder calculated, which is appended to the data. A mismatch indicates that the data was corrupted in transit.Critical chunk A chunk that must be understood and processed by the decoder in order to produce a meaning- ful image from a PNG ﬁle.CRT Cathode Ray Tube: a common type of computer display hardware.Datastream A sequence of bytes. This term is used rather than “ﬁle” to describe a byte sequence that is only a portion of a ﬁle. We also use it to emphasize that a PNG image might be generated and consumed “on-the-ﬂy”, never appearing in a stored ﬁle at all.Deﬂate The name of the compression algorithm used in standard PNG ﬁles, as well as in zip, gzip,

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62 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION pkzip, and other compression programs. Deﬂate is a member of the LZ77 family of compression methods.Filter A transformation applied to image data in hopes of improving its compressibility. PNG uses only lossless (reversible) ﬁlter algorithms.Frame buffer The ﬁnal digital storage area for the image shown by a computer display. Software causes an image to appear onscreen by loading it into the frame buffer.Gamma Informally, a measure of the brightness of mid-level tones in an image. Outside this speciﬁca- tion, the term “gamma” is often used as the exponent of a power function that is the transfer function of any stage(s) of an imaging pipeline: output = inputgamma where both input and output are scaled to the range 0 to 1. Within this speciﬁcation, gamma refers speciﬁcally to the function from display output to image samples.Grayscale An image representation in which each pixel is represented by a single sample value represent- ing overall luminance (on a scale from black to white). PNG also permits an alpha sample to be stored for each pixel of a grayscale image.Indexed color An image representation in which each pixel is represented by a single sample that is an index into a palette or lookup table. The selected palette entry deﬁnes the actual color of the pixel.Intensity Power per unit area of light entering or leaving a surface. It is often normalized to the range 0 to 1 by dividing by a maximum intensity.Lossless compression Any method of data compression that guarantees the original data can be reconstructed exactly, bit-for-bit.Lossy compression Any method of data compression that reconstructs the original data approximately, rather than exactly.LSB Least Signiﬁcant Byte of a multi-byte value.Luminance Perceived brightness, or grayscale level, of a color. Luminance and chromaticity together fully deﬁne a perceived color.

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11. GLOSSARY 63LUT Look Up Table. In general, a table used to transform data. In frame buffer hardware, a LUT can be used to map indexed-color pixels into a selected set of truecolor values, or to perform gamma correction. In software, a LUT can be used as a fast way of implementing any one-variable mathematical function.MSB Most Signiﬁcant Byte of a multi-byte value.Palette The set of colors available in an indexed-color image. In PNG, a palette is an array of colors deﬁned by red, green, and blue samples. (Alpha values can also be deﬁned for palette entries, via the tRNS chunk.)Pixel The information stored for a single grid point in the image. The complete image is a rectangu- lar array of pixels.PNG editor A program that modiﬁes a PNG ﬁle and preserves ancillary information, including chunks that it does not recognize. Such a program must obey the rules given in Chunk Ordering Rules (Chapter 7).Sample A single number in the image data; for example, the red value of a pixel. A pixel is composed of one or more samples. When discussing physical data layout (in particular, in Image layout, Section 2.3), we use “sample” to mean a number stored in the image array. It would be more precise but much less readable to say “sample or palette index” in that context. Elsewhere in the speciﬁcation, “sample” means a color value or alpha value. In the indexed-color case, these are palette entries not palette indexes.Sample depth The precision, in bits, of color values and alpha values. In indexed-color PNGs the sample depth is always 8 by deﬁnition of the PLTE chunk. In other color types it is the same as the bit depth.Scanline One horizontal row of pixels within an image.Truecolor An image representation in which pixel colors are deﬁned by storing three samples for each pixel, representing red, green, and blue intensities respectively. PNG also permits an alpha sample to be stored for each pixel of a truecolor image.White point The chromaticity of a computer display’s nominal white value.zlib A particular format for data that has been compressed using deﬂate-style compression. Also

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64 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION the name of a library implementing this method. PNG implementations need not use the zlib library, but they must conform to its format for compressed data.12 Appendix: Rationale(This appendix is not part of the formal PNG speciﬁcation.)This appendix gives the reasoning behind some of the design decisions in PNG. Many of these decisions werethe subject of considerable debate. The authors freely admit that another group might have made differentdecisions; however, we believe that our choices are defensible and consistent.12.1 Why a new ﬁle format?Does the world really need yet another graphics format? We believe so. GIF is no longer freely usable, butno other commonly used format can directly replace it, as is discussed in more detail below. We might haveused an adaptation of an existing format, for example GIF with an unpatented compression scheme. But thiswould require new code anyway; it would not be all that much easier to implement than a whole new ﬁleformat. (PNG is designed to be simple to implement, with the exception of the compression engine, whichwould be needed in any case.) We feel that this is an excellent opportunity to design a new format that ﬁxessome of the known limitations of GIF.12.2 Why these features?The features chosen for PNG are intended to address the needs of applications that previously used the specialstrengths of GIF. In particular, GIF is well adapted for online communications because of its streamabilityand progressive display capability. PNG shares those attributes.We have also addressed some of the widely known shortcomings of GIF. In particular, PNG supports true-color images. We know of no widely used image format that losslessly compresses truecolor images as ef-fectively as PNG does. We hope that PNG will make use of truecolor images more practical and widespread.Some form of transparency control is desirable for applications in which images are displayed against a back-ground or together with other images. GIF provided a simple transparent-color speciﬁcation for this purpose.PNG supports a full alpha channel as well as transparent-color speciﬁcations. This allows both highly ﬂexibletransparency and compression efﬁciency.Robustness against transmission errors has been an important consideration. For example, images transferredacross the Internet are often mistakenly processed as text, leading to ﬁle corruption. PNG is designed so thatsuch errors can be detected quickly and reliably.PNG has been expressly designed not to be completely dependent on a single compression technique. Al-though deﬂate/inﬂate compression is mentioned in this document, PNG would still exist without it.

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12. APPENDIX: RATIONALE 6512.3 Why not these features?Some features have been deliberately omitted from PNG. These choices were made to simplify implemen-tation of PNG, promote portability and interchangeability, and make the format as simple and foolproof aspossible for users. In particular: • There is no uncompressed variant of PNG. It is possible to store uncompressed data by using only un- compressed deﬂate blocks (a feature normally used to guarantee that deﬂate does not make incompress- ible data much larger). However, PNG software must support full deﬂate/inﬂate; any software that does not is not compliant with the PNG standard. The two most important features of PNG—portability and compression—are absolute requirements for online applications, and users demand them. Failure to support full deﬂate/inﬂate compromises both of these objectives. • There is no lossy compression in PNG. Existing formats such as JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) already handle lossy compression well. Furthermore, available lossy compression methods, e.g., the JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) algorithm, are far from foolproof—a poor choice of quality level can ruin an image. To avoid user confusion and unintentional loss of information, we feel it is best to keep lossy and lossless formats strictly separate. Also, lossy compression is complex to implement. Adding JPEG support to a PNG decoder might signiﬁcantly increase its size, causing some decoders to omit support for the feature, which would erode our goal of interchangeability. • There is no support for CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, blacK) or other unusual color spaces. Again, this is in the name of promoting portability. CMYK, in particular, is far too device-dependent to be useful as a portable image representation. • There is no standard chunk for thumbnail views of images. In discussions with software vendors who use thumbnails in their products, it has become clear that most would not use a “standard” thumbnail chunk. For one thing, every vendor has a different idea of what the dimensions and characteristics of a thumbnail ought to be. Also, some vendors keep thumbnails in separate ﬁles to accommodate varied image formats; they are not going to stop doing that simply because of a thumbnail chunk in one new format. Proprietary chunks containing vendor-speciﬁc thumbnails appear to be more practical than a common thumbnail format.It is worth noting that private extensions to PNG could easily add these features. We will not, however, in-clude them as part of the basic PNG standard.PNG also does not support multiple images in one ﬁle. This restriction is a reﬂection of the reality that manyapplications do not need and will not support multiple images per ﬁle. In any case, single images are a funda-mentally different sort of object from sequences of images. Rather than make false promises of interchange-ability, we have drawn a clear distinction between single-image and multi-image formats. PNG is a single-image format. (But see Multiple-image extension, Section 8.4.)

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66 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION12.4 Why not use format X?We considered numerous existing formats before deciding to develop PNG. None could meet the require-ments that we felt were important for PNG.GIF is no longer suitable as a universal standard because of legal entanglements. Although just replacingGIF’s compression method would avoid that problem, GIF does not support truecolor images, alpha channels,or gamma correction. The spec has more subtle problems too. Only a small subset of the GIF89 spec isactually portable across a variety of implementations, but there is no codiﬁcation of the most portable partof the spec.TIFF (the Tagged Image File Format) is far too complex to meet our goals of simplicity and interchange-ability. Deﬁning a TIFF subset would meet that objection, but would frustrate users making the reasonableassumption that a ﬁle saved as TIFF from their existing software would load into a program supporting ourﬂavor of TIFF. Furthermore, TIFF is not designed for stream processing, has no provision for progressivedisplay, and does not currently provide any good, legally unencumbered, lossless compression method.IFF has also been suggested, but is not suitable in detail: available image representations are too machine-speciﬁc or not adequately compressed. The overall chunk structure of IFF is a useful concept that PNG hasliberally borrowed from, but we did not attempt to be bit-for-bit compatible with IFF chunk structure. Againthis is due to detailed issues, notably the fact that IFF FORMs are not designed to be serially writable.Lossless JPEG is not suitable because it does not provide for the storage of indexed-color images. Further-more, its lossless truecolor compression is often inferior to that of PNG.12.5 Byte orderIt has been asked why PNG uses network byte order. We have selected one byte ordering and used it consis-tently. Which order in particular is of little relevance, but network byte order has the advantage that routinesto convert to and from it are already available on any platform that supports TCP/IP networking, includingall PC platforms. The functions are trivial and will be included in the reference implementation.12.6 InterlacingPNG’s two-dimensional interlacing scheme is more complex to implement than GIF’s line-wise interlacing.It also costs a little more in ﬁle size. However, it yields an initial image eight times faster than GIF (the ﬁrstpass transmits only 1/64th of the pixels, compared to 1/8th for GIF). Although this initial image is coarse,it is useful in many situations. For example, if the image is a World Wide Web imagemap that the user hasseen before, PNG’s ﬁrst pass is often enough to determine where to click. The PNG scheme also looks betterthan GIF’s, because horizontal and vertical resolution never differ by more than a factor of two; this avoidsthe odd “stretched” look seen when interlaced GIFs are ﬁlled in by replicating scanlines. Preliminary resultsshow that small text in an interlaced PNG image is typically readable about twice as fast as in an equivalentGIF, i.e., after PNG’s ﬁfth pass or 25% of the image data, instead of after GIF’s third pass or 50%. This isagain due to PNG’s more balanced increase in resolution.

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12. APPENDIX: RATIONALE 6712.7 Why gamma?It might seem natural to standardize on storing sample values proportional to display output intensity (thatis, have gamma of 1.0). But in fact, it is common for images to have a gamma of less than 1. There are threegood reasons for this: • CRTs have a transfer function with an exponent of 2.2, and video signals are designed to be sent directly to CRTs. Therefore, images obtained by frame-grabbing video already have a gamma of 1/2.2. • The human eye has a nonlinear response to intensity, so linear encoding of samples either wastes sam- ple codes in bright areas of the image, or provides too few sample codes to avoid banding artifacts in dark areas of the image, or both. At least 12 bits per sample are needed to avoid visible artifacts in linear encoding with a 100:1 image intensity range. An image gamma in the range 0.3 to 0.5 allocates sample values in a way that roughly corresponds to the eye’s response, so that 8 bits/sample are enough to avoid artifacts caused by insufﬁcient sample precision in almost all images. This makes “gamma encoding” a much better way of storing digital images than the simpler linear encoding. • Many images are created on PCs or workstations with no gamma correction hardware and no software willing to provide gamma correction either. In these cases, the images have had their lighting and color chosen to look best on this platform—they can be thought of as having “manual” gamma correction built in. To see what the image author intended, it is necessary to treat such images as having a gamma value of 1/2.2 (assuming the author was using a CRT).In practice, image gamma values around 1.0, 1/2.2, and 1/1.45 are all widely found. Older image standardssuch as GIF and JFIF often do not account for this fact. The exchange of images among a variety of systemshas led to widespread problems with images appearing “too dark” or “too light”.PNG expects viewers to compensate for image gamma at the time that the image is displayed. Another pos-sible approach is to expect encoders to convert all images to a uniform gamma at encoding time. While thatmethod would speed viewers slightly, it has fundamental ﬂaws: • Gamma correction is inherently lossy due to quantization and roundoff error. Requiring conversion at encoding time thus causes irreversible loss. Since PNG is intended to be a lossless storage format, this is undesirable; we should store unmodiﬁed source data. • The encoder might not know the source gamma value. If the decoder does gamma correction at viewing time, it can adjust the gamma (change the displayed brightness) in response to feedback from a human user. The encoder has no such recourse. • Whatever “standard” gamma we settled on would be wrong for some displays. Hence viewers would still need gamma correction capability.Since there will always be images with no gamma or an incorrect recorded gamma, good viewers will needto incorporate gamma adjustment code anyway. Gamma correction at viewing time is thus the right way togo.

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68 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONHistorical note: Version 1.0 of this speciﬁcation used the gAMA chunk to express the relationship betweenthe ﬁle samples and the “original scene intensity” (camera input) rather than the desired display output in-tensity. This was changed in version 1.1 for the following reasons: • The decoder needs to know the desired display output in order to do its job, but there was not enough information in the ﬁle to convert from the original scene to the display output. The version 1.0 speci- ﬁcation claimed that the conversion depended only on viewing conditions at the display, but that was an error; it also depends on conditions at the camera. • Faithful reproduction of the original scene is not always the goal. Sometimes deliberate distortion is desired. • For hand-drawn images there is no “original scene”.Because the gamma-related recommendations in version 1.0 were imprecise, it was not clear what value toput in a gAMA chunk in common situations. For an image drawn on a CRT display with no LUT underunknown viewing conditions, an argument could be made for any value between 40000 and 50000. Real ap-plications were observed to write 45000 or 45455, and the latter is recommended by the current speciﬁcation.See Gamma Tutorial (Chapter 13) for more information.12.8 Non-premultiplied alphaPNG uses “unassociated” or “non-premultiplied” alpha so that images with separate transparency masks canbe stored losslessly. Another common technique, “premultiplied alpha”, stores pixel values premultiplied bythe alpha fraction; in effect, the image is already composited against a black background. Any image datahidden by the transparency mask is irretrievably lost by that method, since multiplying by a zero alpha valuealways produces zero.Some image rendering techniques generate images with premultiplied alpha (the alpha value actually rep-resents how much of the pixel is covered by the image). This representation can be converted to PNG bydividing the sample values by alpha, except where alpha is zero. The result will look good if displayed by aviewer that handles alpha properly, but will not look very good if the viewer ignores the alpha channel.Although each form of alpha storage has its advantages, we did not want to require all PNG viewers to handleboth forms. We standardized on non-premultiplied alpha as being the lossless and more general case.12.9 FilteringPNG includes ﬁltering capability because ﬁltering can signiﬁcantly reduce the compressed size of truecolorand grayscale images. Filtering is also sometimes of value on indexed-color images, although this is lesscommon.The ﬁlter algorithms are deﬁned to operate on bytes, rather than pixels; this gains simplicity and speed withvery little cost in compression performance. Tests have shown that ﬁltering is usually ineffective for images

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12. APPENDIX: RATIONALE 69with fewer than 8 bits per sample, so providing pixelwise ﬁltering for such images would be pointless. For16 bit/sample data, bytewise ﬁltering is nearly as effective as pixelwise ﬁltering, because MSBs are predictedfrom adjacent MSBs, and LSBs are predicted from adjacent LSBs.The encoder is allowed to change ﬁlters for each new scanline. This creates no additional complexity fordecoders, since a decoder is required to contain deﬁltering logic for every ﬁlter type anyway. The only costis an extra byte per scanline in the pre-compression datastream. Our tests showed that when the same ﬁlteris selected for all scanlines, this extra byte compresses away to almost nothing, so there is little storage costcompared to a ﬁxed ﬁlter speciﬁed for the whole image. And the potential beneﬁts of adaptive ﬁltering are toogreat to ignore. Even with the simplistic ﬁlter-choice heuristics so far discovered, adaptive ﬁltering usuallyoutperforms ﬁxed ﬁlters. In particular, an adaptive ﬁlter can change behavior for successive passes of aninterlaced image; a ﬁxed ﬁlter cannot.12.10 Text stringsMost graphics ﬁle formats include the ability to store some textual information along with the image. Butmany applications need more than that: they want to be able to store several identiﬁable pieces of text. Forexample, a database using PNG ﬁles to store medical X-rays would likely want to include patient’s name,doctor’s name, etc. A simple way to do this in PNG would be to invent new private chunks holding text. Thedisadvantage of such an approach is that other applications would have no idea what was in those chunks,and would simply ignore them. Instead, we recommend that textual information be stored in standard textchunks with suitable keywords. Use of text tells any PNG viewer that the chunk contains text that might beof interest to a human user. Thus, a person looking at the ﬁle with another viewer will still be able to seethe text, and even understand what it is if the keywords are reasonably self-explanatory. (To this end, werecommend spelled-out keywords, not abbreviations that will be hard for a person to understand. Saving afew bytes on a keyword is false economy.)The ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) character set was chosen as a compromise between functionality and portability.Some platforms cannot display anything more than 7-bit ASCII characters, while others can handle charactersbeyond the Latin-1 set. We felt that Latin-1 represents a widely useful and reasonably portable character set.Latin-1 is a direct subset of character sets commonly used on popular platforms such as Microsoft Windowsand X Windows. It can also be handled on Macintosh systems with a simple remapping of characters.12.11 iTXtThis section gives the reasoning behind some of the design decisions in the iTXt chunk.Keyword: Why not Unicode?Unicode is too fancy for the keyword, which is intended for both machine and human consumption. Evenapplications without Unicode support should at least be able to understand the keyword (to selectively deletechunks, for example).

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70 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONKeyword: Latin-1 vs. ASCIIUTF-8 is used elsewhere in this chunk, and ASCII, unlike Latin-1, is compatible with UTF-8. There is atranslated keyword, so restricting the keyword to ASCII would not be a hardship. So why use Latin-1? Be-cause all other existing chunks containing keywords use Latin-1, so applications can reuse code they alreadycontain.Compression ﬂag and compression method: Why not combine them?We have deliberately avoided deﬁning a null compression method in the past (for tEXt/zTXt), so that therewould be no temptation to use it in IHDR.Language tag:It is not always clear how to render Unicode text unless it is known what language is represented by thetext. Also, multiple iTXt chunks containing the same message in different languages could be present, anda decoder could automatically select the one most appropriate for its user.Translated keyword:Registered keywords, like “Description”, are registered only once, in a single language (probably English),so that they can be recognized automatically. To be intelligible to speakers of another language, a translationmust be provided.Text: Unicode vs. MIME charset nameIncluding a MIME charset name would be more general, and allow the use of legacy character sets. Butsupport for Unicode is growing, and allowing only Unicode is conceptually simpler and likely to eventuallylead to greater interoperability.UTF-8 vs. UCS-2 vs. UCS-4UCS-2 is short-sighted. Neither UCS-2 nor UCS-4 is compatible with ASCII. UTF-8 is both backward com-patible with ASCII and forward compatible with UCS-4, and is generally the preferred encoding for inter-change (as opposed to internal representation).

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12. APPENDIX: RATIONALE 7112.12 PNG ﬁle signatureThe ﬁrst eight bytes of a PNG ﬁle always contain the following values: (decimal) 137 80 78 71 13 10 26 10 (hexadecimal) 89 50 4e 47 0d 0a 1a 0a (ASCII C notation) 211 P N G r n 032 nThis signature both identiﬁes the ﬁle as a PNG ﬁle and provides for immediate detection of common ﬁle-transfer problems. The ﬁrst two bytes distinguish PNG ﬁles on systems that expect the ﬁrst two bytes toidentify the ﬁle type uniquely. The ﬁrst byte is chosen as a non-ASCII value to reduce the probability thata text ﬁle may be misrecognized as a PNG ﬁle; also, it catches bad ﬁle transfers that clear bit 7. Bytes twothrough four name the format. The CR-LF sequence catches bad ﬁle transfers that alter newline sequences.The control-Z character stops ﬁle display under MS-DOS. The ﬁnal line feed checks for the inverse of theCR-LF translation problem.A decoder may further verify that the next eight bytes contain an IHDR chunk header with the correct chunklength; this will catch bad transfers that drop or alter null (zero) bytes.Note that there is no version number in the signature, nor indeed anywhere in the ﬁle. This is intentional: thechunk mechanism provides a better, more ﬂexible way to handle format extensions, as explained in Chunknaming conventions (Section 12.14).12.13 Chunk layoutThe chunk design allows decoders to skip unrecognized or uninteresting chunks: it is simply necessary toskip the appropriate number of bytes, as determined from the length ﬁeld.Limiting chunk length to 231 − 1 bytes avoids possible problems for implementations that cannot conve-niently handle 4-byte unsigned values. In practice, chunks will usually be much shorter than that anyway.A separate CRC is provided for each chunk in order to detect badly-transferred images as quickly as possible.In particular, critical data such as the image dimensions can be validated before being used.The chunk length is excluded from the CRC so that the CRC can be calculated as the data is generated; thisavoids a second pass over the data in cases where the chunk length is not known in advance. Excluding thelength from the CRC does not create any extra risk of failing to discover ﬁle corruption, since if the lengthis wrong, the CRC check will fail: the CRC will be computed on the wrong set of bytes and then be testedagainst the wrong value from the ﬁle.12.14 Chunk naming conventionsThe chunk naming conventions allow safe, ﬂexible extension of the PNG format. This mechanism is muchbetter than a format version number, because it works on a feature-by-feature basis rather than being an over-all indicator. Decoders can process newer ﬁles if and only if the ﬁles use no unknown critical features (as

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72 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONindicated by ﬁnding unknown critical chunks). Unknown ancillary chunks can be safely ignored. We de-cided against having an overall format version number because experience has shown that format versionnumbers hurt portability as much as they help. Version numbers tend to be set unnecessarily high, leadingto older decoders rejecting ﬁles that they could have processed (this was a serious problem for several yearsafter the GIF89 spec came out, for example). Furthermore, private extensions can be made either critical orancillary, and standard decoders should react appropriately; overall version numbers are no help for privateextensions.A hypothetical chunk for vector graphics would be a critical chunk, since if ignored, important parts of the in-tended image would be missing. A chunk carrying the Mandelbrot set coordinates for a fractal image wouldbe ancillary, since other applications could display the image without understanding what the image repre-sents. In general, a chunk type should be made critical only if it is impossible to display a reasonable repre-sentation of the intended image without interpreting that chunk.The public/private property bit ensures that any newly deﬁned public chunk type name cannot conﬂict withproprietary chunks that could be in use somewhere. However, this does not protect users of private chunknames from the possibility that someone else may use the same chunk name for a different purpose. It is agood idea to put additional identifying information at the start of the data for any private chunk type.When a PNG ﬁle is modiﬁed, certain ancillary chunks may need to be changed to reﬂect changes in otherchunks. For example, a histogram chunk needs to be changed if the image data changes. If the ﬁle editordoes not recognize histogram chunks, copying them blindly to a new output ﬁle is incorrect; such chunksshould be dropped. The safe/unsafe property bit allows ancillary chunks to be marked appropriately.Not all possible modiﬁcation scenarios are covered by the safe/unsafe semantics. In particular, chunks thatare dependent on the total ﬁle contents are not supported. (An example of such a chunk is an index of IDATchunk locations within the ﬁle: adding a comment chunk would inadvertently break the index.) Deﬁnitionof such chunks is discouraged. If absolutely necessary for a particular application, such chunks can be madecritical chunks, with consequent loss of portability to other applications. In general, ancillary chunks can de-pend on critical chunks but not on other ancillary chunks. It is expected that mutually dependent informationshould be put into a single chunk.In some situations it may be unavoidable to make one ancillary chunk dependent on another. Although thechunk property bits are insufﬁcient to represent this case, a simple solution is available: in the dependentchunk, record the CRC of the chunk depended on. It can then be determined whether that chunk has beenchanged by some other program.The same technique can be useful for other purposes. For example, if a program relies on the palette being ina particular order, it can store a private chunk containing the CRC of the PLTE chunk. If this value matcheswhen the ﬁle is again read in, then it provides high conﬁdence that the palette has not been tampered with.Note that it is not necessary to mark the private chunk unsafe-to-copy when this technique is used; thus, sucha private chunk can survive other editing of the ﬁle.

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13. APPENDIX: GAMMA TUTORIAL 7312.15 Palette histogramsA viewer may not be able to provide as many colors as are listed in the image’s palette. (For example, somecolors could be reserved by a window system.) To produce the best results in this situation, it is helpful tohave information about the frequency with which each palette index actually appears, in order to choose thebest palette for dithering or to drop the least-used colors. Since images are often created once and viewedmany times, it makes sense to calculate this information in the encoder, although it is not mandatory for theencoder to provide it.Other image formats have usually addressed this problem by specifying that the palette entries should appearin order of frequency of use. That is an inferior solution, because it doesn’t give the viewer nearly as muchinformation: the viewer can’t determine how much damage will be done by dropping the last few colors.Nor does a sorted palette give enough information to choose a target palette for dithering, in the case thatthe viewer needs to reduce the number of colors substantially. A palette histogram provides the informationneeded to choose such a target palette without making a pass over the image data.13 Appendix: Gamma Tutorial(This appendix is not part of the formal PNG speciﬁcation.)13.1 Nonlinear transfer functionsIt would be convenient for graphics programmers if all of the components of an imaging system were linear.The voltage coming from an electronic camera would be directly proportional to the intensity (power) oflight in the scene, the light emitted by a CRT would be directly proportional to its input voltage, and so on.However, real-world devices do not behave in this way. All CRT displays, almost all photographic ﬁlm, andmany electronic cameras have nonlinear signal-to-light-intensity or intensity-to-signal characteristics.Fortunately, all of these nonlinear devices have a transfer function that is approximated fairly well by a singletype of mathematical function: a power function. This power function has the general equation output = inputexponentThe exponent is often called “gamma” and denoted by the Greek letter gamma.By convention, input and output are both scaled to the range 0 to 1, with 0 representing black and 1 rep-resenting maximum white (or red, etc). Normalized in this way, the power function is completely describedby the exponent.So, given a particular device, we can measure its output as a function of its input, ﬁt a power function to thismeasured transfer function, and extract the exponent. People often say “this device has a gamma of 2.2” asa shorthand for “this device has a power-law response with an exponent of 2.2”. People also talk about thegamma of a mathematical transform, or of a lookup table in a frame buffer, if its input and output are relatedby the power-law expression above.

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74 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONBut using the term “gamma” to refer to the exponents of transfer functions of many different stages in imagingpipelines has led to confusion. Therefore, this speciﬁcation uses “gamma” to refer speciﬁcally to the functionfrom display output to image samples, and simply uses “exponent” when referring to other functions.13.2 Combining exponentsReal imaging systems will have several components, and more than one of these can be nonlinear. If all ofthe components have transfer characteristics that are power functions, then the transfer function of the entiresystem is also a power function. The exponent of the whole system’s transfer function is just the product ofall of the individual exponents of the separate stages in the system.Also, stages that are linear pose no problem, since a power function with an exponent of 1.0 is really a linearfunction. So a linear transfer function is just a special case of a power function, with an exponent of 1.0.Thus, as long as our imaging system contains only stages with linear and power-law transfer functions, wecan meaningfully talk about the exponent of the entire system. This is indeed the case with most real imagingsystems.13.3 End-to-end exponentIf the end-to-end exponent of an imaging system is 1.0, its output is proportional to its input. This meansthat the ratio between the intensities of any two areas in the reproduced image will be the same as it was inthe original scene. It might seem that this should always be the goal of an imaging system: to accuratelyreproduce the tones of the original scene. Alas, that is not the case.One complication is that the response of the human visual system to low light levels is not a scaled-downversion of its response to high light levels. Therefore, if the display device emits less intense light than enteredthe capture device (as is usually the case for television cameras and television sets, for example), an end-to-end linear response will not produce an image that appears correct. There are also other perceptual factors,like the affect of the ambient light level and the ﬁeld of view surrounding the display, and physical factors,like reﬂectance of ambient light off the display.Good end-to-end exponents are determined from experience. For example, for photographic prints it’s about1.0; for slides intended to be projected in a dark room it’s about 1.5; for television it’s about 1.14.13.4 CRT exponentAll CRT displays have a power-law transfer characteristic with an exponent of about 2.2. This is mainly dueto the physical processes involved in controlling the electron beam in the electron gun.An exception to this rule is fancy “calibrated” CRTs that have internal electronics to alter their transfer func-tion. If you have one of these, you probably should believe what the manufacturer tells you its exponent is.But in all other cases, assuming 2.2 is likely to be pretty accurate.

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13. APPENDIX: GAMMA TUTORIAL 75There are various images around that purport to measure a display system’s exponent, usually by comparingthe intensity of an area containing alternating white and black with a series of areas of continuous gray ofdifferent intensity. These are usually not reliable. Test images that use a “checkerboard” pattern of black andwhite are the worst, because a single white pixel will be reproduced considerably darker than a large area ofwhite. An image that uses alternating black and white horizontal lines (such as the gamma.png test image atftp://ftp.uu.net/graphics/png/images/suite/gamma.png) is much better, but even it may be inaccurate at high“picture” settings on some CRTs.If you have a good photometer, you can measure the actual light output of a CRT as a function of input voltageand ﬁt a power function to the measurements. However, note that this procedure is very sensitive to theCRT’s black level adjustment, somewhat sensitive to its picture adjustment, and also affected by ambientlight. Furthermore, CRTs spread some light from bright areas of an image into nearby darker areas; a singlebright spot against a black background may be seen to have a “halo”. Your measuring technique will needto minimize the effects of this.Because of the difﬁculty of measuring the exponent, using either test images or measuring equipment, you’reusually better off just assuming 2.2 rather than trying to measure it.13.5 Gamma correctionA CRT has an exponent of 2.2, and we can’t change that. To get an end-to-end exponent closer to 1, weneed to have at least one other component of the “image pipeline” that is nonlinear. If, in fact, there is onlyone nonlinear stage in addition to the CRT, then it’s traditional to say that the other nonlinear stage provides“gamma correction” to compensate for the CRT. However, exactly where the “correction” is done dependson circumstance.In all broadcast video systems, gamma correction is done in the camera. This choice was made because itwas more cost effective to place the expensive processing in the small number of capture devices (studiotelevision cameras) than in the large number of broadcast receivers. The original NTSC video standard re-quired cameras to have a transfer function with an exponent of 1/2.2, or about 0.45. Recently, a more complextwo-part transfer function has been adopted [SMPTE-170M], but its behavior can be well approximated by apower function with an exponent of 0.52. When the resulting image is displayed on a CRT with an exponentof 2.2, the end-to-end exponent is about 1.14, which has been found to be appropriate for typical televisionstudio conditions and television viewing conditions.These days, video signals are often digitized and stored in computer frame buffers. The digital image isintended to be sent through a CRT, which has exponent 2.2, so the image has a gamma of 1/2.2.Computer rendering programs often produce samples proportional to scene intensity. Suppose the desiredend-to-end exponent is near 1, and the program would like to write its samples directly into the frame buffer.For correct display, the CRT output intensity must be nearly proportional to the sample values in the framebuffer. This can be done with a special hardware lookup table between the frame buffer and the CRT hard-ware. The lookup table (often called LUT) is loaded with a mapping that implements a power function withan exponent near 1/2.2, providing “gamma correction” for the CRT gamma.

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76 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONThus, gamma correction sometimes happens before the frame buffer, sometimes after. As long as imagescreated on a particular platform are always displayed on that platform, everything is ﬁne. But when peopletry to exchange images, differences in gamma correction conventions often result in images that seem far toobright and washed out, or far too dark and contrasty.13.6 Beneﬁts of gamma encodingSo, is it better to do gamma correction before or after the frame buffer?In an ideal world, sample values would be stored as ﬂoating-point numbers, there would be lots of precision,and it wouldn’t really matter much. But in reality, we’re always trying to store images in as few bits as wecan.If we decide to use samples proportional to intensity, and do the gamma correction in the frame buffer LUT,it turns out that we need to use at least 12 bits for each of red, green, and blue to have enough precision inintensity. With any less than that, we will sometimes see “contour bands” or “Mach bands” in the darkerareas of the image, where two adjacent sample values are still far enough apart in intensity for the differenceto be visible.However, through an interesting coincidence, the human eye’s subjective perception of brightness is relatedto the physical stimulation of light intensity in a manner that is very much like the power function used forgamma correction. If we apply gamma correction to measured (or calculated) light intensity before quantiz-ing to an integer for storage in a frame buffer, we can get away with using many fewer bits to store the image.In fact, 8 bits per color is almost always sufﬁcient to avoid contouring artifacts. This is because, since gammacorrection is so closely related to human perception, we are assigning our 256 available sample codes to in-tensity values in a manner that approximates how visible those intensity changes are to the eye. Comparedto a linearly encoded image, we allocate fewer sample values to brighter parts of the tonal range and moresample values to the darker portions of the tonal range.Thus, for the same apparent image quality, images using gamma-encoded sample values need only abouttwo-thirds as many bits of storage as images using linearly encoded samples.13.7 General gamma handlingWhen more than two nonlinear transfer functions are involved in the image pipeline, the term “gamma cor-rection” becomes too vague. If we consider a pipeline that involves capturing (or calculating) an image,storing it in an image ﬁle, reading the ﬁle, and displaying the image on some sort of display screen, there areat least 5 places in the pipeline that could have nonlinear transfer functions. Let’s give a speciﬁc name toeach exponent:camera exponent the exponent of the image sensorencoding exponent the exponent of any transformation performed by the software writing the image ﬁle

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13. APPENDIX: GAMMA TUTORIAL 77decoding exponent the exponent of any transformation performed by the software reading the image ﬁleLUT exponent the exponent of the frame buffer LUT, if presentCRT exponent the exponent of the CRT, generally 2.2In addition, let’s add a few other names:display exponent the exponent of the “display system” downstream of the frame buffer display exponent = LUT exponent * CRT exponentgamma the exponent of the function mapping display output intensity to ﬁle samples gamma = 1.0 / (decoding exponent * display exponent)end-to-end exponent the exponent of the function mapping image sensor input intensity to display output intensity, generally 1.0 to 1.5When displaying an image ﬁle, the image decoding program is responsible for making gamma equal to thevalue speciﬁed in the gAMA chunk, by selecting the decoding exponent appropriately: decoding exponent = 1.0 / (gamma * display exponent)The display exponent might be known for this machine, or it might be obtained from the system software, orthe user might have to be asked what it is.13.8 Some speciﬁc examplesIn digital video systems, the camera exponent is about 0.52 by declaration of the various video standardsdocuments. The CRT exponent is 2.2 as usual, while the encoding exponent, decoding exponent, and LUTexponent are all 1.0. As a result, the end-to-end exponent is about 1.14.On frame buffers that have hardware gamma correction tables, and that are calibrated to display samples thatare proportional to display output intensity, the display exponent is 1.0.Many workstations and X terminals and PC clones lack gamma correction lookup tables. Here, the LUTexponent is always 1.0, so the display exponent is 2.2.On the Macintosh, there is a LUT. By default, it is loaded with a table whose exponent is 1/1.45, giving adisplay exponent (LUT and CRT combined) of about 1.52. Some Macs have a “Gamma” control panel with

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78 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONselections labeled 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.8, or 2.2. These settings load alternate LUTs, but beware: the selectionlabeled with the value g loads a LUT with exponent g/2.61, yielding display exponent = (g/2.61) * 2.2On recent SGI systems, there is a hardware gamma-correction table whose contents are controlled by the(privileged) gamma program. The exponent of the table is actually the reciprocal of the number g that gammaprints. You can obtain g from the ﬁle /etc/config/system.glGammaVal and calculate display exponent = 2.2 / gYou will ﬁnd SGI systems with g set to 1.0 and 2.2 (or higher), but the default when machines are shippedis 1.7.On NeXT systems the LUT has exponent 1/2.2 by default, but it can be modiﬁed by third-party applications.In summary, for images designed to need no correction on these platforms: Platform LUT exponent Default LUT exponent Default gAMA PC clone 1.0 1.0 45455 Macintosh g/2.61 1.8/2.61 = 1/1.45 65909 SGI 1/g 1/1.7 77273 NeXT 1/g 1/2.2 100000The default gAMA values assume a CRT display.13.9 Video camera transfer functionsThe original NTSC video standards speciﬁed a simple power-law camera transfer function with an exponentof 1/2.2 (about 0.45). This is not possible to implement exactly in analog hardware because the function hasinﬁnite slope at x=0, so all cameras deviated to some degree from this ideal. More recently, a new cameratransfer function that is physically realizable has been accepted as a standard [SMPTE-170M]. It is if (Vin < 0.018) Vout = 4.5 * Vin if (Vin >= 0.018) Vout = 1.099 * (Vin0.45 ) - 0.099where Vin and Vout are measured on a scale of 0 to 1. Although the exponent remains 0.45, the multipli-cation and subtraction change the shape of the transfer function, so it is no longer a pure power function. Itcan be well approximated, however, by a power function with exponent 0.52.The PAL and SECAM video standards specify a power-law camera transfer function with an exponent of1/2.8 (about 0.36). However, this is too low in practice, so real cameras are likely to have exponents closeto NTSC practice.

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14. APPENDIX: COLOR TUTORIAL 7913.10 Further readingCharles Poynton’s “Gamma FAQ” [GAMMA-FAQ] is a excellent source of information about gamma, al-though it claims that CRTs have an exponent of 2.5. See also his book [DIGITAL-VIDEO].14 Appendix: Color Tutorial(This appendix is not part of the formal PNG speciﬁcation.)14.1 About chromaticityThe cHRM chunk is used, together with the gAMA chunk, to convey precise color information so that aPNG image can be displayed or printed with better color ﬁdelity than is possible without this information.The preceding chapters state how this information is encoded in a PNG image. This tutorial brieﬂy outlinesthe underlying color theory for those who might not be familiar with it.Note that displaying an image with incorrect gamma will produce much larger color errors than failing touse the chromaticity data. First be sure the monitor set-up and gamma correction are right, then worry aboutchromaticity.14.2 The problem of colorThe color of an object depends not only on the precise spectrum of light emitted or reﬂected from it, but alsoon the observer—their species, what else they can see at the same time, even what they have recently lookedat! Furthermore, two very different spectra can produce exactly the same color sensation. Color is not anobjective property of real-world objects; it is a subjective, biological sensation. However, by making somesimplifying assumptions (such as: we are talking about human vision) it is possible to produce a mathematicalmodel of color and thereby obtain good color accuracy.14.3 Device-dependent colorDisplay the same RGB data on three different monitors, side by side, and you will get a noticeably differentcolor balance on each display. This is because each monitor emits a slightly different shade and intensityof red, green, and blue light. RGB is an example of a device-dependent color model—the color you getdepends on the device. This also means that a particular color—represented as say RGB 87, 146, 116 on onemonitor—might have to be speciﬁed as RGB 98, 123, 104 on another to produce the same color.

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80 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION14.4 Device-independent colorA full physical description of a color would require specifying the exact spectral power distribution of thelight source. Fortunately, the human eye and brain are not so sensitive as to require exact reproduction ofa spectrum. Mathematical, device-independent color models exist that describe fairly well how a particularcolor will be seen by humans. The most important device-independent color model, to which all others canbe related, was developed by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE, in French) and is called“CIE XYZ” or simply “XYZ”.In XYZ, X is the sum of a weighted power distribution over the whole visible spectrum. So are Y and Z,each with different weights. Thus any arbitrary spectral power distribution is condensed down to just threeﬂoating-point numbers. The weights were derived from color matching experiments done on human sub-jects in the 1920s. CIE XYZ has been an International Standard since 1931, and it has a number of usefulproperties: • two colors with the same XYZ values will look the same to humans • two colors with different XYZ values will not look the same • the Y value represents all the brightness information (luminance) • the XYZ color of any object can be objectively measuredColor models based on XYZ have been used for many years by people who need accurate control of color—lighting engineers for ﬁlm and TV, paint and dyestuffs manufacturers, and so on. They are thus proven inindustrial use. Accurate, device-independent color started to spread from high-end, specialized areas intothe mainstream during the late 1980s and early 1990s, and PNG takes notice of that trend.14.5 Calibrated device-dependent colorTraditionally, image ﬁle formats have used uncalibrated, device-dependent color. If the precise details of theoriginal display device are known, it becomes possible to convert the device-dependent colors of a particularimage to device-independent ones. Making simplifying assumptions, such as working with CRTs (whichare much easier than printers), all we need to know are the XYZ values of each primary color and the CRTexponent.So why does PNG not store images in XYZ instead of RGB? Well, two reasons. First, storing images inXYZ would require more bits of precision, which would make the ﬁles bigger. Second, all programs wouldhave to convert the image data before viewing it. Whether calibrated or not, all variants of RGB are closeenough that undemanding viewers can get by with simply displaying the data without color correction. Bystoring calibrated RGB, PNG retains compatibility with existing programs that expect RGB data, yet providesenough information for conversion to XYZ in applications that need precise colors. Thus, we get the best ofboth worlds.

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14. APPENDIX: COLOR TUTORIAL 8114.6 Chromaticity and luminanceChromaticity is an objective measurement of the color of an object, leaving aside the brightness information.Chromaticity uses two parameters x and y, which are readily calculated from XYZ: x = X / (X + Y + Z) y = Y / (X + Y + Z)XYZ colors having the same chromaticity values will appear to have the same hue but can vary in absolutebrightness. Notice that x,y are dimensionless ratios, so they have the same values no matter what unitswe’ve used for X,Y,Z.The Y value of an XYZ color is directly proportional to its absolute brightness and is called the luminanceof the color. We can describe a color either by XYZ coordinates or by chromaticity x,y plus luminance Y.The XYZ form has the advantage that it is linearly related to RGB intensities.14.7 Characterizing computer monitorsThe “white point” of a monitor is the chromaticity x,y of the monitor’s nominal white, that is, the colorproduced when R=G=B=maximum.It’s customary to specify monitor colors by giving the chromaticities of the individual phosphors R, G, andB, plus the white point. The white point allows one to infer the relative brightnesses of the three phosphors,which isn’t determined by their chromaticities alone.Note that the absolute brightness of the monitor is not speciﬁed. For computer graphics work, we generallydon’t care very much about absolute brightness levels. Instead of dealing with absolute XYZ values (in whichX,Y,Z are expressed in physical units of radiated power, such as candelas per square meter), it is convenientto work in “relative XYZ” units, where the monitor’s nominal white is taken to have a luminance (Y) of 1.0.Given this assumption, it’s simple to compute XYZ coordinates for the monitor’s white, red, green, and bluefrom their chromaticity values.Why does cHRM use x,y rather than XYZ? Simply because that is how manufacturers print the informationin their spec sheets! Usually, the ﬁrst thing a program will do is convert the cHRM chromaticities into relativeXYZ space.14.8 Uses for XYZIf a PNG ﬁle has the gAMA and cHRM chunks, the source RGB values can be converted to XYZ. This letsyou: • do accurate grayscale conversion (just use the Y component) • convert to RGB for your own monitor (to see the original colors)

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82 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATION • print the image in Level 2 PostScript with better color ﬁdelity than a simple RGB to CMYK conversion could provide • calculate an optimal color palette • pass the image data to a color management system • etc.14.9 Converting between RGB and XYZMake a few simplifying assumptions ﬁrst, like the monitor really is jet black with no input and the guns don’tinterfere with one another. Then, given that you know the CIE XYZ values for each of red, green, and bluefor a particular monitor, you put them into a matrix M: Xr Xg Xb M = Yr Yg Yb Zr Zg ZbRGB intensity samples normalized to the range 0 to 1 can be converted to XYZ by matrix multiplication. (Ifyou have gamma-encoded RGB samples, ﬁrst undo the gamma encoding.) X R Y = M G Z BIn other words, X = Xr*R + Xg*G + Xb*B, and similarly for Y and Z. You can go the other way too: R X G = invM Y B Zwhere invM is the inverse of the matrix M.14.10 Device gamutThe gamut of a device is the subset of visible colors that the device can display. (It has nothing to do withgamma.) The gamut of an RGB device can be visualized as a polyhedron in XYZ space; the vertices corre-spond to the device’s black, blue, red, green, magenta, cyan, yellow, and white.Different devices have different gamuts, in other words one device will be able to display certain colors (usu-ally highly saturated ones) that another device cannot. The gamut of a particular RGB device can be deter-mined from its R, G, and B chromaticities and white point (the same values given in the cHRM chunk). Thegamut of a color printer is more complex and can be determined only by measurement. However, printer

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15. APPENDIX: SAMPLE CRC CODE 83gamuts are typically smaller than monitor gamuts, meaning that there can be many colors in a displayableimage that cannot physically be printed.Converting image data from one device to another generally results in gamut mismatches—colors that cannotbe represented exactly on the destination device. The process of making the colors ﬁt, which can range froma simple clip to elaborate nonlinear scaling transformations, is termed gamut mapping. The aim is to producea reasonable visual representation of the original image.Further reading14.11 Further readingReferences [COLOR-1] through [COLOR-5] provide more detail about color theory.15 Appendix: Sample CRC CodeThe following sample code represents a practical implementation of the CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)employed in PNG chunks. (See also ISO 3309 [ISO-3309] or ITU-T V.42 [ITU-T-V42] for a formal speci-ﬁcation.)The sample code is in the ANSI C programming language. Non C users may ﬁnd it easier to read with thesehints:& Bitwise AND operator.ˆ Bitwise exclusive-OR operator.>> Bitwise right shift operator. When applied to an unsigned quantity, as here, right shift inserts zeroes at the left.! Logical NOT operator.++ N++ increments the variable N.0xNNN 0x introduces a hexadecimal (base 16) constant. Sufﬁx L indicates a long value (at least 32 bits).

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16. APPENDIX: ONLINE RESOURCES 8516 Appendix: Online Resources(This appendix is not part of the formal PNG speciﬁcation.)This appendix gives the locations of some Internet resources for PNG software developers. By the nature ofthe Internet, the list is incomplete and subject to change.Archive sitesThe latest released versions of this document and related information can always be found at the PNG FTParchive site, ftp://ftp.uu.net/graphics/png/. The PNG speciﬁcation is available in several formats, includingHTML, plain text, and PostScript.Reference implementation and test imagesA reference implementation in portable C is available from the PNG FTP archive site,ftp://ftp.uu.net/graphics/png/src/. The reference implementation (libpng) is freely usable in all appli-cations, including commercial applications.Test images are available from ftp://ftp.uu.net/graphics/png/images/.Electronic mailThe maintainers of the PNG speciﬁcation can be contacted by e-mail at png-info@uunet.uu.net or atpng-group@w3.org.PNG web siteThere is a World Wide Web site for PNG at http://www.cdrom.com/pub/png/. This is a central location forcurrent information about PNG and PNG-related tools.17 Appendix: Revision History(This appendix is not part of the formal PNG speciﬁcation.)The PNG format has been frozen since the Ninth Draft of 7 March 1995, and all future changes are intendedto be backward compatible. The revisions since the Ninth Draft are simply clariﬁcations, improvements inpresentation, additions of supporting material, and speciﬁcations for additional chunks.On 1 October 1996, the PNG 1.0 speciﬁcation was approved as a W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) Rec-ommendation.

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86 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONIn January 1997 it was published as RFC-2083 (informational) with technical content identical to that of theW3C Recommendation.In October 1998, the PNG 1.1 speciﬁcation was approved by the PNG Development Group, and it was re-leased in December 1998.In February 1999, changes were approved by the PNG Development Group, and the PNG 1.2 speciﬁcationcontaining the changes was released in July 1999.Changes since version 1.1Note: These changes have been approved by the PNG Development Group, but not by any standards body. • Added the iTXt chunk • Rearranged the order of presentation of ancillary chunks. • Updated the authors’ email addressesChanges since version 1.0(W3C Recommendation 01-October-1996, RFC 2083 January 1997)Note: These changes have been approved by the PNG Development Group, but not by any standards body. • Redeﬁned gAMA to be in terms of the desired display output rather than the original scene, and revised all discussions of gamma and references to gamma accordingly • Added the iCCP, sPLT, and sRGB chunks • Extended the scope of the 31-bit limit on chunk lengths and image dimensions to apply to all four-byte unsigned integers, and disallowed the value −231 in four-byte signed integers • Mentioned the possibility of dithering the alpha channel when converting it to binary transparency • Clariﬁed that zlib window sizes smaller than 32K are valid • Updated the PNG web site URL and authors’ email addresses • Editing and reformattingChanges since the Tenth Draft of 5 May 1995 • Clariﬁed meaning of a suggested-palette PLTE chunk in a truecolor image that uses transparency • Clariﬁed exact semantics of sBIT and allowed sample depth scaling procedures • Clariﬁed status of spaces in text chunk keywords

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92 PNG (PORTABLE NETWORK GRAPHICS) SPECIFICATIONTrademarksGIF is a service mark of CompuServe Incorporated. IBM PC is a trademark of International Business Ma-chines Corporation. Macintosh is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. Microsoft, Windows, and MS-DOSare trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. PhotoCD is a trademark of Eastman Kodak Company. PostScriptand TIFF are trademarks of Adobe Systems Incorporated. SGI is a trademark of Silicon Graphics, Inc. XWindow System is a trademark of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Document sourceThis document was built from the ﬁle png-master-19990714 on 14 July 1999.Copyright noticeCopyright c 1998, 1999 by: Glenn Randers-PehrsonThis speciﬁcation is a modiﬁcation of the PNG 1.0 speciﬁcation. It is being provided by the copyright holderunder the provisions of the 1996 MIT copyright and license:Copyright c 1996 by: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)This W3C speciﬁcation is being provided by the copyright holders under the following license. By obtaining,using and/or copying this speciﬁcation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with thefollowing terms and conditions:Permission to use, copy, and distribute this speciﬁcation for any purpose and without fee or royalty is herebygranted, provided that the full text of this NOTICE appears on ALL copies of the speciﬁcation or portionsthereof, including modiﬁcations, that you make.THIS SPECIFICATION IS PROVIDED “AS IS,” AND COPYRIGHT HOLDERS MAKE NOREPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAM-PLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, COPYRIGHT HOLDERS MAKE NO REPRESENTATIONS ORWARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSEOR THAT THE USE OF THE SPECIFICATION WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTYPATENTS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADEMARKS OR OTHER RIGHTS. COPYRIGHT HOLDERSWILL BEAR NO LIABILITY FOR ANY USE OF THIS SPECIFICATION.The name and trademarks of copyright holders may NOT be used in advertising or publicity pertaining tothe speciﬁcation without speciﬁc, written prior permission. Title to copyright in this speciﬁcation and anyassociated documentation will at all times remain with copyright holders.End of PNG Speciﬁcation