A whip is a tool which was traditionally designed to strike animals or people to aid guidance or exert control over animals or other people, through pain compliance or fear of pain, although in some activities, whips can be used without use of pain, such as an additional pressure aid or visual directional cue in equestrianism. Whips are generally of two types, either a firm stick designed for direct contact, or a flexible whip that requires a specialized swing to be effective, but has a longer reach and greater force, but may have less precision. There are also whips which combine both a firm stick (the stock or handle) and a flexible line (the lash or thong), such as hunting whips.

The majority of whips are designed for use on animals, although whips such as the "cat o' nine tails" and knout were specifically developed for flagellation as a means of inflicting corporal punishment or torture on human targets. Certain religious practices and BDSM activities involve the self-use of whips or the use of whips between consenting partners. Misuse on animals may be considered animal cruelty, and misuse on humans may be viewed as assault.

Whips are generally used on animals to provide directional guidance or to encourage movement, some whips are designed to control animals by imparting discomfort by tapping or pain by a full-force strike that produces pain compliance. Some whips provide guidance by the use of sound, such as cracking of a bullwhip. Other uses of whips are to provide a visual directional cue by extending the reach and visibility of the human arm.

In modern times, the pain stimulus is still used in some animal training, and is permitted in many fields, including most equestrianism disciplines, some of which mandate carrying a whip, the whip can be a vital tool to back up riding aids when applied correctly, particularly when initial commands are ignored. However, many competition governing bodies limit the use of whips, and severe penalties may be in place for over-use of the whip, including disqualification and fines.[1] Overuse improper use of whips may be considered animal cruelty in some jurisdictions.[2]

Whip made in Silesia, Poland, made to enhance its cracking sound, used in folk Easter celebrations of Siuda Baba

Whip use by sound never or rarely strikes the animal; instead, a long, flexible whip is cracked to produce a very sharp, loud sound. This usage also functions as a form of operant conditioning: most animals will flinch away from the sound instinctively, making it effective for driving sled dogs, livestock and teams of harnessed animals like oxen and mules. The sound is loud enough to affect multiple animals at once, making whip-cracking more efficient under some circumstances, this technique can be used as part of an escalation response, with sound being used first prior to a pain stimulus being applied, again as part of operant conditioning.

Whips used without painful stimulus, as an extension of the human hand or arm, are a visual command, or to tap an animal, or to exert pressure, such use may be related to operant conditioning where the subject is conditioned to associate the whip with irritation, discomfort or pain, but in other cases, a whip can be used as a simple tool to provide a cue connected to positive reinforcement for compliant behavior. In the light of modern attitudes towards the potential for cruelty in whips, other names have gained currency among practitioners such as whips called a "wand" or a "stick," calling the lash a "string" or a "popper".

The loud sound of a whip-crack is produced by a ripple in the material of the whip travelling towards the tip, rapidly escalating in speed until it breaches the speed of sound, more than 30 times the speed of the initial movement in the handle, the crack is thus a small sonic boom.[3] Whips were the first man-made objects to break the sound barrier.

Most stick type whips cannot make a crack by themselves, unless they either have a very long lash, such as a longe whip, or are very flexible with a moderately long lash, like certain styles of buggy whip, but any design can be banged against another object, such as leather boot, to make a loud noise. Short, stiff crops often have a wide leather "popper" at the end which makes a particularly loud noise when slapped against an animal, boot, or other object.

Drafting whip (or cattle drafter) made by George Woolnough, the famous "Tenterfield Saddler"

Stockwhips (or stock whips), including bullwhips and the Australian stockwhip, are a type of single-tailed leather whip with a very long lash but a short handle. Stockwhips are primarily used to make a loud cracking sound to move livestock (cattle, sheep, horses, etc.) away from the sound. It is generally not used to actually strike an animal, as it would inflict excessive pain and is difficult to apply with precision.

The Australian stockwhip is often said to have originated in the English hunting whip, but it has since become a distinct type of whip. Today, it is used primarily by stockmen. Unlike the short, embedded handle of a bullwhip, the stockwhip handle is not fitted inside the lash and is usually longer. A stockwhip's handle is connected to the thong by a joint typically made of a few strands of thick leather (which is called a keeper), this allows the whip to hang across a stockman's arm when not being used. The handles are normally longer than those of a bullwhip, being between 15 and 21 inches (380 and 530 mm). The thong can be from 3 to 10 feet (0.91 to 3.05 m) long. Stockwhips are also almost exclusively made from tanned kangaroo hide.

A bullwhip consists of a handle between 8 to 12 inches (200 to 300 mm) in length, and a lash composed of a braided thong between 3 to 20 feet (0.91 to 6.10 m) long. Some whips have an exposed wooden grip, others have an intricately braided leather covered handle. Unlike the Australian stock whip, the thong connects in line with the handle (rather than with a joint), or even engulfs the handle entirely, at the end of the lash is the "fall" and cracker or popper. The fall is a single piece of leather between 10 to 30 inches (250 to 760 mm) in length. During trick shots or target work, the fall is usually the portion of the whip used to cut, strike, or wrap around the target, the cracker is the portion of the whip that makes the loud "sonic boom" sound, but a whip without a cracker will still make a sonic boom, simply not as loud.

There are other variations and lengths of stock whips, the yard whip is a type of smaller stockwhip. The yard whip is used on ground in cattle yards and other small areas where speed and precision is needed, the yard whip is also used by younger children that are not strong enough to handle a large stock whip.

The cattle drafter (or drafting whip) is a cane or fibreglass rod with a handgrip, knob and wrist strap, the cane length is about 75 cm (2'6") and the flapper length is about 30 cm (12") long. These whips are used in cattle yards and also when moving pigs.

The bullock-whip was used by an Australian bullock team driver (bullocky), the thong was 8 to 10 feet long, or more, and often made of greenhide. A long handle was cut from spotted gum or another native tree and was frequently taller than the bullock driver's shoulder, the bullocky walked beside the team and kept the bullocks moving with taps from the long handle as well as using the thong as needed.[4]

The Rose whip is another variation of the stockwhip that was pioneered in Canada in the early 19th century, though it largely fell out of use by the 1880s, the Rose whips were effective in animal yards and other small areas. It was pioneered by an American farmer, Jack Liao[citation needed].

The Raman whip is a similar variation of the stockwhip which closely relates to the Rose whip, this variation was pioneered in the small Ontario city of Hamilton in the early 20th century, though it largely fell out of use by the 1920s. Raman whips were effective on horse farms, horse derbies, and in other rural areas, it was pioneered by the South African inventor, Delaware Kumar.

The Florida cow whip used by Floridiancowboys is a two-piece unit like the stockwhip and is connected to the handle by threading two strands of the thong through a hollow part of a wooden handle before being tied off. The cowwhip is heavier than the Australian stockwhip. Early cowwhips were made mostly of cowhide or buckskin.

Modern cow whips are made of flat nylonparachute cord, which, unlike those made from leather, are still effective when wet. Most cowwhips have handles that average 16 inches, and thongs that average 12 feet. A good cowwhip can produce a loud crack by a simple push of the handle, this can make it more convenient to use than a bullwhip in a thick vegetated environment with less swinging room. The Tampa Bay Whip Enthusiasts give demonstrations of the Florida Cracker Cowboy in costume at the annual Heritage Village Civil War Days festival, located in Largo, Florida every year in May.

Signal whips (or signalwhips) are a type of single-tailed whip, originally designed to control dog teams. A signal whip usually measures between 3 and 4 feet in length. Signal whips and snake whips are similar. What distinguishes a signal whip from a snake whip is the absence of a "fall". A fall is a piece of leather attached to the end of the body of the whip; in a snake whip, the "cracker" attaches to the fall. In a signal whip, the cracker attaches directly to the body of the whip.

Snake whips (or snakewhips) are a type of single-tailed whip, the name snake whip is derived from the fact that this type of whip has no handle inside and so can be curled up into a small circle which resembles a coiled snake. They were once commonly carried in the saddlebag by cowboys of the old west. A full sized snake whip is usually at least 4 feet in length (excluding the fall and cracker at the tip of the whip) and around one inch in diameter at the butt of the whip.

A pocket snake whip can be curled up small enough to fit into a large pocket, and ranges in size from 3 feet to 6 feet in length, the pocket snake whip is primarily a whip for occasional use, such as in loading cattle. Both of these types of snake whips are made with a leather shot bag running approximately three quarters of the length of the whip.

Blacksnakes are the traditional whips used in Montana and Wyoming, the blacksnake has a heavy shot load extending from the butt well down the thong, and the whip is flexible right to the butt. They range in size from 6 feet to 12 feet in length, some types concentrate a load in the butt (often a lead ball or steel ball-bearing) to facilitate its use as improvised blackjack.

Horse whips or riding whips are artificial aids used by equestrians while riding, driving, or handling horses from the ground. There are many different kinds, but all feature a handle, a long, semi-flexible shaft, and either a popper or lash at the end, depending on use. Riding whips rarely exceed 48" from handle to popper, horse whips used for ground training and carriage driving are sometimes longer.

The term "whip" is the generic word for riding whips, the term "crop" is more specific, referring to a short, stiff whip used primarily in English riding disciplines such as show jumping or hunt seat. Some of the more common types of horse whips include:

Dressage whips are up to 43 inches long, including lash or popper, and are used to refine the aids of the rider, not to hurt the horse. They generally ask for more impulsion, and are long enough that they can reach behind the rider's leg to tap the horse while the rider still holds the reins with both hands, the shaft is slightly flexible and tapers to a fine point at the tip. A similar, but slightly longer whip is used in saddle seat style English riding.

Longe whips have a shaft about 4–5 feet long and a lash of equal or greater length. They are used to direct the horse as it is 'moved on a circle aroung the person standing in the centre, a process known as "longeing" (pronounced/ˈlʌndʒɪŋ/) The whip is used to guide and signal direction and pace, and is not used with force against the horse. Taking the place of the rider's leg aids, the positioning of the longe whip in relation to the horse gives the horse signals. Occasionally, due to the long lash, it may be cracked to enforce a command.

Longeing whip

A plaited show cane

Driving whips have a stock about the same length as a longe whips, but a short lash, often no more than 12 inches. They are used specifically for driving horses in carriages or carts.

A crop or "bat" has a fairly stiff stock, and is only 2-2.5 feet in length, with a "popper" - a looped flap of leather - at the end. Because it is too short to reach behind the riders leg while still holding the reins, it is most often used by taking the reins in one hand and hitting the horse behind the rider's leg, using the crop, held in the other hand. Less often, it may be used to tap the horse on the shoulder as a simple reminder to the animal that the rider is carrying it, it is to back up the leg aids, when the horse is not moving forward, or occasionally as a disciplinary measure (such as when a horse refuses or runs out on a jump). Crops or bats are most commonly seen in sports such as show jumping, hunt seat style English riding, horse racing, and in rodeo speed sports such as barrel racing.

A hunting whip is not precisely a horse whip, though it is carried by a mounted rider. It has a stock about the same length as a crop, except its "stock" is stiff, not flexible, on one end of the stock it has a lash that is several feet in length, on the other end it has a hook, which is used to help the rider open and close gates while out fox hunting. The hunting whip is not intended to be used on the horse, but rather the lash is there to remind the hounds to stay away from the horse's hooves, and it can also be used as a communication device to the hounds.

A quirt is a short, flexible piece of thickly braided leather with two wide pieces of leather at the end, which makes a loud crack when it strikes an animal or object. They inflict more noise than pain. Quirts are occasionally carried on horses used in western riding disciplines, but because the action of a quirt is slow, they are not used to correct or guide the horse, but are more apt to be used by a rider to reach out and strike at animals, such as cattle that are being herded from horseback.

A show cane is a short, stiff cane that may be plain, leather covered, or covered with braided leather. Traditional canes are made from a stick of holly, cherry or birch wood, which is dressed and polished, they are rarely used now except in formal show hacking events.

Rudyard Kipling's short story Garm - a Hostage mentions a long whip used by a horseback rider in India to defend an accompanying pet dog from risk of attack by native pariah dogs. This probably was a hunting whip.

A buggy whip is a horsewhip with a long stiff shaft and a relatively short lash used for driving a horse harnessed to a buggy or other small open carriage. A coachwhip, usually provided with a long lash, is used in driving a coach with horses in front of other horses. Though similar whips are still manufactured for limited purposes, the buggy whip industry as a discernible economic entity ceased to exist with the introduction of the automobile, and is cited in economics and marketing as an example of an industry ceasing to exist because its market niche, and the need for its product, disappears. In discussing market regulation, it is often held that the economy would be disadvantaged as a whole if the automobile had been banned to protect the buggy-whip industry.

Buggy whips are not entirely gone. A resurgence of interest in the international sport of combined driving and historical carriage driving, sports enjoyed by people of all ages, has allowed some buggy whip manufacturers to stay in business, serving this specialty niche market. Foremost among these is a company in Westfield, Massachusetts.

Qilinbian (麒麟鞭, literally meaning "unicorn whip") is a metal whip invented in China in the late 1900s, the 15 cm handle is made from a steel chain wrapped with leather. The lash is made of steel rods decreasing in size linked by progressively smaller steel rings. Lash varies between 150 cm and 180 cm and is attached to a fall and a cracker. Total weight is 1–2 kg. It is used for physical exercise and in performances.[5]

Certain varieties of whip have earned a reputation as a weapon through popular culture, film and television; in reality only a narrow range of whip-like instruments are practical instruments in combat. Typical whips are of little use against armoured targets, as well as those with means of blocking, intercepting or outmanouvring a whip; human-on-human whip usage is almost always performed on an immobilised and exposed target, and when it isn't the user typically has a defensive advantage in terms of weaponry, armour, manouvreability (i.e. the target will be manacled) or position (i.e. the user is on a raised platform).

Short, stiff whips, including crops, are capable of inflicting welts or painful stings, but, typically, no disabling injuries, the more martially-designed sjambok can inflict serious wounds and sometimes even cut through clothing.

Striking a person or animal with a single-tail whip can inflict cuts, but with a whip made from common materials, these wounds are simple high-speed abrasions that do not penetrate more than the depth of the skin. If the whip has sharp barbs or the tip includes materials fine and strong enough to cut such as Kevlar, there can be more serious wounds, but even with these, a disabling injury is unlikely. Whips with these features require an expert whip handler to avoid inadvertently cutting themselves, the whip, or other people or objects the whip may contact.

A single-tail whip can wrap around limbs or body or the neck, this is fairly easy to do, but is impractical in most physical combat environments where it is difficult to maintain the necessary spacing between the target and the person throwing the whip. It is not a practical means by which to significantly restrict or control movement and is unlikely to throttle a target, it is fairly simple to perform on a static target, but is impractical in most physical combat environments where maintaining distance between the wielder and the target is easily confounded.

Some shorter whips are designed with a heavy lead or steel ball woven into the pommel, or a shot bag filled with lead shot braided into the body. Other whips have flexible metallic cable or rigid metal rods in the handle, these materials provide mass, making the whip easier to crack during normal use. These weights and rigid pieces also enable the whip to be reversed and used as a bludgeon, as the incorporation of heavy, metallic, sizeable and blunt elements in a whip increases, it shifts towards becoming a flail, morning star or meteor hammer type of mace.

The Chinese Jiujiebian ("nine section whip"), is a segmented metal chain whip designed for use in martial arts; in the hands of someone trained in its use, it is considerably more effective as a weapon than other whips. The many segments of the whip provide a similar utility to the dual ends of a nunchaku, allowing the user to firmly grab any part of the instrument without compromising any piece's striking efficacy.

The tails of some large lizards (e.g. iguanas and monitor lizards) are used and optimized for whipping, and larger lizards can seriously injure a human with a well-placed strike.[6] The biological names of some lizards reference this with the terms Mastigo- or -mastix, which derive from the Greek term for "whip".

The whip snakes are so-called from their physical resemblance, and were associated with myths that they could whip with their body in self-defense, since proven false.

Thelyphonida arachnids are also known as "whip scorpions" due to the shape of their tails.

It has been proposed that some sauropod dinosaurs could crack the ends of their tails like coach whips as a sound signal, as well as a form of defense against any attackers.

The whip is widely if only situationally portrayed across many avenues of popular culture. Whips have appeared in many cartoons, television shows, videogames (including a central role in the Castlevania franchise), and numerous films, ranging from the original Zorro to Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and Catwoman (2004). The depicted usage of whips is often dramatic and wildly exaggerated, showing users reliably tripping or disarming adversaries under extraordinary circumstances, breaking substantial objets with normal blows, and use as a grappling aid among others.

This last usage is particularly common, and specifically involves wrapping the whip around a fixed overhead object and using the body to swing across an open space. While this is theoretically possible, the wrap must exhibit intense strength—enough to hold the user's body weight for the entire leap— but be made of material loose enough to smoothly disengage once the swing is completed, thus actual use in this fashion is highly impractical; it would require not only a precisely balanced whip relative to the user, but also to the overhead fixture, which would not only compromise the whip's efficacy for any other use or context but require exceptional contrivance of circumstance. Even granted all of this, the strain of such a swing will damage or break most leather whips; in live-action fiction, the visual effect is achieved by braiding the whip over a steel or kevlar support cable and anchoring the tip permanently to a support such as a crane or scaffolding. In many instances the whip handle is also attached to a concealed body harness on the actor for safety, allowing more dynamic motions to make the swing appear more daring and graceful.

The popular investigative-entertainment program MythBusters tested the various capabilities of whips shown in the film Raiders of the Lost Ark during "The Busters of the Lost Myths" episode. With exact trained usage, the show demonstrated that it is possible to disarm a pistol-wielding opponent with a long whip strike, the episode also demonstrate that a wood log, with sufficient friction, could be used as an overhang to grapple with a whip, swing across a chasm and neatly disengage. Using a high-speed camera they were also able to verify that the tip of a whip can break the speed of sound.

1.
Crop (implement)
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A crop, sometimes called a riding crop or hunting crop, is a short type of whip without a lash, used in horse riding, part of the family of tools known as horse whips. A modern crop usually consists of a shaft of fiberglass or cane which is covered in leather, fabric. The rod of a crop thickens at one end to form a handle, the thin end is intended to make contact with the horse, whilst the keeper prevents the horses skin from being marked. The handle may have a loop of leather to help secure the grip or a mushroom on the end to prevent it from slipping through the riders hand. The length of a crop is designed to allow enough leverage for it to be accelerated rapidly with a flick of the wrist without causing the rider balancing problems. Thus, a crop is relatively short. The term whip is a common term that includes both riding crops as well as longer types of horse whips used for both riding and ground work. A whip is a slower than a crop, mostly due to having slightly greater length. However, care must be not to desensitize the animal to the stimulus. Dressage whip is a whip, longer than a crop. Weapon Crops can be carried as a weapon, in the Sherlock Holmes series of novels and short stories, Holmes is occasionally said to carry one as his favourite weapon. Specifically, it is a hunting crop. Such crops were sold at one time, loading refers to the practice of filling the shaft and head with a heavy metal to provide some heft. Fetishism Crops may sometimes be employed by sado-masochistic tops as an implement to tame their sexual partner, art deco sculptor Bruno Zach produced perhaps his best known sculpture—called The Riding Crop —which features a scantily clad dominatrix wielding a crop

2.
Equestrianism
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Equestrianism, more often known as riding, horseback riding or horse riding, refers to the skill of riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting with horses. This broad description includes the use of horses for practical working purposes, transportation, recreational activities, artistic or cultural exercises, Horses are trained and ridden for practical working purposes such as in police work or for controlling herd animals on a ranch. They are also used in sports including, but not limited to, dressage, endurance riding, eventing, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, vaulting, polo, horse racing, driving. Some popular forms of competition are grouped together at horse shows, Horses are used for non-competitive recreational riding such as fox hunting, trail riding or hacking. There is public access to trails in almost every part of the world, many parks, ranches. Horses are also used for therapeutic purposes, both in specialized paraequestrian competition as well as non-competitive riding to improve health and emotional development. Horses are also driven in harness racing, at shows and in other types of exhibition, historical reenactment or ceremony. In some parts of the world, they are used for practical purposes such as farming. Horses continue to be used in service, in traditional ceremonies, police and volunteer mounted patrols. Riding halls enable the training of horse and rider in all weathers as well as indoor competition riding, though there is controversy over the exact date horses were domesticated and when they were first ridden, the best estimate is that horses first were ridden approximately 3500 BC. Indirect evidence suggests that horses were ridden long before they were driven, however, the most unequivocal early archaeological evidence of equines put to working use was of horses being driven. Chariot burials about 2500 BC present the most direct evidence of horses used as working animals. In ancient times chariot warfare was followed by the use of war horses as light, the horse played an important role throughout human history all over the world, both in warfare and in peaceful pursuits such as transportation, trade and agriculture. Horses lived in North America, but died out at the end of the Ice Age, Horses were brought back to North America by European explorers, beginning with the second voyage of Columbus in 1493. Humans appear to have expressed a desire to know which horse were the fastest. Gambling on horse races appears to go hand-in hand with racing and has a history as well. Thoroughbreds have the pre-eminent reputation as a breed, but other breeds also race. Under saddle, Thoroughbred horse racing is the most popular form worldwide, in the UK, it is known as flat racing and is governed by the Jockey Club in the United Kingdom

3.
Cat o' nine tails
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The term first appears in 1695, although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its claws, which inflict parallel wounds, the cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about 2 1⁄2 feet or 76 cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain. It traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the manner in which rope is plaited, thinner rope is made from three strands of yarn plaited together, and thicker rope from three strands of thinner rope plaited together. To make a cat o nine tails, a rope is unravelled into three small ropes, each of which is unravelled again, the closed cat, one without tails, was called a starter. During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the naval cats handle was made of rope about 2 feet long and about 1 inch in diameter, the tails were made of cord about a quarter inch in diameter and typically 2 feet long. A new cat was made for each flogging by a bosuns mate, if several dozen lashes were awarded, each could be administered by a fresh bosuns mate—a left-handed one could be included to assure extra painful crisscrossing of the wounds. One dozen was usually awarded as a highly sensitizing prelude to running the gauntlet and it was used on slave trade ships to punish the slaves. For summary punishment of Royal Navy boys, a model was made, the reduced cat, also known as boys cat, boys pussy or just pussy. If formally convicted by a court martial, however, even boys would suffer the punishment of the adult cat, the severest form of flogging was a flogging round the fleet. The number of lashes was divided by the number of ships in port, penalties of hundreds of lashes were imposed for the gravest offences, including sedition and mutiny. The prisoner was rowed round the fleet in a boat and received a number of his lashes at each ship in turn. Sentences often took months or years to complete, depending on how much a man was expected to bear at a time, normally 250–500 lashes would kill a man, as infections would spread. After the flogging was completed, the sailors lacerated back was frequently rinsed with brine or seawater, the British Army had a similar multiple whip, though much lighter in construction, made of a drumstick with attached strings. The flogger was usually a rather than a strong bosuns mate. Flogging with the cat o nine tails fell into disuse around 1870, whereas the British naval cat rarely cut but rather abraded the skin, the falls of the British Army cat were lighter and the string was in fact codline - a very dense material akin to tarred string. Although the total whip would weigh only a fraction of a naval rope cat, naturally, it was also used elsewhere in the Commonwealth, notably at the penal colonies in Australia, and also in Canada where it was used until 1881. An 1812 drawing shows a drummer apparently lashing the buttocks of a soldier who is tied with spread legs on an A-frame made from sergeants half pikes. In many places, soldiers were generally flogged stripped to the waist, in the 20th century this use was confined to very serious cases involving violence against a prison officer, and each flogging had to be confirmed by central government

4.
Knout
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A knout /ˈnaʊt/ is a heavy scourge-like multiple whip, usually made of a bunch of rawhide thongs attached to a long handle, sometimes with metal wire or hooks incorporated. The English word stems from a spelling-pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут, some claim it was a Tatar invention and was introduced into Russia in the 15th century, perhaps by Grand Duke Ivan III the Great. Others trace the word to Varangians and derive it from the Swedish knutpiska, still others maintain it is of generic Germanic origin, not necessarily Scandinavian, comparing it with the German Knute, Dutch knoet and with Old Norse knutr, Anglo-Saxon cnotta and English knot. The Russian knout had different forms, one was a lash of rawhide,40 cm long, attached to a wooden handle,22 cm long. The lash ended in a ring, to which was attached a second lash as long, ending also in a ring. Another kind consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, ending in loose wired ends and this was soaked in milk and dried in the sun to make it harder. Knouts were used in Russia for flogging as formal corporal punishment of criminals, the victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence, even twenty lashes could maim, and with the specially extended Great Knout, twenty blows could kill, with death sometimes being attributed to the breaking of the spine. The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a probation, peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son Alexis to death, the latter was tortured by knouting to extract confessions. Emperor Nicholas I abolished the punishment by knout in 1845, and replaced it with the pleti and they were later abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements, mainly in Siberia. Prisoners transported to Siberia in the late 19th century were sometimes branded on their foreheads with irons with the letters VRNK meaning V thief, R robber and this branding led to the Siberian slang word varnok, meaning either a settler or deportee. The expression under the knout is used to designate any harsh totalitarianism, in Dutch, the image is commonly used for strict party discipline, e. g. eliminating actual debate when passing a law. Nagaika Scourge This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh

5.
Flagellation
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Flagellation, flogging, whipping or lashing is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, lashes, rods, switches, the cat o nine tails, the sjambok, etc. Typically, flogging is imposed on a subject as a punishment, however, it can also be submitted to willingly, or performed on oneself. The strokes are usually aimed at the back of a person. For a moderated subform of flagellation, described as bastinado, the soles of a persons feet are used as a target for beating. In some circumstances the word flogging is used loosely to any sort of corporal punishment. However, in British legal terminology, a distinction was drawn between flogging and whipping, in Britain these were both abolished in 1948. In Sparta, young men were flogged as a test of their masculinity, Jewish law limited flagellation to forty strokes, and in practice delivered thirty-nine, so as to avoid any possibility of breaking this law due to a miscount. In the Roman Empire, flagellation was often used as a prelude to crucifixion, whips with small pieces of metal or bone at the tips were commonly used. Such a device could easily cause disfigurement and serious trauma, such as ripping pieces of flesh from the body or loss of an eye, in addition to causing severe pain, the victim would approach a state of hypovolemic shock due to loss of blood. The Romans reserved this treatment for non-citizens, as stated in the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia, the poet Horace refers to the horribile flagellum in his Satires. Typically, the one to be punished was stripped naked and bound to a low pillar so that he could bend over it, two lictors alternated blows from the bare shoulders down the body to the soles of the feet. There was no limit to the number of blows inflicted—this was left to the lictors to decide, nonetheless, Livy, Suetonius and Josephus report cases of flagellation where victims died while still bound to the post. Flagellation was referred to as death by some authors, as many victims died shortly thereafter. Cicero reports in In Verrem, pro mortuo sublatus brevi postea mortuus, the Whipping Act was passed in England in 1530. Under this legislation, vagrants were to be taken to a populated area and there tied to the end of a cart naked. In England, offenders were sentenced to be flogged at a carts tail along a length of public street, usually near the scene of the crime. In the late century, however, the courts occasionally ordered that the flogging should be carried out in prison or a house of correction rather than on the streets. From the 1720s courts began explicitly to differentiate between private whipping and public whipping, over the course of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the proportion of whippings carried out in public declined, but the number of private whippings increased

6.
Corporal punishment
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Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling. It is however used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery, frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well, official punishment for crime by inflicting pain or injury, including flogging, branding and even mutilation, was practised in most civilizations since ancient times. However, with the growth of humanitarian ideals since the Enlightenment, by the late 20th century, corporal punishment had been eliminated from the legal systems of most developed countries. The legality in the 21st century of corporal punishment in various settings differs by jurisdiction,52 countries, most of them in Europe and Latin America, have banned the practice as of April 2017. School corporal punishment—of students by teachers or school administrators—has been banned in countries, including Canada, Kenya, South Africa, New Zealand. It remains legal, if increasingly less common, in the United States, judicial corporal punishment, as part of a criminal sentence ordered by a court of law, has long disappeared from European countries. However, it remains lawful in parts of Africa, Asia, closely related is prison corporal punishment or disciplinary corporal punishment, ordered by prison authorities or carried out directly by staff. Corporal punishment is also allowed in some settings in a few jurisdictions. Other uses of corporal punishment have existed, for instance as once practised on apprentices by their masters, in many Western countries, medical and human-rights organizations oppose corporal punishment of children. Campaigns against corporal punishment have aimed to bring about legal reform to ban the use of punishment against minors in homes. Corporal punishment of children has traditionally used in the Western world by adults in authority roles. Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou strike him with the rod, thou shalt beat him with the rod, and deliver his soul from hell. It was certainly present in civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly, Sparta, in particular, used them as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build willpower, although the Spartan example was extreme, corporal punishment was possibly the most frequent type of punishment

7.
Torture
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Torture is the act of deliberately inflicting physical or psychological pain on an organism in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or compel some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act, in other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible. Although torture is sanctioned by some states, it is prohibited under international law, although widely illegal and reviled there is an ongoing debate as to what exactly is and is not legally defined to be torture. It is a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Torture is also prohibited for the signatories of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, despite these findings and international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which is currently in force since June 26,1987, provides a broad definition of torture. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to and this definition includes torture as part of domestic violence or ritualistic abuse, as well as in criminal activities. The Rome Statute is the treaty set up the International Criminal Court. The treaty was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. The Rome Statute provides a simplest definition of torture regarding the prosecution of war criminals by the International Criminal Court, since 1973, Amnesty International has adopted the simplest, broadest definition of torture. Title 18 of the United States Code contains the definition of torture in 18 U. S. C, §2340, which is only applicable to persons committing or attempting to commit torture outside of the United States. The Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 provides remedies to individuals who are victims of torture by persons acting in a capacity of any foreign nation. The definition is similar to the U. S. Code §2340, Torture grew into an ornate discipline, where calibrated violence served two functions, to investigate and produce confessions and to attack the body as a form of punishment. Entire populaces of towns would show up to witness an execution by torture in the public square and those who had been spared torture were commonly locked barefooted into the stocks, where children took delight in rubbing feces into their hair and mouths. The Age of Enlightenment in the world further developed the idea of universal human rights. The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 marks the recognition at least nominally of a ban of torture by all UN member states

8.
BDSM
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BDSM is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics. The term BDSM is first recorded in a Usenet posting from 1991, and is interpreted as a combination of the abbreviations B/D, D/s, BDSM is now used as a catch-all phrase covering a wide range of activities, forms of interpersonal relationships, and distinct subcultures. The terms submissive and dominant are often used to distinguish these roles, the terms top and bottom are also used, the top is the instigator of an action while the bottom is the receiver of the action. The abbreviations sub and dom are frequently used instead of submissive, sometimes the female-specific term domme is used to describe a dominant woman, instead of the gender-neutral term dom, both terms are pronounced the same. Individuals who can change between top/dominant and bottom/submissive roles—whether from relationship to relationship or within a given relationship—are known as switches, the precise definition of roles and self-identification is a common subject of debate within the community. BDSM is a term for certain kinds of erotic behavior between consenting adults. There are distinct subcultures under this umbrella term, terminology for roles varies widely among the subcultures. Top and dominant are widely used for partner in the relationship or activity who are, respectively. Bottom and submissive are widely used for partner in the relationship or activity who are, respectively. BDSM actions can take place during a specific period of time agreed to by both parties, referred to as play, a scene, or a session. Participants usually derive pleasure from this, even many of the practices—such as inflicting pain or humiliation or being restrained—would be unpleasant under other circumstances. Explicit sexual activity, such as penetration, may occur within a session. Such explicit sexual interaction is, for reasons, seen only rarely in public play spaces. Whether it is a public playspace—ranging from a party at an established community dungeon to a play zone at a nightclub or social event—the parameters of allowance can vary. Some have a policy of panties/nipple tape for women and some allow full nudity with explicit sexual interaction allowed, the fundamental principles for the exercise of BDSM require that it should be performed with the informed consent of all involved parties. It is mutual consent that makes a legal and ethical distinction between BDSM and such crimes as sexual assault or domestic violence. Advocates of RACK argue that SSC can hamper discussion of risk because no activity is truly safe, RACK may be seen as focusing primarily upon awareness and informed consent, rather than accepted safe practices. Consent is the most important criterion here, the consent and compliance for a sadomasochistic situation can be granted only by people who can judge the potential results

9.
Cruelty to animals
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive

10.
Assault
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In criminal and civil law, assault is an attempt to initiate harmful or offensive contact with a person, or a threat to do so. It is distinct from battery, which refers to the achievement of such contact. An assault is carried out by a threat of bodily harm coupled with an apparent, present ability to cause the harm and it is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in either criminal and/or civil liability. Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal, there is, however, an additional criminal law category of assault consisting of an attempted but unsuccessful battery. The term is confused with battery, which involves physical contact. Assault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. Thus throwing a rock at someone for the purpose of hitting him is a if the rock in fact strikes the person. Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a form of assault. Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants, Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others. Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault, in some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. This can have important consequences when dealing with such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game, bodily adornment, however, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish Law, consent is not a defense for assault, Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, an officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary. In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system, the officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault. What constitutes reasonable varies in both law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a statute for child abuse. Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of punishment for children in school

11.
Discomfort
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Comfort is a sense of physical or psychological ease, often characterized as a lack of hardship. Persons who are lacking in comfort are uncomfortable, or experiencing discomfort, comfort is a particular concern in health care, as providing comfort to the sick and injured is one goal of healthcare, and can facilitate recovery. Persons who are surrounded with things that provide psychological comfort may be described as being in their comfort zone, because of the personal nature of positive associations, psychological comfort is highly subjective. The use of comfort as a verb generally implies that the subject is in a state of pain, suffering or affliction, where the term is used to describe the support given to someone who has experienced a tragedy, the word is synonymous with consolation or solace. However, comfort is used more broadly, as one can provide physical comfort to someone who is not in a position to be uncomfortable. For example, a person sit in a chair without discomfort. Like certain other terms describing positive feelings or abstractions, comfort may also be used as a personal name, there are various psychological studies about the feeling of comfort, and they have resulted in a few conclusions. The idea of comfort varies among each person, however, there are a few themes of comfort that apply to everyone. Most of these universal themes falls under the physical comfort such as comfort, comfort food. Contact comfort is the satisfaction with someones touch, like a mothers embrace and this is essential to a childs development. One of the most famous developmental psychological studies is Harry Harlows development experiment with monkeys and he separated baby monkeys at birth and raised them with surrogate mothers. There were two types of surrogate mothers, a metal one and a one covered with cloth. The surrogate mother covered in cloth represented comfort, at the end of the experiment, the psychologist saw that the monkeys would choose the cloth surrogate over the wire surrogate. They concluded that having basics needs is essential, but there is the need of closeness and this experiment justified that importance of comfort and warmth for child development. All the monkeys that grew up from the experiment expressed a behavior of aggression, comfort foods are foods intentionally consumed to move the eater into a pleasurable state. This could be credited to food preferences and childhood experiences, comfort food are usually chosen because of previous experiences of happiness linked with it. For example, chocolate is held as a comfort food as it is follows the pleasurable sweetness. The time of day also play a role in consuming comfort foods, most people tend to eat simply because its lunch time and only 20% of the time is due to actual hunger Food preferences splits into two categories, snack-related and meal-related

12.
Bullwhip
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A bullwhip is a single-tailed whip, usually made of braided leather, designed as a tool for working with livestock. Bullwhips are pastoral tools, traditionally used to control livestock in open country, many modern sport whip crackers claim that the bullwhip was rarely, if ever, used to strike cattle, but this is a matter for debate. The origins of the bullwhip are also a matter for debate and, difficulties in tracing its development also arise from regional and national variations in nomenclature. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as rural economies became increasingly mechanized, by the middle of the 20th century, bullwhip making was a dying craft, with only a few craftsmen left making good quality whips. Whip cracking competitions focus on the completion of complex multiple cracking routines and precise target work, whereas, in times past, the bullwhip was designed for one basic, main purpose, modern whip makers design their whips for different specific purposes and to suit different throwing styles. Regardless of their end use, all bullwhips have certain common features. A bullwhip consists of a section, a thong, a fall. A wrist loop may also be present, although its purpose is for hanging ones whip on a hook. The main portion of the length is made up of a braided body or thong. Made of many strips of leather, the number of braids or plaits is an important factor in the construction of the whip, often the thong is multi-layered, having one or more bellies in the center. Quality whips have at least two bellies, made of braided leather like the surface of the whip, though with fewer plaits, lower-quality whips may have no bellies at all, and are sometimes stuffed with materials such as newspaper which will break down with use. Unlike in the Australian stock whip, the thong connects in line with the handle, the handle is usually short, being between 8 and 12 inches long. While some whips have a wooden grip, others have an intricately braided leather covered handle. Some handles swivel, making it easier to do certain types of unsophisticated cracks but making it harder to do others, the Australians introduced a longer handled bullwhip to the US, where the bullwhips traditionally had shorter handles. The longer handled whip, with a handle of 10-14 inches, bullwhips are usually measured from the butt of the handle to the end of the plaiting of the thong. The thong typically terminates at a fall hitch—a series of half hitches that neatly tie the replaceable fall to the whip, whips range in length from 3 ft to very long bullwhips of 20 ft with some examples being even longer. A fall is a piece of leather between 10 and 30 inches in length. It was traditionally made to be due to the extreme stresses the very end of the whip was subjected to as it was cracked

13.
Riding aids
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Riding aids are the cues a rider gives to a horse to communicate what they want the animal to do. Riding aids are broken into the natural aids and the artificial aids and these are the aids which the rider possesses on their body, and should be used for the majority of the cues to the horse. Overuse of any aid can be detrimental to the training of the horse, the natural aids include, Leg Hand Seat Voice It is important to remember that the aids are used in a spectrum, from very light to very powerful, depending on the response desired. A very sensitive horse may readily jump forward from light touch of the leg, additionally, an aid from canter to walk, for example, will use slightly more restraining aid on a particular horse than that horse would need going from canter to trot. Positioning of the legs, seat, and hands are used in a spectrum according to the individual horse. In all cases, good training aims for the horse to be responsive at the slightest cue and this is one reason why better-trained animals can be harder to ride, as they will respond to the slightest movement or shift in weight made by the rider. Therefore, they take any mistake made by the rider as a cue to do something. Riders must therefore be sure that any perceived disobediences are not actually caused by their own doing, good training of the rider will aim to produce someone with an independent seat, meaning someone who is able to give the aids independent of each other. Only then will the rider be able to start to influence the horse in such a way to help it. The leg, along with the seat, should be the main aid for the horse and it has a great deal of control over the horses hindquarters, and is used to cue the horse to go forward, increase impulsion, step sideways, and correctly bend. It is the primary driving aid, both legs in a neutral position, applying equal pressure against the horses sides, generally asks for an increase in speed or an upward transition. Depending on the level of restraining aids, the leg can also ask for an increase in impulsion, for collection, or even for the rein back. To ask a horse to back up, a rider simultaneously uses soft rein aids to keep the horse from stepping forward and it is incorrect to ask for a rein back by pulling or jerking on the reins. One leg in a position, or slightly back from neutral. One leg further back, in a passive role, and the other leg in a neutral position. This is also important when cueing for movements that require bend, such as the half-pass, one leg farther back, with the other leg in a neutral position, both actively encouraging the horse forward, will usually aid the horse to canter. The horse will pick up the lead opposite the leg that is further back, the hands communicate to the horse through the reins to the bit. They have the most control over the head and shoulders

14.
Whipcracking
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Whipcracking is the act of producing a cracking sound through the use of a whip. Used during livestock driving and horse riding, it has become an art. A rhythmic whipcracking belongs to the traditional culture among various Germanic peoples of Bavaria, various Alpine areas, Austria, the crack a whip makes is produced when a section of the whip moves faster than the speed of sound creating a small sonic boom. The creation of the boom was confirmed in 1958 by analyzing the high-speed shadow photography taken in 1927. A common explanation is to derive the behavior from the conservation of energy law, based on simulations, the high speed of the tip of the whip has been proposed to be a result of a chain reaction of levers and blocks. In 1997 the Discover Magazine reported about the possibility of the whipcracking effect millions of years ago, basing on the reasoning described above, Myhrvold concluded that sauropods were capable of producing a crack comparable to the sound of a cannon. Goaßlschnalzen, Goaßlschnalzn, Goasslschnoizen is translated as whip-cracking, from the Bavarian word Goaßl for coachwhip, in earlier centuries, the carriage drivers used elaborate crack sequences to signal their approach and to identify them. Over time horse-drawn transport dwindled, but the tradition remained, today the Goaßlschnalzer do concert performances, often as bands that include conventional musical instruments. Whipsnapping is also a sport in Bavaria. There are many whip-cracking associations in Bavaria, Aperschnalzen or Apaschnoizn in Bavarian is an old tradition of competitive whipcracking revived in the first half of the 20th century. The word aper means area free of snow, and it has been thought that this tradition had a meaning of driving the winter away by whipcracking. The British Whipcracking Convention is a place for all who are interested in whip cracking and this ranges from complete novices who have never picked up a whip, through intermediate skills to expert skill sharing. There are workshops for the skill levels as well as competitions. The third convention was held in Aldersley Leisure Village, Aldersley Road, Whip cracking competitions have become especially popular in Australia. They focus on the completion of complex, multiple-cracking routines and precise target work, various whips, apart from bullwhips, are used in such competitions. The most common used in Australian competitions is an Australian stockwhip. In 1986 an Australian whip-cracker Gary Brophy managed to crack a giant whip for the Guinness Book of Records, the whip measured a staggering 42m in length. Gary and his family now tour the world performing their wild west act in circuses, the How-To Book of Bullwhip Skills, CreateSpace,2008

15.
Operant conditioning
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While operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove, the box, however, in classical conditioning, stimuli that signal significant events produce reflexive behavior. For example, the sound of a door comes to signal an angry parent. The study of learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis. Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike, who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes. A cat could escape from the box by a response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, in short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure, humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to an outcome and discarded when they do not. This usually happens without being planned by any teacher, but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years. B. F. Skinner is often referred to as the father of operant conditioning and his book The Behavior of Organisms, published in 1938, initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Unlike Thorndikes puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinners primary behavioral measure. Another invention, the recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules, a reinforcement schedule may be defined as any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-defined rule. The effects of schedules became, in turn, the findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior, many of Skinners writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior. In 1948 he published Walden Two, an account of a peaceful, happy

16.
Sled dog
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Sled dogs were important for transportation in arctic areas, hauling supplies in areas that were inaccessible by other methods. They were used with varying success in the explorations of both poles, as well as during the Alaskan gold rush, Sled dog teams delivered mail to rural communities in Alaska and northern Canada. Sled dogs today are used by some rural communities, especially in areas of Alaska and Canada. They are used for recreational purposes, and are raced in events known as dog sled races such as the Iditarod, Sled dogs probably evolved in Mongolia between 35,000 and 30,000 years ago. Scientists believe that humans migrated north of the Arctic Circle with their dogs, and using them to pull sleds 3,000 years ago, Sled dogs have been used in Canada, Lapland, Greenland, Siberia, Chukotka, Norway, Finland, and Alaska. Historical references of the dogs and dog harnesses that were used by Native American cultures date back to before European contact, the use of dogs as draft animals was widespread in North America. There were two kinds of sled dogs, one kind is kept by coastal cultures, and the other kind is kept by interior cultures such as the Athabascan Indians. These interior dogs formed the basis of the Alaskan Husky, Russian traders following the Yukon River inland in the mid-1800s acquired sled dogs from the interior villages along the river. The dogs of this area were reputed to be stronger and better at hauling heavy loads than the native Russian sled dogs, the Alaskan Gold Rush brought renewed interest in the use of sled dogs as transportation. Most gold camps were only by dogsled in the winter. This, along with the use in the exploration of the poles, led to the late 1800s. Sled dogs were used to deliver the mail in Alaska during the late 1800s, Malamutes were the favored breed, with teams averaging eight to ten dogs. Dogs were capable of delivering mail in conditions that would stop boats, trains, each team hauled between 230 and 320 kilograms of mail. The mail was stored in waterproofed bags to protect it from the snow, by 1901, dog trails had been established along the entirety of the Yukon River. Mail delivery by dog sled came to an end in 1963 when the last mail carrier to use a dog sled, Chester Noongwook of Savoonga and he was honored by the US Postal Service in a ceremony on St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea. Airplanes took over Alaskan mail delivery in the 1920s and 1930s, in 1924, Carl Ben Eielson flew the first Alaskan airmail delivery. Dogsleds were used to patrol western Alaska during World War II, highways and trucking in the 40s and 50s, and the snowmobile in the 50s and 60s, contributed to the decline of the working sled dog. Recreational mushing came into place to maintain the tradition of dog mushing, the desire for larger, stronger, load-pulling dogs changed to one for faster dogs with high endurance used in racing, which caused the dogs to become lighter than they were historically

17.
Livestock
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Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass

18.
Mule
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A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes, of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny, which is the offspring of a female donkey and a male horse. The size of a mule and work to which it is put depend largely on the breeding of the female parent. Mules can be lightweight, medium weight, or when produced from draft horse mares, Mules are more patient, hardy and long-lived than horses, and are less obstinate and more intelligent than donkeys. Mules also tend to be more independent than most domesticated equines other than the donkey, the median weight range for a mule is between about 370 and 460 kg. While a few mules can carry live weight up to 160 kg, in general, a mule can be packed with dead weight of up to 20% of its body weight, or approximately 90 kg. Although it depends on the animal, it has been reported that mules trained by the Army of Pakistan can carry up to 72 kilograms. The average equine in general can carry up to approximately 30% of its weight in live weight. A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a fetus, is called a molly or Molly mule, pregnancy is rare, but can occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer. A male mule is called a horse mule, though often called a john mule. A young male mule is called a colt, and a young female is called a mule filly. With its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow hooves, and short mane, in height and body, shape of neck and rump, uniformity of coat, and teeth, it appears horse-like. The mule comes in all sizes, shapes and conformations, there are mules that resemble huge draft horses, sturdy quarter horses, fine-boned racing horses, shaggy ponies and more. The mule is an example of hybrid vigor, charles Darwin wrote, The mule always appears to me a most surprising animal. The mule inherits from its sire the traits of intelligence, sure-footedness, toughness, endurance, disposition, from its dam it inherits speed, conformation, and agility. Mules exhibit a higher intelligence than their parent species. This is also believed to be the result of hybrid vigor, similar to how mules acquire greater height and their hooves are harder than horses, and they show a natural resistance to disease and insects. Many North American farmers with clay soil found mules superior as plow animals, a mule does not sound exactly like a donkey or a horse

19.
Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organisms future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a frequency of behavior, longer duration, greater magnitude. Reinforcement does not require an individual to perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior, however, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. An ibuprofen is a reinforcer because it takes away pain. Kennedy or of the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks, Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the constructs of reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behavior increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behavior, If however, cookie-requesting behavior does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer, the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinners conclusions, the term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response, the experimenter waits for the response to occur, Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning - see punishment, Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. A positive reinforcer is an event for which the animal will work in order to acquire it. Verbal and physical reward is very useful positive reinforcement Example, Whenever a rat presses a button, If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Example, A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys, If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Example, A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold, the prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales

20.
Sound barrier
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The sound barrier or sonic barrier is a popular term for the sudden increase in aerodynamic drag and other effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches supersonic speed. When aircraft first began to be able to close to supersonic speed. In dry air at 20 °C, the barrier is reached when an object moves at a speed of 343 metres per second. By the 1950s, new aircraft designs routinely broke the sound barrier, some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound, the tip of the whip breaks the sound barrier and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom. Firearms made after the 19th century have generally had a muzzle velocity. The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago and this finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field. Meteorites entering the Earths atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound, the tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is particularly noticeable on the Stearman, and noticeable on the North American T-6 Texan when it enters a sharp-breaking turn and this is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the output of the propeller can compensate. Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive, unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them. In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse and this was solved in later models with changes to the wing. in 1946. A similar problem is thought to be the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union. All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a barrier that makes it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound. During WWII and immediately thereafter a number of claims were made that the barrier had been broken in a dive. The majority of these events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors. The typical airspeed indicator uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage and this effect became known as Mach jump

21.
Sonic boom
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A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created by an object traveling through the air faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of energy, sounding much like an explosion. The crack of a bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature. When an aircraft passes through the air it creates a series of waves in front of it and behind it, similar to the bow. These waves travel at the speed of sound and, as the speed of the object increases, the waves are forced together, or compressed, because they cannot get out of the way of each other. Eventually they merge into a shock wave, which travels at the speed of sound, a critical speed known as Mach 1. In smooth flight, the wave starts at the nose of the aircraft. Because the different radial directions around the direction of travel are equivalent. The half-angle between direction of flight and the shock wave α is given by, sin ⁡ = v sound v object, thus the faster the plane travels, the finer and more pointed the cone is. There is a rise in pressure at the nose, decreasing steadily to a pressure at the tail. This overpressure profile is known as an N-wave because of its shape and this leads to a distinctive double boom from a supersonic aircraft. When the aircraft is maneuvering, the distribution changes into different forms. Its width depends on the altitude of the aircraft, the distance from the point on the ground where the boom is heard to the aircraft depends on its altitude and the angle α. For todays supersonic aircraft in normal operating conditions, the peak overpressure varies from less than 50 to 500 Pa for an N-wave boom, the strongest sonic boom ever recorded was 7,000 Pa and it did not cause injury to the researchers who were exposed to it. The boom was produced by an F-4 flying just above the speed of sound at an altitude of 100 feet, in recent tests, the maximum boom measured during more realistic flight conditions was 1,010 Pa. There is a probability that some damage — shattered glass, for example — will result from a sonic boom, buildings in good condition should suffer no damage by pressures of 530 Pa or less. And, typically, community exposure to sonic boom is below 100 Pa, ground motion resulting from sonic boom is rare and is well below structural damage thresholds accepted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines and other agencies. The power, or volume, of the shock wave depends on the quantity of air that is being accelerated, as the aircraft increases speed the shock cone gets tighter around the craft and becomes weaker to the point that at very high speeds and altitudes no boom is heard

22.
Longeing
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Longing /ˈlʌndʒᵻŋ/ or lunging is a technique for training horses, where a horse is asked to work at the end of a lunge line and respond to commands from a handler on the ground who holds the line. It is also a component of the sport of equestrian vaulting. Longing is performed on a circle with the horse traveling around the outside edge of a real or imaginary ring with the trainer in the middle. The word is believed to be derived from either the French word allonge, meaning to lengthen, the phonetic lungeing spelling dates back to the 1800s, but has only become popular since the late 20th century. It is also the spelling in both New Zealand and Australia, and, since 2009, by the FEI in their equestrian vaulting rules. Longeing has many benefits for both horses and riders and it is also useful to help settle a horse before riding, especially a high-strung horse, a young horse, or a horse that has been confined more than usual. However, longeing for long periods or with the intent to tire a horse out can cause joint strain, Longeing riders is valuable for teaching, as they may develop their seat and position without having to worry about controlling the horse. The longe line is about 30 feet long, so the circle can have a diameter of 60 feet. It is usually a flat woven webbing made of nylon, cotton, in the natural horsemanship tradition, the longe line is usually made of round cotton rope, and is often much shorter, as short as 15 or 20 feet. In general, cotton longe lines are likely to burn the trainers hands than nylon. It may have a snap, buckle, or chain on one end to attach to a longeing cavesson or bridle, a chain, although sometimes used with difficult horses, has no subtlety of contact and is quite severe. In most cases, it is best to use a snap-end longe line, many longe lines have a loop handle at the other end, but this is dangerous to use, as a persons hand can be trapped in the handle and be injured should the horse bolt. The longe line takes the place of the rein aids while longeing. It can be held in a hold or a driving hold. The whip usually has a stock of 6 feet, with a lash of 5–6 feet, the whip is light, easy to handle, and well balanced. The longe whip is used as an encouragement to the horse, a longeing cavesson is the classic headgear specialized for longeing, but in modern times is not the most commonly used equipment. It is a type of headstall with one to three rings on the noseband to which the line is attached. The most common point of attachment is the ring at the top of the cavesson

23.
Tenterfield, New South Wales
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Tenterfield is a town in New South Wales, Australia. It is located in the New England region at the intersection of the New England, Tenterfield is a three-hour drive from Brisbane,3 hours from Byron Bay,2 hours from Armidale, New South Wales and 8 hours from Sydney. The town sits in a valley astride the Great Dividing Range, at the 2011 census, Tenterfield had a population of 3,300. Tenterfield’s first inhabitants were the Jukembal people who travelled the area from near Glen Innes to Stanthorpe, in 1841, Sir Stuart Donaldson was running 18,000 sheep on a property that he named Tenterfield Station, after a family home in Scotland. Donaldson was the first premier of NSW and made trips to Tenterfield to inspect his holdings there. Tenterfield Post Office opened on 1 January 1849 and the township was gazetted in 1851 with allotments being sold in 1854, in 1858 gold was discovered at Drake and shortly afterwards at Timbarra and Boonoo Boonoo. During 1859 an AJS Bank opened and an Anglican church was built the following year, in the 1860s the Tenterfield Chronicle was published, the district court was established, the building of a hospital commenced and a public school was opened. In 1870 the population was less than 900, but the town had five hotels, the existing Tenterfield Post Office was constructed in 1881. During World War II, Tenterfield was earmarked as a key battleground if the Japanese should invade Australia, during 1942 thousands of soldiers were set up in emergency camps, unbeknown to the locals, to cope with such an event. Overgrown tank traps and gun emplacements can still be seen on the Travelling Stock Route near the New England Highway, the highway was until the early 1950s the only all-weather road from Sydney to Brisbane. The railway opened to Tenterfield on 28 October 1884 and in 1886 to nearby Wallangarra on the Queensland border, connecting Sydney and Brisbane, when the rail link to the Queensland border was completed, Sydney and Brisbane were linked by rail for the first time. The railway was subsequently bypassed by the standard gauge North Coast line between Sydney and Brisbane, completed in 1932. The Main North line is now closed north of Armidale and the Tenterfield railway station is now a museum, there was considerable debate about whether the break of gauge should take place at the existing town of Tenterfield, or at a whole new town at the border at Wallangarra. Sir Henry Parkes delivered his Federation Speech in the Tenterfield School of Arts on 24 October 1889 and he was travelling from Brisbane to Sydney, via the new Main North railway. The speech is credited with re-igniting the debate that led to Federation on 1 January 1901. The following buildings and sites are listed on the Register of the National Estate, there are ten State Forests in the Tenterfield district covering 7540ha. The only commercial radio stations serving Tenterfield are Rebel Media stations, Rebel FM, tenterfield-based community radio station Ten FM provides a more local focus, derived in part from the stringent rules controlling community radio stations. The station also broadcasts to Stanthorpe north of the border, on a separate frequency, ABC New England North West and ABC Radio National broadcast to Tenterfield on local FM repeaters

24.
Stockwhip
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A stockwhip is a type of whip made of a long, tapered length of flexible, plaited leather with a stiff handle that is used when mustering cattle. The Australian stockwhip is said to have originated from the English hunting whip and it was designed to move mobs of cattle by making it crack, which would encourage the mob to keep moving. It is not usually used for sheep, throughout Australia stockmen and drovers have used the stockwhip since the early 19th century and it is still the preferred whip used by Australian cattlemen and women today. A stockwhip is part of the equipment in stockman challenges. Competitions known as a stockman’s chop are held in which a rider must canter down a row of pegs with paper pieces attached, whipcracking events are a popular form of competition for juniors through to the older family members. Unlike the American equivalent an Australian stockwhip is usually made of redhide or sometimes greenhide leather, because a kangaroo is a native animal, and cattle are a lot cheaper and abundant, kangaroo hide stockwhips are more expensive. Only the most expensive whips are made from kangaroo hide and they often have a fully plaited handle, kangaroo hide allows the whip maker to produce the fine plaits for which the kangaroo leather stockwhip is renowned. The size of Australian stockwhips are measured by the length of the thong, Australian stockwhips can be as short as 3 feet or as long as 10 feet. The standard Australian stockwhip is 6 feet long, stronger people generally prefer a larger and heavier whip to be used on horseback. Small and light whips that are designed for crowded environments such as cattle yards are called yard whips, yard whips are swift and easy to use. The five parts of the Australian Stockwhip are the stock, the keeper, the thong, the fall, the stock is usually made of cane and usually has a part plaited leather grip. The stock of an Australian stockwhip is usually longer than the bullwhip, the most noticeable difference between a bullwhip and an Australian stockwhip is that the handle of a stockwhip is not integrated into the thong. Instead the handle is attached to the thong by a keeper, the advantages of this design are many but is mainly that the stock can be easily replaced if it falls off. The keeper is the part of the whip that connects the stock to the thong, the keeper is made of a wide strip of leather passing over the end of the whip handle. It loops through end of the thong and is joined to the stock. The thong is the long, plaited section of whip, redhide whips are usually made of four plaits due to ease and speed of construction but some people prefer 6 plait. A kangaroo hide whip is made, usually, with 8 or 12 plaits and this doesnt make a better whip, just a finer and more costly one. The thong is the part of a stockwhip that is measured, the fall is a single piece of tapered rawhide or redhide leather which is about 60 centimetres long and attached to the end of the thong

25.
Stockman (Australia)
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In Australia a stockman is a person who looks after the livestock on a large property known as a station, which is owned by a grazier or a grazing company. A stockman may also be employed at an abattoir, feedlot, on a livestock export ship, or with a stock, stockmen who work with cattle in the Top End are known as ringers and are often only employed for the dry season which lasts from April to October. A station hand is an employee, who is involved in duties on a rural property or station. Some stations are now making changes for the employment of women by building female living quarters and installing hydraulic cattle crushes etc. An associated occupation is that of the drover, who, like the shearer may be an itinerant worker, a station trainee is known as a jackaroo or jillaroo, and does much the same work as a stockman. A stockman is responsible for the care for livestock and treatment of their injuries and illnesses and this includes, feeding, watering, mustering, droving, branding, castrating, ear tagging, weighing, vaccinating livestock and dealing with their predators. Stockmen need to be able to age by examining the dentition of cattle, sheep. Those caring for sheep will regularly have to deal with flystrike treatments, jetting animals, worm control, pregnant livestock usually receive special care in late pregnancy and stockmen may have to deal with dystocia. A good stockman is aware of livestock behavioural characteristics, and has an awareness of flight zone distances of the livestock being handled. Apart from livestock duties a person will inspect, maintain and repair fences, gates and yards that have been broken by storms, fallen trees, livestock. Damper is a type of bread that was baked by stockmen during colonial times. It is made with self-raising flour, salt and water and is cooked in a camp oven over the embers of a fire. In these areas the days in the saddle are often very long as the cattle have to be mustered, after the stock have been yarded they may then require drafting prior to branding, shearing or whatever procedures are required or have been planned. The town of Bathurst was founded shortly after, and potential farmers moved westward, the rolling country, ideal for sheep and the large, often unfenced, properties necessitated the role of the shepherd to tend the flocks. Early stockmen were specially selected, highly regarded men owing to the high value, all stockmen need to be interested in animals, able to handle them with confidence and patience, able to make accurate observations about them and enjoy working outdoors. Australian Aborigines were good stockmen who played a part in the successful running of many stations. With their intimate bonds to their places, and local knowledge they also took considerable pride in their work. After the gold rushes white labour was expensive and difficult to retain, aboriginal women also worked with cattle on the northern stations after this practice developed in northern Queensland during the 1880s

26.
Leather
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Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process

27.
Kangaroo
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The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, as with the terms wallaroo and wallaby, kangaroo refers to a polyphyletic grouping of species. All three refer to members of the taxonomic family, Macropodidae, and are distinguished according to size. The largest species in the family are called kangaroos and the smallest are generally called wallabies, the term wallaroos refers to species of an intermediate size. There is also the tree-kangaroo, another genus of macropod, which inhabits the rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland. Kangaroos have large, powerful legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development, the large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references. Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to grazing land. Although controversial, kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos, the word kangaroo derives from the Guugu Yimithirr word gangurru, referring to grey kangaroos. Cook first referred to kangaroos in his entry of 4 August. Guugu Yimithirr is the language of the people of the area, a common myth about the kangaroos English name is that kangaroo was a Guugu Yimithirr phrase for I dont understand you. According to this legend, Cook and Banks were exploring the area when they happened upon the animal and they asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded Kangaroo, meaning I dont understand you, which Cook took to be the name of the creature and this myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland in his research with the Guugu Yimithirr people, Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as roos. Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men, females are does, flyers, or jills, the collective noun for kangaroos is a mob, troop, or court. There are four species that are referred to as kangaroos

28.
Australian Stock Horse
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The Australian Stock Horse, has been especially bred for Australian conditions. It is a breed of horse noted for endurance, agility. Its ancestry dates to the arrival of the first horses in Australia, brought from Europe, Africa and it is used today in a wide variety of disciplines, and is still valued as a working horse by stockmen throughout Australia. The roots of the Australian Stock Horse date back to the earliest importation of nine horses to Australia, some of the original horse breeds in these early imports included the Thoroughbred, Cape of Good Hope Horse, Arabian, Timor Pony and Welsh Mountain pony. Horses in Australia were bred for their stamina and strength, with weaker animals culled, in the 1830s, additional Thoroughbreds were imported into Australia to improve the local strains, and the mid-20th century saw infusions from the American Quarter Horse. The Australian Stock Horse and the Waler horse come from similar roots, the station horse that was an ancestor of both breeds was used by the Australian Army in the First World War and was renowned for its toughness and endurance. However, the modern Australian Stock Horse differs from the Waler horse in that it is not as big, some of the heaviest animals were also required pull water carts and carriages. However, the characteristics of toughness and endurance remain with the Australian Stock Horse of today, many of these people bred stock horses using bloodlines tracing back to native stock, along with some Arabians, Thoroughbreds, and a few ponies of outstanding merit. Most of the early ASH registrations were of horses bred with bloodlines that excelled at both campdrafting and cattle work in the rugged Great Dividing Range, initially, horses were inspected for registration by three classifiers who assessed them for conformation, breeding and athletic ability. The best were accepted for inclusion in the Stud Book, some were approved for the appendix. These included horses bred from stock, Saladin, Cecil and his son Radium, Medlow. The others were Thoroughbreds, Rivoli, Commandant, Panzer, Midstream, Young Valais, Gibbergunyah, Bushfire, Silvius, since then Rivoli Ray, Blue Moon Mystic, Eliotts Creek Cadet, Warrenbri Romeo and some American Quarter Horses have also had a large influence on the breed. The use of Quarter Horse bloodlines is somewhat controversial, with some preferring to stay with older lines. Those who wish to bring in outside blood are required to pay high fees to the Society. The Australian Stock Horse is bred for intelligence, courage, toughness, the horse will be sound, agile and quick moving with a sure-footed walk. It will have a calm, responsive temperament, height ranges from 14 to 16.2 hands. The ideal Australian Stock Horse is well proportioned in all respects according to its size, desired traits include a finely cut, expressive head with large eye and a broad forehead. The neck is long, arched, with head well set on, the withers should be well defined

29.
2000 Summer Olympics
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It was the second time that the Summer Olympics were held in Australia, and also the Southern Hemisphere, the first being in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1956. Sydney was selected as the host city for the 2000 games in 1993, the United States won the most medals with 93, while Australia came in 4th with 58. The games cost was estimated to be A$6.6 billion, the Games received universal acclaim, with the organisation, volunteers, sportsmanship and Australian public being lauded in the international media. Bill Bryson from The Times called the Sydney Games one of the most successful events on the world stage, admit there can never be a better Olympic Games, and be done with it, as Sydney was both exceptional and the best. These were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch and these were also the second Olympic Games to be held in spring. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by Russia, several World and Olympic records were broken during the games. With little or no controversies, the games were deemed successful with the rising standard of competition amongst nations across the world. The Australian city of Melbourne had lost out to Atlanta for the 1996 Summer Olympics four years earlier, the Oxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics at USD5 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 90% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, operational costs incurred by the committee for the purpose of staging the Games. The competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Sydney 2000 compares with a cost of USD4.6 billion, average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is USD5.2 billion, average cost overrun is 176%. In 2000, the Auditor-General of New South Wales reported that the Sydney Games cost A$6.6 billion, many venues were constructed in the Sydney Olympic Park, which failed in the years immediately following the Olympics to meet the expected bookings to meet upkeep expenses. In the years leading up to the games, funds were shifted from education and it has been estimated that the economic impact of the 2000 Olympics was that A$2.1 billion has been shaved from public consumption. Economic growth was not stimulated to a net benefit and in the years after 2000, in the years after the games, infrastructure issues have been of growing concern to citizens, especially those in the western suburbs of Sydney. Proposed rail links to Sydneys west have been estimated to cost in the order of magnitude as the public expenditure on the games. Although the Olympic Games Opening Ceremony was not scheduled until 15 September, among the pre-ceremony fixtures, host nation Australia lost 1–0 to Italy at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which was the main stadium for the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. The opening ceremony began with a tribute to the Australian pastoral heritage of the Australian stockmen and it was produced and filmed by Sydney Olympic Broadcasting Organisation and the home nation broadcaster, Channel 7. This was introduced by a rider, Steve Jefferys

30.
Manilkara bidentata
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Manilkara bidentata is a species of Manilkara native to a large area of northern South America, Central America and the Caribbean. Common names include bulletwood, balatá, ausubo, massaranduba, balatá is a large tree, growing to 30–45 m tall. The leaves are alternate, elliptical, entire, and 10–20 cm long, the flowers are white, and are produced at the beginning of the rainy season. The fruit is a berry, 3–5 cm in diameter. Its latex is used industrially for products such as chicle, the latex is extracted in the same manner in which sap is extracted from the rubber tree. It is then dried to form an inelastic rubber-like material and it is almost identical to gutta-percha, and is sometimes called gutta-balatá. Balatá was often used in the production of high-quality golf balls, balatá-covered balls have a high spin rate, but do not travel as far as most balls with a Surlyn cover. Due to the nature of the material the golf club strikes. While once favored by professional and low-handicap players, they are now obsolete, replaced by newer Surlyn, today, Brazil is the largest producer of Massaranduba, where it is cut in the Amazon rainforest. The tree is a hardwood with a red heart, which is used for furniture, locals often refer to it as bulletwood for its extremely hard wood, which is so dense that it does not float in water. Drilling is necessary to drive nailed connections, in trade, it is occasionally called brazilwood. The fruit, like that of the related sapodilla, is edible, though its heartwood may present in a shade of purple, Manilkara bidentata should not be confused with another tropical tree widely known as purpleheart, Peltogyne pubescens. This timber is being used to produce outdoor funiture and is being marketed as Pacific Jarrah in Australia

31.
Brooklyn Museum
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The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum located in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. At 560,000 square feet, the museum is New York Citys third largest in physical size, the museum initially struggled to maintain its building and collection, only to be revitalized in the late 20th century, thanks to major renovations. Significant areas of the collection include antiquities, specifically their collection of Egyptian antiquities spanning over 3,000 years, African, Oceanic, and Japanese art make for notable antiquities collections as well. American art is represented, starting at the Colonial period. Artists represented in the collection include Mark Rothko, Edward Hopper, Norman Rockwell, Winslow Homer, Edgar Degas, Georgia OKeeffe, the museum also has a Memorial Sculpture Garden which features salvaged architectural elements from throughout New York City. The roots of the Brooklyn Museum extend back to the 1823 founding by Augustus Graham of the Brooklyn Apprentices’ Library in Brooklyn Heights, in 1890, under its director Franklin Hooper, Institute leaders reorganized as the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and began planning the Brooklyn Museum. The initial design for the Brooklyn Museum was four times as large as the actualized version, Daniel Chester French, the noted sculptor of the Lincoln Memorial, was the principal designer of the pediment sculptures and the monolithic 12. 5-foot figures along the cornice. The figures were created by 11 sculptors and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, by 1920, the New York City Subway reached the museum with a subway station, this greatly improved access to the once-isolated museum from Manhattan and other outer boroughs. The Brooklyn Institutes director Franklin Hooper was the museums first director and he was followed by Philip Newell Youtz, Laurance Page Roberts, Isabel Spaulding Roberts, Charles Nagel, Jr. and Edgar Craig Schenck. Thomas S. Buechner became the director in 1960, making him one of the youngest directors in the country. Buechner oversaw a major transformation in the way the museum displayed art and brought some one thousand works that had languished in the museums archives and put them on display. Buechner played a role in rescuing the Daniel Chester French sculptures from destruction due to an expansion project at the Manhattan Bridge in the 1960s. The Brooklyn Museum changed its name to Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1997, on March 12,2004, the museum announced that it would revert to its previous name. In April 2004, the museum opened the James Polshek-designed entrance pavilion on the Eastern Parkway façade, in September 2014, Lehman announced that he was planning to retire around June 2015. In May 2015, Creative Time president and artistic director Anne Pasternak was named the Museums next director, member institutions occupy land or buildings owned by the City of New York and derive part of their yearly funding from the City. The Brooklyn Museum also supplements its earned income with funding from Federal and State governments, as well as donations by individuals. Major benefactors include Frank Lusk Babbott, the museum is the site of the annual Brooklyn Artists Ball which has included celebrity hosts such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Liv Tyler. The Brooklyn Museum exhibits collections that seek to embody the rich heritage of world cultures

32.
Bullocky
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A bullocky is an Australian English term for the driver of a bullock team. Bullock drivers were known as teamsters or carriers. Bullock teams were in use in Sydney, New South Wales in 1795 when they were used for hauling building materials, the early explorers, Hume and Hovell in 1824 and Charles Sturt, later in 1828-9, also used bullock teams during their explorations. Prior to the rushes in Australia, in the mid 19th century, bullock drays carried essential food. On return trips they transported wheat, wool, sugar cane and they travelled constantly across the landscape, servicing the pastoral stations and settlements far from regional transport hubs and urban centres. Some of the stations maintained their own teams for local use when harvesting and transporting wool. Both bullock and horse wagons carried heavy loads of wool and wheat which was the main produce transported over distances, plus chaff. A bullock wagon could only travel approximately three miles an hour therefore it was slower than a horse team, Bullock drivers were typically skilled tough men who often faced extreme difficulties during their job. Bullockies were also colourful characters, often noted for their strong language, some did not swear though, relying solely on gesture, talking and whip movements as persuasion for the team’s job at hand. A typical bullocky wore a cabbage tree hat, a shirt of that period, moleskin trousers, blucher boots. During the early years the tracks were very rough with narrow, steep pinches, plus dangerous river. Many roads still follow the tracks made by teams as they negotiated their way up or down hills via a winding course to make haulage easier. Bullocks were less excitable and more dependable when faced with difficulties than horses, furthermore, bullocks were cheaper to purchase, equip and feed. Horses also required complex, expensive leather harness that frequently needed repair, Bullock gear was simple and the yokes were sometimes made by the bullocky from different kinds of timber. Bullockies often chose Devon cattle because they were plentiful, hardy, tractable and readily matched up the team, Teams had to be educated to perform their respective tasks, too. The first part of a bullock’s education began when the bullocky tied two young bullocks together with two heavy leather collars and a connecting chain, thus connected they were turned out to graze and rest until they accepted the close presence of their partner. Untrained bullocks were then put in the centre of the team, pairs of bullocks were matched for size and yoked together using a wooden yoke secured to each bullock by a metal bow which was fixed in place by key on top of the yoke. Each pair was connected by a chain, which ran from a central ring on each yoke to the next pair

33.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St

34.
Cowboy
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A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance. A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle, in addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. There are also cattle handlers in many parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia. The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas, over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle-handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever-practical cowboy adapted to the world, the cowboys equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree. The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle-tending work, the word cowboy appeared in the English language by 1725. It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback and it was derived from vaca, meaning cow, which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an anglicization of vaquero, originally, the term may have been intended literally—a boy who tends cows. By 1849 it had developed its sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word cowboy appeared later, cowhand appeared in 1852, and cowpoke in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping. Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, the word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word cowherd was used to describe a cattle herder, and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy and this word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000. In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, on western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for cowboy work on the ranch. The term cowboy was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence, in the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys, there were two separate groups, the skinners fought for the pro-independence side, the cowboys supported the British

35.
Buckskin (leather)
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Buckskin is the soft, pliable, porous preserved hide of an animal – usually deer – tanned in the same way as deerskin clothing worn by Native Americans. Some leather sold as buckskin may now be sheepskin tanned with modern chromate tanning chemicals, buckskin is preserved with a dressing of some kind of lubricant, physically manipulated to make it soft and pliable, and usually smoked with woodsmoke. Smoking gives buckskin its typical dark honey color, and is highly recommended, smoking prevents the tanned hide from becoming stiff if it gets wet, and deters insects from eating it as well. Unsmoked buckskin is lighter, even white, in color, buckskin is simply the skin of a buck. Clothing made of buckskin is referred to as buckskins, the dry-scrape method involves taking a wet deer hide and stretching it on a rack to dry flat. A scraping tool is then dragged perpendicular to the blade along the side, scraping off the epidermis and hair. The flesh side should be scraped as well, when the entire hide is scraped, it is taken off the rack, rehydrated, and dressed. The wet-scrape method involves scraping the wet hide on a smooth downward-slanting log or fleshing beam with the end at stomach or sternum level. A steel blade or split leg bone can be used for a scraper, the hide is draped on the log, the person leans into it, holding the hide in place with their body and pushing the scraper away with both hands. The epidermis is scraped off the outside of the hide to achieve a soft finish, the membrane is scraped off the flesh side. If the hide is more than a day or two old, it should be bucked first, via an alkali soaking process called bucking and this causes the grain layer to swell, making it easier to slip the hair and scrape off the grain. Once the hide has been scraped it must be dressed in a dressing solution and these can be made from any emulsified fat, such as egg yolks or the animals brain mixed into water. Another option is an oil and a mixed in water. Typically the wet hide is wrung out, then left in the solution for 15 minutes or more, then wrung out. Repeating this a third time ensures that the dressing reaches the middle of the hide and this is time sensitive, and has to be done from start to finish without stopping. The drying hide is continuously pulled and stretched in all directions, which lubricates the fibers of the hide with the oil of the dressing and this may be done on a rack with a stretching tool, or by hand. Often the hide is stretched against a cable or a rounded steel or wooden blade. This must be done until the hide is completely dry and no longer cool to the touch or else the finished buckskin will be stiff, the dry skin should now be completely supple and soft

36.
Nylon
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Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or shapes, the first example of nylon was produced on February 28,1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPonts research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon polymers have significant commercial applications in fibers, in shapes. Nylon is made of repeating units linked by bonds and is a type of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer, commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines and diacids. Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers, Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations. Nylon was invented accidentally by Julian W. Hill, a chemist for DuPont under Wallace Carotherss supervision and it was only given this name at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The patents were owned by DuPont, Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, after initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber, applications in the form of shapes and films were also developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto components, in 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters nyl were arbitrary and the on was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was intended to be No-Run. Since the products were not really run-proof, the vowels were swapped to produce nuron, for clarity in pronunciation, the i was changed to y. Most nylons are made from the reaction of an acid with a diamine or a lactam or amino acid with itself. In the first case, the structure is so-called ABAB similar to polyesters and polyurethanes, in the second case, the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons. To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid nylon salt can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1,1 ratio of the acid, the salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water, Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66, but overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading to nylon 6, the peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone

37.
Parachute cord
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Parachute cord is a lightweight nylon kernmantle rope originally used in the suspension lines of parachutes. This cord is useful for other tasks and is now used as a general purpose utility cord by both military personnel and civilians. This versatile cord was used by astronauts during the 82nd Space Shuttle mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope. The braided sheath has a number of interwoven strands for its size. The all-nylon construction makes paracord fairly elastic, current technical standards for the manufacture of cord for use in parachutes are published by the Parachute Industry Association. The US military MIL-C-5040H standard required the material to be nylon, similar styles of cord are manufactured with other materials such as polyester. Historically associated with units and divisions, paracord is today used by many military units in almost any situation where light cordage is needed. When threaded with beads, paracord may be used as a counter to estimate ground covered by foot. The yarns of the core can also be removed when finer string is needed, for instance as sewing thread to repair gear, or to be used as fishing line in a survival situation. The nylon sheath is used alone, the yarn in the core removed. Ends of the cord are almost always melted and crimped to prevent fraying, in addition to purely utility functions, paracord can be used to fashion knotted or braided bracelets, lanyards, belts, and other decorative items. These are sometimes tied in a fashion that can easily be unraveled for use in a survival situation, some companies use paracord in conjunction with other survival components to create everyday wearable survival kits. The same properties which soldiers appreciate in paracord are also useful in civilian applications, after World War II parachute cord became available to civilians, first as military surplus and then as a common retail product from various surplus stores and websites. A given product labelled as paracord may not correspond to a military type and can be of differing construction, quality. Particularly poor quality examples may have significantly fewer strands in the sheath or core, cores constructed of fiber rather than individual yarns. Paracord has also used for whipmaking. The durability and versatility of this material has proved beneficial for performing whip crackers, since nylon does not rot or mildew, it has become known as an all-weather material for whipmaking. Hikers and outdoor sports enthusiasts use survival bracelets made of several feet of paracord which is woven into a compact

38.
Largo, Florida
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Largo is the third largest city in Pinellas County, Florida, United States, and is part of the Tampa Bay Area. As of the 2014 Census estimate, the city had a population of 84,500, Largo was first incorporated in 1905. In 1913, it became the first municipality in Pinellas County to adopt a council-manager government and it switched back and forth from town to city a few times, and became a city again in 1974. It was an exporter of products until the 1960s when the influx of people began to transform it into a bedroom community. From 1905 to 2010, Largo grew in area from 9/16ths of a mile to about 19 square miles. Largo began as a farming community and became the third largest city in Floridas most densely populated county. Largo is a city to Tosayamada, Kochi, Japan. In 2007, Largo had been named a National Arbor Day Tree City for the year in a row. The original inhabitants of the Largo area were the Tocobaga people and they are also known as the Safety Harbor culture from their archeological remains near present-day Safety Harbor. The Spanish came to Florida in the 16th century, in the 18th century, the Tocobaga had been virtually destroyed after years of exposure to European diseases, Spanish settlement efforts and warfare between Spain and England. The Largo area, like the rest of Pinellas County, was largely deserted, in 1763, Spain transferred sovereignty of Florida to The United Kingdom. In 1783, Florida fell to Spanish sovereignty once again until it was transferred to the United States in 1821, by 1845, a surveyor recorded the location of Lake Tolulu, apparently south of present-day East Bay Drive and roughly where the Largo Central Park Nature Preserve is today. Among the first homesteaders in the Largo area were the families of James, the McMullens and other settlers raised cattle, grew citrus and vegetables and fished. During the Civil War, many Largo area residents fought for the Confederate States of America, James and Daniel McMullen were members of the Cow Cavalry driving Florida cattle to Georgia and the Carolinas to help sustain the war effort. Other area residents served on blockade runners, still others left the area to serve in the Confederacys armies. After the war, Largo area residents returned to farming, ranching, the Orange Belt Railway reached the area in 1888. By this time Lake Tolulu had been renamed Lake Largo, the Town of Largo was incorporated in 1905. Lake Largo was drained in 1916 to make way for growth, between 1910 and 1930, Largos population increased about 500%

39.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains

40.
Wyoming
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Wyoming /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ is a state in the mountain region of the western United States. The state is the tenth largest by area, the least populous, Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city in Wyoming, the state population was estimated at 586,107 in 2015, which is less than the population of 31 of the largest U. S. cities. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were some of the inhabitants of the region. Southwestern Wyoming was included in the Spanish Empire and then Mexican territory until it was ceded to the United States in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War. The region acquired the name Wyoming when a bill was introduced to Congress in 1865 to provide a government for the territory of Wyoming. The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania, with the name ultimately being derived from the Munsee word xwé, wamənk, the mineral extraction industry—especially coal, oil, natural gas, and trona—along with the travel and tourism sector are the main drivers behind Wyomings economy. Agriculture has historically been an important component of the economy with the main commodities being livestock, hay, sugar beets, grain. The climate is generally semi-arid and continental, being drier and windier in comparison to the rest of the United States, except for the 1964 election, Wyoming has been a politically conservative state since the 1950s, with the Republican party winning every presidential election. Wyoming is one of three states to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, from the north border to the south border it is 276 miles, and from the east to the west border is 365 miles at its south end and 342 miles at the north end. The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet, to the Belle Fourche River valley in the states northeast corner, at 3,125 feet. In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, in the north central are the Big Horn Mountains, in the northeast, the Black Hills, and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy and Sierra Madre ranges. The Snowy Range in the central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains

41.
Baton (law enforcement)
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A baton or truncheon is a club of less than arms length made of wood, rubber, plastic or metal. They are carried for self-defense or riot control by law-enforcement officers, correctional staff, security-industry employees, other uses for truncheons and batons include crowd control or the dispersal of rioters. A truncheon or baton may be used in ways as a weapon. It can be used to defensively to block, offensively to strike, jab, bludgeon and they have a common role to play, too, in the rescuing of trapped individuals—for instance, people caught in blazing cars or buildings—by smashing windows. Some criminals use batons as weapons because of their easy concealment, Some criminals use improvised batons, clubs or similar weapons, such as a weight placed in a sock. The use or carrying of batons or improvised clubs by people other than law enforcement officers is restricted by law in many countries, other names for a baton are a cosh, billystick, billy club, nightstick, sap, blackjack or stick. In the Victorian era, police in London carried truncheons about one-foot long called billy clubs, according to the Online Etymology Dictionary, this name is first recorded in 1848 as slang for a burglars crowbar. The meaning policemans club is first recorded 1856, the truncheon acted as the policemans Warrant Card as the Royal Crest attached to it indicated the policemans authority. This was always removed when the equipment left official service, earlier on the word was used in vulgar Latin. The Victorian original has since developed into the varieties available today. The typical truncheon is a stick made from wood or a synthetic material, approximately 1.25 inches in diameter and 18–36 inches long. Truncheons are often ornamented with their organizations coats of arms, longer truncheons are called riot batons because of their use in riot control. Truncheons probably developed as a marriage between the club or military mace and the staff of office/sceptre, straight batons of rubber have a softer impact. Some of the kinetic energy bends and compresses the rubber and bounces off when the object is struck, rubber batons are not very effective when used on the subjects arms or legs, and can still cause injury if the head is struck. That is why most police departments have stopped issuing it, the Russian police standard-issue baton is rubber, except in places such as Siberia, where it can be cold enough that the rubber may become brittle and break if struck. The traffic baton is red to make it visible as a signaling aid in directing traffic. In Russia traffic batons are striped in black and white for the same reason, until the mid-1990s, British police officers carried traditional wooden truncheons of a sort that had changed little from Victorian times. Since the late 1990s, the baton is issued except for public order duties

42.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older

43.
Carriage
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A carriage is a wheeled vehicle for people, usually horse-drawn, litters and sedan chairs are excluded, since they are wheelless vehicles. The carriage is especially designed for passenger use and for comfort or elegance. It may be light, smart and fast or heavy, large, Carriages normally have suspension using leaf springs, elliptical springs or leather strapping. A public passenger vehicle would not usually be called a carriage – terms for such include stagecoach, charabanc, working vehicles such as the wagon and cart share important parts of the history of the carriage, as does too the fast chariot. The word carriage is from Old Northern French cariage, to carry in a vehicle, a carriage is sometimes called a team, as in horse and team. A carriage with its horse is a rig, an elegant horse-drawn carriage with its retinue of servants is an equipage. A carriage together with the horses, harness and attendants is a turnout or setout, a procession of carriages is a cavalcade. Some horsecarts found in Celtic graves show hints that their platforms were suspended elastically, four-wheeled wagons were used in prehistoric Europe, and their form known from excavations suggests that the basic construction techniques of wheel and undercarriage were established then. The earliest recorded sort of carriage was the chariot, reaching Mesopotamia as early as 1900 BC, used typically for warfare by Egyptians, the near Easterners and Europeans, it was essentially a two-wheeled light basin carrying one or two passengers, drawn by one to two horses. It is likely that Roman carriages employed some form of suspension on chains or leather straps, in the kingdom of the Zhou Dynasty the Warring States were also known to have used carriages as transportation. With the decline of these civilizations these techniques almost disappeared, the medieval carriage was typically a four-wheeled wagon type, with a rounded top similar in appearance to the Conestoga Wagon familiar from the USA. Sharing the traditional form of wheels and undercarriage known since the Bronze Age, suspension is recorded in visual images and written accounts from the 14th century, and was in widespread use by the 15th century. Carriages were largely used by royalty, aristocrats, and could be decorated and gilded. These carriages were on four wheels often and were pulled by two to four depending on how they were decorated. Wood and iron were the requirements needed to build a carriage. Another form of carriage was the pageant wagon of the 14th century, historians debate on the structure and size of pageant wagons, however, they are generally miniature house-like structures that rest on four to six wheels depending on the size of the wagon. Historians also debate whether or not pageant wagons were built with pivotal axle systems, whether it was a four- or six-wheel pageant wagon, most historians maintain that pivotal axle systems were implemented on pageant wagons because many roads were often winding with some sharp turns. Six wheel pageant wagons also represent another innovation in carriages, they were one of the first carriages to use multiple pivotal axles, pivotal axles were used on the front set of wheels and the middle set of wheels

Gold medallist Nancy Johnson (centre) of the U.S., raises her hands with silver medallist Cho-Hyun Kang (left), of South Korea, and bronze winner Jing Gao (right), of China, during the first medal ceremony of the 2000 Olympic Games.

Show jumping, also known as "stadium jumping", "open jumping", or simply "jumping", is a part of a group of English …

A competitor in a show jumping class

Proper show jumping attire, as seen in the show jumping phase of a three-day event. Attire at an event includes a mandatory armband as seen here, although the armband is not required in general show jumping.

An Andalusian at the passage in a hollowed frame (note the dip behind the saddle).

An upper-level dressage horse at the extended trot also in false frame and false collection. Note the mismatched angles of the front and rear elevated legs. This is an example of modern dressage which leaves behind the building blocks and seeks only to present a flashy horse with no true collection, roundness, softness, balance or rhythm.