Gravitational fields and the theory of general relativity

In Einstein’s theory of general relativity, the physical consequences of gravitational fields are stated in the following way. Space-time is a four-dimensional non-Euclidean continuum, and the curvature of the Riemannian geometry of space-time is produced by or related to the distribution of matter in the world. Particles and light rays travel along the geodesics (shortest paths) of this four-dimensional geometric world.

There are two principal consequences of the geometric view of gravitation: (1) the accelerations of bodies depend only on their masses and not on their chemical or nuclear constitution, and (2) the path of a body or of light in the neighbourhood of a massive body (the Sun, for example) is slightly different from that predicted by Newton’s theory. The first is the weak principle of equivalence. Newton himself performed experiments with pendulums that demonstrated the principle to better than one part in 1,000 for a variety of materials, and, at the beginning of the 20th century, the Hungarian physicist Roland, Baron von Eötvös, showed that different materials accelerate in Earth’s field at the same rate to within one part in 109. More-recent experiments have shown the equality of accelerations in the field of the Sun to within one part in 1011. Newtonian theory is in accord with these results because of the postulate that gravitational force is proportional to a body’s mass.

Inertial mass is a mass parameter giving the inertial resistance to acceleration of the body when responding to all types of force. Gravitational mass is determined by the strength of the gravitational force experienced by the body when in the gravitational field g. The Eötvös experiments therefore show that the ratio of gravitational and inertial mass is the same for different substances.

In Einstein’s theory of special relativity, inertial mass is a manifestation of all the forms of energy in a body, according to his fundamental relationship E = mc2, E being the total energy content of a body, m the inertial mass of the body, and c the speed of light. Dealing with gravitation, then, as a field phenomenon, the weak principle of equivalence indicates that all forms of nongravitational energy must identically couple to or interact with the gravitational field, because the various materials in nature possess different fractional amounts of nuclear, electrical, magnetic, and kinetic energies, yet they accelerate at identical rates.

In the theory of general relativity, the gravitational field also interacts with gravitational energy in the same manner as with other forms of energy, an example of that theory’s universality not possessed by most other theories of gravitation.

The Sun has an appreciable fraction of internal gravitational energy, and the repetitions of the Eötvös experiments during the 1970s, with the Sun instead of Earth as the attracting mass, revealed that bodies accelerate at identical rates in the Sun’s field as well as in that of Earth. Extremely accurate laser measurements of the distance of the Moon from Earth have made possible a further test of the weak principle of equivalence. The chemical constitutions of Earth and the Moon are not the same, and so, if the principle did not hold, they might accelerate at different rates under the Sun’s attraction. No such effect has been detected.

Newton’s third law of dynamics states that every force implies an equal and opposite reaction force. Modern field theories of force contain this principle by requiring every entity that is acted upon by a field to be also a source of the field. An experiment by the American physicist Lloyd Kreuzer established to within 1 part in 20,000 that different materials produce gravitational fields with a strength the same as that of gravitational fields acting upon them. In this experiment a sphere of solid material was moved through a liquid of identical weight density. The absence of a gravitational effect on a nearby Cavendish balance instrument during the sphere’s motion is interpreted as showing that the two materials had equal potency in producing a local gravitational-field anomaly.

Other experiments have confirmed Einstein’s predictions to within a few percent. Using the Mössbauer effect to monitor the nuclear reabsorption of resonant gamma radiation, a shift of wavelength of the radiation that traveled vertically tens of metres in Earth’s gravitational field was measured, and the slowing of clocks (in this case the nuclear vibrations are clocks) as predicted by Einstein was confirmed to 1 percent precision. If ν and Δν are clock frequency and change of frequency, respectively, h is the height difference between clocks in the gravitational field g. Then

The paths of particles and light

The idea that light should be deflected by passing close to a massive body had been suggested by the British astronomer and geologist John Michell in the 18th century. However, Einstein’s general relativity theory predicted twice as much deflection as Newtonian physics. Quick confirmation of Einstein’s result came from measuring the direction of a star close to the Sun’s direction during an expedition led by the British astronomer Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington to observe the solar eclipse of 1919. Optical determinations of the change of direction of a star are subject to many systematic errors, and far better results have been obtained of the directions of spacecraft with radio interferometers of very long baselines. The effect comes from the decrease in the speed of light near a massive object (the Sun). That decrease has also been found directly from the round-trip travel times for radar pulses between Earth and other inner planets or artificial satellites passing behind the Sun and has confirmed to about 4 percent the prediction of an additional time delay Δt given by the following formula, in which MS is the Sun’s mass, R1 and R2 are the distances from the Sun to Earth and to the other reflecting body, and D is the distance of closest approach of the radar pulses to the Sun (ln stands for natural logarithm):

The additional precession of the orbit of Mercury of 43 arc seconds per century was known before the development of the theory of general relativity. With radar measurements of the distances to the planets, similar anomalous precessions have been estimated for Venus and Earth and have been found to agree with general relativity.

Gravitational radiation

According to general relativity, the curvature of space-time is determined by the distribution of masses, while the motion of masses is determined by the curvature. In consequence, variations of the gravitational field should be transmitted from place to place as waves, just as variations of an electromagnetic field travel as waves. If the masses that are the source of a field change with time, they should radiate energy as waves of curvature of the field. There are strong grounds for believing that such radiation exists. One particular double-star system has a pulsar as one of its components, and, from measurements of the shift of the pulsar frequency due to the Doppler effect, precise estimates of the period of the orbit show that the period is changing, corresponding to a decrease in the energy of the orbital motion. Gravitational radiation is the only known means by which that could happen.

Learn about the significance of gravitational waves in science and in everyday life.

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Double stars in their regular motions (such as that for which a change in period has been detected) and massive stars collapsing as supernovas have been suggested as sources of gravitational radiation, and considerable theoretical effort has gone into calculating the signals to be expected from those and other sources.

Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA)

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Three types of detectors are being developed to look for gravitational radiation, which is expected to be very weak. The changes of curvature would correspond to a dilation in one direction and a contraction at right angles to that direction. One scheme, first tried out about 1960, employs a massive cylinder that might be set in mechanical oscillation by a gravitational signal. The authors of this apparatus argued that signals had been detected, but their claim has not been substantiated. In later developments the cylinder has been cooled by liquid helium, and great attention has been paid to possible disturbances. In a second scheme an optical interferometer is set up with freely suspended reflectors at the ends of long paths that are at right angles to each other. Shifts of interference fringes corresponding to an increase in length of one arm and a decrease in the other would indicate the passage of gravitational waves. A third scheme is planned that uses three separate, but not independent, interferometers located in three spacecraft located at the corners of a triangle with sides of some 5 million km (3 million miles). Some extremely sensitive instruments have been built or are still being developed, but so far gravitational radiation has not been observed with certainty.

As stated above, studies of gravity allow the masses and densities of celestial bodies to be estimated and thereby make it possible to investigate the physical constitutions of stars and planets. Because gravitation is a very weak force, however, its distinctive effects appear only when masses are extremely large. The idea that light might be attracted gravitationally had been suggested by Michell and examined by the French mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace. Predictions by classical physics and general relativity that light passing close to the Sun might be deflected are described above. There are two further consequences for astronomy. Light from a distant object may pass close to objects other than the Sun and be deflected by them. In particular, they may be deflected by a massive galaxy. If some object is behind a massive galaxy, as seen from Earth, deflected light may reach Earth by more than one path. Operating like a lens that focuses light along different paths, the gravity of the galaxy may make the object appear multiple; examples of such apparently double objects have been found.

Both Michell and Laplace pointed out that the attraction of a very dense object upon light might be so great that the light could never escape from the object, rendering it invisible. Such a phenomenon is a black hole. The relativistic theory of black holes has been thoroughly developed in recent years, and astronomers have conducted an intense search for them. One possible class of black holes comprises very large stars that have used up all of their nuclear energy so that they are no longer held up by radiation pressure and have collapsed into black holes (less-massive stars may collapse into neutron stars). Black holes are thought to exist at the centres of most galaxies.

Black holes, from which no radiation is able to escape, cannot be seen by their own light, but there may be observable secondary effects. If a black hole were one component of a double star, the orbital motion of the pair and the mass of the invisible member might be derived from the oscillatory motion of a visible companion. Because black holes attract matter, any gas in the vicinity of an object of this kind would fall into it and acquire, before vanishing into the hole, a high velocity and consequently a high temperature. The gas may become hot enough to produce X-rays and gamma rays from around the hole. While there is still no definite proof, such a mechanism may be the origin of at least some powerful X-ray and radio astronomical sources, including those at the centres of galaxies and quasars.

Only astronomical objects are sufficiently massive to produce detectable gravitational radiation. As already mentioned, gravitational radiation is probably responsible for changes in the orbits of some double stars, and so, in the very long term, it may have an effect on the stability of celestial objects. If and when gravitational radiation is detected, new astronomical phenomena will no doubt be discovered.

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All objects attract other objects because of a force called gravity. Gravity is a pulling force that works across space. That is, objects do not have to touch each other for the force of gravity to affect them. For example, the sun, which is millions of miles from Earth, pulls on Earth and the other planets and objects in the solar system.

Gravity, or gravitation, is the attraction of all matter for all other matter. It is both the most familiar of the natural forces and the least understood. It is the force that causes objects to drop and water to run downhill. It is also the force that holds Earth, the Sun, and the stars together and keeps planets, moons, and artificial satellites in their respective orbits.