The research for this study of two small irrigation systems was done in 1986-87. Shyamala Abeyratne was a Ph.D. candidate at Cornell University, and was supported by the International Irrigation Management Institute (11MI) as a Research Fellow during this period. The research itself was carried out under the supervision of Ed Martin, then an Agricultural Economist on the staff of IIMI. Ms. Abeyratne has already had considerable experience as a researcher into Sri Lankan irrigation management topics, primarily through her position as Research and Training Officer at the Agrarian Research and Training Institute. This experience included evaluations of some of the early rehabilitation projects under the Village Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (VIRP). This project, funded primarily by the World Bank and implemented by the Department of Agrarian Services, is intended to strengthen the capacity of the Department of Agrarian Services, and also to rehabilitate 1,200 "minor" systems, i.e., systems under 80 hectares (ha). As part of the rehabilitation project, improved water management practices and organizational innovations are also being introduced. The present study examines rather critically the implementation of the rehabilitation on two small systems, one a reservoir system, the other a diversion or "anicut" system; and it raises questions about the likely long- term impact on the productivity and sustainability of the system. The observations in this paper are consistent with those of researchers in other systems in Sri Lanka, and in other countries. But, as noted by one of the reviewers of this paper, two caveats should be kept in mind while reading this paper. First, the district in which the study was done is in no way "typical" of .the environment in which most minor irrig~tion is located in Sri Lanka. Most of the irrigation systems are located in the Dry Zone, whereas these systems are located in a zone that is intermediate

The purpose of this literature review is to identify the lessons learnt from the implementation of these projects based on available literature, and the gaps that need to be filled by additional research. It brings out clearly a number of lessons learned, some of which have been incorporated in recent projects, and some not. Many of these lessons are applicable not only to Sri Lanka but more widely. The lessons include: the importance of involving farmers from the begining and using the improvment process to build farmer's organizations; the effectiveness of specially trained catalysts for organizing farmers; the imporatnce of addressing agricultural, technological, marketing, and other issues as well as irrigation problems; and the necessity to build in better monitoring and evaluation processes.

The Kirindi Oya river basin development/degradation however has been planned in two different ways, namely, downstream, where the Kirindi Oya Irrigation and Settlement Project (KOISP) is located and the upper catchment where contemporary environmental degradation occurred. This review is based on that belief, inspite of limitations in data macro hydrological studies covering larger river basins would, at least, for reconnaissance purposes, prove equally useful as the more common micro catchment studies. Due to negligence and lack of knowledge of the importance of watershed management in the Kirindi Oya basin, there is considerable damage in downstream in the Kirindi Oya basin where the KOISP is operated. It is necessary, therefore, to consider contemporary environmental degradation in both downstream and watershed separately.

The strong irrigation tradition has sustained the broad based community community interest in irrigation. The result is a very complex institutional milieu in which a set of formally established irrigation rules and organizations exists side by side with an intricate set of social institutions. The two sets act like a dual system often in conflict with each other. The authors, while analyzing the present institutional barriers, have highlighted the importance of irrigation rules and procedures in the institutional framework.

The Directorate of Land Reclamation (DLR), which was set up in 1945, is a special unit of Punjab's Irrigation and Power Department for undertaking research and field operations to combat the problem of salinity. Approaching the end of five decades of existence, the directorate is yet to demonstrate its effectiveness in its assigned task; its inability to fully cope with the conditions of a fast changing irrigation environment makes this rather an illusive goal. In the selection of lands for reclamation, the Directorate is heavily dependent on the visual salinity survey (Thur Girdawari) carried out every year by the Irrigation Department's field staff. This visual survey appears to be a quick and cost-effective method of assessing surface salinity, but its exclusive use as the criterion for selection of affected land is a questionable approach. According to original departmental procedure, reclamation activities were confined to only two of the five classes of soil identified by the visual salinity survey, but the current practice of including all the types of salt-affected soils in reclamation operations has made the selection process more subjective. Surprisingly, the DLR is not using its existing laboratory facilities optimally to better identify the salt-affected lands. Soil testing in visually identified lands could also help define the reclamation operations more scientifically in addition to improving the selection methods being used. While formal procedure requires the Directorate to communicate to farmers the details of planned reclamation schemes, farmer awareness of the reclamation program seems to be poor and only a few farmers in the study area readily acknowledge agency assistance in obtaining relevant information. In practice, the proposals for reclamation schemes are often initiated by some influential farmers. It is a requirement that the amount of water made available for reclamation be over and above the design supply of a given distributary, and special reclamation outlets can be given from a distributary only on the basis that its tail will not suffer. However, the study shows no evidence to show that extra water was made available during the operation of reclamation outlets; further, tail-end shortages were observed in all the distributaries under the study. In a context where the tendency is to give scant consideration to irrigation rules and procedures, it is unlikely that the Directorate of Land Reclamation in its present form and status will succeed in implementing an extensive program of reclamation operations. For the Directorate to be effective in its legitimate functions and to make it an operationally viable and socially acceptable organizational unit, adequate policy and institutional support seem to be necessary.

The management of a manually operated irrigation canal with a number of control structures presents a special set of challenges to the system manager, who is often confronted with the problem of identifying and implementing a coordinated operational strategy to meet water delivery targets in the absence of adequate and reliable information on how the system is functioning. The development of a microcomputer-based mathematical flow simulation model of the Kirindi Oya Right Bank Main Canal is the first phase in IIMI's efforts to provide canal managers with an innovative decision-support tool to help them meet these challenges. This research project was also the beginning of a fruitful, mutually rewarding and lasting relationship between the International Irrigation Management Institute (11MI) and the Centre National du Machinisme Agricole, du Genie Rural, des Eaux et. des Forets (CEMAGREF). This research paper, co-authored by staff members of both institutions, is yet another outcome of this excellent, collaborative relationship.

The National Irrigation Administration has become well known in recent years for its innovative experimental programs for promoting farmer participation through strong farmer organizations. IIMI's first case study documents the experience of an irrigation management official, the author of this report, in an effort to organize irrigators associations (IAs) on the nearly half of the Magat River Multi-purpose Project area in a few short years. Most of these are now effective and active organizations. This experience is a valuable source of lessons and ideas for agency officials concerned with developing water-user associations on other systems.

The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) began research projects in Dewahuwa Tank and Mahaweli 11-2 during the Yala season (May-Aug.) of 1985. The research focussed initially on agricultural economics (e.g., farmers' use of agricultural inputs and returns from different crops) and on irrigation engineering (water distribution and flow rates). In the second season (Maha 1985/86) of research a social science component was added to address issues of farmers' management decisions and the institutional arrangements by which farmers and agency officials operate and maintain the irrigation works. This report summarizes the research results of the social science component for the Maha season, from October 1985 to April 1986.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) refers to field evaluation techniques which attempt to optimize cost effectiveness and timely completion of reports. While there is a sizeable literature on RRA techniques in general, little work has been done to apply these techniques to canal irrigation. This paper investigates and reports such applications.

66 CONDOM, N. 1997. Salinisation, alkalinisation and sodification on irrigated areas in Pakistan: Characterisation of the geochemical and physical processes and the impact of irrigation water on these processes by the use of hydro-geochemical model. Lahore, Pakistan: IIMI Pakistan. National Program. v, 108p. (IIMI-Pakistan research report no.R-22)

The present study is an outcome of research carried out by the author under the Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) Program of IIMI. The study was based mostly on available literature, and partly on the author's experience in the small-scale irrigation sector under the District Integrated Rural Development Programs (Hambantota and Badulla) of the Ministry of Plan Implementation and under the FMIS theme of IIMI in the North Central Province. The study reviewed three government strategies and two nongovernment strategies which have been implemented as assistance programs to improve and enhance the small irrigation sector during the last two decades. It was also based largely on the research findings and presentations made at workshops on specific subjects conducted by IIMI and the Agricultural Research and Training Institute (ARTI).

The Village Tank Rehabilitation Program of the National Freedom From Hunger Campaign (FFHC) Board is assessed in this paper as a parallel study to the Anuradhapura Dry-Zone Agriculture Project (ADZAP) which was carried out by the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) in 1988. Following a nongovernmental approach, the FFHC Board has implemented tank rehabilitation programs in several districts in the island. The Thanthirimale cluster in Anuradhapura District is the largest tank rehabilitation project implemented by the Board. In this study, the Board's program in Thanthirimale was assessed through a sample survey, following a similar survey methodology used to assess the Tank Rehabilitation Program of ADZAP

The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) in cooperation with the Department of Agrarian Services (DAS) conducted a study of 31 ADZAP tank schemes, focusing on the irrigation component of the project. The study was conducted during June-September 1988, and forms part of the Institute's ongoing research to document alternative strategies for assisting the minor irrigation sector. This report provides an overview of the study and its findings.

This report is one of several IIMI publications addressing the issue of irrigation management to promote diversified crops during the dry season. As Sri Lanka approaches self-sufficiency in rice production, a target already achieved by some other countries in the region, there is little logic in growing rice using land and water resources which could support higher- value non-rice crops, using less water. Thus, one of the incentives in improving irrigation management is to find ways of stretching water further during the dry season in water-deficit systems, when rice is relatively more expensive to grow than during the wet season, and when other crops which can be grown only during the dry season (when there is less danger of water-logging) offer the farmer and the country a comparative advantage.

92 GARIN, P.; KUPER, M.; LABBE, F.; STROSSER, P. 1998. Evaluation of the integrated approach developed in the context of the IIMI- Cemagref collaboration in Pakistan: Lessons from a series of workshops and seminars for researchers, policy makers and irrigation system managers. Lahore, Pakistan: IIMI. Pakistan National Program; Cemagref. i, 72p. (IIMI-Pakistan research report no.R-54)

Case study about the implementation of the Farmer Irrigators' Organizing Project in a pump irrigation system in The Philippines employing several selected and well-trained farmers in organizing co-farmers.

The increasing international awareness about the strengths of participatory approaches and methods for research and development has led international development banks, NGOs, donors and research and training institutes to adopt Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and other participatory approaches to implement new projects and programs. At IIMI, PRA approaches and methods have also'been incorporated in a number of research activities. The present Working Paper explores the opportunities of PRA in irrigation management research through an analysis of selected case studies in which IIMI attempted to practice the PRA approach.

This report summarizes recent experiences with the application of PRA methods in the fields of irrigation and water management in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Kenya, Estonia, and Zimbabwe. Methods of group dynamics, sampling, semi-structured interviewing and dialogue, visualization and diagramming are explained, with examples. The authors attempt to clarify some confusion about PRA that exists, and offer several recommendations about how it can be used-not as a replacement but as a complement to other conventional methods of appraisal-to en-hance processes of research and development in the fields of irrigation and water management in developing areas.

Experiences of 15 social science research fellows who recount their roles in particular research projects at the International Agricultural Research Centers they were appointed . In addition to highlighting the contributions social scientists can make in the field of agricultural research, their papers offer a candid look at the kinds of work in which the Centers currently are engaged.

This paper presents a set of guidelines for rapid evaluation of an irrigation system, developed by IIMI staff in cooperation with staff from the Regional Development Division and Badulla District office of the Integrated Development Projects. A one-day workshop on rapid assessment methodologies suitable for minor (small-scale) irrigation systems in Sri Lanka was held at IIMI Headquarters in August 1988. Representatives who participated in ongoing projects to improve minor irrigation systems were from the three Sri Lankan agencies, the Irrigation Department, the Department of Agrarian Services, and the Regional Development Division of the Ministry of Plan Implementation, which oversees the district-level Integrated Rural Development Projects.

This case study describes the problems which existed in the scheme prior to its rehabilitation in 1979 and the associated irrigation management innovations introduced by the author, who was assigned as a technical assistant by the Irrigation Department that year. Some of the management innovations included the provision of a simplified form of technical guidance to farmers and maintenance of the system through a Water Issue Board. By gaining the confidence of the farmers and the various line agencies working in the area, the author was able to introduce a systematic rotational distribution of water, advance the cultivation calendar, and increase cropping intensity. He was also able to motivate the farmers to take over the responsibility for the maintenance of the system from the government, and to continue to improve the physical and operational condition of the system.

106 HABIB, Z.; KUPER, M. 1998. Performance assessment of the water regulation and distribution system in the Chishtian Sub-division at the main and secondary canal levels. Lahore, Pakistan: IIMI. Pakistan National Program. ix, 113p. (IIMI-Pakistan research report no.R-59)

Proceedings of a workshop which was organized with the objective of reviewing and comparing experiences in the application of computerized decision support tools to improve the performance of water management in irrigation systems of Sri Lanka.

It is becoming increasingly evident that to maintain the sustainability of irrigation schemes, effective farmer participation in operation and maitenace is essential. The consultation workshop was held to discuss the NIRP's planned strategy for farmer participation, the actual level of participation and to identify measures that NIRP should take in order to further strengthen farmer participation.

The Irrigation Research Management Unit (IRMU) was established in mid-1992 in the Irrigation Department, Sri Lanka. The main objective of it is to identify research needs, conduct and coordinate research and disseminate research results to improve efficiency, productivity and profitability of irrigated agriculture. As part of its technology transfer program, the IRMU initiated a series of monthly seminars. During the year of 1994, eleven such seminars were held. The seminars covered the following program areas of IRMU and their distribution was as follows: Assessing and Improving Performance of Irrigation Systems-3, Local Management of Irrigation ofSystems-3, Operational Management of Water Delivery and Disposal-1, Crop Diversification-1, and Environmental Studies-3. Professionals and researchers from national and international agencies as well as free lance consultants dealing with irrigated agriculture and irrigation management participated as resource persons. Speakers came from the Department of Agriculture, the University of Peradeniya, the Irrigation Department, the Irrigation Research Management Unit, the Open University of Sri Lanka, the Field Crop Research and Development Institute-Maha Iluppallama, the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (FAO/RAPA). IIMI was involved in three presentations (two on IRMU's work), the faculty members of the University of Peradeniya gave two presentations, the Irrigation Department, the Open University of Sri Lanka, the Field Crop Research and Development Institute, the Department of Agriculture, the FAO/RAPA and an independent consultant gave one presentation each. In addition to serving as a strong component of the technology transfer program, these seminars also provide essential inputs in strengthening IRMU's research program. These seminars, in general were well received, which was evident from the wide participation of different institutions and agencies. This publication contains summaries of the eleven seminars presented during the year 1994

IN 1978, THE United States Agency for International Development (USAID) decided to assist the Government of Sri Lanka in improving the management of water in major irrigation projects in the dry zone. It was understood that this required building an adequate knowledge-base and new institutional capacities both of which take time but neither of which can be purchased 'off the shelf.' USAID and the Government of Sri Lanka recognized that a successful effort to improve water management could well take 20 years, but it would have to begin in a focused, concrete way, in a pioneering project that would begin to build up in-country knowledge and institutional capacity. In 1979, the government and USAID selected the Left Bank of the Gal Oya Irrigation System for rehabilitation. This planned change program was officially called the Gal Oya Rehabilitation and Water Management Project. The Irrigation Department (10) was appointed by the government as the project implementing agency. Technical assistance was to be obtained from the PRC Engineering consultants Inc., a U.S. engineering firm. Through a Letter of Understanding, the 10 was further assisted by the Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI), which dealt with the socioeconomic components of the project. ARTI was assisted in this regard by the Rural Development Committee of Cornell University, USA. The project initially spanned 44 months (August 1979 to march 1984). The project life was subsequently extended by 21 months, until December 31,1985 as it needed more time to reach its assigned targets. With this policy objective, the Farmer Organization Program was included as one of the components of this major water management and rehabilitation project. The project assigned the establishment of farmer organizations (FOs) and the promotion of farmers' participation in these associations to ARTI. The main objective of this paper is to describe how these FOs evolved. The paper stresses that there was a cyclical trend of Fa evolution. It describes how FOs began and flourished at the initial stage of the project and the socio-administrative-climate that provided a conducive environment to such growth. Then it examines the crises and dynamics of the program's decline during its latter part.

This main report presents the findings of a review of present resources and activities in training for irrigation management in Sri Lanka. A strategy is offered to enhance what is being done already, and to prepare irrigation staff to adapt to new technical situations that can be expected in the imminent future. Annexes are published in a separate volume

Several forms of participatory management are either experimented with, in use, or have been in use in Sri Lanka by various agencies (government, semi-government, and voluntary). An overview of village irrigation systems in Sri Lanka, with reference to ongoing irrigation development efforts and particular irrigation management needs is presented, as well as priority research issues relevant to small-scale irrigation systems.

Vector-borne diseases continue to be one of the predominant public health problems in Sri Lanka and other developing countries. Diseases such as malaria and filariasis pose an undeniable threat to the success of water resource development, and the role of preventive or mitigating measures is discussed as a priority in the planning, implementation, and management of irrigation projects.

Numerous field studies related to irrigation management have been conducted in Nepal since the last national seminar on irrigation issues in 1983. The relationship between organizational structure and resource mobilization was the topic of several. Another examined changes in organization and resource mobilization as property relationships and water rights changed when systems expanded and allowed new members. Concern for improving intervention strategies to existing farmer-managed irrigation systems has stimulated work on finding methods for quickly collecting data for identification and assessment of systems where substantial gains can be made by giving assistance. Numerous case studies have expanded the information available on management of operation and maintenance in both farmer- and agency-managed systems. These seminar papers report the findings of eleven of the studies.

This book constitutes the proceedings of an organizational and planning workshop for a research network on irrigation management for diversified cropping in rice-based system held in late 1988 in Bangkok. The workshop participants agreed to establish research network involving eight humid Tropical Asian countries in which irrigated rice is the main crop during the wet season.

This study of Irrigation Management and Crop Diversification is being carried out under a Technical Assistance Agreement (T.A. No.846-SRI) dated 27 November 1987, between the Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (GOSL), the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The study is being implemented by IIMI in the Kirindi Oya and Uda Walawe projects in southern Sri Lanka in close collaboration with the agencies in charge of development and management of these projects. It addresses, through field-level research, priority issues of importance and relevance of the two projects in the processes of irrigation system management, with particular attention given to the requirements of crop diversification.

Papers focusing on institutional reform that is seen as a prerequisite to effective mobilization of sufficient resources for sustainable management of major irrigation schemes. They analyze the impediments to high performance system management within the irrigation management agencies and the direction in which reforms must go to bring improvements and identify broader policy issues and recommendations that are very important to the whole change process underway.

134 IIMI. 1987. Irrigation management in West Africa: Prospects and proposals for a research and professional development program. Digana Village, Sri Lanka: IIMI. v.p.

The KOISP Project Impact Evaluation Study was a collaborative research effort between the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) and the Agrarian Research and Institute (ARTI) with the former having the overall responsibility. The two institutes shared responsibility of hiring and fielding the research team. Consultants Ruhunu University have also been engaged by IIMI through a research contract. The broad objective of the project was to attempt to assess the overall effects of the interventions as implemented under the KOISP. More specifically, the objectives of the were to i) identify and measure KOISP outputs and trends; (ii) to measure the benefits and evaluate the impacts of the project and (iii) to conduct a cost-benefit of the KOISP.

169 IIMI. 1998. Multiple uses and water quality: Report submitted to the Council of Agriculture and the Agricultural Engineering Research Center of the Republic of China. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI. vii, 39p.

Synthesis report of the research results obtained under the Burkina Faso Irrigation Management Project between 1991-1997. The report has been designed to be a self-contained volume that could be read and understood without reference to any other document.

This working paper is the outcome of a data collection process initiated under the advice of Dr. Shigeo Yashima of the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI). The objective of this data collection process was to make a preliminary assessment of irrigation performance in Sri Lanka using irrigation systems with different backgrounds to identify areas for further research.

IRRIGATION Management Institute (IIMI) and the Tropical Agriculture Research Center (TARC), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan, initiated a collaborative study in August 1991. This joint study is focused on small-scale tank irrigation systems which are spread over the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, and is conducted with the assistance of Sri Lanka's Department of Agrarian Services.

Since time immemorial, people in South Asia have collected rainfall runoff in small storage reservoirs (called tanks) for later use in agricultural production, for domestic use and watering of livestock. A unique feature of the tanks in Sri Lanka is that often several of the tanks are linked together through a canal. The resulting cascade of tanks should then be managed as one system. The Thirappane cascade, which is the topic of this study, falls within the catchment area of a much bigger reservoir, Nachchaduwa. The latter was built around 900 AD, and restored in 1906, when many of the tanks still in use now were surveyed and restored to use. Cascade management, however, was not always carried out properly and restoration work not done, that the skills to do so were lost. The management of these interconnected tanks presents many interesting questions, the answers to which hitherto have not been fully explored. The effectiveness of storage-based irrigation systems was such that over time more and more people were attracted to the command areas of the tanks and many of the systems became unsustainable due to overcrowding. The objective of this study was a limited one, i.e., to explore through simple water balance modelling several improved management options for a particular set of tanks in the Thirappane Cascade and to examine how the tank cascade can be stabilized through structural modifications. The water balance model developed for this purpose has deliberately been kept simple, requiring only data that can be easily collected in the field.

Although Pakistan's surface irrigation development has a long history, it is only about 30 years ago that the development of groundwater resources was begun. During the past decade, government policy has been reoriented towards private, instead of public, tube well development in fresh groundwater areas. This paper examines the policies that have effected tube well development, and reviews past literature on the subject.

Experiences from Hambantota District tank settlement project, Sri Lanka where the author did research on the contributions of a non-governmental organization in improving small-scale irrigation systems.

The efforts of IIMI/PMI-BF to assess irrigation water use from small reservoirs in Burkina Faso led to the development of a software called DIG. This program, written in Quick Basic 4.5, is a simple data processing tool which respects the international norm CUA (Common User Access) that greatly facilitates learning new software. The version 1.1 of DIG, presented in this paper, allows the calculation of discharges and volumes of water from chronological measurements of water depths over rectangular orifices and weirs. The results are generated either as "elementary volumes" (i.e. function of the chronological structure of input data), or any other time step e.g. daily, 2 days, 5 days... All the input data and the output results can be easily printed. Furthermore, it is possible to export the results towards spreadsheet software like Quattro Pro or Lotus 123 for producing graphics or performing other calculations.

Study of three traditional farmer-developed and -managed irrigation systems in the Chitral region of Pakistan which adds to the existing inventory of information available about indigenous irrigation institutions , technologies, performance, and development needs .

243 KIELEN, N. 1996. Farmers' perceptions on salinity and sodicity: A case study into farmers' knowledge of salinity and sodicity, and their strategies and practices to deal with salinity and sodicity in their farm systems. Lahore, Pakistan: IIMI. vi, 65p.

This paper presents an overview of the current state of knowledge on the relations between irrigation management in Pakistan and the incidence of waterlogging and salinity. It is emphasized that management research should focus on the whole system, including surface and ground water resources. The paper also highlights key management questions that need to be addressed such as salt and water balance and water loss from canals, water courses and field channels.

Tests the hypothesis that, in general, irrigation management transfer has positive impacts on operation performance, managerial accountability, O&M budgeting and expenditures, costs of water to farmers, and agricultural and economic productivity in the Alto Rio Lerma Irrigation District in Mexico. Evaluates the potential of the Mexican IMT process as a model for other countries.

The last few decades Sri Lanka has made detennined efforts for crop diversification to raise farm production and improve the quality of life of the farmers. Significant progress has also been made and a large area has been brought under different crops, especially, chili and big onion, two very important cash crops. Most of these developments have occurred in medium and major schemes resulting in significant increases in the cropping intensity as well as in the participation of farmers. Minor schemes which command around 42 percent of the total irrigated area of the country, however did not benefit much from the crop diversification program and their cropping intensity to fluctuate between 80 percent and 90 percent for nearly half a century. At the same time, because of increasingly reduced return from rice farming, many farmers in these schemes are looking for off farm employment to make a living. To understand the technical and socioeconomic dynamics and develop strategies for crop diversification in minor schemes, the Irrigation Research Management Unit (IRMU) of the Irrigation Department (ID) in collaboration with the Sri Lanka National Program (SLNP) of the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) organized a consultation workshop on strategies for Crop diversification in Minor Irrigation Schemes. This volume is the report of the proceedings of the above workshop held at the Irrigation Department, Colombo, Sri Lanka on 20 February, 1996. The workshop provided an opportunity to the participants from different organizations to exchange experiences and identify new approaches to crop diversification.

This paper reviews literature in four topic areas of relevance to Sri Lanka: system operations and performance, organization and management of irrigation systems, rehabilitation and modernization of irrigation systems, and resource generation and mobilization. A review on crop diversification issues is included as an Appendix. Most of the literature reviewed concentrates on large irrigation schemes and focusses on literature published since 1978. The paper attempts to identify, for each of the four topics, the progress made and lessons learned, and to suggest research questions that ought to be addressed.

This paper is a substantially revised version of a draft paper previously circulated to some officials in Sri Lanka. The title of that paper was "Testing a New Field Channel Design: A Pilot Project of the Uda Walawe Rehabilitation Project, Sri Lanka. It was reviewed by the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) - Sri Lanka Consultative" Consultative Committee at its January 1988 meeting; as the minutes of that meeting indicate, the Committee members recognized- the significance of the main findings of the draft report, and agreed that physical rehabilitation by itself could be counter productive unless supported by proper institutional changes. The paper is based on periodic observations (approximately weekly) of farmers' use of a rehabilitated pilot field channel (FC), and interviews with both farmers and field level officials, over two seasons in the Uda Walawe Scheme, Sri Lanka.

285 MERREY, D. J. 1997. Expanding the frontiers of irrigation management research: Results of research and development at the International Irrigation Management Institute, 1984 to 1995. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI. xlii, 228p.

This volume reviews the findings and results of research of the International Irrigation Management Institute during its first decade. The book also reviews several of the institute’s major institutional strengthening activities.

This paper is a synthesis of IIMI's research on irrigation management for crop diversification in Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. It provides some conclusions and recommendations, the potentials and constraints to more intensive non-rice production during the drier part of the year in irrigation systems that have been developed primarily for rice production. The research results obtained from selected irrigation systems sites in the three countries from 1985 to date were analyzed and compared by establishing common reference points where they existed, such as common constraints, potentials and institutional arrangements and by explaining differences based on observed data for each system. Relevant secondary data other than from the research sites were located to shed further insight in the synthesis.

The country reports presented at the workshop focused on the experience of the different countries on irrigation management for rice-based cropping as these relate to planning, implementation, monitoring an evaluation both at the system and farm levels. The special papers presented discussed research and policy issues on irrigation management for crop diversification.

Country reports presented at the workshop discussing the relevant experiences on irrigation and irrigation management, irrigated rice-based farming and crop diversification, programs/strategies and problems related to promoting crop diversification, and linkages with national, regional and international agencies and institutions

This paper reviews policy-related issues discussed in recent conferences that will affect groundwater development and management efforts in South Asia. Emphasis is given to policy issues surrounding emerging groundwater depletion and quality concerns, and issues concerning the equitable development of groundwater for poverty alleviation. The paper outlines the range of services that depend on groundwater resources and outlines the range of services that depend on groundwater resources to provide these services, and the complications stemming from the fragmented approach taken to water management throughout the region. A range of responses dealing with the management of the physical system is identified. In conclusion , the paper discusses institutional frameworks through which management responses could be implemented, in relation to both the range of approaches theoretically applicable and the existing institutional frameworks in place throughout South Asia

Field research on water flows and agricultural production in the Kalankuttiya Block of Mahaweli System H was initiated by IIMI staff in mid-1985 during Yala (dry season). The primary focus was to understand the effects of irrigation management practices on crop diversification from rice to "other food crops" (OFCs) such as chili, lentil, soybean, and onion. Faced with immanent self-sufficiency in rice production, but continuing large-scale imports of non-rice food crops, the government is trying to promote the cultivation of OFCs, which require intermittent irrigation, in schemes designed primarily for rice cultivation and more or less continuous water flows.

This report documents part of an operational experiment in Kalankuttiya Block of Mahaweli System H during the 1987 yala (dry season). The experiment or "action research" was conducted by the International Irrigation Management Insti tute (IIMI) in cooperation with the Mahaweli Economic Agency of the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka. The experiment was the outgrowth of studies which focused on constraints to non-rice crops during the dry season. Careful monitoring of irrigation and cropping patterns in selected areas of the system, conducted from yala 1985, had documented three important constraints to di versified crops: 1) inadequate water control at the secondary and tertiary levels of the system, 2) lack of organization for water sharing from the secondary level downward, and 3) poor conununication between farmers and agency staff regarding water delivery schedules

Frame work for use in assessment of irrigation system performance and diagnosis of the primary causes of different levels of performance actually achieved . The framework is tested using 15 case studies of irrigation performance in a range of countries in Asia, Africa and South America with a number of different design and management environments.

This paper describes the development and implementation of a management information system for the Mahi Kadana irrigation project in Gujarat , India. It describes the sequential process of modification of field -level data collection procedures by low level staff of the Gujarat Irrigation department, the development of improved methods for communicating these field-level data in a timely and efficient manner to managers at section and subdivision levels, and the development of a data processing package that transfers field-level data into information to be used by managers in improving performance into the future.
The second part of the paper demonstrates how the output from the computer can be used to develop performance reports.

Analysis of the spatial and temporal relationship between malaria incidence and selected water-related environmental parameters . The analysis is based upon the use of secondary information. GIS was used to generate input into statistical analysis and to map out the parameters for a visual analysis. The paper discusses the quality of the data used and the possibilities for using GIS in healthrelated research.

This study adopts two objectives : !) the identification of generalized directions of management change for performance improvement in the irrigation subsector and 2) the testing of an analytical framework for irrigation management.

310 NWA, E. U.; PRADHAN, P. (Eds.) 1993. Irrigation research priorities for Nigeria: Proceedings of a National Seminar held at the University of Ilorin, Nigeria from 20 to 23 April, 1993. Kano, Nigeria: IIMI. xiii, 104p.

Part of a thesis titled: "An expert system for the diagnosis of tank irrigated systems : a feasibility study". This working paper is an analysis intended to bring understanding of the system, to provide an evaluation of its performance with reference to some stated objectives and optionally to recommend how the expected objectives can be achieved by removing the bottlenecks in the system.

The need to understand the technical and socioeconomic constraints in irrigation management for diversified cropping underlies this study. The main constraints identified include the unreliability and inequality of supply at the secondary and tertiary levels of the irrigation system, the lack of organization and management for sharing water below the secondary level, and the poor communication between agency staff and farmers in water delivery scheduling. Intervention studies have shown that flow measurements combined with regularly scheduled rotations and regular meetings between agency staff and farmers can enhance the management capacity of both. Because of the greater economic risks faced by farmers in growing non-rice crops as compared to rice, an assured market and a competitive price are indispensable for promoting diversified cropping.

The worshop was to assess the Kirindi Oya experiences with respect to the different problems and successes relating to social and instituaional stratergies that were promoted at Kirindi Oya. It deals with the seasonal planing procedures to improve irrigation management performance emphasizing how the Kirindi Oya experiences of IIMI and the Irrigation Department can be trasferred to NIRP schemes.

This book reveals that Nepal irrigation policy directives and resources must be channeled to encourage the participation of beneficiaries and to focus the functions of the Department of Irrigation on a management perspective . The low cost approaches recommended in the paper include : 1) incorporating farmer participation in operation and management,
2) considering lower cost structures in surface irrigation and underground water development and, 3) improving the management of irrigation systems

338 PRADHAN, U.; VALERA, A.; RANA, S. (Eds.) 1992. Role of NGOs in irrigation development and management in Nepal: Proceedings of the National Workshop on the Role of NGOs in Irrigation Development and Management in Nepal, Nepal Administrative Staff College, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal, 29-30 September 1992. Kathmandu, Nepal: IIMI. Nepal; Udaya-Himalaya Network. vii, 132p.; 64p.

Over the past few years IIMI has acquired a rich and rewarding storehouse of experience in its relations with national partners and collaborating agencies, some of which are unique and innovative. The Management Committee therefore decided that IIMI collects and documents this experience for future reference and consideration by senior management, and the Board of Governors. As the first phase in this effort, Regional Representative West Africa, and all Heads of Field Operations and Project Leaders were asked to list and inventorise their experience with national partners and other collaborating agencies in their work operations. This included both formal, official as well as informal relationships which contributed to strengthen better understanding and impact on national programs. Known activities were to be listed with some degree of description, whereas additional information was to be provided on lesser known and informal activities. The report of these experiences was presented initially to the Management Committee Meeting of February 1992. In February 1992, the Management Committee decided that based on past experience, a more comprehensive document which recognized the need to generate a conceptual framework to strengthen national capacities, be developed. This set in motion a second phase of work. In March 1992, Director Pakistan, Regional Representative West Africa, Heads of Field Operations (present and former) and Project Leaders in Field Operations were requested to provide an internal review of achievements to date and recommendations in their efforts at strengthening national capacities. Specific examples of country experience, assessment of the circumstances that made it possible, and the environment that fostered close relationships facilitating the strengthening of national capacity were to be provided.

The research activity described in this working paper is a joint effort undertaken by the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) and the Irrigation Department of Sri Lanka. Two of the authors, S. Mohanrajah (Resident Engineer, Irrigation Department) and M. H. Junaid (Additional Engineer, Irrigation Department), were responsible for the management of the Right Bank Main Canal (RBMC) in Kirindi Oya during the season, maha 1991/92. The monitoring network introduced under their supervision, with the active collaboration of the field staff, proved to be of significant benefit for the effective accomplishment of their day-to-day tasks of canal management. This led the authors to the conclusion that disseminating this experience even at an early stage could be of some interest to others seeking the improvement of the management of manually operated irrigation canals. Emphasis has deliberately been put on methods rather than on thorough, a posteriori analysis of data. Thus, ideas suggesting how to use simple flow data to compute indicators and derive management information has been preferred to the in-depth analysis of the data. The authors also hope to convey their intimate conviction of the usefulness of real collaborative action-research between "outside catalysts" and managers in charge of irrigation systems through this paper.

The impact of information techniques in all economic activities has been tremendous during the past decade. However, the potential of the multiple management methods and technologies derived from this field has not been fully realized in the irrigation sector. One area of application of information techniques concern the design and installation of Decision Support Systems (DSS). This area, used for the particular activities relating to the management of water in irrigation schemes, constitutes the theoretical background of this paper

The aim of this 3 months training course was to re-program and develop an irrigation management information system created in 1992 for local use in Sri Lanka. The main points of the new version are: ability to manage and to have hydraulic simulations via SIC on a network of branched canals; much more user friendly; direct application is possible in several parts of Pakistan, facilities for installation and opportunities to adapt. After a short description of the background, this report studies the global interest of computerizing an information system for irrigation canal management. Part 3 explains in the main what data are required and how they are stored in tables. Part 4 advises a list of further improvements.

The method suggested in this manual provides a simplified procedure for calibrating and/or updating drop structure curves. The convenience of the proposed method outweighs the lack of rigor and precision, and in any event, the resulting degree of accuracy appears sufficient for most operational purposes.

This report presents a methodology for planning the rehabilitation and improvement of small-scale irrigation systems within the context of the water basin when information on hydrology and water use is inadequate. It was developed for planning the rehabilitation and improvement of small tank systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. The methodology is useful to those undertaking irrigation rehabilitation projects in similar circumstances and it may also be extended to water resources planning in many other circumstances.

The purpose of this paper is to document the field measurement campaign carried out in the Kirirrli Oya RBMC with a view to calibrating the mathematical model. The preliminary analysis leading to estimates of some of the hydraulic parameters needed by the model is also described.

The International Water Management Institute contracted with the French consulting firm, SOGREAH, to furnish us with their Micro-computer software package for flow simulation in canals, "MISTRAL/ SIMUTRA". The objective of this paper is to describe the software, its data requirements, output, and potential use through a discussion of its application to the Kalankuttiya branch canal in the Mahaweli System H in the North-Central Province of Sri Lanka.

The main purpose of the workshop was to share the results and findings of, and obtain feedback on, the 5 years of work carried out under the IIMI-BF project. The workshop was attended by nearly 70 participants from Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger.

369 SENARATNE, A. 1997. Ground water study of 50 cascades - Volume III: Final report - Use of ground-water to alleviate water deficit during dry season (Yala) in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI. Report on the project "Identification of Hydrologically Endowed Small Tanks for Rehabilitation and Agrowell Development Potential in the Cascades of Anuradhapura District, North Central Province, Sri Lanka" iv, 47p.

Presents two papers that provide interpretive summaries of the discussion and results of the Workshop on the Research Priorities for Irrigation Management in Asia held from 6-11 January 1985 at the headquarters of the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) in Digana Village near Kandy, Sri Lanka. Dr. Small's paper, "Research priorities for irrigation management in Asia," provides a conceptual framework for irrigation management research and outlines criteria for IIMI's selection of research topics. "An overview of research in irrigation management in Asia" by Dr. Barker summarizes the conceptual evolution of irrigation management in terms of both conventional disciplinary and holistic, systems-oriented approaches.

This study results from a two years' intensive research into a hitherto unexplored area of irrigation management - the aspect of financing irrigation in some Asian countries. The authors have analyzed the relationship between investment costs, level of irrigation fees, cropping intensity, type of crop, and secondary income. The studies conclude that the quality of irrigation system operations and maintenance is affected not only by the amount of resources made available to operate and maintain systems, but also by the institutional arrangements under which they are provided.

This paper analyzes the impact of settlement policies on irrigation management in a new irrigated settlement scheme in southern Sri Lanka based on field research in 1988. It provides policy recommendations for improvements on this scheme and in future schemes.

This paper attempts to present the linkages between irrigated agriculture, human health, and the environment based on a review of data available from Sri Lanka. Section 2, presents the background by reviewing irrigation development in Sri Lanka. Section 3 presents an outline for selecting the key environmental impacts of irrigation development, and suggests physical and economic indicators to quantify these impacts. Section 4 presents the main data with a short explanation of the main irrigation, health, and environment relationships and a review of their current status in Sri Lanka. Section 5 presents the conclusions.

This paper presents the results of a study on water markets in the Fordwah/Eastern Sadiqia Area, Punjab, Pakistan. The study stresses and quantifies the importance of water markets in the area. A first attempt is made to evaluate the the impact of water marketson the quality of irrigation services.

This study of the Kerian irrigation scheme determines effects of the rehabilitation design and actual management interactions on performance and suggests ways to improve the existing level of system performance. The study also probes , among other things, such shortfalls as overly optimistic management assumptions and the declining interest of farmers in irrigated farming.

Poverty is increasingly recognized as a problem that needs to be brought to the center stage of mainstream water policy and intervention. Carrying buckets, drinking unsafe water, and also lacking the access to water to improve subminimal incomes are increasingly seen as important aspects of integrated water management at basin level. However, there are no agreed-upon concepts integrating poverty, gender, and water that: adequately define the nature of the problem for poor people; capture the multiple aspects and linkages in a comprehensive way; allow an analysis of the different processes in society that create and perpetuate the problem; orient policy makers in their efforts to alleviate water-related poverty. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to fill this gap by elaborating the concept of "water deprivation" and by highlighting the policy implications.

This paper is a preliminary effort to define the extent of irrigation in Pakistan's mountain regions. Attention is given to some changes already begun in this environment through new irrigation development activities. Important knowledge gaps that need to be filled by more systematic and multidisciplinary research are identified.

430 VERMILLION, D. L. 1991. The turnover and self management of irrigation institutions in developing countries: A discussion paper for a new program of the International Irrigation Management Institute. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI. ii, 46p.

Discussion paper describing a new IIMI program for research, information and institutional support services concerning the turnover, privatization and self management of irrigation systems in developing countries.

441 WATER AND LAND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE; WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TRAINING CENTRE. 1992. Field research programme on conjunctive use management of surface and ground water in Madhya Ganga Command Area - A status report. New Delhi, India; Colombo, Sri Lanka: Water and Land Management Institute; IIMI; WAPCOS. 31p.

The institutional and irrigation infrastructure of System H of the Mahaweli Multipurpose Development Project provides adequate opportunities for achieving a high standard of water management. A coordinated approach for achieving close cooperation between agency officials and farmers at the field channel and distributary channel levels, combined with a flexible delivery schedule, resulted in an improved field water use efficiency within the H5 subsystem. An equitable allocation of water to each field channel command area and an effective utilization of rainfall have also been achieved.

Experiences from past rehabilitation projects have indicated that without effective farmer participation in the rehabilitation process, it is extremely difficult to achieve cost effective and quality rehabilitation. This led the National Irritation Rehabilitation Project (NIRP) to mandate farmer participation in planning, design and implementation of rehabilitation projects with the ultimate objective of handing over operation and maintenance (O&M) responsibilities of rehabilitated schemes to FOs.
Late in 1993, the Irrigation Research Management Unit (IRMU) carried out a rapid rural appraisal (RRA) of five NIRP schemes to evaluate the effectiveness of farmer participation. Results were presented in the workshop in October, 1994. At the recommendation of the workshop the study was expanded to cover a significantly larger sample size (20 more schemes) with a view to more thoroughly analyze issues raised. Preliminary results showed that farmers bear wide-ranging views on their participation in rehabilitation and takeover. This situation necessitated the need to consult farmers to draw on their views and opinions, to further strengthen the rehabilitation process being pursued by NI RP.
Many workshops and seminars have been held in the past to solicit opinions of experts on the subject including documenting experiences of the agency officials engaged in the implementation of rehabilitation projects. IRMU has taken a step forward by obtaining feedback directly from the farmer leaders on the issues that contribute to further strengthening farmer participation in the rehabilitation and turnover of NIRP schemes.
The workshop provided a forum to the farmer leaders to frankly and openly express their opinions and share their experiences. Proceedings of these discussions were meticulously recorded and this report provides the outcome of those discussions.

The study, conducted in the Philippines, was aimed at developing and testing an integrated research methodology combining Process Documentation Research PDR and validation of PDR findings through a quick process of workshops and questionnaire surveys to assess the Farmer Irrigators' Organization Program (FIOP) country-wide. PDR using an action research mode, was confined to a small sample and provided continuous feedback during FIOP implementation. On the other hand, because of the large sample size and area covered the workshops and questionnaire surveys were useful in validating quantitatively the more qualitative PDR findings. The validation process was quick because it was guided by PDR results. Hence methods used are complementary to each other and can be integrated.

The main objective of this study was to examine and assess the potential for expanding the cultivation of OFCs on rice lands, based on data available over a decade (1982-92) in respect of extents cultivated as well as changes that have taken place on different categories of irrigated lands in the country. The study highlights the great weaknesses of the database on diversified cropping, including basic information such as extents and crop yields.. Establishment and maintenance of an accurate spatial database using a Geographic Information System (GIS) should therefore be given a high priority.

Presents recommendations for improving the effectiveness of operation and maintenance of agency-managed irrigation systems and for providing effective assistance to farmer-managed systems in Nepal. The paper sets out a series of recommendations with supporting arguments. These recommendations were discussed at an Irrigation Sector Coordination Meeting held in Kathmandu, Nepal, on 23 February 1988. The meeting was convened by the Ministry of Water Resources and was attended by representatives of a number of government departments and international agencies.

This monograph examines the construction, operation and maintenance tasks that shape the nature of locally managed irrigation systems. The objective of the book is to identify relevant experiences and lessons for staff who are responsible for working with locally managed systems in three types of programs: direct assistance to existing locally managed irrigation systems, turnover of public owned systems to local management, and transfer of partial management to farmer groups within larger systems that remain publicly controlled.

Handbook in which an attempt has been made to consolidate a large body of existing experience of mountain irrigation and to make it available to irrigation practitioners. Some of the experiences comes from designing new irrigation structures for mountainous sites and some of it comes from examining and analyzing traditional structures which mountain communities have evolved for themselves.