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Managing Resources for the Development of Indian Agriculture

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Read this article to learn about managing resources for the development of Indian agriculture!

Soils, Agronomy, Agro-Forestry:

With rapid expansion in human population from 361 million in 1951 to over 1 billion in 2001, per capita availability of rabble land decreased from 0.46 ha and is expected to decline further to 0.15 ha in 2000 AD. Excessive deforestation resulted in wide gap between the supply and demand of fuel wood, industrial wood timber and other products.

As against the estimated requirement of about 157 million tonnes fuel wood per annum the supply is only 40 million tonnes. Due to scarcity of fuel wood, about 73 million tonnes of crowding and 40 million tonnes of residues are burnt at fuel. Similarly only 12.5 million m4 of industrial timber is available as against the requirement of 27.5 million m3 Ministry of Environment and Forest. These deficits can be met through integration of forestry with agriculture and through increasing the productivity per unit area per unit time.

There is a little scope to increase area under agriculture of increasing food production. Therefore food production is to be increased from the land already under cultivation by adopting management system which is capable of producing food from marginal areas by increasing productivity as also maintaining and improving the quality of the environment.

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Agro-forestry practice in arable land can help substantially in meeting such demand. The basic resource for biological production system in India includes 329 million ha land, more specially 175 million ha captivated land, 43 million ha non- arable land, ample of sunlight and tremendous human resources. An ideal combination and utilization of these resources through agro-forestry practice would be the logical solution in tackling these shortages.

An increasing demand of fuel wood and fodder and lack of a cash and infrastructure in many developing countries are some of the most relevant arguments for tree inauguration into farming and pastoral areas. In countries with a high unemployment rate and a growing population, agro-forestry can significantly contribute towards employment. Agro-forestry has high potential to simultaneously satisfy three important objectives:

(iii) Providing stable employment, improved income and basic material to rural populations Agro-forestry is capable of operating on smallest or largest scale, it is far-less demanding in energy, machinery and irrigation than conventional agriculture and far from damaging the environment, it conserves and improves both soil and atmosphere.

Production Process:

Approximately 20%, higher yields of grain and wood are observed in agro-forestry areas of Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh than from pure agriculture. In Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, farmers planted Eucalyptus hybrid and populus deltoides Marsh in rows oil field boundaries. Observations taken from different areas infect that the total yield of agricultural crops and wood was more than simple agriculture without trees.

In these areas, however, It was seen that growth and yield or crops near the edges of tree rows were poorer. However, the loss in growth and yield of crops was more than compensated when the wood produced was also taken into consideration.

Indicate that total yield of odder is more when fodder grasses are grown with fodder tress than pure fodder grass cultivation. Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) de Wit intercropped with agriculture crops and fodder grasses increases the total yield of food-grain, fodder and fuel.

The reason for higher production under agro-forestry systems may include: (i) greater efficiency of perennial crops for photosynthesis, (ii) tapping of nutrients and water from deeper layer by perennial crops, and (iii) creation of better environmental conditions, intense competition for light, moisture and nutrients. The annual crops suffer under such conditions. F1 suitable tree and agricultural crops are selected, production can be substantially increased.

Human Need:

The production system of a tree and agricultural crops is more productive and is capable of emetine almost all the demands of timber and firewood. Studies in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and some parts of the southern states.

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The basis of actual measurements that irrigated agricultural land can support as much as 2.5 in 3 /ha/annum the un-irrigated plantation. The forcible demand fodder, fiber, flosses, oils, medicines, gums, resin, tannis, dyes and spices. Tree yields everything which man needs. Therefore agro-forestry system tends to satisfy all human needs.

Labour Employment:

Agro-forestry systems increase employment opportunities. Agricultural labour which is underplayed finds alternative labour opportunities in forestry works. Most of the forestry activities are labour-intensive and considerable employment opportunities are generated to employ about 200-500 man-days/ha.

Subsequent care and maintenance also provide employment up to 50-75 man days/ha/annum. Harvesting of tree is another major activated which provides 10-15 man-day/m -1 of wood harvested. Besides generation of employment opportunities at primary level, 10-20 times more employment is generated at the secondary and tertiary levels, e.g., in wood-based industries such as furniture, sports goods, pulp and paper, plywood and panel products, match-splints, bamboo and cane furniture, photo frames, handles, packing cases and musical instruments.

Wasteland Reclamation:

Land degradation is major problem confronting India. Sizeable area under farm land, increasing use of river-water system for irrigation and deforestation cumulatively creating huge soil erosion, problems of water-logging and salt stress and urbanization are some of the major factors causing degradation.

The wasteland such as the eroded land along with other types of lands exists up to 175 million ha. The leaks before us is therefore to prevent this erosion from the fertile agricultural land as well as to promote productive and docilely acceptable uses of other kind of wastelands like saline and sodic lands, land under shuffling cultivation, should therefore focus greater attention on preventing soil erosion through incorporating afforestation programme along with the agricultural activity in the country.

The effect of mesquite [Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.] and karanal grass (leptochloa fusca) was studied agro-forestry on soil properties after 22 months planting. There was considerable nitrogen. This system being tolerant to alkali soil, could alleviate the fuel and fodder shortage and improvement in the contents of organic carbon and available facilitate regeneration of said conditions.

Protection and Stabilization:

Deforestation results in serious adverse ecological manifestation increased CO, in the atmosphere, global warming, serious soil losses, repeated drought and floods and pollution problems. There are concerted efforts to check the process of ecological degradation by increasing the tree cover of the Earth.

Trees protect us from different kinds of pollutants. They protect us from dust, fit and other physical air pollutants. One hectare of a close forest can filter about 50 tonnes of dust and dirt. Some of the chemical air pollutants are also absorbed by the trees, protecting human beings from their adverse effects.

Soil Improvement:

There are two roles of the tree component in erosion control-supplementary and direct. In the former erosion control is achieved by conventional means, such as earth banks and ditches, terrace risers or gars strips. The tree serves to stabilize the conservation structure or to make productive use of the land they occupy. This capacity is proven, as seen in many countries, and offers substantial opportunity for expansion.

In their decry role, the trees themselves are responsible for erosion control. This is achieved in two ways – with trees acting as barriers and as cover. The barrier functions as conventional approach to erosion control by checking runoff of water and suspended sediment. The cover function involves reducing raindrop impact and run-off by increasing soil cover, with living or dead plant materials.

The use of natural resource land plays a significant role in soil and water conservation. This land use reduces the run-off and soils loss and results in improvement of soil through intervention of trees on agricultural land. The 1983 was the cultivation and management year for trees and grasses, grass plot gave relatively higher run-off and soil loss than in subsequent years.

The average run-off and loss during 1984 and 1985 was highest in cultivated fallow and lowest in Eucalyptus alone and Leucaena alone. Association of grass with Eucalyptus gave lesser run-off and soil loss than Leucaena + grass. Agro-forestry has capacity to maintain content of soil organic matter in most soil under natural forests.

This is coupled with observation of the decline in soil organic matter when land is cleared for agriculture and subsequently recovered during the fallow period of shifting cultivation. In all the three major environmental zones of the tropics, viz. humid (rain forest), sub-humid (savannah) and semi-arid (sahel), biomass from know multipurpose trees is adequate to maintain the organic matter at 60% or more of that under natural vegetation, a level generally held to be adequate for soil fertility.

It is known that soil physical properties can be as important as nutrient level in fertility and crop properties can be as important as nutrient level in fertility and crop production. Given a satisfactory level of organic matter, the added benefits from tree row physical properties. There is some direct evidence mainly from Aberdeen, Nigeria, that physical properties are maintained under hedge-row intercropping.

Agro-forestry:

There are many different systems of agro-forestry viz.

(i) agri-silviculture system,

(ii) agri-horticultural and silvi-horticultural system,

(iii) silvi-pastoral system, and

(iv) agro-silvi pastoral system.

i. Agri-silviculture:

The intercepting arrangement of annual food crops and woody perennials is a land-use system that tries to enhance productivity and ensure sustainability. At the same time it helps stabilize slopes, minimize erosion and fill some of the farm needs for fuel-wood, poles, small timber, tree fruits and nuts, or fertilizer and fodder.

Trees and shrubs planted lieges and windbreaks also regulate micro-climate areas and constitute refuge for wildlife. Agri-silviculture combination depends on the soil, environment and socio-economic conditions of the region.

In a 10-year-study in Doon valley conducted on a salay-loam soil with Grewia optiva Drummond, Morus alba L. and Eucalyptus hybrid with rice and wheat rotation, wherein trees were planted at 5 in apart. It was observed that all the tree species had depressing effect on crop yield. The yield of crop was significantly affected with respect to distance from tree line. Eucalyptus yielded 32 tonnes/ha of wood after 10-year-rotation.

In edge-row plantation of Leucena leucocephal with maize, blackgram and clusterbean at Chandigarh, there was an average reduction of 38, 34 and 29% in the yield of maize, blackgram and clusterbean respectively comrade with pure crops when grown as interiors with Leucaena. This reduction in yield of crops with compensated by relatively higher fodder and fuel production of Leucaena. Maximum returns were obtained when Leucaena was intercropped with clusterbea and blackgram compared with growing of pure Leucaen or crops.

In the foot-hill (tarai) -areas of Uttar Pradesh, reported that agro-forestry practices were popular as tree crop and Cymbopogon spp. as non-congenital crops whooped promising tends for first year. The herb and oil yields of Mentha spp. decreased during the second year whereas yield of cymbopogon sp. did not increase of decrease during the second year or thereafter.

The effect of multipurpose trees on yield of agricultural crops in an agro-forestry system. The field crops were-grown under 8 in rows of Leucaena leucocephala. Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith arid Moringa oleifera Lam. spaced 4 m apart with 2 in between two trees. There were no significant effects on crop yields during the first 2 years, but in third year fodder sorghum and mustard yields were reduced. Blackgram, grown under M. oleifera or L. leucocephala gave similar yields to the control. Soyabean was found to be unsuitable for growing under these trees.

In an exhaustive study with Prosopis cineraan Druce and Acacia albida Delete was grown under semi-arid region at 3 spacing with greengram and clusterbean. Seed production of greengram and clusterbean was not affected by Prosopis or Acacia albida. During the third year, clusterbean yield was adversely affected when grown with A. albida but with P. cineraria no adverse effect was noticed.

A field study with 12 multipurpose tree species and 3 spacings (2 in x 4 m. 2 m and 2 m x 10 m) was undertaken during 1998-99 with 4 crop sequences viz. sorizhum-wheat sorghum-chickpea pigeonpea- wheat and pigeonpea-chickpea in the fourth year the grain yield of wheat was 1.71 to 2.62 tonnes/ha with association of different multipurpose tree species and it was gradually reduced in the subsequent years.

The pruning of multipurpose tree species every year provided about 0.6-2.76 and 0.57-7.2 tonnes/ ha biomass during 1993 and 1994 respectively. Besides that, pruning of multipurpose tree species reduced the compassion with interiors. Biomass yield stabilized the annual reduction of the unit area of land.

The black gram or soya bean and Indian mustard, in agroforestry system under semi-arid triptychs, was laid out in randomized block design with 3 replications. During the rainy season black gram was taken as an intercrop and after that it was replaced by soya bean.

The grain yield or intercrops (Black gram or soya bean and Indian mustard) was poor in higher population density (800 and 400 trees/ha) compared with sole crop. The differences in crop yield were less between sole crop and a population density of 200 tree/ha up to 5 years after experimentation.

In a clay-loam soil a 20-year-old Eucalyptus tereticornis tree line had an adverse effect on yield up to 10 in distance in rainy crop and 20 m distance in winter crop was 36, 54 and 55% in sorghum, green gram and blackgram respectively. It was 82 and 64% in safflower and tardier respectively. Sorghum was found more compatible than pulses in rainy season, and taramira performed better than safflower in winter season.

The effect of Holoptelia integrifolia Planch under un-lopped tree, seed yield was low which indicated that shade had a negative effect on grain yield. Thus, lopping not only provided practice to frequently harvest the foliage of Prosopis cineraria and Ziziphus mummularia (Burm. f.) Wight and Arn. for getting the fodder as well as higher grain yield.

The 6-month-old seedling of Acacia albida and Prosopis cineraria were planted at 5 m x 5 m, 5 m x 10 m 10 m x 10 m distances and pearl millet, clusterbean and greengram were planted between rows of trees. Pearl millet was discontinued after the first year. Growth of Prosopis cineraria was slow; seeding grew only 13-16 cm height in the first 3 years.

The growth of A. albida was fast; during 3 year, it attained a high ranging from 89 to 128 cm. In Prosopis cineraria the height of seeding was comparable in all the interfere with seed production of greengram and clusterbean under was comparatively slow.

The P. cinerarai did not intergere with seed production of green and cluster been under different spacing treatments. However, during the third year clusterbean yield was adversely affected when it was grown with Acacia albida.

In wider tree spacing the seed yield it reduced to 650 kg/ha, whereas in closer spacings it was reduced to 650 kg/ha (5 m x 5 m) and 760 kg/ha (5 m X 10 m). The yield reduction in closer spacing perhaps was due to compassion for moisture. This was further substantiated by studding the root system of Acacia albida and Prosopia cineraria.

ii. Agri-horticultural:

About 72% (128 million ha) of the total cultivated area is under food in India. For encouraging balanced diversification of agriculture, particularly horticulture and forestry, emphasis is being laid on developing poor and wastelands which are hardly suitable for economic cultivation of field crops.

During the last 3 decades, horticultural development has taken many strides. A large number of varieties of fruit, vegetable, flower, plantation of spice crops, medicinal and aromatic plants, root and tuber crops today cover about 7% of the cropped area, but contribute more than 18-20% of the gross value of the agricultural output.

As per the estimates available, the total area under these crops (excluding tea coffee and rubber) was about 14 million ha in 1992. The area under fruit is 3.3 million ha with a production of 50 million tonnes.

The increase in the production of fruits in India is primarily due to expansion in area. Fruit trees and crops are grown together in various ways. Depending on the pattern and configuration, these companion crops are known as intercrop, under planting, hedge-row planting or alley cropping.

In intercropping, agricultural crops are normally grown between rows of fruit trees. The agricultural crops provide seasonal revenues, whereas fruit and in sonic cases fuel-wood from fruned wood and fodder. Several kinds of crops are also under planted to take the advantage of shade provided by the canopy of fruit trees. However, shade is not always desirable for agricultural crops, viz. maize, sorghum and groundnut. Following are the crops, generally under planted in the orchards:

In Khasi mandarin orchard on sloppy lands arable crops, viz. as groundnut, rice, ginger and turmeric, were grown where mandarin + ginger land use gave the highest net return from ginger alone, followed by turmeric. No adverse effect of the intercrops in the growth of the trees was observed.

In eastern parts of Himalayas when guava is grown with ginger, the highest net return of Rs 7390/ ha from ginger alone was obtained, whereas turmeric and groundnut grown with guava gave net returns of Rs 4435 and Rs 3600/ha respectively. There was no adverse effect of intercrops on the growth of guava.

In Sikkim hills, mandarin orchards are intensively intercropped with cereals, pulresard vegetable crops. Ginger is the most remunerate intercept in Sikkim. In high hills of temperate zone apple is intercropped with potato, barley, radish, cabbage and turniapp.

In Jammu and Kashmir, orchards of apple, peach and almond, the cultivation of pulses and vegetable is becoming very popular for generating more income from small holdings. Some farmers also intercrop maize and oat in orchards. Homestead gardens are also common where the framers take up combination of 10-15 species of fruit, ornamental and multipurpose trees along with vegetables to meet their own or aesthetic value.

In Vasad region (Gujarat), reported that pure papaya and banana gave yield of 26.9 and 7.6 tonnes/ ha/year. The intercrop of green Chilean in papa (papaya 29.4 tonnes/ha and green chilli 8.3 tonnes/ha) was obtained in all the plots when intercropping was done with either chilli, cowpea or corriander.

In Andhra Pradesh, the economics of guava and mango orchards under agri-horticultural systems was carried out randomly in 100 orchards of average 1.5 ha size which showed semiarid tropics. Rainfed groundnut, sorghum vegetables in Shadnagar, and sugarcane and turmeric in Zaheerabad, Andhra Pradesh were taken up in the interspaces of orchards.

Guava was preferred as a component of agri-horticultural system, as it is profitable and suitable to low-fertility soils. Improved varieties grown in Shadanagar area provided higher returns than local variety in Zaheerabad. The agri-horticulture system was more viable or profitable than horticultural system alone.

The mango orchards and agri-horticultural system showed that the initial time lag between cash inflows and cash outflows could be minimized by adopting agri-horticultural system with arable crops like rainfed groundnut grown in the interspaces of the orchards during the first 5 years.

The increased benefits from agri-horticultural system up to mango orchard were realized which made agri -horticultural system more profitable than horticultural plants only. The results revealed that alternate land-use system based on a perennial tree component yielding either fuel wood or fruit in arable crop can be profitable to dryland farmers.

The 4 varieties of aonla (‘Chakaya’, ‘Kanchan’ and ‘NA 4’), 2 spacings (10 m x 6 m and 5 m x 6 m) and 6 crop combinations with and without Leucaena (fallow, sesame and blackgram), was noticed after fourth year of plantation which affected the yield of inter crops. Aonla produced about 25-100 kg. Growth of fruit trees was better tinder without Leucaena then with Leucaena.

Inclusion of Leucaena with fruit trees adversely affected the fruit yield of anola. The interaction between fruit trees and intercrops fruit/plant after years of plantation. Besides grain yield and fruit yield from the system, Leucaena produced 682 to 1033 kg/ha wood and 521-919 kg/ha leaves (on dry-weight basis) during the first yield was incised in the subsequent years.

Fruit yield of guava was 4900 kg/ha. Besides fruit, fodder and fuel, wheat gave 1.46 to 1.78 tonnes/ha rain yield as an intercrop with different fruit species. The intercrops yield was reduced from the fourth year with guava, her, pomegranate arid kin-now fruit trees. The insect pest and birds were the serious problems in the pomegranate and kinnow which affected the fruit yield.

iii. Silvi-pastoral System:

Silvi-pastoral are mixed land-Use system for forage, livestock and wood production. They are gaining increasing importance in developing country where there are extensive areas of land connote be dedicated to conventional agriculture without producing sever, and sometimes irreversible, soil degradation.

Silvi-pastoral land-use systems are significant where agro-forestry crop farming system is not feasible due to low rainfall and the lack of water. Cenchrus ciliaris L. gave higher forage yield than C. setigerus Vahl. Highest forage yield of 4.19 tonnes/ha was obtained from C. ciliaris under Leucaena at closer spacing.

In Acacia tortilis Hayne the forage production from C. ciliaris was 4.19 tonnes/ha with wider spacing compared to 3.32 tonnes/ha incisor spacing. The survival of Acacia tortilis was 100% and that of Leucaena 75 to 94%. Thus it was possible to get about 4.3 tonnes/ha of dry-forage yield through proper silvi-pastoral system.

The comprehensive account of the scope of silvi-pastoral management in and region, showed significant difference in grass production under different trees. The mean dry forage yield in Dichanthium annualtum Staff was 2800 kg/ha, followed by C. ciliaris (2510 kg/ha) and Panicum antidotale Ratz. (2160 kg/ha). Intercropping with grass has no effect on tree growth.

The maximum tree height (2.16 m) was recorded for Azardirachta indica A. Juss. followed by Acacia tortilis. The growth of Acaica tortilis was suppressed during the first 3 years when the tree-seedling was raised with Cenchrus spp.

The production of multi-purpose species (Acacia cupressifornis, Dalbergia sissoo and Hardwickia binata) under different management systems (with and without pasture management and with and without pruning) indicated that there was no significant difference for survival under with and without pasture managed with pruning and without pruning.

The survival of trees may be increased with making pasture- free ring around the trees. The growth of trees was better under without pasture and under unpround. The total biomass production (fuel and fodder) obtained under trees + pasture was higher than pure pasture, Among the tree species, Dalbergia sissoo had better growth performance and higher dry fodder and fuel wood production than the other.

A silvi-pastoral system consisting of Albiza amara, D. cineraria and L. leucocephala as tree component, Chrysopgon fulvus (Spereng.) Chiov. as grass and Stylosanthes namatoa (L.) Taub + S. scahra J. Vogeal as pastoral legumes were established during 1990 at the NRCAF to compare the production potential of established silvipasture and natural grassland forbiomass and livestock production under silvipastoral system was 4.88 tonnes/ha and 1.30 tonnes/ha respectively.

Under natural grassland the dry forage yield was only 3.25 tonnes/ha. The performance of sheep and goat under silvi-pastoral system and natural grassland indicated that gain in body weight of goat was higher (28.6 g/head/day) under silvipastoral system that of under natural grassland (10.8 g/head/day). The similar trends was also found in sheep grazed on natural and silvi-pastoral system.

Agri-silvipastoral System:

Since Indian farmers usually have integrated animals fully with their farming operation, many of the agro-forestry system are truly agri-silvi pastoral systems. Some examples include intercropping with coconut and horticultural trees, if grasses are also grown as interiors, trees in agricultural field and farm boundaries.

The animals competent is veritable (e.g., the system of trees in agricultural field and trees on farm boundering will have relatively more dependence on animals than the systems of growing agricultural crops with commercial trees). Even in shifting cultivation, there is an animal component of pig and poultry.

Future Research:

However agro-forestry practice in India is very old and traditional. There are a number of basic issues which have to be understood before it is possible to improve these systems. These include interaction between the trees and crops or grasses for shade, rooting pattern, competition for plant nutrients and moisture, soil fertility and compatibility various trees and crops or grass species.