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This chapter takes you behind the scenes of the Internet. We look at how the Internet works and the various standards it follows. Along the way, we go behind the scenes of some Internet communication features, such as e-mail and instant messaging services, and discuss just how safe these features are and what you can do to make your communications even more secure.

Although the U.S. government funded the development of the technologies that spawned the Internet, no one really owns it. The individual local networks that constitute the Internet are all owned by different individuals, universities, government agencies, and private companies. Many government entities and privately held companies own pieces of the communications infrastructure that makes the Internet work. A number of nonprofit organizations and user groups, each with a specialized purpose, are responsible for managing the Internet. The U.S. government pays for a large portion of the Internet infrastructure as well as funds research and development for new technologies. The primary source of these funds is your tax dollars. Originally, U.S. taxpayers footed the entire bill for the Internet, but as the Internet grew and organizations were formed to manage it, businesses, universities, and other countries began paying for Internet infrastructure and development.

Although the Internet can connect individual computers to each other, the Internet is really a network of networks. The Internet behaves like a network in that it follows a set of communications protocols and is used for transferring data between computers. A protocol is simply a set of rules for communicating. All computers connected to the Internet need to use common protocols so that they can understand one another.

To connect individual computers or networks to the Internet, home users and businesses use Internet service providers (ISPs). ISPs are classified in a hierarchy that consists of three tiers: Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3. At the heart of the Internet are Tier 1 ISPs, which route a large percentage of the traffic on the Internet and have extremely high-speed connections with other ISPs. The high-speed communications lines that Tier 1 ISPs use are referred to as the Internet backbone . There are dozens of Tier 1 ISPs, each of which is required to be directly connected to all other Tier 1 ISPs. Tier 2 ISPs usually have a regional or national focus. Tier 2 ISPs must route at least a portion of their traffic through the global Tier 1 ISPs. Information flow between Tier 1 ISPs and the Tier 2 ISPs occurs using high-speed data lines. The thousands of Tier 3 ISPs provide Internet access to homes or small to medium-sized businesses. These ISPs normally cover a local area. All Tier 3 ISPs need to be connected to at least one Tier 2 ISP.

T lines are high-speed fiber-optic communications lines that are designed to provide much higher throughput than conventional voice (telephone) and data (DSL) lines. T lines come in a variety of speeds A T-1 line can support 24 simultaneous voice or data channels and achieve a maximum throughput of 1.544 Mbps. Businesses or Tier 3 ISPs often use T-1 lines to connect to the Internet because of the large volume of Internet traffic they experience. T-2 lines are composed of four T-1 lines and deliver a throughput of 6.3 Mbps. T-3 lines are a bundle of 28 T-1 lines and deliver a throughput of 44.736 Mbps. T-4 lines contain 168 T-1 lines and provide an astounding 274.176 Mbps of throughput.

The points of connection between ISPs are known as network access points (NAPs) . Network access points contain groups of routers specifically designed to move large amounts of data quickly between networks.

Whether dialing up through a conventional modem or connecting through high-speed access, individual Internet users enter an ISP through a point of presence (POP) , which is basically a bank of modems through which many users can connect to an ISP simultaneously. ISPs maintain multiple POPs throughout the geographic area they serve.

The majority of Internet communications follows the client/server model of network communication. Client computers request services and servers provide those services to the clients. There are various types of servers deployed on the networks that make up the Internet from which clients can request services: -Web servers run specialized operating systems that enable them to host Web pages and provide requested Web pages to clients. - Commerce servers host software that enables users to purchase goods and services over the Web. These servers generally use special security protocols to protect sensitive information (such as credit card numbers) from being intercepted. - File servers are deployed to provide remote storage space or to act as a repository for files that users can download.

Certain services on the Internet operate in a peer-to-peer (P2P) mode Kazaa and other file-sharing services require the user’s computer to act as both a client and a server. When requesting files from another user, the computer behaves like a client. It switches to server mode when it in turn provides a file stored on its hard drive to another computer.

The Internet follows standard protocols to send information between computers. To accomplish the early goals of the Internet, protocols needed to be written and agreed on by users. The protocols needed to be open systems , meaning their designs would be made public for access by any interested party.

Although many protocols are available on the Internet, the main suite of protocols used is TCP/IP . The suite is named after the original two protocols that were developed for the Internet: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) . TCP prepares data for transmission and provides for error-checking and resending lost data. IP is responsible for sending the information from one computer to another.

Each computer, server, or device connected to the Internet is required to have a unique number identifying it, called an IP address . A typical IP address is expressed as a dotted decimal number . IP addresses are either assigned statically or dynamically . Static addressing means that the IP address for a computer never changes and is most likely assigned manually by a network administrator. In dynamic addressing , your computer is assigned a temporary address from an available pool of IP addresses.

A domain name is simply a name that takes the place of an IP address, making it easier for people to remember. For example, mywebsite.com is a domain name. Domains are organized by level. The portion of the domain name farthest to the right (after the dot) is the top-level domain (TLD). The TLDs are standardized pools established by ICANN (such as .com and .org). Within the top-level domains are many second-level domains . In the .com domain, there are popular sites such as Amazon.com, Google.com, and Microsoft.com. Each of the second-level domains needs to be unique within that particular domain, but not necessarily unique to all top-level domains. For example, Mycoolsite.com and Mycoolsite.org could be registered as separate domain names.

Say you want to get to Yahoo.com. To do so, you type the URL www.yahoo.com into your browser. When you enter the URL, your computer must convert it to an IP address. To do this, your computer consults a database maintained on a DNS server , which functions like a phone book for the Internet. Your ISP’s Web server has a default DNS server that it goes to when it needs to translate a URL to an IP address. If all else fails, it contacts one of the many root DNS servers maintained throughout the Internet. The root DNS servers know the location of all the DNS servers that contain the master listings for an entire TLD. Your default DNS receives the information from the master DNS (say, for the .com domain), then stores that information in its cache for future use and communicates the appropriate IP address to your computer.

Other commonly used protocols on the Internet are the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Telnet . The File Transfer Protocol ( FTP ) enables users to share files that reside on local computers with remote computers. If you’re attempting to download files using FTP to your local computer, the FTP client program first establishes a TCP session with the remote computer. Telnet is both a protocol for connecting to a remote computer and a TCP/IP service that runs on a remote computer to make it accessible to other computers. Telnet enables you to take control of a remote computer (the server) with your computer (the client) and manipulate files and data on the server as if you were sitting in front of that server.

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) was created especially for the transfer of hypertext documents across the Internet. Hypertext documents are documents in which text is linked to other documents or media (such as video clips, pictures, and so on). Clicking a specific piece of text (called a hyperlink ) that has been linked elsewhere takes you to the linked file. Commerce servers use security protocols to protect sensitive information from being intercepted by hackers. One common protocol is the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) , which provides for the encryption of data transmitted using TCP/IP protocols such as HTTP. All major Web browsers support SSL. Another is an extension of HTTP, called S-HTTP or Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol , used for individual messages.

A Web page is merely a text document that is formatted using the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) . The current version of HTML is called the Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) . XHTML has much more stringent rules than HTML regarding tagging (for instance, all elements require an end tag). XHTML is the development environment of choice for Web developers today, although many people still refer to Web site formatting as HTML tagging. HTML/XHTML are not programming languages; rather, they are sets of rules for marking up blocks of text so that a browser knows how to display them.

Here you see an example of HTML/XHTML tags and what they produce.

The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) provides a methodology by which your browser can request that a program file be executed (or run) instead of just being delivered to the browser. This enables functionality beyond the simple displaying of information. CGI files can be created in almost any programming language, and the programs created are often referred to as CGI scripts . Almost any task can be accomplished by writing a CGI script, such as creating a guest book or form on a Web page.

A client-side application is a computer program that runs on the client and requires no interaction with a Web server. Client-side applications are fast and efficient because they run at your desktop and don’t depend on sending signals back and forth to the Web server. Two main types of client-side methods exist. -The first involves embedding programming language code directly within the HTML/XHTML code of a Web page using an HTML/XHTML embedded scripting language . -The second type of client-side application is an applet , a small program that resides on a server. When requested, a compiled version of the program is downloaded to the client computer and run there.

Because HTML/XHTML is not designed for exchanging information, XML is used. Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a set of tools you can use to create your own markup language. In a sense, it is a more flexible version of HTML/XHTML. Instead of being locked into standard tags and formats for data, users can build their own markup languages to accommodate particular data formats and needs.

E-mail uses a protocol first developed by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. Using the @ symbol, e-mail addresses place a user at a Web location. The protocol works in a client/server format where e-mail is sent to a server and is forwarded to another server where it is retrieved by the addressee. Just like other kinds of data that flow along the Internet, e-mail has its own protocol. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is responsible for sending e-mail along the Internet to its destination. The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) specification was introduced in 1991 to simplify adding attachments to e-mail messages. All e-mail client software now uses this protocol for attaching files.

E-mail is very susceptible to being read by unintended parties because it’s sent in plain text. Also, copies of your e-mail message may exist (temporarily or permanently) on numerous servers as it makes its way through the Internet. Two options exist for protecting your sensitive e-mail messages: encryption and secure data transmission software . Encryption refers to the process of coding your e-mail so that only the person with the key to the code (the intended recipient) can decode (or decipher) and read the message. There are two basic types of encryption: private-key and public-key . -In private-key encryption , only the two parties involved in sending the message have the code. The main problem with private-key encryption is key security. If someone steals a copy of the code, the code is broken. -In public-key encryption , two keys, known as a key pair , are created. You use one key for coding and the other for decoding. The key for coding is generally distributed as a public key . You can place this key on your Web site, for instance. Anyone wishing to send you a message codes it using your public key. When you receive the message, you use your private key to decode it. You are the only one who ever possesses the private key and therefore it is very secure. Using encryption doesn’t always solve the other problems associated with e-mail. Messages leave a trail as they travel over the Internet, and copies of messages can exist on servers for long periods of time. In addition, immediate reading of sensitive documents is often essential, but encryption software doesn’t provide a means for confirming your messages have been delivered. To combat these issues, companies such as Securus Systems Ltd. have developed secure data transmission software (called SafeMessage) that works outside of the conventional SMTP mail servers.

Instant messaging (IM) is another client/server application. AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), ICQ, Yahoo! Messenger, and MSN Messenger are the top four instant messaging applications in use today. The client software running on your computer makes a connection with the chat server using your Internet connection. Once contact is established, you can log in to the server with your name and password. The client software provides the server with connection information for your computer. The server then consults the list of contacts that you have previously established in your account and checks to see if any of your contacts are online. If any are, the server sends a message back to your client providing the necessary connection information (the IP addresses) for your friends. You can now click your friends’ names to establish a chat session with them. Instant messaging security threats have increased 1600% recently. Sensitive information should not be sent using IM.

Internet, Behind the Scenes

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Behind the Scenes: The Internet: How it Works Source: http://www.danscartoons.com

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Internet Networking <ul><li>A network of networks </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Worldwide network of computer systems </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Protocol </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Set of rules for communicating </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>All computers connected to the Internet use common protocols so they can understand one another </li></ul></ul>NB

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Data Transmission and Protocols <ul><li>Computer protocols are rules for electronic information exchange </li></ul><ul><li>Open system protocols </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Any computer can communicate with other computers using the same protocols </li></ul></ul>NB

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DNS Domain Name Server <ul><li>Internet servers that translate domain names to IP addresses </li></ul><ul><li>ISPs go first to a default DNS to resolve a name </li></ul><ul><li>Name queries work up the hierarchy to the root DNS servers if required </li></ul>See page 586

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Other Protocols <ul><li>File Transfer Protocol (FTP) </li></ul><ul><ul><li>File-sharing protocol </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Files are downloaded and uploaded using the Internet </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Telnet </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Protocol for connecting to a remote computer and a TCP/IP service </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Enables a client computer to control a server computer </li></ul></ul>NB

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HTML/XHTML <ul><li>Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Format for creating Web pages </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Successor to HTML </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Has much more stringent rules than HTML regarding tagging </li></ul></ul><ul><li>HTML/XHTML </li></ul><ul><ul><li>are not programming languages but sets of rules for marking up blocks of text so that a browser knows how to display them </li></ul></ul>NB

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Client-Side Applications <ul><li>A program that runs on a client computer with no interaction with the server </li></ul><ul><li>Types of client-side applications include </li></ul><ul><ul><li>HTML/XHTML document embedded with JavaScript code </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Applet: Small program that resides on the server </li></ul></ul>