1.
History of the Southern United States
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The history of the Southern United States reaches back hundreds of years and includes the Mississippian people, well known for their mound building. European history in the began in the very earliest days of the exploration and colonization of North America. Spain, France, and England eventually explored and claimed parts of what is now the Southern United States, in Pre-Columbian times, the only inhabitants of what is now the Southern United States were Native Americans. The Mississippian way of life began to develop around the 10th century in the Mississippi River Valley, notable Native American nations that developed in the South after the Mississippians include what are known as the Five Civilized Tribes, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. Spain made frequent exploratory trips to the New World after its discovery in 1492, rumors of natives being decorated with gold and stories of a Fountain of Youth helped hold the interest of many Spanish explorers, and colonization eventually followed. Juan Ponce de León was the first European to come to the South when he landed in Florida in 1513. Hernando de Soto, a Spanish explorer and conquistador led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day southern United States searching for gold, de Sotos group were the first documented Europeans to cross the Mississippi River, on whose banks de Soto died in 1542. More successful was Pedro Menéndez de Aviléss St. Augustine, founded in 1565, spain also colonized parts of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Spain issued land grants in the South from Kentucky to Florida, there was also a Spanish colony location near King Powhatans ruling town in the Chesapeake Bay area of what is now Virginia and Maryland. It preceded Jamestown, the English colony, by as much as one hundred years, the first French settlement in what is now the Southern United States was Fort Caroline, located in what is now Jacksonville, Florida, in 1562. It was established as a haven for the Huguenots and was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was destroyed by the Spanish from the nearby colony of St. Augustine in 1565. Later French arrived from the north, having established agricultural colonies in Canada and built a fur trading network with Indians in the Great Lakes area, they began to explore the Mississippi River. The French called their territory Louisiana, in honor of their King Louis, France claimed Texas and set up several short-lived forts there, such as the one in Red River County, built in 1718. In 1817 the French pirate Jean Lafitte settled on Galveston Island, the most important French settlements were established at New Orleans and Mobile. Only a few came from France directly, with others arriving from Haiti. Just before they defeated the Spanish Armada, the English began exploring the New World, in 1585 an expedition organized by Walter Raleigh established the first English settlement in the New World, on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. The colony failed to prosper, however, and the colonists were retrieved the following year by English supply ships, in 1587, Raleigh again sent out a group of colonists to Roanoke. From this colony, the first recorded European birth in North America and that group of colonists disappeared and is known as the Lost Colony

2.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included

3.
Delaware
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Delaware is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic and/or Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland, to the northeast by New Jersey, the state takes its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and Virginias first colonial governor. Delaware occupies the portion of the Delmarva Peninsula and is the second smallest, the sixth least populous. Delaware is divided into three counties, the lowest number of counties of any state, from north to south, the three counties are New Castle, Kent, and Sussex. While the southern two counties have historically been agricultural, New Castle County has been more industrialized. Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century, Delaware was inhabited by groups of Native Americans, including the Lenape in the north. It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near the present town of Lewes, Delaware was one of the 13 colonies participating in the American Revolution. On December 7,1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, the Delaware Indians, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source. The surname de La Warr comes from Sussex and is of Anglo-Norman origin and it came probably from a Norman lieu-dit La Guerre. This toponymic could derive from the Latin word ager, from the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin varectum, the toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire also appear in old texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word gara means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr, Delaware is 96 miles long and ranges from 9 miles to 35 miles across, totaling 1,954 square miles, making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania, to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean, small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending 12 miles from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle and this boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. This is the only nominally circular state boundary in the United States, to the west, a portion of the arc extends past the easternmost edge of Maryland. The remaining western border runs slightly east of due south from its intersection with the arc, the Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delawares claim was confirmed. Delaware is on a plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, the northernmost part of the state is part of the Piedmont Plateau with hills and rolling surfaces

4.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state

5.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP

6.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall

7.
Missouri
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Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe

8.
Oklahoma
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Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central United States. Oklahoma is the 20th-most extensive and the 28th-most populous of the 50 United States, the states name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning red people. The name was settled upon statehood, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged, on November 16,1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans, or informally Okies, and its capital, a major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. In 2007, it had one of the economies in the United States, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahomas primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas. With small mountain ranges, prairie, mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains, Cross Timbers, interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather. The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma, literally meaning red people, equivalent to the English word Indian, okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory, and it was approved in 1890. Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,898 square miles and it is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, much of its border with Texas lies along the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen, a failed continental rift. The geologic figure defines the placement of the Red River, the Oklahoma panhandles Western edge is out of alignment with its Texas border. The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line, the border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819. It was then set along the 103rd Meridian, in the 1890s, when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques, it was discovered the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian. Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819, and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east and it was much easier to leave the mistake than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the surveying error. The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian, cimarron County in Oklahomas panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado and Kansas. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The states lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, Oklahoma, which dips to 289 feet above sea level

9.
Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era
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This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction, the period after the American Civil War, 1863–1877. Brown, Thomas J. ed. Reconstructions, New Perspectives on Postbellum America essays by 8 scholars excerpt and text search Du Bois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in America 1860–1880,1998 edition reissued with introduction by David Levering Lewis ISBN 0-684-85657-3. )Counterpoint to Dunning School explores the economics and politics of the era from Marxist perspective Du Bois, W. E. B. Reconstruction and its Benefits, American Historical Review,15, 781—99 JSTOR Dunning, blames Carpetbaggers for failure of Reconstruction. Online edition Fitzgerald, Miachael W. Splendid Failure, Postwar Reconstruction in the American South, 224pp, excerpt and text search Fleming, the Sequel of Appomattox, A Chronicle of the Reunion of the States. Written with viewpoint of Dunning School, Americas Reconstruction, People and Politics After the Civil War. ISBN 0-8071-2234-3, short well-illustrated survey Foner, Eric, Reconstruction, Americas Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 ISBN 0-06-015851-4. Award-winning history and most detailed synthesis of original and previous scholarship, Reconstruction Revisited in Reviews in American History, Vol.10, No. 4, The Promise of American History, Progress and Prospects, pp. 82–100, review of the historiography, online in Project MUSE Foner, forever Free, The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. 268 pp. Ford, Lacy K. ed, a Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction. Reconstruction after the Civil War, University of Chicago Press,280 pages, climbing up to Glory, A Short History of African Americans during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Been in the Storm So Long, the Age of Hate, Andrew Johnson and the Radicals. A History of the United States since the Civil War, based on Dunning School Perman, Michael. Long the standard survey, with elaborate bibliography Rhodes, James G, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896. 1872–77, Highly detailed narrative by Pulitzer prize winner, argues was a disaster because it violated the rights of white Southerners. Vol 6 1865–1872 online, vol 7 online vol 6 online at Google. books vol 7 in Google. books Richardson, west from Appomattox, The Reconstruction of America after the Civil War Richter, William L. The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction excerpt and text search, earlier version was Historical Dictionary of the Civil War and Reconstruction Schouler, History of the United States of America, Under the Constitution vol. The Reconstruction Period online Stalcup, Brenda, Ed. Reconstruction, Opposing Viewpoints, uses primary documents to present opposing viewpoints

10.
The Birth of a Nation
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The Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent epic drama film directed and co-produced by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. The screenplay is adapted from the novel and play The Clansman and it was released on February 8,1915. Three hours long, the film was presented in two parts separated by an intermission, it was the first 12-reel film in America. The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth is dramatized, there were widespread African-American protests against The Birth of a Nation, such as in Boston, while thousands of white Bostonians flocked to see the film. The NAACP spearheaded a campaign to ban the film. Griffiths indignation at efforts to censor or ban the film motivated him to produce Intolerance the following year. The films release is credited as being one of the events that inspired the formation of the second era Ku Klux Klan at Stone Mountain, Georgia. The Birth of a Nation, along with the trial and lynching of Leo Frank for the 1913 murder of Mary Phagan in Atlanta, was used as a tool for the KKK. Under President Woodrow Wilson, it was the first American motion picture to be screened at the White House, Griffiths innovative techniques and storytelling power have made The Birth of a Nation one of the landmarks of film history. In 1992, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant, the film follows two juxtaposed families. One is the Northern Stonemans, abolitionist U. S, representative Austin Stoneman, his daughter, and two sons. The other is the Southern Camerons, Dr. Cameron is married to his wife, the couple also has three sons and two daughters. Phil, the elder Stoneman son, falls in love with Margaret Cameron, while the visit to the the Cameron estate in South Carolina. Meanwhile, young Ben Cameron idolizes a picture of Elsie Stoneman, during the Civil War, the young men from both families enlist in their respective armies for the war. The younger Stoneman and two of the Cameron brothers are killed in the war, meanwhile, the Cameron women are rescued by Confederate soldiers who rout a Black militia, after an attack on the Cameron home. Ben Cameron leads a charge at the Siege of Petersburg. But he is wounded and captured. He is then taken to a Union hospital in Washington, D. C, during his stay at the hospital, he is told that he will be hanged

11.
East Florida
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East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763, it consisted of peninsular Florida and its capital was St. Augustine, which had been the capital of Spanish Florida. Britain formed East and West Florida out of territory it had received from Spain and France following the French, finding its new acquisitions in the southeast too large to administer as a single unit, the British divided them into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. East Florida comprised the bulk of what had previously been the Spanish territory of Florida, Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain following the American Revolutionary War. Spain maintained them as separate colonies, although the majority of West Florida was gradually occupied and annexed by the United States from 1810 to 1813, Spain ceded East Florida and the remainder of West Florida to the US in the Adams–Onís Treaty. In 1822 the United States organized them as a single unit, under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War, Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London with the interests that controlled Nova Scotia. Perhaps it is strange to think of such dissimilar geographic areas with such opposing climates as having much in common, but if one considers naval and military strategy, one can see that these areas have a common significance, especially when viewed from London by the ministry. Halifax was the command post for both the admiral and general in charge of the American forces, St. Augustine evoked the same strategic considerations. These posts have described as the two centers of strength to which the British army was withdrawn in the late 1760s. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada show that the fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincolns Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, other aristocrats, nobles and merchants did the same. The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham and it was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature. Both Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American War of Independence, Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north. Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces, the Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several disputes between the US and Spain, some resulting in military action

12.
British West Florida
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West Florida was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1763 until 1783 when it was ceded to Spain as part of the Peace of Paris. British West Florida comprised parts of the modern U. S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, effective British control ended in 1781 when Spain captured Pensacola. The territory subsequently became a colony of Spain, parts of which were annexed piecemeal by the United States beginning in 1810. In 1762 during the Seven Years War a British expedition attacked and occupied Havana, to secure the return of this valuable city, Spain agreed to cede its territory of La Florida to Great Britain under the 1763 Treaty of Paris. France also ceded a large segment of New France to Great Britain, including everything on the east bank of the Mississippi River, except for the city of New Orleans. The British divided these new territories into two separate colonies East Florida, with its capital in St Augustine and West Florida, with the former Spanish settlement of Pensacola as its capital. By a separate treaty Spain was given the western side of the Mississippi, many of the existing Spanish inhabitants of Florida were evacuated to Cuba, and new British and American settlers arrived to take over the land. In 1763 British troops arrived and took possession of Pensacola, george Johnstone was appointed as the first British Governor, and in 1764 a colonial assembly was established. The structure of the colony was modeled after the existing British colonies in America, as opposed to Quebec, once the American War of Independence had broken out, the colonists remained overwhelmingly loyal to the Crown. In 1778 the Willing Expedition proceeded with a force down the Mississippi, ransacking estates and plantations. In the wake of this, the received a small number of British reinforcements. Following an agreement signed at Aranjuez, Spain entered the American Revolutionary War on the side of France, Spanish troops under Bernardo de Galvez advanced and seized Baton Rouge and Mobile. In 1781 Spain captured Pensacola and its garrison, as part of the 1783 Peace of Paris, Great Britain ceded the territories of West Florida and East Florida back to Spain. When Spain acquired West Florida in 1783, the eastern British boundary was the Apalachicola River, the purpose was to transfer San Marcos and the district of Apalachee from East Florida to West Florida. West Florida East Florida British America Dominion of British West Florida Spanish West Florida Calloway, the Scratch of a Pen,1763 and the Transformation of North America. Spain and the Independence of the United States, An Intrinsic Gift, university of New Mexico Press,2003

13.
Cherokee history
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There are two prevailing views about Cherokee origins. One is that the Cherokees are relative latecomers to Southern Appalachia, the other theory is that they have been there for thousands of years. Some historians believe that Cherokees came to Appalachia as late as the 13th century, over time they moved into Muscogee Creek territory and settled on the sites of Muscogee mounds. Several Mississippian sites have been misattributed to the Cherokee, including Moundville, pisgah Phase sites are associated with precontact Cherokee culture, and historic Cherokee villages featured artifacts with iconography from the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. The other possibility is that Cherokee people have lived in western North Carolina, during the late Archaic and Woodland period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as marsh elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers and some native squash. People began building mounds, created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during Mississippian Period, Cherokee ancestors developed a new variety of corn called eastern flint, which closely resembles modern corn. Corn was central to religious ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. One account recorded in the late 18th century speaks of a Moon-eyed people who had lived in the Cherokee regions before they arrived, the group was described in 1797 by Colonel Leonard Marbury to Benjamin Smith Barton. According to Marbury, when the Cherokee arrived in the area they had encountered a people who could not see in the day-time. Much of what is known about pre-19th century Cherokee culture and society comes from the papers of American writer John Howard Payne, the Payne papers describe the account by Cherokee elders of a traditional societal structure in which a white organization of elders represented the seven clans. According to Payne, this group, which was hereditary and described as priestly, was responsible for activities such as healing, purification. A second group of men, the red organization, was responsible for warfare. Warfare was considered an activity, which required the purification of the priestly class before participants could reintegrate into normal village life. This hierarchy had disappeared long before the 18th century, the reasons for the change have been debated, with the origin of the decline often located with a revolt by the Cherokee against the abuses of the priestly class known as the Ani-kutani. Ethnographer James Mooney, who studied the Cherokee in the late 1880s, by the time of Mooney, the structure of Cherokee religious practitioners was more informal, based more on individual knowledge and ability than upon heredity. Initially only the didanvwisgi used these materials, which were considered extremely powerful, later, the writings were widely adopted by the Cherokee people. Unlike most other Indians in the American southeast at the start of the historic era, since the Great Lakes region was the core of Iroquoian language speakers, scholars have theorized that the Cherokee migrated south from that region. However, some argue that the Iroquois migrated north from the southeast, linguistic analysis shows a relatively large difference between Cherokee and the northern Iroquoian languages, suggesting a split in the distant past

14.
Chesapeake Colonies
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Disease ravaged settlements of the Chesapeake region grew slowly due to disease Most of these settlers were male immigrants from England who died soon after their arrival. Due to the majority of men, eligible women did not remain single for long, the native-born population eventually became immune to the Chesapeake diseases and these colonies were able to continue through all the hardships. Chesapeake had one crop economy that was based on tobacco and this contributed to the slave labor necessity in the southern colonies. The tobacco also ruined the soil and much land was in demand. White indentured servants were common in this area. First Families of Virginia Colonial families of Maryland Thirteen Colonies Middle Colonies Southern Colonies Mark C, carnes & John A. Garraty, The American Nation, A History of the United States, Pearson Education,2006

15.
Compromise of 1877
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The Compromise of 1877 was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U. S. presidential election. It resulted in the United States federal government pulling the last troops out of the South, the compromise involved Democrats who controlled the House of Representatives allowing the decision of the Electoral Commission to take effect. The outgoing president, Republican Ulysses S. Grant, removed the soldiers from Florida, as president, Hayes removed the remaining troops from South Carolina and Louisiana. As soon as the left, many white Republicans also left. They already dominated most other governments in the South. What was exactly agreed is somewhat contested as the documentation is scanty, black Republicans felt betrayed as they lost power and were subject to discrimination and harassment to suppress their voting. At the turn of the 20th century, most black people were effectively disenfranchised by state legislatures in every state, despite being a majority in some. The compromise essentially stated that Southern Democrats would acknowledge Hayes as president, the following elements are generally said to be the points of the compromise, The removal of all U. S. military forces from the former Confederate states. At the time, U. S. troops remained in only Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida, the appointment of at least one Southern Democrat to Hayes cabinet. The construction of another transcontinental railroad using the Texas and Pacific in the South, legislation to help industrialize the South and restore its economy following Reconstruction and the Civil War. In exchange, Democrats would accept the Republican Hayes as president by not employing the filibuster during the joint session of Congress needed to confirm the election, after the Compromise, a few Democrats complained loudly that Tilden had been cheated. There was talk of forming armed units that would march on Washington and he tightened military security, and nobody marched on Washington. Points 1 and 2 of the compromise took effect, Hayes had already announced his support for the restoration of home rule, which would involve federal troop removal, before the election. It was not unusual, nor unexpected, for a president, especially one so narrowly elected, points 3 and 4 were never enacted, it is possible there was no firm agreement about them. Whether by informal deal or simply reassurances already in line with Hayess announced plans and this prevented a Congressional filibuster that had threatened to extend resolution of the election dispute beyond Inauguration Day 1877. They met secretly at Wormleys Hotel in Washington to forge a compromise with aid to internal improvements, bridges, canals, but Peskin notes that no serious federal effort was made after Hayes took office to fund a railroad or provide other federal aid for improvements. An opposing interest group representing the Southern Pacific actually thwarted Scotts proposed Texas and Pacific scheme, Peskin admits that Woodwards interpretation had become almost universally accepted in the nearly quarter century since he had published it. As not all terms of the agreement were met, Peskin believes there was no deal between the North and South in 1877

16.
Confederados
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The Confederados were some 10,000 to 20,000 Confederates who immigrated to Brazil, chiefly to the state of São Paulo, from the Southern United States after the American Civil War. Although many eventually returned to the United States after Reconstruction, some remained, the most popular destination for emigration was the Brazilian Empire, where slavery remained legal. Emperor Dom Pedro II wanted to encourage the cultivation of cotton, after the American Civil War, Dom Pedro offered the potential immigrants subsidized transport to Brazil, cheap land, and tax breaks. In addition, Brazil still had slavery, most of the immigrants were from the states of Alabama, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, and South Carolina. No one has determined how many Americans immigrated to Brazil in the following the end of the American Civil War. As noted in unpublished research, Betty Antunes de Oliveira found in records of Rio de Janeiro that some 20,000 Americans entered Brazil from 1865 to 1885. Other researchers have estimated the number at 10,000, an unknown number returned to the United States when conditions in the South changed, as Reconstruction ended and the Jim Crow era began. The immigrants settled in places, ranging from the urban areas of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo to the northern Amazon region, especially Santarém. Most of the Confederados settled in the area to the north of São Paulo, around present-day Santa Bárbara dOeste, the latter name was derived from Vila dos Americanos, as the natives called it. The first Confederado recorded was Colonel William H. Norris of Alabama, the colony at Santa Bárbara DOeste is sometimes called the Norris Colony. Dom Pedros program was judged a success for both the immigrants and the Brazilian government, the settlers quickly gained a reputation for honesty and hard work. The settlers brought modern techniques for cotton, as well as new food crops. Some dishes of the American South were also adopted in general Brazilian culture, such as pie, vinegar pie. The early Confederados continued many elements of American culture, for instance, in a change from the South, the Confederados also educated slaves and black freedmen in their new schools. A few newly freed slaves in the United States emigrated alongside their Confederate counterparts, one such former slave, Steve Watson, became the administrator of the sawmill of his former owner, Judge Dyer of Texas. When Dyer returned to the US, due to homesickness and financial failure, Dyer deeded his remaining property, in the area of the Juquia valley there are many Brazilian families with the surname Vassão, the Portuguese pronunciation of Watson. The first generation of Confederados remained an insular community, as is typical, by the third generation, most of the families had intermarried with native Brazilians or immigrants of other origins. Descendants of the Confederados increasingly spoke the Portuguese language and identified themselves as Brazilians, as the area around Santa Bárbara dOeste and Americana turned to the production of sugar cane and society became more mobile, the Confederados moved to cities for urban jobs

17.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure

18.
Cotton factor
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In the antebellum South, most cotton planters relied on cotton factors to sell their crops for them. At the same time, the port of New Orleans exported the most cotton, Cotton factors also frequently purchased goods for their clients, and even handled shipment of those goods to the clients, among other services. As one source notes, The factor was a man of business in an agrarian society who performed many different services for the planter in addition to selling his crops. Not all factors in the antebellum South were cotton factors, some were factors of other commodities, in 1858, for example, New Orleans boasted sixty-three sugar and molasses factors, but it probably had an even greater number of cotton factors. Factor Mobile Cotton Exchange New Orleans Cotton Exchange Edmund Richardson

19.
Creek War
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The major conflicts of the war took place between state militias and the Red Stick Creeks. The Creek War is part of the four-century long Indian Wars, the Creek War began as a conflict within the Creek Confederation, but United States armies quickly became involved. British traders and the Spanish government provided supplies to the Red Stick majority due to their shared interest in preventing the expansion of United States territory and these lands were taken from allied Creek as well as Red Sticks. The Red Stick chiefs and warriors militancy was a response to the United States cultural and territorial encroachment, the conflicts designation as the Creek Civil War comes from divisions along cultural, political, economic, and geographic boundaries. The Lower Creek were closer trading partners with the United States, the Provinces of East and West Florida were governed by the Spanish, and British firms like Panton, Leslie, and Co. provided most of the trade goods into Creek country. Pensacola and Mobile in Spanish Florida controlled the outlets of the US Mississippi Territorys rivers, during and after the Revolution, the United States maintained the Indian Line that had been established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Indian Line created a boundary for White settlement in order to prevent legal encroachment on Indian lands, and also helped the U. S. government maintain control over the Indian trade. Traders and settlers often violated the terms of the establishing the Indian Line. In the Treaty of New York, Treaty of Colerain, Treaty of Fort Wilkinson, and the Treaty of Fort Washington, the 1805 treaty also allowed the creation of a Federal Road that linked Washington to the newly acquired port city of New Orleans. In 1804, the United States claimed Mobile under the Mobile Act, the Patriot Army captured parts of East Florida from 1811-1815. In 1810, the United States attempted to occupy the city after occupying Baton Rouge during the West Florida Rebellion. As a result, Mobile was jointly occupied by weak American, after Fort Charlotte was surrendered in April, the Spanish focused on protecting Pensacola from the United States. The splintering of the Creek Nation along progressive and nativist lines had roots dating back to the eighteenth century, Red Stick militancy was a response to the economic and cultural crises in Creek society caused by the adoption of Western trade goods and culture. The Red Sticks particularly resisted the civilization programs administered by the U. S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins, some of the progressive Creek began to adopt American farming practices as their game disappeared, and as more Anglo settlers assimilated into Creek towns and families. Leaders of the Lower Creek towns in present-day Georgia included Bird Tail King of Cusseta, Little Prince of Broken Arrow, before the Creek War and the War of 1812, most US politicians saw removal to the only alternative to the assimilation of native peoples into western culture. The Creeks, on the hand, blended their own culture with adopted trade goods and political terms. The Americanization of the Creeks was more prevalent in western Georgia among the Lower Creeks than in Upper Creek Towns, many of the most prominent Creek chiefs before the Creek War were mixed-bloods like William McGillivray and William McIntosh. The Shawnee leader Tecumseh came to the Southeast to encourage the peoples to join his movement to throw the Americans out of Native American territories and he had united tribes in the Northwest to fight against US settlers after the American Revolutionary War

20.
Culture of the Southern United States
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The Culture of the Southern United States, or Southern Culture, is a subculture of the United States. S. Southern culture has been and remains generally more conservative than that of the rest of the country. From its many influences, the South developed its own unique customs, literature, cuisine. This article focuses on the white South, see African-American culture for the Black South. Slavery in the United States had a role in shaping the South, its agricultural practices, the American Civil War. The presence and practices of Native Americans and the landscape also played a role in Southern culture, the climate is conducive to growing tobacco, cotton, and other crops, and the red clay in many areas was used for the distinctive red brick architecture of many commercial buildings. In the time of their conception, the predominant cultural influence on the Southern states was that of the English colonists who established the original English colonies in the region. In the 18th century, large groups of Scots lowlanders, Northern English and Ulster-Scots settled in Appalachia and they were often called crackers, a term associated with the cowboys of Georgia and Florida. Before the American Revolution, the term was applied by the English and this usage can be found in a passage from a letter to the Earl of Dartmouth, I should explain. Most European Southerners today are of partial or majority English and Scots-Irish ancestry and it should also be noted that those who did identify themselves of German ancestry were almost exclusively found in the northern border areas of the region which are adjacent to the American Mid-West. The predominance of Irish surnames in South Georgia has been noted by American historians for some time, People of many nationalities established communities in the American South. Some examples are the German American population of the Edwards Plateau of Texas, also important is the French community of New Orleans dating back to the 1880s. The other primary population group in the South is made up of the African American descendants of the slaves brought into the South, African Americans comprise the United States largest racial minority, accounting for 13.6 percent of the total population according to the 2010 census. Part of the South is known as the Bible Belt, because of the prevalence there of evangelical Protestantism, South Florida has a large Jewish element that migrated from New York. Immigrants from Southeast Asia and South Asia have brought Buddhism and Hinduism to the region as well, most Southerners attend church on a regular basis. In the colonial period and early 19th century the First Great Awakening, the evangelical religion was spread by religious revivals led by local lay Baptist ministers or itinerant Methodist ministers. They fashioned the nations Bible Belt, after the Revolution, the Anglican Church of England was disestablished and was reorganized as the nationalised Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA. The Revolution turned more people toward Methodist and Baptist preachers in the South, the Cane Ridge Revival and subsequent camp-meetings on the Kentucky and Tennessee frontiers were the impetus behind the Restoration Movement

21.
Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
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These measures were enacted by former Confederate states at the turn of the 20th century, and by Oklahoma upon statehood, although not by the border slave states. Their actions defied the intent of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, after regaining control of the state legislatures, Democrats were alarmed by a late 19th-century alliance between Republicans and Populists that cost them some elections. In North Carolinas Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, white Democrats conducted a coup detat of the city government and they overturned a duly elected biracial government headed by a white mayor, and widely attacked the black community, destroying lives and property. Many blacks left the city permanently and they succeeded in disenfranchising most of the black citizens, as well as many poor whites in the South, and voter rolls dropped dramatically in each state. The Republican Party was nearly eliminated in the region for decades, from the mid to the late 20th century, a wholesale party realignment took place, with white conservatives joining the Republican Party. Until then Southern Democrats controlled the politics of southern states and established white supremacy, as Congressional apportionment of seats was based on the total population, the Southern white Democrats, the Southern bloc, had tremendous legislative power for decades. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment could have used to reduce Congressional representation for states that denied suffrage on racial grounds. Opponents of the Southern bloc could not overcome their political power, in 1912, the Republican Party was split when Roosevelt ran against the regular Taft. In the South by this time, the Republican Party had been hollowed out by the disenfranchisement of African Americans, democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected as the first southern President since 1856. He was re-elected in 1916, in a much closer presidential contest, during World War I, American military forces were segregated, with black soldiers poorly trained and equipped. Disenfranchisement had far-reaching effects in Congress, where the Democratic Solid South enjoyed about 25 extra seats in Congress for each decade between 1903 and 1953, also, the Democratic dominance in the South meant that southern Senators and Representatives became entrenched in Congress. In addition, because black Southerners were not listed on local voter rolls, juries were all white across the South. Racial segregation in the U. S. military was ended in 1948 by Executive Order of President Harry S. Truman after World War II, legal racial segregation in the South did not end until after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The American Civil War ended in 1865, marking the start of the Reconstruction era in the eleven former Confederate states, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, starting in 1867, establishing military districts to oversee the affairs of these states pending reconstruction. Southern whites, fearing black domination, resisted the freedmens exercise of political power, in 1867, black men voted for the first time. By the 1868 presidential election, Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia had still not been re-admitted to the Union, General Ulysses S. Grant was elected as president thanks in part to 700,000 black voters. In February 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified, it was designed to protect blacks right to vote from infringement by the states, the insurgent Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1865 in Tennessee and quickly became a powerful secret vigilante group, with chapters across the South. The Klan initiated a campaign of intimidation directed against blacks and sympathetic whites and their violence included vandalism and destruction of property, physical attacks and assassinations, and lynchings

22.
Dixiecrat
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The States Rights Democratic Party was a short-lived segregationist political party in the United States. Supporters assumed control of the state Democratic parties in part or in full in several Southern states, the Party opposed racial integration and wanted to retain Jim Crow laws and white supremacy in the face of possible federal intervention. Its members were referred to as Dixiecrats, a portmanteau of Dixie, referring to the Southern United States, the party did not run local or state candidates, and after the 1948 election its leaders generally returned to the Democratic Party. The Dixiecrats had little impact on politics. However, they did have a long-term impact, the Dixiecrats began the weakening of the Solid South. The term Dixiecrat is sometimes used by Northern Democrats to refer to conservative Southern Democrats from the 1940s to the 1990s, bryan disliked the Klan but never publicly attacked it. In the 1930s a realignment occurred courtesy of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. S, members of the Republican Party, along with many Democrats from the northern United States, supported civil rights legislation that the Deep South Democrats in Congress almost unanimously opposed. When Roosevelt died, the new president Harry Truman established a highly visible Presidents Committee on Civil Rights, a group of Southern governors such as Strom Thurmond of South Carolina and Fielding L. Wright of Mississippi met to consider the place of Southerners within the Democratic Party. In July, the convention re-nominated Truman and adopted a plank proposed by Northern liberals led by Hubert Humphrey calling for civil rights,35 southern delegates walked out, the move was on to remove Trumans name from the ballot in the southern United States. Just days after the 1948 Democratic National Convention, the States Rights Democrats held their own convention at Municipal Auditorium in Birmingham, while several leaders from the Deep South such as Strom Thurmond and James Eastland attended, most major Southern Democrats did not attend the conference. Among those absent were Georgia Senator Richard Russell, Jr. who had finished with the second most delegates in the Democratic presidential ballot, Wright would be the vice presidential nominee. Laney traveled to Birmingham during the convention, but he decided that he did not want to join a third party. Thurmond himself had doubts about a third-party bid, but party organizers convinced him to accept the partys nomination, wrights supporters had hoped that Wright would lead the ticket, but Wright deferred to Thurmond, who had greater national stature. The goal of the party was to win the 127 electoral votes of the Solid South in the hopes of throwing the election to the Representatives, once in the House, the Dixiecrats hoped to throw their support to whichever party would agree to their segregationist demands. Even if the Republicans won a majority of electoral votes. In implementing their strategy, the States Rights Democrats faced a set of state election laws. The States Rights Democrats eventually succeeded in making the Thurmond-Wright ticket the official Democratic ticket in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, in other states, they were forced to run as a third-party ticket. We oppose the elimination of segregation, the repeal of miscegenation statutes and we favor home-rule, local self-government and a minimum interference with individual rights

23.
W. E. B. Du Bois
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William Edward Burghardt W. E. B. Du Bois was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909, Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation and he referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. Racism was the target of Du Boiss polemics, and he strongly protested against lynching, Jim Crow laws. His cause included people of color everywhere, particularly Africans and Asians in colonies and he was a proponent of Pan-Africanism and helped organize several Pan-African Congresses to fight for independence of African colonies from European powers. Du Bois made several trips to Europe, Africa and Asia, after World War I, he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread bigotry in the United States military. Du Bois was a prolific author and he wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology, and he published three autobiographies, each of which contains insightful essays on sociology, politics and history. In his role as editor of the NAACPs journal The Crisis, Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism, and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life. He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament, the United States Civil Rights Act, embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life, was enacted a year after his death. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23,1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to Alfred, Mary Silvina Burghardts family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state. She was descended from Dutch, African and English ancestors, William Du Boiss maternal great-great-grandfather was Tom Burghardt, a slave, who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt. Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and his son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt, who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt. William Du Boiss paternal great-grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie, New York, One of James mixed-race sons was Alexander. He traveled and worked in Haiti, where he fathered a son, Alfred, Alexander returned to Connecticut, leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother. Sometime before 1860, Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States and he married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5,1867, in Housatonic. Alfred left Mary in 1870, two years after their son William was born, Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents house in Great Barrington until he was five. She worked to support her family, until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s, Great Barrington had a majority European American community, who treated Du Bois generally well

24.
Disappearance of Bobby Dunbar
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Bobby Dunbar was an American boy whose disappearance at the age of four and apparent return was widely reported in newspapers across the United States in 1912 and 1913. After an eight-month nationwide search, investigators believed that they had found the child in Mississippi, Dunbars parents claimed the boy as their missing son. However, both Walters and a woman named Julia Anderson insisted that the boy with him was Andersons son, in 2004, DNA profiling established in retrospect that the boy found with Walters and returned to the Dunbars as Bobby had not been a blood relative of the Dunbar family. Bobby Dunbar was the first son born to Lessie and Percy Dunbar of Opelousas, in August 1912, the Dunbars took a fishing trip to nearby Swayze Lake in St. Landry Parish, Louisiana. On August 23, while on that trip, Bobby Dunbar disappeared, Walters claimed that the boy was actually Charles Bruce Anderson, generally referred to as Bruce, the son of a woman who worked for his family. He said that the mother was named Julia Anderson. Nonetheless, Walters was arrested and authorities sent for the Dunbars to come to Mississippi, newspaper accounts differ with regard to the initial reaction between the boy and Lessie Dunbar. Other newspaper accounts quote both the Dunbars as initially stating doubts as to the boys identity, the next day, after bathing the boy, Lessie Dunbar said she positively identified his moles and scars and was then certain that he was her son. The boy returned to Opelousas with the Dunbars to a parade, shortly thereafter, Julia Anderson of North Carolina arrived to support Walterss contention that the boy was, in fact, her son, Bruce. Anderson was unmarried and worked as a hand for Walterss family. According to newspaper accounts, Anderson was presented with five different boys who were of the approximate age as her son. When the boy in question was presented, he gave no indication that he recognized her and she asked whether he was the boy recovered, but was not given an answer and finally declared that she was unsure. Upon seeing the boy again the day, including undressing him. However, word had spread about her failure to positively identify him on the first try. This, combined with the fact that newspapers questioned her moral character in having had three children out of wedlock, led to Andersons claims being dismissed, with no money to sustain a long court battle, Anderson returned home to North Carolina. She later returned to Louisiana for Walterss kidnapping trial to attest to his innocence, at the trial, she became acquainted with the residents of the town of Poplarville, Mississippi, many of whom had also come to proclaim Walterss innocence. Despite their testimony, the reached the determination that the boy was in fact Bobby Dunbar. Walters was convicted of kidnapping, while the boy remained in the custody of the Dunbar family, after the trial, the people of Poplarville welcomed Anderson into their fold and she began a new life there, eventually marrying and having seven children

25.
Colonial history of the United States
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The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502

26.
Exodusters
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Exodusters was a name given to African Americans who migrated from states along the Mississippi River to Kansas in the late nineteenth century, as part of the Exoduster Movement or Exodus of 1879. It was the first general migration of blacks following the Civil War, the movement received substantial organizational support from prominent figures, Benjamin Singleton of Tennessee and Henry Adams of Louisiana. As many as forty thousand Exodusters left the South to settle in Kansas, Oklahoma, vigilantes operated with almost total impunity, and no other issue was of more importance to the majority of southern blacks living in the countryside. Given the extreme level of discrimination and violent intimidation blacks faced in the rural South, although blacks greatly outnumbered whites in Louisiana, black armed resistance was practically inconceivable. According to William Murrell in testimony given to the United States Senate, the Exodusters were not only fleeing extremist groups like the KKK. Most black migration, including the Exodus of 1879, was spurred on by the economic prospects of black labor in the rural South. Most southern states completely undermined federal Reconstruction efforts to promote landowning as the Blacks’ ticket to economic freedom, for example, in 1865 the Mississippi State Black Code actually outlawed the selling or leasing of land to Blacks. As a result, in parts of Mississippi, less than 1 in 100 black workers owned land or a house. Political and economic oppression was enforced by both legal and illegal, on the streets and in contracts, at both the local and federal levels. Grassroots black political activism, exemplified by the leadership of Henry Adams in Louisiana, functioned only in total secrecy, such efforts were eventually pushed out of rural communities and into New Orleans, where many organizers including Adams found themselves exiled. The Exoduster movement has been characterized as an example of millenarianism, in that many exodusters created settlements they believed to be their new, Promised Land. That the journey of these refugees was termed an “exodus, ” a word taken from the Old Testament in reference to the Jews’ flight from Egypt, for this reason, during the post-Reconstruction period, Blacks did not enjoy any truly representative national leadership. Before the Exodus of 1879 to Kansas, southern blacks convened to discuss the option of emigration both formally and informally. Delegates from Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, and Georgia met at a New Orleans conference in 1875 and discussed black emigration to western territories and Liberia. Black settlement outside of the South as a result of emigration was termed “colonization, ”, Council meetings consisted of speechmaking and petition writing and signing, with some 98,000 men, women, and children from Louisiana signed onto emigration lists. Liberia proved an unrealistic destination for Black refugees financially and logistically, as the land of John Brown, Kansas had fought bitterly for its Free State status, and took its fair treatment of black immigrants as a point of pride. Kansas did not actively encourage the Exodusters, rather, its equal opportunity stance was more welcoming in comparison to most of the country, the most successful of the Exodusters were those who moved to urban centers and found work as domestic or trade workers. Almost all of the Exodusters who attempted to homestead in the countryside settled in the Kansas uplands, the uplands were the only lands available for purchase after the squatters, railroads, and speculators had taken the best farmland

27.
Fairfax Line
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The Fairfax Line was a surveyors line run in 1746 to establish the limits of the Northern Neck land grant in colonial Virginia. The land grant, first contrived in 1649, encompassed all lands bounded by the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers, by 1719, the lands had been inherited by Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. By that time the question of the boundaries of the lands had also become highly contentious. In 1745 it was decided that a line between the sources of the North Branch Potomac River and the Rappahannock River would constitute the western limit of Lord Fairfaxs lands, bounded by and within the heads of the Rivers Rappahannock and Patawomecke. The grant actually took force when Charles was restored to the throne in 1660 and it was recorded, at that time, the territory encompassed by the grant had not been explored and was not known. The seven original shares ultimately devolved to Thomas Fairfax, 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who married the only child, thus the Northern Neck grant is commonly referred to as the Fairfax Grant. The Commonwealth of Virginia frequently disputed the boundaries of the Fairfax Grant, the imaginary line between the sources of the Conway River and the North Branch Potomac River is commonly referred to as the Fairfax Line. In 1736 John Savage and his party had located the site of the source of the North Branch Potomac River. Lewiss journal of the expedition provides an account of the extraordinarily difficult terrain of the pre-settlement Allegheny Mountains. The southeastern terminus of the line is the source of the Conway River, the source is on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, near mile marker 55 on the Skyline Drive, where the borders of the Virginia counties of Page, Madison and Greene meet. In the Shenandoah Valley, the line coincides with the boundary of the town of New Market, Virginia. Continuing northwestward, the marks the state boundary between Hardy County, West Virginia and Rockingham County, Virginia, and passes through the city of Petersburg. The northwestern terminus of the line — at the Fairfax Stone — is the source of the North Branch of the Potomac River. The stones location is on the borders of the present West Virginia counties of Preston, Tucker and Grant, the Fairfax Line, Thomas Lewiss Journal of 1746, Footnotes and index by John Wayland, New Market, Virginia, The Henkel Press. History of the Fairfax Line by David Lee Ingram

28.
Family feuds in the United States
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Feuds in the United States deals with the phenomena of historic blood feuding in America. These feuds have been numerous and some became quite vicious, below are listed some of the most notable blood feuds in United States history, most of which occurred in the Old West. Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton were two noted founding fathers as famous for their feud-ending duel as their politics, the trouble began in 1791 when the Democrat-Republican Burr was elected senator for New York, replacing the Federalist, and Hamilton-backed, Philip Schuyler. This began the feud between the two which culminated in the July 11,1804 duel. Hamilton had been fighting against Burr’s campaign for governor of New York, helping to ensure that a rival politician, Morgan Lewis. After several months marked by heated personal correspondence, published accusations, as dueling had been outlawed in the state of New York, the two, along with their seconds, traveled to Weehawken, New Jersey for their final confrontation. Mortally wounded in the abdomen by Burr, Hamilton died the next day, John Early, a supporter of the federal officials then occupying Texas, was an early member of the Texas Home Guard. He was having repeated run-ins with Drew Hasley, a local citizen who had been a staunch Confederacy backer. When Hasley’s son, Samuel, returned from service in the war, he became active in the conflict with Early, when the younger Hasley brought a local outlaw, Jim McRae, into the fight, Early sought federal troop intervention, which was granted. On July 30,1869, McRae was ambushed and killed, dr. Calvin Clark, an Early ally, was gunned down shortly afterward in Arkansas. The Hasley supporters soon disbanded and the feud faded, perhaps the most infamous feud in the history of the U. S. the Hatfield–McCoy conflict is now an icon of American folklore. The Hatfields, of West Virginia, were led by William Anderson Devil Anse Hatfield, the McCoys, of Kentucky, were under the leadership of Randolph Ole Ran’l McCoy. The feud began after the killing of Asa Harmon McCoy, an ex-Union soldier, McCoy died at the hands of a group of Hatfield allies, and Confederate irregulars, who had tracked him to his hiding place. The conflict was renewed thirteen years later when two McCoy family members killed a witness and who had testified against them in a case involving ownership of a stray pig. The simmering feud escalated soon afterward, when Roseanna McCoy began a courtship with Johnson Johnse Hatfield, Roseanna left her family to live with the Hatfields in West Virginia. In 1881, when Johnse abandoned the pregnant Roseanna, marrying her cousin instead, between 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families, becoming headline news around the country. The feud reached its peak during the so-called 1888 New Years Night Massacre, several of the Hatfield gang surrounded the McCoy cabin and opened fire on the sleeping family. The cabin was set on fire in an effort to drive Randolph McCoy into the open and he escaped by making a break, but two of his children were murdered, and his wife was beaten and left for dead

29.
Freedom Riders
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The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did nothing to enforce them. The first Freedom Ride left Washington, D. C. on May 4,1961, Boynton outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines. The ICC failed to enforce its ruling, and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South, the Freedom Riders challenged this status quo by riding interstate buses in the South in mixed racial groups to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating. The Freedom Rides, and the violent reactions they provoked, bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement and they called national attention to the disregard for the federal law and the local violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States. The Congress of Racial Equality sponsored most of the subsequent Freedom Rides, the Supreme Courts decision in Boynton supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances. Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders to be criminal, in some localities, such as Birmingham, Alabama, the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other white people opposing the actions and allowed mobs to attack the riders. Like the Freedom Rides of 1961, the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned discrimination in interstate travel. The first Freedom Ride began on May 4,1961, led by CORE Director James Farmer,13 riders left Washington, DC, on Greyhound and Trailways buses. Their plan was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending in New Orleans, Louisiana, most of the Riders were from CORE, and two were from SNCC. Many were in their 40s and 50s, some were as young as 18. The rest of the team would sit scattered throughout the rest of the bus, one rider would abide by the Souths segregation rules in order to avoid arrest and to contact CORE and arrange bail for those who were arrested. Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, some of the Riders were arrested in Charlotte, North Carolina, Winnsboro, South Carolina, and Jackson, Mississippi. The Birmingham, Alabama, Police Commissioner, Bull Connor, together with Police Sergeant Tom Cook, the pair made plans to bring the Ride to an end in Alabama. They assured Gary Thomas Rowe, an FBI informer and member of Eastview Klavern #13, the plan was to allow an initial assault in Anniston with a final assault taking place in Birmingham. On May 14, Mothers Day, in Anniston, a mob of Klansmen, some still in church attire, the driver tried to leave the station, but was blocked until KKK members slashed its tires. The mob forced the bus to stop several miles outside of town. As the bus burned, the mob held the doors shut, sources disagree, but either an exploding fuel tank or an undercover state investigator brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat, and the riders escaped the bus. The mob beat the riders after they got out, Only warning shots fired into the air by highway patrolmen prevented the riders from being lynched

30.
Great Migration (African American)
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The Great Migration was the movement of 5 million African-Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1915 and 1960. Until 1910, more than 90 percent of the African-American population lived in the American South, in 1900, only one-fifth of African-Americans living in the South were living in urban areas. By 1970, more than 80 percent of African-Americans lived in cities, in sheer numbers it outranks the migration of any other ethnic group—Italians or Irish or Jews or Poles—to. For blacks, the migration meant leaving what had always been their economic and social base in America, some historians differentiate between a first Great Migration, which saw about 1. Since 1965, a migration has gathered strength. Dubbed the New Great Migration, it has seen many African-Americans move to the South, as early as 1975 to 1980, seven southern states were net African-American migration gainers. African-American populations have continued to drop much of the Northeast, especially the state of New York and northern New Jersey. James Gregory calculates decade-by-decade migration volumes in his book, The Southern Diaspora, Black migration picked up from the start of the new century, with 204,000 leaving in the first decade. The pace accelerated with the outbreak of World War I and continued through the 1920s, by 1930, there were 1.3 million former southerners living in other regions. The Great Depression wiped out job opportunities in the industrial belt, especially for African Americans. A second and larger Great Migration began around 1940 as defense industries geared up for World War II. 1.4 million black southerners moved north or west in the 1940s, followed by 1.1 million in the 1950s, by the late 1970s, as deindustrialization and the Rust Belt crisis took hold, the Great Migration came to an end. African-Americans moved from the 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, based on the total populations in each of the four states, only Georgia showed a net decrease in its African American population in 1950 compared to 1920. Louisiana, Texas, Alabama, and Mississippi showed net increases in their African American populations in 1950 compared to 1920, big cities were the principal destinations of southerners throughout the two phases of the Great Migration. In the first phase, eight major cities attracted two-thirds of the migrants, New York and Chicago, followed in order by Philadelphia, St. Louis, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and Indianapolis. The Second great black migration increased the populations of cities while adding others as destinations. Cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Phoenix, Seattle, there were clear migratory patterns that linked particular states and cities in the South to corresponding destinations in the North. Almost half of those who migrated from Mississippi during the first Great Migration, for example, ended up in Chicago, for the most part, these patterns were related to geography, with the closest cities attracting the most migrants

31.
Jonathan Baxter Harrison
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Best known for his realistic depictions of everyday American life, he is acknowledged as an important influence in the development of literary realism. Born in a log cabin in Greene County, Ohio, he showed an eagerness for reading. As a young man, he became a backwoods Methodist minister, in Norton’s papers we see Harrison described as a figure much like Abraham Lincoln, an unaffected frontiersman, at once virtuous and wise. After the war, Harrison became a Unitarian minister and active in Spiritualism and he made the acquaintance of members of Norton’s circle, such as Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect and social critic, and William Dean Howells, the editor of the Atlantic Monthly. At the encouragement of Norton and his friends, Harrison began writing on some of the most important social issues of the day, by 1889 he was a well-known figure among New England journalists and intellectuals, in that year he was awarded an honorary degree by Harvard University. Harrison was recognized by his friends as someone with a unique and his work has an ethnographic feel, particularly his documentation of life in the post-bellum South, based on extensive travels and contact with ordinary people in the everyday business of life. One of his concerns was to show the highly educated cultural elite how the rest of America lived, thought. His work remains today as an important testimony of the conditions of life in the United States of the nineteenth century. ISBN 1-85984-170-8 Fryckstedt, Olov W.1958, in Quest of America, A Study of Howells’ Early Development as a Novelist. 1900. Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University,2001 facsimile reprint by Adamant Media Corporation. The Atlantic Monthly 1857-1909, Yankee Humanism at High Tide and Ebb, ISBN 0-87023-919-8 Turner, James C.1999. The Liberal Education of Charles Eliot Norton, ISBN 0-8018-7108-5 Religious Condition of the West. Radical, A Monthly Magazine, Devoted to Religion,4,189 Methods of Dealing with Social Questions. Pages 249-254 in Institute Essays, read before the Ministers’ Institute, October 1879, Certain Dangerous Tendencies in American Life. October,187842, 385-403 The Nationals, their Origin, november,187842, 521-530 Three Typical Workingmen. January,187943, 59-71 The Career of a Capitalist, february,187943, 129-135 Study of a New England Factory Town. October,187944, 488-500 Certain Dangerous Tendencies in American Life, the Sale of Votes in New Hampshire. November,189347, 149-150 Studies in the South,11,321 The latest studies on Indian reservations

The Confederados (Portuguese pronunciation: [kõfedeˈɾadus]) were some 10,000 to 20,000 Confederate American refugees …

House of the first Confederate family in Americana

Confederate immigrants Joseph Whitaker and Isabel Norris

In 1972, Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter visited Brazil and remarked on the similarity between American Southerners and Confederados, descendants of Confederates who immigrated to Brazil after the Civil War. The youngsters with him are fifth-generation Confederados. The Rev. Ballard S. Dunn (top) of New Orleans led a large contingent of Southerners to Brazil. Flags of Brazil, the Confederacy and the U.S. in a church speak to the descendants' mixed heritage.