Before its conquest in the Nine Years' War of the 1590s, Ulster had been the most Gaelic part of Ireland, a province largely outside English control.[14] The region was underdeveloped by mainland European standards of the time, and it had few towns or villages.[15] Throughout the 16th century, Ulster was viewed by the English as being "underpopulated" and undeveloped.[16] The economy of Gaelic Ulster was overwhelmingly based on agriculture – arable farming and especially cattle-raising. Many of the Gaelic Irish practiced "creaghting" or "booleying", a kind of transhumance whereby some of them moved with their cattle to upland pastures during the summer months and lived in temporary dwellings during that time. This often led outsiders to mistakenly believe that the Gaelic Irish were nomadic.[17] Permanent habitations were uncommon.[18][need quotation to verify]

Michael Perceval-Maxwell estimates that by 1600 (before the worst atrocities of the Nine Years' War) Ulster's total adult population was only 25,000 to 40,000 people.[19] Others estimate that Ulster's population in the year 1600 was about 200,000.[20] The wars fought among Gaelic clans and between the Gaelic and English undoubtedly contributed to depopulation.[21]

The 16th-century English conquest of Ireland was made piece by piece starting in the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547) and only was completed after sustained warfare in the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). During these wars the force of the semi-independent chieftains was broken.[22]

The Nine Years' War of 1594–1603 provided the immediate background to the Plantation. A confederation of northern Gaelic chieftains, led by Hugh O'Neill, resisted the imposition of English government in Ulster. Following an extremely costly series of campaigns by the English, including massacre and use of ruthless scorched earth tactics, the Nine Years' War ended in 1603 with the surrender of Hugh O'Neill's and Hugh O'Donnell's forces at the Treaty of Mellifont.[23] The terms of surrender granted to the rebels were generous, with the principal condition that lands formerly contested by feudal right and Brehon law be held under English law.[24]

The Plantation of Ulster was presented to James I as a joint "British", or English and Scottish, venture to 'pacify' and 'civilise' Ulster, with at least half the settlers to be Scots. James had been King of Scotland before he also became King of England and needed to reward his subjects in Scotland with land in Ulster to assure them they were not being neglected now that he had moved his court to London. In addition, long-standing contact and settlement between Ulster and the west of Scotland meant that Scottish participation was a practical necessity.[26]

The plan for the plantation was determined by two factors. One was the wish to make sure the settlement could not be destroyed by rebellion as the first Munster Plantation had been in the Nine Years' War. This meant that, rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from the Irish, all of the land would be confiscated and then redistributed to create concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons.[28]

What was more, the new landowners were explicitly banned from taking Irish tenants and had to import workers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were to be granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The peasant Irish population was intended to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches. Moreover, the planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman and were required to build defences against any possible rebellion or invasion. The settlement was to be completed within three years. In this way, it was hoped that a defensible new community composed entirely of loyal British subjects would be created.[29]

The second major influence on the Plantation was the negotiation among various interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be "Undertakers", wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. They were granted around 3000 acres (12 km²) each, on condition that they settle a minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking and Protestant. Veterans of the Nine Years' War (known as "Servitors") led by Arthur Chichester successfully lobbied to be rewarded with land grants of their own.[30][31]

Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the twelve great guilds. Livery companies from the City of London were coerced into investing in the project, as were City of London guilds which were granted land on the west bank of the River Foyle, to build their own city on the site of Derry (renamed Londonderry after them) as well as lands in County Coleraine. They were known jointly as The Honourable The Irish Society. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant Church of Ireland, which was granted all the churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic Church. The British government intended that clerics from England and the Pale would convert the native population to Anglicanism.[32]

Scottish settlers had been migrating to Ulster for many centuries. Highland Gaelic Scottish mercenaries known as gallowglass (gallóglaigh) had been doing so since the 15th century and Presbyterian lowland Scots had been arriving since around 1600. From 1606 there was substantial lowland Scots settlement on disinhabited land in north Down, led by Hugh Montgomery and James Hamilton.[2] In 1607 Sir Randall MacDonnell settled 300 Presbyterian Scots families on his land in Antrim.[33]

From 1609 onwards, British Protestant immigrants arrived in Ulster through direct importation by Undertakers to their estates and also by a spread to unpopulated areas, through ports such as Derry and Carrickfergus. In addition there was much internal movement of settlers who did not like the original land allotted to them.[34] Some planters settled on uninhabited and unexploited land, often building up their farms and homes on overgrown terrain that has been variously described as "wilderness" and "virgin" ground.[35]

By 1622, a survey found there were 6,402 British adult males on Plantation lands, of whom 3,100 were English and 3,700 Scottish – indicating a total adult planter population of around 12,000. However another 4,000 Scottish adult males had settled in unplanted Antrim and Down, giving a total settler population of about 19,000.[36]

Despite the fact that the Plantation had decreed that the Irish population be displaced, this did not generally happen in practice. Firstly, some 300 native landowners who had taken the English side in the Nine Years' War were rewarded with land grants.[37] Secondly, the majority of the Gaelic Irish remained in their native areas, but were now only allowed worse land than before the plantation. They usually lived close to and even in the same townlands as the settlers and the land they had farmed previously.[38] The main reason for this was that Undertakers could not import enough English or Scottish tenants to fill their agricultural workforce and had to fall back on Irish tenants.[39] However, in a few heavily populated lowland areas (such as parts of north Armagh) it is likely that some population displacement occurred.[40]

However, the Plantation remained threatened by the attacks of bandits, known as "wood-kern", who were often Irish soldiers or dispossessed landowners. In 1609, Chichester had 1,300 former Gaelic soldiers deported from Ulster to serve in the Swedish Army.[41][42] As a result, military garrisons were established across Ulster and many of the Plantation towns, notably Derry, were fortified. The settlers were also required to maintain arms and attend an annual military 'muster'.[43]

There had been very few towns in Ulster before the Plantation.[44][45] Most modern towns in the province can date their origins back to this period. Plantation towns generally have a single broad main street ending in a square – often known as a "diamond",[46] for example The Diamond, Donegal.

The plantation was a mixed success from the point of view of the settlers. About the time the Plantation of Ulster was planned, the Virginia Plantation at Jamestown in 1607 started. The London guilds planning to fund the Plantation of Ulster switched and backed the London Virginia Company instead. Many British Protestant settlers went to Virginia or New England in America rather than to Ulster.

By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male British settlers in Ulster, which meant that the total settler population could have been as high as 80,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the Finn and Foyle valleys (around modern County Londonderry and east Donegal), in north Armagh and in east Tyrone. Moreover, the unofficial settlements in Antrim and Down were thriving.[47] The settler population grew rapidly, as just under half of the planters were women.

The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism was generally a failure. One problem was language difference. The Protestant clerics imported were usually all monoglot English speakers, whereas the native population were usually monoglot Irish speakers. However, ministers chosen to serve in the plantation were required to take a course in the Irish language before ordination, and nearly 10% of those who took up their preferments spoke it fluently.[48][page needed] Nevertheless, conversion was rare, despite the fact that, after 1621, Gaelic Irish natives could be officially classed as British if they converted to Protestantism.[49] Of those Catholics who did convert to Protestantism, many made their choice for social and political reasons.[50][page needed]

The reaction of the native Irish to the plantation was generally negative. In an entry for the year 1608, the Annals of the Four Masters states that the land was "taken from the Irish" and given "to foreign tribes", and that the Irish chiefs were "banished into other countries where most of them died". Likewise, an early 17th-century poem by the Irish bardLochlann Óg Ó Dálaigh laments the plantation, the displacement of the native Irish, and the decline of Gaelic culture.[51] It asks "Where have the Gaels gone?", adding "We have in their stead an arrogant, impure crowd, of foreigners' blood".[52]

By the 1630s it is suggested that the plantation was settling down with "tacit religious tolerance", and in every county Old Irish were serving as royal officials and members of the Irish Parliament.[53] However, in the 1640s, the Ulster Plantation was thrown into turmoil by civil wars that raged in Ireland, England and Scotland. The wars saw Irish rebellion against the planters, twelve years of bloody war, and ultimately the re-conquest of the province by the English parliamentary New Model Army that confirmed English and Protestant dominance in the province.[54]

After 1630, Scottish migration to Ireland waned for a decade. In the 1630s, Presbyterians in Scotland staged a rebellion against Charles I for trying to impose Anglicanism. The same was attempted in Ireland, where most Scots colonists were Presbyterian. A large number of them returned to Scotland as a result. Charles I subsequently raised an army largely composed of Irish Catholics, and sent them to Ulster in preparation to invade Scotland. The English and Scottish parliaments then threatened to attack this army. In the midst of this, Gaelic Irish landowners in Ulster, led by Felim O'Neill and Rory O'More, planned a rebellion to take over the administration in Ireland.[55]

On 23 October 1641, the Ulster Catholics staged a rebellion. The mobilised natives turned on the British colonists, massacring about 4000 and expelling about 8,000 more. Marianne Elliott believes that "1641 destroyed the Ulster Plantation as a mixed settlement".[56] The initial leader of the rebellion, Felim O'Neill, had actually been a beneficiary of the Plantation land grants. Most of his supporters' families had been dispossessed and were likely motivated by the desire to recover their ancestral lands. Many colonists who survived rushed to the seaports and went back to Great Britain.[57]

The massacres had a devastating and lasting impact on the Ulster Protestant population. A.T.Q. Stewart states that "The fear which it inspired survives in the Protestant subconscious as the memory of the Penal Laws or the Famine persists in the Catholic."[58] He also believed that "Here, if anywhere, the mentality of siege was born, as the warning bonfires blazed from hilltop to hilltop, and the beating drums summoned men to the defence of castles and walled towns crowded with refugees."[59]

In the summer of 1642, the Scottish Parliament sent some 10,000 soldiers to quell the Irish rebellion. In revenge for the massacres of Scottish colonists, the army committed many atrocities against the Catholic population. Based in Carrickfergus, the Scottish army fought against the rebels until 1650. In the northwest of Ulster, the colonists around Derry and east Donegal organised the 'Laggan Army' in self-defence. The British forces fought an inconclusive war with the Ulster Irish led by Owen Roe O'Neill. All sides committed atrocities against civilians in this war, exacerbating the population displacement begun by the Plantation.[60]

In addition to fighting the Ulster Irish, the British settlers fought each other in 1648–49 over the issues of the English Civil War. The Scottish Presbyterian army sided with the King and the Laggan Army sided with the English Parliament. In 1649–50, the New Model Army, along with some of the British colonists under Charles Coote, defeated both the Scottish forces and the Ulster Irish.[61]

As a result, the English Parliamentarians or Cromwellians (after Oliver Cromwell) were generally hostile to Scottish Presbyterians after they re-conquered Ireland from the Catholic Confederates in 1649–53. The main beneficiaries of the postwar Cromwellian settlement were English Protestants like Sir Charles Coote, who had taken the Parliament's side over the King or the Scottish Presbyterians. The Wars eliminated the last major Catholic landowners in Ulster.[62]

Most of the Scottish planters came from southwest Scotland, but many also came from the unstable regions along the border with England. The plan was that moving Borderers (see Border Reivers) to Ireland (particularly to County Fermanagh)[citation needed] would both solve the Border problem and tie down Ulster. This was of particular concern to James VI of Scotland when he became King of England, since he knew Scottish instability could jeopardise his chances of ruling both kingdoms effectively.

Another wave of Scottish immigration to Ulster took place in the 1690s, when tens of thousands of Scots fled a famine (1696–1698) in the border region of Scotland. It was at this point that Scottish Presbyterians became the majority community in the province. Whereas in the 1660s, they made up some 20% of Ulster's population (though 60% of its British population) by 1720 they were an absolute majority in Ulster.[63]

Despite the fact that Scottish Presbyterians strongly supported the Williamites in the Williamite war in Ireland in the 1690s, they were excluded from power in the postwar settlement by the AnglicanProtestant Ascendancy. During the 18th century, rising Scots resentment over religious, political and economic issues fueled their emigration to the American colonies, beginning in 1717 and continuing up to the 1770s. Scots-Irish from Ulster and Scotland, and British from the borders region comprised the most numerous group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland to the colonies in the years before the American Revolution. An estimated 150,000 left northern Ireland. They settled first mostly in Pennsylvania and western Virginia, from where they moved southwest into the backcountry of upland territories in the South, the Ozarks and the Appalachian Mountains.[64]

The legacy of the Plantation remains disputed. According to one interpretation, it created a society segregated between native Catholics and settler Protestants in Ulster and created a Protestant and British concentration in north east Ireland. This argument therefore sees the Plantation as one of the long-term causes of the Partition of Ireland in 1921, as the north-east remained as part of the United Kingdom in Northern Ireland.

However the densest Protestant settlement took place in the eastern counties of Antrim and Down, which were not part of the Plantation, whereas Donegal, in the west, was planted but did not become part of Northern Ireland.[65]

Therefore, it is also argued that the Plantation itself was less important in the distinctiveness of the North East of Ireland than natural population flow between Ulster and Scotland. A.T.Q. Stewart concluded, "The distinctive Ulster-Scottish culture, isolated from the mainstream of Catholic and Gaelic culture, would appear to have been created not by the specific and artificial plantation of the early seventeenth century, but by the continuous natural influx of Scottish settlers both before and after that episode..."[66]

The Plantation of Ulster is also widely seen as the origin of mutually antagonistic Catholic/Irish and Protestant/British identities in Ulster. Richard English has written that, "not all of those of British background in Ireland owe their Irish residence to the Plantations... yet the Plantation did produce a large British/English interest in Ireland, a significant body of Irish Protestants who were tied through religion and politics to English power."[67]

However, going on surnames, others have concluded that Protestant and Catholic are poor guides to whether people's ancestors were settlers or natives of Ulster in the 17th century.[68]

The settlers also left a legacy in terms of language. The Ulster Scots dialect originated through the speech of lowland Scots settlers evolving and being influenced by both Hiberno-English and Irish Gaelic.[69] Seventeenth century English settlers also contributed dialect words that are still in current use in Ulster.[70]

^ abDonald MacRaild; Malcolm Smith (2013). "Chapter 9: Migration and Emmigration, 1600–1945". In Liam Kennedy; Philip Ollerenshaw. Ulster Since 1600: Politics, Economy, and Society. Oxford University Press. p. 142. Advisors to King James VI/I, notably Arthur Chichester, Lord Deputy from 1604, and Sir John Davies, the lawyer, favoured the plantation as a definitive response to the challenges of ruling Ireland. [...] Undertakers, servitors and natives were granted large blocks of land as long as they planted English-speaking Protestants

^According to the Lord Deputy Chichester, the plantation would 'separate the Irish by themselves...[so they would], in heart in tongue and every way else become English', Padraig Lenihan, Consolidating Conquest, Ireland, 1603–1727, p43,

^Jonathan Bardon. The Plantation of Ulster. Gill & Macmillan. p. 214. ISBN978-0-7171-4738-0. To King James the Plantation of Ulster would be a civilising enterprise which would 'establish the true religion of Christ among men...almost lost in superstition'. In short, he intended his grandiose scheme would bring the enlightenment of the Reformation to one of the most remote and benighted provinces in his kingdom. Yet some of the most determined planters were, in fact, Catholics.

^Ellis, Steven (2014). The Making of the British Isles: The State of Britain and Ireland, 1450-1660. Routledge. p. 296.

^Jonathan Bardon. The Plantation of Ulster. Gill & Macmillan. pp. ix, x. ISBN978-0-7171-4738-0. Many will be surprised that three amongst the most energetic planeters were Catholics. Sir Randall MacDonell, Earl of Antrim... George Tuchet, 18th Baron Audley... Sir George Hamilton of Greenlaw, together with his relatives...made his well-managed estate in the Strabane area a haven for Scottish Catholics

^Jonathan Bardon. The Plantation of Ulster. Gill & Macmillan. p. 214. ISBN978-0-7171-4738-0. The result was that over the ensuing decades many Catholic Scots...were persuaded to settle in this part of Tyrone [Strabane]

^Jonathan Bardon. The Plantation of Ulster. Gill & Macmillan. ISBN978-0-7171-4738-0. The economy was overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture. [...] The English consistently underestimated the importance of arable farming in Gaelic Ulster, but there is no doubt that cattle raising was the basis of the rural economy. [...] This form of transhumance, known as 'booleying', often led outsiders to conclude mistakenly that the Gaelic Irish lived a nomadic existence.

^A.T.Q. Stewart: The Narrow Ground: The Roots of Conflict in Ulster. pp 40–41. Dr. Raymond Gillespie. “Reaction of the Natives”, BBC. J. Bardon: A History of Ulster. pp 178, 314. M. Perceval-Maxwell: The Scottish Migration to Ulster in the Reign of James 1. pp 29, 132. C.A. Hanna: The Scotch-Irish: Or, The Scot in North Britain, North Ireland, and North America. p 182. Cyril Falls: The Birth of Ulster. p 201.

^"[J]ust in general terms, it could be pointed out that although surnames are often a guide to our ancestors, they should not always be taken as such... There is more cross breeding in Ulster's history than people imagined. For example, it is often stated that Ken Maginnis surname is closer to original Irish than Martin McGuinness. Another good example is Terence O'Neill former Prime Minister of NI, who is descended from the famous O'Neill clan in Ulster." !Interview with Dr. John McCavitt, "Ulster Plantation", Talk: Northern Ireland, BBC, accessed 17 Feb 2009

1.
Ulster
–
Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland

2.
Irish language
–
Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish

3.
Ulster Scots dialects
–
Ulster Scots or Ulster-Scots, also known as Ullans, generally refers to the dialects of Scots spoken in parts of Ulster in Ireland. Some definitions of Ulster Scots may also include Standard English spoken with an Ulster Scots accent and this is a situation like that of Lowland Scots and Scottish Standard English with words pronounced using the Ulster Scots phonemes closest to those of Standard English. Ulster Scots has been influenced by Hiberno-English, particularly Mid-Ulster English, as a result of the competing influences of English and Scots, varieties of Ulster Scots can be described as more English or more Scots. The earliest Scots writing in Ulster dates from time, and until the late 20th century. While once referred to as Scotch-Irish by several researchers, that has now superseded by the term Ulster Scots. Speakers usually refer to their vernacular as Braid Scots, Scotch or the hamely tongue, occasionally, the term Hiberno-Scots is used, but it is usually used for the ethnic group rather than the vernacular. During the middle of the 20th century, the linguist R. J. Gregg established the boundaries of Ulsters Scots-speaking areas based on information gathered from native speakers. Ulster Scots is spoken in east Antrim, north Down, north-east County Londonderry and it is also spoken in the Laggan district and parts of the Finn Valley in east Donegal and in the south of Inishowen in north Donegal. Other estimates range from 35,000 in Northern Ireland, to a total of 100,000 including the Republic of Ireland. In the 2011 census of Northern Ireland,16,373 people stated that they can speak, read, write and understand Ulster Scots and 140,204 people reported having some ability in Ulster Scots. Enthusiasts such as Philip Robinson, the Ulster-Scots Language Society and supporters of an Ulster-Scots Academy are of the opinion that Ulster Scots is a language in its own right. That position has been criticised by the Ulster-Scots Agency, a BBC report stating, other linguists treat it as a variety of the Scots language, Caroline Macafee, for example, writes that Ulster Scots is clearly a dialect of Central Scots. The Concise Ulster Dictionary writes that Ulster Scots is one dialect of Lowland Scots, the Northern Ireland Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure considers Ulster Scots to be the local variety of the Scots language. It has been said that its status varies between dialect and language, the North/South Co-operation Northern Ireland Order 1999, which gave effect to the implementation bodies incorporated the text of the agreement in its Schedule 1. The Good Friday Agreement recognises Ulster Scots as part of the wealth of the island of Ireland. This reflects the wording used in the St Andrews Agreement to refer to the enhancement and development of the Ulster Scots language, heritage, there is still controversy on the status of Ulster Scots. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, literature from shortly before the end of the unselfconscious tradition at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries is almost identical with contemporary writing from Scotland. W. G. Lyttle, writing in Paddy McQuillans Trip Tae Glesco, uses the typically Scots forms kent and begood, now replaced in Ulster by the more mainstream Anglic forms knew, knowed or knawed and begun

4.
Colonisation
–
Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means to inhabit, Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed a majority of the population. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand and these colonies were occasionally called neo-Europes. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, who were dominant in their places of settlement. When Britain started to settle Australia, New Zealand and various smaller islands. Terra nullius meaning empty land in Latin, due to the absence of European farming techniques, the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited, despite the presence of indigenous populations. In the 19th century, laws and ideas such as Mexicos General Colonization Law, in ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia often established colonies to farm what they believed was uninhabited land. Land suitable for farming was often occupied by migratory barbarian tribes who lived by hunting and gathering, to ancient Greeks and Phoenicians, these lands were regarded as simply vacant. However, this did not mean that conflict did not exist between the colonizers and local/native peoples, Greeks and Phoenicians also established colonies with the intent of regulating and expanding trade throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Another period of colonization in ancient times was during the Roman Empire, the Roman Empire conquered large parts of Western Europe, North Africa and West Asia. In North Africa and West Asia, the Romans often conquered what they regarded as civilized peoples, as they moved north into Europe, they mostly encountered rural peoples/tribes with very little in the way of cities. In these areas, waves of Roman colonization often followed the conquest of the areas, the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. During this period there were the movements of peoples establishing new colonies all over western Europe. The events of time saw the development of many of the modern day nations of Europe like the Franks in France and Germany. In West Asia, during Sassanid Empire, some Persians established colonies in Yemen, the Vikings of Scandinavia also carried out a large-scale colonization. The Vikings are best known as raiders, setting out from their homelands in Denmark, southern Norway and southern Sweden. In time, the Vikings began trading, and established colonies, the Vikings discovered Iceland and established colonies before moving onto Greenland, where they briefly held some colonies

5.
Plantation (settlement or colony)
–
Plantation was an early method of colonization where settlers went in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base, for example for planting tobacco or cotton. Such plantations were also intended to promote Western culture and Christianity among nearby indigenous peoples. Although the term planter to refer to a settler first appears as early as the 16th-century, the term plantation was applied to the large farms that were the economical basis of many of the 17th-century American colonies. The peak of the economy in the Caribbean was in the 18th century. Most of that time Britain prospered as the top slaving nation in the Atlantic world, more than 2,500,000 slaves were transported to the Caribbean plantations between 1690 and 1807. In 1789 the French colony of Saint-Domingue, producer of 40 percent of the sugar, was the most valuable colony on earth. Slaves outnumbered whites and free people of color by at least eight to one, but provided all of the manual labor. Slave labor made sugar production profitable, importing sugar to Great Britain resulted in a dramatic change in the eating habits of Britons, one of the greatest in human history. In 1700, Britons used an average of four pounds of sugar a year, the Plantations of Ireland were an instrument of retribution and colonization after several Irish rebellions against English rule throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The largest settlement, the Plantation of Ulster in the part of the island, was established following the rebellion of Hugh Roe ODonnell. The plantations were seen as part of process that would Anglicise Ireland, lands were seized from the native landowners both as punishment for rebellion and as punishment for remaining Catholic rather than conforming to the established church. These lands were given to English Protestant settlers who would be loyal to the Crown, during the Middle Ages, the Scottish government planted Scots-speaking lowland merchant colonies in the Gàidhealtachd, for example at Campbeltown and Cromarty. Jamestown, Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in North America, during the 17th century, the Chesapeake Bay area was immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation. Ships annually hauled 1.5 million pounds of tobacco out to the Bay by the 1630s, farmers responded to falling prices by growing even more tobacco. The labor supply from Africa was expensive, in the 17th century, farmers relied on indentured servants for labor. To encourage settlement of the colonies, the Crown granted land to colonists who paid for workers, the planters replaced tobacco with other crops after the soils became exhausted in the coastal areas. Cotton was produced on plantations on the Sea Islands off South Carolina, settlers poured into what became known as the Deep South, putting pressure on the federal government to remove the Native American tribes from the Southeast. Cotton was king, and worldwide demand for American cotton resulted in growing wealth among planters in the South, European colonists did not regard the land as belonging to the tens of thousands of Native Americans who occupied it, because their patterns of use were so different

6.
Provinces of Ireland
–
Ireland has historically been divided into four provinces, Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. The provinces of Ireland serve no administrative or political purposes, a king of over-kings, a rí ruirech was often a provincial or semi-provincial king to whom several ruiri were subordinate. Entities belonging to the 1st and 2nd millennia are listed and these do not all belong to the same periods. Over the centuries, the number of provincial kings varied between three and six, no more than six genuine rí ruirech were ever contemporary, with the average being three or four. Also, following the Norman invasion, the situation became more condensed and complicated than previously. The Norman invasion began in 1169, and the Normans went on to occupy Ireland until 1541, in the early Irish annals these five ancient political divisions were referred to as cúigí such as the fifth of Munster, the fifth of Ulster and so on. Later record-makers dubbed them provinces, in imitation of the Roman imperial provinciae, in modern times they have become associated with groups of counties, although they have no legal status. The provinces were supplanted by the present system of counties after the Norman invasion, during the Tudor conquest, and for about a century after, provincial Presidencies existed in Connacht and Munster, serving a primarily military role. Six of the nine Ulster counties form modern-day Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is sometimes called a province of the United Kingdom. These two inconsistent usages of the province can cause confusion. This dinnseanchas poem named Ard Ruide poetically describes the kingdoms of Ireland, Munster in the south is the kingdom of music and the arts, of harpers, of skilled ficheall players and of skilled horsemen. The fairs of Munster were the greatest in all Ireland, the last kingdom, Meath, is the kingdom of Kingship, of stewardship, of bounty in government, in Meath lies the Hill of Tara, the traditional seat of the High King of Ireland. The ancient earthwork of Tara is called Rath na Ríthe

7.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time

8.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination

9.
James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle

10.
Kingdom of Scotland
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The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown

11.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly

12.
Gaelic Ireland
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Gaelic Ireland was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole island, thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time. For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. Warfare between these territories was common, occasionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland. Society was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe, was structured according to class. Throughout this period, the economy was mainly pastoral and money not used. A Gaelic Irish style of dress, music, dance, sport, architecture, Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture. Inscription in the alphabet began in the protohistoric period, perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of literature, and much of Irelands rich pre-Christian mythology and sophisticated law code were preserved, in the Early Middle Ages, Ireland was an important centre of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe, and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain, in the 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Irelands coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels, after the Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory – the Lordship of Ireland –, however, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to a known as the Pale and, outside this. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship a Kingdom, the English then began to conquer the island. By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end, Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history, later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland, hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important

13.
Flight of the Earls
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They retained their lands and titles, although with much diminished extent and authority. However, the countryside was laid bare in a campaign of destruction in 1602, ONeill was pardoned under the terms of the Treaty of Mellifont in March 1603 and submitted to the crown. When King James I took the throne in 1603 he quickly proceeded to issue pardons for the Irish lords, as king of Scotland he had a better understanding of the advantages from working with local chiefs in the Scottish Highlands. This was not a new policy but was a well-understood and longstanding practice in the Tudor conquest of Ireland, on 10 September 1602 the Prince of Tyrconnell had already died, allegedly assassinated, in Spain, and his brother succeeded him as 25th Chieftain of the ODonnell clan. He was later granted the Earldom of Tyrconnell by King James I on 4 September 1603, the Ó Catháins had formerly been important subjects of the ONeills and required protection, in turn, Chichester wanted to reduce ONeills authority. An option was to charge ONeill with treason if he did not comply with the new arrangements, the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot in the same year made it harder for Catholics to appear loyal to both the crown and the papacy. As the Dublin administration sided with O Cathain, ONeill was invited by King James to make his case in 1607 to the Privy Council in London, by 1607 ONeills allies The Maguire and the Earl of Tyrconnell were finding it hard to maintain their prestige on lower incomes. They planned to seek Spanish support before news of the Battle of Gibraltar arrived, when their ship dropped anchor, ONeill seems to have joined them on impulse. Fearing arrest, they chose to flee to the Continent, where they hoped to recruit an army for the invasion of Ireland with Spanish help, however, earlier in 1607 a Spanish fleet had been destroyed by the Dutch in the Battle of Gibraltar. Also as the Anglo-Spanish War had ended in 1604, King Philip III of Spain wanted to preserve the recent peace with England under its new Stuart dynasty, as a part of the peace proposals, a Spanish princess was to marry James son Henry, though this never transpired. Tyrone ignored all these realities, remained in Italy, and persisted with his plan until his death in exile in 1616. The earls left from the town of Rathmullan with some of the leading Gaelic families in Ulster and their departure was the end of the old Gaelic order, in the sense that the earls were descended from Gaelic clan dynasties that had ruled their parts of Ulster for centuries. The Flight of the Earls was a watershed in Irish history, the Earls set sail from Rathmullan, a village on the shore of Lough Swilly in County Donegal, accompanied by ninety followers, many of them Ulster noblemen, and some members of their families. Several left their wives behind, hoping either to return or retrieve them later and they finally reached the Continent on 4 October 1607. The act was significant as the date of the exile from Rathmullan was the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. This supposed relic of the True Cross was probably a relic taken from that kept at Holy Cross Abbey. Their destination was Spain, but they disembarked in France, the party proceeded overland to Spanish Flanders, some remaining in Leuven, while the main party continued to Italy. They planned to return to Ireland and campaign for the recovery of their lands, with the support of Spain, tadhg Ó Cianáin subsequently described the journey in great detail

14.
Nine Years' War (Ireland)
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The Nine Years War or Tyrones Rebellion took place in Ireland from 1594 to 1603. It was fought between the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains Hugh ONeill of Tír Eoghain, Hugh Roe ODonnell of Tír Chonaill and their allies, the war was fought in all parts of the country, but mainly in the northern province of Ulster. It ended in defeat for the Irish chieftains, which led to their exile in the Flight of the Earls, the war against ONeill and his allies was the largest conflict fought by England in the Elizabethan era. At the height of the more than 18,000 soldiers were fighting in the English army in Ireland. By contrast, the English army assisting the Dutch during the Eighty Years War was never more than 12,000 strong at any one time. The Nine Years War was caused by the clashes between the Gaelic Irish chieftain Hugh ONeill and the advance of the English state in Ireland, from control over the Pale to ruling the whole island. In resisting this advance, ONeill managed to rally other Irish septs who were dissatisfied with English government, Hugh ONeill came from the powerful Ó Néill clan of Tyrone, which dominated the centre of the northern province of Ulster3. His father, Matthew ONeill, Baron Dungannon, was the son of Conn ONeill the Lame. Matthew ONeill was killed, and Seán An Díomais Ó Néill banished the child Hugh ONeill from Ulster, the Hovenden family brought Hugh up in the Pale, and the English authorities sponsored him as a reliable lord. In 1587 Hugh ONeill persuaded Queen Elizabeth I to make him Earl of Tyrone, the English title his grandfather had held. However, the power in Ulster lay not in the legal title of Earl of Tyrone. This position commanded the obedience of all the ONeills and their dependents in central Ulster, in 1595, after much bloodshed, from Hugh Roe ODonnell, his ally, Hugh ONeill enlisted Scottish mercenaries. Within his own territories, ONeill was entitled to limited service from his sub-lords or uirithe. He also pressed his tenants and dependants into military service and tied the peasantry to the land to increase food production, in addition, he hired large contingents of Irish mercenaries under leaders such as Richard Tyrell. To arm his soldiers, ONeill bought muskets, ammunition and pikes from Scotland and England, from 1591, ODonnell, on ONeills behalf, had been in contact with Philip II of Spain, appealing for military aid against their common enemy and citing also their shared Catholicism. With the aid of Spain, ONeill could arm and feed over 8,000 men, unprecedented for a Gaelic lord, and so was well prepared to resist any further English attempts to govern Ulster. By the early 1590s, the north of Ireland was attracting the attention of Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam, there was an outcry, with several sources alleging corruption against Fitzwilliam, but the same policy was soon applied in Longford and East Breifne. Any attempt to further the same in the ONeill and ODonnell territories was bound to be resisted by force of arms, the most significant difficulty for English forces in confronting ONeill lay in the natural defences that Ulster enjoyed

15.
Irish acre
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Irish measure or plantation measure was a system of units of land measurement used in Ireland from the 16th century plantations until the 19th century, with residual use into the 20th century. The units were based on English measure but used a linear perch measuring 7 yards as opposed to the English rod of 5.5 yards. Imperial measure soon replaced Irish measure in the use of the Dublin Castle administration, but Irish measure persisted in local government, a third system, Scotch measure or Cunningham measure, was also used in Ulster Scots areas. The Irish mile as latterly defined measured exactly 8 Irish furlongs,320 Irish perches, or 2240 yards, during the Elizabethan era,4 Irish miles were generally equated to 5 English ones although whether this meant the old English mile or the shorter statute mile is unclear. The 21-foot perch was in use by the time of William Petty, however, a 1715 statute of the Parliament of Ireland defines the fare for ferries in terms of common Irish miles, at one English mile and an half or twelve furlongs at least to each mile. Under British rule, the Irish mile was not always used, the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, from its establishment in 1824, used English miles. Thomas Telfords Howth–Dublin Post Office extension of the London–Holyhead turnpike had its mileposts in English miles, Irish measure was formally abolished by the 1824 Weights and Measures Act but the Irish Post Office continued to use the measure until 1856. Several post-1824 statutes used Irish miles, One was the Lighting of Towns Act,1828, which allowed those residing within one Irish mile of a town market to vote on whether to establish town commissioners. Another was the Parliamentary Boundaries Act,1832 which defined the radius of the borough of Sligo as One Mile, Irish Admeasurement. The Market Cross, the same as the established for local taxation purposes in 1803. Prior to the publication of standardised traffic regulations by the Irish Free State in 1926, signage varied from county to county, the 1909 Thorough Guide said, The Railway Companies adopt English miles. The car proprietors are apt to be elastic in their choice, the Counties of Dublin, Waterford, Cork, Antrim, and Armagh use English milestones, Donegal uses Irish only, and the other counties either have both or a mixture. Metal milestones, however, show English, and stone ones Irish, the Oxford English Dictionary’s 1906 definition of mile described the Irish mile as still in rustic use. The Irish Free State standardised its roads using English statute miles, in 1965, two deputies proposed an amendment to the Road Transport Act to replace the English statute miles with Irish ones, it was rejected. Two-Mile Borris, County Tipperary is two Irish miles from Leighmore, site of a medieval monastery, threemilehouse, County Monaghan is three Irish miles from Monaghan town. Fivemiletown, County Tyrone is five Irish miles equidistant from Clogher, Brookeborough, sixmilebridge, County Clare is six Irish miles from Thomondgate, Limerick. Sixmilecross, County Tyrone is six Irish miles from Omagh, the name of Six Mile Water, County Antrim is said to derive from the crossing point six Irish miles from Antrim town on the road to Carrickfergus. The Irish acre or plantation acre measured one Irish chain by one Irish furlong, or 4 Irish perches by 40, or 7840 square yards, approximately 0.66 hectares or 1.62 statute acres

16.
Arable land
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Arable land is, according to one definition, land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. In Britain, it was contrasted with pasturable lands such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing. A quite different kind of definition is used by various agencies concerned with agriculture, the abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for ‘Arable land’ are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable, a briefer definition appearing in the Eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual, rather than potential use, land worked regularly, generally under a system of crop rotation. According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations the worlds Arable land amounted to 1,407 M ha, out of a total 4,924 M ha land used for agriculture, as for year 2013. Agricultural land that is not arable according to the FAO definition above includes, Permanent crop - land that produces crops from woody vegetation, other non-arable land includes land unsuitable for any agricultural use. Although such limitations may preclude cultivation, and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use, for example, US NRCS statistics indicate that about 59 percent of US non-federal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation, yet such land has value for grazing of livestock. Similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere, land incapable of being cultivated for production of crops can sometimes be converted to arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can reduce starvation and this outcome also makes a country more self-sufficient and politically independent, because food importation is reduced. This process is extremely expensive. An alternative is the Seawater Greenhouse which desalinates water through evaporation and condensation using solar energy as the energy input. This technology is optimized to grow crops on land close to the sea. The people covered the islands with a layer of seaweed. Israel, The construction of desalination plants along Israels coast allowed agriculture in areas that were formerly desert. The desalination plants, which remove the salt from water, have created a new source of water for farming, drinking. Slash and burn agriculture uses nutrients in wood ash, but these expire within a few years, terra preta, fertile tropical soils created by adding charcoal. Some examples of fertile land being turned into infertile land are. Rainforest deforestation, The fertile tropical forests are converted into infertile desert land, for example, Madagascars central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren, as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives

17.
County Armagh
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County Armagh is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland and one of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island. Adjoined to the shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 1,326 km² and has a population of about 174,792. It is within the province of Ulster. County Armagh is known as the Orchard County because of its apple orchards. The name Armagh derives from the Irish word Ard meaning height and Macha, together meaning height, the River Blackwater marks the border with County Tyrone and Lough Neagh otherwise marks out the Countys northern boundary. There are also a number of uninhabited islands in the section of Lough Neagh, Coney Island Flat, Croaghan Flat, Padian, Phil Roes Flat. Despite lying in the east of Ireland, Armagh enjoys a climate strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream with damp mild winters. Overall temperatures rarely drop below freezing during daylight hours, though frost is not infrequent in the months November to February, snow rarely lies for longer than a few hours even in the elevated south-east of the County. Summers are mild and wet and although with sunshine often interspersed with showers, ancient Armagh was the territory of the Ulaid before the fourth century AD. It was ruled by the Red Branch, whose capital was Emain Macha near Armagh, the site, and subsequently the city, were named after the goddess Macha. The Red Branch play an important role in the Ulster Cycle, however, they were eventually driven out of the area by the Three Collas, who invaded in the 4th century and held power until the 12th. The Clan Colla ruled the known as Airghialla or Oriel for these 800 years. The chief Irish septs of the county were descendants of the Collas, the OHanlons and MacCanns, and the Uí Néill, Oneilland East was the territory of the OGarveys, who were also displaced by the MacCanns. Oneilland West, like Oneilland East, was once ONeill territory, until it was held by the MacCanns. Upper and Lower Orior were OHanlon territory, miscellaneous tracts of land were ruled by OKelaghan. The area around the base of Slieve Guillion near Newry also became home to a number of the McGuinness clan as they were dispossessed of hereditary lands held in the County Down. Armagh was the seat of St. Patrick, and the Catholic Church continues to be his see, County Armagh is presently one of four counties of Northern Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Catholic background, according to the 2011 census. South Armagh is predominantly nationalist, with most of the population being opposed to any form of British presence, see Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade for further information

18.
County Cavan
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County Cavan is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Ulster and is part of the Border Region and it is named after the town of Cavan and is based on the historic Gaelic territory of East Breffny. Cavan County Council is the authority for the county, which has a population of 76,092 according to the 2016 census. Cavan borders six counties, Leitrim to the west, Fermanagh and Monaghan to the north, Meath to the south-east, Longford to the south-west, Cavan shares a 70 km border with County Fermanagh in Northern Ireland. Cavan is the 19th largest of the 32 counties in area and it is also the sixth largest of Ulsters nine counties in size and the seventh largest by population. There are eight historic baronies in the county, while baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for many administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, the county is characterised by drumlin countryside dotted with many lakes and hills. The north-western area of the county is sparsely populated and mountainous, the Breifne mountains contain the highest point, Cuilcagh, at 665 metres. Cavan is the source of many rivers, Shannon Pot on the slopes of Cuilcagh is the source of the River Shannon, the longest river in Ireland at 386 km. The River Erne is a river which rises from Beaghy Lough. The Glyde and the Owenroe also source in Cavan, Cavan is known as The Lakeland County and is reputed to contain 365 lakes. At 18.8 km2, Lough Sheelin is the countys largest lake, it is situated in the south of the county, a large complex of lakes form in the north and west of Cavan into designated Specially Protected Areas, an example is Lough Oughter. Other important wildlife protected lakes such as Lough Gowna and Lough Ramor are in the south, Cavan has a mainly hilly landscape and contains just under 7,000 hectares of forested area,3. 6% of Cavans total land area. The county contains forests such as Bellamont Forest near Cootehill, Killykeen Forest Park at Lough Oughter, Dún na Rí Forest Park, met Éireann records the climate data for Cavan from their station at Ballyhaise. Under Köppen climate classification, Cavan experiences a temperate oceanic climate with cold winters, mild humid summers. The average maximum January temperature is 8.2 °C, while the average maximum July temperature is 19.8 °C. On average, the sunniest months are May and June, while the wettest month is October with 104.4 mm of rain, in 2010, record low temperatures for November, December and January were recorded in Cavan. In late December, the temperature at the fell to −15.4 °C

19.
County Tyrone
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County Tyrone is one of the six historic counties of Northern Ireland. It is also one of the traditional counties of Ireland. It is no used as an administrative division for local government. Adjoined to the south-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,155 km² and has a population of about 177,986, with its county town being Omagh. The name Tyrone is derived from Irish Tír Eoghain, meaning land of Eoghan, historically, it was anglicised as Tirowen or Tyrowen, which are closer to the Irish pronunciation. Historically Tyrone stretched as far north as Lough Foyle, and comprised part of modern-day County Londonderry east of the River Foyle. The majority of County Londonderry was carved out of Tyrone between 1610–1620 when that went to the Guilds of London to set up profit making schemes based on natural resources located there. Tyrone was the stronghold of the various ONeill clans and families. In 1608 during ODohertys Rebellion areas of the country were plundered, however, ODohertys men avoided the estates of the recently fled Earl of Tyrone around Dungannon, fearing Tyrones anger if he returned from his exile. With an area of 3,155 square kilometres, Tyrone is the largest county in Northern Ireland, the length of the county, from the mouth of the River Blackwater at Lough Neagh to the western point near Carrickaduff hill is 55 miles. The breadth, from the corner, southeast of Fivemiletown, to the northeastern corner near Meenard Mountain is 37.5 miles. Annaghone lays claim to be the centre of Northern Ireland. Tyrone is connected by land to the county of Fermanagh to the southwest, Monaghan to the south, Armagh to the southeast, Londonderry to the north, across Lough Neagh to the east, it borders County Antrim. It is the eighth largest of Irelands thirty-two counties by area and it is the second largest of Ulsters nine traditional counties by area and fourth largest by population. It is one of four counties in Northern Ireland which currently has a majority of the population from a Catholic community background, in 1900 County Tyrone had a population of 197,719, while in 2011 it was 177,986. The major sports in Tyrone are Gaelic games, association football, Gaelic football is the most popular sport in the county with Gaelic football being more widely played than hurling. The Tyrone GAA football side has had success since 2000. They have also won fourteen Ulster titles and two National League titles, association football also has a large following

20.
County Donegal
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County Donegal is a county of Ireland. It is part of the Border Region of the Republic of Ireland and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Donegal in the south of the county. Donegal County Council is the council for the county and Lifford serves as the county town. The population of the county is 158,755 according to the 2016 census and it has also been known as Tyrconnell, after the historic territory of the same name. In terms of size and area, it is the largest county in Ulster, uniquely, County Donegal shares a small border with only one other county in the Republic of Ireland – County Leitrim. The greater part of its border is shared with three counties of Northern Ireland, County Londonderry, County Tyrone and County Fermanagh. While Lifford is the county town, Letterkenny is by far the largest town in the county with a population of 19,588, Letterkenny and the nearby city of Derry form the main economic axis of the northwest of Ireland. Indeed, what became the City of Derry was officially part of County Donegal up until 1610, there are two Gaeltacht districts in the west, The Rosses, centred on the town of Dungloe, and Gweedore. Another Gaeltacht district is located in the north-west, Cloughaneely, centred on the town of Falcarragh, the most northerly part of the island of Ireland is the location for three peninsulas of outstanding natural beauty, Inishowen, Fanad and Rosguill. The main population centre of Inishowen, Irelands largest peninsula, is Buncrana, in the east of the county lies the Finn Valley. The Laggan district is centred on the town of Raphoe, according to the 1841 Census, County Donegal had a population of 296,000 people. As a result of famine and emigration, the population had reduced by 41,000 by 1851, by the time of the 1951 Census the population was only 44% of what it had been in 1841. The 2006 Census, undertaken by the States Central Statistics Office, had County Donegals population standing at 147,264, according to the 2011 Census, the countys population had grown to 161,137. It has an indented coastline forming natural sea loughs, of which both Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle are the most notable. The Slieve League cliffs are the sixth-highest sea cliffs in Europe, the climate is temperate and dominated by the Gulf Stream, with warm, damp summers and mild wet winters. Two permanently inhabited islands, Arranmore and Tory Island, lie off the coast, Irelands second longest river, the Erne, enters Donegal Bay near the town of Ballyshannon. The River Erne, along with other Donegal waterways, has been dammed to produce hydroelectric power, the River Foyle separates part of County Donegal from parts of both counties Londonderry and Tyrone. A survey of the marine algae of County Donegal was published in 2003

21.
County Londonderry
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County Londonderry, also known as County Derry, is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland. Adjoining the north-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,074 km² and has a population of about 247,132 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland, as well as part of the historic province of Ulster. Since 1981, it has one of four counties in Northern Ireland that has a Catholic majority. The county flower is the Purple Saxifrage, the place name Derry is an anglicisation of the old Irish Daire, meaning oak-grove or oak-wood. As with the city, its name is subject to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute, with the form Londonderry generally preferred by unionists, british authorities use the name Londonderry, while Derry is used by the Republic of Ireland. Mountsandel located near Coleraine in County Londonderry is perhaps the oldest recorded settlement within Ireland, at an early period, what became the county of Coleraine was inhabited by the OCahans, who were tributary to the ONeills. This county was named Londonderry, a combination of London and Derry, the Irish Society was made up of the twelve main livery companies of London, which themselves were composed of various guilds. Whilst The Irish Society as a whole was given possession of the city of Londonderry and Coleraine, the county town of County Londonderry, and seat of the Londonderry County Council until its abolition in 1973, was therefore moved to the town of Coleraine. The highest point in the county is the summit of Sawel Mountain on the border with County Tyrone, Sawel is part of the Sperrin Mountains, which dominate the southern part of the county. In the centre of the county are the deciduous forests at Banagher and Ness Wood. These councils were, Derry City Council, Limavady Borough Council, and Magherafelt District Council, most of Coleraine Borough Council, the Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway continued as a private bus company based in the city but operating predominantly in County Donegal until it closed in 2014. Bus services are now provided by Ulsterbus, two major centres of the University of Ulster are in the county, including its headquarters at Coleraine and the Magee Campus in Derry. The Derry teams wear the red and white. There are many teams competing in up to five leagues. The county team has won one All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and five National League titles, hurling is also widely played but is not as popular as football. However, the county team is regarded as one of the top hurling sides in Ulster. The Northern Ireland Milk Cup was established in 1983 and is regarded as one of the most prestigious youth football tournaments in Europe and the world. In rugby union, the county is represented at senior level by Rainey Old Boys Rugby Club, Magherafelt who compete in the Ulster Senior League and All Ireland Division Three

22.
County Antrim
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County Antrim ) is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland and one of the nine counties of the province of Ulster, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the north-east shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,046 square kilometres and has a population of about 618,000, County Antrim has a population density of 203 people per square kilometer /526 people per square mile. The majority of Belfast, the city of Northern Ireland, is in County Antrim. It is currently one of two counties of Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Protestant background, according to the 2001 census. The other is County Down to the south, a large portion of Antrim is hilly, especially in the east, where the highest elevations are attained. The range runs north and south, and, following this direction, the most remarkable cliffs are those formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for many miles, and most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the celebrated Giants Causeway. From the eastern coast the hills rise instantly but less abruptly, all are somewhat exposed to the easterly winds prevalent in spring. It is partially arable, and supports a small population, islandmagee is a peninsula separating Larne Lough from the North Channel. The valleys of the Bann and Lagan, with the shores of Lough Neagh. These two rivers, both rising in County Down, are the ones of importance. The latter flows to Belfast Lough, the former drains Lough Neagh, the fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the small town of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the centre. Immediately below this point lies Lough Beg, the Small Lake, County Antrim has a number of air, rail and sea links. Northern Irelands main airport, Belfast International Airport, at Aldergrove is in County Antrim, Belfast International shares its runways with the Royal Air Force base RAF Aldergrove, which otherwise has its own facilities. It is the fifth-largest regional air cargo centre in the UK, there are regular services to Great Britain, Europe and North America. The region is served by George Best Belfast City Airport, a mile east of Belfast city centre on the County Down side of the city. Two of Northern Irelands main ports are in County Antrim, Larne, ferries sail from Larne Harbour to destinations including Cairnryan and Troon in Scotland, and Fleetwood in England. The Port of Belfast is Northern Irelands principal maritime gateway, serving the Northern Ireland economy and it is a major centre of industry and commerce and has become established as the focus of logistics activity for Northern Ireland. Around two-thirds of Northern Irelands seaborne trade, and a quarter of that for Ireland as a whole, is handled at the port, the population of County Antrim was 615,384 according to recent census information, making it the most populous county in Northern Ireland

23.
County Down
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County Down is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the southeast shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,448 km² and has a population of about 531,665 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland and is within the province of Ulster. The county was archaically called Downshire and it borders County Antrim to the north, the Irish Sea to the east and south, County Armagh to the west, and County Louth across Carlingford Lough to the southwest. In the east of the county is Strangford Lough and the Ards Peninsula, the largest town is Bangor, on the northeast coast. Three other large towns and cities are on its border, Newry lies on the border with County Armagh, while Lisburn. Down contains both the southernmost point of Northern Ireland and the easternmost point of Ireland and it is currently one of only two counties of Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Protestant background, according to the 2001 census. The other is County Antrim to the north, during the Williamite War in Ireland the county was a centre of Protestant rebellion against the rule of the Catholic James II. After forming a force the Protestants were defeated by the Irish Army at the Break of Dromore and forced to retreat. Later the same year Marshal Schombergs large Williamite expedition arrived in Belfast Lough, after laying siege to Carrickfergus Schomberg marched south to Dundalk Camp, clearing County Down and much of the rest of East Ulster of Jacobite troops. Down contains two significant peninsulas, Ards Peninsula and Lecale peninsula, the county has a coastline along Belfast Lough to the north and Carlingford Lough to the south. Strangford Lough lies between the Ards Peninsula and the mainland, down also contains part of the shore of Lough Neagh. Smaller loughs include Lough Island Reavy, the River Lagan forms most of the border with County Antrim. The River Bann also flows through the areas of the county. Other rivers include the Clanrye and Quoile, there are several islands off the Down coast, Mew Island, Light House Island and the Copeland Islands, all of which lie to the north of the Ards Peninsula. Gunn Island lies off the Lecale coast, in addition there are a large number of small islands in Strangford Lough. County Down is where, in the words of the song by Percy French, The mountains of Mourne sweep down to the sea. Slieve Donard, at 849 m, is the highest peak in the Mournes, in Northern Ireland, another important peak is Slieve Croob, at 534 m, the source of the River Lagan. An area of County Down is known as the Brontë Homeland, after Patrick Brontë, father of Anne, Charlotte, Emily, Patrick Brontë was born in this region

24.
County Monaghan
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County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 60,483 according to the 2011 census, the county has existed since 1585, when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgíalla agreed to join the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Monaghan is the fifth smallest of the Republics 26 counties in area and fourth smallest by population. It is the smallest of Ulsters nine counties in size and also the smallest in terms of population, Cremorne Dartree Farney Monaghan Trough 1. Ballybay =1,461 Notable mountains include Slieve Beagh, Mullyash Mountain and Coolberrin Hill, lakes include Lough Avaghon, Dromore Lough, Drumlona Lough, Lough Egish, Emy Lough, Lough Fea, Inner Lough, Muckno Lough and White Lough. Notable rivers include the River Fane, the River Glyde, the Ulster Blackwater, Monaghan has a number of forests, including Rossmore Forest and Dartrey Forest. Managed by Coillte since 1988, the majority of trees are conifers, due to a long history of intensive farming and recent intensive forestry practices, only small pockets of native woodland remain. The Finn Bridge is a crossing point over the River Finn to County Fermanagh. Lead was formerly mined in County Monaghan, Mines included Annaglogh Lead Mines and Lisdrumgormley Lead Mines. In 1585, the English lord deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, visited the area and they requested that Ulster be divided into counties and land in the kingdom of Airgíalla be apportioned to each of the McMahon chiefs. A commission was established to accomplish this and County Monaghan came into being, the county was subdivided into five baronies, Farney, Cremorne, Dartrey, Monaghan and Truagh, which was left under the control of the McKenna chieftains. After the defeat of the rebellion of Hugh ONeill, The ONeill and the Ulster chieftains in 1603, the lands were instead left in the hands of the native chieftains. In the Irish Rebellion of 1641 the McMahons and their allies joined the rebellion of Irish Catholics. Following their defeat, some colonisation of the county place with Scottish and English families. County Monaghan is traversed by the derelict Ulster Canal, however Waterways Ireland are embarking on a scheme to reopen the canal from Lough Erne into Clones, Monaghan is divided into four local electoral areas, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan. The towns of Ballybay, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan are represented by nine-member town councils which deal with matters such as the provision of utilities

25.
Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester
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Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, was an English administrator and soldier who served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1605 to 1616. He was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital, after attending Exeter College, Oxford, favoured by many Devonians, Chichester commanded HMS Larke against the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1595 he accompanied Sir Francis Drake on his last expedition to the Americas, later in the Anglo–Spanish War he commanded a company during the 1596 raid on Cádiz, for which he was knighted. A year later he was with English forces in France fighting with King Henry IV against the Spanish in Picardy and he was wounded in the shoulder during the Siege of Amiens in September 1597 during which the city was captured from the Spanish. He was knighted by Henry for his valour and it is said that John Chichester was decapitated, and his head used as a football by the MacDonnell clan after their victory. James Sorley MacDonnell, commander of the forces at the Battle of Carrickfergus, was poisoned in Dunluce Castle on the orders of Robert Cecil to placate Chichester. During the Nine Years War Chichester commanded royal troops in Ulster and his tactics included a scorched earth policy. He encircled ONeills forces with garrisons, effectively starving the Earls troops, in a 1600 letter to Cecil he stated a million swords will not do them so much harm as one winters famine. While these tactics were not initially devised by Chichester, he carried them out ruthlessly, ONeills weakening military position forced him to abandon and destroy his capital at Dungannon. Following the signing of the Treaty of Mellifont, he succeeded Charles Blount, Lord Deputy Chichester saw Irish Catholicism as a major threat to the crown. He oversaw widespread persecution of Catholics, and ordered the execution of two bishops, including the aged and respected Conor ODevany and his relations with the traditionally Catholic nobility of the Pale, in particular the quarrelsome and turbulent Christopher St Lawrence, 10th Baron Howth, were poor. Following the Flight of the Earls in 1607, Chichester was a leading figure during the Plantation of Ulster, initially he intended that the number of Scottish planters would be small, with native Irish landowners gaining more land. However, after ODohertys Rebellion in Donegal in 1608, his plans changed, most of the land was awarded to wealthy landowners from England and Scotland. However Chichester successfully campaigned to award veterans of the Nine Years War land as well, Chichester was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital. In 1611 he built a castle on the site of an earlier 12th century Norman motte-and-bailey, in 1613 he was given the title Baron Chichester. Ill health in 1614 led to his retirement and his term of office was ended in February 1616, in his final years he built a mansion in Carrickfergus and served as an ambassador to the Habsburg Empire. By her he had a son who died an infant, Arthur Chichester who died an infant aged one month and was buried in Christ Church, Dublin. He died from pleurisy in London in 1625 and was buried seven months later in St Nicholas Church, the Barony of Chichester became extinct on his death but was revived the same year in favour of his younger brother Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester

26.
Attorney-General for Ireland
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The Attorney-General for Ireland was an Irish and then United Kingdom government office-holder. He was senior to the Solicitor-General for Ireland, both advised the Crown on Irish legal matters, with the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the duties of the Attorney General and Solicitor General for Ireland were taken over by the Attorney General of Ireland. The first record of the existence of the office in Ireland, from the early 1660s, due largely to the personal prestige of Sir William Domville, the Attorney General became the chief legal adviser to the Crown. Tisdall, was for much of his tenure as Attorney General also the Government leader in the Irish House of Commons, saurin was regarded for many years as the effective head of the Irish Government. In 1841 Blackburne, on being challenged challenged about an appointment within his own office. The office of Attorney General was described at this time as being a mixture of law. Lawrence,1491 Clement Fitzleones,1502 John Barnewall, later 3rdBaron Trimlestown,1504 Nicholas Fitzsimons,1504 incomplete Thomas St. Chronicle of the law officers of Ireland. Attorney-General for Ireland, list of office holders 1835–1921, with links to their Hansard contributions, from millbanksystems. com

27.
Gaels
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The Gaels are an ethnolinguistic group native to northwestern Europe. They are associated with the Gaelic languages, a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx, historically, the ethnonyms Irish and Scots referred to the Gaels in general, but the scope of those nationalities is today more complex. Gaelic language and culture originated in Ireland, extending to Dál Riata in western Scotland, in antiquity the Gaels traded with the Roman Empire and also raided Roman Britain. In the Middle Ages, Gaelic culture became dominant throughout the rest of Scotland, there was also some Gaelic settlement in Wales and Cornwall. In the Viking Age, small numbers of Vikings raided and settled in Gaelic lands, in the 9th century, Dál Riata and Pictland merged to form the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba. Meanwhile, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King often claiming lordship over them, in the 12th century, Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotland became Anglo-Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, in the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell under English control. In the following centuries most Gaels were gradually anglicized and Gaelic language mostly supplanted by English, however, it continues to be the main language in Irelands Gaeltacht and Scotlands Outer Hebrides. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout Britain, the Americas, Gaelic society traditionally centered around the clan, each with its own territory and chieftain, elected through tanistry. The Gaels were originally pagans who worshipped the Tuatha Dé Danann, venerated the ancestors and their four yearly festivals – Samhain, Imbolc, Beltane and Lughnasa – continued to be celebrated into modern times. The Gaels have an oral tradition, traditionally maintained by shanachies. Inscription in the Gaelic ogham alphabet began in the 1st century and their conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of writing, and Irish Gaelic has the oldest vernacular literature in western Europe. Irish mythology and Brehon law were preserved, albeit Christianized, Gaelic monasteries were renowned centres of learning and played a key role in developing Insular art, while Gaelic missionaries and scholars were highly influential in western Europe. In the Middle Ages, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts, the Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the belted plaid and kilt. They also have music, dance, and sports. Gaelic culture continues to be a component of Irish, Scottish. Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names, the most consistent of these have been Gael, Irish and Scots. The latter two have developed more ambiguous meanings, due to the modern concept of the nation state

28.
Roman Catholicism in Ireland
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The Catholic Church in Ireland is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in communion with the Pope. With 4.7 million members, it is the most populous Christian denomination in Ireland, the Primate of All Ireland is the Archishop of Armagh and the Church ministers to Catholics on an All-Island basis, covering both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The Irish Catholic Bishops Conference is a body for ordinaries in Ireland. Christianity has existed in Ireland since the 5th century and arrived from Roman Britain and it gradually gained ground and replaced the old pagan traditions. The Catholic Church in Ireland cites its origin to this period, aside from this independence, Gaelic Ireland was a highly decentralised tribal society, so mass conversion to a new system would prove a drawn out process. These were typically in Leinster and Munster, the early stories of these people mention journeys to Roman Britain, Roman Gaul and even Rome itself. Indeed, Pope Celestine I is held to have sent Palladius to evangalise the Gaels in 431, but this did not gather much steam. However, the figure most associated with the Christianisation of Ireland is Patrick, a Romano-British nobleman, a reform to the Roman style diocesan system developed slowly after the Synod of Rathbreasail in 1111. In 1155, Pope Adrian IV, the English born Pope and this gave Henry, Duke of Normandy permission to invade Ireland as a means of strengthening the Papacys control over the Irish Church. The Norman invasion of Ireland began in 1169, under the authority of this bull, after the Norman invasion, a greater number of foreign-born prelates were appointed. A confusing but defining period arose during the English Reformation in the 16th century, with monarchs alternately for or against Papal supremacy. When on the Death of Queen Mary in 1558, the church in England and Ireland broke away completely from the Papacy, all, very few of the local clergy led their congregations to follow. The new body became the established State Church, which was grandfathered in the possession of most Church property and this allowed the Church of Ireland to retain a great repository of religious architecture and other religious items, some of which were later destroyed in future wars. A substantial majority of the population remained Catholic, despite the political, the effect of the Act of Supremacy 1558 and the Papal bull of 1570 legislated that the majority population of both kingdoms to be governed by an Anglican Ascendancy. After the defeat of King James II of The Three Kingdoms in 1690, the slow process of reform from 1778 on led to Catholic Emancipation in 1829. By then Ireland was a part of the newly created United Kingdom of Great Britain and this cultural direction was particularly prominent under Éamon de Valera. For example, from 1937 until 1995, divorce and remarriage was not permitted, similarly, the importation of contraception abortion and pornography were also resisted, media-depictions perceived to be detrimental to public morality were also opposed by Catholics. In addition the Church largely controlled the States hospitals, schools, with the partition of Ireland in 1922,92. 6% of the souths population were Catholic while 7. 4% were Protestant

29.
Scottish Highlands
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The Highlands are a historic region of Scotland. Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, the term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands, the Scottish Gaelic name of A Ghàidhealtachd literally means the place of the Gaels and traditionally, from a Gaelic-speaking point of view, includes both the Western Isles and the Highlands. The area is sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region. At 9.1 per km2 in 2012, the density in the Highlands and Islands is less than one seventh of Scotlands as a whole, comparable with that of Bolivia, Chad. The Highland Council is the body for much of the Highlands. However, the Highlands also includes parts of the areas of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Argyll and Bute, Moray, North Ayrshire, Perth & Kinross, Stirling. The Scottish highlands is the area in the British Isles to have the Taiga biome as it features concentrated populations of Scots pine forest. Between the 15th century and the 20th century, the area differed from most of the Lowlands in terms of language. In Scottish Gaelic, the region is known as the Gàidhealtachd, because it was traditionally the Gaelic-speaking part of Scotland, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably but have different meanings in their respective languages. Scottish English is the predominant language of the area today, though Highland English has been influenced by Gaelic speech to a significant extent, historically, the Highland line distinguished the two Scottish cultures. Most of this legislation was repealed by the end of the 18th century as the Jacobite threat subsided, there was soon a rehabilitation of Highland culture. Tartan was adopted for Highland regiments in the British Army, which poor Highlanders joined in large numbers in the era of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Tartan had largely abandoned by the ordinary people of the region, but in the 1820s, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland. The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle, individual clan tartans were largely designated in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity. The period of the Napoleonic wars brought prosperity, optimism, the economy grew thanks to wages paid in industries such as kelping, fisheries, and weaving, as well as large-scale infrastructure spending such as the Caledonian Canal project. On the East Coast, farmlands were improved, and high prices for cattle brought money to the area, Service in the Army was also attractive to young men from the Highlands, who sent pay home and retired there with their army pensions. This prosperity ended after 1815, and long-term negative factors began to undermine the position of the poor tenant farmers, who typically rented a few acres

30.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

31.
Protestant
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists

32.
Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches

33.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey

34.
Plantations of Ireland
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Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland involved the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from the island of Great Britain. They followed smaller-scale immigration to Ireland as far back as the 12th century, unofficial plantations carried out privately by landlords also took place such as that of Antrim and Down. The Crown granted these lands to colonists from England and this process began during the reign of Henry VIII and continued under Mary I and Elizabeth I. It was accelerated under James I, Charles I and Oliver Cromwell, in their time, the early plantations in the 16th century tended to be based on small exemplary colonies. The later plantations were based on mass confiscations of land from Irish landowners and the subsequent importation of numerous settlers and labourers from England and Wales, and later from Scotland. The final official plantations were established under the English Commonwealth and Cromwells Protectorate during the 1650s, apart from the plantations, significant immigration into Ireland continued well into the 18th century, from both Great Britain and continental Europe. The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with a British, the elite of these communities replaced the older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes. The new elite represented both English and Scottish interests in Ireland, the physical and economic nature of Irish society was also changed, as new concepts of ownership, trade and credit were introduced. These changes led to the creation of a Protestant ruling class, the early Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest of Ireland. The Crown government at Dublin intended to pacify and Anglicise the country under English rule, the government intended to develop Ireland as a peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated, to this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the plantation, in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that the Irish could emulate. One such colony was planted in the late 1560s, at Kerrycurrihy near Cork city, the second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions, the first such scheme was the Plantation of Kings County and Queens County in 1556, naming them after the new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown and Maryborough, the OMoore and OConnor clans, which occupied the area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Sussex, ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement, however, the plantation was not a great success. The OMoores and OConnors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought an insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578, the English finally subdued the displaced OMoore clan by massacring most of their fine at Mullaghmast in Laois, rory Óg Ó Moore, the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year

35.
Ulster Protestant
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Ulster Protestants are an ethnoreligious group in the Irish province of Ulster, where they make up about 54% of the population. These settlers were mostly Lowland Scottish and Northern English people and predominantly from Galloway, begun privately in 1606, the Plantation of Ulster became government-sponsored in 1609, with much land for settlement being allocated to the Livery Companies of the City of London. By 1622 there was a settler population of about 19,000. Ulster Protestants descend from a variety of lineages, including Scots, English, Irish, and Huguenots. Another influx of an estimated 20,000 Scottish Protestants, mainly to the counties of Antrim, Down. This migration decisively changed the population of Ulster, giving it a Protestant majority, most Ulster Protestants are Presbyterian or Anglican, Scottish colonists were mostly Presbyterian and the English mostly members of the Church of England. Between 1717 and 1775, an estimated 200,000 migrated to what became the United States of America, some Presbyterians also returned to Scotland during this period, where the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was the state religion. This repression by Anglicans largely ended after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, as Belfast became industrialised in the 19th century, it attracted yet more Protestant immigrants from Scotland. Because of these migrations, Ulster has a proportion of Catholics than the other provinces of Ireland. The vast majority of Ulster Protestants live in Northern Ireland, which is part of the present-day United Kingdom, most tend to support its Union with Great Britain, and are thus known as unionists. Unlike Protestants in the rest of the Republic, some retain a sense of Britishness, most Ulster Protestants speak Ulster English, and some speak one of the Ulster Scots dialects. British nationalism Protestantism in Ireland Unionism in Ireland Amity and enmity, variety in Ulster Protestant culture Ulster Protestants - Blood & Belonging

36.
Ethnic conflict
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An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, or economic and this final criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle. Ethnic conflict does not necessarily have to be violent, in a multi-ethnic society where freedom of speech is protected, ethnic conflict can be an everyday feature of plural democracies. For example, ethnic conflict might be a non-violent struggle for resources divided among ethnic groups, however, the subject of the confrontation must be either directly or symbolically linked with an ethnic group. In healthy multi-ethnic democracies, these conflicts are usually institutionalized and channeled through parliaments, assemblies and bureaucracies or through non-violent demonstrations, on the other hand, in authoritarian systems, ethnic minorities are often unable to express their grievances. Grievances are instead allowed to fester which might lead to long phases of silence followed by a violent outburst. Therefore, ethnic peace is an absence of violence, not an absence of conflict, another consequence is that violent ethnic rebellions often result in political rights for previously marginalized groups. Academic explanations of ethnic conflict generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist or constructivist, recently, several political scientists have argued for either top-down or bottom-up explanations for ethnic conflict. The causes of conflict are debated by political scientists and sociologists. Explanations generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist, and constructivist, more recent scholarship draws on all three schools. Primordialist accounts rely on strong ties of kinship among members of ethnic groups, donald L. Horowitz argues that this kinship makes it possible for ethnic groups to think in terms of family resemblances. Clifford Geertz, a scholar of primordialism, asserts that each person has a natural connection to perceived kinsmen. In time and through repeated conflict, essential ties to ones ethnicity will coalesce, ethnic groups will consequently always threaten the survival of civil governments but not the existence of nations formed by one ethnic group. Thus, when considered through a lens, ethnic conflict in multi-ethnic society is inevitable. A number of political scientists argue that the causes of ethnic conflict do not involve ethnicity per se but rather institutional, political. Moreover, primordial accounts do not account for the spatial and temporal variations in ethnic violence, if these ancient hatreds are always simmering under the surface and are at the forefront of peoples consciousness, then ethnic groups should constantly be ensnared in violence. However, ethnic violence occurs in sporadic outbursts, for example, Varshney points out that although Yugoslavia broke up due to ethnic violence in the 1990s, it had enjoyed a long peace of decades before the USSR collapsed. Therefore, some claim that it is unlikely that primordial ethnic differences alone caused the outbreak of violence in the 1990s

37.
Sectarian violence
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Religious segregation often plays a role in sectarian violence. Sectarian violence differs from the concept of race riot and it may involve the dynamics of social polarization, the balkanization of a geographic area along the lines of self-identifying groups, and protracted social conflict. Some of the possible enabling environments for sectarian violence include power struggles, political climate, social climate, cultural climate, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation, a series of wars were waged in Europe starting circa 1524 and continuing intermittently until 1648. Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were influenced by the religious change of the period. According to Miroslav Volf, the European wars of religion were a factor behind the emergence of secularizing modernity. In the St. Bartholomews Day massacre followers of the Roman Catholic Church killed up to 30,000 Huguenots in mob violence, the massacres were carried out on the national day celebrating Bartholomew the Apostle. The killings have been called the worst of the religious massacres. Since the 16th century there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity between Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland and this religious sectarianism is connected to a degree with nationalism. Reactions to sectarian domination and abuse have resulted in accusations of sectarianism being levelled against the minority community, steve Bruce, a sociologist, wrote, The Northern Ireland conflict is a religious conflict. Reviewers agreed Of course the Northern Ireland conflict is at heart religious, john Hickey wrote, Politics in the North is not politics exploiting religion. In the case of Northern Ireland the relationship is more complex. It is more a question of religion inspiring politics than of politics making use of religion and it is a situation more akin to the first half of seventeenth century England than to the last quarter of twentieth‑century Britain. The period from 1969 to 2002 is known as The Troubles, about one in eight females and one in five males in Northern Ireland identified themselves as belonging to no religion. However, people of no religion and non-Christian faiths are still considered as belonging to one of the two sects along with churchgoers, in each case, the percentage in the Northern Irish Life & Times Survey in 2015 was 57%. Roman Catholics are more likely to reject the label British than Protestants are to reject the label Irish, there is an equal level of support for the more neutral Northern Irish identity, with 25% of people from each religion likely to choose that label as the best description. Over a third of people with no religion prefer to be described as Northern Irish, there are organizations dedicated to the reduction of sectarianism in Northern Ireland. The Corrymeela Community of Ballycastle operates a retreat centre on the northern coast of Northern Ireland to bring Catholics, the Ulster Project works with teenagers from Northern Ireland and the United States to provide safe, non-denominational environments to discuss sectarianism in Northern Ireland. These organizations are attempting to bridge the gap of historical prejudice between the two religious communities, the Society of Friends have long been an advocate of co-education in terms of religion, operating the Friends School in Lisburn

38.
Irish rebellion of 1641
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The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into a conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the other. This began a conflict known as the Irish Confederate Wars, in turn, the rebels suspected association with Charles helped start the English Civil War. The English and Scottish Parliaments refused to raise an army to put down the rebellion unless it was under their command rather than the Kings. The Confederation became a de facto government of most of Ireland, free from the control of the English administration, the subsequent Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland until the 1650s, when Oliver Cromwells New Model Army decisively defeated the Irish Catholics and Royalists, and re-conquered the country. The roots of the 1641 rebellion lay in the failure of the English State in Ireland to assimilate the native Irish elite in the wake of the Elizabethan conquest and plantation of the country. The pre-Elizabethan Irish population is divided into the Old Irish. These groups were historically antagonistic, with English settled areas such as the Pale around Dublin, south Wexford, by the seventeenth century, the cultural divide between these groups, especially at elite social levels, was declining. Many English lords not only spoke the Irish language, but extensively patronised Irish poetry and music, the 16th and early 17th century English conquest of Ireland was marked by large scale confiscation and colonisation of land, known as the Plantations, notably in Ulster and Munster. These were mass dispossessions of Irish landowners who had rebelled against the crown, and sometimes their workers, and the granting of their land to colonists from England and Scotland. The main effect of this was the dispossession of formerly powerful Irish clan leaders, such as the ONeills and the ODonnells, other Catholic lords, such as the Magennis clan in County Down, sold much of their land to new settlers by the 1630s. Many of the exiles found service as mercenaries in the Catholic armies of Spain, in Ireland itself, though the resentment caused by the plantations was one of the principal causes for the outbreak and spread of the rebellion. In 1641 60% of land belonged to Catholics. This was prevented by two factors, firstly their religious dissidence, and secondly the threat posed to them by the extension of the Plantations, the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 curtailed the rights of wealthy Irish Catholics, who had not been involved in the plot. Anglicanism was the only approved form of worship of the Three Kingdoms, non-attendance at Protestant church services was punishable by recusant fines and the public practice of unapproved faiths by arrest. Catholics could not hold senior offices of state, or serve above a rank in the army. The Irish privy council was dominated by English Protestants, the constituencies of the Irish House of Commons were increased, giving Protestants a majority of 108–102 in it, from the session of 1613. The Irish House of Lords still had a considerable Catholic majority that enabled it to block most, moreover, the Irish Parliaments legislation had to be approved by the English Parliament under a 15th-century ordinance known as Poynings Law

39.
Transhumance
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Transhumance is a type of nomadism or pastoralism, a seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. In montane regions, it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter, herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys. Generally only the travel, with a certain number of people necessary to tend them. In contrast, horizontal transhumance is more susceptible to being disrupted by climatic, economic or political change, traditional or fixed transhumance occurs or has occurred throughout the inhabited world, particularly Europe and western Asia. It is often of importance to pastoralist societies, as the dairy products of transhumance flocks. In many languages there are words for the summer pastures. The term transhumance is also used in correlation with nomadic pastoralism – the regular migration of people. The word transhumance comes from French and derives from the Latin words trans across, transhumance developed on every inhabited continent. Although there are cultural and technological variations, the underlying practices for taking advantage of remote seasonal pastures are similar. Transhumance is a form of pastoralism or nomadism, in the Balkans, the Sarakatsani, Aromanian and Yörük peoples traditionally spent summer months in the mountains and returned to lower plains in the winter. When the area was part of the Austro-Hungary and Ottoman empires, in summer, some groups went as far north as the Balkan Mountains, and they would spend the winter on warmer plains in the vicinity of the Aegean Sea. The Morlach were a population of Vlach shepherds who lived in the Dinaric Alps, but as national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the pastoral groups. These prevented easy movement across borders, particularly at times of war, in most parts of Wales, farm workers and sometimes the farmer would spend the summer months at a hillside summer house, or hafod, where the livestock would graze. During the late autumn the farm family and workers would drive the flocks down to the valleys, both Hafod and Hendref survive in Wales as place names and house names. Today, cattle and sheep that summer on many farms are still transported to lowland winter pastures. In many hilly and mountainous areas of Scotland, agricultural workers spent summer months in bothies or shielings, major drovers roads in the eastern part of Scotland include the Cairnamounth, Elsick Mounth and Causey Mounth. This practice has died out, but was practised within living memory in the Hebridean Islands. Today much transhumance is carried out by truck, with upland flocks being transported under agistment to lower-lying pasture during winter, in southern England, where the climate is mild and the hills low, transhumance historically took the opposite form to more mountainous areas

40.
Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
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Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, KG, was an English nobleman and general. From 1573 until his death he fought in Ireland in connection with the Plantation of Ulster and he was the father of Elizabeth Is favourite of her later years, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. Walter Devereuxs mother was Dorothy Hastings, daughter of George Hastings, 1st Earl of Huntingdon and Anne Stafford, on his grandfathers death, Devereux became on 27 September 1558 the 2nd Viscount Hereford and 10th Baron Ferrers of Chartley. He was entrusted with joint custody of the Queen of Scots in 1568, Devereux provided signal service in suppressing the Northern Rebellion of 1569, serving as high marshal of the field under the Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick and Lord Clinton. At that time, Ulster was completely under the dominion of the ONeills, led by Sir Brian MacPhelim and Turlough Luineach and his offer, with certain modifications, was accepted. He set sail for Ireland in July 1573, accompanied by a number of earls, knights and gentlemen and his enterprise had an inauspicious beginning, a storm dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as Cork and the Isle of Man. His forces did not all reach the place of rendezvous till late in the autumn, here his troops were diminished by sickness, famine and desertion to not much more than 200 men. Intrigues of various sorts and fighting of a type followed. He was in dire straits, and his movements in Ulster took the form of raids. In October 1574, he treacherously captured MacPhelim at a conference in Belfast and he arrested William Piers, who had been active in driving the Scots out of Ulster, and accused him of passing military intelligence to Brian mac Phelim ONeill. Essex ordered Pierss arrest and detention in Carrickfergus Castle in December 1574, after encouraging Essex to prepare to attack the Irish chief Turlough Luineach, apparently at the instigation of the earl of Leicester, the queen suddenly commanded him to break off his enterprise. However, she left him a certain power, and he took advantage of that to defeat Turlough Luineach. He returned to England at the end of 1575, resolved to live henceforth an untroubled life and he was however persuaded to accept the offer of the queen to make him Earl Marshal of Ireland. He arrived in Dublin in September 1576, but died three weeks later of dysentery and it was suspected that he had been poisoned at the behest of the Earl of Leicester, who married his widow two years later. A post-mortem was carried out and concluded that Essex had died of natural causes and he was succeeded in the Earldom of Essex by his son Robert. In 1561 or 1562, Devereux married Lettice, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys, Walter and Lettice had the following children, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Married Frances Walsingham Sir Walter Devereux. Married Margaret, daughter of Arthur Dakyns and he was killed at the siege of Rouen in 1591. Penelope Devereux Married Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich Dorothy Devereux

41.
Tudor conquest of Ireland
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The Tudor conquest of Ireland took place under the Tudor dynasty, which held the Kingdom of England during the 16th century. By conciliation and repression the conquest continued for sixty years, until 1603 and this control was increased after the Flight of the Earls in 1607. The conquest was complicated by the imposition of English law, language and culture, upon completion of the conquest, the polity of Gaelic Ireland had been largely destroyed and the Spanish were no longer willing to intervene directly. This left the way clear for extensive confiscation of land by English, Scots, Ireland in 1500 was shaped by the Norman conquest, initiated by Anglo-Norman barons in the 12th century. Many of the native Gaelic Irish had been expelled from various parts of the country and replaced with English peasants, a large area on the east coast, extending from the Wicklow Mountains in the south to Dundalk in the north, became known as the Pale. The Gaelic Irish were, for the most part, outside English jurisdiction, maintaining their own language, social system, customs, the English referred to them as His Majestys Irish enemies. In legal terms, they had never admitted as subjects of the Crown. Ireland was not formally a realm, but rather a lordship, the rise of Gaelic influence resulted in the passing in 1366 of the Statutes of Kilkenny, which outlawed many social practices that had been developing apace. In the 15th century the Dublin government remained weak, owing principally to the Wars of the Roses, beyond the Pale, the authority of the Dublin government was tenuous. The Hiberno-Norman lords had been able to carve out fiefdoms for themselves, the Butlers, Fitzgeralds and Burkes raised their own armed forces, enforced their own law, and adopted Gaelic language and culture. Beyond those territories large areas of previously held by authority of the English crown were taken by the resurgent Gaelic Irish, particularly in the north. By 1500, English monarchs had delegated government of Ireland to the most powerful of the Hiberno-Norman dynasties to keep the costs of running Ireland down and to protect the Pale. The Kings Lord Deputy of Ireland was chief of the administration, based in Dublin Castle, in 1495 laws were passed during Poynings parliament that imposed English statute law wholesale upon the lordship and compromised the independence of the Irish parliament. The head of the Kildare FitzGeralds held the position of lord deputy until 1534, the Reformation also led to growing tension between England and Ireland as Protestantism gained sway within England. Thomas, Earl of Kildare, a fervent Catholic, offered control of Ireland to both the Pope and Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry put down the rebellion by executing the leader, along several of his uncles, and imprisoned Gearoid Og. But now the king had to find a replacement for the FitzGeralds to keep Ireland quiet, what was needed was a cost-effective new policy that protected the Pale and guaranteed the safety of Englands vulnerable west flank from foreign invasion. With the assistance of Thomas Cromwell, the king implemented the policy of surrender, the keystone to the reform was in a statute passed by the Irish parliament in 1541, whereby the lordship was converted to the Kingdom of Ireland

42.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship

43.
Elizabeth I of England
–
Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537

44.
Brehon Laws
–
Early Irish law, also called Brehon law, comprised the statutes which governed everyday life in Early Medieval Ireland. These secular laws existed in parallel, and occasionally in conflict, the secular legal texts of Ireland were edited by D. A. Binchy in his six-volume Corpus Iuris Hibernici. The oldest surviving law tracts date from the 8th century, no single theory as to the origin of early Irish law is universally accepted. Early Irish law consisted of the decisions of the Brehons, or judges. Some of these laws were recorded in text form by Christian clerics, the earliest theory to be recorded is contained in the Prologue to the Senchas Már. According to that text, after a case involving St. Patrick, the Saint supervised the mixing of native Irish law. The story also tells how the law transitioned from the keeping of the poets, whose speech was dark and incomprehensible, to the keeping of each group who had an interest in it. Some of the ideas in the tale may be correct, for some time, especially through the work of D. A. For instance, historians have seen similarities between Irish and Indian customs of fasting as a method of shaming a wrongdoer to recover a debt, or to demand the righting of a wrong. Other legal institutions prominent in early Irish law but foreign to most contemporary legal systems, more recently historians have come to doubt such attributions. While few historians argue that all Irish law comes from church influence, they are much more wary as to what material is a survival. Today, the system is assumed to contain some earlier law influenced by the church. There is dispute, however, as to just how large a role each of these aspects may have played in creating the legal texts, the subject is an important scope for debate. There is, however, one area where scholars have found material that is clearly old, a number of legal terms have been shown to have originated in the period before the Celtic Languages split up because they are preserved in both Old Irish and in the Welsh legal texts. On the other hand, this is not regarded as evidence that the practices described by such terms are unchanged or even have their origins in the same period as do the terms. Another important aspect when considering the origins is that the early Irish law texts are not always consistent, Early Irish law is, like the Old Irish language, remarkably standard across an Island with no central authority. However, close examination has revealed some variations, Brehon Laws have a reputation among modern scholars as rather progressive in their treatment of women, with some describing the law as providing for equality between the sexes. However, the Laws generally portray a patriarchal and patrilineal society in which the rules of inheritance were based on agnatic descent

45.
Arthur Chichester
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Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, was an English administrator and soldier who served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1605 to 1616. He was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital, after attending Exeter College, Oxford, favoured by many Devonians, Chichester commanded HMS Larke against the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1595 he accompanied Sir Francis Drake on his last expedition to the Americas, later in the Anglo–Spanish War he commanded a company during the 1596 raid on Cádiz, for which he was knighted. A year later he was with English forces in France fighting with King Henry IV against the Spanish in Picardy and he was wounded in the shoulder during the Siege of Amiens in September 1597 during which the city was captured from the Spanish. He was knighted by Henry for his valour and it is said that John Chichester was decapitated, and his head used as a football by the MacDonnell clan after their victory. James Sorley MacDonnell, commander of the forces at the Battle of Carrickfergus, was poisoned in Dunluce Castle on the orders of Robert Cecil to placate Chichester. During the Nine Years War Chichester commanded royal troops in Ulster and his tactics included a scorched earth policy. He encircled ONeills forces with garrisons, effectively starving the Earls troops, in a 1600 letter to Cecil he stated a million swords will not do them so much harm as one winters famine. While these tactics were not initially devised by Chichester, he carried them out ruthlessly, ONeills weakening military position forced him to abandon and destroy his capital at Dungannon. Following the signing of the Treaty of Mellifont, he succeeded Charles Blount, Lord Deputy Chichester saw Irish Catholicism as a major threat to the crown. He oversaw widespread persecution of Catholics, and ordered the execution of two bishops, including the aged and respected Conor ODevany and his relations with the traditionally Catholic nobility of the Pale, in particular the quarrelsome and turbulent Christopher St Lawrence, 10th Baron Howth, were poor. Following the Flight of the Earls in 1607, Chichester was a leading figure during the Plantation of Ulster, initially he intended that the number of Scottish planters would be small, with native Irish landowners gaining more land. However, after ODohertys Rebellion in Donegal in 1608, his plans changed, most of the land was awarded to wealthy landowners from England and Scotland. However Chichester successfully campaigned to award veterans of the Nine Years War land as well, Chichester was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital. In 1611 he built a castle on the site of an earlier 12th century Norman motte-and-bailey, in 1613 he was given the title Baron Chichester. Ill health in 1614 led to his retirement and his term of office was ended in February 1616, in his final years he built a mansion in Carrickfergus and served as an ambassador to the Habsburg Empire. By her he had a son who died an infant, Arthur Chichester who died an infant aged one month and was buried in Christ Church, Dublin. He died from pleurisy in London in 1625 and was buried seven months later in St Nicholas Church, the Barony of Chichester became extinct on his death but was revived the same year in favour of his younger brother Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester

46.
Irish Rebellion of 1641
–
The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into a conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the other. This began a conflict known as the Irish Confederate Wars, in turn, the rebels suspected association with Charles helped start the English Civil War. The English and Scottish Parliaments refused to raise an army to put down the rebellion unless it was under their command rather than the Kings. The Confederation became a de facto government of most of Ireland, free from the control of the English administration, the subsequent Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland until the 1650s, when Oliver Cromwells New Model Army decisively defeated the Irish Catholics and Royalists, and re-conquered the country. The roots of the 1641 rebellion lay in the failure of the English State in Ireland to assimilate the native Irish elite in the wake of the Elizabethan conquest and plantation of the country. The pre-Elizabethan Irish population is divided into the Old Irish. These groups were historically antagonistic, with English settled areas such as the Pale around Dublin, south Wexford, by the seventeenth century, the cultural divide between these groups, especially at elite social levels, was declining. Many English lords not only spoke the Irish language, but extensively patronised Irish poetry and music, the 16th and early 17th century English conquest of Ireland was marked by large scale confiscation and colonisation of land, known as the Plantations, notably in Ulster and Munster. These were mass dispossessions of Irish landowners who had rebelled against the crown, and sometimes their workers, and the granting of their land to colonists from England and Scotland. The main effect of this was the dispossession of formerly powerful Irish clan leaders, such as the ONeills and the ODonnells, other Catholic lords, such as the Magennis clan in County Down, sold much of their land to new settlers by the 1630s. Many of the exiles found service as mercenaries in the Catholic armies of Spain, in Ireland itself, though the resentment caused by the plantations was one of the principal causes for the outbreak and spread of the rebellion. In 1641 60% of land belonged to Catholics. This was prevented by two factors, firstly their religious dissidence, and secondly the threat posed to them by the extension of the Plantations, the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 curtailed the rights of wealthy Irish Catholics, who had not been involved in the plot. Anglicanism was the only approved form of worship of the Three Kingdoms, non-attendance at Protestant church services was punishable by recusant fines and the public practice of unapproved faiths by arrest. Catholics could not hold senior offices of state, or serve above a rank in the army. The Irish privy council was dominated by English Protestants, the constituencies of the Irish House of Commons were increased, giving Protestants a majority of 108–102 in it, from the session of 1613. The Irish House of Lords still had a considerable Catholic majority that enabled it to block most, moreover, the Irish Parliaments legislation had to be approved by the English Parliament under a 15th-century ordinance known as Poynings Law

Ulster
–
Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had

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At White Park Bay

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Flag

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Countryside west of Ballynahinch

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Mourne country cottage

Irish language
–
Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Irelan

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"Caution Children"

2.
Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011.

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A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and Ulster Scots.

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The Pale - According to Statute of 1488

Ulster Scots dialects
–
Ulster Scots or Ulster-Scots, also known as Ullans, generally refers to the dialects of Scots spoken in parts of Ulster in Ireland. Some definitions of Ulster Scots may also include Standard English spoken with an Ulster Scots accent and this is a situation like that of Lowland Scots and Scottish Standard English with words pronounced using the Uls

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A bilingual street sign in Ballyhalbert, County Down

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Approximate boundaries of the traditional Scots language areas in Ulster, shaded in turquoise. Based on The Scotch-Irish Dialect Boundaries in Ulster (1972) by R. J. Gregg.

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Middle Scots inscription "Godis Providens Is My Inheritans" over the main entrance door leading to the tower in Ballygally Castle

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Poetry by Robert Huddlestone (1814–1887) inscribed in paving in Writers' Square, Belfast

Colonisation
–
Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means to inhabit, Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed

1.
World empires and colonies 1550

Plantation (settlement or colony)
–
Plantation was an early method of colonization where settlers went in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base, for example for planting tobacco or cotton. Such plantations were also intended to promote Western culture and Christianity among nearby indigenous peoples. Although the term planter to refer to a settler first appea

1.
Jamaica, from the early nineteenth century. Watercolor, ink, and pencil. Created between 1808 and 1816.

Provinces of Ireland
–
Ireland has historically been divided into four provinces, Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. The provinces of Ireland serve no administrative or political purposes, a king of over-kings, a rí ruirech was often a provincial or semi-provincial king to whom several ruiri were subordinate. Entities belonging to the 1st and 2nd millennia are liste

Ireland
–
Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the i

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Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010

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The Gowran Ogham Stone, Christianised c.6th Century. On display in St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.

Great Britain
–
Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Hons

James VI and I
–
James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in pe

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Portrait by Daniel Mytens, 1621

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Portrait of James as a boy, after Arnold Bronckorst, 1574

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James (right) depicted beside his mother Mary (left). In reality, they were separated when he was still a baby.

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James in 1586, age 20

Kingdom of Scotland
–
The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under

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James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ireland created a dynastic union in 1603

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Flag

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Coronation of Alexander III of Scotland at Scone Abbey; beside him are the Mormaers of Strathearn and Fife while his genealogy is recited by a royal poet.

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The Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of Scots law.

Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty

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The dominions of Cnut the Great (1014–1035)

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Flag

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King John signs Magna Carta at Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.

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Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt.

Gaelic Ireland
–
Gaelic Ireland was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole island, thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time. For most of its

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An Irish bronze reliquary from the 7th or 8th century

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A bronze disc from the pre-Christian era, found near Derry – the triple spiral symbol is often associated with Gaelic pagan holy sites

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A reconstruction of an early Irish Christian chapel and high cross at the Irish National Heritage Park in County Wexford

Flight of the Earls
–
They retained their lands and titles, although with much diminished extent and authority. However, the countryside was laid bare in a campaign of destruction in 1602, ONeill was pardoned under the terms of the Treaty of Mellifont in March 1603 and submitted to the crown. When King James I took the throne in 1603 he quickly proceeded to issue pardon

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The Ulster aristocrats set sail from Rathmullan, on the shore of Lough Swilly

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A bronze sculpture commemorating the Flight in Rathmullan, County Donegal

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President of Ireland Mary McAleese arrives to unveil a statue depicting The Flight of the Earls at Rathmullan on 4 September 2007.

Nine Years' War (Ireland)
–
The Nine Years War or Tyrones Rebellion took place in Ireland from 1594 to 1603. It was fought between the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains Hugh ONeill of Tír Eoghain, Hugh Roe ODonnell of Tír Chonaill and their allies, the war was fought in all parts of the country, but mainly in the northern province of Ulster. It ended in defeat for the Irish c

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Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone

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Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, c. 1594

Irish acre
–
Irish measure or plantation measure was a system of units of land measurement used in Ireland from the 16th century plantations until the 19th century, with residual use into the 20th century. The units were based on English measure but used a linear perch measuring 7 yards as opposed to the English rod of 5.5 yards. Imperial measure soon replaced

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An old milestone a little over 2 km (1 Irish mile) outside of Ashbourne in Meath.

Arable land
–
Arable land is, according to one definition, land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. In Britain, it was contrasted with pasturable lands such as heaths which could be used for sheep-rearing. A quite different kind of definition is used by various agencies concerned with agriculture, the abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivat

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Modern mechanized agriculture permits large fields like this one in Dorset, England.

County Armagh
–
County Armagh is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland and one of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island. Adjoined to the shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 1,326 km² and has a population of about 174,792. It is within the province of Ulster. County Armagh is known as the Orchard Cou

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An orchard near Drummannon

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The Baronies of County Armagh (1900)

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The M1 near Lurgan

County Cavan
–
County Cavan is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Ulster and is part of the Border Region and it is named after the town of Cavan and is based on the historic Gaelic territory of East Breffny. Cavan County Council is the authority for the county, which has a population of 76,092 according to the 2016 census. Cavan borders six counties,

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Lough Oughter

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Cloughoughter Castle

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Cavan (blue) in action against The Queen's University of Belfast in the 2009 Dr. McKenna Cup

County Tyrone
–
County Tyrone is one of the six historic counties of Northern Ireland. It is also one of the traditional counties of Ireland. It is no used as an administrative division for local government. Adjoined to the south-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,155 km² and has a population of about 177,986, with its county town being Omag

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Blackrock Bridge near Newtownstewart, carrying the closed GNR mainline that ran through the county.

County Donegal
–
County Donegal is a county of Ireland. It is part of the Border Region of the Republic of Ireland and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Donegal in the south of the county. Donegal County Council is the council for the county and Lifford serves as the county town. The population of the county is 158,755 according to the

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Poison Glen (Gleann Nimhe), in North West Donegal.

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Seen from Space: County Donegal with the Ulster coastline with Lough Swilly and Inishowen west of Derry and County Londonderry with Lough Foyle east thereof.

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Horse riding on Tramore Beach in Downings

County Londonderry
–
County Londonderry, also known as County Derry, is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland. Adjoining the north-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,074 km² and has a population of about 247,132 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland, as well as part of the historic province of Ulster. Since 19

County Antrim
–
County Antrim ) is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland and one of the nine counties of the province of Ulster, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the north-east shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3,046 square kilometres and has a population of about 618,000, County Antrim has a population den

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The famed Glens of Antrim at Glendun

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Fair Head seen from Ballycastle

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Columnar basalt at Giant's Causeway

County Down
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County Down is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the southeast shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,448 km² and has a population of about 531,665 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland and is within the province of Ulster. The

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Mourne Mountains

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King John's Castle on Carlingford Lough.

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A steam train on the Downpatrick and County Down Railway travelling through the Ulster drumlin belt near Downpatrick.

County Monaghan
–
County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 60,483 according to the 2011 census, the county has existed since 1585, when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgí

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Shannahergoa countryside.

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Clones Round Tower

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Castle Leslie

Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester
–
Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, was an English administrator and soldier who served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1605 to 1616. He was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital, after attending Exeter College, Oxford, favoured by many Devonians, Chichester commanded HMS Larke against t

1.
Anglo-Irish School portrait in the collection of Belfast Harbour Commissioners

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Frontispiece of the manuscript of the 1607 heraldic visitation by Ulster King of Arms Daniel Molyneux, undertaken in Dublin. On the right hand column are shown the arms of Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, then Lord Deputy of Ireland

Attorney-General for Ireland
–
The Attorney-General for Ireland was an Irish and then United Kingdom government office-holder. He was senior to the Solicitor-General for Ireland, both advised the Crown on Irish legal matters, with the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the duties of the Attorney General and Solicitor General for Ireland were taken over by the Attorne

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Michael Morris, later Lord Killanin, Attorney-General for Ireland from 1866 to 1867.

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Philip Tisdall, Attorney General for Ireland from 1760 to 1777, portrait by Angelica Kauffmann

Gaels
–
The Gaels are an ethnolinguistic group native to northwestern Europe. They are associated with the Gaelic languages, a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx, historically, the ethnonyms Irish and Scots referred to the Gaels in general, but the scope of those nationalities is today more complex. Gaelic language and culture originated

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The Emigrants, painting from 1844. This depicts a Highland family migrating to New Zealand.

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The Iverni are one of the population groups mentioned in Ptolemy 's Geographia.

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Scota and Goídel Glas voyaging from Egypt. From the 15th century chronicle the Scotichronicon.

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The Lia Fáil at the Hill of Tara, sacred site of inauguration for the Gaelic High Kings.

Roman Catholicism in Ireland
–
The Catholic Church in Ireland is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in communion with the Pope. With 4.7 million members, it is the most populous Christian denomination in Ireland, the Primate of All Ireland is the Archishop of Armagh and the Church ministers to Catholics on an All-Island basis, covering both the Republic of Ireland and Norther

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St. Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh. Seat of the Archbishop of Armagh, Primate of All Ireland.

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Proportion of respondents to the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011 who stated they were Catholic. Areas in which Catholics are in the majority are blue. Areas in which Catholics are in a minority are red.

Scottish Highlands
–
The Highlands are a historic region of Scotland. Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, the term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian

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Loch Long

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Lowland-Highland divide

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Inverness, the administrative centre and traditional capital of the Highlands

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Ben Nevis from the path to the CIC Hut alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn

English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language i

1.
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

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Countries of the world where English is a majority native language

3.
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

Protestant
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 15

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(The Ninety-Five Theses)

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The Memorial Church in Speyer, Germany

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Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.

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The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.

Presbyterianism
–
Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government

1.
John Knox

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Symbol used by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. The burning bush is a common symbol used by Presbyterian churches.

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The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John Henry Lorimer, 1891. National Gallery of Scotland.

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Presbyterian catechising, 19th century

Church of England
–
The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of C

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Hereford is one of the church's 43 cathedrals; many have histories stretching back centuries

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Stained glass window in Rochester Cathedral, Kent

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Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity

Plantations of Ireland
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Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland involved the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from the island of Great Britain. They followed smaller-scale immigration to Ireland as far back as the 12th century, unofficial plantations carried out privately by landlords also took place such as t

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A more detailed map of the areas subjected to plantations

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The traditional counties of Ireland subjected to plantations (1556 to 1620). This map is a simplified one, as in the case of some counties the area of land colonised did not cover the whole of the area coloured.

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Hugh O'Neill, who led Gaelic resistance to the English conquest of Ulster

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A portion of the city walls of Derry, originally built in 1613–1619 to defend the plantation settlement there.

Ulster Protestant
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Ulster Protestants are an ethnoreligious group in the Irish province of Ulster, where they make up about 54% of the population. These settlers were mostly Lowland Scottish and Northern English people and predominantly from Galloway, begun privately in 1606, the Plantation of Ulster became government-sponsored in 1609, with much land for settlement

Ethnic conflict
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An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, or economic and this final criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle. Ethnic conflict does not necessarily have to be violent, in a multi-ethnic society where freedom of speech is prot

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A Chechen man praying during the battle of Grozny in 1995 (photography by Mikhail Evstafiev).

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A refugee camp for displaced Tutsi in Zaire following the Rwandan Genocide of 1994.

Sectarian violence
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Religious segregation often plays a role in sectarian violence. Sectarian violence differs from the concept of race riot and it may involve the dynamics of social polarization, the balkanization of a geographic area along the lines of self-identifying groups, and protracted social conflict. Some of the possible enabling environments for sectarian v

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Sectarian battle between Sunnis and Shias at the Battle of Siffin.

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The Battle of the White Mountain in Bohemia (1620)—one of the decisive battles of the Thirty Years War

Irish rebellion of 1641
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The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into a conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the oth

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Sir Felim O'Neill.

Transhumance
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Transhumance is a type of nomadism or pastoralism, a seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. In montane regions, it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter, herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys. Generally only the travel, with a certain number o

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A seter in Gudbrandsdal, Norway. Above the tree line in the mountains, it is used as a dwelling for those who accompany livestock to summer pasture.

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Moving sheep up along a road in the Massif Central, France

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Herd of horses on summer mountain pasture in the Pyrenees

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The summer settlement of the Ğorğoras village in Çaykara district of Trabzon province, Turkey

Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
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Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, KG, was an English nobleman and general. From 1573 until his death he fought in Ireland in connection with the Plantation of Ulster and he was the father of Elizabeth Is favourite of her later years, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. Walter Devereuxs mother was Dorothy Hastings, daughter of George Hastings, 1st

Tudor conquest of Ireland
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The Tudor conquest of Ireland took place under the Tudor dynasty, which held the Kingdom of England during the 16th century. By conciliation and repression the conquest continued for sixty years, until 1603 and this control was increased after the Flight of the Earls in 1607. The conquest was complicated by the imposition of English law, language a

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Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy of Ireland under Elizabeth I, sets out from Dublin Castle. Detail from a plate in The Image of Irelande, by John Derrick (London, 1581).

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Multilingual phrase book compiled by Sir Christopher Nugent for Elizabeth I of England.

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Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone

Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Cath

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Henry's childhood copy of De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne".

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An Illumination from a contemporary manuscript thought to depict Henry mourning the loss of his mother (1503). His sisters are also pictured.

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Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his coronation in 1509

Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was decl

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The "Darnley Portrait" of Elizabeth I (c. 1575)

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The Lady Elizabeth in about 1546, by an unknown artist

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The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a translation from the French, by Elizabeth, presented to Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherine Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth.

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Mary I, by Anthonis Mor, 1554

Brehon Laws
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Early Irish law, also called Brehon law, comprised the statutes which governed everyday life in Early Medieval Ireland. These secular laws existed in parallel, and occasionally in conflict, the secular legal texts of Ireland were edited by D. A. Binchy in his six-volume Corpus Iuris Hibernici. The oldest surviving law tracts date from the 8th centu

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Redwood Castle Co. Tipperary, although built by the Normans, was later occupied by the MacEgan juristic family and served as a school of Irish law under them

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Ruins of the O'Davoren law school at Cahermacnaghten, County Clare, which was occupied in the later Middle Ages

Arthur Chichester
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Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, was an English administrator and soldier who served as Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1605 to 1616. He was instrumental in the founding and expansion of Belfast, now Northern Irelands capital, after attending Exeter College, Oxford, favoured by many Devonians, Chichester commanded HMS Larke against t

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Anglo-Irish School portrait in the collection of Belfast Harbour Commissioners

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Frontispiece of the manuscript of the 1607 heraldic visitation by Ulster King of Arms Daniel Molyneux, undertaken in Dublin. On the right hand column are shown the arms of Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester of Belfast, then Lord Deputy of Ireland

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The traditional counties of Ireland subjected to plantations (1556 to 1620). This map is a simplified one, as in the case of some counties the area of land colonised did not cover the whole of the area coloured.

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Hugh O'Neill, who led Gaelic resistance to the English conquest of Ulster

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A portion of the city walls of Derry, originally built in 1613–1619 to defend the plantation settlement there.

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From top, left to right: Austin's Department Store, Derry's Walls, Free Derry Corner, Peace Bridge across the River Foyle, a view of Derry at night, Diamond War Memorial, 'Hands Across the Divide' sculpture.

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Clockwise from top: skyline of Boston, Massachusetts financial district at night; a building of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut; a view from Nubble Light on Cape Neddick, Maine; view from Mount Mansfield, Vermont; and a fisherman on Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

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Emblem

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Title page of John Smith's A Description of New England (1616)

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An early English map of New England, c. 1670, depicts the area around modern Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

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Bunratty Castle, besieged and taken by the Irish Confederates from an English Parliamentarian force in 1646. One of a string of Confederate victories in that year

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Oliver Cromwell landed in Ireland in 1649 to re-conquer the country on behalf of the English Parliament. He left in 1650, having taken eastern and southern Ireland – passing his command to Henry Ireton.

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The heavily fortified city of Galway in 1651. It was the last Irish stronghold to fall to the Parliamentarians, surrendering in 1652.

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Following the outbreak of the Rebellion, O'Neill and the other plotters proclaimed their loyalty to Charles I. O'Neill insisted he had received orders from the King to organise the rising.

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Sir Felim O'Neill

Irish Rebellion of 1641
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The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into a conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the oth

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Oliver Cromwell, who landed in Ireland in 1649 to re-conquer the country on behalf of the English Parliament. He left in 1650, having taken eastern and southern Ireland—passing his command to Henry Ireton

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William III ("William of Orange") King of England, Scotland and Ireland, Stadtholder of the Netherlands. Assumed James' thrones in the "Glorious Revolution" of 1689, with the support of the mainly Protestant "Williamites", but had to fight to subdue the Jacobite stronghold of Ireland in 1689–91.

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King John's Castle and Thomond Bridge at Limerick City. Limerick was besieged by the Williamites in 1690 and 1691.

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View from the slopes of Back Allegheny Mountain, looking east; visible are Allegheny Mountain (in the Monongahela National Forest of West Virginia, middle distance) and Shenandoah Mountain (in the George Washington National Forest of Virginia, far distance)

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Detail of Diego Gutiérrez's 1562 map of the Western Hemisphere, showing the first known use of a variation of the place name "Appalachia" ("Apalchen") - from the map Americae sive qvartae orbis partis nova et exactissima descriptio

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Shaded relief map of the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians on the Virginia – West Virginia border

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Old fault exposed by roadcut near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, along Interstate 81, such faults are common in the folded Appalachians