Interactive Health Communication Applications for people with chronic disease (Review)

Transcription

1 Interactive Health Communication Applications for people with chronic disease (Review) Murray E, Burns J, See Tai S, Lai R, Nazareth I This is a reprint of a Cochrane review, prepared and maintained by The Cochrane Collaboration and published in The Cochrane Library 2009, Issue 1

3 [Intervention Review] Interactive Health Communication Applications for people with chronic disease Elizabeth Murray 1, Joanne Burns 1, Sharon See Tai 1, Rosalind Lai 2, Irwin Nazareth 1 1 Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences, University College London, London, UK. 2 NLH Primary Care Q & A Service, Aberystwyth, UK Contact address: Elizabeth Murray, Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences, University College London, Level 2 Holborn Union Building, Archway Campus, London, N19 5LW, UK. Editorial group: Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group. Publication status and date: Edited (no change to conclusions), published in Issue 1, Review content assessed as up-to-date: 29 December Citation: Murray E, Burns J, See Tai S, Lai R, Nazareth I. Interactive Health Communication Applications for people with chronic disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD DOI: / CD pub4. Background A B S T R A C T Interactive Health Communication Applications (IHCAs) are computer-based, usually web-based, information packages for patients that combine health information with at least one of social support, decision support, or behaviour change support. These are innovations in health care and their effects on health are uncertain. Objectives To assess the effects of IHCAs for people with chronic disease. Search methods We designed a four-part search strategy. First, we searched electronic bibliographic databases for published work; second, we searched the grey literature; and third, we searched for ongoing and recently completed clinical trials in the appropriate databases. Finally, researchers of included studies were contacted, and reference lists from relevant primary and review articles were followed up. As IHCAs require relatively new technology, the search time period commenced at 1990, where possible, and ran until 31 December Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of IHCAs for adults and children with chronic disease. Data collection and analysis One review author screened abstracts for relevance. Two review authors screened all candidate studies to determine eligibility, apply quality criteria, and extract data from included studies. Authors of included RCTs were contacted for missing data. Results of RCTs were pooled using random-effects model with standardised mean differences (SMDs) for continuous outcomes and odds ratios for binary outcomes; heterogeneity was assessed using the I 2 statistic. Main results We identified 24 RCTs involving 3739 participants which were included in the review. IHCAs had a significant positive effect on knowledge (SMD 0.46; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.22 to 0.69), social support (SMD 0.35; 95% CI 0.18 to 0.52) and clinical outcomes (SMD 0.18; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.35). Results suggest it is more likely than not that 1

4 IHCAs have a positive effect on self-efficacy (a person s belief in their capacity to carry out a specific action) (SMD 0.24; 95% CI 0.00 to 0.48). IHCAs had a significant positive effect on continuous behavioural outcomes (SMD 0.20; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.40). Binary behavioural outcomes also showed a positive effect for IHCAs, although this result was not statistically significant (OR 1.66; 95% CI 0.71 to 3.87). It was not possible to determine the effects of IHCAs on emotional or economic outcomes. Authors conclusions IHCAs appear to have largely positive effects on users, in that users tend to become more knowledgeable, feel better socially supported, and may have improved behavioural and clinical outcomes compared to non-users. There is a need for more high quality studies with large sample sizes to confirm these preliminary findings, to determine the best type and best way to deliver IHCAs, and to establish how IHCAs have their effects for different groups of people with chronic illness. P L A I N L A N G U A G E S U M M A R Y Computer-based programmes ( Interactive Health Communication Applications ) for people with chronic disease People with chronic disease have multiple needs, including information about their illness and the various treatment options; social support; support with making decisions; and help with achieving behaviour change, for example, changes in diet or exercise. Computerbased programmes which combine health information with online peer support, decision support, or help with behaviour change may be one way of meeting these needs, and of helping people to achieve better health. This review sought to find out how such computer programmes, known as Interactive Health Communication Applications (IHCAs), might affect people with chronic disease. The review authors found that IHCAs improved users knowledge, social support, health behaviours and clinical outcomes. It is also more likely than not that IHCAs improve users self-efficacy (a person s belief in their capacity to carry out a specific action). It was not possible to determine whether IHCAs had any effect on emotional and economic outcomes. The included studies involved different IHCAs, with different characteristics, for a wide range of chronic diseases. There was variability in several of the outcomes, and the results should therefore be treated with some caution. There is a need for more large, high quality studies to confirm these preliminary findings, to determine the best type and best way to deliver IHCAs, and to establish how IHCAs have their effects for different groups of people with chronic illness. B A C K G R O U N D Interactive Health Communication Applications (IHCAs) are computer-based, usually web-based, packages for patients that combine health information with at least one of social support, decision support, or behaviour change support. To date, the major conceptual thinking in this area has been undertaken in the USA by the Science Panel on Interactive Communication and Health (SciPICH 1998), which convened in This panel defined the terms Interactive Health Communications and Interactive Health Communication Applications as follows: Definitions Interactive Health Communication (IHC): the interaction of an individual - consumer, patient, caregiver, or professional - with or through an electronic device or communication technology to access or transmit health information or receive guidance and support on a health-related issue. Using this definition, IHC encompasses technology-mediated health communication and does not include direct communication such as face-to-face clinician-patient counselling (Eng 1999). Interactive Health Communication Applications (IHCAs): the operational software programmes or modules that interface with the end user. This includes health information and support web sites and clinical decision-support and risk assessment software (which may or may not be online), but does not include applications that focus exclusively on administrative, financial, or clinical data, such as electronic medical records, dedicated clinical telemedicine applications or clinical decision-support systems for providers (Eng 1999). According to SciPICH (Eng 1999), the functions of IHCAs are to: relay information; enable informed decision making; 2

5 promote health behaviours; promote peer information exchange and emotional support; promote self-care; and manage demand for health services. Hence the important defining feature of an IHCA is that it does not simply provide health information, but combines such information with at least one (and frequently more than one) additional service. This additional service can be decision support, behaviour change support or peer support. The mode of delivery is not important in defining IHCAs. Nor is the site of use important in this definition, although access may have an impact on the effects of IHCAs. Hence, IHCAs can be used by individuals in their own homes, or through public internet access points, such as doctors offices, internet cafes, libraries or information kiosks. IHCAs do not include new mechanisms for simple doctor-patient communication; between a physician and patient is therefore not an IHCA. Some IHCAs, however, do include components, where users can questions to a dedicated health professional. This professional is not usually part of the patient s normal health care team. Peer support is often in the form of online chat rooms, peer posting of answers to Frequently Asked Questions, or patient stories about their illness journey. Potential benefits and harms of IHCAs The overwhelming majority of the published literature in this field refers to potential benefits of IHCAs. Even the SciPICH panel, which was intended to take a strategic overview of the area, pays little attention to the potential harms of IHCAs, referring briefly to the need for evaluation to identify unintended negative consequences (Eng 1999). In terms of the functions of IHCAs listed above, the published consensus thinking can be summarised as follows: Relaying information IHCAs are expected to be superior to conventional means of relaying information to patients, as IHCAs can contain large volumes of information, but present it in small, accessible chunks. Information can be updated centrally as new research evidence becomes available. Good web design is expected to allow users to drill down to reach the level of information desired, ranging from broad introductory information to detailed information about, for example, treatments currently under development. Information can be tailored to individuals, according to data provided by the user, for example, on their dietary or exercise habits. This increases the personal relevance and retention of information (Dijkstra 1999; Walker 1998). Moreover, the information can be presented in accessible formats, by using video and audio clips, simple graphics and personal stories. IHCAs can be visited and revisited at the user s convenience, either as information needs change, for a reminder, or to share information with friends, family or carers. There are, however, both theoretical and empirical reasons to believe that health information on its own is insufficient to achieve positive outcomes (Haby 2001). Combining information with peer support, behaviour change support or decision support may lead to some of the following benefits expected from an IHCA (Klemm 2003). Enabling informed decision-making The expectation here is that well-informed patients will be more able to make informed decisions than patients who do not have access to information. IHCAs do not have to contain formal decision-support tools, although some do. Promoting health behaviours Again, the expectation here is that well-informed people are more likely to follow healthy behaviours than poorly-informed people. However, this assumption is probably only partially correct - if knowledge was all that was needed to promote healthy behaviour, smoking, for example, would not be as prevalent as it is. Promoting peer information exchange and emotional support Patient desire for peer information exchange and emotional support has been well documented, and forms the basis for the many successful self-help organisations that exist across the developed world. SciPICH and other researchers in this field have postulated that IHCAs will allow the formation of online support communities, and that these will be beneficial to participants. Promoting self-care This assumption is based on the literature on self-care. It is known that peer-led groups can promote self-care (Bodenheimer 2002), and proponents of IHCAs suggest that this function can be delivered through online groups. Managing demand for health services This assumption may also be flawed, as it is based on the view that well-informed consumers, actively engaging in self-care, will place less demand on health services than those who are less well informed. The rationale for this assumption comes from Lorig s work on self-care for chronic disease (Bodenheimer 2002). However, the alternative is also possible: well-informed consumers may recognise the value of specific treatments, thus increasing uptake and hence costs. There is no list of possible harms of IHCAs in the literature; however there are references to the following areas of concern: 3

6 Equity Will IHCAs increase or reduce equity in terms of access to services, quality of care and health outcomes? On the one hand, the widespread access to the internet may help to promote equity, allowing people access to information they would find hard to access using traditional media. Alternatively, the digital divide may increase disparities, either in terms of access to information, or in the use people are able to make of the information. False or misleading information The possibility of IHCAs providing false or misleading information, and the effects of such misinformation have caused concern (Eysenbach 2002). Privacy In order for an IHCA to provide tailored information, the user has to input substantial detail about his or her health. How will the privacy of this information be guarded? Malpractice Some writers have raised concerns about malpractice issues, particularly from the point of view of developers of IHCAs and those with commercial interests. Can such developers be sued if a user has an unexpected negative outcome as a result of using the IHCA? (Patrick 1999). Quality criteria Accuracy of information, safeguarding of privacy, and issues around malpractice represent some of the components of overarching concern about IHCA quality. What are the criteria for a good IHCA? Should there be a body responsible for licensing or monitoring IHCAs, and if so, who should be represented on this body, and how should it operate? (Patrick 1999). Rationale for developing IHCAs for people with chronic disease Chronic disease is defined as a disease or condition that is ongoing, in contrast to acute conditions which resolve completely within a relatively short time period. People with chronic disease can be considered to be on an illness journey (Lapsley 2004), starting with the original symptoms which lead to diagnosis, and continuing through phases which may include relapse and remission; steady levels of health; improvement; or deterioration. There is good evidence that people with chronic disease want more, and better, information about their health problems and the various treatment options available (Coulter 1999). Information needs tend to change as patients progress through their illness journey, and different patients will have different needs at different points (Davison 2002). Some people will only want access to simple information, while others will want to be as well informed as possible, and will search for detailed, in-depth information (Stewart 2000). Self-management of chronic disease requires a number of tasks and skills. According to Lorig (Lorig 2003), there are three sets of tasks: first the medical management of the condition, such as taking medication, adhering to a diet, or using an inhaler. The second set of tasks involves maintaining, changing and creating new meaningful behaviours or life roles. The final set of tasks is dealing with the emotional sequelae of having a chronic condition. Emotions such as anger, fear, frustration and depression are commonly experienced by someone with a chronic disease; hence learning to manage these emotions is part of the work required to manage the condition (Corbin 1988). The skills needed for these tasks include problem-solving, decision-making, finding and utilising resources, forming partnerships with healthcare workers and taking action (Lorig 2003). Lorig postulates that enhancing selfefficacy (ie. a person s belief in their capacity to carry out a specific action) is a key step in programmes that effectively enable patients to improve their self-management skills (Lorig 2003). IHCAs have the potential to address these multiple needs. IHCAs can provide accurate, detailed information in an accessible way. They can provide peer support, which may help with the tasks relating to life roles and negative emotions. We have also seen that the literature claims that IHCAs may enable decision-making, and promote desirable health behaviours (which may require taking action). International situation The majority of work in this field has been undertaken in the USA. Most of the evaluations have occurred in academic centres; however, a large and increasing number of IHCAs are developed outside the academic framework, and are sold to health insurance companies and other healthcare providers as a means of maintaining patient satisfaction while reducing healthcare costs. In Australia, the benefits of internet access to health information for rural populations, often living long distances from urban centres, has been well recognised, and there has been considerable investment in this, including in IHCAs. In the UK, IHCAs are at the intersection of a number of core National Health Service (NHS) policies. These include the Expert Patient Policy (DOH; EPTF 2001), which recognises the importance of patient expertise in self-management, and the heavy investment in online information for both patients and professionals (eg. NHS Direct Online, nhs.uk, and the National Electronic Library for Health). For example, NHS Direct Online has a budget of 7.5 million over three years to place patient information materials on its website. Research in the 4

7 UK is, however, less well developed than that in the USA. Overall, work in the field of IHCAs is at present limited to the developed world. Existing systematic reviews Two systematic reviews which overlap with IHCAs for chronic disease have already been undertaken - one on computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) (Kaltenthaler 2002) and one on decision aids (O Connor 2003). Computerised cognitive behavioural therapy Kaltenthaler s review, published in 2002, examined the clinical and cost effectiveness of CCBT compared to treatment as usual or therapist-led cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for treatment of depression and/or anxiety. Included in this remit were generalised anxiety, panic disorders, agoraphobia, social phobia and specific phobias. The intervention studied was CCBT delivered alone or as part of a package of care, either via a computer interface or over the telephone with a computer-led interface. The review included RCTs, and, for outcomes where RCT evidence was not available, non-randomised studies. Sixteen studies were included, from which the authors concluded that there was some evidence of poor-to-moderate quality that CCBT is as effective as therapistled CBT in clinically-depressed, anxious or phobic outpatient and primary care populations. Authors also reported limited evidence of poor-to-moderate quality that CCBT is more effective than treatment as usual for these patient populations. Decision aids O Connor s Cochrane review, updated in 2003, examined the effects of decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions. They define decision aids as preparing people to participate in preference-sensitive decisions. In order for an intervention to be included in the review, it had to be designed to help people make specific and deliberative choices among options (including the status quo) by providing (at the minimum) information on the options and outcomes relevant to a person s health status. The aid also may have included: information on the disease/condition; costs associated with options; probabilities of outcomes tailored to personal health risk factors; an explicit values clarification exercise; information on others opinions; a personalized recommendation on the basis of clinical characteristics and expressed preferences; and guidance or coaching in the steps of decision making and in communicating with others. Decision aids range from simple paper-and-pencil aids to complex multimedia computer programmes. Thirty-four RCTs were included in this review, and provided evidence that, compared to usual care, decision aids improved user knowledge, led to more realistic expectations, reduced decisional conflict relating to feeling informed, increased the proportion of people active in decision making and reduced the proportion of people who remained undecided post intervention. Decision aids did no better than comparisons in affecting satisfaction with decision making, anxiety and health outcomes. Relationships with this review Whether CCBT fulfils the definition of an IHCA will depend on the makeup of individual programmes. Where the programme contains health information coupled with behaviour change support, it would fit in the remit of an IHCA. However, where the programme more closely mimics a client-therapist relationship, it may well not. The primary aim of CCBT is to replace (or in some cases act as an adjunct to) therapist-led CBT, that is, to enable patients to identify, and subsequently alter, the cognitions and behaviours which lead to the development and maintenance of mental health problems. They are not primarily designed to relay information; enable informed decision making; promote health behaviours; promote peer information exchange and emotional support; promote self-care; or manage demand for health services. Their primary aim was well addressed in the Kaltenthaler review (Kaltenthaler 2002). We decided it was inappropriate to subdivide CCBT packages into those which were IHCAs, and those which were not, and then assess the former against aims which the packages were not designed to address. Similarly, some decision aids are IHCAs, while others are not. Again, decision aids have a unifying primary aim, stated in the O Connor review (O Connor 2003), which is to prepare people for participating in preference-sensitive decisions. Decision aids tend to focus on rubicon decisions - for example, participating in a screening programme, or having an operation. In contrast, although IHCAs often contain decision support, this is only one component of the total package. The decision support may be around more ongoing issues, for example, when to increase the dose of inhaled steroids for a patient with asthma. As with our approach to CCBT, we decided not to subdivide decision aids into those which were IHCAs and those which were not, but to exclude decision aids from the review. Postulated pathway of action of IHCAs Review of the health psychology literature (Armitage 2001), coupled with proposed pathways of action of specific IHCAs (Brown 1997; Gustafson 1999) or other self-management interventions (Lorig 2003), led us to postulate that IHCAs act by combining information with additional services (peer support, decision support or behaviour change support) to allow internalisation and interpretation of the information by the user. This leads to changes in knowledge, motivation for improved health or health behaviours, affective parameters and self-efficacy. It is likely that these factors interact with each other; for example, understanding the risks of 5

8 the condition may increase or reduce the user s anxiety levels with subsequent follow-on effect on their motivation to improve health. The combination of enhanced self-efficacy with motivation and knowledge enables users to change their health behaviours, leading in turn to changes in clinical outcomes (Figure 1). Our analytical approach was designed to test this hypothesised pathway of action. Hence, we did not examine outcomes such as decisional confidence, which were not part of the hypothesised pathway of action. 6

9 Figure 1. 7

10 Summary of rationale for review The literature contains many claims for potential benefits of IH- CAs, and very substantial investment in IHCAs is occurring in the USA and UK; however it is unclear to what extent these benefits actually occur. This review examined the effects of IHCAs for people with chronic disease. The objectives were designed to test the claims in the literature for potential benefits of IHCAs and our postulated pathway of action. Outcomes which were not reflected in our hypothesised pathway of action were not examined, with the exception of economic outcomes which we considered to be of great interest to health service policy makers and managers and so were included. Potential harms were insufficiently described in the literature to be formally tested in this review; however, we scrutinised included studies for evidence of unintended adverse consequences. O B J E C T I V E S The objectives of this systematic review were to determine the effects of IHCAs on patients in terms of: knowledge; social support; self-efficacy; emotional outcomes; behavioural outcomes; clinical outcomes; and to determine the effects of IHCAs on economic outcomes, in terms of resource utilisation. M E T H O D S Criteria for considering studies for this review Types of studies In our protocol, we had planned to include randomised controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-randomised trials, before-and-after studies, interrupted time series analyses and economic evaluations. We had intended to use RCTs to draw conclusions about effectiveness; before-and-after studies and interrupted time series studies for conclusions about promising interventions ready for trialling; and qualitative studies and surveys to inform the background and discussion. This over-inclusiveness was designed to avoid missing important or significant data in a rapidly expanding field, preliminary exploration of which suggested that it did not contain many RCTs. However, the search strategy found 24 RCTs meeting the inclusion criteria. We were therefore able to raise the study design threshold for inclusion in the review to include RCTs only, as these provide a more robust level of evidence. N of 1 trials were excluded. Types of participants People of all ages with chronic disease (Black 1995). This includes children, as long as the intervention was able to be used by the child. Community, primary care, outpatient and inpatient populations were included. Some interventions were aimed at carers, particularly for patients with Alzheimer s; results for carers are reported separately. Chronic disease was defined as a disease or condition that is ongoing, in contrast to acute conditions which resolve completely within a relatively short time period. Common chronic diseases include diabetes mellitus, ischaemic heart disease, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, epilepsy, Parkinson s disease, Alzheimer s disease, arthritis and renal failure. In accordance with current guidelines, obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 30 kg / m 2 ) was considered a chronic disease, whereas being overweight but not obese (BMI < 30 kg / m 2 ) was not. Where there was any doubt as to whether a condition was a chronic disease or not, the decision was referred to the steering group. Types of interventions IHCAs, as defined by SciPICH and described in the Background to this review. This was operationalised as any package that required the user to interact directly with any form of computer, and contained health information plus at least one of peer support, decision support or behaviour change support, and was not defined by the authors of the paper as a decision aid or computerised cognitive behavioural therapy. Comparisons: normal care, non-interactive forms of patient education (e.g. written, audiotape, video, group or one-to-one didactic sessions led by either peers or professionals); interactive educational sessions led either by peers or professionals. We excluded decision aids and computerised cognitive behavioural therapy for the reasons given in the Background (Kaltenthaler 2002; O Connor 2003). We excluded decision-support systems aimed solely at professionals, and simple information packages that did not contain social support, decision support or behaviour 8

11 change support, as these are not IHCAs. Similarly, we excluded interventions that only contained social support, decision support or behaviour change support with no health information, as this did not fit our operationalisation of the SciPICH definition. Types of outcome measures Outcome measures were chosen to reflect our objectives. These were in turn based on the benefits of IHCAs claimed in the literature, and on our postulated pathway of action of IHCAs. Our outcome categories were: effects on patients in terms of knowledge, social support, self-efficacy, emotions and health behaviours; health outcomes; and resource utilisation. Self-efficacy refers to a person s belief in their capacity to undertake a specific action or achieve a specific goal. Search methods for identification of studies We designed a four-part search strategy. First, we searched the following electronic databases: The Cochrane Library Issue 2, 2003; MEDLINE (1990 to 2003); EMBASE (1990 to 2003); PsycINFO (1990 to 2003); CINAHL (1990 to 2003). Second, to capture grey literature, we searched: ASLIB Index to Theses (1990 to 2003); Dissertation Abstracts (1990 to 2003); System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe (SIGLE) (1990 to 2003); for conference proceedings, the Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings database (1990 to 2003). Third, for ongoing and recently-completed clinical trials, we searched: National Research Register (2003); International Register of Controlled Trials (2003); MetaRegister of Controlled Trials (2003). Finally, we contacted researchers of included studies and screened reference lists from relevant primary and review articles for potentially useful studies. As IHCAs require relatively new technology, most work in this area has been undertaken since In order to capture early or pioneering studies, the search was started at 1990 where possible. As our original protocol was not limited to RCTs, no RCT-only filter was applied. Biomedical databases The systematic review topic was reduced to two concepts: interactive health communication applications (IHCAs) and functions of the interactive health communication applications (functions). Although the systematic review focused on chronic disease, we agreed it would be impossible to list all chronic diseases, so the decision as to whether the disease described in the study was chronic was made at the screening abstracts stage. Queries were referred to the steering group for discussion. A number of papers discussing interactive health communication were read and were used to generate a list of thesaurus and text word search terms to create a search strategy in the MEDLINE database. The search was run and the resulting papers were examined to assess their relevance and to gauge the precision and comprehensiveness of the search strategy. Overall it was thought that the strategy was identifying appropriate papers. A few minor additional phrase terms were added to the search strategy, namely digital interactive television and interactive video disks. Finally a validated methodology filter designed to capture clinical trials, RCTs and prospective studies was added to the search (see below). In order to avoid missing potentially useful references, we generated a list of examples of interactive health communication software packages, and ran a second search on these. This second search did not retrieve any unique references when compared to the original MEDLINE search, and thus only the first MEDLINE strategy was employed. The MEDLINE search strategy was used as a model for searching the EMBASE, PsycINFO and CINAHL databases. The Cochrane Library was searched in two parts. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness (DARE) and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) were searched using the KA24 Ovid Interface. This version of The Cochrane Library does not support thesaurus searching, and therefore only the text words and phrases from the MEDLINE search strategy could be used. The Health Technology Assessment database (HTA) and the National Health Service Economic Evaluation Database database (NHSEED), part of The Cochrane Library, were searched via the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination s website using a modified version of the MEDLINE strategy. In both these databases, it was not possible to build up the search set-by-set (line-by-line) and then link them by AND, thus each line of the MEDLINE strategy had to be run as a separate search. It was decided at this point to search only the IHCA terms, and to view the records to see if any of them described interactive health communication functions, rather than inputting all lines of the MEDLINE search relating to the functions of IHCAs. Grey literature SIGLE (System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe), the ASLIB Index to Theses, Dissertation Abstracts, the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trials Register, the MetaRegister of Randomised Controlled Trials and the National Research Register were all searched using the same approach as the HTA and 9

12 NHSEED databases (ie. using just the IHCA terms). For the Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings, this again was searched using free text terms and phrases to cover IHCAs. This database covers all areas of science, and thus to avoid generating unmanageable numbers of records, it was necessary to link the very general search phrases, eg. computers communication, to one or more of the following search terms: medicine OR health OR therap* OR counsel* OR health education OR patient education OR health promotion. The search strategy for MEDLINE is given at Appendix 1. Modified versions of this strategy were used for other databases and registers, and are available in full from the review authors on request. Data collection and analysis Document retrieval Citations and brief records identified by the search strategy were downloaded electronically into a bibliographic management package (RefMan10), whenever possible. Where search results could not be saved electroncally, paper records were kept. Titles and/ or abstracts were assessed by a single researcher (EM or JB). Assessments erred on the side of inclusiveness; in other words, if we could not definitely exclude the study at this stage, we requested the full paper. There was no language restriction. Where necessary, we sought help for translation from colleagues. Study selection process This was a multi-stage process. The selection criteria were applied liberally to the titles and/or abstracts generated by the search. All titles and abstracts identified as potentially reporting studies involving an IHCA for people with a chronic disease were provisionally included for consideration on the basis of full text articles. The reproducibility of this process was tested in the early stages of the review and found to be good. Final inclusion/exclusion decisions were made by consensus by two independent researchers (EM and JB) after retrieving the full text copies of all potentially-relevant citations and determining whether they met the inclusion criteria. Disagreements or questions were referred to the steering group, where a decision was reached by consensus and the reasons for the decision recorded. All studies which fulfilled the inclusion criteria were included in the systematic review, and listed in the table of included studies. Included studies which presented sufficient data to allow calculation of standardised mean differences (SMD) or odds ratios (OR) were included in the relevant meta-analyses. Study quality assessment Two independent researchers (EM and JB) assessed RCTs for quality. In line with the Cochrane Reviewers Handbook (Alderson 2004), studies were assessed for adequacy of concealment of allocation to experimental or control groups. Concealment of allocation was considered adequate if centralised randomisation or another robust method to prevent foreknowledge were used. Inadequate measures included use of alternation, case record numbers, birth dates, weekdays or open random number lists. Studies were rated as having adequate concealment of allocation (A); unclear (B); or having inadequate concealment (C) (Alderson 2004). The two other important factors contributing to study validity are blinding the assessor to participant s allocated group, and follow-up. Almost all studies relied heavily on self-reports for measurement of outcomes, and many of the outcomes are subjective, so blinding the assessor was not possible, and we did not apply this criterion. Information on the follow-up rate is provided in an additional table giving further information on included studies (Table 1). Data extraction Two review authors (EM and SST) independently extracted data. Data extracted included: author(s); date of publication; details of the intervention and control; details of participants; outcome measures reported in the primary studies; duration of follow-up and time at which outcomes were measured; and end-point mean, standard deviation and number of participants for the main outcome measure in each category of outcomes. Data were extracted onto standardised computer-based forms. Disagreements about data extracted were addressed by discussion between the two review authors. If the disagreement could not have been resolved by discussion, it would have been referred to the steering group; however this was not necessary. Only data from one outcome measure per outcome category were extracted, to prevent double counting. When there was more than one outcome measure in a particular outcome category, the decision as to which outcome data would be extracted was taken in a steering group meeting. These decisions were based on the clinical importance, or importance to consumers, of the outcome; or on the similarity of the outcome to those reported in other studies to enable data synthesis. The steering group were not aware of the results for each outcome during these discussions. When there were data missing, or where it was not possible to extract the necessary data because of the way it had been presented in the paper, we contacted the lead author requesting further information. As a result of these requests, missing data were provided for three studies, and stated not to be available for one study. Once the data had been double extracted into computer-based forms, it was entered into RevMan by one review author (SST). Printouts of the data entered into RevMan were independently 10

13 checked against the data entry forms and the original papers by two review authors (EM and JB). Data synthesis We decided to pool the data in a meta-analysis for a number of reasons. This review examines the effects of an intervention (IHCA) across a range of chronic disease, and is deliberately not limited to one disease. As this is a relatively new area of research, there are only a handful of studies in each disease area. This is insufficient to allow us to perform a meta-analysis for any one disease area. Further, IHCAs are designed to achieve similar outcomes (eg. beneficial changes in knowledge, perceived social support, health behaviours and clinical outcomes) across a range of diseases. We postulate that the IHCAs have a common method of working across all diseases (see Figure 1). For these reasons, we believe it appropriate to pool the data across studies for the various outcome categories. Two studies (Brennan 1995; Mahoney 2002) reported data from carers, as the intervention was targeted at carers of patients with Alzheimer s disease/memory loss. We decided not to combine data from carers with data from patients; however, where it was possible to calculate SMDs for carers outcomes these are included in the Additional tables of results. Calculation of individual study estimates of the effect of the IHCA The study outcome categories were knowledge, social support, self-efficacy, emotional, behavioural, clinical and economic outcomes. Data reported for emotional outcomes were too diverse to pool, and data for economic outcomes were too incomplete to allow extraction of meaningful data. Hence, meta-analyses were only performed for knowledge, social support, self-efficacy, behavioural and clinical outcomes. Final assessment means, standard deviations and sample sizes of the main outcome measure in each outcome category were used for each individual study s estimates. Three studies (Glasgow 2003; Gustafson 1999; Gustafson 2001) presented covariate adjusted end point means for their behavioural and social support outcomes and for clinical outcomes (Glasgow 2003). These adjusted means and standard deviations were used in the calculations for these outcomes. The knowledge outcome for one study (Horan 1990), behavioural outcomes for three studies (Guendelman 2002; Homer 2000; Horan 1990), and clinical outcome for one study (Guendelman 2002) were expressed as binary variables. The data for the behavioural outcome takes asthma medication without a reminder in (Guendelman 2002) were presented in the original paper in three categories: seldom or never, most or all of the time. For the purpose of analysis, these three categories were dichotomised into seldom or never versus most or all of the time. Use of standardised mean difference The effect size for all continuous outcome variables was calculated as the standardised mean difference (SMD), which is the difference in the intervention and control group means divided by the pooled standard deviation with an adjustment for small sample bias. The SMD was used as there were several different scales or measures used to measure the same outcome. In the social support, emotional, behavioural and clinical outcome categories, some scales represented an improved outcome with an increased score, while others represented an improved outcome with a lower score. In order to harmonise these, for those outcomes where improvement was represented by a decreased score, the final means were multiplied by -1 as suggested in the Cochrane Reviewers Handbook (Section ) (Alderson 2004) before being entered into RevMan. SMDs were classified as positive when in favour of the intervention, and negative when in favour of the control. They were also categorised according to Lipsey categories, that is, small = 0 to 0.32; medium > 0.32 to 0.55; and large > 0.55 (Lipsey 1993). Use of odds ratios The knowledge outcome for one study (Horan 1990), behavioural outcomes for three studies (Guendelman 2002; Homer 2000; Horan 1990), and clinical outcome for one study (Guendelman 2002) were expressed as binary variables. The final assessment odds ratios (ORs) were calculated for all binary outcomes as: odds of favourable event in intervention group / odds of favourable event in control group as suggested in the Cochrane Reviewers Handbook (Box 8.2.1) (Alderson 2004). Outcomes in favour of the intervention (IHCA) were thereby represented by odds ratios greater than 1. For consistency, the clinical binary outcome of any limitation in activity was reversed to no limitation of activity so that an OR of greater than 1 continued to represent an outcome in favour of the intervention. Combining the results in a random-effects meta-analysis RevMan 4.2 software was used to combine the individual study SMDs in a meta-analysis. There are two models for combining the effects of several studies: the fixed-effects model and the random-effects model. The fixed-effects model assumes that the only variability that occurs between studies arises from random variation and assumes a common effect. The random-effects model assumes that the effects in the studies are not all the same and takes this into consideration as an additional source of variation. Effects are also assumed to be randomly distributed, and the combined effect estimate is the central point of this distribution (Cochrane Reviewers Handbook Section 8.6) (Alderson 2004). A randomeffects meta-analysis is more conservative, and was used here as it was considered a more appropriate model to combine the results of the included studies which were clinically and methodologically diverse. Variations included different IHCAs, different 11

14 lengths of exposure to the intervention (from 20 minutes to over 9 months), and different disease conditions. The random-effects meta-analysis performed in RevMan uses a variation on the inverse variance method known as the DerSimonian and Laird method (DerSimonian 1986), which also includes assessments for heterogeneity (Cochrane Reviewers Handbook Section 8.6.2) (Alderson 2004). Heterogeneity may be present as a result of clinical or methodological differences between studies. Separate meta-analyses were performed for knowledge, social support, self-efficacy, behavioural and clinical outcomes. An overall effect was calculated for each meta-analysis, and a positive value indicated the effect was in favour of the intervention. The three binary behavioural outcomes were combined in a separate random-effects meta-analysis. In order to describe a gradient of effect sizes across the range of outcomes addressed, in presenting the results, we have distinguished between those which had a positive effect (favouring the intervention) and were statistically significant, and those where the results suggest that it is more likely than not that IHCAs have a positive effect on outcomes, but where the results were not statistically significant. Consumer participation A consumer with experience of chronic disease and development of an IHCA for other people with chronic disease was an active member of the steering group. In addition, he internally peerreviewed the report for comprehensibility and use of language. R E S U L T S Description of studies See: Characteristics of included studies; Characteristics of excluded studies; Characteristics of ongoing studies. We identified 24,757 unique citations. Of these, 958 were either potentially relevant, or could not be adequately assessed without retrieving the full paper. Once the full report had been retrieved, the majority were not included in the review as: (1) the intervention was not an IHCA (692 papers); (2) the participants did not have a chronic disease (114 papers); or (3) the paper did not refer to an RCT (50 papers). One hundred and one papers reported a total of 32 RCTs of an IHCA for chronic disease. Eight of these were excluded (see Characteristics of excluded studies) leaving the 24 RCTs contained within the Characteristics of included studies table. These 24 included studies involved a total of 3739 participants, and covered a range of conditions. These conditions are listed below, with the numbers in square brackets [ ] indicating the number of included studies dealing with each condition: AIDS / HIV (adults) [2]; Alzheimer s disease / memory loss(carers) [2]; asthma (children) [6]; cancer (breast, leukaemia) (children and adults) [3]; diabetes (both Type 1 and Type 2) (children and adults) [6]; eating disorders (adults) [1]; encopresis (faecal soiling) (children) [1]; obesity (adults) [2]; urinary incontinence (adult women) [1]. Inclusion in the meta-analyses Of the 24 included studies presented in the Characteristics of included studies and Additional Table 1, only 14 provided data suitable for use in one or more of the meta-analyses. The reasons for not including data from studies which appeared to provide data relevant to the meta-analyses are presented below and summarised in Additional Table 2. Carers Two studies presented data on carers, not patients (Brennan 1995; Mahoney 2002) and so were not used in the meta-analyses. As these studies did provide data suitable for calculating the SMD, they are described in the text, and the SMD presented in the relevant additional tables. Knowledge Dragone (Dragone 2002) studied children with leukaemia. Knowledge, as measured by the leukaemia event knowledge interview was an outcome; however, it was not possible to calculate the SMD from the data presented. Homer studied children with asthma (Homer 2000); a knowledge outcome was included, but it was not possible to calculate the SMD. Huss (Huss 2003) studied children with asthma, and measured knowledge; however this paper did not report data on the asthma knowledge test, and it was unclear whether the measure for which data were presented (the Air Control Questionnaire) was solely a measure of knowledge, or whether it also assessed other outcomes. Ritterband (Ritterband 2003) studied children with encopresis (faecal soiling). Knowledge was measured using the Encopresis Knowledge Questionnaire but it was not possible to calculate the SMD from the data presented. All other studies which presented data on knowledge are included in Additional Table 3 with either the SMD or OR results. Social support Brennan (Brennan 1995) presented data on social isolation for carers; these data are presented in the additional table but not used in the meta-analysis. Smith (Smith 2000) studied rural women with diabetes and measured global social support with the Personal Resource Questionnaire, but it was not possible to calculate SMD from the data provided. All other studies which presented data 12

15 on social support are represented in the meta-analysis (Additional Table 4). Self-efficacy Only three studies reported data on self-efficacy and all three are included in the meta-analysis (Additional Table 5). the methods of randomisation and/or the concealment of allocation. Twenty-one of the 24 included studies reported information on follow-up rates. Of these, six achieved follow-up rates of 100%; six achieved rates of 90 to 100%; four achieved rates of 80 to 89%; three achieved rates of 70 to 79%; and two reported followup rates of between 60 to 69%. None reported follow-up rates of less than 60%. Follow up rates for each study are presented in Additional Table 1. Behavioural outcomes Ritterband (Ritterband 2003) studied children with encopresis (faecal soiling), and included a behavioural outcome (VECAT); however it was not possible to calculate SMD from the data presented. Wydra (Wydra 2001) studied adults with cancer and included behavioural outcomes (self-care activities); however it was not possible to calculate SMD from the data presented. Wylie- Rosett (Wylie-Rosett 2001) studied adults with obesity and included the behavioural outcome of dietary intake; however as endpoint standard deviations were not presented it was not possible to calculate the SMD. All other studies which presented data on behavioural outcomes are included in Additional Table 6 with either SMD or OR results. Clinical outcomes Gorman (Gorman 1995) studied adult women with urinary incontinence, and included a clinical outcome (episodes of urinary incontinence); however it was not possible to calculate an SMD from the data presented. Homer (Homer 2000) studied children with asthma and included a clinical outcome but it was not possible to calculate an SMD from the data presented. Horan (Horan 1990) studied adolescents with Type 1 diabetes mellitus, and included a clinical outcome (glycosylated haemoglobin) in the design; however data on this outcome were not reported. Huss (Huss 2003) studied children with asthma, and undertook spirometry; however it was not possible to calculate an SMD from the data presented. Smith (Smith 2000) studied women with diabetes, and did not present any data on the clinical outcome studied (glycosylated haemoglobin). Wylie-Rosett (Wylie-Rosett 2001) studied obese adults and included a clinical outcome; however it was not possible to use the data as end-point standard deviations were not presented. All other studies which presented data on clinical outcomes are included in Additional Table 7 with either SMD or OR results. Risk of bias in included studies Five studies reported sufficient detail on allocation procedures for the assessors to be reasonably certain that concealment of allocation was adequate. Nineteen studies simply said that participants were randomly allocated, but gave insufficient information about Effects of interventions For those outcomes where meta-analysis could be undertaken, we present the results of the meta-analysis, as this provides the clearest and most succinct summary of the results. However, for two outcome categories (emotional and economic), meta-analysis could not be undertaken, either because there were insufficient studies reporting data in this outcome category, or because the various outcome measures were judged to be too dissimilar to justify pooling the data. In these cases we present a narrative summary of the findings. In addition, we searched for unintended adverse consequences of IHCA; no study reported these. For the results given below, information about each study has been summarised in Additional tables (Table 1 and Additional tables 3 to 8). Table 1 provides further information on included study characteristics. Additional tables 03 to 08 summarise the data presented for each outcome category (knowledge, social support, selfefficacy, emotional, behavioural and clinical outcomes). Each table contains information on the outcome measure used; the number of participants providing end-point data on each outcome (or if not reported for each outcome, the number of participants who completed the study); the duration of follow up; the effect estimate (SMD or OR); and the Lipsey effect size category (for SMDs). (1) Knowledge There were eight studies which reported sufficient data on knowledge for SMDs to be calculated. These eight studies were (Andrewes 1996; Bartholomew 2000; Brown 1997; Krishna 2003; Mahoney 2002; Shegog 2001; Turnin 1992; Turnin 2001) (Table 3). An additional study (Horan 1990) provided binary data, allowing an odds ratio (OR) to be calculated (AdditionalTable 3). Studies providing continuous data Andrewes compared computer-based psychoeducational modules with non-directive computer-based counselling for young adults with eating disorders. The programme was completed twice in a health care setting, with an interval of seven days between the first and second sessions. One week after the intervention, knowledge, as assessed by the eating disorders knowledge questionnaire, was 13

16 improved in the intervention group (n = 27), compared to the control group (n = 27) (SMD 0.76) (Andrewes 1996). Bartholomew examined an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive tailored self-management for children with asthma. This was compared with normal care (no intervention). Children in the intervention group played the game during scheduled visits to asthma or community paediatric clinics over a mean of 7.6 months. Mean follow-up time was 7.9 months, at which point knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 70), compared to the control group (n = 62) (SMD 0.11) (Bartholomew 2000). Brown examined an interactive computer programme in video game format which featured two adolescent elephant friends (Packy and Marlon) at a diabetes summer camp. Players had to save the camp from rats and mice. In order to do this, players had to help monitor the elephants blood glucose, give insulin, review diabetes logbooks, find correct foods and encourage self-care in various situations. The intervention group had home access to this video game system for six months; the control group had home access to a non-educational video game and entertainment video for six months. The study population was children with diabetes mellitus, aged 8-16, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics. After six months, knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 31), compared to the control group (n = 28) (SMD 0.07) (Brown 1997). Krishna examined an internet-enabled, interactive multimedia asthma education programme, which presented principles of selfmanagement and behavioural objectives. Participants also received conventional asthma education, which included verbal and written information on asthma and concepts related to its control. Outcomes were compared with those of participants receiving the conventional materials only. Participants were children with asthma attending a paediatric pulmonary clinic. They used the programme, which took approximately 80 minutes to complete, during three routine visits to the clinic. Mean follow-up time was 12 months, at which point knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 25), compared to the control group (n = 28) (SMD 0.96) (Krishna 2003). Mahoney examined a computer programme delivered by a multimedia CD-ROM which contained information regarding distinguishing normal forgetfulness from dementia; procedures for clinical diagnosis; resources available; and family responses; and compared it with no intervention. The CD-ROM was viewed on a project laptop during a home interview with research staff. Participants were 113 adults concerned about memory loss in a family member. Immediately after viewing the programme, knowledge about memory loss was greater in the intervention group (n = 56) than the control group (n = 57) (SMD 1.41). This study was not used in the meta-analysis as the study focused on carers rather than patients (Mahoney 2002). Shegog compared an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive, tailored, self-management for children with asthma with normal care (no intervention). Participants played the game during a single session organised at a university linked medical centre. Children with asthma were recruited from clinics and schools. Mean follow-up time was three weeks, at which point knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 38), compared to the control group (n = 33) (SMD 0.56) (Shegog 2001). Turnin 1992 compared interactive dietary information and individualised online counselling delivered via a Minitel videotext terminal with no intervention. Participants, who were adults with diabetes mellitus, had home access to the intervention for six months. At the six month follow-up, knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 45), compared to the control group (n = 50) (SMD 0.72) (Turnin 1992). Turnin 2001 compared an interactive programme which provided individualised, tailored dietary information, help in meal composition, evaluation of calorific requirements, menu suggestions and a discussion forum with normal care (7 medical / dietetic visits) for obese adults. Participants in the intervention group had home access to the software programme for twelve months. At the twelve month follow-up, knowledge was improved in the intervention group (n = 94), compared to the control group (n = 105) (SMD 0.31) (Turnin 2001). Studies providing binary data Horan examined an intervention comprising fifteen weeks of home access to a micro-computer, which combined diabetes education with data management and review, as well as goal setting and problem solving. This was compared with a conventional diabetes education booklet for 20 adolescents who had had Type 1 diabetes for more than one year. At the fifteen week follow up, the proportion of participants who had increased their knowledge by more than 5% was higher in the intervention group (n = 9) than in the control group (n = 9). As only baseline mean scores and the number of participants in each study group who improved or did not improve on the test were presented, the SMD could not be calculated and the data could not be combined with other studies in this meta-analysis. The odds ratio (OR 1.60) is presented in Additional Table 3 (Horan 1990). IHCAs had a significant positive effect on knowledge (SMD 0.46; 95% CI 0.22 to 0.69). There was substantial heterogeneity in this outcome (I 2 = 52.8%). (See Analysis 1.1). (2) Social support There were six studies which provided sufficient data for calculation of an SMD for social support outcomes. These six studies were (Brennan 1995; Brennan 1998; Brown 1997; Glasgow 2003; Gustafson 1999; Gustafson 2001) (Additional Table 4). Brennan 1995 was not used in the meta-analysis as the study focused on carers, not patients. This study examined home access to 14

17 ComputerLink for primary caregivers of a person with Alzheimer s disease. ComputerLink provided information, an electronic encyclopaedia, online discussion groups and decision support to caregivers, and was compared with a control group receiving a monthly telephone call. At the twelve month follow-up, those in the intervention group (n = 47) had greater social isolation compared to those in the control group (n = 49); that is, the control group had a more favourable outcome (SMD -0.14) (Brennan 1995). Brennan 1998 compared the effects of home access to ComputerLink for people living with AIDS with the effects of a printed brochure and a monthly telephone call for six months. ComputerLink was a specialised computer network which provided information, an electronic encyclopaedia, online discussion groups and decision support. At the six month follow-up, those in the intervention group (n = 25) had reduced social isolation (an improved outcome), compared to those in the control group, once depression had been accounted for (n = 23) (SMD 0.12) (Brennan 1998). Brown examined an interactive computer programme in video game format which featured two adolescent elephant friends (Packy and Marlon) at a diabetes summer camp. Players had to save the camp from rats and mice. In order to do this, players had to help monitor the elephants blood glucose, give insulin, review diabetes logbooks, find correct foods and encourage self-care in various situations. The intervention group had home access to this video game system for six months; the control group had home access to a non-educational video game and entertainment video for six months. The study population was children with diabetes mellitus, aged 8-16, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics. At six month follow-up, the intervention group (n = 31) had improved social support compared to those in the control group (n = 28) (SMD 0.18) (Brown 1997). Glasgow compared home access to an internet-enabled computer system providing information and a professionally mediated e- mail diabetes peer support forum, with computer access to information only for adults with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. At the ten month follow-up point, the intervention group (n = 66) had better perceived social support than the control group (n = 66) (SMD 0.45) (Glasgow 2003). Gustafson 1999 examined home access to a computerised support system for people with HIV / AIDS which provided information, decision support,and online discussion groups with other users, compared with normal care (no intervention). At the five month follow-up point, the intervention group (n=27) had better perceived social support than the control group (n = 24) (SMD 0.51) (Gustafson 1999). Gustafson 2001 examined home access to a computerised support system for women with breast cancer (CHESS) which provided information, social support (discussion groups and personal stories) and decision support (health charts, decision aids and action plans). This was compared with a control group which received a book only. At the five month follow-up point, the intervention group (n = 121) had better perceived social support than the control group (n = 125) (SMD 0.35). This study also specifically looked at the differential effect of the intervention in medically underserved women when compared to more affluent women with private health insurance. The authors demonstrated an interaction between indicators of medical underservice (race, education and lack of insurance) and experimental assignment, such that medically underserved women assigned to CHESS appeared to benefit even more from CHESS than the more affluent women assigned to the intervention group (Gustafson 2001). IHCAs had a significant positive effect on social support (SMD 0.35; 95% CI 0.18 to 0.52). There was no evidence of heterogeneity in this outcome (I 2 = 0%). (See Analysis 2.1). (3) Self-efficacy Three studies reported data on self-efficacy (Bartholomew 2000; Brown 1997; Shegog 2001) (Additional Table 5). Self-efficacy refers to a person s belief in their capacity to undertake a specific action or achieve a specific goal. Bartholomew compared an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive tailored self-management for children with asthma with normal care (no intervention). Children in the intervention group played the game during scheduled visits to asthma or community paediatric clinics over a mean of 7.6 months. Mean follow-up time was 7.9 months, at which point self-efficacy was improved in the intervention group (n = 70) compared to the control group (n = 69) (SMD 0.14) (Bartholomew 2000). Brown examined an interactive computer programme in video game format which featured two adolescent elephant friends (Packy and Marlon) at a diabetes summer camp. Players had to save the camp from rats and mice. In order to do this, players had to help monitor the elephants blood glucose, give insulin, review diabetes logbooks, find correct foods and encourage self-care in various situations. The intervention group had home access to this video game system for six months; the control group had home access to a non-educational video game and entertainment video for six months. The study population was children with diabetes mellitus, aged 8 to 16, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics. After six months, self-efficacy was improved in the intervention group (n = 31) compared to the control group (n = 28) (SMD 0.20) (Brown 1997). Shegog compared an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive, tailored, self-management for children with asthma with normal care (no intervention). Participants played the game during a single session organised at a university linked medical centre. Children with asthma were recruited from clinics and schools. Mean follow-up time was three weeks, at which point self-efficacy was improved in the intervention group (n = 38) compared to the control group (n = 32) (SMD 0.48) (Shegog 2001). 15

18 Results suggest it is more likely than not that IHCAs have a positive effect on self-efficacy (SMD 0.24; 95% CI 0.00 to 0.48). There was no evidence of heterogeneity in this outcome (I 2 = 0%). (See Analysis 3.1). (4) Emotional outcomes Six studies reported some data on emotional outcomes (Brennan 1995; Brennan 1998; Glasgow 2003; Gustafson 1999; Gustafson 2001; Smith 2000). Meta-analysis could not be undertaken as the outcome measures used were too disparate (depression, emotional well-being and psychosocial adaptation to illness) (Additional Table 8). Brennan 1995 examined home access to ComputerLink for primary caregivers of a person with Alzheimer s disease. Computer- Link provided information, an electronic encyclopaedia, online discussion groups and decision support to caregivers, and compared it with a control group receiving a monthly telephone call. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. This study conceptualised depression as an intervening (or control) variable; at the twelve month follow up there was a small effect in favour of the control group (n = 49) compared to the intervention group (n = 47) (SMD -0.30) (Brennan 1995). Brennan 1998 compared home access to ComputerLink for people living with AIDS with a printed brochure and a monthly telephone call for six months. ComputerLink was a specialised computer network which provided information, an electronic encyclopaedia, online discussion groups and decision support. Depression was conceptualised as an intervening (or control) variable that impacted on perceived social isolation, and data on levels of depression in the two groups were not presented. Hence this study is not included in Additional Table 8 (Brennan 1998). Glasgow compared home access to an internet-enabled computer system providing information and a professionally mediated e- mail diabetes peer support forum, with computer access to information only for adults with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. At the ten-month follow-up point, there was a small effect size in favour of the intervention group (n = 66) compared to the control group (n = 66) (SMD 0.16) (Glasgow 2003). Gustafson 1999 examined home access to a computerised support system for people with HIV / AIDS which provided information, decision support and online discussion groups with other users, and compared it with normal care (no intervention). Depression was measured using the Medical Outcomes Survey, short form 23. At the five month follow-up, there was a small effect size in favour of the intervention group (n = 27) compared to the control group (n = 24) (SMD 0.24) (Gustafson 1999). Gustafson 2001 examined home access to a computerised support system for women with breast cancer (CHESS) which provided information, social support (discussion groups and personal stories) and decision support (health charts, decision aids and action plans). This was compared with a control group which received a book only. Emotional well-being was measured using the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy Breast (FACT-B) instrument. At five month follow-up, the intervention group (n = 121) had better emotional well-being than the control group (n = 125) (SMD 0.06) (Gustafson 2001). Smith compared five months of home access to a computer-based programme providing online support, diabetes education and a bulletin board with paper copies of the educational material for women with Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes mellitus. The measure used for emotional outcome was the Psychosocial Adaptation to Illness Scale (PAIS). It was not possible to calculate an SMD, as standard deviations were not provided, but the authors report the results in the text as showing no difference between groups. Due to the lack of complete data, this study is not included in additional Table 8 (Smith 2000). In summary, it was not possible to determine whether IHCAs have an effect on emotional outcomes. (5) Behavioural outcomes Seven studies reported sufficient data on behavioural outcomes to allow SMD to be calculated (Bartholomew 2000; Brown 1997; Glasgow 2003; Gustafson 1999; Gustafson 2001; Turnin 1992; Turnin 2001). Three additional studies provided binary data allowing Odds Ratios (OR) to be calculated (Guendelman 2002; Homer 2000; Horan 1990) (Additional Table 6). Studies providing continuous data Bartholomew compared an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive tailored self-management for children with asthma with normal care (no intervention). Children in the intervention group played the game during scheduled visits to asthma or community paediatric clinics over a mean of 7.6 months. After a mean of 7.9 months follow-up, children in the intervention group (n = 69) showed improved self-management behaviours compared to those in the control group (n = 63) (SMD 0.32) (Bartholomew 2000). Brown examined an interactive computer programme in video game format which featured two adolescent elephant friends (Packy and Marlon) at a diabetes summer camp. Players had to save the camp from rats and mice. In order to do this, players had to help monitor the elephants blood glucose, give insulin, review diabetes logbooks, find correct foods and encourage self-care in various situations. The intervention group had home access to this video game system for six months; the control group had home access to a non-educational video game and entertainment video for six months. The study population was children with diabetes mellitus, aged 8-16, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics. After six months, children in the intervention group (n = 31) 16

19 scored higher (better) on the diabetes self-care rating scale than those in the control group (n = 28) (SMD 0.43) (Brown 1997). Glasgow compared home access to an internet-enabled computer system providing information and a professionally mediated e- mail diabetes peer support forum,with computer access to information only for adults with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. At the ten month follow-up point, participants in the control group (n = 66) showed a higher average number of minutes of activity per day (an improved outcome) than those in the intervention group (n = 66) (SMD -0.09) (Glasgow 2003). Gustafson 1999 compared home access to a computerised support system for people with HIV / AIDS, which provided information, decision support, and online discussion groups with other users, to normal care (no intervention). At the five month follow-up point, the intervention group (n = 24) showed greater participation in health care (an improved outcome) than the control group (n = 23) (SMD 0.77) (Gustafson 1999). Gustafson 2001 examined home access to a computerised support system for women with breast cancer (CHESS) which provided information, social support (discussion groups and personal stories) and decision support (health charts, decision aids and action plans). This was compared with a control group which received a book only. At the five month follow-up point, the intervention group (n = 119) showed greater behavioural involvement in health care (an improved outcome) than the control group (n = 125) (SMD 0.11) (Gustafson 2001). Turnin 1992 compared interactive dietary information and individualised online counselling delivered via a Minitel videotext terminal with no intervention. Participants, who were adults with diabetes mellitus, had home access to the intervention for six months. At the six month follow-up, the percentage of total calorific intake from fat was reduced (an improved outcome) in the intervention group (n = 43) compared to the control group (n = 46) (SMD 0.44) (Turnin 1992). Turnin 2001 compared an interactive programme which provided individualised, tailored dietary information, help in meal composition, evaluation of calorific requirements, menu suggestions and a discussion forum with normal care (7 medical / dietetic visits) for obese adults. Participants in the intervention group had home access to the software programme for twelve months. At the twelve month follow-up point, calorific intake was reduced (an improved outcome) in the control group (n=97) compared to the intervention group (n = 89) (SMD -0.06) (Turnin 2001). without a reminder than those in the control group (n = 52) (OR 2.88) (Guendelman 2002). Homer examined an interactive educational computer programme in game format, for children with asthma, in which players help a superhero complete all six levels of the game while keeping his asthma under control. Participants used the game over three sessions in a primary care clinic or neighbourhood health centre, and the average time taken to complete the game for a first time player was minutes. Children in the control group received an age-appropriate asthma education book and a non-educational computer game. At nine month follow up, a greater proportion of the participants in the control group (n = 49) had a peak flow metre available (a favourable outcome) compared to those in the intervention group (n = 57) (OR 0.91) (Homer 2000). Horan examined fifteen weeks of home access to a microcomputer-based system which provided data management and review, factual and applied diabetes education, and problem-solving and goal setting and compared it with a conventional diabetes education booklet for adolescents with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. After eighteen weeks of follow-up, a higher proportion of participants in the intervention group (n = 10) had changed their exercise behaviour (a favourable outcome) than those in the control group (n = 10) (OR 2.33) (Horan 1990). IHCAs had a significant positive effect on continuous behavioural outcomes (SMD 0.20; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.40). Binary behavioural outcomes also showed a positive effect for IHCAs, although this result was not statistically significant (OR 1.66; 95% CI 0.71 to 3.87). Both continuous data (I 2 = 50.3%) and binary data (I 2 = 48.2%) showed substantial heterogeneity. Despite this, IHCAs are most likely to be beneficial in terms of behavioural outcomes. (See Analysis 4.1; Analysis 4.2). (6) Clinical outcomes Ten studies provided sufficient data to allow SMD to be calculated (Bartholomew 2000; Brennan 1998; Brown 1997; Glasgow 2003; Gustafson 1999; Krishna 2003; Lehmann 2003; Ritterband 2003; Turnin 1992; Turnin 2001). One additional study (Guendelman 2002) provided binary data, allowing an OR to be calculated (Additional Table 7). Studies providing binary data Guendelman compared ninety days of home access to an internetenabled computer programme which provided personalised, interactive information and advice on asthma self-management with a standard asthma diary for children with asthma recruited from a primary care clinic. After twelve weeks, a higher proportion of the intervention group (n = 58) were taking asthma medication Studies providing continuous data Bartholomew compared an interactive multimedia computer game which provided intensive tailored self-management for children with asthma with normal care (no intervention). Children in the intervention group played the game during scheduled visits to asthma or community paediatric clinics over a mean of 7.6 months. After a mean of 7.9 months follow-up, children in the intervention group (n = 58) showed improved functional status 17

20 compared to those in the control group (n = 55) (SMD 0.21) (Bartholomew 2000). Brennan 1998 compared home access to ComputerLink for people living with AIDS with a printed brochure and a monthly telephone call for six months. ComputerLink was a specialised computer network which provided information, an electronic encyclopaedia, online discussion groups and decision support. At the six-month follow up, those in the control group (n = 23) had less of a reduction in health status (ie. a better outcome for the control group) compared to those in the intervention group (n = 25) (SMD -0.42) (Brennan 1998). Brown examined an interactive computer programme in video game format which featured two adolescent elephant friends (Packy and Marlon) at a diabetes summer camp. Players had to save the camp from rats and mice. In order to do this, players had to help monitor the elephants blood glucose, give insulin, review diabetes logbooks, find correct foods and encourage self-care in various situations. The intervention group had home access to this video game system for six months; the control group had home access to a non-educational video game and entertainment video for six months. The study population was children with diabetes mellitus, aged 8-16, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics. After six months, children in the control group (n = 28) had a smaller increase (ie. a better outcome for the control group) in glycosylated haemoglobin levels than those in the intervention group (n = 31) (SMD -0.23) (Brown 1997). Glasgow compared home access to an internet-enabled computer system providing information and a professionally mediated e- mail diabetes peer support forum with computer access to information only for adults with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. At the ten month follow-up point, participants in the intervention group (n = 66) had lower (better) glycosylated haemoglobin levels than those in the control group (n = 66) (SMD 0.24) (Glasgow 2003). Guendelman compared ninety days of home access to an internet-enabled computer programme which provided personalised, interactive information and advice on asthma self-management with a standard asthma diary for children with asthma recruited from a primary care clinic. After twelve weeks, fewer children in the intervention group (n = 62) reported limitation in activity compared to the children in the control group (n = 60) (OR 1.84) (Guendelman 2002). Gustafson 1999 compared home access to a computerised support system for people with HIV / AIDS which provided information, decision support, and online discussion groups with other users to normal care (no intervention). At the five month follow-up point, the intervention group (n = 26) showed better physical function than the control group (n = 24) (SMD 0.07) (Gustafson 1999). Krishna examined an internet-enabled, interactive multimedia asthma education programme, which presented principles of selfmanagement and behavioural objectives. Participants also received conventional asthma education, which included verbal and written information on asthma and concepts related to its control. Outcomes were compared with those of participants receiving the conventional materials only. Participants were children with asthma attending a paediatric pulmonary clinic. They used the programme, which took approximately 80 minutes to complete, during three routine visits to the clinic. Mean follow up time was 12 months, at which point children in the intervention group (n = 42) had fewer days with asthma symptoms than those in the control group (n = 44) (SMD 0.40) (Krishna 2003). Lehmann compared six sessions use of an interactive web-based programme containing education, self-management and decision support with six sessions of conventional diabetes education on the same topics in adults with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. After six weeks, the level of glycosylated haemoglobin was lower (better) in the intervention group (n = 10) compared to the control group (n = 8) (SMD 0.77) (Lehmann 2003). Ritterband examined three weeks of home access to a computerbased programme delivered over the internet which combined information on encopresis (faecal soiling) with behavioural treatments and training, and compared it with a group receiving phone calls from the research staff. At the three week point, children in the intervention group (n = 12) had fewer bowel accidents (an improved outcome) than those in the control group (n = 12) (SMD 0.77) (Ritterband 2003). Turnin 1992 compared interactive dietary information and individualised online counselling delivered via a Minitel videotext terminal with no intervention. Participants, who were adults with diabetes mellitus, had home access to the intervention for six months. At the six month follow-up, glycosylated haemoglobin was lower (better) in the intervention group (n = 45) compared to the control group (n = 50) (SMD 0.42) (Turnin 1992). Turnin 2001 compared an interactive programme which provided individualised, tailored dietary information, help in meal composition, evaluation of calorific requirements, menu suggestions and a discussion forum with normal care (7 medical / dietetic visits) for obese adults. Participants in the intervention group had home access to the software programme for twelve months. At the twelve month follow-up, Body Mass Index (BMI) was lower (an improved outcome) in the intervention group (n = 110) than in the control group (n = 120) (SMD 0.10) (Turnin 2001). Studies providing binary data Guendelman compared ninety days of home access to an internet-enabled computer programme which provided personalised, interactive information and advice on asthma self-management with a standard asthma diary for children with asthma recruited from a primary care clinic. After twelve weeks, fewer children in the intervention group (n = 62) reported limitations in activity compared to the children in the control group (n = 60) (OR 1.84) (Guendelman 2002). IHCAs had a significant positive effect on continuous clinical outcomes (SMD 0.18; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.35). There was some 18

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