Life span Evidence suggests that Alcyonium digitatum has an extensive life span. Observations of marked colonies showed that colonies 10-15 cm in height were between 5 and 10 years old (Hartnoll, unpublished). The life span certainly exceeds 20 years as colonies have been followed for 28 years in marked plots (Lundälv, pers. comm., in Hartnoll, 1998).Sex ratioThe majority of colonies are either male or female, < 1% are hermaphroditic and these have both apparently functional ova and testes which may develop within the same polyp (Hartnoll, 1977). The soft coral genus Alcyonium is among the most reproductively diverse invertebrate taxa known. The genus includes species that vary both in mode of reproduction and sexual expression (Mc Fadden, 2000).Sexual maturity The development of the gametes takes 12 months, so the earliest onset of sexual maturity can only be in the second year, at which point the smallest of colonies have usually attained a wet weight of 1g. However in some colonies maturity is delayed until the third or subsequent year, by which time the colony may have attained a wet weight of 20 g (Hartnoll, 1975; 1977).Gamete maturationThe annual reproductive cycle commences when the gametes begin to develop during December and January; the testes have a diameter of 0.05 mm and the ova 0.15 mm at this stage. The ova steadily increase in size and exceed 0.5 mm in diameter by July / August, and reach a final diameter of 0.6 mm in October which is retained until spawning in December. The mature ova are bright orange in colour owing to their heavy yolk content. Growth of the testes is less regular. The onset of growth occurs in May when they rapidly increase in size and are opaque white in appearance. A second period of slow growth occurs from August to December (Hartnoll, 1975). In both sexes the gonads develop on the edges of the mesenteries (partitions that divide the coelenteron), and lie within the gastric cavity, attached to the mesentery, until spawning occurs. The maturing gonads occlude the gastric cavity of the polyps and it is postulated that the quiescent period in the annual cycle of activity of Alcyonium digitatum is caused by the inability to feed, however the same seasonal cessation of activity occurs in a proportion of sexually immature colonies. White colonies of Alcyonium digitatum were reported to spawn slightly earlier than orange colonies and this may favour a degree of sexual isolation between the two colour morphs (Hartnoll, 1975). Spawning Alcyonium digitatum spawns during December and January. Gametes are released into the water and fertilization occurs externally. The embryos are neutrally buoyant and float freely for 7 days. The embryos give rise to actively swimming lecithotrophic planulae which may have an extended pelagic life (See below) before they eventually settle (usually within one or two further days) and metamorphose to polyps (Matthews, 1917; Hartnoll, 1975).Survival in the pelagic zone In laboratory experiments, several larvae of Alcyonium digitatum failed to settle within 10 days, presumably finding the conditions unsuitable, these larvae proved to be able to survive 35 weeks as non-feeding planulae. After 14 weeks some were still swimming and after 24 weeks the surface ciliation was still active although they rested on the bottom of the tanks, by the end of the experiment at 35 weeks the larvae had shrunk to a diameter of 0.3 mm. This ability to survive for long periods in the plankton may favour the dispersal and eventual discovery of a site suitable for settlement (Hartnoll, 1975).Advantages of mid-winter spawning The combination of spawning in winter and the long pelagic life span may allow a considerable length of time for the planulae to disperse, settle and metamorphose ahead of the spring plankton bloom. Young Alcyonium digitatum will consequently be able to take advantage of an abundant food resource in spring and be well developed before the appearance of other forms that may otherwise compete for the same substrata. In addition because the planulae do not feed whilst in the pelagic zone they do not suffer by being released at the time of minimum plankton density and they may also benefit by the scarcity of predatory zooplankton which would otherwise feed upon them (Hartnoll, 1975).