are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel or drive people incertain directions.

•The study of motivation, consists of identifying why people seek to do the things theydo.

Motivation

•Learned:

–Most

of

the

time

motivation

is

learned

–

we

are

motivated

by

different

things.

•Instinct

theory:

–Inborn

patterns

of

behavior

that

are

biologically

determined

rather

than

learned.

•According

to

instinct

approaches

to

motivation,

people

and

animals

are

born

with

preprogrammed

sets

of

behaviors

essential

to

their

survival.

Thes e

i nst i nct s

pr ovi de

t he

ener gy

t hat

channel s

behavi or

in

appropriate

directions.

•Example:

exploratory

behavior

in

animals:

The

tendency

to

explore

or

investigate

an

environment.

Theories On Motivation

•Our

behavior

is

motivated

by

BIOLOGICAL

NEEDS.

•After

rejecting

instinct

theory,

psychologists

first

proposed

simple

drive-reduction

theories

of

motivation

in

its

place

(Hull,

1943).

•Drive

theories

assume

that

people

are

always

trying

to

reduce

internal

tension.

•Therefore,

drive

theories

believe

that

the

source

of

motivation

lies

within

the

person

(not

from

the

environment)

•Example:

–when

people

lack

some

basic

biological

requirement

such

as

water,

a

drive

to

obtain

that

requirement

(in

this

case,

the

thirst

drive)

is

produced.

Drive Deduction Theory

•Drive

–Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behaviorin order to fulfill some need

•Primary drive

–Basic drives related to biological needs of the body orthe species as a whole

•Secondary drives

–Needs are brought about by prior experience andlearning

Drive Deduction Theory

•Wants

to

maintain

homeostasis.

•Homeostasis:

–A

basic

motivational

phenomena

that

underlies

primary

drives

and

involves

the

body’s

tendency

to

maintain

a

steady

internal

state

•Homeostasis

operates

through

feedback

loops

that

bring

deviations

in

body

functioning

back

to

a

more

optimal

state.

•

similar

to

the

way

a

thermostat

and

furnace

work

in

a

home

heating

system

to

maintain

a

steady

temperature

Drive Deduction Theory Approach

•Arousal

approaches

seek

to

explain

behavior

in

which

the

goal

is

to

maintain

or

increase

excitement

(Berlyne,

1967;

Brehm

&

Self,

1989).

•According

to

arousal

approaches

to

motivation,

each

of

us

tries

to

maintain

a

certain

level

of

stimulation

and

activity.

•As

with

the

drive-reduction

model,

if

our

stimulation

and

activity

levels

become

too

high,

we

try

to

reduce

them.

•But

in

contrast

to

the

drive-reduction

model,

the

arousal

model

also

suggests

that

if

the

levels

of

stimulation

and

activity

are

too

low,

we

will

try

to

increase

them

by

seeking

stimulation.

Arousal Theory

•People

are

motivated

to

maintain

an

optimum

level

of

arousal

•Neither

too

high

nor

too

low

•Arousal

–

level of alertness, wakefulness, and activation caused by activity in theCNS.

•The optimal level of arousal varies with the person and the activity.

•Yerkes-Dodson Law

–

We usually perform most activities best when we aremoderately aroused.

Arousal Theory Cont…

•The law also states that we perform worse when arousal is either to low or too high.

•Example: Think about sports or driving a car

Arousal Theory Example

•An

incentive

has

an

ability

to

motivate

behavior.

•Push

vs.

Pull

theory

:

–1.

Internal

states

of

tension

push

people

certain

directions.

–2.

External

stimuli

pull

people

in

certain

directions.

•According

to

incentive

theory,

motivation

comes

from

the

environment

around

you.

Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull

•Incentive

approaches

to

motivation

–Suggests

that

motivation

stems

from

the

desire

to

obtain

valued

external

goals,

or

incentives.

–Example:

grades,

money,

affection,

food

etc

accounts

for

a

person’s

motivation.

Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull

•Drive theory

–

Biological internal motivation(homeostasis)

•Incentive theory

–

Environmental motivation(not as much homeostasis, more outsidefactors)

What is the difference between drive theory andincentive theory?

•Cognitive

approaches

to

motivation

suggest

that

motivation

is

a

product

of

people’s

thoughts,

expectations,

and

goals.

•Example:

•The

degree

to

which

people

are

motivated

to

study

for

a

test

is

based

on

their

expectation

of

how

well

studying

will

pay

off

in

terms

of

a

good

grade.

Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation

•Cognitive

theories

of

motivation

draw

a

key

distinction

between

intrinsic

and

extrinsic

motivation.

•Intrinsic

motivation

causes

us

to

participate

in

an

activity

for

our

own

enjoyment,

rather

than

for

any

concrete,

tangible

reward

that

it

will

bring

us.

•Extrinsic

motivation

causes

us

to

do

something

for

money,

a

grade,

or

some

other

concrete,

tangible

reward.

•For

example,

when

a

physician

works

long

hours

because

she

loves

medicine,

intrinsic

motivation

is

prompting

her;

if

she

works

hard

in

order

to

make

a

lot

of

money,

extrinsic

motivation

underlies

her

efforts.

Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation

•The

need

for

achievement

is

a

stable,

learned

characteristic

in

which

satisfaction

is

obtained

by

striving

for

and

attaining

a

level

of

excellence

(McClelland

et

al.,

1953).

•People

with

a

high

need

for

achievement

seek

out

situations

in

which

they

can

compete

against

some

standard,

that

can

be

grades,

money,

or

winning

at

a

game,

and

prove

themselves

successful.

•But

they

are

not

indiscriminate

when

it

comes

to

picking

their

challenges,

they

tend

to

avoid

situations

in

which

success

will

come

too

easily

and

situations

in

which

success

is

unlikely.

•Instead,

people

high

in

achievement

motivation

are

apt

to

choose

tasks

that

are

of

intermediate

difficulty.

The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success

•Maslow's

hierarchy

of

needs

is

a

theory

in

psychology

proposed

by

Abraham

Maslow

in

his

1943

paper

"A

Theory

of

Human

Motivation"

•Abraham

Maslow

said

we

are

motivated

by

needs,

and

all

needs

are

not

created

equal.

•Motives

are

divided

into

several

levels

of

hierarchy

from

basic

survival

needs

to

psychological

and

self-fulfillment

needs.

•Maslow

says

lower

needs

must

be

met

before

you

can

continue

up

the

pyramid

•Maslow

believed

few

people

reach

this

level

•The

model

considers

different

motivational

needs

to

be

ordered

in

a

hierarchy,

and

it

suggests

that

before

more

sophisticated,

higher-order

needs

can

be

met,

certain

primary

needs

must

be

satisfied

(Maslow,

1970;

1987).

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs: Model

•The

model

can

be

conceptualized

as

a

pyramid

in

which

the

more

basic

needs

are

at

the

bottom

and

the

higher-level

needs

are

at

the

top.

•The most basic needs:

•Primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex, and the like. To move up the hierarchy,a person must have these basic physiological needs met.

•Safety needs:come next in the hierarchy; Maslow suggests that people need a safe,secure environment in order to function effectively. Physiological and safety needscompose the lower-order needs.

Maslow's Model Explanation

•The High order needs:Only when the basic lower-order needs are met a personcan consider fulfilling higher-order needs, such as the need for love and a sense ofbelonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

•Love and belongingness needs:include the need to obtain

and give affection and to be a contributing member of some

group or society.

•Esteem:After these needs are fulfilled, the person strives for

esteem. In Maslow’s thinking, esteem relates to the need to

develop a sense of self-worth by knowing that others are

aware of one’s competence and value

Maslow's Model Explanation: cont…

•The

highest

level

of

need:

Once

these

four

sets

of

needs

are

fulfilled,

the

person

is

able

to

strive

for

the

highest-level

need

called

self-actualization.

•Self-actualization:

–State

of

self-fulfillment

in

which

people

realize

their

highest

potential

in

their

own

unique

way

•Example:

•A

parent

with

excellent

nurturing

skills

who

raises

a

family

•A

teacher

who

year

after

year

creates

an

environment

that

maximizes

students’

opportunities

for

success.

•An

artist

who

realizes

her

creative

potential

might

all

be

self-actualized.

•The

important

thing

is

that

people

feel

at

ease

with

them

selves

and

satisfied

that

they

are

using

their

talents

to

the

fullest.

Maslow's Model Explanation: cont…

Motivation of Hunger

Motivation In AParticular Instance

•Hunger does NOT come from our stomach.

–It comes from our… Brain.

•What part of the brain?

–The Hypothalamus

Why

do

I

feel

hungry?

Glucose

It

is

the

form

of

sugar

that

circulates

in

the

blood

It

provides

the

major

source

of

energy

for

body

tissues

Glucose

Low

=

hunger

Glucose

High

=

feel

full

Motivation of Hunger

•Internal mechanisms regulate not only the quantity of food intake, but also thekind of food desire.

•Example:

–rats that have been deprived of particular foods seek out alternatives that contain thespecific nutrients their diet is lacking.

–animals given the choice of a wide variety of foods choose a well-balanced diet.

•Changes in levels of glucose regulate feelings of hunger.

•Glucose levels are monitored by the brain’shypothalamus.

Biological Basis of Hunger:

•Hypothalamus is the organ primarily responsible for monitoring food intake.

•There are two site of hypothalamus related to food intake. Injury to the any site hasradical consequences for eating behavior.

–Ventromedial

Hypothalamus:

When stimulated you feel full. When destroyed you will never feel full again.

–Lateral Hypothalamus:

When stimulated it makes you hungry. When destroyed you will never behungry again.