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Reference sites Areas that are comparable in structure and function to the proposed restoration site before it was degraded 1 used as models for restoration projects, and used for measuring the progress of the project 1 Reference Wetlands: Sites within a specified geographic region chosen for purpose of functional assessment and encompass known variation of a group or class of wetlands 2 Role of reference wetlands: Reference standards: represent conditions exhibited by subset of reference wetlands that correspond to highest level of functioning of the ecosystem across multiple functions 2 1 http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/principles.html#10 2 Brinson & Rheinhardt. 1996. The role of reference wetlands in functional assessment and mitigation. Ecological Applications, 6(1):69-76.

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Reference Wetlands 1 Ideas to remember - Unique qualities No two aquatic systems are truly identical Historical conditions may be unknown or sites may be altered compared to their historical condition Important to tailor project to the given situation and account for any differences between the reference site and the area being restored Assist in establishing goals for restoration 1 http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/principles.html#10

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Standards for analysis of wetland function Framework – baseline to measure decline or recovery of functions Creates baseline for assessment of gains and loses of functions in system Representation of inherently highly functioning sites that share similar geomorphic settings Provides templates to which restored and created wetlands can be designed Make explicit the goals Advantages to a reference wetland approach 1 1 Brinson & Rheinhardt. 1996. The role of reference wetlands in functional assessment and mitigation. Ecological Applications, 6(1):69-76.

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Issues with using reference wetlands Using reference conditions that are from degraded sites Setting reference condition standards higher than can be sustained by the wetland system Giving primary to individual functions at the expense of other functions or wetland ecosystems Henderson Bird Preserve, Henderson, NV http://www.allaboutkaren.com/?tag=henderson-bird-preserve

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Method for selecting reference conditions vary depending on project goals, level of accuracy desired, the number of potential sites available, and the level of funding allocated to monitoring Use of appropriate reference conditions for comparison to be able to evaluate, analyze, and interpret data collected from a restored area Wetland functions 1 - a process or series of processes that take place within a wetland Include storage of water, transformation of nutrients, growth of living matter, and diversity of wetland plants Value for wetland itself, for surrounding ecosystems, and for people Choosing methods/tools 1 http://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/functions.html

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Ecological Assessment Methods Database Several methods can be useful tools for evaluating wetlands - focusing on functional assessment to use for reference wetlands 1 - vs. focus on a particular function or species - utilizing assessment databases (National Wetlands Inventory) point classification system to correlate similar wetlands or use statistical tools, such as cluster analysis, to identify wetland systems that are similar 2 1 Brinson & Rheinhardt. 1996. The role of reference wetlands in functional assessment and mitigation. Ecological Applications, 6(1):69-76. 2 Harris, Richard. 1999. Defining reference conditions for restoration of riparian plant communities: examples from California, USA. Environmental Management, 24(1):55-63. George Manson University with funding assistance from National Park Service provides a list of assessment methods and the ability to compare and contrast the different methods (NBII)NBII

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Functions and Functional Assessment 1 Assessment methods determine levels of functioning absolute measurements (rates of nutrient cycling) or measurements relative to some reference standard (75% of expected species richness) Four general categories have been used for wetlands: Hydrologic Biogeochemical Plant communities Animal communities Other functions – site water balance, energy flow, nutrient cycling, species diversity can also be used for assessment Influence on wetland functions include geographic locations, climate conditions, quantity and quality of water entering the wetland, and disturbances or alterations of systems 1 http://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/functions.html

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Examples of methods Widely used method: Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET)- developed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers for the Federal Highway Administration, assigns values to specific functions of individual wetlands Environmental Monitoring Assessment Program—Wetlands (EMAP- Wetlands) – developed by the Environmental Protection Agency The Hydrogeomorphic Method (HGM) for Wetland Assessment – developed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers for the U. S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

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Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET) Purpose 1 – provide a technique that assesses most of the recognized wetland functions and values, is applicable to a wide variety of wetland types, is standardized and rapid, and is well-documented with scientific literature. Functions include physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of a wetland 11 functions and values measured on a nominal scale 2 Ground water recharge and discharge Flood flow alteration Sediment stabilization, sediment/toxicant retention Nutrient removal/transformation Production export Wildlife diversity/abundance Aquatic diversity/abundance Recreation Uniqueness/heritage Evaluates functions in terms of effectiveness, opportunity, social significance, and habitat suitability (overlap of objective and subjective) 1 http://assessmentmethods.nbii.gov/index.jsp?page=mdetail&mid=121 2 http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/emrrp/emris/emrishelp6/wetland_evaluation_technique_tools.htm

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Environmental Monitoring Assessment Program - Wetlands Aimed at developing tools to monitor and assess the status and trends of national ecological resources Quantitative classifications based on three different areas of focus Physical habitat characterization (#organism present, stream flow) Water chemistry characterization (chemical analysis) Aquatic vertebrate characterization (species richness) Repeatable measurements Can be used to assist in classification of wetlands and provide reference pre-disturbance, however, method may only provide relative comparison (site to site) for application in reference conditions

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The Hydrogeomorphic Method for Wetland Assessment Used to provide a tool for measuring changes in the functions of wetland ecosystems due to impacts by proposed projects, and restoration, creation, and/or enhancement Placed emphasis on geomorphic and hydrologic attributes, rather than biotic characteristics- abundance of water, inputs and outputs of water Description and ordinal scale Concentration: Geomorphic setting – topographic location within surrounding landscape Water source and its transport – precipitation, surface/near surface flow, and groundwater discharge Hydrodynamics – direction and strength of flow http://www.wli.nrcs.usda.gov/assessment/

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Preparation and planning for restoration Planning a restoration of a riparian corridor requires information 1 1. Evaluate composition and structure of riparian communities existing within the corridor using quantitative descriptions (inventories) 2. Descriptions of environmental conditions affecting community composition and structure that is a departure from natural conditions 3. Identify spatial associations between environmental conditions and communities to be restored 4. Choose reference states (restoration targets) for community composition and structure for each environmental condition and each community to be restored 1 http://old.aswm.org/fwp/assessment/index.htm

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Elwha River Restoration- an example of river corridor and wetland restoration preparation 1 http://localenv210.blogspot.com/2010/11/elwha-river-dam-removal.html

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History: 1910-1927 the Elwha & Glines Canyon Dams were built on the Elwha River to provide hydroelectric power to a mill in Port Angeles, WA, north- central Olympic Peninsula Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992 created funding and government support for mitigation of the dams on the Elwha 1 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwha_Dam#Effects_of_Dam_on_River_Habitat 2 http://vrtrekker.com/olympic_national_park/ruby_beach/gx/mapLG.jpg 3 http://minnehahahomeforsale.com/blog/washington-state-business-from-the-rainy-city/ Olympic Peninsula 2 Washington State 3

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Hydrogeological and Geomorphologic Assessment River corridor and riparian area mapping (GIS, field assessment & proofing) Estimate changes in hydrogeology and river flow (env engineers) Lake Mills drawdown experiment (Childers and others, 2000) - learn about the erodibility of reservoir sediments 1 Pre-dam removal activities 1 http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/sediment/projects/ElwhaRiver/ElwhaGlinesCanyon.htm Depiction of the Lake Mills area before and after the removal of Glines Canyon Dam and draining of the reservoir 1

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Pre-dam removal activities Vegetation surveys park-wide used to evaluate native composition Used to decide which species should be used for seeding and outplanting post-lake draw down 1 Nursery establishing for increasing seed and establishing plants for outplanting Geomorphic and vegetative characteristics of channel and flood plain 2 1 http://myweb.facstaff.wwu.edu/helfiej/elwha_web/elwha_sppinvasion.htm 2 http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/divisions/fed/wpg/elwha.cfm Predicting Floodplain Vegetation Response to Dam Removal on the Elwha River 1

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Introduction Non-native species often cause rapid population declines and extinction of native species Many non-native species are successful because they are released from natural controls (e.g., competitors, predators, parasites) that regulate population growth within their native range Our ability to minimize the effects on native species relies on our ability to understand underlying mechanisms. Non-native species tend to be superior competitors, high reproductive rates and predation strategies absent during native fish evolution

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Non-Native vs Native Fish Species Physical changes in aquatic ecosystems can change fish community structure, population demographics, and relative abundance of species. Native fish have a great chance of resisting non-native invasion in an undisturbed habitat because they have evolved in this ecosystem and has contributed to their survival.

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Rotenone Most common piscicide used to kill fish. Interferes with the cellular use of oxygen Affects all gill-breathing animals (fish/amphibians/insects). At normal application rates, does not affect mammals, birds or reptiles.

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Physical Removal Gill nets Fish swim forward through openings in net, can’t move forward and gills tangle when trying to move backward. Able to be designed to reduce by-catch of non-target species Might be a viable alternative to rotenone in Sierra Nevada (for 15-20% of lakes). Suggested method of choice when sensitive native species are present. Time and cost intensive.

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Different technique Need innovate technique to address the problem Rotenone-kill all fish in the lake. Physical removal may not work depending on size of fish (some fish are only a few inches long). What other option? Restoration of impacted ecosystems Native fish have evolutionary edge in ecosystems May be able to use restoration so environmental conditions favor natives over non-natives

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Goals of wetland/riparian restoration or recovery efforts: Return to ecosystem conditions that resemble those before human alteration had taken place. Issues: predisturbance conditions not well documented Recovery of ecosystem function and structure does not guarantee the same species and community will be present in the post-restoration wetland/riparian area.

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Reference Conditions Pre-disturbance records (not well documented in many cases). Similar ecosystem in close physical proximity to site in question

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Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge Mojave Desert Oasis-largest number of endemic species for its area in North America Primary water sources: 24 thermal springs within a 7- km radius Highly mineralized water and dissolved oxygen well below saturation. 655-700 m above mean sea level Massive landscape alterations Mined for peat, surrounding areas cleared for agricultural use

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Ash Meadows Several springheads fitted with pumps, eliminating surface flow Water diverted Loss of natural channel and native riparian corridors Non-native vegetation established along new or altered stream courses Mosquitofish established in 1930’s Sailfin molly established in 1960’s. Ash Meadows native fish are all federally listed as endangered, and recovery predicated on habitat restoration and removal of non-native species.

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Ash Meadows Ash Meadows has few non-native species, making it easier to determine which ecosystems favor natives over non-native species.

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Kings Pool Spring Modification of outflow from marsh to warm water stream. In 1997 Kings Pool Spring Marsh was drained and water routed through an excavated channel configured to simulate the historic outflow stream. Mean water column velocities, total depth, and temperature altered to favor native fish

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Kings Pool Spring Changed fish composition from non-native Sailfin molly and Mosquitofish to predominantly Ash Meadows pupfish. Restoring spring systems to a semblance of pre- disturbance conditions may encourage recolonization of native fish species and discourage non-native invasion and proliferation May be able to apply over all of the Ash Meadows spring systems.

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Lower Putah Creek Distinct differences between assemblages of native and non-native fish Natives: cluster in areas with colder water, less pool habitat, faster stream flow, and more shaded areas. Non-natives: Less stream flow Direct relationship to drastically altered stream ecosystem from Lake Berryessa and Monticello Dam due to significant reduction in water. Restoration of natural flow regimes along with other restoration would be suggested to stop decline of native fish species in the area.

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Conclusion Non-natives can outcompete natives in their natural ecosystems Once established, non-natives are hard to eradicate from an ecosystem. Our current eradication methods have inherent flaws. Restoration as an eradication method may be a possibility. Still contains inherent issues but certainly a technique to consider Try to create pre-disturbance conditions which favor natives over non-natives

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T amarisk, saltcedar, athel Introduced mid 1800’s, naturalized by 1877 Invasive, well-established in riparian/wetland areas throughout western U.S. and Mexico Fast-growing, mostly deciduous, shrubby tree Athel is evergreen tree, up to 60’ tall Drought tolerant, but uses water when available Seeds dispersed by water flow as well as wind Also reproduces vegetatively (cuttings, roots)

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Tamarisk management/control Prescribed burning Regenerates rapidly, by seeds and re-sprouting Fire risks to native plants and aquatic species Mechanical control Re-sprouts from stumps, roots or cuttings Chemical control Concerns for water quality, aquatic species Biological control Tamarisk leaf beetle, also non-native Combination