The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected institutions in Europe. There are some estimates that the Medici family were the wealthiest family in Europe for a period of time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. A notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. This system was first used by accountants working for the Medici family in Florence.

History

Origins

Giovanni di' Medici, founder of the Medici bank.

The Medici family came from the agriculturalMugello region, north of Florence, being mentioned for the first time in a document of 1230.[citation needed]The origin of the name is uncertain, although medici is the plural of medico, meaning "medical doctor"[4]

Rise to power

It has been observed that the Medici family was connected to most other elite families of the time through strategic marriages, partnerships, or employment, as a result of which the Medici family had a position of centrality in the social network: several families had systematic access to the rest of the elite families only through the Medici, perhaps similar to bankingrelationships. This has been suggested as a reason for the rise of the Medici family.[5] Members of the family rose to some prominence in the early 14th century in the wooltrade, especially with France and Spain. Despite the presence of some Medici in the city's government institutions, they were still far less notable than other outstanding families such as the Albizzi or the Strozzi. One Salvestro de' Medici was speaker of the woolmakers' guild during the Ciompi revolt, and one Antonio was exiled from Florence in 1396.[6] The involvement in another plot in 1400 caused all branches of the family to be banned from Florentine politics for twenty years, with the exception of two: from one of the latter, that of Averardo (Bicci) de' Medici, originated the Medici dynasty.

15th century

Averardo's son, Giovani di Bicci, increased the wealth of the family through his creation of the Medici Bank, and became one of the richest men in the city of Florence. Although he never held any political charge, he gained strong popular support for the family through his support for the introduction of a proportional taxing system. Giovani's son Cosimo the Elder took over in 1434 as gran maestro, and the Medici became unofficial heads of state of the Florentine republic.[7]

"Cosimo, Piero, and Lorenzo, three successive generations of the Medici, ruled over Florence through the greater part of the fifteenth century, without altogether abolishing representativegovernment, yet while clearly dominating it."[8] These three members of the Medici family had great skills in the management of such a "restive and independent a city" as Florence, but "when Lorenzo died in 1492, his son Piero proved quite incapable, and within two years he and his supporters were forced into exile [with] a republican government replac[ing] him."[8]

Piero de' Medici (1416–1469), Cosimo's son, stayed in power for only five years (1464–1469). He was called Piero the Gouty because of the gout that infected his foot, and it eventually led to his death. Unlike his father, Piero had little interest in the arts. Due to his illness, he mostly stayed at home bedridden, and therefore did little to further the Medici control of Florence while in power. As such, Medici rule stagnated until the next generation, when Piero's son Lorenzo took over. Piero's illegitimate son, Lenihanio, fled from Italy and lived in the Alps for 15 years.

Lorenzo de' Medici "the Magnificent" (1449–1492), was more capable of leading and ruling a city; however, he neglected the family banking business, leading to its ultimate ruin. To ensure the continuance of his family's success, Lorenzo planned his children's future careers for them. He groomed the headstrong Piero II to follow as his successor in civil leadership; Giovanni[9] (future Pope Leo X) was placed in the church at an early age; and his daughter Maddalena was provided with a sumptuous dowry when she made the politically advantageous marriage to a son of Pope Innocent VIII.[10] When Giuliano, Lorenzo's brother, was assassinated in church on Easter Sunday (1478), Lorenzo adopted his illegitimate son, Giulio de' Medici (1478–1535), the future Clement VII. Unfortunately, all Lorenzo's careful planning fell apart to some degree under the incompetent Piero II, who took over as the head of Florence after his father Lorenzo's death. Piero was responsible for the expulsion of the Medici from 1494-1512.

In the dangerous circumstances in which our city is placed, the time for delibration is past. Action must be taken... I have decided, with you approval, to sail for Naples immediately, believing that as I am the person against whom the activities of our enemies are chiefly directed, I may, perhaps, by delivering myself into their hands, be the means of restoring peace to our fellow-citizens. As I have had more honour and responsibility among you than any private citizen has had in our day, I am more bound than any other person to serve our country, even at the risk of my life. With this intention I now go. Perhaps God wills that this war, which began in the blood of my brother and of myself, should be ended by any means. My desire is that by my life or my death, my misfortune or my prosperity, I may contribute to the welfare of our city... I go full of hope, praying to God to give me grace to perform what every citizen should at all times be ready to perform for his country.

16th Century

This exile lasted only until 1512, however, and the "senior" branch of the family — those descended from Cosimo the Elder — were able to rule on and off until the assassination of Alessandro de' Medici, first Duke of Florence, in 1537. This century-long rule was only interrupted on two occasions (between 1494–1512 and 1527–1530), when popular revolts sent the Medici into exile. Power then passed to the "junior" Medici branch — those descended from Lorenzo the Elder, younger son of Giovanni di Bicci, starting with his great-great-grandson Cosimo I the Great. The Medici's rise to power was chronicled in detail by Benedetto Dei. Cosimo and his father started the Medici foundations in banking, manufacturing - including a form of franchises - wealth, art, cultural patronage, and in the Papacy that ensured their success for generations. At least half, probably more, of Florence's people were employed by them and their foundational branches in business.

However, the Medici remained masters of Italy through their two famous 16th century popes, Leo X and Clement VII, who were de facto rulers of both Rome and Florence. They were both patrons of the arts, but in the religious field they proved unable to stem the advance of Martin Luther's ideas. Another Medici became Pope: Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici (Leo XI).

Ferdinando eagerly assumed the government of Tuscany. He commanded the draining of the Tuscan marshlands, built a road network in Southern Tuscany and cultivated trade in Leghorn.[12] To augment the Tuscan silk industry, he oversaw the planting of Mulberry trees along the major roads (silk worms feed on Mulberry leaves).[13] He shifted Tuscany away from Habsburg[14] hegemony by marrying the first non-Habsburg candidate since Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, Christina of Lorraine, a niece of Catherine de' Medici. The Spanish reaction was to construct a citadel on their portion of the island of Elba.[12] To strengthen the new Franco-Tucan alliance, he married his younger daughter, Marie, to Henry IV of France. Henry explicitly stated that he would defend Tuscany from Spanish aggression, but later reneged. Ferdinando was forced to marry his heir, Cosimo, to Maria Maddalena of Austria to assuage Spain (where Maria Maddalena's sister was the incumbent Queen consort). Ferdinando sponsored a Tuscan expedition to the New World with the intention of establishing a Tuscan colony. Despite all of these incentives to economic growth and prosperity, the population of Florence, at dawn of the 17th century, was a mere 75,000 souls, far smaller than the other capitals of Italy: Rome, Milan, Venice, Palermo and Naples.[15] Francesco and Ferdinando, due to lax distinction between Medici and Tuscan state property, are thought to be wealthier than their ancestor, Cosimo de' Medici, the founder of the dynasty.[16] The Grand Duke alone had the prerogative to exploit the state's mineral and salt resources. The fortunes of the Medici were directly tied to the Tuscan economy.[16]

17th Century

Ferdinando, despite no longer being a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive conclaves. In 1605, Ferdinando succeeded in getting his candidate, Alessandro de' Medici, elected Pope Clement XI. He died the same month, but his successor, Pope Paul V, was also pro-Medici.[17] Ferdinando's pro-Papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. Ferdinando died in 1609, leaving an affluent realm, however, his inaction in international affairs would have long-reaching consequences down the line.

In France, Marie de' Medici was acting as regent for her son, Louis XIII. Her pro-Habsburg policy was repudiated by Louis in 1617. She lived the rest of her life deprived of any polictical influence.

As his successor, his elder son, Ferdinando, was not yet of legal maturity, Maria Maddalena and his grandmother, Christina of Lorraine, acted as regents. Their collective regency is known as the Turtici. Maria Maddelana's temperament was analogous to Christina's. Together, they aligned Tuscany with the Papacy; re-doubled the Tuscan clergy; and allowed the trial of Galileo Galilei to occur.[20] Upon the death of the last Duke of Urbino, instead of claiming the duchy for Ferdinando, who was married his granddaughter, and heiress, Vittoria della Rovere, they permitted it to be annexed by Pope Urban VIII. In 1626, they banned any Tuscan subject from being educated outside the Grand Duchy, a law later resurrected by Maria Maddalena's grandson, Cosimo III.[21]Harold Acton, an Anglo-Italian historian, ascribes the decline of Tuscany to them.[21]

Grand Duke Ferdinado was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers, barometers, thermometers, and telescopes installed in the Pitti.[22] In 1657, Leopoldo de' Medici, the Grand Duke’s youngest brother, established the Accademia del Cimento; set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study.[23]

Tuscany participated in the Wars of Castro (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Urban VIII in 1643.[24] The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. The interest rate was lowered by 0.75%.[25] The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places.[24]

Ferdinando died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy. He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medici's necropolis.[26] At the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 730,594 souls; the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa.[27]

Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, Anna Maria Luisa's spouse, successfully requisitioned the dignity Royal Highness for the Grand Duke and his family in 1691, despite the fact that they had no claim to any kingdom.[30] Cosimo frequently paid the Holy Roman Emperor, his nominal feudal overlord, exorbitant dues.[31] He sent munitions to the Emperor during the Battle of Vienna.

In 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt and the population of Florence declined by 50%, and the population of the grand duchy as a whole by an estimated 40%.[32] The Medici lacked male heirs. Cosimo desperately tried to reach a settlement with the European powers. Tuscany’s legal status was very complicated, the area of the grand duchy formerly comprising of the Republic of Siena was technically a Spanish fief, while the territory of the old Republic of Florence was thought to be under imperial suzerainty. Upon the death of his first son, Cosimo contemplated restoring the Florentine republic, either upon Anna Maria Luisa's death, or on his own, if he predeceased her. The restoration of the republic would entail resigning Siena to the Holy Roman Empire, but, regardless; it was vehemently endorsed by his government. Europe largely ignored Cosimo’s plan, only England and the Dutch Republic gave any credence to it, and the plan ultimately died with Cosimo III in 1723.[33]

On 4 April 1718, England, France and the Dutch Republic (and later Austria) selected Don Carlos of Spain, the elder child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain, as the Tuscan heir. By 1722, the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress, and Cosimo was reduced to spectator at the conferences for Tuscany's future.[34] On 25 October 1723, six days before his death, Grand Duke Cosimo disseminated a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited to Tuscany after Gian Gastone; The Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor.[35] Alas, these stanzas were completely ignored and he died a few days later.

Gian Gastone despised the Electress for engineering his catastrophic marriage to Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, while she abhorred her brother's liberal policies; he repealed all of his father's anti-Semitic statutes. Gian Gastone revelled in upsetting her.[36] On 25 October 1731, a Spanish detachment occupied Florence on behalf of Don Carlos, who disembarked in Tuscany in December of the same year.[37]

The Ruspanti, Gian Gastone's decrepit entourage, loathed the Electress, and she them. Violante, Gian Gastone's sister-in-law, tried to withdraw the Grand Duke from the Ruspanti sphere of influence by organising banquets. His conduct at these was less than regal, he often vomited repeatedly into his napkin, belched, and regaled those present with inappropriate jokes.[38] Following a sprained ankle in 1731, he remained confined to his bed for the rest of his life. The bed, oft smelling of faeces, was occasionally cleaned by Violante.

Gian Gastone expired on 9 July 1737, surrounded by prelates and his sister. Anna Maria Luisa was offered a nominal regency by the Prince de Craon until the new Grand Duke could peregrinate to Tuscany, but declined.[40] Upon her brother's death, she received all the House of Medici's allodial possessions.

Anna Maria Luisa signed the Patto di Famiglia on October 31, 1737. In collaboration with the Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke Francis of Lorraine, she willed all the personal property of the Medici to the Tuscan state, provided that nothing was ever removed from Florence.[41]

She donated much of her fortune to charity; £4,000 a month.[43] On 19 February 1743, Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Dowager Electress Palatine, breathed her last. The Grand Ducal line of the House of Medici died with her. The Florentines grieved her.[44] She was interred in the crypt that she helped to complete, San Lorenzo.

Legacy

The biggest accomplishments of the Medici were in the sponsorship of art and architecture, mainly early and High Renaissance art and architecture. The Medici were responsible for the majority of Florentine art during their reign. Their money was significant because during this period, artists generally only made their works when they received commissions in advance. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, the first patron of the arts in the family, aided Masaccio and commissioned Brunelleschi for the reconstruction of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence in 1419. Cosimo the Elder's notable artistic associates were Donatello and Fra Angelico. The most significant addition to the list over the years was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564), who produced work for a number of Medici, beginning with Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was said to be extremely fond of the young Michelangelo, inviting him to study the family collection of antique sculpture.[45] Lorenzo also served as patron to Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) for seven years. Indeed Lorenzo was an artist in his own right, and author of poetry and song; his support of the arts and letters is seen as a high point in Medici patronage.

Medici family members placed allegorically in the entourage of a king from the Three Wise Men in the Tuscan countryside in a Benozzo Gozzoli fresco, c. 1459.

After Lorenzo's death the puritanical Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola rose to prominence, warning Florentines against excessive luxury. Under Savonarola's fanatical leadership, many great works were "voluntarily" destroyed in the Bonfire of the Vanities (February 7, 1497). The following year, on May 23, 1498, Savonarola and two young supporters were burned at the stake in the Piazza della Signoria, the same location as his bonfire. In addition to commissions for art and architecture, the Medici were prolific collectors and today their acquisitions form the core of the Uffizi museum in Florence. In architecture, the Medici are responsible for some notable features of Florence; including the Uffizi Gallery, the Boboli Gardens, the Belvedere, and the Palazzo Medici.

Although none of the Medici themselves were scientists, the family is well known to have been the patrons of the famous Galileo Galilei, who tutored multiple generations of Medici children, and was an important figurehead for his patron's quest for power. Galileo's patronage was eventually abandoned by Ferdinando II, when the Inquisition accused Galileo of heresy. However, the Medici family did afford the scientist a safe haven for many years. Galileo named the four largest moons of Jupiter after four Medici children he tutored, although the names Galileo used are not the names currently used.

Grand Dukes of Tuscany

distant cousin of Alessandro de' Medici, son of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere. dei Popolani line descended from Lorenzo the Elder, brother of Cosimo de' Medici. Duke of Florence, 1537—1569, until being made Grand Duke of Tuscany.

References

Miles J. Unger, Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de Medici, (Simon and Schuster 2008) is a vividly colorful new biography of this true "renaissance man", the uncrowned ruler of Florence during its golden age

Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall (Morrow, 1975) is a highly readable, non-scholarly general history of the family

Ferdinand Schevill, History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence

Paul Strathern, The Medici—Godfathers of the Renaissance (Pimlico, 2005) is an informative and lively account of the Medici family, their finesse and foibles—extremely readable, though with few typographical errors.

Lauro Martines, April Blood—Florence and the Plot Against the Medici (Oxford University Press 2003) a detailed account of the Pazzi Conspiracy, the players, the politics of the day, and the fallout of the assassination plot . Though accurate in historic details, Martines writes with a definite 'anti-Medici' tone.

Jonathan Zophy, A Short History of Renaissance and Reformation Europe, Dances over Fire and Water. 1996. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.

Villa Niccolini (Camugliano), Villa Niccolini, is one of the Medici's tuscany villa previously called Villa Medicea di Camugliano, Villa Niccolini is located east from Ponsacco, near a little feudal village, Camugliano.

Further reading

Jean Lucas-Dubreton, Daily Life in Florence in the Time of the Medici.

Their wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana. Like other signore families they dominated their city's government. They were able to bring Florence under their family's power, allowing for an environment where art and humanism could flourish. They fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua.

The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected institutions in Europe. There are some estimates that the Medici family were the wealthiest family in Europe for a period of time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. A notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. This system was first used by accountants working for the Medici family in Florence.

Contents

History

Origins

The Medici family came from the agricultural Mugello region, north of Florence, being mentioned for the first time in a document of 1230.[citation needed]The origin of the name is uncertain, although medici is the plural of medico, meaning "medical doctor"[1]

Rise to power

It has been observed that the Medici family was connected to most other elite families of the time through strategic marriages, partnerships, or employment, as a result of which the Medici family had a position of centrality in the social network: several families had systematic access to the rest of the elite families only through the Medici. This has been suggested as a reason for the rise of the Medici family.[2]
Members of the family rose to some prominence in the early 14th century in the wool trade, especially with France and Spain. Despite the presence of some Medici in the city's government institutions, they were still far less notable than other outstanding families such as the Albizzi or the Strozzi. One Salvestro de' Medici was speaker of the woolmakers' guild during the Ciompi revolt, and one Antonio was sentenced to death in 1396. The involvement in another plot in 1400 caused all branches of the family to be banned from Florentine politics for twenty years, with the exception of two: from one of the latter, that of Averardo (Bicci) de' Medici, originated the Medici dynasty.

Averardo's son, Giovani di Bicci, increased the wealth of the family through his creation of the Medici Bank, and became one of the richest men in the city of Florence. Although he never held any political charge, he gained strong popular support for the family through his support for the introduction of a proportional taxing system. Giovani's son Cosimo the Elder took over in 1434 as gran maestro, and the Medici became unofficial heads of state of the Florentine republic.[3]

The "senior" branch of the family — those descended from Cosimo the Elder — ruled until the assassination of Alessandro de' Medici, first Duke of Florence, in 1537. This century-long rule was only interrupted on two occasions (between 1494–1512 and 1527–1530), when popular revolts sent the Medici into exile. Power then passed to the "junior" branch — those descended from Lorenzo the Elder, younger son of Giovanni di Bicci, starting with his great-great-grandson Cosimo I the Great. The Medici's rise to power was chronicled in detail by Benedetto Dei.
Cosimo and his father started the Medici foundations in banking, manufacturing - including a form of franchises - wealth, art, cultural patronage, and in the Papacy that ensured their success for generations. At least half, probably more, of Florence's people were employed by them and their foundational branches in business.

15th century

Piero de' Medici (1416-1469), Cosimo's son, stayed in power for only five years (1464-1469). He was called Piero the Gouty because of the gout that infected his foot, and it eventually led to his death. Unlike his father, Piero had little interest in the arts. Due to his illness, he mostly stayed at home bedridden, and therefore did little to further the Medici control of Florence while in power. As such, Medici rule stagnated until the next generation, when Piero's son Lorenzo took over.

Lorenzo de' Medici "the Magnificent" (1449-1492), was more capable of leading and ruling a city; however, he neglected the family banking business, leading to its ultimate ruin. To ensure the continuance of his family's success, Lorenzo planned his children's future careers for them. He groomed the headstrong Piero II to follow as his successor in civil leadership; Giovanni (future Pope Leo X) was placed in the church at an early age; and his daughter Maddalena was provided with a sumptuous dowry when she made the politically advantageous marriage to a son of Pope Innocent VIII.[4] When Giuliano, Lorenzo's brother, was assassinated in church on Easter Sunday (1478), Lorenzo adopted his illegitimate son, Giulio de' Medici (1478-1535), the future Clement VII. Unfortunately, all Lorenzo's careful planning fell apart to some degree under the incompetent Piero II, who took over as the head of Florence after his father Lorenzo's death. Piero was responsible for the expulsion of the Medici from 1494-1512.

However, the Medici remained masters of Italy through their two famous 16th century popes, Leo X and Clement VII, who were de facto rulers of both Rome and Florence. They were both patrons of the arts, but in the religious field they proved unable to stem the advance of Martin Luther's ideas. Another Medici became Pope: Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici (Leo XI).

The most outstanding figure of the 16th century Medici was Cosimo I, who, coming from relatively modest beginnings in the Mugello, rose to supremacy in the whole of Tuscany, conquering the Florentines' most hated rival Siena and founding the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.

Art and architecture

The biggest accomplishments of the Medici were in the sponsorship of art and architecture, mainly early and High Renaissance art and architecture. The Medici were responsible for the majority of Florentine art during their reign. Their money was significant because during this period, artists generally only made their works when they received commissions in advance. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, the first patron of the arts in the family, aided Masaccio and commissioned Brunelleschi for the reconstruction of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence in 1419. Cosimo the Elder's notable artistic associates were Donatello and Fra Angelico. The most significant addition to the list over the years was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), who produced work for a number of Medici, beginning with Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was said to be extremely fond of the young Michelangelo, inviting him to study the family collection of antique sculpture.[5] Lorenzo also served as patron to Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) for seven years. Indeed Lorenzo was an artist in his own right, and author of poetry and song; his support of the arts and letters is seen as a high point in Medici patronage.

After Lorenzo's death the puritanical Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola rose to prominence, warning Florentines against excessive luxury. Under Savonarola's fanatical leadership, many great works were "voluntarily" destroyed in the Bonfire of the Vanities (February 7, 1497). The following year, on May 23, 1498, Savonarola and two young supporters were burned at the stake in the Piazza della Signoria, the same location as his bonfire. In addition to commissions for art and architecture, the Medici were prolific collectors and today their acquisitions form the core of the Uffizi museum in Florence. In architecture, the Medici are responsible for some notable features of Florence; including the Uffizi Gallery, the Boboli Gardens, the Belvedere, and the Palazzo Medici.

Although none of the Medici themselves were scientists, the family is well known to have been the patrons of the famous Galileo Galilei, who tutored multiple generations of Medici children, and was an important figurehead for his patron's quest for power. Galileo's patronage was eventually abandoned by Ferdinando II, when the Inquisition accused Galileo of heresy. However, the Medici family did afford the scientist a safe haven for many years. Galileo named the four largest moons of Jupiter after four Medici children he tutored, although the names Galileo used are not the names currently used.

^ Official site of the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno of Florence, Brief History (it. leng.)[1]

Text

Miles J. Unger, Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de Medici, (Simon and Schuster 2008) is a vividly colorful new biography of this true "renaissance man", the uncrowned ruler of Florence during its golden age

Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall (Morrow, 1975) is a highly readable, non-scholarly general history of the family

Ferdinand Schevill, History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence

Paul Strathern, The Medici—Godfathers of the Renaissance (Pimlico, 2005) is an informative and lively account of the Medici family, their finesse and foibles—extremely readable, though very homophobic and full of typographical errors.

Lauro Martines, April Blood—Florence and the Plot Against the Medici (Oxford University Press 2003) a detailed account of the Pazzi Conspiracy, the players, the politics of the day, and the fallout of the assassination plot . Though accurate in historic details, Martines writes with a definite 'anti-Medici' tone.

Jonathan Zophy, A Short History of Renaissance and Reformation Europe, Dances over Fire and Water. 1996. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.

Villa Niccolini (Camugliano), Villa Niccolini, is one of the Medici's tuscany villa previously called Villa Medicea di Camugliano, Villa Niccolini is located east from Ponsacco, near a little feudal village, Camugliano.

Documentaries

TLC/Peter Spry-Leverton.PSL, The Mummy Detectives: The Crypt Of The Medici One-hour documentary. Italian specialists, joined by mummy expert and TLC presenter Dr. Bob Brier exhume the bodies of Italy's ancient first family and use the latest forensic tools to investigate how they lived and died. Airs on Discovery Channel.

From LoveToKnow 1911

MEDICI, the name of a family renowned in Italian history for the
extraordinary number of statesmen to whom it gave birth, and for
its magnificent patronage of letters and art. They emerged from
private life and rose to power by
means of a very subtle policy that was persistently pursued from
generation to generation. The origin of the family is buried in
obscurity. Some court historians indeed declare it to have been
founded by Perseus, and
assert that Benvenuto Cellini's bronze Perseus holding on high the head of Medusa was executed and placed in
the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence to symbolize the victory of the
Medici over the republic. But this only proves that the real origin
of the family is unknown, and equally unknown is the precise
signification of the Medicean arms - six red balls on a field of gold.

The name appears in Florentine chronicles as early as the close
of the 12th century, although only casually mentioned in connexion
with various offices of the republic. The first of the family to be
a distinct figure in history was Salvestro dei Medici, who, in
1378, took an active part in the revolt of the Ciompi - so called
because it was led by a wool-carder
(ciompo), one Michele di Lando, and because the chief
share in it was taken by the populace, who held the reins of
government for some time, and sought to obtain extended political
rights. Although Michele di Lando was the nominal chief of the
revolt, Salvestro dei Medici was its real leader. The latter,
although a member of the greater gilds, had joined the lesser and sought to be at
their head, in order to lay the foundation of his own power and
that of his kindred by attacking the Albizzi, who were the leading
men of the greater gilds. The victory of the Ciompi, however, was
brief, for the excesses of the lower classes brought about a
reaction, in which they were crushed, and Michele di Lando sent
into banishment. Nevertheless the lesser gilds had gained some
ground by this riot, and Salvestro
dei Medici the great popularity at which he had aimed. His policy
during that period had traced the sole possible road to power in
liberty-loving Florence. This was the road henceforth pursued by
the Medici.

On Salvestro's death in 1388 the Albizzi repossessed themselves
of the government, and conducted the wars of the republic. Vieri
dei Medici, who seems to have been the next head of the family,
understanding the temper of
the times, abstained from becoming a popular leader, and left it to
his successors to prosecute the task under easier conditions. Then,
in the person of Giovanni, son of Averardo Bicci dei Medici
(1360-1429), another branch of the family arose, and became its
representative branch. Indeed this Giovanni may be considered the
actual founder of Medicean greatness. He took little part in
political affairs, but realized an immense fortune by trade -
establishing banks in Italy and abroad, which in his
successor's hands became the most efficient engines of political
power. The Council of Constance (1414-1418)
enabled Giovanni dei Medici to realize enormous profits. Besides,
like his ancestor Salvestro, he was a constant supporter of the
lesser gilds in Florence. Historians record his frequent resistance
to the Albizzi when they sought to oppress the people with heavier
taxation, and his
endeavours to cause the chief weight to fall upon the richer
classes. For this reason he was in favour of the so-called law of
catasto, which, by assessing tthe property of every citizen, prevented those in
power from arbitrarily imposing taxes that unjustly burdened the
people. In this way, and by liberal loans of money to all who were
in need of it, he gained a reputation that was practically the
foundation-stone of the grand family edifice. Giovanni dei Medici
died in 1429 leaving two sons, Cosimo (1389-1464) and Lorenzo
(1395-1440). From the former proceeded the branch that held
absolute sway for many generations over the nominal republic of
Florence, and gave to Italy popes like Leo X. and Clement VII. On the extinction of this
elder line in the 16th century, the younger branch derived from
Lorenzo, Cosimo's brother, seemed to acquire new life, and for two
centuries supplied grand-dukes to Tuscany.

Cosimo, surnamed Cosimo the Elder, to distinguish him from the
many others bearing the same name, and honoured after his death by
the title of pater patriae, first succeeded in solving the
strange problem of becoming absolute g g p g ruler of a republic
keenly jealous of its liberty, with out holding any fixed office,
without suppressing any previous form of government, and always
preserving the appearance and demeanour of a private citizen. Born
in 1389, he had reached the age of forty at the time of his
father's death. He had a certain amount of literary culture, and
throughout his life showed much taste and an earnest love both for letters and art. But his
father had mainly trained him to commerce, for which he had a
special liking and aptitude. He was devoted to business to the day
of his death, and like his forefathers derived pecuniary advantage
from his friendly relations with the papal court. He accompanied PopeJohn XXIII. to the Council of Constance, transacted a
vast amount of business in that city, and made very large gains. He
then travelled in Germany,
and after his return to Florence discharged several ambassadorial
missions. At the death of
his father he was possessed of a vast fortune and an extended
experience, and inherited the leadership of the opposition to the
then dominant party of the greater gilds headed by Rinaldo degli
Albizzi, PallaStrozzi and Niccolo da Uzzano.
Of gentle and kindly manners, generous in lending and even in
giving money whenever he could gain popularity by that means, at
critical moments he frequently came to the succour of the
government itself. He was very dexterous in turning his private
liberalities to account for the increase of his political prestige, and showed no less
acumen and still fewer scruples in making use of his political
prestige for purposes of pecuniary profit. Indeed, whenever his own
interests were at stake, he showed himself capable of positive
villainy, although this was always tempered by calculation. Cosimo
proved his skill in these knavish arts during the war between
Florence and Lucca. He had
joined the Albizzi in urging on this war, and many writers assert
that he turned it to much pecuniary advantage by means of loans to
the government and other banking operations. When, however,
military affairs went badly, Cosimo joined the discontented
populace in invectives against the war and those who had conducted
it. This won him an enormous increase of popularity, but the hatred
of the Albizzi and their friends augmented in equal degree, and a
conflict became inevitable. The Albizzi, who were far more
impetuous and impatient than Cosimo, were now bent upon revenge. In
1433 one of their friends, Bernardo Guadagni, was elected
gonfalonier, and thereupon Cosimo dei Medici was called to the
palace and summarily imprisoned in the tower. A general assembly of the people was
convoked and a balia chosen, which changed the government
and sent Cosimo into exile. Undoubtedly the Albizzi party would
have preferred a heavier sentence, but they did not dare to attempt
their enemy's life, being well aware of the great number of his
adherents. Cosimo had some apprehension that he might be poisoned in
prison, but Federigo dei
Malavolti, captain of the palace guard, showed him the utmost
kindness, and, to soothe his fears, voluntarily shared his meals.
On the 3rd of October the prisoner was sent to Padua, his allotted place of exile.

The Albizzi speedily saw that they had done either too much or
too little. While seeking to keep the government entirely in their
own hands, they beheld the continual growth of the Medici party.
When it was necessary to make a campaign in Romagna against the mercenary captains
commanding the forces of the duke of Milan, it was plainly seen that in banishing
Cosimo the republic had lost the only citizen banker in a position
to assist it with considerable loans. The Florentines were defeated
by Piccinino in 1434, and this event greatly increased the public
exasperation against the Albizzi. Meanwhile Cosimo, who had gone to
Padua as a private individual, was entertained there like a prince.
Then, being permitted to transfer his residence to Venice, he entered on a course of
lavish expenditure. He was overwhelmed with letters and appeals
from Florence. Finally, on the 1st of September 1434, a signory was
elected composed of his friends, and his recall was decreed.
Rinaldo degli Albizzi determined to oppose it by force, and rushed
to the Piazza with a band of armed men; but his attempt failed, and
he left the country to return no more. The Medici were now
reinstated in all their former dignities and honours, and Cosimo,
on the evening of the 6th of September, rode past the deserted
mansions of the Albizzi and re-entered his own dwelling after an
exile of a year. For three centuries, dating from that moment, the
whole history of Florence was connected with that of the house of
Medici.

Cosimo's first thought was to secure himself against all future
risk of removal from Florence, and accordingly he drove the most
powerful citizens into exile to all parts of Italy. Nor did he
spare even his former political adversary, Palla Strozzi, although
the latter had been favourable to The Govern- ' 'ment
of him during the recent changes. His rigour in this
particular case was universally censured, but Cosimo would tolerate
no rivals in the city, and was resolved to abase the great families
and establish his power by the support of the lower classes. He was
accustomed to say that states could not be ruled by paternosters.
Still, when cruelty seemed
requisite, he always contrived that the chief odium of it should
fall upon others. When Neri Capponi, the valiant soldier and able
diplomatist, gained great public favour by his military prowess,
and his influence was further increased by the friendship of
Baldaccio d'Anghiari, captain of the infantry, Cosimo resolved to weaken his
position by indirect means. Accordingly, when in 1441 a partisan of the Medici was
elected gonfalonier, Baldaccio was instantly summoned to the
palace, imprisoned, murdered, and his body hurled from the window. No one could actually fix
this crime upon Cosimo, but the
majority believed that he had thus contrived to rid himself of one
enemy and cripple another without showing his hand. It was
impossible for Cosimo openly to assume the position of tyrant of Florence, nor was it
worth his while to become gonfalonier, since the term of office
only lasted two months. It was necessary to discover some other way
without resorting to violence; he accordingly employed what were
then designated " civil methods." He managed to attain his object
by means of the balie. These magistracies, which were
generally renewed every five years, placed in the ballotbags the
names of the candidates from whom the signory and other chief
magistrates were to be chosen. As soon as a balia
favourable to Cosimo was formed, he was assured for five years of
having the government in the hands of men devoted to his interests.
He had comprehended that the art of politics depended rather upon
individuals than institutions, and that he who ruled men could also
dictate laws. His foreign policy was no less astute. His great
wealth enabled him to supply money not only to private individuals,
but even to foreign potentates. Philippe de Comines tells us that Cosimo frequently
furnished Edward IV. of
England with sums amounting
to many hundred thousand florins. When Tommaso Parentucelli was
still a cardinal, and in
needy circumstances, Cosimo made him considerable loans without
demanding guarantees of payment. On the cardinal's accession to the
tiara as Nicholas V. he was naturally very well
disposed towards Cosimo, and employed the Medici bank in Rome in all the affairs of the curia. At the time when Francesco
Sforza was striving for the
lordship of Milan, Cosimo foresaw his approaching triumph, showed
him great friendship, and aided him with large sums of money.
Accordingly, when Sforza became lord of Milan, Cosimo's power was
doubled.

Without the title of prince, this merchant showed royal
generosity in his expenditure for the promotion of letters and the
fine arts. Besides his
palace in the city, he constructed noble villas at Careggi, Fiesole and other places. He
built the basilica of
Fiesole, and that of St Lorenzo Cosimo's in
Florence, and enlarged the church and monastery of Art. of
St Mark. Even in distant Jerusalem he endowed a hospice for the use of
pilgrims. The artists of the day comprised men like Donatello, Brunelleschi,
Ghiberti, Luca della
Robbia, and many others, and Cosimo's magnificent commissions
not only developed their powers but stimulated other men of wealth
to the patronage of art. Without being a scholar, Cosimo had a
genuine taste for letters. He purchased many Greek and Latin manuscripts; he opened the
first public library at St Mark's at his own expense, and founded
another in the abbey of Fiesole.
The Greek refugees from Constantinople found a constant welcome
in his palace. During the Council of Florence
(1439-1442), Gemistus
Pletho spoke to him with enthusiasm of the Platonic philosophy. Cosimo was so
deeply attracted by the theme that he decided to have the young Marsilio Ficino
trained in philosophy and Greek learning in order to make a Latin
translation of the complete works of Plato. And thus a version was produced that is
still considered one of the best extant, and that Platonic academy
was founded which led to such important results in the history of
Italian philosophy and letters. On the 1st of August 1464 Cosimo
breathed his last, at the age of seventy-five, while engaged in
listening to one of Plato's dialogues.

The concluding years of his life had been years of little
happiness for Florence. Being old and infirm, he had left the
government to the management of his friends, among whom Luca Pitti
was one of the most powerful, and they had ruled with disorder,
corruption and cruelty. The lordship of Florence accordingly did
not pass without some difficulty and danger into the hands of
Piero, surnamed the Gouty, Cosimo's only surviving legitimate son.
Afflicted by gout, and so terribly
g Y g Y crippled that he was often only able to use his tongue, the
new ruler soon discovered that a plot was on foot to overthrow his
power. However, showing far more courage than he was supposed to
possess, he had himself borne on a litter from his villa to Florence, defeated his enemies' designs,
and firmly re-established his authority. But his success may be
mainly attributed to the enormous prestige bequeathed by Cosimo to
his posterity. Piero died at the end of five years' reign, on the
3rd of December 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1
449 - 1 49 2) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The
younger, the gentler and less ambitious of the pair, was quickly
removed from the world. Lorenzo, on the contrary, at once seized
the reins of state with a firm grasp, and was, chronologically, the
second of the great men bestowed upon Italy by the house of Medici.
In literary talent he was
immensely superior to Cosimo, but greatly his inferior in the
conduct of the commercial affairs of the house. In politics he had
nobler conceptions and higher ambitions, but he was more easily
carried away by his passions, less prudent in his revenge, and more
disposed to tyranny. He had studied letters from his earliest years
under the guidance of Ficino and other leading litterati of the
day. At the age of eighteen he visited the different courts of
Italy. At his father's death he was only twenty-one
Lorenzo. years old, but instantly showed his
determination to govern Florence with greater despotism than his
father or grandfather. He speedily resorted to the system of the
balie, and was very dexterous in causing the first to be
chosen to suit his purpose. He then proceeded to humiliate the
great families and exalt those of little account, and this was the
policy he constantly pursued. His younger brother Giuliano, being
of a mild and yielding disposition, had only a nominal share in the
government.

Lorenzo's policy, although prosecuted with less caution, was
still the old astute and fortunate policy initiated by Cosimo. But
the grandson bestowed no care upon his commercial interests,
although squandering his fortune with far greater lavishness.
Accordingly he was sometimes driven to help himself from the public
purse without ever being able to
assist it as Cosimo had done. All this excited blame and enmity
against him, while his greed in the matter of the alum mines of Volterra, and the subsequent sack of that unhappy city, were crimes for which
there was no excuse. Among his worst enemies were the Pazzi, and,
as they formed a very powerful clan, he sought their ruin by competing with them
even in business transactions. They were on the point of inheriting
the large property of Giovanni Borromeo when Lorenzo hurriedly
caused a law to be passed that altered the right of succession. The
hatred of the Pazzi was thereby exasperated to fury. And in
addition to these things there ensued a desperate quarrel with Pope
Sixtus IV., a man of
very impetuous temper, who, on endeavouring to erect a state on the
frontiers of the Florentine republic for the benefit of his
nephews, found a determined and successful opponent in Lorenzo.
Consequently the Pazzi and Archbishop Salviati, another enemy of
Lorenzo, aided t y the nephews of the pontiff, who was himself
acquainted with the whole matter, determined to put an end to the
family. On the 26th of April 1478, while Giuliano and Lorenzo were
attending high mass in the cathedral of Florence, the former was
mortally stabbed by conspirators, but the latter was able to beat back his assailants and escape
into the sacristy. His
life preserved, and no longer having to share the government with a
brother, Lorenzo profited by the opportunity to wreak cruel
vengeance upon his foes. Several of the Pazzi and their followers
were hanged from the palace windows; others were hacked to pieces,
dragged through the streets, and cast into the Arno, while a
great many more were condemned to death or sent into exile. Lorenzo
seemed willing and able to become a tyrant. But he stopped short of
this point. He knew the temper of the city, and had also to look to
fresh dangers threatening him from without. The pope had
excommunicated him, put Florence under an interdict, and, being seconded by the
Neapolitan king, made furious war against the republic. The
Florentines began to tire of
submitting to so many hardships in order to support the yoke of a
fellowcitizen. Lorenzo's hold over Florence seemed endangered. But
he rose superior to the difficulties by which he was encompassed.
He boldly journeyed to Naples,
to the court of King Ferdinand of Aragon, who was
reputed to be as treacherous as he was cruel, and succeeded in
obtaining from him an honourable peace, that soon led to a
reconciliation with Sixtus. Thus at last Lorenzo found himself
complete master of Florence. But, as the balie changed
every five years, it was always requisite, in order to retain his
supremacy, that he should be prepared to renew the usual manoeuvre
at the close of that term and have another elected equally
favourable to his aims. This was often a difficult achievement, and
Lorenzo showed much dexterity in overcoming all obstacles. In 1480
he compassed the institution of a new council of seventy, which was
practically a permanent balia with extended powers,
inasmuch as it not only elected the chief magistrates, but had also
the administration of numerous state affairs. This permanent
council of devoted adherents once formed, his security was firmly established. By this
means, the chroniclers tell us, " liberty was buried," but the
chief affairs of the state were always conducted by intelligent and
experienced men, who promoted the public prosperity. Florence was
still called a republic; the old institutions were still preserved,
if only in name. Lorenzo was absolute lord of all, and virtually a
tyrant. His immorality was scandalous; he kept an army of spies; he
frequently meddled in the citizens' most private affairs, and
exalted men of the lowest condition to important offices of the
state. Yet, as Guicciardini remarks, " if Florence was to have a
tyrant, she could never have found a better or more pleasant one."
In fact all industry, commerce and public works made enormous
progress. The civil equality of modern states, which was quite
unknown to the
middle ages, was more developed in Florence than in any other
city of the world. Even the condition of the peasantry was far more
prosperous than elsewhere. Lorenzo's authority was not confined to
Tuscany, but was also very great throughout the whole of Italy. He
was on the friendliest terms with Pope Innocent VIII., from whom he obtained the
exaltation of his son Giovanni to the cardinalate at the age of
fourteen. This boy-cardinal was afterwards Pope Leo X. From the
moment of the decease of Sixtus IV., the union of Florence and Rome
became the basis of Lorenzo's foreign policy. By its means he was
able to prevent the hatreds and jealousies of the Sforzas of Milan
and the Aragonese of Naples from bursting into the open conflict
that long threatened, and after his death actually caused, the
beginning of new and irreparable calamities. Hence Lorenzo was
styled the needle of the
Italian compass.

But the events we have narrated cannot suffice for the full
comprehension of this complex character, unless we add the record
of his deeds as a patron of letters and his achievements as a
writer. His palace was the school and resort of illustrious men.
Within its walls were trained the two young Medici afterwards known
to the world as Leo X. and Clement VII. Ficino, Poliziano, Pico della
Mirandola and all members of the Platonic academy were its
constant habitues. It was here that Pulci gave readings of his
Morgante, and Michelangelo essayed the first strokes of
his chisel. Lorenzo's
intellectual powers were of exceptional strength and versatility.
He could speak with XVIII. 2 equal fluency on painting, sculpture, music, philosophy and poetry. But his crowning superiority over every
other Maecenas known to history lay in his active participation in
the intellectual labours that he promoted. Indeed at certain
moments he was positively the leading spirit among the litterati of
his of time. He was an elegant prose writer, and was Letters. likewise
a poet of real originality. At that period Italians were forsaking
erudition in order to forward the revival of the national
literature by recurring to the primitive sources of the spoken
tongue and popular verse. It is Lorenzo's lasting glory to have been the initiator of this
movement. Without being - as some have maintained - a poet of
genius, he was certainly a writer of much finish and eloquence, and
one of the first to raise popular poetry to the dignity of art. In
his Ambra, his Caccia del falcone and his
Nencia da Barberino, he gives descriptions of nature and
of the rural life that he loved, with the graphic power of an acute
and tasteful observer, joined to an ease of style that occasionally sins by excess of
homeliness. Both in his art and in his politics he leant upon the
people. The more oppressive his government, the more did he seek in
his verses to incite the public to festivities and lull it to slumber by
sensual enjoyments. In his Ballate, or songs for dancing,
and more especially in his carnival songs, a kind of verse invented by
himself, Lorenzo displayed all the best qualities and worst defects
of his muse. Marvellously and spontaneously elegant, very truthful
and fresh in style, fertile in fancy and rich in colour, they are
often of a most revolting indecency. And these compositions of one
filling a princely station in the city were often sung by their
author in the public streets, in the midst of the populace.

Lorenzo left three sons - Pietro (1471-1503), Giovanni
(1 475 - 1 5 21) and Giuliano
(1479-1516). He was succeeded by Pietro, whose rule lasted but for
two years. During this brief term he performed no good deeds, and
only displayed inordinate vanity and frivolity. His conduct greatly
helped to foment the hatred between Lodovico Sforza and Ferdinand of Naples, which
hastened the coming of the French under Charles VIII., and the renewal of foreign
invasions. No sooner did the French approach the frontiers of
Tuscany than Pietro, crazed with fear, hastened to meet them, and,
basely yielding to every Pietro. demand, accepted terms
equally humiliating to him self and the state. But, returning to
Florence, he found that the enraged citizens had already decreed
his deposition, in order to reconstitute the republic, and was
therefore compelled to escape to Venice. His various plots to
reinstate himself in Florence were all unsuccessful. At last he
went to the south of Italy with the French, was drowned at the
passage of the Garigliano in 1503, and was buried in the cloister of Monte Cassino.

The ensuing period was adverse to the Medici, for a republican
government was maintained in Florence from 1494 to 1512, and the
city remained faithful to its alliance with the French, who were
all-powerful in Italy. Cardinal Giovanni, the head of the family,
resided in Rome, playing the patron to a circle of litterati,
artists and friends, seeking to increase his popularity, and calmly
waiting for better days. The battle of Ravenna wrought the downfall of the fortunes of
France in Italy, and led to
the rise of those of Spain,
whose troops entered Florence to destroy the republic and reinstate
the Medici. Pietro had now been dead for some time, leaving a young
son, Lorenzo (1492-1519), who was afterwards duke of Urbino. The following year (1513)
Cardinal Giovanni was elected pope, and assumed the name of Leo X.
He accordingly removed to Rome, leaving his brother Giuliano with
his nephew Lorenzo in Florence, and accompanied by his cousin
Giulio, Giuliano, who was a natural son of the Giuliano
murdered i n the conspiracy of the Pazzi, and was soon
destined to be a cardinal and ultimately a pope. Meanwhile his
kinsmen in Florence continued to govern that city by means of a
balia. And thus, being masters of the whole of central
Italy, the Medici enjoyed great authority throughout the country
and their ambition plumed itself for still higher flights. This was
the moment when Niccolo Machiavelli, in his treatise The
Prince, counselled them to accomplish the unity of Italy by
arming the whole nation, and expelling its foreign invaders.

Leo X., who is only indirectly connected with the history of
Florence, gave his name to the age in which he lived in consequence
of his magnificent patronage of art and letters in Rome. But he was
merely a clever amateur, and
had not the literary gifts of his father Lorenzo. He surrounded
himself with versifiers and inferior writers, who enlivened his
boards and accompanied him wherever he went. He liked to lead a gay and untroubled life, was
fond of theatrical performances, satires and other intellectual
diversions. His patronage of the fine arts, his genuine affection for Raphael, and the numerous works
he caused to be executed by him and other artists, have served to
confer an exaggerated glory on his name. He had not the remotest
idea of the grave importance of the Reformation, which indeed he
unconsciously promoted by his reckless and shameless sale of
indulgences. The whole policy of Pope Leo X. consisted in
oscillating between France and Spain, in always playing fast and loose,
and deceiving both powers in turn. Yet the evil results of this
contemptible policy never seemed to disturb his mind. He finally
joined the side of the emperorCharles V., and in 1521, at the time of the
defeat of the French by the Spanish troops on the river Adda, he ceased to breathe at his
favourite villa of Magliana.

Giuliano dei Medici had died during Leo's reign, in 1516,
without having ever done anything worthy of record. He was the
husband of Philiberta of Savoy, was duke of Nemours, and left a natural son, Ippolito dei
Medici (1511-1535), who afterwards became a cardinal. Lorenzo,
being of more ambitious temper, was by no means content to remain
at the head of the Florence government hampered by many
restrictions imposed by republican institutions, and subject to the
incessant control of the pope. In his eagerness to aggrandize his
kinsmen, the latter had further decided to give Lorenzo the duchy
of Urbino, and formally invested him in its rights, after expelling
on false
pretences its legitimate lord, Francesco Maria della Rovere.
This prince, however, soon returned to Urbino, where he was
joyously welcomed by his subjects, and Lorenzo regained possession
only by a war of several months, in which he was wounded. In 1519
he also died, worn out by disease and excess. By his marriage with
Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, he had one daughter, Caterina dei
Medici (1519-1589), married in 1533 to Henry, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France. She played
a long and sinister part in the history of that country. Lorenzo
also left a natural son named Alessandro, inheriting the frizzled
hair and projecting lips of the negro or mulatto slave who had given him birth. His
miserable death will be presently related. Thus the only three
surviving representatives of the chief branch of the Medici,
Cardinal Giulio, Ippolito and Alessandro were all of illegitimate
birth, and left no legitimate heirs.

Cardinal Giulio, who had laboured successfully for the
reinstatement of his family in Florence in 1512, had been long
attached to the person of Leo X. as his trusted factotum and companion. He had been
generally regarded as the mentor of the pope, who had no liking for hard
work. But in fact, his frivolity notwithstanding, Leo X. always
followed his own inclinations. He had much aptitude for command,
and pursued his shuffling policy without any mental anxiety.
Giulio, on the contrary, shrank from all responsibility, muddled
his brains in weighing the reasons for and against every possible
decision, and was therefore a better tool of government in others'
hands than he was fit to govern on his own account. When Giuliano
and Lorenzo died, the pope appointed the cardinal to the government
of Florence. In that post, restricted within the limits imposed by
republican institutions, and acting under the continual direction
of Rome, he performed his duties fairly well. He caressed the
citizens with hopes of extended liberties, Cardinal which,
although never destined to be fulfilled, long Giulio served to keep
men's minds in a pleasant flutter of expectation; and when the more
impatient spiritsVII.). attempted to raise a rebellion he speedily quenched
it in blood. When, after the death of Leo X. and the very brief
pontificate of Adrian
VI., he was elected pope (1523) under the name of Clement VII.,
he entrusted the government of Florence to Cardinal Silvio
Passerini conjointly with Alessandro and Ippolito, who were still
too young to do much on their own account.

The pontificate of Leo X. had been a time of felicity to himself
if of disaster to Italy and the Church. The reign of Clement, on
the contrary, was fatal to himself as well. His policy, like that
of Leo X., consisted in perpetual oscillation between France and
Spain. By his endeavours to trick all the world, he frequently ended in being
tricked himself. In 1525 he was the ally of the French, who then
suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia, where their king Francis I. was taken prisoner. The armies of
Charles V. triumphantly advanced, without Clement being able to
oppose any effectual resistance. Both Rome and Florence were
threatened with a fearful catastrophe.

Thus far we have had no occasion to speak of the younger branch
of the Medici, descended from Lorenzo, brother to Cosimo the elder.
Always in obscurity, and hitherto held in check by the elder line,
it first entered the arena of
history when the other was on the point of extinction. In fact the
most valiant captain of the papal forces was Giovanni dei Medici,
afterwards known by the name of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. His
father was Giovanni, son of Pier
Francesco, who was the son of Lorenzo, the brother of Cosimo dei
Medici. History has little to tell of the elder Giovanni; but his
wife Caterina Sforza, of whom he was the third husband, was a woman
of more than masculine vigour. Giovanni dei Medici married her in
1497 but died in 1498, leaving her with one son who was christened
Lodovico, but afterwards took his father's name of Giovanni
(1498-1526). Trained to arms from his earliest years, this youth
inherited all the energy of his mother, whose Sforza blood seemed
to infuse new life into the younger branch of the Medici.
Notwithstanding his extreme youth, he had already achieved the
title of the best captain in Italy. He had always fought with
immense dash and daring, and was devotedly loved and obeyed by his
soldiery. He was the only leader who opposed a determined
resistance to the imperial forces. He was seriously wounded at
Pavia when fighting on the French side. On his recovery he joined
the army of the League, and was much enraged by finding that the
duke of Urbino, commander of the Venetian and papal forces, would
never decide on attacking. When the imperial troops were struggling
through the marshes of Mantua,
surrounded on every side, and without stores or ammunition, Giovanni
could not resign himself to inactivity like his colleagues in
command. He was ignorant that the imperialists had just received
supplies and artillery
from the duke of Ferrara,
and therefore daringly attacked them with a small body of men
without taking any precautions for defence. One of the first shots
fired by the enemy injured him so fatally that he died a few days
after. He was married to Maria Salviati, by whom he had one son,
Cosimo (1519-1574), who became the first grand duke of Tuscany, and indeed the
founder of the grand duchy and the new
dynasty.

Meanwhile the imperial army pursued its march upon Rome,
captured the Eternal City after a few hours' combat, and cruelly
sacked it during many days (1527). Thanks to his perpetual
shuffling and excessive avarice, the pope found himself utterly
forsaken, and was obliged to seek refuge in the castle of St Angelo, whence he only effected his
escape after some months. He then signed a treaty of alliance with
the emperor (1529), who sent an army to besiege Florence and
restore the Medici, whom the people had expelled in 1527 on the
re-establishment of the republic. After an heroic defence, the city
was forced to surrender (1530); and, although it was expressly
stipulated that the ancient liberties of Florence should be
respected, every one foresaw that the conditions would be violated.
In fact, pope and emperor immediately began to dispute as to which
should be the new lord of the city. Clement VII. had inherited the
traditional family dislike for the younger branch of his kin, and so the choice lay between the
two bastards Ippolito and Alessandro. The former being a cardinal,
the latter was chosen.

Alessandro, who already bore the title of duke of Citta di
Penna, came to Florence in 1531, and by imperial patent was
nominated head of the republic. According to the terms of this
puke patent, the former liberty enjoyed under the
Medicean rule was to remain intact. But no previous ruler of the
city had enjoyed hereditary power confirmed by imperial patent, and
such power was incompatible with the existence of a republic.
Moreover, Clement VII. showed dissatisfaction with the uncertainty
of the power conferred upon his kinsman, and finally succeeded in
obtaining additional privileges. On the 4th of April 1532 a
parliament was convoked for the last time in Florence, and, as
usual, approved every measure proposed for acceptance. Accordingly
a new council was formed of two hundred citizens elected for life,
forty-eight of which number were to constitute a senate. Alessandro, as duke of the republic,
filled the post of gonfalonier, and carried on the government with
the assistance of three senators, changed every three months, who
took the place of the suppressed signory.

The duke's chief advisers, and the contrivers of all these
arrangements were Baccio Valori, Francesco Vettori and above all Francesco Guicciardini - men,
especially the latter two, of lofty political gifts and extensive
influence. The ind and character of Duke Alessandro were as yet
compa.vely unknown. At first he seemed disposed to rule with
justice and prudence. But encountering difficulties that he was
unable to overcome, he began to neglect the business of the state,
and acted as if the sole function of government consisted in
lulling the people by festivities and corrupting it by the
dissolute life of which he set the example. The question of the
moment was the transformation of the old republican regime into a
princedom; as an unavoidable result of this change it followed that
Florence was no longer to be the ruling city to whose inhabitants
alone belonged the monopoly of political office. When the leading
Florentine families realized not only that the republic was
destroyed, but that they were reduced to equality with those whom
they had hitherto regarded as their inferiors and subjects, their
rage was indescribable, and hardly a day passed without the
departure of influential citizens who were resolved to achieve the
overthrow of their new ruler. They found a leader in Cardinal
Ippolito dei Medici, who was then in Rome, embittered by the
preference given to Alessandro, and anxious to become his successor
with the least possible delay. Under the pressure of terror the
duke at once became a tyrant. He garrisoned the different cities,
and began the erection in Florence of the Fortezza da Basso, built
chiefly at the expense of Filippo Strozzi, who afterwards met his
death within its walls.

In 1534 Clement VII. died, and the election fell on Paul III., from whom Cardinal
Ippolito hoped to obtain assistance. Accordingly the principal
Florentine exiles were despatched to Charles V. with complaints of
Alessandro's tyranny and his shameless violation of the terms upon
which the city had surrendered. Cardinal Ippoloto also represented
his own willingness to carry on the government of Florence in a
more equitable manner, and promised the emperor a large sum of
money. Reply being delayed by the emperor's absence, he became so
impatient that lie set out to meet Charles in Tunis, but on the 10th of August 1535 died
suddenly at Itri, poisoned by
order of Alessandro. Such at least was the general belief, and it
was confirmed by the same fate befalling other enemies of the duke
about the same time. On the emperor's return from Africa, the exiles presented themselves to him
in Naples, and the venerable patriot Jacopo Nardi pleaded their cause. Duke
Alessandro, being cited to appear, came to Naples accompanied by
Francesco Guicciardini, who by speaking in his defence rendered
himself. odious to all friends of liberty, and irretrievably
tarnished his illustrious name. The cardinal being dead, it was
hard to find a successor to Alessandro. On this account, and
perhaps to some extent through the emperor's personal liking for
the duke, the latter rose higher than before in the imperial
favour, married Margaret
of Austria, the natural
daughter of Charles, the wife of Leonardo Ginori. Alessandro, worn
out by the exertions of the day, fell asleep on the couch while
awaiting Lorenzino's return. Before long the latter came
accompanied by a desperado known as the Scoronconcolo, who aided
him in falling on the sleeper. Roused by their first thrusts, the
duke fought for his life, and was only despatched after a violent
struggle. The murderers then lifted the body into a bed, hid it beneath the clothes, and, Lorenzino
having attached a paper to it bearing the words vincit amor
patriae, laudumque immensa cupido, they both fled to Venice.
In that city Lorenzino was assassinated some ten years later, in
1548, at the age of thirty-two, by order of Alessandro's successor.
He wrote an Apologia, in which he defended himself with
great skill and eloquence, saying that he had been urged to the deed solely by love of liberty. For
this reason alone he had followed the example of Brutus and played the part of friend and
courtier. The tone of this Apologia is so straightforward,
sometimes even so eloquent and lofty, that we should be tempted to
give it credence were it
possible to believe the assertions of one who not only by his crime
but by the infamy of his
previous and subsequent career completely gave the lie to his
vaunted nobility of
purpose. By Alessandro's death the elder branch of the Medici
became extinct, and thus the appearance of the younger line was
heralded by a bloody crime.

When the duke's absence from his own palace was discovered on
the morning of the 6th of January he was at first supposed to
I. have spent the night with one of his mistresses; but
soon, some alarm being felt, search was made, and Cardinal Cybo was
the first to discover the murder. Enjoining the strictest secrecy, he kept
the corpse concealed for three
days, and then had it interred in the sacristy of San Lorenzo.
Meanwhile he had hastily summoned Alessandro Vitelli and the other
captains, so that, by the time Alessandro's death was made public,
the city was already filled with troops. The cardinal then convoked
the council of forty-eight to decide upon a successor. Alessandro's
only issue was a natural son named Giulio, aged five. The cardinal
favoured his election, in the hope of keeping the real sovereignty in his own
hands. But he speedily saw the impossibility of carrying out a
design that was ridiculed by all. Guicciardini, Vettori and others
of the leading citizens favoured the choice of Cosimo, the son of
Giovanni delle Bande Nere. He was already in Florence, was aged
seventeen, was keen-witted and aspiring, strong and handsome in
person, heir to the enormous wealth of the Medici, and, by the
terms of the imperial patent, was Alessandro's lawful successor.
Charles V. approved the nomination of Cosimo, who without delay
seized the reins of government with a firm grasp. Like Alessandro,
he was named head of the republic; and Guicciardini and others who
had worked hardest in his cause hoped to direct him and keep him
under their control. But Cosimo soon proved that, his youth
notwithstanding, he was resolved to rule unshackled by republican
forms and unhampered by advisers disposed to act as mentors. The
Florentines had now an absolute prince who was likewise a statesman
of eminent ability.

On learning the death of Alessandro and the election of Cosimo,
the exiles appreciated the necessity for prompt action, as delay
would be fatal to the overthrow of the Medicean rule. They had
received money and promises from France; they were strengthened by
the adhesion of Filippo
Strozzi and Baccio Valori, who had both become hostile to the
Medici through the infamous conduct and mad tyranny of Alessandro;
and Strozzi brought them the help of his enormous fortune and the
prowess of that very distinguished captain, his son Piero. The
exiles assembled their forces at Mirandola. They had about four thousand
infantry and three hundred horse; among them were members of all the
principal Florentine families; and their leaders were Bernardo
Salviati and Piero Strozzi. They marched rapidly, and entered
Tuscany towards the end of July 1 537. Cosimo on this occasion
displayed signal capacity and
presence of mind. Informed of the exiles' movements by his spies,
he no sooner learned their approach than he ordered Alessandro
Vitelli to collect the best German, Spanish and Italian infantry at
his disposal, and advance against the enemy without delay. On the
evening of the 31st of July Vitelli marched towards Prato with seven hundred picked
infantry and a band of one hundred horse, and on the way fell in
with other Spanish foot soldiers who joined the expedition. At
early dawn the following morning
he made a sudden attack on the exiles' advanced guard close to
Montemurlo, an old fortress converted into a villa belonging to the
Nerli. Having utterly routed them, he proceeded to storm Montemurlo, where Filippo Strozzi and a few
of his young comrades had taken refuge. They made a desperate
resistance for some hours, and then, overwhelmed by superior
numbers, were obliged to yield themselves prisoners. The main body
of the army was still at some distance, having been detained in the
mountains by heavy rains and difficult passes, and, on learning the
defeat at Montemurlo, its leader turned back by the way he had
come. Alessandro Vitelli re-entered Florence with his victorious
army and his fettered captives. Cosimo had achieved his first
triumph.

All the prisoners, who were members of great families, were
brought before Cosimo, and were received by him with courteous
coldness. Soon, however, a scaffold was erected in the Piazza, and on
four mornings in succession four of the prisoners were beheaded.
Then the duke saw fit to stay the executions. Baccio Valori,
however, and his son and nephew were beheaded on the 10th of August
in the courtyard of the Bargello. Filippo Strozzi still survived,
confined in the Fortezza da Basso, that had been built at his
expense. His family was illustrious, he had numerous adherents, and
he enjoyed the protection of the French king. Nevertheless Cosimo
only awaited some plausible pretext to rid himself of this dreaded
enemy. He brought him to trial and had him put to the question. But
this cruelty led to nothing, for Strozzi denied every accusation and bore the
torture with much fortitude.
On the 18th of December he was found dead in his prison, with a
blood-stained sword by his side,
and a slip of paper bearing these words: exoriare aliquis
nostris ex ossibus ultor. It was believed that, having
renounced all hope of his life being spared, Strozzi had preferred
suicide to death at the
hands of the executioner. Some, however, thought that Cosimo had
caused him to be murdered, and adopted this mode of concealing the
crime. The young prince's cold-blooded massacre of his captives cast an enduring shadow upon his reign and
dynasty. But it was henceforward plain to all that he was and
returned to Florence with increased power. And now Alessandro
indulged unchecked in the lowest excesses of tyranny, and although
so recently a bridegroom gave way to increased libertinism. His
whole time was passed in vicious haunts and in scandalous
adventures. In order to conceal the obscurity of his birth, he left
his mother to starve, and it was even asserted that he finally got
rid of her by poison.

His constant associate in this disgraceful routine was his
distant kinsman Lorenzo, generally known as Lorenzino dei Medici.
Of the younger branch of the Medici, the was second cousin of the
Cosimo already Y mentioned as the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere.
He had much culture and literary talent, but led an irregular life,
sometimes acting like a madman and sometimes like a villain. He was
a writer of considerable elegance, the author of several plays, one
of which, the Aridosio, was held to be among the best of
his age, and he was a worshipper of antiquity. Notwithstanding
these tastes, when in Rome he knocked off the heads of some of the
finest statues of the age of Adrian, an act by which Clement VII.
was so incensed that he threatened to have him hanged. Thereupon
Lorenzino fled to Florence, where he became the friend of Duke
Alessandro, and his partner in the most licentious excesses. They
went together to houses of ill-fame, and violated private dwellings
and convents. They often showed themselves in public mounted on the
same horse. All Florence eyed them with disgust, but no one foresaw
the tragedy that was soon to take place.

On the evening of the 5th of January 1537, after a day passed in
the usual excesses, Lorenzino led the duke to his own lodging, and
left him there, promising shortly to return with a man of stern
resolve, who went straight to his end without scruples or
half-measures. Before long he was regarded by many as the
incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince, " inasmuch as he
joined daring to talent and prudence, was capable of great cruelty,
and yet could practise mercy in
due season." Guicciardini, who still pretended to act as mentor,
and who on account of his many services had a certain influence
over him, was obliged to withdraw from public life and busy himself
with writing his History at his villa of Arcetri. He died
in this retreat in 1540, and it was immediately rumoured that the
duke had caused him to be poisoned. This shows the estimation in
which Cosimo was now held. He punished with death all who dared to
resist his will. By 1540 sentence of death had been pronounced
against four hundred and thirty contumacious fugitives, and during
his reign one hundred and forty men and six women actually ascended
the scaffold, without counting those who perished in foreign lands
by the daggers of his assassins. He reduced the old republican
institutions to empty forms, by making the magistrates mere
creatures of his will. He issued the sternest edicts against the
rebels, particularly by the law known as the " Polverina," from the
name of its proposer Jacopo Polverini. This law decreed not only
the confiscation
of the property of exiles, but likewise that of their heirs, even
if personally acquired by the latter. Cosimo ruled like the
independent sovereign of a great state, and always showed
the capacity, firmness and courage demanded by that station. Only,
his state being small and weak, he was forced to rely chiefly upon
his personal talent and wealth. It was necessary for him to make
heavy loans to the different European sovereigns, especially to
Charles V., the most rapacious of them all, and to give enormous
bribes to their ambassadors. Besides, he had to carry on wars for
the extension of his dominions; and neither his inherited wealth
nor the large sums gained by confiscating the estates of rebellious
subjects sufficed for all this outlay. He was accordingly compelled
to burden the people with
taxes, and thus begin at once to diminish its strength.

Cosimo bore a special grudge against the neighbouring republics
of Siena and Lucca. Although the
latter was small and weak, and the former garrisoned by
Lucca P Spaniards, yet the spectacle of free institutions
at ? Y P the frontiers of his own state served as a continual
incitement to subjects disaffected to the new regime. In fact
Francesco Burlamacchi, a zealous Lucchese patriot, had conceived
the design of re-establishing republican government in all the
cities of Tuscany. Cosimo, with the emperor's help, succeeded in
having him put to death. Lucca, however, was an insignificant state
making no pretence of rivalry, whereas Siena was an old and
formidable foe to Florence, and had always given protection to the
Florentine exiles. It was now very reluctantly submitting to the
presence of a Spanish garrison, and, being stimulated by promises of
prompt and efficacious assistance from France, rose in rebellion
and expelled the Spaniards in 1552. Cosimo instantly wrote to the
emperor in terms that appealed to his pride, asked leave to attack
Siena, and begged for troops to ensure the success of his
enterprise. As no immediate answer arrived, he feigned to begin
negotiations with Henry
II. of France, and, by thus arousing the imperial jealousy, obtained a
contingent of German and Spanish infantry. Siena was besieged for
fifteen months, and its inhabitants, aided by the valour of Piero
Strozzi, who fought under the French flag, made a most heroic resistance, even women
and children helping on the walls. But fortune was against them.
Piero Strozzi sustained several defeats, and finally the Sienese,
having exhausted their ammunition and being decimated by famine and the sword, were
obliged to capitulate on honourable terms that were shamelessly
violated. By the varied disasters of the siege and the number of fugitives the population
was reduced from forty to eight thousand inhabitants. The
republicans, still eager to resist, withdrew to Montalcino. Cosimo
now ruled the city and territory of Siena in the name of Charles
V., who always refused him its absolute possession. After the
emperor's abdication,
and the succession of Philip
II. to the Spanish throne, Cosimo at last obtained Siena and
Porto Ferraio by giving up his claim to a sum of 200,000 ducats
that he was to have received from Charles V.

In 1559 Cosimo also captured Montalcino, and thus formed the
grand-duchy of Tuscany, but he continued to govern the new state -
i.e. Siena and its territories - separately from the old.
His rule was intelligent, skilful and desotic but his enormous
expenses drove him to raise of any potic; P
fo large sums of money by special contrivances
unsuited to the country and the people. Hence, notwithstanding the
genius of its founder, the grand-duchy held from the first the
elements of its future decay. Cosimo preferred to confer office
upon men of humble origin in order to have pliable tools, but he
also liked to be surrounded by a courtier aristocracy on the Spanish and French
pattern. As no Tuscan aristocracy any longer existed, he created
new nobles, and tempted foreign ones to come by the concession of
various feudal privileges; and, to turn this artificial aristocracy
to some account, he founded the knightly order of St Stephen, charged with the
defence of the coast against pirates, which in course of time won
much honour by its prowess. He also established a small standing
army for the protection of his frontiers; but he generally employed
German and Spanish troops for his wars, and always had a foreign
bodyguard. At the commencement of his reign he opposed the popes in
order to maintain the independence of his own state; but later, to
obtain help, he truckled to them in many ways, even to the extent
of giving up to the Inquisition his own confidant,
Piero Carnesecchi, who, being accused of heresy, was beheaded and burnt in 1567. In
reward for these acts of submission, the popes showed him
friendship, and Pius V. granted
him the title of grand-duke, conferring the patent and crown upon him in Rome, although
the emperor had always withheld his consent. The measure most
injurious to Tuscany was the fiscal system of taxes, of which the
sole aim was to extort the greatest possible amount of money. The
consequent damage to industry, commerce and agriculture was immense, and, added to the
devastations caused by the Sienese War, led to their utter ruin.
Otherwise Cosimo did not neglect useful measures for the interior
prosperity of his state. He was no Maecenas; nevertheless he
restored the Pisan university, enlarged that of Siena, had the
public records classified, and also executed public works like the
Santa Trinita bridge. During the great inundations of 1557 he
turned his whole energy to the relief of the sufferers.

In 1539 he had espoused Eleonora of Toledo, daughter of the viceroy of Naples, by whom he had several
children. Two died in 1562, and their mother soon followed them to
the grave. It was said that one of these boys, Don Garcia, had murdered the other, and then been
killed by the enraged father. Indeed, Cosimo was further accused of
having put his own wife to death; but neither rumour had any
foundation. He now showed signs of illness and failure of strength.
He was not old, but worn by the cares of state and self-indulgence. Accordingly
in 1564 he resigned the government to his eldest son, who was to
act as his lieutenant, since he wished to have power to resume the
sceptre on any emergency. In
1570, by the advice of Pope Pius V., he married Camilla Martelli, a
young lady of whom he had been long enamoured. In 1574 he died, at
the age of fifty-four years and ten months, after a reign of
thirty-seven
years, leaving three sons and one daughter besides natural
children. These sons were Francesco, his successor, who was already
at the head of the government, Cardinal Ferdinand, and Piero.

Francesco I., born in 1541, began to govern as his father's
lieutenant in 1564, and was married in 1565 to the archduchess
Giovanna of Austria. On beginning to reign (g in his own account in
1574, he speedily manifested his real character. His training in
the hands of a Spanish mother had made him suspicious, false and
despotic. Holding every one aloof, he carried on the government
with the assistance of a few devoted ministers. He compelled his
step-mother to retire to a convent, and kept his brothers at a distance
from Florence. He loved the privileges of power without its
burdens. Cosimo had known how to maintain his independence, but
Francesco cast himself like a vassal at Austria's feet. He reaped his reward
by obtaining from Maximilian II. the title of grand-duke,
for which Cosimo had never been able to win the imperial sanction,
but he forfeited all independence. Towards Philip II. he showed
even greater submissiveness, supplying him with large sums of money
wrung from his overtaxed people. He held entirely aloof from
France, in order not to awake the suspicions of his protectors. He
traded on his own account, thus creating a monopoly that was
ruinous to the country. He raised the tax upon corn to so high a rate that few continued to find
any profit in growing it, and thus the Maremme, already partly
devastated during the war with Siena, were converted into a desert. Even industry declined
under this system of government; and, although Francesco founded porcelain manufactories and
pietra dura works, they did not rise to any prosperity until after
his death. His love of science and letters was the only Medicean
virtue that he possessed. He had an absolute passion for chemistry, and passed much
of his time in his laboratory. Sometimes indeed he gave audience to his secretaries
of state standing before a furnace, bellows in hand. He took some useful measures
to promote the rise of a new city at Leghorn, which at that time had only a natural
and ill-sheltered harbour. The improvement of Leghorn had been
first projected by Cosimo I., and was carried on by all the
succeeding Medici. Francesco was a slave to his passions, and was
led by them to scandalous excesses and deeds of bloodshed. His
example and neglect of the affairs of the state soon caused a vast
increase of crime even among the people, and, during the first
eighteen months of his reign, there occurred no fewer than one
hundred and sixty-eight murders.

In default of public
events, the historians of this period enlarge upon private
incidents, generally of a scandalous or sanguinary kind. In 1575
Orazio Pucci, wishing to avenge his father, whom Cosimo had hanged,
determined to get up a conspiracy, but, soon recognizing how firmly
the Medicean rule had taken root in the country, desisted from the
attempt. But the grand-duke, on hearing of the already abandoned plot,
immediately caused Pucci to be hanged from the same window of the
Palazzo Vecchio, and even from the same ironstanchion, from which his father before him
had hung. His companions, who had fled to France and England, were
pursued and murdered by the ducal emissaries. Their possessions
were confiscated, and the " Polverina " law applied, so that the
conspirators' heirs were reduced to penury, and the grand-duke
gained more than 300,000 ducats.

Next year Isabella dei Medici, Francesco's sister, was strangled
in her nuptial bed by her husband, Paolo Giordano Orsini, whom she had betrayed. Piero dei Medici,
Francesco's brother, murdered his wife Eleonora of Toledo from the
same motive. Still louder scandal was caused by the duke's own conduct.
He was already a married man, when, passing one day through the
Piazza of St Mark in Florence, he saw an exceedingly beautiful
woman at the window of a mean dwelling, and at once conceived a
passion for her. She was the famous Bianca Cappello, a Venetian of noble
birth, who had eloped with a young Florentine named Pietro
Buonaventuri, to whom she was married at the time that she
attracted the duke's gaze. He made her acquaintance, and, in order
to see her frequently, nominated her husband to a post at court.
Upon this, Buonaventuri behaved with so much insolence, even to the
nobility, that one evening he was found murdered in the street.
Thus the grand-duke, who was thought to have sanctioned the crime,
was able to indulge his passion unchecked. On the death of the
grand-duchess in 1578 he was privately united to Bianca, and
afterwards married her publicly. But she had no children, and this
served to poison her happiness, since the next in succession was
her bitter enemy, the cardinal Ferdinand. The latter came to
Florence in 1587, and was ostentatiously welcomed by Bianca, who
was most anxious to conciliate him. On the 18th of October of the
same year the grand-duke died at his villa of Poggio a Caiano, of a
fever caught on a shooting excursion in the
Maremme, and the next day Bianca also expired, having ruined her
health by drugs taken to cure her sterility. But rumour asserted
that she had prepared a poisoned tart for the cardinal, and that, when he
suspiciously insisted on the grand-duke tasting it first, Bianca
desperately swallowed a slice and followed her husband to the tomb.

Such was the life of Francesco dei Medici, and all that can be
said in his praise is that he gave liberal encouragement to a few
artists, including de Giovanni Bologna. He was the
founder of the Uffizi gallery, of the Medici theatre, and the villa of Pratolino; and during
his reign the Della Cruscan academy was instituted.

Ferdinand I. was
thirty-eight years of age when, in 1587, he succeeded his brother
on the throne. A cardinal from the age of fourteen, he had never
taken holy orders. He Ferdinand I showed much tact and
experience in the manage ment
of ecclesiastical affairs. He was the founder of the Villa Medici
at Rome, and the purchaser of many priceless works of art, such as
the Niobe group and many other
statues afterwards transported by him to Florence. After his
accession he retained the cardinal's purple until the time of his marriage. He was in
all respects his brother's opposite. Affable in his manners and
generous with his purse, he chose a crest typical of the proposed mildness of his
rule - a swarm of bees with the mottoMajestate tantum. He instantly
pardoned all who had opposed him, and left his kinsmen at liberty
to choose their own place of residence. Occasionally, for political
reasons, he committed acts unworthy of his character; but he
re-established the administration of justice, and sedulously
attended to the business of the state and the welfare of his
subjects. Accordingly Tuscany revived under his rule and regained
the independence and political dignity that his brother had
sacrificed to love of ease and personal indulgence. He favoured
commerce, and effectually ensured the prosperity of Leghorn, by an
edict enjoining toleration towards Jews and heretics, which led to the
settlement of many foreigners in that city. He also improved the
harbour and facilitated communication with Pisa by means of the Naviglio, a canal into which
a portion of the water of the Arno was turned. He nevertheless
retained the reprehensible custom of trading on his own account,
keeping banks in many cities of Europe. He 'successfully accomplished the
draining of the Val di Chiana,
cultivated the plains of Pisa, Fucecchio and Val di Nievole, and
executed other works of public utility at Siena and Pisa. But his
best energies were devoted to the foreign policy by which he sought
to emancipate himself from subjection to Spain. On the
assassination (1589) of Henry III. of France Ferdinand supported the
claims of the king of Navarre, undeterred by the opposition of Spain
and the Catholic League,
who were dismayed by the prospect of a Huguenot succeeding to the
throne of France. He lent money to
Henry IV., and strongly
urged his conversion to Catholicism; he helped to persuade the pope
to accept Henry's abjuration, and pursued this policy with
marvellous persistence until his efforts were crowned with success.
Henry IV. showed faint gratitude for the benefits conferred upon
him, and paid no attention to the expostulations of the grand-duke,
who then began to slacken his relations with France, and showed
that he could guard his independence by other alliances. He gave
liberal assistance to Philip III. for the campaign in Algiers, and to the emperor for
the war with the Turks. Hence he
was compelled to burden his subjects with enormous taxes,
forgetting that while guaranteeing the independence of Tuscany by
his loans to foreign powers he was increasingly sapping the
strength of future generations. He at last succeeded in obtaining
the formal investiture of Siena, which Spain had
always considered a fief of her
own.

During this grand-duke's reign the Tuscan navy was notably increased, and did itself much
honour on the Mediterranean. The war-galleys of the knights of St
Stephen were despatched to the coast of Barbary to attack Bona, the headquarters of the corsairs, and they
captured the town with much dash and bravery. In the following year
(1608) the same galleys achieved their most brilliant victory in
the archipelago over
the stronger fleet of the Turks, by taking nine of their vessels,
seven hundred prisoners, and jewels of the value of 2,000,000
ducats.

Ferdinand I. died in 1609, leaving four sons, of whom the
eldest, Cosimo II., succeeded to the throne at the age of nineteen.
He was at first assisted in the government by his pother and a
council of regency. He had a good disposition, and the fortune to
reign during a period when Europe was at peace and Tuscany blessed
with abundant harvests. Of his rule there is little to relate. His
chief care was given to the galleys of St Stephen, and he sent them
to assist the Druses against
the Porte. On one occasion he was involved in a quarrel with
France. Concino
Concini, the Marshal d'Ancre, being assassinated in 1617, Louis XIII. claimed the
right of transferring the property of the murdered man to De Luynes. Cosimo, refusing to
recognize the confiscation decreed by the French tribunals,
demanded that Concini's son should be allowed to inherit. Hence
followed much ill-feeling and mutual reprisals between the two countries, finally
brought to an end by the intervention of the duke of Lorraine.

Like his predecessors, Cosimo II. studied to promote the
prosperity of Leghorn, and he deserves honour for abandoning all
commerce on his own account. But it was no praiseworthy act to pass
a law depriving women of almost all rights of inheritance. By this
means many daughters of the nobility were driven into convents
against their will. He gave scanty attention to the general affairs
of the state. He was fond of luxury, spent freely on public
festivities and detested trouble. Tuscany was apparently tranquil
and prosperous; but the decay of which the seeds were sown under
Cosimo I. and Ferdinand I. was rapidly spreading, and became before
long patent to all and beyond all hope of remedy. The best deed
done by Cosimo II. was the protection accorded by him to Galileo
Galilei, who had removed to Padua, and there made some of his
grandest discoveries. The grand duke recalled him to Florence in
161o, and nominated him court mathematician and philosopher. Cosimo
died in February 1621. Feeling his end draw near, when he was only
aged thirty and all his sons were still in their childhood, he
hastened to arrange his family affairs. His mother, Cristina of
Lorraine, and his wife, Maddalena of Austria, were nominated
regents and guardians to his eldest son Ferdinand II., a boy of ten, and a council
of four appointed, whose functions were regulated by law. After
Cosimo's death, the young Ferdinand was sent to Rome and Vienna to complete his education,
and the government of Tuscany remained in the hands of two jealous
and quarrelsome women. Thus the administration of justice and finance speedily went to ruin.
Out of submissiveness to the pope, the regents did not dare to
maintain their legitimate right to inherit the duchy of Urbino.
They conferred exaggerated privileges on the new Tuscan nobility,
which became increasingly insolent and worthless. They resumed the
practice of trading on their own account, and, without reaping much benefit thereby,
did the utmost damage to private enterprise.

In 1627 Ferdinand II., then aged seventeen, returned to Italy
and assumed the reins of government; but, being of a very gentle
IL disposition, he decided on sharing his power with the
regents and his brothers, and arranged matters in such wise that
each was almost independent of the other. He gained the love of his
subjects by his great goodness; and, when Florence and Tuscany were
ravaged by the plague in 1630,
he showed admirable courage and carried out many useful measures.
But he was totally incapable of energy as a statesman. When the
pope made bitter complaints because the board of health had dared
to subject certain monks and
priests to the necessary quarantine, the grand-duke insisted on his
officers asking pardon on
their knees for having done their duty. On the death in 1631 of the
last duke of Urbino, the pope was allowed to seize the duchy
without the slighest opposition on the part of Tuscany. As a
natural consequence the pretensions of the Roman curia became
increasingly exorbitant; ecclesiastics usurped the functions of the
state; and the ancient laws of the republic, together with the
regulations decreed by Cosimo I. as a check upon similar abuses,
were allowed to become obsolete. On the extinction of the line of
the Gonzagas at Mantua in 1627, war broke out between France on the
one side and Spain, Germany and Savoy on the other. The grand duke,
uncertain of his policy, trimmed his sails according to events.
Fortunately peace was re-established in 1631. Mantua and Monferrato
fell to the duke of Nevers, as
France had always desired. But Europe was again in arms for the Thirty Years'
War, and Italy was not at peace. Urban VIII. wished to aggrandize his
nephews, the Barberini,
by wresting Castro and Ronciglione from Odoardo Farnese, duke of Parma and brother-in-law to Ferdinand. Farnese
marched his army through Tuscany into the territories of the pope,
who was greatly alarmed by the attack. The grandduke was drawn into
the war to defend his own state and his kinsman. His military
operations, however, were of the feeblest and often the most
laughable character. At last, by means of the French intervention,
peace was made in 1644. But, although the pope was forced to yield,
he resigned none of his ecclesiastical pretensions in Tuscany. It
was during Ferdinand's reign that the septuagenarian Galileo was
obliged to appear before the Inquisition in Rome, which treated him
with infamous cruelty. On the death of this great and unfortunate
man, the grand-duke wished to erect a monument to him, but was
withheld by fear of the opposition of the clergy. The dynasty as
well as the country now seemed on the brink of decay. Two of the
grandduke's brothers had already died childless, and Ippolito, the
sole survivor, was a cardinal. The only remaining heir was his son
Cosimo, born in 1642.

Like nearly all his predecessors, Ferdinand II. gave liberal
patronage to science and letters, greatly aided therein by his
brother Leopold, who had been trained by Galileo Galilei, and who
joined with men of learning in founding the celebrated academy
Del Cimento, of which he was named president. This academy
took for its motto the words Provando e riprovando, and
followed the experimental method of Galileo. Formed in 1657, it was
dissolved in 1667 in consequence of the jealousies and dissensions
of its members, but during its brief existence won renown by the
number and importance of its works.

Cosimo III. succeeded his father in 1670. He was weak, vain,
bigoted and hypocritical. In 1661 he had espoused Louise of
Orleans, niece of Louis
XIV., who, being enamoured Itl. of duke Charles of
Lorraine, was very reluctant to come to Italy, and speedily
detested both her husband and his country, of which she refused to
learn the language. She had two sons and one daughter, but after
the birth of her third child, Giovan Gastone, her hatred for her
husband increased almost to madness. She first withdrew to Poggio a
Caiano, and then, being unable to get her marriage annulled,
returned to France, where, although supposed to live in conventual
seclusion, she passed the greater part of her time as a welcome
visitor at court. Even her testamentary dispositions attested the
violence of her dislike to her husband.

0

Cosimo's hypocritical zeal for religion compelled his subjects
to multiply services and processions that greatly infringed upon
their working hours. He wasted enormous sums in pensioning converts
- even those from other countries - and in giving rich endowments
to sanctuaries. Meanwhile funds often failed for the payment of
government clerks and soldiers. His court was composed of bigots
and parasites; he ransacked the world far dainties for his table,
adorned his palace with costly foreign hangings, had foreign
servants, and filled his gardens with exotic plants. He purchased from the emperor the
title of " Highness " in
order to be the equal of the duke of Savoy. He remained neutral
during the Franco-Spanish War, and submitted
to every humiliation and requisition exacted by the emperor. He had
vague notions of promoting agriculture, but accomplished no
results. At one time he caused eight hundred families to be brought
over from the Morea for the cultivation of the Maremme, where all
of them died of fever. But when, after the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, French Huguenots offered to apply their labour and
capital to the same purpose, the grand duke's religious scruples
refused them refuge. So ruin fell upon Tuscany. Crime and misery
increased, and the poor, who only asked for work, were given alms and sent oftener to church. This
period witnessed the rise of many charitable institutions of a
religious character under the patronage of the grand-duke, as for
instance the congregation of San Giovanni Battista. But
these could not remedy the general decay.

Cosimo's dominant anxiety regarded the succession to the throne.
His eldest son Ferdinand died childless in 1713. The
pleasure-loving Giovan Gastone was married to Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg, widow of a
German prince, a wealthy, coarse woman wholly immersed in domestic
occupations. After living with her for some time in a Bohemian
village, Giovan Gastone yielded to his dislike to his wife and her
country, withdrew to France, and ruined his health by his excesses.
After a brief return to Bohemia he finally separated from his wife, by
whom he had no family. Thus the dynasty was doomed to
extinction.

thought on ascending it was to regain strength enough to pass
the remainder of his days in enjoyment. He dismissed the spies,
parasites and bigots that had formed his father's court, abolished
the pensions given to converts, suppressed several taxes, and
prohibited the organized espionage established in the family
circle. He wished to live and let live, and liked the people to be
amused. Everything in fact bore a freer and gayer aspect under his
reign, and the Tuscans seemed to feel renewed attachment for the dynasty as the moment of
its extinction drew near. But the grand-duke was too feeble and
incapable to accomplish any real improvement. Surrounded by gay and
dissipated young men, he entrusted all the cares of government to a
certain Giuliano Dami, who drove a profitable trade by the sale of
offices and privileges. In this way all things were in the hands of
corrupt Genealogical Table Of The Medici Giovanni d'Averardo, known
as Giovanni di Bicci,1360-1429.Piccarda Bueri.

Ferdinand,1663-1713-1671-1/37 =Violante of Bavaria, t 1731. =Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg,
Anna Maria Luisa,1667-1743= John William of the Palatinate.

Cosimo had a passing idea of reconstituting the Florentine
republic, but, this design being discountenanced by the European
powers, he determined to transfer the succession, after the death
of Giovan Gastone, to his sister Anna Maria Louisa, who in fact
survived him. For this purpose he proposed to annul the patent of
Charles V., but the powers objected to this arrangement also, and
by the treaty of 1718 the quadruple alliance of Germany, France,
England and Holland decided
that Parma and Tuscany should descend to the Spanish InfanteDon Carlos. The grand-duke made energetic
but fruitless protests. Cosimo III. had passed his eightieth year
at the time of his decease in October 1723, and was succeeded by
his son Giovan Gastone, then aged fifty-three. The new sovereign
was in bad health, worn out by dissipation, and had neither
ambition nor aptitude for rule. His throne was already at the
disposal of foreign powers, and his only individuals; while the
grand-duke, compelled to pass the greater part of his time in bed,
vainly sdught diversion in the company of buffoons, and was only
tormented by perceiving that all the world disposed of his throne
without even asking his advice. And when, after prolonged
opposition, he had resigned himself to accept Don Carlos as his
successor, the latter led a Spanish army to the conquest of Naples,
an event afterwards leading to the peace of 1735, by which the
Tuscan succession was transferred to Francesco II., duke of
Lorraine, and husband of Maria Theresa. Giovan Gastone was finally
obliged to submit even to this. Spain withdrew her garrisons from
Tuscany, and Austrian soldiers took their place and swore fealty to
the grand-duke on the 5th of February 1737. He expired on the 9th
of July of the same year. Such was the end of the younger branch of
the Medici, which had found Tuscany a prosperous country, where
art, letters, commerce, industry and agriculture flourished, and
left her poor and decayed in all ways, drained by taxation, and
oppressed by laws contrary to every principle of sound economy, downtrodden by the clergy, and
burdened by a weak and vicious aristocracy.

Anagrams

The Medici family was a very important family in Florence, Italy from the year 1300 to about 1600. Three Popes were part of the Medici family (Popes Leo X, Clement VII, and Leo XI), and so were many leaders of Florence during the Renaissance. The Medicis were important because they ran many banks.