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(2006), “Mathematical deficiency seems to be common in our society and the
mathematics illiteracy is particularly alarming, especially in the context of our
country’s poor showing on recent international comparison tests” (p. 44).
Mathematics Literacy Defined
Put simply, mathematics literacy is the knowledge to know and apply
basic mathematics in our every day living. However, various authors have put
an academic spin on what mathematics literacy is. For example, The
Organization for Economic Corporation and Development (OECD, 1999)
defined mathematics literacy as “an individual capacity to identify and
understand the role that mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded
judgments, and to engage in mathematics in ways that meet the needs of that
individual’s current and future life as a constructive, concerned and reflective
citizen.” Another meaning developed by The National Adult Literacy Study, a
project mandated by congress and carried out by the Educational Testing
Service (ETS) in 1995, is that literacy involves “using printed and written
information to function in society, to achieve one’s goals and to develop one’s
potential.” The study used three scales to quantify adult literacy: Pros Literacy,
Document Literacy and Quantitative Literacy (mathematics literacy). Pro
Literacy includes the knowledge and skills to understand and use information
in continuous texts such as editorial and news stories. Document Literacy
describes the skills and knowledge needed to locate and use information
contained in a variety of document formats – maps, schedules, payroll slips,
entry forms, etc. Quantitative Literacy refers to the skills and knowledge
required to apply mathematical operations (arithmetic) to numbers embedded
in printed formats. For example, completing an order form or balancing a
checkbook are typical tasks requiring quantitative literacy.
The study’s concept of adult literacy was heavily based on the use of
mathematics and emphasized the practical skills of everyday life. Some
examples from the study tested mathematics knowledge that ranged from
Level I questions like “Total a bank deposit entry” to Level 5 questions like
“Use information in a news article to calculate the difference in time for
completing a race.” Of all the adults tested, 21% were found to be in the
lowest level of pros literacy and 3% in the highest. The corresponding figures
for documentary literacy were 23% and 3%. For quantitative literacy
(mathematics literacy), the figures were 22% and 4%. Based on these figures,
one can infer that illiteracy in mathematics and other kinds of illiteracies are

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quite high. The reader is encouraged to read the entire report and see for
themselves the magnitude of adult illiteracy in mathematics.
An alternative conception of literacy, one that for other purposes may be
more useful, is to characterize literacy in terms of the minimum knowledge
and skill an individual would need to be considered literate in any given
domain. While the definition of adult literacy in the ETS report speaks of
“knowledge that is needed,” the knowledge that counts is clearly process
knowledge rather than content knowledge- knowledge of how to do something
rather knowledge of something. For example, an adult might know that
calculating the Simple Interest of a deposited sum of money in a bank is:
Principal x Time x Rate / 100. But to actually crunch the numbers and arrive at
an accurate answer requires another kind of knowledge and skill.
The Essence of Mathematics Literacy
Mathematical literacy involves more that executing procedures. It implies
a knowledge base and the competence and confidence to apply this knowledge
in the practical world. A mathematically literate person can estimate, interpret
data, solve day-to-day problems, reason in numerical, graphical, and geometric
situations, and communicate using mathematics. As knowledge expands and
the economy evolves, more people are working with technologies or working
in settings where mathematics is a cornerstone. Problem solving, the
processing of information, and communication are becoming routine job
requirements. Mathematics literacy is necessary both at work and in daily life.
It is one of the keys to coping with a changing society. Mathematics literacy is
as important as proficiency in reading and writing.
Mathematics is so entwined with today’s way of life that we cannot fully
comprehend the information that surrounds us without a basic understanding
of mathematical ideas. Confidence and competence in mathematics leads to
productive participation in today’s complex information society and often
opens doors of opportunities to those who possess them. Mathematics
illiteracy, which is the inability to handle numbers and data correctly and to
evaluate statements regarding problems and situations that invite mental
processing and estimating, is a greater problem than our society recognizes.
According to Treffers (1991), this level of innumeracy might not be the result
of content taught (or not taught) in schools but rather the result, at least in part,
of the structural design of the teaching practices. Two examples of
mathematics illiteracy are highlighted below:

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In 1990, a newspaper reported (Amsterdam Post, 1990, p. 8):
Yesterday, Monday October 9, AVRO Television paid attention to
analphabetism in The Netherlands. From data collected for the transmission,
it appeared that no fewer than 1 out of 25 people cannot read or write. That is,
cannot read or write a shopping list, cannot follow subtitles on TV, cannot
read a newspaper, cannot write a letter. Just imagine, 1 out of 25 people, in a
country that sends helpers to developing countries in orders to teach their
folks reading and writing! 1 out of 25, which means 25% of our citizens.
How many citizens does The Netherlands have? 14 million? That means that
in our highly developed country no less than three and a half million cannot
read and write.
Obviously, the TV reporter, directors, and producers that worked on this
news item lacked a conceptual understanding of percents. More troubling is
the fact that these people are presumed to have been educated. Suffice to say
that being literate (that is the ability to read and write) does not guarantee
mathematics literacy or numeracy. Mathematics errors such as the one
highlighted above are often noticed on a daily basis in society.
Here is another scenario taken from Posamentier and Jaye (2006):
A recent visit to a picture-framing shop highlighted a mathematical
deficiency that seems to be common in our society. An inspection of the bill
for framing two pictures, one four inches by twenty inches, and the other
twelve inches by twelve inches revealed that they cost the same. When
questioned, the proprietor responded that the same amount of framing was
used for the two pictures, and that the glass was figured on the basis of
“united inches.” He was immediately asked what this unit of measurement
meant. He indicated that it was the sum of the length and the width; in this
case each had twenty-four united inches, and the cost was the same for the
two pieces of glass. The merchant was asked if he believed the two frames
required the same amount of glass. He wasn’t sure, assumed they did, since
the two had the same number of united inches. A math teacher listening to
this discussion chimed in to give him a quick lesson on rectangle area. The
proprietor was amazed to discover that he had been charging the same
amount for the two pieces of glass, when, in fact one’s area (144sq. in.) was
almost twice that of the other (80 sq. in.). This mathematical illiteracy is
particularly alarming… (p. 179).

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These manifestations of mathematics illiteracy are prevalent in society.
One way to account for the problem is that either the content of mathematics
learned in school is not making citizens mathematically literate or the methods
of teaching the concepts are not helping citizens make connections to real-life
situations.
An important part of mathematics literacy is using, doing, and
recognizing mathematics in a variety of situations. In dealing with issues that
lend themselves to a mathematical treatment, the choice of mathematical
methods and representations often depends on the situations in which the
problems are presented. Teachers of mathematics often complain that students
have difficulty applying the mathematics they have learned in different
contexts. As Hughes-Hallett (2001) correctly observed, nonscience students
dislike contexts involving physics applications in mathematics because they do
not understand the physics. Building from this, it is expedient to examine the
wisdom of confronting nonscience students with mathematics applications that
need specific science literacy at a nonverbal level. To effectively transfer their
knowledge from one area of application to another, students need experience
solving problems in many different situations and contexts (De Lange, 1987).
Making competences a central emphasis facilitates this process: competencies
are independent of the area of application. Students should be offered real-
world situations relevant to them, either real-world situations that help them
function as informed and intelligent citizens or real-world situations that are
relevant to their areas of interest, either professionally or educationally.
Steen (2001) itemized an impressive list of expressions of numeracy
which he placed in 4 categories of personal life, school life, work and leisure,
and the local community. Under personal life we include, depending on age,
games, daily scheduling, sports, shopping, saving, interpersonal relations,
finances, voting, reading maps, reading tables, health, insurance, and so on.
School life relates to understanding the role of mathematics in society, school
events (e.g., sports, teams, scheduling), and understanding data, computers,
and so on. Work and leisure involves reasoning, understanding data and
statistics, finances, taxes, risks, rates, samples, scheduling, geometric patterns,
two- and three-dimensional representations, budgets, visualizations, and so on.
In the local community, we see intelligent citizens making appropriate
judgments, making decisions, evaluating conclusions, gathering data and
making inferences, and in general, adopting a critical attitude – seeing the
reasoning behind decisions.

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The Nature of Mathematics
In order to better understand mathematics literacy, it is important to throw
some light on the subject matter of mathematics. Mathematical concepts,
structures, and ideas have been invented as tools to organize phenomenon in
the natural, social, and mental worlds. In the real world, the phenomena that
lend themselves to mathematical treatment do not come organized as they are
in school curriculum structures. Rarely do real-life problems arise in ways and
contexts that allow their understanding and solutions to be achieved through
an application of knowledge from a single content strand. If we look at
mathematics as a science that helps us solve problem, it makes sense to use a
phenomenological approach to describe mathematical concepts, structures, and
ideas. This approach has been followed by Freudenthal (1973) and by others
such as Steen (1990), who stated that if mathematics curricula featured
multiple parallel strands, each grounded in appropriate childhood experiences,
the collective effect would be to develop among children diverse mathematical
insight into the many different roots of mathematics. Steen then suggested that
we should seek inspiration in the developmental power of five deep
mathematical ideas: dimensions, quantity, uncertainty, shape, and change. The
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) under OECD has
mathematics expert groups that adapted these ideas, creating four
phenomenological categories to describe what constitutes mathematics:
quantity; space and shape; change and relationship; and uncertainty. These are
discussed below.
Quantity
This overarching idea focuses on the need for quantification to organize
the world. Important aspects include an understanding of relative size,
recognition of numeral patterns, and the ability to use numbers to represent
quantifiable attributes of real-world objects (measures). Furthermore, quantity
deals with the processing and understanding of numbers that are represented to
us in various ways. An important aspect of dealing with quantity is quantity
reasoning, whose essential components are developing and using number
sense, representing numbers in various ways, understanding the meaning of
operations, having a feel for the magnitude of numbers, writing and
understanding mathematically elegant computations, doing mental arithmetic,
and estimating.

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Space and Shape
Patterns are encountered everywhere around us: in spoken words, music,
video, traffic, architecture, art, etc. Shapes can be regarded as patterns: houses,
office buildings, bridges, snowflakes, town plans, crystals, shadows, etc.
Geometric patterns can serve as relative simple models of many kinds of
phenomena, and their study is desirable at all levels (Grunbaum, 1985). In the
study of shapes and constructions, we look for similarities and differences as
we analyze the components of form and recognize shapes in different
representations and dimensions. The study of shapes is closely connected to
the concept of “grasping space” (Freundenthal, 1973) - learning to know,
explore, and conquer, in order to live, breathe, and move with more
understanding in the space in which we live. To achieve this, we must be able
to understand the properties of objects and their relative positions; we must be
aware of how we seek things and why we see them as we do; and we must
learn to navigate through space and through constructions and shapes. This
requires understanding the relationship between shapes and images (or visual
representations) such as that between a real city and photographs and maps of
the same city. It also includes understanding how three-dimensional objects
can be represented in two dimensions, how shadows are formed and
interpreted, and what perspective is and how it functions.
Change and Relationship
Every natural phenomenon is a manifestation of change, and in the world
around us a multitude of temporary and permanent relationships among which
phenomena are observed: organisms changing as they grow, the cycle of
seasons, cycles of unemployment, weather changes, stock market fluctuations.
Some of these change processes can be modeled by straightforward
mathematical functions: linear, exponential, periodic or logistic, discrete or
continuous. But many relationships fall into different categories, and data
analysis is often essential to determine the kind of relationship present.
Mathematical relationships often take the shape of equations or inequalities,
but relations of a more general nature (e.g., equivalence, divisibility) may
appear as well. Functional thinking – that is, thinking in terms of and about
relationships- is one of the fundamental aims of teaching mathematics.
Relationships can take a variety of different representations, including
symbolic, algebraic, graphic, tabular, and geometric. As a result, translation

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between representations is often of key importance in dealing with
mathematical situations.
Uncertainty
Our information driven society offers an abundance of data, often
presented as accurate and scientific and with a degree of certainty. But in daily
life we are confronted with uncertain election results, collapsing bridges, stock
market crashes, unreliable weather forecasts, poor prediction of population
growth, economic models that do not align, and many other demonstrations of
the uncertainty of our world. Uncertainty is intended to suggest two related
topics: data and chance, the phenomenon that is a subject of mathematical
study in statistics and probability, respectively. Recent recommendations
concerning school curricula are unanimous in suggesting that statistics and
probability should occupy a much more prominent place than they have in the
past (NCTM, 2000). Specific mathematical concepts and activities that are
important in this area include collecting data, data analysis, data display and
visualization, probability, and inference.
What Constitutes Mathematics Literacy?
Having discussed the nature of mathematics, we now turn attention to the
elements that constitute mathematics literacy. Like the many definitions and
meanings that have been attached to mathematics literacy, the same
phenomenon comes to play when determining what should constitute
mathematics literacy. For some, having basic knowledge of number sense and
algebra is enough to be mathematically literate. For others, having minimum
skills in arithmetic, measurement, algebra, geometry, probability, statistic, and
logic is enough to qualify as a mathematically literate person. Still for others,
it is the ability to use the knowledge of basic math to solve real-life problems
that is necessary. The Organization for Economic Corporation and
Development (OECD) publication Measuring Student Knowledge and Skills
(OECD, 1999) represents as part of reading literacy a list of types of texts, the
understanding of which in part determines what constitutes mathematics
literacy. The list comes close, in the narrow sense, to describing many aspects
of mathematics literacy. The publication mentions, as examples, texts in
various formats:

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• Forms: tax forms, immigration forms, visa forms, application forms,
questionnaires
• Information sheets: timetables, pricelists, catalogues, programs
• Vouchers: tickets, involves, etc
• Certificates: diplomas, contracts, etc
• Call and advertisement
• Charts and graphs; iconic representation of data
• Diagrams
• Tables and matrices
The question then is: How much mathematics should an individual know
to be mathematically literate? The following is a suggested list of mathematics
skills that an individual should have to be considered literate. This is not an
exhaustive list as knowledge is dynamic and technological advancement is
ever changing.
In arithmetic, every one should be able to perform the basic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in whole numbers, fractions
and decimals. They should also know concepts such as roots, square roots,
ratios, percents, absolute values, reciprocals, and exponents. In measurement,
citizens should know both traditional and metric measures of length, area,
volume, weight (or mass), time, and temperature. They should also know how
to convert between these measures. In algebra, functional and useful topics can
include simple linear equations, plotting graphs of linear equations, slopes,
operations in positive and negative integers, and the concept of proportional
reasoning. In geometry, citizens should know the various area and
circumference formulas for circles, squares, rectangles, and triangles. They
should be familiar with the Cartesian coordinate system in two and three
dimensions. They should be able to convert size on a scale model or map to
actual dimensional size. They should be able to do basic constructions using a
compass and straight edge. Citizens should be familiar with three dimensional
shapes in terms of finding the volumes and surface areas of shapes like the
cone, pyramid, prism, cylinder, and sphere. In statistics, they should be able to
find the measure of central tendencies when given a set of values. They should
be able to graph data as a histogram, pie chart, bar graph, and line graph. In
probability, they should know probabilities based on theory and probability
based on experiment, compare risk factors of a given situation; calculate the
basic probability of outcomes using the multiplication principle, permutations,
or combinations.

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The fact of the matter is that not many citizens can boast of a thorough
grasp of the skills and concepts highlighted above. As pointed out Posamentier
& Jaye (2006), there is a nonchalant attitude of adults towards mathematics as
they want to know the relevance of knowing how to do the mathematics when
in fact every calculation can be done with the assistance of a calculator or a
computer. Do we just stop teaching mathematics for this reason? This is a
question that the reader should ponder.
Competencies Needed for Mathematics Literacy
The competencies needed for mathematics literacy are described in the
work of Program for International Students Assessment (PISA) under the
auspices of OECD and are in line with description by Steen (2001):
• Mathematics Thinking and Reasoning: Posing questions characteristic
of mathematics; knowing the kind of answers that mathematics offers;
distinguishing among different kinds of statements; understanding and
handling the extent and limits of mathematical concepts.
• Mathematical Argumentation: Knowing what proofs are; knowing how
proofs differ from other forms of mathematical reasoning; following
and assessing chains of arguments; having a feel for heuristics;
creating and expressing mathematical arguments.
• Mathematical Communication: Expressing oneself in a variety of ways
in oral, written, and other visual form; understanding someone else’s
work.
• Modeling: Structuring the field to be modeled; translating reality into
mathematical structures; interpreting mathematical models in terms of
context or reality; working with models; validating models; reflecting,
analyzing, and offering critiques of models or solutions; reflecting on
the modeling process.
• Problem Posing and Solving: Posing, formulating, defining, and
solving problems in a variety of ways.
• Representation: Decoding, encoding, translating, distinguishing
between, and interpreting different forms of representations of
mathematical objects and situations as well as understanding the
relationship among different representations.
• Symbols: Using symbolic, formal, and technical language and
operations.

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• Tools and Technology: Using aids and tools, including technology
when appropriate.
To be mathematically literate, individuals need all these competencies to
varying degrees, but they also need confidence in their own ability to use
mathematics and comfort with quantitative ideas. An appropriation of
mathematics from historical, philosophical, and societal points of view is also
desirable.
Conclusion
The paper has discussed the issue of mathematics literacy in the light of
what mathematical literacy is and the essence of mathematics literacy. It also
discusses the nature of mathematics, perspective of what constitutes
mathematics literacy, and the competencies that people need to acquire
mathematical literacy. The central issue presented here is that our schools have
failed to produce mathematically literate citizens that can function well with
quantitative acumen. It is true that many factors account for this situation:
home, school, parents, society in general, to name a few. It should be noted
that everyone is capable of being mathematically literate. The path towards
this social goal begins at home and the classroom, supported by the family and
community. The way instruction is presented can influence the capability of
children in mathematics. Teachers should teach in such a way that conceptual
understanding is gained by students. This is the only way they will be capable
of applying learned mathematics in real-life as adults. Also, content taught in
school mathematics should reflect relevance to society. That way, the ever
existing question of where learned material in mathematics will be used in
real-life is eliminated.
References
Amsterdam Post (1990, October 8). Mathematics illiteracy in The Netherlands.
Amsterdam, Netherlands
De Lange, J. (1987). Mathematics, insight, and meaning: Teaching, learning,
and testing of mathematics for the life and social sciences. Vakgroep
Onderzoek Wiskundeonderwijs en Onderwijs Computercentrum (OW
& OC).
Educational Testing Service (1995). National adult literacy study. Princeton,