In this article we clarify the historical roots of stakeholder theory to establish that a much larger
role was played by Scandinavian thinkers in its development than is currently acknowledged.
We show that important contributions to the stakeholder concept were being made by Eric
Rhenman and his Scandinavian contemporaries in parallel to the contributions from the Stanford
Research Institute (SRI) in the early 1960s and thereafter and thus are not a “historical trail” as
they are currently labeled. Therefore we offer a significant modification to the historical
narrative as presented in Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach (Freeman, 1984).
These important Scandinavian contributions include the first publication and description of the
expression „stakeholder‟ in management literature accessible to scholars throughout the world
and the introduction of the first stakeholder map to the management literature.
We use this occasion to consider potential relationships between these early Scandinavian
contributions to the stakeholder concept with current practices of well-known Scandinavian
companies. Through this we contend the evidence suggests relationships worthy of further
considerations. We conclude by endorsing the expression “Scandinavian cooperative advantage”
through which we intend to provoke increased attention from beyond Scandinavia. Cooperation
between companies and their stakeholders is increasingly recognized as necessary for the social
and environmental sustainability of world and the long-term profitability of companies where we
contend inspiration for such cooperation may be prosperously drawn from Scandinavia.

Abstract
This paper examines the factors that influence whether firms draw from universities in their
innovative activities. The link between the universities and industrial innovation, and the role of
different search strategies in influencing the propensity of firms to use universities is explored.
The results suggest that firms who adopt "open" search strategies and invest in R&D are more
likely than other firms to draw from universities, indicating that managerial choice matters in
shaping the propensity of firms to draw from universities.
Key words: University-industry links, innovation, external search strategies
JEL Codes: C25, C42, O31, O32

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If secession or expulsion ends in a "velvet divorce," as with Czechoslovakia, costs are
minimal and the split is relatively unimportant. High costs arise if a federation splits into mutually
hostile, comparably sized regions. Perhaps the majority of splits lead to dangerous hostility. A
well-designed constitution minimizes the likelihood of hostile splits by limiting the issues that are
dealt with at the federal level, by providing checks and balances, and by establishing due process
under the rule of law. Preventing the conditions under which a hostile split may arise is more costeffective
than trying to optimize the terms of a split or to find last-minute compromises to
forestall the split.

The post-Civil War reconciliation between the North and the South is a very rare event
in the history of civil wars. The South was thoroughly beaten. Top generals, particularly Robert E.
Lee, saw further fighting as "useless effusion of blood." There was no call by top Confederate
leaders for continuing the fight with the type of bushwacking that occurred in Missouri and
Kansas. Reconstruction is often thought of as harsh, but compared to the standards of history
Confederates were by and large treated well after the Civil War. Within a decade or so of the end
of the Civil War, conservative white elites had established political, economic and social
dominance in the South. They had lost their "slave property" and the "government of our own."
They could never get back slavery, and a government of their own was not worth fighting for.
There was little reason for the kind of persistent low-level guerilla warfare that often occurs after
civil wars, or the organization of a succession of rebellions.

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Historically, organizations developed their information systems in-house. Today, a large portion of information systems development is based on acquisition of pre-made information systems, so called commercially off the shelf (COTS) systems. This approach of developing information systems requires new skills and methods supporting the process of evaluating and selecting information systems. This paper presents a method for selecting COTS systems. The method includes the following phases: problem framing, requirements and appraisal, and selection of systems. The idea and distinguishing feature behind the method is that improved understanding of organizational’ ends’ or goals should govern the selection of a COTS system. This can also be expressed as a match or fit between ‘ends’ (e.g. improved organizational effectiveness) and ‘means’ (e.g. implementing COTS systems). This way of approaching the selection of COTS systems as viewing COTS systems as a ‘mean’ to reach organizational ‘ends’ is different from the mainstream view of information systems development, which view information systems development as a problem solving process, and the underlying ontological view in other COTS selection methods, which focus on selection of functionality not reaching organizational ends.

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Interpreting and Learning from the Rise and Decline of the Oticon Spaghetti Organization

Foss, Nicolai J.(Frederiksberg, 2001)

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Infusing hierarchies with elements of market control has become a much-used way of
simultaneously increasing entrepreneurialism and motivation in firms. However, this paper
argues that such “internal hybrids,” particularly in their radical forms, are inherently hard to
successfully design and implement, because of fundamental credibility problems related to
managerial promises to not intervene in delegated decision-making ¾ an incentive problem that
is often referred to as the “problem of selective intervention.” This theoretical theme is
developed and illustrated, using the case of the world-leading Danish hearing aids producer,
Oticon. In the beginning of the 1990s, Oticon became famous for its radical internal hybrid, the
”spaghetti organization.” Recent work has interpreted the spaghetti organization as a radical
attempt to foster dynamic capabilities by imposing loose coupling on the organization,
neglecting, however, that about a decade later, the spaghetti organization has given way to a
more traditional matrix organization. This paper presents an organizational economics
interpretation of organizational changes in Oticon, and argues that a strong liability of the
spaghetti organization was the above incentive problem. Motivation in Oticon was strongly
harmed by selective intervention on the part of top-management Changing the organizational
structure was one means of repairing these motivational problems. Refutable implications are
developed, both for the understanding of efficient design of internal hybrids, and for the more
general issue of the distinction between firms and markets, as well as the choice between internal
and external hybrids.

Because the conflicts that led to the American Revolution mainly arose from
constitutional issues, the history of these conflicts offers lessons for the design of the new
European Union constitution. One lesson is the importance of avoiding needless conflicts
between federal and member-state governments. In particular, forcing decisions on where
sovereignty lies may cause great conflict. Another lesson is that a federal system depends on
good will among the federal and member-state governments, and because this good will is easily
dissipated, efforts should be made to nurture it. Federal exercise of power will often alienate
member states; thus, a sensible strategy is to grant the federal government only the minimal
powers that a strong consensus agrees it must have, and to change these powers only by strong
consensus. Removing "democratic deficits" may not be sufficient in many cases to give
legitimacy to exercise of federal power; minorities may require protection by constitutional
limits on federal powers.

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In financing start-up firms, venture capitalists carefully select among alternative projects, design incentive compatible financial contracts and support portfolio companies with value enhancing managerial advice. This paper considers how venture capitalists can induce self-selection among entrepreneurial firms with different qualities by designing appropriate contracts and offering commercial support. We study the efficiency of the competitive market equilibrium with respect to the level and quality of entrepreneurship and the level of effort by entrepreneurs and venture capitalists. We also provide comparative statics results with respect to basic preference and technology parameters. Venture capital, entrepreneurship, self-selection, moral hazard.

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Taking into account a broad range of stakeholders who may affect or be affected by corporate action, the perspective of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) carries the promise of a win-win situation for all. CSR in China is highly topical, as the country is integrating into the supply chains of the major global players, but the ideals of CSR are a far cry from the realities of production in "the workshop of the world". In this paper I will discuss key issues relating to the process of adapting CSR into the Chinese context. I will focus on the position of the PRC political leadership. I argue that the leadership seems to pursue an agenda of submerging CSR under the control of the Party-State and conceptualizing CSR by reference to a blend of an eclectic interpretation of Western European welfare models and CSR conceptions with an eclectic interpretation of Chinese tradition and political culture. As a result, CSR in China lacks the element of multi-stakeholder dialogue, which is commonly recognized as the core element of CSR in Western countries.
Keywords: CSR, China, Labour issue, MNCE, NGO, Politic change.

The Shared Experonments system provides interactive services for ubiquitous real-time interactive social sharing of experiences and environments. Designed and implemented for ubiquitous high-speed wireless environments, the Shared Experonments system provides synchronous ways and means for interactive social sharing of erstwhile personal experiences while one or more persons are in remote locations. Example scenarios include sharing of experiences with friends and family while off hiking or trekking, as well as business situations where a remote field worker must collaborate in real time with other field workers or head office. The Shared Experonments system integrates multiple realities and works in a variety of mixed reality modes and interactional settings, and crucially supports deixis from one environment to another.

In this paper, we show that the welfare implications of immigration which takes place in upturns, and may be partly reversed in downturns, are very different from the implications of immigration usually found in static models. Abstracting from any gains to capital owners and native workers due to complementarities, we find that (especially temporary) immigration may still benefit native workers in a European type of labour market where minimum wages may bind in downturns. However, in the presence of hiring costs, these effects may be reversed. Thus, promoting temporary immigration schemes may lead to adverse consequences if they also increase the costs of hiring foreign labour.

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We study the welfare effects of earnings testing flat-rate old-age benefits in a quantitative overlapping generations model with idiosyncratic labor income risk. In our model economy, even a moderate earnings testing reduces individuals’ expected lifetime utility, whenever other taxes are taken into account. Moreover, it also lowers the realized lifetime utilities of those at the bottom of the lifetime utility distribution. Social security; Retirement; Means-testing

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The paper presents first empirical evidence on the effect of foreign ownership on the union wage premium. Using matched employer-employee data for Denmark, the positive effect of plant-level unionisation on wages is found to vanish in foreign-owned firm. While the estimation establishes a positive wage effect of foreign ownership of between two and four per cent for workers employed in non-unionised firms, the foreign ownership premium is close to zero for workers in highly unionised enterprises. This result might help to understand why trade unions frequently resist foreign take-overs even though the existence of a positive foreign ownership wage premium is widely acknowledged in the literature.

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The paper argues that society should vary the sanction applied to a
criminal defendant with the weight of the evidence against him or her.
This is optimal when it is costly for society to apply sanctions, since it can
yield the same degree of deterrence while requiring fewer resources to be
spent on sanctioning. Furthermore, when the unfairness of convicting an
innocent defendant increases with the size of the sanction, this provides a
further rationale for graduating sanctions with the probability of guilt.
Some objections are briefly discussed, mainly that it is inherently unfair
to apply different sanctions on people, who have committed the same
offense, and that the legal system will lose legitimacy if it allows sanctions
to vary in the way suggested.

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This paper investigates the empirical consequences for the relationship between skill upgrading and internationalization by decomposing import after country-of-origin and after the end-use of products. I find that the break-down after country-of-origin is of crucial importance, implying that international trade with low-wage countries leads to comprehensive skill upgrading, whereas international trade with high-wage countries leads to skill downgrading in Danish Manufacturing. The empirical literature on skill-upgrading and internationalization has mainly focused on international outsourcing and has to a large extent disregarded import penetration. By splitting import after country-of-origin, this reintroduces import penetration as an important explanation for skill upgrading. skill upgrading, import, country-of-origin, end-use of products

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We study the social interaction of non-smokers and smokers as a sequential game, incorporating insights from social psychology and experimental economics into an economic model. Social norms a®ect human behavior such that non-smokers do not ask smokers to stop smoking and stay with them, even though disutility from smoking exceeds utility from social interaction. Overall, smoking is unduly often accepted when accommodating smoking is the social norm. The introduction of smoking and non-smoking areas does not overcome this speci¯c ine±ciency. We conclude that smoking bans may represent a required (second-best) policy. smoking policy, health, social norms, guilt aversion, social interaction

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The role of equity in the transition from egalitarianism to capitalism

Rutten, Koen(Frederiksberg, 2010)

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The ‘Scientific Development Concept’, promulgated by Hu Jintao in 2007 articulated the increased eminence of social development in official ideology. The shift from political and economic objectives towards social factors can be explained by growing concerns over the current negative externalities of China’s economic growth, the long and midterm sustainability of its economic development model and the implications thereof for social stability and political legitimacy. An immediate priority has been to formulate and implement a response to mitigate the disruptive effects of the transition to a market economy. Such a response must cover a wide array of social issues, ranging from provision of health, education and infrastructure, pension to unemployment insurance and poverty alleviation. The welfare issue is characterized by high degrees of complexity and interdependency between endogenous factors and exogenous political and economic variables. Improvements are further confounded by the high decentralization of administration, regional disparities and the sheer size of operations. Although progress has been made on most fronts, it remains to be seen whether recent initiatives will prove sufficient to meet China’s social challenges. In this paper, I provide a summary of the academic literature on post-reform development of the welfare system. I will give an overview of its most salient problems, initiatives and their preliminary outcomes. Finally, I will present some concluding remarks and provide suggestions for future research.

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A Single User-Action Solution to Creating, Tagging, Geo-Coding, Archiving, Sharing, and Streaming of Digital Artifacts, Objects, and Content

Vatrapu, Ravi; Joseph, Sam(Frederiksberg, 2009)

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The Socio-Spatial History Recorder system provides a one-stop single-user action solution to creating, tagging, geo-coding, archiving, sharing and streaming of digital artifacts. Users of this solution will no longer need to perform intermediary actions to edit, prepare, and publish their digital artifacts to the Internet or their social networks. For example, in the case of digital still images, this system offers a one-click solution to sharing a digital artifact. An user can shoot a picture, geo-code the picture, display the picture in a mapping application, and share it with another user all by one and only one shutter click on the digital still image capturing device. Social sharing rules and rights can be set up in advance or dynamically configured and the digital artifacts can be encrypted if desired or required. Practical uses of this system in the social domain include unobtrusive social sharing of digital artifacts embedded in their rich interactional contexts. Practical uses are also in application domains that require or would benefit from unobtrusive collection of rich ecological data without disrupting and/or interrupting the user's primary activity cycle.