Al-Biruni: Biography of Al-Biruni

Al-Biruni’s full name was Abu-Rayhan Mohammad. He passed his youth on the banks is of the river Oxus in the city of Khwarizm (Khiva) situated in the Republic of Uzbaikistan.

The prince and ruler of Khwarizm professed ardent zeal for science and arts, and encouraged scholars like Al-Biruni to study the various branches of knowledge and inspired people to travel different parts of the world. Al-Biruni, through his dedication and vast knowledge, achieved great scholarship in philosophy, religion, mathematics, chronology, medicine, and various languages and literatures. He was a man endowed with creative genius, sagacity, wisdom, sincerity, and commitment to inductive reasoning. His humour, courage, enterprise, objectivity, honesty, prodigious industry and intellectual skills were unprecedented.

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Al-Biruni was one of those prodigious minds at work in the medieval world whose creative, versatile, scientific, and international outlook, coupled with universality of thought, amaze the modern world. He was free from dogmatic conservatism as well as emotional bondages. This helped him to remain free from prejudices.

He was more of a synthesizer than a dogmatic scholar, a keen observer of comparative studies par excellence. Al-Biruni’s position as a scientist and scholar may be appreciated from the fact that the eleventh century has been regarded as the ‘Age of Al-Biruni’.

According to some historians, Al-Biruni was born on 4th September, 973 A.D. (3rd of Dhul-haj, 362 A.H.). His father and mother expired at an early age. Although a Tajik by race, he was Persian by culture. There is a strong controversy about the birth of Abu-Rayhan. It revolves round the identification, interpretation and meaning of the word ‘Biruni’, a part of Abu-Rayhan’s name. Is Biruni a city? Where was it situated? Or is Biruni a suburb of Khwarizm (Khiva)? Or does it denote one who was born in Khwarizm or one who lived outside the city of Khwarizm? This confusion has led some later authorities to find a logical explanation for this term. According to Samani’s Kitab-al-Ansab, the people of Khwarizm called foreigners Beruni (Biruni) in Persian and for this reason Abu-Rayhan was called Al-Biruni. The well-known historian, Yaqut, has opined that perhaps Biruni meant one who lived outside the city or in the countryside. Except Abu-Rayhan, no other person was given this appellation which means that it was not in general use.

Abu-Rayhan’s stay in Khwarizm was also not short for his first 23 years were spent in that region under Al-i-Iraqi, and a further period of 8-10 years under the Ma’munids. In all he spent nearly 30 years in Khwarizm.

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Moreover, he was born in the suburb of Kath—a town in the region of Khwarizm. His other contemporaries like Ibn-Sina stayed for far shorter period in Khwarizm but none was ever styled Al-Biruni, even though Ibn-Sina was a Persian by origin. The use of Al-Biruni with the name of Abu-Rayhan, therefore, appears to refer to his birthplace, a town or a suburb settlement of Khwarizm.

Unfortunately, Abu-Rayhan has not left behind any autobiographical account. There are some scanty references in his writings but these do not throw light on his education and early life. One may presume that he received the traditional Maktab and Madarasah education. Al-Biruni was a great scholar and possessed encyclopaedic mind. He was always in search of new knowledge.

He was a liberal and profoundly interested in science. In his age orthodox reaction had already set in and Abu-Rayhan was wary of being accused of heresy while writing al-Hind. Abu-Rayhan, born with a great analytical mind and keen comprehension, was irresistibly drawn to the study of mathematics. Travelling was always regarded as a part of education in Islam.

But, by the 11th century, numerous rich libraries established by rulers had greatly reduced the need to travel to distant places for acquiring knowledge. However, when Abu-Rayhan wanted to study Indian sciences, he had to travel, visit, and use all the means at his disposal to have access to the scattered sources in Western India.

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The most noteworthy trait in Abu-Rayhan’s character was his insatiable thirst for knowledge. Like a thirsty man he returned again and again to the fountain of knowledge. Even when his life was ebbing out he would not let the scarce minutes go by uselessly. Very little is known about the family of Al-Biruni. Probably, he had no children and this partly explains his polarized devotion throughout his life. Free from the burden of parenthood he lavished almost parental love on his studies and books.

He studied the Greek books through Arabic translation. He was versed in Persian, Turkish, Syriac and Sanskrit. He was familiar with the Roman language of the Byzantine Empire. He had friendly contacts with Syriac and Christian intellectuals. He was acquainted with the Arabic translation of Indian works. Subsequently, when political developments brought him into contact with the Hindus of the subcontinent, he made full use of this opportunity. He learned Sanskrit when he had already completed 45 years of age. He commanded a vocabulary of nearly 2,500 Sanskrit words.

The facility with which he discusses and explains Indian doctrines shows his full command over the subject. His proficiency in Sanskrit literature is also corroborated by the fact that he was able, while delving into the nature of God, to clearly explain the foundations of the Advaita School. He distinguishes between the beliefs of the educated Hindus and the common people. It is clear from his works that he made astronomical observations in the cities of Ghazna, Kabul, Lamghan, Peshwar, and Multan. He was a witness to the Muslim conquest of the city of Nagarkot situated at the foot of the Himalayas. This city was famous for an ancient Hindu (idol) temple. Probably, he accompanied the soldiers of Mahmud, up to Mathura and Kanauj on the banks of the Jamuna and the Ganga, respectively. He died at Ghazna in the year 430 A.H. (1039).

The prolific writer, Al-Biruni, has written a number of books and has dwelt upon a great variety of subjects. Among the main works of Al-Biruni include Kitab-al-Hind, Al-Qanun-al Masudi (The Canon of King Masud), Vestige of the Past Athar-al-Bagiya, Tarikhul-Hind, Kitab-al-Jamakir, and Kitab-al-Saydna. He translated from Sanskrit into Arabic the original title of Patanjali which contains valuable information on India and China. He wrote 27 books on geography, four each on cartography, geodesy, and climatology, and the remaining seven books on comets, meteors and surveying. Al-Biruni’s academic interests and activities encompassed a wide variety of subjects, ranging from abstract theories of philosophy to the practical sciences of mathematics, geography, geology, physics, astronomy and medicine. His main field of study, however, was astronomy.

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Al-Biruni’s age was characterized by orthodox reaction. There were people who regarded astronomy as heresy. This prejudice was similar to people’s opposition to logic on the plea that its terminology belonged to pagan Greek literature and language, although the adoption of Greek terms was mainly the fault of the translators. In much the same way, there were people who ignored geography as something without any utility, though the Holy Quran is full of episodes of travels and adventures, e.g., Prophet Abraham’s journey from Ur, Moses’ journey from Egypt and the hijrah of the Prophet of Islam (peace be on him).

After analyzing these unscientific tendencies, Al-Biruni produced convincing arguments for establishing the claims of physical sciences. He reminded the opponents of astronomy that God asks people to contemplate on the marvels of the earth and heavens, believing that all the phenomena of nature reveal truth of the highest import.

He provided illustrations of the daily use of mathematical and astronomical knowledge. This knowledge helped in ascertaining the influences of the sun and the noon in the form of what we know as the seasons and tides. Knowledge of stars and their positions is of considerable help in setting directions during travels and journeys. Similarly, it is very helpful in ascertaining the correct directions of qiblah and the timings of prayers and the latitudes and longitudes of cities. In this way, astronomy was shown by him to be a useful, functional and applied science and in conformity with the injunctions of Islam.

As astronomy is interrelated with a number of other sciences such as cosmogony, mathematics, and geography, Al-Biruni’s magnum opus, the Qanun-al-Masudi is modelled on the pattern of the Almagast of Ptolemy. His astronomical theories are of significant bearing and, therefore, have been discussed hereunder.

Al-Biruni considered the universe to be situated on the outermost surface of a limited sphere. A detailed study of the origin of the universe was made by Al-Biruni in his book al-Tahdid. The geo-centric and heliocentric controversy engaged the mind of Al-Biruni. Some modern scholars have criticized him for accepting the geocentric theory. However, in that age when telescope and modern precision instruments were lacking, it was difficult to arrive at any definite conclusion. He was not ready to accept the heliocentric

theory without definite scientific evidence. Until an alternative theory was conclusively proved, it was but logical to believe and accept the older theory or explanation. Al-Biruni wrote a separate book, Kitab-al-Tatbiq ft Tahqiq, Harkatah al Shams on the movement of the sun.

After discussing the basic problems relating to the sphericity of the skies and the earth, the geocentric theory, the nature of the eastern and western notions of the heavens, Al-Biruni goes on to define the imaginary circles and signs so often referred to in astronomy and geography, i.e., the poles, the equator, longitudes and latitudes, obliquity and the signs of the zodiac.

He devoted special attention to the study of time and dates. He studied the calendars of different nations. He also inquired about the differences in the time of day and night in different regions and the continued long day at the poles. The problem of finding the correct timings of prayers led him to conduct research over a long period beginning with the writing of the Chronology to Qanun al-Masudi. He wrote a book (Risalah) about day and night which also proved the duration of a six month day at the poles. He also compiled a small treatise on the Indian determining division of time.

About the sun, he asserted that it is a fiery body for the solar eruption which is noticeable during the total eclipses. Al-Biruni believed in the geocentric theory and regarded the sun as moving round the earth.

Al-Biruni had his reservations about Ptolemy’s view that the distance of the sun from the earth was 286 times the latter’s circumference. He, however, found the sun immeasurable with the instruments of that age and its distance remained an object for conjecture.

In his monumental book, Qanun-al-Masudi, he presented a masterly exposition of both the solar and lunar eclipses. He described the obliquity of the eclipse as the angle formed by the intersection of the celestial equator and the ecliptic. Earlier, the Greek, Indian and Chinese astronomers found it to be 24° 51′ 20″. Al-Biruni himself took measurements at Khwarizm and Ghazna and found the figure to be 23° 35′ which is very close to the actual obliquity. He also discussed the reasons and timings of dawn and twilight. He found that twilight (morning and evening) occurs when the sun is 18° below the horizon. Modern researches have confirmed Al-Biruni’s findings.

About the moon, he asserted that it does not move in a perfect circle. Its maximum and minimum distances differ appreciably. It changes its path and is variable. Al-Biruni stated that the moon returned to its former position in relation to fixed stars but minute differences occur and accumulate. He discussed the lunar month on a synodic basis, i.e., by referring to its position, and return to it, in relation to the sun.

Al-Biruni measured the longest and the shortest distance of the moon and the earth. These were 63° 32′ 40″ and 31° 55′ 55″ of the earth’s diameter. However, he was not sure of the diameter of the moon. In this matter, he followed Ptolemy and accepted his value of the moon’s diameter as 31′ 20″ of the earth’s diameter. Here again, his scientific insight led him to choose the correct figure, for Ptolemy’s value is nearer to the modern value of 31′ 17″.

About the tides, he opined that the increase and decrease in the height of the ebbs and tides occurred on the basis of changes in the phases of the moon. He gave a very vivid description of the tides at Somnath and traced the latter’s etymology to the moon.

About the stars, he was of the view that it was practically impossible to determine the number of heavenly bodies (stars) even in a small portion of the sky. He was also aware of the limitations of the instruments of his age. Among the ancient astronomers, Hipparchus was the first to catalogue 850 stars. Ptolemy also worked on this basis. Al-Biruni adopted the Greek nomenclature of 48 figures and 12 constellations arranged on a belt.

He rejected Aristotle’s contention that the ‘Milky Way’ was under the sphere of planets and correctly estimated it to belong to the highest sphere of the stars. He also attacked Aristotle for believing that stars cause injury to eyesight and are responsible for sorrow and misfortune. This shows that he was basically rational in approach and did not attach any superstition to natural phenomena. He thought these stars moved to the east on a central axis and parallel to the zodiac.

He believed that as there was no way to find out the parallel of the fixed stars it was impossible to determine their distance and magnitude. The Greeks thought that the stellar sphere was next to the most distant planet. Ptolemy regarded the distance as 19,666 times the earth’s radius. Mars was accepted as one and a half times the sun’s diameter. Al-Biruni used Indian figures about the distance and magnitude of the stars.

Regarding the planets, Al-Biruni followed Ptolemy taking his works to be the most authentic and correct. From the earth towards the stars, the planets were arranged by him in the following ascending order: Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

Al-Biruni was of the view that the Greeks were more exact in their sciences and observations. The Indians, however, were better equipped in solar and lunar studies and the eclipses. What he basically aimed at was the exposition of the scientific method backed by firm belief in natural laws. He insisted upon continuous observation, collection of reliable data and successful application of all these principles.

Though, Al-Biruni dedicated himself only to astronomy, yet he excelled in mathematics also. In that age, mathematics consisted of arithmetic, geometry, physics and music. Algebra was added to this only after the age of Al-Khwarizm. While Al-Biruni excelled in geometry and arithmetic, he possessed considerable knowledge of algebra too.

He was also interested in physics, though he had no interest in music. In his book, Kitab-al-Hind, he discussed Indian beliefs, Hindu literature, grammar, metre, chess, etc., but totally ignored Indian music.

Besides having expertise in spherical trigonometry, Al-Biruni was an adept in Indian arithmetic. He wrote Rashikat-al-Hind (The Zodiac in India). He was also familiar with the different methods of arithmetic propounded by Brahma-Siddhanta.

Al-Biruni had special interest in geomorphology and paleontology. He compared the different fossils discovered in the plains of Arabia, Jurjan and Khwarizm along the Caspian Sea. His studies pointed to the existence of sea at these places in some bygone age while history possessed no such record. According to him, the Indo-Gangetic plain was formed by the silt brought by the rivers.

He also discussed the occurrence of floods and springs. His study of the changes in the course of rivers of Jurjaniyah and Balkh and Oxus shows his deep insight in geomorphological processes. He found that the course of the Oxus had undergone a change since the days of

Ptolemy—a period of 800 years and he also explained how the life of the people living in the region had been affected by these changes.

He correctly estimated the known habitable world as greater in length, i.e., from China in the east to Morocco and Spain in the west. The seas limited the inhabitable world. The known world was divided into age-old seven-fold divisions of seven aqalim.

Al-Biruni also had an accurate idea of the different bays, gulfs and smaller seas. He referred to the Ice Sea in the north-east of Europe and in the west of Tangier and Spain. He also mentioned the Sea of Warang (Norsemen), i.e., probably the Baltic. In the south of Europe, he was aware of the presence of a sea in the form of gulfs up to Sicily and Bulgaria (Mediterranean Sea). The Indian Ocean, he mentioned as being pricked by islands and felt that it met the oceans in the east and possibly below Africa in the west. The Indian Ocean also had its links with the Klymsa Sea (Red Sea) and with the Persian Gulf. He referred to the seas of China and mentioned the fact that in the east the seas were named after the islands or the countries.

The great geographer was also aware of the huge mountain range known in India as Himavant (the Himalayas) which spread across the length of the known world like a spinal column.

He also mentioned the Warangs and their predatory habits. There was mineral industry in North Europe. He referred to the Sawaras, Bulgars, Russians, Slavs and Azovs in the west and to the country of Frank and Galicia, situated beyond the Roman Empire at the western arm of Europe.

Regarding Africa, he was convinced that it lay and extended far into the south. He referred to the ‘Mountain of Moon’ situated near the equator which was the source of the Nile River. He analyzed the causes of floods in the Nile and attributed them to the heavy rains in the upper reaches of the Nile.

Al-Biruni’s knowledge of Asia was quite extensive and fairly accurate. In his opinion, the Great Central Mountain (the Himalayas) was the source of most of the perennial rivers of Asia. He provided detailed information about the land of the Turks, identified in the Augarer River, and about the region of the Baikal Lake in Eastern Siberia.

He wrote extensively and accurately about the geography of India. His estimate of India’s extent from the forts of lower Kashmir to the Deccan Peninsula is amazingly close to the real dimensions of the subcontinent. He had a definite idea of its peninsular form. The mountains of Himavant and Meru (Pamir) surrounded it in the north. He said that the Eastern and Western Ghats controlled the distribution of rainfall in peninsular India. He provided detailed information about the sources of rivers. However, excepting the Indus, his information about the other rivers is limited to the location of their sources, based on hearsay and the knowledge derived from ancient books, e.g., Matsya Parana.

He was the first person to provide correct information about the Indus, its origin, course and floods. His knowledge of the geography of the Punjab and Afghanistan was based on his personal observations. He also described the rivers of Gherwand, Nur, Kaira, Sharvat, Sawa Panchir, Bitur (Afghanistan), Biyatta (Jhelum), Chandrahara (Chenab), Irwa (Ravi) and Shaltladar (Sutlej). The five tributaries of the Indus, according to him, meet the river at Pancanade (Panchanda) in the Punjab near Multan.

Al-Biruni provided valuable information about North-Western India, particularly Kashmir. For Gilgit, he said that it was two days journey from Kashmir. About Kashmir, he said that it lay on a flat fertile plateau, surrounded by inaccessible mountains. The southern and eastern parts of the country belonged to the Hindus, the west to the various Muslim kings, the north and eastern parts to the Turks of Khota (Khatan) and Tibet. The best access to the Kashmir was through the Jhelum gorge.

He also described the city of Qannauj—the city traditionally associated with the Pandavas. Moreover, he acquired considerable knowledge of the terrain and people of the Indo-Gangetic plains.

He gave an accurate account of the seasons of India. He described the nature of the monsoon which brought rainfall to the greater parts of the subcontinent during the summer season. He explains how Kashmir and the Punjab receive rainfall during the winter season.

Al-Biruni also discussed the origin of castes in Hindu society, idolatry, and the Hindu scriptures. His study of Samkbya, the Gita, Patanjali, Vishnu Dharma and of some of the Puranas, coupled with his acquired knowledge of the Vedas, provided Al-Biruni with a unique opportunity to give the first objective description of Hindu beliefs. Al-Biruni found a dualism in Hindu beliefs, i.e., the beliefs held by the educated (scholars) and the beliefs of the ignorant masses. This cleavage became wider with a dualism in linguistics. The language of the masses was quite different from that of the learned. Thus, the educated disapproved of idolatry but the masses believed in it.

In brief, Al-Biruni excelled in philosophy, religion, cosmology, astronomy, geography, geodesy, stratography, geomorphology, mathematics, science, medicine and several languages. He also contributed appreciably in the field of chronology, computation of years and dates. At the same time, he had a clear concept of the ideal historian. His correct view and reasoning led him to think that the institution of Varna (caste), based on inequality, was the main obstacle in a rapport between the Hindus and Muslims. The condition of Indian learning, language, script, centres of learning was also brought out. The gigantic labour, scientific reasoning, and untiring efforts made Al-Biruni one of the most outstanding geographers of the medieval period.