Definition
A concise expression of the nationality, major roles (e.g.,
architect, painter, sculptor), birth and death dates
of the person or the places, activities, and dates of existence
of the corporate body.

Example

American architect and engineer, 1898-1976

Italian architectural firm, founded 1953

3.6.1.2

ValuesDisplay Biography is a free-text field in Unicode. In legacy data, values are
ASCII characters (including numbers) with diacritics expressed according
to the codes in Appendix A.

3.6.1.3

Sources
The same standard general references that are appropriate
for the rest of the record may be used for the display biography.

3.6.1.4

Discussion
The Display Biography appears with the preferred name in displays.
When necessary, the Display Biography is used to express nuance,
uncertainty, and ambiguous information regarding the artist's
life dates, roles, or nationality. Information in the Display
Biography is indexed by the following controlled fields Nationality,
Role, Birth Date, and Death Date.

Each contributed record includes a display biography.
When records are merged, the original contributed display
biographies are retained, with an indication of which contributor
submitted which biography. Note that biographical information
for the same artist is often expressed differently by the
various contributing institutions. One of the biographies
is flagged as preferred; this is the one that appears
with the preferred name in labels, results lists, and other
displays. In the example below, the Vocabulary Program (VP)
has added a biography and flagged it preferred.

Example[from ULAN on the Web]

3.6.1.5

RULES for Display Biography

3.6.1.5.1

Minimum requirements for Display Biography
The Display Biography is required. Record a concise phrase
noting the biographical details of the person or corporate
body. The preferred Display Biography is used with the preferred
name to create labels or headings in lists.

Capitalization and abbreviation
Capitalize nationality, culture, place names, period names,
or other proper nouns. Use lower case for all other words.
Avoid abbreviations, except the word circa (ca.), the numbers
in century or dynasty designations (e.g., 17th century),
and BCE and CE.

Examples

Russian painter, 1893-1936

American miniaturist, active 1860s

Greek architect and archaeologist, 1887-1979

Native American craftsman, 18th century

French porcelain manufactory, flourished 1731-1794

Roman sculptor, 1st century BCE

SyntaxList information in the following order: nationality,
role(s), comma, birth year, hyphen, death year (start and
end dates for a corporate body).

Examples

Indian sculptor, 1923-1982

British architectural firm, 1910-1944

Flemish sculptor and architect, 1529-1608, active
in Italy

Maya vase painter, 17th century

If "probably" or other indications of
uncertainty are included, change the order and syntax for
clarity.

Example

sculptor, probably Polynesian, 19th century

If birth or death dates are unknown, dates of activity
may be substituted in the Display Biography.

Example

Mexican mosaicist, active ca. 1820-ca. 1840

Include the place of activity if the nationality is unknown
or if the place of activity is different than nationality.
Use natural word order.

Examples

Flemish sculptor and architect, 1529-1608, active
in Italy

Greek architect, active 4th century in southern
Italy

printmaker, 18th century, active in England

3.6.1.5.2

Ambiguity and uncertainty
Avoid phrasing the text in a way that can be confusing or
ambiguous. Clearly indicate uncertain information (e.g., in
the examples below "after," "active
by," "or," "before,"
"probably").

Examples

Netherlandish painter, ca. 1564-after 1612

French or Flemish draftsman, active by 1423, died
1464

Russian illuminator and designer, probably 1862-before
1910

Caveat: When your source indicates that biographical
information is ambiguous or uncertain among the scholarly
community, be sure to convey this with appropriate terminology,
such as "ca.", "probably",
or other appropriate expressions of vagueness. Do not estimate
or guess without supporting knowledge or documentation;
only state as much as you know. Do NOT state as fact information
about which you are uncertain! The difference can be subtle,
and you must be aware of the particular phrasing and accepted
expressions of vagueness generally used by art historians.

For example, if your source states that birth and
death dates for an Italian painter are unknown, but
that he produced works dated 1312, 1323 and 1326, the
display biography could read Italian painter, active
from at least 1312, or alternatively, Italian
painter, active early 14th century. It should NOT
read Italian painter, active 1312-1326, because
expressing this precise span suggests that he worked
only during those years, and that you are sure that
no works were produced earlier or later; this is inaccurate,
given that it is highly unlikely that the entire oeuvre of such an early artist is accounted for.

Caveat: Use indications of uncertainty such as probably or possibly only when the current
scholarly opinion is uncertain. If you, the editor, are
simply lacking the information, but the information is "knowable"
given enough time and research, do NOT use probably or possibly because this implies you have access
to more scholarly research than you actually do. Instead,
phrase the information in another way or, if that is not
possible and the information is required, consult with your
supervisor. If instructed by your supervisor, put this record
in a "temp.parent" candidate hierarchy pending
further research.

3.6.1.5.3

Anonymous persons
For an anonymous person, or for any other person or corporate
body where biographical information is unknown or incomplete,
record the deduced nationality or locus of activity and approximate
dates of activity as warranted by authoritative sources.

Examples

Italian painter, active 1330s-1340s

sculptor, probably Spanish, active 18th century in
California

3.6.1.5.4

Non-artists
If the person had an important role other than artist, include
it in the display biography.

Example

Spanish queen regent and painter, 1806-1878

3.6.1.5.5

Index biographical informationUse controlled fields to index important biographical
information in the preferred Display Biography, including,
nationality, roles, and birth and death dates. NOTE: You should
index only the Preferred Biography, generally not the Biographies
supplied by other contributors.

Editing contributed biographies
You may edit the Vocabulary Program's Display Biography, but
do NOT delete or edit the Display Biography from other contributors.
If there is no display biography that follows our editorial
rules or is otherwise adequate for display, create a new Display
Biography with the contributor initials "VP"
(for Vocabulary Program); make the VP Display Biography preferred.

Examples[the first biography is by VP]

Caveat: The items of information all the way across
the row must come from the contributor indicated at the
far right of the row (see example above). Thus, if a contributed
display biography would be adequate, however the row does
not have the correct Birth Place, Death Place, or other
indexed information that you wish to include, do NOT simply
add this information to the contributor's row. Create a
new preferred Display Biography with VP as the contributor,
and add the Birth Place, etc. as necessary to the VP
row.

If you have created a Display Biography, and if the Birth
Date, Death Date, Birth Place, etc. of other contributors'
rows are incorrect or conflict with the VP information,
delete any conflicting indexed information; but do not
edit or delete other contributors' display biographies!
In the example above, only the dates and other indexing
information for the preferred Display Biography remain;
but the Display Biographies for all contributors are intact.

3.6.1.5.7

Additional rules
For additional rules for the elements that make up the Display
Biography, see separate sections on Nationality, Roles,
and Birth and Death Dates below.

3.6.2

Nationality (required)

3.6.2.1

Definition
A reference to the nationality, culture, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual identity, or sexual orientation of the person or corporate body. Nationality is referred
to in the Display Biography and indexed in the Nationality
fields.

Examples

English

Nigerian

Vietnamese

Native American

Sienese

Italian

Celtic

Berber

Ancient Roman

Jewish

[Display Biography and Nationality fields from VCS]

3.6.2.2

ValuesIn the Nationality field, values are controlled by the
Nationality list at the time of this writing; the list is mapped to the AAT. See full list
in VCS. In the free-text Display Biography, generally use
the same controlled values as found in the controlled Nationality
field.

Each Nationality in the controlled Nationality List comprises
a numeric code and a term. In the meantime, since the terms are yet not linked to the hierarchies of AAT, these Nationality Codes are devised so that searching
on the truncated code will retrieve similar things. For
example, if you search for "901%" in the partial
list illustrated below, you will retrieve all the Nationalities
in Europe (the percent sign is the wildcard in VCS).

3.6.2.3

Sources
Use the same standard general references that are used for
the rest of the record.

3.6.2.4

Discussion
If it is necessary to express nuance or uncertainty about
the nationality, do so in the Display Biography. Index the
nationality in the Nationality field. Nationality does not
necessarily indicate legal citizenship of a particular nation,
empire, or city state. It refers to a prolonged association
of an artist with a given place. Nationality may refer to
historical nations (e.g., Flemish). It may also refer
to culture (e.g., Frankish) or ethnic groups (e.g.,
Native American). Artists may have multiple nationalities,
particularly when they lived for prolonged periods in more
than one nation, or when one so-called nationality is more
general than another that also applies to the artist (e.g.,
for an ancient vase-painter, Greek and Ancient Greek
are broader, general designations, while Attic is more
specific).

3.6.2.5

RULES for Nationality

3.6.2.5.1

Minimum requirements
In the Display Biography, list the most significant national
affiliation of the artist; on rare occasions, a second nationality
may be recorded in the Display Biography. Record the adjectival
name form of a nation, other place name, culture, or ethnic
group.

Examples

Display Biography: Japanese photographer, born
1943

Display Biography: South African architect,
1907-1992

In the Nationality field, link to terms referring to the
national, geopolitical, cultural, or ethnic origins or affiliation
of the person or corporate body referred to in the preferred
Display Biography. Note that this element does not always
refer only to nationality in a modern, legal sense.

Example

Specificity
For the Display Biography, generally record a designation
at the level of nation (e.g., Italian) or a broad
culture or ethnicity (e.g., Native American). Exceptions
occur for historical nationalities, in keeping with common
practice of various disciplines in art history (see Historical
nationalities and Special cases below).

When indexing in the Nationality field, link to the
broad culture or nationality as appropriate, and also
include a more specific designation if known and when
appropriate (e.g., Sioux in addition to Native
American in the example below).

Example[for Kicking Bear]

Exception: Contributors may occasionally choose
to use a specific nationality designation in the Display
Biography rather than a broad one, typically because their
local practice dictates using a term for the Nationality
that is not in the ULAN controlled nationality list (i.e.,
it is a term synonymous to the ULAN Nationality term). For
example, if the ULAN Nationality controlled term for a culture
is Crow, but the contributor prefers the synonym
Absahrokee, in order to record the biography to reflect
their preference, they may write a Display Biography using
Absahrokee (e.g., Absahrokee craftsman, 19th century)
rather than the broad Native American. Indexing terms
would be the same in either case: Native American
and Crow.

3.6.2.5.2

Uncertain NationalityIn the Display Biography, use "or" if authoritative
sources maintain that one of two nationalities are possible.
Use "probably" or another indication of uncertainty
if it is used by authoritative sources. As with all information
that will be visible to end-users, do not make a guess.

Regions
If scholarly opinion holds that the nationality is uncertain,
or for modern artists for whom legal nationality is uncertain
or unstated in your source, use a broader context such as
a reference to a region or a continent, if possible (e.g.,
Eastern European and African below). Index any
known national affiliations in the Nationality field.

Dual citizenshipAnd: If a modern person holds dual citizenship, record
both nationalities using the word "and"
in the Display Biography.

Example

Display Biography: Canadian and American painter,
born 1946Nationality:
Canadian
American

Other multiple nationalities
Other than with modern dual citizenship described above,
it is rare that two nationalities would be cited in the
Display Biography with the word "and";
however, multiple nationalities should be indexed
in the Nationality field as necessary. Typically, if the
artist worked in two nations, it is better to unambiguously
explain the situation in the display biography, and then
index the nationalities and places appropriately.

To choose which nationality to write in the nationality
area of the Display Biography, use the nationality classification
that is predominantly used in authoritative sources.
Index both/all nationalities in the Nationality field.

Examples[most sources call this artist "Italian,"
although he was born in Germany]

Preferred nationality
In the Nationality field, for the preferred Nationality, choose
the Nationality used most often to describe the national or
cultural affiliation of the person or corporate body, which
is generally a broad designation (e.g., Italian rather
than Florentine). Flag the preferred Nationality. See
Preferred Flag below.

For indexing in the Nationality field, the preferred nationality
should be chosen according to the order in the following
decision tree:

the primary nationality for this person;

if it is unclear which is primary, use the first one
chronologically;

if the nationality is uncertain, list the more/most
likely one first;

if none of the above applies, use the first one listed
in your source;

Generally, make the broad designation the preferred
Nationality. If you have included a very specific historical
designation in the Display Biography (e.g., Sienese)
index both the specific designation and the broader context
(e.g., both Italian and Sienese). Likewise,
if you have included a very general designation in the Display
Biography, in keeping with common practice in a given discipline,
include a specific designation in the Nationality field,
as appropriate.

Place of activityIf the individual or group was active in a place other
than the place implied by the nationality, in the Display
Biography include "active in " after
the life dates, as in the example below. The place of activity
should be indexed both as an additional Nationality and as
an Event (Locus of Activity), as warranted. See also 3.7
Events.

Historical nationalities
In the Display Biography, include a historical nationality
when warranted (e.g., for a 14th-century artist from Brussels,
it is common practice in the discipline of Medieval Art History
to list the nationality as Flemish rather than Belgian,
because Belgium was not a nation until the 19th century).

For historical persons, you may record the adjectival
name of a city-state, if known and if appropriate for a
specific discipline (e.g., Attic in reference to
ancient Greek artists). Ethnicity and culture may be included
as warranted.

Special cases
For the preferred Nationality and for the Display Biography,
if there is potential confusion between a historical nationality
and a modern one with the same or a similar name, generally
use the term for the historical nationality if possible.
However, be consistent with the idiosyncratic scholarly
practice common in the given discipline. A few guidelines
are given below:

Italian: Use Italian as the preferred
nationality for all artists active on the peninsula
of Italy, even when they lived before the nation of
Italy was united in 1870. Where warranted by common
scholarly practice, you may use a more specific designation
in the Display Biography (see Florentine example
above) if warranted by authoritative sources.

Ancient Greek, Egyptian, etc.: Use Greek
or Egyptian in the display biography for ancient
Greek and Egyptian artists. Index with Greek or Egyptian
as the preferred Nationality. Include Ancient Greek
or Ancient Egyptian as a non-preferred indexed
Nationality. Where warranted by common scholarly practice,
you may use a more specific designation in the Display
Biography (see Attic example above).

Flemish: Use the following date ranges to distinguish
between Flemish, Belgian, Netherlandish, and Dutch:

Netherlandish: pre-1579, north or southDutch: post-1579, nation of The Netherlands onlyFlemish: pre-1830, south onlyBelgian: post-1830, nation of Belgium only

British: Use the specific terms, English,
Scottish, etc., in the Display biography. For the
preferred Nationality in the Nationality field, use British.

Czech: Use Czech only for artists from
the Czech area of Europe after 1918 (also note that the
Czech Republic split from Czechoslovakia in 1993; do not
use Czech for modern Slovakian artists). For artists
living earlier than 1918, use a specific term such as
Bohemian, or another appropriate term.

3.6.2.5.8

Culture
Where appropriate, list the culture of the person or corporate
body (Aztec, Hutu) as a non-preferred Nationality.
This is appropriate when the culture does not correspond to
a defined geopolitical area and time period, as when various
tribal lands overlap or exist within a political state (e.g.,
the Native American tribes in the USA), or when a cultural
group migrated across wide areas and thus is not associated
with one limited region (e.g., the Celtic, Hebrew).
Generally, the broader designation should be used in the Display
Biography; however, see the discussion of exceptions under
3.6.2.5.1. Minimum Requirements: Specificity above.

Ethnicity, Race, Religion, Sexual Orientation
In the so-called Nationality field, list the ethnic or racial group
to which the person belongs when this is a primary designation
used for this person by authoritative sources (e.g. Native
American, African American, Polynesian). If this is the
primary designation for the person, use it in the Display
Biography.

For sensitive or private information, such as religion or sexual orientation, do not include the information except in the following situations: If this information is commonly published in references to the person and if the person wishes for the information to be public. For example, membership in the LGBT community is becoming a factor in research about art; if the artist wishes his or her sexual orientation included, and if this information is published in standard reference sources and otherwise commonly known, you may index the appropriate terms in this field.

3.6.2.5.10

Adding new Nationalities
Nationalities should be derived from AAT. If the nationality is missing from the controlled list in VCS, as your supervisor to add it (this situation will be resolved once the field is linked to the AAT).

3.6.3

Preferred Flag for Nationality (required-default)

3.6.3.1

Definition
Flag indicating whether or not the Nationality is preferred
for its subject record.

RULES
The first Nationality entered is automatically flagged "preferred"
by the system. If this is not correct, change the Preferred
Flag accordingly.

3.6.4

Sequence Number for
Nationality (required-default)

3.6.4.1

Definition
The Display Order number (or Sort Order number), indicating
the sequence of the Nationality in relation to the other Nationalities
of a ULAN record.

3.6.4.2

Values
System generated, but the numbers may be changed by the editor.
Values begin with 1 and are numbered sequentially; there is
no upper limit imposed by the system.

3.6.4.3

Discussion
Most records have one Nationality. It would be highly unusual
to require more than two or three nationalities for a person
or corporate body. If you feel you need to add more than that,
consult with your supervisor.

3.6.4.4

RULES

Number the Nationalities in sequence. Do not skip numbers.

The Nationality in sequence number 1 must be the Preferred
Nationality.

Arrange the Nationalities in order of importance from
a researcher's point of view, or from general to specific.
If chronology is an issue, place Current Nationalities before
Historical ones.

3.6.5

Role (required)

3.6.5.1

Definition
A term that characterizes a significant role or characteristic
of a person or a function or purpose of a corporate body.
The primary role or roles are stated in the Display Biography.
These primary roles and all other significant roles are indexed
in the Role field.

Examples

painter

architect

landscape architect

sculptor

architectural firm

portraitist

printmaker

museum

marine painter

goldsmith

art academy

author

illuminator

religious order

pope

historian

publisher

archaeologist

[from VCS]

3.6.5.2

Values
As of this writing, values are controlled by the Role list. See Appendix F or search the list in VCS. With the release of ULAN as LOD, the roles are now mapped to AAT; we anticipate the control of roles by linking to AAT in the future.
See Appendix E or search the list in VCS. Use the values
from the controlled list for the role in the free-text Display
Biography.

Each Role in the Role List comprises a numeric code and
a term. Codes are devised so that searching on the truncated
code will retrieve similar things (the percent
sign is the wildcard in VCS).

3.6.5.3

Sources
Use the same general reference works that are used for other
information in the record.

3.6.5.4

Discussion
If it is necessary to express nuance or uncertainty about
the roles, do so in the Display Biography. Index roles in
the Role field. Roles are the major professional roles or
activities performed by the person throughout his or her lifetime
(e.g., artist, architect, sculptor). For a corporate body,
roles include the major activities or purpose of the firm,
institution, or other corporate body (e.g., studio, manufactory,
workshop).

3.6.5.5

RULES for Role

3.6.5.5.1

Minimum requirements
In the Display Biography, record at least one but generally
not more than three Roles.

In the Role field, list the role(s) in the Display Biography
as well as any appropriate additional Roles, as time and
editorial priorities allow.

Specificity
In the Display Biography, use the most specific significant
roles (e.g., painter rather than artist), if known.
For example, German painter and printmaker, 1678-1732
is better than German artist, 1678-1732. However,
the general role artist or another very general role should
typically be indexed as the first role in the Role field.

Include only the most significant professional roles
in the Display Biography. Typically, there should be
only one or two roles in the Display Biography; use
three if necessary. If there are more than three roles
applicable to the artist, index them in the Role field,
but avoid including them in the Display Biography.

Display Biography: American research institute,
part of the National Gallery of Art, founded 1979Roles:
research institute (preferred)

Singular vs. plural
In the Display Biography, for persons, use roles expressed
in the singular (e.g., architect, painter). For corporate
bodies, use a role that describes the entity (e.g., architectural
firm, studio) or that is expressed in the plural (e.g.,
painters).

In the Role field, some controlled values for roles
are used for both singular and plural, expressed by
using an "s" in parentheses (e.g., wood
engraver(s)). In the Display Biography, use the
correct singular or plural, without the parentheses.

3.6.5.5.2

Uncertain roles
In the Display Biography, if you do not know the specific
role or roles, use the general "artist."

If you do not even know if the person was an artist or
not, place the record in "temp.parent/persons not artists,"
which contains records for unknown persons who possibly
are not artists.

In rare cases, authoritative sources may express uncertainty
over the possible role. In such cases, the uncertainty may
be expressed in the Display Biography, and the possible
role should be indexed in the Role field. (As usual, if
the uncertainty arises merely from your lack knowledge,
do not use "possibly" or otherwise make
mention of the suspected role.)

Example[when an authoritative source states that he was
definitely a painter, and may have been a printmaker
too]

Multiple roles
If the person had two or three major life roles, include them
in the Display Biography. More than three roles may be indexed
in the Role field.

Example

3.6.5.5.4

Preferred and other roles
In the Role field, to choose the preferred Role, follow the
guidelines below. In most cases, where a general term is applicable,
the preferred role will be the general role. Flag the preferred
Role. See Preferred Flag below.

Individual artists
In the Role field, if the person produced multiple types
of art, use the general term artist for the preferred
Role. Note that most artists work in multiple media; for
example, painters are usually draftsmen too. Therefore,
for creators of fine art, assume the preferred role should
be artist, unless authoritative sources state facts
to the contrary. For non-preferred roles, list more specific
roles, as warranted by authoritative sources.

Exception: If the person was an architect and
produced no other type of art, for preferred role use
the term architect.

Do not use the term artist for people who manufacture
items but who are not artists per se (artists are
creators of fine art of the caliber collected by art museums).
Do searches in ULAN to find similar situations as examples
and consult with your supervisor.

Craftsmen
If the person created multiple types of works that are considered
crafts and not fine art, make the preferred role craftsman
in the Role field.

Architectural firms
For the preferred Role for an architectural firm, use architectural
firm, which is typically a term that is general enough to
characterize their primary activities, function, and characteristics.

Studios and manufactories
Use manufactory as the preferred Role for groups active
in the 17th century or later that made fine art, furniture,
tapestries, ceramics, and other decorative objects, as contrasted
to workers active in modern industrial complexes, or "factories
(structures)," where objects other than art are produced.

Use studio for groups comprising a master artist
or architect and his or her assistants, working in the
17th century or later. For a specialized studio (e.g.,
photography studio), use the more specific term,
such as photography studio (unless the studio produced
works other than photographs, when you should use the
more general term studio).

Other persons or corporate bodies
For other persons or corporate bodies who are artists or
craftsmen, be consistent: Do searches in ULAN to find similar
situations to use as examples.

Examples[for Louis Cartier]

Display biography: French jeweler, 1875-1942

Roles:
jeweler (preferred)

[for John Abel, master carpenter]

Display biography: British master carpenter,
ca.1578-1675

Roles:
carpenter (preferred)
master

Non-artists
For persons or corporate bodies who are not artists, choose
a role representing their primary professional role. If
the preferred role does not describe how the person or corporate
body is related to the arts, include an alternate role describing
their relationship to the arts (e.g., patron). Do
searches in ULAN to find similar situations to use as examples.

Additional Roles
After adding the preferred Role, add additional Roles as time
and editorial priorities allow.

Be sure that all roles referred to in the Display Biography
are indexed in the Role field.

Add additional Roles that describe the most important
additional activities of the person or function of the corporate
body. Include roles describing more specifically the type
of art produced by the artist. Do not include Roles that
describe minor activities or functions.

Example[for Richard Brompton]

Order of the Roles
Organize the Roles most logically. The order generally represents
order of importance, with the preferred Role first.
In the example above, it is generally more important to
researchers to know the types of works he produced (implied
in painter and portraitist) than to know he
worked at court. When a chronological sequence can be applied
(as when a duke becomes a king), list the
pertinent roles in reverse chronological order (i.e., with
king, the higher title, above duke). Number
the Roles as instructed in this section and in Sequence
Number below.

3.6.5.5.6

Adding new Roles
Most necessary terms for Roles should already be in the Role
list. If you feel you need to add a new Role to the Role list,
try looking for a synonym. If you still feel you must add
one, consult with your supervisor. Roles should be derived
from AAT.

3.6.6

Preferred Flag (required-default)

3.6.6.1

Definition
Flag indicating whether or not the Role is the preferred Role
for its subject record.

Sources
For a discussion of how to determine which role should be
the preferred role, see Role above.

3.6.6.4

Discussion
Every record must have a preferred Role to use as a default
in displays. For further discussion of preferred Roles, see
Role above.

3.6.6.5

RULES

The Role in sequence number one is automatically flagged
"preferred" by the system. If this is not
correct, change the Preferred Flag and sequence numbers
accordingly.

3.6.7

Sequence Number (required-default)

3.6.7.1

Definition
The Display Order number (or Sort Order number), indicating
the sequence of the Role in relation to the other Roles of
a subject record.

3.6.7.2

Values
System generated, but the numbers may be changed by the editor.
Values begin with 1 and are numbered sequentially; there is
no upper limit imposed by the system.

3.6.7.3

Discussion
Most records have one to five Roles. It would be highly unusual
to require more than ten Roles for a person or more than four
roles for a corporate body. If you feel you need to add more
than that, consult with your supervisor.

3.6.7.4

RULES

Number the Roles in sequence. Do not skip numbers.

The Role in sequence number 1 must be the Preferred
Role.

Arrange the Roles in order of importance from a researcher's
point of view, or from general to specific (e.g., in the
example below, all roles containing "painter"
are together, with the general painter above animal
painter). See also the discussion under Additional Roles
above. If chronology is an issue, place Current Roles
before Historical ones.

Example[for Melchior de Hondecoeter]

3.6.8

Historical Flag (required-default)

3.6.8.1

Definition
Flag indicating the historical status of the Role. Most roles
in ULAN are set to Not Applicable.

Sources
If there is a question about whether or not a role is current,
use standard authoritative sources and consult with your supervisor
as necessary.

3.6.8.4

RULES

Not Applicable: The default flag is Not Applicable.
This is used for most roles in ULAN.

Current: In the rare event that historical roles
are applicable, use the Current flag for a current
role. Consult with your supervisor before using this flag.

Historical: In the rare event that historical roles
are applicable, use the Historical flag for a historical
role. Consult with your supervisor before using this flag.

Both: It is highly unlikely that you will have
a role that is both current and historical. If you feel
you have an example of this, consult with your supervisor.

Unknown: This is used primarily for data loaded
from contributors. Editors should avoid using it if possible.
If the Role of an entity is unknown, the person or
corporate body record should not be published; move it to
a temp.parent.

3.6.9

Dates for Roles

3.6.9.1

Definition
Dates delimiting the period when the Role is or was relevant.

3.6.9.2

Fields

1. Display Date: A
free-text field to express nuances of the date to the user;
it is indexed by the two indexing fields representing the
Start and End Dates implied in the free-text date.

2. Start Date: The
exact or estimated earliest year implied in the Display
Date.

3. End Date: The
exact of estimated latest year implied in the Display Date.

Example[from the VCS Subject Edit window for Hendrik Voogd]

3.6.9.3

Values
Display Date is a free-text field in Unicode. In legacy data, values may be any ASCII
character diacritics expressed according to the codes in Appendix
A.

Start Date and End Date must contain valid years expressed as numbers, with negative numbers for dates BCE; validated
by VCS.

3.6.9.4

Sources
The dates should be determined using the same standard reference
sources that supply other information about the Role.

3.6.9.5

Discussion
The Display Date for the Role usually refers to a date range,
however, it may sometimes contain notes that do not explicitly
make reference to a date. In such cases, the note should implicitly
refer to a date or datable condition or event, because you
are required to include a Start Date and End Date with every
Display Date.

Display dates are indexed with Start Date and End Date.
Start and End Dates are controlled by special formatting;
dates BCE are represented by negative numbers. If the End
Date for a Role is often the death date of the artist, unless
it was a role held by him or her for only part of their
life.

3.6.9.6

RULES

Dates are not required and are only occasionally warranted.

If you enter data in any of the three date fields, you
must enter data in ALL three of the fields.

3.6.9.6.1

Dates appropriate for the given
Role
Do not include dates for common roles where the date is self-evident;
that is, do not include dates for roles in which the artist
is active from early adulthood until death.

Significant dates: Include dates only if the dates
are significant: Examples include when a person was active
in a particular role (e.g., painter) only during
a portion of their life and when the person held an official
position (e.g., court painter) for a portion of their
life.

Display biography: American printmaker, illustrator,
and author, 1898-1989, born in EnglandRoles:
artist (preferred)
printmaker
wood engraver(s)
author
illustrator
painter
designer Display Date: later in her career she was a designer
of Steuben Glass, Wedgewood plates, and several stained
glass windows for churches in New England Start Date: 1951 End Date: 1989

Not for dates of activity or life dates: Do not
use the Display Date on Role to record dates of activity
or life dates. Do not use it to record the date when a firm
was founded. Birth and death dates should be recorded in
Birth and Death Date fields (see below). Dates of
activity should be recorded if warranted (with Event = active;
see 3.7 Events).

Explaining the role: Use the Display Date to explain
a Role, as in the first example below for the role designer,
where the Display Date explains what the artist designed.
Given that Start and End Dates are required if a Display
Date is used, estimate appropriate dates for this role.

State only what is known
If a precise span of dates for a Role is known, state it
in the Display Date. Where ambiguity exists, use natural
word order to clearly state what is known (and only what
is known; do not surmise). Follow the style of existing
display dates.

Do not use the death date: In general, do not
include the death date as part of the span in the display
date. In the example below, for the role court artist,
the display date reads from ca. 1739; the death
date of the artist is NOT included in the display because
it is awkward and confusing (i.e., NOT ca. 1739-1749).
However, the death date is used as the End Date, which
is used in retrieval.

Exception: Occasionally you may need to list
the death date for clarity; if so, generally state what
the date means, using "until his death" or another
suitable phrase (e.g., from ca. 1630 until his death
in 1651).

Exception: The reign of a ruler is a special
exception. If you are listing the dates for the reign
of a ruler, include the death date as the end of the span
in the display date for the role of ruler, because this
is the customary way to refer to dates for ruling.

Be objective
Express all information in a neutral tone. Do not write
from a subjective or biased point of view, even if your
source expresses a fact in a subjective way. Do not express
positively or negatively biased information regarding the
artist's style, the proficiency of the artist's work, political
situations, people (including aboriginal populations), places,
or events. See the discussion of this topic in chapter 3.4
Descriptive Note.

Punctuation
Do not use full sentences; do not end the display date with
a period or any other punctuation. If the Display Date could
be ambiguous because it contains more than one phrase, separate
phrases with a semi-colon for clarity.

Capitalization and abbreviation
Do not capitalize words other than proper nouns or period
names. Avoid abbreviations, except for ca. (meaning circa),
the numbers in century or dynasty designations (e.g., 17th
century), and BCE and CE.

Calendar in Display Date
Display Dates should generally be expressed as years in
the proleptic Gregorian calendar. If another calendar is
cited, also list the years in the Gregorian calendar. In
the example below, the French Revolutionary calendar is
cited.

Span of years
If a precisely delimited span of dates is applicable, list
the beginning year of the span first, followed by the end
of the span, with the years separated by a hyphen. Include
all digits for both years in a span; for example, with four-digit
years, do not abbreviate the second year (e.g., 1921-1924,
not 1921-24).

Caveat: In ULAN it is unusual for such specific
dates to be known for a role. Do not state specific
dates in the Display Date if there is broadly defined
information, ambiguity, or uncertainty. For example,
instead of 1500-1599, use 16th century
if that is what is meant (stating exact years in a display
field for the end-user would be misleading in this case).

BCE in Display Dates
Use BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Current Era) as necessary.
Avoid using BC (Before Christ) or AD (Anno Domini). Dates
BCE should be indexed with negative numbers in Start
and End Dates (see below).

Acceptable scope of information in the Display Date
Ideally, the display date should refer, explicitly or implicitly,
to a time period or date associated with the Role. In some
cases, Display Date may be used to record unusual or important
information about the Role and the artist (see the example
below), but not referring explicitly to a date. However,
dates should be implicit in the condition or event mentioned
and you should have a period or date in mind, because -
if you record a Display Date - Start and End Dates are required.

Delimiting the span
Record years that delimit the span of time when the Role
is applicable, as referenced in the Display Date. If the
years are uncertain (as when qualifiers such as ca.
or probably were used in the Role display date),
approximate years should be calculated and then recorded
as Start and End Dates for indexing. These indexing dates
should represent the broadest possible span of time represented
by the dates in the Role display date; it is better to delimit
the span too broadly than too narrowly.

Start Date must represent a year earlier than the
End Date. In rare cases, the start date and end date
may be the same year (but if a Role was only applicable
for one year, it is probably not significant enough
to include).

Do not use punctuation
Express years without commas or other punctuation. An exception
is the hyphen, which is used to express negative numbers
(dates BCE).

Gregorian calendar
Dates must be expressed in the proleptic Gregorian calendar,
which is the Gregorian calendar projected back in time before
it came into existence.

Lifelong Roles
For a Role that describes a role or characteristic that
lasted until the end of the artist's life, use the Death
Date as the End Date (but generally do not state the death
date in the Display Date for the Role; see discussion above).

Month and day
Even if a specific month and day are referenced in the Display
Date, index with the years only in Start and End Dates.
For the display date, the preferred syntax is day, month,
year with no punctuation. The alternative syntax - month,
day, comma, year - is found in many legacy records. Do not
bother editing records that already contain this syntax,
except in order to make the record consistent when you are
editing the record.

Dates BCE
Express dates BCE by negative numbers, using a hyphen before
the number in the Start and End Date. Do not use commas
or any other punctuation.

Estimating Start and End Dates
Use available information to estimate Start and End Dates.
In many cases, the years will be approximate. When in doubt,
it is better to estimate too broad a span rather than too
narrow a span. See the Date Authority in Appendix
B for approximate dates of historic events and entities;
you should also consult other records in ULAN with similar
Roles to establish dates.

If a display date is qualified by ca., early
in a century, probably, around, etc., estimate
Start and End Dates accordingly. In the example below,
the Start and End Dates are educated guesses based on
available information. In the example below, ten years
were subtracted from "ca. 1610" and ten years
were added to "ca. 1620" for Start and End
Dates.

Birth Date: Date when the artist was born or the
corporate body was founded. The birth date is referred to
in the Display Biography, and indexed in the Birth Date
field, which is used for retrieval but not displayed to
the end-user.

Death Date: Date when the artist died or the corporate
body disbanded. The death date is referred to in the Display
Biography, and indexed in the Death Date field, which is
used for retrieval but not displayed to the end-user.

Values
The Birth Date and Death Date fields must contain valid years,
validated by VCS. The dates in the Display Biography may express
nuance and uncertainty.

3.6.10.3

Sources
Use the same standard general references that are appropriate
for the rest of the record.

Know your sources: When sources disagree, prefer
the information in the most current authoritative source.
Scholarly opinions about the artist's life dates may change
with new research.

Exhibitions and inventories: For an artist with
unknown birth and death dates, and when the only source
is an exhibition, dated inventory, or a periodical article,
do not assume that the date of the exhibition, publication,
or inventory reflects the time when the artist was alive.
For example, if an artist's work is listed in an inventory
of 1676, do not assume that she/he is a 17th-century artist;
she/he could easily have lived and produced the work in
an earlier century.

3.6.10.4

Discussion
The Birth and Death Dates are the life dates for the person
or dates of existence of a corporate body. The end-users do
not see Birth Date and Death Date fields (birth and death
date are for use "behind the scenes" for retrieval).
For end-users, the birth and death dates are expressed in
the Display Biography, along with any expressions of nuance,
uncertainty (e.g., ca.), and ambiguity, and when only
dates of activity are known.

Example

3.6.10.5

RULES for Birth and Death Date

3.6.10.5.1

Minimum requirements
Record life dates in the Display Biography in an unambiguous
way. The dates in the Display Biography are assumed to be
birth and death dates, unless otherwise clarified (e.g., clarified
with ca., active, etc.).

For Birth and Death Dates fields, record the year when
the person was born (or when a corporate body came into
existence) and the year when the person died (or when the
corporate body was dissolved). If the information is uncertain,
estimate dates appropriately.

Syntax
In the Display Biography, place the dates after the nationality
and role.
For a span of dates, list birth date, hyphen, death date.

In the Display Biography, include all digits for both
years in a span (e.g., 1831-1890, not 1831-90).
Do not use an apostrophe (e.g., 1350s or 1900s,
not 1350's or 1900's).

In the Display Biography, if ca. applies to both years
in a date span, repeat it with the second year for clarity
(e.g., ca. 1720-ca. 1785).

In the Display Biography, do not record the month
and day of birth or death. You may record this in the
Descriptive Note if the specific day and month is significant.
In the Descriptive Note, the preferred syntax would
be day, month, year with no punctuation (not month,
day, comma, year).

For the Birth and Death Dates fields, include the
year only; do not include month or day. Do not include
commas or other punctuation, with the exception of the
hyphen/dash for dates BCE.

Gregorian Calendar
For the Display Date, list years in the proleptic Gregorian
calendar, which is the calendar produced by extending the
Gregorian calendar to dates preceding its official introduction.
If another calendar is referenced, also include the date
in the Gregorian calendar. Use BCE (Before Current Era)
and CE (Current Era) if the year alone would be confusing
or ambiguous to the end-user. Do not use BC and AD.

For Birth and Death Dates fields, record the year
of birth and death using the proleptic Gregorian calendar.
For dates BCE, use negative numbers.

Dates of activity and other
dates
In the display biography, if you do not have birth and death
dates, you may use dates of activity or other dates as described
below.

In such cases, it is still required to estimate approximate
Birth and Death Dates. You may then index the known dates
of activity or other dates using the Dates for Events (e.g.,
baptism, see 3.7) or for Roles (e.g., master,
see Roles above).

Dates of activity
If life dates are unknown, in the Display Biography, use
active to designate the dates of activity. However,
you must estimate Birth and Death Dates for indexing. Allow
a lifespan of 100 or 120 years, unless there is better information
available.

"Documented" dates
In some cases, the source indicates only that the artist
was documented at a particular time. Use the word
"documented" in such cases. For the Birth
and Death Date fields, allow a lifespan of 100 or 120 years,
unless there is better information available.

Other dates
In the Display Biography, if the dates do not actually represent
birth and death dates, be careful to express precisely what
the dates mean. In the example below, the architect, François
Mansart, was baptized in January 1598, although no documentation
of his actual birth date is known (you can estimate that
he may have been born late in 1597 or in January 1598).
In such cases, estimate appropriate Birth and Death Dates
for indexing.

Uncertainty and ambiguity in Dates
If necessary, express nuance, uncertainty, and ambiguity related
to birth and death dates in the Display Biography.

For the Birth and Death Dates fields, estimate years of
birth and death as necessary. If only dates of activity
are known, or if the dates of birth or death are expressed
with ca. or probably in the Display Date,
record Birth and Death Dates that are the earliest and latest
possible delimiters of the lifespan of a person or of the
existence of a corporate body. (Estimations are appropriate
because these dates are controlled for search-and-retrieval,
and will not be displayed to the end-user.)

Only one date is known
If only the birth date or death date is known, or for living
artists for whom death date is not applicable, clearly indicate
the meaning of the single known date by using born
or died. For extant corporate bodies, use founded,established, or another appropriate term.

For Birth and Death Date fields, if no better information
is available, estimate the greatest likely life span
as at least 100 or 120 years for the life of a person.

Display Biography: American art museum, established
in 1937Birth Date: 1937 Death Date: 9999

Circa, probably
In the Display Biography, for approximate dates use ca.
(circa) and probably as needed. If ca.
or probably applies to both dates, repeat it for
both dates in the span. (Remember: you are expressing uncertainty
as relayed by your authoritative sources, not your own surmising;
do not use ca. or probably simply because
you, the editor, are ignorant of the facts.)

Based on the Display Biography, estimate Birth and
Death dates by adding or subtracting ten years (or more
or fewer years, as appropriate, based on your source).
(E.g., if the display biography states the birth date
as ca. 1230, in the Birth Date field, the date
for retrieval could be estimated by subtracting ten
years, 1220.)

Before, after
Use before and after as necessary in the Display
Biography. Use the terminus ante quem and the terminus
post quem (meaning date before which and date
after which), referenced by before and after
in the Display Biography as the Birth or Death Date,
as appropriate. In the example below, the painter was dead
before 1413, so using 1413 as a Death Date
is appropriate for retrieval.

Contemporary, living persons
In the Display Biography, for individuals or corporate bodies
that are definitely or probably still alive or extant, but
the birth date or date of founding is unknown, use contemporary
rather than 20th century or 21st century.

Persons: For the Birth and Death Dates fields
only (not Display Biography), for a presumably living
artist for whom a birth date is unknown, estimate a
birth date if possible (e.g., using works produced early
in their career or a date when they were in school).
If nothing is known from which a birth date may be estimated,
use the birth date 1900 for a living person.
If the birth date is completely unknown (and thus a
120-year life span cannot be calculated), record the
Death Date as 2090.

Corporate Bodies: If no information is available,
consult with your supervisor regarding an appropriate
"birth" date for a corporate body. For extant
corporate bodies, use the death date 9999.

Spans of dates
For the Display Biography, if a birth date or death date
itself is represented by a span, for example, if an artist
was born between 1300 and 1310, use a forward slash
to indicate this span (e.g., 1300/1310-1362). Estimate
Birth and Death Dates appropriately.

Or: If a birth or death date is one year or another,
and the years are successive years, treat the date as
a span (e.g., 1813/1814-1876). If a birth or death
date is one year or another, and the dates are NOT two
successive years, use the word or and born
and died in the Display Biography for clarity.

Centuries
For the Display Biography, if the exact dates are not known
and your authoritative source describes the life dates or
active dates in terms of a century, you may use the following
convention in the Display Biography: Use the numeric abbreviation
for the ordinal number (e.g., 17th), spell out century
or centuries, hyphenate mid-, and otherwise
express such dates using the syntax in the examples below.
Portions of centuries may be referenced.

Estimate appropriate Birth and Death Dates. For the
Birth and Death dates, use 00 and 99 to
delimit a century, (e.g., for life dates 17th century,
Birth Date = 1600, Death Date = 1699).
Use 00 and 30 for early in the
century, 30 and 70 for mid-, and
70 and 99 for late. Allow a lifespan
of 100 or 120 years, unless there is better information
available.

If the century in the Display Biography refers to dates
of activity rather than life dates, estimate life dates
accordingly, assuming the person was born 20 or more years
before they were active and died somewhat after the last
recorded date of activity. Create a lifespan of 100 or
120 years, unless there is better information available.

Dynasties, periods
In the Display Biography, when the exact date is unknown,
you may occasionally express dates for the artist according
to a named period, dynasty, or ruler's reign, if this is
the only date referred to in your source. The periods and
dynasties may be divided into early, middle,
or late.

If the dates refer to the dynasty or ruler and not
to the artist, put the dates in parentheses. Caveat:
If you do not put the dates in parentheses, it means
that the dates refer to the life dates of the artist.
For example, Chinese painter and scholar, Ming dynasty,
1470-1524, would indicate that the dates are the
birth and death dates of the artist, not of the Ming
Dynasty. In the example below, the dates represent those
of the dynasty.

If no more specific dates for the artist are known,
Birth and Death Dates for retrieval should be estimated
by considering the dates applicable for that period or
dynasty. Allow a lifespan of 100 or 120 years, unless
there is better information available.

3.6.10.5.4

Estimating Birth and Death Dates
In the Display Biography, state only what is known. However,
in the Birth and Death Dates, you may estimate dates based
on very little information when necessary.

Consult the rules for Birth and Death Dates above. If
none of those situations is applicable to your situation,
and lacking all other information, you may estimate Birth
and Death Dates based on the dates of works by the artist
or the dates of other people who lived when he or she did
(e.g., patrons, students, etc.).

For the date of establishment (Birth Date) or dissolution
(Death Date) of a corporate body, you may extrapolate from
various related information as appropriate. For example,
if you do not know the date of dissolution of an architectural
firm, you could use the death dates of the partners to estimate
a terminus ante quem for the firm.

If you do not know the date of establishment of a workshop,
you could estimate that it must be a date after the birth
of the master, and before the date of the first work produced
by the shop.

No Date
In the Display Biography, do not record no date or
n.d. If you have so little information about the
person or corporate body that you cannot record even the
century during which they lived, consult with your supervisor;
you will most likely place the record under a temp.parent.

3.6.11

Birth and Death Places

3.6.11.1

Definition
The geographic locations where the artist was born or died.

3.6.11.2

Values
Terminology for the place is drawn from a controlled Place
List comprising a numeric code and a word or phrase.

3.6.11.3

RULES

3.6.11.3.1

Minimum requirements
If known from an authoritative source, record the place names
indicating where a person was born or died.

Example

Locus of activity or location: For the locus of
activity for a person, see 3.7 Events. It is recorded
as Event = active. For the location of a corporate
body, see 3.7 Events. It is recorded as Event = location.

3.6.11.3.2

Uncertain birth or death place
If sources disagree about the birth or death place, prefer
the most recent authoritative source. If you cannot resolve
the question regarding birth or death place, omit the place.

If authoritative sources talk of scholarly debate over
a possible birth or death place, note both places in the
Descriptive Note and index the most likely place as the
Birth or Death Place.

Example[Bologna is indexed because it is the more likely
birth place]

Birth Place: Bologna (Bologna province, Emilia-Romagna,
Italy)Descriptive Note: Costa was probably born in
either Bologna or Mantua. He was documented among
the artists of the Gonzaga court in Mantua from 1529
to 1539. He may have been the father of Lorenzo Mantovano
Costa.

Nation names
If you do not know the city or province of birth or death,
and you only know the nation, do not record the nation if
the nation is the same as is referred to in the Nationality.
For example, do not record Italy as the birthplace
of an Italian artist; however, you may record a specific
city such as Florence (Firenze province, Tuscany, Italy)
as the Birth Location.

Exception: If the artist was born or died in
one nation but was a citizen of or worked in another
nation, and if you do not know his city of birth or
death, you may record the nation in Birth or Death Place.

Example

Display biography: British architect, 1911-1979,
born in IndiaBirth Place: IndiaNationality: British

3.6.11.3.3

Historical names
If the artist was born or died in a place for which the name
has since changed, you will have to index the Birth or Death
Place with the modern place name rather than the historical
name, because the historical place names for cities are not
in the Place List. To explain such discrepancies, use the
Descriptive Note.

Example

Birth Place: Labdah (Al Khums province, Libya)Descriptive Note: The emperor was also the patron
of many building projects in his native city of Leptis
Magna (modern Labdah, Libya).

Exception: Note that the names of historical nations
are generally in the Place List. Link to the historical
name when possible.

3.6.11.3.4

Adding new Places to the Place List
Most necessary names for Birth and Death Places should already
be in the Place list. If you feel you need to add a new Place
to the Place list, try looking for a synonym. Check TGN for
potential synonyms. If you still feel you must add to the
ULAN Place List, consult with your supervisor and be sure
you are trained to properly add a place before doing so. Place
names must be derived from TGN, because the list is periodically
updated from the TGN data; if the place is not in TGN either,
add it.

Caveat: Note that there are many homographs in
the Place List. In some cases, a city and its province may
even have the same name. Be absolutely certain that you
link to the correct place.

Example
[which "Munster" do you really mean?]

3.6.12

Sex (required)

3.6.12.1

Definition
An indication of the sex of the artist. This field is called
"Gender" in the online publication.

Record the sex of the individual: male, female, other, unknown.
For corporate bodies, record not applicable, except in cases where the body prefers to be identified by gender, such as the Guerrilla Girls (a group of female American artists for whom gender identification is important).

For any anonymous artists or when you are otherwise uncertain
of the sex, record unknown.

For transgender or non-binary people, record other here, or when applicable the sex/gender by which they self-identify (male, female). In Nationality field (short for nationality / culture / race / ethnicity / religion / gender identity / sexual orientation), record transgender or nonbinary gender identity.

Be very careful when attributing sex based on the name
of the individual. If you are not an expert in a given language
or unquestionably familiar with the name, do not assign
sex based on the name. For example, names such as Robin,
Hilary, Nicola, Jean, and Evelyn may be male
or female. Check with your supervisor if you are uncertain.

For records with multiple display biographies, make sure
that the sex is the same for all of the biographies. Alternatively,
you may delete all Sex designations except the one for the
Preferred Display Biography. To delete the Sex designation,
click on the empty value in the pull-down list of Sex designations.

Examples[for Artemesia Gentileschi, Sex is the same for
all biographies]

[for Andrea de'Bartoli, Sex is deleted for all but the
preferred biography]

3.6.13

Preferred Flag for Biography(required-default)

3.6.13.1

Definition
Flag indicating whether or not the Display Biography is preferred
for its subject record.

Discussion
Every record must have a preferred Display Biography to use
as a default in displays.

3.6.13.4

RULES

The Display Biography is automatically flagged "preferred"
by the system. If this is not correct, change the Preferred
Flag accordingly. If necessary, create a new Display Biography
and flag it "preferred."

3.6.14

Contributor for Biography (required)

3.6.14.1

Definition
A reference to the institution or project that contributed
the biography.

3.6.14.2

Fields

Brief Name: An acronym, initials, or abbreviated
name of the institution.

Full Name: A full version of the name of the contributing
institution or project.

3.6.14.3

RULES

The contributor name is usually assigned to the records
when they are loaded; thus the editor rarely needs worry
about it.

For Biographies entered by the Vocabulary Program, list
the contributor as "VP"

Full Name: If you must create a new entry in the
Contributor file, for the Full Name, record the official
name of the institution, as communicated by their representative
or as found on recent official publications, including their
Web site or a handbook of the collection.

Brief Name: If you must create a new entry in the
Contributor file, for the Brief Name, use the official acronym
or abbreviation of the institution. If there is no official
brief name, construct a brief name and okay it with your
supervisor.

1"Required-default"
indicates that a default is automatically set, but should
be changed by the cataloguer as necessary.