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EMILE DURKHEIMEndless FrontiersDurkheim was born in France in 1858 and died in 1917. He was a university professor in France all his life, the first professor to teach social science. He wanted to advance the science of sociology, and he founded the first social science journal in France. He wanted to use social science to improve social life, to make it more equal and civil. He admired industrial production just like Marx and Weber, but he was far more optimistic about the market. He agreed the industrial market would create class division if it operated by laissez-faire. But he argued that this market could be made civil and decent through government regulation and control. Government should be used to prevent structural inequality, which means to prevent class monopolies. But government should not be used to end private property as Marx recommends with communism. Durkheim calls himself a socialist, in the sense of a regulated market, but he rejects the idea of communism, the idea of socialized property. He wants to achieve structural equality in a context of market industry. He embraces the idea of a rational society, a society with science and industry, but he agrees with Weber and not with Marx that this requires a market. A market will encourage individualism and thus criticism, innovation, change. Individualism is the basis for freedom and equality, the basis for rational order, and individualism requires a market in private property, not the socialized property of communism. Durkheim admires the market but he fears its class monopolies, so he rejects the free market of Adam Smith and seeks an active government.

Social solidarityDurkheims theoretical focus is on the issue of social solidarity. He seeks to understand what holds societies together, what makes them cohesive

124 The Wild West and stable. Without social solidarity no society can be decent and just, and social solidarity requires shared values, a sense of social unity. All societies, according to Durkheim, must share some basic values, some sense of moral commitments. Without these basic values no social order is possible Some societies, however, have more shared values than others, more cohesive morality. Durkheim analyzes different kinds of social structure and different kinds of solidarity. In one kind of society, solidarity is strong and assured, but in another kind of society solidarity is often weak and threatened. It is usually strong and assured when individualism is weak and minimal. But it is often weak and threatened when individualism is dominant and encouraged. Individualism depends on private selfinterests, and self-interests always undermine a sense of shared morality. Durkheim compares tribal societies with modern industrial society, and he finds tribal societies to be far more cohesive. Tribal societies have simple productive activities, primarily hunting and gathering. They have strong religious beliefs, strong traditional rules, and no class divisions. They are not very good at individualism, including innovation and criticism, but they are generally very good at solidarity, stability, and continuity. Modern society, however, is very good at individualism and not very good at cohesion. The market encourages self-interest and social change, disrupting traditional rigidity. But too much self-interest and too much change can weaken shared values and social stability. In particular, a free industrial market will lead to class structure, a structure of owners and workers. But the market is ruled by self-interest, with no traditional constraints, so this class structure will be excessively oppressive and social solidarity will fail. A free industrial market, for Durkheim, will undermine shared morality and generate instability because of class division. To this extent he agrees with Marx, but he thinks the market can be rearranged rather than completely rejected. It can be rearranged to be both moral and individualistic, both cohesive and self-interested. He sees the possibility of a moral individualism where the private individualism of the market is constrained by public morality. This is what government should be able to achieve by regulating and controlling the market. But this moral individualism will only be possible in a context of structural equality. Individuals can only share social values if their interests are somewhat similar, not severely class divided. So government should try to reshape the market to prevent class monopolies. Government should shape the market to guarantee, in effect, real equal opportunity for all individuals. In such a context of equal opportunity, like that of the wilderness frontier, a shared morality will always be compatible with private market self-interests. All societies, including market society, require a shared morality, but the morality of market society must be weak. The market depends on individual differences, on innovation and criticism, so the unifying social values cannot be too strong. If they are too strong, as in a common religion, then individual differences are discouraged and the social order

Durkheim 125 becomes sacred. A society committed to reason, and therefore to criticism and change, must have a weak shared morality, but it must still have a sufficient and effective shared morality. If its morality is too weak, all hope for social cohesion is lost and the social order will fail. This is Durkheims theoretical problem: how to maintain a weak but sufficient shared morality to support a civil market, a market with industrial production. For Marx and Weber this cannot be done, but Durkheim argues that it can be done if the issues of solidarity are properly understood. Morality must be strong if there is little or no division of labor. But in a division of labor, as in market society, individualism is encouraged so morality must be weak. The division of labor means specialized production. Different individuals have very different skills and specialize in different products shoes, plows, chairs, insurance. Individuals make money by doing or making one thing, and then they trade that money for all the others things they need, things other specialized individuals make. The market encourages a division of labor, and the division of labor depends on individualism. Individual differences must be encouraged for the division of labor to work, differences in ideas, values, interests, beliefs. The division of labor encourages innovation in the sense of new specializations. Without a division of labor, all people in a society do essentially the same things. There is no specialization and no complexity of production. Usually, there is not even money. All productive tasks are simple, everyone can do them all, and most people (or family groups) do all or most of those tasks for themselves farming, clothing, housing, etc. Without a division of labor, individualism is not needed and indeed it is even a threat. But with a division of labor, individualism is a necessity. Durkheim distinguishes different societies in terms of the division of labor. The market requires a division of labor and tribal society does not. He does not, however, identify the market with the division of labor, at least not the free market, the market of Adam Smith. He takes the idea of the division of labor directly from Smith, but he argues that individualism depends on the division of labor, not on free market relations. He endorses the division of labor because it supports individualism, but not a free market because it creates class. So he focuses on the division of labor instead of laissez-faire. He supports the individualism of the market, including a commitment to private property. But he argues that the market must be regulated and controlled in order to achieve civility. It cannot be the free market of original market theory, the market of the invisible hand. Durkheim identifies two basic types of social solidarity, two ends of a solidarity continuum. Tribal societies, with little division of labor, are characterized by mechanical solidarity. They have the solidarity of uniform similarity, very few individual differences. Everyone tends to have the same knowledge and skills, so they have the same values and beliefs. Durkheim calls it mechanical because all the people are essentially alike, as though they were mechanical reproductions of one another. This kind

126 The Wild West of society depends on strong shared values for cohesion and stability. Families are essentially self-sufficient, since everyone has all productive knowledge, but the tribe is held together by religion and tradition. Since everyone knows and does the same things, common beliefs are easy. Strong common religious beliefs generate mutual trust and understanding and this is the basis for mechanical solidarity. Market society, in contrast, is characterized by organic solidarity, if it has solidarity at all. Organic solidarity means mutual interdependence, the interdependence of specialized individuals. This is the solidarity of the division of labor, the weak solidarity that must support individualism. Individuals know different things, do different things, and have different values, so they cannot share strong common beliefs. They are, however, according to Durkheim, more mutually dependent than tribal members. Everyone in a division of labor depends on the skills of others, while everyone in a tribal society knows most of the skills. All individuals in the division of labor need products other people make, so everyone has an interest in maintaining interaction solidarity with people who are different. This kind of solidarity emerges from social interdependence, not from strong shared values. It is organic, in Durkheims terms, because it is similar to an organism. In the body, for example, the heart, lungs, and brain are all interdependent. If the body is to survive, and by analogy a society, all the different parts must work together (maintain solidarity). The division of labor itself, however, in Durkheims view, will not tend to generate solidarity. The mutual interdependence of specialized production will generate individualism and even class division, not necessarily social cohesion. Individuals may be mutually dependent in the division of labor, but they will still need a shared morality, a basis for social unity, to have a good society. The market can only be stable and decent in a context of trust and honesty, respect and honor. A free, unregulated market will generate class divisions and cynical private interests, encouraging abuse and exploitation. As Durkheim comments in The Division of Labor in Society, as translated by Giddens:If one class of society is obliged, in order to live, to take any price for its services, while another is absolved from such a necessity thanks to resources it possesses, but which are not intrinsically expressive of any social superiority the latter is able unjustly to force the former to submit to its dictates. In other words, there must be unjust contracts as long as there are rich and poor at birth. (1972: 11)

To avoid this class oppression, Durkheim recommends government controls on the market to maintain structural equality. The division of labor can make life better more productive, more critical, more free but only if structural inequality can be prevented so relations can be fair and just. Only with structural equality can specialized individuals with different ideas and values individualists share enough trust andhonesty to create a civil society, that is, to have organic solidarity.

Durkheim 127 In an industrial market context of class, there cannot be sufficient shared morality. And without sufficient shared morality the market will become unstable and tend to break down. Durkheim offers two important ways the market can fail at solidarity egoism and anomie. Egoism is excessive individualism, excessive selfishness, and it is encouraged by market self-interest. Durkheim assumes, like Marx and Weber, that individuals are inherently social, not inherently autonomous. People need social involvement in order to be human, but a free market encourages egoism and egoism undermines all social involvement. Individuals become so isolated in the pursuit of private property that life loses all meaning and value. In his famous study, Suicide, Durkheim uses suicide statistics to demonstrate egoistic suicide. Individuals are more likely to commit suicide, he contends, the more they are socially isolated single, not religious, Protestant rather than Catholic, focused on market success. Suicide, he argues, is a sign of social breakdown, a sign of failed solidarity, and the excessive individualism of free market relations will increase the rate of suicide. Anomie occurs when the social order changes too fast. People are inherently social for Durkheim. This means they can only exist as humans within a context of social stability and shared social values. The market, however, encourages individualism and change, not stability and shared values. It encourages innovation, criticism, and constant disruption for the sake of private profit. Without sufficient shared morality to constrain private interests, change will be too rapid and anomie will increase. When people become anomic, they lose all sense of social confidence, all sense of place, identity, meaning. Without a stable context of social values they begin to feel lost and confused. People who feel anomie become socially disconnected and thus are more likely to commit suicide anomic suicide. Durkheim argues, using statistics, that rapid social change, encouraged by the market, increases the rate of suicide, and he takes this increased rate of suicide to indicate the market failure of stability and solidarity. Egoism and anomie are dangers of a free industrial market, a market without sufficient moral cohesion. The central market problem, for Durkheim, is the emergence of class monopolies in a context of private self-interest. If owners are able to oppress and exploit workers strictly to maximize their wealth, with no moral constraints, then solidarity cannot be possible and market social order will fail. This will occur, he argues, if the market operates freely in accordance with Adam Smith. He directs his social analysis directly against original market theory and specifically against the idea of laissez-faire. No society can be stable, he argues, much less decent, if it is strictly based on private self-interests. No invisible hand of the market will create a good society. Some social commitment to a unifying morality is necessary, some shared moral constraints on private market individualism. So some social effort must be made to maintain a shared morality, and this means a social effort must be made to

128 The Wild West prevent class monopolies. In the context of industry the market must be restructured to support moral cohesion organic solidarity. Durkheim suggests how this could be done, suggestions that follow from this theory. In general, he suggests that government should rearrange market relations, including market politics, and should put more limits on the use of private property.

Restructuring the market

Durkheim wants to use government to support greater equality, and this makes him a liberal more or less like Keynes. If Keynes is a liberal, however, Durkheim must be a super-liberal, a very radical liberal. He wants a far more active government than Keynes he calls himself a socialist but he still supports private property, not the fully socialized property of Marx. Keynes wants an active government to maintain equal opportunity, and his idea of equal opportunity is full employment the chance for everyone to sell their labor and get a job. Durkheim, in contrast, wants an active government to maintain real equal opportunity, which means to prevent class structure. Keynes is a liberal who accepts an industrial structure of owners and workers class inequality. But Durkheim seeks a structural equality of industrial owner-workers. A structure of class division, he argues, will undermine moral cohesion. In general, both these theorists have a liberal concern with equality. Conservatives, in contrast, as we have seen, are generally more concerned with freedom. They tend to support market freedom even if it means less equal opportunity. They worry more about government restrictions on private property than about helping workers and the unemployed. In one sense, however, Durkheim can be seen as quite conservative. Conservatives generally resist social actions government actions to achieve greater equality. They tend to think that such liberal actions will do more harm than good. They assume an existing social stability and argue that it should be preserved conserved with minimal government interference. To support the free market, they argue that private property should be protected from more government control, even at the expense of inequality. More government control, in their view, will cause more instability than market inequality. Durkheim argues against a free market and for more market equality, more government support for equality. In this economic sense he is far more liberal than conservative. But he is also very concerned with stability, and he worries about things that disrupt stability. For some issues, then, he seems to support, at least theoretically, existing inequality for the sake of social stability, essentially a conservative position. And this is most apparent when he considers the role of women.

Durkheim 129 He tends to assume, as most theorists have until recently, that women should accept sexual inequality for the sake of social stability, specifically family stability. His deep concern with inequality tends to be focused strictly on class issues. As a result, he can often seem to endorse other forms of inequality, particularly sexual inequality, for the sake of social stability. This was probably more of an oversight than an intention on Durkheims part, and this oversight was common in his time. But the oversight was built into his theory, and this theoretical perspective has had modern conservative implications. If some kinds of inequality are not as important as social stability, then women, for example, might need to stay in their proper, inferior place for the sake of social order. With respect to class inequality, however, Durkheim is quite liberal, even radical. He wants to use government to create structural equality within an industrial market. Marx also wants structural equality but thinks it is impossible with private property. Weber wants it as well but thinks it will be forever lost with the end of the frontier. Durkheim makes specific proposals to prevent class monopolies. In particular, he proposes a new legal structure of private property and a new way to organize political participation. Just like Marx, he is more interested in analyzing the problems than in proposing solutions, so he makes various suggestions without much elaboration. It is not clear, therefore, at least not in Durkheim, that these specific proposals can work. Nevertheless, they indicate optimism about the market and thus they remain interesting. Neither Marx nor Weber thinks the industrial market can support a good society, but we all now live within an industrial market. Only Durkheim, of these three theorists, is optimistic about the market, so his theoretical approach at least offers the possibility of improving our modern society. His particular strategies may or may not work, and other possible strategies might work better. But Durkheim thinks that strategies still exist to make the market civil, strategies based on government. He recommends ending the private inheritance of wealth. If wealth cannot be inherited, class monopolies cannot arise and real equal opportunity can be maintained: let us suppose that men enter life in a state of perfect economic equality, which is to say, that riches have entirely ceased being hereditary (Durkheim, 1964: 30). Individuals could still become rich through market competition, but they could not leave their wealth to their children. Rather, their wealth, after their death, would somehow be made available to all individuals equally through government redistribution. Durkheim essentially argues, unlike Marx, that class is an issue of private inheritance, not of private property. The class problem is not that some individuals are richer than others. The problem is, according to Durkheim, that rich individuals can create a class structure, with inherited class privileges, by leaving their wealth to their children. Without private inheritance, he argues, market class structure cannot arise. Various other theorists have made a similar argument, including

130 The Wild West Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill. Individual inequality is acceptable as long as it can never be the basis for class. This involves, in effect, a redefinition of private property. According to market theory, following Locke, individuals have a natural right to own private property and use it however they wish, including leaving it to their children. This natural right justifies market government, so government, in theory, has no legitimate right to take that property when they die, even for equal redistribution. Durkheim is proposing that the right to own private property should be limited to an individuals lifetime, and this would be a fundamental change in the structure of private property. Property would only be private as long as its owner lives. This would alter, it would seem, many private market incentives. More immediate personal spending, for example, might begin to seem preferable to providing protections for descendants. All children, upon coming of age, would have the same opportunity through government redistribution. So parents with money would have less ability to protect their childrens futures. Parents without money, however, would have more confidence in the prospects for their childrens futures. The social implications of this idea are vast and complex. Much would depend on how government would claim and use the property it would inherit. Fundamentally, it is not clear that the market could continue to work with this idea of private property. On the other hand, it might continue to work very well with much more equality and decency. The specific institutional structures would have to be carefully considered, but Durkheim at least offers a market strategy that is more than despair (Weber) and less than revolution (Marx). He is trying to rearrange the market for civil industrial production, and this, of course, is essentially what we have been trying to do through judicious use of government for the last century or so. This idea of ending inheritance is suggested for structural equality no class monopolies. Structural equality is necessary, according to Durkheim, to achieve sufficient shared morality for organic solidarity. But even structural equality in a market of private interests does not guarantee social cohesion, so government must also build institutions that assure a shared morality. Durkheim proposes that government create occupational associations corporations, as he calls them. These corporations would not be corporations in our modern, familiar sense private businesses seeking private profit. Rather, they would be semi-official organizations for organizing, unifying, and supporting their members, and their members would be people with similar occupations and skills. People with jobs, Durkheim assumes, would have similar interests and values. Each occupational association, then, would consist of people with similar values, and moral unity would be easy to achieve. These corporations would be more than unions and less than businesses. They would represent the interests of their members both in work and in politics. They would also be able to own private property in

Durkheim 131 the names of their members, property their members could work. The members, then, of each corporation would essentially be ownerworkers. Moreover, democratic participation would now take place through these occupational corporations. Each individual would vote as a member of a corporation, and this would restructure the entire political process. Each individual, presumably, would have a greater sense of political power and influence by voting through an organized group with similar interests and values. Each corporation would create an internal sense of shared morality and an external sense of political influence. As a result, this structure of different corporations would create a general sense of shared morality across all corporations. Support for individual differences would be maintained, through different corporations, in a general social context of democratic participation and civil involvement. The shared morality of organic solidarity would thus be achieved in a structurally equal industrial market. Durkheim mentions all these ideas briefly, and all of them clearly have problems. They would need far more conceptual attention to be used as practical strategies. But they suggest various directions for rearranging the market and restructuring politics. The general lesson, however, from Durkheim and all the liberals, is that government must be used to support individual equality, enough equality to ensure stability and maintain market legitimacy. Keynes argues, with most modern liberals, that this only requires full employment, the equal opportunity to get a job. Durkheim argues, with many socialist liberals, that this requires much more, a far greater effort to achieve structural equality. In any case a government commitment to equality must be encouraged since industrial market relations create class monopolies. Durkheim does not address the closing of the frontier, as Weber does. But Durkheim, in effect, wants government to maintain a commitment to real equal opportunity in an industrial market, that is, to maintain frontierlike opportunity. The market can only be civil, he argues, with no class monopolies, so government must shape market relations to support structural equality. Durkheim shares the original individualist vision, the vision of a civil society of independent owner-workers. But the original vision was agrarian owner-workers enabled by a wilderness frontier, and Durkheim wants to achieve industrial owner-workers enabled by an active government. He wants to preserve all the positive aspects of the market freedom, equality, science, criticism, individualism, industry and he wants to eliminate class, with its implications of egoism, anomie, oppression, instability. So he wants government to provide, under industrial conditions, what the frontier originally provided, an endless context of real equal opportunity. The problem, of course, is that the original individualist vision, the vision of civil society, was based on limited government and a free market. Freedom was compatible with equality exactly because of the frontier. Everyone could be an owner-worker, at least in theory, without a

132 The Wild West strong, regulatory government. Under industrial conditions, however, government must become more dominant and market freedom more threatened in order to support equal opportunity. Marx, of course, argues that market government can never support equality because it will only serve the owners. For Weber, market government, like all rational organization, must rely on bureaucracy, and bureaucracy will stifle all hope for civility, including the hope for equality. Durkheim, however, thinks government can improve the market, making it civil and just, and this general strategy of Durkheim, if not his specific suggestions, has characterized our modern market. We have generally created an active, regulatory government to try to protect equality and civility under industrial market conditions. We have tried to use government to maintain a minimum legitimating commitment to equal opportunity, a commitment originally offered by the open frontier. Government has been used to maintain new frontiers as the basis for equal opportunity. Only with something like an endless frontier can individualist society be civil, and this is what the cowboy myth suggests. It will always remain the market myth of origin if its frontier is interpreted symbolically.

New frontiersIf the myth is interpreted literally, it suggests that the market can only be civil on an agrarian frontier, a frontier of free land. This was the assumption of the early individualists in their vision of civil society. They did not think that a free and equal society could be compatible with urban, industrial production, and neither did Turner, Marx, or Weber. But the myth can be interpreted symbolically, with the image of the frontier symbolizing real equal opportunity, not necessarily free land. From this perspective, the myth symbolically suggests that a frontier-like context of equal opportunity must be maintained for the market to be civil. This context may not have to be a wilderness, and individuals may not have to be agrarians. But the basic characteristics of an open frontier would still be necessary, particularly a commitment to equality of opportunity and the prevention of class monopolies. In many ways the cowboy myth reflects elements of Durkheims theory. On the agrarian frontier, as literally portrayed, the division of labor is not fully developed. Most people do similar kinds of things farming, ranching so a common commitment to shared values is easier to achieve than in the urban East. That is, there are more elements of mechanical solidarity a strong, unifying morality than in the industrial city, which requires organic solidarity. The frontier, however, is a market society with an emerging division of labor, so it also requires aspects of organic

Durkheim 133 solidarity, in particular, a moral individualism. The frontier supports individual differences, but it also supports structural equality, and this makes a shared morality possible, a morality for equal individuals. This is the cowboys sense of honor, an honor derived from the wilderness, an honor that is open and inclusive, not traditional and exclusive. The cowboys sense of honor is Durkheims moral individualism. It is the moral assumption of Locke and Smith, a universal morality for rational individuals. The urban East, in contrast, has a developed division of labor. People from the East, according to the myth, are egoistic and anomic. They are egoistic because they only think of private self-interests, not social decency. They only want to maximize wealth, not to achieve civility. They lie, cheat, betray their friends, become quite isolated, and usually get killed because they are so egoistic. The mythical East also generates anomie. Many eastern disruptions rapid social changes have torn people from their homes and left them lost and confused. The Civil War is one such disruption, the one most commonly portrayed in the myth, but other eastern disruptions are also portrayed market failure, class oppression, racial intolerance, religious persecution. Many mythical characters, often including the cowboy hero, leave the eastern cities with no social roots or identity. But they lose their sense of anomie in the civil communities of the West. The myth agrees with Durkheim about the dangers of class monopolies. The frontier West can be moral and cohesive because of structural equality. The urban East, however, is corrupt and oppressive, egoistic and anomic, because of class monopolies. This is the classic individualist imagery, the imagery of Smith and Jefferson as well as Turner and Weber. All these theorists, however, and Marx as well, are deeply pessimistic about the prospects for market industry. Only Durkheim thinks the industrial market can still be civil and decent. He does not refer to the American West as Weber does, but his image of a good society is similar to that of the frontier myth market relations, structural equality, and moral individualism. He thinks the industrial market can inhibit class monopolies and enable moral cohesion if government is used properly. Government must provide endless equalizing opportunity, and this means, in effect, in terms of mythical symbolism, that government must provide endless, equalizing frontiers to replace the original frontier. Such new frontiers of equal opportunity can continue to make the market civil, just as it was imagined in the original agrarian vision. From the theoretical perspective of Durkheim, the frontier imagery of the cowboy myth should not be seen as simply a wilderness but rather as a symbol of an endless frontier, a symbol of real equal opportunity. Durkheim was writing at the end of the nineteenth century, about the same time as Weber and Turner and a little later than Marx. Like these theorists he saw market industry as leading to class inequality and thus to increasing oppression and indifference. Many commentators of the time,

134 The Wild West including Weber, Turner, and Theodore Roosevelt, worried about the closing of the American frontier. The frontier had provided, at least in theory, the basis for equal opportunity. Without the frontier, or something like the frontier, American democracy would probably fail. Something would have to replace the lost frontier so individuals would still have new frontiers of opportunity. In this sense, the image of the wilderness frontier soon became symbolic, an image of opportunity that would have to be sustained for the sake of civil society. As the American frontier closed, one obvious source of a new frontier was colonial invasion and conquest claiming foreign lands through military action for the sake of American profit. If western wilderness land could be taken from the Indians for American equal opportunity, then foreign wilderness land could also be seen as providing frontier opportunity. The market needs constant expansion to maintain equal opportunity, so some kind of frontier expansion foreign frontier expansion had to be continued after the western frontier closed. Many American businessmen, according to William Appleman Williams:vigorously reasserted the axioms of the free marketplace and on that basis moved ... to find a new frontier ... the end of one frontier implied the need for a new frontier ... the frontier would have to be moved from the continent to the world. (1969: 276278)

Turners frontier thesis was used to justify colonial expansion. That thesis essentially reflected Adam Smiths analysis of the market. The market could only be civil if it could constantly expand to provide equal opportunity. Freedom and democracy required new frontiers, and those frontiers had to be found in Mexico, Cuba, Latin America, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, China:Turner eloquently expressed an idea that had permeated American thinking from the beginning of the eighteenth century. The frontier-expansionist conception and explanation of American reality was an idiomatic (and romantic) statement of Adam Smiths marketplace-expansionist model of the world. (1969: 360)

This colonial idea of new frontiers shaped American foreign policy. Government had to be active and involved sending an army, establishing control, arranging treaties to enable colonial adventures. Later in the twentieth century government efforts to support colonialism became government efforts to support imperialism. This meant less direct military control and more indirect economic control, control through local puppet leaders as well as loans, banks, trading rules, and currency exchange. Throughout the twentieth century government supported global expansion, first primarily militarily and later primarily economically. Now at the beginning of the twenty-first century one of the new frontiers that government helps provide is the frontier of the global economy, where many market opportunities are seen as awaiting entrepreneurs.

Durkheim 135 In the late 1920s, however, these new colonial frontiers could not sustain the market, and America and the world entered the Great Depression. For many, this meant the market would no longer work without an open frontier, just as Turner predicted. To others, like Franklin Roosevelt and John Maynard Keynes, it meant that the market would no longer work according to market theory. It would need an active, regulating government because free market theory had assumed an agrarian frontier. Roosevelt used government to constrain the rich and help the poor, trying to maintain at least a legitimating semblance of the market commitment to equality. Keynes developed a new market theory to justify government controls to support equal opportunity in the sense of full employment. Both these efforts, political and economic, recognized the industrial failure of free market theory. But the Depression only ended when government became more dominant than either of these men had imagined, by taking over the economy during World War II. The economic recovery that accompanied the War seemed to support the earlier efforts of Roosevelt and the earlier ideas of Keynes. Industrial market relations could only be made stable and prosperous through active government controls. The wilderness frontier had supported the free market by providing constant expansion, constant opportunity. But without the wilderness frontier, free market expansion would quickly lead to collapse, so government would have to regulate the market to sustain growth and expansion. Government, in effect, would have to support constant new possibilities of equalizing opportunity, constant new frontiers. At a minimum, it would have to constrain market freedom and redistribute wealth to maintain market stability and legitimacy. After World War II, then, American government generally became much more active in supporting and regulating the market. In the middle of the 1950s America entered the Cold War, justifying massive government spending and involvement to sustain a prosperous market. Also, in the years after World War II government began to spend much more money and create more controls in various efforts to minimize blatant market inequality. Support for social welfare dramatically increased, as did support for public education. Workers were given more protections in the form of legalized unions, better health care, improved working conditions, minimum wage guarantees, and laws against discrimination. Unions, of course, were legalized just prior to World War II, but worker benefits from legal unions only began to be fully realized after the end of the war. Government generally became more active in support of market equality, and by the 1960s most market governments, including American government, had begun to adopt Keynesian policies for regulating market relations. The ideas of laissez-faire were no longer convincing. Government now had to be active to maintain full employment and market stability, that is, to maintain minimum equal opportunity. All these new government efforts in the market context of industry were directed toward greater equality. The close of the frontier had

136 The Wild West certified class inequality, as Turner and Weber feared, and the Great Depression had certified the failure of free market relations and intensified class inequality. The market could not work if class became too oppressive, particularly with high structural unemployment. So government had to mitigate inequality for the sake of market stability, and that meant, symbolically, it had to maintain the assumption of equality that was based on an open frontier. Keynes thought this meant, minimally, a commitment to full employment, but Durkheim thought it meant a commitment to real equal opportunity, the structural equality of the open frontier. In general, though, government increasingly became responsible for maintaining legitimating equality, which meant among other things maintaining market expansion. These were the original market contributions of the wilderness frontier, so government somehow had to replace that lost frontier. In our modern industrial context, new frontiers of opportunity have often been announced. First, there were the colonial frontiers, and then there were the technological frontiers, the frontiers of science, space, medicine, genetics, information, global business, and the internet. In 1961 President Kennedy offered the policies of his New Frontier, essentially applying Keynesian economics to industrial market relations, and Star Trek, also in the 1960s, began exploring Space, the final frontier. More recently, in the new twenty-first century, the Business Editor of the Denver Post, Don Knox, has written about the frontier of the internet: Like the Wild West, theres still a lawless aspect of the Internet thats yet to be reined in (2000: 1I). Perhaps the most important of these various new frontiers has been the effort for public education. As the wilderness frontier closed in America, public education began to be seen as offering a possible replacement, a new basis for equal opportunity. Government should provide free education for all citizens as a substitute for the lost frontier. Turner made this argument, as did James Bryant Conant, according to Nicholas Lemann:What could replace the frontier? To Turner, and also to Conant, the obvious and only answer was public education. Like the frontier, this distinctive American institution could give every citizen the opportunity to rise in the world. (1999b: 48)

Conant was deeply influenced by Turners frontier thesis. He became President of Harvard in 1933; he helped build the atomic bomb; he influenced national and international policies; and he helped design and legitimate the modern American system of public education. In the early 1940s he wrote, in a book never published:We have before us a new type of social instrument whose proper use may be the means of salvation of the classlessness of the nation ... Through public education we can in this country hope in no small measure to regain that

Durkheim 137great gift to each succeeding generation, opportunity, a gift that once was the promise of the frontier. (Lemann, 1999b: 54)

Conant also, along with Durkheim and others, recommended ending the inheritance of wealth to prevent the development of a structure of class. The stock market has also sometimes been seen as offering a kind of replacement frontier, an equalizing source of opportunity. Warren Buffet, the most successful investor in American history, has made this comparison, as Lemann points out: What the frontier was to Frederick Jackson Turner, what public education was to James Bryant Conant, the stock market was to Buffet, an open arena of opportunity where the deserving could count on being rewarded (1999a: 256). In recent years, indeed, the classic market distinction between owners and workers has become somewhat blurred as more and more workers have managed to invest in stocks, essentially becoming modern versions of individual owner-workers. To some degree the stock market indeed provided some equalizing opportunity for some workers, workers who were able to save some money and buy stocks. These substitute frontiers, like the original frontier, are asserted as versions of equal opportunity. The wilderness frontier, however, provided more of a myth of equal opportunity than a reality, as many Western historians have recently pointed out. These new frontiers, like the wilderness frontier, generally offer little opportunity for the poor and desperate. Nevertheless, they are important, like the wilderness frontier, as a legitimating image of equal opportunity. The idea of a civil market depends on such an image, which means it depends on at least a mythical assertion of endless equal opportunity. One modern source of opportunity is specifically open to the poor and desperate. It offers the possibility of high profits, but it is also dangerous and lawless, like the original frontier. This is the trade in illegal drugs, a trade that provides well-paid jobs in many poor neighborhoods. It works very much like the original State of Nature. Opportunities exist, but violence is necessary to claim and own property. This modern frontier of illegal drugs is similar to the earlier frontier of illegal alcohol during the time of Prohibition. Strength and daring can be rewarded, just as on the mythical frontier, but risks are always high when no social contract exists. The frontier of illegal drugs provides economic opportunity, often great opportunity, for people in America with few if any other economic options. In this sense it helps legitimate the market a source of equal opportunity but this frontier is not compatible with market law and order, that is, with the social contract. If drugs are ever legalized, as alcohol was, then profits from the trade in drugs will go to privileged owners, not to the poor and desperate. This was the consequence of repealing Prohibition: profits from alcohol went to corporations, not to the otherwise unemployed. If drugs are legalized, it would remove a source,

138 The Wild West perhaps the only source, of employment and opportunity for many poor people. As Alexander Cockburn has written:In todays inner cities, there are no realistic economic alternatives to substitute for the drug commerce that is often the only rational career option for urban youth ... Legalization would mean government licensing of monopolies to large corporations, which would swiftly wipe out these small producers and vendors. (1993: C3)

This could intensify poverty and anger to the point of class violence, the violence of riots and burning. It may be, therefore, that the legitimacy of our modern market society, in the sense of equal opportunity, depends upon illegal drugs. Drugs provide a crucial, even a legitimating source of opportunity for people who tend to have no legal market opportunities. From this perspective, modern market stability may depend on a frontier of opportunity that cannot be legalized. This version of the frontier, a version that contributes legitimacy, would have to remain outside the social contract. The people benefiting from that frontier would have to remain in the State of Nature defiant, violent, uncivil. If this is right, our modern market is built on a contradiction, and it can only be damaging, if not fatal, to the prospects for a civil society. All the legal substitute frontiers that government has supported science, education, the internet, Keynesian policies, even the proliferation of lotteries have tried to mitigate inequality but have not tried to achieve structural equality. They have offered possible sources of new opportunity for some individuals but not the constant real equal opportunity envisioned in individualist theory and the cowboy myth. What we have tried to do in industrial America since the frontier closed is maintain some sort of delicate compromise between original free market principles and the original legitimating assumption of structural equality, the vision of a civil society of independent owner-workers. Government has tried to maintain a legitimating commitment to equality in the minimum sense of opportunity to get a job, but not in the maximum sense of structural equality, the sense Locke and Smith assume and Durkheim requires as the basis for a good society. The problem, of course, is that all these government efforts restrict market freedom. The tension between freedom and equality remains. Government can only mitigate inequality in an industrial market by restricting the legitimating freedoms the natural freedoms of private property. Government must try to maintain substitute, equalizing frontiers, but none of these frontiers can have the original individualist quality of the vision of a wilderness frontier, the vision of endless free land. Only through a vision of endless free land can the necessary market freedoms of private property be theoretically combined with the real equal opportunity for everyone to be an owner-worker. This was the original individualist idea, the idea of civil freedom and equality, the idea

Durkheim 139 Jefferson understood and Turner lamented. And this is what the cowboy myth reflects, as the market myth of origin. The myth also suggests, symbolically, that some kind of substitute frontiers must be maintained if the industrial market is to be stable and possibly civil. But the original wilderness frontier is the definitive market frontier, the frontier of limited government, the frontier of freedom and equality.

Illustrative filmsMany Westerns show the communal need for a shared morality The Westerner, My Darling Clementine, Shane, The Magnificent Seven, The Outlaw Josey Wales, Silverado. They also show that this shared morality is easier for frontier agrarians than for people from the East (or the city) with its greater division of labor and thus of class and rank Stagecoach, Fort Apache, Vera Cruz, Man Without a Star, The Professionals, The Wild Bunch. Villains from the East are shown with a disruptive sense of egoism pure self-interest: the banker in Stagecoach, the lawyer in Tall Man Riding, the lawyer in Tall in the Saddle, the new ranch owner in Man Without a Star, the judge in The Spoilers, the oilman in War of the Wildcats, the railroad owners in The Professionals and The Wild Bunch. Many characters, including many heroes, are shown with a sense of anomie, a sense of loss and meaninglessness derived from the disrupted East: the gambler in Stagecoach, Doc Holiday in My Darling Clementine, the heroes in Run of the Arrow (1957), Dances With Wolves (1990), Vera Cruz, The Outlaw Josey Wales, The Searchers. In all these films the frontier West offers a chance to end anomie through new social involvement. The constant need to escape urban encroachment and find a new frontier as the basis for individual freedom is shown in Dodge City, Man Without a Star, The Magnificent Seven, Run of the Arrow, Shalako, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, The Professionals, The Wild Bunch, Dances with Wolves.