South Asians, descendants of contract labourers from India, are the largest ethnic group in Suriname,

with

making up more than

a third

one-fourth of the population. The second major ethnic group, accounting for nearly one-fifth of the population, is the Creoles, who in Suriname are people of mainly African

or mixed European and African

descent

, who make up about a third of the population

. The descendants of Javanese

contract labourers make up about 14 percent of the population. Bush Negroes constitute less than 10 percent of the population, and American Indians make up about 3 percent. Minor ethnic groups

(people from the island of Java in Indonesia) contract labourers and the Maroons (descendants of escaped slaves of African origin) each constitute nearly one-sixth of the population. At least one-eighth of the population is of mixed ethnicity.

Indians, descendants of the original inhabitants of Suriname, make up only a tiny fraction of the population. The coastal groups include the Carib and Arawak, while the Trio (Tiriyo), Wayana-Aparai, Warao (Warrau), Wayarekule (Akuriyo), Tucayana, and Akurio live in the interior. Minor ethnic groups in Suriname include descendants of Chinese,

Jewish,

Lebanese, Portuguese, and Dutch immigrants; Creoles from the West Indies; and

a few North Americans.

U.S. citizens. More-recent immigrants include Chinese—known in Suriname as “New Chinese” to distinguish them from the descendants of those Chinese who were brought over as labourers in the 19th century—and Brazilians who arrived in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Languages

Dutch is the official language of Suriname, but the extent to which members of the various ethnic groups are able to use the language differs. Most of the population learns Dutch as a second language.

English is widely spoken.

Additional languages include Sranan

(Taki-Taki)

and other creole languages; English; Sarnami, which originated from Hindi and Urdu; Javanese; and a number of Maroon and South American Indian languages.

Religion

The principal religion is Christianity,

imposed on the population

brought to Suriname by European colonizers. About

a third

two-fifths of the

Creoles

people are

Protestant

Christians,

and another third are Roman Catholic. The East Indians are predominantly Hindu. Most of

mainly Roman Catholics and Moravians. Hindus, nearly all of whom are South Asians, account for about one-fifth of the population. Slightly more than one-eighth of Surinamese are Muslim, mostly the Javanese and a small

East Indian

South Asian group

are Muslim

. Judaism, present in Suriname since the early 16th century, is still practiced,

and

while many of the Chinese are Confucians. African and

native

Indian religions are still widely

practiced.The population has a relatively high rate of natural increase. Birth and death rates have decreased since the 1960s. About 40 percent

followed.

Settlement patterns

Nearly three-fourths of the Surinamese population resides in urban areas. Some one-fifth of them are concentrated in the capital, Paramaribo, and its surrounding area. The capital city is spread out along the Suriname River. Many of its Dutch colonial buildings remain intact, and its historic centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2002. Smaller urban centres include Nieuw Nickerie, in the northwest near the Guyanese border; Albina, in the northeast on the border with French Guiana; Moengo, in the centre of the bauxite-mining region in northeastern Suriname; and Paranam, in the bauxite-mining and bauxite-processing region on the Suriname River south of Paramaribo. Small settlements of Maroons and Indians make up almost the entire population of the interior. Some Indian villages are located in the coastal area, and nomadic groups live along the Brazilian border in the south.

Demographic trends

The birth rate in Suriname has steadily decreased since independence; indeed, from 1970 to 2007 it dropped by about half, to below the world average. More than one-fourth of the population is under

15 years of age, and about 75 percent is under 30

age 15. After 1973, when it was announced that Suriname would become independent, a large number of people emigrated to

The

the Netherlands. By 1980, according to some estimates, one-third of the population had left the country; many of those who left were professionals and skilled workers.

With the rise in 1986 of a guerrilla movement, based in northeastern Suriname and enjoying widespread support among Bush Negroes, the National Army has carried out raids in the Bush Negro villages. The killing and detaining of a large number of Bush Negroes has resulted in the flight of some 10,000 to 12,000 of them to French Guiana.

The economySuriname has a higher standard of living than many Latin-American countries. During the 1980s the economy experienced a decline, resulting mainly from falling export prices for bauxite and from a reduction in development aid from the United States and The Netherlands. This decline was marked by inflation, a growing budget deficit, and unemployment. Government expenditures account for almost half of total consumption. The civil service employs about 45 percent of the work force

In the early 21st century, migration to the Netherlands had decreased significantly, and many retired workers had returned to Suriname. Meanwhile, starting in the late 20th century, significant numbers of Chinese immigrated to Suriname. In addition, during the early 21st century there was an influx of Brazilians, who came to the country mainly to work in gold-mining activities.

Economy

Suriname’s economy is dependent on mineral resources, mainly oil, gold, and bauxite, from which alumina (used in the smelting of aluminum metal) is made. Aside from natural resources, the chief sources of income are from agriculture and remittances, mostly from the Netherlands, French Guiana, and the United States. Suriname is a member of the Caribbean Community, an organization of Caribbean countries and dependencies.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Less than 1 percent of Suriname’s land is arable, and about half of this is cultivated. Most of the farmland is on the New Coastal Plain. In this region drainage is necessary most of the year, owing to a surplus of precipitation. During dry periods evaporation exceeds precipitation, and thus irrigation is necessary.

More than half of the cultivated land in Suriname is planted with rice, the basic food staple. There are two rice harvests every year, the year—the principal one in the spring and a second crop in the autumn. Some rice is exported, as are bananas, citrus fruits, coconuts, and palm oil. Sugar, coffee, and cocoa, formerly important export items, are produced mainly for domestic consumption.

Suriname has Because more than nine-tenths of Suriname is forested, great timber resources exist, but they have not been fully exploited. Plywood and timber are exported. There is a small fishing industry, centred in Paramaribo, that exports shrimp to North America.

Industry

The main industry in Suriname is the mining and processing of bauxite. Mines exist near Moengo, Paranam, and Overdacht. There are aluminum smelter and an alumina refinery in Paranam.

Resources and power

Bauxite is the leading mineral in Suriname, with mines near Paranam and Overdacht. Gold mining has grown in importance. Reserves of chromium, clay, copper, diamonds, iron ore, manganese, nickel, platinum, and tin are also found in Suriname.

The State Oil Company of Suriname (Staatsolie) produces a significant amount of oil from wells in the Tambaredjo area, from which some crude oil is exported, and production activities began at the neighbouring Calcutta field in 2006. A small refinery was established there in the 1990s. Offshore oil exploration of the Guyana-Suriname Basin, which was stalled for decades because of the maritime boundary dispute with Guyana, began again in 2008.

The Brokopondo Dam and a hydroelectric power plant on the Suriname River produce electricity for the bauxite-refining operations in Paranam. The dam impounds the 600-square-mile (1,550-square-km) W.J. van Blommestein Lake.

Manufacturing

The Suriname State Oil Company (Staatsolie) produces a limited amount of oil from wells in the Tambaredjo areamain industry in Suriname is the mining and processing of bauxite. There are an aluminum smelter and an alumina refinery in Paranam. Apart from the bauxite and wood-processing industries, manufacturing is limited to small import-substitution enterprises. Processed foods, clothing, cigarettes, and construction material are produced for the domestic market.

Finance, trade, and tradeservices

Local banks and insurance companies either are subsidiaries of or cooperate with foreign companies, mostly from The the Netherlands and the United States. Monetary policy is controlled by the minister of finance and the president of the Central Bank of Suriname (established 1957), the bank of issue. The national currency is the Suriname dollar, which replaced the guilder in 2004.

Bauxite, alumina, and aluminum gold account for almost three-fourths of total exports. Imports consist mostly of machinery and transport equipment, fuels, food products, capital goods, industrial products, and industrial raw materialsand chemical products. Suriname’s main trade partners are the United Statesand The Netherlands., Canada, the Netherlands, and Trinidad and Tobago.

Nearly two-fifths of the population is employed in the service sector, which employs a larger proportion of the labour force than any other sector. Tourism began to develop only in the early 21st century and is centred on the country’s environmental features.

Transportation

Surface transport systems are for the most part limited to the coastal area. The East–West East-West Highway connects Paramaribo with Albina on the eastern border and with Nieuw Nickerie on the western border. There is a road from Paramaribo to Afobaka near the Brokopondo Dam. Only one-fourth of the roads are paved. Rivers and canals are an important means of transport. The lower courses of the larger rivers are accessible to oceangoing vessels. Paramaribo is the chief port. Zanderij, the international airport, began operation in 1934.

Administration and social conditions

Government

An international airport is located about 25 miles (40 km) south of the capital city in the town of Zanderij.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

Under the 1987 constitution, legislative power is exercised by an the popularly elected 51-member unicameral National Assembly, which in turn elects a president and vice president. The president, vice president, and members of the National Assembly serve five-year terms. The president is the chairman of a nonelective, military-influenced Council of State, which ensures that the government’s actions conform to the law. It has constitutional powers to annul laws passed by the National Assembly. The judicial system consists of a Court of Justice and three cantonal courts.

Education

Suriname’s system of education is modeled on that of The Netherlands, and Dutch is the language of instruction. School attendance is compulsory for children up to age 12, and education at all levels is free. More than 90 percent of the children in the coastal areas attend primary school. Suriname has secondary schools, junior colleges, a teacher’s college, and vocational and technical schools. The University of Suriname in Paramaribo, founded in 1968 and renamed the Anton de Kom University in 1980, has faculties of law, medicine, social science and economics, engineering, and natural resourcesSuriname is a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice, the final court of appeal for Caribbean Community members.

Local government

Local government was established in Suriname in 1987. It is divided into distrikten (districts) and ressorten (subdistricts). Each district has a representative and an executive branch of government. The former are run by district raden (district councils), and the latter are administered by districtsbestuur (district administrations). At the subdistrict level there is only a representative branch managed by ressort raad (subdistrict councils). Both the district and subdistrict councils are elected every five years at the country’s general elections.

Political process

Universal suffrage was introduced in 1948; Surinamese citizens age 18 and older are allowed to vote. Political mobilization and party affiliation have evolved along strongly ethnic lines. South Asians, Creoles, and Javanese all have played major roles in the development of the country’s constitutional democracy. The Progressive Reform Party (Vooruitstrvende Hervormde Partij; VHP) is a leading Hindu party; the Suriname National Party (Nationale Partij Suriname; NPS) was founded by Creoles; and the Pendawa Lima (“Five Sons of King Pandu”) is a predominately Javanese party.

The Surinamese Liberation Army (SLA), a guerrilla group better known as the Jungle Commando and consisting mainly of Maroons, formed in 1986 with the intent to overthrow the standing government. In retaliation, the National Army carried out raids in Maroon villages. The killing and detaining of many Maroons resulted in the flight of many to French Guiana. After a formal peace agreement was reached in 1992, most of them returned to Suriname, where they control economic activity on their lands.

Health and welfare

Health conditions are relatively good in Suriname. Most tropical diseases are being combated effectively. Medical care in the interior is provided by the Foundation for Medical Mission of the Evangelical Brethren in Suriname, which operates medical centres in the main Bush Negro larger Maroon and American Indian settlements.

Most of the population has health insurance. All collective labour agreements include medical care. The unemployed and workers in the informal sector, however, must obtain a “certificate of poverty” special certificate from the government to receive free medical care. Unemployment benefits and other social provisions are almost nonexistent.

Education

About nine-tenths of Surinamese age 15 and older are literate. Suriname’s system of education is modeled on that of the Netherlands, and Dutch is the language of instruction. School attendance is compulsory for children up to age 12, and education at all levels is free. More than nine-tenths of the children in the coastal areas attend primary school. Suriname has secondary schools, junior colleges, a teacher’s college, and vocational and technical schools. The University of Suriname in Paramaribo, founded in 1968 and renamed the Anton de Kom University in 1980, has faculties of law, medicine, social science and economics, engineering, and natural resources.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

Suriname is a culturally

divided

diverse society, with harmonious contact between its ethnic groups

largely limited to

in the

economic

cultural sphere. Fine arts, such as painting and sculpture,

are primarily

were traditionally middle-class concerns dominated by

Western—primarily Dutch—cultural standards.

There is one government-owned television station (with one channel), as well as a government-owned radio station and a number of small commercial radio stations. There are a few government-owned publications and two privately owned daily newspapers.

History

Western cultural standards, but since independence the works of artists from different ethnic groups have received more recognition. Culinary traditions cross ethnic lines, and elements from South Asian, Javanese, Creole, Western African, and Chinese cuisine are often blended.

The arts

Suriname’s art forms derive from several ethnic traditions. Those of Javanese descent, for example, support a number of gamelan (Indonesian orchestra) troupes. Suriname’s Indians and Maroons developed a strong crafts industry, producing colourful textiles, baskets, and wood carvings for export.

Most Surinamese writing is in the Dutch, Sranan, and Hindi languages. Among the country’s leading writers are Albert Helman, whose published works include dozens of volumes of fiction and plays; Martinus Haridat Luchtman, who, under the pen name Shrinivasi, is the author of several books of poems; Astrid Roemer, a popular novelist; and Cynthia McLeod, who has written several historical novels that have earned a wide readership in both Suriname and the Netherlands.

Surinamese music is represented by musical groups such as Fra Fra Bigband, an orchestra from Paramaribo that blends indigenous forms of kaseko (dance music combining Western march, jazz, and calypso), kawina (a type of Creole pop music), and winti (ritual music) to form a distinctly Surinamese brand of Afro-Caribbean jazz. In recent years, Suriname-based groups also have collaborated with Western African musicians, adding talking drums and thumb pianos (lamellaphones) to their instrumentation.

Sports and recreation

The country’s most popular sports are football (soccer), basketball, and volleyball. Although Suriname has no professional sports teams, several Surinamese players have become members of well-known European soccer clubs. Suriname made its Olympic debut at the 1968 Mexico City Games. Suriname’s Anthony Nesty won the gold medal in the 100-metre butterfly competition at the 1988 Seoul Games and later earned a bronze in the same event at the 1992 Barcelona Games.

Fishing is a common recreational sport, particularly from August to October, when many people fish with bamboo poles in freshwater swamps and creeks. Hunting is also popular. A traditional Surinamese activity is birdkeeping. The most commonly caught birds are the large-billed seed finches (Oryzoborus crassirostris) known in the country as twa-twas. A competition among these whistling birds takes place Sunday mornings at Independence Square in Paramaribo and in other cities throughout Suriname.

Media and publishing

All non-government-owned media were shut down in 1982. However, since then several private entities resumed operation. The major independent daily newspapers are De Ware Tijd (“The True Times”) and De West (“The West”); both are printed in Dutch. Most of the government-owned television and radio stations broadcast in Dutch, and some also air in local languages. There are a large number of smaller commercial radio stations.

History

Early history

Native groups have inhabited Suriname for millennia. Among the larger of these historically were the Arawak and the Carib peoples. The Surinen (from whom the country’s name derives) were also some of the area’s earliest known inhabitants. By the 16th century, however, the Surinen either had been driven out by other

American

Indian groups or had migrated to other parts of the Guianas (the region including Suriname, Guyana, and French Guiana). Europeans learned of Suriname (and other areas in the

Guyana

region) from Christopher Columbus, who sighted its coast in 1498. A Spanish expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda sailed along the coast of Suriname in 1499, and the Spanish explorer Vicente Yáñez Pinzón visited the region in 1500. Settlements attempted by the Spanish, Dutch, British, and French during the first half of the 17th century all failed, in part because of resistance by the

native Indian inhabitants.

Indians.

Settlement and growth

The first permanent settlement of Europeans in Suriname was established by a group of British planters and their slaves in 1651. In 1667 Suriname was seized by a Dutch fleet, and that year it was ceded to

The

the Netherlands in exchange for

Nieuw

New Amsterdam (now New York City). (Except for the years 1799–1802 and 1804–15, when it was under British rule, Suriname remained

part of The Netherlands

under Dutch rule until its independence in 1975.)

Suriname developed into a flourishing plantation colony after Dutch planters, driven out of Brazil from the mid-17th century, settled in the area. Sugar was the main export, and the production of coffee, cacao, cotton, indigo, and wood gained importance during the 18th century.

Until the mid-19th century

the majority of the population were

, slaves, mostly from the west coast of Africa, constituted the majority of the population. The small

white

European population was mainly of Dutch origin

. Jews, who had come

but also included others from France, Germany, and Great Britain, as well as a Jewish community, which had arrived largely from Portugal, Spain, and Italy

, mainly by way of Brazil, made up one-third of the whites, and the remainder came mostly from France, Germany, and Great Britain

via Brazil.

In 1853 Chinese and Madeiran (people from the Madeira Islands) contract labourers were brought to Suriname to work on the plantations. Many of these workers eventually became small-scale merchants. On July 1, 1863, slavery was abolished in Suriname. The former slaves, however, were placed under government supervision for a period of 10 years in order to perform labour under contract. Contract labourers from India

(called East Indians)

were recruited to replace the former slaves, and workers also came to Suriname from Java,

Indon

an island of Indonesia (which, like Suriname, was under Dutch rule at the time).

Despite efforts to preserve plantation production, Suriname’s position as an agricultural supplier declined. In 1916

Alcoa (

the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) began mining the country’s newly discovered reserves of bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum. Later, especially after World War II (1939–45), Dutch interest in Suriname revived,

seen first in

noted by the arrival of the Dutch mining company Billiton in 1939. The Netherlands began to provide development aid to Suriname in 1948, the year in which talks on Suriname’s internal political autonomy began.

Political movements

After World War II the issue of universal suffrage served as a catalyst for political mobilization. Political parties were set up, most of them organized along ethnic lines. The light-skinned Creole elite, who opposed universal suffrage, set up the Suriname National Party (Nationale Partij Suriname; NPS). The Progressive Suriname People’s Party (Progressieve Suriname Volkspartij; PSV) organized the working-class Creoles.

The East Indians

Eventually, the South Asians and Indonesians were

eventually

grouped respectively within the United

Hindu

Reform Party (

VHP;

later called the Progressive Reform Party [Vooruitstrvende Hervormde Partij; VHP]) and the Indonesian Peasants’ Party (

Kaum-Tani Persuatan Indonesia

now the Party of National Unity and Solidarity [Kerukunan Tulodo Pranatan Inggil; KTPI])

, respectively

. Universal suffrage was instituted in 1948.

After Suriname was granted autonomy in its internal affairs in 1954, development aid from

The

the Netherlands increased steadily. From 1964 onward, Suriname, as an associate member of the European Economic Community (EEC; now the European Community, part of the European Union), also received aid from the EEC’s development fund. In spite of this aid, Suriname’s rate of economic growth was strong only during the mid-1960s, when there were dramatic increases in the production of alumina and aluminum.

The 1958 elections produced a coalition government of the NPS and the VHP. In 1961 the left-wing Nationalist Republican Party (Partij Nationalistische Republiek; PNR) was established. Among the

East Indian

South Asian population the Action Group (Aktie Groep) became active. A split occurred in the

NPS–VHP

NPS-VHP coalition after the 1967 elections, which led to a coalition of the Action Group and the NPS, but in 1969 that government fell. A coalition was then formed by the VHP and the Progressive National Party (Progressieve Nationale Partij; PNP), which was set up by a group of intellectuals who had left the NPS.

The National Party Alliance, a coalition of the NPS, the PSV, the KTPI, and the PNR, won the 1973 election. The PNR and most of the younger party leaders within the NPS favoured independence, as did the ruling socialist party in

The

the Netherlands. Despite resistance from

East Indians

South Asians, who feared increased Creole domination, Suriname became independent on

November

Nov. 25, 1975.

Suriname since independence

In the late 1970s Suriname’s economy continued to stagnate. Unemployment was high, and most of the population had incomes at the minimum subsistence level. On

February

Feb. 25, 1980, after the government’s refusal to sanction trade union activity within the armed forces, a group of noncommissioned army officers seized control of the government. The coup was welcomed by most of the population. The National Military Council (Nationale Militaire Raad; NMR), installed after the coup, called on the moderate wing of the PNR to form a

Cabinet

cabinet composed mostly of civilians. After the new

Cabinet

cabinet proclaimed that Suriname would return to democracy in two years, the Dutch government agreed to finance an emergency development program.

After the military coup in 1980, government expenditures rose dramatically, particularly defense spending. The economy, moreover, steadily deteriorated, as a result of the suspension of foreign aid, the stagnation of private foreign investment, and the decline of the export (especially bauxite) sector. The country’s domestic affairs continued to be strained, reflecting an uncertain and tense relationship between the military, with de facto power, and the nominal civilian government led by a president. The military leaders, initially without a clear political ideology, began to take a conciliatory approach toward left-wing radical factions close to the NMR, which led to the formation in August 1981 of the Revolutionary Front, headed by Lieutenant Colonel Dési Bouterse. The Front included the Revolutionary People’s Party (Revolutionaire Volkspartij; RVP), the PNR, and some of the trade and farm workers’ unions. By the following year, however, as military leaders showed few signs of willingness to surrender control, trade unions, business associations, and professional groups began to proclaim their discontent. The conflict reached a climax in December 1982, when 15 prominent civilians were executed. The Netherlands and the United States immediately suspended development aid. In February 1983 a left-wing coalition was able to form a government, but a strike in the vital bauxite industry and the threat of a general strike led to its dismissal by the military within one year.

Raids by the Surinamese Liberation Army, a guerrilla group better known as the Jungle Commando (JC

;

) and consisting mainly of

Bush Negroes)

Maroons, disrupted bauxite mining and led to the killing of many

Bush Negro

Maroon civilians by the National Army; thousands of

Bush Negroes

Maroons subsequently fled to French Guiana. The deteriorating economic and political situation forced the military to open a dialogue with the leaders of the principal political parties that had operated before the coup. In 1985 a National Assembly was formed; a new Cabinet of Ministers was installed the following year, and a new constitution was approved in a referendum on

September

Sept. 30, 1987. Elections held on

November

Nov. 25, 1987, resulted in the defeat of the political wing of the military. The Front for Democracy and Development (Front voor Democratic en Ontwikkeling; FDO), a coalition of the VHP, NPS, and KTPI, formed a new government.

In 1988 the

Suriname

Surinamese and French governments (the latter as the sovereign of neighbouring French Guiana) began peace negotiations with the JC on the repatriation of the

Bush Negroes

Maroons and the incorporation of the JC

in

into the police force. An agreement signed in July 1989 was opposed by the military as well as by the Tucayana

Amerindians

, a group of

native

Indians armed by the military. On

December

Dec. 24, 1990, military leaders once again seized control of the government.

In response to political pressure from the United States,

The

the Netherlands, France, and the Organization of American States, elections were held on May 25, 1991. The New Front for Democracy and Development, which included the old Front and the Suriname Labour Party (Surinaamse Partij van de Arbeid; SPA), won a majority of seats in the National Assembly and elected Ronald Venetiaan president. The new government quickly passed an act that officially deprived the military of all political power and in 1992 signed an agreement with the JC and the Tucayana regarding the repatriation of

Bush Negroes

Maroons from French Guiana. Venetiaan sought to rein in both inflation and the budget deficit, but his reform efforts were hampered by a bloated bureaucracy and by cocaine trafficking, in which the Suriname military and

former president

commander in chief Bouterse were implicated. Bouterse had retained broad appeal in Suriname; he served as president of the National Democratic Party (Nationale Democratische Partij; NDP) and was widely viewed as the real power behind Jules Wijdenbosch, who was elected president of the country in 1996.

In 1997 the government of

The

the Netherlands issued an arrest warrant for Bouterse on charges of drug smuggling, but Suriname failed to extradite him; in 1999 he was convicted in absentia and sentenced to 16 years in prison. (Bouterse was brought to trial again in 2008 for allegedly ordering the murder of opponents of his regime in 1982.) During Wijdenbosch’s administration (1996–2000) Suriname was beset with economic problems—an International Monetary Fund report declared the country “practically bankrupt”—and a deterioration of social services. Facing protests, Wijdenbosch called for early elections, and in 2000 Venetiaan returned to the presidency. Under his guidance, the economy improved, the armed forces were depoliticized, and loans were negotiated with

The

the Netherlands and the Inter-American Development Bank to finance health, education, and social programs. Venetiaan was reelected president in 2005 in a special session of the National Assembly after no candidate claimed a two-thirds majority in the general elections. Tensions within the

SPAstalled

SPA stalled legislative progress, however. Moreover, in the early 21st century Suriname faced several seemingly intractable

problems—among them

problems: along with widening social and economic inequalities, there existed a vast criminal economy that included drug trafficking and gold smuggling. The country also lost a

in Henk E. Chin and Hans Buddingh’, Surinam: Politics, Economics, and Society (1987); and Gerard A. Nagelkerke, Suriname, a Bibliography, 1940–1980 (1980). Radjnarain Mohanpersad Nannan Panday, Agriculture in Surinam, 1650–1940: An Inquiry into the Causes of Its Decline (1959), is a succinct analysis. Edward Dew, The Difficult Flowering of Surinam: Ethnicity and Politics in a Plural Society (1978), examines political history.

Essays on Suriname’s culture are collected in Albert Helman

Jack Menke, Restructuring Urban Employment and Poverty: The Case of Suriname (1998), looks at these factors in the country’s development. Pitou van Dijck(ed.),

The Suriname Economy: Prospects for Sustainable Development (2001), presents an overview of the country’s economic policies and performance.

History

Historical works include R.A.J. van Lier, Frontier Society: A Social Analysis of the History of Surinam (1971; originally published in Dutch, 2nd ed., 1971); and Cornelis Ch. Goslinga, A Short History of the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam (1979).

See also Gerard A. Nagelkerke, Suriname, a Bibliography, 1940–1980 (1980)

Rosemarijn Hoefte and Peter Meel (eds.), Twentieth-Century Suriname: Continuities and Discontinuities in a New World Society (2001), looks at long-term development and trends.