Science museums and science centers have undergone great
change over the past century. With few exceptions, there has been a
pronounced shift during this period from collections and research towards
education. Key milestones included the opening of the Museum of Science
and Industry in Chicago in 1933 and the Exploratorium in San Francisco
in 1969. Each exemplified a different approach: the former focused
on large exhibits communicating information about fields of science
and technology; the latter emphasized smaller-scale exhibits allowing
direct manipulation of scientific phenomena. Today, science centers
are beginning to explore new approaches as their external environment
changes and as we gain knowledge about the nature of informal learning.

The number of science centers has grown more than tenfold
since the founding in 1973 of ASTC, the Association
of Science-Technology Centers Other types of institutions, including
children's museums, zoos, natural history museums, planetaria and botanical
gardens, have become members of ASTC as well, indicating the influence
of the hands-on educational approach stressed by science centers. The
popularity is also seen in the adoption of science center exhibits
by commercial enterprises, such as theme parks, retail stores, fast
food restaurants, and even cruise ship lines. This imitation is rarely
seen as flattery by those in the field, although one can argue that
the public benefits from the increased exposure to science, albeit
less "pure." The marketplace has become more competitive
for science centers as a result of the growth of the field, the increased
adoption of the techniques these institutions pioneered, and the expanding
numbers of ways in which families can choose to spend together their
limited leisure time.

Over the same period, knowledge about learning in general
has increased nearly as dramatically. See the National
Academy Press for a recent overview. When I entered the field from
academia more than two decades ago, a question still being asked was
how to demonstrate that visitors to science centers were actually learning.
It was obvious to those in the field that education was taking place,
but in a form very different from the classroom, making school-based
measurement tools inappropriate. Today, one need only peruse Falk and
Dierking's "Learning in Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making
of Meaning" (AltaMira Press, 2000) to find the growing body of
research that clearly shows how informal learning in particular occurs.
Their contextual model of "free-choice" learning identifies
the importance of the personal, sociocultural and physical contexts
of the museum visit. The nature of the impact differs greatly from
visitor to visitor and may not become obvious for weeks or months.
As the authors summarize, "in the end, what individuals learn
depends on their prior knowledge, experience, and interest; what they
actually see, do and talk and think about during the experience; and
equally important, what happens subsequently in their lives that relates
to these initial experiences."

During the coming years, science centers will need to
continue to innovate and evolve. As Beverly Sheppard notes in "The
21st Century Learner" (Institute of Museum and Library Services,
2000): "The profound changes of the 21st century are transforming
America into what must become a learning society." Science centers
are well positioned to play an important role in our knowledge-based
economy. Just as science itself continues to advance, science centers
also must seek ever more effective ways to first attract visitors and
then provide self-motivating experiences that enable them to create
personal meaning. Their niche is "recreational learning," since
non-school group visitors must come by free choice as a leisure activity.
According to Mark K. Smith (George Williams College), "the point
of education should not be to inculcate a body of knowledge, but to
develop capabilitiesThe most important capability, and the one traditional
education is worst at creating, is the ability and yearning to carry
on learning." His statement encapsulates the special role that
can be played by informal learning at science centers. The challenge
is to engage the visitor as completely as possible in ways that make
learning intrinsically enjoyable.

Science
City

As an example, the approach we took when creating Science City at Union Station in
Kansas City was to create the totally themed environment of a city
for visitors to explore, rather than exhibits. Over 50 different city
settings, such as the Crime Lab, high-rise under construction, Music
Park, and R&D Lab, let visitors engage in hands-on adventures based
on science and technology. Costumed characters ("interactors")
who "live and work" in Science City enhance and enrich the
immersion experience, which places science into everyday context. The
environments and experiences within them were based on market testing
to ensure audience appeal, a prerequisite to engagement and discovery.
This approach lent itself well to a science center designed to serve
as the educational attraction of a new kind of urban entertainment
center within a restored historical landmark. In a related direction,
the "Adventure" exhibit at the new COSI in Columbus take visitors on a mythic
quest drawing from the storytelling techniques of themed entertainment.

There is no single formula, however, for communicating
science and encouraging inquiry. The approach must follow from the
institution's specific mission, audience and location. For example,
the Weizmann Institute of Science created
a "Garden of Science" making use of Israel's favorable climate;
similarly, science centers in India heavily
use outdoor exhibits, and the New
York Hall of Science has created its own Science Playground. For
some institutions, the Internet is playing an ever expanding role.
The Exploratorium and Franklin Institute among others are devoting
major efforts to using the web to encourage science learning beyond
the limits of their physical facilities. Many institutions have created
innovative educational programs, even creating direct links with on-site
or nearby public schools and their curricula. More and more science
centers are collaborating with libraries, community-based organizations,
and other local institutions to develop synergies that enhance the
impact of each partner.

Here at the National Academy of Sciences, we are beginning
to create a science center that will draw upon the uniqueness of this
institution, its prominent elected scientist members and the public
policy studies carried out through its National Research Council. We
are looking at ways to create exhibits and programs in Washington that
draw from this content-rich organization, rather than those that might
be more appropriate to a science center based elsewhere. In addition,
we are seeking ways to share Academy-developed content with other science
centers and organizations nationally and internationally. Such efforts
can not only help these institutions address the needs of their local
audiences but also leverage the resources of the National Academy.
I would welcome the thoughts of APS members as we develop our Marian
Koshland Science Museum.

Physicists can play an important supporting role. Many
science centers, particularly smaller ones, lack depth in scientific
resources. Faculty can serve as advisors, volunteers, exhibit developers
as well as encourage their students to become involved. In these roles,
conveying the excitement of physics, going beyond the textbook by adding
human interest and humor, would add great value. Researchers can include
funds for outreach in their grant proposals and work with local science
centers on ways to communicate their work to the public.

One of the most effective synergies might be working
jointly with science centers on physics demonstrations developed for
the classroom. Through modifications made with science center staff
familiar with families and school children, these demos could reach
far wider audiences. Try inviting someone from your local science center
to the summer AAPT workshop session on physics demonstrations in exchange
for an invitation to the ASTC Annual Conference held in October.

By creating linkages among "communities of educators," we
each will be better able to serve the needs of our "communities
of learners." Such cross-fertilization can bridge traditional
boundaries, helping to transform the community at large into a campus
for learning in the 21st century.

David A. Ucko, Ph.D.,
is Executive Director of the Koshland Science Museum
and Science Outreach, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC