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Unformatted text preview: Young children’s sense of identity A sense of self develops in young children by degrees. The process can usefully be
thought of in terms of the gradual emergence of two somewhat separate features:
the self as a subject, and the self as an object. William James introduced the distinction
in 1892, and contemporaries of his, such as Charles Cooley, added to the developing
debate. Ever since then psychologists have continued building on the theory. According to James, a child’s ﬁrst step on the road to self-understanding can be seen as the recognition that he or she exists. This is an aspect of the self that
he labelled ’self—as-subject’, and he gave it various elements. These included an
awareness of one’s own agency (i.e. one’s power to act), and an awareness of one’s
distinctiveness from other people. These features gradually emerge as infants
explore their world and interact with caregivers. Cooley (1902) suggested that a
sense of the self-as-subject was primarily concerned with being able to exercise
power. He proposed that the earliest examples of this are an infant’s attempts to
control physical objects, such as toys or his or her own limbs. This is followed by
attempts to affect the behaviour of other people. For example, infants learn that
when they cry or smile someone responds to them. Another powerful source of information for infants about the effects they can have on the world around them is provided when others mimic them. Many
parents spend a lot of time, particularly in the early months, copying their infant's
vocalizations and expressions. In addition, young children enjoy looking in mirrors,
where the movements they can see are dependent upon their own movements. This is not to say that infants recognize the reflection as their own image (a later
development). However, Lewis and Brooks-Gum (1979) suggest that infants’
developing understanding that the movements they see in the mirror are contingent
on their own, leads to a growing awareness that they are distinct from other people.
This is because they, and only they, can change the reﬂection in the mirror. This understanding that children gain of themselves as active agents continues to develop in their attempts to co-operate with others in play. Dunn (1988) points
out that it is in such day-to—day relationships and interactions that the child’s
understanding of his- or herself emerges. Empirical investigations of the self-as-
subject in young children are, however, rather scarce because of difﬁculties of
communication: even if young infants can reﬂect on their experience, they certainly
cannot express this aspect of the self directly. Once children have acquired a certain level of self-awareness, they begin to place themselves in a whole series of categories, which together play such an
important part in defining them uniquely as 'themselves’. This second step in the
development of a full sense of self is what James called the ’self—as-object’. This has
been seen by many to be the aspect of the self which is most influenced by social
elements, since it is made up of social roles (such as student, brother, colleague) and
characteristics which derive their meaning from comparison or interaction with
other people (such as trustworthiness, shyness, sporting ability). Cooley and other researchers suggested a close connection between a person’s own
understanding of their identity and other people’s understanding of it. Cooley
believed that people build up their sense of identity from the reactions of others to them, and from the view they believe others have of them. He called the self-
as-object the ’looking-glass self’, since people come to see themselves as they are
reﬂected in others. Mead (1934) went even further, and saw the self and the social
world as inextricably bound together: ’The self is essentially a social structure, and
it arises in social experience . .. it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside
of social experience.’ Lewis and Brooks-Gunn argued that an important developmental milestone is
reached when children become able to recognize themselves visually without the
support of seeing contingent movement. This recognition occurs around their
second birthday. In one experiment, Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) dabbed some
red powder on the noses of children who were playing in front of a mirror, and then
observed how often they touched their noses. The psychologists reasoned that if the children knew what they usually looked like, they would be surprised by the
unusual red mark and would start touching it. On the other hand, they found that
children of 15 to 18 months are generally not able to recognize themselves unless
other cues such as movement are present. Finally, perhaps the most graphic expressions of self-awareness in general can be seen in the displays of rage which are most common from 18 months to 3 years of age. In a longitudinal study of groups of three or four children, Bronson
(1975) found that the intensity of the frustration and anger in their disagreements
increased sharply between the ages of 1 and 2 years. Often, the children’s
disagreements involved a struggle over a toy that none of them had played with
before or after the tug-of—war: the children seemed to be disputing ownership rather
than wanting to play with it. Although it may be less marked in other societies, the
link between the sense of ’self’ and of ’ownership’ is a notable feature of childhood
in Western societies. ...
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