Comfort women

Comfort women, also called military comfort women, Japanese jūgun ianfu, a euphemism for women who provided sexual services to Japanese Imperial Army troops during Japan’s militaristic period that ended with World War II and who generally lived under conditions of sexual slavery. Estimates of the number of women involved typically range up to 200,000, but the actual number may have been even higher. The great majority of them were from Korea (then a Japanese protectorate), though women from China, Taiwan, and other parts of Asia—including Japan and Dutch nationals in Indonesia—were also involved.

From 1932 until the end of the war in 1945, comfort women were held in brothels called “comfort stations” that were established to enhance the morale of Japanese soldiers and ostensibly to reduce random sexual assaults. Some of the women were lured by false promises of employment, falling victim to what amounted to a massive human trafficking scheme operated by the Japanese military. Many others were simply abducted and sent against their will to comfort stations, which existed in all Japanese-occupied areas, including China and Burma (Myanmar). Comfort stations were also maintained within Japan and Korea. The women typically lived in harsh conditions, where they were subjected to continual rapes and were beaten or murdered if they resisted.

The Japanese government had an interest in keeping soldiers healthy and wanted sexual services under controlled conditions, and the women were regularly tested for sexually transmitted diseases and infections. According to several reports—notably a study sponsored by the United Nations that was published in 1996—many of the comfort women were executed at the end of World War II. The women who survived often suffered physical maladies (including sterility), psychological illnesses, and rejection from their families and communities. Many survivors in foreign countries were simply abandoned by the Japanese at the end of the war and lacked the income and means of communication to return to their homes.

In 1990 more than three dozen women’s groups in South Korea joined to establish the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan after initial Japanese denial of responsibility. The council asked for an admittance of culpability, an apology, a memorial, and financial compensation for victims and that Japanese textbooks be appropriately altered to reflect the realities of the sexual slavery. The Japanese government denied evidence of coercing comfort women and rejected calls for compensation, saying that the 1965 treaty between Japan and South Korea had settled all outstanding matters.

The issue of comfort women gained international awareness in 1991, when a group of surviving women, breaking decades of silence, filed a class-action lawsuit against the Japanese government. The women and their supporters sued for compensation on the grounds of human rights violations. At about the same time, Yoshimi Yoshiaki, a historian from Chuo University in Tokyo, discovered documents in the archives of Japan’s Self-Defense Force and published a report of his findings that linked the Japanese wartime military and government to the maintenance of the comfort-women system.

In 1991 the Japanese government admitted publicly for the first time that comfort stations had existed during the war. Two years later, in a statement issued by the chief cabinet minister, the government also acknowledged its involvement in the recruitment of comfort women and its deception of those women, and it apologized for affronting their honour. Although the Japanese government denied any legal responsibility for the sexual assaults, it set up the Asian Women’s Fund in 1995 as an attempt at resolution. However, the fund was sustained from donations from private citizens, not government monies, and Korean activists opposed its existence. The fund ceased operating in 2007.

Comfort women remained a highly sensitive issue in Japan. Although the existence of the wartime program had become general knowledge there, many Japanese—notably right-wing nationalists—continued to refute it, particularly whether the women had been forced to work in the comfort stations. In 2007 Abe Shinzo, during his first term as prime minister, stated that there was no evidence of coercion, though he later retracted his comment. The topic again surfaced publicly in 2014, during Abe’s second term as prime minister. A Japanese newspaper reported that it had retracted stories from the 1980s and ’90s about women being coerced, after the Japanese man who had claimed responsibility for doing so later denied his involvement. There ensued some discussion among government officials about revising the 1993 apology statement, but that idea was quickly abandoned, in part because of outside pressure (including from the United States). In 2014 Abe’s government also petitioned the United Nations to ask that its 1996 report be revised, but UN officials quickly denied the request.