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1 Georgia State University Georgia State University Philosophy Theses Department of Philosophy Apriority in Naturalized Epistemology: Investigation into a Modern Defense Jesse Giles Christiansen Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Christiansen, Jesse Giles, "Apriority in Naturalized Epistemology: Investigation into a Modern Defense." Thesis, Georgia State University, This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Philosophy at Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Philosophy Theses by an authorized administrator of Georgia State University. For more information, please contact

2 APRIORITY IN NATURALIZED EPISTEMOLOGY: INVESTIGATION INTO A MODERN DEFENSE by JESSE G. CHRISTIANSEN Under the direction of Dr. George W. Rainbolt ABSTRACT Versions of naturalized epistemology that overlook or reject apriority ignore innate belief-forming processes that provide much of the grounding for epistemic warrant. A rigorous analysis reveals that non-experiential ways of viewing apriority, such as innateness, establish the domain for a plausible naturalistic theory of a priori warrant. A moderate version of naturalistic epistemology that embraces the non-experiential feature of apriority and motivates future cognitive scientific research is the preferred account. INDEX WORDS: Naturalized epistemology, apriority, belief-forming processes, nonexperientiality, innateness, a priori warrant, moderate naturalism, reliabilism, cognitive science.

3 APRIORITY IN NATURALIZED EPISTEMOLOGY: INVESTIGATION INTO A MODERN DEFENSE by JESSE G. CHRISTIANSEN A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University 2007

4 Copyright by Jesse G. Christiansen, Jr. 2007

5 APRIORITY IN NATURALIZED EPISTEMOLOGY: INVESTIGATION INTO A MODERN DEFENSE by JESSE G. CHRISTIANSEN Committee Chair: Committee: Dr. George W. Rainbolt Dr. Steve Jacobson Dr. Jessica Berry Electronic Version Approved: Office of Graduate Studies College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University December 2007

6 DEDICATION This paper is dedicated to my late grandmother, Lydia R. Christiansen, for always believing I could do anything I set my mind to. This paper is also dedicated to my late grandfather, Jesse A. Christiansen, for setting a fine precedence in our family toward higher education. iv

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my talented, dedicated, and patient thesis committee for their indispensable help in the completion of my thesis. Dr. Jacobson, thank you for your rigorous mind and sense of humor. Dr. Berry, your thorough, candid, and open-minded analysis proved quite valuable. Most of all, thank you to Dr. Rainbolt for teaching me to say what I mean and to believe in my own views. I d also like to thank all the members of the Georgia State University Department of Philosophy for their support in my ongoing quest for knowledge. Finally, I d like to express my eternal gratitude to Sandy Dwyer for her unflinching encouragement and exemplary teaching excellence. v

9 1. Introduction Willard Quine s attempt to naturalize epistemology (1969) launched an epistemic debate that survives to this day. The epistemic feud divides disciplines that should be working harmoniously to solve the problems of modern epistemology. An investigation into justification should not be couched as either exclusively analytic or empirical. Recently, many naturalists have sought a middle ground in the debate. The result is versions of naturalized epistemology that allow for elements of justification that are not just empirical. Such versions are commonly referred to (e.g., Alvin Goldman 1999) as forms of moderate naturalism. There are many types of moderate naturalism. These moderate accounts locate the epistemic rivalry between philosophy and science within the following question: should apriority be allowed in a naturalized story? In this paper I will frame the debate within this moderate tradition. I will be presupposing primarily a traditional definition of empiricism. The traditional definition of empiricism asserts that all knowledge is based on or derived from experience. The term science will be broadly construed to mean inquiry and method derived solely from empirical means. Allowing apriority in naturalized epistemology encompasses many issues. For example, how do we accurately define and explain apriority? What should a program of moderate naturalism look like and why should we adopt it? This paper has three main parts. The first part outlines popular versions of naturalized epistemology. The second part provides an analysis of apriority. In the last part I argue for a place for apriority in naturalized epistemology. 1

10 2. Naturalized Epistemology Defined Many types of naturalized epistemology contain arguments that constrain the domain of knowledge to empirical investigation. One empirical interpretation of Quine s naturalized epistemology is provided by Antony (2004): The stimulation of his sensory receptors is all the evidence anybody has to go on, ultimately, in arriving at his picture of the world. Why not see how this construction proceeds? Why not settle for psychology? (Antony 2004, pg. 3-4) Since on this view scientific practice is rooted in the empirical investigation of the world around us and empirical (sensory) evidence is all we have to justify knowledge, Quine made the move to naturalize epistemology. 1 However, I contend that such a view assumes that justification can only be based on empirical evidence. Although it may be conceded that epistemology could use help from science (e.g., the cognitive sciences), it remains debatable whether or not the practice of epistemology should be entirely relinquished to science and justification treated merely empirically. Alvin Goldman, in his article A Priori Warrant and Naturalistic Epistemology (1999), outlines three versions of naturalized epistemology. Goldman s first version, scientistic naturalism, is perhaps the truest descendent of Quine s naturalized epistemology. Scientistic naturalism categorizes epistemology as a branch of science: 2 (SN) Epistemology is a branch of science. The statements of epistemology are a subset of the statements of science, and the proper method of doing epistemology is the empirical method of science. (Goldman 1999, pg. 2) 1 I will be presupposing Antony s broad interpretation of Quine s naturalized epistemology. There are alternative interpretations. However, my purpose here is simply to loosely define and frame the debate, not to argue which is the best interpretation of Quine s naturalized epistemology. 2 A contemporary naturalist, Penelope Maddy, in her article Naturalism and the A Priori (2000), defends a view, which she refers to as Empirical Realism Neat. Maddy s version of naturalism contains important analogues to Goldman s scientistic naturalism. However, her view of apriority is not developed enough to treat her article in depth. 2

11 Notice that although scientistic naturalism makes no mention of justification, it still implies certain statements about epistemology. The second version of naturalized epistemology Goldman outlines is empiricist naturalism. Empiricist naturalism treats justification as arising purely empirically: (EN) All justification arises from empirical methods. The task of epistemology is to articulate and defend these methods in further detail. (Goldman 1999, pg. 3) The chief advantage of empiricist naturalism is its explicit discussion of justification. As Goldman s explanation of it makes clear, scientistic naturalism makes epistemology a branch of science, but it does not refer to or explicitly discuss justification. A common epistemic criticism of Quine s naturalized epistemology is its lack of explicit discussion of justification. The same applies to other programs of scientistic naturalism (e.g., Maddy 2000). Keeping justification in focus is advantageous because settling questions of what warrants a claim of knowledge is one of the key elements that distinguishes epistemology from the sciences. Without it I believe the goal of naturalizing epistemology becomes unclear. Goldman s defends a third version of naturalized epistemology, which he refers to as moderate naturalism (MN): (MN) (A) All epistemic warrant or justification is a function of the psychological (perhaps computational) processes that produce or preserve belief. (B) The epistemological enterprise needs appropriate help from science, especially the science of the mind. (Goldman 1999, pg. 3) (A) is the more crucial of Goldman s two descriptions above. Unlike scientistic naturalism, (A) mentions epistemic warrant. 3 Furthermore, (A) views epistemic warrant 3 I will use the terms warrant and justification interchangeably. 3

12 as present, either as psychological processes or what Goldman refers to specifically in his account as belief-forming processes. For Goldman, belief-forming processes can be a source of warrant. 4 This is the main feature that distinguishes his moderate naturalism from empiricist naturalism. Goldman s moderate naturalism treats justification as allowing for sources of warrant that are not derived purely empirically: The most salient feature of (MN) for present purposes is that it makes no commitment to any thoroughgoing form of empiricism. It leaves it entirely open that rational insight or rational apprehension might be among the sources of epistemic warrant. In particular, since rational insight or apprehension might be a variety of belief-generating causal process, the door is not closed to rationalistic warrant. (Goldman 1999, pg. 4) A version of naturalized epistemology analogous to Goldman s moderate naturalism is Antony s naturalism (2004): The existence of knowledge is the starting point, the explanandum, of a scientific approach to epistemology. The question of warrant becomes the question of what processes and procedures do, as a matter of empirical fact, enable us to gather and process information about ourselves, each other, and our external environment. If a (mental) process works, it works there is only the question of understanding how it works. (Antony 2004, pg. 4) Notice that Antony s account also makes specific reference to warrant. As with Goldman s moderate naturalism, her discussion of warrant includes psychological processes, which are integral to her account. Also, like Goldman s account, Antony s naturalized epistemology refers to the need for scientific investigation to help explain belief-forming processes. Phillip Kitcher (2000) offers a version of moderate naturalism that, like Goldman and Antony s accounts, makes specific reference to warrant. Furthermore, he treats warrants for beliefs as relying on causal processes that produce those states. If a state is 4 By source of warrant I mean one way an agent s belief can be warranted. 4

13 produced by the right kind of causal process, then, the process is a warrant for the belief (Kitcher 2000, pg. 66). Kitcher specifically refers to such a process as the psychologistic approach. 5 I have looked at multiple accounts of naturalized epistemology, ranging from the more scientific to the more moderate. I think there is a key point that should lead us to reject versions of naturalized epistemology that are scientistic and empiricist. In short, scientistic and empiricist discussions of warrant are inadequate because they do not allow for non-empirical sources of justification. I believe a view that allows for non-empirical warrant is necessary in order to adopt the psychologistic approach because the psychologistic approach includes belief-forming processes that do not necessarily fall under the rubric of empirical investigation. Scientistic naturalism makes no reference to justification at all. Therefore, scientistic naturalism holds no explicit view of justification. The scientistic naturalist s implicit response is that no such reference is required because epistemic statements are simply a subset of the statements of science. However, this only shifts the attention away from the problem. If the scientistic naturalist is making a claim about epistemic statements, then such a claim implies questions about her warrant for such statements. To make no reference or claims regarding warrant is to avoid or neglect such questions. Empiricist naturalism allows for only empirical discussion of warrant. To avoid begging the question against the moderate naturalist, I believe the burden of proof is on the empiricist naturalist to show that non-empirical sources of warrant are implausible. 6 5 I will presuppose both psychological processes and the psychologistic approach to mean mental processes that can provide certain sources of warrant. 6 My goal here is not to debate the rich tradition of empiricism. I am simply pointing out that empiricism leaves no room for non-empirical sources of warrant and that this is an important problem for empiricists. 5

14 Empirical evidence can provide a source of warrant for a belief. However, there are many beliefs that include a source of warrant that do not depend solely on empirical means. 7 Consider the following passage by Christopher Peacocke: When you come to know a logical truth by way of your having a proof of it, you may need to perceive the inscription of the proof, and you may need various perceptual capacities to appreciate that it is a proof. But the justification for your belief in the logical truth is the proof itself. Perceptual experience gives access to the proof, which provides an experience-independent justification for accepting its conclusion. (Peacocke 2000, pg. 255) Peacocke argues for an experience-independent source of justification. Simply perceiving an inscription of a proof (Peacocke 2000, pg. 255) only gives me empirical justification that it is a proof. However, to know a logical truth (Peacocke 2000, pg. 255) requires rational apprehension of the proof itself, which gives me non-empirical justification. Suppose my proof for a particular logical truth is a truth-table. I justify my recognition of the truth-table and its content by my perceptual experience of it. For example, I may learn to draw the proper lines of a truth-table. I may also repeat the procedure for truth-tables over and over again until I come to recognize them automatically. However, based merely on this perceptual experience, could I really be said to come to know that a particular truth-table proves a certain logical truth? As Peacocke argues, it is the proof itself, independent of my perceptual experience that provides me with justification for the logical truth. In other words, my justification involves rational capacities as well as perceptual capacities. The naturalized epistemology I find most plausible is Goldman s moderate naturalism. Like Antony and Kitcher, Goldman provides an adequate discussion of 7 This discussion traditionally involves the controversial distinction between rationalism and empiricism. Such a discussion would take us too far afield. My goal here is only to point out that empiricist naturalism does not allow for rationalistic sources of warrant such as the psychologistic approach. 6

15 warrant. However, I prefer Goldman s reference to warrant as belief-forming processes. The term belief-forming process gives us more insight into a part of the process of some sources of justification. A belief can be formed through a special process that could therefore provide a source of warrant. That a source of warrant is psychological or a causal process does not paint as clear a picture as a belief-forming process. Certain psychological processes may have nothing to do with warrant since they do not lead to the formation of a belief. For example, my sub-conscious mind could be argued to cause unexpected behaviors. However, I would typically not consider my sub-conscious mind to be part of a process that directly forms a belief and therefore a process that could provide a source of warrant for that belief. Also, though implied in Antony s work, Goldman directly makes the point that epistemology needs help from science. Help from science is necessary because the beliefforming processes that can provide sources of warrant require scientific investigation and explanation. 3. Analysis of Apriority A clear, cogent analysis of apriority is a daunting task. My goal is this section is to analyze features of a priority in the context of a priori warrant. However, it could be argued that there are two views of apriority that are required for a complete and plausible account: a priori warrant and a priori knowledge. In our analysis of apriority, our interest will be best served by treating apriority as a form of warrant and not knowledge (or truth). Goldman puts it quite well: I shall follow the practice of recent discussions that treat the a priori as a species of warrant or justification. This has several advantages. First, it properly allows for the possibility that a belief might have a priori warrant 7

16 but fail to be true, and hence fail to be a piece of knowledge. Second, it sidesteps, or at least marginalizes, the question of what else is required for knowledge beyond justified true belief. Third, it highlights the fact that unlike the necessary/contingent distinction, which is a distinction between types of truth, the a priori/a posteriori distinction is fundamentally concerned with sources of warrant or justification, not types of (true) propositions. (Goldman 1999, pg. 1-2) Although it is important, as Goldman points out later in his article, that a theory of a priori warrant be upgradable to a theory of a priori knowledge, it will not be required or directly relevant for me to argue for a priori knowledge here. 8 I believe the most important point in Goldman s passage above is that the epistemic spirit of the a priori is justificatory and not predicating. Whether a belief is true or false has to do with its content. However, whether a belief is a priori or a posteriori has to do with its source of warrant. This is a crucial distinction I would like to clarify. There is an important difference between the content of a belief, believing a statement to be true, being warranted in believing a statement to be true, and possessing a priori warrant for a statement. First, only a belief can be warranted, not its content. Second, just because I believe a statement p to be true, this does not mean p is true. After all, p may be false. Third, even if I believe I am warranted in believing p, I may not be warranted. And fourth, even if I am warranted in believing p, it does not follow that I necessarily have a priori warrant for believing p. Goldman (1999) structures his analysis of apriority by listing and then treating various traditional features of the a priori. I find this structure useful and I will use the same approach. However, I shall be adding additional features and points based on other contemporary philosophers analyses of apriority (including my own). Overall, I will be 8 My focus is on theories of a priori warrant that allow for apriority in naturalized epistemology. A theory of a priori knowledge would require an in-depth discussion of Gettier-type problems, which would take us too far afield. 8

17 contrasting Goldman and Antony s views of apriority against Kitcher s views. The seven traditional features of apriority I will be analyzing are non-experientiality, necessity, infallibility, certainty, unrevisability, eternal (abstract) objects, and bivalence. 3.1 Non-Experientiality Non-experientiality is arguably the most prominent and traditional feature of apriority. That a priori justification be independent of experience is the characterization most commonly associated with apriority. I will consider the following statement, which I will call (NE) for non-experientiality: (NE) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is independent of experience. What is exactly meant by independent of experience? One important way to view experience-independence is identified by Goldman (1999) as non-perceptual. Goldman refers to this view as a negative characterization of the a priori: a warrant is a priori if it is not perceptual or as the absence of an experiential or perceptual basis of belief (Goldman 1999, pg. 8). This would give the following definition of non-experientiality: (NE1) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is non-perceptual. But is this really an accurate characterization of the non-experiential feature of apriority? According to Goldman, it is wrong to equate a priori warrant with non-perceptual warrant (Goldman 199, pg. 8). Goldman argues that there are types of warrant that are neither perceptual nor a priori. He cites, for example, introspection: (I)ntrospection can give rise to warrant, but its type of warrant is neither perceptual nor a priori. Introspection should not be regarded as a species of perception, especially for present purposes, because it has no distinctive type of sensory experience associated with it. Of course, many objects of introspection e.g. pains, itches, and tickles have sensory qualities, but introspection per se does not. One can introspect thoughts without any 9

18 accompanying sensory quality. So one cannot equate a priori warrant with non-perceptual warrant. (Goldman 1999, pg. 8-9) In other words, I can have non-perceptual warrant for a belief and still not have a priori warrant. Thus NE1 fails. Another way of viewing non-experientiality is partial non-experientiality. This view asserts that one s warrant for a belief can be first a posteriori and later a priori. Goldman describes it quite nicely: This proposal is not meant to imply that whenever an agent uses a process that is an a priori warrantor, any belief-output of the process is wholly a priori. On the contrary, if one starts with a set of believed premises that originate in perception and then applies an inferential a priori warrantor to that set of beliefs, the resulting conclusion belief does not have pure a priori warrant. Nonetheless it seems instructive to say that such a conclusion belief has an element or component of a priori warrant, simply because there is one strand of its warrant that is a priori. (Goldman 1999, pg. 12) This definition of non-experiential apriority would give us the following: (NE2) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p originates in perceptual experience but is later warranted independent of experience. To further clarify NE2, let s take the example of 2+2=4. My original source of warrant could be perceptual. For example, I could perceive two groups of two objects lying next to each other. My source of warrant for the particular appearance of these objects would be perceptual. However, to later arrive at the conclusion that 2+2=4 I would need to make inferences involving the + sign and the = sign. Such inferences would involve a rational capacity that would provide a source of warrant independent of experience. Kitcher (2000) argues that his theory of warrant is a version of NE2. His analysis is provided below: 10

19 [A statement] is an a priori warrant for X s belief that p just in case [a statement] is a process such that for any sequence of experiences sufficiently rich for X for p (a) some process of the same type could produce in X a belief that p (b) if a process of the same type were to produce in X a belief that p, then it would warrant X in believing that p (c) if a process of the same type were to produce in X a belief that p, then p. (Kitcher 2000, pg. 67) Kitcher s analysis is unusual and difficult to understand. However, there are three main points that I think will help clarify his view. First, Kitcher s sequences of experiences and resulting belief-producing processes 9 originate in the experiential world outside the agent. This is a key distinction between Kitcher s account and Goldman and Antony s account. For Goldman and Antony, belief-forming processes are internal to the agent and independent of experience. For Kitcher, external belief-producing processes produce a belief in the agent. Second, a sequence of experiences need not overlap with any other sequence of experiences, as long as the process that produces the belief in me is some process of the same type. For example, I could believe p, an agent in China could believe p, and our sufficiently rich sequences of experiences need not depend on each other whatsoever, as long as our belief-producing process is of the same type. Third, beliefs may be warranted whether or not they rely on any specific sensory input. Kitcher includes the following example: The knowledge 10 of contemporary mathematicians may be proximally produced by their reflections of what they have absorbed from the past, reflections that do not depend on any specific sensory input, but are 9 I will use belief-producing process in order to distinguish it from Goldman and Antony s belief-forming process. I believe this highlights a key difference between their views. For Kitcher a process outside an agent produces a belief in the agent. On Goldman and Antony s view the agent forms the belief herself. 10 Notice Kitcher s use of the word knowledge here is separate from warrant or a priori warrant. In this passage, it is the reflections of the mathematicians that may lead to warrant or a priori warrant. 11

20 ultimately dependent on the collective experiences of the tradition in which they stand. (Kitcher 2000, pg. 90) Kitcher refers to the above case as his tradition dependence view. Any sequence of experiences can include the collective experience of others. A belief that depends on the collective experiences of others would not be based on any direct sensory input. Hence, beliefs can be based on direct or indirect sensory input, as long as the sequence of experiences is sufficiently rich to produce that belief. What is exactly a priori on Kitcher s account? Whether a belief depends on direct or indirect sensory input, it would still not be non-experientially-based because such a belief would be ultimately rooted in experience. 11 Hence, the component of Kitcher s analysis that allows for a priori warrant must have to do with his idea of any sequence of experiences. Let us apply the example of 2+2=4 again. According to NE2, there is an a posteriori warrantor and then an a priori warrantor. Let any sequence of experiences sufficiently rich to result in the belief-producing process that provides a posteriori warrant be two groups of two objects lying next to each other. What would be the sequence of experiences sufficiently rich to result in the belief-producing process that provides a priori warrant? To become an a priori warrantor, the sequence would have to be independent of experience. This is where Kitcher s account runs into trouble. It is difficult to see how any sequence of experiences could produce the belief in me that the + sign and the = sign lead me to the conclusion that 2+2=4. How could I be said to experience the + sign and the = sign? 11 Another possible interpretation of Kitcher s theory is that beliefs not relying on direct sensory input could be non-perceptually a priori warranted (NE1). However, we rejected NE1 because non-perceptual warrant and a priori warrant are not necessarily the same thing. 12

21 Could the fact that Kitcher s sequences of experiences need not overlap with any other sequence somehow allow for a priori warrant? There are two problems with this possibility. First, even a non-overlapping sequence of experiences would still be rooted in experience. Second, on Kitcher s view, a non-overlapping sequence of experiences would have to be based on some belief-producing process of the same type. This type-relation between the two belief-producing processes would itself be an experience-rooted overlap. Kitcher could object that I do not need to make experience-independent inferences involving the + sign and the = sign to be fully justified in believing that 2+2=4. After all, there is the rich tradition of mathematics. Since the sequence of experiences leading to warrant for my belief need not rely on any direct sensory input, I could simply accept the wisdom of centuries of mathematicians. The problem is that the external process of relying on collective experience would not yield a priori warrant. Furthermore, such an approach would be unreliable when dealing with beliefs other than logical or mathematical truths. For instance, long ago most people believed the earth to be flat. If it were not for individuals like Christopher Columbus who reasoned for himself that this view could be wrong, we might still believe a grievous error. Goldman and Antony s accounts differ from Kitcher s account in that they view belief-forming processes as providing sources of non-experiential warrant. However, their accounts do not rule out a posteriori sources of warrant for beliefs or beliefs whose warrants originate in perception and are later a priori warranted. Hence, their views allow for both non-experiential and partially non-experiential apriority and would be represented as follows: 13

22 (NE3) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is based on belief-forming processes that do not require perception. I believe this is the most plausible view. First, it allows for partially non-experiential apriority. This allows us to flexibly but cogently preserve the most traditional feature of apriority. Secondly, by shedding the non-perception constraint, NE3 opens the door to wholly non-experiential apriority, which brings us to the next sub-section. 3.2 Innateness Another way that apriority can be non-experiential is via innateness. A formulation is provided below. I will use (I) to refer to innateness. (I) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is innate. One way a source of warrant can be innate is through belief-forming processes. For Goldman and Antony belief-forming processes are part of one s cognitive architecture (Goldman 1999 and Antony 2004). Antony refers to some belief-forming processes as part of one s cognitive machinery which, to alter, one presumably would need surgery (Antony 2004, pg. 9). The central idea here is that these innate beliefforming processes 12 are hard-wired into us from birth and are in a general sense extremely difficult to change. 13 Such processes are wholly non-experiential. There is no way one can experience her own belief-forming process. 12 Like Goldman and Antony, my goal here is to argue for innate belief forming processes as nonexperiential sources of a priori warrant. That such sources of warrant also provide scientific evidence that may warrant psychological hypotheses is not directly relevant to my discussion here. 13 I am not arguing that an agent s cognitive machinery would not be radically changed if she suffered a serious head injury, for example. That would be counterintuitive. I am simply arguing that in the ordinary life of an individual cognitive machinery is relatively permanent. 14

23 There are multiple examples of innate belief-forming processes. Goldman s list includes: perceptual processes in the several sense modalities, remembering, introspecting, and (many forms of) reasoning or calculating (Goldman 1999, pg. 11). Reasoning and calculating involve what Kitcher (2000) refers to as propositional and conceptual preconditions of experience. Preconditions of experience, broadly construed, 14 are conditions that are present before an agent can have a particular experience. For instance, we have been using the example of 2+2=4. It could be argued that there is an innate conceptual precondition that allows us to cognize numerical concepts. In the case of propositional preconditions the precondition would take the guise of an innate capacity to perform a particular cognitive task. In the case of a conceptual precondition the precondition would be some relevant innate concept that allows the agent to have a particular experience. What is argued to be non-experiential here and thus a priori is the fact that such preconditions occur before a particular experience. Both Goldman and Antony invoke examples of each to illustrate innate beliefforming processes. Antony refers to a simple case of modus ponens (a propositional precondition) as demonstrative of the structure of a reliable cognitive machine: the hypothesized syntactic engine inside my head (Antony 2004, pg. 6). She also uses the example of universal grammar (a conceptual precondition) as evidence of innateness in the form of explicit rules (linguistic concepts) represented and stored from birth (or close thereto) (Antony pg. 2004, pg. 7). 14 My purpose here is simply to provide a working definition that allows us to view preconditions as nonexperiential. Surely a more precise definition can be formulated within a conceptual analytic framework. 15

24 Goldman cites examples in the contemporary cognitive scientific literature that illustrate the possibility of innateness by way of propositional and conceptual preconditions. For example, Goldman looks at deductive logic (a set of propositional preconditions), pointing out that many modern theories suggest, that ordinary people have something like natural-deduction systems built into their heads, quite possibly innately (Goldman 1999, pg. 17). Goldman also refers to the innate concept of numerosity (a conceptual precondition) and studies that support this possibility. For example, certain studies have produced evidence of a psychological capacity for numerical cognition even in human infants. Using the standard technique of gauging surprise by length of looking time, Wynn (1992) found that five-month-old infants can correctly detect elementary arithmetic relationships, such as 1+1=2 and 2-1=1 (Goldman 1999, pg. 16). However, even if we concede the presence of innateness in such belief-forming processes, how does this innateness give us a priori warrant? An argument is needed to go from one step to the next or we could be in danger of conflating innateness with a priori warrant in which case (I) would fail. One way that both Goldman and Antony argue for innateness providing a priori warrant is by offering distinctions that explain the difference between belief-forming processes that result in a priori warrant and those that do not. Goldman distinguishes between belief-forming processes and methods. By a process I mean something that is part of a person s fundamental cognitive architecture. By a method I mean something that is not part of one s fundamental cognitive architecture, but something learned, typically by cultural transmission. (Goldman 1999, pg. 14) Goldman uses the example of a truth-table procedure in logic to further demonstrate. 16

25 In one case Harry learns the truth-table method from Ellen, who simply explains how to use it without explaining why it is (necessarily) reliable. Harry simply accepts its reliability from Ellen on trust; he does not use his prior reasoning powers to see that it is reliable. In a second case Harry learns the truth-table method from Ellen, who explains why the method is (necessarily) reliable, an explanation that Harry fully comprehends and appreciates in virtue of his pure reasoning powers. In the first case it seems clear that the truth-table method of forming beliefs about tautologies is not an a priori warrantor. For one thing, the method is acquired in part by perception (of Ellen s testimony), and that perception is not an incidental or eliminable feature of Harry s acceptance of the method. In the second case Harry seems to have a priori warrant for his belief that the method is (necessarily) reliable, because he himself determines its reliability by pure reasoning powers. (Goldman 1999, pg. 14) Antony differentiates between possessing and explaining warrant. The former yields a priori warrant and the latter does not. For example, when Harry above uses his own belief-forming process he possesses a priori warrant. When he simply accepts Ellen s explanation of how to use the truth-table but does not see for himself how to use the truth-table, he does not possess a priori warrant. Hence, belief-forming processes are determined to be a priori warrantors if they are innate processes that are possessed and employed by the agent forming the particular belief. If I accept a belief-forming process based on cultural transmission, according to Goldman, such would constitute a beliefforming methodology and not a belief-forming process. Kitcher s tradition-dependence view could provide one example of a belief-forming methodology. If I am basing my warrant for a belief on the collective experiences of others, I am simply standing on their shoulders and not forming the belief on my own. Goldman and Antony s distinctions above are meant to address the problem of conflation between innateness and a priori warrant. What makes an innate source of 17

26 warrant a priori is that it is based on my own internal belief-forming processes. This now gives us the following statement: (I1) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is based on an innate belief-forming process. However, there is a problem with I1. I may form a belief by my own reasoning process but my belief could still turn out to be wrong. In this case I would not have warrant for my belief after all, let alone a priori warrant. Thus I1 also fails. Another way that Goldman and Antony argue for theory of a priori warrant is by adding a reliabilist 15 condition to their account. This would provide an answer to the above problem with I1. It takes more than just possessing and employing my own beliefforming process. An agent also has a priori warrant just in case her a priori warrantor reliably leads to true beliefs. We can now give a final formulation of the views of Goldman and Antony regarding innate apriority: (I2) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is based on an innate belief-forming process that leads reliably to true beliefs. The objection could be raised that I2 is not sufficient for a priori warrant because a belief does not have to be based on a reliably true innate belief-forming process to be a priori warranted. For example, my belief that a triangle has three sides could be warranted perceptually and later be warranted a priori based merely on the meaning of a triangle. However, I do not see how such a belief could be a priori warranted without my rational 15 Based on their accounts I will presuppose that Goldman, Kitcher, and Antony are all at least standard reliabilists. Since the focus of my paper here is a priori warrant and not reliabilism, I will not discuss reliabilism beyond the reliabilist condition used here by Goldman and Antony to answer this objection. 18

27 apprehension of the analytic justification of a triangle. Regardless, this is still an important problem for I2. 16 Kitcher rejects innateness as a priori: (T)he relativization to lives sufficiently rich for p already allows for a priori knowledge that isn t innate. (C)onversely, even though one could know that p on the basis of no experience, it doesn t follow that one could know p on the basis of any sufficient rich experience (Kitcher 2000, pg. 69) I believe there are two ways to interpret Kitcher s rejection of innateness as a priori. The first way is to interpret his rejection as a criticism of innate knowledge. The other way is to interpret his rejection as a criticism of innateness as a source of warrant. I believe the interpretation will depend on how we read know that p (Kitcher 2000, pg. 69). If we interpret know that p (Kitcher 2000, pg. 69) as to have innate knowledge of p, then Kitcher s rejection of innateness as a priori fails. Innateness is a source that may provide a priori warrant for a belief. However, innateness itself does not lead to knowledge of a proposition. 17 Furthermore, there are several problems with treating innateness as a source of knowledge instead of as a source of warrant. First of all, even if I could know something innately how would I know that I know it? Innateness is supposed to be non-experiential. Also, even if I could know something innately, why should I have to know that I know it in order to be justified that I know it? 18 Finally, even if I knew something innately it would not follow that I know it a priori. 16 I believe a proper answer to this objection would require a discussion of internalist versus externalist views of justification, which would take us too far afield. 17 For example, a belief-forming process may be said to cause a belief. However, a belief-forming process itself could not tell us if a belief was true or false. 18 Obviously a fair answer to this problem again involves a treatment of internalist versus externalist views of justification, which would take us too far afield (e.g., an externalist may not see this as a problem). 19

28 If we interpret know that p (Kitcher 2000, pg. 69) as to have an innate source of warrant for p, Kitcher s criticism also fails. The process that produces a belief in an agent on Kitcher s account depends on a sequence of experiences sufficiently rich to produce that belief. Any sequence of sufficiently rich experiences could never apply to an innate source of warrant because any sequence of experiences would always be warranted against experiences in the world. Innate sources of warrant are non-experiential. Goldman and Antony argue that propositional and conceptual preconditions of experience are further examples of innate belief-forming processes 19 that can be a priori warrantors. Thus, (I3) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if the source of my warrant for p is a propositional or conceptual precondition of experience. However, Kitcher rejects propositional preconditions of experience as a priori: If there are any propositions that we have to believe in order to have experience (knowledge), it s an entirely separate issue whether there are processes that would warrant them given any sufficiently rich experience. (Kitcher 2000, pg. 71) Kitcher is correct to point out the difference between a propositional precondition of experience and any sequence of experiences against which it may or may not be warranted. However, Kitcher wants to make propositional preconditions a posteriori warrantors instead of a priori warrantors in order to reject them as a priori. On Goldman and Antony s accounts, propositional preconditions of experience are a priori warrantors just in case they are innate belief-forming processes that lead to reliably true beliefs. If any sequence of experiences fails to provide a process to warrant my propositional 19 See examples cited above by Goldman 1999 (deductive logic and numerosity) and Antony 2004 (modus ponens and universal grammar). 20

29 precondition of experience, I would be said to lack a posteriori warrant, not a priori warrant. In this case my a priori warrant would be overridden. Take a simple case of an agent applying modus ponens: 1. If I graduate, my family is proud of me. 2. I graduate. 3. Therefore, my family is proud of me. What makes the propositional precondition of experience in the above argument an a priori warrantor is not my belief in the logical validity of modus ponens. It is the deductive machinery inside my head that allowed me to perform the inference. My belief in the logical validity of modus ponens may or may not provide warrant against any sequence of experiences (e.g., I may graduate and my family will be ashamed). However, my deductive machinery that allowed me to form the deductive inference gives me a priori warrant as long as it leads to reliably true beliefs. Kitcher also rejects conceptual preconditions of experience as a priori: (E)ven though we might have to deploy a concept in order to have experience (knowledge), it doesn t follow that our belief that that concept was apt for the description of experience would have to be warranted against the background of any sufficiently rich experience. (Kitcher 2000, pg. 71) By apt for a description of experience Kitcher means whether or not a concept is directly relevant to the background of experience for which it is a precondition. Here we see the same issue that arose with Kitcher s rejection of propositional preconditions of experience. Kitcher is treating conceptual preconditions as a posteriori warrantors instead of a priori warrantors. Relevance and justifiability against a background of experience do not apply to a priori concepts. 21

30 Let s take the example of universal grammar. Suppose I was born with an innate concept that was directly relevant to recognizing basic principles of grammar. This innate concept allowed me to learn English as a child. Let my parents teaching me my first words be any sequence of experiences sufficiently rich for me to learn those words. If I were to listen properly and speak recognizable English words, then my innate concept of universal grammar would be warranted against my parent s teachings. However, what makes my innate concept of universal grammar itself an a priori warrantor is that it is a conceptual precondition of experience (an innate belief-forming process). Should my words continue to turn out to be correct than I have reliably true belief-forming process. Although preconditions of experience require further scientific explanation, they provide additional ways to view a priori as innate and thus non-experiential. Although Kitcher raises important inconsistencies when treating innateness and preconditions of experience as types of knowledge or a posteriori sources of warrant, his arguments do not give us plausible reasons to reject innateness as providing a priori warrant. Hence, I find I2 the preferred view. 3.3 Necessity The next feature of apriority, necessity, is another firmly entrenched feature of apriority according to historical treatments (Goldman 1999, pg. 5). Earlier I highlighted a distinction between the content of a belief, believing a statement to be true, being warranted in believing a statement to be true, and possessing a priori warrant for a statement. 20 This distinction will be especially helpful in the ensuing sections. 20 See section 3.0, pg. 8, second to last paragraph. 22

31 Historical discussions, simply put, have readily asserted that a priori statements are necessarily true. In other words, it is impossible for a priori warranted statements to be false. Thus, I will consider the following statement: (N) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if p is a necessary truth. One crucial problem with the above statement is Kripke s famous argument (1980) that one can have a priori warrant for contingent propositions. Goldman (1999) cites a Kripke example, the standard meter stick is one meter long. I can have a priori warrant for the above statement based on pure logical inference. However, the statement is not necessary because the proposition regarding standard meter sticks could be false. Conversely, Kripke also famously point out that I can have a posteriori warrant for necessary propositions as well (e.g., water=h20). Thus, N already fails in two ways because my warrant and the statement being warranted are not equivalent. In the former case I have a priori warrant. In the latter case I have a posteriori warrant. But in neither case does the apriority of my warrant guarantee the necessity of the statement itself. Furthermore, it could be argued that there are many necessary truths of which no one is aware of. Also, there may be necessary truths too complex for humans to prove. In either case, such necessary truths could hardly be said to be a priori warranted. 21 There exist numerous other counterexamples rejecting a priori warranted statements as necessary. I shall not belabor them here. Also, both Antony and Kitcher reject N. Suffice it to say that a priori-warrant and necessity are not equivalent, which leads me as well to reject necessity as a feature of apriority. 21 I would like to thank Dr. Steve Jacobson at Georgia State University for adding these points while discussing my paper. 23

32 3.4 Infallibility Closely tied to necessity is the infallibility feature of apriority. One way to understand the difference between necessity and infallibility is by distinguishing those statements that are always true from those statements that are believed to be always true. 22 N operates under the former interpretation. I will discuss the statement below under the latter interpretation, which I am calling (IF) for infallibility. (IF) I have a priori warrant for believing p if and only if, if I believe that p, then p is a statement that is infallible. Goldman also rejects infallibility as a plausible feature of apriority. According to Goldman, there are many historical and everyday cases that comprise counterexamples to infallibility cases in which people had sufficient a priori warrant for beliefs that have subsequently been recognized as false (Goldman 1999, pg. 5). Goldman cites the famous example of Euclidean geometry. There are many such cases (e.g., Frege s axioms). 23 The important point here is that (w)hen adequate care is taken in such matters, a reasoner s belief is presumably sufficiently justified on a priori grounds, but this still does not preclude all mistakes (Goldman 1999, pg. 5). Hence, just because I have a priori warrant for a statement, this does not guarantee that my statement will not turn out to be false. 3.5 Certainty Another common feature of apriority is certainty. A statement to consider would be simply this: 22 Obviously a discussion of metaphysical necessity versus epistemic necessity is involved here. I am intentionally avoiding possible worlds talk since my focus in this paper is epistemic, not metaphysical. 23 Maddy (2000) also cites counterexamples against infallibility, such as Kant s transcendentalism being antiquated by modern physics and quantum physics threatening to eclipse universal causation. 24

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