in U.S. constitutional law, the permissible scope of federal or state legislation so far as it may affect the rights of an individual when those rights conflict with the promotion and maintenance of the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the public. When the U.S. Supreme Court has considered such cases, it has tended to use a doctrine called “balance of interests,” to determine whethe...

Across the boulevard du Palais is the Police Prefecture, another 19th-century structure. On the far side of the prefecture is the Place du Parvis-Notre-Dame, an open space enlarged six times by Haussmann, who also moved the Hôtel-Dieu, the first hospital in Paris, from the riverside to the inland side of the square. Its present buildings date from 1868....

state police force in Northern Ireland, established in 1922. The RUC had a paramilitary character until 1970, when the force was remodeled along the lines of police forces in Great Britain. In 1970 the security of Northern Ireland became the responsibility of the RUC, the British army, and the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR). The British government has tried to keep the RUC as the chief peacekeeping...

The police drama made its debut on radio with Calling All Cars, which was broadcast from November 1933 to September 1939 over the West Coast stations of CBS. The series was written and directed by William N. Robson, who would later become one of radio’s most renowned talents, and depicted actual crime stories, which were introduced by members of the Los Angeles......

Police technology refers to the wide range of scientific and technological methods, techniques, and equipment used in policing. As science has advanced, so too have the technologies that police rely upon to prevent crime and apprehend criminals. Police technology was recognized as a distinct academic and scientific discipline in the 1960s, and since then a growing body of professional......

British-American new-wave band that blended reggae, jazz, funk, punk, and world music influences into hook-laden pop-rock. Five best-selling albums, a bevy of hits, and aggressive touring—including stops in countries usually overlooked by Western pop musicians—combin...

southern two-thirds of South West Africa (now Namibia) in which the German and later South African colonial administrations were able to establish effective European-style police control beginning in the early 20th century. The name of the area and its original boundary were adopted in 1919 by the South Africans from a 1911 German map of the territory on which...

...pictures” and “imaginary landscapes” in which the linear configurations and patches of colour look almost as though they were set down randomly, as in The Policeman (1925). In paintings such as Dog Barking at the Moon (1926), he rendered figures of animals and humans as indeterminate forms. Miró signed the......

hooknosed, humpbacked character, the most popular of marionettes and glove puppets and the chief figure in the Punch-and-Judy puppet show. Brutal, vindictive, and deceitful, he is usually at odds with authority....

The Portuguese police are divided into four categories. The Public Security Police (Polícia de Segurança Pública; PSP) and the Republican National Guard (Guarda Nacional Republicana; GNR) are under the control of the Ministry of Internal Administration. The GNR includes the road police and has jurisdiction over rural areas. The PSP patrols urban areas and directs city......

...agreement officially ended the civil war and mandated a major reduction of the country’s armed forces, the dissolution and disarming of guerrilla units, the creation of a new civilian police force (Policía Nacional Civil; PNC), and the establishment of a commission to investigate human rights abuses of the Salvadoran Armed Forces and the FMLN during the war. The FMLN subsequently became......

His orchestral works Polička (Half-Time, 1925) and La Bagarre (1928) were inspired by contemporary events, respectively a Czech-French football (soccer) game and the crowds that met Charles Lindbergh’s plane as it ended its transatlantic flight. Of his later works, the Concerto grosso for chamber orchestra (1941) uses the alternation between soloists and full......

After Augustine, no full-length speculative work of political philosophy appeared in the West until the Policraticus (1159), by John of Salisbury. Based on John’s wide Classical reading, it centres on the ideal ruler, who represents a “public power.” John admired the Roman emperors Augustus and Trajan, and, in a still predominantly feudal world, his book carried on the......

The importance of the social and legal issues addressed in bioethics is reflected in the large number of national and international bodies established to advise governments on appropriate public policy. At the national level, several countries have set up bioethics councils or commissions, including the President’s Council on Bioethics in the United States, the Det Etiske Råd (Danish......

form of lottery in which pellets usually numbered 1 to 78 are deposited in a drum-shaped wheel and players wager that certain numbers will appear among the pellets—usually 12 pellets—that are selected at the drawing....

evaluation and study of the formulation, adoption, and implementation of a principle or course of action intended to ameliorate economic, social, or other public issues. Policy analysis is concerned primarily with policy alternatives that are expected to produce novel solutions. Policy analysis requires careful systematic and empirical study....

...also articulates the sentimental, stoic resignation that colonial Australians seemed to favour. Other novelists who had established themselves by the late 1800s were Rosa Praed—her Policy and Passion (1881) is an interesting account of the personal life of a Queensland politician—and the prolific Ada Cambridge....

Another product of structural reform is the National Policy Forum, a body that effectively decreases the influence of the annual conference and reduces the voice of grassroots activists. The forum is divided into a number of smaller policy commissions, which are made up of appointed members and coordinated by a Cabinet minister (or, when the party is in opposition, by a shadow minister). The......

...argued, however, that workers cannot be fooled again and again; higher inflation will ultimately fail to lead to lower unemployment. More generally, Lucas’s work led to something called the “policy ineffectiveness proposition,” the idea that if people have rational expectations, policies that try to manipulate the economy by creating false expectations may introduce more......

...competitive conditions in the market. Political risks such as war or currency debasement are usually not insurable by private parties but may be insurable by governmental institutions. Very often contracts can be drawn in such a way that an “uninsurable risk” can be turned into an “insurable” one through restrictions on losses, redefinitions of perils, or other......

...as John Stagg’s The Vampyre (1810) and Lord Byron’s The Giaour (1813). The first prose vampire story published in English is believed to be John Polidori’s The Vampyre (1819), about a mysterious aristocrat named Lord Ruthven who seduces young women only to drain their blood and disappear. Those works and others......

Italian-born Humanist who wrote an English history that became required reading in schools and influenced the 16th-century English chroniclers Edward Hall and Raphael Holinshed and, through them, Shakespeare....

...Their dependence on migrants and mercenaries for both military and fiscal expertise was considerable, and they were always resisted by local chiefs, the so-called poligars. More crucial was the fact that by the 1770s Mysore faced a formidable military adversary in the form of the English East India Company, which did not allow it any breathing......

French ultraroyalist. Son of the ultraroyalist duc de Polignac, he was forced by the French Revolution into exile in England. On his return, he was arrested for conspiring against Napoleon and imprisoned from 1804 to 1813. Upon the Bourbon Restoration, he was made a peer but objected to the constitutional oath, which he felt was derogatory to the papal rights;...

French ultraroyalist. Son of the ultraroyalist duc de Polignac, he was forced by the French Revolution into exile in England. On his return, he was arrested for conspiring against Napoleon and imprisoned from 1804 to 1813. Upon the Bourbon Restoration, he was made a peer but objected to the constitutional oath, which he felt was derogatory to the papal rights;...

...as almoner to the Duchess d’Orléans, who presented him with the abbacy of Tiron, a comfortable benefice. He entered the French Academy in 1695. From 1712 to 1714 he acted as secretary to Melchior de Polignac, the French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Utrecht, which ended the wars of Louis XIV. Because of the political offense given by his Discours sur la polysynodie (1719;......

Teams of physicians with experience in varying specialties work from polyclinics or outpatient units, where many types of diseases are treated. Small towns usually have one polyclinic to serve all purposes. Large cities commonly have separate polyclinics for children and adults, as well as clinics with specializations such as women’s health care, mental illnesses, and sexually transmitted......

...These materials are processed in a similar manner to capacitor dielectrics except that they are subjected to poling, a technique of cooling the fired ceramic piece through the Curie point under the influence of an applied electric field in order to align the magnetic dipoles along a desired axis....

April 15, 1924Cesenatico, ItalySept. 29, 2013Longboat Key, Fla.Italian culinary instructor and cookbook author who inspired generations of American chefs and home cooks with her passion for Italian regional cuisine as well as her insistence on fresh, high-quality ingredients and simple reci...

acute viral infectious disease of the nervous system that usually begins with general symptoms such as fever, headache, nausea, fatigue, and muscle pains and spasms and is sometimes followed by a more-serious and permanent paralysis...

preparation of poliovirus given to prevent polio, an infectious disease of the nervous system. The first polio vaccine, known as inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) or Salk vaccine, was developed in the early 1950s by American physician Jonas Salk. This vaccine contains killed ...

acute viral infectious disease of the nervous system that usually begins with general symptoms such as fever, headache, nausea, fatigue, and muscle pains and spasms and is sometimes followed by a more-serious and permanent paralysis...

any of about 15 species of small insect-eating New World birds in the family Polioptilidae (order Passeriformes). (Many authorities treat the genus as a subfamily of the Old World warbler family Sylviidae.) The blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea), 11 cm (4.5 inches) long, with its long whi...

...15 species of small insect-eating New World birds in the family Polioptilidae (order Passeriformes). (Many authorities treat the genus as a subfamily of the Old World warbler family Sylviidae.) The blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea), 11 cm (4.5 inches) long, with its long white-edged tail, looks like a tiny mockingbird. With short, quick flights, it is able to catch insects in.....

...John Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins, who in 1949 developed the technique of culturing cells on glass surfaces; cells could then be infected with the viruses that cause polio (poliovirus) and other diseases. (Until this time, the poliovirus could be grown only in the brains of chimpanzees or the spinal cords of monkeys.) Culturing cells on glass surfaces opened the way for......

...faire une maison avec ses morts, and popular favourite Marie Laberge moving from her usual romantic tales to the crime genre with Sans rien ni personne, a “cold case” story. Daniel Poliquin, a writer from French-speaking Ontario, scored with La Kermesse (2006), a novel that won the 2007 Prix des Lecteurs of Radio-Canada and was also, in its English version (A......

ancient Greek city-state. The small state in Greece originated probably from the natural divisions of the country by mountains and the sea and from the original local tribal (ethnic) and cult divisions. There were several hundred poleis, the history and constitutions of most of which are known only sketchily if at all. Thus, most ancient Greek history is recounted in terms of the histories of Athe...

politico-military organization striving to end Moroccan control of the former Spanish territory of Western Sahara, in northwestern Africa, and win independence for that region. The Polisario Front is composed largely of the indigenous nomadic inhabitants of the Western Sahara region, the Saharawis. The Polisario Front began in May 1973 as an insurgency (based in neighbouring ...

Education in Warsaw benefits from the presence of the headquarters of the Polish Academy of Sciences, which coordinates research in both physical and social sciences through a number of institutes and industrial establishments. The Technical University of Warsaw and the University of Warsaw are notable institutions. Major libraries include the library (established in 1817) of the University of......

The movement originated in Italy with the thought of Laelius Socinus (Socini) and his nephew Faustus Socinus. In 1579 Faustus resettled in Poland and became a leader in the previously established Minor Reformed Church (Polish Brethren). Socinus succeeded in converting this movement to his own theological system, and for 50 years after his arrival, the Minor Church had a brilliant life in......

On September 1, 1939, the German attack began. Against northern Poland, General Fedor von Bock commanded an army group comprising General Georg von Küchler’s 3rd Army, which struck southward from East Prussia, and General Günther von Kluge’s 4th Army, which struck eastward across the base of the Corridor. Much stronger in troops and in tanks, however, was the army group in the south......

any of various handwoven floor coverings with pile of silk, made in Eṣfahān and other weaving centres of Persia in the late 16th and 17th centuries, at first for court use and then commercially. Because the first examples of this type to be exhibited publicly in Europe in the 19th century had come from Polish sources, it was assumed that these carpets were actually made in Poland, and, thus, they ...

...Hence Poland’s western frontier would be left to a peace conference. As for the Polish government, the most the Western Allies achieved was a vague promise from Stalin that he would reorganize the Lublin Committee and permit free elections among “non-Fascist elements” within a month after peace. But Stalin reserved the right to decide who was “Fascist” and rejected......

strip of land, 20 to 70 miles (32 to 112 km) wide, that gave the newly reconstituted state of Poland access to the Baltic Sea after World War I. The corridor lay along the lower course of the Vistula River and consisted of West Prussia and most of the province of Posen (Poznań), which the Treaty of Versailles (1919) transferred from defeated Germany to ...

...two figures: the moderate conservatives followed Prince Czartoryski, and the leftists were led at first by the great historian Joachim Lelewel. Later these leftists took a more radical stance as the Polish Democratic Society. Czartoryski concentrated on seeking the support of Britain and France for the Polish cause against Russia. The democrats, distrusting governments and blaming the......

Other burgeoning movements included the Sokol (“Falcon”), founded in 1862 to foster a Czech national awakening, and the Polish Falcons (1867), which had similar aspirations. These kinds of cultural groups often sponsored national dances, songs, language revivals, and traditional athletic contests. The Gaelic Athletic Association closely coincided with the Irish literary and......

...Red Army to the borders of nine states that had been independent before 1939, making possible the sovietization of eastern Europe. The first episode in that process stemmed from an uprising by the Polish Home Army in Warsaw, underground allies of the London Poles. Expecting momentary liberation from across the Vistula, the Home Army rebelled against the German occupation and seized control of.....

...from very different traditions, so that when Suzuki Tadashi’s Waseda company from Tokyo arrived in Europe in 1972, it found itself being compared in its intense physicality to Jerzy Grotowski’s Polish Laboratory Theatre from Wrocław in Poland, though the two companies had been founded independently in the early 1960s....

West Slavic language belonging to the Lekhitic subgroup and closely related to Czech, Slovak, and the Sorbian languages of eastern Germany; it is spoken by the majority of the present population of Poland....

A reaction to that situation developed in the 1890s that had both a nationalist and a socialist character. The National Democratic movement originated with a Polish League organized in Switzerland; by 1893 the organization had transformed into the clandestine National League, based in Warsaw. It stressed its all-Polish character, rejected loyalism, and promoted national resistance, even......

body of writings in Polish, one of the Slavic languages. The Polish national literature holds an exceptional position in Poland. Over the centuries it has mirrored the turbulent events of Polish history and at times sustained the nation’s cultural and political identity....

The Polish National Catholic Church, a schismatic offshoot of Roman Catholicism, never won popular support, despite strong government advocacy following World War II. Two Protestant strongholds remain in Poland—that of the Polish Lutherans in Masuria and the Evangelicals (Augsburg Confession) in Cieszyn, Silesia. An autocephalous Polish Orthodox church is partly linked with the small......

independent Catholic church that arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among Polish immigrants in the United States who left the Roman Catholic Church. From 1907 until 2003 it was a member of the Union of Utrecht and in full communion of the Old Catholic churches; in 2006 it entered a limited communion agreement with Rome. Headquar...

...The Inter-Allied conference (June 1918) endorsed Polish independence, thus crowning the efforts of Dmowski, who had promoted the Polish cause in the West since 1915. In August 1917 he had set up a Polish National Committee in Paris, which the French viewed as a quasi-government. Under its aegis a Polish army composed mainly of volunteers from the United States was placed under the command of......

ecclesiastically independent member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, established in 1924 to accommodate the 4,000,000 Orthodox Christians residing in the vast Ukrainian and Byelorussian territories acquired by Poland after World War I. As the new political situation made it difficult for these Orthodox communities to maintain canonical dependence on the patriarchate of Moscow,...

(1772, 1793, 1795), three territorial divisions of Poland, perpetrated by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, by which Poland’s size was progressively reduced until, after the final partition, the state of Poland ceased to exist....

...for Social Origins (1909) and Primitive Behaviour (1937) reflect his interest in ethnography. The Unadjusted Girl (1923) is a psychological study of personality. His major work, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, 5 vol. (1918–20), written in collaboration with Florian Znaniecki, applies the comparative method to the study of nationalities and analyzes social.....

Politics remained generally stable in Poland in 2013 as the Civic Platform (PO)–Polish Peasant Party (PSL) coalition government, which had been in power since 2007, held a small but workable majority in the Sejm (parliament). Donald Tusk, the leader of the coalition’s larger partner, the centre-right PO, was serving his second consecutive term as prime minister; however, opinion polls......

Politics remained generally stable in Poland in 2013 as the Civic Platform (PO)–Polish Peasant Party (PSL) coalition government, which had been in power since 2007, held a small but workable majority in the Sejm (parliament). Donald Tusk, the leader of the coalition’s larger partner, the centre-right PO, was serving his second consecutive term as prime minister; however, opinion polls......

country of central Europe. Poland is located at a geographic crossroads that links the forested lands of northwestern Europe to the sea lanes of the Atlantic Ocean and the fertile plains of the Eurasian frontier. Now bounded by seven nations, Poland has waxed and waned over the centuries, buffeted by the forces of regional history. In the early Middle Ages, Poland’s small principalities and townsh...

...All this did not prevent Russia and Prussia from further diminishing Poland’s territory with the Second Partition in 1793. In 1794 Kościuszko, returning from abroad, raised the banner of insurrection in the rump Commonwealth. It may have been a hopeless undertaking, but the Poles could not see their state destroyed without making a last stand. Kościuszko, assuming the title of......

...restrictions between 1945 and 1953, with a “thaw” during the late 1950s under Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev. In Poland the loosening of ideological criteria gave rise to the so-called Polish school led by Jerzy Kawalerowicz (Matka Joanna od aniołŅw [Mother Joan of the Angels], 1961), Andrzej Munk (......

...revolution and Poland’s independence. At a conference held in Paris in 1892, the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) came into existence. Illegal under Russian rule, it had a counterpart in Galicia in the Polish Social Democratic Party led by Ignacy Daszyński. The dominant figure in the PPS was Józef Piłsudski, who saw the historic role of socialism in Poland as that of a......

Piłsudski returned in 1892, determined to organize an insurrection and to work for the reestablishment of Poland’s independence. He joined the newly founded Polish Socialist Party (PPS), of which he soon became a leader. He started a clandestine newspaper, Robotnik (“The Worker”), in Wilno. In July 1899 he married, in a Protestant church, the beautiful Maria......

...freight and passengers. In the last decade of the 20th century, there was a 41 percent drop in railway tonnage and a 58 percent decrease in passenger trips by rail. The railways, administered by the Polish State Railways (Polskie Koleje Państwowe), began the process of privatization in the early 21st century. Light rail is available to commuters in more than a dozen cities....

(1733–38), general European conflict waged ostensibly to determine the successor of the king of Poland, Augustus II the Strong. The rivalry between two candidates for the kingdom of Poland was taken as the pretext for hostilities by governments whose real quarrels with each other had in fact very little connection with Polish affairs. The war resulted mainly in a redistribution of Italian territor...

...was created; its population consisted of Poles, Belarusians, and Jews. In September 1939 the Polish and German armies fought a fierce battle near Wizna, which came to be known as the “Polish Thermopylae.”...

Beginning in 1948, Poland was governed by the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza), the country’s communist party, which was modeled on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The postwar government was run as a dual system in which state organs were controlled by parallel organs of the PUWP. The executive branch of government, therefore, was in effect the......

Beginning in 1948, Poland was governed by the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza), the country’s communist party, which was modeled on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The postwar government was run as a dual system in which state organs were controlled by parallel organs of the PUWP. The executive branch of government, therefore, was in effect the......

...Ruthenians, as had happened earlier in Galicia. In 1569, by the Union of Lublin, the dynastic link between Poland and Lithuania was transformed into a constitutional union of the two states as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the same time, the greater part of the Ukrainian territories was detached from Lithuania and annexed directly to Poland. This act hastened the differentiation of......

Although Poland remained neutral in the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48), Sigismund stealthily supported the Habsburgs, a policy that contributed to a war with Turkey. Poland suffered a major defeat at Cecorą in 1620 but was victorious at Chocim (now in Khotyn, Ukraine) and negotiated peace a year later. The victory at Chocim was memorialized by poet Wacław Potocki a half century......

After the pieces have been electroplated, their surfaces are dull and require polishing. Hand polishing is performed by holding the articles upon rapidly rotating mops dressed with an aluminum compound or rouge. The least expensive plating process is “bright plating,” in which a very thin coating of silver or chromium is deposited bright, thus eliminating final polishing. Such......

...to make them more suitable for use as lapping abrasive or perhaps as sandblasting grain. For use in lapping and polishing, the abrasive is usually mixed with a vehicle such as mineral or seal oil. Polishing sticks consist of waxes or greases impregnated with various-sized abrasive grains, depending on the particular requirements of the work....

vast waterlogged region of eastern Europe, among the largest wetlands of the European continent. The Pripet Marshes occupy southern Belarus and northern Ukraine. They lie in the thickly forested basin of the Pripet River (a major tributary of the Dnieper) and are bounded on the north by the Belarusian Ridge and on the south by the Volyn-Podi...

The Polissya zone lies in the northwest and north. More than one-third of its area—about 44,000 square miles (114,000 square km)—is arable land. Nearly one-quarter of it is covered with mixed woodland, including oak, elm, birch, hornbeam, ash, maple, pine, linden, alder, poplar, willow, and beech. About 5 percent is peat bog, a substantial portion is marshland, and the river valleys......

any of a group of wasps in the family Vespidae (order Hymenoptera) that are striking in appearance, about 16 mm (0.63 inch) long, with orange antennae, wings, and tarsi. The body may be jet black or brown with narrow yellow bands and paired segmental spots. The sting is painful but less toxic to humans than that of the more familiar species of wasps and hornets (Vespa, Vespula). The nest is...

Parallel to the State Council system is the central leadership of the CCP. The distribution of power among the various organs at the top of the CCP—the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau (Politburo), the Political Bureau itself, and the Secretariat—has varied a great deal, and from 1966 until the late 1970s the Secretariat did not function at all. There is in any case a......

in Russian and Soviet history, the supreme policy-making body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Politburo until July 1990 exercised supreme control over the Soviet government; in 1990 the Politburo was enlarged and was separated to a certain degree from control over the Soviet government. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent banning of t...

Italian publicist and intellectual whose writings significantly shaped the Risorgimento and whose journal, Il Politecnico (“The Polytechnic”), not only served as a vehicle for his political views but also was influential in introducing new scientific and technical improvements into Italy....

...theoretical, normative, and descriptive writings of Aristotle. In his Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Constitution of Athens, and other works, Aristotle used the Greek word for constitution (politeia) in several different senses. The simplest and most neutral of these was “the arrangement of the offices in a polis” (state). In this purely descriptive sense of the......

In the Republic, however, Plato develops a view of happiness and virtue that departs from that of Socrates. According to Plato, there are three parts of the soul, each with its own object of desire. Reason desires truth and the good of the whole individual, spirit is preoccupied with honour and competitive values, and appetite has the traditional low tastes for food,......

in Moscow, museum of science and technology that emphasizes the history of Soviet science and technology and contemporary developments and inventions. The museum was founded in 1872 after the first Russian technical exhibition on the bicentennial anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great. The building housing the museum was completed in 1877. It includes some foreign exhibitions....

Nov. 5, 1947?Melbourne, AustraliaApril 20, 2008MelbourneAustralian automotive executive who rose through the ranks at Ford Motor Co. during a nearly 40-year career to become (2005) CEO of the U.S.-based automaker’s luxury Jaguar Land Rover division. Polites received a first-class degree in ...

Italian poet and humanist, the friend and protégé of Lorenzo de’ Medici, and one of the foremost classical scholars of the Renaissance. He was equally fluent in Greek, Italian, and Latin and was equally talented in poetry, philosophy and philology....

...spot. Suspicion fell on Olympias and Alexander, those with most to gain from Philip’s death, and many modern interpreters have followed it. Aristotle, however, clearly did not believe it. In his Politics a few years later he used this incident as an example of a monarch murdered for private and personal motives—which would have been a puerile indiscretion if either he or the world......

...syndic of the town of Emden in the German province of East Friesland (Ostfriesland). He wrote a noted general treatise on Roman law, as well as other legal essays, but his principal work was Politica methodice digesta atque exemplis sacris et profanis illustrata (1603, enlarged 1610 and 1614), a systematized tract on all forms of human association....

in U.S. politics, an organization whose purpose is to raise and distribute campaign funds to candidates seeking political office. PACs are generally formed by corporations, labour unions, trade associations, or other organizations or individuals and channel the voluntary contributions they raise to candidates for elective offices, primarily in the U.S. House of Representatives a...

While the intellectual and methodological roots of political anthropology can be traced to Montesquieu and Alexis de Tocqueville, who viewed politics and governance as cultural constructs, Elizabeth Colson dated the modern field of political anthropology to 1940 and the publication of African Political Systems (1940), edited by Meyer Fortes and Edward Evans-Pritchard.......

During the 19th century, statistics grew up as the empirical science of the state and gained preeminence as a form of social knowledge. Population and economic numbers had been collected, though often not in a systematic way, since ancient times and in many countries. In Europe the late 17th century was an important time also for quantitative studies of disease, population, and wealth. In 1662......

in international law, the protection granted by a state to a foreign citizen against his own state. The person for whom asylum is established has no legal right to demand it, and the sheltering state has no obligation to grant it....

...to behavioralism and quantification, instead continuing in their inclination toward political philosophy. In contrast, the Swedish scholar Herbert Tingsten (1896–1973), in his seminal Political Behaviour: Studies in Election Statistics (1937), developed the connections between social groups and their voting tendencies. Before World War II the large areas of the world that......

Parallel to the State Council system is the central leadership of the CCP. The distribution of power among the various organs at the top of the CCP—the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau (Politburo), the Political Bureau itself, and the Secretariat—has varied a great deal, and from 1966 until the late 1970s the Secretariat did not function at all. There is in any case a......

in Russian and Soviet history, the supreme policy-making body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Politburo until July 1990 exercised supreme control over the Soviet government; in 1990 the Politburo was enlarged and was separated to a certain degree from control over the Soviet government. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent banning of t...

fluctuation of economic activity that results from an external intervention of political actors. The term political business cycle is used mainly to describe the stimulation of the economy just prior to an election in order to improve prospects of the incumbent government getting reelected. Despite numerous attempts to establish their existence, empirical evidence of poli...

a drawing (often including caricature) made for the purpose of conveying editorial commentary on politics, politicians, and current events. Such cartoons play a role in the political discourse of a society that provides for freedom of speech and of the press. They are a primarily opinion-oriented medium and can generally be found on the editorial pages of ...