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Abstract:

A method of analysing the structure of bone tissue comprises placing
first and second electrodes in electrical contact with the bone tissue to
be analysed such that the bone tissue forms at least part of an
electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes. Alternating
electrical signals are applied to the circuit and the electrical response
of the circuit is monitored. The monitored response is processed to
generate output data representative of the structure of the bone tissue.

Claims:

1-35. (canceled)

36. A method of analysing the structure of bone tissue comprising: a)
placing first and second electrodes in electrical contact with the bone
tissue to be analysed such that the bone tissue forms at least part of an
electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes; b) applying
an alternating electrical signal to the circuit and monitoring the
electrical response of the circuit; and, c) processing the monitored
response to generate output data representative of the structure of the
bone tissue.

37. A method according to claim 36, wherein in step (b) the first and
second electrodes are used to apply the current to the circuit and to
monitor the response.

38. A method according to claim 36, wherein the alternating current is
applied at multiple frequencies.

39. A method according to claim 38, wherein the alternating current is
applied at different frequencies in a serial manner.

40. A method according to claim 38, wherein the alternating current is
applied at different frequencies in a simultaneous manner.

41. A method according to claim 36, wherein one or more frequencies of
the alternating current is less than 20 kHz.

42. A method according to claim 41, wherein one or more frequencies of
the alternating current is less than 10 kHz.

43. A method according to claim 42, wherein one or more frequencies of
the alternating current is less than 1 kHz.

44. A method according to claim 43, wherein one or more frequencies of
the alternating current is 200 Hz or less.

45. A method according to claim 36, wherein the method is performed in
vivo.

46. A method according to claim 45, wherein the first electrode is placed
at or adjacent a first surface of the bone tissue and the second
electrode is placed at or adjacent a second surface of the bone tissue.

47. A method according to claim 46, wherein one or each of the first and
second electrodes is placed against the skin or a subject body containing
the bone tissue.

48. A method according to claim 46, further comprising applying an
electrically conductive material to each electrode and/or the surface
against which the electrode is placed.

49. A method according to claim 36, wherein the processing of the
response comprises deriving one or more electrical characteristics from
the monitored response and comparing the said one or more characteristics
with a structure characteristic of the bone tissue according to a
predetermined relationship.

50. A method according to claim 49, wherein the one or more electrical
characteristics includes one or more of the current response, voltage
response and the phase shift between the applied current and the voltage
response.

51. A method according to claim 49, wherein the predetermined
relationship includes a combination of the electrical characteristics.

52. A method according to claim 49, wherein the structure characteristic
is a measure of bone density.

53. A method according to claim 36, wherein the applied current in the
circuit is less than 100 microamperes.

54. A method according to claim 36, wherein the first and second
electrodes are positioned in a hip region, heel region, spine region or
forearm region of a subject body.

55. A method according to claim 54, wherein when the bone tissue of a
subject forearm is to be analysed then one of the first and second
electrodes is positioned adjacent the styloid process of the radius or
ulna and the other of the first and second electrodes is positioned
adjacent the olecranon process.

56. Apparatus for analyzing the structure of bone tissue comprising: a
first and second electrode in electrical contact with the bone tissue to
be analysed such that the bone tissue forms at least part of an
electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes; a signal
generator adapted to apply an alternating electrical signal to the
circuit through the first and second electrodes; a monitoring device for
monitoring the electrical response of the circuit; and, a processor
adapted when in use to process the response monitored by the monitoring
device and to generate output data representative of the structure of the
bone tissue.

57. Apparatus according to claim 56, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to generate electrical signals at a plurality of frequencies.

58. Apparatus according to claim 57, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to provide the plurality of frequencies in a serial manner.

59. Apparatus according to claim 56, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to generate electrical signals having a frequency of less than 20
kHz.

60. Apparatus according to claim 59, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to generate electrical signals having a frequency of less than 10
kHz.

61. Apparatus according to claim 60, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to generate electrical signals having a frequency of less than 1
kHz.

62. Apparatus according to claim 61, wherein the signal generator is
adapted to generate electrical signals having a frequency of 200 Hz or
less.

63. Apparatus according to claim 56, wherein the signal generator and the
monitoring device are formed within a single unit.

64. Apparatus according to claim 56, wherein the monitoring device is
adapted to monitor the electrical response of the circuit through the
first and 15 second electrodes.

65. Apparatus according to claim 56, wherein one of the first or second
electrodes is formed having an electrically conductive contact surface
containing a depression suitable to receive the elbow of a human subject.

66. A method according to claim 36, wherein the indicated structure is an
osteoporotic or osteopoenic bone tissue structure.

67. A method of monitoring changes in the structure of bone tissue within
a subject body, comprising: analysing the structure of the bone tissue of
a particular subject at different times using a method according to claim
36; comparing the bone structure represented by the output data with bone
structure representative of the type of subject monitored; and,
selectively applying a treatment to subject body as a result of the
comparison.

68. A method according to claim 67, wherein the analysis times are
separated by at least one year.

69. A method according to claim 67, wherein the type of subject includes
one or more of the sex, age, size, weight and medical conditions.

70. A method according to claim 67, wherein the treatment is applied if
the analysed subject has an indicated bone structure which differs from
the representative structure by more than a predetermined amount.

Description:

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for
analysing the structure of bone tissue.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

[0002] A number of techniques are known in the art for analysing the
structure of bone tissue. The analysis is desirable in most applications
to be performed in vivo whilst the bone tissue in question is present
within the body of a living subject. The most widely used techniques are
X-ray based which typically involve the imaging of the bone tissue and
are performed by exposing the subject to a beam of X-rays and recording
the resultant absorption image data. Such techniques have been used
extensively and successfully for many years offering information on the
bone geometry and, to some extent, its substructure geometry together
with some information of general bone density.

[0003] Another useful technique is that of magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) which can provide very detailed information upon the internal
structure of the bone tissue. The X-ray and MRI techniques are required
to be performed by trained staff and involve expensive hardware, normally
meaning that these systems are only available in well equipped
laboratories and hospitals. Another technique uses ultrasound which is
significantly less expensive although it has found little practical
application, due in part to the "noisy" data which results.

[0004] In addition to the practical techniques described above, a small
number of academic studies have been undertaken using electrical
impedance tomography (EIT). For example it has been shown that
rudimentary "images" based upon resistivity can be generated using an
electrode array. A recent study (Sierpowska, J., et al., Effect of human
trabecular bone composition on its electrical properties, Medical
Engineering & Physics, 2006) found some correlation between electrical
parameters and the composition of bones.

[0005] Whilst there have been some academic studies regarding the use of
electrical impedance in obtaining information about bone tissue, none
have provided an effective and reliable technique for assessing the
structure of bone. There is therefore a need to improve electrical
impedance methods if they are to be used in practical and commercial
applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention we
provide a method of analysing the structure of bone tissue comprising:

[0007] a) placing first and second electrodes in electrical contact with
the bone tissue to be analysed such that the bone tissue forms at least
part of an electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes;

[0008] b) applying an alternating electrical signal to the circuit and
monitoring the electrical response of the circuit; and,

[0009] c) processing the monitored response to generate output data
representative of the structure of the bone tissue.

[0010] The present inventors have overcome the problems encountered by the
early studies in this field and, in accordance with the present
invention, now provide a technique for providing reliable data regarding
the structure of bone tissue obtained using electrical signals.

[0011] It has been found extremely advantageous to use the first and
second electrodes to not only apply the alternating electrical signal to
the circuit but also to monitor the electrical response of the circuit.
This produces excellent results and greatly simplifies the four electrode
techniques used in related electrical impedance monitoring fields. The
use of only two electrodes provides benefits in terms of cost and also in
reducing the number of possible errors which can be introduced during the
practical performance of the method. With two electrodes the measurement
set-up is much simpler and limited to the choice of positioning of just
two electrodes. It is extremely advantageous for a commercial application
of the method and it may simplify the theoretical models used to
interpret the measurements. In such cases the measurement not only
includes the tissue between the electrodes but additionally the
interfacial region at each electrode surface. Theoretical finite element
model (FEM) analysis shows that in the case of injecting current, the
highest potential differences are observed at the electrode interfaces
and consequently the accuracy is highest for measurements at these
contact points. A two electrode system makes the operation of a practical
device much simpler and reliable. There is also a general prejudice
within the field of electrical impedance monitoring towards using a four
electrode technique. In a four electrode system it is generally accepted
in bio-impedance studies that the impact of an unknown contact impedance
is limited by separating the two functions of the electrodes. In this
way, two discrete electrode pairs are used: the first for passing current
(called a drive pair) and a second for measuring the boundary voltage
(receiving pair). Using high input impedance equipment the current flow
at the receiving electrodes is negligible and consequently voltage
measurement error is minimised. In addition, the voltage electrodes can
be placed away from disturbances localised at the sites where the current
is injected which can improve the accuracy of ac impedance measurements.

[0012] The invention can be implemented using a single carefully selected
applied signal frequency. Preferably, however, multiple frequencies may
be used and these may be applied either simultaneously or in a serial
manner. One aspect of the invention is the realization that using
relatively low frequencies provide advantageous results. Typically in
other electrical bioimpedance fields, the signals are applied at
frequencies of at least tens and typical hundreds or even thousands of
kHz. In the present application it is preferred to use one or more
applied signals at frequencies less than 20 kHz. Greater advantage is
provided by including one or more applied frequencies of the alternating
signal at less than 1 kHz and most preferably at 200 Hz or less. In
summary, it has been found that lower frequencies than those
conventionally used in electrical impedance measurements should be used
since these provide a greater distinction between specific types of bone
structure. The applied signals are generally of an alternating form that
may be applied as a controlled alternating current or voltage. Typically
the signal alternates periodically as a sinusoidal function although
other waveforms can be used.

[0013] The term "structure" used herein is intended to include all aspects
of the bone structure that influence the electrical impedance properties.
These include not only the physical structure (and substructure) of the
bone tissue itself, but also its composition. In particular, the
structure is intended to include the mineral content of the bone tissue,
including its calcium content and other materials that influence the
tissue's electrical properties. It is known that bone is a relatively
hard and lightweight material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the
form calcium hydroxyapatite. Bone tissue generally takes two forms, these
being compact and cancellous. Typically the outer layer of bone tissue is
compact and accounts for about 80% of the bone mass in an adult human.
The cancellous bone is known as "trabecular" in structure in that it has
an open, meshwork or sponge-like structure. This accounts for about 20%
of the total bone mass. Although the bone structure is therefore rather
complex, in a like-for-like comparison between similar bones in different
subjects, the electrical properties in particular are strongly dependent
upon the mineral content. Thus the structure of the bone tissue and its
electrical impedance properties have a strong dependence upon the bone
mineral density.

[0014] As discussed above, typically the invention is performed in vivo
upon live subjects. Such subjects are typically human although
alternatively, the bone tissue structure of other animal species may also
be assessed using the invention.

[0015] Although preferably a pair of electrodes is used to perform each of
the functions of applying the signal to the circuit, together with
monitoring the circuit response, a four electrode system can be used in
which two electrodes are exclusively used to apply the signal and another
two are used to monitor the response.

[0016] In the case of a two electrode system, typically the first
electrode is placed at or adjacent to a first surface of the bone tissue
and the second electrode is placed at or adjacent to a second surface of
bone tissue. In most cases the bone will be covered by other body tissue,
including muscle, fat and cartilage although it has been found that these
do not significantly affect the results. In fact the most significant
other influence upon the circuit is the interface between skin and the
electrode surface.

[0017] In principle the invention may be applied during a surgical
procedure such that one electrode or both electrodes may be applied
directly to the bone itself. This may also apply where the method is used
in an in vitro situation. However, typically the first and second
electrodes are each placed at surfaces which are adjacent to the
respective surfaces of the bone tissue, although separated somewhat
therefrom. Thus preferably the first and second electrodes are positioned
at locations on the skin surface where the corresponding bone or bones
whose tissue is to be analysed lie close to the surface of the skin.
Preferably an electrically conductive material such as conductive gel is
applied to each electrode and/or the skin surface against which the
particular electrode is placed. Following application of the conductive
material, it is preferred to wait for a short period whilst the material
permeates into the skin somewhat and improves the electrical contact
between the skin and the electrode in question. Alternatively, gel-based
electrodes can be used that encapsulate an aqueous electrolyte in a
suitable polymer matrix.

[0018] In accordance with electrical impedance theory, the monitored
response of the circuit is determined by the input signal and a notional
equivalent circuit representative of the physical properties of the
material being analysed. Preferably the method of processing the response
comprises deriving one or more electrical characteristics from the
monitored response and then comparing these characteristics with a
structure characteristic of the bone tissue in accordance with a
predetermined relationship. For example, the one or more electrical
characteristics may include the applied electrical stimulus, the acquired
electrical response, and the phase shift between them. It has been found
that a relatively simple relationship between the electrical
characteristics can then be used to generate a further electrical
characteristic such impedance, conductance or permittivity which can then
be related to the structure characteristic. The structure characteristic
is preferably a measure of bone mineral density (BMD) which is a well
studied bone structure parameter. The preferred method of measuring such
a bone structure is by the use of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA
or DEXA). This uses two X-ray beams of different energies so as to
determine a numerical value relating to the bone density of the bone in
question. This is expressed as a numerical BMD value which can then be
used to generate further values that compare with young normal subjects
(T-score) and those of a similarly aged population (Z-score).

[0019] The predetermined relationship between the electrical
characteristics and the structured characteristic of the bone tissue
(which may include more than one structure characteristic), may include
an analytical approach, an empirical model, a neural network or other
statistically derived model.

[0020] The present method provides many benefits over the prior art
methods in terms of its accuracy and practical costs. It is voltage and
current limited to significantly within medical safety restrictions. This
means that concerns over safety are avoided compared with repeated use of
harmful ionizing X-ray radiation.

[0021] The electrical signals may be applied to a number of regions of the
human body, these including a hip region, a heel region or a spine region
(particular vertebrae L1 to L4). Preferably, however, the method is
applied to a forearm region of a subject human body. In this case, one of
the first and second electrodes is preferably positioned against the
styloid process of the radius or ulna and the other of the first and
second electrodes positioned adjacent to the olecranon process. These
particular locations provide a good length of bone tissue (radius or ulna
bones) through which the electrical current is passed, and they also
provide points of close approach to the skin of the heads of these bones.
A further advantage is that a great deal of data is available from other
techniques relating to these regions of the body, particularly DXA
techniques.

[0022] In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention we
provide apparatus for analysing the structure of bone tissue comprising:

[0023] a first and second electrode in electrical contact with the bone
tissue to be analysed such that the bone tissue forms at least part of an
electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes;

[0024] a signal generator adapted to apply an alternating electrical
signal to the circuit through the first and second electrodes;

[0025] a monitoring device for monitoring the electrical response of the
circuit; and,

[0026] a processor adapted when in use to process the response monitored
by the monitoring device and to generate output data representative of
the structure of the bone tissue.

[0027] Thus the apparatus in accordance with the second aspect may be used
in the performance of the method according to the first aspect.

[0028] The signal generator used to apply the alternating electrical
current is adapted to generate electrical signals at one or more than one
frequency. Where a plurality of frequencies are to be applied, these are
preferably applied in a serial manner. Multiple frequencies may be
applied simultaneously and its time domain response transformed to the
frequency domain.

[0029] Typically the signal generator and the monitoring device are formed
within a single unit. The apparatus is preferably portable and may be
handheld. Two units in the form of a base station and a handheld unit for
example can be used, there being in bidirectional communication,
preferably wirelessly. Typically the electrodes are formed from an
electrically conductive material (these including biocompatible metals
such as stainless steel). In principle other conductive biocompatible
materials such as conductive polymers could be used as an alternative.
One of the first or second electrodes is preferably formed having an
electrically conductive contact surface containing a depression suitable
to receive the elbow (olecranon) of a human subject. Alternatively a
flexible gel-based electrode can be used that conforms to the surface
applied to.

[0030] As will be appreciated, the structure of the bone tissue derived as
a result of the use of the present invention can be used to detect the
presence, progression or regression of osteoporotic or osteopenic bone
tissue. Other medical disorders which are indicated by bone structure may
also be detected.

[0031] In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention we
provide a method of monitoring changes in the structure of bone tissue
within a subject body, comprising:

[0032] analysing the structure of the bone tissue of a particular subject
at different times using a method according to the first aspect of the
invention;

[0033] comparing the bone structure represented by the output data with
bone structure representative of the type of subject monitored; and,

[0034] selectively applying a treatment to subject body as a result of the
comparison.

[0035] Thus we provide a method of screening for particular conditions
including osteoporosis and osteopenia. Preferably the analysis times are
separated by at least one year, more preferably a period that is
clinically acceptable. The comparison may be performed in accordance with
different types or groups of human subjects, this taking into account one
or more parameters such as the sex, age, size, weight, medical conditions
and drug treatment histories of the subjects.

[0036] Preferably the treatment is applied and when the analysed subject
has a represented bone structure which differs from the representative
structure for the subject by more than a predetermined magnitude. This
may be related to a Z-score or T-score.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0037] An example of method and related apparatus for performing the
invention are now described with reference to the accompanying drawings,
in which:

[0038]FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of apparatus according to
the example for implementing the method;

[0039]FIG. 2 shows the application of the first and second electrodes to
a human forearm;

[0040]FIG. 3 shows a flow diagram in accordance with the operation of the
example method;

[0048] We now describe a suitable apparatus for implementing the invention
together with associated method steps. This example is described in the
context of analysing the structure of human bone tissue with a view to
obtaining information relating to the bone density. This information can
then be used as some of the information upon which to base a medical
diagnosis relating in particular to osteopenia or osteoporosis.

[0049] Referring now to FIG. 1, an apparatus for monitoring changes in the
structure of bone is illustrated and generally indicated at 1. The
apparatus comprises a portable unit 2 which may be either handheld or of
larger dimensions such as those of a laptop computer. The portable unit 2
contains an internal computer 3 comprising a processor and other
associated devices including a memory for storage of data and a device
controller. The computer 3 is in communication with a display 4 and an
input device such as a keypad 5 allowing an operator to issue commands to
the portable unit 2. The portable unit 2 is powered by an internal
rechargeable power source 10 which can be charged by an external
inductive charger or medically approved power supply unit indicated at
11.

[0050] The internal device controller within the computer 3 is arranged in
communication with a signal generator 15 or output stage typically
comprising a direct digital synthesizer (DDS) or digital to analogue
converter (DAC). This enables multiple frequency waveform generation
which is capable of providing electrical signals to corresponding output
ports under the control of the computer 3. Computer 3 may therefore
control the amplitude, phase and frequency of the signals produced by the
signal generator 15. In the present example the signal generator only
issues a single frequency signal at any one time although in an
alternative example the embedded software can define a multi-frequency
waveform. The analogue circuit supplies the signals to two ports on the
external surface of the portable unit 2 (not shown). Into these ports
corresponding leads 20 and 21 are removably coupled which carry the
generated signals between the unit 2 and first and second respective
electrodes 25 and 26. Alternatively, the connection points for the
electrodes may be integrated directly into the enclosure of the device.

[0051] The first and second electrodes 25 and 26 are also removably
coupled by simple connectors to the distal ends of each of the leads 20,
21. This allows the electrodes 25, 26 to be disposable for the purposes
of sterility. Preferably the electrodes are therefore used only upon a
single subject. The electrodes 25, 26 are used to pass the generated
current through the body of a subject 50 in a manner to be described
later. The presence of the subject body 50 between the electrodes 25 and
26 completes the electrical circuit with the signal generator 15. It is
the response of this electrical circuit to the applied signals that
provides information concerning the bone structure of the subject body
50.

[0052] In order to measure the response, a monitoring device 16 or input
stage, typically comprising an analogue to digital converter (ADC), is
provided within the portable unit 2, this being in communication with
each of the signal generator 15 and computer 3. It will be appreciated
that the signal generator 15 and monitoring device 16 may be formed as a
single signal generation and analyser unit (analogue circuit). The
monitoring device 16 is also connected internally to the circuit formed
by the signal generator 15 and electrodes 25, 26.

[0053] Depending upon the particular implementation, the signal
generator/monitoring device may take the form of a lock-in amplifier,
frequency response analyser, or a fast fourier transform device (in the
event that simultaneous multiple frequencies are produced).

[0054] When in typical use in association with the present example, the
signal generator 15, under the control of a computer 3 produces
electrical signals in the form of sinusoidal alternating current flow
within the circuit produced by contact between the first and second
electrodes and the particular part of the subject body in question, this
current being of a magnitude sufficiently low to comply with all
international medical safety standards (IEC60601-1 and its deviations).
In the present case the computer 3 monitors the output current of the
signal generator 15 by communication with the signal generator.

[0055] The monitoring device 16 measures the potential difference between
the two parts of the circuit formed, therefore effectively between the
first and second electrodes 25, 26. Of course this measured electrical
response of the circuit also has an alternating frequency, although this
is not necessarily the same as the applied frequency. As will be
appreciated, a phase shift typically exists between the applied voltage
and the response current. The monitored response from the monitoring
device 16 is also provided to the computer 3 which uses this data to
calculate an impedance characteristic of the circuit formed and then goes
on to calculate the corresponding bone tissue structure in accordance
with an internal model, also to be described further later.

[0056]FIG. 2 shows the use of the electrodes 25 and 26 in applying the
generated electrical signals to the forearm of a subject body 50. As can
be seen from FIG. 2, the first electrode 25 is applied manually to the
wrist as of a subject body 50 where it can be placed adjacent to the
heads of either of the arm bones (either caput ulnea or head of the
radial bone). Electrical contact between the electrode and the skin is
achieved by applying an electrically conductive gel on the surface of the
electrodes. Typically this is then held against the skin where the
conductive gel permeates into the upper skin layers. A typical material
for production of the first electrode is stainless steel or another
conductive biocompatible electrical conductor.

[0057] The second electrode 26 is again also formed with a conducting
material such as stainless steel and is placed on a stable base such as
the upper surface of a table. The electrode is slightly hollowed and has
dimensions of approximately 30 mm in diameter and a depth of hollow of 5
mm. Around the periphery of the electrode is provided a non conductive
surround. Again as for the first electrode, a small amount of gel is
placed in the hollow of the electrode and the elbow (olecranon) is placed
inside the hollow of the second electrode. Typically the angle between
the forearm (lower) and the upper arm is about 100 degrees and the open
palm of the subject is placed vertically. In FIG. 2 the two possible
positions of the first electrode 25 are illustrated placed adjacent the
ulna bone (little finger side) or the radius bone (thumb side) of the
forearm. The positioning of the second electrode 26 below the elbow is
also illustrated.

[0058] Turning now to FIG. 3 an example method is described for
implementing the invention using the apparatus described above.

[0059] At step 100 the unit 2 is initialised by inputting data including
the details of the subject's identity, together with the part of the
subject body 50 which is to be used in the measurement, such as the ulna
or radius in the forearm of a subject body 50.

[0060] As a result of the input of such data by the user, for example
using the input device 5, the computer system selects from a lookup table
or other stored data, the frequencies and currents which will be applied
to the particular subject through the electrodes 25, 26. Once the system
is initialised then at step 102, new sterile electrodes 25 and 26 are
connected using their connectors 27, 28 to the supply leads 20, 21. A new
pair of electrodes is provided for each new patient although if the
patient has been subject to previous tests recently, then electrodes
specific to that patient may be reused if sterliisation or disinfection
is possible.

[0061] At step 104, the second electrode 26 is placed upon the upper
surface of a table or other support structure, this electrode having the
depression therein facing upwards. For solid electrodes such as
stainless-steel, an electrically conductive gel is applied within the
depression and a similar gel is applied to the contact surface of the
first electrode 25. Alternatively, gel-based electrodes can be used. It
must also be appreciated that device enclosure can be designed to be
free-standing system that incorporates appropriate supports for each
electrode. The forearm of the subject body 50 is then positioned such
that their elbow (olecranon) is resting within the depression of the
second electrode 26 whereas the first electrode 25 is then positioned
pressed against the head of either the radius or ulna bones in either of
the two positions shown in FIG. 2.

[0062] At step 106 a short wait is performed whilst the gel works into the
surface of the skin so as to produce a good electrical contact. This may
be aided by applying additional conductive gel directly to the skin in
the region of contact with the electrodes 25, 26. Thereafter at step 108,
a measurement sequence of method steps is begun. At step 110 a first
frequency of electrical signals generated by the signal generator 15 is
applied to the electrodes. The signals are at a first frequency which may
be typically 100 Hz. This is performed for a short time period
(approximately 1 second), during which the electrical response of the
circuit so formed is recorded using the monitoring device 16. The data
describing the output of the signal generator, together with the
monitored response and their relative phase, are provided to the computer
3 during this step. At step 112 a second frequency, such as 200 Hz is
then applied and again the monitoring is performed as in step 110. This
is repeated at each of the frequencies selected by the computer 3 during
the initialisation step 100.

[0063] In the present example about 20 frequencies are chosen between 100
Hz and 20 kHz and each frequency is applied in steps 110, 112 and 114 so
as to provide a set of data spanning the range of frequencies.
Alternatively, the steps 110, 112 and 114 may be replaced by a single
output and subsequent acquisition of a waveform comprising the
overlapping frequencies defined in initialisation step 100. At step 116
the process is stopped and the electrodes are removed from the subject
body 50.

[0064] At 118 the processing steps performed by the computer begin. At
step 118 in particular the applied voltage data and the monitored current
data are converted into an electrical impedance characteristic. In the
present case this is simply achieved by the division of the root mean
square (rms) amplitude of the voltage monitored by the rms amplitude of
the current supplied for each of the frequencies applied in steps 110 to
114. This gives an rms amplitude of impedance Z for each applied
frequency. In addition to this data, the computer compares the applied
current and voltage phases so as to determine the phase shift between the
applied and the response signals. Thus the impedance characteristics of
the rms impedance and the phase angle φ are determined for each
frequency. In the present example the measurement performance was
benchmarked against a calibrated Solartron® frequency response
analyzer (FRA) 1260. The measured dummy cells were prepared from
resistors and a combination of resistors in parallel with capacitors,
where the resistive part values range from 47 kΩ to 10 MΩ. An
example of the impedance response for a 250 kΩ∥100 pF cell
is shown in FIG. 4. The device in the present example is represented by
the point and the benchmark FRA is denoted by the solid line.

[0065] At step 120 the impedance characteristics are processed by the
computer 3 by inputting them into a model which relates impedance
characteristics with bone density values. In the present application of
screening or monitoring osteoporosis and osteopenia, the bone density is
measured as "BMD" values, these being values relating to measurements of
bone density using DEXA as the accepted reference standard.

[0066] There are various models which may be used in step 120 to relate
the measured impedance response with the BMD values. These include
analytical models, although due to the complexities of biological
systems, it has been found that simple empirical models provide good
results in practical situations. Further, neural network analysis or
other techniques may be used to derive such models.

[0067] When each of the impedance characteristics as a function of
frequency is input into the model at step 122 one or more output data are
obtained describing the bone characteristic in question. For example the
output data may be in the form of an equivalent BMD value.

[0068]FIG. 5 shows a practical example of BMD values taken from both the
radius and ulna of patients using DEXA analysis techniques. The BMD-R
value is the bone mineral density value for the radius bone of the
particular subject, the BMD-U value is taken for the ulna bone. In
accordance with a second method of measurement, values for one third of
the distance from the elbow to the head of the bone in each case
illustrated as R33 and U33 are also shown in FIG. 5. Taking subject
numbers 3, 4, 9, 15 and 18 as examples, the relevant frequency dependent
values for the rms impedance and phase shift are shown in FIG. 6.

[0069] The modulus of impedance (effectively the rms impedance
characteristic) drops significantly as the frequency increases from 200
Hz to 20 kHz. Furthermore the phase shift between the applied and
measured signal also tends to reduce as the frequency increases. In
comparing the subjects having a high BMD value with those of a low BMD
value it can be seen that those with a high BMD value typically have a
lower monitored impedance value than those with a lower BMD value. This
is in line with reports in the published literature indicating that
conductivity decreases as bone mineral density decreases. At a frequency
of 20 kHz this difference is approximately 20% in the magnitude of the
impedance whereas at 200 Hz the difference is approximately 260%. Thus
from the above it can be concluded that very low frequencies of the order
of a few hundred hertz are beneficial for determining BMD via a model
from measured electrical impedance characteristics.

[0070]FIG. 7 shows the phase shift versus the modulus of the impedance
value for the five subjects mentioned above. This shows a trend between
the Bode graph shape (phase shift against modulus of impedance) and the
BMD values for the radius bone of different subjects taken using DEXA
measurements. This correlation can be observed between the DEXA obtained
BMD parameters and other representations of the ac impedance graphs
(including Nyquist, alternative Bode, admittance, and so on). This clear
correlation demonstrates, even with the relatively simple methods
described above, the significant link between the bone structure in terms
of BMD values and the measured electrical impedance, particularly at
relatively low frequencies.

[0071]FIG. 8 shows an clear relationship between the measured data and
the BMD values for the radius bone in each of the subjects. Here, using
the table in FIG. 6, the minimum value in phase is used to obtain the
equivalent magnitude of impedance value which is then plotted against the
BMD R parameter.

[0072] The graph presented in FIG. 8 demonstrates two regions. A first
region above approximately 0.37 BMD R is independent of the impedance and
a second region showing strong dependency on impedance for values below
approximately 0.37 BMD R. This can be associated to the clinical
threshold values relating BMD parameters to conditions such as osteopenia
and osteoporosis. Typical R value for sound bones is about 0.38 BMD,
whereas osteopenia can be said to exist with a BMD R value lower than
0.32. Osteoporosis is considered to exist at R values lower than
approximately 0.28.

[0073] Thus it can be seen that for values of BMD R around 0.37, there is
an increase in the magnitude of the impedance taken at the minimum phase
difference. Typically this occurs within the frequency range of below
1000 Hz. In FIG. 8 the data are plotted as a scatter graph and a trend
line is overlayed. It will be appreciated that such a trend line or fit
can be used as a basic model for correlating the impedance at the lowest
phase angle with the BMD R value.

[0074] Analysis of impedance measurements against BMD values from DEXA
using suitable statistical methods also demonstrate the applicability of
this method. FIGS. 9 and 10 show that by using Fisher Linear
Discrimination Analysis a classifier can be generated to yield
sensitivity and specificity of at least 80%. By further analysing
suitable data sets, it is possible to generate classifiers that achieve
at least 90% sensitivity and specificity.

[0075] It will be appreciated therefore that the electrical impedance
characteristics can clearly be used to correlate to the structure of the
bone tissue, in this case in the form of BMD values.

[0076] It is envisaged that the above method and apparatus may be used as
an effective screening device for osteoporosis and/or osteopenia and in a
long term monitoring program whereby subjects are monitored repeatedly
over a period of time. A typical period could be five years between
measurements. These could begin in early adulthood for women in
particular and the results could be used after each five year period to
compare with "T" or "Z" values relating to representative average values
for similar healthy members of the adult population according to their
age. Similarly for particular subjects with medical conditions the latter
could be used to show trends with respect to other such subjects with
similar conditions so as to monitor the progression or regression of
osteopenia or osteoporosis. In addition, such control groups could also
be subdivided according to their weight and other body characteristics.
If as a result of the screening program any particular subject is found
to be deteriorating at a rate which is not acceptable medically, then a
treatment program could be prescribed including one or more of a change
in lifestyle, diet, or the use of drugs to arrest the condition.

[0077] It is also noted here that osteopenia and osteoporosis may also be
caused by the use of certain drugs for the treatment of other conditions
and the abovementioned screening or monitoring method may be used to
assess the side effects of the use of such drugs.

[0078] It will be appreciated that the apparatus described can take a
number of forms, including a handheld device, a portable device or indeed
a static device. It is not essential that each of the components
described within the unit 2 is positioned within a single unit and indeed
it is envisaged that a more portable device may be provided for applying
the signals and monitoring the response of the circuit, whereas the
computing display and input devices may be positioned in a separate
device which communicates directionally with such a handheld device via
either a wired or wireless link (such as a Bluetooth link).

[0079] The example described uses a two electrode system and it is being
found by the present inventors that a two electrode arrangement provides
excellent results and ease of use. Whilst in principle it is possible to
use a four electrode measurement system, in which two electrodes are used
to apply the signals and a further two electrodes are used to monitor the
response of the circuit, practically these add to the complexity and cost
of such apparatus and also reduce its ease of use. The present apparatus
is envisaged as being useful in a medical context for over-the-counter
sales to members of the public or at point-of-care in local "general
practitioner surgeries", and also to hospitals. Thus the apparatus
provide an extremely low cost alternative to the expensive DEXA system
while avoiding the use of harmful ionizing X-ray radiation.