Contents

Foster was born in Huntingdon, Huntingdonshire, in March 1836, the son of Michael Foster, FRCS. He was educated at Huntingdon Grammar school and University College School, London. After graduating in medicine in 1859, he began to practise in his native town, but in 1867 he returned to London as teacher of practical physiology at University College London, where two years afterwards he became professor. In 1870 he was appointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its praelectorship in physiology, and thirteen years later he became the first occupant of the newly created chair of physiology in the university, holding it till 1903.[2] One of his most famous students at Cambridge was Charles Scott Sherrington who went on to win the Nobel Prize in 1932.

He married first, in 1864, Georgina Edmonds, daughter of Cyrus Read Edmonds. Following her death in 1869, he married secondly, in 1872, Margaret Rust, daughter of George Rust, JP, of Huntingdon.

He excelled as a teacher and administrator, and had a very large share in the organization and development of the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity exercised a wide influence on the study of biology in Britain. In the 1899 Birthday Honours, he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB),[3] and served as president of the British Association at its meeting at Dover in September 1899.

He was joint editor with E. Ray Lankester of The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley.[7] His chief writings were a Textbook of Physiology (1876), which became a standard work, and Lectures on the History of Physiology during the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries (1901), which consisted of lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, in 1900. He died suddenly in London.

1.
Huntingdon
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Huntingdon is a market town in Cambridgeshire, England. The town was chartered by King John in 1205 and it is the traditional county town of Huntingdonshire and the seat of the Huntingdonshire district council. It is known as the birthplace of Oliver Cromwell, who was born in 1599 and was the member of parliament for the town in the 17th century, the former Conservative prime minister John Major was the MP for the town from 1979 to 2001. Huntingdon was founded by the Anglo-Saxons and Danes and it prospered successively as a bridging point of the River Great Ouse, as a market town, and in the 18th and 19th centuries as a coaching centre, most notably The George Hotel. The town has a medieval bridge that used to serve as the main route of Ermine Street over the river. The bridge only ceased to be the crossing point to Godmanchester in 1975. Its valuable trading position was secured by the now vanished Huntingdon Castle, the site is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and is home to a beacon used to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the Spanish Armada. In 1746, the botanists Wood and Ingram of nearby Brampton developed a species of elm tree, Ulmus × hollandica Vegeta. Original historical documents relating to Huntingdon, including the borough charter of 1205, are held by Cambridgeshire Archives, between the railway station and the old hospital building, stands a replica cannon. In the 1990s the replica was installed to replace an original Crimean War one, when the replica was installed it was placed in the opposite direction to the original. The George Hotel, on the corner of High Street and George Street was once a posting house and it was named after St. George in 1574 and was bought some 25 years later by Henry Cromwell, grandfather of Oliver Cromwell. Charles I made The George his headquarters in 1645, later Dick Turpin is reputed to have been a visitor when it was a coaching inn on the Great North Road. The mid-19th century saw two wings of the inn burnt down but two were saved including the one with the balcony overlooking the yard. Since 1959 the courtyard and its balcony have been the setting for performances of the plays of Shakespeare, Huntingdon is has a town council consisting of 24 councillors. As elsewhere, local elections are every four years. Two of the town councillors serve also as mayor and deputy mayor, Council meetings are normally held once a month at the town hall. Huntingdon has three wards of Huntingdon North, Huntingdon East and Huntingdon West for Huntingdonshire District Council. The ward of Huntingdon East is represented by three councillors and the two wards each by two

2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area

3.
University College School
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University College School, generally known as UCS Hampstead, is an independent day school in Hampstead, northwest London, England. The school was founded in 1830 by University College London and inherited many of that institutions progressive, according to the Good Schools Guide, the school Achieves impressive exam results with a relaxed atmosphere. UCS aims to combine the highest standards of achievement and pastoral care with outstanding facilities for all-round education with a distinctive liberal ethos. The UCS Hampstead Foundation is composed of four entities, The UCS Pre-Prep or The Phoenix as it was previously known. This was acquired by UCS in 2003, the Junior Branch, for boys aged 7 to 11 on the Holly Hill site in the heart of Hampstead. The Senior School, for boys aged 11 to 16 and co-educational for ages 16 to 18 on the Frognal site, the main campus and the Great Hall are noted examples of Edwardian architecture. Inside the hall is a magnificent Walker pipe organ, used for concerts, professional recordings and other festivities. The Playing Fields are situated in West Hampstead on Ranulf Road, UCS is a member of the Eton Group of twelve independent schools, the Haileybury Group of 26 independent schools, and the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference. It also has ties with the Equatorial College School in Uganda. The school motto is Paulatim Sed Firmiter, in 2016, the school updated its school logo to incorporate its widely known name of UCS Hampstead and to include the full motto in its distinctive roundel emblem. The schools colours are maroon and black which are shown to the distinctive vertical striped blazers. UCS publishes an online newsletter called The Frognal and a yearly printed magazine called The Gower sent to current. The latest editions are available on the school website, in the Lower School, there is one form per year in each house. Kestrel – Blue Eagle – Yellow Hawk – Black Falcon – Green Students in the Middle School and Upper School are arranged into Demes and this is similar to a school house. In the Middle School, there is one form per year in each Deme, as well as a Deme Warden, each deme has two or three Deme Captains. Deme, Half and Full Colours are awarded through an accumulation of academic, there are regular inter-Deme competitions in sport, music and drama throughout the year. In the Middle School, the school blazer carries a coloured school logo on the breast pocket depicting the pupils Deme. Entry at 4+, 5+, 6+ by assessment of the Headmistress, Junior Branch, at age 7, judged by a combination of internal exam and interview

4.
Physiologist
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli

5.
University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL

6.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s

7.
Thomas Henry Huxley
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Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS FLS was an English biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his advocacy of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. Huxleys famous debate in 1860 with Samuel Wilberforce was a key moment in the acceptance of evolution. Huxley had been planning to leave Oxford on the day, but, after an encounter with Robert Chambers. Wilberforce was coached by Richard Owen, against whom Huxley also debated about whether humans were closely related to apes. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwins ideas, such as gradualism, and was undecided about natural selection, instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, he fought against the more extreme versions of religious tradition. Originally coining the term in 1869, Huxley elaborated on agnosticism in 1889 to frame the nature of claims in terms of what is knowable and what is not. Huxley states Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the fundamental axiom of modern science. In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, in matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. Use of that term has continued to the present day, Huxley had little formal schooling and was virtually self-taught. He became perhaps the finest comparative anatomist of the latter 19th century and he worked on invertebrates, clarifying relationships between groups previously little understood. Later, he worked on vertebrates, especially on the relationship between apes and humans, after comparing Archaeopteryx with Compsognathus, he concluded that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs, a theory widely accepted today. Thomas Henry Huxley was born in Ealing, which was then a village in Middlesex and he was the second youngest of eight children of George Huxley and Rachel Withers. Like some other British scientists of the century such as Alfred Russel Wallace. His father was a teacher at Ealing School until it closed. As a result, Thomas left school at age 10, after two years of formal schooling. Despite this unenviable start, Huxley was determined to educate himself and he became one of the great autodidacts of the nineteenth century. At first he read Thomas Carlyle, James Huttons Geology, in his teens he taught himself German, eventually becoming fluent and used by Charles Darwin as a translator of scientific material in German. He learned Latin, and enough Greek to read Aristotle in the original, later on, as a young adult, he made himself an expert, first on invertebrates, and later on vertebrates, all self-taught

8.
William Sharpey
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William Sharpey was a Scottish anatomist and physiologist. The posthumous son of Henry Sharpy and Mary Balfour, his wife, he was born on 1 April 1802 at Arbroath in Forfarshire, his father, a shipowner, was originally from Folkestone in Kent. He was educated at the school in Arbroath and entered the University of Edinburgh, in November 1817, to study the humanities. He began medical studies in 1818, learning anatomy from John Barclay, Sharpey was admitted a member of the Edinburgh College of Surgeons in 1821, and he came to London to continue his anatomical work in the private school of Joshua Brookes in Blenheim Street. Here he made the acquaintance of James Syme, with whom he kept up a correspondence until Symes death in 1870. In August 1823 Sharpey graduated M. D. at Edinburgh with the inaugural thesis De Ventriculi Carcinomate, and then returned to Paris, in 1828 he stayed at Padua to work under Bartolomeo Panizza. He was then in Berlin for nine months working under Karl Rudolphi, and after that was at Heidelberg under Friedrich Tiedemann, the diploma of fellow qualified him to become a teacher in Edinburgh, but in 1831 he again spent three months in Berlin. In 1831–2, with Allen Thomson, who taught physiology, he gave a first course of lectures on anatomy in the extramural school in Edinburgh. The association of Sharpey with Thomson lasted during the remainder of Sharpeys stay in Edinburgh and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1834. In July 1836 Sharpey was appointed to the chair of anatomy, in this capacity Sharpey gave the first complete course of lectures on physiology and minute anatomy. His lectures then continued for 38 years, Sharpey was appointed in 1840 one of the examiners in anatomy at the university of London, and he was also a member of the senate of the University. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 9 May 1839, in 1846 he described the skeletal loadbearing fibres that now bear his name, Sharpeys fibres. He was made a member of its council in 1844, and was appointed one of the secretaries in place of Thomas Bell in November 1853, an office which he held until his retirement. He was also for fifteen years, from April 1861, one of the appointed by the Crown on the general council of medical education and registration. Sharpey was also one of the trustees of the Hunterian Museum, among his pupils were Michael Foster and Burdon Sanderson. Sharpey was a correspondent and friend of Charles Darwin and he was also on the Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science, and was also a Fellow of the Geological Society. Troubled by failure of his eyesight, about 1871 Sharpey retired from the post of secretary of the Royal Society, in 1874 he received a Civil Service Pension from the Government. He died of bronchitis at 50 Torrington Square, London, on Sunday,11 April 1880, from 1829 to 1836 Sharpey was engaged in scientific work, of which the earliest outcome was his paper on ciliary motion, published in 1830

9.
John Newport Langley
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Prof John Newport Langley FRSE LLD was a British physiologist. He was born in Newbury, Berkshire the son of John Langley, the local schoolmaster and he was educated at Exeter Grammar School in Devon. In 1871 he won a place at St Johns College in Cambridge University where he graduated MA before continuing multiple postgraduate studies and he spent his entire career at Cambridge University, beginning as a Demonstrator in lectures in 1875. He began lecturing in Physiology in 1884 and was awarded a professorship in 1903 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1883 and later its vice-president. He was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1916, Langley is known as one of the fathers of the chemical receptor theory, and as the origin of the concept of receptive substance. In 1901, he advanced research in neurotransmitters and chemical receptors and these extracts elicited responses in tissues that were similar to those induced by nerve stimulation. He died in Cambridge on 5 November 1925, the Autonomic Nervous System Elementary Experimental Physiology A brass plaque to Langleys memory exists in Trinty College Chapel at Cambridge University. In 1902 he married Vera Kathleen Forsythe-Grant, katz, B. Archibald Vivian Hill, Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.406

10.
Charles Scott Sherrington
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He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, in 1932 for their work on the functions of neurons. Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was accepted that reflexes occurred as isolated activity within a reflex arc. Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and his alternative explanation of synaptic communication between neurons helped shape our understanding of the central nervous system. However James Norton Sherrington was an ironmonger and artists colourman in Great Yarmouth, not a doctor, in the 1861 census, Charles is recorded as Charles Scott with Anne Sherrington as the head and Caleb Rose. He was brought up in this household with Caleb recorded as head in 1871, although Ann, the relationship between Charles and his childhood family is unknown. During the 1860s the whole family moved to Anglesea Road, Ipswich, Caleb Rose was noteworthy as both a classical scholar and an archaeologist. At the familys Edgehill House in Ipswich one could find a selection of paintings, books. Through Roses interest in the Norwich School of Painters, Sherrington gained a love of art and it was this environment that fostered Sherringtons academic sense of wonder. Even before matriculation, the young Sherrington had read Johannes Müllers Elements of Physiology, the book was given to him by Caleb Rose. Sherrington entered Ipswich School in 1871, Thomas Ashe, a famous English poet, worked at the school. Ashe served as an inspiration to Sherrington, the former instilling a love of classics, Rose had pushed Sherrington towards medicine. Sherrington first began to study with the Royal College of Surgeons of England and he also sought to study at Cambridge, but a bank failure had devastated the familys finances. Sherrington elected to enroll at St Thomas Hospital in September 1876 as a perpetual pupil and he did so in order to allow his two younger brothers to do so ahead of him. Medical studies at St. Thomass Hospital were intertwined with studies at Gonville, Physiology was Sherringtons chosen major at Cambridge. There, he studied under the father of British physiology, Sir Michael Foster, Sherrington played football for his grammar school, and for Ipswich Town Football Club, rugby St. Thomass, was on the rowing team at Oxford. During June 1875, Sherrington passed his examination in general education at the Royal College. This preliminary exam was required for Fellowship, and also exempted him from an exam for the Membership. In April 1878, he passed his Primary Examination for the Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons, in October 1879, Sherrington entered Cambridge as a non-collegiate student

11.
Henry Newell Martin
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Henry Newell Martin, FRS was a British physiologist. He was born in Newry, County Down, the son of Henry Martin, a Congregational minister, in 1876 he was appointed to the first professorship of physiology at Johns Hopkins University in the United States. He co-wrote with Thomas Huxley Practical instruction in elementary biology and he developed the first isolated mammalian heart lung preparation which Starling later used to great effect. Martins own scientific career was curtailed around 1893 due to alcoholism, in 1879, he married Hetty Cary, widow of Confederate General John Pegram. The structure of the mucous membrane. A course of instruction in elementary biology. London, UK, Macmillan and Co. p.290, the study and teaching of biology. The normal respiratory movements of the frog, and the influence upon its respiratory centre of stimulation of the optic lobes, stud Biol Lab Johns Hopkins University. The human body, an account of its structure and activities, new York, Henry Holt and Co. A new method of studying the mammalian heart, stud Biol Lab Johns Hopkins University, 119–130. Observations on the influence of variations of arterial pressure upon the rate of beat of the mammalian heart. Stud Biol Lab Johns Hopkins University, the direct influence of gradual variations of temperature upon the rate of beat of the dogs heart. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Martin, H. Newell, Stevens, Lewis T. The action of alcohol upon the dogs heart. Stud Biol Lab Johns Hopkins University, 477–494, a correction of certain statements published in the Zoophilist also A castigation and an appeal. A beginners text-book of anatomy, physiology and hygiene, new York, Henry Holt and Co. Effects of bleeding and starvation upon the proteids of the blood, baltimore, MD, The Johns Hopkins Press. H. Newell Martin bibliography, medicalarchives. jhmi. edu, accessed 6 May 2014

12.
Keith Lucas (scientist)
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Keith Lucas FRS was a British scientist who worked at Trinity College, Cambridge doing pioneering work in Neuroscience. He was the son of Francis Robert and Katharine Mary Lucas and he was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge where he graduated BA with a first-class in Natural Sciences in 1901. In 1902 he worked in New Zealand, on the survey of the lakes. In 1907 he became an additional University Demonstrator in physiology, and he delivered the Royal Society Croonian Lecture in 1912. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1913, his citation read. Has made important contributions to science, especially in relation to the processes of excitation. Much of the work was made possible by the highly ingenious improvements designed by the author in the apparatus used. They had three sons, Professors Alan Keith-Lucas, David Keith-Lucas and Bryan Keith-Lucas Casualty Details

13.
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position

14.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems

15.
Huntingdonshire
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Huntingdonshire is a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire, as well as a historic county of England. Its council is based in Huntingdon and the district includes the towns of St Ives, Godmanchester, St Neots. The district population was recorded as 169,508 at the 2011 Census, in 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888 Huntingdonshire became an administrative county, with the new County Council taking over administrative functions from the Quarter Sessions. The area in the north of the county forming part of the borough of Peterborough became instead part of the Soke of Peterborough administrative county. Also at this time St Neots expanded westward over the river into Eaton Ford, in 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, Huntingdon and Peterborough merged with Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely to form the new non-metropolitan county of Cambridgeshire. The district was renamed Huntingdonshire on 1 October 1984, by resolution of the district council, original historical documents relating to Huntingdonshire are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Huntingdon. The Final Recommendations of the Commission for Cambridgeshire recommended no change in the status quo in Cambridgeshire, the districts of Peterborough and Huntingdonshire were referred back to the commission for a reconsideration in 1995. In 2002 it established an annual Huntingdonshire Day on 25 April, elections to the district council are held in three out of every four years, with one third of the 52 seats on the council being elected at each election. According to documents from 1813, Bury Fen Bandy Club was undefeated for 100 years, a member of the club, Charles Tebbutt, wrote down the first official rules in 1882 and helped spread the popularity of the sport to many countries. Boston, childrens writer, lived in Huntingdonshire from 1937 until her death, john Butcher, Conservative MP and junior minister, was raised in Huntingdonshire and attended Huntingdon Grammar School. Catherine of Aragon, previously Queen of England, died in confinement at Kimbolton Castle, Charles Bowen Cooke, locomotive engineer, was born at Orton Longueville. Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland 1653–58, was educated at Huntingdon Grammar School, alice and Thomas Curwen were active in the county as Quaker preachers in 1677–78. William Henry Fellowes of Ramsey Abbey, was a longstanding MP for Huntingdon, nicholas Ferrar, scholar, courtier and cleric, spent the last eleven years of his life at Little Gidding. His Anglican community there inspired the poem in T. S. Eliots Four Quartets. Robert Fox, antiquary and local historian, was born and died at Godmanchester, olinthus Gregory, mathematician and editor, was born at Yaxley. Henry of Saltrey, a Huntingdonshire Cistercian monk, wrote Tractatus de Purgatorio Sancti Patricii in about 1180–84, ann Jebb, political reformer and radical writer, was born at Kings Ripton. Michael Lawrence, childrens writer, is best known for the Jiggy McCue series, john Major, politician and Prime Minister, was MP for Huntingdonshire. Chris Morris, satirist known for the television series Brass Eye, philip Nye, Independent theologian, became the incumbent of Kimbolton and an adviser to Oliver Cromwell

16.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million

17.
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions

18.
John Collier (Pre-Raphaelite painter)
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The Honourable John Maler Collier OBE RP ROI was a leading English artist, and an author. He painted in the Pre-Raphaelite style, and was one of the most prominent portrait painters of his generation, both his marriages were to daughters of Thomas Henry Huxley. He studied painting at the Munich Academy where he enrolled on 14 April 1875 at the age of 25, Collier was from a talented and successful family. His grandfather, John Collier, was a Quaker merchant who became a Member of Parliament and his father was created the first Lord Monkswell. He was also a member of the Royal Society of British Artists, John Colliers elder brother, the second Lord Monkswell, was Under-Secretary of State for War and Chairman of the London County Council. In due course, Collier became a part of the family of Thomas Henry Huxley PC. Collier married two of Huxleys daughters and was on terms of friendship with his son, the writer Leonard Huxley. Colliers first wife, in 1879, was Marian Huxley and she was a painter who studied, like her husband, at the Slade and exhibited at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. After the birth of their child, a daughter, she suffered severe post-natal depression and was taken to Paris for treatment where, however, she contracted pneumonia. Colliers daughter by his first marriage, Joyce, was a portrait miniaturist, in 1889 Collier married Madys younger sister Ethel Huxley. Until the Deceased Wifes Sisters Marriage Act 1907 such a marriage was not possible in England, by his second wife he had a daughter and a son, Sir Laurence Collier, who was the British Ambassador to Norway 1941–51. Colliers range of subjects was broad. In 1893, for example, his subjects included Lovelace Stamer, Bishop of Shrewsbury, Sir John Lubbock FRS, A N Hornby and his commissioned portrait of the Duke of York as Master of Trinity House in 1901, and the Prince of Wales were his major royal portraits. The latter work was hung in Durbar Hall, Jodhpur, Rajputana, thorley and the Provost of Eton. Clark reports a total of thirty-two Huxley family portraits during the half-century after his first marriage, a photocopy of John Colliers Sitters Book can be consulted in the Heinz Archive and Library, National Portrait Gallery. This is the artists own record of all his portraits, including name of subject, date, fee charged. His entry in the Dictionary of National Biography compares his work to that of Frank Holl because of its solemnity, the Dictionary of Portrait Painters in Britain up to 1920 describes his portraits as painterly works with a fresh use of light and colour. Sixteen of John Colliers paintings are now in the collections of the National Portrait Gallery in London, four of the National Portrait Gallery paintings were in December 1997 on display, John Burns, Sir William Huggins, Thomas Huxley and Charles Darwin

19.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians

20.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position

21.
British Science Association
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The British Science Association is a charity and learned society founded in 1831 to aid in the promotion and development of science. Until 2009 it was known as the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Association was founded in 1831 and modelled on the German Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. The prime mover was Reverend William Vernon Harcourt, following a suggestion by Sir David Brewster, Brewster, Charles Babbage, William Whewell and J. F. W. Johnston are also considered to be founding members. The first meeting was held in York on Tuesday 27 September 1831 with various scientific papers being presented on the following days and it was chaired by Viscount Milton, President of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, and upwards of 300 gentlemen attended the meeting. The newspaper published the names of over a hundred of those attending, from that date onwards a meeting was held annually at a place chosen at a previous meeting. In 1832, for example, the meeting was held in Oxford, by this stage the Association had four sections, Physics, Chemistry, Geology and Natural History. A very important decision in the Association’s history was made in 1842 when it was resolved to create a “physical observatory”, a building that became well known as the Kew Observatory was taken on for the purpose and Francis Ronalds was chosen as the inaugural Honorary Director. Kew Observatory quickly became one of the most renowned meteorological and geomagnetic observatories in the world, one of the most famous events linked to the Association Meeting was an exchange between Thomas Henry Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce in 1860. Although a number of newspapers made passing references to the exchange, a need for standards arose with the submarine telegraph industry. The undertaking was suggested to the BA by William Thomson, josiah Latimer Clark and Fleeming Jenkin made preparations. Thomson, with his students, found that copper, contaminated with arsenic. The chemist Augustus Matthiessen contributed an appendix to the final 1873 report that showed temperature-dependence of alloys, the Association introduced the British Association screw threads, a series of screw thread standards in sizes from 0. 25mm up to 6mm, in 1884. The standards were ahead of their time in that they were based on the metric system and they remained in general use for instruments and small assemblies until metrication in the 1970s. A decision that became notorious in the century was made in 1878 when a committee of the Association recommended against constructing Charles Babbages analytical engine. The Association was parodied by English novelist Charles Dickens as The Mudfog Society for the Advancement of Everything in The Mudfog Papers, the Associations main aim is to improve the perception of science and scientists in the UK. Prof Sir George Porter, on becoming President in September 1985, was scathing against so-called soft sciences such as psychology and he claimed this was damaging the public perception of science. We run the risk of doing neither well, universities are underfunded, and must not be seen simply as a substitute for National Service to keep youngsters off the dole queue. He also said scientists have to be careful and consider the implications of what they are seeking to achieve

22.
London University (UK Parliament constituency)
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London University was a university constituency electing one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, from 1868 to 1950. This university constituency was created by the Reform Act 1867, the first election took place during the United Kingdom general election,1868. The constituency returned one Member of Parliament, using the first past the post electoral system, the constituency was not a physical area. Its electorate consisted of the graduates of the University of London, before 1918 only male graduates qualified. From 1918 all graduates qualified, including women over thirty, the constituency was almost abolished in 1918. However, during consideration of the legislation it was agreed that London University should continue to one member. The University of Wales was also given its own seat, the other universities, which were still to be combined, had their proposed representation reduced to two members. All the university constituencies were abolished in 1950, by the Representation of the People Act 1948 and this is a list of people who have represented this University in the Parliament of the United Kingdom between 1868 and 1950. Notes, -1 Lowe was elevated to the peerage as The 1st Viscount Sherbrooke,2 Lubbock was elevated to the peerage as The 1st Baron Avebury. 3 Russell-Wells died on 14 July 1924 – the seat was vacant at dissolution,4 Graham-Little, as an Independent MP, supported the National Governments in office from 1931 until the formation of the wartime coalition in 1940. He also supported Winston Churchills caretaker government in 1945 and his continuation in office if he had won the 1945 election. Graham-Little is therefore classified as a National Independent MP from 1931, general Elections, from 1918 when most constituencies polled on the same day, were on different polling days from territorial constituencies. The polls for university constituencies were open for five days, coalition Conservative is considered to be equivalent to Conservative, as is National Independent equivalent to Independent. W. S. Craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1832–1885, compiled and edited by F. W. S, craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1885–1918, compiled and edited by F. W. S. Craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1918–1949, compiled and edited by F. W. S

23.
United Kingdom general election, 1900
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The United Kingdom general election of 1900 was held between 26 September and 24 October 1900, following the dissolution of Parliament on 25 September. Also known as the election, it was held at a time when it was widely believed that the Second Boer War had effectively been won. The Conservatives, led by Lord Salisbury with their Liberal Unionist allies, secured a majority of 130. This was largely due to the Conservatives winning 163 uncontested seats, the Labour Representation Committee, later to become the Labour Party, participated in a general election for the first time even though they had only been in existence for a few months. As a result, Keir Hardie and Richard Bell were the only LRC members of parliament in 1900 and this was the first time that Winston Churchill was elected to the House of Commons. He had stood in the seat, Oldham, in a by-election the previous year. It was also the general election of the Victorian era. All parties with more than 1,000 votes shown, mPs elected in the United Kingdom general election,1900 Parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom 1885–1918 F. W. S. Craig, British Electoral Facts, 1832-1987. The life of Joseph Chamberlain, volume Three 1895-1900, pp 571-92 on dissolving Parliament, newcastle and the Boer War, Regional Reactions to an Imperial War. Online Marsh, Peter T. Joseph Chamberlain, Entrepreneur in Politics pp 492-502, the Conservative party, patriotism, and British politics, the case of the general election of 1900. Journal of British Studies 40#1, 107-145

24.
Liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres

25.
United Kingdom general election, 1906
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The United Kingdom general election of 1906 was held from 12 January-8 February 1906. The Liberals, led by Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman, won a majority at the election. The election saw a 5. 4% swing from the Conservative Party to the Liberal Party, the Labour Representation Committee was far more successful than at the 1900 and after the election would be renamed the Labour Party with 29 MPs and Keir Hardie as leader. The Irish Parliamentary Party, led by John Redmond, achieved its seats with a low number of votes. Many working-class people saw this as a threat to the price of food, hence the debate was nicknamed Big Loaf, the Liberals landslide victory of 125 seats over all other parties led to the passing of social legislation known as the Liberal reforms. This was the last election in which the Liberals won a majority in the House of Commons. A coalition between the Conservative and Liberal Unionist parties had governed the United Kingdom since the election of 1895. Arthur Balfour had served as Prime Minister from 1902 until 5 December 1905, Balfour had hoped that under a Liberal government splits would reemerge, which would therefore help the Conservative Party achieve victory at the next election. The Unionist government had become divided over the issue of free trade. This culminated in Joseph Chamberlains resignation from the government in May 1903 to campaign for reform in order to protect British industry from foreign competition. This division was in contrast to the Liberal Partys belief in free trade, the issue of free trade became the feature of the Liberal campaign, under the slogan ‘big loaf’ under a Liberal government, ‘little loaf’ under a Conservative government. Dont be deceived by Tory tricks, the Boer War had also contributed to the unpopularity of the Conservative and Unionist government. The war had also unearthed the poor state of the country in the early 1900s. The Conservative and Unionist Prime Minister, Arthur Balfour had been blamed over the issue of ‘Chinese Slavery’, the local school boards that they largely controlled were abolished and replaced by county governments that were usually controlled by Anglicans. Worst of all the hated Anglican schools would now receive funding from taxes that everyone had to pay. One tactic was to refuse to pay local taxes, the education issue played a major role in the Liberal victory in 1906, as Dissenter (nonconformist( Conservatives punished their old party and voted Liberal. However the Liberals failed repeatedly to repeal or modify the 1902 law, the landslide Liberal victory led to many Conservative and Unionist MPs losing what had previously been regarded as safe seats. This resulted in prominent Conservative ministers being unseated from their constituencies, the result in Manchester East saw a large 22. 4% swing to the Liberal candidate Thomas Gardner Horridge, much larger than the national 5. 4% swing to the Liberals

26.
Ray Lankester
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Sir Edwin Ray Lankester KCB FRS was a British zoologist. An invertebrate zoologist and evolutionary biologist, he held chairs at University College London and he was the third Director of the Natural History Museum, and was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Ray Lankester was born on 15 May 1847 on Burlington Street in London, the son of Edwin Lankester, a coroner and doctor-naturalist who helped abolish cholera in London, and his wife Phebe Pope. Ray Lankester was probably named after the naturalist John Ray, his father had just edited the memorials of John Ray for the Ray Society, in 1855 Ray went to boarding school at Leatherhead, and in 1858 to St Pauls School. Lankester achieved first-class honours in 1868 and his education was rounded off by study visits to Vienna, Leipzig and Jena, and he did some work at the Stazione Zoologica at Naples. He took the examination to become a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, Lankester therefore had a far better education than most English biologists of the previous generation, such as Huxley, Wallace and Bates. Even so, it could be argued that the influence of his father Edwin and his friends were just as important. Huxley was a friend of the family, and whilst still a child Ray met Hooker, Henfrey, Clifford, Gosse, Owen, Forbes, Carpenter, Lyell, Murchison, Henslow. He was a man with a large presence, of warm human sympathies. His interventions, responses and advocacies were often colourful and forceful, as befitted an admirer of Huxley, in his personal manner he was not so adept as Huxley, and he made enemies by his rudeness. This undoubtedly damaged and limited the second half of his career, Lankester appears, thinly disguised, in several novels. He is the model for Sir Roderick Dover in H. G. Wells Marriage, and in Robert Briffaults Europa and he died in London on 15 August 1929. A finely decorated memorial plaque to him can be seen at the Golders Green Crematorium, Hoop Lane, Lankester became a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, in 1873. He co-edited the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science which his father had founded, from 1869 until his death he edited this journal. He worked as one of Huxleys team at the new buildings in South Kensington and he was a founder in 1884 of the Marine Biological Association and served as its second President between 1890 and 1929. Influential as teacher and writer on biological theories, comparative anatomy, and evolution, Lankester studied the protozoa, mollusca and he was knighted in 1907, awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1913, and the Linnean Society of Londons Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908. At University College London Lankester taught W. F. R, Weldon, who went on to succeed him in the chair at UCL. Another interesting student was Alfred Gibbs Bourne, who went on to senior positions in biology

27.
Stanford University School of Medicine
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Stanford University School of Medicine is the medical school of Stanford University and is located in Stanford, California. Due to this descent, it ranks as the oldest medical school in the Western United States, the medical school moved to the Stanford campus near Palo Alto, California in 1959. The School of Medicine, along with Stanford Health Care and Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital, is part of Stanford Medicine and it is a research-intensive institution that emphasizes medical innovation, novel methods, discoveries, and interventions in its integrated curriculum. In 1855, Illinois physician Elias Samuel Cooper moved to San Francisco in the wake of the California Gold Rush, Lane also built a hospital and a nursing school and made provision for the creation of Lane Medical Library. In 1908, Cooper Medical College was deeded to Stanford University as a gift and it became Stanfords medical institution, initially called the Stanford Medical Department and later the Stanford University School of Medicine. The school expanded and built up a reputation for excellence and providing cutting edge clinical care, in the 1950s, the Stanford Board of Trustees decided to move the school to the Stanford main campus near Palo Alto. The move was completed in 1959, in the 1980s the Medical Center launched a major expansion program. A new hospital was added in 1989 with 20 new operating rooms, state of the art intensive care and inpatient units, the Beckman Center for Molecular and Genetic Medicine opened in May 1989 as an interdisciplinary center focusing on the molecular and genetic basis of disease. The Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital was completed in 1991, adding even more diversity to Stanford Medicine, in the early years of the 21st century the School of Medicine underwent rapid construction to further expand teaching and clinical opportunities. Lokey Stem Cell Research Building also opened in 2010, it is the largest stem cell, the Stem Cell Research Building is the first of the planned Stanford Institutes of Medicine. In addition to research facilities it houses offices for faculty from the Stanford Cancer Center and hotel space offices for visiting researchers. The School of Medicines programs include more than 1,250 enrolled students, matriculating in MD, MD/PhD, PhD, and master’s programs, most Stanford medical students elect to extend their training over five or more years in order to pursue more in-depth research. Approximately 19 percent of its MD students graduate with a joint MD/PhD degree while at Stanford, the School of Medicine is currently in midst of a process to transform its medical curriculum. The School of Medicine also has a Physician Assistant program that was added in 1971 and it was one of the first accredited physician assistant programs in California. It is offered in association with Foothill College, the program has graduated more than 1,300 physician assistants since its opening. Most graduates fulfill the mission of serving underserved medical communities. In the 2018 U. S. News & World Report rankings, Stanford was ranked 2nd in the nation for research, admissions to Stanford is highly competitive. The acceptance rate is the second-lowest in the country at 2. 5%, in 2016,7,512 people applied, and 516 were interviewed

28.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush

29.
Eduard August von Regel
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Eduard August von Regel, Russian, Эдуард Август Фон Регель, was a German horticulturalist and botanist. He ended his career serving as the Director of the Russian Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Petersburg, as a result of naturalists and explorers sending back biological collections, Regel was able to describe and name many previously unknown species from frontiers around the world. Regel was the son of the teacher and garrison-preacher Ludwig A. Regel, already as a child he liked growing fruits and learnt to prune apple trees from a gardener of his grandfather Döring and cultivated the garden of his parents. He visited the Gymnasium at Gotha but left without Abitur Regel earned a degree from the University of Bonn. At 15, Regel began his career as an apprentice at the Royal Garden Limonaia in Gotha in 1830-1833 and he then worked in the botanical gardens in Bonn and Berlin. In 1842 he moved to Switzerland to become the head of the Old Botanical Garden, during this time he also worked as a lecturer of science. In 1852 he founded the magazine Gartenflora, in which he described new species. In 1855 Regel moved to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he worked as a research director. From 1875 until his death he served as the director of the Imperial Botanical Garden, while there, he oversaw the creation of some of the gardens and the facility laboratory. He was a founder and vice-president of the Russian Gardening Society, in 1875 he became an associate member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Volume 111 of Curtiss Botanical Magazine is dedicated to him, Regel died in St. Petersburg in 1892 and was buried at the Smolenskoe Lutheran Cemetery. Regel described and named over 3000 plant species, schauer named the genus Regelia in honor of Regel. It is a group of flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae which are endemic to the southwest Australia, in 1854, Planchon named the species Cestrum regeli after him, Robert Lynch in 1904 a subsection of Iris Regel was an extremely prolific scientist and author. In addition to writing a number of reference works in botany. Cultur der Pflanzen unserer höheren Gebirge sowie des hohen Nordens, Erlangen 1856 Allgemeines Gartenbuch 2 Vols, zurich 1855,1868 Monographia Betulacearum Tentamen florae ussuriensis,1861 von Regel, Eduard August. Tentamen rosarum monographiae,1877 Richard Maack Russian botanist, co-author, naturalist, johann Albert von Regel Swiss born Russian Physician, botanist, traveler

30.
Curtis's Botanical Magazine
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The Botanical Magazine, or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is referred to by the subsequent name Curtiss Botanical Magazine. Each of the issues contains a description, in yet accessible language. Many plants received their first publication on the pages, and the description given was enhanced by the keenly detailed illustrations, the first issue, published on 1 February 1787, was begun by William Curtis, as both an illustrated gardening and botanical journal. Curtis was an apothecary and botanist who held a position at Kew Gardens, the publication familiarized its readers with ornamental and exotic plants, which it presented in octavo format. Artists who had given over their flower paintings to an affluent audience. The illustrations were initially hand-coloured prints, taken from copper engravings, identification by a general reader was given in exploded details, some of which were given as a section. This was accompanied by a page or two of text describing the properties, history, growth characteristics, and some common names for the species. The first volumes illustrations were mostly by Sydenham Edwards, a dispute with the editors saw his departure to start the rival The Botanical Register. The credit for the first plate goes to James Sowerby, as did a dozen of Edwards contributions, the first thirty volumes used copper engraving to provide the plates, the hand colouring of these was performed by up to thirty people. An issue might have a circulation of 3000 copies, with 3 plates in each, as costs of production rose, and demand increased, results would be variable within a run. The later use of machine colouring would provide uniformity to the artists work, the magazine has been considered to be the premier journal for early botanical illustration. When Curtis died, having completed 13 volumes, his friend John Sims became editor between 1801 and 1807 and changed the name, William Hooker was the editor from 1826, bringing to it his experience as a botanist, and as author of the rival magazine, Exotic Botany. W. J. Hooker brought the artist Walter Hood Fitch to the magazine, Joseph Dalton Hooker followed his father, becoming the Director of Kew Gardens in 1865, and editor of its magazine. She rendered almost 100 illustrations for publication during the period 1878–1880, helping to keep the magazine viable until the principal artist. Like Thiselton-Dyer, Smith was brought to the magazine by Hooker, between 1878 and 1923 Smith drew over 2,300 plates for Curtiss. Her exceptional contribution was to see her become the first botanic artist of Kew, the scientific value of the figures and illustration, a source of pride and notability for the magazine, required the careful training of the illustrators. The magazine is the greatest serial of botanical illustration yet produced, other 19th century artists who contributed largely to the magazine include Augusta Innes Withers and Anne Henslow Barnard, Joseph Dalton Hookers sister-in-law, who was active in the period 1879–1894

31.
Botanical name
–
The purpose of a formal name is to have a single name that is accepted and used worldwide for a particular plant or plant group. Later, the plant was introduced worldwide, bringing it contact with more languages. English names for plant species include, daisy, English daisy. The cultivar Bellis perennis Aucubifolia is a golden-variegated horticultural selection of this species, the botanical name itself is fixed by a type, which is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name is formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon. For example, the view of the family Malvaceae has been expanded in some modern approaches to include what were formerly considered to be several closely related families. Some botanical names refer to groups that are stable while for other names a careful check is needed to see which circumscription is being used. Depending on rank, botanical names may be in one part, the names of cultivated plants are not necessarily similar to the botanical names, since they may instead involve unambiguous common names of species or genera. A botanical name in three parts, i. e. an infraspecific name needs a connecting term to indicate rank, in the Calystegia example above, this is subsp. for subspecies. In botany there are ranks below that of species. A name of a subdivision of a genus also needs a connecting term, the connecting term is not part of the name itself. A taxon may be indicated by a listing in more than three parts, Saxifraga aizoon var. aizoon subvar, brevifolia f. multicaulis subf. surculosa Engl. But this is a classification, not a botanical name. The botanical name is Saxifraga aizoon subf. surculosa Engl, generic, specific, and infraspecific botanical names are usually printed in italics. For botanical nomenclature, the ICN prescribes a two-part name or binary name for any taxon below the rank of genus down to, taxa below the rank of species get a three part. A binary name consists of the name of a genus and an epithet, in the case of a species this is a specific epithet, Bellis perennis is the name of a species, in which perennis is the specific epithet. There is no connecting term involved, to indicate the rank, in the case of a subdivision of a genus the name consists of the name of a genus and a subdivisional epithet. A connecting term should be placed before the subdivisional epithet to indicate the rank, falcataria In the case of cultivated plants, there is an additional epithet which is an often non-Latin part, not written in italics

32.
Iris fosteriana
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Iris fosteriana is a species in the genus Iris, subgenus Scorpiris. It was named after Michael Foster by Dr Aitchison, and found in Pendjeh, first described in transactions of the Linnean Society of London in April 1888 and then published by John Gilbert Baker in Botanical Magazine in 1892. Iris fosteriana is a name by the RHS. It has many similarities with other species in the Xiphium. It has a bulb with a long thin neck. Below the bulb are tuberous roots that are white, thin and 6in long, the fragile roots mean that the bulb does not take transplanting very well. In Spring, it has 1 or 2 long tubed flowers that are 4–5 cm wide with downard-turned rich purple standards, the flowers do not produce any scent. After flowering, it produces seeds, but there is no aril on the seed and it has deeply channeled mid-green leaves which have a silver edge. Which start growing in early december, by March, they have turned grey near the base, and mid-green at the tops. They reach between 4-8mm wide and grow up to 18 cm long, the leaves when mature hide the stem. The plant reaches a height of approximately 10–15 cm tall when in bloom. Best grown in the uk, in a house or bulb frame. Found in the soils of Gulran, Afghanistan, at an altitude of about 4,000 feet. It is also found on the dry steppes of North East Iran, which also includes the former Russian state of Turkmenistan. Media related to Iris fosteriana at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Iris fosteriana at Wikispecies

33.
Turkmenistan
–
Turkmenistan has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times, Merv was one of the cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, Turkmenistan possesses the worlds fourth largest reserves of natural gas resources. Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert, since 1993, citizens have received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov until his death in 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected president in 2007. According to Human Rights Watch, Turkmenistan remains one of the world’s most repressive countries, after suspending the death penalty, the use of capital punishment was formally abolished in the 2008 constitution. Historically inhabited by the Indo-Iranians, the history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran. In the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia, part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population. In the 10th century, the name Turkmen was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam, There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan. Turkmen soldiers in the service of the played a important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan. In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire, in the next century, the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, by the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates, Khiva and Bukhoro. Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period, in the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that groups dispersal by the Uzbek rulers. According to Paul R. Spickard, Prior to the Russian conquest, Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century. From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk, the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates, in 1916 the Russian Empires participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia. In 1924 the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from the tsarist province of Transcaspia, by the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life. The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people, during the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events

34.
The London Gazette
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The London Gazette claims to be the oldest surviving English newspaper and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the UK, having been first published on 7 November 1665 as The Oxford Gazette. This claim is made by the Stamford Mercury and Berrows Worcester Journal. It does not have a large circulation, in turn, The London Gazette carries not only notices of UK-wide interest, but also those relating specifically to entities or people in England and Wales. However, certain notices that are only of specific interest to Scotland or Northern Ireland are also required to be published in The London Gazette, the London, Edinburgh and Belfast Gazettes are published by TSO on behalf of Her Majestys Stationery Office. They are subject to Crown Copyright, the London Gazette is published each weekday, except for Bank Holidays. The official Gazettes are published by The Stationery Office, the content, apart from insolvency notices, is available in a number of machine-readable formats, including XML and XML/RDFa via Atom feed. The London Gazette was first published as The Oxford Gazette on 7 November 1665. Charles II and the Royal Court had moved to Oxford to escape the Great Plague of London, the Gazette was Published by Authority by Henry Muddiman, and its first publication is noted by Samuel Pepys in his diary. The King returned to London as the plague dissipated, and the Gazette moved too, the Gazette was not a newspaper in the modern sense, it was sent by post to subscribers, not printed for sale to the general public. Her Majestys Stationery Office took over the publication of the Gazette in 1889, publication of the Gazette was transferred to the private sector, under government supervision, in the 1990s, when HMSO was sold and renamed The Stationery Office. In time of war, dispatches from the conflicts are published in The London Gazette. People referred to are said to have mentioned in dispatches. When members of the forces are promoted, and these promotions are published here. Man tally-ho, Miss piano, Wife silk and satin, Boy Greek and Latin, the phrase gazetted fortune hunter is also probably derived from this. Notices of engagement and marriage were also published in the Gazette. Gazettes, modelled on The London Gazette, were issued for most British colonial possessions

35.
Saint Louis, Missouri
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area

36.
Missouri Botanical Garden
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The Missouri Botanical Garden is a botanical garden located at 4344 Shaw Boulevard in St. Louis, Missouri. It is also informally as Shaws Garden for founder and philanthropist Henry Shaw. Founded in 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden is one of the oldest botanical institutions in the United States and a National Historic Landmark. as well as the National Register of Historic Places. The Garden is a center for research and science education of international repute, as well as an oasis in the city of St. Louis. It is adjacent to Tower Grove Park, another of Shaw’s legacies, in 1983, the Botanical Garden was added as the fourth subdistrict of the Metropolitan Zoological Park and Museum District. For part of 2006, the Missouri Botanical Garden featured Glass in the Garden, four pieces were purchased to remain at the gardens. In 2008 sculptures of the French artist Niki de Saint Phalle were placed throughout the garden, in 2009, the 150th anniversary of the Garden was celebrated, including a floral clock display. After 40 years of service to the Garden, Dr. Peter Raven retired from his presidential post on September 1,2010, Dr. Peter Wyse Jackson replaced him as President. The Garden is a place for many cultural festivals, including the Japanese Festival. During this time, there are showcases of the cultures botanics as well as arts, crafts, music. The Japanese Festival features sumo wrestling, taiko drumming, koma-mawashi top spinning, the Garden is known for its bonsai growing, which can be seen all year round, but is highlighted during the multiple Asian festivals. Major garden features include, Tower Grove House and Herb Garden - Shaws Victorian country house designed by prominent local architect George I, victory of Science Over Ignorance - Marble statue by Carlo Nicoli, a copy of the original by Vincenzo Consani in the Pitti Palace, Florence. Linnean House - Said to be the oldest continually operated greenhouse west of the Mississippi River, originally Shaws orangery, in the late 1930s it was converted to house mostly camellias. Gladney Rose Garden - Circular rose garden with arbors, climatron and Reflecting Pools - the worlds first geodesic dome greenhouse designed by architect and engineer Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc, lowland rain forest with approximately 1500 plants. English Woodland Garden - aconite, azaleas, bluebells, dogwoods, hosta, trillium, seiwa-en Japanese Garden - is a 14-acre chisen kaiyu-shiki with lawns and path set around a 4-acre central lake. It was designed by Koichi Kawana and is the largest Japanese Garden in North America, blanke Boxwood Garden - walled parterre with a fine boxwood collection. Ottoman garden with features and xeriscape. Missouri Botanical Garden also operates the Sophia M. Sachs Butterfly House in Chesterfield, the Butterfly House includes an 8, 000-square-foot indoor butterfly conservatory as well as an outdoor butterfly garden

37.
Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker OM GCSI CB PRS was one of the greatest British botanists and explorers of the 19th century. He was a founder of botany and Charles Darwins closest friend. For twenty years he served as director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, succeeding his father, William Jackson Hooker, Hooker was born in Halesworth, Suffolk, England. From age seven, Hooker attended his fathers lectures at Glasgow University, taking an early interest in plant distribution and he was educated at the Glasgow High School and went on to study medicine at Glasgow University, graduating M. D. in 1839. In 1851 he married Frances Harriet Henslow, daughter of Darwins mentor and they had four sons and three daughters, William Henslow Hooker Harriet Anne Hooker married William Turner Thiselton-Dyer Charles Paget Hooker Maria Elizabeth Hooker died aged 6. Brian Harvey Hodgson Hooker Reginald Hawthorn Hooker statistician Grace Ellen Hooker Frances Harriet Henslows contribution to his work included translating French botanical texts which Hooker edited. After his first wifes death in 1874, in 1876 he married Lady Hyacinth Jardine, daughter of William Samuel Symonds and they had two sons, Joseph Symonds Hooker Richard Symonds Hooker. Joseph Hooker died in his sleep at midnight at home, the Camp, Sunningdale in Berkshire, on 10 December 1911 after a short, the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey offered a grave near Darwins in the nave but also insisted that Hooker be cremated before. His memorial tablet in the church, with a motif of five plants, was designed by Matilds Smith. Hookers first expedition, led by James Clark Ross, consisted of two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, it was the last major voyage of exploration made entirely under sail, Hooker was the youngest of the 128-man crew. He sailed on the Erebus and was assistant to Robert McCormick, the ships sailed on 30 September 1839. Before journeying to Antarctica they visited Madeira, Tenerife, Santiago and Quail Island in the Cape Verde archipelago, St Paul Rocks, Trinidade east of Brazil, St Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope. Hooker made plant collections at each location and while travelling drew these and specimens of algae, from the Cape they entered the southern ocean. Their first stop was the Crozet Islands where they set down on Possession Island to deliver coffee to sealers and they departed for the Kerguelen Islands where they would spend several days. The expedition spent some time in Hobart, Van Diemens Land, and then moved on to the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island, and onward to Antarctica to locate the South Magnetic Pole. After spending 5 months in the Antarctic they returned to resupply in Hobart, then went on to Sydney, and they left New Zealand to return to Antarctica. They made a landing at Cockburn Island and after leaving the Antarctic, stopped at the Cape, St Helena and Ascension Island. The ships arrived back in England on 4 September 1843, the voyage had been a success for Ross as it was the first to confirm the existence of the southern continent, in 1845, Hooker applied for the Chair of Botany at the University of Edinburgh

38.
International Plant Names Index
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The International Plant Names Index describes itself as a database of the names and associated basic bibliographical details of seed plants, ferns and lycophytes. Coverage of plant names is best at the rank of species, the IPNI also maintains a list of standardized author abbreviations. These were initially based on Brummitt & Powell, but new names, IPNI is the product of a collaboration between The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, The Harvard University Herbaria, and the Australian National Herbarium. The IPNI database is a collection of the names registered by the three cooperating institutions and they work towards standardizing the information, the standard of author abbreviations recommended by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants is Brummitt and Powell’s Authors of Plant Names. A digital and continually updated list of authors and abbreviations can be consulted online at IPNI, the IPNI provides names that have appeared in scholarly publications, with the objective of providing an index of published names rather than prescribing the accepted botanical nomenclature. The Plant List, a project which was unveiled in 2010. The use of IPNI is free of charge, a similar project, which lists names of fungi, is the Index Fungorum. The Plant List Official website of the IPNI Plant Name search – IPNI search for plant names Author search – IPNI search for author names and standard abbreviations

39.
Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available

Huntingdon
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Huntingdon is a market town in Cambridgeshire, England. The town was chartered by King John in 1205 and it is the traditional county town of Huntingdonshire and the seat of the Huntingdonshire district council. It is known as the birthplace of Oliver Cromwell, who was born in 1599 and was the member of parliament for the town in the 17th century, t

1.
Sebastopol Cannon Huntingdon

2.
Huntingdon welcome sign

3.
The Old Bridge across the Great Ouse, to Godmanchester.

London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city

1.
Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace and Central London skyline

4.
The name London may derive from the River Thames

University College School
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University College School, generally known as UCS Hampstead, is an independent day school in Hampstead, northwest London, England. The school was founded in 1830 by University College London and inherited many of that institutions progressive, according to the Good Schools Guide, the school Achieves impressive exam results with a relaxed atmosphere

1.
A painting of University College School, Frognal, Hampstead in the early twentieth Century

2.
University College School

3.
UCS Logo (from stationery)

4.
University College School entrance, Frognal, Hampstead

Physiologist
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into,

1.
Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils

2.
Animals

University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England.

1.
The London University as drawn by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd and published in 1827–1828 (now the UCL Main Building)

2.
Henry Tonks ' 1923 mural The Four Founders of UCL

3.
William Ramsay is regarded as the " father of noble gases ".

4.
The Wilkins Building in 1956

University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of

1.
Emmanuel College Chapel

2.
University of Cambridge coat of arms

3.
Sir Isaac Newton was a student of the University of Cambridge

4.
Trinity Lane in the snow, with King's College Chapel (centre), Clare College Chapel (right), and the Old Schools (left)

Thomas Henry Huxley
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Thomas Henry Huxley PC PRS FLS was an English biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his advocacy of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. Huxleys famous debate in 1860 with Samuel Wilberforce was a key moment in the acceptance of evolution. Huxley had been planning to leave Oxford on the day, but, after an encounter with Robert Chambers. Wilberfor

1.
Woodburytype print of Huxley (1880 or earlier)

2.
Huxley, aged 21

3.
HMS Rattlesnake by the ship's artist Oswald Brierly

4.
Australian woman: Pencil drawing by Huxley

William Sharpey
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William Sharpey was a Scottish anatomist and physiologist. The posthumous son of Henry Sharpy and Mary Balfour, his wife, he was born on 1 April 1802 at Arbroath in Forfarshire, his father, a shipowner, was originally from Folkestone in Kent. He was educated at the school in Arbroath and entered the University of Edinburgh, in November 1817, to stu

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William Sharpey

John Newport Langley
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Prof John Newport Langley FRSE LLD was a British physiologist. He was born in Newbury, Berkshire the son of John Langley, the local schoolmaster and he was educated at Exeter Grammar School in Devon. In 1871 he won a place at St Johns College in Cambridge University where he graduated MA before continuing multiple postgraduate studies and he spent

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John Newport Langley

Charles Scott Sherrington
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He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, in 1932 for their work on the functions of neurons. Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was accepted that reflexes occurred as isolated activity within a reflex arc. Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activ

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Sir Charles Scott Sherrington

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Charles Scott Sherrington

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C.S. Roy and Charles Scott Sherrington (right), at the door of the Old Pathological Laboratory, Cambridge, 1893

Henry Newell Martin
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Henry Newell Martin, FRS was a British physiologist. He was born in Newry, County Down, the son of Henry Martin, a Congregational minister, in 1876 he was appointed to the first professorship of physiology at Johns Hopkins University in the United States. He co-wrote with Thomas Huxley Practical instruction in elementary biology and he developed th

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H. Newell Martin

Keith Lucas (scientist)
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Keith Lucas FRS was a British scientist who worked at Trinity College, Cambridge doing pioneering work in Neuroscience. He was the son of Francis Robert and Katharine Mary Lucas and he was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge where he graduated BA with a first-class in Natural Sciences in 1901. In 1902 he worked in New Zealand, o

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Captain Keith Lucas

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The grave of Keith Lucas in Aldershot Military Cemetery

Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Kni

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Most Honourable Order of the Bath

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A painting by Edmund Leighton depicting a fictional scene of a knight receiving the accolade

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Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, KB, with sash.

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Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister, who used the Order of the Bath as a source of political patronage

Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016

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The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London

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The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge

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John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society

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Mace granted by Charles II

Huntingdonshire
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Huntingdonshire is a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire, as well as a historic county of England. Its council is based in Huntingdon and the district includes the towns of St Ives, Godmanchester, St Neots. The district population was recorded as 169,508 at the 2011 Census, in 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888 Huntingdonshire became

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Map of Huntingdonshire, 1824

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Flag

Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in math

Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a priz

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Nobel was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own laboratories.

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In 1947, Gerty Cori was the first woman to be awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

John Collier (Pre-Raphaelite painter)
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The Honourable John Maler Collier OBE RP ROI was a leading English artist, and an author. He painted in the Pre-Raphaelite style, and was one of the most prominent portrait painters of his generation, both his marriages were to daughters of Thomas Henry Huxley. He studied painting at the Munich Academy where he enrolled on 14 April 1875 at the age

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John Collier by his first wife Marian, née Huxley ~1882

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Collier's first wife, Marian Huxley, 1883

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Lady Godiva ~1898, Herbert Art Gallery & Museum

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Angela McInnes by Collier, 1914

Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts

Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Kni

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Most Honourable Order of the Bath

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A painting by Edmund Leighton depicting a fictional scene of a knight receiving the accolade

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Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, KB, with sash.

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Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister, who used the Order of the Bath as a source of political patronage

British Science Association
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The British Science Association is a charity and learned society founded in 1831 to aid in the promotion and development of science. Until 2009 it was known as the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Association was founded in 1831 and modelled on the German Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. The prime mover was Rev

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"British Science Association" logo

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Home of the BSA on Queen's Gate in South Kensington

London University (UK Parliament constituency)
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London University was a university constituency electing one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, from 1868 to 1950. This university constituency was created by the Reform Act 1867, the first election took place during the United Kingdom general election,1868. The constituency returned one Member of

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Albert Pollard

United Kingdom general election, 1900
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The United Kingdom general election of 1900 was held between 26 September and 24 October 1900, following the dissolution of Parliament on 25 September. Also known as the election, it was held at a time when it was widely believed that the Second Boer War had effectively been won. The Conservatives, led by Lord Salisbury with their Liberal Unionist

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All 670 seats in the House of Commons 336 seats needed for a majority

Liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with foundi

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The Agreement of the People (1647) was a manifesto for political change, proposed by the Levellers during the English Civil War. It called for freedom of religion, frequent convening of Parliament and equality under the law.

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John Locke was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including the right to private property and the consent of the governed.

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The Bill of Rights was a landmark piece of liberal legislation.

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The Philadelphia Convention in 1787 adopted the United States Constitution, which is still in effect.

United Kingdom general election, 1906
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The United Kingdom general election of 1906 was held from 12 January-8 February 1906. The Liberals, led by Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman, won a majority at the election. The election saw a 5. 4% swing from the Conservative Party to the Liberal Party, the Labour Representation Committee was far more successful than at the 1900 and after th

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All 670 seats in the House of Commons 336 seats needed for a majority

Ray Lankester
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Sir Edwin Ray Lankester KCB FRS was a British zoologist. An invertebrate zoologist and evolutionary biologist, he held chairs at University College London and he was the third Director of the Natural History Museum, and was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Ray Lankester was born on 15 May 1847 on Burlington Street in London, the son o

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Sir E. Ray Lankester in 1908

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Sir Edwin Ray Lankester in 1918

Stanford University School of Medicine
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Stanford University School of Medicine is the medical school of Stanford University and is located in Stanford, California. Due to this descent, it ranks as the oldest medical school in the Western United States, the medical school moved to the Stanford campus near Palo Alto, California in 1959. The School of Medicine, along with Stanford Health Ca

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Li Ka Shing Center for Learning and Knowledge.

San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856

Eduard August von Regel
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Eduard August von Regel, Russian, Эдуард Август Фон Регель, was a German horticulturalist and botanist. He ended his career serving as the Director of the Russian Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Petersburg, as a result of naturalists and explorers sending back biological collections, Regel was able to describe and name many previously unknown spec

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Regel as the Director of the Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Petersburg

Curtis's Botanical Magazine
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The Botanical Magazine, or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is referred to by the subsequent name Curtiss Botanical Magazine. Each of the issues contains a description, in yet accessible language. Many plants received their first publication on the pages, and the

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The Botanical Magazine, 1845 title page

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Dianthus barbatus Plate 207 (1793)

Botanical name
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The purpose of a formal name is to have a single name that is accepted and used worldwide for a particular plant or plant group. Later, the plant was introduced worldwide, bringing it contact with more languages. English names for plant species include, daisy, English daisy. The cultivar Bellis perennis Aucubifolia is a golden-variegated horticultu

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Bellis perennis has one botanical name and many common names, including perennial daisy, lawn daisy, common daisy, and English daisy.

Iris fosteriana
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Iris fosteriana is a species in the genus Iris, subgenus Scorpiris. It was named after Michael Foster by Dr Aitchison, and found in Pendjeh, first described in transactions of the Linnean Society of London in April 1888 and then published by John Gilbert Baker in Botanical Magazine in 1892. Iris fosteriana is a name by the RHS. It has many similari

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Iris fosteriana

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Iris fosteriana at Berne Botanic garden

Turkmenistan
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Turkmenistan has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times, Merv was one of the cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the S

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Turkmen helmet (15th century).

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Russians attack a Turkmen caravan 1873 (during the " The Great Game ").

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A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by Prokudin-Gorsky between 1905 and 1915.

The London Gazette
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The London Gazette claims to be the oldest surviving English newspaper and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the UK, having been first published on 7 November 1665 as The Oxford Gazette. This claim is made by the Stamford Mercury and Berrows Worcester Journal. It does not have a large circulation, in turn, The London Gazette carries no

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The London Gazette, dated 14–17 May 1705 detailing the return of John Leake from Gibraltar after the Battle of Cabrita Point.

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The London Gazette: later reprint of the front page from 3–10 September 1666, reporting on the Great Fire of London.

Saint Louis, Missouri
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and

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From top left: Forest Park Jewel Box, MetroLink at Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, Apotheosis of St. Louis at the Saint Louis Art Museum, The Gateway Arch and the St. Louis skyline, Busch Stadium, and the St. Louis Zoo

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An illustrated map by F. Graf; Saint Louis in 1896.

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South Broadway after a May 27, 1896, tornado

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Westward view of St. Louis skyline, September 2008.

Missouri Botanical Garden
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The Missouri Botanical Garden is a botanical garden located at 4344 Shaw Boulevard in St. Louis, Missouri. It is also informally as Shaws Garden for founder and philanthropist Henry Shaw. Founded in 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden is one of the oldest botanical institutions in the United States and a National Historic Landmark. as well as the N

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Missouri Botanical Garden

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A manicured garden of Victorian style plantings at the Missouri Botanical Garden

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The Climatron greenhouse at the Missouri Botanical Garden, simulates the climate of a rainforest for conservational and educational purposes

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Bonsai showcased at Missouri Botanical Garden

Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker OM GCSI CB PRS was one of the greatest British botanists and explorers of the 19th century. He was a founder of botany and Charles Darwins closest friend. For twenty years he served as director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, succeeding his father, William Jackson Hooker, Hooker was born in Halesworth, Suffolk, England

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Hooker in the 1860s

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Painting of Hooker by William Kilburn, circa 1852

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Tibet and Cholamo Lake from the summit of the Donkia Pass, looking North West from Hooker's Himalayan Journals. Hooker reached the pass on 7 November 1849.

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Engraving of Hooker by Charles Henry Jeens (1827–1879)

International Plant Names Index
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The International Plant Names Index describes itself as a database of the names and associated basic bibliographical details of seed plants, ferns and lycophytes. Coverage of plant names is best at the rank of species, the IPNI also maintains a list of standardized author abbreviations. These were initially based on Brummitt & Powell, but new names

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International Plant Names Index

Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair

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National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra

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The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.