Contents

A magistrate’s committal for birching of two children dated 4 December 1899 displayed in West Midlands Police Museum, Sparkhill, Birmingham, England

A birch rod (often shortened to "birch") is a bundle of leafless twigs bound together to form an implement for administering corporal punishment.

Contrary to what the name suggests, a birch rod is not a single rod and is not necessarily made from birch twigs, but can also be made from various other strong and smooth branches of trees or shrubs, such as willow.[1] A hazel rod is particularly painful; a bundle of four or five hazel twigs was used in the 1960s and 1970s on the Isle of Man, the last jurisdiction in Europe to use birching as a judicial penalty.[2]

Another factor in the severity of a birch rod is its size - i.e. its length, weight and number of branches. In some penal institutions, several versions were in use, which were often given names. For example, in Dartmoor Prison the device used to punish male offenders above the age of 16 - weighing some 16 ounces (450 g), and 48 inches (1.2 m) long - was known as the senior birch.[when?]

In the 1860s, the Royal Navy abandoned the use of the cat o' nine tails on boy seamen. The cat had acquired a nasty reputation because of its use in prisons, and was replaced by the birch, with which the wealthy classes were more familiar, having been chastised with it during their schooling.[3] Around the same time, the civilian courts system followed the Navy's example and switched to birches for the judicial corporal punishment of boys and young men, where previously a whip or cat had been used. In an attempt to standardise the Navy's birches, the Admiralty had specimens called patterned birch (as well as a patterned cane), kept in every major dockyard, as birches had to be procured on land in quantities.

The term judicial birch generally refers to the severe type in use for court-ordered birchings, especially the Manx hazel birch. A 1951 memorandum (possibly confirming earlier practice) ordered all UK male prisons to use only birches (and cats-o'-nine-tails) from a national stock at south London's Wandsworth prison, where they were to be 'thoroughly' tested before being supplied in triplicate to a prison whenever required for use as prison discipline.[4]

By contrast, terms like "Eton birch" are used for a school birch made from smaller birch tree twigs.

Only if the recipient was a small child could he or she practicably be punished over the knee of the applicant. Otherwise the child would be bent over an object such as a chair. For judicial punishments the recipient could even be tied down if likely to move about too much or attempt to escape.

In some prisons and reformatories, a wooden apparatus known as birching donkey or birching pony was specially constructed for birchings. As there were no detailed rules, prisons and police stations devised, adapted and used many different contraptions under various names that juvenile and adult offenders were bent over for punishment. Some models also allowed a standing or leaning position for other implements.

A simple alternative position known from school discipline is horsing, where the person to be punished is held by the arms over the back of another person (e.g. a classmate), or on the shoulders of two or more colleagues. However, at Eton College and schools of similar standing, the recipient was made to kneel on a special wooden block.

Another device used to immobilise offenders was a birching table, used in Scotland, with two holes in it through which the offender's arms were inserted but otherwise left free and untied. The offender's feet were tied into position and a strap fastened immediately above the waist.[5]

Whatever position is adopted, care must be taken (e.g. by having the recipient's legs kept together) not to strike the back of the genitals.

It was the most common school and judicial punishment in Europe up to the mid-19th century, when caning gained increasing popularity. According to some accounts, even the legendary sting of the cat o' nine tails was less feared than the birch in certain prisons. The birch was always applied to the bare buttocks (as also on the continent), a humiliation usually befalling boys (like the boy's cat, likewise on the naked posterior), the 'adult' cat to the back or shoulders of adults—although in the 20th century, judges increasingly ordered the birch rather than the cat, even for robbery with violence (the only offence for which adult judicial corporal punishment was ordered in the latter decades of its use in mainland Britain).

Birching featured in the French Revolution. One leader of the revolution, Anne-Josèphe Théroigne de Méricourt, went mad, ending her days in an asylum after a public birching. On 31 May 1793 the Jacobin women seized her, stripped her naked, and flogged her on the bare bottom in the public garden of the Tuileries.[6] Judicial birching in 20th-century Britain was used much more often as a fairly minor punishment for male juveniles, typically for petty larceny, rather than as a serious penalty for adult men. This was applied to boys aged up to 14 in England and Wales, and up to 16 in Scotland. In this juvenile version, the birch was much lighter and smaller, and the birch was administered privately by a policeman, usually immediately after the magistrate's court hearing, either in a room in the court building or at the nearest police station.

In Lewis Carroll's early poem The Two Brothers 1853 one laments: "Oh would I were back at Twyford School, Learning lessons in fear of the birch !" as his sadistic brother uses him as fish bait.

Today birching is rarely used as a judicial punishment, and it has also almost completely died out as a punishment for children.

In the United Kingdom, birching as a judicial penalty, in both its juvenile and adult versions, was abolished in 1948, but it was retained until 1962 as a punishment for violent breaches of prison discipline. The Isle of Man (a small island between Britain and Ireland with its own legal system as a British Crown dependency) caused a good deal of controversy by continuing to birch young offenders until 1976.[7][8] The birch was also used on offending teenage boys until the mid-1960s on the Channel Islands of Guernsey and Jersey.

In Trinidad and Tobago, the Corporal Punishment Act 1953 allows the High Court to order males, in addition to another punishment (often concurrent with a prison term), to undergo corporal punishment in the form of either a 'flogging' with a knotted cat o' nine tails (made of cords, as in the Royal Navy tradition) or a 'whipping' with a 'rod' [i.e. switch] of tamarind, birch or other switches, and it allows the President to approve other instruments; in 2000, the minimum age was raised from 16 to 18, the legal threshold of adulthood. It may now be the only country in the world still officially using the birch.

In Scandinavia, Baltics, Russia and Finland there is a tradition to strike one's own body with soaked birch twigs in the sauna or banya, as a form of massage and to increase blood circulation and open the pores. The twigs are chosen carefully and do not have their leaves removed, and are often softened by keeping them in water prior to use. Being struck by the twigs induces a pleasant stinging sensation but very little actual pain.

^In the Australian state of Victoria, birches for the judicial punishment of juvenile offenders were made of "willow withes soaked in water". Benson, G. Flogging: The Law and Practice in England, Howard League for Penal Reform, London, 1937, Appendix I: The Law and Practice of Other Countries. OCLC5780230

1.
Corporal punishment
–
Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling. It is however used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery, frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well, official punishment for crime by inflicting pain or injury, including flogging, branding and even mutilation, was practised in most civilizations since ancient times. However, with the growth of humanitarian ideals since the Enlightenment, by the late 20th century, corporal punishment had been eliminated from the legal systems of most developed countries. The legality in the 21st century of corporal punishment in various settings differs by jurisdiction,52 countries, most of them in Europe and Latin America, have banned the practice as of April 2017. School corporal punishment—of students by teachers or school administrators—has been banned in countries, including Canada, Kenya, South Africa, New Zealand. It remains legal, if increasingly less common, in the United States, judicial corporal punishment, as part of a criminal sentence ordered by a court of law, has long disappeared from European countries. However, it remains lawful in parts of Africa, Asia, closely related is prison corporal punishment or disciplinary corporal punishment, ordered by prison authorities or carried out directly by staff. Corporal punishment is also allowed in some settings in a few jurisdictions. Other uses of corporal punishment have existed, for instance as once practised on apprentices by their masters, in many Western countries, medical and human-rights organizations oppose corporal punishment of children. Campaigns against corporal punishment have aimed to bring about legal reform to ban the use of punishment against minors in homes. Corporal punishment of children has traditionally used in the Western world by adults in authority roles. Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou strike him with the rod, thou shalt beat him with the rod, and deliver his soul from hell. It was certainly present in civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly, Sparta, in particular, used them as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build willpower, although the Spartan example was extreme, corporal punishment was possibly the most frequent type of punishment

2.
School corporal punishment
–
School corporal punishment refers to causing deliberate pain or discomfort in response to undesired behaviour by students in schools. It often involves striking the student either across the buttocks or on the hands, with an implement such as a cane, wooden paddle. Less commonly, it could also include spanking or smacking the student with the open hand, Poland in 1783 was the first nation to outlaw corporal punishment in schools. School corporal punishment is no longer practised in any European country, as of 2015, most developed countries have abolished the practice, with the exception of some parts of the United States, some Australian states, and Singapore. It is still in use in a number of countries in Africa. It was banned in state funded schools, throughout the United Kingdom and it was banned in UK Public and private schools, that received no state funding, in 1999 for England and Wales,2000 in Scotland, and 2003 in Northern Ireland. It remains commonplace in a number of countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, while most U. S. states have outlawed corporal punishment in state schools, it continues to be allowed mainly in the Southern and Western United States. According to the United States Department of Education, more than 216,000 students were subjected to corporal punishment during the 2008–09 school year, there is a vast amount of literature on this, in both popular and serious culture. Britain itself outlawed the practice in 1987 for state schools and more recently for all schools, the doctrine of in loco parentis lets school officials stand in for parents as comparable authority figures. The doctrine has its origins in an English common-law precedent of 1770, many schools in Singapore and Malaysia use caning as a routine official punishment for misconduct, as also some African countries. In some Middle Eastern countries whipping is used, in most of continental Europe, school corporal punishment has been banned for several decades or longer, depending on the country. From the 1917 Russian revolution onwards, corporal punishment was outlawed in the Soviet Union, communists in other countries such as Britain took the lead in campaigning against school corporal punishment, which they viewed as a symptom of the decadence of capitalist education systems. In the 1960s, Soviet visitors to western schools expressed shock at the caning of boys there, other communist regimes followed suit, for instance, corporal punishment was unknown by students in North Korea in 2007. In mainland China, corporal punishment in schools was outlawed in 1986, although the practice remains common, School officials and policymakers often rely on personal anecdotes to argue that school corporal punishment improves students behavior and achievement. However, there is a lack of evidence showing that corporal punishment leads to better control in the classroom. In particular, evidence does not suggest that it enhances moral character development, increases students respect for teachers or other authority figures, an estimated 1 to 2 percent of physically punished students in the United States are seriously injured, to the point of needing medical attention. According to the AAP and the Society for Adolescent Medicine, these injuries have included bruises, abrasions, broken bones, whiplash injury, muscle damage, brain injury, other reported injuries to students include sciatic nerve damage extensive hematomas, and life-threatening fat hemorrhage. The AAP cautions that there is a risk of punishment in schools fostering the impression among students that violence is an appropriate means for managing others behaviour

3.
Caning
–
Caning is a form of corporal punishment consisting of a number of hits with a single cane usually made of rattan, generally applied to the offenders bare or clothed buttocks or hand. Caning on the knuckles or shoulders is much less common, Caning can also be applied to the soles of the feet. Caning was a form of judicial punishment and official school discipline in many parts of the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. Corporal punishment has now been outlawed in much, but not all, however, caning remains legal in numerous other countries in home, school, religious, judicial or military contexts, and is also in common use in some countries where it is no longer legal. In some countries caning is still in use in the era, particularly in Southeast Asia. The practice is retained, for male only, under the criminal law in Malaysia, Singapore. African countries still using judicial caning include Botswana, Tanzania, Nigeria and, for juvenile offenders only, Swaziland and it is also imposed for certain breaches of prison rules. In Aceh caning can be imposed for adultery, the punishment is applied to foreigners and locals alike. Caning is also used in the Singapore Armed Forces to punish serious offences against military discipline, unlike judicial caning, this punishment is delivered to the soldiers clothed buttocks. The frequency and severity of canings in educational settings have varied greatly, in some schools corporal punishment was administered solely by the headmaster, while in others the task was delegated to other teachers. In many English and Commonwealth private schools, authority to punish was also given to certain senior students. In the early 20th century, such permission for prefects to cane other boys was widespread in British public schools, the perceived advantages of this were promptness of punishment and avoiding bothering the teaching staff with minor disciplinary matters. Such systems were not limited to secondary age pupils and it was regarded as having no sense of indignity for the recipient of the punishment. Some British private schools still permitted caning to be administered by prefects in the 1960s, with opportunities for it provided by sets of rules on school uniform. In 1969, when the question was raised in Parliament, it was thought that relatively few schools still permitted this, by contrast, caning in British state schools in the later 20th century was often, in theory at least, administered by the head teacher only. Like their British counterparts, South African private schools also gave free rein to administer canings whenever they felt it appropriate. The use of corporal punishment within the setting was prohibited by the South African Schools Act of 1996. In many state schools in England and Wales it was in use, mostly for boys, until 1987, while elsewhere other implements prevailed

4.
Cat o' nine tails
–
The term first appears in 1695, although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its claws, which inflict parallel wounds, the cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about 2 1⁄2 feet or 76 cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain. It traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the manner in which rope is plaited, thinner rope is made from three strands of yarn plaited together, and thicker rope from three strands of thinner rope plaited together. To make a cat o nine tails, a rope is unravelled into three small ropes, each of which is unravelled again, the closed cat, one without tails, was called a starter. During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the naval cats handle was made of rope about 2 feet long and about 1 inch in diameter, the tails were made of cord about a quarter inch in diameter and typically 2 feet long. A new cat was made for each flogging by a bosuns mate, if several dozen lashes were awarded, each could be administered by a fresh bosuns mate—a left-handed one could be included to assure extra painful crisscrossing of the wounds. One dozen was usually awarded as a highly sensitizing prelude to running the gauntlet and it was used on slave trade ships to punish the slaves. For summary punishment of Royal Navy boys, a model was made, the reduced cat, also known as boys cat, boys pussy or just pussy. If formally convicted by a court martial, however, even boys would suffer the punishment of the adult cat, the severest form of flogging was a flogging round the fleet. The number of lashes was divided by the number of ships in port, penalties of hundreds of lashes were imposed for the gravest offences, including sedition and mutiny. The prisoner was rowed round the fleet in a boat and received a number of his lashes at each ship in turn. Sentences often took months or years to complete, depending on how much a man was expected to bear at a time, normally 250–500 lashes would kill a man, as infections would spread. After the flogging was completed, the sailors lacerated back was frequently rinsed with brine or seawater, the British Army had a similar multiple whip, though much lighter in construction, made of a drumstick with attached strings. The flogger was usually a rather than a strong bosuns mate. Flogging with the cat o nine tails fell into disuse around 1870, whereas the British naval cat rarely cut but rather abraded the skin, the falls of the British Army cat were lighter and the string was in fact codline - a very dense material akin to tarred string. Although the total whip would weigh only a fraction of a naval rope cat, naturally, it was also used elsewhere in the Commonwealth, notably at the penal colonies in Australia, and also in Canada where it was used until 1881. An 1812 drawing shows a drummer apparently lashing the buttocks of a soldier who is tied with spread legs on an A-frame made from sergeants half pikes. In many places, soldiers were generally flogged stripped to the waist, in the 20th century this use was confined to very serious cases involving violence against a prison officer, and each flogging had to be confirmed by central government

5.
Flagellation
–
Flagellation, flogging, whipping or lashing is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, lashes, rods, switches, the cat o nine tails, the sjambok, etc. Typically, flogging is imposed on a subject as a punishment, however, it can also be submitted to willingly, or performed on oneself. The strokes are usually aimed at the back of a person. For a moderated subform of flagellation, described as bastinado, the soles of a persons feet are used as a target for beating. In some circumstances the word flogging is used loosely to any sort of corporal punishment. However, in British legal terminology, a distinction was drawn between flogging and whipping, in Britain these were both abolished in 1948. In Sparta, young men were flogged as a test of their masculinity, Jewish law limited flagellation to forty strokes, and in practice delivered thirty-nine, so as to avoid any possibility of breaking this law due to a miscount. In the Roman Empire, flagellation was often used as a prelude to crucifixion, whips with small pieces of metal or bone at the tips were commonly used. Such a device could easily cause disfigurement and serious trauma, such as ripping pieces of flesh from the body or loss of an eye, in addition to causing severe pain, the victim would approach a state of hypovolemic shock due to loss of blood. The Romans reserved this treatment for non-citizens, as stated in the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia, the poet Horace refers to the horribile flagellum in his Satires. Typically, the one to be punished was stripped naked and bound to a low pillar so that he could bend over it, two lictors alternated blows from the bare shoulders down the body to the soles of the feet. There was no limit to the number of blows inflicted—this was left to the lictors to decide, nonetheless, Livy, Suetonius and Josephus report cases of flagellation where victims died while still bound to the post. Flagellation was referred to as death by some authors, as many victims died shortly thereafter. Cicero reports in In Verrem, pro mortuo sublatus brevi postea mortuus, the Whipping Act was passed in England in 1530. Under this legislation, vagrants were to be taken to a populated area and there tied to the end of a cart naked. In England, offenders were sentenced to be flogged at a carts tail along a length of public street, usually near the scene of the crime. In the late century, however, the courts occasionally ordered that the flogging should be carried out in prison or a house of correction rather than on the streets. From the 1720s courts began explicitly to differentiate between private whipping and public whipping, over the course of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the proportion of whippings carried out in public declined, but the number of private whippings increased

6.
Foot whipping
–
Foot whipping or bastinado is a method of corporal punishment which consists in hitting the bare soles of a persons feet. The receiving person is required to be barefoot, the uncovered soles of the feet need to be placed in an exposed position. The beating is typically performed with an object in the type of a cane or switch, the strokes are usually aimed at the arches of the feet and repeated a certain number of times. Bastinado is also referred to as foot caning or sole caning, depending on the instrument in use, the particular Middle East method is called falaka or falanga, derived from the Greek term phalanx. The German term is Bastonade, deriving from the Italian noun bastonata, in former times it was also referred to as Sohlenstreich. The Chinese term is da jiao xin, the first scripted documentation of bastinado in Europe dates back to the year 1537, in China to 960. References to bastinado have been hypothesised to be found in the Bible and this subform of flagellation differentiates from most other forms by limiting the strokes to a very narrow section of the body. The undersides of the feet have become a common target for corporal punishment in many cultures while basically different methods exist. Foot whipping is carried out within prisons and structurally similar institutions. Besides inflicting intense physical suffering it trades on the significance of bare feet as a dishonouring socio-cultural attribute, therefore it is regarded to be a particularly humiliating as well as degrading form of punishment. At this was used as a visual indicator of a subservient standing within a social structure. It was therefore routinely imposed as an identifier and obstacle on slaves and prisoners, often divested of rights. Exploiting its socio-cultural significance, people have been forced to go barefoot as a formal shame sanction, foot whipping hereby comprises a drastic aggravation of forcing a person to expose his or her bare feet as part of a punishment and the underlying significance thereof. By making the highly pain susceptible soles of a person the target for inflicting physical punishment. As the person is of course unable to evade the beatings, a sphere of his or her privacy is repeatedly invaded. As a result, a by nature entirely defenseless prison inmate often feels particularly intimidated and victimized by this specific form punishment, keeping prisoners barefoot is common practice in several countries of today. The prisoners are hereby excluded from the benefits of standard clothing items with their uncovered feet exposed to the obstacles of the surrounding area. A lack of protection can alone have an effect and make the person feel vulnerable

7.
Knout
–
A knout /ˈnaʊt/ is a heavy scourge-like multiple whip, usually made of a bunch of rawhide thongs attached to a long handle, sometimes with metal wire or hooks incorporated. The English word stems from a spelling-pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут, some claim it was a Tatar invention and was introduced into Russia in the 15th century, perhaps by Grand Duke Ivan III the Great. Others trace the word to Varangians and derive it from the Swedish knutpiska, still others maintain it is of generic Germanic origin, not necessarily Scandinavian, comparing it with the German Knute, Dutch knoet and with Old Norse knutr, Anglo-Saxon cnotta and English knot. The Russian knout had different forms, one was a lash of rawhide,40 cm long, attached to a wooden handle,22 cm long. The lash ended in a ring, to which was attached a second lash as long, ending also in a ring. Another kind consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, ending in loose wired ends and this was soaked in milk and dried in the sun to make it harder. Knouts were used in Russia for flogging as formal corporal punishment of criminals, the victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence, even twenty lashes could maim, and with the specially extended Great Knout, twenty blows could kill, with death sometimes being attributed to the breaking of the spine. The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a probation, peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son Alexis to death, the latter was tortured by knouting to extract confessions. Emperor Nicholas I abolished the punishment by knout in 1845, and replaced it with the pleti and they were later abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements, mainly in Siberia. Prisoners transported to Siberia in the late 19th century were sometimes branded on their foreheads with irons with the letters VRNK meaning V thief, R robber and this branding led to the Siberian slang word varnok, meaning either a settler or deportee. The expression under the knout is used to designate any harsh totalitarianism, in Dutch, the image is commonly used for strict party discipline, e. g. eliminating actual debate when passing a law. Nagaika Scourge This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh

8.
Paddle (spanking)
–
A spanking paddle is an implement used to strike a person on the buttocks. The act of spanking a person with a paddle is known as paddling, a paddling may be for punishment, or as an initiation or hazing ritual. A paddle has two parts, a handle and a blade, most paddles are designed to be held with one hand, but a giant paddle may be designed to be held with two hands. The blade is typically 3 to 4 inches wide, 1/4-inch thick, in the great majority of cases, the paddle is aimed at the recipients buttocks, rarely, the back of the thighs might also be targeted. Paddles for use in schools are made of wood, or occasionally plastic, paddles used for school punishments may be roughly hewn from commonly available wood. Occasionally, paddles may have holes drilled into them, so there is less air drag when the paddle approaches the buttocks, the paddles used for fraternity and sorority initiation ceremonies are often professionally made and engraved with organizational symbols and slogans. The paddle may have been invented for the punishment of slaves as a way of causing intense pain without doing any permanent damage to the recipient. It is not only in former slave states that the paddle has been used in schools and it is not known why or exactly when it became the normal implement for corporal punishment in US schools. There are however instances of paddling using similar implements with individuals who were not slaves, paddling was mainly used in many parts of the United States as a means to discipline misbehaving school students. Paddling has also used in some homes to punish children. The results of a household survey indicate that paddling is a discipline technique that 10% of parents are very likely to use. The percentage of parents who say that they are likely to paddle increases to 12% when involving teenagers. The paddle is the almost invariable implement in US schools that allow corporal punishment for student misconduct. Some paddles have traditionally had holes bored in them for aerodynamic effect, paddling typically causes a slight reddening of the skin but in some cases can cause bruises that are visible for approximately two weeks. Whether or not particular bruises constitute evidence of injury or abuse or child maltreatment depends on individual circumstances. There have been cases in the past when paddling was administered incorrectly or excessively. Partly in order to avoid danger, in the majority of U. S. schools, paddling is more strictly regulated than in the past. It is usually a requirement that a witness be present

9.
Scourge
–
A scourge is a whip or lash, especially a multi-thong type, used to inflict severe corporal punishment or self-mortification on the back. Some connect it to Latin, excoriare, to flay, built of two Latin parts, ex- and corium, skin, a scourge typically consists of several thongs fastened to a handle. A well known configuration of a scourge is the cat o nine tails, the cat o nine tails has two versions, the navy version is made of thick ropes with knotted ends, the army and civil prison versions are usually made of leather. The scourge, or flail, and the crook are the two symbols of power and domination depicted in the hands of Osiris in Egyptian monuments, the shape of the flail or scourge is unchanged throughout history. However, when a scourge is described as a flail as depicted in Egyptian mythology, a flail was used to thresh wheat, not implement corporal punishment. The priests of Cybele scourged themselves and others, hard material can be affixed to multiple thongs to give a flesh-tearing bite. A scourge with these additions is called a scorpion, the name testifies to the pain caused by the arachnid. Testifying to its generous Roman application is the existence of the Latin words Flagrifer carrying a whip, according to the Gospel of John, Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, ordered Jesus to be scourged. Scourging was soon adopted as a sanction in the discipline of the fifth. Thenceforth scourging is frequently mentioned in monastic rules and councils as a preservative of discipline and its use as a punishment was general in the seventh century in all monasteries of the severe Columban rule. From then on the practice appeared in most medieval religious orders, semi-literal usages such as the scourge of God for Attila the Hun led to metaphoric uses to mean a severe affliction, e. g. the scourge of drug abuse. Flagellation, includes flogging Knout Skin Whip This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Tierney

10.
Slippering
–
A slippering is a term for the act of smacking the buttocks, or the hands, with a slipper as a form of corporal punishment. A slippering on the buttocks is a form of spanking, it is a more common method than slippering on the hands. The verb to slipper means to give a slippering, until at least the 1970s slippering was widely used by British parents as a means of punishing children and adolescents. Such scenes presumably represented day-to-day reality for thousands of British children, while slipperings are no longer depicted in comics, the practice no doubt continues in many British families but is much less common than in former times. There are very little data, research or evidence about the use of slippering, information is mainly based on anecdotal reports from individuals who have given, received, or observed slipperings, or who have been in households or schools where slipperings were used. Slipperings are particularly associated with Britain and Commonwealth countries, although not exclusively so, in the United Kingdom, especially in England and Wales, the slipper was a common implement for administering corporal punishment in schools for students of both genders and all ages. In schools that used the cane as the penalty, the slipper was seen as a less severe alternative for punishing less serious misconduct. In some mixed schools the slipper was used on girls and the cane was reserved for boys, slipper is a misnomer, as the usual item of footwear used was the plimsoll, or gymshoe or tennis shoe, with a fabric upper and a heavy rubber or synthetic sole. A typical gym shoe, which was used in a school in Lincolnshire, is shown on the left. At many schools, students who committed minor classroom offences — talking or disruption, for example — could be punished there, generally the teacher was free to determine which position the pupil had to adopt. This method of punishment also served to demonstrate to the class that such behaviour would not be tolerated, the slipper was also widely used to enforce discipline outside lesson time within the boarding houses of boarding schools, especially preparatory schools for younger boys. Slipperings were commonly administered by the boarding house Matron, who was not only for the welfare of the boys. Talking after lights out was a reason for a visit to Matrons study for the slipper. This informal, on-the-spot type of discipline was not recorded in the official punishment register. Also, it could be administered by staff who were not officially authorised to administer corporal punishment. In fact, though, it could sometimes be just as painful as the officially recorded punishment, the student would typically be interviewed about his offence before being told his punishment. He was then required to remove his blazer, empty his back pockets, up to six powerful strokes of the slipper would then be delivered in a solemn, measured manner to the seat of the trousers. This would be recorded in the schools punishment book and this more severe kind of slippering would typically leave the students buttocks lightly bruised for a few days, providing a further reminder each time he sat down

11.
Spanking
–
Spanking is a type of corporal punishment involving the act of striking the buttocks of another person to cause physical pain, generally with an open hand. More severe forms of spanking, such as switching, paddling, belting, caning, whipping, parents commonly spank children or adolescents in response to undesired behavior. Boys are more frequently spanked than girls, both at home and in school, some countries have outlawed the spanking of children in every setting, including homes, schools, and penal institutions, but most allow it when done by a parent or guardian. In British English, most dictionaries define spanking as being only with the open hand. In American English, dictionaries define spanking as being administered with either the hand or an implement such as a paddle. Thus, the form of corporal punishment in US schools is often referred to as a spanking. The word licks is also a term in West Indian countries, especially Trinidad. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, whereas a spanking is invariably administered to the bottom, smacking is less specific and may refer to slapping the childs hands, arms or legs as well as its bottom. Spanking of children by their parents is a form of corporal punishment used in families in the Western world. It is normally done one or more slaps on the childs buttocks with a bare hand, although, not uncommonly. Historically, boys have been spanked more than girls, in the United States, the spanking of infants is common, with toddler-age children being spanked the most. The main reasons parents give for spanking children are to make children more compliant, research shows, however, that spanking, or indeed any form of corporal punishment, tends to have the opposite effect. Children who are punished more often tend to obey parents less with time. These bans have been controversial, and in many cultures opinion remains divided as to the efficacy or suitability of spanking as a punishment for misbehaviour by school students. The Supreme Court of the United States in 1977 held that the paddling of school students was not per se unlawful, however,31 states have now banned paddling in public schools. It is still common in schools in the South. Students can be punished from kindergarten to the end of high school. Spanking of a wife by her husband as a punishment also does occur in some instances and it was a common trope in American movies

12.
Tawse
–
The tawse, sometimes formerly spelled taws is an implement used for corporal punishment. It was used for educational discipline, primarily in Scotland, but also in schools in the English cities of Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, Manchester, a tawse consists of a strip of leather, with one end split into a number of tails. The thickness of the leather and the number of tails is variable, many Scottish saddlers made tawses for local schoolmasters. Scottish public schools used the tawse to punish pupils of either sex on the palm of the outstretched hand. Pupils were usually instructed to hold out one hand, palm uppermost, supported by the hand below. It also ensured that the force of each stroke was taken by the hand being strapped. In Walsall and Gateshead, and in schools in Manchester and Nottingham. Some Scottish private schools used the tawse, such as Keil School. In 1982 two Scottish mothers went to the European Court of Human Rights, who passed a judgment that parents had the right to refuse corporal punishment of a child and this judgement led indirectly to the use of the tawse being banned by law in UK state schools. The legislation came into force in 1987, but most Scottish local education authorities had already abolished it by the early 1980s, the John J Dick Leather Goods was a manufacturer in Lochgelly that was estimated to have been making around 70% of tawses when they were used in schools. Original tawses sold for around £6 in 1982 but twenty years later some collectors were paying hundred of each for rare items. The tawse was also used for corporal punishment in Scotland as an alternative to the more usual birch. Courts could sentence boys of over 14 but under 16 to up to 36 strokes with an extra-heavy tawse for any offence and this was administered to the offenders bare buttocks. Judicial corporal punishment was abolished in 1948

13.
Crop (implement)
–
A crop, sometimes called a riding crop or hunting crop, is a short type of whip without a lash, used in horse riding, part of the family of tools known as horse whips. A modern crop usually consists of a shaft of fiberglass or cane which is covered in leather, fabric. The rod of a crop thickens at one end to form a handle, the thin end is intended to make contact with the horse, whilst the keeper prevents the horses skin from being marked. The handle may have a loop of leather to help secure the grip or a mushroom on the end to prevent it from slipping through the riders hand. The length of a crop is designed to allow enough leverage for it to be accelerated rapidly with a flick of the wrist without causing the rider balancing problems. Thus, a crop is relatively short. The term whip is a common term that includes both riding crops as well as longer types of horse whips used for both riding and ground work. A whip is a slower than a crop, mostly due to having slightly greater length. However, care must be not to desensitize the animal to the stimulus. Dressage whip is a whip, longer than a crop. Weapon Crops can be carried as a weapon, in the Sherlock Holmes series of novels and short stories, Holmes is occasionally said to carry one as his favourite weapon. Specifically, it is a hunting crop. Such crops were sold at one time, loading refers to the practice of filling the shaft and head with a heavy metal to provide some heft. Fetishism Crops may sometimes be employed by sado-masochistic tops as an implement to tame their sexual partner, art deco sculptor Bruno Zach produced perhaps his best known sculpture—called The Riding Crop —which features a scantily clad dominatrix wielding a crop

14.
Human rights in Iran
–
The state of human rights in Iran has been criticized both by Iranians and international human rights activists, writers, and NGOs since long before the formation of the current state of Iran. The United Nations General Assembly and the Human Rights Commission have condemned prior and ongoing abuses in Iran in published critiques, in October 2012 the United Nations human rights office stated Iranian authorities had engaged in a “severe clampdown” on journalists and human rights advocates. The Imperial State of Iran, the government of Iran during the Pahlavi dynasty, during that time two monarchs – Reza Shah Pahlavi and his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi – employed secret police, torture, and executions to stifle political dissent. The Pahlavi dynasty has sometimes been described as a royal dictatorship, according to one history of the use of torture by the state in Iran, abuse of prisoners varied at times during the Pahlavi reign. Freedom of the press, workers rights, and political freedoms were restricted under Reza Shah, independent newspapers were closed down, political parties – even the loyal Revival party were banned. The government banned all trade unions in 1927, and arrested 150 labor organizers between 1927 and 1932, physical force was used against some kinds of prisoners – common criminals, suspected spies, and those accused of plotting regicide. Burglars in particular were subjected to the bastinado, and the strappado to reveal their hidden loot, suspected spies and assassins were beaten, deprived of sleep, and subjected to the qapani which sometimes caused a joint to crack. But for political prisoners – who were primarily Communists – there was an absence of torture under Reza Shahs rule. The main form of pressure was solitary confinement and the withholding of books, newspapers, visitors, food packages, while often threatened with the qapani, political prisoners were rarely subjected to it. Mohammad Reza became monarch after his father was deposed by Soviets, Political prisoners were released by the occupying powers, and the shah no longer had control of the parliament. But after an assassination of the Shah in 1949, he was able to declare martial law, imprison communists and other opponents. Following the pro-Shah coup détat that overthrew the Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953, the Shah again cracked down on his opponents and he outlawed Mosaddeghs political group the National Front, and arrested most of its leaders. Over 4000 political activists of the Tudeh party were arrested, forty were executed, another 14 died under torture, in 1971, a guerrilla attack a gendarmerie post sparked an intense guerrilla struggle against the government, and harsh government countermeasures. According to Amnesty International, the Shah carried out at least 300 political executions, Torture was used to locate arms caches, safe houses and accomplices of the guerrillas, in addition to its possible ability to persuade enemies of the state to become supporters, instead. During the 1978-79 overthrow of the Pahlavi government, protestors were fired upon by troops, the real and imaginary human rights violations contributed directly to the Shahs demise. On 8 September 1978, troops fired on demonstrators in Zhaleh Square. The Islamic revolution is thought to have a significantly worse human rights record than the Pahlavi Dynasty it overthrew, according to political historian Ervand Abrahamian, “whereas less than 100 political prisoners had been executed between 1971 and 1979, more than 7900 were executed between 1981 and 1985. The prison system was centralized and drastically expanded, Prison life was drastically worse under the Islamic Republic than under the Pahlavis

15.
Caning in Malaysia
–
Caning is used as a form of legal corporal punishment in Malaysia. It can be divided into at least three contexts, judicial/prison, school, and Sharia, of these three, the first two are largely a legacy of, and are influenced by, British colonial rule in the territories that are now part of Malaysia, particularly Malaya. Similar forms of punishment are also used in some other former British colonies. Judicial caning, ordered as part of a sentence imposed by civil courts on male criminals, is the most severe of the three types of caning. It is always ordered in addition to a sentence for adult offenders. Male convicts who were not sentenced to caning earlier in a court of law may also be punished by caning if they commit aggravated offences while serving time in prison, in primary and secondary schools, male students who commit serious offences may be punished with a light rattan cane. Malaysia, being a Muslim majority country, has a justice system its Muslim population. Under this system, Sharia courts can sentence Muslim men and women to caning for committing certain offences, in Malaysia, offenders are caned by same sex. Sharia caning is less severe as compared to judicial caning and is designed to humiliate the offender rather than to inflict physical pain. This form of caning is also practised in Indonesias Aceh Province, Caning, as a form of legally sanctioned corporal punishment for convicted criminals, was first introduced to Malaya by the British Empire in the 19th century. It was formally codified under the Straits Settlements Penal Code Ordinance IV in 1871, in that era, offences punishable by caning were similar to those punishable by birching or flogging in England and Wales. The practice of judicial caning was retained as a form of legal penalty after the Federation of Malaya declared independence from Britain in 1957. It is largely a legacy of British colonial rule and has nothing to do with Islamic justice even though the majority of the Malaysian population are Muslims. Sections 286–291 of the Criminal Procedure Code lay down the procedures governing caning, the procedures include the following, The offender cannot be sentenced to more than 24 strokes of the cane in a single trial. In the case of an offender, the number of strokes is capped at 10. The rattan cane used shall not be more than half an inch in diameter, in the case of a juvenile offender or a person sentenced to caning for committing relatively less serious offences, the caning is inflicted in the way of school discipline using a light rattan cane. Caning is not to be carried out by instalments, if an offender is sentenced to caning in two or more separate trials, the total number of strokes may be inflicted in a single session if it does not exceed 24. A medical officer is required to be present and to certify that the offender is in a fit state of health to undergo the punishment, boys aged between 10 and 18 may be sentenced to a maximum of ten strokes with a light cane

16.
Corporal punishment in Saudi Arabia
–
Human rights in Saudi Arabia are intended to be based on the Hanbali Islamic religious laws under absolute rule of the Saudi royal family. The very strict regime ruling the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is consistently ranking among the worst of the worst in Freedom Houses annual survey of political, Saudi Arabia is one of approximately thirty countries in the world with judicial corporal punishment. In Saudi Arabias case this includes amputations of hands and feet for robbery, in 2004, the United Nations Committee Against Torture criticized Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under Sharia. The Saudi delegation responded defending legal traditions held since the inception of Islam 1,400 years ago, the courts continue to impose sentences of flogging as a principal or additional punishment for many offences. At least five defendants were sentenced to flogging of 1,000 to 2,500 lashes, flogging was carried out in prisons. In 2009, Mazen Abdul-Jawad was sentenced to 1000 lashes and 5 years in prison for bragging on a Saudi TV show about his sexual exploits. In 2014, Saudi blogger Raif Badawis sentence was increased to 1000 lashes and 10 years imprisonment after he was accused of apostasy in 2012, the lashes were due to take place over 20 weeks. The first round were administered on January 9,2015, the case has been internationally condemned and has put a considerable amount of pressure on the Saudi legal system. UK pensioner and cancer victim, Karl Andree aged 74 faces 360 lashes for home brewing alcohol and his family fears the punishment could kill him. In 2016, a Saudi man was sentenced to 2000 lashes,10 years in prison and the fine of 20,000 riyals for making tweets critical of Islam, Saudi Arabia engages in capital punishment, including public executions by beheading. Saudi Arabian police and immigration authorities routinely abuse people who are stopped or detained, earlier in November 2013, the authorities received criticism for the way they have planned and handled the crackdown on illegal workers. Saudi authorities – in some cases with the help of citizens – rounded up many of illegal workers, Saudi Arabia is a destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Some Saudi men have also used legally contracted “temporary marriages” in countries such as Mauritania, Yemen, Saudi women face discrimination in many aspects of their lives, such as the justice system. Although they make up 70% of those enrolled in universities, for reasons, women make up 5% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia. The treatment of women has been referred to as sex segregation, implementation of a government resolution supporting expanded employment opportunities for women met resistance from within the labor ministry, from the religious police, and from the male citizenry. Moreover, there is some type of segregation at homes. Womens rights are at the heart of calls for reform in Saudi Arabia – calls that are challenging the political status quo. Local and international womens groups are pushing governments to respond

17.
Human rights in Qatar
–
The state of human rights in Qatar is a concern for several non-governmental organizations. Sharia law is the source of Qatari legislation according to Qatars constitution. Flogging and stoning as forms of punishment are legal in Qatar due to Sharia law, Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatars constitution. Sharia law is applied to laws pertaining to law, inheritance. In some cases in Sharia-based family courts, a testimony is worth half a mans. Codified family law was introduced in 2006, in practice, Qatars legal system is a mixture of civil law and Islamic law. Flogging is used in Qatar as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations, article 88 of Qatars criminal code declares the punishment for adultery is 100 lashes. Adultery is punishable by death when a Muslim woman and a man are involved. In 2006, a Filipino woman was sentenced to 100 lashes for adultery, in 2010, at least 18 people were sentenced to flogging of between 40 and 100 lashes for offences related to “illicit sexual relations” or alcohol consumption. In 2011, at least 21 people were sentenced to floggings of between 30 and 100 lashes for offences related to “illicit sexual relations” or alcohol consumption, in 2012, six expatriates were sentenced to floggings of either 40 or 100 lashes. Only Muslims considered medically fit were liable to have such sentences carried out and it is unknown if the sentences were implemented. More recently in April 2013, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for alcohol consumption, in June 2014, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for consuming alcohol and driving under the influence. Judicial corporal punishment is common in Qatar due to the Hanbali interpretation of Sharia Law, stoning is a legal punishment in Qatar, although it has never been used. Apostasy is a punishable by the death penalty in Qatar. Blasphemy is punishable by up to seven years in prison and proselytizing any religion other than Islam can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. Homosexuality is a crime punishable in sharia by the penalty for Muslims. Alcohol consumption is legal in Qatar, some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their non-Muslim customers. Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol in Qatar, and Muslims caught consuming alcohol are liable to flogging or deportation, non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption

18.
Caning in Singapore
–
Caning is a widely used form of legal corporal punishment in Singapore. It can be divided into several contexts, judicial, prison, reformatory, military, school and these practices of caning are largely a legacy of, and are influenced by, British colonial rule in Singapore. Similar forms of punishment are also used in some other former British colonies. Of these, judicial caning, for which Singapore is best known, is the most severe. It is reserved for male convicts under the age of 50, for a range of offences under the Criminal Procedure Code. Caning is also a form of punishment for delinquent servicemen in the Singapore Armed Forces and is conducted in the SAF Detention Barracks. Caning is also used as a punishment in reform schools. In a milder form, caning is used to punish male students in primary and secondary schools for serious misbehaviour, the government encourages this but does not allow caning for female students, who instead receive alternative forms of punishment such as detention. A much smaller cane or other implement is used by some parents to punish their children for misbehaving. This is allowed in Singapore but not encouraged by the government, however, the government mentioned that it considers the judicious application of corporal punishment in the best interest of the child. Caning, as a form of legally sanctioned corporal punishment for convicted criminals, was first introduced to Malaya and it was formally codified under the Straits Settlements Penal Code Ordinance IV in 1871. In that era, offences punishable by caning were similar to those punishable by birching or flogging in England, Caning remained on the statute book after Malaya declared independence from Britain in 1957, and after Singapore ceased to be part of Malaysia in 1965. Subsequent legislation has passed by the Parliament of Singapore over the years to increase the minimum strokes an offender receives. Sections 325–332 of the Criminal Procedure Code lay down the procedures governing caning and they include the following, A male offender between the ages of 18 and 50 who has been certified to be in a fit state of health by a medical officer is liable to be caned. The offender shall receive no more than 24 strokes of the cane on any one occasion, irrespective of the total number of offences committed. In other words, a man cannot be sentenced to more than 24 strokes of the cane in a single trial, if the offender is under 18, he may receive up to 10 strokes of the cane, but a lighter cane will be used in this case. Boys under 16 may be sentenced to caning only by the High Court, an offender sentenced to death shall not be caned. The rattan cane used shall not exceed 1.27 cm in diameter, any male convict, whether sentenced to caning or not, may also be caned in prison if he commits certain offences while serving time in prison

19.
Human rights in the United Arab Emirates
–
According to human rights organizations, the government of the United Arab Emirates violates a number of fundamental human rights. The UAE does not have democratically elected institutions and citizens do not have the right to change their government or to political parties. There are reports of forced disappearances in the UAE, many foreign nationals and Emirati citizens have been abducted by the UAE government and illegally detained in undisclosed locations. In numerous instances, the UAE government has tortured people in custody and has denied their citizens the right to a speedy trial, flogging and stoning are legal forms of judicial punishment in the UAE due to Sharia courts. The government restricts freedom of speech and freedom of the press, Freedom of association and freedom of religion are also curtailed. Journalists from overseas frequently record and document human rights abuses that occur within the UAE, the UAEs judicial system is derived from the civil law system and Sharia law. The court system consists of courts and Sharia courts. According to Human Rights Watch, UAEs civil and criminal courts apply elements of Sharia law, codified into its code and family law. Flogging is a punishment for offences such as adultery, premarital sex. Due to Sharia courts, flogging is legal with sentences ranging from 80 to 200 lashes, verbal abuse pertaining to a persons sexual honour is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes. Between 2007 and 2014, many people in the UAE were sentenced to 100 lashes, more recently in 2015, two men were sentenced to 80 lashes for hitting and insulting a woman. In 2014, an expat in Abu Dhabi was sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption, alcohol consumption for Muslims is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes, many Muslims have been sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption. Illicit sex is sometimes penalized by 60 lashes,80 lashes is the standard amount for anyone sentenced to flogging in several emirates. Sharia courts have penalized domestic workers with floggings, in October 2013, a Filipino housemaid was sentenced to 100 lashes for theft committed after her employer discovered her illegitimate pregnancy. Drunk-driving is strictly illegal and punishable by 80 lashes, many expats have been sentenced to 80 lashes for drunk-driving, in Abu Dhabi, a man has been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public. Under UAE law, premarital sex is punishable by 100 lashes, stoning is a legal punishment in the UAE. In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi, in 2006, an expatriate was sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery. Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning, abortion is illegal and punishable by a maximum penalty of 100 lashes and up to five years in prison

20.
Ingraham v. Wright
–
Ingraham vs. Wright,430 U. S.651, was a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the disciplinary corporal punishment policy of Floridas public schools by a 5–4 vote. James Ingraham was a 14-year-old eighth grade student at Charles R. Drew Junior High School in 1970, on October 6,1970, Ingraham was accused of failing to promptly leave the stage of the school auditorium when asked to do so by a teacher. He was then taken to the principals office, where he stated that he was not guilty of the accusation against him. Willie J. Wright, Jr. the principal, ordered Ingraham to bend over so that Wright could spank Ingraham with a spanking paddle, when Ingraham declined to bend over and allow himself to be paddled, he was forcibly placed face-down on the top of a table. Lemmie Deliford, the assistant principal, held Ingrahams arms and Solomon Barnes, while Ingraham was being restrained, Wright used a spanking paddle to hit Ingraham more than 20 times. The paddling was so severe that he suffered a hematoma requiring medical attention, physicians instructed Ingraham to rest at home for a total of eleven days. He and his parents sued the school, calling it cruel and unusual punishment and loss of liberty, the Florida state court held that Florida tort laws provided sufficient remedies to satisfy Ingrahams due process loss of liberty claims. The court also held that the U. S, the Supreme Court declined to consider the plaintiffs substantive due process claims in Ingraham v. Wright. Lower courts have adopted a variety of approaches to the due process issue. The Supreme Court has repeatedly denied certiorari on the issue of school corporal punishment constitutes a substantive due process constitutional violation

21.
Birch
–
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua

22.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

23.
Sparkhill
–
Sparkhill is an inner-city area of Birmingham, England, situated between Springfield, Hall Green and Sparkbrook. Sparkhill takes its name from Spark Brook, a stream that flows from Moseley to the River Cole in Small Heath. It was, as the name suggests, a hill that was situated alongside the stream, the only part where it cannot easily be followed is a short tunnel where it passes under the Grand Union Canal, very close to the old BSA motorcycle factory near Golden Hillock Road. Most of the route is accessible through Ackers Trust artificial ski slope and sports centre and this part of the route is still used for off-road cycling and similar pursuits. Historically part of Warwickshire, Sparkhill once existed as an area with its main industry being agriculture until the 1880s. In the Middle Ages, the Sparke family farmed in the area, development of the area began in the 1890s as a result of the Industrial Revolution which was causing Birmingham to expand. In the 1850s, an area of land was bought by a building society. People who owned a property were entitled to vote and a campaigner for the working class vote was Joseph Sturge, as a result of his campaigning, a newly created street in the area was named after him. The architecture of the houses was varied due to the different developers, a centre began to develop for the area with its own pub, The Cherry Arbour. In the late 1860s, developments appeared all over Sparkhill with the creation of long, the new houses were terraced with their own back garden, coal shed and lavatory. For the wealthy class, larger houses were built in a plot bounded by Stoney Lane, Alfred Road. Sparkhill was removed from the possession of Yardley and became an area of Birmingham in 1911 as part of the Greater Birmingham Act, Yardley also became a suburb of Birmingham in the same year. The former council house for Yardley District Council was converted into Sparkhill Library and it is one of the earliest examples of double-glazed windows in a public building. Other buildings built for the district were a station, magistrates court and a fire station. St Johns Church is the local Anglican Parish Church and the home of the charity Narthex Sparkhill, designed by the famous Birmingham Architects Martin and Chamberlain the church was built in 1888. As a result of the nearby BSA factory being targeted, the area suffered from bombing in World War II, resulting in the loss of some houses, a memorial to those from the BSA works who died during the Second World War can be found in St Johns Church. Another old landmark in Sparkhill is the Mermaid Inn, which has been the site of a pub since the 17th century. The current, 1930s, building was converted into a Balti restaurant in the late 20th century, however, the buildings art deco exterior decoration is by local sculptor William Bloye

24.
Birmingham
–
Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment

25.
Isle of Man
–
The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island

26.
Dartmoor (HM Prison)
–
HM Prison Dartmoor is a Category C mens prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor, the prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by Her Majestys Prison Service. In 1805, Great Britain was at war with Napoleonic France, construction started in 1806, taking three years to complete. In 1809 the first French prisoners arrived, and were joined by American POWs taken in the War of 1812, at one time the prison population numbered almost 6,000. Many prisoners died and were buried on the moor, both French and American wars were concluded in 1815, and repatriations began. The prison then lay empty until 1850, when it was largely rebuilt, with the establishment of the prison farm in about 1852, all the prisoners remains were exhumed and re-interred in two cemeteries behind the prison. Although the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, from the spring of 1813 until March 1815 about 6,500 American sailors were imprisoned at Dartmoor. These were naval prisoners, and impressed American seamen discharged from British vessels, whilst the British were in charge of the prison, the prisoners created their own governance and culture. They had courts which meted out punishments, there was a market, a theatre. About 1,000 of the prisoners were black Americans and it took several weeks for the American agent to secure ships for their transportation home, and the men grew very impatient. On 4 April, a contractor attempted to work off some damaged hardtack on them in place of soft bread and was forced to yield by their insurrection. The commandant, Captain T. G. Shortland, suspected them of a design to break out of the gaol. This was the reverse of the truth in general, as they would lose their chance of going on the ships, but a few had made threats of the sort, and the commandant was very uneasy. About 6,00 pm of the 6th, Shortland discovered a hole from one of the five prisons to the yard near the gun racks. Some prisoners were outside the fence, noisily pelting each other with turf, Shortland was convinced of a plot, and rang the alarm bell to collect the officers and have the men ready. This precaution brought back a crowd just going to quarters, just then a prisoner broke a gate chain with an iron bar and a number of the prisoners pressed through to the prison market square. After attempts at persuasion, Shortland ordered a charge which drove some of the prisoners in and those near the gate, however, hooted at and taunted the soldiery, who fired a volley over their heads. The crowd yelled louder and threw stones, and the soldiers, probably without orders, then they continued firing at the prisoners, many of whom were now struggling to get back inside the blocks

27.
Wandsworth (HM Prison)
–
HM Prison Wandsworth, Wandsworth Reform Prison, is a Category B mens prison at Wandsworth in the London Borough of Wandsworth, South West London, England. It is operated by Her Majestys Prison Service and is the largest prison in the United Kingdom, the prison was built in 1851, when it was known as Surrey House of Correction. It was designed according to the separate system principle, a number of corridors radiate from a central control point with each prisoner having toilet facilities. The toilets were removed to increase prison capacity and the prisoners had to engage in the humiliating process of slopping out. In 1951, Wandsworth was the prison for a national stock of the birch. An example of a flogging with the cat carried out in Wandsworth Prison itself was reported in July 1954, on 8 July 1965, Ronnie Biggs escaped from the prison, where he was serving a 30-year sentence for his part in the Great Train Robbery. Two years later he fled to Brazil and remained on the run until 2001, Wandsworth was the site of 135 executions, between 1878 and 1961. The gallows was located on E wing, among those executed by hanging were, On 25 April 1951, a double execution took place at Wandsworth, when Edward Smith and Joseph Brown stood on the gallows together and were executed simultaneously. The final executions at Wandsworth were those of Francis Forsyth on 10 November 1960, Victor John Terry on 25 May 1961, with the exceptions of Scott-Ford, Joyce and Amery, who were convicted of treachery, all executions were for the crime of murder. The gallows were kept in working order until 1993 and tested every six months. In 1994, they were dismantled and the suite is now used as a tea room for the prison officers. The gallows trapdoor and lever were sent to the Prison Service Museum in Rugby, after this museum permanently closed in 2004, they were sent to the Galleries of Justice in Nottingham, where those and an execution box may be seen. The transfers, which included vulnerable prisoners, were made in order to manipulate prison population figures, in March 2011, an unannounced follow-up inspection was conducted by Her Majestys Chief Inspector of Prisons, which found that. In May 2015 a prisoner was found dead in his cell, Wandsworth Prison contains eight wings on two units. The smaller unit, containing three wings, was designed for women but is currently closed for refurbishment. It is planned to reopen as a Category C unit focusing on resettlement services, education and training courses are offered at Wandsworth, and are contracted from A4e. Facilities at the prison include two gyms and a sports hall, the large prison chaplaincy offers chaplains from the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, Muslim, Jewish, Sikh, Hindu, Buddhist, Mormon and Jehovahs Witness faiths. The Spurgeons Visitors Centre is used to support families and friends of prisoners visiting Wandsworth Prison, facilities include a rest area, refreshments and a childrens play area

28.
Eton College
–
Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors

29.
Hans Holbein the Younger
–
Hans Holbein the Younger was a German and Swiss artist and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style. He is best known as one of the greatest portraitists of the 16th century and he also produced religious art, satire and Reformation propaganda, and made a significant contribution to the history of book design. He is called the Younger to distinguish him from his father, Hans Holbein the Elder, Born in Augsburg, Holbein worked mainly in Basel as a young artist. At first he painted murals and religious works and designed for stained glass windows and he also painted the occasional portrait, making his international mark with portraits of the humanist Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. When the Reformation reached Basel, Holbein worked for reformist clients while continuing to serve traditional religious patrons and his Late Gothic style was enriched by artistic trends in Italy, France and the Netherlands, as well as by Renaissance humanism. The result was a combined aesthetic uniquely his own, Holbein travelled to England in 1526 in search of work, with a recommendation from Erasmus. He was welcomed into the humanist circle of Thomas More, where he built a high reputation. After returning to Basel for four years, he resumed his career in England in 1532 and this time he worked under the patronage of Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell. By 1535, he was Kings Painter to King Henry VIII, in this role, he produced not only portraits and festive decorations but designs for jewellery, plate and other precious objects. His portraits of the family and nobles are a record of the court in the years when Henry was asserting his supremacy over the English church. Holbeins art was prized from early in his career, the French poet and reformer Nicholas Bourbon dubbed him the Apelles of our time, a typical contemporary accolade. Holbein has also described as a great one-off of art history. After his death, some of his work was lost, but much was collected, recent exhibitions have also highlighted his versatility. He turned his fluid line to designs ranging from jewellery to monumental frescoes. Holbeins art has sometimes been called realist, since he drew and his portraits were renowned in their time for their likeness, and it is through Holbeins eyes that many famous figures of his day, such as Erasmus and More, are now seen. Holbein was never content, however, with outward appearance and he embedded layers of symbolism, allusion, and paradox in his art, to the lasting fascination of scholars. In the view of art historian Ellis Waterhouse, his portraiture remains unsurpassed for sureness and economy of statement, penetration into character, Holbein was born in the free imperial city of Augsburg during the winter of 1497–98. He was a son of the painter and draughtsman Hans Holbein the Elder, whose trade he and his brother, Ambrosius

30.
George Cruikshank
–
George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856

31.
Edmund Bonner
–
Edmund Bonner was Bishop of London from 1539 to 1549 and again from 1553 to 1559. Initially an instrumental figure in the schism of Henry VIII from Rome, he was antagonized by the Protestant reforms introduced by Somerset and reconciled himself to Roman Catholicism. He became notorious as Bloody Bonner for his role in the persecution of heretics under the Catholic government of Mary I of England and he was the son of Elizabeth Frodsham, who was married to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of Hanley in Worcestershire. This account was disputed by Strypes contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmere and he was educated at Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil and canon law in June 1519. He was ordained about the time and admitted doctor of civil law in 1525. In 1529 he was Cardinal Thomas Wolseys chaplain, which brought him to the notice of the king, after the fall of Wolsey he remained faithful to him and was with him at the time of his arrest at Cawood and death at Leicester in 1530. There he sought to obstruct the proceedings against Henry in the papal curia. For these and other services Bonner had been rewarded by grants of the livings of Cherry Burton, Ripple, Blaydon, and East Dereham. After a brief embassy to the Emperor in the spring of 1538, in this capacity he proved capable and successful, though irritation was frequently caused by his overbearing and dictatorial manner. He began his mission by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against his predecessor. He was almost as bitter against Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a papist, and he seems, however, to have pleased his patron, Cromwell, and perhaps Henry, by his energy in seeing the kings Great Bible in English through the press in Paris. Bonner returned to England and was consecrated 4 April 1540 and he had graduated in law, and not in theology. During the years 1542-43 he was abroad in Spain and Germany as ambassador to the emperor. The death of the king on 28 January 1547, proved the point in Bonners career. But while accepting the schism from Rome, he had resisted the innovations of the Reformers. Therefore, from the first he put himself in opposition to the changes introduced by Protector Somerset. The ground was chosen, but it was not legally nor constitutionally tenable. It was on this question that he came into conflict with Edwards government, in the next session, November 1548-March 1549, he was a leading opponent of the first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer

32.
Foxe's Book of Martyrs
–
The Actes and Monuments, popularly known as Foxes Book of Martyrs, is a work of Protestant history and martyrology by John Foxe, first published in English in 1563 by John Day. It includes an account of the sufferings of Protestants under the Catholic Church. The book was influential in those countries and helped shape lasting popular notions of Catholicism there. The book went through four editions in Foxes lifetime and a number of editions and abridgements. The book was produced and illustrated with over sixty distinctive woodcut impressions and was to time the largest publishing project ever undertaken in England. Their product was a single book, a bit over a foot long. Foxes own title for the first edition, is Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Days, the page count went from approximately 1,800 pages in 1563 to over 2,300 folio pages. The number of woodcuts increased from 60 to 150, as Foxe wrote about his own living contemporaries, the illustrations could not be borrowed from existing texts, as was commonly practiced. Foxes title for the edition is quite different from the first edition where he claimed his material as these latter days of peril. touching on matters of the Church. In 1570, Foxes book is an Ecclesiastical History containing the acts and monuments of thynges passed in every kynges tyme in this realm and it describes persecutions, horrrible troubles, the suffering of martyrs, and other such thinges incident. In England and Scotland, and all other forreine nations, the second volume of the 1570 edition has its own title page and, again, an altered subject. Again leaving the reference, to church, uncertain, the title concludes in this realm of England and Scotland as partly also to all other forrine nations apparteynyng. Actes and Monuments for almost all its existence has popularly been called the Book of Martyrs, the linking of titles is an expected norm for introducing John Foxes sixteenth century work. William Haller observed that Edmund Grindal called it a book of martyrs, and it may have contained Grindals book of English martyrs, but it was not John Foxes. Dismayed by the misconception, Foxe tried to correct the error in the second edition. That his appeal was ineffective in his own time is not surprising, continuing this practice in academic analyses is being questioned, particularly in light of Foxes explicit denial. I wrote no such booke bearying the title Booke of Martyrs, I wrote a booke called the Acts and Monumentes. Wherin many other matters be contayned beside the martyrs of Christ, the final book treated the reign of Queen Mary and the Marian Persecutions

33.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa

34.
Tuileries
–
The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King

35.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses

Corporal punishment
–
Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or pad

1.
Depiction of a flogging at Oregon State Penitentiary, 1908

2.
Foot whipping an offender, Iran, 1920s

3.
Husaga (the right of the master of the household to corporally punish his servants) was outlawed in Sweden for adults in 1858.

School corporal punishment
–
School corporal punishment refers to causing deliberate pain or discomfort in response to undesired behaviour by students in schools. It often involves striking the student either across the buttocks or on the hands, with an implement such as a cane, wooden paddle. Less commonly, it could also include spanking or smacking the student with the open

1.
Legality of corporal punishment of school students in the United States

2.
1839 caricature by George Cruikshank of a school flogging

3.
1888 illustration of caning in school

Caning
–
Caning is a form of corporal punishment consisting of a number of hits with a single cane usually made of rattan, generally applied to the offenders bare or clothed buttocks or hand. Caning on the knuckles or shoulders is much less common, Caning can also be applied to the soles of the feet. Caning was a form of judicial punishment and official sch

3.
Caning stand and cane formerly used in Hong Kong prisons under British rule

Cat o' nine tails
–
The term first appears in 1695, although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its claws, which inflict parallel wounds, the cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about 2 1⁄2 feet or 76 cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain. It traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the ma

1.
A leather cat o' nine tails pictured with a U.S. dollar bill for size comparison. A U.S. dollar bill is about 6 inches (about 15 cm) long, so the total length would be about 30 inches (75 cm).

Flagellation
–
Flagellation, flogging, whipping or lashing is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, lashes, rods, switches, the cat o nine tails, the sjambok, etc. Typically, flogging is imposed on a subject as a punishment, however, it can also be submitted to willingly, or performed on oneself. The strokes are usually aimed at

1.
Prisoners at a whipping post in a Delaware prison, circa 1907.

2.
Punishment with a Great Knout. Russia, 18th century.

3.
Gordon, a whipped slave, photo taken at Baton Rouge, 1863. The scars are clearly visible because of keloid formation.

Foot whipping
–
Foot whipping or bastinado is a method of corporal punishment which consists in hitting the bare soles of a persons feet. The receiving person is required to be barefoot, the uncovered soles of the feet need to be placed in an exposed position. The beating is typically performed with an object in the type of a cane or switch, the strokes are usuall

Knout
–
A knout /ˈnaʊt/ is a heavy scourge-like multiple whip, usually made of a bunch of rawhide thongs attached to a long handle, sometimes with metal wire or hooks incorporated. The English word stems from a spelling-pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут, some claim it was a Tatar invention and was introduced into Russia in

1.
"Punishment with an ordinary knout", an 18th-century print

Paddle (spanking)
–
A spanking paddle is an implement used to strike a person on the buttocks. The act of spanking a person with a paddle is known as paddling, a paddling may be for punishment, or as an initiation or hazing ritual. A paddle has two parts, a handle and a blade, most paddles are designed to be held with one hand, but a giant paddle may be designed to be

1.
A spanking paddle

2.
Illustration of a paddle being used for the punishment of slaves.

3.
1912 illustration of an inmate being punished in an American prison

Scourge
–
A scourge is a whip or lash, especially a multi-thong type, used to inflict severe corporal punishment or self-mortification on the back. Some connect it to Latin, excoriare, to flay, built of two Latin parts, ex- and corium, skin, a scourge typically consists of several thongs fastened to a handle. A well known configuration of a scourge is the ca

1.
Medical examination photo of Gordon showing his scourged back, widely distributed by Abolitionists to expose the brutality of slavery.

2.
Reproduction of a medieval scourge

Slippering
–
A slippering is a term for the act of smacking the buttocks, or the hands, with a slipper as a form of corporal punishment. A slippering on the buttocks is a form of spanking, it is a more common method than slippering on the hands. The verb to slipper means to give a slippering, until at least the 1970s slippering was widely used by British parent

1.
School plimsolls or "slippers"

Spanking
–
Spanking is a type of corporal punishment involving the act of striking the buttocks of another person to cause physical pain, generally with an open hand. More severe forms of spanking, such as switching, paddling, belting, caning, whipping, parents commonly spank children or adolescents in response to undesired behavior. Boys are more frequently

1.
Spanking in Germany in 1935

2.
Painting by Georg Conrad (1827–1889)

3.
Poster for Kiss Me Kate

Tawse
–
The tawse, sometimes formerly spelled taws is an implement used for corporal punishment. It was used for educational discipline, primarily in Scotland, but also in schools in the English cities of Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, Manchester, a tawse consists of a strip of leather, with one end split into a number of tails. The thickness of the leath

1.
Museum specimens of the tawse

2.
A two-tailed Lochgelly Tawse.

Crop (implement)
–
A crop, sometimes called a riding crop or hunting crop, is a short type of whip without a lash, used in horse riding, part of the family of tools known as horse whips. A modern crop usually consists of a shaft of fiberglass or cane which is covered in leather, fabric. The rod of a crop thickens at one end to form a handle, the thin end is intended

1.
a 30" (75cm) riding crop, with dollar bill to show scale

2.
The difference between a crop and a whip. The top implement is a dressage whip, the bottom is a hunt seat riding crop.

Human rights in Iran
–
The state of human rights in Iran has been criticized both by Iranians and international human rights activists, writers, and NGOs since long before the formation of the current state of Iran. The United Nations General Assembly and the Human Rights Commission have condemned prior and ongoing abuses in Iran in published critiques, in October 2012 t

4.
Mona Mahmudnizhad, executed at the age of 17 in Shiraz in 1983, along with 9 other Bahá’í women.

Caning in Malaysia
–
Caning is used as a form of legal corporal punishment in Malaysia. It can be divided into at least three contexts, judicial/prison, school, and Sharia, of these three, the first two are largely a legacy of, and are influenced by, British colonial rule in the territories that are now part of Malaysia, particularly Malaya. Similar forms of punishment

1.
Two types of judicial canes: The front row shows the thicker canes while the back row consists of lighter canes.

2.
A mannequin tied to an A-shaped frame. Note the "torso shield" that covers the lower back and upper thighs while leaving the buttocks exposed.

3.
A picture showing the marks left on a student's palm after a caning

Corporal punishment in Saudi Arabia
–
Human rights in Saudi Arabia are intended to be based on the Hanbali Islamic religious laws under absolute rule of the Saudi royal family. The very strict regime ruling the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is consistently ranking among the worst of the worst in Freedom Houses annual survey of political, Saudi Arabia is one of approximately thirty countries

1.
A road sign for a bypass used to restrict non-Muslims from Mecca

2.
Saudi Arabia

Human rights in Qatar
–
The state of human rights in Qatar is a concern for several non-governmental organizations. Sharia law is the source of Qatari legislation according to Qatars constitution. Flogging and stoning as forms of punishment are legal in Qatar due to Sharia law, Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatars constitution. Sharia la

1.
A demonstration held for Mohammed al-Ajami outside the Qatari embassy in Washington, D.C.

2.
Qatar

3.
Qatar's first Catholic church is not permitted to have Christian symbols on its exterior.

Caning in Singapore
–
Caning is a widely used form of legal corporal punishment in Singapore. It can be divided into several contexts, judicial, prison, reformatory, military, school and these practices of caning are largely a legacy of, and are influenced by, British colonial rule in Singapore. Similar forms of punishment are also used in some other former British colo

1.
Canes sold in grocery stores, used by parents to discipline children at home

Human rights in the United Arab Emirates
–
According to human rights organizations, the government of the United Arab Emirates violates a number of fundamental human rights. The UAE does not have democratically elected institutions and citizens do not have the right to change their government or to political parties. There are reports of forced disappearances in the UAE, many foreign nation

1.
Construction workers at the Burj Dubai

2.
United Arab Emirates

3.
Construction workers from Asia on top floor of the Angsana Tower

Ingraham v. Wright
–
Ingraham vs. Wright,430 U. S.651, was a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the disciplinary corporal punishment policy of Floridas public schools by a 5–4 vote. James Ingraham was a 14-year-old eighth grade student at Charles R. Drew Junior High School in 1970, on October 6,1970, Ingraham was accused of failing to promptly leave the stage

1.
Supreme Court of the United States

Birch
–
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-l

1.
Birch

2.
The front and rear sides of a piece of birch bark

3.
Birch trees near stream in Hankasalmi, Finland

4.
A stand of birch trees

Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular

1.
The Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.

2.
Flag

3.
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation.

4.
Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.

Sparkhill
–
Sparkhill is an inner-city area of Birmingham, England, situated between Springfield, Hall Green and Sparkbrook. Sparkhill takes its name from Spark Brook, a stream that flows from Moseley to the River Cole in Small Heath. It was, as the name suggests, a hill that was situated alongside the stream, the only part where it cannot easily be followed i

1.
Sparkhill Public Library

2.
The Bear public house, Holland W. Hobbiss & William Bloye

3.
The Antelope, a former public house, Holland W. Hobbiss & William Bloye

4.
The Mermaid public house, damaged by fire

Birmingham
–
Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at

Isle of Man
–
The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government

1.
The Braaid in central Isle of Man, with remnants of a Celtic-Norse roundhouse and two longhouses, c. 650–950 AD

2.
Flag

3.
The Calf of Man seen from Cregneash

4.
A composite satellite image of the Isle of Man

Dartmoor (HM Prison)
–
HM Prison Dartmoor is a Category C mens prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor, the prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by Her Majestys Prison Service. In 1805, Great Britain was at war with Napoleonic France, construction started in

1.
HMP Dartmoor

2.
HM Dartmoor Prison

3.
Main gates of Dartmoor Prison

4.
Éamon de Valera (1920s)

Wandsworth (HM Prison)
–
HM Prison Wandsworth, Wandsworth Reform Prison, is a Category B mens prison at Wandsworth in the London Borough of Wandsworth, South West London, England. It is operated by Her Majestys Prison Service and is the largest prison in the United Kingdom, the prison was built in 1851, when it was known as Surrey House of Correction. It was designed accor

1.
Panorama of HMP Wandsworth from Heathfield Road

Eton College
–
Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is on

1.
16-17th century coat of arms produced from the masonry of Eton College building.

2.
Eton College

3.
Eton College, Provost's Garden

4.
Statue of the founder Henry VI in School Yard

Hans Holbein the Younger
–
Hans Holbein the Younger was a German and Swiss artist and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style. He is best known as one of the greatest portraitists of the 16th century and he also produced religious art, satire and Reformation propaganda, and made a significant contribution to the history of book design. He is called the Younger

3.
Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1523. Oil and tempera on wood, National Gallery, London, on loan from Longford Castle

4.
Portrait of Sir Thomas More, 1527. Oil and tempera on oak, Frick Collection, New York City

George Cruikshank
–
George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assis

1.
George Cruikshank, 1836

2.
The New Union Club dinner with black guests

3.
Fagin in his cell. Copperplate engraving, 1838

4.
Plate I

Edmund Bonner
–
Edmund Bonner was Bishop of London from 1539 to 1549 and again from 1553 to 1559. Initially an instrumental figure in the schism of Henry VIII from Rome, he was antagonized by the Protestant reforms introduced by Somerset and reconciled himself to Roman Catholicism. He became notorious as Bloody Bonner for his role in the persecution of heretics un

1.
The Right Reverend Edmund Bonner

2.
Marshalsea

3.
Bishop Bonner punishing a heretic from Foxe's Book of Martyrs (1563)

Foxe's Book of Martyrs
–
The Actes and Monuments, popularly known as Foxes Book of Martyrs, is a work of Protestant history and martyrology by John Foxe, first published in English in 1563 by John Day. It includes an account of the sufferings of Protestants under the Catholic Church. The book was influential in those countries and helped shape lasting popular notions of Ca

1.
A page of the first English-language edition, printed by John Day in 1563

2.
Frontispiece to the 1761 edition of The Book of Martyrs

3.
Dual martyrdom by burning, 1558; from a 1641 edition of Foxe.

Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europ

1.
Reconstruction of Herodotus ' world map

3.
A medieval T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah — Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth), and Africa to Cham (Ham)

4.
Early modern depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical Europa of the 8th century BC.

Tuileries
–
The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres

1.
The Tuileries Palace and the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel circa 1860. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile can be seen in the background.

2.
The Tuileries Palace in the 1600s

3.
The old medieval Louvre (background) and the Tuileries (foreground) linked by the Grande Galerie along the River Seine, in 1615

4.
The Tuileries Palace and the Louvre on the 1739 Turgot map of Paris, during the reign of Louis XV

Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the

1.
Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.

2.
Flag

3.
The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.

1.
The Baltic Way was a mass demonstration where ca 25% of the population of the Baltic states participated. It demonstrated solidarity among the three nations and the wish for independence from the Soviet occupation.

3.
Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.