It is a vinyl polymer constructed of repeating vinyl groups (ethenyls) having one hydrogen replaced bychloride. Polyvinyl chloride is the third most widely produced plastic, after polyethylene andpolypropylene.[2] PVC is widely used in construction because it is cheap, durable, and easy to assemble. PVC production is expected to exceed 40 million tons by 2016.[3] According toIUPAC, polyvinyl chloride should be named poly(chloroethanediyl), but the name is not used.[citation needed] It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is used in clothing and upholstery, electrical cable insulation, inflatable products and many other applications in which it would originally have replaced rubber.[4] PVC is a controversial material in that during its production, useful life and incineration, especially in accidental and uncontrolled circumstances, it may liberate persistent toxins (see section 5), which the manufacture, use and destruction of suitable alternative plastics such as polypropylene do not. Contents [hide] 1 Preparation 2 Properties 3 History 4 Applications
o o o o o o o o

4 Bans
6 Recycling 7 See also 8 References
o
8.1 Bibliography
9 External links [edit]Preparation
The repeating unit of polyvinyl chloride
Space-filling model of a part of a PVC chain Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).[5] About 57% of its mass is chlorine.o o
5.
.3 Dioxins 5. as shown.

[6] [edit]Properties The properties for PVC are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible PVCs. fillers. Before PVC can be made into finished products. it almost always requires conversion into a compound by the incorporation of additives such as heat stabilizers. plasticizers. The contents of the reaction vessel are continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC resin. The slurry is further dried in a hot air bed.1±1. The reaction is exothermic.000[9]
10±25
Young's modulus [psi]
.14±0. UV stabilizers. Normally. along with other chemical additives. impact modifiers. thermal modifiers. As the volumes also contract during the reaction (PVC is denser than VCM). flame retardants. 120-150 m for suspension PVC) with slightly different properties and with somewhat different sets of applications.28
0. and the resulting powder sieved before storage or pelletization. Once the reaction has run its course. lubricants.17
31±60 490. and. and thus requires a cooling mechanism to maintain the reactor contents at the appropriate temperature. processing aids.45
1.35
0.14±0.3±1. optionally pigments. VCM and water are introduced into the polymerization reactor and a polymerization initiator. such as micro-suspension polymerization and emulsion polymerization. biocides. the resulting PVC slurry is degassed and stripped to remove excess VCM (which is recycled) then passed though a centrifuge to remove water.By far the most widely used production process is suspension polymerization. Other production processes. blowing agents and smoke suppressors. are added to initiate the polymerization reaction. water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension. produce PVC with smaller particle sizes (10 m vs. In this process. The product of the polymerization process is unmodified PVC. the resulting PVC has a VCM content of less than 1 part per million. Property Density [g/cm3][7] Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)][8] Yield strength [MPa][7] Rigid PVC Flexible PVC
1.

With the addition of impact modifiers and stabilizers. On both occasions the polymer appeared as a white solid inside flasks of vinyl chloride that had been left exposed to sunlight. The result was a more flexible and more easily processed material that soon achieved widespread commercial use. It is biologically and chemically resistant. [edit]Clothing
.F. [edit]Applications A number of PVC's properties recommend it for a wide variety of applications. it becomes a popular material for window and door frames.Flexural strength (yield) [psi]
10. By adding plasticizers. but difficulties in processing the rigid. it can become flexible enough to be used in cabling applications as a wire insulator.500[9] 9500[9]
Compression strength [psi]
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear) [mm/(mm °C)] 5×10í5[9] Vicat B [°C][8] m][10][11]
65±100 1016 1013±1014
Not recommended 1012±1015 1011±1012
Resistivity [
Surface resistivity [ ][10][11] [edit]History
PVC was accidentally discovered at least twice in the 19th century. Goodrich Company developed a method in 1926 to plasticize PVC by blending it with various additives.Waldo Semon and the B. making it the plastic of choice for most household sewerage pipes and other pipe applications where corrosion would limit the use of metal. first in 1835 by Henri Victor Regnault and in 1872 by Eugen Baumann. It is also used to make vinyl records. In the early 20th century the Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte of the German chemical company Griesheim-Elektron both attempted to use PVC (polyvinyl chloride) in commercial products. sometimes brittle polymer blocked their efforts.

Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes for various municipal and industrial applications. high strength. and in sanitary sewer pipe applications. leather. PVC is cheaper than rubber.PVC has become widely used in clothing. or heat-
. While HCl fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right. [edit]Pipes
PVC pipes in use with intumescent firestops at Nortown Casitas. [edit]Electric wires PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electric wires. It is commonly used in coats.[13] In the water distribution market it accounts for 66% of the market in the US. Punk and alternative fashions. PVC fabric has a sheen to it and is waterproof.[12] Frequently in applications where smoke is a major hazard (notably in tunnels and communal areas) PVC-free cable insulation is preferred. it accounts for 75%. particularly in areas where the air is cool enough to breathe.[14] Its light weight. and bags because of this. and latex and so it is more widely available and worn. PVC pipes can be fused together using various solvent cements. aprons. and is not available for inhalation. shoes. PVC clothing is common in Goth. the plastic used for this purpose needs to be plasticized. North York. skiing equipment. PVC-coated wires can form HCl fumes. HCl dissolves in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces. In addition. and low reactivity make it particularly well-suited to this purpose. Ontario. In a fire. the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source of the material's fire retardance. jackets. such as low smoke zero halogen (LSZH) insulation. to either create a leather-like material or at times simply for the effect of PVC.

In February. [edit]Joining PVC cements are available at plumbing supply houses. Buried PVC pipes in both water and sanitary sewer applications that are 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter and larger are typically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. 2007 the California Building Standards Code was updated to approve the use of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe for use in residential water supplypiping systems. CPVC has been a nationally accepted material in the US since 1982.fused (butt-fusion process. In gasket-sealed jointing systems. providing additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra cost (see Closed-cell PVC foamboard). PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material. car body stripes. or clear.g.[15] [edit]Portable electronic accessories PVC is finding increased use as a composite for the production of accessories or housings for portable electronics. the gasket forms a positive seal that prevents leakage of fluid within the pipe and also keeps water and other contaminants from
. The Department of Housing and Community Development prepared and certified an environmental impact statement resulting in a recommendation that the Commission adopt and approve the use of CPVC. similar to joining HDPE pipe). When the spigot (male end) of the adjoining pipe is inserted into the bell. colored. an elastomeric gasket is seated in a groove within the bell (female end of pipe). These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter or printed in a wide-format printer. Sheets are cut using saw and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC is also used to produce thin. The Commission's vote was unanimous and CPVC has been placed in the 2007 California Plumbing Code. Through a fusing process. e. These sheets and films are used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage products and markings on vehicles. however. As flat sheets. it can adopt cleaning properties possessed by materials such as wool or cotton which can absorb dust particles and bacteria. creating permanent joints that are virtually impervious to leakage. The cement softens the material to a gel state until the adhesive layer cures.California. This has another practical application of being able to handmachine PVC pipe with a razor blade to change the wall thickness to allow assembly of nonstandard radius arc segments of electrical conduit large radius elbows. has permitted only limited use since 2001. adhesive-backed films referred to simply as vinyl.[citation needed] [edit]Signs Polyvinyl chloride is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. PVC pipes account for the largest majority of pipe materials used in buried municipal applications for drinking water distribution and wastewater mains. In the United States and Canada.

gutters and downspouts. fascia.[19] Due to environmental concerns use of PVC is discouraged by some local authorities in countries such as Germany and the Netherlands. and siding or weatherboarding. or to replace older single glazed windows. particularly in Ireland. and in the United States where it is known as vinyl. including a photoeffect wood finish. drainpipes. orvinyl siding. and doors uPVC or rigid PVC is often used in the building industry as a low-maintenance material.[20][21]
.[17][18] The material comes in a range of colors and finishes. mostly for window frames and sills when installing double glazing in new buildings. The same material has almost entirely replaced the use of cast iron for plumbing and drainage.surrounding soils from entering the piping system. [edit]Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC)
Modern "Tudorbethan" house with uPVC gutters and downspouts. It has many other uses including fascia.[16] [edit]Ceiling tiles PVC ceiling tiles are an alternative ceiling tiles that are easy to install over any flat surface. commonly referred to as a Reiber sealing system. being used for waste pipes. windows. The most common type of gasket utilized in North America is a metal reinforced elastomer. and is used as a substitute for painted wood. decorative imitation "half-timbering". the United Kingdom. They can be glued onto an existing ceiling with a reasonably flat surface.

used in toys.[26] The FDA. the European Chemicals Bureau of the European
. and flooring initially release chemical gases into the air. Additionally. and have resulted in a call for banning the use of DEHP on shower curtains.S.Plasticizers that must be added to make PVC flexible have been additives of particular concern. In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in children and indoor air levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl phthalate). Some of these additional chemicals called additives can leach out of vinyl products.[28] In December 2006. the European Chemicals Bureau of the European Commissionpublished an assessment of DINP which found risk "unlikely" for children and newborns. the European Union placed a ban on six types of phthalate softeners. Phthalates mimic human hormones and also affect various life forms including fish and invertebrates adversely.[27] The Japanese car companies Toyota. adult sex toys have been demonstrated to contain high concentrations of the additives. there are concerns that these additives leach out of soft toys into the mouths of the children chewing on them. the US FDA recognizes that many medical devices with PVC containing DEHP are not used in ways that result in significant human exposure to the chemical. including DEHP (diethylhexyl phthalate). shower curtains. In a draft guidance paper published in September 2002. Nissan.[22] In January 2006. DINP (diisononyl phthalate).[25] Vinyl intravenous (IV) bags used in neo-natal intensive care units have also been shown to leach DEHP.Double glazed units [edit]Health and safety [edit]Phthalate plasticizers Many vinyl products contain additional chemicals to change the chemical consistency of the product. Other vinyl products including car interiors. and Honda have eliminated PVC in their car interiors starting in 2007. most companies have voluntarily stopped manufacturing PVC toys with DEHP[citation needed] and in 2003 the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) denied a petition for a ban on PVC toys made with an alternative plasticizer.[23] In the U. however. which is used in vinyl flooring. suggests that manufacturers consider eliminating DEHP in certain devices that can result in high aggregate exposures for sensitive patient populations such as neonates. among other uses. Some studies indicate that this outgassing of additives may contribute to health complications.[24] In April 2006. Because soft PVC toys have been made for babies for years.

[edit]Vinyl chloride monomer In the early 1970s. All the cases of angiosarcoma developed from exposure to vinyl chloride monomer were in workers who were exposed to very high VCM levels.[37] Since that time.[36] The Committee said there are some alternative plasticizers available for which there is sufficient toxicological data to indicate a lower hazard compared to DEHP but added that the functionality of these plasticizers should be assessed before they can be used as an alternative for DEHP in PVC medical devices. not only by virtue of increased exposure. Wal-Mart. signed a contract with B. These workers cleaned accretions in reactors.Braun for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing. Catholic Healthcare West. Kentucky.Commission released a final draft risk assessment of BBzP which found "no concern" for consumer exposure including exposure to children.F.[32] several major corporations including Microsoft.[31] which helps to coordinate a "precautionary" PVC Campaign. VA. Italy. and Kaiser Permanente announced efforts to eliminate PVC from products and packaging in 2005. Goodrich plant near Louisville. Dr. Maurice Johnson were the first to clearly link and recognize the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride monomer to humans when workers in the polyvinyl chloride polymerization section of a B. The link between angiosarcoma of the liver and long-term exposure to vinyl chloride is the only one that has been confirmed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.[33] Target is reducing its sale of items with PVC. John Creech and Dr.
. studies of PVC workers in Australia. a practice that has now been replaced by automated high-pressure water jets. Germany.[29] In November.[35] In 2008 the European Union's Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) reviewed the safety of DEHP in medical devices.[34] The FDA Paper titled "Safety Assessment of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)Released from PVC Medical Devices" states that [3.[30] According to the Center for Health. The SCENIHR report states that certain medical procedures used in high risk patients result in a significant exposure to DEHP and concludes there is still a reason for having some concerns about the exposure of prematurely born male babies to medical devices containing DEHP.2. relative to the general population. 2005 one of the largest hospital networks in the U..3] Critically ill or injured patients may be at increased risk of developing adverse health effects from DEHP. and the UK have all associated certain types of occupational cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride. compared to healthy individuals. for many years. but also because of the physiological and pharmacodynamic changes that occur in these patients. Environment & Justice in Falls Church. were diagnosed with liver angiosarcoma also known as hemangiosarcoma. a rare disease. routinely.1.S.

S. "vinyl chloride emissions from polyvinyl chloride (PVC)."[38] According to the EPA. The reactions include all of the ingredients and conditions
.[43] [edit]Dioxins Main article: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins The environmentalist group Greenpeace has advocated the global phase-out of PVC because they claim dioxin is produced as a byproduct of vinyl chloride manufacture and from incineration of waste PVC in domestic garbage. ethylene dichloride (EDC)..[45] According to a 1994 report by the British firm. "It has been known since the publication of a paper in 1989 that these oxychlorination reactions [used to make vinyl chloride and some chlorinated solvents] generate polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs).S.S. Instead.[42] Cancer rates in the community were similar to Louisiana and US averages. most dioxins arise in the condensed solid phase by the reaction of inorganic chlorides with graphitic structures in char-containing ash particles. or incapacitating reversible illness. Copper acts as a catalyst for these reactions. it is concluded that the liver is the most sensitive site. population. and protection against liver cancer will protect against possible cancer induction in other tissues. and vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) plants cause or contribute to air pollution that may reasonably be anticipated to result in an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible. Extensive studies in Europe indicate that the chlorine found in emitted dioxins is not derived from HCl in the flue gases. ICI Chemicals & Polymers Ltd. Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen that causes a rare cancer of the liver.[41] Retesting of community residents in 2001 by the U."[40] A 1998 front-page series in the Houston Chronicle claimed the vinyl industry has manipulated vinyl chloride studies to avoid liability for worker exposure and to hide extensive and severe chemical spills into local communities..and the weaker association for other sites.[44] PVC produces HCl upon combustion almost quantitatively related to its chlorine content. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report concluded that the development and acceptance by the PVC industry of a closed loop polymerization process in the late 1970s "almost completely eliminated worker exposures" and that "new cases of hepatic angiosarcoma in vinyl chloride polymerization workers have been virtually eliminated."[39] EPA's 2001 updated Toxicological Profile and Summary Health Assessment for VCM in its Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database lowers EPA's previous risk factor estimate by a factor of 20 and concludes that "because of the consistent evidence for liver cancer in all the studies.Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) found dioxin levels similar to those in a comparison community in Louisiana and to the U..A 1997 U.

Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires. or less than 0.necessary to form PCDD/PCDFs. A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC"."[53] [edit]Bans The State of California is currently considering a bill that would ban the use of PVC in consumer packaging due to the threats it poses to human and environmental health and its effect on the recycling stream. the language of the bill analysis[55] stipulates that EPA has
." In other words. It is difficult to see how any of these conditions could be modified so as to prevent PCDD/PCDF formation without seriously impairing the reaction for which the process is designed.[48] According to the EPA dioxin inventory.[49] Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results.[54] Specifically."[48] The next largest sources of dioxin in the EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators. Dioxins created by vinyl chloride production are released by on-site incinerators. by 2002. dioxins are an undesirable byproduct of producing vinyl chloride and eliminating the production of dioxins while maintaining the oxychlorination reaction may be difficult.[46] The US EPA estimate of dioxin releases from the PVC industry was 13 grams TEQ in 1995. landfill fires are likely to represent an even larger source of dioxin to the environment.[50][51] Other studies have shown a clear correlation between dioxin formation and chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributor to the formation of both dioxin and PCB in incinerators.[52] In February 2007.. PVC industry dioxin emissions had been further reduced by 23%..5% of the total dioxin emissions in the US.[47] Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing PVC concentrations.. the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the US Green Building Council (USGBC) released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the LEED Green Building Rating system. The report concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human health and environmental impact categories. wastewater treatment systems and even in trace quantities in vinyl resins. For instance a study of commercial-scale incinerators showed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and dioxin emissions. nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions puts PVC consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts. boilers. flares.

which consists of recovering PVC plastic from composite materials through dissolution and precipitation.[citation needed] The thermal depolymerization process can safely and efficiently convert PVC into fuel and minerals[citation needed]. as a carcinogen[56]. recycling both manufacturing waste back into their products. called Vinyloop. Some PVC manufacturers have placed vinyl recycling programs into action.listed vinyl chloride. a "constituent element" of PVC. [edit]Recycling
PVC SPI code.
.). as well as post consumer PVC construction materials to reduce the load on landfills.[57] This process is based on a technology already applied industrially in Europe and Japan. PVC has not been recycled because the cost of virgin resin has been lower than recycling the resin. A new process of PVC recycling is being developed in Europe called Texiloop. It is not yet in widespread use. It also further cites that there are concerns about the leaching of phthalates and lead from the PVC packaging. for recycling (Society of the Plastics Industry). It strives to be a closed loop system. Traditionally. The costs of recycling clean and homogeneous waste streams are generally acceptable. Rigid PVC can be recycled into pipes and profiles. Recycling of post-consumer PVC is technically feasible. The Unicodecharacter for this symbol is U+2675 (HTML character reference&#9845. recycling its key solvent and hopefully making PVC a future technical nutrient.