CAUTION!Sedative and anesthetic drug dosages for
African elephants often vary from those for Asian elephants. Do not
assume that the recommendations for one species can be applied to the
other. Significant variation may also occur between individual
elephants. Higher doses may be needed in wild or excited animals. Unless
otherwise specified, doses refer to captive elephants. The information
provided here should be used as a guideline only. Consultation with
experienced colleagues is advised.

SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING ETORPHINE: Opioid narcotics elevate blood pressure and have
been implicated in the etiology of pink foam syndrome in wild African
elephants. This emergency situation can be fatal. The syndrome manifests
as pink froth from the trunk and is caused by pulmonary edema and
capillary bleeding. Several authors recommend that azaperone be combined
with opioid narcotics to counteract these hypertensive effects (see
Hattingh and Knox, 1994 below).
See azaperone monograph for further
information.

c) 12 mg
etorphine and 150 mg azaperone for capture of wild African elephant
bulls. See original work for cow and juvenile doses. The author notes that
old females and lactating females tend to recycle etorphine and should be
reversed first prior to loading and transfer (du Toit, 2001).

e,f) A
2817 kg female Asian elephant was induced with 1.75 mg etorphine
IM, followed by 0.75 mg etorphine at 40 minutes. The elephant was
intubated with a 30 mm endotracheal tube and maintained with 1.5-2.0%
isoflurane. Additional etorphine (total additional 1.4 mg) was
supplemented IV during the procedure to surgically remove P-3. Thirty
minutes prior to the completion of the procedure isoflurane was
discontinued, but oxygen continued to flow. Additional etorphine was
given intermittently IV (0.4 mg total) during the remaining 45 minutes of
recumbency. Naltrexone was given IV and the elephant was standing within
3 minutes. (Fowler et.al. 1999 and 2000). (Author’s (Mikota) note: the
dose of Naltrexone reported in the 1999 publication of this case was 250
mg and the dose reported in the 2000 publication was 60 mg).

g) For
capture of adult, wild African elephants, etorphine in combination
with azaperone as follows (the peripheral vasodilation effects of
azaperone help to reduce the hypertension caused by the narcotic) :

adult
females: 12 mg etorphine and 100 mg azaperone

adult
males: 15 mg etorphine and 200 mg azaperone

For
captive elephants, reduce dosage by 25 %.

For
capture of wild African calves, etorphine in combination with
azaperone according to shoulder height as follows:

Shoulder
height 90 – 115 cm: 2 mg etorphine and 20 mg azaperone

Shoulder
height 116 – 140 cm: 5 mg etorphine and 50 azaperone

Shoulder
height 141 – 165 cm: 7 mg etorphine and 70 mg azaperone

Shoulder
height 166 – 200 cm: 9 mg etorphine and 90 mg azaperone

For
captive elephants, reduce dosage by 25 %

To
reverse the effects of etorphine, give diprenorphine IV as a single bolus
at three times the etorphine dose (Raath, 1999).

h)
Following premedication with 120 mg azaperone, two 5-year-old African
elephants were given 1 mg etorphine IM as a “walking dose,” and 2 mg
etorphine to induce anesthesia. See abstract below (Stegmann, 1999).

j)
Etorphine (7-15 mg) was combined with azaperone (60-100 mg) and
hyaluronidase 1500-3000 IU) in a translocation operation of 26 wild
African elephants in central Kenya. Induction time was 7-15 minutes.
Five elephants died from metabolic changes unrelated to drugs doses
administered. (Njumbi et.al. 1996). (Author’s (Mikota) note: hyalase is
incorrectly described as a tranquilizer in this article).

s) Adult male African elephants: 6-20 mg; adult
female African elephants: 4-15 mg. Use lower range doses for elephants
under controlled conditions and higher range doses for elephants that are
excited, angry, or exerted. The addition of hyaluronidase (4500 IU total
dose) is recommended to reduce induction time. The average induction time
in free-ranging elephants with doses of 14 mg (females) and 20 mg (males)
is 5.38 minutes (range 3.15-10.4 minutes). Reverse with
diprenorphine at 4 times the etorphine dose in mg. The average recovery
time is 3 minutes (Kock et.al. 1993).

u) For
the capture of wild Asian elephants: adult elephants weighing 4 to
4.5 tons require an average of 6.75 mg etorphine; subadult elephants
weighing 2.5 to 3.0 tons may require 6 mg. Can use in combination with
acepromazine (Immobilon®). Induction time is 10-12 minutes but
will be delayed if injection is SC (Appayya, et.al. 1992).

v) Can be
combined with hyaluronidase to reduce induction time (see
hyaluronidase monograph for doses).
Hyaluronidase activity remains high for at least 48 hr, provided storage
temperatures can be maintained at ≤ 30°C. Storage at ≥ 40°C is associated
with rapid loss of enzyme activity (Morton et.al. 1991).

w) One
African elephant was premedicated with an IM combination of 0.27
mg/kg ketamine and 0.23 mg/kg xylazine followed 20 minutes later by 0.9
µg/kg etorphine IV and then halothane. Two elephants weighing 900 and
3000 kg were trained to lay in lateral recumbency and were given etorphine
(mean dose 2.2 µg/kg) IV. One elephant was intubated and maintained with
halothane and the other was maintained by repeated administration of IV
etorphine. Two elephants weighing 750 and 1500 kg received 3.3 µg/kg
etorphine IM and following immobilization were intubated and maintained
with halothane (Welsch et.al. 1989).

x) Sixteen 3- to 5-year-old African elephants
were anesthetized one or more times for a total of 27 diagnostic and
surgical procedures. Xylazine (0.1 ± 0.04 mg/kg of body weight, mean ± SD)
and ketamine (0.6 ± 0.13 mg/kg) administered IM induced good chemical
restraint in standing juvenile elephants during a 45-minute transport
period before administration of general anesthesia. After IM or IV
administration of etorphine (1.9 ± 0.56 micrograms/kg), the mean time to
lateral recumbency was 20 ± 6.6 and 3 ± 0.0 minutes, respectively (Heard
et.al. 1988).

aa) 1
mg/450 kg for Asian elephants IV or IM; 1 mg/600 kg for African elephants
IV or IM. Reverse with 2 mg diprenorphine for every mg of etorphine. It is
better to overdose with etorphine than to underdose (Schmidt, 1986).

bb) An
Asian bull in musth (estimated weight 4500 kg) was immobilized six times.
Three drugs were used either alone or in combination. A mixture of
etorphine and acetylpromazine (Immobilon®) was used
effectively on three occasions at an average dose of 0.48 ml/1000kg.
Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg) used alone was ineffective on two occasions and was
supplemented with Immobilon. When Immobilon® was used after the
xylazine, the dose was reduced to 0.2 ml / 1000 kg. Author’s (Mikota)
note: xylazine dose given as mg/kg and etorphine dose given as ml in
original article (Kock et.al. 1984).

cc)
Etorphine (4 mg/ml) was used as the immobilizing agent at a dose of 1 mg
per foot (30cm) shoulder height (estimated) on 3 male Asian
elephants aged 40-45 years and 255-300 cm shoulder height. Immobilon®
( 2.45 mg/ml etorphine and 10 mg/ml acepromazine) was used on four
subsequent occasions at a dosage of 2.45 mg etorphine and 10 mg
acepromazine per 4 ft (120 cm) shoulder height on male elephants aged
30-50 years and 240 –270 cm shoulder height. Drugs were given IM.
Induction times were 11-18 minutes for Immobilon® and 13-25
minutes for etorphine (Bongso et.al. 1978).

d) Horne,W.A., Tchamba,M.N., and Loomis,M.R. 2001. A simple
method of providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to
etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 32:(4):519-522 Abstract: Five African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were
immobilized with etorphine in Waza National Park,
Cameroon, for the purpose of deploying radio/satellite tracking collars.
A portable ventilator constructed from two high-flow demand valves and the
Y-piece of a large animal anesthesia circuit was used to provide
intermittent positive-pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen. Oxygenation
status improved dramatically in all five elephants. In one hypoxemic
elephant, arterial PaO2 increased from 40 to 366 mm Hg. The results of
this study demonstrate that both oxygenation and ventilation can be
readily controlled in etorphine-immobilized elephants even under remote
field conditions.

e) Fowler,M.E., Steffey,E.P., Galuppo,L., and Pascoe,J.R. 2000.
Facilitation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) standing immobilization
and anesthesia with a sling. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
31:(1):118-123 Abstract: An Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
required general anesthesia for orthopedic foot surgery. The elephant was
unable to lie down, so it was placed in a custom-made sling, administered
i.m. etorphine hydrochloride in the standing position, and lowered to
lateral recumbency. General anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane
administered through an endotracheal tube. After surgery, the isoflurane
anesthesia was terminated, with immobilization maintained with additional
i.v. etorphine. The elephant was lifted to the vertical position, and the
immobilizing effects of etorphine were reversed with naltrexone. The
suspension system and hoist for the sling were designed specifically for
the elephant house.

h) Stegmann,G.F. 1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two
five-year-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the
South African Veterinary Medical Association 70:(4):164-166 Abstract:
Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were each
premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation to the
hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered
intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to the
equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was
administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min.
Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after intubation
of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and 45 beats/min
respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5 and 25.6 kPa
respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone. Blood pressure
decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1 and 19.8 kPa,
respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees C at the onset
of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C, respectively, at the
end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was reversed with 5 mg
diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.

For
carfentanil immobilized elephants, blood gas values at the first time of
collection were pHa, 7.28 ± 0.04; PaCO2, 52.1 ± 2.8 mmHg; PaO2,
78.3 ± 14.7 mmHg; SBE, -2.3 ± 24 mEq/L; and
HCO3-,24.3 ± 2.1 mEq/L.
Sixty minutes after the first sampling, blood gas values of one elephant
were pHa, 7.38; PaCO2, 48.7 mmHg; PaO2, 52 mmHg; SBE,
3.4 mEq/L, and HCO3-,28.8
mEq/L. Over time there was a progressive decline in arterial PO2 in all
elephants. It is concluded that elephants immobilized with either
etorphine HCl or carfentanil developed hypoxemia (PaO2 < 60
mmHg) after 30 min of immobilization. It is recommended that the
administration of one of these opioid drugs be accompanied by supplemental
oxygen, or followed by an inhalant anesthetic in 100% oxygen for prolonged
procedures. Diprenorphine or nalmefene reversal was rapid and uneventful
in both the etorphine and carfentanil group. No cases of renarcotization
were noted. Additional excerpt: All elephants in the etorphine
group (n=8) received diprenorphine at a mean dosage of 8.3 ± 1.1
µg/kg IV. Two elephants
in the carfentanil group (n=6) were administered diprenorphine at a dosage
of 8.9
µg/kg IV and IM. Three elephants in this group received nalmefene
hydrochloride. One of the three elephants was given nalmefene 166.7 µg/kg
both IV and SC. Two of the three elephants were given nalmefene IV and IM.
The dosage was 88.9 µg/kg IV and IM in one elephant and 53.3 µg/kg IV and
IM in the other. One elephant in the carfentanil group was administered
nalmefene (88.9 µg/kg IV) followed by diprenorphine (8.9 µg/kg IM).

p) Hattingh,J., Knox,C.M., and Raath,J.P. 1994. Arterial blood
pressure of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) under etorphine
anaesthesia and after remobilisation with diprenorphine. Veterinary
Record 135:(19):458-459 Abstract: Six adult, male elephants
(bodyweight approximately 5000 kg) were immobilized, with 8 mg etorphine
(M99) for semen collection by electroejaculation. Before
electrostimulation (about 10 minutes after the elephants initially became
recumbent) their mean arterial pressure was 186 ± 25 mm Hg. During the
electrostimulation procedure to which each elephant was subjected
intermittently over a period of about 20 minutes using a rectal probe, the
mean was 263 ± 30 mm Hg. After 10 to 15 minutes stabilization, 26 mg
diprenorphine (M50/50) was administered i.v. The elephants adopted a
rocking motion in an attempt to stand up. This motion was accompanied by
wide fluctuations in arterial pressure which peaked at 245 ± 19 mm Hg
immediately before they rose. Arterial pressure subsequently decreased to
a mean of 200 ± 28 mgHg once they were standing. Since these values were
higher than that previously observed in standing, conscious elephants (145
± 3 mmHg) it appears the standing, remobilized elephants in this study
were hypertensive. Possible reasons for this are discussed. It is
suggested that in view of the observed and possible detrimental increase
in arterial pressure during electrostimulation simultaneous blood pressure
monitoring should be carried out when this procedure is employed.

q) Hattingh,J. and Knox,C.M. 1994. Arterial blood pressure in
anesthetized African elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife
Research 24:(1/2) Abstract: A number of elephants previously
captured in the Krueger
National Park developed a pink frothy discharge from the external nares.
Some of these elephants subsequently died and histopathological
examinations indicated severe lung oedema. In view of the current
hypothesis that high blood pressure could be a causative factor, arterial
blood pressure was measured in elephants immobilized with etorphine alone
(n=71) and with etorphine/azaperone (n=109) and with carfentanil/azaperone
(n=26) mixtures. Arterial pressure was found to be significantly lower in
the groups immobilized with azaperone mixtures than in the group
immobilized with etorphine alone (p < 0.05). In addition, no cases of
lung oedema were observed in animals immobilized with etorphine/azaperone
and carfentanil/azaperone mixtures. It is strongly recommended,
therefore, that azaperone be added to immobilization mixtures when
elephants are subjected to herding prior to darting. Additional excerpt:
all elephants in this study were juveniles 200 to 1300 kg. Group 1 (n=71)
was immobilized with 4-8 mg etorphine; group 2 (n=109) was immobilized
with 4-8 mg etorphine and 50-90 mg azaperone; and group 3 (n=26) was
immobilized with 4-8 mg carfentanil and 50-90 mg azaperone.

r) Kock,M.D., Martin,R.B., and Kock,N. 1993. Chemical
immobilization of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in
Zimbabwe, using etorphine (M99) mixed with hyaluronidase, and evaluation
of biological data collected soon after immobilization. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:(1):1-10 Abstract:
Sixteen adult female free-ranging elephants were immobilized in July 1990,
using a mean (±SE) dose per animal of 11.6 ± 0.3 mg of etorphine (M99)
mixed with a standard dose of hyaluronidase (4500 IU), at the Sengwa
Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, to attach telemetry and infrasound
detection collars. The 16 elephants were reimmobilized in December 1990,
using higher doses of etorphine (standardized at 15 mg total dose) with
hyaluronidase (4500 IU), to remove the collars. The higher doses of
etorphine produced more rapid inductions. Biological data were collected
on both occasions. Significant differences in selected measures indicative
of stress, including lactic dehydrogenase and aspartate transaminase, were
seen between immobilizations. Comparisons were made of selected health
measures between samples collected in the early winter and late
winter/early spring season. Significant differences were seen with total
protein, albumin, urea nitrogen, creatinine, calcium, magnesium, inorganic
phosphorus, chloride, and alanine transaminase.

u) Appayya,M.K. and Khadri,S.S.M.S., 1992. Chemical capture of
wild elephants and their translocation carried out in Karnataka state.
In: Silas,E.G., Nair,M.K., and Nirmalan,G. (Editors), The Asian Elephant:
Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of
the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India
pp. 107-112

v) Morton,D.J. and Kock,M.D. 1991. Stability of hyaluronidase in
solution with etorphine and xylazine. J.Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
22:(3):345-347 Abstract: During capture of free-living wildlife,
stress is potentially the greatest problem encountered. For this reason,
reduction in induction time during immobilization is of paramount
importance. Hyaluronidase reduces induction times, although no reports
have assessed stability of the enzyme in drug mixtures used for chemical
capture. This report presents information on the stability of
hyaluronidase in combination with etorphine and xylazine, one of the most
common drug mixtures used in chemical immobilization of wildlife.
Hyaluronidase activity remains high for at least 48 hr, provided storage
temperatures can be maintained at less than or equal to 30º C. Storage at
greater than or equal to 40ºC is associated with rapid loss of enzyme
activity in the mixture.

w) Welsch,B., Jacobson,E.R., Kollias,G.V., Kramer,L., Gardner,H.,
and Page,C.D. 1989. Tusk extraction in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20:(4):446-453
Abstract: Unilateral dentoalveolar abscesses and/or tusk fractures
were identified and tusk extractions performed in seven 3.5-21-yr-old
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) of both sexes weighing
650-3,000 kg. Following immobilization with etorphine hydrochloride or
carfentanil citrate, six of seven elephants were intubated and maintained
on a 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen mixture; one elephant was maintained in
lateral recumbency by multiple i.v. injections of etorphine. All
elephants were positioned with the affected tusk up. For one elephant,
two surgical procedures were required to remove the tusk. In six of seven
elephants, the tusks were sectioned transversely and the tusk wall thinned
by enlarging the pulp cavity with carbide burs. In those tusks with
remaining pulp, the pulp was removed with stainless steel rods and hooks.
Next, the tusk was sectioned longitudinally into three or four segments
using a wood saw within the pulp chamber. bone gouges, osteotomes, and a
mallet were used to free the outer epithelial and alveolar attachments
from the tusk. Starting with the smallest segment, the sections were
removed using long screwdriver-shaped stainless steel rods. The alveolar
chamber was then periodically flushed postsurgically with a dilute organic
iodine solution. For six of seven elephants, complete granulation of the
alveolar chamber was evident by 4 mo postsurgery; the seventh elephant
showed partial healing with granulation tissue at 2 mo following surgery.

x) Heard,D.J., Kollias,G.V., Webb,A.I., Jacobson,E.R., and Brock,K.A.
1988. Use of halothane to maintain anesthesia induced with etorphine
in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 193:254-256 Excerpts: Sixteen 3- to 5-year-old
African elephants were anesthetized one or more times for a total of 27
diagnostic and surgical procedures. Xylazine (0.1 ± 0.04 mg/kg of body
weight, mean ± SD) and ketamine (0.6 ± 0.13 mg/kg) administered IM induced
good chemical restraint in standing juvenile elephants during a 45-minute
transport period before administration of general anesthesia. After IM or
IV administration of etorphine (1.9 ± 0.56 micrograms/kg), the mean time
to lateral recumbency was 20 ± 6.6 and 3 ± 0.0 minutes, respectively. The
mean heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and respiration rate during all
procedures was 50 ± 12 beats/min, 106 ± 19 mm of Hg, and 10 ± 3
breaths/min, respectively.

Cardiac arrhythmias were detected during 2 procedures. In one
elephant paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia was detected and the procedure
terminated when the arrhythmia failed to stabilize after multiple doses of
lidocaine (1 mg/kg, IV). In another elephant, second degree
atrioventricular block returned to normal sinus rhythm after IV
administration of atropine (0.04 mg/kg).

In one elephant, low mean blood pressure (54 mm of Hg) responded to
reduction in halothane (vaporizer setting 1 to 0.75%) and slow infusion of
dobutamine HCl ((250 mg/1,000 ml) given to effect. The systolic blood
pressure increased to 90 mm of Hg and remained high with a continuous
infusion of dobutamine (5
µg/kg/min).

Alterations in systolic blood pressure, ear flapping, and trunk
muscle tone were useful for monitoring depth of anesthesia. Results
indicated that halothane in oxygen was effective for maintenance of
surgical anesthesia in juvenile African elephants after induction with
etorphine. in performing major invasive surgical procedures in African
elephants. Note: A correction appeared in a later volume 193(6): p.721.

y) Jacobson,E.R., Heard,D.J., Caligiuri,R., and Kollias,G.V. 1987.
Physiologic effects of etorphine and carfentanil in African elephants.
Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. Pages: 525-527 Abstract: (Full
text): The effects of etorphine hydrochloride and carfentanil citrate on
blood pressure, heart rate, respiration and body temperature were
determined in a group of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
Fourteen African elephants, weighing 450 kg to 4000 kg, divided into 2
groups of 6 and 8 elephants each, received either etorphine hydrochloride
(2.9 ± 0.7 µg/kg of body weight; mean ± SD) or carfentanil citrate (2.0 ±
0.2 µg/kg of body weight) respectively. The mean time for lateral
recumbency in elephants which received etorphine was 31 ± 9.1 minutes
while the mean time for lateral recumbency in elephants which received
carfentanil was 10.3 ± 4.1 minutes. Following immobilization, a 18 gauge
catheter was inserted into an auricular artery, the catheter connected to
a pressure transducer system and systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial
pressures were monitored by use of a multichannel oscilloscope. Systolic,
diastolic, mean arterial pressures, heart rate, respiration, and
temperature were recorded every 5 minutes over a 45 to 60 minute period.
Elephants were maintained in lateral recumbency over the period of
monitoring by intravenous injections of either etorphine or carfentanil.

The results of this study indicated that both etorphine and
carfentanil resulted in high blood pressure over the duration of the
period of monitoring. Based upon these findings, both etorphine
hydrochloride and carfentanil citrate are not recommended as the primary
agent

z) Jacobson,E.R., Chen,C.-L., Gronwall,R., and Tiller,A. 1986.
Serum concentrations of etorphine in juvenile African elephants.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189:(9):1079-1081
Abstract: Eleven juvenile African elephants were given etorphine
hydrochloride (2.19 + 0.11 micrograms/kg body weight, mean +SD) as a
single IM injection; 3 elephants were given additional etorphine
(0.42+0.09) IV. After immobilization, each elephant was maintained in
lateral recumbency by administration of a 0.5% halothane/oxygen mixture or
by administration of multiple IV injections of etorphine. At
postinjection hours 0.25 and 0.5 and at 30-minute intervals thereafter,
blood samples were collected via an auricular artery, and serum
concentrations of etorphine were determined by use of radioimmunoassay.
The highest mean serum concentration of etorphine in 6 elephants given a
single IM injection and subsequently maintained on halothane and oxygen
was 1.62+0.97 ng/ml at postinjection hours 0.5; thereafter, the mean serum
concentration decreased steadily. In 4 elephants maintained in lateral
recumbency with multiple IV administrations of etorphine, a correlation
was not found between the time to develop initial signs of arousal and
serum concentrations of etorphine before arousal. After administration of
the initial immobilizing dose of etorphine, the interval between
successive IV administrations of etorphine decreased.

cc) Bongso,T.A. and Perera,B.M.A.O. 1978. Observations on the use
of etorphine alone and in combination with acepromazine maleate for
immobilization of aggressive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Veterinary Record 102:(15):339-340

dd) Jainudeen,M.R., Bongso,T.A., and Perera,B.M.O.A. 1971.
Immobilisation of aggressive working elephants (Elephas maximus).
Veterinary Record 89:(26):686-688 Abstract: The capture of aggressive working elephants, Elephas
maximus, by the drug immobilisation technique is described. Doses of 5
mg to 8 mg etorphine hydrochloride alone, satisfactorily immobilised four
adult elephants. Cyprenorphine hydrochloride reversed the immobilising
effects almost immediately and completely. Recovery was uncomplicated.
The value of this method of capture is discussed in relation to aggressive
working elephant.

See also:

Hoare,R. 1999. Reducing drug immobilization time in the field
immobilization of elephants. Pachyderm 27:(Jan-Dec):49-54

Singh,L.A.K., Nayak,B.N., and Acharjya,S.K. 1996. Chemical
capture of a problem-elephant in Bolangir, Orissa. Indian Forester.
Special issue: wildlife management. 122:(10):955-960 Abstract: A detailed account is given of the method used to capture
an elephant which had been regularly (over 18 yr) entering villages in the
Bolangir and Padampur areas of NW Orissa, and causing damage to buildings,
eating stored grains and injuring humans. Some 45 people took part in the
capture operation which involved the use of darts containing Immobilon
(etorphine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate) to the animal, and of (diprenorphine
hydrochloride) for revival. The human antidote for (Narcan) was kept on
hand. The communication system, the operational strategies used, and then
care and revival processes adopted for the animal are described. It is
thought that the animal (with a female) had originally been in the care of
a mahout who was taken into custody for some crime so that the animals
were abandoned. The female appeared to have been accepted back into the
wild, while the male continued to follow the routes used by the mahout.
The purpose of capture was to control or translocate the animal.

Dunlop,C.I., Hodgson,D.S., Cambre,R.C., Kenny,D.E., and Martin,H.D.
1994. Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane
anesthesia in an adult elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 205:(10):1439-1444 Abstract: An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) was anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas
over the lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for
repair of a fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and
anaesthesia were achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or
etorphine and azaperone (anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and
anaesthesia was maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2
standard large animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range
of total recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates,
systemic arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal
gases were monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were
made while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min
(cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of administration
of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension were detected after
administration of etorphine, but heart rate and systemic arterial pressure
decreased to within normal ranges after administration of isoflurane and
oxygen. The elephant remained well oxygenated while anaesthetized and
breathing a high oxygen mixture. The elephant had an uneventful recovery
from each anaesthesia.

Mihm,F.G., Machado,C., and Snyder,R. 1988. Pulse oximetry and
end-tidal CO2 monitoring of an adult Asian elephant.
Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 19:106-109 Abstract: The adequacy of ventilation during etorphine anesthesia
of a 20-yr-old Asian (3050 kg) elephant (Elephas maximus) was
monitored with a pulse oximeter to measure arterial hemoglobin oxygen
saturation (SaO2) and a CO2 analyzer to measure
end-tidal CO2 concentrations (PetCO2). Immediately
after the first anesthetic induction (8 mg etorphine IV), SaO2
values of 45% were noted while the animal was breathing room air at a rate
of 6/min. The SaO2 readings increased to 93% 15 min after
administration of 5 liters/min of oxygen via the trunk. Seven arterial
blood gas samples obtained during two anesthetics, and once while
unanesthetized, provided PaO 2 and PaCO2 values
which compared favorably with SaO2 and PetCO2. In
the anesthetized animal, PaO2 ranged between 31 and 70 mmHg
while SaO2 values were 70-95%. At the same time, measurements
of PaCO2 ranged from 42 to 57 mmHg while values of PetCO2
ranged from 35 to 57 mmHg. Pulse oximetry and end-tidal CO2
monitoring are easy to apply and should increase the safety of anesthesia
for these animals. Note: Atropine (120 mg) IV was given after induction.
Duration of surgery was 60 minutes. Diprenorphine (16 mg) was given IV for
reversal and the elephant stood in 9 minutes.

Heard,D.J., Jacobson,E.R., and Brock,K.A. 1986. Effects of oxygen
supplementation on blood gas values in chemically restrained juvenile
African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 189:(9):1071-1074 Abstract: Arterial oxygen and carbon
dioxide tensions were determined in sedated immature African elephants and
in elephants immobilized with etorphine hydrochloride or with an
etorphine-ketamine combination. For manipulative and surgical procedures,
the
Hudson demand value was used for oxygen supplementation during 6
procedures, and insufflation was used during 2 procedures. The Hudson
demand value was more effective than insufflation in sustaining adequate
arterial oxygenation.

Lateur,N. and Stolk,P. 1986. Repeated general anesthesia in a
male Indian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. Pages: 128-131

Hattingh,J. 1984. Effects of etorphine and succinyldicholine on
blood composition in elephant and buffalo. South African Journal of
Zoology 19:286-290

Tamas,P.M. and Geiser,D.R. 1983. Etorphine analgesia supplemented
by halothane anesthesia in an adult African elephant. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 183:(11):1312-1314

Fowler,M.E. 1981. Problems with immobilizing and anesthetizing
elephants. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians 87-91

von Richter,W., Drager,N., Patterson,L., and Sommerlatte,M. 1978.
Observations on the immobilization and marking of African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) in Botswana.
Akademie-Verlag 14:185-191 Abstract: 58 elephants were
successfully immobilized in their natural environment in the Chobe Nation
Park and on privately owned farms in Botswana
using a drug mixture of etorphine (M99 Reckitt) and acetylpromazine. The
specific antidote cyprenorphine (M285 Reckitt) was used in most cases to
resuscitate the animals. One known mortality occurred. For the long term
monitoring of social organization and long and short term movements
collars manufactured from machine belting and fitted with colour codes or
symbols proved most satisfactory. Stamping the tusks near the lip provided
a permanent marking although not useful for field observation. Various
other marking techniques were tested but were considered unsatisfactory
for long term identification. Various behavioral aspects associated with
the immobilizing of elephants are described and discussed.

Ebedes,H. 1975. The immobilization of adult male and female
elephant, Loxodonta africana, with etorphine and observation on the
action of diprenorphine. Madogua 9:19-24

Alford,B.T., Burkhart,R.L., and Johnson,W.P. 1974. Etorphine and
diprenorphine as immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and
free-ranging mammals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 164:(7):702-705

Fowler,M.E. and Hart,R. 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant,
using etorphine anesthesia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 163:(6):539-543 Abstract: A 9-year-old Asian elephant was castrated, using
etorphine HCl for anesthesia. The intra-abdominal surgery was completed
in 2 stages. Respiratory and heart rates were normal throughout each
surgical procedure. Normal PaCO2 and PaO2 were
maintained without the need of intermittent positive pressure ventilation.

Jainudeen,M.R., Bongso,T.A., and Perera,B.M.O.A. 1971.
Immobilisation of aggressive working elephants (Elephas maximus).
Veterinary Record 89:(26):686-688 Abstract: The capture of aggressive working elephants, Elephas
maximus, by the drug immobilisation technique is described. Doses of 5
mg to 8 mg etorphine hydrochloride alone, satisfactorily immobilised four
adult elephants. Cyprenorphine hydrochloride reversed the immobilising
effects almost immediately and completely. Recovery was uncomplicated.
The value of this method of capture is discussed in relation to aggressive
working elephant.

Gray,C.W. and Nettasinghe,A.P.W. 1970. A preliminary study of
immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing
etorphine (M-99). Zoologica 55:51-53 Ref Type: Journal Language: English Abstract: A
preliminary study of M-99 for the immobilization of the Ceylonese elephant
indicates the effective dosage is approximately twice that used in the
African elephant, based on comparative body weights. A dosage rate of 7
to 8 mgs of M-99 was necessary to immobilize the Ceylonese elephant as
compared to 5 or 6 mgs of M-99 for African elephants of almost double the
weight.

Jainudeen,M.R. 1970. The use of etorphine hydrochloride for
restraint of a domesticated elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal
of the American Veterinary Medical Association 157:(5):624-626
Abstract: A domestic male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in "musth"
(aggressive state) was successfully immobilized with 8 mg. of etorphine
hydrochloride (M.99). The clinical signs of immobilization were
comparable to those reported in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Cyprenorphine hydrochloride (M.285) reversed the
immobilizing effects almost immediately and completely. Recovery was
uncomplicated.

Gray,C.W. 1968. The use of M-99 in wild Asian elephant.
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Newsletter March 25:

Wallach,J.D. and Anderson,J.L.
1968. Oripavine (M.99) combinations and solvents for immobilization of
the African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 153:(7):793-797 Abstract: The oripavine derivative,
M.99, alone or in combination with small amounts of tranquilizer,
satisfactorily immobilized 21 adult African elephants. The addition of
scopolamine to M.99 solutions in doses high enough to produce a
physiologic effect prolonged the recovery period unnecessarily. There was
no reduction of the induction period when dimethyl sulfoxide was used as a
solvent for M.99 given subcutaneously or by deep intramuscular
injections. Cyprenorphine (M.285) reversed the immobilizing effects of
M.99 alone or in combination with small amounts of tranquilizer.

Pienaar,U.d.V., Van Niekerk,J.W., and Young,E. 1966. The use of
oripavine hydrochloride (M.99) in the drug immobilization and marking of
wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in the Kruger
national park. Koedoe 9:108-124

Harthoorn,A.M. and Bligh,J. 1965. The use of a new oripavine
derivative with potent morphine-like activity for the restraint of hoofed
wild animals. Research in Veterinary Science 6:290-299 Abstract:
The use of one of a series of oripavine derivatives (No. M.99) for the
immobilization and capture of hoofed wild animals is described. This
substance, usually injected in combination with tranquilizer and hyoscine,
is suitable for the restraint of all hoofed wild animals on which it has
been used. The very low mortality achieved originally with the use of
tranquilizer/synthetic morphine/hyoscine mixtures has been maintained,
while the speed of reaction has greatly increased. The much smaller bulk
of this substance (approximately 0.2 ml compared with 10 ml equivalent of
solution formerly needed) has considerably increased the ease of injection
through the use of much smaller projectile syringes. The effect of this
oripavine substance may be reversed with nalorphine.

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