In the popular press, in reference materials and in academic
literature, the term machismo has been used in many different, quite
often contradictory, ways. Even if no one can say for sure where the term
came from or what it means, it appears to be a central concept in discussions of
the roles, status, rights, responsibilities, influences and moral positions of
men and women. The most oft-cited definition seems to have come from
Evelyn Stevens, who described machismo as a "cult of virility"
whose chief characteristics are "exaggerated aggressiveness and
intransigence in male-to-male interpersonal relationships and arrogance and
sexual aggression in male-to-female relationships." As such, this
definition is a non-specific generality.

The Dictionary of Mexican Cultural Code Words reports
"... machismo meant the repudiation of all "feminine"
virtues such as unselfishness, kindness, frankness and truthfulness. It
meant being willing to lie without compunction, to be suspicious, envious,
jealous, malicious, vindictive, brutal and finally, to be willing to fight and
kill without hesitation to protect one's manly image. Machismo
meant that a man could not let anything detract from his image of himself as a
man's man, regardless of the suffering it brought on himself and the women
around him. ... The proof of every man's manliness was his ability to
completely dominate his wife and children, to have sexual relations with any
woman he wanted, to never let anyone question, deprecate or attempt to thwart
his manhood, and never to reveal his true feelings to anyone lest they somehow
take advantage of him." Now this becomes a multidimensional concept
covering multiple personality traits and behaviors. As such, it becomes
difficult to classify someone as 'macho' or not without administering a full
battery of reliable and valid personality tests. Absent an objective
operational definition, the term becomes an irresponsible way of associating
negative character traits with an entire continent of Latin American men.

In this note, we will deal with one single aspect of machismo.
We will refer initially to some survey data collected in the TGI Colombia study. This
is a consumer survey of 7,035 persons in Colombia conducted by IBOPE Columbia
during 1999. The respondents were presented with this statement, "A
woman's place is at home" and asked if they agree or disagree. The
Colombian survey results are shown in the following table.

% of Persons in Colombia Who Agree
Completely with the Statement: "A woman's place is at home"

Demographic Group

% Males Completely Agree with
Statement

%Females Completely Agree with
Statement

TOTAL

15%

11%

Age 12-19
Age 20-24
Age 25-34
Age 35-44
Age 45-54
Age 55-64

17%
10%
13%
15%
17%
21%

9%
8%
9%
13%
12%
17%

Socio-Economic Level
"Alto" (6,5,4)
"Medio" (3)
"Bajo" (2)

11%
14%
19%

6%
9%
15%

(Source: TGI Colombia Study, IBOPE
Colombia)

The survey results show that there is a systematic disjunction
between men and women on this issue across all age groups and socio-economic
levels. It is the traditional role for the male to provide for his wife
and children. But with the social, political and economic upheavals of
this century, women are receiving more schooling and entering the labor
force. The macho man then feels that he is inadequate because he is
unable to provide for his family, "like a real man." But the
issue extends far more beyond an economic one in which a woman's earnings allow
her great negotiating leverage vis-à-vis her husbands and male relatives.
"With women working outside the home it's not just a question of them
having their own money now, as important as this has been. What's also
involved is that women have met all sorts of different people, which has changed
them forever. And this has meant that the men have changed, for if they
don't, more and more they're getting left behind by women." (Gutmann, p.
239).

Within each gender group, there are also differences among age
groups. Among the males, the youngest and oldest are more likely to agree
with the traditional role for women. Among the females, the oldest are
more likely to agree. If changes are to occur, they will come from the
subjects themselves. The young women today have many role models, either
from their own environments or from the media. To quote from Paternostro's
book,

"If I have a message in this book, it is to lay out an
alternative to what our grandmothers and mothers, our teachers and priests
wanted us to be, and what the men we are to marry feel most comfortable
with. Marriage and motherhood, although important parts of who we are as
women, cannot be the sole and total path to our identity as women.
Having a choice in whatever we decide to do, from getting married to getting
pregnant, can feel as natural and as imperative as going to Mass, to lunch, to
the hairdresser. The Virgin Mary and Miss Colombia cannot continue being
our role models. We need to introduce an alternative to the dichotomy
between a "good woman" and una mala mujer; there is something
between mother and whore. The definition of "good" need not
entail being virginal and submissive. To be self-assured and independent
does not mean we are whores. Meanwhile, for starters, I propose that we
make our women politicians talk about legalizing abortion, our soap-opera
heroines have orgasms, our beauty queens have better hobbies than collecting
bathing suits and tomar el sol, our love ballads impart messages that
give women strength and not tell them to just live for romance. Anything
that keeps us from thinking that women don't have to think because men think
for us. It is okay --- no, it is indispensable --- to think."

Within each gender group, the likelihood of agreement
decreases with higher socio-economic level. We note that this definition
of socio-economic level is based upon the classification of local geographical
areas into different levels, which may be inaccurate at the individual household
level. One explanation for this is that females in the lower
socio-economic classes have to work out of economic exigency to the possible
neglect of housework.

For comparison, we will now refer to the TGI Argentina
study. This
is a consumer survey of 3,216 persons in Argentina conducted by IBOPE Argentina during 1999.
The identical question was asked here, and the following table contains the
survey responses.

% of Persons in Argentina Who Agree
Completely with the Statement: "A woman's place is at home"

Demographic Group

% Males Completely Agree with
Statement

%Females Completely Agree with
Statement

TOTAL

18%

14%

Age 12-19
Age 20-24
Age 25-34
Age 35-44
Age 45-54
Age 55-64
Age 65-75

17%
22%
14%
17%
15%
17%
31%

8%
13%
10%
14%
12%
24%
23%

Highest Level of Education Attained
Did not complete primary
Completed primary
Did not complete secondary
Completed secondary
Did not complete tertiary
Completed tertiary

34%
21%
24%
14%
15%
9%

22%
23%
9%
7%
9%
9%

Socio-Economic Level
ABC1
C2
C3
D1
D2
E

9%
3%
11%
28%
26%
26%

8%
6%
9%
12%
22%
23%

(Source: TGI Argentina Study, IBOPE
Argentina)

These survey results are very similar to the Colombian
results. In addition, since educational achievement is also collected in
Argentina, we find that the likelihood to agree with the statement decreases
with educational achievement. We also note that the definition of the
socio-economic level in Argentina is based upon the household ownership of a
number of products and services. Under this finer definition, we discern
that the likelihood to agree with the statement is slightly higher at the top
level ("ABC1") than the upper-middle class ("C2").
Here, it is important to point out again that there is no single definition of machismo; whatever it may be, it is not simply just a sexist patriarchy with a
standard repertoire of churlish behaviors (.e.g public drunkenness, violence,
debauchery and wife beating). There are in fact other
perspectives on certain aspects of machismo. Here is a dissenting
opinion:

"Some of my male Mexican friends ... objected to my
basically negative description of machismo. They pointed out that
the higher one goes socially in Mexico the more positive the influence of machismo.
They equated machismo with masculine values and behavior that are the
epitome of idealized manhood. They see the truly macho man as one who
supports and protects his family in the face of all odds, who disciplines his
children to be upright, honest and hardworking. Upper-class Mexican men,
they continued, see this positive side of machismo as one of the most
admirable facets of Mexican culture. In their view, Mexican-style machismo
is a key factor in the molding and sustaining of the family and personal
relationships; as the source of the discipline that instills courtesy and high
moral standards in their children." (de Mente (1996), p. 175)