3 Kevin M. BRIEN 10 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion This pa per pres ents a meth od olog i cal ex plo ra tion that brings out the in ter re lated di - men sions of Marx s di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal method of ex pla na tion, and also pro vides some philo soph i cal war rant for the vi a bil ity of this method. 1 It sets out from the van tage point of the cen tral core of Marx s own for mu la tion on method that ap pears in his In tro duc tion to the Grundrisse. Marx writes: [T]he method of ris ing from the ab stract to the con crete is only the way in which thought ap pro pri ates the con crete, re pro duces it as the con crete in mind. But this is by no means the pro cess by which the con crete it self co mes into be ing The con crete is con crete be cause it is the con cen tra tion of many de ter mi na tions, hence unity of the di verse. It ap pears in the pro cess of think ing, there fore, as a pro cess of con cen tra tion, as a re sult, not as a point of de par ture, even though it is the point of de par ture in re al ity and hence also the point of de par ture for ob ser va tion and con - cep tion. 2 Our cen tral con cern in what fol lows will be the ex plo ra tion of just what is in volved in this move ment from the ab stract to the con crete. A proper un der stand ing of this method re - quires a clear com pre hen sion of the fol low ing points: a) A dis tinc tion must be made be - tween the con crete-in-thought and the con crete-real. b) The move ment from ab stract to concrete does not pur port to be gen er a tive of the con crete-real. c) Nei ther is the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete a move ment in which the con crete-in-thought can be de - duc tively in ferred from the ab stract. d) This move ment is un der taken within a frame work of in ter nal re la tions. e) The in ter nal re la tions at play in Marx s thought must be in ter preted in terms of the no tion of the con crete uni ver sal. f) The move ment from ab stract to con crete aims at the con struc tion of the con crete-in-thought, which is con sti tuted as a com plex of in - ter con nected fac tors whose pat tern of in ter con nec tion rep re sents in thought the dy namic struc tures of the con crete-real. g) The move ment pro ceeds in stages from more ab stract to more con crete lev els of anal y sis. h) The laws that fig ure in Marx s ex pla na tions have to be interpreted as dialectical tendencies. i) Marx s model of scientific explanation is a synthe - sis of the cov er ing law model and the ge netic model. We pro ceed now to de velop each of these points. THE CON CRETE-REAL, THE CON CRETE-IN-THOUGHT, AND THE GEN ERAL NA TURE OF THE DI A LEC TI CAL MOVE MENT The dis tinc tion that Marx makes be tween the con crete in mind and the con crete it - self, in the above-quoted pas sage, must be clearly drawn if Marx s for mu la tions on method are not to be sub jected to sys tem atic dis tor tion and even mys ti fi ca tion. Louis Althusser, for one, has clearly un der scored this dis tinc tion in his es say On the Ma te ri al ist 1 This pa per is adap ted from BRIEN, KM. (2006): The Dia lec ti cal Mo ve ment from the Abstract to the Con - cre te, in: Marx, Rea son, and the Art of Free dom, 2nd Ed. Hu ma nity Books, Amherst, NY, pp For more fully ela bo ra ted no tes con cer ning this pa per con sult the ori gi nal text. I gra te fully ack now led ge the kind per mis sion of the Edi tors of Hu ma nity Books to adapt ma te rial from a chap ter of this book for use in this pa - per. 2 MARX, K (1973). Grun dris se. Trans. and with a Fo re word by Mar tin Ni co laus. Pen guin Books. Midd le sex, England, p. 101.

4 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp Dialectic in For Marx, and we shall adopt some of his com ments here. In re la tion to Marx s sug ges tion that the cor rect sci en tific method is to start with the ab stract to pro - duce the con crete in thought, Althusser ex plains that care must be taken if we are not to be lieve that the ab stract designates theory itself (science) while the concrete des ig nates the real. He points out that there are two different concretes: the con crete-in-thought which is a knowl edge, and the concrete-reality which is its ob ject. 3 How ever, the move ment from ab stract to con crete as un der stood by Marx, in con tra - dis tinc tion to Hegel, sim ply does not fall into the po si tion of main tain ing that the con - crete-real is it self gen er ated out of thought, think ing, or the ab stract. It is im por tant to note here that Marx ex plic itly dis tin guishes him self from Hegel who, in Marx s view, fell into the il lu sion of con ceiv ing the real as the prod uct of thought con cen trat ing it self, prob ing its own depths, and un fold ing it self out of it self. 4 Marx makes this dis tinc tion in the very con text in which he speaks of his own method as the method of ris ing from the ab stract to the con crete. Along these same lines Althusser points out that the move ment whereby the ab stract be comes the con crete, only in volves the pro cess of the o ret i cal prac tice, that is, it all takes place within knowl edge. 5 The move ment from the ab stract to the con crete is a the o ret i cal move ment from the ab stract to the con crete-in-thought, not to the con crete-real, al though to be sure the ob jec tive is al ways the com pre hen sion in thought of the con - crete-real. We note here, and shall ex plain more fully later, that the ab stract con notes a more gen eral the o ret i cal char ac ter iza tion of a given on to log i cal do main in the con - crete-real, whereas the concrete connotes a more specific theoretical characterization of the same do main. It is equally im por tant to note that the move ment from the ab stract to the con - crete-in-thought is not a move ment in which the con crete-in-thought is de duc tively de rived from the ab stract. As Marx points out, the con crete-in-thought is not in any way a prod uct of the con cept which thinks and gen er ates it self out side or above ob ser va tion and con cep - tion; [the con crete-in-thought is] a prod uct, rather, of the work ing-up of ob ser va tion and con cep tion into con cepts. 6 This means that the con cep tual elab o ra tions pre sented in the move ment from ab stract to con crete are not es tab lished by the move ment it self. Rather, the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete-in-thought is a move ment that sys tem at i cally re con structs con cep tual in ter con nec tions that have been dis closed via prior di a lec ti cal-em - pir i cal in quiry pre ced ing the ex plan a tory move ment it self. 7 Such systematic presentation pro ceeds from more ab stract lev els of anal y sis that pro vide a more gen eral com pre hen sion of the on to log i cal struc tures of a given do main, to more and more con crete lev els of anal y - sis that pro vide more spe cific com pre hen sion of the given on to log i cal do main. It is def i - nitely not an at tempt to give an a pri ori elab o ra tion of what is the case. It is rather a method 3 ALTHUSSER, L (1970). For Marx. Trans. Ben Brews ter. Vin ta ge Books, New York, p MARX, K (1973). Op. cit., p ALTHUSSER, L (1973). Op. cit., p MARX, K (1973). Op. cit., p For some good ex pla na tion of the con trast bet ween dia lec ti cal and non-dia lec ti cal mo des of em pi ri cal re - search, see ENGELS, F (1966). Anti-Düh ring. Trans. Emi le Burns, and ed. C. P. Dutt. Inter na tio nal Pu blis - hers, New York, pp. 27ff.

5 Kevin M. BRIEN 12 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion of ex pla na tion that ar ranges the ma te rial gath ered in re search into a co her ent whole in which di verse phe nom ena can be ex plained in their in ter con nec ted ness. Through all phases of the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete-in-thought, the par tic u lar con tent of the par tic u lar re la tions that are in tro duced into this move ment as fac tors is a con tent that derives from the findings of prior dialectical-empirical research. 8 The re search pre ced ing the ex plan a tory move ment is of course un der taken and in ter preted within a frame work that comprehends reality as a developing process of internally related aspects. PRELIMINARIES ON INTERNAL RELATIONS AND THE CONCRETE UNIVERSAL As we turn now to the theme of in ter nal re la tions in Marx, we note first that V. I. Le - nin and, be fore him, Engels have al ready brought out the cen tral im por tance of in ter nal re - la tions in Marx s think ing as well as the in tel lec tual debt that Marx owed to Hegel in this regard. 9 Hegel s own view of in ter nal re la tions is sum marily in di cated in this strik ing for - mu la tion that Le nin quotes in his Philo soph i cal Note books, in the long sec tion deal ing with Hegel s Sci ence of Logic a work which had a pow er ful in flu ence on Marx, even as he was writing Capital. (No sug ges tion, though, that Marx fol lowed Hegel all the way on this theme.) Hegel main tains: A de ter mi nate or fi nite Be ing is such as re fers it self to an other; it is a con tent which stands in a re la tion of ne ces sity with other con tent or with the whole world. In view of the mu tu ally de ter mi nant con nec tion of the whole, meta phys ics could make the as ser tion which is re ally a tau tol ogy that if the least grain of dust were de stroyed the whole uni verse must col lapse. 10 More re cently, Bertell Ollman has ad dressed the is sue of in ter nal re la tions in Marx in his fine book Alien ation: Marx s Con cep tion of Man in Cap i tal ist So ci ety. Ollman brings out that all Marx s so cial fac tors have to be un der stood in terms of in ter nal re la - tions. He writes: Ac cord ing to the com mon sense view, a so cial fac tor is taken to be log i cally in de - pend ent of other so cial fac tors to which it is re lated. The ties be tween them are con tin gent, rather than nec es sary... One can log i cally con ceive, so the ar gu ment goes, of any so cial fac tor ex ist ing with out its re la tions to oth ers. In Marx s view, such re la tions are in ter nal to each fac tor (they are on to log i cal re la tions), so that when an im por tant one al ters, the fac tor it self al ters; it be comes some thing else Marx even pro jects the eco no mic ca te go ries which fi gu re in his analy sis as forms of exis ten ce of the con cre - te-real un der in ves ti ga tion. See MARX, K (1970). Op. cit., p See, e.g., ENGELS, F (1941). Dia lec ti cal Ma te ria lism, in: Lud wig Feuer bach and the Outcome of Clas si - cal Ger man Phi lo sophy. Ed. C. P. Dutt, Inter na tio nal Pu blis hers, New York, pp He gel, quo ted by LENIN, V. I. (1961): Phi lo sop hi cal No te books, Vol. 38 in Co llec ted Works. Trans. Cle - mens Dutt, and ed. Ste wart Smith. Fo reign Lan gua ges Pu blis hing Hou se, Mos cow, p OLLMAN, B (1971). Alie na tion: Marx s Con cep tion of Man in Ca pi ta list So ciety. Cam brid ge Uni ver sity Press, Cam brid ge, p. 15.

6 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp In bring ing out the crit i cal im por tance of in ter nal re la tions in get ting at Marx s di a - lec ti cal method of in quiry, Ollman writes that the di a lec ti cal method of in quiry is best de - scribed as re search into the man i fold ways in which en ti ties are in ter nally re lated. 12 How - ever, Ollman s view of Marx s method of in quiry has an im por tant la cuna, which ram i - fies in such a way that his treat ment of Marx s method of ex pla na tion be comes de fi cient in im por tant ways. We speak here of the no tion of the con crete uni ver sal. Ollman gives no at ten tion to this. But, as will emerge in the text ahead, the no tion of the con crete uni ver sal is just as im por tant for un der stand ing Marx s di a lec ti cal method of anal y sis as is the no tion of in ter nal re la tions. In deed, the two are con cep tu ally in ter wo ven in Marx s think ing. (In this con nec tion we cite Le nin s ex cited com ment made in re la tion to one of Hegel s for mu la - tions con cern ing the con crete uni ver sal. He writes in his Philo soph i cal Note books: A beau ti ful for mula: Not merely an ab stract uni ver sal, but a uni ver sal which com prises in it - self the wealth of the par tic u lar, the in di vid ual, the sin gle (all the wealth of the par tic u lar and sin gle!)!! Très Bien! 13 INTERNAL RELATIONS, CRITICAL APPROPRIATIONS, AND IN DI VID U A TION Since it is the spe cial con cern of this pa per to bring into clear fo cus the struc ture of Marx s ma ture method of sci en tific ex pla na tion, we must pro vide for mu la tions of a the ory of in ter nal re la tions and of the con crete uni ver sal that will be in keep ing with this ob jec tive. In de vel op ing such for mu la tions we will de lib er ately avoid the thick ets of Hegel, and in - stead take re course out side He geli an and even Marx ist cir cles to Brand Blanshard s work The Na ture of Thought. 14 How ever, we shall pres ent a crit i cal ap pro pri a tion of Blanshard s anal y sis. We do this be cause of the clar ity of his anal y sis of in ter nal re la tions and the con - crete uni ver sal; be cause he un der stands the con cep tual in ter con nec tion be tween in ter nal re la tions and the con crete uni ver sal; 15 and be cause Blanshard gives his for mu la tions at a level of ab strac tion that will be ex tremely help ful in our task of bring ing Marx s method of sci en tific ex pla na tion into clear fo cus. We deal first with the anal y sis of in ter nal re la tions, and then later with the anal y sis of the con crete uni ver sal. Blanshard s view of the the ory of in ter nal re la tions is in di cated by the fol low ing three the ses which hold: (1) [t]hat ev ery term, i.e., ev ery pos si ble ob ject of thought, is what it is in vir tue of re la tions to what is other than it self; (2) that its na ture is af fected thus not by some of its re la tions only, but in dif fer ing de grees by all of them, no mat ter how ex ter nal they may seem; (3) that in con se quence of (2) and of the fur ther ob vi ous fact that ev ery thing is re lated in some way to ev ery thing else, no knowl edge will re veal 12 Ibid., p LENIN, V.l (1961). Op. cit., p BLANSHARD, B (1939). The Na tu re of Thought, 2 Vols. Allen & Unwin, Lon don. 15 BLANSHARD ex plains that it is evi dent that just as the abs tract uni ver sal and ex ter nal re la tions are na tu ral allies, so are the con cre te uni ver sal and in ter nal re la tions. Ibid., Vol. 2, pp

7 Kevin M. BRIEN 14 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion com pletely the na ture of any term un til it has ex hausted that term s re la tions to ev - 16 ery thing else. In de vel op ing our crit i cal ap pro pri a tion of Blanshard s for mu la tion, it is im por tant to in di cate first that Blanshard s anal y sis of in ter nal re la tions is cast within the frame work of a philo soph i cal ide al ism. Thus we can not sim ply adopt his anal y sis just as it stands, but will in stead work to ward a crit i cal ap pro pri a tion that will serve our main ob jec tive of bring ing Marx s method of sci en tific ex pla na tion into clear fo cus. As we pro ceed to do this, we note next that Blanshard in tends to pro ject his view of in ter nal re la tions as hav ing linguistic and on to log i cal di men sions. 17 We men tion this dis - tinc tion in em pha sis, in view of the fre quent at tempt to dis charge the the ory of in ter nal re la - tions, on the ba sis of lin guis tic con ven tions that op er ate within a uni verse of dis course al - ready com mit ted to an on tol ogy of external relations. 18 The for mu la tion of in ter nal re la - tions that we pres ent be low is in tended to have an on to log i cal em pha sis, but the for mu la - tion is cast within a uni verse of dis course in which lin guis tic con ven tions suit able to an ad - e quate un der stand ing of an on tol ogy of in ter nal re la tions are al ready op er a tive. And it points in the di rec tion of what lan guage and thought must do if they are to com pre hend the con crete-real as un der stood by Marx. To bring out what is in volved in our crit i cal de par ture from Blanshard, let us fo cus at - ten tion on the third the sis of his for mu la tion. As we bear in mind the ref er ence to terms in the con crete that Blanshard in tends to make with his us age of the na ture of any term, 19 we rec og nize that his third the sis raises the ques tion of the de gree to which re al ity can be re - garded as in tel li gi ble. Is re al ity in tel li gi ble through and through, or only to a de gree? Is it pos si ble in prin ci ple for thought to achieve an ex haus tive grasp of the in ter nal re la tions that ob tain in the con crete? Is ex haus tive knowl edge of the con crete the o ret i cally pos si ble? If we go be yond Blanshard s for mu la tion of the the ory of in ter nal re la tions to the wider con cep tual frame work within which it func tions, it seems clear that Blanshard s view of the re la tion be tween thought and re al ity, to gether with his view of co her ence as the na ture of truth, in volves a com mit ment to the view that re al ity is in tel li gi ble through and through. 20 Blanshard cer tainly does not mean to sug gest that ex haus tive knowl edge of the con crete is re quired in or der to have any knowl edge at all. 21 Yet the main thrust of his thought seems to rest on the the o ret i cal pos si bil ity of a unique co her ent sys tem-in-thought, which would articulate without residue all the infinitely complex internal relations that ob- 16 Ibid., p See ibid., pp. 453, 484, and See BRIEN, KM (2006). Op. cit., p. 269, for a cri ti que of Ernst Na gel s well known at tempt to dis miss Blans - hard s un ders tan ding of in ter nal re la tions. 19 A la ter pas sa ge ma kes this clear. BLANSHARDwri tes: The terms we are dis cus sing are not abs trac tions, but terms in the con cre te. BLANSHARD, B (1939). Op. cit., Vol. 2, p For some pas sa ges that dis clo se the con cep tual set ting wit hin which Blans hard s for mu la tion of the theory of in ter nal re la tions func tions, see BLANSHARD, B (1939). Op. cit., Vol. 1, pp & Vol. 2, pp , 276, and Ibid., Vol. 1, pp

8 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp tain in the con crete. 22 As against Blanshard s po si tion, the for mu la tion of the the ory of in - ter nal re la tions that we shall de velop ex plic itly rules out the pos si bil ity of ex haus tive knowl edge of the con crete. More over, our for mu la tion in di cates a di rec tion in which it is pos si ble to un der stand how there can be par tial knowl edge of the con crete-real in a frame - work of in ter nal re la tions. The key el e ment in un der stand ing this pos si bil ity is the in tro duc - tion of the no tion of struc ture into the very mean ing of the the ory of in ter nal re la tions. This is an other crit i cal de par ture from Blanshard s for mu la tion of in ter nal re la tions. One key thinker who has done much to de velop an un der stand ing of the kind of struc - ture at play in Marx s con cep tion of con crete to tal ity is Louis Althusser. 23 In For Marx Althusser speaks about the pro jec tion by Marx of the ever-pre-givenness of a struc tured com plex unity. 24 He says that for Marx the com plex whole has the unity of a struc ture ar - tic u lated in dom i nance. 25 Now Althusser does not him self ex plic itly as so ci ate what he says about struc ture with a phi los o phy of in ter nal re la tions. Yet it seems clear that he all along pre sup poses a frame work of in ter nal re la tions in his dis cus sions about struc ture, so that each es sen tial ar tic u la tion of the struc ture is in ter nally re lated to the other ar tic u la - tions of the struc ture. 26 In any case, the for mu la tion of in ter nal re la tions we shall pres ent is fur ther dif fer en ti ated from Blanshard s by the ex plicit in tro duc tion of the no tion of struc - ture into the the ory of in ter nal re la tions. In Althusser s treat ment of Marx, struc ture is em pha sized, whereas in ter nal re la tions are left more or less im plicit. This con trasts with Ollman s treat ment where in ter nal re la - tions are em pha sized and struc ture is more or less im plicit al though Ollman him self does not want to use the term struc ture. How ever, al though Althusser s anal y sis of the struc - tures in Marx s con cep tion of con crete to tal ity is quite im por tant as far as it goes, there is also a sig nif i cant la cuna in his treat ment too, in as much as Althusser fails to ad dress ex plic - itly the no tion of the con crete uni ver sal. He does not give an ac count of the level-by-level development of integrated dialectical structures leading from the abstract to the concrete a cognitive process that characterizes Marx s mature dialectical method of explanation. More over, with out tak ing ex plicit ac count of con crete uni ver sals, to gether with an ex plicit ac count of in ter nal re la tions and struc ture, he can not do so. The meth od olog i cal re sult is that Althusser winds up get ting stuck on one level of ab strac tion that blocks his view of a more con crete con crete to tal ity than the one he pres ents and which blinds him to the rec og ni tion of the cen tral im por tance of alien ation for the ma ture Marx, and to the pos si bil - ity of tak ing ac count of alien ation on the more con crete lev els of anal y sis One might in ter pret BLANSHARD to be ad van cing the wea ker the sis that not hing is unk no wa ble, rat her than the the sis that every thing could be known at on ce in prin ci ple at least. 23 On the the me of struc tu re, see ALTHUSSER, On the Ma te ria list Dia lec tic, in: For Marx, pp Ibid., p Ibid., p The phra se each es sen tial ar ti cu la tion of the struc tu re re curs throug hout Althus ser s analy sis. 27 In this con text, let me say a few words con cer ning the way in which Althus ser s fai lu re to take ac count of the difference between the abstract universal and the concrete universal constitutes a major flaw, which (apart from the evi den ce of the Grun dris se, and ot her ma tu re works of Marx) un der mi nes an ar gu ment he gi ves in For Marx. He claims that Marx ra di cally bro ke with the po si tions that he had ta ken in his early works on alie na tion, hu ma nism, etc. Accor ding to Althus ser, Marx sup po sedly adop ted a theo re ti cal an tihu ma nism in 1845, with what he calls the works of the break, The Ger man Ideo logy, and The The ses on Feuer bach

9 Kevin M. BRIEN 16 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion We re turn now to the theme of in ter nal re la tions. Re mem ber that our for mu la tion of the the ory of in ter nal re la tions is in tended to have an on to log i cal em pha sis. Al though this for mu la tion very clearly ab stracts from much spe cific con tent, it is pro jected with an eye on the con crete-real, and thus with an eye on the di ver sity and dif fer en ti a tion that ob tain therein. Care must be taken that an em pha sis on in ter con nec tion and in te gra tion within the con crete-real a proper em pha sis con sid er ing the cur rent pre dom i nance of the the ory of ex ter nal re la tions be bal anced by due at ten tion to dif fer en ti a tion and di ver sity within the con crete-real. The the ory of in ter nal re la tions does not view things as in ter con nected in a way that oblit er ates dif fer en ti a tion. Rather, the con crete-real is viewed as a field of dif fer - en ti a tion-in-in te gra tion. And knowl edge of the con crete-real is pos si ble to the ex tent that the internal relations obtaining in the concrete field of differentiation-in-integration establish them selves in articulable struc tures. We stress that the struc tures to which ref er ence is made here can not be con ceived as struc tures that are on to logi cally in de pend ent of the in ter nally re lated con crete field of dif - fer en ti a tion-in-in te gra tion. The struc tures re ferred to are struc tures em bed ded right within the con crete field, and thus share the re la tional qual ity of the con crete field it self. This means not only that the struc tures aris ing within the con crete field are in ter nally re lated to the con crete field, but also that the var i ous ar tic u la tions of the struc ture of the con crete field are articulations that themselves bear in ter nal re la tions to one an other. With this crit i cal dis cus sion of Blanshard be hind us, we for mu late the the ory of in ter nal re la tions in Marx by the fol low ing six the ses: 1. If the very being (i.e., the on to lo gi cal struc tu res) of two en ti ties in the con cre te-real is cons ti tu ted to be what it is by the in ter con nec tions that the en ti ties have with one anot her, we shall say the en ti ties and in ter nally re la ted. 2. If the very being of two en ti ties in the con cre te-real is not cons ti tu ted to be what it is by the in ter con nec tions that the en ti ties might have with one anot her, we shall say that the entities are externally related. 3. Every con cre te-real is cons ti tu ted to be what it is through the in ter nal re la tions it has with some ot her en ti ties. 4. The na tu re of every con cre te-real is cons ti tu ted to be what it is not by some of its in - ter nal re la tions only, but in dif fe ring de grees by all of them. 5. Com ple te know led ge of any con cre te-real would re qui re an ex haus ti ve com prehen - sion of the re la tion of that con cre te-real to every thing else with which it is in ter nally re la ted di rectly and in di rectly; and sin ce this is not pos si ble, com ple te know led ge of the con cre te-real is not pos si ble. (see For Marx, pp. 34 and 229). In the se works, Althus ser rightly sees Marx as theo re ti cally pit ted against phi lo sop hi cal po si tions which hold that the re is a uni ver sal es sen ce of man, such that this es sen ce is the at tri bu te of each sin gle in di vi dual that is, against phi lo sop hi cal po si tions which hold that it is es sen tial that each ca rries in him self the who le hu man es sen ce, if not in fact, at least in prin ci ple (see For Marx, p. 228). In the se for mu la tions we have the abs tract uni ver sal in play. Although it is true that with The Ger man Ideo logy Marx wan ted to dis so cia te him self from the lan gua ge of es sen ces, so as to pre vent mi sun ders tan - ding of his own po si tion, his own early hu ma nism was ne ver com mit ted to abs tract es sen ces of the tra di tio nal sort. Con trary to the as sump tion at play in Althus ser s claims about a ra di cal break bet ween the early and late Marx, Marx s early and la ter hu ma nism, and the no tion of es sen ce as so cia ted with it, was al ways pro jec - ted in terms of the con cre te uni ver sal and not in terms of the abs tract uni ver sal. The dif fe ren ce is cru cial.

10 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp Even so, some know led ge of the struc tu re of the con cre te-real is pos si ble to the ex - tent that the infinitely complex internal relations that obtain among concrete-reals es - ta blish pat terns of con cre te dif fe ren tia tion-in-in te gra tion who se broa der struc tu res can be gras ped in thought. (A com par i son of our for mu la tion with Blanshard s will re veal that our third and fourth the ses are adopted from the first two the ses of Blanshard s, but with mi nor changes in ter mi nol ogy that serve to un der score the on to log i cal em pha sis of our own for mu la tion. How ever, the fifth the sis of our for mu la tion con sti tutes a de par ture from Blanshard, a de - par ture which is fur ther de vel oped in our sixth the sis. The first two the ses we give round out the for mu la tion.) All this, es pe cially the con cept of struc ture that is at play in the frame work of in ter nal re la tions, will be come clearer as we go on with our ex pla na tion of the re main ing points in our treat ment of Marx s method of mov ing from the ab stract to the con crete. But prior to fur ther de vel op ment along these lines, some in di ca tion of how in di vid u a tion is pos si ble within a frame work of in ter nal re la tions is in or der. We shall draw from Ollman s ex plo ra - tions of this is sue, which were un der taken in Alienation. Link ing his own dis cus sion of in - di vid u a tion back to the work of Jo seph Dietzgen, Ollman ex plains: Ac cord ing to Dietzgen... the whole is re vealed in cer tain stan dard parts (in which some think ers have sought to re-es tab lish the re la tions of the whole), be cause these are the parts in which hu man be ings through con cep tu al iza tion have ac tu - ally frag mented the whole. The the o ret i cal prob lem of in di vid u a tion is suc cess - fully re solved by peo ple in their daily prac tice. The fact that they do not see what they are do ing as in di vid u at ing parts from an in ter con nected whole is, of course, an other ques tion and one with which Dietzgen does not con cern him self. 28 The cen tral the sis of this pas sage is that in di vid u a tion is a func tion of ev ery day prac - ti cal ac tiv ity lift ing into con cep tual re lief some par tic u lar as pect of the con crete field of dif - ferentiation-in-integration. Carrying this theme further forward we cite Karel Kosik s great work on Dialectics of the Concrete, and we adopt his res o lu tion to the prob lem. [He writes that re al ity stands out to man pri mar ily] as the realm of his sen - sory-practical activity, which forms the basis for immediate practical intuition of re al ity Im me di ate util i tar ian praxis and cor re spond ing rou tine think ing al - low peo ple to find their way about in the world, to feel fa mil iar with things and to manipulate them, but it does not pro vide them with a com pre hen sion of things and of re al ity The col lec tion of [in di vid u ated] phe nom ena that crowd the ev ery day en vi ron ment and the rou tine at mo sphere of hu man life, and which pen e trate the con scious ness of act ing in di vid u als with a reg u lar ity, im me di acy, and self ev i - dence that lend them a sem blance of au ton omy and nat u ral ness con sti tutes the world of the pseudoconcrete What lends these [in di vid u ated] phe nom ena a pseudoconcrete char ac ter is not their ex is tence as such but the ap par ent au ton omy 28 OLLMAN, B (1971). Op. cit., p. 40.

11 Kevin M. BRIEN 18 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion of their ex is tence. In de stroy ing the pseudoconcrete, di a lec ti cal think ing does not deny the ex is tence or the ob jec tive char ac ter of these phe nom ena, but rather abol - ishes their fic ti tious in de pend ence by dem on strat ing their me di ated-ness, and coun ters their claim to au ton omy with prov ing their de riv a tive char ac ter. 29 A par tic u lar as pect of the con crete-real is in di vid u ated on the ba sis of prac ti cal ac tiv - ity that differentiates it from other aspects. However, dialectical cognition can proceed to make ex plicit the in ter nal con nec tions that ob tain be tween the given as pect and other as - pects which have been in di vid u ated in the same way, that is, in ter nal re la tions that are masked in ev ery day prac ti cal ac tiv ity. Thus it is through di a lec ti cal cog ni tion that in di vid u - ated phe nom ena, which have be come so lid i fied into the pseudoconcrete on the ba sis of ev - ery day prac ti cal ac tiv ity, find their ad e quate com pre hen sion in an ap pro pri ately struc tured com plex of in ter nal re la tions. THE DIALECTIC AS PRESENTATION VERSUS THE DIALECTIC AS INQUIRY Now let us con sider the ob jec tive to ward which the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete is ori ented. In gen eral terms, per haps the most sig nif i cant thing is that the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete aims at knowl edge of the con crete-real, where such knowl edge is ren dered in terms of a com pre hen sion of the struc tures of some do main of the con crete-real. (In view of the fre quent equa tion of knowl edge with cer tain knowl - edge in the West ern philo soph i cal tra di tion, care should be taken here to note that knowl - edge as un der stood in this con text car ries with it no pre ten sions as to cer tainty.) The con crete-in-thought is es sen tially a com plex hy poth e sis con cern ing the struc - ture of some do main of the con crete-real. It con sti tutes the struc ture of the con crete-real as grasped in thought. The grasp ing in thought and lan guage of some do main of the con - crete-real is ren dered through the com pre hen sion of a com plex of in ter nally re lated fac tors. Their pat tern of in ter con nec tion in thought con sti tutes the con cep tual model for com pre - hend ing the broader struc tures of the con crete-real. In deed, the struc ture of the con - crete-in-thought can be re garded as the con cep tual re flec tion of the struc ture of the con - crete-real, but a re flec tion that is de lib er ately con structed. 30 All the in ter nally re lated fac - tors, whose pat tern of in ter con nec tion con sti tutes the con crete-in-thought, have been se - lected with a view to ward re veal ing the struc ture of some do main of the con crete-real. Thus it is not sim ply that the con crete-in-thought re flects the struc ture of the con crete-real, but that it is in ten tion ally con structed with a view to ward re veal ing that struc ture. The con - struc tion of the con crete-in-thought pro ceeds with con tin ual on to log i cal ref er ence to the concrete-real itself. Each of the in ter nally re lated fac tors whose pat tern of in ter con nec tion con sti tutes the con crete-in-thought for a given do main of the con crete-real de scribes and re fers to some as pect of the con crete field. A given as pect is pro jected as an es sen tial ar tic u la tion of the struc ture of the given do main of the con crete-real. Each as pect is then lifted into con - 29 KOSIK, K (1976): Dia lec tics of the Con cre te. Trans. Ka rel Ko van da with Ja mes Schmidt, and ed. by Ro bert S. Cohen and Marx War tofsky. D. Rei del Pu blis hing Co., Dor drecht, pp On the the me of re flec tion, con sult LENIN, L (1961). Op. cit., p. 182.

12 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp cep tual re lief and brought into de vel oped con cep tual in ter con nec tion with other fac tors, which have them selves been pro jected as the con cep tual grasp ing of other es sen tial ar tic u - la tions of the struc ture of the con crete-real. Next we con sider the prob lem of the re la tion be tween the ab stract and the con - crete in Marx s thought. Melvin Rader has a very in ter est ing chap ter on The Ab stract and the Con crete in his out stand ing work on Marx s In ter pre ta tion of His tory. Therein, Rader ex plains: The word ab stract is de rived from the Latin verb abstrahere, to draw away, mean ing to with draw or sep a rate in thought or in ob jec tive mat ter of fact. In thought, ab stract ing is the fo cus ing of at ten tion on some part or as pect of an ob - ject, usu ally for the pur pose of con tem pla tion or un der stand ing... Some times the verb to ab stract means not sim ply to fo cus but ob jec tively to sep a rate. Hegel, for ex am ple, says that to am pu tate an arm is to ab stract it from the hu man body. Marx like wise uses ab stract to des ig nate sev er ance from a larger whole The term con crete is de rived from the past par ti ci ple of the Latin verb concrescere, mean ing to grow to gether. As used by Hegel and Marx, the con crete is that which has or gan i cally grown to gether and re mains unfragmented. It is the whole in its in teg rity. If we think of an ob ject as a whole, we are think ing of it concretely. Con crete means taken all to gether ab stract means taken piece meal. 31 Rader goes on to bring out that, whereas Marx uses ab strac tion as a de vice to iso late and bring into con cep tual re lief some as pect of a con crete whole for pur poses of in ves ti ga - tion, he al ways re binds the parts thus dis sected, and he ob jects to sub sti tu tion of an ab - strac tion in place of the con crete to tal ity. 32 Rader pro ceeds to ex plain the var i ous ways in which Marx in veighs against uses of ab strac tion which do not thus re bind the iso lated as - pect with some rel e vant con crete to tal ity. Such uses of ab strac tion in clude the rei fi ca tion of ab stract es sences; the treat ment of some iso lated di men sion of con scious ness, such as rea - son, pas sion, vo li tion, and the like as if it were the whole per son; and the treat ment of eco - nomic facts in iso la tion from the spe cific or ganic whole within the con text of which they come to be what they are. Now this kind of con cern about the ab stract and the con crete per me ates all Marx s think ing. How ever, there is an other kind of re la tion be tween the ab stract and the con crete that we must ex plore if we are to ap pre ci ate Marx s dis tinc tive method of sci en - tific ex pla na tion. And to do this we must rec og nize the dis tinc tion be tween the di a lec tic as in quiry and the di a lec tic as pre sen ta tion. Here we cite Marx s own for mu la tion in his Preface to Capital where he writes: Of course the method of pre sen ta tion must dif fer in form from that of in quiry. The lat ter has to ap pro pri ate the ma te rial in de tail, to an a lyze its dif fer ent forms of de - vel op ment, to trace out their in ner con nec tion. Only af ter this work is done, can the ac tual move ment be ad e quately de scribed. If this is done suc cess fully, if the 31 RADER, M (1979). Marx s Inter pre ta tion of His tory. Oxford Uni ver sity Press, New York, pp Ibid., p. 159.

13 Kevin M. BRIEN 20 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion life of the sub ject-mat ter is ide ally re flected as in a mir ror, then it may ap pear as if 33 we had be fore us a mere a pri ori con struc tion. (Em pha sis added) Ollman picks up on this dis tinc tion in his chap ter on Di a lec tic as In quiry and Ex po - si tion, where he rightly brings out that the di a lec ti cal method of in quiry is best de - scribed as re search into the man i fold ways in which en ti ties are in ter nally re lated. 34 And Ollman fur ther in di cates that in in ves ti gat ing the ways in which en ti ties are in ter re lated, Marx be gan with each part in turn, con tin u ously al ter ing the per spec tive in which their un - ion was viewed, 35 all with the ob jec tive of try ing to get at the es sen tial con nec tions of phe nom ena the hid den sub stra tum. But when we come to Ollman s ac count of the di a lec tic as pre sen ta tion, the sit u a - tion is not much dif fer ent. On this theme Ollman says: The two out stand ing fea tures of Marx s use of the di a lec tic for pre sen ta tion are, first, that each sub ject is dealt with from many dif fer ent van tage points, and sec ond, that each sub ject is fol lowed out of and into the particular forms it assumes at different times. 36 The first fea ture al ready char ac ter izes Marx s di a lec tic as in quiry on Ollman s own ac count; the sec ond fea ture that Ollman men tions also char ac ter izes Marx s own pro ce dure in the di a lec tic as in quiry. Thus, if we follow Ollman, the dialectic as presentation collapses into the dialectic as inquiry. And al though Ollman does make pass ing ref er ence to Paul Sweezy s char ac ter iza - tion of Marx s method of ex pla na tion as a method of suc ces sive ap prox i ma tions, Ollman gives no men tion of Sweezy s po si tion that such suc ces sive ap prox i ma tions are ren dered in terms of suc ces sive lev els of ab strac tion. 37 We re turn to Sweezy s for mu la tion in a few para graphs. But let us first con sider some fur ther prob lems with Ollman s char ac ter iza tion of Marx s method of ex pla na tion. Per haps the most sig nif i cant la cuna in Ollman s treat ment is the fail ure to take up the prob lem of the con crete uni ver sal. This prob lem is one that goes hand in hand with the prob lem of in ter nal re la tions not only in Marx, but in Hegel be fore him. In ad di tion, Ollman shows no ap pre ci a tion for the cru cial im por tance that Marx at tached to find ing the proper be gin ning for the di a lec tic as pre sen ta tion. 38 In deed, for OlIman the be gin ning seems to be com pletely ar bi trary. In a re veal ing foot note he writes: On my view, in at tempt ing to re con struct the whole from each ma jor van tage point, Marx is erect ing if we in sist on this ex pres sion as many struc tures of the whole as there are ma jor units in his anal y sis... The dif fer ence in where we be gin 33 MARX, K (1967). Ca pi tal, Vol. 1. Trans. Sa muel Moo re and Edward AVELING, and ed. Fre de rick Engels. Inter na tio nal Pu blis hers, New York, p OLLMAN, B (1971). Op. cit., p Ibid., p Ibid., pp Ibid., p For de ve lo ped analy sis of what cons ti tu tes the pro per be gin ning for the dia lec tic of pre sen ta tion (in clu - ding a cri ti que of mis lea ding sug ges tions on this is sue by Mar tin NICOLAUS in the Fo re word of his trans la - tion of the Grun dris se), see BRIEN, KM (2006). Op. cit., pp

14 Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. Año 12, No. 39 (2007), pp leads to a dif fer ence in per spec tive, in the size and im por tance of the other fac tors, and in the rel e vance of the var i ous ties be tween them. 39 Fur ther more, al though Ollman gives due at ten tion to the theme of com plex ity in Marx s think ing, he does not see struc ture in this com plex ity. He even chides Althusser on this ac count, writ ing that Althusser has in fact con fused struc ture with com plex ity... The tran si tion, ap par ently slight but pos sess ing se ri ous ram i fi ca tions, from the idea of com - plex ity to that of struc ture, has no ba sis in Marx s text. 40 In re sponse we say that al though it is true that Marx mostly speaks about an or ganic sys tem, an or ganic to tal ity, a feu- dal sys tem, or a sys tem of pro duc tion, Marx is con cerned to an a lyze the complexities of these sys tems and to tal i ties. And what is this, if not to bring out their struc tures? Per haps Ollman is re act ing against the static con no ta tion that the term struc ture has for many of the French structuralists. How ever, in Athusser s case we have a di a lec ti cal structuralism, al beit a trun cated di a lec ti cal structuralism not a static one. Fi nally, we in di cate that, taken all to gether, the var i ous short com ings in Ollman s view of Marx s method of ex pla na tion ram ify in such a way that Ollman sees the mean ings of Marx s terms to be much more am - big u ous and fluid than they re ally are. 41 These crit i cisms made, we next turn to Paul Sweezy s for mu la tion in The The ory of Capitalist Development, where he de scribes Marx s method of anal y sis as a method of suc ces sive ap prox i ma tions, which con sists in mov ing from the more ab stract to the more con crete in a step-by-step fash ion, re mov ing sim pli fy ing as sump tions at suc ces sive stages of the in ves ti ga tion so that the ory may take ac count of and ex plain an ever wider range of actual phenomena. 42 Re fer ring to Capital, Sweezy goes on to ex plain that: Vol ume I be gins and re mains on a high level of abstraction... [T]he results achieved in Vol ume I have a pro vi sional char ac ter. In many cases, though not nec es sar ily in all, they un dergo a more or less ex ten sive mod i fi ca tion on a lower level of ab strac tion, that is to say, when more as pects of re al ity are taken into ac - count... [T]he in tent of Vol umes II and III was to take into ac count fac tors which were con sciously left out of Vol ume I, that is to say, to bring the anal y sis to pro - gres sively lower lev els of ab strac tion. 43 But not only are there suc ces sive stages in the move ment from ab stract to con crete as Sweezy brings out; it is also nec es sary to rec og nize that the con cep tual elab o ra tion of each more con crete stage is un der taken within the broader struc tural frame work of the more ab - stract stage. This must be clearly grasped if the full ex plan a tory power of Marx s method of anal y sis is to be un der stood. 39 OLLMAN, B (1971). Op. cit., p Ibid., p On Ollman s view of Marx s use of lan gua ge, and of the mea ning of his terms, see his chap ter With Words That Appear Like Bats, in: (1971). Op. cit., pp SWEEZY, PM. (1970). The Theory of Ca pi ta list De ve lop ment. Monthly Re view Press, New York, p Ibid., pp

15 Kevin M. BRIEN 22 Marx s Di a lec ti cal-em pir i cal Method of Ex pla na tion We have seen that the move ment from the ab stract to the con crete aims at the con - struc tion of the con crete-in-thought, which in turn is pro jected as rep re sent ing through its struc ture the struc ture of some do main of the con crete field. The move ment from ab stract to con crete can be thought of as the grad ual elab o ra tion of a con cep tual field of dif fer en ti a - tion-in-in te gra tion, the fi nal re sult of which is the con crete-in-thought. The elab o ra tion of the con cep tual field be gins with less com plex pat terns of dif fer en ti a tion-in-in te gra tion, namely, those ab stract re la tions that con sti tute the first broad strokes in the con cep tual field. As the elab o ra tion of the con cep tual field con tin ues, more com plex pat terns of dif fer - en ti a tion-in-in te gra tion are de vel oped within the di a lec ti cal frame work of the less com plex pat terns of dif fer en ti a tion-in-in te gra tion, and so on. In the course of this grad ual elab o ra - tion of the con cep tual field, the struc ture of the con crete-in-thought co mes more and more fully, as well as more clearly, into view. THE CONCRETE UNIVERSAL VERSUS THE ABSTRACT UNIVERSAL To fur ther de velop an ap pro pri ate un der stand ing of how the more ab stract level of analysis constitutes a dialectical framework for the more concrete levels of analysis, it is nec es sary now to take up the theme of the con crete uni ver sal. This is so be cause all the uni - ver sal terms that would point to spe cific fac tors in tro duced at the var i ous lev els of anal y sis have got to be in ter preted in terms of the con crete uni ver sal, not the ab stract uni ver sal of tra di tional West ern phi los o phy. As we ex plain the con cept of the con crete uni ver sal, we shall see that the the ory of the con crete uni ver sal pro vides a key for un der stand ing Marx s method of mov ing from the ab stract to the con crete. Since the con crete uni ver sal can be most clearly un der stood against the back ground of the ab stract uni ver sal, we need to look first at the ab stract uni ver sal. Draw ing once more on Blanshard s help, we sin gle out these pas sages from The Na - ture of Thought with a view to ward get ting clear about the ab stract uni ver sal. Con cern ing the gen eral idea as in ter preted by tra di tional for mal logic, Blanshard writes: Such an idea is the thought of a class, and a class is a set of ob jects with one or more at trib utes in com mon. To think the idea horse is to re fer at once to the set of at trib utes in vir tue of which we iden tify an an i mal as a horse, and to all the Dob - bins, Black Beautys, and Man-o -Wars that pos sess those at trib utes. The set of com mon at trib utes is called the intension of the class name, the in di vid u als in which they oc cur its extension. Of these two sides of the idea s mean ing, the intension is more in ter est ing. For it is the intension that gives what is dis tinc tive and char ac ter is tic; when we think of any thing what ever, we do so through think - ing of its char ac ter. Now what is the char ac ter we think of when we use a gen eral idea? For mal logic an swers with its doc trine of the ab stract uni ver sal. It an - swers that what is be fore us is the log i cal intension, that when we think of horses in gen eral, we re fer, so far as we re fer to char ac ter at all, merely to the set of at trib - utes which all horses pos sess in com mon BLANSHARD, B (1939). Op. cit., Vol. 1, pp

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