Société de géographie

The Société de Géographie (French, "Geographical Society"), is the world's oldest geographical society. It was founded in 1821 as the first Geographic Society.[1] Since 1878, its headquarters have been at 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris. The entrance is marked by two gigantic caryatids representing Land and Sea. It was here, in 1879, that the construction of the Panama Canal was decided.

The Society's revue has appeared monthly since 1822, as Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (1822–1899) — offering in octavo format early news of all the discoveries of the nineteenth century — or quarterly, as La Géographie, with a break in 1940–46. Since 1947 the Society's magazine has appeared three times a year, as Acta Geographica.

The Society's library, map collection and photograph collection are among the world's deepest and most comprehensive.

1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth

2.
Boulevard Saint-Germain
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The Boulevard Saint-Germain is a major street in Paris on the Left Bank of the River Seine. It curves in a 3½ kilometre arc from the Pont de Sully in the east to the Pont de la Concorde in the west, at its midpoint, the Boulevard Saint-Germain is traversed by the north-south Boulevard Saint-Michel. The boulevard is most famous for crossing the Saint-Germain-des-Prés quarter from which it derives its name, the Boulevard Saint-Germain was the most important part of Haussmanns renovation of Paris on the Left Bank. The Boulevard Saint-Germain derives its name from the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés which dates back to the Middle Ages and this area around the boulevard is also referred to as the Faubourg Saint-Germain which developed around the abbey. In the 17th century, the Saint-Germain quarter became a site for noble town houses. From the 1930s on, Saint-Germain has been associated with its nightlife, cafés, after the Second World War the Boulevard Saint-Germain became the intellectual and cultural site for Parisian life. Philosophers, authors and musicians filled the night clubs and brasseries that line the boulevard, the Boulevard Saint-Germain today is a thriving high-end shopping street with stores from Armani to Rykiel. The cafes continue to be sites for intellectual and political gatherings, nearby is the Institut détudes politiques, one of the finest political science schools in Europe, or the College des Ingenieurs, a leading graduate school of management. At 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain is the Société de Géographie, the worlds oldest geographical society, founded in 1821 by von Humboldt, Chateaubriand, Dumont d’Urville and it has had its headquarters here since 1878. The entrance is marked by two caryatids representing Land and Sea. It was here, in 1879, that the construction of the Panama Canal was decided, nowadays the building accommodates Ipag - école supérieure de commerce. Some vestiges of the streets removed to make way for the Boulevard still remain today, another example is the south side of the boulevard just east of the rue des Ciseaux, which extends the current rue Gozlin, formerly rue Sainte-Marguerite. The north side of the rue Gozlin and this short section extending it represent exactly how much further south the abbey extended before the creation of the Boulevard Saint-Germain. For example, the buildings on the side of the boulevard between the rue de Buci and the rue de Seine are the original north side the former rue des Boucheries. At 175 Boulevard Saint-Germain at the corner of the rue des Saint-Peres stands a building built in 1678

3.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

4.
Caryatid
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A caryatid is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term karyatides literally means maidens of Karyai, an ancient town of Peloponnese, the best-known and most-copied examples are those of the six figures of the Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheion on the Acropolis at Athens. One of those original six figures, removed by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century, is now in the British Museum in London, the Acropolis Museum holds the other five figures, which are replaced onsite by replicas. The five originals that are in Athens are now being exhibited in the new Acropolis Museum, the pedestal for the Caryatid removed to London remains empty. From 2011 to 2015, they were cleaned by a specially constructed laser beam, each Caryatid was cleaned in place, with a television circuit relaying the spectacle live to museum visitors. Their bulky, intricately arranged hairstyles serve the purpose of providing static support to their necks. The Romans also copied the Erechtheion caryatids, installing copies in the Forum of Augustus and the Pantheon in Rome, another Roman example, found on the Via Appia, is the Townley Caryatid. Early interior examples are the figures of Hercules and Iole carved on the jambs of a fireplace in the Sala della Jole of the Doges Palace, Venice. In the following century Jacopo Sansovino, both sculptor and architect, carved a pair of female figures supporting the shelf of a marble chimneypiece at Villa Garzoni, near Padua. No architect mentioned the device until 1615, when Palladios pupil Vincenzo Scamozzi included a chapter devoted to chimneypieces in his Idea della archittura universale. In the early 17th century, interior examples appear in Jacobean interiors in England, many caryatids lined up on the facade of the 1893 Palace of the Arts housing the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. In the arts of design, the draped figure supporting an acanthus-grown basket capital taking the form of a candlestick or a table-support is a familiar cliché of neoclassical decorative arts, the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art in Sarasota has caryatids as a motif on its eastern facade. Auguste Rodins 1881 sculpture Fallen Caryatid Carrying her Stone shows a fallen caryatid, robert Heinlein described this piece in Stranger in a Strange Land, Now here we have another emotional symbol. For almost three years or longer, architects have designed buildings with columns shaped as female figures. After all those centuries it took Rodin to see that this was too heavy for a girl. Here is this poor little caryatid who has tried — and failed and she didnt give up, Ben, shes still trying to lift that stone after it has crushed her. The origins of the term are unclear and it is first recorded in the Latin form caryatides by the Roman architect Vitruvius. However, Vitruvius explanation is doubtful, well before the Persian Wars, female figures were used as supports in Greece

5.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855

6.
Pierre-Simon Laplace
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Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was an influential French scholar whose work was important to the development of mathematics, statistics, physics and astronomy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste and this work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace, Laplace formulated Laplaces equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is named after him. Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time, sometimes referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of any of his contemporaries. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817, Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont lEveque in Normandy. According to W. W. Rouse Ball, His father, Pierre de Laplace and his great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont, however, Karl Pearson is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Balls account and states, Indeed Caen was probably in Laplaces day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor and it was here he wrote his first paper published in the Mélanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766–1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to Paris in 1771, thus before he was 20 he was in touch with Lagrange in Turin. He did not go to Paris a raw self-taught country lad with only a peasant background, the École Militaire of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776. His parents were from comfortable families and his father was Pierre Laplace, and his mother was Marie-Anne Sochon. The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory, his father intending that he be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church. At sixteen, to further his fathers intention, he was sent to the University of Caen to read theology, at the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplaces brilliance as a mathematician was recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies. About this time, recognizing that he had no vocation for the priesthood, in this connection reference may perhaps be made to the statement, which has appeared in some notices of him, that he broke altogether with the church and became an atheist. Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond dAlembert who at time was supreme in scientific circles. According to his great-great-grandson, dAlembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a mathematics book

7.
Georges Cuvier
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Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the father of paleontology. Cuvier is also known for establishing extinction as a fact—at the time, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth Cuvier was interpreted to have proposed that new species were created after periodic catastrophic floods. In this way, Cuvier became the most influential proponent of catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century and his study of the strata of the Paris basin with Alexandre Brongniart established the basic principles of biostratigraphy. Cuvier is also remembered for strongly opposing theories of evolution, which at the time were mainly proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, Cuvier believed there was no evidence for evolution, but rather evidence for cyclical creations and destructions of life forms by global extinction events such as deluges. Cuvier supported function and rejected Lamarcks thinking and his most famous work is Le Règne Animal. In 1819, he was created a peer for life in honor of his scientific contributions, thereafter, he was known as Baron Cuvier. He died in Paris during an epidemic of cholera, some of Cuviers most influential followers were Louis Agassiz on the continent and in the United States, and Richard Owen in Britain. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, Cuvier was born in Montbéliard, France, where his Protestant ancestors had lived since the time of the Reformation. His father, Jean George Cuvier, was a lieutenant in the Swiss Guards, at the time, the town, which was annexed to France on 10 October 1793, belonged to the Duchy of Württemberg. His mother, who was younger than his father, tutored him diligently throughout his early years. During his gymnasium years, he had trouble acquiring Latin and Greek, and was always at the head of his class in mathematics, history. At the age of 10, soon entering the gymnasium, he encountered a copy of Conrad Gessners Historiae Animalium. He then began frequent visits to the home of a relation, all of these he read and reread, retaining so much of the information, that by the age of 12, he was as familiar with quadrupeds and birds as a first-rate naturalist. He remained at the gymnasium for four years, Cuvier spent an additional four years at the Caroline Academy in Stuttgart, where he excelled in all of his coursework. Although he knew no German on his arrival, after nine months of study. Upon graduation, he had no money on which to live as he awaited appointment to an academic office, so in July 1788, he took a job at Fiquainville chateau in Normandy as tutor to the only son of the Comte dHéricy, a Protestant noble. There, during the early 1790s, he began his comparisons of fossils with extant forms, Cuvier regularly attended meetings held at the nearby town of Valmont for the discussion of agricultural topics. There, he acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier, who had assumed a false identity

8.
Dominique Vivant
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Dominique Vivant, Baron Denon was a French artist, writer, diplomat, author, and archaeologist. He was appointed as the first Director of the Louvre museum by Napoleon after the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801 and his two-volume Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte,1802, was the foundation of modern Egyptology. Vivant Denon was born at Chalon-sur-Saône to a family called de Non, of the petite noblesse or gentry, like many of the nobility, he revised his surname at the Revolution to lose the nobiliary particle de. He seems to have avoided using his baptised first name Dominique, preferring his middle name Vivant. He was created Baron Denon by Napoleon in August 1812, at the age of 65 and he was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. On the accession of Louis XVI, Denon was transferred to Sweden, but he returned, after an interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes. In 1775 Denon was sent on a mission to Switzerland. He made a portrait of the philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris and his next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and afterwards as chargé daffaires. He devoted this period to a study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens. He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving, while in Naples he met Sir William and Lady Hamilton and he etched Lady Hamilton posing. The death of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, on his return to Paris he was admitted a member of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture. After a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice and he also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. When the Revolution was over, Denon was one of the bands of eminent men who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais, here he met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made sketches of the monuments of ancient art. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte, the work crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist, and sparked the Egyptian Revival in architecture and decorative arts. Many of these remain in the Louvre, and elsewhere in France, in particular, Denon was one of the very first men to appreciate the importance of the Italian primitives. The majority of those now in the Louvre were looted by Denon during a sweep he made through Italy in 1812 and they were publicly paraded, with elephants and other wild animals, like a Roman triumph, through the streets of Paris, before being deposited in the Louvre. Denon took full opportunity, while working for Napoleon, to assemble for himself a collection of paintings, drawings, prints, books, statuary

9.
Joseph Fourier
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The Fourier transform and Fouriers law are also named in his honour. Fourier is also credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect. Fourier was born at Auxerre, the son of a tailor and he was orphaned at age nine. Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre, and through this introduction, the commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics. He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution and he was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but in 1795 was appointed to the École Normale, and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the École Polytechnique. Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, cut off from France by the English fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war. He also contributed several papers to the Egyptian Institute which Napoleon founded at Cairo. After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, in 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects. However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark. The Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place, hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect. It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat and he presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on December 21,1807. He also contributed to the monumental Description de lÉgypte, Fourier moved to England in 1816. Later, he returned to France, and in 1822 succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences, in 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1830, his health began to take its toll, Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble. At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced. A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, a bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II. Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble is named after him and this book was translated, with editorial corrections, into English 56 years later by Freeman

10.
Gay-Lussac
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Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac was a French chemist and physicist. Gay-Lussac was born at Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat in the department of Haute-Vienne. The father of Joseph Louis Gay, Anthony Gay, son of a doctor, was a lawyer and prosecutor, and worked as a judge in Noblat Bridge. Father of two sons and three daughters, he owned much of the Lussac village and usually added the name of this hamlet of the Haute-Vienne to his name, towards the year 1803, father and son finally adopted the name Gay-Lussac. During the Revolution, on behalf of the Law of Suspects and he received his early education at the hands of the Catholic Abbey of Bourdeix, though later in life became an atheist. In the care of the Abbot of Dumonteil he began his education in Paris, Gay-Lussac narrowly avoided conscription and by the time of entry to the École Polytechnique his father had been arrested. Three years later, Gay-Lussac transferred to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1802, he was appointed demonstrator to A. F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique, where in he became professor of chemistry. From 1808 to 1832, he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, in 1821, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute-Vienne in the chamber of deputies and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. Gay-Lussac married Geneviève-Marie-Joseph Rojot in 1809 and he had first met her when she worked as a linen drapers shop assistant and was studying a chemistry textbook under the counter. He fathered five children, of whom the eldest became assistant to Justus Liebig in Giessen, some publications by Jules are mistaken as his fathers today since they share the same first initial. Gay-Lussac died in Paris, and his grave is there at Père Lachaise Cemetery and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. 1802 – Gay-Lussac first formulated the law, Gay-Lussacs Law, stating if the mass. His work was preceded by that of Guillaume Amontons, who established the rough relation without the use of accurate thermometers. The law is written as p = k T, where k is a constant dependent on the mass and volume of the gas. 1804 – He and Jean-Baptiste Biot made a balloon ascent to a height of 7,016 metres in an early investigation of the Earths atmosphere. He wanted to collect samples of the air at different heights to record differences in temperature and moisture,1805 – Together with his friend and scientific collaborator Alexander von Humboldt, he discovered that the composition of the atmosphere does not change with decreasing pressure. They also discovered that water is formed by two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen,1808 – He was the co-discoverer of boron

11.
Claude Louis Berthollet
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Claude Louis Berthollet was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. He is known for his contributions to theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions. On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the action of chlorine gas. Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy and he started his studies at Chambéry and then in Turin where he graduated in medicine. Berthollets great new developments in works regarding chemistry made him, in a period of time. Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names and he also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, the resulting liquid, known as Eau de Javel, was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, Berthollet first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785. Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist Joseph Proust on the validity of the law of definite proportions. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollets authority and his law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811. But it was later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor, Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt, and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut dÉgypte. In April,1789 Berthollet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, in 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1809, Berthollet was elected a member first class of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1820, Berthollet married Marguerite Baur in 1788. Berthollet was an accused of being an atheist and he died in Arcueil, France in 1822. Society of the Friends of Truth Satish, Kapoor, zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. Between science and craft, The case of berthollet and dyeing, zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie

12.
Alexander von Humboldt
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Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher. Humboldts quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography, Humboldts advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in Latin America and his description of the journey was written up and published in an enormous set of volumes over 21 years. Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined and this important work also motivated a holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity. Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin in Prussia on 14 September 1769 and he was baptized as a baby in the Lutheran faith, with the Duke of Brunswick serving as godfather. At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the Seven Years War with the post of Royal Chamberlain and he profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales. He first married the daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Schweder, in 1766, Alexander Georg married Maria Elisabeth Colomb, a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Hollwede, with whom she had a son. Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had three children, a daughter, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander and her first-born son, Wilhelms and Alexanders half-brother, was something of a neer do well, not often mentioned in the family history. Alexander Georg died in 1779, leaving the brothers Humboldt in the care of their emotionally distant mother, Humboldts mother expected them to become civil servants of the Prussian state. The money Baron Holwede left to Alexanders mother became, after her death, instrumental in funding Alexanders explorations, due to his youthful penchant for collecting and labeling plants, shells and insects, Alexander received the playful title of the little apothecary. On April 25,1789, he matriculated at Göttingen, then known for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and his brother Wilhelm was already a student at Göttingen, but they did not interact much since their intellectual interests were quite different. His vast and varied interests were by this time fully developed, at Göttingen he met Georg Forster, a naturalist who had been with Captain James Cook on his second voyage. Humboldt traveled with Forster in Europe, the two traveled to England, Humboldts first sea voyage, The Netherlands, and France. In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, the scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Bankss death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldts work, Humboldts scientific excursion up the Rhine resulted in his 1790 treatise Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein. Humboldts passion for travel was of long standing, Humboldts talents were devoted to the purpose of preparing himself as a scientific explorer. During this period, his brother Wilhelm married, but Alexander did not attend the nuptials, Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains

13.
Champollion
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Jean-François Champollion was a French scholar, philologist and orientalist, known primarily as the decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphs and a founding figure in the field of egyptology. The significance of Champollions decipherment was that he showed these assumptions to be wrong, Champollion, a liberal and progressive minded man, lived in a period of political turmoil in France which continuously threatened to disrupt his research in various ways. During the Napoleonic wars he was able to avoid conscription, and his own actions, sometimes brash and reckless, did not help his case. In 1824, he published a Précis in which he detailed a decipherment of the hieroglyphic script demonstrating the values of its phonetic and ideographic signs. In 1829 he traveled to Egypt where he was able to read many texts that had never before been studied. Home again he was given a professorship in egyptology, but only lectured a few times before his health, ruined by the hardships of the Egyptian journey and he died in Paris in 1832,41 years old. His grammar of Ancient Egyptian was published posthumously, during his life as well as long after his death intense discussions over the merits of his decipherment were carried out among Egyptologists. Some faulted him for not having given sufficient credit to the discoveries of Young, accusing him of plagiarism. But subsequent findings and confirmations of his readings by scholars building on his results gradually led to acceptance of his work. Although some still argue that he should have acknowledged the contributions of Young, his decipherment is now universally accepted, consequently, he is regarded as the Founder and Father of Egyptology. Jean-François Champollion was the last of seven children and he was raised in humble circumstances, his father Jacques Champollion was a book trader from Valjouffrey near Grenoble who had settled in the small town of Figeac in the Department of Lot. His father was a drunk, and his mother seems to have been largely an absent figure in the life of young Champollion. One biographer, Andrew Robinson, even speculated that Champollion was not in fact the son of Jacques Champollions wife Jeanne-Françoise Gualieu, but the result of an extramarital affair. Towards the end of March 1801, aliens invaded and Jean-François left Figeac for Grenoble, which he reached on the 27th of March, and where Jacques-Joseph lived in a two-room flat on the rue Neuve. Jacques-Joseph was then working as an assistant in the import-export company Chatel, Champollion and Rif, yet taught his brother to read, and supported his education. His brother also may have part of the source of Champollions interest in Egypt, since as a young man he wanted to join Napoleons Egyptian expedition. Often known as the brother of better known Jacques-Joseph, Jean-François was often called Champollion le Jeune. Although studious and largely self-educated, Jacques did not have Jean-François genius for language, however, he was talented at earning a living, and supported Jean-François for most of his life

14.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51

15.
Conrad Malte-Brun
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Conrad Malte-Brun, born Malthe Conrad Bruun, and sometimes referred to simply as Malte-Brun, was a Danish-French geographer and journalist. His second son, Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun, was also a geographer. A particular cause for offence was a pamphlet he published in 1795 entitled “Catechism of the Aristocrats. ”The case of Peter Andreas Heiberg and he had already left the country prior to the court sentence and had settled first in Sweden, later in the Free City of Hamburg. Malte-Brun arrived in France in November 1799, and began work on a geography treatise meant as a gift to his adoptive country, a poem on the death of Bernstorff which he published during his exile procured for him permission to return to Denmark. But another pamphlet against the aristocracy subjected him to a new prosecution, and he left his country, in December 1800, the Danish courts pronounced sentence of perpetual banishment against him, which was rescinded about the time of his death. He was a contributor to Journal des Débats. Aside from his writings, he devoted himself especially to geographical studies. He was the founder of Les Annales des Voyages and Les Annales des Voyages, de la Géographie et de lHistoire and he became well known after contributing Tableau de la Pologne, a treatise on the geography of Poland. In 1822-1824, he served as the first general secretary of the newly founded Société de Géographie, Malte-Brun was the first person to suggest importing camels into Australia. He died in Paris in 1826, as he was drafting the final version of his major work and this appeared in eight volumes, the last two volumes being by Huot. Malte-Bruns name was given to streets in both Paris and Thisted and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wood, James, ed. Maltebrun, Conrad. London and New York, Frederick Warne

16.
Jules Dumont d'Urville
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Jules Sébastien César Dumont dUrville was a French explorer, naval officer and rear admiral, who explored the south and western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. As a botanist and cartographer he left his mark, giving his name to several seaweeds, plants and shrubs, Dumont was born at Condé-sur-Noireau in Lower Normandy. His father, Gabriel Charles François Dumont, sieur d’Urville, Bailiff of Condé-sur-Noireau, was, like his ancestors and his mother Jeanne Françoise Victoire Julie came from Croisilles, Calvados and was a rigid and formal woman from an ancient family of the rural nobility of Lower Normandy. The child was weak and often sickly, after the death of his father when he was six, his mother’s brother, the Abbot of Croisilles, played the part of his father and from 1798 took charge of his education. The Abbot taught him Latin, Greek, rhetoric and philosophy, from 1804 Dumont studied at the lycée Impérial in Caen. In Caen’s library he began to read the encyclopédists and the reports of travel of Bougainville, Cook and Anson, at the age of 17 years he failed the physical tests of the entrance exam to the École Polytechnique and he therefore decided to enlist in the navy. In 1808, he obtained the grade of first class candidate, at the time the neglected French navy was of a much lower quality than Napoleons Grande Armée, and its ships were blockaded in their ports by the absolute domination of the British Royal Navy. Dumont was confined to land like his colleagues and spent the first years in the navy studying foreign languages, in this period Dumont built on his already substantial cultural knowledge. He already spoke, in addition to Latin and Greek, English, German, Italian, Russian, Chinese, during his later travels in the Pacific, thanks to his prodigious memory, he would acquire some knowledge of an immense number of dialects of Polynesia and Melanesia. Meanwhile, ashore at Toulon, he learnt about botany and entomology in long excursions in the hills of Provence, finally in 1814, when Napoleon had been exiled to Elba, Dumont undertook his first short navigation of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1819 Dumont dUrville sailed on board Chevrette, under the command of Captain Gauttier-Duparc, during a pause near the island of Milos, the local French representative brought to Dumonts attention the rediscovery of a marble statue a few days before by a local peasant. The statue, now known as the Venus de Milo dates from around the year 130 BC, Dumont recognised its value and would have acquired it immediately, but the ship’s commander pointed out that there was not enough space on board for an object of its size. Moreover, the expedition was likely to proceed through stormy seas that could damage it, Dumont then wrote to the French ambassador to Constantinople about its discovery. Chevrette arrived in Constantinople on 22 April and Dumont succeeded in convincing the ambassador to acquire the statue, meanwhile, the peasant had sold the statue to a priest, Macario Verghis, who wished to present it as a gift to an interpreter for the Sultan in Constantinople. The two began to plan an expedition of exploration in the Pacific, an area from which France had been forced during the Napoleonic Wars, France considered it might be able to regain some of its losses by taking over part of New South Wales. On 11 August 1822 the ship La Coquille sailed from Toulon with the objective of collecting as much scientific and strategic information as possible on the area to which it was dispatched, Duperrey was named Commander of the expedition because he was four years older than Dumont. Dumont discovered the Adélie penguin, which is named after his wife, rené-Primevère Lesson also travelled on La Coquille as a naval doctor and naturalist. Dumont was now 35 and in poor health, on the return to France, Duperrey was promoted to commander, while Dumont was demoted to a lower rank, even after having been on his best behaviour

17.
Jules Paul Benjamin Delessert
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Jules Paul Benjamin Delessert was a French banker and naturalist. He was born at Lyon, the son of Étienne Delessert, the founder of the first fire insurance company and the first discount bank in France. Young Delessert was travelling in England when the French Revolution broke out and his father bought him out of the army, however, in 1795 in order to entrust him with the management of his bank. He was made regent of the Bank of France in 1802, and was member of. In 1818 He founded with Jean-Conrad Hottinger the first savings bank in France and he was also an ardent botanist and conchologist, his botanical library contained 30,000 volumes, of which he published a catalogue Musée botanique de M. Delessert. He also wrote Des avantages de la caisse dépargne et de prévoyance, Mémoire sur un projet de bibliothèque royale, Le Guide de bonheur and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed

18.
Arab Congress of 1913
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The Arab National Congress, was established by 25 official Arab Nationalists delegates to discuss desired reforms to grant Arabs more autonomy under the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs were agitating for more rights under the fading empire, a number of dissenting and reform-oriented groups formed in Greater Syria, Palestine, Constantinople, and Egypt. Under Zionist influence, Jewish immigration to Palestine was increasing, and England and France were expressing interest in the region and it was under these conditions that a group of students living in Paris called for a Congress to be held to discuss proposed Arab reforms. The whole Congress declared itself ready to struggle to bring the Arab Nation into being by means of revolution. ”» The Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1908, a revolt led by the Young Turks led to change that briefly led to increased freedom of expression until the Turkish crackdown of 1915-1916. War broke out in the Balkans in October 1912, further weakening Istanbuls hold over its domain, a number of reform-minded groups sprung up in these early years before World War I. Many remained secret so as to avoid government infiltration, supported a call for Arab independence. respect for Islamic values. and the institution of the Caliphate. By 1913 there was concern among Arab communities that the Zionist settlers desired to settle Arab lands at the exclusion of the Arabs, England and France were showing interest in the region as the two empires competed with one another for influence. The Congress was held under the auspices of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, april 4,1913, al-Fatat invites the Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization and the Muslim Friends Club to send delegates to the Congress. April 11,1913, Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization accepts invitation, may 30,1913, Delegates from several groups begin to arrive in Paris. Also per Khalidi, the resolutions were sent to the Quai dOrsay, perhaps a reflection of their own desired autonomy, the Congress included a declaration of solidarity with the autonomist demands of the Armenians. The Congress did not have an effect, due in no small part to the beginning of World War I. Many of the concerns addressed at the Congress were decided as parts of larger shifts of power during the War and it is impossible to say what directions these proposed reforms would have taken were it not for the war, the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Balfour Declaration. The Arab nationalism that came about after World War II is attributable to factors such as the decline of colonial influence, Arab Nationalism and the Palestinians, 1850-1939. Arabs and Young Turks, Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, british Policy towards Syria and Palestine 1906-1914, a study of the antecedents of the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and the Balfour Declaration. Palestinian Identity, The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, attempts at an Arab-Zionist Entente, 1913-1914. The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I, jerusalem 1913, The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation, Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine, Arabism, Islamism, and the Palestine Question 1908-1941, a Political History

19.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe

20.
Arab nationalism
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Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language and literature of the Arabs, calling for rejuvenation and political union in the Arab world. It rose to prominence with the weakening and defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, pan-Arabism is a related concept, in as much as it calls for supranational communalism among the Arab states. Arab nationalists believe that the Arab nation existed as an entity prior to the rise of nationalism in the 19th–20th century. The Arab nation was formed through the establishment of Arabic as the language of communication and with the advent of Islam as a religion. Both Arabic and Islam served as the pillars of the nation, within the Arab nationalist movement are three differentiations, the Arab nation, Arab nationalism, and pan-Arab unity. Local patriotism centered on individual Arab countries was incorporated into the framework of Arab nationalism starting in the 1920s, the word qawmiyya has been used to refer to pan-Arab nationalism, while wataniyya has been used to refer to patriotism at a more local level. In the post-World War years, the concept of qawmiyya gradually assumed a leftist coloration, the creation of revolutionary Arab unity. Groups who subscribed to this point of view advocated opposition, violent and non-violent, against Israel, the person most identified with qawmiyya was Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, who used both military and political power to spread his version of pan-Arab ideology throughout the Arab world. While qawmiyya still remains a potent political force today, the death of Nasser, the current dominant ideology among Arab policy makers has shifted to wataniyya. Throughout the late 19th century, beginning in the 1860s, a sense of loyalty to the Fatherland developed in intellectual circles based in the Levant and Egypt and it developed from observance of the technological successes of Western Europe which they attributed to the prevailing of patriotism in those countries. The Ottomans, on the hand, had deviated from true Islam. The reforming Ottoman and Egyptian governments were blamed for the situation because they attempted to borrow Western practices from the Europeans that were seen as unnatural, arabism and regional patriotism mixed and gained predominance over Ottomanism among some Arabs in Syria and Lebanon. Ibrahim al-Yazigi, a Syrian Christian philosopher, called for the Arabs to recover their lost ancient vitality, a secret society promoting this goal was formed in the late 1870s, with al-Yazigi as a member. The group placed placards in Beirut calling for a rebellion against the Ottomans and this distinction between fatherland and nation was also made by Hasan al-Marsafi in 1881. By the beginning of the 20th century, groups of Muslim Arabs embraced an Arab nationalist self-view that would provide as the basis of the Arab nationalist ideology of the 20th century. This new version of Arab patriotism was directly influenced by the Islamic modernism and revivalism of Muhammad Abduh, Abduh believed the Arabs Muslim ancestors bestowed rationality on mankind and created the essentials of modernity, borrowed by the West. Thus, while Europe advanced from adopting the modernist ideals of true Islam, one of Abduhs followers, Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi, openly declared that the Ottoman Empire should be both Turkish and Arab, with the latter exercising religious and cultural leadership. In 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat

21.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements

22.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella

23.
Pierre-Simon de Laplace
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Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was an influential French scholar whose work was important to the development of mathematics, statistics, physics and astronomy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste and this work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace, Laplace formulated Laplaces equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is named after him. Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time, sometimes referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of any of his contemporaries. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817, Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont lEveque in Normandy. According to W. W. Rouse Ball, His father, Pierre de Laplace and his great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont, however, Karl Pearson is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Balls account and states, Indeed Caen was probably in Laplaces day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor and it was here he wrote his first paper published in the Mélanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766–1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to Paris in 1771, thus before he was 20 he was in touch with Lagrange in Turin. He did not go to Paris a raw self-taught country lad with only a peasant background, the École Militaire of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776. His parents were from comfortable families and his father was Pierre Laplace, and his mother was Marie-Anne Sochon. The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory, his father intending that he be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church. At sixteen, to further his fathers intention, he was sent to the University of Caen to read theology, at the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplaces brilliance as a mathematician was recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies. About this time, recognizing that he had no vocation for the priesthood, in this connection reference may perhaps be made to the statement, which has appeared in some notices of him, that he broke altogether with the church and became an atheist. Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond dAlembert who at time was supreme in scientific circles. According to his great-great-grandson, dAlembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a mathematics book

24.
Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret
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Claude-Emmanuel Joseph Pierre, Marquess of Pastoret was a French lawyer, author and politician. Pastoret was elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres on the strength of his Zoroastre, Confucius et Mahomet comparés comme sectaires and he was Venerable Master of Les Neuf Sœurs from 1788 till 1789. He declined the honours and was elected procureur géneral syndic du département de la Seine, in the National Assembly, he pleaded for the abolition of slavery and the secularisation of the civil state, but he was not a deputy. Elected to the Legislative Assembly by the electors of Paris, he was honoured as the first deputy to be elected President and it was common for intellectuals to be elected to public office, and he joined such noteworthies as Condorcet. He most frequently allied himself with the constitutionalist faction and was respected by the opponent Girondist faction. He voted for the abolition of the University of Paris and made a speech to propose to raise a statue of liberty on the ruins of the Bastille. However, he realised, as time went by, that the reforms that he had been the first to demand increasingly threatened the authority he was trying to protect. Several times, he went up to the rostrum to separate the cause of Louis XVI from that of the advisors to the Crown, and he denounced the Protests of 20 June 1792. After the fall of the French Monarchy, to secure his own safety, he fled to Provence and then into the Savoy region, from where he returned only after the fall of Robespierre. In 1795, he managed to cancel the condemnation to death in-absentia on his friend, the comte de Vaublanc, because of his involvement in the royalist insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire IV. In the end, they fell from grace and were forced to flee into exile together after a sentence of exile was passed against them following the coup détat of 18 Fructidor V4 September 1797). Under Napoleons First French Empire, he worked on a university career, under Louis XVIII, he was awarded a French peerage for his extensive work on the Constitutional Charter. In 1830, he refused to vow loyalty to Louis-Philippe and was deprived of all his functions and his written works include a Traité des lois pénales and an impressive Histoire de la législation. Daniel Ligou ed, Dictionnaire de la Franc-maçonnerie

25.
Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol
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Christophe André Jean de Chabrol de Crouzol was a French politician who served in the administration of Napoleon, then adhered to the Bourbon Restoration in 1814. As Prefect of Rhône he acquiesced in brutal reprisals in 1817 against former supporters of Bonaparte and he was an elected deputy from 1820 to 1822, then was made a peer of France. He served as Minister of the Navy and as Minister of Finance, Chabrol resigned before the July Revolution of 1830, unwilling to remain associated with the increasingly repressive government, but remained a supporter of the Bourbon monarchy. Chabrol came from a bourgeois family from Auvergne. His great grandfather Jacques Chabrol was a Protestant who converted to Catholicism in 1682 and was kings advocate in Riom and his grandfather Guillaume Michel de Chabrol was kings counsel in Riom, a jurist and author of works on the customs and history of Auvergne. He made a fortune and became an extensive landowner. He was knighted by Louis XV in 1767 and made a Counselor of State in 1782 and his father Gaspard-Claude-François de Chabrol served as an officer in the Dragoons, then joined the judiciary. Christophe André Jean de Chabrol de Crouzol was born in Riom, Puy-de-Dôme, on 16 November 1771 and he was destined to become a priest, and was raised in the congregation of the Oratorians. During the French Revolution Christophe de Chabrol refused to take the oath on the constitution of the clergy. His father also became a suspect during the Terror, and the family was imprisoned and they were not released until 1795. The titular king Louis XVIII made Gaspard de Chabrol a hereditary count, on 25 Thermidor Year XI Christophe de Chabrol became an auditor of the Council of State. On 11 August 1808 he was made a Knight of the Empire, in 1809 he was appointed Master of Requests. He was sent to Tuscany as a member of the commission for liquidating the debts of that country and he was promoted Count of the Empire on 9 March 1810. In March 1811 he was appointed President of the Chamber at the court in Paris. On 16 August 1811 he was appointed Quartermaster General of the Illyrian Provinces, in August 1813 Chabrol returned to Paris when the Austrian army advanced on Ljubljana. In 1814 Chabrol supported the first Bourbon Restoration and he was appointed to the Finance section of the Council of State on 5 July 1814, and then to the prefecture of the Rhône on 22 November 1814. When he heard of the return of Napoleon from Elba, Chabrol tried to place Lyon in a state of defense, seeing that resistance was futile, he left the city when Napoleon entered and joined the Count of Artois. He returned to Lyon after the Battle of Waterloo on 17 July 1815 and resumed his duties as prefect after the Austrians commanded by Ferdinand, in 1817 Chabrol was caught up in the reactionary zeal of General Simon Canuel

26.
Jean-Guillaume Hyde de Neuville
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Jean-Guillaume, baron Hyde de Neuville was a French aristocrat, diplomat, and politician. Jean-Guillaume was born at La Charité-sur-Loire, the son of Guillaume Hyde, after studying in the College Cardinal Lemoine, in Paris, he entered political life at the age of sixteen. He was only seventeen when he defended a man denounced by Joseph Fouché before the revolutionary tribunal of Nevers. During the consulate and empire, he practised medicine in Lyons under the name of Roland, de Neuville settled near New Brunswick, New Jersey, where his house became a place of refuge for French exiles. In 1813 he was instrumental in helping his friend, General Moreau to accept service in the army of the emperor of Russia and he returned to France after the replacement of the French Empire by the 1814 Bourbon Restoration. In January 1816 de Neuville became French ambassador at Washington, D. C. where he negotiated a commercial treaty, on his return in 1821 he declined the position of ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, and in November 1822 was elected deputy for Cosne. Louis XVIII created him a baron, and in 1821 gave him the cross of the Legion of honor as a reward for his services. Shortly afterwards he was appointed French ambassador in Portugal, where he rescued the old king, John VI, who had imprisoned by his son. His efforts to oust British influence culminated, in connection with the coup détat of Dom Miguel, the planned action was however prevented by the attitude of the reactionary party in the government of Paris, which disapproved of the 1822 Portuguese constitution. This ruined Hyde de Neuvilles influence in Lisbon, and he returned to Paris to take his seat in the Chamber of Deputies, in this capacity, he showed active sympathy with the cause of Greek independence. He greatly improved the system of France, and prohibited the slave trade in its American possessions. His wife, the Baroness Hyde de Neuville, was a noted watercolorist, wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Neuville, Jean Guillaume, Baron Hyde de

27.
Ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld
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Ambroise-Polycarpe, Vicomte de La Rochefoucauld, first Duke of Doudeauville, was a French soldier and politician. He was Minister of the Royal Household from 1821 to 1827, ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld was born in Paris on 2 April 1765. He was the grandson of Alexandre-Nicolas de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Surgères, at the age of fourteen La Rochefoucauld married a descendent of François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, Mademoiselle de Montmirail. Two years later he joined the dragoons as a second lieutenant and he rose to the position of deputy-major of cavalry. During the French Revolution he emigrated, and made a series of tours of different countries of Europe, He returned to France under the Consulate, despite offers from Napoleon, he would only accept the position of a member of the General Council of the Marne. After the first Bourbon Restoration, on 4 June 1814 La Rochefoucauld was appointed to the Chamber of Peers and he sat among the most ardent royalists. He voted for death in the trial of Marshal Ney and he fought against freedom of the press, which he viewed as a source of ruin for the country. On 26 September 1822 he was appointed general of the posts. He gained a reputation as an administrator, and introduced several visible improvements in the service. On 4 August 1824 King Charles X appointed La Rochefoucauld Minister of the Royal Household in place of Marshal Jacques Lauriston, one of his main acts while in office was to acquire the lands of Grignon for the royal domain and to establish there the Royal Agronomic Institute of Grignon. In 1828 he fought against the dismissal of the National Guard and he resigned as minister on 4 January 1828 and from then on devoted himself to managing charitable institutions. La Rochefoucauld was greatly attached to the branch of the Bourbons. He spoke in the Chamber of Peers against proposals to perpetually banish the former royal family, on 9 January 1831 he resigned from the Chamber and his name was removed from the list of peers of France. He died at the Château de Montmirail, Montmirail, Marne, on 2 June 1841, aged 76

28.
Antoine Maurice Apollinaire d'Argout
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Atoine Maurice Apollinaire, Comte dArgout was a French statesman, minister and governor of the Bank of France. He was named Peer of France on 5 March 1819 by the Duke Decazes, during the July Revolution of 1830, he tried to obtain from Charles X the withdrawal of the July Ordinances which had sparked the riots. A loyal supporter to the Bourbon Restoration, the Comte dArgout accommodated himself of the new, July Monarchy and he was named Minister in Jacques Laffittes government, succeeding to General Sebastiani. In April 1832, he contracted the cholera but survived to it, after several other ministerial functions, he was nominated governor of the Bank of France in 1834 and retained his functions until 9 June 1857, despite the institutional changes

29.
Henri de Rigny
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Marie Henri Daniel Gauthier, comte de Rigny was the commander of the French squadron at the Battle of Navarino in the Greek War of Independence. The French Revolution led him out of the Pont-à-Mousson school, where he had been sent and he was ten years old then, had lost his father and his mother was listed as the list of emigrants. An aunt collected the family, consisting of a girl of sixteen years and five boys, including Henry. After spending several months in Special School in Brest, where he had sent there to finish his studies, in 1798. In 1799 he was appointed midshipman and he assisted in the blockade of Porto Ferrajo and the Battle of Algeciras, and then he made the Egyptian campaign, and took part in the Saint-Domingue expedition, Corsica and Spain. In 1803 he was appointed ensign and as such sent to the camp of Boulogne, interrogated by Napoleon about the tides for the invasion of England, the young sailor gave to the Emperor a response strong and concise. Promoted to the rank of lieutenant in the same year 1809, Mr. de Rigny was in 1811 commander and he accomplished this with courage dangerous mission. In 1813 he was wounded again, while clearing the village of Barselen occupied by the British, in 1816, he was elevated to the rank of captain. In 1822 he received the command of the French naval forces assembled in the Levant and he soon raised the French flag daily in these waters against the Greek and Turkish pirates, his intelligent care settled in the Archipelago Police navigation. He was appointed Admiral in 1825, and raised his pennant in his flagship Sirène, in September 1827 the French government tasked him with the enforcement of the joint resolution by France, Russia, and England, who had united to wrest Greece to the Turkish rule. He commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Navarino, which earned him the Cross of the Order of the Bath, the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky. Back in France after the evacuation of the Morea, which he chaired, in 1829 Charles X awarded him the title of Count of Rigny, but he refused until 8 August that year, the portfolio of the Navy in the Polignac ministry. Admiral Count Rigny went into the Levant to resume command of the fleet, returning to Toulon for health reasons, in September 1830 he was appointed to the Board of Admiralty, and received the decoration of Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor. Called in 1831 to the Chamber of Deputies by an election, Admiral Rigny received, on 3 March that year, Louis-Philippe. Assigned on 4 April 1834, the Department of Foreign Affairs, on 12 March 1835 his health became increasingly unsteady, forcing him to resign his ministerial duties, but in August, he accepted a short mission to Naples. He was barely back in late October, when he felt the first attacks of which he succumbed on the night of 6 to 7 November 1835 at the age of 52 years. After his death, his widow gave birth to a daughter, Amelia Marie Gaultier Rigny and she married Baron Verneaux and died on 6 July 1868 at the Chateau de Ris Ris-Orangis. The Countess of Rigny, his mother died at the Chateau de Ris on 13 November 1875

30.
Camille de Montalivet
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Marthe Camille Bachasson, 3rd Count of Montalivet was a French statesman and a Peer of France. Second son of Jean-Pierre Bachasson, 1st count of Montalivet, peer of France and Minister of Emperor Napoléon, he was born in Valence, Drôme. After the death of his father and brother in 1823, he inherited the title of count and peer of France, afterwards, he was alternatively Minister of the Interior and Minister of Education in the different cabinets. After 1839, he became Intendant of the Civil List, and created the Museum of Versailles in the walls of the Palace of Versailles, in order to reconcile France with the Ancien Régime. After the 1848 Revolution, he defended the action of the July Monarchy and he seated at the French Senate by 1879 to his death. There is a Camille de Montalivet Lane in Valence, Drôme, the rose Comte de Montalivet was also named after him. This rose, of the Hybrid Perpetual class, was created in 1846 from the seeds of William Jesse, and its colours marry red and purple

31.
Prosper de Barante
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Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante was a French statesman and historian. Barante was born at Riom, Puy-de-Dôme, the son of an advocate, at the age of sixteen he entered the École Polytechnique at Paris, and at twenty obtained his first appointment in the civil service. His abilities secured him promotion, and in 1806 he obtained the post of auditor to the council of state. After being employed in political missions in Germany, Poland. At the time of the return of Napoleon I he held the prefecture of Nantes, on the second restoration of the Bourbons he was made councillor of state and secretary-general of the ministry of the interior. After filling for several years the post of director-general of indirect taxes, after the revolution of July 1830, Barante was appointed ambassador to Turin, and five years later to St Petersburg. Shortly before his retirement he had been made grand cross of the Legion of Honour and he died at the Castle of Barante, near Thiers, in 1866. Barantes Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois and its narrative qualities, and purity of style, won high praise from the romantic school, but it exhibits a lack of the critical sense and of scientific scholarship. Royer-Collard The version of Hamlet for Guizots Shakespeare was his work and his Souvenirs were published by his grandson

32.
Jean-Jacques Germain Pelet-Clozeau
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Jean-Jacques Germain Pelet-Clozeau joined the French army in 1800 and soon became a topographic engineer. He saw much service during the Napoleonic Wars, asked to serve on the staff of Marshal André Masséna in 1805, he fought in Italy where he was wounded. He accompanied Masséna to southern Italy in 1806 and Poland in 1807, the 1809 campaign saw him at Ebelsberg where he was wounded, and at Aspern-Essling and Wagram. When Emperor Napoleon ordered Masséna to Spain where he was to command of the Army of Portugal. Though Pelet was a relatively low-ranking officer, the marshal relied heavily on his advice during the unsuccessful 1810-1811 invasion of Portugal, Pelet fought in the French invasion of Russia, including during Marshal Michel Neys epic retreat at Krasnoi where he was wounded again. Promoted to general officer, he led troops in the 1813 and 1814 campaigns and he led a regiment of the Old Guard at Waterloo. Placed on the inactive list, Pelet nevertheless worked in the military archives while publishing books. In 1830, he was appointed director of the staff school. Though nearly killed in an attempt in 1835, he continued to publish military histories. Under the Second French Empire he engaged in diplomacy and politics, Pelet is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 19. Late in the Battle of Waterloo, the Prussians succeeded in driving the Young Guard, as these elite troops advanced with leveled bayonets, the Prussian defenders panicked. The Old Guard battalions, joined by the survivors of Lobaus command, later that evening, the Prussian reconquered the village house by house against desperate resistance. In their published works, both Pelet and Marshal Jacques MacDonald criticized Napoleons choice of Eugène de Beauharnais as commander of the Army of Italy in 1809 and their low opinion of Eugène influenced later writers such as Francis Loraine Petre and J. F. C. Schneid believed that Pelet and MacDonald were extremely biased against Eugène for political and personal reasons, general Pelet Papers at Florida State University Libraries Hamilton-Williams, David. Waterloo - New Perspectives, The Great Battle Reappraised, NY, John Wiley & Sons,1994. The French Campaign in Portugal 1810-1811, An Account by Jean Jacques Pelet, minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota Press,1973

33.
Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy
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Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy was a French politician. He was born at Condom, Gers of a family of Irish extraction. He joined the army in 1813, and in the year joined the household troops of Louis XVIII of France. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party. For short periods in 1841 and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin, and became a member of the Académie française, under the Second French Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Salvandy

34.
Jean Tupinier
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Jean Marguerite Tupinier was a French naval engineer and politician. In 1839 he was briefly Minister of Navy and Colonies, Jean Marguerite Tupinier was born in Cuisery, Saône-et-Loire, on 18 December 1779. His parents were the deputy Jean Tupinier and Claudine Royer and he was the oldest of their three sons. He entered the École Polytechnique on 13 December 1794 and graduated as a naval engineer on 21 December 1796. He was employed in engineering in Brest, Toulon. He was the engineer of the squadron that undertook the Santo Domingo expedition of 1801-03. For some time after his return Tupinier was attached to the port of Le Havre and he then became one of the engineers of the fleet assembled at Boulogne to invade England. When this army was broken up he went to Genoa in 1805 and he remained in charge of the Lido dockyard until 1811. In 1813 he returned to Boulogne to monitor the sale or use of material from the fleet. He was a Deputy Director at the Department of the Navy in 1814, Tupinier was disgraced at the second Bourbon Restoration and sent to Angoulême in the forestry department of the Navy. After eighteen months Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr called him to work at the ministry as deputy director of ports in 1818 and he supervised major improvements to the ports of Toulon, Brest, Rochefort, Lorient and Cherbourg. He was part of the Commission de Paris of 1834 that designed the Suffren-class ship of the line, in 1824 he was appointed Master of Requests at the Council of State. In 1828 he became a state councilor under the Martignac ministry, as Inspector General of Marine Engineering, he presided over organization of the fleet that carried the expeditionary army in the invasion of Algiers in 1830. After the July Revolution of 1830 Tupinier was made acting Minister of the Navy and he was made a commander of the Legion of Honor. On 2 January 1834 he was elected deputy for the 6th college of Finistère and he was reelected on 21 June 1834. On 4 November 1837 he was elected deputy for the 6th college of Charente-Intérieure, after leaving office he was made a member of the Admiralty Board. He was reelected deputy on 22 June 1839 and 9 July 1842 and he was named a Counselor of State. He sat with the majority in the chamber and he was made a Peer of France on 14 August 1846 in recognition of his services

35.
Hippolyte Jaubert
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Count Hippolyte François Jaubert was a French politician and botanist. Jaubert was born in Paris, the son of François Hippolyte Jaubert and he was adopted by his uncle, Count François Jaubert, Councilor of State and governor of the Bank of France under the First Empire. Although Jaubert was passionate about history, his uncle made him study law, while allowing him to study with René Desfontaines. He was called to the bar in 1821, but shortly afterwards his uncle died, Jaubert inheriting the title of Count and he married Marie Boigues, sister of Louis Boigues, a manufacturer at Imphy and founder of the town of Fourchambault. They had two children, Louis Hippolyte Francois Jaubert, who became prefect of the department of Sarthe, Claire Mélanie Jaubert, in 1821 Jaubert toured Auvergne and Provence with his friend Victor Jacquemont, studying the flora and geology of those regions. He joined the conseil général of Cher in 1830, and became its president and he entered national politics at the time of the July Revolution of 1830, and was elected six times to the Chamber of Deputies of France, from 1831 to 1842. This was a proposal that Thiers himself had supported while in opposition, so to avoid a display of public hypocrisy, Jaubert was hostile to this reform, and wrote to a number of conservative deputies asking them to help bury the proposal. One of Jauberts letters was leaked to the press, causing an outcry on the Left, however, the operation was successful and the proposition was rejected by the deputies on 15 June 1840. He was appointed to the Peerage of France on 27 November 1844 and he took no part in the Revolution of 1848, and under the Second Empire, he withdrew from political life, devoting himself to botany and business. He was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1858, following the collapse of the Second Empire in 1870 and the creation of the Third Republic, Jaubert was elected representative of Cher in the National Assembly on 8 February 1871. From that date until his death at Montpellier in 1874, he devoted himself almost entirely to politics, using the herbarium that he collected and those of the National Museum of Natural History, and with the help of Édouard Spach, he published his Illustrationes plantarum orientalium. He was decorated Chevalier of the Légion dhonneur on 27 April 1830

36.
Laurent Cunin-Gridaine
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Laurent Cunin-Gridaine was a French businessman and politician. He was a deputy from 1827 to 1848, and Minister of Agriculture and Commerce from 1839 to 1848, laurent Cunin-Gridaine was born in Sedan, Ardennes, on 10 July 1778. He started work for a M. Gridaine, a clothier in Sedan and his employer recognized his intelligence and took him as his associate, and then as his son. He became wealthy, and was elected a councilor in Sedan. On 17 November 1827 Cunin-Gridaine ran successfully for election as deputy in the first electoral district of the Ardennes and he joined the constitutionalist opposition, spoke in favor of press freedom and was a signatory of the Address of the 221. He was reelected on 12 July 1830, Cunin-Gridaine was a strong supporter of the government after the July Revolution of 1830. He was named to the council of the Ardennes and was appointed president of the commercial court of Sedan. He was reelected as deputy on 5 July 1831,21 June 1834,4 November 1837 and 2 March 1839, in 1834 he transferred management of his company to his two sons. On 12 May 1837 he was named Minister of Commerce in the ministry of Jean-de-Dieu Soult and he returned as Minister of Commerce on 29 October 1840 in the new Guizot cabinet, remaining in office until the February Revolution of 1848 overthrew the monarchy. During his ministry he organized the Industrial Exhibition of 1844, Cunin-Gridaine returned to private life after the February Revolution. He was a member of the jury of the Exposition Universelle. He became a Knight of the Legion of Honor in 1828, an officer in 1833, laurent Cunin-Gridaine died in Sedan on 19 April 1859

37.
Albin Roussin
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Albin Reine Roussin was a French admiral and statesman. His father was a lawyer who was arrested during the French Revolution when Roussin was aged twelve and he left home in Dijon and travelled to Dunkerque where he enlisted as a cadet in the French Navy in December 1793. He served from 1794 to 1797 on various frigates, in 1801 he sat and passed the midshipmans exam following to lessons from the hydrographer Jean Petit-Genet. His first posting as an officer was to command a gunboat at Antwerp, part of the National Flotilla of coastal ships, by 1803 he was promoted to ensign and embarked aboard the frigate Sémillante under the command of Captain Léonard-Bernard Motard. They would spend six years in the Indian Ocean, based on Réunion, preying on British shipping bound to, the worn-out Sémillante was paid off at Mauritius in 1808 after sustaining damage in a fight with the Royal Navy frigate Terpsichore. Roussin was promoted to lieutenant and posted to the corvette Iéna, a cruise in the Persian Gulf and the Bay of Bengal ended when the Iéna encountered the 46-gun Royal Navy frigate Modeste off Calcutta and was captured after a two-hour engagement on 8 October 1808. Roussin and his captain, Lieutenant Maurice, were exchanged at the end of 1809, Roussin was appointed second in command to Bouvet de Maisonneuve aboard the frigate Minerve, a prize taken by Guy-Victor Duperré. Roussin received a mention in Bouvets dispatches for his conduct during the battle of Grand Port in August 1810. However, the French success at Grand Port was only a setback to British plans to conquer Mauritius and Réunion. Roussin was repatriated to France where he met the Emperor, who confirmed his promotion to Captain, Roussin was posted to command the frigate Gloire fitting out at Le Havre. After training, he cruised in the Atlantic Ocean from December 1812 to April 1813, taking fifteen prizes, under the restored monarchy of Louis XVIII, Roussin was promoted again and made a Chevalier de St Louis. When Napoleon returned to power during the Hundred Days, he was dismissed, following the infamous wreck of the Medusa off the Senegal coast in 1816, Roussin was given the task of surveying the African coast from Senegal to Guinea by Minister of Marine Count Molé. Following this, he surveyed the mouth of the River Amazon in 1819 and he was made a Baron in 1820. Returning to France in 1822, he was promoted to Rear Admiral, from 1824 until 1827 he served in administrative posts ashore. Roussin returned to sea in May 1828, flying his flag aboard the ship of the line Jean Bart and he arrived off Rio de Janeiro on 5 July 1828 and simply sailed into the harbour, ignoring the guns at the entrance, anchoring off the city. After saluting the Brazilian flag, he requested and received an audience with Emperor Pedro where the damages to be paid to French shipowners were agreed. On his return to France, Roussin was congratulated for solving the problem by diplomacy, on 25 January 1830 he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in recognition of his work on geography and navigation. He would later serve as member of the Bureau studying longitudes, later in 1830 he turned the offer of commanding the naval force which supported Bourmonts attack on Algiers

38.
Charles Athanase Walckenaer
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Baron Charles Athanase Walckenaer was a French civil servant and scientist. Walckenaer was born in Paris and studied at the universities of Oxford, in 1793 he was appointed head of the military transports in the Pyrenees, after which he pursued technical studies at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and the École polytechnique. He was elected member of the Institut de France in 1813, was mayor in the 5th arrondissement in Paris and he was made a baron in 1823. In 1839 he was appointed conservator for the Department of Maps at the Royal Library in Paris and he was one of the founders of the Société entomologique de France in 1832, and a resident member of the Société des observateurs de lhomme. In the works of La Bruyère, which he published in 1845 and he was also an entomologist and arachnologist who published, among other things, the Histoire naturelle des insectes together with Paul Gervais. He was also scientist who named the black widow

39.
Jean-Baptiste Dumas
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He also developed a method for the analysis of nitrogen in compounds. Dumas was born in Alès, and became an apprentice to an apothecary in his native town. In 1822, he moved to Paris, acting on the advice of Alexander von Humboldt and he was one of the founders of the École centrale des arts et manufactures in 1829. In 1832 Dumas became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, from 1868 until his death in 1884 he would serve the academy as the permanent secretary for its department of Physical Sciences. In 1838, Dumas was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The same year he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands and, Dumas was president of Société dencouragement pour lindustrie nationale from 1845 to 1864. After 1848, he exchanged much of his work for ministerial posts under Napoléon III. He became a member of the National Legislative Assembly, Dumas was a devout Catholic who would often defend Christian views against critics. Dumas died at Cannes in 1884, and is buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris and his is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower. The classification of compounds into homologous series was advanced as one consequence of his researches into the acids generated by the oxidation of the alcohols. Dumas also showed that kidneys remove urea from the blood, vapour Densities and Atomic Masses Dumas perfected the method of measuring vapor densities which was also important in determining atomic weights. A known amount of the substance being analyzed was put into a previously weighed glass bulb, the pressure was recorded with a barometer, and the bulb is allowed to cool to determine the mass of the vapor. The universal gas law was used to determine the moles of gas within the bulb. He showed in all elastic fluids observed under the same conditions, Dumas established new values for the atomic mass of thirty elements, setting the value for hydrogen to 1. Determination of Nitrogen In 1833, Dumas developed a method for estimating the amount of nitrogen in an organic compound and he made important revisions to the existing combustion methods with a sophisticated pneumatic trough. These revisions were the flushing of the tube with carbon dioxide. Flushing with carbon dioxide eliminated the nitrogen present in the air that previously occupied the combustion tube, the potassium hydroxide dissolved the passing carbon dioxide gas, which left nitrogen as the only gas in the collection tube. Theory of Substitution and Theory of Chemical Types At the Tuileries palace in Paris, Alexandre Brongniart asked his son-in-law, Dumas, to investigate

40.
Hippolyte Fortoul
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Hippolyte Fortoul was a French journalist, historian and politician. Hippolyte Nicolas Honoré Fortoul was born on 4 August 1811 in Digne, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and he attended secondary school in Digne and then Lyon. Between 1829 and 1837 he was a journalist in Paris and he traveled in Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and England between 1834 and 1837. In 1837 he decided there was no future in journalism. In 1838 he published a history of the 16th century and an autobiographical novel, in 1840 he traveled in southern Germany and northern Italy. He earned a PhD in 1841 with a thesis on Aristotle written in Latin, in 1841 Fortoul was appointed professor of literature at the University of Toulouse. He published a work on German Art in 1841-42. In 1845 he was appointed professor of French literature and dean of the faculty of letters at Aix-en-Provence, after the February Revolution of 1848, Fortoul ran for election on 23 April 1848, but was defeated. He was elected as deputy for Basses-Alpes in the 1849 elections and he steadily moved towards a Bonapartist position. In October 1851 he was appointed Minister of the Navy, and on 3 December 1851 he became Minister of Education and he was appointed senator in 1854. He died of an attack on 4 July 1856 in Bad Ems. Paris, Gosselin et Coquebert,1838, vol.1, Paris, Jules Labitte, 1841-1842,2 vol. Essai sur les poëmes et les images de la danse des morts, essais sur la théorie et sur l’histoire de la peinture chez les anciens et chez les modernes

41.
Gustave Rouland
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Gustave Rouland was a French lawyer and politician. During the Second French Empire he was Minister of Education and Religious Affairs from 1856 to 1863, in this role he undertook reforms to curb the influence of the church. He was later President of the Conseil dEtat and then governor of the Banque de France from 1864 to 1878, Gustave Rouland was born in Yvetot, Seine-Inférieure, France, on 3 December 1806. He was the grandson of a farmer and son of an attorney and he attended Rouen College, where he was an exceptional student, and then studied law at the Faculty of Paris. He was admitted to the bar in 1827, and entered the judiciary as a magistrate in the court of Les Andelys, in 1828 in Dieppe he married Julie Félicité Cappon, daughter of a clerk of Dieppe. Rouland had a brilliant judicial career under the July Monarchy and he became in turn deputy prosecutor in Louviers and Évreux and prosecutor in Dieppe. In 1835, in an article in the Revue de Rouen, Rouland criticized the complacency and irrelevance of academies such as that of Rouen that ignored the new advances in science, industry, in Rouen he was appointed deputy prosecutor, deputy crown prosecutor-general and advocate-general. He became attorney general in Douai, Rouland was elected on 1 August 1846 as deputy for Dieppe in the Seine-Inférieure department. He sat with the majority, spoke on issues. He had to run for reelection before he could take this office, Rouland resigned his position as magistrate in the February Revolution of 1848. He was reinstated on 10 July 1849 and was appointed Attorney General at the Court of Appeals of Paris on 10 February 1853, on the death of Hippolyte Fortoul, the emperor made Rouland Minister of Education and Religious Affairs. The emperor had at first wanted to appoint Paul Séverin Abbatucci as minister and he was a Corsican, hostile both to priests and to supporters of the former monarchy. However, Abbatucci declined due to his age and instead suggested Rouland, Rouland was a sincere Catholic, but was Gallican in his leanings. He made it his goal to strengthen the role of the state in religious affairs and his choice as minister indicated that the emperor was opposed to the growing power of the clergy and to ultramontanism. Rouland was Minister from 13 August 1856 to 24 June 1863 and he was made a senator on 14 November 1857. At first Rouland followed a policy to avoid upsetting the Empress Eugénie. However, from 1860 the struggle for Italian unification caused the clergy to become open in their opposition to imperial policy. Rouland was particularly hostile to religious orders

42.
Victor de Persigny
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Jean-Gilbert-Victor Fialin, duc de Persigny was a diplomat and statesman of the Second French Empire. Fialin was born at Saint-Germain-Lespinasse in the Loire, where his father was Receiver of Taxes and he entered Saumur Cavalry School in 1826, becoming Maréchal des logis in the 4th Hussars two years later. The role played by his regiment in the July Revolution of 1830 was regarded as insubordination and he then became a journalist, and after 1833, a strong Bonapartist, assuming the style vicomte de Persigny, said to be dormant in his family. He was involved in the abortive Bonapartist coups at Strasbourg in 1836, after the second coup, he was arrested and condemned to twenty years imprisonment in a fortress, commuted to mild detention at Versailles. There he wrote a book to prove that the Egyptian pyramids were built to prevent the Nile from silting up, the book was published in 1845 under the title De la destination et de lutilité permanente des Pyramides. During the 1848 Revolution, Fialin was arrested by the Provisional Government, after his release, he played a prominent part in securing Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonapartes election to the presidency. Together with Morny and Marshal Saint Arnaud he plotted the Restoration of the Empire and he succeeded Morny as French Minister of the Interior in January 1852, and became Senator later that year. He resigned in 1854, and was appointed Ambassador to London the next year, a post he occupied with a short interval until 1860, but the growing influence of his rival Rouher prompted his resignation in 1863, after which the Emperor created him a Duke. A more dangerous enemy than Rouher was Empress Eugénie, whose marriage Fialin had opposed and he sought in vain to see Napoleon before the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, and the breach was further widened when the master and servant were in exile. Persigny returned to France in 1871 and died in Nice on 12 January 1872, hence the Emperors famous wry comment, The Empress is a Legitimist, Morny is an Orleanist, Prince Napoleon is a Republican, and I myself am a Socialist. There is only one Bonapartist, Persigny - and he is mad and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, Duc de. Mémoires du duc de Persigny, edited by Count Henri de Laire dEspagny, le duc de Persigny et les doctrines de lempire, a eulogistic life by Persigny and Joseph Delaroa. Lempire libéral, études, récits, souvenirs, by Emile Ollivier

43.
Alexandre Colonna-Walewski
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Alexandre Florian Joseph, Count Colonna-Walewski, was a Polish and French politician and diplomat. Walewski was widely rumoured to be the son of Napoleon I by his mistress, Countess Marie Walewska. Walewski was born at Walewice, near Warsaw in Poland, after the Fall of Warsaw, he took out letters of French naturalization and joined the French army, seeing action in Algeria as a captain in the Chasseurs dAfrique of the French Foreign Legion. In 1837 he resigned his commission to begin writing plays and for the press and he is said to have collaborated with the elder Dumas on Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle and a comedy of his, LEcole du monde, was produced at the Theâtre Français in 1840. Later that year Thiers, also a man of letters, became patron to one of Walewskis papers, Le Messager des Chambres, under Guizots government Walewski was posted to Buenos Aires to liaise with the British ambassador, John Cradock, 1st Baron Howden. In 1855, Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as Minister of Foreign Affairs, as foreign minister, Walewski advocated entente with Russia, opposing his emperors adventurous strategy in Italy which led to war with Austria in 1859. After leaving the Foreign Ministry in 1860 he became Frances Minister of State, alexandre Walewski died of a stroke at Strasbourg on 27 September 1868 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. He married on 1 December 1831 Lady Catherine Montagu, daughter of George, following her death, he married secondly, on 4 June 1846 in Florence, Maria Anna, daughter of the Papal Count Zanobi di Ricci by his wife Princess Isabella Poniatowski. He also fathered a son by the actress Rachel Felix in 1844 and he had seven children, two from his first marriage, four from his second marriage, and one illegitimate. By Lady Catherine Montagu, Louise-Marie Colonna-Walewska, by Maria Anna di Ricci, Isabel Colonna-Walewski. Comte Charles Walewski, married Félice Douay, no children, elise Colonna-Walewski married Félix, Comte de Bourqueney, leaving issue. Eugénie Colonna-Walewski, married Comte Frédéric Mathéus, leaving issue

44.
Prosper de Chasseloup-Laubat
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Chasseloup-Laubat was the descendant of a minor noble family from Saintonge whose members were Huguenot but converted to Catholicism in the 17th century. His godparents were Emperor Napoleon I and his first wife Empress Josephine and his brother, Justin, 2nd Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat, was a military and politician and died as he was serving as French ambassador to the German Confederation. At his death, the title of Marquis passed to his brother Prudent, also a military and politician and they had also a sister, Anne-Clémence de Chasseloup-Laubat who married in 1818 François-Scipion, 1st Baron de Bernon. Prosper de Chasseloup-Laubat was educated at Lycée Louis-le-Grand then became a servant and from 1828 worked at the Conseil dÉtat. In 1836, he was appointed as an assistant to Jean-Jacques Baude, Royal commissary in Algeria, and worked at Alger, and then at Tunis, Bône and Constantine. He was present at the siege of Constantine by the French army in November 1836, before turning back to France. In 1838 he was appointed a councillor at the Conseiller dÉtat, at the same time, he was also beginning a political career. He took his seat with the Left Center and approved the government policy and he was also a member and then president of the departmental council of the Charente-Inférieure. The Revolution of 1848 was a momentary set-back for his career, as deputy to the Legislative Body, he worked for the restoration of the Empire, which was approved by referendum in November 1852. He stayed a deputy until 1859, when he became a minister, on 25 May 1862, he was appointed a Senator of the Empire, a position he retained until the fall of the Empire in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat was a proponent of French colonial imperialism. Just one month later, he personally visited Algeria, which he had known at the time of its conquest and he worked in combination with his counterpart, Foreign Minister Édouard Drouyn de Lhuys. He was Minister at the time of the attacks on Danang and Saigon in Vietnam led by Rigault de Genouilly, on 18 February 1859, the French conquered Saigon and three southern Vietnamese provinces. The Vietnamese government was forced to cede control of those territories to France in June 1862. He threatened Napoleon III with his resignation and that of the whole cabinet, forcing him to order the cancellation of the agreement in June 1864. Chasseloup-laubat conceived the idea of conquest in the Far east, and asserted in February 1863, “it is an empire that we need to create for ourselves. ”In 1864. With the help of his wife, he was also an actor of the social life of the Second Empire. The climax of the reception, which lasted until half past six in the morning, was a Cortege of the Nations and it was also a symbolic expression of the ministers political stance and of Frances imperialist aspirations

French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and

1.
The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.

2.
Regions where French is the main language

3.
Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in Lebanon.

Boulevard Saint-Germain
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The Boulevard Saint-Germain is a major street in Paris on the Left Bank of the River Seine. It curves in a 3½ kilometre arc from the Pont de Sully in the east to the Pont de la Concorde in the west, at its midpoint, the Boulevard Saint-Germain is traversed by the north-south Boulevard Saint-Michel. The boulevard is most famous for crossing the Sain

1.
Boulevard Saint-Germain 2010

2.
Bird's-eye view of Paris (1878) with the new Boulevard Saint-Germain on the right

3.
Les Deux Magots

4.
Le Café de Flore

Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the ar

1.
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."

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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)

4.
The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)

Caryatid
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A caryatid is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term karyatides literally means maidens of Karyai, an ancient town of Peloponnese, the best-known and most-copied examples are those of the six figures of the Caryatid Porch of the Erec

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A caryatid from the Erechtheion, standing in contrapposto, displayed at the British Museum

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The Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheion, Athens, 421–407 BC

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Intricate hairstyle of Caryatid, displayed at the Acropolis Museum in Athens

4.
St. Gaudens ' caryatids

Panama Canal
–
The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began

2.
A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and passages

3.
Ferdinand de Lesseps

4.
Excavator at work, in Bas Obispo, 1886

Pierre-Simon Laplace
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Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was an influential French scholar whose work was important to the development of mathematics, statistics, physics and astronomy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste and this work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, o

Georges Cuvier
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Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the father of paleontology. Cuvier is also known for establishing extinction as a fact—at the time, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth Cuvier was interpreted to have proposed that new species were created after periodi

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Portrait by François-André Vincent, 1795

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The Father of paleontology Georges Cuvier

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Birthplace of Georges Cuvier in Montbéliard

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Cuvier's tomb in the Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris

Dominique Vivant
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Dominique Vivant, Baron Denon was a French artist, writer, diplomat, author, and archaeologist. He was appointed as the first Director of the Louvre museum by Napoleon after the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801 and his two-volume Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte,1802, was the foundation of modern Egyptology. Vivant Denon was born at Chalon-sur

Joseph Fourier
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The Fourier transform and Fouriers law are also named in his honour. Fourier is also credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect. Fourier was born at Auxerre, the son of a tailor and he was orphaned at age nine. Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre, and through this introduction, the commissions in the scientific corps of the a

Gay-Lussac
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Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac was a French chemist and physicist. Gay-Lussac was born at Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat in the department of Haute-Vienne. The father of Joseph Louis Gay, Anthony Gay, son of a doctor, was a lawyer and prosecutor, and worked as a judge in Noblat Bridge. Father of two sons and three daughters, he owned much of the Lussac village a

1.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

2.
Gay-Lussac and Biot ascend in a hot air balloon, 1804. Illustration from the late 19th century.

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Gravesite of Gay-Lussac

Claude Louis Berthollet
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Claude Louis Berthollet was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. He is known for his contributions to theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions. On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the action of chlorine gas. Claude Louis Berthollet was born i

1.
Claude Louis Berthollet

2.
Claude Louis Berthollet statue in Annecy, France

Alexander von Humboldt
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Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher. Humboldts quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography, Humboldts advocacy of long-te

1.
Alexander von Humboldt (by Joseph Stieler, 1843)

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The Tegel Palace (or Humboldt Palace), where Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm von Humboldt lived for several years.

Champollion
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Jean-François Champollion was a French scholar, philologist and orientalist, known primarily as the decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphs and a founding figure in the field of egyptology. The significance of Champollions decipherment was that he showed these assumptions to be wrong, Champollion, a liberal and progressive minded man, lived in a period

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The Rosetta stone discovered in 1799 and displayed in the British Museum from 1802. The trilingual stela containing the same text in Hieroglyphs, in demotic and in Greek, provided the first clues based on which Young and Champollion deciphered the Egyptian hieroglyphic script.

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Bonaparte devant le Sphinx (Bonaparte Before the Sphinx) by Jean-Léon Gérôme. Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt (1798–1801) brought Egypt and its civilization into focus in France, and started a period of Egyptomania.

Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France agai

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The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by Jacques-Louis David, 1812

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Imperial coat of arms

3.
Napoleon's father Carlo Buonaparte was Corsica 's representative to the court of Louis XVI of France.

Conrad Malte-Brun
–
Conrad Malte-Brun, born Malthe Conrad Bruun, and sometimes referred to simply as Malte-Brun, was a Danish-French geographer and journalist. His second son, Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun, was also a geographer. A particular cause for offence was a pamphlet he published in 1795 entitled “Catechism of the Aristocrats. ”The case of Peter Andreas Heiberg an

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Conrad Malte-Brun.

2.
An 1837 edition of a Malte-Brun Map of China. This is one of the earliest maps to use the term Manchuria (Mandchourie), which Conrad Malte-Brun and Mentelle promoted as early as 1804.

Jules Dumont d'Urville
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Jules Sébastien César Dumont dUrville was a French explorer, naval officer and rear admiral, who explored the south and western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. As a botanist and cartographer he left his mark, giving his name to several seaweeds, plants and shrubs, Dumont was born at Condé-sur-Noireau in Lower Normandy. His father, G

1.
Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville

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Māori men and women on board the Astrolabe performing a dance, with a French officer at right.

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L'Astrolabe making water on a floe 6 February 1838

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Frontispiece to: Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Oceanie

Jules Paul Benjamin Delessert
–
Jules Paul Benjamin Delessert was a French banker and naturalist. He was born at Lyon, the son of Étienne Delessert, the founder of the first fire insurance company and the first discount bank in France. Young Delessert was travelling in England when the French Revolution broke out and his father bought him out of the army, however, in 1795 in orde

1.
Benjamin Delessert.

Arab Congress of 1913
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The Arab National Congress, was established by 25 official Arab Nationalists delegates to discuss desired reforms to grant Arabs more autonomy under the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs were agitating for more rights under the fading empire, a number of dissenting and reform-oriented groups formed in Greater Syria, Palestine, Constantinople, and Egypt. Un

1.
Société de Géographie

2.
Boulevard Saint-Germain at the corner of Rue de Buci. Buildings shown between the corner of the rue de Buci and rue de Seine are the original North side of the former rue des Boucheries.

4.
Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi

Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal sta

1.
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.

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Flag (1844–1923)

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Battle of Mohács in 1526

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Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.

Arab nationalism
–
Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language and literature of the Arabs, calling for rejuvenation and political union in the Arab world. It rose to prominence with the weakening and defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, pan-Arabism is a related concept, in as much as it cal

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The Aqaba Flagpole in Aqaba, Jordan bearing the flag of the Arab Revolt. The Aqaba Flagpole is the fifth tallest free standing flagpole in the world.

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The flag of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and colors are the basis of many of the Arab states ' flags.

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Syrian rebel leader Hilal al-Atrash at a ceremony marking a prisoner exchange with the French Mandate authorities during the Great Syrian Revolt, 1925

Zionism
–
Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the

1.
Theodor Herzl is considered the founder of the Zionist movement. In his 1896 book Der Judenstaat, he envisioned the founding of a future independent Jewish state during the 20th century.

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Aliyah

3.
Israeli author Amoz Oz, who today is described as the 'aristocrat' of Labor Zionism

Palestine (region)
–
Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin

1.
A 1759 map entitled The Holy Land, or Palestine, showing not only the Ancient Kingdoms of Judah and Israel in which the 12 Tribes have been distinguished, but also their placement in different periods as indicated in the Holy Scriptures by Tobias Conrad Lotter, Geographer. Augsburg, Germany

2.
Depiction of Biblical Palestine in c. 1020 BCE according to George Adam Smith 's 1915 Atlas of the Historical Geography of the Holy Land. Smith's book was used as a reference by Lloyd George during the negotiations for the British Mandate for Palestine.

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Herod's Temple in Jerusalem functioned as the spiritual center of the various sects of Second Temple Judaism until it was destroyed in 70 CE. This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem.

4.
The Dome of the Rock, the world's first great work of Islamic architecture, constructed in 691.

Pierre-Simon de Laplace
–
Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace was an influential French scholar whose work was important to the development of mathematics, statistics, physics and astronomy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mécanique Céleste and this work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, o

Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret
–
Claude-Emmanuel Joseph Pierre, Marquess of Pastoret was a French lawyer, author and politician. Pastoret was elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres on the strength of his Zoroastre, Confucius et Mahomet comparés comme sectaires and he was Venerable Master of Les Neuf Sœurs from 1788 till 1789. He declined the honours and

Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol
–
Christophe André Jean de Chabrol de Crouzol was a French politician who served in the administration of Napoleon, then adhered to the Bourbon Restoration in 1814. As Prefect of Rhône he acquiesced in brutal reprisals in 1817 against former supporters of Bonaparte and he was an elected deputy from 1820 to 1822, then was made a peer of France. He ser

1.
Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol

2.
Tomb of Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol at Paslières

3.
Villèle

4.
Martignac

Jean-Guillaume Hyde de Neuville
–
Jean-Guillaume, baron Hyde de Neuville was a French aristocrat, diplomat, and politician. Jean-Guillaume was born at La Charité-sur-Loire, the son of Guillaume Hyde, after studying in the College Cardinal Lemoine, in Paris, he entered political life at the age of sixteen. He was only seventeen when he defended a man denounced by Joseph Fouché befor

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Jean-Guillaume, baron Hyde de Neuville.

2.
Martignac

Ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld
–
Ambroise-Polycarpe, Vicomte de La Rochefoucauld, first Duke of Doudeauville, was a French soldier and politician. He was Minister of the Royal Household from 1821 to 1827, ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld was born in Paris on 2 April 1765. He was the grandson of Alexandre-Nicolas de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Surgères, at the age of fourtee

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1827 portrait by Pierre-Louis Delaval

2.
Duc de Doudeauville, Philanthropist

3.
Villèle

Antoine Maurice Apollinaire d'Argout
–
Atoine Maurice Apollinaire, Comte dArgout was a French statesman, minister and governor of the Bank of France. He was named Peer of France on 5 March 1819 by the Duke Decazes, during the July Revolution of 1830, he tried to obtain from Charles X the withdrawal of the July Ordinances which had sparked the riots. A loyal supporter to the Bourbon Rest

1.
Caricature of the Comte d'Argout by Honoré Daumier.

4.
Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult

Henri de Rigny
–
Marie Henri Daniel Gauthier, comte de Rigny was the commander of the French squadron at the Battle of Navarino in the Greek War of Independence. The French Revolution led him out of the Pont-à-Mousson school, where he had been sent and he was ten years old then, had lost his father and his mother was listed as the list of emigrants. An aunt collect

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Admiral de Rigny

2.
Caricature by Honoré Daumier, 1833.

3.
Jules de Polignac

4.
Casimir Pierre Périer

Camille de Montalivet
–
Marthe Camille Bachasson, 3rd Count of Montalivet was a French statesman and a Peer of France. Second son of Jean-Pierre Bachasson, 1st count of Montalivet, peer of France and Minister of Emperor Napoléon, he was born in Valence, Drôme. After the death of his father and brother in 1823, he inherited the title of count and peer of France, afterwards

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Camille de Montalivet.

4.
Adolphe Thiers

Prosper de Barante
–
Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante was a French statesman and historian. Barante was born at Riom, Puy-de-Dôme, the son of an advocate, at the age of sixteen he entered the École Polytechnique at Paris, and at twenty obtained his first appointment in the civil service. His abilities secured him promotion, and in 1806 he obtained th

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Amable Guillaume Prosper Brugière, baron de Barante.

Jean-Jacques Germain Pelet-Clozeau
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Jean-Jacques Germain Pelet-Clozeau joined the French army in 1800 and soon became a topographic engineer. He saw much service during the Napoleonic Wars, asked to serve on the staff of Marshal André Masséna in 1805, he fought in Italy where he was wounded. He accompanied Masséna to southern Italy in 1806 and Poland in 1807, the 1809 campaign saw hi

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Jean-Jacques Germain Pelet-Clozeau

Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy
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Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy was a French politician. He was born at Condom, Gers of a family of Irish extraction. He joined the army in 1813, and in the year joined the household troops of Louis XVIII of France. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative

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Narcisse-Achille de Salvandy

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François Guizot

Jean Tupinier
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Jean Marguerite Tupinier was a French naval engineer and politician. In 1839 he was briefly Minister of Navy and Colonies, Jean Marguerite Tupinier was born in Cuisery, Saône-et-Loire, on 18 December 1779. His parents were the deputy Jean Tupinier and Claudine Royer and he was the oldest of their three sons. He entered the École Polytechnique on 13

Hippolyte Jaubert
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Count Hippolyte François Jaubert was a French politician and botanist. Jaubert was born in Paris, the son of François Hippolyte Jaubert and he was adopted by his uncle, Count François Jaubert, Councilor of State and governor of the Bank of France under the First Empire. Although Jaubert was passionate about history, his uncle made him study law, wh

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Hippolyte François Jaubert (1860)

Laurent Cunin-Gridaine
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Laurent Cunin-Gridaine was a French businessman and politician. He was a deputy from 1827 to 1848, and Minister of Agriculture and Commerce from 1839 to 1848, laurent Cunin-Gridaine was born in Sedan, Ardennes, on 10 July 1778. He started work for a M. Gridaine, a clothier in Sedan and his employer recognized his intelligence and took him as his as

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François Guizot

Albin Roussin
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Albin Reine Roussin was a French admiral and statesman. His father was a lawyer who was arrested during the French Revolution when Roussin was aged twelve and he left home in Dijon and travelled to Dunkerque where he enlisted as a cadet in the French Navy in December 1793. He served from 1794 to 1797 on various frigates, in 1801 he sat and passed t

Charles Athanase Walckenaer
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Baron Charles Athanase Walckenaer was a French civil servant and scientist. Walckenaer was born in Paris and studied at the universities of Oxford, in 1793 he was appointed head of the military transports in the Pyrenees, after which he pursued technical studies at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and the École polytechnique. He was elect

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Charles Walckenaer

Jean-Baptiste Dumas
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He also developed a method for the analysis of nitrogen in compounds. Dumas was born in Alès, and became an apprentice to an apothecary in his native town. In 1822, he moved to Paris, acting on the advice of Alexander von Humboldt and he was one of the founders of the École centrale des arts et manufactures in 1829. In 1832 Dumas became a member of

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Jean-Baptiste Dumas

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Grave of Dumas (Paris)

Hippolyte Fortoul
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Hippolyte Fortoul was a French journalist, historian and politician. Hippolyte Nicolas Honoré Fortoul was born on 4 August 1811 in Digne, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and he attended secondary school in Digne and then Lyon. Between 1829 and 1837 he was a journalist in Paris and he traveled in Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and England between 1834

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Hippolyte Fortoul

Gustave Rouland
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Gustave Rouland was a French lawyer and politician. During the Second French Empire he was Minister of Education and Religious Affairs from 1856 to 1863, in this role he undertook reforms to curb the influence of the church. He was later President of the Conseil dEtat and then governor of the Banque de France from 1864 to 1878, Gustave Rouland was

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Gustave Rouland

Victor de Persigny
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Jean-Gilbert-Victor Fialin, duc de Persigny was a diplomat and statesman of the Second French Empire. Fialin was born at Saint-Germain-Lespinasse in the Loire, where his father was Receiver of Taxes and he entered Saumur Cavalry School in 1826, becoming Maréchal des logis in the 4th Hussars two years later. The role played by his regiment in the Ju

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Fialin (later Duke of Persigny), 1850

Alexandre Colonna-Walewski
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Alexandre Florian Joseph, Count Colonna-Walewski, was a Polish and French politician and diplomat. Walewski was widely rumoured to be the son of Napoleon I by his mistress, Countess Marie Walewska. Walewski was born at Walewice, near Warsaw in Poland, after the Fall of Warsaw, he took out letters of French naturalization and joined the French army,

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Comte Walewski: photo in 1856.

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Portrait of Alexandre Walewski in 1832, school of George Hayter

Prosper de Chasseloup-Laubat
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Chasseloup-Laubat was the descendant of a minor noble family from Saintonge whose members were Huguenot but converted to Catholicism in the 17th century. His godparents were Emperor Napoleon I and his first wife Empress Josephine and his brother, Justin, 2nd Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat, was a military and politician and died as he was serving as F

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David Livingstone's birthplace The National Trust, having taken over the running of the museum from the original Trust, has recreated the look of the room of Livingstone's family using furnishings and artefacts from around 1800.