After the weekend clashes, some Russians posted photos of themselves on social media holding stolen English supporters’ flags upside down – some spotted with blood – as trophies.

The hooligans, who often refer to themselves as ‘ultras’, belong to an organised tradition of hooliganism which has its roots mainly around clubs in Moscow and St Petersburg.

No Russians were arrested over the weekend, Marseille prosecutor Brice Robin acknowledged. Asked why not, the prosecutor said they had carried out lightning strikes which made arrests difficult and that closed-circuit television footage was still being studied. “These are highly trained people,” Robin said.

England fans have said they were ambushed by squads of Russian assailants in at least one incident, though the Marseille prosecutor made clear that England supporters were responsible for some of the skirmishes in Marseille.

European football’s governing body, UEFA, has launched disciplinary proceedings against Russia’s football authorities after their supporters stormed England fans in the Marseille stadium following the final whistle.