Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002)
Facts: In response to dismal academic performance by public schools in Cleveland, Ohio, state’s Pilot
Project Scholarship Program (PPSP) granted “tuition vouchers” to students’ families within Cleveland
City School District (CCSD), according to economic need. Vouchers enabled parents to send children
to participating private schools, or participating public schools, if any, in adjacent school districts. A
third option was to receive lesser dollar amounts for tutorial assistance to children remaining in CCSD
schools.
In separate programs, Cleveland students also had options of enrolling in CCSD magnet
schools, which received the same amount of tax dollars per student as traditional public schools, or
independent community schools, funded by state at twice the per-student amount traditional schools
received.
No public school systems opted to participate, so parents’ choices were limited to Cleveland’s
public, magnet, and community schools, or participating private schools. 82% of participating private
schools in school year 1999-2000 had religious affiliation, and 96% of participating students enrolled
in religious schools.
Ohio taxpayers sued to stop PPSP, claiming it violated 1st Amendment’s Establishment Clause.
Procedural History: Federal District Court granted respondents summary judgment. U.S. 6th Circuit
Court of Appeals affirmed District Court’s decision. Case to SCOTUS on writ of certiorari.
Arguments: Omitted
Issues: Does Ohio’s PPSP violate Establishment Clause of 1st Amendment?
Holding: No. Religion-neutral government aid programs do not offend 1st Amendment.
Judgement: Reversed.
Legal Reasoning: Opinion of Court, Rehnquist, w/ O’Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas
PPSP neutral on its face, and in practice
A) No financial incentive favoring religious schools – lengthy analysis in support
B) History and context show PPSP is part of broad effort at overcoming deficiencies in CCSD,
rather than endorsement of religion
1) Immaterial that most private schools are religious
C) Numerous secular options made available to all participant families
1) Many families chose alternatives – magnet, community, or CCSD schools with additional
tutoring
2) No evidence parents coerced into choosing religious schools over other options
D) Nyquist (1973) “Lemon Test” not applicable
1) No payments directly to religious schools
2) Payments to religious schools only through “deliberate choices of numerous individual
recipients”
Concurring, O’Connor
Zelman not “drastic break from the past”
A) Repeats Rehnquist’s arguments regarding options available under PPSP
B) Cites numerous ways greater tax dollar amounts go to religious institutions of all types, without
restrictions
1) State and Federal tax breaks for religious institutions, property for religious uses, housing
for clergy and personnel
2) Tax exemptions for charitable donations (over 60% of household charitable donations made
to religious organizations)
3) Medicare and Medicaid to religiously affiliated hospitals and health-care facilities
4) G.I. Bill and Pell Grants to religiously affiliated educational institutions
C) Counters Justice Souter’s opinions regarding:
1) Neutrality of PPSP
2) Options available under program
3) Dollar amounts of aid reaching religious schools v. community and magnet schools
4) Quality of non-religious schools
Concurring, Thomas
Modified Lemon Test from Agostini (1997) shows PPSP “easily passes muster”
Establishment Clause not fully incorporated to states through 14th Amendment – different limits on
state and federal governments
A) “States may pass laws that include or touch on religious matters so long as these laws do not
impede free exercise rights…”
B) “I can accept that the Fourteenth Amendment protects religious liberty rights. But I cannot
accept its use to oppose neutral programs of school choice through the incorporation of the
Establishment Clause.”
Repeats Rehnquist’s arguments regarding options available under PPSP. Removing religious schools
from participation drastically reduces available options.
A) PPSP opponents “raise formalistic concerns about the Establishment Clause but ignore the core
purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment.”
B) Supporters (“many blacks and other minorities”) simply want better educations for children
Dissenting, Stevens
Opposes deciding case on “three factual matters” invoked in majority opinion
A) “(S)evere educational crisis” immaterial. PPSP “provided relief to less than five percent of the
students,” while over 90% failed to meet basic proficiency standards.
B) “(W)ide range of choices…within the public school system” immaterial. Question is whether
state may pay tuition at religious schools. Subdividing public school systems cannot remedy
unconstitutionality of vouchers to religious schools.
C) “(V)oluntary character” of choices PPSP parents make immaterial. Fact that family cannot
afford parochial school education desired does not justify sending tax dollars to religious
schools.
Importance of separation of church and state; history of sectarian violence, which led to first Anglo-
American settlements in North America, and its modern-day equivalents in Balkans, Middle East,
Northern Ireland.
Dissenting, Souter
Ohio’s educational crisis no excuse to abandon liberties secured by 1st Amendment. Establishment
Clause protections settled law in Everson (1947), never overturned, and cannot be ignored here.
Majority of Cleveland’s private schools religious and 96.6% of PPSP funds go to religious v. secular
schools. Since vouchers pay “almost all of tuition,” and “purchase everything that tuition purchases
…math or indoctrination in faith,” tax dollars cannot help but support religious education, in violation
of Nyquist (1973).
“Neutrality” and “choice” are in form only. Public schools receive no vouchers, while private schools
(majority religious) receive up to $2250. Hence, vouchers only directed by parents opting for private
education. Those choosing magnet, community, or public schools are not “spending” voucher money.
PPSP conditions also violate Establishment Clause through “corrosive secularism.” Terms of PPSP
participation include:
A) No admission preference for patron faith’s children
B) No employment preference for patron faith’s own clergy
C) Hate-speech restrictions which might preclude teaching “legitimate articles of faith as to the
error, sinfulness, or ignorance of others.”
D) Ever-increasing dependence on government funding
Dissenting, Breyer
Establishment Clause protects nation from “religious conflict,” presents “overriding obstacle” to PPSP,
and draws “fairly clear lines of separation between church and state” – lengthy history in support
Repeats Souter’s “indoctrination in faith” and “corrosive secularism” arguments, Nyquist citation
Parental choice under PPSP insufficient to offset concerns regarding religious conflict, misdirection of
tax dollars
Relation to Other Cases, Precedent: Upheld Agostini
Source of Law: 1st, 14th Amendments
Interpretation Style: Originalist
van Geel analysis: IV Broad interpretation of Agostini, widened area of permissible actions