Lately I’ve been so occupied by Trump and politics and various ideas from environmentalists that I haven’t really written much about the cognitive economics that was originally planned to be the core of this blog. So, I thought that this week I would take a step out of the political fray and go back to those core topics.

Why do we procrastinate? Why do we overeat? Why do we fail to exercise? It’s quite mysterious, from the perspective of neoclassical economic theory. We know these things are bad for us in the long run, and yet we do them anyway.

The reason has to do with the way our brains deal with time. We value the future less than the present—but that’s not actually the problem. The problem is that we do so inconsistently.

A perfectly-rational neoclassical agent would use time-consistent discounting; what this means is that the effect of a given time interval won’t change or vary based on the stakes. If having $100 in 2019 is as good as having $110 in 2020, then having $1000 in 2019 is as good as having $1100 in 2020; and if I ask you in 2019, you’ll still agree that having $100 in 2019 is as good as having $1100 in 2020. A perfectly-rational individual would have a certain discount rate (in this case, 10% per year), and would apply it consistently at all times on all things.

This is of course not how human beings behave at all.

A much more likely pattern is that you would agree, in 2018, that having $100 in 2019 is as good as having $110 in 2020 (a discount rate of 10%). But then if I wait until 2019, and then offer you the choice between $100 immediately and $120 in a year, you’ll probably take the $100 immediately—even though a year ago, you told me you wouldn’t. Your discount rate rose from 10% to at least 20% in the intervening time.

The leading model in cognitive economics right now to explain this is called hyperbolic discounting. The precise functional form of a hyperbola has been called into question by recent research, but the general pattern is definitely right: We act as though time matters a great deal when discussing time intervals that are close to us, but treat time as unimportant when discussing time intervals that are far away.

How does this explain procrastination and other failures of self-control over time? Let’s try an example.

Let’s say that you have a project you need to finish by the end of the day Friday, which has a benefit to you, received on Saturday, that I will arbitrarily scale at 1000 utilons.

Then, let’s say it’s Monday. You have five days to work on it, and each day of work costs you 100 utilons. If you work all five days, the project will get done.

If you skip a day of work, you will need to work so much harder that one of the following days your cost of work will be 300 utilons instead of 100. If you skip two days, you’ll have to pay 300 utilons twice. And if you skip three or more days, the project will not be finished and it will all be for naught.

If you don’t discount time at all (which, over a week, is probably close to optimal), the answer is obvious: Work all five days. Pay 100+100+100+100+100 = 500, receive 1000. Net benefit: 500.

But even if you discount time, as long as you do so consistently, you still wouldn’t procrastinate.

Let’s say your discount rate is extremely high (maybe you’re dying or something), so that each day is only worth 80% as much as the previous. Benefit that’s worth 1 on Monday is worth 0.8 if it comes on Tuesday, 0.64 if it comes on Wednesday, 0.512 if it comes on Thursday, 0.4096 if it comes on Friday,a and 0.32768 if it comes on Saturday. Then instead of paying 100+100+100+100+100 to get 1000, you’re paying 100+80+64+51+41=336 to get 328. It’s not worth doing the project; you should just enjoy your last few days on Earth. That’s not procrastinating; that’s rationally choosing not to undertake a project that isn’t worthwhile under your circumstances.

Procrastinating would look more like this: You skip the first two days, then work 100 the third day, then work 300 each of the last two days, finishing the project. If you didn’t discount at all, you would pay 100+300+300=700 to get 1000, so your net benefit has been reduced to 300.

There’s no consistent discount rate that would make this rational. If it was worth giving up 200 on Thursday and Friday to get 100 on Monday and Tuesday, you must be discounting at least 26% per day. But if you’re discounting that much, you shouldn’t bother with the project at all.

There is however an inconsistent discounting by which it makes perfect sense. Suppose that instead of consistently discounting some percentage each day, psychologically it feels like this: The value is the inverse of the length of time (that’s what it means to be hyperbolic). So the same amount of benefit on Monday which is worth 1 is only worth 1/2 if it comes on Tuesday, 1/3 if on Wednesday, 1/4 if on Thursday, and 1/5 if on Friday.

So, when thinking about your weekly schedule, you realize that by pushing back Monday’s work to Thursday, you can gain 100 today at a cost of only 200/4 = 50, since Thursday is 4 days away. And by pushing back Tuesday’s work to Friday, you can gain 100/2=50 today at a cost of only 200/5=40. So now it makes perfect sense to have fun on Monday and Tuesday, start working on Wednesday, and cram the biggest work into Thursday and Friday. And yes, it still makes sense to do the project, because 1000/6 = 166 is more than the 100/3+200/4+200/5 = 123 it will cost to do the work.

But now think about what happens when you come to Wednesday. The work today costs 100. The work on Thursday costs 200/2 = 100. The work on Friday costs 200/3 = 66. The benefit of completing the project will be 1000/4 = 250. So you are paying 100+100+66=266 to get a benefit of only 250. It’s not worth it anymore! You’ve changed your mind. So you don’t work Wednesday.

At that point, it’s too late, so you don’t work Thursday, you don’t work Friday, and the project doesn’t get done. You have procrastinated away the benefits you could have gotten from doing this project. If only you could have done the work on Monday and Tuesday, then on Wednesday it would have been worthwhile to continue: 100/1+100/2+100/3 = 183 is less than the benefit of 250.

What went wrong? The key event was the preference reversal: While on Monday you preferred having fun on Monday and working on Thursday to working on both days, when the time came you changed your mind. Someone with time-consistent discounting would never do that; they would either prefer one or the other, and never change their mind.

One way to think about this is to imagine future versions of yourself as different people, who agree with you on most things, but not on everything. They’re like friends or family; you want the best for them, but you don’t always see eye-to-eye.

Generally we find that our future selves are less rational about choices than we are. To be clear, this doesn’t mean that we’re all declining in rationality over time. Rather, it comes from the fact that future decisions are inherently closer to our future selves than they are to our current selves, and the closer a decision gets the more likely we are to use irrational time discounting.

This is why it’s useful to plan and make commitments. If starting on Monday you committed yourself to working every single day, you’d get the project done on time and everything would work out fine. Better yet, if you committed yourself last week to starting work on Monday, you wouldn’t even feel conflicted; you would be entirely willing to pay a cost of 100/8+100/9+100/10+100/11+100/12=51 to get a benefit of 1000/13=77. So you could set up some sort of scheme where you tell your friends ahead of time that you can’t go out that week, or you turn off access to social media sites (there are apps that will do this for you), or you set up a donation to an “anti-charity” you don’t like that will trigger if you fail to complete the project on time (there are websites to do that for you).

There is even a simpler way: Make a promise to yourself. This one can be tricky to follow through on, but if you can train yourself to do it, it is extraordinarily powerful and doesn’t come with the additional costs that a lot of other commitment devices involve. If you can really make yourself feel as bad about breaking a promise to yourself as you would about breaking a promise to someone else, then you can dramatically increase your own self-control with very little cost. The challenge lies in actually cultivating that sort of attitude, and then in following through with making only promises you can keep and actually keeping them. This, too, can be a delicate balance; it is dangerous to over-commit to promises to yourself and feel too much pain when you fail to meet them.
But given the strong correlations between self-control and long-term success, trying to train yourself to be a little better at it can provide enormous benefits.
If you ever get around to it, that is.

Of course, maybe we will stay here awhile. We don’t have to go down, necessarily. If Obama were still President and Yellen were still Fed Chair, I might believe that. But the level of corruption, incompetence, and ideological rigidity in Trump’s economic policy is something I’ve not seen in the United States within my lifetime.

“This is the president’s vision. My function, really, as an economist is to try to provide the underlying analytics that confirm his intuition. And his intuition is always right in these matters. […] The owner, the coach, and the quarterback are all the president. The rest of us are all interchangeable parts.”

Of course, hurting China was part of Trump’s goal, so I doubt he’ll feel much remorse if the trade war results in millions of people in China thrown back into poverty. People who voted for him on the grounds that he would keep the dirty foreigners down may well be celebrating such an outcome.

The book is very easy to read, and manages to be open to a wide audience with only basic economics knowledge without feeling patronizing or condescending. Most of the core ideas are fundamentally sound, though Raworth has a way of making it sound like she is being revolutionary even when most mainstream economists already agree with the core ideas.

Even the core concept of the Doughnut isn’t all that radical. It’s based on the recognition that economic development is necessary to end poverty, but resources are not unlimited. Then combine that with two key assumptions: GDP growth requires growth in energy consumption, and growth in energy consumption requires increased carbon emissions. Then, the goal should be to stay within a certain range: We want to be high enough to not have poverty, but low enough to not exceed our carbon budget.

Why a doughnut? That’s… actually a really good question. The concept Raworth presents is a fundamentally one-dimensional object; there’s no reason for it to be doughnut-shaped. She could just as well have drawn it on a single continuum, with poverty at one end, unsustainability at the other end, and a sweet spot in the middle. The doughnut shape adds some visual appeal, but no real information.

But the fundamental assumptions that GDP requires energy and energy requires carbon emissions are simply false—especially the second one. Always keep one thing in mind whenever you’re reading something by environmentalists telling you we need to reduce economic output to save the Earth: Nuclear power does not produce carbon emissions.

This is how the environmentalist movement has shot itself—and the world—in the foot for the last 50 years. They continually refuse to admit that nuclear power is the best hope we have for achieving both economic development and ecological sustainability. They have let their political biases cloud their judgment on what is actually best for humanity’s future.

I will give Raworth some credit for not buying into the pipe dream that we can somehow transition rapidly to an entirely solar and wind-based power grid—renewables only produce 6% of world energy (the most they ever have), while nuclear produces 10%. And nuclear power certainly has its downsides, particularly in its high cost of construction. It may in fact be the case that we need to reduce economic output somewhat, particularly in the very richest countries, and if so, we need to find a way to do that without causing social and political collapse.

The Dougnut is a one-dimensional object glorified by a two-dimensional diagram.

So let me present you with an actual two-dimensional object, which I call the Wedge.

As you can see, most countries are above the green line. That’s bad. We need the whole world below that green line. The countries that are below the line are largely poor countries, with a handful of middle-income countries mixed in.

But it’s the blue diagonal line that really makes this graph significant, what makes it the Wedge. That line uses Switzerland’s level of efficiency to estimate a frontier of what’s possible. Switzerland’s ratio of GDP to CO2 is the best in the world, among countries where the data actually looks reliable. A handful of other countries do better in the data, but for some (Macau) it’s obviously due to poor counting of indirect emissions and for others (Rwanda, Chad, Burundi) we just don’t have good data at all. I think Switzerland’s efficiency level of $12,000 per ton of CO2 is about as good as can be reasonably expected for most countries over the long run.

Our goal should be to move as far right on the graph as we can (toward higher levels of economic development), but always staying inside this Wedge: Above the green line, our CO2 emissions are too high. Below the blue line may not be technologically feasible (though of course it’s worth a try). We want to aim for the point of the wedge, where GDP is as high as possible but emissions are still below safe targets.

Zooming in on the graph gives a better view of the Wedge.

The point of the Wedge is about $38,000 per person per year. This is not as rich as the US, but it’s definitely within the range of highly-developed countries. This is about the same standard of living as Italy, Spain, or South Korea. In fact, all three of these countries exceed their targets; the closest I was able to find to a country actually hitting the point of the wedge was Latvia, at $27,300 and 3.5 tonnes per person per year. Uruguay also does quite well at $22,400 and 2.2 tonnes per person per year.

Some countries are within the Wedge; a few, like Uruguay, quite close to the point, and many, like Colombia and Bangladesh, that are below and to the left. For these countries, a “stay the course” policy is the way to go: If they keep up what they are doing, they can continue to experience economic growth without exceeding their emission targets.

But the most important thing about the graph is not actually the Wedge itself: It’s all the countries outside the Wedge, and where they are outside the Wedge.

There are some countries, like Sweden, France, and Switzerland, that are close to the blue line but still outside the Wedge because they are too far to the right. These are countries for whom “degrowth” policies might actually make sense: They are being as efficient in their use of resources as may be technologically feasible, but are simply producing too much output. They need to find a way to scale back their economies without causing social and political collapse. My suggestion, for what it’s worth, is progressive taxation. In addition to carbon taxes (which are a no-brainer), make income taxes so high that they start actually reducing GDP, and do so without fear, since that’s part of the point; then redistribute all the income as evenly as possible so that lower total income comes with much lower inequality and the eradication of poverty. Most of the country will then be no worse off than they were, so social and political unrest seems unlikely. Call it “socialism” if you like, but I’m not suggesting collectivization of industry or the uprising of the proletariat; I just want everyone to adopt the income tax rates the US had in the 1950s.

But most countries are not even close to the blue line; they are well above it. In all these countries, the goal should not be to reduce economic output, but to increase the carbon efficiency of that output. Increased efficiency has no downside (other than the transition cost to implement it): It makes you better off ecologically without making you worse off economically. Bahrain has about the same GDP per capita as Sweden but produces over five times the per-capita carbon emissions. Simply by copying Sweden they could reduce their emissions by almost 19 tonnes per person per year, which is more than the per-capita output of the US (and we’re hardly models of efficiency)—at absolutely no cost in GDP.

Then there are countries like Mongolia, which produces only $12,500 in GDP but 14.5 tonnes of CO2 per person per year. Mongolia is far above and to the left of the point of the Wedge, meaning that they could both increase their GDP and decrease their emissions by adopting the model of more efficient countries. Telling these countries that “degrowth” is the answer is beyond perverse—cut Mongolia’s GDP by 2/3 and you would throw them into poverty without even bringing carbon emissions down to target.

We don’t need to overthrow capitalism or even give up on GDP growth in general. We need to focus on carbon, carbon, carbon: All economic policy from this point forward should be made with CO2 reduction in mind. If that means reducing GDP, we may have to accept that; but often it won’t. Switching to nuclear power and public transit would dramatically reduce emissions but need have no harmful effect on economic output—in fact, the large investment required could pull a country out of recession.

You can’t spend much time teaching at the university level and not hear someone complain about “grade inflation”. Almost every professor seems to believe in it, and yet they must all be participating in it, if it’s really such a widespread problem.

This could be explained as a collective action problem, a Tragedy of the Commons: If the incentives are always to have the students with the highest grades—perhaps because of administrative pressure, or in order to get better reviews from students—then even if all professors would prefer a harsher grading scheme, no individual professor can afford to deviate from the prevailing norms.

But in fact I think there is a much simpler explanation: Grade inflation doesn’t exist.

In economic growth theory, economists make a sharp distinction between inflation—increase in prices without change in underlying fundamentals—and growth—increase in the real value of output. I contend that there is no such thing as grade inflation—what we are in fact observing is grade growth.
Am I saying that students are actually smarter now than they were 30 years ago?

Yes. That’s exactly what I’m saying.

But don’t take it from me. Take it from the decades of research on the Flynn Effect: IQ scores have been rising worldwide at a rate of about 0.3 IQ points per year for as long as we’ve been keeping good records. Students today are about 10 IQ points smarter than students 30 years ago—a 2018 IQ score of 95 is equivalent to a 1988 score of 105, which is equivalent to a 1958 score of 115. There is reason to think this trend won’t continue indefinitely, since the effect is mainly concentrated at the bottom end of the distribution; but it has continued for quite some time already.

This by itself would probably be enough to explain the observed increase in grades, but there’s more: College students are also a self-selected sample, admitted precisely because they were believed to be the smartest individuals in the application pool. Rising grades at top institutions are easily explained by rising selectivity at top schools: Harvard now accepts 5.6% of applicants. In 1942, Harvard accepted 92% of applicants. The odds of getting in have fallen from 9:1 in favor to 19:1 against. Today, you need a 4.0 GPA, a 36 ACT in every category, glowing letters of recommendation, and hundreds of hours of extracurricular activities (or a family member who donated millions of dollars, of course) to get into Harvard. In the 1940s, you needed a high school diploma and a B average.

It really wouldn’t be hard to make that case: “Back in my day, you could get an A just by knowing basic algebra! Now they want these kids to take partial derivatives?” “We used to just memorize facts to ace the exam; but now teachers keep asking for reasoning and critical thinking?”

Indeed, the real mystery is why so many professors believe in grade inflation, when the evidence for it is so astonishingly weak.

I think it’s availability heuristic. Who are professors? They are the cream of the crop. They aced their way through high school, college, and graduate school, then got hired and earned tenure—they were one of a handful of individuals who won a fierce competition with hundreds of competitors at each stage. There are over 320 million people in the US, and only 1.3 million college faculty. This means that college professors represent about the top 0.4% of high-scoring students.

Combine that with the fact that human beings assort positively (we like to spend time with people who are similar to us) and use availability heuristic (we judge how likely something is based on how many times we have seen it).

Thus, when a professor compares to her own experience of college, she is remembering her fellow top-scoring students at elite educational institutions. She is recalling the extreme intellectual demands she had to meet to get where she is today, and erroneously assuming that these are representative of most the population of her generation. She probably went to school at one of a handful of elite institutions, even if she now teaches at a mid-level community college: three quarters of college faculty come from the top one quarter of graduate schools.

And now she compares to the students she has to teach, most of whom would not be able to meet such demands—but of course most people in her generation couldn’t either. She frets for the future of humanity only because not everyone is a genius like her.

Throw in the Curse of Knowledge: The professor doesn’t remember how hard it was to learn what she has learned so far, and so the fact that it seems easy now makes her think it was easy all along. “How can they not know how to take partial derivatives!?” Well, let’s see… were you born knowing how to take partial derivatives?

Giving a student an A for work far inferior to what you’d have done in their place isn’t unfair. Indeed, it would clearly be unfair to do anything less. You have years if not decades of additional education ahead of them, and you are from self-selected elite sample of highly intelligent individuals. Expecting everyone to perform as well as you would is simply setting up most of the population for failure.

There are potential incentives for grade inflation that do concern me: In particular, a lot of international student visas and scholarship programs insist upon maintaining a B or even A- average to continue. Professors are understandably loathe to condemn a student to having to drop out or return to their home country just because they scored 81% instead of 84% on the final exam. If we really intend to make C the average score, then students shouldn’t lose funding or visas just for scoring a B-. Indeed, I have trouble defending any threshold above outright failing—which is to say, a minimum score of D-. If you pass your classes, that should be good enough to keep your funding.

Yet apparently even this isn’t creating too much upward bias, as students who are 10 IQ points smarter are still getting about the same scores as their forebears. We should be celebrating that our population is getting smarter, but instead we’re panicking over “easy grading”.