Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus[1] (also incorrectly referred to as Lollianus and Aelianus)[2] was a usurper against Postumus, the emperor of the Gallic Empire. His revolt lasted from approximately late February to early June 269.[2]

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Little is known about Laelianus. He shares the same nomen as a prominent Spanish noble family, the Ulpii, that included Trajan among its members, and may have been a relative.[2] This is supported by the strong allusion to Hispania on an aureus he struck, which featured the design of Hispania reclining with a rabbit to her side. If he indeed was a relative, this may be the reason Spain allied itself with Claudius II, after the death of Postumus, seemingly without a struggle.

Laelianus declared himself emperor at Moguntiacum in February/March 269.[3] after repulsing a Germanic invasion.[4] Although his exact position is unknown, he is believed to have been a senior officer under Postumus,[5] either the legatus of Germania Superior[6] or the commander of Legio XXII Primigenia.[2] Laelianus represented a strong danger to Postumus because of the two legions he commanded (Primigenia in Moguntiacum and VIII Augusta in Argentoratum);[2] Despite this, his rebellion lasted only about two months before he was executed,[7] reputedly by his own soldiers, or by Postumus' troops after a siege of Laelianus' capital.[1] The siege of Moguntiacum was also fatal for Postumus; it is said he was slain when he refused to allow his troops to plunder the city following its capture.[8]

1.
Aureus
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The aureus was a gold coin of ancient Rome originally valued at 25 pure silver denarii. The aureus was regularly issued from the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 4th century AD, Caesar struck the coin more often, and standardized the weight at 140 of a Roman pound. Augustus tariffed the value of the sestertius as 1100 of an aureus, the mass of the aureus was decreased to 145 of a pound during the reign of Nero. At about the time the purity of the silver coinage was also slightly decreased. After the reign of Marcus Aurelius the production of aurei decreased, during the 3rd century, gold pieces were introduced in a variety of fractions and multiples, making it hard to determine the intended denomination of a gold coin. The solidus was first introduced by Diocletian around 301 AD, struck at 60 to the Roman pound of pure gold, however, Diocletians solidus was struck only in small quantities, and thus had only minimal economic effect. The solidus was reintroduced by Constantine I in 312 AD, permanently replacing the aureus as the coin of the Roman Empire. The solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound of gold, each coin weighing twenty-four Greco-Roman carats. By this time, the solidus was worth 275,000 of the increasingly debased denarii, however, regardless of the size or weight of the aureus, the coins purity was little affected. Analysis of the Roman aureus shows the purity level usually to have been near to 24 carat gold, inflation was also affected by the systematic debasement of the silver denarius, which by the mid-3rd century had practically no silver left in it. In 301, one gold aureus was worth 833⅓ denarii, by 324, in 337, after Constantine converted to the solidus, one solidus was worth 275,000 denarii and finally, by 356, one solidus was worth 4,600,000 denarii. Today, the aureus is highly sought after by collectors because of its purity and value, an aureus is usually much more expensive than a denarius issued by the same emperor. For instance, in one auction, an aureus of Trajan sold for $15,000, two of the most expensive aurei were sold in the same auction in 2008. One aureus, issued in 42 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, the second aureus, issued by the emperor Alexander Severus, has a picture of the Colosseum on the reverse, and had a price realized of $920,000. Guilder Polish złoty Online numismatic exhibit, This round gold is, the charm of gold in ancient coinage

2.
Gallic Empire
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The Gallic Empire is the modern name for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned de facto as a separate state from 260 to 274. It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century and it was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania. After Postumus assassination in 268 it lost much of its territory and it was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after the Battle of Châlons in 274. This left his son Gallienus in very shaky control, shortly thereafter, the Palmyrene Empire, which came to encompass Egypt, Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea also broke away. The governors in Pannonia staged unsuccessful local revolts, the Emperor left for the Danube to attend to their disruption. This left Postumus, who was governor of Germania Superior and Inferior, an exceptional administrator, Postumus had also protected the Germania Inferior against an invasion led by the Franks in the summer of 260 very well. In fact, Postumus defeated the Frankish forces at Empel so decisively and this all would have combined to make Postumus one of the most powerful men in the western reaches of the Roman empire. The imperial heir Saloninus and the praetorian prefect Silvanus remained at Colonia Agrippina, to keep the young out of danger. Before long, however, Postumus besieged Colonia Agrippina and put the young heir and his guardian to death, Postumus is thought to have established his capital at Cologne or Augusta Treverorum, with Lugdunum also becoming an important city in the empire. The Gallic Empire had its own praetorian guard, two elected consuls and probably its own senate. According to the evidence, Postumus himself held the office of consul five times. Postumus successfully fended off an incursion by Gallienus in 263. However, in early 268 he was challenged by Laelianus, probably one of his commanders, Postumus quickly retook Mogontiacum and Laelianus was killed. Postumus himself, however, was overthrown and killed by his own troops, after the death of Postumus, the Gallic Empire began to decline. Subsequently Victorinus came to power, being recognized as Emperor in northern Gaul and Britannia, Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops, with Victorias support, Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul still controlled by the Empire. He established the court at Trier, and in 273 he elevated his son, also named Tetricus. The following year the younger Tetricus was made co-consul, but the Empire grew weak from internal strife, by that time Aurelian had defeated the Palmyrene Empire and had made plans to re-conquer the west

3.
Postumus
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Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman commander of provincial origin who ruled as emperor in the west. He ruled for the part of ten years before he was murdered by his own troops. Little is known about the life of Postumus. He has been claimed as a Batavian, certainly his coinage honours deities—Hercules Magusanus, Hercules Magusanus was probably an interpretatio romana translation of the Germanic deity Donar. Deusoniensis may refer to the town of Deuso, located in or near Batavian territory and likely to be identified with Diessen, from these relatively obscure provincial origins, Postumus would have risen through the ranks of the army until he held command of the Roman forces among the Celts. What his precise title was is not definitely known, though he may plausibly have been promoted by the emperor Valerian to the position of imperial legate of Lower Germany, Postumus was evidently in favour at court, and, according to König, was granted an honorary consulship. By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son, consequently, Gallienus left his son, Saloninus, and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect the Rhine. Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni and Franks, and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian, the army in Gaul revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor. The trigger was their defeat in 260 of a Juthungian army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, under the command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis, the Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded. Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect Silvanus, demanded the transfer of the booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium. Postumus assembled his army and made a show of reluctantly enforcing this command, the troops accordingly proclaimed Postumus emperor and proceeded to besiege and attack Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus. After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed, Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory. Postumus was immediately recognized as emperor in Gaul, the two Germanias, and Raetia, by 261, Britannia, Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania had also acknowledged him as emperor, possibly after an expedition to Britain in the winter of 260/261. Apart from the position of emperor, he assumed the office of consul alongside a colleague. Like his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus of the state, reflecting his power base, the chief members of Postumus’ administration appeared to have been of northern Gallic origin, and indeed, the entire administration soon became rapidly Gallicized. Both Victorinus and Tetricus, important members of the government, hailed from this region, scholars continue to debate whether Postumus originally intended to dislodge Gallienus from Rome or was content to rule only the western provinces. From the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that he had no intentions to make a bid for Rome. Postumus’ powerbase was Gaul and his responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces

4.
Marcus Aurelius Marius
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Marcus Aurelius Marius was emperor of the Gallic Empire in 269 following the assassination of Postumus. According to later tradition, he was a blacksmith by trade, earning the nickname Mamurius Veturius and he rose through the ranks of the Roman army to become an officer. He was present with the army that revolted at Moguntiacum after the emperor Postumus refused to allow it to sack the city and they murdered the emperor and in the confusion that followed, the army elected Marius to succeed Postumus. His first decision was in all likelihood to allow his troops to sack the city of Moguntiacum, seeking to solidify his power base, he then moved to Augusta Treverorum. This tradition is probably partially or entirely incorrect, based upon the number of coins he issued, a more accurate length for his reign would be at least two or three months. Marius is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta and it is said that he was chosen because his names were evocative of two great Romans of the Past, Marcus Aurelius and Gaius Marius. Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, Tyranni_XXX*. html The Thirty Tyrants Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge,2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge,2004 Jones, the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol

5.
Roman Gaul
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Roman Gaul refers to Gaul under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. The Roman Republic began its takeover of Celtic Gaul in 121 BC, julius Caesar significantly advanced the task by defeating the Celtic tribes in the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC. In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul was reorganized, establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia and Germania Superior. During Late Antiquity, Gaulish and Roman culture amalgamated into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish language was marginalized and eventually extinct, being replaced by regional forms of Late Latin which in the medieval period developed into the group of Gallo-Romance languages. Roman control over the provinces deteriorated in the 4th and 5th centuries, the last vestiges of any Roman control over parts of Gaul were effaced with the defeat of Syagrius at the Battle of Soissons. Gaul had three divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces, Gallia Cisalpina or Gaul this side of the Alps. Gallia Narbonensis, formerly Gallia Transalpina or Gaul across the Alps was originally conquered and annexed in 121 BC in an attempt to solidify communications between Rome and the Iberian peninsula. It comprised the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, most of Languedoc-Roussillon. Gallia Comata, or long haired Gaul, encompassed the remainder of present-day France, Belgium, and westernmost Germany, gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I, and in later centuries Christianity was introduced, the prohibition of Druids and the syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood, current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland, the Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic and literary culture. They wore the Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing, the Romano-Gauls generally lived in the vici, small villages similar to those in Italy, or in villae, for the richest. Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century, for example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel, the Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language. Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets, the last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century. Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers, from the 4th to 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium, the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland, and the Burgundians in Savoie. The Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy, between 455 and 476 the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul

6.
Crisis of the Third Century
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The same number of men became accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors. Later, Aurelian reunited the empire, the crisis ended with the ascension, the situation of the Roman Empire became dire in 235 AD, when emperor Alexander Severus was murdered by his own troops. Many Roman legions had been defeated during a campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, leading his troops personally, Alexander Severus resorted to diplomacy and paying tribute in an attempt to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly. According to Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, in the years following the emperors death, generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties of defending the empire from invasion. Climate changes and a rise in sea levels ruined the agriculture of what is now the Low Countries forcing tribes to migrate, additionally, in 251, the Plague of Cyprian broke out, causing large-scale death, possibly weakened the ability of the Empire to defend itself. After the loss of Valerian in 260, the Roman Empire was beset by usurpers, the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire. An invasion by a vast host of Goths was defeated at the Battle of Naissus in 268 or 269 and this victory was significant as the turning point of the crisis, when a series of tough, energetic soldier-emperors took power. Victories by the emperor Claudius II Gothicus over the two years drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. When Claudius died in 270 of the plague, Aurelian, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus, succeeded him as the emperor and continued the restoration of the Empire. Aurelian reigned through the worst of the crisis, defeating the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Palmyrenes, the Persians, by late 274, the Roman Empire was reunited into a single entity, and the frontier troops were back in place. More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the Western Empire, had ruined, their populations dispersed and, with the breakdown of the economic system. Major cities and towns, even Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries, finally, although Aurelian had played a significant role in restoring the Empires borders from external threat, more fundamental problems remained. Another issue was the size of the Empire, which made it difficult for a single autocratic ruler to effectively manage multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems would be addressed by Diocletian, allowing the Empire to continue to survive in the West for over a century. Several emperors who rose to power through acclamation of their troops attempted to create stability by appointing their descendants as Caesar and these generally failed to maintain any form of coherence beyond one generation, although there were exceptions. Internally, the empire faced hyperinflation caused by years of coinage devaluation and this had started earlier under the Severan emperors who enlarged the army by one quarter and doubled the legionaries base pay. This resulted in runaway rises in prices, and by the time Diocletian came to power, some taxes were collected in kind and values were often notional in bullion or bronze coinage

7.
Maximinus Thrax
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Maximinus Thrax, also known as Maximinus I, was Roman Emperor from 235 to 238. Maximinus is described by ancient sources, though none are contemporary except Herodians Roman History. He was a so-called barracks emperor of the 3rd century, his rule is considered to mark the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. He died at Aquileia whilst attempting to put down a Senatorial revolt, most likely Maximinus was of Thraco-Roman origin. He joined the army during the reign of Septimius Severus, Maximinus was in command of Legio IV Italica, composed of recruits from Pannonia, who were angered by Alexanders payments to the Alemanni and his avoidance of war. The troops, among whom included the Legio XXII Primigenia, elected the stern Maximinus, killing young Alexander, the Praetorian Guard acclaimed him emperor, and their choice was grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were displeased to have a peasant as emperor. Maximinus hated the nobility and was ruthless towards those he suspected of plotting against him and he began by eliminating the close advisors of Alexander. His suspicions may have been justified, two plots against Maximinus were foiled and they planned to elect senator Magnus emperor, afterwards, but the conspiracy was discovered and the conspirators executed. The second plot involved Mesopotamian archers who were loyal to Alexander and they planned to elevate Quartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life. Maximinus first campaign was against the Alemanni, whom Maximinus defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a swamp in the Agri Decumates. After the victory, Maximinus took the title Germanicus Maximus, raised his son Maximus to the rank of caesar and princeps iuventutis, Maximinus may have launched a second campaign deep into Germania, defeating a Germanic tribe beyond the Weser in the Battle at the Harzhorn. Early in 238, in the province of Africa, a treasury officials extortions through false judgments in corrupt courts against some local landowners ignited a revolt in the province. The Senate in Rome switched allegiance, gave both Gordian and Gordian II the title of Augustus, and set about rousing the provinces in support of the pair, Maximinus, wintering at Sirmium immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way. Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned and he marched on Carthage and easily overwhelmed the local militias defending the city. Gordian II was killed in the fighting and, on hearing this, when the African revolt collapsed, the Senate found itself in great jeopardy. Having shown clear support for the Gordians, they could expect no clemency from Maximinus when he reached Rome, in this predicament, they remained determined to defy Maximinus and elected two of their number, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. A faction in Rome preferred Gordians grandson, and there was street fighting. The co-emperors had no option but to compromise, and, sending for the grandson of the elder Gordian they appointed him Caesar, Maximinus marched on Rome, but Aquileia closed its gates against him

8.
Severus Alexander
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Severus Alexander was Roman Emperor from 222 to 235 and the last emperor of the Severan dynasty. He and his cousin were both grandsons of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa, who had arranged for Elagabalus acclamation as emperor by the famous Third Gallic Legion and it was the rumor of Alexanders death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother. As emperor, Alexanders peace time reign was prosperous, however, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids, but when campaigning against Germanic tribes, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman Army and led to a conspiracy to assassinate, under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state. He employed noted jurists to oversee the administration of justice, such as the famous jurist Ulpian and his advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and it is claimed that he created a select board of 16 senators, although this claim is disputed. He also created a council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome. The following year he decreased the amount of metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity. In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind and it is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll, in legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, Alexander also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills. On the whole, Alexanders reign was prosperous until the rise, in the east, of the war that followed there are various accounts. Making Antioch his base, he marched at the head of his troops towards Ctesiphon, but an army was destroyed by the Persians. Nevertheless, although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed a lack of discipline. In 232 there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, who proclaimed Taurinus emperor, Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233, after the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with the famous Origen, one of the greatest Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexanders mother, Julia Mammaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity, while Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexanders success in the Persian war, in A. D234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that even caused panic at the gates of Rome

9.
Gordian I
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Gordian I was Roman Emperor for one month with his son Gordian II in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Caught up in a rebellion against the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, he was defeated by forces loyal to Maximinus before committing suicide, little is known on the early life and family background of Gordian. There is no evidence on his family origins. His family were of Equestrian rank, who were modest and very wealthy, Gordian was said to be related to prominent senators. His praenomen and nomen Marcus Antonius suggest that his paternal ancestors received Roman citizenship under the Triumvir Mark Antony, or one of his daughters, gordian’s cognomen ‘Gordianus’ suggests that his family origins were from Anatolia, especially Galatia and Cappadocia. According to the Augustan History, his mother was a Roman woman called Ulpia Gordiana, while modern historians have dismissed his fathers name as false, there may be some truth behind the identity of his mother. Gordians family history can be guessed through inscriptions, the name Sempronianus in his name may indicate a connection to his mother or grandmother. In Ankara, Turkey, an inscription has been found that names a Sempronia Romana. Romana erected this undated funeral inscription to her husband who died as a praetor-designate, Gordian might have been related to the gens Sempronia. French historian Christian Settipani gives as his parents Marcus Antonius, tr. pl. praet and it seems therefore that the person who was related to Herodes Atticus was Gordian Is mother or grandmother and not his wife. Modern historians have dismissed this name and her information as false, with his wife, Gordian had at least two children, a son of the same name and a daughter, Antonia Gordiana. Gordian climbed the hierarchy until he entered the Roman Senate and his political career started relatively late in his life and probably his early years were spent in rhetoric and literary studies. As a military man, Gordian commanded the Legio IIII Scythica when the legion was stationed in Syria and he served as governor of Roman Britain in 216 and was a Suffect Consul sometime during the reign of Elagabalus. Inscriptions in Roman Britain bearing his name were partially erased suggesting some form of imperial displeasure during this role, Gordian certainly retained his wealth and political clout during the chaotic times of the Severan dynasty, which suggest his personal dislike for intrigue. Philostratus dedicated his work Lives of the Sophists to either him or his son, however, prior to the commencement of his promagistrature, Maximinus Thrax killed Emperor Alexander Severus at Moguntiacum in Germania Inferior and assumed the throne. Maximinus was not an emperor and universal discontent roused by his oppressive rule culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238. The trigger was the actions of Maximinus’s procurator in Africa, who sought to extract the maximum level of taxation and fines possible, a riot saw the death of the procurator, after which they turned to Gordian and demanded that he accept the dangerous honor of the imperial throne. Gordian, after protesting that he was too old for the position, eventually yielded to the popular clamour and assumed both the purple and the cognomen Africanus on March 22

10.
Pupienus
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Pupienus, also known as Pupienus Maximus, was Roman Emperor with Balbinus for three months in 238, during the Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor is limited, in most contemporary texts Pupienus is referred by his cognomen Maximus rather than by his second nomen Pupienus. The Historia Augusta, whose testimony is not to be trusted unreservedly and it claims he was the son of a blacksmith, was adopted by one Pescennia Marcellina, and who started his career as a Centurio primus pilus before becoming a Tribunus Militum, and then a Praetor. He was in part of the aristocracy, albeit a minor one. Pupienus’s career was impressive, serving a number of important posts during the reign of the Severan dynasty throughout the late 2nd and this included assignment as Proconsul of the senatorial propraetorial provinces of Bithynia et Pontus, Achaea, and Gallia Narbonensis. He was later assigned as imperial legate to one of the German provinces, most probably after his first suffect consulship, during his time as governor, he was quite popular and scored military victories over the Sarmatians and German tribes. In 234, during the last years of Severus Alexander’s reign, in that same year he was also appointed Urban Prefect of Rome and gained a reputation for severity, to the extent that he became unpopular with the Roman mob. Unlike the situation in 161 with Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, according to Edward Gibbon, the choice was sensible, as, the mind of Maximus was formed in a rougher mould. By his valour and abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments of the state, the two colleagues had both been consul. And, since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, Balbinus, in the meantime, had failed to keep public order in the capital. The sources suggest that Balbinus suspected Pupienus of using his newly acquired German bodyguard to supplant him and this meant that they were at the mercy of disaffected elements in the Praetorians, who resented serving under Senate-appointed emperors, and now plotted to kill them. Pupienus, becoming aware of the threat, begged Balbinus to call for the German bodyguard, Balbinus, believing that this news was part of a plot by Pupienus to have him assassinated, refused, and the two began to argue just as the Praetorians burst into the room. Both emperors were seized and dragged back to the Praetorian barracks where they were tortured, Pupienus had at least three children. His eldest son, Tiberius Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus, was a Consul Suffectus c,235, and patron of the town of Tibur outside Rome. His youngest son, Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus, was Consul Ordinarius in 236 as colleague of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax and this run of consulships in the family, across the reigns of Severus Alexander and Maximinus Thrax, show that the family was influential and in high favour. Pupienus also had a daughter, named Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla, wife of Marcus Ulpius Eubiotus Leurus

11.
Balbinus
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Balbinus, was Roman Emperor with Pupienus for three months in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Not much is known about Balbinus before his elevation to emperor and it has been conjectured that he descended from Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius, the consul ordinarius of 136 or 137, and wife Aquilia. If this were true, he was related to the family of Q. He was a patrician from birth, and was the son of Caelius Calvinus and he was one of the Salii priests of Mars. His birth was noble, his fortune affluent, his manners liberal, in him, the love of pleasure was corrected by a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease deprived him of a capacity for business. When the Gordians were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including Balbinus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus Thrax. On the news of the Gordians defeat, the Senate voted Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors on 22 April 238, unlike the situation in 161, both emperors were elected as pontifices maximi, chief priests of the official cults. This would be unthinkable in Republican times, Balbinus was probably in his early seventies, his qualifications for rule are unknown, except presumably that he was a senior senator, rich and well-connected. While Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus, Balbinus remained in Rome, the sarcophagus of Balbinus has earned this Emperor a niche in the history of Roman Imperial art. Presumably while holding the title of Emperor, Balbinus had a sarcophagus made for himself. Discovered in fragments near the Via Appia and restored, this is the example of a Roman Imperial sarcophagus of this type to have survived. On the lid are reclining figures of Balbinus and his wife, the sarcophagus is held in collection at the Museo di Pretastato in the Park of the Caffarella near the Appian Way at Rome. Although in accounts of their joint reign Balbinus is emphasized as the civilian as against Pupienus the military man, media related to Balbinus at Wikimedia Commons good portrait bust portrait head from the sarcophagus as an example of Roman pathetic style Livius. org, Balbinus

12.
Carpi (people)
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The Carpi or Carpiani were an ancient people that resided in the eastern parts of modern Romania in the historical region of Moldavia from no later than c. AD140 and until at least AD318, the ethnic affiliation of the Carpi remains disputed, as there is no direct evidence in the surviving ancient literary sources. A strong body of scholarly opinion considers that the Carpi were a tribe of the Dacian nation. Other scholars have linked the Carpi to a variety of groups, including Sarmatians, Thracians, Slavs, Germans. About a century after their earliest mention by Ptolemy, during which time their relations with Rome appear to have been peaceful, in the period AD 250-270, the Carpi were an important component of a loose coalition of transdanubian barbarian tribes that also included Germanic and Sarmatian elements. These were responsible for a series of large and devastating invasions of the Balkan regions of the empire which nearly caused its disintegration in the Crisis of the Third Century, in the period 270-318, the Roman military emperors acted to remove the Carpi threat to the empires borders. Multiple crushing defeats were inflicted on the Carpi in 273,297, 298-308, the Greco-Romans called this people the Carpi or Carpiani. Probably the earliest mention of them, under the name Καρπιανοί is in the Geographia of the 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy, composed c. The name Carpi or Carpiani may derive from the root as the name of the Carpathian mountain range that they occupied. The root may be the putative Proto-Indo-European word *ker/sker, meaning peak or cliff, scholars who support this derivation are divided between those who believe the Carpi gave their name to the mountain range and those who claim the reverse. In the latter case, Carpiani could mean people of the Carpathians. But the similarity between the two names may be coincidence, and they may derive from different roots, for example, it has been suggested that the name may derive from the Slavic root-word krepu meaning strong or brave. Also, it had suggested that Carpathian Mountains may derive from the Sanskrit root kar cut that would give the meaning of rugged mountains. If so, their locations could imply that the Carpi had very gradually migrated westwards in the period 400 BC - AD140 and these names common element carp- appears frequently in Dacian and Thracian placenames and personal names. But there is no consensus that these groups are in fact Carpi, Bichir suggests that they were Thraco-Dacian tribes distantly related to the Carpi. According to Ptolemys Geographia, the Carpi occupied a region between the river Hierasus and the river Porata and this was outside Dacia proper, as defined by Ptolemy, whose eastern border was the Hierasus. East of this river lay what Ptolemy termed Sarmatia Europaea, a vast region stretching as far as the Crimea, predominantly, ethnic Dacians residing outside Roman Dacia. However, it is not possible to define the territories of these groups due to the imprecision of the ancient geographical sources

13.
Gordian III
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Gordian III was Roman Emperor from 238 AD to 244 AD. At the age of 13, he became the youngest sole legal Roman emperor throughout the existence of the united Roman Empire, Gordian was the son of Antonia Gordiana and an unnamed Roman Senator who died before 238. Antonia Gordiana was the daughter of Emperor Gordian I and younger sister of Emperor Gordian II, very little is known on his early life before his acclamation. Gordian had assumed the name of his grandfather in 238 AD. In 235, following the murder of Emperor Alexander Severus in Moguntiacum, in the following years, there was a growing opposition against Maximinus in the Roman senate and amongst the majority of the population of Rome. In 238 a rebellion broke out in the Africa Province, where Gordians grandfather and uncle, Gordian I and this revolt was suppressed within a month by Cappellianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax. The elder Gordians died, but public opinion cherished their memory as peace-loving and literate men, meanwhile, Maximinus was on the verge of marching on Rome and the Senate elected Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors. Pupienus and Balbinus defeated Maximinus, mainly due to the defection of several legions, but their joint reign was doomed from the start with popular riots, military discontent and an enormous fire that consumed Rome in June 238. On July 29, Pupienus and Balbinus were killed by the Praetorian Guard, due to Gordians age, the imperial government was surrendered to the aristocratic families, who controlled the affairs of Rome through the Senate. In 240, Sabinianus revolted in the African province, but the situation was brought under control. In 241, Gordian was married to Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, daughter of the newly appointed praetorian prefect, as chief of the Praetorian Guard and father in law of the Emperor, Timesitheus quickly became the de facto ruler of the Roman Empire. In the 3rd century, the Roman frontiers weakened against the Germanic tribes across the Rhine and Danube, and the Sassanid Empire across the Euphrates increased its own attacks. When the Persians under Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the doors of the Temple of Janus for the last time in Roman history, the Sassanids were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated in the Battle of Resaena. The campaign was a success and Gordian, who had joined the army, was planning an invasion of the enemys territory, without Timesitheus, the campaign, and the Emperors security, were at risk. Gaius Julius Priscus and, later on, his own brother Marcus Julius Philippus, also known as Philip the Arab, stepped in at this moment as the new Praetorian Prefects, around February 244, the Persians fought back fiercely to halt the Roman advance to Ctesiphon. Persian sources claim that a battle occurred near modern Fallujah and resulted in a major Roman defeat, Roman sources do not mention this battle and suggest that Gordian died far away from Misiche, at Zaitha in northern Mesopotamia. Modern scholarship does not unanimously accept this course of the events, one view holds that Gordian died at Zaitha, murdered by his frustrated army, while the role of Philip is unknown. Other scholars, such as Kettenhofen, Hartman and Winter have concluded that Gordian died in battle against the Sassanids, Philip transferred the body of the deceased emperor to Rome and arranged for his deiﬁcation

14.
Philip the Arab
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Marcus Julius Philippus, also known commonly by his nickname Philip the Arab, also known as Philip, was Roman Emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Arabia Petraea, the Roman province of Arabia and he went on to become a major figure in the Roman Empire. He achieved power after the death of Gordian III, quickly negotiating peace with the Sassanid Empire, during his reign, Rome celebrated its millennium. Among early Christian writers, Philip had the reputation of being sympathetic to the Christian faith, probably for this reason it was even claimed by some that he had converted to Christianity, which would have made him the first Christian emperor. He supposedly tried to celebrate Easter with Christians in Antioch, Philip and his wife received letters from Origen. Philip was overthrown and killed following a rebellion led by his successor Decius, little is known about Philips early life and political career. He was born in what is today Shahba, about 55 miles southeast of Damascus, at the time this was in the Roman province of Arabia, earning Philip the nickname the Arab. He was the son of a citizen, Julius Marinus. While the name of Philips mother is unknown, he did have a brother, Gaius Julius Priscus, in 234, Philip married Marcia Otacilia Severa, daughter of a Roman Governor. Philips rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus and his big break came in 243, during Gordian IIIs campaign against Shapur I of Persia, when the Praetorian prefect Timesitheus died under unclear circumstances. Following a military defeat, Gordian III died in 244 under circumstances that are still debated, while some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts state that Gordian died in battle. Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordians death, according to Edward Gibbon, His rise from so obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire seems to prove that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to serve, his indulgent master. Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, however, his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur I of Persia, and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation. Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory, the terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been. Philip apparently retained Timesitheus’ reconquest of Osroene and Mesopotamia, but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia’s sphere of influence and he also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 gold denarii. Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians, leading his army back up the Euphrates, south of Circesium Philip erected a cenotaph in honor of Gordian III, but his ashes were sent ahead to Rome, where he arranged for Gordian III’s deification. Whilst in Antioch, he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces, moving westward, he gave his brother-in-law Severianus control of the provinces of Moesia and Macedonia

15.
Jotapianus
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Jotapianus or Jotapian, he was also known as Iotapianus or Iotapian. Jotapianus was a usurper in the provinces of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab. Jotapianus is known from his coins and from accounts in Aurelius Victor, Zosimus. Jotapianus was a member of the Near East indigenous aristocracy, Aurelius Victor reports that Jotapianus claimed descendance from an Alexander. According to some scholars, he referred to Alexander Severus, while other scholars note that King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene claimed descendance from Greek King Alexander the Great. He could be a descendant of Gaius Julius Agrippa or his brother Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus or his sister Julia Iotapa. Jotapianus led a rebellion started in Syria, towards the end of Philips rule, against the increase in taxation ordered by the rector Orientis Priscus, Philips brother. It is possible that Philip somehow favoured his Arabia over the other Eastern provinces, Jotapianus made Antioch his capital, but the rebellion came to an end and Jotapianus was killed by his own soldiers, possibly during Emperor Decius rule. Coins issued by Jotapianus had been found and it has been suggested that Jotapianus also issued Aureus, none of which survived. The coins are the source for his names, M. F. RV. which could be expanded as Marcus Fulvius Rufus. Furthermore, their style suggest that the revolt was short and spread over a small territory, since Jotapianus controlled no major mint

16.
Silbannacus
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Mar. Silbannacus is a mysterious figure believed to have been a usurper in the Roman Empire during the time of Philip I, or between the fall of Aemilianus and the rise to power of Valerian. Silbannacus had been only from a single coin, an antoninianus reputedly found in Lorraine. This coin has an obverse with the portrait of the usurper and the legend IMP MAR SILBANNACVS AVG, the reverse shows Mercury holding a Victoria and a caduceus, with VICTORIA AVG as legend. The name Silbannacus shows a Celtic origin, the suffix, given the location of the coin. A second antoninianus has been published in 1996, bearing the shortened legend MARTI PROPVGT. According to the style, the coin was coined in Rome, since the legend is present on Aemilianus coins, in 253. An interpretation of this leads to Silbannacus being an officer who was left in garrison in Rome while his emperor, Aemilianus. Un second antoninien, in Revue numismatique,151,1996, pp. 105–117 Körner, Christian, Silbannacus, rebellions During the reign of Phillip the Arab, Iotapianus, Pacatianus, Silbannacus, and Sponsianus, in DIR. Ein Soldatenkaiser in der Tradition des antoninisch-severischen Prinzipats

17.
Decius
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Trajan Decius was Roman Emperor from 249 to 251. In the last year of his reign, he co-ruled with his son Herennius Etruscus until they were killed in the Battle of Abritus. Around 245, Philip I entrusted Decius with an important command on the Danube, after the collapse of the revolt, Decius let the troops proclaim him Emperor. Philip had to advance against him and was killed at Verona, Italy, the Senate then recognized Decius as Emperor, giving him the attribute Traianus as a reference to the good emperor Trajan. According to the Byzantine historian Zosimus, Decius was clothed in purple and forced to undertake the government, despite his reluctance and unwillingness. Either as a concession to the Senate, or perhaps with the idea of improving morality, Decius endeavoured to revive the separate office. The choice was left to the Senate, who unanimously selected Valerian, but Valerian, well aware of the dangers and difficulties attached to the office at such a time, declined the responsibility. The invasion of the Goths and Decius death put an end to the abortive attempt, see also Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire#Under Decius In January 250, Decius is said to have issued one of the most remarkable Roman imperial edicts. When they sacrificed they would obtain a recording the fact that they had complied with the order. According to D. S. Potter, Decius did not try to impose the superiority of the Roman pantheon over any other gods. It is very probable that the edict was an attempt to legitimize his position, measures were first taken demanding that the bishops and officers of the church make a sacrifice for the Emperor. The sacrifice was on behalf of the Emperor, not to the Emperor, certificates were issued to those who satisfied the commissioners during the persecution of Christians under Decius. Forty-six such certificates have been published, all dating from 250, anyone, including Christian followers, who refused to offer a sacrifice for the Emperor and the Empires well-being by a specified date risked torture and execution. In reality, however, towards the end of the year of Decius reign, the ferocity of the persecution had eased off. The Christian church, despite no indication in the texts that the edict targeted any specific group. At this time, there was an outbreak of the Antonine Plague. This outbreak is referred to as the Plague of Cyprian, cyprians biographer Pontius gave a vivid picture of the demoralizing effects of the plague and Cyprian moralized the event in his essay De mortalitate. In Carthage, the Decian persecution, unleashed at the onset of the plague, Decius edicts were renewed under Valerian in 253 and repealed under his son, Gallienus, in 260-1

18.
Herennius Etruscus
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Herennius Etruscus, was Roman emperor in 251, in a joint rule with his father Decius. Emperor Hostilian was his younger brother, Herennius was born in or near Sirmium in Pannonia, during one of his fathers military postings. His mother was Herennia Cupressenia Etruscilla, a Roman lady of an important senatorial family. Herennius was very close to his father and accompanied him in 248, as a military tribune, Decius was successful in defeating this usurper and felt confident to begin a rebellion of his own in the following year. Acclaimed emperor by his own troops, Decius marched into Italy, in Rome, Herennius was declared heir to the throne and received the title of princeps iuventutis. From the beginning of Herennius accession, Gothic tribes raided across the Danube frontier, at the beginning of 251, Decius elevated Herennius to the title of Augustus making him his co-emperor. Moreover, Herennius was chosen to be one of the years consuls, the father and son, now joint rulers, then embarked in an expedition against king Cniva of the Goths to punish the invaders for the raids. Hostilian remained in Rome and the empress Herennia Etruscilla was named regent, Cniva and his men were returning to their lands with the booty, when the Roman army encountered them. Showing a very sophisticated military tactic, Cniva divided his army in smaller, more manageable groups, sometime during the first two weeks of June, both armies engaged in the battle of Abrittus. Herennius died in battle, struck by an enemy arrow, Decius survived the initial confrontation, only to be slain with the rest of the army before the end of the day. Herennius and Decius were the first two emperors to be killed by an army in battle. With the news of the death of the emperors, the army proclaimed Trebonianus Gallus emperor, but in Rome they were succeeded by Hostilian, media related to Herennius Etruscus at Wikimedia Commons

19.
Decian persecution
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The Decian persecution resulted from an edict issued in 250 by the Emperor Decius ordering everyone in the Roman Empire to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods and the well-being of the Emperor. The edict ordered that the sacrifices be performed in the presence of a Roman magistrate, the edict appears to have been designed more as an Empire-wide loyalty oath. Nevertheless, a number of Christians were put to death for refusing to perform the sacrifices, many others apostatized and performed the ceremonies, and others went into hiding. The effects were long-lasting and caused tension between Christians who had performed the sacrifices or fled and those who had not, and left bitter memories of persecution, Decius became Roman emperor in 249 as a result of military victories. He made efforts to revive Romes Golden Age, adding the name of one of his most admired predecessors, Trajan, to his own, revived the ancient office of censor, Jews were specifically exempted from this requirement. Nevertheless, this was the first time that Christians had faced legislation forcing them to choose between abandoning their religious beliefs and death, numerous examples of these libelli survive from Egypt, for instance, To the commission chosen to superintend the sacrifices. From Aurelia Ammonous, daughter of Mystus, of the Moeris quarter, priestess of the god Petesouchos, the great, the mighty, the immortal, and priestess of the gods in the Moeris quarter. I have sacrificed to the all my life, and now again, in accordance with the decree and in your presence, I have made sacrifice, and poured a libation. I request you to certify this below, julius Caesar had formulated a policy of allowing Jews to follow their traditional religious practices, a policy which was followed, and extended, by Augustus. This gave Judaism the status of a religio licita throughout the Empire, Roman authorities respected tradition in religion and the Jews were following the beliefs and practices of their ancestors. It was well understood that Jews would not perform sacrifices to the Roman gods or burn incense before an image of the Emperor, Christians were prohibited by their faith from worshipping the Roman gods or burning incense before an image of the Emperor. Refusal resulted in the deaths of some notable Christians, including Pope Fabian, Babylas of Antioch, the numbers of people put to death for refusing to obtain a certificate is unknown. The effects of the edict on Christian communities, many of which had then lived peacefully. Christians such as Cyprian who had fled rather than death, or who had performed the sacrifices. By 251, efforts to enforce the edict had died down, and although short-lived, persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire

20.
Cniva
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Cniva was a Gothic chieftain who invaded the Roman Empire. He successfully captured the city of Philippopolis in 250 and killed Emperor Decius and this was the first time a Roman Emperor had been killed in combat against barbarians. He was allowed to leave with his spoils and was paid tribute to stay out of the empire, Cniva began the invasion of the Roman Empire when he crossed the Danube. He sent detachments throughout the Roman province of Moesia with forces of Goths and his considerable forces demanded the attention of the emperor Decius. While Cniva was laying siege to the city of Nicopolis, Decius arrived, Decius and his troops pursued Cniva through the difficult terrain, but soon, after many forced marches, Cniva turned his troops on Decius, who thought he was further away from the Goths. The Roman camp was surprised and Decius fled while his army was defeated, then Cniva laid siege to Philippopolis and, after a long resistance, he conquered the city, slaying one hundred thousand people, and taking many prisoners. The sack of Philippopolis invigorated Decius, who intercepted several parties of Germans, the Romans in time, with their superior numbers, surrounded the Goths, who attempted now to retreat from the empire. But Decius, seeking revenge and confident of victory, attacked the Goths at a town called Forum Terebronii. After the battle, the new emperor, Trebonianus Gallus, let Cniva leave with his spoils and he even promised to pay a tribute to Cniva in order to keep him from invading the empire again. Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 10

21.
Roman Dacia
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Roman Dacia was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 274–275 AD. Its territory consisted of eastern and south-eastern Transylvania, the Banat and it was from the very beginning organized as an imperial province and remained so throughout the Roman occupation. Historians estimates of the population of Roman Dacia range from 650,000 to 1,200,000, the conquest of Dacia was completed by Emperor Trajan after two major campaigns against Decebalus Dacian kingdom. The Romans did not occupy the entirety of the old Dacian kingdom, as the part of Moldavia, together with Maramureș. In 119, the Roman province was divided two departments, Dacia Superior and Dacia Inferior. In 124, Dacia Superior was divided into two provinces, Dacia Apulensis and Dacia Porolissensis, the Roman authorities undertook a massive and organized colonization of Dacia. New mines were opened and ore extraction intensified, while agriculture, stock breeding, Dacia began to supply grain not only to the military personnel stationed in the province but also to the rest of the Balkan area. It became a province, with about 10 cities known,8 of which held the highest rank of colonia. All the cities developed from old military camps, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, the seat of the imperial procurator for all the three subdivisions was the financial, religious, and legislative center of the province. Apulum, where the governor of the three subdivisions had his headquarters, was not simply the greatest city within the province. There were military and political threats from the beginning of Roman Dacias existence, Free Dacians who bordered the province were the first adversary, who, after allying themselves with the Sarmatians, hammered the province during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Finding it increasingly difficult to retain Dacia, the emperors were forced to abandon the province by the 270s, making it the first of Romes long-term possessions to be abandoned. Dacia was devastated by the Germanic tribes together with the Carpi in 248–250, by the Carpi and Goths in 258 and 263, ancient sources implied that Dacia was virtually lost during the reign of Gallienus, but they also report that it was Aurelian who relinquished Dacia Traiana. He evacuated his troops and civilian administration from Dacia, and founded Dacia Aureliana with its capital at Serdica in Lower Moesia, the fate of the Romanized population of the former province of Dacia Traiana has become subject of spirited controversy. The opposing theory argues that the Romanians descended from the Romanized population of the Roman provinces of the Balkan Peninsula, the Dacians and the Getae frequently interacted with the Romans prior to Dacias incorporation into the Roman Empire. However, Roman attention on the area around the lower Danube was sharpened when Burebista unified the native tribes and his kingdom extended to Pannonia in the west and reached the Black Sea to the east, while to the south his authority extended into the Balkans. By 74 BC, the Roman legions under Gaius Scribonius Curio reached the lower Danube, Roman concern over the rising power and influence of Burebista was amplified when he began to play an active part in Roman politics. As part of Caesars planned Parthian campaign of 44 BC, he planned to cross into Dacia and eliminate Burebista, although the planned expedition into Dacia did not happen due to Caesars assassination, Burebista failed to bring about any true unification of the tribes he ruled

22.
Battle of Abritus
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The Romans were soundly defeated, and Roman emperors Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus were both killed during battle. They became the first Roman emperors killed in a battle by a foreign enemy, soon after Decius ascended to the throne in 249, barbarian tribes invaded the Roman provinces of Dacia, Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior. Two factors had contributed to growing unrest in the north of Danube. First, Decius predecessor Philip the Arab had refused to continue payments, initiated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238, second and more important, there were continuous movements of new peoples since the time of Emperor Severus Alexander. Decius may also have taken with him troops from the Danube frontier, the resultant military vacuum would inevitably attract invaders. The course of events is not clear and it seems that in 250 the Carpi invaded Dacia, eastern Moesia Superior and western Moesia Inferior. At the same time, a coalition under Cniva crossed the Roman frontier. Whether these were consisted only of Goths is rather unlikely so the name Scythians by which the Greek sources called them more appropriate. It is quite possible that people of Germanic and Sarmatian origin. However, the name of the king is indeed Gothic and probably genuine, the first column of Cnivas army, a detachment of about 20,000 or so likely led by the chieftains Argaith and Gunteric, besieged Marcianopolis, without success it seems. Then they probably headed south to besiege Philippopolis, Cnivas main column under the King himself crossed Danube at Oescus then headed eastwards to Novae, where he was repelled by the provincial governor Trebonianus Gallus. Then the invaders headed south to plunder Nicopolis ad Istrum where Decius defeated them, after these initial setbacks, the barbarians moved southwards through Haemus mountain and Decius pursued them to save Philippopolis. This time Decius army was taken by surprise while resting at Beroe/Augusta Traiana, the Romans were heavily defeated in the ensuing battle. It seems that Priscus, after receiving the news of the defeat at Beroe, thought that the Goths would spare him and he was wrong and was probably killed when the city fell. Then the Scythians began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, in the meantime, Decius had returned with his re-organized army, accompanied by his son Herennius Etruscus and the general Trebonianus Gallus, intending to defeat the invaders and recover the booty. Probably in July or August of 251, the Roman army engaged the Scythians under Cniva near Abritus, the strengths of the bellingerent forces are unknown, but we know that Cniva divided his forces into three units, with one of these parts concealed behind a swamp. While Jordanes claimed that the force that Cniva was command of numbered around 70,000, Decius own army consisted of 4-6 legions from the Danube frontier, along with available auxiliaries and cavalry, and was probably estimated to be no more than 20-30,000 soldiers in total. Decius felt extremely confident that he would be able to crush the Goths in one final assault and it seems that Cniva was a skilled tactician and that he was very familiar with the surrounding terrain

23.
Trebonianus Gallus
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Trebonianus Gallus, also known as Gallus, was Roman Emperor from 251 to 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected ancestry of Etruscan senatorial background and he had two children in his marriage with Afinia Gemina Baebiana, Gaius Vibius Volusianus, later Emperor, and a daughter, Vibia Galla. His early career was a typical cursus honorum, with several appointments and he was suffect consul and in 250 was nominated governor of the Roman province of Moesia Superior, an appointment that showed the confidence of Emperor Trajan Decius in him. In June 251, Decius and his co-emperor and son Herennius Etruscus died in the Battle of Abrittus at the hands of the Goths they were supposed to punish for raids into the empire. According to rumours supported by Dexippus and the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Decius failure was owing to Gallus. In any case, when the heard the news, the soldiers proclaimed Gallus emperor, despite Hostilian, Decius surviving son. This action of the army, and the fact that Gallus seems to have been on terms with Decius family. Gallus did not back down from his intention to become emperor, anxious to secure his position at Rome and stabilize the situation on the Danube frontier, Gallus made peace with the Goths. Peace terms allowed the Goths to leave the Roman territory while keeping their captives, in addition, it was agreed that they would be paid an annual subsidy. Reaching Rome, Gallus proclamation was formally confirmed by the Senate, on June 24,251, Decius was deified, but by July 15 Hostilian disappears from history—he may have died in an outbreak of plague. Gallus may have ordered a localized and uncoordinated persecution of Christians. However, only two incidents are known to us, the Pope Cornelius exile to Centumcellae, where he died in 253, the latter was recalled to Rome during the reign of Valerian. Like his predecessors, Gallus did not have an easy reign, in the East, an Antiochene nobleman, Mariades, revolted and began ravaging Syria and Cappadocia, then fled to the Persians. Gallus ordered his troops to attack the Persians, but Persian Emperor Shapur I invaded Armenia and destroyed a large Roman army, Shapur I then invaded the defenseless Syrian provinces, captured all of its legionary posts and ravaged its cities, including Antioch, without any response. Persian invasions were repeated in the year, but now Uranius Antoninus. He proclaimed himself emperor, however, and minted coins with his image upon them, on the Danube, Scythian tribes were once again on the loose, despite the peace treaty signed in 251. They invaded Asia Minor by sea, burned the great Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, lower Moesia was also invaded in early 253. Aemilianus, governor of Moesia Superior and Pannonia, took the initiative of battle, since the army was no longer pleased with the Emperor, the soldiers proclaimed Aemilianus emperor

24.
Hostilian
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Hostilian was Roman emperor in 251. He was born in Sirmium in Illyricum sometime after 230, as the son of the future emperor Decius by his wife Herennia Cupressenia Etruscilla and he was the younger brother of emperor Herennius Etruscus. In the beginning of 251, Decius elevated his son Herennius to co-emperor, Decius and Herennius then set out on campaign against king Cniva of the Goths, to punish him for raids on the Danubian frontier. Hostilian remained in Rome due to his inexperience, and empress Herennia was named regent, the campaign proved to be a disaster, both Herennius and Decius died in the Battle of Abrittus and became the first two emperors to be killed by a foreign army in battle. The armies in the Danube acclaimed Trebonianus Gallus emperor, but Rome acknowledged Hostilians rights, since Trebonianus was a respected general, there was fear of another civil war of succession, despite the fact that he chose to respect the will of Rome and adopted Hostilian. But later in 251, the Plague of Cyprian broke out in the Empire and he was the first emperor in 40 years to die of natural causes, one of only 13. His death opened the way for the rule of Trebonianus with his natural son Volusianus, media related to Hostilian at Wikimedia Commons

25.
Cyriades
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Cyriades was a Roman rebel who betrayed the city of Antioch to Shapur I sometime during the 250s. His chief claim to fame is that he is enumerated as one of the Thirty Tyrants who supposedly tried to overthrow the emperor Gallienus, according to this source, Cyriades was the son of a rich man, also named Cyriades, and whose debauched lifestyle offended his father. After stealing from his father, he fled to the Persians, stimulated Shapur I to invade the eastern Roman provinces and helped in the capture of Antioch and Caesarea. At this point he assumed the purple together with the title of Augustus, possibly killing his father before being slain by his own followers after a short, cruel and crime filled reign. The Historia Augusta dates this as occurring when the emperor Valerian was on his way to the east to fight the Persians, edward Gibbon instead dated the usurpation as occurring after the defeat and capture of Valerian in 260. Outside of the reference to Gallienus reign, Ammianus Marcellinus does not date this event, the Anonymous Continuator of Cassius Dio refers to a Mariadnes, and describes the same event, but with some variations. Since this part of the work immediately precedes a section on the formal recognition of Aemilianus as Augustus in 253. This date, and the fall of Antioch occurring during the reign of Trebonianus Gallus, is favoured by a number of modern scholars. Finally, according to John Malalas, during Valerians reign, Mariades and he was responsible for the running of the chariot races, had not bought the horses for one of the factions, and had stolen money that had been set aside for the Hippodrome. As a result, he fled to Persia, and in an interview with Shapur I, after the capture of the city, which was plundered and burnt to the ground, Shapur had Mariades beheaded as he was a traitor to his own people. Although John Malalas dates this event to 265/6, his narrative also implies that it occurred around 252/3 and it is now accepted that Cyriades and Mariades are one and the same person. One possibility is that the name Cyriades is a Hellenized version of the Aramaic name Maryada and this may give rise to the claim made in the Historia Augusta that Cyriades was firstly made Caesar and then Augustus, as KYPI could be used for the holder of either title. There is no numismatic and epigraphic evidence that Cyriades was ever proclaimed Augustus, the coins published by Groltzius and Mediobarbus are rejected by Numismatics as unquestionably spurious. Taken from the Public Domain Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, page 916

26.
Volusianus
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Volusianus, also known as Volusian, was a Roman Emperor from 251 to 253. He was son to Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus by his wife Afinia Gemina Baebiana and he is known to have had a sister, Vibia Galla. The death of Decius in early June 251 led to Trebonianus Gallus elevation to the throne, Gallus adopted Decius son Hostilian and made him co-ruler. Volusianus was named Caesar and Princeps Juventutis, later in 251 Hostilian died of the plague and Volusianus replaced him as Augustus and co-ruler. Father and son were killed in 253 by mutinous troops in Interamna. Media related to Volusianus at Wikimedia Commons

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Aemilianus
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Aemilianus, also known as Aemilian, was Roman Emperor for three months in 253. Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, Aemilian was born in the Roman province of Africa. According to the 4th century source Epitome de Caesaribus, he was born at Girba and was a Moor, a reference in the same source hints that he was born around 207. The 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras, who calls him a Libyan rather than a Moor, and another chronicle of the 13th century hold that he was forty at the time of his death in 253. Aemilian married Cornelia Supera, a woman of African origin, the year of their marriage is unknown, during the reign of Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus, Aemilian was sent to the Balkans to command an army. His primary responsibility was to assure peace along the Danube frontier, Gallus secured the throne after the death of emperor Decius at the hands of Cniva in the Battle of Abrittus, and later had to manage an outbreak of plague that devastated Rome. He was not popular with the army, mainly due to humiliating treaties signed in 251 with the Goths, according to John of Antioch, upon his appointment to the Moesian command, Aemilian was already envious of Gallus and plotted treachery against him. He was also an opponent of the Roman Senate, and his seditious plans are confirmed by Jerome, in 253, the Goths, led by king Cniva, claimed they had not received the tribute due from the Romans according to the treaty of 251. They crossed the border and attacked Cappadocia, Pessinus, and Ephesus, modern historians believe that this missing payment was not a change in Roman policy, and the Goths were more likely trying to capitalize on their military prowess. Aemilian had command of the assigned to defend the area. Aemilian exhorted them, reminding them of Roman honor and promising tribute from the Goths, the Romans took the Goths by surprise, killing most of them, followed by an invasion of Goth territory resulting in booty and the liberation of prisoners. The Roman soldiers, gathered by Aemilian, acclaimed him Emperor, Jordanes claims, however, that Aemilians troops plundered Roman territory, rather than keep the tribute of the Goths. With his few men, Aemilian left his province unguarded and moved quickly towards Rome to meet the legitimate emperor Gallus before the latter could receive reinforcements. While Aemilian descended upon Rome along the Flaminian Way, Gallus and Volusianus had him proclaimed enemy of the State by the Roman senate, then exited Rome to meet the usurper. This strategy suggests that Aemilians army was smaller than theirs, as probably did not expect reinforcements to come in time. The Roman senate, after an opposition, decided to recognize him as emperor. Aemilian received the titles of Pius, Felix and Pater Patriae, the tribunicia potestas, however, Valerian, governor of the Rhine provinces, was on his way south with an army which, according to Zosimus, had been called in as a reinforcement by Gallus. But modern historians believe this army, possibly mobilized for an incumbent campaign in the East, Emperor Aemilians men, fearful of a civil war and Valerians larger force, mutinied