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Chemical Process Safety : Fundamentals with Applications

Summary

bull; bull;Combines academic theory with practical industry experience bull;Updated to include the latest regulations and references bull;Covers hazard identification, risk assessment, and inherent safety bull;Case studies and problem sets enhance learning Long-awaited revision of the industry best seller. This fully revised second EDITION of Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications combines rigorous academic methods with real-life industrial experience to create a unique resource for students and professionals alike. The primary focus on technical fundamentals of chemical process safety provides a solid groundwork for understanding, with full coverage of both prevention and mitigation measures. Subjects include: bull; bull;Toxicology and industrial hygiene bull;Vapor and liquid releases and dispersion modeling bull;Flammability characterization bull;Relief and explosion venting In addition to an overview of government regulations, the book introduces the resources of the AICHE Center for Chemical Process Safety library. Guidelines are offered for hazard identification and risk assessment. The book concludes with case histories drawn directly from the AUTHORs' experience in the field. A perfect reference for industry professionals, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications, Second EDITION is also ideal for teaching at the graduate and senior undergraduate levels. Each chapter includes 30 problems, and a solutions manual is now available for instructors.

Author Biography

Daniel A. Crowl is the Herbert H. Dow Professor for Chemical Process Safety at Michigan Technological University Joseph F. Louvar retired as director of BASF's Chemical Engineering Department to become a professor at Wayne State University, specializing in chemical process safety, risk assessment, and the design of experiments

Table of Contents

Preface

xiii

Nomenclature

xv

Introduction

1

(34)

Safety Programs

2

(2)

Engineering Ethics

4

(1)

Accident and Loss Statistics

4

(8)

Acceptable Risk

12

(2)

Public Perceptions

14

(1)

The Nature of the Accident Process

15

(5)

Inherent Safety

20

(3)

Four Significant Disasters

23

(12)

Flixborough, England

23

(2)

Bhopal, India

25

(1)

Seveso, Italy

26

(1)

Pasadena, Texas

27

(2)

Suggested Reading

29

(1)

Problems

30

(5)

Toxicology

35

(28)

How Toxicants Enter Biological Organisms

36

(3)

Gastrointestinal Tract

37

(1)

Skin

37

(1)

Respiratory System

38

(1)

How Toxicants Are Eliminated from Biological Organisms

39

(1)

Effects of Toxicants on Biological Organisms

40

(1)

Toxicological Studies

41

(1)

Dose versus Response

42

(6)

Models for Dose and Response Curves

48

(6)

Relative Toxicity

54

(1)

Threshold Limit Values

54

(9)

Suggested Reading

59

(1)

Problems

59

(4)

Industrial Hygiene

63

(46)

Government Regulations

64

(10)

Laws and Regulations

64

(1)

Creating a Law

64

(1)

Creating a Regulation

64

(4)

OSHA: Process Safety Management

68

(3)

EPA: Risk Management Plan

71

(3)

Industrial Hygiene: Identification

74

(4)

Material Safety Data Sheets

74

(4)

Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation

78

(16)

Evaluating Exposures to Volatile Toxicants by Monitoring

79

(4)

Evaluation of Worker Exposures to Dusts

83

(1)

Evaluationg Worker Exposures to Noise

84

(1)

Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors

85

(9)

Industrial Hygiene: Control

94

(15)

Respirators

96

(1)

Ventilation

97

(6)

Suggested Reading

103

(1)

Problems

104

(5)

Source Models

109

(62)

Introduction to Source Models

109

(3)

Flow of Liquid through a Hole

112

(4)

Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

116

(5)

Flow of Liquids through Pipes

121

(9)

2-K Method

124

(6)

Flow of Vapor through Holes

130

(6)

Flow of Gases through Pipes

136

(15)

Adiabatic Flows

136

(7)

Isothermal Flows

143

(8)

Flashing Liquids

151

(6)

Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling

157

(2)

Realistic and Worst-Case Releases

159

(1)

Conservative Analysis

159

(12)

Suggested Reading

161

(1)

Problems

162

(9)

Toxic Release and Dispersion Models

171

(54)

Parameters Affecting Dispersion

172

(4)

Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models

176

(19)

Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind

180

(1)

Puff with No Wind

181

(1)

Non-Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind

182

(1)

Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind

183

(1)

Puff with No Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction

183

(1)

Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction

Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground Level and a Coordinate System on the Ground That Moves with the Puff

193

(1)

Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground Level and a Coordinate System Fixed on the Ground at the Release Point

194

(1)

Worst-Case Conditions

194

(1)

Limitations to Pasqull-Gifford Dispersion Modeling

194

(1)

Dense Gas Dispersion

195

(4)

Toxic Effect Criteria

199

(13)

Effect of Release Momentum and Buoyancy

212

(1)

Release Mitigation

213

(12)

Suggested Reading

214

(1)

Problems

215

(10)

Fires and Explosions

225

(66)

The Fire Triangle

225

(2)

Distinction between Fires and Explosions

227

(1)

Definitions

227

(2)

Flammability Characteristics of Liquids and Vapors

229

(9)

Liquids

230

(3)

Gases and Vapors

233

(1)

Vapor Mixtures

233

(2)

Flammability Limite Dependence on Temperature

235

(1)

Flammability Limit Dependence on Pressure

236

(1)

Estimating Flammability Limits

236

(2)

Limiting Oxygen Concentration and Inerting

238

(2)

Flammability Diagram

240

(8)

Ignition Energy

248

(1)

Autoignition

249

(1)

Auto-Oxidation

249

(1)

Adiabatic Compression

249

(2)

Ignition Sources

251

(1)

Sprays and Mists

252

(1)

Explosions

252

(39)

Detonation and Deflagration

253

(2)

Confined Explosions

255

(10)

Blast Damage Resulting from Overpressure

265

(4)

TNT Equivalency

269

(2)

TNO Multi-Energy Method

271

(3)

Energy of Chemical Explosions

274

(2)

Energy of Mechanical Explosions

276

(3)

Missile Damage

279

(1)

Blast Damage to People

279

(2)

Vapor Cloud Explosions

281

(1)

Boiling-Liquid Expanding-Vapor Explosions

282

(1)

Suggested Reading

282

(1)

Problems

283

(8)

Designs to Prevent Fires and Explosions

291

(62)

Inerting

292

(15)

Vacuum Purging

292

(3)

Pressure Purging

295

(2)

Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging

297

(1)

Vacuum and Pressure Purging with Impure Nitrogen

298

(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Pressure and Vacuum Inerting Procedures

299

(1)

Sweep-Through Purging

299

(2)

Siphon Purging

301

(1)

Using the Flammability Diagram To Avoid Flammable Atmospheres

301

(6)

Static Electricity

307

(23)

Fundamentals of Static Charge

307

(1)

Charge Accumulation

308

(1)

Electrostatic Discharges

309

(2)

Energy from Electrostatic Discharges

311

(1)

Energy of Electrostatic Ignition Sources

312

(1)

Streaming Current

313

(3)

Electrostatic Voltage Drops

316

(1)

Energy of Charged Capacitors

316

(5)

Capacitance of a Body

321

(3)

Balance of Charges

324

(6)

Controlling Static Electricity

330

(7)

General Design Methods to Prevent Electrostatic Ignitions

331

(1)

Relaxation

332

(1)

Bonding and Grounding

332

(1)

Dip Pipes

333

(3)

Increasing Conductivity with Additives

336

(1)

Handling Solids without Flammable Vapors

337

(1)

Handling Solids with Flammable Vapors

337

(1)

Explosion-Proof Equipment and Instruments

337

(3)

Explosion-Proof Housings

339

(1)

Area and Material Classification

339

(1)

Design of an XP Area

340

(1)

Ventilation

340

(3)

Open-Air Plants

340

(1)

Plants Inside Buildings

341

(2)

Sprinkler Systems

343

(4)

Miscellaneous Designs for Preventing Fires and Explosions

347

(6)

Suggested Reading

347

(1)

Problems

348

(5)

Introduction to Reliefs

353

(30)

Relief Concepts

354

(2)

Definitions

356

(1)

Location of Reliefs

357

(3)

Relief Types

360

(4)

Relief Scenarios

364

(1)

Data for Sizing Reliefs

365

(3)

Relief Systems

368

(15)

Relief Installation Practices

368

(1)

Relief Design Considerations

368

(3)

Horizontal Knockout Drum

371

(4)

Flares

375

(1)

Scrubbers

376

(1)

Condensers

376

(1)

Suggested Reading

376

(1)

Problems

377

(6)

Relief Sizing

383

(46)

Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Liquid Service

384

(5)

Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service

389

(5)

Rupture Disc Reliefs in Liquid Service

394

(1)

Rupture Disc Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service

394

(1)

Two-Phase Flow during Runaway Reaction Relief

395

(9)

Simplified Nomograph Method

401

(3)

Deflagration Venting for Dust and Vapor Explosions

404

(7)

Vents for Low-Pressure Structures

406

(2)

Vents for High-Pressure Structures

408

(3)

Venting for Fire External to Process Vessels

411

(4)

Reliefs for Thermal Expansion of Process Fluids

415

(14)

Suggested Reading

418

(2)

Problems

420

(9)

Hazards Identification

429

(42)

Process Hazards Checklists

432

(1)

Hazards Surveys

432

(16)

Hazards and Operability Studies

448

(6)

Safety Reviews

454

(5)

Other Methods

459

(12)

Suggested Reading

460

(1)

Problems

460

(11)

Risk Assessment

471

(44)

Review of Probability Theory

472

(14)

Interactions between Process Units

474

(6)

Revealed and Unreveled Failures

480

(4)

Probability of Coincidence

484

(2)

Redundancy

486

(1)

Common Mode Failures

486

(1)

Event Trees

486

(5)

Fault Trees

491

(8)

Determining the Minimal Cut Sets

494

(3)

Quantitative Calculations Using the Fault Tree

497

(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fault Trees

498

(1)

Relationship between Fault Trees and Event Trees

498

(1)

QRA and LOPA

499

(16)

Quantitative Risk Analysis

499

(1)

Layer of Protection Analysis

500

(3)

Consequence

503

(1)

Frequency

503

(4)

Suggested Reading

507

(1)

Problems

508

(7)

Accident Investigations

515

(20)

Learning from Accidents

515

(1)

Layered Investigations

516

(2)

Investigation Process

518

(1)

Investigation Summary

519

(2)

Aids for Diagnosis

521

(7)

Fires

522

(1)

Explosions

522

(1)

Sources of Ignition in Vessels

523

(1)

Pressure Effects

523

(2)

Medical Evidence

525

(1)

Miscellaneous Aids to Diagnosis

525

(3)

Aids for Recommendations

528

(7)

Control Plant Modifications

528

(1)

User-Friendly Designs

529

(1)

Block Valves

529

(1)

Double Block and Bleed

530

(1)

Preventive Maintenance

530

(1)

Analyzers

531

(1)

Suggested Reading

532

(1)

Problems

532

(3)

Case Histories

535

(26)

Static Electricity

536

(4)

Tank Car Loading Explosion

536

(1)

Explosion in a Centrifuge

536

(1)

Duct System Explosion

537

(1)

Conductor in a Solids Storage Bin

537

Pigment and Filter

536

(1)

Pipefitter's Helper

536

(1)

Lessons Learned

536

(4)

Chemical Reactivity

540

(6)

Bottle of Isopropyl Ether

540

(1)

Nitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid Decomposition

540

(1)

Organic Oxidation

541

(1)

Lessons Learned

541

(5)

System Designs

546

(5)

Ethylene Oxide Explosion

546

(1)

Ethylene Explosion

546

(1)

Butadiene Explosion

546

(1)

Light Hydrocarbon Explosion

547

(1)

Pump Vibration

547

(1)

Pump Failure

547

(1)

Ethylene Explosion (1)

548

(1)

Ethylene Explosion (2)

548

(1)

Ethylene Oxide Explosion

548

(1)

Lessons Learned

549

(2)

Procedures

551

(5)

Leak Testing a Vessel

552

(1)

Man Working in Vessel

552

(1)

Vinyl Chloride Explosion

552

(1)

Dangerous Water Expansion

553

(1)

Phenol-Formaldehyde Runaway Reaction

553

(1)

Conditions and Secondary Reaction Cause Explosion

554

(1)

Fuel-Blending Tank Explosion

555

(1)

Lessons Learned

556

(1)

Conclusion

556

(5)

Suggested Reading

557

(1)

Problems

557

(4)

Appendix A: Unit Conversion Constants

561

(4)

Appendix B: Flammability Data for Selected Hydrocarbons

565

(6)

Appendix C: Detailed Equations for Flammability Diagrams

571

(10)

Equations Useful for Placing Vessels into and out of Service

576

(5)

Appendix D: Formal Safety Review Report for Example 10-4

581

(10)

Appendix E: Saturation Vapor Pressure Data

591

Excerpts

PrefaceThis second edition ofChemical Process Safetyis designed to enhance the process of teaching and applying the fundamentals of chemical process safety. It is appropriate for an industrial reference, a senior-level undergraduate course, or a graduate course in chemical process safety. It can be used by anyone interested in improving chemical process safety, including chemical and mechanical engineers and chemists. More material is presented than can be accommodated in a 3-credit course, providing instructors with the opportunity to emphasize their topics of interest.The primary objective of this textbook is to encapsulate the important technical fundamentals of chemical process safety. The emphasis on the fundamentals will help the student and practicing scientist to understand the concepts and apply them accordingly. This application requires a significant quantity of fundamental knowledge and technology.The second edition has been rewritten to include new process safety technology and new references that have appeared since the first edition was published in 1990. It also includes our combined experiences of teaching process safety in both industry and academia during the past 10 years.Significant modifications were made to the following topics: dispersion modeling, source modeling, flammability characterization, explosion venting, fundamentals of electrostatics, and case histories. This new edition also includes selected materials from the latest AICHE Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) books and is now an excellent introduction to the CCPS library.This second edition also includes more problems (now 30 per chapter). A complete set of problem solutions is available to instructors using the book in their curriculum. These changes fulfill the requests of many professors who have used this textbook.We continue to believe that a textbook on safety is possible only with both industrial and academic inputs. The industrial input ensures that the material is industrially relevant. The academic input ensures that the material is presented on a fundamental basis to help professors and students understand the concepts. Although the authors are (now) both from universities, one has over 30 years of relevant experience in industry (J. F. L.) and the other (D. A. C.) has accumulated significant industrial experience since the writing of the first edition.Since the first edition was published, many universities have developed courses or course content in chemical process safety. This new emphasis on process safety is the result of the positive influences from industry and the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Based on faculty feedback, this textbook is an excellent application of the fundamental topics that are taught in the first three years of the undergraduate education.Although professors normally have little background in chemical process safety, they have found that the concepts in this text and the accompanying problems and solutions are easy to learn and teach. Professors have also found that industrial employees are enthusiastic and willing to give specific lectures on safety to enhance their courses.This textbook is designed for a dedicated course in chemical process safety. However, we continue to believe that chemical process safety should be part of every undergraduate and graduate course in chemistry and chemical and mechanical engineering, just as it is a part of all the industrial experiences. This text is an excellent reference for these courses. This textbook can also be used as a reference for a design course.Some will remark that our presentation is not complete or that some details are missing. The purpose of this book, however, is not to be complete but to provide a starting point for those who wish to learn about this important area. This book, for example, has a companion text titledHealth