Applications: Solutions and Challenges

Transcription

1 P E R S P E C T I V E S Enabling NextGeneration RFID Applications: Solutions and Challenges T Quan Z. Sheng University of Adelaide Xue Li University of Queensland Sherali Zeadally University of the District of Columbia Radio-frequency identification technology provides promising benefits such as inventory visibility and business process automation. However, if companies are to realize these benefits, researchers must address major challenges such as data processing, integration architecture design, security, and privacy. he ability to uniquely identify individual objects is essential to many aspects of modern life such as manufacturing, distribution logistics, access control, and fighting terrorism. Radio-frequency identification is a wireless communication technology that is useful for precisely identifying objects.1 RFID uses radio-frequency waves to transfer identifying information between tagged objects and readers without line of sight (LOS), providing a means of automatic identification. Although RFID has been around for more than half a century, 2 it began to attract a lot of attention only in recent years due to the convergence of lower cost and the increased capabilities of RFID tags. Currently, RFID is emerging as an important technology for revolutionizing a wide range of applications, including supply-chain management, retail sales, anticounterfeiting, and healthcare.1,3 Many organizations are planning to or have already exploited RFID to achieve more automation, efficient business processes, and inventory visibility. For example, Wal-Mart reportedly reduced outof-stocks by 30 percent on average after launching its RFID program (http://rfidtimes.org/2006/05/17). Predictions indicate that RFID will be worth billions of dollars in new investments. According to IDTechEx, a leading market research and advisory firm, the RFID market will increase from US$4.96 billion in 2007 to US$26.88 billion in 2017 (www.idtechex.com/products/en/view.asp?product categoryid=119). While RFID provides promising benefits in many applications, researchers must overcome some major hurdles before these benefits can be realized. An important challenge is managing RFID data, which is noisy, generated dynamically in very large streams, has a limited active lifespan, and possesses useful contextual characteristics such as temporality, spatiality, and implicit semantics.4,5 The deployment of large-scale RFID applications also introduces unique challenges such as scalability and heterogeneity. Finally, given the ability to inexpensively tag and thus monitor numerous items or people, RFID raises serious security and privacy concerns that inhibit adoption of the technology.6 system basics An RFID system s main function is automatic identification of objects or persons using radio waves. A typical RFID system consists of /08/$ IEEE Published by the IEEE Computer Society September

2 a transponder or tag attached to the objects or persons, an interrogator or reader that creates an RF field for detecting radio waves, and a computer network to connect the readers. A tag contains a chip that stores the identifying information of the object or person to which it is attached and an antenna that communicates the information via radio waves. When a tag passes through an RF field that a reader generates, the tag transmits that information to the reader, thereby identifying that object or person. Consequently, there is no LOS requirement for object identification in an RFID system. The reading distance ranges from a few centimeters to more than 300 feet depending on tag type, reader power, interference from other RF devices, and so on. RFID tags are classified by energy source. An active tag has its own transmitter and a power source to run the microchip s circuitry and broadcast signals to readers. A passive tag does not have its own power source and instead scavenges power from the electromagnetic radiation emitted by readers; it also has an indefinite operational life. Semiactive tags use their own power source to run the microchip s circuitry but also scavenge power from the waves sent out by readers to broadcast their signals. 4 Active and semiactive tags are expensive and typically used for high-value goods or large assets that must be tracked over long distances. For example, the US Department of Defense uses active tags to track many containers being shipped to military bases and units overseas. In contrast, passive tags are inexpensive and can be used for common materials in very large quantities. Currently, significant research efforts are under way to achieve 5-cent tags by shrinking chip size, cutting antenna cost, and increasing tag consumption for example, to meet RFID mandates from Wal-Mart and the US Department of Defense. RFID tags have different capabilities, are composed of various materials, and come in many shapes including key fobs, credit cards, capsules, and pads and are available in sizes ranging from as small as a grain of rice to as big as a six-inch ruler. The tags can have metal external antennas, embedded antennas, or printed antennas. RFID APPLICATIONS During the past few years, RFID technology has been moving rapidly from a limited number of applications for example, access control and toll collection to many new application areas. RFID technology has been moving rapidly from a limited number of applications to many new application areas. Industrial and commercial RFID technology is being deployed in a wide range of industrial and commercial systems, including manufacturing and logistics, retail, animal tracking, and transport and admission ticketing. An important application in this area is supply-chain management, where RFID helps close information gaps by enabling real-time supply chain visibility. Numerous organizations currently exploit RFID technology to track products from supplier to distribution center, warehouse stock, and point of sale (www.rfidjournal. com/article). The ability to precisely record product movement is also useful for theft prevention, product recall, and anticounterfeiting. Livestock tagging is becoming a substantial market for RFID, given the rising concern about food safety. For example, many countries now demand that all cattle be RFID-tagged so that they can be tracked in the event of an outbreak of mad cow disease. RFID technology is widely used for transport and admission ticketing for better service and security. The Hong Kong Octopus transport ticketing system (www. octopuscards.com) is one of the most successful RFIDenabled transportation payment applications; more than eight million people hold the card and use it on all forms of public transport in the city. In 2005, Japan s NTT DoCoMo launched an RFID-enabled mobile phone that can be used as an electronic wallet to make electronic purchases, act as a boarding pass on domestic air flights, and authorize entry through corporate security doors (www.spectrum.ieee.org/nov05/2150). Entertainment Several research projects are investigating the exploitation of RFID technology in entertainment applications. For example, San Francisco s Exploratorium uses the RFID-based exspot system 7 to help visitors interact with exhibits within the science museum, allowing them to register and document their interests, then extend the visit via the Internet after going home. Healthcare and pharmaceuticals RFID technology is a promising candidate for reducing operating costs and improving patient safety in the healthcare industry by tracking and monitoring patients, doctors, medical assets, and drugs. For example, Intel s Proactive Health project 8 uses RFID technology to facilitate elder care by monitoring activities such as medication intake. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT ISSUES Many applications use RFID technology and computerized systems such as networking services, databases, 22 Computer

3 Enterprise applications Warehouse management system Supply-chain management system Enterprise resource planning Trading partner applications RFID data RFID data integration Internet Processed RFID data Transformation and aggregation Transformation and aggregation Filtering and cleaning Filtering and cleaning Other enterprise data RFID data processing Raw RFID data RFID readers RFID devices Tagged items Figure 1. RFID framework architecture. Interactions in RFID applications occur at three layers: devices, data processing, and data integration. and Web servers to achieve advanced business goals for example, real-time product tracking. 1 Figure 1 shows a generic RFID framework. Interactions in RFID applications occur at three layers. The devices layer consists of RFID tags and readers as well as RFID protocols for example, ISO and Electronic Product Code (EPC; standards) Class 0 and Class 1 for reading and writing RFID data. The data processing layer consists of several software components for communicating with RFID readers, filtering and cleaning RFID data, and adapting such data for high-level applications including semantic filtering and automatic data transformation and aggregation. The data integration layer consists of applications that exploit local RFID data as well as RFID data coming from outside business entities. For an organization to achieve a seamless integration of RFID data with business processes, the applications must be able to understand different data semantics. RFID data can be formatted in, for example, Physical Markup Language (http://web.mit.edu/mecheng/pml), and sent to different targets as messages, streams, or other formats via Web services, the Java Message Service, HTTP responses, or TCP/IP data packets. Data characteristics RFID data possesses a unique set of characteristics that RFID applications must consider. 4 Inaccuracy. While current RFID reader accuracy is improving, erroneous readings still occur in RFID systems such as duplicate reads, missed reads, and ghost reads (when an RFID reader reads an identifier that is not stored on any tag within the reader s field) due to interference or temporary or permanent malfunction of some component. Therefore, RFID data tends to be noisy and unreliable. Large-volume streams. RFID data is generated quickly and automatically, and the volume can be enormous. For example, Wal-Mart generates around 7 terabytes of data every day from tags used at the item level. Temporality and spatiality. RFID data is generated dynamically and is associated with time stamps when September

4 Table 1. RFID data processing approaches. Large-volume Implicit Limited active Platform Inaccuracy streams Temporality Spatiality references lifespan Siemens Partially addressed: RFID data Dynamic Dynamic Rule-based data Considered in RFID filtering duplicated partitioning Relationship Relationship transformation RFID data middleware readings ER model ER model partitioning SMURF Declarative, adaptive Not addressed Not explicitly Not explicitly Not addressed Not addressed smoothing filter addressed addressed based on a statistical sampling approach EPC-bitmap Not addressed EPC-bitmap data Not explicitly Not explicitly Not addressed Not addressed type for a collection addressed addressed of EPCs UIUC s RFID Not addressed RFID-cuboid data Stay table Stay table Not addressed Not explicitly warehousing structure addressed readings are made. In addition, tagged objects are typically mobile and go through different locations during their life cycle. Temporal and spatial information is important for tracking and monitoring RFID objects. For example, using time stamps, it is possible to track how long it takes an aircraft part to move from the warehouse to the maintenance venue. Implicit inferences. RFID data always carries implicit information such as changes of state and containment relationships among objects. To use RFID data, applications require the context of other information such as environmental situations to make proper inferences. For example, a supply-management system that captures a case of cameras and a pallet together in a packing station could infer that the case is packed in the pallet. Limited active lifespan. RFID data normally has a limited active life period, during which a given system actively updates, tracks, and monitors the data. For example, in a supply-chain management system this period starts when the manufacturer delivers the products and ends when customers purchase the products. Data integration Integrating RFID data with business processes presents many challenges. 9 Scalability. An important criterion to consider when evaluating RFID integration solutions is scalability, which refers to a system s ability to grow in one or more dimensions such as the volume of RFID data and the number of transactions without affecting performance. Organizations that adopt RFID technology must handle data from thousands of readers distributed across various sites. Heterogeneity. An RFID solution can be deployed across multiple sites, companies, or even countries using different hardware, data structures, and standards. RFID systems must support the distribution of message preprocessing functionality for example, filtering and aggregation as well as business logic across multiple nodes to better map to existing company and cross-company structures. 9 Manageability. Good support of administration and testing is a prerequisite for the successful deployment of an RFID solution in large-scale, distributed applications. RFID systems must facilitate the supervision, testing, and control of their individual components as well as end-to-end processing of RFID data. Security. The vast amount of potentially sensitive information involved in RFID systems makes security critical. 2 For example, a company that implements RFID in its supply chain does not want competitors to track its shipments and inventory. Further, standard security mechanisms such as the Secure Sockets Layer are resource-consumption intensive and unsuitable in RFID systems involving other CPU-intensive work such as filtering. Sophisticated security measures must be in place to ensure the safe protection of RFID applications. Openness. System interoperability is another important parameter in RFID data integration. For instance, a well-designed reader adapter at the edge server makes RFID integration reader-agnostic. In addition to being hardware-agnostic, RFID systems should be based on existing communication protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP as well as syntax and semantics standards such as XML, PML, and EPC. An open RFID architecture will allow use of RFID devices from a wide array of hardware providers and, more importantly, support the deployment of RFID solutions across institutional or country boundaries. Data Processing Approaches Due to its unique characteristics, RFID data must be appropriately processed before an application can use it. Table 1 compares representative research work on RFID data processing in industry and academia. 24 Computer

5 Siemens RFID middleware Siemens proposed RFID middleware system 5 uses Dynamic Relationship ER, an expressive temporal-based data model, to represent RFID data. DRER abstracts a set of entities namely object, reader, location, and transaction and models the interactions between them as either state- or event-based relationships. For statebased relationships, the associated attributes tstart and tend represent the relationship s lifespan for example, the period that a product stays in the warehouse. For event-based relationships, an associated attribute time stamp indicates when the event occurred. Maintaining the temporal and spatial history of RFID objects makes it easy to track and monitor them for example, searching for missing items. SMURF UC Berkeley s Statistical Smoothing for Unreliable RFID data 10 is an adaptive smoothing filter for cleaning raw RFID data streams. By viewing and thereafter modeling RFID data streams as a random sample of the tags in the physical world, SMURF exploits a statistical-sampling-based approach to balance reader unreliability (such as missed readings) and tag dynamics (tag movements in and out of the reader s detection field) in the data cleaning process. The ability to automatically determine the right smoothing window size and continuously adapt it based on the observed readings makes it easier to integrate SMURF with RFID middleware platforms to provide reliable RFID data. EPC-bitmap Oracle s EPC-bitmap 11 is a novel data type for efficiently handling high-volume RFID data generated from item-level tracking applications. Most such applications can track tagged items in groups based on their location, expiration date, manufacturer, or other shared properties. An EPC-bitmap represents a collection of EPCs with common segments such as header, manager number, and object class, and the application can access and manipulate it using a set of EPC-bitmap operations for example, epc2bmp and bmp2epc for conversion. This approach achieves significant storage savings, while query performance remains the same as or better than traditional database systems that natively store EPC collections. UIUC s RFID warehousing Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign (UIUC) have proposed a novel model 12 for warehousing RFID data that exploits the tendency of individual objects to move and stay together, making it possible to collapse multiple movements of RFID RFID data must be appropriately processed before an application can use it. objects into a single record without loss of information. The model consists of a hierarchy of highly compact summaries, represented as RFID-cuboids, of data aggregated at different abstraction levels where analysis takes place. Each RFID-cuboid records object movements and stores product information for each RFID object, information on objects that stay together at a location, and path information necessary to link multiple stay records. The proposed model results in smaller database sizes and provides efficient support for a wide range of RFID queries. Data Integration Platforms Major software vendors such as Sun Microsystems, SAP, BEA Systems, and IBM, as well as research organizations including the UCLA-based Wireless Internet for the Mobile Enterprise Consortium (WIN- MEC), Auto-ID Labs, and Siemens Research are currently working on RFID data integration. Table 2 compares some of the major platforms. Note that for commercial products, our analyses are based on user manuals and white papers as there are few or no technical publications detailing those products. WinRFID UCLA s WinRFID (www.wireless.ucla.edu/rfid/ winrfid), a middleware system that enables rapid RFID application development, consists of five main layers. The physical layer includes the hardware consisting of readers, tags, and other sensors. The protocol layer abstracts the reader-tag protocols. The data processing layer processes the data streams the RFID reader network generates. The XML framework and data presentation layers handle data representation and presentation, respectively. Currently, a Web-service-based distributed architecture is under development. To support extensibility, WinRFID exploits the.net framework s runtime plugin feature. New readers, protocols, and data transformation rules can be added into corresponding modules with minimum disruption of the existing infrastructure. A rule-based engine handles data filtering, aggregation, and adaptation. SAP AII SAP s Auto-ID Infrastructure 9 is middleware that integrates data from RFID devices with enterprise applications. SAP AII is built on SAP s Web Application Server, which is part of the company s NetWeaver (www.sap. com/solutions/netweaver) integration and application platform. The SAP AII architecture consists of four layers. The device layer supports different types of sensor devices September

6 Table 2. RFID data integration platforms. Platform Scalability Heterogeneity Manageability Security Openness WinRFID Self-contained, Abstracted protocol WinRFID Authentication and Standards-based distributed module for published management access restriction framework middleware RFID protocols and console support of RFID (for example, Web modules XML framework for data services, XML) data representation SAP AII Distributed device Hardware-independent Auto-ID administrator, Not addressed Compliant with controllers and device interface, tools for simulating proposed EPCglobal Auto-ID nodes distributed Auto-ID and testing RFID standards nodes messages and readers EPCglobal Distributed EPCIS, EPC-compliant Not explicitly Under development Standards-based Network centralized devices supported framework such as discovery Web services and service XML-based PML Sun Java Distributed Extensible device Browser-based Security services Standards-based, System RFID architecture of adapters interface for in Java Enterprise service-oriented Software the RFID event centralized monitoring System architecture (SOA) manager and management of devices and services BEA WebLogic Lightweight, Out-of-box support Administration Not addressed Standards RFID distributed of major RFID console, monitoring compliance (for architecture for readers, SOAP and management example, EPCglobal RFID edge servers interfaces agent, reader simulator and ISO standards), SOA WebSphere WebSphere Not addressed Offers system Not addressed Standards-based RFID server RFID Device management capabilities framework Infrastructure like management and (only devices monitoring of hardware embedded with and applications in the infrastructure) remote locations via a hardware-independent low-level interface. The device operation layer contains one or more device controllers, coordinating multiple devices. The business process bridging layer associates observation messages with existing business processes, realized by an Auto-ID node component. The enterprise application layer supports business processes such as customer relationship management. To allow RFID application testing without installing physical devices, SAP AII also provides tools for simulating readers and messages. EPCglobal Network The EPCglobal Network, often referred to as the Internet of things, was developed by the Auto-ID Center and EPCglobal (www.epcglobalinc.org), a notfor-profit organization that supports worldwide adoption and standardization of EPC technology. The framework seeks to realize a data-on-network system in which RFID tags containing an unambiguous ID (EPC) and other data pertaining to objects is stored on and accessible over the Internet. Major components include the Object Naming Service (ONS), which provides references to saved object information to facilitate discovery, and the EPC Information Service (EPCIS), which offers an interface for accessing stored RFID data. Information on the movement of RFID objects must be continuously published to a centralized discovery service for tracking purposes, which unfortunately prevents the EPCglobal Network from realizing a full-fledged distributed architecture. Sun Java System RFID Software Sun Java System RFID Software (www.sun.com/ software/jini/news/jini_rfid_profile_final.pdf) is one of the first RFID integration platforms focusing on large-scale deployments. Its service-oriented architecture provides network services to applications through several standard protocols and interfaces. Java System RFID Software consists of two major components: The event manager processes (filters and aggregates) RFID data, while the information server provides 26 Computer

7 access to the business events generated by the event manager and serves as an integration layer that offers options for integrating with enterprise applications. Efficient data management Because RFID systems can generate large volumes of data, 4 accumulation of RFID data can easily lead to poor performance such as slower queries and updates. Current solutions for efficient RFID data management use a data-mining-based approach 11,12 that assumes data shares some common properties for example, moving together in bulk mode or having the same expiration date and can be grouped based on such properties. However, these solutions are limited to applications such as supply-chain management; a more general approach is needed for handling massive RFID data. Given the limited active lifespan of such data, novel mechanisms such as partitioning of RFID data will become increasingly important. BEAWebLogic RFID BEA Systems BEAWebLogic RFID, which delivers the first end-to-end, standards-based RFID infrastructure platform designed to automate new RFIDenabled business processes (www.bea.com/framework. jsp?cnt=index.htm&fp=/content/products/weblogic/ rfid), consists of three main products. Edge Server is lightweight software that can be deployed at various sites to filter, integrate, and disseminate RFID data as well as monitor and configure RFID readers; Enterprise Server centrally manages RFID data collected from RFID edge servers; and Compliance Express is designed to meet current compliance challenges while establishing a foundation for future expansion. WebSphere RFID IBM s RFID solution includes three components: RFID devices, WebSphere Premises Server (www-306.ibm.com/software/integration/premises_server/index.html), and WebSphere Business Integration Server. RFID devices must be embedded with the WebSphere RFID Device Infrastructure, software that supports functions for RFID data collection and delivery. The Premises Server is middleware that aggregates, monitors, interprets, and escalates RFID data and provides an interface for integration with enterprise applications. OPEN RESEARCH ISSUES Despite much progress in RFID data processing and integration, many research challenges remain open. RFID integration platforms must support legacy software systems. Intelligent data transformation and aggregation Raw RFID data presents little value until it is transformed into a form suitable for application-level interactions. Moreover, such data has implicit meanings and associated relationships with other RFID data for example, containment about which applications must make appropriate inferences. 4 For example, observations of two items and a case in a certain time interval can imply that the items are packed in the case. Projects such as UC Berkeley s HiFi data management infrastructure (http:// hifi.cs.berkeley.edu/home/about. html) use event modeling techniques to formulate relationships among objects for RFID applications. Large-scale application support Developing and deploying large-scale RFID applications such as nationwide supply-chain management remains a challenge. Although some platforms support the distribution of functionalities such as RFID edge processing, a full-fledged distributed architecture for sharing and synchronizing data across multiple nodes is needed. Deploying a large distributed system also requires the ability to continuously monitor the state of the system and adaptively adjust its behavior. Given the large number and highly distributed nature of RFID devices, administration tools for visualizing, configuring, testing, and monitoring RFID devices and system components will become increasingly important. Accurate and reliable data provisioning Because RFID-enabled applications primarily use RFID data to automate business processes, inaccurate data could misguide application users. 4,10 For example, a ghost read at a check-out point might trigger a charge to a customer who is not purchasing the corresponding goods. Extensive research is needed to improve RFID data reliability. Seamless integration of legacy systems and sensors RFID integration platforms must support legacy software systems. Such systems are normally mature, heavily used, and constitute massive corporate assets, thus replacing them with new systems is too costly. Vendors and researchers are currently developing middleware that links new RFID systems into existing infrastructures. They are also working on ways to integrate sensors with RFID tags to obtain information about the physical world as well as objects identity. 3 For example, a sensor-enabled RFID tag attached to an airplane part could record the stress and shock experienced during a flight, which could be used to make the corresponding preventive maintenance schedule. Security High-security applications such as access control, electronic passports, and systems for making payments or issuing tickets are increasingly using RFID. To adopt September

8 such applications, businesses must be confident that their data is safe. Researchers have proposed a few strategies to authenticate and encrypt RFID data, 2 but doing so increases the resource consumption and latency of read cycles. Comprehensive solutions are needed not only to protect RFID information but also to maintain desirable system performance. Privacy Privacy is generally misperceived as an issue for which the natural solution consists of good security mechanisms. Although security and privacy are tightly interrelated, securing RFID applications does not necessarily ensure privacy. Two notable privacy concerns in RFID applications are their potential to leak personal property information and their ability to track consumers spending history and physical whereabouts. 6 For example, terrorists could scan digital passports to target specific nationalities, and police could abuse a convenient new means of cradle-tograve surveillance. To address privacy threats for RFID users, researchers must implement technical solutions such as RSA blocker tags 6 as well as legal countermeasures 13 to ensure consumers that their data will not be misappropriated. In recent years, RFID has become a vibrant and rapidly expanding area of research and development. The technology s ability to precisely identify objects at low cost and without LOS creates many new and exciting opportunities for applications that could become an integral part of our daily lives. To develop and deploy these applications, however, researchers first must find robust, scalable, secure solutions to the unique challenges of RFID data that meet the specific requirements of system architectures. Acknowledgment This research is partially supported by the Australian Research Council Discovery Grant DP References 1. B. Nath, F. Reynolds, and R. Want, RFID Technology and Applications, IEEE Pervasive Computing, vol. 5, no. 1, 2006, pp M.R. Rieback, B. Crispo, and A.S. Tanenbaum, The Evolution of RFID Security, IEEE Pervasive Computing, vol. 5, no. 1, 2006, pp G. Borriello, RFID: Tagging the World, Comm. ACM, vol. 48, no. 9, 2005, pp S.S. Chawathe et al., Managing RFID Data, Proc. 30th Int l Conf. Very Large Databases (VLDB 04), VLDB Endowment, 2004, pp F. Wang and P. Liu, Temporal Management of RFID Data, Proc. 31st Int l Conf. Very Large Databases (VLDB 05), VLDB Endowment, 2005, pp M. Ohkubo, K. Suzuki, and S. Kinoshita, RFID Privacy Issues and Technical Challenges, Comm. ACM, vol. 48, no. 9, 2005, pp S. Hsi and H. Fait, RFID Enhances Visitors Museum Experience at the Exploratorium, Comm. ACM, vol. 48, no. 9, 2005, pp E. Dishman, Inventing Wellness Systems for Aging in Place, Computer, May 2004, pp C. Bornhövd et al., Integrating Automatic Data Acquisition with Business Processes: Experiences with SAP s Auto-ID Infrastructure, Proc. 30th Int l Conf. Very Large Databases (VLDB 04), VLDB Endowment, 2004, pp S.R. Jeffery, M.J. Franklin, and M. Garofalakis, An Adaptive RFID Middleware for Supporting Metaphysical Data Independence, VLDB J., vol. 17, no. 2, 2008, pp Y. Hu et al., Supporting RFID-Based Item Tracking Applications in Oracle DBMS Using a Bitmap Datatype, Proc. 31st Int l Conf. Very Large Databases (VLDB 05), 2005, pp H. Gonzalez et al., Warehousing and Analyzing Massive RFID Data Sets, Proc. 22nd Int l Conf. Data Engineering (ICDE 06), IEEE CS Press, 2006, p K.C. Jones, California Senate Approves Bill to Outlaw Skimming RFID Tags, InformationWeek, 31 Jan Quan Z. Sheng is a lecturer in the School of Computer Science at the University of Adelaide. His research interests include Web services, business process integration, data integration, and pervasive computing. Sheng received a PhD in computer science from the University of New South Wales. He is a member of the IEEE and the ACM. Contact him at Xue Li is a senior lecturer in the School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering at the University of Queensland. His research interests include data mining, multimedia data security, database systems, and intelligent Web information systems. Li received a PhD in information systems from the Queensland University of Technology. He is a member of the IEEE and the ACM. Contact him at Sherali Zeadally is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Science and Information Technology at the University of the District of Columbia, Washington, D.C. His research interests include computer networks, mobile computing, RFID, network and system security, and ubiquitous computing. Zeadally received a PhD in computer science from the University of Buckingham, England. He is a Fellow of the British Computer Society and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Contact him at 28 Computer

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