Khaled Ali

This article is about the Egyptian labor activist and politician. For the Saudi man accused of planning a terrorist act against U.S. President George W. Bush, see Khalid Ali-M Aldawsari. For the Emirati football defender, see Khalid Ali.

Khaled Ali (also spelled Khaled Aly; Egyptian Arabic: خالد على‎, IPA: [ˈxæːled ˈʕæli]) (born 26 February 1972) is a prominent Egyptian lawyer and activist. He is known for his advocacy for reform of government and private sector corruption and for promoting social justice and labor rights. Ali is the former head of the Egyptian Center for Economic and Social Rights (ECESR) and co-founder of the Front for Defending Egypt's Protesters and the Hisham Mubarak Law Center (HMLC). He has been called a "legendary anti-corruption crusader" and "Egypt’s best-known counselor and defender of independent unions and worker protests." He won the “Egyptian Corruption Fighter” award in 2011.

He has been involved in several prominent court cases against the government, including a 2001 ruling that gave syndicates more freedoms, a 2010 case he won that mandated a higher minimum wage for workers, and a case leading to the nationalization of three large companies that had been privatized.

Ali was an activist before, during, and after the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. He has been involved in worker strikes before and since the downfall of Mubarak's regime, and been an active supporter of the role of workers in the revolution and the labor mobilization that took place during it. He has denounced violent acts by the police and military, and has represented revolutionaries and the families of those killed in court. In February 2011, Ali was detained in a raid by Egyptian security forces on the HMLC. He was against the rule of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces and supported postponing the drafting of a new constitution until after the 2012 election.

A latecomer to the 2012 presidential race, Ali announced his candidacy the day after he became eligible to run, making him the youngest candidate in the election. His platform is one of social and economic justice, including core issues like regional economic strength, protecting natural resources, fighting corruption, addressing unemployment, and improving workers' rights. Ali lays great stress on education, which he believes will lift Egypt out of poverty. He seeks a balance between the public and private sectors. Ali does not belong to a political party and never has belonged to one. He calls himself the "candidate of the poor". He is supported primarily by students, activists, farmers, and workers, generally on the left of the political spectrum. Ali's campaign slogan was "We will fulfill our dream".

Al-Ahram Weekly called him a "legendary anti-corruption crusader",[10] and CounterPunch described him as "Egypt’s best-known counselor and defender of independent unions and worker protests."[11] In 2011, he was given the “Egyptian Corruption Fighter” award by the “Egyptians Against Corruption."[12]

Ali's career has been highlighted by several prominent legal cases and victories, most involving corruption and the private sector. He fought corruption by the Mubarak government, which had illegally privatized public land and public sector factories. Suing government officials for selling public property, he won a judgment ordering the return of several large companies to public ownership.[13]

Ali is known for filing and winning a landmark court case in 2010 that forced the government to set a minimum wage commensurate with the cost of living; it was raised to 1,200 Egyptian pounds per month and covers all workers.[8][15] In February 2010, he said, "The government represents the marriage between authority and money—and this marriage needs to be broken up... We call for the resignation of Ahmad Nazif's government because it only works for businessmen and ignores social justice. We call for a minimum wage and a maximum wage, as well as the connection of wages to prices. We also call for annual wage increases in line with inflation rates. We are against the privatization of the health insurance sector and call for the fixing of all temporary labor contracts."[17] In April 2010, there was a demonstration outside the cabinet office, where approximately 300 workers protested the government's privatization policy and against the Egyptian Trade Union Federation (ETUF), which is controlled by the government. Ali said at the time, "We'll give them a month. If after a month the verdict hasn't been applied in a manner acceptable to workers, all the workers forces taking part in this protest will stage repeated protests until it is implemented," Ali said.[18]

Throughout Ali's career, he has been a strong supporter of worker's strikes and public sector activism. In 2007, Ali noted the growing trend of strikes as a sign of political change: "Taboos were broken during the past few years of political ferment, and workers grew less afraid," he said.[19] Speaking to a reporter in April 2008 about the general strike taking place, Ali noted that its purpose was not to harm the economy. "The point was to make a strong statement and to take a stand," he said.[20]

Ali supports the December 2008 founding of the independent General Union of Real Estate Tax Authority Employees (RETA). In 2009, amid protests of the state-controlled ETUF and agitation for independent unions in a broad section of trades, Ali said of the tax authority and growing political action by workers in a number of sectors, “The RETA set the example for other workers and civil servants to follow. It's indeed the single most important independent political project in 2009.[21] He addressed the problem of Egyptian labor, distrust of political parties, which have tried to co-opt labor's causes, and the fear that demonstrations would be brutally suppressed by the government. "There is also a tactical dimension to trying to avoid the wrath of the government and its security apparatus," Ali said.[21]

Ali makes distinction between politics and political parties, however, citing the Muslim Brotherhood's control of professional syndicates, versus the intertwining of Egypt's progressive political movement and labor. “For years, labor constituted the social heart of the progressive political movement, which in turn served as the political brain for labor. That was important for the labor movement to articulate its discourse and negotiate its demands," Ali said.[22]

Ali was interviewed in Cairo in February 2011 by a correspondent from Democracy Now!. Ali said that while middle class youth sparked the Arab Spring, which expressed the political will of the Egyptian people of different classes, the workers had set the stage. "Workers laid the ground for the emergence of this revolution, and I believe that any analysis which says otherwise is superficial," said Ali.[23]

The workers have successfully launched and sustained the largest wave of labor mobilizations this county has seen, from 2004 until 2011. The workers are the ones who brought down the structures of this regime in the past years. They are the ones that have been fighting for independent organizing on the ground, and they’re the ones who created Egypt’s first de facto independent trade union. And they insisted on the right to have pluralistic trade unions, not just unions that are stacked with government supporters. They’re the ones who brought their grievances to the streets.

Ali was active in the 2011 revolution, supporting worker's strikes and representing protesters and the families of martyrs against the government,[15] while condemning the violence of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) and Egypt's police forces.

On 3 February 2011, Ali was among the detainees detained by security forces after a raid on the Hisham Mubarak Law Center (HMLC) in Cairo. Amnesty International condemned the raid, which it characterized as a "crackdown", accusing the Egyptian authorities of "attempting to suppress the wave of popular protest" then taking place all across Egypt.[25]

Between 11 February 2011 and mid-April 2011 alone, SCAF tried more than 5,000 civilians before military tribunals in trials generally lasting between 20 and 40 minutes in which groups of five to 30 defendants were tried at a time.[n 1] Acting on behalf of a Rasha Azab, a former military detainee, Ali was one of two lawyers who challenged the military's decision to try civilians before military tribunals by bringing a lawsuit to Egypt's Court of Administrative Justice.[27]

In June 2011, Ali was heard by the Administrative Court regarding a lawsuit seeking to overturn Law 34/2011, passed by SCAF and the Cabinet and which criminalized certain protests and strikes. Ali said, "Protests and strikes have always been workers' only weapon … since they have no ability to negotiate with the government — depriving them of this right is depriving them from voicing their suffering." He said further, "The law was billed as the ‘freedom of work and preventing sabotage’ law, while it is actually meant to prevent workers and poor people from protesting."[28]

In August 2011, Ali took part in a press conference held by 36 Non-governmental organizations (NGO) to condemn a "fierce campaign" by the government and SCAF to limit protests. Ali criticized the Ministry of Solidarity for what he saw as their attempt to "monopolize" patriotism. He decried the defamation of activists protesting against Mubarak and privatization, as well as the practice of trying civilians before military tribunals as human rights violations committed by the Cabinet and SCAF.[26]

In order to gain a more accurate picture of the revolution and gauge its success, Ali has been involved in efforts to collect information about its participants, especially those who suffered injury or were killed.[23]

We are in the process of collecting documents about the numbers of people who died and who are injured. Among them – among the questions that we’re asking people is, "Where did the deceased live? Was he a worker, or was he unemployed? And do they work on a temporary basis? Are they government employees? Are they permanent workers? How much was their salary?" Until now, most of the cases we have encountered are cases of people who were poor and lived in poor neighborhoods. They’re the ones who came out and joined these street battles during the revolution. They’re the ones who were not afraid of being shot. They’re the ones who were killed. These people gave their lives without ever claiming that they were the owners of this revolution. We need real documentation to know how this revolution truly succeeded.

Khaled Ali on Democracy Now!

Ali condemns the violence in Egypt since the revolution and has been working with the families of 17 unarmed protesters killed by the military in October 2011, ten of whom were crushed to death when armored vehicles drove over them and seven others were killed when soldiers fired into a crowd.[29]

Ali's press conference to announce his candidacy for president in the 2012 election was held at the Journalists' Syndicate on the evening of 27 February 2012, hours after he announced the press conference on Twitter.[6] His press conference was a well-attended[30] event, held one day after his 40th birthday, the minimum age eligible to run for the office.[5] He is the youngest candidate to enter the race.

“I am a candidate from one of Egypt’s villages ... a humble farmer, a president from Tahrir," Ali said. “I decided to pursue the race as a young man, inclined to support the poor, against military rule and with the rights of our martyrs. I am not afraid, so long as I have the support of all those who dream of freedom, justice, and dignity,” he continued.[31] Ali is an independent and has never been a member of any political party.[32] “I know that they will try to defame me, but even if they killed me or imprisoned me … you are the ones who will [continue] calling for your rights.”[8] Supporters chanted, "Khaled Ali will rise, rise against capitalism" and "Who is Khaled Ali? He's the farmers' favorite."[30]

Though a candidate and known as an activist long involved with labor and social justice, Ali insists he does not speak for the revolution, which he says is incapable of being represented by any one person.[8] "Am I the candidate of the revolution? Am I the candidate of the young? No! I'm only one voice of many," Ali said in his announcement,[30] calling himself the "candidate of the poor."[33] He says he is running "as an independent young man who [has] sided with the poor" against military rule.[14] His campaign slogan has been translated as "We will fulfill our dream"[7] and "We will realize our dreams."[9]

Ali's candidacy has yet to collect the legally required 30,000 signatures from citizens of at least 15 governorates. At the time of Ali's announcement, there were seven other candidates in the race.[30] Registration for candidacy began on 10 March and ends on 8 April;[14] elections are set for 23 and 24 May.[31][needs update]

Gamal Eid, a well-known leftist lawyer and the director of the Arab Network for Human Rights Information, who works with the Ali campaign, said that a group of activists and workers began campaigning even before Ali announced his candidacy.[34]

In his announcement that he was running for president, Ali declared, "My entire platform is built on the basis of social justice," saying it was "not just decoration," rather his primary focus and guiding principle,[13] and for him, a higher priority than winning the election.[35] Ali says his mission is to achieve the revolution's goals.[32] He spoke of the need to lift Egypt out of poverty, citing education as a "fundamental tool" to accomplish this goal.[7]

According to Ali supporter Eid, Ali's platform, still being crafted, may center around social and economic issues, including social equality, restoration of public property illegally sold under Mubarak, ending foreign debt, and stronger opposition to the Israeli occupation of Palestine.[34] Ali said, "We must also support the Palestinian struggle against the Zionist occupation; we must collaborate with the Palestinian resistance and lift the blockade on Gaza".[7] Other main issues include building regional economic strength with Iran and Turkey to free the region from American domination,[14] reversing corrupt Mubarak-era business deals, farmland rehabilitation, raising employment and protecting the rights of workers, natural resources and mineral wealth.[5]

Ali wants the public sector to regain its status and social importance by "providing affordable goods and proper employment policies". Private property as a concept is not a problem for Ali, who believes that "no society can properly develop" without it,[30] however, the enjoyment of it does not carry the inherent right to violate labor laws. "The worker will not have to visit his employer every day to kiss his hand to get consent. Only law would regulate the relationship between employees and their employers," said Ali.[14] Speaking of his priorities as president, Ali said his primary focus would be restoration of Egypt's assets, lost when the former regime sold them off illegally.[30] Ali calls for a mixed economy, a "partnership" of the public, private and cooperative sectors that would prevent price fixing and monopoly. Ali declared his support of reviving the public sector "with or without U.S. consent".[7]

Ali is very critical of the military Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF). He has accused them of propaganda and state-media manipulation surrounding the election.[7] He advises the military to maintain its relationship with the Egyptian populace and not to parrot the police, who lost its favor. He spoke out against military ownership of industry and the means of production.[13] Ali has criticized economic assets accumulated by SCAF, championing the need to renationalise factories and other assets. "It is precisely this plethora of institutions they own that prevents them from properly carrying out their mandate," he argued.[30] One particular example Ali criticizes is foreign exploitation of 120 of Egypt's gold mines, saying use and development of the nation's mineral wealth should be planned[30] and not become a means for foreign companies to benefit. He also says the army should turn factories and economic projects over to the public sector and let the unemployed work, rather than conscripts.[14]

Ali says some people have exploited Egypt's revolution for their own gain and criticized members of the military and power elite, saying their previous connections with Mubarak have not weakened their undue influence in Egypt. He also spoke against the efforts of military leaders to politicize the police and army, saying plainly, "Stop the use of police and army in media and politics."[14] Drafting a constitution should be delayed until after the military rulers have relinquished power to a civilian government, according to Ali. "It is not reasonable to hold presidential elections while drafting the constitution at the same time," he said.[35]

He criticized the transitional military government, which he says has used violence to attack both youth and revolutionaries. Asked about allowing the "wheel of production" to turn in order to increase stability and reduce protests, Ali said, "Let the wheel of production stop until it turns with justice," pointing out that allowing production to return did not guarantee an improvement to the underlying problems causing the protests. "Under Mubarak, the wheel increased poverty of the poor while increasing the wealth of the rich," he said.[35] "Whoever is elected must be more accountable to Egyptians than Mubarak", says Ali, vowing to both stand up to military and power elites, and empower the poor if his candidacy is successful.[36]

The campaign plans to release its complete platform at the end of March and in the interim, will issue working papers on each plank of its platform.[13][needs update]

Ali draws his base of support from his prior work as a lawyer and activist, and his involvement in workers' rights and the 2011 revolution. Many of his supporters are students and activists who were active in the overthrow of Hosni Mubarak's regime.[36] He is widely popular among labor and student movements due to his continual efforts at reform and social justice.[7]

Many of Ali’s supporters see him as filling the void left by Mohamed ElBaradei's withdrawal.[31] Samer Soliman, professor of political science at the American University in Cairo acknowledged the gap but expressed some doubt about Ali's ability to fill it.[31] Ali is known primarily as an activist lawyer. As a politician, he is not widely known to his fellow citizens, and even those in his circles have been surprised by his decision to run, according to Al-Akhbar English.[31] In contrast to Ali's activist past, some of his well-known opponents are former associates or members of the former Mubarak regime.[31] Ali's lack of experience as a politician is also a concern. Even within the revolutionary movement, many remain skeptical about his candidacy,[31] which is seen as a long shot. Critics argue that his campaign is an uphill battle and risks splitting the vote, which could benefit candidates connected with the prior regime.[14]

Members of the Socialist Popular Alliance Party and Egyptian Socialists told the Egypt Independent that they are giving serious consideration to support of Ali’s candidacy. “Up until now, the situation is unclear. Khaled may be our choice. Some are proposing a potential partnership between Khaled Ali and Abouel Fotouh [where Ali can run as his deputy]," said Marwa Farouk, a member of the Popular Alliance.[34] No party has yet endorsed Ali.[31]

Khaled Ali initially planned to run as a candidate in the 2014 Egyptian presidential election, however, he withdrew his candidacy on 16 March 2014, after the passage of the presidential elections law, describing the election as a "farce" while also urging el-Sisi not to run and the army to stay out of politics.[38]

1.
George W. Bush
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George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts

2.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם‎, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian

3.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat

4.
Egyptian revolution of 2011
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The Egyptian revolution of 2011, locally known as the January 25 Revolution, began on 25 January 2011 and took place across all of Egypt. The date was set by various groups to coincide with the annual Egyptian police day as a statement against increasing police brutality during the last few years of Mubaraks presidency. It consisted of demonstrations, marches, occupations of plazas, non-violent civil resistance, acts of civil disobedience, millions of protesters from a range of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The revolution started by calls for protests from online youth groups, initially these included liberal, anti-capitalist, nationalist, and feminist elements, but they finally included Islamist elements as well. Violent clashes between security forces and protesters resulted in at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured, protesters retaliated by burning over 90 police stations across the country. The protests took place in Cairo, Alexandria and all cities across the nation. The protesters primary demands were the end of the Mubarak regime and emergency law, freedom, justice, a responsive non-military government, strikes by labour unions added to the pressure on government officials. During the uprising, the capital Cairo was described as a war zone, protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, which was impossible to enforce by the police and military. Egypts Central Security Forces, loyal to Mubarak, were replaced by military troops. In the chaos, there was some looting by gangs which was instigated by plainclothes police officers, in response, watch groups were organized by civilians to protect neighbourhoods. International reaction has varied, with most Western nations condoning peaceful protests but concerned about the stability of Egypt, the Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions have influenced demonstrations in other Arab countries, including Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan, Syria and Libya. Mubarak dissolved his government, appointing former head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate Omar Suleiman vice-president in an attempt to quell dissent, Mubarak asked aviation minister and former chief of Egypts air force Ahmed Shafik to form a new government. Mohamed ElBaradei became an opposition figure, with all major opposition groups supporting his role as negotiator for a transitional unity government. In response to mounting pressure, Mubarak in another attempt to contain the crisis announced he did not intend to seek re-election in September. On 11 February 2011 Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak would resign as president, the previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve as a caretaker government until a new one was formed. On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters and, if convicted. On 2 June 2012 Mubarak was found guilty of complicity in the murder of protesters and sentenced to imprisonment, but the sentence was overturned on appeal. A number of protesters, upset that others tried with Mubarak were acquitted, Mubarak was eventually cleared of all charges on 29 November 2014, although Egypts prosecutor general announced he would appeal the verdict

5.
Egyptian presidential election, 2012
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A presidential election was held in Egypt in two rounds, the first on 23 and 24 May 2012 and the second on 16 and 17 June. Morsi, however, lasted little over a year as President before he was ousted in a coup in July 2013. The elections set the stage for the divisions that were to follow, along Islamist and secular lines, and those opposed to, Islamist candidates Morsi and Fotouh won roughly 42% of the vote, while the remaining secular candidates won 56% of the vote. Candidates Shafik and Moussa held positions under the Mubarak regime and won 35% of the vote, while Sabahi was a prominent dissident during the Sadat and Mubarak regimes. Following the second round, with a turnout of 52%, on 24 June 2012. Morsi won by a margin over Ahmed Shafik, the final prime minister under deposed President Hosni Mubarak. The commission said Morsi took 51. 7% of the vote versus 48. 3% for Shafik, Morsi was sworn in on 30 June 2012 and was later ousted in a coup on 3 July 2013. The rules for the election were released on 30 January 2012, candidates had to be born in Egypt to Egyptian parents, may not have held dual nationality and may not have been married to a foreigner. To be nominated, they required the support of 30 Members of Parliament or 30,000 voters, the Supreme Presidential Electoral Commission was expected to release the list of candidates who fulfil the legal requirements and are eligible for the presidency on 26 April. Reasons for the disqualifications were not given, but the candidates were given 48 hours to appeal the decisions. Both Suleiman and El-Shaters campaigns stated they would file appeals, on 23 April, SCAF ratified the Corruption of Political Life Law, which was passed by the Peoples Assembly on 12 April. The law disqualified presidential hopefuls Ahmed Shafik and Omar Suleiman, on 25 April the Supreme Presidential Electoral Commission accepted the appeal filed by Ahmed Shafik against its previous decision to exclude him from running for President. Therefore, a total of 13 candidates were standing in SPECs final list. The appeal also requested the new Parliamentary law be brought before the Supreme Constitutional Court to determine its constitutionality, on 16 May 2012, Mohammad Fawzi Issa announced his withdrawal from the race in support of Amr Moussa, leaving the final candidate count at 12. His name however was not removed from the paper as the official date of withdrawal had already passed. Ahmed Shafik officially launched his campaign on 2 November 2011. He was the last Prime Minister appointed by Hosni Mubarak after the beginning of the 2011 revolution in January and he resigned only three weeks after the deposition of the long-term president. Shafik claims to be on terms with the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces

6.
Arab Spring
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Sustained street demonstrations took place in Morocco, Bahrain, Algeria, Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman and Sudan. Minor protests occurred in Djibouti, Mauritania, the Palestinian territories, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, a major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam. These attacks were answered with violence from protestors in some cases, large-scale conflicts resulted—the Syrian Civil War, Iraqi insurgency and the following civil war, the Egyptian Crisis and coup, the Libyan Crisis, and the Crisis in Yemen. A power struggle continued after the response to the Arab Spring. While leadership changed and regimes were held accountable, power went up for grabs across the Arab world, ultimately it came down to a contentious battle between a consolidation of power by religious elites and the growing support for democracy in many Muslim-majority states. Some have referred to the succeeding and still ongoing conflicts as the Arab Winter, as of July 2016, only the uprising in Tunisia resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance. The term Arab Spring is an allusion to the Revolutions of 1848, which is referred to as the Springtime of Nations. In the aftermath of the Iraq War it was used by commentators and bloggers who anticipated a major Arab movement towards democratization. The first specific use of the term Arab Spring as used to denote these events may have started with the American political journal Foreign Policy. Marc Lynch, referring to his article in Foreign Policy, writes Arab Spring—a term I may have unintentionally coined in a January 6,2011 article. Joseph Massad on Al Jazeera said the term was part of a US strategy of controlling aims and goals, due to the electoral success of Islamist parties following the protests in many Arab countries, the events have also come to be known as Islamist Spring or Islamist Winter. Other sources confirm the US governments support of the uprisings, funded largely by the National Endowment for Democracy, other analysts pointed to the fourth stage Toppling the Regimes of the Al Qaeda strategy for world domination, described in Fouad Husseins book published in 2005. Some protesters looked to the Turkish model as an ideal, other analysts blamed the rise in food prices on commodity traders and the conversion of crops to ethanol. Yet others have claimed that the context of high rates of unemployment, the influence of social media on political activism during the Arab Spring has, however, been much debated. Protests took place both in states with a high level of Internet usage and in states with one of the lowest Internet penetration. The use of media platforms more than doubled in Arab countries during the protests. As of 5 April 2011, the amount of Facebook users in the Arab world surpassed 27.7 million people, Facebook, Twitter and other major social media played a key role in the movement of Egyptian and Tunisian activists in particular. Nine out of ten Egyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize protests and this large population of young Egyptian men referred to themselves as the Facebook generation, exemplifying their escape from their non-modernized past

7.
Amnesty International
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Amnesty International is a non-governmental organisation focused on human rights that claims to have over 7 million members and supporters around the world. The stated objective of the organisation is to research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights. Amnesty International was founded in London in 1961, following the publication of the article The Forgotten Prisoners in The Observer on 28 May 1961, Amnesty draws attention to human rights abuses and campaigns for compliance with international laws and standards. It works to public opinion to put pressure on governments that let abuse take place. Amnesty considers capital punishment to be the ultimate, irreversible denial of human rights, the organisation was awarded the 1977 Nobel Peace Prize for its campaign against torture, and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1978. Amnesty International was founded in London in July 1961 by English labour lawyer Peter Benenson, researchers have never traced the alleged newspaper article in question. In 1960, Portugal was ruled by the Estado Novo government of António de Oliveira Salazar, the government was authoritarian in nature and strongly anti-communist, suppressing enemies of the state as anti-Portuguese. The newspaper reader feels a sense of impotence. Yet if these feelings of disgust could be united into common action, Benenson worked with friend Eric Baker. It marked the launch of Appeal for Amnesty,1961, the aim of which was to mobilise public opinion, quickly and widely, in defence of these individuals, the Appeal for Amnesty was reprinted by a large number of international newspapers. In the same year, Benenson had a published, Persecution 1961. In July 1961 the leadership had decided that the appeal would form the basis of a permanent organisation, Amnesty, Benenson ensured that all three major political parties were represented, enlisting members of parliament from the Labour Party, the Conservative Party, and the Liberal Party. On 30 September 1962, it was officially named Amnesty International, between the Appeal for Amnesty,1961 and September 1962 the organisation had been known simply as Amnesty. From the very beginning, research and campaigning were present in Amnesty Internationals work, a library was established for information about prisoners of conscience and a network of local groups, called THREES groups, was started. Each group worked on behalf of three prisoners, one each of the then three main ideological regions of the world, communist, capitalist and developing. The international movement was starting to agree on its principles and techniques. In 1967 Peter Benenson resigned after an independent inquiry did not support his claims that AI had been infiltrated by British agents, later he claimed that the Central Intelligence Agency had become involved in Amnesty. Leading Amnesty International in the 1970s were key figures Seán MacBride, Amnesty International believed that the reasons underlying torture of prisoners by governments, were either to acquire and obtain information or to quell opposition by the use of terror, or both

8.
Israeli-occupied territories
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The Israeli-occupied territories are the territories occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967. Originally, those included the Syrian Golan Heights, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict, termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for the right of every state in the area to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries. From 1967 to 1982, the four areas were governed under the Israeli Military Governorate, the IMG was dissolved in 1982, after the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Between 1998 and 2012, the term Palestinian territories, Occupied was used to refer to territories controlled by the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, the International Court of Justice, the UN General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council regards Israel as the Occupying Power. UN Special Rapporteur Richard Falk called Israels occupation an affront to international law, the Israeli High Court of Justice has ruled that Israel holds the West Bank under belligerent occupation. Israeli governments have preferred the term disputed territories in the case of the West Bank, officially Israel maintains that the West Bank is disputed territory. Israel asserts that since the disengagement of Israel from Gaza in 2005, the significance of the designation of these territories as occupied territory is that certain legal obligations fall on the occupying power under international law. Under international law there are laws of war governing military occupation, including the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. In 2015, over 800,000 Israelis resided over the 1949 Armistice Lines, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War. It established settlements along the Gulf of Aqaba and in the northeast portion and it had plans to expand the settlement of Yamit into a city with a population of 200,000, though the actual population of Yamit did not exceed 3,000. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in stages beginning in 1979 as part of the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty, as required by the treaty, Israel evacuated Israeli military installations and civilian settlements prior to the establishment of normal and friendly relations between it and Egypt. Israel dismantled eighteen settlements, two air bases, a naval base, and other installations by 1982, including the only oil resources under Israeli control. The evacuation of the population, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers might try to return to their homes after the evacuation, since 1982, the Sinai Peninsula has not been regarded as occupied territory. Israels stated purpose for the Security Belt was to create a space separating its northern border towns from terrorists residing in Lebanon, during the stay in the security belt, the IDF held many positions and supported the SLA. The SLA took over daily life in the security zone, initially as the force of the Free Lebanon State. Notably, the South Lebanon Army controlled the prison in Khiam, in addition, United Nations forces and the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon were deployed to the security belt

9.
The American University in Cairo
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The American University in Cairo is an independent, English language, research university located in Cairo, Egypt. The university offers American-style learning programs at the undergraduate, graduate and professional levels, the AUC student body represents over 100 countries. AUC holds institutional accreditation from the Middle States Commission on Higher Education and from Egypts National Authority for Quality Assurance, AUC was intended as both a preparatory school and a university. The preparatory school opened to 142 students on October 5,1920 in Khairy Pasha palace, the first diplomas issued were junior college-level certificates given to 20 students in 1923. Watson wanted to establish an institution for higher education. Four years later, Watson decided that the university could not afford to maintain its original religious ties, at first an institution only for males, the university enrolled its first female student in 1928. That same year, the University graduated its first class, with two Bachelor of Arts and one Bachelor of Sciences degrees awarded, by the mid-1970s, the University offered a broad range of liberal arts and sciences programs. In the 1950s, the university changed its name from The American University at Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press was established in 1960, today, it publishes up to 80 books annually. In 1978, the university established the Desert Development Center to promote development in Egypts reclaimed desert areas. The Desert Development Centers legacy is being carried forward by the Research Institute for a Sustainable Environment, AUC was originally established in Tahrir Square in downtown Cairo. The 7. 8-acre Tahrir Square campus was developed around the Khairy Pasha Palace, built in the neo-Mamluk style, the palace inspired an architectural style that has been replicated throughout Cairo. The structure was designed by A, st. John Diament, abutting the south side of the Palace. The central portion of the houses a auditorium large enough to seat 1,200, as well as classrooms, offices. The school’s continued growth required additional space, and in 1932, over time AUC added more buildings to what has become known as THE GrEEK CAMPUS, for a total of five buildings and 250,000 square feet in downtown Cairo. Sadat Metro was developed with access to the campus, and its main lines intersect near there, also nearby is the Ramses Railway Station. The campus wall on Mohamed Mahmoud Street still has revolutionary graffiti put up, the American University in Cairo made an initiative and tried to preserve the wall graffiti. Many admirers published and even documented these graffiti by collecting images/photos of the mural taken by visitors, who were present during this historic period

10.
Hosni Mubarak
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Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak is a former Egyptian military and political leader who served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011. Before he entered politics, Mubarak was an officer in the Egyptian Air Force. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of air marshal in 1973. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor and he was appointed Vice-President of Egypt by President Anwar Sadat in 1975 and assumed the presidency on 14 October 1981, eight days after Sadats assassination. Mubaraks presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypts longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha, who ruled the country from 1805 to 1848, Mubarak stepped down after 18 days of demonstrations during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president, on 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and both of his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power. Mubarak was then ordered to trial on charges of negligence for failing to halt the killing of peaceful protesters during the revolution. These trials began on 3 August 2011, on 2 June 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced Mubarak to life imprisonment. After sentencing, he was reported to have suffered a series of health crises, on 13 January 2013, Egypts Court of Cassation overturned Mubaraks sentence and ordered a retrial. On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption, Mubarak is detained in a military hospital and his sons were freed 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court. He was acquitted on 2 March 2017 by Court of Cassation and he was released on 24 March 2017. Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, after leaving high school, he joined the Egyptian Military Academy where he received a bachelors degree in Military Sciences in 1949. Mubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units, some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers, in 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a commander, then as a base commander. In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academys commander when he was credited with doubling the number of Air Force pilots, two years later, he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force. In 1972, Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense, on 6 October 1973, the Egyptian Air Force launched a surprise attack on Israeli soldiers on the east bank of the Suez Canal. Egyptian pilots hit 90% of their targets, making Mubarak a national hero, the next year he was promoted to Air Chief Marshal in recognition of service during the October War of 1973 against Israel

Greater Jerusalem, May 2006. CIAremote sensing map showing East Jerusalem, the Green Line and Jerusalem's city limits which were unilaterally expanded by Israel, 28 June 1967, annexed by Knesset (30 July 1980), and modified and expanded in February 1992.