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3 TOO HIGH A PRICE: The Case Against Restricting Gay Parenting U P D A T E D S E C O N D E D I T I O N by Leslie Cooper and Paul Cates with a foreword by Shay Bilchik, President and CEO, Child Welfare League of America American Civil Liberties Union Foundation New York, NY

4 Leslie Cooper is a senior staff attorney in the ACLU s Lesbian and Gay Rights Project. Paul Cates is the Project s public education director. American Civil Liberties Union Foundation, New York by the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation All rights reserved. First edition Printed in the United States of America ISBN: Library of Congress Control Number: American Civil Liberties Union Foundation Lesbian and Gay Rights Project 125 Broad Street New York, NY Cover photos courtesy of ACLU clients.

6 25 Chapter 4 The Social Science: SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SHOWS THAT CHILDREN OF GAY PARENTS ARE JUST AS HEALTHY AND WELL-ADJUSTED AS OTHER CHILDREN 26 An Overview of the Scientific Research on Lesbian and Gay Parents and their Children 26 What Did the Studies Explore? 26 Who Did the Researchers Study? 27 How Were the Studies Conducted? 27 What Did the Studies Find? 31 How Conclusive Is This Research? 32 The Factors that Do Matter to Children s Development 33 What Does the Scientific Research on Single-Parent Families Say about Children Raised by Lesbian or Gay Parents? 34 A Conversation with Professor Judith Stacey 38 Summaries of Leading Social Science Studies on Gay Parenting 74 Chapter 5 The Price: RESTRICTIONS ON GAY PARENTING ARE HARMFUL TO CHILDREN 75 The Adoption and Foster Placement Process: Case-by-Case Determinations 77 Barring Lesbians and Gay Men from Adopting or Fostering Needlessly Deprives Children of Good Parents 80 Profiles of Waiting Children 84 The Economic Costs of Blanket Exclusions of Lesbian and Gay Adoptive and Foster Parents 85 Chapter 6 Debunking the Myths: ARGUMENTS AGAINST GAY PARENTING AND WHY THEY RE WRONG 92 Notes iv TOO HIGH A PRICE

7 Foreword Our country is in a child welfare crisis. A statement such as this is not made lightly or without substantiation. But as the nation s oldest and largest membership-based advocacy organization for children and families, the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA) recognizes the significant barriers that stand between children in foster care and the families they so desperately need. There are currently over 500,000 children in America s foster care system. Last year, over 119,000 foster children waiting to be adopted were not able to be placed with permanent families. This instability in their lives is compounded by the fact that they are frequently shuffled from one temporary placement to another or placed in settings in which there is too little individual adult supervision. Often they age out of the system without ever finding the lifelong connection to a family they deserve. Imagine going through life without the love and support of a family. Ask anyone charged with finding families for these children and they will tell you that it is a daunting task. Most prospective adoptive parents are hoping to adopt babies. Often they do not feel they have the capacity to care for the waiting children who are older, many of whom have significant physical or emotional needs, or are part of a group of siblings in other words, most of the nearly 119,000 children waiting to be adopted. The impact of this is significant. Research shows that when children age out of the system without a lifelong family connection they are far more likely to become homeless, drop out of school, or be incarcerated. Finding the right home for each child is also challenging because all children have different needs. Some children do better when there are other children in the home. Others need more individual attention. While some will do better with a two-parent family, others will do equally well with only one parent. All potential parents are put through a rigorous screening process to determine which are capable of providing a safe, stable, nurturing family life for a particular child. The responsibility to match a waiting child with the best possible adoptive setting rests with trained placement caseworkers. There are never enough families for these waiting children. So the task of finding a good family for each waiting child can be extremely difficult. An urgent need exists to try to bridge this gap between the number of children needing families and the number of families willing to love and care for these vulnerable children. That s why there is widespread agreement throughout the child welfare profession that every individual or couple interested in adopting or fostering should be considered. We simply cannot afford to systematically exclude any group of caring and loving people from an already limited pool of prospective parents. Laws and policies that ban lesbians and gay men from adopting and fostering fly in the face of well-developed child welfare policy and standards by depriving children of willing and able parents. Foreword v

8 Each prospective adoptive or foster parent should be assessed on a case-by-case basis with the overriding determining factor being the ability to love, nurture, and care for a child in need of a family. CWLA backs up this assertion through the development and dissemination of our practice standards, known as the Standards of Excellence for Child Welfare Services, which are widely viewed as benchmarks for high-quality services that protect children and youth and strengthen families and neighborhoods. Until recently, elected officials across the country deferred to the child welfare professionals judgment that the system of case-by-case evaluations is the best practice. In fact, only one state in the country, Florida, bans all gay people from adopting, placing it well outside the mainstream of accepted child welfare practice. The state passed the ban in 1977 in response to an anti-gay crusade led by Anita Bryant, who was a singer and spokesperson for the Florida orange juice industry. Relying on harmful stereotypes about gay people, Bryant helped convince the legislature that the ban was needed to protect children. At the time this law passed, there was little social science research about gay parenting to debunk the myths and stereotypes on which Bryant based her campaign. But in the nearly three decades since the Florida law went into effect, many social science studies have been conducted on the ability of gay people to parent and the development of their children. It has now been established by the research that gay people are just as capable of being good parents as heterosexual or straight people, and that their children are just as likely to be healthy and well-adjusted. Not a single reputable study has found that children raised by gay or lesbian parents have been harmed because of their parents sexual orientation in any way. Because of this research and because exclusions based on traits other than one s ability to be a good parent are contrary to good child welfare policy and practice, the Child Welfare League of America has issued a public statement supporting the parenting of children by lesbians and gay men, and condemning attempts to restrict competent, caring adults from serving as foster and/or adoptive parents. I am happy to report that CWLA is joined by every other major child health and welfare organization in this regard. These other organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the National Association of Social Workers, and the North American Council on Adoptable Children. None of these organizations would take such a strong and unequivocal stand on an issue unless they were able to do so upon the basis of sound social science, established practice, and our collective expertise in serving children and families. In recent years, however, we have witnessed a disturbing trend. Lawmakers in various regions of the country have ignored sound child welfare policy by introducing ill-conceived legislation to ban gay people from adopting and foster parenting. One does not have to look too closely to realize that this legislation is about politics, not protecting children. Prohibiting lesbians and gay men who vi TOO HIGH A PRICE

9 wish to become parents from doing so goes against decades of science and child welfare practice. Moreover, it does nothing to alleviate our current child welfare crisis. We need more permanent families for our foster children, not fewer. So it is with great pleasure that I introduce the American Civil Liberties Union s new edition of Too High a Price. This book gets it right. It provides chilling stories of how children are harmed by restrictions on gay parenting. It outlines the child welfare crisis we are facing and explains why laws that ban gay people from adopting and fostering don t protect children but make it harder to find homes for the many children in need. And by detailing the many social science studies about gay parents and their children, it lays to rest any lingering doubts about the ability of gay people to be good parents. Misconceptions and stereotypes about gay people are especially harmful when they are used to deny children the chance to grow up in a loving, secure family. There are few easy solutions when it comes to the myriad challenges facing those who have dedicated their lives to serving children and families, but the call to prevent and eliminate laws that deny children homes is one that we all must answer. Doing so furthers our efforts to ensure that every single child in need of the love and support that only a family can offer is given every opportunity to find just that. It is time that our lawmakers put political gain aside and truly put the best interests of children first. By Shay Bilchik, President and CEO, Child Welfare League of America Foreword vii

10 Preface S ince the first edition of this book was published in 2002, nearly a dozen state legislatures have considered bills that would ban lesbians and gay men from adopting and/or serving as foster parents. Thanks primarily to the efforts of local child welfare advocates who understand how much more difficult such laws would make it to place the many children in need of families, these bills have all failed. But anti-gay activists are motivated as never before and will continue to push this type of legislation, regardless of the terrible consequences for children. This book explains why laws that put restrictions on parenting by gay people are bad child welfare policy and why they are ultimately most harmful to the children they purport to protect. Chapter 1 provides information about the prevalence of gay people raising children across the country. An overview of the legal landscape on gay parenting is provided in Chapter 2. This includes a summary of the laws related to custody and visitation, as well as adoption and fostering, by lesbians and gay men. Chapter 3 details the positions all the major children s health and welfare organizations have taken opposing restrictions on gay parenting. Chapters 4 and 5 then address the bases for these groups positions. Chapter 4 outlines the social science research proving that gay people are equally capable parents and raise children who are just as healthy and well-adjusted as their peers. This chapter includes summaries of 25 of the leading studies. And Chapter 5 discusses how blanket restrictions, such as bans on adoption by gay people, are contrary to well-established child welfare policy because they throw away qualified prospective parents and reduce children s chances of finding families. This chapter includes a discussion of the desperate shortage of adoptive parents to meet the needs of children waiting to be adopted, and how children are affected when denied the love and stability of a family. Finally, Chapter 6 looks at the arguments and myths that have been used to justify anti-gay parenting laws and explains why they are wrong with point-by-point responses. Obviously, laws that ban gay people from adopting and fostering are of critical importance to the LGBT community because labeling a group of people unfit to parent is an attack on their very humanity. But those who bear the real burden of such laws are the more than 100,000 parentless children who cannot afford to have any opportunity to find a good home taken away. Ultimately, these laws affect everyone because children who grow up without families are much less likely to grow into responsible adults. Young people who age out of the foster care system are at a stunningly high risk of dropping out of school, being unemployed, experiencing homelessness, and getting involved with drugs and criminal activity. As a society, we should be leaving no stone unturned to find families for these children. And we should not be enacting laws that will result in more children being condemned to life without a family. We encourage you to use the information contained in this book to educate your local lawmakers. Let them know that ignoring the needs of children in order to make a political statement against gay people is not acceptable. Let them know that we can t afford to jeopardize the futures of so many children. viii TOO HIGH A PRICE

11 Acknowledgments This book has benefited from the time, energy, and insight of many people. We would like to express our appreciation to the following individuals. Prof. Judith Stacey, Prof. Michael Lamb, and Rob Woronoff of the Child Welfare League of America for their expert counsel Jason Cianciotto of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute for his valuable input Edward Hernstadt and Frankfurt, Kurnit, Klein & Selz PC for providing legal review ACLU Lesbian and Gay Rights Project public education interns Mandy Hu, Zoey Chenitz, Tina Musa, and law clerk Peter Friedman for their tireless research assistance Matt Coles, James Esseks, Marissa Gonzalez, Chris Hampton, Rose Saxe, Mick Schommer, and Riah Buchanan of the ACLU for their many valuable contributions to this publication. We also want to acknowledge the authors of the previous edition of this book upon whose work we have built Eric Ferrero, Joshua Freker, and Travis Foster. Acknowledgments ix

12 x TOO HIGH A PRICE

13 CHAPTER 1 The Lay of the Land: Gay Parenting Across the Country While the lesbian baby boom that began in the 1980s has brought increased public awareness to parenting by lesbians and gay men, the reality is that there have always been gay parents. At least initially, most gay people became parents through prior heterosexual relationships. But several developments helped to bring about an increase in the number of lesbian and gay individuals and couples choosing to start families. Greater acceptance and understanding of gay people encouraged many to seek to become parents. Advances in reproductive technology made it easier for both lesbians and gay men to have children. And the child welfare crisis in the country has resulted in a huge increase in the number of children in need of parents, and many lesbians and gay men have stepped up to take care of them. At the same time these changes were taking place, society s notion of family was also evolving. Many children are now raised in single-parent families, families in which the parents have divorced, families formed by unmarried heterosexual couples, and families headed by grandparents and other extended family members. In fact, the 2000 U.S. Census found that fewer than 24% of homes were composed of a husband, wife, and children under age eighteen. 1 This rapid change in the traditional family dynamic has struck fear in some, who have found an easy target in gay people raising children. Relying on baseless stereotypes about gay people, anti-gay activists have increasingly pushed for laws and policies that restrict the ability of gay people to parent. This book provides a comprehensive look at the legal landscape affecting lesbian and gay parents and explains why laws restricting the ability of gay people to parent are wrong and harmful to society. This chapter begins with an overview of the prevalence of gay parents in this country. It is difficult to know exactly how many gay parents are raising children in the United States, primarily because it is difficult if not impossible to know the number of lesbians and gay men in this country. The government census does not ask people to identify their sexual orientation. Estimates on the number of gay parents rely on much-debated guesses at what percentage of the entire population is lesbian, gay, or The Lay of the Land 1

14 bisexual. A widely regarded study by the University of Chicago, The National Health and Social Life Survey, deduced that from 2.7 to 4.9 percent of males are gay and from 1.3 to 4.1 percent of females are lesbian. 2 Because we do not know how many gay people there are generally, it is difficult to know how many are raising children. Social scientists have estimated from the National Health and Social Life Survey that anywhere from one to nine million children, or between 1% to 12% of all children, are being raised by a gay parent. 3 The lower figures represent a very narrow definition of who is gay. While those estimates do not rely on any kind of official count of gay people, there is some official information about gay people and families with gay parents. The 2000 Census was able to identify families headed by same-sex couples, for the first time, through an unmarried partners designation. It counted 601,209 same-sex couples living together in the United States, 4 and found that one third of the female same-sex couples and one fifth of the male same-sex couples reported having children under eighteen in the home. 5 But it is highly likely that there are many more same-sex couples raising families in the United States. Many people probably are hesitant to identify themselves as gay to the government, and many same-sex couples likely were unaware that they could use the unmarried partner classification. It should also be noted that the Census does not count single lesbians and gay men raising children. Another source of information on the number of gay and lesbian parent is a Kaiser Family Foundation national study of 405 randomly selected, self-identified lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals conducted in The study found that 8% of the participants were parents or legal guardians of a child under eighteen who lived in their home. The Kaiser survey also asked gay people about their desire to become parents. Among those who were not parents at the time of the survey, almost half (49%) said they would like to have children of their own some day. 6 Finally, we also know that gay and lesbian couples with children live in communities across the country. The 2000 Census found that same-sex couples with children live in 96% of all counties nationwide. 7 For entire generations of lesbians and gay men, parenting did not seem to be an option. As more gay people are able to live their lives openly and truthfully, it is inevitable that more will become parents. 2 TOO HIGH A PRICE

15 CHAPTER 2 The Bigger Picture: Gay Parenting and the Legal Landscape Decisions about adoption and child custody are generally made by child welfare professionals and family court judges at the local level. A few states have explicit rules (either through statutes or appellate court decisions) about parenting by gay people and whether sexual orientation is a factor to consider in either adoption or custody decisions. But most states do not have any specific rules about any aspect of parenting by lesbians and gay men. In those states, child welfare officials and family court judges decide for themselves how sexual orientation should be taken into account in making adoption and custody decisions and, indeed, if it should be taken into account at all. So, for example, one judge may refuse to approve an adoption by a lesbian even though another judge in a county just fifty miles away might have approved twenty of them. The relatively small number of specific rules make it difficult to generalize about the law on lesbian and gay parenting. Moreover, the landscape changes at the local level as judges retire and as society s views about gay parents mature. What follows is an overview of each area of gay parenting and existing rules at the time this book was published. Custody and Visitation Many if not most of the children being raised by lesbians and gay men were conceived during their parents previous heterosexual relationships. When these gay parents come out of the closet and separate from their spouses, their ability to sustain their relationships with their kids often depends on the views of individual family court judges. In some of the worst instances of anti-gay discrimination, judges have denied parents custody or visitation solely because of their sexual orientation. Fortunately, the legal landscape for lesbian and gay parents in custody and visitation proceedings is no longer as bleak as it once was. Most appeals courts that have considered the question have ruled that sexual orientation alone is not a basis to deny a parent custody of or visitation with his or her child. 8 This does not mean The Bigger Picture 3

16 that these states are entirely free of discrimination against gay parents, but that judges cannot overtly discriminate as they once could. Custody decisions are governed by the open-ended best interests of the child standard. In some cases, judges have applied this test unfairly to gay parents, finding some pretext for ruling against them. In stark contrast to the majority of the cases, which do not permit discrimination in custody and visitation decisions, a handful of state supreme courts have fully endorsed the denial of custody based on parents lesbian or gay orientation. High courts in Alabama, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Virginia have affirmed lower court rulings that denied custody based on parents sexual orientation or samesex relationship. 9 In a 2002 custody case before the Alabama Supreme Court involving a lesbian mother, although the ruling had nothing to do with the mother s sexual orientation, the court s chief justice took the opportunity to proclaim that homosexuality alone makes a person unfit to be a parent because it is abhorrent, immoral, detestable, a crime against nature, and a violation of the laws of nature and of nature s God. 10 DAVID WEIGAND, MISSISSIPPI After David Weigand and his wife Machelle got divorced in 1987, David did not oppose Machelle having custody of their son Paul. This was a decision he would later regret. After the divorce, David came out, moved to Lake Forest, California, fell in love, and settled down with his partner, Wayne Fields. But while David was building a stable life in California, Machelle unfortunately was living in a violent home. According to court opinions, 11 she married Jeff Houghton, an abusive convicted felon. They were evicted from an apartment complex because the apartment manager couldn t bear the physical abuse that Jeff was inflicting on Machelle. At a subsequent trial over Paul s custody, the manager testified: We hate for anyone to move, but I really feared for Machelle s life. This man had beat her so many times, you know, that it was unreal. And I told her, I said, Machelle, due to the circumstances, I said, if he kills you, I don t want this on my conscious[sic], and I think it would be best if you moved. 12 The domestic abuse reached a crisis in 1996 when Jeff was arrested for hitting Machelle on the face in Paul s presence. A few months later, Jeff, who was drunk at the time, knocked out the driver s side window where Machelle was sitting in the car, again in Paul s presence. When Paul started to scream, Jeff threatened to kill him. This time, Paul ran into the house and called TOO HIGH A PRICE

17 Soon after Jeff s second arrest, David asked the Mississippi courts to modify the earlier custody agreement and award him custody of Paul in light of the abuse in Paul s home. The facts presented at trial established David and Wayne to be a stable, faithful couple. Similarly, it was undisputed that David had fostered a good relationship with his son. David always took advantage of every opportunity to be with Paul when his visitation allowed and provided him with everything he needed. David encouraged Paul s writing talents and worked with him to get his stories published to better his chance of getting into a good college. Even though Paul was forced to live in an extremely violent environment, astoundingly, the Mississippi court refused to transfer custody, concluding that because David is gay and in a same-sex relationship, he lacked the moral fitness to be a good parent. With the help of the ACLU, David appealed the decision to the Mississippi Supreme Court. But again, the court refused to modify custody. Sadly, David s story is not unique for lesbian and gay parents. The ACLU has been involved in similar custody and visitation matters in other states. But this story fortunately ends with the child living in a safe home: eventually, the California courts took control of the case and awarded David custody of Paul. Another issue that sometimes arises for lesbian and gay parents is the imposition of restrictions on their custody or visitation. The most common restriction experienced by gay parents is a prohibition against living with their partners while having custody of or visiting with their children. For example in Georgia, Jean Ann Vawter divorced her husband in 1994 and was granted sole custody of their children. Vawter later met a woman, fell in love, and had a commitment ceremony in The two women bought a house and lived together with Vawter s children. According to papers filed in court, Vawter s ex-husband went back to the family court in 1999 and asked that his ex-wife be held in contempt for exposing the couple s children to a meretricious relationship. The judge ordered Vawter to immediately take her children and move away from her partner because he found their relationship to be unwholesome. The Georgia Supreme Court refused to take Vawter s appeal. Judges have also prohibited overnight visits by same-sex partners, involvement with gay political/social activities, contact with other gay people in general, and the expression of affection towards a partner in the presence of the children. These kinds of restrictions rest on assumptions that gay people will engage in inappropriate behavior around their children and appear to be attempts to hide the reality of the parent s sexual orientation from the children. Fortunately, most state appeals courts that have addressed this issue have rejected these kinds of restrictions, saying they are permissible only if there is proven harm to the child. 14 But high courts in The Bigger Picture 5

18 Alabama and Virginia have upheld restrictions on partners living in the home or being in the presence of children. 15 Adoption by Gay Individuals Most states do not have any laws or policies that say anything one way or the other about the eligibility of lesbians and gay men to adopt children because contemporary child welfare law and policy focuses on qualities that affect someone s ability to take care of a child, not demographic characteristics. This was not always the case. There was a time when single people, older people, and other types of individuals were excluded from adopting children. But child welfare practice has long rejected such exclusions. Florida is the only state with a law that specifically disqualifies all gay people from adopting, regardless of the circumstances. The law, which was passed in 1977 in response to the notorious anti-gay campaign led by entertainer Anita Bryant, provides that [n]o person eligible to adopt under this statute may adopt if that person is a homosexual. 16 No other state has such a sweeping exclusion. However, over the past few years, legislators in a number of other states, including Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia, have tried to pass similar bans. While these attempts have all failed, these bills keep coming back. On the opposite end of the spectrum are states like California, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, and New York, which have statutes or state policies that expressly prohibit discrimination against lesbians and gay men in the adoption process. 17 In addition, it is clear that an individual s lesbian or gay orientation is not a basis for exclusion from consideration as an adoptive parent in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Washington, D.C., because those states have statutes or appellate court decisions expressly permitting lesbians and gay men to petition to adopt their partner s children. 18 In the rest of the states, the treatment of lesbians and gay men seeking to adopt children is up to local child welfare authorities and judges. Some will routinely approve adoptions by lesbian and gay parents. Some will not even consider gay applicants. In states where courts have displayed disapproval of lesbian and gay parents in other contexts (e.g., Alabama, Mississippi, and Virginia), case workers may feel less comfortable approving placements with lesbians and gay men. Even where there is no formal or informal bar to adoption by lesbians and gay men, local authorities in some states may still give preferences to married couples, or even to single heterosexuals, over gay applicants. WAYNE SMITH AND DAN SKAHEN, FLORIDA Key West attorney Wayne LaRue Smith was aware that Florida has a law that bans gay people from adopting, but that didn t stop him and his partner Dan Skahen, a local real estate broker, from wanting to raise 6 TOO HIGH A PRICE

19 children. After years of talking both between themselves and with their extended families, they eventually realized that they didn t just want to be parents; they wanted to help children who didn t have anyone else. The couple, who have been together thirteen years, considered leaving the state and moving somewhere with more favorable laws on gay parenting. But ultimately, they decided that the best way to help the many children in Florida in need of homes was to try to get the law changed. We realized that there were probably a lot more people like us out there who would be willing to provide homes to a child in need, said Wayne, so we decided to stay and fight. Wayne and Dan joined the legal challenge brought by the ACLU seeking to strike down the Florida law. In the meantime, they decided that they could help children by becoming foster parents. While Florida bans gay people from adopting, it does not ban them from serving as foster parents. In fact, Florida s Department of Children and Families often relies on lesbians and gay men to provide homes to its foster children. The couple took the required parenting course and welcomed their first foster child into their home in They have taken care of 25 children since. Many of these children were with them for short periods, ultimately being reunited with their birth parents or placed with other relatives. But since 2001, Wayne and Dan have been raising two boys, now ages eight and nine. The family court judges overseeing their placements have terminated the parental rights of each boy s biological parents, and the children are thriving under the couple s care. They re like all brothers that close in age, said Wayne, One minute they re best friends, the next they re fighting. Wayne and Dan would love to be able to adopt the boys to give them the family stability they deserve, but unfortunately the federal courts upheld the law barring them from adopting. The family court judge handling the younger boy s placement issued a novel order transferring legal custody of the child to the couple in order to make sure he could stay permanently with his family. They are hoping to eventually get a similar order with regard to their older child. The uncertainty about whether they all will be able to remain together as a family has been difficult. Not wanting to make their older son feel left out, they ve been afraid to tell the younger child that he now has a permanent home. We can t tell one he has a permanent home and not the other, said Wayne. When they ask and they do all the time the best we can say is if we have our way, this will be your home forever. It s so unfair that these children have to suffer because a group of state lawmakers bought into a bunch of lies about gay people. The Bigger Picture 7

20 Joint Adoption by Gay Couples Generally, lesbian and gay individuals find it easier to adopt than a same-sex couple seeking to adopt a child together. For many same-sex couples, one partner adopts the child and then the other partner subsequently asks a court if he or she can also adopt the child through a second legal procedure. This is one way to use what is known as second-parent or co-parent adoption (see below). If possible, it makes much more sense and costs less money to avoid the two steps. Joint adoption allows both parents to have a legally recognized relationship with their child from the outset and in just one step. It is particularly difficult to know where joint adoptions for same-sex couples have been approved because this is a newer trend, and there is no uniform way of tracking these adoptions. Indiana, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Washington, D.C. all have court decisions that explicitly permit joint adoption by lesbian and gay couples. 19 In addition, in Vermont, Connecticut, and California, those states civil union and domestic partnership laws allow registered couples to adopt jointly. 20 In some other states, such as Oregon, joint adoption by lesbian and gay couples is almost routine, at least in certain parts of the state, despite no appeals court decision or statute specifically addressing the issue. Mississippi is the only state in the country with a law that specifically bars lesbian and gay couples from adopting, 21 although Utah s ban on adoption by individuals who are cohabiting 22 effectively excludes all gay couples. Oklahoma passed a law in 2004 that bars recognition of joint adoptions by same-sex couples that were done in other states. That law says that Oklahoma shall not recognize an adoption by more than one individual of the same sex from any other state or foreign jurisdiction. 23 The law was struck down by a federal district court in 2006, but the state has appealed (see page 14). As previously mentioned, states with law that is generally hostile to gay parents (e.g., Alabama, Mississippi, and Virginia) are likely to be difficult places for gay people to adopt individually, let alone jointly. Second-Parent Adoption If a same-sex couple is raising a child conceived through donor insemination or surrogacy, in most states, only the biological parent automatically has a legally recognized tie to the child. The same is true if one partner adopts a child. In a number of states, same-sex couples can establish a legal parent-child relationship for both partners by obtaining what is known as a second-parent adoption (also known as a co-parent adoption ). In a second-parent adoption, the partner of the biological/adoptive parent adopts the child without ending the legal relationship with the first parent, providing full parental rights and responsibilities for both parents. This is a procedure similar to that often used by married heterosexual step-parents. As with other areas of gay parenting, it is difficult to paint a comprehensive portrait of which states allow second-parent adoptions. These adoptions, like other adoptions, are approved by local family court judges. 8 TOO HIGH A PRICE

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