a consequence of Heisenberg’s Uncertaintyprinciple. Thesequantum fluctuations can result in transformations between different material states. Ifthesephase transitions

occur at absolute zero they are referred to asquantum-critical points, the study ofwhich has delivered many surprising new findings in recent years.

When scientists know beyond all reasonabledoubt that a particular principle is the case, then itis dubbed a law. Laws address the fact thatcertain things happen, as well as how theyhappen. A theory, on the other hand, attemptsto explain why things happen.

By definition, anidea that is dubbed a theory has yet to be fullyproven, and such is the case with the atomictheory of matter.

What is heat? How does heat transfer take place? What are the effects onmatter when heat transfers from one body to another?

Heat transfer is a process by which internal energy from one substance transfers to anothersubstance. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and the changes that result from it.

The basic effect of heat transfer is that theparticles of one substance collide with theparticles of another substance. The moreenergetic substance will typically lose internalenergy (i.e. "cool down") while the less energeticsubstance will gain internal energy (i.e. "heat up").

The most blatant effect of this in our day-to-daylife is a phase transition, where a substancechanges from onestate of matter

to another

Heat Capacity

Theheat capacity

of an object helps define how that object's temperature responds toabsorbing or transmitting heat. Heat capacity is defined as the change in heat divided bythe change in temperature.

Laws of Thermodynamics

Heat transfer is guided by some basic principles which have become known as the lawsof thermodynamics, which define how heat transfer relates to work done by a systemand place some limitations on what it is possible for a system to achieve

Heat

A form of energyassociated with themotion of atoms ormolecules andcapable of beingtransmitted throughsolid and fluid mediaby conduction,through fluid mediaby convection, andthrough emptyspace by radiation.

The simplest way to describe a state of matter is that it indicates how much heat is contained within themolecules of the substance. The more heat that is added, the more the molecules move and the harderit is for them to stay close together.The state of matter is dependent therefore upon both thetemperature and pressure of a given substance.

There are essentially 5 states of matter:

gas

liquid

solid

plasma

superfluid (such as a Bose-Einstein Condensate)

In common experience, you will typically only run into the first three-

solids,liquids and gases.

Plasma is actually the most abundant state of matter in the universe, because itis the state that exists inside stars that are undergoing nuclear fusion. Balllightning is an example of plasma that manifests on the Earth.

Superfluids exist only for certain types of molecules when they are cooled totemperatures near absolute zero, when quantum effects begin to manifest.

Substances can go through a number of transitions between theirstates:

condensation-

gas to liquid

fusion (or freezing)-

liquid to solid

melting-

solid to liquid

sublimation

-

solid to gas

vaporization-

liquid or solid to gas

As mentioned before, these transitions are governed for a givensubstance by the temperature and pressure

Sublimation

is the term for when matter undergoesa phase transition directly from a solid to gaseousform, or vapor, without passing through the morecommon liquid phase between the two. It is aspecific case of vaporization.

The current measurements of magnetization and length changes when a magnetic field is appliedYbRh2Si2 gave the researchers proof of the fundamental difference of quantum phases compared toclassical phase transitions as listed on previous page.

Whereas in the latter example, the physics can be described fully by the fluctuation of one orderparameter, in this case the molecule density, there is an additional change to the properties at thequantum critical point in YbRh2Si2.

"Our measurements," says Phillip Gegenwart, who until recently headed the Low Temperaturescompetence group at the Max Planck Institute in Dresden and is now Professor at the 1st PhysicalInstitute at the University of Göttingen,"prove the existence of another energy scale at the quantumcritical point that cannot be explained by the fluctuations of magnetic order parameters". Theanalysis shows that the additional energy scale can be traced back to a change in the electronicproperties, or more precisely, a change of the Fermi volume. In classical phase transition, these effectsdo not occur

March 5, 2007

A team of German and American researchers observe a new phase transition

The results show that unexpected behavior, which cannot be reconciled with thecurrent theoretical model, occurs repeatedly in the quantum world. This motivatestheoreticians, such as the participating American researchers Qimiao Si from RiceUniversity and Elihu Abrahams from Rutgers University, to search for newapproaches in order to gain a better understanding of quantum systems. Newtheoretical models are needed to better understand the complicated behavior ofmodern complex systems, such as the high-temperature superconductor.

Quantum Effects Make the Difference

The atomic constituents of matter are never still, even at absolute zero (-273.15degrees Celsius). This consequence of quantum mechanics can result in continuoustransition between different material states

.Until now, it has been assumed that the properties of a transition of thisnature can be described completely with the fluctuations of one parameter,in this case, magnetic order. However, the experiments that have now beenpublished reveal, completely unexpectedly, an additional change to theelectronic properties of the transition. It confirms again that quantumeffects can result in phenomena that are inconceivable in classical physics.On the one hand, the results extend the general understanding of phasetransitions and, on the other, are also relevant to complex systems, such ashigh-temperature superconductors

the mechanism that results in thecreation of high-temperaturesuperconductivity is still not understood,more than 20 years after its discovery.

The relationship of temperature, motions, conduction, and heatenergy

The nature of kinetic energy, translational motion, and temperature

At its simplest, “temperature” arises from thekinetic energy

of the vibrational motions of matter’s particle constituents(molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles). The full varietyof these kinetic motions contribute to the total heat energy ina substance.

The

thermodynamic temperature of anybulk quantity

of asubstance (a statistically significant quantity of particles) isdirectly proportional to the average—or “mean”—kineticenergy of a specific kind of particle motion known astranslational motion.

Internal energy

The total kinetic energy of all particle motion—including that of conduction electrons—plus thepotential energy of phase changes, plus zero-pointenergy comprise theinternal energy

of a substance,which is its total heat energy. The terminternal energy

mustn’t be confused withinternal degrees of freedom.

Whereas theinternal degrees of freedom of molecules

refers to one particular place where kinetic energy isbound, theinternal energy of a substance

comprisesall forms of heat energy.

Theelectron, which is a fermion, isbound to the nucleus byphotons,which are bosons. The wholeshebang together forms atoms.Atoms form molecules. Moleculesform objects.

Energy transmitted through space or through a material medium inthe form ofelectromagnetic waves. The term can also refer to theemission and propagation of such energy. Whenever an electriccharge oscillates or is accelerated, a disturbance characterized bythe existence of electric and magnetic fields propagates outwardfrom it. This disturbance is called anelectromagnetic wave. Thefrequency range of such waves is tremendous, as is shown by theelectromagnetic spectrum in the table. The sources given aretypical, but not mutually exclusive

In theory, anyelectromagnetic radiation

can be detected by itsheating effect. This method has actually been used over the rangefrom x-rays to radio. ionization effects measured by cloud chambers,photographic emulsions, ionization chambers, and Geiger countershave been used in the γ-

and x-ray regions

Radiation made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields andpropagated with the speed of light. Electromagnetic radiationincludes gamma radiation, X rays, ultraviolet radiation, visibleradiation, infrared radiation, radar, and radio waves.

"The more I study physics,

the more I am drawn to metaphysics."

~ Albert Einstein

•

Conduction

is when heat flows through a heated solid.

•

Convection

is when heated particles transfer heat toanother substance, such as cooking something in boilingwater.

•

Radiation

is when heat is transferred throughelectromagnetic waves, such as from the sun. Radiation cantransfer heat through empty space, while the other twomethods require some form of matter-on-matter contact forthe transfer.

Under the kinetic theory, theinternal energy of a substance isgenerated from the motion ofindividual atoms or molecules.Heat energy is the form of energywhich transfers this energy fromone body or system to another.This heat transfer can take place ina number of ways:

Heat transfer (also called thermaltransfer) can occur only if atemperature difference exists,and then only in the direction ofdecreasing temperature.

Practically all of the energy that reaches the earth comes from the sun. Intercepted firstby the atmosphere, a small part is directly absorbed, particularly by certain gases suchas ozone and water vapor. Some energy is reflected back to space by clouds and theearth's surface. Most of the radiation, however, is absorbed by the surface.

If you were standing next to the camp stove, you would be warmed by theradiation

emitted by the gas flame. Aportion of the radiant energy generated by the gas flame is absorbed by the frying pan and the pot of water. By theprocess ofconduction, this energy is transferred through the pot and pan. If you reached for the metal handle ofthe frying pan without using a potholder, you would burn your fingers! As the temperature of the water at thebottom of the pot increases, this layer of water moves upward and is replaced by cool water descending fromabove. Thusconvection

currents that redistribute the newly acquired energy throughout the pot are established.

Radiation is the transfer of heat energyby electromagnetic wave motion. Thetransfer of energy from the sun acrossnearly empty space is accomplishedprimarily by radiation. Radiation occurswithout the involvement of a physicalsubstance as the medium. The sunemits many forms of electromagneticradiation in varying quantities. About43% of the total radiant energy emittedfrom the sun is in the visible parts of thespectrum. The bulk of the remainder liesin the near-infrared (49%) andultraviolet section (7%). Less than 1% ofsolar radiation is emitted as x-rays,gamma waves, and radio waves.

There is a natural phenomenathat has a real physiologicaleffect on someone without achange in the air temperature.

Draughts are the obviousexample but there are others.

Draughts and convection Air is almost always on the move in aroom, even with the door and windows closed. This is because thesurfaces of some objects are at different temperatures to others.Heat will be exchanged between the objects in an attempt toequalize the temperature. This is done mainly through convection.

Some people suggest that the coldnessof a cold spot indicates that heat hasbeen abstracted for some paranormalprocess. If so, it is curious becauseheat is about the worst source ofenergy you could choose.

Convection and Heat

As indicated in the preceding paragraph,convection is related closely to heat andtemperature and indirectly related to anotherphenomenon, thermal energy. What peoplenormally callheat

is actually thermal energy, orkinetic energy (the energy associated withmovement) produced by molecules in motionrelative to one another.

Some concepts and phenomena crossdisciplinary boundaries within the earthsciences, an example being the physicalprocess of convection. It is of equalrelevance to scientists working in thegeologic, atmospheric, and hydrologicsciences, or the realms of study concernedwith the geosphere, atmosphere, andhydrosphere, respectively.

Convection

can be defined as verticalcirculation that results from differences indensity ultimately brought about bydifferences in temperature, and it involves thetransfer of heat through the motion of hot fluidfrom one place to another. In the physicalsciences, the term fluid refers to anysubstance that flows and therefore has nodefinite shape. This usually means liquids andgases, but in the earth sciences it can refereven to slow-flowing solids.

Heat Transfer Through Convection

Like conduction and unlike radiation,convection requires a medium. However, inconduction the heat is transferred from onemolecule to another, whereas in convectionthe heated fluid itself is actually moving. Asit does, it removes or displaces cold air in itspath. The flow of heated fluid in thissituation is called a convection current.

CONDUCTION: Conduction occurs when two object at different temperatures are incontact with each other. Heat flows from the warmer to the cooler object until theyare both at the same temperature. Conduction is the movement of heat through asubstance by the collision of molecules. At the place where the two object touch, thefaster-moving molecules of the warmer object collide with the slower movingmolecules of the cooler object. As they collide, the faster molecules give up some oftheir energy to the slower molecules. The slower molecules gain more thermalenergy and collide with other molecules in the cooler object. This process continuesuntil heat energy from the warmer object spreads throughout the cooler object.Some substances conduct heat more easily than others. Solids are better conductorthan liquids and liquids are better conductor than gases. Metals are very goodconductors of heat, while air is very poor conductor of heat. You experience heattransfer by conduction whenever you touch something that is hotter or colder thanyour skin e.g. when you wash your hands in warm or cold water.

Conduction

is the transfer of heat by direct contact of particles of matter.The transfer of energy could be primarily by elastic impact as in fluids orby free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or phonon vibration aspredominant in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred byconduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or aselectrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is greater in solids, whereatoms are in constant contact. In liquids (except liquid metals) and gases,the molecules are usually further apart, giving a lower chance ofmolecules colliding and passing on thermal energy.

Though it is less obvious than convection, cold spots can also becreated by radiative heat loss.

When you stand directly in front of an electric fire or radiator, you willfeel heat. Less well known is that people can LOSE heat in the sameway. If you stand directly in front of a cold object, such as an un-curtained window on a cold night, you will feel colder. Your body isradiating heat in all directions. However, it will radiate more, to maintainits temperature, in the direction of cold objects. This additional loss ofheat will be felt as cooling. Generally, you need to be quite close to acool object to get the radiative loss. Like a heater, if there is anythingbetween you and cool object, you may not feel the effect. Likeconvection, a conventional thermometer will not register this apparenttemperature drop.

Objects emit radiation when high energyelectrons in a higher atomic level fall down tolower energy levels. The energy lost isemitted as light or electromagnetic radiation.Energy that is absorbed by an atom causesits electrons to "jump" up to higher energylevels. All objects absorb and emit radiation.absorption of energy balances the emission ofenergy, the temperature of an object staysconstant. If the absorption of energy is greaterthan the emission of energy, the temperatureof an object rises. If the absorption of energyis less than the emission of energy, thetemperature of an object falls.

Radiant heat is produced by surfaces (such as walls, windows,furniture, etc.). The temperature of the heat given off is directly relatedto the temperature of the surface ('black body radiation') and NOT tothe surrounding air. It is radiant heat that is measured by those infra-red ('laser') thermometers that you point and shoot. Radiant heat goesstraight to other surfaces nearby, including people.

Through rudimentary physical science we know that when a natural temperature differential in an area occurs it isunderstood to be the result of a physical interaction caused by the convection process where warm and cool air massescollide and the warm air rises and the cooler air sinks. However, when dealing with the subject of paranormal cold spotswe know that research indicates this particular type of manifestation occurs on the infrared wavelength of theelectromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Infrared energy is experienced as heat though, so that explanation seems to take us inthe opposite direction of the answer we are looking for…or does it?

The key here is that generation of heat only occurs in the case of IR (infrared) radiation. Speaking strictly from thestandpoint of light and not conductive radiation, we know that IR light on the EM spectrum is expressed as:

Wavelength: 0.01-

7x10 to the negative fifth (-5th ) power

Frequency: 3x10 to the twelfth (-12th) power to 4.3x10 to the fourteenth power (14th)

Energy: 0.01-

2 eV (eV-

electron volts).

What this means is that although anomalous paranormal occurrences take place on the infrared portion of the EMspectrum they create a pocket of ionized air when they physically manifest in our local environment. The bioelectriccharge of the anomaly creates a weak electrical matrix in the local atmosphere when the anomaly manifests. Theelectrical matrix then ionizes the air around the area of the manifestation. The ionized air symmetrically radiates outwardfrom the point of manifestation and is experienced as a cool sensation or, as paranormal investigators calls it, a coldspot. From this explanation we understand that although the manifestation takes place in the infrared spectrum it isactually the ionized air that creates the cooling effect.

If ionized air is electrically charged and conducts a weak electrical pulse through it, the current would then spark from the

anomalous manifestation into the area around it creating a String Effect matrix, somewhat like connecting-the-dots. Howdoes this matrix work? The particle-wave duality of quantum mechanics creates a state where mediating fields, such asthose that occur during a paranormal manifestation, can be described as fields that “exchange particles” where thetransfer of momentum and energy between objects occurs. In this instance the “objects” would be the paranormalanomaly and the local environment and the “energy and momentum” would be the negatively charged electron exchangethat acts as the causation for the ionization process in the air. What this means is that, crudely speaking, the paranormalmanifestation and the local environment interact as they emit and absorb charged particles, in effect playing a subatomicgame of “catch” with electrons.

As the particulate exchange takes place the charged particles create invisible contrails, orspectral lines. These spectral lines, when affected by magnetism such as the Earth’sgeomagnetic field, split into more lines exponentially increasing their numbers. This splitting iscalled the Zeeman Effect. The pattern and amount of splitting that takes place during thisprocess are physical signatures that a magnetic field is present. All magnetic fields have acharge which is either positive or negative and the spectral lines associated with Zeemansplitting exhibit these polarization effects.Polarization, whether positive or negative, showthe direction in which the electromagnetic fields are vibrating. This in turn, can have aneffect on whether the spectral light can be observed or not and may explain the “now yousee it, now you don’t” effect when taking multiple photographs in an area where you havea paranormal anomaly in one photo but not in others. Speaking of photographs,understanding the bioelectric matrix during an anomalous manifestation can also aid usin our knowledge of paranormal photography. How? When a paranormal anomalymanifests, the bioelectric matrix around it is usually polarized with a negative chargecaused by electrons, which ionizes the air in the immediate vicinity. This polarized chargewithin an ionized local environment allows photographic devices to interpret theanomalous occurrence as a semi-solid form of manifested bioelectricity rather that a lightreflective solid as some researchers previously theorized. Some researchers or paranormalinvestigators may say that it is not possible to capture energy of this nature in a photograph. Allevidence and photos aside, in rebuttal, I would ask if they have ever seen a photo of lightening–

this effect, as explained above, is of the same nature, only in this instance we are working with alesser electrical charge.

The above processes may also offer explanations in some instances where electromagnetic“haze” is observed in paranormal photographs and may also weigh in on the subconscious levelas to why people get certain feelings of fear or dread when they

are in an area that is active with paranormal occurrences.

The velocity of a substance's moleculesdetermines its temperature; the faster themolecules move, the more volume theyrequire, and the higher the temperaturebecomes.

Amolecule

iscomprised of two ormorechemicallybonded

atoms. Theatoms may be of thesame type of element,or they may bedifferent.

Internal energy , a specific quantum ofthermodynamics

, is the sum total of the kinetic energy

of a body that has well defined boundaries, due tothe three types of movement( vibrational,rotational, translational) of molecules within thebody. It is different in proportion to the macroscopicenergy that is usually found in moving objects.Internal energy is microscopic in nature andinvisible as it is on the atomic and molecular scaleof measurement.

A ferromagnet heatedto a temperature higherthan the "Curietemperature" will loseits magnetization.However, as it iscooled, it will againdevelop a magneticfield with a specificdirection