Effects of Management Practices on Grassland Birds:

Long-Billed Curlew

This report is one in a series of literature syntheses on North American grassland birds. The need for these reports was identified by the Prairie Pothole Joint Venture (PPJV), a part of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. The PPJV adopted the goal to stabilize or increase populations of declining grassland- and wetland-associated wildlife species in the Prairie Pothole Region. To further that objective, it is essential to understand the habitat needs of birds other than waterfowl, and how management practices affect their habitats. The focus of these reports is on management of breeding habitat, particularly in the northern Great Plains.

Organization and Features of this Species Account

Information on the habitat requirements and effects of habitat management on grassland birds were
summarized from information in more than 5,500 published and unpublished papers. A range map is
provided to indicate the relative densities of the species in North America, based on Breeding
Bird Survey (BBS) data. Although birds frequently are observed outside the breeding range
indicated, the maps are intended to show areas where managers might concentrate their attention.
It may be ineffectual to manage habitat at a site for a species that rarely occurs in an area.
The species account begins with a brief capsule statement, which provides the fundamental components
or keys to management for the species. A section on breeding range outlines the current breeding
distribution of the species in North America, including areas that could not be mapped using BBS data.
The suitable habitat section describes the breeding habitat and occasionally microhabitat
characteristics of the species, especially those habitats that occur in the Great Plains.
Details on habitat and microhabitat requirements often provide clues to how a species will
respond to a particular management practice. A table near the end of the account complements
the section on suitable habitat, and lists the specific habitat characteristics for the species
by individual studies. A special section on prey habitat is included for those predatory
species that have more specific prey requirements. The area requirements section provides
details on territory and home range sizes, minimum area requirements, and the effects of patch
size, edges, and other landscape and habitat features on abundance and productivity. It may be
futile to manage a small block of suitable habitat for a species that has minimum area requirements
that are larger than the area being managed. The Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) is an
obligate brood parasite of many grassland birds. The section on cowbird brood parasitism summarizes
rates of cowbird parasitism, host responses to parasitism, and factors that influence parasitism,
such as nest concealment and host density. The impact of management depends, in part, upon a species'
nesting phenology and biology. The section on breeding-season phenology and site fidelity includes
details on spring arrival and fall departure for migratory populations in the Great Plains, peak
breeding periods, the tendency to renest after nest failure or success, and the propensity to
return to a previous breeding site. The duration and timing of breeding varies among regions and
years. Species' response to management summarizes the current knowledge and major findings in the
literature on the effects of different management practices on the species. The section on management
recommendations complements the previous section and summarizes specific recommendations for habitat
management provided in the literature. If management recommendations differ in different portions of
the species' breeding range, recommendations are given separately by region. The literature cited
contains references to published and unpublished literature on the management effects and habitat
requirements of the species. This section is not meant to be a complete bibliography; for a searchable, annotated bibliography of published and unpublished papers dealing with habitat needs of grassland birds and their responses to habitat management, use the Grassland and Wetland Birds Bibliography on the home page of this resource.

Figure. Breeding distribution of the Long-billed Curlew in the United States and southern Canada, based on Breeding Bird Survey data, 1985-1991. Scale represents average number of individuals detected per route per year. Map from Price, J., S. Droege, and A. Price, The Summer Atlas of North American Birds, Academic Press, 1995.

Keys to management include providing large, open, level to gently rolling grasslands with short vegetation, and tailoring grazing regimes to local conditions.

Breeding Range:

Long-billed Curlews breed from interior British Columbia and southern Alberta through southern
Manitoba, south to central California, and east to western North Dakota, central South Dakota,
central Nebraska, western Kansas, northeastern New Mexico, and northern Texas (National
Geographic Society 1987). (See figure for the relative densities of Long-billed Curlews in the
United States and southern Canada, based on Breeding Bird Survey data.)

Proximity to water may be an important factor in habitat selection (McCallum et al. 1977, Cochran and
Anderson 1987, Shackford 1987). In southeastern Colorado, 41% of 63 Long-billed Curlew observations
occurred within 91 m of standing water, and 68% of observations were within 403 m (McCallum et al.
1977). In southeastern Colorado and northwestern Texas, 39% of 354 curlew observations occurred
within 400 m of stock ponds or irrigation facilities (King 1978). In Utah, nests often were placed
near the edges of alkali flats of the Great Salt Lake (Paton and Dalton 1994). Shackford (1987)
suggested that a drop in the water table in the panhandle of Oklahoma caused Long-billed Curlews
to favor areas near irrigated fields over upland, shortgrass sites. However, in southeastern
Alberta, Long-billed Curlews were less common on wet transects (a wet transect was defined as having
wetlands intersecting the transect along >5% of its length) than on dry transects
(Gratto-Trevor 2000). Because curlews are known to return to the same area to nest each
year regardless of whether water is still available, curlews may be found nesting far from water if
water sources have disappeared (McCallum et al. 1977).

Long-billed Curlews in Colorado used shortgrass, mixed-grass, and weedy areas more than expected
based on the availability of those habitats (King 1978). They used agricultural areas (cropland,
stubble fields, and bare ground) less than expected based on availability and did not use areas
dominated by sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia). In northcentral Oregon, areas of shrubs
or areas of downy brome (Bromus tectorum) intermixed with patches of Sandberg's bluegrass
(Poa sandbergii) were preferred or used in proportion to availability by Long-billed Curlews
(Pampush 1980, Pampush and Anthony 1993). Areas of dense forbs, antelope bitterbrush (Purshia
tridentata), and bunchgrasses were used in proportion to their availability or were avoided.
If bunchgrass habitats were used by adults with broods, they always were contiguous with downy
brome areas that were being used as nesting sites.

Long-billed Curlews in Nebraska used areas in which 75% of the total vertical vegetation density
(number of plant contacts with a thin rod inserted vertically into the canopy) was found at heights
<10 cm, compared to 63% in non-use areas (Bicak 1977). Preference for areas in which vegetation
density is concentrated near ground level may be important in terms of the feeding behavior of
Long-billed Curlews or their ability to see potential predators. In the Oklahoma Panhandle, curlews
were usually observed in areas with clay loam soils on 0-1% slopes (Shackford 1987).

Curlews forage in grasslands, cultivated fields, stubble fields, wet meadows, prairie dog (Cynomys)
colonies, and occasionally along wetland margins (Silloway 1900, Salt and Wilk 1958, Johnsgard 1980,
Shackford 1987). During the incubation period in southwestern Idaho, Long-billed Curlew's prey-capture
rate was higher in areas with short grass even though prey density was higher in areas with tall grass
(vegetation measurements, prey densities, and capture rates were not given) (Bicak et al. 1982, Bicak 1983).
Pre-laying female curlews in western Idaho foraged in shortgrass pasture within their territories
during years when vegetation was short (3.6-9.7 cm tall) (Redmond 1986). However, during a year
when vegetation was dense and tall (12-15.7 cm tall, with areas as high as 40 cm tall) due to abundant
precipitation, curlews flew as far as 10 km from their territories to forage. In southcentral
Washington, Long-billed Curlews preferred to forage in areas with higher topographic diversity
(ridges and small dunes) and higher plant species diversity than in flatter areas with more homogeneous
vegetation (Allen 1980). Although breeding density also was higher in topographically diverse areas,
most nests were placed on relatively flat ground (neither the proportion of nests nor the slope of the
ground was given).

In the Platte River Valley of Nebraska, Long-billed Curlews nested at higher densities in wet meadows
than in upland prairie (Faanes and Lingle 1995). Within the sandhill grasslands of Nebraska,
proximity of mixed-grass uplands to wet meadows was the most important criterion in nest-site
selection (Bicak 1977). Wet meadows were used for feeding, loafing, and fledging young and were
aggressively defended (Bicak 1977). Curlews in Nebraska also nested on upland slopes of native
vegetation near moist meadows that were used for foraging (Johnsgard 1980). In North Dakota,
Long-billed Curlews nested on grazed mixed-grass and on shortgrass prairie (Stewart 1975).
Curlews preferred gently rolling terrain with gravelly soils. Long-billed Curlews in central
Montana nested on dry portions of the mixed-grass prairie, which were elevated above their surroundings
and located near wet meadows (Silloway 1900). Grassy floodplains adjoining a creek provided
nesting habitat in southeastern Colorado (Davis 1949).

In northern Utah, Long-billed Curlew nests were found in irrigated and non-irrigated grass pastures
and on alkali flats (Sugden 1933, Forsythe 1972, Paton and Dalton 1994). Nests in that area were built
in bunchgrasses, clumps of sedges (Carex spp.), stands of inland saltgrass
(Distichlis spicata), or saltwort (Salicornia rubra) (Forsythe 1972).

Of 21 nests in southeastern Washington, 71% were in areas dominated by a mixture of downy
brome and Sandberg's bluegrass and 29% were in areas dominated by downy brome alone (Allen 1980).
All areas with downy brome and Sandberg's bluegrass were used for nesting, whereas there were areas
which were not used for nesting that contained only downy brome. Preference for areas dominated by
the two plant species was attributed to a lower percent coverage of live (7%) and dead (65%) downy
brome in those areas than in areas dominated by downy brome alone (live: 14%; dead: 92%). Plant
communities dominated by downy brome but containing substantial amounts of tumbling mustard
(Sisymbrium altissimum), as well as other grass communities (e.g., wheatgrass [Agropyron spp.]
communities), were not used for nesting. In northcentral Oregon, mean nest density was highest in downy
brome and Sandberg's bluegrass, followed by bunchgrasses, dense forbs and shrubs, and antelope
bitterbrush (Pampush 1980, Pampush and Anthony 1993).

In northcentral Oregon, several vegetation variables differed between nesting areas and
non-nesting areas (Pampush 1980, Pampush and Anthony 1993). Compared to non-nesting areas,
nesting areas had shorter vegetation (24 vs. 29 cm at non-nesting areas), grass with less
variation in height, total vegetation with less variation in height, grass with higher
vertical density (0.8 vs. 0.2 contacts/5 cm height increment) in the 25-50 cm height
increment, and shrubs with lower total vertical density (0.02 vs. 0.05 contacts/5 cm
height increment). Nest density within study areas was negatively correlated with
vegetation height and vertical density; nest density was positively correlated with percent
cover of bare ground and with the evenness of forb height. Depredation of eggs and chicks
was high in habitats other than downy brome, possibly indicating that predators were more
dense or nests were more vulnerable in those habitats. In Wyoming, hayfields and pastures
with nests had lower percent grass cover (mean of 20 vs. 32%), had greater forb cover
(mean of 16 vs. 4%), and were drier (45 vs. 3% of random locations characterized as 'dry')
than hayfields and pastures that had no nests (Cochran and Anderson 1987).

Although Long-billed Curlews select nest sites in areas with short vegetation,
vegetation within 3-6 m of the nest may be taller than vegetation in the surrounding
habitat patch (Cochran and Anderson 1987, Paton and Dalton 1994). In Utah, habitat
patches containing nests had shorter vegetation (mean of 5.6 cm) than random habitat
patches (mean of 9.0 cm), and more bare ground 6-15 m from the nest (mean of 34-36%)
than random patches (mean of 38-39%) (Paton and Dalton 1994). At nest sites, however,
vegetation <3 m from the nest was taller (mean of 6.5 cm) than vegetation 6-15 m (mean
of 4.9-5.5 cm) from the nest and there was less bare ground <3 m from the nest (mean of
18%) than >6 m from the nest (mean of 28-39%). In Wyoming, nest sites were characterized
by less bare ground and higher percent cover of grasses (values were not given) than random
sites within hayfields and pastures that contained nests (Cochran and Anderson 1987).

Nests often are located near cowpies or other conspicuous objects, possibly for concealment
(Silloway 1900, Bent 1962, King 1978, Johnsgard 1979, Allen 1980, Cochran and Anderson 1987).
Additionally, nests often occur on hummocks, possibly to improve visibility of predators and
to prevent flooding in otherwise level fields (Cochran and Anderson 1987). Of 59 nests in
southcentral Washington, 37% were 30-100 cm from an object (e.g., big sagebrush
[Artemisia tridentata] branches, rocks, dirt mounds, horse manure, metal
cans, bunchgrasses), 31% were <30 cm from an object, 27% were immediately adjacent
to an object, and only 5% were >100 cm from an object (Allen 1980). Big sagebrush,
antelope bitterbrush, trees, dried tumbleweeds (Salsola), dirt mounds, rocks,
tree stumps, and fences were used as perches.

Habitat characteristics of the landscape surrounding nest sites also influence Long-billed
Curlew populations (Maher 1973, King 1978, Allen 1980, Pampush 1980, Pampush and Anthony 1993).
After eggs hatch, adults and broods continue to forage in shortgrass and mixed-grass habitats,
but they increase their use of areas with more vegetative cover (e.g., cropland, stubble fields,
and weedy areas) (Maher 1973, 1974; King 1978; Allen 1980; Pampush 1980; Pampush and
Anthony 1993), particularly if vegetation is sparse at the nest site (Maher 1974).
Use of areas with tall, dense vegetation in the Texas Panhandle and northcentral Oregon
may have provided chicks with an important source of shade or concealment cover (King 1978,
Pampush 1980, Pampush and Anthony 1993). In central South Dakota, Long-billed Curlews with
chicks were reported in grass that was 18 cm tall (Spomer 1981). In Oklahoma, Long-billed
Curlews with young were observed in cultivated fields, shortgrass prairie, and tame
grassland (Shackford 1994). A table near the end of the account lists the specific
habitat characteristics for Long-billed Curlews by study.

Area requirements:

In southwestern Idaho, curlew densities were positively correlated with size of the management
unit and with amount of area within the management unit that contained vegetation <10 cm tall
(Bicak et al. 1982). Territory size averaged about 14 ha in the most densely populated areas,
and an unoccupied buffer zone of 300-500 m existed around the edge of suitable habitat
(Redmond et al. 1981). In southeastern Washington, areas with diverse topography and habitat
(shrubby areas near the nest sites) supported smaller (6-8 ha) curlew territories than did open,
flat, less diverse habitat, which supported larger (20 ha) territories (Allen 1980). An increase
in the breeding population between years did not result in the reduction of territory size, but
rather resulted in an increased use of marginal habitat. Allen suggested that the existing
territories may have already reached a minimum size.

After eggs hatch, adults and their broods often leave the nesting site. In southern
Saskatchewan, one pair of adults with a brood was recorded >6.5 km from the nest site 6
d after hatching (Maher 1974, Sadler and Maher 1976).

Brown-headed Cowbird brood parasitism:

No known records of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) exist.

Breeding-season phenology and site fidelity:

Long-billed Curlews arrive on the breeding grounds from about mid-March through May
and depart for the wintering grounds from August to October (Silloway 1900, Sugden 1933,
Salt and Wilk 1958, Bent 1962, Maher 1974, Stewart 1975, Allen 1980, Pampush 1980,
Renaud 1980, Redmond et al. 1981, Bicak et al. 1982, Paton and Dalton 1994). In
some areas, fall departure may begin as early as June or July (Maher 1973,
King 1978, Allen 1980), especially by unsuccessful breeders (Allen 1980,
Paton and Dalton 1994). Peak breeding season in North Dakota is early May through
early June (Stewart 1975). A single renesting attempt following depredation of a
first clutch was observed in southcentral Washington (Allen 1980). The second nest
also was depredated following completion of the clutch. Historically occupied sites
are reused by curlews every year, and some individual birds may reuse the same
territories from year to year (McCallum et al. 1977; Allen 1980; Redmond and
Jenni 1982,1986).

Species' response to management:

Burning can improve habitat for Long-billed Curlews by removing shrubs and increasing
habitat openness (Pampush and Anthony 1993). During the breeding season following a
fall range fire, there was a 30% increase in the estimated curlew breeding density
in western Idaho (Redmond and Jenni 1986).

Haying can be used to provide the short vegetation preferred by nesting
curlews, but should be timed so that short vegetation is available early
in the season and active nests are not damaged (Cochran and Anderson 1987).
In northcentral Oregon, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields were used for
foraging as long as vegetation remained <30 cm tall (Pampush 1980, Pampush and
Anthony 1993). In Alberta, however, Long-billed Curlews did not use haylands (Prescott
1997). In Wyoming hay meadows, cowpies from fall- and winter-pastured cattle
were scattered with branches, logs, or harrows (Cochran and Anderson 1987).
This practice, termed "dragging," was detrimental because curlews often built
nests near cowpies. The practice generally has declined since the 1960's but
still can be common locally.

Grazing can be beneficial if it provides suitably short vegetation, particularly
during the pre-laying period (Bicak et al. 1982, Cochran and Anderson 1987).
Timing and intensity of grazing treatments should be adjusted according to local climate
and habitat characteristics (Bicak et al. 1982, Bock et al. 1993). Curlew response to grazing
over large areas of mixed-grass and shortgrass prairie was variable, but response to grazing in
shrubsteppe habitats was negative (Bock et al. 1993). In Nebraska, curlews were present on
grazed areas and were absent from ungrazed areas (Cole and Sharpe 1976). Long-billed Curlews
in southern Alberta used only continuously grazed mixed-grass pasture and were absent from
mixed-grass pasture grazed in early summer, spring-grazed tame pasture, and deferred-grazed
(grazed after 15 July) mixed-grass pasture (Prescott et al. 1993). In southwestern Idaho,
areas grazed by sheep alone or sheep and cattle had higher densities of curlews than did areas
grazed by cattle alone (Bicak et al. 1982). Pastures that included sheep in the grazing regime had
more area of short grass (32% of area sampled <10 cm tall) than areas grazed by cattle alone (19% of
area sampled <10 cm tall). Curlew density was negatively correlated with height and vertical density
of vegetation. Height of vegetation was negatively correlated with grazing intensity and with animal
stocking rates. Sheep were less likely than cattle to follow established routes through the grassland,
and thus sheep trampled and reduced the amount of dead vegetation to a greater extent than did cattle.
However, Sugden (1933) cautioned that sheep are more likely to trample nests than cattle. In
northwestern South Dakota, Long-billed Curlews were seen either in pastures with cattle or in
unoccupied pasture; no curlews were observed in pastures with sheep (Timken 1969). In Idaho,
neither cattle nor sheep could graze dense stands of perennial wheatgrasses, such as crested
wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), to a height that was usable by curlews (Bicak et al. 1982).
Long-billed Curlews preferred recently grazed areas and did not use areas that had not been grazed
for >1 yr. Rotational and deferred grazing may provide suitable habitat, but year-long grazing was
not recommended. In Wyoming, nests in areas that were grazed during the incubation period had
lower hatching success rates than nests in ungrazed areas (Cochran and Anderson 1987). Of 119
nests in western Idaho, 4.2% were lost to trampling by livestock (Redmond and Jenni 1986).

Long-billed Curlews prefer grazed prairie, but will forage and occasionally even nest in cropland,
including fallow fields, forage crops, and grain crops (McCallum et al. 1977, Pampush 1980, Renaud
1980, Cochran and Anderson 1987, Pampush and Anthony 1993). However, Renaud (1980) reported that
curlews avoided large cultivated areas in Saskatchewan. In the Platte River Valley of Nebraska,
conversion of upland prairie to cropland had a negative impact on curlews through the destruction of
nesting habitat (Faanes and Lingle 1995). Long-billed Curlews in the Oklahoma Panhandle frequently
used areas with a mix of shortgrass pasture and cropland, which often was planted to wheat (Shackford
1987). In Alberta, Long-billed Curlews were more common in areas of mixed-grass prairie than in
cultivated areas (Owens and Myres 1973). In central South Dakota, Long-billed Curlew adults were
observed in a bare, disced field (Spomer 1981). The only two nests found in cropland during a 3-yr
Oklahoma study were destroyed by agricultural operations (Shackford 1994). Researchers suggested that
Long-billed Curlews may experience better nesting success in wheat fields than in fields that are being
prepared for plowing. Cochran and Anderson (1987) suggested that, although hayfields in Wyoming that
had been cultivated may provide suitable vegetation and bare ground, they lacked elevated mounds and
hummocks preferred for nesting. Nests in hayfields and pastures that were fertilized had lower
success rates than nests in unfertilized fields, presumably due to disturbance by mechanical field
operations.

In Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, Long-billed Curlews were present on grasslands enrolled
in the Permanent Cover Program (PCP) (McMaster and Davis 1998). PCP was a Canadian program that
paid farmers to seed highly erodible land to perennial grassland cover; it differed from CRP in
the United States in that haying and grazing were allowed annually in PCP.

Pesticides can be detrimental to Long-billed Curlews (Blus et al. 1985).
Three Long-billed Curlews suffering convulsions or displaying erratic behavior were
collected in northeastern Oregon. One male curlew appeared to have died of dieldrin
poisoning and another of chlordane poisoning. The third, a female, may have sustained
lethal injuries as a result of impairment from poisoning. Seven eggs collected in the
same region all contained low concentrations of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
metabolites, and some (numbers not given) contained low concentrations of polychlorinated
biphenyls and chlordane metabolites. The authors suggested that concentrations of
contaminants in the eggs were too low to influence the reproductive success of Long-billed
Curlews substantially.

Habitat areas need to be ≥3 times as large as a Long-billed Curlew territory, which
averages about 14 ha, in order for curlews to use them, because of an unoccupied buffer
strip 300-500 m wide around the edge of suitable habitat (Redmond et al. 1981).

Tall, dense residual vegetation should be removed before the pre-laying period (March
to April) so that adults do not have to leave their territories to forage (Redmond 1986;
R. L. Redmond, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, pers. comm.). Removal of
residual vegetation is especially important after years of above-normal precipitation.
Haying and grazing can be used to provide the short vegetation and reduced vertical plant
density preferred by nesting curlews, but should be timed so that short vegetation is
available early in the season (Cochran and Anderson 1987). In southwestern Idaho, curlews
avoided areas that had not been grazed within the past year (Bicak et al. 1982).

Burn areas where fire will improve habitat by reducing shrub coverage and increasing habitat
openness (Redmond and Jenni 1986, Pampush and Anthony 1993). During the breeding season
following a fall range fire in western Idaho, the estimated curlew breeding density increased
30% (Redmond and Jenni 1986).

Avoid grazing during the incubation period; in Wyoming, nests in areas that were grazed
during incubation had lower hatching success rates than nests in other areas (Cochran and
Anderson 1987).

In westcentral Wyoming, do not drag hayfields to break up cowpies; Long-billed Curlews
prefer to nest near cowpies (Cochran and Anderson 1987). However, in Idaho, curlews did
not show a preference for nesting near cowpies, and R. L. Redmond (pers. comm.), suggested
that dragging may be acceptable if it occurs after the breeding season when eggs or chicks
are no longer vulnerable.

Required large, open prairie expanses;
nested on grazed rangeland and in damp,
grassy hollows or slopes near bodies of
water

Bicak 1977

Nebraska

Mixed-grass
hayland,
mixed-grass
pasture

Areas used by curlews had 75% of total
vertical vegetation density <10 cm high,
compared to 63% in non-use areas;
proximity of nest sites to foraging
meadows was more important in nest site
selection than vegetation characteristics

Bicak et al.
1982

Idaho

Shortgrass/tame pasture,
tame pasture

Used areas of short, recently grazed
vegetation; curlew density was positively
correlated with size of management unit,
annual total animal unit months, and area
of vegetation <10 cm tall; areas grazed by
sheep alone or by sheep and cattle had
more area of short grass (32% of area
sampled was <10 cm tall) and higher
densities of curlews than did areas grazed
by cattle alone (19% of area sampled was
<10 cm tall); did not use areas that had
not been grazed for >1 yr

Nests were found in irrigated and non-irrigated grass pastures and salt flats;
nests were built in bunchgrasses, clumps
of sedges (Carex spp.), and stands of
inland saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), or
saltwort (Salicornia rubra)

Gratto-Trevor
2000

Alberta

Shortgrass
pasture,
wetland

Were more common on dry transects (a dry
transect was defined as intersecting
wetlands along ≤5% of its length) than on
wet transects

Graul 1971

Colorado

Shortgrass

Nested in shortgrass prairie at the edge
of a valley and near a hill; nest was
lined with buffalo grass (Buchloe sp.) and
lichen (Parmelia molliuscula); vegetation
surrounding the nest was buffalo grass,
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), and
plains prickly pear (Opuntia polyacantha)

Nested on shortgrass plains on gently
rolling terrain or on upland prairie
slopes; in the sandhill grasslands region,
close proximity to wet meadows was
important in nest-site selection; nests
frequently were placed next to cowpies;
used wet meadows as foraging areas

Six of seven nests were in areas dominated
by buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) and
blue grama; one nest was in an area
dominated by sand dropseed (Sporobolus
cryptandrus); six of seven nests were
within 20 cm of a cowpie; mean vegetation
height at nests was 11 cm; mean vegetation
cover at nests was 72%; at 3 m from nests,
mean vegetation height was 20.6 cm; did
not use areas dominated by sand sagebrush
(Artemisia filifolia) for nesting or
foraging; 39% of curlew observations
occurred within 400 m of standing water
(irrigation, stockponds); used shortgrass,
mixed-grass, and weedy areas in slightly
greater proportions (75% of 354
observations) than their availability (67%
of the landscape); use of areas with high
structural diversity increased following
hatching of eggs

McCallum et al.
1977

Colorado

Idle, mixed-grass,
shortgrass

Preferred to nest in shortgrass prairie;
occasionally nested in fallow fields; 41%
of 63 curlew observations were ≤91 m from
water and 68% were ≤403 m from water;
avoided tall (measurements not provided)
vegetation

Habitat patches containing nests had
shorter vegetation (mean of 5.6 cm) than
random habitat patches (mean of 9.0 cm),
and more bare ground 6-15 m from the nest
(mean of 34-36%) than random patches (mean
of 38-39%); at nest sites, vegetation <3 m
from the nest was taller (mean of 6.5 cm)
than vegetation 6-15 m from the nest (mean
of 4.9-5.5 cm) and there was less bare
ground <3 m from the nest (mean of 18%)
than ≥6 m from the nest (mean of 28-39%)

Nested in shortgrass pasture; foraged in
shortgrass pasture when vegetation was
sparse (3.6 to 9.7 cm tall) but traveled
up to 10 km from nesting sites to forage
in agricultural areas when vegetation was
dense (12 to 15.7 cm tall with areas 40 cm
tall) due to abundant precipitation

Shackford 1987

Oklahoma

Colonies of
burrowing
mammals,
cropland,
idle,
shortgrass
pasture

Used native pastures near cultivated
fields (mostly planted to wheat); areas
that were used had clay loam soils on 0-1%
slopes; curlews with young foraged in
prairie dog (Cynomys) colonies

Shackford 1994

Oklahoma

Cropland,
shortgrass,
tame

Curlews were observed in cropland, in
shortgrass prairie, and in tame grassland;
two nests were found in cultivated fields

Stewart 1975

North
Dakota

Idle
shortgrass,
mixed-grass
pasture

Used shortgrass prairie and mixed-grass
pasture; some areas of shortgrass prairie
that were used had prickly pear cactus
(Opuntia) and an open shrub layer composed
of big sagebrush and silver sagebrush
(Artemisia cana); preferred gently rolling
terrain with gravelly soils

Sugden 1933

Utah

Pasture,
wetland

Preferred flat, open country of alkali
flats and wetlands around the Great Salt
Lake

Timken 1969

South
Dakota

Pasture

Curlews were noted in idle pasture and in
cattle pasture, but not in sheep pasture

* In an effort to standardize terminology among studies, various descriptors were used to denote
the management or type of habitat. "Idle" used as a modifier (e.g., idle tallgrass) denotes
undisturbed or unmanaged (e.g., not burned, mowed, or grazed) areas. "Idle" by itself denotes
unmanaged areas in which the plant species were not mentioned. Examples of "idle" habitats include
weedy or fallow areas (e.g., oldfields), fencerows, grassed waterways, terraces, ditches, and road
rights-of-way. "Tame" denotes introduced plant species (e.g., smooth brome [Bromus inermis]) that
are not native to North American prairies. "Hayland" refers to any habitat that was mowed, regardless
of whether the resulting cut vegetation was removed. "Burned" includes habitats that were burned
intentionally or accidentally or those burned by natural forces (e.g., lightning). In situations
where there are two or more descriptors (e.g., idle tame hayland), the first descriptor modifies the
following descriptors. For example, idle tame hayland is habitat that is usually mowed annually but
happened to be undisturbed during the year of the study.

Gratto-Trevor, C. 2000. Use of managed and natural wetlands by upland breeding shorebirds in southern Alberta. Proceedings of the fifth prairie conservation and endangered species conference, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.