Ancient Nahuatl Poetry by Daniel G. Brinton

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[* Transcriber's note: The following substitutions have been made fordiacritical marks in the original text which are not available at DP:

For vowels with a breve: [)a], [)e], [)i], [)o], [)u].

For vowels with a macron: [=a], [=e], [=i], [=o], [=u]. *]

ANCIENT NAHUATL POETRY,

CONTAINING THE NAHUATL TEXT OF XXVII ANCIENT MEXICAN POEMS.

BRITON'S LIBRARY OF ABORIGINAL AMERICAN LITERATURE,

NUMBER VII.

WITH A TRANSLATION, INTRODUCTION, NOTES AND VOCABULARY.

BY

DANIEL G. BRINTON

1890

PREFACE.

It is with some hesitation that I offer this volume to the scientificpublic. The text of the ancient songs which it contains offersextreme and peculiar difficulties to the translator, and I have beenobliged to pursue the task without assistance of any kind. Not a lineof them has ever before been rendered into an European tongue, and myendeavors to obtain aid from some of the Nahuatl scholars of Mexicohave, for various reasons, proved ineffectual. I am therefore aloneresponsible for errors and misunderstandings.

Nevertheless, I have felt that these monuments of ancient nativeliterature are so interesting in themselves, and so worthy ofpublication, that they should be placed at the disposition ofscholars in their original form with the best rendering that I couldgive them at present, rather than to await the uncertain event ofyears for a better.

The text itself may be improved by comparison with the original MS.and with the copy previously made by the Licentiate Chimalpopoca,referred to on page 48. My own efforts in this direction have beenconfined to a faithful reproduction in print of the MS. copy of theAbbe Brasseur de Bourbourg.

The Notes, which might easily have been extended, I have confinedwithin moderate compass, so as not to enlarge unduly the bulk of thevolume.

To some, the Vocabulary may seem inadequate. I assume that thosepersons who wish to make a critical study of the original text willprovide themselves with the Nahuatl Dictionaries of Molina or Simeon,both of which are now easily obtainable, thanks to Mr. JuliusPlatzmann for the reprint of Molina. I also assume that such studentswill acquaint themselves with the rules of grammar and laws ofword-building of the tongue, and that they will use the vocabularymerely as a labor-saving means of reaching the themes of compoundsand unusual forms of words. Employed in this manner, it will, I hope,be found adequate.

In conclusion, I would mention that there is a large body of Nahuatlliterature yet unpublished, both prose and poetry, modern andancient, and as the Nahuatl tongue is one of the most highlydeveloped on the American continent, it is greatly to be desired thatall this material should be at the command of students. The Nahuatl,moreover, is not a difficult tongue; for an Englishman or aFrenchman, I should say it is easier to acquire than German, itsgrammar being simple and regular, and its sounds soft and sonorous.It has special recommendations, therefore, to one who would acquainthimself with an American language.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

Sec. 1. THE NATIONAL LOVE OF POETRY Sec. 2. THE POET AND HIS WORK Sec. 3. THE THEMES AND CLASSES OF THE SONGS Sec. 4. PROSODY OF THE SONGS Sec. 5. THE VOCAL DELIVERY OF THE SONGS Sec. 6. THE INSTRUMENTAL ACCOMPANIMENT Sec. 7. THE POETIC DIALECT Sec. 8. THE PRESERVATION OF THE ANCIENT SONGS Sec. 9. THE LX SONGS OF THE KING NEZAHUALCOYOTL Sec. 10. THE HISTORY OF THE PRESENT COLLECTION

ANCIENT NAHUATL POEMS:

I. SONG AT THE BEGINNING II. A SPRING SONG, AN OTOMI SONG, A PLAIN SONG III. ANOTHER PLAIN SONG IV. AN OTOMI SONG OF THE MEXICANS V. ANOTHER PLAIN SONG OF THE MEXICANS VI. ANOTHER CHALCO-SONG, A POEM OF TETLAPAN QUETZANITZIN VII. ANOTHER VIII. COMPOSED BY A CERTAIN RULER IN MEMORY OF FORMER RULERS IX. AN OTOMI SONG OF SADNESS X. A SPRING SONG OF THE MEXICANS XI. ANOTHER XII. A SPRING SONG, A SONG OF EXHORTATION, BECAUSE CERTAIN ONES DID NOT GO TO WAR XIII. A SONG OF HUEXOTZINCO XIV. A CHRISTIAN SONG XV. THE REIGN OF TEZOZOMOCTLI XVI. A SONG URGING TO WAR XVII. A FLOWER SONGXVIII. A SONG OF TOLLAN XIX. A CHRISTIAN SONG XX. A SONG LAMENTING THE TOLTECS XXI. A SONG OF THE HUEXOTZINCOS, COMING TO ASK AID OF MONTEZUMA AGAINST TLAXCALLA XXII. A FLOWER SONGXXIII. A SONG OF THE PRINCE NEZAHUALCOYOTL XXIV. ANOTHER XXV. A SONG OF LAMENTATION XXVI. A SONG RELATING TO THE LORD NEZAHUALPILLIXXVII. A CHRISTIAN SONG

NOTES

VOCABULARY

INDEX OF NAHUATL PROPER NAMES, WITH EXPLANATIONS

FOOTNOTES

ANCIENT NAHUATL POETRY.

INTRODUCTION.

Sec. 1. _THE NATIONAL LOVE OF POETRY._

The passionate love with which the Nahuas cultivated song, music andthe dance is a subject of frequent comment by the historians ofMexico. These arts are invariably mentioned as prominent features ofthe aboriginal civilization; no public ceremony was complete withoutthem; they were indispensable in the religious services held in thetemples; through their assistance the sacred and historicaltraditions were preserved; and the entertainments of individualsreceived their chief lustre and charm from their association withthese arts.

The profession of the poet stood in highest honor. It was the custombefore the Conquest for every town, every ruler and every person ofimportance to maintain a company of singers and dancers, paying themfixed salaries, and the early writer, Duran, tells us that thiscustom continued in his own time, long after the Conquest. Hesensibly adds, that he can see nothing improper in it, although itwas condemned by some of the Spaniards.[1] In the training of theseartists their patrons took a deep personal interest, and were not atall tolerant of neglected duties. We are told that the chief selectedthe song which was to be sung, and the tune by which it was to beaccompanied; and did any one of the choir sing falsely, a drummerbeat out of time, or a dancer strike an incorrect attitude, theunfortunate artist was instantly called forth, placed in bonds andsummarily executed the next morning![2]

With critics of such severity to please, no wonder that it wasnecessary to begin the training early, and to set apart for itdefinite places and regular teachers. Therefore it was one of theestablished duties of the teachers in the calmecac or public school,"to teach the pupils all the verses of the sacred songs which werewritten in characters in their books."[3] There were also specialschools, called _cuicoyan_, singing places, where both sexes weretaught to sing the popular songs and to dance to the sound of thedrums.[4] In the public ceremonies it was no uncommon occurrence forthe audience to join in the song and dance until sometimes manythousands would thus be seized with the contagion of the rhythmicalmotion, and pass hours intoxicated (to use a favorite expression ofthe Nahuatl poets) with the cadence and the movement.

After the Conquest the Church set its face firmly against thecontinuance of these amusements. Few of the priests had the liberalviews of Father Duran, already quoted; most of them were of theopinion of Torquemada, who urges the clergy "to forbid the singing ofthe ancient songs, because all of them are full of idolatrousmemories, or of diabolical and suspicious allusions of the samecharacter."[5]

To take the place of the older melodies, the natives were taught theuse of the musical instruments introduced by the Spaniards, and verysoon acquired no little proficiency, so that they could perform uponthem, compose original pieces, and manufacture most of theinstruments themselves.[6]

To this day the old love of the song and dance continues in theIndian villages; and though the themes are changed, the forms remainwith little alteration. Travelers describe the movements as slow, andconsisting more in bending and swaying the body than in motions ofthe feet; while the songs chanted either refer to some saint orbiblical character, or are erotic and pave the way to orgies.[7]

Sec. 2. _THE POET AND HIS WORK._

The Nahuatl word for a song or poem is _cuicatl_. It is derived fromthe verb _cuica_, to sing, a term probably imitative oronomatopoietic in origin, as it is also a general expression for thetwittering of birds. The singer was called _cuicani_, and isdistinguished from the composer of the song, the poet, to whom wasapplied the term _cuicapicqui_, in which compound the last member,_picqui_, corresponds strictly to the Greek _poiaetaes_,being a derivative of _piqui_, to make, to create.[8] Sometimes hewas also called _cuicatlamantini_, "skilled in song."

It is evident from these words, all of which belong to the ancientlanguage, that the distinction between the one who composed the poemsand those who sang them was well established, and that the Nahuatlpoetry was, therefore, something much above mere improvisation, assome have thought. This does not alter the fact that a professed bardusually sang songs of his own composition, as well as those obtainedfrom other sources. This is obvious from the songs in thiscollection, many of which contain the expression _ni cuicani_, I, thesinger, which also refers to the maker of the song.

In the classical work of Sahagun, the author describes the ancientpoet: "The worthy singer has a clear mind and a strong memory. Hecomposes songs himself and learns those of others, and is alwaysready to impart either to the fellows of his craft. He sings with awell-trained voice, and is careful to practice in private before heappears before the public. The unworthy singer, on the other hand, isignorant and indolent. What he learns he will not communicate toothers. His voice is hoarse and untrained, and he is at once enviousand boastful."[9]

Sec. 3. _THE THEMES AND CLASSES OF THE SONGS._

From what he could learn about them some two centuries or more afterthe Conquest, the antiquary Boturini classified all the ancient songsunder two general heads, the one treating mainly of historicalthemes, while the other was devoted to purely fictitious, emotionalor imaginative subjects.[10] His terse classification is expanded bythe Abbe Clavigero, who states that the themes of the ancient poetswere various, some chanting the praises of the gods or petitioningthem for favors, others recalled the history of former generations,others were didactic and inculcated correct habits of life, whileothers, finally, were in lighter vein, treating of hunting, games andlove.[11]

His remarks were probably a generalization from a chapter inTorquemada's _Monarquia Indiana_, in which that writer states thatthe songs at the sacred festivals differed in subject with thedifferent months and seasons. Thus, in the second month of theircalendar, at its stated festival, the people sang the greatness oftheir rulers; in the seventh month all the songs were of love, ofwomen, or of hunting; in the eighth the chants recalled the nobledeeds of their ancestors and their divine origin; while in the ninthmonth nothing was heard but verses fraught with lamentation for thedead.[12] With less minuteness, Father Duran gives almost the sameinformation. He himself had often heard the songs which Montezuma ofTenochtitlan, and Nezahualpizintli of Tezcuco, had ordered to becomposed in their own honor, describing their noble lineage, theirriches, their grandeur and their victories. These songs were in hisday still sung at the public dances of the natives, and he adds,"although they were filled with laudation of their ancient rulers, itgave me much pleasure to hear the praises of such grandeur." Therewere other poets, he observes, who lived in the temples and composedsongs exclusively in honor of the gods.[13]

These general expressions may be supplemented by a list of terms,specifying particular classes of songs, preserved by various writers.These are as follows:--

_melahuacuicatl_: this is translated by Tezozomoc, "a straight andtrue song."[14] It is a compound of _melahuac_, straight, direct,true; and _cuicatl_, song. It was a beginning or opening song at thefestivals, and apparently derived its name from its greaterintelligibility and directness of expression. A synonym, derived fromthe same root, is _tlamelauhcayotl_, which appears in the title tosome of the songs in the present collection.

_xopancuicatl_: this term is spelled by Ixtlilxochitl,_xompacuicatl_, and explained to mean "a song of the spring" (from_xopan_, springtime, _cuicatl_, song). The expression seems to befigurative, referring to the beginning or early life of things. Thus,the prophetic songs of Nezahualcoyotl, those which he sang when helaid the foundation of his great palace, bore this name.[15]

_teuccuicatl_: songs of the nobles (_teuctli_, _cuicatl_). These werealso called _quauhcuicatl_, "eagle songs," the term _quauhtli_,eagle, being applied to distinguished persons.

_xochicuicatl_: flower-song, one singing the praises of flowers.

_icnocuicatl_: song of destitution or compassion.

_noteuhcuicaliztli_: "the song of my lords." This appears to be asynonymous expression for _teuccuicatl_; it is mentioned by Boturini,who adds that on the day sacred to the god Xiuhteuctli the king beganthe song so called.[16]

_miccacuicatl_: the song for the dead (_miqui_, to die, _cuicatl_).In this solemn chant the singers were seated on the ground, and theirhair was twisted in plaits around their heads.[17]

In addition to the above terms drawn from the subject or character ofthe songs, there were others, of geographical origin, apparentlyindicating that the song, or its tune, or its treatment was borrowedfrom another locality or people. These are:--

_Huexotzincayotl_: a song of Huexotzinco, a Nahuatl town, situatedeast of the Lake of Tezcuco. This song was sung by the king andsuperior nobles at certain festivals, and, in the prescribed order ofthe chants, followed a _melahuaccuicatl_.[18]

_Chalcayotl_: a song of Chalco, on the lake of the same name. Thisfollowed the last mentioned in order of time at the festivals.

_Otoncuicatl_: a song of the Otomis. These were the immediateneighbors of the Nahuas, but spoke a language radically diverse. Thesongs so-called were sung fourth on the list.

_Cuextecayotl_: a song of the country of the Cuexteca, or Cuextlan, anorthern province of Mexico.

_Tlauancacuextecayotl_: a song of the country of theTlauancacuexteca.

_Anahuacayotl_: a song of Anahuac, that is, of a country near thewater, either the valley of Mexico, or the shores of the ocean.

Some very ancient sacred songs were referred to by Tezozomoc aspeculiar to the worship of Huitzilopochtli, and, indeed, introducedby this potent divinity. From their names, _cuitlaxoteyotl_, and_tecuilhuicuicatl_,[19] I judge that they referred to some of thosepederastic rites which still prevail extensively among the natives ofthe pueblos of New Mexico, and which have been described by Dr.William A. Hammond and other observers.[20] One of these songs began,

Cuicoyan nohuan mitotia;

In-the-place-of-song with-me they-dance.

But the old chronicler, who doubtless knew it all by heart, gives usno more of it.[21]

Sec. 4. _PROSODY OF THE SONGS._

The assertion is advanced by Boturini that the genuine ancientNahuatl poetry which has been preserved is in iambic metre, and herefers to a song of Nezahualcoyotl in his collection to prove hisopinion. What study I have given to the prosody of the Nahuatl tongueleads me to doubt the correctness of so sweeping a statement. Thevocalic elements of the language have certain peculiarities whichprevent its poetry from entering unencumbered into the domain ofclassical prosody.

The quantity of Nahuatl syllables is a very important element in thepronunciation of the tongue, but their quantity is not confined, asin Latin, to long, short, and common. The Nahuatl vowels are long,short, intermediate, and "with stress," or as the Spanish grammarianssay, "with a jump," _con saltillo_. The last mentioned is peculiar tothis tongue. The vowel so designated is pronounced with a momentarysuspension or catching of the breath, rendering it emphatic.

These quantities are prominent features in the formal portions of thelanguage, characterizing inflections and declinations. No commonmeans of designating them have been adopted by the grammarians, andfor my present purpose, I shall make use of the following signs:--

[)a] , short.

a , intermediate.

[=a] , long.

a , with stress.

The general prosodic rules are:--

1. In polysyllabic words in which there are no long vowels, all thevowels are intermediate.

2. The vowels are long in the penultimate of the plurals of theimperatives when the preterit of the verb ends in a vowel; the _[=a]_of the _c[=a]n_ of the imperatives; the _[=i]_ of the _t[=i]_; of thegerundives; the last vowel of the futures when the verb loses a vowelto form them; the penultimates of passives in _lo_, of impersonals,of verbals in _oni_, _illi_, _olli_ and _oca_, of verbal nouns withthe terminations _yan_ and _can_; the _[=o]_ of abstract nouns in_otl_ in composition; and those derived from long syllables.

3. Vowels are "with stress" when they are the finals in the pluralsof nouns and verbs, also in the perfect preterite, in possessivesending in a, e, o, and in the penultimate of nouns ending in _tli_,_tla_ and _tle_ when these syllables are immediately preceded by thevowel.[22]

The practical importance of these distinctions may be illustrated bythe following examples:--

_tatli_, = father.

_t[=a]tl[)i]_, = thou drinkest.

_t[=a]tli_, = we drink.

It is, however, evident from this example that the quantity ofNahuatl syllables enters too much into the strictly formal part ofthe language for rules of position, such as some of those abovegiven, to be binding; and doubtless for this reason the eminentgrammarian Carlos de Tapia Zenteno, who was professor of the tonguein the University of Mexico, denies that it can be reduced todefinite rules of prosody like those of the Latin.[23]

Substituting accent for quantity, there would seem to be an iambiccharacter to the songs. Thus the first words of Song I, were probablychanted:--

But the directions given for the drums at the beginning of SongsXVIII, XIX, etc., do not indicate a continuance of these feet, but ofothers, as in XIX:--

u--, u--, u--, uu--, u--, u--, u--, etc.

Indeed, we may suppose that the metre varied with the subject and theskill of the poet. This, in fact, is the precise statement of FatherDuran,[24] who speaks of the native poets as "giving to each song adifferent tune (_sonada_), as we are accustomed in our poetry to havethe sonnet, the octava rima and the terceto."

Sec. 5. _THE VOCAL DELIVERY OF THE SONG._

Descriptions of the concerts so popular among the Nahuas have beenpreserved by the older writers, and it is of the highest importanceto understand their methods in order to appreciate the songspresented in this volume.

These concerts were held on ceremonial occasions in the open air, inthe village squares or in the courtyards of the houses. They began inthe morning and usually continued until nightfall, occasionally farinto the night. The musicians occupied the centre of the square andthe trained singers stood or sat around them. When the sign was givento begin, the two most skillful singers, sometimes a man and a woman,pronounced the first syllables of the song slowly but with a sharpemphasis;[25] then the drums began in a low tone, and gradually increased instrength as the song proceeded; the other singers united their voicesuntil the whole chorus was in action, and often the bystanders, tothe numbers of thousands, would ultimately join in the words of somefamiliar song, keeping time by concerted movements of the hands andfeet.

Each verse or couplet of the song was repeated three or four timesbefore proceeding to the next, and those songs which were of theslowest measure and least emotional in character were selected forthe earlier hours of the festivals. None of the songs was lengthy,even the longest, in spite of the repetitions, rarely lasting over anhour.[26]

The tone in which the words were chanted is described by Clavigero,Muehlenpfordt and other comparatively recent travelers as harsh,strident and disagreeable to the European ear. Mendieta calls it a"contra-bass," and states that persons gifted with such a voicecultivated it assiduously and were in great demand. The Nahuas callit _tozquitl_, the singing voice, and likened it to the notes ofsweet singing birds.

Sec. 6. _THE INSTRUMENTAL ACCOMPANIMENT._

The Nahuas were not acquainted with any stringed instrument. Theymanufactured, however, a variety of objects from which they couldextract what seemed to them melodious sounds. The most important weretwo forms of drums, the _huehuetl_ and the _teponaztli_.

The word _huehuetl_ means something old, something ancient, andtherefore important and great. The drum so-called was a hollowcylinder of wood, thicker than a man's body, and usually about fivepalms in height. The end was covered with tanned deerskin, firmlystretched. The sides were often elaborately carved and tastefullypainted. This drum was placed upright on a stand in front of theplayer and the notes were produced by striking the parchment with thetips of the fingers.

A smaller variety of this instrument was called _tlapanhuehuetl_, orthe half drum, which was of the same diameter but only half theheight.[27] Still another variety was the _yopihuehuetl_, "the drumwhich tears out the heart,"[28] so called either by reason of itspenetrating and powerful sound, or because it was employed at the_Yopico_, where that form of human sacrifice was conducted.

The _teponaztli_ was a cylindrical block of wood hollowed out below,and on its upper surface with two longitudinal parallel groovesrunning nearly from end to end, and a third in the centre at rightangles to these, something in the shape of the letter I. The twotongues left between the grooves were struck with balls of rubber,_ulli_, on the ends of handles or drum sticks. These instrumentsvaried greatly in size, some being five feet in length, and others sosmall that they could conveniently be carried suspended to the neck.The _teponaztli_ was the house instrument of the Nahuas. It wasplayed in the women's apartments to amuse the noble ladies, and thewar captains carried one at the side to call the attention of theircohorts on the field of battle (Sahagun). The word is derived fromthe name of the tree whose wood was selected to make the drum, andthis in turn from the verb _tepunazoa_, to swell, probably from somepeculiarity of its growth.[29]

A much superior instrument to the teponaztli, and doubtless adevelopment from it, was the _tecomapiloa_, "the suspended vase"(_tecomatl_, gourd or vase, _piloa_, to hang or suspend). It was asolid block of wood, with a projecting ridge on its upper surface andanother opposite, on its lower aspect; to the latter one or moregourds or vases were suspended, which increased and softened thesound when the upper ridge was struck with the _ulli_.[30] This wasundoubtedly the origin of the _marimba_, which I have describedelsewhere.[31]

The musical properties of these drums have been discussed by TheodorBaker. The teponaztli, he states, could yield but two notes, andcould not have been played in accord with the huehuetl. It served asan imperfect contra-bass.[32]

The _omichicahuaz_, "strong bone," was constructed somewhat on theprinciple of a _teponaztli_. A large and long bone was selected, asthe femur of a man or deer, and it was channeled by deep longitudinalincisions. The projections left between the fissures were rasped withanother bone or a shell, and thus a harsh but varied sound could beproduced.[33]

The _tetzilacatl_, the "vibrator" or "resounder," was a sheet ofcopper suspended by a cord, which was struck with sticks or with thehand. It appears to have been principally confined to the sacredmusic in the temples.

The _ayacachtli_ was a rattle formed of a jar of earthenware or adried gourd containing pebbles which was fastened to a handle, andserved to mark time in the songs and dances. An extension of thissimple instrument was the _ayacachicahualiztli_, "the arrangement ofrattles," which was a thin board about six feet long and a span wide,to which were attached bells, rattles and cylindrical pieces of hardwood. Shaking this produced a jingle-jangle, agreeable to the nativeear. The Aztec bells of copper, _tzilinilli_, are really metallicrattles, like our sleigh bells. They are often seen in collections ofMexican antiquities. Other names for them were _coyolliyoyotli_. and

Various forms of flutes and fifes, made of reeds, of bone or ofpottery, were called by names derived from the word _pitzaua_, toblow (e.g., _tlapitzalli_, _uilacapitzli_), and sometimes, as beingpunctured with holes, _zozoloctli_, from _zotl_, the awl orinstrument used in perforating skins, etc. Many of those made ofearthenware have been preserved, and they appear to have been ahighly-esteemed instrument, as Sahagun mentions that the leader ofthe choir of singers in the temple bore the title _tlapitzcatzin_,"the noble flute player."

Large conches were obtained on the seashore and framed into windinstruments called _quiquiztli_ and _tecciztli_, whose hoarse notescould be heard for long distances, and whistles of wood, bone andearthenware added their shrill notes to the noise of the chanting ofthe singers. The shell of the tortoise, _ayotl_, dried and suspended,was beaten in unison with such instruments.

Recent researches by competent musical experts conducted uponauthentic specimens of the ancient Mexican instruments have tended toelevate our opinion of their skill in this art. Mr. H.T. Cresson, ofthe Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, has criticallyexamined the various Aztec clay flutes, whistles, etc., which arethere preserved, and has reached the following conclusions:--

"I. That upon the four-holed clay flageolets the chromatic anddiatonic scales can be produced with a full octave.

"II. That the clay whistles or pitch pipes, which may be manipulatedin quartette, will produce an octave and a fourth.

"III. From the facts above shown, the Aztecs must have possessed aknowledge of the scales as known to us, which has been fully testedby comparison with the flute and organ."[34]

This result indicates for the instrumental accompaniment a muchhigher position in musical notation than has hitherto been accepted.

Sec. 7. _THE POETIC DIALECT._

All the old writers who were familiar with the native songs speak oftheir extreme obscurity, and the difficulty of translating them. Noone will question the intimate acquaintance with the Nahuatl languagepossessed by Father Sahagun; yet no one has expressed more stronglythan he the vagueness of the Nahuatl poetic dialect. "Our enemy onearth," he writes, "has prepared a thick woods and a dangerous groundfull of pitfalls, wherein to devise his evil deeds and to hidehimself from attack, as do wild beasts and venomous serpents. Thiswoods and these pitfalls are the songs which he has inspired to beused in his service, as praises to his honor, in the temples andelsewhere; because they are composed with such a trick that theyproclaim only what the devil commands, and are understood only bythose to whom they are addressed. It is well known that the cavern,woods or depths in which the devil hides himself were these chants orpsalms which he himself has composed, and which cannot be understoodin their true significance except by those who are accustomed to thepeculiar style of their language."[35]

Not less positive are the expressions of Father Diego Duran,contemporary of Sahagun, and himself well versed in the nativetongue. "All their songs," he observes, "were composed in suchobscure metaphors that scarcely any one can understand them unless hegive especial attention to their construction."[36] The worthyBoturini was puzzled by those which he had collected, and writes,"the songs are difficult to explain, because they mystify historicalfacts with constant allegorizing,"[37] and Boturini's literaryexecutor, Don Mariano Echevarria y Veitia, who paid especialattention to the poetic fragments he had received, says frankly: "Thefact is, that as to the songs I have not found a person who can fullytranslate them, because there are many words in them whosesignification is absolutely unknown to-day, and moreover which do notappear in the vocabularies of Molina or others."[38]

The Abbe Clavigero speaks in somewhat more definite terms of thepoetic forms and licenses of the language. He notes that in thefragments of the ancient verses which had been preserved until hisday there were inserted between the significant words certaininterjections and meaningless syllables, apparently to fill out themetre. Nevertheless, he considered the language of the chants, "pure,pleasant, brilliant, figurative and replete with allusions to themore pleasing objects in nature, as flowers, trees, brooks, etc."[39]It is quite evident from the above extracts that in the translationof the ancient songs in the present volume we must be prepared forserious difficulties, the more so as the Nahuatl language, in theopinion of some who are the best acquainted with it, lends itselfwith peculiar facility to ambiguities of expression and obscurefigures of speech.[40] Students of American ethnology are familiarwith the fact that in nearly all tribes the language of the sacredsongs differs materially from that in daily life.

Of the older grammarians, Father Carochi alone has left us actualspecimens of the ancient poetic dialect, and his observations areregretably brief. They occur in his chapter on the composition ofnouns and read as follows:[41]--

"The ancient Indians were chary in forming compounds of more than twowords, while those of to-day exceed this number, especially if theyspeak of sacred things; although in their poetic dialect the ancientswere also extravagant in this respect, as the following examplesshow:--

1. Tl[=a]uhquech[=o]llaztal[=e]hualto t[=o]natoc.

1. It is gleaming red like the tlauhquechol bird.

2. Ayauhcocam[=a]l[=o]t[=o]nam[=e]yotimani.

2. And it glows like the rainbow.

3. Xiuhcoyolizitzilica in te[=o]cuitlahu[=e]hu[=e]tl.

3. The silver drum sounds like bells of turquoise.

4. Xiuhtlapallacuil[=o]l[=a]moxtli manca.

4. There was a book of annals written and painted in colors.

5. Nic ch[=a]lchiuhcozcameca quenmach totoma in nocuic.

5. I see my song unfolding in a thousand directions, like a string ofprecious stones."

From the specimens presented in this volume and from the aboveextracts, I would assign the following peculiarities to the poeticdialect of the Nahuatl:--

I. Extreme frequency and richness of metaphor. Birds, flowers,precious stones and brilliant objects are constantly introduced in afigurative sense, often to the point of obscuring the meaning of thesentence.

II. Words are compounded to a much greater extent than in ordinaryprose writing.

III. Both words and grammatical forms unknown to the tongue of dailylife occur. These may be archaic, or manufactured capriciously by thepoet.

IV. Vowels are inordinately lengthened and syllables reduplicated,either for the purpose of emphasis or of meter.

V. Meaningless interjections are inserted for metrical effect, whileothers are thrown in and repeated in order to express emotion.

VI. The rhetorical figure known as aposiopesis, where a sentence isleft unfinished and in an interjectional condition, in consequence ofsome emotion of the mind, is not rare and adds to the obscurity ofthe wording.

Sec. 8. _THE PRESERVATION OF THE ANCIENT SONGS._

In a passage already quoted,[42] Sahagun imparts the interestinginformation that the more important songs were written down by theNahuas in their books, and from these taught to the youth in theschools. A certain branch of the Mexican hieroglyphic writing waslargely phonetic, constructed on that method to which I have appliedthe adjective _ikonomatic_, and by which it was quite possible topreserve the sound as well as the sense of sentences and verses.[43]Such attention could have been bestowed only on the sacred, royal, orlegendary chants, while the compositions of ordinary poets would onlybe disseminated by oral teaching.

By one or both of these methods there was a large body of poeticchants the property of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes, when they weresubjugated by the Europeans. Among the intelligent missionaries whodevoted their lives to mastering the language and translating into itthe doctrines of Christianity, there were a few who felt sufficientinterest in these chants to write some of them down in the originaltongue. Conspicuous among these was the laborious Bernardino deSahagun, whose works are our most valued sources of information onall that concerns the life of the ancient Nahuas. He collected anumber of their sacred hymns, translated them into Spanish, andinserted them into the Appendix to the Second Book of his _History ofNew Spain_; but this portion of his work was destroyed by order ofthe Inquisition, as a note in the original MS. expressly states.[44]

A certain number, however, were preserved in the original tongue,and, as already noted, we find the able grammarian Horatio Carochi,who published his Grammar of the Nahuatl in 1645, quoting lines fromsome as furnishing examples of the genuine ancient forms ofword-building. He could not, therefore, have doubted their antiquityand authenticity.

A number of these must have come to the knowledge and were probablyin the possession of the eminent mathematician and antiquary DonCarlos de Siguenza y Gongora, who lived in the latter half of thesame century (died 1700). It was avowedly upon the information whichhe thought he gleaned from these ancient chants that he constructedhis historical theory of the missionary labors of St. Thomas inMexico in the first century of our era. The title of the work hewrote upon this notion was as follows:--

For many years this curious work, which was never printed, wassupposed to be lost; but the original MS. is extant, in thepossession of the distinguished antiquary Don Alfredo Chavero, of theCity of Mexico.[45] Unfortunately, however, the author did not insertin his work any song in the native language nor a literal translationof any, as I am informed by Senor Chavero, who has kindly examinedthe work carefully at my request, with this inquiry in view.

Half a century later, when Boturini was collecting his material, hefound but very few of the old poems. In the catalogue of his MSS. hementions (XIX, 1) some fragments of ancient songs, badly written, onEuropean paper, but he does not say whether in the original ortranslated. The same doubt might rest on the two songs ofNezahualcoyotl named in his Catalogue (V, 2). He does notspecifically state that they are in the original. The song ofMoquihuix, King of Tlatilulco, in which he celebrated his victoryover the Cuextla, which Boturini states in his text (p. 91) as in hispossession, is not mentioned at all in his Catalogue, and it isuncertain whether his copy was in Nahuatl.

His literary friend, however, Don Mariano Echevarria y Veitia,removes the uncertainty about the two songs of Nezahualcoyotl, as heinforms us that they were in the original tongue, and adds that hehad inserted them in his History without translation.[46] I haveexamined the manuscript of his work, now in the Lenox Library, NewYork City, but it does not contain these texts, and evidently thecopy used by Bustamente did not.[47]

Boturini included the translations of the two odes of Nezahualcoyotlin a work on the Virgin of Guadelupe, only a fragment of which hasbeen preserved. One of the chapters in this Latin Essay is entitled_De Indorum Poetarum Canticis sive Prosodiis_, in which he introducesIxtlilxochitl's translation and also a song in the original Nahuatl,but the latter is doubtless of late date and unimportant as a reallynative production.[48]

The fragments of Boturini's library collected by M. Aubin, of Paris,contain a number of the original ancient songs of the highestimportance, which make us regret the more that this collection hasbeen up to the present inaccessible to students. In his descriptionof these relics published in 1851, M. Aubin refers to the _HistoricalAnnals of the Mexican Nation_ (Sec. VIII, 10, of Boturini's Catalogue)as containing "historical songs in a dialect so difficult that I havenot been able to translate them entirely," and adds that similarsongs are preserved in others of the ancient annals in his hands.[49]

Sec. 9. _THE LX SONGS OF THE KING NEZAHUALCOYOTL._

The most distinguished figure among the Nahuatl poets wasNezahualcoyotl, ruler of Tezcuco. His death took place in 1472, atthe age of eighty years. His father, Ixtlilxochitl, had been deprivedof his possessions and put to death by Tezozomoc, King of theTepanecas, and until the death of the latter at an advanced age in1427, Nezahualcoyotl could make but vain efforts to restore the powerof his family. Much of the time he was in extreme want, and for thisreason, and for his savage persistence in the struggle, he acquiredthe name "the fasting or hungry wolf"-- _nezahualcoyotl_. Another ofhis names was _Acolmiztli_, usually translated "arm of the lion,"from _aculli_, shoulder, and _miztli_, lion.

A third was _Yoyontzin_, which is equivalent to _cevetor nobilis_,from _yoyoma_ (_cevere_, i.e., _femora movere in re venered_); it isto be understood figuratively as indicating the height of themasculine forces.

When his power became assured, he proved himself a liberal andenlightened patron of the arts and industries. The poetry and musicof his native land attracted him the more as he felt within himselfthe moving god, firing his imagination with poetic vision, the _Deusin nobis, calescimus, agitant'illo_. Not only did he diligently seekout and royally entertain skilled bards, but he himself had thecredit of composing sixty chants, and it appears that after theConquest there were that many written down in Roman characters andattributed to him. We need not inquire too closely whether they werestrictly his own composition. Perhaps they were framed on themeswhich he furnished, or were selected by him from those sung at hiscourt by various bards. The history of the works by royal authorseverywhere must not be too minutely scanned if we wish to leave themtheir reputation for originality.

He was of a philosophic as well as a poetic temperament, andreflected deeply on the problems of life and nature. Following theinherent tendency of the enlightened intellect to seek unity indiversity, the One in the Many, he reached the conclusion to which somany thinkers in all ages and of all races have been driven, thatunderlying all phenomena is one primal and adequate Cause, theEssence of all Existence. This conclusion he expressed in aphilosophic apothegm which was preserved by his disciples, in thesewords:--

"In the ninth series is the Cause of All, of us and of all createdthings, the one only God who created all things both visible andinvisible."[50]

To perpetuate the memory of this philosophic deduction he caused tobe constructed at Tezcuco a stone tower nine stories in height, theruins of which were visible long after the Spanish occupation. Tothis tower he gave the name Chililitli, a term of uncertain meaning,but which we find was applied in Tenochtitlan to a building sacred tothe Nine Winds.[51] To explain the introduction of this number, Ishould add that a certain school of Nahuatl priests taught that theheaven above and the earth below were each divided into nineconcentric arcs, each leading farther and farther away from theconditions of the present life. Hence, there were nine heavens,abodes of the gods, and nine lower regions, abodes of the souls ofthe dead. Another school taught that there were not nine but thirteenof these stages.

The sixty poems by Nezahualcoyotl are mentioned by various writers asin existence after the Conquest, reduced to writing in the originaltongue, and of several of them we have translations or abstracts.[52]Of four the translations claim to be complete, and were publishedentire for the first time in the original Spanish by LordKingsborough in the ninth volume of his great work on the_Antiquities of Mexico_. Since then they have received variousrenderings in prose and verse into different languages at the handsof modern writers.

I shall give a literal prose translation from the Spanish, numberingthe poems and their verses, for convenience of reference, in theorder in which they appear in the pages of Lord Kingsborough.

* * * * *

The first is one referred to, and partly translated by Ixtlilxochitl,in his _Historia Chichimeca_ (cap. 47). He calls it a _xopancuicatl_(see ante, p. 15), and states that it was composed and sung on theoccasion of the banquet when the king laid the foundations of hisgreat palace. He gives the first words in the original as follows:--

_Tlaxoconcaguican ani Nezahualcoyotzin;_

And the translation:--

"Hear that which says the King Nezahualcoyotl."

Restoring the much mutilated original to what I should think was itsproper form, the translation should read:--

"Listen attentively to what I, the singer, the noble Nezahualcoyotl,say:"--

I.

1. Listen with attention to the lamentations which I, the KingNezahualcoyotl, make upon my power, speaking with myself, andoffering an example to others.

2. O restless and striving king, when the time of thy death shallcome, thy subjects shall be destroyed and driven forth; they shallsink into dark oblivion. Then in thy hand shall no longer be thepower and the rule, but with the Creator, the All-powerful.

3. He who saw the palaces and court of the old King Tezozomoc, howflourishing and powerful was his sway, may see them now dry andwithered; it seemed as if they should last forever, but all that theworld offers is illusion and deception, as everything must end anddie.

4. Sad and strange it is to see and reflect on the prosperity andpower of the old and dying King Tezozomoc; watered with ambition andavarice, he grew like a willow tree rising above the grass andflowers of spring, rejoicing for a long time, until at length,withered and decayed, the storm wind of death tore him from hisroots, and dashed him in fragments to the ground. The same fatebefell the ancient King Colzatzli, so that no memory was left of him,nor of his lineage.

5. In these lamentations and in this sad song, I now call to memoryand offer as an example that which takes place in the spring, and theend which overtook King Tezozomoc; and who, seeing this, can refrainfrom tears and wailing, that these various flowers and rich delightsare bouquets that pass from hand to hand and all wither and end evenin the present life!

6. Ye sons of kings and mighty lords, ponder well and think upon thatwhich I tell you in these my lamentations, of what takes place inspring and of the end which overtook King Tezozomoc; and who, seeingthis, can refrain from tears and wailing that these various flowersand rich delights are bouquets that pass from hand to hand and allwither and end even in the present life!

7. Let the birds now enjoy, with melodious voices, the abundance ofthe house of the flowery spring, and the butterflies sip the nectarof its flowers.

* * * * *

The second song is preserved in a Spanish metrical translation only,but which from internal evidence I should judge to be quite literal.The words of the poem do not represent it as a composition by theroyal poet, but one which was sung before him, and addressed to him.It admonishes him to rejoice in the present moment, as theuncertainties of life and fate must at some time, perhaps very soon,deprive him of their enjoyment.

II.

1. I wish to sing for a moment, since time and occasion arepropitious; I hope to be permitted, as my intention merits it, and Ibegin my song, though it were better called a lamentation.

2. And thou, beloved companion, enjoy the beauty of these flowers,rejoice with me, cast out fears, for if pleasure ends with life, soalso does pain.

3. I, singing, will touch the sonorous instrument, and thou,rejoicing in the flowers, dance and give pleasure to God thepowerful. Let us be happy in the present, for life is transitory.

4. Thou hast placed thy noble court in Acolhuacan, thine are itslintels, thou hast decked them, and one may well believe that withsuch grandeur thy state shall increase and grow.

5. O prudent Yoyontzin, famous king and peerless monarch, rejoice inthe present, be happy in the springtime, for a day shall come inwhich thou shall vainly seek these joys.

6. Then thy destiny shall snatch the sceptre from thy hand, thy moonshall wane, no longer wilt thou be strong and proud, then thyservants shall be destitute of all things.

7. In this sad event, the nobles of thy line, the provinces of might,children of noble parents, lacking thee as their lord, shall tastethe bitterness of poverty.

8. They shall call to mind how great was thy pomp, thy triumphs andvictories, and bewailing the glory and majesty of the past, theirtears will flow like seas.

9. These thy descendants who serve thy plume and crown, when thou artgone, will forsake Culhuacan, and as exiles will increase their woes.

10. Little will fame have to tell of this wondrous majesty, worthy ofa thousand heralds; the nations will only remember how wiselygoverned the three chieftains who held the power,

11. At Mexico, Montezuma the famous and valorous, at Culhuacan thefortunate Nezahualcoyotl, and at the stronghold of Acatlapan,Totoquilhuatli.

12. I fear no oblivion for thy just deeds, standing as thou dost inthy place appointed by the Supreme Lord of All, who governs allthings.

13. Therefore, O Nezahualcoyotl, rejoice in what the present offers,crown thyself with flowers from thy gardens, hear my song and musicwhich aim to please thee.

14. The pleasures and riches of this life are but loaned, theirsubstance is vain, their appearance illusory; and so true is thisthat I ask thee for an answer to these questions:

15. What has become of Cihuapan? Of the brave Quantzintecomatzin? OfConahuatzin? What of all these people? Perhaps these very words havealready passed into another life.

16. Would that we who are now united by the ties of love andfriendship could foresee the sharp edge of death, for nothing iscertain, and the future ever brings changes.

* * * * *

The third is a "spring song" in which the distinguished warriors ofthe king are compared to precious stones. Such jewels were believedby the Nahuas to possess certain mysterious powers as charms andamulets, a belief, it is needless to say, found among almost allnations. In verse 18 there is a reference to the superstition that atdawn, when these jewels are exposed to the first rays of the sun,they emit a fine vapor which wafts abroad their subtle potency. Thepoem is in Spanish verse, and the original is said to have beenwritten down by Don Fernando de Avila, governor of Tlalmanalco, fromthe mouth of Don Juan de Aguilar, governor of Cultepec, a directdescendant of Nezahualcoyotl.

III.

1. The flowery spring has its house, its court, its palace, adornedwith riches, with goods in abundance.

2. With discreet art they are arranged and placed, rich feathers,precious stones, surpassing in luster the sun.

3. There is the valued carbuncle, which from its beauteous centerdarts forth rays which are the lights of knowledge.

4. There is the prized diamond, sign of strength, shooting forth itsbrilliant gleams.

5. Here one sees the translucent emerald suggesting the hope of therewards of merit.

6. Next follows the topaz, equaling the emerald, for the reward itpromises is a heavenly dwelling.

7. The amethyst, signifying the cares which a king has for hissubjects, and moderation in desires.

8. These are what kings, princes and monarchs delight to place upontheir breasts and crowns.

9. All these stones with their varied and singular virtues, adorn Thyhouse and court, O Father, O Infinite God!

10. These stones which I the King Nezahualcoyotl have succeeded inuniting in loving liens,

11. Are the famous princes, the one called Axaxacatzin, the otherChimalpopoca, and Xicomatzintlamata.

12. To-day, somewhat rejoiced by the joy and words of these, and ofthe other lords who were with them,

13. I feel, when alone, that my soul is pleased but for a brief time,and that all pleasure soon passes.

14. The presence of these daring eagles pleases me, of these lionsand tigers who affright the world,

15. These who by their valor win everlasting renown, whose name andwhose deeds fame will perpetuate.

16. Only to-day am I glad and look upon these rich and varied stones,the glory of my bloody battles.

17. To-day, noble princes, protectors of the realm, my will is toentertain you and to praise you.

18. It seems to me that ye answer from your souls, like the finevapor arising from precious stones,--

20. "But at last a day shall come which will cut away this power, andall these will be left wretched orphans.

21. "Rejoice, mighty King, in this lofty power which the King ofHeaven has granted you, rejoice and be glad.

22. "In the life of this world there is no beginning anew, thereforerejoice, for all good ends.

23. "The future promises endless changes, griefs that your subjectswill have to undergo.

24. "Ye see before you the instruments decked with wreaths of odorousflowers; rejoice in their fragrance.

25. "To-day there are peace, and goodfellowship; therefore let alljoin hands and rejoice in the dances,

26. "So that for a little while princes and kings and the nobles mayhave pleasure in these precious stones,

27. "Which through his goodness the will of the King Nezahualcoyotlhas set forth for you, inviting you to-day to his house."

* * * * *

The fourth song has been preserved in an Otomi translation by theMexican antiquary Granados y Galvez[53] and in an abstract byTorquemada.[54] The latter gives the first words as follows:--

_Xochitl mamani in huehuetitlan:_

Which he translates:--

"There are fresh and fragrant flowers among the groves."

It is said to have been composed at the time the king dedicated hispalace.

IV.

1. The fleeting pomps of the world are like the green willow trees,which, aspiring to permanence, are consumed by a fire, fall beforethe axe, are upturned by the wind, or are scarred and saddened byage.

2. The grandeurs of life are like the flowers in color and in fate;the beauty of these remains so long as their chaste buds gather andstore the rich pearls of the dawn and saving it, drop it in liquiddew; but scarcely has the Cause of All directed upon them the fullrays of the sun, when their beauty and glory fail, and the brilliantgay colors which decked forth their pride wither and fade.

3. The delicious realms of flowers count their dynasties by shortperiods; those which in the morning revel proudly in beauty andstrength, by evening weep for the sad destruction of their thrones,and for the mishaps which drive them to loss, to poverty, to deathand to the grave. All things of earth have an end, and in the midstof the most joyous lives, the breath falters, they fall, they sinkinto the ground.

4. All the earth is a grave, and nought escapes it; nothing is soperfect that it does not fall and disappear. The rivers, brooks,fountains and waters flow on, and never return to their joyousbeginnings; they hasten on to the vast realms of Tlaloc, and thewider they spread between their marges the more rapidly do they mouldtheir own sepulchral urns. That which was yesterday is not to-day;and let not that which is to-day trust to live to-morrow.

5. The caverns of earth are filled with pestilential dust which oncewas the bones, the flesh, the bodies of great ones who sate uponthrones, deciding causes, ruling assemblies, governing armies,conquering provinces, possessing treasures, tearing down temples,flattering themselves with pride, majesty, fortune, praise anddominion. These glories have passed like the dark smoke thrown out bythe fires of Popocatepetl, leaving no monuments but the rude skins onwhich they are written.

6. Ha! ha! Were I to introduce you into the obscure bowels of thistemple, and were to ask you which of these bones were those of thepowerful Achalchiuhtlanextin, first chief of the ancient Toltecs; ofNecaxecmitl, devout worshiper of the gods; if I inquire where is thepeerless beauty of the glorious empress Xiuhtzal, where the peaceableTopiltzin, last monarch of the hapless land of Tulan; if I ask youwhere are the sacred ashes of our first father Xolotl; those of thebounteous Nopal; those of the generous Tlotzin; or even the stillwarm cinders of my glorious and immortal, though unhappy and lucklessfather Ixtlilxochitl; if I continued thus questioning about all ouraugust ancestors, what would you reply? The same that I reply--I knownot, I know not; for first and last are confounded in the commonclay. What was their fate shall be ours, and of all who follow us.

7. Unconquered princes, warlike chieftains, let us seek, let us sighfor the heaven, for there all is eternal, and nothing is corruptible.The darkness of the sepulchre is but the strengthening couch for theglorious sun, and the obscurity of the night but serves to reveal thebrilliancy of the stars. No one has power to alter these heavenlylights, for they serve to display the greatness of their Creator, andas our eyes see them now, so saw them our earliest ancestors, and soshall see them our latest posterity.

* * * * *

It will be seen that the philosophy of these songs is mostly of theEpicurean and _carpe diem_ order. The certainty of death and themutability of fortune, observations which press themselves upon themind of man everywhere, are their principal staples, and cast overthem a hue of melancholy, relieved by exhortations to enjoy to theutmost what the present moment offers of pleasure and sensualgratification. Here and there a gleam of a higher philosophy lightsthe sombre reflections of the bard; his thoughts turn toward theinfinite Creator of this universe, and he dimly apprehends that bymaking Him the subject of his contemplation, there is boundlessconsolation even in this mortal life.

Both these leading _motifs_ recur over and over again in the songsprinted in the original in the present volume, and this similarity isa common token of the authenticity of the book.

Sec. 10. _THE HISTORY OF THE PRESENT COLLECTION._

The most recent Mexican writers formally deny that any ancientMexican poetry is now extant. Thus the eminent antiquary, Don AlfredoChavero, in his elaborate work, _Mexico a traves de los Siglos_,says, "the truth is, we know no specimens of the ancient poetry, andthose, whether manuscript or printed, which claim to be such, datefrom after the Conquest."[55] In a similar strain the grammarianDiario Julio Caballero, writes: "There has never come into our handsa single poetic composition in this language. It is said that thegreat King Nezahualcoyotl was a poet and composed various songs;however that may be, the fact is that we have never seen any suchcompositions, nor met any person who has seen them."[56]

It is important, therefore, to state the exact provenance of thespecimens printed in this volume, many of which I consider to havebeen composed previous to the Conquest, and written down shortlyafter the Nahuatl language had been reduced to the Spanish alphabet.

All of them are from a MS. volume in the library of the University ofMexico, entitled _Cantares de los Mexicanos y otros opusculos_,composed of various pieces in different handwritings, which, fromtheir appearance and the character of the letter, were attributed bythe eminent antiquary Don Jose F. Ramirez, to the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries.

The copy I have used is that made by the late Abbe Brasseur (deBourbourg). It does not appear to be complete, but my efforts to haveit collated with the original have not been successful. Another copywas taken by the late well-known Mexican scholar FaustinoChimalpopoca, which was in the possession of Senor Ramirez and soldat the vendue of his books in 1880. It is No. 511 of the catalogue.

The final decision of the age of the poems must come from a carefulscrutiny of the internal evidence, especially the thoughts theycontain and the language in which they are expressed. In applyingthese tests, it should be remembered that a song may be almost whollyancient, that is, composed anterior to the Conquest, and yet displaya few later allusions introduced by the person who preserved it inwriting, so as to remove from it the flavor of heathenism. Someprobable instances of this kind will be pointed out in the Notes.

The songs are evidently from different sources and of differentepochs. There are two notes inserted in the MS. which throw somelight on the origin of a few of the poems. The first is in connectionwith No. XII. In my copy of the MS, the title of this song is writtentwice, and between the two the following memorandum appears inSpanish:

"Ancient songs of the native Otomis, which they were accustomed tosing at their festivals and marriages, translated into the Mexicanlanguage, the play and the spirit of the song and its figures ofspeech being always retained; as Your Reverence will understand, theydisplayed considerable style and beauty, better than I can expresswith my slight talent; and may Your Reverence at your convenienceapprove and be entertained by them, as a skilled master of thetongue, as Your Reverence is."

From its position and from the titles following, this note appears toapply only to No. XII.

The second note is prefixed to No. XIV, which has no title. It is inNahuatl, and reads as follows:--

"Here begins a song called a plain song of Huexotzinco as it wasrecited by the lords of Huexotzinco. These songs are divided intothree classes, the songs of the nobles or of the eagles, the flowersongs, and the songs of destitution. (Directions follow for beatingthe drum in unison with the voices.) This song was sung at the houseof Don Diego de Leon, Governor of Azcapotzalco; he who beat the drumwas Don Francisco Placido; in the year of the resurrection of ourLord Jesus Christ 1551."

* * * * *

This assigns beyond doubt the song in question to the first half ofthe sixteenth century, and we may therefore take its phraseology as atype of the Nahuatl poetry shortly after the Conquest. It is alsostated to be a native composition, and from its contents, it wasclearly composed by one of the converts to the Christian faith.

1. I am wondering where I may gather some pretty, sweet flowers. Whomshall I ask? Suppose that I ask the brilliant humming-bird, theemerald trembler; suppose that I ask the yellow butterfly; they willtell me, they know, where bloom the pretty, sweet flowers, whether Imay gather them here in the laurel woods where dwell the tzinitzcanbirds, or whether I may gather them in the flowery forests where thetlauquechol lives. There they may be plucked sparkling with dew,there they come forth in perfection. Perhaps there I shall see themif they have appeared; I shall place them in the folds of my garment,and with them I shall greet the children, I shall make glad thenobles.

2. Truly as I walk along I hear the rocks as it were replying to thesweet songs of the flowers; truly the glittering, chattering wateranswers, the bird-green fountain, there it sings, it dashes forth, itsings again; the mockingbird answers; perhaps the coyol bird answers,and many sweet singing birds scatter their songs around like music.They bless the earth pouring out their sweet voices.

3. I said, I cried aloud, may I not cause you pain ye beloved ones,who are seated to listen; may the brilliant humming-birds come soon.Whom do we seek, O noble poet? I ask, I say: Where are the pretty,fragrant flowers with which I may make glad you my noble compeers?Soon they will sing to me, "Here we will make thee to see, thousinger, truly wherewith thou shalt make glad the nobles, thycompanions."

4. They led me within a valley to a fertile spot, a flowery spot,where the dew spread out in glittering splendor, where I saw variouslovely fragrant flowers, lovely odorous flowers, clothed with thedew, scattered around in rainbow glory, there they said to me, "Pluckthe flowers, whichever thou wishest, mayest thou the singer be glad,and give them to thy friends, to the nobles, that they may rejoice onthe earth."

5. So I gathered in the folds of my garment the various fragrantflowers, delicate scented, delicious, and I said, may some of ourpeople enter here, may very many of us be here; and I thought Ishould go forth to announce to our friends that here all of us shouldrejoice in the different lovely, odorous flowers, and that we shouldcull the various sweet songs with which we might rejoice our friendshere on earth, and the nobles in their grandeur and dignity.

6. So I the singer gathered all the flowers to place them upon thenobles, to clothe them and put them in their hands; and soon I liftedmy voice in a worthy song glorifying the nobles before the face ofthe Cause of All, where there is no servitude.

7. Where shall one pluck them? Where gather the sweet flowers? Andhow shall I attain that flowery land, that fertile land, where thereis no servitude, nor affliction? If one purchases it here on earth,it is only through submission to the Cause of All; here on earthgrief fills my soul as I recall where I the singer saw the floweryspot.

8. And I said, truly there is no good spot here on earth, truly insome other bourne there is gladness; For what good is this earth?Truly there is another life in the hereafter. There may I go, therethe sweet birds sing, there may I learn to know those good flowers,those sweet flowers, those delicious ones, which alone pleasurably,sweetly intoxicate, which alone pleasurably, sweetly intoxicate.

1. I, the singer, have entered many flower gardens, places ofpleasaunce, favored spots, where the dew spread out its glitteringsurface, where sang various lovely birds, where the coyol birds letfall their song, and spreading far around, their voices rejoiced theCause of All, He who is God, ohuaya! ohuaya!

2. It is there that I the singer hear the very essence of song;certainly not on earth has true poesy its birth; certainly it iswithin the heavens that one hears the lovely coyol bird lift itsvoice, that the various quechol and zacuan birds speak together,there they certainly praise the Cause of All, ohuaya! ohuaya!

3. I, the singer, labor in spirit with what I heard, that it may liftup my memory, that it may go forth to those shining heavens, that mysighs may be borne on the wind and be permitted to enter where theyellow humming bird chants its praises in the heavens, ohuaya!ohuaya!

4. And as in my thoughts I gaze around, truly no such sweet birdlifts its voice, truly the things made for the heavens by the Causeof All surpass all others, and unless my memory tends to thingsdivine scarcely will it be possible to penetrate these and witnessthe wondrous sights in heaven, which rejoice the sweet heavenly birdsbefore the face of the Cause of All.

5. How much, alas, shall I weep on earth? Truly I have lived here invain illusion; I say that whatever is here on earth must end with ourlives. May I be permitted to sing to thee, the Cause of All, there inthe heaven, a dweller in thy mansion, there may my soul lift itsvoice and be seen with Thee and near Thee, Thou by whom we live,ohuaya! ohuaya!

6. List to my song, thou my friend, and to the flower-decked drumwhich kept time to the heavenly song which I sang, that I might makeglad the nobles, raining down before them the flowery thoughts of myheart as though they were flowers, that my noble song might grow inglory before the face of the Cause of All, ohuaya! ohuaya!

1. I, the singer, entered into the house strewn with flowers, wherestood upright the emerald drum, where awaiting the Giver of Life thenobles strewed flowers around, the place where the head is bowed forlustration, the house of corrupt odors, where the burning fragrantincense spreads and penetrates, intoxicating our souls in thepresence of the Cause of All.

2. Where shall we obtain the fragrance which intoxicates our souls?We do not yet know the various flower-songs with which we may rejoicethe Cause of All, however desirous we are; thou my friend, would thatthou bring to my instrument various flowers, that thou shouldstclothe it in brilliant oco flowers, that thou shouldst offer them,and lift thy voice in a new and worthy song to rejoice the Cause ofAll.

3. Wherefore should we recall while the soul is in life that oursouls must be scattered hither and thither, and that wherever we gowe are to be destroyed on earth? Rather let us hide it, turn from it,and listen to some worthy new song; delight thy soul with thepervading fragrance of flowers, as I the singer lift my voice in anew song that I may rejoice the Cause of All.

4. Come hither, thou my friend, to where stands the drum, decked withflowers, gleaming with brightness, green with the outspread plumes ofthe quetzal bird, where are looked for and cared for the seats nearthe Cause of All; leave the place of night and clouds, turn hitherwith us, lift thy voice in the new song I sing so that I may rejoicethe Cause of All, as the dawn approaches in the house of thy heart.

5. Of what use is it that I frame my sad songs, that I recall to mindthe youths, the beloved children, the precious relatives, the dearfriends, famous and celebrated as they were on earth? Who now hearstheir fame, their deeds? Where can they find them? All of us are butmortal, and our home is there in the Hereafter, where there is lifewithout end.

1. I, the singer, polished my noble new song like a shining emerald,I arranged it like the voice of the tzinitzcan bird, I called to mindthe essence of poetry, I set it in order like the chant of the zacuanbird, I mingled it with the beauty of the emerald, that I might makeit appear like a rose bursting its bud, so that I might rejoice theCause of All.

2. I skillfully arranged my song like the lovely feathers of thezacuan bird, the tzinitzcan and the quechol; I shall speak forth mysong like the tinkling of golden bells; my song is that which themiaua bird pours forth around him; I lifted my voice and rained downflowers of speech before the face of the Cause of All.

3. In the true spirit of song I lifted my voice through a trumpet ofgold, I let fall from my lips a celestial song, I shall speak notesprecious and brilliant as those of the miaua bird, I shall cause toblossom out a noble new song, I lifted my voice like the burningincense of flowers, so that I the singer might cause joy before theface of the Cause of All.

4. The divine quechol bird answers me as I, the singer, sing, likethe coyol bird, a noble new song, polished like a jewel, a turquoise,a shining emerald, darting green rays, a flower song of spring,spreading celestial fragrance, fresh with the dews of roses, thushave I the poet sung.

6. I was glorified, I was enriched, by the flower-sweet song as bythe smoke of the poyomatl, my soul was contented, I trembled inspirit, I inhaled the sweetness, my soul was intoxicated, I inhaledthe fragrance of delicious flowers in the place of riches, my soulwas drunken with the flowers.

1. Alas, my friend, I was afflicted, I cried aloud on thy account toGod. How much compassion hast thou for thy servant in this world senthere by thee to be thy subject for the space of a day on this earth!

4. Let thy soul awake and turn toward the south, toward the rising ofthe sun, rouse thy heart that it turn toward the field of battle,there let it win power and fame, the noble flowers which it will notgrasp in vain; adorned with a frontlet of quetzal feathers I wentforth armed with sword and shield to the battlefield on earth, that Imight merit these noble flowers with which we may rejoice as we wishour friends, as the Cause of All may reward and grant to us.

5. Vainly, O friends, do we desire and seek where we may cull thosenoble flowers unless we fight with bared breasts, with the sweat ofthe brow, meriting these noble flowers, in bitter and painful war,for which the Cause of All will give reward.

VII.

_OTRO._

_ANOTHER._

1. Tleinmach oamaxque on in antocnihuan in an Chiapaneca Otomi,omachamelelacic: in ic oamihuintiqueo octicatl in oanquique icoamihuintique, xicualcuican, in amo ma in anhuehuetztoqueo,ximozcalicano in antocnihuan nipatiazque in tochano, xopantlalpan yenican, ma quiza in amihuintiliz, on xitlachiacano ohuican yeanmaquia, O!

1. What have you done, O you our friends, you Chiapanecs and Otomis,why have you grieved, that you were drunken with the wine which youtook, that you were drunken? Come hither and sing: do not liestretched out; arise, O friends, let us go to our houses here in thisland of spring; come forth from your drunkenness, see in what adifficult place you must take it.

2. For formerly it was so on earth that the white wine was taken indifficult places, as on entering the battlefield, or, as it was said,where the stones were broken and destroyed, where were broken intofragments the lovely emeralds, the turquoises, the honored preciousstones, the youths, the children; therefore take the flowery whitewine, O friends and brothers.

3. Let us drink it in the flowery land, in our dwelling surrounded bythe flowery earth and sky, where the fountains of the flowers sendtheir sweetness abroad; the delicious breath of the dewy flowers isin our homes in Chiapas; there nobility and power make them glorious,and the war-flowers bloom over a fertile land.

4. Is it possible, oh friends, that you do not hear us? Let us go,let us go, let us pour forth the white wine, the wine of battle; letus drink where the wine sweet as the dew of roses is set forth in ourhouses, let our souls be intoxicated with its sweetness; enriched,steeped in delight, we shall soak up the water of the flowers in theplace of riches, going forth to a land of flowers, a fertile spot.What have you done? Come hither and listen to our songs, O friends.

VIII.

_OTRO, QUEUH CE TLATOHUANI IN QUIMILNAMIQUI IN TLATOQUE._

_COMPOSED BY A CERTAIN RULER IN MEMORY OF FORMER RULERS._

1. Tlaocolxochi ixayoticaya ic nichuipana in nocuic nicuicani,niquimilnamiqui in tepilhuan, in teintoque, in tlacotitoque in campain ximohuaya, in oteuctico, in otlatocatico in tlallia icpac, inquetzalhuahuaciuhtoque in chalchiuhteintoque in tepilhuan, in maocimixpan in maoc oquitlani; in ye itto in tlalticpac iximachoca intloque in nahuaque.

1. Weeping, I, the singer, weave my song of flowers of sadness; Icall to memory the youths, the shards, the fragments, gone to theland of the dead; once noble and powerful here on earth, the youthswere dried up like feathers, were split into fragments like anemerald, before the face and in the sight of those who saw them onearth, and with the knowledge of the Cause of All.

2. Alas! alas! I sing in grief as I recall the children. Would that Icould turn back again; would that I could grasp their hands oncemore; would that I could call them forth from the land of the dead;would that we could bring them again on earth, that they mightrejoice and we rejoice, and that they might rejoice and delight theGiver of Life; is it possible that we His servants should reject himor should be ungrateful? Thus I weep in my heart as I, the singer,review my memories, recalling things sad and grievous.

3. Would only that I knew they could hear me, there in the land ofthe dead, were I to sing some worthy song. Would that I could gladdenthem, that I could console the suffering and the torment of thechildren. How can it be learned? Whence can I draw the inspiration?They are not where I may follow them; neither can I reach them withmy calling as one here on earth.

1. To thee, the Cause of All, to thee I cried out in sadness, mysighs rose up before thy face; I am afflicted here on earth, Isuffer, I am wretched, never has joy been my lot, never good fortune;my labor has been of no avail, certainly nothing here lessens one'ssuffering; truly only to be with thee, near thee; may it be thy willthat my soul shall rise to thee, may I pour out my tears to thee,before thee, O thou Giver of Life.

2. Happy are those who walk in thy favor here on earth, who neverneglect to offer up praise, nor, leaving till to-morrow, neglectthee, thou Cause of All, that thou mayest be known in all the earth;I know that they shall live, I see that they are established,certainly they have drunk to forgetfulness while I am miserable,certainly I shall go to see the land of the dead, certainly we shallmeet where all souls are contented.

3. Never were any troubled in spirit on the earth who appealed tothee, who cried to thee, only for an instant were they cast down,truly thou caused them to rule as they ruled before: Take as anexample on earth, O friend, the fever-stricken patient; clothethyself in the flowers of sadness, in the flowers of weeping, givepraises in flowers of sighs that may carry you toward the Cause ofAll.

4. I array myself with the jewels of saddest flowers; in my hands arethe weeping flowers of war; I lift my voice in sad songs; I offer anew and worthy song which is beautiful and melodious; I weave songsfresh as the dew of flowers; on my drum decked with precious stonesand plumes I, the singer, keep time to my song, as I take it fromthose dwellers in the heavens, the zacuan bird, the beautifultzinitzcan, the divine quechol, those melodious birds who give joy tothe Cause of All.