Early Christian Manuscripts, Patristic Literature hs

General Information

Patristic literature refers to the writings of the Fathers
of the Christian church (the Greek word patristikos means
"relating to the fathers") between the latter part of the
1st century AD and the middle of the 8th century. It can
therefore be distinguished from New Testament theology at
one end and from medieval scholasticism and Byzantine
systematization at the other. It reflects the philosophical
and religious thought of the Hellenistic and Roman world
from which it derived the bulk of its concepts and
vocabulary. The themes of this vast literature are
manifold, but the theological reflection of the Fathers
focused for the most part on questions of Christology and
the Trinity.

Although writers of the East and West had much in common,
perceptible shades of difference can be found in their
theologies. A scientific theology developed in the East and
was marked by a blend of biblical theology and Platonic
idealism (especially in Alexandria) or Aristotelian realism
(especially in Antioch). In the West, Christian writers
generally depended on the Greek theological tradition,
which they often clarified in definitions or interpreted in
juridical categories, until the emergence in the late 4th
century of a sophisticated Latin theology.

Patristic literature falls into three main periods. The
ante-Nicene period (before AD 325) includes the writings of
the Apostolic Fathers, the apologetic and antiheretical
literature, and the beginnings of speculative Greek
theology. The major figures of this period include Clement
of Alexandria, Cyprian, Irenæus, Justin Martyr, Origen,
and Tertullian. The period between the councils of Nicæa
(325) and Chalcedon (451) was the golden age of the Nicene
fathers (including Eusebius of Cæsarea, the first major
church historian) the Alexandrians (most notably Athanasius
and Cyril of Alexandria), the Cappadocians (Basil the
Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa), and the
Antiochenes (John Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia).

This was also the period of the great Latin fathers: Hilary
of Poitiers, Ambrose, Jerome, and, above all, Augustine.
The final period of patristic literature ends with Gregory
I (the Great) in the West and John Damascene in the East.

Collected together are the English translations of the actual texts
of many known early Christian manuscripts. These works form an
important part of the foundation for virtually every Christian Church.

In Christianity, as in all other religions, interpretation
by authors and speakers and Clergy is invariably involved. Since
different people have sometimes interpreted the wording of early manuscripts
in different ways, (as also is true of the Bible), there developed
many different "human opinions" on many important subjects, which
initiated many heresies, many schisms and a large number of Denominations
and other Churches, each which have their own human opinions on
those important subjects.

Since much of the argument seems to arise over interpretation of
the meanings of works of the early Church Fathers, we are presenting
the works here, WITHOUT significant commentary or interpretation. The
exceptions generally have to do with historical facts which are
relevant. For example, there are some short letters which appear
to have been written to Mary, the Mother of Jesus, but the author
appears to have lived many years after her! Such notes
include a brief reference to being "spurious".

There are also assorted "fragments" of manuscripts included.
In some cases, these fragments result from the illegibility of much
of a manuscript, where only certain sentences are readable. In other cases,
they are truly fragments, torn portions of manuscripts.

Being English translations, one must remember the need to consult the
original language texts for any critical study. Similarly, we must remember
that, at the time these letters and books were written, even the Bible was
written in Scriptua continua, continuous text without spaces for
paragraphs, sentences or even words, and there was no capitalization,
punctuation or other formatting. Therefore, the paragraph numbering and
Chapter headings in these texts were obviously additions by later
copyists or translators to clarify the texts.
However, without those improvements, these texts are nearly impossible
to read or understand, and so it seems tolerable to accept them.

This listing is approximately in chronological order, as is currently
understood. We hope to eventually include all known existing
Manuscripts.

Origen

{ohr'-i-jin}

Origen, c.185-c.254, is generally considered the greatest
theologian and biblical scholar of the early Eastern
church. He was probably born in Egypt, perhaps in
Alexandria, to a Christian family. His father died in the
persecution of 202, and he himself narrowly escaped the
same fate. At the age of 18, Origen was appointed to
succeed Clement of Alexandria as head of the catechetical
school of Alexandria, where he had been a student.

Between 203 and 231, Origen attracted large numbers of
students through his manner of life as much as through his
teaching. According to Eusebius, he took the command in
Matt. 19:12 to mean that he should castrate himself.
During this period Origen traveled widely and while in
Palestine (c.215) was invited to preach by local bishops
even though he was not ordained. Demetrius, bishop of
Alexandria, regarded this activity as a breach of custom
and discipline and ordered him to return to Alexandria. The
period following, from 218 to 230, was one of Origen's most
productive as a writer.

In 230 he returned to Palestine, where he was ordained
priest by the bishops of Jerusalem and Cæsarea. Demetrius
then excommunicated Origen, deprived him of his priesthood,
and sent him into exile. Origen returned to the security
of Cæsarea (231), and there established a school of
theology, over which he presided for 20 years. Among his
students was Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, whose Panegyric to
Origen is an important source for the period. Persecution
was renewed in 250, and Origen was severely tortured. He
died of the effects a few years later.

Although most of his writings have disappeared, Origen's
literary productivity was enormous. The Hexapla was the
first attempt to establish a critical text of the Old
Testament; the commentaries on Matthew and John establish
him as the first major biblical scholar of the Christian
church; the De Principiis (or Peri Archon) is a dogmatic
treatise on God and the world; and the Contra Celsum is a
refutation of paganism.

Origen attempted to synthesize Christian scriptural
interpretation and belief with Greek philosophy, especially
Neoplatonism and Stoicism. His theology was an expression
of Alexandrian reflection on the Trinity, and, prior to
Saint Augustine, he was the most influential theologian of
the church. Some of Origen's ideas remained a source of
controversy long after his death, and "Origenism" was
condemned at the fifth ecumenical council in 553 (see
Councils of Constantinople). Origen is one of the best
examples of early Christian mysticism: the highest good is
to become as like God as possible through progressive
illumination. Despite their sometimes controversial
character, his writings helped to create a Christian
theology that blended biblical and philosophical
categories.

Saint Hippolytus of Rome

Saint Hippolytus of Rome (170?-235?) was considered the most important
3rd-century theologian of the Roman church. Hippolytus challenged
the papal election of Callistus in 217 and declared himself the
first antipope.

Born before 170, probably in the Greek-speaking East, Hippolytus
appears to have come to Rome during the reign of Saint Victor I
in the last decade of the second century. He soon became the leading
intellectual of the Roman church; when the eminent theologian Origen
visited Rome, he attended one of Hippolytus's sermons. Hippolytus
took an active part in combatting Modal Monarchianism, which denied
the reality of distinctions between the persons of the Trinity.
A fierce controversialist, he denounced both Pope Zephyrinus and
his adviser, who would become Pope Callistus I, for laxity in
enforcing church discipline, and he accused them of modalist
tendencies in their christology. Zephyrinus and Callistus in turn
denounced Hippolytus for the ditheism latent in the theology he
had adopted from Saint Justin Martyr.

After the election of Callistus as successor to Zephyrinus, Hippolytus
appears to have set himself up as antipope. He treated Callistus as
a misguided factional leader and attempted to realize his own vision
of the church as an ideal community of saints. After the death of
Callistus, Hippolytus perpetuated the schism with attacks on Pope
Urban I and Pope Pontian. Around 235, during the reign of Emperor
Maximinus, both Hippolytus and Pontian were arrested and sent to
the mines of Sardinia, where they died. The fact that Pope Fabian
went to the effort of having the bodies of both men returned to
Rome suggests that a reconciliation was believed to have taken
place before their deportation.

Because Hippolytus wrote in Greek, the bulk of his works was lost
and his history became confused in the Latin West. Saint Damasus I,
for example, believed that Hippolytus was a follower of Novatian, and
in later writings Hippolytus is represented as a soldier converted by
Saint Lawrence. Both Eusebius of Cæsarea and Saint Jerome made
reference to him as a prolific author and a bishop, but they were
unable to identify his episcopal see. The most famous of the works
attributed to Hippolytus is the Refutation of All Heresies, although
many scholars now doubt that this and other writings traditionally
associated with the name of Hippolytus can be considered the work of
the Roman priest and antipope.

Saint Cyprian

{sip'-ree-uhn}

Cyprian, b. c.200, d. Sept. 14, 258, was bishop of Carthage
and one of the major theologians of the early African
church. The son of wealthy parents, he was a teacher of
rhetoric and literature before becoming (c.246) a
Christian. He was soon ordained a priest and elected
(c.248) bishop of Carthage.

Cyprian was forced to flee Carthage during the persecutions
(249-51) of Emperor Decius. After his return he turned to
the problem of Christians who had failed to stand firm
during the persecution. Cyprian favored the readmission of
such Christians to the church but under stringent
conditions. Opposing the schism of NOVATIAN, who believed
that lapsed Christians should be permanently excluded, he
argued that baptisms performed by the schismatics were
invalid. On this issue he was opposed by Pope Stephen I. In
the renewed persecution of Valerian's reign, Cyprian was
beheaded not far from Carthage.

Cyprian's writing reflects the influence of TERTULLIAN, whom
he held in high esteem. His best-known work is De ecclesiæ
unitate (On the Unity of the Church), in which he stressed
the role of the bishop in deciding local church matters,
although he gave the Roman church a position of
preeminence. Feast day: Sept. 16 (Western); Aug. 31 (Eastern).

Novatian

Novatian (200?-258?) was a Roman theologian who became the second
antipope in 251. A leader among the Roman clergy, Novatian espoused
a rigorism in church discipline that was akin to Montanism.

After the martyrdom of Pope Fabian in 250 during the persecutions
of Emperor Decius, the Roman church postponed electing a successor.
In 251 the church elected Cornelius as pope. Cornelius advocated
the forgiveness and readmittance of Christians who had committed
apostasy under persecution. Novatian, however, believed that after
baptism there could be no forgiveness for grave sins. He had himself
consecrated pope by three bishops from southern Italy and went into
schism with his followers; in 251 they were excommunicated by
Cornelius. The Novatianists established their own church, which
endured until they were formally reunited with the Catholic church
by the Council of Nicæa in 325. Novatian himself is thought to
have been martyred during the persecutions of the Roman emperor Valerian.

Novatian was the first Roman theologian to write in Latin. Two of his
nine known treatises have survived: On the Trinity and On Jewish Foods.