The term "Stomp Dance" is an English term, which refers to the "shuffle and stomp" movements of the dance; in the native Muskogee language the dance is called Opvnkv Haco, which can mean "drunken," "crazy," or "inspirited" dance.[4] This usually refers to the exciting, yet meditative effect the dance and the medicine have on the participants; in the native Shawnee language, the dance is called Nikanikawe which refers to a dance involving friends or nikane. It is also called the Leading Dance by many Shawnees, but most simply call it the "Stomp Dance."

Among Muscogee Creeks and Four Mothers Society members, the Stomp Dance Grounds contain an elevated square platform with the flat edges of the square facing the cardinal directions. Arbors are constructed upon the flat edges of the square in which the men sit facing one of the four directions, this is formally referred to as the Square Ground, which is encircled by a ring-mound of earth. In the center of this is the ceremonial fire, which is referred to by many names including "Mother" fire. Ceremonially, this fire is the focus of the songs and prayers of the people and is considered to be a living sacred being.

Outside of the circle of earth, surrounding the Square Ground are the community's clan-houses, these houses are casually referred to as 'camps' and depending on the traditional level and financial situation of the community may be relatively nice cottages, shanties or in between. Prior to the dance dinner is prepared in these family camps. Throughout the night guests that arrive are welcomed to help eat up the leftovers, the foods eaten at Stomp Dances are typical southern delicacies such as corn bread, mashed potatoes as well as certain specialized Indian dishes such as sofkee, pashofa, grape or lye dumplings, hominy, and numerous traditional dishes.

Kituwah stomp dance grounds are encircled by seven clan arbors. These are influenced by the traditionalist revival among Cherokees during the late 19th century, inspired by Redbird Smith;[5] in 1907, 22 ceremonial grounds were active on Cherokee lands in Oklahoma.[3]

Stickball games are often played at stomp dance grounds.[6] Yuchi stomp dances are held in conjunction with their ritual football games.[7] Especially in Oklahoma, different tribes will participate in each other's dances.[8]

A traditional Stomp Dance grounds is often headed by a male elder; in the Creek and Seminole traditions the Meko or "king" [Chief] is the primary ceremonial authority. The Meko is assisted by his second in charge called a Heniha, the chief medicine man called a Hillis Hiya and speaker called Meko Tvlvswv or Meko's tongue/speaker, it is important to note that Mekos are not supposed to publicly address the entire grounds and as such that responsibility falls often on Meko Tvlvswsv. A traditional Creek grounds also employs four Tvstvnvkes (warchiefs/generals/police), four head ladies and four alternate head ladies.

A night of dancing typically starts well after dark and continues until dawn of the next day, with many rounds of dancing throughout the night. Participants who are making a religious commitment to the ceremony will begin fasting after midnight, "touch medicine" at four different times during night, and are obligated to stay awake the whole night, the medicine is made from specific roots and plants which have been ceremonially gathered by selected "medicine helpers" and prepared by the Heles Haya at dawn of the morning of the Dance. This medicine is intended for the physical and spiritual benefit of the members of the dance at the ceremonial ground.

One of the male members of the community is given the job of calling out each song leader and all other participants to dance for each round, each round is led by a selected man who has developed his own sequence of songs from the multitude of variations on traditional rhythms, melodies and lyrics, sometimes with personalized content in the mix. The songs are typically performed in call and response form, in the native language, every dance must have at least one woman with shakers, who falls into step immediately behind the song leader, to carry the rhythm. The remaining dancers follow, alternating male-female in a continuous spiral around the central fire, with visitors, then young children, and the odd numbers trailing at the end, the dancers circle the fire in counterclockwise direction with deliberate stomping steps set to the rhythm created by the women with their shell shakers.[2] Depending on the size of the community and the number of visitors in attendance, the number of people joining the circle may range from less than ten up to several hundred. Usually a round of dancing continues until at least four songs are completed by the dance leader, and then everyone returns to their seats until another singer is called on to "lead out." There is usually a few minutes of rest between each leader, but the breaks may stretch longer if there are fewer people present to participate. The Stomp Dance is not meant to be a grueling and physically challenging event, but almost every participant on the grounds will dance most of the night.

Although not as widespread as they were in the past, there are still many Ceremonial Grounds, or Stomp Grounds, located in what is now the southeastern United States and Oklahoma, where so many of the southeastern peoples were forced to move during the 1800s. Stokes Smith Stomp Dance Ground, which is located in an isolated area of the Cherokee Nation tribal lands, is one of approximately seven active Cherokee grounds, the Eastern Band Cherokee stomp grounds is currently located in Raven's Roost, North Carolina, on the Qualla Boundary. The Echota Ceremonial Ground has been located in Park Hill, Oklahoma since 2001.[9] There is one active Tuscarora arbor located adjacant to the Tuscarora Nation Longhouse in the rural community of Prospect, North Carolina, the Creek tribe today has 16 active ceremonial grounds located throughout northeast Oklahoma. One of which is Flat Rock, located west of Eufaula and south of Mill Creek. Other active communities include Hossossv Tvlvhvse Ceremonial Ground on the Poarch Creek Indian Reservation near Atmore, Alabama, Kvnfvske Etvlwv in Fountain, Florida, and the White Oak Shawnee Tribe's grounds.

Men sing stomp dance songs in a call-and-answer format. A leader is chosen for a song and the other men provided a chorus,[2] for some dances, the male dance leader carries a handheld rattle – commonly made from box turtle shells, gourds or coconuts. Women provide the primary rhythm accompaniment with shakers worn on their legs, which are traditionally made from turtle shells as well, but may also be made from condensed milk cans, during certain dances, a water drum can be used.[2]Ethnomusicologist Victoria Lindsay Levine writes that, "Stomp dance songs are among the most exhilarating and dramatic musical genres in Native America."[10]

The dress of most Stomp Dancers is casual but nice. Most Stomp Dancers keep special attire for ceremonial occasions, but the physical nature of the dance and summery, outdoor conditions of the dance make comfort more important than flair. Women wear skirts and blouses that usually incorporate traditional patterns, the men wear blue jeans or slacks and hats, which are usually cowboy or ballcap styles, usually with a single eagle, hawk or crane feather in the hatband. The ribbon shirt is the standard ceremonial attire for both men and women, which consists of a loose-fitted tunic decorated with ribbons. Cherokee women typically wear full cotton skirts featuring ribbonwork in a rattlesnake pattern.

The women wear tortoise shell shakers, or shackles, on both legs[2] (typically six to 12 on each leg),[11] the shakers are hollowed out tortoise shells which have holes drilled in them and are filled with certain river rocks that will make them rattle. The traditional Creek and Seminole shell shakers are made of terrapin or box turtle shells. Lydia Sam, a Natchez-Cherokee traditionalist, was the first to dance with tin, condensed milk can leg shackles in the 1920s, some ground leaders insist on the use of the terrapin by head lady shell shakers. This tradition continues today and most women start out with a set of "cans" before moving up to having their own set of shells. Women stomp dancers are called "Shell Shakers" or "Turtles."

Participants and visitors to a stomp dance ground cannot be under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Depending upon the grounds, they cannot have partaken of either for a prescribed period of time before or after the dance. Photography is not allowed at ceremonial dances, the ceremonies are religious, and many participants do not feel comfortable discussing details with non-Indians, particularly in regards to medicine.[12] Pregnant or menstruating women do not enter the dance circle at ceremonial grounds. Depending on the ground, they may or may not touch medicine.

During the off-season, Stomp Dances are sometimes performed indoors to avoid the winter cold, some societies incorporate Stomp Dance into pow wows or as educational demonstrations. Caddos,[13]Delaware, and other Woodland and Southern tribes have a secular or social stomp dance tradition. The Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma currently maintain non-ceremonial grounds for stomp dances and stickball.

Oklahoma History Center
–
The Oklahoma History Center is the history museum of the State of Oklahoma. Located on an 18 acres plot across the street from the Governors mansion at 800 Nazih Zuhdi Drive in Oklahoma City and it preserves the history of Oklahoma from ancient Native American tribal nations to the present day. The Museum is open Monday through Saturday from 10,00

1.
A replica of Oklahoma aviator Wiley Post 's Winnie Mae hangs in the atrium of the Oklahoma History Center.

Caddo language
–
Caddo is a Native American language, the traditional language of the Caddo Nation. It is critically endangered, with no exclusively Caddo-speaking community and only 25 speakers as of 2009 who acquired the language as children outside of school instruction, Caddo has several mutually intelligible dialects. The most commonly used dialects are Hasina

Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of fi

Muscogee (Creek)
–
The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki

1.
Muscogee portraits

2.
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the United States before the arrival of Europeans.

3.
Hernando de Soto and his men burn Mabila, after a surprise attack by Chief Tuskaloosa and his people, 1540 CE, painting by Herb Roe, 2008

4.
A raiding party against Spanish missions in Florida passes the Ocmulgee trading post

Yuchi
–
The Yuchi, also spelled Euchee and Uchee, are people of a Native American tribe who traditionally lived in the eastern Tennessee River valley in Tennessee in the 16th century. The Yuchi were well known mound builders, during the 17th century, they moved south to Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina. Some remnant groups migrated to Florida, where the

1.
Yuchi Town, painting by Martin Pate (1990) of 18th-century village, based on archaeological data. It is within the area of present-day Ft. Benning, Georgia.

4.
Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler; two of the final surviving elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother's grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their first language.

Cherokee
–
The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee linea

4.
After the Anglo-Cherokee War, bitterness remained between the two groups. In 1765, Henry Timberlake took three of the former Cherokee adversaries to London to help cement the newly declared friendship.

Chickasaw
–
The Chickasaw are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama and they are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with F

Choctaw
–
The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, t

Lenape
–
The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many s

Miami tribe
–
The Miami are a Native American nation originally speaking one of the Algonquian languages. Among the peoples known as the Great Lakes tribes, it occupied territory that is now identified as Indiana, southwest Michigan, by 1846, most of the Miami had been removed to Indian Territory. The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is the federally recognized tribe of

Caddo
–
The Caddo Nation is a confederacy of several Southeastern Native American tribes. Their ancestors historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, Louisiana, in the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas, then removed to Indian Territory in 1859. Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a recognized tribe with it

Tuscarora people
–
The Tuscarora are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government of the Iroquoian-language family, with members today in North Carolina, New York, and Canada. Well before the arrival of Europeans in North America, the Tuscarora had migrated south, the most numerous indigenous people in the area, they lived along the Roanoke, Neuse, Tar,

1.
Tuscarora Portraits

2.
Fort Neoheroka Historical Marker

Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma
–
The Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma is one of four federally recognized Native American tribes of Odawa people in the United States. Its ancestors had migrated into Michigan and Ohio in the 18th century, in the late 1830s they were removed to west of the Mississippi River, first to Iowa, then to Kansas in what was then Indian Territory. In 1867 they sold

1.
Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma

2.
official tribal flag

Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
–
The Quapaw people are a tribe of Native Americans that coalesced in the Midwest and Ohio Valley. The Quapaw are among the Siouan-speaking peoples west of the Mississippi, the Quapaw are federally recognized as the Quapaw Tribe of Indians. Since their removal west to Indian Territory in 1834, their base has been in present-day Ottawa County in north

Peoria (tribe)
–
The Peoria are a Native American people. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, historically, they were part of the Illinois Confederation. Traditionally, the Peoria spoke a dialect of the Miami-Illinois language, the name Peoria derives from their autonym or name for themselves in the Illinois lang

Shawnee
–
The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the La

Seminole
–
The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek, the most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, other notable traditions include use of the black drink and ritual tobacco. As the Se

Natchez Nation
–
They spoke a language with no known close relatives, although it may be very distantly related to the Muskogean languages of the Creek Confederacy. The Natchez are noted for being the only Mississippian culture with complex chiefdom characteristics to have survived long into the period after the European colonization of America began, others had ge

4.
The funeral procession of Tattooed Serpent in 1725, with retainers waiting to be sacrificed

Seneca-Cayuga
–
The Seneca–Cayuga Nation is one of three federally recognized tribes of Seneca people in the United States. It includes the Cayuga people and is based in Oklahoma, United States, the tribe had more than 5,000 people in 2011. They have a tribal area in the northeast corner of Oklahoma and are headquartered in Grove. They are descended from Iroquoian

1.
Flag of the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma

Muskogee language
–
The Muscogee language, also known as Creek, Seminole, Maskókî or Muskogee, is a Muskogean language spoken by Muscogee and Seminole people, primarily in the U. S. states of Oklahoma and Florida. Historically the language was spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee or Maskoki in what are now Alabama, the Muscogee first brought the Muscog

Pashofa
–
Pashofa, or pishofa, is a Chickasaw and Choctaw Indian soupy dish made from cracked white cracked corn, also known as pearl hominy. The dish is one of the most important to the Chickasaw people and has served at ceremonial and social events for centuries. Pashofa is also used in healing ceremonies. Traditionally, dried corn was ground in a mortar i

Keetoowah Nighthawk Society
–
The Keetoowah Nighthawk Society was a Cherokee Native American organisation formed ca. But, as Michael Lee Weber notes, his movement had declined, and by the end of 1918, Redbird Smith. According to Cherokee legend, when the population grew too large to sustain the Mother city, groups moved to new areas and created new Cherokee Communities, the res

1.
Keetoowah Nighthawk Council, 1916.

Redbird Smith
–
Redbird Smith was a Cherokee traditionalist and political activist. He helped found the Nighthawk Keetoowah Society, who revitalized traditional spirituality among Cherokees from the century to the early 20th century. Redbird Smith was born on July 19,1850 near the current city of Fort Smith and his father was Pig Redbird Smith, whose surname Smith

1.
Redbird Smith

Tommy Wildcat
–
Tommy Wildcat is a Native American musician and academic. Cherokee Nation National treasure Tommy Wildcat is an enrolled, full-blood citizen of the Cherokee Nation and his parents are Annie and the late Tom Webber Wildcat, he also has a twin sister named Tammy. Tommy Wildcat graduated from Sequoyah High School 1985, and a Graduate of Northeastern S

Fasting
–
Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a period, usually a period of 24 hours. Water fasting allows drinking water but nothing else, other fasts may be partially restrictive, limiting only particular foo

Eastern Band Cherokee
–
They were required to assimilate and renounce tribal Cherokee citizenship. The history of the Eastern Band closely follows that of the Qualla Boundary, when they reorganized as a tribe, they had to buy back the land from the US government. The EBCI also own, hold, or maintain additional lands in the vicinity, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians ar

Qualla Boundary
–
The Qualla Boundary or The Qualla is territory held as a land trust for the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, who reside in western North Carolina. The area is part of the Cherokees historic territory, individuals can buy, own, and sell the land, provided they are enrolled members of the Tribe of the Eastern Band of the Cheroke

3.
"Qualla Indian Reservation" sign in North Carolina; text of 1975 sign included in article

Park Hill, Oklahoma
–
Park Hill is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in southwestern Cherokee County, Oklahoma in the United States. The population was 3,909 at the 2010 census and it lies near Tahlequah, east of the junction of U. S. Route 62 and State Highway 82. Founded in 1838, Park Hill became the home of many important Cherokee leaders and it

Atmore, Alabama
–
Atmore is a city in Escambia County, Alabama, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 10,194, Atmore is in the planning stages to increase its economic base with additions in its new Rivercane development along the I-65 corridor. Atmore has completed requirements to be recognized as an Alabama Community of Excellence at the upco

1.
Former Atmore Amtrak station

Shawnee Tribe
–
The Shawnee Tribe is a federally recognized Native American tribe in Oklahoma. Also known as the Loyal Shawnee, they are one of three federally recognized Shawnee tribes, the others are the Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma and Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma. The headquarters of the Shawnee Tribe is Miami, Oklahoma, currently, there

Box turtle
–
Box turtles are North American turtles of the genus Terrapene. Although box turtles are superficially similar to tortoises in terrestrial habits and overall appearance, the twelve taxa which are distinguished in the genus are distributed over four species. They are largely characterized by having a domed shell, which is hinged at the bottom, Box tu

2.
Terrapene carolina carolina (young)

3.
Size difference between the two subspecies of Terrapene ornata: T.o.ornata (left) and T.o.luteola (right).

4.
Plastron of T.c.carolina showing the hinge (H) between abdominal (abd) and pectoral (pect) scales. Also the other scales (an=anal, fem=femural, hum=huminal, gul=gular) are shown.

Condensed milk
–
Condensed milk is cows milk from which water has been removed. It is most often found in the form of sweetened condensed milk, with sugar added, sweetened condensed milk is a very thick, sweet product which when canned can last for years without refrigeration if not opened. Condensed milk is used in dessert dishes in many countries. A related produ

1.
Condensed milk has a thick consistency and is commonly packaged in tubes or tins.

2.
An opened can of condensed milk

Ethnomusicology
–
Ethnomusicology is the study of music from the cultural and social aspects of the people who make it. Stated broadly, ethnomusicology may be described as an investigation of music in its cultural contexts. When the field first came into existence, it was limited to the study of non-Western music—in contrast to the study of Western art music. Over t

Osage Nation
–
The Osage Nation is a Midwestern Native American tribe of the Great Plains who historically dominated much of present-day Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The tribe developed in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys around 700 BC among other groups in its language family. It migrated west of the Mississippi after the 16th century due to w

1.
Map of traditional Osage lands by the late 17th century

2.
Official seal of the Osage Nation

3.
Shonka Sabe (Black Dog). Chief of the Hunkah division of the Osage tribe. Painted in 1834 by George Catlin

Quapaw
–
The Quapaw people are a tribe of Native Americans that coalesced in the Midwest and Ohio Valley. The Quapaw are among the Siouan-speaking peoples west of the Mississippi, the Quapaw are federally recognized as the Quapaw Tribe of Indians. Since their removal west to Indian Territory in 1834, their base has been in present-day Ottawa County in north

Ribbon work
–
Ribbon work is an appliqué technique for clothing and dance regalia among Prairie and Great Lakes Native American tribes. Silk ribbons, brought to North America by European traders, inspired a new, mikmaq people created ribbon appliqué as early as 1611. In 1789 the regime of the French Revolution decreed that clothing should be plain, initially, la

Jeans
–
Jeans are pants, a type of garment, typically made from denim or dungaree cloth. Prior to the Levi Strauss patented trousers, the blue jeans had been long in use for various garments. Originally designed for cowboys and miners, jeans became popular in the 1950s among teenagers, Jeans were a common fashion item in the 1960s Hippie subculture and the

1.
A pair of factory-distressed, loose fit men's jeans

2.
A traditional female Genoese dress in "blue jeans" (1890s)

3.
Copper rivets for reinforcing pockets are a characteristic feature of blue jeans.

4.
Levi Strauss

Ballcap
–
A baseball cap is a type of soft cap with a rounded crown and a stiff peak projecting in front. The front of the cap typically contains designs or logos of sports teams, the back of the cap may be fitted to the wearers head size or it may have a plastic, Velcro, or elastic adjuster so that it can be quickly adjusted to fit different wearers. The ba

4.
In baseball, caps are worn backwards to accommodate for a face mask by some catchers and are worn under the mask of umpires.

Eagle
–
Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae, it belongs to several groups of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each other. Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa, outside this area, just 14 species can be found – two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and th

Hawk
–
The Raytheon MIM-23 Hawk is a U. S. medium-range surface-to-air missile. It was designed to be a more mobile counterpart to the MIM-14 Nike Hercules, trading off range and altitude capability for a much smaller size. Its low-level performance was improved over Nike through the adoption of new radars. Hawk was originally intended to attack aircraft,

1.
MIM-23 Hawk

3.
A Hawk system in service with the GermanLuftwaffe before it was phased out

4.
Launch of a Hawk missile

Crane (bird)
–
Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the group Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera, unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Cranes live on all continents except Antarctica and South America and they are opportunistic feede

1.
Cranes

2.
The bare area of skin on the face of a sandhill crane. This can change colour or even expand in area when the bird is excited

3.
The long coiled trachea that produces the trumpeting calls of cranes (sandhill crane, Grus canadensis)

Tunic
–
A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist.

Ribbonwork
–
Ribbon work is an appliqué technique for clothing and dance regalia among Prairie and Great Lakes Native American tribes. Silk ribbons, brought to North America by European traders, inspired a new, mikmaq people created ribbon appliqué as early as 1611. In 1789 the regime of the French Revolution decreed that clothing should be plain, initially, la

Terrapin
–
A terrapin is one of several small species of turtle living in fresh or brackish water. Terrapins do not form a unit, and may not be related. Many belong to the families Geoemydidae and Emydidae, the name terrapin is derived from torope, a word in the Native American Algonquian language that referred to the species, Malaclemys terrapin. It appears

1.
A Terrapin crossing sign and a highway barrier designed for crossing at the end of the F.J. Torras causeway at St. Simons Island, Georgia, USA (2015)

Pow wow
–
A pow wow is a social gathering held by many different American Indian communities. The word is derived from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning spiritual leader, a similar gathering by California Indians, usually in the fall, is called a Big Time. A modern pow wow is a type of event for American Indian people to meet and dance, sing, socialize.

Chickasaw Nation
–
The Chickasaw Nation is a federally recognized Native American nation, located in Oklahoma. They are one of the members of the Five Civilized Tribes, the Chickasaw Nation was created after the Chickasaw people were peacefully removed by the US federal government to Indian Territory in the 1830s. The removals became known as the Trail of Tears, the

1.
Seal of the Chickasaw nation

Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
–
The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized Native American tribe with a tribal jurisdictional area comprising twelve tribal districts. The Choctaw Nation maintains a relationship with both the United States and Oklahoma governments. As of 2011, the tribe has 223,279 enrolled members, the tribal jurisdictional area is 10,864 square mil

1.
The Choctaw Nation Headquarters in Durant.

3.
The historic Choctaw Capitol in Tuskahoma.

4.
Award-winning painter, Norma Howard is enrolled in the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma

Native American music
–
Singing and percussion are the most important aspects of traditional Native American music. Vocalization takes many forms, ranging from solo and choral song to responsorial, unison, percussion, especially drums and rattles, are common accompaniment to keep the rhythm steady for the singers, who generally use their native language or non-lexical voc

Turkey dance
–
The turkey dance is one of the most important traditional dances among Caddo people. Women dance the turkey dance, while men drum and sing the songs, the dance takes place in the afternoon and finished by sunset, when turkeys return to their roosts. Caddos traditionally founded their villages and camps near turkey roosts, because the turkeys served

1.
Chickasaw Cultural Center museum building, with a statue of a stylized Chickasaw warrior in the foreground

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Oklahoma History Center
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The Oklahoma History Center is the history museum of the State of Oklahoma. Located on an 18 acres plot across the street from the Governors mansion at 800 Nazih Zuhdi Drive in Oklahoma City and it preserves the history of Oklahoma from ancient Native American tribal nations to the present day. The Museum is open Monday through Saturday from 10,00 AM until 5,00 PM and it is closed on, New Years Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas Day. The OHC Research Center is open to the public Tuesday through Saturday and it is closed on Sunday, Monday and all state holidays. The hours are 10,00 AM to 4,45 PM each day, the Learning Center covers 215,000 square feet. The OHC is affiliated with the Smithsonian and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums, the Inasmuch Foundation Gallery is located on the south end of the first floor. The gallery explores the breadth of Oklahoma’s artistic achievements as well as the impact of an extremely diverse immigrant population. The sections of the Inasmuch Foundation Gallery include, culture and the arts, cultural diversity, images of Oklahoma, sports, voice, radio and television, vacuum tubes, additionally, this gallery houses rotating exhibits on cultural diversity and the arts. The ONEOK Gallery is located on the end of the first floor. The ONEOK Gallery topics include, dwellings, Indian lives, languages, living ways, origins, sovereignty, spirituality, the Kerr-McGee Gallery is located on the south end of the third floor. The gallery offers a history of Oklahoma from our oil. The Kerr-McGee Gallery sections include, African American experience, business, military matters, natural resources, the oil and gas industry, people and pathways, the Noble Foundation Gallery is located on the north end of the third floor. Land runs and lotteries have played a role in our development and settlement as a state. Through artifacts, images, and first-hand accounts of participants, visitors can relive the lives of those souls who settled our great plains and turned homesteads into farms. It was their survival of and adaptation to the extremes of weather, economics, and politics that enabled them to create this magnificent state. The Noble Foundation Gallery sections include, education, farming and ranching, fashions, government and politics, kitchens, the Dust Bowl, land runs, law and order, urban frontiers, and weather. This exhibit explored the rock and roll artists, radio stations, personalities, venues, beyond the facts of each story, the exhibit showed how growing up in Oklahoma affected the music. These were displayed in a style to encourage visitor participation and to ensure that the visitor would take away a new perspective on the history of rock

2.
Caddo language
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Caddo is a Native American language, the traditional language of the Caddo Nation. It is critically endangered, with no exclusively Caddo-speaking community and only 25 speakers as of 2009 who acquired the language as children outside of school instruction, Caddo has several mutually intelligible dialects. The most commonly used dialects are Hasinai and Hainai, others include Kadohadacho, Natchitoches, Caddo is linguistically related to the members of the Northern Caddoan language family, these include the Pawnee-Kitsai languages and the Wichita language. Kitsai is now extinct, and Pawnee, Arikara, and Wichita each have fewer surviving speakers than Caddo does, as of 2012, the Caddo Nation teaches weekly language classes, language CDs, a coloring book, and an online learning website are also available. As of 2010, a Caddo app is available for Android phones, Caddo has 19 contrastive consonants, a normal-sized consonant inventory. It is somewhat unusual in that it lacks lateral consonants, the IPA symbols for the consonants of Caddo are given below, Caddo also features contrastive gemination ofconsonants, which is generally indicated in orthography by a double letter, /nɑ́ttih/ woman. Caddo has three vowel qualities, /i/, /ɑ/, and /u/, and two contrastive vowel lengths, long and short, for a total of 6 vowel phonemes. However, there is a deal of phonetic variation in the short vowels. The high front vowel /i/ is generally realized as its lower counterpart /ɪ/, in general, the long vowels do not feature this kind of variation but are simply lengthened versions of the phonemes that are represented in the chart. Ay /aj/ – English eye aw /aw/ – English out iw /iw/ – English ew uy /uj/ – English boy Caddo is a tone language, tone occurs both lexically, non-lexically, and also as a marker of certain morphological features. For instance, the past tense marker is associated with high tone, There are three processes that can create non-lexical high tone within a syllable nucleus. See the section below for an explanation of other changes which may occur in the following examples. H-deletion VhCC → VHighCC An /h/ before two consonants is deleted and the preceding vowel gains high tone, /kiʃwɑhn-t-ʔuh/ → parched corn 2, low tone-deletion VRVLowC → VHighRC A low tone vowel following a resonant is deleted, and the preceding vowel gains a high tone. /sa-baka-nah-hah/ → does he mean it, backwards assimilation VRVHigh → VHighRVHigh A vowel preceding a resonant and a high tone vowel gains high tone. /nanɑ́/ → that, that one There are two vowel syncope processes in Caddo, which involve the loss of a low-tone vowel in certain environments. The first syncope process was described above as low tone-deletion, the second syncope process is described below, Interconsonantal syncope VCVLowCV → VCCV A low-tone vowel in between a vowel-consonant sequence and a consonant-vowel sequence is deleted. /kak#t’us-jaʔah/ → kahʔit’uʃaʔah → foam, suds As a result of the processes described above. At the present stage of research, the processes seem to be unrelated, ʔ+Resonant → Resonant+ʔ / syllable final Similar to the consonant cluster simplification process, there are four processes by which a syllable-final consonant is altered,1

3.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians

Native Americans in the United States
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Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
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Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
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Wilma Mankiller

4.
Muscogee (Creek)
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The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign

Muscogee (Creek)
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Muscogee portraits
Muscogee (Creek)
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The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the United States before the arrival of Europeans.
Muscogee (Creek)
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Hernando de Soto and his men burn Mabila, after a surprise attack by Chief Tuskaloosa and his people, 1540 CE, painting by Herb Roe, 2008
Muscogee (Creek)
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A raiding party against Spanish missions in Florida passes the Ocmulgee trading post

5.
Yuchi
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The Yuchi, also spelled Euchee and Uchee, are people of a Native American tribe who traditionally lived in the eastern Tennessee River valley in Tennessee in the 16th century. The Yuchi were well known mound builders, during the 17th century, they moved south to Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina. Some remnant groups migrated to Florida, where they part of the recently formed Seminole Tribe of Florida. Today the Yuchi live primarily in the northeastern Oklahoma area, where many are enrolled as citizens in the federally recognized Muscogee Creek Nation, some Yuchi are enrolled as members of other federally recognized tribes, such as the Absentee Shawnee Tribe and the Cherokee Nation. Yuchi is commonly interpreted to mean over there sit/live or situated yonder and their autonym, or name for themselves, is Coyaha or Tsoyaha, meaning Children of the Sun. The Shawnee call them Tahokale, and the Cherokee call them Aniyutsi, the origin of the Yuchi has long been a mystery. The Yuchi language does not closely resemble any other Native American language, in 1541, the tribe was documented by the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto as a powerful tribe living in what is now central Tennessee. They were recorded at that time as Uchi, and also associated with the Chisca tribe, european colonial records from the 17th century note the Yuchi. Both historical and archaeological evidence exists documenting several Yuchi towns of the 18th century, among these was Chestowee in southeastern Tennessee. In 1714, instigated by two fur traders from South Carolina, the Cherokee attacked and destroyed Chestowee, the Cherokee were prepared to carry their attacks further to Yuchi settlements on the Savannah River, but the colonial government of South Carolina did not condone the attacks. The Cherokee destruction of Chestowee marked their emergence as a power in the Southeast. Yuchi towns were also documented in Georgia and South Carolina, as the tribe had migrated there to escape pressure from the Cherokee, Mount Pleasant was noted as being on the Savannah River in present-day Effingham County, Georgia, from about 1722 to about 1750. It was first a Yuchi town, to take advantage of trade, the British established a trading post and small military garrison there, which they called Mount Pleasant. Euchee Town, a settlement on the Chattahoochee River, was documented from the middle to late 18th century. It was located near Euchee Creek about ten miles downriver from the Muscogee Creek settlement of Coweta Old Town. The naturalist William Bartram visited Euchee Town in 1778, and in his letters ranked it as the largest and most compact Indian town he had encountered, with large. US Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins also visited the town and described the Yuchi as more orderly and industrious than the other tribes of the Creek Confederacy. The Yuchi began to move on, some into Florida, and during the Creek War of 1813–1814, many joined the Red Sticks party, the tribe became one of the poorest of the Creek communities, at the same time gaining a bad reputation

Yuchi
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Yuchi Town, painting by Martin Pate (1990) of 18th-century village, based on archaeological data. It is within the area of present-day Ft. Benning, Georgia.
Yuchi
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Yuchi people dancing the Big Turtle Dance, 1909
Yuchi
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Yuchi war dance, illustration by Philip Georg Friedrich von Reck, Georgia, c. 1736
Yuchi
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Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler; two of the final surviving elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother's grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their first language.

6.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba

7.
Chickasaw
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The Chickasaw are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama and they are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with French, the United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Most Chickasaw now live in Oklahoma, the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a history with them. The Chickasaw are divided in two groups, the Impsaktea and the Intcutwalipa and they traditionally followed a system of matrilineal descent, in which children were considered to be part of the mothers clan, whence they gained their status. Some property was controlled by women, and hereditary leadership in the tribe passed through the maternal line, the name Chickasaw, as noted by anthropologist John Swanton, belonged to a Chickasaw leader. Chickasaw is the English spelling of Chikashsha, meaning rebel or comes from Chicsa, Chickasaw The origin of the Chickasaw is uncertain. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaw were living in villages in what is now Northeastern Mississippi and their oral history says they migrated along with the Choctaw from west of the Mississippi River into present-day Mississippi in prehistoric times. The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere spanned the Eastern Woodlands, the Mississippian cultures emerged from previous moundbuilding societies by 880 CE. They built complex, dense villages supporting a society, with centers throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys. In the 15th century, proto-Chickasaw people left the Tombigbee Valley after the collapse of the Moundville chiefdom and settled into the upper Yazoo, historians Arrell Gibson and anthropology John R. Swanton believed the Chickasaw Old Fields were in Madison County, Alabama. Another version of the Chickasaw creation story is that they arose at Nanih Waiya and it is also sacred to the Choctaw, who have a similar story about it. The mound was built about 1400 years before the coalescence of each of these peoples as ethnic groups, after various disagreements, the American Indians attacked the De Soto expedition in a nighttime raid, nearly destroying it. The Chickasaw began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670, with British-supplied guns, the Chickasaw raided their neighbors and enemies the Choctaw, capturing some members and selling them into Indian slavery to the British. When the Choctaw acquired guns from the French, power between the tribes became more equalized and the raids stopped. Allied with the British, the Chickasaw were often at war with the French, skirmishes continued until France ceded its claims to the region east of the Mississippi River after being defeated by the British in the Seven Years War. Following the American Revolutionary War, in 1793-94, Chickasaw fought as allies of the new United States under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians of the old Northwest Territory

8.
Choctaw
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The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. The Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group, the Choctaw are descendants of the peoples of the Hopewell and Mississippian cultures, who lived throughout the east of the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. About 1,700 years ago, the Hopewell people built Nanih Waiya, an earthwork mound. The early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century encountered Mississippian-culture villages, the anthropologist John Swanton suggested that the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that their name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak and these included the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana, the English of the Southeast, and the Spanish of Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. During the American Revolution, most Choctaw supported the Thirteen Colonies bid for independence from the British Crown and they never went to war against the United States prior to Indian Removal. In the 19th century, the Choctaw became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes because they adopted numerous practices of their United States neighbors. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to nine treaties and and they were the first Native Americans forced under the Indian Removal Act. The Choctaw were exiled because the U. S. wanted to expand territory available for settlement by European Americans, to save the tribe from extinction, the Choctaw negotiated the largest area and most desirable lands in Indian Territory. Their early government had three districts, each with its own chief, who together with the town chiefs sat on the National Council and they appointed a Choctaw Delegate to represent them with the US government in Washington, DC. By the 1831 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, those Choctaw who chose to stay in the formed state of Mississippi were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to become U. S. citizens. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Oklahoma and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy suggested it would support a state under Indian control if it won the war. After the Civil War, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw fell into obscurity for some time, in 1978, the United Supreme Court of the United states held that all remnants of the Choctaw Nation are entitled to all rights of the Nation. The Choctaw in Oklahoma struggled to build a nation, transferring the Choctaw Academy there, in the aftermath of the Dawes Act, the US dissolved tribal governments and appointed chiefs. During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the U. S. military as the first Native American codetalkers, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw reconstituted their government, and the Choctaw Nation had kept their culture alive despite years of pressure for assimilation. The third largest federally recognized tribe, since the century, they have created new institutions, such as a tribal college, housing authority. Federal Court of Appeals was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 2002, many thousands of years ago groups classified by anthropologists as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American South. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including a variety of megafauna, cushman wrote, the ancient Choctaw through their tradition they saw the mighty beasts of the forests, whose tread shook the earth

9.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds

Lenape
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Jennie Bobb and her daughter, Nellie Longhat (both Delaware), Oklahoma, 1915
Lenape
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Lenapehoking, the original Lenape territory. Munsee speakers in the north, Unami-speakers in the center, and Unalichtigo-speakers in the south
Lenape
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Susie Elkhair (d. 1926) of the Delaware Tribe of Indians, wearing ribbonwork shawl
Lenape
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Benjamin West 's painting (in 1771) of William Penn 's 1682 treaty with the Lenape

10.
Miami tribe
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The Miami are a Native American nation originally speaking one of the Algonquian languages. Among the peoples known as the Great Lakes tribes, it occupied territory that is now identified as Indiana, southwest Michigan, by 1846, most of the Miami had been removed to Indian Territory. The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is the federally recognized tribe of Miami Indians in the United States. The Miami Nation of Indiana is an unrecognized tribe, the name Miami derives from Myaamia, the tribes autonym in their Algonquian language of Miami-Illinois. This appears to have derived from an older term meaning downstream people. Some scholars contended the Miami called themselves the Twightwee, supposedly a reference to their sacred bird. Recent studies have shown that Twightwee derives from the Delaware language exonym for the Miamis, tuwéhtuwe, some Miami have stated that this was only a name used by other tribes for the Miami, and not their autonym. The Miami continue to use this autonym today, early Miami people are considered to belong to the Fischer Tradition of Mississippian culture. Mississippian societies were characterized by maize-based agriculture, chiefdom-level social organization, extensive trade networks, hierarchical settlement patterns. The historical Miami engaged in hunting, as did other Mississippian peoples, the Dutch and French traders and, after 1652, the British fueled demand. The warfare and social disruption contributed to the decimation of Native American populations and these are believed to have reduced the populations by ninety percent. Historic locations When French missionaries first encountered the Miami in the mid-17th century, the Miami had reportedly moved there because of pressure from the Iroquois further east. Early French explorers noticed many linguistic and cultural similarities between the Miami bands and the Illiniwek, a confederacy of Algonquian-speaking peoples. He befriended the Miami people, settling first at the St. Joseph River, by the 18th century, the Miami had for the most part returned to their homeland in present-day Indiana and Ohio. The eventual victory of the British in the French and Indian War led to an increased British presence in traditional Miami areas, shifting alliances and the gradual encroachment of European-American settlement led to some Miami bands merging. Native Americans created larger tribal confederacies led by Chief Little Turtle, their alliances were for waging war against Europeans, by the end of the century, the tribal divisions were three, the Miami, Piankeshaw, and Wea. The latter two groups were aligned with some of the Illini tribes. The US government later included them with the Illini for administrative purposes, the Eel River band maintained a somewhat separate status, which proved beneficial in the removals of the 19th century

11.
Caddo
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The Caddo Nation is a confederacy of several Southeastern Native American tribes. Their ancestors historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, Louisiana, in the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas, then removed to Indian Territory in 1859. Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a recognized tribe with its capital at Binger. Descendants of the historic Caddo tribes with documentation of at least 1/16 ancestry are eligible to enroll as members in the Caddo Nation, the several Caddo languages have converged into a single language. The Caddo Nation was previously known as the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma, the tribal constitution provides for election of an eight-person council, with a chairperson, based in Binger, Oklahoma. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues its own vehicle tags. It operates a center, dance grounds, several community centers, the Caddo Nation Heritage Museum. As of 2012,5,757 people are enrolled in the nation, the tribe has several programs to invigorate Caddo culture. It sponsors a summer camp for children. The Hasinai Society and Caddo Culture Club both teach and perform Caddo songs and dances to keep the tradition alive and passed on to the next generations, the Kiwat Hasinay Foundation is dedicated to preserving and increasing use of the Caddo language. The Wichita and Pawnee are related to the Caddo, as both tribes speak Caddoan languages, by 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers, where major earthworks were built, serving as temple mounds, the mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family gained prominence over others. By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as Caddoan had emerged, in these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, the Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of the time. Archeological evidence has confirmed that the continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back, an old Caddo man carried with him a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which continued to be important religious items to the people

12.
Tuscarora people
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The Tuscarora are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government of the Iroquoian-language family, with members today in North Carolina, New York, and Canada. Well before the arrival of Europeans in North America, the Tuscarora had migrated south, the most numerous indigenous people in the area, they lived along the Roanoke, Neuse, Tar, and Pamlico rivers. They first encountered European explorers and settlers in the colonies of North Carolina and they aligned with the Iroquois in New York, because of their ancestral linguistic and cultural connections. Sponsored by the Oneida, they were accepted in 1722 as the Sixth Nation of the Iroquois, after the American Revolution, in which they and the Oneida allied with the colonists, the Tuscarora shared reservation land with the Oneida before gaining their own. The Tuscarora Nation of New York is federally recognized, only the tribes in New York and Ontario have been recognized officially by the respective national governments. After the migration was completed in the early 18th century, the Tuscarora in New York no longer considered those remaining in North Carolina as members of the tribal nation, since the late 20th century, some North Carolina remnants have formed bands in which they identify as Tuscarora. As of 2010, several bands in Robeson County have united on a basis as the Tuscarora Nation One Fire Council. The historic nation encountered by Europeans in North Carolina had three tribes, Kǎtě’nuākā, also written Kautanohakau, Akawěñtcākā, also Kauwetseka, and Skarūren and these affiliations continued to be active as independent groups after the tribe migrated to New York and, later, Ontario. Varying accounts c.1708 –1710 estimated the number of Tuscarora warriors as from 1200 to 2000, historians estimate their total population may have been three to four times that number. Chief Blunt occupied the area around what is present-day Bertie County, North Carolina, Chief Hancock lived closer to present-day New Bern, occupying the area south of the Pamlico River. Chief Blunt became close friends with the colonial English Blount family of the Bertie region, by contrast, Chief Hancock had to deal with more numerous colonists encroaching on his community. They raided his villages and kidnapped people to sell into slavery, the colonists transported some Tuscarora to Pennsylvania to sell into slavery. Both groups of Tuscarora suffered substantial losses after exposure to Eurasian infectious diseases endemic to Europeans. By 1711 Chief Hancock believed he had to attack the settlers to fight back, Chief Tom Blunt did not join him in the war. Their principal targets were against the planters on the Roanoke, Neuse and Trent rivers and they attacked on September 22,1711, beginning the Tuscarora War. The allied Indian tribes killed hundreds of settlers, including key political figures among the colonists. Governor Edward Hyde called out the North Carolina militia and secured the assistance of South Carolina, in 1712, this force attacked the southern Tuscarora and other nations in Craven County at Fort Narhontes, on the banks of the Neuse River. The Tuscarora were defeated with great slaughter, more than three hundred were killed, and one hundred made prisoners, the governor offered Chief Blunt leadership of the entire Tuscarora Nation if he would assist in defeating Chief Hancock

13.
Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma
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The Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma is one of four federally recognized Native American tribes of Odawa people in the United States. Its ancestors had migrated into Michigan and Ohio in the 18th century, in the late 1830s they were removed to west of the Mississippi River, first to Iowa, then to Kansas in what was then Indian Territory. In 1867 they sold their land to purchase territory in what became Oklahoma, the other three tribes are located in the state of Michigan, part of the traditional Odawa territory. They are the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians, Little River Band of Ottawa Indians, in addition, there are First Nations of Odawa people in Ontario, Canada, including on Manitoulin Island, their original homeland. The headquarters of the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma is Miami and their tribal jurisdictional area is in Ottawa County. In the early 21st century, there are 2,500 enrolled tribal members,737 live within the state of Oklahoma, the tribe bases membership qualifications on direct lineal descent, that is, they have no minimum blood quantum requirement. The current administration is as follows, Chief, Ethel Cook Second Chief, Bert Henry Kleidon First Councilman, John Charles Dawes Second councilman, the Ottawa Tribe issues its own tribal vehicle tags. They operate two tribal smoke shops, one gas station, and the Otter Stop Convenience Store, in addition, they operate the High Winds Casino. Their annual economic impact is estimated by the Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commissions to be $3 million, the tribe operates a Community Health Program and the Healthy Living Center in Miami, as well as a Department of Environmental Protection. The tribe publishes the Adawe News for its tribal members, the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahomas annual powwow is held every Labor Day weekend. Ottawa or Odaawaa comes from the word Adaawe, which means to trade and they were known among other tribes as important traders before any European exploration. The French quickly realized how influential they were and used them as middlemen to the tribes to the north and west of them, the Ottawa are part of the Three Fires Confederacy, together with the Ojibwe and Potawatomi. They settled near Fort Detroit and the Maumee River in Ohio, the Ottawa of the Blanchard’s Fork, Roche de Bœuf and Auglaize reserves of Ohio signed a treaty with the US in 1833. The treaty ceded their lands in Michigan, Ohio, and Illinois in exchange for lands in Iowa, then Kansas, the Ottawa did not relocate from Ohio until April 1837. To survive as a people, the made a remarkable investment in their childrens future. Of the 74,000 acres the Ottawa controlled in Kansas, they set aside 65 acres for a school and sold 20,000 acres of land to fund its construction. Affiliated with the Baptist Church, which operated missions in Kansas, the university still offers free tuition to any enrolled member of the Ottawa tribe today. The present-day town of Ottawa, Kansas, developed around the Ottawa Reservation, the Ottawa people remained in Kansas until 1867, after the American Civil War

14.
Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
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The Quapaw people are a tribe of Native Americans that coalesced in the Midwest and Ohio Valley. The Quapaw are among the Siouan-speaking peoples west of the Mississippi, the Quapaw are federally recognized as the Quapaw Tribe of Indians. Since their removal west to Indian Territory in 1834, their base has been in present-day Ottawa County in northeastern Oklahoma. The number of enrolled in the tribe is 3,240. The Quapaw Tribe of Native Americans are headquartered in Quapaw in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, the 13, 000-acre Quapaw tribal jurisdictional area includes the Tar Creek Superfund site, which has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency for clean-up of environmental hazards. The Quapaw people elect a council and the tribal chairman. The governing body of the tribe is outlined in the resolutions of the tribe. The Chairman is John L. Berrey, of the 3,240 enrolled tribal members,892 live in the state of Oklahoma. Membership in the tribe is based on lineal descent, the tribe operates a Tribal Police Department and a Fire Department, which handles both fire and EMS calls. They issue their own vehicle tags and have their own housing authority. The tribe owns two smoke shop and motor fuel outlets, known as the Quapaw C-Store and Downstream Q-Store and they have two casinos, the Quapaw Casino and the Downstream Casino Resort, both located in Quapaw, these generate most of the revenue for the tribe. In 2012 the Quapaw Tribes annual economic impact was measured at more than $225,000,000 and they also own and operate the Eagle Creek Golf Course and resort, located in Loma Linda, Missouri. The traditional Quapaw language is part of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family, classes in the Quapaw language are taught at the tribal museum. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language created by breaking apart old recordings of Elders is available, other efforts at language preservation and revitalization are being undertaken. The Quapaw participated in the first annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2011, the Osage language program hosted and organized the gathering, held at the Quapaw tribes Downstream Casino. Language-learning techniques and other issues were discussed and taught in workshops at the conference among the five cognate tribes, the Annual Dhegiha Gathering was held in 2012 also at Downstream Casino. The Quapaw host cultural events throughout the year, primarily held at the tribal museum and these include Indian dice games, traditional singing, and classes in traditional arts, such as finger weaving, shawl making, and flute making. In addition, Quapaw language classes are held there, the tribes annual dance is during the weekend of the Fourth of July

Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
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Quapaw "Three Villages" Robe, Arkansas, 18th century. Musée du quai Branly
Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
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Flag of the Quapaw Tribe of Indians
Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
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A map showing the de Soto expedition route through Mississippi, and Arkansas, up to the point de Soto dies. Based on the Charles M. Hudson map of 1997.
Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma
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Peter Clabber, Principal Chief of Quapaws, 1905

15.
Peoria (tribe)
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The Peoria are a Native American people. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, historically, they were part of the Illinois Confederation. Traditionally, the Peoria spoke a dialect of the Miami-Illinois language, the name Peoria derives from their autonym or name for themselves in the Illinois language, peewaareewa. Originally it meant, Comes carrying a pack on his back, no speakers of the Peoria language survive. Along with the language Miami, a number of the Peoria tribe of Oklahoma speaks Cahokia, Moingwea. The Peoria Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in Miami, Oklahoma, of the 2,925 enrolled tribal members, only 777 live within the state of Oklahoma. John P. Froman is the tribes elected Chief, currently serving a four-year term, the Peoria issue their own tribal vehicle tags and operate their own housing authority. The tribe owns one casino and the Peoria Ridge Golf Course, the estimated annual economic impact of the tribe is $60 million. Tribal businesses, the Peoria Gaming Center, Buffalo Run Casino and Hotel, the Peoria are Algonquian-speaking people, whose ancestors came from what is now Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio. Once thought to be descendants of the Cahokia Mississippian culture of Moundbuilders, they are now believed to be related to Algonquian-speaking peoples of the Great Lakes, the Peoria were one of the many Illinois tribes encountered by the explorers, Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet. French Jesuit missionaries converted tribal members to Roman Catholicism, Father Jacques Gravier, superior of the Illinois mission, compiled the most extensive dictionary of Kaskaskia Illinois-French terms, nearly 600 pages and 20,000 entries. The Peoria migrated southwest into Missouri Territory after 1763, in 1818, the Treaty of Edwardsville included the cession of Peoria lands in Illinois to the United States. By the 1832 Treaty of Lewisville, they ceded Missouri lands in exchange for land in Kansas, infectious disease, to which they had no natural immunity, and intertribal wars drastically reduced the tribes numbers. In 1849, members of the Kaskaskia, Peoria, Piankeshaw, an 1854 treaty recognized this as a factual union and called these groups the Confederated Peoria. The treaty also provided for opening the Peoria-Kskaskia and the Wea-Piankashaw reserves to settlement by non-Indians, after the Civil War, most of the confederated tribe signed the 1867 Omnibus Treaty. Congress enacted a law to unite the Miami tribe of Kansas with the Confederated Peoria, the Peoria and Miami lands were allotted to the enrolled members in 1893. In 1907, any land was turned over to Ottawa County. It was part of an effort to have the tribes assimilate to European-American ways, at the same time, they forced tribal governments to dismantle

16.
Shawnee
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The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the Latin script. It has a dictionary and portions of the Bible were translated into Shawnee, some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this is not universally accepted. Fort Ancient culture flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited lands along the Ohio River in areas of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an extension of the Mississippian culture. But, scholars now believe Fort Ancient culture developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture, uncertainty surrounds the fate of the Fort Ancient people. There is a gap in the record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee. The latter were recorded by European explorers as occupying this area at the time of encounter, the Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape of the East Coast mid-Atlantic region, who were also Algonquian speaking, as their grandfathers. The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the US Shawnee as their southernmost branch, along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have similar to the archaic shawano meaning south. However, the stem šawa- does not mean south in Shawnee, in one Shawnee tale, Sawage is the deity of the south wind. Curtin translates Sawage as it thaws, referring to the weather of the south. šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind, in account, in one of Voegelins tales. Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a geographic area. One of the earliest mentions of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing some Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River, later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where the French encountered them on forays from eastern Canada, a Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long. According to one European legend, some Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, the party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee

17.
Seminole
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The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek, the most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, other notable traditions include use of the black drink and ritual tobacco. As the Seminole adapted to Florida environs, they developed local traditions, such as the construction of open-air, historically the Seminole spoke Mikasuki and Creek, both Muskogean languages. The Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity and they developed a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods. The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was supplemented from the late 18th century by free blacks and escaped slaves who settled near. The latter became known as Black Seminoles, although they kept their own Gullah culture, after the United States achieved independence, its settlers increased pressure on Seminole lands, leading to the Seminole Wars. The Seminole were first confined to a large inland reservation by the Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by 1842, most Seminoles and Black Seminoles had been removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Today residents of the reservation are enrolled in the federally recognized Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida after the Third Seminole War, but they fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence. In the late 19th century, the Florida Seminole re-established limited relations with the U. S. government, few Seminole moved to reservations until the 1940s, they reorganized their government and received federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. The more traditional people near the Tamiami Trail received federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe in 1962, old crafts and traditions were revived in the mid 20th century as Seminoles began seeking tourism dollars when Americans began to travel more on the countrys growing highway system. The word Seminole is derived from cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, the people who constituted the nucleus of this Florida group either chose to leave their tribe or were banished. At one time the terms renegade and outcast were used to describe this status and they never signed a peace treaty with the United States. Native American refugees from northern wars, such as the Yuchi and Yamasee after the Yamasee War in South Carolina and they spoke primarily Hitchiti, of which Mikasuki is a dialect, which is the primary traditional language spoken today by Miccosukee in Florida. In Cuba the Florida tribes suffered high mortality due to disease, in Florida, the Creeks had earlier intermingled with the Choctaw and other few remaining indigenous people. The Seminole were a tribe made up of mostly Lower Creeks from Georgia. At that time, numerous refugees of the Red Sticks migrated south and they were Creek-speaking Muscogee, and were the ancestors of most of the later Creek-speaking Seminole. In addition, a few hundred escaped African-American slaves had settled near the Seminole towns and, to an extent, Native Americans from other tribes. The unified Seminole spoke two languages, Creek and Mikasuki, two among the Muskogean languages family, Creek became the dominant language for political and social discourse, so Mikasuki speakers learned it if participating in high-level negotiations

18.
Natchez Nation
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They spoke a language with no known close relatives, although it may be very distantly related to the Muskogean languages of the Creek Confederacy. The Natchez are noted for being the only Mississippian culture with complex chiefdom characteristics to have survived long into the period after the European colonization of America began, others had generally declined a century or two before European encounter. The Natchez are also noted for having had a social system of nobility classes. It was a matrilineal kinship society, with descent reckoned along female lines. The paramount chief named the Great Sun was always the son of the Female Sun and this ensured that the chiefdom stayed under the control of the single Sun lineage. Ethnologists have not reached consensus on how the Natchez social system originally functioned, around 1730, after several wars with the French, the Natchez were defeated and dispersed. Most survivors were sold by the French into slavery in the West Indies, others took refuge with other tribes, such as the Muskogean Chickasaw and Creek, and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee. Today, most Natchez families and communities are found in Oklahoma, two Natchez communities are recognized by the state of South Carolina. Its largest center was at Cahokia in present-day Illinois near the confluence of the Illinois and its peoples were noted for their hierarchical communities, building complex earthworks and platform mound architecture, and intensively cultivating maize. Archaeological evidence indicates that people of the Plaquemine culture, an elaboration of the Coles Creek culture, had lived in the Natchez Bluffs region since at least as long ago as 700 CE, the Natchez Bluffs are located along the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Mississippi. During the late prehistoric era, around 1500, Plaquemine-culture people occupied territory from the Big Black River in the north to about the Homochitto River in the south. The Plaquemine people built many platform mounds, including Emerald Mound, Emerald Mound was an important ceremonial center. The Natchez used Emerald Mound in their time, but they abandoned the site before 1700 and their center of power shifted to the Grand Village of the Natchez. The Grand Village has three platform mounds, by 1700, the Natchez occupied a territory that covered only an area roughly between Fairchilds Creek and South Fork Coles Creek in the north to St. Catherines Creek in the south. This area is approximately that of the half of present-day Adams County. The earliest European account of the Natchez comes from the Spanish expedition of Hernando de Soto, in 1542 de Sotos expedition encountered a powerful nation which he called the province of Quigualtam, after the leaders name. Scholars have classified this as the Emerald Phase of the Mississippian Natchez chiefdom presumed to be the Winterville site, the encounter was brief and violent, and the Natchez killed most of the Spanish. These and other intrusions had severely reduced the native populations, the Natchez culture continued at the Grand Village

Natchez Nation
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Emerald Mound
Natchez Nation
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Pre-contact distribution of the Natchez people
Natchez Nation
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Platform mounds (in the distance) and reconstructed wattle-and-daub house at the Grand Village of the Natchez.
Natchez Nation
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The funeral procession of Tattooed Serpent in 1725, with retainers waiting to be sacrificed

19.
Seneca-Cayuga
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The Seneca–Cayuga Nation is one of three federally recognized tribes of Seneca people in the United States. It includes the Cayuga people and is based in Oklahoma, United States, the tribe had more than 5,000 people in 2011. They have a tribal area in the northeast corner of Oklahoma and are headquartered in Grove. They are descended from Iroquoian peoples who had relocated to Ohio from New York in the mid-18th century, two of the three federally recognized Seneca tribes are located in New York, the Seneca Nation of New York and the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians. The Reservation Business Committee consists of seven members, Chief, Second Chief, Secretary-Treasurer, the current chief is William L. Fisher. The Grievance Committee consists of five members, on odd years, Chief, First and Third RBC Members, and First, Third and Fifth Grievance Committee Members are elected. On even years, the Second Chief, Secretary-Treasurer, Second and Fourth RBC Members and Second, all elected Business Committee terms are four years. There are 5,059 enrolled members of the Nation, of which 1,174 live in Oklahoma, the Seneca-Cayuga Language and Cultural Society hosts cultural events, such as Stomp dances. The tribe has a community building in Grove for public events, the Seneca–Cayuga have a Class II casino near Grove, Oklahoma. They also have a manufacturing plant there, which makes their Skydancer brand cigarettes. The tribe issues its own vehicle tags. Their estimated annual economic impact is $751,000, in 2009, they made $98,000 in charitable donations. The Seneca, or Onödowága, traditionally lived in what is now New York between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake, the name Cayuga means People of the Great Swamp and they also lived in what was later known as western New York. Both tribes were part of the Iroquoian languages family, the Seneca were the largest tribe of the Five Nations who traditionally lived in New York. The Five Nations were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, the latter were the westernmost nation, known as Keepers of the Western Door. When the Tuscarora joined the Iroquois Confederation in 1722, after migrating from North Carolina, the Tuscarora were also an Iroquoian-language people who had migrated to the South centuries before. They were driven out by warfare with other tribes and English colonists, in the mid to late 18th century, a confederation of Iroquois Indian bands was pushed west from throughout the Northeast. Its members moved west to escape encroachment by the colonists and it included the Mingo, Susquehannock, Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga and the Seneca of Sandusky

Seneca-Cayuga
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Flag of the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma

20.
Muskogee language
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The Muscogee language, also known as Creek, Seminole, Maskókî or Muskogee, is a Muskogean language spoken by Muscogee and Seminole people, primarily in the U. S. states of Oklahoma and Florida. Historically the language was spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee or Maskoki in what are now Alabama, the Muscogee first brought the Muscogee and Miccosukee languages to Florida in the early 18th century and would eventually become known as the Seminoles. In the 19th century, however, the US government forced most Muscogees and Seminoles to relocate west of the Mississippi River, with many forced into Indian Territory. Today, the language is spoken by around 5000 people, most of live in Oklahoma and are members of the Muscogee Nation. Around 200 speakers are Florida Seminoles, Seminole use of the language constitutes distinct dialects. Creek is widely spoken amongst the Creeks, and the Muscogee Nation offers free language classes, the College of the Muscogee Nation offers a language certificate program. In 2013, the Sapulpa Creek Community Center graduated a class of 14 from its Muscogee language class, the phoneme inventory of Muscogee consists of thirteen consonants and three vowel qualities, which distinguish length and nasalization. In addition, it makes use of the gemination of plosives, fricatives. These are the consonant phonemes of Muscogee, There are four voiceless plosives in Creek, /t͡ʃ/ is a voiceless palatal affricate and patterns as a single consonant and so with the other voiceless stops. /t͡ʃ/ has an allophone before /k/. The obstruent consonants /p t t͡ʃ k/ are voiced to between sonorants and vowels but remain voiceless at the end of a syllable, between instances of, or after at the end of a syllable, the velar /k/ is realized as the uvular or. For example, There are four voiceless fricatives in Muscogee Creek, /f/ can be realized as either labiodental or bilabial ( in place of articulation. Predominantly among speakers in Florida, the articulation of /s/ is more laminal, resulting in /s/ being realized as, nasal assimilation occurs in Creek, /n/ becomes before /k/. Sonorants are devoiced when followed by /h/ in the syllable and results in a single voiceless consonant. Some sonorants may also be geminated, but and are less common than other sonorant geminates, for the majority of speakers, except for those influenced by the Alabama or Koasati languages, the geminate does not occur. The vowel phonemes of Muscogee are as follows, There are three short vowels /i ɑ o/ and three long vowels /iː ɑː oː/, There are also the nasal vowels /ĩ ɑ̃ õ ĩː ɑ̃ː õː/. However, /ɑ/ will generally not centralize when it is followed by /h/ or /k/ in the same syllable, initial vowels can be deleted in Creek, mostly applying to the vowel /i/. The deletion will affect the pitch of the following syllable by creating a pitch on the new initial syllable

21.
Pashofa
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Pashofa, or pishofa, is a Chickasaw and Choctaw Indian soupy dish made from cracked white cracked corn, also known as pearl hominy. The dish is one of the most important to the Chickasaw people and has served at ceremonial and social events for centuries. Pashofa is also used in healing ceremonies. Traditionally, dried corn was ground in a mortar into cornmeal, finely cut pieces of young piglet or calf meat was added. The dish was served cold and could keep up to a month, the hominy corn can be soaked and cleaned overnight or can be covered with hot water to remove the husks. After draining and removal of debris, the hominy is once again covered with water, salt is added, bacon and pork can be added. Specialized paddles and spoons, carved wood or animal horns, were used in stirring, serving. Several of these are currently in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Pashofa was cooked in giant bowls, often over an open fire outdoors. The Pashofa Dance is a ceremony among the Chickasaw and Choctaw. A sick person could be left in a room, alone except for a medicine man, a striped black and white pole is placed in the sick persons yard, and no one else walks past the pole. While the medicine man says medicinal formula over the person to drive out the Spirit of Disease called Shulop. Midday, pashofa is served to all the dancers, while it is still warm, a second round of dancing ensues. Pashofa dances have also performed indoors. List of maize dishes Fitzgerald, David, Jeannie Barbour, Amanda Cobb, oklahoma City, Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company,2006

22.
Keetoowah Nighthawk Society
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The Keetoowah Nighthawk Society was a Cherokee Native American organisation formed ca. But, as Michael Lee Weber notes, his movement had declined, and by the end of 1918, Redbird Smith. According to Cherokee legend, when the population grew too large to sustain the Mother city, groups moved to new areas and created new Cherokee Communities, the residents of the city of Keetoowah called themselves the Keetoowah People. The ancient site of the Mother City of Keetoowah is still visible in Western North Carolina in the general area as the Qualla Boundary. Keetoowah was an ancient Mound city and the central mound is still visible at the ancient townsite. Moundbuilding was not confined to the Cherokee, but was a construction method of various Mississippian cultures. Some Cherokee traditionalists refer to themselves as Ah-ni-ki-tu-wa-gi, Keetoowah People, the addition of the verb stem modifier gi indicates the word Ki-tu-wa-gi means, a gathering or putting together of the Ki-tu-wa people, since gi means to combine in the Cherokee Language. Most modern Cherokee speakers can no longer translate the word Ki-tu-wa, Ki-tu-wa means the mother city or the center in the ancient Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni dialect. The word Ki-tu-wa-gi, implies a religious or social gathering of the people, honoring the mother city was analogous to honoring Selu, the Cherokee Corn Mother of the ancient Green Corn Ceremony, a concept that pervades Cherokee culture. During the Green Corn Ceremony as practiced by the Cherokee, one of the two social dances performed is of ancient origin, and originated from the city of Keetoowah. The dance is called ye-lu-le which means to the center, during this dance, all of the dancers shout ye-lu-le and move towards the fire in the center of the sacred dance circle. The dance symbolizes the dispersal of the sacred fire given to the Keetoowah people by the Creator, the home fires in outlying Cherokee communities were extinguished before the ceremonies and re-lit from the coals of the fire kindled during the Green Corn dances. The Cherokee Nation was divided by the Dawes Commission in the 1890s, the commission divided large sections of land into household allotments to eliminate the traditional governments of the Cherokee and other tribes, which were based on communal holding of land. As a consequence of the Dawes Commission programs, the Cherokee culture and society was destabilized, the federal government appointed chiefs of the tribe, who were reduced to administrators and carried out government programs intended to force assimilation of the Cherokee. They were prohibited from speaking their own languages or practicing their own religions, over time, much of the Cherokee culture was lost. The remaining Cherokee during this period in history begin to adopt and this group aimed to preserv much of the pre-removal culture, ceremonies, and beliefs of the Cherokee. Redbird Smith was an influential Nighthawk member who revitalized traditional spirituality among Cherokees and he was born July 19,1850, near the city of Fort Smith, Arkansas to parents traveling with other Cherokee to the Indian Territory from Georgia. His father, Pig Redbird Smith, was a supporter of the Long House’s group of eastern Indians’ ancient rituals, customs

Keetoowah Nighthawk Society
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Keetoowah Nighthawk Council, 1916.

23.
Redbird Smith
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Redbird Smith was a Cherokee traditionalist and political activist. He helped found the Nighthawk Keetoowah Society, who revitalized traditional spirituality among Cherokees from the century to the early 20th century. Redbird Smith was born on July 19,1850 near the current city of Fort Smith and his father was Pig Redbird Smith, whose surname Smith was given to him by European-Americans since he worked as a blacksmith. Redbird Smiths mother was Lizzie Hildebrand Smith and his parents were removed from Georgia to Indian Territory. The late 19th century the Dawes Commission sought to break up tribal land holdings into individual allotments. Redbird Smith led a resistance movement to the Dawes Allotment Act and sought to return to traditional Cherokee religion. In 1887 and 1889, Redbird Smith served as a councilor from the Illinois District of the Cherokee Nation. Redbird Smith stated in the early 1900s, Redbird Smith repatriated wampum belts belonging to his tribe, in 1910 he was selected as chief of the Nighthawk Keetoowahs. Previously he had served as their chairman, also in 1910, Smith and fellow Nighthawks traveled to Mexico with an 1820 document supporting Cherokee lands claims but the Mexican government did not support their claims. In 1914, he petitioned President Woodrow Wilson to create a Keetoowah reservation, in 1921, a hundred Cherokees from 35 families moved together to the southeastern corner of Cherokee County, Oklahoma, to create a traditional community — the brainchild of Redbird Smith. Redbird Smith married Lucy Fields Smith, born in Braggs, Indian Territory in 1852 and she was the daughter Richard Fields and Eliza Brewer Fields. Together the Smiths had ten children who survived adulthood, including eight sons. Redbird Smith is the great-grandfather of former Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation Chad Smith, after falling ill for 48 hours, Redbird Smith died on November 8,1918. He is buried in the Redbird Smith Cemetery in Sequoyah County and he served as chief of the Nighthawk Keetoowahs until his death and was succeeded by Levi Gritts. His son Sam Smith became chief of the Nighthawk Keetowahs on April 7,1919, the Redbirth Smith ground is an active ceremonial ground in Redbird Smith, Oklahoma, Sequoyah county, near Vian, where Smiths July 19 birthday is celebrated annually. Original Keetoowah Society Stomp dance Conley, Robert, the Dawes Commission and Redbird Smith. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press,2005, 193-199, history of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folklore. Oklahoma City, The Warden Company,1921, Redbird Smith, on the Cherokee Nation website Red Bird Smith and the Keetoowah Society, Access Genealogy

Redbird Smith
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Redbird Smith

24.
Tommy Wildcat
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Tommy Wildcat is a Native American musician and academic. Cherokee Nation National treasure Tommy Wildcat is an enrolled, full-blood citizen of the Cherokee Nation and his parents are Annie and the late Tom Webber Wildcat, he also has a twin sister named Tammy. Tommy Wildcat graduated from Sequoyah High School 1985, and a Graduate of Northeastern State University 2014, Bachelor- Major Cherokee Cultural Studies and he is a hereditary member of the Wolf Clan. Tommy Wildcats family appears in National Geographic magazines September 2005 issue where Tommy holds his nephew, a self-taught composer of flute songs, Tommy has learned traditional vocal songs of his tribe from his father, Tom W. Wildcat. Tommy Wildcats company, A Warriors Production, has produced four full-length albums and his first was released in 1995, including Tom Richards The Real Outdoors on the Nashville Network

25.
Fasting
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Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a period, usually a period of 24 hours. Water fasting allows drinking water but nothing else, other fasts may be partially restrictive, limiting only particular foods or substances. A fast may also be intermittent in nature, Fasting practices may preclude intercourse and other activities as well as food. In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the status of a person who has not eaten overnight. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal, metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal, post-absorptive state is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the postprandial state of ongoing digestion. A diagnostic fast refers to prolonged fasting conducted under observation for investigation of a problem, many people may also fast as part of a medical procedure or check-up such as a colonoscopy. Fasting is also a part of religious observances. Fasting is often practiced prior to surgery or other procedures that require general anesthetics because of the risk of aspiration of gastric contents after induction of anesthesia. Additionally, certain tests, such as cholesterol testing or certain blood glucose measurements require fasting for several hours so that a baseline can be established. In the case of a panel, failure to fast for a full 12 hours will guarantee an elevated triglyceride measurement. Fasting is of no help in preventing or treating cancer. Fasting can help alleviate symptoms of depression. However the psychological effects may include anxiety and depression. Fasting will lead to weight loss, using fasting for weight loss is considered dangerous. It has been argued that fasting makes one better appreciate food, Fasting is often used as a tool to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, a spiritual fast incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of a social injustice

26.
Eastern Band Cherokee
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They were required to assimilate and renounce tribal Cherokee citizenship. The history of the Eastern Band closely follows that of the Qualla Boundary, when they reorganized as a tribe, they had to buy back the land from the US government. The EBCI also own, hold, or maintain additional lands in the vicinity, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians are primarily the descendants of those persons listed on the Baker Rolls of Cherokee Indians. They gained federal recognition as a tribe in the 20th century and its headquarters is in the namesake town of Cherokee, North Carolina in the Qualla Boundary, south of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The Eastern Band members are descended from about 800 Cherokee who did not participate in the Trail of Tears to Indian Territory. Principal Chief Yonaguska, with the help of his adopted European-American son, William Holland Thomas, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians have maintained many traditional tribal practices. Many prominent Cherokee historians are affiliated with, or are members of the Eastern Band and he remained in the traditional Cherokee lands with a small group who resisted the U. S. Army and tried to thwart the removal. He was executed by the United States in exchange for the lives of the band he protected. They were allowed to remain in the Cherokee homeland, with the condition that they give up Cherokee tribal citizenship and they are an Iroquoian-speaking people related to those nations in the Iroquois Confederacy and other Iroquoian-speaking groups traditionally occupying territory around the Great Lakes. The Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual, located near the museum, founded in 1946, the Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual is country’s oldest and foremost Native American crafts cooperative. More than two dozen Christian churches of various denominations are located within the Qualla Boundary, many of the traditional religious practices of the Eastern Band have, over time, blended with new age views and customs according to Cherokee traditionalists. They have diverged as the result of isolation of the various factions of Cherokee society. Many traditional dances and ceremonies are practiced by the Eastern Band. The Eastern Band has begun a language immersion program requiring all graduating high school seniors to speak the tribal language beginning 2007, of the total population in the Qualla Boundary, there are approximately 900 speakers, 72% of whom are over the age of 50. The Eastern Cherokee Indian Reservation, officially known as the Qualla Boundary, is located at 35°28′43″N 83°16′20″W in western North Carolina, just south of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The main part of the lies in eastern Swain County and northern Jackson County. A small part of the reservation extends eastward into Haywood County. The total land area of parts is 213.934 km²

27.
Qualla Boundary
–
The Qualla Boundary or The Qualla is territory held as a land trust for the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, who reside in western North Carolina. The area is part of the Cherokees historic territory, individuals can buy, own, and sell the land, provided they are enrolled members of the Tribe of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians. The Qualla Boundary is located at 35°30′N 83°16′W, the main part of the Qualla Boundary lies in eastern Swain and northern Jackson counties. A small portion of the main trust lands extends eastward into Haywood County, the total land area of these regions is 213.934 km², with a 2000 census resident population of 8,092 people. The indigenous Cherokee, an Iroquoian people, have occupied the area for centuries, the Cherokee have long occupied this area, having migrated here centuries before the Europeans arrived. During their colonial expansion west, European settlers sometimes came into conflict with the Cherokee, the Qualla Boundary was first surveyed in 1876 by M. S. Temple under the auspices of the United States Land Office. These pieces were embodied in a map published as the Map of the Qualla Indian reserve, the Qualla Boundary is a land trust supervised by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. The land is a fragment of the historical homeland of the Cherokee in the region. It was considered part of the Cherokee Nation during the century prior to certain treaties. William Thomas, adopted as a boy by the chief Yonaguska, although he had assimilated as a Cherokee, he was white and able to buy land, which the Cherokee could not do. The Cherokee organized and formed a corporation in 1870 to be able to purchase, the Tribe has operated a court system since 1987. Tribal police have exclusive jurisdiction on Indian lands, though the FBI. Non tribal members charged with a crime are referred to county courts. In the mid-1950s, much of Disneys five-part television series, Davy Crockett, was filmed here, porter, Superintendent, US Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Published online at Eastern Band of Cherokees of North Carolina, retrieved on 2009-01-08 Visit Cherokee, NC Eastern Band of Cherokee

28.
Park Hill, Oklahoma
–
Park Hill is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in southwestern Cherokee County, Oklahoma in the United States. The population was 3,909 at the 2010 census and it lies near Tahlequah, east of the junction of U. S. Route 62 and State Highway 82. Founded in 1838, Park Hill became the home of many important Cherokee leaders and it has been called the center of Cherokee culture. Park Hill was the base for many of the Cherokee after coming from the East on the Trail of Tears. In 1829 the Park Hill Mission was established, the mission had one of the earliest presses in Oklahoma, the Park Hill Publishing House. The first post office was established at Park Hill on May 18,1838 and it was in Park Hill that Chief John Ross made his home in 1839, as well as his brother-in-law George Murrell, whose home still stands. On May 6,1847, the post office was moved to Tahlequah, the Cherokee Female Seminary was built here in 1849. The post office at Park Hill was re-established April 22,1892, the Cherokee Heritage Center is in Park Hill, on the grounds of the Female Seminary. The Echota Ceremonial Ground has been located in Park Hill since 2001, Park Hill Mission, which antedated the community, was founded in 1829. The first person buried in Park Hill Mission Cemetery was Elias Boudinot, founder of the Cherokee Phoenix newspaper, Samuel Worcester and his two wives were also interred here. The last burial in this cemetery was a Worcester daughter, Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson and this cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 6,2006. Park Hill is located south of the center of Cherokee County at 35°51′49″N 94°56′52″W and it is bordered to the north by Tahlequah, the county seat. U. S. Route 62 leads north to Tahlequah and southwest 25 miles to Muskogee, while Oklahoma State Highway 82 leads south 31 miles to Vian. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Park Hills CDP has an area of 34.9 square miles, of which 34.4 square miles is land and 0.50 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 3,909 people,1,260 households, the population density was 113.3 people per square mile. There were 1,437 housing units at a density of 41. 6/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 43. 4% White,1. 3% African American,40. 3% Native American,0. 1% Asian, 4% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 9% of the population. 15. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.95 and the average family size was 3.28

29.
Atmore, Alabama
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Atmore is a city in Escambia County, Alabama, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 10,194, Atmore is in the planning stages to increase its economic base with additions in its new Rivercane development along the I-65 corridor. Atmore has completed requirements to be recognized as an Alabama Community of Excellence at the upcoming Alabama League of Municipalities Convention, city officials are also working with the Alabama Historical Commission to have the downtown district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On May 23,2007, Atmore celebrated its centenary, the federally recognized Poarch Band of Creek Indians is headquartered in Atmore. Atmore is located in western Escambia County at 31°1′23″N 87°29′31″W and its southern border is the Florida state line. The center of town is at the intersection of U. S. Route 31 and Alabama State Route 21, US31 leads southwest 20 miles to Bay Minette and east 28 miles to Brewton. Mobile is 51 miles to the southwest via US31 and I-65, while Pensacola, Florida, is 49 miles south via AL21, Florida State Road 97, and U. S. Route 29. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Atmore has an area of 21.9 square miles, of which 21.9 square miles is land and 0.077 square miles. As of the census of 2010, the density was 1228 people per square mile. There were 3,480 housing units at a density of 419.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 55. 6% Black or African American,40. 0% White,1. 8% Native American,0. 3% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 8% from other races, and 1. 4% from two or more races. 1. 8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,33. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 3.09. In the city, the population was out with 18. 6% under the age of 18,9. 1% from 18 to 24,34. 5% from 25 to 44,24. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37.4 years, for every 100 females there were 155.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 207.4 males, as of the census of 2000, the population density was 922.5 people per square mile. There were 3,535 housing units at a density of 424.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 49. 48% White,46. 31% Black or African American,2. 41% Native American,0. 47% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 36% from other races, and 0. 91% from two or more races

Atmore, Alabama
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Former Atmore Amtrak station

30.
Shawnee Tribe
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The Shawnee Tribe is a federally recognized Native American tribe in Oklahoma. Also known as the Loyal Shawnee, they are one of three federally recognized Shawnee tribes, the others are the Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma and Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma. The headquarters of the Shawnee Tribe is Miami, Oklahoma, currently, there are 2,226 enrolled tribal members, with 1,070 of them living within the state of Oklahoma. Ron Sparkman is the chairman, currently serving a four-year term. The Shawnee Tribe issues its own vehicle tags. They operate their own housing authority as well as a smoke shop, the Shawnee Trails Gift Shop and Gallery, Shawnee Development LLC. Their annual economic impact is estimated by the Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commissions to be $3 million, Shawnee Development LLC is an economic development corporation established in 2001, owned by the tribe but conducting business separately from the general government functions. The Shawnee Journal is a newspaper published by the tribe and distributed at no cost to all tribal members, some traditional ceremonies, such as the Spring and Fall Bread Dance, the Green Corn ceremony, and stomp dances are still held. These take place in White Oak, Oklahoma, some Shawnees are also members of the Native American Church peyote ceremonies, with most attending in the winter outside of the traditional Shawnee ceremonial cycle. The Shawnee Tribe is an Eastern Woodland tribe and they originally came from Ohio and Pennsylvania, and were the last of the Shawnee to leave their traditional homelands there. In the late 18th century, European-American encroachment crowded Shawnee lands in the East, three reservations were granted to the Shawnee in Ohio by the 1817 Treaty of Fort Meigs, Wapakoneta, Lewistown, and Hog Creek. After the Indian Removal Act of 1830 passed, another Shawnee band relocated to Indian Territory in the July 1831, the final band, who would become the Shawnee Tribe, relocated to Kansas in August 1831. Their Kansas lands were reduced in 1854 and broken up into individual allotments in 1858. During the Civil War many of the Shawnee Tribe fought for the Union, instead of receiving compensation or honors for their service, they returned to their Kansas lands, only to find much of it taken over by non-Indian homesteaders. Settlers were granted 130,000 acres of Shawnee land, while 70,000 acres remained to for the tribe, in 1861 Kansas became a state, and the White people of Kansas demanded that all Indian tribes must be removed from the state. The Loyal Shawnee made an agreement with the Cherokee Nation in 1869, allowing 722 to gain citizenship within the Cherokee tribe and they predominantly settled in what is now Craig and Rogers County, Oklahoma. They became known as the Cherokee Shawnee, primarily settling in the areas of Bird Creek, Hudson Creek, the Shawnee Reservation in Kansas was never legally dissolved and some Shawnee families still hold their allotment lands in Kansas. Beginning in the 1980s, the Shawnee Tribe began an effort to regain their own tribal status, congress passed Public Law 106-568, the Shawnee Tribe Status Act of 2000, and the Shawnee Tribe was able to organize as their own autonomous, federally recognized tribe

31.
Box turtle
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Box turtles are North American turtles of the genus Terrapene. Although box turtles are superficially similar to tortoises in terrestrial habits and overall appearance, the twelve taxa which are distinguished in the genus are distributed over four species. They are largely characterized by having a domed shell, which is hinged at the bottom, Box turtles have become popular pets, although their needs in captivity are complex. He placed in this genus amongst others Terrapene boscii and Terrapene carolina, also several Asian box turtles have been formerly classified within the genus Terrapene, e. g. Terrapene bicolor and Terrapene culturalia. P. M. Smith & Ramsey,1952 Box turtles have diploid somatic cells with 50 chromosomes, once maturity is reached, the chance of death seems not to increase with age. The survivorship curve of box turtles is therefore similar to that of other long-living turtles. The average life span of adult box turtles is 50 years, however, the rate of 1 ring per growth season has not been fully confirmed, and estimates beyond 20 years are unreliable because the scutes is usually worn smooth. Box turtle eggs are flexible, oblong and are on average 2–4 cm long weighing 5-11 g, the normal clutch size is 1-7 eggs. In captivity and in the end of their range, box turtles can have more than one clutch per year. Turtles can defend themselves from predation by hiding, closing their shell, the risk of death is greatest in small animals due to their size and weaker carapace and plastron. While the shell of a box turtle is seldom fractured. Common predators are mammals like minks, skunks, raccoons, dogs and rodents, North American box turtles are omnivores with a varied diet, as a box turtle will basically eat anything it can catch. Invertebrates form the principal component, but the diet also consists for a part of vegetation. The diet is amended with fruits, gastropods, while reports exist that during their first five to six years, box turtles are primarily carnivorous, while adults are mostly herbivorous, there is no scientific basis for such a difference. Box turtles are native to North America, the widest distributed species is the common box turtle which is found in the United States and Mexico. The ornate box turtle is endemic to the south-central and southwestern parts of the U. S. while the box turtle is endemic to northwestern Mexico only. The Coahuilan box turtle is found in Cuatro Ciénegas Basin. Because box turtles occupy a variety of habitats, a standard box turtle habitat can not be identified

32.
Condensed milk
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Condensed milk is cows milk from which water has been removed. It is most often found in the form of sweetened condensed milk, with sugar added, sweetened condensed milk is a very thick, sweet product which when canned can last for years without refrigeration if not opened. Condensed milk is used in dessert dishes in many countries. A related product is evaporated milk, which has undergone a more complex process, evaporated milk is known in some countries as unsweetened condensed milk. According to the writings of Marco Polo, in the 13th century the Tatars were able to condense milk, Marco Polo reported that ten pounds of milk paste was carried by each man, who would subsequently mix the product with water. However, this refers to the soft Tatar curd, which can be made into a drink by diluting it. Nicolas Appert condensed milk in France in 1820, and Gail Borden, Jr. in the United States in 1853, before this development, milk could only be kept fresh for a short while and was only available in the immediate vicinity of a cow. While returning from a trip to England in 1851, Borden was devastated by the deaths of several children, by 1858, Bordens milk, sold as Eagle Brand, had gained a reputation for purity, durability and economy. In 1864, Gail Bordens New York Condensed Milk Company constructed the New York Milk Condensery in Brewster and this was the largest and most advanced milk factory of its day and was Bordens first commercially successful plant. Over 200 dairy farmers supplied 20,000 gallons of milk daily to the Brewster plant as demand increased driven by the American Civil War, the U. S. government ordered huge amounts of condensed milk as a field ration for Union soldiers during the war. This was a field ration for the 19th century, a typical 10 oz can contained 1,300 calories,1 oz each of protein and fat. Soldiers returning home from the war soon spread the word, the first Canadian condensery was built at Truro, Nova Scotia, in 1871. Stuart opened the first Pacific Coast Condensed Milk Company plant in Kent, the condensed milk market developed into a bubble, with too many manufacturers chasing too little demand. By 1912, high stocks of condensed milk led to a drop in price, in 1911, Nestlé constructed the worlds largest condensed milk plant in Dennington, Victoria, Australia. Hunzikers book was republished in an edition in October 2007 by Cartwright Press. The First World War regenerated interest in, and the market for, condensed milk, primarily due to its storage, in the US the higher price for raw milk paid by condenseries created significant problems for the cheese industry. Raw milk is clarified and standardised, and is heated to 85–90 °C for several seconds. This heating process destroys some microorganisms, decreases fat separation and inhibits oxidation, some water is evaporated from the milk and sugar is added until a 9,11 ratio of sugar to milk is reached

Condensed milk
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Condensed milk has a thick consistency and is commonly packaged in tubes or tins.
Condensed milk
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An opened can of condensed milk

33.
Ethnomusicology
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Ethnomusicology is the study of music from the cultural and social aspects of the people who make it. Stated broadly, ethnomusicology may be described as an investigation of music in its cultural contexts. When the field first came into existence, it was limited to the study of non-Western music—in contrast to the study of Western art music. Over time, the definition broadened to study of all the musics of the world according to certain approaches. While there is not a single, authoritative definition for ethnomusicology, Musical fieldworkers often also collect recordings and contextual information about the music of interest. Thus, ethnomusicological studies do not rely on printed or manuscript sources as the source of epistemic authority. Oskar Kolberg is regarded as one of the earliest European ethnomusicologists as he first began collecting Polish folk songs in 1839, comparative musicology, the primary precursor to ethnomusicology, emerged in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The International Musical Society in Berlin in 1899 acted as one of the first centers for ethnomusicology, the International Council for Traditional Music and the Society for Ethnomusicology are the primary international academic organizations for advancing the discipline of ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicologists have offered varying definitions of the field, more specifically, scholars debate what constitutes ethnomusicology. Bruno Nettl distinguishes between discipline and field, believing ethnomusicology is the latter, there are multiple approaches to and challenges of the field. Some approaches reference musical areas like musical synthesis in Ghana while others emphasize a study of culture through the avenue of music, the multifaceted and dynamic approaches to ethnomusicology allude to how the field has evolved. The primary element that distinguishes ethnomusicology from musicology is the expectation that ethnomusicologists engage in sustained, there are many individuals and groups who can be connected to ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology has evolved both in terminology and ideology since its inception in the late 19th century. While studying in Berlin at Frederick William University and attending the International Music Society, in his notes, he emphasized cultural and religious elements as well as social aspects of music and poetry. Inspired by these thoughts, many Western European nations began to transcribe and categorize music based on ethnicity, inspired by these thoughts, many Western European nations began to put many ethnic and cultural pieces of music onto paper and separate them. In 1956 the hyphen was removed with ideological intent to signify the discipline’s validity and these changes to the field’s name paralleled its internal shifts in ideological and intellectual emphasis. Kolinski also urged the field to move beyond ethnocentrism even as the term grew in popularity as a replacement for what was once described by comparative musicology. In the 1970s, ethnomusicology was becoming well known outside of the small circle of scholars who had founded and fostered the early development of the field

34.
Osage Nation
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The Osage Nation is a Midwestern Native American tribe of the Great Plains who historically dominated much of present-day Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The tribe developed in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys around 700 BC among other groups in its language family. It migrated west of the Mississippi after the 16th century due to wars with Iroquois invading the Ohio Valley from New York, the term Osage is a French version of the tribes name, which can be roughly translated as warlike. The Osage people refer to themselves in their indigenous Dhegihan Siouan language as Wazhazhe, at the height of their power in the early 19th century, the Osage had become the dominant power in the region, feared by neighboring tribes. The tribe controlled the area between the Missouri and Red rivers]], the Ozarks to the east and the foothills of the Wichita Mountains to the south and they depended on nomadic buffalo hunting and agriculture. The missionary Isaac McCoy described the Osage as a fierce, courageous, warlike nation. In the Ohio Valley, the Osage originally lived among speakers of the same Dhegihan language stock, such as the Kansa, Ponca, Omaha, researchers believe that the tribes likely became differentiated in languages and cultures after leaving the lower Ohio country. The Omaha and Ponca settled in what is now Nebraska, the Kansa in Kansas, the Osage were forced to remove to Indian Territory in the 19th century and the majority of their descendants live in Oklahoma. There are 10,000 persons who are members of the federally recognized Osage Nation,6,780 of whom reside in the jurisdictional area, members also live outside the nations tribal land in Oklahoma and in other states around the country, including Kansas. The Osage are descendants of cultures of peoples who had been in North America for thousands of years. Studies of their traditions and language show that they were part of a group of Dhegian-Siouan speaking people who lived in the Ohio River valley area, according to their own stories, they migrated west as a result of war with the Iroquois and/or to reach more game. Scholars are divided in whether they think the Osage and other groups left before the Beaver Wars of the Iroquois, some believe that the Osage started migrating west as early as 1200 CE. They attribute their style of government to effects of the years of war with invading Iroquois. Eventually the Osage and other Dhegian-Siouan peoples reached their historic lands, by 1673, when they were recorded by the French, many of the Osage had settled near the Osage River in the western part of present-day Missouri. They were recorded in 1690 as having adopted the horse The desire to acquire more horses contributed to their trading with the French and they lived near the Missouri River. Together with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, they dominated western Oklahoma and they also lived near the Quapaw and Caddo in Arkansas. The Osage held high rank among the old hunting tribes of the Great Plains, from their traditional homes in the woodlands of present-day Missouri and Arkansas, the Osage would make semi-annual buffalo hunting forays into the Great Plains to the west. They also hunted deer, rabbit, and other game in the central

Osage Nation
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Map of traditional Osage lands by the late 17th century
Osage Nation
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Official seal of the Osage Nation
Osage Nation
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Shonka Sabe (Black Dog). Chief of the Hunkah division of the Osage tribe. Painted in 1834 by George Catlin
Osage Nation
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Osage warrior painted by George Catlin

35.
Quapaw
–
The Quapaw people are a tribe of Native Americans that coalesced in the Midwest and Ohio Valley. The Quapaw are among the Siouan-speaking peoples west of the Mississippi, the Quapaw are federally recognized as the Quapaw Tribe of Indians. Since their removal west to Indian Territory in 1834, their base has been in present-day Ottawa County in northeastern Oklahoma. The number of enrolled in the tribe is 3,240. The Quapaw Tribe of Native Americans are headquartered in Quapaw in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, the 13, 000-acre Quapaw tribal jurisdictional area includes the Tar Creek Superfund site, which has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency for clean-up of environmental hazards. The Quapaw people elect a council and the tribal chairman. The governing body of the tribe is outlined in the resolutions of the tribe. The Chairman is John L. Berrey, of the 3,240 enrolled tribal members,892 live in the state of Oklahoma. Membership in the tribe is based on lineal descent, the tribe operates a Tribal Police Department and a Fire Department, which handles both fire and EMS calls. They issue their own vehicle tags and have their own housing authority. The tribe owns two smoke shop and motor fuel outlets, known as the Quapaw C-Store and Downstream Q-Store and they have two casinos, the Quapaw Casino and the Downstream Casino Resort, both located in Quapaw, these generate most of the revenue for the tribe. In 2012 the Quapaw Tribes annual economic impact was measured at more than $225,000,000 and they also own and operate the Eagle Creek Golf Course and resort, located in Loma Linda, Missouri. The traditional Quapaw language is part of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family, classes in the Quapaw language are taught at the tribal museum. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language created by breaking apart old recordings of Elders is available, other efforts at language preservation and revitalization are being undertaken. The Quapaw participated in the first annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2011, the Osage language program hosted and organized the gathering, held at the Quapaw tribes Downstream Casino. Language-learning techniques and other issues were discussed and taught in workshops at the conference among the five cognate tribes, the Annual Dhegiha Gathering was held in 2012 also at Downstream Casino. The Quapaw host cultural events throughout the year, primarily held at the tribal museum and these include Indian dice games, traditional singing, and classes in traditional arts, such as finger weaving, shawl making, and flute making. In addition, Quapaw language classes are held there, the tribes annual dance is during the weekend of the Fourth of July

36.
Ribbon work
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Ribbon work is an appliqué technique for clothing and dance regalia among Prairie and Great Lakes Native American tribes. Silk ribbons, brought to North America by European traders, inspired a new, mikmaq people created ribbon appliqué as early as 1611. In 1789 the regime of the French Revolution decreed that clothing should be plain, initially, layers of ribbons were sewn on the edges of cloth, replacing painted lines on hide clothing and blankets. By the close of the 18th century, Native seamstresses created much more intricate appliqué ribbon work designs, the ribbons are layered on top of each other with pieces cut out to create optically active designs from both positive and negative space. The ribbons edges are sewn with needles and cotton thread – later, Designs and colors may be significant to particular clans within the tribes. Specific patterns are passed from mother to daughters within families, design elements can include floral designs, diamonds, stepped diamonds, crescents, hearts, circles, and double-curves. Today ribbon work can be seen on dance regalia at tribal ceremonies, Ribbon work is applied to both mens and womens clothing and is incorporated into leggings, skirts, blankets, shawls, breechclouts, purses, shirts, vests, pillows, and other cloth items. Dush-toh, Caddo womens ribbon headdress Ribbon work tutorial on Powwows. com Native American Ribbon Designs

37.
Jeans
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Jeans are pants, a type of garment, typically made from denim or dungaree cloth. Prior to the Levi Strauss patented trousers, the blue jeans had been long in use for various garments. Originally designed for cowboys and miners, jeans became popular in the 1950s among teenagers, Jeans were a common fashion item in the 1960s Hippie subculture and they continued to be popular in the 1970s and 1980s youth subcultures of punk rock and heavy metal. Historic brands include Levis, Lee, and Wrangler, distressed jeans trousers have become increasingly fashionable, making pre-sale factory distressing a common feature in commercially sold jeans. In the 2010s, jeans are a popular article of casual dress around the world. They come in many styles and colors, however, blue jeans are particularly identified with American culture, especially the Old West. Research on the trade of jean fabric shows that it emerged in the cities of Genoa, Italy, gênes, the French word for Genoa, may be the origin of the word jeans. In Nimes, weavers tried to reproduce jean but instead developed a similar fabric that became known as denim, from de Nimes. Genoa’s jean was a fustian textile of medium quality and of reasonable cost, very similar to cotton corduroy for which Genoa was famous, nimes’s denim was coarser, considered higher quality and was used for over garments such as smocks or overalls. Nearly all Indigo, needed for dyeing, came from indigo bush plantations in India till the late 19th century and it was replaced by indigo synthesis methods developed in Germany. By the 17th century, jean was a crucial textile for working-class people in Northern Italy and this is seen in a series of genre paintings from around the 17th century attributed to an artist now named The Master of the Blue Jeans. The ten paintings depict impoverished scenes with lower-class figures wearing a fabric that looks like denim, the fabric would have been Genoese jean, which was cheaper. Genre painting came to prominence in late 16th century, and the subject matter in all ten paintings places them among others that portray similar scenes. Denim is not the only sturdy cotton fabric used for everything from working clothes to fashion items and this cloth was dungri in Hindi. Dungri was exported to England and used for manufacturing of cheap and it was rumored that men would carry dead dung beetles in their pocket for luck. In English, the word dungri became pronounced as dungaree, the importance of jean is also shown by the history of textile trade. Genoese sailors used jean to cover and protect their goods on the docks from the weather, during the Republic of Genoa, sailors exported jeans throughout Europe. Jean became popular in the United States when Levi Strauss & Co. s introduced blue jean overalls in 1873

38.
Ballcap
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A baseball cap is a type of soft cap with a rounded crown and a stiff peak projecting in front. The front of the cap typically contains designs or logos of sports teams, the back of the cap may be fitted to the wearers head size or it may have a plastic, Velcro, or elastic adjuster so that it can be quickly adjusted to fit different wearers. The baseball cap is a part of the traditional uniform worn by players. The cap is seen in everyday casual wear. In 1860, the Brooklyn Excelsiors wore the ancestor of the modern baseball cap, which featured a long peak and a button on top, and by 1900. During the 1940s, latex rubber became the material inside the hat. The peak, also known in areas as the bill or brim, was designed to protect a players eyes from the sun. Typically, the peak was much shorter in the days of the baseball hat. Also, the hat has become more structured, versus the overall cap of the 19th. The baseball cap was and still is an important means by which to identify a team, often the logo, mascot, or teams initial was placed on the cap. Usually, the cap was also fashioned in the colors of a particular team. The basic shape, including curved peak, is similar to styles of 19th century sun bonnets. Fitted baseball caps, those without an adjuster, are sewn in six sections. Metal grommets or fabric eyelets are often sewn or attached near the top of each of the six sections of fabric to provide ventilation, in some cases, the rear sections of the crown are made of net-like mesh material for extra ventilation. The peak is typically stiffened by a piece of paperboard or stiff plastic. Baseball caps are made of many types of material and shaped in various styles for different purposes, major and minor league baseball players wear classic-style caps made of wool with their teams simple logo and colors, the logo is usually embroidered into the fabric. Formerly, baseball caps only came in standard hat sizes, since 1980, they have also been available in a one-size-fits-all form, with an adjustment strap in the back. The style, commonly called snapback, has become popular as fashion accessories

Ballcap
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A typical baseball cap
Ballcap
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Portrait of Cincinnati Reds players, 1888.
Ballcap
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Trucker cap
Ballcap
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In baseball, caps are worn backwards to accommodate for a face mask by some catchers and are worn under the mask of umpires.

39.
Eagle
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Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae, it belongs to several groups of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each other. Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa, outside this area, just 14 species can be found – two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia. Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with heavy heads, most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nicobar serpent eagle, the largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have large, hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs. The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey, Eagles eyes are extremely powerful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction of the incoming light, the female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male. Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched, the dominant chick tends to be a female, as they are bigger than the male. The parents take no action to stop the killing, due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus, the snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live predominantly in woodlands and these eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based their environment, most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart. The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey, all hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles. Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey, only the condors and it is regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species

40.
Hawk
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The Raytheon MIM-23 Hawk is a U. S. medium-range surface-to-air missile. It was designed to be a more mobile counterpart to the MIM-14 Nike Hercules, trading off range and altitude capability for a much smaller size. Its low-level performance was improved over Nike through the adoption of new radars. Hawk was originally intended to attack aircraft, especially those flying at medium and it entered service with the Army in this role in 1959. In 1971 it underwent an improvement program as the Improved Hawk, or I-Hawk. Improvements continued throughout the twenty years, adding improved ECCM, a potential home-on-jam feature, and in 1995. Janes reported that the original systems single shot kill probability was 0.56, Hawk was superseded by the MIM-104 Patriot in US Army service by 1994. The last US user was the US Marine Corps, who used theirs until 2002 when they were replaced with the man-portable short-range FIM-92 Stinger, the missile was also produced outside the US in Western Europe, Japan and Iran. Although the U. S. never used the Hawk in combat, approximately 40,000 of the missiles were produced. Development of the Hawk missile system began in 1952, when the United States Army began studies into a medium-range semi-active radar homing surface-to-air missile. In July 1954 development contracts where awarded to Northrop for the launcher, radars and fire control systems, the first test launch of the missile then designated the XSAM-A-18 happened in June 1956. By July 1957 development was completed, by time the designation had changed to XM3. Very early missiles used the Aerojet M22E7 which was not reliable, the missile was initially deployed by the U. S. Army in 1959, and by the US Marine Corps in 1960. The high complexity of the system, and the quality of tube-based electronics, the improved Hawk system increased this to 130 to 170 hours. Later Hawk versions improved this further to between 300 and 400 hours, Improved Hawk or I-Hawk The original Hawk system had problems engaging targets at low altitude—the missile would have problems picking the target out against ground clutter. The U. S. Army began a program to address issues in 1964 via the Hawk Improvement Program. This involved numerous upgrades to the Hawk system, A digital data processing central information coordinator for target processing, threat ordering, an improved missile with a larger warhead, smaller and more powerful M112 motor, and improved guidance section. The PAR, CWAR, HPIR, and ROR were replaced by upgraded variants, the system entered service during 1972, the first unit reaching operational status by October

Hawk
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MIM-23 Hawk
Hawk
Hawk
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A Hawk system in service with the GermanLuftwaffe before it was phased out
Hawk
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Launch of a Hawk missile

41.
Crane (bird)
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Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the group Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera, unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Cranes live on all continents except Antarctica and South America and they are opportunistic feeders that change their diet according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from suitably sized small rodents, fish, amphibians, and insects to grain, berries, Cranes construct platform nests in shallow water, and typically lay two eggs at a time. Both parents help to rear the young, which remain with them until the breeding season. Some species and populations of cranes migrate over long distances, others do not migrate at all, Cranes are solitary during the breeding season, occurring in pairs, but during the non-breeding season they are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient. Most species of cranes have been affected by human activities and are at the least classified as threatened, the plight of the whooping cranes of North America inspired some of the first US legislation to protect endangered species. The cranes are large to large birds, including the worlds tallest flying bird. They are long-legged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large rounded wings, the males and females do not vary in external appearance, but on average males tend to be slightly larger than females. The plumage of the cranes varies by habitat, species inhabiting vast open wetlands tend to have more white in the plumage than do species that inhabit smaller wetlands or forested habitats, which tend to be more grey. These white species are generally larger. Most species of crane have some areas of skin on the face. This skin is used in communication with other cranes, and can be expanded by contracting and relaxing muscles, feathers on the head can be moved and erected in the blue, wattled and demoiselle cranes for signalling as well. Also important to communication is the position and length of the trachea, in the two crowned-cranes the trachea is shorter and only slightly impressed upon the bone of the sternum, whereas the trachea of the other species is longer and penetrates the sternum. In some species the entire sternum is fused to the plates of the trachea. The cranes have a distribution, occurring across most of the world continents. They are absent from Antarctica and, mysteriously, South America, east Asia is the centre of crane diversity, with eight species, followed by Africa, which holds five resident species and wintering populations of a sixth. Australia, Europe and North America have two species, the remaining genus, Grus, contains the most species and is the most widespread genus, although only a single species occurs in Africa as a wintering migrant

Crane (bird)
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Cranes
Crane (bird)
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The bare area of skin on the face of a sandhill crane. This can change colour or even expand in area when the bird is excited
Crane (bird)
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The long coiled trachea that produces the trumpeting calls of cranes (sandhill crane, Grus canadensis)
Crane (bird)
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Demoiselle cranes in Mongolia. Central Asian populations of this species migrate to Northern India in the winter

42.
Tunic
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A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious

43.
Ribbonwork
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Ribbon work is an appliqué technique for clothing and dance regalia among Prairie and Great Lakes Native American tribes. Silk ribbons, brought to North America by European traders, inspired a new, mikmaq people created ribbon appliqué as early as 1611. In 1789 the regime of the French Revolution decreed that clothing should be plain, initially, layers of ribbons were sewn on the edges of cloth, replacing painted lines on hide clothing and blankets. By the close of the 18th century, Native seamstresses created much more intricate appliqué ribbon work designs, the ribbons are layered on top of each other with pieces cut out to create optically active designs from both positive and negative space. The ribbons edges are sewn with needles and cotton thread – later, Designs and colors may be significant to particular clans within the tribes. Specific patterns are passed from mother to daughters within families, design elements can include floral designs, diamonds, stepped diamonds, crescents, hearts, circles, and double-curves. Today ribbon work can be seen on dance regalia at tribal ceremonies, Ribbon work is applied to both mens and womens clothing and is incorporated into leggings, skirts, blankets, shawls, breechclouts, purses, shirts, vests, pillows, and other cloth items. Dush-toh, Caddo womens ribbon headdress Ribbon work tutorial on Powwows. com Native American Ribbon Designs

44.
Terrapin
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A terrapin is one of several small species of turtle living in fresh or brackish water. Terrapins do not form a unit, and may not be related. Many belong to the families Geoemydidae and Emydidae, the name terrapin is derived from torope, a word in the Native American Algonquian language that referred to the species, Malaclemys terrapin. It appears that it became part of common usage during the era of North America and was carried back to Great Britain. Since then, it has used in common names for turtles in the English language. Diamondback terrapin or just terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin, a turtle of the Emydidae family, European pond terrapin or European pond turtle, Emys orbicularis, a turtle in the family Emydidae found in West Asia and parts of North Africa. Indian pond terrapin, or Indian black turtle, Melanochelys trijuga, Mexican spotted terrapin or Mexican spotted wood turtle, Rhinoclemmys rubida, a species of turtle in the family Geoemydidae, endemic to Mexico. Northern river terrapin, Batagur baska, an endangered turtle in the Geoemydidae family native to Cambodia. Painted terrapin, Batagur borneoensis, a turtle in the Geoemydidae family native to Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, red-eared terrapin, Trachemys scripta elegans, a turtle of southern North America in the family Emydidae, a popular pet and an invasive species in many places. Serrated hinged terrapin, Pelusios sinuatus, is a species of turtle in the Pelomedusidae family found in southern Africa, Seychelles black terrapin, Pelusios seychellensis, an extinct species of turtle in the Pelomedusidae family that was endemic to the Seychelles. Smiling terrapin or Black marsh turtle, Siebenrockiella crassicollis, a turtle in the Geoemydidae family native to Southeast Asia, southern river terrapin, Batagur affinis, a turtle in the Geoemydidae family native to Cambodia. Striped-neck terrapin or Caspian turtle, Mauremys caspica, a turtle in the family Geoemydidae, native to the eastern Mediterranean region

Terrapin
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A Terrapin crossing sign and a highway barrier designed for crossing at the end of the F.J. Torras causeway at St. Simons Island, Georgia, USA (2015)

45.
Pow wow
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A pow wow is a social gathering held by many different American Indian communities. The word is derived from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning spiritual leader, a similar gathering by California Indians, usually in the fall, is called a Big Time. A modern pow wow is a type of event for American Indian people to meet and dance, sing, socialize. Pow wows may be private or public, there is generally a dancing competition, often with significant prize money awarded. Pow wows vary in length from an event, to major pow wows called for a special occasion which can be up to one week long. In popular culture, such as older Western movies, the term has also used to describe any gathering of Indians, or to refer to any type of meeting. However, such use may be viewed as offensive and disrespectful, planning for a pow wow generally begins months, perhaps even a year, in advance of the event by a group of people usually referred to as a pow wow committee. A pow wow committee consists of a number of individuals who do all the prior to the event. If a pow wow has a sponsor, such as a tribe, college, or organization, the head staff of a pow wow are the people who run the event on the day or days it actually occurs. They are generally hired by the pow wow committee several months in advance, to be chosen as part of the head staff is an honor, showing respect for the persons skills or dedication. The arena director is the person in charge during the pow wow, sometimes the arena director is referred to as the whip man, sometimes the whip man is the arena directors assistant, and many pow wows dont have a whip man. The arena director makes sure dancers are dancing during the pow wow, If there are contests the arena director is ultimately responsible for providing judges, though he often has another assistant who is the head judge. The arena director is responsible for organizing any ceremonies that may be required during the pow wow, such as when an eagle feather is dropped. One of the duties of the arena director is to ensure that the dance arena is treated with the proper respect from visitors to the pow wow. The master of ceremonies, or MC, is the voice of the pow wow and it is his job to keep the singers, dancers, and public informed as to what is happening. The MC sets the schedule of events, and maintains the drum rotation, the MC is also responsible for filling any dead air time that may occur during the pow wow, often with jokes. The MC often runs any raffles or other contests that may happen during the pow wow, the head dancers lead the other dancers in the grand entry or parade of dancers that opens a pow wow. In many cases, the dancers are also responsible for leading the dancers during songs

46.
Chickasaw Nation
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The Chickasaw Nation is a federally recognized Native American nation, located in Oklahoma. They are one of the members of the Five Civilized Tribes, the Chickasaw Nation was created after the Chickasaw people were peacefully removed by the US federal government to Indian Territory in the 1830s. The removals became known as the Trail of Tears, the Chickasaw Nation is headquartered in Ada, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is in Bryan, Carter, Coal, Garvin, Grady, Jefferson, Johnston, Love, McClain, Marshall, Murray, Pontotoc and their tribal governor is Bill Anoatubby. Governor Bill Anoatubby appointed Charles W. Blackwell as the Chickasaw Nations first Ambassador to the United States in 1995, at the time of his appointment in 1995, Blackwell became the first Native American tribal ambassador to the United States government. Blackwell served in Washington as ambassador from 1995 until his death on January 3,2013, the tribe owns two off-track wagering facilities,18 casinos, two bingo halls,18 tribal smoke shops, seven motor fuel outlets, and two truck stops. Their estimated annual economic impact is over $13.9 billion. In addition, the Chickasaw Nation operates historical sites and museums including the Chickasaw Cultural Center, Chickasaw Nation Capitols, and Kullihoma Grounds. Their casinos include Ada Gaming Center, Chisholm Trail Casino, Gold Mountain Casino, Newcastle Casino, Riverwind Casino, Treasure Valley Casino, SaltCreek Casino and they also own Lone Star Park in Grand Prairie, Texas and Remington Park Casino in Oklahoma City. Hernando de Soto is credited as being the first European to contact the Chickasaw and he discovered them to have an agrarian society with a sophisticated governmental system, complete with their own laws and religion. It consisted of Panola, Wichita, Caddo, and Perry counties, the United States eventually leased the area between the 100th and 98th meridians for the use of the Plains tribes. The area was referred to as the Leased District, the division of the Choctaw Nation was ratified by the Choctaw–Chickasaw Treaty of 1854. The Chickasaw constitution establishing the nation as separate from the Choctaws, was signed August 30,1856, the first Chickasaw governor was Cyrus Harris. The nation consisted of five divisions, Tishomingo County, Pontotoc County, Pickens County, law enforcement was by the Chickasaw Lighthorsemen, although non-Indians fell under the jurisdiction of the Federal court at Fort Smith. Following the Civil War, the United States forced the Chickasaw into new peace treaties because of the support of many of the Five Civilized Tribes for the Confederacy, under the new treaty, the Chickasaw ceded the Leased District to the United States. In 1868, the Chickasaw Montford T. Johnson, with Jesse Chisholms help and his ranch was never raided, although often threatened. He and his family remained the permanent residents of the area until the settlement of Oklahoma after it was admitted as a state. Under the Dawes Act, the Chickasaw nation was dissolved, with government functions transferred to the government before statehood

Chickasaw Nation
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Seal of the Chickasaw nation

47.
Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
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The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized Native American tribe with a tribal jurisdictional area comprising twelve tribal districts. The Choctaw Nation maintains a relationship with both the United States and Oklahoma governments. As of 2011, the tribe has 223,279 enrolled members, the tribal jurisdictional area is 10,864 square miles. A total of 233,126 people live within these boundaries, the tribe has jurisdiction over its own members. The chief of the Choctaw Nation is Gary Batton, who took office on April 29,2014 after the resignation of Gregory E. Pyle, the Choctaw Nation Headquarters is located in Durant. The Choctaw Capitol Building is in Tuskahoma, it is now used as the Choctaw Museum, the Choctaw Nation is one of three federally recognized Choctaw tribes, the others are the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians and Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. The latter two bands are descendants of Choctaw who resisted the relocation to Indian Territory. The Mississippi Choctaw preserved much of their culture in small communities and those Choctaw who removed to the Indian Territory, a process that went on into the early 20th century, are federally recognized as the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The removals became known as the Trail of Tears, the Tribal Headquarters are located in Durant. It is a complex of three buildings, and several one-story buildings. The current chief is Gary Batton and the assistant chief is Jack Austin, the Tribe is governed by the Choctaw Nation Constitution, which was ratified by the people on June 9,1984. The Constitution provides for an Executive, a Legislative and a Judicial branch of government, the Chief of the Choctaw Tribe, elected every four years, is not a voting member of the Tribal Council. They are also elected for four-year terms, the legislative authority of the Tribe is vested in the Tribal Council, which consists of twelve members. Members of the Tribal Council are elected by the Choctaw people, twelve Council members are elected, one for each of the twelve districts in the Choctaw Nation. Candidates for the Tribal Council must be at least one-fourth Choctaw Indian by blood, once elected, a Council member must remain a resident of the district from which he or she was elected during the term in office. This policy ensures the involvement and interaction of successful candidates with their constituency, once in office, the Tribal Council Members have regularly scheduled county council meetings. The presence of tribal leaders in the Indian community creates a sense of understanding of their community. The Tribal Council Members are the voice and representation of the Choctaw people in the tribal government, the Tribal Councils assists the community to implement an economic development strategy and to plan, organize, and direct Tribal resources to achieve self-sufficiency

48.
Native American music
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Singing and percussion are the most important aspects of traditional Native American music. Vocalization takes many forms, ranging from solo and choral song to responsorial, unison, percussion, especially drums and rattles, are common accompaniment to keep the rhythm steady for the singers, who generally use their native language or non-lexical vocables. Native American song texts include both public pieces and secret songs, said to be ancient and unchanging, which are used for only sacred and ceremonial purposes. There are also public sacred songs, as well as ritual speeches that are perceived as musical because of their use of rhythm. These ritual speeches often directly describe the events of a ceremony, vocables, or lexically meaningless syllables, are a common part of many kinds of Native American songs. They frequently mark the beginning and end of phrases, sections or songs themselves, often songs make frequent use of vocables and other untranslatable elements. Songs that are translatable include historical songs, like the Navajo Shi naasha, tribal flag songs and national anthems are also a major part of the Native American musical corpus, and are a frequent starter to public ceremonies, especially powwows. Native American music also includes a range of songs, dancing songs and popular American or Canadian tunes like Amazing Grace, Dixie, Jambalaya. Many songs celebrate harvest, planting season or other important times of year, Native American music plays a vital role in history and education, with ceremonies and stories orally passing on ancestral customs to new generations. Native American ceremonial music is said to originate from deities or spirits. Rituals are shaped by every aspect of song, dance and costuming, Native Americans perform stories through song, music and dance, and the historical facts thus propagated are an integral part of Native American beliefs. Epic legends and stories about culture heroes are a part of music traditions. They can vary slightly from year to year, with leaders recombining and introducing slight variations, the Pueblo compose a number of new songs each year in a committee which uses dreams and visions. The styles and purposes of music vary greatly between and among each Native American tribe, however, a common concept amongst many indigenous groups is a conflation of music and power. For example, the Pima people feel many of their songs were given in the beginning and sung by the Creator and it was believed that some people then have more of an inclination to musical talent than others because of an individuals peculiar power. Within various Native American communities, gender plays an important role in music, men and women play sex-specific roles in many musical activities. Instruments, songs and dances are often peculiar to one or the other sex, in modern powwows, women play a vital role as backup singers and dancers. The Cherokee people, for example, hold dances before stickball games, at these pre-game events, men and women perform separate dances and follow separate regulations

49.
Turkey dance
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The turkey dance is one of the most important traditional dances among Caddo people. Women dance the turkey dance, while men drum and sing the songs, the dance takes place in the afternoon and finished by sunset, when turkeys return to their roosts. Caddos traditionally founded their villages and camps near turkey roosts, because the turkeys served as sentinels — creating noises when people approached, the turkey dances are ancient, and several stories of their origin exist. One explanation is that a Caddo man, hunting in the forest, the source was a rafter of turkey hens dancing in a circle around a tom turkey. The hunter carefully observed and memorized the dance to share with his tribe, 18th-century Spanish missionaries wrote descriptions of Hasinai women dancing the turkey dance when warriors returned to their village. In the 21st century, Caddo women still dance with a ceremonial cane presented to the tribe by the Spanish before 1809, the Caddo have continuously maintained the turkey dance, but it particularly enjoyed a revival after World War II. In a day of Caddo dances, the dance is the first one performed. In the past, women danced around a pole, during the third phase the women cluster around the men drumming in the center of the dance area. During the final phase, the dancers get to choose male dance partners. The dance is concluded with a song and the lowering of the US flag in honor of Caddo veterans. The dance movements of the women may have inspired by turkey movements. Today turkey dances are held at the Caddo National Tribal Complex dance grounds in Binger. The Hasinay Society and Caddo Cultural Club both perform turkey dances, Caddo womens dance regalia include handmade dresses, broadcloth blankets, beadwork, and dush-tohs, that is a plaque adorned with brass or mirrors and flowing ribbons. Dresses are ankle-length with ribbons sewn around the skirt, blouses match the skirts in color and have flared yokes. Over their skirts, women wear full-length aprons,52 Caddo turkey dance songs are still sung today. They recount Caddo historical events in the dialects that comprise the Caddo language. Many recount military exploits, but they begin with oral history of the creation of the Caddo people, one song tells about the overnight creation of Caddo Lake. As Cecile Elkins Carter writes, The dances celebrate Caddo survival, Caddo Indians, Where We Came From