Niccolò (or Nicolò) Paganini (Italian: [ni(k)koˈlɔ ppaɡaˈniːni]; 27 October 1782 – 27 May 1840) was an Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, and composer. He was the most celebrated violin virtuoso of his time, and left his mark as one of the pillars of modern violin technique, his 24 Caprices for Solo Violin Op. 1 are among the best known of his compositions, and have served as an inspiration for many prominent composers.

Niccolò Paganini was born in Genoa, then capital of the Republic of Genoa, the third of the six children of Antonio and Teresa (née Bocciardo) Paganini. Paganini's father was an unsuccessful trader, but he managed to supplement his income through playing music on the mandolin, at the age of five, Paganini started learning the mandolin from his father, and moved to the violin by the age of seven. His musical talents were quickly recognized, earning him numerous scholarships for violin lessons, the young Paganini studied under various local violinists, including Giovanni Servetto and Giacomo Costa, but his progress quickly outpaced their abilities. Paganini and his father then traveled to Parma to seek further guidance from Alessandro Rolla, but upon listening to Paganini's playing, Rolla immediately referred him to his own teacher, Ferdinando Paer and, later, Paer's own teacher, Gasparo Ghiretti. Though Paganini did not stay long with Paer or Ghiretti, the two had considerable influence on his composition style.

The French invaded northern Italy in March 1796, and Genoa was not spared, the Paganinis sought refuge in their country property in Romairone, near Bolzaneto. It was in this period that Paganini is thought to have developed his relationship with the guitar,[1] he became rather adept on this instrument, but preferred to play it in exclusively intimate, rather than public concerts.[2] He later described the guitar as his "constant companion" on his concert tours. By 1800, Paganini and his father traveled to Livorno, where Paganini played in concerts and his father resumed his maritime work; in 1801, the 18-year-old Paganini was appointed first violin of the Republic of Lucca, but a substantial portion of his income came from freelancing. His fame as a violinist was matched only by his reputation as a gambler and womanizer.

In 1805, Lucca was annexed by Napoleonic France, and the region was ceded to Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi. Paganini became a violinist for the Baciocchi court, while giving private lessons to Elisa's husband, Felice; in 1807, Baciocchi became the Grand Duchess of Tuscany and her court was transferred to Florence. Paganini was part of the entourage, but, towards the end of 1809, he left Baciocchi to resume his freelance career.

For the next few years, Paganini returned to touring in the areas surrounding Parma and Genoa. Though he was very popular with the local audience, he was still not very well known in the rest of Europe, his first break came from an 1813 concert at La Scala in Milan. The concert was a great success, as a result, Paganini began to attract the attention of other prominent, though more conservative, musicians across Europe. His early encounters with Charles Philippe Lafont and Louis Spohr created intense rivalry, his concert activities, however, were still limited to Italy for the next few years.

In 1827, Pope Leo XII honoured Paganini with the Order of the Golden Spur,[3][4] his fame spread across Europe with a concert tour that started in Vienna in August 1828, stopping in every major European city in Germany, Poland, and Bohemia until February 1831 in Strasbourg. This was followed by tours in Paris and Britain, his technical ability and his willingness to display it received much critical acclaim. In addition to his own compositions, theme and variations being the most popular, Paganini also performed modified versions of works (primarily concertos) written by his early contemporaries, such as Rodolphe Kreutzer and Giovanni Battista Viotti.

Paganini's travels also brought him into contact with eminent guitar virtuosi of the day, including Ferdinando Carulli in Paris and Mauro Giuliani in Vienna,[5] but this experience did not inspire him to play public concerts with guitar, and even performances of his own guitar trios and quartets were private to the point of being behind closed doors.

Throughout his life, Paganini was no stranger to chronic illnesses, although no definite medical proof exists, he was reputed to have been affected by Marfan syndrome[6][7] or Ehlers–Danlos syndrome.[8] In addition, his frequent concert schedule, as well as his extravagant lifestyle, took their toll on his health, he was diagnosed with syphilis as early as 1822, and his remedy, which included mercury and opium, came with serious physical and psychological side effects. In 1834, while still in Paris, he was treated for tuberculosis. Though his recovery was reasonably quick, after the illness his career was marred by frequent cancellations due to various health problems, from the common cold to depression, which lasted from days to months.

In September 1834, Paganini put an end to his concert career and returned to Genoa. Contrary to popular beliefs involving his wishing to keep his music and techniques secret, Paganini devoted his time to the publication of his compositions and violin methods, he accepted students, of whom two enjoyed moderate success: violinist Camillo Sivori and cellist Gaetano Ciandelli. Neither, however, considered Paganini helpful or inspirational; in 1835, Paganini returned to Parma, this time under the employ of ArchduchessMarie Louise of Austria, Napoleon's second wife. He was in charge of reorganizing her court orchestra. However, he eventually conflicted with the players and court, so his visions never saw completion; in Paris, he befriended the 11-year-old Polish virtuoso Apollinaire de Kontski, giving him some lessons and a signed testimonial. It was widely put about, falsely, that Paganini was so impressed with de Kontski's skills that he bequeathed him his violins and manuscripts.

In 1836, Paganini returned to Paris to set up a casino, its immediate failure left him in financial ruin, and he auctioned off his personal effects, including his musical instruments, to recoup his losses. At Christmas of 1838, he left Paris for Marseilles and, after a brief stay, travelled to Nice where his condition worsened; in May 1840, the Bishop of Nice sent Paganini a local parish priest to perform the last rites. Paganini assumed the sacrament was premature, and refused.[3]

A week later, on 27 May 1840, Paganini died from internal hemorrhaging before a priest could be summoned, because of this, and his widely rumored association with the devil, the Church denied his body a Catholic burial in Genoa. It took four years and an appeal to the Pope before the Church let his body be transported to Genoa, but it was still not buried, his remains were finally laid to rest in 1876, in a cemetery in Parma. In 1893, the Czech violinist František Ondříček persuaded Paganini's grandson, Attila, to allow a viewing of the violinist's body, after this bizarre episode, Paganini's body was finally reinterred in a new cemetery in Parma in 1896.

Though having no shortage of romantic conquests, Paganini was seriously involved with a singer named Antonia Bianchi from Como, whom he met in Milan in 1813, the two gave concerts together throughout Italy. They had a son, Achilles Cyrus Alexander, born on 23 July 1825 in Palermo and baptized at San Bartolomeo's, they never legalized their union and it ended around April 1828 in Vienna. Paganini brought Achilles on his European tours, and Achilles later accompanied his father until the latter's death, he was instrumental in dealing with his father's burial, years after his death.

Throughout his career, Paganini also became close friends with composers Gioachino Rossini and Hector Berlioz. Rossini and Paganini met in Bologna in the summer of 1818; in January 1821, on his return from Naples, Paganini met Rossini again in Rome, just in time to become the substitute conductor for Rossini's opera Matilde di Shabran, upon the sudden death of the original conductor. Paganini's efforts earned gratitude from Rossini.

Paganini met Berlioz in Paris, and was a frequent correspondent as a penfriend, he commissioned a piece from the composer, but was not satisfied with the resultant four-movement piece for orchestra and viola obbligato Harold en Italie. He never performed it, and instead it was premiered a year later by violist Christian Urhan, he did however write his own Sonata per Gran Viola Op. 35 (with orchestra or guitar accompaniment). Despite his alleged lack of interest in Harold, Paganini often referred to Berlioz as the resurrection of Beethoven and, towards the end of his life, he gave large sums to the composer, they shared an active interest in the guitar, which they both played and used in compositions. Paganini gave Berlioz a guitar, which they both signed on its sound box.

Paganini was in possession of a number of fine string instruments. More legendary than these were the circumstances under which he obtained (and lost) some of them. While Paganini was still a teenager in Livorno, a wealthy businessman named Livron lent him a violin, made by the master luthier Giuseppe Guarneri, for a concert. Livron was so impressed with Paganini's playing that he refused to take it back, this particular violin came to be known as Il Cannone Guarnerius.[9] On a later occasion in Parma, he won another valuable violin (also by Guarneri) after a difficult sight-reading challenge from a man named Pasini.

Of his guitars, there is little evidence remaining of his various choices of instrument, the aforementioned guitar that he gave to Berlioz is a French instrument made by one Grobert of Mirecourt. The luthier made his instrument in the style of René Lacote, a more well-known Paris-based guitar-maker, it is preserved and on display in the Musée de la Musique in Paris.

Of the guitars he owned through his life, there was an instrument by Gennaro Fabricatore that he had refused to sell even in his periods of financial stress, and was among the instruments in his possession at the time of his death. There is an unsubstantiated rumour that he also played Stauffer guitars; he may certainly have come across these in his meetings with Giuliani in Vienna.

Paganini composed his own works to play exclusively in his concerts, all of which profoundly influenced the evolution of violin technique, his 24 Caprices were likely composed in the period between 1805 and 1809, while he was in the service of the Baciocchi court. Also during this period, he composed the majority of the solo pieces, duo-sonatas, trios and quartets for the guitar, either as a solo instrument or with strings, these chamber works may have been inspired by the publication, in Lucca, of the guitar quintets of Boccherini. Many of his variations, including Le Streghe, The Carnival of Venice, and Nel cor più non mi sento, were composed, or at least first performed, before his European concert tour.

Generally speaking, Paganini's compositions were technically imaginative, and the timbre of the instrument was greatly expanded as a result of these works. Sounds of different musical instruments and animals were often imitated. One such composition was titled Il Fandango Spanolo (The Spanish Dance), which featured a series of humorous imitations of farm animals. Even more outrageous was a solo piece Duetto Amoroso, in which the sighs and groans of lovers were intimately depicted on the violin. There survives a manuscript of the Duetto, which has been recorded, the existence of the Fandango is known only through concert posters.

However, his works were criticized for lacking characteristics of true polyphonism, as pointed out by Eugène Ysaÿe.[12]Yehudi Menuhin, on the other hand, suggested that this might have been the result of his reliance on the guitar (in lieu of the piano) as an aid in composition.[9] The orchestral parts for his concertos were often polite, unadventurous, and clearly supportive of the soloist; in this, his style is consistent with that of other Italian composers such as Paisiello, Rossini and Donizetti, who were influenced by the guitar-song milieu of Naples during this period.[13]

The Israeli violinist Ivry Gitlis once referred to Paganini as a phenomenon rather than a development. Though some of the techniques frequently employed by Paganini were already present, most accomplished violinists of the time focused on intonation and bowing techniques. Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713) was considered a pioneer in transforming the violin from an ensemble instrument to a solo instrument. In the meantime, the polyphonic capability of the violin was firmly established through the Sonatas and Partitas BWV 1001–1006 of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). Other notable violinists included Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) and Giuseppe Tartini (1692–1770), who, in their compositions, reflected the increasing technical and musical demands on the violinist, although the role of the violin in music drastically changed through this period, progress in violin technique was steady but slow. Techniques requiring agility of the fingers and the bow were still considered unorthodox and discouraged by the established community of violinists.

Much of Paganini's playing (and his violin composition) was influenced by two violinists, Pietro Locatelli (1693–1746) and August Duranowski (Auguste Frédéric Durand) (1770–1834), during Paganini's study in Parma, he came across the 24 Caprices of Locatelli (entitled L'arte di nuova modulazione – Capricci enigmatici or The art of the new style – the enigmatic caprices). Published in the 1730s, they were shunned by the musical authorities for their technical innovations, and were forgotten by the musical community at large, around the same time, Durand, a former student of Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755–1824), became a celebrated violinist. He was renowned for his use of harmonics and the left hand pizzicato in his performance. Paganini was impressed by Durand's innovations and showmanship, which later also became the hallmarks of the young violin virtuoso. Paganini was instrumental in the revival and popularization of these violinistic techniques, which are now incorporated into regular compositions.

Another aspect of Paganini's violin techniques concerned his flexibility, he had exceptionally long fingers and was capable of playing three octaves across four strings in a hand span, an extraordinary feat even by today's standards. His seemingly unnatural ability may have been a result of Marfan syndrome.[14]

Nathan Milstein – Paganiniana, a set of variations based on the theme from Paganini's 24th Caprice in which the variations are based on motifs from other caprices

Cesare Pugni – "Le Carnaval de Venise" pas de deux (aka "Satanella" pas de deux). Based on airs from Paganini's Il carnevale di Venezia, op. 10. Originally choreographed by Marius Petipa as a concert piece for himself and the ballerina Amalia Ferraris. First performed at the Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre of Saint Petersburg on 24 February [O.S. 12 February] 1859. The pas de deux was later added to the ballet Satanella in 1866 where it acquired its more well-known title, the "Satanella" pas de deux.

Robert Schumann – Studies after Caprices by Paganini, Op. 3 (1832; piano); 6 Concert Studies on Caprices by Paganini, Op. 10 (1833, piano). A movement from his piano work Carnaval (Op. 9) is named for Paganini.

Johann Sedlatzek (19th-century Polish flautist known as "The Paganini of the Flute") – "Souvenir à Paganini" Grand Variations on "The Carnival of Venice"

Although no photographs of Paganini are known to exist, in 1900 Italian violin maker Giuseppe Fiorini forged the now famous fake daguerreotype of the celebrated violinist.[18] So well in fact, that even the great classical author and conversationalist Arthur M. Abell was led to believe it to be true, reprinting the image in the 22 January 1901 issue of the Musical Courier.[19]

In the Soviet 1982 miniseries Niccolo Paganini the musician is portrayed by the Armenian actor Vladimir Msryan, the series focuses on Paganini's relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. Another Soviet actor, Armen Dzhigarkhanyan, plays Paganini's fictionalized arch-rival, an insidious Jesuit official, the information in the series is generally spurious and it also plays to some of the myths and legends rampant during the musician's lifetime. One memorable scene shows Paganini's adversaries sabotaging his violin before a high-profile performance, causing all strings but one to break during the concert. An undeterred Paganini continues to perform on three, two, and finally on a single string; in actuality, Paganini himself occasionally broke strings during his performances on purpose so he could further display his virtuosity.[22] He did this by carefully filing notches into them to weaken them, so that they would break when in use.

In Don Nigro's satirical comedy Paganini (1995), the great violinist seeks vainly for his salvation, claiming that he unknowingly sold his soul to the Devil. "Variation upon variation," he cries at one point, "but which variation leads to salvation and which to damnation? Music is a question for which there is no answer." Paganini is portrayed as having killed three of his lovers and sinking repeatedly into poverty, prison, and drink. Each time he is "rescued" by the Devil who appears in different guises, returning Paganini's violin so he can continue playing; in the end, Paganini's salvation—administered by a god-like Clockmaker—turns out to be imprisonment in a large bottle where he plays his music for the amusement of the public through all eternity. "Do not pity him, my dear," the Clockmaker tells Antonia, one of Paganini's murdered wives. "He is alone with the answer for which there is no question. The saved and the damned are the same."

Philippe Borer, The Twenty-Four Caprices of Niccolò Paganini. Their significance for the history of violin playing and the music of the Romantic era, Stiftung Zentralstelle der Studentenschaft der Universität Zürich, Zurich, 1997

1.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was a French Neoclassical painter. A man profoundly respectful of the past, he assumed the role of a guardian of orthodoxy against the ascendant Romantic style represented by his nemesis. His exemplars, he explained, were the great masters which flourished in that century of glorious memory when Raphael set the eternal. I am thus a conservator of good doctrine, and not an innovator, Ingres was born in Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne, France, the first of seven children of Jean-Marie-Joseph Ingres and his wife Anne Moulet. From his father the young Ingres received early encouragement and instruction in drawing and music, and his first known drawing, the deficiency in his schooling would always remain for him a source of insecurity. In 1791, Joseph Ingres took his son to Toulouse, where the young Jean-Auguste-Dominique was enrolled in the Académie Royale de Peinture, Sculpture et Architecture, there he studied under the sculptor Jean-Pierre Vigan, the landscape painter Jean Briant, and the neoclassical painter Guillaume-Joseph Roques. Roques veneration of Raphael was an influence on the young artist. Ingres won prizes in several disciplines, such as composition, figure and antique and his musical talent was developed under the tutelage of the violinist Lejeune, and from the ages of thirteen to sixteen he played second violin in the Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse. Ingres followed his masters neoclassical example but revealed, according to David and his trip to Rome, however, was postponed until 1806, when the financially strained government finally appropriated the travel funds. Working in Paris alongside several other students of David in a provided by the state. He found inspiration in the works of Raphael, in Etruscan vase paintings, in 1802 he made his debut at the Salon with Portrait of a Woman. The following year brought a commission, when Ingres was one of five artists selected to paint full-length portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul. These were to be distributed to the towns of Liège, Antwerp, Dunkerque, Brussels. In the summer of 1806 Ingres became engaged to Marie-Anne-Julie Forestier, although he had hoped to stay in Paris long enough to witness the opening of that years Salon, in which he was to display several works, he reluctantly left for Italy just days before the opening. Chaussard condemned Ingress style as gothic and asked, How, with so much talent, a line so flawless, the answer is that he wanted to do something singular, something extraordinary. M. Ingress intention is nothing less than to make art regress by four centuries, to carry us back to its infancy, Ingres stylistic eclecticism represented a new tendency in art. As art historian Marjorie Cohn has written, At the time, Artists and critics outdid each other in their attempts to identify, interpret, and exploit what they were just beginning to perceive as historical stylistic developments. From the beginning of his career, Ingres freely borrowed from earlier art, adopting the style appropriate to his subject

2.
Republic of Genoa
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It began when Genoa became a self-governing commune within the Regnum Italicum, and ended when it was conquered by the French First Republic under Napoleon and replaced with the Ligurian Republic. Corsica was ceded to France in the Treaty of Versailles of 1768, before 1100, Genoa emerged as an independent city-state, one of a number of Italian city-states during this period. Nominally, the Holy Roman Emperor was overlord and the Bishop of Genoa was president of the city, however, actual power was wielded by a number of consuls annually elected by popular assembly. The Adorno, Campofregoso, and other merchant families all fought for power in this Republic, as the power of the consuls allowed each family faction to gain wealth. The Republic of Genoa extended over modern Liguria and Piedmont, Sardinia, Corsica, through Genoese participation on the Crusades, Genoese colonies were established in the Middle East, in the Aegean, in Sicily and Northern Africa. The collapse of the Crusader States was offset by Genoa’s alliance with the Byzantine Empire, as Venices relations with the Byzantine Empire were temporarily disrupted by the Fourth Crusade and its aftermath, Genoa was able to improve its position. Genoa took advantage of opportunity to expand into the Black Sea and Crimea. Internal feuds between the families, the Grimaldi and Fieschi, the Doria, Spinola, and others caused much disruption. However, this prosperity did not last, the Black Death was imported into Europe in 1347 from the Genoese trading post at Caffa in Crimea, on the Black Sea. Following the economic and population collapse, Genoa adopted the Venetian model of government, the wars with Venice continued, and the War of Chioggia -- where Genoa almost managed to decisively subdue Venice—ended with Venices recovery of dominance in the Adriatic. In 1390 Genoa initiated a crusade against the Barbary pirates with help from the French, though it has not been well-studied, the fifteenth century seems to have been a tumultuous time for Genoa. After a period of French domination from 1394–1409, Genoa came under rule by the Visconti of Milan, Genoa lost Sardinia to Aragon, Corsica to internal revolt and its Middle Eastern, Eastern European and Asia Minor colonies to the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, according to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World. At the time of Genoa’s peak in the 16th century, the city attracted many artists, including Rubens, Caravaggio and Van Dyck. The architect Galeazzo Alessi designed many of the city’s splendid palazzi, as did in the decades that followed by fifty years Bartolomeo Bianco, a number of Genoese Baroque and Rococo artists settled elsewhere and a number of local artists became prominent. At the time of its founding in the early 11th century the Republic of Genoa consisted of the city of Genoa, as the commerce of the city increased, so did the territory of the Republic. By 1015 all of Liguria fell under the Republic of Genoa, after the First Crusade in 1098 Genoa gained settlements in Syria. In 1261 the city of Smyrna in Asia Minor became Genoese territory, in 1255 Genoa established the colony of Caffa in Crimea

3.
Bolzaneto
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Bolzaneto is a quarter of the city of Genoa, in northwest Italy, and is part of the Municipality Valpolcevera of Genoa. Bolzaneto was once a hamlet located outside of the city limits in the Polcevera valley, today it is a suburb of Genoa, surrounded by many small industries and business firms, but offering excellent views of the city and harbor. The Bolzaneto district includes the hamlets of Morego, San Biagio, Brasile, Cremeno, Geminiano, the district has a population of 15,239 inhabitants. At the right side of valley, on Mount Figogna, is the Shrine of N. S. della Guardia, the Shrine, located in the municipality of Ceranesi can be reached by the provincial road No 52. Until the mid-19th century Bolzaneto was a village on the left side of the river Polcevera. At the beginning of the millennium the village was a simple group of houses around the church of N. S. della Neve. The town had been subject to the civil and religious authority of Brasile until 1854, when the municipal headquarters and the parish were transferred to Bolzaneto. Brasile is now a hamlet on the hill behind Bolzaneto. Near Bolzaneto, then on the side of Polcevera stream, was located the monastery of San Francesco alla Chiappetta. In the 18th century, the Republic of Genoa, allied to France, was involved in War of Austrian Succession, starting on April 11,1747 another Austrian army Siege of Genoa unsuccessfully besieged Genoa. The Austrians, coming from the North through the Apennine, again occupied the whole Valpolcevera, the prolonged occupation led to looting and destruction of the homes and villages in the region. The topography of the place had a change in the mid-19th century. It was necessary to correct and dam the frequently-flooding Polcevera river, gradually many houses were built up in the old stream-bed, thus forming the present town of Bolzaneto. In the second half of the 19th century, the area, formerly agricultural, became industrial, in 1926, together with other 18 municipalities, Bolzaneto joined the municipality of Genoa, to form the so-called Great Genoa. After the Second World War, the crisis led to the closure of Foundries Bruzzo and in a portion of these areas. In this area there is now a large shopping center. Like this, other areas, abandoned since 1960, due to the closure of factories, close to Bolzaneto there is a police barracks that in 2001 was in the international headlines, when there many protesters were imprisoned. Some police officers were accused and convicted of organised brutality on a large scale, since 2005, the quarter of Morego is home to the headquarters of the Italian Institute of Technology

4.
Elisa Bonaparte
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A younger sister of Napoleon Bonaparte, she had elder brothers Joseph and Lucien, and younger siblings Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jerome. As Princess of Lucca and Piombino, then Grand Duchess of Tuscany and their relations were sometimes strained due to her sharp tongue. Highly interested in the arts, particularly the theatre, she encouraged them in the territories over which she ruled, Élisa was born in Ajaccio, Corsica. She was christened Maria-Anna, but later adopted the nickname Élisa. In June 1784, a bursary allowed her to attend the Maison royale de Saint-Louis at Saint-Cyr, following the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly decreed the Maisons closure on 16 August 1792 as it shut down institutions associated with the aristocracy. Élisa left on 1 September with Napoleon to return to Ajaccio, around 1795, the Bonaparte family relocated to Marseille. There Élisa got to know Felice Pasquale Baciocchi, a Corsican nobleman and formerly a captain in the Royal Corse, he had been dismissed from his rank with the outbreak of the French Revolution. Élisa married Levoy in a ceremony in Marseille on 1 August 1797, followed by a religious ceremony in Mombello. He had moved there with his family in June 1797, concerned about Baciocchis reputation as a poor captain, Napoleon had some initial reservations about his sisters choice of spouse. Their religious ceremony was held on the day as her sister Paulines marriage to general Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc. In July, Baciocchi was promoted to Chef de bataillon, with the command of the citadel at Ajaccio, in 1799, the extended Bonaparte family moved to Paris. Élisa set up home at 125 rue de Miromesnil, in the Quartier du Roule, on 14 May 1800, on the death of Luciens first wife, Christine Boyer, Élisa took Luciens two daughters under her protection. She placed Charlotte, the eldest, in Madame Campans boarding school for women at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. At the start of November 1800, Lucien was reassigned from his job as Minister of the Interior to Madrid as French ambassador to the court of the King of Spain and he took Élisas husband, Félix Baciocchi, as his secretary. Élisa remained in Paris, but maintained a correspondence with her brother. Felice Baciocchi was promoted to général de brigade and later made a senator and her separation from her husband in 1805 was seen favorably by Napoleon. Felice and Élisa took the titles Prince and Princess of Piombino, Napoleon had contemptously called Lucca the dwarf republic, due to its small size in terms of territory, but despite this it was a bulwark of political, religious, and commercial independence. Most of the power over Lucca and Piombino was exercised by Élisa, with Félix taking only a minor role, very active and concerned with administering the area, Élisa was surrounded at Lucca by ministers who largely remained in place right to the end of her reign

5.
Felice Pasquale Baciocchi
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Felice Pasquale Baciocchi Levoy was born at Ajaccio into a noble, but poor, Corsican family. He was second lieutenant in the French army in 1778, lieutenant in 1788, around 5 May 1797, he married Elisa Maria Bonaparte, Napoleons younger sister, in Marseilles. Baciocchi was then promoted to colonel in 1802, to Brigadier General in 1804 and he was also made a Senator in 1804 and Imperial Prince in 1805. Thanks to his brother-in-laws conquests, Baciocchi became Prince of Lucca, but without the power or the sovereign power. He also serenely endured her infidelities, when Napoleons empire collapsed, he retired with Elisa to Trieste, then to Bologna after her death in 1820. He died in that city on April 28,1841, Baciocchi and Bonaparte had 4 children, of whom 2 survived to adulthood, Felice Napoleon Elisa Napoleona Jérôme Charles Federico Napoleon

6.
Charles Philippe Lafont
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Charles Philippe Lafont was a French violinist and composer. He has been characterized as one of the most eminent violinists of the French school, born in Paris, he received his first lessons from his mother. He later studied with Rodolphe Kreutzer and Pierre Rode and his teachers taught him the classical technique of the Viotti school, which he made more brilliant. As early as 1792 he toured Germany and other parts of Europe giving successful concerts, on the outbreak of the French Revolution, he left France, travelling through Europe. In 1808, he became chamber violinist to Tsar Alexander I of Russia, in 1815, he returned to France to become first violinist of the royal chamber musicians of Louis XVIII of France and musical accompanist to the Duchess of Berry. In 1816, he participated in a contest with Niccolò Paganini, however, the contest was held in La Scala, where the audience was more sympathetic to Paganini. Few of his compositions have survived,1837, Franz Liszt wrote a Grand Duo concertant sur la Romance de M. Lafont Le Marin, for violin and piano, S.128. He was also a singer, but he his mostly remembered as a virtuoso violinist and he died in an accident in 1839, when a carriage transporting him overturned. Material from the links below www. closelinks. com Free Family Tree Charles Philippe Lafont. The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Free scores by Charles Philippe Lafont at the International Music Score Library Project

7.
Pope Leo XII
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Pope Leo XII, born Annibale Francesco Clemente Melchiorre Girolamo Nicola Sermattei della Genga, pronunciation reigned as Pope from 28 September 1823 to his death in 1829. Leo XII was in ill health from the time of his election to the papacy to his less than 6 years later. He was a deeply conservative ruler, who enforced many controversial laws, Papal finances were also poor, even though he reduced taxes. As a result, Leo XIIs reign of the Papal States was unpopular, Della Genga was born in 1760 to a noble family from La Genga, a small town in what is now the province of Ancona, then part of the Papal States. He was born as the sixth of ten children to Flavio della Genga and he was the brother of Filippo della Genga. He was born at the Castello della Genga in the territory of Spoleto and he was educated at the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici at Rome, where he was ordained priest in 1783. In 1790 the attractive and articulate della Genga attracted favourable attention by a tactful oration commemorative of the late Emperor Joseph II and he was the uncle of Gabriele della Genga Sermattei who in the 19th century was the only nephew of a pope to be elevated to cardinal. He later received the subdiaconate in 1782 and then the diaconate in 1783, Della Genga was ordained to the priesthood on 14 June 1783 and served as an ambassador to Switzerland. In 1794 Pope Pius VI made him a canon of Saint Peters Basilica and he was consecrated in Rome in 1794 after the appointment and was despatched to Lucerne as the Apostolic Nuncio. In 1794 he was transferred to the nunciature at Cologne, at this time, he believed it would be his last post and organized the construction of tombs for his mother and for himself. It is charged, however, that during this period his finances were disordered, for example, he was suspected of having had a liaison with the wife of a soldier of the Swiss Guard, and he allegedly fathered three illegitimate children. In 1814 della Genga was chosen to carry Pope Pius VIIs congratulations to Louis XVIII of France upon his restoration, on 8 March 1816 he was created Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere and he received his red zucchetto on 11 March and his titular church on 29 April 1816. Later he was appointed as the Archpriest of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and appointed to the see of Sinigaglia. He resigned without ever having entered his archdiocese, on 9 May 1820, Pope Pius VII gave him the distinguished post of Vicar-General of His Holiness for the Diocese of Rome. Pope Pius VII died in 1823 after yet another long pontificate that spanned two decades. His election had been facilitated because he was thought to be close to death and he had even remarked about his own health to the cardinals, saying that they would be electing a dead man. It was said in the conclave that he lifted his robes to show the cardinals a pair of swollen and ulcerated legs to deter them, Leo XII was 63 at the time of his election and frequently fell victim to infirmities. He was tall and thin with a look and a melancholic countenance

8.
Rodolphe Kreutzer
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Rodolphe Kreutzer was a French violinist, teacher, conductor, and composer of forty French operas, including La mort dAbel. He is probably best known as the dedicatee of Beethovens Violin Sonata No,9, Op.47, though he never played the work. Kreutzer made the acquaintance of Beethoven in 1798, when at Vienna in the service of the French ambassador, Beethoven originally dedicated the sonata to George Bridgetower, the violinist at its first performance, but after a quarrel he revised the dedication in favour of Kreutzer. Kreutzer was born in Versailles, and was taught by his German father. He became one of the foremost violin virtuosos of his day and he was a violin professor at the Conservatoire de Paris from its foundation in 1795 until 1826. He was co-author of the Conservatoires violin method with Pierre Rode and Pierre Baillot, for a time, Kreutzer was leader of the Paris Opera, and from 1817 he conducted there too. He died in Geneva and is buried in Paris at the Père Lachaise Cemetery and he was well known for his style of bowing, his splendid tone, and the clearness of his execution. His compositions include nineteen violin concertos and forty operas and his best-known works, however, are the 42 études ou caprices which are fundamental pedagogic studies. Free scores by Rodolphe Kreutzer at the International Music Score Library Project Rodolphe Kreutzer at AllMusic Rodolphe Kreutzer at Find a Grave

Rodolphe Kreutzer
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Rodolphe Kreutzer

9.
Giovanni Battista Viotti
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Giovanni Battista Viotti was an Italian violinist whose virtuosity was famed and whose work as a composer featured a prominent violin and an appealing lyrical tunefulness. He was also a director of French and Italian opera companies in Paris, Viotti was born at Fontanetto Po in the Kingdom of Sardinia. He served at the Savoia court in Turin, 1773–80, then toured as a soloist, at first with Pugnani, before going to Paris alone, there he mounted operas of his friend Luigi Cherubini, among lesser lights. He was invited to perform in the houses of the London bon ton, then, with Britain at war with Revolutionary France, he was ordered to leave the country, under suspicion of Jacobin sympathies. Period papers hint at an intrigue in the favour of Viottis rival, Wilhelm Cramer and this may refer to Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, and to Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl of Chesterfield. But finally, Viotti left England with a ship on 8 March 1798. He lived on the estate of a rich English merchant, John Smith, between March and May 1798 he gave private lessons to the 13-year-old virtuoso Friedrich Wilhelm Pixis. He gave up giving concerts to run a business. In July 1811, he became a naturalized British citizen, after his friend, the Duke of Cambridge, in 1813, he was one of the founders of the Philharmonic Society of London. Viotti didnt perform as a soloist any more but as orchestra leader and chamber musician, after his wine business failed, he returned to Paris to work as director of the Académie Royale de Musique, from 1819 to 1821. He returned to London in November 1823 together with Margaret Chinnery, in spite of his few direct pupils, Viotti was a very influential violinist. He also taught August Duranowski, who was an influence on Niccolò Paganini, Viotti owned a violin fabricated by Antonio Stradivari in 1709 that would eventually become known as the Viotti Stradivarius. He is also thought to have commissioned the construction of at least one replica of this violin, the Viotti ex-Bruce, renamed in honour of its previous owner, was purchased by the Royal Academy of Music in September 2005. Funding was provided by HM Government in lieu of Inheritance Tax, and by the National Art Collections Fund, the instrument will be displayed in the York Gate Collections, the Academys free museum and research centre. The Viotti ex-Bruce will be heard as well as seen, the instrument will be played sparingly, under controlled circumstances, at research events. Viottis most notable compositions are his twenty-nine violin concertos, which were an influence on Ludwig van Beethoven, one in particular, No.22 in A minor, is still very frequently performed—especially by advanced student players. The other concertos are of quality but almost never heard. Viotti often wrote music for more traditional combinations such as two violins and cello

Giovanni Battista Viotti
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Giovanni Battista Viotti

10.
Ferdinando Carulli
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Ferdinando Maria Meinrado Francesco Pascale Rosario Carulli was an Italian composer for classical guitar and the author of the influential Méthode complète pour guitare ou lyre, op. 27, which contains music used by student guitarists today. He wrote a variety of works for guitar, including numerous solo and chamber works. He was a prolific writer, composing over 400 works for the instrument. Carulli was born in Naples, then part of the Kingdom of Naples and his father, Michele, was a distinguished literator, secretary to the delegate of the Neapolitan Jurisdiction. Like many of his contemporaries, he was taught musical theory by a priest, Carullis first instrument was the cello, but when he was twenty he discovered the guitar and devoted his life to the study and advancement of the guitar. As there were no professional guitar teachers in Naples at the time and his concerts in Naples were so popular that he soon began touring Europe. Around 1801 Carulli married a French woman, Marie-Josephine Boyer, and had a son with her, a few years later Carulli started to compose in Milan, where he contributed to local publications. After a highly successful Paris tour, Carulli moved there, at the time the city was known as the music-capital of the world, and he stayed there for the rest of his life. Carulli became highly successful as a teacher in Paris. It was also here that the majority of his works were published, Carulli also began to experiment with instrument making toward the end of his life and, in collaboration with the Parisian luthier René Lacôte, developed a 10-string instrument, the Decacorde. Carulli died in Paris on February 17,1841, eight days after 71st birthday, Carulli was among the most prolific composers of his time. He wrote more than four hundred works for the guitar, and countless others for various instrumental combinations and his most influential work, the Method, op. 27, published in 1810, contains pieces still widely used today in training students of the classical guitar. Along with numerous works for two guitars, works for guitar with violin or flute, and three concertos for guitar with chamber orchestra, Carulli also composed works for guitar and piano. Many of the pieces now regarded as Carullis finest were initially turned down by publishers who considered too difficult for the average recreational guitarist. It is likely many of his best works remained unpublished and are now lost. Nevertheless, several of Carullis published works point at the quality and sophistication of his concert music

Ferdinando Carulli
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Ferdinando Carulli

11.
Archduchess
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Archduke was the title borne from 1358 by the Habsburg rulers of the Archduchy of Austria, and later by all senior members of that dynasty. It denotes a rank within the former Holy Roman Empire, which was below that of Emperor and King and above that of a Grand Duke, Duke, the territory ruled by an Archduke or Archduchess was called an Archduchy. All remaining Archduchies ceased to exist in 1918, in the Carolingian Empire, the title Archduke was awarded not as rank of nobility, but as a unique honorary title to the Duke of Lotharingia. Lotharingia was eventually absorbed by East Francia, becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire rather than a fully independent Kingdom, the later extended fragmentation of both territories created two succeeding Duchies in the Low Countries, Brabant and Geldre. Both claimed archducal status but were never recognised as such by the Holy Roman Emperor. Archduke of Austria, the archducal title to re-emerge, was invented in the Privilegium Maius in the 14th century by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV refused to recognise the title, as did all the ruling dynasties of the member countries of the Empire. But Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants assumed the title of Archduke. Emperor Frederick III himself simply used the title Duke of Austria, never Archduke, the title was first granted to Fredericks younger brother, Albert VI of Austria, who used it at least from 1458. In 1477, Frederick III also granted the title of Archduke to his first cousin, Sigismund of Austria, the title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and his son Philip in the Low Countries. Archduke was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory—i. e, only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to cadets. But these junior archdukes did not thereby become sovereign hereditary rulers, occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet. From the 16th century onward, Archduke and its form, Archduchess. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire this usage was retained in the Austrian Empire, thus those members of the Habsburg family who are residents of the Republic of Austria are simply known by their first name and their surname Habsburg-Lothringen. However, members of the family who reside in other countries may or may not use the title, in accordance with laws, for example, Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, the eldest son of the last Habsburg Emperor, was an Austrian, Hungarian and German citizen. Hence, no member of the family other than the King bears the title of Archduke. The insignia of the Archduke of Lower and Upper Austria was the archducal hat, List of rulers of Austria List of Austrian consorts

Archduchess
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Archducal hat, the coronet of an archduke
Archduchess
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Bust of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria
Archduchess
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The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (right) with his family. Ferdinand, along with his wife, was assassinated at Sarajevo in 1914, which sparked World War I

12.
Apollinaire de Kontski
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Apollinaire de Kontski was a Polish violinist, teacher and minor composer. He was born in Warsaw as Apolinary Kątski, the youngest of five siblings who all used the name de Kontski professionally. Their father tried to have them all recognised as wunderkinder and he studied with his elder brother Charles de Kontski and appeared in public at the age of four, playing a concerto by Pierre Rode. He appeared in St Petersburg, France, Germany and England and he was praised by the likes of Hector Berlioz and Giacomo Meyerbeer. De Kontski was befriended by Niccolò Paganini in Paris, had lessons with him. This last claim appears to be without foundation, however, Paganini did give him a signed testimonial, apollinaire de Kontski was also prone to the same penchant for charlatanry as his brother Anton de Kontski. He also wrote pieces for violin with only one string. He also concertised with Theodor Leschetizky, Anton Rubinstein and Alexander Dargomyzhsky and he founded a string quartet, with which ensemble his pianist daughter Wanda played throughout Poland and Russia. In 1853 he was appointed violinist to the Tsar of Russia, in 1861 he became the inaugural Director of the revived Institute of Music. On one occasion he introduced the violinist Leopold Auer to Ignacy Jan Paderewski, the then unknown young pianist was chosen to accompany Auer at a recital at the Institute. His students included Stanisław Barcewicz, Zygmunt Noskowski, Stanisław Taborowski, in 1878 he performed at the Paris International Exhibition along with Henryk Wieniawski. He died in his city in 1879, aged 53

13.
Last rites
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The last rites, in Christianity, are the last prayers and ministrations given to many Catholics when possible shortly before death. The last rites go by names and include various practices in different Catholic traditions. They may be administered to those awaiting execution, mortally injured, but last rites are also known in other religions. The ministration known as the last rites in the Catholic Church does not constitute a distinct sacrament in itself and it is rather a set of sacraments given to people who are perceived to be near death. These are the sacraments of Anointing of the Sick, Penance, if all three are administered immediately one after another, the normal order of administration is, first Penance, then Anointing, then Viaticum. The Eucharist in this form is the only sacrament essentially associated with dying, accordingly, the celebration of the Eucharist as Viaticum is the sacrament proper to the dying Christian. In the Roman Rituals Pastoral Care of the Sick, Rites of Anointing and Viaticum, Viaticum is the only sacrament dealt with in Part II, Pastoral Care of the Dying. A final chapter provides Rites for Exceptional Circumstances, namely, the Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum, Rite for Emergencies, the last of these concerns the administration of Baptism and Confirmation to those who have not received these sacraments. In addition, the priest has authority to bestow a blessing in the name of the Pope on the dying person, in case of an individual awaiting execution, the person would receive Confession and Viaticum. Without having to fear death by illness, the condemned cannot receive the Anointing of the Sick, in the Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Rite of Constantinople, the last rites consist of the Sacred Mysteries of Confession and the reception of Holy Communion. Following these sacraments, when a person dies, there are a series of known as The Office at the Parting of the Soul From the Body. This consists of a blessing by the priest, the usual beginning, then a Canon to the Theotokos is chanted, entitled, On behalf of a man whose soul is departing, and who cannot speak. This is an elongated poem speaking in the person of the one who is dying, asking for forgiveness of sin, the mercy of God, the rite is concluded by three prayers said by the priest, the last one being said at the departure of the soul. There is a rite known as The Office at the Parting of the Soul from the Body When a Man has Suffered for a Long Time. The outline of this rite is the same as above, except that Psalm 70 and Psalm 143 precede Psalm 50, and the words of the canon, as soon as the person has died the priest begins The Office After the Departure of the Soul From the Body. There is a form of Holy Unction to be performed for a person in imminent danger of death. In Islam, specific rites are also followed before, during and after the Islamic funeral, Part of the Islamic funeral ritual is the funeral prayer Salat al-Janazah

Last rites
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Administering the last rites (Dutch School, c. 1600).
Last rites
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A Roman Catholic chaplain, Lieutenant Commander Joseph T. O'Callahan, administering the last rites to an injured crewman aboard USS Franklin, after the ship was set afire by a Japanese air attack, 19 March 1945.
Last rites
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Russian Orthodox priest administering the last rites to a soldier on the field of battle.

14.
Hector Berlioz
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Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830

15.
Matilde di Shabran
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The opera was first performed in Rome at the Teatro Apollo,24 February 1821 conducted by the violinist Niccolo Paganini. The premiere was followed by a brawl between Rossinis admirers and his detractors. Three authentic versions of Matilde di Shabran exist and these are, the Rome version, the Naples version, and the Vienna version. It is unlikely that Rossini participated directly in the 15 October 1821 performance that took place in Paris, after the mixed reception at the premiere, performances continued at Teatro Apollo until the end of the season, and Matilde di Shabran went the rounds of other Italian cities. The opera appears to have been popular, with presentations in Europe, however, apart from an 1892 staging in Florence, it was not staged again until 1974 in Genoa. This 1974 performance used the Roman version, the Roman version was also used in a performance of Matilde di Shabran as an oratorio in Paris in 1981. A1998 performance at the Rossini in Wildbad Belcanto Opera Festival has used the Viennese version and he and Ginardo confirm that the ferocious Corradino will have no hesitation in carrying out these threats, and furthermore he has a particular hatred of women. Ginardo asks Udolfo to check that Corradinos prisoners are not being ill-treated, except that he himself will visit the most recent arrival, Edoardo, the wandering poet Isidoro arrives with his guitar at the castle, tired, hungry and thirsty, having travelled all the way from Naples. Seeing the castle, he hopes that his luck will change, but, but he accidentally runs into Ginardo, who tells him that it is too late. Corradino, armed and surrounded by guards, makes his appearance and demands to know who Isidoro is, Isidoro tries to curry favour with Corradino by offering to serenade his ladies, but this enrages the tyrant further. He is about to kill the poet when Aliprando intervenes, Corradino relents, but Isidoro is marched off to the dungeons by Ginardo. Aliprando tells Corradino that Matilde, whose father, Shabran, has killed in battle, is approaching the castle. With his dying breath, Shabran commended her to Corradinos care, Corradino, who respected Shabran, agrees to accommodate Matilde in fine apartments, but wishes her to be kept out of his sight unless he summons her. Ginardo returns, telling Corradino that Edoardo is weeping and may be repentant, but when he brings the chained prisoner to Corradino, it is clear that Edoardo remains defiant. Corradino demands that he acknowledge him as the victor over his father, Edoardo refuses, but Corradino has his chains removed and will give him the run of the castle if he promises not to escape. Ginardo reports that Aliprando and Matilde are approaching the castle, Corradino vows to find Matilde a husband and supply her with a dowry, but will see her as little as possible. Ginardo, alone, muses that a heart of iron may not be enough to save his master from Cupids darts, scene 2, A magnificent gallery in the castle Matilde tells Aliprando that Corradino will yield to her. The physician is not so sure, but he admires her spirit and tells her that Corradino, despite his warlike demeanour, maybe his dislike of women can be overcome

16.
Harold en Italie
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Harold en Italie, Symphonie en quatre parties avec un alto principal, Op.16, is Hector Berliozs second symphony, written in 1834. Niccolò Paganini encouraged Berlioz to write Harold en Italie, the two first met after a concert of Berlioz’s works conducted by Narcisse Girard on 22 December 1833, three years after the premiere of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique. Paganini had acquired a superb viola, a Stradivarius—But I have no suitable music, would you like to write a solo for viola. You are the only one I can trust for this task, Berlioz began by writing a solo for viola, but one which involved the orchestra in such a way as not to reduce the effectiveness of the orchestral contribution. When Paganini saw the sketch of the movement, with all the rests in the viola part, he told Berlioz it would not do. They then parted, with Paganini disappointed, Harold en Italie is a four-movement work featuring an extensive part for solo viola. Lord Byrons poem Childe Harolds Pilgrimage inspired the mood of Harold, Berlioz wrote, My intention was to write a series of orchestral scenes, in which the solo viola would be involved as a more or less active participant while retaining its own character. By placing it among the poetic memories formed from my wanderings in the Abruzzi and that he had recycled some of the material from his discarded concert overture, Rob Roy, went unmentioned. there is no trace in Berliozs music of any of the famous passages of Childe Harold. The first movement refers to the scenes that Harold, the melancholic character, in the second movement, Harold accompanies a group of pilgrims. The third movement involves a scene, someone plays a serenade for his mistress. In the fourth movement, spiritually tired and depressed, Harold seeks comfort among wild and dangerous company, perhaps in a tavern. Jacques Barzun reminds us that The brigand of Berlioz’s time is the avenger of social injustice, the rebel against the City, throughout the symphony, the viola represents Harolds character. It began Ha. ha. ha. – haro. haro, Harold. —a cheeky touch that Berlioz recalled years later in his Memoirs. Harold in Italy was premiered on 23 November 1834 with the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, Chrétien Urhan playing the viola part, Narcisse Girard conducting. Even though the second movement March of the Pilgrims received an encore, a few days later he sent Berlioz a letter of congratulations, enclosing a bank draft for 20,000 francs. Franz Liszt prepared a piano transcription of the work in 1836, the piece was used in Terrence Malicks 2013 film To The Wonder, starring Ben Affleck and Olga Kurylenko. The film has several references to the compositions content and history. Ch.45 Berlioz website, Harold in Italy Stolba, K. Marie, the Development of Western Music, A History

Harold en Italie

17.
Ludwig van Beethoven
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Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts

18.
List of Stradivarius instruments
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This is a list of Stradivarius instruments made by members of the house of Antonio Stradivari. There are thirteen known extant Stradivari violas, Antonio Stradivari built between 70 and 80 cellos in his lifetime, of which 63 are extant. Five complete guitars by Stradivari exist, and a few fragments of others—including the neck of a sixth guitar and these guitars have ten strings, which was typical of the era. The Sabionari guitar by Antonio Stradivari, currently the only playable Stradivari guitar, is contemporary to the early painted violins “Sunrise”, at the beginning of the XIX century, like many other baroque guitars, it had been redesigned to follow the instrumental practice. Recently it was restored by Lorenzo Frignani to the original configuration with five double strings. The Sabionari Stradivari is owned by a private collector The only surviving Stradivarius harp is the arpetta, owned by San Pietro a Maiella Music Conservatory in Naples, there are two known extant Stradivari mandolins. The Cutler-Challen Choral Mandolino of 1680 is in the collection of the National Music Museum at the University of South Dakota in Vermillion,1706, is owned by private collector Charles Beare of London. Known as Mandolino Coristo, it has eight strings, the Rawlins Gallery violin bow, NMM4882, is attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari, Cremona, ca. This is one of two bows attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari

19.
Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume
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Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume was a French luthier and winner of many awards. He made over 3,000 instruments and was a businessman, Vuillaume was born in Mirecourt, where his father and grandfather were luthiers. Vuillaume moved to Paris in 1818 to work for François Chanot, in 1821, he joined the workshop of Simon Lété, François-Louis Piques son-in-law, at Rue Pavée St. Sauveur. He became his partner and in 1825 settled in the Rue Croix des Petits-Champs under the name of Lété et Vuillaume and his first labels are dated 1823. In 1827, at the height of the Neo-Gothic period, he started to make imitations of old instruments, in 1827, he won a silver medal at the Paris Universal Exhibition, and in 1828, he started his own business at 46 Rue Croix des Petits-Champs. His workshop became the most important in Paris and within twenty years, a major factor in his success was his 1855 purchase of 144 instruments made by the Italian masters for 80,000 francs, from the heirs of Luigi Tarisio, an Italian tradesman. These included the Messiah Stradivarius and 24 other Stradivari, in 1858, in order to avoid Paris customs duty on wood imports, he moved to Rue Pierre Demours near the Ternes, outside Paris. As an innovator, he developed new instruments and mechanisms, most notably a large viola which he called a contralto, and the three-string Octobass. He also created the steel bow, and the self-rehairing bow. For the latter, the hair purchased in prepared hanks could be inserted by the player in the time it takes to change a string, the frog itself was fixed to the stick, and the balance of the bow thus remained constant when the hair stretched with use. The bows are stamped, often rather faintly, either vuillaume à paris or j. b. vuillaume, many of the great bow makers of the 19th century collaborated with his workshop. Vuillaume was a violin maker and restorer, and a tradesman who traveled all of Europe in search of instruments. Due to this fact, most instruments by the great Italian violin makers passed through his workshop, Vuillaume then made accurate measurements of their dimensions and made copies of them. He was able to recognize the master instrument only upon hearing subtle differences in tone during playing, the copy violin was eventually passed on to Paganinis only student, Camillo Sivori. Sivori owned great violins by Nicolò Amati, Stradivari, and Bergonzi, when making these copies, Vuillaume always remained faithful to the essential qualities of the instruments he imitated – their thickness, the choice of the woods, and the shape of the arching. The only differences, always the result of a decision, were the colour of the varnish. A few others were named after important biblical characters The Evangelists and Millant, in his book on Vuillaume. A rare violin by Vuillaume showcases inlaid ebony fleur-de-lys designs and is one of the last instruments to come out of Vuillaumes workshop, made a year before his death

20.
Carlo Bergonzi (luthier)
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Carlo Bergonzi was an Italian luthier who apprenticed with Hieronymus Amati, collaborated with Joseph Guarneri, and is considered the greatest pupil of Antonio Stradivari. Bergonzi is the first and most noted member of the Bergonzi family, an group of luthiers from Cremona, Italy. Bergonzis parents lived next door to Stradivari in the Piazza San Domenico in Cremona, Bergonzi apprenticed under Stradivari and eventually was given all of Stradivari’s repair business. Since his repair services were in demand, Bergonzi was unable to devote the time to producing many of his own instruments. Bergonzi violin designs were based on the Stradivari and Guarneri templates, Bergonzi labels vary, but typically record date, name, and location, In 1740, he created one of his finest violins, the Kreisler Bergonzi, which was subsequently named after violinist Fritz Kreisler. At one time it was owned by violinist Itzhak Perlman. Both Kreisler and Perlman performed and recorded with it and it is known that many instruments that bear his label are inauthentic. A cello once owned by Pablo Casals was for years thought to be a Bergonzi because of the label it bore indicated. It was later found to have actually made by Matteo Goffriller. In 1881 a sensational case was held in London over claims that the well-known luthier Georges Chanot III had given a fake Bergonzi label to a violin. Michele Angelo, eldest Son of Carlo I, Zosimo, younger Son of Carlo I. Younger son of Zosimo Nicola eldest son of Zosimo Source, Cowling, archived from the original on 2007-11-22. Dmitry Gindin, The Late Cremonese Violin Makers Edizioni Novecento,2002

21.
Mirecourt
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Mirecourt is a commune in the Vosges department in Grand Est in northeastern France. Mirecourt is known for lace-making and the manufacture of musical instruments, Mirecourt is the administrative capital of a canton positioned in the Xantois district at the heart of the Vosges plain, at the confluence of the River Madon with the Arol Valley. Most of the town is out on the west side of the Madon on a succession of levels. Visitors are attracted by the richness of the architecture and by the natural advantages of the site. Mirecourt is also at the heart of a crossing,24 kilometres from Vittel,35 kilometres from Épinal to the east by southeast,40 kilometres from Neufchâteau and 48 kilometres from Nancy. For much of the twentieth century Mirecourt was a staging post on the RN66, an unusual feature of Mirecourt is the extent to which the local economy continues to be underpinned by the same skilled crafts that have supported the local community for centuries. Both musical instrument and lace making bring significant amounts of wealth, mirecourts tradition of luthierie seems to date back to the end of the sixteenth century and the travels of the Dukes of Lorraine and their retinues to Italy. By 1925 the craft was organised into 18 workshops and 4 factories employing 680 workers, the economic and political hardships of the mid-twentieth century coincided with the disappearance of the workshops. However, the creation in the 1970s at Mirecourt of the National School of Lutherie signalled a renaissance which has endured into the present century, notably, Jean-Jacques Pages has produced outstanding instruments by copying famous eighteenth century models by the likes of Stradivarius and Amati. The Gérome brothers, now retired from making guitars and mandolins, have had their work endorsed by Georges Brassens who has purchased one of their guitars, the industry is celebrated by the presence in Mirecourt of a municipal Lutherie Museum. Lace making is believed to have introduced to Lorraine only in the sixteenth century. The project was a success with daughters of rich families. Nevertheless, by the middle of the twentieth century lace had fallen out of favour and it has nevertheless survived, and today, supported by 140 participants, the Mirecourt lace business has recovered some of its international reputation. Lace making courses and permanent exhibitions of the remain a feature of the town. The Vosges psychiatric hospital remains the largest employer in the commune of Mirecourt, the communes territory also contains the Mirecourt-Epinal aerodrome, which is managed by the departmental Chamber of Commerce. Mirecourt was founded during the first millennium, mercuri Curtis was dedicated by the Romans to the cult of the god Mercury. Early on, the town was part of the property of the Counts of Toul, the first surviving written record of Mirecourt dates from 960. This is the text of a made by a man called Urson who transferred his domain of Mirecourt to the Abbey of Bouxières-aux-Dames

Mirecourt
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Mirecourt

22.
Joshua Bell
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Joshua David Bell is an American violinist and conductor. Bell was born in Bloomington, Indiana, United States and his mother, Shirley, was a therapist. His father, Alan P. Bell, was a psychologist, Professor Emeritus of Indiana University, in Bloomington, and his father is of Scottish descent, and his mother is Jewish. Bell told The Jewish Journal, I identify myself as being Jewish and his parents got a scaled-to-size violin for their then five-year-old son and started giving him lessons. Bell studied as a child first under Donna Bricht, widow of Indiana University music faculty member Walter Bricht, satisfied that the boy was living a normal life, Gingold took Bell on as his student. By age 12, Bell was serious about the instrument, thanks in part to Gingolds inspiration. At the age of 14, Bell appeared as a soloist with the Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Muti and he studied the violin at the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music and graduated from Bloomington High School North in 1984. In 1989, Bell received an Artist Diploma in Violin Performance from Indiana University and his alma mater also honored him with a Distinguished Alumni Service Award only two years after his graduation. He has been named an Indiana Living Legend and received the Indiana Governors Arts Award, Bell made his Carnegie Hall debut in 1985, at age 17, with the St. Louis Symphony. He has since performed many of the worlds major orchestras. As well as the concerto repertoire, Bell has performed new works. Nicholas Maws violin concerto is dedicated to Bell, who premiered it in 1993 and he performed the solo part on John Coriglianos Oscar-winning soundtrack for the film The Red Violin and was also featured in Ladies in Lavender. Bell made an appearance in the movie Music of the Heart, Bells instrument is a 300-year-old Stradivarius violin called the Gibson ex Huberman, which was made in 1713 during what is known as Antonio Stradivaris Golden Era. This violin had been stolen twice from the owner, Bronisław Huberman. Bell had held and played the violin, and its owner at the time, violinist Norbert Brainin, shortly thereafter, by chance, Bell came across the violin again and discovered it was about to be sold to a German industrialist to become part of a collection. According to Bells website, Bell was practically in tears, as with his previous Stradivarius violin, Bell entrusts the upkeep of the Gibson ex Huberman to expert luthier Emmanuel Gradoux-Matt. The story of the theft, return, and subsequent acquisition by Bell is told in the 2013 documentary The Return of the Violin, Bells first recording made with the Gibson ex Huberman was Romance of the Violin in 2003. Bell is a partner for the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra

23.
Yehudi Menuhin
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Yehudi Menuhin, Baron Menuhin, OM KBE was an American-born violinist and conductor who spent most of his performing career in Britain. He is widely considered one of the greatest violinists of the 20th century, Yehudi Menuhin was born in New York City to a family of Belorussian Jews. Through his father Moshe, a rabbinical student and anti-Zionist. In late 1919 Moshe and his wife Marutha became American citizens, yehudis sisters were concert pianist and human rights activist Hephzibah, and pianist, painter and poet Yaltah. Menuhins first violin instruction was at age four by Sigmund Anker, his parents had wanted Louis Persinger to teach him, Menuhin displayed exceptional talent at an early age. His first public appearance, when only seven, was as solo violinist with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra in 1923, Persinger then agreed to teach him, and accompanied him on the piano for his first few solo recordings in 1928–29. When the Menuhins went to Paris, Persinger suggested Yehudi go to his old teacher, Belgian virtuoso and he did have one lesson with Ysaÿe, but disliked his teaching method and his advanced age. Instead, he went to the Romanian composer and violinist George Enescu, under whose tutelage he made recordings with several piano accompanists and he was also a student of Adolf Busch. In 1929 he played in Berlin, under Bruno Walters baton, according to Henry A. Murray, Menuhin wrote, Actually, I was gazing in my usual state of being half absent in my own world and half in the present. I have usually been able to retire in this way, I was also thinking that my life was tied up with the instrument and would I do it justice. His first concerto recording was made in 1931, Bruchs G minor, under Sir Landon Ronald in London, between 1934 and 1936, he made the first integral recording of Johann Sebastian Bachs sonatas and partitas for solo violin, although his Sonata No. 2, in A minor, was not released until all six were transferred to CD and he and Louis Kentner gave the first performance of William Waltons Violin Sonata, in Zürich on 30 September 1949. He continued performing, and conducting, to an advanced age, Menuhin credited German philosopher Constantin Brunner with providing him with a theoretical framework within which I could fit the events and experiences of life. Menuhin made Lysy his only student, and the two toured extensively throughout the concert halls of Europe. The young protégé later established the International Menuhin Music Academy in Gstaad, Menuhin made several recordings with the German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler, who had been criticized for conducting in Germany during the Nazi era. Menuhin defended Furtwängler, noting that the conductor had helped a number of Jewish musicians to flee Nazi Germany, in 1957, he founded the Menuhin Festival Gstaad in Gstaad, Switzerland. In 1962, he established the Yehudi Menuhin School in Stoke dAbernon and he also established the music program at The Nueva School in Hillsborough, California, sometime around then. In 1965 he received a knighthood from the British monarchy

Yehudi Menuhin
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Menuhin in 1937
Yehudi Menuhin
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Yehudi Menuhin with Bruno Walter (1931). According to Henry A. Murray, Menuhin wrote: "Actually, I was gazing in my usual state of being half absent in my own world and half in the present. I have usually been able to 'retire' in this way. I was also thinking that my life was tied up with the instrument and would I do it justice?" (Yehudi Menuhin, personal communication, 31 October 1993)
Yehudi Menuhin
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Menuhin with Stéphane Grappelli taken by Allan Warren, 1976

24.
Caprice No. 24 (Paganini)
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Caprice No.24 in A minor is the final caprice of Niccolò Paganinis 24 Caprices, and a famous work for solo violin. The work, in the key of A minor, consists of a theme,11 variations, and his 24 Caprices were probably composed in 1817, while he was in the service of the Baciocchi court. It is widely considered one of the most difficult pieces ever written for the solo violin, the caprice has provided a rich seam of material for works by subsequent composers. Compositions based on it, and transcriptions of it, include, nine Variants on Paganini for Double Bass and Orchestra, also for Double Bass and Piano. Paganini in Metropolis for Clarinet and Wind Symphony, also for Clarinet and Orchestra,24,12 Variations on Paganinis Caprice No. 24, both for violin and piano, Sergei Rachmaninoff – Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op

Caprice No. 24 (Paganini)

25.
Robert Schumann
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Robert Schumann was a German composer and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, Schumann left the study of law, intending to pursue a career as a virtuoso pianist. He had been assured by his teacher Friedrich Wieck that he could become the finest pianist in Europe, Schumann then focused his musical energies on composing. Works such as Carnaval, Symphonic Studies, Kinderszenen, Kreisleriana, and his writings about music appeared mostly in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, a Leipzig-based publication which he jointly founded. In 1840, Schumann married Friedrich Wiecks daughter Clara, against the wishes of her father, following a long and acrimonious legal battle, which found in favor of Clara and Robert. Clara also composed music and had a concert career as a pianist. After a suicide attempt in 1854, Schumann was admitted to an asylum, at his own request. Diagnosed with psychotic melancholia, Schumann died two years later in 1856 without having recovered from his mental illness, Schumann was born in Zwickau, in the Kingdom of Saxony, the fifth and last child of Johanna Christiane and August Schumann. Schumann began receiving general musical and piano instruction at the age of seven from Johann Gottfried Kuntzsch, the boy immediately developed a love of music and worked at creating musical compositions himself, without the aid of Kuntzsch. Even though he often disregarded the principles of composition, he created works regarded as admirable for his age. At age 14, Schumann wrote an essay on the aesthetics of music and also contributed to a volume, edited by his father, titled Portraits of Famous Men. While still at school in Zwickau, he read the works of the German poet-philosophers Schiller and Goethe, as well as Byron and the Greek tragedians. His most powerful and permanent literary inspiration was Jean Paul, a German writer whose influence is seen in Schumanns youthful novels Juniusabende, completed in 1826, and Selene. Schumanns interest in music was sparked by seeing a performance of Ignaz Moscheles playing at Karlsbad and his father, who had encouraged the boys musical aspirations, died in 1826 when Schumann was 16. Neither his mother nor his guardian thereafter encouraged a career in music, in 1828 Schumann left school, and after a tour during which he met Heinrich Heine in Munich, he went to Leipzig to study law. In 1829 his law studies continued in Heidelberg, where he became a member of Corps Saxo-Borussia Heidelberg. During Eastertide 1830 he heard the Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, in July he wrote to his mother, My whole life has been a struggle between Poetry and Prose, or call it Music and Law. During his studies with Wieck, it has claimed that Schumann permanently injured a finger on his right hand

Robert Schumann
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Robert Schumann in an 1850 daguerreotype
Robert Schumann
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Bust of Robert Schumann in the museum of Zwickau
Robert Schumann
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House where Robert Schumann was born in 1810
Robert Schumann
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Music room of Schumann

26.
Andrew Lloyd Webber
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Andrew Lloyd Webber, Baron Lloyd-Webber is an English composer and impresario of musical theatre. Several of his musicals have run for more than a decade both in the West End and on Broadway and he has composed 13 musicals, a song cycle, a set of variations, two film scores, and a Latin Requiem Mass. In 2001 the New York Times referred to him as the most commercially successful composer in history, ranked the fifth most powerful person in British culture by The Telegraph in 2008, the lyricist Don Black stated Andrew more or less single-handedly reinvented the musical. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, is an inductee into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and his company, the Really Useful Group, is one of the largest theatre operators in London. Producers in several parts of the UK have staged productions, including national tours, Lloyd Webber is also the president of the Arts Educational Schools London, a performing arts school located in Chiswick, West London. He is involved in a number of activities, including the Elton John AIDS Foundation, Nordoff Robbins, Prostate Cancer UK. His younger brother, Julian Lloyd Webber, is a solo cellist. Lloyd Webber started writing his own music at a young age and he also put on productions with Julian and his Aunt Viola in his toy theatre. Later, he would be the owner of a number of West End theatres and his aunt Viola, an actress, took him to see many of her shows and through the stage door into the world of the theatre. He also had set music to Old Possums Book of Practical Cats at the age of 15. Lloyd Webbers first collaboration with lyricist Tim Rice was The Likes of Us, although composed in 1965, it was not publicly performed until 2005, when a production was staged at Lloyd Webbers Sydmonton Festival. In 2008, amateur rights were released by the National Operatic and Dramatic Association in association with the Really Useful Group, the first amateur performance was by a childrens theatre group in Cornwall called Kidz R Us. In this respect, it is different from the composers later work, which tends to be either predominantly or wholly through-composed. Joseph began life as a cantata that gained some recognition on its second staging with a favourable review in The Times. For its subsequent performances, Rice and Lloyd Webber revised the show and this culminated in a two-hour-long production being staged in the West End on the back of the success of Jesus Christ Superstar. In 1969 Rice and Lloyd Webber wrote a song for the Eurovision Song Contest called Try It and See, with rewritten lyrics it became King Herods Song in their third musical, Jesus Christ Superstar. The planned follow-up to Jesus Christ Superstar was a comedy based on the Jeeves. Tim Rice was uncertain about this venture, partly because of his concern that he not be able to do justice to the novels that he

27.
Arcangelo Corelli
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Arcangelo Corelli was an Italian violinist and composer of the Baroque era. His music was key in the development of the genres of sonata and concerto, in establishing the preeminence of the violin. Baptismal records indicate that Corelli was born on 17 February 1653 in the small Romagna town of Fusignano, then in the diocese of Ferrara and his family were land-owners who had lived in Fusignano since 1506. Although apparently prosperous, they were almost certainly not of the nobility, Corellis father, from whom he took the name Arcangelo, died five weeks before the composers birth. Consequently, he was raised by his mother, Santa, alongside four elder siblings, the wealth of anecdotes and legends attached to Corelli contrast sharply with the paucity of reliable contemporary evidence documenting events in his life. This gap is especially pronounced for his years, including his musical education. A major centre of culture of the time, Bologna had a flourishing school of violinists associated with Ercole Gaibara and his pupils, Giovanni Benvenuti. Reports by later sources link Corellis musical studies with several master violinists, including Benvenuti, Brugnoli, Bartolomeo Laurenti, although historically plausible, these accounts remain largely unconfirmed, as does the claim that the papal contralto Matteo Simonelli first taught him composition. A remark Corelli later made to a patron suggests that his education focused mainly on the violin. Chronicles of the Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna indicate that Corelli was accepted as a member by 1670, the credibility of this attribution has been disputed. Although the nickname Il Bolognese appears on the title-pages of Corellis first three published sets of works, the duration of his stay in Bologna remains unclear, anecdotes of trips outside Italy to France, Germany and Spain lack any contemporary evidence. In August 1676, he was playing second violin to the renowned Carlo Mannelli at San Luigi dei Francesi. In 1687 Corelli led the performances of music for Queen Christina of Sweden. He was also a favorite of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, grandnephew of another Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, from 1689 to 1690 he was in Modena. The Duke of Modena was generous to him, in 1708 he returned to Rome, living in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. His visit to Naples, at the invitation of the king and it has been said that the paths of all of the famous violinist-composers of 18th-century Italy led to Arcangelo Corelli, who was their iconic point of reference. However, Corelli used only a portion of his instruments capabilities. This may be seen from his writings, the parts for violin very rarely proceed above D on the highest string, sometimes reaching the E in fourth position on the highest string

Arcangelo Corelli
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Arcangelo Corelli
Arcangelo Corelli

28.
Sonatas and partitas for solo violin (Bach)
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The sonatas and partitas for solo violin are a set of six works composed by Johann Sebastian Bach. The set consists of three sonatas da chiesa in four movements and three partitas in dance-form movements, the set was completed by 1720, but was only published in 1802 by Nikolaus Simrock in Bonn. Even after publication, it was ignored until the celebrated violinist Joseph Joachim started performing these works. Today, Bachs Sonatas and Partitas are a part of the violin repertoire. The Sei Solo – a violino senza Basso accompagnato, as Bach titled them, the pieces often served as archetypes for solo violin pieces by later generations of composers, including Eugène Ysaÿe and Béla Bartók. The surviving autograph manuscript of the sonatas and partitas was made by Bach in 1720 in Cöthen, where he was Kapellmeister. The virtuoso violinist Westhoff served as court musician in Dresden from 1674 to 1697 and in Weimar from 1699 until his death in 1705, the repertoire for solo violin was actively growing at the time, Heinrich Ignaz Franz Bibers celebrated solo passacaglia appeared c. Bachs Weimar and Cöthen periods were particularly suitable times for composition of secular music, Bachs cello and orchestral suites date from the Cöthen period, as well as the famous Brandenburg Concertos and many other well-known collections of instrumental music. So there exist in all 13 varied sonatas and partitas in the senza Basso group, in both major manuscripts the important specification is written clearly, for violin/violoncello solo, senza Basso accompagnato. Bach himself underwrote the practice of Basso Continuo as the Fundament of Music, a solo sonata for violin would naturally have the continuo players and parts implied, here Bach himself tells us that Basso Continuo does not apply. The norm was set by Corellis important solo sonatas of 1700 which may have accompanied in a variety of ways. It is not known whether these violin solos were performed during Bachs lifetime or, if they were, who the performer was. Johann Georg Pisendel and Jean-Baptiste Volumier, both talented violinists in the Dresden court, have suggested as possible performers, as was Joseph Spiess. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust, who would become part of the Bach family circle in Leipzig. According to his son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, in his youth, upon Bachs death in 1750, the original manuscript passed into the possession, possibly through his second wife Anna Magdalena, of Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach. It was inherited by the last male descendant of J. C. F. Bach, Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach, two other early manuscripts also exist. All three manuscripts are in the Berlin State Museum and have been in the possession of the Bach-Gesellschaft since 1879, the first edition was printed in 1802 by Nikolaus Simrock of Bonn. It is clear from errors in it that it was not made with reference to Bachs own manuscript, one of his students Serge Blanc collected the notes of his master Enescu regarding sonority, phrasing, tempo, fingering and expression, in a now freely distributed document

29.
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist

30.
Antonio Vivaldi
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Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was an Italian Baroque composer, virtuoso violinist, teacher and cleric. Born in Venice, he is recognized as one of the greatest Baroque composers and he composed many instrumental concertos, for the violin and a variety of other instruments, as well as sacred choral works and more than forty operas. His best-known work is a series of violin concertos known as The Four Seasons, many of his compositions were written for the female music ensemble of the Ospedale della Pietà, a home for abandoned children where Vivaldi was employed from 1703 to 1715 and from 1723 to 1740. Vivaldi also had success with expensive stagings of his operas in Venice, Mantua. After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to Vienna, however, the Emperor died soon after Vivaldis arrival, and Vivaldi himself died less than a year later in poverty. Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born in 1678 in Venice, then the capital of the Republic of Venice and he was baptized immediately after his birth at his home by the midwife, which led to a belief that his life was somehow in danger. Though not known for certain, the childs immediate baptism was most likely due either to his health or to an earthquake that shook the city that day. In the trauma of the earthquake, Vivaldis mother may have dedicated him to the priesthood, Vivaldis official church baptism took place two months later. Vivaldis parents were Giovanni Battista Vivaldi and Camilla Calicchio, as recorded in the register of San Giovanni in Bragora, Giovanni Battista, who was a barber before becoming a professional violinist, taught Antonio to play the violin and then toured Venice playing the violin with his young son. Antonio was probably taught at an age, judging by the extensive musical knowledge he had acquired by the age of 24. Giovanni Battista was one of the founders of the Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia, the president of the Sovvegno was Giovanni Legrenzi, an early Baroque composer and the maestro di cappella at St Marks Basilica. It is possible that Legrenzi gave the young Antonio his first lessons in composition, the Luxembourg scholar Walter Kolneder has discerned the influence of Legrenzis style in Vivaldis early liturgical work Laetatus sum, written in 1691 at the age of thirteen. His symptoms, strettezza di petto, have interpreted as a form of asthma. This did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, composing or taking part in musical activities, in 1693, at the age of fifteen, he began studying to become a priest. He was ordained in 1703, aged 25, and was nicknamed il Prete Rosso. Not long after his ordination, in 1704, he was given a dispensation from celebrating Mass because of his ill health, Vivaldi only said Mass as a priest a few times and appeared to have withdrawn from priestly duties, though he remained a priest. In September 1703, Vivaldi became maestro di violino at a called the Pio Ospedale della Pietà in Venice. While Vivaldi is most famous as a composer, he was regarded as an exceptional technical violinist as well, Vivaldi was only 25 when he started working at the Ospedale della Pietà

31.
Giuseppe Tartini
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Giuseppe Tartini was a Venetian Baroque composer and violinist. It appears Tartinis parents intended him to become a Franciscan friar and, in this way and he studied law at the University of Padua, where he became skilled at fencing. After his fathers death in 1710, he married Elisabetta Premazore, unfortunately, Elisabetta was a favorite of the powerful Cardinal Giorgio Cornaro, who promptly charged Tartini with abduction. Tartini fled Padua to go to the monastery of St. Francis in Assisi, while there, Tartini took up playing the violin. Legend says when Tartini heard Francesco Maria Veracinis playing in 1716, he was impressed by it, in Padua he met and befriended fellow composer and theorist Francesco Antonio Vallotti. He also owned and played the Antonio Stradivarius violin ex-Vogelweith from 1711, in 1726, Tartini started a violin school which attracted students from all over Europe. Gradually, Tartini became more interested in the theory of harmony and acoustics and his home town, Piran, now has a statue of Tartini in the square, which was the old harbour, originally Roman, named the Tartini Square. Silted up and obsolete, the port was cleared of debris, filled, One of the old stone warehouses is now the Hotel Giuseppe Tartini. His birthday is celebrated by a concert in the town cathedral. Today, Tartinis most famous work is the Devils Trill Sonata, according to a legend embroidered upon by Madame Blavatsky, Tartini was inspired to write the sonata by a dream in which the Devil appeared at the foot of his bed playing the violin. Almost all of Tartinis works are violin concerti and violin sonatas, Tartinis compositions include some sacred works such as a Miserere, composed between 1739 and 1741 at the request of Pope Clement XII, and a Stabat Mater, composed in 1769. He also composed trio sonatas and a sinfonia in A, the scholars Minos Dounias and Paul Brainard have attempted to divide Tartinis works into periods based entirely on the stylistic characteristics of the music. Sixty-two manuscripts with compositions of Tartini are housed at the Biblioteca comunale Luciano Benincasa in Ancona, luigi Dallapiccola wrote a piece called Tartiniana based on various themes by Tartini. In addition to his work as a composer, Tartini was a music theorist and he is credited with the discovery of sum and difference tones, an acoustical phenomenon of particular utility on string instruments. He published his discoveries in a treatise Trattato di musica secondo la vera scienza dellarmonia and his treatise on ornamentation was eventually translated into French— though when its influence was rapidly waning, in 1771— by a certain P. Of greater assistance to such performance was Erwin Jacobis published edition, in 1961, Jacobi published a tri-lingual edition consisting of the French, English, plus Jacobis own translation into German. Minnie Elmer analyzed these ornamented versions in her masters thesis at UC, Tartini is mentioned in Madame Blavatskys The Ensouled Violin, a short story included in the collection Nightmare Tales. Tartini, the composer and violinist of the XVIIIth century, was denounced as one who got his best inspirations from the Evil One, with whom he was, it was said

32.
Pizzicato
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Pizzicato is a playing technique that involves plucking the strings of a string instrument. The exact technique varies depending on the type of stringed instrument. On bowed string instruments it is a method of playing by plucking the strings with the fingers and this produces a very different sound from bowing, short and percussive rather than sustained. On a keyboard string instrument, such as the piano, pizzicato may be employed as one of the variety of techniques involving direct manipulation of the strings known collectively as string piano. On the guitar, it is a form of plucking. For details of technique, see palm mute. When a string is struck or plucked, as with pizzicato and this complex timbre is called inharmonicity. The inharmonicity of a string depends on its characteristics, such as tension, composition, diameter. The first recognised use of pizzicato in classical music is found in Tobias Humes Captain Humes Poeticall Musicke, wherein he instructs the viola da gamba player to use pizzicato. Another early use is found in Claudio Monteverdis Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda, later, in 1756, Leopold Mozart in his Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule instructs the player to use the index finger of the right hand. This has remained the most usual way to execute a pizzicato, the bow is held in the hand at the same time unless there is enough time to put it down and pick it up again between bowed passages. In jazz and bluegrass, and the few popular music styles which use double bass, in classical double bass playing, pizzicato are often performed with the bow being held in the hand, as such, the string is usually only plucked with a single finger. In contrast, in jazz, bluegrass, and other non-Classical styles, in classical music, however, string instruments are most usually played with the bow, and composers give specific indications to play pizzicato where required. Pieces in classical music that are played entirely pizzicato include, J. S. Bach, johann Strauss II, Neue Pizzicato Polka. 4 Benjamin Britten, the movement of the Simple Symphony Leroy Anderson. He also included pizzicato in the movement of Winter from The Four Seasons. In music notation, a composer will normally indicate the performer should use pizzicato with the abbreviation pizz, a return to bowing is indicated by the Italian term arco. If a string player has to play pizzicato for a period of time

33.
Mike Campese
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Mike Campese is an American guitarist and composer best known for being a member of the multi-platinum group Trans-Siberian Orchestra. Campese was picked over several guitarists in 2004 during the bands fourth CD, The Lost Christmas Eve, in 2008 Mike released his own rock Christmas CD, The Meaning of Christmas, which was well received. Campese is a graduate from the Musicians Institute in Hollywood. Campese was a performer at the Maxs Kansas City benefit in 2002 and shared the stage members of the Bob Dylan band. Mike performed on the Crüe Fest 2 tour, which featured Mötley Crüe, Godsmack, Drowning Pool, Theory of a Deadman, Rev Theory, mikes trio was featured on Fox 23, WXXA-TV and Sound Visions which aired across the country. Currently, Mike has been performing at the largest trade show in the world, Campese is a versatile musician, he describes his style as rock fusion and writes vocal and instrumental arrangements, electric and acoustic

Mike Campese
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Mike Campese

34.
Alfredo Casella
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Alfredo Casella was an Italian composer, pianist and conductor. Casella was born in Turin, the son of Maria and Carlo Casella and his family included many musicians, his grandfather, a friend of Paganinis, was first cello in the San Carlo Theatre in Lisbon and eventually became soloist in the Royal Chapel in Turin. Alfredos father, Carlo, was also a professional cellist, as were Carlos brothers Cesare and Gioacchino, his mother was a pianist, who gave the boy his first music lessons. During his Parisian period, Claude Debussy, Igor Stravinsky, and Manuel de Falla were acquaintances, and he was in contact with Ferruccio Busoni, Gustav Mahler, and Richard Strauss as well. His first symphony of 1905 is from time, and it is with this work that Casella made his debut as a conductor when he led the symphonys premiere in Monte Carlo in 1908. Back in Italy during World War I, he began teaching piano at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome, from 1927 to 1929 Casella was the principal conductor of the Boston Pops, where he was succeeded by Arthur Fiedler. He was one of the best-known Italian piano virtuosos of his generation and together with Arturo Bonucci and this group played to great acclaim in Europe and America. His stature as a pianist and his work with the trio gave rise to some of his compositions, including A Notte Alta, the Sonatina, Nove Pezzi. For the Trio to play on tour, he wrote the Sonata a Tre, amongst his chamber works, both Cello Sonatas are played with some frequency, as is the very beautiful late Harp Sonata, and the music for Flute and Piano. Casella also made live-recording player piano rolls for the Aeolian Duo-Art system, all of which survive today. In 1923, together with Gabriele DAnnunzio and Gian Francesco Malipiero from Venice, he founded an association to promote the spread of modern Italian music, the Corporation of the New Music. The resurrection of Vivaldis works in the 20th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of Casella, since then Vivaldis compositions have enjoyed almost universal success and the advent of historically informed performance has catapulted him to stardom once again. Casellas work on behalf of his Italian Baroque musical ancestors put him at the centre of the early 20th Century Neoclassical revival in music, members of this generation were the dominant figures in Italian music after Puccinis death in 1924, they had their counterparts in Italian literature and painting. Casella, who was passionate about painting, accumulated an important collection of art. Casellas students included Clotilde Coulombe, Stefan Bardas, Maria Curcio, Francesco Mander, Maurice Ohana, Robin Orr, Primož Ramovš, Nino Rota, Maria Tipo, Camillo Togni and he was married in Paris in 1921 to Yvonne Müller. Their granddaughter is actress Daria Nicolodi and their great-granddaughter is actress Asia Argento, prima Serie, Op.17 À la Manière de. Gozzi La Favola dOrfeo, Op.51 Chamber Opera, Libretto by C

Alfredo Casella
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Alfredo Casella

35.
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
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Johann Nepomuk Hummel was an Austrian composer and virtuoso pianist. His music reflects the transition from the Classical to the Romantic musical era, Hummel was born in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary, then a part of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy. He was named after St John of Nepomuk, at the age of eight, he was offered music lessons by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was impressed with his ability. Hummel was taught and housed by Mozart for two free of charge and made his first concert appearance at the age of nine at one of Mozarts concerts. Hummels father then took him on a European tour, arriving in London where he received instruction from Muzio Clementi and where he stayed for four years before returning to Vienna. In 1791 Joseph Haydn, who was in London at the time as young Hummel, composed a sonata in A-flat major for Hummel. When Hummel finished, Haydn reportedly thanked the man and gave him a guinea. The outbreak of the French Revolution and the following Reign of Terror caused Hummel to cancel a tour through Spain. Instead, he returned to Vienna, giving concerts along his route, upon his return to Vienna he was taught by Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Joseph Haydn, and Antonio Salieri. At about this time, young Ludwig van Beethoven arrived in Vienna and also lessons from Haydn and Albrechtsberger, thus becoming a fellow student. Beethovens arrival was said to have nearly destroyed Hummels self-confidence, though he recovered without much harm, the two mens friendship was marked by ups and downs, but developed into reconciliation and mutual respect. Hummel visited Beethoven in Vienna on several occasions with his wife Elisabeth, at Beethovens wish, Hummel improvised at the great mans memorial concert. It was at this event that he made friends with Franz Schubert, however, since both composers had died by the time of the sonatas first publication, the publishers changed the dedication to Robert Schumann, who was still active at the time. In 1804, Hummel became Konzertmeister to Prince Esterházys establishment at Eisenstadt and he remained in the service of Prince Esterházy for seven years altogether before being dismissed in May 1811 for neglecting his duties. He then returned to Vienna where, after spending two years composing, he married the opera singer Elisabeth Röckel in 1813, the following year, at her request, was spent touring Russia and the rest of Europe. One of them, Carl, became a landscape painter. During Hummels stay in Weimar he made the city into a European musical capital, inviting the best musicians of the day to visit and he brought one of the first musicians pension schemes into existence, giving benefit concert tours when the retirement fund ran low. Hummel was one of the first to agitate for musical copyright to combat intellectual piracy, in 1825, the Parisian music-publishing firm of Aristide Farrenc announced that it had acquired the French publishing rights for all future works by Hummel

36.
Fritz Kreisler
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Friedrich Fritz Kreisler was an Austrian-born violinist and composer. One of the most noted violin masters of his or any other day, like many great violinists of his generation, he produced a characteristic sound which was immediately recognizable as his own. Although it derived in many respects from the Franco-Belgian school, his style is reminiscent of the gemütlich lifestyle of pre-war Vienna. Kreisler was born in Vienna, the son of Anna and Samuel Kreisler, of Jewish heritage, he was however baptised at the age of 12. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory and in Paris, where his teachers included Anton Bruckner, Léo Delibes, Jakob Dont, Joseph Hellmesberger, Jr. Joseph Massart, and Jules Massenet. While there, he won the Premier Grand Prix de Rome gold medal at the age of 12, competing against 40 other players, all of whom were at least 20 years of age. He made his United States debut at the Steinway Hall in New York City on November 10,1888 and he then returned to Austria and applied for a position in the Vienna Philharmonic, but was turned down by the concertmaster Arnold Rosé. As a result, he left music to study medicine and he spent a brief time in the army before returning to the violin in 1899, when he gave a concert with the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Arthur Nikisch. It was this concert and a series of American tours from 1901 to 1903 that brought him real acclaim, in 1910, Kreisler gave the premiere of Sir Edward Elgars Violin Concerto, a work commissioned by and dedicated to him. He served briefly in the Austrian Army in World War I before being discharged after he was wounded. He arrived in New York on November 24,1914, and he returned to Europe in 1924, living first in Berlin, then moving to France in 1938. Shortly thereafter, at the outbreak of World War II, he settled again in the United States. He lived there for the rest of his life, giving his last public concert in 1947, on April 26,1941, he was involved in a serious traffic accident. Struck by a truck while crossing a street in New York, in his later years, he suffered from not only some hearing loss but also sight deterioration due to cataracts. Kreisler died of a condition aggravated by old age in New York City in 1962. He was interred in a mausoleum in Woodlawn Cemetery, The Bronx. Kreisler wrote a number of pieces for the violin, including solos for encores, such as Liebesleid, some of Kreislers compositions were pastiches ostensibly in the style of other composers. They were originally ascribed to earlier composers, such as Gaetano Pugnani, Giuseppe Tartini and Antonio Vivaldi, when critics complained, Kreisler replied that they had already deemed the compositions worthy, The name changes, the value remains, he said

37.
Paganini (operetta)
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Paganini is an operetta in three acts by Franz Lehár. The German libretto was by Paul Knepler and Bela Jenbach, taubers contract with the Berlin State Opera required him to be in Stockholm at the time of the Vienna premiere. The operetta was so coolly received in Vienna that the Berlin impresario, in the event, Tauber and Schwarz made it a huge success in Berlin, where it ran for three months. It was the first Lehár operetta specially written for Tauber, who had appeared in the composers Zigeunerliebe in 1920. A new production was mounted in Berlin at the Theater des Westens in April 1930, again with Tauber and Schwarz, an English version with lyrics by A. P. Herbert was presented by C. B. Cochran at the Lyceum Theatre in London in May 1937, with Tauber as Paganini and they recorded several numbers from the show for Parlophone Records. In 1934 the operetta was adapted into the German film Paganini, set in Lucca, the story concerns the love affair of Niccolò Paganini, the irresistibly charming violinist, with Élisa Bonaparte, the arts and theatre-loving younger sister of Napoleon. Schönes Italien Liebe, du Himmel auf Erden Mit den Fraun auf Du und Du Niemand liebt dich so wie ich Einmal möcht ich was Närrisches tun Gern hab ich die Fraun geküsst Deinen süssen Rosenmund. Lamb, Andrew, Paganini in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie ISBN 0-333-73432-7

38.
Cesare Pugni
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Cesare Pugni born in Genoa, was an Italian composer of ballet music, a pianist and a violinist. In his early career he composed operas, symphonies, and various forms of orchestral music. Pugni is most noted for the ballets he composed for Her Majestys Theatre in London, the majority of his ballet music was composed for the works of the ballet master Jules Perrot, who mounted nearly every one of his ballets to scores by Pugni. Cesare Pugni followed Perrot and Grisi to Russia, and remained in the capital even after Grisis departure in 1853. Pugni went on the compose for Perrots successors Arthur Saint-Léon and Marius Petipa, Cesare Pugni is the most prolific composer of ballet music, having composed close to 100 known original scores for the ballet and adapting or supplementing many other works. He composed myriad incidental dances such as divertissements and variations, many of which were added to other works. Of Pugnis original scores for the ballet, he is best known today for Ondine, ou La Naïade, La Esmeralda, Catarina, ou La Fille du Bandit, The Pharaohs Daughter, don Eutichio della Castagna, ossia La Casa disabitata. Choreography by J. Perrot and Fanny Cerrito, myrtelde, ou La Nymphe et le papillon. Zélia, or La Nymphe de Diane, rosida, ou Les Mines de Syracuse. Choreography by A. Saint-Léon and F. Cerrito, Catarina, or La Fille du Bandit. The music for the second and third tableaux contained passages based on Félicien Davids 1844 symphonic ode Le désert, théa, ou Le Fée aux fleurs. Orinthia, ou Le Camp des Amazones, Music composed jointly with Giovanni Bajetti. Fiorita et la Reine des elfrides, Les Plaisirs de lhiver, ou Les Patineurs. Music by Michael Costa, adapted by Pugni, Choreography by A. Saint-Léon, with Pugni adapting his original score. Choreography by A. Saint-Léon, with Pugni adapting Felis and Saint-Léons score, Choreography by Marius Petipa and Lucien Petipa. Pugni utilized a suite of traditional Neapolitan airs called Passatempi Musicali for this score, La Guerre des femmes, ou Les Amazons du neuvième siecle. Choreography by J. Perrot, M. Petipa and J. Petipa, Choreography by J. Perrot and M. Petipa. Music by Pugni and Théodore Labarre, Pugni utilized a suite of traditional Neapolitan airs called Passatempi Musicali for this score, as well as the Chasse aux Hirondelles, all originally written by the composer Maximilien Graziani

Cesare Pugni
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Maestro Cesare Pugni. St. Petersburg, circa 1865

39.
Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre
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The Saint Petersburg Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre was a theatre in Saint Petersburg. It was built in 1783 to Antonio Rinaldis Neoclassical design as the Kamenny Theatre and it was rebuilt in 1802 according to the designs of the architect Thomas de Thomon and renamed the Bolshoi, but burned down in 1811. The building was restored in 1818, and modified between 1826 and 1836 by Alberto Cavos to accommodate more modern machinery, until 1886, the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre was principal theatre for both the Imperial Ballet and the Imperial Russian Opera. It was there that the first Russian operas — Glinkas A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan, many of the great 19th century ballets of Marius Petipa and Arthur Saint-Léon were given for the first time on the stage of the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre. The Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre was then torn down to place for the Saint Petersburg Conservatory. The only surviving sections of the theatre are the grand staircase and landing. Operas A Life for the Tsar — Mikhail Glinka Ruslan and Lyudmila — Mikhail Glinka La forza del destino — Giuseppe Verdi Ballets The Pharaohs Daughter — chor, cesare Pugni The Beauty of Lebanon or The Mountain Spirit chor. by Marius Petipa mus. The Little Humpbacked Horse — chor, cesare Pugni La Bayadère — chor

40.
Michael Romeo
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Michael James Romeo is an American guitarist and a founding member of the progressive metal group Symphony X. He is one of two members to appear on every Symphony X release, Romeo was ranked #91 out of 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time by Guitar World. Michael Romeos introduction to formal training began with piano lessons when he was 10 years old. However, it wasnt until after hearing his first Kiss album that he considered switching to the guitar. He ended up purchasing an acoustic guitar at a garage sale. Romeos own influence has rubbed off on younger players, including Dragonforces Herman Li, Michael also loves Star Wars, as shown in his performance of Star Wars Suite on the album released by the bands fan club, Rarities and Demos. He also says his favorite character is Darth Vader, since 2005, Romeo has taken advantage of a new custom model, Caparison Dellinger II – Michael Romeo Custom, which he used to record the Symphony X album Paradise Lost. Throughout his career, Romeo has also used ESP M-II Deluxe guitars with EMG Active pickups and Fender Stratocasters to perform, in terms of amplification in the studio, he uses an ENGL Fireball as well as a recently acquired Engl SE E670 that is used strictly for recording purposes. Live, Romeo makes use of both the Engl Fireball and Powerball models, recent photographs that have been made available at Symphony X Official Website show him also using other amplifiers from brands such as Marshall and Madison. He has also known to use a Mesa Boogie Triaxis. In terms of effects, Romeo pairs his various amplifiers with a TC Electronic G System, in 1994, he released a solo album entitled The Dark Chapter. The album was reissued with bonus tracks by Song Haus Music in the USA in 1999, Romeo also did the guitar work for Vitalij Kuprij on his Piano Overture song in his album Forward and Beyond. Romeo also played a guest solo on the Eidolon album The Parallel Otherworld on the song Arcturus #9, Romeo also did some orchestration work on 3 songs of Steve Walshs solo album Shadowman. In 2012, Romeo recorded some solos and guitar work for the album of progressive rock project Flaud Logic. He also made a guest appearance on the new Pat Gesualdo Iceland album

Michael Romeo
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Romeo playing live in Novara, Italy in 2007

41.
Carnaval (Schumann)
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Carnaval, Op.9, is a work by Robert Schumann for piano solo, written in 1834–1835, and subtitled Scènes mignonnes sur quatre notes. It consists of 21 short pieces representing masked revelers at Carnival, Schumann gives musical expression to himself, his friends and colleagues, and characters from improvised Italian comedy. The four notes are encoded puzzles, and Schumann predicted that deciphering my masked ball will be a game for you. The 21 pieces are connected by a recurring motif, in each section of Carnaval there appears one or both of two series of musical notes. These are musical cryptograms, as follows, A, E-flat, C, B – signified in German as A-S-C-H A-flat, C, B – signified in German as As-C-H E-flat, C, B, A – signified in German as S-C-H-A. The first two spell the German name for the town of Asch, in which Schumanns then fiancée, the sequence of letters also appears in the German word Fasching, meaning carnival. In addition, Asch is German for Ash, as in Ash Wednesday, lastly, it encodes a version of the composers name, Robert Alexander Schumann. The third series, S-C-H-A, encodes the composers name again with the letters appearing in Schumann. Carnaval had its origin in a set of variations on a Sehnsuchtswalzer by Franz Schubert, the catalyst for writing the variations may have been a work for piano and orchestra by Schumanns close friend Ludwig Schuncke, a set of variations on the same Schubert theme. The work was never completed, however, and Schuncke died in December 1834, pianist Andreas Boyde has since reconstructed the original set of Variations from Schumanns manuscript, premiered this reconstruction in New York and recorded it for Athene Records. Romanian pianist Herbert Schuch has also recorded this reconstruction, with his own editorial emendations, in Carnaval, Schumann goes further musically than in Papillons, Op.2, for he himself conceives the story for which it serves as a musical illustration. Each piece has a title, and the work as a whole is a representation of an elaborate. Carnaval remains famous for its resplendent chordal passages and its use of rhythmic displacement, Schumann dedicated the work to the violinist Karol Lipiński. Both Schumann and his wife Clara considered his solo piano works too difficult for the general public, today, despite its immense technical and emotional difficulty, Carnaval is one of Schumanns most often performed works. Heinz Dill has mentioned Schumanns use of quotes and codes in this work. Eric Sams has discussed literary allusions in the work, such as to novels of Jean Paul, the work has 22 sections,20 of which are numbered. Schumann did not number Sphinxes or Intermezzo, Paganini, Préambule The Préambule is one of the few pieces in the set not explicitly organized around the A-S-C-H idea. It was taken from the incomplete Variations on a Theme of Schubert, the theme was Schuberts Sehnsuchtswalzer, Op. 9/2, D.365

42.
Johann Sedlatzek
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Johann Jean Sedlatzek was a Silesian flautist born in Głogówek, Kingdom of Prussia, into a family of tailors, often referred to as The Niccolò Paganini of Flute. Sedlatzek served in the Royal Court Orchestra of Count Franz von Oppersdorff of Oberglogau and he also gave several successful concert tours through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, and England as featured performer. His Paris tour of 1826 included performances with the Italian Soprano Giuditta Pasta, with whom he would again, along with other prominent musicians. 9 in Viennas Kärntnertortheater in 1824 under the direction of Beethoven himself, Oppersdorff valued music so highly, in fact, that he would not hire any help who could not play a musical instrument. The young tailor and budding flautist suited von Oppersdorffs requirements and soon was invited to study music formally with the musicians of the Royal Court of OberGlogau and he then traveled to Brno, Moravia and later to Vienna, Austria repeating this occupational strategy in each new city. Johann Sedlatzek was finally able to put aside the family trade, a joint concert with the well-established Viennese musician Raphael Dressler in 1816 at Karntnertortheater, where Dressler was principal flautist, brought Johann to wider attention. Sedlatzek joined the Vienna Society of Musicians in 1817, German author of Faust and other notable works, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, mentions in his diaries hearing Johann Sedlaczek perform on more than one occasion in Austria during this period. Sedlatzeks early years in Vienna culminated in the premier of Beethovens 9th Symphony on 7 May 1824 at Karntnertortheater, certain passages of Beethovens score required the use of the particular Viennese flute which Sedlatzek was known to play with exceptional virtuosity. Only the Viennese flute was capable of playing as low as G, among the violinists performing that evening were Joseph Bohm, Leopold Jansa, and Joseph Mayseder. In the wind section, playing along with Sedlatzek, were Karl Scholl, Joseph Friedlowsky, Wenzell Sedlak, Thobold Hurth, and Edward Levy. Beethoven, too hard of hearing at this point in his life to conduct, directed the presentation while Ignaz Schuppanzigh led the orchestra, after his March 1818 performance with Carl Czerny in Vienna, Sedlatzek embarked on his first European tour as a featured performer. The first stop was in Zurich, where he performed with the pianist Johann Peter Pixiusem, in the summer of 1820, Sedlatzek performed in Prague. The Wiener Allgemeine Theaterzeitung wrote of this performance, Sedlatzek captivated the audience with his variations on God Save the King, Sedlatzek gave two shows in Berlin in July 1821. The first was to accompany Carl Maria von Weber, the second was as the featured player. Back in Vienna,1 August 1821, Sedlatzek performed with cellist Vincez Schuster, Sedlatzek and Schuster performed together portions of Schone Minke, op. And, as a bonus, at the end of the show, Johann Sedlatzek performed publicly, for the first time, the Gizetta di Miliano said Sedlatzek captured his audience, and also noted that even with Paganini performing in town, Sedlatzeks Halls were bursting at the seams. In a letter to his parents, Johann wrote of his Italian tour and his stay in Sicily, Once again, as in every city, I have meals each day with General Field Marshal, Graf von Wallmoden, and in the evening, I go to parties. My first show was a one, but the second was unfortunately prevented by the terrible earthquake

Johann Sedlatzek
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A 19th-century print depicting the first performance of the Ninth Symphony in Vienna. Beethoven stands in the center of the orchestra behind the conductor. Sedlatzek is the principal Flautist.
Johann Sedlatzek
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Pope Pius VII for whom Sedlatzek performed in Rome during his tour of Italy in 1823.
Johann Sedlatzek
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19th-Century Vienna, where Johann Sedlatzek spent much of his musical career.
Johann Sedlatzek
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Beethoven, to whom Johann Sedlatzek was a friend and collaborator.

43.
Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini
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The Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op.43, is a concertante work written by Sergei Rachmaninoff. It is written for piano and symphony orchestra, closely resembling a piano concerto. The work was written at his Villa, the Villa Senar, in Switzerland, according to the score, Rachmaninoff, Stokowski, and the Philadelphia Orchestra made the first recording, on December 24,1934, at RCA Victors Trinity Church Studio in Camden, New Jersey. The piece is a set of 24 variations on the twenty-fourth and last of Niccolò Paganinis Caprices for solo violin, the whole composition would take about 22–24 minutes to perform. All variations are in A minor except where noted, after a brief introduction, the first variation is played before the theme. Paganinis theme is stated on strings with the piano picking out salient notes, Rachmaninoff likely got the idea of having a variation before the theme from the finale of Beethovens Eroica symphony. Variations II to VI recombine elements of the theme, the pauses and rhetorical flourishes for the piano in variation VI herald a change of tempo and tone. The piece is one of several by Rachmaninoff to quote the Dies Irae plainchant melody, the slow eighteenth variation is by far the best known, and it is often included on classical music compilations without the rest of the work. It is based on an inversion of the melody of Paganinis theme, in other words, the A minor Paganini theme is literally played upside down in D♭ major, with a few other changes. Rachmaninoff himself recognized the appeal of this variation, saying This one, is for my agent, upon the suggestion of his friend Benno Moiseiwitsch, Rachmaninoff broke his usual rule against drinking alcohol and had a glass of crème de menthe to steady his nerves. His performance was a success, and prior to every subsequent performance of the Rhapsody. This led to Rachmaninoff nicknaming the twenty-fourth the Crème de Menthe Variation, Rachmaninoff agreed to the extra measures, although he said A major would not work and asked that the 18th Variation be played in D major, to provide greater tension. He also wondered why Niccolò Paganini had been turned into a player in Fokines scenario. Paganini was premiered in 1939 by The Royal Ballet at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, the ballet was a success, which pleased Rachmaninoff, and he wrote his Symphonic Dances in 1940 with Fokine in mind. He played the version for Fokine, but both died before the idea got any further. The Rhapsody has also used for ballets by Lavrovsky, Frederick Ashton

Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini
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Inversion of the melody

44.
Stewart Granger
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Stewart Granger was an English film actor, mainly associated with heroic and romantic leading roles. He was a leading man from the 1940s to the early 1960s. He was born James Lablache Stewart in Old Brompton Road, Kensington, West London, Granger was educated at Epsom College and the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art. He was the great-great-grandson of the opera singer Luigi Lablache and the grandson of the actor Luigi Lablache, when he became an actor, he was advised to change his name in order to avoid being confused with the American actor James Stewart. Offscreen friends and colleagues continued to call him Jimmy for the rest of his life and he made his film debut as an extra in 1933. It was at time that he met Michael Wilding and they remained friends until Wildings death in 1979. Years of theatre work followed, initially at Hull Repertory Theatre and then, after a pay dispute, here he met Elspeth March, a leading actress with the company, who became his first wife. At the outbreak of World War II Granger enlisted in the Gordon Highlanders, however he suffered from stomach ulcers and he was invalided out of the army in 1942. His first starring role was as the acid-tongued Rokeby in the Gainsborough Pictures period melodrama, The Man in Grey. He followed this with the more popular Fanny by Gaslight. The New York Times reported that Granger is a man worth watching. Like his dark looks and his dash, he puts them in mind, all these films were successful at the box office and in 1945 The Times reported that this six-foot black-visaged ex-soldier from the Black Watch is Englands Number One pin up boy. Only Bing Crosby can match him for popularity, Granger followed this with Caravan and then The Magic Bow in which he played Niccolò Paganini. In 1945 he was voted the second-most popular British film star, the following year he was voted the third-most popular British star, and the sixth-most popular overall. He went over to Rank, for whom he made Captain Boycott, Blanche Fury and then Saraband for Dead Lovers, the screenplay was by John Dighton and Alexander Mackendrick, Mackendrick would later direct The Ladykillers and Sweet Smell of Success. Granger was cast as the outsider, the gambler who is perceived as not quite the ticket by the established order. Granger stated that this was one of his few films of which he was proud, in 1949 Granger was reported as earning around £30,000 a year. That year Granger made Adam and Evelyne, starring with Jean Simmons, Granger had first met the very young Jean Simmons when they both worked on Gabriel Pascals Caesar and Cleopatra

45.
Klaus Kinski
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Klaus Kinski was a German actor. He appeared in more than 130 films, and was a leading actor in the films of Werner Herzog, including Aguirre, the Wrath of God, Nosferatu the Vampyre, Woyzeck, Fitzcarraldo. Kinskis violent outbursts in public made him a figure in Germany. He is the father of Pola, Nastassja, and Nikolai Kinski and they have all become actors and have worked in Germany and the United States, primarily in film and TV. Klaus Kinski was born to German nationals in Zoppot in what was from 1920–1939, under League of Nations supervision, the Free City of Danzig. His father, Bruno Nakszynski, a German of Polish descent, was an opera singer turned pharmacist, his mother, Susanne, was a nurse. Klaus had three siblings, Inge, Arne and Hans-Joachim. Because of the Great Depression, the family was unable to make a living in Danzig and moved to Berlin in 1931 and they settled in a flat in the Wartburgstraße 3, in the district of Schöneberg, and took German citizenship. From 1936 on, Kinski attended the Prinz-Heinrich-Gymnasium in Schöneberg, Kinski was conscripted at the age of 17 into the German Wehrmacht some time in 1943, and served in the army. He saw no action until the winter of 1944, when his unit was transferred to the Netherlands and he was wounded and captured by the British on his second day of combat. Kinski gave a different version of events in his 1988 autobiography and he said that he made a conscious decision to desert, he had been captured by the Germans, court-martialed as a deserter and sentenced to death, but he escaped and hid in the woods. He finally surrendered to a British patrol, which had wounded him in the arm before taking him captive, after being treated for his injuries and interrogated, Kinski was transferred to Britain. The ship transporting him was torpedoed by a German U-boat, and he was held at the prisoner of war Camp 186 in Berechurch Hall in Colchester, Essex. There he played his first roles on stage, taking part in shows intended to maintain morale among the prisoners, by May 1945, at the end of the war in Europe, the German POWs were anxious to return home. Kinski had heard that prisoners were to be returned first. He remained healthy but finally was returned to Germany in 1946, after spending a year, arriving in Berlin, he saw how the once modern city had been reduced to ruins and was occupied by Allied troops. Kinski learned his father had died during the war, and his mother had killed in an Allied air attack on the city. After his return to Germany, Kinski started out as an actor, first at a touring company in Offenburg

46.
Kinski Paganini (film)
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Kinski Paganini, also known simply as Paganini, is a 1989 Italian-French biographical film written, directed by and starring Klaus Kinski. The story is based on the life and career of composer and it was to be Kinskis final film before his death in 1991. The film also stars Kinskis young wife and son alongside him, Klaus Kinski felt that he and Paganini had led similar lives, and both gave demonic performances in their own fields that often sparked great controversy. A biopic about the life of Niccolò Paganini, who many consider to be one of the greatest violinists who ever lived, Kinski Paganini at the Internet Movie Database

Kinski Paganini (film)
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A promotional poster for Kinski Paganini

47.
David Garrett (musician)
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David Garrett is a record-breaking German pop and crossover violinist and recording artist. Garrett was born in Aachen, Germany, to an American prima ballerina, Dove Garrett, and he adopted his mothers maiden name as his stage name, as it was more pronounceable. When Garrett was four years old his father bought a violin for his older brother, the young Garrett took an interest and soon learned to play. A year later, he took part in a competition and won first prize, by the age of seven, he studied violin at the Lübeck Conservatoire. After leaving home at 17, he enrolled at the Royal College of Music in London, I did skip some lessons – but I also broke in to do extra practice, so that didnt help. In 1999 he moved to New York to attend the Juilliard School, whilst at Juilliard he studied under Itzhak Perlman, one of the first people to do so, and graduated in 2004. Garrett attended the Keshet Eilon Masterclasses in Israel in the summers of 1997,1998,1999 and 2002, Garrett replied through his lawyers that he was being extorted by her. Garrett received his first Stradivarius violin at the age of 11 and he was offered the use of the famous Stradivarius San Lorenzo, which is among the best instruments of Antonio Stradivari’s golden period. At the age of 13, as the youngest soloist ever, in April 1997, age 16, he played with the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra under the direction of Zubin Mehta in Delhi and Mumbai in concerts marking the 50th anniversary of India’s Independence. Two years later, Garrett played with the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos and this led to an invitation to perform at Expo 2000 in Hanover. At the age of 21, he was invited to perform at the BBC Proms, while studying at the Juilliard, Garrett supplemented his income by working as a model. Garretts 2008 album Encore pursues an aim of arousing young people’s interest in classical music, the release contains his own compositions and arrangements of pieces and melodies that have accompanied him in his life so far. Together with his band, consisting of keyboard, guitar and drums, he gives concerts that include classical sonatas, arrangements, in Autumn 2007, Garrett was chosen by the Montegrappa firm as an ambassador for the launch of the new pens from the Tributo ad Antonio Stradivari collection. The event took place in venues, including in Rome, New York, Hong Kong, Berlin. For these occasions Garrett was offered a Stradivarius from the Gli Archi di Palazzo Comunale collection and he also appeared at the Royal Variety Performance on 5 December 2011, playing his cover of Nirvana’s Smells Like Teen Spirit. He joined the 9th annual Independent Music Awards judging panel to assist independent musicians careers and his album, Music, was released in 2012. On 19 May 2012 he appeared at the UEFA Champions League Final performing with German singer Jonas Kaufmann, for 2014 he announced a new Crossover Tour. He played the role in the 2013 movie The Devils Violinist

David Garrett (musician)
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Garrett performing in Ludwigshafen in March 2009
David Garrett (musician)
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Garrett performing in Cologne on 15 January 2010

48.
Armen Dzhigarkhanyan
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Armen Dzhigarkhanyan is an Armenian and Russian actor. Born and raised in Yerevan, Dzhigarkhanyan started acting in the academic and Russian theaters of the city, since 1960, he appeared in a number of Armenian films. After almost 30 years on the stage of the Mayakovsky Theatre, Dzhigarkhanyan taught at VGIK, Dzhigarkhanyan, one of the most renowned living film and stage Armenian and Russian actors, has appeared in more films than any other Russian actor with more than 250 appearances. Armen Dzhigarkhanyan was born in Yerevan, Armenian SSR, Soviet Union on 3 October 1935 and his paternal grandfather, a professional tamada, came from an Armenian family from Tbilisi, Georgias capital. He graduated from a Russian high school named after Anton Chekhov, between 1953 and 1954, he worked as camera operators assistant at the state-run Hayfilm studio. In 1955, Dzhigarkhanyan was admitted to the Sundukyan State Academic Theatre of Yerevan and he studied in director Armen Gulakyans class until 1958. Beginning in his first year at the Sundukyan Theatre, he started acting at the Stanislavski Russian Theatre of Yerevan and he remained there for over 10 years, until 1967. In 1967, Dzhigarkhanyan moved to Moscow to make a career at the Lenkom Theatre and he started acting under directorship of Anatoly Efros, however, they worked together for a brief period. Dzhigarkhanyan portrayed Molière in Mikhail Bulgakovs The Cabal of Hypocrites, following Efross departure, Dzhigarkhanyan was given more roles, but he didnt wish to continue acting in a theater without the director he came for in the first place. In 1969, Dzhigarkhanyan joined Moscows Mayakovsky Theatre by Andrey Goncharovs recommendation and he worked there until 1996 and for almost 30 years, he was its leading actor. He first appeared in the role of Levinson in The Rout by Alexander Fadeyev and his later roles include Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee Williamss A Streetcar Named Desire. Since most of his roles were protagonistic, he moved to portray several antagonistic roles, during the 1970s and 1980s, Dzhigarkhanyan appeared less frequently on stage and more frequently in films and became known to the wider Soviet public. Even with decreased number of appearances on stage, Dzhigarkhanyans every role became an object of discussion, the finest roles from this period include Big Daddy in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof by Tennessee Williams, Lord Bothwell in Robert Bolts Vivat. Nero in Edvard Radzinskys Theater in the Time of Nero and Seneca, between 1989 and 1997, Dzhigarkhanyan taught the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography, Russias state film school. In the mid-1990s, Dzhigarkhanyan decided to create a theater that would bring together his students at VGIK, in March 1996, Dzhigarkhanyan founded his own theater named D and currently named Moscow Drama Theater headed by Armen Dzhigarkhanyan. His theater has staged a number of plays, including Samuel Becketts Krapps Last Tape. Dzhigarkhanyan made his debut in 1960 film Landslide as Akop. He impressed viewers with his portrayal of physicist in Frunze Dovlatyans Hello

49.
Jesuit
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre

50.
The Journal of the American Medical Association
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JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association is a peer-reviewed medical journal published 48 times a year by the American Medical Association. It publishes original research, reviews, and editorials covering all aspects of the biomedical sciences, the journal was established in 1883 with Nathan Smith Davis as the founding editor. The journals current editor-in-chief is Howard Bauchner of Boston University, who succeeded Catherine DeAngelis on July 1,2011, the journal was established in 1883 by the American Medical Association and superseded the Transactions of the American Medical Association. The Councilors Bulletin was renamed the Bulletin of the American Medical Association which was absorbed by the Journal of the American Medical Association. In 1960 the journal obtained its current title, JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association, the journal is commonly referred to as JAMA. Continuing Education Opportunities for Physicians was a journal section providing lists for regional or national levels of continuing medical education. JAMA had provided this information since 1937, prior to 1955, the list was produced either quarterly or semiannually. Between 1955 and 1981, the list was available annually, as the number of CME offerings increased from 1,000 to 8,500, the JAMA website states that webinars are available for CME. The article was not subject to blind peer-review and argued for specific policies which future presidents could pursue in order to improve health care reform implementation. After the controversial firing of an editor-in-chief, George D. Lundberg, a seven-member journal oversight committee was created to evaluate the editor-in-chief and to help ensure editorial independence. Since its inception, the committee has met at least once a year, presently, JAMA states that article content should be attributed to authors and not the publisher. From 1964 to 2013, the journal used images of artwork on its cover, according to former editor George Lundberg, this practice was designed to link the humanities and medicine. In 2013, a redesign moved the art feature to an inside page, the purpose of the redesign was to standardize the appearance of all journals in the JAMA network. List of American Medical Association journals Official website American Medical Association Archives Free copies of volumes 1-80, from the Internet Archive and HathiTrust

51.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

PubMed Identifier
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PubMed

52.
William Primrose
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William Primrose CBE was a Scottish violist and teacher. He performed with the London String Quartet from 1930 to 1935 and he then joined the NBC symphony orchestra where he formed the Primrose Quartet. He performed in countries around the world as a soloist throughout his career. Primrose also taught at universities and institutions. He is the author of books on viola techniques. William Primrose was born in Glasgow, Scotland to John Primrose, Primrose was the oldest of their three children. His father, John Primrose, taught violin and was part of the Scottish Orchestra and his father bought Primrose his first violin in 1908, when Primrose was only 4 years old. That same year, his father arranged violin lessons with Camillo Ritter, Primrose performed his first public concert on the violin in 1916, at the age of 12, playing Mendelssohn violin concerto. During his childhood, Primrose also enjoyed reading and playing chess in addition to studying music, in 1919, Primroses family moved to London, and he began to study violin at the Guildhall School of Music in London on scholarship, where he would later be named Fellow. Primrose graduated in 1924, having received its highest honor, a gold medal, on the urging of the accompanist Ivor Newton, Primrose moved to Belgium to study under Eugène Ysaÿe. from 1926 to 1929. Ysaÿe heard Primrose play an Amati viola that his father had him to play. Primrose became a professional violinist in 1924 and he moved from violin to viola in 1930 when he became the violist of the London String Quartet. He was joined in the group by Warwick Evans, John Pennington and they toured throughout North and South America in the 1930s, however, due to financial pressures of the Great Depression, they disbanded in 1935. After the disbandment of the London String Quartet, Primrose took a variety of jobs, he performed in Berlin, at La Scala in Milan, in 1937, NBC established their symphony orchestra under Arturo Toscanini. Primrose was a violist for the orchestra, but he was never their principal violist, in 1939, NBC suggested that Primrose form his own group, and the Primrose Quartet was formed. He played with the orchestra for four years until it was rumored that Toscanini would leave the Symphony in 1941, while performing with the NBC Symphony, Primrose also made recordings with Jascha Heifetz and Gregor Piatigorsky. However, they stopped playing together in 1964 due to Primroses declining hearing, Primrose made his debut as a violin soloist in 1923, however his soloist career playing the viola didnt take off until 1941 when he started touring with Richard Crooks. He accompanied Crooks on five tours in the four years

William Primrose
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William Primrose

53.
Mutopia Project
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The Mutopia Project is a volunteer-run effort to create a library of free content sheet music, in a way similar to Project Gutenbergs library of public domain books. The music is reproduced from old scores that are in the public domain, currently, there are more than 2,000 pieces of music available, more than half of which are pieces for piano. There are also pieces for voice, and various other musical instruments. The Mutopia Project home page has a list of links to the most recently added pieces, list of online music databases Public domain resources Open music Free content Project Gutenberg, a similar effort but for all cultural works, not just sheet music. International Music Score Library Project, a similar music cataloging project, that collects both typeset and scanned scores

Mutopia Project
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Symphony No. 5 music sheet released by the Mutopia Project

54.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier

55.
Danish Golden Age
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The Danish Golden Age covers a period of exceptional creative production in Denmark, especially during the first half of the 19th century. Although Copenhagen had suffered fires, bombardment and national bankruptcy. It also saw the development of Danish architecture in the Neoclassical style, Copenhagen, in particular, acquired a new look, with buildings designed by Christian Frederik Hansen and by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll. In relation to music, the Golden Age covers figures inspired by Danish romantic nationalism including J. P. E. Hartmann, Hans Christian Lumbye, Niels W. Gade, literature centred on Romantic thinking, introduced in 1802 by the Norwegian-German philosopher Henrik Steffens. Key contributors were Adam Oehlenschläger, Bernhard Severin Ingemann, N. F. S. Grundtvig and, last but not least, Hans Christian Andersen, Søren Kierkegaard furthered philosophy while Hans Christian Ørsted achieved fundamental progress in science. The Golden Age thus had an effect not only on life in Denmark but, with time. The origins of the Golden Age can be traced back to around the beginning of the 19th century, surprisingly, this was a very rough period for Denmark. Copenhagen, the centre of the intellectual life, first experienced huge fires in 1794 and 1795 which destroyed both Christiansborg Palace and large areas of the inner city. In 1801, as a result of the involvement in the League of Armed Neutrality. Then in 1813, as a result of the inability to support the costs of war. To make matters worse, Norway ceased to be part of the Danish realm when it was ceded to Sweden the following year, Copenhagens devastation nevertheless provided new opportunities. Architects and planners widened the streets, constructing beautifully designed Neoclassical buildings offering a brighter yet intimate look, at the time, with a population of only 100,000, the city was still quite small, built within the confines of the old ramparts. As a result, the figures of the day met frequently, sharing their ideas, bringing the arts. Henrik Steffens was perhaps the most effective proponent of the Romantic idea, in a series of lectures in Copenhagen, he successfully conveyed the ideas behind German romanticism to the Danes. Influential thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig were quick to take up his views and it was not long before Danes from all branches of the arts and sciences were involved in a new era of Romantic nationalism, later known as the Danish Golden Age. Especially in the field of painting, change became apparent, grand historical art gave way to more widely appealing but less pretentious genre paintings and landscapes. The Golden Age is generally believed to have lasted until about 1850, around that time, Danish culture suffered from the outbreak of the First Schleswig War. In addition, political reforms involving the end of the monarchy in 1848

56.
19th-century French literature
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19th-century French literature concerns the developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. French literature enjoyed enormous prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism, until around the mid-century Realism emerged, in the last half of the century, naturalism, parnassian poetry, and symbolism, among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name, in other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts and their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Goethe, Le mal du siècle, a sense of loss, disillusion, and aporia, typified by melancholy and lassitude. Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of pre-romanticism in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and it found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine. The major battles of romanticism in France was in the theater, the dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods, victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction, all three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction, Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups, the Arsenal, the Cénacle, the salon of Louis Charles Delescluze, the salon of Antoine Deschamps, the salon of Madame de Staël. Romanticism in France defied political affiliation, one finds both liberal, conservative and socialist strains, the expression Realism, when applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science, history, honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils, similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the well-made bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche, from the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary Naturalism

57.
German Romanticism
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German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy, the arts, and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Late-stage German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the world and the irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius. In particular, the critic Heinrich Heine criticized the tendency of the early German romantics for looking to the medieval past for a model of unity in art, key figures of German romanticism include, Ludwig van Beethoven. In his earlier works, Beethoven was a Classicist in the traditions of Mozart and Haydn, because Beethoven wrote some of his greatest music after he became totally deaf, he embodies the Romantic ideal of the tragic artist who defies all odds to conquer his own fate. His later works portray the triumph of the spirit, most notably his Choral Symphony No. 9, the stirring Ode to Joy from this symphony has been adopted as the anthem of the European Union and his works are cast in the formal moulds of Classicism, he had a profound reverence for Beethoven. Liszt was by nationality a Hungarian, but nevertheless he spent many years in Germany, credited as the inventor of the tone poem. In his old age, Liszt adopted a more dissonant, ominous flavour, characteristic works being la Lugubre Gondola and Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth—predating Impressionism, a composer of the Early Romantic period, together with such figures as Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. One of the responsible for reviving interest in the almost-forgotten music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His body of work consists mainly of song cycles and German Lieder set to poems by his contemporaries and his works recall the nostalgia of lost childhood innocence, first love, and the magnificence of the German countryside. As an influential critic, he played a role in discovering new talents, among them Chopin. The greatest composer of German opera, was an exponent of Leitmotif, one of the main figures in the so-called War of the Romantics. The emotional intensity and supernatural, folklore-based themes in his operas presented a break from the Neoclassical traditions of that time. The Mystical Sources of German Romantic Philosophy, translated by Blair R. Reynolds, caspar David Friedrich, translated by Sarah Twohig. Introduction, A Revolution in Culture, in European Romanticism, A Brief History with Documents, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. “Orpheus Philologus, Bachofen versus Mommsen on the Study of Antiquity. ”Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, baltic Light, Early Open-Air Painting in Denmark and North Germany. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1999, caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1980, ISBN 3-8228-2293-0 ONeill, J, ed. German masters of the nineteenth century, paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany

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Norwegian romantic nationalism
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A subject of much study and debate in Norway, it was characterized by nostalgia. The context and impact of Norwegian romantic nationalism derived from recent history, norwegians, having reasserted their political aspirations in 1814, the question of a distinct Norwegian identity became important. As urban culture gained prominence also in the districts, the rich cultural heritage of the Norwegian countryside came under threat. As a result, a number of individuals set out to collect the artifacts of the distinctly Norwegian culture, hoping thereby to preserve and he synthesized a grammar, vocabulary, and orthography for a separate Norwegian language that became the origin of Nynorsk. In the waning days of the romantic movement, efforts were renewed to collect rural buildings. Arthur Hazelius, the founder of Nordiska Museet in Stockholm gathered large collections, the last king of union between Sweden and Norway, Oscar II, was a supporter of this new wave of collecting, starting what must be the oldest outdoor museum, the origins of Norsk Folkemuseum. He supported the manager of the Royal domains at Bygdøy, Christian Holst in his efforts to gather old buildings from the rural districts. Among the buildings that are still at the museum, the Gol stave church, soon after other pioneers started equal efforts to rescue important pieces of traditional Norwegian architecture and handicraft. Anders Sandvig started the museum Maihaugen at Lillehammer, hulda Garborg started the collecting of traditional folk costumes and dances. This effort is underway, but became more systematic as other cultural movements took the center stage in Norway in the late 19th. Romantic nationalism has had an impact on the Norwegian national identity. The Askeladden character from the tales is considered being an integral part of the Norwegian way. On the Norwegian Constitution Day even in cities like Oslo and Bergen, a great proportion of people dress up in bunad for the parade, unthinkable 100 years ago

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Romanticism in Scotland
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Romanticism in Scotland was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that developed between the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries. Scott also had a impact on the development of a national Scottish drama. Art was heavily influenced by Ossian and a new view of the Highlands as the location of a wild, Scott profoundly affected architecture through his re-building of Abbotsford House in the early nineteenth century, which set off the boom in the Scots Baronial revival. Intellectually, Scott and figures like Thomas Carlyle played a part in the development of historiography, Romanticism also influenced science, particularly the life sciences, geology, optics and astronomy, giving Scotland a prominence in these areas that continued into the late nineteenth century. Scottish philosophy was dominated by Scottish Common Sense Realism, which shared some characteristics with Romanticism and was an influence on the development of Transcendentalism. Scott also played a part in defining Scottish and British politics, helping to create a romanticised view of Scotland. Romanticism began to subside as a movement in the 1830s, and it also had a lasting impact on the nature of Scottish identity and outside perceptions of Scotland. It is also associated with political revolutions, beginning with those in Americana and France and movements for independence, particularly in Poland, Spain and Greece. It is often thought to incorporate an emotional assertion of the self and of individual experience along with a sense of the infinite, transcendental, in art there was a stress on imagination, landscape and a spiritual correspondence with nature. It has been described by Margaret Drabble as a revolt against classical form, conservative morality, authoritarian government, personal insincerity. Allan Ramsay laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity and it was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, Robert Burns and Walter Scott were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is regarded as the national poet of Scotland. His poem Auld Lang Syne is often sung at Hogmanay, Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is called the first historical novel. It launched a successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy, The Heart of Midlothian. Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century, other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg, Allan Cunningham and John Galt

60.
Bohemianism
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Bohemianism is the practice of an unconventional lifestyle, often in the company of like-minded people, with few permanent ties, involving musical, artistic, literary or spiritual pursuits. In this context, Bohemians may or may not be wanderers, adventurers, Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints, which often were expressed through free love, frugality, and—in some cases—voluntary poverty. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as haute bohème, the term Bohemianism emerged in France in the early nineteenth century when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class, Romani neighborhoods. Literary Bohemians were associated in the French imagination with roving Romani people, outsiders apart from conventional society, the term carries a connotation of arcane enlightenment, and also carries a less frequently intended, pejorative connotation of carelessness about personal hygiene and marital fidelity. The title character in Carmen, a French opera set in the Spanish city of Seville, is referred to as a bohémienne in Meilhac and her signature aria declares love itself to be a gypsy child, going where it pleases and obeying no laws. Henri Murgers collection of short stories Scènes de la Vie de Bohème, published in 1845, was written to glorify, Murgers collection formed the basis of Giacomo Puccinis opera La bohème. In England, Bohemian in this sense initially was popularised in William Makepeace Thackerays novel, Vanity Fair, public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by George du Mauriers highly romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture Trilby. The novel outlines the fortunes of three expatriate English artists, their Irish model, and two very colorful Central European musicians, in the artist quarter of Paris. In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in Ramón del Valle-Incláns play Luces de Bohemia, in his song La Bohème, Charles Aznavour described the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre. Also reflects the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century, in the 1850s, aesthetic bohemians began to arrive in the United States. In New York City in 1857, a group of some 15–20 young and this group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called Pffaffs beer cellar. Members included their leader Henry Clapp, Jr, walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken. Similar groups in cities were broken up as well by the Civil War. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer. Mark Twain included himself and Charles Warren Stoddard in the category in 1867. Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition, Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian, but that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism, the first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts, the other is poverty. Despite his views, Sterling associated very closely with the Bohemian Club, canadian composer Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and poet George Frederick Cameron wrote the song The Bohemian in the 1889 opera Leo, the Royal Cadet

61.
Counter-Enlightenment
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The first known use of the term in English was in 1908, but Berlin may have re-invented it. Although the term the Counter-Enlightenment was first used in English by William Barrett in a 1949 article in Partisan Review, Berlins widely read essay The Counter-Enlightenment was first published in 1973, and later reprinted in a popular collection of his essays, Against the Current, in 1981. The term has had wide currency since and this reaction was led by the Königsberg philosopher J. G. Hamann, the most passionate, consistent, extreme and implacable enemy of the Enlightenment, according to Berlin. McMahon focuses on the enemies of the Enlightenment in France, unearthing a long-forgotten Grub Street literature in the late-18th. A great many of these opponents of the Enlightenment attacked it for undermining religion. This later became a theme of conservative criticism of the Enlightenment after the French Revolution appeared to vindicate the warnings of the anti-philosophes in the decades prior to 1789. Cardiff University professor Graeme Garrard suggests that historian William R, in his 1996 article in the American Political Science Review, Arthur M. Graeme Garrard follows Melzer in his Rousseaus Counter-Enlightenment. This contradicts Berlins depiction of Rousseau as a philosophe who shared the beliefs of his Enlightenment contemporaries. Also, like McMahon, it traces the beginning of Counter-Enlightenment thought back to France, garrards book Counter-Enlightenments broadens the term even further, arguing against Berlin that there was no single movement called The Counter-Enlightenment. Rather, there have been many Counter-Enlightenments, from the middle of the 18th century through to 20th-century Enlightenment critics among critical theorists, postmodernists and feminists. The Enlightenment has enemies on all points of the compass, from the far left to the far right. Each of the Enlightenments enemies depicted it as they saw it or wanted others to see it, resulting in a vast range of portraits, many of which are not only different but incompatible. This argument has been taken a further by some, like intellectual historian James Schmidt. As our conception of the Enlightenment has become more complex and difficult to maintain and that is why the French Revolution and its aftermath was also a major phase in the development of Counter-Enlightenment thought. In Considerations on France, Maistre interprets the Revolution as divine punishment for the sins of the Enlightenment, many early Romantic writers such as Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor Coleridge inherited this Counter-Revolutionary antipathy towards the philosophes. Of particular concern to early Romantic writers was the allegedly anti-religious nature of the Enlightenment since the philosophes and Aufklarer were generally deists, opposed to revealed religion. Chateaubriand, Novalis, and Coleridge, however, are here, few Romantic writers had much to say for or against the Enlightenment. For the most part, they ignored it, the philosopher Jacques Barzun argues that Romanticism had its roots in the Enlightenment

62.
Dark romanticism
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Dark romanticism is a literary subgenre of Romanticism. The name “Dark Romanticism” was given to form by the literary theorist Mario Praz in his lengthy study of the genre published in 1930. Elements of dark romanticism were a possibility within the broader international movement Romanticism. Like romanticism itself, dark romanticism arguably began in Germany, with such as E. T. A. British authors such as Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori and their tales and poems commonly feature outcasts from society, personal torment and uncertainty as to whether the nature of man will bring him salvation or destruction. Some Victorian authors of English horror fiction, such as Bram Stoker and Daphne du Maurier, the American form of this sensibility centered on the writers Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville. French authors such as Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud echoed the themes found in the German. Baudelaire was one of the first French writers to admire Edgar Allan Poe, twentieth-century existential novels have also been linked to dark romanticism, as too have the sword and sorcery novels of Robert E. Howard. Northrop Frye pointed to the dangers of the demonic myth making of the side of romanticism as seeming “to provide all the disadvantages of superstition with none of the advantages of religion”. Literary Movements for Students Vol.1, harry Levin, The Power of Blackness Mario Praz The Romantic Agony Mullane, Janet and Robert T. Wilson, eds. Poe Studies/Dark Romanticism Journal The Gothic as an Aspect of American Romanticism

Dark romanticism
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Edgar Allan Poe is among the most well-known authors of Dark Romanticism

63.
Gothic fiction
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Gothic fiction, which is largely known by the subgenre of Gothic horror, is a genre or mode of literature and film that combines fiction and horror, death, and at times romance. Its origin is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, the effect of Gothic fiction feeds on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpoles novel. It originated in England in the half of the 18th century and had much success in the 19th, as witnessed by Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Another well known novel in this genre, dating from the late Victorian era, is Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the name Gothic refers to the -medieval buildings, emulating Gothic architecture, in which many of these stories take place. This extreme form of romanticism was very popular in England and Germany, the English Gothic novel also led to new novel types such as the German Schauerroman and the French Georgia. The novel usually regarded as the first Gothic novel is Horace Walpoles The Castle of Otranto, Horace Walpoles declared aim was to combine elements of the medieval romance, which he deemed too fanciful, and the modern novel, which he considered to be too confined to strict realism. Walpole published the first edition disguised as a romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. When Walpole admitted to his authorship in the edition, its originally favourable reception by literary reviewers changed into rejection. A romance with elements, and moreover void of didactical intention, was considered a setback. Walpoles forgery, together with the blend of history and fiction, contravened the principles of the Enlightenment and associated the Gothic novel with fake documentation. Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, set out to take Walpoles plot, the question now arose whether supernatural events that were not as evidently absurd as Walpoles would not lead the simpler minds to believe them possible. Ann Radcliffe developed the technique of the supernatural in which every seemingly supernatural intrusion is eventually traced back to natural causes. Among other elements, Ann Radcliffe introduced the figure of the Gothic villain. Radcliffes novels, above all The Mysteries of Udolpho, were best-sellers, however, along with most novels at the time, they were looked down upon by many well-educated people as sensationalist nonsense. Radcliffe also provided an aesthetic for the genre in an influential article On the Supernatural in Poetry, Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe concurrent with the development of the Gothic novel. The roman noir appeared in France, by writers as François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Baculard dArnaud. In Germany, the Schauerroman gained traction with writers as Friedrich Schiller, with novels like The Ghost-Seer and these works were often more horrific and violent than the English Gothic novel. Matthew Gregory Lewiss lurid tale of debauchery, black magic

64.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery

65.
Hudson River School
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The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty, the term is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer Dodge Martin. As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labeled had gone out of favor after the plein-air Barbizon School had come into vogue among American patrons and collectors. Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century, discovery, exploration, and settlement, the paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and their reverence for Americas natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Several painters were members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others were educated by the German Paul Weber, while the elements of the paintings were rendered realistically, many of the scenes were composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. During these expeditions, the artists recorded sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the works later. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing. He hiked west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area, the first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on November 22,1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a landscape where autumnal tints were of browns and yellows, coles close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well. An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School was its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, however, its leading artists, such as Thomas Cole, were also suspicious of the economic and technological development of the age. Works by artists of this generation are often described as examples of Luminism. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford, most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were celebrities and they were both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years. When Church exhibited paintings such as Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people lined up around the block and paid fifty cents a head to view the solitary works. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings, unexampled in earlier American painting, reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, such works were being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks. One of the largest collections of paintings by artists of the Hudson River School is at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Johnsbury Athenaeum, in St. Johnsbury, VT Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art, in Tuscaloosa, AL Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, in Madrid, Spain. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, avery, Kevin J. & Kelly, Frank

66.
Indianism (arts)
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Indianism is a Brazilian literary and artistic movement that reached its peak during the first stages of Romanticism, though it had been present in Brazilian literature since the Baroque period. In Romantic contexts, it is called the first generation of Brazilian Romanticism, being succeeded by the Ultra-Romanticism, after the independence of Brazil from Portugal in 1822, a heavy wave of nationalism spread through the Brazilian people. Inspired by this, poets and writers began to search for an entity that could represent, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, especially works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the noble savage myth, the authors chose the Brazilian Indian to represent the new nation. Indianist works are characterized by always having an Indian as the protagonist, the poetry is very patriotic and nationalistic, exalting Brazilian fauna, flora, riches and people

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Opium and Romanticism
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Readers of Romantic poetry usually come into contact with literary criticisms about the influence of opium on its works. Usually these criticisms tend to focus on such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Thomas De Quincey. The Romantic era in Britain was not only a time of growth for literature and poetry, given opiums euphoric and psychologically reinforcing properties, users eventually began using it for recreation instead of healing purposes. During the eighteenth century, opium was imported into Britain from countries such as Persia, Egypt, Smyrna. Opium imports in Britain were dominated mostly by Turkey, which accounted for 80-90% of the share brought in during the majority of the nineteenth century, although most of the opium came from the Orient, attempts were made to grow opium in England as an agricultural improvement in Britain. As importation increased, many patent opium products appeared and were sold in stores as well as apothecaries. These patent medicines included things such as Godfreys Cordial, Dalbys Carminative, McMunns Elixir, Batleys Sedative Solution, the Swiss alchemist and physician Paracelsus is often credited as the first to create a tincture of opium. In the 17th century, the English physician Thomas Browne conducted experiments upon the dosage of opium upon various animals. In the 1730s Dr. Charles Alston in one of his papers describes the biology or botany of the plant. One section of his paper describes how opium was believed to treat pain, cause sleep, increase perspiration, raise the spirits, with these things in mind, it was recommended for pain and any sort of irritation to the nerves or motions of spirits. Opium became a popular product of the early nineteenth century. George Crabbe was prescribed opium in 1790 to relieve pain, at the time of George Crabbes first prescription, the East India Company began hiring Indian Villages to cultivate large quantities of opium. Medicinally, it had used as a reliable cure since the beginning of the medical field. However, some recognized the dangers that opium held. ”Following a larger dose, “all these symptoms continue to increase, and tremors, convulsions, vertigo, stupor, insensibility. This was especially true within the circle of Romantic poets, specifically Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas De Quincey, M. H. Abrams argued that opium users during the Romantic era became “inspired to ecstasies” when experiencing opium’s effects. Abrams writes how opium-using poets, utilized the imagery from these dreams in his literary creations, a poet who did not use opium could not gain access to the planet opened solely by the symptoms of using. This unfamiliar realm, known only to users, according to M. H. Abrams, another direction, more recently postulated by Elisabeth Schneider and in opposition to Abrams, utilizes evidence based on medical and textual evidence. Her idea supposes that the Romantic poet’s mind was not affected by opium as it was believed to be by critics

68.
Konrad Wallenrod
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Konrad Wallenrod is an 1828 narrative poem, in Polish, by Adam Mickiewicz, set in the 14th-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Mickiewicz had been exiled to St. Petersburg for his participation in the Philomaths organization at Wilno University, the poem helped inspire the Polish November 1830 Uprising against Russian rule. Though its subversive theme was apparent to most readers, the poem escaped censorship due to conflicts among the censors and, in the second edition, though Mickiewicz later disparaged the work, its cultural influence in Poland persists. In a preface, Mickiewicz briefly outlines the history of the region, describing the interactions among the Lithuanians, Prussians, Poles, and Russians. The following six cantos tell the story of Wallenrod, a fictional Lithuanian pagan captured and reared as a Christian by his peoples long-standing enemies and he rises to the position of Grand Master, but is awakened to his heritage by a mysterious minstrel singing at an entertainment. He then seeks vengeance by leading the Knights into a major military defeat. It transpires that Wallenrod has a wife, Aldona, who has been living in seclusion, the Knights discover his treason and sentence him to death, Aldona refuses to flee with him. The poem included a reference to Machiavellis dictum that a leader must be both a lion and a fox and its encouragement of what would later be called patriotic treason created controversy, since its elements of deception and conspiracy were thought incompatible with Christian and chivalric values. Konrad Wallenrod has twice turned into an opera, as I Lituani, by Italian composer Amilcare Ponchielli. The Polish composer Frédéric Chopin may have based on this poem his Ballade No.1 in G minor. The Polish-born author Joseph Conrad, who had been christened Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, mickiewiczs poem influenced Conrads frequent explorations of the conflict between publicly attested loyalty and a hidden affiliation with a national cause. Romanticism in Poland Konrad von Wallenrode List of Poles 1828 in poetry Kordian English translation of Konrad Wallenrod

69.
Vittorio Alfieri
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Count Vittorio Alfieri was an Italian dramatist and poet, considered the founder of Italian tragedy. Alfieri was born at Asti, Kingdom of Sardinia, now in Piedmont. His father died when he was young, and he was brought up by his mother. After a year at the academy, he went on a visit to a relative at Coni. During his stay there he composed a sonnet chiefly borrowed from lines in Ariosto and Metastasio, at thirteen, Alfieri began the study of civil and canonical law, but this only made him more interested in literature, particularly French romances. The death of his uncle, who had charge of his education and conduct, left him free, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy his paternal inheritance. He began to attend a riding-school, where he acquired an enthusiasm for horses, having obtained permission from the king to travel abroad, he departed in 1766, under the care of an English preceptor. In the Netherlands he fell in love with a married woman, Alfieri, depressed by the incident, returned home and again began studying literature. Plutarchs Lives inspired him with a passion for freedom and independence, in search of an ideal world, Alfieri passed quickly through various countries. During a journey to London he engaged in an intrigue with Lady Penelope Ligonier, the affair became a widely publicised scandal and ended in a divorce that ruined Lady Ligonier and forced Alfieri to leave the country. He then visited Spain and Portugal, where he acquainted with the Abbe Caluso. In 1772, Alfieri returned to Turin and this time he fell for the Marchesa Turinetti di Prie, but it was another doomed affair. When she fell ill, he spent his time dancing attendance on her, and one day wrote a dialogue or scene of a drama, which he left at her house. When the couple quarreled, the piece was returned to him, from this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable thirst for theatrical fame, to which he devoted the remainder of his life. His first two tragedies, Filippo and Polinice, were written in French prose. When he came to them in Italian, he found that, because of many dealings with foreigners. With the view of improving his Italian, he went to Tuscany and, during a residence at Florence and Siena, he completed Filippo and Polinice. While thus employed, he acquainted with Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern, also known as the Countess of Albany

70.
Ludwig Achim von Arnim
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Arnim was born in Berlin, descending from a Brandenburgian Uradel noble family first mentioned in 1204. His father was the Prussian chamberlain Joachim Erdmann von Arnim, royal envoy in Copenhagen and Dresden and his mother, Amalia Carlonia Labes, died three weeks after Arnims birth. Arnim and his elder brother Carl Otto spent their childhood with their maternal grandmother Caroline von Labes in Zernikow and in Berlin, in 1798 he went on to study law, natural science and mathematics at the University of Halle. His early writings included numerous articles for scientific magazines and his first major work, Theorie der elektrischen Erscheinungen showed a leaning to the supernatural, common among the German romanticists. In Halle he associated with the composer Johann Friedrich Reichardt, in whose house he became acquainted with the Romantic poet Ludwig Tieck. From 1800 he continued his studies at the University of Göttingen, though, having met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Clemens Brentano, Arnim received the degree of a Doctor of Medicine in 1801, but never practiced. He went on to travel through Europe with his brother from 1801 to 1804, Arnim was influenced by the earlier writings of Goethe and Herder, from which he learned to appreciate the beauties of German traditional legends and folk songs. Back in Germany, he began forming a collection of these and in 1805 first published the result, in collaboration with Clemens Brentano and he went to see Goethe in Weimar, in order to edit the collection. In Frankfurt he met with the jurist Friedrich Carl von Savigny, arnimss editorial work was increasingly affected by the Napoleonic Wars. Upon the Prussian defeat in the 1806 Battle of Jena–Auerstedt, he followed the court to Königsberg. In 1807 he moved back to Weimar and Kassel, where he visited the Brothers Grimm, the Heidelberg Romanticist circle also included Tieck, Friedrich Schlegel, Jean Paul, Justinus Kerner, and Ludwig Uhland. From 1809 Arnim again lived in Berlin, however, his plans to enter the Prussian civil service failed, in 1810 he affianced Brentanos sister Bettina, who won wide recognition as a writer in her own right. They married on 11 March 1811, their daughter Gisela became a writer as well, shortly after their marriage the couple went on to visit Goethe in to Weimar, however, the reunion was overshadowed by a heated quarrel between Bettina and Goethes wife Christiane. In Berlin, Achim worked on Heinrich von Kleists legacy and founded the patriotic Deutsche Tischgesellschaft association of Christian men and he remained connected with the Prussian patriots such as Adam Heinrich Müller and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué and even commanded a Landsturm battalion during the German Campaign of 1813. From October 1813 he acted as publisher of the Berlin newspaper The Prussian Correspondent, while his wife stayed in Berlin, Arnim in 1814 retired to Künstlerhaus Schloss Wiepersdorf, his family home, where he lived until his death by a stroke in 1831. His output, published in newspapers, magazines and almanacs as well as self-contained books, included novels, dramas, stories, poems, following his death, his library was taken over by the Weimar court library. Arnim is considered one of the most important representatives of German Romanticism and his works were collected, with an introduction by Wilhelm Grimm, in twenty volumes. Heinrich Heine wrote a eulogy of Arnim in his Deutschland, kaiser Karl des Fünften erste Jugendliebe Schaubühne Frau von Saverne Die Kronenwächter

71.
Anna Laetitia Barbauld
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Anna Laetitia Barbauld was a prominent English poet, essayist, literary critic, editor, and childrens author. A woman of letters who published in multiple genres, Barbauld had a writing career at a time when female professional writers were rare. She was a teacher at the Palgrave Academy and an innovative childrens writer, her primers provided a model for pedagogy for more than a century. Her essays demonstrated that it was possible for a woman to be engaged in politics. Barbauld was also a critic, and her anthology of 18th-century British novels helped establish the canon as known today. Barbaulds career as a poet ended abruptly in 1812 with the publication of Eighteen Hundred and Eleven, vicious reviews shocked Barbauld, and she published nothing else during her lifetime. Her reputation was damaged when many of the Romantic poets she had inspired in the heyday of the French Revolution turned against her in their later, more conservative. Some letters from Barbauld to others also exist, however, a great many Barbauld family documents were lost in a fire that was the result of the London blitz in 1940. Barbauld was born on 20 June 1743 at Kibworth Harcourt in Leicestershire to Jane and she was named after her maternal grandmother and referred to as Nancy. She was baptised by her mothers brother, John Jennings, in Huntingdonshire two weeks after her birth, Barbaulds father was headmaster of the Dissenting academy in Kibworth Harcourt and minister at a nearby Presbyterian church. The family had a standard of living. McCarthy suggests they may have ranked with large freeholders, well-to-do tradesmen, at his death in 1780, Barbaulds fathers estate was valued at more than £2,500. Barbauld commented to her husband in 1773 that For the early part of my life I conversed little with my own Sex, in the Village where I was, there was none to converse with. Barbauld was surrounded by boys as a child and adopted their high spirits, Barbauld demanded that her father teach her the classics and after much pestering, he did. Thus she had the opportunity to learn Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Barbaulds penchant for study worried her mother, who expected her to end up a spinster because of her intellectualism, the two were never as close as Barbauld and her father. Barbaulds brother, John Aikin, described their father as the best parent, the wisest counsellor, Barbaulds father prompted many such tributes, although Lucy Aikin described him as excessively modest and reserved. Barbauld developed a bond with her brother during childhood, standing in as a mother figure to him. In 1817, Joanna Baillie commented of their relationship How few brothers and sisters have been to one another what they have been through so long a course of years

Anna Laetitia Barbauld
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Barbauld and her brother, John Aikin (shown here in later years), became literary partners.
Anna Laetitia Barbauld
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Barbauld sat for this Wedgwoodcameo in 1775.
Anna Laetitia Barbauld
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Warrington Academy in 1757
Anna Laetitia Barbauld
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Joseph Priestley (c. 1763): "Mrs. Barbauld has told me that it was the perusal of some verses of mine that first induced her to write any thing in verse."

72.
Konstantin Batyushkov
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Konstantin Nikolayevich Batyushkov was a Russian poet, essayist and translator of the Romantic era. He also served in the corps, spending an extended period in 1818 and 1819 as a secretary to the Russian diplomatic mission at Naples. The early years of Konstantin Batyushkovs life are difficult to reconstruct, however, it was Konstantins youth spent in St. Petersburg which played the most important part in his development as a poet. Batyushkovs earliest extant letter from St. Petersburg is dated 6 July 1797 and his first years there were spent in Pensionnats. Contact with his relatives was restricted to correspondence and rare meetings, from 1797 to 1800 he studied at the Pensionnat directed by O. P. Jacquinot, it was a rather expensive school for children of good families. The curriculum included Russian, French, German, divinity, geography, history, statistics, arithmetic, chemistry, botany, calligraphy, in 1801 Batyushkov entered a Pensionnat run by an Italian, I. A. It was here that Batyushkov began to study Italian and his first literary offering, however, was a translation into French of Metropolitan Platons Address on the occasion of the coronation of Alexander I of Russia. 1802 is conventionally considered the beginning of Batyushkovs poetic career and he wrote in a letter to Nikolai Gnedich on 1 April 1810 that he had composed his first poem at the age of fifteen. Batyushkov began to write seriously in 1804. Two poems are regarded as having been written before the first published one. The first of these, Bog, is an imitation of Gavrila Derzhavins spiritual odes. The other poem is Mechta. Including both original and translated fragments, this became a manifesto of Batiushkovs own aesthetics, Mechtane est dusha poetov i stikhov. This brings him close to Nikolay Karamzin and the Vasily Zhukovsky, but even in Mechta and it was most likely the programmatic nature of this, on the whole rather weak, poem that continued to hold the interest of its otherwise self-critical author. The journals, in which Batyushkovs first poems were published, are easy to link to his personal contacts and his first poetic offering was the satirical Poslanie k stikham moim, in January 1805 it appeared in Novosti russkoi literatury, supplement to the periodical of Moscow University. In the autumn of 1806 Napoleon occupied Berlin and most of Prussia, Russias ally, on 13 January 1807 Batyushkov, with the civil rank corresponding to the twelfth class, was attached to General Nikolai Nikolaevich Tatishchevs staff. On 22 February he enlisted in the Petersburg battalion of the Militia as sotennyi, on 2 March he was in Narva, on the 19 March in Riga, from where he sent letters to Gnedich, containing an impromptu and another verse epistle. When taking part in the Prussian campaign, he met Ivan Aleksandrovich Petin, an officer, Batyushkov fought at the battle of Gutstadt, on 29 May he was seriously wounded at the battle of Heilsberg. After the battle he was transported to hospital and then to Riga where he was convalescing during June, in Riga, Batyushkov was living at the house of a merchant, Müguel, with whose daughter Emilie he fell in love

73.
Clemens Brentano
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Clemens Wenzeslaus Brentano was a German poet and novelist, and a major figure of German Romanticism. He was the uncle, via his brother Christian, of Franz, Clemens Brentano was born to Peter Anton Brentano and Maximiliane von La Roche, a wealthy merchant family in Frankfurt on 9 September 1778. His fathers family was of Italian descent and his sister was writer Bettina von Arnim, who, at a young age, lionised and corresponded with Goethe, and, in 1835, published the correspondence as Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde. Clemens Brentano studied in Halle and Jena, afterwards residing at Heidelberg, Vienna and he was close to Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Friedrich Schlegel, Fichte and Tieck. From 1798 to 1800 Brentano lived in Jena, the first center of the romantic movement, in 1801, he moved to Göttingen, and became a friend of Achim von Arnim. He married writer Sophie Mereau on 29 October 1803, in 1804, he moved to Heidelberg and worked with Arnim on Zeitungen für Einsiedler and Des Knaben Wunderhorn. After his wife Sophie died in 1806 he married a second time in 1807 to Auguste Bussmann, in the years between 1808 and 1818, Brentano lived mostly in Berlin, and from 1819 to 1824 in Dülmen, Westphalia. He took on there the position of secretary to the Catholic visionary nun, the Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich. It was claimed that from 1802 until her death, she bore the wounds of the Crown of Thorns, and from 1812, the stigmata, a cross over her heart. Clemens Brentano made her acquaintance in 1818 and remained at the foot of the stigmatists bed copying her dictation until 1824, when she died, he prepared an index of the visions and revelations from her journal, The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ. One of these visions made known by Brentano later resulted in the identification of the real House of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus by Abbé Julien Gouyet. The latter part of his life he spent in Regensburg, Frankfurt and Munich, Brentano assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his brother-in-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming Des Knaben Wunderhorn, which Gustav Mahler drew upon for his song cycle. His first published writings were Satiren und poetische Spiele, a romance Godwi oder Das steinerne Bild der Mutter, of his dramas the best are Ponce de Leon, Victoria und ihre Geschwister and Die Grundung Prags. Brentanos collected works, edited by his brother Christian, appeared at Frankfurt in 9 vols, selections have been edited by J. B. Diel, M. Koch, and J. Dohmke, diel and William Kreiten, Klemens Brentano, the introduction to Kochs edition, and R. Steig, A. von Arnim und K. Brentano. In his honor the Clemens-Brentano prize is awarded for German literature, Brentanos work is referenced in Thomas Manns novel Doctor Faustus. A cycle of thirteen songs, based on Brentanos poems, is noted in Chapter XXI as one of the composer protagonists most significant early works, kohlhammer, Berlin – ISBN 3-17-008658-8 Das bittere Leiden unsers Herrn Jesu Christi ISBN 3-17-012652-0, ISBN 3-17-004917-8 Das Leben der heil. A. Brentano, Clemens Maria Cassells Encyclopedia of World Literature New York, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds

Clemens Brentano
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Picture from Meyer's Encyclopedia, 1906

74.
Lord Byron
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon

75.
Camilo Castelo Branco
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Camilo Ferreira Botelho Castelo Branco, 1st Viscount de Correia Botelho, was a prolific Portuguese writer of the 19th century, having produced over 260 books. His writing is considered original in that it combines the dramatic and sentimental spirit of Romanticism with a highly personal combination of sarcasm, bitterness and he is also celebrated for his peculiar wit and anecdotal character, as well as for his turbulent life. Similarly, much of his literature demonstrates his ideals of legitimism and as a conservative, Camilo was born out of wedlock and orphaned in infancy, although his origins lay ultimately in Northern Portugals provincial aristocracy. Camilo spent his years in a village in Trás-os-Montes, where he was educated at home by three unmarried aunts. At the age of 13, he enrolled at the Catholic seminary of nearby Vila Real, during his teenage years, he fell in love with the poetry of Luís de Camões and Manuel Maria Barbosa de Bocage, while Fernão Mendes Pinto gave him a lust for adventure. In spite of this interest in literature, and of his abilities in Greek and Latin, Camilo was a distracted student and grew up to be undisciplined. From the age of 17 to his early 20s, he studied medicine and theology in Oporto and Coimbra. After a spell of journalistic work in Oporto and Lisbon he proceeded to the seminary in Oporto in order to study for the priesthood. During this period Camilo wrote a number of works and translated the work of François-René de Chateaubriand. Camilo actually took minor orders, but his restless nature drew him away from the priesthood. He was arrested twice, the first time for having unearthed the remains of his first wife and the due to his adulterous affair with Ana Plácido. During his second and longer incarceration he wrote what most consider to be his best and most characteristic work Amor de Perdição. Camilo was made a viscount in 1885 in recognition of his contributions to literature, in 1886 he wrote Esboço de crítica, Otelo, o Mouro de Veneza. Going blind and suffering from nervous disease, Castelo Branco committed suicide with a revolver in 1890. Camilo Castelo Branco is probably the most prolific of all Portuguese writers, his work including novels, plays, verse, in addition, Camilo was the first Portuguese writer able to support himself financially from his writing alone. In all, his publications number about five hundred and sixty, even though Camilo churned out a lot of work to pay the bills, he never lost his individuality. Camilos novels may be divided into three periods, the first period comprises his romances of the imagination, of which Os Mistérios de Lisboa, in the style of Eugène Sue, is a fair example. The second period includes his novels of manners, a style he developed and remained the chief exponent of until the appearance of O Crime de Padre Amaro by Eça de Queiroz

Camilo Castelo Branco
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Camilo Ferreira Botelho Castelo-Branco

76.
Jacques Cazotte
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Jacques Cazotte was a French author. Born in Dijon, he was educated by the Jesuits, Cazotte then worked for the French Ministry of the Marine and at the age of 27 he obtained a public office at Martinique. It was not till his return to Paris in 1760 with the rank of commissioner-general that he made his debut as an author. His first attempts, a romance and a coarse song, gained so much popularity. He accordingly produced his romance, Les Prouesses inimitables dOllivier, marquis dEdesse and he also wrote a number of fantastic oriental tales, such as his childrens fairy tale La patte du chat and the humorous Mille et une fadaises, Contes a dormir debout. His first success was with a poem in twelve cantos, and in prose intermixed with verse, entitled Ollivier, followed in 1771 by another romance, but the most popular of his works was Le Diable amoureux, a fantastic tale in which the hero raises the devil. The value of the lies in the picturesque setting. With the help of the Syrian priest Dom Denis Chavis, he translated some Arabian legends into French for the fairy tale anthology Le Cabinet des fées. Cazotte possessed extreme facility and is said to have dashed off a seventh canto of Voltaires Guerre civile de Genève in a single night, about 1775 Cazotte embraced the views of the Illuminati, declaring himself possessed of the power of prophecy. It was upon this event that Jean-François de la Harpe based his famous jeu desprit, near the end of his life, Cazotte became a follower of the Martinist mysticism of Martinez de Pasqually, and became a mystical monarchist. A complete edition of his work was published as the Œuvres badines et morales, historiques et philosophiques de Jacques Cazotte, cazottes work was an influence on later fantasy writers such as E. T. A. Hoffmann, Charles Nodier, Gérard de Nerval and Théophile Gautier. A Thousand and One Follies, and His Most Unlooked-for Lordship, translated by Eric Sutton, with an introduction by Storm Jameson,1927. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cazotte. Francis Amery, “Cazotte, Jacques” in St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost, detroit, St. James Press/Gale,1998, ISBN1558622063. Works by Jacques Cazotte at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jacques Cazotte at Internet Archive Works by Jacques Cazotte at LibriVox

77.
Alexander Chavchavadze
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Prince Alexander Chavchavadze was a notable Georgian poet, public benefactor and military figure. Regarded as the father of Georgian romanticism, he was a pre-eminent Georgian aristocrat, Alexander Chavchavadze was a member of the noble family elevated to the princely rank by the Georgian king Constantine II of Kakhetia in 1726. The family was of Khevsur origin but had intermarried with other Georgian military and he was born in 1786, in St Petersburg, Russia, where his father, Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze, served as an ambassador of Heraclius II, king of Kartli and Kakheti in eastern Georgia. Tsarina Catherine II of Russia was a godmother at the baptism of infant Alexander and he first saw his native Georgia at the age of 13, when the family moved back to Tiflis after the Russian annexation of eastern Georgia. At the age of 18, Alexander Chavchavadze joined Prince Parnaoz, following the suppression of the uprising, he was briefly put in prison where he composed his first literary works, including a radical poem written in Georgian, Woe to This World and Its Tenants. The poem quickly gained popularity, and brought fame to its young author. Following a year’s exile in Tambov, Chavchavadze reconciled with the new regime, ironically, he fought in the Russian ranks under Marquis Paulucci when the next anti-Russian rebellion broke out in 1812 in Kakheti. In the same year, he married a Georgian princess Salome Orbeliani, as an officer in the Russian expeditionary forces, he stayed in Paris for two years and the restored Bourbon dynasty awarded him for his service with a Légion dhonneur. In 1817, Prince Chavchavadze became a colonel of the Russian army, promoted to Major General in 1826, his military career advanced remarkably during the Russian wars against the Persian and Ottoman empires in the late 1820s. He was instrumental in the conquest of Iravan from Persia in 1827 and was appointed, in 1828, in 1829, he was dispatched as an administrator of the military board of Kakheti, where his patrimonial estates were located. Back in Georgia, Alexander enjoyed overwhelming popularity among the Georgian nobility and he was highly respected by his fellow Russian and Georgian officers. The prominent Russian diplomat and playwright Alexander Griboyedov married his 16-year-old daughter Nino, another daughter, Catherine, married David Dadiani, prince of Mingrelia, and inspired in Nicholas Baratashvili the hopeless love that made him the greatest poet of Georgian Romanticism. At his Italianate summer mansion in Tsinandali, Kakheti, he frequently entertained guests with music, wit. Chavchavadze built Georgia’s oldest and largest winery where he combined European, the highly regarded dry white Tsinandali is still produced there. According to his acquaintance, Juan Van Halen, Chavchavadze, a Georgian prince and he was sentenced to the five-year exile to Tambov, but the tsar, who needed his military talents given the ongoing Caucasian War, forgave him. Chavchavadze joined the expedition against the mountain people of the North Caucasus. Like his many fellow Georgian nobles, he found an opportunity to take revenge for the numerous past raids on the Georgian marches organised by North Caucasus tribes. He was promoted to lieutenant general in 1841, and continued his service in the Caucasus, in 1843, he fought in his last war, commanding a successful punitive expedition against the rebellious Dagestani tribes

78.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy

79.
James Fenimore Cooper
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James Fenimore Cooper was a prolific and popular American writer of the early 19th century. His historical romances of frontier and Indian life in the early American days created a form of American literature. He lived most of his life in Cooperstown, New York, Cooper was a lifelong member of the Episcopal Church and, in his later years, contributed generously to it. He attended Yale University for three years, where he was a member of the Linonian Society, but was expelled for misbehavior. Before embarking on his career as a writer, he served in the U. S. Navy as a Midshipman, the novel that launched his career was The Spy, a tale about counterespionage set during the Revolutionary War and published in 1821. He also wrote numerous sea stories, and his works are five historical novels of the frontier period known as the Leatherstocking Tales. Among naval historians, Coopers works on the early U. S. Navy have been well received, among his most famous works is the Romantic novel The Last of the Mohicans, often regarded as his masterpiece. James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey in 1789 to William Cooper and Elizabeth Cooper and he was descended from James Cooper of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, who emigrated to the American colonies in 1679. James and his wife were Quakers who purchased plots of land in New Jersey, seventy-five years after his arrival in America, his great-grandson William was born on December 2,1754. Shortly after James first birthday, his family moved to Cooperstown, New York, later, his father was elected as a United States Congressman from Otsego County. Their town was in a area of New York that had previously been occupied by the Iroquois of the Six Nations. The Iroquois were forced to cede their territory after British defeat in the Revolutionary War, shortly after the American Revolutionary War, the state opened up these former Iroquois lands for sale and development. Coopers father purchased several acres of land in upstate New York along the head-waters of the Susquehanna River. By 1788, William Cooper had selected and surveyed the site where Cooperstown would be established and he erected a home on the shore of Otsego lake and moved his family there in the autumn of 1790. He soon began construction of the mansion that would be known as Otsego Hall and it was completed in 1799 when James was ten. At age 13, Cooper was enrolled at Yale, but he incited a dangerous prank that involved blowing up another students door — after having already locked a donkey in a recitation room, Cooper was expelled in his third year without completing his degree. Disenchanted with college, he obtained work in 1806 as a sailor and, at age 17, by 1811, he obtained the rank of midshipman in the fledgling United States Navy, conferred upon him on an officers warrant signed by Thomas Jefferson. At 20, Cooper inherited a fortune from his father and he married Susan Augusta de Lancey at Mamaroneck, Westchester County, New York on January 1,1811 at age 21

James Fenimore Cooper
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Photograph by Mathew Brady, 1850
James Fenimore Cooper
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Otsego Hall, Cooper's home
James Fenimore Cooper
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The young Cooper, in Midshipman 's naval uniform
James Fenimore Cooper
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The Last of the Mohicans Illustration from 1896 edition, by J.T. Merrill

80.
Thomas De Quincey
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Thomas Penson De Quincey was an English essayist, best known for his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater. Many scholars suggest that in publishing this work De Quincey inaugurated the tradition of literature in the West. De Quincey was born at 86 Cross Street, Manchester, Lancashire and his father was a successful merchant with an interest in literature who died when he was quite young. Soon after his birth the family went to The Farm and then later to Greenheys, in 1796, three years after the death of his father, Thomas Quincey, his mother – the erstwhile Elizabeth Penson – took the name De Quincey. In the same year, De Quinceys mother moved to Bath, Somerset, De Quincey was a weak and sickly child. His youth was spent in solitude, and when his brother, William, came home. De Quinceys mother was a woman of character and intelligence. It is purported that at time, in 1799, De Quincey first read Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth. In 1800, De Quincey, aged fifteen, was ready for the University of Oxford and that boy, his master at Bath had said, could harangue an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one. He was sent to Manchester Grammar School, in order that after three years stay he might obtain a scholarship to Brasenose College, Oxford, but he took flight after nineteen months. His first plan had been to reach William Wordsworth, whose Lyrical Ballads had consoled him in fits of depression and had awakened in him a reverence for the poet. From July to November 1802, De Quincey lived as a wayfarer and he soon lost his guinea by ceasing to keep his family informed of his whereabouts, and had difficulty making ends meet. Still, apparently fearing pursuit, he borrowed money and travelled to London. Having failed, he lived close to starvation rather than return to his family, discovered by chance by his friends, De Quincey was brought home and finally allowed to go to Worcester College, Oxford, on a reduced income. Here, we are told, he came to be looked upon as a strange being who associated with no one, in 1804, while at Oxford, he began the occasional use of opium. He completed his studies, but failed to take the oral examination leading to a degree and he became an acquaintance of Coleridge and Wordsworth, having already sought out Charles Lamb in London. His acquaintance with Wordsworth led to his settling in 1809 at Grasmere and he lived for ten years in Dove Cottage, which Wordsworth had occupied and which is now a popular tourist attraction, and for another five years at Fox Ghyll near Rydal. De Quincey was married in 1816, and soon after, having no money left and his wife Margaret bore him eight children before her death in 1837

Thomas De Quincey
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Thomas de Quincey by Sir John Watson-Gordon.
Thomas De Quincey
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Logic of political economy, 1844
Thomas De Quincey
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De Quincey's large house at 1 Forres Street, Edinburgh
Thomas De Quincey
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Thomas De Quincey from Modern English Books of Power, by George Hamlin Fitch

81.
Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff
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Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff was a Prussian poet, novelist, playwright, literary critic, translator, and anthologist. Eichendorff was one of the writers and critics of Romanticism. Ever since their publication and up to the present day, some of his works have been popular in Germany. Eichendorff first became famous for his 1826 novella Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing, the Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing is a typical Romantic novella whose main themes are wanderlust and love. The protagonist, the son of a miller, rejects his fathers trade, as, with his lowly status, she is unattainable for him, he escapes to Italy - only to return and learn that she is the dukes adopted daughter, and thus within his social reach. With its combination of world and realism, Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing is considered to be a high point of Romantic fiction. One critic stated that Eichendorff’s Good-for-Nothing is the personification of love of nature, Thomas Mann called Eichendorffs Good-for-Nothing a combination of the purity of the folk song and the fairy tale. Many of Eichendorffs poems were first published as parts of his novellas and stories. The novella Good-for-Nothing alone contains 54 poems, Eichendorff, a descendant of an old noble family, was born in 1788 at Schloß Lubowitz near Ratibor in Upper Silesia, at that time part of the Kingdom of Prussia. His parents were the Prussian officer Adolf Freiherr von Eichendorff and his wife, Karoline née Freiin von Kloche, Eichendorff sold the family estates Deutsch-Krawarn, Kauthen, and Wrbkau and acquired Lubowitz Castle from his mother-in-law. The castles Rococo reconstruction, which was begun by her, was very expensive, young Joseph was close to his older brother Wilhelm. From 1793-1801 they were home-schooled by tutor Bernhard Heinke, Joseph began writing diaries as early as 1798, witnesses to his budding literary career. The diaries present many insights into the development of the young writer, at a young age, Eichendorff was already well aware of his parents financial straits. On 19 June 1801, the thirteen-year old noted in his diary, Father travelled to Breslau, on the run from his creditors, adding on 24 June, with his brother Wilhelm, Joseph attended the Catholic Matthias Gymnasium in Breslau. In 1804 his sister Luise Antonie Nepomucene Johanna was born, who was to become a friend of Austrian writer Adalbert Stifter, after their final exams, both brothers attended lectures at the University of Breslau and the Protestant Maria-Magdalena-Gymnasium. Eichendorffs diary from this time shows that he valued formal education much less than the theatre, recording 126 plays and his love for Mozart also goes back to these days. Joseph himself seems to have been an actor and his brother Wilhelm a good singer. Together with his brother Wilhelm, Joseph studied law and the humanities in Halle an der Saale, a city near Jena, the brothers frequently attended the theatre of Lauchstädt,13 km where the Weimar court theatrical company performed plays by Goethe

82.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18

83.
Karl Gutzkow
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Karl Ferdinand Gutzkow was a German writer notable in the Young Germany movement of the mid-19th century. Gutzkow was born of a poor family, not proletarian. His father held a clerkship in the war office in Berlin, jacob Wittmer Hartmann speculates that Gutzkows later agnosticism was probably a reaction against the excessive religiosity of his early surroundings. After completing his studies, beginning in 1829 Gutzkow studied theology and philosophy at the University of Berlin. While still a student, he began his career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled Forum der Journalliteratur. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship of the Literaturblatt, at the same time he continued his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1835 he went to Frankfurt, where he founded the Deutsche Revue, while Gutzkow started out as a collaborator of Wolfgang Menzel, he ended up his adversary. Also in 1835, his novel Wally die Zweiflerin appeared, the work was directed specially against the institution of marriage and the belief in revelation. The book incorporates many ideas that Gutzkow had recently absorbed from French writers, notably Henri de Saint-Simon and this is usually taken as the starting point of the school known as Young Germany, literary reformers heralding the democratic upheaval of 1848. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim, Gutzkow wrote his treatise Zur Philosophie der Geschichte, on obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfurt, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch of his activity by bringing out his tragedy Richard Savage. Of his numerous other plays, the majority by c, in 1847, Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Meanwhile, he had not neglected the novel, seraphine was followed by Blasedow und seine Söhne, a satire on the educational theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared Die Ritter vom Geiste, which may be regarded as the point for the modern German social novel. Der Zauberer von Rom is a study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany. In 1864 he had a fit, and his theatrical powers began to diminish. Gutzkow was never a revolutionary, and he became more conservative with age and he was one of the first Germans who tried to make a living by writing. Works by Karl Gutzkow at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Karl Gutzkow at Internet Archive Works by Karl Gutzkow at LibriVox

84.
Wilhelm Hauff
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Wilhelm Hauff was a German poet and novelist. Hauff was born in Stuttgart, the son of August Friedrich Hauff, a secretary in the ministry of foreign affairs and he was the second of four children. In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at Blaubeuren, in four years he completed his philosophical and theological studies at the Tübinger Stift. While there, he wrote the first part of the Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren des Satan. The latter, a parody of the sentimental and sensual novels of Heinrich Clauren, became in the course of composition, a close imitation of that authors style and was actually published under his name. This novel was the inspiration for Duke Ulrichs heir, Duke Wilhelm of Urach, to rebuild the castle and he also published some short poems, which have passed into Volkslieder, among them Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum frühen Tod. and Steh ich in finstrer Mitternacht. The novella Jud Süß was published in 1827 and his Sämtliche Werke, with a biography, edited by Gustav Schwab were published in 3 volumes 1830–1834, and 5 volumes in 1882. They were also published by Felix Bobertag 1891–1897, a selection from his works was published by M. Mendheim. Considering his brief life, Hauff was a prolific writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventiveness, little Longnose, a 2003 Russian animated feature based on one of his stories. Geschichte vom kleinen Muck, a 1953 film and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hauff, Wilhelm

85.
Nathaniel Hawthorne
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Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist, dark romantic, and short story writer. He was born in 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, to Nathaniel Hathorne and his ancestors include John Hathorne, the only judge involved in the Salem witch trials who never repented of his actions. Nathaniel later added a w to make his name Hawthorne in order to hide this relation and he entered Bowdoin College in 1821, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1824, and graduated in 1825. Hawthorne published his first work, a novel titled Fanshawe, in 1828, he tried to suppress it. He published several stories in periodicals, which he collected in 1837 as Twice-Told Tales. The next year, he engaged to Sophia Peabody. He worked at the Boston Custom House and joined Brook Farm, the couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, later moving to Salem, the Berkshires, then to The Wayside in Concord. The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850, followed by a succession of other novels, a political appointment as consul took Hawthorne and family to Europe before their return to Concord in 1860. Hawthorne died on May 19,1864, and was survived by his wife, much of Hawthornes writing centers on New England, many works featuring moral allegories with a Puritan inspiration. His fiction works are considered part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically and his themes often center on the inherent evil and sin of humanity, and his works often have moral messages and deep psychological complexity. His published works include novels, short stories, and a biography of his college friend Franklin Pierce, Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4,1804, in Salem, Massachusetts, his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. William Hathorne, the authors great-great-great-grandfather, a Puritan, was the first of the family to emigrate from England, first settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts, before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held political positions including magistrate and judge. Williams son and the authors great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem witch trials. Hawthornes father, Nathaniel Hathorne, Sr. was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Suriname, he had been a member of the East India Marine Society. After his death, young Nathaniel, his mother, and two sisters moved in with relatives, the Mannings, in Salem, where they lived for 10 years. In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. In spite of his homesickness, for the sake of having fun, he distributed seven issues of The Spectator to his family in August, the homemade newspaper was written by hand

86.
Alexandre Herculano
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Alexandre Herculano de Carvalho e Araújo was a Portuguese novelist and historian. One of his grandfathers was a stonemason in the royal employ. In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to Terceira Island as a volunteer and he took part in all the actions of the great siege, and at the same time served as a librarian in the city archives. He published his first volume of verses, A Voz de Propheta, in 1832, privation had made a man of him, and in these little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable power of expression. After spending his early years as a poet, Herculano introduced the novel into Portugal in 1844 by a book written in imitation of Walter Scott. Eurico treats of the fall of the Visigothic monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the Asturias which gave birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, Herculano had greater book-learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and skill in dialogue. His touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was as great as their followers were many. The difficulties he encountered in producing it were great, for the foundations had been ill-prepared by his predecessors. He had to collect manuscripts from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and weigh them before he could begin work, the second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849, and the fourth in 1853. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit and by the press for his lack of patriotism and piety, the conduct of the controversy, which lasted some years, did credit to none of the contending parties, but Herculanos statement of the facts was eventually universally accepted as correct. Next to these two books, his study, Condition of the classes on the peninsula from the seventh to the twelfth century, was Herculanos most valuable contribution to history. On the death of his friend King Pedro V, Herculano left the Ajuda, disillusioned with mankind and despairing of the future of his country, Herculano rarely emerged from his retirement, when he did so, it was to fight political and religious reactionaries. Herculano defended Portugals monastic orders and successfully opposed the entry of religious orders. He supported the clergy and idealized the village priest in his Pároco da Aldeia. Herculano also opposed the Concordat of February 21,1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating the Portuguese Padroado in the East, Herculano supported civil marriage, although his Studies on Civil Marriage was banned. English historian Lord Acton and German historian Ignaz von Döllinger experienced similar problems, especially as they all fought the new dogmas of the Immaculate Conception, other key documents issued by Pius IX during the ecclesiastical retrenchment include the Syllabus of Errors and Etsi multa. In the domain of letters he remained until his death a veritable pontiff, and an article or book of his was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal to the other. The nation continued to look up to him for intellecual leadership, however, though he conducted political propaganda campaigns in the press in his early days, Herculano never exercised much influence in politics

Alexandre Herculano
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Alexandre Herculano
Alexandre Herculano

87.
Nikolay Karamzin
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Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin was a Russian writer, poet, historian and critic. He is best remembered for his History of the Russian State, Karamzin was born in the village of Znamenskoye, in Simbirsk Governorate on 1 December 1766. His father was an officer in the Russian army, after residing for some time in St Petersburg he went to Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement until induced to revisit Moscow. There, finding himself in the midst of the society of learned men, in 1789, he resolved to travel, visiting Germany, France, Switzerland and England. On his return he published his Letters of a Russian Traveller, in the same periodical, Karamzin also published translations from French and some original stories, including Poor Liza and Natalia the Boyars Daughter. These stories introduced Russian readers to sentimentalism, and Karamzin was hailed as a Russian Sterne, from 1797 to 1799, he issued another miscellany or poetical almanac, The Aonides, in conjunction with Derzhavin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he compiled The Pantheon, a collection of pieces from the works of the most celebrated authors ancient and modern, many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by him in a volume entitled My Trifles. His example proved beneficial for the creation of a Russian literary language, in 1802 and 1803, Karamzin edited the journal the Envoy of Europe. It was not until after the publication of work that he realized where his strength lay. In order to accomplish the task, he secluded himself for two years at Simbirsk, when Emperor Alexander learned the cause of his retirement, Karamzin was invited to Tver, where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes of his history. He did not, however, live to carry his work further than the eleventh volume and he died on 22 May 1826, in the Tauride Palace. A monument was erected to his memory at Simbirsk in 1845, Karamzin is credited for having introduced the letter Ë/ë into the Russian alphabet some time after 1795, replacing the obsolete form that had been patterned after the extant letter Ю/ю. Ironically, the use of form is generally deprecated, typically appearing merely as E/e in books other than dictionaries. Karamzin is well-regarded as a historian, until the appearance of his work, little had been done in this direction in Russia. The preceding attempt of Vasily Tatishchev was merely a rough sketch, inelegant in style, Karamzin was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the notes to his volumes are mines of interesting information. In the battle pieces, he demonstrates considerable powers of description, as a critic Karamzin was of great service to his country, in fact he may be regarded as the founder of the review and essay among the Russians. Also, Karamzin is sometimes considered a father of Russian conservatism. Upon appointing him a historian, Alexander I greatly valued Karamzins advice on political matters

Nikolay Karamzin
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Portrait of Karamzin by Vasily Tropinin, 1818.
Nikolay Karamzin
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Coat of arms of the Karamzin family

88.
John Keats
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John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813

89.
Giacomo Leopardi
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Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi, also known as the hunchback of Recanati, was an Italian poet, philosopher, essayist and philologist. He is widely acknowledged to have one of the most radical. The extraordinarily lyrical quality of his poetry made him a central protagonist in the European and international literary, Giacomo Leopardi was born into a local noble family in Recanati, in the Marche, at the time ruled by the papacy. His father, the count Monaldo Leopardi, was a man, fond of literature but weak and reactionary. His mother, the marquise Adelaide Antici Mattei, was a cold and authoritarian woman, obsessed over rebuilding the familys financial fortunes, at home, a rigorous discipline of religion and savings reigned. However, Giacomos happy childhood, which he spent with his younger brother Carlo Orazio and his sister Paolina, left its mark on the poet, who recorded his experiences in the poem Le Ricordanze. Following a family tradition, Leopardi began his studies under the tutelage of two priests, but his innate thirst for knowledge found its satisfaction primarily in his fathers rich library, initially guided by Father Sebastiano Sanchini, Leopardi quickly liberated himself by vast and profound readings. His continuous study undermined an already fragile physical constitution, and his illness, probably Potts disease or ankylosing spondylitis, in 1817 Pietro Giordani, a classicist, arrived at the Leopardi estate. Giacomo became his friend, and he derived from this friendship a sense of hope for the future. Meanwhile, his life at Recanati weighed on him increasingly, to the point that he attempted finally to escape in 1818, from then on, relations between father and son continued to deteriorate, and Giacomo was constantly monitored in his own home by the rest of the family. When, in 1822, he was able to stay in Rome with his uncle, he was deeply disappointed by the atmosphere of corruption and decadence. He was extremely impressed by the tomb of Torquato Tasso, to whom he felt bound by a common sense of unhappiness. While Foscolo lived tumultuously between adventures, amorous relations, and books, Leopardi was barely able to escape from his domestic oppression. To Leopardi, Rome seemed squalid and modest when compared to the image that he had created of it while fantasizing over the sweaty papers of the classics. Already before leaving home to himself, he had experienced a burning amorous disillusionment caused by his falling in love with his cousin Geltrude Cassi. His physical ailments, which continued to worsen, contributed to the collapse of any last, residual traces of illusions and hopes. In 1824, the bookstore owner Stella called him to Milan, asking him to several works. During this period, the poet had lived at various points in Milan, Bologna, Florence, in 1827, in Florence, Leopardi met Alessandro Manzoni, but they did not quite see things eye to eye

90.
James Russell Lowell
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James Russell Lowell was an American Romantic poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He is associated with the Fireside Poets, a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets that rivaled the popularity of British poets and these writers usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside. Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838, despite his reputation as a troublemaker and he published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844. The couple had children, though only one survived past childhood. After moving back to Cambridge, Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer and he gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics, a book-length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he published The Biglow Papers, which increased his fame and he went on to publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career. Maria died in 1853, and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854 and he traveled to Europe before officially assuming his teaching duties in 1856, and married Frances Dunlap shortly thereafter in 1857. That year, Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly and it was not until 20 years later that he received his first political appointment, the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Spain. He was later appointed ambassador to the Court of St. Jamess and he spent his last years in Cambridge in the same estate where he was born, and died there in 1891. Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and he used poetry for reform, particularly in abolitionism. However, his commitment to the anti-slavery cause wavered over the years and he attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters, particularly in The Biglow Papers. This depiction of the dialect, as well as his satires, was an inspiration to writers such as Mark Twain. James Russell Lowell was born February 22,1819 and he was a member of the eighth generation of the Lowell family, the descendants of Percival Lowle who settled in Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1639. His parents were the Reverend Charles Russell Lowell, Sr. a minister at a Unitarian church in Boston who had studied theology at Edinburgh. By the time that James Russell Lowell was born, the owned a large estate in Cambridge called Elmwood. He was the youngest of six children, his siblings were Charles, Rebecca, Mary, William, Lowells mother built in him an appreciation for literature at an early age, especially in poetry, ballads, and tales from her native Orkney. In his sophomore year, he was absent from required chapel attendance 14 times, in his senior year, he became one of the editors of Harvardiana literary magazine, to which he contributed prose and poetry that he admitted was of low quality. As he said later, I was as great an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing, during his undergraduate years, Lowell was a member of Hasty Pudding and served both as Secretary and Poet

James Russell Lowell
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James Russell Lowell circa 1855
James Russell Lowell
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Elmwood, birthplace and longtime home of James Russell Lowell, in Cambridge, Massachusetts
James Russell Lowell
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James Russell Lowell in his later years
James Russell Lowell
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Grave of James Russell Lowell at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts

91.
Alexandru Macedonski
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A forerunner of local modernist literature, he is the first local author to have used free verse, and claimed by some to have been the first in modern European literature. Despite having theorized instrumentalism, which reacted against the guidelines of poetry, he maintained a lifelong connection with Neoclassicism. Macedonskis quest for excellence found its foremost expression in his motif of life as a pilgrimage to Mecca. The stylistic stages of his career are reflected in the collections Prima verba, Poezii, in old age, he became the author of rondels, noted for their detached and serene vision of life, in contrast with his earlier combativeness. In parallel to his career, Macedonski was a civil servant, notably serving as prefect in the Budjak. As journalist and militant, his allegiance fluctuated between the current and conservatism, becoming involved in polemics and controversies of the day. Of the long series of publications he founded, Literatorul was the most influential and these targeted Vasile Alecsandri and especially Eminescu, their context and tone becoming the cause of a major rift between Macedonski and his public. During World War I, the poet aggravated his critics by supporting the Central Powers against Romanias alliance with the Entente side and his biography was also marked by an enduring interest in esotericism, numerous attempts to become recognized as an inventor, and an enthusiasm for cycling. The scion of a political and aristocratic family, the poet was the son of General Alexandru Macedonski, who served as Defense Minister, both his son Alexis and grandson Soare were known painters. The poets paternal family had arrived in Wallachia during the early 19th century, of South Slav or Aromanian origin, they claimed to have descended from Serb insurgents in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia. Both the officers uncle Pavel and brother Mihail were amateur poets, Macedonskis mother, Maria Fisența, was from an aristocratic environment, being the scion of Oltenian boyars. Through her father, she may have descended from Russian immigrants who had absorbed into Oltenias nobility. Maria had been adopted by the boyar Dumitrache Pârâianu, and the couple had inherited the Adâncata and Pometești estates in Goiești, both the poet and his father were dissatisfied with accounts of their lineage, contradicting them with an account that researchers have come to consider spurious. Although adherents of the Romanian Orthodox Church, the Macedonskis traced their origin to Rogala-bearing Lithuanian nobility from the defunct Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the family moved often, following General Macedonskis postings. Born in Bucharest, Macedonski-son was the third of four siblings, before the age of six, he was a sickly and nervous child, who is reported to have had regular tantrums. In 1862, his father sent him to school in Oltenia, the nostalgia he felt for the landscape later made him consider writing an Amărăzene cycle, of which only one poem was ever completed. He was attending the Carol I High School in Craiova and, according to his official record, graduated in 1867. Macedonskis father had by then known as an authoritarian commander

92.
Alessandro Manzoni
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Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Manzoni was an Italian poet and novelist. He is famous for the novel The Betrothed, generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature, the novel is also a symbol of the Italian Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified Italian language. Manzoni was born in Milan, Italy, on 7 March 1785, pietro, his father, aged about fifty, belonged to an old family of Lecco, originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina. The poets maternal grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was an author and philosopher. The young Alessandro spent his first two years of life in cascina Costa in Galbiate and he was wet-nursed by Caterina Panzeri, in 1792 his parents broke their marriage and his mother began a relationship with the highbrow Carlo Imbonati, moving to England and later to Paris. For this reason, their son was brought up in religious institutes. Manzoni was a developer, and at the various colleges he attended he was considered a dunce. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion for poetry, there too he imbibed the anti-Catholic creed of Voltairianism. In 1808, Manzoni married Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese banker and she came from a Calvinist family, but in 1810 she became a Roman Catholic. Her conversion profoundly influenced her husband and that same year he experienced a religious crisis which led him from Jansenism to an austere form of Catholicism. Manzonis marriage proved a most happy one, and he led for many years a retired domestic life, in 1818 he had to sell his paternal inheritance, as his money had been lost to a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown at this time in his dealings with his peasants and he not only cancelled on the spot the record of all sums owed to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the coming maize harvest. In 1819, Manzoni published his first tragedy, Il Conte di Carmagnola and it was severely criticized in a Quarterly Review article to which Goethe replied in its defence, one genius, as Count de Gubernatis remarks, having divined the other. The death of Napoleon in 1821 inspired Manzonis powerful stanzas Il Cinque maggio, round the episode of the Innominato, historically identified with Bernardino Visconti, the first manuscript of the novel The Betrothed began to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1823. The work was published, after being deeply reshaped by the author and revised by friends in 1825–1827, at the rate of a volume a year and it is generally agreed to be his greatest work, and the paradigm of modern Italian language. In 1822, Manzoni published his tragedy, Adelchi, turning on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy. With these works Manzonis literary career was practically closed and he also wrote a small treatise on the Italian language. The death of Manzonis wife in 1833 was preceded and followed by those of several of his children, and of his mother

93.
Adam Mickiewicz
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Adam Bernard Mickiewicz was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator, professor of Slavic literature, and political activist. He is regarded as national poet in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus, a principal figure in Polish Romanticism, he is counted one of Polands Three Bards and is widely regarded as Polands greatest poet. He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic and European poets and has dubbed a Slavic bard. A leading Romantic dramatist, he has compared in Poland and Europe to Byron. He is known chiefly for the poetic drama Dziady and the epic poem Pan Tadeusz. His other influential works include Konrad Wallenrod and Grażyna, All these served as inspiration for uprisings against the three imperial powers that had partitioned the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth out of existence. After, as a consequence, spending five years exiled to central Russia, in 1829 he succeeded in leaving the Russian Empire and, like many of his compatriots, lived out the rest of his life abroad. He settled first in Rome, then in Paris, where for a little over three years he lectured on Slavic literature at the Collège de France. He died, probably of cholera, at Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire, in 1890, his remains were repatriated from Montmorency, Val-dOise, in France, to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, Poland. Adam Mickiewicz was born on 24 December 1798, either at his uncles estate in Zaosie near Navahrudak or in Navahrudak itself in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is now Belarus. The region was on the periphery of Lithuania proper and had part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its upper class, including Mickiewiczs family, were either Polish or Polonized, the poets father, Mikołaj Mickiewicz, a lawyer, was a member of the Polish nobility and bore the hereditary Poraj coat-of-arms, Adams mother was Barbara Mickiewicz, née Majewska. Adam was the son in the family. Mickiewicz spent his childhood in Navahrudak, initially taught by his mother and he was a mediocre student, although active in games, theatricals, and the like. In September 1815, Mickiewicz enrolled at the Imperial University of Vilnius, after graduating, under the terms of his government scholarship, he taught secondary school at Kaunas from 1819 to 1823. In 1818, in the Polish-language Tygodnik Wileński, he published his first poem, about the summer of 1820, Mickiewicz met the love of his life, Maryla Wereszczakówna. They were unable to due to his familys poverty and relatively low social status, in addition, she was already engaged to Count Wawrzyniec Puttkamer. In 1817, while still a student, Mickiewicz, Tomasz Zan and other friends had created a secret organization, the group focused on self-education but had ties to a more radical, clearly pro-Polish-independence student group, the Filaret Association

94.
Charles Nodier
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Jean Charles Emmanuel Nodier was an influential French author and librarian who introduced a younger generation of Romanticists to the conte fantastique, gothic literature, and vampire tales. His dream related writings influenced the works of Gérard de Nerval. He was born at Besançon in France, near the border with Switzerland, but his son was for a time an ardent citizen, and is said to have been a Jacobin Club member at the age of twelve. In 1793 Charles saved the life of a lady guilty of sending money to an émigré and he was sent to Strasbourg, where he lived in the house of Eulogius Schneider, the notorious Jacobin governor of Alsace, but a good Greek scholar. During the Reign of Terror his father put him under the care of Justin Girod-Chantrans, with whom he studied English and his love of books began very early, and he combined with it a strong interest in nature, which Girod-Chantrans was able to foster. He became librarian in his town, but his exertions in the cause of suspected persons brought him under suspicion. An inspection of his papers by the police, however, revealed nothing more dangerous than a dissertation on the antennae of insects, entomology continued to be a favourite study with him, but he varied it with philology and pure literature and even political writing. For a skit on Napoleon, in 1803, he was imprisoned for some months. He then left Paris, where he had gone after losing his position at Besançon, and for years lived a very unsettled life at Besançon, Dole. During these wanderings he wrote his novel, Le peintre de Salzbourg, journal des émotions dun coeur souffrant, the hero, Charles, who is a variation of the Werther type, desires the restoration of the monasteries, to afford a refuge from the woes of the world. At Dole in 1808, on August 31, he married Désirée Charve, Nodier was working as a secretary to the elderly Sir Herbert Croft, 5th Baronet and his platonic friend Lady Mary Hamilton. During this time he translated Hamiltons book Munster Village and helped her write La famille du duc de Popoli or The Duc de Popoli which was published in 1810 and it was there that Nodier composed, in 1812, the first draft of his novel Jean Sbogar. The story about a love between a brigand and a daughter of a merchant was finally published in 1818. After the evacuation of French forces from the Illyrian provinces in 1813 he returned to Paris, in 1824 he was appointed librarian of the Bibliothèque de lArsenal, a position that he kept for the rest of his life. He was elected a member of the Académie française in 1833, also of the Société Entomologique de France when this was formed in 1832 and he died, aged,63, in Paris. The twenty years at the Arsenal were the most important and fruitful of Nodiers career, the group included Alphonse de Lamartine and Gérard de Nerval. Nodier was an admirer of Goethe, Laurence Sterne and Shakespeare. The best examples of the latter are to be found in the volume entitled Mélanges tirés dune petite bibliothèque, published in 1829, Nodier found an indulgent biographer in Prosper Mérimée on the occasion of the younger mans admission to the academy

95.
Cyprian Norwid
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Cyprian Konstanty Norwid, was a nationally esteemed Polish poet, dramatist, painter, and sculptor. He was born in the Masovian village of Laskowo-Głuchy near Warsaw, one of his maternal ancestors was the Polish King John III Sobieski. Norwid is regarded as one of the generation of romantics. He wrote many poems including Fortepian Szopena, Moja piosnka. Norwid led a tragic and often poverty-stricken life and he experienced increasing health problems, unrequited love, harsh critical reviews, and increasing social isolation. He lived abroad most of his life, especially in London and in Paris, Norwids original and non-conformist style was not appreciated in his lifetime and partially due to this fact, he was excluded from high society. His work was rediscovered and appreciated during the Young Poland art period of the late nineteenth. He is now considered one of the four most important Polish Romantic poets, other literary historians, however, consider this an oversimplification, and regard his style to be more characteristic of classicism and parnassianism. Born into the Topór coat of arms, Cyprian Norwid and his brother Ludwik were early orphaned, for most of their childhoods, they were educated at Warsaw schools. In 1830 Norwid interrupted his schooling and entered a school of painting. His incomplete formal education forced him to become an autodidact and his first foray into the literary sphere occurred in the periodical Piśmiennictwo Krajowe, which published his first poem, Mój ostatni sonet, in issue 8,1840. In 1842 Norwid went to Dresden, ostensibly to gain instruction in sculpture and he later also visited Venice and Florence. After he settled in Rome in 1844, his fiancée Kamila broke off their engagement, later he met Maria Kalergis, née Nesselrode, who became his lost love, even as his health deteriorated. The poet also traveled to Berlin, where he participated in university lectures and it was a time for Norwid where he made many social, artistic and political acquaintances. After being arrested and forced to leave Prussia in 1846, Norwid went to Brussels, during the European Revolutions of 1848, he stayed in Rome, where he met fellow Polish intellectuals Adam Mickiewicz and Zygmunt Krasiński. During 1849–1852, Norwid resided in Paris, where he met fellow Poles Frédéric Chopin and Juliusz Słowacki, as well as Russians Ivan Turgenev, financial hardship, unrequited love, political misunderstandings, and negative critical reception of his works put Norwid in a dire situation at this stage. Norwid lived in poverty and suffered from blindness and deafness. Under the protection of Władysław Zamoyski, Norwid decided to emigrate to the United States of America on 29 September 1852 and he arrived aboard the Margaret Evans in New York City on 12 February 1853, and during the spring, obtained a well-paying job at a graphics firm

96.
Alexander Pushkin
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin was a Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the Romantic era who is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature. Pushkin was born into Russian nobility in Moscow and his matrilineal great-grandfather was Abram Petrovich Gannibal, who was kidnapped from Eritrea and raised in the household of Peter the Great. Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. While under the surveillance of the Tsars political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play. His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, was serialized between 1825 and 1832, Pushkins father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin, was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to the 12th century. Pushkins mother, Nadezhda Ossipovna Gannibal, was descended through her grandmother from German and Scandinavian nobility. She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal and his wife, Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Greats daughter, that Gannibal was from the town of Lagon. Largely on the basis of a biography by Gannibals son-in-law Rotkirkh. Vladimir Nabokov, when researching Eugene Onegin, cast serious doubt on this origin theory, after education in France as a military engineer, Gannibal became governor of Reval and eventually Général en Chef in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. Born in Moscow, Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, after school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of the capital, Saint Petersburg. In 1820 he published his first long poem, Ruslan and Ludmila, amidst much controversy about its subject, Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. This angered the government, and led to his transfer from the capital in May 1820 and he went to the Caucasus and to Crimea, then to Kamianka and Chișinău, where he became a Freemason. Here he joined the Filiki Eteria, an organization whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule in Greece. He was inspired by the Greek Revolution and when the war against the Ottoman Turks broke out he kept a recording the events of the great national uprising. He stayed in Chișinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him acclaim, The Captive of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray. In 1823 Pushkin moved to Odessa, where he clashed with the government. In Mikhaylovskoye, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which he dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, then Pushkin continued work on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin. In Mikhaylovskoye, in 1825, Pushkin wrote the poem To*** and it is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to Anna Kern, but there are other opinions

97.
Friedrich Schiller
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Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright. During the last seventeen years of his life, Schiller struck up a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and they frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works he left as sketches. This relationship and these led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents to their philosophical vision. Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg as the son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller. Schiller grew up in a religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible. His father was away in the Seven Years War when Friedrich was born and he was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while and his wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schillers father became an officer and was stationed in Schwäbisch Gmünd. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to nearby Lorch, although the family was happy in Lorch, Schillers father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him, in Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister, because his parents wanted Schiller to become a pastor, they had the pastor of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Pastor Moser was a teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die Räuber after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes, in 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württembergs principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schillers father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so, so Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the Schiller boy came to the attention of Karl Eugen and he entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart, in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates, the plays critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience

98.
Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders

99.
Mary Shelley
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Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus. She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. When Mary was four, her father married a neighbour, with whom, as her stepmother, in 1814, Mary began a romance with one of her fathers political followers, Percy Bysshe Shelley, whom she eventually married. Together with Marys stepsister Claire Clairmont, Mary and Shelley left for France, upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percys child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter and they married in late 1816, after the suicide of Percy Shelleys first wife, Harriet. In 1816, the couple spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child. In 1822, her husband drowned when his boat sank during a storm near Viareggio. A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son, the last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53. Recent scholarship has yielded a comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Mary Shelleys works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley. Mary Shelley was born as Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town, London and she was the second child of the feminist philosopher, educator, and writer Mary Wollstonecraft, and the first child of the philosopher, novelist, and journalist William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died of fever shortly after Mary was born. Godwin was left to bring up Mary, along with her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, a year after Wollstonecrafts death, Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute. However, because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecrafts affairs and her illegitimate child, Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mothers books, and was brought up to cherish her mothers memory. Marys earliest years were happy ones, judging from the letters of William Godwins housekeeper and nurse, but Godwin was often deeply in debt, feeling that he could not raise the children by himself, he cast about for a second wife. In December 1801, he married Mary Jane Clairmont, a woman with two young children of her own—Charles and Claire

100.
Ludwig Tieck
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Tieck was born in Berlin, the son of a rope-maker. His siblings were the sculptor Christian Friedrich Tieck and the poet Sophie Tieck and he was educated at the Friedrichswerdersches Gymnasium, where he learned Greek and Latin, like most preparatory schools required. He also began learning Italian at a young age from a grenadier he became acquainted with. Through this friendship, Tieck was given a look at the poor. Later, he attended the universities of Halle, Göttingen and Erlangen, at Göttingen, he studied Shakespeare and Elizabethan drama. In 1794 he returned to Berlin, and attempted to make a living by writing, in 1798 Tieck married and in the following year settled in Jena, where he, the two brothers August and Friedrich Schlegel and Novalis were the leaders of the early Romantic school. His writings between 1798 and 1804 include the drama, Prinz Zerbino, and Romantische Dichtungen. These dramas are typical plays of the first Romantic school, although formless, kaiser Oktavianus is a poetic glorification of the Middle Ages. In 1801 Tieck went to Dresden, then lived for a time at Ziebingen near Frankfurt, from 1812 to 1817 he collected in three volumes a number of his earlier stories and dramas, under the title Phantasus. In this collection appeared the stories Der Runenberg, Die Elfen, Der Pokal, the new series of short stories which he began to publish in 1822 also won him a wide popularity. Notable among these are Die Gemälde, Die Reisenden, Die Verlobung, in 1841 Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia invited him to Berlin where he had a pension for his remaining years. He died on 28 April 1853 in Berlin, Tiecks importance lay in the readiness with which he adapted himself to the emerging new ideas which arose at the close of the 18th century, as well as his Romantic works such as Der blonde Eckbert. His importance in German poetry, however, is restricted to his early period, in later years it was as the helpful friend and adviser of others, or as the well-read critic of wide sympathies, that Tieck distinguished himself. Tieck also influenced Richard Wagners Tannhäuser and it was from Phantasus that Wagner based the idea of Tannhäuser going to see the pope and Elisabeth dying in the song battle. Tiecks Schriften appeared in twenty vols. and his Gesammelte Novellen in twelve, nachgelassene Schriften were published in two vols. in 1855. There are several editions of Ausgewählte Werke by H. Welti, by J. Minor, by G. Klee, the Elves and The Goblet were translated by Carlyle in German Romance, The Pictures and The Betrothal by Bishop Thirlwall. A translation of Vittoria Accorombona was published in 1845, a Tale Abridged from Tieck, which appeared anonymously in Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine in February 1845. The Journey into the Blue Distance, the Romance of Little Red Riding Hood was translated by Jack Zipes and included in his book The Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Riding Hood

Ludwig Tieck
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Johann Ludwig Tieck

101.
Romantic music
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Romantic music is an era of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw an expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range. Also, public concerts became a key part of middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods. Famous composers from the half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Verdi. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the half of the 18th century in Europe. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education. One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, in the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism, the attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the ghostly and supernatural could apply equally to Mozarts Don Giovanni from 1787, events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in effect by the late 18th century. This event had a profound effect on music, there were major improvements in the mechanical valves. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease, another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be no segregation of musical tastes, during the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose

102.
Adolphe Adam
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Adolphe Charles Adam was a French composer and music critic. Later set to different English lyrics and widely sung as O Holy Night, Adam was a noted teacher, who taught Delibes and other influential composers. Adolphe Adam was born in Paris, to Jean-Louis Adam, who was a prominent Alsatian composer and his mother was the daughter of a physician. As a child, Adolphe Adam preferred to improvise music on his own rather than study music seriously and occasionally truanted with writer Eugène Sue who was something of a dunce in early years. Jean-Louis Adam was a pianist and teacher but was set against the idea of his son following in his footsteps. Adam was determined, however, and studied and composed secretly under the tutelage of his older friend Ferdinand Hérold, a popular composer of the day. When Adam was 17, his father relented, and he was permitted to study at the Paris Conservatoire—but only after he promised that he would learn music only as an amusement, not as a career. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1821, where he studied organ and harmonium under the celebrated opera composer François-Adrien Boieldieu. Adam also played the timpani in the orchestra of the Conservatoire, however, he did not win the Prix de Rome and his father did not encourage him to pursue a music career, as he won second prize. By age 20, he was writing songs for Paris vaudeville houses and playing in the orchestra at the Gymnasie Dramatique, like many other French composers, he made a living largely by playing the organ. In 1825, he helped Boieldieu prepare parts for his opera La dame blanche, Adam was able to travel through Europe with the money he made, and he met Eugène Scribe, with whom he later collaborated, in Geneva. By 1830, he had completed twenty-eight works for the theatre, Adam is probably best remembered for the ballet Giselle. He wrote several ballets and 39 operas, including Le postillon de Lonjumeau. After quarreling with the director of the Opéra, Adam invested his money and borrowed heavily to open a fourth house in Paris. It opened in 1847, but closed because of the Revolution of 1848 and his efforts to extricate himself from these debts include a brief turn to journalism. From 1849 to his death in Paris, he taught composition at the Paris Conservatoire. His Christmas carol Cantique de Noël, translated to English as O Holy Night, is an international favorite, Cantique de Noel is based on a poem written by M. Cappeau de Roquemaure. Adam is buried in Montmartre Cemetery in Paris, List of operas by Adam List of ballets by Adolphe Adam

103.
Charles-Valentin Alkan
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Charles-Valentin Alkan was a French-Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist. Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris, which he entered before he was six and his career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long withdrawals from public performance, for personal reasons. During this period he published, among other works, his collections of studies in all the major keys. The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano and Concerto for Solo Piano, Alkan emerged from self-imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians. Alkans attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work and he was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music. Fluent in Hebrew and Greek, he devoted time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French. This work, like many of his compositions, is now lost. Alkan never married, but his presumed son Élie-Miriam Delaborde was, like Alkan, following his death Alkans music became neglected, supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni, Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji. From the late 1960s onwards, led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith, many pianists have recorded his music, Alkan was born Charles-Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1, Rue de Braque in Paris to Alkan Morhange and Julie Morhange, née Abraham. Alkan Morhange was descended from a long-established Jewish Ashkenazic community in the region of Metz, Charles-Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers, his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth. Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a music school in le Marais. At an early age, Charles-Valentin and his siblings adopted their fathers first name as their last. His brother Napoléon became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire, his brother Maxim had a career writing music for Parisian theatres. His brother Ernest was a professional flautist, while the youngest brother Gustave was to publish various dances for the piano and he entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age, and studied both piano and organ. The records of his auditions survive in the Archives Nationales in Paris, at his solfège audition on 3 July 1819, when he was just over 5 years 7 months, the examiners noted Alkan as having a pretty little voice. The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as music-paper ruler, at Charles-Valentins piano audition on 6 October 1820, when he was nearly seven, the examiners comment This child has amazing abilities. Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire, Joseph Zimmermann, who also taught Georges Bizet, César Franck, Charles Gounod, at the age of seven, Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano, harmony, and organ. At the age of seven-and-a-half he gave his first public performance, appearing as a violinist and playing an air, Alkans Opus 1, a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel Steibelt, dates from 1828, when he was 14 years old

104.
Daniel Auber
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Daniel François Esprit Auber was a French composer. The son of a Paris print-seller, Auber was born in Caen in Normandy, though his father expected him to continue in the print-selling business, he also allowed his son to learn how to play several musical instruments. His first teacher was the Tirolean composer, Josef Alois Ladurner, at the age of 20 Auber was sent to London for business training, but he was obliged to leave England in 1804 when the Treaty of Amiens was breached. Auber had already attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several concertos pour basse, modelled after the violoncellist Lamare, in whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the violin, which was played at the Paris Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him to undertake a resetting of an old comic opera and he also began to study with the renowned Luigi Cherubini. In 1813 the unfavourable reception of his one-act debut opera Le Séjour militaire put an end for some years to his attempts as composer, but his failure in business, and the death of his father in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music. He produced another opera, Le Testament et les billets-doux, which was no better received than the former, but he persevered, and the next year was rewarded by the complete success of La Bergère châtelaine, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a series of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his association with librettist Eugène Scribe. Their first opera, Leicester, shows evidence of the influence of Gioachino Rossini in its musical style, Auber soon developed his own voice, however, light, vivacious, graceful, and melodious—characteristically French. Le maçon was his first major triumph, staying in the repertory until the 20th century, an ensemble from the latter found its way into Herolds ballet La Somnambule as an air parlante. Auber achieved another triumph in La muette de Portici, also known as Masaniello after its hero. Produced in Paris in 1828, it became a European favourite, and the foundation work of a new genre, grand opera. La Muette broke ground also in its use of a ballerina in a leading role, official and other dignities testified to the public appreciation of Aubers works. In 1829 he was elected a member of the Institut de France, Fra Diavolo, which premiered on 28 January 1830, was his most successful opera. That same year,1830, he was named director of the court concerts, next year, on 20 June 1831, he had another big success, with Le Philtre, starring Adolphe Nourrit. The libretto was translated into Italian and set by Donizetti as Lelisir damore, two years later, on 27 February 1833, Gustave III, his second grand opera, also triumphed and stayed in the repertory for years. The libretto was to be used more, first by Saverio Mercadante for Il reggente, with the action transferred to Scotland

105.
Louise Bertin
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Louise-Angélique Bertin was a French composer and poet. Louise Bertin lived her life in France. Her father, Louis-François Bertin, and also her brother later on, were the editors of Journal des débats, as encouraged by her family, Bertin pursued music. She received lessons from François-Joseph Fétis, who directed a private performance of Guy Mannering, Bertins first opera. This opera, never produced, took its story line from the book of the same name. Two years later, Bertins second opera, Le Loup-garou, was produced at the Opéra-Comique. At the age of 21, Bertin began working on an opera semiseria, Fausto to her own libretto in Italian, based on Goethes Faust, a performance of the completed opera was scheduled for 1830. However, due to unforeseen complications, Fausto did not actually reach the stage until a full year later. It was not well received and only saw three performances, shortly before this, Bertin became friends with Victor Hugo. Hugo himself had sketched out a version of his book Notre-Dame de Paris. Bertin was the composer to have collaborated directly with Hugo on an opera. During the seventh performance, a riot ensued and the run of La Esmeralda was forced to end, though a version of the opera continued to be performed over the next three years. The composer Hector Berlioz, who helped Bertin with the staging and production of La Esmeralda, was accused of providing the better music of this work. In frustration, Bertin refused to write any more operas, in 1837, Franz Liszt transcribed the orchestral score for solo piano, and made a piano transcription of the Air chanté par Massol. Bertin did however continue to compose in many different genres and her later compositions include twelve cantatas, six piano ballades, five chamber symphonies, a few string quartets, a piano trio, and many vocal selections. Of these, only the ballades and the trio were published, Bertin also wrote and published two volumes of poetry, Les Glanes in 1842 and Nouvelles Glanes in 1876. The former of these received a prize from the Académie française, Bertin died the year after the publication of Nouvelles Glanes. La Esmeralda Maya Boog, Phoebus - Manuel Núñez Camelino, Claude Frollo - Francesco Ellero d’Artegna & Quasimodo - Frédéric Antoun, festival de Radio France et Montpellier, Accord

Louise Bertin
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Louise Bertin (1805-1877).

106.
Franz Berwald
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Franz Adolf Berwald was a Swedish Romantic composer who was generally ignored during his lifetime. He made his living as a surgeon and later as the manager of a saw mill. The summers were off-season for the orchestra, and Berwald travelled around Scandinavia, Finland, of his works from that time, a septet and a serenade he still considered worthwhile music in his later years. In 1821, his Violin Concerto was premiered by his brother August and it was not well received, some people in the audience burst out laughing during the slow movement. His family got into dire economic circumstances after the death of his father in 1825. Berwald tried to get several scholarships, but only got one from the King, which enabled him to study in Berlin, to make a living, Berwald started an orthopedic and physiotherapy clinic in Berlin in 1835, which turned out to be profitable. Some of the devices he invented were still in use decades after his death. He stopped composing during his time in Berlin, resuming only in 1841 with a move to Vienna and marriage to Mathilde Scherer. In 1842 a concert of his poems at the Redoutensaal at the Hofburg Imperial Palace received extremely positive reviews. These were not the first symphonies he wrote, numerous major works from the 1820s have gone missing, and the torso of a Symphony in As first movement remains, has been finished, and recorded. The Symphony No.1 in G minor, Sérieuse, was the one of Berwalds four symphonies that was performed in his lifetime. In 1843, it was premiered in Stockholm with his cousin Johan Frederik conducting the Royal Opera House Orchestra, at that same concert, his operetta Jag går i kloster was also performed, but its success is credited to one of the roles having been sung by Jenny Lind. In 1846, Jenny Lind sang in one of Berwalds cantatas, another operetta, The Modiste, had less success in 1845. Particularly in its brilliant last movement it may be compared favourably to Robert Schumann or Edvard Grieg and its three movements are played without a break. Berwalds music was not recognised favourably in Sweden during his lifetime, even drawing hostile newspaper reviews, the Mozarteum Salzburg made him an honorary member in 1847. When Berwald returned to Sweden in 1849, he managed a glass works at Sandö in Ångermanland owned by Ludvig Petré, during that time Berwald focused his attention on producing chamber music. Following this success, he wrote Drottningen av Golconda, which would have premiered in 1864. In 1866, Berwald received the Swedish Order of the Polar Star, the royal family stepped in, and Berwald got the post

107.
Ferdinand David (musician)
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A German virtuoso violinist and composer. Born in the house in Hamburg where Felix Mendelssohn had been born the previous year, David was raised Jewish. David was a pupil of Louis Spohr and Moritz Hauptmann from 1823 to 1824, in 1829 he was the first violinist of Baron Carl Gotthard von Liphardts string quartet in Dorpat and he undertook concert tours in Riga, Saint Petersburg and Moscow. In 1835 he became concertmaster at the Gewandhaus in Leipzig working with Mendelssohn, David returned to Dorpat to marry Lipharts daughter Sophie. In 1843 David became the first professor of violin at the newly founded Leipziger Konservatorium für Musik, David worked closely with Mendelssohn, providing technical advice during the preparation of the latters Violin Concerto in E minor. He was also the soloist in the premiere of the work in 1845 and he died suddenly in 1873, aged 63, while on a mountain excursion with his children, near Klosters in the Graubünden area of Switzerland. Davids own compositions number about 50 opuses, supposedly he also wrote two symphonies and an opera. Unfortunately, these have not been found again, Davids most played piece today is without a doubt his Concertino for Trombone and Orchestra. This piece is often used as the obligatory piece when auditioning for symphony-orchestras around the world. He was editor of the complete Beethoven piano trios for C. F. Peters Edition and he was also editor of the set of J. S. Bachs Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin in 1843 and he also wrote an often used version of the cadenza for Beethovens violin-concerto, used by 12-year old Joseph Joachim at the revival-concert of this piece in 1844, under Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. David played on a 1742 Guarneri violin, which became the main performance violin for Jascha Heifetz. On the recommendation of William Sterndale Bennett, with whom he had worked in Leipzig, free scores by Ferdinand David at the International Music Score Library Project Ferdinand David. Rediscovering Ferdinand Davids violin pedagogy through his Violinschule and zur Violinschule

Ferdinand David (musician)
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Ferdinand David

108.
Gaetano Donizetti
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Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti was an Italian composer. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, Donizetti was a composer of the bel canto opera style during the first half of the nineteenth century. Donizettis close association with the bel canto style was undoubtedly an influence on composers such as Giuseppe Verdi. Donizetti was born in Bergamo in Lombardy, there he received detailed training in the arts of fugue and counterpoint. Over the course of his career, Donizetti wrote almost 70 operas, in all, Naples presented 51 of Donizettis operas. Before 1830, success came primarily with his operas, the serious ones failing to attract significant audiences. However, his first notable success came with an opera seria, Zoraida di Granata, significant historical dramas did appear and became successful, they included Lucia di Lammermoor given in Naples in 1835, and one of the most successful Neapolitan operas, Roberto Devereux in 1837. Up to that point, all of his operas had been set to Italian libretti, Donizetti found himself increasingly chafing against the censorial limitations which existed in Italy. From about 1836, he interested in working in Paris. The first opera was a French version of the then-unperformed Poliuto which, two new operas were also given in Paris at that time. As the 1840s progressed, Donizetti moved regularly between Naples, Rome, Paris, and Vienna continuing to compose and stage his own operas as well as those of other composers, but from around 1843, severe illness began to take hold and to limit his activities. Eventually, by early 1846 he was obliged to be confined to an institution for the ill and, by late 1847, friends had him moved back to Bergamo. The youngest of three sons, Donizetti was born in 1797 in Bergamos Borgo Canale quarter located just outside the city walls and his family was very poor and had no tradition of music, his father Andrea being the caretaker of the town pawnshop. Simone Mayr, a German composer of internationally successful operas, had become maestro di cappella at Bergamos principal church in 1802, in 1807, Andrea Donizetti attempted to enroll both his sons, but the elder, Giuseppe, was considered too old. He remained there for nine years, until 1815, however, as Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook notes, in 1809 he was threatened with having to leave because his voice was changing. In 1810 he applied for and was accepted by the art school, the Academia Carrara. Then, in 1811, Mayr once again intervened, as Ashbrook states, this was nothing less than Mayrs argument that Donizetti be allowed to continue his musical studies. The piece was performed on 13 September 1811 and included the character stating the following, Ah, by Bacchus

109.
John Field (composer)
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John Field was an Irish pianist, composer, and teacher. He was born in Dublin into a family, and received his early education there. The Fields soon moved to London, where Field studied under Muzio Clementi, under his tutelage, Field quickly became a famous and sought-after concert pianist. Together, master and pupil visited Paris, Vienna, and St. Petersburg, ambiguity surrounds Fields decision to remain in the Russian capital, but it is likely that Field acted as a sales representative for the Clementi Pianos. Field was very highly regarded by his contemporaries and his playing and compositions influenced many composers, including Frédéric Chopin, Johannes Brahms, Robert Schumann. Field is best known as the instigator of the nocturne, although little is known of Field in Russia, he undoubtedly contributed substantially to concerts and teaching, and to the development of the Russian piano school. Notable students include Prussian pianist and composer Charles Mayer, see, List of music students by teacher, C to F#John Field. Field was born in Golden Lane, Dublin in 1782, the eldest son of Irish parents who were members of the Church of Ireland and his father, Robert Field, earned his living by playing the violin in Dublin theatres. Field first studied the piano under his grandfather, who was a professional organist and he made his debut at the age of nine, a performance that was well-received, on 24 March 1792 in Dublin. According to a biographer, W. H. Grattan Flood, Field started composing in Ireland. Flood also asserted that Fields family moved to Bath, Somerset, in 1793 and lived there for a time. By late 1793, though, the Fields had settled in London and this arrangement was made possible by Fields father, who was perhaps able to secure the apprenticeship through Giordani, who knew Clementi. Field continued giving performances and soon became famous in London, attracting favourable comments from the press. Around 1795 his performance of a Dussek piano concerto was praised by Haydn, Field continued his studies with Clementi, also helping the Italian with the making and selling of instruments. He also took up playing, which he studied under J. P. Solomon. His first published compositions were issued by Clementi in 1795, the first historically important work,1, H27, was premiered by the composer in London on 7 February 1799, when he was aged 16. Fields first official opus was a set of three piano sonatas published by Clementi in 1801, in summer 1802 Field and Clementi left London and went to Paris on business. They soon travelled to Vienna, where Field took a course in counterpoint under Johann Georg Albrechtsberger

John Field (composer)
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John Field, c. 1820
John Field (composer)
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A plaque commemorating John Field in Golden Lane, Dublin.

110.
Mikhail Glinka
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Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka was the first Russian composer to gain wide recognition within his own country, and is often regarded as the fountainhead of Russian classical music. Glinkas compositions were an important influence on future Russian composers, notably the members of The Five, Mikhail Glinka was born in the village of Novospasskoye, not far from the Desna River in the Smolensk Governorate of the Russian Empire. His great-great-grandfather was a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth nobleman, Wiktoryn Władysław Glinka of the Trzaska coat of arms, the only music he heard in his youthful confinement was the sounds of the village church bells and the folk songs of passing peasant choirs. The church bells were tuned to a dissonant chord and so his ears became used to strident harmony, at the age of about ten he heard them play a clarinet quartet by the Finnish composer Bernhard Henrik Crusell. It had an effect upon him. Music is my soul, he many years later, recalling this experience. While his governess taught him Russian, German, French, and geography, he received instruction on the piano. At the age of 13, Glinka went to the capital, Saint Petersburg, here he learned Latin, English, and Persian, studied mathematics and zoology, and considerably widened his musical experience. He had three piano lessons from John Field, the Irish composer of nocturnes, who spent some time in Saint Petersburg and he then continued his piano lessons with Charles Mayer and began composing. When he left school his father wanted him to join the Foreign Office, the work was light, which allowed Glinka to settle into the life of a musical dilettante, frequenting the drawing rooms and social gatherings of the city. He was already composing a large amount of music, such as melancholy romances which amused the rich amateurs and his songs are among the most interesting part of his output from this period. In 1830, at the recommendation of a physician, Glinka decided to travel to Italy with the tenor Nikolai Kuzmich Ivanov, the journey took a leisurely pace, ambling uneventfully through Germany and Switzerland, before they settled in Milan. There, Glinka took lessons at the conservatory with Francesco Basili, although he struggled with counterpoint and he realized that his mission in life was to return to Russia, write in a Russian manner, and do for Russian music what Donizetti and Bellini had done for Italian music. His return route took him through the Alps, and he stopped for a while in Vienna and he stayed for another five months in Berlin, during which time he studied composition under the distinguished teacher Siegfried Dehn. A Capriccio on Russian themes for piano duet and an unfinished Symphony on two Russian themes were important products of this period, when word reached Glinka of his fathers death in 1834, he left Berlin and returned to Novospasskoye. While in Berlin, Glinka had become enamored with a beautiful and talented singer, there he reunited with his mother, and made the acquaintance of Maria Petrovna Ivanova. After he courted her for a period, the two married. The marriage was short-lived, as Maria was tactless and uninterested in his music, Glinka moved in with his mother, and later with his sister, Lyudmila Shestakova

111.
Carl Loewe
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Johann Carl Gottfried Loewe, usually called Carl Loewe, was a German composer, tenor singer and conductor. In his lifetime, his songs were well known for some to call him the Schubert of North Germany. He is less today, but his ballads and songs. Loewe was born in Löbejün and received his first music lessons from his father and he was a choir-boy, first at Köthen, and later at Halle, where he went to grammar school. In 1810, he began lessons in Halle with Daniel Gottlob Türk and this ended in 1813, on the flight of the king. In 1820, he moved to Stettin in Prussia, where he worked as organist and it was while there that he did most of his work as a composer, publishing a version of Goethes Erlkönig in 1824 which some say rivals Schuberts far more famous version. He went on to set many other works, including Friedrich Rückert. In 1821 he married Julie von Jacob, who died in 1823 and his second wife, Auguste Lange, was an accomplished singer, and they appeared together in his oratorio performances with great success. On 20 February 1827, he conducted the first performance of the 18-year-old Felix Mendelssohns Overture A Midsummer Nights Dream and he and Mendelssohn were also soloists in Mendelssohns Concerto in A-flat major for 2 pianos and orchestra. Later in life, Loewe became very popular both as a composer and as a singer, as a youth, he had a high soprano voice, and his voice developed into a fine tenor. He made several tours as a singer in the 1840s and 1850s, visiting England, France, Sweden and Norway amongst other countries. He eventually moved back to Germany, and, after quitting his posts in Stettin after 46 years, moved to Kiel, where he died from a stroke on 20 April 1869. But the branch of his art by which he is remembered and his settings of the Erlkönig, Archibald Douglas, Heinrich der Vogler, Edward and Die verfallene Mühle, are particularly fine. In 1875, at Bayreuth, Richard Wagner remarked of Loewe, Ha, das ist ein ernster, mit Bedeutung die schöne deutsche Sprache behandelnder, nicht hoch genug zu ehrender deutscher Meister, under Zumsteegs influence, Loewe began incorporating and cultivating the ballad form into his vocal songs. When compared to other Lieder composers, Loewes rhapsodic composition style is said to have an absence of organic musical development. His settings of poetry separated poetic ideas and treated them rather than using unifying motifs. One of Loewes strengths as a composer were his imaginative and, at times, daring accompaniments, several recordings of Loewes ballads and other lieder are available on CD, sung by vocalists such as Josef Greindl, Hermann Prey, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, and Kurt Moll. Additional recordings can be found on YouTube, female singers rarely sing, or record, his music

Carl Loewe
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Carl Loewe

112.
Heinrich Marschner
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Heinrich August Marschner was the most important composer of German opera between Weber and Wagner. Marschner was born in Zittau and was intended for a legal career. After a meeting with Beethoven around 1815–16, he decided to devote himself to music, Marschner was widely regarded as one of the most important composers in Europe from about 1830 until the end of the 19th century. He was a rival of Weber and friend of Beethoven and Mendelssohn and his operas often contain thematic material based on folksong, and this folk-influenced genre had begun with Webers Der Freischütz. The last of his operas, Austin, was first staged in 1852 and it was not very well received, and later the increasingly renowned Wagner overshadowed him. Schumann praised Marschners piano trios lavishly, Marschner did not just toss off these works as an afterthought, but clearly devoted considerable time and effort to writing them. He gave the title Grand Trio to each of his works for piano, violin and cello, in these pieces, one finds all of the emotions prevalent in the Romantic movement during the mid-19th century. To the extent that Marschner is still remembered, it is largely for his operas Hans Heiling, Der Vampyr and Der Templer und die Jüdin, extremely popular in his lifetime. Marschners ability to depict supernatural horror by musical means is especially evident in the first two operas as well as in some of his ballads, such as Die Monduhr, next to his operas, Marschners most significant musical contribution is to the Lied. The best of his works in form are comparable with those by Carl Loewe. He also wrote a considerable amount of music, including seven piano trios. Marschners Bagatelles for guitar have been taken up lately by some guitarists, among his operas, Hans Heiling and especially Der Vampyr have been adapted and revived in recent years with considerable success. Wie die Hans Heilings, Weber, Marschner, and Thomas Manns Doktor Faustus, Marschners Villains, Monomania, and the Fantasy of Deviance. Berlin, Harmonie, Verlagsgesellschaft für Literatur und Kunst, palmer, Allen Dean, Heinrich August Marschner, 1795–1861. Ann Arbor 1980 Weber, Brigitta, Heinrich Marschner, ISBN 3-931266-01-X Von der Lucretia zum Vampyr. Dokumente zur Entstehung und Rezeption der Lucretia, vollständige Edition des Reise-Tagebuchs von 1826 bis 1828. Und kommentiert von Till Gerrit Waidelich, ein Symposium des Instituts für Kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen. Hrsg. von Allmuth Behrendt und Matthias Theodor Vogt

113.
Felix Mendelssohn
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Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family and he was brought up without religion until the age of seven, when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a prodigy, but his parents were cautious. Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany, where he revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Leipzig Conservatoire, which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook, Mendelssohn wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions and he is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era. Mendelssohns father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn, the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and his mother was Lea Salomon, a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy. Mendelssohn was the second of four children, his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional, the family moved to Berlin in 1811, leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn banks role in breaking Napoleons Continental System blockade. Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny, Felix, Paul, Fanny became a well-known pianist and amateur composer, originally Abraham had thought that she, rather than Felix, would be the more musical. However, at time, it was not considered proper, by either Abraham or Felix, for a woman to have a career in music, so Fanny remained an active. Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it. Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment, Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that Europe came to their living room. Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion, he and his wife decided not to have Felix circumcised. Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education, Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822, formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy for themselves and their children. The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Leas brother, Jakob Salomon Bartholdy, in 1829, his sister Fanny wrote to him of Bartholdy this name that we all dislike. Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him, Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy and he began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six, and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris. After the family moved to Berlin, all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger, from at least May 1819 Felix studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin. This was an important influence on his future career, Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy, who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach

114.
Modest Mussorgsky
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Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky was a Russian composer, one of the group known as The Five. He was an innovator of Russian music in the romantic period and he strove to achieve a uniquely Russian musical identity, often in deliberate defiance of the established conventions of Western music. Many of his works were inspired by Russian history, Russian folklore, such works include the opera Boris Godunov, the orchestral tone poem Night on Bald Mountain and the piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition. For many years Mussorgskys works were known in versions revised or completed by other composers. Many of his most important compositions have posthumously come into their own in their original forms, the spelling and pronunciation of the composers name has occasioned some confusion. The family name derives from a 15th- or 16th-century ancestor, Roman Vasilyevich Monastyryov, who appears in the Velvet Book, Roman Vasilyevich bore the nickname Musorga, and was the grandfather of the first Mussorgsky. The composer could trace his lineage to Rurik, the legendary 9th-century founder of the Russian state, in Mussorgsky family documents the spelling of the name varies, Musarskiy, Muserskiy, Muserskoy, Musirskoy, Musorskiy, and Musurskiy. The baptismal record gives the name as Muserskiy. In early letters to Mily Balakirev, the composer signed his name Musorskiy, the g made its first appearance in a letter to Balakirev in 1863. Mussorgsky used this new spelling to the end of his life, the addition of the g to the name was likely initiated by the composers elder brother Filaret to obscure the resemblance of the names root to an unsavory Russian word, мусoр — n. m. The first syllable of the originally received the stress, and does so to this day in Russia. The mutability of the vowel in the versions of the name mentioned above gives evidence that this syllable did not receive the stress. Doubling the consonant thus reinforces its voiceless sibilant /s/ sound, Mussorgsky was born in Karevo, Toropets Uyezd, Pskov Governorate, Russian Empire,400 km south of Saint Petersburg. His wealthy and land-owning family, the family of Mussorgsky, is reputedly descended from the first Ruthenian ruler, Rurik. At age six Mussorgsky began receiving lessons from his mother. His progress was sufficiently rapid that three years later he was able to perform a John Field concerto and works by Franz Liszt for family, at 10, he and his brother were taken to Saint Petersburg to study at the elite German language Petrischule. While there, Modest studied the piano with the noted Anton Gerke, in 1852, the 12-year-old Mussorgsky published a piano piece titled Porte-enseigne Polka at his fathers expense. Mussorgskys parents planned the move to Saint Petersburg so that both their sons would renew the tradition of military service

115.
George Onslow (composer)
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André George Louis Onslow was a French composer of English descent. His principal output was chamber music but he wrote four symphonies. Esteemed by many of the critics of his time, his reputation declined swiftly after his death and has only been revived in recent years and it has been suggested that he received this tuition in London under the aegis of his grandfather the Earl. This research also indicates there is no evidence to support the suggestions made that Onslow at any time visited Vienna, or that he met, or studied. Onslow states in his autobiography that his attitude to music was transformed by his experience of hearing the overture to Étienne Méhuls opera Stratonice in Paris in 1801. After this, I saw music with other eyes, the veil which had hidden its beauties from me was rent, it became the source of my most intimate joy, and the faithful companion of my life. This led him to compose his first string quintets and string quartets and these were published at his own expense, Onslow was always wealthy and did not need critical or financial support. The critic François-Joseph Fétis noted that, despite his absence of training, Onslow learnt to play the cello, and to play the chamber music of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven with other local amateurs. However, aware of the need to develop his musical skills. At this time he married a French heiress, Charlotte Françoise Delphine de Fontanges. Onslow based himself near Clermont-Ferrand, initially at his fathers Château de Chalendrat at Mirefleurs, later at Château de Bellerive at Perignat, La Roche-Noire. In 1824 and 1827 his first two operas, LAlcalde de la vega and Le colporteur, were premiered at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris under the auspices of the Opéra-Comique, Le colporteur was also produced in Germany, and even, in London. In 1825 in Paris he met the 16-year-old Felix Mendelssohn, who enjoyed a performance of one of Onslows quartets but was surprised that he was not aware of Beethovens opera Fidelio. Onslow was an early enthusiast of the music of Hector Berlioz, whose Eight scenes from Faust, in 1829, after Onslow had commenced his quintet op. The work was subtitled De la Balle, throughout the 1820s, Onslows reputation continued to grow both in France and abroad as a series of trios, quartets and quintets were published. Onslows publishers in Paris were Ignaz and Camille Pleyel, in 1818 his works began to be published in Germany by Breitkopf und Härtel and in Austria by C. F. Peters, the same year saw the first writings about his works by German music critics. Other German publishers, including Hoffmeister, Steiner and Simrock, followed in later years, in 1831 Onslow was elected the second Honorary Fellow of the Philharmonic Society of London. He wrote for the Society his Second Symphony, Op.42, in 1834, Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt played Onslows Grand Sonata for four hands Op.22 at their debut joint performance in Paris

116.
Anton Reicha
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Anton Reicha was a Czech-born, later naturalized French composer. He was also an accomplished theorist, and wrote treatises on various aspects of composition. Some of his work dealt with experimental methods of composition. His father, the piper, died when the boy was just 10 months old. The young composer ran away from home when only ten years old, when they moved to Bonn, Josef secured for his nephew a place playing violin in the Hofkapelle electoral orchestra alongside the young Beethoven on viola, but for Reicha this was not enough. He studied composition secretly, against his uncles wishes, and entered the University of Bonn in 1789, when Bonn was captured by the French in 1794 Reicha fled to Hamburg, where he made a living teaching harmony and composition and studied mathematics and philosophy. Between 1799 and 1801 he lived in Paris, trying to gain recognition as an opera composer, in 1801 he moved on to Vienna, where he studied with Salieri and Albrechtsberger and produced his first important works. Reichas output during his Vienna years was prolific and included large semi-didactic cycles of works such as 36 Fugues for piano, Lart de varier, during the later Paris period, however, he focused his attention mostly on theory and produced a number of treatises on composition. Works of this period include 25 crucially important wind quintets which are considered the locus classicus of that genre and are his best-known compositions. Due to Reichas unwillingness to have his music published, he fell into obscurity soon after his death and his life and his father Šimon, the town piper of the city, died when Anton was just 10 months old. He first visited his grandfather in Klatovy, and then his paternal uncle Josef Reicha, a virtuoso cellist, conductor and composer living in Wallerstein, Bavaria. In 1785 the family moved to Bonn, where Reicha became a member of the Hofkapelle of Max Franz, Elector of Cologne, playing violin, the young Beethoven entered the Hofkapelle as violist and organist in 1789 and Reicha befriended him, the two became lifelong friends. He managed to escape to Hamburg, vowed never to perform in public again and began to earn a living teaching harmony, composition and he continued composing and studied mathematics, philosophy and, significantly, methods of teaching composition. In 1799 he moved to Paris, hoping to achieve success as an opera composer, once there, like Beethoven and the young Schubert, he studied with Antonio Salieri and Johann Georg Albrechtsberger. Both were renowned teachers, and Albrechtsberger was also an important theorist, Reichas move to Vienna marked the beginning of a more productive and successful period in his life. As he wrote in his memoirs, The number of works I finished in Vienna is astonishing, once started, my verve and imagination were indefatigable. Ideas came to me so rapidly it was difficult to set them down without losing some of them. I always had a penchant for doing the unusual in composition

117.
Clara Schumann
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Clara Schumann was a German musician and composer, considered one of the most distinguished pianists of the Romantic era. She exerted her influence over a 61-year concert career, changing the format and repertoire of the piano recital and her husband was the composer Robert Schumann. She was the first to perform any work by Brahms. She later premiered some other pieces by Brahms, notably the Variations, Clara Josephine Wieck was born in Leipzig on 13 September 1819 to Friedrich Wieck and Marianne Wieck. Marianne Tromlitz was a singer in Leipzig at the time and was singing solos on a weekly basis at the well-known Gewandhaus in Leipzig. The differences between her parents were irreconcilable, in part due to her fathers unyielding nature. After an affair between Claras mother and Adolph Bargiel, her fathers friend, the Wiecks divorced in 1824, five-year-old Clara remained with her father. From an early age, Claras career and life was planned down to the smallest detail by her father and she daily received a one-hour lesson and two hours of practice, using the teaching methods he had developed on his own. In March 1828, at the age of eight, the young Clara Wieck performed at the Leipzig home of Dr. Ernst Carus, there she met another gifted young pianist who had been invited to the musical evening, named Robert Schumann, who was nine years older. Schumann admired Claras playing so much that he asked permission from his mother to discontinue his law studies, which had never interested him much, while taking lessons, he took rooms in the Wieck household, staying about a year. He would sometimes dress up as a ghost and scare Clara, in 1830, at the age of eleven, Clara left on a concert tour to Paris via other European cities, accompanied by her father. She gave her first solo concert at the Leipzig Gewandhaus, in Weimar, she performed a bravura piece by Henri Herz for Goethe, who presented her with a medal with his portrait and a written note saying, For the gifted artist Clara Wieck. During that tour, Niccolò Paganini was in Paris, and he offered to appear with her, however, her Paris recital was poorly attended, as many people had fled the city due to an outbreak of cholera. From December 1837 to April 1838, Clara Wieck performed a series of recitals in Vienna when she was 18, franz Grillparzer, Austrias leading dramatic poet, wrote a poem entitled Clara Wieck and Beethoven after hearing Wieck perform the Appassionata sonata during one of these recitals. On 15 March, Wieck was named a Königliche und Kaiserliche Kammervirtuosin, Robert was a little more than 9 years older than Clara and moved into the Wieck household as a piano student of Friedrichs by the end of 1830 when she was only 11 and he was 20. In 1837 when she was 18, he proposed to her, then Robert asked Friedrich for Claras hand in marriage. Wieck was strongly opposed to the marriage, as he did not much approve of Robert, Robert and Clara had to go to court and sue Friedrich. The judges decision was to allow the marriage, in 1840, despite Friedrichs objections, Clara and Robert were married

118.
Fernando Sor
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Fernando Sor o Josep Ferran Sorts i Muntades was a Spanish classical guitarist and composer. While he is best known for his compositions, he also composed music for a wide range of genres, including opera, orchestra, string quartet, piano, voice. His ballet score Cendrillon received over one hundred performances, Sors works for guitar range from pieces for beginning players to advanced players such as Variations on a Theme of Mozart. Sors contemporaries considered him to be the best guitarist in the world, although modern classical guitar players usually do, Sor rarely used his ring finger and refused the usage of nails when playing. As Sors works were published in countries, his name was translated. Variations have included Joseph Fernando Macari Sors, Fernando Sor, Ferran Sor, Ferdinand Sor and he fell in love with music and abandoned his military career goals. Along with opera, Sors father also introduced him to the guitar, at a young age, Sors parents wouldnt give his musical abilities too much special attention, for fear it would distract from his Latin studies. Therefore, the young Sor began to write songs to words in Latin to impress his parents and he even invented his own system for notating music, as he had not yet received formal training. When he reached the age of 11 or 12, the head of the Barcelona Cathedral took notice of young Sors talent, not long after, his father died, leaving his mother without the funds to continue his education at the Cathedral. Sor reveals in writings, mainly from the last ten years of his life, that he was attached to this place. It was not a turn of events, as he had much free time to play. In 1808, when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, Sor began to write music for the guitar. Sor was even part of traveling bands that would play protest music on the streets. He was also promoted to captain in Córdoba and may have fought battles against the French at this time, after the defeat of the Spanish army, however, Sor accepted an administrative post in the occupying government. Here he was to be labeled an afrancesado along with the other Spaniards who abandoned their defense of Spain to embrace the French Revolutionary ideas. After the Spanish repelled the French in 1813, Sor and other afrancesados left Spain for fear of retribution and he went to Paris, never to return to his home country again. Having abandoned his familys ideal of a military or administrative post and he gained renown at first as a virtuoso guitarist and composer for the instrument. When he attempted composing operas, however, he was rejected by the French and his Opus 7 was a large and strange piece, notated in three clefs, and no guitarist at the time could play it

119.
Sigismond Thalberg
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Sigismond Thalberg was a composer and one of the most famous virtuoso pianists of the 19th century. Sigismond Thalberg was born in Pâquis near Geneva, Switzerland, on 8 January 1812, according to legend, he was the illegitimate son of Prince Moritz Dietrichstein and Baroness Maria Julia Wetzlar von Plankenstern. However, according to his certificate, he was the son of Joseph Thalberg. Little is known about Thalbergs childhood and early youth and it is possible that his mother had brought him to Vienna at the age of 10. According to Thalbergs own account, he attended the first performance of Beethovens 9th Symphony on 7 May 1824 in the Kärntnerthortheater, there is no evidence as to Thalbergs early teachers. Baroness von Wetzlar, his mother, who according to Wurzbach was occupied with his education during his childhood and it may be therefore that she gave him his first instruction at the piano. In spring 1826 Thalberg studied with Ignaz Moscheles in London, Thalbergs first public performance in London was on 17 May 1826. In Vienna on 6 April 1827 he played the first movement, and on 6 May 1827 the Adagio, after this, Thalberg performed regularly in Vienna. His repertoire was mainly classical, including concertos by Hummel and Beethoven, in the year 1828 his Op.1, a fantasy on melodies from Carl Maria von Webers Euryanthe, was published. In 1830 Thalberg met Mendelssohn and Frédéric Chopin in Vienna and their letters show their opinion that Thalbergs main strength was his astonishing technical skills. Further information can be found in the diary of the 10-year old Clara Wieck and she had heard Thalberg on 14 May 1830 at a concert which he gave in the theatre of Leipzig. He had played his own Piano Concerto op.5 and a fantasy of his own. Two days before, Clara had played the first solo of the 2nd Concerto of John Field to him, and, together with him and her diary, edited by her father Friedrich Wieck, notes Thalberg as very accomplished. His playing was clear and precise, also strong and expressive. In the early 1830s Thalberg studied counterpoint under Simon Sechter, as a result, passages of canon and fugue can be found in some of Thalbergs fantasies of this time. An example is his Fantasy, Op.12, on melodies from Bellinis opera Norma, which contains a march-theme and variations, the fantasy was published in 1834 and became very popular, but on publication, it was criticised by some, for example by Robert Schumann. Thalberg successfully changed his style, reducing the counterpoint. Several works in his new style, among them the Deux Airs russes variés Op.17, were even praised by Schumann

120.
Giuseppe Verdi
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Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi was an Italian opera composer. Verdi was born near Busseto to a family of moderate means. Verdi came to dominate the Italian opera scene after the era of Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini, whose works influenced him. In his early operas Verdi demonstrated a sympathy with the Risorgimento movement which sought the unification of Italy and he also participated briefly as an elected politician. He surprised the world by returning, after his success with the opera Aida. The baptismal register, prepared on 11 October 1813, lists his parents Carlo, additionally, it lists Verdi as being born yesterday, but since days were often considered to begin at sunset, this could have meant either 9 or 10 October. Verdi himself, following his mother, always celebrated his birthday on 9 October, Verdi had a younger sister, Giuseppa, who died aged 17 in 1833. From the age of four, Verdi was given lessons in Latin and Italian by the village schoolmaster, Baistrocchi. After learning to play the organ, he showed so much interest in music that his parents provided him with a spinet. Verdis gift for music was apparent by 1820–21 when he began his association with the local church, serving in the choir, acting as an altar boy for a while. After Baistrocchis death, Verdi, at the age of eight, Carlo Verdi was energetic in furthering his sons education. something which Verdi tended to hide in later life. He picture emerges of youthful precocity eagerly nurtured by a father and of a sustained, sophisticated. Verdi returned to Busseto regularly to play the organ on Sundays, at age 11, Verdi received schooling in Italian, Latin, the humanities, and rhetoric. By the time he was 12, he began lessons with Ferdinando Provesi, maestro di cappella at San Bartolomeo, director of the music school. This information comes from the Autobiographical Sketch which Verdi dictated to the publisher Giulio Ricordi late in life, in 1879, written, understandably, with the benefit of hindsight, it is not always reliable when dealing with issues more contentious than those of his childhood. The other director of the Philharmonic Society was Antonio Barezzi, a grocer and distiller. The young Verdi did not immediately become involved with the Philharmonic, by June 1827, he had graduated with honours from the Ginnasio and was able to focus solely on music under Provesi. By 1829–30, Verdi had established himself as a leader of the Philharmonic, none of us could rival him reported the secretary of the organisation, Giuseppe Demaldè

121.
Richard Wagner
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Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works and he described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and his advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres, greatly influenced the development of classical music. His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music, Wagner had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many novel design features. The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed at the annual Bayreuth Festival, until his final years, Wagners life was characterised by political exile, turbulent love affairs, poverty and repeated flight from his creditors. His controversial writings on music, drama and politics have attracted extensive comment, notably, since the late 20th century, where they express antisemitic sentiments. The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century, his influence spread beyond composition into conducting, philosophy, literature, Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig, where his family lived at No. 3, the Brühl in the Jewish quarter and he was baptized at St. Thomas Church. He was the child of Carl Friedrich Wagner, who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service, and his wife, Johanna Rosine. Wagners father Carl died of typhus six months after Richards birth, afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carls friend, the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer. In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married—although no documentation of this has found in the Leipzig church registers. She and her family moved to Geyers residence in Dresden, until he was fourteen, Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer. He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father, Geyers love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson, and Wagner took part in his performances. In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel, in late 1820, Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzels school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. He struggled to play a scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear. Following Geyers death in 1821, Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule, at the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Webers opera Der Freischütz, which he saw Weber conduct. At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright and his first creative effort, listed in the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis as WWV1, was a tragedy called Leubald. Begun when he was in school in 1826, the play was influenced by Shakespeare

122.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
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Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness. Fichte was also the originator of thesis–antithesis–synthesis, an idea that is often attributed to Hegel. Like Descartes and Kant before him, Fichte was motivated by the problem of subjectivity, Fichte also wrote works of political philosophy, he has a reputation as one of the fathers of German nationalism. Fichte was born in Rammenau, Upper Lusatia, the son of a ribbon weaver, he came of peasant stock which had lived in the region for many generations. The family was noted in the neighborhood for its probity and piety, christian Fichte, Johann Gottliebs father, married somewhat above his station. It has been suggested that a certain impatience which Fichte himself displayed throughout his life was an inheritance from his mother, young Fichte received the rudiments of his education from his father. He early showed remarkable ability, and it was owing to his reputation among the villagers that he gained the opportunity for an education than he otherwise would have received. The story runs that the Freiherr von Militz, a country landowner and he was, however, informed that a lad in the neighborhood would be able to repeat the sermon practically verbatim. As a result, the baron took the lad into his protection, Fichte was placed in the family of Pastor Krebel at Niederau near Meissen and there received thorough grounding in the classics. From this time onward, Fichte saw little of his parents, in October 1774, he was attending the celebrated foundation-school at Pforta near Naumburg. This school is associated with the names of Novalis, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegel, perhaps his education strengthened a tendency toward introspection and independence, characteristics which appear strongly in his doctrines and writings. In 1780, he study at the theology seminary of University of Jena. He was transferred a year later to study at the Leipzig University, Fichte seems to have supported himself at this period of bitter poverty and hard struggle. Freiherr von Militz continued to him, but when he died in 1784, Fichte had to end his studies prematurely. During the years 1784 to 1788, he supported himself in a way as tutor in various Saxon families. In early 1788, he returned to Leipzig in the hope of finding a better employment and he lived in Zurich for the next two years, which was a time of great contentment for him. There he met his wife, Johanna Rahn, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. There he also became in 1793 a member of the Freemasonry lodge Modestia cum Libertate with which Johann Wolfgang Goethe was also connected, in the spring of 1790, he became engaged to Johanna

123.
Albrecht Ritschl
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Albrecht Ritschl was a German theologian. Starting in 1852, Ritschl lectured on Systematic Theology, according to this system, faith was understood to be irreducible to other experiences, beyond the scope of reason. Faith, he said, came not from facts but from value judgments, Jesus divinity, he argued, was best understood as expressing revelational-value of Christ for the community that trusts him as God. He held the Christs message to be committed to a community and his father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl, became in 1810 a pastor at the church of St Mary in Berlin, and from 1827 to 1854 was general superintendent and evangelical bishop of Pomerania. Albrecht Ritschl studied at Bonn, Halle, Heidelberg and Tübingen, at Halle he came under Hegelian influences through the teaching of Julius Schaller and Johann Erdmann. Finally, in 1864, Ritschl came the influence of Hermann Lotze and his system of theology is contained in the former. He died at Göttingen in 1889 and his son, Otto Ritschl, was also a theologian. Ritschl claimed to carry on the work of Luther and Schleiermacher, Ritschls work made a profound impression on German thought and gave a new confidence to German theology, while at the same time it provoked a storm of hostile criticism. In spite of resistance the Ritschlian school grew with remarkable rapidity, with followers dominating German theological faculties in the late nineteenth. The life of trust in God is a fact, not so much to be explained as to everything else. Ritschls standpoint is not that of the individual subject, the objective ground on which he bases his system is the religious experience of the Christian community. The immediate object of knowledge is the faith of the community. Thus the essence of Ritschls work is systematic theology, nor does he painfully work up to his master-category, for it is given in the knowledge of Jesus revealed to the community. From this vantage-ground Ritschl criticizes the use of Aristotelianism and speculative philosophy in scholastic and he holds that such philosophy is too shallow for theology. Hegelianism attempts to squeeze all life into the categories of logic, Aristotelianism deals with things in general, neither Hegelianism nor Aristotelianism is vital enough to sound the depths of religious life. Neither conceives God as correlative to human trust, but Ritschls recoil carries him so far that he is left alone with merely practical experience. Faith knows God in His active relation to the kingdom, and his limitation of theological knowledge to the bounds of human need might, if logically pressed, run perilously near phenomenalism, and his epistemology does not cover this weakness. In seeking ultimate reality in the circle of active conscious sensation, indeed, much that is part of normal Christian faith—e. g

Albrecht Ritschl
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Albrecht Ritschl.

124.
Friedrich Schleiermacher
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He also became influential in the evolution of Higher Criticism, and his work forms part of the foundation of the modern field of hermeneutics. Because of his effect on subsequent Christian thought, he is often called the Father of Modern Liberal Theology and is considered an early leader in liberal Christianity. The Neo-Orthodoxy movement of the century, typically seen to be spearheaded by Karl Barth, was in many ways an attempt to challenge his influence. As a theology student Schleiermacher pursued an independent course of reading and neglected the study of the Old Testament, at the same time he studied the writings of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, and began to apply ideas from the Greek philosophers to a reconstruction of Kants system. Schleiermacher developed a deep-rooted skepticism as a student, and soon he rejected orthodox Christianity and he has himself read some of the skeptical literature, he says, and can assure Schleiermacher that it is not worth wasting time on. For six whole months there is no word from his son. In a moving letter of 21 January 1787, Schleiermacher admits that the doubts alluded to are his own and his father has said that faith is the regalia of the Godhead, that is, Gods royal due. Schleiermacher confessed, Faith is the regalia of the Godhead, you say, I cannot believe that he who called himself the Son of Man was the true, eternal God, I cannot believe that his death was a vicarious atonement. Two years later, in 1796, he became chaplain to the Charité Hospital in Berlin, here Schleiermacher became acquainted with art, literature, science and general culture. He was strongly influenced by German Romanticism, as represented by his friend Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel, though his ultimate principles remained unchanged, he placed more emphasis on human emotion and the imagination. Meanwhile, he studied Spinoza and Plato, both of whom were important influences and he became more indebted to Kant, though they differed on fundamental points. He sympathised with some of Jacobis positions, and took some ideas from Fichte, the literary product of this period of rapid development was his influential book, Reden über die Religion and his new years gift to the new century, the Monologen. This established the programme of his subsequent theological system, from 1802 to 1804, Schleiermacher served as a pastor in the Pomeranian town of Stolp. He relieved Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his responsibility for the translation of Plato. The obscurity of the style and its negative tone prevented immediate success. At the foundation of the University of Berlin, in which he took a prominent part, Schleiermacher obtained a theological chair, and soon became secretary to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. The twenty-four years of his career in Berlin began with his short outline of theological study. At the same time Schleiermacher prepared his chief theological work Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche and he felt isolated, although his church and his lecture-room continued to be crowded

125.
Ivan Aivazovsky
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Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky was a Russian Romantic painter. He is considered one of the greatest marine artists in history, baptized as Hovhannes Aivazian, Aivazovsky was born into an Armenian family in the Black Sea port of Feodosia in Crimea and was mostly based there. Following his education at the Imperial Academy of Arts, Aivazovsky traveled to Europe and he then returned to Russia and was appointed the main painter of the Russian Navy. Aivazovsky had close ties with the military and political elite of the Russian Empire and he was sponsored by the state and was well-regarded during his lifetime. The saying worthy of Aivazovskys brush, popularized by Anton Chekhov, was used in Russia for describing something ineffably lovely, one of the most prominent Russian artists of his time, Aivazovsky was also popular outside Russia. He held numerous exhibitions in Europe and the United States. During his almost 60-year career, he created around 6,000 paintings, the vast majority of his works are seascapes, but he often depicted battle scenes, Armenian themes, and portraiture. Most of Aivazovskys works are kept in Russian, Ukrainian and Armenian museums as well as private collections, Ivan Aivazovsky was born on 17 July 1817 in the city of Feodosia, Crimea, Russian Empire. In the baptismal records of the local St. Sargis Armenian Church, Aivazovsky was listed as Hovhannes, during his study at the Imperial Academy of Arts, he was known in Russian as Ivan Gaivazovsky. He became known as Aivazovsky since c. He signed a 1844 letter with the version of his name. His father, Konstantin, was an Armenian merchant from the Polish region of Galicia and his family had migrated to Europe from Western Armenia in the 18th century. After numerous familial conflicts, Konstantin left Galicia for Moldavia, later moving to Bukovina and he was initially known as Gevorg Aivazian, but he changed his last name to Gaivazovsky by adding the Polish -sky. Aivazovskys mother, Ripsime, was a Feodosia Armenian, the couple had five children—three daughters and two sons. Aivazovskys elder brother, Gabriel, was a prominent historian and an Armenian Apostolic archbishop, the young Aivazovsky received parochial education at Feodosias St. Sargis Armenian Church. He was taught drawing by Jacob Koch, a local architect, Aivazovsky moved to Simferopol with Taurida Governor Alexander Kaznacheyevs family in 1830 and attended the citys Russian gymnasium. In 1833, Aivazovsky arrived in the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, in 1835, he was awarded with a silver medal and appointed assistant to the French painter Philippe Tanneur. In September 1836, Aivazovsky met Russias national poet Alexander Pushkin during the visit to the Academy. In 1837, Aivazovsky joined the class of Alexander Sauerweid

126.
Albert Bierstadt
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Albert Bierstadt was an American painter best known for his lavish, sweeping landscapes of the American West. To paint the scenes, Bierstadt joined several journeys of the Westward Expansion, though not the first artist to record these sites, Bierstadt was the foremost painter of these scenes for the remainder of the 19th century. Born in Germany, Bierstadt was brought to the United States at the age of one by his parents and he later returned to study painting for several years in Düsseldorf. He became part of the Hudson River School in New York and their style was based on carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting, sometimes called luminism. An important interpreter of the landscape, Bierstadt, along with Thomas Moran, is also grouped with the Rocky Mountain School. Bierstadt was born in Solingen, Germany, the son of Christina M. and Henry Bierstadt, the following year, in 1831, his family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At an early age Bierstadt developed a taste for art and made clever crayon sketches in his youth, in 1851, he began to paint in oils. He returned to Germany in 1853 and studied painting for several years in Düsseldorf with members of its school of painting. After returning to New Bedford in 1857, he taught drawing and painting briefly, in 1858 he exhibited a large painting of a Swiss landscape at the National Academy of Design, which gained him positive critical reception and honorary membership in the Academy. Bierstadt began painting scenes in New England and upstate New York, a group of artists known as the Hudson River School portrayed its majestic landscapes and craggy areas, as well as the light affected by the changing waters. In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander and he returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches that resulted in numerous finished paintings. In 1863 he traveled west again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition. He continued to visit the American West throughout his career, during the American Civil War, Bierstadt paid for a substitute to serve in his place when he was drafted in 1863. He completed one Civil War painting Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War in 1862, Bierstadts painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langleys Tavern in Virginia. Bierstadts painting received a review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy, he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, in 1867 he traveled to London, where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He traveled through Europe for two years, cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his work overseas, Bierstadts technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West. It accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them, the immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape

127.
John Constable
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John Constable, RA was an English Romantic painter. Born in Suffolk, he is principally for his landscape paintings of Dedham Vale. I should paint my own places best, he wrote to his friend John Fisher in 1821, painting is and his most famous paintings include Wivenhoe Park of 1816, Dedham Vale of 1802 and The Hay Wain of 1821. Although his paintings are now among the most popular and valuable in British art and he did not become a member of the establishment until he was elected to the Royal Academy at the age of 52. His work was embraced in France, where he sold more works than in his native England, John Constable was born in East Bergholt, a village on the River Stour in Suffolk, to Golding and Ann Constable. His father was a corn merchant, owner of Flatford Mill in East Bergholt and, later. Golding Constable owned a ship, The Telegraph, which he moored at Mistley on the Stour estuary. He was a cousin of the London tea merchant, Abram Newman, although Constable was his parents second son, his older brother was intellectually disabled and John was expected to succeed his father in the business. After a brief period at a school in Lavenham, he was enrolled in a day school in Dedham. Constable worked in the business after leaving school, but his younger brother Abram eventually took over the running of the mills. In his youth, Constable embarked on amateur sketching trips in the surrounding Suffolk and Essex countryside, which was to become the subject of a large proportion of his art. These scenes, in his own words, made me a painter, and I am grateful, the sound of water escaping from mill dams etc. willows, old planks, slimy posts. He was introduced to George Beaumont, a collector, who showed him his prized Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain, in 1799, Constable persuaded his father to let him pursue a career in art, and Golding granted him a small allowance. Entering the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer, he attended classes and anatomical dissections. Among works that inspired him during this period were paintings by Thomas Gainsborough, Claude Lorrain, Peter Paul Rubens, Annibale Carracci. He also read widely among poetry and sermons, and later proved a notably articulate artist, by 1803, he was exhibiting paintings at the Royal Academy. In 1802 he refused the position of drawing master at Great Marlow Military College, Constables usual subjects, scenes of ordinary daily life, were unfashionable in an age that looked for more romantic visions of wild landscapes and ruins. He made occasional trips further afield, in 1803 he spent almost a month aboard the East Indiaman ship Coutts as it visited south-east ports, and in 1806 he undertook a two-month tour of the Lake District

128.
Thomas Cole
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Thomas Cole was an English-born American artist known for his landscape and history paintings. He is regarded as the founder of the Hudson River School, Coles work is known for its romantic portrayal of the American wilderness. Born in Bolton le Moors, Lancashire, in 1801, Coles family emigrated to the United States in 1818, settling in Steubenville, at the age of twenty-two Cole moved to Philadelphia, and later, in 1825, to New York City with his family. Cole found work early on as an engraver and he was largely self-taught as a painter, relying on books and by studying the work of other artists. In 1822 Cole started working as a painter, and later on gradually shifted his focus to landscape. This garnered Cole the attention of John Trumbull, Asher B, among the paintings was a landscape called View of Fort Ticonderoga from Gelyna. Cole was primarily a painter of landscapes, but he also painted allegorical works, there are two versions of the latter, one at the National Gallery in Washington, D. C. the other at the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute in Utica, New York. Among Coles other famous works are the Oxbow, the Notch of the White Mountains, Daniel Boone at his cabin at the Great Osage Lake and he also painted The Garden of Eden, with lavish detail of Adam and Eve living amid waterfalls, vivid plants, and deer. In 2014, friezes painted by Cole on the walls of his home, Cole influenced his artistic peers, especially Asher B. Durand and Frederic Edwin Church, who studied with Cole from 1844 to 1846, Cole spent the years 1829 to 1832 and 1841 to 1842 abroad, mainly in England and Italy. Thomas Cole is best known for his work as an American landscape artist, however, he also produced thousands of sketches of varying subject matter. Over 2,500 of these sketches can be seen at The Detroit Institute of Arts, in 1842, Cole embarked on a Grand Tour of Europe in an effort to study in the style of the Old Masters and to paint its scenery. Most striking to Cole was Europes tallest active volcano, Mount Etna, Cole was so moved by the volcanos beauty that he produced several sketches and at least six paintings of it. The most famous of these works is A View from Mount Etna from Taormina which is a 78-by-120-inch oil on canvas. Cole also produced a detailed sketch View of Mount Etna which shows a panoramic view of the volcano with the crumbling walls of the ancient Greek theatre of Taormina on the far right. After 1827 Cole maintained a studio at the farm called Cedar Grove in the town of Catskill and he painted a significant portion of his work in this studio. In 1836 he married Maria Bartow of Catskill, a niece of the owner, Thomas Cole had a sister, Sarah, who was also a landscape painter. Additionally, Thomas Cole held many friendships with important figures in the art world including Daniel Wadsworth, with whom he shared a close friendship, proof of this friendship can be seen in the letters that were unearthed in the 1980s by the Trinity College, Watkinson Library

129.
Caspar David Friedrich
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Caspar David Friedrich was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation. He is best known for his mid-period allegorical landscapes which typically feature contemplative figures silhouetted against night skies, morning mists, barren trees or Gothic or megalithic ruins. His primary interest as an artist was the contemplation of nature, Friedrich was born in the Pomeranian town of Greifswald at the Baltic Sea, where he began his studies in art as a young man. He studied in Copenhagen until 1798, before settling in Dresden and he came of age during a period when, across Europe, a growing disillusionment with materialistic society was giving rise to a new appreciation of spirituality. Friedrichs work brought him early in his career, and contemporaries such as the French sculptor David dAngers spoke of him as a man who had discovered the tragedy of landscape. Nevertheless, his work fell from favour during his years, and he died in obscurity. The early 20th century brought a renewed appreciation of his work, beginning in 1906 with an exhibition of thirty-two of his paintings and sculptures in Berlin. By the 1920s his paintings had been discovered by the Expressionists and it was not until the late 1970s that Friedrich regained his reputation as an icon of the German Romantic movement and a painter of international importance. Caspar David Friedrich was born on 5 September 1774, in Greifswald, Swedish Pomerania, the sixth of ten children, he was brought up in the strict Lutheran creed of his father Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich, a candle-maker and soap boiler. Records of the financial circumstances are contradictory, while some sources indicate the children were privately tutored. Caspar David was familiar with death from an early age and his mother, Sophie Dorothea Bechly, died in 1781 when he was just seven. A year later, his sister Elisabeth died, while a sister, Maria. Some accounts suggest that Johann Christoffer perished while trying to rescue Caspar David, Quistorp took his students on outdoor drawing excursions, as a result, Friedrich was encouraged to sketch from life at an early age. Through Quistorp, Friedrich met and was influenced by the theologian Ludwig Gotthard Kosegarten. Quistorp introduced Friedrich to the work of the German 17th-century artist Adam Elsheimer, whose works often included religious subjects dominated by landscape, during this period he also studied literature and aesthetics with Swedish professor Thomas Thorild. Four years later Friedrich entered the prestigious Academy of Copenhagen, where he began his education by making copies of casts from antique sculptures before proceeding to drawing from life, living in Copenhagen afforded the young painter access to the Royal Picture Gallerys collection of 17th-century Dutch landscape painting. At the Academy he studied under such as Christian August Lorentzen. Mood was paramount, and influence was drawn from sources as the Icelandic legend of Edda

Caspar David Friedrich
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Portrait of Caspar David Friedrich, Gerhard von Kügelgen c. 1810–20
Caspar David Friedrich
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Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (1818). 94.8 × 74.8 cm, Kunsthalle Hamburg. This well-known and especially Romantic masterpiece was described by the historian John Lewis Gaddis as leaving a contradictory impression, "suggesting at once mastery over a landscape and the insignificance of the individual within it. We see no face, so it's impossible to know whether the prospect facing the young man is exhilarating, or terrifying, or both."
Caspar David Friedrich
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The chalk drawing Self-portrait, 1800, which portrays the artist at 26 was completed while he was studying at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen. Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen
Caspar David Friedrich
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The Tetschen Altar, or The Cross in the Mountains (1807). 115 × 110.5 cm. Galerie Neue Meister, Dresden. Friedrich's first major work, the piece breaks with the traditions of representing the crucifixion in altarpieces by depicting the scene as a landscape.

130.
Henry Fuseli
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Henry Fuseli RA was a Swiss painter, draughtsman and writer on art who spent much of his life in Britain. Many of his works, such as The Nightmare, deal with supernatural subject-matter and he painted works for John Boydells Shakespeare Gallery, and created his own Milton Gallery. He held the posts of Professor of Painting and Keeper at the Royal Academy and his style had a considerable influence on many younger British artists, including William Blake. Fuseli was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second of 18 children and his father was Johann Caspar Füssli, a painter of portraits and landscapes, and author of Lives of the Helvetic Painters. He intended Henry for the church, and sent him to the Caroline college of Zurich, one of his schoolmates there was Johann Kaspar Lavater, with whom he became close friends. After taking orders in 1761 Fuseli was forced to leave the country as a result of having helped Lavater to expose an unjust magistrate and he travelled through Germany, and then, in 1765, visited England, where he supported himself for some time by miscellaneous writing. Eventually, he acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he showed his drawings. Following Reynolds advice, he decided to devote entirely to art. In 1770 he made an art-pilgrimage to Italy, where he remained until 1778, Early in 1779 he returned to Britain, taking in Zürich on his way. In London he found a commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydell, Fuseli painted a number of pieces for Boydell, and published an English edition of Lavaters work on physiognomy. He also gave William Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing a translation of Homer, in 1788 Fuseli married Sophia Rawlins, and he soon after became an associate of the Royal Academy. Fuseli later said I hate clever women, in 1790 he became a full Academician, presenting Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent as his diploma work. In 1799 Fuseli was appointed professor of painting to the Academy, four years later he was chosen as Keeper, and resigned his professorship, but resumed it in 1810, continuing to hold both offices until his death. As Keeper, he was succeeded by Henry Thomson, in 1799 Fuseli exhibited a series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of John Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery comparable to Boydells Shakespeare gallery. There were 47 Milton paintings, many of them very large, the exhibition proved a commercial failure and closed in 1800. In 1805 he brought out an edition of Pilkingtons Lives of the Painters, which did little for his reputation. Antonio Canova, when on his visit to England, was taken with Fuselis works. As a painter, Fuseli favoured the supernatural and he pitched everything on an ideal scale, believing a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches of historical painting

131.
Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson
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Anne-Louis Girodet was a French painter and pupil of Jacques-Louis David, who participated in the early Romantic movement by including elements of eroticism in his paintings. Girodet is remembered for his precise and clear style and for his paintings of members of the Napoleonic family and he lost his parents in his early youth. The care of his inheritance and education fell to his guardian, M. Trioson, médecin-de-mesdames, Girodet took the surname Trioson in 1812. In school he first studied architecture and pursued a military career and he changed to the study of painting under a teacher named Luquin and then entered the school of Jacques-Louis David. At the age of 22 he successfully competed for the Prix de Rome with a painting of the Story of Joseph and his Brethren. From 1789 to 1793 he lived in Italy and while in Rome he painted his Hippocrate refusant les presents dArtaxerxes and Endymion-dormant, back in France, Girodet painted many portraits, including some of members of the Bonaparte family. In 1806, in competition with the Sabines of David, he exhibited his Scène de déluge and he returned top his theatrical style in La Révolte du Caire. Girodet was a member of the Academy of Painting and of the Institute of France, a knight of the order of St. Michael, at a sale of his effects after his death, some of his drawings realized enormous prices. Girodet produced a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may be cited those for the Didot Virgil, fifty-four of his designs for Anacreon were engraved by M. Châtillon. Delecluze, in his Louis David et son temps, has also a life of Girodet. Girodet, Romantic Rebel was the first retrospective in the United States devoted to the works of Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, the exhibition assembled more than 100 seminal works that demonstrated the artists range as a painter as well as a draftsman. The peculiarities which mark Girodets position as the herald of the movement are already evident in his Sleep of Endymion. He has an inclination to the ancient style, and a statuary expression is very perceptible in his works. His drawing is correct, and of great precision, his colouring is rich, transparent and he works with equal care and genius. He loves to produce effect by strong lights but they are in unison with the spirit of the pieces. The same incongruity marks Girodets Danae and his Quatre Saisons, executed for the king of Spain, French painting 1774-1830, the Age of Revolution. New York, Detroit, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Detroit Institute of Arts, miscellaneous works Three portraits by Girodet Works of Girodet at http, //www. the-athenaeum. org

132.
Francisco Goya
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Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of late 18th and early 19th centuries and throughout his career was a commentator. Immensely successful in his lifetime, Goya is often referred to as both the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns and he was also one of the great portraitists of modern times. He was born to a modest family in 1746 in the village of Fuendetodos in Aragon and he studied painting from age 14 under José Luzán y Martinez and moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs. He married Josefa Bayeu in 1773, the couples life together was characterised by an almost constant series of pregnancies and miscarriages, Goya was a guarded man and although letters and writings survive, little is known about his thoughts. He suffered a severe and undiagnosed illness in 1793 which left him completely deaf, after 1793 his work became progressively darker and more pessimistic. His later easel and mural paintings, prints and drawings appear to reflect a bleak outlook on personal, social and political levels and he was appointed Director of the Royal Academy in 1795, the year Manuel Godoy made an unfavorable treaty with France. In 1799 Goya became Primer Pintor de Cámara, the then-highest rank for a Spanish court painter, in the late 1790s, commissioned by Godoy, he completed his La maja desnuda, a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez. In 1801 he painted Charles IV of Spain and His Family, in 1807 Napoleon led the French army into Spain. Goya remained in Madrid during the Peninsular War, which seems to have affected him deeply. Although he did not vocalise his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his Disasters of War series of prints and his 1814 paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808. Goya eventually abandoned Spain in 1824 to retire to the French city of Bordeaux, accompanied by his much younger maid and companion, Leocadia Weiss, there he completed his La Tauromaquia series and a number of other, major, canvases. Following a stroke left him paralyzed on his right side. His body was later re-interred in Spain, Francisco Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, on 30 March 1746 to José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. The family had moved that year from the city of Zaragoza, José was the son of a notary and of Basque origin, his ancestors being from Zerain, earning his living as a gilder, specialising in religious and decorative craftwork. He oversaw the gilding and most of the ornamentation during the rebuilding of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, Francisco was their fourth child, following his sister Rita, brother Tomás and second sister Jacinta. There were two sons, Mariano and Camilo. His mothers family had pretensions of nobility and the house, a modest brick cottage, was owned by her family and, perhaps fancifully, about 1749 José and Gracia bought a home in Zaragoza and were able to return to live in the city

133.
Hans Gude
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Hans Fredrik Gude was a Norwegian romanticist painter and is considered along with Johan Christian Dahl to be one of Norways foremost landscape painters. He has been called a mainstay of Norwegian National Romanticism and he is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting. Gudes artistic career was not one marked with change and revolution. Gudes early works are of idyllic, sun-drenched Norwegian landscapes which present a romantic, around 1860 Gude began painting seascapes and other coastal subjects. Gude had difficulty with figure drawing initially and so collaborated with Adolph Tidemand in some of his painting, drawing the landscape himself, later Gude would work specifically on his figures while at Karlsruhe, and so began populating his paintings with them. Gude initially painted primarily with oils in a studio, basing his works on studies he had earlier in the field. However, as Gude matured as a painter he began to paint en plein air, Gude spent forty-five years as an art professor and so he played an important role in the development of Norwegian art by acting as a mentor to three generations of Norwegian artists. Young Norwegian artists flocked to wherever Gude was teaching, first at the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf and later at the School of Art in Karlsruhe. Over the course of his lifetime Gude won numerous medals, was inducted as a member into many art academies. He was the father of painter Nils Gude, Gude was born in Christiania in 1825 the son of Ove Gude, a judge, and Marie Elisabeth Brandt. Gude began his career with private lessons from Johannes Flintoe. In the autumn of 1841 Johan Sebastian Welhaven suggested that the young Gude should be sent to Düsseldorf to further his education in the arts, Gude was rejected by the academy, but attracted the attention of Andreas Achenbach who provided him with private lessons. Gude was finally accepted into the Academy in the autumn of 1842, the landscape painting class at the Academy was new at the time, having been founded in 1839 as a counterpart to the more long standing figure painting class. At the time figure painting was considered a more prestigious genre than landscape painting as it was only through painting the human body could true beauty be expressed. Gude, along with most of the class of twelve, received a grade of good his first semester and was described as talented, while Gude was a student, two different trends in landscaping were developing at the Academy, a romantic trend and a classical trend. The romanticists depicted wild, untamed wildernesses with dark forests, soaring peaks and they used rich, saturated colors with strong contrast of light and shadow. The classicists were more interested in recreating landscapes from the heroic or mythical past, the classicists focused on lines and clarity in their compositions. Their relationship was such a one that Gudes eldest daughter eventually married one of Lessings sons

134.
Francesco Hayez
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Francesco Hayez was an Italian painter, the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan, renowned for his grand historical paintings, political allegories and exceptionally fine portraits. Hayez came from a poor family from Venice. His father, Giovanni, was of French origin while his mother, the child Francesco, youngest of five sons, was brought up by his mothers sister, who had married Giovanni Binasco, a well-off shipowner and collector of art. From childhood he showed a predisposition for drawing, so his uncle apprenticed him to an art restorer, later he became a student of the painter Francesco Maggiotto with whom he continued his studies for three years. He was admitted to the course of the New Academy of Fine Arts in 1806. In 1809 he won a competition from the Academy of Venice for one year of study at the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. He remained in Rome until 1814, then moved to Naples where he was commissioned by Joachim Murat to paint a major work depicting Ulysses at the court of Alcinous. In the mid-1830s he attended the Salotto Maffei salon in Milan, hosted by Clara Maffei, Francesco Hayez lived long and was prolific. His output spanned both historic paintings, including those that would have appealed to the sensibility of his patrons. Others reflect the desire to accompany a Neoclassic style to grand themes and he also painted scenes from theatrical presentations of his day. Conspicuously lacking from his output, however, are intended for devotional display. Corrado Ricci describes him as starting as a classicist but then evolving to a style of emotional tumult and his portraits have the intensity seen with Ingres and the Nazarene movement. Often sitting, the dress in austere, often black and white clothing. While he did portraits for the nobility, other subjects are artists. Late in his career, he is known to have worked using photographs, one of his favorite themes was a semi-clothed female. Often they were, like his Odalisque, evocative of oriental themes, the depictions of harems and their women allowed them the ability to paint scenes not acceptable in their society. Even his Mary Magdalene has more sensuality than religious fervor, among his works, his painting The Kiss was considered among his best work by contemporaries, and has only gained in esteem since then. The anonymous, unaffected gesture of the couple does not require knowledge of myth or literature to interpret, assessment of the career of Hayez is complicated by the fact that he often did not sign or date his works

135.
Thomas Jones (artist)
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Thomas Jones was a Welsh landscape painter. He was a pupil of Richard Wilson and was best known in his lifetime as a painter of Welsh, however, Joness reputation grew in the 20th century when more unconventional works by him, not originally intended for exhibition, came to light. Most notable among these is a series of views of Naples which he painted from 1782 to 1783, by breaking with the conventions of classical landscape painting in favour of direct observation, they look forward to the work of Camille Corot and the Barbizon School in the 19th century. His autobiography, Memoirs of Thomas Jones of Penkerrig, went unpublished until 1951 but is now recognised as an important source of information on the 18th-century art world. Thomas Jones was born in Trefonnen in Cefnllys, Radnorshire, the second of sixteen children to the landowner Thomas Jones of Trefonnen and his wife, Hannah. His formative years were spent on his fathers estate at Pencerrig near Builth Wells and he was educated at Christ College, Brecon, and later at a school kept by Jenkin Jenkins at Llanfyllin in Montgomeryshire, before going to Oxford in 1759 to study at Jesus College. His university education was funded by an uncle who, contrary to Joness own wishes. Jones dropped out of Oxford after this death in 1761. Jones moved to London and enrolled at William Shipleys drawing school in November 1761, a high-spirited youth, Jones recorded in his journal that he and two rowdy fellow pupils were once rebuked by their master with the words, Gentlemen, this is not the way to rival Claude. In 1765 Jones began to exhibit at the Society of Artists, from 1769 onwards his landscapes began to adopt the grand manner, becoming settings for scenes in history, literature or mythology. His frequent collaborator on these works was John Hamilton Mortimer, who painted the figures, one of his best-known works from this period is The Bard, based on the poem by Thomas Gray. The 1770s were a period for Jones, he was elected a fellow of the Society of Artists in 1771. This period also saw the beginning of Jones’s unconventional habit of producing small landscape sketches in oils on paper for his own amusement, Jones embarked on an eagerly anticipated trip to Italy in September 1776. The works produced there departed significantly from the example of his master, particularly in his watercolour paintings, jacob More, John Robert Cozens and Thomas Banks were among the fellow expatriate artists with whom Jones was friendly. His first commission in Italy was a landscape entitled Lake Albano – Sunset for the Earl-Bishop of Derry, Jones made his first visit to Naples in September 1778, staying there for five months. He returned to Rome for a time, living in a house near the Spanish Steps built by Salvator Rosa and he took on a Danish widow called Maria Moncke as his Maid Servant in April 1779, eloping with her to Naples a year later. Then the largest city in Italy, Naples promised more opportunities for patronage than had Rome, Maria gave birth to two daughters in Naples, Anna Maria and Elizabetha. Upon hearing of his fathers death in 1782, Jones, who six years in Italy was becoming restless and homesick

136.
Orest Kiprensky
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Orest Adamovich Kiprensky was a leading Russian portraitist in the Age of Romanticism. His most familiar work is probably his portrait of Alexander Pushkin, orest was born in the village of Koporye near Saint Petersburg on 24 March 1782. He was a son of a landowner Alexey Dyakonov, hence his name, derived from Kypris. He was raised in the family of Adam Shvalber, a serf and he studied at the boarding school and the Academy itself until 1803. He lived at the Academy for three years as a pensioner to fulfill requirements necessary to win the Major Gold medal. Winning the first prize for his work Prince Dmitri Donskoi after the Battle of Kulikovo enabled the young artist to go abroad to study art in Europe. A year before his graduation, in 1804, he painted the portrait of Adam Shvalber, his foster father, the portrait so impressed his contemporaries, that later members of the Naples Academy of Arts took it for the painting by some Old Master – Rubens or van Dyck. Kiprensky had to ask the members of the Imperial Academy of Arts for letters supporting his authorship, after that, Kiprensky lived in Moscow, Tver 1811, Saint Petersburg 1812, in 1816–1822 he lived in Rome and Napoli. In Italy he met a local girl Anne Maria Falcucci, to whom he became attached and he bought her from her dissolute family and employed as his ward. On leaving Italy, he sent her to a Roman Catholic convent, in 1828, Kiprensky came back to Italy, as he got a letter from his friend Samuel Halberg, informing him that they had lost track of Mariucci. Kiprensky found Mariucci, who had transferred to another convent. In 1836 he eventually married her and he had to convert into Roman Catholicism from Russian Orthodoxy for this marriage to happen. He died by pneumonia in Rome later that year and he is buried in the church of SantAndrea delle Fratte

137.
Philip James de Loutherbourg
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He also had an interest in faith-healing and the occult and was a companion of Cagliostro. Loutherbourg was born in Strasbourg in 1740, the son of an expatriate Polish miniature painter, intended for the Lutheran ministry, he was educated at the University of Strasbourg. Rejecting a religious calling, Loutherbourg decided to become a painter and his talent developed rapidly, and he became a figure in the fashionable society of the day. He made his debut with the exhibition of pictures, including Storm at Sunset, Night. Loutherbourg then travelled through Switzerland, Germany and Italy, distinguishing himself as much by his inventions as by his painting. In 1771 he settled in London, where David Garrick paid him £500 a year to design scenery and costumes and his stage effects attracted the admiration not just of the general public, but also of artists, including Joshua Reynolds. He continued to work at the theatre until 1785 and he achieved an even greater success with an entertainment called the Eidophusikon, meaning image of nature. This was a mechanical theatre measuring six by eight feet. It was presented at Loutherbourgs home from March 1781 in an auditorium seating about 130 people and he used Argand lamps to light the stage and stained glass to change colours. The Eidophusikon soon closed, however, as the income did not cover the costs, despite these other projects, Loutherbourg still found time for painting. His finest work was the Destruction of the Armada and he also painted the Great Fire of London and several historical works, including the Attack of the Combined Armies on Valenciennes. He was interested in the revolution and his 1801 painting Coalbrookdale by Night shows iron foundries at work. Seven of his paintings, including Lodore Waterfall and Skating in Hyde Park, are in the Government Art Collection and he was made a member of the Royal Academy in 1781. Two sets of drawings by de Loutherbourg were published, reproduced in aquatint and he also contributed illustrations to a bible published by Thomas Macklin in 1800. In 1789 Loutherbourg temporarily gave up painting, in order to pursue an interest in alchemy and he met Alessandro di Cagliostro, who instructed him in the occult. He travelled about with Cagliostro, leaving him, however, before his condemnation to death and he and his wife also took up faith-healing. A pamphlet called A List of a Few Cures performed by Mr and Mrs De Loutherbourg, of Hammersmith Terrace, Loutherbourg died in Chiswick in 1812. There are paintings by him in the collections of several British institutions including Leicester, Farnham, Loutherbourg was buried in Chiswick Old Cemetery, adjoining the graveyard of St Nicholas Church, Chiswick

138.
John Martin (painter)
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John Martin was an English Romantic painter, engraver and illustrator. He was celebrated for his typically vast and melodramatic paintings of subjects and fantastic compositions. Martin was born in July 1789, in a cottage, at Haydon Bridge, near Hexham in Northumberland, the fourth son of Fenwick Martin. His leisure was occupied in the study of perspective and architecture, Martin began to supplement his income by painting sepia watercolours. He sent his first oil painting to the Royal Academy in 1810, in 1811 he sent the painting once again, when it was hung under the title A Landscape Composition as item no.46 in the Great Room. Thereafter, he produced a succession of large exhibited oil paintings, some landscapes, in the years of the Regency from 1812 onwards there was a fashion for such ‘sublime’ paintings. Martins first break came at the end of a season at the Royal Academy and he brought it home, only to find there a visiting card from William Manning MP, who wanted to buy it from him. This promising career was interrupted by the deaths of his father, mother, grandmother, another distraction was William, who frequently asked him to draw up plans for his inventions, and whom he always indulged with help and money. But, heavily influenced by the works of John Milton, he continued with his grand themes despite setbacks, in 1816 Martin finally achieved public acclaim with Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still upon Gibeon, even though it broke many of the conventional rules of composition. Martins triumph was Belshazzars Feast, of which he boasted beforehand, only dont tell anyone I said so. Five thousand people paid to see it and it was later nearly ruined when the carriage in which it was being transported was struck by a train at a level crossing near Oswestry. In private Martin was passionate, a devotee of chess—and, in common with his brothers, swordsmanship and javelin-throwing—and a devout Christian, Martin became the official historical painter to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, later the first King of Belgium. Leopold was the godfather of Martins son Leopold, and endowed Martin with the Order of Leopold, Martin was defender of deism and natural religion, evolution and rationality. Georges Cuvier became an admirer of Martins, and he enjoyed the company of scientists, artists and writers—Dickens, Faraday. At one time the Martins took under their wing a young woman called Jane Webb, a socially optimistic but satirical vision of a steam-driven world in the 22nd century. Another friend was Charles Wheatstone, professor of physics at King’s College, Wheatstone experimented with telegraphy and invented the concertina and stereoscope, Martin was fascinated by his attempts to measure the speed of light. At various points Martins brothers were also among the guests, their eccentricities and his profile was raised further in February 1829 when his elder brother, non-conformist, Jonathan Martin deliberately set fire to York Minster. The fire caused damage and the scene was likened by an onlooker to Martins work

139.
Samuel Palmer
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Samuel Palmer was a British landscape painter, etcher and printmaker. He was also a prolific writer, Palmer was a key figure in Romanticism in Britain and produced visionary pastoral paintings. Palmer, who was born in Surrey Square off the Old Kent Road in Newington, London, was the son of a bookseller and sometime Baptist minister, Palmer painted churches from around age twelve, and first exhibited Turner-inspired works at the Royal Academy at the age of fourteen. He had little training, and little formal schooling, although he was educated briefly at Merchant Taylors School. Through John Linnell, he met William Blake in 1824, blakes influence can be seen in work he produced over the next ten years and generally reckoned to be his greatest. The works were landscapes around Shoreham, near Sevenoaks in the west of Kent, there Palmer associated with a group of Blake-influenced artists known as the Ancients. They were among the few who saw the Shoreham paintings as, resulting from attacks by critics in 1825, Samuel Palmer senior rented half of the Queen Anne-era Waterhouse which still stands by the River Darent at Shoreham and is now known as the Water House. Palmers nurse, Mary Ward, and his other son William joined him there, the Waterhouse was used to accommodate overflow guests from Rat Abbey. In 1828 Samuel Palmer left Rat Abbey to join his father at Water House, while at Shoreham he fell in love with the fourteen-year-old Hannah Linnell, whom he later married. After returning to London in 1835, and using a legacy to purchase a house in Marylebone, Palmer produced less mystical. Part of his reason in returning to London was to sell his work and he sketched in Devonshire and Wales around this time. His peaceful vision of rural England had been disillusioned by the violent rural discontent of the early 1830s and his small financial legacy was running out and he decided to produce work more in line with public taste if he was to earn an income for himself and his wife. He was following the advice of his father-in-law, Palmer turned more to watercolour which was gaining popularity in England. To further a career, the couple embarked on a two-year honeymoon to Italy. In Italy Palmers palette became brighter, sometimes to the point of garishness, on his return to London, Palmer sought patrons with limited success. For more than two decades he was obliged to work as a drawing master, until he moved from London in 1862. To add to his worries, he returned to London to find his dissolute brother William had pawned all his early paintings. By all accounts Palmer was an excellent teacher, but the work with uninspired students reduced the time he could devote to his own art

140.
Philipp Otto Runge
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Philipp Otto Runge was a Romantic German painter and draughtsman. Although he made a start to his career and is considered among the best German Romantic painters. Runge was born as the ninth of eleven children in Wolgast, Western Pomerania, then under Swedish rule, as a sickly child he often missed school and at an early age learned the art of scissor-cut silhouettes from his mother, practised by him throughout his life. In 1795 he began an apprenticeship at his older brother Daniels firm in Hamburg. In 1799 Daniel supported Runge financially to study of painting under Jens Juel at the Copenhagen Academy. In 1801 he moved to Dresden to continue his studies, where he met Caspar David Friedrich, Ludwig Tieck and he also began extensive study of the writings of the 17th century mystic Jakob Boehme. In 1803, on a visit to Weimar, Runge unexpectedly met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in 1804 he married and moved with his wife to Hamburg. Due to imminent war dangers they relocated in 1805 to his home in Wolgast where they remained until 1807. In 1805 Runges correspondence with Goethe on the subject of his artistic work, returning to Hamburg in 1807, he and his brother Daniel formed a new company in which he remained active until the end of his life. In the same year he developed the concept of the color sphere, in 1808 he intensified his work on color, including making disk color mixture experiments. He also published versions of two local folk fairy tales The fisherman and his wife and The almond tree, later included among the tales of the brothers Grimm. In 1809 Runge completed his work on the manuscript of Farben-Kugel, in the same year, ill with tuberculosis, Runge painted another self-portrait as well as portraits of his family and brother Daniel. The last of his four children was born on the day after Runges death. Runge was of a mystical, deeply Christian turn of mind, and in his work he tried to express notions of the harmony of the universe through symbolism of colour, form. He considered blue, yellow, and red to be symbolic of the Christian trinity and equated blue with God and the night, red with morning, evening, and Jesus, and yellow with the Holy Spirit. He also wrote poetry and to end he planned a series of four paintings called The Times of the Day, designed to be seen in a special building and viewed to the accompaniment of music. This concept was common to artists, who tried to achieve a total art. In 1803 Runge had large-format engravings made of the drawings of the Times of the Day series that became commercially successful and he painted two versions of Morning, but the others did not advance beyond drawings

141.
Mihael Stroj
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Mihael Stroj was a Slovenian painter. Mihael Stroj was born the fifth of eight children to Anton Stroj and his wife Marija and he spent his childhood in Ljubno in Upper Carniola. In 1812, his mother died of exhaustion, shortly thereafter, his father remarried, sold his property in Ljubno and moved to Ljubljana with his family. Mihael Stroj attended the Glavna vzorna šola, where he completed the class in 1817 with very good grades. He then joined the so-called artists’ class, which he concluded in 1820 with distinction and he continued his schooling in Vienna, where he enrolled in the Academy of Fine Arts in 1821. The first of his works known to have survived, a sketch of a head and it is known that Stroj was still a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1825, but it is not known whether he concluded his studies there. In 1830, Stroj spent time in Zagreb, where he offered his services to the nobility, because of the numerous commissions that he received, he remained in Zagreb. He lived in Croatia until 1842, in this period, he painted not only a large number of portraits, but also works with religious content, including altar pictures for churches in Vugrovec and Nova Rača. In Croatia, Stroj was exposed to the ideas of Illyrism and associated members of the Illyrian movement, including Stanko Vraz, Djuro Jelačić. In 1841, Stroj married Margareta Berghaus, which whom he had five daughters, the following year, he returned to Ljubljana, where he continued to paint portraits of important members of the local bourgeoisie, although he also received further commissions from Croatia. He died in his house in Ljubljana after suffering heart attacks. Mihael Stroj was one of the most prominent Slovenian painters of the 19th century and his art reflects the Classicism and the Romanticism of his day, but the influence of the Biedermeier style is also visible. Most of his works are oil paintings, portraits of rich members of the bourgeoisie in Ljubljana and in Zagreb made up the majority of his work, although he also painted religious motives, genre works and historical themes. Some of his paintings are listed below, J. Martinčič Djuro Jelačić Karlo Jelačić Stjepan Ožegović Julijana Gaj Mož z rdečo ovratnico Stanko Vraz Dr. Florijan Sv. stoletja = Gesichter – slowenische Malerei im XIX. Jahrhundert Komelj Milček, Božja skrb – Mihael Stroj, Božja skrb, Vzgoja, Leto 6, št

142.
Adolph Tidemand
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Adolph Tidemand was a noted Norwegian romantic nationalism painter. Among his best known paintings are Haugianerne and Brudeferd i Hardanger, Adolph Tidemand was born in Mandal, Norway as the son of customs inspector and Storting representative Christen Tidemand and Johanne Henriette Henrikke Haste. He received private art lessons in his town and his talent was soon recognized. He then was enrolled in an art school in Christiania, moving on to Copenhagen in the period 1832-37 and he studied there for five years and then began a journey to Italy to study further. But when Tidemand came to Düsseldorf, Germany, he liked it so much that he settled down there, from 1837-41 he continued his studies at the art academy in Düsseldorf, which at the time enjoyed widespread international recognition. He studied with and was influenced by his teacher, Theodor Hildebrandt, here he prepared the well known Hjemvendte fiskere ved den sjællandske kyst. The painting Gustav Vasa taler til dalalmuen i Mora kirke was sold to a German museum and he is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting. In the autumn of 1841 he studied in Italy along with his brother Emil, few of his works from this period remain, except for the picture Napolitansk fisker. Tidemand was preoccupied by Norwegian history, particularly after returning on a journey to Norway, during a journey to 1843 in Hardanger, he met the 18-year-old Hans Gude. This resulted in a friendship, and eventually they collaborated on several landscape paintings in which Tidemand painted the figures. During 1842-45 he traveled extensively in Norway, more of his works survive from this period, including Eventyrfortellersken, Søndagskveld i en hardangersk røkstue and Gudstjeneste i en norsk landsens kirke. In his later travels in southern Norway, the last in 1875, Tidemand studied folk costumes, domestic utensils and building and made himself familiar with oral traditions, folk tales and legends. Today Adolph Tidemand is best known for this depiction of Norwegian farm, in Tidemand’s paintings of the old Norwegian farm culture, he portrayed the peasant with a new dignity, humane and culturally. The National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design in Oslo alone owns over 100 of his works and he married in 1845 with his childhood sweetheart, Claudine Marie Bergitte Jæger. The couple settled in Düsseldorf in 1845 and their only child, a son, Adolph, died in 1874 at 28 years of age. Tidemand was awarded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1849, the French Legion of Honor in 1855, norsk Malerkunst, Hovedlinjen gjennom 200år – uten stedsangivelse. Adolph Tidemand, Hans Liv Og Hans Værker, Volumes 1-2, Adolph Tidemand og folk han møtte, studiar frå reisene i norske dalføre, akvarellar, målarstykke og teikningar. Adolph Tidemand 1814-1876, Hans Fredrik Gude 1825-1903

143.
James Ward (artist)
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James Ward RA, was a painter, particularly of animals, and an engraver. Ward devoted much of the period 1815-21 to the painting of a work titled Allegory of Waterloo. The experience may have embittered him, and the deaths of his first wife, like many artists of the time, Ward sought commissions from wealthy gentry of their favorite horses, their favorite hunting dogs or their children. One such family that Ward painted and drew repeatedly, and whom he counted among his friends, were the Levett family of Wynchnor Park, one of Wards best-known portraits was his Theophilus Levett hunting at Wychnor, Staffordshire of 1817. Another was Wards 1811 painting entitled The Reverend Thomas Levett and his favourite dogs, Ward also painted a group portrait of three Levett children — John, Theophilus and Frances Levett. James was the son of James and Rachael Ward and he was first married to Mary Ann Ward in 1794 and after her death to Charlotte Fritche in 1827. James and Mary Ann Ward had several children including, Matilda Louisa Ward,1798, d.1879 James Ward was the paternal grandfather of the painter Henrietta Ward and the great-grandfather of Leslie Ward, the Vanity Fair caricaturist. In 1830, Ward moved to Cheshunt with his second wife, a stroke in 1855 ended his work, and he died in poverty. He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, James Ward was one of the outstanding artists of the day, his singular style and great skill set him above most of his contemporaries, markedly influencing the growth of British art. Regarded as one of the animal painters of his time, James produced history paintings, portraits, landscapes. He started off as an engraver, trained by William, who later engraved much of his work. The partnership of William and James Ward produced the best that English art had to offer, their technical skill and artistry having led to images that reflect the grace. He was admitted for membership into the Royal Academy in 1811, one of Wards best-known paintings, The Deer Stealer, was commissioned in 1823 for the sum of 500 guineas by Wards patron Theophilus Levett. When the work was finished, Levett pronounced himself delighted with the results, subsequently Ward was said to have been offered 1,000 guineas for the painting by a nobleman, which he declined. The painting now hangs at Tate in London, list of British artists Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Ward, James. The Life and Work of James Ward, RA, eighteenth century artists and engravers, William Ward A. R. A. Fussell, G. E. James Ward R. A, animal Painter 1769–1859 and His England. His Life and Works with a Catalogue of his Engravings and Pictures, nygren, Edward J. James Wards Gordale Scar, An Essay in the Sublime

144.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private

145.
Realism (arts)
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Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life

146.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

147.
BIBSYS
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply

148.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts

National Library of Australia
National Library of Australia
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National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra
National Library of Australia
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The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.
National Library of Australia
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The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn.

149.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences

National Diet Library
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Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Main building in Tokyo

150.
National Library of the Czech Republic
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The National Library of the Czech Republic is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture, the librarys main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař, the National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, in its funds there are around 6 million documents. The library has around 60,000 registered readers, as well as Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India. The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague, the library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO via the Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts. The project, which commenced in 1992, involved the digitisation of 1,700 documents in its first 13 years, the most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new building on Letna plain. In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus. Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, the library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water. Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building, there was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event. List of national and state libraries Official website

National Library of the Czech Republic
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Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic
National Library of the Czech Republic
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General reading room (former refectory of the Jesuit residence in Clementinum)