1.
Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage

2.
Active packaging
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The terms active packaging, intelligent packaging, and smart packaging refer to packaging systems used with foods, pharmaceuticals, and several other types of products. They help extend shelf life, monitor freshness, display information on quality, improve safety, active packaging usually means having active functions beyond the inert passive containment and protection of the product. Intelligent and smart packaging usually involve the ability to sense or measure an attribute of the product and this information can be communicated to users or can trigger active packaging functions. Programmable matter, smart materials, etc can be employed in packages, depending on the working definitions, some traditional types of packaging might be considered as active or intelligent. More often, the terms are used with new technologically advanced systems, microelectronics, computer applications, nanotechnology, for many years, desiccants have been used to actively control the water vapor in a closed package. A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance usually in a pouch or sachet which is placed inside a sealed package. They have been used to reduce corrosion of machinery and electronics and to extend the life of moisture sensitive foods. Corrosion inhibitors can be applied to items to prevent rust. Volatile corrosion inhibitors or vapor phase corrosion inhibitors can be provided inside a package in a pouch or can be incorporated in a saturated overwrap of special paper, many of these are organic salts that condense on the metal to resist corrosion. Some films also have VCI emitting capability, films are available with copper ions in the polymer structure, These neutralize the corrosive gas in a package and deter rust. VCI create an environment in the packaging. It works on the principle of difference in pressure and causes reaction with Metals and Non metals. There are different forms of VCIs available like Papers, Plastics, HDPE Papers, Oils, Foams, Chips, Aluminum Barrier Foils, Bubble, Emitters etc. that can prevent corrosion at many stages. Trace transition metals in foods, especially iron, can induce oxidative degradation of food components, especially lipids. Metal-chelating active packaging materials are made by immobilizing metal-chelating active compounds onto traditional active packaging material, the surface immobilized metal-chelating compounds can scavenge the transition metals from the product and enhance the oxidative stability of the product. The metal-chelating active packaging technology is also antioxidant active packaging that will extend the shelf-life of consumer products by controlling the oxidation, the metal-chelating active packaging technology is known to be able to remove synthetic food preservatives from the food product. This technology can be used to address the consumer demand for additive free. Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers help remove oxygen from a closed package, some are small packets or sachets containing powdered iron, as the iron rusts, oxygen is removed from the surrounding atmosphere

3.
American Frozen Food Institute
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The American Frozen Food Institute is the national trade association that promotes the interests of all segments of the frozen food industry. AFFI was founded in 1942 and is headquartered in McLean, Virginia and its subsidiaries are, Alliance for Listeriosis Prevention Frozen Food Foundation National Yogurt Association http, //www. affi. org/about-us consulted April 15,2013

4.
Nicolas Appert
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Nicolas Appert, was the French inventor of airtight food preservation. Appert, known as the father of canning, was a confectioner, Appert was a confectioner and chef in Paris from 1784 to 1795. In 1795, he began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams and he placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax and placed them in boiling water. In 1795 the French military offered a prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food bottling factory in the world, years before Louis Pasteur proved that heat killed bacteria. Appert patented his invention and established a business to preserve a variety of food in sealed bottles, apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef, fowl, eggs, milk, and prepared dishes. His greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep and he left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a vise. The bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water, in honor of Appert, canning is sometimes called appertisation, but should be distinguished from pasteurization. Apperts method was so simple and workable that it became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812 Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, the Appert method of canning had made its way to America, in 1991, a monumental statue of Appert, a work in bronze by the artist Jean-Robert Ipousteguy, was erected in Châlons-en-Champagne. A plaque was affixed to his birthplace in 1986, in 1999, busts of Appert by Richard Bruyère were erected in Institute of Food Technologists I. F. T. Chicago, Massy, and Museum of Fine Arts in Châlons-en-Champagne, in 2010, a statue of Appert by Roger Marion was erected in Malataverne. There are 72 streets named after Nicolas Appert in France, there is a high school named after Nicolas Appert in Orvault, France. In 1955 a French postal stamp commemorated him,2010 was declared Nicolas Appert Year, a national celebration, by the French ministry of culture. The Principality of Monaco issued a stamp featuring Appert. An exhibition entitled Mise en boîte was held at the Musée des Beaux-Arts et dArchéologie de Châlons-en-Champagne, since 1942, each year the Chicago Section of the Institute of Food Technologists awards the Nicholas Appert Award, recognizing lifetime achievement in food technology. The student association of the Food Technology education at Wageningen University is called Nicolas Appert, since 1972 this association has focused on improving the courses related to food technology education and organises several events each year for students and alumni

5.
Arbroath smokie
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The Arbroath smokie is a type of smoked haddock – a speciality of the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The Arbroath Smokie is said to have originated in the fishing village of Auchmithie. Local legend has it a store caught fire one night, destroying barrels of haddock preserved in salt, the following morning, the people found some of the barrels had caught fire, cooking the haddock inside. Inspection revealed the haddock to be quite tasty and it is much more likely the villagers were of Scandinavian descent, as the Smokie making process is similar to smoking methods which are still employed in areas of Scandinavia. Towards the end of the 19th century, as Arbroaths fishing industry died and it also offered them use of the modern harbour. Much of the Auchmithie population then relocated, bringing the Arbroath Smokie recipe with them, today, some 15 local businesses produce Arbroath smokies, selling them in major supermarkets in the UK and online. In 2004, the European Commission registered the designation Arbroath smokies as a Protected Geographical Indication under the EUs Protected Food Name Scheme, Arbroath smokies are prepared using traditional methods dating back to the late 1800s. The fish are first salted overnight and they are then tied in pairs using hemp twine, and left overnight to dry. Once they have been salted, tied and dried, they are hung over a length of wood to smoke. This kiln stick fits between the two tied smokies, one fish on either side, the sticks are then used to hang the dried fish in a special barrel containing a hardwood fire. When the fish are hung over the fire, the top of the barrel is covered with a lid, all of this serves to create a very hot, humid and smoky fire. The intense heat and thick smoke is essential if the fish are to be cooked, not burned, typically in less than an hour of smoking, the fish are ready to eat. Finnan Haddie List of smoked foods Scottish cuisine Madison Books 1,001 Foods to Die For Page 283, paston-Williams, Sara Fish, Recipes from a Busy Island Page 132, National Trust Books. Sweetser, Wendy The Connoisseurs Guide to Fish & Seafood Page 194, BBC Food - Recipes for Arbroath smokies The History of the Smokie - Documentary film about the history of the Arbroath smokie Arbroath smokie Online Recipes Arbroath smokie Recipes

6.
Biopreservation
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Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage. It is an ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention. Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria, Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic properties which make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic and acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin which is a particularly effective preservative. These days LAB bacteriocins are used as an part of hurdle technology. Lactic acid bacteria and propionibacteria have been studies for their efficacy against spoilage causing yeasts. A bacterium/yeast that is a candidate for use as a biopreservative does not necessarily have to ferment the food. However, if conditions are suitable for growth, then a biopreservative bacterium will compete well for nutrients with the spoilage. As a product of its metabolism, it should also produce acids and other antimicrobial agents, biopreservative bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria, must be harmless to humans. Bacteriophages, or simply phages, are viruses which infect bacteria, the majority of all bacteriophages known exhibit a double-stranded DNA genome inside the virion capsid and belong to the order of tailed phages, Caudovirales. Bacteriophages are ubiquitously distributed in nature and can also be isolated from human or animal associated microflora and they outnumber their bacterial host species by a factor of ten representing the most abundant self-replicating entities on earth with an estimated 1031 phages in total. The idea of using phages against unwanted bacteria developed shortly after their discovery, with the improvements in organic chemistry during the 1950s, exploration and development of broad spectrum antibiotics displaced interest in bacteriophage research. Several laboratories have been testing suitability of bacteriophage isolates to control bacterial pathogens. Significant advancements in this research have made at the Bacteriophage Institute in Tbilisi, Georgia. Today treatment of resistant bacteria is a challenging task. Bacteriophages have recently received a generally recognized as safe based on their lack of toxicity. In meat processing, biopreservation has been studied in fermented meat products

7.
Clarence Birdseye
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Clarence Frank Birdseye II was an American inventor, entrepreneur, and naturalist, and is considered to be the founder of the modern frozen food industry. Clarence Birdseye was born in Brooklyn, New York, on December 9,1886, Birdseye attended Montclair High School in New Jersey, and due to financial difficulties completed only two years at Amherst College, where his father and elder brother had earned degrees. He subsequently moved west for the United States Agriculture Department, Birdseye began his career as a taxidermist. He also worked in New Mexico and Arizona as an “assistant naturalist” and he was taught by the Inuit how to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40 °C weather, he discovered that the fish he caught froze almost instantly, and and he recognized immediately that the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador, and saw that applying this knowledge would be lucrative. His journals from this period, which record these observations, are held in the Archives, conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, and thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, when slow frozen foods thaw, cellular fluids leak from the ice crystal-damaged tissue, giving the resulting food a mushy or dry consistency upon preparation. In 1924, his company went bankrupt for lack of consumer interest in the product and that same year he developed an entirely new process for commercially viable quick-freezing, packing fish in cartons, then freezing the contents between two refrigerated surfaces under pressure. Birdseye created a new company, General Seafood Corporation, to promote this method, in 1925, his General Seafood Corporation moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts. There it employed Birdseyes newest invention, the double belt freezer, in which cold brine chilled a pair of steel belts carrying packaged fish. His invention was subsequently issued as US Patent #1,773,079, Birdseye took out patents on other machinery, which cooled even more quickly, so that only small ice crystals could form and cell membranes were not damaged. In 1927, he began to extend the process beyond fish to quick-freezing of meat, poultry, fruit, Birdseye continued to work with the company, further developing frozen food technology. In 1930, the company began sales experiments in 18 retail stores around Springfield, Massachusetts, the initial product line featured 26 items, including 18 cuts of frozen meat, spinach and peas, a variety of fruits and berries, blue point oysters, and fish fillets. Consumers liked the new products and today this is considered the birth of retail frozen foods, the Birds Eye name remains a leading frozen-food brand. Birdseye was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2005, Birdseye died on October 7,1956, of a heart attack at the Gramercy Park Hotel. Birdseye was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea off Gloucester, in 2012 the first book-length biography of Birdseye, Mark Kurlanskys Birdseye, The Adventures of a Curious Man, was published by Doubleday. Method of preserving piscatorial products,1924, method in preparing foods and the product obtained thereby,1926. Refrigerating apparatus,1930,1931,1932,1933,1935, method of packaging fruit juices,1930

8.
Bloater (herring)
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Bloaters are a type of whole cold-smoked herring. Bloaters are salted and lightly smoked without gutting, giving a characteristic slightly gamey flavour and are associated with Great Yarmouth. Popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the food is now described as rare, bloaters are sometimes called Yarmouth bloater, or, jokingly, as a Yarmouth capon, two-eyed steak, or Billingsgate pheasant. Bloaters are distinct from kippers in that bloaters are cured whole herring, additionally, while the bloater is associated with England, kippers are associated with Scotland and the Isle of Man. Bloaters are salted less and smoked for a time while kippers are lightly salted and smoked overnight. According to George Orwell in The Road to Wigan Pier, The Emperor Charles V is said to have erected a statue to the inventor of bloaters and they are given the name bloater since they are swelled, or bloated in preparation

9.
Buckling (fish)
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A buckling is a form of hot-smoked herring similar to the kipper and the bloater. The head and guts are removed but the roe or milt remain and they may be eaten hot or cold. The word may come from the German Bückling or the Swedish böckling, buckling is hot-smoked whole, bloaters are cold-smoked whole, kippers are split and gutted, and then cold-smoked. List of smoked foods Herring page

10.
Camping food
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Backcountry camping food includes ingredients used to prepare food suitable for backcountry camping and backpacking. The foods differ substantially from the found in a typical home kitchen. The primary differences relate to campers and backpackers special needs for foods that have appropriate cooking time, perishability, weight, to address these needs, camping food is often made up of either freeze-dried, precooked or dehydrated ingredients. Many campers use a combination of these foods, due to the difficulty of carrying large amounts of cooking fuel, campers often require their meals to cook in a short amount of time. Many campers prefer a ‘just add boiling water’ method of cooking, while others enjoy a more involved, and therefore often higher quality meal. The amount of cooking time can be disregarded if campers are able to cook over a campfire, however, due to the possibility of a burn-ban being in place, Camping foods are often shelf-stable, that is, they require no refrigeration. Campers may be outdoors for days or weeks at a time, campers will sometimes take fresh food that can be consumed in the first day or two of a hike but will usually not risk carrying perishable food beyond that timeframe. Backpackers must carry everything with them so they all of their gear. Backpackers, canoeists, climbers and other outdoor enthusiasts often cover many miles everyday, backpackers require an average of 480 calories per hour as well as higher sodium levels. To ensure their bodies are properly nourished, campers must pay attention to their meal plans. To prepare meals that work well outdoors, campers have begun to employ a variety of techniques, all campers are advised to prepare meals that are made of easy to prepare ingredients. Freeze-drying requires the use of machinery and is not something that most campers are able to do on their own. Freeze-dried ingredients are considered superior to dehydrated ingredients however, because they rehydrate at camp faster. Freeze-dried ingredients take so little time to rehydrate that they can often be eaten without cooking them first and have a similar to a crunchy chip. Small amounts of freeze-dried ingredients are available for sale from emergency supply outlets or from stores specific to camping. Freeze-dried ingredients that have not been combined into a meal are often hard to find, however, dehydration can reduce the weight of the food by sixty to ninety percent by removing water through evaporation. Some foods dehydrate well, such as onions, peppers, dehydration often produces a more compact, albeit slightly heavier, end result than freeze-drying. Full meals or individual ingredients may be dehydrated, dehydration of individual ingredients allows the flexibility to cook different meals based on available ingredients, while precooked and dehydrated meals offer greater convenience

11.
Candied fruit
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Candied fruit, also known as crystallized fruit or glacé fruit, has existed since the 14th century. Whole fruit, smaller pieces of fruit, or pieces of peel, are placed in heated sugar syrup, depending on size and type of fruit, this process of preservation can take from several days to several months. This process allows the fruit to retain its quality for a year, fruits that are commonly candied include dates, cherries, pineapple, and a root, ginger. The principal candied peels are orange and citron, these with candied lemon peel are the ingredients of mixed chopped peel. The marron glacé is among the most prized of candied confections, recipes vary from region to region, but the general principle is to boil the fruit, steep it in increasingly strong sugar solutions for a number of weeks, and then dry off any remaining water. Food preservation methods using sugar were known to the ancient cultures of China, however, the precursors of modern candying were the Arabs, who served candied citrus and roses at the important moments of their banquets. With the Arab domination of parts of southern Europe, candied fruit made its way to the West, the first documents that demonstrate the use of candied fruit in Europe date back to the sixteenth century. In Italy, they became a key ingredient of some of the most famous sweets of its tradition, among these, the Milanese Panettone, the Cassata Siciliana. Candied fruits such as cherries are used in fruitcakes or pancakes

12.
Century egg
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The transforming agent in the century egg is an alkaline salt, which gradually raises the pH of the egg to around 9–12, during the curing process. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats, some eggs have patterns near the surface of the egg white that are likened to pine branches, and that gives rise to one of its Chinese names, the pine-patterned egg. The clay hardens around the egg and results in the curing, according to some, the century egg has over five centuries of history behind its production. Upon tasting the eggs, he set out to produce more — this time with the addition of salt to improve their flavor — resulting in the present recipe of the century egg, the traditional method for producing century eggs is the development and improvement from the aforementioned primitive process. Instead of using just clay, a mixture of ash, calcium oxide. The addition of oxide and wood ash to the mixture lowers the risk of spoilage. A recipe for creating century eggs through this process starts with the infusion of three pounds of tea in boiling water. To the tea, three pounds of calcium oxide, nine pounds of sea salt, and seven pounds of ash from burned oak is mixed into a smooth paste. The mud slowly dries and hardens into a crust over several months, even though the traditional method is still widely practiced, modern understanding of the chemistry behind the formation of century eggs has led to many simplifications in the recipe. This is because the reaction needed to produce century eggs is accomplished by introducing hydroxide and sodium ions into the egg, the extremely toxic compound lead oxide speeds up the reaction that creates century eggs, which has led some unscrupulous producers to use it. However, zinc oxide is now the recommended alternative, although zinc is essential for life, excessive zinc consumption can lead to copper deficiency, so the finished product should have its zinc level assessed for safety. Century eggs can be eaten without further preparation, on their own or as a side dish, as an hors dœuvre, the Cantonese wrap chunks of this egg with slices of pickled ginger root. A Shanghainese recipe mixes chopped century eggs with chilled tofu, in Taiwan, it is popular to eat century eggs by slicing them, and placed on top of cold tofu with katsuobushi, soy sauce, and sesame oil in a style similar to Japanese hiyayakko. They are also used in a dish called old-and-fresh eggs, where chopped century eggs are combined with a made with fresh eggs. The century eggs may also be cut into chunks and stir fried with vegetables, some Chinese households cut them up into small chunks and cook them with rice porridge to create century egg and lean pork congee. This is sometimes served in dim sum restaurants, rice congee, lean pork, and century egg are the main ingredients. Peeled century eggs are cut into quarters or eighths and simmered with the seasoned marinated lean slivers of pork until both ingredients are cooked into the rice congee, fried dough sticks known as youtiao are commonly eaten with century egg congee. Another common variation of this dish is the addition of salted duck eggs into the congee mixture and this is called a lahng-poon in Cantonese, which simply means cold dish

13.
Confit
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Confit comes from the French word confire which means literally to preserve, a confit being any type of food that is cooked slowly over a long period of time as a method of preservation. Confit as a cooking term describes when food is cooked in grease, oil or sugar water, at a lower temperature, as opposed to deep frying. While deep frying typically takes place at temperatures of 325–450 °F, confit preparations are done at a lower temperature, such as an oil temperature of around 200 °F. The term is used in modern cuisine to mean long slow cooking in oil or fat at low temperatures. In meat cooking, this requires the meat to be salted as part of the preservation process, after salting and cooking in the fat, sealed and stored in a cool, dark place, confit can last for several months or years. Confit is one of the oldest ways to food, and is a specialty of southwestern France. The word comes from the French verb confire, which in turn comes from the Latin word, meaning to do, to produce, to make, the French verb was first applied in medieval times to fruits cooked and preserved in sugar. Fruit confit are candied fruit preserved in sugar, the fruit must be fully infused with sugar, to its core, larger fruit take considerably longer than smaller ones to candy. Thus, while small fruit such as cherries are confits whole, it is rare to see whole large fruit, such as melon confits. Confit of goose and duck are usually prepared from the legs of the bird, the meat is salted and seasoned with herbs, and slowly cooked submerged in its own rendered fat, in which it is then preserved by allowing it to cool and storing it in the fat. Turkey and pork may be treated in the same manner, meat confit is a specialty of the southwest of France and is used in dishes such as cassoulet. Confit preparations originated as a means of preserving meat without refrigeration, in a restaurant context, confit is usually served after further preparation. Whole confit leg is baked to crisp the skin or added to a casserole type dish, Confit duck leg is used to make rillette. Traditional meat for confit include both waterfowl such as goose and duck, and pork, duck gizzards are also commonly cooked in the confit method. Varying forms of this delicacy thrive throughout southern France, Confit country is the area of Occitan France where goose fat is used to cook, as opposed to olive oil which is used in Provence where olives were plentiful and thus cheap. Confit country is divided roughly into regions where one type of meat predominates the confit preparations, goose confit is associated with the Béarn and Basque regions with their classic specialties of cassoulet and garbure, hearty and earthy dishes of confit and beans. Saintonge and Brantôme feature duck confit, often with potatoes and truffles, non-waterfowl meats are frequently treated to the confit process, but they are not classically considered true confits. The French refer only to duck and goose confits as true confits, for example, chicken cooked in goose fat is called poulet en confit

14.
Cooler
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A cooler, portable ice chest, ice box, cool box, chilly bin, or esky most commonly is an insulated box used to keep food or drink cool. Ice cubes are most commonly placed in it to help the things inside stay cool, ice packs are sometimes used, as they either contain the melting water inside, or have a gel sealed inside that stays cold longer than plain ice. The portable ice chest was invented by Richard C, on February 24,1951, Laramy filed an application with the United States Patent Office for a portable ice chest. The patent was issued December 22,1953, the Coleman Company popularized the cooler with its initial offering of a galvanized cooler in 1954. Three years later, Coleman developed a process to make a plastic liner for coolers, Coolers are often taken on picnics, and on vacation or holiday. Where summers are hot, they may also be used just for getting cold groceries home from the store, even without adding ice, this can be helpful, particularly if the trip home will be lengthy. Some coolers have built-in cupholders in the lid and they are usually made with interior and exterior shells of plastic, with a hard foam in between. They come in sizes from small ones to large family ones with wheels. Disposable ones are made solely from polystyrene foam about 2 cm or one inch thick, most reusable ones have molded-in handles, a few have shoulder straps. The cooler has developed from just a means of keeping beverages cold into a mode of transportation with the ride-on cooler, a thermal bag or cooler bag is very similar in concept, but typically smaller and not rigid. In the United Kingdom the common name is a cool-box, in the United States they are usually called a cooler. In New Zealand they are called a chilly bin, a generic trademark. Some modern coolers are thermoelectric, plugging into a cigarette lighter socket. Rather than using a compressor and refrigerant such as a refrigerator or other heat pump, some better units even have digital thermostat controls. They do draw a significant amount of power, however, most electric coolers have an undervoltage shutoff at around 10 or 10.5 volts to prevent this. Many come with power adapters, which use a transformer to convert AC mains or line voltage down to 12 volts. Some also have a device to reverse the current for heating service. Insulated shipping container Beer koozie Ride-on cooler Vacuum flask MOKON Cellarette Media related to Coolers at Wikimedia Commons

15.
Coolgardie safe
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The Coolgardie safe is a low-tech food storage unit for cooling and prolonging the life of whatever edibles were kept in it. It applies the principle of heat transfer which occurs during evaporation of water. It was named after the place where it was invented — the small mining town of Coolgardie, Western Australia, Coolgardie was the site of a gold rush in the early 1890s, prior to the Kalgoorlie-Boulder gold rush. For the prospectors who had rushed here to find their fortune, one challenge was to extend the life of their perishable foods — hence the invention of the Coolgardie safe, some water seeps out and evaporates. It is most effective when air moves past it, such as when in a moving vehicle or when exposed to a breeze. This technology is commonly thought to have adopted by explorer and scientist Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell. The Coolgardie safe was made of mesh, hessian, a wooden frame and had a galvanised iron tray on top. The galvanised iron tray was filled with water, the hessian bag was hung over the side with one of the ends in the tray to soak up the water. Gradually the hessian bag would get wet, when a breeze came it would pass through the wet bag and evaporate the water. This would cool the air inside the safe, and in turn cool the food stored in the safe and this cooling is due to the water in the hessian needing energy to change state and evaporate. This energy is taken from the interior of the safe, thus making the interior cooler, there is a metal tray below the safe to catch excess water from the hessian. It was usually placed on a veranda where there was a breeze, the Coolgardie safe was a common household item in Australia until the mid-twentieth century. Safes could be purchased ready-made or easily constructed at home, some of the metal panel safes are highly decorated, showing the creativity of their makers. Icebox Zeer pot Solar powered refrigerator Evaporative cooling

16.
Craster kipper
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Craster kippers are kippers from the Northumberland village of Craster. They have been acclaimed as the best British kipper, like the Newmarket sausage or the Stornoway black pudding, the Craster kipper is a British food named after, and strongly associated with, its place of origin. Clarissa Dickson Wright has named Craster as the birthplace of the kipper, there is however some dispute over this – other places, including the nearby town of Seahouses, also claim this distinction. Although a long-standing tradition in Craster, commercial production is currently only continued there by L. Robson & Sons. The preparation process begins with selected raw North Sea herrings, known locally as silver darlings and these are split, gutted and washed, soaked in brine, and then taken to the smokehouse where they are cured over smouldering oak and white wood shavings for sixteen hours. The famous smokehouse is unmistakable — a stone building often with white plumes pouring out of the vents in the roof. In appearance a Craster kipper is still recognizably a fish, the head is preserved, the flesh has a distinctive reddish-brown colour. Craster kippers have been described as the best, although that claim has also made of other British kippers such as Loch Fyne kippers. List of dried foods List of smoked foods The commercial web site of L. Robson & Sons Ltd

17.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams

18.
Curing salt
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Curing salts are used in food preservation to prevent or slow spoilage by bacteria or fungus. Generally they are used for pickling meats as part of the process to make sausage or cured meat, many also contain red dye that makes them pink to prevent them from being confused with common table salt. Curing salts are not to be confused with Himalayan pink salt, there are many types of curing salts often specific to a country or region. One of the most common curing salts and it is also called Insta Cure #1 or Pink curing salt #1. It contains 6. 25% sodium nitrite and 93. 75% table salt and it is recommended for meats that require short cures and will be cooked and eaten relatively quickly. Sodium nitrite provides the flavor and color associated with curing. Also called Pink curing salt #2 and it contains 6. 25% sodium nitrite, 4% sodium nitrate, and 89. 75% table salt. The sodium nitrate found in Prague powder #2 gradually breaks down over time into sodium nitrite, for this reason it is recommended for meats that require long cures, like hard salami and country ham. Even so, saltpetre is still used in food applications. It should not be confused with Chile saltpetre or Peru saltpetre, which is sodium nitrate

19.
Esky
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Esky is an Australian brand of portable coolers. The Esky was created by Malleys, a Sydney refrigeration business, some historians have credited Malleys with the invention of the portable ice cooler. According to the company, the Esky, was recognised as the first official portable cooler in the world, the companys own figures claim that by 1960,500,000 Australian households owned one. Outdoor recreation company Coleman Australia bought the Esky brand from Nylex Ltd after the company went into administration in February 2009, Esky has been producing coolers since 1952. Coleman still produces most of the Esky line in Melbourne, Australia, the sale was seen as symptomatic of the decline of Australian made goods due to cheaper imports being available. The current models are constructed with two layers, polypropylene on the shell, with a polyurethane inner layer. This makes it lightweight and portable with excellent insulation, the Esky originally had a steel outside shell, and used cork for insulation. In the 1960s, a layer of thick polystyrene was often used. Numerous people have been saved after using either the whole esky or the lid as flotation devices after boating accidents. Many dictionaries, including the Australian National Dictionary and the Macquarie Dictionary, however, the use of the Esky trademark must be approved by the brand owner to avoid any liability. Government agencies and media outlets in Australia have used the term in preference to generic alternatives, the esky has played a unique role in Australian culture, especially with regard to outdoor activities, camping, and sporting events, and for reasons of novelty. In particular, the design and use of the esky has evolved through its relationship with Australias drinking culture, a feature of the first Esky model was that it was designed to carry six standard 1-pint bottles as well as a triple level food section. Malleys Esky was created as a tool for camping and caravanning holidays and was called the Esky Auto Box, the esky became an essential part of the beach, outdoor dining and barbecue culture that developed in Australia during the 60s and 70s. Though not unique to Australia, Australian media has reported on a number of high profile incidents involving motorised eskies fitted with small motors. Police have impounded offending vehicles and have issued fines to those operating them on public property, attendees at the closing ceremony at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney each received a promotional pack of a small polystyrene Esky containing other items of memorabilia

20.
Fermentation
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Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur is often remembered for his insights into fermentation, the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation takes place when the transport chain is unusable. In this case it becomes the primary means of ATP production. Fermentation turns NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis into NAD+. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration and this is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding fermentation when oxygen is available, the exception being obligate anaerobes which cannot tolerate oxygen. The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways, two ADP molecules and two Pi are converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two molecules of NAD+ are also reduced to NADH, in oxidative phosphorylation the energy for ATP formation is derived from an electrochemical proton gradient generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane via the electron transport chain. Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age, Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, such as humans. To many people, fermentation simply means the production of alcohol, grains and fruits are fermented to produce beer, if a food soured, one might say it was off or fermented. Here are some definitions of fermentation and they range from informal, general usage to more scientific definitions. Preservation methods for food via microorganisms, any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products. Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air, any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment, for example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption. The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast, Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. Usually this is formed from the sugar during the glycolysis step. Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide

21.
Fermented bean paste
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Fermented bean paste is a category of fermented foods typically made from ground soybeans, which are indigenous to the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. In some cases, such as in the production of miso, other varieties of such as broad beans. The pastes are usually salty and savory, but may also be spicy, and are used as a condiment to flavor foods such as stir-fries, stews, the colours of such pastes range from light tan to reddish brown and dark brown. Fermented bean pastes are sometimes the material used in producing soy sauces, such as tamari. This is particularly true with miso, which can be used as the ingredient in certain dishes. Various types of fermented bean paste include, Bean dip List of fermented soy products Sweet bean paste

22.
Fish preservation
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Ancient methods of preserving fish included drying, salting, pickling and smoking. All of these techniques are used today but the more modern techniques of freezing and canning have taken on a large importance. Fish curing includes and of curing fish by drying, salting, smoking, on sailing vessels fish were usually salted down immediately to prevent spoilage, the swifter boats of today commonly bring in unsalted fish. Modern freezing and canning methods have largely supplanted older methods of preservation, fish to be cured are usually first cleaned, scaled, and eviscerated. Fish are salted by packing them between layers of salt or by immersion in brine, the fish most extensively salted are cod, herring, mackerel, and haddock. Smoking preserves fish by drying, by deposition of creosote ingredients, and, herring and haddock are commonly smoked. Kippers are split herring, and bloaters are whole herring, salted and smoked, sardines, pilchards, and anchovies are small fish of the herring family, often salted and smoked and then preserved in oil. Fish are dried under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, since the dried product is relatively unappetizing and rehydrating slow, other preservation methods are common. In the past, fishing vessels were restricted in range by the consideration that the catch must be returned to port before it spoils. Refrigeration and freezing also allow the catch to be distributed to further inland. Canning, developed during the 19th century has also had a significant impact on fishing by allowing seasonal catches of fish that are far from large centres of population to be exploited. Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life and they are designed to inhibit the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in the loss of fish quality. Spoilage bacteria are the bacteria that produce the unpleasant odours and flavours associated with spoiled fish. Fish normally host many bacteria that are not spoilage bacteria, to flourish, bacteria need the right temperature, sufficient water and oxygen, and surroundings that are not too acidic. Preservation techniques work by interrupting one or more of these needs, preservation techniques can be classified as follows. If the temperature is decreased, the activity in the fish from microbial or autolytic processes can be reduced or stopped. This is achieved by refrigeration where the temperature is dropped to about 0 °C, on fishing vessels, the fish are refrigerated mechanically by circulating cold air or by packing the fish in boxes with ice. Forage fish, which are caught in large numbers, are usually chilled with refrigerated or chilled seawater

23.
Food irradiation
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Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is energy that can be transmitted without direct contact to the source of the energy capable of freeing electrons from their bonds in the targeted food. This treatment is used to food, reduce the risk of food borne illness, prevent the spread of invasive pests. Irradiated food does not become radioactive, the radiation can be emitted by a radioactive substance or generated electrically. Irradiation is also used for applications, such as medical devices. Although consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means, one family of chemicals are uniquely formed by irradiation, and this product is nontoxic. When irradiating food, all other chemicals occur in a lower or comparable frequency to other processing techniques. Food irradiation is permitted by over 60 countries, with about 500,000 metric tons of food annually processed worldwide, the regulations that dictate how food is to be irradiated, as well as the food allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate the risk of food born illnesses, prevent or slow down spoilage, arrest maturation or sprouting and as a treatment against pests. Depending on the dose, some or all of the organisms, microorganisms, bacteria. In this respect it is similar to pasteurization, Irradiation is used to create safe foods for people at high risk of infection or for conditions where food must be stored for long periods of time and or proper storage conditions are not available. Foods that can tolerate irradiation at sufficient doses are treated to ensure that the product is completely sterilized and this is most commonly done with rations for astronauts, special diets for hospital patients. Irradiation is used to create shelf stable products, since irradiation reduces the populations of spoilage microorganisms and because pre-packed food can be irradiated, the packaging prevents recontamination into the final product. Irradiation is used to reduce post harvest losses and it reduces populations of spoilage micro-organisms in the food and can slow down the speed at which enzymes change the food and therefore slows spoilage, ripening, and inhibits sprouting. Food is also irradiated to prevent the spread of invasive pest species through trade in vegetables and fruits. The pests are sterilized when the food is treated by low doses of irradiation, in general the higher doses required to destroy pests such as insects, mealybugs, mites, moths and butterflies either affect the look or taste or cannot be tolerated by fresh produce. Low dosage treatments enables trade across quarantine boundaries and may help reduce spoilage. Irradiation has been approved by many countries, for example in the US the FDA has approved food irradiation for over 50 years and this phytosanitary irradiation aims to render any hitch-hiking pest incapable of breeding

24.
Food spoilage
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Spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced. Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of food, Food that is capable of spoiling is referred to as perishable food. Harvested foods decompose from the moment they are harvested due to attacks from enzymes, oxidation and these include bacteria, mold, yeast, moisture, temperature and chemical reaction. Bacteria can be responsible for the spoilage of food, when bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the products may be unpleasant to taste or may even be harmful to ones health. Yeasts can be responsible for the decomposition of food with a sugar content. The same effect is useful in the production of types of food and beverages, such as bread, yogurt, cider. Signs of food spoilage may include a different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a change in texture. The item may become softer than normal, if mold occurs, it is often visible externally on the item. Food poisoning, and more properly as foodborne illness, a number of methods of prevention can be used that can either totally prevent, delay, or otherwise reduce food spoilage. Food rotation system uses the first in first out method, which ensures that the first item purchased is the first item consumed. Preservatives can expand the shelf life of food and can lengthen the time long enough for it to be harvested, processed, sold, refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations, a high-quality vacuum flask will keep coffee, soup, and other boiling-hot foods above the danger zone for over 24 hours. Canning of food can preserve food for a long period of time. Canned food is packed in order to keep oxygen out of the can that is needed to allow bacteria to break it down. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely, lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage. Decomposition Food preservation Food grading Foodborne illness Shelf life

25.
Freeze-drying
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Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase. The process of freeze-drying was invented in 1906 by Arsène dArsonval, in 1911 Downey Harris and Shackle developed the freeze-drying method of preserving live rabies virus which eventually led to development of the first antirabies vaccine. Modern freeze-drying was developed during World War II, the freeze-drying process was developed as a commercial technique that enabled serum to be rendered chemically stable and viable without having to be refrigerated. Shortly thereafter, the process was applied to penicillin and bone. Since that time, freeze-drying has been used as a preservation or processing technique for a variety of products. There are four stages in the drying process, pretreatment, freezing, primary drying. Pretreatment includes any method of treating the product prior to freezing and this may include concentrating the product, formulation revision, decreasing a high-vapor-pressure solvent, or increasing the surface area. In many instances the decision to pretreat a product is based on knowledge of freeze-drying and its requirements. On a larger scale, freezing is usually done using a freeze-drying machine, in this step, it is important to cool the material below its triple point, the lowest temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of the material can coexist. This ensures that sublimation rather than melting will occur in the following steps, larger crystals are easier to freeze-dry. To produce larger crystals, the product should be frozen slowly or can be cycled up and this cycling process is called annealing. In this case, the freezing is done rapidly, in order to lower the material to below its eutectic point quickly, usually, the freezing temperatures are between −50 °C and −80 °C. The freezing phase is the most critical in the whole freeze-drying process, amorphous materials do not have a eutectic point, but they do have a critical point, below which the product must be maintained to prevent melt-back or collapse during primary and secondary drying. During the primary drying phase, the pressure is lowered, the amount of heat necessary can be calculated using the sublimating molecules latent heat of sublimation. In this initial drying phase, about 95% of the water in the material is sublimated and this phase may be slow, because, if too much heat is added, the materials structure could be altered. In this phase, pressure is controlled through the application of partial vacuum, the vacuum speeds up the sublimation, making it useful as a deliberate drying process. Furthermore, a cold condenser chamber and/or condenser plates provide a surface for the vapour to re-solidify on. This condenser plays no role in keeping the material frozen, rather, it prevents water vapor from reaching the vacuum pump, condenser temperatures are typically below −50 °C

26.
Freezer burn
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Freezer burn is a condition that occurs when frozen food has been damaged by dehydration and oxidation, due to air reaching the food. It is generally caused by not being securely wrapped in air-tight packaging. Freezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food, and occurs when air reaches the foods surface, color changes result from chemical changes in the foods pigment. Freezer burn does not make the food unsafe, it merely causes dry spots in foods, provided that the freezer burns are removed before cooking, the food remains usable and edible. The condition is caused by sublimation. Water evaporates at all temperatures, even from the surface of solid ice, if air adjacent to ice is cold enough and the air is dry enough, the ice does not melt and water molecules go directly from solid phase to gaseous phase without going through a liquid phase. The parts of meat which are deprived of moisture become dry and shrivelled, in meats, air can cause fats to oxidize. This process occurs even if the package has never opened, due to the tendency for all molecules, especially water. It is possible to slow freezer burn by filling plastic containers with water, meats and vegetables stored in a manual-defrost freezer will last longer than those stored in automatic-defrost freezers. Food with freezer burn, though dried and wrinkled, is safe to eat, however, food afflicted with freezer burn may have an unpleasant flavour. In most cases, it is sufficient to remove the affected by freezer burn. Freeze drying Ice crystals Vacuum packing United States Food and Drug Administration

27.
French butter dish
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A French butter dish is a container used to maintain the freshness and spreadable consistency of butter without refrigeration. This late 19th century French-designed pottery crock has two parts, a base that holds water, and a cup to hold the packed butter which also serves as a lid. This method will keep butter for around a month provided it is kept at temperatures below 80 °F, two manufactured versions are the Norpro butter keeper and the Butter Bell, a registered trademark of L. Tremain, Inc. The French butter dish design is thought to have originated in Vallauris, Vallauris is known for its pottery crafts. Others speculate that it was created in Brittany, or Normandy—both known for their butter production, in the 1970s and 1980s, craft potters began producing and marketing the French butter dish throughout the United States at craft fairs and in art boutiques. French Butter Dish became the name in the USA around that time and was later adapted by potters in Europe. By the end of the 20th century, French butter dishes became popular enough for manufactured versions to appear, webExhibits, Butter French Butter Dishes History of French Butter Dish

28.
Frozen food
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Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their grains, freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes, mechanical and cryogenic, the freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure, cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature −196 °C. Preserving food in domestic kitchens during the 20th and 21st centuries is achieved using household freezers, accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An initiative by a group in 2012 promotes advising the freezing of food as soon as possible up to the products use by date. The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, providing the food had been stored correctly up to that time. Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C, long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose, a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product. Natural food freezing had been in use by tribes in cold climates for centuries, by 1885 a small number of chicken and geese were being shipped from Russia to London in insulated cases using this technique. This trade in food was enabled by the introduction of Linde cold air freezing plants in three Russian depots and the London warehouse. The Shadwell warehouse stored the goods until they were shipped to markets in London, Birmingham, Liverpool. The techniques were expanded into the meat packing industry. From 1929, Clarence Birdseye introduced flash freezing to the American public, Birdseye first became interested in food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing to preserve foods. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia, other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were conducted by the military near the end of World War II. The freezing technique itself, just like the food market, is developing to become faster, more efficient. Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the industry and are used in the vast majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the system and this heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or water

29.
Frozen vegetables
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Frozen vegetables are vegetables that have had their temperature reduced and maintained to below their freezing point for the purpose of storage and transportation until they are ready to be eaten. They may be packaged or frozen at home. A wide range of vegetables are sold in supermarkets. Examples of frozen vegetables which can be found in supermarkets include spinach, broccoli, cauliflower, peas, corn, there are occasions when frozen vegetables are mixed with other food types, such as pasta or cheese. Some popular brands include Birds Eye Sunbulah and Green Giant as well as supermarkets own brand items, in many cases, they may be more economical to purchase than their fresh counterparts. In general, boiling vegetables can cause them to lose vitamins, thus, the process of blanching does have deleterious effects on some nutrients. In particular, vitamin C and folic acid are susceptible to loss during the commercial process, in addition, studies have shown that thawing frozen vegetables before cooking can accelerate the loss of vitamin C. Over the years, there has been controversy as to whether frozen vegetables are better or worse than fresh ones, generally, reports show that frozen vegetables are as nutritionally beneficial when compared to fresh ones. An advantage that frozen vegetables have over canned is that many brands contain little or no added salt because the process by itself is able to stop bacterial growth. However, many canned vegetable brands with little or no sodium have become available, however, there may be some risk in eating poorly cooked frozen vegetables. Not all products classified as frozen vegetables can be viewed as health foods, on 2 June 2003, the USDA classified frozen French fries as a frozen vegetable. Frozen food Canned food Cold chain How Frozen Vegetables are Made

30.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth

31.
Gibbing
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Gibbing is the process of preparing salt herring, in which the gills and part of the gullet are removed from the fish, eliminating any bitter taste. The liver and pancreas are left in the fish during the process because they release enzymes essential for flavor. The fish is cured in a barrel with one part salt to 20 herring. Today many variations and local preferences exist in this process, the process of gibbing was invented by Willem Beukelszoon, a 14th-century Zealand Fisherman. The invention of fish preservation technique led to the Dutch becoming a seafaring power. Sometime between 1380 and 1386, William Buckels of Biervliet in Zeeland discovered that salt fish will keep, Buckels invention of gibbing created an export industry for salt herring that was monopolized by the Dutch. They began to build ships and eventually moved from trading in herring to colonizing, the Emperor Charles V erected a statue to Buckels honouring him as the benefactor of his country, and Queen Mary of Hungary after finding his tomb sat upon it and ate a herring. Herring Buss The Inventor Of Salt Herring Herring

32.
Gimjang
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Gimjang, also spelled kimjang, is the traditional process of preparation and preservation of kimchi, the spicy Korean pickled vegetable dish, in the wintertime. During the summer months, Kimchi is made fresh, from seasonal vegetables, for one month, starting from the tenth moon of the year, people prepare large quantities of kimchi, to provide nutrition throughout winter. Gimjang was listed as an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in December 2013, Kimchi can be eaten as an accompaniment to almost any meal, and is an important part of Korean culture. Recipes date back to at least the 13th century, when it was made from vegetables, pickles and either salt or a mixture of alcohol, red pepper was added to the ingredients in the 17th century. Modern day kimchi is made from napa cabbage and white radish, although there are hundreds of variations, it may also contain turnip, leek, napa cabbage, carrots. In the cooler weather of November, there are lots of crops in the fields and market-places, the labour-intensive task is shared by families, relatives and neighbours. Groups of Korean people gather to cut the vegetables, wash them, and add salt to cure the food and begin the fermentation process. The nature of kimchi means that it is challenging to store for long periods, if it is too cold, it will freeze, and if it is too warm, it will over ferment, and may turn sour. As the temperature falls below 0 °C, fermentation is halted, the strong odours of kimchi can taint other products in a refrigerator, and despite modern advances in refrigeration, the custom of gimjang continues to be passed down the generations. Even some modern city dwellers store large jars of Gimjang on balconies, although some families have a dedicated fridge just for kimchi. Although consumption figures have fallen, Koreans still consume 25 kilograms of Kimchi per head each year, ingredients may include cabbage, white radish, spring onion, garlic, ginger, onion, chilli powder, salt and sugar. 농과대학 응용식물학부 원예학전공 시설원예학ㆍ채소원예 김장 설명

33.
James Harrison (engineer)
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James Harrison was a Scottish-Australian newspaper printer, journalist, politician, and pioneer in the field of mechanical refrigeration. Harrison founded the Geelong Advertiser newspaper and was a member of the Victorian Legislative Council, Harrison is also remembered as the inventor of the mechanical refrigeration process creating ice and founder of the Victorian Ice Works and as a result, is often called the father of refrigeration. In 1873 he won a medal at the Melbourne Exhibition by proving that meat kept frozen for months remained perfectly edible. James Harrison was born at Bonhill, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, the son of a fisherman, Harrison attended Andersons University and then the Glasgow Mechanics Institution, specialising in chemistry. He trained as an apprentice in Glasgow and worked in London as a compositor before emigrating to Sydney. Moving to Melbourne in 1839 he found employment with John Pascoe Fawkner as a compositor, when Fawkner acquired a new press, Harrison offered him 30 pounds for the original old press to start Geelongs first newspaper. The first weekly edition of the Geelong Advertiser appeared November 1840, edited by James Harrison, by November 1842, Harrison became sole owner. Harrison was a member of Geelongs first town council in 1850, Harrison then represented Geelong 1858–59 and Geelong West 1859–60 in the Victorian Legislative Assembly. As an editor he was an advocate for tariff protection which later he brought to prominence when he was editor of The Age under the proprietorship of David Syme. The jury brought in a verdict for Mackay with Harrison to pay £800 damages, in 1862, although his assets were worth £22,000, he had to sell the Advertiser to escape bankruptcy. It was while he owned this paper from 1842 to 1862 that his interest in refrigeration, whilst cleaning movable type with ether, he noticed that the evaporating fluid would leave the metal type cold to the touch. Harrisons first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854, and his patent for an ether vapor-compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the gas to pass through a condenser. The liquefied gas then circulated through the coils and vaporised again. The machine employed a 5 m flywheel and produced 3,000 kilograms of ice per day, in 1856 Harrison went to London where he patented both his process and his apparatus. Also in 1856, James Harrison, was commissioned by a brewery to build a machine that could cool beer and his system was almost immediately taken up by the brewing industry and was also widely used by meatpacking factories. His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a system upon the ship itself proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected. The experiment failed, ruining public confidence in refrigerated meat at that time and he returned to journalism, becoming editor of the Melbourne Age in 1867

34.
Home canning
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In North America, home canning is usually done in Mason jars, which have thicker walls than single-use commercial glass jars. The goal in using a pressure canner is to achieve a botulinum cook of 121 °C for 3 minutes, canners often incorporate racks to hold Mason jars, and pressure canners are capable of achieving the elevated temperatures needed to prevent spoilage. The most common configuration is a Mason jar with a flat lid, the lid is generally made of plated or painted steel, with an elastomeric washer or gasket bonded to the underside of the rim. The lid also incorporates a slightly dimpled shape, which acts as an indicator of the vacuum inside a sealed jar, a newer reusable lid is now available that uses a flat plastic disk with a reusable rubber gasket. The ring threads onto the top of the jar over the lid to hold it in place while the jar cools after processing, jars are commonly in either pint or quart capacities, with two opening diameters, known as standard and wide mouth. When a jar has cooled and is sealed, pressing the dimple on the lid will not make any sound. An improperly sealed jar will allow the dimple to move up and down, lack of this noise does not necessarily indicate that the food in the jar is properly preserved. Typically, during the process, a properly sealed lid will pop once as the pressure inside the jar is reduced enough that atmospheric pressure pushes the lid inward. Older variations had a ceramic seal inside a one-piece zinc lid, while it is possible to safely preserve many kinds of foodstuffs, home canning can expose consumers to botulism and other kinds of food poisoning if done incorrectly. The most common source of food-borne botulism is home-canned foods prepared in an unsafe manner, safety measures must be taken when performing home canning, since ingestion of toxin in food produced by Clostridium botulinum can cause death. Most home bottling is done using the open kettle method, with hot food ladled into hot jars and lids placed on jars, in Australia the most popular home canning system is Fowlers Vacola. This system uses glass jars, single use seals, metal lids, during the canning process the lids are secured by metal tension clips which are removed once a vacuum seal has formed. Fowlers Vacola products are produced and are available from some hardware stores. Used equipment is sold on online auction sites and in opportunity shops. In Germany the most popular home canning system is Weck jar and this system uses glass jars and glass bottles, reusable rubber seals, glass lids, and a water bath canning sterilization process. During the canning process the lids are secured by steel tension clips which can be removed once a vacuum seal has formed, during storage the vertical position of the rubber seals external tongue indicates the status of the sealing. Weck products are produced and are available from German hardware stores. Used equipment is sold on online auction sites and in opportunity shops

35.
Victor Horsley
–
Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley, FRS was an accomplished scientist and professor. He was born in Kensington, London, from 1884 to 1890 Horsley was Professor-Superintendent of the Brown Institute. He was a supporter for womens suffrage, and was an opponent of tobacco, Sir Victor Horsley was born in Kensington, London, the son of Rosamund Haden and John Callcott Horsley R. A. His given names, Victor Alexander, were given to him by Queen Victoria, in 1883 he became engaged to Eldred Bramwell, daughter of Sir Frederick Bramwell. Subsequently, on 4 October 1887, Victor and Eldred married at St. Margarets and they had two sons, Siward and Oswald, and one daughter, Pamela. Victor Horsley was a champion of many causes, one of his primary lifes crusades was the temperance movement. Having observed that many injuries admitted to the hospital were due to alcohol and he soon rose up to the position of a vice-president of the National Temperance League and the president of the British Medical Temperance Association. In 1907, along with Dr. Mary Sturge he published a book on alcoholism called Alcohol, according to his biographers, Tan & Black, Horsleys kindness, humility, and generous spirit endeared him to patients, colleagues, and students. Horsley specialized in surgery and in physiology and he was the first physician to remove a spinal tumor, in 1887, by means of a laminectomy. As a neuroscientist, he carried out studies of the functions of the brain in animals and humans and his studies on motor response to faradic electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex, internal capsule and spinal cord became classics of the field. These studies were later translated to his work in the neurosurgery for epilepsy. He was also a pioneer in the study of the functions of the thyroid gland, as a pathologist, Sir Victor carried out research on bacteria and founded the Journal of Pathology. In June 1886 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1891 delivered their Croonian Lecture, jointly with his brother-in-law Francis Gotch, on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their Royal Medal for his investigations relating to the physiology of the system, and of the thyroid gland. He concluded that the cause of death that follows is due to respiratory failure. He was a pioneer in neurosurgery, having operated upon 44 patients and he authored the book Functions of the Marginal Convolutions and, as a co-author, Experiments upon the Functions of the Cerebral Cortex and Alcohol and the Human Body. He was a Liberal Party supporter and contested the December 1910 General election as Liberal candidate for the London University seat, the Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society campaigned against his election because of his involvement with vivisection. Following the election he was adopted as prospective Liberal candidate, first for Islington East, Harborough was a Liberal seat and a general election, expected to take place in 1914 would most likely have seen him elected to parliament

36.
Hot water bottle
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A hot water bottle is a container filled with hot water and sealed with a stopper, used to provide warmth, typically while in bed, but also for the application of heat to a specific part of the body. Containers for warmth in bed were in use as early as the 16th century, the earliest versions contained hot coals from the dying embers of the fire, and these bed warmers were used to warm the bed before getting into it. Containers using hot water were also used, with the advantage that they could remain in the bed with the sleeper. Prior to the invention of rubber that could withstand sufficient heat, to prevent burning, the metal hot water flasks were wrapped in a soft cloth bag. India rubber hot water bottles were in use in Britain at least by 1875, modern conventional hot water bottles were patented in 1903 and are manufactured in natural rubber or PVC, to a design patented by the Croatian inventor Eduard Penkala. They are now covered in fabric, sometimes with a novelty design. By the late 20th century, the use of hot water bottles had markedly declined around most of the world, not only were homes better heated, but newer items such as electric blankets were competing with hot water bottles as a source of night-time heat. However the hot water remains a popular alternative in Australia, Ireland, United Kingdom, developing countries. For example, it is used in Chile, where it is called a guatero. There has been a recent surge in popularity in Japan where it is seen as an ecologically friendly, some newer products function like the older bottles, but use a polymer gel or wax in a heat pad. The pads can be heated in an oven, and they are marketed as safer than liquid-filled bottles or electrically-heated devices. Some newer bottles now use a silicone-based material instead of rubber, which resists very hot water better, although the stopper size in Ireland and the UK has been largely standard for many decades, the newer bottles use a wider mouth which is easier to fill. Hot water bottles are meant to very hot fluids and also supposed to be in contact with human skin. More generally, it is crucial to certify and assure that hot water bottles, whether manufactured, for instance, the United Kingdom defined British Standards for hot water bottles to regulate their manufacture and sale as well as to ensure their compliance with all safety standards. Most regulations applied to a country are generally harmonized in order to be applied and applicable in a larger area, there have been problems with premature failure of rubber hot water bottles due to faulty manufacture. The rubber may fail strength or fitness tests, or become brittle if manufacturing is not controlled closely, natural rubber filled with calcium carbonate is the most common material used, but is susceptible to oxidation and polymer degradation at the high temperatures used in shaping the product. Boiling water is not recommended for use in hot water bottles and this is due to risks of the rubber being degraded from high-temperature water, and the risk of injury in case of breakage. Alfred, the hot water bottle, is a character from Johnson and Friends

37.
Ice pack
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An ice pack or gel pack is a portable plastic sac filled with water, or refrigerant gel or liquid. For use the contents are frozen in a freezer, both ice and other non-toxic refrigerants can absorb a considerable amount of heat before they warm above 0 °C, due to the high latent heat of fusion of water. Ice packs are used in coolers to keep perishable foods below the 5–75 °C danger zone when outside a refrigerator or freezer, and to keep drinks pleasantly cool. The amount of ice needed varies with the amount of food, its temperature, the thermal insulation of the cooler. Ice initially well below freezing temperature will last a little longer, water has a much higher latent heat of fusion than most substances, and a melting temperature which is convenient and easily attained with, for example, a household freezer. Additives to improve the properties of water are often used, for example, substances can be added to prevent bacterial growth in the pack, or to prevent the water from solidifying so it remains a thick gel throughout use. Gel packs are made of non-toxic materials that will remain a slow-flowing gel. Gel packs may be made by adding hydroxyethyl cellulose, sodium polyacrylate, an instant cold pack is a device that consists of two bags, one containing water, inside a bag containing ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate or urea. When the inner bag of water is broken by squeezing the package and this reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings, quickly lowering the packs temperature. Instant cold packs are a convenient direct replacement for crushed ice used as first aid on sport injuries, the first hot and cold pack was introduced in 1948 with the name Hot-R-Cold-Pak and could be chilled in a refrigerator or heated in hot water. The first reusable hot cold pack that could be heated in boiling water or heated in an oven was first patented by Jacob Spencer of Nortech Labs in 1973. Reusable hot cold packs differ from instant cold packs in that they can be frozen or microwaved. Gel packs have been made with diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol both of which can cause illness if ingested in large amounts, making them unsuitable for use with food, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission recalled such packs

Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed

1.
Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as " curing salt " or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.

American Frozen Food Institute
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The American Frozen Food Institute is the national trade association that promotes the interests of all segments of the frozen food industry. AFFI was founded in 1942 and is headquartered in McLean, Virginia and its subsidiaries are, Alliance for Listeriosis Prevention Frozen Food Foundation National Yogurt Association http, //www. affi. org/about-

1.
Logo of the American Frozen Food Institute.

Nicolas Appert
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Nicolas Appert, was the French inventor of airtight food preservation. Appert, known as the father of canning, was a confectioner, Appert was a confectioner and chef in Paris from 1784 to 1795. In 1795, he began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams and he placed the

1.
Nicolas Appert 1841

2.
Appert canning jar

3.
Sculpture of Nicolas Appert by Roger Marion in Malataverne, 2010

Arbroath smokie
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The Arbroath smokie is a type of smoked haddock – a speciality of the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The Arbroath Smokie is said to have originated in the fishing village of Auchmithie. Local legend has it a store caught fire one night, destroying barrels of haddock preserved in salt, the following morning, the people found some of the barrel

1.
Racks of haddock in a homemade smoker. Smouldering at the bottom are hardwood wood chips. The sacking at the back is used to cover the racks while they are smoked.

2.
Auchmithie Harbour. Auchmithie is the true home of the "Arbroath" smokie,

3.
Brothock Burn, traditional home of the fishers. There are still smokehouses in back gardens to produce the Arbroath smokie.

4.
True cod

Biopreservation
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Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage. It is an ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention. Of special interest are lactic

1.
The small rods shown here are lactic acid bacteria which convert lactose and other sugars to lactic acid. The produts of their metabolism can have benign preservative effects.

Clarence Birdseye
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Clarence Frank Birdseye II was an American inventor, entrepreneur, and naturalist, and is considered to be the founder of the modern frozen food industry. Clarence Birdseye was born in Brooklyn, New York, on December 9,1886, Birdseye attended Montclair High School in New Jersey, and due to financial difficulties completed only two years at Amherst

1.
Clarence Frank Birdseye II

Bloater (herring)
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Bloaters are a type of whole cold-smoked herring. Bloaters are salted and lightly smoked without gutting, giving a characteristic slightly gamey flavour and are associated with Great Yarmouth. Popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the food is now described as rare, bloaters are sometimes called Yarmouth bloater, or, jokingly, as a Yarmouth

1.
Bloaters on yellow paper, van Gogh, 1889

2.
True herrings

Buckling (fish)
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A buckling is a form of hot-smoked herring similar to the kipper and the bloater. The head and guts are removed but the roe or milt remain and they may be eaten hot or cold. The word may come from the German Bückling or the Swedish böckling, buckling is hot-smoked whole, bloaters are cold-smoked whole, kippers are split and gutted, and then cold-sm

1.
Buckling

2.
True herrings

Camping food
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Backcountry camping food includes ingredients used to prepare food suitable for backcountry camping and backpacking. The foods differ substantially from the found in a typical home kitchen. The primary differences relate to campers and backpackers special needs for foods that have appropriate cooking time, perishability, weight, to address these ne

1.
Freeze-dried bacon bars that can be used as camping food

2.
A freeze-dried ice cream sandwich

3.
Freeze dried eggs can be shelf stable for up to 25 years

4.
Contents of a MRE package

Candied fruit
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Candied fruit, also known as crystallized fruit or glacé fruit, has existed since the 14th century. Whole fruit, smaller pieces of fruit, or pieces of peel, are placed in heated sugar syrup, depending on size and type of fruit, this process of preservation can take from several days to several months. This process allows the fruit to retain its qua

1.
Candied fruit

2.
Candied fruit displayed at La Boqueria in Barcelona

Century egg
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The transforming agent in the century egg is an alkaline salt, which gradually raises the pH of the egg to around 9–12, during the curing process. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats, some eggs have patterns near the surface of the egg white that are likened to pine branches, and that gives rise to on

1.
Century egg sliced open

2.
Century egg coated in a caustic mixture of mud and rice husk

3.
Century egg showing snow-flake/pine-branch (松花, sōnghuā) patterns. These patterns are dendrites of various salts.

4.
Arranged century egg on a plate

Confit
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Confit comes from the French word confire which means literally to preserve, a confit being any type of food that is cooked slowly over a long period of time as a method of preservation. Confit as a cooking term describes when food is cooked in grease, oil or sugar water, at a lower temperature, as opposed to deep frying. While deep frying typicall

Cooler
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A cooler, portable ice chest, ice box, cool box, chilly bin, or esky most commonly is an insulated box used to keep food or drink cool. Ice cubes are most commonly placed in it to help the things inside stay cool, ice packs are sometimes used, as they either contain the melting water inside, or have a gel sealed inside that stays cold longer than p

1.
Portable Ice Chest, U.S. Patent # 2,663,167 (1953).

2.
Insulated beverage cooler.

Coolgardie safe
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The Coolgardie safe is a low-tech food storage unit for cooling and prolonging the life of whatever edibles were kept in it. It applies the principle of heat transfer which occurs during evaporation of water. It was named after the place where it was invented — the small mining town of Coolgardie, Western Australia, Coolgardie was the site of a gol

1.
Coolgardie Safe at Kalgoorlie 's Mining Museum, part of the Western Australian Museum.

Craster kipper
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Craster kippers are kippers from the Northumberland village of Craster. They have been acclaimed as the best British kipper, like the Newmarket sausage or the Stornoway black pudding, the Craster kipper is a British food named after, and strongly associated with, its place of origin. Clarissa Dickson Wright has named Craster as the birthplace of th

1.
Two Craster kipper fillets served in a white bap with a cup of tea — the famed "kipper tea"

2.
True herrings

Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the

1.
Sea salt being added to raw ham to make prosciutto.

2.
Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite that is dyed pink to distinguish it from ordinary salt.

3.
Slices of beef in a box.

4.
Young man preparing a pig's head after a sacrifice. Vase v. 360 - 340 BCE, National Archaeological Museum of Spain

Curing salt
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Curing salts are used in food preservation to prevent or slow spoilage by bacteria or fungus. Generally they are used for pickling meats as part of the process to make sausage or cured meat, many also contain red dye that makes them pink to prevent them from being confused with common table salt. Curing salts are not to be confused with Himalayan p

1.
Curing salt

2.
History

Esky
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Esky is an Australian brand of portable coolers. The Esky was created by Malleys, a Sydney refrigeration business, some historians have credited Malleys with the invention of the portable ice cooler. According to the company, the Esky, was recognised as the first official portable cooler in the world, the companys own figures claim that by 1960,500

1.
An Australian 'esky' made by Australian manufacturer Willow.

Fermentation
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Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Lo

1.
Fermentation in progress: Bubbles of CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture.

2.
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory

Fermented bean paste
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Fermented bean paste is a category of fermented foods typically made from ground soybeans, which are indigenous to the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. In some cases, such as in the production of miso, other varieties of such as broad beans. The pastes are usually salty and savory, but may also be spicy, and are used as a condiment to flavor fo

1.
A bowl of doenjang,

2.
General

Fish preservation
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Ancient methods of preserving fish included drying, salting, pickling and smoking. All of these techniques are used today but the more modern techniques of freezing and canning have taken on a large importance. Fish curing includes and of curing fish by drying, salting, smoking, on sailing vessels fish were usually salted down immediately to preven

1.
An ancient basin for fish preservation in Tyritake, Crimea

2.
A fish-drying rack in Norway.

3.
Ice preserves fish and extends shelf life by lowering the temperature

4.
Fish packed in ice

Food irradiation
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Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is energy that can be transmitted without direct contact to the source of the energy capable of freeing electrons from their bonds in the targeted food. This treatment is used to food, reduce the risk of food borne illness, prevent the spread of invasiv

Food spoilage
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Spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced. Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of food, Food that is capable of spoiling is referred to as perishable food. Harvested foods decompose from the moment they are harvested due to att

1.
This apple has decomposed to the point that it is not of a quality appealing to humans to eat

Freeze-drying
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Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase. The process of freeze-drying was invented in 1906 by Arsène dArsonval, in 1911 Downey Harris and Shackle developed the freeze-drying method of preserving live

1.
A benchtop manifold freeze-drier

2.
In a typical phase diagram, the boundary between gas and liquid runs from the triple point to the critical point. Freeze-drying (blue arrow) brings the system around the triple point, avoiding the direct liquid-gas transition seen in ordinary drying time (green arrow).

3.
Freeze dried ice cream

4.
Freeze dried bacon bars

Freezer burn
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Freezer burn is a condition that occurs when frozen food has been damaged by dehydration and oxidation, due to air reaching the food. It is generally caused by not being securely wrapped in air-tight packaging. Freezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food, and occurs when air reaches the foods surface, color changes result fr

1.
Freezer burn on a piece of beef

French butter dish
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A French butter dish is a container used to maintain the freshness and spreadable consistency of butter without refrigeration. This late 19th century French-designed pottery crock has two parts, a base that holds water, and a cup to hold the packed butter which also serves as a lid. This method will keep butter for around a month provided it is kep

1.
Open pottery French butter dish. The cup/lid on the right is filled with butter, then inverted and placed in the water-containing base on the left.

Frozen food
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Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their grains, freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes, mech

1.
A frozen processed foods aisle at a supermarket in Canada

2.
Cutting frozen tuna using a band saw in the Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo, Japan (2002)

3.
A frozen food warehouse at McMurdo Station, Antarctica

Frozen vegetables
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Frozen vegetables are vegetables that have had their temperature reduced and maintained to below their freezing point for the purpose of storage and transportation until they are ready to be eaten. They may be packaged or frozen at home. A wide range of vegetables are sold in supermarkets. Examples of frozen vegetables which can be found in superma

1.
Various frozen vegetables displayed on a Wal-Mart Supercentre shelf

Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually i

Gibbing
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Gibbing is the process of preparing salt herring, in which the gills and part of the gullet are removed from the fish, eliminating any bitter taste. The liver and pancreas are left in the fish during the process because they release enzymes essential for flavor. The fish is cured in a barrel with one part salt to 20 herring. Today many variations a

1.
A herring

2.
Utensils used in 1966 in the process of gibbing on a lugger

3.
True herrings

4.
Fish

Gimjang
–
Gimjang, also spelled kimjang, is the traditional process of preparation and preservation of kimchi, the spicy Korean pickled vegetable dish, in the wintertime. During the summer months, Kimchi is made fresh, from seasonal vegetables, for one month, starting from the tenth moon of the year, people prepare large quantities of kimchi, to provide nutr

1.
Preparing for gimjang: ingredients to make kimchi on a larger scale

James Harrison (engineer)
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James Harrison was a Scottish-Australian newspaper printer, journalist, politician, and pioneer in the field of mechanical refrigeration. Harrison founded the Geelong Advertiser newspaper and was a member of the Victorian Legislative Council, Harrison is also remembered as the inventor of the mechanical refrigeration process creating ice and founde

1.
The James Harrison bridge over the River Barwon

Home canning
–
In North America, home canning is usually done in Mason jars, which have thicker walls than single-use commercial glass jars. The goal in using a pressure canner is to achieve a botulinum cook of 121 °C for 3 minutes, canners often incorporate racks to hold Mason jars, and pressure canners are capable of achieving the elevated temperatures needed t

1.
Preserved food in Mason jars

2.
A 1914 advertisement for a combination steam canner and roaster. The described method will not protect against botulism.

3.
Green beans in a pressure canner ready to be processed

4.
A Dixie Can Sealer for home use. Now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum.

Victor Horsley
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Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley, FRS was an accomplished scientist and professor. He was born in Kensington, London, from 1884 to 1890 Horsley was Professor-Superintendent of the Brown Institute. He was a supporter for womens suffrage, and was an opponent of tobacco, Sir Victor Horsley was born in Kensington, London, the son of Rosamund Haden an

1.
Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley

2.
The blue plaque to Victor Horsley on Gower Street in London

Hot water bottle
–
A hot water bottle is a container filled with hot water and sealed with a stopper, used to provide warmth, typically while in bed, but also for the application of heat to a specific part of the body. Containers for warmth in bed were in use as early as the 16th century, the earliest versions contained hot coals from the dying embers of the fire, an

1.
A metal hot water bottle from 1925

2.
Two modern hot water bottles shown with their stoppers

3.
An electric hot-water bottle

Ice pack
–
An ice pack or gel pack is a portable plastic sac filled with water, or refrigerant gel or liquid. For use the contents are frozen in a freezer, both ice and other non-toxic refrigerants can absorb a considerable amount of heat before they warm above 0 °C, due to the high latent heat of fusion of water. Ice packs are used in coolers to keep perisha

1.
An ice pack

2.
An ice pack with gel leaking out of a hole in the upper left corner

2.
A. Old Norwegian icebox. The ice was placed in the drawer above the door. B. Typical Victorian icebox highboy model. The model is made out as a fine piece of oak furniture. Note tin or zinc shelving and door lining. C. An exclusive oak cabinet icebox that would be found in the well-to-do homes. Note the fancy hardware and latches. Ice goes in the left upper door. This model probably has a pull-out drip tray.