Rating and Stats

Document Actions

Share or Embed Document

,---

2. The Paradox of Social Democracy:
The American Case
Robert Brenner
A New Social Democracy?
A very long time ago - in the Paleolithic days of the new left
of the later 1960s - few red-blooded radicals would have been
caught dead inside the Democratic Party. This was the era?! the
student and anti-imperialist movements, of 50s; of the mlhtant
Black movements, of SNCC, the Black Panther Party, and the
League of Revolutionary Black and of rank
and file movements among industrIal and publIc servIce wor-
kers. In those days, it was strictly the the and of
mass direct action. 'Power to the people deftmtely dId not mean
'part of the way with RFI<.' The Democratic Party was reco?nize,d
as firmly wedded to American imperialism, as expressed In LBJ s
Vietnam War not to mention Harry Truman's A-Bomb over
Hiroshima or his Cold War or Kennedy's Bay of Pigs. Moreover,
despite the fact that workers, Blacks, and the poor did in
their majority, for the Democratic Party, that Party was
as clearly pro-capitalist, anti-working class, and
Neither workers nor Blacks controlled, nor even much partIcI-
pated in the Democratic Party. So, it was hardly surprising to the
60s radicals that the Party never tried to repeal the
anti-labor Taft-Hartley Act, that it refused to seat the MISSISSIppI
Freedom Democratic Party at its 1964 convention in place of the
arch-segretationist that Kenne?y
presidency failed to achIeve a SIngle sIgnIfIcant pIece of socIal
legislation. .
Indeed, the one lesson that the new left ilbsorbed, at .least
superficially, through its rather vague notions1of corporate lIber-
alism and participatory democracy, that the labor burea-
cratic, party politico, service profeSSIOnal,. and petty
bourgois elements which constituted the core of offICIal reform-
ism could never be counted on to put into effect even their own
32
The Paradox of Social Democracy: tile Americall Case 33
programs. Left to their own devices, they would find a way to
compromise with 'the powers that be.' The first generation of the
new left grew up on the rather crude slogan of 'never trust a
liberal,' and their successors did not foresake that credo. The
accepted premises, therefore, for an effective new left politics
were understood to be an organizational and political indepen-
dence from the forces of official reformism, a reliance on militant
direct action to impose reforms from the outside, and the sort of
direct democracy inside the movements which was anathema to
the party, labor, and Black bureaucratic forces that dominated
the Democratic Party and the official institutions of liberalism.
Today, in the Democratic Party, nothing fundamental has
changed since the 60s. But in most other respects, we live in a
different political world. Above all, the mass direct action move-
ments which made reforms possible and which provided the
material basis, so to speak, for the rise of radical organizations
and ideas have suffered more than a decade of disastrous
decline. In connection with the deepening crisis of the inter-
national economy, the decline of American manufactur-
ing, and the accelerating offensive by employers against all
sections of the working class and the poor, the decline of the
movements is the overriding factor determining the political
universe of the left. The militant mass movements which moti-
vated hundreds of thousands of people to strike, to demonstrate,
to sit-in and to sit-down in the 60s and 70s - these were, and
are, the only real sources of power for the left. These movements
provide the indispensable basis for actually winning reforms and
imposing policies on the government - above all in periods like
this one of economic contraction. In consequence, they provide
the critical condition for making left perspecti ves realistic and, in
this way, the necessary basis for winning people to a left worId-
view. For, as a rule, people will not maintain a political perspec-
tive - no matter how empirically and logically compelling-
unless they can see a more or less immediate possibility of
putting it into practice. The decline of mass direct action move-
ments over many years, and especially the collapse of rank and
file working-class organizations, is thus the overriding reason
for the disarray of the left, as well as of liberalism, and it has
opened the way for massive confusion.
Unable to suck mass movements out of their thumbs, the
majority of leftists in the U.S. for more than a decade have
relentlessly searched for substitutes, new social agencies and new
34
political strategies. By the late 70s and early 80s, there had issued
inside the left - though nowhere else in society - a broad
commitment to move in the direction of a 'new social demo-
cracy.' In late 1978, Doug Fraser, presi!1ent of the United Auto
Workers (UAW) and a self-styled socialist, revealed that there was
a 'one-sided class war' going on against thk American working
class. He subsequently withdrew from SecrJtary of Labor John T.
Dunlop's Labor Management Advisory cioup (whose explicit
function was indeed to manage labor) and convened the 'Pro-
gressive Alliance,' a new multi-constituency organization
ostensibly designed to 'revive the spirit of Selma and the sit-
downs,' support grass roots organizing efforts, and bring the
disparate movements together. The Progressive Alliance drew
large numbers of liberal and social democratic officials from the
women's, Black, environmental, and consumer groups, as weD
as from the unions, to its first meeting. I A short time later, the
New American Movement (NAM), the last surviving organiz-
ation of the new left, merged with the DemocraHc Socialist.
Organizing Committee (DSOC) , the official social democratic
organization in the U.S. and a member of the Second Inter-
national, to fonn the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA). In
the meantime, since the early 70s, the overwhelming majority of
those who had survived from the Black movements of the 60s had
immerSed themselves in a single-minded electoralism, aiming to .
capture key offices in the cities both north and south. By 1984,
Manning Marable, a well-known Black writer and a national
officer of DSA, was hailing this tendency, too, as a new (Black)
'social democracy. '2 Indeed by 1984, all wings of this new social
democracy had found their fore-ordained home inside the
Democratic Party. Almost the entirety of the American left, in
one incarnation or another, participated in the 1984 election in
support of the Democratic Party candidates. The campaign of
Jesse Jackson for president constituted the near-exclusive focus
of the left's organizing efforts throughout the election year.
Not surprisingly, the proponents of this new social democratic
strategy have justified their approach in terms of a return to
realism. 'We were ultra-left,' say the ex-Maoists, who have fore-
saken the 'New Communist Movement' in order to invade the
Harold Washington and Jesse Jackson campaigns. 'We have to
get out of the sandbox into the real world,' say the ex-CP real-
politikers who have joined DSA in order more effectively to
implement the old popular front line inside the Democratic
The Paradox of Social Democracy: Tire American Case 35
Party. What all this means, in brief, is that to be practical you
have to relate to the Democratic Party, since that's where the
action is.
\roponents of working in and for the Democratic Party argue,
,¥, that because the Party has been historically and is today lite
,party of the mass movements and the party of reform, it must be
~ central vehicle for left struggle. These progressives point to
IN! lact that a majority of working people, Blacks, and other
~ s e d groups, even now, generally vote Democratic. But
they fail to distinguish between the passive, priva te, and indivi-
I' dualist act of voting and the active, collective, power-creating act
"of organizing to confront the employers or the government. The
.' 'pro-Democratic Party progressives also notice, quite properly,
that the unions, the official Black organizations, and the offical
women's organizations constitute the backbone of the Demo-
cratic Party. But they fail to distinguish between the interests of
bureaucratic and middle-class elements which dominate these
organizations and which represent them inside the Democratic
party and the very different interests of the rank and file and
working-class elements which constitute the membership of
these organizations but play essentially no active role inside the
Democratic Party. The new social democrats point out further
that the stated programs of the 'left' Democratic Party officials,
Black politicos, and trade union leaders are generally at the left
extreme of the political spectrum in the U.S. today, and that, if
implemented, these programs would amount to a giant step
forward for the American people. But they fail to ctistinguish
between talk and action, what's on paper and what's imple-
mented. They simply ignore the near-total incapacity not only of
Democratic Party Congressional majorities, but also of fully
fledged social democratic governments around the world, to
impose reforms upon capital throughout the period of crisis
which began in the early 70s. Nor do they recognize how totally
committed these parties have been in power to austerity and
attacks on the working class. Finally, those who would rebuild
social democracy in the U.S. point out that social democracy in
general, and the Democratic Party in particular, has appeared as
the 'vehicle' of those great waves of reform which have, period-
ically, shaken the advanced capitalist countries. But they fail to
distinguish between the immediate legislators of reforms and
the creators of the mass political offensives which actually made
refonn legislation possible. They characteristically, and disas-
36
trously, neglect the tumultuous mass movements which trans-
formed, willy-nilly, what hitherto had been do-nothing
reformist poIiticans into agents of social and political change.
II The Paradox of Social Democracy
The point is that most of the U.S. left, like most of the left
throughout the world, still remains transfixed by social demo-
cracy's passive mass base, its left paper programs, and its
historic association with reform. They refuse, therefore, to take
social democracy seriously as a distinct social and historical
phenomenon - one which represents distinctive social forces
and, as a result, advances specific political theories and strate-
gies, and, i'1 tum, manifests a recognizable political dynamic
within capitalism. Since the end of the nineteenth century, the
evolution of social democracy has been marked by a character-
istic paradox. On the one hand, its rise has depended J,lpon
tumultuous mass working-class struggles, the same struggles
which have provided the muscle to win major refonns and also
the basis for the emergence of far left political organizations and
ideology. The expansion of working-class self-organization,
power, and political consciousness, dependent in tum upon'
working-class mass action, has provided the critical condition
for the success of refonnism as well as of the far left. On the other
hand, to the extent that social democracy has been able to con-
solidate itself organizationally, its core representatives -drawn,
from the ranks of the trade union officials, the parliamentary'
politicians, and the petty bourgeois leaderships of the mass
organizations of the oppressed - have invariably sought to
implement policies reflecting their own distinctive social posi-'
tions and interest - positions which are separate from and
interests which are, in fundamental ways, opposed to those of the.
working class. Specifically, they have sought to establish and
maintain a secure place for themselves and their organizations
within capitalist society. To achieve this security, the official
representatives of social democratic and refonnist organizations
have found themselves obliged to seek, at a minimum, the im-
plicit toleration, and, ideally, the explicit recognition of capital. •
As a result, they have been driven, systematically and univer-
sally, not only to relinquish socialism as a goal and revolution as· :
a means, but, beyond that, to contain, and at times, actually to .
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The AmeriCfll1 Cnse 37
of mass working-class action whose vel)'
In to broader forms of working-class
and sohdanty, to deepening attacks on capital and
'!_iL caPlta!lSt state, to the constitution of working people as a
lJICll-consclOus class, in some instances, to the adoption of
JOr"'Ua.J=. and revolutionary perspectives on a mass scale Th
done. this, desp!te the fact that it is precisely these
whIch h.ave gIven them their birth and sustained their
IftL."",""V .. T and been only possible guarantee of their
In class-dIvided, crisis-prone capitalism.
has been that, to the extent that the
of reformism in general and social demo-
; In have been freed to implement their
charactet;tsttc worldviews, strategies, and tactics, they have
.systematIcally. undermined the basis for their own continuin
-existence, paving the way for their own dissolution, g
i" For these even those most intent on calling into exist-
Wnce a new have before them an ironic prospect. To
haw extent t.o create C\ viable social democracy, they will
to then political and organizational independence
"""" and md.eed to oppose, those who represent
l-.ctwtllv sting SOCIal democracy. To the extent, on the other
up, as they have until now, merging themselves
offIcal of reformism, they will be disabled for
out IS clearly the cardinal (if enormously im-
task wish implement any left per-
to the fIghting capaCIty, organization, and left
conscIOusness of the working class and oppressed
to the degree that the proponents of a new social
IdtI1mnrr:oll"V bmd to already-existing reformism - its
. leaderships, strategies, and ideas _
contnbute, if unwittingly, to the further erosion of
ve and class-based forms for pursuing workers' interests'
the adoption of those individualistic and
forms of achieving workers' interests
Iter y the way for the right.
None of thIS mere logic, nor is it ancient history. Remark-
the ha.s crystallized its own trend toward
dem?O'ahc polItics Immediately in the wake of an ex-
senes of experiments in social democracy in Europe
that have proven catastrophic for the entire left. B;
ml -70s, through most of Europe, the social democratic and
38
Communist parties had succeeded in channelling the energies of
the mass worker and student movements of the previous decade
into the parliamentary/electoral arena and, on this had
achieved for themselves practically unprecedented posItIons of
political authority. At the same time, the near totality of those
leftists who had, during the late 60s and early 70s, constructed a
small but significant extra-parliament,ary left out of ,those
mass movements also moved en masse mto the ostensibly
ized and reconstructed Eurocommunist and EUroSOClallSt
parties, Their justification for this tum? Precisely ,the ,same one
invoked by America's new social democrats: entenng these
organizations appeared to them the best way to hook,up with the
workers, to fight effectively for reforms, and to rebUild the mass
movements. ,
The results are now plain f()r all to see, The Parties
outside Italy have suffered massive, probably lITeverslble de-
cline, as the European working classes have seen no need for,n;ro
mass reformist parties and have preferred to the o,fhcI,al
ones, Much more importantly, labor and SOCialIst 10
Portugal, Spain, and above all France have won elec-
toral/parliamentary victories and ascended to In every
case, these electoral campaigns and electoral vlctones place
in the wake of alarming declines in working-class orgamzahon -
indeed as more or less exrlicit subtitutes for working-cl,ass
action nevertheless, most 0 the left insisted on interpreting
them as in themselves mass movements and, therefore, as
working-class triumphs. What has been the In every
case, with no independent mass movements to keep
honest' the labor and socialist governments have used then
authority to national capitalisms
in the interests of internatIonal competItIveness. In the process,
they have imposed upon the workir:'g class policies of au.sterity
even more vicious and thoroughgomg than those of their con-
servative predecessors, and undermine.d further the
workers' main defensive orgamzatIons, espeCially the trade
unions, The consequence of social democratic has
been neither a new period of nor an opent.ng to the left.
On the contrary, capitalist restructunng SOCial
has brought about the most massive pohhcal demoralizatIon of
the working class and the most devastating of
socialist and Marxist ideas within memory. Not surpnsmgly, the
medium term consequence has been to breathe vibrant new life
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The AmeriCll1l Case 39
into long-discredited right wing political perspectives, to pre-
, pare not only the revival of the most virulent forms of free
p1terprise ideology, but also the emergence of a dynamic crypto-
fascism - above all, and not accidentally, in Socialist France.
5<), once again, the paradoxical but predictable dynamic: in the
ibsence of mass movements to supply their own, independent
material force for reform and for the rise of left ideas, the most
decisive victories of social democracy have issued, in the end, in
, the most decisive undermining of social democratic perspec-
tives, organizations, and movements in Europe since the 195Os.
This despite a deepening long term capitalist economic crisis
which has brought the highest levels of unemployment and the
most severe suffering for the working class since the 1930s.
m The Dynamics of Reformism
Activity, Power, Consciousness
It should be a within the left that the indispens-
able condition for beginning to reconstruct working-class organ-
ization, power, and political consciousness is the rise of mass
direct action by working people against the employers and the
government, in the factories and the offices, as well as in the
streets, This is because, as a rule, it is only where working people
have in fact broken through their own passivity, created new
fonns of solidarity, and, on that basis, amassed the power
needed to confront capital, that the goals of reform and revo-
lution premissed upon collective, class-based action can appear at
all relevant and practical. In the absence of class solidarity and
collective power, working people are reduced to the 'other side'
of 'what they really are' under capitalism, viz. sellers of com-
modities, notably their own labor power. If people cannot, in
fact, struggle for their interests by means of class-based organi-
zations and class-based strategies, they will find that it only
makes sense to treat the social world, its institutions and
balances of power, as given, and to pursue their interests by
devising the individualist and class collaborationist strategies
which will allow them best to pursue the competitive struggle
among commodity sellers.
Because of the profound interdependence of collective action,
social power, political effectiveness, and political consciousness,
40
abrupt, large scale changes in the level of working-class struggle
have tended to be the condition for significant political trans-
formations - the onset of broad waves of reform, the transition
from craft to industrial unionism, the rise of mass social demo-
cratic parties and the like. At the same time, because class-based
strategies tend to depend on collective mobilization of social .
power, working people and oppressed groups normally confront
a classic double-bind: without a significant level of organization
and power, it seems suicidal to initiate collective action; yet,
without a significant level of collective action, it is impossible to
amass organization and power, and to develop consciousness ..
Understandably, even the ideological and organizational inter-:
vention of socialists is often useless for actually breaking this:
bind. Historically, then, as Rosa Luxemburg clearly saw, 'the'
unconscious movement tends to precede the conscious move-.
ment.' Her classic account of the mass strike phenomenon
captures the psychological dynamics of mass working-class
movements in general: 'The first direct action reacted inward
... as it for the first time awakened class feeling and class
consciousness ... This awakening of class feeling expressed
itself forthwith in the circumstances that the proletarian
mass ... quite suddenly and sharply came to realize how in-
tolerable was the social and economic existence which they had
endured for decades.' Thus, 'the moment that the real, earnest
periods of mass strike begin, all those calculations of "cost"·
[which previously had discouraged working class initiatives)
become merely projects for exhausting the ocean with a tum-.
bIer. '3 The result, in potential, as Luxemburg goes on to explain,.
is not only the emergence of unprecedented forms of organiz-
ation, involving previously disorganized layers, around novel
demands, but the politically self-conscious confrontations of
workers with capital and the state, and the placing of socialism
itself once more on the agenda.
Once in struggle, people can find meaning in hitherto irrele-
vant strategies requiring working-class collective action and
hitherto utopian goals requiring working-class power. As
winning becomes conceivable, it is reasonable to try to do what
is required to win: to break the law and confront the state, as well
as to develop new fonns of social connections with 'outside'
social forces - between organized and unorganized, between
employed and unemployed, between Black and white. Correlat-
ively, as collective action leads to collective power, it makes
rile Paradox of Social Oemocracl/: Till' AI1lC'I'icllll Cose .J 7
sense to consider broad programs of reform which hitherto were
; incapable of inspiring action. In other words, it is in the process
of actually constituting themselves as a class in order to struggle
that workers come to conceive the interconnected notions of a
.dass-divided society, of a strategy of class struggle, and of social-
;Ism as a goal as constituting a reasonable perspective.
. Reformism as an Ideology of Ihe Working Class
: Naturally, periods of mass activity are temporally limited.
trade unions, social democratic parties, and revo-
Ilutionary groups, as well as mass organizations of oppressed
people, tend to establish themselves at high points of struggle,
they must operate for significant periods in an environment
by relatively low levels of working-class activity. Indeed,
;in 'nonnal' times, working-class activity takes on a character the
ftVerse of that in periods of mass upsurge. By its very nature, it is
limited in scope: mass political parties tone down their
'11Ii:tn,ptn,nr of. class; trade .unions organize workers from only a
'1I11:IU\.Uldr fIrm, craft, or Industry; shopfloor militants can attract
a small proportion of their fellow workers. Attempts to
struggles beyond a narrow sphere do not as a rule meet
success.
;" In such periods of downturn, the minoritarian and restricted
. of working-class activity appears to be its natural and
'pennanent character. It therefore tends to form the material
the star:ting point, for the formation of working-class
:poIitIcal Class-wide attacks upon the preroga-
1ivesof the capitalists, let alone the transition to socialism, are off
'the agenda. A majority of working people conclude, therefore,
.that they must accept as given the basic ground rules of the
. system - the requirement for capitalist
profitability as the baSIS for the operation of the system. It is the
:apparent of capitalist proper:r t.he capit-
·alist state which forms the necessary, although IIls/lff/e/enl, con-
:dition the acceftance within the working class of
refonnlsm -' VIZ., the worldvlew and strategy for action which
th,e capitalist property system as given, but asserts the
special Interest of the working class within it, above all, the
working class's 'right' to appropriate a 'fair share' of the total
product, In tum, because it tends to be consolidated in periods
42
when warking-c1ass organizatian is relatively weak, the refarm-
ist perspective is almost invariably associated with strategies for
refarm requiring minimal warking-c1ass mabilizatian-
routinized (often symbalic) strike action, institutionalized
collective bargaining, and abave all the electaral raad. Unable to
carry aut the class struggle in an all-out way, the warkers seek
alternative methads to. defend their interests.
Nevertheless, refarmism, like any ather warldview, can cam-
mand widespread acceptance anly an the conditian that it
provide the basis far successful actian, Thus, given even a mini-
mum af warking-c1ass arganizatian, refarmism tends to. be
widely attractive in periads of prosperity precisely because in
such periads the threat af even limited working-class resist-
ance - symbalized by the resalutian to strike or a victary at the
palls - actually can yield cancessians fram capital. Since filling
arders and expanding productian are their tap priarities in the
baam, capitalists will tend to. find it in their interests to. maintain
and increase productian, even when this means concessions to
warkers, if the alternative is to endure strike or other farms of
social dislacatian. In fact, as the ecanbmy expands, capitalist
campetition almost always drives up price of labor, whatever
labor does, and this gives an appearance of effectiveness to
workers' organizations, and of the refarlnist perspective, even if
these are actually quite weak. On the other hand, in periods of
econamic contractian and falling profits, the capitalists' first
priority is to increase competitiveness in stagnant markets,
Since increasing competitiveness depends on cost-cutting, em-
ployers will aften choose to. weather a long strike or social unrest
if they can thereby achieve significant reductions in labar casts.
Mareaver, the very fact that capitalist profits are shrinking gives
capital a tremendous weapon in periads of econamic downturn.
Since profits are the anly categary of incame which can be
assumed regularly to. go. back into. expanding productian and
increasing emplayment, even warkers find it hard to. deny that
the capitalists' share, abave all athers, must be protected as the
pie shrinks, and tkat (by the iranclad lagic of aritkmetic), the
warking class must be prepared to. make sacrifices. All else being
equal, declines in profitability and the general outloak for
business actually tend, in themselves, to increase the power of
capital vis a vis labor. Under canditians af economic crisis, then,
unless an explasion af warking-c1ass struggle can radically trans-
farm their level of organization, power, and consciousness,
The Paradox of Social Del/locracy: The Americall Case 43
warkers will find reformist id d .
attractive With strate ies .. eas ecreasmgly relevant or
apparently impassibl! to t
class
ac.tion against capital
cTeasingly find it reasanabl t
emen
, workmg people will in-
d
e a resort to. i d"d I' .
ass-collaboratianist strateg' d' n IVI ua IstlC and
alist, right wing thearies will adopt the pro-capit-
rna e sense of these strategies.
Reformism as the Ideology of aD' . .
Layer lstmct, Non-Working Class Social
. co.nditions of low or diminishin st .
ntanan warking-class activity a . g ruggle and. mma-
and leadership _ trade unio' .",:,orrIng-class arganIzation
will be abliged to make rt' n, po ItIca party, or whatever-
. ce am comprom . . th .
rehnquish for the tim b' . Ises WI capital and to.
. ' e emg, certain pro .
strategIC options. To. do. atherwise w ends and
balance of forces and invite su' . d be to Ignore the actual
this reality _ which in cert ' ICI e .eat. The recognition of
constitutes the critical poi t IS the daminant ane -
bUilding a new social for argue for
organizations and by mer in cy h Y Into. reformist
social democrats view the g g WIt. reformIst forces. The new
the official refarmist a c0z:'sez:atIve outlaok and strategies of
I
rgamzatlOns and th' I d .
mere y reflecting the tern b J eIr ea ershlps as
momentarily reignin a ance of class forces and the
conclude, therefore, They logically
these organizatians, since enter and seek to. build
class activity once again elr as
become more a ro ' ,an new strategIes and Ideas
ships '11 pp pnate, these arganizations and th . I d
WI ,more or less na turalJ d' . el r ea er-
radical directian. y, a Just theIr perspectives in a
Nevertheless the view that th I' . "
reformist organizations and th .e fa ItJcaJ of today's
poli!ical limitations of the Simply the
partIal and profoundl misleadin e.o organIZatIOns is
IOta account thase d g. For It faIls to. take sufficiently
the permanent social soc!al which constitute
give to refarmism its an? ideas,
Sources of creativity _ i th t and proVIde ItS chief
mentary paliticians e /a e unIOn. officials, the parlia-
organizatians af th: op e leaderships of the
presse. ny polItical strategy that seeks
·H
to revitalize social democracy from within must look to the.se
elements. Now, the official of reformIst
org;mizations obviously do depend for very eXIstence upon
the establishment of these organizations, and these are almost
always initially created out of militant struggles.
as the class struggle dies down, the ref?rrnlst tend.to
adopt political and strategic alternatives whIch appear
similar to those adopted by the majority of worklng.c1ass In
such circumstances. Nevertheless, the reformIst standpOint does
not have the same causes or the same significance for the re-
formist officialdom as it does for rank and file workers. !he
majority of workers adhere temporari.ly to reformist
because, under conditions of waning and mlnorrty
organization, they believe these perspectives are ?est ones
they can realistically act upon. In contrast, the ofhClal repre-
sentatives of the reformist organizations tend to to a
reformist political worldview on a pemtallellf C?nstltutln,g a
distillct social layer with distinctive interests qUIte dIfferent from
those of the mass of the working class, these elements adhere to
reformism as an expression of their drive precisely to free them-
selves from dependence upon their working-class base and to
secure their long term acceptance by capital. This
difference becomes crystal clear when the level of workIng-class
activity and organization begins to gro;, , As th,e ,class struggle
heats up, the transformation of workers self-adlvl.ty creates, the
potential for the transformation of workers' consclOusnes: In a
radical direction, But for the reformist officials, the same IS not
true, As the class struggle intensifies, these elements do not
dissolve or change their political approach, On the contrary, they
seek to contain the struggle and channel it into the classic forms
of reformist activity - forms which they hope will be acceptable
to capital.
The Labor Officialdom, Parliamelltary Politicilll1s, and
the Petty Bourgeois Black Leadership
Simply put, the labor officialdom, the p,oliticos,
and the petty bourgeois leaders of the orgamzatJ,ons ad-
here permanently to a reformist perspectIve because It offers
them the theory, strategy, and tactics through which they can
best pursue their own reproduction as they are, Labor bureau-
, I
i
I
Tile Partldox of Socitll Oel11ocraCl/: The AII/cnroll Case 45
parliamentary politicos, and Black officials no longer work
beSIde, or share the conditions of, those they represent. This is
fundamental, as the requirements for their survival cease to be
the same as those of the rank and file workers or the people in the
community, They are not directly affected by the pressure from
employers upon wages and working conditions or from the
government upon social expenditures for the community, Nor is
their ability to defend their own conditions of life, as it is for the
rank file represent, immediately dependent upon their
capaCIty to budd a counterforce by organizing their fellow
workers for struggle, Instead, the material base of the trade
union bureaucrats, the party politicos, and the Black officials
becomes the organizations for which they work, and, in tum, the
inc,reasingly self-conscious groups of officials who operate the
UnIon, the party, or the Black organization. The organization _
and the bureaucratic group which founds itself upon it - not
only provides the officials with their means of support, therebv
freeing them ,from the drudgery of manual labor and the shop
floor. It cO,nstltutes for them a whole way of life - their day to
day functIOn, formative social relationships with peers and
superiors on the organizational ladder, a potential career, and,
on maryy occasions, a social meaning, a raison d'etre. To maintain
themselves as they are, the whole layer of officials must, first and
above all, maintain their organizations, It is thus easy to under-
stand how an irresistible tendency emerges on the part of the
trade union officials, the party politicos, and the Black leader-
ships to treat their organizations as ends in themselves, rather
than as the means to defend their memberships - to come to
conflate the interests of the organizations upon which they
depend with the interests of those they ostensibly represent. -
As representatives of the organized sectors of the working-
class, the trade union officials have historicallv constituted the
critical - and archetypical - social layer to reform-
ism, The trade union officials naturally understand that the
fundamental threat not only to the workers whom they repre-,
sent, a!so to the organizations upon which they depend, is .
the capItalIst class - a class 'permanently' self-organized and
'permanently' dominant. The indispensable condition for the
su:vival of the and thus of the officials' own continuing
eXistence as offICIals IS acceptance by capital -specifically, the
capitalists' recognition of the unions and the capitalists' accept-
ance of the rules of parliamentary democracy. Ultimately, the
46
capitalists' acceptance of the.unions and of parliamentary demo-
cracy can only be assured by the organized power of the workers.
Nevertheless, the trade union leaders are excruciatingly sensi-
tive to the fluctuating strength and the potential weakness of the
organized workers: they understand that even at the height of
the class struggle, indeed especially at that point, there is an
enonnous risk of defeat, and thus of the destruction of their
organizations. To the extent that they are able to do so, they
increasingly seek to protect their organizations - and, in their
minds, their memberships - by renouncing all those broader
fonns of struggle which provide the ground for broadly ranging
attacks on capital and, in tum, the basis for socialist ideology -
not only militant direct action, but organization which goes
beyond the immediate workplace or industry to link organized
with unorganized, employed with unemployed, workplace with
community, etc. But even while undennining workers' mili-
tancy and self-organization, the officials must still appear to
defend their constituencies, within the limits imposed by the
requirements of defending capitalist profitability. This, in the
end, is a difficult trick to pull off. But historically, the official
labor movement has relied on two basic strategies as con-
sciously-conceived substitutes for direct action: (1) constituting,
with the help of the state, pennanent institutions to regulate
worker-employer conflict; (2) the electoral/parliamentary road.
Collective Bargaining
Establishing regular institutions for the (temporary) coexi-
stence between capital and the labor officaldom - the tradi-
tional fonns of collective bargaining - has, classically,
depended on striking a 'deal' between labor officials and capital.
The officials must be prepared to pledge to reduce labor dis-
turbances and enforce labor discipline. In tum, the capitalists
must be prepared to make regular concessions to the workers for
which the officials can take credit, since this is the requirement
for their being able to maintain the allegiance of the majority of
workers and to isolate militants. This deal is not without cost to
the capitalists and benefit to the workers, and the capitalists will
therefore accept it only to the extent they are forced to do so, and
to the degree it is worth their while to pay extra for labor peace in
exchange for smooth production. Capitalist expansion and high
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The American Case 47
d
Profijtability are, almost always, the necessary conditions for the
ea.
In the of bargain, the union officials are free to
develop t.heu 'organization within the organization' and their
. own spec.lal role. They ne.gotiate a contract; there is an agreement
n?t to strIke throughout Its duration; instead, the officials settle
dIsputes the procedure and ultimately com-
arbItratIOn. The offICIals 'service' the rank and file -
forcmg the contract in grievance procedure. But as the
the deal, they must also compel the membership to adhere to
t e contract and limit any sort of shopfloor resistance. To this
end, they must to undercut all independent organization
of t.he r.ank and fIle and to curb rank and file control over the trad
Itself, curtailing union democracy. e
LIke refonnist practices generally, collective bargaining in the
context of the deal has a dual significance. On the one hand, it
reflect ';l0mentary interests of the working class in a
p.enod of declInIng and minoritarian organization: under the
CIrcumstances, most workers see no choice but to accept it as the
best they c.an other hand, the labor officials find in
the Inst}.tuhons of collective bargaining, not only an
d etre, but also an important basis for their
and a critical foundation for their modus
VIVend, With capital. In the hands of the officials the funct' .
of II t' b .. ,lOnIng
co ec lve argammg ceases merely to reflect the momenta
balance of class forces between capital and labor/it
serves to workers self-organization and workers'
h:'her, .and 10 .thIS. way has the effect of tipping that balance
er the duechon of capital. Thus is produced once again
the cla,sslc paradox of refonnism: although the
nse to great heights during the boom on the basis of its
abtlIty to labor peace and the apparent well-being of
. It does so at the expense of the workers' self-
rrgamzatIOn and thus of its own power and position over the
tenn. As the expansion gives way to contraction the
are les.s and less able to make collective bargaining
d r lheu constituencies or themselves: the employers break the
ea and their the workers see fewer reasons
either offiCIals or their reformist strategies' the
o lCIa watch. their organizations erode and their w'hol
worldvlew lose Its credibility. e
I
48
Elec 10 ra !ism/ Pa rliamen larism
, road constitutes the definitive
The ial elements characteristically
strategy of all those dIstInctIve soc t provide the means to
tied to refonnism, it to retain their ma,ss
overcome the central dIlemma h t organize their constIt-
' I b es without aVIng 0 ,
workIng-c ass as, 't ital In election campaIgns,
uencies for direct action agaInS cbaP
l
, d' to cast their ballots,
d ' d' 'd als can be mo IIze
isolate In U, , in favor of pro-working class can-
privately and IndIvIdually, I this way, it appears
didates around a refonn fonnns without the risk of
'bl t s power an WIn re
POSSI e 0 reet confrontations,
mass struggles lIke stnkes or st , arily parliamentary strategy
Nevertheless, to adhere a democratic illusion: that a
is to fall victim to the claSSIcal the working class can be
balance of forces means,
constructed InSIde the state h' f the workers against the
apart from the massive em;g The electoral approach
capitalists in the shops and In the s ree ower in capitalist
is illusory because, contrary !o over the state
' ty' t nonnally exerCIse , h ld
SOCle IS no I as ca italist property relatIons 0 ,
and through force, So ong , p t lover the means of pro-
' I' t I through Its con TO d
the capIta IS c ass, h ' stme'nt function, an
duction, retains control of the productivity of
thereby holds key to t economic _ and,
labor, to economIC growth, , I stability state revenue,
h t b
' to employment, SOCIa , I , b'j'ty t
on t a aSlS, d d on the capitalists a I 1 0
Since capitalist invest;nent I ?Jen :11 elements of society find it
make a profit, to ensure dapitalist profitab-
sooner or later In t elr 0, d f the coJntry' captures an
Tt 'What's good for GM IS goo
I I y, f J'ty under capItalIsm,
important aspect t h those who hold positions in the
In this context, It IS C ear w y presenting the interests
state, even those elected on to 'be responsible,' to
of workers, are under en?nnous pr d rofits To do otherwise
support policies that wII! sa,fegua: and all that
would risk the, short of challenging cap-
entails, The control of production away from
italist property -:- a In\l to carry out over an extended
the capitalists - It IS Impossl e 'thout I:nviting the with-
' 't l'st program WI
period, antI-capl a
f
I d d ultimately economic chaos,
drawal of Investment un san
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The American elise 49
Even so, it needs to be emphasized that, like collective
bargaining, the electoral/parliamentary road has a dual signifi-
cance, On the one hand, under conditions of limited working-
class mobilization, the majority of workers are likely to favor the
electoral road: electoraIism appears to constitute a substitute for
direct action, a way for workers to fight for their interests
without having to face the enonnous dangers of confronting the
capitalists, Moreover, like colJective bargaining, the electoral
road can, under certain conditions, appear to function very well
for the working class, In periods of prosperity, especially in the
wake of fairly substantial working-class mobilizations, it is often
in the interests of capital to accept refonns, rather than risk social
disruption,
On the other hand, because the gulf which separates the social
democratic parties' bureaucracies from the working class as a
whole is even greater than that which separates labor officialdom
from its membership, the social democratic party politicos are
positioned to respond to the needs of capital even more sen-
sitively and immediately than are labor bureaucrats, Union
leaders must, in many cases, respond to the organized interests
of (usually localized) groups of rank and filers who have been
brought together in production and who have had the exper-
ience of collective struggle and collective self-organization in
their union and on the shopfloor. In contrast, the party osten-
Sibly represents the 'class as a whole: but since workers are, in
practice, able actuaIIy to organize themselves as a class only
rarely, the official party and its machine are generally under little
pressure from, or control by, their atomized electoral base, Nor
(in the absence of mass working class direct action) can the
periodically radicalized and aroused party rank and file gene-
rally exert more than the most partial and temporary pressure on
the parliamentary delegation and apparatchiks who rule the
party, This is, in part, because the professional politicos gene-
rally command an . institutionalized apparatus explicitly
designed to ensure their control over the organization and in-
sulate them from the pressure of the party membership, But it is
also because the politicos can, in most situations, claim with
some justice to represent the party's real base _ viz" the
broader electorate, which is generally far more conservative than
the rank and file party members and which will decide the one
question of moment to the Whole party: whether or not it will
win the election, Free to accept the rules of the game, the
50
refonnist professional politicians may demand the workers'
rightful piece of the growing pie in periods of prosperity, but as
prosperity gives way to crisis, they will have little choice other
than to translate 'fair share' into 'austerity: for their worker
constituents, However, as the refonnist politicians increasingly
assume the role of restorers of capitalist: profitability, the
working class finds fewer reasons to prefer them to the outright
representatives of capital, or even to distinguish between the
reformists' perspectives and those of capital itself. Consistent
refonnism leads once again, to its own dissolution.
Rationalizing Capitalism Througl, Corporatism
Unable to confront capitalism, and acutely aware of their con-
sequent dependence upon the health of the system, the official
forces of refonnism have been among those most concerned to
understand the operation of capitalism and to devise plans to
make it function better. Perhaps more than any other groups, the
labor bureaucracy, refonnist politicians, and the official repre-
sentatives of the established organizations of the oppressed have
been the leading proponents of conscious, society-wide
attempts to regulate those economic dislocations which they see
as caused by capitalism's anarchy and its unequal distribution of
income. One need attribute no special cynicism to refonnist
officials in pursuing the policies they do, On the contrary, they
view their interests as coinciding with those of (capitalist)
society as a whole, and their ideology as expressing the general
interest. Indeed, given the particularist interests of the indivi-
dual capitalists and their necessary competition with one
another, the capitalist class as a whole may actually be les,
capable than the refonnist leaders of devising and promoting
policies in the interests of overall capital accumulation. As is well
known, the trade union officials, reformist politicians, and
official Black leaderships have been the most consistent pro-
ponents of government intervention to regulate the economy,
They were the prime apostles of Keynesian efforts to smooth out
the cycle by means of regulating demand. They are today the
leading exponents of industrial policy to make their own
national capitalisms more competitive in the international
economy, Through these approaches, the refonnist leaderships
strive to ensure and restore capitalist profitability and economic
The Paradox of Social Ocmocrncif' Thc All . C
. • . lCnCtlll nse 51
growth, for that, In their view is the' d'
the improvement of the co d't'· fin Ispensableconditionfor
f h
. n 1 IOn 0 the wo k' I
o t elfownsurvival Give th' " r Ingc ass, as well as
capitalist property belief 10 the pennanence of the
Neverthless, in order ave no othe: choice.
practice, the official refonnist policies put into
secure the cooperation of th a IpS now that they must
tention whatsoever of ' e. emp ayers, for they have no in-
require working-class them this would
economy enters into crisis th For thIS :eason, as the
seek, with increaSing ad lClal refonnlst leaderships
resistance and to force co e ness, to eschew all forms of
with the employers at the I;::r arrangements
economy as a whole throu h °h' e s lOp £Ioor, the finn, and the
their rationalizing plans gB Ich can have implemented
more inexorable and as th as t e crisis appears
their weakness, their plans increases
more quixotic and their ability t '£I of capital appear ever
dines, As they forward 0 10 uence the employers de-
collaboration, they encou eV
t
er m?re des,rerately their plans for
{{
, n er an IncreaSingly fe' .
o enSlve, Unless a revitalized work roCIOUS capItalist
the economy's miraculo ers movement deters them or
f
' us recovery re' h
onnlst leadership will t' pneves t em, the re-
like drive to 0 ItS conclusion their lemming-
IV Two Cycles of Reform and Decline
The whole history of th I' .
leaderships of reformist e r: among the official
the movements for the Democratic Party,
United States illustrates the°;" ove,r the half century in the
late 1920s we have w'tn ydnamlc outlined thus far. Since the
d 1
,' 1 esse two great cy Iff
ec me, the first runnin f c es 0 re orm and
second running from the to the early 1950s, the
these cycles workers and sot e present. During each of
by means of explosive people major reforms
the state _ in the workpl re<;t achon agamst employers and
Th
aces 10 commun'r . h
rough these struggles the' w' lies, 10 t e street.
groups imposed reforms 'on hith class .and oppressed
Party administrations from the 0 I o-nothIng Democratic
cratic Party profited from the refo e, n each cycle, the Demo-
nns, the mass movements, and
52
the liberalization and radicalization of consciousness which"
went with them, significantly expanding its electoral base.",
Nevertheless, the movements were obliged to develop almost" i
entirely outside and largely against the Democratic Party and the'! ,
established reformist organizations on the basis of new leader- I
because the established, official leaderships opposed \ ,
them. As the movements developed, small sections of the '
itionalleaderships did 'go over.' But as they did, they functioned
generally to domesticate these movements, specifically bY'
turning them away from mass direct action and to d '
upon electoral ism and the Democratic Party. In each cycle, as the!
movements declined - partly as a result of the officials' actions,'
partly for independent reasons - the leaderships succeeded in'
recuperating their bases for the Democratic Party, and working
people and oppressed groups were left to depend upon it. But '
popular militancy died down, the Democratic Party, despite ,
electoral majorities, was less and less successful in winning
reforms. In the end, the Democratic Party's abject failure to'
deliver the goods opened the way to a new period of revival
the Republican Party.
The Movements of tile 30s
Franklin Roosevelt acceded to the Presidency in 1933 as a
pragmatist and moderate, with no clearrefonn program. Shortly
after his inauguration, a wave of increasingly powerful u,r,rl.-",..,''1II
struggles shook the country, beginning in the auto industry in I
Detroit, spreading to the southern textile mills, the eastern coal
mines, and the midwestern steel mills. But Roosevelt stood
and did nothing, as the companies and the local repressive
crushed one strike after another. Meanwhile, the media
boards set up under Roosevelt's National Recovery Act att"".,""'_.:J'
ed, in almost every case, simply to get the workers back on
job for the employers without dealing with the issues at
But the strike wave continued to grow, and in 1934 workers
astounding victories in three great general strikes in To
Minneapolis, and San Francisco - all of which were marked
the most massive and violent confrontations between
and authorities. During 1935-1936, a mass rank and file
ment of auto workers created the United Auto Workers and
out to defeat General Motors in the historic sit-down strikes
Tile Paradox of Soc;al Democrllcy: Tile AmeriCll1l CIlSr.' 53
December-January 1936-1937.
4
. I The Democratic Par:r benefited from this broad labor upsurge
; the of political consciousness which it
e:idenced in the party's unexpectedly
and electoral victory in November
Meanwhtle, radical forces were also gaining ground,
the experiencing a massive period of
sn>wth and expandmg mfluence, and the Socialists asserting
fhemselves successfully in certain local electoral arenas. As a
of the in.crease in the level of struggle and the
4lO
nse
quent radicalIzatIOn of the political mood, Roosevelt sud-
changed political course. In 1935, he pushed through the
hItherto neglected Wagner Act and Social Security Act the two
, ,"ain reform achievements of the New Deal. 5 '
/! great .mass work.ers' movements of the 30s developed
, entirely outSide and the old AFL officaldom. Throughout
the later 1920s, these offiCials watched passively as employers
an on the unions, exemplified in the
\ 111l1on-bustmg Amencan Plan. Even as their dues base declined
}hen shrank to insi.gnificance after 1929, the bureaucrats
.,incapable of launchmg even a token counteroffensive. When the
,new movement exploded onto the scene in 1933, the
; AFt: tned to capture and domesticate it by seeking, in strike after
, to get the workers to go back to work and to rely on the
deCISIOns of the courts and the federal mediation boards. With
the of AFL of.ficials, the employers crushed the United
,Textile stnke of 1934.
6
Meanwhile, in the fall of 1933,
lohn L. LeWIS played a powerful role in limiting the militant
!Struggles of coal miners which had spread to the captive mines
by the companies); shortly thereafter in early 1934,
oLewlS helped derail a nascent triple alliance of the miners the
,,steel workers, and the railroad workers, The auto wo;kers
in creating the UAW only by breaking from the AFL and
a and independent rank and file movement,
!JVlth an exphclt program of refusing to depend on the officials
and the mediation boards, and of relying instead
'lnilllant duect action. 7
p as the movement threatened to get out of hand, a
ilSmall section of the old AFL leadership, led by John L. Lewis, did
t.5ee the handwriting on the wall and made a break from the AFL to
f?und the C.IO. At the same time, however, they strove
Imlghtily to contam the movement's burgeoning militancy and
54
tum its energies toward the Democratic Party. Lewis made
self a hero by standing firmly beside the GM sit-downers In
January 1937. But immediately thereafter, he cut short the
Chrysler sit-down which was threatening to win even greater
gains than had the GM strike. During the spring and summer of
1937, Lewis and his cohorts bent all their energies to break the
wave of sit-downs and wildcats that continued to shake the auto
industry. Meanwhile, Lewis ensured that the critical campaign
to organize the steel industry would end in disastrous defeat
when he turned explicitly to top down, conservative methods of
organizing and carried out the strike under the banner 'Trust in
Roosevelt.' The defeat of the Little Steel strike in the summer of
1937, following the infamous Memorial Day Massacre and the
betrayal of the workers by one after another Democratic Party
mayor and governor, coupled with the officials' successful re-
pression of the struggle in auto, marked .a
Especially with the onset of the new depreSSIOn,
mid-1937, the dynamism of the labor upsurge was rapidly diS-
sipated and a long process of erosion initiated.·
As Lewis and Co. were stifling the movements of direct action,
they were, simultaneously, attempting to reroute the ClO into
electoral dependence on the Democratic Party. When the UAW
voted not to endorse Roosevelt at its first convention in April
1936, Lewis personally intervened to get the decision reversed.
Henceforward, the CIO leaders stuck ever more closely to a
strategy of electoral intervention aimed at increasing their
leverage on the Democratic Party. To this end, the unions
established in 1943 the so-called Political Action Committees
(PACs) as part of their general tactic of building local level
machines to tum out the vote for 'pro-labo( candidates in order
ultimately to strengthen their position insige the Party. But if the
labor movement could not win a place as coequals with the
Dixiecrats and big city bosses inside the Pafty during the period
of mass labor upsurge and of the reforms wrich accompanied it,
it was unrealistic to expect that they could do better as the
movement waned and labo(s real strength correspondingly
declined. During the 1940s, despite the Democrats' overwhelm-
ing electoral/parliamentary hegemony for most of the period, the
forces of reform became progressively weaker. As early as 1943,
Congress passed the Smith-Connally Act, which curtailed some
of labor's chief weapons of struggle (providing for 'cooling off'
periods before strikes, injunctions 'in the public interest,' etc.)'
The Paradox of Social O(,lIlocrac.l/: Till' AlIlcrical1 Cno(' J.}
By th.e of the. war, labor was unable to preven t the passage of
th.e VICIOusly anti-labor Taft-Hartley Act, which in a single stroke
WIped out of what had been won in the 305. By the early
1950s, the offICIal forces of reform had presided over the total
the workers' movement of the 1930s, the consequent
dISSolutIOn of the main forces for both reform and Democratic
Party hegemony, the resulting dissipation of liberal and radical
sentIment, and the inevitable return to power of the Republican
Party.
The Movements of tire 60s
The rise of a militant Black movement, originating in the
buses and cafetenas of the Deep South, ushered in a new period
of refonn. The Black movement, which rose and fell in the period
fro!" the later 1950s to the early 70s, followed very closely the
traJectory by the mass labor movement of the 30s and 40s.
Thus, the historic civil rights movement, ignited by the Mont-
gomery Bus boycott of 1955-1956, and, even more, the explosive
movement of Blpck Power, which arose in the urban ghettos of
northern cities in the summer of 1964, based themselves from the
start on a powerful commitment to direct action and confront-
ation with the white power structure. In the civil rights stnlggles
of the 60s, .tens of thousands directly stood up to the
authontIes In illegal Sit-downs, provocative freedom marches
and .u.nauthorized fights for the right to vote. Whole
mU.OltIes, especially in the South, organized themselves to
reSISt. In the urban risings of the North between 1964 and 1967,
of of working-class and poor Blacks actively
participated In the struggle. By the time of Martin Luther King's
in early 1968, the Black movement had shaken
white foundations, had inspired militant student
movements in its wake, and had begun to
Ig.mte dynamiC organizing drives in the labor movement itself.
King. was in the middle of an organizing campaign
pnmanly Black CIty workers in Memphis, Tennessee. A short
time late.r, the. League of Revolutionary Black Workers was
founded In the Inner-city auto factories of Detroit.
!ohn F. Kennedy came to office, as had Franklin Roosevelt, as a
nllddle-of-the-roa? and pragmatic Democrat. Interestingly, his
narrow electoral VICtOry over Richard Nixon was assured by the
S6
massive vote of newly-aroused Blacks which allowed him to
cany certain key states. Nevertheless, during his three years in
the Presidency Kennedy failed to achieve any significant social
legislation, and his tenure in office was overshadowed by
America's growing, if largely unheralded, involvement in
Vietnam. It was clearly the deepening radicalization of the Black
struggle, marked by the civil rights movement's growing oppo-
sition to the Vietnam War, and above all the urban rebellions in
Detroit, Watts, Harlem, Newark and elsewhere which concen-
trated Lyndon johnson's mind on his 'Great Society' and
enabled him to inaugurate a new era of reform. In 1964, Johnson
won a landslide electoral victory on a rising tide of liberal and
radical sentiment rooted in the Black and newly emergent anti-
Vietnam movements. Shortly thereafter, a suddenly reform-
minded Congress passed the Civil Rights Acts, the Poverty
Programs, and other important pieces of reform legislation.
Once again, an independent mass movement had forced the
Democrats to become reformers.
Like the workers' movement of the 30s, the Black movement
grew up almost entirely on the basis of new leadership and new
organizations. SNCC and CORE, not the NAACP or the Urban
League, provided most of the dynamism that built the freedom
struggles. The new Black militants had to create their movement
largely over the resistance of the old, official leaderships. The
NAACP refused to participate in the 1963 March on Washington
unless it would be entirely legal and peaceful; it insisted that the
Black movement support Johnson and his war in Vietnam; and it
vehemently attacked Black Power. In the process, it precipitated
a profound split between the new movement and the old guard ..
The chasm became unbreachable when the urban rebellions
ignited the mass struggle for Black Power which ultimately;
issued in the formation of the Black Panther Party and the League:
of Revolutionary Black Workers. 10
Treading the well worn path followed by trade union official-
dom in the 30s, official Black leaders did what they could to steer
the explosive Black movement toward the Democratic Party. In
1964, for the first time ever, the NAACP officially endorsed the
Democratic candidate and organized a voter registration drive
designed to channel the newly-unleashed energies of the Black
struggle toward the campaign of Lyndon Johnson for President.
Nevertheless, the new civil rights organizations continued to
reject electoralism and remained almost obsessively devoted to
The Paradox of Social Democracy: Thc Amcrican Case 57
militant direct action. When the civil rights movement sought t
use t.he ballot it as a rule, to assert the right to vote,
t? Win an electIOn., ThiS IS best seer: in what was perhaps the civil
nghts movement s most dramatiC electoral intervention: the
struggle of Democratic Party in Mississippi in 1964.
There, agaInst the VIOlent resistance of the white power
organizers from CORE. and other groups initially
!tied to compel the authontIes to allow Blacks to register to vote
, In.the Democratic Party . .when they were prevented from doing
thIS by a wave of repreSSIOn, they turned to organizing an auto-
nomo.u? sign up Black voters for their own,
unoffiCial Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) in order
to challenge official Democratic Party delegation which was
of course, firmly segregationist and reactionary.
and the £?emocratic Party refused to seat the MFDP at the
despite the official Mississippi delega-
tion reJectIOn. of most of Johnson's program and their generally
the nght wing Republican Barry Goldwater for Pre-
Nevertheless, at the time of the convention and after, the
offICial Black leadership called upon the MFDP to compromise.
More generally, they demanded that the Black movement tum
'from politics,' in Bayard Rustin's eloquent phrase,
from the polItIcs of the street to the politics of the ballot b
th.e civil rights movement continued to reject
torahsm. As Meier and Rudwick, the historians of CORE su
pOSition of both CORE and SNCC at this critical
Social change could come only through an independent move-
ment that would "remain a threat to the power structure" 'II
As it had from the labor struggles of the 30s the Oem' 0 t'
I P rty b f d ,cra IC
. a ene Ite greatly from the Black movement, as well as from
the movement, the anti-war movement, and the small
rank and file movement - all of which emerged
In the mld?le 60s on the rising tide of Black militancy. The Party
benefited fr?m. the. general trend toward political liberal-
IzatIon and radicalIzatIOn which accompanied these mo -
!l'ents. Indeed, despite Richard Nixon's victory over
In 1968, the Democratic Party appeared to some at this f
the ver f h' . Ime on
ge 0 ac levIng a permanent electoral majority. This was
because demographic developments were drasticall
sappmg Republicans' rural strongholds and feeding
Democrats apparently permanently reformist working-class
and Black electoral base. Cushioned from capital by the unpre-
58
cedented prosperity and pressed for reform by the rising mass
movements, the Democrats appeared capable of delivering the
goods more or less indefinitely.
By the middle 19705, the mass movements of the 60s had
experienced precipitous decline and, with them, the impetus for
reform. Significantly for the argument of this essay, the con-
tinuing strength of the movements and of the liberal and radical
ideologies to which they gave rise propelled a dramatic con-
tinuation of the general wave of reform even through the first
Nixon administration. The years between 1968 and 1972 wit-
nessed the establishment of the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), the creation of the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA), and dramatic increases in funding for
Social Security and food stamps. But during the late 60s, the
Black movement reached its zenith, and, unable to find powerful
allies in a still largely dormant working class movement, found
itself isolated, politically without perspective, and brutally
repressed by local and national police. When Nixon began to
withdraw the troops from Vietnam, the once powerful peace
movement declined rapidly. For a brief period, militant rank and
file movements exploded across industry and precipitated bitter
struggles with employers; but they were unable in the end to
produce a lasting impact on the political landscape.
Thus, by the mid-70s, the Democrats got the chance to prove
once again that, in the absence of mass struggles, reformist
electoral majorities bring little power to the forces of reform. As
recently as 1976, the Democratic Party controlled both the White
House and powerful legislative majorities. Many of its officials
were committed on paper to widely ranging programs of social
reform. Nevertheless, during the later 19705, the Democrnts were
unable to pass a single significant piece of social legislation:
Congress first gutted then passed the Humphrey-Hawkins biD
for 'full employment: as if to rub the noses of its sponsors in the
dirt. The bill for common situs picketing was soundly defeated!
National health insurance, the rallying cry of the Democratic left;
never got a hearing. Perhaps most humilitating, the
Labor Law Reform bill, shorn of all serious anti
passages, was soundly defeated. Meanwhile, President
Carter put an end to the long period of rising expenditu
urban poor, and was, after one term, succeeded by
Reagan. Once again, the Democratic Party and the establis
reformist leaderships had succeeded in riding out the wave
The Paradox of Social Dell/ocrac,lf: Tile ;\1I1('I[CI111 (175(, S'i
mass. struggle, depriving themselves of their own base and
openmg the way to the Republicans and the right.
'v Left Reformists in the Economic Crisis
The tendencies of the trade union officials, the
bourgeoIs Black leadership, and the Democratic Party
politIcos are recognized. It is, nevertheless, widely
assumed, espeCially by the social democrats, that, given the
bper from an aclIve and politicized rank and file, at
ast the left ,:"m.g the reformist officials, under pressure
· &om the wIll take the lead in reviving mass move-
; ments, to the widely accepted view, the trade union,
.: Black polItico, and. 'lefts' cannot help but
.' that capI,talism IS experIencing a long term economic
.: cnSIS and that there IS a wide-ranging employer offensive under
! way to restore profits, These leaders are acutely aware, more-
· employer offensive poses a mortal threat to the
i baSIC from which they themselves draw their life-
, - VIZ" trade the established Black organiz-
and the lIberal WIng of the Democratic Party, On the
rampage, have been discrediting the leadership with
the file, If not smashing the unions outright, thereby
the officials' cherished dues base. Meanwhile
, their PACs, the c,apitalists have been isolating the
: and the even inside the Democratic Party,
Thus, accordmg to line of thinking the trade union, Black
, and Dem?CrahC Party 'lefts' have 110 choice but to resist,
out of self-Interest, to protect their own positions, They
sooner or later, have to initiate action, put masses into
I.;·P'.VU'UI , or at least create the conditions which will bring this
, analysis is sadly mistaken conceptually, and has been
; 'p'!asslvely in the recent period, The fact is
Jhat the ,reformist leadershlps have a wide range of options in
· g to the employer offensive. They can, in the first
car:;' on quite prosperously for extended periods,
whIle their memberships suffer heavy losses, Moreover,
the employe,rs attack them directly, the reformist
m,ost unlIkely to respond in kind, In periods of
DPlF'rn>ning CrISIS lIke the present, to fight back effectively against
I
60
the employers - requires organizmg the most
militant mobilization of unions and other mass organizatlons.m
order directly to confront the employers. But as
officials are aware, to carry through such a and
confrontation, they would have to risk total destruction of
their organizations and their posItions. As.a rule,
fore, the trade union, Black offlClal, and
will choose to sustain even serious losses, If the IS to
stand up and confront employers and risk total It
seems to them the better part of valor to preserve theu own
organizations and positions at least partially intact until new
period of economic expansion allows them to take .up theu old
positions as brokers between capital and the workmg class. Of
course, to the degree the and the employer
offensive intensifies, the reformist ofhCla,ls strategy pro-
gressively less effective; so, over the.long run, the offiCials tend
to find the ground for their very eXlsteryce out from under
them. Nevertheless, at any given moment, It to the
officials too risky to make a stand, so they are ever to
take the initiative to reverse the trend. Even as the entire
movement disintegrated under the ,;mp.loyers' dunng
the 1920s and with it their own organizations and pOSItIons, the
old AFL never offered any serious resistance. Nor are
things markedly different with the the.current epoch,
despite the distant origins of their organizatIons 10 ClO
upsurge. When UAW President Doug Fraser made hiS dramatic
exit from the Labor Management Advisory Board to form the
Progressive Alliance in 1978, he warned that th,;
broken their side of the deal and could expect SWift
from at least the left wing of reformist officialdom. It IS
doubtful if Fraser's defiant posture struck much fear mto the
hearts of the employers. In fact, the 'one-sided class war' .of
which Fraser spoke had been going on for at least a decade With
hardly a murmur of protest from the ranks of labor's
least of all from its ostensible 'left' or social democratIc wmg.
The Rank and File Revolt
The imposition of Nixon's 'New Economic Policy' in the wake
of the recession of 1970-1971 was the definitive sign that the
economy had entered a phase of protracted crisis and that the
Tile Paradox of Social Oemocracy: The AmeriCIl/l ((/s(, 61
employer offensive was well under way. The NEP could not have
been more clearly designed to redistribute income away from the
working class toward the capitalists. Wages were frozen under
the control of the wage-price board (assisted by hundreds of
thousands of capitalists). Prices were allowed to rise (as no
effective mechanism was provided to enforce the mythical freeze
on prices).
Meanwhile, employers stepped up their attack in almost every
industry. The response was a significant wave of worker re-
beIlion. Nevertheless, in almost every case in order to struggle
against the employers, workers had to act in defiance of - and
in direct opposition to - their own officials. In March 1970, over
a quarter million Post Office employees defied the law and the
National Guard - as well as their own leaders - to shut down
the mails in over 200 cities and win big gains. Some two months
later, tens of thousands of teamsters covered by the National
Master Freight Agreement conducted the first (effectively)
nationwide truckers strike in history. It was no accident that this
unprecedented action was strictly unofficial - and directed not
only at employers but also the Teamsters bureaucracy. Over the
next two years, there were numerous battles of this sort - for
example, the wildcat strike in telephone in New York in 1971.
But by far the most spectacular and far-reaching of these rank
andfile struggles was waged by the coal miners. Over more than
a decade, between 1965 and 1978, the rank and file miners un-
leashed one after another wave of unofficial mass strikes against
the mine bosses on the one hand and against a succession of
seU-out leaderships on the other. For the present context, what is
most significant about the rank and file movements among
miners is that, by the end of the period, the UMW rank and file
was no longer training its weapons on the gangster-type regime
of corrupt Tony Boyle, but was having to assault a newly-
ascendant group of self-styled reform officials, led by Arnold
. i Miller, who had risen to power in large part on the basis of their
close working relationship with key elements within the liberal
wing of the Democratic Party, notably ADA lawyer Joseph Rauh.
Entirely devoted, like the rest of reformist officialdom, to elec-
toralist and legalistic methods, this new 'Miners for Democracy'
leadership would prove no more willing than its predecessors to
mobilize the ranks to stand up to the vicious assaults of the
mining companies upon safety conditions in the mines. Like its
predecessors, the Miller-MFD leadership had to be buried
!.
6:!
beneath a new wave of entirely rank and file-led resistance,
which actually succeeded in holding back the corporations in the
- • 1
miners strike of 1977-1978.
12
The· question still remams,
however: were things different in the real bastions of the labor
'left,' above all the UAW and public workers unions, long
associated not only with militancy and social unionism, but with
social democracy.
The UAW
During the early 70s, in close conjunction with Nixon's NEP,
GM introduced its famous GMAD speed-up system into its auto
assembly operations. This made headlines around the :,",orld a?d
helped make the question of work the center of natIOnal diS-
cussion. It also provoked a new wave of working-class revolt in
auto. Most notable, perhaps, was the six month fight at
Lordstown, Ohio, where GM tried out its 100 car per hour
assembly line. But an equally long and bitter 26 week strike to?k
place in Norwood, Ohio. Toward the end of 1972, rank and
pressure succeeded in forcing representatives from 5t. LOUIS
Local 25 to demand a national strike of all GMAD plants. At a
meeting of the UAW's GMAD council in Detroit, local presidents
went so far as to ratify this plan.
The response of UAW President Leonard Woodcock and of the
UAW staff could not have been more destructive. Instead of
organizing the national GMAD strikes demanded by the mem-
bers, they insti tuted the so-called 'Apache strategy.' This called
for local strikes, announced in advance, to run in successive
weeks at different GMAD plants for two or three days at a time.
Given the advance warning and the shortness of the strikes, GM
was easily able to adjust its operations to make sure that these
were not disrupted. On the other hand, it was hard to conceive of
a tactic better designed to disorganize and demoralize worker
militancy. It broke their embryonic drive for unity; forced them
to face the employers one at a time; and was almost calculated to
prevent victory. It showed the workers precisely wl1ere their
ICilders stood, and succeeded in its purpose of breaking the
movement.
If the auto workers hild somehow failed to get the messilge that
their liberal/socialist leadership was sympathetic to the carpor-
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The Americall Case 63
ation's were made perfectly clear ave; the next
few years, as SOCIalIst Doug Fraser himself took center stage. In
the of 1973, Black workers dramatically seized control of
a Chrysler plant to protest deteriorating conditions
temble overheating, and racist foremen. To everyone's surprise'
they won an initial. .. But when they (ill-advisedly)
attempted the same slt-m tactIc a second time, union officials
were. ready. led. more 1000 UAW staff in smashing
the picket hne outSIde the occupied plant and dis-
persmg the movement.
.The of social unionist sellout has, of course, reached its
dIDlax .wlth the recent series of concessionary contracts. These
In 1978-1979, with the famous contract to save Chrysler,
negotiated by Doug Fraser as part of the bailout engineered by
the Carter administration. That agreement was followed in GM
Ford by a of give-back deals, supposedly temporary,
to.tIde the compames over the serious recession of 1979-1982. But
wI!h. the return. to prosperity and record profits in auto, union
offiCials have faIled to reverse ,their approach. On the contrary in
the in September 1984, the UAW gave GM the _.
lIght .to pursue Its far-reaching plans both to shift much of
to Japan and Korea and to modernize drastically
rema.mmg American operations, even though these policies
Will deCImate the auto labor force. Once again, the utter depen-
dence o.f la . left and right, on 'their'
corporatIons profltabllIty could not have been more definitively
expressed. I)
The Public Workers Unions
The pattern in the public sector unions has paralleled that in
auto. There, an explicitly 'social democratic' leadership has
command to an extent probably unequalled anywhere
m the labor movement. Jerry Wurf, president of AFSCME, and
Victor Gotbaum, leader of New York's giant District 37, were
both of DSOC, and District 37 is loaded with DSAers at
the preSident and staff level. Nonetheless, these leftists
the h.ard of the conservative wing of public sector
lrollically, It was the 'apolitical' locals that were most
responSible for the pressure from the ranks within AFSCME
64
during the 70s. The militant strikes waged by employee
locals in response to the city and state governments verslOns of
the employer offensive during the middle and late 70s to
place independently of the 'more advanced' and more radical
leadership. . d
This has been particularly tme in Ne,;, York, which
the 70s as the nation's stronghold of publIc unlOntSm.
When the crisis stmck in 1975, the rank and hie responded
vigorously, only to be cmshed'by their 'left' In year,
sanitation workers walked out on a nearly unanimous wildcat.
The leadership, however, refused to budge, and allowed
strike to be smashed. In the teachers union, the membership
voted an official strike, but were forced back to work after
week by their officials (this time headed by conservative
'socialist' Albert Shanker). .'
In the wake of these and other defe',lts,
officials were free to help tum the city over to the dlrectlOn of the
banks and corporations via the Municipal Assistance
ation (MAC). They have cooperated in gutting of mUnlCl'p
aI
services to the working-class poor with barely a rhetoncal
whimper. Tens of thousands of jobs have been the
remaining ones Taylorized. Class size of 40 or more m the New
York City schools is common. Firehouses have
while the number of fires grows. A large of
hospital beds has been eli.minated. for co-
operation in saving the Clty from finanCial un.lOnIzed
workers have been compelled to accept a of I.ncreas-
ingly concessionary contracts while watchmg their UnIons be
reduced to a shell.
Winpinsinger, PArCO, and Solidarity Day
Although the images of the miners, auto, and service
union leaderships have been tarnished. by thelT
throughout the employer of
Machinists (lAM) president Wilham Wmplsmger a.hero
of the new social democratic left. A member of DSA,
will at a moment's notice, call for just about any progressive
measure and (between elections) will even. demand
labor break from the Democratic Party. He remams a favonte
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The AmeriCll11 Case 65
speaker at DSA conferences, and at the roundtable discussions of
the DSA intelligentsia.
But 'Wimpy' has never tried to conceal his contempt for rank
and past, present, and future: 'The leadership
of a unIOn IS almost always an accurate reflection of the view of
the membership,' he said in an interview with The Guardian
newspaper not long ago. What about the Teamsters, he was
asked, surely a different case? 'Perhaps not,' he replied. 'It's up
to the to change the situation.' Then, concretely,
does Wmplsmger support the rank and file movement in that
union? No, the Teamsters for a Democratic Union (rou) repre-
sents, in his words, 'outside forces.' 'They asked me to back
them,' he said. 'But I asked myself, hell, what's to stop a bunch
like that from coming in here and doing the same thing?' In
addition, Winpisinger denounced moderate steelworkers union
reformer Ed Sadlowski, and said he supported that union's noto-
riously reactionary leadership. He saw no merit, he said, in
Sadlowski's charge that the usw staff had been undemocratically
mobilized to stop Sadlowski,. asking 'What's wrong with that?
Doesn't the staff have democratic rights too?' Winpisinger added
that Sadlowski had 'burned his bridges' by running for usw
president on a 'screw management platform.' 'I view that as a
kind of irresponsible populism,' said Winpisinger. I'
Far more significant than his words, however, have been
Winpisinger's deeds. Over the recent period, Winpisinger has
shown that he and the rest of the labor officaldom, both right and
left, are one when it comes to cutting short any movement
toward a mass militant fightback against the corporations. In the
summer of 1981, Reagan fired the opening shot in his newly
stepped-up war against the labor movement when he simply
abolished the Professional Air Controllers Organization (PATCO)
f?r daring to go out on strike. Coincidentally, at about the same
time, the AFL-CIO was planning its so-called Solidarity Day
demonstrations, aimed at kicking off the traditional electoral!
legislative effort against Reagan. To everyone's surprise, some
three qua;ters of a million workers showed their potential power
by attendIng the March on Washington, while tens of thousands
of others demonstrated at the largest local labor day demon-
strations in decades. PATCO had large and militant contingents at
all these demonstrations.
Here was a clear opportunity for the labor leadership to bring
66
the spontaneously aroused labor movement behind PATCO and
to launch a counter-offensive against the employers <Ind Reagan.
Not surprisingly, however, the AFL-CIO officials, <Icross the
board, failed to do anything. In particul<lr, Winpisinger refused
to call on his membership to honor PATCO's picket lines, The
powerful lAM airline mechanics could certainly have shut down
the airports and, had Winpisinger been willing to act, called
upon the rest of the labor movement to rally behind them in
support of PATCO and against Reagan, What was Winpisinger's
excuse for scabbing on the pilots? Exhibiting the shopkeeper
mentality for which the labor officialdom has become famous,
Winpisinger explained that supporting PATCO would have been
illegal and would have been risky for the union, threatening its
apparatus, especially because the top AFL-CIO leadership had
decided not to help (as if it ever had or ever would). In the
upshot, the entire labor movement was, yet another time,
shunted back onto the electoral road, initiating the ill-fated cam-
paign which reached its predictable and disastrous dblOuemenf
in the recent Mondale fiasco.
A Two Pronged Strategy?
To the extent that the advocates of a new social democracy base
themselves, as they must, on already-existing social democratic
and reformist forces, particularly any wing of the trade union
officialdom, they pose for themselves a classic dilemma. Histor-
ically, the trade union officialdom has furnished the 'political'
proponents of a social democratic politics with a ready-made
working-class base. But since the turn of the twentieth century,
these same officials, in the U.S. and around the world, have
asserted their sale right to speak for and to control this base
within the party, while setting themselves systematically against
those militant rank and file upsurges which have, periodically,
offered social democracy in particular and the left in general its
best opportunities for transfonning working-class conscious-
ness in a radical direction.15 DSA leader Michael Harrington
recognized the dilemma in an interview a number of years ago.
'If you say to me, is it possible that someone who is now a
member of DSOC in the union movement will be so fixed and
anchored in the bureaucracy that they will be appalled by that
rank and file movement and try to put it down? r guess, sure, it's
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The American Case 67
happened before and I su '.
What "ViII we do then? I t!ose It in the future,
file .. , but I'm Sure tha' t pe w
f
e go with the rank and
some ° us might f 'I th
no way you can anticipate,' al e test, TIlere's
Less willing than Harrin ton t d
intentions _ and perhap g 0 epend solely upon good
, s more concerned th h b
Union bureaucratic interest with' , I d an e out a trade
Some of the current advocates o/n SOCIa e.mocratIc parties -
proposed a more nuanced tw a new social democracy have
blem: ally with the ,approach to the pro-
suggest, but, at the sarne ' 0 ICIa 5 the party, they
pendently and from below . tIme, organIze the ranks, inde-
context. This tactic mi ht b In the workplace ,and the industrial
already existed a i de of consideration, if there
which was in a position ntoepetn rank and file movement
I
·, I ae on ItS Own a d t 'fl
po Ihca organizations But t d h n 0 In uence
question, therefore, is 'Z suc movement exists, The
key problem is precisel to b ' e present moment, when the
existence, it will be ' nng such a movement into
trade union 'lefts' in
P
buiJdin to work with the
these same 'lefts' while b 'Ii democracy and to attack
anyone seriously t e rank and file movement.
mgers and their ilk will at th" he Frasers, Winpis-
political project When the ally wIth people on a
simultaneously opposing ttern .at these people are
question is to answer it This In I . eirown UnIons'? To ask this
social democratic i:
xP
ams why the embryonic
the slightest way the h the U .. S. has failed to challenge in
their OWn special of officials in
record of bureaucratic esplte t ese ,offICials' already long
file initiative and militan of rank and
already, in other words CYt' 'f' de nhew socIal democrats have
, ra 1 Ie t e 'two I'
separated jurisdiction wh' h h po e structure of
parties from the be' . IC as marked social democratic
. ginnIng and hel d 'h'l
their self-destructive dyn " pe mIg tJ y to perpetuate
arnlc.
VI The Electoral Struggl M
Jackson Campaign e as ovement Building? The Jesse
In the wake of the pred it d'
throughout the late 70s ana 8
e
O
cJIne
h of movements
r y 5, t e offlClal reformist
68
leaderships - the trade union bureaucracy, the established
Black leadership, the liberal wing of the Democratic Party-
have focused ever more narrowly on the electoral road. In this.
situation, those who would revive social democracy have had
little choice but to make a virtue of necessity. They have them-
selves focused more and more on electoral campaigns and have
justified this taCtic either by claiming to use these campaigns to
organize mass struggles, or simply by construing the campaigns
themselves as mass movements. In the absence of already ex-
isting mass movements, such perspectives are delusionary. It is,
of course, on occasion quite possible to translate the power
accumulated through mass struggle into electoral victories and
reform legislation; but the reverse is rarely if ever conceivable.
Those who contemplate such a strategy can do so only because
they mistake the meaning of the electoral struggle to both the
Democratic Party leadership and its rank and file, and because
they fail to take into account what is required to wage electoral
cam paigns successfully.
Winning Elections and Organizing Mass Movements
In part, as I've emphasized already, using the electoral
struggle for mass organizing is problematic because the official
reformist forces who provide much of the impetus behind
Democratic Party campaigns conceive the electoral road ex-
plicitly as a substitute for mass organizing. To use Democratic
Party electoral campaigns for movement building would have to
be done, so to speak, over their dead bodies. Nor are the bureau-
cratic leaderships the only force inside the Democratic Party that
opposes the use of electoral struggle for mass organizing or left
politicking. In the continuing absence of major mass struggles,
the Democratic Party rank and file and prospective recruits are
no more likely than is the leadership to support such efforts. The
most obvious, yet most important, fact about the reform-minded
people who choose to work inside the Democratic Party or who
are attracted to the campaigns of 'progressive' Democratic Party
candidates is that they believe the electoral process provides an
effective vehicle for winning reforms. If they felt, as do a number
of those leftists behind the new social democratic movement,
that the electoral road, in itself, cannot generate the power
required to win reforms, they would not expend the tremendous
Thc Pamdox of Social OClllocracy: The Americall Case 69
amount of energy required to do electoral work. On the other
hand, bec?use they are serious about the electoral road, they
want to .Wln, ar:d because they want to win, they will have no
truck .",,":Ith leftIst plans to use electoral campaigns for mass
org.amzlng c:r left propaganda. This is especially because they
belIeve, qUIte correctly, that such plans would be counter-
productive for their own aim of winning the election.
. There is a strict to, w!nning elections which is quite
dIfferent the of wmnmg strikes or organizing success-
ful mass mIlItant of any sort. In strikes and analogous
forms of protest whIch have the object of winning concrete gains
from owners or the government, it is not only the numbers of
people is critic?!, but what they do. Especially as
the economIC cnsls deepens, 10 order to win, people have to
a new enormous power, for they have to extract the
deSIred conceSSIOns, since these will be granted by the em-
ployers or the state only under great pressure. If they are to win,
then, they to develop the most powerful solidarity; they
must take nsks; .they to, make sacrifices; they must be
prepared to take Illegal actIOns and use force; and, in the end,
the? need to develop the ideas that explain and justify these
actions to and others. All this is necessary to win,
because what IS Involved is a direct test of power with the
and/or the such direct tests of strength
can be won, espeCIally In penods of economic contraction
the present. For this reason, leftists have much to offer in
and struggles - above all an understanding of
wh.at IS reqUIred, both organizationally and theoretically, to
buIld a successful mass movement, and a willingness to act upon
this knowledge.
an election is entirely different: it demands two basic
thm.gs: 1) somehow to 50% plus one of the voters; 2)
gettIng suppor:ers to the polls. Nothing else matters.
Money ?odIes, and lIttle else, are required. It follows that the
way to WIn IS to adapt one's program to the existing conscious-
ness of. the electorate. The right has to move left; the left has to
move nght. The battle is for the votes in the middle. 16 This is not
to that strug?les and the transformations of political
conSCIOusness WhICh they are associated would in theory
be of to a IIberal.or left candidate. It is simply to point out
that, In the short penod of an electoral campaign it is almost
never in practice feasible even to try to call such a into
7U
existence. It can rarely be done, and it would be absu.rd to
predicate a campaign on succeeding in it. To. '':In an
election, one must essentially accept conSClOusness as It IS and
try to adapt. ..
Naturally, there are limits beyond whIch candidates cannot go
without turning off their core supporters; but these supporters
are often quite flexible. In the first place, else can. they go?
They are not going to support the oppOSItIon .(to the nght), for
this would be self-defeating. At the same tIme, and
important in this context, the of the candIdate
almost always freely accept the necessIty of moderattng the
didate's image and program, for they, that thIS
is required to win. Winning, moreover, IS for u:,less
the candidate takes office, absolutely nothtng can be gatned.
There is, for the overwhelming majority of leaders and followers
in the campaign of progressive no other
Because of this logic, the rank and fIle Demo-
crats can have little or no sympathy for radIcals who want to use
the campaign 'not only' to win, but to build and
change consciousness. First, they understand that If the
didate were associated with radical ideas (as he/she be
his/her followers were spouting left ideas in the campaIgn), It
would be much more difficult to get the moderate vote. They
understand too, that the same is true, only more so, for any sort
of mass of militant direct action, for this is gua:an-
teed to frighten moderate potential voters. It was the baSIS ?f
this sort of reasoning that some of the new SOCIal democratIc
forces 'understood' Mondale's move to the right in the recent
presidential campaign. Given the righward political shift within
the electorate, they ask, what else could he have done? Of course,
it is precisely because the electoralist perspective must accept the
state of mass movements and mass conscio,!sness .as
given that it is, in the end, like other reformIst strategIes, futIle
and self-defeating.
From Black Movement to Black Middle Class 17
The supporters of Jesse campaign for the
Democratic Party's presidentIal nomtnatIon. conte.nded, not sur-
prisingly, that his campaign was somethtng different:
argued that it was the defacto extension and logical culmtnatIon
The Pllradox of 50cilll Oemocracy: The Ameri(lIll Cilse 71
of the Black movement of the 60s. Others asserted that whatever
himself intended, his electoral campaign had the ob-
JectIve effect of building a 'Rainbow Coalition,' which
represented not merely the revival of the civil rights movement
but the unification of the popular movements of the working
class, women, gays, and Latinos, as well as Blacks. Still others,
like Manning Marable, espoused both these positions and went
on to assert that the Jackson movement actually represented an
already crystallized 'Black social democracy' and the vanguard of
the left.
Nevertheless on the eve of jackson's campaign and after it, the
Black movement was and is at its lowest ebb by far in several
decades, with very few struggles of any scope occurring in the
- neither strikes, nor rent struggles, nor
fIghts for servIces, nor other campaigns of that sort. It is the
demise of the Black movement which, more than any other
factor, has determined the character of Black politics in the recent
period. During the 60s, the growing Black movement relied on
mass direct action, ndt the ballot box, to extract sig-
nIficant reforms 'from the outside.' In the process, radical Black
organizatio.ns like CO.RE, and the Black Panther Party
succeeded In loosenIng, partIally and temporarily, the political
over the Black community long exercised byorgan-
IZatIOns more or less explicitly representing the Black middle
class - the NAACP, the Urban League, and the like. These trad-
itional organizations argued, even in the 60s, for toning down
direct action and putting primary emphasis on legislative/
electoral.and tactics. But at least through the 60s, they
saw theIr politIcal Influence waning within the Black com-
munity.
However, with the political repression of the late 60s and the
economic crisis which followed, militant Black organizations
found their options radically reduced and entered into a period
of profound decline. Even at its height, the Black movement had
not, for obvious reasons, been able to amass a power or con-
solidate a position at all comparable to that of the workers move-
ment of the 30s; nor could it, correspondingly, maintain as much
0'£ its influence .as it began to run out of steam. This was espe-
Clally the case, SInce the decay of the Black movement occurred at
a time of deepening economic contraction and accelerating em-
ployers offensive, while the decay of the labor movement took
place during - and was obscured by - the spectacular postwar
, :
,
72
boom. The fact that economic crisis and decline affected dispro-,
portionately precisely those heavy industries etc.)
where Black workers had made their greatest mroads mto the
workforce - and where Blacks had played prominent roles
the short-lived militancy of the early 70s - naturally m
things even worse, increasing Black econom!c
security and reducing the already rather hmlted
linking Black aspirations to the struggles of the orgamzed
movement. As it was, the skyrocketing Black unemployment-
running at rates double the nati?nal at 50%
Black youth - was a furthercrihcal demorallzmg makmg
it that much more difficult for the Black communIty to launch a
fight back: .
As the Black movement disintegrated, the Black middle class
was able, bit by bit, to reconsolidate its domination over Black
politics. Black professionals, small businessmen, govern
servants, and politicos turned out to have the
ment's main material beneficiaries, as well as Its major pohttcal
inheritors - even though they had not been its primary instig-
ators. They staffed the new poverty programs. They gained most
from the expansion of supervisory positions in state and loe.a!
government. They and their children assumed the lion's Of
the places opened up by affirmative action programs 10 the
universities and the professions. They, too, were hurt by the
diminished strength of the militant Black movement, as as
by the deepening economic crisis of the 70s. But the Black middle
class was also able to adjust and make .the most of the new
situation, while the income gap between them and the Black
working class and poor grew sharply .the 70s.
all the Black middle class was able to reimpose Its old polItical ,
line.
The Black middle class's increasing domination of Black
politics was manifested in the fact that, as the Black community
turned away from militant mass action tactics, they adop!ed
whole hog the Black middle class's strategy:. gethng
Black progressives elected to office. The t}1rn to electorahsm was
dramatically symbolized by the retreat of the Black ,
riddled by police repression and politica,lIy isolated, fro.m their
former militant tactics to a purely focus. When 10 1972-
1973, Bobby Seale and Elaine Brown, symbols of Black
ran for mayor and city council in Oakland, they were settmg the
trend for what remained of the entire movement. Nor was '
The Paradox of Social Democracy: The AmeriClIll elise 73
. , the political perspective of the Black middle class exhausted by
I electoralism pure and simple; it also involved establishing ties
, between the established Black organizations and large corpor-
: ations in order to obtain corporate assistance for t!i.e economic
: development of the Black community. It was expected that local
; Black businessmen and professionals could playa profitable, if
: subordinate, role in this development. Black organizations
sometimes took their own lead in establishing such alliances -
'las with the NAACP's agreement with Exxon or with the agree-
, ments made by Jesse Jackson's PUSH with Coca-Cola and other
companies. But naturally, these alliances could best be consoli-
'dated when Blacks held leading urban offices; electoralism and
the alliance with big capital generally went hand in hand.
The Black electoral effort has totally dominated Black politics
in the 70s and early 80s. 18 Black mayors now govern four of the six
lMgest cities in the nation - Chicago, Los Angeles, Phila-
delphia, and Detroit - and a total of twenty cities with pop-
iulations over 100,000. In 1973, there were only 48 Black mayors
.aaoss the country; today there are 229. The new Black mayors
have nearly universally pursued 'the same strategy: a growing
alliance with the corporations. Black mayors see to it that the
local governments grant tax cuts, raise (regressive) sales taxes,
and grant subsidies to corporations (including tax breaks, cheap
loans, etc.) in order to create the conditions for corporations to
invest. Black mayors like Maynard Jackson, Coleman Young,
and Kenneth Gibson have, for at least a decade, been making
i corporate investment the keystone of their urban
. strategies. Recently-elected Andrew Young also dId not waste
. much timein emphasizing the need to seek private capital for his
1 city's economy, and quickly pushed through a 1% sales tax
. increase as a token of his intentions. More left-talking politicos,
like Richard Hatcher of Gary, have pursued essentially the same
policies with a different rhetoric throughout the 70s. hope,
of course, is that if businesses are encouraged, they wdl mvest,
and the benefits will 'trickle down' to the Black community.
, Unfortunately, there is no lack of statistical data demonstrating
that no Black mayor has succeeded in slowing down even
; I slightly the downward curve of economic development for Black
workers and the poor throughout the 70s and early 80s. Still, the
i Black middle class does benefit from this approach. The pro-
: fessionals get supervisory and managerial jobs, and small
businessmen get subcontracts from the giant corporations.
74
The more candid and sober of the Black Democratic polit'
do not make great claims for their strategy. They out
they are highly constrained in what they can accomplIsh by
cutoff of federal funds and the erosion of the urban tax base
to capital flight and the economic crisis. they have a
For without the sort of mass struggles which can compel
cessions from the government and corporations at both
national and local levels, the cities will be hostage to the
porations and their requirements for profits. Meanwhile,
Black mayors can adopt the words, though not the actions, of
60s Black movements. Above all, they depict their
legalist voter registration drives and push to
Democrats like themselves as the extensIOn of the old CIvil
movements - neglecting to mention the mass mobilizat
illegality, and confrontational tactics which gave those
ments their power (as well as the fact that those.were st.nlggles
rights, not electoral contests). As Joseph Madls?n, dIrector
voter registration for the NAACP put It at the time of the
meeting of the 'Black Leadership Family,' attended by over
professionals, politicians, and government officials: 'The
tancy of the old days is passe. We've got to develop
militants out of those middle-class affluent Blacks who
received training, acquired good education, worked them
into the mainstream of economic life."9
Jesse Jackson's campaign for the Democratic presid
nomination represented the culmination of the e
strategy which the Black middle class has been implementing
more than a decade. Many of Jackson's leading supporters
advisors, such as Richard Hatcher of Gary and
Washington of Chicago, are reform-minded, left-talking B
mayors. Indeed, Washington's dramatic campaign for
Chicago in 1983 was the immediate predecessor, and In
ways the model, for Jackson's own effort.
Washington's Campaign
As they would with Jackson's effort, leftists insisted
calling Washington's campaign a mass SOCIal movement:
rallies were huge, the enthusiasm boundless, the rhetonc
spiring. But the fact remains that Washington's election
paign was simply that. It did not come out of, nor was
The Pilradox of SOCW/ DeIl/OUIlC!I: TilL' Amcrlca/l Case 75
accompanied by, significant oppositional struggles of any sort in
the Black community. There were no demonstrations (or de-
lnands) by Chicago Housing Authority tenants for improvement
• their conditions; there were no strikes by workers demanding
wages, better conditions or benefits, or that plants not be
down. Material conditions in the Chicago Black community
deteriorated rapidly in recent years, but the level of Black
taney and political organization has declined with equal
. In no sense did Washington ride to power on the crest of
already existing movement of Blacks organizing themselves
employers or the government. Nor did the Washington
.... - which, like other electoral campaigns, remained
concerned with electing the candidate - seek to bring
$uch a movement into existence. On the contrary, as one ob-
server put it: 'Everything stayed well within the bounds of
politics - though a remarkably boisterous and
brand of traditional politics. Everyone's hopes were in
Washington - no one had any hopes or expectations in
ves. '20
What has happened since 'the election? Despite dealing a
blow to the old machine and bringing many Blacks and
into important official positions, the Washington ad-
...... on has functioned much like other liberal regimes in
crisis. Immediately upon assuming office, Washington ex-
ty called for 'austerity' and pushed through a reduction in
city's. workforce. He did support a bill for collective bargain-
for CIty workers, but only after seeking to pass legislation
would have taken away the unions' right to strike. Shortly
,Washington forced the Amalgamated Transit Union
accept a plan to defer the payment of 26 million dollars into
fund, threatening that if they refused, 1500 layoffs
follow. Perhaps most important, Washington failed to
any support to the majority-Black teachers union in its
".,· ..... unsuccessful, three week strike in October 1984. In fact,
's labor attorney, Richard Laner, helped the school
engineer the final settlement and defeat the union. Wash-
'i1IJln21ton failed even to protest when U.S. Steel closed its southside
plant (which only a few years ago employed some
workers), despite massive concessions from the
ted Steel Workers Union. Meanwhile, like Black mayors all
the country, Washington went about creating an economic
idevelopment task force whose membership reads like a who's
76
who of Chicago business - with top representatives. trom all
the leading banks, manufacturing finns, and constructIOn com-
panies. Washington has admittedly been badly. hurt by.the ob-
structive tactics of what remains of the old whIte mach me. On
the other hand, he has not lifted a finger to aid himself, the Black
community, or working people in general by to
organize themselves to fight to improve theIr condItions. ,A
traditional liberal politician, Washington led no mass social
movement in his campaign; has, in office, been bound by no
social movement; and has done nothing to bring one into
existence.
Jackson's Campaign
That Jesse Jackson was, intentionally and explicitly, carrying
out the electoral strategy of the Black middle class and Black
politicians to enhance their wi.thin the Democratic
Party in particular and Amencan SOCIety 10 geoneral made
clear again and again throughout the campaIgn by hIS sup-
porters and opponents alike. Jacks?n's overriding goal was to
millions of unregistered Blacks SIgned up for the Democratic
Party. With this newly-created electoral base, Jackson hoped
use the primaries to amass the power to leverage the Democratic,
Party: Jackson and the Black politicians :-",ould deliver a mu?,
increased Black vote to the Democrats, If the latter would, m
return, grant the Black politicos a greater role w.ithin the
and, more generally, make certain prog.rammatlc concessIOns.,
This is precisely the same strategy la.b?r followed
for the past forty years, with progreSSIvely dlmlmshmg returns.
As should have been obvious to those who hoped the Jackson
campaign would constitute an ongoing
social reform, Jackson's strategy did not reqUIre
struggles or even constructing much of an electoral orgamzatIon.
The be-all and end-all was to get Blacks registered and voting in
the primaries for Jackson. No shou!d been
therefore, to find that Jackson s orgamzatlOn, to the extent It
existed, was entirely top down. It was headed by elite
long influential in business and Black politics, who saw thelt
goal as accomplishing certain clear-cut electoral tasks. There was
no need to get feedback and input, let along to encourage the
mass self-activity required for actual social struggles. Jackson
The Paradox of Social Democracy: Tile Amerlcall Case 77
did, of course, hold massive demonstrations and marches, and
. made hundreds of speeches in local community churches. He is a
magnetic personality, and generated an enonnous amount of
.' enthusiasm. But despite the rhetorical verve, he did practically
: nothing to strengthen the existing grassroots organizations in
the community, but, on the contrary, subordinated the already
constituted organizations and their resources to the electoral
effort.
Nor could those former leftists who flooded into the local
Rainbow Coalitions, as they had into the Washington campaign,
Significantly reverse the direction. It is doubtful, in most cases,
that they even tried. It was not that the official politicos exerted a
stranglehold on the campaign organization and tactics-
although this was a problem in some places, like Los Angeles. 21 It
was, rather, that most of those from the Black community who
came to build the campaign naturally did so with a single
purpose in mind - to get out the vote and win the primaries. It
is hardly surprising that, only a few months following the elec-
tions, most local Rainbow ,Coalitions have been reduced to
hollow shells, manned by leftists and liberals. No more the
launching boards for new social struggles than they were before
the campaign, most are looking to survive by finding new elec-
toral efforts in which to immerse themselves.
Jackson '5 Impact
Precisely because he did not build a movement with the
capacity to exercise power outside the Democratic Party and
outside the polling booth, Jackson failed badly even in his own
terms. When the Democratic Party, in an arrogant display of
racist realpolitik, refused to grant a single one of Jackson's key
programmatic planks, he was nonetheless forced, ignomini-
ously, to caB for unity at the national convention and to back
Mondale. Some leftists saw this as a sellout, but Jackson had, in
effect, no choice, since he had no basis for breaking from the
Party and going off on his own. First of all, Jackson himself never
had any intention of splitting and had not prepared his followers
to do so. But, equally important, Jackson's campaign had
emerged in the wake of the decline of mass struggles in the Black
community and had itself done nothing to bring about the emer-
.gence of a movement in any way independent of jackson's elec-
I'
78
toral effort, or indeed, of Jackson the personality. This was why
Jackson's more radical and impatient supporters wer.e obliged to
sit quietly by as Jackson capitulated at the conventIOn. In pos-
session of no mass base themselves, they had no means to
pressure the candidate. In the absence of already existing mass
movements, a critical source of Jackson's attractiveness, not only
to his backers among the politicians and the bourgeoisie, but to
the Black community as whole, was his apparent ability to offer a i
realistic strategy for refonn. Consciously or the,
majority of jackson's supporters saw In hIS pl?n to use. the
primaries to leverage the Democratic Party a credIble subsh
for the self-organization which seemed, at that moment, off the'
agenda.
Had Jackson sought at any point to build an electoral mov:-
ment which claimed independence from the DemocratIC'
Party - and which had as its object a long tenn process of
rebuilding the left - he would surely h,lVe lost the support of
the Black middle class and, arguably, also the Black masses. As
most Americans are aware, splinter parties have no hope of
winning practical gains, given the winner-take-all electoral
system, unless they are extremely - la.rger, that is, than
any which have appeared on the for more than
half a century. The premise for a pracl1cal thIrd party
would have to be the radical and massive transfonnatlOn of
national politic<ll consciousness. 111is would in tum,
enormOllS historical ch<lnges, not the least of whIch would be
rise of mass struggles of a magnitude not seen since the I
upsurge of the 30s. In the of such a t.ransfonnation,
third party efforts will, of necessl ty, be confined
objectives - which is not to say they would be value. •
Because the whole premiss of the Jackson campaIgn was
claim to being practical, Jackson and his allies could not refuse
mobilize against Reagan after the convention,. despite the
crats' continuing failure to grant them the shghtest conces
For, as the Democratic Party regulars realized, the Black
ship and the Black masses wanted to defeat Reagan
did any other group in American society. To refuse thIS effort
order to punish the Democratic Party would have been to cut
their nose to spite their face. This, of course, h.as
characteristic quandary of the leadershIp ,:,hlch
for decades supinely backed DemocratIc Party candIdates no
The Paradox of Social Democracy: Tile American Case 79
matter how anti-labor. It follows strictly from the logic of the
electoralist strategy.
A Black Social Democracy within the Democratic Party?
Despite the long tenn decay of the Black movements, Manning
Marable, a prominent writer and national officer of DSA, has, in
several recent essays, argued that the Black officials and the
thrust they represent actually constitute an 'American version of
social democracy' within the Democratic Party and society at
Marable means by this assertion is that Black poli-
ticans, VIrtually across the board, advocate social programs and
give voice to ideas which are today far to the left of those in the
white political mainstream.
22
This is undoubtedly true, as far as
it goes. There is no question that the political sentiments of the
Black community as a whole are far to the left of those common in
the rest of American society. Indeed, one reason Jesse Jackson
could adopt his radical-sounding program was that his electoral
strategy required focusing, almost exclusively, on the Black com-
munity and did not necessitate a broad appeal to the far more
1 conservative white electorate.
But to imply, as Marable does, that the Black electoral move-
ment led by the Black middle class constitutes a powerful force
for refonn. is misl.eading. Even had the Democratic Party
1 adopted. slgn.Jflcant sectIons of jackson's radical program at the
. conventIon, It would not have made a stitch of difference: the
party has adopted countless, quite radical, platfonns in the past,
but unless mass movements acted effectively to 'keep the Party
honest,' these platforms have remained only on paper. Indeed,
the 70s, Democratic Party majorities with on-paper
comnutrnents to reform retained control of Congress to no des-
cemable effect. To bring this point home, one has only to refer to
. the obvious fact that what Manning Marable sees as Black social
I . democracy - the Black politicos with their left programs and
I I mass electoral 'movements' - has been in power in numerous
1 places for at least a decade, but has done little either to challenge
the powers that be or help the Black masses. Witness all the cities
with Black mayors, including left-talking ones like Richard
Hatcher and Harold Washington. Of course, social democratic
parties also have been in power in quite a few nations around the
world during the late 70s and early 80s, but have delivered only
.1.
SO
cuts in services and rising unemployment to their working
classes. By conflating electoral ism and program mongering with
movement building, Marable perpetuates the myth that
winning office is winning power, and that there is a shortcut to
the long, hard, and daunting task of rebuilding the movements.
Tile Paradox of Social Democracy: Tire AII/crica/l Case 81
for finance over manufacturing. This trend has reached a climax
over the past several years, with large sections of what was the
industrial core of the U.S. economy entering into serious
crisis - steel, auto, textiles, consumer electronics, machine
tools, etc.
These trends, in the context of the international crisis, have
forced the official reformist forces drastically to reappraise the
VIII From Fair Share to Austerity: The Failure of Corporatism Keynesian approach to political economy which was their re-
and the Opening to the Right ceived religion throughout the postwar boom. By the end of the
Carter administration, deficit spending was perceived not only
Throughout the 70s and early 80s, the official forces of as inflationary but as less capable of increasing employment.
reformism have become progressively more reluctant to combat salient, government programs which appeared to redis-
capital. They are aware that the slowdown of the economy is, in 'I tribute income away from capital came to appear increasingly
the last analysis, a crisis of profitability and that this has con- ' counter-productive. Even the 'left' leaderships of trade unions,
sequences for their own strategic perspectives. Between 1965 Black organizations, and the liberal wing of the Democratic Party
and 1973, the rate of return on inveshnent dropped from 16% to have come to believe that forcing capital to give higher wages,
9%, and it has declined even further since.
l
) TIle crisis of pro- better conditions, or more government services is likely to make
fitability is, in the first instance, an expression the 10.ng tenn things worse, harming competitiveness and generating reluc-
crisis of the international economy - a cnSIS whIch has, tance to invest. Wedded to an. ideology of 'fair share' within
engulfed all of the capitalist nations. But it is also the case that the capitalism, the forces or reformism, both right and left, have
international crisis has been accompanied by a long term rela been accepting austerity as the economy declines, just as they
decline in the growth of the productive forces and the demanded a bigger piece of the pie in the period of growth.
lation of capital in the American sector, and this has had The long term political consequences of this change in per-
implications for working-class politics. It is sufficient to spective are ominous. Unwilling to launch an attack on capital,
that over the long period between 1950 and 1976, the rate the official forces of reform have moved rapidly toward devising
growth in productivity in U.s. industry averaged 2.8% while strategies to help 'their own' capitalists protect their profits in
comparative figures were 5.4% for Germany, 5.0% for , order to safeguard their own and their memberships' position.
and 8.3% for Japan. Similarly, over this same period, the They have sought to enter into tripartite partnerships with
devoted on average 17.8% of GDP to investment in new plant business and government to launch vast cooperative efforts to
equipment, while the comparative figures were 24.3% protect and revamp the American economy from to top to
Germany, 23.2% for France, and 33% for Japan.
24
Over the bottom. Pursuant to this strategy, the labor leadership has, with
period, the numbers have, if anything, become even more un- . I mf' crea.singBunanidmity, embraced protectionism for U.S. manu-
favorable for the U.S. actunng. eyon this, in tandem with certain minority repre-
As the official forces of reformism are aware, these sentatives of ,capital - notably the investment banker Felix
represent a huge decline in the competitiveness of the U.s. , Rohatyn - they have been the arch-apostles of what has come
and, specifically, its declining attractiveness as a place for to be known as 'industrial policy,' a hodgepodge of programs to
investment. The declining relative efficiency of the U.S. p . i encourage planning of and investment in new industry. At the
tive system has meant that relative costs of production, <>cr.....a,_' level of the corporation, they have placed top labor leaders on
cially in manufacturing, have continued to increase. The boards of directors of corporations, while beginning more and
as most are now aware, is accelerating disinvestment, a more to accept corporate proposals for profit sharing. Finally, on
flight of capital especially in the fonn of loans, and a the shopfloor, they have become backers of so-called Quality of
I,.
"
82
Worklife (QWL) programs, aimed at increasing worker partici-
pation to improve productivity. . ...
Meanwhile, the decreasing numbers of lIberal who
have continued, as the crisis deepens, to demand
social programs from the governmept have failed,
cally, to show how the capitalists be made to bear theIr
naturally high costs. In so doing, they opened the way to
discrediting in advance any new offensIve for Over the
past twenty years, no section of the. reform has
lifted a finger to oppose the dramatic long term In the
level of corporate taxation. B On the other har:'d, sInc.e early
70s, the working clasS'has had to accept a dechne therr
disposable income: workers now g.et approxImately 20
spending money per hour (wages minUS taxes) than they. dId
1972-1973, and approximately the same amount they receIved In
1961. 26 The great majority of workers have to ass';lme
they themselves will have to pay for any Increases In
services won in Congress. As a consequence, many workmg
people have given up attempting to defend themsel,:,es
the struggle for reforms and sought to ameliorate. condItion
by trying to reduce taxes. 13 in CalIfornIa and 2112
in Massachusetts were typIcal In thIS respect.
The reformist officials' increasingly desperate tum to cor-
poratist solutions throughout the 70s and early 80s is. under-
standable in view of their absolute refusal to confront capItal, but
has nonetheless proven entirely .. By emphasiz-
ing both the impossibility of successfully re.slstIng. employers
and the self-defeating character of any effective reSIstance, the
official forces of reform have merely confirmed the workers' own
conclusions, derived from a decade-long of both
defeat at the hands of the employers and of the declImng com-
petitiveness of U.S. manufacturing. By .rec?mme.nding: on that
basis, policies which bring objectIvely Into alIgnment
with capital and in de facto conflIct WIth other groups of
they have demonstrated the increasing irrelev.ance of
based on collective organization by the working class: an?, m
tum the decreasing utility bf their own orgamzatIons.
Ironically, to the extent that. trade union officials have
transfonned their own organIzatIons from weapons of class
struggle into instruments of collaboration in production, .th:r
have been to that degree less able to assert their own place wlthm
those corporatist arrangements through which they had hoped,
The Paradox of Social OClllocracV: The Alllericall Case 83
. .
alongside the employers, to manage the crisis. Under no
pressure to accept the trade unions as partners, the employers
have seen no reason not to tum around and destroy them _ and
that is what they have done, with growing success, since Reagan
ascended to the Presidency.
Finally, as class-based strategies for self-defense have become
less practicable and as class collaborationist alternatives have
appeared more inevitable, workers naturally have embraced the
ideological conceptions which can make some sense of what
they're actually doing.
27
To the extent that workers have sup-
ported protection, they have allied with their own capitalists
against workers around the world. To the extent, moreover, that
they have participated - at the level of the state, the corpor-
ations, or the shopfloor - in cooperative arrangements to
improve productivity, they are actually helping their own
employers defeat workers in other places. To the extent that
workers have turned to tax cuts, they are unavoidably joining the
I attack on the living standards of those who are dependent upon
welfare and other social 'services, above all Blacks and women.
To the extent that workers are defending their own positions _
in a 'colorblind' and 'sexblind' manner - through defending
the seniOrity list against affirmative action, they are attacking
Blacks and women in still another way. Many working people
who attempt to defend their positions with these methods do not
intend to profit their employers or to gain at the expense of other
workers. But this is in fact what they are doing. Their actions are,
in effect, chauvinist, racist, and sexist. Inevitably, therefore,
they are opened up to the reactionary worldviews which will
rationalize their conduct.
Ultimately, as workers cease to find any practical basis for the
collective defense of their own lives, they cannot help but
perceive the world as a dog-eat-dog competitive struggle, and,
as a result, come to consider more attractive those pro-family and
fundamentalist religious ideologies which make this perception
their point of departure. Whatever oppression the patriarchal
family brings, it can, with some conviction, still offer some of the
only non-commodity, non-commercially competitive relation-
ships which still remain intact - i.e., between husband and
wife and between parents and children. It can, therefore, with
some legitimacy, offer the reality of a (non-capitalist) 'haven in a
heartless (competitive) world.' It need hardly be added that to
the degree such a view of the world - as inevitably composed of
"
84
families in cutthroat competion - carries conviction, that
promise of community held out by the fundamentalist christian I
sects will prove ever more appealing.
Frolll Mitteralld to Le Pellto ...
The progression from reformism to corporate capitalist re-
structuring to the rise of the right is, unfortunately, no mere
prediction. Throughout the later 70s and early 80s, it has been,
and is being, played out in a variety of forms in the capitalist
west, above all in some of those regions which have experienced
the most thoroughgoing social democracy during the first stage
of the global economic crisis. In June 1981, the Socialist Party of
Fran\,ois Mitterand came to power in France in a smashing elec-
toral landslide that gave it a massive parliamentary majority and
uncontested control of the executive for seven years. The Social-
ists were committed at the start to a somewhat radical version of
the traditional social democratic program: Keynesian reflation,
mild increases for social welfare, and ambitious plans for
economic modernization through state intervention and
nationalization. Within months of their accession to power, the
Socialists' attempt to implement their program had led to run-
away inflation, massive capital flight, precipitously rising
imports, the coIIapse of the balance of payments, and stagnating
investment and growth. As a result, in less than a year, the
Socialists had junked their reform program, devalued the franc
twice, and embarked upon a vicious program of austerity,
marked by severe fiscal restraint and huge cuts in government
services. France's workers are today experiencing the highest
levels of unemployment since the Great Depression, made worse
by the decay of government welfare programs. Meanwhile, to
counteract the disastrous effects of its own policies on its worker
constituencies, the government has sought shamelessly to shift
as much as possible of the burden of the crisis onto immigrant
guest workers, while attempting to the population with
Cold War polemics and imperialist adventures. .
With their own political parties and trade unions implicated in
what has been, in effect, an allout experiment in capitalist
modernization, French workers have been compeIIed, not sur-
prisingly, to rethink their political perspectives. With their
1 fie Paradox of Social Democracy: '{he Amerlcall Case 85
traditional par.ties and trade unions making a mockery of class-
based, collectIve strategies. of. it is hardly un-
that they are 111 1I1creasing numbers to those
forces who Will gl:,e ideological rationaliz·
ations for the class and individualistic strategies
they forced to lIve by. Is it really surprising that Le
Pen, With barely concealed fascism, has emerged from the
rubble of. M.ltterand's experiment in capitalist transformation
Do today's American exponents of a revitalized
socl.al democracy from within social democracy believe they can
achieve bette.r than did the French Socialists through the
agency of Mltteran? s feeble American counterparts and their
even feebler refonmst perspectives?
Notes
-I want to the editorial board of Agnillst tile Current for
suggestIOns and cri ticisms of earlier drafts of this paper I
'WIsh to dedicate this essay 'to the memOlY of Steve Zeluck (1922
1985). -
U
1. Stan Weir, Doug Fraser's Middle Class Coalition' Radical America
anuary-February 1979) ,
2. See 'The Paradox of Refonn: Black Politics and the Democratic Pa '
Southern Exposure, 12 (February 1984), pp. 23-24' 'The Left in the 80 . CI rty,
(March-April 1984). ' s, ranges
3. The Mass Strike (1906).
4. On the mass strike upsurge of the 30s and the response of the ern 10 ers
and the government, see Art Preis, Labor's Giant Step (1972) and Irving B Pt·
Tht Turbulent Years (1969). ems em,
5: <?n Roosevelt's new activism, in response to the mass movements and
of 1934, see W.E.Leuchtenberg, Fralrklin D. Roosevelt and the New
Ih 6.) On the trade union officials' passivity under the employers' offensive of
Th
e raterb19/20s and beyond, see Irving Bernstein, Tlte Learr Yenrs (1961) as well as
t IIr 11 elll Years. '
7. , S. Lynd, "Ine Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of
Steel, Rad/cal Anrmen (November 1972); Roger Keeran, 'Communists and the
APhutDo Wd.orkers .. The Struggle for a Union, 1919-1949' (University of Wisconsin
. . IssertatlOn, 1974), chapter IV.
C
.S. SKeeran, 'Communists and the Auto Workers', pp. 292((.; Preis, Labor's
';"1 lep; R.R. Brooks, As Sleel Goes . .. (1940).
. Keeran, 'Communists and the Auto Workers', p. 215; Bert Cochr L b
Qnd Commurrrslll (1977), p. 107f£.; Mike Davis, 'The Barren Marriage of
I:
. R 124 (November-December
Labor and the Democratic Party', Ncll' LC/l n'H'W, no.
1980). . R d 'k C rc A ill life Cil'll Righls Movemenl
10. A. MeIer Jnd E. u WIC, 0 . . I <;trll Ie SNCC al1d Ihe
1942- JQ68 (1975). parts [I and IV; ClJyborne .Carson, 11_ SS·
- k . (1981) sp pp 83-95 and 218-220.
Rlack Au'a Clllllg ,e... _. 282 272-281' Carson, III Slrliggle, pp.
11. Meier and Rudwlck, Lore, pp., ,
111-129. ., les of the ('Os and 705, see Paul
12. For a superb account of Coal (Columbia Un i-
Nyden, 'Miners for Democracy: trugg e to
. . d' t' 1974)
vl'rslty Ph.D. Issera . f tl I t st very important agreement in auto,
13. For an acc
h
our
R
,t t 1e UAW sold out its membership in
see Eric Mann, Send m teo 0 s.
1984 ... " L. A. W
II
(4-10 Tife Gllardial1 (20 February
14. Ben Bede, toplsmger
1980). d . see Carl E Schorske, Ger, an
15. For a classic account of these YnamlCS, .
Social DClllOcrncy 1905-1917 (1955). II .. ' f )urse the greatest where there is a
States (in contrast to propor·
tional representation). . the Jackson campaign, see especially
17. For this and subsequent Bl k Movement' tile Cllrrenl
Anthony Thigpenn, 'Jesse Jackson an e ac , ,
3, (Fall i?84) fl' f the recent practice of Black electorillism, which forms
18. I·or a lIle ana YSls 0 M t 1"1 ski 'The Limits of Power', SOli litem
the basis for this paragraph, see on e I aw ,
ExpaslIrf, 12, (February 1984). ,
19. Quoted in Thigpenn, 'Jesse.1acksonTh' P·H
I6
. d the Realities', Agoinst
L b 'H Id WashIngton' e opes an
20. Dan a otz, aro of Washington's campaign and
lite Clmelll, 3, (Fall 1984). p. 4.0. My L b t' cellent article, and I have appro-
its upshot depends very heaytly on a 0 Z s ex
priated a number phrases fro,;, It.
21 Thigpenn jesse jackson, p. 16.
. , f' 24 25
22. Marable, 'Paradox of Rei' orm lP: Profitability' Federal Rescrl'c Bank
23. D.N. Allman, 'The Dec me III uSlne ,
of KllI/sas Cily Ecollol1lic Rel'iew I (1981) p 91 Ira C. Magaziner
24. Riccardo Parboni, Tllc Dol ar 1I,'1t , S. 11'0 S " -,
and Robert B. Reich, Mil/dillS Ammca
l
S Pi::6-1985? (1985). esp.
25. See joseph A. Pechman, W 10 all Ie ax.,
cha
p
ter
s
5. I B les et al Bel/ond tilt' Was/dOl/ii (1983), p. 25. Wages per hour
26. i1mue ow '. h' 1972-3
are about 10% lower today (betore and Brenner,
, 27. For the Agaillslille Cllnt'lll, 1, (Winter 198])
Reagan, the Rlgwh d th Working Class' A«aillsllll!' C"rretll, L (Summer
and 'The RIght IIlg an e , ,
1981).
3. Stumbling in the Dark:
American Labor's Failed Response
Kim Moody
The 1984 elections were a test for America's embattled labor
movement. Many of the institutions upon which stable labor
relations had rested in the U.s. lay in shambles. Union member-
ship was shrinking in all but a few industries. The collective
bargaining process was riddled with setbacks and organizing
efforts were down for the count. Whether they believed it or not,
the leadership of the AFL.CJO pinned all the blame on the Reagan
administration and its policies. All hopes for a solution to labor's
decline were pinned on the return of the Democrats to power in
Washington, The road to that objective lay in choosing a main-
stream, centrist liberal who could rally and reconstitute the de-
composing base of the Democratic Party. That candidate was
Walter Mondale - a proven economic liberal, political centrist,
and Cold Warrior. Union leaders who might have backed a more
liberal Democrat, perhaps even Jesse Jackson, fell into line in the
hope that unity and a moderate candidate could defeat the right
and restore the 'good old days' before Reagan. The maneuver
failed. For the long-run, however, what may be more important
is that the whole idea upon which this strategy rested _ that
labor's problems lay simply in the White House - embodied a
misunderstanding of the situation, including of why the right
was so powerful an electoral force in the first place,
The foundations of American industrial unionism and its
political practice were built on a compromise with the capitalist
state in the midst of World War II, As a mechanism for enforcing
the new labor laws passed during the New Deal years, the
National Labor Relations Board was largely a failure in the late
1930s, Mass strikes, sit-ins, and later the irresistible draw of war
orders were the forces that brought America's industrial giants
to heal before the Cia upheavaL But the top leaders of the Cia,
87
Edited by:
Mike Davis, Fred Pfeil, and
Michael Sprinker
Verso
THE YEAR LEFT
An American Socialist Yearbook
1985
Verso is the imprint of New Left Books