By Catriona Macpherson

THE MONGOL PEOPLE AND THEIR LIFESTYLE

The steppe region, situated north of the Gobi Desert, toward
the Altai, Kentei and the Khangai Mountains, lay north of China and
Eastern Turkestan. Today it takes in the area of Mongolia and
southern Siberia. It was the traditional home-land of numerous
nomadic tribes which belonged to the three branches of the Altaic
race: the Turkic, the Mongol, and the Tungusic. Most of the
nomads in this area were Mongols, however, it was only later that
they actually called themselves Mongols. They shared with the
Turks and the Tunguz a number of ethnological traits, particularly
the language.

In the twelfth century the ancestors of the Mongols were
divided into clans, omuk, which were divided into sub-clans, yasun.
At times several clans would merge into a tribe or small nation,
ulus. These coalitions were brought about by a variety of causes.
Sometimes a war-lord would be instrumental in gathering together a
number of clans. Sometimes one strong clan would absorb several
other clans thereby making itself much stronger. Sometimes weaker
clans would freely join with other clans for protection. Whatever
the reason for these merges, they formed and reformed over the
years.

Because of the traditional wanderings of these peoples, the
exact location of the various tribes can only be guessed at. They
ranged from the mountains in the north to the edge of the Gobi in
the south, always seeking fresh grazing lands. In winter they
migrated southward, with their flocks, families, tents and all
their possessions, to escape the bitter cold. New grazing lands
could be found to the south. As the snows melted, they moved back
north again seeking not only pasture but escape from the heat of
the southlands.

The Mongols fell into one of two groups according to their way
of life: the pastoral tribes of the steppe and the hunting and
fishing tribes of the forest to the north. In some respects the
herdsmen and the forest people were not so different. They both
hunted, although the herdsmen hunted mainly for food while the
forest people not only hunted for food, but also traded the animal
skins for other goods. From the time of the Jenghizkhanids, the
hunt was also used as training for war and to keep the large
standing armies under control. An idle army often meant trouble.
The possibility of further conquest and more booty kept the
warriors loyal to their leader. Jenghiz Khan exploited this
principle of loyalty for without the absolute loyalty of his
followers, he could not have conquered so much of the world nor
could he have ruled this huge empire. Since the hunt was
conducted like a military campaign, the men were kept in fighting
trim. In winter the woodsmen strapped wooden or bone runners to
their feet and glided over the frozen snow and ice in pursuit of
game. They were so fast they could outrun the animals and shoot
them at close range. The steppe aristocracy hunted with falcons.
The pastoral people, mounted on their sturdy, speedy, steppe
ponies; chased the antelope and deer, using lassoes and bows to
bring the game down.

The forest tribes had little contact with the more civilized
pastoral tribes and thereby seemed more savage than the pastoral
tribes to the south. The aristocracy of the pastoral people
wielded more influence over their clans than did the forest
hunters, hoyin-irgen. The pastoral leaders affected titles such as
baghatur (valiant), noyan (chief), and sechen (wise). The chief
occupation of the aristocracy was finding grazing lands, nutuq, and
getting a sufficient number of slaves, boghul, to take care of the
herds. They also exercised authority over the other social
classes: the freemen or warriors, nokud, common people, qaracha
arad, and the boghul. The slaves consisted of conquered tribes
who had become vassals of victorious tribes and who looked after
their herds and often were pressed into service as auxiliaries in
a Mongol wartime army.

The pastoral tribes were richer than the forest tribes; their
herds and flocks being their wealth. From the animals they
obtained food, shelter, clothing and weapons. The forest people
were dependent upon the fish and animals they could find and this
varied from season to season and year to year. In lean times they
were reduced to digging roots from the ground and snaring rats and
other rodents for meat.

The Mongols had two basic types of dwelling. The ger, a round
felt tent that needed many wooden poles and laths for support, was
adopted by the people living near the forests where there was a
ready supply of wood. The maikhan was a low, wide, woolen tent;
using less wood in its construction which made it more suitable for
nomads living in the nearly treeless steppe. Eventually even the
forest Mongol replaced his bark hut with the ger.

The ger was set up on a circular frame of interlaced sticks
with an opening at the top where the smoke from the fire that was
built in the center of the tent could escape. The framework was
covered with felt which was coated with chalk, or powdered bone to
whiten it. In front of the doorway, which always faced south, hung
felt embroidered with animals, birds, trees, and vines. Tents,
which were thirty feet wide, were mounted on wagons, qara' utai
tergen or qasaq-tergen. As many as twenty oxen would be used to
pull a cart with a large tent on it, and one man would stand in the
doorway of the house on the cart and drive the oxen from there.
The forest Mongols had no cities but groups of camps, ayil, arose
along the paths of their migrations. Felt tents mounted on wagons
were drawn up in circles, kuriyen, or temporary groups which were
forerunners of future towns.

By the late thirteenth century, the tents of the Jenghiz-
Khanate grand khans were more ornate, containing piles of furs and
carpets, silk and brocade linings, gold and silver objects, and
other fine furnishings obtained by raiding and trading. They were
so spacious and comfortable they were actually traveling palaces.

The Mongols were short with heavy, stocky bodies held up by
bowlegs, a result of practically living in the saddle. They had
very large round heads; broad faces; wide, flat noses; almond-
shaped eyes; thick lips; and prominent cheekbones. Their swarthy
skins had been tanned by the sun, wind and frost, even though they
smeared their faces with a protective coating of grease. They had
sparse beards, fairly bushy mustaches and straight black hair.
Often their long ears were pierced and decorated with a ring.
Their heads were usually shaved, except for hair left on the sides
of the head which they braided and looped up behind the ears.
The clothing of the men, unmarried women, and young girls was
the same. They wore tunics which were open from top to bottom,
folded over the breast, and fastened on the right side. Some
tunics were made from buckram and if one were wealthy he might have
had a tunic of brocade or velvet.

Outer fur garments were the
same style with the hairy side out; under tunics had the hair on
the inside. The outer tunic was slit in the back and had a tail
which reached to the knees. The warriors wore trousers tucked
into stubby felt or leather boots. Over the trousers they wore
surcoats or long robes which reached the calf. They were split at
the sides and gathered in at the waist by a girdle; the loose ends
hanging down in front. Because of the cold their sleeves were
gathered in tightly at the wrist. They wore a short fur cape over
their shoulders and fur caps protected their heads. Some warriors
strapped their trousers at the ankles instead of tucking them into
their boots. The sheath for the bow hung from the belt in front of
the left thigh. The quiver, suspended from the belt, hung across
the small of the back, with the barbs of the arrows pointing toward
the right.

Married women wore a full, ground-length tunic which was open
from top to bottom in the front. On their heads they wore a
boghtaq, a headdress, the framework of which often was made of
twigs or bark, covered with brocade, velvet or buckram and
ornamented with jewels or feathers. The boghtaq distinguished a
married woman from an unmarried one, and she never appeared in
front of men without this headdress.

Mongol women rode their horses astride like the men. Some
carried bows and arrows and were known to fight beside the men.
Around their waists they would tie their cloaks with a piece of
sky-blue silk, and with another piece of material they would bind
their breasts. A piece of white material was stretched beneath
their eyes and it hung down to their breasts. The most desireable
Mongol women were plump with small noses. Many women cut off all
or part of their noses in an attempt to appear more beautiful. They
painted their faces with gaudy colors and sometimes used black
paint on their faces. Mongol women did not lie on a bed to give
birth to their children, preferring to stand or crouch during the
birth process.

The most valued possessions of the Mongols were their flocks
and herds, without which they could not have survived.

The flesh and milk were their chief foods. The hides were used
for clothing, quivers for their arrows, tallow for water-proofing
leather and felt, and for armor. Wool from the sheep and goats was
used in clothing and to make felt. Horns and bones were used to
make tools and weapons. Without his horse and weapons a Mongol
could not survive. The steppe pony was just as strong and tough as
its owner. It was short and stocky, about thirteen to fourteen
hands high, with a dense coat which kept it warm in the winter.
They were capable of traveling great distances without tiring. A
Mongol on a single pony had been known to travel six hundred miles
in no more than nine days. Using a remount system, Jenghiz Khan's
army travelled one hundred and thirty miles in just two days with
no breaks for food. His great general, Subodai, and his army
covered one hundred and eight miles in three days through deep
snow.

Mongol horses grazed as they traveled, rooting beneath the
snow for mosses, lichens and dried grass; even eating leaves from
trees. Their obedience to their riders' commands was
instantaneous. They had been trained to give the rider a steady
platform from which he could shoot his arrows. As his horse raced
away, a Mongol warrior could turn in his saddle and accurately
shoot an arrow at his pursuer.

In addition to the four wheeled carts upon which the Mongols
carried their tents, they had two wheeled carts which were covered
with black felt, that had been treated with tallow to waterproof
it. These carts were drawn by horses, oxen and camels, and
carried their families, possessions and food, making the Mongols
very mobile indeed.

The men made their bows and arrows, saddles, bits and
stirrups. They built the houses and the carts, looked after the
camels and horses, milked the mares, and made the skins in which
the qumiz was stored. Along with the women they loaded the camels.
Both men and women looked after the goats and sheep and took turns
milking them. The men and women dressed the skins with sour ewe's
milk which had been thickened and salted. To wash their hands or
head, they filled their mouth with water, spat small amounts of
water from the mouth into the hands, wet their hair and washed
their head.

The men at all times were ready for war. Each warrior made
sure his weapons were repaired and ready for immediate use. His
bow-strings must be taut and his quivers full of good straight
arrows. The chieftains, in periods of peace, organized hunts for
further training, for their men had to be prepared at all times to
take their weapons and horses and ride off to the Kahn's wars.

To release the men for war, Jenghiz Khan gave women new and
greater responsibility. They were now responsible for everything
the family owned. In addition to this, the women had to make sure
their husband's war equipment was ready. They had to see that his
sheepskin cloak and his riding boots with their felt overshoes were
always ready for use. The women also had to make sure the men's
saddle bags were filled with dried milk curds, qumiz and millet,
with which a Mongol warrior could travel for days without taking
time from his military objective to seek food.

The women now drove the carts on which they had loaded the
houses, and when they arrived at their destination they unloaded
them. They milked the cows, made butter, and grut, boiled sour
milk, which was dried and stored. When needed, hot water was
poured over it and it was beaten until it dissolved in the water.
In winter they drank grut when there was no fresh milk. They also
used it to dress the skins from which clothing was made. The women
made thread from tendons that had been split into long, thin
threads and then twisted into one long thread, which was used to
sew socks, shoes and other clothing. They also made the felt used
to cover the houses.

The Mongols did not wash the dishes from which they ate.
When they cooked meat, they washed out the serving bowl with some
of the boiling broth from the cookpot. This broth was then poured
back into the cookpot. They never washed their clothes because
they felt it made the gods angry and they further believed that it
would thunder if they hung their clothes out to dry. They even
went so far as to beat people who did wash their clothes and took
the clothes away from them.

A woman's social position, in general, was good compared to
much of the rest of the world. She could freely dispose of her
property and take charge of her own affairs. She alone had the
responsibility for bringing up the children. Princesses decending
from noble families enjoyed great political influence. For
example, widows of two sovereigns assumed power while the throne
remained empty. Toregene, widow of Ogodai, and Oghul Gaimish,
widow of Guyuk, both ruled the Mongol nation as regents, until a
successor could be elected. In the winter of 1237 when the
Mongol Army, under the leadership of Subodai and Batu, arrived at
Riazan, a female Mongol ambassador was received by the Russian
princes who had gathered there.

The main diet of the Mongols was milk, meat and millet. They
ate the flesh of wild animals such as fox, wolf, cony, gazelle,
wild ass, mountain sheep, argali, and domestic animals such as the
ox, horse, dog, sheep, goat and camel. Mongols never wasted food.
If it couldn't be eaten, it was put in a square bag captargac
carried by all Mongols. Later when there was time, it would be
taken out and eaten, or if it were a bone, the marrow would be
sucked out and the bone gnawed on and only then would it be given
to a dog. Sausage was made from intestines of horses and eaten
fresh. Their meat was cooked in salted water and served in this
broth only; they used no sauces or gravies.

A Franciscan missionary, John of Plano Carpini, while on a
mission to the Mongols (1245-47), stated that the Mongols would eat
anything and if driven by necessity would eat human flesh, as he
said they did while fighting the Kitayans. He also stated they ate
the afterbirth when a mare foaled, and claimed he saw them eat
lice.

By today's standards their table manners were crude. They
used no napkins or table-cloths. Their greasy hands were wiped on
their trousers, grass, or anything else that was nearby. It would
be unfair to judge either their diet or their table manners by
today's standards. Their prime objective was to survive any way
they could. In their harsh and unfriendly land table manners were
not important to them.