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Miescher Discovered DNA 1868 Johann Miescher investigated the chemical composition of the nucleus Isolated an organic acid that was high in phosphorus He called it nuclein We call it DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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Transformation What happened in the fourth experiment? The harmless R cells had been transformed by material from the dead S cells Descendents of the transformed cells were also pathogenic

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Mystery of the Hereditary Material Originally believed to be an unknown class of proteins Thinking was –Heritable traits are diverse –Molecules encoding traits must be diverse –Proteins are made of 20 amino acids and are structurally diverse

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Oswald & Avery What is the transforming material? Cell extracts treated with protein-digesting enzymes could still transform bacteria Cell extracts treated with DNA-digesting enzymes lost their transforming ability Concluded that DNA, not protein, transforms bacteria

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Structure of the Hereditary Material Experiments in the 1950s showed that DNA is the hereditary material Scientists raced to determine the structure of DNA 1953 - Watson and Crick proposed that DNA is a double helix

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Composition of DNA Chargaff showed: –Amount of adenine relative to guanine differs among species –Amount of adenine always equals amount of thymine and amount of guanine always equals amount of cytosine A=T and G=C

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Watson-Crick Model DNA consists of two nucleotide strands Strands run in opposite directions Strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between bases A binds with T and C with G Molecule is a double helix

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Rosalind Franklin’s Work Was an expert in x-ray crystallography Used this technique to examine DNA fibers Concluded that DNA was some sort of helix

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DNA Structure Helps Explain How It Duplicates DNA is two nucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds between two strands are easily broken Each single strand then serves as template for new strand

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DNA Replication new old Each parent strand remains intact Every DNA molecule is half “old” and half “new”

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Base Pairing during Replication Each old strand serves as the template for complementary new strand

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Continuous and Discontinuous Assembly Strands can only be assembled in the 5’ to 3’ direction

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Cloning Making a genetically identical copy of an individual Researchers have been creating clones for decades These clones were created by embryo splitting

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Showed that differentiated cells could be used to create clones Sheep udder cell was combined with enucleated egg cell Dolly is genetically identical to the sheep that donated the udder cell Dolly: Cloned from an Adult Cell