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Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes. To start off, a protein is made in a ribosome. There are many cellular mechanisms involved with protein synthesis. Before the process of protein synthesis can be described, a person must know what proteins are made out of. There are four basic levels of protein organization. The first is primary structure, followed by secondary structure, then tertiary structure, and the last level is quaternary structure. Once someone understands the makeup of a protein, they can then begin to learn how elements can combine and go from genes to protein. There are two main processes that occur during protein synthesis, or peptide formation. One is transcription and the other is translation. Although these biological processes slightly differ for eukaryotes and prokaryotes, they are the basic mechanisms for which proteins are formed in all living organisms. There are four main levels of a protein, which make up its native conformation. The first level, primary structure, is just the basic order of all the amino acids. The amino acids are held together by strong peptide bonds. The next level of protein organization is the secondary structure. This is where the primary structure is repeated folded so that it takes up less space. There are two types of folding, the first of which is beta-pleated sheets, where the primary structure would resemble continuous spikes forming a horizontal strip. The second type of folding is an alpha helix, which goes vertically forming a wavy line. An alpha helix is in the same shape of one strand of DNA. These new formations are held together by hydrogen bonds. The third level is the tertiary structure. The tertiary structure of a protein is a contorted secondary structure being twisted and folded all out of shape to form a 3-d complex. The type of bonding that holds these formations together are weak interactions such as hydrophilic, hydrophobic, ionic, and...

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Introduction:
In living cells, prokaryotic or eukaryotic, the synthesis (construction) of proteins is accomplished by similar machinery. Amino acids, ribosomes, messenger RNA (mRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA), are all necessary for the building of functional proteins in a cell. Ribosomes are the site of proteinsynthesis in a cell, and there are two different types, depending on the type of cell. Only the 70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotes (bacteria, archaea). Eukaryotes, (cells that contain a membrane-bound nucleus), have both 70S and 80S ribosomes. The 70S ribosomes are present in mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells (Willey, et al, 20083). The theory of endosymbiosis is based on the thought that mitochondria and chloroplasts were, at one time, prokaryotic organisms that were engulfed into a eukaryotic cell and formed an equally beneficial relationship. Since mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own DNA and self-replicate, their genetic codes are passed along with the rest of the cell when reproduction occurs. The two types of ribosomes made in a eukaryotic cell will respond differently when given certain antibiotics (Nelson, et al 2009). This experiment focused...

...Sarah Khan
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April 20th, 2013
ProteinSynthesis
Every day, you take in an abundance of different biomolecules; one of them being proteins. Have you ever wondered how proteins are made? They don't just grow from a tree or fall from the sky, they are made through a process called proteinsynthesis. Proteinsynthesis is broken up in two two steps: transcription and translation. Transcription starts inside the nucleus when the DNA is unzipped by helicase. Following that, the mRNA nucleotides match to their complementary bases using an enzyme called RNA polymerase. Once they are matched, the mRNA exits the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm to begin translation. Translation is the synthesis of a protein using the genetic information encoded in the mRNA. Translation begins when the mRNA start codon, AUG, is placed at the ribosome P site. Once this has occurs, tRNA matches the amino acid Methionine to the codon using an anticodon- (UAC). tRNA then carries the next matching amino acid to the "A" site where a peptide bond forms between the two amino acids allowing a chain to form. The ribosome sifts one codon in the 3’ position so the next tRNA can match the codon to its amino acids for the building of another protien. Translation ends when the ribosome reaches a stop codon and an amino acid sequence, or a...

...exist, and the characteristics of the individual would disappear too. As it wanders in the nucleus DNA is replicated and transmitted to assist other parts of the cell. DNA transfers RNA to proteins which is what makes it part of proteinsynthesis. Transcription makes mRNA which joins to amino acids and produce proteins in the process called translation.
Transcription is basically the chemical synthesis of RNA from a DNA template. In simpler words, DNA is transcribed in order to make RNA, which is then decoded to produce proteins. The process of transcription occurs in the nucleus which is the power house of the cell. Transcription is the first step of the process of genes into proteins. In transcription, mRNA (messenger RNA) is transcribed from one of the strands of the DNA molecule. The RNA is called messenger RNA because it carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome, where the information is used to make proteins. RNA and DNA use complementary coding, where base pairs match up, just like the strands of DNA binds to form a double helix. One difference between DNA and RNA is that RNA uses uracil instead of thymine; this is used in DNA. RNA polymerase manages the making of an RNA strand that assists the DNA strand to make mRNA.
The next step that is involved in proteinsynthesis is translation. In translation...

...In order to understand 1) proteinsynthesis, or the production of proteins, it is important to understand RNA and how it is transcribed from DNA. And in order to understand 2) transcription, or the process by which genetic information is copied from DNA to RNA, it is important to understand both the structure and replication of DNA, which is the source of the genetic information that tells cells which proteins to make and when to make them.
A DNA molecule is made up of two long chains of nucleotides, which are the basic structural units of nucleic acids. One nucleotide consists of three parts: a sugar molecule, called 3) deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a 4) nitrogen-containing base. The two nucleotides are covalently bonded together between the deoxyribose and phosphate molecules. A key concept to also understand is that there are four kinds of nitrogen-containing bases. This is important because they bond with each other by means of hydrogen bonds in a way that forms the 5) double helix shape of DNA and the way they pair led to suggestions of how DNA copies itself. The four kinds of nitrogen-containing bases are 6) adenine, 7) guanine, 8) cytosine, and 9) thymine. 10) Base-pairing rules are two rules that describe how these bases: they state that cytosine bonds with guanine and adenine bonds with thymine. These two pairs of bases are known as 11) complementary base pairs.
Because protein...

...Proteinsynthesis is the process whereby proteins are produced, or synthesized, in living things according to "directions" given by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and carried out by RNA (ribonucleic acid) and other proteins. As suggested earlier, this is an extraordinarily complex process that we do not attempt to discuss here. Following synthesis, proteins fold up into an essentially compact three-dimensional shape, which is their tertiary structure.
DNA contains the instructions for a cell's structure and function. It is the blueprints for how the cell runs, reproduces, builds and repairs itself, and every other function necessary for cell life.
Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a molecule of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that encodes the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein.
tRNA is used to carry the 20 different amino acids dissolved in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes to help build the polypeptide chain for proteins to be synthesized.
rRNA (or ribosomal RNA) combines with proteins to form ribosomes that serve as the site of proteinsynthesis. It unzips the DNA helix and transcription begins.
Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by theenzyme RNA polymerase. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as...

...﻿ProteinSynthesis Worksheet
1.
2.
a. Proteinsynthesis began in the nucleus.
b. Chromatin is a diffuse mass located in the nucleus where genetic material is found.
c. A gene is a sequence of nucleotides, it is important because they form the template and these templates are used for synthesizing proteins.
3.
a. Transcription is the first step of proteinsynthesis it uses a sequence of DNA nucleotides to produce a sequence of RNA nucleotide.
b. RNA polymerase bonds to RNA nucleotides together, attaches to the promoter site at the start of the gene.
4.
5.
a.
-Messenger RNA contains information to synthesize proteins.
-Transfer RNA is used to transfer amino acids during the next step.
-Ribosomal RNA makes up part of a ribosome.
b. Transcription takes place in the nuclease
6. Translation takes place in the cytoplasm.
7. –Free ribosomes produce proteins used within the cell.
- RER ribosomes produce proteins that are used in the plasma membrane
8. The role of the tRNA molecule is to carry amino acid to the ribosome; also has a complementary code.
9. A Condon is a triplet strand of MRNA; may act as a code for single amino acid; the start code or the stop code.
10. When a covalent bond forms between the two adjacent amino acids to begin formation of polypeptides.
11. –Primary structure is translated at ribosome...

...stages of a gene’s life span. Everything has a point in life where it starts and ends. The importance of genetics is to understand the transformation it goes through.
What meaning do these mRNA codons have for proteinsynthesis?
Explanation:
The mRNA encodes the amino acid sequence of a protein. During the translation, ribosomal RNA combines with other proteins to form a ribosome which amino acids are transported to the ribosome. The combination of mRNA and tRNA converts the mRNA into the amino acid sequence of the protein.
Did the two mutations result in a change in the final proteins? If so, describe the change.
Response/ explanation:
A change took place in the final proteins because Isoleucine was added towards the end therefore it couldn’t synthesize the Methionine because of the defect (Audesirk & Byers, 2008).
In general, why might a change in amino acid sequence affect protein function?
Explanation:
Results in the sequence of how a protein functions whenever there’s a change in amino acids depends on the type of mutation. Some of these affects could be from adding or deleting the acids to try and alter the protein. Sometimes a process won’t change a protein if mutation only changes the beta-globin DNA base (e.g. CTC to CTT), then the protein synthesized from the mutation remains...

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Protein
Monique Rowland
Nutrition / 241
Instructor: AN-CHIAN CHEN
October 4, 2013
Protein
All proteins are molecules that are the boosters of living organisms and are part of each organ, tissue, and cell within the human body. The protein in consumed food turns into amino acid. The amino acid is used later replinish the proteins used. Proteins have two structures. the first and primary structure of protein is the sequence of the amino acid in the protein (Kim, 2005).
The amino acid is clutched together by peptide bonding, meaning that the amino acid clutches to carboxyl groups by using a dehydration type of synthesis. This classification is decided by DNA. The second type of structure is basic shapes found in the proteins (Kim, 2005). The beta sheet and alpha helix are the main examples of this. There can be many of both of these within a protein. Tertiary structure can’ t be described as a single shape, it is basically a glob. Tertiary structure is the shape of the single protein. The tertiary structure cannot be estimated because there are so many ways it could fold (Kim, 2005).
Folds are determined by attraction between molecules within different amino acids. Sometimes two proteins combine, the structure of scenario is called quaternary structure. The...