"There
are two names for everything in anatomy, except... dramatic
pause... when there are three or more." Dr.
Terry Meehan"You
cannot be a great anatomist, unless you know 87 different names for the
same damn thing!" Dr. Roberta Meehan

Internet Atlas of Histology
(Univ.
of Illinois Urbana-Champaign) For guided tours
through the images, select "Labs." To see thumbnails with links to
each image, select "Slides." To see images that show specific structures,
select "Objects." Java applets provide magnification
and labeling. http://www.med.uiuc.edu/histo/medium/atlas/index.htm

JayDoc Histo Web (Kansas)
Fully annotated images. *** Use this site all semester!

Course
Resources are available on CBU's biology shared directory [Restricted
to CBU]

How to Access the
Biology shared Directory [Available on CBU campus]

Anyone can access the shared
volume from any CBU networked Macintosh or PC on
campus that can handle file sharing.
This includes campus-wide wireless access for your laptop as well as all
the PCs in the Computer Center, the Science Building, Buckman, the Library,
and Nolan Hall. A person could also connect to this from their CBU
dorm room.

Make sure that you are in
finder and not in an application. In the toolbar, the top left hand corner
should say "Finder" in bold. If it does not, just click on the
desktop background.

Four places over to the right from
the word "Finder" in the toolbar it should have the word
"Go," click on that and scroll down to the bottom and click on
"Connect to server."

A pop up box will appear. In
that box you should have a space to type in that says "Server
Address." In that space type in the address "smb://winfile2.cbu.edu/biology" and
hit connect. You should now be on the Biology Shared Directory.

What's Available:
Open
the Resources
folder for the Histology course. Lecture Resources include
PowerPoint lecture slides for each course Unit. Lab Resources include
required
Digital Images and tutorials sorted by lab topic.

HenleGerman
anatomist and pathologist, 1809-1885. "A student and the closest
co-worker of Johannes Müller (1801-1858), Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
helped prepare the way for cytology through his studies of epithelia. He
created the first histology based on extensive microscopical investigations,
and, through his theory of miasma and contagion, was among the precursors
of modern microbiology.

A
follower of Xavier Bichat's (1771-1892) pioneer work in microscopic anatomy,
Henle became the greatest histologist of his day and one of the finest
anatomists of any area. His importance to the development of histology
is comparable to that of the Renaissance master Andreas Vesalius on gross
anatomy. A man of wide interests, equally at home with the arts as with
science, Henle led a life filled with politics, romance, and intrigue."

1. The Digital images, microscope
slides, reference printed atlases, and CD-ROM's used in Lab are available
for your use during study
lab times (i.e., any time 8:00 am--5:00 pm M-F when there is not another
class in AH 107).

Dr. Ross will be pleased
to answer your questions or set up a DVD for you to use.

"Langerhans’ main scientific
achievements consist in his studies of human and animal microscopical
anatomy. In this field he was among the first successful investigators
to explore the new area of research with novel methods and staining techniques." http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1987.html

"Paul
Langerhans (1847-1888) published his doctoral thesis in 1869 describing
a subset of pancreatic cells, now named the islands or islets of Langerhans.
Islets of Langerhans contain insulin producing beta cells which are of
fundamental importance to diabetes research today. Also while still a medical
student working in Virchow's laboratory in Berlin, in 1868 he published
a description of structures in human skin, now called Langerhans' granular
layer and Langerhans' stellate corpuscles. The former of these structures
contains the 'Langerhans' cells' now found to be antigen presenting cells
in tumor immunology."

Microscope Slide
List for Unit 2 (in the Course Supplement) is also
available on winfile2. The file is in the "Unit 2"
subdirectory; it is an MSWord document and is named "0 Unit 2 Microscope
Slide List Connective Tissue.doc"

Histology
Powerpoint slides are available on \\winfile2\biology. [Restricted
to CBU]

Unit 2 Q&A:

Question:Does
the periosteum produce the osteoblasts for compact bone formation, and
the Endosteum for the spongy bone?

Answer:Both
Periosteum and Endosteum are sources of fibroblasts which can differentiate
into osteoblasts (osteogenic cells). However, there is no clear-cut
rule
about periosteum/endosteum and compact/spongy bone. During the first formation
of a bone (either endochondral or intramembranous) osteoid forms then spongy
bone trabeculae are formed (both peri- and endosteum are involved). Then
compact bone is formed by remodeling the spongy bone (and osteoid). Again,
both peri- and endosteum are involved.

See
R&P. Notice the labels for "periosteal
bone" and "endochondral bone"... both begin as osteoid then trabeculae,
etc.

The
process of healing a break also illustrates that there is no "rule" that
periosteum always forms compact bone. During
healing, the injury stimulates the cells of the periosteum to proliferate.
Fibroblasts from periosteum and endosteum invade the injury site and begin
to form callus (osteoid). The callus at first resembles fibrous C.T. then
is gradually ossified. Spongy bone trabeculae are formed first, then compact
bone forms around the periphery.

Similarly,
during the first ossification of the cartilage model in fetal bone formation
the periosteal (perichondrial) "collar" forms trabeculae of spongy bone.
This
spongy bone is later remodeled and replaced by compact bone by the further
action of differentiating cells from the periosteum.

During
appositional growth and the continual remodeling of both membrane and endochondral
bone the periosteum contributes to the growth and remodeling of compact
bone at the surface.

Endosteum
is involved in the continual remodeling of spongy bone. (This
is where we look on our slides to see osteoblasts and osteoclasts, etc.)
But, endosteum
also can form compact bone during the remodeling
of the maturing marrow cavity.

Therefore,
during bone formation, growth, and during healing both of these membranes
are the sources for new osteoblasts.

See
R&P figure. Notice that both the periosteum and endosteum are adjacent
to compact bone.

You
may want to take a look at the sectioned femur and pieces of animal and
human bone to appreciate the transition from spongy to compact bone within
the marrow cavity of a bone.

Answer:It's
a good thing you asked! This is not easy to figure out. (I recommend
careful study of R&P first.)

First:
consider the synthesis, structure and appearance of collagenmolecules,
fibrils,
fibers,
and fiber bundles. Be sure to distinguish
among LM-visible features, TEM-visible features, and biochemical features.
Compare the sizes and arrangements of the collagenous fibrils and fibers.
(Don't forget about the collagens that do not form fibrils.)

The
collagen fibrils discussed in T&B and R&P are EM Fibrils
(also called EM microfibrils or unit fibrils... but be sure to specify
collagen).
The collagen fibrils are formed (in Type I, II, and III collagen) by packing
staggered, aligned tropocollagen molecules (each is about 1.5 nm in diameter).
[Review the reason for the 68 nm cross banding pattern.] The
EM Fibrils of collagen vary in diameter from 15-200 nm. Confusion arises
because of the use of terms such as "LM Fibrils" to refer to those thick
fibrils of tendon that are thick enough to be discerned with LM (remember
200
nm = 0.2 microns). (R&K wisely avoid
this, but they do sometimes say "fiber" when they mean fibril.)

Next,
consider how reticular and elastic fibers compare. Don't give up yet...
this does make sense!

Reticular
fibersare
made of collagen fibrils (only Type III or IV collagen) and the fibrils
are "always of narrow diameter (about 20 nm), and typically the fibrils
do not bundle to form thick fibers." -- R&P. "Reticular fibers have
a very fine diameter (100-500 nm) and are branching anastomosing threads
that tend to form a network (reticulum) instead of bundles." -- T&B
page 87. Also note that there's more carbohydrate than in collagenous fibers
so reticular fibers are strongly PAS+.

Elastic
fibers are composed of two structural components, elastin and
microfibrils." R&P. The microfibrils of elastic fibers are made of
glycoproteins such as fibrillin and are 12 nm in diameter. Elastin is deposited
on the microfibrils. Elastic fibers are NOT made
of collagen! [So, they do not show any cross banding.] Elastic fibers
are really thin (T&B say about 1 micron in diameter) and they do branch.

Basic
Neural Processes Tutorials @ Hanover. A "collection of tutorials on
basic neural functions.... The current topics are: Quiz on Structure of
the Neuron and Brain; Study and Check your Knowledge of the Human Brain;
Review of Physical Factors Involved in the Action Potential; The Normal
Brain Structure Atlas. Part of the Whole Brain Atlas at Harvard; and a
growing glossary of terms can be found here."

Created for Neuroscience
class at Tulane School of Medicine. Three views of each slide include cropped
view of slides showing the most important region of each slide, with labels
and arrows.Slides of thoracic spinal
cord are especially useful for CBU students in Biol 217, Biol 211, Biol
414, etc.

PowerPoint Slides
for Histology are available on \\winfile2\biology.
[Restricted to CBU]

Unit 3 Q&A

Question:Are
terminal bouton, Presynaptic knob, and End bulb all terms for the same
thing?

Answer:

Yes.
There are differences in the traditional usage of these terms (for LM vs.
physiological descriptions, etc.). There is also some variety in the shapes
of synaptic end bulbs.

Question:What
exactly are the intramural ganglia, and do they in any way have relation
to the enteric portion of the autonomic N.S. which the book makes reference
to?

Answer:

From
lecture slides: Autonomic Ganglia

Locations:

1.
Sympathetic chain ganglia 2.
Intramural location (closer to or embedded in the organ innervated):*
in nearby mesentery or*
in walls of the organ (intramural)

Therefore,
the category of intramural ganglia certainly includes enteric ganglia!
(You will also find this in your lecture notes because I use this terminology
when I discuss this topic in class.) As you review this, consider the example
of the nerve cell bodies we have seen in the myenteric plexus... what terms
can be used to categorize this ganglion?

Question:What
is the exact definition of the neurilemmal sheath?

Answer:

Neurilemmal sheath
(sheath of Schwann): The glial cell material investing (surrounding)
nerve fibers of the PNS. This sheath is continuous with the capsule of
satellite cells surrounding the perikarya of neurons in the spinal ganglia.
R&P defines neurilemmal cells as Schwann cells.

R&P
specifies that neurilemma is external and contiguous with the myelin sheath
and is a layer of Schwann cell cytoplasm containing the nucleus and most
of the organelles of the Schwann cell.

Some
authors also use the term
neurilemmal sheath to describe the Schwann
cell material protecting unmyelinated nerve fibers. The
neurilemmal sheath plays a crucial role in healing of damaged nerve fibers
in the PNS. The absence of this material in the CNS is thought to be a
primary reason that damaged nerve cell processes in the CNS cannot normally
heal themselves.

Notice
that this section (page 214) refers only to the appearance of the cells.
These categories are not the same as the "official tissue names." Most
histologists DON'T use R&P's "visceral striated muscle" category. No
one uses this as the name for a
tissue. Most authors use
the "official tissue name" SKELETAL MUSCLE to refer to both
R&P's skeletal muscle *and* R&P's visceral striated muscle. (That's
what R&P do in the rest of the chapter.)

For example,
intrinsic muscle of the tongue is histologically identical to skeletal
muscle and it is innervated by somatic efferent nerves (voluntary motor
control). So, most histologists call it skeletal muscle tissue
even though the intrinsic muscles of the tongue do not attach to any bone.
By the way, slices through the base of the tongue could include both intrinsic
and extrinsic muscles of the tongue. These are identical tissues.
However, the extrinsic muscles of the tongue do attach to the hyoid apparatus
so would be considered skeletal muscle by R&P.

The cases
of the skeletal muscle tissue of the pharynx and diaphragm are more complex.
The skeletal muscle tissue present is innervated by both
ANS and somatic motor fibers. (This permits gag reflex and reflexive breathing
as well as voluntary control of swallowing and breathing.)

For another
reason that R&P's "visceral striated muscle" category is too confusing
to use as a tissue name, consider that CARDIAC MUSCLE is visceral
muscle (ANS innervation, involuntary) and it is striated but is NOT included
in R&P's "visceral striated muscle" category! The "official tissue
name" is CARDIAC MUSCLE. This tissue IS histologically distinct
from skeletal muscle and from smooth muscle.

By the
way,
smooth muscle tissue is visceral muscle but it is not
striated muscle.

Visceral
muscle and visceral striated muscle are NOT the same. Neither term
is an "official tissue name" for our purposes. The term "visceral muscle"
would probably mean smooth muscle (but it could also refer to cardiac muscle).
Visceral organs include the respiratory system and the GI tract. Visceral
innervation is generally via the ANS (autonomic nervous system) which is
visceral motor in function. Sensory information from smooth muscle is carried
by visceral sensory neurons. So,
you see why we stick with the three traditional "official tissue names"
for the three types of muscle tissue: Smooth Muscle,
Skeletal
Muscle, and Cardiac Muscle.

This article (in the European
Journal of Dermatology) is titled "Apoptosis and the skin" and it
describes terminal differentiation of keratinocytes as being a "special
form" of apoptosis. It's an excellent review article.

Question:
What
are R&K's epithelioreticular cells and how do
they relate to Nurse Cells and specialized Epithelial Cells in the Thymus?

Answer: The
epithelioreticular cells are the "specialized epithelial cells" in the
thymus. These specialized cells are labeled
on a few micrographs on the shared directory and in some of the CD-ROM's.
Thymocytes are the maturing T-lymphocytes in the thymus.

Large, specialized "epithelial
cells" secrete hormone (thymosin) to attract neonatal lymphocytes from
the bone marrow. These "epithelial cells" then may have numerous thymocytes
adjacent to their cytoplasmic processes. [R&P term these cells
epithelioreticular
cells, but note they tell us they do NOT produce reticular fibers.
They use the term because the epithelial cells have cytoplasmic
processes that form a network (reticulum). p. 346.]The epithelial
cells "present" antigens to the thymocytes. Thymocytes that respond to
self-antigens are destroyed. And others are stimulated to proliferate.)
Additionally, large "nurse cells" are present. The cytoplasm of each "nurse
cell" surrounds several thymocytes.

On our thin-section slides
of thymus we can see some large, round, pale nuclei. [See R&P]
These are certainly not thymocytes... so they are most likely the specialized
epithelial cells. You may also be able to spot a"nurse cell." (You
won't have to differentiate these on the lab exam.) There are also some
macrophages
(PAS cells) visible in these slides. By the way, there are not many
Hassalls'
corpuscles
on these newer, thin-section slides and I found them a bit
difficult to recognize.
Be sure to see the older, ordinary slides of
thymus too!

H-86 Epithelium,
Olfactory [As listed, added more slides: Wards]
(Wards
brand). The view is different in these compared to the Turtox
brand. In the Wards slides, look for “trapped” sections of olfactory
epithelium, disconnected from the free surfaces in the section.

Ileocecal
Junction (= ileocecal valve) microscope slides can be difficult
to interpret. (Try more than one slide.) Some
slides do not show continguous tissue along the transition zone. Instead,
you may find two or three different pockets of mucosa. Look for villi
in the ileum. You will not be asked to distinguish different regions of
the large intestine (such as colon vs. cecum). "Ileocecal valve" slides
are
usually slides of the ileocecal junction.

Appendix: Although
the microscope slides were omitted, you do need to know the digital
images (on \\winfile2\biology) and digitized laser disc images of appendix.

Liver:
"Liver, glycogen stained" in Box H-9. Try the newer microscope slides
of glycogen in the liver. Also see the digital images we saw in Unit
1. Cytology carousel, slide 42; this uses a different stain to show glycogen
in the liver.

Question: What
should we know about the lamina propria of the large intestine (collagen
table, pericryptal fibroblast sheath, etc.). This section was not covered
in the lecture slides.

Answer: Yes
you
DO need to know the histology of the lamina propria of the colon. (The
lecture slides are only an outline.) The short list in R&P is
a good guide to the essential features.

Histology of the lamina propria of
the colon:

The collagen
table is at the superficial part of the lamina propria (it makes
it look as though there is a very thick basal lamina). This collagen
(in the form of fine collagen fibers and reticular fibers) forms a permeable
barrier between the epithelium and the venous capillaries which regulates
water and electrolyte transport.

The GALT
of the colon's lamina propria includes lymphatic nodules (but no lymph
vessels).

The pericryptal
fibroblast sheath includes helically arranged collagenous fibers
that direct the paths of cell migration and fibroblasts that apparantly
differentiate into macrophages.

Question:
Are
transverse
rectal folds the same thing as anal valves?Answer:No they are not the same.
Since
R&P does not include the details on this point, let's look at the
distinction. (This is covered in the lecture slides.)

Recto-anal
Junction

(R&P)
Transverse rectal folds are in the upper (proximal) part
of the rectum (a.k.a. transverse
rectal plicae on R&P
fig.)

Rectal
columns (of Morgani) are longitudinnal folds of the mucosa just
proximal to the pectinate line.

The pectinate line is
where simple columnar epithelium changes to noncornified stratified squamous
epithelium; distal to the pectinate line there are no more intestinal glands,
etc.

The distal ends of the rectal
columns are united by transverse mucosal folds called anal
valvesand the recess above each valve is called an anal
sinus
(a.k.a.
rectal sinus, see R&P fig.).

By the way, it is at the level
of the anal valves that the muscularis mucosa becomes discontinuous
and disappears.

Who named
it?

Paul Langerhans (1847-1888)

"Langerhans’ main scientific
achievements consist in his studies of human and animal microscopical
anatomy. In this field he was among the first successful investigators
to explore the new area of research with novel methods and staining techniques." http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1987.html

"Paul
Langerhans (1847-1888) published his doctoral thesis in 1869 describing
a subset of pancreatic cells, now named the islands or islets of Langerhans.
Islets of Langerhans contain insulin producing beta cells which are of
fundamental importance to diabetes research today. Also while still a medical
student working in Virchow's laboratory in Berlin, in 1868 he published
a description of structures in human skin, now called Langerhans' granular
layer and Langerhans' stellate corpuscles. The former of these structures
contains the 'Langerhans' cells' now found to be antigen presenting cells
in tumor immunology."

READ the labels
on the microscope slides! The slide boxes often contain
several
different slides. You need to be certain about what you are supposed
to notice on each microscope slide.

Please take only
one microscope slide at a time. Don't park microscope slides on the table
tops or in a drawer.

Please
return microscope slides to the correct box! You need to
consult your lists of microscope slides to determine where the slides go...
or just ask... but don't guess.
Also, please keep slide boxes in order.

Optional Histology Study Lab Session
Mon. 2:00-4:30 pm in AH 107. (AH
107 schedule)(Lecture and Lab are co-requisites and
must be taken concurrently.)

Offered Spring Semester in odd-numbered years.

Histology is a Group I Biology elective applicable
to the biology Major.

Course Description:

A study of the microscopic and
ultramicroscopic structure of mammalian tissues and organs, i.e.,
microscopic anatomy. Special emphasis is placed on the relation of structure
to function. This course gives the student a thorough and detailed overview
of the various human tissues and organs. This is an upper level
course designed for students who want intensive preparation in microanatomy.
The course is designed for qualified juniors and seniors. Students are
expected to have college level preparation in mammalian anatomy and/or
physiology (see
Prerequisites below).

The course highlights normal human histology
and the functional significance of microanatomical structures. The lab
and lecture portions of the course are completely integrated; both lecture
and lab material will be covered during each session. The amount of time
devoted to lecture or lab will vary depending on the particular topic.
Lecture sessions will include brief reviews of lecture and lab material
and are intended to guide students rather than to present all the required
details of the course material. (This means you'll need to study the textbooks,
supplement, and lab materials in addition to lecture notes.) Lecture and
lab study materials will include images digitized from laser discs, CD-ROMs,
World Wide Web (Internet) sites, digital images (including digitized 35
mm color slides), and microscope slides. Laboratory sessions will include
some presentations by the professor as well as independent and group work
using the study materials. Successful students will learn how to locate
and identify normal mammalian tissues and organs using photomicrographs,
microscope slides, digital images, CD-ROM, and WWW resources. Successful
students will be able to use the specific and precise terminology of the
field of histology.

« To
gain the most from the course (and to achieve success as measured by good
grades) you will want to study in the laboratory
for several hours each week in addition to the scheduled class and lab
sessions. Even though digital images can be
used from anywhere on campus, the microscopes are available only in the
lab room. Also, you will want to take
advantage of the benefits of having the professor and your classmates available
during your study sessions.A cooperative and open atmosphere is expected
during all class and lab meetings. Lecture and laboratory materials should
be studied simultaneously and some use of lab time to review lecture material
is expected. The laboratory will be open for extra review during posted
hours. Students are encouraged to study together but no cooperation during
exams is permitted.

Prerequisites: Junior
or Senior class standing. BIOL 111 and 112 (Principles of Biology I and
II and their labs) and 4 additional hours of Biology. It is recommended
that your previous biology courses include preparation in anatomy and/or
physiology [for example,at least one of the following with lab:
BIOL 212 Comparative Anatomy, BIOL 312 Vertebrate Physiology, or BIOL 217-218
Anatomy and Physiology I and II]. In addition, BIOL 211 (Embryology) is
recommended and biochemistry will be helpful. Students who have not made
at least a "C" in each of the prerequisites should repeat the necessary
courses before attempting further course work in Biology. Students without
the prerequisites must have permission of the professor or Department Chair
to enroll.

Professor:

Dr. Anna E. Ross, Professor of Biology.

Office: AH 111 Phone:
321-3436 (Please record a message if I'm not in the
office.)

Internet Atlas of Histology(Univ.
of Illinois Urbana-Champaign) ** For a guided tour
through the images, select "Labs." To see images that show specific
structures, select "Objects." Java applets provide magnification
and labeling.

You are responsible for all information
presented during lecture and laboratory sessions. Lecture
and Laboratory attendance is required. Laboratory and class
sessions will require the entire scheduled period. Do not expect
to be out of lab before the scheduled time. Because “lecture” provides
guidance for the lab work, lecture and lab work will be integrated during
the 9:30 to 12:25 time period. Additional lab work outside of scheduled
times is required. Attendance at lecture and lab exams is required.
If you miss lecture or lab for any reason, you are expected to inform me
and you are responsible for making up the missed work on your own
time (you must have me verify that you have made up missed lab work).
Unexcused absences will lower your grade. Excessive absences are
grounds for automatic failure.

You will need to read the assigned text
material and the appropriate lab material before you come to lecture
or lab. You will need your textbooks, atlases, and course supplement
during all lecture and lab meetings. «To
be successful in this course you will want to study in
the lab for several hours each week in addition to the scheduled
lab times.

Exams and Grading

Grading scale: 90.0-100% = A, 80.0-89.9%
= B, 70.0-79.9% = C, 60.0-69.9% = D, below 60.0% = F.An honor system is in effect
for all lecture and lab exams. It is considered a violation of the CBU
Code of Conduct to receive or give assistance during an examination. Exam
questions are not returned for students to keep. However, answer keys will
be available following each exam. In this course, the possession or use
of old or current Moodle questions, lecture or lab examination questions
or answers is considered a violation of the CBU Code of Conduct.

The Lecture Course:

Five lecture exams and a comprehensive
final exam will be given. Each will count 100 points (a total of
600 points for the course). No exam may be dropped. Makeup
exams will only be available under extraordinary circumstances. «If
you miss an exam without prior arrangement and fail to notify me within
one hour of the scheduled exam time, you will not be eligible for a makeup
exam and you will receive a zero for the missed exam.

Lecture exams will cover the topics indicated
on the attached schedule unless specific changes are announced in class.
Each exam will cover material from lecture, the text, atlases, and the
course supplement. It is expected that material studied in laboratory
will be incorporated into your responses on lecture exams. Exams
will consist of specific essay questions and a few objective questions.
Exam questions may require well labeled diagrams and will always require
detailed and precise responses employing the specialized terminology introduced
in the course. The comprehensive final exam will consist entirely
of objective questions.

The Laboratory
Course:

Five lab exams will be given; each will
count 100 points (a total of 500 points for the course). No lab exam may
be dropped. Lab exams will be practical and will require you to identify
subcellular structures, cells, tissues, organs and their structural details
from microscope slides, digital images, photomicrographs, and diagrams. «ALL
LAB EXAMS ARE COMPREHENSIVE, but the most recent material will be emphasized.

«Students
are cautioned that the lab exams become increasingly challenging as the
course progresses. «It
may be impossible to make up a missed lab exam. If you miss a lab exam
without prior arrangement and fail to notify me within one hour of the
scheduled exam time, you will not be eligible for a makeup exam and you
will receive a zero for the missed lab exam.
You will also
be evaluated on your effort and cooperation with other students in lab.
Early in the course, you will need to make annotated drawings and to make
these available for inspection during lab sessions. You are required
to return all materials and equipment in good condition after each lab
session and after open labs. You need to report any damage to microscopes,
projectors, slides, etc. You will be charged for the replacement
cost of broken or missing microscope slides or other materials.