with fine teaching skills are in short supply.

The early applied linguists such as Henry Sweet (1845-1912)* Otto

and theoretically accountable approaches to the design of language teaching.

From the 1940s various attempts have been made to conceptualize the nature of

methods and to find relationship between theory and practice within the method.

American applied linguist Edward Anthony proposed one such scheme

in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization. He

terms them as approach, method and technique.

Note: * Henry Sweets reputation as the man who taught Europe phonetics wasreflected even in the literature. The main character Prof. Henry Higgins ofGeorge Bernard Shaws play My Fair Lady has touches of Henry Sweet.

20 Language teaching specialists such as Marcel, Predergast and Gouin

did a lot to promote alternative approaches to language teaching. They did not

get widespread attention. From the 1880s Henry Sweet in England, Wilhelm

Vietor in Germany, and Paul Parssy in France gave the intellectual leadership to

the reformist ideas of language teaching.

Henry Sweet (1845-1912) argued that sound methodological principles

should be based on a scientific analysis of language and a study of psychology.

He set forth principles for the development of teaching method. These included

1. Careful selection of what is to be taught

2. Imposing limits on what is to be taught

3. Arranging what is to be taught in terms of the four skills of listening,

speaking, reading and writing.

4. Grading materials from simple to complex.

In Germany the renowned scholar Wilhelm Vietor (1850-1918) used

linguistic theory to language teaching. His view was that training in phonetics

would enable teachers to pronounce the language accurately. Speech patterns,

rather than grammar, were the fundamental elements of language. He criticized

Grammar Translation Method and elaborated the use of new science of

phonetics.

21 The principles put forth by the reformers provided the theoretical

foundations to the scientific approach of the study of language and learning of

language the discipline of applied linguistics. The reform movement led to

natural method and gradually led to the development of the Direct Method.

The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools

but failed to consider the practical realities of the real classrooms.

The most active period in the history of approaches and methods was

from the 1950s to the 1980s. (1) First the Audiolingual Method and the Situational

Method came up. They were later replaced by communicative approach. During

the same period The Silent Way, the Natural Approach, The Total Physical

Response was also used for language teaching by some. In the 1990s Content

Based instruction, Task-Based Language Teaching, Competency-Based

Instruction were also used for teaching.

Cooperative Learning, Whole Language Approach, Multiple

Intelligences are also part of this Method Era.

Mainstream language teaching opted for Communicative Language

Teaching (CLT) as the basis for language teaching methodology in the 1980s

and it continues to be considered the most plausible basis for teaching of English

Language in the globalization period.

22 An approach of Language Teaching has a common core set of

theories and principles for teaching. Variety of interpretations are possible while

applying these principles. It does give flexibility and freedom while applying them.

The different approaches can be summarized as below:

1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

2. Competency-Based Language Teaching

3. Content-Based Language Teaching

4. Cooperative Learning

5. Lexical Approach

6. Multiple Intelligences

7. The Natural Approach

8. Neurolinguistic Programming

9. Task-Based Language Teaching

10. Whole Language

A method contains instructional design, detailed specification of

contents, roles of teachers and learners. The teaching procedures and

techniques are elaborated. Hence the methods are best learned through training.

The teachers role is to follow the method and apply it according to the rules.

There is not much scope for interpretation. The different methods are

summarized here.

23 1. Grammar Translation Method

2. Direct Method

3. Audio Lingualism

4. Counseling-Learning

5. Situational Language Teaching

6. The Silent Way

7. Suggestopedia or Desuggestopedia

8. Total Physical Response

2.2 Methods of English Language Teaching

2.2.1 Grammar Translation Method: Grammar Translation Method or GTM

has been used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called

the Classical Method since it was used in the teaching of the classical languages,

Latin and Greek. It was also referred as the Prussian Method in the United

States. It is a way of studying a language first through detailed analysis of its

grammar rules, followed by application of these rules to the task of translating

sentences and texts into and out of target language. It dominated European and

Foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s. (10) Even today in many

places it is used in some form or the other. The main features of this method are

as follows:

241. The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of

the second language.

2. Reading and writing are the focus; not much attention is given to speaking or

listening.

3. Vocabulary selection is based mainly on the reading texts. Words are taught

through dictionary study, bilingual word list and memorization.

4. Much of a lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target

language. This focus on the sentence is the distinctive feature of the method.

5. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation. Accuracy is

emphasized.

6. Grammar is taught deductively. A syllabus is followed to teach grammar in an

organized and systematic way.

7. The students native language is the medium of instruction.

In the mid and late nineteenth century, opposition to Grammar Translation

Method developed in the European countries. This was called as Reform

Movement. This lead to the development of new ways of teaching languages.

2.2.2 The Direct Method: Since the GTM was not very effective in preparing

students to use the target language communicatively the Direct method

progressed. The Direct Method has one very basic rule. No translation is

allowed. The Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be

conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and

25visual aids, with no recourse to the students native language. It was introduced

in France, Germany, and United States by the end of the nineteenth century. In

the United States it was referred to as the Berlitz Method. Eventually many other

countries also experimented with this method. The main principles of this method

can be cited as below:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught

3. Oral communication skills were built in a carefully graded progression

organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and

students in small intensive classes.

4. Grammar was taught inductively

5. New teaching points were introduced orally.

6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures;

abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas

7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught

8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

The direct method was quite successful in private language schools,

where paying clients had high motivation and the teachers were with the English

mother tongue background. But it failed to deliver in the public schools. It

required teachers who were native speakers or had that level of fluency. It was

mainly dependent on the teachers skill and not so much on the text book. Many

26teachers were not proficient enough in the language. At times simple, brief

explanation of the students native language would have helped in the

comprehension. The strict adherence to avoid the use of native language was

counter productive.

The direct method can be regarded as the first Language Teaching

Method to have caught the attention of teachers and language teaching

specialists. It marked the beginning of the methods era.

2.2.3 The Audiolingual Method: The combination of structural linguistic theory,

contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the

Audiolingual Method. The term Audiolingualism was coined by Professor Nelson

Brooks in 1964. It changed the language teaching from an art into a science. The

method was widely adopted in United States and Canada. There are many

similarities between Situational Language Teaching (described in 2.2.5) and

Audiolingualism. Audiolingualism has strong ties to linguistics and behavioral

psychology. It reached its peak in the 1960s.

Audiolingualism was criticized on two counts. The theoretical

foundation was attacked as being unsound in terms of language theory and

learning theory. Practitioners found that it fell short of expectations. The skills

acquired failed to be transferred outside the classroom situation. The MIT linguist

Noam Chomsky(2) rejected the structuralist approach as well as the behaviourist

27theory of language learning. He argued that sentences are not learned by

imitation and repetition but generated from learners underlying competence.

Temporary relief was accepted in cognitive code learning. The lack of an

alternative to Audiolingualism led to a period of adaptation, innovation and

experimentation.

2.2.4 Counseling Learning: It is a process based method in which language

content is often secondary. This method is relatively underdeveloped in the

domain of language theory and the learning principles. It is different from theories

found in second language acquisition text books. The atmosphere of the

classroom is a crucial factor It has no language syllabus as such. Learners select

content for themselves by choosing topics they want to talk about. These are

then translated into the target language and used for interaction and language

practice.

It did not succeed in attracting the support of mainstream language

teaching.

2.2.5 Situational Language Learning and Oral Approach: This refers to an

approach developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s.

Palmer, Hornby and other British applied linguists evolved systematic principles

of selection, gradation, and presentation.

28 The oral approach was the accepted British approach to English

language teaching by the 1950s. It is described in the standard methodology text

books of the period. In the 1960s Australian George Pittman and his colleagues

developed influential set of teaching materials based on this method. There were

widely used in Australia, New Guinea and the Pacific territories. The main

characteristics of the approach were as follows:

1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is

taught orally before it is presented in the written form.

2. The target language is the language of the classroom.

3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally

4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an

essential general service vocabulary is covered.

5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple

forms should be taught before complex ones.

6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and

grammatical basis is established.

The third principle became a key feature and the term situational

Language teaching came in practice.

2.2.6 The Silent Way: The silent way is the name of the method of language

teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the principle that the teacher

29should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be

encouraged to produce as much language as possible. The learning hypotheses

can be stated as follows:

1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than