Sometimes, you may need to deal with text that includes characters that are not part of the standard English alphabet, such as é, ö, Ф, or ¥. This is especially likely if you use REST APIs to fetch user-contributed content from social media sites like Twitter, Facebook, or flickr.

Python has a datatype, unicode, that works very much like strings do, but allows for characters to be from a much larger alphabet, including more than 75,000 ideographic characters used in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean alphabets. Everything works fine inside python, for operations like slicing and appending and concatenating strings and using .find() or the in operator. Python’s documentation about unicode is pretty informative and readable.

If you ever want to know whether a string you’re working with is a regular string or a unicode string, print out its type: printtype(s). If it’s a regular string, it will say <type'str'>; if it’s a unicode string it will say <type'unicode'>.

Input and output of unicode, however, can get very tricky. First, your terminal window will typically be set up to display characters only from a restricted set of languages. If you issue a print statement on a unicode string, it may not display correctly in your terminal window.

If you want to store unicode text in a file, you have to choose an “encoding”. This is analogous to the encoding of special characters in a URL string, but not the same. In a file with Unicode text, each unicode character has to be encoded as one or more “bytes” for storage in a file. We have avoided low-level details about data encodings until now, but understanding a little about bits and bytes will help make sense of this.

A bit is a BInary digiT. It is a single value restricted to two (binary) possibilities, which we conventionally write as 0 or 1. Computers store bits as electrical charges (high or low voltage) or as magnetic polarities, or some other way that we need not be concerned about. A sequence of eight 0-1 bits is called a byte. For example: 01001000.

There are 2^^8=256 distinct eight-bit bytes. If we only had 256 possible letters in our alphabet, we could simply encode each letter as one of the available bytes. When we restrict ourselves to regular python strings, using only the ASCII alphabet (English, plus a few special characters), the encoding is that simple, so simple that we haven’t had to think about it before.

When there are 75,000 possible characters, they can’t all be encoded with a single byte, because there are only 256 distinct bytes (eight-bit sequences). There are many possible encodings. The one you will be most likely to encounter, using REST APIs, is called UTF-8. A single unicode character is mapped to a sequence of up to four bytes.

If you read in a UTF-8 encoded text, and get the contents using .read() or .readlines(), you will need to “decode” the contents in order to turn it into a proper unicode string that you can read and use.

Fortunately, the requests module will normally handle this for us automatically. When we fetch a webpage that is in json format, the webpage will have a header called ‘content-type’ that will say something like application/json;charset=utf8. If it specifies the utf8 character set in that way, the requests module will automatically decode the contents into unicode: requests.get('thatwebpage').text will yield a unicode string, and you’ll be able to read it just fine.

You may see a u before the string in a program dealing with Unicode characters (remember, you won’t see this when you print out a Unicode string, because printing out strings doesn’t show quotes or other things you see in your program). For example, in a list of Unicode strings, if you printed it out, you might see [u"hello",u"goodbye"].

If, for some reason, you get json-formatted text that is utf-encoded but the requests module hasn’t magically decoded it for you, the json.loads() function call can take care of the decoding for you. loads() takes an optional parameter, encoding. Its default value is ‘utf-8’, so you don’t need to specify it unless you think the text you have received was in some other encoding than ‘utf-8’. Note that loads()``alwaysreturnsaunicodestring--sothetypeofthereturnvaluefrom``json.loads, no matter what JSON structure you pass into it, will be type <unicode>.

Assuming you get data in JSON format and decode it using json.loads(), you will always be working with unicode strings when you get data from the internet.

Everything will work fine until you try to print or write the contents to a file. If you print, and your terminal window is not set up to display that language, you may get a strange output.

If you try to write to a file with unicode strings, you may get an error. When you write a unicode string to a file, python tries to encode it in ASCII. If there is a non-ASCII character, the execution fails and raises an error that looks like this: UnicodeEncodeError:'ascii'codeccan'tencodecharacteru'\xea'inposition1:ordinalnotinrange(128).

One solution is to use the Python method to encode the string, using a format such as utf-8. For example, s.encode('utf-8') will encode string s as utf-8. This is often the best way. Another quick-and-dirty option, if you just have a few stray characters that are getting in your way, is to replace any non-ASCII characters with question marks. For example, s.encode('ascii','replace'). Of course, replacing characters with question marks destroys some of the information, but it may be helpful in some circumstances. Sometimes, you can use the str() function to convert the unicode string into an ASCII string, like usual in Python, but this may result in ugly output or errors if there is a character in the string that does not exist in ASCII text, e.g. a letter with an accent or other diacritical marks.