Spirited and interesting picture of life in castles and manors, monasteries and towns during the Middle Ages. The description of the customs of knights is especially full. Chapter titles include Page, Squire, and Knight; The Knight's Arms and Armor; Jousts and Tournaments; How to Capture a Castle; Daily Life in a Castle; Life on a Manor; Pilgrimages and Crusades; Military Orders, Monks, and Monasteries; Hermits, Friars, and Missionaries; Life in Town; Merchant Gilds and Craft Gilds; How Goods Were Sold; Schools and Literature; Science and Medicine; and Architecture and the Arts. Ages 9-14

324 pages

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HOW TO CAPTURE A CASTLE

[52] IN the times when no man was safe unless he could
protect himself with his own strong arm or the arms of
his followers, the castle of a nobleman had to be well
fortified. If it was not, the chances were that it
would soon change owners. The very word "castle" means
a fortified residence.

At first the means of protection were of the simplest
kind. A wide earthen wall thrown up around a group of
huts was regarded as a valuable defense. Stronger walls
were made by using trunks of trees and rough stone work
for the foundation and filling in the spaces with
earth. Stakes were driven down and bound together to
form a stout palisade, or fence. After a time wooden
forts were reared of heavy logs and beams. Stone
finally took the place of wood; and it was of stone
that most of the castles of the days of knighthood were
built. These were far removed from the simple
fortifications of earlier times. They had massive stone
walls and towers, moats, or wide, deep ditches filled
with
[53] water, inner courts and outer courts, chapels, cellars,
dungeons, together with chambers and staircases cut out
of the thickness of the walls, drawbridges, and
underground passages—all of which seem somewhat
romantic in stories, but which were exceedingly
necessary and matter-of-fact means of protection when
they were built.

ACASTLEOFTHEMIDDLEAGES

For the site of a castle a noble sometimes chose an
island in a lake, like the famous Castle of Chillon in
Lake Geneva, or a low, swampy place that an enemy would
[54] find difficult to reach; but he generally preferred the
bank of a river or some high, rocky location. One of
the most famous castles was the Château Gaillard, or
the "Saucy Castle," which was built in Normandy by
Richard the Lion-hearted in the days when kings of
England still held possessions in France. It stood on a
narrow promontory three hundred feet above the river
Seine with a deep valley on either hand. The north end
of the promontory was so steep and rocky that there was
little danger of an attack on that side. The south end,
however, sloped, and up this gently rising ground an
enemy might easily advance. It was wise, then, to make
the fortifications exceedingly strong at the south. A
glance at the plan shows how this was done. C
represents an outwork with five strong towers whose
walls were eleven feet thick. These were connected by
"curtains," that is, heavy stone walls from eight to
twelve feet thick and thirty feet or more in height.
All around this massive outwork was a ditch, E, some
thirty feet wide and more than forty feet deep. The
gate was at D; but before any one could reach it, he
must find some way of crossing the moat. Friends might
cross by means of a wooden drawbridge; but at the first
glimpse of an enemy, chains and weights were set in
motion, and the bridge was
[56] pulled up flat against the wall. The gate was protected
by a portcullis, that is, a sort of screen made of
heavy beams, each one pointed with iron. When no enemy
was at hand, this hung quietly above the entrance, but
at the first sign of danger, there was a great rattling
of chains, and in a moment the portcullis had dropped
in its grooves.

BIRD'S-EYEVIEWOFCHATEAUGAILLARD

Between this outwork, or "outer court," C, and the
"middle court," B, there must have been some sort of
passage way, and probably walls to protect it. The
middle court had also a moat. It had towers and
curtains, and within it was a chapel, F, and a well,
G. Out of this middle court an area was taken about as
large as the outer court to form the "inner court," A.
The wall which separated the two courts was so strong
that it does not seem as if it could ever have been
overthrown, for it was thirty feet high and eight feet
thick. This was only the beginning of its strength,
however, for on the side next the middle court rounding
buttresses had been added. On top of the wall there
were probably battlements, that is, a low, narrow wall
running along the outer edge of the main wall and cut
down at points a few feet apart. The defenders of the
castle could shoot their arrows through the open spaces
and then step behind the parapet for shelter. The wall
protected the
[57] inner court, but the wall itself was protected, for the
solid cliff on which it stood was cut down
perpendicularly, or "scarped" for twenty feet, so
that, even if an enemy had succeeded in getting
possession of the middle court, he would still have the
moat, H, to cross; and on the other side of the moat
there would tower up above him twenty feet of
perpendicular
cliff and thirty feet of solid wall.

PLANOFCHATEAUGAILLARD

The entrance to the inner court was at I. It was
approached by a causeway cut out of the solid rock; but
it did not afford a very agreeable entrance to an
unwelcome visitor, for there was an outer
[58] portcullis and an inner portcullis; and even if he
succeeded in passing these and also the gateway
studded with iron, he would find himself at the foot of
a steep stairway cut in the rock, and the greeting that
he would receive from the inmates of the castle would
not be to his liking.

The inner court, then, stood some twenty feet above the
middle court. It was protected by a wall thirty feet
high with a perpendicular base twenty feet high and by
a moat. Within this court was a deep well, for in case
of a siege the defenders of this court might be cut off
from the well at G. In this inner court was the
strongest fortification of all, the castle proper, the
great tower known as the keep, K. Its walls were eleven
feet thick. The circular space within was twenty-six
feet in diameter. In the basement was one window, but
no door. The first floor had two windows, but they were
small, for safety was thought of before air and
sunshine. Here, however, was a door, small and well
protected. It was many feet from the ground and was
probably reached by a ladder or movable stairway. The
keep was of a singular shape. Evidently King Richard
thought that there was little danger of an attack being
made from the west, for on that side was a sheer
descent of cliff; but the spur of the keep that
projected into the first court he made in the shape of
a
[59] right angle and built it of solid masonry. The keep was
the final place of refuge, and even after every other
part of the fortifications had fallen into the hands of
an enemy, this could generally withstand any attack
that could be made by the engines of those times.
Nevertheless, in order to make this keep even stronger,
the lower part of the wall "battered," that is, it
sloped outward at the base, while above the base rose
what are known as machicolations. These were long,
heavy brackets supporting a sort of gallery with a
parapet. In the floor of the gallery between the
machicolations were openings through which arrows could
be shot downward or heavy stones could be dropped, or
boiling water or oil or melted lead could be poured
straight down upon the heads of the besiegers. It is
thought that from the top of this keep another and
smaller tower rose, and from that yet another, both
probably built of wood.

KEEPOFCHATEAUGAILLARD

Joining the keep on the north was a building, K, which
[60] is thought to have been the lodging of the castellan,
or governor of the castle. From this building stairs
descended to what was called the postern gate, L. This
was a little narrow door with heavy bars. It was from
this gate that spies or messengers were sent out in
time of siege. To reach it from within, steps were cut
in the rock for about thirty feet. To reach it from
without must have been almost impossible, for it opened
upon the perpendicular face of the scarp. To let out a
messenger or admit a friend, a ladder or a movable
bridge was let down. Every castle had its postern, so that
if the inmates were besieged, they might have some
possible way of communication, dangerous as it was,
with the outer world.

When one looks at the ruins of the castles of the
Middle Ages, one can hardly see how an enemy ever had
the courage to attempt to capture one of them. Indeed,
if a foe could spare the time and the men, it was usually
easier and cheaper to keep close watch of it until the
inmates were starved into a surrender. No matter how
full of food the storehouses might be, it would give
out some time; and if no assistance came from outside,
the castle would have to yield. If an attempt to subdue
a castle was made, however, there were three common
methods of attack. One was to force a way in through a
gate if
[62] possible; a second, to get to the top of the protecting
wall and overpower the defenders; and a third, to
undermine the walls. If the wall was neither too high
nor too well guarded, the enemy could sometimes set up
scaling ladders with their iron hooks and make a
furious attack upon the defenders at the top, which
they resisted as furiously with crowbars, and bills and
boar spears. The best way to get to the top of a high
and well-defended wall was to use the movable tower.
This was a wooden shed several stories high and set
upon rollers. When this was to be used, there was a
busy running to and fro to collect turf and trunks of
trees to throw into the moat. As soon as enough of
these materials had been collected to choke up the moat
and make a roadway across it, the great tower was
rolled cumbrously across the moat and up to the wall.
It was filled with men, and the moment that it was near
enough to the rampart, a drawbridge was dropped from
its upper story to the top of the wall. Over this
bridge rushed the besiegers, and a terrible contest was
carried on. Of course the defenders did not sit quietly
while the tower was being moved up. They threw upon it
what was called Greek fire in the hope of setting it
ablaze. Greek fire is thought to have been made of
asphalt, nitre, and sulphur. Wherever it was thrown,
there
[63] it stuck. It did little damage to these towers,
however, for their makers had covered them carefully
with plates of metal or with raw hides. Storms of
arrows were shot by both sides; but the men in the
tower were so well protected by its walls that little
harm was done them. When the tower was in place and the
bridge down, the besiegers had one great advantage, for
they could march out a whole column from the tower,
while the defenders had seldom room on the wall for
more than a thin line.

THEATTACKFROMATOWER

A third way of attacking a castle was by attempting to
undermine the walls. If these rested upon so rocky a
foundation as that of the "Saucy Castle," the matter
was far more difficult; but if the ground was soft, a
mine, or passage underground, could be begun at some
distance away and dug under the very base of the wall.
Beams were put in to support the wall, and straw,
twigs, and dry wood were heaped up under them. The
miners set this on fire and crept out of the hole as
fast as possible. As soon as the beams were burned
through, the wall above them generally fell, and
through the breach the besiegers rushed in with good
hope of winning a victory. Mining did not always go on
so smoothly, however, for it often happened that some
one within the castle had ears so quick that he heard
noises underground and
sus- [64] pected what was being done. Then a counter-mine was dug from
within outward in the hope of intercepting the other
mine. The two passages sometimes met, and the fighting
between the men underground was most furious and
savage.

If the castle had a firm rocky foundation, the only
possible way to undermine the wall was by the use of
the pickaxe. This was not easy when the defenders
behind the parapets were shooting arrows and great
stones and dropping boiling water or oil or melted lead
down through the openings between the machicolations;
and if it was to succeed, there must be some sort of
protection for the men with the pickaxes. This
protection was called the "cat," or in some places the
"rat." It was shaped like a long, narrow house with
side walls. The roof sloped sharply, so that the heavy
stones and beams that would be thrown upon it from the
top of the wall might roll off harmlessly. To protect
it from fire, it was often covered with iron, and over
this raw hides or wet earth was laid. Then, too, men
within the structure were always on guard with long
forks or poles whose ends were covered with pieces of
wet blanket to thrust off firebrands. This was built in
some place out of range of the arrows and stones and
then moved up close to the
[65] wall. Under its shelter men could work in safety. They
had a valuable tool in what was known as a "bosson."
This was a battering ram, a long, heavy beam with an
iron head. It was on wheels, and when the besiegers
rolled it up and dashed it against the wall, it struck
with terrific force. The defenders on the top of the
wall tried to break its head off by dropping heavy
stones and timbers upon it; but the besiegers leaned
strong poles against the wall in such a way that these
slid off harmlessly. The attempt to set it afire was
usually hopeless, for it was kept thoroughly wet and
was covered with mud. Sometimes, however, a narrow
tunnel was dug as quietly as possible from within the
fort out under the cat, and a barrel or two of Greek
fire slipped beneath it. Then the defenders on the wall
watched eagerly to see the flames burst out. They might
well count the moments, for at any instant the stone
work under their feet might crumble.

THEBOSSON

All this time both besiegers and defenders were
constantly firing arrows at each other by hand and
also by machines called "balistas" which were like
immense cross-bows and shot great arrows and javelins
with tremendous force. To protect themselves from these
the besiegers used bucklers and also a sort of screen
called a "mantelet"
[67] which they moved before them on wheels. In the screen
was a narrow slit through which they could send back a
return fire. In the fourteenth century cannon were used
to some extent, but they could fire only three or four
shots an hour and had an unpleasant custom of
exploding. Outside a fort, they were of some little
value; but when the besieged ventured to mount them on
the walls, the chief damage done was to their owners.
Their recoil loosened the stones of the wall and
frequently the cannon ingloriously rolled off. The most
important machines were those for throwing stones, and
these as well as the balistas were used by both
besiegers and besieged. They were exceedingly powerful.
Some of them could hurl for six hundred feet a stone
weighing three hundred pounds. If they could only have
worked rapidly, they would have done an immense amount
of damage; but it took several days to set one up, and
the best of them could throw only a few stones in an
hour. Moreover, it was impossible to take accurate
aim. One of these machines was called a trébuchet. It
consisted of two uprights connected at the top by a
bar. Resting on the bar was a ponderous beam. The
shorter arm of this beam was heavily weighted; by using
much force, the longer arm was slowly pulled down to
the ground, and in a sort of
[68] sling fastened to it a great stone was placed or
perhaps a barrel of Greek fire. Then it was suddenly
let go. The short arm dropped, and the stone was hurled
with tremendous power. There were other machines, the
mangonel, catapult, espringal, etc., but they were not
very dissimilar, and most of them resembled in
principle either the balista or the trébuchet.

Many romantic descriptions of taking castles have been
written, but the real thing had little of romance about
it. In a real siege the air was full of heavy stones,
javelins, arrows, and darts, some bearing masses of
blazing pitch and tow with occasionally perhaps an
arrow carrying a message from a traitor either within
or without the walls to the opposing party, of barrels
of the terrible Greek fire, of smoke from burning roofs
and galleries and of crumbling mortar from falling
ramparts. There was a wild and horrid confusion of
terrible sounds, the din of armor, the shouting of
battle cries, the groaning of dying men and the crash
of falling stones and timbers and crumbling walls. Men
shrieked in agony as they were burned by the boiling
oil or melted pitch or blinded by the unslacked lime
poured down upon them from the walls. The moat ran red
with blood. Such was a real assault upon a castle in
the Middle Ages.

[69] The story of the fall of the Château Gaillard is full
of interest. It was a pet child of King Richard, and in
1198 he called it "my fair daughter of one year old."
King Philip of France declared, "I would take it if its
walls were of iron." Richard retorted, "And I could
hold it if they were of butter." Perhaps he could have
done so, but one year later he was dead, and his
brother John, who followed him, was a man of quite
different mettle. Philip captured one after another of
the Norman castles held by the English king, and at
last he laid siege to Château Gaillard, the strongest
of them all. This was early in the autumn of 1203. He
captured the neighboring villages and then, having cut
off all supplies, settled down quietly before the
Castle to wait till its inmates should be hungry enough
to surrender. "They are young birds who will have to
fly when spring comes," he said contentedly.

A few months later, however, Philip became tired of
watching. He succeeded in undermining the wall of the
outer court and captured it. Among his followers was a
poor man by the name of Ralph who was nicknamed Bogis,
or the Snub-nose. Whatever may have been the shape of
his nose, he had keen eyes. He noticed a little window,
M, and began to wonder if he could not climb in
[70] and open the way for the others. He and a few trusty
comrades crept softly around the court until they stood
under the window. Ralph stood upon the shoulders of
one of his companions and looked in. No one was on
guard at that place, and there were no protecting bars.
He scrambled in, and found himself in either the chapel
or a storehouse connected with it. The defenders
discovered that their enemies were in the building and
foolishly set fire to it. The flames spread and the
garrison escaped to the inner court. Then Ralph let
down the drawbridge and the besiegers poured in. So
it was that by the keenness and daring of one man
this middle court was taken. Such a deed as that was
not left unrewarded, and to Ralph was given a "knight's
fee," that is, sufficient land to maintain properly a
knight and his followers.

The inner court alone remained in the hands of the
defenders. Philip's men moved up a cat over the
causeway at I, and in its shelter a mine was dug under
the walls. A machine for throwing stones followed the
cat. A breach was made in the heavy masonry and the
besiegers rushed in. The defenders were overpowered,
and after a siege of six months the "Saucy Castle"
fell.

THECAT

The Middle Ages were a time of almost constant
war- [72] fare. There were quarrels between kings, between
kings and their barons, and among the barons
themselves; and all these quarrels implied fighting.
The poor suffered severely, and the Church came to
their rescue. The French bishops tried their best to
bring about what was called the Peace of God. High and
low were bidden to take an oath to refrain from making
war. This served as some little protection for
churches, priests, and laborers; but, powerful as the
Church was, it could not oblige the unruly barons to
take the oath or keep it if it had been taken. Then the
Church very wisely lessened her demands and called upon
one and all to set apart certain portions of the year
to be free from bloodshed. These were from Wednesday
evening to Monday morning in every week, about twenty
feast days of saints, and the seasons of Advent,
Christmas, Lent, and Easter. The bishops and the rulers
of France and to some degree of Germany, Italy, Spain,
and England supported this decree, and as far as
possible those who broke the rule were punished. The
archbishop of Cologne made a rule that if this law was
violated by any noble, his heirs might seize his
property. A boy under twelve who fought was to be
whipped; if over twelve, he was to lose one hand. This
rule of peace was called the Truce of God, and
[73] often as it was broken, it nevertheless did much to
quiet the turbulent lands and protect the poor and
helpless.

SANCTUARYDOOR

Another way in which the Church tried to aid the
oppressed was by establishing "sanctuaries," or holy
places wherein it was forbidden to shed blood. In those
stormy times, if a man was supposed to have wronged
another, that other pursued him, sword in hand. But if
he took refuge in a church, he was safe; for the clergy
would keep him until some terms had been made between
the two. This was called the right of sanctuary. It
was an excellent thing so long as there was little real
authority in the land; but after it had become
established that an accused man would be brought to
[74] trial, then the right often became an occasion of
wrong. If a man who had fled to a sanctuary would
confess, he was allowed to "abjure the realm," that is,
to swear to depart from the land and never return, a
punishment which was a little hard on the neighboring
countries. If he refused to confess, the law was
helpless; for the clergy would brook no interference
with their right of giving shelter and protection. The
result was that a man who carefully planned a murder
and was shrewd enough to commit it within easy reach of
a church could escape; while one who committed a crime
on the spur of the moment had far less chance to avoid
the penalty. Nevertheless, the right of sanctuary was
not entirely abolished in England until the eighteenth
century.

KNOCKER

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