hyperpluralism

individualism

the belief that individual should be left on their own by the government. One of the primary reasons for the comparatively small scope of American government is the prominence of this belief In American political thought and practice.

linkage institutions

The political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. In the United States, linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

policy gridlock

policy making institutions

the branches of government charged with taking action on political issues. The U.S. constitution is established congress, presidency and the courts as policy making institutions. bureaucracy is so great that political scientist consider it a fourth policy making institution.

policy making system

The process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time. People's interests, problems,and concerns create political issues for government policymakers.These issues shape policy, which in turn impacts people, generation more interest,problems, and concerns.

Anti-Federalists

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and enacted in 1781. The Articles established a national legislature, the Continental Congress, but most authority rested with the state legislatres.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted inresponse to some of the Anti-Federalist concerns. These amendments define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and press and gaurantee defendants' rights.

checks and balances

Features of the Constitution that limit government's power by requiring that power be balanced among the different governmental institutions. These institutions continually constrain one another's activities.

Connecticut Compromise

The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress the House of Representatives, in which representation is based on a state's share of the U.S. population, and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives.

Declaration of Independence

Equal Rights Amendment

A constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex". The amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-forths or the state legislatures.

factions

Intrest groups arising from the unequal distribution of property or wealth that James Madison attacked in Federalist Paper No. 10. Today's parties or interest groups are what Madison had in mind when he warned of the instability in government caused by factions.

Federalists

judicial review

The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress, and by implication the executive, are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by John Marshall and his asociates in Marbury v. Madison.

limited government

Marbury v. Madison

The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court's power of judicial review over acts of Congress, in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789.

natural rights

Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. The concept of natural rights was central to English philosopher John Locke's theories about government, and was widely accepted among America's Founding Fathers.

republic

separation of powers

A feature of the Constitution that requires each of the three branches of government -executive, legislative, and judicial- to be relatively independent of the others so that one cannot control the others. Power is shared among these three institutions.

cooperative federalism

A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government. They may also share costs, administration, and even blame for programs that work poorly.

elastic clause

enumerated powers

Powers of the federal government that are specifically addressed in the Constitution; for Congress, these powers are listed in Article I, Section 8, and include the power to coin money, regulate its value, and impose taxes.

full faith and credit

Gibbons v. Ogden

A landmark case decided in 1824 in which the Supreme Court interpreted very broadly the clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution giving Congress the power to regular interstate commerce, encompassing virtually every from of commercial activity.

implied powers

Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution. The Constitution states that Congress has the power to "make all laws neccessary and proper for carrying into execution" the powers enumerated in Article I.

intergovernmental relations

McCulloch v. Maryland

An 1819 Supreme Court decision that established ther supremacy of the national government over state governments. In deciding this case, Chief Justice John Marshall and his colleagues held that Congress had certain implied powers in addition to the enumerated powers found in the Constitution.

supremacy clause

Tenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment stating that "The powers not delegated to the United State by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people."

commercial speech

cruel and unusual punishment

court sentences prohibited by the 8th amendment. Although the supreme court has ruled that mandatory death sentences for certain offenses are unconstitutional, it has held that the death penalty itself constitutes cruel unusual punishment.

First Amendment

Fourteenth Amendment

adopted after the civil war that declares "No State Shall make or enhance any lae which abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the U.S.; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection or the laws"

libel

plea bargaining

a bargain struck between the defendant's lawyer and the prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime(or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state's promise not to prosecute the defendant for a more serious(or additional) crime.

prior restraint

A government preventing material from being published. This is a common method of limiting the press in some nations, but it is usually unconstitutional in the U.S., according to the 1st amendment and as confirmed in the 1931 Supreme court case of Near vs. Minnesota.

symbolic speech

unreasonable searches and seizures

obtaining evidence in a haphazard or random manner, a practice prohibited by the 4th amendment. Probable cause and/or a search warrant are required for a legal and proper search for and seizure of incriminating evidence.

Gideon vs. Wainright (1963)

Gitlow vs. New York (1925)

freedoms of press and speech are "fundamental personal rights and liberties protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment from impairment by the states" as well as the national government

Gregg vs. Georgia (1976)

Lemon vs. Kurtzman (1971)

Supreme Court decision that upheld aid to church related schools must 1) have a secular legislative purpose; 2) have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion; 3) not foster excessive government entanglement with religion

Miami Herald Publishing COmpany v. Tornillo (1974)

Miller vs. California (1973)

Supreme Court decision that avoided defining obscenity by holding that community standards be used to determine whether material is obscene: 1) work appealed to "a prurient interest in sex"; 2) work showed "patently offensive" sexual conduct specifically defined by an obscenity law; 3) the work lacked "serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value"

Near vs. Minnesota (1931)

New York Times vs. Sullivan (1964)

established guidelines for determining whether public officials and public figures could win damage suits for libel (to do so, individuals must prove that the defamatory statements were made with "actual malice" and reckless disregard for the truth

Planned Parenthood vs. Casey (1992)

Supreme Court loosened its standard for evaluating restrictions on abortion from one of "strict scrutiny" of any restraints on a "fundamental right" to one of "undue burden" that permits considerably more regulation

Roe vs. Wade (1973)

a state ban on all abortions was declared unconstitutional (forbade state control over abortions during first trimester; permitted states to limit abortions to protect mother's health during second trimester; permitted states to protect fetus during third trimester)

Roth vs. United States (1957)

Schenck vs. United States (1919)

decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during WWI; the national government can limit free speech if the speech provokes a "clear and present danger" of substantive evils

Zurcher vs. Standford Daily (1978)

Adarand Constructors v. Pena

the 1995 decision holding that federal programs that classify people by race, even for an ostensibly benign purpose such as expanding opportunities for minorities, should be presumed to be unconstitutional

Brown v. Board of Education

the 1954 decision holding that school segregation was inherently unconstitutional because it violated the 14th Amendment's guarantee of equal protection. Marked the end of legal segregation in the United States

Korematsu v. United States

Plessy v. Ferguson

the 1896 decision that provided a constitutional justification for segregation by ruling that a Louisiana law requiring "equal but separate accommodations for the White and colored races" was constitutional

affirmative action

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

A law passed in 1990 that requires employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment.

equal protection of the laws

Equal Rights Amendment

A constitutional amendment originally introduced in Congress in 1923 and passed by Congress in 1972, stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." Despite public support, the amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures.

Fifteenth Amendment

Fourteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted after the Civil War that states, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

Nineteenth Amendment

poll taxes

Small taxes levied on the right to vote that often fell due at a time of year when poor African-American sharecroppers had the least cash on hand. This method was used by most Southern states to exclude African Americans from voting. Poll taxes were declared void by the Twenty-fourth Amendment in 1964.

Twenty-fourth Amendment

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African American suffrage. Under the law, hundreds of thousands of African Americans were registered and the number of African American elected officials increased dramatically.

White primary

One of the means used to discourage African-American voting that permitted political parties in the heavily Democratic South to exclude African Americans from primary elections, thus depriving them of a voice in the real contests. The Supreme Court declared White primaries unconstitutional in 1944.

mass media

media events

Events purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous. In keeping with politics as theater, these can be staged by individuals, groups, and government officials, especially presidents.

policy agenda

policy entrepreneurs

People who invest their political "capital" in an issue. According to John Kingdon, this "could be in or out of government, in elected or appointed positions, in interest groups or research organizations.

coalition government

critical election

An electoral "earthquake" where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. They are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.

linkage institutions

The channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the government's policy agenda. In the United States, these include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

national convention

New Deal coalition

A coalition forged by the Democrats, who dominated American politics from the 1930s to the 1960s. Its basic elements were the urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, African Americans and intellectuals.

proportional representation

rational-choice theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

responsible party model

A view favored by some political scientists, about how parties should work. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters, who can then use those choices as cues to their own preferences of candidates. Once in office, parties would carry out their campaign promises.

ticket-splitting

winner-take-all system

An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come in first in their constituencies. In American presidential elections, the system in which the winner of the popular vote in a state receives all the electoral votes of the states.

Interest group

Iron triangles

Subgovernments are composed of interest group leaders interested in a particular policy, and the members of congressional committees and subcommittees handing that policy; they exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas.

Lobbying

According to Lester Milbrath, a " Communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his or her own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his or her decision."

Pluralism

Political action committees (PACs)

Political funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms. An interest group can create a PAC and register it with the Federal Election Commission, which will monitor the PACs expenditures.

Single-issue groups

Union shop

A provision found in some collective bargaining agreements requiring all employees of a business to join the union within a short period, usually 30 days and to remain members as a condition of employment.

crisis

impeachment

The political eqquivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. The House of Representatives may impeach the president by a majority vote for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

legislative veto

The ability of Congress to override a presidential decision. Although the War Powers Resolution asserts this authority, there is reason to believe that, if challenged, the Supreme Court would find the legislative veto in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers.

National Security Council

An office created in 1947 to coordinate the president's foreign and military policy advisors. Its formal members are the president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense, and it is managed by the predident's national security advisor.

Office of Management and Budget.

An office that grew out of the Burean of the Budget, created in 1921, consisting of a hanful of political appointees and hundreds of skilled professionals. The OMB performs both managerial and budgetary functions.

presidential coattails

Twenty-fifth Amendment

Passed in 1951, this amendment permits the vice president to become acting president's cabinet determine that the president is disabled. The amendment also outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job.

Veto

War Powers Resolution

A law, passed in 1973 in reaction to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia, requiring presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension. Presidents view the resolution as unconstitutional.

Watergate

The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment.

incentive system

independent executive agency

The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations. Its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. NASA is an example.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

policy implementation

The stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the consequences of the policy for the people whom it affects. It involves translating the goals and objectives of a policy into an operating, ongoing program.

regulation

Senior Executive Service (SES)

An elite cadre of about 9,000 federal government managers, established by the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, who are mostly career officials but include some political appointees who do not require Senate confirmation.

Stare Decisis

Statutory Construction

Supreme Court

The pinnacle of the American judicial system. The court ensures uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolves conflicts among states, and maintains national supremacy in law. It has both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction, but unlike other federal courts, it controls its own agenda.

Clean air act of 1970

Cold war

The hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union, which often brought them to the brink of war and which spanned the period from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union and eastern european communist regimes in 1989 and the years following.

Consumer price index

Containment doctrine

A foreign policy strategy advocated by George Kennan that called for the United States to isolate the Soviet Union, "contain" its advances, and resist its encroachments by peaceful means if possible but by force if necessary.

Detente

Earned income tax credit

The earned income tax credit, or the EITC, is a refundable federal income tax credit for low to moderate income working individuals and families, even if they did not earn enough money to be required file a tax return.

Feminization of poverty

Fiscal policy

Use of the federal budget- taxes, spending and borrowing- to influence the economy; along with monetary policy; a main tool by which the government can attempt to steer the economy. Fiscal policy is almost entirely determined by Congress and the president.

Foreign policy

Global warming

The increase in the Earth's temperatures that, according to most scientists, is occurring as a result of the carbon dioxide that is produced when fossil fuels are burned collecting in the atmosphere and trapping energy from the sun.

Health maintenance organization

Organization contracted by individuals or insurance companies to provide health care for a yearly fee. Such network health plans limit the choice of doctors and treatments. More than half of Americans are enrolled in health maintenance organizations or similar programs.

Joint chiefs of staff

Keynesian economic theory

Named after English economist John Maynard Keynes, the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy deal with its ups and downs proponents of this theory advocates using the power of government to stimulate the economy when it is lagging.

Medicaid

Medicare

A program added to the social security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other medical expenses.

National health insurance

National labor relations act

A 1935 law, also known as the Wagner Act that guarantees workers the right of collective bargaining, sets down rules to protect unions and organizers, and created the national labor relations board to regulate labor-management relations.

Poverty line

Progressive tax

A tax by which the government takes a greater shame of the income of the rich than of the poor- for example, when a rich family pays 50 percent of its income in taxes, and a poor family pays 5 percent.

Tariff

Temporary assistance for needy families

Replacing aid to families with dependent children as the program for public assistance to needy families, TANF requires people on welfare to find work within two years and sets a lifetime maximum of five years.

Unemployment rate

United nations

Created in 1945 and currently including 192 member nations, with a certain peacekeeping mission and programs in areas including economic development and health, education and welfare. THe seat of real power in the UN is the security council.