The 1857 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season documented by HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – to feature no major hurricane.[nb 1] A total of four tropical cyclones were observed during the season, three of which strengthened into hurricanes. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea are known, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated.[2] Additionally, documentation by Jose Fernandez-Partagas and Henry Diaz included a fifth tropical cyclone near Port Isabel, Texas;[3] this storm has since been removed from HURDAT as it was likely the same system as the fourth tropical cyclone.[4]

The first storm was tracked beginning on June 30 offshore North Carolina. It moved eastward and was last noted on the following day. However, no tropical cyclones were reported in the remainder of July or August. Activity resume when another tropical storm was located southeast of the Bahamas on September 6. It intensified into a hurricane before making landfall in North Carolina and was last noted over the north Atlantic Ocean on September 17. The SS Central America sank offshore, drowning 424 passengers and crew members. Another hurricane may have existed east of South Carolina between September 22 and October 26, though little information is available. The final documented tropical cyclone was initially observed east of Lesser Antilles on September 24. It traversed the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, striking the Yucatán Peninsula and later Port Isabel, Texas. The storm dissipated on September 30. In Texas, damage was reported in several towns near the mouth of the Rio Grande River.

The season's activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 43.[1] ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots (39 mph, 63 km/h) or tropical storm strength.[5]

The ship Star of the South experienced heavy gales offshore the East Coast of the United States on June 30.[3] HURDAT lists the first tropical cyclone of the season beginning at 0000 UTC, while located about 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.[6] The storm moved slightly north of due east with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h).[6] It was last noted about 265 miles (425 km) north-northwest of Bermuda by the bark Virginia late on July 1.[3][6]

A tropical storm was first observed east of the Bahamas on September 6. It moved slowly northwestward towards the coast of the United States and attained hurricane strength early on September 9. The cyclone continued travelling northwest along the US coast, becoming a Category 2 hurricane whilst off the coast of Georgia on September 11. On September 13 the cyclone made landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina, but then quickly weakened to a tropical storm and turned eastward into the Atlantic on September 14. Throughout September 15, whilst over water, the storm regained hurricane strength and continued northward before becoming extratropical in the mid-Atlantic on September 17.[6]

The hurricane caused much coastal damage particularly in the Cape Hatteras area during September 9 and September 10 and then to other parts of the North Carolina coast. Flooding was reported at New Bern.[7] Considerable wind damage also occurred. An article from the Wilmington Journal reported that, "It looked as though everything that could be blown down, was down. Fences were prostrated in all directions, and the streets filled with the limbs and bodies of trees up-rooted or twisted off.".[8] Several ships were caught in rough seas of the East Coast of the United States. The Norfolk was abandoned in pieces ten miles south of Chincoteague early on the morning of September 14.[3] Further south, on September 11, the hurricane struck the steamer Central America which sprung a leak and eventually sank on the night of September 12 with the loss of 424 passengers and crew.[9] Also on board the ship were 30,000 pounds of gold, the loss of which contributed to the financial Panic of 1857.[10][11]

Based on reports bark Aeronaut and the schooner Alabama indicating a severe gale, Partagas and Diaz identified a Category 1 hurricane about 405 miles (650 km) east of Charleston, South Carolina between September 22 and September 26.[3][6] Sustained wind speeds of 80 mph (130 km/h) were observed.[6] No evidence was found for a storm track so the hurricane was assigned a stationary position, at latitude 32.5°N, 3.5°W. Among the ships which encountered the hurricane was the brig Jerome Knight, which sprung a leak and sunk on the night of September 22.[3]

The final tropical cyclone was first observed at 0000 UTC on September 24, while located about 420 miles (680 km) east of Guadeloupe. Initially a tropical storm, it strengthened slightly before crossing the Leeward Islands on September 25.[6] In Guadeloupe, several ships at the port in Basseterre were swept out to sea.[3] Continuing eastward, the storm soon entered the Caribbean Sea. Early on September 26, the system strengthened into a hurricane.[6] By September 28, it was west of the Cayman Islands and had reached Category 2 strength. The storm weakened to a tropical storm after passing Cancún early on September 29 and impacted the Gulf coastline, near the United States–Mexico border, at that strength the next day before dissipating.[6] At Port Isabel, Texas, several hundred homes were swept away, and several towns near the mouth of the Rio Grande also sustained damage.[12]

1.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico

2.
1855 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1855 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical cyclone landfalls in the Gulf Coast of the United States, the Greater Antilles, and Mexico, but none along the East Coast of the United States. It was inactive, with five known tropical cyclones. The first system, Hurricane One, was observed on August 6. The final storm, Hurricane Five, was last observed on September 17 and these dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. At one point during the season, two tropical cyclones existed simultaneously, two of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data, so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable. Of the seasons five tropical cyclones, four reached hurricane status, furthermore, one of those four strengthened into a major hurricane, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, Hurricane Five, peaked at Category 3 strength with 125 mph winds and it brought only minor impact to Louisiana and Mississippi. The first storm of the season brought locally severe impact to Tampico, Tamaulipas, tropical Storm Four caused severe damage in the Lesser Antilles. Based on newspaper reports, the first hurricane of the season was within the vicinity of Tampico, maximum sustained winds were at 105 mph, indicating a Category 2 hurricane. No further information is available on the history of this storm. However, it is possible that the storm developed in the Caribbean Sea in late July, torrential rainfall in the Tampico area caused disastrous flooding, with heavy damage to goods and property. Eleven vessels were docked at Tampico, some of which lost their cargo, at the mouth of the Pánuco River, a pilot station and a fort were swept away. The event was considered the worst inundation of Tampico over the last 30 years, the ship James Foster Jr. encountered a hurricane on August 10, while located about 575 miles east-southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. Sustained winds of 105 mph were observed, equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane, data from the James Foster Jr. and Rebecca indicate that the storm moved rapidly northeastward. This system was last noted about 560 miles west of Ireland on August 11, the HMS Walverine reported a hurricane at 12. 5°N,83. 0°W, which is located about 15 miles north of Corn Islands, Nicaragua. A sustained wind speed of 80 mph was observed, shortly thereafter, the HMS Walverine was wrecked and no further information is known about this storm. Based on reports of a gale, a tropical storm was first tracked about 250 miles east-southeast of Barbados early on August 24. It initially headed westward, before re-curving west-northwestward early on the following day, shortly thereafter, the storm passed through the Windward Islands between Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

3.
1856 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1856 Atlantic hurricane season featured six tropical cyclones, five of which made landfall. The first system, Hurricane One, was first observed in the Gulf of Mexico on August 9, the final storm, Hurricane Six, was last observed on September 22. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Only two tropical cyclones during the season existed simultaneously, One of the cyclones has only a single known point in its track due to a sparsity of data. Operationally, another cyclone was believed to have existed in the Wilmington, North Carolina area in September. Another tropical cyclone that existed over the Northeastern United States in mid-August was later added to HURDAT, Four tropical cyclones reached hurricane status, including two which became major hurricanes, Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. An undercount bias of zero to four cyclones per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated, the strongest cyclone of the season, the first hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 150 mph winds. Known as the 1856 Last Island hurricane, it brought devastation to southern Louisiana, more than 200 people were killed after a storm surge submerged Last Island, making it one of the deadliest hurricanes in Louisiana history. Hurricane Two brought heavy rains and squalls to Barbados and Grenada, tropical Storms Three and Four had a minor impact on the Northeastern United States and Cuba, respectively. Additionally, Hurricane Five caused four deaths in Inagua, Bahamas and had a impact on Cuba. The seasons activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy rating of 49, on August 9, a minimal hurricane was observed near the Dry Tortugas. The storm moved northwestward and strengthened, becoming a Category 2 hurricane about 12 hours later, the hurricane reached Category 3 strengthened late on August 9. It continued to deepen and became a Category 4 hurricane on the following day, at 1800 UTC on August 10, the hurricane attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 934 mbar. Simultaneously, the storm made landfall in Last Island, Louisiana and it rapidly weakened inland and fell to tropical storm intensity on August 11. The system then drifted northeastward, until dissipating over Mississippi early on August 12, offshore, at least 183 people drowned after steamers and schooners sunk in rough seas produced by the hurricane. A storm surge between 11 and 12 feet lashed Last Island, Louisiana, the island was completely submerged, with virtually every structure destroyed, including the hotels and casinos, while all crops were ruined. Additionally, Last Island itself split in two, inland, heavy rainfall caused the Mermentau River, destroying crops and every house in Abbeville. The storm produced up to 13.14 inches of precipitation to New Orleans, in Plaquemines Parish, rice fields were under several feet of water, while many orange trees lost their fruit

4.
1858 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1858 Atlantic hurricane season was one of only three Atlantic hurricane seasons on record in which every tropical cyclone intensified into a hurricane. The first hurricane was first observed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on June 12, the sixth and final storm was last noted on October 26. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Three tropical cyclones during the season existed simultaneously, two of the cyclones have only a single known point in its track due to a sparsity of data. An undercount bias of zero to four cyclones per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated. Of the six known 1858 Atlantic cyclones, five were first documented in 1995 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas, the first system was spotted over the western Caribbean Sea on June 12. Another tropical cyclone was first observed over the northern Atlantic Ocean on August 5, on September 14, the next system was observed over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Several hours later, the storm struck Florida, causing damage to crops. Strong winds and rough seas were reported by ships and on land, the storm dissipated on September 17. That same day, another tropical cyclone developed over the central Atlantic, the storm capsized the bark Phantom, though no one drowned. The next hurricane developed over the Bahamas on September 22, but caused little damage, on October 21, the sixth and final system of the season was first observed over the Bahamas. The storm brought flooding to Nassau and Bermuda later in its duration. On June 12, the brig L. H. Sampson encountered a hurricane in the northwestern Caribbean Sea, the storm was a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, based on winds of 80 mph observed by the L. H. Sampson. A Category 1 hurricane was first observed about 585 mi west-northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores on August 5, another ship that encountered the storm, the Magistrate, was abandoned. The bark Cavallo encountered experienced severe weather in the eastern Gulf of Mexico between September 13 and September 15 and it is believed that a tropical storm developed on September 14. Moving northeastward, the storm made landfall near modern-day Palmetto, Florida at 15,00 UTC, while crossing the state, the storm brought severe damage. Ships remained in port at river ports in the state and at St. Marys, after emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Oak Hill, Florida early on September 15, the system reached hurricane status several hours later. Shortly thereafter, the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane, on September 16, the hurricane passed offshore North Carolina and then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane while east of the Mid-Atlantic states

5.
1859 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1859 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven hurricanes, the most recorded during an Atlantic hurricane season until 1870. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated, HURDAT is the official source for hurricane data such as track and intensity, although due to sparse records, listings on some storms are incomplete. The first tropical cyclone was a hurricane observed in the Tuxpan area of Veracruz, Mexico, hurricane conditions were observed along the coast and several vessels were lost. On September 2, another hurricane struck Saint Kitts and Saint Croix, in early October, the sixth cyclone brought damage to Inagua in the Bahamas. At least 25 boats sunk, with several people drowning after one vessel capsized, two ships capsized in the Bahamas due to the seventh storm. A ship in the Gulf of Mexico capsized during the eighth and final cyclone, the storm became extratropical offshore the Southeastern United States on October 29. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 56 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Little is known about the first observed tropical cyclone of the 1859 season, during late June or early July, cities along the coastal Mexican state of Veracruz experienced a formidable hurricane, and several ships in the Gulf of Mexico were lost. It is estimated sustained winds reached 105 mph, which is equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The second known storm of the season was discovered in contemporary reanalysis and it existed in the northwestern Atlantic in the middle of August with the only evidence of the storm being reports from two vessels in the vicinity of bad weather. One vessel, the Tornado, encountered severe winds, starting on August 17, the Caure also experienced strong winds on August 18 and August 19 with a barometric pressure as low as 982 mbar. A standard wind–pressure relationship model for that value yields winds of 80 mph, the wind patterns reported by each ship indicate that neither vessel reached the storms core, where winds are typically at their strongest. As a result, the system is estimated to have attained at least Category 2 intensity and its approximate track follows an east-northeasterly trajectory. The first of three hurricanes in September was also the first of the season to be identified prior to 1995. It was described by W. H. Alexander in a 1902 publication as a system which passed over St. Kitts. A short track formulated for the storm in 1995 indicated a path across the northern Lesser Antilles on September 2, the highest sustained winds are estimated to have been 80 mph. Based on reports of winds from a ship near 40°N, 50°W. As with the hurricane, no track existed for this storm until the 1995 HURDAT

6.
Tropical cyclone
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Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface and this energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as noreasters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of momentum imparted by the Earths rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km in diameter, Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect, in addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes. Tropical cyclones are areas of low pressure in the troposphere. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level, the environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as warm core systems. The near-surface wind field of a cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm, however, due to the Earths rotation, as air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere and this radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm, consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds. Once aloft, air flows away from the center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds

7.
Port Isabel, Texas
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Port Isabel is a city in Cameron County, Texas, United States. It is part of the Brownsville–Harlingen–Raymondville and the Matamoros–Brownsville metropolitan areas, the population was 5,006 at the 2010 census. The citys name is given to the Port Isabel Detention Center,12 miles to the northwest next to the Port Isabel–Cameron County Airport, established as a town after the Mexican War of Independence, Port Isabel became an important cotton-exporting port before the American Civil War. The harbor, town and lighthouse all were fought over and exchanged hands during the Civil War, in September 1967, Hurricane Beulah caused extensive damage to much of the city. On July 23,2008, Hurricane Dolly, a category 2 storm, Port Isabel is located in eastern Cameron County at 26°425 North, 97°1248 West, on the western side of the south end of Laguna Madre, an estuary of the Gulf of Mexico. The Queen Isabella Causeway crosses Laguna Madre to South Padre Island on the Gulf shore, to the southwest it is 23 miles to Brownsville, the Cameron County seat. According to the United States Census Bureau, Port Isabel has an area of 13.7 square miles, of which 6.7 square miles is land and 6.9 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 4,965 people,1,649 households, the population density was 2,215.5 people per square mile. There were 2,055 housing units at a density of 935.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 79. 67% White,1. 03% African American,0. 33% Native American,0. 25% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,15. 54% from other races, and 3. 08% from two or more races. 74. 39% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.95 and the family size was 3.46. In the city, the population was out with 30. 4% under the age of 18,9. 9% from 18 to 24,25. 6% from 25 to 44,21. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males, the median income for a household in the city was $25,323, and the median income for a family was $26,077. Males had an income of $17,105 versus $16,316 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,239,27. 3% of the population and 21. 7% of families were below the poverty line. 34. 7% of those under the age of 18 and 14. 3% of those 65, Port Isabel maintains the Port Isabel-Cameron County Airport

8.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain

9.
The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America

10.
SS Central America
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SS Central America, known as the Ship of Gold, was a 280-foot sidewheel steamer that operated between Central America and the eastern coast of the United States during the 1850s. She was originally named the SS George Law, after Mr. George Law of New York, the ship sank in a hurricane in September 1857, along with more than 420 passengers and crew and 30,000 pounds of gold, contributing to the Panic of 1857. On 3 September 1857,477 passengers and 101 crew left the Panamanian port of Colón, the ship was heavily laden with 10 short tons of gold prospected during the California Gold Rush. After a stop in Havana, the ship continued north, on 9 September 1857, the ship was caught up in a Category 2 hurricane while off the coast of the Carolinas. By 11 September, the 105 mph winds and heavy seas had shredded her sails, she was taking on water, and her boiler was threatening to go out. A leak in one of the seals between the paddle wheel shafts and the ships sides sealed its fate, and, at noon that day, her boiler could no longer maintain fire. Steam pressure dropped, shutting down both the pumps that had been keeping the water at bay and the wheels that kept her pointed into the wind as the ship settled by the stern. The passengers and crew flew the flag upside down to try to signal a passing ship. A bucket brigade was formed and her passengers and crew spent the night fighting a battle against the rising water. During the calm of the hurricane, attempts were made to get the boiler running again, the second half of the storm then struck. The ship was now on the verge of foundering, without power, the ship was carried along with the storm, so the strong winds would not abate. The next morning, two ships were spotted, including the brig Marine, one hundred fifty-three passengers, primarily women and children, managed to make their way over in lifeboats. However, the ship remained in an area of winds and heavy seas that pulled the ship and most of her company away from rescue. As a consequence of the sinking,425 people were killed, a Norwegian bark, Ellen, rescued an additional fifty from the waters. Another three were picked up over a week later in a lifeboat, in the immediate aftermath of the sinking, greatest attention was paid to the loss of life, which was described as appalling and as having no parallel among American navigation disasters. At the time of her sinking, Central America carried gold then valued at approximately US$2,000,000, the loss shook public confidence in the economy, and contributed to the Panic of 1857. The valuation of the ship itself was less than those lost in other disasters of the period. Commander William Lewis Herndon, an officer who had served during the Mexican–American War

11.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation

12.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary

13.
Caribbean Sea
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The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the islands of the West Indies. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km2, the seas deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays, the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria, the Caribbean Sea has the worlds second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, the name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the regions dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed, from the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the South Sea as opposed to the North Sea. The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, at that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans. Following the discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was colonised by several Western cultures. As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows, On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point and Pearl Point in Haïti, in the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engano and the extreme of Agujereada in Puerto Rico. From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point and thence to Baja Point in Venezuela, note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate, the Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad, the larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc. The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period, in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Seas formation began in the Triassic, powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool, the emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean

14.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional

15.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar

16.
Accumulated cyclone energy
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It uses an approximation of the wind energy used by a tropical system over its lifetime and is calculated every six-hour period. The ACE of a season is the sum of the ACEs for each storm and takes account the number, strength. In recorded history, the highest ACE worldwide for a storm is 82. The ACE of a season is calculated by summing the squares of the maximum sustained velocity of every active tropical storm. Since the calculation is sensitive to the point of the six-hour intervals, the convention is to use 0000,0600,1200. If any storms of a season happen to cross years, the storms ACE counts for the previous year, the numbers are usually divided by 10,000 to make them more manageable. The unit of ACE is 104 kn2, and for use as an index the unit is assumed, thus, ACE =10 −4 ∑ v max 2 where vmax is estimated sustained wind speed in knots. Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity, and by adding together the energy per some interval of time, the accumulated energy is found. As the duration of a storm increases, more values are summed, although ACE is a value proportional to the energy of the system, it is not a direct calculation of energy. A related quantity is hurricane destruction potential, which is ACE, ACE focuses upon the most intense winds concentrated in a storms center. Whereas, the destructive power of a storm depends upon the total area impacted with damaging winds, waves. The metric Integrated Kinetic Energy, developed in 2007, more accurately reflects the destructive potential and it examines the kinetic energy that forces a storm surge and creates high waves as well as the horizontal wind loads over the full storm. This metric yields a specific value for a storm and doesnt account for the destruction caused by a storm over its entire life. Therefore, in 2013 the researchers at the University of Florida created a metric called Track Integrated Kinetic Energy, TIKE expands the concept by accumulating IKE over the lifespan of an individual tropical cyclone and a total value for all named tropical cyclones in the season. A seasons ACE is used by NOAA and others to categorize the hurricane season into 3 groups by its activity, measured over the period 1951–2000 for the Atlantic basin, the median annual index was 87.5 and the mean annual index was 93.2. The term hyperactive is used by Goldenberg et al. based on a different weighting algorithm which places more weight on major hurricanes, the highest ever ACE estimated for a single storm in the Atlantic is 73.6, for Hurricane San Ciriaco in 1899. This single storm had an ACE higher than many whole Atlantic storm seasons, the following table shows those storms in the Atlantic basin from 1950-2016 that have had the highest ACE. The highest ACE of a Category 1 hurricane was Hurricane Nadine of 2012, the highest ACE of a tropical storm was Tropical Storm Alice of 1953, which attained an ACE of 9.6

17.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp

18.
Cape Hatteras
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Cape Hatteras /ˈhætərəs/ is a cape on the coast of North Carolina, and is protected as the namesake feature of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore. It is the point that protrudes the farthest to the southeast along the northeast-to-southwest line of the Atlantic coast of North America and it is also the nearest landmass to Bermuda, which is about 563 nautical miles to the east-southeast. The community of Buxton lies on the side of the Cape itself. It is the largest community on the island, and is home to the governmental offices, Cape Hatteras is a bend in Hatteras Island, one of the long thin barrier islands that make up the Outer Banks. It is the site where the two basins of the East Coast meet. The capes shoals are known as Diamond Shoals, somewhat analogous to Point Conception in Southern California, this on-the-edge placement at the confluence of the Labrador and Florida currents leads to unusually diverse biological assemblages. Many species ranges have either a southern or northern terminus at the cape, Cape Hatteras has a humid subtropical climate and is part of USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9. It is surrounded by bodies of water, with Pamlico Sound to the west and northwest. The proximity to water conditions throughout the year, producing cooler summers. The warmest days in July and early August have a high temperature of less than 85 °F. The coolest month, January, has a mean of 45.5 °F. Extremes in temperature range from 6 °F on January 21,1985 up to 97 °F on June 27,1952, snowfall is observed occasionally, and usually light. Precipitation, mostly in the form of rain, is over 58 inches per year, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in which July to September are the wettest months. On average, August is the wettest month, owing to high frequencies of both summer thunderstorms and tropical systems that affect the area, mostly from August to early October, Cape Hatteras is virtually the highest-risk area for hurricanes and tropical storms along the entire U. S. Cape Hatteras can experience significant wind and/or water damage from tropical systems moving near or over North Carolinas Outer Banks, while other areas much less. The Cape Hatteras area is infamous for being struck by hurricanes that move up the East Coast of the United States. The strike of Hurricane Isabel in 2003 was particularly devastating for the area, Isabel devastated the entire Outer Banks and also split Hatteras Island between the two small towns of Frisco and Hatteras. NC12, which provides a route from Nags Head to Hatteras Island, was washed out when the hurricane created a new inlet

19.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres

20.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI

21.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law

22.
Wilmington, North Carolina
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Wilmington is a port city and the county seat of New Hanover County in coastal southeastern North Carolina, United States. The population is 112,067, according to the 2010 Census it is the eighth most populous city in the state, Wilmington was settled by European Americans along the Cape Fear River. Its historic downtown has a one-mile-long Riverwalk, originally developed as a tourist attraction and it is minutes away from nearby beaches. The National Trust for Historic Preservation named Wilmington, North Carolina, in 2003 the city was designated by the US Congress as a Coast Guard City. It is the port for the USCGC Diligence, a United States Coast Guard medium endurance cutter. The World War II battleship USS North Carolina is held as a war memorial, located across from the port area. Other attractions include the Cape Fear Museum, the Wilmington Hammerheads United Soccer Leagues soccer team, Wilmington is the home of EUE Screen Gems Studios, the largest domestic television and movie production facility outside of California. Dream Stage 10, the facilitys newest sound stage, is the third-largest in the US and it houses the largest special-effects water tank in North America. After the studios opening in 1984, Wilmington became a center of American film. Numerous movies in a range of genres and several series, including Iron Man 3, Foxs Sleepy Hollow, One Tree Hill, Dawsons Creek. In recent years, however, the end of tax credits to the industry has severely impacted filmmaking in the entire area. The area had long inhabited by various cultures of indigenous peoples, at the time of European encounter. The ethnic European and African history of Wilmington spans more than two and a half centuries, giovanni da Verrazano is reportedly the first European to observe the area, including the citys present site, in the early 16th century. The first permanent European settlement in the area came in the 1720s when English colonists began settling the area, in September 1732, a community was founded on land owned by John Watson on the Cape Fear River, at the confluence of its northwest and northeast branches. The settlement, founded by the first royal governor, George Burrington, was called New Carthage, governor Gabriel Johnston soon after established his government there for the North Carolina colony. In 1739 or 1740, the town was incorporated with a new name, Wilmington, in honor of Spencer Compton, many of the settlers were indentured servants, mainly from the British Isles and northern Europe. As the indentured servants gained their freedom, the colonists imported a number of African slaves as laborers into the port city. By 1767, slaves accounted for more than 62% of the population of the Lower Cape Fear region, many worked in the port as laborers, and some in ship-related trades

23.
New Bern, North Carolina
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New Bern /ˈnuːbərn/ is a city in Craven County, North Carolina, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 29,524 and it is the county seat of Craven County and the principal city of the New Bern Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located at the confluence of the Trent and the Neuse rivers and it lies 112 miles east of Raleigh,87 miles northeast of Wilmington, and 162 miles south of Norfolk. New Bern is the birthplace of Pepsi Cola, New Bern was settled in 1710 by Swiss and Palatine German immigrants. The new colonists named the settlement after Bern, the capital of Switzerland, the English connection with Switzerland had been established by some Marian exiles who sought refuge in Protestant parts of Switzerland. There were also marriages between the Royal House of Stuart and notable people in the history of Calvinism, the colonists later discovered they had started their settlement on the site of a former Tuscarora village named Chattoka. This caused conflicts with the Tuscaroras who were in the area, New Bern is the second-oldest European-American colonial town in North Carolina. It served as the capital of the North Carolina colonial government, after the American Revolution, New Bern became wealthy and quickly developed a rich cultural life. At one time New Bern was called the Athens of the South, renowned for its Masonic Temple and these are both still very active today. Within easy walking distance of the waterfront are more than 164 homes, also nearby are several bed and breakfasts, hotels, restaurants, banks, antiques stores and specialty shops. The historic districts contain many of the citys 2,000 crape myrtles—its official flower—and developed gardens, New Bern has two Local Historic Districts, a municipal zoning overlay that affords legal protection to the exteriors of New Berns irreplaceable historic structures. These areas provide much of New Berns unique charm, appeal to retirees and heritage tourism, the Local Historic Districts, while vitally important to New Bern, comprise only 2. 43% of New Berns 27-square-mile area. There is considerable area available for new development, varying complex cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the waterways of North Carolina for thousands of years before Europeans explored the area. The Tuscarora, an Iroquoian-speaking people, had migrated south from the Great Lakes area in ancient time. They had an ancient village, Chattoka, here at the confluence of the rivers and they resisted encroachment by the Europeans, rising up in resistance in 1712. New Bern was first settled by Europeans in 1710 by Swiss and Palatine German immigrants under the leadership of Christoph von Graffenried, Franz Louis Michel and they named the settlement after Bern, von Graffenrieds home town that would later become the capital of Switzerland. Von Graffenried had the original plat of the laid out in the shape of a cross, though later development. This became the first permanent seat of the government of North Carolina

24.
Chincoteague, Virginia
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Chincoteague is a town on Chincoteague Island in Accomack County, Virginia, U. S. The population was 2,941 at the 2010 census, the town is known for the Chincoteague Ponies, although these are not actually on the island of Chincoteague but on nearby Assateague Island. These ponies and the annual Pony Penning Day are the subject of Marguerite Henrys 1947 childrens book Misty of Chincoteague, Chincoteague is located at 37°56′5″N 75°22′4″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 37.3 square miles, of which 9.1 square miles is land and 28.2 square miles. The year of 1650 marks the first land grant issued on Chincoteague Island, daniel Jenifer became the first English landowner. In 1671, settlers came to the island, and by 1672 there were large farms by Bishops, Bowdens, by 1838, there were 36 houses on the island, and in 1861 the island voted 132-2 not to secede from the Union and against slavery. The town saw action in the war via the Battle of Cockle Creek fought in the bay in 1861. The Native American name for the island is Gingoteague, and the name of the town Chincoteague first appeared in the Decisions of the United States Board on Geographical Names in 1943, in 1962, a major noreaster winter storm, the Ash Wednesday Storm, struck the coast. The town was underwater, and went for days without electricity. The storm destroyed almost all structures on Assateague Island, where development was just beginning, following this, most of the island was preserved from development as Assateague Island National Seashore in 1965. The Assateague Lighthouse and Captain Timothy Hill House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, in the Pony Penning, which has been held annually since 1925, horses swim across the shallow water between the islands. If any animal is too small or weak to make the swim, they are placed on a barge, all the horses are herded into large pens after running through the middle of town and down Main Street. Pony Penning takes place on the last consecutive Wednesday and Thursday in July, the actual swim occurs on Wednesday, the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company auctions that years foals on Thursday, and on Friday the remaining ponies swim back to Assateague. The town features numerous small hotels, bed and breakfasts, and campgrounds that serve visitors to the region, the island also features many restaurants, ice cream parlors, and miniature golf courses. The island contains two museums, Beebe Ranch, and the Museum of Chincoteague Island, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,317 people,2,068 households, and 1,244 families residing in the town. The population density was 448.2 people per square mile, there were 3,970 housing units at an average density of 412.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 92% White,0. 95% African American,0. 28% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 37% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 53% of the population. 33. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.63

25.
Panic of 1857
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The Panic of 1857 was a financial panic in the United States caused by the declining international economy and over-expansion of the domestic economy. Because of the interconnectedness of the economy by the 1850s. In Britain, the Palmerston government circumvented the requirements of the Peel Banking Act of 1844, surfacing news of this circumvention set off the Panic in Britain. Beginning in September 1857, the downturn did not last long, however. The sinking of the SS Central America contributed to the panic of 1857, American banks did not recover until after the civil war. By the mid 1850s, the amount of gold mined began to decline, eastern banks became cautious with their loans to the west and some even refused to accept western bank-issued paper currencies. The Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford was handed down in March 1857. After Scott sued for his freedom, Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was an African American and therefore did not have the right to sue in court. The ruling also made the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, and it was clear that the decision would have a significant impact on the development of western territories. Soon after the ruling, the struggle between free soil and slavery in the territories began. The western territories were now opened to the possibility that slavery might expand into them, Kansas land warrants and western railroad securities prices declined slightly just after the Dred Scott decision in early March. This fluctuation in railroad securities proved that political news about future territories called the tune in the land, before 1857, the railroad industry was booming due to large migrations of people to the west, especially in Kansas. With the large influx of people, the became a profitable industry. Many of these never made it past the stage of a paper railroad. Prices of railroad stocks as a whole began to experience a stock bubble, in the meantime, the aforementioned Dred Scott decision lent uncertainty to railroads in general. In July 1857, railroad stocks saw their peak values, on August 11,1857, N. H. Wolfe and Company, the oldest flour and grain company in New York City, failed. The failure shook investor confidence and began a slow selloff in the market continued into late August. On the morning of August 24,1857, the president of Ohio Life Insurance, Ohio Life was an Ohio-based bank with a second main office in New York City

26.
Charleston, South Carolina
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Charleston had an estimated population of 132,609 in 2015. Charleston was founded as Charles Town—honoring King Charles II of England—in 1670 and its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the 5th-largest city in North America within 10 years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the period, its government was handled directly by the state legislature and by its Anglican parish wardens. It adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. The Confederates burned the town prior to its evacuation but continued demand for the cotton and rice, along with growing industry. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the Worlds Best City by Travel + Leisure, the city proper consists of six distinct areas, the Peninsula or Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula. The old town fit into 4–5 square miles as late as the First World War, the city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has an area of 127.5 square miles. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River, Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles, surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivans Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to itself south, the entrance itself is about 1 mile wide, it was originally only 18 feet deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline, there is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep. Charleston has a subtropical climate, with mild winters, hot, humid summers. Summer is the wettest season, almost half of the rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November, winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow only occurs several times per decade at the most, however,6.0 in fell at the airport on December 23,1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in snowfall. The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F on June 2,1985, and June 24,1944, and the lowest was 7 °F on February 14,1899. At the airport, where records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F on August 1,1999. Hurricanes are a threat to the area during the summer and early fall

27.
Guadeloupe
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Guadeloupe is an insular region of France located in the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Administratively, it is a region consisting of a single overseas department. With a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,132 as of January 2015. Guadeloupes two main islands are Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, which are separated by a strait that is crossed with bridges. They are often referred to as a single island, the department also includes the Dependencies of Guadeloupe, which include the smaller islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes. Guadeloupe, like the other departments, is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, as an overseas department, however, it is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture of Guadeloupe is the city of Basse-Terre, which lies on the island of the same name, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population except recent arrivals from metropolitan France also speak Antillean Creole. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, the island was called Karukera by the Arawak people, who settled on there in 300 AD/CE. During the 8th century, the Caribs came and killed the population of Amerindians on the island. During his second trip to the Americas, in November 1493, Christopher Columbus became the first European to land on Guadeloupe, while seeking fresh water. He called it Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, the expedition set ashore just south of Capesterre, but left no settlers behind. Columbus is credited with discovering the pineapple on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and he called it piña de Indias, which can be correctly translated as pine cone of the Indies. During the 17th century, the Caribs fought against the Spanish settlers, after successful settlement on the island of St. Due to Martiniques inhospitable nature, the duo resolved to settle in Guadeloupe in 1635, took possession of the island and it was annexed to the kingdom of France in 1674. Over the next century, the British seized the island several times, the economy benefited from the lucrative sugar trade, which commenced during the closing decades of the 17th century. Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, worth about £6 million a year, the British captured Guadeloupe in 1759. The British government decided that Canada was strategically important and kept Canada while returning Guadeloupe to France in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War

28.
Leeward Islands
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The Leeward Islands /ˈliːwərd/ are a group of islands in the West Indies. In English, the term refers to the islands of the Lesser Antilles chain. As a group they start east of Puerto Rico and reach southward to Dominica and they are situated where the northeastern Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean. The more southerly part of the Lesser Antilles chain are called the Windward Islands, the name of this island group, Leeward Islands, dates from previous centuries, when sailing ships were the sole form of transportation across the Atlantic Ocean. In the West Indies, the winds, known as the trade winds. The early Spanish colonizers called Puerto Rico and the islands to the west Sotavento, the islands to the south and east of Puerto Rico were then called Islas de Barlovento, meaning windward islands. When the British gained control of many of the Lesser Antilles, they designated Antigua, Montserrat, guadeloupe and the islands to the south were designated Windward Islands. Later on, all north of Martinique became known as the Leeward Islands. Thus, Dominica is the first of the Leeward islands, the islands along the Venezuelan coast, known in English as the Leeward Antilles, in languages other than English are known as the Leeward Islands. The islands are affected by volcanism, and notable eruptions have occurred in Montserrat in the 1990s. The islands were among the first parts of the Americas to fall under the control of the Spanish Empire, mont serrat in Catalan means saw mountain, referring to the serrated appearance of the mountain range. The Leeward Islands became a British colony in 1671, in 1699, prior to the War of the Spanish Succession, Christopher Codrington became the governor of the Leeward Islands. The war lasted from 1701 to 1714, daniel Parke II was the British governor of the Leeward Islands from 1706 to 1710. He was assassinated during a mutiny triggered by his self-enriching enforcement of Stuart imperialism, although comparatively much smaller than the surrounding islands in the Caribbean, the Leeward Islands posed the most significant rebellion to the British Stamp Act. In 1816 the colony was dissolved, with its last governor being James Leith, in 1833, the colony was reformed. From 1833 until 1871, the Governor of Antigua performed the duties of the Governor of the Leeward Islands, today the Islands are governed by a number of national and colonial administrations. Digital Library of the Caribbean−dloc. org, Antigua, Montserrat and Virgin Islands Gazette — openly−freely available, with searchable text and full page images

29.
Basseterre
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Basseterre /bæsˈtɛər/, estimated population 13,000 in 2011, is the capital of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis in the West Indies. Geographically, the Basseterre port is located at 17°18′N 62°44′W, on the western coast of Saint Kitts Island. The city lies within the parish of Saint George Basseterre and the part of the parish of Saint Peter Basseterre. Basseterre is one of the oldest towns in the Eastern Caribbean, see Basse-Terre Island for the origin of the name. Basseterre was founded in 1627 by the French, under Sieur Pierre Belain dEsnambuc and it served as capital of the French colony of Saint-Christophe, which consisted of the northern and southern extremities of the island of St. Kitts. When Phillippe de Longvilliers de Poincy was made the French governor of St. Kitts in 1639, de Poincy then quickly made Basseterre capital of the entire French West Indies colony, which included the islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, and remained so until his death in 1660. The city was capital of the entire island of St. Kitts in 1727, following French expulsion from the island. The city of Basseterre has one of the most tragic histories of any Caribbean capital, destroyed many times by wars, fire, earthquakes, floods, riots. Despite all of this, a number of well-restored buildings still exist in downtown Basseterre. The city of Basseterre skirts a 2-mile bay on the shore of St. Kitts. The city lies within the large Basseterre Valley, almost completely surrounded by green hills. It is primarily low-lying, which is one explanation for the name which the French gave unto it, however, the name Basseterre is also due to the fact that the island is on the lee of winds of the island, and is thus a safe anchorage. The name Capesterre, given to the region to the North, was dubbed so as it was facing the wind, Basseterre is surrounded by the Olivees Mountains to the north and the Conaree-Morne peaks to the east. The city is drained by the College River and the Westbourne River and they even form streets in downtown Basseterre. This engineering folly has proven quite disastrous though, as College River has been the scene of many floods in Basseterre history. Port Zante, located in the centre of the bay, lies on 15 acres of land reclaimed from the sea in 1995, under the Köppen climate classification, Basseterre features a tropical rainforest climate. As is the characteristic of cities with this climate, temperatures remain constant throughout the course of the year, Basseterre has no dry season, all 12 months on average see more than 60 mm of precipitation. On average,1700 mm of rain falls on the city annually, Basseterre is a very small town which is laid out in a grid pattern

30.
Cayman Islands
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The Cayman Islands is a British Overseas Territory in the western Caribbean Sea. Its population is approximately 60,000, and its capital is George Town, the Cayman Islands are considered to be part of the geographic Western Caribbean Zone as well as the Greater Antilles. The territory is considered a major world offshore financial haven for many wealthy individuals. The Cayman Islands remained largely uninhabited until the 17th century, the first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1661. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden who was one of Oliver Cromwells soldiers at the taking of Jamaica in 1655. England took formal control of the Cayman Islands, along with Jamaica, following several unsuccessful attempts at settlement, a permanent English-speaking population in the islands dates from the 1730s. With settlement, after the first royal land grant by the Governor of Jamaica in 1734, many were brought to the islands from Africa, this is evident today with the majority of native Caymanians being of African and English descent. The results of the first census taken in the islands in 1802 showed the population on Grand Cayman to be 933 with 545 of those inhabitants being enslaved, slavery was abolished in the Cayman Islands in 1833. At the time of abolition, there were over 950 Blacks of African ancestry enslaved by 116 white families of English ancestry. The islands continued to be governed as part of the Colony of Jamaica until 1962, the Cayman Islands historically have been a tax-exempt destination. On 8 February 1794, the Caymanians rescued the crews of a group of ten merchant ships, including HMS Convert, the ships had struck a reef and run aground during rough seas. Legend has it that King George III rewarded the island with a never to introduce taxes as compensation for their generosity. While this remains a legend, the story is not true. However, whatever the history, in practice the government of the Cayman Islands has always relied on indirect, the islands have never levied income tax, capital gains tax, or any wealth tax, making them a popular tax haven. On 11 September 2004 the island of Grand Cayman, which lies largely unprotected at sea level, was hit by Hurricane Ivan, an estimated 83% of the dwellings on the island were damaged including 4% requiring complete reconstruction. A reported 70% of all dwellings suffered severe damage from flooding or wind, another 26% sustained minor damage from partial roof removal, low levels of flooding, or impact with floating or wind driven hurricane debris. Power, water and communications were disrupted for months in areas as Ivan was the worst hurricane to hit the islands in 86 years. Grand Cayman began a rebuilding process and within two years its infrastructure was nearly returned to pre-hurricane status.23 years

31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

32.
National Climatic Data Center
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The United States National Climatic Data Center, previously known as the National Weather Records Center, in Asheville, North Carolina was the worlds largest active archive of weather data. Starting as a unit in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1934. It was later renamed the National Climatic Data Center, with relocation occurring in 1993, in 2015, it was merged with the National Geophysical Data Center and the National Oceanic Data Center into the National Centers for Environmental Information. In 1934, a unit was established in New Orleans. Climate records and upper air observations were punched onto cards in 1936 and this organization was transferred to Asheville, North Carolina in 1951, where the National Weather Records Center was established. It was housed in the Grove Arcade Building in Asheville, North Carolina and this name was maintained by the agency through 1967. The NCDC was then housed at the Veach-Baley Federal Complex in downtown Asheville where it moved after the completion in 1995. In 2015, NCDC merged with the National Geophysical Data Center, the Center provided historical perspectives on climate which were vital to studies on global climate change, the greenhouse effect, and other environmental issues. The Center stored information essential to industry, agriculture, science, hydrology, transportation, recreation and these services are still provided by the NCEI. The NCDC stated, Evidence is mounting that global climate is changing, the extent to which man is responsible is still under study. Regardless of the causes, it is essential that a baseline of long-term climate data be compiled, therefore, global data must be acquired, quality controlled, NCDC provides the historical perspective on climate. Through the use of over a years of weather observations. From this knowledge the clientele of NCDC can learn from the past to prepare for a better tomorrow, wise use of our most valuable natural resource, climate, is the goal of climate researchers, state and regional climate centers, business, and commerce. NCDC also maintained World Data Center for Meteorology, Asheville, the four World Centers have created a free and open situation in which data and dialogue are exchanged. NCDC maintained the US Climate Reference Network datasets amongst a vast number of climate monitoring products. Climate Prediction Center Environmental data rescue National Severe Storms Laboratory State of the Climate Storm Prediction Center

33.
National Weather Service
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System

34.
KIRO-TV
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KIRO-TV, channel 7, is a CBS-affiliated television station located in Seattle, Washington, United States. The station is owned by the Cox Media Group subsidiary of Atlanta-based Cox Enterprises, the stations offices and studios are located on Third Avenue in the citys Belltown neighborhood and its transmitter is located on Queen Anne Hill, adjacent to the stations original studios. It can also seen on local cable systems in British Columbia as the local CBS affiliate. After KOMO-TV signed on in December 1953, Seattles channel 7 was the last commercial VHF channel allocation available in the Puget Sound area, as such, its construction permit was heavily contested among several local broadcast interests. Three radio stations – KVI, KXA and KIRO – were locked in a battle for the frequency over several years of hearings at the Federal Communications Commission. Following an initial decision in 1955 and a reaffirmation in 1957, the victorious party was Queen City Broadcasting, owners of KIRO radio. Queen City was led by president and general manager Saul Haas, senator Warren Magnuson and CBS News correspondent Edward R. Murrow amongst its shareholders. The stations original studios were located on Queen Anne Avenue, adjacent to its broadcast tower, the first program shown on channel 7 was the explosion of Ripple Rock, a hazard to navigation in Seymour Narrows, British Columbia. KIRO radio had been a CBS Radio affiliate for over 20 years, in May 1960, KIRO-TV was forced to share CBS with KTNT-TV as part of a settlement reached between the three parties. This arrangement lasted for the two years with KIRO-TV again becoming the markets exclusive CBS affiliate in September 1962. Six months later the Church purchased an additional 50 percent, giving them majority control of the KIRO stations, soon after the FCC approved the sale, Bonneville executives Lloyd Cooney and Kenneth L. Hatch arrived in Seattle to lead the renamed KIRO, Inc. division. Upon Cooneys departure to run for U. S. Senate in 1980, Hatch became president, CEO and chairman, under Hatchs leadership, KIRO, Inc. became one of the nations premier regional broadcast groups. KIROs corporate board included many leaders including Mary Gates, Pay n Save chairman M. Lamont Bean, Washington Mutual chief executive officer Tony Eyring. Hinckley, a president of the LDS Church. Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, KIRO-TV still faced competition in some parts of Western Washington from Bellingham-based KVOS-TV, after years of legal challenges and negotiations with CBS and KIRO-TV, KVOS began to phase out most CBS programming by 1980. KVOS retained an affiliation with CBS until 1987, during which it would run all network programs were preempted by channel 7. In 1994, CBS found itself without an affiliate in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex after KDFW-TV left the network to become a Fox affiliate. Consequently, CBS began to negotiate with Gaylord Broadcasting to secure an agreement with the independent station it had long owned in Fort Worth

35.
Weather Prediction Center
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Until March 5,2013 the Weather Prediction Center was known as the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. The Weather Prediction Center serves as a center for quantitative precipitation forecasting, medium range forecasting, the Weather Prediction Center issues storm summaries on storm systems bringing significant rainfall and snowfall to portions of the United States. They also forecast precipitation amounts for the lower 48 United States for systems expected to impact the country over the seven days. Advisories are also issued for tropical cyclones which have moved inland, weakened to depression strength. The Weather Prediction Center also acts as the office to the National Hurricane Center in the event of a complete communications failure. From the early days of organized weather collection in the United States, originally, this task occupied a single room within the United States Army Signal Service in Washington, D. C. Reports were collected via telegraph and general forecasts were made for the country, operations began on March 16,1942, with the unit collocated with the Weather Bureau Central Office at 24th and M Streets NW in Washington, D. C. Initially the unit was referred to as the Master Analysis Center. In 1947 the Analysis Center was combined with the Air Force Master Analysis Center, operations commenced on June 16,1947, at 24th and M Streets NW. By early 1950 the WBAN Analysis Center consisted of 150 employees, medium range forecasting was done nationally to 54 hours in the future. Charts and maps were created at this facility for national distribution, in July 1954 the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit was created to test out numerical weather prediction techniques by computer. This unit co-located with the WBAN analysis center to form the National Weather Analysis Center, when the two units merged, the name changed to the National Meteorological Center in January 1958. When the JNWPU dissolved in 1961, NMC became an independent organization from Global Weather Central, research and computer processing abilities increased over the years, which allowed for the first global forecast model to run by June 1966. By January 1975, much of the facility, minus the computers, moved to the World Weather Building, located in nearby Camp Springs, NMC changed its name to NCEP, the National Centers for Environmental Prediction on October 1,1995. During August 2012, HPC moved to a new building, the National Center for Weather and Climate Prediction, in College Park, the following year, on March 5,2013, HPC changed its name to the Weather Prediction Center. These products are sent to the National Weather Service forecast offices and are available on the Internet for public use, heavy snow forecast products, in association with the short-range public forecast products, serve as a coordinating mechanism for the national winter storm watch and warning program. One desk of the National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service is co-located with the WPC QPF desks, Meteorological reasoning discussions are regularly written and issued with the forecast packages to explain and support the forecast. The WPC Winter Weather Desk issues heavy snow and icing forecast products and these forecasts are for the contiguous United States and issued from September 15 to May 15 each cold season

36.
Atlantic hurricane season
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The Atlantic hurricane season is the period in a year when hurricanes usually form in the Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic are called hurricanes, tropical storms, in addition, there have been several storms over the years that have not been fully tropical and are categorized as subtropical depressions and subtropical storms. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, Tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a pre-determined list. On average,10.1 named storms occur each season, the most active season was 2005, during which 28 tropical cyclones formed, of which a record 15 became hurricanes. The least active season was 1914, with one known tropical cyclone developing during that year. The Atlantic hurricane season is a time when most tropical cyclones are expected to develop across the northern Atlantic Ocean and it is currently defined as the time frame from June 1 through November 30, though in the past the season was defined as a shorter time frame. The basic concept of a hurricane season began during 1935, when dedicated wire circuits known as hurricane circuits began to be set up along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, a process completed by 1955. It was originally the time frame when the tropics were monitored routinely for tropical cyclone activity, over the years, the beginning date was shifted back to June 1, while the end date was shifted to November 15, before settling at November 30 by 1965. Since regular satellite surveillance began, hurricane hunter aircraft fly only into areas which are first spotted by satellite imagery. If systems occur outside the hurricane season, special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued. Possible tropical cyclones are depicted with a closed isobar, while systems with less certainty to develop are depicted as spot lows with no isobar surrounding them. The original database of positions and intensities were put together in the 1960s in support of the Apollo space program to help provide statistical track forecast guidance. HURDAT was not designed with all of these uses in mind when it was first put together, HURDAT contains numerous systematic as well as some random errors in the database. Additionally, analysis techniques have changed over the years at NHC as their understanding of tropical cyclones has developed, another difficulty in applying the hurricane database to studies concerned with landfalling events is the lack of exact location, time and intensity at hurricane landfall. HURDAT is regularly updated annually to reflect the seasons activity. The older portion of the database has been revised since 2001

37.
1850 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1850 Atlantic hurricane season was the most recent season excluded from the scope of the official Atlantic hurricane database. Although meteorological records are sparse and generally incomplete, they indicate that three significant tropical cyclones affected land, each causing some degree of damage. The first system struck North Carolina on July 18, causing significant damage before battering the Mid-Atlantic states with high tides, strong winds, torrential rainfall caused river flooding from Baltimore to Philadelphia, particularly along the Schuylkill River, which took the lives of 20 people in various incidents. Strong winds damaged property and public facilities in and around New York City, crops and railroad infrastructure suffered throughout the entire region. On August 22, a hurricane impacted Havana, Cuba, destroying fruit trees and disrupting shipping. Coastal flooding was severe around Apalachicola, and as the storm moved inland, abundant precipitation fell from Georgia through Virginia, causing extensive flooding, one river swelled over 20 feet above its normal height. The storm blew down crops and trees along its course, and toppled a railroad bridge near Halifax. Offshore, a boat collided with a larger ship in the rough seas. Considered the worst storm in nearly 30 years in the region of Virginia. Strong winds and moderate to heavy rains plagued much of New England on August 24 and 25, on September 7 and 8, a hurricane brushed the coastline from New York to Cape Cod with gusty winds and appreciable rainfall, and left many ships in distress. The system later struck Atlantic Canada, likely causing great loss of property and lives, fragmented records exist of other hurricanes, including two which remained over open seas in early September and the middle of October. Attempts to catalog Atlantic hurricanes in the first half of the 19th century began as early as 1855, however, Poey listed only three of the five or more hurricanes that developed in 1850. In his 1963 book, Early American Hurricanes, 1492–1870, weather researcher David M. Ludlum discusses, in greater detail, unusually, all three heavily impacted the northeastern states, Ludlum compares the season to 1954, in which three major tropical systems impacted the Eastern Seaboard. More traditional hurricane targets, such as Florida, were spared the brunt of tropical cyclone activity in 1850. Newark, New Jersey, had its one of its rainiest—summers on record at the time, owing to frequent nearby hurricanes. Meteorological reports pertaining to the season were largely lost in a Smithsonian Institution fire in 1856, as the season falls outside the scope of the Atlantic hurricane database and its associated reanalysis project, records are regarded as incomplete. Extant accounts of the storms in 1850 are chiefly based on private weather records and press reports, the first documented hurricane in 1850 originated in the Caribbean Sea, where it wrecked dozens of ships along the Windward Islands on July 11 and 12. On July 18, the storm struck North Carolina from the south as a hurricane of at least Category 1 intensity, although the exact point of landfall is unknown, the system is believed to have moved ashore south of Cape Hatteras

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1851 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1851 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season to be included in the official Atlantic tropical cyclone record. Six known tropical cyclones occurred during the season, the earliest of which formed on June 25 and these dates fall within the range of most Atlantic tropical cyclone activity. None of the cyclones existed simultaneously with another, of the six storms, two only have a single point in their track known. Two other hurricanes were reported during the season, one near Tampico, there may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season. Five of the six tropical cyclones affected land, including three making landfall with winds of over 74 mph, the first struck Texas as a hurricane, which caused moderate to heavy damage, particularly to shipping in Matagorda Bay. One death was related to the hurricane, as well as at least two injuries. When it hit near Panama City, Florida with winds of 115 mph, it caused at least 23 deaths, many houses were destroyed along its path, primarily along the Florida Panhandle. The other landfalling hurricane was one that struck near Tampico, where it caused heavy damage, the last tropical storm of the season made landfall on Rhode Island, though associated damage is unknown. A tropical storm affected the Lesser Antilles in early July, a small 90 mph hurricane was first observed on June 25, about 75 miles southeast of Freeport, Texas. The cyclone slowly weakened as it turned northwestward, with wind gusts reported 24 hours after landfall in current-day Medina County. It is estimated that the storm dissipated early on June 28 over central Texas, the hurricane produced heavy damage near where it moved ashore, having been described as the most disastrous experienced there to date. The winds destroyed every wharf and several houses in Port Lavaca, on Matagorda Island, the saltwater contaminated the fresh water supply, and in Matagorda Bay, heavy shipping losses were reported. As the cyclone progressed inland, it dropped light to moderate rainfall, a fort near current day Laredo reported 2.48 inches of precipitation. Across its path, the winds downed trees and houses. A moderate hurricane made landfall near Tampico, which was described as having moved ashore before July 7, heavy damage was reported in Tampico. A tropical storm passed through the southern Lesser Antilles on July 10, overall documentation on the storm was weak, and its track elsewhere is unknown. It tracked west-northwestward, attaining hurricane status on August 17 as it approached the Lesser Antilles, shortly thereafter, the hurricane passed between Antigua and Saint Kitts and later south of Saint Croix. On August 18 it brushed the southern coast of Puerto Rico, the next day it made landfall on the southern coast of the Dominican Republic

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1852 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1852 Atlantic hurricane season was one of only three Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status. Though there were five tropical cyclones in the season, hurricane scholar Michael Chenoweth assessed two of the cyclones as being the same storm. Every tropical cyclone in the season was of hurricane status, or with winds at or exceeding 74 mph, in only two other seasons did every cyclone attain hurricane status, those years were 1858 and 1884. All five cyclones affected land, the strongest was the first storm, the second storm of the season struck Puerto Rico, where it caused over 100 deaths, primarily from flooding. In the middle of September, the storm moved across Florida with strong wind gusts and light rainfall. The last storm hit the Florida Panhandle, though damage was less than expected, the first tropical cyclone of the year, also known as the Great Mobile Hurricane of 1852, was first observed on August 19 about 140 mi north of Puerto Rico. It moved on a west-northwest motion before passing through the Bahamas as it attained hurricane status on August 20. On August 28 it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from South Carolina, in the Florida Keys, rough waves forced several ships ashore, leaving some damaged. Strong waves created four new channels in the Chandeleur Islands, and the passage also destroyed the island lighthouse. Two schooners were also washed ashore along Cat Island, the hurricane produced an estimated storm tide of 12 feet in Mobile, Alabama, where strong winds damaged much of the city, leaving the majority of the houses destroyed. Trees were downed up to 30 miles inland, and coastal areas were flooded, damage along the coastline was estimated at around $1 million, and several lives were lost. While crossing the southeastern United States, the storm brought light rainfall but moderately strong winds, in Charleston, South Carolina, early on September 5, a hurricane was first observed about 65 mi southeast of Christiansted in the Danish Virgin Islands. One meteorologist assessed the hurricane as being located near Antigua on September 3, tracking steadily west-northwestward, it quickly moved ashore near Ponce, Puerto Rico with winds estimated at 80 mph. After crossing southwestern Puerto Rico, the hurricane emerged into the Mona Passage as a tropical storm, late on September 5 it made landfall on eastern Dominican Republic, it quickly weakened over Hispaniola, dissipating on September 6 over the northwestern portion of the island. An assessment by scholar Michael Chenoweth in 2006 indicated this storm was the same as the hurricane, with it continuing northwestward. Due to not being considered the cyclone in the official hurricane database, this hurricane. The cyclone is known as the San Lorenzo hurricane, due to its impact in Puerto Rico, there, the passage of the storm caused severe flooding, which destroyed large quantities of crops and damaged several roads. Storm damage was heaviest between Guayanilla and Mayagüez, more than 100 people were killed in Puerto Rico, many of which due to flooding

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1853 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1853 Atlantic hurricane season featured eight known tropical cyclones, none of which made landfall. Operationally, a tropical storm was believed to have existed over the Dominican Republic on November 26. The first system, Tropical Storm One, was observed on August 5. The final storm, Hurricane Eight, was last observed on October 22 and these dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. At two points during the season, pairs of tropical cyclones existed simultaneously, four of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data, so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable. Of the seasons eight tropical cyclones, four reached hurricane status, furthermore, two of those four strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 150 mph winds. With a minimum pressure of 924 mbar, it was the most intense tropical cyclone recorded in the Atlantic basin until the 1924 Cuba hurricane. The hurricane caused 40 fatalities after a brig went missing off the coast of North Carolina, despite remaining offshore, Tropical Storm Five brought very strong winds to the Mexican city of Veracruz. Hurricane Eight brought strong winds and rough seas to North Florida and Georgia, meteorologist William C. Redfield first observed the seasons third tropical storm south of Cape Verde on August 30, which was the first Cape Verde-type hurricane ever recorded. Initially, the storm moved west-northwestward and gradually strengthened, becoming a hurricane on September 1, over the next two days, the hurricane intensified significantly and reached Category 2 strength early on September 2. It was the most intense storm in the Atlantic until the 1924 Cuba hurricane, the Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 may have been stronger, though it is discounted because HURDAT records did not begin until the 1851 season. By September 5, the hurricane curved toward the northwest and began to weaken, early on September 7, it turned northward and fell to Category 3 intensity, situated about 340 miles east of Charleston, South Carolina. The hurricane passed offshore North Carolina later that day, and its rainbands produced heavy rainfall along the states southern coastlines. The brig Albermarle was lost at sea on September 7 with 40 of its crewmen missing, the hurricane recurved east-northeastward and continued to deteriorate steadily, weakening to Category 1 status by September 9. The storm was last observed late on September 10, centered about 525 miles north-northwest of Flores Island in the Azores, the ship Gilbert Gallatin encountered the fourth hurricane of the season on September 8, which was centered about 1,000 miles east of the third hurricane. Sustained winds were observed to have reached 115 mph, indicative of a Category 3 hurricane. Several other ships reportedly encountered this storm as it tracked northeastward, with winds decreasing to 105 mph, it weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on September 10

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1854 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1854 Atlantic hurricane season featured five known tropical cyclones, three of which made landfall in the United States. At one time, another was believed to have existed near Galveston, Texas in September, the first system, Hurricane One, was initially observed on June 25. The final storm, Hurricane Five, was last observed on October 22 and these dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. No tropical cyclones during this season existed simultaneously, One tropical cyclone has a single known point in its track due to a sparsity of data. Of the seasons five tropical cyclones, three reached hurricane status, furthermore, one of those strengthened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the hurricane, peaked at Category 3 strength with 125 mph winds. After making landfall near the Georgia-South Carolina border, the storm caused 26 fatalities, Hurricane Four caused four deaths and approximately $20,000 in damage after striking the coast of Texas. Hurricane One also caused damage in Texas. A tropical storm was first observed in the Gulf of Mexico on June 25, while located about 240 miles south-southwest of Marsh Island and it headed westward and strengthened into a hurricane about 12 hours later. It quickly weakened inland and fell to tropical storm strength six hours later. The system continued in a west-northwestward direction over northern Mexico, until dissipating in a area of Coahuila on June 27. This system brought near tropical storm-force winds to Texas as far north as Galveston, brazos Island experienced the brunt of this storm, where winds blew a perfect hurricane. Many buildings in the area lost their roofs or were moved by the winds, additionally, a cistern at the Quartermaster’s Department was destroyed. The coast of Texas was also impacted by storm surge, with bath houses washed away at Lavaca. Precipitation in the region was generally light, peaking at 6.63 inches at Fort Ringgold, the ships Highflyer and Osceola encountered a very violent gale on August 23, while located at 33. 0°N,55. 0°W, which is about 565 miles east-northeast of Bermuda. A sustained wind speed of 70 mph was recorded, indicative of a tropical storm. No further information is available of this storm, however, the barque Pilgrim experienced a severe gale on August 29, which may have been the extratropical remnants of this system. The brig Reindeer sighted a hurricane about 25 miles east of Hope Town in The Bahamas on September 7, with winds of 125 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar, this was the strongest tropical cyclone of the season

Map of the cumulative tracks of all tropical cyclones during the 1985–2005 time period. The Pacific Ocean west of the International Date Line sees more tropical cyclones than any other basin, while there is almost no activity in the southern hemisphere between Africa and 160˚W.