Blood flows from heart to aorta to sinus foot where it circulates around, blood vessels are open ended in this animal

How do open systems affect pressure and velocity?

These systems have a lower pressure and lower velocity

Vertebrates have what kind of circulation and what kind of pathways can they have?

These animals have a closed circulation and can have a single or double pathways

Anatomy of heart in a fish

1 atrium and 1 ventricle

Anatomy of a heart in an amphibian

2 atrium and 1 ventricle

Anatomy of a heart in crocs/birds/mammals

2 atria and 2 ventricles

Which part of the heart receives blood? pumps blood?

The atria (___ blood)
The ventricles (____blood)

Explain how a single cirucatlor pathway works and where it can be found?

In this circulatory pathway, blood flows from the ventricles to the gills (brachial circulation) to systemic to atrica, repeat.

This can be found in fish

Explain how a double circulatory pathway works

In this type of circulatory pathway, blood flows from RV (pulmonary artery) to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) to the LA to LV to systemic (aorta) to the RA to RV and repeats

Which side of the heart contains Deoxygenated blood? Which side of the heart contains oxygenated blood?

The right side of the heart contains ____ blood.
Left side of the heart contains____ blood.

How does the heart of a teloest fish work?

In this type of fish: Blood from the system enters the sinus venous that collects deOx blood, blood flows to the Atrium, when the atrium contracts, the ventricle relaxes and fills with blood, when the ventricle contracts, blood is sent out to the bulbus arterious to the gills

What is the role of spongy myocardium in the ventricle of a teleost fish?

In the teleost fish, this is reponsible to allow blood to flow between its spaces to feed and oxygenate the heart

Why is the ventricle much more thicker than the atrium in the teleost fish

in the teleost fish, this is much thicker because it has to pump blood through the system.

What is happening during diastole?

During this phase, the ventricles are not contracting, and the ventricles are filled with blood

What is happening during systole?

During this phase, the ventricles are relaxing, moving blood out of the ventricles.

Explain blood circulation during diastole?

Blood circulation during this phase, is moving Deoxygenated blood through RA to RV, then oxygenated blood is moved to the left side

What is the role of systole and muscles and what does it do for blood what does it contract?

Muscle ridges contract to physicall move blood between right and left side.

Why is there a blood shunt w/in the ventricle? 3 reasons

This is why this happens in the ventricle:
1. in reptile hearts there is an inocmplete horizontal septum
2. a relaxation of muscle ridges
3. constriction of pulmonary or aortic vessels.

In a mammalian heart, blood (deoxygenated) enters the superior vena cava to the RA to RV, then to the lungs via the pulmonary artery, then it enters the LA to the LV back to the systemi via systemic aort and back to the superior venacava.

What is cardiac output (equation) and how can it be affected.
(mL/min or L/min)

Cardiac output is the heart rate times stroke volume. It can be affected by metabolic changes

How does volume change in cardiac output?

This changes in cardiac output by how forcefully ventricles contract.

Cardiac output in humans:
at rest?
exercising?

At this phase cardiac output in humans is 70 x 70, about ~5L/min.

At this phase cardiac output is about 200 (hr) by 140 (stroke volume) about ~28L/min

In the compartments of animal tissues which "fluid" which percentage of water content has the highest, lowest?

The highest is intracellular about 50%
The lowest is blood plasma about 5-10% and intersitual fluid contains about 40-45%

Although ion concentrations inside and outside indiviual animal cells are about the same, they can have

different ionic compositions and similar osmolarities

What are the salinity/osmolarity differences between aquatic environments

Marine there is a high salinity/high osmolarity
Estuarine (brackish) there is a mix
Freshwater there is a low salinity/low osmolarity

Explain salinity/osmolarity in Walker Lake

In Walker Lake it is without an influx of water and animals are not thriving?/******************

What does it mean where an animal has an adaptation to water stress?

It is the animals ability to acquire water and conserve it and tolerate dehydration

Freshwater animals must do what in their environment

They must excrete water and save solutes, they have to deal with dilution, concentration of solutes about ~50

Marine animals must do what in their environment

Excrete excess solutes and conserve water, they have to deal with dehyrdation, concentration of solutes about ~1000

Terresterial animals must do what in their environment

Their solute concentration varies, and have to adapt to dehydration, so they need to conserve water and excrete solutes

How do Kangaroon rats, obtain water?

kangaroo rats obtain water mostly by metabolic water and dry water that's in the seeds they eat. They do not drink water.

How do Kangaroo Rats lose their water?

Kangaroo Rats lose their water mostly by evaporation and perspiration? They lose water also by urine and a small amount through fecal

How does the loop of henle in a kangaroo rat differ from other's say in a more "wet" environmnet

The loop of henle is extra long to help in conserving more water, there is a countercurrent exchange of water/solutes along the length of the loop of henle

****In freshwater fish, salt is lost thru where and water is picked up where. What kind of exhanges are these with the environment?

Salt is lost through the gills and water is picked up through the gills. This is a pasive exchange with the environment.

****In freshwater fish is there a higher [solute] in the fish or in the environmnet?

There is a higher [solute] in the fish

****In plasma of freshwater fish what two solutes are high and what two are low?

In plasma Na and Cl are high and Ca and K are low

****In water, what two solutes are high and what two are low?

In water Na and Cl are high and Ca and Cl are low.

****In freshwater fish, between the environment and the fish, Na and Cl are lost at high rates, why?

They are lost at high rates because, in fish plasma, there are high Na and Cl concentrations and in water it is low. because diffusion takes place down the gradient, na and cl are lost at high rates but then regained through the gills (same way they are lost)

****How does water move into tissues?

It moves into tissues by osmosis

****In freshwater fish how is the water concentration of urine? Do they produce lots of urine?

IT is very dilute, yes they produce lots of urine to excrete water.

****What structures in the gills allow an active uptake of Na and CL?

Extra-renal salt glands.

*****What is the role of extra-renal salt glands?

Extra-renal salts glands in freshwater fish help fish uptake Na and Cl, most salt is lost thru diffusion.

****why does the uptake of NaCl cost ATP?

It requires active co-transport (ATP) because NA and CL are against it concentration gradient when a fish uptakes it.

They have it terhe because assit kidneys in NaCl gained by diffusion from the gills.

****Salt glands in marine birds have a solution that is_________ to sea water?

Hyperosmotic

****What is the U/P (index of renal carrying capacity) in freshwater vertebrates and marine/desert mammals?

Urine osmoloarity/Plasma osmoloarity

In Freshwater vertebrates it's lets than 1 U/P and in marine desert mammals it's over

****If U/P [] is less than 1 what happens to water?

If it is less than one, it is hyposomtoc to plasma, water is excreted.

****If U/P is greater than 1, what happens to water?

If it's greater than,it is hyperosmot. to plasma, and water is retained.

****In sharks, what helps compensate because they are hyperosmotic yet hypotonic to the environment

Urea and TMAO help water be retained even though they are hypersomotic, and Na and CL make up more than half of their tissues and so does Urea and TMAO

****Do sharks and fish/amphibians,/repties have a loop of henlse.

No because they are have U/P of 1 or less and they are in 'wet" environments

****Do birds/mammals have aloop of henle and what is their U/P

U/P in birds is about 2-3, they have a loop of henle and salt glands. U/P in mammals ranges from 2-30, they have loop of henle and no salt glands because they kidnesy help

#6: Vertebrate kidneys help do what?

Help regulate the composition and volume of blood

What do kidneys produce that contains what?

They produce urine that contains excell electrolytes, metabolic byproducts and water

How much cardiac output do mammilian kidneys receive?

about 25%

What are nephrons?

Nephrons are tubules in the renal pyramid that are responsible for filtrating, reabsorbing and secreting solutes

Many species that are in xeric environments have many of these because?

They have many juxtamedullary nephrons because they are good at conserving water.

Where is the initial filtration occuring in the kidney

It occurs in Bowman's capsule in the glomuerulus where solution (blood) is filtered.

What are the three main processes of urine production?

1. plasma filtrate
2. reabsorption
3. secretion

What happens during the first process of urine production, Plasma filtration? What's one solute that can't move in?

During plasma filtration, solution of water and small solutes move into the capsule from the vessel through hydrostatic pressure. Proteins

What happens during the second process of urine production, reabsorption in the proximal CT

Nutrients that end up in the nephron tubule are reabsorped in tubule, all glucose, fatty acids, and aa are conserved.

What happens during the third process of urine production, secretion

Anytype of final adjustments that need to be made to urine, for example hormones, or adjusting blood pH

Osmotic pressure in kidney is highest at what area? and lowest at what area? why?

Osmotic pressure in the kidney is highest at the medulla's inner zone. And lowest at the cortex because it helps kidneys to conserve water.

What are the main interstitial solutes, around nehpron tubules?

Na, Cl, and Urea

Where in the nephron tubules is Urea at it's highest/lowest? What about Na, what about Cl?

Urea is highest at the medulla's inner zone, and lowest at the cortex, same for Na and Cl.

In human kidneys what is the amount of Na and CL and URea that make up the total 1200 mOsm of the kidneys

Na and CL about 600 and Urea about 600

In the kidneys fluids and solutes are matched between intracellularly and extracellulary without and help?

Disrupting metabolism just to help increase osmolarity to help match outside and inside of cell.

In the loop of Henle, water reabsorption occurs here due to what?

Water is reabsorped in the loop of henle because it is located at the inner zone of the medulla, there is a high concentration gradient, so H2O moves from low to high and water gets reabsorbed 300-1200 mOsm

How does the loop of Henle differ in a desert dwelling sand rat compared to humans?

In a desert dwelling sand rat, the mOsm is much higher 6100 in the inner zone therefore there is a much higher increase of water reabsoprtion U/P is about 20.4

How does urine concentration correlate with medulla thickness (loop of henle longer)?

As medulla is thicker loop of henle is longer, urine concentration is higher, water is conserved more.

Do reptiles have a loop, fish, amphibians of henle?

No they don't they don't need it to conserve water, because they are fairly well hydrated.

compare Arid/mesic/aquatic medulalry thickness of animals?

Arid have thicker medulla's and longer loops of henle...while aquatics have thinner and shorter loops of henle.