A festival, mentioned in one of the temple digests1 of Tamilnad, seems
to indicate a connection between the Kalamukha concept and Nataraja image. It would be
interesting to note the festival first, before the significance of the
same is studied.

The Festival of Black-paste: Krshna-gandha-utsava

The image of Nrittamurti
with his consort is brought to the Asthana mandapaaudience hall of the temple on the 8th
day of the festival. In the later half of the night,raksha (protective thread),is
fastened to both the images of Nataraja and Sivakami and then the images
are decorated with beautiful garments, jewels, and flower
garlands and taken out in procession around the temple and finally
placed in the mandapa. In its presence, vinoda - dance is
performed.

On the next day, some rites are performed during day time.
In the evening two seats onw over hte other with paddy and rice
are placed in front of them with a lotus design drawn
on them. Black agaru (fragrant) paste is placed in a
receptacle on that seat. A series of rituals are performed
beginning with Vighnesvara puja (worship of Ganesa), followed by recitation of punyaha
(chanting of auspicious day). A Santi kumbha (pot with the chanting of Santi) is
placed and invocation of peace-Santi, is recited.
This is followed by preparation of a fire altar and offering of
different materials in fire, invoking Mahesvara in it.

The black-paste is now mixed with sandal and other fragrant material
and a special worship is offered to it. This worship of black -
paste is akin to the worship of images. It is offered seats, dhupa,
dipa, neivedya etc., after invoking in them, the Panca Brahmams (Tatpurusha, Aghora, Sadyojata,Vamadeva and Isana are the Panca Brahmams)
the shadangas( the six limbs of the body). Homa is also performed in the fire. After these pujas
are over, the receptacle with the black paste is taken around the
temple in procession to the accompaniment of Vedic chant, music and
dance and later brought into the sanctum. The black-paste is smeared
on the main Linga.

Then the paste is brought to the mandapa and placed in front of the Nataraja
and Sivakami images. Again a special invocation is made to the black
-paste. The images of Nataraja and Sivakami are invoked with dhyana
slokas meditative verses, and then the black-paste is smeared over the forehead of
Nataraja, with the Aghora hymn. Then the same is applied to tuft,
hands, and all other parts of the body, chanting the Sadyojata
hymn. It is also applied to the images of Goddesses, on the forehead and
the neck with Vamadeva hymn. The black-paste is then applied to other images as well.

Once the black-paste is applied to all the images, the Acarya, the
worshipping priests, the devotees and the dancers are presented
the black-paste to wear it on their foreheads and other
parts of the body. The Nataraja and Sivakami are then
properly decorated and placed on a Ratna-simhasana (jewelled seat) and taken out in
procession. The Acarya is seated to the right of the deity. The
King proceeds to the left in front of the image. The musicians,
dancing girls, and other dancers divide themselves into two
groups, one on either side of the images and proceed singing and
dancing with their musical instruments. They proceed upto seven houses
sapta grha paryantam natitva, and then return to the temple.

On return to the temple, the images are placed in the
mandapa. The black-paste is wiped out, a ritual bath is given
and then another paste, this time white, is made from karpura, sandal
and other fragrant materials and applied to the images. The
bronzes are decorated with fresh clothing and new floral
garlands and a special puja performed. The images are again taken
in procession to the front of the Gopura or the flag post with singing
and dancing on either side of the deities . Then the images are brought back
and placed in the mandapa and the rest of the night spent in
witnessing dance.

On the next morning the images of Nataraja and Sivakami are taken out
in procession to the banks of the river and after due worship (as per
Tirthavari), are brought in procession around the village and taken
to the temple. A special pranaya kalaha, festival is conducted in
front of the gopura and later the images are taken silently, inside,
and then the festival is brought to an end by placing the images in their
original position.

This extraordinary festival of applying black- paste, goes by the name
"black-fragrant-festival" (krshna-gandha-utsava) and is performed in
all temples to this day. Interestingly the festival is also called
Nrtta-murti-utsava, "festival of dancing Siva".

Kriya-krama-dyotika of Aghora siva

The procedure to be adopted in conducting the Black-paste festival is
found in the text, kriya- krama- tyotika by Aghora sivacarya. This
text is most popular in Tamilnad and is followed by a large number
of temples. It is also dated in the later Chola period in 1158
CE.2. The author gives the saka era of the composition of the text and
furnishes good examples of festivals prevalent in later Chola
period when the images of Siva Nataraja were very popular. The
association of black-paste with Nataraja in this festival assumes
significance. As has been mentioned earlier, the black-paste festival
and the festival of Cosmic dancer are part of and identical with one
and the same festival, according to the text

The festival was not a new introduction in the time of Aghora siva as
he specifically states that he was only compiling the digest from the
earlier texts. True to his statement he cites a large number of works
that preceded him as authorities and these citations also set the
lower limit to their dates. A large number of agamas and paddhati
texts are thus cited by Aghora siva.The following among the texts
mentioned by him deserve special attention. 1. Kamika-agama 2.
Karana-agama 3. Kirana-agama 4. Makuta-agama 5. Cintya-agama 6.
Suksma-agama 7. Candra-jnanottara-agama 8. Paramesvara- agama
9. Suprabheda-agama 10. Rauara-agama 11. Ajita-agama 12. Vira-agama
13. Yogaja-agama 14. Kalottara-agama

In addition Aghora siva refers to the following Paddhatis which can
now be dated earlier than him (1158). Siddhanta-sara (is it identical
with Isana-siva-gurudeva-paddhati?) Uttunga-siva-paddhati
Soma-sambhu-paddhati and Isana-siva-gurudeva-paddhati

These citations show that the black-paste festival was common to
most of the Agamic texts and consequently celeberated in most of the temples and
was prevalent long before 11th cent. Aghora siva adds new information
from each text by carefully selecting the citations and thus has done
yeomen service to the history of religious faiths.

The Black-paste and its meaning

The Karanagama gives the process of preparing the black paste4and
also the reason why the festival is conducted. Sandal paste and thick
agaru paste should be mixed with Jaggry in proportion. The mixture
should be placed in a brass vessel and heated up. A lid should be
placed over the vessel and the smoke arising from the burnt mixture
should be collected in the lid. This should be mixed with cow's ghee
and made into the Black-paste for use in the festival.

This agama says that all living beings are covered with three kinds of
impurities the anava (egoism), kanmam (past actions), andmaya
(innate) and these are further classified into gross and subtle
impurities. The gross impurity, mainly the egoistic impurity is
placed at the feet of the guru while the other the subtle ones are
placed at the feet of the Dancing God. The Black-paste represents the
impurities weiling the living beings. Dancing Lord Siva removes the
impurities. Siva performs the dance (Tandava) for protecting the world
and he dances assuming the Aghora form. After the removal black-paste
removed and the deity given ritual bath- snapana, the
Nrtta-festival is conducted. The application of Black-paste and its removal are parts
of the Nrtta festival and symbolize the removal of mala. The mala is
ignorance out of which the impurities arise. The ignorance is like a
demon and deserves to be
wiped out and that is what the Lord does while dancing. The apasmara
at the feet of the Lord personifies this ignorance. As the removal of
ignorance is a terrific-ghora phenomenon, the Lord assumes the
Aghora form. The Nrtta performed by Siva is called the Aghora
dance. Worship is therefore performed to the south facing Aghora face
of the mula Linga. The devotees will stand, looking
into the southern face of Linga. The elimination of the black-paste
itself is Nrtta says this Agama thus pointing out that processional festivals
conducted in temples are based on philosophy. A
point of interest is that Nataraja is called Nrtta-nayaka.

The Kiranagama states that Siva's Aghora form is called Natyesa5 and
so the festival is Nrttotsava. The application of black-paste
symbolizes blackening the figure of Aghora. Aghora form is the
peaceful form, Santa rupa, benign and peaceful existance. Siva's
essential nature is Santa described as his heart and the hymn -
Aghorebhyah ghora ghoratarebhyah namaste astu rudra rupebhyah -
is called hrdaya mantra. It is the mantra used in this rite.

Three out of the 108 dance karanas are listed under Bhujanga
catagories in Bharata's Natya sastra7 They areBhujanga-trasitam
(karana 24), Bhujanga-trasta-recitam (karana 35), and Bhujanga
-ancitam (karana 40). Describing the Bhujanga-trasita karana, Bharata
states "the kuncita leg should be raised and thigh turned to the side
in three fourth profile. The waist and the knee should also be twisted
similarly." Bharata has not mentioned anything about the position of
the hands. Abhinava Gupta, the great commnetator on Bharata's Natya sastra gives valuable information on this karana.
First he says Nritta is of remote antiquity - without a beginning
anadi siddha. This karana is named after the pose of frenzied
reaction of a man, who notices a snake by his leg, hurriedly lifts it
out of fear and throws his hands out in reflex to ward of
the reptile.

As mentioned earlier Bharata`s Natya-sastra lists three dance karanas
associated with the bhujanga variety - Bhujanga-trasita,
Bhujanga-trasta-recita, and Bhujanga-ancita. The Kamikagama also lists
three Bhujanga varieties of Siva`s dance namely Bhujanga-trasa,
Bhujanga-lalitam and Bhujanga-Bhiaravam Bhujanga-trasita form corresponds to the
Nataraja image. The Bhujanga-lalita is also a variation of the same
karana in that the text says the lifted leg should be slightly above
the knee. It is identical with Urdhva-janu form. The third one is the
Bhujanga-bhairava which is identical with the Urdhva-tandava.8 In the
Tevaram of Saint Sambandar (7th cent) a form of special dance is
mentioned as bhujanga-raga-manatattan.9 The 10th cent Tamil text
Kalladam10 mentions the dance of Siva as Bhujanga-murai-tukki i.e. the
bhujanga category of dance. It is obvious the Bhujanga variety of
Dance has been very popular in the south atleast from the 7th cent, if
not earlier.

The citation by Aghora siva from Kamikagama speaks of seven types of
dance in the context of Nrttotsava. They are called1. Ananda tandavam
2. Sandhya-tandavam 3. Gauri-tandavam 4. Tripura-tandavam
5. Kali-tandavam 6. Muni-tandavam 7. Samhara-tandavam
This Agama holds Kali-tandava different from Ananda-tandavam.
Kamikagama gives another interesting information about dance. It
states that all dances of Siva are meant for pleasing Uma-Parvati and
so the Kalyana-sundara form is also a form of Tandava. It is called
Kalyana- sundara-nrtta and for this purpose the text gives the
dhyana-sloka of Kalyana-sundara.11

The question then would arise whether the festival called Nrtta-utsava
refers to what is now called Ananda-tandava form or any other form of
dancing figure? The text is clear so far as Nrttotsava is concerned
which is held for the Nataraja image as seen from the following meditative verses,
dhyana-slokas

i.e. "I salute Siva Natesa, who with his matted locks of hair flowing
around; with golden crescent moon on his head, with a skull, Ganga,
white arka flower, and the feather of a crane on his head; wears the
tiger's skin around his waist as a silken garment, his right hands
holding a snake, the abhaya mudra and a little drum: while one of the
left is extended and the other wields a fire; stands on the back of
Apasmara; his right leg planted firmly and the other lifted up and the
central chain of bells balances between the legs; wears a nakra
kundala on the right ear and a patra kundala on the left, performs
dances accompanied by Uma."

i.e "Paramesvari should have two hands; the right holding utpala
flower or kataka mudra while the left will remain in extended
avalambita pose; She stands in tribhanga with one leg straight and the
other slightly bent. Her colour is blackish-green"12

The festival of Dancing Siva
The two dhyana slokas leave no doubt that the dancing forms worshipped
in this context is exactly identical with the what is now known as
Nataraja and Sivakami. I have already shown that Aghora siva only
codified what was already prevalent before his time and not introduce
any thing new. Also may be noted that all epigraphs of 10th to 13th
cent. call the consort of Siva as Uma Paramesvari, a term used in this
dhyana sloka.

Aghora siva again cites Kamikagama, in this context which gives the
significance of hand gestures and symbols held by Nataraja. According
to this verse damaruka stands for creation (srishti); the hand in
bhujanga pose sustains (sthithi) the world; the fire in the other hand
stands for dissolution(samhara); the kuncita leg stands for veiling
(tirobhava) and the abhaya hand bestows grace (anugraha). These five
acts of Siva are called the five Acts- panca kritya

The association of the five sacred acts with the dancing form is thus
not of the age of the Cholas but far earlier, as it is found in
Kamikagama. Any suggestion of political or willful import of these
concepts by the Cholas will come into conflict with historical and
agamic texts.14 This text also says that the dance (festival) is for
the protection of all living beings, from the worms to the highest living
creature and hence it is called Ananda nrttam, the dance of Bliss.

Another philosophical concept mentioned in this text, is the three
fold form of Siva. One is called Mahesa, the second is called Sadasiva
and the third is Nishkala Siva. The Mahesa form is visualized with
limbs - Sakala(with body, hands etc); The Sadasiva form is with and
without form Misra; and the third category is Nishkala Siva without
any attributes. It is this form that is called Ananda rupa. So in the
context of Nrttotsava (festival of Dancing Siva) it is the Ananda tandava form that is visualized, says the text.

From the foregoing it is seen the important festival dedicated to
Nataraja image and his consort is connected with the black paste, its
removal and Ananda-tandava which is connected with protection of all
the beings and is not a ferocious dance.

I have drawn attention to two points of importance in this
discussion. First, the place of Black-paste and the other the worship
of the southern face of the Linga, namely the Aghora murti

Kala-mukhas

It is in this connection the role of Kalamukhas in Tamil nad deserves
special . There is an excellent study by Lorenzon on Kalamukhas and
Kapalikas. For a detailed account of the sect the reader is invited to
refer to that book. I have also drawn attention to the various Saiva
subsects including the Kalamukhas and their philosophy. They were
followers of Vedic tradition, worshipping the Aghora face of the
Linga. On account of colouring their face with deep-red sandal paste
and worshipping the Aghora face they were called Kalamukhas,
Kalananas, and Asita vaktra i.e ones with black
face. References to their presence in Tamilnad in the Chola territory
as at places like Kodumbalur are found from the 9th cent. CE.15

It may also be mentioned that in sculptural representations, the
Ananda-tandava form of Siva occurs immediately above the image of Dakshinamurti in
the southern niche of the main temple. I have shown that the
first temple to show this feature is the Sadayar temple near Trichy
16.The application of black paste on the devotees face and worshipping Nataraja on
the southern face etc. seem to indicate a connection with the
Kalamukhas. This aspect needs further detailed study. It is also
necessary to point out that bronze images were made essentially for
festivals in temples and hence go by the name utsava vigrahas i.e
festive images. Their significance can not be studied without
reference to their philosophical meaning within the festive context. A
careful study of the dance festival of Nataraja stands for the summum
bonum of Saiva philosophy.