International Standards

4. NGOs can be national or international in their composition and sphere of operation.5. NGOs should enjoy the right to freedom of expression and all other universally and regionally guaranteed rights and freedoms applicable to them.7. NGOs with legal personality should have the same capacities as are generally enjoyed by other legal persons and should be subject to the administrative, civil and criminal law obligations and sanctions generally applicable to those legal persons.10. Acts or omissions by public authorities affecting an NGO should be subject to administrative review and be open to challenge by the NGO in an independent and impartial court with full jurisdiction. (... )

II. Objectives

12. NGOs should be free to undertake research, education and advocacy on issues of public debate, regardless of whether the position taken is in accord with government policy or requires a change in the law.13. NGOs should be free to support a particular candidate or party in an election or a referendum provided that they are transparent in declaring their motivation. Any such support should also be subject to legislation on the funding of elections and political parties. 14. NGOs should be free to engage in any lawful economic, business or commercial activities in order to support their not-for-profit activities without any special authorisation being required, but subject to any licensing or regulatory requirements generally applicable to the activities concerned. 15. NGOs should be free to pursue their objectives through membership of associations, federations and confederations of NGOs, whether national or international.

IV. Legal personality A. General26. The legal personality of NGOs should be clearly distinct from that of their members or founders.27. An NGO created through the merger of two or more NGOs should succeed to their rights and liabilities. (...)

VI. Fundraising, property and public support

A. Fundraising50. NGOs should be free to solicit and receive funding – cash or in-kind donations – not only from public bodies in their own state but also from institutional or individual donors, another state or multilateral agencies, subject only to the laws generally applicable to customs, foreign exchange and money laundering and those on the funding of elections and political parties.

B. Property51. NGOs with legal personality should have access to banking facilities. 52. NGOs with legal personality should be able to sue for redress of harm caused to their property.55. NGOs with legal personality can use their property to pay their staff and can also reimburse all staff and volunteers acting on their behalf for reasonable expenses thereby incurred.

Explanatory Memorandum

Paragraph 425. Although many NGOs may have a focus that is local or regional in character, the objectives of some NGOs may be best pursued at the national or international level and in the case of others there may be a need to work at several or even all of these levels. The choice of level(s) at which to operate should always be a matter for those founding and belonging to the organisations concerned. It may well be that those belonging to an NGO will wish to change the level(s) at which it operates and they should be free to make such a change.

Paragraph 526. Freedom of expression is especially important for NGOs in the pursuit of their objectives. However, although some human rights and freedoms are only enjoyed by those who found and belong to NGOs (see Appl. No. 7805/77, X and Church of Scientology v. United Kingdom, 16 DR 68 (1979) and Wilson, National Union of Journalists and Others v. United Kingdom, nos. 30668/96, 30671/96 and 30678/96, 2 July 2002), there are many others which contribute to their ability to operate effectively, notably, the prohibition on discrimination, the right to a fair hearing, the prohibition on retrospective penalties, the right to respect for private life and correspondence, the right to freedom of assembly, the right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions and the right to an effective remedy.27. Furthermore a failure to respect the human rights and freedoms of those who belong to membership-based NGOs – especially the right to life, the right to liberty and security of the person, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to freedom of association, the right to political participation and freedom of movement – will often undermine the pursuit by those organisations of their objectives.

Paragraph 730. The conferment of legal personality on NGOs need not involve the grant of any greater legal powers than those enjoyed by other legal persons; the most essential ones for their operation are likely to be those inherent in such personality, namely, the ability to enter into contracts related to the pursuit of their objectives, to make payments for the goods and services thereby obtained, particularly through the operation of bank accounts, and the ability to own property. However, it ought always to be possible to confer greater capacities on certain types of NGOs and indeed this may be essential for the pursuit of their objectives. Thus additional rights that have been recognised as necessary for NGOs include: the observation of trials and other proceedings [1 UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, Art. 9(3)(b) and Document of the OSCE Moscow Meeting, 1991, para. 43]; participation in public affairs and criticism of governmental actions [2 Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (“Aarhus Convention”), Arts. 6-8, European Charter on the Statute for Judges, Art. 1.8, UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, Art. 8 and Document of the OSCE Moscow Meeting, 1991, para. 43]; promotion of human rights ideas [3 UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, Art. 7]; provision of advice [4 UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, Art. 9(3)(c)]; provision of information to international organisations [5 UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, Art. 9(4)]; and seeking information [6 Aarhus Convention, Art. 4]. At the same time, the enjoyment of legal capacities carries with it the responsibility to act within the law and NGOs should not expect any exemption from the application of the administrative, civil and criminal law obligations and sanctions that are generally applicable to legal persons. The application of the general law to NGOs does not, as the following paragraph makes clear (...)

Paragraph 1033. The Recommendation recognises the need for some regulatory controls over the establishment and continued operation of NGOs. However, it is essential that such controls are not applied in either a mistaken or improper manner. Fundamental safeguards against such a possibility occurring will be provided by the administration being prepared itself to review decisions that it has taken and by the supervisory control of the courts. Indeed in a state governed by the rule of law it is essential that NGOs and their members should be able to challenge acts or omissions affecting them in an independent court which has the capacity to review all aspects of their legality. Without this latter possibility there is likely to be a violation of the right to an effective remedy under Article 13 of the European Convention.

Paragraph 1237. The ability of NGOs to undertake research, education and advocacy on issues of public debate will often be crucial in the pursuit of their objectives. It would be pointless of them to undertake such research, education and advocacy if they were not also able to disagree with governmental policy or propose changes in the law.

Paragraph 1338. Although NGOs are not political parties, support by the former for the latter in elections and referenda can be an important means of realising a particular objective, whether in whole or in part, as the outcome of an election or referendum may lead to a change in law or policy favourable to that objective. NGOs should, therefore, be free to provide that support but this may be conditioned on them being transparent in declaring their motivation, particularly to ensure that their members and funders are aware of such support being given and that the law on the funding of elections and political parties is observed. That law may, for example, set limits on the level of funding that can be provided or prohibit funding from sources outside the state concerned.39. Furthermore, while NGOs should be able to support political parties on particular issues, such support may be incompatible with the objectives of some funders, whether because they are prohibited from supporting any form of advocacy or because their public status requires them to be non-partisan, and they should, therefore, be able to refuse or withdraw financial and other benefits where this support is given.

Paragraph 1440. The fact that NGOs are non-profit-making is one of their essential characteristics, distinguishing them in particular from commercial enterprises. However, NGOs will be unable to pursue their objectives without some source of income and this can be provided not only by fees, grants and donations but also through undertaking economic, business or commercial activities.41. There should, therefore, be no obstacle to them undertaking such activities subject to the prohibition on the income thereby derived being distributed to their members and founders (see Paragraph 9 of the Recommendation) and to the licensing and regulatory requirements generally applicable to those activities.42. The ability to undertake economic, business or commercial activities should also not preclude a requirement that certain modalities be followed, such as the formation of a subsidiary company for this purpose.

Paragraph 1543. Associations, federations and confederations of NGOs (which are themselves NGOs) play an important role in that they foster complementarity amongst such bodies and allow them to reach a wider audience, as well as enabling them to share services and set common standards. NGOs, in pursuit of their objectives, should thus be free to join or not join such associations, federations and confederations.

Paragraph 2665. The existence of legal personality has been recognised by the European Court as essential for the functioning of many NGOs (see Sidiropoulos and Others v. Greece, no. 26695/95, 10 July 1998 and Gorzelik and Others v. Poland [GC], no. 44158/98, 17 February 2004) and such personality would be meaningless if it were not distinct from that of those who have established the organisation or who belong to it. However, as Paragraph 75 of the Recommendation makes clear, the distinct personality of an organisation from that of its founders and members should not be an obstacle to either of the latter being held liable to third parties or the NGO itself for any professional misconduct or neglect of duties arising from their involvement in the activities of the NGO.

Paragraph 2766. It follows from the fact that an NGO has a distinct personality from that of its founders and members that it should be the new organisation created in the event of a merger of two or more existing ones that succeeds to their rights and liabilities. (...)

Paragraph 50100. The ability of NGOs to solicit donations in cash or in kind will, notwithstanding the possibility of them also engaging in some economic activity, always be a crucial means for them to raise the funds required in order to pursue their objectives. It is important that the widest range of possible donors can be approached by NGOs.101. The only limitation on donations coming from outside the country should be the generally applicable law on customs, foreign exchange and money laundering, as well as those on the funding of elections and political parties. Such donations should not be subject to any other form of taxation or to any special reporting obligation.

Paragraph 51102. Access to banking facilities will be essential if NGOs with legal personality are to be able to receive donations and to manage and protect their assets. This does not mean that banks should be placed under an obligation to grant such facilities to every NGO seeking them. However, their freedom to select clients should be subject to the principle of non-discrimination and the ability to operate bank accounts should be a necessary incident of the grant of legal personality to NGOs.

Paragraph 52103. The possibility of NGOs protecting their property rights, as well as any other legal interests, through being able to bring and defend legal proceedings is essential since any taking of, the loss of control over or damage to their property could frustrate the pursuit of their objectives; see the finding of a violation of the right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions under Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention in The Holy Monasteries v. Greece, nos. 13092/87 and 13984/88, 9 December 1994 which concerned a religious entity that had lost the right to bring legal proceedings in respect of its property.

Paragraph 55106. Most NGOs are unlikely to be able to pursue their objectives without employing some staff and/or having volunteers carrying out some activities on their behalf. It should, therefore, be recognised that it is a legitimate use of NGOs’ property to pay their employees and to reimburse the expenses of those who act on their behalf. While market conditions and/or legislation will influence the level of payments made to staff, the need to ensure that property is properly used for the pursuit of an NGO’s objectives would justify imposing a criterion of reasonableness for the reimbursement of expenses.

Basic principles(...) 8. NGOs with legal personality should have the same capacities as are generally enjoyed by other legal persons and be subject to the same administrative, civil and criminal law obligations and sanctions generally applicable to them.9. Any act or omission by a governmental organ affecting an NGO should be subject to administrative review and be open to challenge in an independent and impartial court with full jurisdiction.

Legal personality24. Where an NGO has legal personality this should be clearly distinct from that of its members or of its founders who should, in principle, not therefore be personally liable for any debts and obligations that the NGO has incurred or undertaken.25.(...) An NGO created through the merger of two or more NGOs should succeed to their rights and liabilities. (...)

Property and fund-raising52. NGOs with legal personality should be able to sue for redress of harm caused to their property.

Explanatory Memorandum

Paragraph 23. NGOs with legal personality should have the same general rights and obligations as other legal entities: the purpose of this principle is to reaffirm that NGOs must be subject to ordinary domestic law, not special regulations, although separate legislation may grant them additional rights and measures may be taken to encourage their activities.

Paragraph 24. Judicial protection: in a state governed by the rule of law it is essential that NGOs should be entitled, in the same way as other legal entities, to challenge decisions affecting them in an independent court which has the capacity to review all aspects of their legality, to quash them where appropriate and to provide any consequential relief that might be required. The principle established in the previous paragraph holds good, that is any act or decision affecting an NGO must be subject to the same administrative and judicial supervision as is generally applicable in the case of other legal entities. There should be no need for special provisions to this effect in legislation on NGOs.

Paragraph 38. The provisions relating to the legal personality of NGOs are one of the cornerstones of their status, since they permit NGOs to have an existence in their own right, separate from those of their members or founders. This enables them to enjoy elementary civic rights, such as the initiation of legal proceedings, but also to engage in practical dealings essential for their operation, for example rental of premises or opening of a bank account. It is important to note that paragraphs 24 and 25 of the fundamental principles are to be read together with paragraphs 72 and 73 on liability.The provisions of paragraphs 51, 52, 53 and 55 are designed to safeguard the assets of NGOs and ensure that they are properly managed.

(b) Specific

Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention), Articles 2, 4 and 9

Article 2DEFINITIONSFor the purposes of this Convention,(...) 4. “The public” means one or more natural or legal persons, and, in accordance with national legislation or practice, their associations, organizations or groups;5. “The public concerned” means the public affected or likely to be affected by, or having an interest in, the environmental decision-making; for the purposes of this definition, non-governmental organizations promoting environmental protection and meeting any requirements under national law shall be deemed to have an interest. (...)

Article 4ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION1. Each Party shall ensure that, subject to the following paragraphs of this article, public authorities, in response to a request for environmental information, make such information available to the public, within the framework of national legislation, including, where requested and subject to subparagraph (b) below, copies of the actual documentation containing or comprising such information:(a) Without an interest having to be stated;(b) In the form requested unless:(i) It is reasonable for the public authority to make it available in another form, in which case reasons shall be given for making it available in that form; or(ii) The information is already publicly available in another form.2. The environmental information referred to in paragraph 1 above shall be made available as soon as possible and at the latest within one month after the request has been submitted, unless the volume and the complexity of the information justify an extension of this period up to two months after the request. The applicant shall be informed of any extension and of the reasons justifying it.3. A request for environmental information may be refused if:(a) The public authority to which the request is addressed does not hold the environmental information requested;(b) The request is manifestly unreasonable or formulated in too general a manner; or(c) The request concerns material in the course of completion or concerns internal communications of public authorities where such an exemption is provided for in national law or customary practice, taking into account the public interest served by disclosure.4. A request for environmental information may be refused if the disclosure would adversely affect:(a) The confidentiality of the proceedings of public authorities, where such confidentiality is provided for under national law;(b) International relations, national defence or public security;(c) The course of justice, the ability of a person to receive a fair trial or the ability of a public authority to conduct an enquiry of a criminal or disciplinary nature;(d) The confidentiality of commercial and industrial information, where such confidentiality is protected by law in order to protect a legitimate economic interest. Within this framework, information on emissions which is relevant for the protection of the environment shall be disclosed;(e) Intellectual property rights;(f) The confidentiality of personal data and/or files relating to a natural person where that person has not consented to the disclosure of the information to the public, where such confidentiality is provided for in national law;(g) The interests of a third party which has supplied the information requested without that party being under or capable of being put under a legal obligation to do so, and where that party does not consent to the release of the material; or(h) The environment to which the information relates, such as the breeding sites of rare species.The aforementioned grounds for refusal shall be interpreted in a restrictive way, taking into account the public interest served by disclosure and taking into account whether the information requested relates to emissions into the environment.5. Where a public authority does not hold the environmental information requested, this public authority shall, as promptly as possible, inform the applicant of the public authority to which it believes it is possible to apply for the information requested or transfer the request to that authority and inform the applicant accordingly.6. Each Party shall ensure that, if information exempted from disclosure under paragraphs 3 (c) and 4 above can be separated out without prejudice to the confidentiality of the information exempted, public authorities make available the remainder of the environmental information that has been requested.7. A refusal of a request shall be in writing if the request was in writing or the applicant so requests. A refusal shall state the reasons for the refusal and give information on access to the review procedure provided for in accordance with article 9. The refusal shall be made as soon as possible and at the latest within one month, unless the complexity of the information justifies an extension of this period up to two months after the request. The applicant shall be informed of any extension and of the reasons justifying it.8. Each Party may allow its public authorities to make a charge for supplying information, but such charge shall not exceed a reasonable amount. Public authorities intending to make such a charge for supplying information shall make available to applicants a schedule of charges which may be levied, indicating the circumstances in which they may be levied or waived and when the supply of information is conditional on the advance payment of such a charge.

Article 9ACCESS TO JUSTICE1. Each Party shall, within the framework of its national legislation, ensure that any person who considers that his or her request for information under article 4 has been ignored, wrongfully refused, whether in part or in full, inadequately answered, or otherwise not dealt with in accordance with the provisions of that article, has access to a review procedure before a court of law or another independent and impartial body established by law. In the circumstances where a Party provides for such a review by a court of law, it shall ensure that such a person also has access to an expeditious procedure established by law that is free of charge or inexpensive for reconsideration by a public authority or review by an independent and impartial body other than a court of law. Final decisions under this paragraph 1 shall be binding on the public authority holding the information. Reasons shall be stated in writing, at least where access to information is refused under this paragraph.2. Each Party shall, within the framework of its national legislation, ensure that members of the public concerned(a) Having a sufficient interestor, alternatively,(b) Maintaining impairment of a right, where the administrative procedural law of a Party requires this as a precondition, have access to a review procedure before a court of law and/or another independent and impartial body established by law, to challenge the substantive and procedural legality of any decision, act or omission subject to the provisions of article 6 and, where so provided for under national law and without prejudice to paragraph 3 below, of other relevant provisions of this Convention. What constitutes a sufficient interest and impairment of a right shall be determined in accordance with the requirements of national law and consistently with the objective of giving the public concerned wide access to justice within the scope of this Convention. To this end, the interest of any non-governmental organization meeting the requirements referred to in article 2, paragraph 5, shall be deemed sufficient for the purpose of subparagraph (a) above. Such organizations shall also be deemed to have rights capable of being impaired for the purpose of subparagraph (b) above. The provisions of this paragraph 2 shall not exclude the possibility of a preliminary review procedure before an administrative authority and shall not affect the requirement of exhaustion of administrative review procedures prior to recourse to judicial review procedures, where such a requirement exists under national law.3. In addition and without prejudice to the review procedures referred to in paragraphs 1 and 2 above, each Party shall ensure that, where they meet the criteria, if any, laid down in its national law, members of the public have access to administrative or judicial procedures to challenge acts and omissions by private persons and public authorities which contravene provisions of its national law relating to the environment. 4. In addition and without prejudice to paragraph 1 above, the procedures referred to in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above shall provide adequate and effective remedies, including injunctive relief as appropriate, and be fair, equitable, timely and not prohibitively expensive. Decisions under this article shall be given or recorded in writing. Decisions of courts, and whenever possible of other bodies, shall be publicly accessible.5. In order to further the effectiveness of the provisions of this article, each Party shall ensure that information is provided to the public on access to administrative and judicial review procedures and shall consider the establishment of appropriate assistance mechanisms to remove or reduce financial and other barriers to access to justice.

Document of the OSCE Moscow Meeting, 1991, para 43

(43) The participating States will recognize as NGOs those which declare themselves as such, according to existing national procedures, and will facilitate the ability of such organizations to conduct their national activities freely on their territories; to that effect they will (...)(43.2) - endeavour to facilitate visits to their countries by NGOs from within any of the participating States in order to observe human dimension conditions;(43.3) - welcome NGO activities, including, inter alia, observing compliance with CSCE commitments in the field of the human dimension;(43.4) - allow NGOs, in view of their important function within the human dimension of the CSCE, to convey their views to their own governments and the governments of all the other participating States during the future work of the CSCE on the human dimension.(43.5) During the future work of the CSCE on the human dimension, NGOs will have the opportunity to distribute written contributions on specific issues of the human dimension of the CSCE to all delegations.(43.6) The CSCE Secretariat will, within the framework of the resources at its disposal, respond favourably to requests by NGOs for non-restricted documents of the CSCE.

Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, Copenhagen, 29 June 1990, Paras 9 and 11

(9) The participating States reaffirm that (9.1) - everyone will have the right to freedom of expression including the right to communication. This right will include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. The exercise of this right may be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and are consistent with international standards. In particular, no limitation will be imposed on access to, and use of, means of reproducing documents of any kind, while respecting, however, rights relating to intellectual property, including copyright; (...) (11) The participating States further affirm that, where violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms are alleged to have occurred, the effective remedies available include (11.1) - the right of the individual to seek and receive adequate legal assistance; (11.2) - the right of the individual to seek and receive assistance from others in defending human rights and fundamental freedoms, and to assist others in defending human rights and fundamental freedoms;(11.3) - the right of individuals or groups acting on their behalf to communicate with international bodies with competence to receive and consider information concerning allegations of human rights abuses.

4. NGOs can be national or international in their composition and sphere of operation. 5. NGOs should enjoy the right to freedom of expression and all other universally and regionally guaranteed rights and freedoms applicable to them. (...)II. Objectives 12. NGOs should be free to undertake research, education and advocacy on issues of public debate, regardless of whether the position taken is in accord with government policy or requires a change in the law. 13. NGOs should be free to support a particular candidate or party in an election or a referendum provided that they are transparent in declaring their motivation. Any such support should also be subject to legislation on the funding of elections and political parties. 14. NGOs should be free to engage in any lawful economic, business or commercial activities in order to support their not-for-profit activities without any special authorisation being required, but subject to any licensing or regulatory requirements generally applicable to the activities concerned. 15. NGOs should be free to pursue their objectives through membership of associations, federations and confederations of NGOs, whether national or international. (...)VI. Fundraising, property and public support A. Fundraising 50. NGOs should be free to solicit and receive funding – cash or in-kind donations – not only from public bodies in their own state but also from institutional or individual donors, another state or multilateral agencies, subject only to the laws generally applicable to customs, foreign exchange and money laundering and those on the funding of elections and political parties. B. Property 51. NGOs with legal personality should have access to banking facilities. (...)55. NGOs with legal personality can use their property to pay their staff and can also reimburse all staff and volunteers acting on their behalf for reasonable expenses thereby incurred.

Explanatory MemorandumParagraph 425. Although many NGOs may have a focus that is local or regional in character, the objectives of some NGOs may be best pursued at the national or international level and in the case of others there may be a need to work at several or even all of these levels. The choice of level(s) at which to operate should always be a matter for those founding and belonging to the organisations concerned. It may well be that those belonging to an NGO will wish to change the level(s) at which it operates and they should be free to make such a change.Paragraph 526. Freedom of expression is especially important for NGOs in the pursuit of their objectives. However, although some human rights and freedoms are only enjoyed by those who found and belong to NGOs (see Appl. No. 7805/77, X and Church of Scientology v. United Kingdom, 16 DR 68 (1979) and Wilson, National Union of Journalists and Others v. United Kingdom, nos. 30668/96, 30671/96 and 30678/96, 2 July 2002), there are many others which contribute to their ability to operate effectively, notably, the prohibition on discrimination, the right to a fair hearing, the prohibition on retrospective penalties, the right to respect for private life and correspondence, the right to freedom of assembly, the right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions and the right to an effective remedy.27. Furthermore a failure to respect the human rights and freedoms of those who belong to membership-based NGOs – especially the right to life, the right to liberty and security of the person, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to freedom of association, the right to political participation and freedom of movement – will often undermine the pursuit by those organisations of their objectives. (...)Paragraph 1237. The ability of NGOs to undertake research, education and advocacy on issues of public debate will often be crucial in the pursuit of their objectives. It would be pointless of them to undertake such research, education and advocacy if they were not also able to disagree with governmental policy or propose changes in the law.Paragraph 1338. Although NGOs are not political parties, support by the former for the latter in elections and referenda can be an important means of realising a particular objective, whether in whole or in part, as the outcome of an election or referendum may lead to a change in law or policy favourable to that objective. NGOs should, therefore, be free to provide that support but this may be conditioned on them being transparent in declaring their motivation, particularly to ensure that their members and funders are aware of such support being given and that the law on the funding of elections and political parties is observed. That law may, for example, set limits on the level of funding that can be provided or prohibit funding from sources outside the state concerned.39. Furthermore, while NGOs should be able to support political parties on particular issues, such support may be incompatible with the objectives of some funders, whether because they are prohibited from supporting any form of advocacy or because their public status requires them to be non-partisan, and they should, therefore, be able to refuse or withdraw financial and other benefits where this support is given.Paragraph 1440. The fact that NGOs are non-profit-making is one of their essential characteristics, distinguishing them in particular from commercial enterprises. However, NGOs will be unable to pursue their objectives without some source of income and this can be provided not only by fees, grants and donations but also through undertaking economic, business or commercial activities.41. There should, therefore, be no obstacle to them undertaking such activities subject to the prohibition on the income thereby derived being distributed to their members and founders (see Paragraph 9 of the Recommendation) and to the licensing and regulatory requirements generally applicable to those activities.42. The ability to undertake economic, business or commercial activities should also not preclude a requirement that certain modalities be followed, such as the formation of a subsidiary company for this purpose.Paragraph 1543. Associations, federations and confederations of NGOs (which are themselves NGOs) play an important role in that they foster complementarity amongst such bodies and allow them to reach a wider audience, as well as enabling them to share services and set common standards. NGOs, in pursuit of their objectives, should thus be free to join or not join such associations, federations and confederations. (...)Paragraph 50100. The ability of NGOs to solicit donations in cash or in kind will, notwithstanding the possibility of them also engaging in some economic activity, always be a crucial means for them to raise the funds required in order to pursue their objectives. It is important that the widest range of possible donors can be approached by NGOs.101. The only limitation on donations coming from outside the country should be the generally applicable law on customs, foreign exchange and money laundering, as well as those on the funding of elections and political parties. Such donations should not be subject to any other form of taxation or to any special reporting obligation.Paragraph 51102. Access to banking facilities will be essential if NGOs with legal personality are to be able to receive donations and to manage and protect their assets. This does not mean that banks should be placed under an obligation to grant such facilities to every NGO seeking them. However, their freedom to select clients should be subject to the principle of non-discrimination and the ability to operate bank accounts should be a necessary incident of the grant of legal personality to NGOs. (...)Paragraph 55106. Most NGOs are unlikely to be able to pursue their objectives without employing some staff and/or having volunteers carrying out some activities on their behalf. It should, therefore, be recognised that it is a legitimate use of NGOs’ property to pay their employees and to reimburse the expenses of those who act on their behalf. While market conditions and/or legislation will influence the level of payments made to staff, the need to ensure that property is properly used for the pursuit of an NGO’s objectives would justify imposing a criterion of reasonableness for the reimbursement of expenses.

2. NGOs encompass bodies established by individual persons (natural and legal) and groups of such persons. They may be national or international in their composition and sphere of operation. Basic principles 7. All NGOs enjoy the right to freedom of expression. (...)Objectives 10. An NGO is free to pursue its objectives, provided that both the objectives and the means employed are lawful. These can, for instance, include research, education and advocacy on issues of public debate, regardless of whether the position taken is in accord with stated government policy. 11. An NGO may also be established to pursue, as an objective, a change in the law. 12. An NGO which supports a particular candidate or party in an election should be transparent in declaring its motivation. Any such support should also be subject to legislation on the funding of political parties. Involvement in political activities may be a relevant consideration in any decision to grant it financial or other benefits in addition to legal personality. 13. An NGO with legal personality may engage in any lawful economic, business or commercial activities in order to support its non-profit-making activities without there being any need for special authorisation, but always subject to any licensing or regulatory requirements applicable to the activities concerned. 14. NGOs may pursue their objectives through membership of federations and confederations of NGOs. (...)Property and fund-raising 50. NGOs may solicit and receive funding – cash or in-kind donations – from another country, multilateral agencies or an institutional or individual donor, subject to generally applicable foreign exchange and customs laws. 51. NGOs with legal personality should have access to banking facilities. [Explanatory Memorandum22. Right to freedom of expression: this principle derives from Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides that “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression”, and is applicable to NGOs on an equal footing with other natural or legal persons. 25. The range of objectives that may be pursued by NGOs is commensurate with their own diversity, and the objectives mentioned in the fundamental principles are merely examples. The only requirement here – other than that an NGO should be non-profit-making – is that set out in paragraph 10: lawfulness of the objectives pursued and the means employed. The fundamental principles illustrate a range of the means that might be employed, but these are not exhaustive. 26. Two objectives, namely seeking a change in the law and participating in political debate, are particularly mentioned because limitations on their pursuit have been the subject of successful challenges in the European Court of Human Rights. 27. Pursuit of economic activities is a special case, since it is in fact NGOs’ non-profit-making nature that distinguishes them from commercial enterprises. In this connection, the text lays down the principle that an NGO is free to carry on any economic, business or commercial activity, on condition that any profits are used to finance the pursuit of the common- or public-interest objectives for which the NGO was set up. National legislation governing NGOs should therefore stipulate that none of their earnings or net profits is to be distributed, as such, to any person whatsoever. Such legislation might also prescribe particular modalities for carrying out economic or commercial activities, for example, the formation of a subsidiary company. Subject to this general restriction, no requirements should be imposed on NGOs other than the general rules governing the economic activities in question. 28. The fundamental principles also establish the principle that, in pursuit of their objectives, NGOs are free to join or not to join federations and confederations of NGOs. Such federations and confederations of NGOs have an important role, since they foster complementarity among NGOs and allow them to reach a wider audience, as well as share services and set common standards. (...)56. The possibility for NGOs to solicit donations in cash or in kind is a fundamental principle, a national consequence of their non-profit-making nature. Such contributions, along with the proceeds of any economic activity, are NGO’s vital means of financing the pursuit of its objectives. However, this possibility for NGOs to collect funding is not absolute and may be subject to regulation, with a view to the protection of the targeted audience. 57. Donors may be natural or legal persons – companies or institutions – and may be national or foreign. In general, foreign and national funding should be subject to the same rules, in particular as regards the possible uses of the funds and reporting requirements. (...)59. The principle set out in paragraph 51 does not imply that banks are under an obligation to provide banking facilities to every NGO requesting it. Subject to the principle of non-discrimination, individual banks are free to choose their clients.]

Article 1Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to promote and to strive for the protection and realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms at the national and international levels. (...)

Article 5For the purpose of promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, at the national and international levels:(a) To meet or assemble peacefully;(b) To form, join and participate in non-governmental organizations, associations or groups;(c) To communicate with non-governmental or intergovernmental organizations.

Article 6Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others:(a) To know, seek, obtain, receive and hold information about all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including having access to information as to how those rights and freedoms are given effect in domestic legislative, judicial or administrative systems;(b) As provided for in human rights and other applicable international instruments, freely to publish, impart or disseminate to others views, information and knowledge on all human rights and fundamental freedoms;(c) To study, discuss, form and hold opinions on the observance, both in law and in practice, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms and, through these and other appropriate means, to draw public attention to those matters.

Article 7Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to develop and discuss new human rights ideas and principles and to advocate their acceptance.

Article 8Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to develop and discuss new human rights ideas and principles and to advocate their acceptance.

Article 91. In the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the promotion and protection of human rights as referred to in the present Declaration, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to benefit from an effective remedy and to be protected in the event of the violation of those rights.2. To this end, everyone whose rights or freedoms are allegedly violated has the right, either in person or through legally authorized representation, to complain to and have that complaint promptly reviewed in a public hearing before an independent, impartial and competent judicial or other authority established by law and to obtain from such an authority a decision, in accordance with law, providing redress, including any compensation due, where there has been a violation of that person's rights or freedoms, as well as enforcement of the eventual decision and award, all without undue delay.3. To the same end, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, inter alia:(a) To complain about the policies and actions of individual officials and governmental bodies with regard to violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, by petition or other appropriate means, to competent domestic judicial, administrative or legislative authorities or any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State, which should render their decision on the complaint without undue delay;(b) To attend public hearings, proceedings and trials so as to form an opinion on their compliance with national law and applicable international obligations and commitments;(c) To offer and provide professionally qualified legal assistance or other relevant advice and assistance in defending human rights and fundamental freedoms.4. To the same end, and in accordance with applicable international instruments and procedures, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to unhindered access to and communication with international bodies with general or special competence to receive and consider communications on matters of human rights and fundamental freedoms. (...)

Article 11Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to the lawful exercise of his or her occupation or profession. Everyone who, as a result of his or her profession, can affect the human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of others should respect those rights and freedoms and comply with relevant national and international standards of occupational and professional conduct or ethics.

Article 121. Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to participate in peaceful activities against violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms.2. The State shall take all necessary measures to ensure the protection by the competent authorities of everyone, individually and in association with others, against any violence, threats, retaliation, de facto or de jure adverse discrimination, pressure or any other arbitrary action as a consequence of his or her legitimate exercise of the rights referred to in the present Declaration.3. In this connection, everyone is entitled, individually and in association with others, to be protected effectively under national law in reacting against or opposing, through peaceful means, activities and acts, including those by omission, attributable to States that result in violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as acts of violence perpetrated by groups or individuals that affect the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Article 13Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to solicit, receive and utilize resources for the express purpose of promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms through peaceful means, in accordance with article 3 of the present Declaration. (...)

Article 17In the exercise of the rights and freedoms referred to in the present Declaration, everyone, acting individually and in association with others, shall be subject only to such limitations as are in accordance with applicable international obligations and are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.