Self-regulation as a regulatory strategy: The Italian legal framework 1

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1 Self-regulation as a regulatory strategy: The Italian legal framework 1 Simona Rodriquez 2 Introductory remarks. The concept of self-regulation and the aims of this study The increased regulatory function of private law and the development of regulatory strategies involving a plurality of actors have radically changed the traditional view of the regulatory State. These crucial changes require a new attention to the interaction between public and private regulators. 3 On the one hand, important developments have occurred in relation to public regulation as well. 4 If, in the recent past, private regulation has been useful to define regulatory areas not covered by the public sphere, today there is a relevant trend towards a different form of coregulation between public and private regulators. 5 The role of private regulation is increasing more as a complement to public regulation rather than as an alternative thereto, reflecting the crisis of the regulatory state, but, at the same time, posing serious questions concerning the legitimacy of private regulators. 6 On the other hand, the development of self-regulatory mechanisms has increased the role and power of private regulators. In recent years, European legal and political sciences are paying growing attention to the concept of self-regulation, as a regulatory strategy in order to implement supranational policies. Despite this attention in the European context, self-regulation still remains a rather vague and elusive concept. As Price and Verhulst pointed out: The initial problem of every approach to self-regulation pertains to definition and semantics. There is no single definition of self-regula- 1 The results of this paper were first the object of an international Conference ( Rethinking Self-Regulatory Modes and Strategies in Europe ) at the European University Institute in October 2005, where I first presented these issues. The workshop was organized by Prof. Fabrizio Cafaggi in collaboration with the RSCAS project entitled New Modes of Governance (NEWGOV), and within a large comparative research project on Self-regulation as a Regulatory Strategy. A comparative law perspective. 2 Università degli Studi di Torino (Italy), ( 3 On the point, see F. Cafaggi, Rethinking private regulation in the European regulatory space, EUI Working Paper Law No. 2006/13, Italy. On the evolution of the regulatory state, see recently C. Scott, Regulation in the age of governance: the rise of the post regulatory state, in J. Jordana & D. Levi Faur (eds.), The politics of regulation, 2004, pp. 145 et seq. 4 There has also been a strong development of new modes of public regulation in recent years. For example, different models have developed among which independent regulatory agencies have become predominant. On this issue see recently R. Caranta et al. (eds.), Independent Administrative Authorities, Recently see M.A. Frison Roche, Définition du droit de la régulation économique, in M.A. Frison Roche (ed.), Les régulations économiques: légitimité et efficacité, 2004, pp. 7 et seq. See also M.A. Salvati, I rapporti tra Stato ed economia come rapporti tra regolazione pubblica e privata, in C. Franchini & L. Paganetto (eds.), Stato ed economia all inizio del XXI secolo, 2002, pp. 29 et seq.; G. Napolitano, Pubblico e privato nel diritto amministrativo, 2003, p For these thoughts, see again Cafaggi 2006, supra note Volume 3, Issue 2 (December) 2007

2 Self-regulation as a regulatory strategy: The Italian legal framework tion that is entirely satisfactory, nor should there be : 7 this is so mainly because it has developed for different reasons, in different circumstances and in different countries. Rob Baggott, in an article published in 1989, 8 defined self-regulation as an institutional arrangement whereby an organization regulates the standards of behaviour of its members. The essence of self-regulation would be a process of collective government. In 1996, Julia Black specified that the term selfregulation is used to describe the discipline of one s own conduct by oneself: self-regulation describes the situation of a group of persons or bodies, acting together, performing a regulatory function in respect of themselves and others who accept their authority. 9 This does not mean, however, that the State may not in fact have a role in the regulation. Many forms of self-regulation have involved the State either as an initiator of the self-regulatory exercise, or as a participant in the exercise or as the ultimate guardian of the rights of citizens. 10 In other words, instead of taking over all the components of regulation, the self-regulator may be involved at the legislation stage by developing a code of practice, while leaving enforcement to the government, or the government may establish regulations, but delegate enforcement to the private sector. At times, the government may mandate a regulator to adopt and enforce a code of self-regulation. More often, however, a self-regulatory body may engage in self-regulation in an attempt to stave off government regulation. Alternatively, self-regulation may be undertaken to implement or supplement legislation. In 1995, Ogus clearly underlined that there is no clear dichotomy ( ) between selfregulation and public regulation, but rather a spectrum containing different legislative constraints, outsider participation in relation to rule formulation or enforcement (or both), and external control and accountability. Thus, at one extreme, rules may be private to a firm, association or organization; at the other, they may have to be approved by a government minister or some independent public authority. Secondly, the rules or standards issued by the SRA may have varying degrees of legal force: they may be formally binding, codes of practice which presumptively apply unless an alleged offender can show that some alternative conduct was capable of satisfactorily meeting the regulatory goals, or purely voluntary. 11 More generally, if it is true that self-regulation implies an organization regulating the standards of its members, why should an organization wish to do this? What are the advantages traditionally claimed for self-regulation over public regulation? First, in Ogus view, 12 since selfregulatory agencies can normally command a greater degree of expertise and technical knowledge of practices and innovatory possibilities, information costs for the formulation and interpre- 7 See M.E. Price & S.G. Verhulst, In search of the self: charting the course of self-regulation on the Internet in a global environment, in C. Marsden, Regulating the global information society, 2000, p. 58. On this point, J.R. Shackleton, UK privatisation US deregulation, 1985 Politics, October, pp. 8-16, considers self-regulation as a significant feature of regulation in Great Britain. More specifically, a number of reports and studies have confirmed that in several policy areas such as the regulation of the professions, advertising and the press, to name a few British policy makers have opted for a higher degree of self-regulation than their counterparts in other countries. As to the Italian literature on self-regulation, see recently F. Cafaggi, Reframing self-regulation in European Private Law, Notably, see also F. Cafaggi, Crisi della statualità, pluralismo e modelli di autoregolamentazione, 2001 Politica del diritto, no. 4, pp R. Baggott, Regulatory reform in Britain: the changing face of self-regulation, 1989 Public Administration 67, p See J. Black, Constitutionalising Self-Regulation, 1996 Modern Law Review 59, p. 24. As to the Italian literature on self-regulation, see, among others, C. Alvisi, Pubblico e privato nei sistemi autoregolamentari. Il problema dei controlli sull autonormazione nel settore della pubblicità commerciale, 1999 Resp. comunicazione e impresa, p. 463, who defines self-regulatory mechanisms as complex phenomena of self-regulation of private actors, as private legal orders able to replace, precede or complete statutes ( fenomeni complessi di autoregolamentazione dei privati veri e propri ordinamenti privati, che suppliscono, precedono e spesso sostituiscono o completano l intervento del legislatore ). 10 J.W. Maxwell et al., Self-regulation and social welfare: the political economy of corporate environmentalism, 2000 Journal of Law and Economics, no. 2, p See also A. Cannataci & J. P. Bonnici, Can Self-Regulation satisfy the transnational requisite of successful Internet Regulation?, 17th Bileta Annual Conference, 5-6 April 2002, Free University, Amsterdam. 11 Notably A. Ogus, Rethinking Self-regulation, 1995 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, no. 1, p Ibid., p

3 SIMONA RODRIQUEZ tation of standards are lower. Secondly, for the same reasons, monitoring and enforcement costs are also reduced. Thirdly, to the extent that the processes of, and rules issued by, self-regulators are less formalized than those of public regulatory regimes, there are savings in the costs of amending standards. More specifically, the focus of the research will be on self-regulatory mechanisms at the national (Italian) level focusing firstly on the constitutional law dimension. Constitutional law may in fact envisage a number of legal provisions which are able to affect, directly or indirectly, recourse to self-regulation, either promoting or prohibiting it. It will be crucial to identify such provisions and to evaluate their relationships within the context of the constitutional order and their overall relevance vis-à-vis the practice of self-regulation. For instance, can the (Italian) constitutional conceptions of private autonomy affect the legal system s capacity to adopt selfregulation? Within this framework, it will be essential to answer some specific questions. Is there any direct or indirect link between self-regulation and constitutional values? Does the Constitution impose any duty on the State with regard to self-regulatory mechanisms, such as, for example, an obligation to monitor their activity, to control their internal organisation and procedures, to supervise their interaction with third parties? To what extent is self-regulation compatible with the rule of law? Part II of this study will focus the debate on the specific sectors where self-regulation has been traditionally experienced, paying attention to the remarkable transformation in the lawmaking process, which is moving towards forms of co-regulation, delegated self-regulation and ex-post recognised self-regulation. 13 I. The constitutional law dimension The first part of the study is centred around the question of whether there are constitutional mechanisms affecting recourse to self-regulation in Italy. The Constitution of 1948 is the basic law of the Italian State, occupying the main place in the hierarchy of legal sources. 14 It consists of two parts, preceded by a section on fundamental principles. The two parts are concerned with the rights and duties of citizens and the structure of the Republic, respectively. To put it succinctly, the first part deals with the civil, political, economic and social rights of citizens, while the second part concerns the mechanisms by which the State creates laws, governs the country, provides for the resolution of disputes and polices the Constitution itself. Generally speaking, the present Italian Constitution does not deal directly with selfregulatory mechanisms. Nevertheless, several constitutional provisions can be found which are able to indirectly affect recourse to self-regulation. An indirect but clear link can thus be established between self-regulatory means and constitutional law. I.1. Fundamental rights As stated above, the first section of the Italian Constitution deals with fundamental principles. A very important question must be answered before analysing individual rights and their potential relationship with self-regulatory mechanisms: who is entitled to constitutional rights? Under 13 On this classification, see F. Cafaggi, Le rôle des acteurs privés dans le processus de regulation: participation, autorégulation et regulation privée, 2004 Revue française d administration publique, no. 1, pp. 9 et seq. On the distinction, see also below. 14 After the Constitution comes ordinary legislation, the codes being the main sources thereof. Inferior to legislation, and incapable of modifying or abrogating it, are administrative acts. See below. 142

4 Self-regulation as a regulatory strategy: The Italian legal framework Article 2 of the Italian Constitution, the Republic recognizes and guarantees the inviolable rights of man, both as an individual and as a member of the social groups in which one s personality finds expression. It is thus clear that not only the individual, but also the social groups are entitled to constitutional rights. The typical example of such a social group is the family, which is defined in Article 29 as a natural association founded on marriage, but local governments (Article 5), linguistic minorities (Article 6), trade unions (Article 39), 15 and political parties (Article 49) are all mentioned as well. Constitutional rights do not only involve relationships between the individual and the State. There is also an intermediate tier (the social group) through which the individual realizes his or her constitutionally protected liberty. Nevertheless, it is fundamental for the purpose of this study to understand who is bound by rights afforded under the Constitution. Is it only the State (in the broad sense of all the public bodies), or does this responsibility also extend to private corporations, where such corporations represent the so-called poteri privati or private powers (i.e. large corporations, political parties and, why not, self-regulatory bodies)? The matter is highly controversial. With reference to the freedom of speech, for example, the Constitutional Court has held that no entity, public or private, can abridge an individual s constitutional rights. 16 Within this framework, it is thus clear that social groups mentioned in Article 2 as possible beneficiaries of constitutional rights can also be perceived as potentially threatening to a person s individual rights, and these groups are thus also bound by them. 17 I.1.1. Civil rights (negative rights) and welfare rights (positive rights) Part I of the Constitution is divided into four titles, dealing respectively with civil, ethical-social, economic and political relations. 18 Civil rights listed in Articles 13 to 28 are also considered as diritti negativi or negative rights, because they prohibit the State from regulating or intervening in certain areas of private life. Specifically, according to Article 18 of the Constitution, citizens have the right to associate freely, without any authorisation, for ends which are not forbidden to individuals by criminal law. The principle of freedom of association, closely linked to the concept of private autonomy, can be considered as one of the most important constitutional provisions able to promote and justify self-regulatory mechanisms. 19 Freedom of association, as recognized by Article 18, undoubtedly has to be read in connection with the constitutional regulation of trade unions. 20 Agreements and organizations which uphold and regulate labour rights are thus promoted and favoured. Trade unions are free to organize themselves without restriction and without any pre-established legal model. 21 The constitutional foundation of social (welfare) rights can be traced to Article 3, Paragraph 2, stating that it is the duty of the Republic to remove all economic and social obstacles which, 15 See below. 16 Corte Costituzionale, 9 luglio 1970, n. 122, in 17 See M. Comba, Constitutional law, in J.S. Lena & U. Mattei, Introduction to Italian law, 2002, p In each case, the relations in question are those between the citizen and the State, thus illustrating the public law nature of these relationships. 19 See Section II.1 of this study. 20 Art. 35, Para. 1: The Republic protects work in all its forms and applications ; Para. 3 of the same article: It [The Republic] promotes and encourages international agreements and organisations whose aim is to assert and regulate labour rights. 21 As will be remarked below, trade union freedom has been solemnly proclaimed as a fundamental principle of Italian industrial relations by Art. 39 of the Constitution, declaring that labour union organisation is free. 143

5 SIMONA RODRIQUEZ by limiting the freedom and equality of citizens, prevent the full development of the individual and the effective participation in political, economic and social organizations within the country. Welfare rights are thus considered to be a necessary instrument for the implementation of civil rights. The Republic is obligated to remove economic and social obstacles that may hinder citizens from fully enjoying civil rights like liberty and equality and the right to participate in those social organizations which are so crucial in the Italian Constitution s idea of what rights are. In this context, it must be reminded that, under Article 41, Paragraph 1, private economic initiative is free. However, it cannot be exercised in such a manner as to damage safety, liberty and human dignity (Article 41, Paragraph 2). Parliament is entitled to determine appropriate planning and controls so that public and private economic activity is given direction and coordinated with social objectives (Article 41, Paragraph 3). The freedom of contract might also be taken into account as a fundamental principle able to justify self-regulatory mechanisms and to affect the Italian legal system s capacity to adopt them. Nevertheless, it is not positively recognized as a general principle by the Italian Constitution of Some scholars argue that it is embodied in Article 2, while others refer to Articles 41 and 42 of the Constitution. 22 On the one hand, any restriction on the freedom of contract is regarded as a restriction on private enterprise. On the other hand, constitutional provisions, and the values protected thereby, work to limit the private autonomy to contract. 23 Last but not least, it must be borne in mind that, under Article 3, all citizens have equal social dignity and are equal before the law. Discrimination on grounds of sex, race, language, religion, political opinion, or social and personal condition is not permitted. This means that the rights and duties which are described in Part I of the Constitution cannot be limited to any one or more classes within the community, nor can any class be excluded from their enjoyment. I.2. Sources of law and self-regulation. The concept of legislative delegation A brief overview of the Italian system of sources of law is necessary in order to better understand the role and the position of self-regulatory mechanisms in the Italian legal order. 24 The Constitution of 1948 is the basic law of the Italian State, occupying the main place in the hierarchy of legal sources, followed by statutes and regulations. 25 A statute in conflict with the Constitution is invalid. A regulation in conflict with a statute is similarly invalid. 26 The invalidity operates differently in the two hypotheses. In the case of an unconstitutional statute, the Constitution itself gives the Constitutional Court the power to declare that it ceases to have effect (Article 136), 27 while for an illegal government administrative regulation, the Constitution 22 See A. Gambaro, Freedom of contract and constitutional law in Italy, in M. Rabello & P. Sarcevic (eds.), Freedom of contract and constitutional law, 1998, p Notably, see also B. Grazzini, Autodisciplina pubblicitaria e ordinamento statuale, 2003, p See A. Musy & A. Monti, Contract law, in J.S. Lena & U. Mattei, Introduction to Italian law, 2002, p For a more encompassing analysis of the Italian system of sources of law, see F. Modugno, Appunti dalle lezioni sulle fonti del diritto, 2002; S. M. Cicconetti, Le fonti del diritto italiano, 2002; T. Martines, Fonti del diritto e giustizia costituzionale, More recently see F. Modugno & P. Carnevale (eds.), Rilevanti novità in tema di fonti del diritto dopo la riforma del Titolo V della seconda parte della Costituzione, See Art. 2 of the Provisions on the law in general ( Disposizioni sulla legge in generale ): The enactment of statutes and the issuing of governmental acts having the force of statutes are governed by constitutional laws ; Art. 3, Para. 1: The regulatory power of the Government is governed by constitutional laws. See Art. 87 of the Italian Constitution, which lists, among the several Presidential duties, the power to promulgate laws and issue decrees having the force of law, as well as regulations. 26 See also Art. 4 of the Provisions on the law in general ( Disposizioni sulla legge in generale ): Regulations cannot contain rules contrary to the provisions of statutes. 27 Under Art. 136 Cost.: When the court declares a law or an act with the force of law unconstitutional, the norm ceases to have effect from the day following the publication of the decision. The decision of the court is published and reported to parliament and to the regional councils involved for them to take appropriate measures in constitutional forms where necessary. 144

6 Self-regulation as a regulatory strategy: The Italian legal framework is silent, and a determination of the rule s validity is found in the machinery of judicial control over administrative activity. 28 The Italian Constitution describes the organization of the Republic as being centred on Parliament, which is the only body empowered to legislate (Article 70: The legislative function is exercised collectively by both Houses ). 29 Nevertheless, the legislator (Parliament) can entrust some of its normative powers to the Government, within expressly specified limits. 30 Under Article 76 of the Constitution, in fact, legislative power may not be delegated to the government unless Parliament specifies principles and criteria for guidance, and only for a limited time and in well-specified subjects. Again, by virtue of Article 77, the government may not, without delegation from the Houses, issue decrees having the force of ordinary law. 31 The model of the sources of law rooted in the Italian Constitution, as mentioned above, is typically positivistic and centred on the pivotal role of Parliament. For the purposes of this study, it will be interesting to analyse to what extent the selfregulatory phenomenon is compatible with Parliament s sovereignty and with the linked principle of the rule of law (principio di legalità). 32 According to this brief overview (but the matter will be better discussed in the sectorial analysis), it should be clear that rules made by private actors (i.e. self-regulatory rules) that pretend to have external effects (binding erga omnes) can be considered as law (and, as such, as sources of law), as long as they can be incorporated into some of the formal sources of Italian law. 33 In this context, we can briefly recall some theories by certain authors, such as Santi Romano, 34 supporting pluralistic approaches of the law (teoria della pluralità degli ordinamenti giuridici) and arguing that spontaneous organisations could create private legal orders in 28 See Comba 2002, supra note 17, p See, however, Art. 117 Cost., as modified by Constitutional law no. 3/2001: Legislative power belongs to the state and the regions in accordance with the constitution and within the limits set by European Union law and international obligations. The constitutional reform in 2001 modified Art. 117 Cost., introducing the rule of residual legislative power to the Regions: it now lists the seventeen fields in which the State has exclusive legislative authority and another list of eighteen fields in which the State and Regions have concurrent authority. Any other field is subject to the exclusive legislative power of the Regions. 30 For an exhaustive overview of the Constitutional Court s judgments on the limits laid down by Art. 76 Cost., see E. Malfatti, Rapporti tra deleghe legislative e delegificazione, 1999, p. 35. Some authors argue that there are no constitutional provisions which prohibit the legislator from delegating normative functions to bodies other than the Government. See G. De Minico, Regole Comando e consenso, 2004, p. 17. In the author s opinion, independent administrative authorities would be entitled to exercise secondary normative powers (through regulations). 31 In addition to the above form of delegated legislation, statutes increasingly provide for codes of practice (this is thus the so-called delegated self-regulation) which will have legal effect within the limits expressly specified by Parliament. This is the case, for instance, concerning Law No. 146 of 12 June 1990 which foresees that where a strike takes place in public essential services, minimum services shall be guaranteed, as agreed upon by the administration (or the enterprise that administers the essential service) and the union s representation at the enterprise level (or the workers representatives where appropriate), through self-regulation codes (codici di autoregolamentazione). This is the case, again, with the Law of 27 June 1991, No. 220, which delegated the Consiglio Nazionale del notariato National Council of Public Notaries to adopt notarial deontological rules. On 29 July 1998, the Garante per la protezione dei dati personali (Privacy Authority) approved a code of conduct in the exercise of the power expressly delegated by Art. 25, Law of 31 December 1996, No. 675 (now Legislative Decree No. 196/2003). 32 On the principio di legalità, see, among others, G.U. Rescigno, Sul principio di legalità, 1995 Diritto pubblico, pp. 247 et seq.; F. Sorrentino, Lezioni sul principio di legalità, Recently see A. Ali, Il principio di legalità nell'ordinamento comunitario, Cafaggi 2001, supra note 7, p. 576, who states that there are two different kinds of self-regulatory codes: those that pretend to be generally binding and those that, being the product of private autonomy, only have an impact on the regulatees. The author argues that the selfregulatory codes which pretend to be binding erga omnes, necessarily need a formal legitimacy through the law. See, on this matter, the case of self-regulation in labour law. As we will see, Law No. 146 of 12 June 1990, as amended in 2000 (Law No. 83 of 11 April) and regulating the right to strike in public essential services, foresees that where a strike occurs in such services, a minimum service shall be guaranteed, the modalities of which shall be agreed upon by the administration (or the enterprise that administers the essential service) and the union s representation at the enterprise level (or the workers representatives where appropriate), not only by collective agreements but also through self-regulation codes (codici di autoregolamentazione). Some Italian authors argue that Act No. 146/1990 represents a radical transformation in the law-making process towards a sort of delegated self-regulation. In this case, since the legislator mandates the industry to adopt a code of self-regulation, collective agreements and more generally self-regulatory codes can thus be considered as sources of law which are valid erga omnes. 34 S. Romano, L ordinamento giuridico, For a concrete application of the theory of pluralità degli ordinamenti giuridici, see Cass. Civ., 2 dicembre 1932, noted by W. Cesarini Sforza, La teoria degli ordinamenti giuridici e il diritto sportivo, 1933 Foro Italiano I, p

7 SIMONA RODRIQUEZ competition with the State. 35 This doctrine as will be seen has been followed by a consistent part of Italian legal literature in order to explain and justify self-regulatory mechanisms in the most relevant sectors in which they are applied. 36 II. Sector analysis. Introductory remarks Italian legal scholarship rarely pays attention to self-regulatory mechanisms as a general issue. The debate usually focuses on specific sectors where self-regulation is typically applied. Selfregulation in the Italian legal order can thus be considered as a sector-oriented concept. As it is impossible to give an exhaustive overwiew of all self-regulatory mechanisms in the Italian legal order, in part II of this study special attention will be given to the most relevant sectors in which the self-regulatory technique is applied. II.1. Advertising self-regulation Advertising can be considered as the most important sector in which there has been academic discussions on the role of self-regulation in the Italian legal order. 37 In a broad sense, the term advertising regulation includes all controls or regulations from all sources, including self-discipline by individuals and by organisations involved in advertising. 38 In a strict sense, advertising regulation can be considered as the control of commercial behaviour through mandatory rules, laid down by statutes, often implementing European Directives, 39 and enforced through the intervention of statutory Authorities and State courts. The Italian advertising self-regulatory system is the responsibility of a non-profit organisation (the so-called Istituto dell Autodisciplina Pubblicitaria) 40 set up by the business organisation of all constituent parts of the advertising industry. 41 Within the I.A.P. system, responsible for the practical interpretation and application of the self-regulatory code, there are two different bodies. Firstly, the Supervisory Committee Comitato di Controllo entitled to investigate and to 35 On this point, see P. Rescigno, L autonomia dei privati, in Studi in onore di Gioacchino Scaduto, 1988, pp. 531 et seq. See also Tribunal of Milan, 22 January 1976, 1977 Riv. Dir. Ind., p Amplius (with express reference to self-regulation in the sport sector) C. Alvisi, Autonomia privata e autodisciplina sportive. Il C.O.N.I. e la regolamentazione dello sport, 2000, p On this matter, see also Grazzini 2003, supra note 22, who applies Santi Romano s theory in order to explain the phenomenon of self-regulation in the advertising sector. See again Cafaggi 2001, supra note 7, p The author has underlined that the theory of pluralità degli ordinamenti can be admitted whenever it is compatible with the Italian constitutional order and whenever the sources that do not find their legitimacy in statutes do not pretend to have external effects. 37 In general, for the Italian literature, see L.C. Ubertazzi, La giurisprudenza completa dell autodisciplina pubblicitaria, : la raccolta integrale delle decisioni autodisciplinari, 2006; B. Grazzini, Autodisciplina pubblicitaria e ordinamento statuale, 2003; B. Grazzini, Autodisciplina pubblicitaria e profili di diritto concorrenziale, 2001 Resp. Comunicazione e impresa, p. 419; C. Alvisi, Advertising regulation: the basic elements of a self-regulatory system, 2000 Resp. comunicazione e impresa, p. 187; P. Autieri, Il codice di autodisciplina pubblicitaria, in P. Zatti (ed.), Le fonti di autodisciplina. Tutela del consumatore, del risparmiatore, dell utente, 1996; N. Zorzi, Autodisciplina pubblicitaria, 1985 Contratto e Impresa, p See C. Alvisi, Advertising regulation: the basic elements of a self-regulatory system, 2000 Resp. comunicazione e impresa, p. 182, who refers to the definition by G.E. Miracle & T.R. Nevett, Voluntary regulation of advertising. A comparative analysis of the United Kingdom and the United States, See Art. 5 of Directive 84/450/EEC on Misleading Advertising, as modified by Directive 97/55: This Directive does not exclude the voluntary control, which Member States may encourage, of misleading or comparative advertising by self-regulatory bodies and recourse to such bodies by the persons or organizations referred to in Article 4 if proceedings before such bodies are in addition to the court or administrative proceedings referred to in that Article. The Directive on Misleading Advertising was implemented by the Italian Legislative Decree No. 74/1992, as modified by Legislative Decree No. 67/ As laid down in its own Statute, it is a non-profit organisation. Amongst its main tasks are the formulation and updating of the rules of the Code of Self-Regulation (C.A.P.), the appointment of members to the Jury and the Review Board. For more details about the Istituto dell Autodisciplina Pubblicitaria, see A. Pedriali, Profili soggettivi dell autodisciplina pubblicitaria, 1992 Riv. dir. ind. I, p The Italian self-regulatory advertising system can be considered as a typical case of purely private self-regulation ex post recognized by the State. It was established, in fact, in order to compensate the lack of public law rules (Legislative Decree No. 74/1992 was only adopted in 1992) and aiming to create an autonomous, separate system. 146

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