1. Summary of legal and natural history status of
Baird's Sparrow throughout its range.

2. Linear measurements (mm) of Baird's Sparrow.

3. Measurements and mass of males from North Dakota
(Green 1992).

4. Trends in average percent change per year for
Baird's Sparrow from Breeding Bird Survey data from 1966-1996 (Sauer et al
1997).

FIGURES

1. Breeding and wintering distributions of
Baird's Sparrow.

2. Examples of Baird's Sparrow's yearly
population fluctuations using data from Breeding Bird Survey
1985-1987. Core populations remain fairly stable
but other portions of the range show a wide change of densities (J.R. Sauer,
written commun,).

3. Summer distribution map for Baird's Sparrow from
Breeding Bird Survey 1966-1996, in the average relative abundance of the
individuals detected per route per year (Sauer et al. 1996).

Baird's Sparrow (Ammodramus bairdii) is
a grassland specialist endemic to the northern Great Plains. Its behavior and
ecology have been shaped by the historical conditions of the Great Plains and
the health of its populations are dependent on the conditions of native prairie.
Populations of many grassland birds, including Baird's Sparrow, have experienced
dramatic declines due to the diminution and deterioration of native grasslands.
Further population declines are likely to continue unless efforts are made to
end the destruction of native prairie and to properly manage grasslands. Without
a new emphasis on prairie management, Baird's Sparrow and other prairie
specialists could ultimately be considered for listing under the Endangered
Species Act.

Baird's Sparrows have had apparent declines in
their populations since their discovery and further significant declines were
documented by the Breeding Bird Survey between 1966-1979. The breeding
distribution has remained primarily the same since 1844, except it is now
largely missing from its eastern margins in Minnesota and Manitoba. These
declines resulted in Baird's Sparrow being proposed for listing under the
Endangered Species Act in the United States and under the Committee on the
Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. In 1991, the United States determined
that there was not enough data to make a recommendation. In 1997, Baird's
Sparrow was re-proposed for listing as threatened in the United States. In 1989,
Canada designated Baird's Sparrow as a threatened species and completed a
recovery plan in 1993. In 1996, the species was delisted in Canada, primarily
due to population estimates in Saskatchewan. The declines documented by the BBS
have leveled off since 1980, and trends have remained stable or increasing
between 1980-1997.

Habitat loss, mainly through the conversion of
native prairie and grasslands to agriculture continues to be the primary threat
to Baird's Sparrow populations. Modern agriculture practices, such as haying,
mowing, and plowing can result in reproductive failures. High intensity and long
duration grazing can also negatively affect Baird's Sparrow populations. The
expansion of exotic vegetation in the grasslands and increasing predation and
parasitism rates are also threats to Baird's Sparrow populations.

Baird's Sparrows show little site fidelity
between years, shifting their populations within the northern Great Plains,
primarily in response to fluctuating climatic, and therefore grassland,
condition. This nomadism has to some degree hampered a clear assessment of
population status of the species that has also been confounded by a lack of
standardization or coordination in survey and habitat assessment methods in
different geographic portions of their range. Little data are available from
wintering grounds.

Although Baird's Sparrow experienced major
historical declines with the conversion of native prairie to agriculture,
population trend data is currently stable. Current population estimates for most
states and provinces in the breeding range are unknown, variable, or
controversial; however, many populations are higher than originally thought.
There is no question that Baird's Sparrows are adversely affected by the
conversion of native prairie to cropland. The greatest needs are for assessment
of population and trends, reproduction from marginal habitats and the
determination of the effects of various management activities in different
portions of the Baird's Sparrow's range.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We especially thank the authors of the State and
Provincial summaries for researching and providing details on Baird's Sparrows
in their areas. Special thanks to Bill Howe, who thoroughly reviewed the
scattered literature and records of occurrence for Baird's Sparrows on the
wintering grounds; Brenda Dale who contributed an invaluable and thorough review
of the literature on habitat requirements and effects of various management
practices on Baird's Sparrows; Stephen Davis who allowed us to use his new data
on nesting and reproduction and who thoroughly and heroically reviewed this
document more than once; Joanne Munro for the range map; and Caleb Gorden who
contributed his knowledge of Baird's Sparrow wintering natural history. The
overall content of these summaries and appendices remain as submitted in most
cases. However, we have edited and altered the original submissions to various
degrees, and take responsibility for any errors found in those summaries, as
well as in the body of the report.

This report is dedicated to two Montana
ornithologists: Jim Reichel (Montana Natural Heritage Program) and Phil Wright
(University of Montana). With their passing, we have lost a wealth of knowledge
about Montana birds and two good friends; they are missed.

Finally, we would like to acknowledge the
sparrow itself, which captures the imaginations of many, delights with its song,
amazes with its secrecy, and instills a sense of concern for an ecosystem that
it needs and that needs it. It is our intent that this document summarizes the
current status of Baird's Sparrows. Furthermore, it is our hope that the
information herein will stimulate further research into effective management
techniques and its natural history throughout its range.

There are no unsettled taxonomic issues.
Originally known as Emberiza bairdii Audubon 1844, its closest relative
appears to be Henslow's Sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii) (Zink and Avise
1990). There are no subspecies designated (AOU 1957). The type specimen was
collected near Old Fort Union, North Dakota in 1843.

LEGAL
STATUS

United States: Baird's Sparrow
was proposed for listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and the U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) determined that there was not enough data
available to make a recommendation at that time (USFWS 1991). It was again
proposed for listing in 1997 (Biodiversity Legal Foundation 1997). This document
is a review of the available data and data needs. Baird's Sparrow is also
considered a "Species of Special Concern/Watch List Species" by "Partner's in
Flight" and National Audubon Society (Carter et al. 1996) and a "Species of
Management Concern" by the USFWS Migratory Bird Management Office in 1987 and
1995 (USFWS 1995). The Nature Conservancy has assigned it a global rank of rare
to widespread and of long-term concern (G4/G3), because of its limited range (M.
Morrison, 1995, written commun.).

Canada: In 1989, the Committee
on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) listed it as
Threatened. A recovery plan for Canada was published in 1993 (Goossen et al.
1993). In May 1996, COSEWIC removed it from the list, primarily due to large
population estimates from Saskatchewan (Skeel, et al. 1995, COSEWIC
1996).

Mexico: No legal status.

Table 1 is a summary of the legal status of
Baird's Sparrow in the all the states and provinces where it occurs and Appendix
A has details of its status in these state and provinces.

Baird's Sparrow has a tan, buff, or tinged
yellowish (ochre) face, with a prominent dark spot on the upper rear of the ear
coverts, near the end of an otherwise tan superciliary. Additionally it has
dark-tipped ear coverts and a dark moustache; these form three dark spots making
an incomplete semi-circle around the ear coverts. The upper collar is unstreaked
and whitish-tan, which accentuates the dark spots, while the lower collar is
streaked, merging with streaking on the upper breast. The median stripe is
orangish-ochre blending into a light-tan and finely streaked nape, and bordered
by dark brown crown stripes which divide toward the nape. The throat is whitish
bordered by blackish-brown whiskers that are narrow and short on some birds, but
more prominent and wider toward base on others (Godfrey 1986). The upper breast
is lightly streaked with narrow, short streaks, which coalesce into a diffuse
central spot on some birds. The mid- and lower-breast is unstreaked, from light
tan to whitish; the streaked flanks are often covered by the wings while at
rest. The back is streaked overall with dark-brown and whitish-cream, which
results from the scapulars, rump, tertials, and back feathers having dark brown
centers, bordered by chestnut and a wider light tan or whitish margin. The
shoulder (lesser upper secondary coverts) is tan-brown and the greater upper,
and median upper secondary coverts are tan with expanding dark brown center
toward tip, forming two incomplete dark wing bars. The tan edge to otherwise
brownish gray primaries give the wings a tan look overall when at rest. The tail
feathers are brownish gray with narrow cream-white edge, that is noticeable in
flight and on perching birds. The tail is only mildly notched (Godfrey 1986,
Howell and Webb 1995, MTG).

The females and males are similar; however, on
average the females tend to be slightly more streaked than males on upper
breast, and less noticeably colored on the crown and face than males (W.
Godfrey, pers. commun., MTG).

The songs of Baird's Sparrows are composed of a
series of quick, clear introductory notes followed by a trilled ending; some
songs lack a trill. Each male sings only one song of about 15 different song
types recorded for the species (Green 1992). These song types are not regionally
distinct, but are distributed throughout the range. There are several types of
call notes, perhaps the most commonly heard being a rather thick chip; other
calls include a high, thin 'seep' note, a series of upslurred tonal notes,
twittering that sometimes ends with a rapid series of 'deer' notes, and harsh
calls uttered when under stress.

RANGE

Breeding

Baird's Sparrows were historically common throughout
the Dakotas (Coues 1878) and are currently common in native prairie in the
Missouri Coteau region of North Dakota (Stewart 1975; Figure 1). Their present
range extends from southeastern Alberta to northwestern Iowa, from east of the
Missouri and Yellowstone rivers and extending through northwestern and central
North Dakota, into south-central South Dakota (AOU 1983) where they are rare to
uncommon (Peterson 1995). In the shorter, drier grasslands west of the Missouri
and Yellowstone rivers Baird's Sparrows are uncommon and rare (Stewart 1975).
They are uncommon in the grasslands of the eastern and north-central portion of
Montana, but common in the northeastern corner (Ellis et al. 1996). Formerly a
common breeder in northwestern Minnesota in the 1920's, Baird's Sparrows are now
greatly reduced in number and limited to one area of native prairie in Grand
Forks County (Janssen 1987, Coffin and Pfannmuller 1988).Baird's Sparrows commonly breed in southeastern Alberta,
through southern Saskatchewan, and into

Table 1. Summary of legal and natural
history status of Baird's Sparrow throughout its range.

Table 3. Measurements and mass
of males from North Dakota (Green 1992).

Characteristics

Measurements

SD

Min.

Max.

Number (n)

Weight (g)

19.1

1.0

17.0

21.3

65

Wing Chord (mm)

70.0

2.0

66.0

74.0

93

Tail length (mm)

50.0

2.0

43.0

56.0

91

Culmen (mm)

8.2

0.5

7.5

11.8

93

Tarsus (mm)

21.6

0.6

19.2

24.0

92

Figure 1.

southwestern Manitoba, loosely bounded by the
Aspen Parkland physiographic region to the north and east, and by the Rocky
Mountain forests to the west (Godfrey 1986), although Baird's Sparrows can be
found in low numbers in the Aspen Parkland Region of Saskatchewan (Davis et. al
1996).

Migration

Baird's Sparrows are found in all prairie states
(AOU 1957, 1983), including Kansas (Thompson and Ely 1992), Oklahoma (Sutton
1967), eastern Wyoming (Oakleaf et al. 1992) and eastern Colorado (Andrews and
Righter 1992). There are a few, mostly unverified, records of occurrence for
Nebraska (Ducey 1988), Iowa (Dinsmore et al. 1984), northern Wisconsin (Robbins
1991), and Missouri (Robbins & Easteria 1992) and they are usually
considered hypothetical, vagrant, or casual in these states. Extralimital
records exist for several states, including New York, California, and Maryland
(DeSante and Pyle 1986), Illinois (Bohlen 1989), British Columbia (Kautesk
1982), Ontario (Lemey 1981), and West Virginia (Breiding 1985; Appendix
A).

Winter

Baird's Sparrow wintering range includes the
grasslands of southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and southern Texas in
the United States and northern Mexico in portions of the states of Chihuahua,
Coahuila, Durango, and Sonora (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995; Figure 1).

NATURAL
HISTORY

Migration

Baird's Sparrows are thought to migrate as
individuals or in small groups. During migration they are quiet, secretive and
difficult to see. It is thought that most individuals migrate at night at high
altitudes (Thompson and Ely 1992).

They arrive on breeding grounds from early- to
mid-May, sometimes as late as early June in the northern extremes of the range
(Cartwright et al. 1937). Southward migration begins in August, possibly
late-July for some individuals, while some birds may remain on breeding grounds
until October (Lane 1968). Records from Arizona and New Mexico indicate that
individuals arrive on wintering grounds in early-to mid-August, and some
individuals remain as late as mid-May.

Breeding

Baird's Sparrows earliest documented arrival
date is 4 May (Davis and Sealy in press A, L.D. Igl, D.H. Johnson, and H.A.
Kantrud, unpubl. data) to as late as the second week of June (Carwright et al.
1937). Baird's Sparrows arrive in Alberta by 10 May (Semenchuk 1991).

They breed in the northern Great Plains from
late May to mid-August, with peak activity from early June to late July. Egg
laying dates average from June 5 to July 21, but eggs are occasionally laid in
late May. Dependent fledglings have been observed as early as June 30 and as
late as August 18 (Stewart 1975, Davis and Sealy in press A).

Nests are in a scrape on the ground and made of
grasses with occasional strands of horse hair, moss, stems of forbs, or other
fine materials (Lane 1968). Nests are hidden in the grass and are usually
constructed in depressions or scrapes in the ground, and are overhung by tufts
of grass. Nests are always concealed from above and can be difficult to find
(Lane 1968, Cartwright et al. 1937, G. Geupel/MTG/SLJ.). Nests in Manitoba
averaged 6.2 + 0.1 cm in diameter
and 4.6 + 0.1 cm deep (n=64), with 61% of the nests located in
scrapes at the base of a clump of a narrow leaf grass species (Davis and Sealy
in press A).

Clutch size varies from 3 to 6 eggs, with a mean of 4.7
eggs; 5 is the most common clutch size (Cartwright 1937, Stewart 1975) although
4-egg clutches are frequently observed (Davis and Sealy in press A). The length
of incubation is 11-12 days, and young fledge between 8-11 days (Davis and Sealy
in press A). Mean egg size is 19.3 + 0.1 mm long by 14.7
+ 0.0 mm (range 17.0-21.3 mm long and 13.3-15.6 mm wide,
n=251; Davis and Sealy in press A).

In Manitoba, a banded female initiated a second clutch
5-8 days after fledging the first brood (Davis and Sealy in press A). Breeding
dates and behaviors of adults indicate that two broods are produced by some
pairs in some years (Mahon 1995, MTG/SLJ); however, Lane (1968) believed that
second broods were not normally produced.

Fifty percent (n=71) of nests fledged at least one
young with a mean of 1.4 + 0.2 young fledged per nest while
successful nests fledged an average of 2.8 + 0.2 young per nests (Davis and Sealy in press A). Nest
success for Manitoba was 37% with the daily survival rate similar for the
nestling and incubation stages (Davis and Sealy in press A); in Montana nest
success in 1996 was 57% (n=21; SLJ) for all stages. Nests were an average of
67.9 m (range 6 - 365 m) from the nearest perch at least 1 m high (Davis and
Sealy in press A).

Breeding densities from several studies were
summarized by Sousa and McDonal (1983). Densities varied from 11.5 pairs/40 ha
to 22.5 pairs/ 40 ha for ungrazed, undisturbed prairie in Alberta (Owens and
Myres 1973), Saskatchewan (Maher 1979) and North Dakota (Stewart and Kantrud
1972). Densities on grazed sites were reported to be less than 5 pairs/40 ha
(Maher 1979; Renken and Dinsmore 1987). Densities on burned sites had
significantly more individuals on plots burned 4 times (3.2 males per 16 ha/8
males per 40 ha) than on plots burned 2 times (1.1 males per 16 ha/2.75 males
per 40 ha ) between 1970 and 1992 (Winter 1994, Madden 1996). Schmidt (1990)
found 10-32 singing males/40 ha at the McIntyre Ranch near McGrath, Alberta. In
a 5-year survey at Lostwood National Wildlife Refuge (LNWR) in northwestern
North Dakota, 8.5, 30.6, 32.5, 22.6, and 21.2 males/40 ha were found between
1987-1991 (MTG).

There is anecdotal evidence that males prefer to
establish territories next to each other, suggesting that the species might be
semi-colonial (Winter 1994, MTG/SLJ).

Site fidelity

Baird's Sparrow and several other grassland
species are noted for a lack of breeding site fidelity, appearing semi-nomadic
in response to climatic fluctuations (Green 1992, Price 1995). In a 4-year study
at LNWR, only 5% of color-banded breeding males returned to breed at the same
site they occupied the previous year (n=95). Those that returned once (n=5)
appeared to be more likely to return for a third year (n=3), and one returned
for a fourth year (Green 1992). These data, in addition to frequently
significant yearly fluctuations in populations (De Smet and Miller 1989, Lane
1968; Figure 2), and apparent lack of geographical variation in song (Green
1992) indicate a semi-nomadic migratory behavior.

POPULATION ESTIMATES AND
TRENDS

Population estimates

The overall breeding distribution of Baird's
Sparrows has probably remained basically unchanged since its discovery in 1843
(Coues 1878), except it is now mostly missing from the eastern margins of its
historical range in Minnesota and Manitoba (Coffin and Pfannmuller 1988, De Smet
and Miller 1989; Figure 3). Population numbers may have been reduced drastically
from the 1800's when Coues (1878) called Baird's Sparrows "one of the most
abundant species in the Dakota Territory." These population declines are
undoubtedly due to conversion of native prairie to agriculture and to modern
agricultural practices.

The North Dakota population of Baird's Sparrow
was estimated in 1967 (Stewart and Kantrud 1972) and this methodology was
repeated in 1992 and 1993 (Igl and Johnson 1997). The average density of Baird's
Sparrows was 0.8 pairs/40 ha in 1967 (Stewart and Kantrud 1972) and the estimate
of the North Dakota population was 376,000 pairs (95% confidence interval =
208,000-543,000 pairs). In 1992 the same study design yielded a statewide
estimate (with 95% confidence interval) of 171,000 pairs (90,000-251,000), and
in 1993 the estimate was 279,000 (140,000-418,000) (Igl and Johnson 1997). The
distribution of Baird's Sparrows in any given year, like that of other prairie
birds, maybe tied to precipitation patterns (Knopf 1994). Thus, the fact that in
1967 typical precipitation was recorded, while 1992 was a dry year and 1993 a
wet year may explain some of the variations in densities in North
Dakota.

Population estimates in Canada have been derived
from various techniques and are probably not directly comparable to each other.
The total population of Baird's Sparrows in Alberta was estimated to be 9,300
males (18,600 individuals) (Goossen et al. 1993). The total population in
Manitoba was estimated to be 1,700 males (3,400 individuals) (K. De Smet written
commun.). The total population of Baird's Sparrow in Saskatchewan for 1994 was
estimated to be 0.95 million males (1.9 million individuals; 1.06-3.02 million
individuals = 95% confidence limits) from surveys in grassland, hayland, and
cropland (Skeel et al. 1995). This population estimate from Saskatchewan was
thought to be too high by some reviewers. Criticisms of this study include a
nonrandom habitat sampling bias, assumptions made about the distance singing
birds were from census takers, and lack of independence in the samples (B. Dale,
written commun.). However, it is the most extensive survey to date of Baird's
Sparrows in Saskatchewan, and might be the best measure of total population for
that Province, until another census is undertaken. Baird's Sparrow populations
remain high in portions its range (Schmidt 1990, D. Johnson pers. commun.) and
some populations may be larger than previously believed (Skeel et al. 1995).
However, local declines continue to occur (Janssen 1987, De Smet ad Miller 1989)
and some threats to Baird's Sparrow populations exist in many geographic
areas.

Trends

During the period of 1966-1979, Baird's Sparrow
showed persistent and steep declines for all areas, except Montana (Table 4).
There was a significant downward trend (in mean annual percent change) in the
continental population documented by the BBS for this period (Sauer et al.
1996). These declines are significant in 46% of the areas analyzed and the
declines for the entire survey were significant (p=0.05) at -4.75 annually, with
a small number of routes ( n=52). These declines occurred in the geographic
areas with one of the largest Baird's Sparrow populations in the northern Great
Plains (Figure 4). De Smet and Miller (1989) suggest that the declines in the
population in prairie Canada during the period 1970-1985, using BBS data, may be
as great as 35-55%. For the period 1980-1996, the trends are level in most
geographic areas, including the entire survey at 1.1 (non-significant; n=95),
and significant increases were noted in the Glaciated Missouri Plateau region
(+3.3; p<0.20; n=41; Table 4). BBS data in some areas are probably too sparse
and variable to accurately determine population trends in many of the
physiographic regions. The average trends over the 30 years (1966-1996) of the
BBS shows Baird's Sparrow population trends to be stable. This trend equals
-1.6, non-significant for n=115 routes (Sauer et. al 1996; Table 4).

MONITORING ACTIVITIES

Breeding Bird Survey

Monitoring efforts in the United States and
Canada are mainly limited to the BBS. The interpretation of BBS data is limited
by the number and distribution of routes completed in an area and by the
negative roadside bias shown by Baird's Sparrow (Davis et. al 1996). There are
several other ongoing monitoring studies currently being conducted by Canadian
Wildlife Service, Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation Corporation and USFWS
(Appendix A).

Christmas Bird Count

The Christmas Bird Counts (CBC) in the southern
portion of the United States does not cover the Baird's Sparrow range, although
they have been recorded during these surveys. Two CBC's that recorded Baird's
Sparrows have recently been started in Mexico; but currently there are few
monitoring efforts in the southern range (Appendix A).

BAIRD'S SPARROW TREND

Figure 2. Examples of Baird's Sparrow's
yearly population fluctuations using data from Breeding Bird Survey. Core
populations remain fairly stable but other portions of the range show a wide
change of densities (J.R. Sauer, J.Price, written commun,).

Habitat preferences of Baird's Sparrows on the breeding
grounds are traditionally described as being idle to light-moderately grazed
tracts of native prairie (Cartwright et al. 1937). In northwestern North Dakota,
Baird's Sparrows were most densely populated and had the smallest territories in
grassland with litter up to 2 cm deep, <10% woody cover, relatively high
coverage of forbs (20%), intermediate vegetation with an average height of 23
cm, and with a patchy distribution of forbs, grass and bare soil (Winter 1994;
Appendix B). Litter was significantly deeper inside Baird's Sparrow territories
than outside (1.19 cm vs. 0.87 cm) and sites with shrub cover greater than 25%
are avoided. Baird's Sparrows prefer native grasslands that have a shrub cover
<20%, litter depth >0 and up to 3 or 4 cm deep, and grass height from
10-20 cm or higher (Dale 1983, Sousa and McDonal 1983; Appendix B). The limited
emergent shrubs that are present, both dead or alive, are often used as singing
perches (Cartwright et al. 1937, Lane 1968) although not required since they
sing from the ground, grass clumps, or forbs.

Baird's Sparrows show a positive association with
native grasses and a negative association with smooth brome (Bromus
inermis) (Dale et al. 1993, Madden 1996). On Lostwood NWR, brome and other broad-leaved, exotic
grasses were significantly less common in areas occupied by Baird's Sparrows
compared to unoccupied areas (Madden 1996). Smooth brome is a codominant and
increasing in mixed grass prairie on the northern and central Missouri Coteau
and much of the northwestern Drift Plain in North Dakota. On xeric, sandy soils
it is much less readily established and less able to compete with native,
herbaceous flora.

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)
and western snowberry (Symphoricarpos
occidentalis) are exotic species that
are invading native prairie and other untilled uplands in North Dakota. In some
portions of their range, idle native prairie can
gradually become dominated by these species. Both of these species create monotypic stands and conditions that make the
habitat unsuitable for Baird's Sparrows.

The results for crested wheatgrass
(Agropyron cristatum) are mixed. Crested wheatgrass may be suitable for
Baird's Sparrow since it is structurally similar to native grasses, particularly
when grazed or burned (Madden 1996, Davis and Duncan in press). Baird's Sparrows
have shown equal or higher densities in comparisons between grazed stands of
native grasses and grazed stands of crested wheatgrass in Saskatchewan (Davis
and Duncan in press, Skeel et al.1995, Sutter et al. 1995) and Alberta (Mahon
1995). However, idle crested wheatgrass in North Dakota was not attractive to
Baird's Sparrow (Johnson and Schwartz 1993), while burned crested wheatgrass was
tolerated (Madden 1996).

Some invasion by Kentucky bluegrass (Poa
pratensis) is also accepted (Madden 1996), suggesting that Baird's Sparrows
will use exotic species that are structurally similar to native mixed grass
prairie.

Baird's Sparrow can be
significantly associated with the size of grassland fragment and are an area
sensitive species requiring approximately 63 ha (Davis 1998). A decrease in
pasture size may also cause increases in parasitism (S. Davis written
commun.).

Winter habitat requirements

Little is known about winter range habitat
requirements. Baird's Sparrows are consistently seen in areas with dense and
expansive grasslands, either solitary or in small numbers with other grassland
specialists, including Grasshopper Sparrow and Savannah Sparrow.

Winter habitat relationships and movement patterns of
grassland sparrows are the primary objective of an study in southeastern
Arizona. Preliminary results suggest that Baird's Sparrows might be sedentary,
with fixed winter home ranges within and between years (C. Gordon, written
commun.; Appendix A).

MANAGEMENT

Effects of management techniques can vary greatly
throughout the range of Baird's Sparrows. Climate, particularly average
rainfall, and topography can greatly change the response of grassland vegetation
to management techniques. Therefore, it is not always possible to apply the
results from a local study across the geographic range. For example, controlled
burning intervals could be longer in the northern drier prairie. Grazing might
play a bigger role in grassland management in these dry areas than in the wetter
portion of the mixed grass prairie. Appendix B is a detailed summary of the
habitat requirements of the species and effects of different grassland
management techniques on their populations.

Controlled burning offers one management tool for
maintaining productive Baird's Sparrow habitat in the Missouri Coteau (Winter
1994, Madden 1996). In northwestern North Dakota, the vegetation characteristics
preferred by Baird's Sparrow were more common in study areas burned 4 times,
rather than 2 times or not at all between 1970-1992. Generally, populations
decline in the first year after the burn, but then increase, reaching peak
densities 2 to 4 years after the burn, followed by a decline in density in
subsequent years (Winter 1994, Madden 1996, D. Johnson, pers. commun.). In
northwestern North Dakota, unburned plots gradually become dominated by western
snowberry and by thick, dense grasses that create habitat features avoided by
Baird's Sparrows.

Many studies have demonstrated that Baird's Sparrows
can tolerate light to moderate levels of livestock grazing, depending on
duration and intensity of the grazing and the physiographic area (Appendix B).
However, long duration and heavy grazing can result in abandonment of the
area.

THREATS

Habitat: Baird's Sparrows are
grassland specialists endemic to the northern Great Plains. The conversion of
native prairie to cropland is the primary threat to Baird's Sparrow populations
in breeding areas (Lane 1968, Stewart 1975, Owens and Myres 1973, Goossen et al.
1993). Over-grazing and poor rangeland management also contribute to the loss of
Baird's Sparrow habitat (Goossen et al. 1993). Mixed grass prairie has declined
60-99% in acreage in the prairie provinces and North Dakota (Samson and Knopf
1994), with over 90% of the grasslands in Canada converted to agriculture. It is
probable that Baird's Sparrow populations will decline in proportion to the
conversion of native prairie.

Baird's Sparrow are associated with size of grassland
fragments and decreases in pasture size may also cause increases in parasitism.
Small fragments of prairie could act as population "sinks" creating
declines.

Regulation of Baird's Sparrow populations could also be
influenced by factors occurring on the wintering and migration areas. However,
we know little about the natural history, habitat, range, and limiting factors
of Baird's Sparrow on these areas.

Overutilization:

Susceptibility to human disturbance is a factor in
Baird's Sparrow distribution. Disturbances caused by plowing, brushing, burning,
movement of livestock, grazing, haying, and mowing can result in the abandonment
of an area and reproductive failure.

Disease or Predation:

Disease has not been documented as a
threat.

Predation can be a cause of
reproductive failure in Baird's Sparrows (Davis and Sealy in press B). Predation
frequencies ranged from 26% - 46% for nests in southwestern Manitoba (Davis
1994) to 50% - 71% in southern Saskatchewan (Davis 1998). Davis and Sealy (in
press B) reported predation by striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) and
thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Citellus tridecemlineatus).
Richardson's ground-squirrels (Spermophilus richardsoni) depredated
eggs, nestlings, and fledglings at a site in Alberta (Mahon 1995). A weasel was
suspected when an adult dead male was found mauled but uneaten near a nest with
decapitated young (MTG). Other potential predators include American Crow
(Corvus brachyrhyncos), Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus), and
western plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix haydeni) (Davis and Sealy
in press B); in general, major predators are probably small mammals, birds, and
snakes.

Baird's Sparrow nests are parasitized by Brown-headed
Cowbirds (Molothrus ater). Davis and Sealy (in press B) found that 36%
of 74 nests in southwestern Manitoba were parasitized with an average of 2
cowbirds eggs (range 1-4). Significantly fewer young were fledged from
successful parasitized nests than from successful non-parasitized nests,
resulting in an average cost of 1.1 Baird's Sparrow fledglings per parasitized
nest. Egg removal by cowbirds was likely the primary cause of lowered
productivity in parasitized nests. In Saskatchewan, 32% of 61 Baird's Sparrow
nests were parasitized, and 79% of parasitized nests contained more than one
cowbird egg (S. Davis written commun,).

Inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms: Current regulations appear to provide Baird's Sparrows with
adequate protection throughout its breeding range. Baird's Sparrows are
protected in under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918) in the United States,
the Migratory Bird Convention Act (1916) in Canada and the Convention for the
Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals (1936) in Mexico. The ESA in the
U.S. and COSEWIC in Canada will provide protection for the species if Baird's
Sparrow becomes threatened with extinction. Baird's Sparrow is a USFWS Migratory
Nongame Species of Management Concern (USFWS 1995). Baird's Sparrow was a
Category 2 candidate for review for possible addition to the Federal endangered
or threatened species list (USFWS 1991) until use of the Category 2 list was
discontinued (USFWS 1996). Table 1 is a summary of the legal status of the
species in states and provinces throughout its range.

No protection for Baird's Sparrow habitat exists for
the breeding range in the United States and Canada. Incentive programs such as
the Grassland Conservation Program offer some breeding habitat protection in
upland easements in perpetuity. Other incentive programs such the Conservation
Reserve Program (CRP) do not contribute habitat for Baird's Sparrow (Johnson and
Igl 1995) since most cover currently re-seeded under this program is exotic
grass or exotic grass/legume mixtures, which are unsuitable for Baird's
Sparrow.

Current regulatory mechanisms are inadequate to protect
the species and its habitats on the winter range. Mexico has no regulations to
protect the habitat of Baird's Sparrow and current regulations protecting the
species are not adequately enforced.

Other natural or manmade
factors:

Pesticides: Not documented as a
threat.

Population size: Conflicting data on
population size make this factor difficult to evaluate. Populations are likely
to be greater then earlier believed and remain high in many portions of the
range.

Burning: Controlled-burning programs
that mimic natural fire intervals and help re-create native prairie conditions
are preferred by Baird's Sparrow in parts of their range. However, Baird's
Sparrow will not use the area in the first year or two after a burn and the
interval between burns will vary by region and is critical to a successful
program (Appendix B).

Mowing: Baird's Sparrows are absent or
sparsely distributed where mowing is greatest but they are sometimes found in
stubble fields and fallow land (Bent 1968, Stewart 1975, De Smet and Conrad
1989). Baird's Sparrow nest initiation dates indicate that the July 15 haying
date recommended by the North American Wetland Management Plan is too early
(Davis et. al 1996; SLJ/MTG).

Grazing: Several studies have noted
that Baird's Sparrows are found in moderately grazed native prairie, but are
absent or very sparsely distributed where grazing is heavy (Kantrud 1981, Owens
and Myres 1973, Stewart 1975, Dale 1983, Samson and Knopf 1994, Mahon 1995).
There is evidence that grazed grasslands may support fewer Baird's Sparrows than
in ungrazed areas in portions of their range (Owens and Myres 1973, Maher 1979,
Dale 1983). Grazing affects vegetation height, percent bare ground, litter
depth, and can compact the vegetation and soil. Response of the vegetation used
to Baird's Sparrow to grazing varies geographically and with grazing duration
and intensity.

Introduced Vegetation: Baird's Sparrow
have shown a negative correlation with smooth brome (Dale 1983, Madden 1996).
Although the response of Baird's Sparrows to leafy spurge has not been studied,
this weed can dominate large patches of grasslands and changes the habitat
features apparently critical to Baird's Sparrows. Other noxious species of weeds
or exotic grasses could pose serious threats in the future to the long term
survival of Baird's Sparrows in native prairie.

ASSESSMENT AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendation on current
status

We recommend no change in Baird's Sparrows status at
this time. While the species has experienced major declines with European
settlement of the prairies and the conversion of native prairie to agriculture,
population trend data over the last 15 years show their populations to have
become relatively stable. Current population estimates for most states and
provinces in the breeding range are unknown and variable, but even the most
conservative estimates indicate a large population in parts of the range. There
is no question that Baird's Sparrows are adversely affected by the conversion of
native prairie to cropland, resulting in a range constriction from the eastern
margins of their historical range. Although singing males have been found in
cropland and hayfields, their productivity in these habitats and circumstances
under which they are used is unknown. Baird's Sparrows are apparently compatible
with light grazing and could successfully reproduce in some haylands, but
additional comparative studies are recommended to determine Baird's Sparrows
tolerance to types and levels of grassland management. Essentially no
information is available from the wintering grounds or from migration that would
help determine population trends or recommend a change in status. Since threats
still exist, Baird's Sparrow should remain a species of special concern and its
status monitored.

CONSERVATION

Baird's Sparrows are a member of a guild of species
that are dependent on the health and availability of native grasslands (Knopf
1994). Other grassland species could benefit to some degree from conservation
efforts aimed at Baird's Sparrow, although details of their natural history,
range, and habitat requirements will vary. Other grassland species include
Sprague's Pipit (Anthus spragueii), McCown's Longspur (Calcarius
mccownii), Chestnut-collared Longspur (C. ornatus), Western
Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), Savannah Sparrow, Grasshopper Sparrow,
Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus), and Burrowing Owl (Athene
cunicularia).

The BBS has documented general population declines in
Baird's Sparrow and other grassland species of the Great Plains over the past 30
years (Sauer et al. 1996). Long term conservation of Baird's Sparrows and
associated species are linked to conservation of the native prairie ecosystem.
CRP has contributed relatively little habitat for Baird's Sparrow, although
other grassland species have benefitted from this program (Johnson and Igl
1995). In the United States, the only viable approach for the conservation of
Baird's Sparrows is to conserve, restore, and actively manage native grasslands
or to alter the structure of CRP lands. Due to extensive habitat loss, Baird's
Sparrows will probably never recover to historic levels. However, where suitable
habitat remains, the proper use and timing of mowing, grazing, and burning,
along with restoration efforts where feasible, will be most successful in
maintaining viable populations. While it is clear that in certain physiographic
areas no active management, or ill-timed use of these management tools, has been
detrimental to Baird's Sparrows, they do respond positively to native prairie
restoration and will reoccupy formerly unuseable habitats.

Although fewer Baird's Sparrows have been counted in
some years and in some areas compared to others, it may be that populations have
shifted, in response to local environmental conditions (Figures 2 and 4). This
species appears to be semi-nomadic, and might be able to find suitable habitat
wherever it exists within the breeding range; however, if these shifts in
distribution and abundance are related to weather conditions (Price 1995) then
suitable habitat would need to be provided throughout the breeding range to
accommodate locally variable weather and habitat conditions. The spatial and
temporal dynamics of Baird's Sparrow could make it difficult to set aside or
preserve suitable habitat because they may not be found in an area every year;
however, in some regions population sizes do not fluctuate, and annual site use
is more predictable (Figure 2). Price (1995) used 18 climate variables to
predict the response of Baird's Sparrows to climatic change. The two models used
for Baird's Sparrows predicted completely opposite results, with one predicting
extirpation and the other predicting a range expansion. The future of the
Baird's Sparrow populations remain unclear and further work is
needed.

Research priorities

1) Since reliable population data are unavailable, a
two year range-wide survey, similar to that completed in North Dakota (Stewart
and Kantrud 1972, Igl and Johnson 1997) is proposed. Baird's Sparrow nomadism
complicates the survey design, but a two year range-wide survey should mitigate
the these effects.

2) A better understanding of the minimum preserve or
patch size is important for the determination of priority habitats and areas for
protection and restoration..

3) Little is known about the Baird's Sparrow's
reproductive capability, habitat, and timing. There is little productivity data
available; even less is known about survivorship. Currently, there are ongoing
productivity studies in Saskatchewan (S.K. Davis and B.C. Dale), Montana (S. L.
Jones and F. Prellwitz), and North Dakota (T. Grant and S.L. Jones), but more
sites throughout the geographic range are necessary. Of special interest would
be comparative studies on the reproductive success of Baird's Sparrows in
different habitats: native and non-native grasslands, and cropland. Baird's
Sparrow sing in croplands and fallow fields that might share critical structural
characteristics with native prairie, but the productivity of these birds has not
been investigated.

4) Further investigations on the response of Baird's
Sparrows to different management techniques are needed. Current long-term
studies in which data are being collected on population sizes, their
distribution, and productivity are critical to the evaluation of the status of
this species, but further work at different sites in their geographic range are
needed.

5) The winter range and habitat use of the Baird's
Sparrow needs to be documented. An inventory of wintering areas and an
evaluation of their quality and security is needed to assess the influence
winter areas are having on Baird's Sparrow populations.

Biodiversity Legal Foundation. 1997. Petition for a
rule to list the Baird's Sparrow (Ammodramus bairdii) as "threatened"
within its known historic range. Letter to B. Babbitt from J.C. Carlton, 26 June
1997.

De Smet, K.D., and M.P. Conrad. 1989. Management and
research needs of Baird's Sparrows and other grassland species in Manitoba.
Report to the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa,
Ontario.

De Smet, K.D. and W.S. Miller. 1989. Status report on
the Baird's Sparrow, Ammodramus bairdii. Report to the Committee on the
Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario.