abroad, investments by foreigners in the country,(capital inflows) and official sale of

reserve assets including gold to foreign countries and international agencies. While,

the debit transactions would include - import of goods and services, unilateral

payments such as gifts, grants, etc. to foreigners, lending to foreign countries,

investments by residents in foreign countries, (capital outflows) and official

purchase of reserve assets or gold from foreign countries and international agencies.

These credit and debit transactions are shown vertically in the balance of payments

account of a country. Horizontally they are divided into three categories :- the

current account, the capital account and the official settlements account or the

official reserves account.

3STRUCTURE OF BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

The Balance of Payments of a country is mainly divided into two types of accounts –

(1) Current Account (2) Capital Account.

(1) Current Account – The current account of a country’s balance of payments

consists of all transactions related to trade in goods, services, income and unilateral

transfers . The current account includes following items -

6

e)
(c) Unilateral Transfers – Unilateral transfers or transfer payments are the third
important component of current account.
(b) Invisible Exports & Imports . and represents a change in the country’s
foreign assets and liabilities.) basis which means
that the costs of transportation.
transportation.(g. and
Government not included elsewhere.i. The capital account of a country consists of its transactions
in financial assets in the form of short term and long term lending and borrowing
and private and official investments. etc. insurance and freight are included. In other words. either received from abroad (credits) or given abroad. are excluded.) basis which
means that costs of transportation. the capital account shows
international flow of loans and investments. Important invisible items would include – travel. dividends. insurance.i.
grants. (debits). The capital account mainly consists of –
a) Borrowing from & Lending to Foreign Countries – Borrowing from foreign
countries are credit entries because they are receipts from foreign countries.
They are one sided transactions. exports are calculated on free on board (f.
Lending to foreign countries are debit entries because they are payments to
7
.n. without a quid pro quo that has a
measurable value. The unilateral transfers could be official or private.b. Unilateral transfers include gifts. investment income in the form of profits.
imports are calculated on carriage.o.Invisible exports & imports also known as
service exports & imports are another important component of current
account. (a) Merchandise Exports & Imports – Merchandise exports and imports are the
most important items in the current account. In general.
(2) Capital Account . Generally. insurance and freight (c. it covers a
significant portion of total transactions recorded in the BOP of a country. insurance.
Generally. etc.f. etc.

up to
one year or long term i.
8
. while financial or capital transactions are entered into capital
account of BOP.e. direct investment takes the form of investment in
branches and subsidiaries by parent companies located in another country. borrowing
from foreign countries and direct & portfolio investment by foreign countries
represent capital inflows. (b) SDR
allocations. foreign countries.
In broader terms. This borrowing or lending could be of short term i.e.” 3
(3)Other Components . As a rule. more than one year.
Table 3.
b) Direct Investment & Portfolio Investment – Direct investment is investment
in enterprises located in one country but effectively controlled by residents of
another country. BOP of a
country also includes some other entries like – (a) Transactions with IMF.Apart from the above two main accounts. (c) Errors & Omissions and (d) Official settlements / Reserve account.
Portfolio investment refers to purchases of foreign securities that do not carry
any claim on control or ownership of foreign enterprises. real or income creating transactions are entered into current
account of BOP. Borrowing from & lending to
foreign countries could be also called as net sale of assets to foreigners and
net purchases of assets from foreigners. Lindert (2002) remarks that “ Balance –of –payments accounting is
unique in that it shows all the real and financial flows between a country and the rest
of the world. In brief. lending to foreign countries
and direct & portfolio investment in foreign countries represent capital
outflows.1 shows broad structure of a balance of payments statement. On the other hand.

(+) (-)
1 Current Account
(A)Exports (B)Imports
(a)Goods (a)Goods
(b)Services (b)Services
(C) Unilateral Transfer (C)Unilateral Transfer
receipts from abroad payments to abroad
(Gifts.a We can find out net balancesb for
different items in the balance of payment statement. Particulars Credits Debits
No. the
total credits will be always equal to total debits. However. (a) Narrow definition and (b) Broad definition. grants. etc recd) (Gifts.
9
. grants. Table 3. etc. given)
2 Capital
Account
(a)Borrowing from (a)Lending to Foreign
Foreign Countries / Net Countries / Net
sale of assets to purchases of assets
foreigners from foreigners
(b) Direct & Portfolio (b)Direct & Portfolio
Investment by Foreign Investment in Foreign
Countries Countries
3 Errors &
Omissions
4 Overall Balance
of Payments
5 Official
Settlement /
Reserves
Account
BALANCES WITHIN THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS STATEMENT
As the BOP statement is constructed on the basis of double entry book keeping.1 : Broad Structure of Balance of Payments
Sr.There are two definitions with reference to the concept of
balance of trade or trade balance. from the policy
makers point of view some of the important balances are –
(1) Balance of Trade .

“Balance of trade is the difference between the value of goods &
services exported and imported by a country. Moreover. G = Government
expenditure .”4 Balance of trade in this sense is also
known as Balance of Goods & Services. In the
broader sense. M = Imports of Goods & Services.
the expression X – M denotes balance of trade in Meade’s terms. C = Consumption.
(2) Balance of Current Account – The concept of balance of current account or
current account balance is broader than the concept of balance of trade.” In this sense. This
narrow definition is not useful today when services transactions have assumed
growing importance in international trade. X = Exports of Goods & Services. I = Investment. this narrow definition was useful during mercantilist period
when services constituted an insignificant portion of the international trade. it can be called as – Merchandise
balance or Goods balance.
In the familiar macro-economic equation.
in which Y = National income.
Y=C+I+G+(X–M).
Economists like James Meade and others do not accept this narrow definition and
consider it as wrong and insignificant from the point of view of national income of
the country. Equating balance of trade with goods balance alone is to ignore the
importance of service balance as a factor determining national income. It is said to
10
.
(b) Broad Definition – The broad definition of balance of trade is given by
economist James Meade and is accepted by most of the modern economists. Balance of trade is
national income injection and for that reason it is better to use Meade’s concept of
balance of trade.(a) Narrow Definition – The narrow definition considers “Balance of trade as the
difference between the value of merchandise (or goods) exports and the value of
merchandise (or goods) imports.

it includes trade balance (in
Meade’s terms) and transfers balance. services.The balance of current
account is a very important concept. It
shows the change in reporting country’s net foreign wealth. As pointed out by
Salvatore (2005) –“The current account lumps together all sales and purchases of
currently produced goods & services. income and
gifts between the home country and the foreign countries. It represents bottom line of a nation’s income statement.be mirror image of capital account including official reserves. investment income and unilateral transfers. A current account deficit
means excess of imports over exports of goods.
Balance of Current Account = Merchandise balance + Services Balance +
Unilateral transfers balance. a current account surplus stimulates domestic
11
. then there will be
current account surplus and vice – versa. services. The balance of current account can be either surplus
or deficit.
The current account reflects the value of the flow of goods. services .
investment income and unilateral transfers is greater than the sum of the imports of
goods. services. In other words. The current account
balance includes the sum of three balances – merchandise balance. A current account surplus means an excess of exports over imports of
goods. services balance
and unilateral transfers balance. services investment income and unilateral transfers. investment income and
unilateral transfers. as it shows the flow aspect of a country’s
international transactions. Specifically.
Importance of the Concept of Balance of Current Account . if the sum of the exports of goods. In other words. and unilateral
transfers and provides the link between the nation’s international transactions and its
national income. and investment income. Current account balance
refers to the net of these flows.

(1)c
Where Y = National product / output .Id
Thus. C = domestic consumption.CAB) equals the difference between national
saving and domestic investment. S = I d + If .
(b) Link with domestic production.production.”5
The concept of current account balance is linked with national income accounting
and its components in the following manner :
(a) Link with national saving and domestic investment . while a current account deficit dampens domestic production and
income. G = Government expenditure. Therefore. imports must be subtracted separately
because imports are not demand for the home country’s products. But.e.
A country’s national output may be represented as -
Y = C + I d + G + X – M …. income and expenditure – A country’s current
account balance is the difference between its domestic production of goods and
services and its total expenditure on goods and services. C.e. M =
imports of goods & services. the concept is synonymous with net foreign investment in national income
accounting. X = exports of goods & services. It can be represented as -
A = C + I d + G … (2)
12
. Id = domestic
investment.
A country’s total expenditure on goods and services i. Id and G all include purchases of both domestically
produced and imported goods & services. C + I d + G is sometimes
referred to as absorption (A). Hence.
CAB = I f = S . i.A country can do two
things with its national savings (S) : (i)Invest in home country (I d ) or (ii) Invest in
foreign country (I f ). a country’s net foreign
investment (current account balance .

or the difference between exports and imports of goods and services
(including gifts). (c) The difference
between national savings and domestic investment (S . However.
(3) Balance of Capital Account – Until recently. In some countries.
(4) Overall Balance of Payments . it is
observed that the developing countries have surplus in their capital account. the current account balance (CAB) in a balance of payment statement
implies – (a) the difference between exports of goods & services & imports of
goods & services (X – M). (b) If the overall deficit in the BOP was caused by current account
13
. (Y – A). Normally. then the surplus may be a good sign for
the country. The overall balance of
payments may either balance. the capital
account consists of all types of capital inflows and outflows. In general it can
be said that (a) If the overall surplus in the BOP was caused by current account
surpluses but not capital account surpluses.
In a nutshell. capital account was not a
significant component of balance of payments. This was because of severe
restrictions adopted by the countries on international capital movements. (b) Net foreign investment (I f ).
in due course of time due to liberalization of trade.
overall balance is also called as official settlement balance.I d ).It is the sum of the balance of current account
and balance of capital account (including errors & omissions ). In general. or X – M . or have a deficit.Therefore. and (d) The difference
between national product and national expenditure / absorption. or have a surplus. while
the developed countries have deficit in their capital account. Y = A + ( X – M ) … (3)
The above analysis implies that national product (Y) differs from national
expenditure or absorption (A= C + I d + G) by the amount of current account
balance. the countries have also eased or
removed their restrictions on international capital movements.

’ All the
transactions in the current and capital account are autonomous because they
are undertaken for business or profit motives and are independent of balance
14
.
(a) Autonomous Transactions – Autonomous transactions are those transactions
that take place regardless of the size of other items in the balance of
payments. It is to be noted that different nations use different
measures of the overall balance of payments surplus or deficit.“The problem of judging equilibrium position of a country’s balance of
payments becomes fairly complicated and soon takes us outside the sphere of book –
keeping. while analyzing the equilibrium /disequilibrium in balance of
payments one has to consider the nature of international transactions in the BOP. As Sodersten (1980)
remarks .
EQUILIBRIUM & DISEQUILIBRIUM IN BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
A country’s balance of payments is said to be always ‘balanced’ in accounting sense
so there would be no ‘imbalance’ in a country’s BOP.deficit rather than capital account deficits. we come across the
term ‘equilibrium’ or ‘disequilibrium’ in relation to a country’s BOP. Thus. not only the extent but location of overall
surplus or deficit is important. Others simply measure the change in official
reserves alone. However.1
Autonomous & Accommodating Transactions
The nature of international transactions could be autonomous or accommodating.”6 Thus. 3. Some compare the
net increase in their official reserves with the net rise in a wide definition of liquid
foreign claims against the country. This is
because the term ‘balance’/ ‘imbalance’ is used in accounting sense while the term ‘
equilibrium’ / ‘disequilibrium’ is used in economic sense. then the deficit may be considered as a
bad sign for the reporting country. They are also called as ‘above the line transactions.5.

A country’s balance of payments is said to be in
disequilibrium when its autonomous receipts (credits) are not equal to its
autonomous payments (debits). of payments situations. all the
credit and debit entries in the current and capital accounts are regarded as
‘autonomous’ transactions. They are the cause of BOP situation. They are also called as ‘below the line transactions’.
Equilibrium in BOP → Autonomous Receipts = Autonomous Payments
(b) Disequilibrium in BOP .
all the credit and debit entries in the Official reserve account are regarded as
accommodating transactions.
(b) Accommodating Transactions – Accommodating transactions are those
transactions which are undertaken deliberately to correct disequilibrium in
balance of payments.
They are the result of balance of payments situation. The transactions in the
official reserve account are of accommodating nature undertaken by
monetary authorities to bring balances in the balance of payments.A country’s balance of payments is said to be in
equilibrium when its autonomous receipts (credits) are equal to its autonomous
payments (debits). For accounting
purposes it is reasonable to treat all the current and capital account
transactions as autonomous or above the line transactions.
(a) Equilibrium in BOP . In brief. In brief.
Definition of Equilibrium / Disequilibrium in Balance of Payments
The distinction between autonomous and accommodating transactions is useful in
defining equilibrium / disequilibrium (surplus / deficit) in balance of payments.
Disequilibrium in BOP → Autonomous Receipts ≠ Autonomous Payments
15
.

if total credits are more than total debits in the current
and capital account (including errors & omissions). the balance of payments will be in surplus or
favourable.
Types of Disequilibrium
Disequilibrium in balance of payments can be classified as follows : -
(a) Temporary Disequilibrium – Temporary disequilibrium in the form of
deficits or surpluses tend to last for a short period of time. It
does not pose a serious problem for a country. etc.
16
. seasonal
fluctuations.
(1) Surplus in BOP – When the autonomous receipts (credits) are greater than
autonomous payments (debits).
(2) Deficit in BOP – When the autonomous receipts (credits) are smaller than
autonomous payments (debits). They are the result
of temporary changes in the economy like .2 . the balance of payments will be in deficit or
unfavourable or adverse. effect of weather on agricultural production.crop failure. Such a
disequilibrium may occur once a while and gets automatically corrected. if total debits are more than total credits in
the current and capital accounts (including errors & omissions). the net debit balance
measures the deficit in the nation’s balance of payments.Disequilibrium in BOP could be in the form of surplus or deficit in the balance of
payments.d
The analysis of equilibrium & disequilibrium in balance of payments is summarized
in table 3. the net credit balance measures
the surplus in the nation’s balance of payments. In other words. This deficit is settled with
an equal amount of net credit in the official reserve account. This surplus is settled with an equal
amount of net debit in the official reserves account. In other words.

rate of
urbanization. Cyclical disequilibrium occurs because – (i)
Trade cycles follow different paths and patterns in different countries. according to IMF.
(2) Social factors – The social factors may include changes in tastes &
preferences due to demonstration affect. It is of long term
nature and a matter of serious concern for the country.
(d) Structural Disequilibrium – Structural disequilibrium occurs due to
structural changes in the economy.
Causes of Disequilibrium
The factors leading to disequilibrium (surplus or deficit) in balance of payments
could be broadly categorized into three –
(1) Economic factors – The important economic factors are (a) structural
changes in the economy. etc. Economists generally define fundamental
disequilibrium as . changes
in long – term capital movements. Some of the structural changes would
include – changes in technology. (c) Changes in the level of foreign exchange reserves.
(c) Cyclical Disequilibrium – Cyclical fluctuations in the business activity also
lead to BOP disequilibrium. (d)
Cyclical fluctuations. (ii)
Different countries follow different stabilization programmes.” It is a chronic BOP deficit. population growth rate. etc. etc. (iii)
Differences in price and income elasticities of demand for imports. (b) changes in exchange rates (overvaluation /
undervaluation). (e) Inflation / deflation (f) Developmental expenditure
undertaken by developing countries.
17
. changes in tastes and preferences. (b) Fundamental Disequilibrium – There is no precise definition of the term
fundamental disequilibrium.“a deep rooted persistent deficit or surplus in the BOP of
a country.

On
the other hand. (iii) It leads to
depletion in foreign exchange reserves and again makes the position of
country extremely vulnerable. the term disequilibrium is normally associated with deficits in BOP. a deficit in the combined current and capital account should
be considered as undesirable for the country. But. it is a matter of serious concern for the country and needs corrective
policy action. if the disequilibrium (surplus / deficit) is persistent or long
term.
c) A fundamental disequilibrium (in the form of deficit ) is undesirable because
– (i) Under a system of fixed exchange rates it forces the country to go for
devaluation .a) With respect to location it could be said that a surplus in the combined
current and capital accounts should be considered desirable for a country. (ii) It would lead to an increase in external
debt of the country and may lead to external debt trap. in
practice. Hence. then it is not much a serious concern for
the country.
b) With respect to duration it could be said that if the disequilibrium (surplus /
deficit) is temporary or short term.
d) It is observed that disequilibrium in the form of surpluses are very rare while
disequilibrium in the form of deficits are a common phenomenon. (iv) It makes the country totally dependent on
the loans supplied by international organizations and foreign governments
and raises serious doubt about the maintenance of its external sovereignty.
19
. while under flexible exchange rates it causes depreciation in the
external value of the currency.

deliberate measures are undertaken by the government to correct
disequilibrium in BOP. if the country has a deficit in its BOP. income and capital flows. interest rates.
The adjustment measures to correct disequilibriumf in BOP can broadly divided into
two types – (A) Automatic (B) Policy Induced or Deliberate . The burden of adjustment is on
the economy and market forces and not on the government.
(A) Automatic Adjustment – Under automatic adjustment . As the name
implies. trade policy.
20
.MEASURES TO CORRECT DISEQUILIBRIUM IN BALANCE OF
PAYMENTS
The policy makers in different countries of the world always aim at achieving
equilibrium in the balance of payments over a period of time. As pointed out above
disequilibrium in the form of deficit is a matter of grave concern for the country. in course of time.
Hence.
g
(B) Policy Induced or Deliberate Measures – Under policy induced adjustment
there is government intervention in correcting disequilibrium in BOP. The government tries to correct disequilibrium through its
policy instruments like – monetary & fiscal policy.
the BOP adjustment comes about automatically. the automatic adjustment in BOP takes
place through changes in prices. devaluation. and it is not brought about
deliberately by government policy or intervention. BOP equilibrium will be automatically restored. it is to be noted
that automatic adjustment does not confirm to reality and has unwanted side effects. It is argued that under
automatic adjustment if market forces of demand and supply are allowed to have a
free play. under
automatic adjustment there is no government intervention. However. Thus.
Assuming fixed or flexible exchange rates. then efforts are made by policy
makers to either remove or at least reduce the deficit and bring adjustment e in its
BOP. as the name implies.

While a contractionary monetary policy will decrease the
21
. etc. government places priority on internal over
external balance. internal
balance and external balance are the two objectives or targets of government policy. In the present context. internal balance is achieved by reducing inflation and
unemployment to zero and external balance is achieved by reducing BOP deficits
and surpluses to zero.
While external balance refers to the achievement of equilibrium in balance of
payments. BOP adjustment becomes a matter of policy.h
Monetary policy affects the economy through changes in money supply and interest
rates.
Internal balance refers to the achievement of full employment and price stability.exchange controls etc. Thus.
Policy Induced Measures
The most important objectives of a nation are : (a) internal balance. The government through its various
policy instruments tries to achieve internal balance and external balance
To achieve the objectives of internal & external balance the main policy instruments
at the disposal of government are as follows –
1) Monetary & Fiscal Policy (Expenditure – Changing Policies) – Monetary and
fiscal policy are the two tools or instruments through which the twin objectives of
internal and external balance are achieved. (d) an equitable distribution of income and
(e) adequate protection of the environment. but they are sometimes forced to switch their priority when faced
with large and persistent external imbalances. Thus. (b) external
balance (c) a reasonable rate of growth. Generally.
the government policies designed to correct disequilibrium in BOP cannot neglect
the internal problems related to the economy like unemployment. inflation.
economic growth etc. However. An expansionary monetary policy will increase the money supply and
decrease interest rates.

Fiscal policy affects the economy through changes in government expenditure and
taxes. While. It is argued that an expansionary monetary & fiscal policy is suitable for
solving the problem of unemployment & BOP surplus. the situation of inflation & BOP surplus
(Case 2) and unemployment & BOP deficit (Case 4) represent a policy dilemma. income and imports. these two policies are also called as ‘expenditure changing policies.
This is because reducing inflation needs a contractionary policy while reducing BOP
22
. a
contractionary monetary & fiscal policy is suitable for solving the problem of
inflation and BOP deficit. (Case 1). (Case 3). while contractionary fiscal
policy will do the opposite. output. by increasing or reducing the aggregate expenditure in the economy. An expansionary monetary policy will lead
to increase in the level of investment. On the other
hand. income and imports.’
Economists like Trevor Swan and others have identified four possible cases (zones)
of internal and external imbalance which calls for an appropriate mix of monetary
and fiscal policy. whereas the effects of fiscal policy on the BOP are
less predictable. while a contractionary fiscal policy means a decrease in
government expenditure and / or increase in taxes.
It is to be noted that the effects of monetary policy on the BOP situation of a
country are highly predictable. The four cases are . An expansionary fiscal policy means an increase in government expenditure
and /or decrease in taxes. But. These policies seek to achieve internal & external balances by
altering the aggregate level of demand for goods and services. both domestic and
imported.
Hence.(1) Unemployment – BOP Surplus (2)
Inflation – BOP Surplus (3) Inflation – BOP deficit (4) Unemployment – BOP
Deficit.money supply and increase interest rates. a contractionary monetary policy will work in the opposite way. An expansionary fiscal policy
will lead to increase in production.

(Case 2 & 4) .surplus needs an expansionary policy.
Fig. while monetary & fiscal policy should
take care of internal balance. both the cases need appropriate assignment of monetary & fiscal policies. reducing unemployment needs an
expansionary policy while reducing BOP deficit needs a contractionary policy.
Trevor Swan (1955)7 argued that a country should achieve internal as well as
external balances simultaneously by using a flexible exchange rate policy and
monetary & fiscal policy package on the other. According to Swan. 3.
Swan Diagram8 : Trevor Swan’s analysis can be explained by Swan Diagram.1 : The Swan Diagram
66
. However. the role of
attaining external balance should be given to the flexible exchange rate system
(through currency devaluation / revaluation).
(Fig. Similarly.3.
Hence. his solution is not accepted by economists
because when the economy follows monetary & fiscal policies simultaneously for
achieving internal balance (one target). it moves away from external balance (the
other target).1).

Thus. then it is in disequilibrium. The crossing of EE and YY curves defines the four
zones of external and internal imbalance and helps us to determine the appropriate
policy mix to reach external and internal balance simultaneously at point F. Points on the EE curve refer
to external balance. and the horizontal axis
measures the real domestic expenditure or absorption. According to the principle of
effective market classification developed by Mundell the policy assignment is stable
when each policy instrument is assigned to that target on which it has relatively the
most influence. for
solving Unemployment – BOP deficit case. While for solving Inflation – BOP
22
. under fixed exchange rates. Points on the YY curve refer to internal balance.
Mundell’s Assignment Rule : Mundell has given solution to the solve the dilemma
with the help of assignment. the country should adopt expansionary
fiscal policy and contractionary monetary policy. i. 3. assigning monetary policy for external balance and
fiscal policy for internal balance would be an “appropriate” assignment. it is in one of the four
zones. The assignment problem involves the pairing of a
particular policy instrument with a particular target.
with points to the left indicating internal unemployment and points to the right
indicating internal inflation.1 the vertical axis measures the exchange rate. When the economy follows expenditure changing monetary and fiscal
policies simultaneously in zones II & IV. with points to the left indicating external surplus and points to
the right indicating external deficit.In fig. to achieve internal balance (one target) it
moves away from external balance (the other target).e. If the
economy is not at point F. Robert Mundell’s (1962)9 assignment rule provides a useful
guideline for assigning policy tasks to monetary and fiscal policies. According to
him.

Table 3. Mundell’s analysis can be summarized in table 3.surplus case. Devaluation is considered
as ‘expenditure switching policy’ because it switches expenditure from imported
goods to domestic goods & services. This causes expenditure to be switched from foreign to
domestic goods as the country’s exports increase and the country produces more to
meet the domestic and foreign demand for goods. when a country with BOP deficit
devalues its currency. the country should adopt contractionary fiscal policy and expansionary
monetary policy. It is a deliberate action taken by the government deliberately and legally.3 . On the other hand. the domestic price of its imports increases and the foreign
price of its exports falls.3 : Monetary – Fiscal Policy Mix for Internal & External Balance
State of State of the Domestic economy
Balance of
Payments
High Unemployment Rapid Inflation
Surplus A C
Expansionary Monetary & Contractionary Fiscal Policy
Fiscal Policies & Expansionary Monetary
Policy
Deficit B D
Expansionary Fiscal Policy & Contractionary Monetary &
Contractionary Monetary Fiscal Policies
Policy
2) Devaluation (Expenditure Switching Policy) . Now the
foreigners can buy more goods by paying less money than before devaluation. A country
devalues its currency in order to correct its BOP deficit.Devaluation means reduction in
the external value of the country’s currency undertaken by the government
officially. Thus. This
encourages exports. Hence. with imports
23
. Mundell’s assignment rule calls for a judicious mix of
monetary & fiscal policy.
Devaluation does not change internal purchasing power of a currency. This makes exports cheaper and imports costlier.

If the terms of trade improve. (b) It would encourage capital
inflows and improve capital account balance. they decline. Thus. (c) The effect of devaluation on
terms of trade depends on demand and supply elasticities for exports and imports. The two tendencies together would
improve the overall BOP situation of the country. national income
will rise and vice versa.
Effects of Devaluation . In other words. BOP deficit is corrected. there should not be retaliation.
 Devaluation will be successful only if other countries do not devalue their
currencies simultaneously.
 There should be domestic price stability after devaluation. it
should satisfy Marshall – Lerner condition. with the rise and exports and fall
in imports.
 The supply of exports should be adequate to meet the increased demand for
exports after devaluation.
Conditions for the success of Devaluation – The success of devaluation depends
on some essential conditions which are as follows –
 The demand for exports & imports should be fairly elastic. In other words.
(d) The effect of devaluation on national income depends on whether devaluation
improves or worsens terms of trade.Theoretically it is said that devaluation would – (a)
encourage exports and discourage imports of goods and services and thereby
improve trade balance and current account balance.
24
. It is to be noted that the IMF considers
devaluation as a means to correct fundamental disequilibrium in a country’s BOP
but it is to be used only as a last resort.becoming costlier than before.

Curve”
25
. so it should be supported by
monetary.2 shows a typical J – curve. the balance of trade typically
worsens for several months before it eventually improves. following a
devaluation or depreciation of the domestic currency. etc.10
Fig.
Thus. In other words.
There are also two issues which are associated with the effects of devaluation.
 Devaluation cannot be successful in isolation. Fig.curve.  There should be international cooperation. Such
measures would include – increase in tariff duties. fiscal and other trade policy measures. the other countries
should not adopt measures to counter the effects of devaluation. because the trade balance traces a J –shaped curve through time. and later on improve trade balance. 3. In other words.A Typical “J . 3.It is generally argued that devaluation will initially deteriorate
trade balance.
They are (a) J – Curve effect and (b) Currency – Pass through relationship.2 :. export subsidies. This phenomenon is
known as J.
(a)J – Curve Effect . J – curve effect shows the time path of the response of trade flows to
devaluation.

are usually brought directly under the
control of the exchange control authority. thus weakening the
influence of a change in the exchange rate on the volume of trade.
including those currently occurring to it. Exchange control serves the
dual purpose of restricting imports and regulating foreign exchange.
however. it is estimated that for every
10 percent change in the value of the dollar. both import prices and export prices
change about 6 per cent. trade balance is measured on vertical axis. a devaluation or
depreciation of the nation’s currency will first result in deterioration of the nation’s
trade balance before showing a net improvement after time A. For example. this relationship may be less than proportionate. the whole foreign exchange resources of the nation. for United States. and time is measured on
horizontal axis.In fig. In practice. It is theoretically assumed that a given change in the
exchange rate brings about a proportionate change in import prices.2.
Under the exchange control. The extent to which changing
currency values lead to changes in import and export prices is known as currency –
pass through relationship. with
significant time lags. The exchange control authority is usually
26
.3.
Empirical evidence suggests that in reality there is partial pass –through. Assuming that the original trade balance is zero.
3) Exchange Control – Exchange control also forms a part of expenditure –
switching policy because they too aim at switching of expenditure from imported
goods and services to domestic goods and services.
(b) Currency – Pass through Relationship – The effect of devaluation also
depends on currency – pass through relationship.

etc. provide monetary.
(a) Import controls .A country may control its imports by imposing or
increasing import duties. Dealings and transactions are
regulated by the exchange control authority.
(b) Export promotion – A country would promote exports by reducing or
abolishing export duties. The important trade policy measures are
. providing export subsidies. foreign
exchange restrictions.
The recipients of foreign exchange like exporters are required to surrender foreign
exchange to the exchange control authority in exchange for domestic currency. They are (1) Monetary & fiscal policy. Indirect methods would include – import tariffs & quotas. Direct methods would
include – intervention and regulation in matters concerning exchange rates.
To sum up.
4) Trade Policy Measures – Trade policy measures would include measures which
would reduce imports and promote exports. However. etc.
prohibiting altogether the import of certain non essential items. multiple exchange rate policies.
Exchange control methods could be direct and indirect. there are four policy induced measures to correct disequilibrium in
balance of payments. etc. fiscal. export
subsidies. The
exchange control authority allocates the foreign exchange on the basis of national
priorities. in practice none of
27
. restricting imports through import quotas. exchange clearing
agreements. encouraging production of
exportables. physical and institutional incentives and
facilities to exporters. licensing. etc.(a) Import controls (b) Export promotion. (2) Devaluation. (3)
Exchange control and (4) Trade policy measures.the government or central bank of the country.

then efforts are made by
policy makers to either remove or at least reduce the deficit. usually a year. fundamental. The current account and capital account are the two
main components of the balance of payments statement. in reality most of the countries adopt policy induced measures to correct
28
.
The measures to correct disequilibrium can be automatic or policy induced. balance of payments always balances in the
accounting sense of the term. As it is
based on double entry book – keeping. From an economist point
of view. The study of balance of
payments represents macroeconomic aspect of international economics. within the balance of payments statement – trade balance. capital account balance and overall balance are important. cyclical
and structural.
However.
Disequilibrium in the BOP can be in the form of temporary. current account
balance. these measures are used in isolation. Disequilibrium in the form of deficit is a matter of grave concern for the
country. When autonomous receipts are
greater than autonomous payments there is surplus in BOP.
Equilibrium in BOP would mean that its autonomous receipts are equal to
autonomous payments. if the country has a deficit in its BOP. social and political
factors.
CONCLUSION
Balance of Payments is said to be a systematic record of all international economic
transactions during a given period of time. Hence. Disequilibrium in BOP is caused by economic.
The distinction between autonomous and accommodating transactions is useful in
defining equilibrium / disequilibrium (surplus / deficit) in balance of payments. While disequilibrium in BOP means that its autonomous
receipts are not equal to autonomous payments. majority of them are used
together and hence can be said to be complimentary to each other. On the contrary. and when autonomous
receipts are less than autonomous payments there is a deficit in BOP.

Exchange control serves the dual purpose of restricting
imports and regulating foreign exchange.
Devaluation means reduction in the external value of the country’s currency
undertaken by the government officially. (c) Exchange control and (d) Trade policy
measures. no retaliation by other countries and the use of appropriate monetary. the success of
devaluation depends on several factors like – achievement of Marshall – Lerner
condition. It is a deliberate action taken by the
government deliberately and legally. Some of the export promotion measures would include -
providing export subsidies. while fiscal policy should be used to achieve external
balance. Some of the important import control measures are –
import duties and quotas. While Fiscal policy affects the economy through changes in government
expenditure and taxes. Under exchange control. (b) Devaluation.disequilibrium in BOP. Some of the policy induced measures are – (a) Monetary –
Fiscal policy mix. encouraging production of exportables. However. Finally.
fiscal and trade policies.
Monetary policy affects the economy through changes in money supply and interest
rates. etc. monetary policy should be used to
achieve internal balance. According to Mundell. It is pertinent to note that most of the
policy induced measures are used together and hence they are complimentary to
each other. trade policy measures would include import
controls and export promotion. Theoretically it is said that devaluation would
encourage exports and discourage imports of goods and services and thereby
improve trade balance and current account balance. providing
incentives and facilities to exporters. the foreign
exchange resources of the country are usually brought directly under the control of
the exchange control authority.
29
.

International Monetary Fund.
h. I : The
Balance of Payments – London.
1. Similarly.
g.C. 7.D. p. 366.c.
e. p.
3. Oxford University Press. Lindert Peter (2002) – International Economics – New Delhi. International Monetary Fund (1996) – Balance of Payments Textbook –
Washington . measures to correct disequilibrium
would imply measures to reduce the deficit. unless otherwise specified. It was the economist James Meade who shifted the emphasis from automatic
adjustment mechanism to policy induced adjustment mechanism. p.
4. 365. 1. Meade James (1951) – The Theory of International Economic Policy Vol.
2. When accounting balance is produced with the help of accommodating
transactions there is said to be BOP adjustment. This is in conformity with Tinbergen Principle which states that for any economic
policy to be successful. henceforth. Higher the value of multiplier. In the present study.
i. All India Traveller
Book Seller.
d. greater is the increase in national income and more
favourable is the BOP result..
f. the term ‘disequilibrium’ would imply ‘deficit’ in
BOP. the number of policy instruments must be equal to the
number of objectives. This equation is the national income identity for an open economy. p. All India Traveller
Bookseller.
75
. Lindert Peter (2002) – International Economics – New Delhi. This method of measuring the surplus or deficit in balance of payments is correct
only under fixed exchange rate system and not under a flexible exchange rate system
or a managed exchange rate system.