Distributed Problem Solving and Planning

Transcription

1 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1 Distributed Problem Solving and Planning Edmund H. Durfee 1 Artificial Intelligence Laboratory EECS Department University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48104, USA Abstract. Distributed problem solving involves the collective effort of multiple problems solvers to combine their knowledge, information, and capabilities so as to develop solutions to problems that each could not have solved as well (if at all) alone. The challenge in distributed problem solving is thus in marshalling the distributed capabilities in the right ways so that the problem solving activities of each agent complement the activities of the others, so as to lead efficiently to effective solutions. Thus, while working together leads to distributed problem solving, there is also the distributed problem of how to work together that must be solved. We consider that problem to be a distributed planning problem, where each agent must formulate plans for what it will do that take into account (sufficiently well) the plans of other agents. In this paper, we characterize the variations of distributed problem solving and distributed planning, and summarize some of the basic techniques that have been developed to date. 1 Introduction Distributed problem solving is the name applied to a subfield of distributed AI in which the emphasis is on getting agents to work together well to solve problems that require collective effort. Due to an inherent distribution of resources such as knowledge, capability, information, and expertise among the agents, an agent in a distributed problem-solving system is unable to accomplish its own tasks alone, or at least can accomplish its tasks better (more quickly, completely, precisely, or certainly) when working with others. Solving distributed problems well demands both group coherence (that is, agents need to have the incentive to work together faithfully) and competence (that is, agents need to know how to work together well). Group coherence is hard to realize among individually-motivated agents, but without it it is difficult to view the multiple agents as solving a problem in a distributed way. In distributed problem solving, therefore, we typically assume a fair degree of coherence is already present: the agents have 1 This is an abridged and updated version of [Durfee 1999b], which is Chapter 3 in Weiss MultiAgent Systems: A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence, published by MIT Press in 1999 [Weiss 1999].

2 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2 been designed to work together; or the payoffs to self-interested agents are only accrued through collective efforts; or social engineering has introduced disincentives for agent individualism, etc. Distributed problem solving thus concentrates on competence; as anyone who has played on a team, worked on a group project, or performed in an orchestra can tell you, simply having the desire to work together by no means ensures a competent collective outcome! Distributed problem solving presumes the existence of problems that need to be solved and expectations about what constitute solutions. For example, a problem to solve might be for a team of (computational) agents to design an artifact (say, a car). The solution they formulate must satisfy overall requirements (it should have four wheels, the engine should fit within the engine compartment and be powerful enough to move the car, etc.), and must exist in a particular form (a specification document for the assembly plant). The teamed agents formulate solutions by each tackling (one or more) subproblems and synthesizing these subproblem solutions into overall solutions. Sometimes the problem the agents are solving is to construct a plan. And often, even if the agents are solving other kinds of problems, they also have to solve planning problems as well. That is, how the agents should plan to work together--- decompose problems into subproblems, allocate these subproblems, exchange subproblem solutions, and synthesize overall solutions---is itself a problem the agents need to solve. Distributed planning is thus tightly intertwined with distributed problem solving, being both a problem in itself and a means to solving a problem. In this paper, we describe the concepts and algorithms that comprise the foundations of distributed problem solving and planning. We outline how protocols protocols for interaction can be used to ensure the right information is conveyed to the right agents to accomplish distributed problem solving and planning. We assume that the reader is familiar with traditional AI search techniques; since problem solving and planning are usually accomplished through search, we make liberal use of the relevant concepts. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. We begin by introducing some representative example problems, as well as overviewing a variety of other applications of the techniques to be described. Working from these motivating examples, we work our way up through a series of algorithms and concepts as we introduce increasingly complicated requirements into the kinds of problems to solve, including planning problems. 2 Example Problems There are several motivations for distributed problem solving and distributed planning. One obvious motivation is that using distributed resources concurrently can allow a speedup of problem solving thanks to parallelism. The possible improvements due to parallelism depend, of course, on the degree of parallelism inherent in a problem.

3 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3 One problem that permits a large amount of parallelism during planning is a classic toy problem from the AI literature: the Tower of Hanoi (ToH) problem (see Figure 1). As the reader will recall from an introductory AI course, ToH consists of 3 pegs and n disks of graduated sizes. The starting situation has all of the disks on one peg, largest at bottom to smallest at top. The goal is to move the disks from the start peg to another peg, moving only one disk at a time, without ever placing a larger disk on top of a smaller disk. The problem, then, is to find a sequence of moves that will achieve the goal state. Fig. 1: Tower of Hanoi A second motivation for distributed problem solving and planning is that expertise or other problem-solving capabilities can be inherently distributed. For example, in concurrent engineering, a problem could involve designing and manufacturing an artifact (such as a car) by allowing specialized agents to individually formulate components and processes, and combining these into a collective solution. Or, supervisory systems for air-traffic control, factory automation, or crisis management can involve an interplay between separate pieces for event monitoring, situation assessment, diagnosis, prioritization, and response generation. In these kinds of systems, the problem is to employ diverse capabilities to solve problems that are not only large (the ToH can itself be arbitrarily large) but also multi-faceted. As a simple example of distributed capability, we will use the example of distributed sensor network establishment for monitoring a large area for vehicle movements. In this kind of problem, the overall task of monitoring cannot be done in a central location since the large area cannot be sensed from any single location. The establishment problem is thus to decompose the larger monitoring task into subtasks that can be allocated appropriately to geographically distributed agents. A third motivation is related to the second, and that is that beliefs or other data can be distributed. For example, following the successful solution of the distributed sensor network establishment problem just described, the problem of actually doing the distributed vehicle monitoring could in principle be centralized: each of the distributed sensor agents could transmit raw data to a central site to be interpreted into a global view. This centralized strategy, however, could involve tremendous amounts of unnecessary communication compared to allowing the separate sensor agents to formulate local interpretations that could then be transmitted selectively. Finally, a fourth motivation is that the results of problem solving or planning might need to be distributed to be acted on by multiple agents. For example, in a task involving the delivery of objects between locations (figure 2), distributed delivery agents can act in parallel. The formation of the plans that they execute could be done

4 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4 at a centralized site (a dispatcher) or could involve distributed problem-solving among them. Moreover, during the execution of their plans, features of the environment that were not known at planning time, or that unexpectedly change, can trigger changes in what the agents should do. Again, all such decisions could be routed through a central coordinator, but for a variety of reasons (exploiting parallelism, sporadic coordinator availability, slow communication channels, etc.) it could be preferable for the agents to modify their plans unilaterally or with limited communication among them. room1 room2 room3 B? C A Figure 2: Distributed Delivery Example In the above, we have identified several of the motivations for distributed problem solving and planning, and have enumerated examples of the kinds of applications for which these techniques make sense. In the rest of this paper, we will refer back to several of these kinds of application problems, specifically: Tower of Hanoi (ToH) Distributed Sensor Network Establishment (DSNE) Distributed Vehicle Monitoring (DVM) Distributed Delivery (DD) 3 Task Sharing The first class of distributed problem-solving strategies that we will consider have been called task sharing or task passing strategies in the literature. The idea is simple. When an agent has many tasks to do, it should enlist the help of agents with few or no tasks. The main steps in task sharing are: 1. Task decomposition: Generate the set of tasks to potentially be passed to others. This could generally involve decomposing large tasks into subtasks that could be tackled by different agents.

5 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5 2. Task allocation: Assign subtasks to appropriate agents. 3. Task accomplishment: The appropriate agents each accomplish their subtasks, which could include further decomposition and subsubtask assignment, recursively to the point that an agent can accomplish the task it is handed alone. 4. Result synthesis: When an agent accomplishes its subtask, it passes the result to the appropriate agent (usually the original agent, since it knows the decomposition decisions and thus is most likely to know how to compose the results into an overall solution). Note that, depending on the circumstances, different steps might be more or less difficult. For example, sometimes an overburdened agent begins with a bundle of separate tasks, so decomposition is unnecessary; sometimes the agent can pass tasks off to any of a number of identical agents, so allocation is trivial; and sometimes accomplishing the tasks does not yield any results that need to be synthesized in any complex way. 3.1 Task Sharing Among Homogeneous Agents To get a feel for the possibilities of task sharing, we start with the very simple ToH problem. Consider the task-sharing steps when it comes to this problem: 1. Task decomposition: Means-ends analysis, where moving the largest disk that is not at its destination peg is considered the most important difference, leads to a recursive decomposition: solve the problem of getting to the state where the largest disk can be moved, and get from the state after it is moved to the goal state. These subproblems can be further decomposed into problems of moving the second largest disk to the middle peg to get it out of the way, so the state where that can be done needs to be reached, etc. 2. Task allocation: If we assume an indefinite number of identical idle agents capable of solving (pieces of) the ToH problem, then allocation reduces to just assigning a task randomly to one of these idle agents. If the decomposed problems are such that the start and goal states are the same (that is, where the most significant difference is also the only difference), then the recursive decomposition terminates. 3. Task accomplishment: In general, an agent can use means-ends analysis to find the most significant difference between the start and goal states that it is responsible for, and will decompose the problem based on these. 4. Result synthesis: When an agent has solved its problem, it passes the solution back on up. When an agent has received solutions to all of the subproblems it passed down, it can compose these into a more comprehensive sequence of moves, and then pass this up as its solution.

6 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6 ToH represents an ideal case of the possibilities of distributed problem solving due to the hierarchical nature of the problem. Unfortunately, most problems are more complicated than ToH for reasons including: 1. Problems will often require backtracking back upward in the abstraction hierarchy, because the solution of one can affect the solution of others. 2. The number of available (idle) agents is not indefinite, and will generally be fixed rather than scaling up with the problem size. 3. Problems usually cannot be decomposed into equal-sized subproblems, especially in domains where problems are decomposed into qualitatively different pieces requiring different expertise. 4. The processes of decomposing problems, distributing subproblems, and collecting results can require substantial time 3.2 Task Sharing in Heterogeneous Systems One of the powerful motivations for distributed problem solving is that it is difficult to build artifacts (or train humans) to be competent in every possible task. Moreover, even if it feasible to build (or train) an omni-capable agent, it is often overkill because, at any given time, most of those capabilities will go to waste. The strategy in human systems, and adopted in many distributed problem-solving systems, is to bring together on demand combinations of specialists in different areas to combine their expertise to solve problems that are beyond their individual capabilities. In the ToH example, the subproblems required identical capabilities, and so the decisions about where to send tasks was extremely simple. When agents can have different capabilities, and different subproblems require different capabilities, then the assignment of subproblems to agents is not so simple. Conceptually, it is possible for an agent to have a table that identifies the capabilities agents, so that it can simply select an appropriate agent and send the subproblem off, but usually the decisions need to be based on more dynamic information. For example, if several candidate agents are capable of solving a subproblem, but some are already committed to other subproblems, how is this discovered? One way is to use the Contract Net protocol: An agent (in Contract-Net terms, the manager ) decomposes its larger problem into a set of subproblems, and announces each subproblem to the network, along with specifications about which other agents are eligible to accept the subproblem and how they should specify a bid for the subproblem. A recipient of the announcement decides whether it is eligible, and if so it formulates a bid. The manager collects bids, and awards the subproblem to the agent(s) (called contractors) with the best bid(s). A contractor receives the subproblem details, solves the subproblem (perhaps by in turn breaking it into subproblems and contracting those out), and returns the solution to the manager. In the kind of open environment for which Contract Net was envisioned, it is unlikely that a manager will be acquainted with all of the possible contractors in its world. Thus, broadcasting the task announcements makes the most sense. However, to minimize the communication in the network, it can improve performance if a manager can direct an announcement to a subset of potential contractors (or in the extreme

7 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 7 case, a single preferred contractor) based on prior experience. Directed contracting can thus be thought of as caching results of previous broadcasts. Since the cached results can become outdated, many implementations of Contract Net do not include this function. It is interesting to note, however, that this kind of capabilities database has found renewed favor in knowledge sharing efforts such as KQML [Neches 1991], where some agents explicitly adopt the task of keeping track of what other agents purport to be good at. When no contractors are found through the Contract Net protocol, one very simple response is for the manager to retry the announcement periodically, assuming that a contractor is out there but is currently occupied. The retry interval then becomes an important parameter: if retries happen too slowly, then many inefficiencies can arise as agents do not utilize each other well; but if retries happen to quickly, the network can get bogged down with messages. One strategy for overcoming such a situation is to turn the protocol on its head. Rather than announcing tasks and collecting bids, which implies that usually there are several bidders for each task, instead the protocol can be used by potential contractors to announce availability, and managers can respond to the announcements by bidding their pending tasks! It is possible to have a system alternate between the task and availability announcement strategies depending on where the bottlenecks are in the system at various times [Stankovic 1985]. An alternative to retrying, especially when there might not be eligible contractors on the network, is for the manager could engage in iterative revision of its announcement, relaxing eligibility requirements until it begins to receive bids. An interesting aspect of this relaxation process is that the eligibility specifications could well reflect preferences over different classes of contractors - or, more specifically, over the quality of services that different contractors provide. In concert with other methods of handling a lack of bids (described above), a manager will be deciding the relative importance of having a preferred contractor eventually pursue the subproblem compared to finding a suboptimal contractor sooner. In many cases, these preferences and tradeoffs between them can be captured using economic representations. By describing parts of its marginal utility curve, for example, a manager can provide tradeoff information to an auction, which can then apply principled algorithms to optimize the allocation of capabilities, such as market mechanisms [Wellman 1993]. Finally, the difficulty a manager faces might be that no agent can do the kind of subproblem it is announcing. The manager could therefore instead try decomposing the overall problem differently such that contractors are available for the alternative subproblems. In general, the relationship between problem decomposition and subproblem allocation is extremely complex and has not received sufficient attention. Sometimes a manager should first determine the space of alternative contractors to focus problem decomposition, while other times the space of decompositions can be very restrictive. Moreover, decisions about the number of problems to decompose into and the granularity of those subproblems will depend on other features of the application environment, including communication delays. We say no more about these issues here, other than to stress the research opportunities in this area.

8 Lecture Notes in Computer Science Task Sharing for DSNE Smith and Davis (and others since) have explored the use of the Contract Net protocol for a variety of problems, including the Distributed Sensor Net Establishment (DSNE) problem [Davis 1983]. To give the reader a flavor of this approach, we briefly summarize the stages of this application. At the outset, it is assumed that a particular agent is given the task of monitoring a wide geographic area. This agent has expertise in how to perform the overall task, but is incapable of sensing all of the area from its own locality. Therefore, the first step is that an agent recognizes that it can perform its task better (or at all) if it enlists the help of other agents. Given this recognition, it then needs to create subtasks to offload to other agents. In the DSNE problem, it can use its representation of the structure of the task to identify that it needs sensing done (and sensed data returned) from remote areas. Given this decomposition, it then uses the protocol to match these sensing subtasks with available agents. It announces (either directed, focused, or broadcast) a subtask; we leave out the details of the message fields. The important aspects of the announcement for our purposes here are the eligibility specification, the task abstraction, and the bid specification. To be eligible for this task requires that the bidding agent have a sensor position within the required sensing area identified and that it have the desired sensing capabilities. Agents that meet these requirements can then analyze the task abstraction (what, at an abstract level, is the task being asked of the bidders) and can determine the degree to which it is willing and able to perform the task, from its perspective. Based on this analysis, an eligible agent can bid on the task, where the content of a bid is dictated by the bid specification. The agent with the task receives back zero or more bids. If it gets back no bids, then it faces the options previously described: it can give up, try again, broaden the eligibility requirements to increase the pool of potential bidders, or decompose the task differently to target a different pool of bidders. If it gets back bids, it could be that none are acceptable to it, and it is as if it got none back. If one or more is acceptable, then it can award the sensing subtask to one (or possible several) of the bidding agents. Note that, because the agent with the task has a choice over what it announces and what bids it accepts, and an eligible agent has a choice over whether it wants to bid and what content to put into its bid, no agent is forced to be part of a contract. The agents engage in a rudimentary form of negotiation, and form teams through mutual selection. Using a distributed sensor network to perform vehicle monitoring, the runtime relationships between what is being monitored in different areas is as variable as the possible movements of vehicles through the areas. While a task-sharing strategy, exemplified in the Contract Net protocol, can establish a distributed sensor network, it does not provide a sufficient basis for using the network. Or, put more correctly, when task sharing is used to allocate classes of tasks among agents, then if different instances of those tasks have different interrelationships, discovering and exploiting those relationships requires the generation and sharing of tentative results.

9 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 9 4 Result Sharing While a task-sharing strategy, exemplified in the Contract Net protocol, can establish a distributed sensor network, it does not provide a sufficient basis for using the network because the runtime relationships between what is being monitored in different areas is as variable as the possible movements of vehicles through the areas. Or, put more correctly, when task sharing is used to allocate classes of tasks among agents, then if different instances of those tasks have different interrelationships, discovering and exploiting those relationships requires the generation and sharing of tentative results. By sharing results, problem solvers can improve group performance in combinations of the following ways: 1. Confidence: Independently derived results for the same task can be used to corroborate each other, yielding a collective result that has a higher confidence of being correct. For example, when studying for an exam, students might separately work out an exercise and then compare answers to increase confidence in their solutions. 2. Completeness: Each agent formulates results for whichever subtasks it can (or has been contracted to) accomplish, and these results altogether cover a more complete portion of the overall task. For example, in distributed vehicle monitoring, a more complete map of vehicle movements is possible when agents share their local maps. 3. Precision: To refine its own solution, an agent needs to know more about the solutions that others have formulated. For example, in a concurrent engineering application, each agent might separately come up with specifications for part of an artifact, but by sharing these the specifications can be further honed to fit together more precisely. 4. Timeliness: Even if an agent could in principle solve a large task alone, solving subtasks in parallel can yield an overall solution faster. Accruing the benefits of result sharing obviously means that agents need to share results. But making this work is harder than you might think! First of all, agents need to know what to do with shared results: how should an agent assimilate results shared from others in with its own results? Second, given that assimilation might be nontrivial, that communicating large volumes of results can be costly, and that managing many assimilated results incurs overhead, agents should attempt to be as selective as possible about what they exchange. In the remainder of this section, we look at these issues. 4.1 Functionally Accurate Cooperation In task-passing applications like ToH, the separate problem-solving agents are completely accurate in their computations (they have all information and a complete specification for their subtasks) and operate independently. In contrast, agents doing Distributed Vehicle Monitoring (DVM) lack information about what is happening

10 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 10 elsewhere that could impact their calculations. As a result, these agents need to cooperate to solve their subtasks, and might formulate tentative results along the way that turn out to be unnecessary. This style of collective problem solving has be termed functionally-accurate (it gets the answer eventually, but with possibly many false starts) and cooperative (it requires iterative exchange) [Lesser 1981]. Functionally-accurate cooperation has been used extensively in distributed problem solving for tasks such as interpretation and design, where agents only discover the details of how their subproblem results interrelate through tentative formulation and iterative exchange. For this method to work well, participating agents need to treat the partial results they have formulated and received as tentative, and therefore might have to entertain and contrast several competing partial hypotheses at once. A variety of agent architectures can support this need; in particular, blackboard architectures [Lesser 1981] have often been employed as semi-structured repositories for storing multiple competing hypotheses. Exchanging tentative partial solutions can impact completeness, precision, and confidence. When agents can synthesize partial solutions into larger (possibly still partial) solutions, more of the overall problem is covered by the solution. When an agent uses a result from another to refine its own solutions, precision is increased. And when an agent combines confidence measures of two (corroborating or competing) partial solutions, the confidence it has in the solutions changes. In general, most distributed problem-solving systems assume similar representations of partial solutions (and their certainty measures) which makes combining them straightforward, although some researchers have considered challenges in crossing between representations, such as combining different uncertainty measurements [Zhang 1992]. In functionally accurate cooperation, the iterative exchange of partial results is expected to lead, eventually, to some agent having enough information to keep moving the overall problem solving forward. Given enough information exchange, therefore, the overall problem will be solved. Of course, without being tempered by some control decisions, this style of cooperative problem solving could incur dramatic amounts of communication overhead and wasted computation. For example, if agents share too many results, a phenomenon called distraction can arise: it turns out that they can begin to all gravitate toward doing the same problem-solving actions (synthesizing the same partial results into more complete solutions). That is, they all begin exploring the same part of the search space. For this reason, limiting communication is usually a good idea, as is giving agents some degree of skepticism in how they assimilate and react to information from others. We address these issues next. 4.2 Distributed Constraint Satisfaction One view of the iterative exchange of tentative solutions is as a distributed constraint satisfaction problem (DCSP). Each agent is trying to find values (solutions) for its variables (local subproblems) such that constraints between variables are satisfied (the local subproblem solutions fit together into a consistent global solution). It is typically assumed that agents whose variables have constraints between them know about this relationship, and therefore will communicate about their values with each other.

11 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11 A variety of techniques for distributed constraint satisfaction has been developed over the years, and a complete description of them all is beyond the scope of this paper. The main challenges in solving a distributed constraint satisfaction problem are ensuring termination and completeness. That is, in the most general sense, what agents in a DCSP are doing is passing around their current proposed assignments of values to their variables; when constraint violations between their variables are detected, then some of them need to make different assignments. There is thus a danger that agents will make assignments and reassignments such that they never finish. Because a variable assignment involved in a constraint could still be correct (it might have been that other variables involved in the constraint were wrong), an agent should consider revisiting an assignment. But in the worst case, the combinations of local assignment decisions could lead to cycling through repetitions of collective assignments. Similarly, local decisions about assignments and reassignments, without global oversight, could mean that some combinations of collective assignments might never be tried. Thus the DCSP search might be incomplete. The solutions to these problems generally involve imposing some amount of global structure on the distributed search. Ensuring completeness is possible if agents have consistent knowledge about which of them should try new values for variables while others hold their values constant. This permits a systematic search of the space of collective assignments, meaning both that the search is complete and that it is possible to detect when all combinations have been tried so that the search can terminate. At the extreme, however, this can lead to a fully sequentialized search among the agents, eliminating any potential benefits of parallelism among agent activities. Techniques have been developed for increasing parallelism through asynchronous activities on the parts of the agents, while still ensuring systematic search [Yokoo98]. The efficacy of the search, however, also depends on decisions about which agents will try alternative values while others hold still. Just as single-agent constraint satisfaction can employ heuristics like most-constrained-variable-first, DCSP can do so as well. This is of course complicated, however, since knowledge about the degree to which a variable is constrained might be acquired dynamically, and so the guidelines about which agents should change and which should hold still can change at runtime. Ensuring that each agent knows about these changes, and that a complete search can still be carried out, requires careful construction of protocols [Yokoo 1998]. 4.3 Shared Repositories and Negotiated Search One strategy for reducing message passing is to instead concentrate tentative partial results in a single, shared repository. The blackboard architecture, for example, allows cooperating knowledge sources to exchange results and build off of them by communicating through a common, structured blackboard. This strategy has been adopted in a variety of distributed problem-solving approaches, including those for design applications [Lander 1993; Werkman 1992]. In essence, using a shared repository can support search through alternative designs, where agents with different design criteria can revise and critique the alternatives. In many ways, this is a distributed

12 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 12 constraint satisfaction problem, but it differs from traditional formulations in a few respects. Two important differences are: agents are not assumed to know whose constraints might be affected by their design choices, and agents can relax constraints in a pinch. The first difference motivates the use of a shared repository, since agents would not know whom to notify of their decisions (as is assumed in typical DCSP formulations). The second difference motivates the need for heuristics to control the distributed search, since at any given time agents might need to choose between improving some solutions, rejecting some solutions, or relaxing expectations (thus making some solutions that were previously considered as rejected now acceptable). For example, agents engaged in negotiated search [Lander 1993] have at their disposal a variety of operators for progressing the distributed problem-solving effort: initiate-solution (propose a new starting point for a solution); extend-solution (revise an already existing partial solution); critique-solution (provide feedback on the viability of an already existing partial solution); and relax-solution-requirement (change local requirements for solution acceptability). At any given time, an agent needs to decide which of these operators to apply, and where. While a systematic exploration of the space can be considered, the problem domains for negotiated search are typically complex enough that heuristic guidance is preferred. Heuristic measures for when to invoke operators (such as invoking the relax-solution-requirement operator when lack of progress is detected) and on what (such as relaxing requirements corresponding to the most constrained component) are generally application-specific. 4.4 Distributed Constrained Heuristic Search Constraint satisfaction problems in distributed environments also arise due to contention for resources. Rather than assuming a shared repository for tentative partial solutions, a search strategy that has been gainfully employed for distributed resource allocation problems has been to associate an agent with each resource, and have that agent process the contending demands for the resource. One form that this strategy takes is so-called market-oriented programming [Wellman 1993] where associated with resources are auctions that support the search for equilibria in which resources are allocated efficiently. Market mechanisms are covered next. A second form that this strategy takes is to allow resources to compute their aggregate demands, which then the competing agents can take into account as they attack their constraint-satisfaction problem. For example, distributed constrained heuristic search (DCHS) uses aggregate demand to inform a heuristic search for solving a distributed constraint satisfaction problem [Sycara 1991]. The idea is that more informed search decisions decrease wasted backtracking effort, and that constraint satisfaction heuristics such as variable and value ordering can be gainfully employed in a distributed environment. DCHS works as follows: 1. An agent begins with a problem state comprised of a problem topology (the tasks to do and their relationships including constraints).

13 Lecture Notes in Computer Science An agent propagates constraints within its state; it backtracks if an inconsistency is detected. Otherwise, it determines what resources it requires for what time intervals and computes a demand profile for those resources. 3. If the system is just beginning, or if the demand profiles differ from previous profiles, an agent sends the profile(s) to the resource(s). 4. A resource computes aggregate demand and informs the agents making the demands. 5. An agent uses the aggregate demands to order its variables (resource-and-timeinterval pairs) and order the activities that it might assign to the highest-demand pair. It identifies a preferred resource/time-interval/activity assignment. 6. An agent requests that the resource reserve the interval for it. 7. The resource in turn grants the reservation if possible and updates the resource schedule. Otherwise the request is denied. 8. An agent processes the response from the resource. If the reservation is granted, the agent goes to step 2 (to propagate the effects of concretely scheduling the activity). If the reservation is not granted, the agent attempts another reservation, going to step 6. This view of the search strategy, while simplified, highlights the use of resources being contended for to focus communication, and of an exchange of information that tends to decrease the amount of backtracking. That is, by giving agents an opportunity to settle the difficult contention issues first, much useless work is avoided in settling the easier issues and then discovering that these fail to allow the hard issues to be settled. 4.5 Market Mechanisms There is a burgeoning literature on market-oriented mechanisms; here, we will just outline the basic ideas. As in the previous section, the underlying notion is that contention for resources can be captured as some measure of aggregate demand for the resource. In market mechanisms, this is more directly captured as the amount that each agent would be willing to pay for (a share of) the resource. The market typically goes through multiple rounds of agents bidding on resources, and then the resources (or the auctions associated with them) providing information reflecting the aggregate demand. In the simplest terms, the auction announces a price for the resource, and the agents indicate how much they are willing to buy for that amount. As the system iterates, it converges (under some conditions) to an equilibrium where no agents change their resource demands given the current prices. At that point, an efficient allocation of resources is achieved. Because it is founded on well-understood principles in economics, this kind of mechanism provides provable properties that are harder to establish in more heuristic methods. Of course, though, there are multiple challenges in making this kind of mechanism work for some of the more complicated problems for which heuristic methods have been developed. Extending the range of capabilities of market-based mechanisms is currently an extremely active research area, including dealing with

14 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 14 combinatorial auctions (where the value agents place in items is dependent on getting combinations of items). 4.6 Organizational Structuring When a shared repository cannot be supported or when problem-solving is not tantamount to resource scheduling, an alternative strategy for reducing communication is to exploit the task decomposition structure, to the extent that it is known. In a distributed design problem, for example, it makes sense to have designers working on components that must connect speak with each other more frequently than they speak with designers working on more remote parts of the design (of course, physical proximity might be only one heuristic!). Or, in a DVM task, agents monitoring neighboring parts of the space should communicate when their maps show activity at or near their mutual boundary. The notion is that agents have general roles to play in the collective effort, and by using knowledge of these roles the agents can make better interaction decisions. This notion can be explicitly manifested in an organizational structure, which defines roles, responsibilities, and preferences for the agents within a cooperative society, and thus in turn defines control and communication patterns between them. From a global view, the organizational structure associates with each agent the types of tasks that it can do, and usually some prioritization over the types such that an agent that currently could do any of a number of tasks can identify the most important tasks as part of its organizational role. Allowing prioritization allows the structure to permit overlapping responsibilities (to increase the chances of success despite the loss of some of the agents) while still differentiating agents based on their primary roles. Since each agent has responsibilities, it is important that an agent be informed of partial results that could influence how it carries out its responsibilities. More importantly, agents need not be told of results that could not affect their actions, and this can be determined based on the organizational structure. Thus, an organizational structure provides the basis for deciding who might potentially be interested in a partial result. It also can dictate the degree to which an agent should believe and act on (versus remain skeptical about) a received result. While an organizational structure needs to be coherent from an overall perspective, it is important to note that, as in human organizations, an agent only needs to be aware of its local portion of the structure: what it is supposed to be doing (and how to decide what to do when it has choices), who to send what kinds of information to, who to accept what kinds of information from and how strongly to react to that information, etc. For practical purposes, therefore, organizational structures are usually implemented in terms of stored pattern-response rules: when a partial result that matches the pattern is generated/received, then the response actions are taken (to transmit the partial result to a particular agent, or to act on it locally, or to decrement its importance, etc.). Note that a single partial result could trigger multiple actions. Finally, we have briefly mentioned that an organizational structure can be founded upon the problem decomposition structure, such as for the DSNE problem where agents would be made aware of which other agents are responsible for neighboring

15 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 15 areas so that partial results that matched the overlapping regions of interest would be shared. The design of organizational structures for multi-agent systems, however, is generally a complex search problem in its own right. The search can be conducted in a bottom-up distributed manner, where boundaries between the roles of agents can be determined as the problem instance is initialized [Decker 1993] or as problem solving progresses [Ishida 1992;, Prasad 1996], where adjustments to the structure can be based on reacting to performance inefficiencies of the current structure. In some cases, the organizational structure can be equated to a priority order for a distributed constraint satisfaction problem, and the agents are trying to discover an effective ordering to converge on a solution efficiently. Alternatively, organizational structuring can be viewed as a top-down design problem, where the space of alternative designs can be selectively explored and candidate designs can be evaluated prior to their implementation (Pattison 1987; Corkill 1982, So 1996]. The use of computational techniques to study, and prescribe, organizational structures is covered in [Gasser 1999] Communication Strategies Organization structures, or similar knowledge, can provide static guidelines about who is generally interested in what results. But this ignores timing issues. When deciding whether to send a result, an agent really wants to know whether the potential recipient is likely to be interested in the result now (or soon). Sending a result that is potentially useful but that turns out to not be at best clutters up the memory of the recipient, and at worst can distract the recipient away from the useful work that it otherwise would have done. On the other hand, refraining from sending a result for fear of these negative consequences can lead to delays in the pursuit of worthwhile results and even to the failure of the system to converge on reasonable solutions at all because some links in the solution chain were broken. When cluttering memory is not terrible and when distracting garden paths are short, then the communication strategy can simply be to send all partial results. On the other hand, when it is likely that an exchange of a partial result will lead a subset of agents into redundant exploration of a part of the solution space, it is better to refrain, and only send a partial result when the agent that generated it has completed everything that it can do with it locally. For example, in a distributed theorem-proving problem, an agent might work forward through a number of resolutions toward the sentence to prove, and might transmit the final resolvent that it has formed when it could progress no further. Between the extremes of sending everything and sending only locally complete results are a variety of gradations [Durfee 1987], including sending a small partial result early on (to potentially spur the recipient into pursuing useful related results earlier). For example, in the DVM problem, agents in neighboring regions need to agree when they map vehicles from one region to the other. Rather than waiting until it forms its own local map before telling its neighbor, an agent can send a preliminary piece of its map near the boundary early on, to stimulate its neighbor into forming a complemen-

16 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 16 tary map (or determining that no such map is possible and that the first agent is working down a worthless interpretation path). So far, we have concentrated on how agents decide when and with whom to voluntarily share results. But the decision could clearly be reversed: agents could only send results when requested. Just like the choice between announcing tasks versus announcing availability in the Contract Net depends on which is more scarce, the same holds true in result sharing. When the space of possible interesting results is large compared to the actual results that are generated, then communicating results makes sense. But when the space of results formed is large and only few are really needed by others, then sending requests (or more generally, goals) to others makes more sense. This strategy has been explored in the DVM problem [Corkill 1982], as well as in distributed theorem proving [MacIntosh 1991; Fisher 1997]. For example, in DARES [MacIntosh 1991], when a theorem proving agent would fail to make progress, it would request clauses from other such agents, where the set of desired literals would be heuristically chosen. It is also important to consider the delays in iterative exchange compared to a blind inundation of information. A request followed by a reply incurs two communication delays, compared to the voluntary sharing of an unrequested result. But sharing too many unrequested results can introduce substantial overhead. Clearly, there is a tradeoff between reducing information exchanged by iterative messaging versus reducing delay in having the needed information reach its destination by sending many messages at the same time. Sen, for example, has looked at this in the context of distributed meeting scheduling [Sen 1996]. Our experience as human meeting schedulers tells us that finding a meeting time could involve a series of proposals of specific times until one is acceptable, or it could involve having the participants send all of their available times at the outset. Most typically, however, practical considerations leave us somewhere between these extremes, sending several options at each iteration. Finally, the communication strategies outlined have assumed that messages are assured of getting through. If messages get lost, then results (or requests for results) will not get through. But since agents do not necessarily expect messages from each other, a potential recipient will be unable to determine whether or not messages have been lost. One solution to this is to require that messages be acknowledged, and that an agent sending a message will periodically repeat the message (sometimes called murmuring ) until it gets an acknowledgment [Fennell 1977]. Or, a less obtrusive but more uncertain method is for the sending agent to predict how the message will affect the recipient, and to assume the message made it through when the predicted change of behavior is observed (see the later discussion of plan recognition). 4.8 Task Structures Up to this point, we have made intuitive appeals to why agents might need to communicate results. The TAEMS work of Decker and Lesser has investigated this question much more concretely [Decker 1995]. In their model, an agent s local problem solving can have non-local effects on the activity of other agents. Perhaps it is supplying a result that another agent must have to enable its problem-solving tasks. Or the

17 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 17 result might facilitate the activities of the recipient, allowing it to generate better results and/or generate results faster. The opposites of these (inhibit and hinder, respectively) are among the other possible relationships. By representing the problem decomposition structure explicitly, and capturing within it these kinds of task relationships, we can employ a variety of coordination mechanisms. For example, an agent that provides an enabling result to another can use the task structure representation to detect this relationship, and can then bias its processing to provide this result earlier. In fact, it can use models of task quality versus time curves to make commitments to the recipient as to when it will generate a result with sufficiently high quality. In situations where there are complex networks of nonlocal task interrelationships, decisions of this kind of course get more difficult. Ultimately, relatively static organizational structures, relationships, and communication strategies can only go so far. Going farther means that the problem-solving agents need to analyze their current situation and construct plans for how they should interact to solve their problems. 5 Distributed Planning In many respects, distributed planning can be thought of simply as a specialization of distributed problem solving, where the problem being solved is to design a plan. But because of the particular features of planning problems, it is generally useful to consider techniques that are particularly suited to planning. Distributed planning is something of an ambiguous term, because it is unclear exactly what is distributed. It could be that the operative issue is that, as a consequence of planning, a plan is formulated that can be distributed among a variety of execution systems. Alternatively, the operative issue could be that the planning process should be distributed, whether or not the resulting plan(s) can be. Or perhaps both issues are of interest. In this section, we consider both distributed plans and distributed plan formation as options; we of course skip over the case where neither holds (since that is traditional centralized planning) and consider where one or both of these distributions exists. 5.1 Centralized Planning for Distributed Plans Plans that are to be executed in a distributed fashion can nonetheless be formulated in a centralized manner. For example, a partial order planner can generate plans where there need not be a strict ordering between some actions, and in fact where those actions can be executed in parallel. A centralized coordinator agent with such a plan can break it into separate threads, possibly with some synchronization actions. These separate plan pieces can be passed (using task-passing technology) to agents that can execute them. If followed suitably, and under assumptions of correctness of knowledge and predictability of the world, the agents operating in parallel achieve a state of the world consistent with the goals of the plan.

18 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 18 Let us consider this process more algorithmically. It involves: 1. Given a goal description, a set of operators, and an initial state description, generate a partial order plan. When possible, bias the search to find a plan in which the steps have few ordering constraints among them. 2. Decompose the plan into subplans such that ordering relationships between steps tend to be concentrated within subplans and minimized across subplans. [Lansky 1990]. 3. Insert synchronization (typically, communication) actions into subplans. 4. Allocate subplans to agents using task-passing mechanisms. If failure, return to previous steps (decompose differently, or generate a different partial order plan,...). If success, insert remaining bindings into subplans (such as binding names of agents to send synchronization messages to). 5. Initiate plan execution, and optionally monitor progress (synthesize feedback from agents to ensure complete execution, for example). Notice that this algorithm is just a specialization of the decompose-allocateexecute-synthesize algorithm used in task passing. The specific issues of decomposition and allocation that are involved in planning give it a special flavor. Essentially, the objective is to find, of all the possible plans that accomplish the goal, the plan that can be decomposed and distributed most effectively. But since the availability of agents for the subplans is not easy to determine without first having devised the subplans, it is not certain that the most decomposable and distributable plan can be allocated in any current context. Moreover, the communication infrastructure can have a big impact on the degree to which plans should be decomposed and distributed. As an extreme, if the distributed plans require synchronization and if the communication channels are slow or undependable, then it might be better to form a more efficient centralized plan. The monetary and/or time costs of distributing and synchronizing plans should thus be taken into account. In practical terms, what this usually means is that there is some minimal subplan size smaller than which it does not make sense to decompose a plan. In loosely-coupled networks, this leads to systems with fewer agents each accomplishing larger tasks, while in tightly-connected (or even shared-memory) systems the degree of decomposition and parallelism can be increased. 5.2 Distributed Planning for Centralized Plans Formulating a complex plan might require collaboration among a variety of cooperative planning specialists, just like generating the solution to any complex problem would. Thus, for complex planning in fields such as manufacturing and logistics, the process of planning could well be distributed among numerous agents, each of which contributes pieces to the plan, until an overarching plan is created. Parallels to task-sharing and result-sharing problem solving are appropriate in this context. The overall problem-formulation task can be thought of as being decomposed and distributed among various planning specialists, each of which might then

19 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 19 proceed to generate its portion of the plan. For some types of problems, the interactions among the planning specialists might be through the exchange of a partiallyspecified plan. For example, this model has been used in the manufacturing domain, where a general-purpose planner has been coupled with specialist planners for geometric reasoning and fixturing [Kambhampati 1991]. In this application, the geometric specialist considers the shape of a part to be machined, and generates an abstract plan as an ordering over the geometric features to put into the part. The generalpurpose planner then uses these ordering constraints to plan machining operations, and the augmented plan is passed on to the fixture specialist, which ensures that the operations can be carried out in order (that the part can be held for each operation, given that as each operation is done the shape of the part can become increasingly irregular). If any of these planners cannot perform its planning subtask with the partiallyconstructed plan, they can backtrack and try other choices (see prior section on DCSPs). Similar techniques have been used for planning in domains such as mission planning for unmanned vehicles [Durfee 1997] and for logistics planning [Wilkins 1995]. The more asynchronous activity on the part of planning problem-solvers that is characteristic of most distributed problem-solving systems can also be achieved through the use of result sharing. Rather than pass around a single plan that is elaborated and passed on (or discovered to be a deadend and passed back), a result-sharing approach would have each of the planning agents generate a partial plan in parallel and then share and merge these to converge on a complete plan in a negotiated search mode. For example, in the domain of communication networks, localized agents can tentatively allocate network connections to particular circuits and share these tentative allocations with neighbors [Conry 1991]. When inconsistent allocations are noticed, some agents try other allocations, and the process continues until a consistent set of allocations have been found. In this example, result-sharing amounts to a distributed constraint satisfaction search, with the usual concerns of completeness and termination (see prior section on DCSPs). 5.3 Distributed Planning for Distributed Plans The most challenging version of distributed planning is when both the planning process and its results are intended to be distributed. In this case, it might be unnecessary to ever have a multi-agent plan represented in its entirety anywhere in the system, and yet the distributed pieces of the plan should be compatible, which at a minimum means that the agents should not conflict with each other when executing the plans, and preferably should help each other achieve their plans when it would be rational to do so (e.g. when a helping agent is no worse off for its efforts). The literature on this kind of distributed planning is relatively rich and varied. In this paper, we will hit a few of the many possible techniques that can be useful. Plan Merging. We begin by considering the problem of having multiple agents formulate plans for themselves as individuals, and then having to ensure that their separate plans can be executed without conflict. Assume that the assignment of goals

20 Lecture Notes in Computer Science 20 to agents has been done, either through task-sharing techniques, or because of the inherent distributivity of the application domain (such as in a distributed delivery (DD) task, where different agents are contacted by users to provide a delivery service). Now the challenge is to identify and resolve potential conflicts. We begin by considering a centralized plan coordination approach. Let us say that an agent collects together these individual plans. It then has to analyze the plans to discover what sequences of actions might lead to conflicts, and to modify the plans to remove the conflicts. In general, the former problem amounts to a reachability analysis---given a set of possible initial states, and a set of action sequences that can be executed asynchronously, enumerate all possible states of the world that can be reached. Of these, then, find the subset of worlds to avoid, and insert constraints on the sequences to eliminate them. In general, enumerating the reachable state space can be intractable, so strategies for keeping this search reasonable are needed. From the planning literature, many assumptions about the limited effects of actions and minimal interdependence between agents goals can be used to reduce the search. We will look at one way of doing this, adapted from Georgeff [Georgeff 1983] next. As is traditional, assume that the agents know the possible initial states of the world, and each agent builds a totally-ordered plan using any planning technology. The plan is comprised of actions a 1 through a n, such that a 1 is applicable to any of the initial states, and a i is applicable in all states that could arise after action a i-1. The state arising after a n satisfies the agent s goal. We represent an action as a STRIPS operator, with preconditions that must hold for the action to take place, effects that the action has (where features of the world not mentioned in the effects are assumed unaffected), and during conditions to indicate changes to the world that occur only during the action. The STRIPS assumption simplifies the analysis for interactions by allowing us to avoid having to search through all possible interleavings of actions; it is enough to identify specific actions that interact with other specific actions, since the effects of any sequence is just the combined effects of the sequence s actions. The merging method thus proceeds as follows. Given the plans of several agents (where each is assume to be a correct individual plan), the method begins by analyzing for interactions between pairs of actions to be taken by different agents. Arbitrarily, let us say we are considering the actions a i and b j are the next to be executed by agents A and B, respectively, having arrived at this point through the asynchronous execution of plans by A and B. Actions a i and b j can be executed in parallel if the preconditions, during conditions, and effects of each are satisfiable at the same time as any of those conditions of the other action. If this is the case, then the actions can commute, and are essentially independent. If this is not the case, then it might still be possible for both actions to be taken but in a stricter order. If the situation before either action is taken, modified by the effects of a i, can satisfy the preconditions of b j, then a i can precede b j. It is also possible for b j to precede a i. If neither can precede the other, then the actions conflict. From the interaction analysis, the set of unsafe situations can be identified. Clearly, it is unsafe to begin both a i and b j if they do not commute. It is also unsafe to begin a i

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