§ An E field is generated by batteries composed of two dissimilar metal electrodes immersed in an electrolyte solution such as salt, Lead Sulfate, acid and alkaline solutions, etc.

§ The difference in bonding potentials of the metal to their electrons provides the electromotive force for the movement of electrons.

§ This configuration of separated charges (+ and – separated by a distance) produces an E field between the two charges, and is known as “Electric Potential” or Voltage.

o Static electrical potential energy is two regions of opposing charge separated by a space. Examples of this configuration include:

§ A charged capacitor, having a plate containing positive charges separated from a plate containing negative charges, with a space between the two known as a dielectric.

An E field forms across the capacitor plates, with the E field pointing conventionally in the direction a positive charge would move if placed in the field.

The dielectric is a material that has the ability to be polarized in response to an electric field. The positive charges in the dielectric move toward the region next to the negative plate. The E field produced by the dielectric separation of charges points in a direction opposite to the E field imposed by the charges on the plates.

The dielectric field reduces the voltage drop across the capacitor.

o Accumulating negative charge on the negative side of the capacitor, and positive charge on the positive side of the capacitor will produce a back EMF, a reverse voltage, a voltage opposing the battery, thus stopping further current flow.

o But, when there is a dielectric material in the space between the capacitor plates, a larger charge can accumulate on the plates than the amount that would be expected to produce the backwards voltage to equal the voltage supplied by the voltage source.

o Thus, capacitors have a greater or lesser ability (capacity) to store charge for a given area of plate, and given distance between plates.

o The worst dielectric is vacuum, free space, and it is the capacitance/meter that we refer to it as the e of space. The fact that space has a unit of capacitance, in Farads/m does not prove that space is filled with dipoles that oppose the voltage impressed upon the plates of a capacitor. But, this data does provide the final point on the graph of the spectrum of dielectric strength, and hence shows that space is at least on the continuum of all dielectrics.

o The charge difference/separation on a capacitor can be saved and stored as an isolated circuit element.

o In other words, capacitors can accumulate even more charge on the capacitor plates for a given voltage impressed on the capacitor.

o The point being that E fields form between regions of separated charge. A capacitor is a very pure example of a phenomenon which represents and uses the principles of E field and charge separation.

§ A battery is a commonly used item that generates an E field potential by exploiting a type of charge separation that exists in neutral metallic substances. The battery operates on the principle that the difference in attraction of metal atoms to their conduction zone electrons, produces an E field between atoms of this electron-attraction disparity. The configuration of the battery capitalizes on this E Field differential and creates a system that allows electrons to flow on a continual basis by removing/neutralizing any electrons that might flow from the region of excess (less attracted) electrons.

The charge of the battery is stored in the difference in the strength of bonding of electrons between two different electrode materials.

A battery example would include a zinc terminal with an electronegativity of 1.65, and copper terminal with an electronegativity of 1.9, placed in a NaCl salt solution.

The zinc holds onto its electrons less strongly than copper, and thus electrons will be attracted to flow through a wire placed between the zinc and copper electrode.

Chlorine will be attracted to the positive zinc terminal, and Sodium attracted to the negative Copper terminal. ???

§ Lead-acid battery:

This type of batty is constructed with Lead and Lead Dioxide terminals submerged in a Sulfuric acid solution as the electrolyte.

The specific gravity of a fully charged Lead-Acid battery is about 1.265 and 12.7 volts (6 cells). When the battery is fully charged, the Sulfuric Acid is at its highest concentration.

The process of discharging produces PbSO4 and water. The PbSO4 is insoluble and deposits on the lead oxide terminal and on the Pb terminal. The specific gravity of a fully discharged Lead-Acid battery is about 1.120 and 11.9 volts.

A wire connected between the two terminals allows a current to flow from the Lead to the PbO2 terminal.

Lead has less affinity for electrons than PbO2. The high conductivity of the wire between the two terminals, and the E field force pulling them toward the PbO2, pulls the electrons in that direction.

The chemical reactions of the lead acid battery in going from the charged to discharged state can be seen at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_battery.

Anode (oxidation):

Pb(s) + SO4-2(aq) ó PbSO4(s) + 2e-

o e0 = 3.56 V

o The SO4-2 combines with the metallic Pb, and releases 2e-.

o The extra electrons are then available for transport to the cathode and reaction at that terminal.

Cathode (reduction):

PbO2(s) + SO4-2(aq) + 4H+ 2e- ó PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

o e0 = 1.65 V

o The extra electrons from the anode (the Pb terminal) go to the cathode (the PbO2 terminal), and provide the electrons needed to release O-2 from the PbO2.

o The 2O-2 combine with the 4H+, to make 2H2O.

o The SO4-2 then combines with the Pb to make PbSO4.

The above exercise was examined to note that electrons flow in the presence of a potential difference. In this particular case the potential difference was due to the affinity of the nucleus to its electron cloud (and other electrons outside its cloud), compared to another material.

The thing that made it possible for this exchange of electrons to take place was the connection of a wire, which allowed the E field of the higher attractive species to connect with the species with the lesser attraction to an electron.

The continued flow of the current was dependent upon the presence of an electrolyte. The electrolyte provides ions which pick up the extra electrons, neutralize them, and then leave the terminal free to accept more electrons. This allows for the current to continue flowing.

§ In our current fossil fuel/nuclear economy we develop Electric potential by burning fuel, which produces heat, which creates steam to drive turbines, which turns magnetic fields through wires.

The movement of a magnetic field past a conductor is the equivalent of moving a charge in a magnetic field, and this produces an E field.

Moving a magnetic field past a charge produces an E field because the Matrix detects the change in dB/dt. The Matrix creates the E field in response to the change in B field.

Thus, space itself recognizes the change in magnetic field, and produces an E field in response to that change of magnetic field. And, the generated E field causes charges to move.

The amount of force supplied by the E field depends on the rate of change of the B field, thus, a more rapidly turning magnet will produce a larger E field.

o The Electrical Potential will move charge in a manner proportional to the resistance between the terminals.

§ This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

V = IR

o V = Voltage, the Electric Potential difference between the terminals. The unit of voltage is Joules/coulomb, which is a measure of energy per charge.

o I = current; the rate at which charge flows from terminal to terminal. The unit of current is the amp, or ampere = coulombs/sec.

o R = resistance; the amount of energy lost by the current/sec. R = (Joules/coul)/(coul/sec)

§ Electric Potential may be converted into many other types of energy, such as: kinetic energy, heat, spring energy, energy stored in gravitational energy, magnetic energy, chemical energy stored as a battery, and EM radiation.