Cadarine McKinnon and Andrea Dworkin had separatewy staked out a position dat pornography was inherentwy expwoitative toward women, and dey cawwed for a civiw waw to make pornographers accountabwe for harms dat couwd be shown to resuwt from de use, production, and circuwation of deir pubwications.[1] When Dworkin testified before de Meese Commission in 1986, she said dat 65 to 75 percent of women in prostitution and hard-core pornography had been victims of incest or chiwd sexuaw abuse.[2]

Andrea Dworkin's activism against pornography during de 1980s brought her to nationaw attention in de United States.[3]

Anti-pornography feminists, notabwy Cadarine MacKinnon, charge dat de production of pornography entaiws physicaw, psychowogicaw, and/or economic coercion of de women who perform and modew in it. This is said to be true even when de women are being presented as enjoying demsewves.[4][5][6] It is awso argued dat much of what is shown in pornography is abusive by its very nature. Gaiw Dines howds dat pornography, exempwified by gonzo pornography, is becoming increasingwy viowent and dat women who perform in pornography are brutawized in de process of its production, uh-hah-hah-hah.[7][8]

Anti-pornography feminists point to de testimony of weww known participants in pornography, such as Traci Lords and Linda Boreman, and argue dat most femawe performers are coerced into pornography, eider by somebody ewse, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was gawvanized by de pubwication of Ordeaw, in which Linda Boreman (who under de name of "Linda Lovewace" had starred in Deep Throat) stated dat she had been beaten, raped, and pimped by her husband Chuck Traynor, and dat Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in Deep Throat, as weww as forcing her, by use of bof physicaw viowence against Boreman as weww as emotionaw abuse and outright dreats of viowence, to make oder pornographic fiwms. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued pubwic statements of support for Boreman, and worked wif her in pubwic appearances and speeches.

The effects produced by dose who view pornography are mixed and stiww widewy debated. Generawwy, research has been focused around de effects of vowuntary viewing of pornography. There have awso been studies anawyzing de inadvertent exposure to expwicit sexuaw content, incwuding: viewing naked photographs of peopwe, peopwe engaging in sexuaw acts, accidentaw web searches, or opening onwine winks to pornographic materiaw. It has been found dat most exposure to pornography onwine is unsowicited and by accident. 42% of dose who view onwine pornography are ages ranging between 10 and 17; 66% have experienced inadvertent exposure.[11]

Jae Woong Shim of Sookmyung Women's University awong wif Bryant M. Pauw of Indiana University pubwished a controwwed study wooking at such inadvertent exposure to pornography in regards to de feewing of anonymity titwed "The Rowe of Anonymity in de Effects of Inadvertent Exposure to Onwine Pornography Among Young Aduwt Mawes." The study consisted of 84 mawe students, ages 18 and owder, vowunteering from a warge American university in de Midwest. After compweting an arbitrary survey, dey were shown a 10-second pop-up cwip consisting eider of sexuaw or nonsexuaw content. Hawf of de subjects exposed to eider cwip bewieved dey were viewing de content nonanonymouswy. The oder hawf bewieved dey were anonymous, and dey were not being monitored. They were den asked if dey wouwd rader view hardcore pornography, softcore pornography, or nonsexuaw materiaw. The hardcore pornography depicted women as sexuaw objects, and mawe-superiority. The softcore pornography was wess graphic. The nonsexuaw materiaw was a video of a professor's wecture unrewated to sexuaw content.[11]

After being exposed to de inadvertent pop-up cwip, researchers noted which of de dree above content choices de subjects sewected. Researchers den measured de participants’ sexist attitudes towards women using a qwestionnaire asking de agreeabiwity of statements to women gaining more controw over men, uh-hah-hah-hah. The higher de score, de higher de subjects are dought to howd sexist views. Those who bewieved dey were anonymous were wess wikewy to be conscious of deir monitoring compared to de nonanonymous group. It turns out, dose who were exposed to sexuaw content and bewieved dey were anonymous, were de most wikewy to choose de hardcore pornography dat depicts de most objectification of women, uh-hah-hah-hah. The next highest choice for de hardcore pornography was de group exposed to nonsexuaw materiaw, yet bewieved to be anonymous. These two groups were de most wikewy to howd hostiwe sexist attitudes towards women after de 10 second inadvertent exposure to sexuaw content compared to before de study.[11]

This indicates negative opinions towards women, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is concwuded dat being exposed to sexuaw content, even when it is unwanted, weads men to devewop harsher sexist attitudes towards women, uh-hah-hah-hah. The greater intrigue for men to view hardcore and unusuaw pornography was greater when dey bewieved to be doing so anonymouswy. This is most wikewy tied to de deory of deindividuation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The deory states dat a person detaches his or her sewf from personaw responsibiwity and awareness as an individuaw, and is more wikewy to act differentwy dan when deir behaviors are sociawwy attached to his or her character. "When individuaws perceive dat no one knows what dey are viewing, dey are wikewy to experience reduced sewf-awareness, which, in turn, weads to being wess considerate toward oders".[11] This impwies dat dese men wouwd be wess wikewy to view de pornography which harshwy objectifies women if dey know oders wouwd be aware if dey do so, due to de perceived sociaw conseqwences.

Since de feewing of anonymity disregard sociaw norms, dere is a higher chance of pursuing more extreme stimuwi. This study does not prove dat de men wiwwing to watch de hardcore pornography and howd more sexist views are more wikewy to act out dese desires and bewiefs toward women, uh-hah-hah-hah. Vawerie Webber in her articwe "Shades of Gay: Performance of Girw-on-Girw Pornography and mobiwe audenticities" differentiates de sex depicted in porn and personaw, private sexuaw encounters. At first, she argues dat performing sex produces normative ideas about what makes sex audentic. These normative bewiefs den transfer into personaw experiences where peopwe feew an obwigation to perform sex as dey have viewed it in pornography.[12]

Webber discovered dat dere is no true audenticity surrounding sex. Sex drough de wens of pornography is stiww wegitimate, yet most performers exaggerate de act to make it more rousing and intimate to de audience. She expwains dat "performance…does not precwude audenticity. Performance is de means by which ‘audenticity’ is estabwished as a category".[12] Yet de women interviewed had wide bewiefs about what made sex audentic, most of which incwuded a sense of intimacy. One interviewee pointed out dat pornography is stigmatized for not being genuine, which is not true for aww performers. Some are compwetewy satisfied wif de sex performed for porn, whiwe oders report wow satisfaction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[12] Those who perform in pornography have different intentions for doing so, much wike any oder job. Some performers do it because dey wike pweasing deir audience, some do it for personaw pweasure, and some feew dey are creating someding of artistic vawue. As Webber puts it, "if fake eqwaws ‘bad’, den good must eqwaw ‘reaw’. The motives can be ‘pure’, but what dose motives are can differ dramaticawwy".[12] Performers are usuawwy aware of what deir audience expects from dem and what viewers enjoy. Webber couwd deorize dat women use dis knowwedge and personaw intentions to produce pornography in which men anonymouswy consume, which den audenticates de normawity of such depictions of sex as being appropriate and desirabwe.

Anti-pornography feminists say dat consumption of pornography is a cause of rape and oder forms of viowence against women. Robin Morgan summarizes dis idea wif her often-qwoted statement, "Pornography is de deory, and rape is de practice."[13]

Anti-pornography feminists charge dat pornography eroticizes de domination, humiwiation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexuaw and cuwturaw attitudes dat are compwicit in rape and sexuaw harassment. MacKinnon argued dat pornography weads to an increase in sexuaw viowence against women drough fostering rape myds. Such rape myds incwude de bewief dat women reawwy want to be raped and dat dey mean yes when dey say no. Additionawwy, according to MacKinnon, pornography desensitizes viewers to viowence against women, and dis weads to a progressive need to see more viowence in order to become sexuawwy aroused, an effect she cwaims is weww documented.[14]

Rape of a prepubescent chiwd fowwowed "habituaw" consumption of chiwd porn "widin six monds" awdough de men were previouswy "horrified at de idea", according to Gaiw Dines, dat interviewed men in prison, uh-hah-hah-hah.[9]

Germanradicaw feministAwice Schwarzer is one proponent of dis point of view, in particuwar in de feminist magazine Emma. Many opponents of pornography bewieve dat pornography gives a distorted view of men and women's bodies, as weww as de actuaw sexuaw act, often showing de performers wif syndetic impwants or exaggerated expressions of pweasure, as weww as fetishes dat are not de norm, such as watersports, being presented as popuwar and normaw.

Harry Brod offered a Marxist feminist view, "I [Brod] wouwd argue dat sex seems overrated [to men] because men wook to sex for fuwfiwwment of nonsexuaw emotionaw needs, a qwest doomed to faiwure. Part of de reason for dis faiwure is de priority of qwantity over qwawity of sex which comes wif sexuawity's commodification, uh-hah-hah-hah."[15]

Many anti-pornography feminists supported de wegiswative efforts, but oders objected dat wegiswative campaigns wouwd be rendered ineffectuaw by de courts, wouwd viowate principwes of free speech, or wouwd harm de anti-pornography movement by taking organizing energy away from education and direct action and entangwing it in powiticaw sqwabbwes.[19]

Dworkin and MacKinnon responded to de awweged viowation of free speech principwes by pointing out dat de Ordinance was designed wif an expwicit goaw of preventing its misinterpretation and abuse for de purpose of censorship or discrimination against sexuaw minorities.[20] Their pubwication Pornography and Civiw Rights serves as a manifesto backing de waw, providing an extensive sewf-anawysis and expwanation of its intended meaning, and decwaring de exact circumstances under which de waw wouwd appwy.

Anoder feminist approach was designed to permit survivors of crime when de crime was de resuwt of pornographic infwuence to sue de pornographers. The Pornography Victims' Compensation Act of 1991 (previouswy known as de Pornography Victims Protection Act) was supported by groups incwuding Feminists Fighting Pornography. Cadarine MacKinnon decwined to support de wegiswation, dough aspects of it were based on her wegaw approach to pornography.[21] The biww was introduced in Congress, dus, had it passed, it wouwd have appwied nationwide.

The Supreme Court of Canada's 1992 ruwing in R. v. Butwer (de Butwer decision) fuewed furder controversy, when de court decided to incorporate some ewements of Dworkin and MacKinnon's wegaw work on pornography into de existing Canadian obscenity waw. In Butwer de Court hewd dat Canadian obscenity waw viowated Canadian citizens' rights to free speech under de Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms if enforced on grounds of morawity or community standards of decency; but dat obscenity waw couwd be enforced constitutionawwy against some pornography on de basis of de Charter's guarantees of sex eqwawity.

Robinson v. Jacksonviwwe Shipyards was a sexuaw harassment Federaw district court case. It recognized as waw dat pornography couwd iwwegawwy contribute to sexuaw harassment drough a workpwace environment hostiwe to women, uh-hah-hah-hah.[23][24] The court's order incwuded a ban on "dispwaying pictures, posters, cawendars, graffiti, objects, promotionaw materiaws, reading materiaws, or oder materiaws dat are sexuawwy suggestive, sexuawwy demeaning, or pornographic, or bringing into de JSI [de empwoyer's] work environment or possessing any such materiaw to read, dispway or view at work." "A picture wiww be presumed to be sexuawwy suggestive if it depicts a person of eider sex who is not fuwwy cwoded or in cwodes dat are not suited to or ordinariwy accepted for de accompwishment of routine work in and around de shipyard and who is posed for de obvious purpose of dispwaying or drawing attention to private portions of his or her body."[25] It is not cwear wheder de decision was directwy attributabwe to de anti-pornography feminist anawysis, if de infwuence was indirect, or if de outcome was coincidentaw, but counsew Legaw Momentum was historicawwy associated wif de Nationaw Organization for Women (NOW), a weading feminist organization, suggesting dat counsew was wikewy to have had knowwedge of de feminist deory.

In dis view, pornography is seen as being a medium for women's sexuaw expression, uh-hah-hah-hah. Sex-positive feminists view many radicaw feminist views on sexuawity, incwuding views on pornography, as being eqwawwy oppressive as dose of patriarchaw rewigions and ideowogies, and argue dat anti-pornography feminist discourse ignores and triviawizes women's sexuaw agency. Ewwen Wiwwis (who coined de term "pro-sex feminism") states "As we saw it, de cwaim dat 'pornography is viowence against women' was code for de neo-Victorian idea dat men want sex and women endure it."[28]

Sex-positive feminists take a variety of views towards existing pornography. Many of dese feminists see pornography as subverting many traditionaw ideas about women dat dey oppose, such as ideas dat women do not wike sex generawwy, onwy enjoy sex in a rewationaw context, or dat women onwy enjoy vaniwwa sex. They awso argue dat pornography sometimes shows women in sexuawwy dominant rowes and presents women wif a greater variety of body types dan are typicaw of mainstream entertainment and fashion, and dat women's participation in dese rowes awwows for a fuwfiwwment of deir sexuaw identity and free expression, uh-hah-hah-hah.

In some parts of de worwd, sex-positive feminism and de promotion of pornography as a form of free expression have become more mainstream. In France, Paris had its first dree-day SNAP! (Sex Workers Narrative Art & Powitics) festivaw in November, 2018.[29] The festivaw worked to gain recognition of pornography and oder sex work as art but awso sought to acknowwedge de powiticaw and controversiaw aspects.[30]

Many feminists regardwess of deir views on pornography are opposed on principwe to censorship. Even de feminists who see pornography as a sexist institution, awso see censorship (incwuding MacKinnon's civiw waw approach) as an eviw. In its mission statement, Feminists for Free Expression argues dat censorship has never reduced viowence, but historicawwy been used to siwence women and stifwe efforts for sociaw change. They point to de birf controw witerature of Margaret Sanger, de feminist pways of Howwy Hughes, and works wike Our Bodies, Oursewves and The Weww of Lonewiness as exampwes of feminist sexuaw speech which has been de target of censorship. FFE furder argues dat de attempt to fix sociaw probwems drough censorship, "divert[s] attention from de substantive causes of sociaw iwws and offer a cosmetic, dangerous 'qwick fix.'" They argue dat instead a free and vigorous marketpwace of ideas is de best assurance for achieving feminist goaws in a democratic society.[31]

Critics of anti-pornography feminism accuse deir counterparts of sewective handwing of sociaw scientific evidence. Anti-pornography feminists are awso critiqwed as intowerant of sexuaw difference and is characterized as often indiscriminatewy supporting state censorship powicy and are accused of compwicity wif conservative sexuaw powitics and Christian Right groups.

Li Yinhe at de annuaw anawysis of sex and gender events in December, 2011

Critiqwe of censorship has become especiawwy prevawent in China, where pornography is strictwy prohibited, and de ownership or sawe of pornographic materiaws can mean wife in prison, uh-hah-hah-hah. Feminists wike Li Yinhe openwy oppose de censorship of pornography and advocate for its decriminawization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[32] Looking to many western countries as an exampwe, Yinhe emphasizes de importance of freedom of expression and cites de 35f articwe of de Constitution of de Peopwe's Repubwic of China in decwaring de right to pornography as a form of free speech.[33][34]

Andrea Dworkin and Cadarine MacKinnon responded wif a statement cwaiming dat de idea dat dese raids refwected de appwication of pre-Butwer standards and dat it was actuawwy iwwegaw under Butwer to sewectivewy target LGBT materiaws.[35] However, opponents of Butwer have countered dat de decision simpwy reinforced an existing powitics of censorship dat pre-dated de decision, uh-hah-hah-hah.[36][37]

Anti-censorship feminists[who?] qwestion why onwy some forms of sexist communication (namewy sexuawwy arousing/expwicit ones) shouwd be banned, whiwe not advocating bans against eqwawwy misogynist pubwic discourse. Susie Bright notes, "It's a far different criticism to note dat porn is sexist. So are aww commerciaw media. That's wike tasting severaw gwasses of sawt water and insisting onwy one of dem is sawty. The difference wif porn is dat it is peopwe fucking, and we wive in a worwd dat cannot towerate dat image in pubwic."[38]

Pornography produced by and wif feminist women is a smaww, but growing segment of de porn industry.

According to Tristan Taormino, "Feminist porn bof responds to dominant images wif awternative ones and creates its own iconography."[39]

Some pornographic actresses such as Nina Hartwey,[40]Ovidie,[41]Madison Young, and Sasha Grey are awso sewf-described sex-positive feminists, and state dat dey do not see demsewves as victims of sexism. They defend deir decision to perform in pornography as freewy chosen, and argue dat much of what dey do on camera is an expression of deir sexuawity. It has awso been pointed out dat in pornography, women generawwy earn more dan deir mawe counterparts.[42]

Some anti-pornography feminists, such as Gworia Steinem and Page Mewwish, distinguish between "pornography" and "erotica", as different cwasses of sexuaw media, de former emphasizing dominance and de watter emphasizing mutuawity. Steinem howds dat, "These two sorts of images are as different as wove is from rape, as dignity is from humiwiation, as partnership is from swavery, as pweasure is from pain, uh-hah-hah-hah." Feminists who subscribe to dis view howd dat erotica promotes positive and pro-woman sexuaw vawues and does not carry de harmfuw effects of pornography.[43]

Oder anti-pornography feminists are more skepticaw about dis distinction, howding dat aww sexuaw materiaws produced in a patriarchaw system are expressions of mawe dominance.[44]Andrea Dworkin wrote, "erotica is simpwy high-cwass pornography: better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better cwass of consumer."[45]

However, some feminists tend not to make a distinction between pornography and erotica, and dose who have addressed de distinction made by Steinem and oders find it probwematic. Ewwen Wiwwis howds dat de term 'erotica' is needwesswy vague and euphemistic, and appeaws to an ideawized version of what kind of sex peopwe shouwd want rader dan what arouses de sexuaw feewings peopwe actuawwy have. She awso emphasizes de subjectivity of de distinction, stating, "In practice, attempts to sort out good erotica from bad porn inevitabwy comes down to 'What turns me on is erotica; what turns you on is pornographic.'"[46]

Some feminists[who?] make an anawogous distinction between mainstream pornography and feminist pornography, viewing mainstream pornography as probwematic or even whowwy misogynistic, whiwe praising feminist pornography.[47][48]

The work of feminist pornography incwudes studying women, chiwdren and men in de industry. Some feminists[who?] argue against pornography because it can be viewed as demeaning and degrading to women and men, uh-hah-hah-hah. Some[who?] argue dat pornography is used by men as a guide to hate, abuse, and controw women, uh-hah-hah-hah.[49]

In 2002, Becky Gowdberg produced de documentary "Hot and Bodered: Feminist Pornography," a wook at women who direct, produce, and seww feminist porn, uh-hah-hah-hah. Feminist pornography is whenever de women is in controw of de sexuaw situation, she is in controw of what is being done to her and she enjoys it.[51] Gowdberg's views on feminism and pornography is, "if you don't wike what you see make your own".

Courtney Troubwe is a feminist performer and producer of qweer porn, uh-hah-hah-hah. Her fiwms feature "sexuaw and gender minorities." Troubwe began in de business when she decided she did not see enough diversity in de business, and wanted to make a positive change.[50]

Shine Louise Houston, owner of Pink and White Productions, produces porn dat features and refwect different types of sexuawity, different genders, and qweer peopwe of cowor.[50]

Tristan Taormino is bof a sex educator and feminist pornographer who has hewped produce fiwms, written books, owns her own website and has pubwished many articwes on topics rewated to sexuawity, gender and articwes on sex positive rewationships. Taormino views porn as a positive part of wife.

^MacKinnon 1983, pp. 321–345 "Sex forced on reaw women so dat it can be sowd at a profit to be forced on oder reaw women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into dings to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and dis presented as de nature of women; de coercion dat is visibwe and de coercion dat has become invisibwe—dis and more grounds de feminist concern wif pornography."

^Dines, Gaiw (23 June 2008). "Penn, porn and me". CounterPunch. CounterPunch. Archived from de originaw on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2009. The porn dat makes most of de money for de industry is actuawwy de gonzo, body-punishing variety dat shows women's bodies being physicawwy stretched to de wimit, humiwiated and degraded. Even porn industry peopwe commented in a recent articwe in Aduwt Video News, dat gonzo porn is taking its toww on de women, and de turnover is high because dey can’t stand de brutaw acts on de body for very wong.

^Dworkin & MacKinnon 1988, ch. The ordinance: definition pp. 36–41 "The definition is cwosed, concrete, and descriptive, not open-ended, conceptuaw, or moraw. It takes de risk dat aww damaging materiaws might not be covered in order to try to avoid misuse of de waw as much as possibwe."

LeMoncheck, Linda (1997). "I onwy do it for de money: pornography, prostitution, and de business of sex". In LeMoncheck, Linda. Loose women, wecherous men a feminist phiwosophy of sex. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195105568.

Wiwwis, Ewwen (1981). "Feminism, morawism, and pornography". In Wiwwis, Ewwen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Beginning to see de wight: pieces of a decade. New York: Knopf Distributed by Random House. ISBN9780394511375.