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Bateman and Organ (1983) used a longitudinal design and compared a 30 item

measure of OCB to overall job satisfaction using the JDI (Smith et ai.,1969). They reported

correlations around .40 for both time one and time two data collections. They point out that

correlations of this magnitude are much greater than those traditionally found when

examining job satisfaction and traditional performance criteria.

Smith et al. (1983) also conducted a study examining the relationship between general

job satisfaction (as measured using a semantic differential scale) and OCB. They used a 16

item revised version of the OCB scale used by Bateman and Organ (1983) to assess Altruism

and Compliance. Correlations with job satisfaction were .33 and .29 for Altruism andCompliance, respectively.

The studies presented above do suggest a consistent relationship between job

satisfaction and OCB. Previously, studies were discussed demonstrating the relationship

between job satisfaction and organizational withdrawal. Given that OCB is an aggregation of

positive non-workrole behaviors and organizational withdrawal is an aggregation of negative

non-workrole behaviors, one could expect similar theoretical relationships. Part of the

purpose of this study was to simultaneously evaluate these two conceptually similar

constructs.

Although conceptually similar, the relationship between positive and negative non-

workrole behaviors is not directly apparent. One possible structure would suggest that they

are opposite ends of a single dimension. This, however, would suggest that it would not betheoretically possible for employees to engage in both positive and negative non-workrole behaviors. In other words, if non-workrole behaviors did form a single dimension, they

would be negatively correlated.

A second possible structure for these non-workrole behaviors suggests that the two

behavioral groups are independent. This would allow for an employee to engage in both

positive and negative non-workrole behaviors. It would also suggest that different

antecedents lead to positive non-workrole behaviors than lead to negative non-workrole

behaviors. It would also allow for some antecedents to lead to both. For example, scoring

high on a particular personality trait may lead to both positive non-workrole behaviors and

negative non-workrole behaviors. If non-workrole behaviors existed on a single dimension,

the personality trait would be related to either positive or negative behaviors.

These behaviors have not previously been conceptualized as a single dimension.

Therefore, empirical evidence addressing the specific question of their relation is not

available. Consideration of the research presented above and rational consideration of their

composition suggests that they are not a single construct. As a result, this study consideredthe two dimensions to be independent.

The above discussion of attitudes and behaviors at work establishes the first segment

of this study. More specifically, it addresses the relationship between job satisfaction and

non-workrole behaviors. The second major element of this study addresses the relation

between personality and behaviors at work. A review of the literature relevant to this portion

of the study is presented in the next section.

24

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW OF PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIORS

AT WORK

Job satisfaction and personality have had similar histories in industrial and

organizational psychology but have mainly followed separate paths. They are similar

because although both seem intuitively important to issues of employee behavior, neither has

produced sufficient empirical evidence to convince the research community of such a claim.

Like job satisfaction, personality has suffered fi:om similar methodological and conceptual

problems that resulted in it losing popularity among researchers in I/O psychology. There

has recently, however, been a renewed interest in personality and its relations to important

organizational variables such as performance and productivity. Improved research

methodology and continued work on the structure and definition of personality has led to

some promising results (see Hogan. 1991). Before discussing the relation between

personality and non-workrole behaviors, it would be useful to briefly review the kinds of

problems that led to the near abandormient of personality in I/O psychology and the

developments that have led to the renewed interest.

The most commonly cited article on personality in the I/O literature is Guion and

Cottier's (1965) review of personality measures used for employee selection. Their stated

goal for the anicle was not to review the entire field of personality, but to summarize the

personality literature that was published in the Journal of Applied Psychology and Personnel

Psychology between 1952 and 1963. In order to be included in the review, an article had to

meet the following restrictions: (1) it had to appear in one of the two target journals in the

12-year period between 1952 and 1963. (2) it had to deal specifically with civilian

employment situations and include an evaluative statement regarding the relation of

personality test data to some measurement of employment success, and (3) it must have useda personality test that could be found in at least two other studies that met the preceding

restrictions. This last restriction was imposed to eliminate many of the "home-grown"

measures of personality that were often used.

25

The conclusion offered by Guion and Gottier (1965) stated that based on the evidence

from their study, the use of personality in making employment decisions was not

recommended. They did. however, suggest that personality research may have something to

offer I/O psychology, but research up to that point in time did not reveal it. For example.

they refer to the reviewed studies and state "What can be said of these [results] is that they

demonstrate that personality measures have had predictive validity more often than czm be

accounted for simply by chance." (p. 141). Granted, this is not an overly positive assessment,

but it does suggest that the construct does merit further study.

In their conclusions. Guion and Gottier (1965) also refer to an issue, which has since

become known as the "criterion problem." as a possible reason for the poor predictive

validity. In most of the studies reviewed, the criteria consisted of some form of performance

ratings. Guion and Gottier questioned the quality of the ratings and their affect on the results.

They made reference to the fact that most of the criteria used for validity studies consisted of

some form of supervisor rating with little information given regarding what was being rated

or how. Guion and Gottier also commented on the fact that any job descriptions provided

were also quite "sketchy.".

The lack of reliable criterion data automatically precludes the ability to properly judge

the usefulness of the personality construct. Guion and Gottier's (1965) review was conducted

prior to understanding the concept of validity generalization in applied measurement. It was

not until approximately 15 years later that the negative effects of small sample sizes. low

I'igure 10. Model 1: 'i'he Null Model I'or Series 1.

Figure 11. Model 2 for Series 1: Showing the causal relationship of job satisfaction on work withdrawal and OCB. Completelystandardized path coefllcients are shown with t-values in parentheses. Neuroticism Factor

organization, they can produce an important impact on organizational performance. To the

influence organizational outcomes by focusing on the mood and well-being of their

employees. The results reported here suggest that employees who are in a good mood are

more likely to volunteer, stay late, and/or make an extra effort. This provides

organizationally important reasons for supervisors and managers to be concerned with the

emotional state of their employees.

Conclusions

This smdy provided answers to questions regarding the usefulness of personality

measurement in the prediction of organizationally relevant employee behaviors. It provided

additional evidence to support the continued use of personality as an explanatory variable in

I/O psychology. In particular, it suggested that, like job attimdes. congruence between the 114

level or scope of measurement is an important consideration when establishing the usefulness

of personality as a predictor of employee behavior. Although personality has more or less

been accepted as consisting of five general factors, their general level of measurement is not

necessarily appropriate for all instances. In this study, evidence was provided that suggests

that decreasing the generality of the personality measurement and increasing the generality of

behavioral measurement demonstrates significant relationships between the two concepts.

Finally, the critique of personality by Guion and Gottier (1965) had profound

negative effects on personality research in applied settings. Things, however, have begun to

change as interest in the usefulness of personality continues to grow. Personality is now

conceptualized in a way that is very different and is producing results that are unlike the

results of 30 years ago. This study has contributed to the continued investigation of the new

understanding of personality, and how it can influence organizational effectiveness.

115

APPENDIX A The following questionnaire is being used to learn what it is like to work atORGANIZATION NAME, and how you feel about your job. The questionnaire willask you about your attitudes, feelings, and behaviors regarding working atORGANIZATION NAME. Instructions will be provided with each section. Questionsare printed on both the FRONT AND BACK of each page. Some of the questionsmay seem similar to you, but this is necessary in order to provide a complete pictureof your situation. It is very Important that you answer each question as accurately as you can.There are no right or wrong answers. ALL ANSWERS WILL REMAINCONFIDENTIAL. No one at ORGANIZATION NAME will see any one individual'sanswers.Please list the two job activities you do most often:1.

2.Average number of hours worked per week

How long have you worked for ORGANIZATION NAME? Years Months

Circle the number corresponding to the appropriate answer.

Work Status at ORGANIZATION NAME; (1) Fulltime (2) Part time (3) SubstituteSex: (1) Male(2) FemaleMarital Status; (1) Married (2) Single (3) Divorced/Separated (4) WidowedWhat is your current age?(1) 18 to 23 (3) 30 to 35 (5) 42 to 47 (7) 54 to 58 (9) 65 and over(2) 24 to 29 (4) 36 to 41 (6) 48 to 53 (8) 59 to 64What is the highest level of education you have completed?

(1) Less than a high school education

(2) High school diploma or GEO (Graduate Equivalency Diploma)(3) High school diploma plus some technical training or apprenticeship(4) Some college(5) Graduated from college (AA, BA, BS)(6) Some graduate school(7) Graduate or professional degree(8) Other (please explain)What is your current salary? (1) Below $15,000 (5) $45,001 - 55.000 (2) $15,001 -25,000 (6) $55,001 -65.000 (3) $25,001 - 35.000 (7) More than $65,000 (4) $35,001 - 45,000Portions of the following are protected by copynght rules. Permission to use this sun/ey must be obtained from Kathy A. Hansen and/or PAR. inc.Portions of this survey are reproduced by speaal permission of the Publisher. Psychological Assessment Resources. Inc. 16204 North FlondaAvenue. Lutz. Florida 33549. from the NEO Five Factor Inventory, and NEO Pf-R by Paul Costa, and Robert McCrae. Copynght 1978. 1985. 1989.1992 by PAR. Inc. Fuixher reproduction is prohibited without permission of PAR. Inc. 116

APPENDIX B

The following statements pertain to the WORK that you do. What is your WORK like MOST of the time? Pleasecircle YES if the item describes your WORK, NO if the item does not describe your WORK, and circle ? only if youcannot dedde. Please circle one response for each question.

In this section, you should think about your feelings about PROMOTION AND ADVANCEMENT in your job. All inail, how do you feel about the promotion system? Circle YES if the item describes the PROMOTION system, NO ifthe item does not describe the PROMOTION system, and circle ? only if you cannot decide. Please circle oneresponse for each item.

The next set of statements ask you to describe your IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR. What is he/she like MOST ofthe time? Circle YES if the item describes your SUPERVISOR, NO if the item does not describe yourSUPERVISOR, and circle ? only if you cannot decide. Please circle one response for each item. 1. Hard to please 1. YES NO ? 2. Impolite 2. YES NO ? 3. Praises good work 3. YES NO ? 4. Tactful 4. YES NO 7 5. Up-to-date 5. YES NO ? 6. Quick-tempered 6. YES NO ? 7. Tells me where 1 stand 7. YES NO ? 8. Annoying 8. YES NO ? 9. Stubborn 9. YES NO ?10. Knows job well 10. YES NO ?11. Bad 11. YES NO ?12. Intelligent 12. YES NO ?13. Lazy 13. YES NO ?14. Around when needed 14. YES NO ?15 Interferes with my work 15. YES NO ?16. Gives confusing directions 16. YES NO ?17. Knows how to supervise 17. YES NO ?18. Cannot be trusted 18. YES NO ?

The following questions pertain to the PAY AND BENEFITS you receive from your job. Please circle YES if theitem describes your PAY AND BENEFITS, NO if the item does not describe your PAY AND BENEFITS, andcircle ? only if you cannot decide. Please circle one response for each question.

1. Income adequate for normal expenses 1. YES NO ?

2. Barely live on income 2. YES NO 7

3. Bad 3. YES NO 7

4. insecure 4. YES NO ? 5. Less than 1 deserve 5. YES NO 7

6. Underpaid 6. YES NO 7

7. Well paid 7. YES NO 7

8. Unfair 8. YES NO 7

9. Enough for what 1 need 9. YES NO 7

118

The following statements ask you to think about the majority of the employees you work with. What are they likeMOST of the time? Circle YES if the item describes the PEOPLE YOU WORK WITH, NO if the item does notdescribe the PEOPLE YOU WORK WITH, and circle ? only if you cannot decide. Please circle one responseper item.

NeuroticismI am not a worrier. (R)I often feel inferior to others.When I'm under a great deal of stress, sometimes I feel like I'm going to pieces.In dealing with other people, I always dread making a social blunder.I often feel tense and jittery.Sometimes I feel completely worthless.I rarely feel fearfiil or anxious. (R)I often get angry at the way people treat me.Too often, when things go wrong, I get discouraged and feel like giving up.I am seldom sad or depressed. (R)I often feel helpless and want someone else to solve my problems.At times I have been so ashamed I just wanted to hide.

AgreeablenessI try to be courteous to everyone I meet.I often get into arguments with my family and co-workers. (R)Some people think I'm selfish and egotistical. (R)I would rather cooperate with others than compete with them.I tend to be cynical and skeptical of others' intentions. (R)I believe that most people will take advantage of you if you let them. (R)Most people I know like me.Some people think of me as cold and calculating. (R)I'm hard-headed and tough-minded in my attimdes. (R)I generally try to be thoughtful and considerate.If I don't like people. I let them know it. (R)If necessary. I am willing to manipulate people to get what I want. (R)

ConscientiousnessI keep my belongings neat and clean.I'm pretty good about pacing myself so as to get things done on time.I am not a very methodical person. (R)I tiy to perform all the tasks assigned to me conscientiously.I have a clear set of goals and work toward them in an orderly fashion.I waste a lot of time before settling down to work. (R)I work hard to accomplish my goals.When I make a commitment, I can always be counted on to follow through.Sometimes I'm not as dependable or reliable as I should be. (R)1 am a productive person who always gets the job done.I never seem to be able to get organized. (R)I strive for excellence in everything I do.Note: R indicates an item diat is reverse scored. 120

APPENDIX DNeuroticism - Facet N5: Impulsiveness

I rarely overindulge in anything. (R)

I have trouble resisting my cravings.I have little difEcxilty resisting temptation. (R)When I am having my favorite foods, I tend to eat too much.I seldom give in to my impulses. (R)I sometimes eat myself sick.Sometimes I do things on impulse that I later regret.I am always able to keep my feelings under control. (R)

Agreeableness - Facet A3: Altruism

Some people think I'm selfish and egotistical. (R)

I try to be courteous to everyone I meet.Some people think of me as cold and calculating. (R)I generally try to be thoughtful and considerate.I'm not known for my generosity. (R)Most people I know like me.I think of myself as a charitable person.I go out of my way to help others if I can.

Conscientiousness - Facet C3: Dutifiilness

I tr>- to perform all the tasks assigned to me conscientiously.

Sometimes I'm not as dependable or reliable as I should be. (R)I pay my debts promptly and in fiill.Sometimes I cheat when I play solitaire. (R)When I make a commitment, I can always be counted on to follow through.I adhere strictly to my ethical principles.1 try to do jobs carefiilly, so they won't have to be done again.I'd really have to be sick before I'd miss a day of work.

Note: R indicates an item that is reverse scored.

121

APPENDIX E

The following items ask you how characteristic each of the following behaviors are of your work activities.Indicate how much you agree with each statement by writing the number of the response in the blank next toeach item. Please use the response scale below. Again, all answers are confidential.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Disagree

c1. I help other employees with their work when they have been absent.c2. I take initiative to orient new employees even though if s not part of my job description.w3. I sometimes take undeserved work breaks.c4. I take fewer days off than other employees.c5. I give advance notice if I'm unable to come to work.w6. I coast toward the end of the day.c7. I willingly attend wori< functions that are not required, but are good for the company.

APPENDIX FThe following items ask you to estimate how frequently you have engaged in certain job behaviors or how oftenvarious activities have occurred in the past 12 months. Please use the response scale below and write thenumber of the response in the blank next to each item. Again, all answers are confidential.

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 Never Maybe Two or Nearly About once More than Once a More than once a three times every other a month once a week once a year a year month month week

w _ Drinking alcohol or using drugs after work w Visiting with co-workers about trivia while primarily because of things that occurred at work. at work. c Purposefully leaving work for the next shift Doing things that are not required on my to do. job that make ORGANIZATION NAME a better place to work. w Taking responsibility for initiating needed changes in my wotlc.w Finding easier work to avoid doing unpleasant tasks (such as changing w Being absent when I am not actually sick. linens, bed pans, etc.). w Violating a company safety rule. . Talking up ORGANIZATION NAME to my friends as a great organization to work w Daydreaming while I should be working. for. c Making suggestions to improve quality.w Not completing required paperwork/charting on time. w Making excuses to leave the work area. . Arriving at work before my scheduled time in the morning. w Failing to attend scheduled meetings.w Taking frequent or long coffee or lunch w Gossiping with others at work. breaks. Staying late to help a co-worker even c Assisting my supervisor with his/her when i would not have to. duties. Helping others when their wori< load w Using the woric phone for personal calls. increases.w Drinking alcohol or using drugs before w Leaving work eariy without permission. coming to work. c Working on more difficult tasks to make . Volunteering to do things not formally things better for the next shift. required of my job.w Neglecting those tasks that will not affect my performance evaluation. Taking extra care with equipment to keep it in good shape.w Letting others do my work for me during Note: c indicates citizenship item and vv my shift. indicates a worlc withdrawal item.w . Withholding important information fi-om co-wori<ers or supervisors.w Making suggestions to my supervisor about better ways to do things at ORGANIZATION NAME.w Making up excuses to get out of going to wori«. Making an extra effort to keep things neat, clean, and orderiy.w Complaining to other employees about ORGANIZATION NAME. Starting work eariy after returning from lunch and/or breaks. 123

APPENDIX G The PANASThis scale consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions. Read each item and thenmark the appropriate answer in the space next to that word. Indicate to what extent you have felt this way duringthe PAST V\teEK across all areas of your life. Use the following scale to record your answers.

1 2 3 4 5very slightly or a little moderately quite a bit extremely not at all

Dear ORGANIZATION employee:

As organizational researchers at Iowa State University, we are interested in studying

employee behavior in different types of jobs. As a result, we are requesting yourparticipation in a research project that is being conducted at ORGAMZATION. This studywill examine how employees react to certain aspects of their jobs.

Your participation in the project is voluntary and consists of answering questions aboutyourself, how you feel about your job, and the different types of behaviors you might engagein at work. It will take approximately 35-40 minutes to complete the questiormaire. Theproject has been approved by the administrators at ORGANIZATION and they areencouraging your participation.

The information you provide will be kept absolutely confidential. Actual responses will notbe seen by anyone but the researchers. The questionnaires will be returned directly to IowaState University via a pre-paid, pre-addressed envelope included with the questiormaire. Nonames are needed for Ae questionnaire. ORGANIZATION will receive a report of thesmdy's findings, but no individual will be able to be identified because all information in thereport will be combined into groups. This means that no one at ORGANIZATION will seeyour answers or be able to identify an employee from the information gathered in this study.After the questionnaires have been received, they will be kept in a locked file at Iowa StateUniversity.

The purpose of this project is to provide information on the relationship between employeeattitudes, personality, and behavior at work. Conclusions drawn from this project areexpected to be useful to organizations in general as well as care providers such asORGANIZATION. The information gathered here may be used in scientific presentationsand publications, but only after it has been combined into groups and all personal identifyinginformation has been removed.

Everyone at ORGANTZATION is receiving a questionnaire. For this project to be

successful, we must receive responses from as many ORGANIZATION employees aspossible. In appreciation of your completing and returning the questiormaire by DATE, yourname will be entered into a drawing for $100. Simply fill out the enclosed form and return itin the prepaid envelope with your questionnaire. The winner will be notified by phoneduring the month of July. If you are not comfortable with including the drawing form in theenvelope with your questionnaire, you may mail it separately to Doug Molitor at the addressabove. If you have any questions about this study, please feel free to call Doug Molitor at703-351-9407. Thank you for your time and participation.