His101- atatürk's Principles and Turkish Revolution History

Political and Social Structure in the Ottoman Empire; Change and Decline in Ottoman Period; French Revolution and Its Impact on Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman Decline:

Ottoman centuries may be divided into the following periods:

1) 14th; 15th; 16th centuries: years of expansion, glory and high civilization.

2) 17th century (1600s): stalemate or balance between the empire and its adversaries to the east and the west.

3) 18th century (1700s): first major losses followed by inability to adapt.

4)19th and 20th centuries: an era of reform and colonial domination by European powers; loss of territory and final disintegration.

Millet System

Although Ottoman State was predominantly muslim, the state allowed non-muslims to practise their religion and conduct their community affairs. Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Mehmet 2nd) organised this system. This system was based on religion. Millet System was organised as:

The Orthodox Community

The Armenian Community

The Jew Community

Non-muslims had to be parts of millet in order to be considered as citizens of the empire. Each millet has a leader called Milletbaşı.

was a great development because it completely changed the existing social, economic, political and diplomatic relations in Europe. It destroyed ancién regime and challenged monarchies. After the French Revolution, major European powers formed an alliance against the revolution. At the end of the 18th century there were two main blocs. The first one was the French bloc with her allies and client states like Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Spain (since 1796). On the other hand, enemies of the French bloc were the Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and Naples.76 The Ottoman Empire preferred to remain neutral and closely watched the developments in Europe. Naturally, Istanbul, as the capital of a neutral power became a diplomatic battleground for the French and British diplomats. The Ottomans, reforming their diplomatic abilities, adopted themselves to the new situation. In the process of modernization, Reis'ül-Küttâb had adopted the role of foreign minister. His mission was to provide the balance in relations with the rival powers because the Ottomans did not wish to alienate the French or British. The Ottoman government provided the information that it needed by its consulates in Europe and more importantly by the foreign embassies in Istanbul. The dragomans, official translators, were the main elements between the embassies and the Ottoman government and they provided the necessary information.

The famous French revolutionary slogans of Liberty-Equality-Fraternity did not have any particular or immediate meaning for the Ottomans at this early stage:

Liberty: at this point it only had a legal meaning for the Moslem world; in time and in line with Europe it found a political meaning in the 19th century.

In Moslem society, traditionally the Shari’a dealt with the role of the ruler and the relationaship between him and his subjects (the believers).

The European notions of good and bad government (as they were taking shape in the discussions of the Enlightenment) in terms of tyranny vs. liberty, etc, did not have the same meaning for the Moslems at this point in time.

Liberty was a legal term not a political one. It referred to one who was not slave (slavery and freedom were not used in political context).

For a traditional Moslem the converse of tyranny was not liberty but justice. Justice meant: 1) the ruler ruled by right, and 2) he rule according to the Shari’a (or at least according to recognizable moral and legal principles).

Equality: social and economic inequalities were not all that visible in Islam; there were no rigid social barriers in the Ottoman society; and Moslem tradition was rich in strong moral codes and charitable causes which made economic inequality even less visible.

Fraternity: had no real meaning for a society which had live with the concept of umma since its beginning. Nationalism did find some meaning for Islamic societies only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the long run however, what attracted Ottoman reformers to the French Revolution was the concept of secularism, which became the cornerstone of their 19th century reforms.

2

Ottoman Modernization in XIX. Century (Period of Selim III-Mahmut II, Period of Tanzimat and Period of Constitutional Monarchy I)

Modernization of Ottoman State

Modernization period in Ottoman State began with Selim 3rd (1789). In this period Ottoman State followed European reforms as a consequence of French Revolution. Selim established the first permanent embassies in Europe to persue the developments and progresses.

After Selim, Mahmut 2nd ascended the throne. The most comprehensive innovations and reforms had been done in this period. These reforms were regarding; education, administration, military, social life and economy. In 1821 Greek Rebellion occured (in the same period). After a while Greeks attained their liberty and Mahmut realised the corruption of the military system.

The first subject of Ottoman State which revolted against Ottoman State was Serbians, but the first one which got liberty were Greeks.

In 1826 Mahmut removed Yeniceri Corps and established Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye instead of it. Also he removed Divan organization and established Kabinet system. Meanwhile, there had been several regulations about vestures of sivil servants. Post organization was established and the first formal newspaper of Ottoman Takvim-i Vekai was founded.

Tanzimat Decree 1839 (SultanAbdulmecit)

Reasons:1- Greek Rebellion 2- To avoid the effects of nationalism on non-muslim communities. 3- To keep all Ottoman Subjects together.

It was created by Mustafa Reşit Paşa (Minister of Foreign Affairs) It was a reform program which was consist of new rights and promises.

Tanzimat Period is different from Tanzimat Decree. The years in the effect of Tanzimat and Islahat Decree is called as Tanzimat Period (1839-1876) until the first Constution (Kanun-i Esasi).

The targeted reforms according to Tanzimat Decree were;

To ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives,

The reorganization of the civil and criminal codes,

To provide equality of all Ottoman Subjects,

The abolitions of slavery and slave trade,

Arrangments about taxes.

Islahat Decree 1856

Reasons:1- Crimean War in 1853-1856 (Ottoman X Russia) in Crimean War Ottoman State borrowed first external dept. So this reform of 1856 was intended to carry out the promises of Tanzimat especially about non-muslims, and Tanzimat’s titles were extended for non-muslims. This reforms were the results of Western pressures.

Result: Tanzimat and Islahat were not constitutions but reforms. This reforms provided a secular system. The outhorization of leaders were limitted.

The main ideology of this period was Ottomanism (Equality between all subjects)

Young Ottomans were supported by Mithat Paşa. And Young Ottomans wanted to create a state based on equality and constitutional system. They were organised secretly and for them the only solution was to create a modern state and constitutional monarchy.
1st Constitutional Era 1876 (Kanun-i Esasi)

Young Ottomans forced Addülaziz (the sultan after Abdülmecid) to abdicate because of this opposite ideas about constitution. After that, Young Ottomans achived 5th Murat to ascend the throne but because of his mental problems he was abdicated too. Instead of him Abdulhamit 2nd ascend the throne and promised to announce constitution. Kanun-i Esasi was prepared by Mithad Paşa.

Kanun-i Esasi was prepared taking Belgium constitution as an example.

Kanun-i Esasi didn’t limited the outhority of Sultan,

The origin of soverignty didn’t change

Ottoman Parliament was opened,
General Assembly

Assembly of Deputies Assembly of Lords

(Meclis-i Mebusan) (Meclis-i Ayan)

This constitution was consisted of 119 titles and the first five ones described the rights of Sultan,

All Ottoman Subjects were equal in front of this constitution.

Russia- Ottoman War/ 93 Harbi (1877-1878)

In April 1877 the war between Ottoman and Russia broke out. During the war the Assembly couldn’t work and Abdulhamit canceled not only the assembly but also the constitution. After the war, Ayestefanos agreement was signed. But Western countries didn’t accept this agreement and arranged Berlin Peace Conference. Eastern Question, Armenian Question (in international area) and Macedonian Question pronounced in this conference for the first time.

At the end of Berlin Peace Conference;

Cyprus was rented to England, (In case of Russian Danger),

Three new states were established: Romania, Serbia, Montenegro. And Bulgary became a princedom,

Nonetheless quite a few reforms had been achived in this era: Mülkiye which was established in Tanzimat period was reorganised, commercial, veterinary and art schools were founded, Darülfunun (University) was founded, telegraph system was improved all around the country, railways From Syria to Palestine and from Ankara to Konya were established.

3

From Ittıhad-ı Osmanî to Union and Progress Party; Announcement of Second Constitutional Monarchy; The Period of Second Constitutional Monarcy; The Incident of March 31

Young Turk Revolution 1908/ And Committee of Union and Progress

Who are Young Turks?

All of them may not have been ethnic Turks but they identified themselves as Turks.

The great majority of them were young.

They belonged mostly to the bureaucratic class, they were either military officers or civilian officers.

They had studied in modern schools.

They had a bourgeois ideology.

They aspired to create a modern Turkish Society on the contemporary European model.

They based their political ideology on to provide the constitutional monarshy functional.

They established in 1889 in Istanbul a comittee called Ottoman Union (İttihad-ı Osmani) this was a secret organization.

In 1895 they prepared a regulation and according to this regulation the committee was broken into small covert cells.

The committee emerged/uncovered with the Armenian protests in 1895.

Prince Sabahattin organised the first Young Turk Congress in 1902. In this congress, Young Turks argued about saving the empire and putting the constitution into effect. Sabahattin’s solution was different from others. He claimed to cooperate with foreign countries against Abdulhamit. He also justified the ideology of autonomous government (adem-i merkeziyet: to create a state in the circle of individual).

After 1905, opposition against Abdulhamit gained power. Expressly, rising the seperatist movements in Macedonia, most of the people of Empire became anxious. And in this atmosphere a lot of secret organizations occured.

In 1907 the second Young Turk Congress was opened. In this congress all the ideological movements of Ottoman State met up.

A manifest was prepared and aimed to remove Abdulhamit: By making propaganda in the army, by showing strong resistance by contacting the military organizations in Macedonia they incorporated and named themselves as Committee of Union and Progress.

Promulgation of 2 nd Constitution (1908)Reasons:

The role of the agreement between England and Russia about sharing Ottoman territories (Reval Negotiations),

Unionists learned the negotiations of sharing plans between England and Russia in Reval,

Unionists blamed Abdulhamit as the only person in charge.

After all these, with 400 people, Resneli Niyaz and Enver started a revolt and revolution began.

Rumelian People supported this movement.

They pressed putting the constitution into effect and opening the assembly.

Eventually after 30 years, liberty (hürriyet) was announced.

UNION AND PROGRESS

Comittee of Union and Progress: Party of Union and Progress is:

Comittee organised the local and central consisted of deputies in Assembly

Congresses
31st March Event 1909

This Movement occured agaisnt the restoration of constitutional sytem in 1908. It was a reaction. To prevent this movement unionists sent an army called Army of Action (Hareket Ordusu) from Salonika to İstanbul. And Abdulhamit was deposed.

a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the social issues that the empire was facing. Ottomanism was strongly influenced by thinkers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. It promoted equality among the millets. The idea originated amongst the Young Ottomans in areas such as the acceptance of all separate ethnicities in the Empire regardless of their religion, i.e. they were all 'Ottomans' with equal rights. Put simply, Ottomanism stated that all subjects were equal before the law. Ideally, all citizens would share a geographical area, a language, culture, and a sense of a 'non-Ottoman' party who were different than them. The essence of the millet system was not dismantled, but secular organizations and policies were applied. Primary education, conscription, head tax and military service were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike.[1]

The major precursors to Ottomanism were the Reformation Edict of 1856, which promised full equality regardless of religion, and the Ottoman Nationality Law of 1869, which created a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious or ethnic affiliation. Ottomanism was rejected by many in the non-Muslim millets and by many Muslims. To the former, it was perceived as a step towards dismantling their traditional privileges. Meanwhile, the Muslims saw it as the elimination of their own superior position. There were claims that Ottomanism was a reaction to the Tanzimat, the era of intensive restructuring of the Ottoman Empire by the bureaucratic elite. The inauguration of the Ottoman Parliament contributed to the spirit of reform as all millets were represented in this bicameral assembly.

Ottomanism was a form of nationalism, likely inspired and created as a reaction to European ideas of nationalism and the growing Western involvement in the Ottoman Empire. Following the Tanzimat reforms, Ottomanism developed of a need to bring the Empire together.[2] The Ottomans feared the growing threat the Europeans posed, especially after events like the Treaty of Balta Liman that allowed for British merchants in the Empire to be taxed equally to the locals, and the growing concern of the Great Powers over the treatment of Christians and Jews within the Empire. The Ottomans thought that if they could unite the Empire fully under one state entity, then they would be stronger and the Europeans would have a harder time encroaching on Ottoman territory, as well as Ottoman people. Previously, the empire was vastly split into many small communities that mostly governed themselves. The Sultan oversaw these communities, however most adhered to their own laws and beliefs.[3] This was a reason the Ancien Regime Ottoman Empire was so successful, because the Sultan didn't force any major changes on populations as he conquered them. Though because of nationalism, the rise of nation-states with shared senses of identities began to rise in Europe, most notably with the Greek War of Independence which also started affecting the Ottoman Empire. From these instances Ottomanism was developed as a social and political response, and a hope to help save the Empire from its downfall.

Ottomanism enjoyed a revival during the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, and during the Second Constitutional Era. It lost most of its adherents during the First Balkan War of 1912–13, when Ottoman citizens (Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbians) in the Balkans revolted against the government and enacted ethnic cleansing against Turks residing in those areas, leading to mass emigration of Turks to Anatolia. Disappointment in the failure of Ottomanism was integral to the birth of Turkish nationalism during the next decade.

Tripotanian War 1911

Italy X Ottoman

Reason: Italy provided its unification while France and England were controlling all undeveloped countries. For instance, England occupied Egypt in 1881, France ocuupied Algeria and Tunis. After Italy provided its unification, turned to Tripoli -the last territory of Ottoman State in North Africa-. Tripoli was important for raw materials and it was good market place. Italy occupied Tripoli, and the war began.

But Ottomans couldn’t interfere both from sea and land, because of the blokade in Dardanelles. Mustafa Kemal and Ali Fethi passed to Tripoli as volunteers and supported the Tripolitanian Public against Italians. The war spreaded into a large area. During the war, Balkan countries combined against Ottoman State and Ottoman was forced to request an armistice. At the end of the war Ousy Peace Agreement was signed between Italy and Ottoman State. According to this treaty; Ottoman state lost the last territory in North Africa, Dodecanes and Rhodes were left to Italy temporary (until 1947).

Balkan Wars 1912-1913

Reasons: Nationalism, results of Berlin Peace Conferece and Liberty of Bulgary in 1908.

In the First Balkan War; Balkan Countries attacked to Ottoman State, Edirne and Kırklareli were occupied by Bulgary. At the end Albania got its liberty, Agean islands, Macedonia, East and West Thrace were lost. This defeat effected the internal affairs of Ottoman State; Committe of Union and Progress blamed the administration and in 1913 with a cup called Bab-ı Ali Bakını, Unionists got the power.

The Second Balkan War started because of the Bulgarian expansion at the end of the first Balkan War so; the Balkan countries combined together against Bulgary. Ottoman State wanted to use this opportunity in favour of itself. (Particularly to get Edirne and Kırklareli back from Bulgary)

Bulgary was defeated by Greece and Serbia at that time Rumenia entered the war and took Dobruca from Bulgary. Ottoman State got back Edirne and Kırklareli.

The Ottoman State entered war on the side of the Central Powers in 1914 referring to the secret Ottoman-German Alliance Convention that signed in August 1914. In the same year the Ottoman State declared (on 14th November) Cihad-ı Ekber to Muslim communities which were under the control of England. Sultan Mehmet V. aimed to take the support of these communities against England. Ottoman's entrance into the war greatly increased the Triple Entente's military burdens. Russia had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and in the Persian Campaign along with the United Kingdom.

The Ottoman State first started to fight in Caucasian Front with Russia. Enver Pasha set off for the Battle of Sarıkamış with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north-western Persia and the oil fields. Fighting with the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground, and over 100,000 soldiers, in a series of battles.

1915

One of the most important event of this war is the Dardanelles Campaign. Battle of Gallipoli or the Battle of Çanakkale, was a campaign of World War I that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war and a major Allied failure.

England and France planned to control Istanbul and to gain victory against Germany and Austria, also another aim of them was to take the control of Ottoman State. So that they attacked with their strong navy to Dardanelles Strait on 18th March 1915. But they were defeated by the Ottoman forces. The successes of the Ottoman forces in Dardanelles encouraged Bulgaria, and she entered the war on the side of Central Powers.

After a while, the Allied Powers tried to get the control of Dardanelles overland. They arranged a campaign towards Seddülbahir and Arıburnu. After three months battles, Mustafa Kemal gained a great success in that front. Allies withdrew in 1916 and couldn’t get any success.

In the same year, the Ottoman forces organised a new campaign called Canal. They planned to get Egypt with the leadership of Cemal Pasha and struck to Suez Canal but couldn’t get any success.

During World War I, the Ottoman government also faced difficulties on the homeland, including isolated Armenian rebellions in eastern Anatolia that led to an order for the Tehcir Law of 1 June 1915 to 8 February 1916 (deportation) of Armenians from the region.

Some of the articles of the law:

The Ottoman Army can move the people in villages or towns in case of spying or treachery ,

In case of any offensive, disobedience to government, the army commanders can interfere.

In the text of the law there was no explicit mention for the Armenians, in other words, it wasn’t directed against one particular ethnic group. However, due to the aggressive attitude of Armenians and their cooperations with the Allies (in eastern Anatolia), referring to the conditions of the law, they were migrated to South regions (Syria, Lebanon).

In 1915 Allies made some secret agreements to share the Ottoman Territories. According to Istanbul Agreement in 1915, which was accepted by England and France, western part of Marmara, Straits, until Midye Enes line South Thrace were planned to be given to Russia. The enterance of Italy to war on the side of the Allies, also effected the Allied Powers’ plans. According to this agreement Antalya was given under the influence of Italy and they committed to accept the Italian rights in Adriatic Sea with another secret agreement called London Agreement in 1915.

1916

In the early months of 1916 Russia again took action in the Caucasian Front. Russian Forces got the control of Mus, Rize, Trabzon, Ispir and Erzurum. But in Iraq Front the Ottomans gained important victory against England.

Another important event of this year was Arabic revolt. And another secret agreement about sharing the Ottoman Arabic territories was signed between England and France. The Middle east connoisseur of England Sir Mark Sykes and ex Beirut Consul General of France George Picot agreed on sharing the Ottoman Middle East territories. According to Sykes-Picot Agreement in April 1916, France was going to get Syria, Lebanon,Kilikya (Çukurova) and Mosul; England was going to get Iraq, Jordan and North Palestine.

1917

In 1917 the Bolshevik Revolution gave the Ottomans a new chance. On 5 December 1917, the armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) was signed between the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan, and that ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Empire. On 3 March, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Bolsheviks. It stipulated that Bolshevik Russia would cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan back to the Ottoman State.

The absence of Russia was filled by the USA. The USA was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled associated power. But the withdrawal of Russia changed the secret plans of the Allies, so Italy wanted new regulations about secret agreements. England , France and Italy came together to negotiate new territorial plans. In April 1917 another secret agreement called St Jean De Maurienne was signed. According to this agreement; Izmir, Aydın and Konya was going to be given to Italy.

In 1917 also Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies. This would create a critic events on Ottoman State later on.

1918

In 1918 Fourteen points of Wilson was declared.

Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.

The removal, of all economic barriers and the establishment of equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.

Free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.

Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.

A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.

The people of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.

Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.

The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.

An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.

A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

These principles exhibited in which conditions the new order after war will be established. (self determination – leaving secret diplomacy)

However Ottoman forces got important successes in Caucasian Front, the defeats in Iraq and Palestine Fronts determined the result of the war.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR

At the end of the war central empires such as Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany dissolved.

Instead of Russia, the Soviet Union;

Instead of the Ottoman State, Turkey;

In the territories of Austria-Hungry 4 new country (Austria, Hungary, Poland and Czechoslavakia ) were established.

Monarchies broke down and republics established.

At the end of the war between all countries (even if defeated or not) some social, economical and political depressions occured. Afterwards, some kind of totalitarian and authoritarian administrations came to power.

The first World War constituted the main reason of the Second World War.

6

Mondros Armistice (October 30, 1918), Political Developments and Ottoman Governments in the Armistice Period

Political Events, the Press, Paris Peace Conference and Occupation of Izmir

After the Armistice of Mudros

Paris Peace Conference 1919 January

England, France, USA, Italy and Japan organized this conference. Their prime ministers and Foreign affairs Ministers (The Big Four) joined the conference.

The Big Four were the President of the United States Woodrow Wilson; the Prime Minister of Great Britain David Lloyd George; the Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau; and the Prime Minister of Italy Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which were ratified by the others. In this conference the peace agreements which were going to be signed with defeated countries except Ottoman State were decided:

The Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919, (with Germany)

The Treaty of Saint Germain, 10 September 1919, (with Austria)

The Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919, (with Bulgaria)

The Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920, (with Hungary)

Occupation of İzmir

The Armistice of Moudros in the article 7 stated that the Allies "to occupy any strategic points in the event of any situation arising which threatens the security of Allies."

The chief proponent of the Greek occupation on the side of allies was the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, despite strong opposition from his own foreign office. British foreign office argued Greece had already proved incapable of keeping order in Salonika, and could not be trusted to administer large tracts of Asia Minor. Lloyd George had thus concocted a report according to which Turkish guerrillas had threatened the Greek minorities in İzmir[5]. This report gained the sympathy of President Woodrow Wilson, whilst Georges Clemenceau approved the landing with the hope of limiting further Italian gains. Same report used as a pretext for a Greek incursion into Asia Minor, beyond the province of Izmir.

Greek troops marching on Izmir's coastal street, May 1919.

A military administration was formed by the Greek premier Eleftherios Venizelos shortly after the initial landings. Venizelos had plans to annex İzmir that he succeeded in realizing his objective in Treaty of Sèvres August 10, 1920., He had immediately agreed to send Greek troops to İzmir after Italian troops had landed in Antalya.