We will now discuss complex numbers and their properties. We will show how they can be represented as points in the plane and state the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: that any polynomial equation with complex coefficients has a solution which is a complex number. We will also define the function exp of a complex variable.

Earlier we mentioned several sets of numbers, including Author(s): The Open University

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The rational and irrational numbers together make up the real numbers. The set of real numbers is denoted by . Like rationals, irrational numbers can be represented by decimals, but unlike the decimals for rational numbers, those for irrationals are neither finite nor recurring. All such infinite non-recurr

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We know that a polygon X is a surface and so each point x in X has a disc-like or half-disc-like neighbourhood. We shall show that a map f that identifies edges of a polygon to create an object Y automatically creates corresponding disc-like or half-disc-like neighbourhoods of each point y = f(x) of Y.

If x is in the interior of X, there is no difficulty: the point x has a disc-like neighbourhood UAuthor(s): The Open University

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Our aim is to show that the object that we produce when we identify some or all the edges of a polygon is a surface. Therefore, by the definition of a surface given in Section 2.5, we must show how it can be given the structure of a topological space, and that this space is Hausdorff. Furthermore, we must show that every point has

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In this section, we revisit the construction of surfaces by identifying edges of polygons, as described in Section 2. Recall that, if we take any polygon in the plane and identify some of its edges in pairs, then we obtain a surface. When specifying how a given pair of edges is to be identified, we choose one of the two possible re

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By ‘contains’, we mean that we can find part of the surface that is homeomorphic to a Möbius band. The edge of the Möbius band does not need to correspond to an edge at the surface, so that a surface without boundary can be non-orientable (as we shall shortly see).

When seeking Möbius bands in a surface, it can be helpful to look at all possible closed curves on the surface and thicken these into bands.

Remember, fro

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Surfaces can be constructed in a similar way from plane figures other than polygons. For example, starting with a disc, we can fold the left-hand half over onto the right-hand half, and identify the edges labelled a, as shown in Figure 36; this is rather like zipping up a purse, or ‘crimping’ a Cornish pasti

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As the polygons become more complicated, so the identifications become more difficult to visualise. For example, what happens if we try to identify the edges of an octagon in pairs, as indicated by the edge labels and arrowheads in Figure 34? Author(s):

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There are two other surfaces that can be obtained by identifying both pairs of opposite edges of a rectangle. In one of these, shown in Figure 31, we first identify the edges AB and A'B', labelled a, in the direction shown by the arrowheads. This gives us a cylinder, as before. We then try to ident

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In Section 2 we start by introducing surfaces informally, considering several familiar examples such as the sphere, cube and Möbius band. We also illustrate how surfaces can be constructed from a polygon by identifying edges. A more formal approach to surfaces is presented at the end of the section.

This unit is concerned with a special class of topological spaces called surfaces. Common examples of surfaces are the sphere and the cylinder; less common, though probably still familiar, are the torus and the Möbius band. Other surfaces, such as the projective plane and the Klein bottle, may be unfamiliar, but they crop up in many places in mathematics. Our aim is to classify surfaces – that is, to produce criteria that allow us to determine whether two given surfaces are h

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The main teaching text of this unit is provided in the workbook below. The answers to the exercises that you'll find throughout the workbook are given in the answer book. You can access it by clicking on the link under the workbook. When prompted to watch the video for this unit, return to this page and watch the clips below. After you've watched the clips, return to the workbook.

This is the fifth and final unit in the MSXR209 series on mathematical modelling. In this unit we revisit the model developed in the first unit of this series on pollution in the Great Lakes of North America. Here we evaluate and revise the original model by comparing its predictions against data from the lakes before finally reflecting on the techniques used.

This unit, the fifth in a series of five, builds on ideas developed and introduced in Modelling pollution in the Great Lakes

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That mammals need energy to support all aspects of their lives, be it breathing, running, excreting, repairing cells, reproducing, keeping warm, is a central, unifying theme of the 'Studying mammals' series of units. So is the notion of specialisation of diet - that mammals display adaptations, i.e. specialised teeth or complex stomachs, that enable them to cope with the demands of particular diets. This course addresses these two related themes of energy and of specialisation. Why might omni

The versatility of mammals is a central theme of the 'Studying mammals' series of units, but surely no environment has tested that versatility as much as the rivers and oceans of the world. Mammals are essentially a terrestrial group of animals, but three major groups have independently adopted an aquatic way of life. In moving to the water, aquatic mammals have had to survive, feed and reproduce using a set of biological characteristics that evolved in association with life on land. This cou