It would be what shot they played in order to return the ball and whether or not this was successful

This is referred to as the response

CNS

Refers to the persons brain and spinal cord

5.2.2 – Describe Welford’s model of information processing

WELFORD (1968) – Research trying to explain what actually happens in the Central Nervous System (CNS) when processing information

Take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior to sorting them out

The inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision are then stored in the short-term memory

A decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with previous experiences stored in the long-term memory

With reference to the long term memory for the required action the decision is carried out

The action and the results are stored for future reference

The whole process then begins again

TERM

EXPLANATION

Sense Organs

An organ of the body that responds to external stimuli by conveying impulses to the sensory nervous system

Perception

The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses

Short-Term Memory

Holding a small amount of information in mind in an active

Long-Term Memory

Holding a large amount of information in mind in an active

Decision Making

The action or process of making decisions, especially important ones

Feedback

Information about reactions to a product, a person’s performance of a task

5.2.3 – Outline the components associated with sensory input

The senses are responsible for relaying information about the environment the brain

The information is then interrupted by the brain based on past experience of similar situations and is held in the long-term memory (LTM)

The senses can be divided into proprioception, exteroceptors and interoceptors

PROPRIOCEPTION

‘Sense of self’

In the limbs, the proprioceptors are sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length and muscle tension

Which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space

EXTEROCEPTORS

Provide information from outside the body

The main exteroceptors involved in sensation with regard to sport are vision and audition

INTEROCEPTORS

Provide information from within the body

Information about body position and the position of limbs

The main interoceptors involved in sport are the vestibular apparatus, which provides information about balance; and joint receptors, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, which provide information about limb positions

5.2.4 – Explain the signal-detection process

SWETS (1964)

Individuals receive over 100,000 pieces of information per second

This may be information from the environment and / or from within the person themselves

Thus actually perceiving an important piece of information – He called a ‘signal’ which is problematic

Swets termed the background, non-essential information ‘noise’

This may mean actual noise – The sound of spectators, but covers all information that is not part of the signal

Noise can be visual or from within yourself such as worrying about falling

According to signal detection theory, the probability of detecting any given signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of background noise

Detecting the signal would depend on the interaction between 2 variables; d-prime (d’) and the criterion (C)

d’

Represents the individuals sensitivity to that particular signal

Sensitivity may depend on the efficiency of the persons sense organs (eyes, vestibular apparatus)

It may also depend of experience (familiar signals are thought to be more readily detected than unfamiliar stimuli)

C

Represents the effect of a persons bias on detection

Affected by arousal level, which in turn affects the probability of the detection of signal

When arousal is low the signal is missed – Error of omission

If arousal is high and detection is considered to be a high priority, of too much importance in fact, the individual may perceive a signal when one does not exist an error of commision

Signal detection proficiency can be improved by ensuring that the performer is optimally aroused but can also be aided by good selective attention

Includes all memories, knowledge about the world and plans for the future

Capacity

1 Item

7 items (+/- 2)

Indefinite

Duration

Less than 1 second

Lasts for 6 – 12 Seconds

Indefinite

5.2.6 – Discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory

Given that out STM has a limited capacity, we have a problem when trying to deal with all of the information in our environment. The limitation is so great that some psychologists believe that we can only deal with one thing at a time; this is called single channel theory (WELFORD 1968)

WICKENS (1980) have argued that we can deal with more than one piece of information at a time if the tasks are dissimilar

Example:

Running down the court bouncing a basketball while at the same time making a decision as to whether to pass or shoot

Running with the ball occupies a different part of the brain to making the decision therefore the 2 tasks will not affect one another

The way we overcome this limited capacity is by the use of selective attention

According to BROADBENT (1956) all information enters the STM, but we only attend to the selected stimuli

Unselected stimuli are filtered out by selected stimuli are compared to information stored in LTM

This allows us to make decisions on what action to take

BROADBENTS FILTER MODEL OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION

While selective attention takes place as described by BROADBENTS

Example:

Stimuli being chosen for processing after entering STM, we can also make decisions on what process before the information enters STM

Past experience of similar situations allows the performer to search the appropriate areas of the environment for relevant information

Sometimes attention is involuntary

However, a sudden loud noise or a flash of bright light will attract our attention probably as a subconscious safety factor

5.2.7 – Compare different methods of memory improvement

5.2.8 – Define the term response time and reaction time

RESPONSE TIME

The time from the introduction of a stimulus to the complete of the action required to deal with the problem (McMorris 2004)

Response time is made up of reaction time and movement time

REACTION TIME

The time that elapses from the sudden onset of a stimulus of the beginning of an overt response (Oxendine 1986)

Movement time is the time is takes to carry out the motor aspects of the performance

RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME

5.2.9 – Outline factors that determine response time

Response time increases throughout childhood and adolescence, however as we get older it gets slower

Movement time is affected by fitness, particularly power and speed of limb movement

Training can greatly affected movement time but reaction time is less easy to improve

The main factor affect in speed of reaction is the number of choices that the individual has to make

If there are no choices, what we call simple reaction time, the mean times range between 170 and 200 msecs

As we increase the number of choices, what is termed choice reaction time, the times increase

HICK (1952)

As you doubled the number of stimulus – response couplings the reaction time increased

If the reaction time is plotted against the log of the stimulus – response coupling there is a linear increase

Generally, reaction time increases by about 150 msecs every time the stimulus – response groupings are doubled

5.2.10 – Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP)

WELFORD (1968)

Undertook an experiment in which he had participants respond to a stimulus (S1). Reaction time to S1 was as Welford expected. However when he introduced a second stimulus (S2) shortly after the introduction of S1, the participants demonstrated slower than normal reaction times to S2

Thus, Welford stated that when 2 stimuli are presented close together the reaction time to the second stimulus is slower than the normal reaction time

The time gap was called the psychological refractory period (PRP)

Welford claimed that processing of S2 could not take place until processing of S1 had been completed

The feint (a deceptive or pretended blow, thrust, or other movement, especially in boxing or fencing) is S1 and the actual movement is S2

If the timing is correct, the defender will be comparatively slow in reacting to the real movement

This is the skill of rugby players like Shane Williams, basketball players like Jason King

Similar feints can be seen in the drop shot in badminton or a dummy punch in boxing

5.2.11 – Describe a motor programme

KEELE (1968)

Defined a motor programme as being a set of muscle commands that allow movements to be performed without any peripheral feedback

Examples of motor programmes are basically any skill you can think of:

Hitting a tennis ball

Catching a netball

Doing a somersault

A number of motor programmes can be put together to form an executive motor programme:

Arab spring and flick flack

The triple jump; hop, step, jump

Many gymnastic routines involve the completion of a number of executive motor programmes in quick succession

To the gymnast they have become one large executive programme

The best example of an executive programme outside of sport is playing the organ

The organist must put together movements from each hand, each of which are carrying out separate motor programmes, as well as the movement of both feet, which are also carrying out separate motor programmes to one another

To the organist however, he or she is playing one tune with ‘one’ set of movements

5.2.12 – Compare motor programs for both open and closed loop perspectives

KEELE (1968)

Model of motor programmes is an open loop model

It accounts for the performance of a skill without recourse to feedback

It explains how we can carry out fast movements

For Example:

A boxer throwing a straight left will do so at about 60-70 msecs

This is too fast for him to use feedback to alter the movement once it has begun

Trying to hit a baseball pitched at over 100 kilometers per hour

Once the shot has been made it can not be changed

Not all movements take place this quickly

Many movements can be altered during their execution

We can alter our movements when hitting a baseball pitched at 50 kilometers per hour or returning a slow serve in tennis

These movements are under a closed loop control

JACK ADAMS (1971)

Was the first to describe how we use closed loop control

He argued that as we learn a skill, we develop the perceptual trace

The perceptual trace is memory for the feel of successful past movements

Once a there is a developed perceptual trace, it can compare the trace with the feel of the ongoing movement

This allows us to correct inappropriate actions

While the perceptual trace controls an already ongoing movement the selection and initiation of the movement is under the control of memory trace

OPEN LOOP THEORY

CLOSED LOOP THEORY

This theory states the following:

Decisions are made in the brain

All information for one movement is sent in a single message

The message is received by the muscles which perform the movement

Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn’t control the action

This theory accounts well for fast continuous movements

For Example:

A golf swing

Although it does not work so well for slower movements which may involve reactions and repositioning

For Example:

A gymnast on the balance beam

This theory explains slow movements well but not fast movements

Decisions are made in the brain

Not all of the information is sent together

Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement

Feedback is always available and is vital to correct movement patterns and adjust to changing needs

RICHARD SCHMIDT (1975) – SCHEMA THEORY

An explanation of motor programmes that include both open and closed loop control

Schmidt described a schema as being a set of generalized rules or rules that are generic to a group of movements

Schmidt believed that we develop 2 kinds of memory for movements: recall and recognition schema

RECALL SCHEMA

Memory with regard to the choice and initiation of action

RECOGNITION SCHEMA

Memory for the feel of a movement and it allows us to make appropriate changes in the action

Both schemas require the individual to recall memory of similar past situations from LTM. These are then stored in STM and allow the person to decide the actual movement to be used. Remember the schema is a generalized set of rules but we must carry out a specific action. So comparing what I hold in STM about past situations with what I hold with regard to the present situation allows me to decide on the specifics of the movement. Schmidt called this process deciding the response specifications.

5.2.13 – Outline the role of feedback in information processing models

Feedback is the term we use to describe information resulting from an action or response

INTRINSIC FEEDBACK

Available to the performer without outside help

We can see the results of our actions without anyone needing to tell us what happened

EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK

Information that is provided for us by someone or something else

This can be a coach or a teacher, equally it can be a stopwatch or tape measure

This feedback can be concurrent, being given during performance, or terminal, given after completion of the performance

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) & KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP)

TYPE OF FEEDBACK

EXPLANATION

EXAMPLE

Knowledge of Results – KR

Post-response information concerning the outcome of the action

Visual

Seeing the end product of an action

Long Jumper

Knowing the distance jumped

Track Athlete

Knowing the time ran

Knowledge of Performance – KP

Consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement

The feel of the movement

Knowledge of sensory consequences

POSITIVE & NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Can be telling someone that he or she has done well

Prescriptive feedback

The coach tells the learner how to improve performance:

‘Do it this way’

Concentrates on errors

Sometimes coaches point out errors and then follow up with prescriptive feedback

Prescriptive feedback has been shown to be effective following either a negative or positive approach

Negative feedback includes:

‘Dont do it like that’

You’ve got it wrong, you did this and shouldn’t have

This latter type of feedback can be very demotivating and is also of little use to beginners as they need prescriptive feedback

5.2.14 – Outline the role of feedback with the learning processes

Feedback can be a great motivator

We all like praise, inparticular from those whom we perceive as being important

The failure of coaches to praise good performance can have disastrous effects on the athlete’s self-confidence

It can also give learners the false impression that they are not improving when in fact they are

However, overdoing the giving of praise can have negative effects

If all athletes hear is ‘well done’, ‘great’ and ‘brilliant’ then these words either come to mean nothing or become so familiar to the learner that, in fact, they are not perceived by them all

With regards to learning, the main factor is that the performer improves

Beginners need prescriptive feedback

They need to be told what to do in order to improve performance

As they improve and increase their knowledge of the activity, tal they require is KR

If they are making an error, they can resolve the problem themselves by comparing what is happening now with the store of knowledge they have told their LTM