Editor: Todor Chepreganov, Ph.D.

MACEDONIA IN THE PREHISTORIC TIME

On the territory of Macedonia an active life is registered even in the earliest stages of the human prehistory. The climate, geomorphology, and other natural factors on the whole territory of Macedonia were preconditions for establishment of an organized life and for the creation of different cultures whose evolution had a continuous course from the period of the first agricultural communities to the end of the Iron Age. The archeological and anthropological researches of the artifacts from the first settlements in Macedonia are where the basic knowledge which is crucial for the explanation of the origin of the later populations as well as the origin of the historical and cultural influences and movements came from. The territory of Macedonia is situated in the core of the Balkans natural crossroads and connects the two largest cultural spheres: the Aegean and the Anatolian, as the nuclei of the oldest farming and stockbreeding communities, or the inner part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle Europe. The natural routes along the river valleys have the particular role from this aspect; the valley of the river Vardar, which joins the valley of the river Morava enables communication of the Aegean World and Panonia while Strumeshnica, through lower reaches of the river Struma makes a link between southern Thrace and the front part of the Middle Asia. The valley of the river Drim joins the southern Adriatic coastline. The great influence comes from the routes on the mountain curves of the massifs around the region of Ohrid and Prespa which connect this region with the Albanian cultures as well as the Osogovo Mountain and Maleshevski Planini, which connect Macedonia with the middle reaches of the river Struma and Central Bulgaria.5

Paleontological explorations reveal the facts about the life during the period of Paleolith and Mesolite, in particular in Pellagonia, at the area of Veles, in the cave of Makarovec at the canyon of the river Babuna and in the region of Shtip, where the material proof of the first bone and stone made weapons and tools are discovered (pin shaped, stone made tools of the man huntsman); in the burial discovered near Shtip, a skeleton of a man was found, whose age dates from year 9000 BC). The artifacts from the Mesolithic Age (between the year 10,000 and 5,000 BC) such as: axes, hammers, flint made knives, crushing stone, pestles, mortars, needles, bone made and horn made chisels, prove the existence of the first farming and stock-breeding communities. The map of the archeological locations shows the existence of nearly 160 Neolithical sites (from the period of the year 5,300 to 3,200 BC), mainly settlements placed on fertile land along the river valleys and at the mountain basis of the valleys of Pellagonia, Skopje, Kumanovo, Strumica, Radovish and Polog. Such evidences are also found in the region of Ovche Pole and Ohrid Basin. In eastern Macedonia, so-called Azenbegovo and Vrshnik group is characteristic with the elements of the eponymous settlements and late Neolithic culture called Angelci the village of Zelenikovo. In the multi-layered settlements the life was organized in wooden houses on quadrangle or rectangular base, with doublerow roof coated with mud and colored in white or red, sometimes decorated with plastic ornaments; in each house there was a stove, a fireplace, and rarely some cult objects (Tumba Madzari). The evidence of Tumba Madzari confirms the dense construction of the settlements in which houses are grouped around a common sanctuary and with equal orientation. At the region of Ohrid the settlements have a different aspect. Namely, there are pile-dwellings, which are analogous of the Adriatic cultures. It is supposed that the inhabitants of the Pre-Ancient Macedonia were mainly dealing with farming (cultivation of cereal grains and growing of leguminous plants), stockbreeding (sheep, pigs, goats and livestock) as well as fishing and hunting. The pottery production was not only for domestic, everyday living purposes (in the early Neolithic period the pottery was mainly roughly made, monochrome or red colored, decorated with ornaments and geometrical motifs in white color Amphora and deep oval dishes) but great attention was paid on the artistic and esthetic expression (variety of shapes and pottery of bigger size occurred, small earthenware, jugs, Amphora-s, cups on high, cone-shaped leg, pottery painted with dark brawn geometrical lines) while the cult ceramic objects were made in artisan workshops. Among the religious artifacts the domi6

nant Deity is the Goddess of Fertility The Big Mother, a sculpture of a womans body in terracotta, whose low part transforms into the form of house; this unique Middle Neolithic representation of the Goddess from the Valley of Skopje is a protector of the home and the family; the cults of fire and domestic animals were also respected and they were all related to some religious rites in the sanctuaries. The late Neolithic Age is a period when big social changes began. They were caused by the demographic movements of the neighboring areas populations. The transition time from Neolith to Metal Age is well known as Eneolith (from the end of the IV to the end of the Millennium BC) and is connected with the great migrations that were caused by the movements of the Steppe and Nomadic Indo-European peoples, which settled the Balkan Peninsula and assimilated with the autochthonous population. This caused the creation of new prehistoric ethno-cultural entities of a specific material culture that is testified by many archeological proofs. As a result of an intensive use of copper this period is called Copper Age. The copper was used for production of jewelry, weapons, and tools and contributed to the development of trade. The people from this period were mainly farming, stockbreeding and hunting. The Regional Cultural Group of Shuplevac Bakarno Gumno in Pellagonia, which is connected with the localities at the valley of Kumanovo (Nagorichane) and also the valley of East Bregalnica, is particularly interesting; some Eneolithic settlements are discovered near the Fortress Kale in Skopje, in Pellagonia, at the Ohrid and Prespa Basin, and at the region of Kochani. The settlements were constructed usually on some higher platforms tumba, and were naturally protected. The exceptions are the pill-dwellings at the Ohrid Lake. The discovered artifacts of small plastic objects demonstrate the rich spirituality and religious life of this cultural group. Due to be mentioned are the following evidences: Zoomorphic statues, male and female examples from Burlichevo, a small ceramic statue of male torso in sitting position from Govrlevo (near Skopje) so-called Adam from Macedonia, small female statuettes in sitting position from Crnobuki and Bakarno Gumno, stone scepter from Shuplevac (a proof of the Indo-European origin of the population), a copper axe with a blade and circular opening (Vranishta, Kravari, the area of Prilep); the jewelry made of shells belongs here as well, modeled bracelets and seals, that prove the communications of this cultural group with the Mediterranean peoples. The Bronze Age at the Aegean and Macedonian territory began earlier in comparison with the areas in the north. Most of the evidence7

from this period is found in the valley of Pellagonia (before and after the year 1900 BC) exemplified in the cultural group called Armenochory. The archeological findings of this cultural group are similar with the findings from various excavation places in Aegean Macedonia and particularly with those dug in the valley of the river Vardar and in the District of Thessalonica. Special similarity of these findings was confirmed with the findings in Albania, such as the models of the cups, which contained two handles and the glasses that were only with one handle. These groups are somehow connected with the rough gray ceramics and the way it was decorated. From the findings of arms and tools, people were mainly farming, stockbreeding, hunting as well as doing artisan (pottery, twist texture, weaving texture). The settlements were larger and constructed over the previous Eneolithic settlements; some traces of necropolises were also discovered containing burnt dead bodies, and in Varosh near Prilep there is a necropolis outside the settlement with graves cisti, which were fenced and paved with stone plates. From the early bronze period in Macedonia a megalithic observatory is discovered, called Kokino (near Staro Nagorichane, at the area of Kumanovo); the observatory composed of volcanic rocks, marks the places where the Sun and the Moon rise in the period of summer solstice, winter solstice and equinox. Kokino was a kind of a sanctuary used for observation of the space bodies movements in order to create a religious calendar for determination of the dates of rites; the Observatory also determined the days dedicated to seasonal work in the farming and the stockbreeding activities. A special characteristic in this period is the working of bronze, so called Macedonian bronze. Numerous artifacts discovered in the archeological localities at the village of Patele near Osogovsko Ezero (the Lake of Osogovo), Vardino at the upper reaches of the river Vardar, in Radanie, at the necropolis of Suva Reka near Gevgelija, in Pellagonia and at the region of Ohrid, such as (fibulas, necklaces, pendants, bracelets, bronze made small bowl-shaped dishes with a handle) Typical characteristic in this period are also the trade relationships established with the Mycenaean World and with the south in general, in the direct line of Thessaly Haliacmon (Bistrica) Pellagonia Polog Ibar, or on the road-line Pletvar Vardar; the artifact of this period is the Mycenaean sword in Tetovo. At the southeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, there is continuity of an important ethnical population Bryges. The older authors hold an opinion that the Bryges were the8

oldest people in the World. According the archeological, onomastic, linguistic and historical researches, the Bryges migrated and settled in Asia Minor under the name Phrygi - Phrygians (the first migration waves dated from the period of 1500/1400 BC to 800/700 BC); smaller ethnical groups that left on the territory of Macedonia in the Antique Period assimilated with the antique Macedonian, Paeonians, Pellagones Dassaretae, Edones, Mygdones and other ethnics. The Indo-European way of burying under a burial mound and in general the material culture (characteristic dishes such as two-handle bowls) prove the presence of the Brygess population in the region of Ohrid, in Pellagonia, in the east of the lower reaches of the river Vardar, then in the northwestern area or present time Greece, in Epirus, and in the central, southeastern and southern Albania. However the inter-disciplinary researches demonstrated that there was general connection of the cultures from the Karpates to the Adriatic Sea and to Pellagonia; this wide geographical area includes also the areas of the central Balkans, along the valley of the river Morava (Pomoravje) and along the valley of the river Vardar (Povardarje). The archeological research of the periods from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age discovered necropolises on the territory that had been settled by the Paiones, which as an old population represents a link between the geographical complex of the Balkan and the low reaches of the river Danube with the Lower Macedonia. In the region of Skopje (the village of Dolno Sonje) and in the locality Bolnica - Prilep graves- cisti of skeleton burying type were discovered, with skeletons in the curved or S position, the grave findings of ceramic dishes and the stone made hilts ball of a bronze made sword. This ethnical community settled the southern part of the central Balkans: Homer speaks of Paiones from the wide Axios (Vardar) and according to Herodotus, these tribes settled the area around Mount Pangeum, the river Strymon, and Prasiadious Lake; while Thucydides located them in the area in the west of Pella up to the sea. In the XII century BC other waves of disturbances and migrations reached the Balkan Peninsula (so-called Aegean migration) that brought along new cultural elements and marked the beginning of the Iron Age. For this period is characteristic the influence that was made by the cultures of the Mediterranean, as well as by the culture that derives from the Carpathians and the area along the valley of the river Danube where previously before the end of the IX century BC started the disintegration of the culture of the ember fields. As a proof for the arrival of the nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes from the Russian steppes that were moving to9

wards the Balkans in waves, were the artifacts of ceramics with pressed ornaments and with incrustation; these artifacts can be connected with the findings of Pont, as well as with the formation of the style basarabi that covers the area from the Black Sea to Voivodina, with a huge influence in the west and in Macedonia. It is particularly interesting the appearance of the horse equipment and new types of arms such as axes, lances, arrows, labrises (a new-shaped iron made sword, shields). In the necropolis at Trebenishte (near Ohrid) numerous findings were revealed (from the VII century BC to the end if the IV century BC). On the basis of the golden material proof from these graves (golden funeral masks, golden sandals, bracelets, golden and silver jewelry, massive bronze crateres, silver cups and ritoni, bronze made helmets and other cult objects) they are called princely graves because they obviously belonged to the passed away from the noble aristocracy; such artifacts are also found in the necropolis Syndos, near Thessalonica and in area of Halkidiki and along the low reaches of the river Vardar. This period ends at the VIII century BC when separate ethical communities with specific historical and cultural heritage had been formed. The intensive use of iron as a base material for production of weapons and tools has influenced the material culture which by its side draw changes within the social structure; namely, the social and economical situation was changed, and the fact that a part of the population gained wealth was the reason for its the class stratification. During the late Iron Age the first clan structured and tribal communities were created in which the concentrated economical and political power of the noble aristocracy contributed to the creation of the ruling class as well as the states and social systems. Actually his was the period when the hereditary monarchies were created and the dynasties of the Antique Macedonia.

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MACEDONIA IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

1. Historical and geographic borders of the Ancient Macedonia (the oldest historical records about Macedonia) The first records regarding the Macedonian history is in Homers epic poem Iliad in which Homer wrote about ...Paeonians from wide Axios and he mentions the oldest toponyms Pieria and Emathia. The name Emathia was overridden by the name Macedonia whose older name used to be Maketa and Makedon as Hesiod, in his Teogonia, he mentioned it where he determined Makedon as the son of Zeus and Thia. The etymology of the name Macedonia, most probably derives from the substratum of extinct Balkan languages of Indo-European origin. Considering the geographical characteristics, the Ancient Macedonia spread over the territory of the northeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula; the ancient authors describe it as a mountainous country with lots of rivers, fertile plains, forests, lakes and minerals. Almost all Macedonian rivers (Vardar, Struma and others) flow into the Aegean Sea. Along the valleys there are numerous lakes: Bolbe (Lake Volve), Lake Ludias, Lake Kastoria, Little Lake and Big Lake Prespa and Lake of Lychnidos. The fertile plains enabled the development of farming, cultivation of fruit and vegetables and viticulture (grape growing); among the most cultivated cultures were figs, grapes and olives. The forest resources made Macedonia one of the largest exporters in the Mediterranean of the highest quality wood and resin for the production of ships. Mineral wealth instead made its contribution to the economical growth of the country; there were gold and silver mines on the east of Axios, near Strymn (Struma River) on the Mountain Pangaion, at Lake Prasiadious and near Daton. All these enabled Macedonia to gain economical independence. The Olympus Mountain, river Peneios and the coastline of the Aegean Sea marked the geographical, ethnical and linguistic border between the Macedonian and southern Hellenic territory (on the south);11

southwestern borderline spread up to the Pindus Mountains the junction of Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly borders; the western border continued along the Shar-Mountains massif (Jablanica, Mount Korab, Deshat) up to the mountain Skard (Shar Mountain) the junction of borders among Macedonia, Ilyria and Dardania; the northern borders went down along the slopes of the Mountain Jakupica and passed in the middle of the current cities Skopje and Veles and following the course of River Pinja reached the Osogovo Mountains continuing up to the Rila Mountains; on the east the border followed the line from the Pirin Mountain up to the river Nest estuary (current river Mesta) in the Aegean Sea. The core of the Macedonian state, according to Herodotus, was the so called the area of Lydia (between the rivers of Lydia and Axios). The coastal (seaside) Macedonia was called Lower Macedonia by the ancient authors while inner mountainous part Upper Macedonia. Lower Macedonia covered the central part of the Macedonia and spread over the area between the rivers Haliakmon (Bistrica) and Axios (Vardar), as well as along the lower courses of the rivers Strymn and Nest. The Macedonian rulers joined these two regions into one Macedonian state. This partition represents the geographical and ethnical as well as historical content of the territory of Ancient Macedonia but at the same time it shows the political borderline of the ancient Macedonian state. The ancient authors, historiographers, geographers, logographers, biographers, through centuries were pointing out these geographical and topographical as well as historical and ethical determinations, which became a part of the Ancient state of Macedonia.

2. The ethnogenesis of the Ancient Macedonians The Ancient Macedonians are paleo-Balkan population of IndoEuropean origin. They formed as a separate ethnos in the VIII century BC, from the populations that even in the III millennium settled the area of the central Balkans. At the end of the III and at the beginning of the II millennium BC, in the period of the greatest movements and migrations to Euro-Asia, started the Europeanization process of the populations in the Balkans. The region of the central Balkans, or more precisely, its southwestern part was populated by the oldest ethnical community, the Bryges (the Bryges settled the territory from the Pangaeum Mountain on the east of the river Axios to the central, southeastern and southern part of the current Albanian territory, Epirus, Ohrid region and Pellagonia). The12

ancient authors believed that Bryges were the oldest people in the world (Herodotus) and the inventors of great number of skills (metal elaboration, mint coins, the invention of the wheel, the use of grain, sirinks Marsyas music). The archeological, historical, onomastic and linguistic research demonstrates the ethnographical and linguistic connection of the Bryges with the ancient Macedonians. The ethnogenesis of the Macedonians is made of several ethnical groups that were lining the territory of Ancient Macedonia. From the VIII century BC the unification process of the Macedonian tribes started in a sole country of the Ancient Macedonians under the rule of the Macedonian Emperors of the Argeadas dynasty. The state started expanding its territory. From the initial territory among the rivers Axios (Vardar), Lydia (Moglenica) and Haliacmon (Bistrica) it reached its largest territory in the period of Philip II (359-336) while during the rule of Alexander III of Macedonia (336-323) it reached its worlds dimensions not only in terms of its military and economical power but also in terms of the historical significance of its civilization. The ancient records testify the peculiarity and specificity of the Ancient Macedonians over the other neighboring ethnic groups Hellenes, Thracians, Illyrians, Mysians; the peculiarity and specificity of the Ancient Macedonians over the Hellenes is the best noticed in the state constitution (the ancient political analysts wrote about the Macedonian Basilea that the Macedonian cannot live without) a Monarchy with hereditary ruler and with state institutions that rule according the Macedonians legislative; then specific Macedonian customs, ceremonies (wedding ceremonies), celebrations of the Macedonian deities are noticed (bacchi, Klodones, Mimalones, maenads), myths about the Macedonian Royal dynasty (Karan, Temen, Makedon, Mida), Macedonian cults (the cult of the water Bedi, cult of the Sun, cult of the dog), the cults of the Macedonian deities (Bacchae, Sabasius, Zeirene, Heracles, Orpheus, the Muses) and a separate Macedonian language is also registered.

3. The language of the Ancient Macedonians

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Although there are many proofs in the ancient authors works about the distinctive Macedonian language around 150 Macedonian glosses are officially published until this point which confirms that the Macedonian language is an Indo-European language and it is related to the language of the Bryges. For instance, Plutarch testifies about the existence of the self-owned language of the Macedonians: Alexander in his own language addressed his shield-bearers; or the soldiers saluted the military commander (general) Eumenes in their own language. The use of the Macedonian language is also proved in a record on Egypt papyrus, which is related to the delegate Xenias who spoke Macedonian. For the differences between the Macedonian and the Old Greek language and for the different customs testify also the part of the history of Quintus Curtius Rufus in which Alexander blamably addressed to the general Philotas and asked him if he would use the Macedonian language in front of the soldiers. Philotas found excuses and answered that besides the Macedonians, there were many present who, he thought, would find what he was going to say easier to understand if he used the language Alexander himself had been using, too. However, Alexander blamed Philotas of being disgusted by his own native language and alienated from the Macedonian customs and language. (Here Rufus refers to the Old Greek language Koine, comprehensive not only for the Macedonians that make use of it although it was not their mother tongue, but also for the peoples from Persia). Obviously Koine (an artificial language similar to the ancient) became the worlds literature language, which continued being used in the Literature of the Roman Republic and later in the Roman and Romaioi Empire, too. This language was being used in the Macedonian Royal Court of pragmatic reasons in order to make it easier the commercial, political and cultural communication among the people of the Old world. All Hellenic and Roman authors represent the Macedonians as a separate ethnos, different and alien over the Hellenes, with different mentality, language and customs. The most often the Macedonians are represented as barbarians and Hellenes enemy. Despite the military and political confrontations between the Macedonians and Hellenic city-states there were commercial and cultural relations that were creating entirely new era of global rating civilization achievements.

4. The religion of the Ancient Macedonians

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The ancient Macedonian cults and myths represent the spiritual culture of the Ancient Macedonians. The ancient cults and myths of the Ancient Macedonians, as part of the cultic mythology of the ancient peoples that settled the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, strongly influenced the Hellenic mysterious and religious reality. In the Greek and Latin literature records, the Macedonian deities regarding their attributes were variously interpreted; namely, the Hellenic and Roman authors interpreted the Macedonian deities through Hellenic and Latin equivalents. The reason for this was the fact that the Ancient Macedonians based their religion upon the collective memory and peoples tradition so that in order to reveal the authenticity of this spirituality it is necessary to apply the analogous method and to make comparisons with the mythological interpretations of the other Indo-European peoples from the Indo-European heritage. The holy Macedonian city Dion in Pieria was a center of the religious and cultural life in the period of Archelaus I and the Olympic Games initiated exactly there, in Dion. The Macedonians celebrated the deities of Dion, Bacchus, Sabasius, Dionysus etc; the goddesses were particularly respected such as Alkidemnos, Gigaia, Zeirene, Bendida and the woman of Paeonia and Thracian woman brought gifts to the deities of the nature wrapped in corn straw. The cult of the Sun and the Suns rosette are symbols of the Macedonian rulers.

5. The Macedonian Emperors from the Argeadas dynasty In the ancient records the name of Argeadas was used to indicate on the first Imperial Dynasty in Macedonia (Argeas is the eponymous hero of Makedon), associated with the city of Argos in Orestis. At the end of the VIII century BC the Macedonian ruler started the unification process of the Lower and Upper Macedonian tribes in a single state. The ruling Argeadas Dynasty is a paradigm of a long-centuries well-organized rule, which was led by an exclusive aim to make Macedonia a powerful state. The historical ruling period of the Macedonian Emperors from the Argeadas Dynasty started in 707 BC and lasted to 310/309 BC. The names of the Macedonian Emperors in chronological order appeared as follows: Perdiccas I, Argaeus I, Philip, Aeropus I, Alcetas, Amyntas I, Alexander I, Perdiccas II, Archelaus, Orestes, Aeropus II, Amyntas II, Pausanias, Amyntas III, Alexander II, Ptolemy Alorus, Perdiccas III, Philip II, Alexander III the Great, Philip III, Arrhidaeus, Alexander IV15

(310/309 BC). The history of the oldest Macedonian dynasty is briefly represented in the historiographies of Herodotus and Thycudides. In these records there are many legends about the establishment of the Macedonian dynasty such as the legend of the three brothers, Perdiccas, Aeropus and Gavanus and much data regarding ancient Macedonian customs and myths like the mythological representation of the Sun, the river and so on. The first Macedonian basileos, Perdiccas I (around 707-659 BC), ordered to be buried in Aiga (Aegeae), the first Macedonian capital, and not only his mortal remnants but also to those of the later emperors to be deposed there (according the Macedonian legend this was the way in which the Macedonian rule was maintained within the family). For the following rulers, Argaeus I (659-645), Philip I (644-640) and Aeropus I (639-574) there is not much information and regard only to their warfare with the Illyrians. Aeropus campaigned also with the Thracians. He reinforced the Macedonian military organization and enlarged the state. There are more detailed historical records about the Macedonian Emperor Amyntas I and his son Alexander I. This was the period when the military campaign of the Persians Army started on the Balkan (513 BC) and its movement crossing Macedonia towards Hellada. Amyntas I (540-489) at the beginning ruled over Pieria, Bottiaea and Eordaea but he expended his rule over the area besides the river Axios delta and western Mygdonia the area called Anthemus, up to the northern boundary of the state the mountain Dysoron. Amyntas I established good political and commercial relationships with Peisistrates from Athens. Macedonia was constrained to recognize the Persian rule after the end of Darius campaign against Scythians. The next ruler was Alexander I (498-454), who was called Philhellen (admirer of the Hellenes) in the Hellenic period, was the older son of Amyntas I. He ruled over Lower Macedonia, on the territory from the Olympus Mountain up to the river Strymon (Struma) and also on a part of the Upper Macedonian territory (Lyncestis, Orestis, Elimiotis). In the period during the first years of the Alexanders I rule the territory of Macedonia was under the control of the enormous Army of the Persian Emperor Xerxes that was composed of various armies of all defeated peoples in the Balkan; the Macedonian Army participated in the Greek-Persian War but on the side of the Persians. According to Herodotus, Alexander sent heralds to the Hellenic Army, situated in Tempe (480 BC), the crossing point from Lower Macedonia towards Thessaly, in order to warn the Hellenes about the danger from the enormous Persian16

Army; at the same time Alexander was sent by the Xerxes General Mardonius to Athens to persuade the Athenians to enter into alliance with Persia; prior to the Battle of Plataea, Alexander the Macedonian left the camp of the Persian Army in secrecy and went to the Athenians to inform them about the Mardonius plan. It seems that all these episodes of the Greek-Persian War were narrated by Herodotus in order to justify the friendly attitudes of the Athenians and the sympathy they had for the Macedonian Emperor, who is proclaimed proxenos and euergetes (a friend and a benefactor) of Athens, and after the Greek-Persian War his golden statue was placed in Delphi. The possession of sympathies for the Athenians was most probably down to the commercial relationships between these two countries and in particular down to the supplies of wooden material from Macedonia necessary for the Athenian navy. On the other hand, always according to Herodotus, Alexander wanted to compete on the Hellenic Olympic Games, but the Hellenes did not not allow him, because as he wrote: the competition is not for barbArrians but for Hellenes; due to this Alexander was forced to prove his Hellenic origin, and he benefited from the homonymy between the Argos in Orestis and Argos on Peloponnesian Island. It is due to mention that the victory of Alexander at the Olympic Games is not recorded on the preserved lists of the Olympic winners with the exception in literature record. After the Greek-Persian War, Alexander I with the annexation of the new territories of the Edonians, on the East up to the river Struma, he strengthened the state economically operating the gold and silver mine on the mountain Dysoron and with this began the process of minting coins of the Macedonian ruler. After the death of Alexander I the rule was divided among his sons: Perdiccas II got the Supreme Authority in Aiga, Philip ruled in Amphacsitida, it is unknown what part of the Empire belonged to Alcetas while Amyntas and Menalayes remained anonymous as rulers. Perdiccas II (454/413-414/413) kept following the main objective of the previous rulers to create a powerful Macedonian state, and in order to reach this goal he applied complex diplomatic games, tactics and strategies. Perdiccas II ruled in the period of the Peloponnesian War (Thucydides) and making use of the animosity of the biggest Hellenic city-states (polis-poleis) Athens and Sparta; the Macedonian King (Czar) instigated and roused the antagonism between Athena and Sparta and in a diplomatic way but always in accordance with the interests of his own country he was taking sides, once that of the first city-state while in17

another situation the side of the second one. In this period the relationship between Macedonia and Athens confronted upon the Northern coast of the Aegean Sea, in the basin of the river Strymon, where the Athenian colony was formed, called Amphipolis (437/436 BC). Macedonia had been twice attacked by the Athenian troops near Pydna and thanks to the Corinth Army that was opposing the Athenians during the Battle of Potidaea (432 BC) the battles at Pydna stopped. The military conflict was renewed when Perdiccas signed an agreement for military support with Sparta, while Athens together with the Thracian ruler Sitalces were preparing to attack Macedonia. The numerous army of Sitalk, entered into Amfaksitida across the valley of Strumica and Dober (Valandovo), and devastated Mygdonia, Crestonia and Anthemous. After a month period of campaigning, Sitalces didnt receive the promised support by the Athenians so that the Thracian army withdrew. Perdiccas concluded a truce or peace agreement with Sitalces and agreed on marriage between his sister Stratonika and the next heir to the Adrianople (Edrine) throne. Endangered by the Athenian attacks, Macedonia and the cities of Chalcidice required help from Sparta. The Spartan Army, headed by General Brasida, arrived in Macedonia as support, led successful battles and conquered Amphipolis. As according to Brasida, he gave support to Perdiccas army with a lot of soldiers (424/423 BC) in order to get into war against the Lyncestian ruler Arabaius, who was opposing the central Macedonian authority; however the Spartan-Macedonian Alliance was broken so that the Spartans remained on their own and continued the war against the Illyrian Army, which had been on the Arabais side. This military campaign ended with the battle of Amphipolis when the Spartan general Brasida and the Athenian general Cleon were killed. In 417/416 BC the Macedonian king was proclaimed Athenian enemy just because he did not send them military support during the battle of Amphipolis so that he entered into alliance with Sparta again. Athenian sent their troops to the Macedonian coast near Methone in order to ravage the country. But after these events, the historian Thucydides noticed that Perdiccas again was campaigning together with the Athenians at Amphipolis (414 BC). However in this historical period, filled with military conflicts and strong political influences of the powerful city-states Athens and Sparta, Perdiccas managed to strengthen the Macedonian state and took initiatives for cultural growth of Macedonia establishing permanent cultural contacts with the Hellenes. Many educated Hellenes were often present in18

the court of the Macedonian ruler (for example, the famous doctor Hiperitus and the poetry writer Melanipidus). The idea about creation of politically, military and culturally superior Macedonia was also followed by the next King Archelaus I (413399), the son of Perdiccas II. In this period the constellation of the military and political events in the Hellenic world created a new relationship between Athens and Macedonia; during the Peloponnesian War the Athenian military and economical power was destroyed and Macedonia gained remarkable benefits with the exportation of wooden material supplying the Athenian navy. The mutual interests caused the establishment of better commercial and friendly relationships between Archelaus and Athens; Archelaus obtained the title proxenos; nonetheless according Thrasymachus, Archelaus was barbarrian over the Hellenes and that was the reason why he couldnt become member of the Peloponnesian alliance. The new political relations enabled the Macedonian Monarch to reinforce and enlarge the state through implementation of military and monetary reforms. Archelaus at the same time imposed its own military and political rule over Upper Macedonian areas particularly the areas ruled by Arabius (Lyncestis) and Syrra. According Thucydides, Archelaus was building fortresses, roads, was organizing everything that was necessary for campaigning: horses, weapons and other equipment, better then all other monarchs that had been previously ruling. Most probably of geo-strategic and economical reasons, Archelaus transferred the capital from Aiga to Pella that in the period of Philip II developed and became the real Monarchical capital. The central position of the new political and administrative Monarchical center Pella enabled total control of the country: on the west up to the Pindus Mountain, to the east to the river Strymon, in the north the road along the valley of Axios, in the south the sea with the port at the Lake Ludias Phakos. Archelaus strengthened his country through implementation of monetary reforms, i.e. applying Lydian-Persian monetary system; there were many new coins from his time that were being used for a long period and on a vast territory. Archelaus I established the Macedonian Olympic Games (gymnastic, musical and theatrical competitions in honor of DIOS and the Muses) in the holy city Dion. The Macedonian Czar (King) became patron of the art, and Pella became the cultural center of the Balkans, the city-host of the outstanding persons: historian Thucydides, the tragedian Agathon, the epic poetry writer Choirilos from Samos, the musician Ti19

moteus from Milet, the icon-painter Zeuksis that painted the Castle of Pella and founded the Macedonian painting school; the tragedian Euripides the last years of his life spent on the Macedonian court where he wrote the drama Archelaus (dedicated to the ruler) and the tragedies the Bacchae and Iphigeneia at Aulis. Euripides passed away in Macedonia (408 BC) and was buried in the Aretusa. The Macedonian poetry writer, Adaius wrote the epitaph. There is evidence that Athens required the Euripides mortal remnants but the Macedonian peoples Assembly rejected this request. At the end of his life Archelaus led campaigns with Lyncestian ruler Arabius and with Sira for gaining dominance in Macedonia. The Macedonian ruler was killed while hunting.

6. The battles for the Macedonian throne In the period from the assassination of Archelaus to the Philips II rule in Macedonia various struggles among the dynasties were conducted that weakened the power of the Macedonian state. The first three years were under the rule of Aeropus II (around 396-393) as a regent of the underage Orestes, the son of Perdiccas II. In this relatively peaceful period for Macedonia Aeropus set up internal stability supported by the Macedonian noblemen. After his death, his son Pausanias came on the throne. According the coin minting from 394/393 BC, Pausanias was ruling for a certain period together with Amyntas II, so called the Little and a year after that Amyntas III, the son of Aridaius, came on the throne. Amyntas III (393/392 370/369) married to Eyridice (the daughter of Sira, the nobleman from Pellagonia), and he got three children with her, who would be the next coming Macedonian monarchs: Alexander II, Perdiccas III and Philip II. In this period the western border of Macedonia was under pressure from the attacks of Illyrian tribes, which headed by Bardilis, entered and raided the areas of the Upper Macedonia. The Macedonian rulers had permanent contacts with the Thessalian aristocrats and at the same time they were helping them because they wanted to expand their own territory. So in a period, Amyntas managed to set up his own protectorate over a great part of northern Thessaly and when the tyrant Jason from Phera conquered Thessaly, Amyntas concluded a political agreement with him.20

In this period Amyntas set up a military and economical alliance with the Chalcidice Alliance for 50 years but the agreement soon was broken because the Chalcidice Alliance not only did not assist Macedonia when it had been attacked by the Illyrians but it also broke through into Pella. Amyntas required help from the Spartan hoplites, which attacked on Olynthushus (382 BC), because this, the most powerful city of Chalcidice entered into alliance with Thebes and Athens and it was a danger not only for Macedonia but also for Sparta. The Spartans together with the cavalry of Amyntas and Dedra from Elimea were campaigning until 379 BC when Olynthushus surrendered; according to Isocrates, the Spartans were not taking care for the pan-Hellenic interests but were conducting wars and losing their lives (the Spartan basileos and his brother were killed) for the benefits of the Macedonian rulers. With the re-establishment of the Athenian Maritime Alliance, Macedonia became the main supplier of wooden material, and that was the reason for the new alliance between Athens and Macedonia above all with a purpose to conclude a trade (commercial) agreement. The Macedonian ruler participated at the general assembly, which was convoked in Sparta (371 BC) where he recognized the right of Athens to rule in Amphipolis. After the Amyntas III death, the Macedonian throne was inherited by the 20 years old Alexander II, the oldest of the three sons of Amyntas and Eyridice. Alexander continued the wars with Thessaly and conquered the cities Larissa and Chaeronea. The political turning point happened when Thebes, headed by Pellopida pushed out the Macedonian troops from Thessaly. After the death of Alexander II, Ptolemy Alorus, who probably was supported by Eyridice, conquered the Macedonian throne. As a guarantee for the military alliance, Thebes captured around 30 hostages from Macedonia and among them was Philip II, the youngest son of Amyntas III. The next coming great king Philip II of Macedon had stayed in Thebes for 3 years where he received Hellenic education and was drilled in military skills and strategies. Ptolemy Alorus, as a guardian of Perdiccas and Philip, was ruling until 365 BC when Perdiccas III came to the throne and liberated Philip who had been a hostage. The new ruler set up good relations with Thebes therefore he was proclaimed proxenos and evergetes (friend and benefactor). Perdiccas was in a good relationship with Athens and he was also participating in some military actions on the side of the Athenians aiming to re-conquest the cities of Amphipolis, Potidaea, and other cities of Chalcidice. With the changes of the political circumstances, Perdiccas III turned against Athens and in 359 BC he conquered Amphipolis. At the21

same time the Illyrians, headed by the old general Bardilius, attacked Orestis and Perdiccas got killed in the battle with 4,000 Macedonian soldiers (359 BC). In this period of crisis for the Macedonian state, the Macedonian Assembly acclaimed Philip II, who was the youngest son of Amyntas III, a new Macedonian king.

7. The growth of the Macedonian State the King Philip II of Macedonia The crucial point in the development of the Macedonian state was overtaking the rule of Philip II (359-336). Philip II came on the throne at the age of 23, but his youth did not mean inexperience and ignorance in ruling the country. On the contrary, Philip who was the son of Amyntas III, as a hostage in Thebes obtained excellent personal education in the field of military organization and strategies, acquired superb military skills and studied the Pitagorian philosophy. Because of this in the ancient history Philip II is known as the biggest ruler in Europe (Diodorus). Isocrates (in his act Philip) expressed admiration for the fact that Philip gained such a power as no one else in Europe Philips actions are heroic, because other people too were conquering cities but no one has conquered so many people. Isocrates used Philips education as an argument for bringing closer the Macedonian ruler to the Hellenes, which were known xenophobes; so Isocrates explained to the Athenian intellectuals that Philip, although he was a ruler of alien people, he had Hellenic education and could have been conciliated because he was familiar to them not by gender but by spirituality. As a great ruler, Philip II took immense construction activities such as new cities, sanctuaries and temples. Strabo wrote that Pella, up to the period of the Philips rule was small but thanks to Philip it enlarged and reached the dimensions that were larger than Athens; the length of its walls were around 6.5 km; the Acropolis was located on the island called Phacos, on Lake Ludias, where Philip II placed his treasure. The lake was transformed into a large harbor connected with Axios through artificial channel where the sailing was controlled by gates through Ludias and without flow of the water (lake). This was the first major harbor on the river estuary in Europe; it was possible to enter into the Thermaic Gulf at any time and the entrance gate could have been closed in case of danger22

(this port is a model for the other Alexanders ports in the east, on the river Nile, Euphrates and Indus). 7.1. The state of Philip II a paradigm of social and political system of Ancient Macedonia Philip II inherited a state, which was set up as a hereditary monarchy (basileia); according to Isocrates, the Macedonians could not imagine their life without the dynasty, because they have dynasty from times immemorial. This monarchy type was characteristic for the initial period of the state and it provided rule, as Arrian wrote, without use of force, but in accordance with the laws; the Macedonian Assembly, on the base of the primogeniture principle, was in charge of appointing the basileos. It means that the besides the authority of the Monarch there are other institutions (Assembly, The Council of tagosi, hetairoi...) of appropriate and judicial authority. Alexander III established a modified version of the old social system absolutistic monarchy, characteristic for the period of the Diadochis (the Successors) the will of the Monarch was the highest authority (law). During the period of the Second Macedonian Antigoneads Dynasty, the old system was brought back the traditional monarchy. Actually the Macedonians were not subordinates but citizens of the state. In the ancient records and in the official documents (military alliances, concluded between the Macedonians and the Hellenic city-states) these citizens are recorded as Macedonians and the name of the state as the Macedonian Community. The Macedonian basileos was a supreme commander, a high priest and a judge. The ruler was leading the Army and always fought in the first front lines; as a signalization during the battles white, purple and red flags were used. Alexander III, as a sign in the battles used a red flag suspended at the top of the sarissa. The rulers insignias were equal for all Macedonian rulers. Such signs were as follows: white strip (band), kausia, diadem, purple cloth, scepter, and seal. The white strip was worn on the head it had two-ends tied at the back of the neck (as in the image of Alexander I Philhellenes on the octodrachm and of Philip II on the tetradrachm). The strip used to be tied around the Macedonian hat called kausia which played the role of a crown. The Macedonian rulers wore a metal diadem (according the material evidence from Vergina and Beroea). The most popular is the golden diadem, which is supposed to be of that which belonged to Philip II, but the former kings embellished with diadems (on the coins in the im23

age of Alexander I and Philip II). Constantine VII Porphirogenitus noticed that the Macedonian rulers were crowned with a lion skin as a decoration (the coin in the image of Alexander of Macedon). It is also believed that the purple clothing and the weapon of the Macedonians from the period of the last Macedonian besileoss rule, that of Perseus, had been brought as a spoils of war in Rome. The Macedonian ruler was to close documents using the seal - ring (according Diodorus and Plutarch, the 16 years old Alexander was a guardian of the Monarchs seal, while his father was laying siege to Byzantium; according Arrian, Alexander sent grain for the Narhus Army and it was sealed off with the ring; Diodorus, Justin and C. Rufus wrote that Alexander handed over his ring to Perdiccas). The Macedonian rulers were also wearing the solemn weapon that was put into the royal tombs mogila-s (evidence was found of this in the mogila in Vergina). The basileos high priest, before every political step or before the start of the various celebrations during the religious festive days were making sacrifices by the name of the people prostasia, and while he was visiting some cities he used to be welcomed with guala (a kind of glass) in order to make a sacrifice (offer) so-called, libation. The hunting of wide animals, especially lions (the lion symbol, present on the coins and frescoes) had religious- supernatural (miraculous) significance. The Macedonian monarch was also a Supreme Judge and was in charge of conducting the trials in front of the Macedonian Assembly in a role of public prosecutor while the Assembly was in charge of capital punishment. The Macedonian Assembly, which mostly was represented by Macedonians under weapon, used to have plenty of state administrative competences among which the most significant that of acclaiming the new ruler. In order to strengthen the state Philip implemented military reforms of great social and political impact. Namely, he created the wellknown Macedonian phalanx and equipped it with weapons (for battles). The main purpose of the military reforms was to create a professional army, through building high level of consciousness regarding their internal relations, mutual respect, friendship and above all regarding the necessity of unconditional obedience. The historians (Pompeius Throgus, Polibius, C. Rufus) noticed that such a military system was not a characteristic for any of the countries of that historical period. The core of the Macedonian phalanx was an infantry formation. The phalanx differed from the Hellenic battle row by the depth of their formations and the kind of weapon called sarissa, long pikes (spears) that were carried over several rows24

within the formation. The phalanx troops were among the first troops ever to be drilled, thereby allowing them to execute complex maneuvers well beyond the reach of most other armies. It was very difficult to breakthrough the phalanx just because they fought packed in a close and tight rectangular formation a forest of dense pikes. The Macedonian Army organized in this way and fighting as a compact unit was breaking through the enemys battle ranks like a nail. There was also the noble cavalry (in the ancient times the horse was a symbol of nobility, wealth, and power) within the Army of the Macedonians. It was equipped with helmets, panzers, and armed with swords and pikes. The attack squadrons were led by the elite infantrymen, personal kings bodyguards (agema) or the famous hetairoi - kings entourage (friends). This entourage of the basileos was composed of people from noble origin and they were mainly kings counselors, deputies, negotiators and commanders. Between the cavalry and the phalanx were located the hypaspists, that were easier moving than the phalanx and the hoplites. They were drilled for quick campaigns and attacks. Philips state was particularly strengthened when some monarchies and tribes were included such as: Elimiotis, Orestis and Lyncestis. The evidence for the inclusion of these tribes within the state was seen by giving the military units the same name as the tribe such as: Lyncestians, Orestians, Elimiotes, Tymphaeans, Eordaens. On purpose and persistently Philip kept intensifying the military power and with this the political power of the Macedonian state by the use of his army always prompt for battles and the king-commander among the battle-men who was encouraging and stimulating the warriors giving promises and awards. With the end of the first phase of Philips ambitious plan was gained the inner state stability providing secure borders and economical independence to Macedonia. Basically it was done with the conquest of the maritime route, working the gold and silver mine at the area of Pangaion and minting silver and gold coins (Philippics, stater). 7.2. Military and political achievements of Philip II Before he starts his historical campaign against Hellada, Philip II had been in war with the Illyrians and Thracians in order to conquer the territories in the west and east of his state. The first success Philip marked25

in 358 BC against the Illyrian ruler Bardylis, conquering the territory up to the Lake of Lychnidos. The next step was the conquering of the Hellenic colonies on the Macedonian - Thracian coastline; the most important campaign was the conquering of the biggest strategic city - Amphipolis. Diodorus narrates about the fieriness of the siege carried out with constant attack on the city ramparts with heavy war machinery. After he had conquered the city (357 BC) pushed out all forces that were enemy oriented towards Macedonia but it was remarkable his generous attitude towards the others. Expelling his political adherents, the Hellenic colonists, Philip managed to conciliate the autochthonous population that was hostile toward the Athenians. From this event that made the Athenians feel betrayed until 346 BC when Athens was in war with Philip II. During the period of 356/355 BC Philip broke the opponents military alliance concluded among the Thracian ruler Ketripor, Illyrian ruler Grab and Paeonian ruler Lypeus. The same year, while Philip was conquering Potidaea, according Plutarch, he got three pieces of good news: the Illyrians were broken by his General Parmenius, his horse won the Olympic Games and his wife Olympias born the following Monarch Alexander of Macedon (Philip married the princess Olympias, the daughter of the Epirian ruler Neoptolem, in 357 BC). The subsequent successes at the battlefields were happening during the 353 BC when Philip conquered the cities of Abdera and Maroneia, which were in alliance with the Athenians, and was preparing an attack on Hersonnes in Thrace. According to Strabo, after these conquests the eastern borders of Macedonia with Thrace was demarcated along the river Mesta. In this golden area on Mt. Pangaion he established the city of Crenides later renamed in Philippi, that he populated it by many Macedonian migrants; golden mines were bringing him profit of several thousands so-called talant-s that he started using them for minting golden coins, called philipics, well-known in whole Mediterranean, Egypt, central Europe and Southern Russia. In this context, the conquest of the Macedonian Pierian coastline was extremely important to Philip. This way Macedonia got its way out to the sea. The Athenian colony Pydna was conquered (357/356 BC). After he had conquered Methone in 353 BC (in this battle Philip lost his right eye) Philip started giving land to the Macedonians that were settling this area. This way Philip, (according to the historical records) made Macedonians masters, while the Illyrians and other faraway peoples were26

forced to pay taxes to Macedonians. He occupied the Triballi, put Thrace under control and rule over many Greek tribes. The first war victories made Philip so powerful that there was no force that could have stopped his further conquering campaigns on Hellada. After his conquests in Thrace, on Chalcidice and in the Thermaic Gulf the Macedonian ruler went on south to Thessaly where he broke through the Hellenic world. 7.3. The breakthrough on the territory of the Hellenic tribes In order to accomplish his political and military program Philip benefited from the disagreements among the Hellenic city-states of the Amphictyonic Alliance and from the political games and intrigues among these citystates that was a regular form of acting typical for the poleis states. The Macedonian monarch got involved into the so called Holy War for the territories around the sanctuary Delphi. The Thebans and Thessalians, having been afraid of the possibility that some of their people could get predominance on the territory of the Hellenic city-states (poleis) called Philip to help them (as peacemaker). During 352 BC Philip with the Macedonian Army broke through in Thessaly joined the Thessalian Army and moved towards Pagasae. After the defeat over the tyrant Onomarchus of Phocis near Crocus Field and helped by Athens and Spartan Philip was proclaimed as life-lasting leader of the Thessalian Alliance and he received the highest title of honor arhon supreme commander of the renewed Thessalian Alliance. In many fortifications among which Magnesia, Philip placed Macedonian troops and Thessalians in a sign of gratitude gave up the profits from the ports and markets leaving to him as a compensation for the military costs and they put themselves under obligation to support him with armed forces. This was the way in which Philip managed to acquire exits to the sea in three places: Amphipolis, Methone (Thermaic Gulf) and Pagasae and with this he inflicted a strong strike to the Athenian maritime forces, which untll then had been unlimited ruler over the Aegean Sea. 7.4. Political speeches of Demosthenes, Isocrates and Aeschines historical testimony about the antagonism between Macedonia and the Hellenic city-states Authentic and reliable historical fact about the rule of Philip II can be found in the political speeches and in other rhetorical acts of some Athenian politicians orators, contemporaries of the Macedonian Mo27

narch and participants in all political and military activities undertaken by the Macedonian Philip II. The expansionistic policy of Philip II directly endangered Athens, which could not accept the fact to lose the conquered territories. As far as Philip was enlarging his territories so far fierce political speeches were held in Athens, which were used for preparing the Athenian citizens for the war against Philip. Philips conquests were a reason for Demosthenes to write his speeches against Philip Philippics and Olynthushics, regarding his invasions of Olynthushus and of the other rich cities on the Peninsula of Chalcidice. With skillful diplomatic games Philip benefited from the incapacity of the Athenians and conquered Olynthushus, he raided it and razed it to the ground while the citizens were being sold as slaves (349 BC). Nevertheless some other cities of Chalcidice surrendered Philip and acted fiercely towards them too. Among these cities was Stagira, the birthplace of Aristotle, which due to the respect toward the great philosopher was restored in accordance with the new regulations. Conquering the central Balkan territory Philips state got its way out to the sea, and occupied a great deal of the arable land, and also was in possession of rich forests and pasturages, powerful rivers, mine wealth and developed city centers; This was the reason for fast development of the economy and trade; Macedonia built up its own navy, which enabled its breaking through via maritime lines; Philips state achieved all conditions to become a world force; an ambition for implementation of a conquering polity was born and Athenians did not like it at all because they shared the same hegemonic aspirations. The military act of Philip, which enabled him to impose his rule over a territory of 1000 km, from the Thermopylae to Propontis, really frightened the Athenians and they seriously started thinking how to oppose the Macedonian basileos. All theses event transformed the Athenian Assembly into an arena on which the orators were conducting fierce battles proving their political standpoints. The most influential political person and the most influential political orator was Demosthenes with his speeches against Philip; moreover Philips power was increasing on the battlefields and the power of Demosthenes was increasing as a politician but all this paradoxically was against the Athenians and Demosthenes himself. Philip was implementing his state administrative function while Demosthenes encountered political and personal defeat; at the same time this defeat was shared with Athens; however regardless of the outcome (lucky for Philip and unlucky for Demosthenes) both of them gained everlasting, immortal fame; in the history their names are connected in dialectical unity of contradictions!28

7.5. Ancient world of the Hellenic city-states divided between philipomyses and philipophyls The outstanding Athenian political analyst Isocrates willing to help Athens and the Hellenic community, which was politically disturbed, conspired for the idea of pan Hellenism; according to this idea the Hellenic city-states should have united under sole objective - to be spared from the internal crisis but also from the danger of the internal enemy. This inspired Isocrates to think about establishing an autocratic authority, whose will and power would have imposed over the disagreed Hellenic citystates and would have united them into pan-basilea. In order to accomplish this idea Isocrates chose the Macedonian ruler Philip, who appeared on the political scene as the biggest monarch-basileos, powerful, ambitious, self-confident but at the same time ruler of the state that Hellenes used to have friendly relationships with. Isocrates revealed the hegemonic characteristics of Philips personality able to start up the great idea for pan-basilea; the old orator played the role of an advice-giver of the Macedonian basileos, because on the one hand he was afraid of his tyrannical nature and of that how much hostillity he would have towards the Hellenes but on the other hand he was not sure to what extent the Hellenes would accept this idea. The other political program, of Demosthenes, focused on the defense of the democracy and democratic city-states from the oligarchic and tyrannical system. The orator believed that it was a suitable moment for Athens to demonstrate itself as a rescuer of all Hellenes from the danger that was coming from the menaces of the oligarchs and barbarrians that endangered the freedom of the city-states pointing out Philip, or as he was called, the Macedonian plague, which was destroying everything that was Hellenic. In his Philippics Demosthenes with regrets was pointing out to the Athenians the immense loss by the suffered defeat of Pydna, Potidaea, Methone, Thermopylae, Hersonnes, Olynthus and of many other cities that in that period of time joined the rule of Philip and that once upon a time used to be Athenian colonies. Namely, Demosthenes believed that the Athenians with their idleness and negligence were barely responsible themselves for the terrible political situation in Athens and that it was high time they had started preparing financial and strategic warfare plan against Philips state. On the other hand Demosthenes thought that Athens was not in a situation to organize an Army that would be capable to resist Philips army which was strong and well drilled; so, Demosthenes sug29

gested the guerrilla warfare type against Philip, the warfare tactics to be apposite to Philips strategy, to be stopped Philips robberies of a countless amount of money, to stop the enslaving of their citizens...It is fundamental, emphasized Demosthenes for Athens to understand that that man (Philip) is a foe for the Hellenes that deprives them of their own belongings and that he was rampaging for a long time. At the middle of the IV century BC the opportunistic political program of the Athenian statesman Eubulus and his supporters had the greatest sustain in Athens; the accent of his program was put on achieving a peace agreement with Philip, that was supposed to be much more beneficial than the war itself. Athens started its dual policy, by one side insisting on achieving a fictive peace agreement with Philip and by the other side establishing peace and collaboration with the Hellenic city-states in the struggle against Philip. The peace negotiation started in Athens where on the one hand arrived the delegates of the Hellenes and on the other hand Philips delegates. Simultaneously Isocrates started advocating Philip and he sent a message to the Macedonian ruler in which he addressed him as a benefactor who should have united the Hellenes; at the same time he celebrated him as a glorious general that could have initiated the war against the Persian monarch. Considering the danger that Philip could break through Hellada across Thermopiles and above all as alliance forces of Thebes, Athenians were in a hurry to achieve the peace agreement with Philip. Among the delegates were the politicians Philocrates, Demosthenes, Aeschines and the actor Aristodemos. The political determination of Athens was to accept the peace agreement and the alliance as a temporary solution in order to eliminate the momentary risk of Philip, although the conditions proposed by him were inconvenient. Namely, the oligarchs and a part of the educated sophists were expecting economic welfare from these agreements; Demosthenes concluded that Philip had friends in many Hellenic cities; some of them were official delegates chosen by Philip or appointed by the Macedonian Assembly; but there were also intellectuals who (like Isocrates) were advocating Philip on the base of ideological reasons and who were named betrayers by the Anti-Macedonian party. This was the moment when Philip became the main political individual on the Balkan. The focus of the political happening was moved from Athens to Pella. In the Macedonian capital were arriving the delegates from all over Hellada hoping that Philip would help and assist them. The Macedonian ruler benefited from his position and prepared a strategy (later well-known as imperialistic tactics divide et impera); in30

itially as a winner from the Holy War Philip imposed himself over the Hellenic city-states and gain their immense support in as far as the decision of the Amphictyonic League (an alliance that was organized about the sanctuary in Delphi) were concerned. In the Delphian lists of temple builders, the Macedonians are Philips delegates that took care of the constructions and the maintenance of the temple. Instead of Athens, Philip achieved the priority while addressing at the sanctuary in Delphi. After all these events, the Athenians were in a dreadful panic: they were evacuating its population, hiding their property and the refugees from Boeotia and Fokida were being accepted in the city. Philip sent an ultimatum to Athens in which in a rude and straight way imposed them over the conditions for peace: the Athenians would have been attacked if they had rejected to join him and he also added that he would not have felt any regret if they had decided to break up the agreement. From 346 BC Athens was separated by Philips supporters, on the one side: philipists, plutocrats, panhellenists, and peace protagonists and on the other side the Demosthenes policy supporters: radicals, militant democrats i.e. patriots. Demosthenes though that Philips supporter were betrayers who were corrupted by Philip, as in a case of Philocrates. Demosthenes claimed that Philocrates received silver, gold and immensity of wood material while Aeschines instead received real estate property. 7.6. Macedonia dominant historical factor of the Ancient world While the Athenians were constantly dealing with the political processes and while numerous judicial cases were being heard, Philip was taking care about the strengthening of the western and northern boundary and of the Macedonian state; there is an evidence about a campaign of 344 BC against the Illyrians in which the Macedonian ruler conquered many new places up to the Adriatic Sea; he campaigned against Dardanians too that were often attacking Macedonia; after he had strengthened his navy he was also active at the seaside and colonized new areas where Macedonians, Hellenes and Thracian settled in. In the following period a total turnabout happened on the political scene: Persia became involved in the political games and happenings. Considering the discord and the disintegration of the Hellenic city-states and adding the fact that there was constant consternation (fear) from the Macedonian ruler Persia was also insisting on quickly getting into an alliance with the city-states against Philip. Aiming to this, the great monarch Artexerxes Ochos sent representatives into Hellenic city-states,31

Thebes and Argos, in order to mobilize professional warriors and offered to Athens to reactivate their common fight against Philip. The Persian Monarch offered and promised an enormous financial support just to start the war against the Macedonian. The Athenians rejected again the concluded agreements with Philip, and postured negatively towards the Philipists, punished to death Philocrates, accusing him of betrayal and corruption. Demosthenes benefited from this situation for the attack on Aeschines considering him as betrayer and accused him for the intrigues and false reports that he had made due to the fact that he had been working in favor of Philip. When the peace agreement between Athenians and Philip was broken the Macedonian monarch started acting in an open hostile manner and initiated the campaign in 342/341 BC in order to conquer the whole eastern part of Thrice, up to the Black Sea; with a solid Army through several attempts he managed to defeat Thrice, imposing taxes over it, as well as an obligation to send soldiers for the needs of Macedonia; Thrice was put under control of the Macedonian strategist, and the Hellenic citystates which were liberated from the Thracian threat voluntarily entered into alliance with Philip. Philip established colonies on the conquered territory that provided safety on the new territory and started exploiting their natural resources. The most important for him was the city Philipoppolis, then Kabile (or Kalibe) on the river Tundza and the village of Beroe (Stara Zagora). These actions endangered the Athenian colonies of great importance the maritime channels from Hersonnes to Byzantium (Dardanelles and Bosporus), the roads of extreme meaning for the Hellenic trade. Then Demosthenes made his most powerful speech against Philip, the Third Philippic, in which he bespoke: eventually to be accepted the fact that Philip was in war with their state and that he was breaking the peace, so according to that the sole activity of the Assembly should have been to find the easiest and the most secure way to defend from Philip. The speech had success and Demosthenes was awarded with a golden wreath. During the period of 340 BC Athens started its military actions against Philip. He sent military assistance to the citizens of Byzantium, concluded an Alliance with Thebes and defeated Thermopolis. Assisting Byzantium, Athens managed to conquer again the Bosporus trade line and with this it officially started the war against Macedonia. However it seems that all this did not upset the Macedonian ruler who stuck to his strictly defined plan; according to the plan, he had to defend the northern Macedonian border, which had been attacked by the32

Skythos and Triballi; the Thracian dynasty was defeated and the rulers of the northern tribes, Paeonians, Arkanians and Illyrians acquired vassal status. After these successful actions Philip conquered the crossing from northern to middle Helada so that he could have reached Boeotia in one single day and Athens in only three days. Demosthenes touchingly described this fateful moment for Athens. The Athenians headed by Demosthenes went to Thebes to form an alliance. At the same time the delegates of Philip arrived in Thebes with an intention to dissuade the Thebans from entering into an alliance with Athens and with a suggestion to attack Attica together or to let the Macedonian army pass freely through Boeotia. The dilemma in the Thebans Assembly was resolved after the passionate speeches of Demosthenes, which were awakening the feelings of patriotism and self-respect. The Assembly decided the Hellenic city-states Euboea, Megara, Corinth, Leukas, Corcyra, Achaea and Acarnania to enter into an alliance against Philips state; Arcadia, Messenia, Elida and Sparta stood apart from these happenings notwithstanding. The war started in Boeotia. Athens and Thebes had won twice during the battles at Parapotamii so that Philip did not manage to break through Boeotia. This success increased the popularity of Demosthenes, who brought a decision in the Macedonian Assembly to declare a war against Philip. As an award, Demosthenes once again was crowded with a golden wreath for his political activities in favor of the state. However the further events were in favor of Philip. Brilliantly estimating the situation Philip led the Hellenic Alliance forces to believe that he would withdraw to Thrace, allegedly to suppress the existing rebellion there. The Hellenic troops withdrew to Chaeronea and Philip attacked Amphissa and Naupactus so that he destroyed the Achaeas army.

8. The battle of Chaeronea the historical turning point in the Ancient world The war between Philip of Macedonia and the Hellenic city-states started and ended with a single battle, which was led at Chaeronea in 338 BC. The Macedonian phalanx attacked Hellenic Alliance armed forces, which were situated in the Chaeroneas plain. Philip was in possession of 30,000 troops almost the same number as the Hellenic infantry forces but with a difference that the Macedonian warriors acquired much more experience in various battles and were loyal and in compliance with their33

commander Philip. Demosthenes participated in the battle as a hoplite. Philip was standing with his phalanx opposite to the Athenians: Philip at the right wing and the young Alexander headed the left wing and was positioned opposite to the Thebans. After a long and exhausting battle Alexander managed to break the Thebans infantry as well as the infantry of their alliance forces while Philip defeated the Athenian Army; Hellenic city-states suffered immense loses and that was the outcome of the battle. The Battle of Chaeronea is one of the most significant historical events of the Ancient world because after the victory of the Macedonian state the historical courses of the Ancient world changed and new period started in which the Macedonian rulers took control over the whole civilized world at that time and established new world order. After the famous battle Philip solemnly celebrated his victory, offering up sacrifices, awarding all distinguished warriors at the battle, burning the dead bodies of his solders and burring dead Athenians soldiers with highest military honors. In a manner of a great conqueror, Philip was arranging the political issues with the defeated: his attitude towards Thebes was hostile; the enemy was punished to death or expelled; he located the Macedonian Army there and established oligarchic authority and behaved generously towards the Athenians (who were in tremendous panic), because he wanted to enlist their support for his next political and military actions; he handed over the Athenian hostages without ransom and sent back the remains of the killed soldiers (Demosthenes held a speech). Philip sent his representatives to Athens and among them was his son Alexander, the generals Antipater and Alcimachus, to inform the Athenians about the peace conditions. With this new agreement Athens managed to keep its autonomy, territory and its domination on the islands of Delos, Samos Skiros and Lemnos; the greatest punishment for Athens was the loss of Hersonnes, what implied Macedonian control over the exportation of grain. The Maritime Athenian Alliance was broken and Athens entered into new Maritime Alliance under the Philips hegemony. Upon the example of Athens other Hellenic states concluded peace agreement with the winner. After he arranged the things with Middle Hellada, Philip moved towards Peloponnese. In many city-states Philips partners took over the authority, Megara and Corinth surrendered and Macedonian army was situated in the Corinths Fortress. The Achaeas city-states on Peloponnese were separately concluding the peace agreement with Philip, one by one. The troops of Arkadia, Messenia and Elida, together with the Macedonian Army started a campaign against34

Sparta, because only the Spartans were still resisting the Alliance with Macedonia. Philips Army entered into Lacedaemonia and demolished it but Sparta did not give up although it had not been strong enough to resist. On the other side Philip did not have an intention to destroy Sparta very probably because of the same reason as that of Athens. When the peace agreement was concluded the, Macedonian ruler was given highest honors: Philip and Alexander as Athenian friends were given the Athenian citizenship; a statue of Philip was erected as an act of gratitude; Antipater and Alkimah received titles of honor proxenes of Athens, protectors of the Athenian citizens who were traveling through Macedonia. As a sign of appreciation Peloponnesians awarded honors to Philip too: In Magalopolis was built a huge market covered with colonnades and given the name Philip; in Olympia a spherical edifice called Philippeion was dedicated to him, with his statues and statues of his parents, of Olympias and his son Alexander. The autumn in 338 BC when Philip had concluded the separate peace agreement with the Hellenic city-states, with an exception of Sparta, convoked a meeting with all Hellenes in Corinth, where the so-called League of Corinth was formed. The decision was brought and general peace was declared. A part of this Agreement was preserved in two parts of stela in Acropolis. It is well-known the text of a part of the Agreement where the Hellenes took an oath in front of Philip that they would not start any kind of armed intervention on ground or at the sea against those who respected the oath; that they would not try to encroach upon Philips authority nor the authority of his inheritors; that they would not be against the state order accepted by all participants who swore an oath to peace; that would assist and led a war against those who would break the general peace as ordered by and in accordance with the hegemonic ruler. A congress of representatives was organized - Synedrion and it was to meet at Corinth where all Hellenic members sent their delegates on proportional principle. Synedrion was authorized to bring decisions, to issue laws, to judge in the cases of disagreements among the Leagues members and to state its opinion in case of breaking the Agreement. Philip was an acclaimed Hegemon of the League, i.e. declared Supreme Commander of the League's army. As a mutual commander of the Macedonian and Hellenic Army, Philip started preparing the Asian campaign against their common enemy, the great basileos. It was evident that according to this Agreement, Macedonia was an absolute winner and demonstrated the fact that it was in a position to35

make unconditional requests. Despite of this the Macedonian ruler was tactical and wanted to stick to the peace agreement. At Philips last ceremony in Aiga, the autumn 336 BC, which was prepared in honor of the marriage between Philips daughter Cleopatra and the Olympias brother, Alexander of Epirus and at the same time it was supposed to be triumphal solemn celebration of all Philips victories there were gests from everywhere. The Athenian representatives brought golden garlands and lot of gifts for Philip and for the spouses; glamorous dancing ceremonies and musical competitions were organized and during the solemn procession among all 12 statues of Olympus deities that were carried, the statue of Philip was the 13th one. On the day that was predetermined for the theatrical performances Philip was in the entourage of his son Alexander and his son-in-law Alexander of Epirus, and a huge mass of people was gathered to see the greatest European ruler. Then a young Macedonian nobleman, Pausanias, attacked Philip stabbing him with a Celtic sword. The assassinator was caught and killed by the Philips bodyguards Perdiccas and Leonidas. The Macedonian Peoples Assembly immediately appointed Alexander III its King. At the same time, the Hellenic political regulations and relations, but in accordance with the hereditary right of the Macedonian dynasty, Alexander III assumed the role of Hegemon of the League of Corinth.

9. The political activity of Demosthenes in the period of Alexander III of Macedonia and Antipater Demosthenes as one of the most ferocious enemies of the Macedonian basileos continued holding speeches against Alexander in the same way he was speaking against Philip. In this new anti-Macedonian campaign the Persian King, Darius III, got involved. He was frightened of the Asian campaign so he knew that the destruction of the Macedonian force would mean the elimination of the potential danger. The Persian Monarch incited to anti Macedonian rebellion in Hellada offering financial support to the Hellenic city-states. In the process of incitement to rebellion Demosthenes mainly assisted the Persian ruler and in 335 BC he directly incited the Hellenic city-states in a rebellion. Thebes assisted by Peloponnesian cities made an attempt to push out the Macedonia armed forces and to establish democracy. Demosthenes, in his speeches invented that Alexander was killed in Thrice, in a battle with the Thebans (Tribal36

li). But Alexander got back and as a Supreme commander of the Corinths League he razed Thebes to the ground and sold its citizens as slaves. Athens got caught in a panic again and the events repeated. Alexander spared Athens identically as his father Philip had done previously, but Alexander requested Demosthenes to surrender together with some other adversaries. The Athenian Demades was entrusted with the mission to calm down Alexander and to persuade Alexander to give up his request for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party talking to him that the request might have been considered as an offense of the Athenians feelings. He explained to him that the Athenians could feel the surrender of Demosthenes and their state-men as unconditional surrender to the forces of Alexander. After these events Demosthenes changed his behavior, somehow. It seemed that he might have become afraid or as the old orator become exhausted or after all he might have realized that the Hellenic city-states were incapable to resist to the Macedonian rulers. Demosthenes became resigned probably because he might have hoped for the failure of the Alexanders campaign and that the Athenians would have had an opportunity to liberate themselves. Before he started the Asian campaign (the spring 334 BC) Alexander had made an appeal to the Hellenes to refrain from rebellions or mutinies in his absence. Despite of this, the rebellion arose on the island of Rhodes and Sparta rejecting all military and political agreements with Alexander, established contacts with the leaders of the Persian Fleet. On the other hand Demosthenes was encouraged again and tried to stop the Athenian ships leaving the harbor, which was supposed to be reinforcement of the Alexanders Army. He thought that Alexander would use the ships when he got back to turn against Athens. While Alexander was conquering the Far East, turbulences appeared in Hellada, but the general Antipater who was still leading Macedonia and Hellada quickly suppressed the rebellion of the Spartan basileos Agis (330 BC). Demosthenes considered that it was not real time for the Athenians to start a rebellion so he stopped them joining the Spartans. The period between 330 and 323 BC is a period of famine, discontent and enormous impatience towards the Macedonian authority. After the death of Alexander in Babylonia (July 13, 323 BC) Demosthenes came back with highest honors. The information about the death of Alexander was an opportunity for Hellada to liberate from the Macedonian occupation. So Athens, Aitolia, and Thessaly incited rebellions all over Hellada. At the beginning of the rebellion the Hellenes had success and37

the Macedonian strategist Antipater was surrounded at the Fortress of Lamia. But the best Hellenic strategist died and the PhoeniciansMacedonian Fleet defeated the Athenian. This time the conditions offered by the Macedonian winner of the battles Antipater were difficult and defeating: Athens must accept the Macedonian equipage in one of its fortresses on Pireja Munihi and must resign from its proper century-long democratic system and to accept a kind of plutocratic polietea. The most suffering was the order that provided the Macedonian enemies, Demosthenes and Hiperides to be surrendered. Hiperides was caught and severely punished while Demosthenes escaped to the little Island Calauria. The restless Antipater absolutely had no compassion toward Athens and the great orator was enchasing Demosthenes who poisoned himself in the Poseidons Temple.

38

ALEXANDER III OF MACEDONIA (336323) Macedonia the world Empire

Alexander was the only son of Philip II and Olympias, the daughter of the ruler Neoptolemus; he was born in 356 BC in Pella. The Romans gave him the nickname Magnus, because he was the Great conqueror of the World. As he was a child Alexander was being educated in the spirit of the Macedonian aristocratic tradition; at the age of 13, he was being taught by the philosopher Aristotle in the small place Miesa (near Berroea); his education consisted of: poetry, astronomy, geometry, rhetoric/eristics, competing in gymnastic exercises, horse riding and hunting. His interest in natural sciences would make Alexander transform his conquering campaigns of Persia into exploring expeditions containing various disciplines, such as: geography, ethnology, botanic, meteorology. Plutarch illustrated the best the ambition of the young Alexander, who narrated that Alexander did not want to inherit from his father nor the wealth, nor the luxury or the pleasure but the Empire that would have enabled him to lead wars and implement deeds of glory and honor. At the age of 16, Philip entrusted him with the first political task to act as regent of Macedonia (340 BC) while he was away campaigning against Byzantium. The first military campaign of Alexander was against Medes a tribe from the upper course of the river Strymon); this battle was actually his first victory and here he founded the city of Alexandropolis. When he was 18, Alexander participated in the glorious Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) heading the left wing of the Macedonian Army against the Sacred Band of Thebes and together with his father Philip defeated the Hellenic Alliance Forces. After the assassination of Philip (336 BC) the Macedonian Assembly, in accordance with the Macedonian custom, declared Alexander III the ruler of Macedonia. His first military action is addressed towards39

the Hellenic city-states that were trying to reject the Macedonian authority; the Macedonian Monarch enforced them to accept the decisions of the Corinths Agreement by which Alexander inherited the title Hegemon of the Hellenes. In the campaign against the Triballi he crossed the river of Danube (335 BC) and defeated their alliance forces Getas. There are records about the celtik tribes of the Adriatic Sea, which wewrw hired bu Alexander for the defense of the Norhern border of the Macedonian state. Upon the news regarding the rebellion of the Ilirians Alexsander came back and broke them in a battle. After he had arranged the political and military relations on the Balkan Peninsula Alexander started preparing for the campaign against Persia, which was planned earlier by his father Philip II. The general Antipar as the strategist of Europe remained to rule over Macedonia and with 12,000 infantry forces and 1,500 hetairoi to defend the country. Alexander started his conquering campaign (334 BC) with 40,000 soldiers that formed the core of the Macedonian phalanx with the hetairoi: 9,000 pezhetairoi, heavily armed phalanxists, 3,000 hipaspists, lightly armed infantry soldiers, 1,500 hetairoi, 300 elite cavalrymans. The Hellenic city-states (Sparta was an exception) under obligation of the Corinths Agreement sent 7,000 Hellenic hoplites, 5,000 professional soldiers, and 8,000 lightly armed archers, spike throwers and 1,600 military ships. Alexanders Army was scarce compared with the Persian Army, which was headed by the Persian King Darius III; The Persian Army was formed from numerous states and peoples on the territory from Asia Minor up to India together with Egypt to Syria.

1. The Eastern campaign Alexanders Army entered into the territory of Asia Minor through Hellespont near Sest; the first stop was the Ancient city of Troy, where Alexander in the Temple of Athena offered a sacrifice dedicating his weapon to the Goddess of Athena and took the weapon from the temple, the sacred shield of Achilles following the heroic deeds from the epic Illiad. The first armed clash with the Persian Army happened at the river Granicus on Propontis (334 BC). The Persian troops accompanied by the Hellenic hoplites took up positions at the steep right bank of the river and on the hills around it so that it was easy for them to observe the movements of the Macedonian Army. This battle was a great challenge for Al40

exander in order to show off the power of the Macedonian Army as well as to demonstrate his own strategic qualities. In a fierce battle Alexander was wounded in his shoulder. The Persians suffered thousands of killed soldiers and 2,000 captured mercenaries who coercively were sent to Macedonia by Alexander to work. The victory over the Persian army, headed by the satraps of Asia Minor at Lydia, Hellespontian Phrygia, Great Phrygia, Caria opened the door to Alexander towards Asia Minor; the city Sardis in Lydia surrendered without fight, as well as the cities of Aeolus and Iones; Ephsus was another city that surrendered in the same way. The Macedonian King was welcomed as a liberator from the Persian slavery; the only cities that resisted with enormous Persian army were Miletus and Halicarnassus (334 BC). After these conquering actions Alexander divided the Army into two parts: the first one, headed by the commander Parmenio went to spend the winter in Sardis while the other part started a campaign crossing Caria, Lycia and Pamphylia and conquered all cities and citadels. The following year, 333 BC, the whole Army gathered together in Gordium, the capital of the Phrygian Kings (Gordian and Mida); according a legend, Alexander undid, cut off with a sword, the hitherto the inseparable (undividable) slavery knot of the King Midas chariot and this fulfilled the prophecy that would rule over Asia Minor. Alexander usually kept the existing administrative system in the conquered territories: satrapi-s were the basic administrative unites governed by the satrap, mainly Persians that had the military and civil authority (except in Lydia where the authority was in the hand of a Macedonian), while the financial authority was assigned to the Macedonians. The Macedonian commanders with the Macedonian Army had an absolute control over the conquered territories. The first battle against the Great King Darius III happened at Issus (333 BC). Moving along the coastline of Asia Minor towards Syria, Alexander left the sick soldiers in the city of Issus and continued chasing the Persians. But Darius moved with his army towards Cilicia, reached in Issus and killed the Macedonian soldiers. Alexander came back, and there at the gorge near Issus, between the seaside and the high mountains, at the river Pinar the second great battle between the Macedonians and Persians took place. The Persian Army was enormous: heavily armed infantry soldiers, Hellenic mercenaries, and cavalry; the endless convoy of machineries and baldachins of the Kings harem accompanied the Army. The King Darius did not foresee that such a huge army would have difficulties41

and could not easily maneuver in the tight space along the river; Alexander instead as a genius strategist reordered the Army in motion, disabling Darius to attack him from behind. The Macedonian Army crossed the river and rushed forward fiercely; Alexander flinging himself into the chariot of Darius; on the one hand, there was a heavy clash between the Macedonian phalanx and Hellenic mercenaries and on the other hand the left wing of the Macedonian commander Parmenio was fighting against the Persian cavalry; The Persians were discouraged when they saw their commander fleeing from the battlefield. Alexander did not start chasing Darius immediately, but first he assisted his phalanx in the fight and then after the end of the battle was pursuing the King until late in the night. Darius managed to spare himself but Alexander captured his chariot, his bow, shield, and mantel and got back in the Persian military camp where Alexander captured the Darius family, his wife and children; Alexander behaved with dignity towards The Queen the mother and her daughters. Parmenio was sent to Damask to take over the immense Persian treasury. The next conquest was the city of Tyre where Alexander wanted to offer a sacrifice to the supreme Phoenician God, Melcart (Heracles); the city that was located on the island, refused to give up, leaning on its excellent fortification, but the army constructed an artificial mole that connected the city-island with the coast and after a long-lasting siege, Tyre was conquered and it became a Macedonian citadel. The same destiny shared the city of Gaza.

2. The conquering of Egypt From Phoenicia, Alexander started moving toward Egypt where he was welcomed as a liberator from the Persian Empire. The Egyptian priests in Memphis handed him over the double crown of the Egyptian pharaohs. Alexander expressed remarkable respect towards the Egyptian cults and customs and was present at almost all ceremonies where he was introducing himself as an Egyptian pharaoh, the son of the God AmmonRa. He traveled through the Libyan Desert up to the oasis Siwa the place where the Temple of the Egyptian-Libyan God Ammon (the cult of Ammon was corroborated in Macedonia as Zeus Ammon) was situated. At the estuary of the river Niles Alexander founded (331 BC) the city of Alexandria (the territory of the city he drew (depicted) with the barley flower in accordance with the ancient Macedonian rite).42

3. Alexander the King of Asia Crossing Syria, Alexander broke through the Northern Mesopotamia; the army crossed the river of Euphrates; at the left bank of the river Tigris and near Gaugamela the two big armies clashed for the last time in 331 BC. Alexander directed his crucial strike towards the center where Darius was placed surrounded by his elite troops, Indian forces on elephants, Bactrian, Persian and Skythos cavalry. During the battle Alexander rode his old horse Bucephalus and together with the hetairoi-s and hypaspist-s assailed the center of the Persians, broke up their forces and Darius again fled from the battlefield. Alexander did not follow him because he left to help the left wing of the Macedonian phalanx. At around 100 km of Gaugamela, Alexander again managed to capture Darius chariot and his arms. After this difficult battle that changed the Persias destiny Alexander proclaimed himself the King of Asia and in a manner of a King marched and entered into the ancient city of Babylon, the capital of the Persian Empire. There he renewed the Temples ruined by the Xerxes. The Macedonian troops conquered the second Persian capital Susa, where the richest Kings treasury was ensconced. Through the Persian Gate, in 330 BC, Alexander entered in the Achaemendid capital Persepolis revengefully inflaming the Kings Palaces. At the Ancient city of Ecbatana and in accordance with Corinths Agreement, Alexander as hegemon of the Corinths League disbanded the Hellenic military formations and sent them back home. The Macedonian Army continued its conquering campaign to the east. In the newly conquered Persian capital Ecbatana, Alexander left the old commander Parmenio. He confided the captured Persian treasury to Harpales while he set off in pursuit of Darius himself. It is well known, the fast and hard march of the army that in 11 days managed to pass 600 km and when in Hecantopolis Alexander finally caught up to Darius, but he found the Persian king dead. He was assassinated by the Persian satrap Bessus. Alexander gave Darius a royal funeral with full military honors in Pasargada. Alexander continued the military campaign as the King of Asia, the legal heir of the Persian Empire. Using the seal-ring of Darius he was authorizing all the orders regarding the eastern, Asian part of the Kingdom.43

The Macedonian army carried on moving towards Hircania and Parhtia, the areas at the south of Caspian Sea, the countries with severe climate and relief. The period from 330 to 327 BC, while the Macedonian Army was in Bactria and Sogdiana was the hardest period during the campaign, mainly due to the wild and cruel nature, high mountains and huge deserts; The Macedonian army was constantly being attacked by the cavalry units of the local tribes applying guerilla war-tactics. The heavy tasks and efforts caused enormous discontent among the soldiers and mutiny; this was the reason for the resistance and conspiracy against Alexander. However the betrayers and conspirators were condemned to death and Alexanders close collaborators and friends such as Philotas, Parmenio and later Cleitos and the historian Callisthenes were among them. In a four-year period the Macedonian Army managed to conquer all Middle Eastern countries. Besides the conquests Alexander was also involved in construction activities especially of new cities, called Alexandria-s. In Bactria (327 BC) Alexander married the Iranian Roxanne, who was a mother of his posthumously born son, Alexander IV. According to Plutarch, Alexander set out his campaign to India with 120,000 infantries and 15,000 cavalry forces but followed by a long convoy of auxiliary services, technicians, ship makers, merchandisers, servants, wives and children of the soldiers. During the campaign new ships were made and left floating down the river Indus and across the bridge that was built, the other troops were sent to the other bank of the river. At the banks of the river Hydaspes, the Macedonian army was leading his fourth and last battle against Porus the King of Punjab (326 BC). After this victory Alexander annexed also the countries at the other side of the river Indus; but the Army met at the Assembly and rejected the Kings idea to continue the campaign to India up to the Ganges River and The Eastern Sea. The return was carried out in two directions: the first one was a direction that took Alexander with the Navy floating down the river Indus and the other direction was taken by Craterus, heading another part of the Army composed of the phalanx, elephants, part of the archers and part of the Macedonians that were supposed to get back to Macedonia. The Navy commander was Nearh. Along the bank of the river Indus Alexander built a new city of Alexandria, started an exploring expedition on the rivers delta and he started building ports and shipyards. At the coast of the Indian Ocean the army split up: the troops headed by Alexander moved overland while the other part of the army headed by Nearh was navigating at sea nearly 80 days.44

4. Holy wedding in Susa In 324 BC the whole Macedonian Army gathered in Susa, where the King organized a Great Holy Wedding at which 10,000 Macedonian officers married Persian women; among them were all the hetairoi-s and Alexander himself, who married Parisatida and Brasida, the two daughters of Dareus, and also marrying Oxos, the youngest daughter of Artaxerx. The Holy Wedding symbolized the wedding community of the Ancient World. After this event almost 10,000 veterans, heavily awarded were sent back to Macedonia and their new wives and children remained in Asia; the state was supposed to take care of them, the children were brought up in the Macedonian way and when they would be grown up they were supposed to be brought back to Macedonia. Alexander was planning further campaigns but more of an exploring and scientific character than of a military. All these plans failed due to the death of the Great ruler. The great grief for the death of the closest friend and war-companion Hephaiston and during the last military campaign against the belligerent tribes in Media and Susiana, Alexander came back to Babylon. He was planning to build a port for thousands of ships. However, Alexander caught a fever at the ceremony in Babylon and he died after 7 days on July 13, 323 BC, at the age of 33. He left behind a 12-year and 8-month warfare and rule.

5. The idea about the World Empire The Rule of the Macedonian King Alexander III, his celebrated campaign and conquering of the Persian Empire (the East) is the most significant part of the mankinds history.The era in which Alexander changed the character of the Ancient world will be remembered as a history of the heroic acts, power, and glory but also as a period that was remarkably characterized with the connection of many cultures, peoples and states of three continents Europe, Africa and Asia. In the worlds history but also in the legends of all peoples of the Ancient world, Alexander is remembered as the greatest world commander and undefeatable warrior, an excellent strategist and wise man and also as a God in apotheosis. In the real historical context, Alexander is the creator of the New World, of the new era, of the new order of the idea45

of globalization in terms of civilizations that is still widespread nowadays. At the same time Alexander was a great constructor, founder of 77 new cities under the name Alexandria. He built ports, temples, bridges, historical monuments that connect the people from Europe and Asia and transcend the large ethnical, cultural and linguistic barriers. Alexander is a mythical hero, a God for the people from Africa and Asia; the Asian peoples have their own mythical stories and artistic images in which Alexander appears as a naturalized domestic hero, highly admired for his heroic deeds. The conquering Alexander managed to create the new worlds order in which Macedonians were bearer of the state administrative system Monarchy, adapted into various social conditions, which were basically determined by the specificities of the conquered peoples. The Worlds Empire of Alexander had a new politically shaped order and new cosmopolitan culture.

46

THE FORMATION OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRES AFTER THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER III OF MACEDONIA

This epoch started with the rule of Alexander of Macedon (336323 BC) and his campaign to the East (the conquering of the Persian Empire) and ended with the Roman conquests (I century BC) of the Macedonian Monarchies, which had been founded on the territory of the Alexanders Empire. Namely, this era contained the exceptional historical phenomenon Macedonian pan-basilea, the accomplishment of the idea of Philip and Alexander for creation of an Ecumenical state and for united civilization that would unify the Ancient world. The creator of this idea was Alexander of Macedon, and it was maintained by his heirs, the Diadochis the rulers of the great states in Europe, Africa and Asia; the bearers of this civilization were scientists, thinkers, philosophers, educated people settled in the administrative, economical and cultural centers of Alexandria, Antiohia, Pergam, Rhodes. In the historical context, the special and temporal border is even bigger. This era that creates a brand new way of world perception, demonstrated in symbiosis of many cultures which had a great influence over the Roman and Romenian Empire (Byzantia) and lasted until the end of the Ancient times and it was restored through the period of the Italian humanism from the XIV to XVI century. This significant historical epoch, considering the aspect of civilization of the peoples from Europe, Asia and Africa is disapprovingly marked under the term Hellenism (german: Helenismus, the term used by the historian G. Droysen of XIX century, according the old Greek hellenismos) - imitation of the Hellenic way of living, acceptance of the Hellenic culture and the use of the codified Old Greek language koine), besides the fact that in this period the Hellenic city-states entered into the zone of historical and cultural provincialization, considering the new worlds centers created by Alexander, Ptolemy, Perdiccas, Cassander,47

Antigonus, Demetrius, Lysimachus, Seleucos, Antiochus. According to this, the modern historical approach imposes a new term for this epochal transitional century "Alexanderism" or "Macedonism", because a new cultural history was created, with the implementation of the noble idea of Alexander of Macedon, the idea of the Holy wedding among peoples. This epochal transitional century talks in the language of the worlds thinkers, in Platos and Aristotles philosophical language, intimately named as common language (koine glosa); this idea was absolved by the genius visionary and person of liberal education, Alexander of Macedon, who was emphasizing the necessity of developing a mutual worlds language for the purpose of exchanging thoughts, ideas, philosophizing which were written on long rolls of papyrus and parchments in the Alexandria centers. After the death of Alexander of Macedon, the Macedonian commanders, so-called diadochis, inherited the conquered territories in Hellas, Egypt and the Persian Empire and later they were inherited by their ancestors epigones. That means that the rulers of the new states were Macedonians, the closest friends of Alexander hetairoi-s (Alexanders army commanders). Antipater and Cassander ruled over Macedonia and Hellas and later they were the rulers of the Antigonid Dynasty. The rulers of the Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled over Egypt and in the east. After many Macedonian rulers the authority was taken by the Seleucid Dynasty. The Macedonian rulers were always adapting their rule to the social circumstances and customs of the people they ruled with.

1. The destiny of the Alexanders Empire after the death of the King The destiny of the new empire started developing in the Persian capital the city of Babylon, immediately after the death of Alexander of Macedon. Namely, in the historical records six of the hetairoi-s are mentioned as present in front of the Macedonian Monarchs bier. Among them was the most influential and the oldest Perdiccas whom Alexander before he died had left the seal-ring that was supposed to be handed over to the next ruler. But, in accordance with the Macedonian custom, the bearer of the sovereignty was to be the Macedonian army that was not complete at that time because one part of the soldiers had been in Macedonia with Antipater, the strategist of Europe. Consequently, the Macedonian army had to bring the decision for acclamation of a new ruler in Babylon. The Macedonian phalanx headed48

by Meleager initially decided to appoint a new ruler the half-brother of Alexander, Arrhidaeus, Philips illegitimate son, who was considered as mentally and physically weak so Perdiccas suggested to wait for Roxannes birth of a child and to appoint regents who would meanwhile rule the Empire. On the other hand, Antigonus and Nearh proposed that Alexanders son and the Pergamian princess Barsina Heracles, while Ptolemy proposed the creation of a common administration formed of highest ranged commanders. Here started the conflicts among the dynasties between Macedonian noblemen the closest collaborators of Alexander and lasted till the end of this period. At the end the Macedonians accepted Arrhidaeus to be the King of the Empire under the name of Philip III until the birth of Alexander IV, Roxannes son (Philip III Arrhidaeus ruled until 317 BC); after his death Alexander was proclaimed the King, but before he reached maturity, 310/309 he was also killed). The highest state functions were divided among the most eminent of Alexanders commanders, such as: Craterus, Antipater and Perdiccas; Antipater as a strategist of Europe unified the military and civil authority in Macedonia and in Hellenic areas so that he managed to mobilize and send recruits to Asia. Craterus received the high state administrative function as a prostates (protector, representative, plenipotentiary) and supreme commander of the Kings Army, while Perdiccas as a hiliarh (the most important political function) and an epitrop (regent, protector, guardian) administered the civil authority over the Asian part of the Empire and was preparing all state affairs. Ptolemy ruled over Egypt, Libya and the boundary area of Arabia in Egypt. A part of the satrapy Syria on the west of the river Euphrates was given to Laomedon, Phoenicia kept its local rulers, Tyre and Gaza became Macedonian colonies, and Cyprus was in a similar situation. Antigonus ruled over the satrapies of Pamphylia and Lycia and in 333 BC the Phoenicia was annexed to his rule. In a 10 year ruling period this ruler strengthened the authority in Asia Minor. Later Antigonus expanded his authority over Pisidia. On the south, the satrapy Paphlagonia, Cappadocia and the area of Pond was taken over by Eumenes. The western part of Asia Minor, the satrapies of Caria, Lydia and Hellespontine Phrygia belonged to Leonnatus, the closest Perdiccas collaborator. The supreme authority in Europe belonged to Antipater, and both with Craterus were ruling over Macedonia, Epirus, and Hellenic areas but also over Illyrians, Thriballi and Agrianes. Thrace was entrusted to Lysimachus, who probably the same as the other rulers depended on the supreme authority of Perdiccas in Babylon.49

The central areas of the Empire were spreading over six satrapies, which during the period of Alexanders rule they had Iranian satraps; some of them remained independent while others became under the control of Perdiccas. The eastern areas were under the military control of the Macedonians, the King Porus ruled over Punjab while the satrapy of India was entrusted to Peithon. The only one among all of Alexanders officers that remained in the position of commander of the hetairoi was Seleucos who did not get any satrapy. 1.1. The wars of the Diadochs The wars of the Diadochis could not have been stopped either with the attempts to divide the Empire so that each would receive its own ruling territory or with the creation of parental relations in matrimonial communities. The common ground that was connecting all Alexanders heirs was Macedonia; namely, they all without regard of the size of their ruling territory they were insisting to take over the territory of Macedonia and to proclaim the King of the Macedonians. It means that in most of the cases Macedonia was the reason for their mutual conflicts. The first conflict was among Perdiccas on the one side and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Craterus and Antipater on the other side. During 321 BC Perdiccas considering Ptolemy as his biggest enemy was breaking through Egypt but he was stopped because the river Nile was swollen with rain. After several unsuccessful attempts to cross the river but also due to the discontent among the officers and commanders in his army, Perdiccas was killed in the military camp. After his death Perdiccas troops took the Ptolemys side. Two years after the death of Alexander the number of the Diadochis decreased and the jointed Macedonian troops entered into new alliance. Now Antipater, as the oldest and the most influential became a regent with unlimited authority and was in charge of reorganization of the state. With the reorganization the largest authority was given to Antigonus as Perdiccas heir and he had to command the Asian military forces. Antipaters son, Cassander, became the commander of the cavalry forces; Ptolemy was entrusted with unlimited authority in Egypt and Antipater as a strategist the autocrat of Europe withdrew in Macedonia together with the Macedonian Kings. Antipater, Philips last collaborator, died at 80 years of age (319 BC); loyal to the traditions of the Agread Dynasty, he managed to keep50

and strengthen the Macedonian state and at the same time despite of the numerous rebellions of the Hellenic city-states (like the Lamian war) he managed to keep the authority in the conquered Hellenic territories. The new pretender of the Macedonian throne, Cassander, the commander of the cavalry forces of the hetairoi, wanted to take over the position of his father who proclaimed Poliperchont as his heir, because he trusted him, as being the older, that he would take care of the family. Poliperchont became epimeletes (protector) of the Macedonian Kings and he received this title somehow against the Macedonian laws, without consent of the Macedonian Assembly. That brought a new conflict among the Diadochis and a new war, this time addressed towards Poliperchont; on the one side, Cassander with army and navy of Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, fighting on the Hellenic territory and on the other side Poliperchont with Eumenes clashed with the Army of Antigonus in Asia Minor; Olympias, Alexanders mother was also on Poliperchonts side and he gave her the responsibility to take care of Alexanders son Alexander IV and his mother Roxanne. As a winner Cassander placed the Macedonian army in Athens and appointed Demetrius of Phaleron, a philosopher and Aristotles student, his regent. He set out to Macedonia took over the Army (together with the elephants brought by Antipater) and went down on Peloponnes. In the period of his absence Olympias and Poliperchon (317 BC) killed Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice, the nephew of Philip II, as well as other Cassanders relatives and friends. Cassander revenged this severely conquering Pydna the place where Olympias, Roxanne and the little Alexander sheltered so that he captured Olympias and sent her to court; it is strange why the Alexanders mother was not been allowed to defend herself in front of the Macedonian army but the prosecutors killed her while Roxanne and the little Alexander were enslaved in Amphipolis. After all these events Cassander became ruler over Macedonia (316 BC). The Kings family, Philip-Arrhidaeus, her wife Eurydice and her mother Cinina were solemnly buried in the royal tomb in Aigae. In order to become real King of Macedonia, Cassander married to Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip II, and in her honor he founded the city if Thessalonica in the Thermian Gulf. Aiming to rule over the territory of Hellada, Cassander with his army broke through Thermopylae, restored Thebes attacked on Aetolia, where Poliperchont was sheltered, and conquered several Peloponnesian cities. 1.2. The rivalry between Antigonus and Demetrius I51

When Eumenes was defeated Antigonus became the only ruler in Asia. In Babylon he was given all royal honors (Seleucos was replaced as a satrap of Babylon so that he fled from there and went to Ptolemy). With great treasure from the east, Antigonus with military convoy composed of caravans of camels started a new campaign towards the west. All this caused fear among the other Diadochis and once again organized themselves against Antigonus. During the period of siege of Tyre (315 BC), Antigonus convoked the Macedonian army on Assembly in order to resolve the issue related to the highest authority; Antigonus addressed the Macedonia Army from a position of a sole representative of the Macedonian Kings accused Cassander for murder of Olympias and for arresting the little Alexander and his mother Roxanne and asked for their liberation. In 311 BC a peace agreement was concluded among the Diadochis but once again the Empire was divided: Cassander remained a strategist of Europe until the maturity of Alexander IV; Lysimachus became a ruler of Thrice; Ptolemy ruled over Egypt while Antigonus was entrusted with all Asia except the eastern part which was ruled by Seleucos. Obviously the Empire started being ruled by new rulers who did not take care any more about the royal family. From 310/309 or 308/307 BC when Cassander in secrecy killed Alexander IV and his mother Roxanne in Amphipolis the rule of the Argeadas Dynasty eventually ended. In the period from 311 to 301 BC the Diadochis were campaigning everywhere, on the territory of Thrice, Hellada, Asia Minor and eastern Mediterranean. Antigonus was in war against Seleucos in Babylonia and during 307 BC sent his son Demetrius I a large fleet formed of 250 ships and finances for the mercenaries to break through Athens. When the Macedonian army was defeated of Cassander, Demetrius announced liberation of Athens and the return of its democratic rule. The city with admiration proclaimed Demetrius and Antigonus rescuers and benefactors. Golden statues were erected in the city in their honor and many other honorable acts and celebrations were carried out too. The armies of Demetrius and Ptolemy clashed at the Salamis port. The Ptolemy army was defeated and a part of his troops and cavalry passed on the Demetrius side. Antigonus and Demetrius reigned over the Aegean Sea and eastern part of the Mediterranean. The Army acclaimed them basileos-s. Upon this example Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander and Seleucos in the period from 306/305 proclaimed themselves basileos-s,52

Kings of the Empires part that was under their rule; so Alexanders Empire was divided into five parts. Antigonus was not satisfied with the territory that had belonged to him so he had an intention to rule over Egypt; however he was also stopped in a similar way as Perdiccas by the swollen with rain river Nile. One part of his army passed on the Ptolemys side. In order to block Egypt, Antigonus attacked Rhodes and Demetrius in 305/304 BC organized the biggest siege in the history: he engaged an enormous army, used ships, battle equipment and colossal machineries. The siege lasted about one year the Rhodes citizens were desperately defending and at the end they achieved the negotiations. After this siege everyone talked that no one was capable of opposing to Demetrius I Poliorketes. When the Peloponnesian cities were conquered, in 302 BC Demetrius convoked a meeting at Corinth with the Hellenes and suggested signing a new Agreement for Alliance. The Agreement had the same content with that of 337 BC signed between Philip II and the Hellenic city-states, with a difference that in this one Antigonus and Demetrius were signed as baseleos-s and not as hegemon-s. And it was true, Demetrius behavior was of an absolutist and he endlessly was demonstrating his will in Athens. Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy formed the new League and based on individual interests joined their forces against Antigonus and Demetrius. The decisive battle happened in Phrygia near Ipsus (302 BC). The reason for the defeat was probably the age of Antigonus who was almost 80. After this battle in which Antigonus was killed the Asian part of the Kingdom was divided again: Lysimachus took over Asia Minor up to Tauros, Seleucos ruled over Ermenia, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia and Syria while Ptolemy remained to rule over Egypt.

2. Demetrius I Poliocretes the new King of Macedonia The Alliance and the conflicts among the Diadochis continued into the next period too. A remarkable historic personality was Demetrius I Poliorketes, who did not give up the idea to rule over the whole Kingdom; this excellent commander was in possession of the biggest fleet in the eastern Mediterranean, ruled over the sea and had secure basis in different parts of the seaside. After the death of Cassander (297 BC) Demetrius broke through Macedonia clashed with the King of Epirus, Pyrrhus, who was another pretender over the rule in Macedonia.53

In 294 BC Demetrius managed to kill Alexander, Cassanders son, and proclaimed himself the King of Macedonia. Despite the great successes and the great territory that he conquered (Macedonia and the territory of Hellada), Demetrius continued to prepare for the new conquering campaign to the east and with this purpose he constructed 500 huge war ships. However after a 7-year ruling period he was attacked by Pyrrhus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy and his army took the side of the opposing alliance. After this conflict Pyrrhus was acclaimed Macedonian King in 288/287 BC, and eastern Macedonian, probably up to Axios belonged to Lysimachus. Demetrius withdrew in Asia and continued to fight but now with a huge army made of mercenaries; defeated by Seleucos he died as a hostage in Syria (283 BC). After his death Lysimachus, one of the most loyal hetairoi of Alexander of Macedon, became one of the most powerful rulers over the Euro-Asian territory (he built his own city, called Lysimachya over the city of Chersonese). Due to the fact that he was in possession of Macedonia and Thessaly he proclaimed himself the King of Macedonia. It seems like by tradition, the conflicts continued but this time between Diadochis, Lysimachus and Seleucos. Seleucos was a winner from this clash and managed to unite again the eastern and western parts of the Empire proclaiming himself the King of Macedonia. However this success again ended tragically. Ptolemy Ceraunus, the son of Ptolemy Lagos, killed Seleucos. Ptolemy Lagos was a founder of the Dynasty of Ptolemies who was acclaimed the King by the Army (280 BC).

3. The new generation of rulers Epigones This was a ruing period of the Diadochiss sons the generation of the Epigonoi; so Ptolemy was inherited by Ptolemy Philadeplhus, Seleucos by his son Antiochus while Demetrius by Antigonus Gonatas (one of the Antigoneads Dynasty, which ruled in Macedonia until the period when it was conquered by Rome). Namely, the Macedonian Seleucid Dynasty (312-64 BC) ruled over the territory of the Syrian Empire in Asia Minor and in Babylon up to India; the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BC) ruled over Egypt. The last heir of the Ptolemaic Dynasty was Cleopatra VII (51/52-30 BC). Her life and rule were often being connected with the Roman Republic, with Gaius Julius Caesar and with the Consul Mark Antony with whom she was fighting against Octavian Augustus. The last battle in which the army54

of Cleopatra and Antony was defeated took part in Actium (31 BC) after which the Queen committed suicide. After her death, Egypt fell under the Roman rule and became a Roman province. The Antigoneads Dynasty was the second Macedonian Ruling Dynasty (277 168 BC). Its founders were Antigonus Gonatas (227-239 BC) and his son Demetrius II (239-229). They were inherited by the new generation of rulers such as: Antigonus Doson (228-222/221 BC), Philip V (221-179 BC) and Perseus (179-168 BC), the last Macedonian ruler who together with Philip V were leading the Macedonian-Roman wars. Antigonus II Gonatas (277-239 BC) Being an excellent commander and skillful diplomat campaigned against the King of Epirus, Pyrrhus and expanded the Macedonian rule up to Corinth. He participated in the Chremonidean War (261-255 BC) and as a winner from this was he confirmed the domination of Macedonia over the Hellenic city-states. He also strengthened the navy that helped him to defeat the navy of the Egyptian King Ptolemy II (255 BC) and to achieve predominance at the Aegean Sea. Antigonus III Doson (229-221 BC), an excellent war strategist and diplomat; at the beginning he ruled as a regent of the 8-year old son of Antigonus Gonatas, Philip V. He was proclaimed a legitimate ruler after he married Philips mother and adopted the young King. He strengthened the boundaries of Macedonia secured the northern frontier, which had been endangered by the Dardanians and managed to establish Macedonian rule over the territory of Thessaly. He also politically reinforced the state and renewed its domination on the Balkan Peninsula. After the victory over the Illyrians in Upper Macedonia he got tuberculosis and died.

4. The Macedonian-Roman War in the period of Philip V (221179 BC) Philip V, the son of Antigonus Doson, at the age of 16 was appointed the King, with five regent that were ruling to the moment of his maturity. This Macedonian King, the same as his antecedents, was taking care about the power of Macedonia as the biggest force on the Balkan. He headed successful wars against the Dardanians on the North and against the Aiatolian League on South that helped him to impose a new Macedonian domination over the Hellenic city-states; at the same time he conquered the territories around the Lihnida Lake.55

Philip V entered into an Alliance with the Illyrian ruler Demetrius from Pharos, who after the defeat in the war against the Romans was preparing for a new war together with Philip. With navy composed of around 100 ships Philip set out to Illyria (216 BC) but the Romans succeeded to defend the city of Apollonia. The military and political interests of Macedonia came up against the expansion of the Roman state. The military conflict caused the beginning of the first Macedonian-Roman War (215205 BC), which did not have a positive outcome for Macedonia. In 215 BC Philip entered into a new alliance with Hanibal, the Roman enemy. This strategy initially was successful but the Macedonian army was defeated near Apollonia and while it was withdrawing Philip was forced to burn the Macedonian Navy, which was blocked by the Roman ships. That is why the following attack taken by Philip was by land and he succeeded to seize over the Adriatic port of Lisos (212 BC). The next year Philip carried out a campaign in Illyria, attacking the Dardanians and the Medes. The first Macedonian-Roman war terminated so that the Macedonians kept the territory of Lihnidas area and Skodra while Romans took over the cities of: Epidamnos, Apollonia, Orik, Lisos and southern part of Corcyra. During the 5-year long truce Philip concluded an alliance with the King Prusia, renewed the Navy and managed to conquer more coastline cities of Hellespontes and the islands of Samos, Milet and Hios. By the other side, after the victory over the Carthaginian ruler Hanibal, Rome started to prepare for a new war against Macedonia. The second Macedonian-Roman war (200-197 BC) was a failure for the Macedonian state. In this war the Romanians were attacking together with the armies of the Illyrians, Dardanians and some of the Hellenic city-states, among which Athens, then Rhodes and Pergam. In the first decades of this war, the Macedonian army was successfully resisting the Roman army, which was attacking from Illyria. Such successful resisting tendency lasted till the Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC) when the Macedonian phalanx despite its initial success was thoroughly broken; 8.000 soldiers were killed and 5.000 were capture; while the withdrawing toward Larisa, Philip V had burnt the Royal archive, and all important documents for Macedonia before the city seized into the hands of the Romans. Philip had to renounce all conquered territories outside Macedonia but in a short period of time he managed to consolidate Macedonia and to prepare it for the new war against the Romans. It is due to mention that following the example of Philip II, he paid particular attention on the de56

velopment of the cities, economy, farming, stockbreeding and he also revitalized the old gold and silver mines.

5. Perseus (179168) the last Macedonian King of the Antigonit Dynasty This ruler continued implementing the policy of his father, secured the northern boundaries of Macedonia, campaigned against Thracians, renewed the treaty with Rome in order to be acclaimed the King of Macedonia and led the third Macedonian-Roman war. After long preparations, Rome declared war to Macedonia (171 BC). The 13,000 numbered Roman army landed in Illyria and started helping the Hellenic city-states. Perseus, at the Macedonian Assembly brought a decision to initiate the war. He gathered 14,000 soldiers in his army and enormous war reserves for a 10-year war period. During the first year of the war Perseus blocked all crossings from Thessaly to Macedonia and disabled the pervasion of the Roman Army. The defense of the Macedonians wasnt broken even with the second Roman attack in the following year. Perseus then encouraged successfully was campaigning against the Dardanians and on his way back he inflicted defeat on the Romans at Penestia and Illyria. During 169 BC the Roman consul Mark Philipus attacked him by the sea (Thessalonica, Casandrea, Aion and Antigonia) and by land (entered into Dion). Perseus withdrew in Pella but managed to stop the marching of the Roman Army. The new Roman attack started under the guidance of the Roman consul Emilius Paulus (168 BC); Perseus withdrew at Pidna. After a short but fierce battle (168 BC), in which both sides were fighting with 40,000 soldiers each, the Macedonian phalanx was definitively broken. After this defeat Perseus moved to Amphipolis and the Roman Army was devastating Macedonia. Perseus with all his family and his enormous treasury was sheltered on the Island of Samotraki where actually he was captured. After that Macedonia fell under Roman protectorate.

57

58

MACEDONIA IN THE PERIOD OF ROMAN RULE

(168 BC to the end of the III century)

1. Territorial partition of Macedonia The Roman conquest of Macedonia (168 BC) marked the end of the Macedonian Empire. The definition of the new status of Macedonia was sanctioned one year later in Amphipolis, where the Consul Aemilius Paulus, in the presence of the Macedonian king Perseus and the Macedonian elite, announced that the Macedonians will be free, they will own the cities and fields as before, they will abide by their laws and customs and will elect their own magistrates every year. However, the Macedonians were obliged to pay a tribute to the Roman people whose amount was one half of the tribute that they were paying to the Kings. Such apparently granted liberty was of nominal character, because Macedonia at the same time was divided into four autonomous districts called Merides. The first district, with the capital city of Amphipolis, stretched over the territory between the rivers Nestus and Strymon including also the areas from the east of the river Nestus to the river Hebros, while on the western side of the river Strymon it incorporated the whole territory of Bisaltia including the city Heraclea Sintica. Thessalonica was the capital city of the second district, which bordered with the river Strymon from the east without Heraclea Sinitica and Bisaltia, while on the west it spread up to the river Axios, including the region on the eastern side of the river. The territory between Axios in east and the river Peneus in the west, the Mt. Vermium in the north with the Peonia from the western side of the river Axios including the cities of Edessa and Beroia, belonged to the third area, with Pella as capital. The fourth area with the capital located in Pelagonia, bordered with Epirus, Illyria, and Dardania as well as with the independent regions of Orestis and Dassaretia. Aprart from abolishing the Macedonian Monarchy, Rome instituted measures that provided several prohibitions for Macedonians, including commerce and marital relations among the people of separated areas, as well as extracting of silver and gold from their mines. The main purpose of the territorial division of Ma59

cedonia was to disable the unification process of the Macedonians in terms of preventing the restoration of the political, military and economical power of Macedonia. The hardest measure was the expulsion of the king Perseus and his family to Rome. The subjects of this measure were also the Macedonian elite as well as the male children over the age of 15. After that Perseus was imprisoned in Alba where under suspicious circumstances he died in the period between 163 and 161 BC.

2. Rebellion of Andriscus (149148 BC) The new administration was considered as imposed by the Macedonians and the administrative division in four parts as a step that leads to the deterioration of the Macedonian tissue. This was illustrated by Livy, who concluded that the Macedonians perceived their county in such a disintegrated form that he compared it with "an animal torn into separate parts, each of which needed the others". The aspirations of the Macedonians to restore their Empire was manifested in giving wide support to the leadership of Andriscus, who introduced himself as a son of the last Macedonian king Perseus. This supported his official acclamation as Macedonian king in 149 BC in Pella. The rebelled Macedonians headed by Andriscus in a short period of time managed to liberate a major part of the Macedonian territory. However applying the tactic of dissension, the Romans succeeded to inflict a catastrophic defeat to the Macedonians at Pydna (148 BC). Andriscus was captured and killed, which represented an end of the attempt of the Macedonians to revive the Macedonian Empire.

3. Macedonia - the first Roman province on the Balkans After the suppression of the Andriscus rebellion all forms of apparent internal autonomy were cancelled. With the decision of the Roman Senate in 148 BC Macedonia was transformed into a Roman province. The establishment of the direct Roman administrative system with the permanent provincial governor with capital in Thessalonica was followed by the allocation of the permanent Roman garrisons. Illyria and Epirus were annexed to Macedonia so that the administrative territory was exceeding the geographical and ethnical territory and was expanding from the Ionian Sea in the west to the river Nestus in the east. Its southern border was the Mt. Olympus while the northern one was represented by the60

upper course of the river Axios. The Roman writers however made a clear distinction between the geographical-ethnical and provincial border of Macedonia, who used to identify the Macedonians as a majority population in the Macedonian territory. The establishment of the new Roman provincial administration was not followed by drastic changes of the laws. The Merides continued their existence but they lost their political importance. The common Synedrion, most probably was transformed in the Macedonian koinon, thus representing the continuity of the old koinon from the period of the Macedonian Empire. In order to adapt the previous Macedonian traditions to the new municipal administration, Rome allowed the Macedonian cities to preserve their former administration. However, this was not sufficient for soothing the tendencies of the Macedonians for restoration of their Empire.

4. The new tendencies of the Macedonians for restoration of the state In 142 BC the Macedonians arose again with a rebellion against the Romans but this time it was headed by Alexander, who alleged his imperial origin, being a son of the king Perseus. Although the Macedonians managed to take control over the territory around river Nestus, the prompt intervention of Rome impeded the expansion of the uprising, which was quickly suppressed afterward. Actually from 144 BC the long-lasting period of continuous attacks on Macedonia embarked from the central Balkan tribes Scordisci, Dardani, Maedi, Dentheleti and others. For the duration of one of these raids in 112/111 BC the Macedonians mobilized their forces again and turned against the Roman authority. This Macedonian war inflicted serious problems to the Romans, who were making great efforts to overwhelm the Macedonians in 110 BC. The mobilization of the Macedonians was also a consequence of the new Roman strategy applied, which was directed towards gaining benefits of the strategic position of Macedonia on the Balkan Peninsula for the implementation of Roman expansionistic plans toward the river Danube and in the eastern Mediterranean. In this context, Rome initiated the construction of the great land road Via Egnatia for the purpose of enabling its West-East communication by land that additionally accentuated the strategic importance of Macedonia. In 88 BC the Macedonians demonstrated again their discontent61

from the Roman authorities and rose up another armed rebellion. They benefited from the involvement of the king of Pontus, Mithridates, on the Balkans affairs so that they managed to liberate a significant part of the Macedonian territory declaring Euphanus as their king. The Romans encountering great difficulties defeated the Macedonians whose tendency was to restore the Macedonian Empire. Actually this was the last authentically registered major uprising of the Macedonians against the Roman authorities. The tendency for reunification and restoration of the Macedonian Empire was also present in the following period, but the methods were altered, due to the change of the policy of Rome towards Macedonians. In this context, Cicero was particularly engaged and he pledged that only the honest attitude towards the Macedonians could have insured the interests of the Roman people.

5. Macedonia the first Christian country in Europe When in 49 BC the Apostle Paul commenced the mission for the spread of the Christian teaching in Europe, the first visited country was Macedonia. The Bible testifies that Apostle Paul had chosen Macedonia because he witnessed a vision of a Macedonian calling him to come to Macedonia, and help the Macedonians. Accompanied by his entourage he immediately made his way towards Macedonia to proclaim the Gospel of Christ to the people there. At the end of 49 BC the Apostle Paul arrived in the Macedonian city Philippi, where he held the first Christian sermon on the European ground. Clement of Alexandria emphasized that Paul became the bearer of the Gods voice when he addressed to the Macedonians, the founder of the first Christian community in Macedonia and generally in Europe. After the disclosure of the mission Paul was forced to continue his missionary journey to Thessalonica. The Christian mission of Paul had been widely accepted by the Thessalonian citizens who although in great difficulties with pleasure accepted the Christianity. The Apostle Paul was constrained to leave Thessalonica due to the Jewish protest so that accompanied by his entourages he continued his mission in Beroia. He continued preaching the gospel there, in the Jewish synagogue, but soon he was forced to discontinue the apostolic mission because of the civil protests provoked by the Jews from Thessalonica. Although he was hindered to accomplish the apostolic mission in Macedonia, Paul set up the foundations of a Christian organization in Macedonia62

and in Europe as a whole. The Pauls Epistles to the churches in Philippi and Thessalonica as well as his second visit of Macedonia (56 and 57 BC), are clear indications of his devotion to spread Christianity in Macedonian towns, and thus in Europe. Among the followers of the Apostle Pauls commitment in Macedonia as his concomitants were mentioned Jason, Aristarchus and Secundus that were later proclaimed as Saints. The Macedonian Aristarchus, according the encrypted church tradition, was the first bishop of Thessalonica that was persecuted and martyred in the period of the emperor Nero. The adoption of Christianity by the Macedonians was a parallel process performed gradually at the same time with an existing wide admiration of the pagan deities.

6. Macedonia in the period of the Roman Civil Wars (4931 BC) From 49 BC Macedonia became the focal point of the First Roman Civil War, which arose after the break of the alliance between Caesar and Pompey (Pompeus). After fleeing from Rome, Pompey arrived in Macedonia in the winter 49 BC and concentrated his political seat in Thessalonica where almost the complete Roman senate was transferred. The Macedonians having been incapable for their own military and political organization joined Pompeys army, along other peoples and tribes. The strategic motivation of Pompey, for which he was later accused about in the Roman Senate, had been to create his own Empire in Macedonia. This fact implies that he received the strong support by the Macedonians. In the decisive battle with Caesar near Pharsala in Thessaly (48 BC) Pompeys army was completely crushed. Taking over of the authority in Macedonia, Caesar intervened in the clash of the Ptolemaic Dynasty promoting Cleopatra VII to the new Egyptian Queen. After the assassination of Caesar in March 44 BC Macedonia was again in the focus of the interest of the Roman political elite, who vied for the supreme power in Rome. The conspirators Marcus Iunius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus after being forced to leave Rome headed towards the rich provinces of Macedonia and Syria. The arrival of Brutus in Macedonia around the end of 44 BC resulted in providing swift support by the Macedonians so that he was enabled to form two legions consisted of Macedonians, which were drilled in Roman style warfare. Cassius Dio evaluated that the participation of the Macedonians in the Brutus army was mainly motivated by the promised benefits for their country that63

illustrated their ambitious expectations from the outcome of this civil war. However, Brutus committed a strategic mistake with his decision to move from Macedonia to Syria with intention to associate his army with the army of Cassius. In this way the united forces of Anthony, Octavian and Lepidus were enabled without difficulty to take over the control in Macedonia. In the battle of Philippi in the autumn 42 BC Cassius and Brutus were defeated after that both committed suicide. Macedonia came under the jurisdiction of Antony. The Macedonians once again did not manage to reach their planned objectives despite of the fact that they changed sided and supported Octavian and Anthony in the final phase of the civil war that in some way determined the outcome of the war. However, Thessalonica was promoted to a free city (civitates liberae) that additionally emphasized its position as a leading Macedonian city. At the same time the Romans started implementing their organized colonization policy in Macedonia focusing particularly on the cities of Cassandreia, Dion, Philippi, Pella and Scupi. The marriage with the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra VII (37 BC), who was the sole representative of the Macedonian Ptolemaic Dynasty, implied Anthonys imperialistic plans in which Macedonia was also included. His ambitions and his alliance with Cleopatra provoked categorical military response by Octavian, which resulted in a great victory in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. This enabled Octavian in a short period of time to establish his authority in Macedonia and in the Balkans. After the final clash with Anthony and Cleopatra VII, who both committed suicide, Octavian conquered Egypt in 30 BC and put an end to the last Macedonian dynasty.

7. Macedonia in the period of Pax Romana After 31 BC came the period of so-called Roman peace in the Roman Empire. The favoritism of the Macedonian koinon by Octavian Augustus led to the gradual reduction of the separatist tendencies of the Macedonians. The Roman policy of creating a representation of free political expression actually made its contribution for the integration of the Macedonians within the Roman community. This gradual integrative process was accompanied by the preservation of the ethnical identity and the historical traditions of the Macedonians. The honor that the Thessalonica citizens gave to the provincial administrator Calpurnius Piso - Pontifex allowing him to wear the Macedonian hat causia, from the period of64

Alexander of Macedon, just because he defended the city from the Thracians (11 BC) clearly illustrates this process. From the first century AD the unity of the Macedonians was symbolized also by the Macedonian capital city, Thessalonica, which gained the epithet, The mother of all Macedonia. The tendency of the imperial dynasties in Rome from the II and the III century AD for immitatio Alexandri, which reflected their immense interest for Macedonia, had also made its contribution in terms of maintaining the compactness of the Macedonians. The Emperor Hadrian (117-138) personally visited Macedonia in 132 and stayed in the city of Pella. The respect for Alexander of Macedon was particularly emphasized by the Severan Dynasty (193-235). The Emperor Mark Antonius Caracalla (211-217) was appointing Macedonians in high-leveled positions just because of their Macedonian ethnical origin. He even formed a phalanx composed of 6,000 soldiers exclusively Macedonians and named it Alexanders phalanx. The similar tendency was marked in the period of the Emperor Alexander Severus (222-235), who formed a phalanx of 3,000 soldiers in Macedonia and ordered to be called phalanxarians. Such Roman policy corresponded with the preservation of the collective memory among the Macedonians about their Kings Philip and Alexander that was a significant segment in the process of preservation of their ethnical and cultural distinctiveness in the period of the Roman rule.

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MACEDONIA BETWEEN EAST AND WEST

(IVV century)

1. Macedonia in the period of the Tetrarchy The period of Pax romana was disturbed in the middle of the III century when the Goths managed in a short period of time to impose themselves as a serious threat so that the whole of Macedonia was concerned about their attacks. The administrative and economical crisis that affected the Roman Empire was resolved in the period of Diocletian (284305). His innovation, based upon the implementation of the tetrarchic administration system actually raised the position of the caesar and heir, Maximilian Galerius (293-311), who was entrusted the jurisdiction over the major part of the Balkans, including the province of Macedonia, which was incorporated in the newly formed diocese, Moesia. The tendency of Galerius to identify himself as Alexander of Macedon and to give an essential role to Macedonia within the framework of his ambitious imperialistic plans was clearly manifested in the appointment of Thessalonica as his main political and military center in 298. By a decision of Galerius in the first years of the IV century new provinces were formed, Thessaly and New Epirus, whose separation from the province of Macedonia was complemented by the restitution of the historical and ethnical boundaries of Macedonia. In accordance with the conception for promotion of Thessalonica as main political center of the Empire, Galerius carried out an immense construction activity in the city, which resulted in several prestigious buildings built in the first decade of the IV century. However, the ambition of Galerius resulted in a direct confrontation with the other rulers of the Tetrarchy, so that the Roman Empire was transformed into an arena of fierce conflicts. During the clashes, which brought the fall of the Tetrarchy, Galerius suddenly became ill and died in 311. Before his death, Galerius proclaimed the edict providing tolerance towards the Christians that actually implied the beginning of the new ideological policy of the Empire in which Macedonia obtained a central position on the Balkan Peninsula.67

2. Macedonia in the period of Constantine I (306337) and his successors In the clashes among the tetrarchic rulers, Constantine I (306-307) and Licinius (308-324) imposed themselves as undisputable leaders of the West and the East. During 317 Constantine managed to impose his authority over the major part of the Balkans inclusively over Macedonia. The concentration of political and military authority in Thessalonica as his new seat, as well as the implementation of the tolerant religious policy, which was based on the Edict of Milan of 311, enabled Constantine I to consolidate swiftly his positions in Macedonia. The Church authors accentuated that opportunity given to Macedonians, among other people, to practice freely their own faith, was a merit of Constantine I. After the superior victory over Licinius in 324, Constantine I emerged as an indisputable ruler of the Empire that provided completion to the implementation of the administrative and economical reforms. This had a direct impact on the increase of the administrative status of Macedonia and its promotion to diocese in 325. The enhanced political status of Macedonia actually initiated the growing of the significance of its religious policy, manifested in the prestigious positions of the Macedonian bishopric centers acquired during the dogmatic definition of the Christianity at the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325). With a tendency to ensure the unity in the complicated region in the Balkans, Constantine I before he died, had incorporated Macedonia as a diocese within the framework of the newly formed central prefecture Italy-Illyricum-Africa. However, very soon the unity of the Roman Empire appeared as unsustainable due to the conflict of the imperial dynasty among the sons of Constantine I, who confronted their antagonistic political and ideological conceptions of the west and east. Such tendencies inevitably reflected in Macedonia, which entering into the zone of the political and ideological orbit of the west appeared to be at the margins of the new spheres of influence. Strongly supporting the Nicaean creed and the positions of the Western church, Macedonia did not digress from the church affiliation in the period of Arian domination during the short independent rule of the Emperor Constantius II (337-361) nor in the period when the Emperor Julian (361-363) tended to restore the paganism through a short-lasting attempt. After the brief rule of the Emperor Jovian (363-364), which was marked with the restoration of the positions of68

the Christianity in the Empire, from 364, Macedonia entered again in the political domain of the western Emperors.

3. Theodosius I (379395) and Macedonia With the infiltration of the Goths in Thrace after the decisive victory over the eastern Emperor Valens (364-378) at Andrianople in 378 the constellation in the Balkans was significantly altered. In order to achieve a more effective management of the Gothic problem the western Emperor Gratian (367-383) appointed as eastern Emperor, Theodosius I (379-395). In that context besides the eastern part of the Empire he entrusted Theodosius temporary military and administrative responsibility over the whole prefecture of Illyricum. Theodosius focused his military, political and ideological activity on Macedonia from the beginning so that he promoted Thessalonica as a temporary imperial seat in 379. At the same time the seat of the prefecture Illyricum was also transferred from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) to Thessalonica. After the initial success of the battles against the Goths in Macedonia, in spring 380, Theodosius was inflicted with a humiliating defeat. The same year in the autumn, the Bishop Acholius in Thessalonica personally baptized the sick Emperor. This act was complementary with the Theodisius Edict issued in Thessalonica in February 380 and it was actually a promotion of the domination of the Nicaean creed in the Empire. The failure of his Gothic policy forced Theodosius to move to Constantinople in November 380. After that the western Emperor in accordance with the previous agreement assumed the responsibility for the problem resolution of the Gothic crisis in Macedonia as well as the administration of the prefecture of Illyricum. The activity of Theodosius however marked the increasing significance of Macedonia for the imperial and religious interests of the west and the east. It was confirmed in 387 when the new western Emperor Valentinian II (375-392) after fleeing from Italy because of the usurper Maximus, established the imperial seat in Thessalonica. Consequently, in 387, Thessalonica also regained the status of a temporary seat for the prefecture of Illyricum. The military and political alliance between Theodosius and Valentinian II, which was concluded in Thessalonica by the end of 387, resulted in the authorization for permanent transfer of the prefecture of Illyricum within the political borders of the Eastern Empire. The assumption of the direct political responsibility of Theodosius over the pre69

fecture of Illyricum had direct impact on Macedonia, which was manifested in the administrative division of Macedonia in two parts: Macedonia Prima, with the center in Thessalonica and Macedonia Salutaris, with the center in Stobi. This administrative division was effectuated in 388 by a decision of Theodosius, which was consistent with his plans for establishing more efficient military and administrative control in Macedonia, having in mind the confirmed presence of Gothic forces in the region. The involvement of Theodosius in the arrangement of the situation on the West provided him with a dominant position in the Empire. Unfortunatley, the unresolved military situation in Macedonia and the huge uprising in Thessalonica (390) disabled him to effectuate the agreed formal separation of the prefecture of Illyricum from Italy. The bloody massacre of the Thessalonica citizens that resulted with 7,000 victims caused a direct confrontation between Theodosius and the Milan Bishop, Ambrose, who was defending the interests of the western church in Macedonia. The newly created situation constrained Theodosius to accept the conciliatory position in regards of the western church so that he approached the resolution of the problem with the Goths in the Balkans. His successful military campaign against the Goths in Macedonia enabled Theodosius to promote formally Illyricum to a separate and permanent prefecture in 392 with its seat based in Thessalonica. However, the untimely death of Theodosius in January 395 caused the definite division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern Byzantium that came about with the division of the authority between his minor aged sons, Honorius and Arcadius. The undefined political and ideological delimiting between the two empires predetermined the fierce clash for political and religious domination, which was concentrated in the Balkans and particularly in Macedonia.

4. Macedonia between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire The issue over the administration of the Eastern Illyricum caused an open confrontation between both Empires. By the direct involvement of the Goths headed by Alaric the Byzantine imperial court managed to secure the control over this controversial part of the Balkans. Inciting Alarics campaign in Italy in 401 Byzantium successfully liberated itself from the presence of the Goths. The same year the Byzantine imperial court abolished the province of Macedonia Salutaris, and reestablished a sole province of Macedonia.70

The direction of the Goths towards Italy that resulted in the conquest of Rome in 410 marked the relatively peaceful period for Byzantium. Under these circumstances the pervious military and political confrontation between the Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire exchanged a strong conflict for the religious supremacy on the Balkan Peninsula. The outcome was determined by the act of the Pope Innocent I of 412, which promoted Thessalonica as Papal vicariate with a large jurisdiction over the territory of the Balkan Peninsula. It particularly highlighted the position of Thessalonica, which simultaneously became the political center of Byzantium in the Balkans and the religious center of Rome in the region. Macedonia in this period marked a strong economical development that influenced the development of the cities such as Thessalonica, Philippi, Amphipolis, Heraclea Lyncestis, Stobi, Bargala, Lychnidos, Scupi, Edessa, Servia, Beroia, which had a status of Bishopric centers. The immense fortifications, basilicas, villas, public and private buildings illustrate the developed and wealthy urban life in the Macedonian cities in this period. Macedonia once again was in the focus of events when the new Byzantine emperor Theodosius II (408-450) got directly involved in the dynastic changes that happened in the Western Roman Empire. The enabled incorporation of the Western Illyricum as well as the Theodosius motivation to set up the church influence in the Balkans as a counterbalance to the Roman vicariate of Thessalonica were reasons for the transfer of the seat of the prefecture of Illyricum from Thessalonica to Sirmium in 437/8. However, the Huns invasion in the Balkans and the destruction of Sirmium forced Byzantium to change its plans, and in 440/41, after the prefector of Illyricum Apremius escaped from Sirumium, the seat of the prefecture of Illyricum was returned to Thesssalonica. The Huns breaking through the Balkans forced the Byzantine imperial court to initiate new administrative changes during the year 448 that caused the new division of Macedonia in two separate provinces Macedonia Prima and Macedonia Secunda. The integral part of the new Byzantine policy in the Balkans was the initiative for the creation of new cult of St. Demetrius in Thessalonica at the middle of the V century. It was implemented by the creation of the new legend about St. Dimitrios in Thessalonica that was a modification of the previous Sirmiums legend due to the integration of religious traditions of the ancient Macedonians in Thessalonica. The substitution of the previous pagan deity, Cabeiri with the new Christian hero Demetrius was acceptable for the Macedonians in the period of global religious transition as a way of expressing the ancient traditions and iden71

tity. The new Byzantine religious policy was institutionalized with the construction of the Church of St. Demetrius in the middle of the V century, that was gradually reflected in the weakening of the Roman vicariate in Thessalonica. After freeing from the Hunic problem, with the death of Attila (453), Macedonia soon became a target of new attacks but this time by the eastern Goths. Particularly serious were the Gothic campaigns in Macedonia during the period of 473/4 and 478/9 when the cities of Stobi and Heraclea Lyncestis were demolished which caused the rising of antiByzantine uprisings in Thessalonica. By diplomatic efforts Byzantium however succeeded to prevent the settlement of the Goths on the territory of Macedonia, who in 488, directed themselves towards Italy. In the period of the Gothic attacks on Macedonia, the role of the church elite was particularly emphasized so that it assumed the political representation of the citizens in the Macedonian cities. Probably, the promised privileges by Byzantium influenced the cancellation of the loyalty towards Rome by the Macedonian Bishops during the period of Acacius schism between the Western and Eastern churches (484-518). The temporary cessation of the Thessalonica vicariate functioning was a direct consequence of the changes in the religious policy of the Macedonian church elite. The conflict related to the division of the spheres of influence between Byzantium and the Western Roman Em