1. Provide fund of ecological and life history data for agencies and individuals wishing to evaluate exotics for release in US
2. discourage exotic introductions when these data suggest that releases might be unwise
3. fill vacant or understocked habitats with foreign species

Leopold in 1940

-said money and hours of effort put into exotics would be better expended on solving problems of native species and their habitats

-intentional release of animals to the wild in an attempt to:
1. introduce organism to new sites where it did not previously exist
2. reintroduce organism to environment where it was extirpated
3. augment existing opulation that is small by adding some individuals obtained elsewhere

of 80 translocation projects for endangered birds and mammals in Australia, Canada, NZ, and U.S...

-44% were successful
-Griffith et al. 1989

Of 40 taxa of fishes native to NA deserts translocated to 407 sites...

-26% of sites saw establishment of fish
(Hendrickson and Brooks 1991)

15 plant translocations in California

-Only 4 judged to be successful
-Hall (1987)

why do translocation projects fail so often?

-problems that caused population to be gone are still operating
-success often requitres repeated translocations of substantial number of individuals
-may need soft released
-use of captive-reared animals

what is a successful translocation?`

-results in a self-sustaining population

what factors does ecological theory tell us should be important in determining success of translocations?

-number moved is large
-population rate of increase in large
-effects of competition low
-effects of predation low

1. effects of proposed activity on wildlife
2. different effects on species
3. duration of effects
4. scope of effects (extent of area affected)
5. season of activity
6. adaptability of wlf species present
7. sensitivity of area regarding wildlife
8. resilience and tolerance of vegetation
9. habitat diversity and minimum habitat requirements of wildlife species
10. potential for the area's rehabilitation
11. contributory effects (natural changes to communities)
12. consequences and risks assoc. with unplanned events
13. Human population growth
14. accessibility of the area
15. cumulative effects

mitigation

-to make or become less severe or intense
-to moderate

Purpose of mitigtion:

-avoid change in, or reduce negative impact of a change on, wildlife living in an area

types of mitigation

-avoidance
-trade-offs
-techniques to reduce impacts
-reclamation

avoidance

-try to spare areas of interest

trade-offs

-creating suitable habitats for the wildlife that is to be affected by the project
- habitat evaluation procedures (HEP) and HSI models

reclamation

-restore land to a natural, functioning system
-spurred whole field of restoration ecology

only way to be sure to retain large blocks of forest and retain timber harvest is to:

-large spreading btanches from extensive exposure to sunlight
-foresters tend to dislike, tend to be crooked with lots of branches and suppresses development of nearby trees
-keep them - provide mast, cover, nest and perch sites

1. core - softwoods with high crown closure, usually located on south-facing slopes in low areas (wetlands, riparian)
2. surrounding core of mixed hardwoods and softwoods that provide browse

foot loading

weight / surface area of foot
-increased foot loading = harder to get through snow

5 factors influencing white-tailed deer on winter range

1. snow depth and duration
2. abundance and height of rooted forage
3. comopsition and rate of lichen and foliage litterfall
4. quality and quantity of security cover
5. quality and quantity of thermal cover (shelter and food need to be close together)

deer may respond to livestock grazing by:

-changes in distribution
-changes in habitat use
-modification of activity
-alteration in poulation density

factors that affect competition for forage

Cole 1954
1. both spp. must use same area, not necessarily at same time
2. diet of 2 spp. must overlap
3. more than 1 item in diet has to be important to both spp.
4. items have to be shown to be declining in productivity or as part of plant community as result of combined use by both spp.

-influenced by drought and grazing intensity, esp. in late summer when forage is dessicated
-on winter ranges, livestock grazing should go prior to snowfall then stop to minimize reduction of available deer forage for winter

1. concentrates wildlife
2. attracts pests (starlings, feral pigs)
3. expenses
4. for ungulates, need to monitor population and regulate harvest to prevent degradation of native foods
5. in arid areas, failure in dry years, may be of no value in wet years

-removal of stand of mature trees over series of cutting over several year period
-encourages natural reproduction under partial cover of seed trees
-grass and brush competition suppressed by remaining shade
-first of these cuts is seed tree cut