The park is an open space, dominated by the Washington Square Arch at the northern gateway to the park, with a tradition of celebrating nonconformity. The park's fountain area has long been one of the city's popular spots for residents and tourists. Most of the buildings surrounding the park now belong to New York University, but many have at one time served as homes and studios for artists. Some of the buildings have been built by NYU while others have been converted from their former uses into academic and residential buildings.

While the park contains many flower beds and trees, little of the park is used for plantings due to the paving. The two prominent features are the Washington Square Arch and a large fountain. It includes children's play areas, trees and gardens, paths to stroll on, a chess and scrabble playing area, park benches, picnic tables, commemorative statuary and two dog runs.[1]

The New York City Police Department operates security cameras in the park.[2] The New York University Department of Public Safety also keeps a watch on the park, and the city parks department has security officers who sometimes patrol the park. The area has a low crime rate in the "safest big city in the United States."[3]

The land was once divided by a narrow marshy valley through which Minetta Creek (or Brook) ran.[4] In the early 17th century, a Native American village known as Sapokanican[5] or "Tobacco Field" was nearby. By the mid-17th century, the land on each side of the Minetta was used as farm land by the Dutch. The Dutch gave the land, then outside the city limits (Wall Street) to Angolan residents of the colony, intending for their plots and settlement to serve as a buffer zone to hostile Native Americans outside the settlement. In 1643, a group of “half-freed” slaves and elders such as Domingo Anthony, Manuel Trumpeter and Catalina Anthony, received land grants to build and maintain farms in the areas containing and surrounding Washington Square Park. [6] The families who received the land were no longer slaves, but had to give a portion of the profits they received from the land to the Dutch West India Company and pay annual land fees. Their children would be born as slaves, rather than free. The area became the core of an early African American community in New York, then called "the Land of the Blacks" and later "Little Africa". [7] Among those who owned parcels in what is now Washington Square Park was Paulo D'Angola.[8]

It remained farmland until April 1797, when the Common Council of New York purchased the fields to the east of the Minetta (which were not yet within city limits) for a new potter's field, or public burial ground. It was used mainly for burying unknown or indigent people when they died.[4] But when New York (which did not include this area yet) went through yellow fever epidemics in the early 19th century, most of those who died from yellow fever were also buried here, safely away from town, as a hygienic measure.[9]

A legend in many tourist guides says that the large elm at the northwest corner of the park, Hangman's Elm, was the old hanging tree.[9] However, research indicates the tree was on the side of the former Minetta Creek that was the back garden of a private house.[4] Records of only one public hanging at the potter's field exist. Two eyewitnesses to the recorded hanging differed on the location of the gallows. One said it had been put up at a spot where the fountain was prior to 2007 park redesign. Others placed the gallows closer to where the arch is now. However, the cemetery was closed in 1825. To this day, the remains of more than 20,000 bodies rest under Washington Square.[4] Excavations have found tombstones under the park dating as far back as 1799.[10]

In 1826, the city bought the land west of Minetta Creek, the square was laid out and leveled, and it was turned into the Washington Military Parade Ground. Military parade grounds were public spaces specified by the city where volunteer militia companies responsible for the nation's defense would train.

The streets surrounding the square became one of the city's most desirable residential areas in the 1830s. The protected row of Greek Revival style houses on the north side of the park remains from that time.[11]

In 1849 and 1850, the parade ground was reworked into the first park on the site. More paths were added and a new fence was built around it. In 1871, it came under the control of the newly formed New York City Department of Parks, and it was redesigned again, with curving rather than straight secondary paths.[4]

In 1889, to celebrate the centennial of George Washington's inauguration as president of the United States, a large plaster and wood Memorial Arch was erected over Fifth Avenue just north of the park. The temporary plaster and wood arch was so popular that in 1892, a permanent Tuckahoe marble arch, designed by the New York architect Stanford White, was erected,[12] standing 77 feet (23 m) and modeled after the Arc de Triomphe, built in Paris in 1806. During the excavations for the eastern part of the arch, human remains, a coffin, and a gravestone dated to 1803 were uncovered 10 feet (3.0 m) below ground level.[4]

The first fountain next to the arch was completed in 1852 and replaced in 1872. In 1851, it was described as having "a very large circular basin, with a central jet and several side jets." A story on the completion of the fountain appeared in the first edition of the New-York Daily Times, which would eventually become the New York Times[13]. The monument to Giuseppe Garibaldi was unveiled in 1888.[4] In 1918, two statues of George Washington were added to the north side.

Robert Moses became the parks commissioner in 1934. He embarked on a crusade to fully redesign the park, and local activists began an opposing fight that lasted three decades.

In 1934, Robert Moses had the fountain renovated to also serve as a wading pool. In 1952, Moses finalized plans to extend 5th Avenue through the park. He intended to eventually push it through the neighborhood south of the park, as part of an urban renewal project. Area residents, including Eleanor Roosevelt, opposed the plans. The urbanist Jane Jacobs became an activist and is credited with stopping the Moses plan and closing Washington Square Park to all auto traffic, but Jacobs, in her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities, praised another local advocate in the fight against park traffic, Shirley Hayes: "[Hayes and the Washington Square Park Committee] advocated eliminating the existing road, that is, closing the park to all automobile traffic – but at the same time, not widening the perimeter roads either. In short, they proposed closing off a roadbed without compensating for it."[14]

Washington Square Park, 1936

Hayes, former Chairman of the Washington Square Park Committee and member of the Greenwich Village Community Planning Board, a local resident and mother of four sons, started a public outcry for the park when large apartment buildings were raised on one of its borders. When then-Manhattan borough presidentHulan E. Jack suggested an elevated pedestrian walkway over a four-lane road through the park, Ms. Hayes initiated "Save the Square!", a seven-year battle to keep automobiles out of the quiet area. Though several different proposals were given for a roadway in the park, Hayes and her followers rejected them all. Seeking to "best serve the needs of children and adults of this family community," Hayes in turn presented her own proposal: 1.75 acres (700 m2) of roadway would be converted to parkland, a paved area would be created for emergency access only, and all other vehicles would be permanently banned from the park. This plan received widespread support, including that of then-Congressman John Lindsay, as well as Washington Square Park West resident Eleanor Roosevelt. After a public hearing in 1958, a "ribbon tying" ceremony was held to mark the inception of a trial period in which the park would be free of vehicular traffic. In August 1959, the efforts of Ms. Hayes and her allies paid off; from that time forward Washington Square Park has been completely closed to traffic. A plaque commemorating her tireless crusade can be seen in the park today.

Since around the end of World War II, folksingers had been congregating on warm Sunday afternoons at the fountain in the center of the park. Tension and conflicts began to develop between the bohemian element and the remaining working-class residents of the neighborhood. The city government began showing an increasing hostility to the use of public facilities by the public and, in 1947, began requiring permits before public performances could be given in any city park.

In the spring of 1961, the new parks commissioner refused a permit to the folksingers for their Sunday afternoon gatherings, because "the folksingers have been bringing too many undesirable [beatnik] elements into the park."[15] On April 9, 1961, folk music pioneer Izzy Young, owner of the Folklore Center—who had been trying to get permits for the folksingers—and about 500 musicians and supporters gathered in the park and sang songs without a permit, then held a procession from the park through the arch at Fifth Avenue, and marched to the Judson Memorial Church on the other side of the park. At about the time the musicians and friends reached the church, the New York City Police Department Riot Squad was sent into the park, attacked civilians with billy clubs, and arrested 10 people. The incident made the front pages of newspapers as far away as Washington, DC. The New York Mirror initially reported it as a "Beatnik Riot", but retracted the headline in the next edition, although tensions remained for a while.

In December 2007, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation began construction on a US$16 million project to redesign and refurbish Washington Square Park. Changes to the park's design include the realignment of the central fountain with the arch, a replacement of the existing perimeter fence with a taller iron fence, and the flattening and shrinking of the central plaza. The plan also called for the downing of dozens of mature trees and the reinstitution of ornamental water plumes in the fountain—which, opponents worried, would undermine the park's informal character.

Five lawsuits were filed to challenge the parks department's renovation plans. A 2005 suit was withdrawn by the petitioners as premature. In July 2006, New York County Supreme Court Justice Emily Jane Goodman enjoined any renovation work on the fountain or fountain plaza area, pending further review of the plans by the local community board, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and the Art Commission, stating that the parks department misrepresented the project to secure its approval, but this decision was reversed on appeal.[16] Another lawsuit challenging the art commission's approval of the plan was dismissed. Two more lawsuits questioning the environmental review of the renovation project were heard in 2007 by the New York County Supreme Court, then dismissed.

Upon the completion of phase one of the park's renovation on May 22, 2009, the Coalition for a Better Washington Square Park, a private organization, began raising money to "hire off-duty cops and maintenance workers to patrol the park" by the summer of 2010.[17]

On June 2, 2011, the eastern half of the park was reopened to the public, leaving only the park's southwest corner under construction. In mid-August 2012, the new granite benches heated up to 125°F in the sun, rendering them temporarily unusable.[18]

The presence of street performers has been one of the defining characteristics of Washington Square Park.[19] For many years, people visiting the park have mingled with the buskers, performers, musicians, and poets.[20] Because of a change in policy on a 2010 rule that involved artists, the new ruling that was to come in on May 8, 2013, would involve entertainers. This could mean that performers could be fined $250 for the first offense and up to $1,000 for further violations. The 2010 rule on which the 2013 ruling was based stated that artists could not sell within 50 feet of a monument or five feet from any bench or fence.[19]

In 1834, New York University decided to use prison labor to dress the stone for its new building, across from the park, as prison labor from Sing Sing was cheaper than hiring local stonemasons. This, the stonecutters of the city said, was taking the bread out of their mouths. They held a rally in Washington Square Park, and then held the first labor march in the city. That turned into a riot, and the 27th New York regiment was called out to quell the stonecutters. The regiment camped in Washington Square for four days and nights until the excitement subsided. New York University continued their use of prison labor.[21]

In 1912, approximately 20,000 workers (including 5,000 women) marched to the park to commemorate the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, which had killed 146 workers the year before. Many of the women wore fitted tucked-front blouses like those manufactured by the Triangle Shirtwaist Company. This clothing style became the working woman's uniform and a symbol of female independence, reflecting the alliance of labor and suffrage movements. Over 25,000 people marched on the park demanding women's suffrage in 1915.[citation needed]

In the years before and after World War I, the park was a center for many American artists, writers, and activists, including the photographer André Kertész, who photographed the square during winter. Later, the park was a gathering area for the Beat generation, folk, and hippie movements in the 1950s and 1960s; in 1958, musician Buddy Holly, a nearby resident of Greenwich Village, spent time in the park both listening to people play and helping guitarists with musical chords.[22] In the mid-1960s, His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada sat beneath a tree in the park and chanted Hare Krishna to the people there. On September 27, 2007, Democratic Presidential candidate Barack Obama held a rally at Washington Square; 20,000 people registered for the event, and the crowds overflowed past security gates set up as a cordon. The New York Times described the rally "as one of the largest campaign events of the year."[23]

The park was featured extensively in the 2007 film I Am Legend. The protagonist, Dr. Robert Neville, played by Will Smith, lived directly across the street from the park. It was used as a major action piece, especially in the last scenes of the film.

Washington Square is the titular park in the 1967 Jane Fonda and Robert Redford vehicle Barefoot in the Park (film); taking its title from the climatic scene, where Corie says Paul is so uptight, that he won't even just walk 'barefoot in the park' with her.

Many scenes shot in the park in the film August Rush with Robin Williams and Freddie Highmore were shot in the park. Highmore, playing the titular character August Rush, a musical prodigy, basks in the park under the watchful eye of the Fagin-like Williams.

The park scene in the 1995 film Kids took place at Washington Square Park.

Built-in outdoor chess tables on the southwest corner encourage outdoor playing along with throngs of watchers (in his youth, Stanley Kubrick was a frequent player). These tables were featured in the films Searching for Bobby Fischer (1993) and Fresh (1994). The Washington Square tables form the cornerstone of what is called Manhattan's "chess district", as the area around the park (Thompson Street, between West 3rd Street and Bleecker Street) has a number of chess shops, the oldest being the Village Chess Shop, which was founded in 1972, but closed in November 2012.[25]

^Jeff, Zeleny (September 28, 2007). "Obama Distances Himself From Clinton, on Her Turf". The New York Times. Retrieved December 18, 2007. Mr. Obama's aides said more than 20,000 people registered for the event through the campaign's Web site. While it was impossible to determine even a reliable attendance estimate, a view from the vantage point of an elevated lift seemed to reveal the gathering as one of the largest campaign events of the year.

1.
Washington Square Arch
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The Washington Square Arch is a marble triumphal arch built in 1892 in Washington Square Park in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It celebrates the centennial of George Washingtons inauguration as President of the United States in 1789, Washington Square Arch, constructed of white Tuckahoe marble, was modeled by Stanford White on the Arc de Triomphe, built in 1806, in Paris. The piers stand 30 feet apart and the opening is 47 feet high. The iconography of the Arch centers on images of war and peace, on the frieze are 13 large stars and 42 small stars interspersed with capital Ws. The spandrels contain figures of Victory, the inscription on the attic story reads, Let us raise a standard to which the wise and the honest can repair. The event is in the hand of God, the north side of the eastern pier bears the sculpture George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, Accompanied by Fame and Valor by Hermon A. MacNeil in which the President is flanked by Fame and Valor. The western pier has George Washington as President, Accompanied by Wisdom and Justice by A. Stirling Calder with flanking Justice, in the latter sculpture, a hand holds a book bearing the Latin phrase Exitus Acta Probat. These sculptures are commonly referred to as Washington at War and Washington at Peace and these figures and most of the rest of the carving on the arch was performed by the Piccirilli Brothers. In 1889, a plaster and wood memorial arch was erected over Fifth Avenue just north of Washington Square Park by local businessman. Stewart lived at 17 Washington Square North and he collected $2,765 from his friends to finance the work, the temporary arch was so popular that three years later the permanent stone arch, designed by architect Stanford White, was erected. During the excavations for the pier, human remains, a coffin. The Arch was dedicated in 1895, in 1918, two statues of Washington were added to the north side. Formerly, the Washington Square Arch was extensively defaced with spray-painted graffiti and it was cleaned and restored in the 1980s. List of post-Roman triumphal arches Notes Guide to the Records of the Washington Arch, 1872-1925

2.
Municipal parks
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The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the local level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector company. A park is an area of space provided for recreational use. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics, trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. An early purpose-built public park, although financed privately, was Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth and this was laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, the creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of space for the benefit of townspeople. Nashs remodelling of St Jamess Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regents Park completely transformed the appearance of Londons West End. Liverpool had a presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance, frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having one of the principal influences on Olmsted. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846, in The Politics of Park Design, A History of Urban Parks in America, Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U. S. As time passed and the area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks, because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U. S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings and these smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance, as urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. One such example of a park is Chess Park in Glendale. This award-winning park was given an award by the American Society of Landscape Architects and these small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a playground for children

3.
Public park
–
The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the local level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector company. A park is an area of space provided for recreational use. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics, trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. An early purpose-built public park, although financed privately, was Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth and this was laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, the creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of space for the benefit of townspeople. Nashs remodelling of St Jamess Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regents Park completely transformed the appearance of Londons West End. Liverpool had a presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance, frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having one of the principal influences on Olmsted. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846, in The Politics of Park Design, A History of Urban Parks in America, Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U. S. As time passed and the area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks, because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U. S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings and these smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance, as urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. One such example of a park is Chess Park in Glendale. This award-winning park was given an award by the American Society of Landscape Architects and these small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a playground for children

4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

5.
New York City Department of Parks and Recreation
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The total area of the properties maintained by the department is over 30,000 acres. The department maintains more than 1,700 parks, playgrounds, Parks also cares for park flora and fauna, community gardens,23 historic houses, over 1,200 statues and monuments, and more than 2.5 million trees. The City of New York Department of Parks & Recreation produces many special events, including concerts, the largest single component of parkland maintained by the department is the forever wild Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx, with an area of 2,765 acres. The symbol of the department is a cross between the leaf of the London plane and a maple leaf and it is prominently featured on signs and buildings in public parks across the city. The London plane tree is on the NYC Parks Departments list of restricted use species for tree planting because it constitutes more than 10% of all street trees. The department is a mayoral agency, the current Parks Commissioner is Mitchell Silver. The current chair of the New York City Council Committee on Parks & Recreation is Mark D. Levine, the department is allocated an expense budget and a capital budget. The expense budget covers the expenses incurred by the agency. The capital budget is dedicated solely for new projects, as well as major repairs in parks that have a useful life of more than five years. Its regulations are compiled in Title 56 of the New York City Rules, Parks Enforcement Patrol officers have peace officer status under NYS Penal Law and are empowered through this status to make arrests and issue tickets. PEP officers patrol land, waterways and buildings under the jurisdiction of the Department of Parks and Recreation on foot, bicycle, horseback, boat, PEP officers are also responsible for physical site inspections of NYC park concession facilities to assure the concessionaires compliance with state laws. The Urban Park Rangers was founded as a program in 1979 by then Parks Commissioner Gordon J. Davis, with the support. The program provides free programs year-round, such as nature walks. They also operate programs such as The Natural Classroom for class trips, explorer programs are available for activities such as canoeing in the citys flagship parks in all five boroughs. NYC Urban Park Rangers are easily identified by their uniforms, although NYC Park Rangers possess peace officer status, their primary mission is environmental education, protection of park resources, and visitor safety. Law enforcement in city parks is the responsibility of the New York City Police Department, most businesses that operate or generate revenue on New York City parkland are considered concessions and must obtain a permit or license from the Revenue Division of Parks. Pursuant to the Citys Concession Rules, these licenses and permits are awarded through a public solicitation process. Approximately 500 concessions currently operate in parks throughout the five boroughs, the food service concessions range from pushcarts selling hot dogs to restaurants such as Tavern on the Green and Terrace on the Park

6.
Greenwich Village
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Greenwich Village, often referred to by locals as simply the Village, is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan, New York City. Greenwich Village has been known as a haven, the Bohemian capital, the cradle of the modern LGBT movement. Groenwijck, one of the Dutch names for the village, was Anglicized to Greenwich, two of New Yorks private colleges, New York University and the New School, are located in Greenwich Village. The neighborhoods surrounding it are the East Village and NoHo to the east, SoHo to the south, the East Village was formerly considered part of the Lower East Side and never associated with Greenwich Village. The western part of Greenwich Village is known as the West Village, some believe it starts at Seventh Avenue and its southern extension, a border to the west of which the neighborhood changes substantially in character and becomes heavily residential. The Far West Village is another sub-neighborhood of Greenwich Village that is bordered on its west by the Hudson River and on its east by Hudson Street. Greenwich Village is located in New Yorks 10th congressional district, New Yorks 25th State Senate district, New Yorks 66th State Assembly district, encyclopaedia Britannicas 1956 article on New York states that the southern border of the Village is Spring Street, reflecting an earlier understanding. The newer district of SoHo has since encroached on the Villages historic border, many of the neighborhoods streets are narrow and some curve at odd angles. This is generally regarded as adding to both the character and charm of the neighborhood. In addition, as the meandering Greenwich Street used to be on the Hudson River shoreline, much of the neighborhood west of Greenwich Street is on landfill, but still follows the older street grid. When Sixth and Seventh Avenues were built in the early 20th century, they were built diagonally to the street plan. Unlike the streets of most of Manhattan above Houston Street, streets in the Village typically are named rather than numbered, while some of the formerly named streets are now numbered, they still do not always conform to the usual grid pattern when they enter the neighborhood. The Districts convoluted borders run no farther south than 4th Street or St. Lukes Place, redevelopment in that area is severely restricted, and developers must preserve the main façade and aesthetics of the buildings during renovation. In the 16th century, Native Americans referred to its farthest northwest corner, by the cove on the Hudson River at present-day Gansevoort Street, the land was cleared and turned into pasture by Dutch and freed African settlers in the 1630s, who named their settlement Noortwyck. In the 1630s, Governor Wouter van Twiller farmed tobacco on 200 acres here at his Farm in the Woods, sir Peter Warren began accumulating land in 1731 and built a frame house capacious enough to hold a sitting of the Assembly when smallpox rendered the city dangerous in 1739. The building was designed by Joseph-François Mangin, who would later co-design New York City Hall, by 1821, the prison, designed for 432 inmates, held 817 instead, a number made possible only by the frequent release of prisoners, sometimes as many as 50 a day. The oldest house remaining in Greenwich Village is the Isaacs-Hendricks House, when the Church of St. Luke in the Fields was founded in 1820 it stood in fields south of the road that led from Greenwich Lane down to a landing on the North River. In 1822, a fever epidemic in New York encouraged residents to flee to the healthier air of Greenwich Village

7.
Lower Manhattan
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Lower Manhattan is defined most commonly as the area delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and it includes the Financial District and the World Trade Center site. At the islands southern tip is Battery Park, City Hall is just to the north of the Financial District, also south of Chambers Street are the planned community of Battery Park City and the South Street Seaport historic area. The neighborhood of TriBeCa straddles Chambers on the west side, at the streets east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building, North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street lies most of New Yorks oldest Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area. The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal, North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are the neighborhoods of SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, the area that would eventually encompass modern day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami, European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam in 1626. The first fort was built at the Battery to protect New Netherland, soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers, they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English, early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kiefts War against the Native Americans, the Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch, the Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29,1645. On May 27,1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival, the colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. The first mayors of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year, in 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it New York after the Duke of York. At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, during the mid 1600s, farms of free blacks covered 130 acres where Washington Square Park later developed. The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city New Orange, the new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy, by 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, the 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America

8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

9.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU

10.
Fifth Avenue
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Fifth Avenue is a major thoroughfare going through the borough of Manhattan in New York City, United States. It stretches from West 143rd Street in Harlem to Washington Square North at Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village and it is considered among the most expensive and best shopping streets in the world. The lower stretch of Fifth Avenue extended the stylish neighborhood of Washington Square northwards, Fifth Avenue is the central scene in Edith Whartons 1920 Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Age of Innocence. The novel describes New Yorks social elite in the 1870s and provides context to Fifth Avenue. Originally a narrower thoroughfare, much of Fifth Avenue south of Central Park was widened in 1908, the midtown blocks, now famously commercial, were largely a residential district until the start of the 20th century. In 1906 his department store, B. Altman and Company, the result was the creation of a high-end shopping district that attracted fashionable women and the upscale stores that wished to serve them. Lord & Taylors flagship store is located on Fifth Avenue near the Empire State Building. In the 1920s traffic towers controlled important intersections from 14th to 59th Streets, traffic crosses the river on the Madison Avenue Bridge. Fifth Avenue serves as the line for house numbering and west-east streets in Manhattan. It separates, for example, East 59th Street from West 59th Street, the most expensive street in the world moniker changes depending on currency fluctuations and local economic conditions from year to year. For several years starting in the mid-1990s, the district between 49th and 57th Streets was ranked as having the worlds most expensive retail spaces on a cost per square foot basis. In 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Fifth Avenue as being the most expensive street in the world, some of the most coveted real estate on Fifth Avenue are the penthouses perched atop the buildings. The American Planning Association compiled a list of 2012 Great Places in America and this historic street has many world-renowned museums, businesses and stores, parks, luxury apartments, and historical landmarks that are reminiscent of its history and vision for the future. Below is a list of sites on Fifth Avenue with their designation dates,500 Fifth Avenue Building – December 14,2010 Aeolian Building – – December 10,2002 George W. It recognizes structures, buildings, sites, and districts associated with important events, people, Fifth Avenue from 142nd Street to 135th Street carries two-way traffic. Fifth Avenue carries one-way traffic southbound from 135th Street to Washington Square North, the changeover to one-way traffic south of 135th Street took place on January 14,1966, at which time Madison Avenue was changed to one way uptown. From 124th Street to 120th Street, Fifth Avenue is cut off by Marcus Garvey Park, Fifth Avenue is one of the few major streets in Manhattan along which streetcars did not operate. Instead, Fifth Avenue Coach offered a more to the taste of fashionable gentlefolk

11.
Washington Square North
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Waverly Place is a narrow street, in the Greenwich Village section of the New York City borough of Manhattan, that runs from Bank Street to Broadway. Waverly changes direction roughly at its midpoint at Christopher Street, turning about 120 degrees from a street to a northwest/southeast street. At Christopher Street, the direction changes as well, from southbound to westbound. At the intersection where this occurs, Waverly branches into a Y. The two blocks which form the border of Washington Square Park – from MacDougal Street to Fifth Avenue. In the block from FIfth to University, there is a line of Greek Revival townhouses, sometimes called the Row. Some of the buildings at the Fifth Avenue end have retained their exterior facades, the street was named after Sir Walter Scotts novel Waverley in 1833, prior to that it was called Art Street. In the 1840s, New York Citys elite established Washington Square, far from the commercial environment of Lower Manhattan. Anchored by the mansion of William C, rhinelander at the center of Washington Square North, the Row of Greek Revival town houses on either side of Fifth Avenue presented the unified and dignified appearance of privilege. When the center of New York City society moved north after the American Civil War, henry James, whose grandmother lived at 18 Washington Square North, depicted this nostalgic view in his 1880 tragicomedic novel, Washington Square. Today, the buildings all belong to New York University, the 1830s row house at 1–3 Washington Square North may be the most closely associated house in the city to a single artist. From 1913 until his death in May 1967, the artist Edward Hopper and his wife, Josephine, lived in a studio on the buildings top floor. Chosen for its low rent and the belief that his hero. They decorated their rooms simply, with pieces of early American furniture, don Drapers bachelor pad is located on Waverly Place on Mad Men. The television series Wizards of Waverly Place is set there, one of the townhouses serves as the protagonists residence in the 2007 film I am Legend. List of places named for George Washington List of streets in Manhattan Waverly Place, A New York Songline – virtual walking tour

12.
Waverly Place
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Waverly Place is a narrow street, in the Greenwich Village section of the New York City borough of Manhattan, that runs from Bank Street to Broadway. Waverly changes direction roughly at its midpoint at Christopher Street, turning about 120 degrees from a street to a northwest/southeast street. At Christopher Street, the direction changes as well, from southbound to westbound. At the intersection where this occurs, Waverly branches into a Y. The two blocks which form the border of Washington Square Park – from MacDougal Street to Fifth Avenue. In the block from FIfth to University, there is a line of Greek Revival townhouses, sometimes called the Row. Some of the buildings at the Fifth Avenue end have retained their exterior facades, the street was named after Sir Walter Scotts novel Waverley in 1833, prior to that it was called Art Street. In the 1840s, New York Citys elite established Washington Square, far from the commercial environment of Lower Manhattan. Anchored by the mansion of William C, rhinelander at the center of Washington Square North, the Row of Greek Revival town houses on either side of Fifth Avenue presented the unified and dignified appearance of privilege. When the center of New York City society moved north after the American Civil War, henry James, whose grandmother lived at 18 Washington Square North, depicted this nostalgic view in his 1880 tragicomedic novel, Washington Square. Today, the buildings all belong to New York University, the 1830s row house at 1–3 Washington Square North may be the most closely associated house in the city to a single artist. From 1913 until his death in May 1967, the artist Edward Hopper and his wife, Josephine, lived in a studio on the buildings top floor. Chosen for its low rent and the belief that his hero. They decorated their rooms simply, with pieces of early American furniture, don Drapers bachelor pad is located on Waverly Place on Mad Men. The television series Wizards of Waverly Place is set there, one of the townhouses serves as the protagonists residence in the 2007 film I am Legend. List of places named for George Washington List of streets in Manhattan Waverly Place, A New York Songline – virtual walking tour

13.
4th Street (Manhattan)
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4th Street is a street in Lower Manhattan, New York City. It starts at Avenue D as East 4th Street and continues to Broadway and it continues west until the Avenue of the Americas, where West 4th Street turns north and confusingly intersects with West 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th Streets in Greenwich Village. Most of the street has the same 40-foot width between curbstones as others in the street grid, striped as two curbside lanes and one traffic lane, with one-way traffic eastbound. The portion from Seventh to Eighth Avenues is westbound and is approximately 35 feet wide, the section of four short blocks from MacDougal Street to University Place which forms the southern border of Washington Square Park is called Washington Square South. The north/south portion was formerly called Asylum Street, after the Orphan Asylum Society, the asylum was demolished in 1833 and the street was renamed West 4th Street. Later, the streets were renamed West 10th, 11th. The church was sold in 2005 to a developer for conversion into residential units, during construction, parts of the church were salvaged to form the furniture and interior architecture of Urban Spring, a cafe in Fort Greene, Brooklyn. Judson Memorial Church, located at the corner of Thompson Street and Washington Square South, was designed by architect Stanford White, the West Fourth Street subway station at Sixth Avenue is one of the major transfer points in the IND portion of the New York City Subway. West 4th Street has always been a center of the Villages bohemian lifestyle, the Villages first tearoom, The Mad Hatter, was located at 150 West 4th Street and served as a meeting place for intellectuals and artists. The infamous Golden Swan bar, at the corner of Sixth Avenue, was a haunt of Eugene ONeill. Writer Willa Cathers first New York residence was at 60 Washington Square South and radical journalists John Reed and Lincoln Steffens lived nearby at 42 Washington Square South. Sculptor and art patron Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney established the Whitney Studio Club in a brownstone at 147 West 4th Street in 1918 as a place for artists to gather. The facility operated for ten years and was the incarnation of what would later become the Whitney Museum of American Art. It started the careers of artists as Ashcan School painter John Sloan, Edward Hopper, whose first one-man exhibit was held there in 1920. Sloan lived at 240 West 4th St and painted locations on the street including the Golden Swan, the street was later home to the famous folk club Gerdes Folk City, which hosted the New York debuts of Bob Dylan in 1961 and Simon & Garfunkel. Music venue The Bottom Line was at 15th West 4th Street from 1974 to 2004, media related to 4th Street at Wikimedia Commons New York Songlines, 4th Street NY Parks department history of the Golden Swan and other West 4th Street sites Gerdes Folk City photo and info

14.
MacDougal Street
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Macdougal Street is a one-way street in the Greenwich Village and SoHo neighborhoods of Manhattan, New York City. The street is bounded on the south by Prince Street and on the north by West 8th Street, traffic on the street runs southbound. Macdougal Street is named for Alexander McDougall, a merchant and Revolutionary War military leader, the Alley runs east off Macdougal Street in the block between West 8th Street and Waverly Place/Washington Square North. MacDougal Street has been called the most colorful and magnetic venue for tourists on an outing in the Village. It has been the subject of songs, poems, and other forms of artistic expression. Macdougal Street Nos. 74–96 between Houston and Bleecker Streets are houses of the MacDougal-Sullivan Gardens Historic District, which were built c.1844 in the Greek Revival style. However, the houses deteriorated over time until they were bought by William Sloane Coffin in 1920, joannes and Maxwell Hyde in Colonial Revival style in 1921, their rear yards were combined with those of the houses behind them on Sullivan Street to make a common garden. No.77 is the clubhouse of the New York Rifle Club, Cafe Dante, at No.81 features a giant photo mural of Florence. At the corner of Macdougal and Bleecker Street, at No, the cafe is featured on the cover of Fred Neils debut folk-rock album Bleecker & MacDougal. Bob Dylan bought an apartment in 1969 at No.94, No.99 was home of 99 Records, a progressive music and fashion store owned by Gina Franklin and Ed Bahlman. 99 Records released 1980s club hits by Liquid Liquid, ESG, minetta Tavern at No.113 is a trattoria/bar which has seen such regulars as E. E. Cummings, Joe Gould, Ernest Hemingway, Eugene ONeill, Ezra Pound and many others. The bar Kettle of Fish opened in 1959 at No,114, moving in 1986 to the space previously occupied by Gerdes Folk City. Bob Dylan had his first New York City gig at Cafe Wha. at No.115 and this is also where Jimi Hendrix played some early gigs. No.116 used to be The Gaslight Cafe, where Ray Bremser, Gregory Corso, Bob Dylan, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Allen Ginsberg, LeRoi Jones, Jack Kerouac, Dave Van Ronk, Bob Dylan lived there for a time. The Comedy Cellar at No.117 has featured nearly every notable American comedian,119, a coffeehouse since 1927, has been featured in many movies including The Godfather Part II. Many celebrities have been spotted or photographed in this location, in 1959 presidential hopeful John F. Kennedy made a speech outside the coffee shop. 127–131 between West 3rd and 4th Streets were built c. 1828–29 as residences in the Federal style, all three had been converted to commercial use by the 1920s, and were designated New York City landmarks in 2004. At No.129 is La Lanterna di Vittorio, an Italian pizzeria/cafe with a venue in the basement known as the Bar Next Door

15.
Raised-bed gardening
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Raised-bed gardening is a form of gardening in which the soil is formed in three-to-four-foot-wide beds, which can be of any length or shape. The soil is raised above the soil, is sometimes enclosed by a frame generally made of wood, rock, or concrete blocks. The vegetable plants are spaced in geometric patterns, much closer together than in conventional row gardening, the spacing is such that when the vegetables are fully grown, their leaves just barely touch each other, creating a microclimate in which weed growth is suppressed and moisture is conserved. Raised beds produce a variety of benefits, they extend the season, they can reduce weeds if designed and planted properly. Since the gardener does not walk on the beds, the soil is not compacted. The close plant spacing and the use of compost generally result in higher yields with raised beds in comparison to conventional row gardening, waist-high raised beds enable the elderly and physically disabled to grow vegetables without having to bend over to tend them. Raised beds lend themselves to the development of complex systems that utilize many of the principles. They can be used effectively to control erosion and recycle and conserve water and this also makes more space available for intensive crop production. They can be created over large areas with the use of commonly available tractor-drawn implements. This form of gardening is compatible with square foot gardening and companion planting, circular raised beds with a path to the center are called keyhole gardens. Often the center has a chimney of sorts built with sticks and then lined with feedbags or grasses that allows water placed at the center to flow out into the soil, vegetable garden bed construction materials should be chosen carefully. Some concerns exist regarding the use of pressure-treated timber, if using timber to raise the garden bed, ensure that it is an untreated hardwood to prevent the risk of chemicals leaching into the soil. A common approach is to use timber sleepers joined with steel rods to them together. Another approach is to use blocks, although less aesthetically pleasing, they are inexpensive to source. A double skinned wall provides an air pocket of insulation that minimizes the temperature fluctuations, sometimes raised bed gardens are covered with clear plastic to protect the crops from wind and strong rains. Pre-manufactured raised bed gardening boxes also exist, there are variants of wood, metal, stone and plastic. Each material type has advantages and disadvantages, kitchen garden Therapeutic garden Hügelkultur, another type of raised bed Waru Waru – A traditional Quechua, pre-Inca system involving raised beds Square foot gardening Bird, Christopher. Cubed Foot Gardening, Growing Vegetables in Raised, Intensive Beds, ISBN 1-58574-312-7 Linhart, Rita & Richardson, Antoinette

16.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine

17.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
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Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy. He is considered, with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and Giuseppe Mazzini, Garibaldi personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the Italian unification. He has been called the Hero of Two Worlds because of his enterprises in Brazil, Uruguay. These earned him a reputation in Italy and abroad, aided by exceptional international media coverage at the time. Many of the greatest intellectuals of his time, such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, the United Kingdom and the United States helped him a great deal, offering him financial and military support in difficult circumstances. In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red worn by his volunteers in lieu of a uniform. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia, Garibaldis familys involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Niçois community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain, in April 1833 he travelled to Taganrog, Russia, in the schooner Clorinda with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, Mazzini was an impassioned proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic through political and social reform. Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate, in Geneva during November 1833, Garibaldi met Mazzini, starting a long relationship that later became troublesome. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont, a Genoese court sentenced him to death in absentia, and he fled across the border to Marseille. Garibaldi first sailed to Tunisia before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil, once there he took up the cause of Republic of Rio Grande do Sul in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War. During this war he met Ana Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita, in 1841, Garibaldi and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where Garibaldi worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year and they had four children – Menotti, Rosita, Teresita, and Ricciotti. A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught Giuseppe about the culture of southern Brazil. Around this time, he adopted his trademark clothing, which consisted of the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by the gauchos. In 1842 Garibaldi took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion, of known as Redshirts. He aligned his forces with a composed of the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera

18.
Bessemer process
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The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron, the oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, one such process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo describes its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese, the modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly. The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the basic Bessemer process or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and these oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings are used there is little phosphorus in the raw material - this is known as the acid Bessemer process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite and these are also known as Gilchrist-Thomas converters, after their inventor, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen, when the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the blow, was completed in approximately 20 minutes, during this period the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added. A Bessemer converter could treat a heat of 5 to 30 tons at a time and they were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped. Before the Bessemer process, Western Europe and the United States relied on the process to reduce the carbon content of white cast iron. It was possible to make low-quality puddled steel, but the process was difficult to control, high-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 a long ton, the most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in finery forges in Sweden

19.
New York City Police Department
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The New York City Police Department, officially the City of New York Police Department, is the largest municipal police force in the United States. Established in 1845, the agency has primary responsibilities in law enforcement, the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments established in the U. S. tracing its roots back to the nineteenth century. According to the department, its mission is to enforce the laws, preserve the peace, reduce fear, the departments regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. In June 2004, there were about 40,000 sworn officers plus several thousand employees, in June 2005. As of December 2011, that figure increased slightly to over 36,600, the NYPDs current authorized uniformed strength is 34,450. The Patrolmens Benevolent Association of the City of New York, the largest municipal police union in the United States, represents over 50,000 active, the NYPD Intelligence Division & Counter-Terrorism Bureau has officers stationed in 11 cities internationally. In the 1990s the department developed a CompStat system of management which has also since established in other cities. The NYPD is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall, the NYPD has extensive crime scene investigation and laboratory resources, as well as units which assist with computer crime investigations. The NYPD runs a Real Time Crime Center, essentially a search engine. A Domain Awareness System, a joint project of Microsoft and the NYPD, links 6,000 closed-circuit television cameras, license plate readers, members of the NYPD are frequently referred to by politicians, some media and their own police cars by the nickname New Yorks Finest. The Municipal Police were established in 1845, replacing an old night watch system, in 1857, it was tumultuously replaced by a Metropolitan force, which consolidated many other local police departments in 1898. Twentieth-century trends included professionalization and struggles against corruption, Officers begin service with the rank of Probationary Police Officer, also referred to as Recruit Officer. After successful completion of six months of Police Academy training and various academic, physical, There are three career tracks in the NYPD, supervisory, investigative, and specialist. The supervisory track consists of 12 sworn titles, referred to as ranks, promotion to the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made via competitive civil service examinations. Promotion from the rank of police officer to detective is determined by the current police labor contract, the entry level appointment to detective is third grade or specialist. The commissioner may grant discretionary grades of first or second and these grades offer compensation roughly equivalent to that of supervisors. Specifically, a second grade detectives pay roughly corresponds to a sergeants, Detectives are police officers who have been given a more investigatory position but no official supervisory authority. A Detective First Grade still falls under the command of a sergeant or above, just like detectives, sergeants and lieutenants can receive pay grade increases within their respective ranks

20.
Minetta Creek
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Minetta Creek, was a stream that was among the largest natural watercourses in Manhattan, New York City. The streams flowed southward and joined between Eleventh and Twelfth Streets between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, the creek was filled in by the mid-nineteenth century, although it persisted as an underground stream through the twentieth century. Debate continues on whether the creek still exists, the creek, whose course formed a well-defined channel, was known for its abundance of fish, in particular trout. Pickerel, bass, and pike were among the species fished in it, all manner of wild fowl including ducks and geese could be found in the creek. Most of these pre-nineteenth century documents refer to the creek by its Dutch name, the first was a point 150 feet north of Greenwich Street from the center of the arch or bridge over Bestavers Killtjie. Hoffman added a note, Bestavers Killtjie was afterward known as the Minetta Brook and he concludes his note by stating that this geographic point is represented in an 1807 map made by Charles Loss. A swamp area existed in what is now Washington Square Park, the creek served as a boundary between a potters field which was established on April 7,1797 and was in operation until May 25,1825, on its eastern bank, and private property to its west. The southernmost part of the course was the estate known as Richmond Hill. In 1794 he leased it to Aaron Burr, who altered the course of the creek to form Burrs Pond at the foot of his estate, in 1820 there still was a small colony of muskrats, bordering this creek, Issachar Cozzens recalled in 1843. The covering in of Minetta Stream began in 1820, when the council appointed James Wallace to build a Minetta sewer. Due to the opening of Fifth Avenue, on December 10,1824, with the closing of the potters field on May 25,1825, the council chose to transform the area into a military parade ground, which eventually became Washington Square Park. By autumn 1828, the creek was diverted to the Hudson River through a wooden sewer, by 1849, the Richmond Hill estate near the southern end of the stream had been demolished, with row houses taking its place, indicating that water no longer flowed through the area. The residential brownstone residence at 45 West Twelfth Street was built in 1846, the odd shape of its eastern wall, slightly overlapping its neighbor at 43 West Twelfth Street, is due to being built on the bank of Minetta Creek. On Oct.27,1884 they interrogated John F. Attridge, at one point Doctor S. Oakley Vanderpoel raised the subject of whether houses built over filled-in ground had proper drainage. To this Attridge responded, I lived for fifteen years over Minetta Brook, and the people considered it the most unhealthy place in New York. In 1892, the New York Times reported the flooding of the cellar of Solomon Sayles and this incident provided the Timess reporter an opportunity to speak with Egbert Ludovicus Viele, who had designed the Topographical & Sanitary Map of Manhattan published in 1865. Viele had first investigated the creek in 1860, using a British survey made at the time of the Revolutionary War, Viele explained that the creek was a source of water prior to construction of the Croton Distributing Reservoir. Once the reservoir had been completed in 1842, the creek was no longer needed as a water source, when Viele once gave a talk on the creek, an elderly physician in the audience recalled cases of intermittent fever due to the creek

21.
Dutch West India Company
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Dutch West India Company was a chartered company of Dutch merchants. Among its founding fathers was Willem Usselincx, the area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and the eastern part of New Guinea. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, the company became instrumental in the Dutch colonization of the Americas. When the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602, some traders in Amsterdam did not agree with its monopolistic politics, however, he failed to find a passage. One of the first sailors who focused on trade with Africa was Balthazar de Moucheron, the trade with Africa offered several possibilities to set up trading posts or factories, an important starting point for negotiations. It was Blommaert, however, who stated that in 1600 eight companies sailed on the coast of Africa, competing with each other for the supply of copper, pieter van den Broecke was employed by one of these companies. In 1612, a Dutch fortress was built in Mouree, along the Dutch Gold Coast, Trade with the Caribbean, for salt, sugar and tobacco, was hampered by Spain and delayed because of peace negotiations. Spain offered peace on condition that the Dutch Republic would withdraw from trading with Asia, Spain refused to sign the peace treaty if a West Indian Company would be established. At this time the Dutch War of Independence between Spain and the Dutch Republic was occurring, grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt offered to only suspend trade with the West in exchange for the Twelve Years Truce. The result was that during a few years the company sailed under a flag in South America. However, ten years later, Stadtholder Maurice of Orange, proposed to continue the war with Spain, in 1619, his opponent Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded, and when two years later the truce expired, the West Indian Company was established. Some historians date the origins of the firm to the 1500s with arrivals of settlers in what is now called New York long before the English at Jamestown. The WIC was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company, the board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX. The validity of the charter was set at 24 years, only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure. The States General of the Netherlands and the VOC pledged one million guilders in the form of capital, unlike the VOC, the WIC had no right to deploy military troops. When the Twelve Years Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a hand to re-wage war with Spain. A Groot Desseyn was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa, when this plan failed, privateering became one of the major goals within the WIC. The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance, on almost all ships in 1623,40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the hijacking of enemy ships

22.
New York City Council
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The New York City Council is the lawmaking body of the City of New York. It has 51 members from 51 council districts throughout the five boroughs, the Council serves as a check against the mayor in a strong mayor-council government model. The council monitors performance of city agencies and makes land use decisions as well as legislating on a variety of other issues. The City Council also has responsibility for approving the city budget. The head of the City Council is called the Speaker, and is currently Melissa Mark-Viverito, the Speaker sets the agenda and presides at meetings of the City Council. Proposed legislation is submitted through the Speakers Office, there are 47 Democratic council members led by Majority Leader Jimmy Van Bramer. The three Republican council members are led by Minority Leader Steven Matteo, the Council has 35 committees with oversight of various functions of the city government. Each council member sits on at least three standing, select or subcommittees, the standing committees meet at least once per month. The Speaker of the Council, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader are all ex members of every committee. Council members are elected every four years, except for two consecutive two year terms every twenty years to allow for redistricting between the terms due to the national census. Council Members currently receive $148,500 a year in base salary, Members receive no additional compensation for serving as a committee chairperson or other officer under the new salary raise. The New York City Charter is the law of the government of New York City including the Council. The New York City Administrative Code is the codification of the laws promulgated by the Council and is composed of 29 titles, the regulations promulgated by city agencies pursuant to law are contained in the Rules of the City of New York in 71 titles. A local law has an equivalent with a law enacted by the Legislature. Each local government must designate a newspaper of notice to publish or describe its laws, the Secretary of State is responsible for publishing local laws as a supplement to the Laws of New York, but they have not done so in recent years. The history of the New York City Council can be traced to Dutch Colonial times when New York City was known as New Amsterdam. On February 2,1653, the town of New Amsterdam, a Council of Legislators sat as the local lawmaking body and as a court of inferior jurisdiction. During the 18th and 19th centuries the local legislature was called the Common Council, in 1898 the amalgamation charter of the City of Greater New York renamed and revamped the Council and added a New York City Board of Estimate with certain administrative and financial powers

23.
Potter's field
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A potters field, paupers grave or common grave is a term for a place for the burial of unknown or indigent people. The term is of Biblical origin, referring to a ground where clay was dug for pottery, later bought by the priests of Jerusalem for the burial of strangers, criminals. But they said, What is that to us, and casting down the pieces of silver in the temple, he departed, and went and hanged himself with a halter. But the chief priests, having taken the pieces of silver, said, It is not lawful to put them into the corbona, and after they had consulted together, they bought with them the potters field, to be a burying place for strangers. For this the field was called Haceldama, that is, the field of blood, the site referred to in these verses is traditionally known as Akeldama, in the valley of Hinnom, which was a source of potters clay. After the clay was removed, such a site would be unusable for agriculture. This may be the origin of the name, a field where potters dug for clay would also be conveniently already full of trenches and holes. The author of Matthew was drawing on earlier Biblical references to potters fields and this is a free quotation from Zechariah 11, 12-13. However, Matthew attributes the quote to Jeremiah, the author of Matthew may have been mistaken. There are two possible reasons for the reference. First, Jeremiah also speaks of buying a field, in Jeremiah 32 and that field is a symbol of hope, not despair as mentioned in Matthew, and the price is 17 pieces of silver. The author of Matthew could have combined the words of Zechariah and Jeremiah, secondly, Jeremiah was sometimes used to refer to the Books of the Prophets in toto as The Law is sometimes used to refer to Moses five books – Genesis through Deuteronomy, the Pentateuch. Other scholars do not read the verse as referring to Gentiles, cast her into the Potters field. Lincoln Park, on Chicagos North Side, found its origin in the 1840s as Chicago City Cemetery, the southernmost portion of the cemetery, where one may now find a number of baseball fields, was the location of the City Cemetery potters field from 1843 to 1871. More than 15,000 people, including 4,000 Confederate soldiers, were buried here on land near the waters edge. The baseball fields have occupied these grounds since 1877, madison Square Park, Washington Square Park and Bryant Park in New York City originated as potters fields. The citys current potters field, and one of the largest cemeteries in the United States, the fluid dynamics of the East River causes a collection of these bodies every year off the docks of Potters Field. Hudson County Burial Grounds Washington Square Washington Park was the site of the State Street Burying Grounds, some maps identify the section as the Strangers burial ground

24.
New York City Department of Parks
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The total area of the properties maintained by the department is over 30,000 acres. The department maintains more than 1,700 parks, playgrounds, Parks also cares for park flora and fauna, community gardens,23 historic houses, over 1,200 statues and monuments, and more than 2.5 million trees. The City of New York Department of Parks & Recreation produces many special events, including concerts, the largest single component of parkland maintained by the department is the forever wild Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx, with an area of 2,765 acres. The symbol of the department is a cross between the leaf of the London plane and a maple leaf and it is prominently featured on signs and buildings in public parks across the city. The London plane tree is on the NYC Parks Departments list of restricted use species for tree planting because it constitutes more than 10% of all street trees. The department is a mayoral agency, the current Parks Commissioner is Mitchell Silver. The current chair of the New York City Council Committee on Parks & Recreation is Mark D. Levine, the department is allocated an expense budget and a capital budget. The expense budget covers the expenses incurred by the agency. The capital budget is dedicated solely for new projects, as well as major repairs in parks that have a useful life of more than five years. Its regulations are compiled in Title 56 of the New York City Rules, Parks Enforcement Patrol officers have peace officer status under NYS Penal Law and are empowered through this status to make arrests and issue tickets. PEP officers patrol land, waterways and buildings under the jurisdiction of the Department of Parks and Recreation on foot, bicycle, horseback, boat, PEP officers are also responsible for physical site inspections of NYC park concession facilities to assure the concessionaires compliance with state laws. The Urban Park Rangers was founded as a program in 1979 by then Parks Commissioner Gordon J. Davis, with the support. The program provides free programs year-round, such as nature walks. They also operate programs such as The Natural Classroom for class trips, explorer programs are available for activities such as canoeing in the citys flagship parks in all five boroughs. NYC Urban Park Rangers are easily identified by their uniforms, although NYC Park Rangers possess peace officer status, their primary mission is environmental education, protection of park resources, and visitor safety. Law enforcement in city parks is the responsibility of the New York City Police Department, most businesses that operate or generate revenue on New York City parkland are considered concessions and must obtain a permit or license from the Revenue Division of Parks. Pursuant to the Citys Concession Rules, these licenses and permits are awarded through a public solicitation process. Approximately 500 concessions currently operate in parks throughout the five boroughs, the food service concessions range from pushcarts selling hot dogs to restaurants such as Tavern on the Green and Terrace on the Park

25.
Tuckahoe marble
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Tuckahoe marble is a type of marble named after the village of Tuckahoe, New York or alternatively the neighborhood of Inwood in Manhattan, New York City. It is found in Eastchester and extending southward to parts of the Bronx, such as Kingsbridge, Mott Haven, Melrose and Tremont and it has long been quarried at Tuckahoe as well as at Ossining, Hastings, and Thornwood, hence the alternate name, Westchester marble. It is part of the Inwood Formation, which also intrudes into western Connecticut and it dates from the Late Cambrian to the Early Ordovician ages. Inwood marble is a high quality marble first discovered in 1822 in the town of Tuckahoe in Westchester County, the marble is from the larger Inwood Formation or deposit, which stretches in a northeasterly direction from mid-Manhattan through southern Westchester. The marble is characterized scientifically as a marble and varies in color from a light gray to light green. A distinctive characteristic is the size of the calcite and dolomite particles that primarily compose the stone. Oxidation of these iron-bearing minerals causes certain varieties of the marble to turn orange-brown when the stone is exposed to weather, locally quarried Manhattan schist and sandstone from the lower Hudson Valley were typically used before marble became more popular. By the late 18th century, marble was being produced by a number of quarries in northern Manhattan, the most well-known quarry that supplied stone from the deposit was in the area now known as Tuckahoe. This Tuckahoe marble was nearly white in color and considered by many to be of the highest grade. Many federal buildings destroyed by the British during the War of 1812 were rebuilt with Tuckahoe marble, the commercial marble industry first developed along the Bronx River. In 1818 the Tuckahoe Marble Quarry opened and eventually became a producer of marble for the world. These local marble quarries were the reason that the state government of New York chose Sing Sing as the site of a new prison in 1825. From 1865 to 1871, hundreds of Scottish and Irish laborers blasted huge quantities of marble from the quarry at Hastings-on-Hudson, by the 1880s, Hastings Pavement was producing the paving blocks used extensively in Central Park and Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Between 1895 and 1900, Hastings Pavement produced 10 million such blocks and shipped throughout the U. S. and to cities in Canada, Brazil. White Tuckahoe marble supplied the early United States with a material suitable for the neoclassical architecture popular in Americas early public buildings. Quarrying of Tuckahoe Marble ceased in 1930, Inwood marble was used to construct the burial vaults at the New York Marble Cemetery and the New York City Marble Cemetery, both repositories of influential and prominent early citizens. T. Stewart Company Store, Manhattan Brooklyn Borough Hall Tweed Courthouse, Manhattan Washington Square Arch, Marble House, Newport, Rhode Island Washington Monument, Washington, D. C. List of types of marble Torres, Louis, Tuckahoe Marble, The Rise and Fall of an Industry in Eastchester, New York, 1822-1930, Harrison, N. Y

26.
Stanford White
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Stanford White was an American architect and partner in the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White, the frontrunner among Beaux-Arts firms. He designed a series of houses for the rich, and numerous public, institutional. His design principles embodied the American Renaissance, in 1906, White was murdered by millionaire Harry Kendall Thaw over Whites relationship with Thaws wife, actress Evelyn Nesbit. This led to a case which was dubbed The Trial of the Century by contemporary reporters. White was the son of Shakespearean scholar Richard Grant White and Alexina Black Mease and his father was a dandy and Anglophile with no money, but a great many connections in New Yorks art world, including painter John LaFarge, Louis Comfort Tiffany, and Frederick Law Olmsted. He remained with Richardson for six years, in 1878, White embarked for a year and a half in Europe, and when he returned to New York in September 1879, he joined Charles Follen McKim and William Rutherford Mead to form McKim, Mead and White. As part of the partnership, all designed by the architects were identified as being the work of the collective firm. In 1884, White married 22-year-old Bessie Springs Smith and his new wife hailed from a socially prominent Long Island family, her ancestors were early settlers of the area, and Smithtown, New York, was named for them. Their estate, Box Hill, was not only a home, a son, Lawrence Grant White, was born in 1887. In 1889, White designed the arch at Washington Square. White was the director of the Washington Centennial celebration and created a temporary triumphal arch which was so popular, outside of New York City, White designed the First Methodist Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland, now Lovely Lane United Methodist Church. He also designed Cocke, Rouss, and Old Cabell halls at the University of Virginia, additionally, he designed the Blair Mansion at 7711 Eastern Ave. in Silver Spring, Maryland, now being used as a restaurant. He was responsible for designing the Boston Public Library and the Boston Hotel Buckminster, in 1902, he designed the Benjamin Walworth Arnold House and Carriage House in Albany, New York, and he helped to develop Nikola Teslas Wardenclyffe Tower, his last design. Just as his Washington Square Arch still stands, so do many of Whites clubhouses, which were focal points of New York society, the Century, Colony, Harmonie, Lambs, Metropolitan, and Players clubs. However, his clubhouse for the Atlantic Yacht Club, built in 1894 overlooking Gravesend Bay, sons of society families also resided in Whites St. Anthony Hall Chapter House at Williams College, now occupied by college offices. In the division of projects within the firm, the sociable and his fluent draftsmanship was highly convincing to clients who might not get much visceral understanding from a floorplan, and his intuition and facility caught the mood. Whites Long Island houses have survived well, despite the loss of Harbor Hill in 1947 and he also designed the Kate Annette Wetherill Estate in 1895. White designed a number of other New York mansions as well, including the Iselin family estate All View, White was also active designing country estate homes in Greenwich, Connecticut

27.
Arc de Triomphe
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The Arc de Triomphe should not be confused with a smaller arch, the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, which stands west of the Louvre. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I and it set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Roman Arch of Titus, the Arc de Triomphe has an height of 50 metres, width of 45 m. The smaller transverse vaults are 18.68 m high and 8.44 m wide, three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919, Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the archs primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel. Pariss Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, the Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modelled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at 60 m. The Arc is located on the bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806 after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes, the architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot. On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, prior to burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc during the night of 22 May 1885. The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, the relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations. On 7 August 1919, Charles Godefroy successfully flew his biplane under the Arc, Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight. Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944 and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées, after the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb, both Hitler in 1940 and de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom. By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, after the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the Arc de Triomphe de lÉtoile, the Grande Arche is the third arch built on the same perspective. In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings, the astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin, in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe, Jean-Pierre Cortot, François Rude, Antoine Étex, James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire

28.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

29.
Childe Hassam
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Frederick Childe Hassam was an American Impressionist painter, noted for his urban and coastal scenes. Along with Mary Cassatt and John Henry Twachtman, Hassam was instrumental in promulgating Impressionism to American collectors, dealers, and museums. He produced over 3,000 paintings, oils, watercolors, etchings, and lithographs over the course of his career, Hassam was born in his family home on Olney Street in Dorchester, Boston, in 1859. His father Frederick was a moderately successful cutlery businessman with a collection of art. He descended from a line of New Englanders. His mother, Rosa, a native of Maine, shared an ancestor with American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne and his father claimed descent from a seventeenth-century English immigrant whose name, Horsham, had been corrupted over time to Hassam. With his dark complexion and heavily lidded eyes, many took Childe Hassam to be of Middle Eastern descent - speculation which he enjoyed stoking, Hassam demonstrated an interest in art early. He had his first lessons in drawing and watercolor while attending The Mather School, as a child, Hassam excelled at boxing and swimming at Dorchester High School. A disastrous fire in November 1872 wiped out much of Bostons commercial district, Hassam left high school after two years despite his uncles offer to pay for a Harvard education. Hassam preferred to support his family by working. His father arranged a job in the department of publisher Little. During that time, Hassam studied the art of engraving and found employment with George Johnson. He quickly proved an adept draftsman and he produced designs for commercial engravings such as letterheads, around 1879, Hassam began creating his earliest oil paintings, but his preferred medium was watercolor, mostly outdoor studies. In 1882, Hassam became an illustrator, and established his first studio. He specialized in illustrating childrens stories for such as Harpers Weekly, Scribners Monthly. He continued to develop his technique while attending drawing classes at the Lowell Institute and at the Boston Art Club, by 1883, Hassam was exhibiting publicly and had his first solo exhibition, of watercolors, at the Williams and Everett Gallery in Boston. The following year, his friend Celia Thaxter convinced him to drop his first name and he also began to add a crescent symbol in front of his signature, the meaning of which remains unknown. Having had relatively little formal art training, Hassam was advised by his friend Edmund H. Garrett to take a study trip with Garrett to Europe during the summer of 1883

30.
Robert Moses
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Robert Moses was a city planner who worked mainly in the New York metropolitan area. One of his contributions to urban planning was New York States large parkway network. Robert Moses simultaneously held twelve titles, but was never elected to any public office, nevertheless, he created and led numerous public authorities that gave him autonomy from the general public and elected officials. Moses projects were considered by many to be necessary for the development after the Great Depression. During the height of his powers, New York City built campuses to host two Worlds Fairs, one in 1939 and the other in 1964. Moses also helped persuade the United Nations to locate its headquarters in Manhattan, instead of Philadelphia, by helping the state secure the money, Moses was born in New Haven, Connecticut, to assimilated German Jewish parents, Bella and Emanuel Moses. He spent the first nine years of his living at 83 Dwight Street in New Haven. In 1897, the Moses family moved to New York City, Mosess father was a successful department store owner and real estate speculator in New Haven. In order for the family to move to New York City, he sold his estate holdings and store. Mosess mother was active in the settlement movement, with her own love of building, Robert Moses and his brother Paul attended several schools for their elementary and secondary education, including the Dwight School and the Mohegan Lake School, a military academy near Peekskill. After graduating from Yale University and Wadham College, Oxford, and earning a Ph. D. in political science from Columbia University, Moses became attracted to New York City reform politics. A committed idealist, he developed plans to rid New York of patronage hiring practices. None went very far, but Moses, due to his intelligence, caught the notice of Belle Moskowitz, when the state Secretary of States position became appointive rather than elective, Smith named Moses, Moses served from 1927 to 1929. Moses rose to power with Smith, who was elected as governor in 1922, during that period Moses began his first foray into large scale public work initiatives, while drawing on Smiths political power to enact legislation. This helped create the new Long Island State Park Commission and the State Council of Parks and this centralization allowed Smith to run a government later used as a model for Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal federal government. Moses also received numerous commissions that he carried out extraordinarily well, displaying a strong command of law as well as matters of engineering, Moses became known for his skill in drafting legislation, and was called the best bill drafter in Albany. At a time when the public was accustomed to Tammany Hall corruption and incompetence, shortly after President Franklin D. Roosevelts inauguration in 1933, the federal government found itself with millions of New Deal dollars to spend, yet states and cities had few projects ready. Moses was one of the few officials who had projects shovel ready

31.
Eleanor Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. President Harry S. Truman later called her the First Lady of the World in tribute to her human rights achievements, Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. She had a childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was influenced by its feminist headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U. S. she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly her stance on racial issues. On a few occasions, she disagreed with her husbands policies. She launched a community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the rights of African Americans and Asian Americans. Following her husbands death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life and she pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administrations Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as one of the most esteemed women in the world, in 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 at 56 West 37th Street in Manhattan, New York City, to socialites Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, from an early age, she preferred to be called by her middle name, Eleanor. Through her father, she was a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, through her mother, she was a niece of tennis champions Valentine Gill Vallie Hall III and Edward Ludlow Hall. Her mother nicknamed her Granny because she acted in such a manner as a child. Her mother was somewhat ashamed of Eleanors plainness. Eleanor had two brothers, Elliott Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, usually called Hall. She also had a brother, Elliott Roosevelt Mann, through her fathers affair with Katy Mann. Roosevelt was born into a world of wealth and privilege

32.
Jane Jacobs
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Jane Jacobs OC OOnt was an American-Canadian journalist, author, and activist best known for her influence on urban studies. Her influential book The Death and Life of Great American Cities argued that urban renewal did not respect the needs of most city-dwellers, the book also introduced sociological concepts such as eyes on the street and social capital. After moving to Toronto in 1968, she joined the opposition to the Spadina Expressway, as a mother and a writer who criticized experts in the male-dominated field of urban planning, Jacobs endured scorn from established figures. She did not have a degree or any formal training in urban planning. Jacobs was born Jane Butzner in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the daughter of John Decker Butzner, a doctor, and Bess Robison Butzner and they were a Protestant family in a heavily Roman Catholic town. Her brother, John Decker Butzner, Jr. served as a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, after graduating from Scranton High School, she worked for a year as the unpaid assistant to the womens page editor at the Scranton Tribune. In 1935, during the Great Depression, she moved to New York City with her sister Betty, Jane Butzner took an immediate liking to Manhattans Greenwich Village, which did not conform to the citys grid structure. The sisters soon moved there from Brooklyn, during her first several years in the city, Jacobs held a variety of jobs, working mainly as a stenographer and freelance writer, often writing about working districts in the city. These experiences, she said, … gave me more of a notion of what was going on in the city and what business was like. Her first job was for a magazine, first as a secretary. She sold articles to the Sunday Herald Tribune, Cue magazine and she studied at Columbia Universitys School of General Studies for two years, taking courses in geology, zoology, law, political science, and economics. About the freedom to study across her wide-ranging interests, she said, For the first time I liked school. Fortunately my high-school marks had been so bad that Barnard decided I could not belong to it, after attending Columbia Universitys School of General Studies for two years, Butzner found a job at Iron Age magazine. A1943 article on economic decline in Scranton was well-publicized and led the Murray Corporation to locate a warplane factory there, encouraged by this success, Butzner petitioned the War Production Board to support more operations in Scranton. Experiencing discrimination at Iron Age, she advocated for equal pay for women. She became a writer for the Office of War Information, and then a reporter for Amerika. While working there she met Robert Hyde Jacobs Jr. a Columbia-educated architect who was designing warplanes for Grumman, Butzner and Jacobs married in 1944. Together they had two sons, James and Ned, and a daughter, Burgin and they bought a three-story building at 555 Hudson St. Jane continued to write for Amerika after the war, while Robert left Grumman and resumed work as an architect

33.
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
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The Death and Life of Great American Cities is a 1961 book by writer and activist Jane Jacobs. The book is a critique of 1950s urban planning policy, which it holds responsible for the decline of city neighborhoods in the United States. Going against the modernist planning dogma of the era, it proposes a newfound appreciation for organic urban vibrancy in the United States, the modernist planners used deductive reasoning to find principles by which to plan cities. Among these policies she considered urban renewal the most violent, and these policies, she claimed, destroy communities and innovative economies by creating isolated, unnatural urban spaces. She frequently cites New York Citys Greenwich Village as an example of a vibrant urban community, the Village, like many similar communities, may well have been preserved, at least in part, by her writing and activism. The book also played a role in slowing the urban redevelopment of Toronto, Canada. Jacobs begins the work with blunt pugilism, This book is an attack on current city planning and rebuilding, in summarizing the development of contemporary city planning theory, she begins with the Garden City of Ebenezer Howard. Industrial factories were allowed on the periphery, provided they were masked behind green spaces, the Garden City concept was first embodied in the UK by the development of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City, and in the US suburb of Radburn, NJ. Jacobs tracks Howards influence through American luminaries Lewis Mumford, Clarence Stein, Henry Wright, and Catherine Bauer, Jacobs continues her survey of orthodox urbanism with Le Corbusier, whose Radiant City concept envisioned twenty-four towering skyscrapers within a Great Park. Jacobs concludes her introduction with a reference to the City Beautiful movement, which dotted downtown areas with civic centers, baroque boulevards, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Ebenezer Howard. The Culture of Cities Lewis Mumford, Cities in Evolution, Sir Patrick Geddes. Toward New Towns for America, Clarence Stein, nothing Gained by Overcrowding, Sir Raymond Unwin. The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning, Le Corbusier, Jacobs frames the sidewalk as a central mechanism in maintaining the order of the city. This order is all composed of movement and change, and although it is life, not art, we may call it the art form of the city. Jacobs posits cities as fundamentally different from towns and suburbs principally because they are full of strangers, a central challenge of the city, therefore, is to make its inhabitants feel safe, secure, and socially integrated in the midst of an overwhelming volume of rotating strangers. The healthy sidewalk is a mechanism for achieving these ends, given its role in preventing crime. The more bustling a street, the more interesting it is for strangers to walk along or watch from inside, in other words, healthy sidewalks transform the citys high volume of strangers from a liability to an asset. They form the first line of defense for administering order on the sidewalk, Jacobs draws a parallel between empty streets and the deserted corridors, elevators, and stairwells in high-rise public housing projects

34.
Borough president
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A borough president is an elective office in each of the five boroughs of New York City. Borough presidents currently have little power in New York City government and they generally act as advocates for their boroughs at the mayoral agencies, the city council, the New York State government, public corporations, and private businesses. Their authorizing law is codified in title 4, sections 81 to 85 of the New York City Charter, Borough presidents currently have a relatively small discretionary budget for projects within their boroughs. They also act as advocates for their boroughs at mayoral agencies, the City Council, the New York State government, public corporations, Borough presidents are currently elected by popular vote to four-year terms, and can serve up to three consecutive terms. Borough presidents influence the Uniform Land Use Review Procedure by appointing NYC community boards, each of the five boroughs has a borough board. They are composed of the president, council members from the borough. Community boards advise on land use and zoning, participate in the city budget process, community boards act in an advisory capacity, and have no authority to make or enforce laws. On January 1,1898, the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, as part of the consolidation, all town and county governments within the city were dissolved, and their powers were given to the city and the boroughs. The boroughs assumed most county functions, but did not replace them, the eastern two-thirds of Queens County was not part of the borough of Queens. The initial city charter established the five borough president offices with terms of four years, the salaries of the presidents of Manhattan, The Bronx, and Brooklyn were $5,000, and those of Queens and Richmond were $3,000. The borough presidents were subject to removal for cause by the mayor, with approval by the governor, in a later writers words, the offices of the borough presidents were created to preserve local pride and affection for the old municipalities after consolidation. Borough presidents gradually gained more authority, assisting in the formulation of more aspects of the city budget and controlling land use, contracts, and franchise powers. Although some borough presidents served for decades, the position was used as a stepping-stone to other elective offices such as judgeships or, in the case of Robert F. Wagner. On March 22,1989, the Supreme Court of the United States, the city charter was quickly revised and passed in a referendum that fall, and the Board of Estimate was abolished. The offices of the presidents were retained, but with greatly reduced power. The borough budgets became the responsibility of the mayor and City Council, Borough presidents currently have a relatively small discretionary budget for projects within their boroughs. The two major remaining appointments of the presidents are one member each on the City Planning Commission. Borough presidents generally adopt specific projects to promote while in office and they also act as advocates for their boroughs at mayoral agencies, the City Council, the New York State government, public corporations, and private businesses

35.
John Lindsay
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John Vliet Lindsay was an American politician, lawyer, and broadcaster who was a U. S. congressman, mayor of New York City, candidate for U. S. president, and regular guest host of Good Morning America. During his political career, he served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from January 1959 to December 1965 and he died from Parkinsons disease and pneumonia in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina on December 19,2000. Lindsay was born in New York City on West End Avenue, to George Nelson Lindsay and he grew up in an upper-middle-class family of English and Dutch descent. Lindsays paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from the Isle of Wight, Lindsays father was a successful lawyer and investment banker. Lindsay attended the Buckley School, St. Pauls School and Yale, with the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined the United States Navy as a gunnery officer. He obtained the rank of lieutenant, earning five battle stars through action in the invasion of Sicily, in 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm of Webster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Back in New York City, Lindsay met his wife, Mary Anne Harrison, at the wedding of Nancy Bush. A native of Richmond, Virginia and a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, Harrison was a distant relative of William Henry Harrison and Benjamin Harrison. That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later. Like Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who redecorated the White House, Mary Lindsay, an educator, renovated Gracie Mansion. She died of cancer at the age of seventy-seven, four years after the passing of her husband, Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth for Eisenhower club in 1951 and as president of the New York Young Republican club in 1952. He went on to join the United States Department of Justice in 1955 as executive assistant to Attorney General Herbert Brownell, There he worked on civil liberties cases as well as the 1957 Civil Rights Act. While in Congress, Lindsay established a voting record increasingly at odds with his party. He was a member of a group of liberal and moderate Republicans in the House who voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1965, Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City as a Republican with the support of the Liberal Party of New York in a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidate Abraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as National Review magazine founder William F. Buckley, the unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from a Murray Kempton column, was He is fresh and everyone else is tired. On his first day as mayor, January 1,1966, as New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, I still think its a fun city, and walked four miles from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it. Dick Schaap, then a columnist for the New York Herald Tribune, in the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it wasnt

36.
Philip Johnson
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In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House

37.
Elmer Holmes Bobst Library
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The Elmer Holmes Bobst Library, often referred to as simply Bobst Library or Bobst, is the main library at New York University in Manhattan, New York City. The library is located at 70 Washington Square South between LaGuardia Place and the Schwartz pedestrian plaza, across from the southeast corner of Washington Square Park. Opened on September 12,1973, Bobst Library is named after its benefactor, Bobst – a philanthropist who made his money in the pharmaceutical industry, and a confidant of U. S. President Richard Nixon – was a long-time trustee at New York University. The library, built in 1972, is the universitys largest library, designed by Philip Johnson and Richard Foster, the 12-story,425,000 square feet structure is the flagship of an eleven-library,5.9 million-volume system. It houses more than 3.3 million volumes,20,000 journals, the library is visited by more than 6,500 users per day, and circulates almost one million books annually. Gifts from Mamdouha S. Bobst and Kevin Brine made possible a significant renovation of Bobst Librarys Mezzanine, First Floor, the library provided text computer terminals for catalog search in the library until the terminals were replaced by PCs with Internet access in 2008. The library houses several special collections departments, including the Fales Library, the Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives. On the north side, on floors, are large. In late 2003, the library was the site of two suicides, in separate incidents, students jumped from the open-air crosswalks inside the library and fell to the stereogram-patterned marble floor below. After the second suicide, the university installed Plexiglas barricades on each level, in 2009, a third student jumped to his death from the tenth floor, apparently scaling the plexiglass barricade. The library has since added floor-to-ceiling metal barriers to prevent future suicide attempts, the barrier is made of randomly perforated aluminum screens that evoke the zeros and ones of a digital waterfall. Also in 2003, the library was in the news when a student took up permanent residence at the library because he could not afford student housing. This student received the nickname Bobst Boy and was profiled by the Washington Square News, reaction amongst the student body was mixed. Some students cited his case as an example of the inability to fully meet its students financial need

38.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

39.
Folk music
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Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre

40.
Beatnik
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Beatnik was a media stereotype prevalent throughout the 1950s to mid-1960s that displayed the more superficial aspects of the Beat Generation literary movement of the 1950s. Elements of the beatnik trope included pseudo-intellectualism, drug use, Kerouac introduced the phrase Beat Generation in 1948, generalizing from his social circle to characterize the underground, anticonformist youth gathering in New York at that time. In 1954, Nolan Miller published his novel, Why I Am So Beat. The adjective beat was introduced to the group by Herbert Huncke, Beat came from underworld slang—the world of hustlers, drug addicts, and petty thieves, where Allen Ginsberg and Kerouac sought inspiration. Beat was slang for beaten down or downtrodden, but to Kerouac and Ginsberg, other adjectives discussed by Holmes and Kerouac were found and furtive. Kerouac felt he had identified a new trend analogous to the influential Lost Generation, wed even heard old 1910 Daddy Hipsters of the streets speak the word that way, with a melancholy sneer. It never meant juvenile delinquents, it meant characters of a special spirituality who didnt gang up but were solitary Bartlebies staring out the dead wall window of our civilization, Kerouac explained what he meant by beat at a Brandeis Forum, Is There A Beat Generation. On November 8,1958, at New Yorks Hunter College Playhouse, panelists for the seminar were Kerouac, James A. Wechsler, Princeton anthropologist Ashley Montagu, and author Kingsley Amis. Wechsler, Montague, and Amis all wore suits, while Kerouac was clad in jeans, ankle boots. Who knows, but that the universe is not one vast sea of compassion actually, Kerouacs address was later published as The Origins of the Beat Generation. The vision of the word Beat as being to mean beatific, people began to call themselves beatniks, beats, jazzniks, bopniks, bugniks and finally I was called the avatar of all this. Suburban couples could have beatnik parties on Saturday nights and drink too much, Kerouac biographer Ann Charters noted that the term Beat was appropriated to become a Madison Avenue marketing tool, The term caught on because it could mean anything. It could even be exploited in the affluent wake of the decade’s extraordinary technological inventions, almost immediately, for example, advertisements by hip record companies in New York used the idea of the Beat Generation to sell their new long playing vinyl records. And most are certain that their readers, or viewers, are of limited ability and must have things explained simply. Thus, the reporters in the media tried to relate something that was new to already preexisting frameworks and images that were only vaguely appropriate in their efforts to explain and simplify. With a variety of oversimplified and conventional formulas at their disposal, they back on the nearest stereotypical approximation of what the phenomenon resembled. And even worse, they did not see it clearly and completely at that, and in this, they were aided and abetted by the Poetic Establishment of the day. The consequence is, that though we may know now that these images do not accurately reflect the reality of the Beat movement

41.
Izzy Young
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Israel Goodman Young or Izzy Young is a noted figure in the world of folk music, both in America and Sweden. He is the owner of the Folklore Center in Greenwich Village, New York. Israel Goodman Young was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, to Polish immigrant parents, Philip, Izzy Young grew up in the Bronx where he finished high school. From 1948 to 1952 he worked in his fathers bakery in Brooklyn and he later went into the book business. In 1957, at 110 MacDougal Street in New York Citys Greenwich Village, he opened the Folklore Center, from 1959 to 1969, Young wrote a column entitled Fret and Frails for the folk music journal Sing Out. He served on the advisory board for the magazine until his departure for Sweden a few years later. Young arranged concerts with musicians and songwriters, who often made contacts with other musicians at the Folklore Center. Bob Dylan relates in his memoirs, Chronicles, how he spent time at the Center, Dylan met Dave Van Ronk in the store, and Young produced Dylans first concert at Carnegie Chapter Hall in New York City on Saturday, November 4,1961. Bob Dylan wrote a song about the store and Young entitled Talking Folklore Center, after developing an interest in Swedish folk music at a festival, Young closed his New York store, and in 1973, he moved to Stockholm where he opened the Folklore Centrum. Originally at Roslagsgatan in the Vasastan, it has located on Wollmar Yxkullsgatan at Södermalm since 1986. He is the father of the actress and television presenter Philomène Grandin, Young, Izzy, The Conscience of the Folk Revival, The Writings of Israel Izzy Young, Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group,2013. Tompkin, Julian, Izzy Young is the godfather of folk but young at heart, The Australian, December 07,2013 Wilentz, Sean, Bob Dylan in America, Random House, confer Introduction and other major sections for references to Izzy Young and The Folklore Center

On a section of Bernard Ratzer's map of New York and its suburbs, made circa 1766, Minetta Creek is labeled "Bestavaer's Rivulet" and may be seen in high resolution, exiting into the Hudson River on the left edge about halfway up in the area labeled, "Abe Mortier Est.,", below Lady Warren's estate