3 Abstract As part of the EMSOC- project (User Empowerment in a Social Media Culture) that investigates the in- fluence of social media on the (dis)empowerment of vulnerable individuals and groups, this report presents the first step of a research on combating (cyber)bullying. The goal of this research is to pro- vide teachers with a (digital) toolkit to facilitate 9 to 10- year- olds to become more self- regulatory as a class group in preventing and coping with traditional bullying as well as cyberbullying. In line with the Participatory Design approach at the core of this research, we identified a set of preconditions for effectively combating (cyber)bullying and collected suggestions for how these preconditions can be created. For this purpose, we involved different experts and teachers in a series of participatory map- ping sessions using the MAP- it tool. The results should be seen as a metaphorical map, indicating roads, dangers and opportunities in the design process of the toolkit. Since children are important stakeholders as well, they will be actively involved as design partners in the next steps of the project. 3

5 1. Introduction Parallel to the rise of online and mobile media, cyberbullying has become a well- known phenomenon, expanding and intensifying bullying behaviour beyond its traditional borders. Although different anti- bullying programs have been developed over the past decades, our unique contribution is to provide teachers with a (digital) toolkit to facilitate children to become more self- regulatory in preventing and coping with offline as well as online or cyberbullying. We thereby focus on the class as a social group, and on the exclusion of children in class groups due to bullying. Making children more self- regulatory does not mean the teacher s role in combating (cyber)bullying will be minimised. In contrast, we aim at a central and facilitating role for the teacher, guiding the children throughout the process. This is in line with Dupont s (2012) notion of guided bottom- up. With the term bottom- up she refers to actions and initiatives that arise from within a group of people. When support or help is given from an organisation or person (e.g. school, teacher, etc.) to enable or to stimulate bottom- up actions and initiatives, she coins the term guided bottom- up. Within the EMSOC- project (User Empowerment in a Social Media Culture) that investigates the influ- ence of social media on the (dis)empowerment of individuals and groups, this research on combating offline as well as online bullying, is part of the inclusion work package. The aim of the inclusion work package is to understand the relation between social media and people, focussing on bottom- up strat- egies to actively involve vulnerable individuals and groups to increase their empowerment (Dupont et al, 2011). The goal of this particular research within the inclusion work package is to empower the class as a social group to revert exclusion due to (cyber)bullying. Important to note is that, although asocial use of social media is at the heart of cyberbullying, our focus is on social media as a means to combat bullying by stimulating pro- social behaviour in a class group. As a first step in the design process of the toolkit, we identified a set of preconditions for effectively combating (cyber)bullying and we collected suggestions for how these preconditions can be created. We therefore involved different experts and teachers in a series of mapping sessions. Mapping is a technique to visually outline ideas and the relations among them on a background such as a large piece of paper. The technique fits perfectly within the broader Participatory Design approach that is at the core of this research. In Participatory Design, users and other stakeholders participate in the design process to ensure that the resulting designs fit the way people will actually use the product in their own lives (Schuler, 1993). The resulting preconditions presented in this report should be seen as a metaphorical roadmap, indi- cating roads, dangers and opportunities to the traveller, not as a mere route prescribing a fixed solu- tion. The roadmap will be used as a framework, guiding us throughout the design process of the toolkit. 5

6 2. Related work Defined as the systematic abuse of power in interpersonal relations, bullying is still a widespread problem in schools throughout the world (Smith et al, 1999). Across Europe, 19 per cent of 9- to 16- year- olds report having been bullied and 12 per cent report having bullied someone else (Livingstone et al, 2011). When it comes to online or cyberbullying, 6 per cent report having been victimised online and 3 per cent confess to having bullied others online (Livingstone et al, 2009). A recent study in Flanders, Belgium, shows that 30 per cent of 10- to 16- year- olds have been bullied offline at least once in the past 6 months and 11 per cent have been bullied online in the same period (Vandebosch et al, 2012). Moreover, 25 per cent confess to having bullied others offline and 11 per cent to having bullied others online (Vandebosch et al, 2012) Overlap perpetration and victimization Bullying, in its traditional form as well as online or cyberbullying, is a complex and often diffuse prob- lem with no easy solutions. Different studies have found evidence of a considerable overlap between victimization and perpetration in bullying behaviour (Heirman et al, 2012; Gorzig, 2011; Walrave et al, 2009; etc.). For example, the EU Kids Online study (Livingstone et al, 2009) shows that only 12 per cent (8 per cent offline and 4 per cent online) of those who have not bullied others have been victim- ised. In contrast, almost 60 per cent of those who have bullied others online only or offline only have been bully victims themselves. Bullying others and being bullied thereby mostly occurs through simi- lar off- or online modes. Although the causal links between being bullied and bullying stay unclear, chances are high that working to prevent children from engaging in bullying behaviours might reduce the possibility that they themselves become victims (Gorzig, 2011; Livingstone et al, 2009) Overlap traditional and cyberbullying Not only is there a significant overlap between victimization and perpetration in bullying behaviour, other studies have shown off- and online bullying to be interconnected, making the problem even more complex (Livingstone et al, 2011; Olweus, 2012; Vandebosch et al, 2006; Vandebosch et al, 2012). Although offline bullying is still significantly more prevalent than online bullying, considerable evidence points towards retention of roles, meaning that online bullies are often offline bullies, and online victims are often offline victims as well (Vandebosch et al, 2006; Li, 2007; Friendly ATTAC, 2012). Some evidence was also found for the revenge of the nerds hypothesis stating that victims of offline bullying might seek revenge online (Smith et al, 2008; Friendly ATTAC, 2012). This may seem contradictory with the above- mentioned finding that bullying others and being bullied mostly occurs through similar off- or online modes. However, although 40 per cent of online bullies have also been victimised online, 20 per cent of online bullies have solely been victimised offline (Gorzig, 2011). Evi- dence for the revenge of the nerds hypothesis may thus be found in this particular group. 6

7 To conclude with, bullying is rarely a black and white story with clearly defined roles for bullies and victims, and with the rise of the internet and mobile media the phenomenon has even gained in com- plexity. The emergence of online or cyberbullying not only resulted in more children and youngsters being involved in bullying, the problem has also intensified, as for some victims it has become almost impossible to escape their bullies. Besides being victimised offline, such as in and around school, they are increasingly victimised online as well, at any time and wherever they might be (Broothaerts, 2010; Vandebosch et al, 2006) (Cyber)bullying and the peer group According to Olweus (1993) bullying is a repeated, imbalanced (with regard to power) and negative act that occurs between a bully and a victim. Nevertheless it has been emphasized that bullying is far and foremost a group processes in which bystanders have an effect on the maintenance of bullying and on the adjustment of the victims (Cohen et al, 2006; Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012). Therefore, group processes are important in explaining and understanding bullying (Huisting & Veenstra, 2012). Children can take on different roles in a bullying situation. Often one or more dominant bullies take the initiative to bully one or more victims (Sutton & Smith, 1999). These bullies are usually actively assisted or provided with positive feedback by a group of followers, who provide these ringleader bul- lies with the position of power they seek. These followers can feel manipulated and feel pressure to conform their supportive behaviour, which may partly be due to fear of becoming victims themselves (Burns et al, 2008). Children or youngsters can also act as defenders helping or supporting the vic- tim(s) just as they can act as outsiders giving no help or support whatsoever and pretending nothing is going on (Huisting & Veenstra, 2012). In sum, victims and bullies are embedded in subgroups where they are supported by peers. Such group processes can often be found in school and especially in the classroom. What is more, existing social contexts are not only crucial with regard to offline bullying but also with regard to online bully- ing. Thus, traditional and cyberbullying affect the whole classroom (Huitsing & Veenstra, 2012; Kyria- kides & Creemers, 2012; Vandebosch et al, 2012). In cyberbullying research, studies on the social con- text in which the bullying occurs, are nevertheless scarce (Friendly ATTAC, 2012) Combatting (cyber)bullying Since bullying is a widespread problem in and around schools worldwide, many anti- bullying pro- grams have been developed over the past decades and currently there are a wide variety of practices being employed in schools (Rigby & Griffiths, 2011). Punitive or disciplinary approaches, in which (possible) perpetrators get punished in order to solve the problem, are increasingly discredited be- cause although they may appear to stop the behavior initially, they often result in the bullying getting worse and going underground. Also, they do not change the behaviors and attitudes of those involved in bullying (Rigby & Griffiths, 2011). By contrast, other methods such as the Support Group Method formerly known as the No Blame Method (Robinson & Maines, 2008), the Method of Shared Concern (Pikas, 2002) and the KiVa anti- bullying program (Kärnä et al, 2011; Salmivalli et al, 2011) can bring about more profound and enduring change. These methods, often inspired by Olweus Bullying 7

8 Prevention Program (OBPP) (Olweus, 1993), are, generally speaking, non- punitive approaches. They do not seek to impose a solution but, to a certain degree, try to empower students involved in bullying to negotiate a solution through a series of meetings. Moreover, these methods assume group involve- ment of perpetrators in directing acts of bullying towards a victim who is less powerful than they are, and that, as such, responsibility for the bullying behavior becomes diffuse (Rigby, 2005; Demko, 1996). Also, these methods emphasize the effects of bullying on the victim s feelings and emotions, rather than on the details of what exactly occurred (Demko, 1996). OBPP (Olweus, 1993) and KiVa (Kärnä et al, 2011; Salmivalli et al, 2011) not only contains reactive strategies to tackle acute bullying problems, proactive strategies are included as well to prevent bully- ing from happening in the first place. In contrast, strategies such as mediation between bullies and victims with teacher mediators and/or peer mediators, the use of assertiveness training to help vic- tims to resist being bullied, restorative practices, a non- punitive problem- solving method referred to as No Blame (Robinson & Maines, 2008) and a comprehensive approach for use with group- based bullying called Shared Concern (Pikas, 2002) are de facto targeted at intervention. Programs such as OBPP, KiVa, No Blame and Shared Concern emphasize the importance of a support- ive school environment in which school counselors and teachers are prepared to examine and im- plement the method carefully (Smith et al, 2004). This is in line with the whole- school approach (Deboutte, 2008; Smith et al, 2004) in which bullying is regarded as a systemic problem with multiple causes at the individual, classroom, and school levels. This layered perspective suggests that an inter- vention must target the entire school context, rather than just individual bullies and victims (Deboutte, 2008; Smith et al, 2004). What distinguishes KiVa from the other anti- bullying programs mentioned above are, first of all, the specifically developed instructional materials for students, teachers and parents, and the use of digital technologies, such as games, in raising awareness about bullying (Kärnä et al, 2011). Secondly, KiVa goes beyond emphasizing the role of bystanders in bullying by actually providing ways to enhance empathy, self- efficacy and efforts to support the victimized peers. Lastly, the hallmark of the KiVa program is its very well- coordinated whole- school and multilayered intervention approach in which all these features are assembled (Kärnä et al, 2011). Although many anti- bullying programs have been evaluated, estimates of their effectiveness vary and in general, their impact appears to have been modest at best (Rigby & Griffiths, 2011). KiVa on the other hand has proven to be effective and was honored as one of the best anti- bullying programs worldwide (Farrington & Ttofi, 2010). A large- scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program in 78 Finish schools indicated that the KiVa program was effective in reducing school bullying and victimi- zation in Grades 4 6 (10 12 years). In experimental schools, compared with control schools, self- reported victimization and bullying were reduced by 40% and 33%, respectively. (Kärnä et al, 2011; 8

9 Salmivalli et al, 2011). In addition, a recent study shows that a remarkable 98% of victims involved in KiVa programs felt that their situation improved one way or another (Garandeau et al, 2013). Despite the fact that many anti- bullying programs have been developed to combat traditional bully- ing, measures to prevent and tackle online or cyberbullying are usually less formalised. Nevertheless, numerous websites have been devoted to combatting cyberbullying. These websites (e.g. clicksafe.be, veiligonline.be, cyberpesten.be, stopcyberbullying.org, cyberbullying.us, etc.) mostly contain guide- lines for safe internet use and netiquette (i.e. the socially acceptable conduct in an online or digital situation), information for parents or teachers as well as tips and coping strategies for victims. How- ever, these guidelines and strategies have rarely been based on academic research, nor have they been fully evaluated yet (Vandebosch et al, 2006). Other methods, such as an evidence- based game being developed in the context of the Friendly ATTAC project, are still in early phases of development (Friendly ATTAC, 2012) Towards empowerment We believe that empowering children, victims, perpetrators as well as bystanders, in combating bully- ing is the key to enduring attitude and behaviour change towards bullying. Although the earlier men- tioned anti- bullying programs try to empower students to a certain degree, we want to go a step fur- ther. Our aim is to not only strengthen children s participation in reactive strategies when bullying occurs, but also in proactive strategies to prevent bullying from happening in the first place. Moreover, whereas most methods tend to focus on either traditional or cyberbullying, we are espe- cially interested in preventing and intervening in cases of bullying where online and offline worlds collide. Since traditional as well as cyberbullying are strongly connected to the context of the school and in particular to the classroom (Vandebosch et al, 2012) our focus will thereby be on the class as a social group. In sum, we will investigate how and by which (digital) tools teachers can facilitate children to become more self- regulatory as a class group in preventing and tackling (cyber)bullying. As a first step, we have identified preconditions for this bottom- up oriented approach, and we collected suggestions for how these preconditions can be created. 9

10 3. Method To gain further insight in existing strategies to tackle (cyber)bullying as well as to identify precondi- tions for more bottom- up and self- regulatory strategies, we invited experts as well as teachers for a series of mapping sessions. Mapping is a technique to visually outline ideas and the relations among them on a background such as a large piece of paper. For this purpose, we used a hands- on tool for participatory cartography and conversation known as MAP- it (Dreessen et al, 2011). MAP- it was developed as a means to open up communication more ef- fectively. It consists of a large mapping background and an open and extendible set of icons (see An- nex 5) that allows participants to make their thoughts explicit in a visual way, in the form of a map. The visual character of mapping allows participants from different backgrounds to discuss topics on equal grounds. Moreover, the mapping s structure encourages to not only share positive experiences, but also leads to critique and debate (Dreessen et al, 2011). Figure 1: MAP- it session with experts and teachers 10

11 MAP- it fits perfectly within the broader Participatory Design approach used for this project. In Partic- ipatory Design, users and other stakeholders participate in the design process to ensure that the re- sulting designs fit the way people will actually use the product in their own lives (Schuler, 1993). What distinguishes participatory design from related approaches such as user- centered design is that the latter supposes only that the research and design work is done on behalf of the users: in participa- tory design, this work must be done with the users from beginning to end (Iivari, 2004; Spinuzzi, 2004). 3.1 MAP- it session 1 The goal of the first MAP- it session was to gain further insight in existing strategies to prevent and cope with (cyber)bullying in a class context. Two sessions were held. One with a group of seven ex- perts in the field (e.g. employees of Childfocus, the national centre for missing and exploited children; Awel, a first aid telephone desk for children and youth; the National Commissariat for Children s Rights, the Flemish network Take Sides Against Bullying, etc.) and one with a group of five primary school teachers. For the first MAP- it session, we divided experts and teachers in two separate groups as it could be of value to compare their experiences with existing strategies to address (cyber)bullying. Each session lasted about three hours and started with an introductory presentation, in which we gave some background information on the project and explained the session s goal. One researcher facilitated both sessions. As a starting point, we used a fictitious (cyber)bullying scenario in which multiple 9- to 10- year- olds of the same class were involved, either as victim, perpetrator or bystander (see Annex 2). Each group was invited to map how a teacher could address the bullying problem and prevent it form happening in the future. The researcher guided the group through several well- timed stages (i.e. mapping values, goals, actors, actions and tools), where each stage asked for a specific set of sticker icons. There were several types of icons (see Annex 5). Some were to inspire, others were to label, to structure, to link or to construct. However, participants could also draw or write directly on the background sheet to visu- alize ideas and thoughts. During a pilot session we noticed that the first step, mapping values, was hard to begin with. To avoid such a cold start, we chose to sensitize participants and to trigger their reflection in advance (Sleeswijk Visser, 2005). Each participant received a specifically designed postcard a few days before the MAP- it session (see Annex 1). We asked the participants to write down three key values that should be central in a teacher s strategy to prevent and cope with (cyber)bullying and to bring the filled in postcard with them to the session. During the MAP- it session, each participant was given the opportunity to explain his or her core values with regard to combating (cyber)bullying. Only after- wards the participants mapped the values they agreed upon as a group. This way, the participants were eased into the mapping process. When a group finished its map, we asked to lock the most important parts on their map by placing a sticker of a padlock next to it. The metaphor of locking was used as a means for convergence. Next, the participants were invited to rethink their map as critically as possible and to identify possible risks. We ended up with an open and lively discussion on the results. 11

12 3.2 MAP- it session 2 The goal of the second MAP- it session was to identify preconditions for self- regulatory and bottom- up oriented approaches in preventing and tackling (cyber)bullying in a class context (see Annex 4). Two groups of five participants participated in the session, both including secondary school teachers as well as experts. Although we separated experts and teachers in the first MAP- it session focussing on existing strategies to combat (cyber)bullying, cross fertilization between experts and teachers may be useful when thinking of future and more self- regulatory strategies (see Figure 1). Each group was asked to map how teachers could facilitate children aged 9 to 10 to become more self- regulatory as a class group in preventing and coping with (cyber)bullying. The session took about three hours and was led by two researchers, one for each group. To sensitize the participants beforehand, each participant was sent two structured word clouds visu- alizing the output of the previous sessions with experts and teachers (see Annex 3). Similar to the previous MAP- it sessions, a researcher guided the group through several well- timed stages and for each stage specific stickers sets were used (see Annex 5). Consecutively values, goals, actors, actions and tools were mapped. When a group finished its map, the most important parts were locked and a presenter was chosen to present the map (i.e. the background sheet on which they visualised their ideas and thoughts) to the other group. After the presentations, the participants of the other group were asked to highlight their favourite parts on the map with thumbs up and heart stickers, and to identify possible risks and dangers with warning triangles and bomb stickers. This way, the map- ping s structure not only encouraged to share positive experiences, but also led to critique and debate. Finally, all participants and both researchers gathered around the table to discuss the results as well as the feedback. 3.3 Analysis All MAP- it sessions were recorded on video. However, during a pilot session we noticed that putting a camera in front of the participants at one side of the table was too intrusive and the actual mapping process was not documented very well. Also, the audio quality was not as good as we had hoped for because some participants were seated too far away. Therefore, we attached cameras to the ceiling right above each table. This way the camera became rather invisible and its central position to each of the group s participants resulted in better audio quality. Before we started recording we asked each participant for his or her permission, but no objections were made. Each session was fully transcribed for analysis. Next, the sessions were summarized while maintain- ing the same sequence of mapping categories (i.e. values, goals, actors, actions, tools, locks, opportuni- ties and risks), resulting in a clear datasheet per session. After this first data reduction, there was still a lot of redundant information left within and across datasheets. For example, empathy was often mapped as a value, to be translated into a goal and/or action statement afterwards such as enhancing children s empathy. To filter out this redundancy, all four data sheets were put together and the se- quence of mapping categories was left behind. To structure and further reduce the data, we sorted the data based on their natural relationships (i.e. affinity diagram mapping), resulting in a set of precondi- tions. Some of these preconditions are not exclusively linked to a bottom- up oriented approach 12

13 towards (cyber)bullying. Therefore, the results presented in the next section will be a blend of pre- conditions already met in some existing anti- bullying programs, but still relevant for our intended ap- proach, as well as new and more specific preconditions. 13

14 4. Results and discussion The preconditions of the MAP- it sessions presented below are grouped in six subsections: empower- ment of the school team, individual intervention, intervention at the group level, basic prevention, so- cial media literacy and involvement parents. Some of these subsections are devoted to particular ac- tors that have an important role in our bottom- up oriented approach towards (cyber)bullying (i.e. the school or school team, the class as a social group and the parents). Since we aim at a central, facilitat- ing role for the teacher in making children more self- regulatory in combatting off- and online bullying, the teacher s role will be focused upon in each of the six subsections. 4.1 School team empowerment Although our focus was initially on the class as a social group, it became clear that a bottom- up ori- ented strategy to prevent and cope with (cyber)bullying should be integrated in a well considered and multi- layered whole school approach targeting individual, class and school levels. For an individual teacher it will be hard, not to say impossible, to implement such a strategy in his or her class without the full support of the school team (i.e. staff, other teachers, ICT coordinator, care coordinator, etc.). For a more bottom- up oriented approach towards (cyber)bullying to succeed, a shift in the whole school culture and policy may thus be needed. As a consequence, facilitating children to become more self- regulatory should become the school s general philosophy, reaching far beyond the actual prob- lem of (cyber)bullying. This implicates that, for a bottom- up oriented approach towards (cyber)bullying to succeed, we should extend the goals of our intended toolkit for teachers and should look for ways as to how to integrate the toolkit in a whole- school policy. Although this goes beyond the scope of the current project, this might be an interesting topic for further research. Specifically with regard to (cyber)bullying, the school policy should include well considered guide- lines regarding detection, intervention, aftercare as well as prevention. Also to be included are a glob- al vision of how to communicate and involve parents, rules regarding mobile phone and IT use within the school, guidelines of how to integrate class projects within the school s general approach, a plat- form for sharing best practices between teachers and with other schools, and general ideas about how to create and maintain a positive school culture. Importantly, such a policy should not remain a collec- tion of ideas and guidelines on paper, but has to be implemented and become daily practice. For this purpose, schools could use a broad- spectrum toolkit for long- term use in which the above- mentioned aspects are interwoven and translated into a set of easy to use and flexible tools. The problem with most prevention and intervention toolkits used nowadays is their lack of integration in the school s general policy, their (intended) short- term use only and their often top- down and school- like charac- ter. Vlindernet and Toeka were often referred to in this context. Also, since most of these tools have never been tested, their effectiveness may be questionable. Another precondition on the school level is the need for more time and resources. More specifically, there is an urge for practical knowledge on the topic and this is where experts could play an im- portant role. Since they are equipped with state- of- the- art knowledge, they can summarize new and relevant research into easy to digest information made centrally available. This way, they can raise 14

15 and maintain awareness and empower the school team. Finally, school staffs need to realize that indi- vidual teachers still have an unmistakable role to play since they can make or break a whole school approach. A lot depends on the teachers motivation and skills (e.g. social skills, knowledge of group processes, ICT skills, etc.). Therefore, not only the school team as a whole, but also teachers should be empowered and provided with the necessary means and support. 4.2 Individual Intervention Some scepticism was voiced regarding a bottom- up oriented strategy to tackle acute (cyber)bullying problems in the classroom. An acute problem cannot and should not be used as a starting point to make children more self- regulatory as a group regarding (cyber)bullying. Thus, an important precon- dition is that the problem needs to be resolved first and all children need to feel safe in the group be- fore one can implement or experiment with a more bottom- up oriented approach. Some interesting points were also made about how teachers can overcome a bullying situation in their class. These considerations may as well be important for our intended strategy. First of all, it was noted that it is often hard to get a clear image of what is going on beneath the sur- face of a class group. Not to mention the unknown territory of children s online behaviour to most teachers. Therefore, building trust with children is of uttermost importance to being able to detect problems sooner. Examples of how to build trust are group discussions, listening in a non- judgemental fashion, highlighting opportunities that come with social media and not only focussing on risks, etcetera. When confronted with an acute bullying problem, offline and/or online, one must realize that there is no such thing as a one- size- fits- all approach. Each bullying situation should be dealt with without pre- conceptions, and a personalized and customized approach is recommended. A teacher and/or care coordinator should first talk individually with the children involved, (possible) perpetrators and the victim, in a non- judgemental fashion. The terms safe conversation and broad observation were of- ten used to describe this phase. Emphasis should be on the effects of bullying on the victim s feelings and emotions rather than on the ins and outs of what occurred. Instead of being punished, perpetra- tors should be involved in looking at how their actions have affected the victim. They should come to acknowledge the severity of the situation and the consequences of their actions. This is in line with the No Blame approach (Robinson & Maines, 2008) mentioned earlier. Next, based on the individual interviews, a plan of action should be formulated and communicated to all parties involved, including the parents of the children involved in the bullying behaviour. This plan of action, in which empathy, dialogue and positive reinforcement are to be key values, includes re- storative practices to reconnect victim and perpetrator(s) as well as to reconnect the children in- volved with themselves. Some victims or perpetrators may need external help (e.g. from a psycholo- gist) to accomplish this goal. Since bullying is far and foremost a group process, one must decide if it is appropriate to involve the whole class group at this point. Another issue that was raised several times is that teachers and/or care coordinators should not im- pose a solution. On the contrary, perpetrators should be invited to say what they are prepared to do to 15

16 help. Eventually, when the victim feels ready and a solution may be on its way, victim and perpetra- tor(s) are to be confronted and a negotiated solution is attempted. However, some realism is needed because some bullying problems, especially those with a long history, can be very hard to solve. If a solution is reached after all, considerable attention will be needed for aftercare and follow up sessions. There was some disagreement among participants about how far one might take the no blame philos- ophy. The group of teachers was more inclined to sanctioning perpetrators after all, whereas the group of experts was less keen on the idea since responsibility for bullying behaviour is often diffuse and sanctioning bullies may make things worse in the end. It was also noted that involvement of the police may be inevitable in extreme cases of bullying in which, for example, the victim was physically injured or personal belongings were stolen. Therefore, methods as No Blame (Robinson & Maines, 2008) and Shared Concern (Pikas, 2002) are only considered appropriate in cases in which the bully- ing behaviour is non- criminal (e.g. does not involve violence). In this context, some questions were also raised about when and how a victim s legal position should be restored if damaged, such as taking incriminating pictures offline. 4.3 Intervention at the group level As mentioned before, bullying is a group process in which bystanders have an effect on the mainte- nance of bullying and on the adjustment of the victims (Cohen et al, 2006; Huisting & Veenstra, 2012; Kyriakides & Creemers, 2012). It was emphasized regularly by the participants that, except for some rare cases, bystanders are indeed key figures in solving bullying problems. Once the teacher or care coordinator has had individual talks with (possible) perpetrators and the victim, the class group (i.e. the bystanders) should eventually be included to tackle the problem at the group level and to bring about more profound and enduring change. Again, a customized approach is recommended and em- pathy, dialogue and positive reinforcement are posited once more as core values. Intervention at the group level aims at creating a safe group by reorienting the group dynamics of the class in a positive way. The teacher first needs to clarify that the current situation can no longer be tolerated and has to change. Through of a series of class discussions, teachers should raise awareness of the consequences of (cyber)bullying for the victim and of the role the group plays in maintaining bullying. Bystanders should come to realize that they can make a difference by defending the victim. This is in line with the anti- bullying program KiVa, which is predicated on the idea that a positive change in the behaviours of classmates can reduce the rewards gained by bullies and consequently their motivation to bully in the first place (Kärnä et al, 2011; Salmivalli et al, 2011). As the class dis- cussions proceed, children are encouraged to think about what contributions they can make to help the victim(s) and to formulate ideas as to how the problem can be finally resolved. Eventually, en- gagements are made and a set of class rules is agreed upon. Follow- up sessions should be held to monitor and maintain the changes made in the group dynamics and the atmosphere of the class. Also, throughout the intervention at the group level, parents should be kept up to date at all times. Since there are always less talkative children in a group, an (anonymous) questionnaire can be used as a starting point for a class discussion. Class Thermometer was specifically developed for that 16

17 purpose by one of the MAP- it session s participants. Through a short questionnaire, students are asked how they feel in the classroom, how they perceive the class group (positively as well as nega- tively) and what agreements they believe should be made to improve the class atmosphere. Such a questionnaire can be an interesting tool in earlier phases as well by providing more accurate infor- mation on what is going on beneath the surface of the group (e.g. in cyberspace). 4.4 Basic prevention Each MAP- it session it was emphasized that it is important not only to reduce bullying once it has taken hold, but also to prevent it in the first place. Making children more self- regulatory regarding (cyber)bullying was first of all considered a prevention strategy. If a bottom- up oriented strategy is to be implemented, a safe group with no acute bullying problems should thus be the starting point. The prevention pyramid, a framework for structuring prevention in school, was often referred to for this purpose (Deklerck & Overveld, 2011). According to this model, prevention can and should be structured on different levels ranging from the broad societal context to prevention measures target- ed at very specific problems. What happens at the first level, the broad societal context, is hard to grasp for schools. However, this extracurricular context has an enormous impact on the child s atti- tudes and behaviour. Although the school might not be able to interfere on this level, knowing what extracurricular activities a child is involved in, may be useful for a better understanding of the child s behaviour and his or her opinions regarding (cyber)bullying. The next level of the prevention pyramid, the social climate, is about creating a positive atmosphere in the school. Emphasis should not always be put on the negative side of things, such as the dangers of cyberspace. Besides the potential risks, cyberspace can be a great information source, whereas social media may offer interesting opportunities to practice social skills. In sum, prevention at this level is all about strengthening the wellbeing and involvement of children in a rather informal way. This indirect approach contributes to the quality of the other levels in the prevention pyramid. Differ- ent suggestions were made as to positively influence the class and school atmosphere. For example, instead of organizing the week against bullying each year, schools could organize the friendship week. Also, the whole school could join at the playground at the end of the week to close the week to- gether in a fun and relaxed way. Other ideas postulated had to do with combating boredom. According to some participants, many children do not know how to play with each other nowadays, and since play can be a very efficient way to practice social skills, children have to learn again how to play and how to deal with conflicts in a playful manner. For this purpose, schools may need more toys, the playground may have to be rede- signed and more supervision may be needed during recreation time. The next level in the prevention pyramid concerns general prevention measures aiming at making children stronger and increasing their resilience. From on early age onwards, children should be trained in social skills, their emotional literacy should be developed and feelings of empathy towards others trained. Developing these skills should be regarded as an essential precondition for making children more self- regulatory in preventing and tackling (cyber)bullying. Several methods or tools were mentioned for this purpose. The Talent Indicator aims at making each child s talents more visible in the classroom and facilitates informal peer learning since children come 17

18 to know from whom they can learn what. Anonymous Pamper Friends is a tool to strengthen positive relations and social cohesion. Each child of the group has to pamper another child anonymously that was assigned to him or her at randomly. As not to reveal one s targeted class member, a successful strategy is to pamper other children as well, resulting in stronger interpersonal relationships and a positive class atmosphere. Another way to enhance social cohesion and empathy is involving children in a social project outside the school, such as helping disadvantaged or socially vulnerable people. The fourth level is about specific prevention measures, targeting well- defined problems such as bully- ing and online risks. Although it was mentioned before that emphasis should not always be put on the negative side of things, possible risks are at the centre of attention at this level of prevention. Children may be invited to reflect on the effects of (cyber)bullying in a series of class or group discussions to raise awareness. Also, some children, preferably popular ones, might take a leading role in sensitizing other children about the risks of bullying and the importance of supporting the victim as well as re- jecting the perpetrators behaviour. This idea was coined peer sensitizing and should be differentiat- ed from peer mediation as it is not regarded an intervention strategy but rather a prevention strategy. The top level of the prevention pyramid, problem solving, aims at remediating acute problems. Corre- sponding strategies for intervention at the individual and group level have already been discussed in the previous sections. We should note, however, that when enough energy is put in prevention, less intervention will be needed according to the participants. It was also emphasized that making chil- dren more resilient and emotionally literate is a key ingredient for a more bottom- up oriented ap- proach towards (cyber)bullying. Apart from the different levels of the prevention pyramid, some other issues were raised with regard to prevention. It was noted several times that teachers could benefit from tools to map group dynam- ics and to monitor how everyone feels in the group. This way, it will be much easier to detect tensions within the group and to prevent them from growing into acute (bullying) problems. A social ques- tionnaire may have to be designed for that purpose. Also mentioned was the importance of building trust in two directions (i.e. symmetrical trust). Not only should the teacher trust his or her students, if the teacher wants to be informed about what is going on beneath the surface, offline as well as online, students need to trust their teacher as well. A side note regarding trust was that every child, being a victim, perpetrator or bystander, needs one or more people they trust unconditionally, and that for some children these might not be their parents. Finally, some participants touched upon the problem of children changing schools within the course of a school year. This happens quite a lot in Belgian cit- ies, and most likely in cities worldwide, and it makes it much harder for teachers to build trust and to create a strong class group. 4.5 Social media literacy Children should be taught how to use social media and the internet wisely. This includes the ability to manage privacy settings, to remove content and knowing what to do when something goes wrong online. This was referred to as empowerment on a practical level. Also, children should come to un- derstand the public character of social media and the internet, and have a critical approach towards the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. It was emphasized that schools 18

19 should continuously update their curriculum to keep up with accelerating technological develop- ments and, to succeed in making children media literate, not only the ICT coordinator but also the teachers should be digitally literate. Enhancing children s digital competencies and critical attitude towards social media, is believed to be an important precondition in a bottom- up oriented approach towards cyberbullying and since off- and online bullying are often intertwined, to bullying in general. Making children media literate should therefore be included in general as well as in more specific intervention measures when it comes to cyberbullying or other online risks. Importantly, emphasis should not only be put on the risks and dangers of social media and the inter- net. Prejudices towards ICT in general should be avoided, and a more nuanced picture should be pre- sented to the children to keep them involved and, eventually, to sort positive effects. One suggestion was to develop an online platform for schools in which children could experiment safely under super- vision of the school team. Another idea was to integrate positive, online moments in the curriculum. Highlighting the positive side of social media and the internet may be an effective way to build trust and to gain more contextual knowledge about how children behave online. Another suggestion was that high- status children with more than average IT skills could take a leading role in raising aware- ness about netiquette and in explaining how social media and the internet can be used safely. The term peers sensitizing was used again here. It was noted, however, that one should not overestimate children s digital skills. Although today s children are often called digital natives grown up with the internet and digital media (Prensky, 2001), that does not necessarily imply that they are, for example, capable of managing their Facebook privacy settings adequately. Finally, websites with tips and tricks for children, such as Clicksafe.be, were considered useful tools as well. Not only for teachers to use in their lessons, but also for children as a first aid by which they can become more self- regulatory in coping with cyberbullying. 4.6 Involvement of parents Communication with parents throughout the trajectory should not be overlooked. Parents should be informed about the school s policy regarding (cyber)bullying, especially when the school team is about to implement a new approach. Also, when an acute case of (cyber)bullying pops up in their children s class, parents of the victim and the perpetrator(s) should be informed in a neutral way about what happened and what is about to happen (i.e. the plan of action). However, it was objected that informing parents might damage trust between the teacher and the children involved in the bul- lying behaviour and, as mentioned earlier, establishing a relation of trust is of uttermost value for a bottom- up oriented approach towards (cyber)bullying to succeed. Thus, for teachers, building trust with children as well as keeping parents informed about what is going on in the class might be a deli- cate balancing act. No further ideas were postulated as to how to do that effectively. Another issue raised was that it is far from easy to involve all parents. Often the same group of com- mitted parents comes together at meetings. A suggestion made was that the other, seemingly less committed parents might as well be reached through other networks in which they operate (e.g. work environment, cultural activities, their children s youth clubs, etc.). 19

20 Finally, parents should also be informed and sensitized on a more substantive level about (cyber)bullying and its consequences. Some parents have a tendency to approve or deny the bullying behaviour of their children, which obviously makes things worse. In sum, parents need to be empow- ered as well. 20

167 Appendix A: List of variables with corresponding questionnaire items (in English) used in chapter 2 Task clarity 1. I understand exactly what the task is 2. I understand exactly what is required of

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