How Eve Grew Up in Korea

Lately, publications in South Korea have been popcorn-worthy: single women are more vicious, depressed and a constant problem for the population. Them decadent women are supposedly more tolerant about premarital sex. And to top it all, contraceptive pills are no longer distributed over-the-counter. Setting limits for women when talking about control over their reproductive functions goes deeper than that. But I will get back later to this. How should we interpret this? How can we glance at the image of Korean women without our Western-shaped glasses?

Deep-rooted in every country’s civilization, misogyny has played its toll on women’s social status. The female populace all over the world confronts the same problem, to different extents and forms: there are predominant prejudices and ways to discriminate depending on the country and region. This implies that besides what is specific to the world’s evolution, regional characteristics will give a hand to the instituted sexism.

Women’s discrimination is particularly hard to discuss. Racism’s causes are traceable within the first encounters of two civilizations (or parts of it). Religions’ clash is the fuel for later debates. But women existed into every possible corner of the world; people didn’t have to get accustomed. So when did it all begin?

Engels spots the essential point that made the women’ condition falter as the expansion of private property and implicitly the class division. The hierarchy developed with time or, according to socialists, with the evolution of subsistence methods. When a hand-to-mouth living was the norm, both genders were productive. Women’s attributions were mainly in-doors (food, childcare), but there was no ethical differentiation. Up until this stage, there is little to object to women’s productivity.

But the improvement of tools, the domestication of animals and the opportunities they opened favored the male supremacy. It wasn’t men’s biological structure by itself that offered them the superiority, but the will to exploit his surroundings. Valorizing the land at its best, the extension of the household — the intrusion of private property at its best — made the role of men the most important one. Furthermore, the accessibility of wealth awakened a possession instinct which manifested over women too. In these conditions, it’s not the females’ physical attributes that started the oppression; it didn’t stop them until this very moment to bring their own input. Their unwillingness to participate to the full exploration of the environment in their own way is what made it easier for the men to regard them as objects they could own.
While Engels’ research (based on Lewis Morgan’s anthropological study) was based on a large number of prehistoric evidence, geographically and culturally diverse, a personalized analysis would come in hand. How did this social class evolve with time? What exactly scarred the image of women from Korea’s tumultuous history?

The Korean society didn’t dismiss women as violently during those times. Until the end of the Silla dynasty (approx. 57 BCE – 935 ACE), there are still accounts of women who held higher rankings in the imperial administration and the coexistence of patrilineal and matrilineal inheritance systems. In the case of marriage in Koguryeo, the bride’s family would provide a new home for the newly wed couple.

The unification of the Three Kingdoms marks the intrusion of Buddhism. Its dogma appeared earlier in each kingdom and could be called sexist at some point, but it is not aggressive towards females. Moreover, there isn’t any emphasis placed on family. The lack of contradictions with Shamanism made it easier for Koreans to adopt it. This period is marked by uncertainty and attempts to define state institutions, which reflected on an ideological plan: besides Buddhism, which will take over the Goryeo dynasty, Shamanism, Taoism and Confucianism lived side-by-side.

Women and men wore the same type of hanbok. Korean civilization and arts were flourishing and some call Goryeo a golden age for Korean women. They had the right to inherit, to take custody of their children, to separate and remarry. In the poor families, in times of peace, women and men worked together. One third of the Goryeo population was working (in a surrogate of slavery), women included. But the power in society for the female upper class is obtained through the men they frequent, as proven by dowager queens. Discrimination happened also on military grounds. Having the boy selected for the army was an honor, thus a general preference for a male offspring.

Is then the Goryeo period the most profitable for women? Completely the opposite. Middle to late Goryeo harshly reinforced the feudal system. Until this age, the land was given based on merits. Private property in its true meaning was a luxury or an honor. When the authority granted the right to commoners, they met the opportunity to become small landholders. And we’re back to the instinct of possession. Men were the only ones eligible; only a male heir could inherit the received property. Late Goryeo is even more trenchant. If we were to point at just one period, this is the time where women lost the fight.

Misogyny and Confucianism always go in the same sentence; it is the scapegoat of Korean sexism. Its beliefs though failed to achieve popularity in Korea, which was exposed to it since 4th century. Its morals remained foreign to them. Adopting the lifestyle it will impose during the Joseon dynasty would have been difficult had it contrasted with their values. To adopt a religion, the masses have to prepare. If Korea had supported and respected women, Confucianism wouldn’t have oppressed them; for ten centuries, it failed to make them succumb.

The feudal system prepared the Korean woman’s downfall. The ideological mutation needs an economical gap before imposing itself. The changing image needed a shape to fill which Confucianism will provide. Its principles finally fit the Korean society. The woman now gained her identity inside the family. The bride was forced to move in her in-laws’ house and to obey, in this order, her father, her husband, and her son. Becoming a mother earns her the highest respect she can get. A man who had daughters was listed as if he didn’t have any children, which will lead later to infanticide. Boys were listed first in genealogical or inheritance documents, replacing the old habit of a chronological order. Some parents wouldn’t even name their daughters.
Besides the position that it gives to women, Confucianism brings another addition. While the Western misogynistic prejudices treat women as intrinsically worthless and weak, some nuances emerge when talking about their image in South Korea. For themselves, women are less spiritual, according to both Buddhism and Confucianism. But this isn’t enough. The ideology advances the theory of a relational self (probably an influence on South Korea’s later collectivism). Take this as a farther clarification:

It is commonly accepted now that a Confucian self cannot be understood as an isolated, atomic being. That kind of self as person is often described as a free, abstract and disinterested individual agent. That means a self, in a Confucian view, cannot be cut off, in one or another way, from its surrounding others, i.e., from its historical, social and cultural contextual environment.

Filtered through the gender binary, it linked females to males, as the principle that governed their life was the triple submission. The theory — an interesting one and a valid counterpoint to individualism — coupled with the ideal of servility and resulted in the image that perpetuated in modern Korea. Traces can be found in today’s society: the importance of marriage as spotted in the articles I initially talked about, the habit of women to look from their early stages for a husband, rather than a date or a partner, lookism (crafts from the Joseon dynasty indicate the use of perfume or improvised cosmetics; women had to look good when receiving guests), aegyo and naesung.

Various documents regulate women’s lives and impose a code of chastity. The Japanese and Chinese invasions (late 16th century-early 17th century) determines an inhuman reinforcement of those codes. Kidnapped and raped women were dishonored, easily divorced and renegaded. Later on, the Korean court will prohibit divorce on these grounds due to its alarming number. The women that preserved their purity during the invasions at the price of their lives were examples for the living population (although they were far from the norm). The aggravation of the moral code is a result to a period of instability when Confucian principles were failing.

The ideology’s rough time demanded better measures. Still encouraging the “virtuous” woman, many pointed out that education could make them understand better what women should be. Didactic texts appeared and evolved into approaching a wider range of moral values and explanations of their behavior. As the primary Confucian teachings lose effectiveness, Neo-Confucianism becomes a natural direction. The new current advocates for the possibility of all individuals to reach in, women included — a weak start, but a start nonetheless.
Another movement arises: Silhak, which began in 17th century and gained popularity during the 18th one, opposes Neo-Confucianism and favors a more practical system of beliefs. Discussions about rights’ equality emerge: in public service, women and men should be treated equally. On par with Silhak, Seohak is western-influenced and kicks in by the same time. In the quest for a more practical learning, Seohak is open to new technologies, reforms and reevaluations; both are associated with Christianity.

But they don’t go without detractors: the next century, the Donghak, an oriental supporting paradigm with an obvious anti-foreign tendency will contradict them. King Yeongjo will bring social stability for a while, insisting at the same time in maintaining Confucianism. Fluctuations like this in the overall mentality will be frequent for the next centuries, causing oscillations between images of women too.

Meanwhile, women get involved in more diverse activities, such as arts or textiles for commercial purposes; the provided education is no longer rudimentary and 18th century assists to a decent number of female writers. Ironically enough, in agriculture and not amid the Yangban the women are better regarded: the farmers’ wives equally contribute for the well-being (or lack thereof) of the family. And throughout history, many women defied their norms or found ways to make their oppression less harmful. It would be naive to imagine that women thoughtlessly assumed their position and accepted the norms.

The political isolation late Joseon dynasty will bring blocked outside influences and let women confined in their assigned behavior. The tumultuous 20th century couldn’t have brought in its early stage much improvement. Political insecurity is synonymous for strong conservative tendencies, resulting in protecting the traditional norms. The economic development brought changes, but in a different way.

So why no revolution? Simply because gender isn’t the only social group women can adhere to. Unless you’re on dope and listening to Lennon‘s “Imagine,” it is impossible for half of the population to agree on the same vision. Gender, family, classes, religions, finances – they all combine to create one person’s status. The Yangban women would have been more empathetic with the Yangban men than with female commoners. The social differences between classes are too profound to be ignored.
Back to 21st century, considering their history, it is still good that many women start working. Sure, the housewife position is respectable, but it advances also an important issue: money. The encouragement of the housewife is good at some point; in comparison with Western countries, where they are looked down upon so easily, a wife and a mother holds a better position. But South Korea’s welfare system is next-to-last among the OECD countries. It means that these women’s finances are regulated through another party, which cuts off their aspiration of independence. Moreover, if we talk about freedom of choice, opting for anything due to heavy outside influence (such as traditional norms) indicates that social pressure does a little more than the necessary. A few years ago, an article was published suggesting that the “alpha women” a.k.a. the working women with a degree have a hard time finding a partner and are a burden for their families.

The population is aging, so the state and the media have a vested interest into stimulating people to get married and have kids. But with a density of nearly 500/square meter, you might want to reconsider your genie wishes. The policies regarding women at work are all over the place and ineffective. Using the whole active population to counterbalance the needs of an aging population is better than increasing its number; quality over quantity.

And the last glitch in the system: making the non-emergency contraceptive pill available only on prescription.

Long-term exposure to oral contraceptives is much more harmful. Think of it, your hormone secretion is being manipulated regularly for years. But many of them are sold without doctors’ prescription.

I doubt doctors discovered now that contraceptive pills have side-effects. It would be understandable if women were asked for a doctor’s recommendation before starting to take the pill (to see what would be right for their bodies), but not forcefully. Women were deemed as reproducers and not as a labor force; they could get pregnant anytime and it was their only function in the eyes of the others. The view of women as child-bearers persists and constitutes a reason for the hiring staff to discriminate women. In 2010, a survey on 1623 Korean women showed that 55% of them felt discouraged from asking a maternity leave, 15% felt pressured to give up on their job after giving birth and 9% were familiar with cases of women forced to quit their working place after childbirth.

Women all over the world are struggling to make their way. Understanding what is general and what is particular in every culture is a legitimate step to take in order to address these issues. As a disclaimer, I’m not trying to point fingers. Yes, the USA is sexist too. Yes, other countries are indeed just as sexist. But heck, I was interested in South Korea. I wanted to see where the prejudices come from and understand them as I often detected them. So what do you think? What causes did I leave out? What are your opinions on the topic?

I think this issue concerns every country, ever since society shifted from a matriarchal-led one to a patriarchal one. In very early days of society women were given the highest honor because of the fact that women resemble Mother Nature – her ability to nurture, to produce life (back then, no one knows it also takes a sperm cell from a man to have an offspring.) and equated women with the mysteries of life. I think when men eventually discovered these “mysteries” of women among other things, men discovered their hold over women and deemed her unnecessary to have a major role in society; thus a shift from a predominantly matriarchal society to a current patriarchal one.

Triinu

I’m just curious: are you basing this on any factual evidence?

kalurkei

Sorry for the late reply. The concept of fatherhood was presented by some scholars as precursor to patriarchy, but others say there is no historical evidence. “Women are the Center of Iroquois Life” by Doug George-Kanentiio talks about matriarchy.

Triinu

I’ll try to give both of these a look. Thanks!

M_Lita

There’s also a chapter in Beauvoir’s “The Second Sex” dedicated to matriarchal societies/communities and it’s quite a good read.

Thanks for the informative and well thought out article. I found the tracing of women’s standing in Korea quite interesting. My one issue with the article was the way it then linked back to the pill no longer being available over the counter in South Korea. I’m Australian, and I’ve only ever been able to get the pill via prescription (maybe there’s other versions you can get over the counter here, but not that I’ve ever heard of), so the idea that you could get it over the counter surprised me a lot.

There is no doubt in my mind that the pill should be easily available for every woman in the world, but I also think that it’s a not a decision to be taken lightly. So maybe a 10 minute chat with the doctor (that’s how long it took for me) about side effects and what happens after you finally come off the pill can be really helpful. We all know vaguely what happens while you’re using the pill, and that there are “side effects”, but having someone talking just to you, face-to-face, telling which side effects are likely to happen, and which have been blown out of proportion by the media, or only effect a very specific type of person etc. can make more of an impact that watching the news or skim-reading the info that comes in the box with the pills.

Of course, using the side-effects as a reason for changing the availability only now is a pretty weak, and obviously the various side effects have been well documented for decades. But let’s be honest here. The law, no matter what country it is from, is a slow moving and borderline retarded beast. Take the more serious example of asbestos, which was first discovered to be toxic in the early 1900s, yet was widely used for most of that century, and in Australia use was only “phased out” starting in the late ’80s.

Back on topic, naturally South Korea would have different issues with contraception, different controlling bodies, different motives behind making this decision (and most there would definitely be a strong misogynistic element), a different context in which this decision is being made, and different ramifications that will come from this decision. My point is that having only prescription non-emergency contraceptive pills is not necessarily a bad thing, and not always a limitation. In the case of this article, it would have been more reasonable to perhaps include a more balanced outlook, or even simply acknowledge the other facets of the issue. Or you could have only include the broad history of women and women’s issues in Korea. I suppose the article was inspired by the contraceptive debate, but the over-arching message the “Prescription-only Contraceptives are BAD” comes across as somewhat dogmatic.

I love this article it is beautifully written. Like you said Sexism is every where. I like to think although it’s everywhere it takes different form in different culture over time. I see it as a form of evolutionary speciation. Although at the beginning it may have sprung out of the feudal system, it has evolve differently though. One would be a fool to say that their is more of a social problem in one country compare to the other, but I think sexism is more blatant in countries like Korea. I think it’s maybe because they never really had a feminist movement. Looking back at the history of US or England there have always been a trigger for such revolutions, In the western world I believe that the trigger was Industrialization and the WWII. Unlike those countries, Korean industrialization happened very late, and during the second World War Korean man were not sent out of the country like the Brits and Americans were leaving the woman behind to fend for themselves, given the womenfolk the opportunity to start working, and looking for ways to protect themselves and their children. These impetus for change started in the early 90s in Korea. Plus with Confucianism and Collectivism so ingrained in the country it makes easier for the weak ones or the minority to be taken advantage of in the name of the greater good by the most powerful. However, to be honest I think with the new generation starting to enter the work force, there will be some changes. Other women who are starting to occupy higher positions will create environment that are safer, and more beneficial for other women.

black_rose45000

This particular fact “The women that preserved their purity during the invasions at the price of their lives were examples for the living population” was heartbreaking. It’s unnatural that a woman should rather pay with her life even when the man is the one in the wrong. How can they be so cruel?

Anyway. I have to admit, when I started reading this article I thought “Omg,another article on how sexist Korea is??” but then it
turned out to be amazingly well-documented and informative. Thank you very much for taking the time to write this! Bookmarking and pimping it.

the article is very interesting, but yes, the video really pissed me off.. so I just want to rant…. why should a woman ever go through pain and the high risk of surgery for ugly rude guys like that… and even if the women were forced to cut their faces up, her children would come out as ‘ugly’ as her and her really ugly shallow husband! Vicious stupid cycle.

The video was totally weird and I think it’s torn out of context because I just cannot imagine any reason why should some japanese TV talk show or whatever that was feature some lame guys screaming their sick opinions about beauty.

That is obviously a Japanese program, I have no idea how someone could confuse the two. Doesn’t really support your article as well as it being one moron’s opinion, if I wanted to I could write a fluff piece with biased evidence as well, just another day at Seoulbeats

Grace Ecarg

was this fluff article with biased evidence then?

M_Lita

The ones speaking on that show (which is indeed Japanese) were Korean and presented as such (the first guy, the woman sitting next to him and the man talking about reincarnation). It served as an example on lookism, not as a piece of evidence.

Firstly, I want to commend your research and hard effort into compiling this thorough essay. You have gone that extra mile when most people would just lift wiki extracts.

To paraphrase a better person than myself, “These people don’t represent Korea. They only represent
themselves. Judge the individuals not an entire country.”

As much as I agree that prevailing customs and attitudes can be found in any society, country or culture which can shape politics and policies, ultimately we are talking about people’s characters not their gender nor their race nor their creed. That is why you can find sexist and racist people in every country on the face of this earth.

People who blame restrictive and oppressive attitudes on their cultures have only found reasons not to change for the better, to remain less than that potential of the human soul. There are multiple examples of people who broke the mould of their times and peoples.

For me, what you have described are types of personalities, characters NOT a people. For each exception disproves the consensus. Instead of talking about why modern men are misogynistic, I would prefer to ask why misogynists are misogynistic.

mybiasbeatsyourbias

This is a very good article and extremely informative. Regardless if your Korean or not its clear you took the time to research. Included historic facts along how religion has affected South Korea throught sense its known establishments as a nation.
The video was shocking not on the topics but the behavior. A fluster korean women dealing with a misogynistic korean male. To who refuse to be civil and aggressively attacked all those who disagree. Very disturbing and enlightening at the same time.
This reminds me of an argument I had online with an Asian guy. Although he was Chinese mixed with white and raised in Canada not by his biological parents. His title of being a ‘man’ was clearly of the sex and what society allows him to dictate.
Are argument became most heated when I spoke of the household responsibilities of the husband. I told him that yes I was raised on an old school sense that a man must provide for his family more than his wife or equal to what she brings into the home.
Now he didn’t diagree with the ideal of women working but he disagree with the husband either equal or making more than her.
His digress “well what if he makes less than her.” I answer “well he must have ambition to want and achieve more. So if he is doing day labor but is studing to be a lincense contractor. Than its acceptable.”
He was disgusted by my answer and called me sexist. According to him a man worth is what he says it should be. I didn’t disagree with him but there is such thing as a worthless man as well as a woman. That anyone in today’s society must have at least an A.A in order to have a job.
He once again explained that do to the falling economy its harder for men in his position to find jobs. I stress that I was (at the time) planning my college. He,perosnal had no ambition to go to college but felt nothing wrong with me going to college. So I pretty mush got the sense he was the opposite of misogynistic.
His attitude was something I’m starting to find among a lot of men in my age range. Which by the way I’m 25 years-old. And successfully enrolled in college for Business Management earnin my A.A. Instead of being sexist in a traditional sense. His sexism was of let the woman work and slave for the pay check. Still take care of the kids and still obey my husband. That my husband will still be the authority figure in the household.
I wanted to punch this liberal misogynist in the face. His attitude was to accept any man for who he is and how he would treat you. That its rough and I should accpet any ol’ type of guy. I was flustrated by his responses. I couldn’t believe he was actually saying this and swore he wasn’t sexist because he belive women should work.
But its was straight double talk. One thing to say you’re ok with a working woman. Than another to burden her with work and household and do little because..hey you’re a guy. Than to force that women to accept your laziness.
I zebra doesn’t change its stripes but in then case maybe the pattern of how it looks. A misogynist can change and say a woman should work but she still must be submissve.
I find this truth in African and African-American culture. There is an increase of young African girls going to school and a decline of young African males dropping out. Statistically 1 out of 3 black men in America will be in jail and/or convicted of a felony.
If you ever feel like it take the time out to look into both African (native) and African-American culture. Very interesting stuff along with those black women who are concern about the willing being of black culture,business and education future.
-sorry for misspelled words

CJux

I really like your article and I think you did a good job with your research, though there is one minor historical detail that I’d like to mention: the first feminist movement in Korea. It’s relatively unknown though (I’m just a hardcore feminist, that’s why I know these things).

The Joseon period was considered to be the dark ages for Korean women, as they were always bound to be dominated by the men in their families – they either obeyed their father, their husband, or their male son (in case she was widow). Education was practically inaccessible to most women. So I have to disagree with you here “The tumultuous 20th century couldn’t have brought in its early stage much improvement.”
Quite the contrary, the first girl schools with general primary education programs were built exactly during this period, late 19th century and early 20th century. Mostly thanks to the contribution of Christian missionaries, who rejected thought educating girls was as essential as educating boys. Ehwa Woman’s University was built in 1886, initially a primary school.

But what I’d like to mention here is the contribution of the first academically educated women in Korea, and it was all thanks to the political reforms that Korea experienced during the first stage of Japanese annexation program. As mass education was part of Japan’s assimilation and indoctrination politics, building more schools and democratizing children’s access to primary and secondary education was one part of the program for modernizing Korea. This education system was obviously politically biased, and it came at the expense cultural annihilation, but still, for the first time, parents were actually encouraged to send their daughters to school. Education freedom improved a little once Koreans started being registered as “native speakers” (i.e., Japanese speakers) as they now could pursue studies abroad, in Japan or in other nations.

Some of the women who were granted education abroad came back to Korea to write probably the first feminist essays and pro-independent women articles in the history of Korea. Most of the pioneers of this small feminist movement (called New Women) had studied abroad (mostly either in Japan or US) and came back to their home country to fight against their still rudimentary educational system, the colonial rule and the traditional values. They chose their career instead of the housewife role, they rejected arranged marriages and above all, they fought against the patriarchy imposed by both Japanese rulers and Korean citizens. They were also known for wearing ‘provocative’ clothes – like man’s pants and mini-skirts and non-feminine hairstyles, and they were accused by male intellectuals of shaming Korean women with their ‘Westernization’. Na Hye-sok was one of these women, the first internationally recognized female Korean artist of modern painting, who once wrote that her education saved her from her father’s attempt at forcing her to marry. Kim Iryop is also another Korean feminist of the 1920s that should be mentioned, after she published her views on chastity and her pro-women sexual independence rants.

So yes, there was a small revolution. It wasn’t a huge, history maker evolution like the Suffragettes movement in America, but it had enough impact among Korean nationalists and media to call it a revolution. They were hugely and painfully criticized by Korean male intellectuals, who called them ugly, promiscuous whores, and the root of all society’s problems (it’s still ridiculous the idea that they found these feminists more threatening to Korea than the Japanese army). But these educated women were responsible for translating and making available to Korean readers a lot of Western literature, slowly making roots for Western ideals and women’s liberation in Korean society.

zazuki_24

I seriously don’t see why it’s hard for some men to accept gender equality. This misogynistic culture is so ridiculous on so many levels. There isn’t even enough chances for us to prove our capabilities and yet we are slammed just like that. Obeying is certainly not a word that makes me happy. Aren’t we human beings too?
That video confused me on who is who. But it’s the same isn’t it? Appearance is such a common issue in both SK and Japan. How is appearance an indicator of how well you do or how much a person achieves? I was appalled at how the ‘pretty’ girls were cheering when the guy said that pretty girls have ideas(?thinking?brain?). Isn’t what he said very offending even to the prettier girls? And what rights does he have to say such things to the ‘ugly’ ones? No one deserves to hear such things. It was downright despicable.
And I heard that if you dislike someone, it’s probably because you don’t like a part of yourself which that person exhibits. LOL.

Chelsea Fisher

Hm. I’m curious about this. I feel as though I need to look into more of this. I got even more curious when, in the article it said ” Yes, the USA is sexist too.” I’ve never given a thought about that. I must look into more!

Guest

The article is interesting, but the video is Japanese, so I wouldn’t really see it as Korean even though the title on youtube was Korean

ashtenmorgan

I like the article aspect, but why is the youtube name korean but it’s in japanese…?