Involving farmers in
testing improved varieties of rice has proved very successful. The time it
takes for new varieties to be released falls from 15 to 5 years. Booming
demand for rice in Africa has fuelled imports. But domestic producers have
been going out of business because the traditional African or old varieties
they grow perform poorly and are not liked by consumers. In Ghana, a pilot
project showed that involving farmers speeds the spread of new varieties. The
varieties that farmers chose were being grown up to 100 kilometres away
within a year. And because farmers are getting better harvests, larger areas
are planted to rice. Involving farmers in testing new varieties has great
potential for many crops and is already being used for groundnuts, sorghum,
cotton and cassava.

The School of Agriculture, Policy and Development,
University of Reading, UK. Dr P. Craufurd and Dr P Dorward.

Research Outputs, Problems and Solutions:

Problem

Demand for rice in West and other parts of Africa has grown rapidly and continent-wide imports are valued at US$1.2 billion or
more. In Ghana imports are valued at more than cds125 million. Imports
have led to low levels of domestic rice production and loss of 1000's jobs in
the rice sector, particularly in northern Ghana. Ghana government is
concerned with impact of imports on rural livelihoods and food security (MOFA,
2002;IRRI, 2006).

Domestic rice
production is hampered by lack of improved varieties, particularly
varieties with drought and weed tolerance that satisfy local and urban market
preferences. Ghana has never formally released an upland rice variety.
Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) is an efficient and effective
process to introduce and test new varieties with farmers.

Most rice farmers, equally divided
between men and women, are small-scale subsistence farmers (<1ha) using
few or no inputs. They grow predominantly traditional African rices (O.
glaberrima) in the southern uplands or old O. sativa varieties in
the northern lowlands. For these farmers rice is an important cash and
subsistence crop contributing to their livelihood.

Similar conditions and demand exist in Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Tanzania.

Outputs

A PVS programme was initiated in Ghana in 1997
through 2003. There are three main outputs:

A farmer-orientated
participatory process (modified PVS) to identify and evaluate new rice
varieties was successfully piloted in southern and northern Ghana. This
process built capacity within two key national institutions, and fostered
links between scientists and farmers and their organisations. Small-scale,
male and female farmers have benefited. The PVS process has enabled
varieties that have sat on the shelf for up to 15 years to be released, and
will shorten the time to release in future by at least 5 years.

Local, informal systems of
seed multiplication and popularisation have been shown to be effective in
disseminating new varieties. How to use these seed systems in
the absence of a formal system has been better understood eg who to give seed
to, how much, when and how to maintain quality.

New varieties have been
identified and are being grown by farmers in both regions; IDSA85 in
the south and IR1279-24-1 in the north. IR1279-24-1 has been
officially released following its inclusion in on-farm 'Mother & Baby'
trials while IDSA85 is being promoted in southern Ghana using Gatsby
funding. An impact survey in 2005 has shown that adopting IDSA85 has
improved livelihood through higher yield combined with larger areas planted
to rice.

The PVS process, and associated insights and
benefits for improving seed systems and variety release, is generic.
Experiences gained in this project on integrating formal and informal institutions and actors could be applied elsewhere and on other cereal, legume and root
& tuber crops eg maize, cassava, sorghum.

Participatory processes that allow farmers to
select and test on-farm new varieties and other technologies can be applied
successfully to all other commodities. R8402/8302/7565 'PPT breeding disease
resistant cassava' is using participatory methods in cassava in Ghana while
R7438 'Seed priming rice in West Africa and Asia' worked with the same PVS
farmers used in the Ghana rice programme. WARDA provided initial varieties.

Seed systems

Projects such as R8415 'Dissemination of
improved beans', Plant Sciences Research Programme Generic 'PVS theme' and
'Community-Based Seed Production theme' have all increased understanding of
local seed systems and methods to utilise these systems better. There
would be value in sharing experience and ideas.

Variety release

The institutional constraints to the adoption of a
more participatory approach in crop improvement, and especially in variety
release, are similar across commodities and could benefit from clustering
outputs.

Relevant research outputs:

R8402/8302/7565 PPT breeding disease resistant
cassava

R8415 Dissemination of improved beans

R7438 Seed priming rice in West Africa and Asia

Plant Sciences Research Programme Generic PVS theme

Plant Sciences Research Programme Generic Community
Based Seed Production theme

Validation

How the outputs were validated:

PVS involves farmers in the process of selecting
varieties and then helps to facilitate their spread. The widespread adoption
of the varieties by farmers (49% uptake by farmers who did not have contact
with the project) is evidence that the varieties are preferred and that the
process has been successful.

Participatory process

The PVS process was organised by social scientists
and plant breeders from CRI and SARI in conjunction with local MOFA extension
officers and local organisations (NGOs). In Volta and Western region
the local organisations were farmer groups identified within the community;
in Northern and Upper East regions the process was facilitated by local
NGOs. Local groups were asked to include men and women and to ensure
all social and poverty classes were represented in the process. A workshop
was held at CRI with plant breeders to introduce PVS and NGOs have been given
training in conducting PVS programmes. CRI/SARI and local groups who
implemented the PVS programme adapted the process, based on experience
and feedback, to suit their needs and circumstances.

Fifty to 100 new
varieties were tested with farmers, typically 30 male and 30 female
farmers. In the first and second years all varieties to be evaluated
were grown at a single accessible location as a rice garden or 'Mother' trial
so that varieties could be easily compared. In some locations 'Mother' trials
were repeated at low and high fertility. In subsequent years, once selections
had been made by farmers, seed (1-2 kg only) was provided for farmers to grow
one or two varieties on their own farm. Individual varieties were
replicated on farm by six to >200 farmers.

More than 500 farmers have participated
directly in the PVS programme and many more have grown PVS varieties. In the
communities in Volta region where PVS was carried out, >90% of farmers are
growing a PVS variety. Forty to 60% of farmers who have grown PVS varieties
are women.

Seed systems

Local seed systems have spread PVS varieties to
neighbouring communities, in some cases up to 100 km away. News or awareness
of new varieties spreads rapidly, mostly through kin relations. Local private
seed producers identified (ie enterprising farmers) provide a sustainable way
of seed dissemination but tended to sell only large amounts of seed to other
wealthier farmers. Poorer farmers can gain access to new varieties if they
are explicitly included in the PVS process or given seed and will share small
amounts of seed with other poor famers through seed exchange and gifts. In
addition locally run and organised seed banks, wherein 1-2 kg seed was
borrowed from a common community bank - and returned two-fold, was
successfully piloted in southern Ghana, but its long term sustainability has
not been examined. The system allowed many more farmers to gain access to
seed of new varieties in an equable manner. Studies of seed systems and of
how to support them to facilitate rapid and equitable spread were conducted
through annual following of seed spread plus ex-post surveys of farmers and
traders.

New varieties

The PVS process was instrumental in SARI formally
releasing a variety, IR1279-24-1 in 2002. This variety was first tested
on-station in 1985 - but never by farmers. On-farm yield data from >100
farmers showed convincingly that this variety was high yielding and of
acceptable quality to farmers. On-farm in 2001, for example, this variety
yielded on average 1197 kg ha-1 (n=119) compared with 671 kg ha-1 (n=167) for the local variety, i.e. nearly 180% more.

Likewise, in Hohoe in Volta region, PVS
varieties yielded on average 66% more than local varieties based on data from
four years of on-farm comparisons. PVS farmers in Ghana also increased
their area under rice between 2002 and 2005 by 36%. IDSA85 is being promoted
in southern Ghana through a Gatsby funded initiative.

Where the Outputs were Validated:

Participatory process

A PVS programme was carried out between 1997 and 2003 in four
areas of Ghana; Hohoe in Volta region, Sayerano in Western region,
Tolon-Nyankpala in Northern region and Bakwu in Upper East region. These
areas covered two major rice ecosystems: upland rice in the forest
agro-ecological zone (Hohoe, Sayerano) and hydromorphic / lowland rainfed
rice in the savanna agro-ecological zone in Ghana. Rice farming in both these
zones is an important component of smallholder, rainfed humid systems,
dominated by tree farming in the forest zone and other cereals and roots
& tubers in the savanna zone. Small-scale (<1ha) farmers, both
men and women, were targeted by the PVS programme. The majority of farmers
could be described as Moderate and Extremely vulnerable poor.

Seed systems

The spread of IDSA85 in Hohoe over three seasons was followed by
keeping detailed records of seed distribution and subsequent production, sale
or use by individuals. This was followed by surveys of 2289 and 255
households to measure uptake, explore mechanisms and identify successful
means of encouraging spread and quality. A significant proportion of the seed
produced and sold was from a few seed producing farmers; most other seed was
shared or traded in small quantities. In Western region, the spread of a
variety called Agya Amoah, first introduced in 1985 from Cote d'Ivoire by Mr
Agya Amoah, was documented by survey and interviews of farmers, traders and
millers. Seed systems were also investigated across areas in Ghana as part of
the independent impact study in 2005.

Farmers, and NGOs involved in the PVS
process, have been trained in community based seed multiplication at SARI.

New varieties

IR1279-24-1 was formally released by SARI in 2002. This
variety is being widely grown throughout the hydromorphic / lowland rainfed
rice areas in the north of Ghana. IDSA85 is being promoted in Volta
region by CRI as part of a Gatsby funded programme. Further details are given
in an independent impact survey was commissioned by Plant Sciences Research
Programme in 2005.

Current Situation

Who are the Users?

Participatory process

The PVS process is gradually being institutionalised
at SARI where it is being used in the selection and testing of rice
varieties, groundnuts, sorghum and cotton. At CRI, the PVS process is being
used by the rice programme to promote new varieties and the cassava
programme.

Seed systems

Ninety farmers are being trained in CBSM at SARI.
Local seed systems continue to function.

New varieties

SARI is promoting new varieties using 'Baby'
trials. CRI is promoting varieties in Volta and Western region. Farmers
continue to grow and spread PVS varieties through local seed systems.

Where the outputs have been used:

Participatory process

The process is being used on several commodities
throughout the Northern, Upper East and Upper West regions of Ghana within
SARI's mandate. Likewise, CRI is using the process in southern Ghana for rice
and cassava.

Seed systems

Farmers in Tolon-Nyankpala in Northern region are producing their
own seed and training other farmers in seed multiplication.

New varieties

Farmers in Hohoe in Volta region, Sayerano in Western region,
Tolon-Nyankpala in Northern region and Bakwu in Upper East region in Ghana are
growing PVS varieties.

Scale of Current Use:

Participatory process

CRI and SARI are the main source of varieties for
farmers in Ghana and both are active in PVS. The process is becoming
institutionalised in SARI.

Seed systems

Local seed systems continue to be the main source
of seed for farmers. In Tolon-Nyankpala, Northern region, farmers have about
40 ha under seed multiplication of PVS rice varieties. Knowledge of seed
systems is being used to supply seed in ways that maximise spread and
maintain quality and as part of promotion.

New varieties

These have spread rapidly in and around communities
involved directly in the PVS process, moving up to 100 km in a year. 49% of
farmers who have not had direct contact with the project were growing PVS
varieties by 2005. Uptake and spread is continuing.

Policy and Institutional Structures, and Key Components for Success:

Participatory process

A strong partnership with collaborating stakeholders (MOFA and
NGO's). These institutions have developed working relations with farmers most
of whom belong to farmer groups. Farmers, individually and in groups were
highly motivated recognising the value of new varieties. Research institute
directors were supportive of participatory approaches. The regional promotion
of NERICAs (New Rice for Africa) and donor support for participatory
approaches also helps

Seed systems

Local seed systems function and can successfully
spread seed of new varieties but will operate more effectively with targeted
interventions to support them.

New varieties

Variety release procedures are in place in Ghana, and on-farm data
can contribute towards release. Concurrent evaluation of farmer selected
varieties by research at multi-location sites helped to reduce the variety
testing time and provided data needed for variety release.

Lessons Learned and Uptake Pathways

Promotion of Outputs:

Participatory process

In the Bawku East and the Garu Tinpani districts,
seeds of varieties selected by farmers in Nyorigu and Tambalug community PVS
(2001 et seq.) are being evaluated by 280 farmers in 10 new communities using
the 'Mother and Baby' participatory system.

Seed systems

Ninety farmers are being trained this year by SARI
in community-based seed multiplication to add up to the 15 already trained
last year. A total of 40 ha seed farm has been cultivated by the
trainee seed growers. Varieties already released are being popularised using
'Baby' trials, i.e. by informal methods. Targeted seed supply continues to
maximise spread of new varieties (see below).

New varieties

IDSA 85 and NERICA 1 & 2 are currently being
promoted in the Tolon-Kumbungu district in Northern region. Under the
project, which is being funded with a loan from the African Development Bank,
1000 farm households were targeted this year and 500 supplied with seed of
the varieties being promoted. In Volta region, IDSA85 is being promoted
through a Gatsby-funded programme. Informal seed spread of PVS varieties
continues in all regions (see impact report, op. cit.).

Potential Barriers Preventing Adoption of Outputs:

Participatory process

Institutional change is needed in Ghana to get
participatory processes adopted and integrated more widely. Within research
institutions, especially plant breeding programmes, greater recognition is
needed that the ultimate clients of research are farmers, and that farmers
have valuable knowledge and experience. The integration of extension with
research could also be strengthened by closer ties between CSIR and MOFA, and
more focus on adaptive research. Farmers also need to be more closely
involved in on-farm research processes as partners and not contractors.

Seed systems

Local seed systems are effective, but work slowly
in the absence of large inputs of seed, and in the initial stages favour
wealthier farmers who can afford to purchase seed in larger quantities.
Identification and working with farmers who already produce seed is not
common (and neither is the use of community-based seed multiplication (CBSM)
programmes for any commodity). Farmers seed storage practices are also poor,
leading to poor seed establishment and variety mixtures.

New varieties

Very few varieties have been nominated for release
in rice. Seed release committee decisions are still dominated by on-station
yield rather than by on-farm yield and farmer acceptance data. The seed
release process also requires a financial input from the institution
proposing varieties, and institutions do not necessarily budget for this.
Formal seed systems to multiply and supply seed of new varieties also need
rejuvenating.

Institutions need to encourage and reward
scientists for working in or closely with those involved in extension and development,
i.e. in getting research into use. Institutions need to recognise that the
whole system from varietal development through to seed production needs to be
integrated and farmer-orientated.

Seed systems

Institutional acceptance and promotion of private
seed multiplication and supply by farmers already engaged in or interested in
growing seed would aid spread, including 'truthfully labelled' seed. Support
and quality assurance standards and training for local seed production are
needed as is greater use of local seed systems and knowledge pathways to
promote new varieties (i.e. informal research and development).

New varieties

Many countries, including Ghana, use a UK based
variety release process. This top-down formal process does not
function well. A greater acceptance of on-farm and farmer preference
data in the variety release process is needed and this can be achieved by
integrating seed release, PVS and seed multiplication systems. Greater
exposure of seed release institutions to PVS and giving farmers or NGOs a
role in decisions would help.

Lessons Learned:

Participatory process

PVS can be effective in reaching poorer farmers and
women, and can be modified to suit different purposes, i.e. seed release and
variety promotion. PVS, in the form of 'Baby' trials can be used to scale-up
and promote varieties. Once a PVS process has been successfully used in
a community, it is easy to continue to use this process to introduce new
varieties and hence sustain the process.

Seed systems

Uptake of varieties, assuming they are of
acceptable quality to farmers, is limited by the availability of seed.
Large-scale seed multiplication is essential to the success of this process -
whether by formal or informal system.

New varieties

New varieties will spread rapidly if they are good,
and local knowledge systems spread news of a new variety very effectively.
New varieties sell at a premium and this encourages seed producing farmers to
grow new varieties.

Impacts On Poverty

Poverty Impact Studies:

An independent study of the process (output 1) and
adoption of the varieties (output 3) was conducted by BMOS Agro-consultants
Ltd, University of Ghana [1] at the end of 2005.The study covered three areas
of Ghana with different climatic, farming and social conditions: Hohoe
District in Volta Region; Bwaku-East District in Upper East Region; and
Tolon-Kumbugu District in Northern Region. Five hundred and thirty nine
farmers were interviewed.

How the Poor have Benefited (including gender and other poverty groups):

Positive impacts on livelihoods, time period and
who benefited

The study focused on uptake, yield and financial
benefits. All figures in this section are from the BMOS Agro-consultants
study unless stated otherwise. By 2005, one year after the project had ended, 49% of farmers interviewed who had not had direct contact with
the project already grew PVS rice varieties (35% in Hohoe, 35% in Bwaku-East,
74% Tolon-Kumbugu.) This is supported by Marfo et al (2003) who reported 37%
adoption by farmers in Hohoe. BMOS Agro-consultants also compared farmers who
had been involved in PVS (and adopted the varieties; 226 'PVS farmers'
interviewed) with farmers who had not been involved ('non PVS farmers').
Yields per hectare for PVS farmers in 2005 were 11% higher than for non PVS
farmers. However 2005 may not be typical. Yield increases of PVS varieties vs
local varieties from farmer managed replicated comparisons in 1997, 1998,
2001 and 2002 in Hohoe were 10%, 83%, 90% and 82% (mean 66%) (Project FTR,
2003). The greatest difference was in 2001 when rainfall was low indicating
the ability of the improved varieties to reduce vulnerability. In the
Savannah zone in 2002 yields from PVS varieties in farmers' fields were 75%
greater than for local varieties (Project FTR, 2003). The study by BMOS
Agro-consultants indicated that income was approximately US$35.5 higher per
hectare from rice for PVS farmers due to the new varieties, based on the 11%
yield increase. (Using the mean increase in yield of 66% gives an increase of
US$117.60 per ha). The area of rice grown by PVS farmers on their farms
increased by 36% (mean) between 2002 and 2005 (increased yields made
it preferable to other crops). There was no increase by non PVS farmers.
Combining the yield (11%) and area increases associated with the PVS
varieties gives an average increase in income from a crop of rice of
US$182.16 per farmer (not including lost income from crop replaced).

Other livelihood impacts were not investigated but
are expected to include (many were observed during the project): increased
knowledge of varieties and relative benefits, improved health and education
(Human); increased use of traditional seed exchange and gifting, greater
connectedness between households sharing seed, more food and finance
available for informal safety nets (Social); greater ability of poor to hire
land for rice production (Natural); improved ability to pay for
communication, transport, shelter (Physical).

All farmers irrespective of poverty level have
benefited. Poorer farmers had access to improved varieties through seed gift
and exchange systems. There are no additional input costs associated with new
varieties. The majority of farmers are Moderate Poor and Extreme Poor, with
some Extreme Dependent Poor and Children of extreme poor. Characteristics of
farmers growing rice were: approximately 30% of farmers have less than 0.5ha
of land for farming and only 8.5% more than 1 ha; 49% of rice farmers in
Hohoe and Bwaku-East and are women; 13% of farmers were unable to pay
hospital bills (31% in Hohoe). Rice was the main income earning activity for
most farmers.

Average percentage increase recorded (any
indicator)

49% of rice farmers have adopted varieties in a
very short time and uptake is continuing.

Environmental Impact

Direct and Indirect Environmental Benefits:

Participatory process & seed systems

None.

New varieties

In the short to medium term, the adoption of new varieties will
have positive environmental impacts on genetic diversity; in southern Ghana
rice cultivation is dominated by one or two traditional varieties and the
introduction of new varieties will diversify the gene pool.

Adverse Environmental Impacts:

Participatory process & seed systems

None.

New varieties

There are no adverse environmental impacts related to outputs and
their outcomes. Rice is a traditional crop in southern and northern Ghana and
replacing old varieties with new varieties that are generally shorter duration
and better adapted has a neutral impact. In southern Ghana areas under
rice have increased slightly but areas are nonetheless still small
(<1ha). It is not known whether increased area is new land or rice
replacing another annual crop. There is no evidence that farmers
growing new rice varieties have increased pesticide use (and in any case most
couldn't afford to do so).

Coping with the Effects of Climate Change, or Risk from Natural Disasters:

Participatory process & seed systems

Yes. The institutional adoption of participatory processes,
particularly if included in a formal variety release system, will allow new
varieties to be more rapidly introduced and tested with farmers. PVS
systems typically shorten the cycle of introducing new varieties by up to
50%, as well as providing a more robust testing system that ensures any new
variety is well adapted and of acceptable quality. e.

New varieties

New rice varieties are generally of shorter
duration, as well as being more drought, weed and disease tolerant than
existing varieties. These traits will all contribute to greater
resilience of the system.