graph theory tutorial

Here, (\ud835\udc3a1\u305\u305\u305\u305 \u2261 \ud835\udc3a2\u305\u305\u305\u305 ), hence (G1 \u2261 G2).
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Planar Graphs
A graph \u2018G\u2019 is said to be planar if it can be drawn on a plane or a sphere so that
no two edges cross each other at a non-vertex point.
Example
NON - PLANAR GRAPH PLANAR GRAPH
Regions
Every planar graph divides the plane into connected areas called regions.
Example
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Degree of a bounded region r = deg(r) = Number of edges enclosing the regions
r.
deg(1) = 3
deg(2) = 4
deg(3) = 4
deg(4) = 3
deg(5) = 8
Degree of an unbounded region r = deg(r) = Number of edges exposed to regions
r.
deg(R1) = 4
deg(R2) = 6
In planar graphs, the following properties hold good:
1. In a planar graph with \u2018n\u2019 vertices, sum of degrees of all the vertices is
\u2211 deg(\ud835\udc49\ud835\udc56) = 2|\ud835\udc38|
\ud835\udc5b
\ud835\udc56=1
2. According to Sum of Degrees of Regions Theorem, in a planar graph with \u2018n\u2019
regions, Sum of degrees of regions is:
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\u2211 deg(\ud835\udc5f\ud835\udc56) = 2|\ud835\udc38|
\ud835\udc5b
\ud835\udc56=1
Based on the above theorem, you can draw the following conclusions:
In a planar graph,
\uf0b7 If degree of each region is K, then the sum of degrees of regions is
K|R| = 2|E|
\uf0b7 If the degree of each region is at least K(\u2265K), then
K|R| \u2264 2|E|
\uf0b7 If the degree of each region is at most K(\u2264K), then
K|R| \u2265 2|E|
Note: Assume that all the regions have same degree.
3. According to Euler\u2019s Formulae on planar graphs,
\uf0b7 If a graph \u2018G\u2019 is a connected planar, then
|V| + |R| = |E| + 2
\uf0b7 If a planar graph with \u2018K\u2019 components then
|V| + |R|=|E| + (K+1)
Where, |V| is the number of vertices, |E| is the number of edges, and |R| is the
number of regions.
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4. Edge Vertex Inequality
If \u2018G\u2019 is a connected planar graph with degree of each region at least \u2018K\u2019 then,
|E| \u2264
\ud835\udc3e
\ud835\udc3e\u22122
{|V|-2}
You know, |V|+|R| = |E|+2
K.|R| \u2264 2|E|
K(|E| \u2013 |V| + 2) \u2264 2|E|
(K-2)|E| \u2264 K(|V| \u2013 2)
|E| \u2264
\ud835\udc3e
\ud835\udc3e\u22122
{|V| \u2013 2}
5. If \u2018G\u2019 is a simple connected planar graph, then
|E| \u2264 3|V| \u2013 6
|R| \u2264 2|V| \u2013 4
There exists at least one vertex V \u2208 G, such that deg(V) \u2264 5
6. If \u2018G\u2019 is a simple connected planar graph (with at least 2 edges) and no
triangles, then
|E| \u2264 {2|V| \u2013 4}
7. Kuratowski\u2019s Theorem
A graph \u2018G\u2019 is non-planar if and only if \u2018G\u2019 has a subgraph which is
homeomorphic to K5 or K3,3.
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Homomorphism
Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be homomorphic, if each of these graphs can be
obtained from the same graph \u2018G\u2019 by dividing some edges of G with more vertices.
Take a look at the following example:
G
Divide the edge \u2018rs\u2019 into two edges by adding one vertex.
The graphs shown below are homomorphic to the first graph.
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If G1 is isomorphic to G2, then G is homeomorphic to G2 but the converse need not
be true.
\uf0b7 Any graph with 4 or less vertices is planar.
\uf0b7 Any graph with 8 or less edges is planar.
\uf0b7 A complete graph Kn is planar if and only if n \u2264 4.
\uf0b7 The complete bipartite graph Km, n is planar if and only if m \u2264 2 or n \u2264 2.
\uf0b7 A simple non-planar graph with minimum number of vertices is the complete
graph K5.
\uf0b7 The simple non-planar graph with minimum number of edges is K3, 3.
Polyhedral graph
A simple connected planar graph is called a polyhedral graph if the degree of each
vertex is \u2265 3, i.e., deg(V) \u2265 3 \u2200 V \u2208 G.
\uf0b7 3|V| \u2264 2|E|
\uf0b7 3|R| \u2264 2|E|
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A graph is traversable if you can draw a path between all the vertices without
retracing the same path. Based on this path, there are some categories like Euler\u2019s
path and Euler\u2019s circuit which are described in this chapter.
Euler\u2019s Path
An Euler\u2019s path contains each edge of \u2018G\u2019 exactly once and each vertex of \u2018G\u2019 at
least once. A connected graph G is said to be traversable if it contains an Euler\u2019s
path.
Example
Euler\u2019s Path = d-c-a-b-d-e.
TRAVERSABILITY
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Euler\u2019s Circuit
In an Euler\u2019s path, if the starting vertex is same as its ending vertex, then it is
called an Euler\u2019s circuit.
Example
Euler\u2019s Circuit: a-b-c-d-a-g-f-e-c-a.
Euler\u2019s Circuit Theorem
A connected graph \u2018G\u2019 is traversable if and only if the number of vertices with odd
degree in G is exactly 2 or 0. A connected graph G can contain an Euler\u2019s path,
but not an Euler\u2019s circuit, if it has exactly two vertices with an odd degree.
Note: This Euler path begins with a vertex of odd degree and ends with the other
vertex of odd degree.
Example
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Euler\u2019s Path: b-e-a-b-d-c-a is not an Euler\u2019s circuit, but it is an Euler\u2019s path.
Clearly it has exactly 2 odd degree vertices.
Note: In a connected graph G, if the number of vertices with odd degree = 0,
then Euler\u2019s circuit exists.
Hamiltonian Graph
A connected graph G is said to be a Hamiltonian graph, if there exists a cycle
which contains all the vertices of G.
Every cycle is a circuit but a circuit may contain multiple cycles. Such a cycle is
called a Hamiltonian cycle of G.
Hamiltonian Path
A connected graph is said to be Hamiltonian if it contains each vertex of G exactly
once. Such a path is called a Hamiltonian path.
Example
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Hamiltonian Path: e-d-b-a-c.
Note:
\uf0b7 Euler\u2019s circuit contains each edge of the graph exactly once.
\uf0b7 In a Hamiltonian cycle, some edges of the graph can be skipped.
Example
Take a look at the following graph:
For the graph shown above:
\uf0b7 Euler path exists \u2013 false
\uf0b7 Euler circuit exists \u2013 false
\uf0b7 Hamiltonian cycle exists \u2013 true
\uf0b7 Hamiltonian path exists \u2013 true
G has four vertices with odd degree, hence it is not traversable. By skipping the
internal edges, the graph has a Hamiltonian cycle passing through all the vertices.
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In this chapter, we will cover a few standard examples to demonstrate the
concepts we already discussed in the earlier chapters.
Example 1
Find the number of spanning trees in the following graph.
Solution
The number of spanning trees obtained from the above graph is 3. They are as
follows:
I II III
These three are the spanning trees for the given graphs. Here the graphs I and II
are isomorphic to each other. Clearly, the number of non-isomorphic spanning
trees is two.
EXAMPLES
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Example 2
How many simple non-isomorphic graphs are possible with 3 vertices?
Solution
There are 4 non-isomorphic graphs possible with 3 vertices. They are shown
below.
Example 3
Let \u2018G\u2019 be a connected planar graph with 20 vertices and the degree of
each vertex is 3. Find the number of regions in the graph.
Solution
By the sum of degrees theorem,
\u2211 deg (\ud835\udc49\ud835\udc56)20\ud835\udc56=1 = 2|E|
20(3) = 2|E|
|E| = 30
By Euler\u2019s formula,
|V| + |R| = |E| + 2
20+ |R| = 30 + 2
|R| = 12
Hence, the number of regions is 12.
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Example 4
What is the chromatic number of complete graph Kn?
Solution
In a complete graph, each vertex is adjacent to is remaining (n\u20131) vertices. Hence,
each vertex requires a new color.