Dobrinja mortar attack

The Dobrinja mortar attack was a massacre which occurred at 10:20 a.m.[1] on 1 June 1993, in Dobrinja, a suburb west of Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Two mortar rounds were fired from Serb-held positions,[1] hitting a football pitch where youths put on an impromptu game on the first day of the Muslim holiday Kurban Bajram.[2][3] Approximately 200 people were in attendance to watch the game.[2] The United Nations placed the official death toll stemming from the mortar attack at 13[1] (news reports at the time published numbers ranging from 11[4] to 15[2] deaths), with 133 wounded.[1] At the time it was the deadliest event involving civilians since the imposition of sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by the United Nations one year prior.[5][6]

^Connie Chung (1 June 1993). The CBS Evening News with Dan Rather and Connie Chung.(6:39: "Today was a holiday for the Muslims of Bosnia, and some young people decided to ignore the war and choose up sides for a ball game. It wasn't long before their soccer field was soaked in blood. As David Martin reports, it was a grim reminder of the world's failure to end the slaughter in Bosnia.")

1.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر‎‎ shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo

2.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them

3.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England

4.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion

5.
Eid al-Adha
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Eid al-Adha, also called the Sacrifice Feast, is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to Gods command, before he sacrificed his son God intervened by sending his angel Jibrail, who then put a sheep in his sons place. In the Islamic lunar calendar, Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, in the international calendar, the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr, the word Eid appears once in Al-Maida, the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning solemn festival. Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two followed by a sermon. Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj, the performing the Hajj, from Mount Arafat. Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as days of remembrance and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar. Another Arabic word for sacrifice is Qurbani The Semitic root Q-R-B means to be close to someone/something, other words from the root include qarov, close, the senses of root meaning to offer suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering. The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu act of offering, Eid al-Kabir, an Arabic term meaning the Greater Eid, is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa. The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir, translations of Big Eid or Greater Eid are used in Pashto, Kashmiri, Urdu and Hindi, Tamil and Malayalam. Albanian, however, uses Bajram i vogël or the Lesser Eid as a reference to Eid al-Adha. This term is borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr Īd Peru Nāl. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj, such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian (Hari Raya Haji Hajj celebration day, Lebaran Haji, Lebaran Kaji. When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines, when it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog. Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world, in Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego. According to Islamic tradition, the valley of Mecca was a dry, rocky, God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar, his Arabian wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan. As Abraham was preparing for his journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him

6.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General

7.
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Serbia and Montenegro, officially the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, was a country in Southeast Europe, created from the two remaining republics of Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1992. The republics of Serbia and Montenegro together established a federation in 1992 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the FRY aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to continue the membership of the former state. It re-applied for UN membership on 27 October and was admitted on 1 November 2000, the FRY was initially dominated by Slobodan Milošević as President of Serbia and then President of Yugoslavia. Milošević installed and forced the removal of several presidents and prime ministers. However, the Montenegrin government, initially enthusiastic supporters of Milošević, a loose union, Serbia and Montenegro were united only in certain realms, such as defense. The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of the Federal Republic, and continued to operate under separate economic policies, on 21 May 2006, the Montenegrin independence referendum was held, and 55. 5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The state union came to an end after Montenegros formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006, after the dissolution, Serbia became the legal successor of the union, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organizations. With the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe, the new state followed the wave of democratic change, Yugoslavias collapse began in 1991 when Slovenia, Croatia, and the Republic of Macedonia declared independence. On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new third Yugoslavia. Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from a union with Serbia, Montenegro, the FRY was suspended from a number of international institutions. This was due to the ongoing Yugoslav wars during the 1990s, the Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions, in this way, every Bosnian Serb was transferred from the Yugoslav army to what became the newly created Bosnian Serb Army. Through this, the Bosnian Serb army also received military equipment and full funding from the FRY. Furthermore, Serbian Radical Party founder and paramilitary Vojislav Šešelj claimed that President Milošević personally asked him to send paramilitaries into Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1995, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević represented the FRY and Bosnian Serbs at peace talks in Dayton, Ohio, US, from 1996, the first public signs of political discord between parts of Montenegrin leadership and the Serbian leadership began to appear. Milošević did not respond to the platform, considering it unconstitutional, by October 2000 Milošević had lost power in Serbia. Subsequent governments of Montenegro carried out policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade

8.
The CBS Evening News
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The CBS Evening News is the flagship evening television news program of CBS News, the news division of the CBS television network in the United States. The program has been broadcast since May 3,1948 under the original title CBS Television News, since June 6,2011, the weekday editions of the program have been anchored by Scott Pelley. Previous anchors have included Douglas Edwards, Walter Cronkite, Dan Rather, Bob Schieffer, weekend editions of the CBS Evening News weekends began in February 1966. The weekend editions draw from the resources of CBSN, the news channel where Ninan. The CBS Evening News airs live at 6, 30pm in the Eastern and 5, 30pm in the Central Time Zones, CBS began broadcasting news programs on Saturday evenings in the mid-1940s, which expanded to two nights a week in 1947. The network also broadcast a recap of the news stories on a Sunday night program titled Newsweek in Review, which was later retitled The Week in Review. On November 30,1956, the became the first to use the new technology of videotape to time delay the broadcast for the western United States. Walter Cronkite became anchor of the program titled Walter Cronkite with the News on April 16,1962. On September 2,1963, the program, retitled CBS Evening News, as before, some affiliates had the option of carrying a later edition, this time scheduled for 7,00 p. m. Eastern Time. NBC also allowed this practice for the Huntley-Brinkley Report, with ABC later following it for the ABC Evening News. The networks ended this practice after 1971, although some affiliates – mostly in larger markets – continued to carry the national newscasts at 7,00 p. m. Eastern Time on a tape delay. The CBS Evening News was first transmitted in color as a one-evening test broadcast on August 19,1965, before permanently switching to the format on January 31,1966. Cronkites prime time special report, Who, What, When, Where, Why, broadcast on February 27,1968 and it is often credited with influencing Lyndon Johnsons decision to drop out of the race for President. Ve lost Middle America, he stated, under Cronkite, the newscast began what would eventually become an 18-year period of dominating the ratings among the network evening news programs. After the first half of the report, shown on a Friday, the second half of the report was aired the following Monday, but only for eight minutes. Concerns about excessive liberalism in the media were frequently leveled at Rather, some of these concerns dated from Rathers position as White House correspondent for the networks news division during the Nixon administration. An interview related to the Iran–Contra affair with then-Vice President George H. W. Bush where the two engaged in a match on live television did little to dispel those concerns. Rather apologized for his behavior in statements the following day, on September 3, Rather said the masculine noun for the Spanish word for courage, coraje

9.
Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina

10.
Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991

11.
Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Following the end of the war, and the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995, it was transformed into the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ArBiH was the military force on the territory of Bosnia. Under the State Defense Reform Law the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified into a structure, OSBiH. The Army of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed on 15 April 1992 during the days of the Bosnian War. Before the ARBiH was officially created, a number of paramilitary, other irregular groups included Bosnian mafia groups, as well as collections of police and former Yugoslav Peoples Army soldiers. The army was formed in poor circumstances, and suffered from a limited supply of arms. Critical deficiencies included tanks and other heavy weaponry, the first commander of the army was Sefer Halilović. In 1992, 70% of Bosnia was under JNA, and then later VRS, the ARBiH had defended Sarajevo with light weaponry. The army was surrounded and the transfer of supplies was hard,1993 saw no major changes in the front lines against Serbs. Instead, this marked the start of the Croat-Bosniak war in Central Bosnia and in Herzegovina. It is widely believed that this was due to the Karađorđevo agreement reached between presidents Slobodan Milošević and Franjo Tuđman to split Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. In order to accomplish this Croatian forces would have to defeat the Bosnian Army, vastly underequipped Bosnian forces, fighting on two fronts, were able to repel Croats and gain territory against them on every front. At this time, due to its position, Bosnia was surrounded by Croat. There was no way to weapons or food. What saved Bosnia at this time was its vast industrial complex, after a short but bloody war, and once Croats realized that their partnership with Serbs would not bring them any territorial gains, they agreed to US leaderships Washington Treaty peace agreement. From that point on, Croat and Bosnian government forces fought as allies against Serbs, a renewed alliance between HVO and ARBiH was agreed upon, with the objective of forming a strong force that could fight the much stronger and better equipped VRS. This was the time of frequent peace negotiations, despite the loss of several enclaves, notably Srebrenica,1995 was marked by HVO and ARBiH offensives and later by NATO intervention. Following the Split Agreement, the Croatian army, with cooperation from ARBiH and HVO, launched a series of operations, Flash, Summer 95, Storm, in conjunction, Bosnian forces launched operations like Sana

12.
Patriotic League (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
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The Patriotic League was the first paramilitary unit of Territorial Defence Force of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On December 19,1990 Alija Izetbegović and the SDA party discussed forming an independent paramilitary separate from the Yugoslav Peoples Army, in March 1991 Sefer Halilović formed the Patriotic League as an independent Bosnian army, with the same territorial organization as Territorial Defense Forces. Later on the Patriotic League was connected to the TO, the Patriotic League, alongside the TORBIH, would later become the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Patriotic League received training at Croatian Special Police centers and by March 1992 claimed 98,000 troops – more than the shrinking TO - organized in 9 regions and 103 districts, crni Labudovi Armija RBiH - Diverzantsko-Izviđačka Brigada Zmaj od Bosne YouTube video

13.
Black Swans (special forces)
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The Black Swans was a paramilitary unit and special forces unit in the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was a Patriotic League unit formed in 1992 in Sapna under the 2nd Corps and it was one of several special Bosnian Muslim units. It earned a reputation for battlefield bravery, then Captain Hajro Mešić took over for a while. The most successful and lasting commander was Brigadier Hase Tirić, the area of operation was Konjic, Igman and Jablanica. Black Swans wore black uniforms with a patch on the sleeves

14.
Bosnian mujahideen
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Bosnian mujahideen, also called El Mudžahid, were foreign Muslim volunteers who fought on the Bosniak side during the 1992–95 Bosnian War. They arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the aim of fighting for Islam, some originally went as humanitarian workers, while some of them were considered criminals in their home countries for illegally travelling to Bosnia and becoming soldiers. The number of volunteers is still disputed, with estimates varying from initially around 300 to 6,000 fighters by 1995, following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country. The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function, the Serbs wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, mainly eastern and western Bosnia. The Croats and their leader Tuđman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia, the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war. On September 25,1991 the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 713 imposing an embargo on all of former Yugoslavia. The embargo hurt the Bosnian Army the most because Serbia inherited much of the former Yugoslav Peoples Army arsenal, at the outset of the Bosnian War the Serb forces attacked the Bosnian Muslim civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps, the women were kept in various detention centres where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Meanwhile, Croat forces started their first attacks on Bosniaks in Gornji Vakuf and Novi Travnik, towns in Central Bosnia on June 20,1992, but the attacks failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group and this was often followed by anti-Bosniak propaganda, particularly in the municipalities of Vitez, Busovača, Novi Travnik and Kiseljak. Foreign mujahideen arrived in central Bosnia in the half of 1992 with the aim of helping their Bosnian Muslim coreligionists to defend themselves from the Serb. Mostly they came from North Africa, the Near East and the Middle East, on 13 August 1993, the Bosnian government officially organized foreign volunteers into the detachment known as El Mudžahid in order to impose control and order. Initially, the foreign mujahideen gave food and other necessities to the local Muslim population. Once hostilities broke out between the Bosnian government and the Croat forces, the mujahideen also participated in battles against the HVO alongside ARBiH units, the foreign mujahideen recruited local young men, offering them military training, uniforms and weapons. As a result, some Bosniaks joined the mujahideen and in the process became local mujahideen. For that reason, the ICTY has used the term Mujahideen for both fighters from Arab countries, and also local Muslims who joined the mujahideen units and they quickly attracted heavy criticism from people who claimed their presence was evidence of violent Islamic fundamentalism in Europe. The foreign volunteers became unpopular with many of the Bosniak population, because the Bosnian army had thousands of troops and had no need for more soldiers. The first mujahideen training camp was located in Poljanice next to the village of Mehurici, in the Bila valley, the mujahideen group established there included mujahideen from Arab countries as well as some Bosniaks

15.
Croatian Defence Forces
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The Croatian Defence Forces were the military arm of the Croatian Party of Rights from 1991 to 1992, during the first stages of the Yugoslav wars. During the Croatian War of Independence, the HOS organized several early companies, at the peak of the war in Croatia, the HOS was several battalions in size. The first HOS units were headed by Ante Paradžik, an HSP member who was killed by Croatian police in September 1991, after the November 1991 general mobilization in Croatia and the January 1992 cease-fire, the HOS was absorbed by the Croatian Army. The HOS units in Bosnia and Herzegovina consisted of Croats, Bosniaks, on 9 August 1992, Kraljević and eight staff members were assassinated by Croatian Defence Council soldiers under the command of Mladen Naletilić. The HOS was disbanded afterwards, and absorbed by the HVO. The last HOS unit was dissolved on 5 April 1993 in central Bosnia, the frequently used Croatian abbreviation of the organization, HOS, is identical to the abbreviation for the military of the World War II Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia. The military of the Independent State of Croatia were the Croatian Armed Forces, the Croatian Party of Rights was reestablished in Croatia on 26 February 1990, with Dobroslav Paraga president and Ante Paradžik vice-president. Although the first HOS squad was established in January, the HOS was officially founded on 25 June 1991 by Dobroslav Paraga, Ante Paradžik, Alija Šiljak, soon after the establishment of the HOS general staff, Paradžik became its chief. The general staff was at Starčević Center, the HSP headquarters in Zagreb, at first, the HOS was poorly armed and its soldiers used their own weapons. However, they performed well in conflicts with Serb forces and attracted the attention of Croatian public, the HSP received donations from the Croatian diaspora and HSP branches in Australia and Canada, enabling them to buy weapons and increase their membership. Not every HSP member supported a military wing, and secretary Krešimir Pavelić left the party in protest, many HOS recruits came from the diaspora, Bosnia and Herzegovina and overseas. In addition, HOS attracted trained soldiers from abroad, at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence, the HOS consisted of about 6,000 soldiers. Although they were members of the Croatian National Guard, they obeyed orders from HOS officers, because of an unwritten rule that HOS members could only be members of the HSP, the HOS was considered a party paramilitary organization. The HOS and the ZNG were involved in the Battle of the Barracks, the HOS increased in popularity within the HSP, and soon the HOS were in nearly every town where the HSP was active. On 10 September 1991, Paraga and Paradžik organized a demonstration of an HOS company for 10,000 spectators in Jelačić Square, shortly after the demonstration, the company was involved in the Battle of Vukovar under Robert Šilić. At this time, HOS units were founded in Dalmatia, until May 1991, Dalmatian HOS units were company-sized. In an agreement between Paraga and the Slovene Minister of Defense Janez Janša, the units were sent to Slovenia for training. By October 1991 the unit had grown to size, it was called the 9th Battalion and was commanded by Jozo Radanović

16.
Croatian Defence Council
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The HVO was the main military force of Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina. HVO was incorporated into the Army of the Federation of Bosnia, in December 2005 HVO was reorganized as 1st Infantry Regiment of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, after VFBiH and Army of Republika Srpska were united into a single armed force. The HVO was established on April 8,1992 in Grude by the leadership of Croats. - November 1993, Mayor General Slobodan Praljak, November 1993 to, lieutenant general Ante Roso. to Aug 1994 Major general Milivoj Petkovic, August 1994 to November 1995, Major General Tihomir Blaskic. HVO was located in Mostar and was divided into four corps-status operational zones, 1OZ/South-Eastern and 2OZ/North-Western Herzegovina, 3OZ/Central Bosnia, there was also an HCO headquarters in the Bihac enclave which liaised with the ABiH 5th corps. Each OZ controlled 8-14 infantry brigades, a police battalion. Guard Brigade Sons of Posavina 5, the Guards brigades were the sections of the H. V. O which handled the armys heavy weapons. The H. V. O had around 50 tanks,400 artillery pieces, there were 38 infantry brigades staffed by reservists,19 had names and/or numbers and 19 only had names. The names commemorated famous or infamous figures from Croatian and Bosnian history, each brigade had three or four battalions plus supporting elements. The 107th became the ABiH 107th Chilvalrous Brigade while the 109th became the 109th Mountain Brigade, in 1993 General Ante Roso restructured the HVO along the lines of the Croatian Army. The four OZs were designated as Corps Districts Mosar, Tomislavgrad, Vitez, Orasje included a much reduced Bosanska Posavina. Four Guards Brigades were formed, each manned by professional soldiers. 29 brigades were reformed as three-battalion strong Home Defense Regiments, usually with the same name, the military police were reduced to one Light Assault Brigade at Mostar. Eight HVO units served with the ABiH while two HVO brigades were forcibly incorporated into the ABiH, the 115th Bde became part of the ABiH 2nd Corps while the King Tvrtko Bde became part of the ABiH 1st Corps. There was also the 14th Anti-aircraft Missile Unit which operated several different SAM systems

17.
Army of Republika Srpska
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The VRS were a main belligerent in the Bosnian War, and leaders of the time have been convicted of genocide. In 2003 the army began to integrate into the Armed Forces of Bosnia, in 2005 a fully integrated unit of Serbs, Bosniaks, and Croats was deployed to augment the US-led coalition forces in Iraq. On 6 June 2006, it was integrated into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina controlled by the Ministry of Defence of Bosnia. When the Bosnian War erupted, the JNA formally discharged 80,000 Bosnian Serb troops and these troops, who were allowed to keep their heavy weapons, formed the backbone of the newly formed Army of the Republika Srpska. 1, 000-1,500 of these came from Russia, and Bulgaria,100 Greeks also volunteered to fight on the side of the Bosnian Serbs, forming the Greek Volunteer Guard which allegedly participated in the Srebrenica massacre. The military leader of the VRS was General Ratko Mladić, who is now indicted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for genocide, Mladić was arrested in Serbia on 26 May 2011. Innes, Michael A. Bosnian Security after Dayton, New Perspectives, central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989. The Yugoslav Wars, Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia 1992–2001

18.
White Eagles (paramilitary)
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The White Eagles, also known as the Avengers, were a Serbian paramilitary group associated with the Serbian National Renewal and the Serbian Radical Party. The White Eagles fought in Croatia and the Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars, in the 2003 ICTY Vojislav Šešelj indictment, the group is included as an alleged party to the joint criminal enterprise to which Vojislav Šešelj is allegedly a party. In the indictment the group is identified as a volunteer units including Chetnik and this association has been denied by SRS leader Vojislav Šešelj. The name White Eagles comes from an anti-communist organisation that was formed during World War II, White Eagle refers to the national symbol of Serbia, the double headed white eagle under a crown. The White Eagles paramilitary group was formed in late 1990 by Dragoslav Bokan, the group split into different fractions as Bokan and Jović went their separate ways in 1991. Jović called for a Christian, Orthodox Serbia with no Muslims, Šešelj states that the group was started by Jović but they got out of his control. According to Šešelj the White Eagles and Arkans Tigers operated with help from the Yugoslav counterintelligence service, various members of the White Eagles were indicted by the Tribunal. Mitar Vasiljević received a fifteen-year sentence, former head, Milan Lukić, received a life sentence for his war crimes which include murdering men, women and children. It has been reported that White Eagles managed detention camp in Liješće. In December,2010 a group called Beli Orlovi took responsibility for the killing of Kosovos Bosniak leader Šefko Salković in the north of Kosovo, the group also took responsibility for obstructions of the election process in northern Kosovska Mitrovica, as well as for attacking KFOR troops

19.
Serb Volunteer Guard
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The Guard was created on 11 October 1990 by twenty members of the Red Star Belgrade football club Ultra group Delije Sever. The Guards headquarters and training camp was in Erdut, SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia, the Guard was under the command of the Territorial Defense, a regular military in charge of the territories of Croatia populated predominantly by Serbs during the first half of the 1990s. The Serb Volunteer Guard set up their headquarters and training camp in a military facility in Erdut. It saw action from mid-1991 to late 1995, initially in the Vukovar region of Croatia and it was supplied and equipped from the reserves of the Serbian police force during the War in Croatia and Bosnia. After war broke out in the former Yugoslav republic of Croatia in the fall of 1991 and in Bosnia in April 1992, Arkan, in Croatia, the Tigers fought in various locales in SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia. In autumn 1995, Arkans troops fought in the area of Banja Luka, Sanski Most, Arkan personally led most war actions, and rewarded his most efficient officers and soldiers with ranks, medals and eventually the products of the lootings. The Serb Volunteer Guard was officially disbanded in April 1996, besides Arkan, a notable member of the Guard was his right-hand man, Colonel Nebojša Djordjević, who was murdered in late 1996. Another notable member was Milorad Ulemek, who is now serving a 40-year sentence for his involvement in the assassination of Serbias pro-Western prime minister Zoran Đinđić in 2003. Several Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard, a few GVG volunteers were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre in July 1995, and they raised a Greek flag at a ruined church after the fall of the town. Spiros Tzanopoulos, a GVG sergeant who took part in the attack against Srebrenica, Chrysi Avyi members in the GVG were decorated by Radovan Karadžić, but — according to former Chrysi Avyi member Charis Kousoumvris — those who were decorated later left the party. Transporting twelve non-Serb men from Sanski Most to a location in the village of Trnova. The rape of a Muslim woman on a bus outside the Hotel Sanus in Sanski Most, among other factions, they meet an unnamed paramilitary unit wearing insignia similar to those of the Serb Volunteer Guard. Units commander is based on Arkan. In the 2012 Japanese anime Jormungand, one of the antagonists is Dragan Nikolaevich and his looks and even his biography bear resounding resemblance to those of Arkan. In fourteenth episode of the first season of the crime procedural Law & Order, Criminal Intent, Homo Homini Lupis, croatian War of Independence Bosnian War Serbian war crimes in the Yugoslav Wars Željko Ražnatović List of Serbian paramilitary groups Thomas, Nigel. The Yugoslav Wars, Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia 1992-2001

20.
Serb Autonomous Regions
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SAO Kninska Krajina SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia SAO Western Slavonia The Serb Democratic Party established SAOs in Serb-inhabited territories. Between September–November 1991, six entities had been proclaimed, the Serbs set up their own parliament, having left the Bosnian parliament in October 1991. The Serb parliament proclaimed the Serb Republic on 27 March 1992, SAO Bosnian Krajina, first formed as the Autonomous Region of Krajina) in April 1991. It was the largest region, but after failure to merge with SAO Krajina in Croatia, SAO North-Eastern Bosnia formed in September 1991, renamed SAO Semberija in November 1991, and SAO Semberija i Majevica in December 1991. SAO Northern Bosnia, formed in November 1991, never fully controlled its proclaimed territory, SAO Ozren-Posavina, planned from predominantly Bosniak and Croat municipalities in northern Bosnia, but not fully established. SAO Romanija, formed in September 1991, and SAO Birač, formed November 1991, SAO Herzegovina, formed in September 1991. Srpsko pitanje u XX veku, lična istorija jednog doba

21.
SAO Bosanska Krajina
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The SAO of Bosanska Krajina was a self-proclaimed Serbian Autonomous Oblast within todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was sometimes called the Autonomous Oblast of Krajina, or the Autonomous Region of Krajina, SAO Bosanska Krajina was located in the geographical region named Bosanska Krajina. The region was included into Republika Srpska. The SAO Bosanska Krajina developed in summer and autumn of 1991 in preparation for a step to independence being taken by Bosnia like Slovenia and Croatia had done, the goal was to have areas where Serbs had a majority or a significant portion of population prevent such independence. The Serbs for this created three Serbian autonomous districts and one Serbian autonomous region, other similar situations were done in other Associations of Municipalities in Bosnia, which were a type of government created under the Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A separate Assembly of the Serbian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina was established on 24 October 1991, on 9 January 1992, that Assembly adopted a declaration on the proclamation of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The geographical area comprising the ARK thus became part of the proclaimed Serbian Republic of Bosnia, unlike the other SAOs in Bosnia which were formed over summer and fall, the SAO Bosanska Krajina was officially formed on April 25,1991, but under the name ARK. There were attempts during the summer of 1991 to merge it with SAO Krajina, on September 12 its name was officially changed to SAO Bosanska Krajina. SAO Romanija SAO North-Eastern Bosnia SAO Eastern Herzegovina

22.
SAO Herzegovina
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The SAO of Herzegovina was a self-proclaimed Serbian Autonomous Oblast within todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was proclaimed by the Assembly of the Association of Municipalities of Bosnian Krajina in 1991 and was included into Republika Srpska. SAO Herzegovina was located in the region of Herzegovina. It was also known as SAO Eastern Herzegovina, SAO Herzegovina was formed from the Association of Municipalities known as Assembly of the Communities of East Herzegovina, which was formed on 27 May 1991. The SAO East and Old Herzegovina was established on September 12,1991 and it consisted of East Herzegovina which had a Serb ethnic majority. SAO Romanija SAO North-Eastern Bosnia SAO Bosanska Krajina Map

23.
SAO Romanija
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The SAO of Romanija was a self-proclaimed ethnic Serb autonomous region within SR Bosnia and Herzegovina in the prelude to the Bosnian War. It was named after the Romanija mountain and it included parts of three municipalities with a population of 37,000. It was established in September 1991 and was merged with SAO Birač in November 1991 to form the SAO Romanija-Birač, in March 1992 the SAOs were unified into the Serb Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, renamed to Republika Srpska on 12 August. SAO Bosanska Krajina SAO North-Eastern Bosnia SAO Eastern Herzegovina Map

24.
Republika Srpska
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Republika Srpska is one of two constitutional and legal entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The administrative centre is Banja Luka, in Serbo-Croatian, Republika Srpska means Serb Republic. The second word is an adjective derived by adding the suffix -ska to srb-. The -ps- sequence rather than -bs- is a result of voicing assimilation, in a session on 14–15 October 1991, the Peoples Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina approved the Memorandum on Sovereignty, as had already been done by Slovenia and Croatia. The Union of Reform Forces soon ceased to exist but its members remained in the assembly as the Independent Members of Parliament Caucus, on 9 January 1992, the assembly proclaimed the Republic of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina, declaring it part of Yugoslavia. The republic was part of Yugoslavia and could enter into union with political bodies representing other peoples of Bosnia, the referendum had a 64% turnout and 92. 7% or 99% voted for independence. On 6 March the Bosnian parliament promulgated the results of the referendum, the republics independence was recognized by the European Community on 6 April 1992 and by the United States on 7 April. On the same day the Serbs assembly in session in Banja Luka declared a severance of ties with Bosnia. The name Republika Srpska was adopted on 12 August 1992, the political controversy escalated into the Bosnian War, which would last until the autumn of 1995. The boundary lines between the entities were delineated in Annex 2 of the Agreement, between 1992 and 2008, the Constitution of Republika Srpska was amended 121 times. The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina resulted in changes in the country. Some two million people, about half the population, were displaced. In 1996 there were some 435,346 ethnic Serb refugees from the Federation in Republika Srpska, in 1991, 27% of the non-agricultural labor force was unemployed in Bosnia and this number increased due to the war. By 2009, the unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina was estimated at 29%, ethnic cleansing reduced the numbers of other groups. Serb police, soldiers, and irregulars attacked Bosniaks and Croats, though on the other side, Bosniaks and Croats did the same atrocities to the Serbian population in the region of Herzegovina and the villages surrounding Srebrenica. Some were killed on the spot, others were rounded up and killed elsewhere, the number of Croats was reduced by 135,386, and the number of Bosniaks by some 434,144. Some 136,000 of approximately 496,000 Bosniak refugees forced to flee the territory of what is now Republika Srpska have since returned home, in the early 2000s, discrimination against non-Serbs was alleged by NGOs and the Helsinki Commission. The International Crisis Group reported in 2002 that in parts of Republika Srpska a non-Serb returnee is ten times more likely to be the victim of violent crime than is a local Serb

25.
Bosnian independence referendum, 1992
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Independence was strongly favored by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters while Bosnian Serbs boycotted the referendum or were prevented from participating by Bosnian Serb authorities. The total turnout of voters was 63. 4%,99. 7% of whom voted for independence, on 3 March, Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović declared the independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the parliament ratified the action. On 6 April, the United States and the European Economic Community recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent state, in November 1990, months after Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence, the first free elections were held, putting nationalist parties into power with three parties. These were the Party of Democratic Action, led by Alija Izetbegović, the Serbian Democratic Party, led by Radovan Karadžić, Izetbegović was elected as the Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Jure Pelivan, of the HDZ, was elected as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia, Momčilo Krajišnik, of the SDS, was elected as the speaker of Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1990 and 1991, Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia, as early as September or October 1990, the JNA had begun to arm Bosnian Serbs and organize them into militias. That same year the JNA disarmed the Territorial Defense Force of the Republic of Bosnia, by March 1991, the JNA had distributed an estimated 51,900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23,298 firearms to the SDS. Throughout 1991 and early 1992, the SDS heavily Serbianized the police force in order to increase Serb political control, few observers could doubt that a single plan was in operation. On 24 October 1991, the SDS formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in January 1992, the assembly declared the creation of the Republic of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its secession. The Bosnian government declared the referendum an unconstitutional and self-proclaimed entity, in late December 1991, Bosniak and Croat politicians asked the European Economic Community to recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina with Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia as sovereign nations. That month, Slobodan Milošević issued an order to transfer all JNA officers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Socialist Republic of Serbia. On 23 January, EEC Council of Ministers president João de Deus Pinheiro said that the EEC would recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina if a referendum on independence was approved. After Momčilo Krajišnik tried to adjourn the session, he was replaced by an SDA member, since the referendum intended to change the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina from a federal state of Yugoslavia to a sovereign state, it breached the Constitution of Yugoslavia. According to the Yugoslav constitution, changing the borders of Yugoslavia was impossible without the consent of all republics, the referendum was also unconstitutional in terms of the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Amendment LXX to the established a council entrusted with exercising the right to equality of the nations and nationalities of Bosnia. Citizens of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for independence in the held on 29 February and 1 March 1992. Independence was strongly favored by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters, while Bosnian Serbs largely boycotted the referendum or were prevented by Bosnian Serb authorities from participating, according to the SDS, independence would result in the Serbs becoming a national minority in an Islamic state. It blocked the delivery of ballot boxes with armed irregular units and dropped leaflets encouraging a boycott, there were bombings and shootings throughout the voting period

26.
Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the direct legal predecessor to the modern-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 1990 parliamentary elections led to an assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina, a significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or seek independence. A declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia in February and March 1992. The referendum was boycotted by the majority of Bosnian Serbs, so with a voter turnout of 64%, 99% of which voted in favor of the proposal, Bosnia. While the first casualty of the war is debated, significant Serbian offensives began in March 1992 in Eastern and Northern Bosnia, following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on 6 April. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers, by 1993, when the Croat-Bosniak conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by the Serbs. In March 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the Bosniak and ethnic-Croatian leaders led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and this, along with international outrage at Serb war crimes and atrocities helped turn the tide of war. The three years of war and bloodshed had left between 95,000 and 100,000 people dead and more than 2 million displaced, in October 1992, a limited number of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina passports were printed and available to its citizens. The document allowed the holders to enter and leave the newly formed country legally as well as other nations traveled to and it was alleged that Osama bin Laden possessed such a passport, which was issued to him through Embassy in Vienna in 1993. The Republics official documents and passports were valid until the end of 1997 when the implementation of the Dayton Agreement commenced the modern-day state of Bosnia, the R. BiH passports were replaced by Bosnia and Herzegovina passport and Bosnian-Herzegovinian identity card. During the Bosnian War, schooling continued primarily in major cities, in besieged Sarajevo, schools operated in dispersed basement classrooms in neighborhoods across the capital city, under the constant threat of enemy guns and mortar fire. Depending on the part of the country, teaching staff needed to adjust to the war circumstances, in some places, the school buildings were even turned into refugee camps, hospitals or military headquarters. In 1992-93 school year, the subjects and curriculum were closely linked to those from Socialist Republic of Bosnia, however, education in the war had many shortcomings, such as unstable infrastructure and a lack of teachers, as well as a severe lack of textbooks. The names of schools in Sarajevo were changed throughout the R BiH period. The Ideology of socialist Yugoslavia and achievements of the National Liberation Struggle altered many school names, only 3 schools from roughly sixty in the capital were changed. Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina were the forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war in Bosnia. ARBiH was established on 15 April 1992, and most of the structure is transferred from the former Territorial Defense of Bosnia, shortly after the dinar introduction, Deutsche Mark was preferred as the new means of payment in the Bosniak and Croat dominated RBiH

27.
Bijeljina massacre
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The Bijeljina massacre involved the killing of between 48 and 78 civilians by Serb paramilitary groups in Bijeljina on 1–2 April 1992 during the Bosnian War. The majority of those killed were Bosniaks, members of other ethnicities were also killed, such as Serbs deemed disloyal by the local authorities. The killing was committed by a paramilitary group known as Mirkos Chetniks and by the Serb Volunteer Guard. The SDG were under the command of the Yugoslav Peoples Army, in September 1991, Bosnian Serbs proclaimed a Serbian Autonomous Oblast with Bijeljina as its capital. A poorly organized, local Bosniak Patriotic League paramilitary group had established in response to the Bosnian Serb proclamation. On 31 March, the Patriotic League in Bijeljina was provoked into fighting by local Serbs, on 1–2 April, the SDG and the JNA took over Bijeljina with little resistance, murders, rapes, house searches, and pillaging followed. These actions were described as genocidal by the historian Professor Eric D. Weitz of the City College of New York, Professor Michael Sells of the University of Chicago concluded that they were carried out to erase the cultural history of the Bosniak people of Bijeljina. Around 3 April, Serb forces removed the bodies of those massacred in anticipation of the arrival of a Bosnian government delegation tasked with investigating what had transpired. Post-war investigations have documented the deaths of a little over 250 civilian of all ethnicities in the Bijeljina municipality during the course of the war. After the massacre, a campaign of ethnic cleansing of non-Serbs was carried out, all mosques were demolished. Many deaths in Bijeljina were not officially listed as civilian war victims, Milošević was indicted by the ICTY and charged with carrying out a genocidal campaign that included Bijeljina and other locations, but died during the trial. Republika Srpska leaders Biljana Plavšić and Momčilo Krajišnik were convicted for the deportations, radovan Karadžić, the former President of Republika Srpska, is currently on trial for the massacre and other crimes against humanity committed in Bijeljina. At the end of the war, fewer than 2,700 Bosniaks still lived in the municipality from a population of 30,000. The Serbs of Bijeljina celebrate 1 April as City Defense Day, according to the 1991 census, the municipality of Bijeljina had approximately 97,000 inhabitants. The demographic proportions were approximately 59% Bosnian Serbs, 31% Bosniaks, the town of Bijeljina itself had 36,414 inhabitants,19,024 of whom were Bosniaks, while the Serbs were the second largest ethnic group in the town. In 1990 and 1991, Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina had proclaimed a number of Serbian Autonomous Oblasts with the intent of later unifying them into a homogeneous Serb territory. As early as September or October 1990, the JNA began arming Bosnian Serbs and that same year, the JNA disarmed the Territorial Defense Force of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. By March 1991, the JNA had distributed an estimated 51,900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23,298 firearms to the SDS, throughout 1991 and early 1992, the SDS heavily Serbianized the police force in order to increase Serb political control

28.
1992 anti-war protests in Sarajevo
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On 5 April 1992, in response to events all over Bosnia and Herzegovina 100,000 people of all nationalities turned out for a peace rally in Sarajevo. Serb snipers in the iconic Holiday Inn hotel under the control of the Serbian Democratic Party in the heart of Sarajevo opened fire on the crowd killing six people and wounding several more. Suada Dilberović and an ethnic Croat woman Olga Sučić were in the first rows, the bridge on which Sučić and Dilberović were killed was renamed in their honor. Testimony provided by former JNA General Aleksandar Vasiljević during the Slobodan Milosevic war crimes trial in The Hague contradicts the allegation that it was Serbian snipers who opened fire, the statements provided by Vasiljević turned out later to be false. Many famous Sarajevans spoke to the full parliament main hall, the president of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Alija Izetbegović also appeared and presented himself more as a citizen, rather than a president which brought loud cheering and applause. The atmosphere was at its highest point when the commander of the Special forces unit of the Ministry of Interior, Dragan Vikić appeared and told the audience and it is disputed between Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs who the first casualties of the Bosnian war are. Bosniaks and Croats consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić

29.
Battle of Kupres (1992)
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During the fighting on 8 April, the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council. The objective of the battle was to control the strategic Kupres Plateau, different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces, while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO. In turn, that territory was surrounded by Bosnian Serb TO-held territory, by the end of the month, the bulk of the civilians living in the area were evacuated. On 2 April, negotiations to defuse the situation failed while the reinforcements continued to arrive, the battle commenced the next day. In Kupres itself, the Bosnian Croat TO achieved minor territorial gains on 4–5 April, the JNA entered Kupres in the afternoon of 7 April and in the next few days, it successfully drove the Croatian forces from the plateau. The breakthrough came about after the infantry deployed to the battle was reinforced by an armoured battalion deployed from Knin. Croatian forces were hampered by a command structure, poor coordination. The battle resulted in more than 200 combat deaths, and established lines of control which would remain unchanged until 1994, in 2012, Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Croats with war crimes committed at the plateau against civilians and prisoners of war. The next year, Croatian authorities charged 21 former JNA members with war crimes against HVO prisoners captured at the Kupres Plateau, as the Yugoslav Peoples Army withdrew from Croatia following the implementation of the Vance plan, it was reorganised into a new Bosnian Serb army. This declaration was later cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War, Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital, Sarajevo, and other areas on 1 March. On the following day, the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo, on 27 March, Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery, drawing a border crossing by the Croatian Army 108th Brigade in response. Control of the Kupres area was contested by Bosnian Serbs and Croats, before the war, the former represented the majority of the population on the Kupres Plateau, comprising a total of 51 percent of its inhabitants, while Croats accounted for 39 percent. The JNA deployed a unit based in Mostar to the plateau in May 1991. The bulk of the moved to Knin three months later, while a tactical group of the 30th Partisan Division redeployed to the general area as it withdrew from Slovenia after the Ten-Day War. In September, the Bosnian Croats established the Territorial Defence Force headquarters which set up armed volunteer units, by November, these units had been organised as the Kupres Battalion. The battalion consisted of five companies and an independent platoon, a Central Intelligence Agency report described the unit as a barely organized collection of mostly local villagers and townspeople. The arming of the forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991. In early 1992, the 30th Partisan Division was subordinated to the JNA 5th Corps, the division, likely comprising only 2,000 troops, was under the command of Colonel Stanislav Galić

30.
Siege of Sarajevo
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The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. The siege lasted three times longer than the Battle of Stalingrad and more than a longer than the Siege of Leningrad. From there they assaulted the city with artillery, tanks and small arms, from 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian government defence forces inside the city, numbering some 70,000 troops, were poorly equipped. A total of 13,952 people were killed during the siege, the ARBiH suffered 6,137 fatalities, while Bosnian Serb military casualties numbered 2,241 soldiers killed. The 1991 census indicates that before the siege the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980, there are estimates that prior to the siege the population in the city proper was 435,000. The estimates of the number of living in Sarajevo after the siege ranged from between 300,000 and 380,000. After the war, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted two Serb officials for numerous counts of crimes against humanity committed during the siege, stanislav Galić and Dragomir Milošević were sentenced to life imprisonment and 29 years imprisonment respectively. One of the 11 indictments against Radovan Karadžić, the president of the Republika Srpska, is for the siege. When Yugoslavias longtime leader Marshal Tito died in 1980 this policy of containment underwent a dramatic reversal, nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s after violence erupted in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of a Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to federalisation, croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or to seek independence and this Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became the Republika Srpska in August 1992. A declaration of Bosnian sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 and this referendum was boycotted by the vast majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the referendum was 63. 4% and 99. 7% of voters voted for independence. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and these minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March, on Bosanski Brod on 24 and 30 March 1992 on Bijeljina. On 1 March 1992, an Orthodox wedding in downtown Sarajevo was attacked, nikola Gardović, the grooms father, was killed. It continued through the run-up to Bosnia and Herzegovinas recognition as an independent state, on 5 April, ethnic Serb policemen attacked police stations and then an Interior Ministry training school. The attack killed two officers and one civilian, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared a state of emergency the following day

31.
Siege of Srebrenica
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The Siege of Srebrenica was a three-year-long siege of the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina which lasted from April 1992 to July 1995 during the Bosnian War. In June 1995, the commander of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the enclave, Naser Orić, left Srebrenica and he was subsequently replaced by his deputy, Major Ramiz Bećirović. It was judged to have been a crime of genocide by international criminal courts, as a result, three high level VRS officials have been convicted of Committing and Conspiracy to commit genocide, Vujadin Popovic, Zdravko Tolimir, and Lujbesa Beara. Two individuals have been guilty of aiding and abetting genocide General Radislav Krstic. The main staff general Ratko Mladic and Republika Srpska President Radovan Karadzic are currently on trial for the Srebrenica genocide under Count two of their indictment, Slobodan Milosevic the President of Serbia was also indicted for genocide in a number of Bosnias municipalities including Srebrenica before his death in 2006. A number of other Bosnian Serb and Serbian officials have charged and convicted for the events of July 1995 in Srebrenica for providing practical assistance. The commander of Bosniak forces in the enclave, Naser Orić, was guilty of failing to prevent the mistreatment of VRS prisoners held in Srebrenica between September 1992 and March 1993. However, his conviction was overturned in 2008, Srebrenica is a small mining town in eastern Bosnia about fifteen kilometers from the Serbian border. According to a census held in 1991,36,000 people lived in the municipality of Srebrenica and this figure shows that about 75 percent of the municipal population was Bosniak and about 25 percent was Serb. The town of Srebrenica itself was inhabited by 9,000 people when Bosnia and that January, a Bosnian Serb state was declared, ahead of the 29 February–1 March referendum on independence. Later renamed the Republika Srpska, it developed its own military as the JNA withdrew from Croatia and handed over its weapons, by 1 March, Bosnian Serb forces set up barricades in Sarajevo and elsewhere and later that month Bosnian Serb artillery began shelling the town of Bosanski Brod. By 4 April, Sarajevo was shelled, in May 1992, the ground forces of Bosnian Serb state officially became known as the Army of Republika Srpska. By the end of 1992, the VRS held seventy percent of Bosnia, located in the heart of what Bosnian Serbs considered their territory, Srebrenica was seized by the paramilitary Serb Volunteer Guard on 18 April 1992. According to a witness, organized killings of the Muslim population began on 21 April, on 6 May, a two-day battle between Serb and Muslim forces erupted in the town. Goran Zekić, the leader of the Serb population in the municipality, was killed in the fighting, in June, the Muslim population of Srebrenica established a local war council. By December 1992, they had managed to control of up to 95 percent of the Srebrenica municipality. Indeed, most of the residents were not originally from Srebrenica. Each onslaught followed a similar pattern, Serb soldiers and paramilitaries surrounded a Bosniak village or hamlet, called upon the population to surrender their weapons, and then began with indiscriminate shelling and shooting

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Zvornik massacre
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Estimates show that 40,000 Bosniaks were expelled from the Zvornik district. It was the city in Bosnia and Herzegovina that was forcefully taken over by Serb forces during the Bosnian War. A total of 3,936 people were killed or went missing in the Zvornik municipality between 1992 and 1995, according to the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo. According to the 1991 census data, the district of Zvornik had a population of 81,111,48,208 of which were Bosniaks and 30,839 were ethnic Serbs. A total of 14,600 people lived in the city of Zvornik,8,942 of them were Bosniaks,4,281 of the Serbian nationality,74 of Croatian nationality, and 1,363 were defined as others. As a border town situated at the Bosnian-Serb Drina river, Zvornik was of strategic importance. It represents an important link along the Belgrade-Sarajevo line, as well as within the Belgrade-Tuzla line, officially, there was no garrison of the former JNA in the Zvornik district. The Zvornik region itself was controlled by the 17th Corps Tuzla, up to the fall of 1991, the 17th Corps consisted of 3 brigades and one partisan brigade, and was part of the First Military District of Belgrade. By 1991-92, preliminary tank units were stationed near Zvornik, by February or March 1992, additional units of the former JNA-tank units and artillery and anti-aircraft positions were stationed in the Zvornik region. Initially, the tanks carried the JNA emblems. It was only later that they were replaced by the Serbian flag, on the Serb side of the Drina river bank, various tank positions could be identified as well. Additional forces, including artillery, anti-aircraft weaponry, and tanks were being positioned there, the attack on Zvornik started on 8 April 1992, just a few days after the Serb seizure of Bijeljina. Bijeljina garrison, The infantry divisions of the former JNA were reserve units of the mobilization base, planes and helicopters which participated were reportedly from Tuzla. Prior to the attack, units from Novi Sad, Šabac, Sremska Mitrovica and Valjevo were partly stationed along the Serbian side of the Drina river bank and they further participated in the attack on Zvornik, operating from Serbian territory. They were equipped with machine-guns, hand grenade launchers, kalashnikovs, MIG21 and MIG29 with machine-guns and gunners, helicopters, and knives. Infantry units were not only composed of the «regular members» of the former JNA and of mobilized reserve forces, later, there were sporadic military operations with units of the former JNA cooperating with paramilitary units. These operations mainly focused on the fortress of Kulagrad, southwest of Zvornik. However, on 26 April, this fortress was conquered in an attack by former JNA troops, with air support

33.
Doboj massacre
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The Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo registered over 2,300 dead or missing people in the area during the war. Jorgics appeal was rejected by the German Bundesgerichtshof on 30 April 1999, Doboj was strategically important during the Bosnian War. Before the war, in 1991, the population of the municipality had been 40, 14% Bosniak,38, 83% Serb,12, 93% Croat,5, 62% Yugoslav and others 2, 48%. The town and surrounding villages were seized by Serb forces in May 1992 with the Serbian Democratic Party taking over the governing of the city, what followed was a mass disarming and mass arrests of all non-Serb civilians. Widespread looting and systematic destruction of the homes and property of non-Serbs commenced on a basis with the mosques in the town razed to the ground. A school in Grapska and the used by the Bosanka company that produced jams. It has been documented within the United Nations investigations of Doboj, several thousand women of non-Serb origin were systematic raped and abused. Buses from in and around Belgrade brought men to the complex for the purpose of systematic raping of these women, the payment of money for this cruelty was part of the funding process by the various Serb para-military groups operating in the area. It was well known, these groups were an extension of the JNA. Many women died at the camp in Doboj due to abuse, plavšić was sentenced to 11 and Krajišnik to 20 years in prison. In 2011, Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović were on trial, srebrenica massacre Foča massacres List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions

34.
Snagovo massacre
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The Snagovo massacre refers to the mass killing of 36 Bosnian Muslim civilians by Serbs on 29 April 1992 in the village Snagovo, located in the municipality of Zvornik, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The massacre occurred at the start of the Bosnian War, Snagovo was among the hardest hit villages at the start of the Bosnian War in 1992. Between April and June 1992, Serbs ethnically cleansed the village of its Bosnian Muslim residents, on 29 April 1992, Serbs captured a group of 36 Bosnian Muslim civilians who were hiding in the woods in Snagovo and took them to a school building in Rašidov Han within Snagovo. In total 36 Bosnian Muslim civilians were killed, including children, the corpses were burned in an effort to conceal the crime. On 2 May 1992, fellow residents of Snagovo found the burned remains, one of the residents said We came to this site and dug a grave. However, during the burial, our Serb neighbors shot at us and we later buried them in the dark. The remains of the victims were exhumed from the place of burial on 16 March 2006. The girls mother and father were also killed, most of the victims were not identifiable because their bodies had burnt so badly. Serbian Major Zoran Janković was arrested 9 May 2006, the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina confirmed his indictment on 8 November 2006. Janković plead not guilty on 24 November 2006 and his trial began on 26 March 2007. Survivors described being taken to Rašidov Han and shot at by Janković, witnesses said that Janković introduced himself as a White Eagle and showed off a knife with which he claimed to have killed in the Vukovar massacre in Croatia. He was acquitted of crimes against humanity on 19 June 2007 due to lack of evidence, seven mass graves, containing the skeletal remains of 156 individuals, victims of the July 1995 Srebrenica Genocide, were uncovered in Snagovo. The 156 victims were moved to the seven secondary graves in Snagovo from the burial sites around Srebrenica to hide the traces of the atrocity. Among other massacres, six people were killed in the village on 22 July 1995

Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated alo

Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the

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Bosniak resistance against the Austro-Hungarian military intervention in 1878

Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the ga

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The attacking player (No. 10) attempts to kick the ball beyond the opposing team's goalkeeper and between the goalposts and beneath the crossbar to score a goal

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Children playing cuju in Song dynasty China

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Ebenezer Cobb Morley, who is regarded as the "father of football"

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A women's international match between the United States and Germany

Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and u

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The Kaaba, in Mecca, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity.

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The dome of the Carol I Mosque in Constanța, Romania, topped by the Islamic crescent

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An angel presenting Muhammad and his companions with a miniature city. In the Topkapi Palace Library, Istanbul.

Eid al-Adha
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Eid al-Adha, also called the Sacrifice Feast, is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to Gods command, before he sacrificed his son God intervened by sending his angel Jibrail, who then put a sheep in

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Eid al-Adha celebrations start at the same time as the annual Hajj in Mecca.

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Blessings for Eid Al-Adha.

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Eid prayer during Eid al-Fitr at Taipei Grand Mosque, Taiwan

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Prayers in Comilla, Bangladesh can be seen attending Khutbah as part of the Eid al-Adha prayers on 7 November 2011.

United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the

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1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the United Nations' original three branches: The Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states.

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Flag

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The Chilean delegation signing the UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945

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Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961.

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Serbia and Montenegro, officially the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, was a country in Southeast Europe, created from the two remaining republics of Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1992. The republics of Serbia and Montenegro together established a federation in 1992 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the FRY aspired to be a sole legal su

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The Zašto? ("Why?") Monument, dedicated to the employees of the Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) who were killed during NATO bombing of the RTS building in 1999.

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Flag

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A Federal Republic of Yugoslavia passport

The CBS Evening News
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The CBS Evening News is the flagship evening television news program of CBS News, the news division of the CBS television network in the United States. The program has been broadcast since May 3,1948 under the original title CBS Television News, since June 6,2011, the weekday editions of the program have been anchored by Scott Pelley. Previous anch

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Current CBS Evening News with Scott Pelley logo.

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Rather interviews an IOM worker at the Sultan Iskandar Muda Air Force Base in Indonesia on January 3, 2005, following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.

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Bob Schieffer.

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The CBS Evening News logo used from September 2006 to May 2009.

Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the politi

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Alija Izetbegović during his visit to the United States in 1997.

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The executive council building burns after being hit by artillery fire in Sarajevo May 1992; Ratko Mladić with Army of Republika Srpska officers; a Norwegian UN soldier in Sarajevo.

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Heavily damaged apartment buildings near Vrbanja bridge in the Grbavica district on the left bank of the Miljacka river.

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Manjača camp, 1992

Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a resu

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Clockwise from the top-left: Slovenian police escort captured JNA soldiers back to their unit during the 1991 Slovenian war of independence; A destroyed tank during the Battle of Vukovar; Anti-tank missile installations in the siege of Dubrovnik; Reburial of victims from the 1995 Srebrenica massacre on 11 July 2010; UN vehicle driving on the streets of Sarajevo during the siege.

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Damage after the bombing of Dubrovnik

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Destroyed Serbian house in Sunja, Croatia. Most Serbs fled during Operation Storm in 1995.

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Franjo Tuđman, first president of Croatia, acted as a Croatian leader throughout the war

Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Following the end of the war, and the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995, it was transformed into the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ArBiH was the military force on the territory of Bosnia. Under the State Defense Reform Law the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified into a structure, OSBiH. The Army o

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A cemetery in Mostar flying the flag of Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (left), the flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Patriotic League (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
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The Patriotic League was the first paramilitary unit of Territorial Defence Force of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On December 19,1990 Alija Izetbegović and the SDA party discussed forming an independent paramilitary separate from the Yugoslav Peoples Army, in March 1991 Sefer Halilović formed the Patriotic League as an independent Bosnia

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Logo of the Patriotic League

Black Swans (special forces)
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The Black Swans was a paramilitary unit and special forces unit in the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was a Patriotic League unit formed in 1992 in Sapna under the 2nd Corps and it was one of several special Bosnian Muslim units. It earned a reputation for battlefield bravery, then Captain Hajro Mešić took over for a while. The

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The official patch of the unit.

Bosnian mujahideen
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Bosnian mujahideen, also called El Mudžahid, were foreign Muslim volunteers who fought on the Bosniak side during the 1992–95 Bosnian War. They arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the aim of fighting for Islam, some originally went as humanitarian workers, while some of them were considered criminals in their home countries for illegally travell

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El Mudžahid

Croatian Defence Forces
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The Croatian Defence Forces were the military arm of the Croatian Party of Rights from 1991 to 1992, during the first stages of the Yugoslav wars. During the Croatian War of Independence, the HOS organized several early companies, at the peak of the war in Croatia, the HOS was several battalions in size. The first HOS units were headed by Ante Para

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HOS soldiers in Čapljina, 1992

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Flag of the Croatian Defence Forces

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HOS soldiers after the war

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Jozo Radanović, founder and first commander of the HOS 9th battalion

Croatian Defence Council
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The HVO was the main military force of Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina. HVO was incorporated into the Army of the Federation of Bosnia, in December 2005 HVO was reorganized as 1st Infantry Regiment of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, after VFBiH and Army of Republika Srpska were united into a single armed force. The HVO was established

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HVO T-55 tanks

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Emblem of Croatian Defence Council

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HVO 122mm Howitzer D-30J during an exercise

Army of Republika Srpska
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The VRS were a main belligerent in the Bosnian War, and leaders of the time have been convicted of genocide. In 2003 the army began to integrate into the Armed Forces of Bosnia, in 2005 a fully integrated unit of Serbs, Bosniaks, and Croats was deployed to augment the US-led coalition forces in Iraq. On 6 June 2006, it was integrated into the Armed

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Uniform of VRS

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Badge of VRS 1992–1996

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Badge of VRS 1996–2006

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M-77 Oganj MLRs of VRS

White Eagles (paramilitary)
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The White Eagles, also known as the Avengers, were a Serbian paramilitary group associated with the Serbian National Renewal and the Serbian Radical Party. The White Eagles fought in Croatia and the Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars, in the 2003 ICTY Vojislav Šešelj indictment, the group is included as an alleged party to the joint cr

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Coat-of-arms of the White Eagles

Serb Volunteer Guard
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The Guard was created on 11 October 1990 by twenty members of the Red Star Belgrade football club Ultra group Delije Sever. The Guards headquarters and training camp was in Erdut, SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia, the Guard was under the command of the Territorial Defense, a regular military in charge of the territories of Croatia p

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Flag of the Serbian Volunteer Guard

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A promotional poster of the Serb Volunteer Guard.

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Ražnatović and his "Tigers"

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Serb Volunteer Guard (Srpska dobrovoljačka garda) official logo

Serb Autonomous Regions
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SAO Kninska Krajina SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia SAO Western Slavonia The Serb Democratic Party established SAOs in Serb-inhabited territories. Between September–November 1991, six entities had been proclaimed, the Serbs set up their own parliament, having left the Bosnian parliament in October 1991. The Serb parliament proclaim

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SAOs in Croatia (1990)

SAO Bosanska Krajina
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The SAO of Bosanska Krajina was a self-proclaimed Serbian Autonomous Oblast within todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was sometimes called the Autonomous Oblast of Krajina, or the Autonomous Region of Krajina, SAO Bosanska Krajina was located in the geographical region named Bosanska Krajina. The region was included into Republika Srpska. The SAO Bo

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Flag

SAO Herzegovina
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The SAO of Herzegovina was a self-proclaimed Serbian Autonomous Oblast within todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was proclaimed by the Assembly of the Association of Municipalities of Bosnian Krajina in 1991 and was included into Republika Srpska. SAO Herzegovina was located in the region of Herzegovina. It was also known as SAO Eastern Herzegovina,

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Flag

SAO Romanija
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The SAO of Romanija was a self-proclaimed ethnic Serb autonomous region within SR Bosnia and Herzegovina in the prelude to the Bosnian War. It was named after the Romanija mountain and it included parts of three municipalities with a population of 37,000. It was established in September 1991 and was merged with SAO Birač in November 1991 to form th

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Flag

Republika Srpska
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Republika Srpska is one of two constitutional and legal entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The administrative centre is Banja Luka, in Serbo-Croatian, Republika Srpska means Serb Republic. The second word is an adjective derived by adding the suffix -ska to srb-. The -ps- sequence rather th

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Radovan Karadžić (left), former president of Republika Srpska, and Ratko Mladić (right), former Chief of Staff of the Army of the Republika Srpska, both charged with war crimes, including genocide, by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague.

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Flag

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Panoramic view of Banja Luka.

Bosnian independence referendum, 1992
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Independence was strongly favored by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters while Bosnian Serbs boycotted the referendum or were prevented from participating by Bosnian Serb authorities. The total turnout of voters was 63. 4%,99. 7% of whom voted for independence, on 3 March, Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović declared

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Heavily damaged apartment buildings in the Grbavica district of Sarajevo.

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Flag adopted by the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the direct legal predecessor to the modern-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 1990 parliamentary elections led to an assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independenc

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Flag

Bijeljina massacre
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The Bijeljina massacre involved the killing of between 48 and 78 civilians by Serb paramilitary groups in Bijeljina on 1–2 April 1992 during the Bosnian War. The majority of those killed were Bosniaks, members of other ethnicities were also killed, such as Serbs deemed disloyal by the local authorities. The killing was committed by a paramilitary g

1992 anti-war protests in Sarajevo
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On 5 April 1992, in response to events all over Bosnia and Herzegovina 100,000 people of all nationalities turned out for a peace rally in Sarajevo. Serb snipers in the iconic Holiday Inn hotel under the control of the Serbian Democratic Party in the heart of Sarajevo opened fire on the crowd killing six people and wounding several more. Suada Dilb

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Thousands of protesters in front of the parliament building.

Battle of Kupres (1992)
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During the fighting on 8 April, the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council. The objective of the battle was to control the strategic Kupres Plateau, different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces, while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO. In turn

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Map of the Battle of Kupres

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Medieval wars and battles

Siege of Sarajevo
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The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. The siege lasted three times longer than the Battle of Stalingrad and more than a longer than the Siege of Leningrad. From there they assaulted the city with artillery, tanks and small arms, from 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian gove

Siege of Srebrenica
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The Siege of Srebrenica was a three-year-long siege of the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina which lasted from April 1992 to July 1995 during the Bosnian War. In June 1995, the commander of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the enclave, Naser Orić, left Srebrenica and he was subsequently replaced by his deputy

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A panorama of the town of Srebrenica

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Areas of military control in Bosnia and Herzegovina in September 1994; eastern Bosnian enclaves near the Serbian border

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A map depicting the capture of Srebrenica by Bosnian Serb forces

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The compound that served as the headquarters of the Dutch Battalion in Potočari.

Zvornik massacre
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Estimates show that 40,000 Bosniaks were expelled from the Zvornik district. It was the city in Bosnia and Herzegovina that was forcefully taken over by Serb forces during the Bosnian War. A total of 3,936 people were killed or went missing in the Zvornik municipality between 1992 and 1995, according to the Research and Documentation Center in Sara

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The Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS) soldiers of Headquarters 503rd Brigade, display two 122mm D-30 howitzers at a weapons storage site located in Zvornik, Bosnia-Herzegovina, during an inspection

Doboj massacre
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The Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo registered over 2,300 dead or missing people in the area during the war. Jorgics appeal was rejected by the German Bundesgerichtshof on 30 April 1999, Doboj was strategically important during the Bosnian War. Before the war, in 1991, the population of the municipality had been 40, 14% Bosniak,38, 83

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Doboj municipality

Snagovo massacre
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The Snagovo massacre refers to the mass killing of 36 Bosnian Muslim civilians by Serbs on 29 April 1992 in the village Snagovo, located in the municipality of Zvornik, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The massacre occurred at the start of the Bosnian War, Snagovo was among the hardest hit villages at the start of the Bosnian War in 1992. Between April and

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Croatian Brigadier General Krešimir Ćosić and US Army Lieutenant General Wesley Clark discussing the Siege of Bihać on 29 November 1994

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Order of the RSK Supreme Defence Council to evacuate civilians from the Knin area

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Tuđman and Šušak visiting Knin Fortress on 6 August. Officers in the photo include Lieutenant General Gotovina and Brigadiers Ivan Korade and Damir Krstičević (commanders of the 7th and 4th Guards Brigades) on Tuđman's right, and Brigadiers Rahim Ademi and Ante Kotromanović on Šušak's left.