All come in a variety of styles depending on how long they have been aged, the more matured cheeses, referred to as stagionato ("seasoned" or "aged" ), are harder but still crumbly in texture and have decidedly buttery and nutty flavours. The other two types semi-stagionato and fresco have a softer texture and milder cream and milk tastes.

A variant from Southern Italy is Pecorino Pepato (literally, "peppered Pecorino"), to which black peppercorns are added. Today many other additions are made, for example walnuts or rocket or tiny pieces of white or black truffle; in Sardinia, the larvae of the cheese fly are intentionally introduced into Pecorino Sardo to produce a local delicacy called casu marzu.

A good Pecorino Stagionato is often the finish of a meal, served with pears and walnuts or drizzled with strong chestnut honey. Pecorino is also often used to finish pasta dishes, and used to be the natural choice for most Italian regions from Umbria down to Sicily, rather than the more expensive Parmigiano-Reggiano, it is still preferred today for the pasta dishes of Rome and Lazio, for example Pasta dressed with sugo all'amatriciana, Pasta Cacio e pepe, and Pasta alla Gricia.

1.
Pecorino (grape)
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Pecorino is a white Italian wine grape variety that is grown in the Marche, Abruzzo, Liguria, Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio regions of Italy. Ampelographers believe that Pecorino is an old variety that likely originated as a wild grapevine growing in the Sibillini Mountains that was eventually domesticated for wine production. Despite its name, there is no link between the Pecorino grape and Pecorino cheese. Ampelographers believe that the name stems from the Italian word pecora. Local legend is that sheep in the Marche region would often eat the grapes while moving through the vineyards, Pecorino is an early ripening variety that tends to naturally produce low yields even without severe winter pruning. The variety does not have many viticultural hazards with a resistance to downy. In 2000 there were 87 hectares of Pecorino planted in Italy, mostly in the Arquata del Tronto region of the Ascoli Piceno province in Marche. In the 1980s, Guido Cocci Grifoni was the first producer to begin widely using Pecorino in his Offida DOC wines, today it is still a permitted variety in the Marche DOC wines of Falerio dei Colli Ascolani, Colli Maceratesi and Offida. Plantings can also be found in Liguria, Lazio, Tuscany, the wine can be made in a still, sparkling spumante or as passito dessert wine. Any Pecorino destined for DOC wines must be harvested at a yield no greater than 15 tonnes/hectare with the wine in all styles needing to attain a minimum alcohol level of at least 11%. In Controguerra, up to 30% of Pecorino in combination with Verdicchio, grapes are limited to a harvest yield of no more than 14 tonnes/hectare with the finished wine needing a minimum alcohol level of 11%. Within the Falerio dei Colli Ascolani DOC, up to 25% Pecorino can be used along with Pinot blanc, Passerina, Verdicchio and Malvasia in the Trebbiano-based wines of the region. Grapes in this white-wine only Marche DOC are limited a maximum yield of 14 tonnes/ha with the a minimum level for the finished wine of at least 11. 5%. Offida DOCG In Offida, Pecorino can be made as a varietal provided it makes up at least 85% of the blend with other local, here grapes are limited to a yield of 10 tonnes/ha with the finished wines have an alcohol level of at least 12%. However, unlike Passerina which is grown in the DOCG. Pecorino is sometimes confused with the Calabrian wine grape Greco bianco due to the similarities in synonyms with Greco often being called Pecorello bianco, Pecorino Doc - Pecorino Doc, from Picenos

2.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

3.
Sheep
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The sheep is a quadrupedal, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, although the name sheep applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female sheep is referred to as a ewe, a male as a ram or occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether. Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe, one of the earliest animals to be domesticated for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat and milk. A sheeps wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is harvested by shearing. Ovine meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when from older ones, Sheep continue to be important for wool and meat today, and are also occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy animals, or as model organisms for science. Sheep husbandry is practised throughout the majority of the inhabited world, in the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep production. Sheepraising has a lexicon of unique terms which vary considerably by region. Use of the sheep began in Middle English as a derivation of the Old English word scēap. A group of sheep is called a flock, herd or mob, many other specific terms for the various life stages of sheep exist, generally related to lambing, shearing, and age. Being a key animal in the history of farming, sheep have a deeply entrenched place in human culture, as livestock, sheep are most often associated with pastoral, Arcadian imagery. Sheep figure in many mythologies—such as the Golden Fleece—and major religions, in both ancient and modern religious ritual, sheep are used as sacrificial animals. Domestic sheep are relatively small ruminants, usually with a crimped hair called wool, domestic sheep differ from their wild relatives and ancestors in several respects, having become uniquely neotenic as a result of selective breeding by humans. A few primitive breeds of sheep retain some of the characteristics of their wild cousins, depending on breed, domestic sheep may have no horns at all, or horns in both sexes, or in males only. Most horned breeds have a pair, but a few breeds may have several. Another trait unique to domestic sheep as compared to wild ovines is their variation in color. Wild sheep are largely variations of brown hues, and variation within species is extremely limited, colors of domestic sheep range from pure white to dark chocolate brown, and even spotted or piebald

4.
Italian cuisine
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Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples

5.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived

6.
Sheep milk
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Sheeps milk is the milk of domestic sheep. It is commonly used to make cultured dairy products such as cheese, some of the most popular sheep cheeses include feta, ricotta, and Roquefort. Specialized dairy breeds of sheep yield higher amounts of milk compared to other breeds of sheep. Some of the most common dairy breeds include, East Friesian Sarda Lacaune British Milk Sheep Chios Awassi Assaf In the U. S. the most common breeds are the East Friesian. Female sheep do not produce milk constantly, rather, they produce milk during the 80–100 days after lambing. Lambing which naturally occurs in the winter or early spring. Milk production decreases and eventually stops when lambs are weaned or when the day length becomes shorter, generally, sheep breed in the fall which means that a majority of lambs are born in the late winter or early spring. This inconsistency of lambs means that milk cannot be produced year round, through the use of controlled internal drug release, ewes can be bred out of season. CIDR drugs contain progesterone, which is released into the bloodstream once inserted. This means that ewes can be bred at different times throughout the year, meat and wool breeds of sheep lactate for 90-150 days, while dairy breeds can lactate for 120-240 days. Dairy sheep are able to produce yields of milk per ewe per year. Dairy sheep can produce 400-1100 lbs of milk per year while others sheep produce 100-200 lbs of milk per year, crossbred ewes produce 300-650 lbs of milk per year. Yogurts, especially forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheeps milk. Milk composition analysis, per 100 grams, Sheep milk is high in fat. There is also an amount of solids present in the milk. This makes sheep milk an excellent choice for making cheese and it produces higher yields of cheese compared to other milk producing species. For example,1 liter of cow milk will yield an amount of cheese while 1 liter of sheep milk will produce a much higher amount of cheese. Goat milk Moose milk Donkey milk List of dairy products List of sheep milk cheeses Sheep dairying at sheep101. com Sheep dairying documentary by Cooking Up A Story

7.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages

8.
European Union law
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European Union law is a system of rules operating within the member states of the European Union. Since the founding of the Coal and Steel Community after World War II, the EU has political institutions, social and economic policies, which transcend nation-states for the purpose of cooperation and human development. According to its Court of Justice the EU represents a new order of international law. The EUs legal foundations are the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, New members may join, if they agree to play by the rules of the organisation, and old members may leave according to their own constitutional requirements. People are entitled to participate through the Parliament, and their governments in shaping the legislation the EU makes. Democratic ideals of integration for international and European nations are as old as the modern nation-state, in the Renaissance, medieval trade flourished in organisations like the Hanseatic League, stretching from English towns like Boston and London, to Frankfurt, Stockholm and Riga. These traders developed the lex mercatoria, spreading basic norms of good faith, in 1517, the Protestant Reformation triggered a hundred years of crisis and instability. This unstable settlement unravelled in the Thirty Years War, killing around a quarter of the population in central Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia 1648, which brought peace according to a system of law inspired by Hugo Grotius, is generally acknowledged as the beginning of the nation-state system. In 1693 William Penn, a Quaker from London who founded Pennsylvania in North America, argued that to prevent ongoing wars in Europe a European dyet, to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice. Brought untold sorrow to mankind, the United Nations Charter was passed in 1945, also, the Council of Europe, formed by the Treaty of London 1949, adopted a European Convention on Human Rights, overseen by a new transnational court in Strasbourg in 1950. The Treaty of Paris 1951 created the first European Coal and Steel Community, signed by France, West Germany, Belgium and its theory was simply that war would be impossibly costly if ownership and production of every countrys economy was mixed together. It established an Assembly to represent the people, a Council of Ministers for the states, a Commission as the executive. In the East, the Soviet Union had installed dictatorial governments, controlling East Germany, in the West, the decision was made through Treaty of Rome 1957 to launch the first European Economic Community. It shared the Assembly and Court with the Coal and Steel Community, a separate treaty was signed for a European Atomic Energy Community to manage nuclear production. In 1961 the United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland and Norway applied for only to be vetoed in 1963 by Frances Charles de Gaulle. Spain also applied and was rejected as it was led by the Franco dictatorship. The same year, the Court of Justice proclaimed that the Community constituted a new order of international law

9.
Pecorino Romano
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Pecorino Romano is a hard, salty Italian cheese, often used for grating, made out of sheeps milk. Pecorino Romano was a staple in the diet for the legionaries of ancient Rome, today, it is still made according to the original recipe and is one of Italys oldest cheeses. Most of its production occurs in Sardinia, on the first of May, Roman families traditionally eat pecorino with fresh fava beans during a daily excursion in the Roman Campagna. It is mostly used in Central and Southern Italy, Pecorino Romano cheese, whose method of production was first described by Latin authors such as Varro and Pliny the Elder about 2,000 years ago, was first created in the countryside around Rome. Its long-term storage capacity led to it be used for marching Roman legions rations, a daily ration of 27 grams was established to be given to the legionaries, as a supplement to the bread and farro soup. This cheese gave back strength and vigour to tired soldiers, giving them a food that was easy to digest. It was produced in Latium up to 1884 when, due to the prohibition issued by the city council of salting the cheese inside their shops in Rome and it is produced exclusively from the milk of sheep raised on the plains of Lazio and in Sardinia. Most of the cheese is now produced on the island, especially in Gavoi, Pecorino Romano must be made with lamb rennet paste derived exclusively from animals raised in the same production area, and is therefore not compatible with vegetarianism. Pecorino Romano is most often used on dishes, like the better-known Parmigiano Reggiano. The sharpness depends on the period of maturation, which varies from five months for a cheese to eight months or longer for a grating cheese. It should not be confused with pecorino Toscano or pecorino Sardo, unlike pecorino Romano, these cheeses are generally eaten by themselves or in sandwiches. Unlike the Italian cheese, American Romano is milder and uses cows milk instead of sheeps milk, sardinian sheep Pecorino List of ancient dishes and foods List of Italian PDO cheeses List of sheep milk cheeses Production requirements Consorzio per la Tutela del Formaggio Pecorino Romano

10.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

11.
Sardinia
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Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring

12.
Lazio
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Lazio is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy, situated in the central peninsular section of the country. With almost 5.9 million residents and a GDP of more than 170 billion euros, Lazio is the second most populated region of Italy and its capital is Rome, capital and largest city of Italy. Lazio comprises an area of 17,236 km2 and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south. The region is flat and hilly, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts. The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo. The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast, behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale, a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains. The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, the southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries. To the south of the Tiber, other groups form part of the Preapennines, the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano on the border with Abruzzo, see also, History of Italy The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, in Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Much of Lazio is in flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes. This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium. The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria, the emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. However, the wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome, the strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Other popes tried to do the same, during the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France, the feudal lords power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome

13.
Tuscany
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Tuscany is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy, Tuscany produces wines, including Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano and Brunello di Montalcino. Having a strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is considered a nation within a nation. Tuscany is traditionally a popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto. The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited destination in the region. Additionally, Siena, Lucca, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val dOrcia are also internationally renowned, Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves, making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations that attract millions of tourists every year. In 2012, the city of Florence was the worlds 89th most visited city, roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north and east, Umbria to the east and Lazio to the southeast. The comune of Badia Tedalda, in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo, has an exclave named Ca Raffaello within Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany has a western coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, containing the Tuscan Archipelago, of which the largest island is Elba. Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres, surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains, and with few plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture. Hills make up nearly two-thirds of the total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres, and mountains. Plains occupy 8. 4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres —mostly around the valley of the River Arno, many of Tuscanys largest cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including the capital Florence, Empoli and Pisa. The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks, following this, the Villanovan culture saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan before Orientalization occurred and the Etruscan civilization rose, the Etruscans created the first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art. The Etruscans lived in Etruria well into prehistory, throughout their existence, they lost territory to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Celts. Despite being seen as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks, the cultures of Greece, one reason for its eventual demise was this increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of existing roads, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, however, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather. The Roman civilization in the West collapsed in the 5th century AD, in the years following 572, the Longobards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia

14.
Siena
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Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena, the historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nations most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008, Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the Palio, a horse race held twice a year. Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans when it was inhabited by a called the Saina. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus, the first document mentioning it dates from AD70. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Senones, according to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their fathers murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants. Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name Saina, Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade and its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to, the oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. This ultimately resulted in the creation of the Republic of Siena, the Republic existed for over four hundred years, from the late 11th century until the year 1555. During the golden age of Siena before the Black Death in 1348, in the Italian War of 1551–59, the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, Siena surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, the new Spanish King Felipe II, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century. A Republican government of 700 Sienese families in Montalcino resisted until 1559, the picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, especially for humanist disciplines. The city lies at 322 m above sea level, the Siena Cathedral, begun in the 12th century, is a masterpiece of Italian Romanesque-Gothic architecture. Its main façade was completed in 1380, the original plan called for an ambitiously massive basilica, the largest then in the world, with, as was customary, an east-west nave. However, the scarcity of funds, in due to war and plague, truncated the project

15.
Pecorino Sardo
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Pecorino sardo, also known as fiore sardo, is a firm cheese from the Italian island of Sardinia which is made from sheep milk, specifically from the milk of the local Sardinian breed. It was awarded Denominazione dOrigine status in 1991 and granted Protected designation of origin protection in 1996 and its flavour is different from that of the Pecorino Romano, which is also made on the island. Sardo is richer while romano is much more biting and salty, Pecorino sardo is an uncooked hard cheese made from fresh whole sheeps milk curdled using lamb or kid rennet. The mixture is poured into moulds that will give the cheese its characteristic shape, after a brief period in brine, the moulds are lightly smoked and left to ripen in cool cellars in central Sardinia. The average weight of the product is 3.5 kg, sometimes a bit more. The rind varies from yellow to dark brown in colour. The sharpness of the flavour depends on the length of maturation, the young Pecorino Sardo is about a couple of months old, the mature type is more than six months old and needs a lot of control of temperature and humidity. In the United States it is most often found as a hard cheese, Pecorino sardo is not as well known outside Italy as romano or Pecorino Toscano, although a good deal of Pecorino Romano is actually made in Sardinia, as Sardinia is within Romanos PDO area. Pecorino sardo can be processed further into Casu marzu by the introduction of cheese fly maggots, brined cheese Sardo, an Argentine cheese Pecorino List of Italian PDO cheeses

16.
Pecorino Toscano
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Pecorino Toscano is a firm-textured ewe’s milk cheese produced in Tuscany. Since 1996 it has enjoyed protected designation of origin status, other early names of the cheese include marzolino, after the month of March in which production traditionally began. Today, this style of pecorino is widely produced across Tuscany and also in several districts of Umbria. According to a 1997 estimate by the Italian dairy producers association, Assolatte and this ranks the cheese as the third-highest sheeps cheese in Italy, the largest being Pecorino Romano and Pecorino Sardo. The cheese is prepared with cream, pasteurised ewes milk. The cheese is ready to be eaten after a period of just twenty days. However, it is regarded as a hard cheese, frequently used for grating, and to achieve this characteristic hard texture. The cheese usually takes the form of a sphere, typically with a diameter between 15 and 22 cm and a height between 7 and 11 cm. The weight will normally be between 0.75 and 3.50 kg, the outer rind is yellow coloured, but there is considerable variability according to how the outside of the cheese has been washed during maturation. There is a range of uses for the cheese, which varies according to local traditions. The delicate flavour of a young pecorino Toscano can provide an excellent complement to salad-based starters, as the cheese matures and the flavour strengthens, it can be eaten with honey or jam, as well as with fresh vegetables or fruits. Well matured pecorino Toscano is widely used across Italy as an alternative to parmesan for grating over a range of dishes. List of cheeses List of Italian cheeses List of Italian PDO cheeses

17.
Pliny the Elder
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In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat

18.
Natural History (Pliny)
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The Natural History is an early encyclopedia in Latin by Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and naval commander who died in 79 AD. It is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day, the works subject area is thus not limited to what is today understood by natural history, Pliny himself defines his scope as the natural world, or life. The work is divided into 37 books, organised into ten volumes, the Natural History became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter, its referencing of original authors, and its index. The work is dedicated to the emperor Titus, son of Plinys close friend and it is the only work by Pliny to have survived and the last that he published. He began it in 77, and had not made a revision at the time of his death during the AD79 eruption of Vesuvius. Plinys Natural History was written alongside other substantial works, Pliny combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor Vespasian. Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have such a work, in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother, Hail to thee, Nature. And do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, the Natural History is encyclopaedic in scope, but its format is unlike a modern encyclopaedia. However, it does have structure, Pliny uses Aristotles division of nature to recreate the world in literary form. The work is unified but varied, My subject is the world of nature, or in other words, life, he tells Titus. Nature for Pliny was divine, a concept inspired by the Stoic philosophy which underlies much of his thought. But the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race, nature, that is life is human life in a natural landscape. After an initial survey of cosmology and geography, Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race and this teleological view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the Natural History. The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves, Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants, with a focus on their medicinal value, the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in architecture, sculpture, painting and jewellery. Plinys premise is distinct from modern ecological theories, reflecting the sentiment of his time. Pliny repeated Aristotles maxim that Africa was always producing something new, natures variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite, When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible. This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world and these monstrous races – the Cynocephali or Dog-Heads, the Sciapodae, whose single foot could act as a sunshade, the mouthless Astomi, who lived on scents – were not strictly new. They had been mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – shaped like an umbrella pine, according to his nephew – rising from the mountain

19.
Sicilian language
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Sicilian is a Romance language spoken on the island of Sicily and its satellite islands. It is also spoken in southern and central Calabria, in the parts of Apulia, Salento, and Campania, on the Italian peninsula. The Ethnologue describes Sicilian as being distinct enough from Standard Italian to be considered a language and is recognized as a minority language by UNESCO. Some assert that Sicilian represents the oldest Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin, Sicilian has the oldest literary tradition of the Italic languages. Sicilian is currently spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of Sicily, the latter are found in the countries which attracted large numbers of Sicilian immigrants during the course of the past century or so, especially the United States, Canada, Australia and Argentina. In the past two or three decades, large numbers of Sicilians were also attracted to the zones of northern Italy and indeed the rest of the European Union. It is not used as an official language anywhere, even within Sicily, there is currently no central body, in Sicily or elsewhere, that regulates the language in any way. However, since its inception in 1951, the Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani in Palermo has been researching and publishing information on the Sicilian language. The autonomous regional parliament of Sicily has legislated to encourage the teaching of Sicilian at all schools, further, the Sicilian language would be protected and promoted under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. However, Italy has signed this treaty, but the Italian Parliament has not ratified it, the term Calabro-Sicilian refers to the fact that a form of Sicilian, or a dialect closely related to Sicilian, is spoken in central and southern Calabria. Sicilianu is the name of the language in Sicily itself, the term Siculu describes one of the larger prehistoric groups living in Sicily before the arrival of Greeks in the 8th century BC. It can also be used as an adjective to qualify, or further elaborate on, the very earliest influences, visible in Sicilian to this day, exhibit both prehistoric Mediterranean elements and prehistoric Indo-European elements, and occasionally a blending of both. Ruffino 2001 Before the Roman conquest, Sicily was occupied by populations considered indigenous, including Sicels, Sicani, Elymians, the Greek language influence remains strongly visible, while the influences from the other groups are less obvious. What can be stated with certainty is that there remain pre-Indo-European words in Sicilian of an ancient Mediterranean origin, of the three main prehistoric groups, only the Sicels were Indo-European, and their speech is likely to have been closely related to that of the Romans. The following table, listing words for twins, illustrates the difficulty linguists face in tackling the various sub-strata of the Sicilian language, a similar qualifier can be applied to many of the words that appear in this article. For instance, by the time the Romans had occupied Sicily during the 3rd century BC, the words with a prehistoric Mediterranean derivation often refer to plants native to the Mediterranean region or to other natural features. g. of a fruit timpa crag, cliff. The Sicels are a source of such words, but there is also the possibility of a cross-over between ancient Mediterranean words and introduced Indo-European forms. Some examples of Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin, dudda mulberry, the latter would bring with them the Vulgar Latin from that region, a language not too different from that to be found in central Italy at the time

20.
Eruca sativa
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Eruca sativa is an edible annual plant, commonly known as rocket salad or arugula, other names include rucola, rucoli, rugula, colewort, and roquette. It is sometimes conflated with Diplotaxis tenuifolia, known as perennial wall rocket, another plant of the Brassicaceae family that is used in the same manner. Eruca sativa, which is popular as a salad vegetable, is a species of Eruca native to the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal in the west to Syria, Lebanon. The Latin adjective sativa in the binomial is derived from satum. Eruca sativa differs from E. vesicaria in having early deciduous sepals, some botanists consider it a subspecies of Eruca vesicaria, E. vesicaria subsp. Still others do not differentiate between the two, other common names include garden rocket, or more simply rocket, and eruca. The English common name, rocket, derives from the French roquette, a diminutive of the Latin word eruca, Arugula, the common name now widespread in the United States and Canada, entered American English from non-standard Italian. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance of arugula in American English to a 1960 New York Times article by food editor, Eruca sativa grows 20–100 centimetres in height. The leaves are pinnately lobed with four to ten small lateral lobes. The fruit is a siliqua 12–35 millimetres long with an apical beak, the species has a chromosome number of 2n =22. Eruca sativa typically grows on dry, disturbed ground and is used as a food by the larvae of some moth species. Eruca sativa roots are also susceptible to nematode infestation, a pungent, leafy green vegetable resembling a longer-leaved and open lettuce, Eruca sativa is rich in vitamin C and potassium. In addition to the leaves, the flowers, young seed pods, some writers assert that for this reason during the Middle Ages it was forbidden to grow rocket in monasteries. It was listed, however, in a decree by Charlemagne of 802 as one of the pot suitable for growing in gardens. Gillian Riley, author of the Oxford Companion to Italian Food, states that because of its reputation as a stimulant, it was prudently mixed with lettuce. Riley continues that nowadays rocket is enjoyed innocently in mixed salads, rocket was traditionally collected in the wild or grown in home gardens along with such herbs as parsley and basil. It is now grown commercially from the Veneto to Iowa to Brazil and it is also naturalised as a wild plant away from its native range in temperate regions around the world, including northern Europe and North America. In India, the seeds are known as Gargeer

21.
Casu marzu
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Casu marzu, literally translating into English as rotten/putrid cheese, is a traditional Sardinian sheep milk cheese, notable for containing live insect larvae. Although found in the island of Sardinia, a variety of cheese is also found in the nearby Corsica. Derived from Pecorino, casu marzu goes above and beyond typical fermentation to a stage of decomposition and these larvae are deliberately introduced to the cheese, promoting an advanced level of fermentation and breaking down of the cheeses fats. The texture of the cheese becomes very soft, with some liquid seeping out, the larvae themselves appear as translucent white worms, about 8 mm long. When disturbed, the larvae can launch themselves for distances up to 15 cm, some people clear the larvae from the cheese before consuming while others do not. The cheese, along one of its Sardinian makers, Giovanni Gabbas. Zimmern described the taste of the cheese as so ammoniated that it scorches your tongue a bit, the cheese is known to leave an aftertaste for a duration of up to several hours. Casu marzu is created by leaving whole pecorino cheeses outside with part of the rind removed to allow the eggs of the cheese fly Piophila casei to be laid in the cheese, a female P. casei can lay more than 500 eggs at one time. The eggs hatch and the begin to eat through the cheese. Casu marzu is considered by Sardinian aficionados to be unsafe to eat when the maggots in the cheese have died. Because of this, only cheese in which the maggots are still alive is usually eaten, although allowances are made for cheese that has been refrigerated, which can kill the maggots. When the cheese has fermented enough, it is cut into thin strips and spread on moistened Sardinian flatbread. Casu marzu is believed to be an aphrodisiac by Sardinians, because the larvae in the cheese can launch themselves for distances up to 15 centimetres when disturbed, diners hold their hands above the sandwich to prevent the maggots from leaping. Some who eat the cheese prefer not to ingest the maggots and those who do not wish to do so place the cheese in a sealed paper bag. The maggots, starved for oxygen, writhe and jump in the bag, when the sounds subside, the maggots are dead and the cheese can be eaten. Because of European Union food hygiene-health regulations, the cheese was outlawed for a time, however, it remained possible to acquire casu marzu on the black market, where it could sell for double the price of an ordinary block of pecorino cheese. Attempts have been made to circumvent the EU ban by having casu marzu declared a traditional food, the traditional method of making the cheese is explained by an official paper of the local government. A cooperation between farmers and researchers of the University of Sassari developed a hygienic method of production, in 2005

22.
Parmigiano-Reggiano
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Parmigiano-Reggiano, or Parmesan cheese, is a hard, granular cheese. The name Parmesan is often used generically for various simulations of this cheese and it is named after the producing areas, which comprise the provinces of Parma, Reggio Emilia, Bologna, Modena, and Mantua, Italy. Parmigiano is the Italian adjective for Parma and Reggiano is the adjective for Reggio Emilia, outside the EU, the name Parmesan can legally be used for cheeses similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano, with only the full Italian name unambiguously referring to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. It has been called the King of Cheeses, Parmigiano-Reggiano is made from unpasteurized cows milk. The whole milk of the morning milking is mixed with the naturally skimmed milk of the previous evenings milking, resulting in a part skim mixture and this mixture is pumped into copper-lined vats. Starter whey is added, and the temperature is raised to 33–35 °C, calf rennet is added, and the mixture is left to curdle for 10–12 minutes. The curd is broken up mechanically into small pieces. The temperature is raised to 55 °C with careful control by the cheese-maker. The curd is left to settle for 45–60 minutes, the compacted curd is collected in a piece of muslin before being divided in two and placed in molds. There is 1100 L of milk per vat, producing two cheeses each, the curd making up each wheel at this point weighs around 45 kg. The remaining whey in the vat was used to feed the pigs from which Prosciutto di Parma was produced. The barns for these animals were usually just a few yards away from the cheese production rooms, the cheese is put into a stainless steel, round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day, after brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days, the cheese is also turned at this time. At 12 months, the Consorzio Parmigiano-Reggiano inspects every wheel, the cheese is tested by a master grader who taps each wheel to identify undesirable cracks and voids within the wheel. Wheels that pass the test are then heat branded on the rind with the Consorzios logo, traditionally, cows have to be fed only on grass or hay, producing grass fed milk. Only natural whey culture is allowed as a starter, together with calf rennet, the only additive allowed is salt, which the cheese absorbs while being submerged for 20 days in brine tanks saturated to near total salinity with Mediterranean sea salt

23.
Amatriciana sauce
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Sugo or salsa allamatriciana or alla matriciana is a traditional Italian pasta sauce based on guanciale, pecorino cheese, tomato, and in most variations, onion. Originating from the town of Amatrice, the Amatriciana is one of the best known pasta sauces in Roman and Italian cuisine, the Italian government has named it a traditional agro-alimentary product of Lazio. Amatriciana originates from a recipe named gricia, grici were what Romans—modern dwellers of Rome, not the ancient ones—called the sellers of bread and comestibles. They were so called in that a number of them emigrated from the Swiss canton of Grisons, according to another hypothesis, the name originates from the hamlet of Grisciano, in the comune of Accumoli, near Amatrice. The sauce was prepared with guanciale and grated pecorino, according to the matching hypothesis, ingredients reflect local products available either to a simple grocery store or to common folk who practiced herding in the mountainous area. At some point, an olive oil was added to the recipe. The invention of the first tomato sauces dates back to the late 18th century, the first written record of pasta with tomato sauce can be found in the 1790 cookbook LApicio Moderno by Roman chef Francesco Leonardi. The Amatriciana recipe became increasingly famous in Rome over the 19th, the recipe was extremely well received and rapidly went on to be considered a classic of the Roman Cuisine, even though it originated elsewhere. The name of the dish in the Romanesco dialect eventually became due to the apheresis typical of this dialect. While tomato-less gricia is still prepared in central Italy, it is the tomato-enriched amatriciana that is known throughout Italy. While in Amatrice the dish is prepared with spaghetti, the use of bucatini has become common in Rome and is now prevalent. Other types of dry pasta are used, whereas fresh pasta is generally avoided. The recipe is known in several variants depending, among other things, while everybody seems to agree about the use of guanciale and tomato, onion is not favored in Amatrice, but is shown in the classical handbooks of Roman cuisine. For frying, olive oil is most commonly used, but strutto is used as well, the addition of garlic sauteed in olive oil, before adding the guanciale is also accepted, and for cheese either pecorino romano or Amatrices pecorino can be used. The addition of black or chili pepper is common, List of pasta dishes List of pork dishes List of sauces Blasi, Benedetto. Vie piazze e ville di Roma nel loro valore storico e topografico, Roma, Libreria di scienze e lettere. NY Times article on different recipes for sugo allamatriciana and on guanciale Official Amatriciana sauce recipe

24.
Cacio e pepe
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Cacio e Pepe is a pasta dish from Roman cuisine. Cacio e Pepe means cheese and pepper in several central Italian dialects, as the name suggests, the ingredients of the dish are very simple and include only black pepper, Pecorino Romano cheese, and pasta. Cacio e pepe is typically made with long, thin spaghetti, carbonara Italian cuisine List of pasta dishes Food portal Boni, Ada

25.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

26.
Asiago cheese
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The aged cheese is often grated in salads, soups, pastas, and sauces while the fresh Asiago is sliced to prepare panini or sandwiches, it can also be melted on a variety of dishes and cantaloupe. As Asiago has a designation of origin, the only authentic Asiago is produced around the alpine area of the Asiago Plateau. Asiago cheese is one of the most typical products of the Veneto region and it was, and still is, the most popular and widely used cheese in the DOP area where it is produced. The production area is defined, It starts from the meadows of the Po Valley. Similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, principally in the United States, using different techniques and cultures that produce a cheese of a similar aspect, the best-known of these is Wisconsin Cheese, a mezzano cheese with a sharper flavour than the Italian. The Asiago cheese production remains predominant in the Asiago Plateau until the nineteenth century, afterward, the production was also adopted in the neighboring lowland zone and in the near farms of Trentino. Among the greatest causes of the productions diffusion were the war events that caused a significant depopulation of the zone. Asiago was on the border with the Austrian Empire and was an area of contention and great battles, Asiago cheese was often traded alongside native Italian fowl, such as seahawks/ these traders often received far more valuable browned corn husks or cobs. It represents more than forty cheese makers and cheese aging facilities and this type is produced by using fresh whole milk. The first step is heating milk at 35 °C, specific enzymes, like rennet and lipase, are then added as liquid solution and the milk starts to coagulate. The curd is kneaded and partially cooked, the curd is broken into many little pieces, whereupon the curd is cooked again at approximately 45 °C. Later, this mixture is poured into molds with perforated walls, afterwards there is a first dry salting and then the mold is squeezed with a press, usually hydraulic, for about four hours. Then the rounds are wrapped laterally with plastic bands and are placed in a room called Frescura for two to three days to dry, at this point the bandages are removed to allow one last curing by a bath in brine for a period of two days. Then the forms are allowed to rest in a dry environment for a period ranging from 20 to 40 days, the finished cheese has a cylindrical shape with a diameter of 30–40 cm and height about 15 cm. The average weight of a wheel is 11–15 kg, the crust is thin and elastic, dough inside is soft, buttery, white or slightly yellowish. This type is produced by using a mixture of whole milk, First the raw milk is heated at about 35 °C and rennet and enzymes are added as a liquid solution to make it coagulate. The batter obtained is then kneaded and partially cooked, the curd is broken into small parts. At this stage there are two other firings, to 40 and 47 °C, the paste is removed from the heat, stirred with a large whisk and then the curd is extracted and placed in molds lined with cheese cloth for forming

27.
Bitto
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Bitto is an Italian DOP cheese produced in the Valtelline valley in Lombardy. It owes its name to the Bitto river, Bitto is produced only in the summer months when the cows feed on the high alpine meadows. The cheese received the DOP recognition in 1996, with a less restrictive product specification than the traditional one, since then, another version of Bitto, called Bitto Storico, has been produced by means of traditional methods and promoted by Slow Food. In 2016 Bitto Storico changed its name, the new name will be in effect from September the 1st,2016. The production area includes province of Sondrio (from the Spluga valley to Livigno, some comuni from the Val Brembana, Bitto Storico is made from whole cows milk produced in the summer months around the Valtellina valley, to which must be added 10% to 20% goats milk. Adding a higher percentage of goats milk allows long aging of 10 years or more, however, due many uncontrollable factors, it is the dairymans job to determine how long to age each Bitto wheel. Bitto DOP can be added with milk and can use arbitrary feed for the cows. 5 Most Expensive Cheeses in the World, media related to Bitto at Wikimedia Commons Formaggio Bitto Storico Presidio Slow Food Consorzio Tutela Valtellina Casera e Bitto

28.
Caciocavallo
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Caciocavallo is a type of stretched-curd cheese made out of sheeps or cows milk. It is produced throughout Southern Italy, particularly in the Apennine Mountains, shaped like a tear-drop, it is similar in taste to the aged Southern Italian Provolone cheese, with a hard edible rind. e. Apparently caciocavallo was mentioned the first time around 500 BC by Hippocrates, types of cheese with names similar to caciocavallo are common throughout the Balkans and Southern Italy. In Sicily, the Ragusano DOP, known locally as caciocavallo ragusano had to drop the denomination caciocavallo in order to get DOP status, many different types of caciocavallo exist in Italy and several are recognized as Prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale like Caciocavallo podolico or Caciocavallo di Godrano. Each of these local speciality cheeses is different from both Caciocavallo Silano and each other,5 Most Expensive Cheeses in the World

29.
Fontina
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Fontina is an Italian cows milk cheese. Fontina has PDO status under European law, Fontina cheese has been made in the Aosta Valley, in the Alps since the 12th century. It has a fat content around 45%. It can be identified by a Consorzio stamp of the Matterhorn including the script FONTINA, as with many other varieties, the name Fontina has been imposed upon by such derivatives as Fontinella, Fontal, and Fontella. The original Fontina cheese from Aosta Valley is fairly pungent and has quite an intense flavor, the Swedish and Danish versions are often found in US grocery stores, and can be distinguished from Aostan Fontina by their red wax rind. Aostan Fontina has a natural rind due to aging, which is tan to orange-brown. It is noted for its earthy, mushroomy, and woody taste and it has a rich and creamy flavor which gets nuttier with aging. The interior of the cheese is pale cream in color and riddled with holes known as eyes, a good accompaniment is Nebbiolo, a red wine with flavors of wild cherry and truffles. Young Fontina has a softer texture, fonduta alla valdostana or Fondue à la valdôtaine is a traditional dish of Fontina whipped with milk, eggs, and truffles. Mature Fontina is a hard cheese, Fontina has a mild, somewhat nutty flavor, while rich, herbaceous and fruity. Fontina produced in the Aosta Valley must be made from unpasteurized milk from a single milking, the Milk and Fontina Producers Co-Operative

30.
Formaggio di Fossa
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Formaggio di Fossa is a cheese from Sogliano al Rubicone in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. The cheeses name, which means cheese of the pit, is derived from the process of ripening the cheese in special underground pits dug in tuff rock. The cheese is produced in the areas between the Rubicon and Marecchia river valleys. In 2009 formaggio di fossa was granted Denominazione di Origine Protetta status, Fossa cheese is made with either sheeps milk, cows milk, or a mixture of the two. The cheese typically matures around 30 days before being placed in the fossa, the pit is prepared by burning straw inside to remove moisture and sterilize the space. The cheese is wrapped in cloth bags and placed in the pit, the sealing of the pit limits the oxygen available to the cheese, enabling a process of anaerobic fermentation. After being removed from the pit, the cheese is allowed to ripen for a three months. The technique of making formaggio di fossa dates back to the 15th century

31.
Formai de Mut dell'Alta Valle Brembana
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Formai de Mut dellAlta Valle Brembana is an Italian cheese prepared from raw cows milk that originated in Lombardy, Italy. It is prepared in a manner to Fontina dAosta cheese at Alta Valle Brembana in high pasture lands and in Bergamo. It is rarely found outside of Lombardy, and it is produced in limited quantities. It was classified with a designation of origin status in 1996. Formai de Mut dellAlta Valle Brembana is prepared using raw cows milk, young versions of Formai de Mut dellAlta Valle Brembana have a pale, thin rind, while those that are aged longer and rubbed with additional brine have a harder and darker rind. Aged versions develop more fragrancy and fruitiness in flavor compared to young versions, people in local communities use Formai de Mut dellAlta Valle Brembana as a topping for soups and stews, in fonduta and in gratin dishes. Food portal List of Italian cheeses Lombardia, Regione, atlante dei prodotti tipici e tradizionali

32.
Gorgonzola
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Gorgonzola is a veined Italian blue cheese, made from unskimmed cows milk. It can be buttery or firm, crumbly and quite salty, Gorgonzola has been produced for centuries in Gorgonzola, Milan, acquiring its greenish-blue marbling in the eleventh century. However, the claim of geographical origin is disputed by other localities. Today, it is produced in the northern Italian regions of Piedmont. Whole cows milk is used, to which bacteria are added. Penicillium roqueforti, used in Roquefort cheese, may also be used, the whey is then removed during curdling, and the result aged at low temperatures. During the aging process metal rods are inserted and removed, creating air channels that allow the mold spores to grow into hyphae. Gorgonzola is typically aged for three to four months, the length of the aging process determines the consistency of the cheese, which gets firmer as it ripens. There are two varieties of Gorgonzola, which differ mainly in their age, Gorgonzola Dolce and Gorgonzola Piccante, under Italian law, Gorgonzola enjoys Protected Geographical Status. Gorgonzola may be eaten in many ways and it may be melted into a risotto in the final stage of cooking, or served alongside polenta. It is frequently offered as pizza topping and is added to salads. Combined with other soft cheeses it is an ingredient of pizza ai quattro formaggi, james Joyce, in his 1922 Ulysses, gives its hero Bloom a lunch of a glass of Burgundy and a Gorgonzola sandwich. Bloom masters the monster by digesting her, blue cheese Italian cheese Consortium for the Protection of Gorgonzola Cheese

33.
Grana Padano
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Grana Padano is a hard, slow-ripened, semi-fat cheese from Italy, comparable to Parmigiano Reggiano or parmesan cheese. Grana Padano has had protected designation of origin status since 1996 and it is made from milk produced in the Po River valley. The name comes from the Italian word grana, which denotes cheese with a grainy texture, and the adjective Padano. It can last a long time without spoiling, sometimes aging up to two years and it is made in a similar way to the Parmigiano Reggiano of Emilia-Romagna but over a much wider area and with different regulations and controls. Like Parmigiano Reggiano, Grana Padano is a hard cheese which is cooked and ripened slowly for at least nine months. If it passes quality tests, it is fire-branded with the Grana Padano trademark, the cows are milked twice a day, the milk is left to stand, and then partially skimmed. Milk produced in the evening is skimmed to remove the surface layer of cream and it is produced year-round and the quality can vary seasonally as well as by year. Though similar to Parmigiano Reggiano cheese, the younger Grana Padano cheeses are less crumbly, milder and less complex in flavor than their better known, some of the producers operate large operations. The herd produces capacious quantities of cow manure, and a byproduct is the Shit Museum, on an annual basis, the Grana Padano consortium exports €750 million of their product. A wheel of Grana Padano is cylindrical, with convex or almost straight sides. It measures 35 to 45 cm in diameter, and 15 to 18 cm in height and it weighs 24 to 40 kg per wheel. The rind, which is thin, is pale yellow

34.
Montasio
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Montasio is a mountain cheese made from cows milk produced in northeastern Italy in the regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Veneto. It was awarded a designation of origin in 1986. Made from cows milk Country of origin, Italy Region, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto Alternative spellings, Montasio Fresco Type, versions aged longer develop a harder texture. The rind is typically stamped with the date of its production, bergkäse Friulano Montasio official website Montasio

35.
Monte Veronese
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Monte Veronese is an Italian cheese made from cow’s milk which is produced in the northern part of the Province of Verona, more specifically in the Lessini mountains or the Veronese prealps. Like Asiago it comes in two varieties, one fresh and one matured, Monte Veronese was awarded Italian Denominazione di Origine status in 1993 and European Protected designation of origin status in 1996. The fresh Monte Veronese is made from unpasteurized milk and has a brief aging period. The paste is white or slightly yellowish in color, with fine and uniformly distributed eyes, the hard paste Monte Veronese is made from unpasteurized semi-skimmed milk. Aging lasts from more than 60 days for wheels to be consumed as table cheese to six months for grating cheese, the paste is white or slightly yellowish in color but with larger eyes than the whole milk variety. Ripening makes the cheese fragrant and slightly piquant

36.
Buffalo mozzarella
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Buffalo mozzarella is a mozzarella made from the milk of the domestic Italian water buffalo. It is a product produced in Campania, especially in the provinces of Caserta. It is appreciated for its versatility and elastic texture and often called the queen of the Mediterranean cuisine, the buffalo mozzarella sold as Mozzarella di Bufala Campana has been granted the status of Denominazione di origine controllata since 1993. Since 1996 it is protected under the EUs Protected Designation of Origin. The protected name requires that it may only be produced with a recipe in select locations in the regions of Campania, Lazio, Apulia. In Italy, the cheese is produced nationwide using Italian buffalo milk under the official name of Mozzarella di Bufala Campana DOP. It is produced in areas ranging from Rome in Lazio to Paestum near Salerno in Campania, and there are areas in the province of Foggia, Apulia. Buffalo mozzarella is a €300m a year industry in Italy, which produces around 33,000 tonnes of it every year, france and Germany are the main importers, but sales to Japan and Russia are growing. Apart from Italy, its birthplace, buffalo mozzarella is manufactured in other countries around the world. Buffalo mozzarella from Campania bears the Mozzarella di Bufala Campana trademark, among the many other Italian cheeses that have PDO status are Gorgonzola, Parmigiano-Reggiano and Asiago cheese. The history of water buffalo in Italy is not settled, one theory is that Asian water buffalo were brought to Italy by Goths during the migrations of the early medieval period. The Consorzio per la Tutela also refers to fossil evidence suggesting that water buffalo may have originated in Italy, a fourth theory is that water buffalo were brought from Mesopotamia into the Near East by Arabs and then introduced into Europe by pilgrims and returning crusaders. References to cheese made from water buffalo milk appeared for the first time at the beginning of the twelfth century. Buffalo mozzarella became widespread throughout the south of Italy from the half of the eighteenth century. In 2008, traces of dioxine were found in samples of milk produced in Campania. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow milk, producing 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. The steps required to produce buffalo mozzarella are, Milk storage, List of Italian PDO cheeses List of Italian cheeses Rankin, Scott A. Carol M. Chen and Dean Sommer, handbook of food science, technology, and engineering

37.
Piave cheese
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Piave is an Italian cows milk cheese, that is named after the Piave river. As Piave has a Protected Designation of Origin, the only official Piave is produced in the Dolomites area, province of Belluno, in the northernmost tip of the Veneto region. Piave is a hard, cooked curd cheese, offered at 5 different ages, Piave cheese has a dense texture, without holes, and is straw-yellow in hue. It has a sweet flavor. Once fully aged, it becomes hard enough for grating, and it develops an intense, piaves rind is impressed repeatedly in vertical direction with the name of the cheese. Piave is sold throughout Europe and even in the US as a hard cheese at which point its taste resembles that of a young Parmigiano Reggiano, the red label is aged at least 1 year and is called Vecchio, while the blue label is softer. Both are available all over Europe and can also be found in the US, official website of Piave Cheese - The Italian producers consortium

38.
Provolone
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Provolone is an Italian cheese that originated in Casilli near Vesuvius, where it is still produced in pear, sausage, or cone shapes varying from 10 to 15 centimetres long. Provolone-type cheeses are produced in other countries. The most important provolone production region is Northwestern Italy, provolone, provola, and provoleta are versions of the same basic cheese. Some versions of provolone are smoked, the term provolone appeared around the end of the 19th century, when it started to be manufactured in the southern regions of Italy and assumed its current large size. The smaller sized variant is called provola and comes in plain, modern provolone is a full-fat cows milk cheese with a smooth skin, produced mainly in the Po River Valley regions of Lombardia and Veneto. The typical weight is 5 kg, provolone is a semi-hard cheese with taste varying greatly from provolone piccante, aged for a minimum of four months and with a very sharp taste, to provolone dolce with a very mild taste. In provolone piccante, the distinctive piquant taste is produced with lipase derived from goat, the Dolce version uses calfs lipase instead. Both provolone valpadana and provolone del Monaco have received the DOP seal from the European Community, the cheese when served this way is often called provoleta in Spanish. Provolone is also produced in the United States and it finds many uses, including on pizzas and on sandwiches, in particular, the Philly cheesesteak is historically made with provolone. List of cheeses Pizza cheese Food portal

Capitoline Wolf at Siena Duomo. According to a legend Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus. When they fled Rome, they took the statue of She-wolf to Siena, which became a symbol of the town.

Map of Castra Vetera, a large permanent base (castra stativa) of Germania Inferior, where Pliny spent the last of his 10-year enlistment as a cavalry commander. The proximity of a naval base there means that he trained also in ships, as the Romans customarily trained all soldiers in all arms whenever possible. The location is on the lower Rhine river.