1.
French First Republic
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In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire

2.
French Directory
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It gave its name to the final four years of the French Revolution. The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions which at different times included Britain, Austria, Prussia, the Kingdom of Naples, Russia and it annexed Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine, while Bonaparte conquered a large part of Italy. The Directory established six short-lived sister republics modelled after France, in Italy, Switzerland, the conquered cities and states were required to send to France huge amounts of money, as well as art treasures, which were used to fill the new Louvre museum in Paris. An army led by Bonaparte conquered Egypt and marched as far as Saint-Jean-dAcre in Syria, the French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty, the money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis, prices and wages fell, and economic activity slowed to a standstill. The Jacobin political club was closed and the government crushed an uprising planned by the Jacobins. The Jacobins took two seats in the Directory, hopelessly dividing it. In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored the French military position, Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October, and was engaged by the Abbé Sieyès and other moderates to carry out a parliamentary coup détat on 8–9 November 1799. The coup abolished the Directory, put the French Consulate led by Bonaparte in its place, Robespierre and his leading followers were declared outside the law, and on 28 July were arrested, and guillotined the same day. The Terror quickly came to a halt, the Revolutionary Tribunal, which had sent thousands to the guillotine, ceased meeting and its head, Fouquier-Tinville, was arrested and imprisoned, and after trial was himself guillotined. More than five hundred suspected counter-revolutionaries awaiting trial and execution were immediately released, in the wake of these events, the members of the Convention began planning an entirely new form of government. They wished to continue the Revolution, but without its excesses and this executive will have a force concentrated enough that it will be swift and firm, but divided enough to make it impossible for any member to even consider becoming a tyrant. A single chief would be dangerous, each member will preside for three months, he will have during this time the signature and seal of the head of state. By the slow and gradual replacement of members of the Directory, you will preserve the advantages of order and continuity and will have the advantages of unity without the inconveniences. To assure that the Directors would have some independence, each would be elected by one portion of the legislature, the members of this legislature had a term of three years, with one-third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients could not initiate new laws, but could veto those proposed by the Council of Five Hundred, the new Constitution required the Council of 500 to prepare, by secret ballot, a list of candidates for the Directory. The Council of the Ancients then chose, again by secret ballot, the Constitution required that Directors be at least forty years old

3.
French Consulate
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The Consulate was the government of France from the fall of the Directory in the coup of Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to period of French history. Due to the institutions established during these years, Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate one of the most important periods of all French history, Napoleon brought authoritarian personal rule which has been viewed as military dictatorship. French military disasters in 1798 and 1799 had shaken the Directory, an irregularity emerged in the election of Jean Baptiste Treilhard, who retired in favor of Louis Jérôme Gohier. Within days, Philippe-Antoine Merlin and Louis-Marie de La Revellière were driven to resign, Baron Jean-François-Auguste Moulin, the three new directors were generally seen as non-entities. A few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south, Chouan disturbances in a dozen departments of the part of France, Orléanist intrigues. In order to soothe the populace and protect the frontier, more than the French Revolutions usual terrorist measures was necessary, the new Directory government, led by Sieyès, decided that the necessary revision of the constitution would require a head and a sword. Jean Victor Moreau being unattainable as his sword, Sieyès favoured Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, but, success was reserved for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Fréjus with the prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after Hoches death, appearing as sole master of the armies. In the coup of 18 Brumaire Year VIII, Napoleon seized French parliamentary and military power in a two-fold coup détat, the initial 18 Brumaire coup seemed to be a victory for Sieyès, rather than for Bonaparte. Sieyès was a proponent of a new system of government for the Republic, Bonapartes cleverness lay in counterposing Pierre Claude François Daunous plan to that of Sieyès, and in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his ambition. Ultimate executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years, popular suffrage was retained, though mutilated by the lists of notables. Napoleon vetoed Sieyès original idea of having a single Grand Elector as supreme executive, Sieyès had intended to reserve this important position for himself, and by denying him the job Napoleon helped reinforce the authority of the consuls, an office which he would assume. Nor was Napoleon content simply to be part of an equal triumvirate, by consolidating power, Bonaparte was able to transform the aristocratic constitution of Sieyès into an unavowed dictatorship. On 7 February 1800, a referendum confirmed the new constitution. It vested all of the power in the hands of the First Consul. A full 99. 9% of voters approved the motion, according to the released results and he gave everyone a feeling that France was governed once more by a real statesman, and that a competent government was finally in charge. Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieyès and of those republicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one man, particularly of Moreau and Masséna, his military rivals

4.
Paris Commune (French Revolution)
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The Paris Commune during the French Revolution was the government of Paris from 1789 until 1795. Established in the Hôtel de Ville just after the storming of the Bastille, the Paris Commune became insurrectionary in the summer of 1792, essentially refusing to take orders from the central French government. It took charge of routine civic functions but is best known for mobilizing extreme views and actions among the people and for its campaign to dechristianize the churches and it lost much power in 1794 and was replaced in 1795. In 1792, the Commune was dominated by those Jacobins who were not in the Legislative Assembly due to the Self-Denying Ordinance, the all-powerful Commune demanded custody of the royal family, imprisoning them in the Temple fortress. A list of opponents of the Revolution was drawn up, the gates to the city were sealed, the government of the republic was succeeded by the French Directory in November 1795

5.
First French Empire
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The First French Empire, Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Its name was a misnomer, as France already had colonies overseas and was short lived compared to the Colonial Empire, a series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. The plot included Bonapartes brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, on 9 November 1799 and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, the Battle of Marengo inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleons Moscow campaign. Napoleon planned only to keep the Duchy of Milan for France, setting aside Austria, the Peace of Amiens, which cost him control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Parma, Tuscany and Naples, then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the pope. Napoleon would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new bourgeoisie, on 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with exception of Carnot, in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif, a general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul for life, pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the Recess of 1803, which brought Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden to Frances side. The memories of imperial Rome were for a time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, did little other than create a more unified Germany to threaten France. On the other hand, Napoleons creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of Ancona, to create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many nations, in addition to the vassal titles, Napoleons closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France. Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power, Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal and this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. In this War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the armies of Frederick William at Jena-Auerstedt, the Eylau and the Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Greats formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit. The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that held power of much of the rest of Europe, the two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes

6.
First Cabinet of Napoleon I
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The First Cabinet of Napoleon I was appointed by the Emperor Napoleon I upon the establishment of the First French Empire on 18 May 1804, replacing the Cabinet of the Consulate. It was succeeded by the French Provisional Government of 1814 following the downfall of Napoleon, at the session of the Tribunat on 3 Floréal year XII Jean-François Curée proposed that Napoleon, then First Consul, be declared hereditary Emperor of France. The motion was supported by members of the Tribunat, with only Lazare Carnot speaking against it. The formal coronation ceremony was delayed until 11 Frimaire year XIII, Napoleon retained the ministers from the Consulate, but made various changes during his reign. He did not appoint a minister, but headed the government himself. The ministers were, In March 1814 the allied armies invaded France, after a short struggle on 30 March 1814 against overwhelmingly superior forces, on 31 March 1814 Marshal Marmont signed the capitulation of Paris. A provisional government was formed on 1 April 1814 under the presidency of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

7.
French Provisional Government of 1814
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On 31 March 1814 Marshal Auguste de Marmont surrendered Paris to the Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who entered the city the same day. Prince Talleyrand placed his house at the Emperors disposal, the Senate met on 1 April 1814 and, in accordance with the views expressed by Alexander I, decreed the formation of a provisional government headed by Talleyrand. The Provisional Government announced the appointment of commissaires to head the ministries on 3 April 1814 and it announced the Bourbon Restoration, declaring that Louis XVIII of France was king. Napoleon, who had retired to Fontainebleau, signed an act of abdication on 11 April 1814 and he left Fontainebleau on 20 April 1814 for exile on the island of Elba. On 12 April 1814 Charles, Count of Artois, the kings brother and he was declared Lieutenant General of the kingdom on 14 April 1814. Louis XVIII had been watching events from Hartwell House in England, on 24 April 1814 he landed at Calais and on 3 April 1814 made a triumphal entry into Paris. He announced his government on 13 May 1814

8.
Government of the first Bourbon restoration
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The Government of the first Bourbon restoration replaced the French provisional government of 1814 that had been formed after the fall of Napoleon. It was announced on 13 May 1814 by King Louis XVIII of France, after the return of Napoleon from exile, the court fled to Ghent and the government was replaced by the French Government of the Hundred Days on 20 March 1815. He was greeted by a huge crowd and he named the new ministry on 13 May 1814. The ministers were, On 4 June 1814 the Charter of 1814 was proclaimed, some were opposed to the reactionary policies of the government, and some were opposed to the Bourbon dynasty. The clergy openly preached intolerance and persecution of supporters of the former regime, Napoleon sensed the change of mood, left Elba and on 1 March 1815 landed on the mainland near Cannes. He traveled north, with supporters flocking to his cause, on 16 March 1815 Louis XVIII addressed a meeting of both chambers, appealing to them to defend the constitutional charter. On the night of 19-20 March the king left his palace for Ghent in Belgium, Napoleon entered Paris on 20 March 1815

9.
French Government of the Hundred Days
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Napoleon left his exile on Elba and landed on the mainland near Cannes on 1 March 1815. He traveled north, with supporters flocking to his cause, on 16 March 1815 Louis XVIII addressed a meeting of both chambers, appealing to them to defend the constitutional charter. On the night of 19–20 March the king left his palace for Ghent in Belgium, Napoleon entered Paris on 20 March. He announced his ministers that day, on 1 June 1815 a major ceremony was held on the Champ de Mars in which the Emperors authority was formally recognized. On 12 June 1815 Napoleon left Paris for the north, where the forces of Britain. He was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815, Napoleon abdicated for the second time on 22 June 1815. That day the two chambers nominated the members of the French Provisional Government of 1815, which would serve as government until the second Bourbon Restoration

10.
French Provisional Government of 1815
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The French Provisional Government or French Executive Commission of 1815 replaced the French government of the Hundred Days that had been formed by Napoleon after his return from exile on Elba. It was formed on 22 June 1815 after the abdication of Napoleon following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, following the second Bourbon Restoration, on 9 July 1815 the Provisional Government was replaced by the Ministry of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord. On 12 June 1815 Napoleon left Paris for modern day Belgium, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. He returned to Paris and abdicated for the time on 22 June 1815. That day the two chambers nominated the members of the Provisional Government, that would serve as government until the second Bourbon Restoration. They were, Finance, Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin Treasury, Nicolas François, Count Mollien Navy and Colonies, Denis Decrès War, the two Coalition armies under Prince Blücher and Duke of Wellington and advanced from the north and surrounded Paris. On 3 July 1815 the commissioners surrendered Paris under the terms of the Convention of St. Cloud, with the capital and departments occupied by Seventh Coalition troops, the Executive Commission was unable to function and resigned on 7 July 1815. The ministry of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord took office on 9 July 1815

11.
Bourbon Restoration
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The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and they were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the gains made since 1789. King Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from 6 April 1814 until the uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the Hundred Days—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France, when Napoleon was again defeated by the Seventh Coalition they returned to power in July. During the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime. The period was characterized by a conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris, the political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided more than 80 departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, the bishop still ruled his diocese, and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other people were paid salaries by the state. All the old rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful, education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris

12.
July Monarchy
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The July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the government of Charles X. The king promised to follow the juste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of the supporters of Charles X. The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy bourgeoisie and numerous former Napoleonic officials and it followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of François Guizot. The king promoted friendship with Great Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, by 1848, a year in which many European states had a revolution, the kings popularity had collapsed and he was overthrown. Louis Phillipe was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris, the republicans, who had set up barricades in the capital, and the liberal bourgeoisie. However, at the end of his reign the so-called Citizen King was overthrown by similar barricades during the February Revolution of 1848, the Legitimists withdrew from the political stage to their castles, leaving the stage opened for the struggle between the Orleanists and the Republicans. Louis-Philippe was crowned King of the French, instead of King of France, Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil, a large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force, late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy, however, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution, thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, however, this still represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group, beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters, the inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King—stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, one of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies, in addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of actions, of course, with royal approval

13.
Paris Municipal Commission Ministry of 1830
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The Paris Municipal Commission Ministry of 1830 was proclaimed by the Paris Municipal Commission on 31 July 1830, after the revolution in which the Bourbon Restoration monarchy was deposed. One day later, it was replaced by a provisional government named by Louis Philippe I of Orléans, the Ordinances of 25 July 1830 suspended the constitution. Paris was calm the day, although there were stirrings of protest against the blows the ordinances had dealt against the powers of the legislators. The deputies from the Left met at Audrys house on 28 July, general Lafayette was appointed commander of the National Guard. The Municipal Commission announced the ministers on 31 July 1830, the municipal commission and Lafayette created a movable National Guard, in which soldiers would be paid 30 sous per day. This was not put into effect, but served to help the people disperse, Louis Philippe was declared Lieutenant-General of France on 31 July 1830. On 2 August 1830 Charles X of France formally abdicated, and on 9 August 1830 Louis Philippe took the oath of office as King

14.
French Provisional Ministry of 1830
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The French Provisional Ministry of 1830 was announced on 1 August 1830 by Louis-Philippe dOrléans in his capacity as Lieutenant General of the kingdom. It replaced the Paris Municipal Commission Ministry announced the day before after the revolution in which the Bourbon Restoration monarchy was deposed, on 11 August 1830 it was replaced by the First ministry of Louis-Philippe. On 1 August 1830 Louis-Philippe first announced that the ministers named by the Paris Municipal Commission should retain their positions, later that day he announced various changes

15.
First ministry of Louis-Philippe
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The First ministry of Louis-Philippe was announced on 11 August 1830 by King Louis Philippe I two days after he had become king. It replaced the Provisional Ministry announced on 1 August 1830, on 2 November 1830 it was replaced by the Cabinet of Jacques Laffitte. Louis Philippe did not designate a president of the council, jacques-Charles Dupont de lEure, keeper of the seals as Minister of Justice, countersigned the ordinances issued by his colleagues. Victor de Broglie was president of the council of state

16.
First cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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The First cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult was announced on 16 May 1832 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Cabinet of Casimir Périer and it was dissolved on 18 July 1834 and replaced by the Cabinet of Étienne Maurice, comte Gérard. The cabinet was created by ordinances of 11 October 1832, with Marshall Soult as President

17.
Cabinet of Victor de Broglie
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The Cabinet of Victor de Broglie was announced on 12 March 1835 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Cabinet of Édouard Adolphe Mortier, on 14 January 1836 the Minister of Finance, Georges Humann, presented the draft budget for 1837 to the Chamber of Deputies. This included a proposal for conversion of debt that had not been discussed with his cabinet colleagues, the proposal caused an unexpected storm of controversy, and Humann was forced to resign on 18 January 1836. The issue led to a debate, followed by the collective resignation of the cabinet. The cabinet was replaced on 22 February 1836 by the First cabinet of Adolphe Thiers, the cabinet was created by ordinance of 12 March 1835

18.
Transitional French cabinet of 1839
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The Transitional French cabinet of 1839 was announced on 31 March 1839 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Second cabinet of Louis Mathieu Molé, on 12 May 1839 there was an insurrection in Paris, suppressed by the National Guard and regular troops. The ministry was replaced that day by the Second cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, the cabinet was created by ordinance of 31 March 1839. It did not include a president of the council of ministers

19.
Second cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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The Second cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult was announced on 12 May 1839 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Transitional French cabinet of 1839, after a defeat in the Chamber of Deputies on 20 February 1840, the ministers gave their resignations to the king. The ministry was replaced on 1 March 1840 by the Second cabinet of Adolphe Thiers, the cabinet was created by ordinance of 12 May 1839

20.
Third cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult
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The Third cabinet of Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult was announced on October 29,1840 by King Louis Philippe I. It replaced the Second cabinet of Adolphe Thiers, the ministry was replaced on September 19,1847 by the Cabinet of François-Pierre Guizot. The cabinet was created by ordinance of October 29,1840, the ministers were, Undersecretaries of state were, Interior, Antoine François Passy Navy and Colonies, Jean Jubelin War, François Martineau des Chenez

21.
French Second Republic
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The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, the Second Republic witnessed the tension between the Social and Democratic Republic and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848. The industrial population of the faubourgs was welcomed by the National Guard on their way towards the centre of Paris, barricades were raised after the shooting of protestors outside the Guizot manor by soldiers. On 23 February 1848 Guizots cabinet resigned, abandoned by the petite bourgeoisie, the heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left, Molé and Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon Barrot accepted it, and Bugeaud, commander-in-chief of the first military division, in the face of the insurrection which had now taken possession of the whole capital, Louis-Philippe decided to abdicate in favour of his grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris. The Republic was then proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob. But this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the Hôtel de Ville and it had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies, in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate republicans. It was uncertain what the policy of the new government would be, the other party wished to maintain society on the basis of its traditional institutions, and rallied round the tricolore. The first collision took place as to the form which the 1848 Revolution was to take. On 5 March the government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided in favour of a reference to the people, and direct universal suffrage. This added the uneducated masses to the electorate and led to the election of the Constituent Assembly of 4 May 1848, the socialists thus formed a sort of state-within-a-state, complete with a government and an armed force. Even this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive, and all over France, workmen quit their jobs and traveled to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the red flag. The socialist economic plan was straining state finances, and as the émeute of 15 May had proven that it constituted a menace to the state. The socialist party was defeated and afterwards its members were deported, by the massacres of the June Days, the working classes were also alienated from it. The Duke of Wellington wrote at this time, France needs a Napoleon, the granting of universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist sympathies would benefit reactionaries, which culminated in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as president of the republic. The new constitution, proclaiming a republic, direct universal suffrage. Under the new constitution, there was to be a single permanent Assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three years by the scrutin de liste, the Assembly would elect members of a Council of State to serve for six years. Laws would be proposed by the Council of State, to be voted on by the Assembly and he was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible to the Assembly

22.
French Provisional Government of 1848
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It was succeeded by the Executive Commission of 1848. The Provisional Government was formed three days of street fighting in Paris that ended in the abdication of King Louis Philippe I at noon on February 24. The leaders of the government were selected by acclamation in two different meetings later that day, one at the Chamber of Deputies and the other at the Hôtel de Ville. The first set of seven names, chosen at the Chamber of Deputies, the second set of names, chosen at the Hôtel de Ville, came from a list made by the more radical republican paper La Réforme. In addition to the first set of deputies it included three journalists and a representative of the workers, later that evening the combined list was acclaimed at the Hôtel de Ville. The members of the new Provisional Government collectively acted as head of state, the three journalists were Armand Marrast, Louis Blanc and Ferdinand Flocon. The representative of the workers was Alexandre Martin, known as Albert, ministers were named to head the government ministries. The positions of power in the Provisional Government were mainly given to moderate republicans, although Étienne Arago was made Minister of Posts, Alexandre Martin, Louis Blanc and Ferdinand Flocon did not get ministerial portfolios, and so had little power

23.
French Executive Commission (1848)
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The Executive Commission of 1848 was a short-lived government during the French Second Republic, chaired by François Arago, that exercised executive power from 9 May 1848 to 24 June 1848. It succeeded the Provisional Government of 1848 and was in turn replaced by the Cabinet of General Cavaignac, the members of the Commission acted as joint head of state. The Commission lacked support in the National Assembly and it soon found itself at odds with the conservative majority and effectively unable to properly govern. The closure of the National Workshops, by leading to the June Days Uprising, judging the Commission unable to quell the uprising, the Assembly effectively dissolved it on June 24 by a vote of no confidence and gave full powers to General Louis Eugène Cavaignac. In May 1848 the National Assembly decided to establish the Executive Commission as a form of collective presidency, the members were chosen from prominent members of the former Provisional Government. These members acted jointly as head of state, Lamartine was seen by many as representing order and respect for property, while Ledru-Rollin stood for violence and communism. However, Lamartine used his strong popular mandate to force the National Assembly to make Ledru-Rollin one of the members of the Executive Commission, lamartines motives are unclear, but perhaps he was concerned that the power was swinging too far towards the Conservatives. The members of the Executive Commission were not assigned ministries, instead, at the first meeting on 11 May 1848 the commission appointed ministers. They were all moderate republicans apart from Ferdinand Flocon, the composition of the government was thus unsatisfactory to both the conservative majority of the National Assembly and the radical left. At this time the bourgeoisie were becoming increasingly uneasy about the possibility of mob rule leading to a repeat of the Reign of Terror of the first French Revolution. Ledru-Rollin planned a fête de la Concorde on 15 May celebrating peace, on 13 May the Executive Commission, nervous about rumors of planned demonstrations, announced that the festival was postponed. A crowd led by Louis Auguste Blanqui launched an attack on 15 May on the Palais Bourbon, the head of the National Guard of Paris, General Amable de Courtais, would not order his men to use violence. For three hours the Assembly was paralyzed by the demonstrators, order was restored, but the authority of the Commission was damaged. The conservative majority in the Assembly blamed the Executive Committee for allowing the incident to occur, the arrest of the leaders of the workers, Armand Barbès and Blanqui, left the working people without leaders. General Coutais was also arrested, accused of treason, the government reorganized the National Guard and moved a large garrison of regular army troops into the center of Paris. On 22 May 1848 the Executive Commission dissolved the Club Raspail, Louis Napoleon, who was in exile in London, was elected to the National Assembly on 4 June 1848. He was known to be ambitious to take power, and had already made two failed attempts, in 1836 and 1840. A circular appeared in the departments on 16 June 1848 in which the Executive Government ordered the arrest of Louis Napoleon and it appears to have been issued just before the question was raised in the National Assembly, and indicates that the government was confident that the motion would pass

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Cabinet of General Cavaignac
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The cabinet of General Cavaignac was the government of France from 28 June 1848 to 20 December 1848. It replaced the Executive Commission of 1848 after the June Days Uprising of 23 June to 26 June 1848, General Louis-Eugène Cavaignac was given executive power by the National Assembly and headed the government as President of the Council of Ministers. The government was replaced by the first cabinet of Odilon Barrot on 20 December 1848 after Louis Napoleon had been elected as President

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First cabinet of Odilon Barrot
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The first cabinet of Odilon Barrot was the government of France from 20 December 1848 to 2 June 1849 under President of the Council Odilon Barrot. It was formed after the election of Louis Napoleon as President on 20 December 1848 and it replaced the cabinet of General Cavaignac. After the May 1849 elections to the Legislative Assembly it was replaced by the cabinet of Odilon Barrot

Popular colored etching, verging on caricature, published by Décrouant, early 19th century: La famille royale et les alliées s'occupant du bonheur de l'Europe (The Royal Family and the Allies concerned with the Happiness of Europe)

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who served under several regimes, depicted "floating with the tide". Note the high heel of Talleyrand's left shoe, alluding both to his limp and the Devil's hoof.