Timeline

Timeline1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire26-29 A.D. (c.)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity67 A.D. (c.)- Paul & Peter martyred 306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”420 (c.)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”450 (c.)- Huns cut through central Europe and France476- End of Roman Empire in the West Byzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe480-543- St. Benedict500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)570 (c.)- Prophet Muhammad born610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and Spain Arabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations” 732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/ Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution1000 (c.)- Entity called Europe had come into existence1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of towns Barbarian raids over1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European Christian Empire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in royalty all over Europe1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism1215- Magna Carta Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments1240 (c.)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica” 1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population1350-1500 (c.)- Renaissance Humanism & Art1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church1450-1485- War of the Roses 1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuries spent in slow and steady expansion. 1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain 1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states1500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic, technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen. 1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plus as a battleground1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy. 1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan the Terrible) tsar, thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as absolute monarchs to avoid disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE. 1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in central and Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians. 1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany1618-1625- Bohemian phase1625-1629- Danish phase1630-1635- Swedish phase1635-1648- Swedish-French phase1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England1642-1648- Civil War in England1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of Peace of Augsburg (1555) The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility1649- Pride’s Purge Execution of King Charles I in London1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate” Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see below1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 17151663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growing movement of serfdom towards something like slavery1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French Protestants James II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg; Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmed by treaty of Nystadt in 1721. 1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor, as King Frederick I of Prussia1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together after his death1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powers1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest of 7 million thalers. 1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire26-29 A.D. (c)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity67 A.D. (c)- Paul & Peter martyred 306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”420 (c)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”450 (c)- Huns cut through central Europe and France476- End of Roman Empire in the WestByzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe480-543- St. Benedict500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)570 (c)- Prophet Muhammad born610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and SpainArabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations” 732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution1000 (c)- Entity called Europe had come into existence1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of townsBarbarian raids over1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European ChristianEmpire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in royalty all over Europe1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism1215- Magna Carta Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments1240 (c)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica” 1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population1350-1500 (c)- Renaissance Humanism & Art1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church1450-1485- War of the Roses 1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuriesspent in slow and steady expansion. Approx. 1450-1650- Period when fear of witches was at its height.1452-1519- Leonardo da Vinci- universal genius of the Italian Renaissance. However, known aspainter; in history of science, he is isolated genius who didn’t publish his works1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain 1469-1527- Niccolo Machiavelli, Renaissance Italian. Political theory1473-1543- Nicholas Copernicus. Held that the sun to be the center of the solar system & wholeuniverse; earth was simply revolving around it. He gave mathematical demonstration.1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states16th century- Pope Gregory XIII introduces Gregorian calendar, system of common dating. Gradually accepted & replaced Julian- England in 1752, Russia in 19181500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic,technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen. 1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plusas a battleground1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”1543- Publication of Copernicus’s “On the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs” & Vesalius’s “The Structure of the Human Body” 1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy. 1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons1561-1626- Francis Bacon- Englishman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Published “Novum Organum” (new method of acquiring knowledge) in 1620; “The Advancement of Learning” in 1623; “The New Atlantis” in 1627. Baconian tradition- fact that knowledge could be used for practical purposes became a sign or proof that it was true knowledge. Failed to understand role of mathematics, and had limited influence during his life. 1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France1564-1642- Galileo. Proved two objects will fall at the same rate when difference for air resistance accounted for. Used telescope to prove moon was made of matter, not light. Developed extensive laws on the motion of bodies. 1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands1571-1630- Johannes Kepler. Discovered orbits of the planets were ellipses. Showed cosmic mathematical relationship between space & time; described movements planets precisely.1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland1588-1679- Thomas Hobbes. Philosophically justified absolutism. Concluded humans have nocapacity for self-government1596-1650- Rene Descartes- Frenchman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Great mathematician. Inventor of coordinate geometry. Created general belief that vast world of nature could be reduced to mathematical form & advanced principle of systematic doubt. 1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants17th century- has been called the century of genius. Age when science became “modern.” Science applied to other areas (ex: industry) & became popularized.1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan the Terrible) tsar,thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as absolute monarchs to avoid disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE. 1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)Galileo builds a telescope1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in centraland Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians. 1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany1618-1625- Bohemian phase1625-1629- Danish phase1630-1635- Swedish phase1635-1648- Swedish-French phase1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia1620-1627- Francis Bacon argues for inductive method and empirical method, the founding ofknowledge on observation and experience. 1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England1632-1704- John Locke, Englishman. Summarized many intellectual trends of his lifetime and exerted influence for next 100 years. Combined practical experience and theoretical interests in a philosophy that dwelled on merits of common sense. Believed in constitutionalism; right to life, liberty, & property1637- Rene Descartes publishes “Discourse on Method” 1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England1642-1648- Civil War in England1642-1727- Isaac Newton- first modern scientific synthesis, or coherent theory of the physicaluniverse, presented. Combined Kepler & Galileo to prove universal gravitation. Inventedcalculus. 1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of Peace of Augsburg (1555)The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility1649- Pride’s Purge Execution of King Charles I in London1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate”Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see bottom1651- Thomas Hobbes publishes “Leviathan” (government must be a type of Leviathan, an absolute ruler with all power to control people’s brute instincts). 1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 17151662- Royal Society is founded in London, dedicated to pursuit of natural/scientific knowledge1663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe1666- Royal Academy of Sciences founded in Paris1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growingmovement of serfdom towards something like slavery1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy1678- French priest Richard Simon publishes “Critical History of the Old Testament,” pioneering work on Biblical (textual) criticism1681- French Benedict monk Jean Mabillon publishes “On Diplomatics”, established science ofpaleography (deciphering, dating, authenticating manuscripts)1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French ProtestantsJames II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism1687- Isaac Newton publishes “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”- shows all motion, on earth and space, could be timed & measured w/ same mathematical formulas.1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament. Landowning class, now with increased power, sourceof Agricultural Revolution, thus helped usher in Industrial Revolution1689-1755- Philosophe Montesquieu- believed governments varied according to climate & circumstance. Supported for France power divided between the king and a great many“intermediate bodies”1690- John Locke publishes “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” & “Two Treatises on Government”- decided true or certain knowledge is derived from experience1694-1755- Philosophe Voltaire- preached the cause of religious toleration. First to presenta purely secular conception of world history. No strong religious theory, enlightenedor rational despotism. 1697- Pierre Bayle publishes “Historical Critical Dictionary”- tremendous repository of miscellaneous lore; remained reservoir of knowledge for skeptical writers for generations 1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg;Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmedby treaty of Nystadt in 1721. 1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor, as King Frederick I of Prussia1702- English crown passes to Anne, following death of William1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire1712-1778- Philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau- pathetically and painfully maladjusted, possiblyparanoid. Despite this, possibly most profound writer of the age & most permanentlyinfluential. Gave impression that impulse is more reliable than considered judgment.Prophet of both democracy and nationalism. 1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together after his death1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powersIn France, the new king was a child, Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, and only five when his reign began in 1715. Government entrusted to regent, Duke of Orleans, with nobles now reappearing in government. The old parlements, especially Parlement of Paris, vigorously reasserted themselves. After the “bubble,” governed by statesman, Cardinal Fleury, when regent was forced to resign. In England, Parliament and aristocracy more competent than that of France. Bluntly speaking, Parliament was corrupt, slow, and expensive, but also effective. Queen Anne, last reigning Stuart, died in 1714, and succeeded by George I, Elector of Hanover, as provided for in the Act of Settlement of 1701. With no English and little popularity, he allowed Parliament to gain considerable independence & power. Robert Walpole managed to hold things together after bubble & government paid debt. Walpole been referred to as the first prime minister and architect of cabinet government.

1715- The “pretender” James III, supported by Jacobites, lands in Scotland and declares war on King George I. The revolt petered out. 1720- The “Mississippi Bubble” in France & “South Sea Bubble” in 1727- England- George II succeeds George I1733- Voltaire publishes “Philosophical Letters on the English”- popularized new scientific ideas1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest1740-1748- War of Austrian Succession in Europe *see bottom1740-1780- Queen Maria Theresa rules and expands the Austrian Empire1740-1786- Frederick II (the Great) rules and expands the Kingdom of Prussia1741- Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”- two principle ideas on governmentRussia- After Peter the Great died in 1725, rival factions put a series of a tsars, tsarinas,and short-lived governments on throne. Palace Revolution in 1741 bringsPeter’s daughter Elizabeth to power for 21 years, during which military powerwas expanded & she entered into European diplomacy. After her death, again upheaval until Empress Catherine II (the Great) in 1762.1745- The “Young Pretender,” Prince Charlie” lands in Scotland and proclaims rebellion. Crushed by Hanoverian regiments brought in from Germany; result: Scottish Highlands wiped out, clans broken up, land reorganized. 1745- Maria Theresa Habsburg gets her husband elected Holy Roman Emperor Francis I. 1751-1772- Publication of the “Encyclopedia” in Paris1753- Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes “Origin of Inequality Among Men”- argued life in a “state of nature” would be better1756-1763- The Seven Years’ War; expansion of British power in India & America *see bottom1762- Rousseau publishes “The Social Contract” & “Emile”- now held that good people could beproduced only be an improved society/ novel 1762-1796- Tsarina Catherine the Great reigns as “enlightened despot” in Russia- territorially, one of main builders of modern Russia 1764- America- “Sugar” Act passed. 1765- America- “Stamp” Act passed 1767- America- English pass Townshend duties1769- Emergence of Reform Movement in British Parliament1772- Prussia, Austria, and Russia impose the First Partition of Poland1773- Emelian Pugachev leads in a rebellion of the lower classes in Russia, resulting in enlightened Catherine abandoning any plans for reform for serfs and allowing repressionBoston Tea Party1774- America- Quebec Act & English pass “Intolerable Acts” in response to Boston Tea Party1774-1792- King Louis XVI reigns in France1776- Adam Smith publishes “The Wealth of Nations”- criticizes mercantilism, started trend towards laissez-faire economics1776-1783- Revolutionary War achieves American independence from Britain1780s- Mechanical spinning of cotton spreads across England. Leads to further developments.Industrial Revolution becomes evident in EnglandSteam engines finally advanced enough to market successfully 1780-1790- Emperor Joseph II introduces “enlightened” reforms in Austria1784- Britain creates the India Office to manage British interests in India1786- Prussia- Frederick William II succeeds Frederick the Great1787- Written Constitution establishes new government in the U.S.1789- French Revolution *see bottom 1790- Austria- Leopold succeeds in his brother Joseph II1791?-1795- First Coalition (Austrian, Prussia) wages war with France- main accomplishment was actually the partition of Poland & the dissolution of the Polish state1792- Austria, Francis II succeeds his father LeopoldMary Wollstonecraft publishes “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” 1793, 1795- 2nd & 3rd Partitions destroy the Polish state1799-1801- Second Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France1801-1825- Russia- Alexander I- grandson of Catherine the Great & educated by herto be a kind of enlightened despot on the 18th century model1802-1803- Peace Interim in Europe1802- Britain- first Factory Act pushed through Parliament. Dead letter law, but tried to regulatemill conditions for pauper children1803- Britain & France go to war again, Britain seeks allies for Third Coalition1804- Napoleonic Empire *see bottom1805-1872- Italian Joseph Mazzini, nationalist philosopher. Nationalist secret societies. “The Duties of Man” nationality & revolution were a holy cause.1805-1807- Third Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France. Battle of Trafalgarestablished supremacy of the British Navy. The Holy Roman Empire was finally, formally, and irrevocably dissolved. Napoleon makes conquest.1806-1825- Latin American countries pursue successful campaigns for national independence from Spain & Portugal1807- July- Treaty of Tilsit, The French and Russian empires become allies against Great Britain. The Continental System is agreed to. Robert Fulton uses the steam engine to propel river boats 1809- Austrian War of Liberation; Austria quickly defeated.1814- March 9- Russia, Prussia, Austria, & Great Britain sign Quadruple Alliance“White Terror” in France as counterrevolutionaries react to some rejoining Napoleon1814-1815- Congress of Vienna- The Peace of Vienna thus brought to a close the great political & military upheavals that had spread across Europe in the wake of the FrenchRevolution. 1818- Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: withdraw troop from France; international union & militarysuggested by Tsar Alexander, but rejected1819- “Peterloo Massacre” suppresses protesting English workers in Manchester [people responding to “Corn Law’, wages falling- turned to radicalism]. Parliament passes “Six Acts” (outlaw seditious literature, search/seizure, right to meet, etc.)Metternich’s “Carlsbad Decrees” suppress the German nationalist movement (Volksgeist-national spirit, cultural, then political)1820- Congress of Troppau: calls for international action against all revolutions in response to Spain & Naples collapse; Tsar Alexander joined Metternich’s view on revolution1822- Congress of Verona: authorizes French government to put down Spanish revolution1823- Monroe Doctrine opposes European intervention in Latin America, thus supporting “colonial” revolutions1825- Tsar Alexander I “the man who defeated Napoleon” dies. December Revolt of revolutionary military officers put down. Nicholas I ascends w/ repressive agenda1829- Steam locomotive is tested safely in EnglandGreece recognized as independent kingdom following Russo-Turkish War (Turkishfleet destroyed in 1827 by Anglo-French-Russian naval intervention)1830s- France- journals w/ feminist titles established; Saint-Simon & Germaine de Stael inspire.Golden Age of the West-European Bourgeoisie (in this case, employers/upper class)1830- July Revolution (3 days) in France forces abdication of Charles X; Louis-Philippe becomes king through compromise, adhering scrupulously to the constitution. Also called the July Monarchy1831- Russia suppresses national movement in Poland, which is merged into Russian empireBelgium set up as neutral state, incapable of treaties, protected by Great Powers1832- Reform Bill widens British suffrage; alters representation in Parliament; two-partysystem develops of Liberals and Conservatives1834- Britain- new Poor Law- attempted to make relief more unpleasant than any job1839- France- Louis Blanc’s “Organization of Work” promotes new socialist ideas- “social workshops”; supported by revolutionary republicans & socialists1840s- Marx, elaborating on Hegal, develops ideas: alienation of labor, freedom only possibleonce private property abolished. 1846- Repeal of Corn Laws marks ascendancy of British industrial interests1848-January- Marx and Engels publish the “Communist Manifesto”February- Revolution in Paris; proclamation of the Second French RepublicMarch- Revolutions in Vienna, Berlin, Bohemia, and Hungary; Metternich flees from Vienna to EnglandItalians rise against Austrian rule in northern ItalyMarch-April- Prussian Legislative Assembly meets in BerlinMay- All-German Frankfurt Assembly meets to draft constitution for a unified GermanyJune- Thousands die in worker-army clashes in ParishJune-December- Counterrevolutionary forces regain control of Austrian Empire: Bohemia, northern Italy, Hungary, ViennaDecember- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected president of French Republic Francis Joseph becomes emperor of Austrian empire1849-April- King Frederick William IV of Prussia rejects Frankfurt Assembly’s constitution & offer of hereditary rule in a federal German state; Assembly dissolved1850-1864- Taiping Rebellion in China is suppressed by Qing Dynasty; up to 20 million die1850-1940- About 60 million people migrate from Europe1852- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte becomes “Emperor Napoleon III” and establishes 2nd French Empire. Authoritarian government, but claimed it was in the interest of the people. 1853-1870- Baron Haussman supervises the modern rebuilding of Paris1853- American Commodore Perry arrives in Yedo (Tokyo) Bay, “opening” Japan to foreign commercial exchanges.1854-1856- France and Britain (and later Austria-Hungary) join with Turkey to defeat Russia in the Crimean War. Tsar Nicholas dies 1855; successor Alexander II sues for peace.1855- Russia Tsar Nicholas dies; successor is Alexander II. 1856- Ottoman Empire launches reforms to modernize the legal and military system1857- Gustave Flaubert publishes “Madame Bovary” (example of new realism affecting manyaspects of life)“Indian Mutiny” threatens British control of India and leads to reforms in the imperialadministration1859-1869- French company builds the Suez Canal1859- Charles Darwin publishes “Origin of Species”; evolution becomes key theme in modern intellectual life1861-1865- Civil War in the U.S.1861- Italians establish the unified Kingdom of Italy (except Venetia & Rome) following Italian War of 1859 (Venetia added in 1866; Rome in 1870) Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in Russia1862- Otto von Bismark appointed new chief minister of Prussia1864- Napoleon III of France installs Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico1867- Creation of the independent Dominion of CanadaMaximilian is overthrown; Benito Juarez returns as Mexican PresidentBismark organizes a North German Confederation. Includes Prussia & 21 other states. German states (including Austria) south of River Main remain independent. 1868- New Japanese emperor Mutsuhito begins the Meiji era; Japan enters process of rapid economic and political change1869- John Stuart Mill argues for women’s rights in “The Subjection of Women” (his wife,Harriet Taylor, English feminist, helped) Opening of Suez Canal in Egypt facilitates global trade1870s- Western Europe & U.S. adopt the “gold standard” for global currency exchanges1870- Prussia defeats France in brief war; Napoleon III abdicates and Parisians proclaim a Third French Republic1871- King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes emperor in newly established German EmpireThe revolutionary Paris Commune is violently suppressed in France1876- Abdul Hamid takes power as sultan in Ottoman Empire; repressive regime lasts 33 yrs.1877-1878- Russo-Turkish War leads to Russian gains in the Balkans1879- Germany signs military alliance with Austria-Hungary1880s-1890s- Claude Monet portrays the nuances of light & color in Impressionist paintingssuch as “Rouen Cathedral”1885-Berlin Conference sets European terms for imperial control of AfricaHindu Indian National Congress is organized to challenge British power in India1890- Kaiser William II dismisses Bismark and begins to shape policies in German Empire1894-1895- Japan goes to war with China and takes Formosa (later called Taiwan) 1894-1899- Dreyfus Affair bitterly divides republican and anti-republican factions in France1894- France & Russia create the Franco-Russian allianceCreation of Russian Marxist organization, the Social Democratic Party1897- Theodor Herzl organizes the first international Zionist congress1898- U.S. declares war on Spain & takes Cuba, Puerto Rico, & the PhilippinesFrench & English forces come to brink of imperial conflict at Fashoda in Sudan1899-1902- The Boer War enables Britain to consolidate power in S. Africa1899-Chinese revolt against European powers, the “Boxer Uprising” is suppressed by European forces1900 (c.)- European population reaches its highest percentage of world population1900- Sigmund Freud develops his theory of the unconscious mind in “The Interpr. of Dreams”1903- Social Democrats split into two factions, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks; Lenin leads Bolsheviks1904-1905- Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War & expands into Manchuria1904- France & Britain establish close relations in the entente cordiale1905- Albert Einstein introduces the theory of relativity in physicsGermany challenges French-English relations by calling for Moroccan independence from FranceJan.-Economic hardship, “Bloody Sunday,” & Russo-Japanese War spark Revolutionof 1905 in St. PetersburgOct.-Tsar’s “October Manifesto” establishes new parliamentary body, the Duma1906-1911- Stolypin’s reforms promote growth of prosperous farmers (kaluks)1906-1916- Liberal government in Britain introduces broad program of social welfare1906- All-Indian Muslim League is organized to promote Indian nationalism and Muslim rights1907- Pablo Picasso advances his new Cubist style of painting in works such as “Les Demoiselles d’Avignon”1911- Revolution in China ends Qing (Manchu) Dynasty1912-1913- Two Balkan wars contribute to Serbian and Russian hostility toward Austria1914- Opening of Panama Canal facilitates global trade in the AmericasRussia enters war with Germany and suffers crushing military defeatsJune-Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand is assassinated by Bosnian terrorist in SarajevoAug.-Germany declares war on Russia and France; England declares war on GermanySept.-Battle of Marne stops German advance in France and leads to trench warfare on the Western Front1916- Battles of Verdun and the Somme confirm military stalemate in France1917-March-Tsar Nicholas II abdicates; Russia becomes a republic under provisional government and continues war with GermanyApril-U.S. declares war on GermanyGermany provides safe passage for Bolshevik leaders to enter RussiaNov.-Britain issues “Balfour Declaration,” promising support for a Jewish homelandin PalestineThe Bolshevik Revolution: Lenin and followers overthrow the provisional government in Petrograd1918-Jan.- Bolsheviks dissolve Constituent Assembly & establish the Red ArmyMarch-Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war between Russia and GermanyNov.-Collapse of German & Austrian EmpireArmistice ends the fighting on the Western Front1918-1920- Women gain the right to vote in Britain, Germany, & the U.S. 1918-1922- Bolsheviks consolidate power and suppress all opponents in Civil War & “Red Terror”1919-1920- Creation of Third, or Communist, International (the Comintern)1919-Gandhi launches campaign in India for independence from BritainJan.-Spartacist attempt at proletarian revolution is suppressed in BerlinMarch-Western allies complete the Versailles Treaty, creasing new nations in easternEurope; Germany is charged w/ “war guilt” & reparationsJuly-Weimar Republic is established in Germany1920- Treaty of Sevres breaks up the Ottoman Empire & leads to French and British “mandates”in Middle East1921-1927- New Economic Policy allows more independent commercial activity1922- Establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)Germany & the Soviet Union agree to diplomatic relations in Treaty of RapolloBritain recognizes the Irish Free State with dominion status; first step toward full Sovereignty as Republic of IrelandOctober- Mussolini takes power in Italy after the Fascist “March on Rome”1923- French occupation of the Ruhr Valley and ruinous German inflationTurkish Republic is established under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, who launchesmodernizing reformsNazis fail to mobilize political support during an attempted ‘Putsch’ in Munich1924-First Labour government is elected in Britain under Ramsey MacDonald1925-1927- Stalin prevails over Trotsky to take control of the Bolshevik Central Comm. 1925-Treaties at Locarno recognize the postwar European national bordersReza Khan becomes shah of Iran and seeks to curb British & other foreign concessionsDeath of Sun Yat-sen is followed by conflicts between Nationalists & Communists China1928- Stalin launches the first Five-Year Plan for economic development1929- Soviet regime beings the collectivization of agriculture; resistance from kulaks & others leads to widespread repression and famineOct.-Stock market crash in New York leads to the Great Depression1931-1932- Japanese forces expand control of Manchuria1932-1939- Writers respond to social crisis with “social realism”1932- Governments respond to economic crisis with national protectionism1933-January- Hitler comes to power in Germany; Nazis soon take control of all state Institutions and suppress oppositionMarch- Franklin D. Roosevelt introduces the “New Deal” in America to mitigateeconomic effects of the Great Depression1934-1935- Chinese communists make 6,000 mile Long March1934-Right-wing and fascist groups in France challenge the Third Republic w/ riots duringThe Stavisky Affair1935-Nazis adopt Nuremburg laws against JewsMussolini launches an Italian invasion and conquest of Ethiopia1936-1937- Public “purge trials” remove Old Bolsheviks from Communist Party; many are executed or imprisoned1936-Left-wing “Popular Front” comes to power in France under Leon Blum and enacts notable social reformsMarch- German troops enter Rhineland; France and Britain do not interveneJuly-Fascist groups under General Franco in Spain rise against the Spanish Republic; Franco takes power after three-year Civil War.1938-The Nazi regime encourages violent attacks on Jews and Jewish property during ‘Kristallnacht’- the night of “broken glass” March-Hitler annexes Austria to Nazi GermanySept.-French and British leaders meet with Hitler in Munich and accept German takeover of Sudentenland in Czechoslovakia1939-Aug.-Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact includes plan for division of PolandSept.-Nazi invasion of Poland begins the Second World War1940-May-June- Nazis conquer the Netherlands, Belgium, and FranceJuly-French collaborators set up a pro-fascist regime in VichySept.-German air attacks on Britain are repelled in Battle of Britain1941-June- Germany launches massive invasion of the Soviet UnionDec.-Japanese attack on U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor brings the U.S. into war with Japan and then Germany1942-Jan.-Nazi leaders launch plans to build death camps for genocidal killing of European Jews and others1943-Feb.-Soviet forces defeat the Germans in decisive battle at Stalingrad1944-June-Allied Armies open a “western front” in France after D-Day landings at Normandy1945-The United Nations is established at a conference in San FranciscoFeb.-Churchill, Roosevelt, & Stalin agree on postwar arrangements at meeting in YaltaMay-Germany surrenders after Hitler commits suicide in BerlinSept.-Japan surrenders after the U.S. drops two atomic bombs and the Soviet Union declares war on Japan1946-U.S. grants independence to Philippines1947- Secretary of State George C. Marshall announces U.S. plan to aid the rebuilding of EuropeBritain ends imperial rule in South Asia, partitioning the region into the two new nations of India and Pakistan1948-1949- American airlift of supplies sustains West Berlin during Soviet blockade1948- Republic of Israel is established; Arab states go to war against Israel Afrikaner Nationalist Party expands rigid racial segregation in South Africa through apartheid laws1949-The Soviet Union successfully tests an atomic bombMao Zedong & the Communist party proclaim the People’s Republic of ChinaIndonesia wins independence from the Netherlands1950-1953- Korean War demonstrates new American policy to “contain” communism1953-Death of Stalin opens new era in Soviet and East European history1954-1962- Algerian nationalists wage war for independence from France1954-France withdraws from Indochina; two governments emerge in North and South Vietnam1955-Leaders of 29 “new nations” meet in Bandung, Indonesia, and affirm “nonalignment” inthe Cold War1956-Unsuccessful revolts against Soviet control in Poland and HungaryBritain, France, & Israel attack Egypt after it nationalizes Suez Canal1957-Six West-European nations establish a new Common Market for tradeMao launches “Great Leap Forward” in China; leads to deadly famineGhana is the first British colony in Africa to win independence1958-France establishes the Fifth Republic with Charles de Gaulle as president1959-1961- Fidel Castro establishes Communist government in Cuba1962-French war in Algeria ends with recognition of Algerian independence1965-General Suharto overthrows Sukarno; begins 32-year rule in Indonesia1966-1967- The “Cultural Revolution” creates disruptions throughout China1967-1970- In Nigeria Ibo secession movement in Biafra is suppressed1967-June- Six-Day War leads to Israel’s military occupation of Palestinian lands on West Bank of Jordan River and the Gaza Strip1970-1973- Leftist government in Chile; overthrown by coup and Pinochet dictatorship1971-India helps Bangladesh gain independence from Pakistan1974-India develops nuclear weapons1976-1983- Dictatorship in Argentina represses leftist opposition1979-Soviet Union invades Afghanistan and begins war with Muslim guerillas1989-Soviets withdraw from Afghanistan; radical Muslim (Taliban) government followsMilitary rulers in Burma repress dissent; nation is renamed Myanmar1994-Mexican-U.S.-Canadian Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect1996-1999- Rising power of Indian People’s Party (BJP) fosters Hindu-based nationalism1998-Pakistan detonates a nuclear bombGeneral Suharto is ousted from power in IndonesiaHugo Chavez becomes president of leftist government in Venezuela2000-Vincente Fox is elected president of Mexico; ends 71 years of rule by InstitutionalRevolutionary Party (PRI)

Holy Roman Empire after 1648- bore some of oldest traditions of Christendom, after Peace of Westphalia basically a group of individual countries w/ little to no allegiance to entity known as “Holy Roman Empire” Republic of Poland about 1650- made up of union of Poland & the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; population very heterogeneous. Polish aristocracy about 8% of population, each ruled their own lands like a little empire; weak central government made the distinction of country about worthless Ottoman Empire about 1650- Arabic (obviously). While originally fairly solidly organized, their allowance of allowing local populations to rule themselves according to their culture and tradition, combined with increasingly corrupt sultans led to weakening of Empire.

All three superseded by newer and strong powers:***Prussia- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Brandenburg/Hohenzollern. Brandenburg worked ceaselessly to united small sections they owned & capture lands separating those sections. In 1701, negotiated title of King of Prussia from Holy Roman Emperor in return for supporting him in War of Spanish Succession. Prussian Military State guaranteed their continued dominance. ***Austria- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Austria/Hapsburg. Basically consisted of three parts: Upper and Lower Austria, kingdom of Bohemia (under crown of St. Wenceslas), and kingdom of Hungary (under crown of St. Stephen). Only thing holding them together was that the Austrian Habsburg dynasty held them all. 1713 Pragmatic Sanction agreed to undivided succession; when Charles VI died in 1740 & it fell apart. ***Russia- in century after 1650, the old stardom of Muscovy turned into modern Russia. Moved out from region around Moscow, entered into closer relationship w/ Europe. Like Prussia, the state developed as a means of supporting a modern army. The government developed autocratically, in conjunction with landlord class which was impressed into state service and which in turn held peasantry in serfdom. No commercial class of import. 1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia