Category Archives: Marketing Glossary

Extended Family – A family that consists of more than just the parents and children. Included in the extended family are uncles, aunts, grandparents, nephews, cousins or even less closely associated “relations.” In western countries the extended family rarely exists. The household consists of parents, children and an aunt is too small to be called an extended family.

Group – A frequently used concept in sociology and psychology:
1. Two or more people who satisfy the following conditions: the relationships between the members are independent;the behavior of the one influences the behavior of the other; and/or, the members share an ideology.
2. A collection of individuals who possess some common characteristics and who strive for a common goal. See also: Sociology/Psychology

Group Comparison – A comparison between two groups of individuals. It normally occurs on the basis of a statistically representative value, such as an average.

Group Dynamics – 1. An area of study that concentrates upon the group. It concentrates on the basic structure of the group, the laws that determine its development and that of larger units (such as institutions).
2. The dynamic whole of (desired and undesired) interactions between the members of a discussion group. Factors can appear or be studied that would not appear in other kinds of investigation. See also; Group/Group Discussion/Interaction

Material Culture – Together with the immaterial culture that which forms the culture. It includes, for instance, chop sticks, prisons, oil tankers and garden gates. See also: Immaterial culture/Culture

Norm – A written or unwritten rule of behavior. One can distinguish universal, special and formal norms:
Universal norm: A norm that is valid for everyone in a particular region, for example, not walking naked on the street, helping people in need, not injuring others.

Formal norm: A norm that is established by means of rules, codes and laws: stopping for a red traffic light.

Special Norm: A norm that is valid for only a particular social group (soldiers, priests, pop singers: wearing a uniform, remaining celibate, owning a yacht). See also: Culture

Organization – Structure of a group of people (with various sub-groups). This structure can last a long time and possess its own ideology – a business enterprise (General Motors), a hospital (Mayo Clinic), the R.A.F. See also: Group

Participating Observer – A researcher who takes part in the group that he is studying. He thus becomes a group member, for example, a researcher “shops” with a housewife.

Position – 1. Sociology and psychology: Special relationships (centered upon a particular individual).
2. Computers: One of the 12 parts (holes) of the column of a punch card. See also: Sociology/Psychology/Punch card

Prestige – The influence that an individual exercises through status, success, know-how. Prestige can only be enjoyed when an audience values the qualities shown by the individual. See also: Status

Profession – Syn: Occupation
The daily activity that ensures an individual’s income (often refers to occupations that requires advanced training – the law, teaching etc,) An individual remains linked to his profession: an unemployed lawyer does not ceased to be a lawyer. One’s a profession makes possible the ascent of the social ladder and is closely linked to education, income and social class. See also: Social classified

Professional Stratification – Syn: Occupational Stratification
A ranking of profession/occupation from low to high. These are often experimentally determined by sampling in the population. The stratification is closely related to the education, status, prestige and incomes of the various professional groups. See also: Stratification/Occupational classification

Reference Group – A group with an individual associates or compares himself. A group that people wish to join or a group of which people enjoy being a member, e.g., an exclusive club. Not everyone associates with the group of which he forms a part: most conscripted soldiers generally wish to leave the army as soon as they can. Reference implies that the norms and values of the group are those that the individual will gladly adopt, e.g.,wearing a tie, carrying a portable radio (“ghetto blasters”).

Regional Norm – Syn: Local Norm
A norm that is valid only in a particular place or region. See also: Norm

Role – A frequently used concept in sociology and psychology: the composite of norms and expectations that one has for people in a particular situation. The same person can fulfill many roles: father, consumer, chairman of a club, salesman, manager. See also: Norm

Role Behavior – The behavior of a role player: he or she acts according to what is expected of him (unless he or she is a rebel). The role behavior of a consumer includes a search of information, reading advertisements, buying products, etc. See also: Role

Roleplay – The playing of a particular role together with other players, By the imitation of another person’s behavior (expected or stereotyped), one learns to recognize it better; one also learns how others observe and interpret one’s own behavior. Role play can be important in such situations as buyer and seller, interviewer and interviewee. In training sessions- for instance, in training interviewers- this technique is sometimes used: the interviewer learns via the technique of role play how to better interpret the behavior of an interviewee. See also: Role/Briefing

Inner-Directedness – A system of values prevalent in production-oriented societies in which members of the society are taught specific value systems dependent on self-sufficiency and inner values.

Innovation – In the marketing literature, innovation implies the introduction of a new product that is very different from the established products or at least perceived to be different by consumers in the relevant market segment. New products can be referred to as continuous innovations such as Crest spearmint toothpaste or Michelob light beer. Or they can be discontinuous innovations, a completely new product such as the electric light bulb or perhaps the computer.

Innovative Imitation – The strategy or practice whereby a firm’s new products are emulative of others already on the market but are significantly different in at least one aspect. The product differs from pure imitation, in which the new item is a “me-too” product or a total copy, and from an emulative product because the difference here is significant.

Innovativeness – 1. (product development definition) When applied to a buyer, the extent to which that person or firm is willing to accept the risks of early purchase of an innovation. 2. (consumer behavior definition) A personality trait designed to account for the degree to which a consumer accepts and purchases new products and services.

Innovators – Firms or person that are innovative. the term is often applied (1) to those who are the first to create a new type of product, or (2) to those who are the first to adopt a new product that has been introduced into the marketplace. Innovators are often thought to be opinion leaders.

Input Evaluation Measure – An objective measure of amount of efforts or resources expended by the sales force, including the number of sales calls; amount of time and time utilization; expenses; and non-selling activities such as letters written, number of phone calls made, and number of customer complaints received.

Inquiry – A customer’s request for additional information about a product or service. Comment: Inquiries are often generated through advertising in which a customer can request additional information by mailing a card or coupon.

Inquiry Test – A method of testing the effectiveness of an advertising message and/or media vehicles based on the number of customer inquiries that can be directly attributed to the message by means of coupons attached to the ads or special telephone numbers or code numbers used in ads or commercials.

Inside Salesperson – A salesperson who performs selling activities over the telephone at the employer’s location. Comment: An inside salesperson typically answers questions and takes orders; however, there is a growing trend for an inside salesperson to actively solicit orders.

Installations – These are non-portable major industrial products such as furnaces and assembly lines that are bought, installed, and used to produce other goods and services. They are often grouped with accessory equipment to comprise capital goods. They also are called heavy equipment.

Installed Base – The number of units of a durable product in use at the customers’ premises. The term is used for equipment such as computers and copiers.

Installment Account – The resulting charge account of a customer who has purchased on an installment-credit plan; i.e, pays a down payment and specified amount per month including a service charge. The customer has a use of the merchandise during the life of the installment account.

Installment Sale – A sale of real or personal property for which a series of equal payments is made over a period of weeks or months.

Installment-Credit Plan – A plan enabling customers to pay their total purchase price (less down payment) in equal installment payments over a specified time period.

Institutional Advertising – An advertising message or advertising campaign that has the primary purpose of promoting the name, image, personnel or reputation of a company, organization, or industry. When employed by a company or corporation it is sometimes called corporate advertising.

Institutional Boundary – A market area that is defined by governments (e.g., tariffs, post office districts) or by firms in order to restrict spatial competition (e.g., dealerships.)

Institutional Market – The market consisting of churches, museums, private hospitals, schools and colleges, clubs, and many other organizations that have objectives that differ basically from those of traditional business organizations.

Institutional Marketing – The marketing of goods and services to the institutional market.

Institutional Signage – That signage that describes the merchandising mission, customer service policies, and other messages on behalf of the retail institution.

Institutionalization – In social marketing, creating the conditions under which a behavior-change program is continued beyond its initial campaign. Comment: Institutionalization is of major concern to agencies funding social marketing programs in developing countries that wish to terminate program support but see the effects continue.

Instrument Variation – Any and all changes in the measuring device used in an experiment that might account for differences in two or more measurements.

Instrumental Function of Attitudes – A function of attitudes that provides the maximum benefits and the minimum costs to the individual. Instrumental attitudes are those that provide the individual with more rewards than punishments. These attitudes are usually based on attributes of the attitude object and thus the instrumental function is highly similar to Fiesbein’s learning theory of attitudes. It is also referred to as utilitarian function of attitudes or adjustive function of attitudes.

Instrumentality – A salesperson’s estimate of the likelihood that higher levels of performance will lead to his or her receiving greater rewards. In essence, it is the linkage between salesperson performance and attainment of various rewards. For example, A salesperson might estimate that there is a 25 percent probability (instrumentality) of his or her receiving a pay raise if he or she achieves quota. Instrumentalities can influence a salesperson’s level of motivation.

Integrated Development – A process of combining diverse organizational talents and functional groups to support a new product’s development. Also called cross functional integration, integrated development requires regular, high quality communication and problem-solving among the different contributors to the new product development process.

Integrated Division – Thus division contains both marketing and production functions, thereby providing the division manager coordination and control of the principal factors affecting profits.

Integrated Marketing Communications – A planning process designed to assure that all brand contracts received by a customer or prospect for a product, services, or organization are relevant to that person and consistent over time.

Integrated Service Provider – A for-hire firm that performs a range of logistics service activities such as warehousing, transportation, and other functional activities that constitute a total service package. The majority of these firms customize the service package to meet individual customer needs.

Double-barreled Question – A question on a questionnaire, in which two different things are being asked simultaneously. The respondent is unable to answer effectively. The answer is valueless as it is not clear which question is being answered. For example: Are you for or against longer summer holidays and tax cuts?” The respondent who is in favor of longer holiday’s but against tax cuts (or vice versa) is not able to answer the question.

Editing Questionnaire – The composition of a questionnaire. A number of rules are applicable that are, more or less, in accordance with those valid for a single question; furthermore, the questions in the questionnaire should be arrange in (psycho) logical sequence. The whole needs to be adequately structured. A questionnaire as rule contains several “funnel questions.” In effect, it should not be necessary for him to answer questions about the purchase of new cars as a condition of completing the remainder of the questionnaire. See also: Wording of question/Routing/Questionnaire?Filter Question/Rotation

Educated Guess – A guess as to the answer of a question based on some limited knowledge of the field involved. In a multiple choice question, an educated guess can be made by eliminating one or two of the possible answers with the help of such limited knowledge. A guess made between the remaining answers is more likely to be correct simply because of the smaller number of possible wrong answers.

Filter Method – An inquiry technique in which the party interviewed is led, by way of questions, from the general to the specific. For example, in a readership study, the reader is separated from the non-reader by means of a filter question; the question is posed whether or not publications belonging to a specific category are occasionally read and, if so, whether the most recent publication in that category has been read. In this manner, the person being interviewed is led from a broad spectrum general question to a very specific question.

Filter Question – A question in an interview (that is) intended to eliminate some of the people in a potential sample. For example, a question is asked about automobile ownership. People who do not own automobile are precluded from answering further questions about traffic, road use, etc. These people have been “filtered out” of sample. See also: Filter Method

Indirect Question – See: Direct Question

Item – A unit, (fractional) part or segment, number, point of interest, etc. A small and elementary segment of questionnaire, question or scale.

Leading Question – Syn: Suggestive Question A question in an interview that is (poorly) formulated, in that it is phrased in such a way as to provoke the response desired by the interviewer. An obvious example: Don’t you think that capital punishment in this country should be carried out by a way of the gallows rather than the electric chair?” The subject questioned is more or less “forced” to reply to this question with a “yes.” To be objective, the questions should be put as follows: “ What would your opinion concerning the reintroduction of the gallows as a means of capital punishment?” See also: Wording of Questioned

Loop – A question (or questions) in a questionnaire that, more or less, repeats a previously asked question. The objective is to determine whether or not the subject questioned is honest and/or not consistent in his replies. See also: Lie Scale’

Multiple Answers – See: Multiple-choice Question

Multiple-choice Question – A question that offers the respondent various different possibilities of reply. The subject tested must choose the correct answer from those provided. Example: “a chisel is”
a. a bird
b. a tool
c. a hole in the ice
d. a kind of food

Open-ended Question – A question that is part of an investigation or test in which the subject is left entirely free to formulate his own answer. The opposite of this a closed-ended question. (In this instance the task of the subject is reduced to marking or indicating an answer from a number of pre-set possibilities.) The open-ended question leaves the person free to reply in his own words. Everything is taken down (or recorded) in as literal a way as possible. Open-ended question are often used in pilot studies. See also: Inquiry/Pre-coding

Operationalizing/To operationalize – To place a concept in a context such that its quality can be measured, unless it is made operational: “drinking at least a quart of beer a day” (or a similar measurable description). See also: Operational definition

Pre-coding – To indicate all (or nearly all) answer possibilities to a question on a questionnaire beforehand. The advantages of this method are: speed of the interview (the subject questioned does not not have to think very long, and the interviewer requires less time to jot down the answers), less chance for error (marking the answer instead of writing it down), reporting (the answer is identical to the appearing on the questionnaire). The disadvantage of pre-coding is the loss of both spontaneity and fresh answers. Pre-coding always demands some degree of knowledge concerning the subject of the research (sometimes much knowledge is collected for this purpose in a pilot study.) See also: Open-ended question/Multiple-choice question

Price Range – A question in a price study the purpose of which is to determine an optimum price or elasticity of price for a product, brand or service. For example, the subject indicates what price he considers either high, low or just right. A variety of techniques are available to determine the price range of a given product. See also: Scale/Price elasticity

Projective Question – A kind of question that appears in questionnaires concerning attitude: it is a question that seems to concern not the respondent’s view but rather his view of other people’s opinions. Thus: “What do you think the opinion of most people in this country would be about having a woman as President?” The purpose of this sort of question is to obtain an answer that is honest and reliable: it is assumed that the subject questioned will project his ideas and opinion onto others (which, in fact, frequently occurs). See also: Attitude

Lead Time – Period that elapse between two specific moments in time. For example: the time that elapses between a prototype’s being developed and its manufacture and distribution to the retail trade.

Letter of Intent – It is usually a time-consuming operation for a marketing research agency to draw up a research proposal for a potential client. A detailed proposal often entails a lot of preparatory work and, if not accepted by the client, a charge would have to be made. This charge would, normally, be included in the costs for the whole research project. In order to avoid this problem, research proposals are sometimes reduced to a free one or two page summary giving a brief outline of the proposed research project and the costs involved. See also: Research Proposal

Principal – The party or client that instructs or gives the order to the marketing research agency to proceed with a proposal for a study and/or to have the completed proposal (amended or otherwise) carried out. Generally, the principal is the party, person or company that pays for study. Occasionally, some other party pays, in which case the principal function as intermediary. See also: Marketing Research Agency

Project – A program of activities. A marketing and opinion research project involves in all tasks, phases and activities that are specific research assignment, regardless of the magnitude or duration of the project. The construction of questionnaires, fieldwork, assimilation and reporting are all part of a project.

Project Director – Syn: Project Manager The person employed by the research agency who is responsible for, and supervises, a research project. In principle, all contacts between the principal and the research agency are conducted through project director. See also: Project

Recruitment – The search for a persons who meet the various specific selection criteria of a research project. These people are then requested to participate in a group discussion. For this they receive some slight remuneration. Only those not already registered with a research agency may quality fr recruitment. See also: Selection criteria/Group discussion

Research Proposal – A document in which a research agency explains to its principal he manner in which the problem posed may be solved by the way of research. This proposal usually consists of the following parts: introduction, problem proposition, problem analysis, research design, sampling, costs, planning, and other elements (for example,materials required). He supportive motivation for the determination of the research design must be concluded in the proposal ( in what aspects is this particular design superior to others?).In the event that the principal accepts the proposal, it will function, more or less, as a binding contract. There are no cost involved for the preparation of a proposal, unless the principal decides to have the research projects executed by a research agency other than the one that has prepared the proposal or unless the proposal involves unusually great expense (as, for example, when a preliminary study must be carried out first).

Value Added Tax – Often abbreviated V.A.T. A direct form of taxation that, at each product or service transfer phase or invoicing, is charged to the purchaser or recipient. In the EEC system a V.A.T.-registered company can also receive V.A.T rebates. The final buyer or consumer is not so fortunate; for them it is simply a sales tax. Market research organizations in Europe apply their local rate (mostly around 19%) of V.A.T. International research work is free of Value Added Tax.

Aided Awareness – The familiarity with a product or (usually) brand in a sample population. The subject questioned is presented with a list of a number of products or brand names. (This is the aide-factor.) He answers a (standard) question: what products (or brands) on this list do you recall having seen, heard of or heard about on a previous occasion? (or, perhaps, purchased, tried, eaten on a previous occasion). The measurement of aided awareness is meaningful only insofar as a degree of familiarity that is found can be compared to that for competitive products/brands and/or earlier and/or future measurements (has the brand become better known?) Aided awareness is sometimes used as an indicator in (long term) advertising campaigns. It is difficult, however, to distinguish the effects of a campaign from other effects. In addition to the phenomenon of aided awareness there is also that of spontaneous awareness. It is much less common, however, and does not usually affect research result significantly. See also: Spontaneous Awareness/Brand Awareness

Ambiguous – In marketing research, a term (and concept) used in conjunction with “material,” “questions,” “design,” “stimuli,” “interpretations,” “answers.” For example, a question may be considered ambiguous when it can be understood or interpreted in several ways as a result of its vagueness or indefinite quality. As a rule, to be ambiguous is not the intention of the interviewer. See also: Thematic apperception test

Ambiguous Question – Question in an interview or inquiry that may be interpreted in more than one way. The meaning or significance of the answer is likewise unclear. Ambiguous questions are, therefore, not of any practical use.

Buying Intentions – The seriousness with which a subject considers the possibility of making a purchase. Such intentions are usually measured on a five-point scale on which the subject questioned indicates the degree of probability of making a purchase within a specified period of time. See also: Five-point scale

Consistency – Coherence or agreement, to be noted in interpreting answers on a questionnaire. Consistent answers are those that all point in the same direction. The answers are given in a consequent manner.

Direct Question – A question from a questionnaire or interview in which it may be assumed that the subject questioned is familiar with the objective or purpose of the question. The question has no hidden meanings and is, therefore, not ambiguous. The opposite holds true for the indirect question. An example of the direct question. An example of direct question: how many radios do you own? An indirect question: what, according to you, do most people in this country think about advantages of nuclear energy? When such a question is asked in a direct manner (for example, what is your opinion concerning….?), less straightforward answers are often obtained. See also: Projective Technique/Ambiguous question

Multi-Client Research – Syn: Syndicated Service A form of marketing research in which a number of interested parties jointly participate in a research project. Such research is usually carried out through the facilities of a research agency. Multi-client research is always directed at a single subject (for example: cigar smokers, grocers, TV commercials), in contrast to omnibus research, which also involves a number of interested parties who jointly participate. See also: Omnibus Researcher

Phase – A stage. Part of (for example) a research project or the development of a new product. See also: Phased research

Pledge to Secrecy – A written or verbal rule or agreement binding on the scientist as well as on other professional people. It is understood that no material will be published or otherwise made known without express permission of the client (and sometimes of the research project). The interest of these parties is not to be detrimentally affected in any way.

Research – A frequently used term for marketing and opinion research. It is, in fact, an abbreviated term for marketing research. See: Marketing Research

Research Department – A department within a company that specializes in marketing research. Such a department is usually closely connected with the marketing and sales departments.

Research Target Group – See: Target Group

Researcher – Syn: Market researcher/Marketing Researcher A loose term who is involved in marketing, opinion, and/or communications research. An “official” definition is: “Any individual, company, group, public or private institution, department, division, etc. which directly or indirectly conducts, or acts as consultant in respect of, a marketing research project, survey, etc., or offers its services to do so. The term researcher also includes any department or division which may belong to or form part of the same organization as that of the client. The term “researcher” is further extended to cover responsibility for the procedures followed by any sub-contractor from whom the researcher commissions any work (dtat collection or analysis, printing, professional consultancy) forming only part of the research project.” (E.S.O.M.A.R)

Scenario – Description of one or a series of future events or developments in a sector, market or program. For example, description of the future of meat consumption in the U.S.A or the oil market to the year 2010

Screening – Frequently used concept of various meanings, such as selection, inspection, sifting, polling, research. For this reason it may be considered as a rather indefinite term.

Specialization – 1. Activity in which a research bureau lays particular emphasis or claims particular expertise. For example: industrial marketing research or pharmaceutical research.
2. Situation in the retail trade in which an outlet sells one particular product group (expensive gloves, travel or marketing books or a specific brand of a product.

Syndicated Research – Syn: Multi-client Research See: Multi-client Research

Syndicated Service – Syn: Multi-client Research See: Multi-client Research

Under Own Management – A study that is (nearly) entirely carried out by the principal, even though it may involve some services from external marketing research agencies. At times only the fieldwork is purchased from a research agency. The object is to save costs (and time), create a better chance of keeping the research project (or the results) confidential or provide work for members of staff with closely related interests. See also: Fieldwork

Briefing – The instruction received by the marketing researcher from his client. A good briefing is always extensive; the better the briefing, the better the results of the research project. It provides insight into the problem. He researcher can get started and prepare his proposals only after the briefing has been completed. The data that are essential for the briefing are product or service, problem, target group, aim but also the period of time required for the project and an indication of the extent of the budget.

Conditions of Sale – The total conditions according to which a marketing research agency executes an assignment on behalf of the client. The contract or agreement includes terms concerning the manner of payment (in installments), copyrights, form (and quantity) of final report, etc. Sometimes conditions may be set by a national professional organization.

Copyright of Marketing Research Studies – The exclusive legal right granted by national and international agreement to an author to reproduce, publish and sell his work. In the case of marketing research, the copyright usually belongs to the agency and not to the client who has commissions\ed and paid for the research. However, the client retains the exclusive right to make use of the information and to reproduce it for circulation within his own organization.

Cost of Research – The expense involve in the execution of a marketing or opinion research project. As a rule, the costs of research involves only such costs as are paid to the research agency. There may be a variety of additional fees for intermediaries (consultants). Often, research agencies calculate costs in totals, rather than dividing them into partial costs.

Deadline – Syn: Due Date/Target Date The date by which a particular phase of an assignment must be completed or delivered. For example, the questionnaire must be completed or delivered by Jan 3rd

Delivery Time/Time of Delivery – The time delay between a research project’s being commissioned and the final report’s being handed over. It can be just a few days for a telephone survey or several months for a large-scale quantitative research project. See also: Lead Time

Dummy Tabs – Syn: Dummy tables/Dummy tabulations Tables that are formulated or arranged prior to the execution of the fieldwork of a research project. Sometimes these tables are constructed prior to the formulation of the questionnaires. See also: Table

Client – Syn: Principal The person who directs a market research agency to put forward a research proposal and who instructs the agency to put forward a research proposal and who instructs the agency to carry out the survey in its original or in an amended form. The client usually pays for the research. (Sometimes a third party pays, in which case the client is the middleman or intermediary.) An official definition is: “any individual, company, group, public or private institution, department, division, etc. (including any such department or division, etc. (including any such department or division which may belong to, or form part of, the same organization as the researcher) which wholly or partly commissions, requests, authorizes, or agrees to subscribe to a marketing research project or proposes to do so.” (E.S.O.M.A.R.) See also: Marketing research agency

Consultancy – The (advisory) activities carried out by a consultant. They concern, in general, all aspects of marketing research, with the exemption of fieldwork. The activities of consultancy do, however, involve he preparatory phase in particular (problem analysis: should a study be carried out?) and the concluding phase (analysis of the research results and recommendations).

Consultant – A professional person who is paid by his client to act in advisory capacity on his behalf. Not generally employed on a full basis by the client. (Some organizations have their own internal consultants.) the consultant is usually bound to observe the code of conduct drawn up by his professional body.

Diagnostic Research – Research carried out in order to diagnose a problem. The concrete symptoms and underlying “disease” of a brand, product, company should be determined and the factors responsible for the “malaise” pinpointed.

E.S.O.M.A.R. – Frequently used abbreviation for : European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research. See also: European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research

E.S.O.M.A.R Congress – A congress organized by the E.S.O.M.A.R. The society organizes an annual international general congress, coupled with a general conference for their members. In addition, they organize congresses (and seminars) of a more specialized nature. The object of these activities is transmission of knowledge, exchange of information and the establishment of international contacts (for their members) See also: European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research

European Research – Quarterly professional marketing research magazine covering all facets of marketing, opinion and advertising. Theoretical in approach, it uses case studies extensively. It is produced in English with French and German summaries. Published by Elsevier Science publishers in the Netherlands (P.O. Box 1991, 1000 BZ Amsterdam). E.S.O.M.A.R. Members receive it free of charge. See also: European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research

European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research – Usually abbreviated E.S.O.M.A.R. The European coordinating organization for marketing and opinion researchers. Organizes congresses and seminars, publishes a trade journal (European Research) and has established a professional code of conduct that is binding on its members. Membership is open to persons belonging to the national organizations for marketing and opinion research. Its headquarters is located in Amsterdam.

Fee – Remuneration received by the research agency or the consultant for the assignment that has been, or will be, carried out in connection with a marketing or opinion research project. See also: Consultant

Follow-up – Information obtained from a person in a study, interview or experiment for the reason that a previous attempt has failed or because additional information is required (or can be acquired).

Full Service Agency – A marketing research agency capable of conducting all forms of marketing research on behalf of its clients. Such an agency may specialize in one or more areas; however, other kind of research are within their range of capabilities. The package of services that they have available is, therefore, of greater diversity than that of the specialized agencies. Full service agencies maintain their own fieldwork facilities. See also: Marketing

Individual Investigation – An investigation that is exclusively arranged and designed for one single client, incontrast to multi-client or omnibus research.

Inquiry – Non-descriptive word for any kind of research. See: Marketing Research

Marketing Research Agency – Syn: Marketing Research Company/Marketing Research House An enterprise that specializes in the conducting of marketing research and (usually) opinion research on behalf of the clients. There are two distinct types: specialized agencies (for example in quantitative research, industrial research, etc.) and full-service agencies. The larger research agencies maintain their own fieldwork facilities. See also: Marketing research/Fieldwork department/Full service agency/Industrial Marketing research

Mass Research – Research undertaken with the mass of the public as target, in contrast to research undertaken with special groups of the population as primary target such as mayors, butchers or small businesses.

Meta Research – A research project that includes a large number of different surveys. Meta research can be, for example, an export study of Japanese cars in which, apart from surveys in Japan itself (production, exports figures), data is gathered in many countries as to turnover, consumer attitudes, advertising research, dealer attitudes, etc.

Monitoring – The act of watching, observing or checking certain events. In this manner it is possible to gauge alterations in social norms and values, attitudes towards advertising in general, the public image of the company, etc.

Error of Measurement – Error(s) made in a study because the measuring instrument is no entirely accurate. See also: Measuring Instrument/Standard error of measurements

Experimental Error – The variation that is probable and that may be anticipated in every instance in which an experiment is duplicated. An adequate experimental design must include adequate safeguards against experimental errors.

Fatigue Effect – If, according to the respondent, a study takes too long, his interest and motivation are lost. He respondent becomes fatigued, and his answers and reactions will be unreliable. Alternately, in order to beat time, the task is rushed. The precise moment at which the effect appears varies from one person to another, from one study to another, from one location to another, It is to be recommended that an interview not be overlong. (As a rule, 45 to 60 minutes should be a limit.)

Fear of Censure – The fear a respondent has of being thought stupid, inexperienced, poor, “different,” etc. by the interviewer. See also: Response tendency

Interviewer Bias – A distortion in the response or registered information caused by the behavior of the interviewer. The causes may be, among others, interviewing the wrong person, poor contact with the person interviewed resulting in the acquisition of incorrect information, or systematic errors due to inadequate presentation of questions or registration of answers. See also: Bias/Interviewer

Memory Error – Every error made in a research project owing to a failure of the memory. For example, mistaking one number for another.

Random Variance – Collective term for all kinds of interfering factors that, frequently imperceptibly, enter into a research project. These interfering factors may occur in the case of persons (headache, lack of interest in the study) as well as in the case of the material (illegible due to stains) and also from the research situation (power failure). See also: Source of error

Research Manager Expectation Effect – The results of a research assignment may be affected because the research manager or researcher lets his expectations (unconsciously) be known to his sample. This effect can be easily marked in small-scale studies, giving an important color or slant to the results.

Response Error – The variability in the reactions of a respondent – variability in the perception of reality by the respondent or variation in response time.

Response Tendency – Syn: Response set/ Response style The tendency of persons to give answers that have been influenced by the manner in which the questions have been put or the sequence of the questions in a questionnaire. See also: Sequential Effect

Sequential Effect – An effect that appears in questionnaires test, evaluations. The sequence of a specific number of stimuli (for example,questions) “compels” a person to judge something or someone differently from what would be the case with some other sequence. For example, a subject questioned with “no.” The subject questioned does not expect to have answer with “yes” so many times in sequence. The effect is subjective (person-related). See also: Rotation

Side Effect – Effects that are, generally, undesirable and not anticipated. For example, irritation and/or dishonest response to interview goes on for a long time.

Socially Desirable Answer – An important effect in tests and attitude-scales. Frequently, respondents give answers that are socially desirable, instead of honest, sincere answers. For example, generally, people do not like to admit favoring the reintroduction of the death penalty. This sort of effect needs to be taken into consideration in a study. See also: Editing questionnaire

Source of Error – The cause of errors in a study that may be demonstrated. A number of errors (sources) may be avoided nearly entirely, while for other errors no more can be done than recognizing them. In the latter instance, their presence may be taken into consideration. The sources of error may be schematically expressed. Examples:
1. Poor hearing; poor eye-sight; illiteracy; low level of development.
2. The interviewer influences the respondent (doesn’t get along with people of different race’ color’ social class; too enthusiastic in eliciting an answer).
3. Respondents who always give answers that are socially acceptable: “good manners freaks;” people who strive for harmonious patterns in their answers.
4. The interpreter of the research results is entirely objective.
5. Health condition of respondents (headache, etc.); familiarity with the research project (learning-effects).
6. Power failure; poor ventilation in research area, etc.
7. Respondent suddenly become ill-upset stomach, headache.
8. Questions that are not legible (due to stains); interviewer doesn’t understand answers; interviewer interprets answers subjectively. See also: Random Variance

Sympathy Effect – A response to a question that is intended to please the interviewer but is entirely honest and reliable. Usually, the respondent is not aware of this affect, and lying does not occur intentionally; neither is the interviewer aware of this effect in every instance. The effect leads to distortion in a study. It is often difficult to determine the magnitude of such an effect or to counter it. See also: Bias

Vanity Effect – A disturbed reaction from an informant: the person interviewed does not give reliable, honest answers, but, rather, answers in ways that enhance his vanity. For example: pertaining to his income, education, possessions, etc.

MethodofItemAnalysis – A method of measuring the reliability of a test. Its basis is that all test questions are considered to be separate tests; thus, a test consisting of 45 questions is viewed, theoretically, as 45 separate tests. The mutual relation between the 45 questions is investigated, which permits a calculation as to the coherence between these questions. It is expressed in terms of a number known as the homogeneity index. See also: Coefficient of item-consistency

ParallelformMethod – A method of determining the reliability of a test or questionnaire. A procedure in which the same persons are studied twice using material considered to be equivalent Maximum similarity is sought for. The correlation-coefficient obtained in this manner is called the coefficient of equivalence. See also: Correlation-coefficient/Learning effectiveness

PredictiveValidity – The adequacy of a test or questionnaire in indicating accurately the future behavior of the person tested. For example, purchasing behavior

Reliability– The degree to which measurements can be repeated. A reliable questionnaire is one in which the results remain stable. In general, this reliability increases with an increase in the number of questions.

ReliabilityCoefficient – A reliability coefficient is a correlation-coefficient. It involves the correlation between, for example, two segments of a test or questionnaire. See also: Correlation-coefficient

Split-halfMethod – A method of determining the reliability of a measuring instrument. The measuring instrument is split into two parts, for example, the first half and the second half. A theoretical problem that arises in this connection is that, in fact, only the internal coherence between parts is being measured and, quite naturally, such coherence does not necessarily directly indicate reliability in every instance. The correlation-coefficient obtained in this manner is termed the split-half reliability coefficient. See also: Correlation-coefficient

Split–halfReliabilityCoefficient – The correlation-coefficient between two segments of a test. It is measure of coherence between these two halves, expressed as a number. See also: Split-half Method/Correlation-coefficient.

TestStability – The extent to which a test (value) or questionnaire remains stable, unaltered and is, therefore, not based on coincidence (except for slight fluctuations).

Test–retestMethod – A method of determining the reliability of a test or questionnaire. The same group of persons is, after a specific period of time, confronted with the same material. To what extend do the results between both measurements correspond? The reliability of the research project will be greater to the degree that the similarity between both measurement is greater. This method is simple; however, there is a disadvantage. People become familiar with research with research material over time. This may be anticipated to some degree by the extension of the time lapse between the measurements; however, that the method may in turn cause time problems. The correlation measure that is calculated by means of this method is termed the coefficient of stability. See also: Correlation-coefficient/Learning effect

Validity – The extent to which a test or questionnaire meets its intended purpose. For example, a question is connection with buying intentions should measure just buying intentions (and not some other factor) See also: Psychometric/Face validity

Validity Coefficient – Validity expressed in terms of a number. It is the correlation-coefficient of the predictor (for example, a test) and the criterion (examination grade obtained). The correlation-coefficient indicates the magnitude of this relation by means of a number that falls between -1 and + 1. See also: Correlation-coefficient/Validity

Artifacts – The result of a study that is not the effect of what is being measured but that emanates from another source. This source may be situated outside the study or it may be an unknown source from within the research situation itself.

Bias – The distortion of the results of a research project as a result of either systematic or random (coincidental) errors in the design of the sample, the questionnaire, the processing, the analysis, etc. The term bias is also meant to signify the distortion that may occur in the answers of the subjects interviewed as a result of the influence of the interviewer or similar factors.

Contamination – In some cases the researcher is influenced by the experimental research to such a degree that subjectivity influences his or her judgment. For example: sympathy for specific respondents “contaminates” the research results. See also: Subjectivity

DemandCharacteristics – Any suggestion in a research survey that may give the respondent an idea of the intention behind the survey. He therefore forms a picture of what is required of him and will give biased answers, i.e., socially desirable answers. See also: Socially desirable answer

Distortion – Systematic interference in a (n) (experimental) research project.

EnvironmentalFactors – Factors that influence research results in some subtle way, but of which (usually) no account has been taken. They are often difficult to quantify. For example, the brand awareness of certain product is measured periodically. Suddenly it is in the news a lot because, for example, it is suspected of containing something that is likely to cause cancer.

Error – Research errors of any kind resulting from any cause.

Error inNotation – One of the many errors that can be made during a study or experiment. For example: the interviewer accidentally marks down the answer as “yes” when it was in fact “no”.

Environmental Variable – A variable that (may) exert influence on the behavior of a person in a specific situation. Environmental variables are not studied, unless the study specifically concerns just these variables.

Exogenous Variable – Exo (Greek) = outside. A variable that exerts influence on the results of a study. This variable falls outside the actual research situation and usually involves influences that are undesirable or disturbing –for example, a question is poorly comprehended because people are talking loudly nearby. See also: Endogenous Variable/ Source of Error

Independent Variable – Syn: Stimulus Variable A variable that is being manipulated by the experimentor. (The dependent variable is not manipulated.) One determines what influence is exerted on the dependent variable by intervening in the independent variable. For example: what is the influence of a specific light strength on the reading of a billboard text? What is this influence when the source of light is twice as strong? See also: Dependent variable

Intervening Variable – A hypothetical assumption: everything that occurs between the stimulus and the response. (An attitude is frequently an intervening variable.) It has no independent existence but can observed during experiments. What, in fact, is implied is that the investigator does not know what is happening; he postulates that a process is taking place. See also: Stimulus/Response/Hypothetical construct/Attitude

IrrelevantVariable – All variable in a study that are demonstrated to have no influence (on the dependent variable). See also: Relevant variable/Dependent variable

LatentVariable – Latens (Latin) = hidden, invisible. A non-perceptible variable that, nevertheless, is considered to be present in a structure or system under study. For example, “demand” in the economy. Nonperceptible quantities, such as errors, as a rule are not considered latent. See also: Demand

Moderator Variable – Moderator (Latin) = leader, administrator. A variable that exerts influence on the correlation (coherence) of the two other variables. A moderator variable may be age, specific personality traits, education, sex, etc. See also: Correlation

PotentialVariable – All variable in a study or experiment of which it is not as yet established what, if any, influence they exert on the dependent variable. See also: Dependent Variable

RelevantVariable – All variables in a study or experiment which are known, along with independent variables, to exert influence on the dependent variable. See also: Irrelevant Variable/Independent Variable/Dependent Variable

Variable – Syn: Variate – A quantity capable of assuming each and every value within a set. All that is capable of varying in a research measurement. Variables may be: age, income, duration of illness, ownership of a vehicle. A variable always requires expression in quantitative terms. See also: Attribute/Dependent Variable/Independent Variable

Variate – Syn: Variable This term is used practically every instance as a synonym for variable; however, from the mathematical viewpoint, such usage is not entirely correct. See also: Variable

AdHocHypotheses – Ad hoc (Latin) = to this, to this matter, to research project or during the interpretation of results of such a project. It is not a hypothesis that was started prior to the start of the research project, for purposes of testing.

Ad Hoc Theory – Syn: Ad hoc hypothesis See: Ad hoc hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis – Each and every hypothesis that might possibly serve as a suitable alternative to a proposed and/or already tested hypothesis.

Confirmation of a Theory – Syn: Confirmation of a hypothesis – To lend support or proof to a theory by means of research. The original theory is not being refuted; it remains in existence.

Deterministic Existence Hypothesis – The kind of hypothesis that has its fundamental form that there is at least one A that equals B. For example, here is at least one American who watches television at least 10 hours per day. This kind of hypothesis is not difficult to confirm: it requires the evidence of only one person in a sample.

Empirical Reference – The framework to which a theory relates must be described and already defined by the proponent of that theory, so that the proponent of the theory cannot claim afterwards, “this is not what I had in mind”.

Error of this Kind – The refutation of a hypothesis that is in fact correct.

Error of the Second Kind – Failure to reject a false hypothesis.

Falsification of a Hypothesis – To prove that a theory or hypothesis is wrong.

Frame of Reference – Every study or theory has a context in which it occurs. A frame of reference for a research project may be: an election, purchase of new automobile, etc.

Hypothesis – 1. A clear and concise assumption, formulated in a manner that can be tested. It is, as rule, part of a theory of greater magnitude.
2. A statement concerning the relation between two or more phenomena.

Control Condition(s) -The total of all variables in an experiment that may be controlled, that is to say, kept constant, in order to permit study of other variables. See also: Experiment

Control Group – A group of subjects in an experimental research project, serving as a control for the experimental research project, serving as a control for the experimental group. The only difference between the groups is one single peculiarity (variable). For example: the experimental group reads a number of articles about a citizen’s responsibility to vote, while the control groups does not. After (for example) one hour, the research results could be attributed to the articles that have been read. See also: Experimental group/Matching

Deduction – The third phase in empirical, scientific research. Deduction means: to proceed from the general to the particular. The most far reaching particularization is the so-called “operational definition.” Example of an operational definition: “ a bear drinker is someone who drinks an average of at least three glasses of bear each day.” By formulating this factor in terms of an operational definition, the phenomenon may be controlled and it becomes possible to measure “beer drinking” objectively. See also: Empirical research/Operational definition

Empirical Model – Summarizing term for the five phases of empirical research. These phrases are, consecutively: observation, induction, deduction, testing, and evaluation. It involves an ideal model and a guide line for research that is qualitatively sufficient and reliable. See also: Testing/Empirical Science

Empirical Research – Research with the object of testing theories and hypotheses against reality. In this connection, reality is presented by experimental objects in a laboratory experiment or sampling of the population studied (or, although not usually, the population itself). In a broader sense, empirical research may also viewed as research with the objective of formulating and testing (second phase) hypotheses or theories. See also: Testing/ Empirical Science

Evaluation – 1. Determination of the value of a research project or a test results.
2. The last phase of an experimental research project. The investigator attempts to place the established experimental results in a larger framework and determine what significance should be attached to them. Frequently, the evaluation phase also involves interpretation and theorizing, as it often appears that the established results may have come into being as a result of influences from various factors. It may sometimes prove very difficult to distinguish between cause and effect. In such instances the investigator expresses opinions concerning the possible coherence of this factors. These opinions are based on assumptions rather than on facts. See also: Empirical Model

Experimental Group – A group of subjects in an experimental research project. This group, as distinct from the control group, possesses one single peculiarity which is the very point of interest. For example: the experimental group is exposed top an exercise, a text, a medicine, a diet etc., to which the control group is not exposed After the study has been completed the differences between the groups are measured. See also: Matching/Control group/Experiment

Operational Definition – A definition often encountered in the social sciences and in marketing research having to do with the operations to be carried out (operations of measurement). The definition involves a concept capable of being measured and, in this manner, made accessible. For example: creativity is what is measured by a creativity test. See also: Deduction/Operationalizing

Postdiction – A “prediction” about the past. Such a prediction may be tested immediately, since the statistical material to be used has already been collected. For example: to develop a formula to determine the annual increase in automobile ownership and, thereafter, test this formula against random years from the past. If the postdiction proves to be true, it confirms the developed formula. See also: Prediction

Prediction – The determine of the size of (statistical) variables at the point in the future. Without the aid of statistics such predictions cannot be tested. Statistics supply the “proof,” “legitimize knowledge.” For this reason, predictions require clear and concise formulation. See also: Postdiction

Testing – 1. To determine if the hypotheses correspond to reality by a way of a (experimental) research project; that is, to determine if the hypotheses as stated is indeed true.
2. In a narrow sense: the statistical testing of research findings. ( Are the established differences between, for example, two measurements, based on true, factual differences or based on coincidence?) See also: Statistical significance/ Experiment/Testing/Error of the second kind

Verification – A prediction preceding a research project must be proven to be either true or not true. The prediction must be realizable; no middle course is possible. For this reason, a prediction must be formulated in as clear and precise manner as is feasible. For example: in the very near future, many people will move. When is the very near future? How much is many? What is meant by moving? (going where?) everything must be clearly defined. See also: Falsification of a hypothesis

Dependent Variable – Syn: Response Variable The variable in a study of which the values are subject to change as a result of alteration of the independent variable. The dependent variable is not being manipulated by the experimentor, whereas the in variable is. The dependent variable is measured. For example, how does one react to questions (dependent variable) when hungry, distracted by music, with aircraft passing over, etc. See also: Independent Variable

DummyVariable – Variable expressed on a nominal scale. The values are purely arbitrary. For example: for the sex variable, men may be given the value I and women value II (or vice versa, or any other figure). For the religion variable, Jewish may be given I, Hindu II and Christian III. See also: Nominal Scale/Variable

Endogenous Variable – Endon (Greek) = inside. A variable that exerts influence on the results of a study. This kind of variable occurs within the research situation and, as a rule, involves an undesirable, disturbing influence — for example, poorly formulated questions, an illegible scale. See also: exogenous Variable/Source of Error/Scale