Pineapple is the second harvest of importance after bananas, contributing
to over 20 % of the world production of tropical fruits (Coveca, 2002).
Nearly 70% of the pineapple is consumed as fresh fruit in producing
countries. Its origin has been traced to Brazil and Paraguay in the
Amazonic basin where the fruit was domesticated. It has been defined as
the most probable area of origin the zone comprised from upper Panama and
Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, including the northern Amazonian forest
and the semi-arid regions of Brazil, Venezuela and Guyanas (Collins,1949).

Worldwide production
started by 1500 when pineapple was propagated in Europe and the tropical
regions of the world. The most spread variety is Cayena lisa
(Smooth Cayenne) which was first introduced in Europe
from French Guyana. It was until late XIX century when canned pineapple
was produced commercially in Hawaii.

Pineapples are not
found in true wild state. It does not appear to have been derived from
other edible fruit species of the Ananas genera and the Bromelieaceae
family, such as A. bracteatus, A. fritzmuelleri, A. erectifolia and
A. ananasioides, which produce very small and almost seedless fruit
(Collins, 1949, 1960).

Pineapple
production regions are usually confined to altitudes below 800 m above sea
level, although Kenya
reports production fields located between 1400 and 1800 m, and Malaysia
orchards as high as 2400 m (Purseglove, 1968). When pineapple is grown at
altitudes greater than 1000 m smaller fruit are produced; the pulp has
less attractive color and flavor and elevated tartness (Purseglove, 1968).

It has been
suggested (Neild and Boshell, 1976; Py et al., 1987) that optimal
growth temperature lies between 20 to 30°C, and more specifically at 23 -
24°C. When ambient temperature drops to 10-16 C, fruit growth is
constrained. Plants may stand sub-freezing temperatures for very short
periods. Conversely, exposure to temperatures well over 30 °C heat damage
may occur due to increased respiration rate and metabolism and impaired
nutrient absorption (Bartholomew and Kadziman, 1977).

Botanical
description

Pineapple is a
member of the Bromiliaceae family, Anana genus and sativa
species (Py, 1969). The stem is a stick with a wider upper section and
narrower and usually curved lower section. The top of the fruit is covered
with phylotaxia leaves; below this level there is a zone of dry leaves and
a curved section underground from which many roots protrude. The main stem
extends to the flower butt then in the central axis of the flower buds
forming a single mass that ends at the apex of a crown of leaves (Fig.
4). In some pineapple varieties and other wild Ananas the
flower butt is well developed. In contrast the butt of commercial clones
is short and covered by leaves. The main stem produces side sprouts that
receive different names. The sprouts emerge first at the base of the stem,
their leaves are long and narrow, but shorter near the bottom, and are
considered as the best material for propagation. A second type of shorter
sprouts is formed from stem spuds and is also used for vegetative
reproduction. A third type emerges from the butt underneath the fruit;
this type has shorter and compact leaves resembling a small pineapple
fruit. All of these sprouts have a curved base since they emerge from
horizontal spuds and then grow vertically. The basal side sprouts function
in wild species and in plants derived from vegetative propagation, since
once the flowers and end fruit have dried out and disappeared, side stems
develop, fruit are formed and new side stems are generated; thus,
pineapple may be considered as a perennial plant (Collins, 1949 ).

Reproduction

Reproduction of
pineapple is made in vegetative form using the crown or the suckers or
Stem shoots of healthy and productive plant. These materials must be
properly selected by size to assure crop uniformity (Py, 1969).

Pineapple plant (SARH,
1994)

The major
characteristics of the producing plant are:

Average height and
width of 1 to 2 m in the adult plant. The leaves (Fig.
5) have a concave form which allows the plant to collect water. Color
of the leaves varies depending on the cultivar, but usually green, red and
purple are predominant.

The pineapple fruit
is the result of the flowering. Prior to the maturation of the first fruit
the plant already developed new propagation material (Stem shoots,
suckers, slips). The flowering process involves the sprouting of nearly 50
to more than 200 individual flowers, depending on the cultivar. The fruit
may have no crown or develope multiple crowns. The flowers are
hermaphrodites and at the end of the flowers a crown containing ca. 150
leaves is found. It is possible to induce flowering by external means. The
time from culturing to harvest depends on the cultivar and the climate of
the growing region. Production sites near the Equator may require 12
months, whereas in sub-tropical areas, this period may extend for up to 36
months (SARH, 1994).

Flowering

Pineapple flowers
fuse together and with the central stem. This happens in such a way that
it becomes almost impossible to distinguish where one flower from the
next. A common flowering may contain 100 to 200 flowers, arranged in a
spiral fashion. Since only very few flowers open every day, the flowering
period may extend for one month or longer (Collins, 1949).

Reproduction of
pineapple plant is mostly asexual. However, sexual reproduction is carried
out under control cultivation. The plant produces stem shoots, suckers or
slips from axial sprouts; these are capable of generating new growth axels
and hence, new fruits. Therefore, the plant has the potential to generate
a sequence of several production cycles (Coveca, 2002).

Vegetative
propagation is classified according to the position at which the culturing
material is reproduced with respect to the plant. This way the following
parts can be defined:

Suckers: they grow
in the underground part of the plant

Stem shoots: they
appear at the butt usually grouped near the base of the fruit.

Slips: they appear
at the butt and grouped near the base of the fruit.

.Additionally, the
crown is used as culturing material. On the other hand, a periodical
renewal of cultures is required in order to keep fruit quality in
commercial plantations. Most of large production fields allow plants to
produce only two or three harvests. Lack of renovation produces decreased
fruit size and lack of uniformity. Renewal of culturing material is made
by different means: stem shoots from the previous harvest, planting of the
fruit crown, and suckers produced along the peduncle (Coveca, 2002).

The fruit of
pineapple consists of the fusion of tissues from individual fruits and the
axis of the flowering. From each flower a single fruit is developed with
the external appearance of a hard and prominent polygonal shield. The
lower half of the shield is covered by the bracteal apex, which is bent
upwards; the upper half is covered by the three sepals. External color and
texture of bracts and sepals is quite similar. The middle portion of each
fruit protrudes and the external cavity of the flower is found right
underneath, which is represented by a chamber with hard walls, from which
base the remaining of stamen and pistil are observed as dark and tough
threads. Ovary cells are left inside. In their upper part the seeds are
located, while the lower part is occupied by large cavities with shiny
walls which were part of the nectaries. In some cultivars these cavities
are smaller and appear only as three slots that irradiate from a central
point; in other varieties the cavities appear as large empty chambers. In
some cultivars these cavities are markedly reduced and are seen as three
slots that emerge symmetrically from the center; in other cultivars they
may appear as large hollow chambers. Sugar rich internal tissues
correspond to part of the ovary walls, particularly to the bracts and
sepals. These cavities are joined directly to the fruit axis, from which
six groups of vascular bundles emerge; these bundles connect to parts of
the flower, while an independent group supplies the bracts. The central
axis increases its size and contains sugars, but it is tougher and more
fibrous than individual fruits (Collins, 1960).

The fruit has a
cylindrical shape with flat berries of 2.5 cm of diameter, pulp from pale
to gold yellow, a soluble solids content near 13 % and 0.6 % of citric
acid, which confers the fruit with a particular flavor that is widely
appreciated for consumption either fresh or canned. The average weight of
the fruit is ca. 2.5 kg, although there are important variations caused by
the plantation density and handling. (Fig.
7)

The following are
the main components of the pineapple plant: Shoot apex: It is located on
top of the fruit and it is actually the apical meristem of the plant.
Since the fruit is harvested and handled with the crown, this material is
only available during the harvest season at the processing plants. Small
crowns are discarded during selection. Slips : These develop from an axial
bud from the fruit peduncle. Normally, two suckers are produced by plant,
although in fruits harvested from May to June may increase to five, due to
floral differenciation by the parent plant that may occur naturally or
induced during November to January. Suckers:These are the offsprings that
originate from the axial buds of the stems; it is the most abundant type
and usually four sprouts are produced by each plant. All three types of
materials described differ in their shape and in their cycle length. The
crown requires nearly 23 months to produce a new fruit under normal
conditions, while slips and suckers need 20 and 17 months, respectively (SARH,
1994).

The origin
different pineapple cultivars may be attributed to somatic mutations.
Since there is not self-pollination and cross-pollination occurs only
occasionally, natural hybrids are rare. Additionally, seeds do not
germinate readily. Up to date, there are neither reports in the technical
literature on pineapple variability, nor a systematic classification of
the cultivars. Commercial production for export markets is based on a
limited number of cultivars and in some small fields in the American
continent still produce less known cultivars (Collins, 1960).

However, several
new varieties have been introduced to improve the quality of the fruit
that reaches the international markets such as MD2 (Golden ripe, Extra
sweet and Maya gold). These varieties are hybrids that were developed
Hawaii from Cayena lisa with an average weight ranging from 1.3 to 2.5 kg,
it has an intense orange to yellow-orange color and a high sugar content
of 15 to17° Bx. Fruit are sweet, compact and fibrous. Main differences
found with respect to the Cayena lisa variety are: better resistance to
internal darkening, lesser ascorbic acid content more prone to rotting and
sensitive to Phytophthora. The La Josefina variety was released in 1996
for the fresh fruit market. It is a hybrid developed from other two
clones. Its production cycle is annual with a generation of 2 a 3 suckers
per plant. Average fruit weight is 1.1 to 1.3 kg and contains an elevated
sugar concentration (17 to 22°Bx). Differences with respect to the Cayena
lisa variety are: longer shelf life, greater sugar content and resistance
to black heart disorder and shorter production cycles. Finally, variety
RL41, is a hybrid obtained from cultivars Cayena lisa and “Manzana” with
an average weight of 1.4 to 2 kg and a high sugar content, 15 to 18° Bx.
Compared to Cayena lisa, this variety has a greater ascorbic acid content
and shorter production cycles, as well as lesser resistance to rotting but
more resistant to flower induction (FAO, 2002).

Cultural
practices

One of the main
aspects of the pineapple production is ground preparation, for which
suitable machinery is required. Preparative work must be efficient to
assure good drainage and penetration of the roots. Ground must be plowed
at least 30 cm (see
Fig. 8). Recent experiments have been conducted to show producers the
benefits of deep plowing. Good soil preparation increases the fruit
population per area and better yields are obtained. As it was described
above, commercial pineapple propagation is made in vegetative form, using
either the crown or either suckers or stem shoots. Each plant produces one
crown and from 1 to 6 offsprings. Competence by weeds is critical and need
to be eliminated. Plantation cleanup had been made manually, but in recent
years herbicides have been employed successfully and producers are now
convinced of the benefits of this type of control. The plant is usually
fertilized four times during the vegetative cycle of 18 months with
formulas based on Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. An important aspect
of this culture is flowering control by hormones (calcium carbide or
Ethrel), by which it is possible to achieve anticipated. This has become a
rather common practice because by flowering control, fruit may be
available in the market for ten months of the year. The plant is sensitive
to excessive soil (Fig.
8 ) moisture and requires light and permeable soils with clay-sandy
texture. When fully developed the plant can reach 60 to 120 cm, depending
on the variety (SARH, 1994).

Maximal production
potential for this fruit is reached when it is planted on light to medium
texture soils that have no flooding problems, mildly acidic (pH 4.5-5.5).
A good seeding bed is obtained by proper cutting, burning and/or blending
of harvest by-products, plowing, soil revolving, leveling and drainage.

Mowing. This
operation is needed to destroy the residues from the previous crop. In
order to properly burn or blend these residues grinding must be as fine as
possible. Burning is recommended only when plagues and pathologies were
detected on the previous cycle. Passing heavy RASTRA several times on the
ground helps in reducing the particle size of the residues.

Blending of crop
residues. Residual material from the previous crop may be used to elevate
nutrient content and organic matter of the soil. Incorporation of this
material needs to be done by deep fallow at least 5 months prior to the
planting. Improper blending increases the risk of attack by plagues as
termites, loury louse and mites.

Plowing. The
purpose of this operation is to break and loosen the surface ground, to
incorporate residual materials from the previous crop, destroy some ground
plagues by exposure to sunlight, improve air flow and water penetration.
This process must be as deep as the soil and machinery permits. This is
made at least two months before planting. Based on local conditions the
mesh plough is preferred over the disk plough.

Tracking. This
operation is made to break and disperse the lumps remaining from the
plowing. At least two passes in crossed direction and at least 20 cm deep
are required to get the soil ready. A reasonable time period may be
allowed between tracks to allow weeds to emerge and be destroyed by the
second rastra.

Leveling and
drainage. This is made with a heavy plank or metal beam pulled by the
tractor at the time of effecting the last pass, in order to level off the
uneven parts of the field that may produce flooding. If this is not
achieved, it is recommended to prepared small ditches that serve as
drainage with enough depth and slope to eliminate excess water, but taking
care not to overdrain the field so that it becomes dry or eroded (SARH,
2004).

Erosion control. It
has been estimated that 50 tones of soil are lost per hectare peach cycle
under the traditional system .

To reduce erosion,
one or several of the following practices may be used:

Beds with
controlled slope. The contour has an inclination of 0.3 to 0.5%; the width
varies according to the density and distance between rows, which ranges
from 145 to 110 cm (Fig.
9), making sure that the edges are softened to avoid slides.

Draining and
irrigation ditch systems. Theirsetup is strictly necessary when
melon-type beds are employed (Fig.
9), although they can be used with the traditional system too. Their
objective is to collect the excess rain water before the rate of fall may
cause erosion. According to the local rain fall and the terrain slope the
distance between them could range from 20 to 100 m. Live wall Terraces.
They are unpredictable when the slope is greater than 5 %. Their
performance is based on soil movements and employs land preparation labor.
The base of the terrace can be formed by “cocuite: barriers (Gliricidia
sepium) (Fig.
10), established by seeding or planting in its place one or two rows
of pineapple keeping a distance of 10 cm between plants. The terraces are
laid out and their width is reduced as the slope is increased (SARH,
1994).

Acidity control. In
order to neutralize the acid residues from the fertilizers used during the
crop cycle and after replenishing Calcium and Magnesium ions that were
lost by erosion, leaching and harvest of fruit and stem shoots, from halft
to two tons of agricultural grade lime should be applied per hectare,
depending on the acidity of the soil. Lime applied must be dolomitic and
contain at least 10% of magnesium carbonate and the rest of calcium
carbonate. It must be fine ground so that 80% should pass through mesh 60.
It is important to spread evenly on the ground either manually or
mechanically. It is recommended to perform soil analyses every 3-4 years,
in order to monitor the trend of acidity and nutrients to take corrective
actions if necessary.

j) Genetic
propagation

Pineapple
propagation is asexual and natural vegetative buds are used. In order to
maintain genetic purity it is necessary to dispose of propagation material
from sick plants and those showing genetic malformations such as multiple
crowns, spiny leaves and malformation fruit (Fig.
11). Male plants that reach a fairly exuberant vegetative development,
can hardly yield fruits, and if so, the product is too small. Genetic,
safety and weight uniformity of propagation materials is a key factor that
increase productivity of pineapple plantations. Purification and
production of propagation material offers the advantage of improvement in
genetic quality, safety and uniformity, with a concomitant decrease of
production costs due to reduced attacks by floury louse-red rot and less
proportion of low quality fruits (SARH, 2004).

In recent years
biotechnology research has focused on genetic improvement to control
flowering, increase certainty and control of flowering induction in order
to reduce the cost of carbide application. To suppress flowering a gene
capable of shutting down the senses through regulation of the periods for
ethylene production has been cloned. In addition to the biotechnological
alternatives other products and techniques have become available for
flowering control, including application of Ethephon, Ethret-480, calcium
carbide and propionic acid. These products act on the foliage for suckers
production and increased yields. Plastic cushioning has been used to
improve CO2 absorption in some cultivars (COVECA, 2002).

Pineapple
propagation or reproduction is done asexually, using shoots emerging from
different parts of the plant, these growths are known as bulbs, crowns and
auxiliary buds (Fig.
12). Seeds are disinfected by immersion on a fungicide and insecticide
solution to prevent plagues and pathogens attack. Treatment consists on
dipping the seeds on the solution for one minute and let them dry for 24 h
or more, then sow and thus avoid workers poisoning. Chemicals that have
been employed with good results are: insecticides, Basudin or Diazinon at
a concentration of 280 ml in 200 litres of water; Fungicides, Ridomil Mz
72 at 1 kg in 200 litres of water. These products are mixed in the same
container used for disinfection. The type of propagation material may be
the crown, from the top of the fruit and from which one seed is used; the
bulb, located at the peduncle of the fruit, from which 1 to 3 seeds may be
obtained; and the buds, from the leaf axis, and from which 3-5 seeds can
be extracted per plant. Additionally, another reproduction system by slip,
meristems or by hormone stimulation may be used (Oirsa, 1999) (Fig.
13).

This type of
activity for export fruit is done using a single string placed in the
center of the bed; the string is marked with the desired distance and then
a small hole is made where the seed is placed. The marks on the string are
used as guides and then, a second line is placed 40 cm from the first
string. Planting is done at the middle of the marks in three lace-bobbin
style. By using beds with marked holes, from 3,000 to 4,000 seeds could be
planted by worker each day.

Plant density. In
order to reach crop yields of 100 tons a minimum of 60,000 plants per
hectare need to be planted, using the arrangement of 30 cm between plants,
40 cm between lines and 70 cm from the aisle or between the double lines.
If density needs to be increased the distance between plants can be varied
and the rest may remain unchanged.

To estimate the
density the following formula:

100/distance
between plants+ aisle width = a

100/distance
between plants = b

D = a * b* 2

m) Induction of
flowering

This is a very
important operation in pineapple production since it allows programming
harvest volume and time. The plant must reach a weight of 3 a 3.2 kg in 7
to 8 months of growth. Ethrel®,
with its active ingredient Ethephon, is used to induce flowering. This
ethylene producer must be applied at dusk or night time when temperature
reaches 25 to 27°C, and stomata are open. Ethephon is used at 1 to 1.5
ml/l of water, 100 lb urea in 2,500 litres of water, and 4 litres of
Boron, which in such proportion increases the level of fertilization
during induction. The mixture contains enough calcium carbonate to take
the pH over 6 or near the optimal, 8.5. Five months later, the fruit is
fully mature. The mixture is sprayed using one ounce per plant.

n) Crown
strangulation

This is an
operation performed 14 weeks after induction; the center of the fruit is
withdrawn so a wider, heavier and better shaped fruit develops. This
operation is not done on pineapple plantations intended for export because
of the high costs involved this is not done; instead nitrogen levels are
controlled or chemicals are used (Fruitone).

o) Undergrowths

In pineapple
production fields undergrowths and weeds of several types emerge: they
could be narrow or wide leaves; the latter being the most aggressive. Weed
control begins with ground preparation by breaking soil lumps. The white
straw (S. spontaneum) found in the fields must be eliminated to
avoid recontamination and spread of the pathogen on the field.

Herbicides are used
for weed control (Diuron and Atrazine) at a dosage of 2.5 to 3.5 kg/Ha and
with the proper humidity better performance is achieved. In case of
problems with graminiae, specific compounds are used (Fusilade, Igran
500), combined with manual chime.

p) Harvest

It is done 5 to 51
or 52 months after induction based on the external maturity of the fruit
for domestic market. The harvest operation is done using special devices
to draw the fruit from the field by breaking the fruit that shows proper
maturity stage and placing them at the edge of the field where they are
manually sorted by size (Fig.
14). The fruit is carried in trucks placing the crowns downwards for
cushioning. From 50 to 80 dozens may be transported, depending on the
size. Fruit are marketed by the dozen; those intended for industrial
processing are placed in crates at the edge of the parcel and the crowns
are chopped off, after which they are transported in bulk in larger trucks
to the processing plant. Fruit for export markets use different systems,
depending on the buyer. Some buyers require green fruit (color 0) which
means soft green color near the peduncle, with 12°Bx, porosity of 1.5 and
translucency 0 to 0.5. Other buyers demand ripened or off-green fruit with
a minimum of 12°Bx, porosity of 1.5 and translucency of 1 to 1.5. When
Ethephon is applied at 1 ounce in 20 litres of water, sprayed on the fruit
one week prior to the harvest. Then, when color turns golden yellow fruit
are harvested with care to avoid mechanical damage. Fruit are carried to a
truck with 2 inches of polyfon in the bottom and 1 inch on the sides. From
3 to 5 layers of pineapples are placed crowns facing to avoid damage.
Another way to harvest is using a mechanical harvester which may cut the
process time to one fourth and produces minimal damage to the fruit by
handling (Oirsa, 1999).

Pineapple dominates
the world trade of tropical fruits, although other fruits have gained
market share. Statistics from 2000 indicate that pineapple trade took 51 %
from a total of 2.1 million tons of the whole fruit market with mangoes
taking the second place, with 21.7 %. Pineapple is the best positioned
fruit since its trade is oriented to developed countries as Japan, the USA
and the European Community (Coveca, 2002). Consequently, during the past
decade world production of pineapple as increased at a rate of 1.9% per
year, despite the occurrence of unfavorable weather and economic
situations (FAO, 2002).

Production and
Export

Despite the fast
expansion of the trade of fresh pineapple, currently only 8% of the crop
is exported. Costa Rica and Ivory Coast are the main suppliers of fresh
pineapple despite they rank eighth and tenth places as overall producers
(see Table 1).
Belgium,
France, Germany and Netherlands participate in the world trade by
re-exporting. With the exception of the Philippines, the six main
pineapple producers in the world contribute minimal amounts to the market
of fresh pineapple trade.

Utilization of
byproducts from pineapple culture, canning and juice extraction has been
encouraged for feed production. Leaves can be used in three forms: fresh,
dried and in silage (Geo coppens, 2001).

Hearts and peels
from the canning operation can be dried and mixed with molasses to produce
a meal. Yield per hectare for crowns and hearts can be as high as 10 tons
in fresh, which turns into 1 ton of dried product. Solids from the
centrifuge from juice production may be used as feed for pork (FAO, 2004)

d) Other Uses:

Pineapples may
offer additional advantages for a whole utilization, in particular as a
fiber source. Among the qualities of the fiber is the texture, its length
(60 cm), high water and dye holding capacity, high whiteness, brightness,
resistance to salt and tension strength. Consequently, some producing
countries exploit pineapple fiber for the paper and clothing industries.
This fiber resembles silk in texture and color. It is used in some Asian
countries for manufacture of high value garments. In the paper industry
pineapple fiber has been found to produce fine and flexible sheets of
paper.

Bromelin has been
produced traditionally from stems in Hawaii. Currently it is been
extracted in other countries as Taiwan, Thailand, Brazil and Puerto Rico.
Typical use of bromelin has been as meat tenderizer and as component of
pharmaceuticals.

Bromelin is a
protease that can be obtained from the juice of pineapple stems by
methanolic precipitation. This enzyme has been used by at least ten years.
Applications of Bromelin in the food industry are in meat tenderization,
chillproofing of beer, in protein solubilization, fish waste treatment,
leather coloring and as latex paints stabilizer. It is also employed in
production of hydrolyzed proteins and to increase the solubility of
gelatin and an aid to treat digestive disorders. Residual stem materials
from Bromelin extraction may be used as feed additive and culture media
for plants as tea and orchids. Calcium citrate, a valuable chemical
derived from citric acid is also a by-product from Bromelin processing.
Therefore, commercial production of Bromelin has an important value added.
The process for Bromelin preparation has been described: pineapple stems
are washed, crushed and cold-pressed through a screw press. The juice
extracted is mixed with methanol to coagulate impurities at the mixing
tank. After impurities are separated, the extract is again mixed with
methanol and allowed to settle. The Bromelin suspension is decanted and
dried. Methanol is recovered in an adsorption tower. Waste and residual
methanol from the filter press and the mixer are distilled and recycled.
Capital investment, energy consumption, engineering and technological
abilities and land required for the plant are relatively small compared to
other chemical facilities. The manufacturing process is simple and easy to
operate; pollution control as well as maintenance of equipment and
facilities are reasonable too. Tropical and sub-tropical countries with
abundant pineapple production make this project feasible and production
may be intended for export markets (TTPC, 2004)

Medicinal uses

In order to
encourage pineapple consumption, some producing countries run promotional
campaigns to make the consumers aware of medicinal and therapeutic
qualities of the fruit. Among the different medicinal and healing
properties of pineapples it has been said that the fruit is antiparasitic,
abortive, detoxifier, vermifuge and stomach disorder relief. Pineapple
also improves digestion, regulates stomach acidity, aids in detoxification
processes, the neutralization of free radicals and blood clots, as aid in
the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, reduction of sciatica symptoms,
collagen production, weight control and in the treatment of albuminuria.
Evidence of these claims was generated from studies made in the US and
Europe (Coveca, 2002).

One of the best
known properties of pineapple is as a diuretic. This helps to eliminate
toxins through the urine, helping patients with ailments of kidneys,
bladder and prostate. Due to the fiber content of the pulp, pineapple
prevents constipation and regularizes the intestinal flora. Furthermore,
there is evidence of appetite reducer, heart protection and aid for fever,
sore throat and mouth aches and inflammation. Lightly boiled ground
pineapple can be used to clean infected wounds because it eliminates dead
tissues, not affecting live tissue, acts as disinfectant and accelerates
cicatrization (mundogar, 2004).

In summary,
pineapple is a rich source of Vitamin C as well as other vitamins and
fiber. Pineapple's Bromelin stimulates digestion and the proper
performance of the small intestine and kidneys; it helps in
detoxification, normalizes colonic flora, helps in hemorrhoid alleviation,
and prevents and corrects constipation. It has been used to heal colds,
mouth, throat and bronchial infections. Cooked peel cleans blood and
alleviates swellings. Juice helps to cure cystitis, and fevers(gastronomia,
2004).

e) Selection and
Care

Pineapple fruits
must be well ripened, have proper humidity, good formation, well developed
eyes, free of decomposition, scalds caused by the sun, free of injuries
caused by contusions, burns, illnesses, insects or mechanical injuries.
The base should be well cut. The leaves should be of the same color,
singular, more or less right, well stuck to the fruit, they should not be
more than five per each crown. The longitude of the leaves should not be
less than ten centimeters or more than double the size of the fruit. The
Pineapple is initially assessed by the external appearance: it should be
fresh, clear and shiny. When it is completely ripe, the leaves of the
crown must be of a light green color, the crown must be very green and
well developed (Proyecsacorp, 2004).

A commercial
product is available in the form of simple pineapple pulp. Frozen juice is
obtained from pressing fresh clean ripe pineapples without concentration,
dilution or fermentation and strained trough a 0.5 mm mesh; then
centrifuged, homogenized, the air removed, pasteurized and aseptic
packaged prior to freezing. The product does not contain added sugar or
preservatives and has a minimum of 12 °Bx, 20 to 40 % solids, 0.9% acidity
and pH values from 3.6 to 3.8. The packing unit is a steel drum and the
product is held inside a double caliber 2 polyethylene bag, each unit
contains 200 kg and drums are transported at -18°C or lower. The refuse
bins remain sealed and mixed transport with toxic or corrosive chemicals
shall be avoided. The drums shall be opened only for sampling at the
receiving station. Each batch of 10 drums should have a 300 g sample
attached for quality control analyses (colfruits, 2004).

The European Union
(EU) represents the largest market in the world for organic pineapple with
more than 2,000 tons in 2002. The second largest market is the USA with
nearly 1,000 ton/year. Although the trade of organic pineapple in the EU
goes back to the late 90's, this market is still limited and growing due
to some technical limitations that restrict the supply. The main drawback
in production of organic pineapple is the ban to ethylene application to
induce flowering. Currently the EU market is supplied by countries from
African as Cameroon and Ghana, from Asia as Sri Lanka y and Latin America
as Dominican Republic and Honduras. In 2002, pineapple imports of the four
largest markets in the UE (Germany, France, Netherlands and the United
Kingdom) were in excess 1,500 tons. Germany is the single country that
consumes most of the organic pineapple with 726 tons, and the Netherlands
follows in second place with 625 tons in 2003. The future of the market
for organic pineapple in the EU depends on the stand taken by the
accreditation authorities on the issue of ethylene application.
Perspectives on the US market are also favorable. Although Honduras
was in the position of becoming the main supplier to the American market
for organic pineapple, the production fields were almost completely
destroyed by the hurricane Mitch in 1998. Another drawback for market
expansion was the ban for ethylene utilization that took effect on January
2001. Due to these two factors US imports of organic pineapple in 2001
were limited to 4 containers a week. When the ban was cancelled in 2002,
the supply raised again. The main suppliers for the US market are Latin
American countries and Hawaii.
Importing countries of fresh organic pineapple forecast a 20% annual
growth. In late 2002 the category of Fair Trade for tropical fruits was
introduced, thus originating the concept of sustainable pineapple, which
has been experiencing a very fast growth rate. The volume of Fair Trade
pineapple was estimated in 1,000 tons in 2003. Currently, the entire
production is destined to the Swiss and England. Producing
countries of the Fair Trade pineapple are Costa Rica and Ghana (Centeno,
2003).

Market
requirements

The requirements
for pineapples to be exported to the US are rather simple. Handling must
include washing, disinfection, sorting, waxing and manual or mechanical
packing, cooling and storage.

Storage and
Transportation

Transport of
pineapples for export shall be done in refrigerated trucks or containers.
Transit time should be calculated so that fruit are at the optimal
ripening conditions right before reaching the consumers. An important
consideration is that the transport system used are designed to maintain
the fruit temperature but not to decrease it, hence it is necessary to
introduce the fruit already cooled to the proper temperature. Product
stacking will depend on the type and size of container and must be
carefully planned to minimize physical damage (Colfruits, 2004).

It has been
proposed that there are more than 100 varieties, but only 6 to 8 of them
are cultivated commercially. These include varieties from the Cayena
group, such as Cayena lisa and Champaka. These two varieties represent the
two major and most demanded varieties worldwide. Their leaves have few
spikes that helps for easier handling; the fruit is cylindrical with flat
berries of 2.5 cm of diameter, the pulp color ranges from pale yellow to
gold yellow, with ca. 13 % soluble solids and 0.6% citric acid. This
composition confers a distinct and well-appreciated flavor of pineapples.
The fruit is cultivated in Hawaii, Australia, South Africa and most
tropical exporting countries. Cayena lisa has been the variety most
frequently produced in the main and technified production fields; however,
this variety is now been replaced by Champaka, because the latter variety
has demonstrated advantages on overall quality, yield, and resistance to
post-harvest handling (SARH, 1994). The Singapore
variety, of cylindrical and reddish fruits is produced in Malaysia. The
Queen variety refers to a group of cultivars with spiny leaves and yellow
fruits; the Red Spanish variety is similar to the Queen variety; the Big
Head (Cabezona) variety is the main variety from Puerto Rico and has wider
bottom; the Montelirio is a variety from Central America, similar to
Cayena in shape and color, but less sweet; the Pernambuco and other newer
varieties are native from and produced in Brazil (Collins, 1960).