Foreword

This fourth and final volume of the Apollo Spacecraft Chronology covers
a period of eight and a half years, from January 21, 1966, through July
13, 1974. The events that took place during that period included all
flight tests of the Apollo spacecraft, as well as the last five Gemini
flights, the AS-204 accident, the AS-204 Review Board activities, the
Apollo Block II Redefinition Tasks, the manned Apollo flight program
and its results, as well as further use of the Apollo spacecraft in the
Skylab missions.

The manned flights of Apollo, scheduled to begin in early 1967, were
delayed by the tragic accident that occurred on January 27, 1967,
during a simulated countdown for mission AS-204. A fire inside the
command module resulted in the deaths of the three prime crew
astronauts, Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White II, and Roger B.
Chaffee. On January 28, 1967, the Apollo 204 Review Board was
established to investigate the accident. It was determined that action
should be initiated to reduce the crew risk by eliminating unnecessary
hazardous conditions that would imperil future missions. Therefore, on
April 27, a NASA Task Team - Block II Redefinition, CSM - was
established to provide input on detailed design, overall quality and
reliability, test and checkout, baseline specification, configuration
control, and schedules.

Months of scrutinizing and hard work followed. The testing of the
unmanned spacecraft began with the successful all-up test launch and
recovery of the Saturn V-Apollo space system on November 9, 1967. This
flight, designated Apollo 4, marked the culmination of
more than seven years of developmental activity in design, fabrication,
testing and launch-site preparation by tens of thousands of workers in
government, industry and universities. The unmanned Apollo
4 placed 126,000 kilograms in earth orbit. It accomplished the
first restart in space of the S-IVB stage; the first reentry into the
earth's atmosphere at the speed of return from the moon, nearly 40,200
kilometers per hour; and the first test of Launch Complex 39.

As time for the first manned Apollo flight neared, a decision was
reached to use a 60-percent-oxygen and 40-percent-nitrogen atmosphere in
the spacecraft cabin while on the launch pad and to retain the pure
oxygen environment in space. By March 14, 1968, testing of the
redesigned interior of the vehicle demonstrated that hardware changes
inside the cabin, minimized possible sources of ignition, and materials
changes had vastly reduced the danger of fire propagation.

During the beginning of the period covered by this chronology (from
March through November 1966) the last five Gemini spacecraft were
flown. The objectives of the Gemini program that were applicable to
Apollo included: (1) long-duration flight, (2) rendezvous and docking,
(3) postdocking maneuver capability, (4) controlled reentry and
landing, (5) flight- and ground-crew proficiency, and (6)
extravehicular capability. The prelaunch checkout and verification
concept as originated during the Gemini program was used for Apollo.
The testing and servicing tasks were very similar for both spacecraft.
Although complexity of the operations substantially increased, the
mission control operations for Apollo evolved from Projects Mercury and
Gemini. The medical data collected during the Gemini flights verified
that man could function in space for the planned duration of the lunar
landing mission. Many of the concepts for crew equipment - such as food
and waste management, housekeeping, and general sanitation - originated
from the Gemini experience with long-duration missions. The Gemini
missions also provided background experience in many systems such as
communications, guidance and navigation, fuel cells, and propulsion.

While the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft were being developed and
operated, the three-man Apollo program had grown in magnitude and
complexity and included a command module, a service module, a lunar
module, and a giant Saturn V rocket. The spacecraft and launch vehicle
towered 110 meters above the launching pad, and weighed some 3 million
kilograms. With the Apollo program, the missions and flight plans had
become much more ambitious, the hardware had become more refined, the
software had become more sophisticated, and ground support equipment
also grew in proportion.

In October 1968 Apollo 7 became the first manned flight
test of the Apollo command and service modules in earth orbit and
demonstrated the effectiveness of the manned space flight tracking,
command and communications network. This first mission was a rousing
success, with all systems meeting or exceeding requirements.

The second Apollo flight was the much-publicized Apollo 8
mission in December 1968, during which man for the first time orbited
the moon. Aside from the fact that the flight marked a major event in
the history of man, it also was technically a remarkable mission. The
purpose of the mission, to check out the navigation and communication
systems at lunar distance, was accomplished with a complete
verification of those systems.

Apollo 9 (March 1969) was an earth-orbital flight and
included the first engineering test of a manned lunar module and the
first rendezvous and docking of two manned space vehicles.

In May 1969 Apollo 10 journeyed to the moon and completed
a dress rehearsal for the landing mission to follow in July. This
mission was designed to be exactly like the landing mission except for
the final phases of the landing, which were not attempted. The lunar
module separated from the command module and descended to within 15
kilometers of the lunar surface, proving that man could navigate safely
and accurately in the moon's gravitational field.

With the flight of Apollo 11, man for the first time
stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. The mission proved
that man could land on the moon, perform specific tasks on the lunar
surface, and return safely to earth.

Apollo 12 (November 1969) was the second manned lunar
landing. Pieces from the unmanned Surveyor III spacecraft were
recovered, and the first Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
(ALSEP) was deployed.

Apollo 13 (April 1970) had been scheduled to be the third
manned lunar landing. However, the lunar landing portion of the mission
was aborted because of the explosion of an oxygen tank in the service
module en route to the moon. A cislunar mission was accomplished and
the lunar module was used to provide life support and propulsion for
the disabled command and service module en route home. A safe return
and landing was effected in the Pacific.

Apollo 14 (January-February 1971) successfully landed on
the lunar surface, with the crew performing two extravehicular
activities (EVAs), deploying the second Apollo Lunar Surface
Experiments Package, and completing other scientific tasks with the aid
of a rickshawlike mobile equipment transporter (MET). The crew remained
on the lunar surface 33½ hours.

The fourth manned lunar landing, Apollo 15 (July-August
1971), was the first mission to use the Lunar Rover, the first to
deploy a subsatellite in lunar orbit, the first to perform experiments
in lunar orbit by using a scientific instrument module (SIM) in the
service module, and the first to conduct extravehicular activity during
the journey back to earth. Lunar stay time was 66 hours and 55
minutes.

Apollo 16 (July 1972), the fifth manned lunar landing, was
essentially identical to Apollo 15 and configured for
extended mission duration, remote sensing from lunar orbit, and
long-distance surface traverses. The scientific instrument module was
included in the service module.

The splashdown of Apollo 17 on December 19, 1972, not
only ended one of the most perfect missions, but also drew the curtain
on the manned flights of Project Apollo. It was the most ambitious moon
probe, the longest moon mission - about 40 hours longer than
Apollo 16, with 75 hours on the lunar surface from
touchdown to liftoff. The extensive scientific exploration utilized a
new generation of experiments. The crew traversed from the LM farther
than ever before, traveling 32 kilometers in the Lunar Rover.

Although Apollo 17 was the last of the manned flights to
the moon, it was not the last of the Apollo spacecraft. Apollo paved
the way for missions to follow. The next program using an Apollo
command module was Skylab (May 14, 1973-February 8, 1974), occurring
within the time frame of this chronology, as studies of lunar samples
and data returned from Project Apollo continued in laboratories
throughout the world. Skylab was man's most ambitious and organized
scientific probing of his planet and proved the value of manned
scientific space expeditions. Skylab proved man's value in space as a
manufacturer, an astronomer, and an earth observer, using the most
sophisticated instruments in ways that unmanned satellites cannot
match. Skylab also demonstrated man's great utility as a repairman in
space.

Detailed studies of man's physiological responses to prolonged exposure
to weightlessness proved his ability to adjust to the space environment
and to perform useful and valuable work in space. In solar physics,
Skylab enriched our solar data more than a hundredfold, with a total of
some 200,000 photographs of the sun made from the Apollo Telescope
Mount. As observers of earth resources from Skylab, the crews returned
over 40,000 photographs and more than 60 kilometers of high-density
magnetic tape. Data were acquired for all 48 continental United States
and 34 foreign countries.

Beyond the period covered by this chronology, but before its
publication, the Apollo spacecraft was used again in the Apollo-Soyuz
Test Project (ASTP), July 15-24, 1975. This joint space flight
culminated in the first historical meeting in space between American
astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts. The event marked the successful
testing of a universal docking system and signaled a major advance in
efforts to pave the way for joint experiments and mutual assistance in
future international space explorations. There were some 44 hours of
docked joint activities during ASTP, highlighted by four crew transfers
and the completion of a number of joint scientific experiments and
engineering investigations. All major ASTP objectives were
accomplished, including testing a compatible rendezvous system in
orbit, testing androgynous docking assemblies, verifying techniques for
crew transfers, and gaining experience in the conduct of joint
international flights.

We will continue to apply what we learned from Apollo, as well as
Skylab and ASTP, as we venture into the next manned program, known as
the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle will be another leap forward. It will be
the first reusable space vehicle. It will consist of three components:
solid rocket boosters, a jettisonable external propellant tank, and an
orbiter. The Space Shuttle will be launched like a rocket, fly in orbit
like a spaceship, and land like an airplane. These vehicles are being
designed to last for at least a hundred missions. The reusability will
reduce the cost of putting men and payloads in orbit to about 10
percent of the Apollo costs.

In this chronology, as with any collection of written communications on
a given project, the negative aspects of the program, its faltering and
its failures, become more apparent because these are the areas that
require written communication for corrective action. However, it should
be stressed that in spite of the failures, the moon was reached by
traveling an unparalleled path of success for an undertaking so
complex. The disastrous fire at Cape Kennedy had given the Apollo
program a drastic setback. But when Apollo 7 was launched,
the first manned flight in nearly two years, it was a success. Every
spacecraft since that time improved in performance with the exception
of the problems experienced in Apollo 13. For example,
consider the Apollo 8 spacecraft and booster, which
contained some 15 million parts. If those parts had been 99.9 percent
reliable, there still would have been 15,000 failures. But it had only
five failures, all in noncritical parts.

To summarize Project Apollo - there were 11 manned flights; 27
Americans orbited the moon; 12 walked on its surface; 6 drove lunar
vehicles. Perhaps one of the most important legacies of Apollo to
future programs is the demonstration that great successes can be
achieved in spite of serious difficulties along the way.

No other event in the history of mankind has served to bring the
peoples of the world closer together than the lunar landings of Project
Apollo. This feeling of "oneness" was fully displayed during
the flight of Apollo 13 when many nations of the earth
offered assistance in recovering the voyagers from their crippled
spacecraft. From nearly every country came prayers and words of
encouragement. The crippling of the Apollo 13 spacecraft
en route to the moon called forth maximum cooperative use of the
ability of astronauts, the ground support organization, and the
contractors. The men and the equipment they designed and operated
proved capable of handling this emergency.

Besides the demonstration of the power of teamwork, many areas of
understanding have come out of the lunar landing program. The command
and service modules on the last three lunar missions carried some 450
kilograms of cameras, sophisticated remote-sensing equipment, and
additional consumables to investigate the moon thoroughly from orbit.
Detailed studies of the moon were accomplished - of its size, shape,
and surface, and the interrelationship of the lunar surface features
and its gravitational field. On the surface of the moon, where there is
no atmosphere to erode, secrets were uncovered that have long since
been worn away here on earth. Understanding the geology of the moon
improves the understanding of our own planet.

Twelve men, who spent a total of 296 hours exploring the lunar surface
in six radically different areas, mined 382 kilograms of lunar rocks
and material. Scientists have catalogued, distributed, and analyzed
this lunar material. Much of the real discovery is still being
unraveled in laboratories around the world.

Five lunar science stations, originally designed to last a minimum of a
year, are still at work on the lunar surface, continuing to transmit to
earth technical data about the moon.

The national space program became an example of a successful management
approach to accomplish an almost impossible project. The task of going
to the moon required a government, industry, and university team which,
at its peak, organized 400,000 people, hundreds of universities, and
20,000 separate industrial companies for a common goal. This project
was accomplished in full public view of the world. These management
techniques are available to our country to use again on what are
considered almost impossible tasks.

The Apollo photographs of the entire earth in one frame have made us
realize how small and finite and limited are the resources of spaceship
Earth. Apollo not only brought home to us more clearly the problems we
must face in protecting this tiny planet, but it also suggested
solutions. As we now turn some of our attention to such problems as
mass transportation, pollution of our atmosphere and our fresh water
resources, urban renewal, and utilization of new power sources, the
same management approach, techniques, and teams that landed men on the
moon can combine to help solve these kinds of problems. The photographs
of our earth taken by astronauts on Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, and ASTP
have clearly demonstrated that we can make ecological surveys from
space in geography, in agriculture and forestry, geology, hydrology,
and oceanography. We can update maps, study pollution, predict floods,
and help locate our natural resources and good commercial fishing
grounds. We have only scratched the surface in the application of space
technology.

The Apollo spacecraft not only made history, but laid a great
foundation of hope for a better future. The really important benefits
are yet to be derived, for we have merely cracked open the door to a
completely new laboratory in which to pursue knowledge.