Food browning

Browning is de process of food turning brown due to de chemicaw reactions dat take pwace widin, uh-hah-hah-hah. The process of food browning is one of de most important reactions dat take pwace in food chemistry and represents an interesting research topic regarding heawf, nutrition, and food technowogy. Though dere are many different ways food chemicawwy changes over time, browning in particuwar fawws into 2 main categories: enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes. The browning process of foods may yiewd desirabwe or undesirabwe resuwts, depending on de type of food.[1]

Browning has many important impwications on de food industry rewating to nutrition, technowogy, and economic cost.[2] Researchers are especiawwy interested in studying de controw (inhibition) of browning and de different medods dat can be empwoyed to maximize dis inhibition and uwtimatewy prowong de shewf wife of food.[1]

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Enzymatic browning is one of de most important reactions dat takes pwace in most fruits and vegetabwes as weww as in seafood.[3] These processes affect de taste, cowor, and vawue of such foods.[3] Generawwy, it is a chemicaw reaction invowving powyphenow oxidase, catechow oxidase, and oder enzymes dat create mewanins and benzoqwinone from naturaw phenows. Enzymatic browning (awso cawwed oxidation of foods) reqwires exposure to oxygen. It begins wif de oxidation of phenows by powyphenow oxidase into qwinones,[4] whose strong ewectrophiwic state causes high susceptibiwity to a nucweophiwic attack from oder proteins.[4] These qwinones are den powymerized in a series of reactions, eventuawwy resuwting in de formation of brown pigments (mewanosis) on de surface of de food.[5] The rate of enzymatic browning is refwected by de amount of active powyphenow oxidases present in de food.[2] Hence most research investigating medods to inhibit enzymatic browning has focused on hindering powyphenow oxidase activity.[2] However, not aww browning of food produces negative effects.[2]

Exampwe of a generaw reaction of powyphenows by Powyphenow Oxidases dat catawyzes enzymatic browning. The production of Quinones undergoes more reactions which eventuawwy form brown pigments on de surface of de food.

A desirabwe enzymatic browning reaction is invowved in de process of grapes becoming raisins.

A variety of medods are used to prevent or swow down enzymatic browning of foods, each medod aimed at targeting specific steps of de chemicaw reaction, uh-hah-hah-hah. The controw of enzymatic browning has awways been a chawwenge for de food industry. In addition, de use of chemicaws to inhibit browning, such as suwfite (a powerfuw antibrowning chemicaw) have been reconsidered due to de potentiaw hazards[cwarification needed] it causes awong wif its activity.[5] Much research has been conducted regarding de exact types of controw mechanisms dat take pwace when confronted wif dese enzymatic process. The different types of enzymatic browning controw can be cwassified different groups.

Lemon juice and oder acids wower de pH and remove de copper cofactor necessary for de responsibwe enzymes to function

The crust of brioche bread, which is gowden-brown due to de Maiwward reaction

The second type of browning; nonenzymatic browning, is a process dat awso produces de brown pigmentation in foods, but widout de activity of enzymes. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramewization and de Maiwward reaction. Bof vary in de reaction rate as a function of water activity (in Food Chemistry, de standard state of water activity is most often defined as de partiaw vapor pressure of pure water at de same temperature.

Caramewization is a process invowving de pyrowysis of sugar. It is used extensivewy in cooking for de desired nutty fwavor and brown cowor. As de process occurs, vowatiwe chemicaws are reweased, producing de characteristic caramew fwavor.

Overview of de mechanism of non-enzymatic Maiwward reaction in foods. Notice de schiff base woses a CO2 and adds to water. Notice de interaction between de amine group of de amino acid (asparagine here) and de carbonyw carbon of de sugar, (Gwucose). The end product is acrywamide. For more information, visit Maiwward reaction.

The oder, more weww-known non-enzymatic reaction is de Maiwward reaction. This reaction is responsibwe for de production of de fwavor when foods are cooked. Exampwes of foods dat undergo Maiwward reaction incwude breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemicaw reaction dat takes pwace between de amine group of a free amino acid and de carbonyw group of a reducing sugar,[2] usuawwy wif de addition of heat. The sugar interacts wif de amino acid, producing a variety of odors and fwavors. The Maiwward reaction is de basis for producing artificiaw fwavors for processed foods in de fwavoring industry,[9] since de type of amino acid invowved determines de resuwting fwavor.

Mewanoidins are brown, high mowecuwar weight heterogeneous powymers dat are formed when sugars and amino acids combine (drough de Maiwward reaction) at high temperatures and wow water activity. Mewanoidins are commonwy present in foods dat have undergone some form of non-enzymatic browning, such as barwey mawts (Vienna and Munich), bread crust, bakery products and coffee. They are awso present in de wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in order to avoid contamination around de outfwow of dese refineries.

Like most fruit, grapes vary in de amount of phenowic compounds dey have. This characteristic is used as a parameter in judging de qwawity of wine.[4] The generaw process of winemaking is initiated by de enzymatic oxidation of phenowic compounds by powyphenow oxidases.[4] Contact between de phenowic compounds in de Vacuowe of de grape ceww and de Powyphenow oxidaseEnzyme (wocated in de cytopwasm) triggers de oxidation of de grape. Thus, de initiaw browning of grapes occurs as a resuwt of "compartmentawization modification" in de cewws of de grape.[4]

Enzymatic browning affects de cowor, fwavor, and nutritionaw vawue of foods, causing huge economic woss when not sowd to consumers on time.[2] It is estimated dat more dan 50% of produce is wost as a resuwt of enzymatic browning.[1] The increase in human popuwation and conseqwentiaw depwetion in our naturaw resources has prompted many biochemists and Food engineers awike to find new and improved techniqwes to preserve food wonger, by using medods to inhibit de browning reaction, and effectivewy increase de shewf wife aww foods. A better understanding of de enzymatic browning mechanisms, specificawwy, understanding de properties of de enzymes and substrates dat are invowved in de reaction, may hewp food technowogists to controw certain stages in de mechanism and inhibit browning.

Appwes are fruits commonwy studied by researchers due to deir high phenowic content, which make dem highwy susceptibwe to enzymatic browning.[3] In accordance wif oder findings regarding appwes and browning activity, a correwation has been found between high phenowic amount and enzymatic activity of appwes.[3] This provides a hope for food industries in an effort to geneticawwy modify foods to decrease powyphenow oxidase activity and dus decrease browning. An exampwe of such accompwishments in food engineering is in de production of Arctic Appwes. These appwes, engineered by Okanagan Speciawty Fruits Inc, are a resuwt of gene spwicing, a techniqwe dat has awwowed for de reduction in powyphenow oxidase.

Anoder type of issue dat is cwosewy studied is de browning of seafood.[7]Seafood, in particuwar shrimp, is a dewicacy consumed by peopwe aww over de worwd. The browning of shrimp which is actuawwy referred to as Mewanosis, creates a great concern for food handwers and consumers. Mewanosis mainwy occurs during postmortem handwing and refrigerated storage.[7] Recent studies have found a pwant extract dat acts as an anti mewatonin powyphenow oxidase inhibitor and serves de same function as suwfites but widout de heawf risks.[7]