Other pages tagged with "Thomas Percy"http://www.rc.umd.edu/taxonomy/term/21862/all
enPercy, Thomashttp://www.rc.umd.edu/person/percy-thomas
<div class="field field-name-field-loc-authority-birth-year field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><span class="date-display-start" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="1728-12-31T23:59:58-04:56">1728</span> to <span class="date-display-end" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="1810-12-31T23:59:58-04:56">1810</span></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-profile-picture field-type-image field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><figure class="clearfix field-item even"><img typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-thumbnail" src="http://www.rc.umd.edu/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/default_images/no-image_1.jpg?itok=iXg-RCxX" alt="" /></figure></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-bio field-type-text-long field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><p>Thomas Percy (13 April 1729 – 30 September 1811) was Bishop of Dromore, County Down, Ireland. Before being made bishop, he was chaplain to George III. Percy's greatest contribution is considered to be his <em>Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</em> (1765), the first of the great ballad collections, which was the one work most responsible for the ballad revival in English poetry that was a significant part of the Romantic movement.</p>
</div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-home-page field-type-link-field field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Web presence:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Percy_(bishop_of_Dromore)" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-authored-at-rc1 field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Pages Authored at RC:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/editions/norse/HTML/Percy.html">The Dying Ode of Regnar Lodbrog</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-associated-tags field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Associated Tags:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy">Thomas Percy</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-lccn-permalink field-type-link-field field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">LCCN permalink:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="http://lccn.loc.gov/n80082327" target="_blank">LCCN permalink</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-loc-data field-type-list-boolean field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">LOC_Data:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">checked</div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-common-name field-type-text field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Common name:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">Thomas Percy</div></div></section>Mon, 29 Oct 2012 09:26:07 +0000rc-admin35626 at http://www.rc.umd.eduNorse Romanticismhttp://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/norse/index.html
<div class="field field-name-field-index-banner field-type-image field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><figure class="clearfix field-item even"><img typeof="foaf:Image" class="image-style-index-banner" src="http://www.rc.umd.edu/sites/default/files/styles/index_banner/public/norse_small%5B1%5D.jpg?itok=KY5uFW74" width="640" height="213" alt="Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature 1760-1830, Edited By Robert W. Rix" title="Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature 1760-1830, Edited By Robert W. Rix" /></figure></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><div id="IndexContent">
<h2 class="TOC">Table of Contents</h2>
<ul id="TOCContent">
<li class="LargeObject"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/about.html">About this Edition</a></li>
<li class="LargeObject"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/introNorse.html">Introduction</a></li>
<li class="LargeObject">Texts</li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Percy.html">"The Dying Ode of Regner Lodbrog" (1763)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas Percy</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Percy.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Percy.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html">"The Fatal Sisters. An Ode" (1768)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas Gray</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html#intro1">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html#text1">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html">"The Descent of Odin" (1768)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas Gray</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html#intro2">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Thomas_Gray.html#text2">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Macpherson.html">"Fragment of a Northern Tale" (1773)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">James Macpherson</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Macpherson.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Macpherson.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Penrose.html">"The Carousal of Odin" (1775)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas Penrose</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Penrose.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Penrose.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mathias.html">"Incantation" (1781)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas James Mathias</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mathias.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mathias.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sterling.html">"Scalder: An Ode" (1782)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Joseph Sterling</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sterling.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sterling.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Blake.html">"Gwin, King of Norway" (1783)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">William Blake</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Blake.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Blake.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Jerningham.html">From part one of <em>The Rise and Progress of the Scandinavian Poetry: A Poem in Two Parts</em> (1784)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Edward Jerningham</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Jerningham.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Jerningham.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Richard_Hole.html">From Book four of <em>Arthur; or, the Northern Enchantment. A Poetical Romance</em> (1789)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Richard Hole</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Richard_Hole.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Richard_Hole.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sayers.html"><em>The Descent of Frea: A Masque in Two Acts</em> (1790)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Frank L. Sayers</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sayers.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Sayers.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html">"The Race of Odin" (1795)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Robert Southey</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#intro1">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#text1">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html">"Death of Odin" (1795)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Robert Southey</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#intro2">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#text2">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html">Extract from "<em>To A. S. Cottle from Robert Southey</em>" (1797)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Robert Southey</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#intro3">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Southey.html#text3">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Seward.html"><em>Herva at the Tomb of Argantyr. A Runic Dialogue</em> (1796)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Anna Seward</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Seward.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Seward.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mason.html"><em>Song of Harold the Valiant</em> ([1766], 1797)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">William Mason</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mason.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Mason.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth.html"><em>[The Danish Boy] A Fragment</em> (1800)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">William Wordsworth</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth.html#intro1">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth1.html#text1">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth.html"><em>A Fact, and an Imagination or, Canute and Alfred, on the Seashore</em> (1820)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">William Wordsworth</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth.html#intro2">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Wordsworth2.html#text2">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Lewis.html"><em>The Water-King</em> (1800)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Matthew Gregory Lewis</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Lewis.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Lewis.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Hrim_Thor.html"><em>Hrim Thor or The Winter King. A Lapland Ballad</em> (1801)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Anonymous</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Hrim_Thor.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Hrim_Thor.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Bowles.html"><em>Hymn to Woden</em> (1801)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">William Lisle Bowles</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Bowles.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Bowles.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Peacock.html"><em>Fiolfar</em> (1806)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Thomas Love Peacock</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Peacock.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Peacock.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Landor.html"><em>Gunlaug</em> (1806)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Walter Savage Landor</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Landor.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Landor.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Scott.html"><em>Harold the Dauntless. A Poem</em> (1817)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Walter Scott</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Scott.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Scott.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="EssayTitle"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Radcliffe.html"><em>Salisbury Plains. Stonehenge</em> (1826)</a></li>
<li class="AuthorInfo">Ann Radcliffe</li>
<li class="ChildContent"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Radcliffe.html#intro">Introduction</a> | <a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Radcliffe.html#text">Primary</a></li>
<li class="LargeObject"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Glossary.html">Glossary</a></li>
<li class="LargeObject"><a href="/editions/norse/./HTML/Timeline.html">Timeline</a></li>
</ul>
</div></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-published field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="2012-03-01T00:00:00-05:00">March 2012</span></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-edited-by field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Edited By:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/person/rix-robert-w">Rix, Robert W.</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-resource-technical-editor field-type-entityreference field-label-inline clearfix view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Resource Technical Editor:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/person/quilligan-michael">Quilligan, Michael</a></div><div class="field-item odd"><a href="/person/rettenmaier-david">Rettenmaier, David</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31535">Electronic Editions</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-3 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Tags:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/norse" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norse</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/tags/tradition" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">tradition</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/tags/anglo-saxon" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Anglo-Saxon</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/tags/heroic" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">heroic</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/tags/mythology" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">mythology</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1359" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">gothic</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/tags/middle-ages" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Middle Ages</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Percy</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/thomas-gray-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Gray</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/ossian" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ossian</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/james-macpherson" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Macpherson</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-penrose" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Penrose</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/thomas-james-mathias" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas James Mathias</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/joseph-sterling" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Joseph Sterling</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/william-blake" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Blake</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/edward-jerningham" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Edward Jerningham</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/richard-hole" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Richard Hole</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/frank-l-sayers" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Frank L. Sayers</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/anna-seward-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Anna Seward</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/william-mason" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Mason</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/william-wordsworth-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Wordsworth</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/william-lisle-bowles" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Lisle Bowles</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/thomas-love-peacock" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Love Peacock</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/walter-savage-landor" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Savage Landor</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/walter-scott" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Scott</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/ann-radcliffe" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ann Radcliffe</a></li></ul></section>Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:36:27 +0000rc-admin29908 at http://www.rc.umd.eduIntroductionhttp://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/norse/HTML/introNorse.html
<div class="field field-name-field-published field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth"><span class="date-display-single" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth" content="2012-03-01T00:00:00-05:00">March 2012</span></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><a href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/XML/introNorse.xml" class="button"><img src="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/xml-tei_button.gif" align="right" width="80" height="15" alt=""/></a><br/>
<div class="content" id="body.1_div.1">
<h3>Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760&#8211;1830</h3>
<div class="teidiv1" id="body.1_div.1_div.1">
<h4>Introduction</h4>
<div class="byline">by Robert W. Rix</div>
<div class="teidiv2" id="body.1_div.1_div.1_div.1">
<h5>The Anthology</h5>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760&#8211;1830</span> collects twenty-one British writers from c. 1760&#8211;1830, a period which is today associated with the rise of Romantic sensibilities. A number of literary works in Britain were inspired by Old Norse manuscripts, collections of Danish folklore or similar such texts from Scandinavia. The periodical press printed a number of original Norse-inspired verses and generally reviewed the works that dealt with the subject.<a href="#1">&#160;[1]</a><a name="1back">&#160;</a> This electronic edition is a selection of the adaptations and new compositions. This interest laid the foundation for a broader reception in the Victorian period, when the interest in saga-literature became widespread.<a href="#2">&#160;[2]</a><a name="2back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Recent anthologies, reader&#8217;s companions and critical discussions have engaged with Romanticism&#8217;s fascination with the mysterious or foreign &#8220;other&#8221; in the attempt to define British national and ethnic identities. In these works, the East (Orientalism) has been a significant preoccupation. The Scandinavian-inspired texts included in this electronic edition shift the geographical focus to the North. Pre-Romantic and Romantic appropriations of Old Norse religion and practices may have constituted yet another form of sensationalist writing &#8211; especially in the way it became associated with Gothic terror &#8211; but it was equally an attempt to recover a national past. Part of the reason for the appearance of Norse &#8220;medievalism&#8221; in British texts was the belief that Icelandic texts represented the pre-Christian traditions of the Anglo-Saxons, traditions which had not been recorded in writing in Britain due to the early introduction of Christianity.</p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The majority of the examples selected for this edition are by well-known writers (Thomas Gray, William Blake, William Wordsworth, Robert Southey, Walter Scott, Ann Radcliffe etc.), but the available editions of these authors&#8217; works generally lack the contextual framework, commentaries, and annotations which are needed to give meaning to their use of Scandinavian material. Writers who are lesser known figures today have also been included. Their writings (in most cases not available in modern editions) are interesting in their own right for the success they enjoyed at the time; but they also help to reconnect the poems of the major Romantic figures with their original literary context.</p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The texts are selected in order to exemplify the wide spectrum of interest in medieval northern forms: from skaldic song to sagas, addressing subjects such as pagan heroism, mythology, and folklore. The texts can be divided into two groups. One is the attempt at translating Scandinavian manuscript poems (through Latin). These compositions are best described as resourceful &#8220;imitations&#8221; or free &#8220;adaptations&#8221;, rather than attempts at philologically accurate translation. The second group &#8211; the majority of examples &#8211; consists of original compositions. For both types, the editorial head-notes will explain how the textual universe of the Norse Middle Ages came to serve contemporary ends: ideologically, nationally, and in terms of defining an alternative to hackneyed Neoclassical aesthetics.</p>
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;This introduction will describe the emergence and development of literary interest in Scandinavian matters: the early discovery of Old Norse/Scandinavian texts, the use of these in the construction of an Anglo-Saxon past, and the themes on which Scandinavian-inspired literature was focused.</p>
</div>
<div class="teidiv2" id="body.1_div.1_div.1_div.2">
<h5><strong xmlns="">Early Discoveries and Misappropriations</strong></h5>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The interest in Old Norse poetry began in the seventeenth century in Scandinavia as part of a nationalist-antiquarian movement. Many of the critical works produced at this time achieved European-wide circulation and were used as reference books by authors of the Romantic era. An important early work was the Danish antiquary <a class="link_ref" href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/OleWorm.jpg" title="Ole Worm&#8217;s [Runer] seu Danica literatura antiquissima">Ole Worm&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">[Runer] seu Danica literatura antiquissima</span></a> (1636, rev. 1651). The title means &#8220;Runes [transcribed in runic script], or the Old Danish Literature&#8221;. Worm was primarily concerned with runic inscriptions on stones and other objects, but, in an appendix, he printed two poems: the Death Song of Ragnar Lodbrog (Ragnarr Lo&#240;br&#243;k) and the composition known as <span xmlns="" class="titlem">H&#246;fu&#240;lausn</span> (&#8220;Head-Ransom&#8221;) by Egill Skallagr&#237;msson. These were both skaldic poems, i.e. part of a Scandinavian poetic court tradition. The Icelandic antiquary and poet Magn&#250;s &#211;lafsson assisted Worm in translating these poems into Latin. But, in the printed version, a transcription into runic script was also added. The reason for this was that Worm erroneously assumed that all Old Norse literature had originally been recorded in runes, before Scandinavian countries were converted to Christianity and Roman letters.</p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In fact, runes were not part of manuscript culture, but intended and used only for inscription on hard surfaces, such as wood and metal. Nonetheless, Worm&#8217;s mistaken theory was generally accepted, and Norse literature and culture came to be known as &#8220;Runic&#8221;, an adjective often used in English from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, especially in relation to poetic composition. The important statesman and writer Sir William Temple wrote in his essay &#8220;Of Poetry&#8221; (1690): &#8220;Runes were properly the Name of the ancient Gothic letters or characters &#8230; But, because all the writings they had among them of many ages were in verse, it came to be the common name of all sorts of poetry among the Goths&#8221;.<a href="#3">&#160;[3]</a><a name="3back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The use of the term <em xmlns="">Goth</em>, and its adjective <em xmlns="">Gothic</em>, also had wide application, referring more broadly to medieval Germanic/Teutonic culture. Part of the reason for the adoption of this term was the popularity of the sixth-century Ostrogothic historian Jordanes, who had spoken about <em xmlns="">Scandza</em> (Scandinavia) as &#8220;a hive of tribes or certainly a womb of nations [<em xmlns="">vagina nationum</em>]&#8221; from which many European peoples had come.<a href="#4">&#160;[4]</a><a name="4back">&#160;</a> This included the people of England. Sir William Temple struck a generally accepted chord in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Introduction to the History of England</span> (1695), when he explained that the Anglo-Saxons were &#8220;one branch of those Gothic Nations &#8230; swarming from the Northern Hive&#8221;.<a href="#5">&#160;[5]</a><a name="5back">&#160;</a> In the vocabulary of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, <em xmlns="">Gothic</em> came to mean &#8220;medieval Germanic&#8221;. Since anglophone writers spoke about their <em xmlns="">Gothic</em> ancestors almost exclusively from what was revealed in Scandinavian sources (primarily Icelandic texts), the medieval warrior culture they described is most accurately labelled <em xmlns="">Gothic/Scandinavian</em>. This combined term will be used in this introduction to indicate when an idea of the Anglo-Saxon or Germanic past relies on the images provided in Old Norse texts.</p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;A significant source of knowledge about the religious concepts of the old Gothic North was revealed in the two <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Eddas</span>. A key figure in bringing these manuscripts to a wider readership was the Danish scholar Peder Hansen Resen (Lat. Resenius, 1625&#8211;1688). In 1665, he produced the first Latin edition of Snorri Sturluson&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Prose Edda</span> (1220s), entitled <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Edda Islandorum</span>. In the same year, Resen also published examples from the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Poetic Edda</span>, a thirteenth-century collection of much older mythological and heroic lays. In <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Ethica odini pars Edd&#339; S&#339;mundi vocata Haavamaal</span>, he printed the long Odin-poem <span xmlns="" class="titlem">H&#225;vam&#225;l</span> (&#8220;Sayings of the High One&#8221;); and in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Philosophia antiquissima norvego-danica dicta Volupsa</span>, we find the apocalyptic <em xmlns="">V&#246;lusp&#225;</em> (Prophecy of the Seeress). The latter especially, was seen to provide a parallel to the biblical destruction at the end of the world, was repeatedly translated and referred to by English writers.</p>
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;It had long been known that the English language had adopted some names of the weekdays from the Norse pantheon: Tuesday (Tiu or Tyr), Wednesday (Woden), Thursday (Thor), and Friday (Frigg or Freya).<a href="#6">&#160;[6]</a><a name="6back">&#160;</a> But the first in England to quote more extensively from the two <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Eddas</span> was the Cambridge linguist Robert Sheringham. In <a class="link_ref" href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/Sheringham.jpg" title="De Anglorum gentis origine disceptatio (Treatise on the Origins of the English People)"><span xmlns="" class="titlem">De Anglorum gentis origine disceptatio</span> (Treatise on the Origins of the English People)</a> from 1670, Norse heroic poetry is included to establish links to pre-Christian mythology and religion, as this was believed to have been practised by the pagan Anglo- Saxons.</p>
<p class=""><strong>6</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Sheringham&#8217;s history of the English people was concerned with the remarkable courage and inherent love of liberty in the Gothic race. As exemplification, he quotes stanzas 25 and 29 from Worm&#8217;s Latin translation of Ragnar&#8217;s Death Song.<a href="#7">&#160;[7]</a><a name="7back">&#160;</a> In the poem, Ragnar recalls his warrior feats from a pit of poisonous snakes, into which he has been thrown by his enemy, King Ella of Northumbria. Ragnar faces his own finality with the famous remark &#8220;I die laughing&#8221; (in Worms&#8217;s edition: <em xmlns="">ridens moriar</em>), which concludes the poem. The reason for the triumphant pose can be gleaned from the preceding stanzas, in which Ragnar makes clear that he is secured a place in Odin&#8217;s Valhalla (<span xmlns="" class="titlem">Valh&#246;ll</span>, &#8220;hall of the slain&#8221;), a privilege reserved only for those who prove their bravery on the battlefield. In the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Gylfaginning</span> (The Tricking of Gylfi) section of the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Prose Edda</span>, Snorri Sturluson created a vigorous image of Valhalla, where dead warriors fight all day in preparation for the final battle against evil, and are rewarded by drink and mead provided afresh each night. Despite the many appropriations of this theme as it appears in the Death Song, it was never noted that Ragnar&#8217;s poem is in fact an aberration in this respect: it is one of only a few cases in the whole body of Norse literature where a non-battle death makes the hero eligible for Valhalla.</p>
<p class=""><strong>7</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Stanzas 25 and 29, in which Ragnar explains the religious motives for his courageous defiance of death, were quoted time and again by subsequent British writers. Only six years after Sheringham&#8217;s publication, the antiquary Aylett Sammes translated these stanzas into English in his in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Britannia antiqua illustrata: Or, the Antiquities of Ancient Britain</span> (1676).<a href="#8">&#160;[8]</a><a name="8back">&#160;</a> The stanzas also became known through Sir William Temple&#8217;s essay &#8220;Of Heroick Virtue&#8221; (1690).<a href="#9">&#160;[9]</a><a name="9back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>8</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Not unexpectedly, a reference to the Death Song also begins <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Antiquitatum Danicarum de causis contempt&#230; a Danis adhuc gentilibus mortis</span> (1689; Danish Antiquities on the Pagan Danes&#8217; Disdain of Death), a thesis written by the Danish official Antiquary to the Crown (from 1684), Thomas Bartholin. In this thesis, the author promoted the theory that the religious tenets of the Old Norse religion engendered an extraordinary patriotic heroism and death-defying courage amongst its believers. Bartholin provided many quotations from Icelandic manuscript, for the translation of which he was helped by the Icelandic scholar &#193;rni Magn&#250;sson. The thesis became a standard work for British antiquaries, who adapted several of the citations for English letters.</p>
<p class=""><strong>9</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The first was John Campbell, miscellaneous writer and friend of Samuel Johnson, who printed two &#8220;Danish Odes&#8221; in the mid-eighteenth century.<a href="#10">&#160;[10]</a><a name="10back">&#160;</a> These are used as a conclusion to Campbell&#8217;s grievance that England&#8217;s Scandinavian past was ignored. His fictional correspondent Leander explains: &#8220;The Expeditions of the <em xmlns="">Danes</em> into this Island make a considerable Part of our ancient History, a Part hitherto very loosely treated thro&#8217; the Partiality of some, and the Ignorance of most of our Writers, who have affected to represent all the Attempts of the <em xmlns="">Danes</em>, as so many thievish Enterprizes undertaken by a mean barbarous Enemy &#8230;&#8221;.<a href="#11">&#160;[11]</a><a name="11back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>10</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Old Norse poetry was usually cited as historical documentation, giving information on past beliefs and attitudes that could not be retrieved from chronicles, wills, laws and other such utilitarian texts.<a href="#12">&#160;[12]</a><a name="12back">&#160;</a> But its aesthetic qualities were usually not seriously considered. Nonetheless, Temple intimates in connection with Ragnar&#8217;s Death Song that it is &#8220;very well worth reading, by any that love Poetry&#8221;. In this and Egill Skallagr&#237;msson&#8217;s poem (both printed by Worm), he sees &#8220;a vein truly Poetical&#8221;.<a href="#13">&#160;[13]</a><a name="13back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>11</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Scandinavian history and poetry found a European-wide audience through the writings of the Geneavan professor in Copenhagen, Paul-Henri Mallet (1730&#8211;1807). Under the sponsorship of the Danish government, Mallet wrote two important books.<a href="#14">&#160;[14]</a><a name="14back">&#160;</a> The first was <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Introduction &#224; l&#8217;histoire du Danemarch o&#249; l&#8217;on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois</span> (1755, rev. ed. 1763, 1773). This work deals with the ancient history and religion of the North. Mallet relied to a large extent on literary texts, from which he drew information about the manners of the Old Scandinavians. The second work was <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Monumens de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulierement des anciens Scandinaves</span> (1756), a collection of primarily Icelandic source texts (extracts from the two <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Eddas</span> and skaldic poetry), but also including the legendary tale of King Grym&#8217;s courtship.</p>
<p class=""><strong>12</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Mallet&#8217;s writings were translated into German by A. F. Roese (1765&#8211;69), receiving enthusiastic praise from the important antiquary and critic J. G. Herder.<a href="#15">&#160;[15]</a><a name="15back">&#160;</a> In Britain, reception was more modest. Reviews in the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Monthly Review</span> (1757) and the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Grand Magazine of Universal Intelligence</span> (1758) were lengthy, but consisting mostly of summaries and extracts from the poetry translated. However, in 1770, the antiquary Thomas Percy translated Mallet&#8217;s texts into English in a two-volume edition entitled <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>.<a href="#16">&#160;[16]</a><a name="16back">&#160;</a> In fact, the first volume was a translation of the 1763 revised edition of <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Introduction</span>. Over the years, as Mallet worked with the material, he became interested in the aesthetic appeal of Norse poetry. In the second edition, Mallet added passages to his text addressing the merits of Norse poetics and its connection with the sublime.<a href="#17">&#160;[17]</a><a name="17back">&#160;</a> This made it a work that could inspire an emergent Romantic sensibility. Mallet is referred to in the notes accompanying several of the poems in this anthology.</p>
<p class=""><strong>13</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Another reason for the positive reception of <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span> in Britain was that Mallet&#8217;s description of the Scandinavian pre-Christian culture could be seen as valid for the study of early English history. Percy with his publisher Thomas Carnan, a former associate with the famous bookseller John Newbery, announced on the title page of the English translation that the volumes contained not only information about &#8220;the ancient Danes&#8221;, but also about &#8220;our own Saxon ancestors&#8221;. This was despite the fact that Mallet only mentions the Anglo-Saxons in passing.</p>
<p class=""><strong>14</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;This was not the only alteration introduced in the English version. Mallet had not adequately distinguished between Celtic and Germanic peoples, using the designation <em xmlns="">Celtique</em> indiscriminately about all northern peoples. Thus, when speaking about the Germanic ancestors, Mallet refers to the Druids (an exclusively Celtic priesthood). This ethnic and cultural confusion was often perpetuated in authoritative sources, such as Philipp Cl&#252;ver&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Germaniae Antiquae</span> (Leiden, 1616), Johann Georg Keysler&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Antiquitates selectae Septrionales et Celtae</span> (Hannover, 1720), and Simon Pelloutier&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Histoire des Celtes</span> (La Haye, 1750). Pelloutier, for example, held that the German language derived from the ancient language of the Celts.<a href="#18">&#160;[18]</a><a name="18back">&#160;</a> Percy set out to put an end to this ethnographic mix-up of Germanic and Celtic cultures. In the &#8220;Translator&#8217;s Preface&#8221; to the English edition of Mallet&#8217;s work, he painstakingly labours out the differences between the &#8220;two races of men&#8221; as &#8220; <em xmlns="">ab origine</em> distinct&#8221;.<a href="#19">&#160;[19]</a><a name="19back">&#160;</a> Throughout the English version, we find an intrusively interventionist translator, introducing evidence against Mallet&#8217;s confusion in the form of notes and annotations, and supplanting Mallet&#8217;s term <em xmlns="">Celtique</em> with <em xmlns="">Gothic</em>. Hence, <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span> reads like a virtual palimpsest.</p>
<p class=""><strong>15</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Percy introduces a clear Germanic bias. But it is only later that his fault lines between Gothic and Celtic cultures were turned into racist slurs, such as we find in the writings of the fierce anti- Celtic Scot John Pinkerton.<a href="#20">&#160;[20]</a><a name="20back">&#160;</a> When I. A. Blackwell, in 1847, published a new edition of Percy&#8217;s translation, this editor&#8217;s &#8220;Remarks on Bishop Percy&#8217;s Preface&#8221; proposes an even harder division between the Germanic and the Celtic races through references to both craniology and the psychological constitution of men.<a href="#21">&#160;[21]</a><a name="21back">&#160;</a> Among the texts anthologized here, Joseph Sterling&#8217;s &#8220;Scalder: An Ode&#8221; compares Celtic and Germanic culture, while druids and Norse gods appear together in Ann Radcliffe&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Salisbury Plains. Stonehenge</span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="teidiv2" id="body.1_div.1_div.1_div.3">
<h5><em xmlns="">Norse Poetry and Britain</em></h5>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Rosemary Sweet, in her extensive survey of antiquarianism in the eighteenth century, interrupts her narrative to remind readers that &#8220;[t]o speak of Saxon antiquities and scholarship without reference to the broader scope of Gothic antiquities &#8230; is something of a distortion&#8221;.<a href="#22">&#160;[22]</a><a name="22back">&#160;</a> The recognition that the Anglo-Saxons were part of a wider North Sea culture had slowly emerged in the course of the seventeenth-century. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Oxford philologist George Hickes (1642&#8211;1715) tied Norse poetry to English tradition in his monumental <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Linguarum veterum septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus</span>, published in three volumes between 1703 and 1705. Hickes&#8217;s investigation into &#8220;northern&#8221; cultures presented itself as a rather haphazard amalgamation of Anglo-Saxon and medieval Germanic cultures, as this could possibly be recovered through numismatics, linguistics and poetics.</p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the long chapter on <span xmlns="" class="titlem">De dialecto poetica, pr&#230;sertim de dialecto poetica Dano-Saxonica</span> (&#8220;The Language of Poetry, especially the Language of Dano-Saxon Poetry), Hickes scrutinized the fourteenth-century poem <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Piers Plowman</span> in an attempt to find traces of Norse poetic diction.<a href="#23">&#160;[23]</a><a name="23back">&#160;</a> More importantly, he connected Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon heroic traditions in the discussion of the poem known as &#8220;The Waking of Angantyr&#8221; (lines originally embedded in the Icelandic <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Hervarar saga ok</span> Hei&#240;reks). This poem presents a dialogue between the shield-maiden Hervor and her dead father Angantyr over possession of the magical sword Tyrfing. Hickes prints the poem alongside the Anglo-Saxon fragment <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Battle of Finnsburh</span>, where a sword with similar lightening properties is mentioned.<a href="#24">&#160;[24]</a><a name="24back">&#160;</a> Hickes was the first to translate a Norse poem into English in its entirety.</p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Hickes&#8217;s claim that Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon language and traditions were closely related was taken up by later eighteen-century promoters of Nordic poetry, not least Thomas Percy. In connection with his new translation of the Hervor/Angantyr dialogue in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Islandic Language</span> (1763), Percy refers to Hickes&#8217;s studies. In the preface to this short volume, Percy follows Hickes&#8217;s lead in emphasizing the linguistic closeness of the Saxon language to Norse, using the filial metaphor: &#8220;sister dialect&#8221;.<a href="#25">&#160;[25]</a><a name="25back">&#160;</a> He further explains that Icelandic manuscripts were relevant for Anglo-Saxons. This was due to the fact that Iceland was converted to Christianity so late (the Alting made it law in 999 or 1000); thus, they had preserved their &#8220;original manners and customs longer than any other of the Gothic tribes&#8221;, securing the survival of their literary representations &#8220;down nearer to our own time&#8221;, i.e. long enough to be recorded in writing.<a href="#26">&#160;[26]</a><a name="26back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In one of the notes to the translation of Mallet&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, Percy argues even more sharply that Anglo-Saxon literary practices can be gleaned from skaldic odes:</p>
<div class="blockquote">As to the Anglo-Saxon, and Icelandic poetry: these will be allowed to be in all respects congenial, because of the great affinity between the two languages, and between the nations who spoke them. They were both Gothic Tribes, and used two not very different dialects of the same Gothic language. Accordingly we find a very strong resemblance in their versification, phraseology and poetic allusions &#8230;.<a href="#27">&#160;[27]</a><a name="27back">&#160;</a></div>
In a letter from February 1764, Percy proposed that &#8220;Icelandic was a kind of court language, as French is now&#8221;, understood in royal circles throughout Scandinavia, England, and the Atlantic islands.<a href="#28">&#160;[28]</a><a name="28back">&#160;</a> In fact, Percy had originally imagined a sense of continuity between his most famous collection, <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</span> (first ed. 1765), and his anthology of Norse verses. The minor poet William Shenstone, acting as Percy&#8217;s literary mentor, suggested that the Old Norse poems could be included in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</span>. This came at a time when <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques</span> was still being discussed as a possible four-volume edition.<a href="#29">&#160;[29]</a><a name="29back">&#160;</a> Prefixed to the first volume of what became three volumes of <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques</span>, Percy printed <span xmlns="" class="titlem">An Essay on the Ancient Minstrels in England</span>, in which he provided evidence, primarily of a dubious anecdotal nature, that Scandinavian skalds had travelled with the Germanic invaders of Britain in the fifth century, and there created an unbroken line of singers, developing into the later well-documented medieval profession of theminstrel.
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Like Percy, the poet Thomas Gray also seems to have studied early English and Old Norse poetry in tandem. In the advertisement to Gray&#8217;s two famous Norse odes, he explains that the examples were originally translated to illustrate how Scandinavian verses were an early influence on English poetry, through the incursion of Scandinavian invasions into the British Isles. The poetic history, on which he collaborated with the poet William Mason, was later aborted; but both Gray and Mason later published the Norse pieces that they had translated for the project. Their three poems are found in this electronic edition.</p>
<p class=""><strong>6</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;An undated entry, entitled &#8220;Gothic&#8221;, in Gray&#8217;s Commonplace Book (begun c. 1736 and used more or less continuously until about 1761) refers to a poem about Norse goddesses of Destiny as &#8220;The Song of the Weird Sisters, or Valkyries&#8221; (in its published 1768 version retitled &#8220;The Fatal Sisters&#8221;).<a href="#30">&#160;[30]</a><a name="30back">&#160;</a> Gray appears to take up the claim made by eighteenth-century Shakespeare critics: that Scandinavian lore was ultimately responsible for Shakespeare&#8217;s &#8220;weird sisters&#8221; in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Macbeth</span>, having lingered in the once Danish-occupied north of Britain.</p>
<p class=""><strong>7</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Later, Frank Sayers, author of the collection <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Dramatic Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology</span> (1st ed. 1790), wrote in his preface about Norse religion as one of &#8220;the superstitions and mythologies which have contributed &#8230; to decorate the poetry of England&#8221;.<a href="#31">&#160;[31]</a><a name="31back">&#160;</a> Richard Hole deals with the Germanic invasion of erstwhile Celtic Britain in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Arthur; or, The Northern Enchantment</span> (1789). In the introduction, he explains that his image of the Norse goddesses, the Valkyries, would assume the character of the more lowly witches in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Macbeth</span>, so that it could be fitted it in to &#8220;our British system of D&#230;monology&#8221;.<a href="#32">&#160;[32]</a><a name="32back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>8</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;When Gray abandoned his history of poetry, he sent his notes in a letter to Thomas Warton, the famous literary critic and later Poet Laureate. Warton mentions this letter in the preface to his monumental <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The History of English Poetry</span>, published between 1774 and 1781. Warton decided to exclude &#8220;Saxon poetry&#8221; altogether and begin his account only after the Norman Conquest. The reason for this, he explains in the preface, is that &#8220;Saxon poems are for the most part religious rhapsodies&#8221; and therefore not marked by the images of the people in their native state.<a href="#33">&#160;[33]</a><a name="33back">&#160;</a> This assessment was not entirely unjustified, since the amount of Old English poetry published in the eighteenth century was sparse and primarily religious.<a href="#34">&#160;[34]</a><a name="34back">&#160;</a> The heroic poems <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Battle of Finnsburh</span> (in Hickes&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Thesaurus</span>) and <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Battle of Maldon</span> (in the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</span>) had been printed, but since they were not translated they remained practically unknown. <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Beowulf</span>, the major Old English heroic epic, had not been discovered, and it would not be translated into modern English until 1837.</p>
<p class=""><strong>9</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;For this reason, Warton looked to Old Norse poetry for a sense of what pre-Christian Anglo- Saxon poetry would have looked like. In the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Dissertation: Of the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe</span>, appended to the first volume of the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">History of English Poetry</span>, Warton is centrally concerned with the continuity between Norse and Saxon literary pasts. He spends several pages on giving an account of how Norse poetry was introduced into Britain from Scandinavia.<a href="#35">&#160;[35]</a><a name="35back">&#160;</a> He insists on using the ethnological classifications &#8220;Dano-Saxon&#8221; and &#8220;Saxon Danish&#8221; for the culture that prevailed in England until the Norman invasion.<a href="#36">&#160;[36]</a><a name="36back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>10</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The theory that Anglo-Saxon manners could be recuperated from the evidence of their Scandinavian brethren was generally accepted. James Macpherson, in his <span xmlns="" class="titlem">An Introduction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland</span> (1771; rev. 1772, 1773), has recourse to the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Prose Edda</span> and Ragnar&#8217;s Death Song and other example of Viking-related literature to draw the lineaments of Anglo-Saxon attitudes. When Fran&#231;ois-Ren&#233; de Chateaubriand wrote about the history of English Literature in 1836, he noted: &#8220;it would be almost impossible to take a separate view of literature during the epoch of the Anglo-Saxons and that of the Danes; I shall therefore treat of them together&#8221;.<a href="#37">&#160;[37]</a><a name="37back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>11</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;When it came to literary texts about England&#8217;s past as part of a Viking empire, a number of poems were written. In the electronic edition, examples are William Wordsworth&#8217;s lyrical ballad &#8220;The Danish Boy&#8221;, as well as his later poem on King Canute. Richard Hole and Walter Scott use Viking England as their historical setting. But often, literary texts borrowing ideas of heroism and pagan religion from Scandinavian sources presented these as characteristics of the pagan Anglo- Saxons, without mentioning the Viking invasions.</p>
<p class=""><strong>12</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In translating Norse poetry into English, the influence of James Macpherson&#8217;s &#8220;translations&#8221; from the fourth-century Celtic bard Ossian cannot be underestimated. The first instalment of this purportedly ancient oral tradition was published as <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Fragments of Ancient Poetry, Collected in the Highlands of Scotland</span> in 1760. Thomas Gray had seen two specimens of Macpherson&#8217;s compositions before of their appearance in print. In a letter, he wrote that he was in &#8220; <em xmlns="">extasie</em> with their infinite beauty&#8221;, although unsettled about their authenticity.<a href="#38">&#160;[38]</a><a name="38back">&#160;</a> The year after, in 1761, he composed his Norse odes, based on verifiable manuscript tradition, but in English versions that enhanced and altered the original source texts.<a href="#39">&#160;[39]</a><a name="39back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>13</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the &#8220;Preface&#8221; to <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry</span>, Thomas Percy is candid about his motives for publishing when he refers to Macpherson&#8217;s &#8220;translations&#8221;: &#8220;It would be as vain to deny, as it is perhaps impolitic to mention, that this attempt is owing to the success of the ERSE [i.e. Scots- Gaelic] fragments&#8221;.<a href="#40">&#160;[40]</a><a name="40back">&#160;</a> Already in a letter dated 21 July 1761, to the Welsh antiquary Evan Evans, Percy argued that his motive for putting together the collection was to restore balance in the book market, which he believed was overzealous for Scottish poetry. Percy complains that the Scots are &#8220;everywhere recommending the antiquities of their country to public notice, vindicating it&#8217;s [sic] history, setting off it&#8217;s poetry&#8221;. In this letter, Percy refers to the Ossian <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Fragments</span> as part of the Scotophilia dominating the literary book market, while he mentions the plans for publishing both Old Norse poetry and <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques</span> as a means to vindicate English history.<a href="#41">&#160;[41]</a><a name="41back">&#160;</a> The Ossianic poems, together with Evan Evans&#8217;s researches into Welsh antiquity, acted on Percy as a catalyst: a Gothic/Anglo-Saxon tradition that could rival the Celtic antiquities would be located and offered to the public.</p>
<p class=""><strong>14</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;However, for a number of other translators and poets, the Norse tradition was not taken up primarily for competitive or nationalist reasons, but because it provided scope for expanding a heroic, vernacular imagination independent of Macpherson&#8217;s politically problematically and historically questionable Ossian. Nonetheless, a number of literary writers backed both horses: Thomas James Mathias included in his <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Runic Odes: Imitated from the Norse Tongue in the Manner of Mr. Gray</span> (first ed. 1781), a poem inspired by &#8220;Images selected from the Works attributed to Ossian&#8221;; Frank Sayers&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Dramatic Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology</span> (1790) contained inspiration from both Norse and Celtic traditions; and <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Poems Chiefly by Gentlemen of Devonshire and Cornwall</span> (1792), edited by Richard Polwhele, printed translations and imitations of both Norse and Ossianic poetry. Richard Hole, who contributed a Norse poem (from <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Njal&#8217;s Saga</span>, through Bartholin) to this last collection, had previously published a <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Poetical Translation of Fingal</span> (1772). Finally, Thomas Love Peacock uses Macpherson&#8217;s Ossianic terminology when composing the Norse-inspired <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Fiolfar</span> (1806).</p>
<p class=""><strong>15</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;But it was not only in England that there was an interest in the Norse past. Historically, the Okney Isles and the Hebrides had also been affected by Viking imperialism. Indeed, a syncretic culture of Norse-Gaels (or <em xmlns="">Gall Gaidel</em>), a people dominating the Irish Seas and western Scotland for a substantial part of the Middle Ages, had developed in these regions. In Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s Death Song (which begins this anthology), we find a list of military battles and conquests, including several British locations, such as Orkneys, Hebrides, Scotland and Northumbria. In fact, some critics have argued that the original may have been written in, or at least taken a route past, the Orkneys.<a href="#42">&#160;[42]</a><a name="42back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>16</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Until 1468, the Orkneys were under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway. Shetland only became Scottish territory in 1472, as a result of the marriage between James III of Scotland and Margaret, daughter of the Danish king Christian I. The islands preserved the <em xmlns="">Norn</em> language, a descendent of Norse, which survived into the eighteenth century.<a href="#43">&#160;[43]</a><a name="43back">&#160;</a> The survival of this culture was the background for Thomas Gray&#8217;s &#8220;The Fatal Sisters&#8221;, which sets the scene in eleventh-century Caithness, in the northern Scottish Highlands. Gray found the poem in the Icelandic historian Tormod Torf&#339;us&#8217; history of Scotland and the Orkneys: <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Orcades, seu rerum Orcadensium histori&#339;</span> (1697). This history had particular interest to British readers, since it showed the Viking heritage continuing in parts of Britain after the Battle of Stamford Bridge (1066), which otherwise ended Norse influence in England.<a href="#44">&#160;[44]</a><a name="44back">&#160;</a> Walter Scott&#8217;s novel <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Pirate</span> (1822) is about the survival of Norse culture and traditions in the Orkney Islands into the late seventeenth century.</p>
<p class=""><strong>17</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;James Johnstone, a Scot, who took employment as chaplain and secretary to the British Envoy Extraordinary in Copenhagen from 1779 to 1789, made several translations of Norse texts relevant to the northernmost British Isles: <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Anecdotes of Olave the Black King of Man and the Hebridean Princes</span> (Copenhagen, 1780), advertised as &#8220;A Piece of Ancient Scottish History&#8221;, and <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Norwegian Account of King Haco&#8217;s Expedition against Scotland</span> (Copenhagen, 1782). Both were extracts from <span xmlns="" class="titlem">H&#225;konar saga H&#225;konarsonar</span> and stand as the first saga texts translated into English. Later, in 1786, Johnstone published a compilation of Old Norse sagas, <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Antiquitates Celto- Scandicae</span>, with texts in Icelandic and Latin. In the notes, he often turns his attention to showing the close affinity between Old Norse and English.</p>
<p class=""><strong>18</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The Icelandic scholar Gr&#237;mur J&#243;nsson Thorkelin published in London <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Fragments of English and Irish History in the Ninth and Tenth Century</span> (1788), including the piece <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Nordymra</span>, which retells the story of Ragnar Lodbrog. During his sojourn in Britain, Thorkelin found and transcribed the Old English poem <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Beowulf</span>, which he was also the first to translate and publish in Copenhagen under the title <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Po&#235;ma Danicum dialecto Anglosaxonica</span> (1815; A Danish Poem in Anglo-Saxon Dialect). However, it was only later that this came to be seen as an <em xmlns="">English</em> heroic poem. Therefore, it had no impact on the texts collected in this edition.</p>
</div>
<div class="teidiv2" id="body.1_div.1_div.1_div.4">
<h5><em xmlns="">Reception of Norse Poetry</em></h5>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the eighteenth century, national and literary history was reconceived under the sign of the bard, with Ossian as the most conspicuous example. The bardic voice would speak to and for his age. In English poems on Norse themes, focus is often on the skalds and their ability to move men to heroic action (rather than the deeds themselves). The skald&#8217;s task was to commemorate great battles in immortal verse and thereby encourage new fervour. This became symbolic of the poetic voice possessing a mystical power capable of commanding social action. It is possible to read these examples as an expression of anxiety about the poet&#8217;s social role in the modern world. The poet&#8217;s role, as it is well known, was a central Romantic concern, leading to the aggrandizement of the poet as a guide and teacher of mankind. In the present anthology, Thomas Penrose&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Carousal of Odin</span> deals centrally with the skaldic voice, while Edward Jerningham, in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Rise and Progress of the Scandinavian Poetry</span>, has the &#8220;hallow&#8217;d bards&#8221; impart &#8220;truth&#8221; and &#8220;touch with joy the human heart,/ In man&#8217;s too transient perishable frame&#8221;. Both Thomas Percy in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">An Essay on the Ancient Minstrels in England</span> and Thomas Warton in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Of the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe</span> call attention to the skald as a pivotal and revered figure in societies of old.</p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Beyond the national and historical interest in Gothic/Scandinavian poetry, British poets also had literary reasons for being attracted to it. In 1731, the Oxford fellow John Husbands wrote in the preface to <span xmlns="" class="titlem">A Miscellany of Poems by Several Hands</span> (1731) that worthwhile literatures could be found among the &#8220;barbarous&#8221; nations. He includes the Scandinavians alongside Laplanders, American Indians, and ancient Welsh odes. Later in the century, this was to develop into a full- blown philo-primitivism for non-classical poetry. Husbands gives particular attention to Egill&#8217;s &#8220;Head-Ransom&#8221; poem, from which he quotes two passages, challenging his readers that this specimen, measures up to anything by Pindar.<a href="#45">&#160;[45]</a><a name="45back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the second half of the eighteenth century, writers began to actively seek for alternatives to Neoclassical forms. This was not initially a call for a replacement of classical sophistication and decorum, but, more modestly, an attempt to explore a simpler and, in some sense, truer poetry. At the end of his introduction to <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry</span>, Percy explains that the objects of his interest may not be &#8220;works of taste or classic elegance&#8221;, but the Norse poetry serves: &#8220;to unlock the treasures of native genius they present us with frequent sallies of bold imagination and constantly afford matter for philosophical reflection by showing the workings of the human mind in its almost original state of nature&#8221;.<a href="#46">&#160;[46]</a><a name="46back">&#160;</a> This statement anticipates the poetics of later Romantic writers. The unfamiliarity of Norse mythology made it new and exciting compared to the trite references to Greek and Latin pantheons. However, the scant knowledge of Norse mythology among the British reading public, evidently made it necessary to supply a number of explanatory notes. For several examples in the present anthology, the author&#8217;s original annotations have been preserved, since they are often an integral part of communicating the newly-embraced Norse tradition to an English audience.</p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the final analysis, the very novelty of Norse references attracted writers who tired of old forms, but the foreignness of this mythology was probably also the reason why Norse-inspired poetry never established itself as a major Romantic mode. The Ossianic poems (which required no knowledge of complex mythological narratives) remained the best-selling books of vernacular poetry in Britain and abroad.</p>
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;If the Ossian poetry was charged with positive social and political ideals of previous grandeur for the Highlands, the Gothic/Scandinavian past was also routinely associated with a number of similar characteristics. The Scottish philosopher and poet James Beattie (1735&#8211;1803) provided a concise overview in the form of &#8220;four peculiarities&#8221; for which Britain&#8217;s &#8220;northern conquerors&#8221; were to be praised: &#8220;[1] They were bold and hardy: [2] they despised death, or rather, they thought it honourable and advantageous to fall in battle: [3] they were indulgent and respectful to their women: and [4] they were animated with a spirit of liberty and independence&#8221;.<a href="#47">&#160;[47]</a><a name="47back">&#160;</a> These &#8220;peculiarities&#8221; were given literary expression in Norse-inspired fiction of the period.</p>
<p class=""><strong>6</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Beattie&#8217;s first point about heroism served as prism thorough which other facets of Gothic/Scandinavian culture would come into view and begin to make sense. The most positive manifestation of this was the idea of the Germanic North as a beacon of liberty. After all, the Scandinavians had never been conquered by the Romans or anyone else. Mallet, in the preface to his history of Denmark, speaks of Northerners as having released Europe from the &#8220;yoke of Rome&#8221;, a repressive regime which had banished &#8220;all elevation of sentiment, all things that were noble and manly&#8221;.<a href="#48">&#160;[48]</a><a name="48back">&#160;</a> Mallet&#8217;s analysis inspired by Montesquieu&#8217;s Enlightenment thinking and his eulogy to &#8220;our ancestors the ancient Germans&#8221; in the political treatise <span xmlns="" class="titlem">De l&#8217;esprit des lois</span> (1748), a work to which Mallet refers several times.</p>
<p class=""><strong>7</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;If the Gothic virtue of liberty was essentially a pan-European heritage, British claims to exclusiveness were also often emphasized. It was felt that Britain had preserved the Gothic virtues more so than nations of southern Europe, which had succumbed to various degrees of Catholic tyranny.<a href="#49">&#160;[49]</a><a name="49back">&#160;</a> To be sure, the first recorded usage in the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">OED</span> of the adjective <em xmlns="">Gothic</em> comes from the parliamentarian Nathaniel Bacon, who stated in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Historical Discourse of &#8230; the Government of England</span> (1647) that no nation could &#8220;shew so much of the ancient Gothique Law as this Island&#8221;.</p>
<p class=""><strong>8</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Thomas Warton&#8217;s &#8220;Ode on His Majesty&#8217;s Birthday, June 4th, 1788&#8221; (written as one of his duties as Poet Laureate) refers to Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s heroism. Here, Warton expands on the Germanic heritage of George III, a monarch of the Hanoverian line. Warton, after having praised the Gothic ancestors&#8217; &#8220;unconquerable soul&#8221;, speaks of how they were ignited with &#8220;the fires of social zeal&#8221;: from this zeal, British constitutional balances were descended.<a href="#50">&#160;[50]</a><a name="50back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>9</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The Norse skalds were often seen as guarantors of libertarian values, as in Edward Jerningham&#8217;s reference to how they &#8220;rouse the tyrant from his flatt&#8217;ring dream&#8221; in his <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Rise and Progress of the Scandinavian Poetry.</span> In the latter half of the eighteenth century, when Britain was going through a turbulent period of political unrest, this laid open the libertarian legacy of the North to interpretations that reflected more radical, if not anti-royalist, sentiment. Examples of this can be seen in the present edition through the poems of William Blake and Robert Southey.</p>
<p class=""><strong>10</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;From the reading of Norse literature grew a notion that the old Northmen had an unusual respect for women (mentioned by Beattie). In turn, this fostered a theory that Scandinavia was the place of origin for the development of medieval chivalry. Mallet drew on Montesquieu&#8217;s pseudo-scientific theory, linking virtues of the Gothic ancestors to climatic conditions, to argue that the harsh northern climate cools the &#8220;warm passion of love&#8221;, which is found in excess among southern nations. Not overcome by unrestrained sexual desire, the northerners treated their women as equals. Mallet developed this idea to make capital of the Scandinavians&#8217; reputation for belligerency by reading it into a romantic context of chivalrous courtship of women. He claims that the esteem of Scandinavian women &#8220;could only be obtained by a proper exertion of virtue and courage&#8221;. Thus, we see here &#8220;a turn for chivalry as it were in the bud&#8221;.<a href="#51">&#160;[51]</a><a name="51back">&#160;</a> Mallet points to Ragnar&#8217;s Death Song as proof that the &#8220;Laws of Chivalry&#8221; were not a product of &#8220;an institution so late as the eleventh century&#8221;, but that the &#8220;spirit of gallantry&#8221; was partly institutionalized in Scandinavia well ahead of the rest of Europe.<a href="#52">&#160;[52]</a><a name="52back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>11</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In Whiggish histories of social development, a higher status was granted those societies that treated their women with courtesy and respect. This was a theory particularly popular among writers of the Scottish Enlightenment. William Alexander, in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The History of Women</span> (1779), for example, quoted the English translation of Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s epicedium to argue that the custom of ancient Scandinavia &#8220;had rendered necessary to make a man deserving of his mistress&#8221;.<a href="#53">&#160;[53]</a><a name="53back">&#160;</a> The historian John Adams saw Northern landscapes and savage forests as the &#8220;nurseries of chivalry&#8221; which had produced &#8220;our customs of manners and policy&#8221; of considering &#8220;women as sovereigns&#8221;, mingling &#8220;politeness with the use of the sword&#8221; and taking delight in &#8220;protecting the weak&#8221;.<a href="#54">&#160;[54]</a><a name="54back">&#160;</a> He also referred to Ragnar&#8217;s poem, as well as the love song of Harald Hardraade, and lines on courtship from <span xmlns="" class="titlem">H&#225;vam&#225;l</span>, which allegedly showed that the ancient poems of Scandinavia contained &#8220;the warmest expressions of love and regard for the female sex&#8221;.<a href="#55">&#160;[55]</a><a name="55back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>12</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Most forcefully, the claim was taken up by Thomas Percy in the essay <span xmlns="" class="titlem">On Ancient Metrical Romances &amp;c</span>, prefixed to the third volume of <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</span>. In this essay, he carefully worked out an argument for a northern origin of the medieval chivalrous romance. According to Percy, skalds had accompanied Germanic warlords in their conquest of Britain and established a thriving romance tradition there. The production of romantic fiction was later bolstered by Danish Viking invasions and settlements. Hence, what was introduced post-1066 in the form of Anglo-Norman romances was not an entirely new import, but a sophistication of the already familiar (Normans were of Danish extraction). By integrating the medieval romance with that of prior skaldic compositions, Anglo-Saxon England could be relocated towards the centre of European literary progress, rather than at the receiving end of foreign influences from the Mediterranean.<a href="#56">&#160;[56]</a><a name="56back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>13</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;An example allegedly supporting this conception of northern literary primacy was the tale of the Swedish King Grym, which had appeared in Mallet&#8217;s anthology of Scandinavian texts.<a href="#57">&#160;[57]</a><a name="57back">&#160;</a> Percy claims this tale provides evidence for his assertion that &#8220;old pieces&#8221; of Norse literature were &#8220;in effect complete Romances of Chivalry&#8221;, well ahead of later developments in romance writing in Spain, Italy and France.<a href="#58">&#160;[58]</a><a name="58back">&#160;</a> Surprisingly, Grym&#8217;s story was not versified during the period. But Walter Savage Landor&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Gunnlaug</span> (included in this anthology) was based on the Norse scholar William Herbert&#8217;s prose summary of an Icelandic saga. Landor expands this tale, developing its themes of chivalrous sentiments and tragic love.</p>
<p class=""><strong>14</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;A poem allegedly illustrating the ideas of the northerners&#8217; penchant for romantic composition was included in Percy&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry</span> under the title &#8220;The Complaint of Harold&#8221;, originally a skaldic composition embedded in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Knytlinga saga</span>. It is a monologue purportedly spoken in the first person by the eleventh-century Norwegian King Harald III. For many readers, Percy&#8217;s title was likely evoke the English lyric mode of &#8220;complaints&#8221;, popular in the Petrachan-inspired Renaissance &#8211;&#8220;A Complaint by Night of the Lover Not Beloved&#8221; by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, is an often mentioned example. However, unlike the Earl of Surrey, we have no admission of a &#8220;pang, that inwardly doth sting&#8221; in Harald&#8217;s poem. Even if one ignores the English title Percy gave the poem, it is hard to reconcile this skaldic piece with Percy&#8217;s description of it as &#8220;modern&#8221;: that is to say, its &#8220;subject &#8230; turns upon the softer passions&#8221;.<a href="#59">&#160;[59]</a><a name="59back">&#160;</a> In fact, the poem is focused on Harald&#8217;s masculine achievement and never gives way to emotional reflection on the inner torments of love. Nonetheless, Thomas Warton described Harald&#8217;s ode as &#8220;professedly a song of chivalry&#8221; with the &#8220;romantic air of a set of stanzas, composed by a Provencial troubadour&#8221;.<a href="#60">&#160;[60]</a><a name="60back">&#160;</a> In this electronic edition, a version of Harald&#8217;s poem is included in a translation by William Mason, which adds to it in ways that make it a modern-sentimental piece.</p>
<p class=""><strong>15</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In relation to Beattie&#8217;s point about Scandinavian death-defiance, it became commonplace to refer the northern warriors&#8217; death defiance as an explanation for their martial success.<a href="#61">&#160;[61]</a><a name="61back">&#160;</a> Several of the poetic examples included in this anthology contain allusions to Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s anticipation of a glorious afterlife in Valhalla. But almost just as frequently, the fear of not reaching Valhalla is found in English compositions. References abound to the cold underworld of Norse mythology, where those who did not achieve a heroic death were fated to go. Niflheim (&#8220;Abode of Mist&#8221;) was a world ruled over by Hel, a cruel mistress who makes an appearance in several poems. Among the writers who took advantage of Niflheim as a means of creating literary effects of terror were Robert Southey in &#8220;The Death of Odin&#8221;, Thomas Love Peacock in &#8220;Fiolfar&#8221;, while Ann Radcliffe uses Hel as a central antagonist in the long poem <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Salisbury Plain. Stonehenge</span>. The fact that Radcliffe, the doyenne of terror fiction, involved herself in a tale with references to Norse mythology goes to show how the superstitions of the old Northmen were ransacked for its chilling effects. As it is apparent, in several of the texts, ideas from Norse mythology came to serve as subspecies of terror writing. We lack a coherent survey of what we may coin <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Gothic Gothicism</span>; the few notes that there is room for here may only invite further study.</p>
<p class=""><strong>16</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The association between the Gothic/Scandinavian past and the literary vogue for horror owed a great deal to Thomas Gray&#8217;s Norse Odes. &#8220;The Fatal Sisters&#8221; deals with Norse goddesses spinning the fate of men on a loom with human entrails and skulls, while &#8220;The Descent of Odin&#8221; is an account of the awakening of a seeress from her grave through the use of magic incantations. Witness to Gray&#8217;s influence is Charles Maturin, who cites the latter ode in the beginning of his Gothic novel <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Melmoth the Wanderer</span> (1820).<a href="#62">&#160;[62]</a><a name="62back">&#160;</a> Lecturing in 1840, Thomas Carlyle took Gray to task for having distorted the reception of Norse culture in Britain, essentially obscuring its noble heroic imperatives. According to Carlyle, Gray had prejudiced generations of readers to view the religion of Odin as merely &#8220;gloomy palace of black ashlar marble, shrouded in awe and horror&#8221;.<a href="#63">&#160;[63]</a><a name="63back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>17</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Richard Hole is just one of several writers who learned from Gray&#8217;s Norse poems. The passage extracted from in his <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Arthur; or, the Northern Enchantment</span> (1789) in this edition shows how Norse mythology could be called upon to evoke an atmosphere of dread and horror. Another writer who exhibited a similar technique was Joseph Cottle (whose brother, Amos, translated parts of the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Poetic Edda</span> in 1797). The first book of <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Arthur</span> (1800), an epic poem (not included here), deals with the Danish invasion of Britain in the ninth century: in a dark Scandinavian landscape, Ivar (son of Ragnar Lodbrog) encounters night-hags and suffers horrible illusions engineered by a Norse sorceress. This first book has little relation to the rest of the poem, an incongruity for which Cottle apologizes in the preface. But, as he explains, the departure arose &#8220;from the peculiar scope to the imagination which the wildness of the Gothic superstitions afforded&#8221;.<a href="#64">&#160;[64]</a><a name="64back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>18</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Norse black magic, ghosts and necromancy became themes that often dominated literary composition. James Mathias, in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Runic Odes: Imitated from the Norse Tongue in the Manner of Mr. Gray</span> (1781), for example, adds to his adaptation of the harrowing <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Ragnar&#246;k</span> myth from the <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Poetic Edda</span> a piece entitled &#8220;An Incantation Founded on the Northern Mythology&#8221;. This is included in this edition as is William Wordsworth&#8217;s &#8220;The Danish Boy&#8221;, a lyrical ballad about a Scandinavian prince haunting the English landscape. One of the most influential Wordsworth critics, Geoffrey Hartman, has described this piece as &#8220;the closest Wordsworth comes to a supernatural or explicitly visionary poem&#8221;.<a href="#65">&#160;[65]</a><a name="65back">&#160;</a> Walter Scott&#8217;s <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Harold the Dauntless</span>, a tale from the final days of Danelaw England, has several apparitions. Its denouement is Harold&#8217;s challenging the spirit of Odin, the demon-ruler of pre-Christian Danes, in the truly Gothic &#8220;Castle of Seven Shields&#8221;. Odin&#8217;s defeat marks the beginning of a new era of light and Christianity.</p>
<p class=""><strong>19</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The late eighteenth century book buyers, from their reading of the Ossian poems, came to know that facing ghosts was one of the most heroic endeavours a warrior could undertake. So it was for the Gothic/Scandinavian warrior, as Walter Scott explicitly points out, when commenting on Old Norse heroes: &#8220;they &#8230; held nothing more worthy of their valour than to encounter supernatural beings&#8221;.<a href="#66">&#160;[66]</a><a name="66back">&#160;</a> Scott refers to the most famous of Norse ghost stories: Hervor&#8217;s encounter with her father Angantyr&#8217;s ghost (actually a Norse <em xmlns="">draugr</em> or <em xmlns="">haugbui</em>, an animated corpse). Since the first English translation of this poem in George Hickes&#8217;s scholarly <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Thesaurus</span> (1703&#8211;5), this poem was frequently translated in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. When Anna Seward, the poetess &#8220;Swan of Lichfield&#8221;, wrote a free adaptation based on it, she indulged not only in its tomb horrors but also gave it a feminine angle by magnifying the daughter&#8217;s heroic defiance of her father. The result is included in the present edition.</p>
<p class=""><strong>20</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The most notorious of Gothic writers, Matthew &#8220;Monk&#8221; Lewis, also took up the poem, first incorporated into <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Monk</span> (1796). This was written within the context of parodying superstitious beliefs and enthusiast religion. &#8220;The Sword of Angantyr&#8221; was later featured as one of several Scandinavian poems in his <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Tales of Wonder</span> (1800). Included here from this collection is another adaptation of an original tale. The story of the cunning Water-King, who abduct a young maiden was taken from a collection of Danish folklore tales. These tales of supernatural imps and spirits were opportune for literary exploitation in a book market that had shown itself hungry for horror.</p>
<p class=""><strong>21</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the process of adapting original folktales in <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Tales of Wonder</span>, Lewis celebrated his own tawdriness as a manager in a circus of horrors by including a literal translation for comparison. He also introduced elements of satire to the collection through the use of editorial notes and not least by providing his own parody of the ancient ballad form. Douglass H. Thomson has recently discussed Lewis&#8217;s strategy in this respect as a means of defusing allegations that he was an enthusiast of the non-rational.<a href="#67">&#160;[67]</a><a name="67back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>22</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Walter Scott, who contributed genuine Scandinavian ballad material to the collection, expressed misgivings about Lewis&#8217;s parodic antics: &#8220;<span xmlns="" class="titlem">Tales of Wonder</span> were filled, in a sense, with attempts at comedy which might be generally accounted abortive&#8221;.<a href="#68">&#160;[68]</a><a name="68back">&#160;</a> Scott was interested in examining how superstitions had exerted an influence on communities in history. With an emphasis on the historical dimension, Scott tended to debunk his own interest in horror writing through the uses of scholarly annotation, such as is evident from the extensive historical notes on Norse superstition which he provided for his semi-gothic novel <span xmlns="" class="titlem">The Pirate</span> (1822), in which Norna, a seeress of Scandinavian descent, practices magic, visits tombs, and sings of Old Norse heroic virtues. As one critic has argued, Scott gives the reader irregularity whilst remaining regular himself.<a href="#69">&#160;[69]</a><a name="69back">&#160;</a> Nonetheless, when Scott wrote his Norse-inspired ballad <span xmlns="" class="titlem">Harold the Dauntless</span> (1817), he chose to place it within a framework that diffuses any claim to seriousness and ends with a stanza apologizing for having &#8220;scorn&#8217;d to add a note&#8221; from scholarly authorities on Norse poetry.</p>
<p class=""><strong>23</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;We may sum up this introduction by observing that the translations, adaptations, and imitations of Scandinavian literature during the period from 1760 to 1830 were guided by pre-Romantic and Romantic concerns &#8211; aesthetically, ideologically, and not least nationally. Knowledge of the tradition was slight and the choice of themes even more limited in scope. This is why it has made sense to compile a representative selection of texts.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="notes">
<div class="noteHeading">
<h3>Notes</h3>
</div>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="1">[1]</a> For a full list of reviews etc. concerned with Scandinavian matters in the British periodical press, see Amanda J. Collis, &#8220;&#8216;Plain English food&#8217; vs. &#8216;Norse and Welch dainties&#8217;: Old Norse Myth and Poetry in British Literary Periodicals&#8221;, in Margaret Clunies Ross, <span class="titlem">The Norse Muse in Britain 1750&#8211; 1820</span> (Trieste: Edizioni Parnaso, 1998), 207&#8211; 27. An older but still valuable resource is Frank Edgar Farley, <span class="titlem">Scandinavian Influences in the English Romantic Movement</span> (Boston, MA: Harvard University, 1903). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#1back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="2">[2]</a> Andrew Wawn, <span class="titlem">The Vikings and the Victorians: Inventing the Old North in Nineteenth-Century Britain</span> (Cambridge D. S. Brewer, 2000). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#2back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="3">[3]</a> <span class="titlem">The Works of Sir William Temple</span>, vol. 3 (London: J. Clarke et al., 1757), 414. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#3back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="4">[4]</a> For a general account of how Jordanes was used in England, see Samuel Kliger, <span class="titlem">The Goths in England: A Study in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Thought</span> (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#4back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="5">[5]</a> Sir William Temple, <span class="titlem">An Introduction to the History of England</span> (London: R. &amp; R. Simpson, 1695), 44. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#5back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="6">[6]</a> For an early exposition, see William Camden&#8217;s <span class="titlem">Britannia siue Florentissimorum regnorum</span> (London: Newbery, 1586), 48. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#6back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="7">[7]</a> Robert Sheringham, <span class="titlem">De Anglorum gentis origine disceptatio: qu&#226; eorum migrationes, vari&#230; sedes, &amp; ex parte res gest&#230;, &#224; confusione Linguarum</span> (Cantabrigi&#230;: Edvardi Story, 1670), 322, 358. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#7back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="8">[8]</a> For an assessment of Sheringham&#8217;s and Sammes&#8217;s Norse scholarship, see Christine E. Fell, &#8220;The First Publication of Old Norse Literature in England and Its Relation to Sources&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">The Waking of Angantyr: The Scandinavian Past in European Culture</span>, ed. E. Rosendahl and P. M. S&#248;rensen (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1996), 27&#8211;57; at 28&#8211;34. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#8back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="9">[9]</a> Sir William Temple, <span class="titlem">Miscellanea. In Four Essays</span> (London: R. and R. Simpson, 1690), 235. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#9back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="10">[10]</a> John Campbell, <span class="titlem">The Polite Correspondence: or, Rational Amusement; Being a Series of Letters</span> (London: John Atkinson et al., n.d.), 293&#8211;5. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#10back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="11">[11]</a> Ibid. 283&#8211;4. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#11back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="12">[12]</a> For a concise formulation of the utilitarian use of poetry, see Keith Stewart, &#8220;Ancient Poetry as History in the 18th Century&#8221;, <span class="titlem">Journal of the History of Ideas</span> 19.3 (1958): 335&#8211;47; see also Joep Leerssen, &#8220;Literary Historicism: Romanticism, Philologists, and the Presence of the Past&#8221;, <span class="titlem">Modern Language Quarterly</span> 65.2 (2004): 221&#8211;43. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#12back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="13">[13]</a> Temple, <span class="titlem">Miscellanea</span>, 234, 236. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#13back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="14">[14]</a> For the political reasons and history behind the books, see Thor J. Beck, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities in French Learning and Literature 1755&#8211;1855. A Study in Preromantic Ideas</span>, vol. 1 (New York: Publications of the Institute of French Studies, Columbia University, 1934), esp. 1&#8211;74. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#14back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="15">[15]</a> The review originally appeared in <span class="titlem">K&#246;nigsberger Gelehrten und Politischen Zeitunge</span>, 12 August 1765, repr. in <span class="titlem">Herders Sammtliche Werke.</span> ed. L. B. Suphan, vol. 1 (Berlin, 1877), 74&#8211;5. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#15back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="16">[16]</a> Paul-Henri Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities: or, a Description of the Manners, Customs, Religion and Laws of the Ancient Danes, and Other Northern Nations; Including Those of Our Own Saxon Ancestors</span>, trans. T. Percy, 2 vols. London: T. Carnan and Co., 1770). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#16back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="17">[17]</a> For Mallet&#8217;s changing approach to Scandinavian poetry, see Lars L&#246;nnroth, <span class="titlem">Skaldemj&#246;det i berget. Essayer om fornisl&#228;ndsk ordkonst oh dess &#229;teranv&#228;ndin i nutiden</span> (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1996), 93&#8211;101. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#17back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="18">[18]</a> Colin Kidd, <span class="titlem">British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600&#8211;1800</span> (Cambridge: CUP), 191, 193. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#18back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="19">[19]</a> Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, 1:xix. Percy&#8217;s arguments were repeated in the introduction to Amos Cottle&#8217;s translation of <span class="titlem">Icelandic poetry: or The Edda of S&#230;mund</span> (1797). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#19back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="20">[20]</a> John Pinkerton, <span class="titlem">An Enquiry into the History of Scotland Preceding the Reign of Malcom III, Or the Year 1056</span>, 2 vols. (London: George Nicol; and John Bell, Edinburgh, 1789); <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#20back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="21">[21]</a> Paul-Henri Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities, or, An Historical Account of &#8230; the Ancient Scandinavians &#8230;With Incidental Notices Respecting our Own Saxon Ancestors</span>, new ed. by I. A, Blackwell (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1847), 22&#8211;45. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#21back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="22">[22]</a> Rosemary Sweet, <span class="titlem">Antiquaries: The Discovery of the Past in Eighteenth-Century Britain</span> (London: Hambledon and London, 2004), 219. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#22back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="23">[23]</a> George Hickes, <span class="titlem">Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et arch&#230;ologicus</span>, vol. 1 (Oxford: Theatro Sheldoniano, 1703), 101&#8211;77. Hickes was followed by the grammarian Elizabeth Elstob, who published <span class="titlem">The Rudiments of Grammar for the English-Saxon Tongue &#8230; Being very Useful towards the Understanding Our Ancient English Poets, and Other Writers</span> (London: J. Bowyer and C. King, 1715). Her work was based principally, but not exclusively, on Hickes&#8217;s grammar in the first volume of the <span class="titlem">Thesaurus</span>. Hence, she deals with the &#8220;<span class="titlem">Saxon Poems</span>&#8221;, as these are &#8220;made up of words purely <em>Saxon</em>, or such as have some mixture of the <em>Danish</em>, and are called <em>Dano-Saxon</em> (p. 66). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#23back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="24">[24]</a> Hickes, <span class="titlem">Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus</span>, 192&#8211;5. <span class="titlem">The Battle of Finnsburh</span> is a 48- line fragment of Old English poetry, attributed to a single leaf found in a manuscript in the Lambeth Palace library. After this was destroyed, the transcript of the poem survived only through Hickes&#8217;s work. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#24back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="25">[25]</a> <span class="titlem">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Islandic Language</span>, ed. and trans. Thomas Percy (London: Dodsley, 1763), [v]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#25back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="26">[26]</a> <span class="titlem">Five Pieces</span>, [ii]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#26back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="27">[27]</a> <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, 2:195&#8211;6. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#27back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="28">[28]</a> <span class="titlem">Correspondence of Thomas Percy and Evan Evans</span>, ed. Aneirin Lewis (Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1957), 61&#8211;2. The letter was to Evan Evans, who published the collection <span class="titlem">Some Specimens of the Poetry of the Antient Welsh Bards</span> that same year. Percy&#8217;s argument takes its cue from Torf&#230;us&#8217;s preface to his <span class="titlem">Orcades</span> (1697). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#28back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="29">[29]</a> Nick Groom, <span class="titlem">The Making of Percy&#8217;s Reliques</span> (Oxford: OUP, 1999), 84 and 116. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#29back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="30">[30]</a> William Powell Jones, <span class="titlem">Thomas Gray. Scholar</span> [1937] (repr. New York: Russell &amp; Russell, 1964), 103. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#30back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="31">[31]</a> Frank Sayers, <span class="titlem">Dramatic Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology</span> (London: J. Johnson, 1790), iii. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#31back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="32">[32]</a> Richard Hole, <span class="titlem">Arthur; or, The Northern Enchantment. A Poetical Romance, in Seven Books</span> (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1789), vii&#8211;viii. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#32back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="33">[33]</a> Thomas Warton, &#8220;Preface&#8221;, <span class="titlem">The History of English Poetry, from the Close of the Eleventh to the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century. To which are Prefixed, Two Dissertations</span>, vol. 1 (London: J. Dodsley et al., 1774), [vi]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#33back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="34">[34]</a> For references, see Stanley B. Greenfield and Fred C. Robinson, <span class="titlem">A Bibliography of Publications on Old English Literature to the End of 1972</span> (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#34back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="35">[35]</a> Warton, &#8220;Of the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">History</span>, [xxii&#8211;xl]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#35back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="36">[36]</a> Warton, &#8220;Of the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">History</span>, [xxxiv], [xxvii], and <span class="titlem">History</span>, 2. In an earlier notebook, we find a definition of the language in England from the Norman Conquest to the reign of Henry II as &#8220;Norman-Dano-Saxon&#8221;, qtd. in David Fairer, &#8220;The Origins of Warton&#8217;s <span class="titlem">History of English Poetry</span>, <span class="titlem">Review of English Studies</span> 32 (1981): 37&#8211;63, at 53. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#36back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="37">[37]</a> The English translation, which is quoted here, was published the following year: Fran&#231;ois-Ren&#233; de Chateaubriand, <span class="titlem">Sketches of English Literature; with Considerations Spirit of the Times, Men, and Revolutions</span>, vol. 2 (London: Henry Colburn, 1837), 53. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#37back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="38">[38]</a> <span class="titlem">The Letters of Thomas Gray</span>, ed. Duncan Tovey, vol. 2 (London: George Bell and Sons, 1904), 146&#8211;7. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#38back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="39">[39]</a> For a discussion of the additions, see Alison Finlay, &#8220;Thomas Gray&#8217;s Translations of Old Norse Poetry&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">Old Norse Made New</span>, ed. David Clark and Carl Phelpstead (London: Viking Society for Northern Research 2007), 1&#8211;18. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#39back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="40">[40]</a> <span class="titlem">Five Pieces</span>, [v]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#40back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="41">[41]</a> <span class="titlem">Correspondence of Thomas Percy and Evan Evans</span>, 2. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#41back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="42">[42]</a> These theories are based on linguistic evidence. For an assessment of Jan de Vries&#8217;s theory, see Rory McTurk, <span class="titlem">Studies</span>, 103&#8211;4. See also Roberta Frank, <span class="titlem">Old Norse Court Poetry. The Dr&#243;ttkv&#230;t Stanza</span> (Ithaca &amp; London: Cornell University Press, 1978), 68. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#42back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="43">[43]</a> Michael P. Barnes, <span class="titlem">The Norn Language of Orkney and Shetland</span> (Lerwick: Shetland Times, 1998). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#43back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="44">[44]</a> Alexander Pope, a minister of Reay, translated Torf&#230;us&#8217;s work for the benefit of British readers under the title <span class="titlem">Ancient history of Orkney, Caithness &amp; the North</span> (Wick: Peter Reid, 1866). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#44back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="45">[45]</a> John Husbands, &#8220;Preface&#8221;, <span class="titlem">A Miscellany of Poems by Several Hands</span> (Oxford, 1731), [xv]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#45back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="46">[46]</a> <span class="titlem">Five Pieces</span>, [xiii&#8211;xiv]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#46back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="47">[47]</a> James Beattie, <span class="titlem">On Fable and Romance</span>, in <span class="titlem">Dissertations Moral and Critical</span>, vol. 1 (Dublin: Exshaw et al., 1783), 528. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#47back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="48">[48]</a> Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, 1:liii. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#48back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="49">[49]</a> For the Politico-legal claims of Gothicist discourse, see Colin Kidd, <span class="titlem">British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600&#8211;1800</span> (Cambridge: CUP), 211&#8211;49. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#49back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="50">[50]</a> <span class="titlem">Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Warton</span>, ed. R. Mant, 5<span class="sup">th</span> ed., vol. 2 (Oxford: W. Hanwell et al. 1802), 125&#8211;6. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#50back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="51">[51]</a> Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, 1:314&#8211;15, 320. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#51back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="52">[52]</a> Mallet, <span class="titlem">Northern Antiquities</span>, 2:234&#8211;5. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#52back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="53">[53]</a> William Alexander, <span class="titlem">The History of Women, from the Earliest Antiquity, to the Present Time; Giving Some Account of Almost Every Interesting Particular Concerning that Sex, among All Nations, Ancient and Modern</span>, vol. 2 (Dublin: S. Price et al, 1779), 203&#8211;10. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#53back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="54">[54]</a> John Adams, <span class="titlem">Woman: Sketches of the History, Genius, Disposition, Accomplishments, employments, Customs and Importance of the Fair Sex</span> (London: G. Kearsley, 1790), 63, 252. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#54back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="55">[55]</a> Lord Kames, Henry Home, <span class="titlem">Sketches of the History of Man</span>, vol. 1 (Edinburgh: W. Creech et al., 1774), 317. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#55back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="56">[56]</a> For a discussion of Percy and others, see my &#8220;Romancing Scandinavia: Relocating Chivalry and Romance in Eighteenth-Century Britain&#8221;, <span class="titlem">European Romantic Review</span> 20.1 (2009): 3&#8211;20. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#56back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="57">[57]</a> Mallet used the Latin and Swedish versions in the work of the Swedish antiquary Erik Julius Bj&#246;rner&#8217;s <span class="titlem">Nordiska k&#228;mpa dater</span> (1737). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#57back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="58">[58]</a> Thomas Percy, &#8220;On the Ancient Metrical Romances, &amp;c.&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs, and Other Pieces of our Earlier Poets, together with Some Few of Later Date</span>, 4<span class="sup">th</span> ed., vol. 1 (London: F. and C. Rivington, 1794), xviii. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#58back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="59">[59]</a> <span class="titlem">Five Pieces</span>, 74. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#59back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="60">[60]</a> Warton, &#8220;Origin of Romantic Fiction&#8221;, [lviii]. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#60back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="61">[61]</a> See, for example, &#8220;Extraordinary Heroism of the Antient Scandinavians&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">London Magazine</span> 40 (1770): 501&#8211;4; Johann Georg Zimmermann, <span class="titlem">Essay on National Pride</span> (London: J. Wilkie, and C. Heydinger, 1771), 151&#8211;6; and William King, <span class="titlem">The Original Works</span>, vol. 2 (London, 1776), 146&#8211;7. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#61back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="62">[62]</a> Charles Maturin, <span class="titlem">Melmoth the Wanderer</span> (Oxford: OUP, 1998), 10; line 10 is quoted: &#8220;eyes that glow and fangs that grin&#8221;. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#62back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="63">[63]</a> Thomas Carlyle, &#8220;The Hero as Divinity. Odin&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History</span> (1841; New York: John Wiley, 1866), 31. Like Gray, Carlyle argued that the &#8220;Norse mythos&#8221; could be traced in English vernacular literature (32). <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#63back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="64">[64]</a> Joseph Cottle, &#8220;Preface&#8221;, <span class="titlem">Alfred, an Epic Poem, in Twenty-Four Books</span> (London: Longman and Rees, 1800), iv. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#64back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="65">[65]</a> Geoffrey H. Hartman, <span class="titlem">The Unremarkable Wordsworth</span> (London: Methuen, 1987), 62. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#65back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="66">[66]</a> Note to <span class="titlem">The Lay of the Last Minstrel</span> (1805), in <span class="titlem">The Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott</span> (Edinburgh: A. and C. Black, 1851), 70. For this assertion, Scott refers to Bartholin&#8217;s work, Book I, chapters 2, 9, 10, and 13. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#66back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="67">[67]</a> Douglass H. Thomson, &#8220;Mingled Measures: Gothic Parody in <span class="titlem">Tales of Wonder</span> and <span class="titlem">Tales of Terror</span>&#8221;, <span class="titlem">Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net, 50</span> (2008), http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/018143ar, accessed Feb. 24, 2008. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#67back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="68">[68]</a> Walter Scott, &#8220;Essay on the Imitations of the Ancient Ballad&#8221;, in <span class="titlem">The Poetical Works</span> (Philadelphia: George S. Appleton, 1851), 567. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#68back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="69">[69]</a> Peter Murphy, <span class="titlem">Poetry as an Occupation and an Art in Britain 1760-1830</span> (Cambridge: CUP, 1993), 143. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#69back">BACK</a></p>
</div></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31535">Electronic Editions</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-resource-index field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Resource:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/editions/norse/index.html">Norse Romanticism</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-authored-by-secondary- field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Authored by (Secondary):&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/person/rix-robert-w">Rix, Robert W.</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-52 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Section:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/taxonomy/term/16378" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760-1830</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-city-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">City:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/city/hannover" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Hannover</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/city/oxford" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Oxford</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/city/cambridge" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Cambridge</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/city/copenhagen" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Copenhagen</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-continent-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Continent:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/continent/europe" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Europe</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-country-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Country:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/great-britain" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Great Britain</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/country/norway" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norway</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/iceland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Iceland</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/country/scotland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Scotland</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/ireland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ireland</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-organization-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Organization:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/organization/danish-government" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Danish government</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/organization/universal-intelligence" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Universal Intelligence</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/organization/la-haye" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">La Haye</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/william-blake" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Blake</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/robert-sheringham" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Robert Sheringham</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/james-macpherson" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Macpherson</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/walter-scott" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Scott</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-gray-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Gray</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/peder-hansen-resen" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Peder Hansen Resen</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-bartholin" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Bartholin</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/john-campbell" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">John Campbell</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Percy</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/scot-john-pinkerton" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Scot John Pinkerton</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/richard-hole" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Richard Hole</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/william-wordsworth-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Wordsworth</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/william-mason" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Mason</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/george-hickes" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">George Hickes</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/ann-radcliffe" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ann Radcliffe</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/thomas-warton" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Warton</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/paul-henri-mallet" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Paul-Henri Mallet</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-region-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Region:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/region/scandinavia" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Scandinavia</a></li></ul></section>Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:34:29 +0000rc-admin29933 at http://www.rc.umd.eduSelect Timeline of Writings and Publicationshttp://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/norse/HTML/Timeline.html
<div class="field field-name-field-published field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth"><span class="date-display-single" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth" content="2012-03-01T00:00:00-05:00">March 2012</span></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><a href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/XML/Timeline.xml" class="button"><img src="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/xml-tei_button.gif" align="right" width="80" height="15" alt=""/></a><br/>
<div class="section" id="body.1_div.1">
<h3>Select Timeline of Writings and Publications</h3>
<div xmlns="" xmlns:html="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" class="table"><span id="index.xml-table-N200257"><!--anchor--></span>.
<table width="600">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20025E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>Early 1200s</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200264"><!--anchor--></span>Saxo Grammaticus, <em>Gesta Danorum</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20026E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1220s</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200274"><!--anchor--></span>Snorri Sturluson, <em>Prose Edda</em> and <em>Heimskringla</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200282"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1555</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200288"><!--anchor--></span>Olaus Magnus, <em>Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200292"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1591</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200298"><!--anchor--></span>Anders S&#248;rensen Vedel, <em>Et hundrede udvalgte danske viser</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002A2"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1593</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002A8"><!--anchor--></span>Arngr&#237;mur J&#243;nsson, <em>Brevis commentarius de Islandia</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002B2"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1609</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002B8"><!--anchor--></span>Arngr&#237;mur J&#243;nsson, <em>Crymog&#230;a</em> sive <em>Rerum Islandicarum libri III</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002C6"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1636</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002CC"><!--anchor--></span>Ole Worm, <em>[Runer] seu Danica literatura antiquissima</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002D6"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1645</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002DC"><!--anchor--></span>Stephan Johannis Stephanius, <em>Saxonis Grammatici Histori&#230; Danic&#230; libri 16</em> (Sor&#230;) [printed edition of Saxo].</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002E6"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1650</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002EC"><!--anchor--></span>Philipp Cl&#252;ver, <em>Germaniae Antiquae</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002F6"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1658</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2002FC"><!--anchor--></span>Olaus Magnus, <em>A Compendious History of the Goths, Swedes, and Vandals, and Other Northern Nations</em> [Eng. trans. of <em>Historia</em>].</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20030A"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1665</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200310"><!--anchor--></span>Resenius (Peder Resen), first printed editions of <em>Prose Edda, H&#225;vam&#225;l</em> and <em>V&#246;lusp&#225;</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20031E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1670</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200324"><!--anchor--></span>Robert Sheringham, <em>De Anglorum gentis origine</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20032E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1675&#8211;1702</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200334"><!--anchor--></span>Olaus Rudbeck, <em>Atlantica</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20033E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1676</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200344"><!--anchor--></span>Aylett Sammes, <em>Britannia antiqua illustrata, or, The Antiquities of Ancient Britain</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20034E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1689</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200354"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Bartholin, <em>Antiquitatum danicarum de causis contemptae a Danis adhuc gentilibus mortis libri</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20035E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1690</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200364"><!--anchor--></span>Sir William Temple, extract from Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s Death Song, in <em>Of Heroick Virtue</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20036E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1695</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200374"><!--anchor--></span>Peder Syv, new ed. of <em>Et hundrede danske viser</em>, adding another 100 songs.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20037E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1697</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200384"><!--anchor--></span>Johan Peringskj&#246;ld, Latin and Swedish trans. of Snorri&#8217;s <em>Heimskringla</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20038E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1698</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200394"><!--anchor--></span>Thormod Torf&#230;us, <em>Historia Orcadum</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20039E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1703</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003A4"><!--anchor--></span>George Hickes, first English version of &#8220;The Waking of Angantyr&#8221;, in <em>Linguarum veterum septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et arch&#230;ologicus</em>, vol. 1.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003AE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1715</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003B4"><!--anchor--></span>Elizabeth Elstob, <em>The Rudiments of Grammar for the English-Saxon Tongue</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003BE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1716</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003C4"><!--anchor--></span>&#8220;The Waking of Angantyr&#8221;, included for the first time in Dryden&#8217;s <em>Miscellany Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003CE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1720</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003D4"><!--anchor--></span>Johan Georg Keysler, <em>Antiquitates selectae septentrionales et celticae quibus plurima loca conciliorum et capitularium explanantur</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003DE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1737</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003E4"><!--anchor--></span>Erik Julius Bj&#246;rner, <em>Nordiska k&#228;mpa dater, i en sagoflock samlade om forna kongar och hj&#228;ltar</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003EE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1748</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003F4"><!--anchor--></span>Stanzas from Ragnar Lodbrog&#8217;s Death Song, in Thomas Warton, the Elder, <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2003FE"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1750</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200404"><!--anchor--></span>Simon Pelloutier, <em>Histoire des Celtes</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20040E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1755</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200414"><!--anchor--></span>Paul-Henri Mallet, <em>Introduction &#224; L&#8217;histoire du Danemarch o&#249; l&#8217;on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20041E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1756</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200424"><!--anchor--></span>Paul-Henri Mallet, <em>Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulierement des anciens Scandinaves.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20042E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1758</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200434"><!--anchor--></span>Discussion of runes etc. in Francis Wise, <em>Some Enquiries Concerning the First Inhabitants, Language, Religion, Learning and Letters of Europe</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20043E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1760</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200444"><!--anchor--></span>James Macpherson, <em>Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20044E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1763</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200454"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Percy, ed. <em>Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Islandic Language</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20045E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1765</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200464"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Percy, &#8220;Essay on the Ancient Minstrels in England&#8221; and &#8220;On the Ancient Metrical Romances, &amp;c.&#8221;, in <em>Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs, and Other Pieces of our Earlier Poets, together with Some Few of Later Date</em>, 3 vols.]. (Rev. 1767, 1775, 1794.)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20046E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1766</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200474"><!--anchor--></span>William Mason, <em>Argentile and Curan</em>, containing a version of <em>Song of Harold the Valiant</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200482"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1768</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200488"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Gray, &#8220;The Fatal Sisters&#8221;, &#8220;The Descent of Odin&#8221;, in <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200492"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1770</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200498"><!--anchor--></span>Michael Bruce, two Danish Odes translated from Bartholin, in <em>Poems on Several Occasions</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004A2"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1770</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004A8"><!--anchor--></span>Paul-Henri Mallet, <em>Northern Antiquities: or, a Description of the Manners, Customs, Religion and Laws of the Ancient Danes, and Other Northern Nations; Including Those of Our Own Saxon Ancestors</em>. Trans. Thomas Percy, 2 vols.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004B2"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1773</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004B8"><!--anchor--></span>James Macpherson, <em>Fragment of a Northern Tale</em>, in the preface to <em>Poems of Ossian</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004C5"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004C7"><!--anchor--></span>Third edition of James Macpherson&#8217;s <em>An Introduction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland</em>, containing much information on Anglo-Saxon manners drawn from readings in Icelandic manuscripts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004D2"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1774</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004D8"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Warton, &#8220;Of the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe&#8221;, in <em>The History of English Poetry, from the Close of the Eleventh to the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century</em>, 1<span class="sup">st</span> vol.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004E6"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1775</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004EC"><!--anchor--></span>William Bagshaw Stevens, &#8220;Hervor and Angantyr&#8221; and &#8220;Song of Rednor Ladbrog&#8221;, in <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004F5"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2004F7"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Penrose, &#8220;Carousal of Odin&#8221;, in <em>Flights of Fancy</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200502"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1778&#8211;79</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200508"><!--anchor--></span>Johann Gottfried von Herder, <em>Volkslieder</em>, containing various Danish and Icelandic poems.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200512"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1780</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200518"><!--anchor--></span>James Johnstone, <em>Anecdotes of Olave the Black</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200521"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200523"><!--anchor--></span>Uno von Troil, <em>Letters on Iceland</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20052E"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1781</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200534"><!--anchor--></span>Hugh Downman, <em>The Death Song of Ragnar Lodbrach, or Ladbrog</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20053D"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20053F"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas James Mathias, <em>Runic Odes: Imitated from the Norse Tongue in the Manner of Mr. Gray</em> (repr. 1790, 1798, 1806).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200549"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1782</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20054F"><!--anchor--></span>James Johnstone, <em>Lodbrokar-Quida</em> and <em>Haco&#8217;s Expedition</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20055C"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20055E"><!--anchor--></span>Joseph Sterling, <em>Odes from the Icelandic</em>, in <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20056D"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1783</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200573"><!--anchor--></span>William Blake, <em>Gwin, King of Norway</em>, in <em>Poetical Sketches</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200581"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1784</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200587"><!--anchor--></span>Edward Jerningham, <em>The Rise and Progress of Scandinavian Poetry</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200591"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1786</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200597"><!--anchor--></span><em>Antiquitates Celto-Normannic&#230;, containing the Chronicle of Man and the Isles</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005A0"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1787</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005A6"><!--anchor--></span>Arnamagn&#230;an Commission, Copenhagen, 1<span class="sup">st</span> volume of poems from the <em>Poetic Edda</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005B4"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1787</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005BA"><!--anchor--></span>John Pinkerton, <em>Dissertation on the Scythians</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005C4"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1789</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005CA"><!--anchor--></span>Richard Hole, <em>Arthur: or, The Northern Enchantment. A Poetical Romance, in Seven Books.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005D4"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1790</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005DA"><!--anchor--></span>Frank Sayers, <em>Dramatic Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology</em> (repr. 1792, 1803, 1807, 1840).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005E4"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1792</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005EA"><!--anchor--></span>Several Norse-inspired compositions, in <em>Poems Chiefly by Gentlemen of Devonshire and Cornwall</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005F4"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1795</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2005FA"><!--anchor--></span>Robert Southey, &#8220;Race of Odin&#8221; and &#8220;Death of Odin&#8221;, in <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200604"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1796</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20060A"><!--anchor--></span>Anna Seward, &#8220;Herva at the Tomb of Argantyr&#8221;, in <em>Llangollen Vale, with Other Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200613"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200615"><!--anchor--></span>Matthew Lewis, <em>The Monk</em>&#184; containing a version of &#8220;The Water-King&#8221;.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20061F"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1797</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200625"><!--anchor--></span>A. S. Cottle, <em>Icelandic Poetry, or The Edda of S&#230;mund</em>, with a dedicatory poem by Robert Southey.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20062E"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200630"><!--anchor--></span>William Mason, &#8220;Song of Harold the Valiant&#8221;, in <em>Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20063A"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1800</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200640"><!--anchor--></span>Joseph Cottle, <em>Alfred, An Epic Poem in Twenty-Four Books</em> [Book 1, a Danish Gothic].</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200649"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20064B"><!--anchor--></span>Matthew Lewis, <em>Tales of Wonder</em>, containing several Danish and Icelandic poems.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200655"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1801</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20065B"><!--anchor--></span>William Lisle Bowles, &#8220;Hymn to Woden&#8221;.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200660"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200662"><!--anchor--></span> <em>The anonymously authored collection The Tales of Terror</em>, containing <em>Hrim Thor or The Winter King. A Lapland Ballad</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200671"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1804</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200677"><!--anchor--></span>William Herbert, <em>Icelandic Poetry</em>, 1<span class="sup">st</span> part.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200685"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1806</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20068B"><!--anchor--></span>Thomas Love Peacock, <em>Fiolfar</em>, in <em>Palmyra, and Other Poems.</em></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N200698"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N20069A"><!--anchor--></span>Walter Savage Landor, <em>Gunlaug</em>, in <em>Gebir &#8230; and Other Poems</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006A7"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006A9"><!--anchor--></span>George Richards <em>Odin. A Drama</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006B3"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1814</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006B9"><!--anchor--></span>Weber and Jamieson, <em>Illustrations of Northern Antiquities</em>, containing Walter Scott&#8217;s summary of <em>Eyrbyggja saga</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006C7"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1817</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006CD"><!--anchor--></span>Walter Scott, <em>Harold the Dauntless</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006D6"><!--anchor--></span></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006D8"><!--anchor--></span>William Drummond, <em>Odin. A Poem</em>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="100"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006E3"><!--anchor--></span><strong>1826</strong></td>
<td valign="top" width="600"><span id="index.xml-cell-N2006E9"><!--anchor--></span>Ann Radcliffe, posthumous publication of <em>Salisbury Plains. Stonehenge</em>, appended to the novel <em>Gaston de Blondeville</em>.</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31535">Electronic Editions</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-resource-index field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Resource:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/editions/norse/index.html">Norse Romanticism</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-52 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Section:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/taxonomy/term/16378" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760-1830</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-continent-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Continent:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/continent/europe" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Europe</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-country-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Country:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/norway" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norway</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/country/scotland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Scotland</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/great-britain" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Great Britain</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/country/ireland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ireland</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/iceland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Iceland</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Percy</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/james-macpherson" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Macpherson</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/george-richards-odin" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">George Richards Odin</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/william-mason" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Mason</a></li></ul></section>Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:33:53 +0000rc-admin29930 at http://www.rc.umd.eduThe Dying Ode of Regnar Lodbroghttp://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/norse/HTML/Percy.html
<div class="field field-name-field-published field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth"><span class="date-display-single" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth" content="2012-03-01T00:00:00-05:00">March 2012</span></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><a href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/XML/Percy.xml" class="button"><img src="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/xml-tei_button.gif" align="right" width="80" height="15" alt=""/></a><br/>
<div class="essay" id="body.1_div.1">
<h3>Thomas Percy (1729&#8211;1811)</h3>
<a name="intro"><!--anchor--></a>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Thomas Percy, churchman and Bishop of Dromore from 1782 to 1798, became one of the leading scholars on literary and antiquarian matters. He edited a number of publications, including translations from Chinese, analysis of Hebrew scripture, and an aborted collection of Spanish songs on Moorish subjects. However, the work that made his name was the publication of a manuscript which he discovered (c. 1753) in the house of his friend Humphrey Pitt. The maids were using its leaves to light the fire. The manuscript contained versions of traditional ballads, probably compiled in the mid-17th century. <em xmlns="">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry: Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs and Other Pieces of Our Earlier Poets (Chiefly of the Lyric Kind) Together with Some Few of Later Date</em> was published by the bookseller Robert Dodsley in 1765 and was an immediate success, with a fourth edition published in 1794. <em xmlns="">Reliques</em> was instrumental in encouraging the collection and study of English ballads. But poets such as <a class="link_ref" href="/editions/norse/HTML/./Wordsworth.html" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a class="link_ref" href="/editions/norse/HTML/./Scott.html" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, and S. T. Coleridge also cited Percy&#8217;s work as a source of inspiration for their fiction.<a href="#1">&#160;[1]</a><a name="1back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The antiquary Joseph Ritson attacked Percy for his editorial practices. Although Percy did not fake anything, he certainly interfered with the ballads by rewriting, conflating, and adding to them. This was revealed when the manuscript from which he worked was published in full by J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall as <em xmlns="">Percy&#8217;s Folio MS</em> (1867). After his preferment as bishop, Percy increasingly dissociated himself from the role of pioneer in the study of vernacular antiquities.</p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;Two years before the first edition of <em xmlns="">Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</em> (1765), Percy published <em xmlns="">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Islandic Language</em> (1763). Like all seventeenth- and eighteenth-century British translators of Old Norse poetry, Percy relied on Latin intermediaries. But to check the translations, Percy enlisted the help of Anglo-Saxon and Gothic scholar Edward Lye (1694&#8211;1767). In <em xmlns="">Five Pieces</em>, &#8220;The Death Song of Ragnar Lodbrog&#8221; (today often referred to as <em xmlns="">Kr&#225;kum&#225;l</em> or the Song of Kraka) was translated in full for the first time. Since Ragnar was seen to epitomize the heroic and superstitious attitudes of the Gothic forefathers, it became the Old Norse text most frequently translated, abstracted and referred to in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The principal source of transmission of the poem was the Danish antiquary Ole Worm (Lat. Olaus Wormius), who printed it in Latin translation, with a transcription into runes, in his <em xmlns="">[Runer] seu Danica literatura antiquissima</em> (1636, rev. 1651). The misapprehensions that marred this Latin version determined the interpretation of the practices and belief of Germanic ancestors, especially in regard to the mistranslation that makes the speaker look forward to carousing with drinking vessels made of human skulls (see stanza VIII below).</p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The speaker in the poem is the semi-legendary Scandinavian king, Ragnar Lodbrog (<em xmlns="">Ragnarr Lo&#240;br&#243;k</em>), who recalls his warrior feats from a pit of poisonous snakes, into which he has been thrown by his enemy, King Ella of Northumberland. In the course of the first twenty-one stanzas, Ragnar recounts his many battles. The remainder of the poem is spoken in the poetic present, as he is succumbing to the effects of venom. With undaunted confidence, Ragnar expresses his anticipation of joining other fallen heroes in Odin&#8217;s Valhalla, and he sets out the hope that his sons will avenge his murder.</p>
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;The poem is a skaldic song (i.e. it belongs to a courtly tradition), written in a variation of the poetic metre <em xmlns="">dr&#243;ttkv&#230;&#240;i</em>. The stanzas were transmitted in connection with <em xmlns="">Ragnars saga lo&#240;br&#243;kar</em>, which it follows in a vellum from around 1400.</p>
<p class=""><strong>6</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;In the text below, Percy&#8217;s original notes to the poem have been preserved, since some of these are indicative of his attempts to provide a &#8220;readable&#8221; version for an English public. This is especially a case of rewriting the <em xmlns="">kennings</em>, which require knowledge of Norse mythology in order to make sense. Percy displays a degree of scholarly sincerity as he frequently marks passages that were difficult to understand with either triple or, when really problematic, quadruple asterisks (as it can be seen in several lines below). However, a great number of modifications of the original and unwarranted additions are passed over in silence.</p>
<p class=""><strong>7</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;It was the antiquary James Johnstone who produced the most philologically accurate edition of the eighteenth century. Johnstone had the aid of the distinguished Icelandic scholar Gr&#237;mur J&#243;nsson Thorkelin, who was National Archivist in Copenhagen. In the notes to the poem, he provides an overview of the allusions to Baltic geography and the region of Britain. Relevant information from Johnstone&#8217;s work is extracted below for each of Percy&#8217;s stanzas. (The interpretation of some of the place names in the original remains a matter of dispute.)</p>
<ul xmlns="">
<li><span id="N1702B3"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">I.</span> Gothland. Sweden.</li>
<li><span id="N1702B9"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">II.</span> &#8220;Describes an engagement in the Straits of <em>Eyra</em>, now the <em>Sound</em> near <em>Elsinore</em> [Denmark]&#8221;</li>
<li><span id="N1702CB"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">III.</span> &#8220;An Expedition to <em>Duina</em> a river in <em>Livonia</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N1702D9"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">IV.</span> &#8220; <em>Helsing</em> was a district of <em>Sweden</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N1702E7"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">V.</span> &#8211;</li>
<li><span id="N1702ED"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">VI.</span> &#8220;Scarpa-sceria i.e. the sharp rocks, probably <em>Scarpey</em> near <em>Spangaheidi</em>, in <em>Norway</em>, the scene of many of <em>Regner&#8217;s</em> adventures&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N170303"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">VII.</span> &#8220; <em>Indyriis</em> is thought to be the <em>Inder&#246;</em> isles in the bay of <em>Drontheim</em> [Norway]&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N170315"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">VIII.</span> Uppsala. Sweden</li>
<li><span id="N17031B"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">IX.</span> &#8220;<em>Burgundar-holm</em>, now <em>Bornholm</em>, an island in the <em>Baltic</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N17032D"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">X.</span> &#8220; <em>Flemingia-veldi</em>, included the antient <em>Belgium</em>, now <em>Low-countries</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N17033F"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XI.</span> &#8220;All the rest of the poem relates to <em>Regner&#8217;s</em> expeditions round the <em>British isles</em>. <em>Engla</em>-<em>nes</em> means <em>English</em> cape, probably on the coast of <em>Kent</em> &#8230;&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N17035D"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XII.</span> &#8220; <em>Bartha-firthi</em> seems to have been the mouth of the <em>Tay</em>, near <em>Perth</em> [Scotland]&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N17036F"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XIII.</span> &#8220; <em>Hedninga</em> bay is supposed to have been in the <em>Orkneys</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N17037D"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XIV.</span> Northumberland.</li>
<li><span id="N170383"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XV.</span> The Hebrides.</li>
<li><span id="N170389"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XVI.</span> &#8220;<em>Regner</em> makes an expedition to <em>Ireland</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N170397"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XVII.</span> &#8211;</li>
<li><span id="N17039D"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XVIII.</span> Isle of Sky.</li>
<li><span id="N1703A3"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XIX.</span> Hebrides.</li>
<li><span id="N1703A9"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XX.</span> &#8220;<em>Lindiseyri</em> is by some thought to be <em>Lindisnes</em> in <em>Norway</em>, but, as the <em>Irish</em> are mentioned, it is more probably <em>Leins-tir</em> in <em>Ireland</em>&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="N1703C7"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">XXI.</span> &#8220;Records a battle, at the mouth of a river in <em>Anglesey</em> &#8230;&#8221;.<a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#2">&#160;[2]</a><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="2back">&#160;</a></li>
</ul>
<p class="center">***</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="body.1_div.2">
<h3>The Dying Ode of Regner Lodbrog (1763)</h3>
<div class="section" id="body.1_div.2_div.1">
<h4>Introduction</h4>
<p class=""><strong>1</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;King Regner Lodbrog was a celebrated Poet, Warrior, and (what was the same thing in those ages) Pirate; who reigned in Denmark, about the beginning of the ninth century. After many warlike expeditions by sea and land, he at length met with bad fortune. He was taken in battle by his adversary Ella king of Northumberland. War in those rude ages was carried on with the fame inhumanity, as it is now among the savages of North-America: their prisoners were only reserved to be put to death with torture. Regner was accordingly thrown into a dungeon to be stung to death by serpents. While he was dying he composed this song, wherein he records all the valiant atchievements of his life, and threatens Ella with vengeance; which history informs us was afterwards executed by the sons of Regner.<a href="#3">&#160;[3]</a><a name="3back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class=""><strong>2</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;It is, after all, conjectured that Regner himself only composed a few stanzas of this poem, and that the rest were added by his <em xmlns="">Scald</em> or poet-laureat, whose business it was to add to the solemnities of his funeral by singing some poem in his praise. <em xmlns="">L&#8217;Edda par Chev. Mallet, p.</em> 150</p>
<p class=""><strong>3</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;This piece is translated from the Islandic original published by Olaus Wormius in his <em xmlns="">Literatura Runica Hafni&#230; 4to.</em>1631.&#8212; <em xmlns="">Ibidem, 2. Edit. Fol</em>. 1651.</p>
<p class=""><strong>4</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;N. B. Thora, mentioned in the first stanza, was daughter of some little Gothic prince, whose palace was infested by a large serpent; he offered his daughter in marriage to any one that would kill the monster and set her free. Regner accomplished the atchievement and acquired the name of <em xmlns="">Lod-brog,</em> which signifies ROUGH or HAIRY-BREECHES, because he cloathed himself all over in rough or hairy skins before he made the attack. [<em xmlns="">Vide Saxon Gram. pag.</em> 152, 153.] &#8212;This is the poetical account of this adventure: but history informs us that Thora was kept prisoner by one of her father&#8217;s vassals, whose name was <em xmlns="">Orme</em> or <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Serpent</span>, and that it was from this man that Regner delivered her, clad in the aforesaid shaggy armour. But he himself chuses to commemorate it in the most poetical manner.</p>
<p class=""><strong>5</strong>.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <em xmlns="">Vide Chev. Mallet Introd. a L</em> &#8217;<em xmlns="">Hist. de Dannemarc. pag.</em>201.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[I]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: *** when in Gothland I slew an enormous serpent: my reward was the beauteous Thora. Thence I was deemed a man: they called me Lodbrog from that slaughter.*** I thrust the monster through with my spear, with the steel productive of splendid rewards.<a href="#4">&#160;[4]</a><a name="4back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[II]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: I was very young, when towards the East, in the straights of Eirar, we gained rivers of blood&#8224; for the ravenous wolf: ample food for the yellow-footed fowl. There the hard iron sung upon the lofty helmets. The whole ocean was one wound. The raven waded in the blood of the slain.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; Literally &#8220;Rivers of wounds.&#8221;&#8212;By the yellow-footed fowl is meant the eagle.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[III]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: we lifted high our lances; when I had numbered twenty years, and every where acquired great renown. We conquered eight barons at the mouth of the Danube. We procured ample entertainment for the eagle in that slaughter. Bloody sweat fell in the ocean of wounds. A host of men there lost their lives.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[IV]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: we enjoyed the fight, when we sent the inhabitants of Helsing to the habitation of the gods&#8224;. We failed up the Vistula. Then the sword acquired spoils: the whole ocean was one wound: the earth grew red with reeking gore: the sword grinned at the coats of mail: the sword cleft the shields asunder.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; Literally, &#8220;to the hall of Odin.&#8221;</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[V]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: I well remember that no one fled that day in the battle before in the ships Herauder<a href="#5">&#160;[5]</a><a name="5back">&#160;</a> fell. There does not a fairer warrior divide the ocean with his vessels. *** This prince ever brought to the battle a gallant heart.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[VI]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: the army cast away their shields. Then flew the spear to the breasts of the warriors. The sword in the fight cut the very rocks: the shield was all besmeared with blood, before king Rafno fell, our foe. The warm sweat run down from the heads on the coats of mail.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[VII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, before the isles of Indir. We gave ample prey for the ravens to rend in pieces: a banquet for the wild beasts that feed on flesh. At that time all were valiant: it were difficult to single out any one. At the rising of the sun, I saw the lances pierce: the bows darted the arrows from them.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[VIII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: loud was the din&#8224; of arms; before king Eistin fell in the field. Thence, enriched with golden spoils, we marched to fight in the land of Vals. There the sword cut the painted shields.&#8224;&#8224; In the meeting of helmets, the blood ran from the wounds: it ran down from the cloven sculls of men.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Din</span> is the word in the Islandic original. <em xmlns="">Dinn greniudu brottan.</em> <a href="#6">&#160;[6]</a><a name="6back">&#160;</a></p>
<p>&#8224;&#8224; Literally, &#8220;the paintings of the shields.&#8221;</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[IX]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, before Boring-holmi. We held bloody shields: we stained our spears. Showers of arrows brake the shield in pieces. The bow sent forth the glittering steel. Volnir fell in the conflict, than whom there was not a greater king. Wide on the shores lay the scattered dead: the wolves rejoiced over their prey.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[X]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, in the Flemings land: the battle widely raged before king Freyr fell therein. The blue steel all reeking with blood fell at length upon the golden mail. Many a virgin bewailed the laughter of that morning. The beasts of prey had ample spoil.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XI]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, before Ainglanes. There saw I thousands lie dead in the ships: we failed to the battle for six days before the army fell. There we celebrated a <em xmlns="">mass</em> of weapons&#8224;. At rising of the sun Valdiofur fell before our swords.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; This is intended for a sneer on the Christian religion, which tho&#8217; it had not gained any footing in the northern nations, when this Ode was written, was not wholly unknown to them. Their piratical expeditions into the southern countries had given them some notion of it, but by no means a favourable one: they considered it as the religion of cowards, because it would have corrected their savage manners.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, at Bardafyrda. A mower of blood rained from our weapons. Headlong fell the palid corpse a prey for the hawks. The bow gave a twanging found. The blade sharply bit the coats of mail: it bit the helmet in the fight. The arrow sharp with poison and all besprinkled with bloody sweat ran to the wound.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XIII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, before the bay of Hiadning. We held aloft magic shields in the play of battle. Then might you see men, who rent shields with their swords. The helmets were mattered in the murmur of the warriors. The pleasure of that day was like having a fair virgin placed beside one in the bed.<a href="#7">&#160;[7]</a><a name="7back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XIV]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, in the Northumbrian land. A furious storm descended on the shields: many a lifeless body fell to the earth. It was about the time of the morning, when the foe was compelled to fly in the battle. There the sword sharply bit the polished helmet. The pleasure of that day was like killing a young widow at the highest feat of the table.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XV]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, in the isles of the south. There Herthiose proved victorious: there died many of our valiant warriors. In the mower of arms Rogvaldur fell: I lost my son. In the play of arms came the deadly spear: his lofty crest was dyed with gore. The birds of prey bewailed his fall: they loft him that prepared them banquets.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XVI]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, in the Irish plains. The bodies of the warriors lay intermingled. The hawk rejoiced at the play of swords. The Irish king did not act the part of the eagle***. Great was the conflict of sword and shield. King Marstan was killed in the bay: he was given a prey to the hungry ravens.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XVII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: the spear resounded: the banners shone&#8224; upon the coats of mail. I saw many a warrior fall in the morning: many a hero in the contention of arms. Here the sword reached betimes the heart of my son: it was Egill deprived Agnar of life. He was a youth, who never knew what it was to fear.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; Or more properly &#8220;reflected the sunshine up on the coat of mail.&#8221;</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XVIII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, at Skioldunga. We kept our words: we carved out with our weapons a plenteous banquet for the wolves of the sea&#8224;. The ships were all besmeared with crimson, as if for many days the maidens had brought and poured forth wine. All rent was the mail in the clash of arms.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; A poetical name for the fishes of prey.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XIX]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, when Harold fell. I saw him strugling in the twilight of death; that young chief so proud of his flowing locks&#8224;: he who spent his mornings among the young maidens: he who loved to converse with the handsome widows. ****</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; He means Harold Harfax king of Norway.&#8212; <em xmlns="">Harfax</em> (synonymous to our English <em xmlns="">Fairfax)</em> signifies <em xmlns="">Fair-locks.</em> <a href="#8">&#160;[8]</a><a name="8back">&#160;</a></p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XX]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: we fought three kings in the isle of Lindis. Few had reason to rejoice that day. Many fell into the jaws of the wild-beasts. The hawk and the wolf tore the flesh of the dead: they departed glutted with their prey. The blood of the Irish fell plentifully into the ocean, during the time of that slaughter.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXI]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords, at the isle of Onlug. The uplifted weapon bit the shields. The gilded lance grated on the mail. The traces of that fight will be seen for ages. There kings marched up to the play of arms. The mores of the sea were stained with blood. The lances appeared like flying dragons.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. Death is the happy portion of the brave&#8224;, for he stands the foremost against the storm of weapons. He, who flies from danger, often bewails his miserable life. Yet how difficult is it to rouze up a coward to the play of arms? The dastard feels no heart in his bosom.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; The northern warriors thought none were intitled to Elizium, but such as died in battle, or underwent a violent death.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXIII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. Young men should march up to the conflict of arms: man should meet man and never give way. In this hath always consisted the nobility of the warrior. He, who aspires to the love of his mistress, ought to be dauntless in the clash of arms.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXIV]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. Now I find for certain that we are drawn along by fate. Who can evade the decrees of destiny? Could I have thought the conclusion of my life reserved for Ella; when almost expiring I shed torrents of blood? When I launched forth my ships into the deep? When in the Scottish gulphs I gained large spoils for the wolves?</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXV]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords: this fills me still with joy, because I know a banquet is preparing by the father of the gods. Soon, in the splendid hall of Odin, we (shall drink <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Beer</span> &#8224; out of the sculls of our enemies.<a href="#9">&#160;[9]</a><a name="9back">&#160;</a> A brave man shrinks not at death. I shall utter no repining words as I approach the palace of the gods.<a href="#10">&#160;[10]</a><a name="10back">&#160;</a></p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Beer</span> and <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Mead</span> were the only nectar of the northern nations. Odin alone of all the gods was supposed to drink <span xmlns="" class="smcap">Wine</span>. <em xmlns="">Vid. Bartholin.</em></p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXVI]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. O that the sons of Aslauga&#8224; knew; O that my children knew the sufferings of their father! that numerous serpents filled with poison tear me to pieces! Soon would they be here: soon would they wage bitter war with their swords. I gave a mother to my children from whom they inherit a valiant heart.</p>
<hr width="20%" align="center"/>
<p>&#8224; Aslauga was his second wife, whom he married after the death of Thora.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XVII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. Now I touch on my last moments. I receive a deadly hurt from the viper. A serpent inhabits the hall of my heart. Soon mall my sons black their swords in the blood of Ella. They wax red with fury: they burn with rage. Those gallant youths will not rest till they have avenged their father.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXVIII]</span></p>
<p class="">We fought with swords. Battles fifty and one have been fought under my banners. From my early youth I learnt to dye my sword in crimson: I never yet could find a king more valiant than myself. The gods now invite me to them. Death is not to be lamented.</p>
<p class="center"><a xmlns="" name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span xmlns="" class="term">[XXIX]</span></p>
<p class="">&#8216;Tis with joy I cease. The goddesses of destiny are come to fetch me. Odin hath sent them from the habitation of the gods. I mail be joyfully received into the highest seat; I mall quaff full goblets among the gods. The hours of my life are past away. I die laughing.<a href="#11">&#160;[11]</a><a name="11back">&#160;</a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="notes">
<div class="noteHeading">
<h3>Notes</h3>
</div>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="1">[1]</a> For a general overview, see Kathryn Sutherland, &#8220;The Native Poet: The Influence of Percy&#8217;s Minstrel from Beattie to Wordsworth&#8221;, <em>Review of English Studies</em> 33 (1982): 414&#8211;33. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#1back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="2">[2]</a> Source: <em>Lodbrokar-Quida; or the Death Song of Lodbrog, Now First Correctly Printed from Various Manuscripts</em>, ed. James Johnstone (Copenhagen, 1782), 95&#8211;111. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#2back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="3">[3]</a> This revenge, Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian histories tell us, took place when warriors, who are said to be Ragnar&#8217;s sons, invaded northeast England in 867. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#3back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="4">[4]</a> The first stanza, about the victory over a supernatural creature, is strangely out of sync with the descriptions of ordinary, human battles enumerated in the rest of the poem. It was likely introduced as part of a different tradition associated with Ragnar. In Percy&#8217;s essay &#8220;On Ancient Metrical Romances &amp;c&#8221;, prefixed to the third volume of <em>Reliques of Ancient English Poetry</em>, Percy used Ragnar&#8217;s one-off knightly achievement in this stanza as evidence of English metrical romances being founded on Norse tradition. He says this despite the fact that the poem does not otherwise refer to Ragnar in connection with any romantic endeavours. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#4back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="5">[5]</a> Ragnar&#8217;s father-in-law. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#5back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="6">[6]</a> This editorial note on the similarity between the Norse <em>dinn</em> and the English <em>din</em> appears to give no essential information to the reader apart from highlighting the closeness of Percy&#8217;s translation to the original. It may also serve to back up his claim in the preface to <em>Five Pieces</em>, in which he speaks of the near affinity between Norse and Anglo-Saxon tradition, referring to Icelandic as a &#8220;sister dialect&#8221; of English. However, the annotation is based on a misreading. Percy&#8217;s source, Worm&#8217;s <em>Literatura runica</em>, had <em>Hett greniudu hrottar.</em> This is also how the line is rendered in the transcript of the Icelandic original which Percy included in the appendix to his anthology. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#6back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="7">[7]</a> The apparent continuity between Ragnar&#8217;s bellicosity and his amatory sentiments arrested eighteenth-century commentators. This was a result of a mistranslation in Worm&#8217;s edition of a Norse negation, which unfortunately made it appear as a simile with positive implications here, as well as in stanzas 14 and 18. In fact, the Norse <em>&#8211;at</em> suffix in the original (<em>vasat</em>) makes the sentences negative (&#8220;it was not as&#8221;). What was created was the picture of a warrior whose thoughts of war were imbued with romance, whereas, in the original, the construction is used to set up a contrast between fighting on the battlefield and the comfort in domestic and erotic idyll. It was not before 1806, in William Herbert&#8217;s <em>Select Icelandic Poetry</em> that this mistake was corrected by an English translator. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#7back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="8">[8]</a> Percy, following Ole Worm, refers to Harold I (called &#8220;Fairhair&#8221;) of Norway (<em>Haraldr h&#225;rfagri</em>, c. 840&#8211;933). However, there is no legend mentioning Ragnar killing Harold, who would also have lived nearly a century too late for the two men to meet in battle. The appellation must refer to King Aurn, a Gaelic ruler of the Western Isles, whose name is mentioned in the original. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#8back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="9">[9]</a> One of the most striking images in Worm&#8217;s translation was the phrase <em>ex concavis crateribus craniorum</em> (&#8220;the hollow cavity of the skulls&#8221;). These lines were annotated with the comment: <em>Sperabant heroes se in aula Othini bibituros ex craniis eorum quos occiderant</em> (&#8220;The heroes hoped they would drink in Odin&#8217;s hall from the skulls of those they had killed&#8221;). This interpretation was based on the misconstruction of a <em>kenning</em>, i.e. a metaphorical compound phrase forming the basis of much skaldic poetry. The Old Norse <em>&#243;r bj&#250;gvi&#240;um hausa</em> [literally, &#8220;from the curved wood of heads&#8221;] is simply a substitution for drinking vessels made from animal bone. This misunderstanding came to play an unwarranted role in the perception of Viking culture, as this line was often quoted. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#9back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="10">[10]</a> Odin&#8217;s Valhalla. The poem remains somewhat of an aberration in respect to the tradition of brave heroes going to Valhalla, since only a few cases in the whole body of Old Norse literature point to a non-battle death as making the hero eligible for a place in Valhalla. <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#10back">BACK</a></p>
<p xmlns="" class="note"><a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" name="11">[11]</a> In the original, Ragnar&#8217;s concluding line, <em>l&#230;jandi skalk deyja</em>, literally translates as &#8220;laughing I shall die&#8221;. These famous last words were often used to epitomize the idea of northern death-defiance. An illustration of this is S. Ferguson&#8217;s translation in <em>Blackwood</em>&#8217;<em>s Edinburgh Magazine</em> 33 (1833): 915, which emphasized Ragnar&#8217;s celebration of death by introducing an emphatically jubilant interjection (with no basis in either Norse or Latin source texts): &#8220;E&#8217;en on my dying day,/ I&#8217;ll laugh one other laughter yet &#8211; / Yet ere I pass away, Hurrah &#8211; hurrah &#8211; hurrah!&#8221; <a xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" href="#11back">BACK</a></p>
</div></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31535">Electronic Editions</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-resource-index field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Resource:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/editions/norse/index.html">Norse Romanticism</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-authored-by-primary- field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Authored by (Primary):&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="role:AUT"><a href="/person/percy-thomas">Percy, Thomas</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-original-publication-date field-type-date field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Original publication date:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="dc:date" datatype="gYearMonth"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="gYearMonth" content="1762-12-31T23:59:58-04:56">1762</span></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-52 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Section:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/taxonomy/term/16378" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760-1830</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-continent-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Continent:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/continent/america" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">America</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-country-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Country:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/denmark" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Denmark</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Percy</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/ragnar-lodbrog" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ragnar Lodbrog</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/robert-dodsley" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Robert Dodsley</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/humphrey-pitt" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Humphrey Pitt</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/regner-lodbrog" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Regner Lodbrog</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/olaus-wormius" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Olaus Wormius</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/william-wordsworth-0" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">William Wordsworth</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/james-johnstone" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Johnstone</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/joseph-ritson" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Joseph Ritson</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/walter-scott" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Scott</a></li></ul></section>Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:31:03 +0000rc-admin29921 at http://www.rc.umd.eduGlossary of Frequently Recurring Terms and Nameshttp://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/norse/HTML/Glossary.html
<div class="field field-name-field-published field-type-date field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth"><span class="date-display-single" property="collex:date" datatype="gYearMonth" content="2012-03-01T00:00:00-05:00">March 2012</span></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><a href="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/XML/Glossary.xml" class="button"><img src="/sites/default/files/imported/editions/norse/images/xml-tei_button.gif" align="right" width="80" height="15" alt=""/></a><br/>
<div class="glossary" id="body.1_div.1">
<h3>Glossary of Frequently Recurring Terms and Names</h3>
<ul xmlns="">
<li><span id="NB0259"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Angantyr</span>. The eldest of twelve sons of the warrior Arngrim. Angantyr was given possession of the magic sword Tyrfing, which had lightning properties, but killed a man every time it was unsheathed. His daughter Hervor awakened Angantyr&#8217;s ghost in his tomb to successfully claim the magic sword.</li>
<li><span id="NB025F"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Asgard</span>. The home of the Norse gods known as the <em>&#198;sir</em>, ruled over by Odin. Asgard was in the centre of the Norse universe.</li>
<li><span id="NB0269"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">&#198;sir</span>. Warrior deities of the sky, who lived in <em>Asgard</em>. Based on a false etymology, Snorri Sturluson claimed that the &#198;sir derived from the word Asia, making them euhemerized warriors from Troy. They were opposed to the pantheon of (perhaps older deities) Vanir, who were associated with the earth and fertility. The most important &#198;sir mentioned in English poetry were Odin and his wife Frea/Frigg; Thor, the thunder god; and Balder, the dying god.</li>
<li><span id="NB0273"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Balder</span>. Son of Odin by his wife Frea/Frigg. He was seen as the purest and best of the &#198;sir. His mother persuaded everything in the world to swear an oath not to harm him, but she did not extract this promise from the mistletoe. The cunning god Loki tricked the blind god Hoder to aim a dart made of mistletoe at Balder, which killed him.</li>
<li><span id="NB0279"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Bartholin, Thomas</span> (Bartholinus) (1616&#8211;1680). Danish physician, mathematician and antiquary. Bartholin wrote the patriotic history <em>Antiquitatum Danicarum de causis contempt&#230; a Danis adhuc gentilibus mortis</em> (1689; <em>Danish Antiquities on the Pagan Danes&#8217; Disdain of Death</em>). This work achieved European-wide fame and became one of the most frequently used sources for information on the heroic warrior mentality of the Scandinavians and, by extension, the pre-Christian Germanic world.</li>
<li><span id="NB0287"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Edda. Poetic and Prose</span>. The <em>Poetic Edda</em>, also known as the <em>Elder Edda</em>, refers to the collection of probably pre-Christian poems compiled about 1270. The poems fall into two groups: heroic lays and mythological lays. The latter group comprises the <em>V&#246;lsunga saga</em>, a history of the Norse gods from creation to apocalypse, and the <em>H&#225;vam&#225;l</em>, the words of the High One (Odin). In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, this collection was sometimes called <em>Saemund&#8217;s Edda</em>, as it was wrongly attributed to one Saemund Sigfusson, a writer of the twelfth century.</li>
<li><span id="NB02A1"><!--anchor--></span>The <em>Prose Edda</em> was written by the Icelander Snorri Sturluson about 1220. It is divided into a prologue and three parts: the <em>Gylfaginning</em>, a series of mythological stories told in the form of a dialogue; the <em>Sk&#225;ldskaparm&#225;l</em>, in which Snorri illustrates the rules of skaldic verse, while retelling many myths and legends; and the <em>H&#225;ttatal</em>, a long poem, in which each strophe exemplifies a Norse metre.</li>
<li><span id="NB02B4"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Frea/Frigg</span>. The wife of Odin and goddess of fertility. She often represented as the grieving mother of Balder, the dying god.</li>
<li><span id="NB02BA"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Hel</span>. Both the name of the underworld and the goddess who ruled it. In the Romantic period, English writers often used the name Hela for the cruel mistress, to distinguish her from her cold underworld, Hel. From her waist down Hel was rotting flesh. Hel, the location, was where those who died of sickness or old age would go. The description of this place as surrounded by high walls and a gate, within which hunger and starvation rule, is found in Snorri Sturluson&#8217;s <em>Gylfaginning</em>.</li>
<li><span id="NB02C4"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Jotun (Old Norse <em>J&#246;tunn</em>)</span>. Member of the race of giants, enemies of the gods.</li>
<li><span id="NB02CE"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Loki/Loke/Lok</span>. Represented in Norse mythology as a mischievous trickster figure, and sometimes god of evil. He was the father of Fenrir, the Midgard&#8217;s serpent, and Hel. He contrived the death of Odin&#8217;s much-loved son Balder and was punished for it by being bound to a rock with chains until Ragnar&#246;k, when he will break free and fight against the &#198;sir.</li>
<li><span id="NB02D4"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Odin</span>. Woden or Wotan in English tradition. He is the principal god in Norse mythology, a deity of battle, magic, poetic inspiration, and the dead. His name probably meant &#8220;wild&#8221; or &#8220;furious&#8221;. He inspired the feared berserkers, warriors who rushed naked into the midst of battle, inebriated with fury.</li>
<li><span id="NB02DA"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Mead</span>. Drink made by fermenting a mixture of honey and water. In <em>Valhalla</em>, it is served to the warriors, when they rest after a long day of fighting. The leaves of the tree L&#230;ra&#240;r is eaten by the goat Hei&#240;r&#250;n, which in turn produces mead.</li>
<li><span id="NB02E4"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Paul-Henri Mallet (1730&#8211;1807)</span>. Geneavean professor in Copenhagen. His two books of interest are <em>Introduction a l&#8217;histoire du Danemarch</em> (1755, 2<span class="sup">nd</span> ed. 1763), a history of the Old North; and <em>Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulierement des anciens Scandinaves</em> (1756), a translation of Scandinavian legends and Norse literature into a major modern European language for the first time. These were commissioned by the Danish government. Mallet&#8217;s works were translated into the two-volume <em>Northern Antiquities: Or, a Description of the Manners, Customs, Religion and Laws of the Ancient Danes, and Other Northern Nations; Including Those of Our Own Saxon Ancestors</em> (1770) by Thomas Percy.</li>
<li><span id="NB02FA"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Niflheim</span>. The underworld of eternal cold, darkness and mist. It was the place to which those who did not die a heroic death on the battlefield would go. It was ruled over by the goddess Hel.</li>
<li><span id="NB0300"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Norns</span>. (Old Norse <em>Nornir</em>). The three virgin goddesses of destiny (Urd or Urdar, Verdandi, and Skuld), who sit by the well of fate at the base of the world tree Yggdrasil, where they spin the web of fate.</li>
<li><span id="NB030A"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Ragnar&#246;k</span>. The &#8220;End of the Gods&#8221;. The original Old Norse form is <em>ragna r&#246;k</em>, from <em>ragna</em> &#8220;of the gods&#8221; and <em>r&#246;k</em> &#8220;destined end&#8221;, but the variant <em>Ragna r&#246;kr</em> (<em>r&#246;kr</em> &#8220;twilight&#8221;), which occurs in the <em>Prose Edda</em>, has given the often-used translation &#8220;twilight of the gods&#8221;. In Norse mythology, it is a final battle between the gods and the powers of evil. According to the myth, the beginning of the end would be signalled by men fighting each other, fathers killing their sons. A three-year winter (Fimvulvetr) would then ensue. The wolf, Skoll, would swallow the sun. The wolf Fenrir and bound Loki would break their bonds. Natural disasters will abound. It is foretold in legend that Heimdall, the guardian of the &#198;sir, will sound the Gjallarhorn, alerting the gods to the onset of the final battle against evil. A major figure on the side of evil is the Giant Sutr, who will fight with his flaming sword. In this battle, most of the &#198;sir will die. But out of Ragnar&#246;k, a new world will be born. A new sun will take the place of the old and some gods will return to the ruined Asgard, led by the resurrected Balder, the best and most beloved of gods.</li>
<li><span id="NB0328"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Raven banner (in Old Norse <em>Hrafnsmerki</em>)</span>. A flag reported to have been used by Vikings at the time of their conquests. It was triangular, with a rounded outside edge. It was possibly a symbol of Odin, who is often depicted with two ravens (Hugin and Munin) and may have served to gain his favour in war. This type of banner is mentioned in the <em>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</em> (<em>sub anno</em> 878) and a number of other English sources.</li>
<li><span id="NB033A"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Skald/Scald/Scalder</span>. An Old Norse word for a poet, usually applied to a court poet or bard of the period from the ninth century to the thirteenth. The skald was a composer and reciter of poems honouring heroes and their deeds. The accomplishment of poetic composition was counted among the <em>&#237;&#254;r&#243;ttir</em> (&#8220;skills&#8221;, &#8220;art&#8221;) suitable for a warrior.</li>
<li><span id="NB0344"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Skuld</span>. See <em>Norns</em>.</li>
<li><span id="NB034E"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Snorri Sturluson (1179&#8211;1241)</span>. Icelandic historian and poet, who was a leading figure of medieval Icelandic literature. He wrote the mythological <em>Prose Edda</em> and the <em>Heimskringla</em>, a history of the kings of Norway from mythical times to the year 1177. He wanted to preserve the stories and methods of skaldic and Eddic poetry for his contemporary Icelandic poets.</li>
<li><span id="NB035C"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Thor.</span> The god of sky and thunder, who was responsible for law and order in the world of humans.</li>
<li><span id="NB0362"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Torf&#230;us, Thormodus (&#222;orm&#243;&#240;ur Torfason) (1636&#8211;1719)</span>. Icelandic historian. Author of <em>Historia Rerum Norvegicarum</em> (four volumes, 1711). This Latin history of Norway covers the very earliest of time to 1387. It contained much historical information on the Old Norse kings. Torf&#230;us uses a number of saga manuscripts as sources.</li>
<li><span id="NB036C"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Valhalla</span>. Literally, &#8220;hall of the slain&#8221;. To be rewarded a place here was a privilege reserved for warriors who fell heroically in battle. In the <em>Gylfaginning</em> section of the <em>Prose Edda</em> (c. 1220), the Icelandic historian and writer Snorri Sturluson created a vigorous image of this place. It was depicted as a glittering palace of spears and a ceiling of shields, presided over by Odin. Fallen warriors battled each day in endless preparation for Ragnar&#246;k, after which they retire for festivities, where drink and mead were provided afresh each night, served by Valkyries</li>
<li><span id="NB037A"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">Valkyries.</span> Odin&#8217;s twelve handmaids who conducted the slain warriors which they picked from the battlefield to Valhalla. The Old Norse <em>Valkyrja</em> is literally &#8220;chooser of the slain&#8221;. The Valkyries are fate-weavers and therefore approach the role of the Norse Norns, who rule the destiny of men. From the surviving body of poetry, it is sometimes difficult to maintain a hard distinction between the two species of female deities (<em>d&#237;sir</em>). This is why the Valkyries are &#8220;weavers&#8221; of fates in Thomas Gray&#8217;s adaptation &#8220;The Fatal Sisters&#8221;.</li>
<li><span id="NB0388"><!--anchor--></span> <a name=""><!--html anchor--></a><span class="term">V&#246;lva</span>. A prophetess, seeress. In Old Norse society, a female practitioner of magic divination and the foretelling of events. According to the myth of Odin, which several Romantic writers took up, this god called up a seeress from the dead, who told him how the world would end.</li>
<li style="list-style: none"><br/></li>
</ul>
</div></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31535">Electronic Editions</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-resource-index field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Resource:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/editions/norse/index.html">Norse Romanticism</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-52 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Section:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/taxonomy/term/16378" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Norse Romanticism: Themes in British Literature, 1760-1830</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-continent-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Continent:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/continent/asia" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Asia</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-percy" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Percy</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/snorri-sturluson" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Snorri Sturluson</a></li></ul></section>Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:28:57 +0000rc-admin29911 at http://www.rc.umd.edu