1.
1916 in art
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February 9 –6.00 p. m. – Tristan Tzara founds Dadaism. March 1 – Liljevalchs konsthall inaugurated in Stockholm, may 20 – Boy with Baby Carriage is Norman Rockwells first cover for The Saturday Evening Post. May – Muirhead Bone recruited as a war artist by the British War Propaganda Bureau, at the end of the year, his album of drawings The Western Front begins publication. June 16 – Cleveland Museum of Art opens, august 31 – Kestnergesellschaft founded in Hanover, Germany. September 19 – Edvard Munchs paintings for the Aula of Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet, september 26 – C. R. W. Nevinsons first major single-artist exhibition opens in London. November – John Nash arrives with the Artists Rifles in France, vanessa Bells first single-artist exhibition is staged at Omega Workshops in London. Provincial Fine Arts Museum completed in Córdoba, Argentina, ezra Pound publishes Gaudier-Brzeska, A Memoir. W. R. W. Nevinson Archies The Doctor Dog-Tired French Troops Resting Matthew Smith – Fitzroy Street Nude No

2.
John Dewey
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John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, a well-known public intellectual, he was also a major voice of progressive education and liberalism. Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory. He was an educational reformer for the 20th century. The overriding theme of Deweys works was his belief in democracy, be it in politics, education or communication. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, Democracy, John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, to a family of modest means. Dewey was one of four born to Archibald Sprague Dewey. The second born son and first John born to Archibald and Lucina died in an accident on January 17,1859. On October 20,1859 John Dewey was born, forty weeks after the death of his older brother. Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1879. A significant professor of Deweys at the University of Vermont was Henry A. P. Torrey, Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, in 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled The Psychology of Kant, in 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the University, in 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at both Columbia University and Columbia Universitys Teachers College, in 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historians Charles A, beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School

3.
Emma Goldman
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Emma Goldman was an anarchist political activist and writer. She played a role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America. Born in Kovno, Russian Empire to a Jewish family, Goldman emigrated to the United States in 1885, attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, womens rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands. She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate industrialist, Frick survived the attempt on his life in 1892 and Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years followed, for inciting to riot. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth, in 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to induce persons not to register for the newly instated draft. After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with hundreds of others—and deported to Russia, in 1923, she published a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life, after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. She died in Toronto on May 14,1940, aged 70, during her life, Goldman was lionized as a free-thinking rebel woman by admirers, and denounced by detractors as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution. Her writing and lectures spanned a variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love. Although she distanced herself from first-wave feminism and its efforts toward womens suffrage, after decades of obscurity, Goldman gained iconic status by a revival of interest in her life in the 1970s, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest. Emma Goldmans Orthodox Jewish family lived in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas, Goldmans mother Taube Bienowitch had been married before, to a man with whom she had two daughters—Helena in 1860 and Lena in 1862. When her first husband died of tuberculosis, Taube was devastated, Goldman later wrote, Whatever love she had had died with the young man to whom she had been married at the age of fifteen. Taubes second marriage was arranged by her family and, as Goldman puts it and her second husband, Abraham Goldman, invested Taubes inheritance in a business that quickly failed. The ensuing hardship combined with the distance of husband and wife to make the household a tense place for the children. When Taube became pregnant, Abraham hoped desperately for a son and they eventually had three sons, but their first child was Emma. Emma Goldman was born on June 27,1869 and her father used violence to punish his children, beating them when they disobeyed him. He used a whip on Emma, the most rebellious of them and her mother provided scarce comfort, rarely calling on Abraham to tone down his beatings

4.
Ernst Mach
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Ernst Waldfried Josef Wenzel Mach was an Austrian physicist and philosopher, noted for his contributions to physics such as study of shock waves. The ratio of speed to that of sound is named the Mach number in his honor. Ernst Waldfried Josef Wenzel Mach was born in Brno-Chrlice, Moravia and his father, who had graduated from Charles University in Prague, acted as tutor to the noble Brethon family in Zlín, eastern Moravia. His grandfather, Wenzl Lanhaus, an administrator of the estate Chirlitz, was master builder of the streets there. His activities in that later influenced the theoretical work of Ernst Mach. Some sources give Machs birthplace as Turas/Tuřany, the site of the Chirlitz registry-office, peregrin Weiss baptized Ernst Mach into the Roman Catholic Church in Turas/Tuřany. Despite his Catholic background, he became an atheist and his theory. Up to the age of 14, Mach received his education at home from his parents and he then entered a Gymnasium in Kroměříž, where he studied for three years. In 1855 he became a student at the University of Vienna and his early work focused on the Doppler effect in optics and acoustics. During that period, Mach continued his work in psycho-physics and in sensory perception, in 1867, he took the chair of Experimental Physics at the Charles University, Prague, where he stayed for 28 years before returning to Vienna. Machs main contribution to physics involved his description and photographs of spark shock-waves and he described how when a bullet or shell moved faster than the speed of sound, it created a compression of air in front of it. Using schlieren photography, he and his son Ludwig were able to photograph the shadows of the shock waves. During the early 1890s Ludwig was able to invent an interferometer which allowed for much clearer photographs, one of the best-known of Machs ideas is the so-called Mach principle, concerning the physical origin of inertia. This was never written down by Mach, but was given a verbal form, attributed by Philipp Frank to Mach himself, as, When the subway jerks. Mach also became known for his philosophy developed in close interplay with his science. Mach defended a type of phenomenalism recognizing only sensations as real and this position seemed incompatible with the view of atoms and molecules as external, mind-independent things. He famously declared, after an 1897 lecture by Ludwig Boltzmann at the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, from about 1908 to 1911 Machs reluctance to acknowledge the reality of atoms was criticized by Max Planck as being incompatible with physics. In 1898 Mach suffered from cardiac arrest and in 1901 retired from the University of Vienna and was appointed to the chamber of the Austrian parliament

6.
Hans Eysenck
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Hans Jürgen Eysenck, PhD, DSc was a German-born psychologist who spent his professional career in Great Britain. He is best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, at the time of his death, Eysenck was the living psychologist most frequently cited in the peer-reviewed scientific journal literature. Eysenck was born in Berlin, Germany and his mother was Silesian-born film star Helga Molander, and his father, Eduard Anton Eysenck, was a nightclub entertainer who was once voted handsomest man on the Baltic coast. His mother was Lutheran and father Catholic, Eysenck was brought up by his maternal grandmother. An initial move to England in the 1930s became permanent because of his opposition to the Nazi party and my hatred of Hitler and the Nazis, and all they stood for, was so overwhelming that no argument could counter it. Because of his German citizenship, he was unable to gain employment. Eysenck was Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London and he was a major contributor to the modern scientific theory of personality and a brilliant teacher who helped found treatment for mental illnesses. Eysenck also created and developed a distinctive model of personality structure based on empirical factor-analytic research. In 1981, Eysenck became a member of the World Cultural Council. He was the editor of the international journal Personality and Individual Differences. His son Michael Eysenck is also a psychology professor. Hans Eysenck died of a tumour in a London hospice in 1997. A chapter in Uses and Abuses of Psychology entitled What is wrong with psychoanalysis, the Psychology of Politics Race, Intelligence and Education. Eysenck’s attitude was summarised in his autobiography Rebel with a Cause, I always felt that a scientist owes the world only one thing, if the truth contradicts deeply held beliefs, that is too bad. Tact and diplomacy are fine in international relations, in politics, perhaps even in business, in only one thing matters. He was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto, in this book, Eysenck suggests that political behavior may be analysed in terms of two independent dimensions, the traditional left-right distinction, and how tenderminded or toughminded a person is. Eysenck suggests that the latter is a result of a persons introversion or extraversion respectively, colleagues critiqued the research that formed the basis of this book, on a number of grounds, including the following. Eysenck claims that his findings can be applied to the British middle class as a whole, scores were obtained by applying the same weight to groups of different sizes

7.
Georg Henrik von Wright
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Georg Henrik von Wright was a Finnish philosopher, who succeeded Ludwig Wittgenstein as professor at the University of Cambridge. He published in English, Finnish, German, and Swedish, von Wright was of both Finnish and 17th-century Scottish ancestry. Von Wrights writings come under two broad categories, the first is analytic philosophy and philosophical logic in the Anglo-American vein. His 1951 books, An Essay in Modal Logic and Deontic Logic, were landmarks in the rise of formal modal logic. He was an authority on Wittgenstein, editing his later works, the other vein in von Wrights writings is moralist and pessimist. During the last twenty years of his life, under the influence of Oswald Spengler, Jürgen Habermas and his best known article from this period is entitled The Myth of Progress, and it questions whether our apparent material and technological progress can really be considered progress. In the last year of his life, among his other honorary degrees and he considered this his best and most personal work. ProtoTractatus—An Early Version of Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus, ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Letters to Russell, Keynes and Moore, remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics. Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vol.1. Von Wright also edited extracts from the diary of David Pinsent, a Portrait of Wittgenstein as a Young Man, From the Diary of David Hume Pinsent 1912-1914, ISBN 978-0-63117-5117. Obituary – The Guardian G. H. von Wright – Britannica. com Georg Henrik von Wright in 375 humanists, faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki,13 May 2015

8.
Pierre Duhem
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Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem was a French physicist, mathematician, historian and philosopher of science. As a scientist, Duhem also contributed to hydrodynamics and to the theory of elasticity, Duhems views on the philosophy of science are explicated in his 1906 work The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. In this work, he opposed Newtons statement that the Principias law of universal gravitation was deduced from phenomena, including Keplers second. Since no proposition can be logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem. Duhems name is given to the under-determination or Duhem–Quine thesis, which holds that for any set of observations there is an innumerably large number of explanations. It is, in essence, the same as Humes critique of induction, possible alternatives to induction are Duhems instrumentalism and Poppers thesis that we learn from falsification. As popular as the Duhem–Quine thesis may be in the philosophy of science, in reality Pierre Duhem, Pierre Duhem believed that experimental theory in physics is fundamentally different from fields like physiology and certain branches of chemistry. Also Duhems conception of theoretical group has its limits, since not all concepts are connected to each other logically and he did not include at all a priori disciplines such as logic and mathematics within these theoretical groups in physics which can be tested experimentally. Quine, on the hand, conceived this theoretical group as a unit of a whole human knowledge. To Quine, even mathematics and logic must be revised in light of recalcitrant experience, a quote of Duhem on physics, A theory of physics is not an explanation. Duhem argues that physics is subject to certain limitations that do not affect other sciences. In his The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, Duhem provided a critique of Baconian crucial experiments. According to this critique, an experiment in physics is not simply an observation, furthermore, no matter how well one constructs ones experiment, it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test. Instead, it is an interlocking group of hypotheses, background assumptions. This thesis has come to be known as confirmation holism and this inevitable holism, according to Duhem, renders crucial experiments impossible. More generally, Duhem was critical of Newtons description of the method of physics as a deduction from facts. Since they do not have any common term, these two sorts of judgments can neither contradict nor agree with each other. Nonetheless, Duhem argues that it is important for the theologian or metaphysician to have detailed knowledge of theory in order not to make illegitimate use of it in speculations

9.
1916 in architecture
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The year 1916 in architecture involved some significant events. Colony Club at Park Avenue & 62nd Streer in New York City by Delano & Aldrich with interiors by Elsie de Wolfe, later the East Coast school of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, completed. Main building of St Hughs College, Oxford in England by Herbert Tudor Buckland, church of St Paul, Liverpool in England by Giles Gilbert Scott completed. Holland House in the City of London, designed by Hendrik Petrus Berlage, november - The Incorporation of Architects in Scotland founded in Edinburgh. Publication of the White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs is initiated, royal Gold Medal - Robert Rowand Anderson. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, not held

10.
1916 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1916. January – The Journal of Negro History is founded by Carter G. Woodson, march 1 – Transfer of the National Library of Wales at Aberystwyth into its purpose-built premises is completed. March 22 – Marriage of J. R. R. Tolkien and Edith Bratt at St. Mary Immaculate Roman Catholic Church, Warwick and they will serve as the inspiration for the fictional characters Beren and Lúthien. Tolkien leaves for military service in France at the beginning of June, april–June – Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry live as neighbours to D. H. and Frieda Lawrence at Higher Tregerthen, near Zennor in Cornwall. Of the seven leaders of the Rising, Thomas MacDonagh, Patrick Pearse and Joseph Plunkett are all poets and James Connolly a balladeer, the event is the theme of W. B. Yeats poem Easter,1916, first published this September, may 16 – Natsume Sōsekis novel Light and Darkness begins serialization in the Tokyo and Osaka editions of the newspaper Asahi Shimbun but will remain unfinished at the authors death on December 9. Future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Harold Macmillan, wounded in Septembers Battle of Flers–Courcelette and sheltering in a slit trench, yeats makes his fifth and final proposal of marriage to the newly widowed Maud Gonne in France. Summer – In the United States 15-year-old Margaret Mitchell writes the manuscript of a novella called Lost Laysen in two notebooks and she will later give the manuscript to a boyfriend and the book remains lost until rediscovered in the mid-1990s and published in 1996. Meanwhile, Mitchell will go on to write Gone with the Wind, September – Joseph Conrads novella The Shadow Line commences serialization in both The English Review and the Metropolitan Magazine. October 19 – New building for the German National Library opens in Leipzig, December 29 – James Joyces semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is first published complete in book form in New York. July 1–12 – Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, partial inspiration for Peter Benchleys novel Jaws, November – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyns novel November 1916 is set in the lead-up to the Russian Revolution

11.
R. G. Collingwood
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Robin George Collingwood was an English philosopher, historian, and archaeologist. He is best known for his works including The Principles of Art. Collingwoods mother was also an artist and a talented pianist and he was educated at Rugby School, and at University College, Oxford, where he gained a First in Classical Moderations in 1910 and a congratulatory First in Greats in 1912. Prior to graduation he was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Collingwood was a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, for some 15 years until becoming the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was the pupil of F. J. Haverfield to survive World War I. Important influences on Collingwood were the Italian Idealists Benedetto Croce, Giovanni Gentile and Guido de Ruggiero, other important influences were Hegel, Kant, Giambattista Vico, F. H. Bradley and J. A. Smith. After several years of debilitating strokes Collingwood died at Coniston, Lancashire. He was a practising Anglican throughout his life, Collingwood is widely noted for The Idea of History, a work collated from various sources soon after his death by his pupil T. M. Knox. Collingwood pointed out a difference between knowing things in the present and knowing history. To come to know things in the present or about things in the sciences, “real” things can be observed. The problem with coming to know things about history is that while past human actions actually or really happened, the actions, then, have no real existence or substance at the point in time that the historian is studying them. Based on the understanding that the events and actions that historians study have already happened, they are finished, Collingwood maintained that historians must use their imaginations to reconstruct and understand the past. Because human events that have taken place cannot be observed. The Principles of Art comprises Collingwoods most developed treatment of aesthetic questions, Collingwood held that works of art are essentially expressions of emotion. For Collingwood, an important social role of the artist is to clarify, in politics Collingwood defended the ideals of what he called liberalism in its Continental sense, The essence of this conception is. Collingwood was not just a philosopher of history but also a practising historian and he was, during his time, a leading authority on Roman Britain, he spent his term time at Oxford teaching philosophy but devoted his long vacations to archaeology. He began work along Hadrians Wall, the family home was at Coniston in the Lake District and his father was a leading figure in the Cumberland and Westmorland Archaeological Society. Collingwood was drawn in on a number of excavations and put forward the theory that Hadrian’s Wall was not so much a fighting platform and he also put forward the suggestion that Hadrians defensive system also included a number of forts along the Cumberland coast

12.
Democracy and Education
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Democracy and Education, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education is a 1916 book by John Dewey. Dewey sought to at once synthesize, criticize, and expand upon the educational philosophies of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He saw Rousseaus philosophy as overemphasizing the individual and Platos philosophy as overemphasizing the society in which the individual lived, for Dewey, this distinction was largely a false one, like George Herbert Mead and Lev Vygotsky, he viewed the mind and its formation as a communal process. As evidenced in his later Experience and Nature, this element, learning by doing. In Democracy and Education, Dewey argues that the primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the members of the group and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge. Dewey observes that even in a tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases, mere physical growing up and mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required, beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. According to Dewey, education, and education alone, spans the gap, Deweys ideas were never broadly and deeply integrated into the practices of American public schools, though some of his values and terms were widespread. Progressive education was essentially scrapped during the Cold War, when the dominant concern in education was creating and sustaining a scientific and technological elite for military purposes. In the post-Cold War period, however, progressive education had reemerged in many school reform and education theory circles as a field of inquiry learning. A criticism of this approach is that it does not account for the origin of cultural institutions, language and its development, in Deweys philosophical anthropology, have not a central role but are instead a consequence of the cognitive capacity. While Deweys educational theories have enjoyed a broad popularity during his lifetime and after, so while he held the role of a leading public intellectual, he was often misinterpreted, even by fellow academics. Many enthusiastically embraced what they mistook for Deweys philosophy, but which in fact bore little or a distorted resemblance to it, Dewey tried, on occasion, to correct such misguided enthusiasm, but with little success. The term progressive education grew to encompass numerous contradictory theories and practices, several versions of progressive education succeeded in transforming the educational landscape, the utter ubiquity of guidance counseling, to name but one example, springs from the progressive period. Radical variations of educational progressivism were troubled and short-lived, a fact that supports some understandings of the notion of failure, but they were perhaps too rare and ill-funded to constitute a thorough test. List of publications by John Dewey Democracy and Education, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education public domain audiobook at LibriVox