Conceptual art

Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic, technical, and material concerns. Some works of conceptual art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions,[1] this method was fundamental to American artist Sol LeWitt's definition of Conceptual art, one of the first to appear in print:

In conceptual art the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair, the idea becomes a machine that makes the art.[2]

Tony Godfrey, author of Conceptual Art (Art & Ideas) (1998), asserts that conceptual art questions the nature of art,[3] a notion that Joseph Kosuth elevated to a definition of art itself in his seminal, early manifesto of conceptual art, "Art after Philosophy" (1969). The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the influential art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of Modern art during the 1950s, with the emergence of an exclusively language-based art in the 1960s, however, conceptual artists such as Joseph Kosuth, Lawrence Weiner and the English Art & Language group began a far more radical interrogation of art than was previously possible (see below). One of the first and most important things they questioned was the common assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects.[4][5][6]

Through its association with the Young British Artists and the Turner Prize during the 1990s, in popular usage, particularly in the UK, "conceptual art" came to denote all contemporary art that does not practice the traditional skills of painting and sculpture.[7] It could be said that one of the reasons why the term "conceptual art" has come to be associated with various contemporary practices far removed from its original aims and forms lies in the problem of defining the term itself, as the artist Mel Bochner suggested as early as 1970, in explaining why he does not like the epithet "conceptual", it is not always entirely clear what "concept" refers to, and it runs the risk of being confused with "intention." Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as "conceptual" with an artist's "intention."

The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them with examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades, for instance, the most famous of Duchamp's readymades was Fountain (1917), a standard urinal-basin signed by the artist with the pseudonym "R.Mutt", and submitted for inclusion in the annual, un-juried exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in New York (which rejected it),[8] the artistic tradition does not see a commonplace object (such as a urinal) as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art, nor is it unique or hand-crafted. Duchamp's relevance and theoretical importance for future "conceptualists" was later acknowledged by US artist Joseph Kosuth in his 1969 essay, "Art after Philosophy," when he wrote: "All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually".

In 1956 the founder of Lettrism, Isidore Isou, developed the notion of a work of art which, by its very nature, could never be created in reality, but which could nevertheless provide aesthetic rewards by being contemplated intellectually. This concept, also called Art esthapériste (or "infinite-aesthetics"), derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually. The current incarnation (As of 2013[update]) of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small.

In 1961 the term "concept art", coined by the artist Henry Flynt in his article bearing the term as its title, appeared in a proto-Fluxus publication An Anthology of Chance Operations.[9] However, it assumed a different meaning when employed by Joseph Kosuth and by the English Art and Language group, who discarded the conventional art object in favour of a documented critical inquiry into the artist's social, philosophical and psychological status. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts and paintings to this end; in 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center.[10]

Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s - in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New Yorkart criticClement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and refinement toward the goal of defining the essential, formal nature of each medium, those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is: what makes it a painting and nothing else, as it is of the nature of paintings to be flat objects with canvas surfaces onto which colored pigment is applied, such things as figuration, 3-D perspective illusion and references to external subject matter were all found to be extraneous to the essence of painting, and ought to be removed.[11]

Some have argued that conceptual art continued this "dematerialization" of art by removing the need for objects altogether,[12] while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break with Greenberg's kind of formalist Modernism. Later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. However, by the end of the 1960s it was certainly clear that Greenberg's stipulations for art to continue within the confines of each medium and to exclude external subject matter no longer held traction.[13]

Conceptual art also reacted against the commodification of art; it attempted a subversion of the gallery or museum as the location and determiner of art, and the art market as the owner and distributor of art. Lawrence Weiner said: "Once you know about a work of mine you own it. There's no way I can climb inside somebody's head and remove it." Many conceptual artists' work can therefore only be known about through documentation which is manifested by it, e.g. photographs, written texts or displayed objects, which some might argue are not in themselves the art. It is sometimes (as in the work of Robert Barry, Yoko Ono, and Weiner himself) reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, but stopping short of actually making it—emphasising the idea as more important than the artifact. This reveals an explicit preference for the "art" side of the ostensible dichotomy between art and craft, where art, unlike craft, takes place within and engages historical discourse: for example, Ono's "written instructions" make more sense alongside other conceptual art of the time.

Lawrence Weiner. Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of a Whole, The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005.

Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s, although the utilisation of text in art was in no way novel, only in the 1960s did the artists Lawrence Weiner, Edward Ruscha,[14]Joseph Kosuth, Robert Barry, and the English Art & Language group begin to produce art by exclusively linguistic means. Where previously language was presented as one kind of visual element alongside others, and subordinate to an overarching composition (e.g. Synthetic Cubism), the conceptual artists used language in place of brush and canvas, and allowed it to signify in its own right.[15] Of Lawrence Weiner's works Anne Rorimer writes, "The thematic content of individual works derives solely from the import of the language employed, while presentational means and contextual placement play crucial, yet separate, roles."[16]

The British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art Peter Osborne suggests that among the many factors that influenced the gravitation toward language-based art, a central role for conceptualism came from the turn to linguistic theories of meaning in both Anglo-American analytic philosophy, and structuralist and post structuralistContinental philosophy during the middle of the twentieth century. This linguistic turn "reinforced and legitimized" the direction the conceptual artists took.[17] Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art.[18] Osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9, 2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art (rather than say at the descriptive level of style or movement).

The American art historian Edward A. Shanken points to the example of Roy Ascott who "powerfully demonstrates the significant intersections between conceptual art and art-and-technology, exploding the conventional autonomy of these art-historical categories." Ascott, the British artist most closely associated with cybernetic art in England, was not included in Cybernetic Serendipity because his use of cybernetics was primarily conceptual and did not explicitly utilize technology. Conversely, although his essay on the application of cybernetics to art and art pedagogy, "The Construction of Change" (1964), was quoted on the dedication page (to Sol Lewitt) of Lucy R. Lippard's seminal Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972, Ascott's anticipation of and contribution to the formation of conceptual art in Britain has received scant recognition, perhaps (and ironically) because his work was too closely allied with art-and-technology. Another vital intersection was explored in Ascott's use of the thesaurus in 1963 [1], which drew an explicit parallel between the taxonomic qualities of verbal and visual languages - a concept would be taken up in Joseph Kosuth's Second Investigation, Proposition 1 (1968) and Mel Ramsden's Elements of an Incomplete Map (1968).

"By adopting language as their exclusive medium, Weiner, Barry, Wilson, Kosuth and Art & Language were able to sweep aside the vestiges of authorial presence manifested by formal invention and the handling of materials."[16]

An important difference between conceptual art and more "traditional" forms of art-making goes to the question of artistic skill, although it is often the case that skill in the handling of traditional media plays little role in conceptual art, it is difficult to argue that no skill is required to make conceptual works, or that skill is always absent from them. John Baldessari, for instance, has presented realist pictures that he commissioned professional sign-writers to paint; and many conceptual performance artists (e.g. Stelarc, Marina Abramović) are technically accomplished performers and skilled manipulators of their own bodies. It is thus not so much an absence of skill or hostility toward tradition that defines conceptual art as an evident disregard for conventional, modern notions of authorial presence and individual artistic expression.

The first wave of the "conceptual art" movement extended from approximately 1967 to 1978. Early "concept" artists like Henry Flynt, Robert Morris, and Ray Johnson influenced the later, widely accepted movement of conceptual art. Conceptual artists like Dan Graham, Hans Haacke, and Lawrence Weiner have proven very influential on subsequent artists, and well known contemporary artists such as Mike Kelley or Tracey Emin are sometimes labeled "second- or third-generation" conceptualists, or "post-conceptual" artists.

Many of the concerns of the conceptual art movement have been taken up by contemporary artists. While they may or may not term themselves "conceptual artists", ideas such as anti-commodification, social and/or political critique, and ideas/information as medium continue to be aspects of contemporary art, especially among artists working with installation art, performance art, net.art and electronic/digital art.[19]

The Stuckist group of artists, founded in 1999, proclaimed themselves "pro-contemporary figurative painting with ideas and anti-conceptual art, mainly because of its lack of concepts." They also called it pretentious, "unremarkable and boring" and on July 25, 2002, deposited a coffin outside the White Cube gallery, marked "The Death of Conceptual Art".[20][21] They staged yearly demonstrations outside the Turner Prize.

In 2002, Ivan Massow, the chairman of the Institute of Contemporary Arts, branded conceptual art "pretentious, self-indulgent, craftless tat" and in "danger of disappearing up its own arse ... led by cultural tsars such as the Tate's Sir Nicholas Serota."[22] Massow was consequently forced to resign, at the end of the year, the Culture Minister, Kim Howells (an art school graduate) denounced the Turner Prize as "cold, mechanical, conceptual bullshit".[23]

In October 2004 the Saatchi Gallery told the media that "painting continues to be the most relevant and vital way that artists choose to communicate."[24]

One of the criticisms of recent conceptual art in the UK is that the concepts or ideas have been weak. Writing in The Jackdaw magazine in 2013 the art theorist Michael Paraskos suggested that current conceptualist art retains the forms of historic conceptual art but is almost devoid of ideas, for that reason he suggested a new name for this kind of art, deconceptualism. Deconceptualism is, according to Paraskos, conceptual art without a concept.[25]

1953 : Robert Rauschenberg creates Erased De Kooning Drawing, a drawing by Willem de Kooning which Rauschenberg erased. It raised many questions about the fundamental nature of art, challenging the viewer to consider whether erasing another artist's work could be a creative act, as well as whether the work was only "art" because the famous Rauschenberg had done it.

1957: Yves Klein, Aerostatic Sculpture (Paris). This was composed of 1001 blue balloons released into the sky from Galerie Iris Clert to promote his Proposition Monochrome; Blue Epoch exhibition. Klein also exhibited 'One Minute Fire Painting' which was a blue panel into which 16 firecrackers were set, for his next major exhibition, The Void in 1958, Klein declared that his paintings were now invisible and to prove it he exhibited an empty room.

1961: Piero Manzoni exhibited Artist's Shit, tins purportedly containing his own feces (although since the work would be destroyed if opened, no one has been able to say for sure). He put the tins on sale for their own weight in gold, he also sold his own breath (enclosed in balloons) as Bodies of Air, and signed people's bodies, thus declaring them to be living works of art either for all time or for specified periods. (This depended on how much they are prepared to pay). Marcel Broodthaers and Primo Levi are amongst the designated 'artworks'.

1962: Artist Barrie Bates rebrands himself as Billy Apple, erasing his original identity to continue his exploration of everyday life and commerce as art. By this stage, many of his works are fabricated by third parties.[28]

1962: Christo's Iron Curtain work. This consists of a barricade of oil barrels in a narrow Paris street which caused a large traffic jam, the artwork was not the barricade itself but the resulting traffic jam.

1962: Yves Klein presents Immaterial Pictorial Sensitivity in various ceremonies on the banks of the Seine. He offers to sell his own 'pictorial sensitivity' (whatever that was, he did not define it) in exchange for gold leaf; in these ceremonies the purchaser gave Klein the gold leaf in return for a certificate. Since Klein's sensitivity was immaterial, the purchaser was then required to burn the certificate whilst Klein threw half the gold leaf into the Seine. (There were seven purchasers.)

1962: Piero Manzoni created The Base of the World, thereby exhibiting the entire planet as his artwork.

1965: Art & Language founder Michael Baldwin Mirror Piece. Instead of paintings, the work is showing a variable number of mirrors that challenge both the visitor and Clement Greenberg theory.[30]

1965: A complex conceptual art piece by John Latham called Still and Chew. He invites art students to protest against the values of Clement Greenberg's Art and Culture, much praised and taught at Saint Martin's School of Art in London, where Latham taught part-time. Pages of Greenberg's book (borrowed from the college library) are chewed by the students, dissolved in acid and the resulting solution returned to the library bottled and labelled. Latham was then fired from his part-time position.

1965: with Show V, immaterial sculpture the Dutch artist Marinus Boezem introduced Conceptual Art in the Netherlands. In the show various air doors are placed where people can walk through them. People have the sensory experience of warmth, air. Three invisible air doors, which arise as currents of cold and warm are blown into the room, are indicated in the space with bundles of arrows and lines, the articulation of the space which arises is the result of invisible processes which influence the conduct of persons in that space, and who are included in the system as co-performers.

Joseph Kosuth dates the concept of One and Three Chairs in the year 1965. The presentation of the work consists of a chair, its photo and a blow up of a definition of the word "chair". Kosuth has chosen the definition from a dictionary. Four versions with different definitions are known.

1966: Conceived in 1966 The Air Conditioning Show of Art & Language is published as an article in 1967 in the November issue of Arts Magazine.[31]

1966: N.E. Thing Co. Ltd. (Iain and Ingrid Baxter of Vancouver) exhibited Bagged Place the contents of a four-room apartment wrapped in plastic bags. The same year they registered as a corporation and subsequently organized their practice along corporate models, one of the first international examples of the "aesthetic of administration."

1967: Mel Ramsden first 100% Abstract Paintings. The painting shows a list of chemical components that constitute the substance of the painting.[32]

1967: Sol LeWitt´s Paragraphs on Conceptual Art were published by the American art journal Artforum. The Paragraphs mark the progression from Minimal to Conceptual Art.

1968: Lawrence Weiner relinquishes the physical making of his work and formulates his "Declaration of Intent," one of the most important conceptual art statements following LeWitt's "Paragraphs on Conceptual Art." The declaration, which underscores his subsequent practice reads: "1. The artist may construct the piece. 2. The piece may be fabricated. 3. The piece need not be built, each being equal and consistent with the intent of the artist the decision as to condition rests with the receiver upon the occasion of receivership."

Friedrich Heubach launches the magazine Interfunktionen in Cologne, Germany, a publication that excelled in artists' projects. It originally showed a Fluxus influence, but later moved toward Conceptual art.

1969: Robert Barry's Telepathic Piece at Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, of which he said 'During the exhibition I will try to communicate telepathically a work of art, the nature of which is a series of thoughts that are not applicable to language or image'.

1969: The first issue of "Art-Language" is published in May. It is subtitled as "The Journal of conceptual art" and edited by Terry Atkinson, David Bainbridge, Michael Baldwin and Harold Hurrell, the editors are English members of the artists group Art & Language.

1969: Vito Acconci creates "Following Piece," in which he follows randomly selected members of the public until they disappear into a private space. The piece is presented as photographs.

The English journal "Studio International" published Joseph Kosuth´s article "Art after Philosophy" in three parts (October–December). It became the most discussed article on "Conceptual Art".

1970: Painter John Baldessari exhibits a film in which he sets a series of erudite statements by Sol LeWitt on the subject of conceptual art to popular tunes like 'Camptown Races' and 'Some Enchanted Evening'.

1970: Douglas Huebler exhibits a series of photographs which were taken every two minutes whilst driving along a road for 24 minutes.

1970: Douglas Huebler asks museum visitors to write down 'one authentic secret'. The resulting 1800 documents are compiled into a book which, by some accounts, makes for very repetitive reading as most secrets are similar.

1971: Hans Haacke's 'Real Time Social System'. This piece of systems art detailed the real estate holdings of the third largest landowners in New York City, the properties were mostly in Harlem and the Lower East Side, were decrepit and poorly maintained, and represented the largest concentration of real estate in those areas under the control of a single group. The captions gave various financial details about the buildings, including recent sales between companies owned or controlled by the same family, the Guggenheim museum cancelled the exhibition, stating that the overt political implications of the work constituted "an alien substance that had entered the art museum organism". There is no evidence to suggest that the trustees of the Guggenheim were linked financially to the family which was the subject of the work.

1972: Antonio Caro exhibitis in the National Art Salon (Museo Nacional, Bogotá, Colombia) his work: "Aquinocabeelarte" (Art does not fit here), where each of the letters is a separate poster, and under each letter is written the name of some victim of state repression.

1972: Fred Forest buys an area of blank space in the newspaper Le Monde and invites readers to fill it with their own works of art.

General Idea launch File magazine in Toronto. The magazine functioned as something of an extended, collaborative artwork.

1973: Jacek Tylicki lays out blank canvases or paper sheets in the natural environment for the nature to create art.

1975–76: Three issues of the journal "The Fox" were published in New York. The editor was Joseph Kosuth. "The Fox" became an important platform for the American members of Art & Language. Karl Beveridge, Ian Burn, Sarah Charlesworth, Michael Corris, Joseph Kosuth, Andrew Menard, Mel Ramsden and Terry Smith wrote articles which thematized the context of contemporary art. These articles exemplify the development of an institutional critique within the inner circle of Conceptual Art, the criticism of the art world integrates social, political and economic reasons.

1977: Walter De Maria's 'Vertical Earth Kilometer' in Kassel, Germany. This was a one kilometer brass rod which was sunk into the earth so that nothing remained visible except a few centimeters, despite its size, therefore, this work exists mostly in the viewer's mind.

1977: John Fekner creates hundreds of environmental and conceptual outdoor works consisting of stenciled words, symbols, dates and icons spray painted in New York, Sweden, Canada, England and Germany.

1989: Christopher Williams' Angola to Vietnam is first exhibited. The work consists of a series of black-and-white photographs of glass botanical specimens from the Botanical Museum at Harvard University, chosen according to a list of the thirty-six countries in which political disappearances were known to have taken place during the year 1985.

1990: Ashley Bickerton and Ronald Jones included in "Mind Over Matter: Concept and Object" exhibition of ”third generation Conceptual artists” at the Whitney Museum of American Art.[36]

1991: Charles Saatchi funds Damien Hirst and the next year in the Saatchi Gallery exhibits his The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine.

1992: Maurizio Bolognini starts to "seal" his Programmed Machines: hundreds of computers are programmed and left to run ad infinitum to generate inexhaustible flows of random images which nobody would see.[38]

1993: Matthieu Laurette established his artistic birth certificate by taking part in a French TV game called 'Tournez manège' (The Dating Game) where the female presenter asked him who he was, to which he replied: 'A multimedia artist'. Laurette had sent out invitations to an art audience to view the show on TV from their home, turning his staging of the artist into a performed reality.

1993: Vanessa Beecroft holds her first performance in Milan, Italy, using models to act as a second audience to the display of her diary of food.

1999: Tracey Emin is nominated for the Turner Prize. Part of her exhibit is My Bed, her dishevelled bed, surrounded by detritus such as condoms, blood-stained knickers, bottles and her bedroom slippers.

2001: Martin Creed wins the Turner Prize for The Lights Going On and Off, an empty room in which the lights go on and off.[39]

2004: Andrea Fraser's video Untitled, a document of her sexual encounter in a hotel room with a collector (the collector having agreed to help finance the technical costs for enacting and filming the encounter) is exhibited at the Friedrich Petzel Gallery. It is accompanied by her 1993 work Don't Postpone Joy, or Collecting Can Be Fun, a 27-page transcript of an interview with a collector in which the majority of the text has been deleted.

2005: Simon Starling wins the Turner Prize for Shedboatshed, a wooden shed which he had turned into a boat, floated down the Rhine and turned back into a shed again.[40]

2005: Maurizio Nannucci creates the large neon installation "All Art Has Been Contemporary" on the facade of Altes Museum in Berlin.

^Ian Burn, Mel Ramsden: "Notes On Analysis" (1970). Reprinted in Osborne (2003), p. 237. E.g. "The outcome of much of the 'conceptual' work of the past two years has been to carefully clear the air of objects."

Concept art
–
Concept art is a form of illustration used to convey an idea for use in films, video games, animation, comic books, or other media before it is put into the final product. Concept art is referred to as visual development and/or concept design. This term can also be applied to retail, set, fashion, architectural, Concept art is developed in several

1.
Example of concept design workflow (blue) followed by 3D modeling (red), reference and inspiration for 3D modeling is a common use of concept art

Art
–
In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and othe

2.
Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.

3.
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.

Concept
–
A concept is an abstract idea representing the fundamental characteristics of what it represents. Concepts arise as abstractions or generalisations from experience or the result of a transformation of existing ideas, the concept is instantiated by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. C

1.
When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.

Idea

Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern Englis

Installation art
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Installation art is an artistic genre of three-dimensional works that often are site-specific and designed to transform the perception of a space. Generally, the term is applied to spaces, whereas exterior interventions are often called public art, land art or intervention art, however. Installation art can be temporary or permanent. Installation a

Sol LeWitt
–
Solomon Sol LeWitt was an American artist linked to various movements, including Conceptual art and Minimalism. LeWitt came to fame in the late 1960s with his drawings and structures but was prolific in a wide range of media including drawing, printmaking, photography. He has been the subject of hundreds of exhibitions in museums. LeWitt was born i

4.
Sol LeWitt, wall drawing, in May 2012 during the Wall Drawings from 1968 to 2007 Sol LeWitt restrospective exhibition at the Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France.

Joseph Kosuth
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Joseph Kosuth is an American conceptual artist. He lives in New York and London, after residing in cities in Europe, including Ghent. Born in Toledo, Ohio, Kosuth had an American mother, Joseph Kosuth attended the Toledo Museum School of Design from 1955 to 1962 and studied privately under the Belgian painter Line Bloom Draper. In 1963 Kosuth enrol

3.
Kosuth's "The Boundaries of the Limitless" in Queen's Square YOKOHAMA, Japan, 1997

Clement Greenberg
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In particular, he is best remembered for his promotion of the abstract expressionist movement and was among the first published critics to praise the work of painter Jackson Pollock. Clement Greenberg was born in the borough of the Bronx, NYC and his parents were middle-class Jewish immigrants, and he was the eldest of their three sons. Since child

1.
Clement Greenberg

Lawrence Weiner
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Lawrence Weiner is one of the central figures in the formation of conceptual art in the 1960s. His work often takes the form of typographic texts, Weiner was born in the Bronx, New York, the son of a candy-store owner. After graduating from Stuyvesant High School at 16, he had a variety of jobs—he worked on an oil tanker, on docks, after studying a

2.
Flakturm at Esterházypark in Vienna: Zerschmettert in Stücke (im Frieden der Nacht) / Smashed to pieces (in the still of the night) (1991)

3.
Weiner's At the Same Moment painted on pilings in the East River, as seen in 2011

Conceptual art
–
Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Some works of art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. The notion that art should examine its ow

4.
Stuckist artists leave a coffin, marked "The death of conceptual art", outside the White Cube gallery in Shoreditch, July 25, 2002.

Young British Artists
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The Young British Artists, or YBAs—also referred to as Brit artists and Britart—is the name given to a loose group of visual artists who first began to exhibit together in London, in 1988. Many of the artists graduated from the BA Fine Art course at Goldsmiths and they are noted for shock tactics, use of throwaway materials, wild-living, and an att

Turner Prize
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The Turner Prize, named after the English painter J. M. W. Turner, is an annual prize presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50. Awarding the prize is organised by the Tate gallery and staged at Tate Britain, since its beginnings in 1984 it has become the UKs most publicised art award. As of 2004, the award was established at £40,000

United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border wi

4.
The Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.

Contemporary art
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Contemporary art is the art of today, produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century. Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the relevant to ourselves. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concept

Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic

Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived i

Marcel Duchamp
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Duchamp has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his artists as retinal art. Instead, Duchamp wanted to use art to serve the mind, Marcel Duchamp was born at Blainville-Crevon in Normandy, France, and grew up in a family that enjoyed cultural activities. The art

Fountain (Duchamp)
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Fountain is a 1917 work produced by Marcel Duchamp. The piece was a urinal, which was signed R. Mutt. Fountain was displayed and photographed at Alfred Stieglitzs studio, and the published in The Blind Man. The work is regarded by art historians and theorists of the avant-garde, such as Peter Bürger,17 replicas commissioned by Duchamp in the 1960s

Alfred Stieglitz
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Alfred Stieglitz was an American photographer and modern art promoter who was instrumental over his fifty-year career in making photography an accepted art form. In addition to his photography, Stieglitz was known for the New York art galleries that he ran in the part of the 20th century. He was married to painter Georgia OKeeffe, Stieglitz was bor

Readymade
–
Pablo Picasso first publicly utilized the idea when he pasted a printed image of chair caning onto his painting titled Still Life with Chair Caning. The most famous example is Fountain, a standard urinal purchased from a store and displayed on a pedestal. Found objects derive their identity as art from the designation placed upon them by the artist

Isidore Isou
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Isidore Isou, born Isidor Goldstein, was a Romanian-born French poet, film critic and visual artist. He was the founder of Lettrism, an art and literary movement which owed inspiration to Dada, born into a Jewish family in Botoşani, Isou started his career as an avant-garde art journalist during World War II, shortly after the 23 August coup saw Ro

1.
Isou in his film Traité de bave et d'éternité (1951)

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
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Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and

Henry Flynt
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Henry Flynt is a philosopher, avant-garde musician, anti-art activist and exhibited artist often associated with Conceptual Art, Fluxus and Nihilism. Henry Flynt’s work devolves from what he calls cognitive nihilism, a concept he developed, the 1961 draft was published in Milan with other early work in his book Blueprint for a Higher Civilization i

Fluxus
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Fluxus is an international and interdisciplinary group of artists, composers, designers and poets that took shape in the 1960s and 1970s. Dutch gallerist and art critic Harry Ruhé describes Fluxus as the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties, Fluxus is known for experimental contributions to different artistic media and discipli

An Anthology of Chance Operations
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An Anthology of Chance Operations was an artists book publication from the early 1960s of experimental neodada art and music composition that used John Cage inspired indeterminacy. It was edited by La Monte Young and DIY co-published in 1963 by Young, the project became the manifestation of the original impetus for establishing Fluxus. Given free r

1.
Book cover.

Art and Language
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Art & Language is a conceptual artists collaboration that has undergone many changes since its creation at the end of the 1960s. The group was founded by artists on the desire to combine intellecutal focuses. The first issue of the groups journal Art-Language was published in November 1969 in England, the Art & Language group was founded in either

New York Cultural Center
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2 Columbus Circle is a 12-story building located on a small, trapezoidal lot on the south side of Columbus Circle on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City. Bordered by 58th Street, 59th Street, Broadway, and Eighth Avenue, the seven-story Grand Circle Hotel, designed by William H. Cauvet, stood at this address from 1874, later called the

New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for int

4.
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.

Art critic
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An art critic is a person who is specialized in analyzing, interpreting and evaluating art. Their written critiques or reviews contribute to art criticism and they are published in newspapers, magazines, books, exhibition brochures and catalogues, some of todays art critics use art blogs and other online platforms in order to connect with a wider a

Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of

Figurative art
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However, abstract is sometimes used as a synonym for non-representational art and non-objective art, i. e. art which has no derivation from figures or objects. Figurative art is not synonymous with figure painting, although human, the difference is that in figurative art these elements are deployed to create an impression or illusion of form and sp

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Ein Meerhafen ("A Seaport"), a figurative landscape by the Austrian artist Johann Anton Eismann (1604–1698), which depicts buildings, people, ships, and other features that can be distinguished individually; by contrast, the abstract landscape below suggests its subject matter without directly representing figures

Perspective (graphical)
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Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away

Yoko Ono
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Yoko Ono is a Japanese multimedia artist, singer, songwriter, and peace activist who is also known for her work in performance art and filmmaking. She is the wife and widow of singer-songwriter John Lennon of the Beatles. Ono grew up in Tokyo, and studied at Gakushuin and she withdrew from her course after two years and rejoined her family in New Y

Craft
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A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan, the beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open sh

3.
Street handicraft: here a skilled metalsmith in Agra, India sits between scooters in a commercial area making careful observations in the practice of his trade

4.
Mexican craft.

Edward Ruscha
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Edward Joseph Ruscha IV is an American artist associated with the pop art movement. He has worked in the media of painting, printmaking, drawing, photography, Ruscha lives and works in Culver City, California. Ruscha was born into a Roman Catholic family in Omaha, Nebraska, with a sister, Shelby. Edward Ruscha, Sr. was an auditor for Hartford Insur

Composition (visual arts)
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In the visual arts, composition is the placement or arrangement of visual elements or ingredients in a work of art, as distinct from the subject. It can also be thought of as the organization of the elements of art according to the principles of art, the composition of a picture is different from its subject, which what is shown, whether a moment f

2.
Rule of thirds: Note how the horizon falls close to the bottom grid line, and how the dark areas are in the left third, the overexposed in the right third.

3.
The blurred background focuses the eye on the flowers.

4.
A simple composition with cloud and rooftop that creates asymmetry.

Synthetic Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris dur

Peter Osborne (writer and academic)
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Peter Osborne is Professor of Modern European Philosophy and Director of the Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophy, Kingston University, London. He is also an editor of the British journal Radical Philosophy, Osborne returned to the University of Bristol in 1988 to become a lecturer in the philosophy department. Osborne has subsequently

1.
Date of Birth Digital Painting (After Kawara), 2011

Analytic philosophy
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Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the

Structuralism
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It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in th

Post-structuralism
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Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human k

Continental philosophy
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Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. It is difficult to identify non-trivial claims that would be common to all the preceding philosophical movements, the term continental philoso

Linguistic turn
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According to Rorty, who later dissociated himself from linguistic philosophy and analytic philosophy generally, the phrase the linguistic turn originated with philosopher Gustav Bergmann. Ludwig Wittgenstein, an associate of Russell, was one of the progenitors of the linguistic turn and his later work significantly departs from the common tenets of

1.
Wittgenstein (second from right), Summer 1920

Como
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Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Como. With 215,320 overnight guests, in 2013 Como was the fourth most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo, the hills surrounding the current location of Como have been inhabited, since at least the Bronze Age, by a Celtic tribe known as the Orobii. Remains

Ontology
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Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Although ontology as an enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in information science and technology. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that a

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Parmenides was among the first to propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of reality.

Edward A. Shanken
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Edward A. Shanken is an American art historian, whose work focuses on the entwinement of art, science and technology, with a focus on experimental new media art and visual culture. His scholarship has appeared in journals and anthologies and has been translated into six languages. Shanken is the author of Art and Electronic Media, Edward A. Shanken

Cybernetic
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Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary approach for exploring regulatory systems—their structures, constraints, and possibilities. Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as the study of control and communication in the animal. In the 21st century, the term is used in a rather loose way to imply control of any system using technology. Cybernetics is

John Baldessari
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John Anthony Baldessari is an American conceptual artist known for his work featuring found photography and appropriated images. He lives and works in Santa Monica and Venice, California, initially a painter, Baldessari began to incorporate texts and photography into his canvases in the mid-1960s. In 1970 he began working in printmaking, film, vide

3.
Chris Burden during the performance of his 1974 piece Trans-fixed where he was nailed to the back of a Volkswagen

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Performance artist Joseph Beuys in 1978: Jeder Mensch ein Künstler — Auf dem Weg zur Freiheitsgestalt des sozialen Organismus - Every person an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism

4.
Earthworm feces aid in provision of minerals and plant nutrients in an accessible form

LIST OF IMAGES

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Concept art
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Concept art is a form of illustration used to convey an idea for use in films, video games, animation, comic books, or other media before it is put into the final product. Concept art is referred to as visual development and/or concept design. This term can also be applied to retail, set, fashion, architectural, Concept art is developed in several iterations. Artists try several designs to achieve the result for the work. Designs are filtered and refined in stages to narrow down the options, Concept art is not only used to develop the work, but also to show the projects progress to directors, clients and investors. Once the development of the work is complete, advertising materials often resemble concept art, although these are made specifically for this purpose. It may have come about as part of automotive design for concept cars. A concept artist is an individual who generates a design for an item, character. This includes, but is not limited to, film, animation, a concept artist may be required for nothing more than preliminary artwork, or may be part of a creative team until a project reaches fruition. While it is necessary to have the skills of a fine artist, some concept artists may start as fine artists, industrial designers, animators, or even special effects artists. Interpretation of ideas and how they are realized is where the artists individual creativity is most evident. Many concept artists work in a studio or from home via freelance, a lot more concept artists are switching to freelance because of the job security of having multiple clients. There is a salary to working for a large studio. The average salary for a concept artist is 60-$70,000 a year, Concept art has embraced the use of digital technology. Raster graphics editors for digital painting have become more available, as well as hardware such as graphics tablets. Prior to this any number of mediums such as oil paints, acrylic paints, markers. Popular programs for artists include PhotoShop and Corel Painter. Others include manga studio, Art rage, and other well known programs

Concept art
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Example of concept design workflow (blue) followed by 3D modeling (red), reference and inspiration for 3D modeling is a common use of concept art

2.
Art
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In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art

Art
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Clockwise from upper left: a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from the Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion.
Art
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Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.
Art
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20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.
Art
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Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP

3.
Concept
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A concept is an abstract idea representing the fundamental characteristics of what it represents. Concepts arise as abstractions or generalisations from experience or the result of a transformation of existing ideas, the concept is instantiated by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly, such as in linguistics, psychology, philosophy, etc. and implicitly, such as in mathematics, physics, etc. In informal use the word concept often just means any idea and these concepts are then stored in long term memory In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of existence. It would go furniture, chair, and easy chair, the term concept is traced back to 1554–60, but what is today termed the classical theory of concepts is the theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms. The meaning of concept is explored in mainstream science, cognitive science, metaphysics. In computer and information science contexts, especially, the concept is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways. In a platonist theory of mind, concepts are construed as abstract objects and this debate concerns the ontological status of concepts – what they are really like. There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language, concepts that can be equated to a single word are called lexical concepts. Study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science. In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent an object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal. It may also name an object like a chair, computer, house. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness and it is important to realize that a concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing, for example, the word moon is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only represents that celestial object. Concepts are created to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known, Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts and he called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing, according to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects

Concept
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When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.

4.
Aesthetics
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps

5.
Installation art
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Installation art is an artistic genre of three-dimensional works that often are site-specific and designed to transform the perception of a space. Generally, the term is applied to spaces, whereas exterior interventions are often called public art, land art or intervention art, however. Installation art can be temporary or permanent. Installation artworks have been constructed in exhibition spaces such as museums and galleries, as well as public, many installations are site-specific in that they are designed to exist only in the space for which they were created, appealing to qualities evident in a three-dimensional immersive medium. Artistic collectives such as the Exhibition Lab at New Yorks American Museum of Natural History created environments to showcase the natural world in as realistic a medium as possible, likewise, Walt Disney Imagineering employed a similar philosophy when designing the multiple immersive spaces for Disneyland in 1955. Since its acceptance as a discipline, a number of institutions focusing on Installation art were created. These included the Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, the Museum of Installation in London, the intention of the artist is paramount in much later installation art whose roots lie in the conceptual art of the 1960s. This again is a departure from traditional sculpture which places its focus on form, early non-Western installation art includes events staged by the Gutai group in Japan starting in 1954, which influenced American installation pioneers like Allan Kaprow. Wolf Vostell shows his installation 6 TV Dé-coll/age in 1963 at the Smolin Gallery in New York, Installation as nomenclature for a specific form of art came into use fairly recently, its first use as documented by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1969. It was coined in this context, in reference to a form of art that had existed since prehistory but was not regarded as a discrete category until the mid-twentieth century. Allan Kaprow used the term Environment in 1958 to describe his transformed indoor spaces, out of the sensory stuff of ordinary life. In Art and Objecthood, Michael Fried derisively labels art that acknowledges the viewer as theatrical, here installation art bestows an unprecedented importance on the observers inclusion in that which he observes. Ultimately, the things a viewer can be assured of when experiencing the work are his own thoughts and preconceptions. All else may be molded by the artists hands, the central importance of the subjective point of view when experiencing installation art, points toward a disregard for traditional Platonic image theory. In effect, the entire installation adopts the character of the simulacrum or flawed statue, Installation art operates fully within the realm of sensory perception, in a sense installing the viewer into an artificial system with an appeal to his subjective perception as its ultimate goal. Interactive installation is a sub-category of installation art, an interactive installation frequently involves the audience acting on the work of art or the piece responding to users activity. With the improvement of technology over the years, artists are able to explore outside of the boundaries that were never able to be explored by artists in the past. The media used are more experimental and bold, they are also usually cross media and may involve sensors, by using virtual reality as a medium, immersive virtual reality art is probably the most deeply interactive form of art

6.
Sol LeWitt
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Solomon Sol LeWitt was an American artist linked to various movements, including Conceptual art and Minimalism. LeWitt came to fame in the late 1960s with his drawings and structures but was prolific in a wide range of media including drawing, printmaking, photography. He has been the subject of hundreds of exhibitions in museums. LeWitt was born in Hartford, Connecticut to a family of Jewish immigrants from Russia and his mother took him to art classes at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford. After receiving a BFA from Syracuse University in 1949, LeWitt traveled to Europe where he was exposed to Old Master paintings, shortly thereafter, he served in the Korean War, first in California, then Japan, and finally Korea. LeWitt moved to New York City in 1953 and set up a studio on the Lower East Side, during this time he studied at the School of Visual Arts while also pursuing his interest in design at Seventeen magazine, where he did paste-ups, mechanicals, and photostats. In 1955, he was a designer in the office of architect I. M. Pei for a year. Around that time, LeWitt also discovered the work of the late 19th-century photographer Eadweard Muybridge, whose studies in sequence and locomotion were an early influence. These experiences, combined with a job as a night receptionist and clerk he took in 1960 at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. At MoMA, LeWitt’s co-workers included fellow artists Robert Ryman, Dan Flavin, Gene Beery, and Robert Mangold, LeWitt also became friends with Hanne Darboven, Eva Hesse, and Robert Smithson. LeWitt taught at several New York schools, including New York University, in 1980, LeWitt left New York for Spoleto, Italy. After returning to the United States in the late 1980s, LeWitt made Chester, Connecticut and he died at age 78 in New York from cancer complications. LeWitt is regarded as a founder of both Minimal and Conceptual art and his prolific two and three-dimensional work ranges from wall drawings to hundreds of works on paper extending to structures in the form of towers, pyramids, geometric forms, and progressions. These works range in size from gallery-sized installations to monumental outdoor pieces, LeWitt’s first serial sculptures were created in the 1960s using the modular form of the square in arrangements of varying visual complexity. In 1979, LeWitt participated in the design for the Lucinda Childs Dance Companys piece Dance, in the early 1960s, LeWitt first began to create his structures, a term he used to describe his three-dimensional work. His frequent use of open, modular structures originates from the cube, a form that influenced the artist’s thinking from the time that he first became an artist. After creating a body of work made up of closed form wooden objects, heavily-lacquered by hand, in the mid-1960s he “decided to remove the skin altogether and reveal the structure. ”This skeletal form. In the mid-1960s, LeWitt began to work with the open cube, from 1969, he would conceive many of his modular structures on a large scale, to be constructed in aluminum or steel by industrial fabricators

7.
Joseph Kosuth
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Joseph Kosuth is an American conceptual artist. He lives in New York and London, after residing in cities in Europe, including Ghent. Born in Toledo, Ohio, Kosuth had an American mother, Joseph Kosuth attended the Toledo Museum School of Design from 1955 to 1962 and studied privately under the Belgian painter Line Bloom Draper. In 1963 Kosuth enrolled at the Cleveland Institute of Art on a scholarship and he spent the following year in Paris and traveled throughout Europe and North Africa. He moved to New York in 1965 and attended the School of Visual Arts there until 1967, from 1971 he studied anthropology and philosophy at the New School for Social Research, New York. Along with Lawrence Weiner, On Kawara, Hanne Darboven and others and his art generally strives to explore the nature of art rather than producing what is traditionally called art. He remarked in 1969, The value of artists after Duchamp can be weighed according to how much they questioned the nature of art. Kosuths works frequently reference Sigmund Freuds psycho-analysis and Ludwig Wittgensteins philosophy of language and his first conceptual work Leaning Glass, consisted of an object, a photograph of it and dictionary definitions of the words denoting it. In 1966 Kosuth also embarked upon a series of works entitled Art as Idea as Idea, involving texts, the works in this series took the form of photostat reproductions of dictionary definitions of words such as water, meaning, and idea. Accompanying these photographic images are certificates of documentation and ownership indicating that the works can be made and remade for exhibition purposes, One of his most famous works is One and Three Chairs. The piece features a chair, a photograph of that chair. The photograph is a representation of the actual chair situated on the floor, the definition, posted on the same wall as the photograph, delineates in words the concept of what a chair is, in its various incarnations. In this and other, similar works, Five Words in Blue Neon and Glass One and Three, Kosuth forwards tautological statements, a collaboration with independent filmmaker Marion Cajori, Sept.11,1972 was a Minimalist portrait of sunlight in Cajoris studio. In the early 1970s, concerned with his ethnocentricity as a white, male artist and he visited the Trobriand Islands in the South Pacific, and the Huallaga Indians in the Peruvian Amazon. Hung on walls painted his signature dark gray, Kosuths later, large photomontages trace a kind of artistic, in 1992, Kosuth designed the album cover for Fragments of a Rainy Season by John Cale. For the installation of his 2007 exhibition at La Casa Encendida in Madrid, since 1990 Kosuth has also begun working on various permanent public commissions. In 1994, for the city of Tachikawa, Kosuth designed Words of a Spell, for Noëma, in 2011, celebrating the work of Charles Darwin, Kosuth created a commission in the library where Darwin was inspired to pursue his evolutionary theory. His students have included, among others, Michel Majerus, Kosuth became the American editor of the Art & Language journal in 1969

Joseph Kosuth
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Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Chairs (1965)
Joseph Kosuth
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A giant copy of the Rosetta stone, by Joseph Kosuth in Figeac, France, the birthplace of Jean-François Champollion
Joseph Kosuth
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Kosuth's "The Boundaries of the Limitless" in Queen's Square YOKOHAMA, Japan, 1997

8.
Clement Greenberg
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In particular, he is best remembered for his promotion of the abstract expressionist movement and was among the first published critics to praise the work of painter Jackson Pollock. Clement Greenberg was born in the borough of the Bronx, NYC and his parents were middle-class Jewish immigrants, and he was the eldest of their three sons. Since childhood, Greenberg sketched compulsively, until becoming a young adult, Greenberg attended Erasmus Hall High School, the Marquand School for Boys, then Syracuse University, graduating with an A. B. in 1930, cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa. After college, already as fluent in Yiddish as English since childhood, Greenberg taught himself Italian and German in addition to French and Latin. During the next few years, Greenberg travelled the U. S. working for his fathers dry-goods business, Greenberg married in 1934, had a son the next year, and was divorced the year after that. It was then that Greenberg began to seriously, and soon after began getting published in a handful of small magazines. Greenberg writes, Kitsch, using for raw material the debased and academicized simulacra of genuine culture and it is the source of its profits. Kitsch is mechanical and operates by formulas, Kitsch is vicarious experience and faked sensations. Kitsch changes according to style, but remains always the same, Kitsch is the epitome of all that is spurious in the life of our times. Kitsch pretends to demand nothing of its customers except their money – not even their time, for Greenberg, avant garde art was too innocent to be effectively used as propaganda or bent to a cause, while kitsch was ideal for stirring up false sentiment. Greenberg wrote several essays that defined his views on art history in the 20th century. In 1940, Greenberg joined Partisan Review as an editor and he became art critic for the Nation in 1942. He was associate editor of Commentary from 1945 until 1957, in December 1950, he joined the government funded American Committee for Cultural Freedom. Greenberg believed Modernism provided a commentary on experience. It was constantly changing to adapt to kitsch pseudo-culture, which was itself always developing, in the years after World War II, Greenberg pushed the position that the best avant-garde artists were emerging in America rather than Europe. Particularly, he championed Jackson Pollock as the greatest painter of his generation, Greenberg helped to articulate a concept of medium specificity. In Greenbergs view, after World War II the United States had become the guardian of advanced art and he was particularly impressed by the potential of painters William Ronald and Jack Bush, and later developed a close friendship with Bush. Greenberg expressed mixed feelings about pop art, on the one hand he expressed that pop art partook of a trend toward openness and clarity as against the turgidities of second generation Abstract Expressionism

Clement Greenberg
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Clement Greenberg

9.
Lawrence Weiner
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Lawrence Weiner is one of the central figures in the formation of conceptual art in the 1960s. His work often takes the form of typographic texts, Weiner was born in the Bronx, New York, the son of a candy-store owner. After graduating from Stuyvesant High School at 16, he had a variety of jobs—he worked on an oil tanker, on docks, after studying at Hunter College for less than a year, he traveled throughout North America before returning to New York. Weiner is regarded as a figure of Postminimalism’s Conceptual art, which includes artists like Douglas Huebler, Robert Barry, Joseph Kosuth. Weiner began his career as an artist as a young man at the height of Abstract Expressionism. His debut public work/exhibition was at the age of 19, with what he called Cratering Piece, an action piece, the work consisted of explosives set to ignite simultaneously in the four corners of a field in Marin County, California. That work, as Weiner later developed his practice as a painter and his work in the early 1960s included six years of making explosions in the landscape of California to create craters as individual sculptures. Or A36 x 36 removal of lathing or support wall, in 1968, when Sol LeWitt came up with his Paragraphs on Conceptual Art, Weiner formulated his Declaration of Intent,1. The artist may construct the piece, the piece need not be built. Each being equal and consistent with the intent of the artist the decision as to condition rests with the receiver upon the occasion of receivership, Weiner created his first book Statements in 1968, a small 64-page paperback with texts describing projects. Published by The Louis Kellner Foundation and Seth Siegelaub, Statements is considered one of the conceptual artists books of the era. He was a contributor to the famous Xeroxbook also published by Seth Siegelaub in 1968, an important aspect of audience participation in Weiner’s work is site-specificity. In SOME LIMESTONE SOME SANDSTONE ENCLOSED FOR SOME REASON he recast the iron weighbridge of the Dean Clough carpet factory, since the early 1970s, wall installations have been Weiners primary medium, and he has shown at the Leo Castelli gallery. Nevertheless, Weiner works in a variety of media, including video, film, books, sound art using audio tape, sculpture, performance art, installation art. In 2007, he participated at the symposium “Personal Structures Time-Space-Existence” a project which was initiated by the artist Rene Rietmeyer, in 2009 he participated in the art project Find Me, by Gema Alava, in company of artists Robert Ryman, Merrill Wagner and Paul Kos. Major solo exhibitions of the work have been mounted at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington. Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1988/89 and in Arnhem The Netherlands,2012, GREEN AS WELL AS BLUE AS WELL AS RED. Bibliography Alberro, Alexander, Zimmerman, Alice, Buchloch, Benjamin H. D. and Batchelor, de Salvo, Donna and Goldstein, Ann Lawrence Weiner, As Far as the Eye Can See

Lawrence Weiner
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Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of a Whole, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005
Lawrence Weiner
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Flakturm at Esterházypark in Vienna: Zerschmettert in Stücke (im Frieden der Nacht) / Smashed to pieces (in the still of the night) (1991)
Lawrence Weiner
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Weiner's At the Same Moment painted on pilings in the East River, as seen in 2011

10.
Conceptual art
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Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Some works of art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the art critic Clement Greenbergs vision of Modern art during the 1950s. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as conceptual with an artists intention. The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades. The artistic tradition does not see an object as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art. This concept, also called Art esthapériste, derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually, the current incarnation of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small. In 1961 the term art, coined by the artist Henry Flynt in his article bearing the term as its title. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts, in 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s - in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is, later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. Lawrence Weiner said, Once you know about a work of mine you own it, theres no way I can climb inside somebodys head and remove it. It is sometimes reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s. This linguistic turn reinforced and legitimized the direction the artists took. Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art, osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9,2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art

11.
Young British Artists
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The Young British Artists, or YBAs—also referred to as Brit artists and Britart—is the name given to a loose group of visual artists who first began to exhibit together in London, in 1988. Many of the artists graduated from the BA Fine Art course at Goldsmiths and they are noted for shock tactics, use of throwaway materials, wild-living, and an attitude both oppositional and entrepreneurial. They achieved considerable media coverage and dominated British art during the 1990s—international survey shows in the mid-1990s included Brilliant. many of the artists were initially supported and collected by Charles Saatchi. Leading artists of the group include Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin, the first use of the term young British artists was by Michael Corris in ArtForum, May 1992, although Saatchi entitled his exhibition as Young British Artists I already in March 1992. The acronym term YBA was not coined until 1996 and it has become a historic term, as most of the YBAs were born in the mid-1960s. The core of the later-to-be YBAs graduated from the Goldsmiths BA Fine Art degree course in the classes of 1987–90, liam Gillick, Fiona Rae, Steve Park and Sarah Lucas, were graduates in the class of 1987. A group of sixteen Goldsmiths students took part in an exhibition of art, called Freeze, of which Damien Hirst became the main organiser. Commercial galleries had shown a lack of interest in the project, and it was held in a cheap non-art space, the event resonated with the Acid House warehouse rave scene prevalent at the time, but did not achieve any major press exposure. One of its effects was to set an example of artist-as-curator—in the mid-1990s artist-run exhibition spaces and galleries became a feature of the London arts scene. In liaison with Hirst, Carl Freedman and Billee Sellman then curated two influential warehouse shows in 1990, Modern Medicine and Gambler, in a Bermondsey former factory they designated Building One, to stage Modern Medicine they raised £1,000 sponsorships from artworld figures including Charles Saatchi. Freedman has spoken openly about the self-fulfilling prophecy these sponsors helped to create, in 1990, Henry Bond and Sarah Lucas organised the East Country Yard Show in a disused warehouse in London Docklands which was installed over four floors and 16, 000m2 of exhibition space. They were far superior, for instance, to any of the art shows that have been staged by the Liverpool Tate in its own multi-million-pound dockland site. Established alternative spaces such as City Racing at the Oval in London, there was much embryonic activity in the Hoxton/Shoreditch area of East London focused on Joshua Compstons gallery. In 1991, the Serpentine Gallery presented a survey of group of artists with the exhibition Broken English. In 1992, Charles Saatchi staged a series of exhibitions of Young British Art, a second wave of Young British Artists appeared in 1992–1993 through exhibitions such as New Contemporaries, New British Summertime and Minky Manky. This included Douglas Gordon, Christine Borland, Fiona Banner, Tracey Emin, Tacita Dean, Georgina Starr and Jane, One exhibition which included several of the YBA artists was the 1995 quin-annual British Art Show. The spread of interest improved the market for contemporary British art magazines through increased advertising, One of the visitors to Freeze was Charles Saatchi, a major contemporary art collector and co-founder of Saatchi and Saatchi, the London advertising agency. Saatchi became not only Hirsts main collector, but also the sponsor for other YBAs–a fact openly acknowledged by Gavin Turk

12.
Turner Prize
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The Turner Prize, named after the English painter J. M. W. Turner, is an annual prize presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50. Awarding the prize is organised by the Tate gallery and staged at Tate Britain, since its beginnings in 1984 it has become the UKs most publicised art award. As of 2004, the award was established at £40,000. There have been different sponsors, including Channel 4 television and Gordons Gin, a prominent event in British culture, the prize has been awarded by various distinguished celebrities, in 2006 this was Yoko Ono, and in 2012 it was presented by Jude Law. The prize was named after Turner because while he is now considered one of the countrys greatest artist, while he was active his work was controversial. While he is now looked at as a traditionalist, his new approach to landscape painting changed the course of art history, each year after the announcement of the four nominees and during the build-up to the announcement of the winner, the Prize receives intense attention from the media. Much of this attention is critical and the question is often asked, artists are chosen based upon a showing of their work that they have staged in the preceding year. Nominations for the prize are invited from the public, although this was considered to have negligible effect—a suspicion confirmed in 2006 by Lynn Barber. The exhibition remains on view until January, the prize is officially not judged on the Tate show, however, but on the earlier exhibition for which the artist was nominated. The exhibition and prize rely on commercial sponsorship, by 1987, money for the prize was provided by Drexel Burnham Lambert, its withdrawal after its demise led to the cancellation of the prize for 1990. Channel 4, an independent television channel, stepped in for 1991, doubling the money to £20,000. In 2004, they were replaced as sponsors by Gordons Gin, doubling the money to £40,000, with £5,000 going to each of the shortlisted artists. Tate Director Sir Nicholas Serota has been the Chair of the jury since his tenure at the Tate, there are conflicting reports as to how much personal sway he has over the proceedings. Most of the artists nominated for the prize selection become known to the public for the first time as a consequence. Some have talked of the difficulty of the media exposure. Sale prices of the winners have generally increased, Chris Ofili, Anish Kapoor and Jeremy Deller later became trustees of the Tate. Some artists, notably Sarah Lucas, have declined the invitation to be nominated, the first Turner Prize was awarded to Malcolm Morley, an English artist living in the United States. Other nominees included sculptor Richard Deacon, graphic-styled collaborative duo Gilbert & George, abstract painter Howard Hodgkin, Howard Hodgkin is awarded the Turner Prize for A Small Thing But My Own

13.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

14.
Contemporary art
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Contemporary art is the art of today, produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century. Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the relevant to ourselves. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition. In vernacular English, modern and contemporary are synonyms, resulting in some conflation of the modern art. Some define contemporary art as art produced within our lifetime, recognizing that lifetimes, however, there is a recognition that this generic definition is subject to specialized limitations. The classification of art as a special type of art, rather than a general adjectival phrase. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded in 1910 by the critic Roger Fry and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in public museums. A number of other institutions using the term were founded in the 1930s, such as in 1938 the Contemporary Art Society of Adelaide, Australia, particular points that have been seen as marking a change in art styles include the end of World War II and the 1960s. There has perhaps been a lack of natural break points since the 1960s, and definitions of what contemporary art in the 2010s vary. Art from the past 20 years is likely to be included, and definitions often include art going back to about 1970, the art of the late 20th and early 21st century. Many use the formulation Modern and Contemporary Art, which avoids this problem, smaller commercial galleries, magazines and other sources may use stricter definitions, perhaps restricting the contemporary to work from 2000 onwards. One of the many people have in approaching contemporary artwork is its diversity - diversity of material, form, subject matter. It is distinguished by the lack of a uniform organizing principle, ideology, or -ism that we so often see in other. Broadly speaking, we see Modernism as looking at modernist principals - the focus of the work is self-referential, likewise, Impressionism looks at our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism. Contemporary art, on the hand, does not have one. Its view, instead, is refracted, prismatic, and multi-faceted, reflecting the diversity of the world today, in all of its complexities, contemporary art reflects life as we know it. It can be, therefore, contradictory, confusing, and open-ended, there are, however, a number of common themes that have appeared in contemporary works. Post-modern, post-structuralist, feminist, and Marxist theory have played important roles in the development of theories of art

15.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music

16.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun

17.
Marcel Duchamp
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Duchamp has had an immense impact on twentieth-century and twenty first-century art. By World War I, he had rejected the work of many of his artists as retinal art. Instead, Duchamp wanted to use art to serve the mind, Marcel Duchamp was born at Blainville-Crevon in Normandy, France, and grew up in a family that enjoyed cultural activities. The art of painter and engraver Émile Frédéric Nicolle, his grandfather, filled the house, and the family liked to play chess, read books, paint. Of Eugene and Lucie Duchamps seven children, one died as an infant, Marcel Duchamp was the brother of, Jacques Villon, painter, printmaker Raymond Duchamp-Villon, sculptor Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, painter. At 8 years old, Duchamp followed in his brothers footsteps when he left home and began schooling at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille, two other students in his class also became well-known artists and lasting friends, Robert Antoine Pinchon and Pierre Dumont. For the next 8 years, he was locked into a regime which focused on intellectual development. Though he was not a student, his best subject was mathematics. He also won a prize for drawing in 1903, and at his commencement in 1904 he won a coveted first prize and he learned academic drawing from a teacher who unsuccessfully attempted to protect his students from Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and other avant-garde influences. However, Duchamps true artistic mentor at the time was his brother Jacques Villon, whose fluid, at 14, his first serious art attempts were drawings and watercolors depicting his sister Suzanne in various poses and activities. That summer he painted landscapes in an Impressionist style using oils. Duchamps early art works align with Post-Impressionist styles and he experimented with classical techniques and subjects. He studied art at the Académie Julian from 1904 to 1905, during this time Duchamp drew and sold cartoons which reflected his ribald humor. Many of the drawings use verbal puns, visual puns, or both, such play with words and symbols engaged his imagination for the rest of his life. In 1905, he began his military service with the 39th Infantry Regiment. There he learned typography and printing processes—skills he would use in his later work, due to his eldest brother Jacques membership in the prestigious Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture Duchamps work was exhibited in the 1908 Salon dAutomne. The following year his work was featured in the Salon des Indépendants, of Duchamps pieces in the show, critic Guillaume Apollinaire—who was to become a friend—criticized what he called Duchamps very ugly nudes. The group came to be known as the Puteaux Group, or the Section dOr, uninterested in the Cubists seriousness or in their focus on visual matters, Duchamp did not join in discussions of Cubist theory, and gained a reputation of being shy

18.
Fountain (Duchamp)
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Fountain is a 1917 work produced by Marcel Duchamp. The piece was a urinal, which was signed R. Mutt. Fountain was displayed and photographed at Alfred Stieglitzs studio, and the published in The Blind Man. The work is regarded by art historians and theorists of the avant-garde, such as Peter Bürger,17 replicas commissioned by Duchamp in the 1960s now exist. Marcel Duchamp arrived in the United States less than two prior to the creation of Fountain and had become involved with Dada, an anti-rational, anti-art cultural movement. The artist brought the urinal to his studio at 33 West 67th Street, reoriented it to a position 90 degrees from its position of use. According to another version, Duchamp did not create Fountain, at the time Duchamp was a board member of the Society of Independent Artists. After much debate by the members about whether the piece was or was not art. Duchamp resigned from the Board in protest and he took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title and point of view – created a new thought for that object. In defense of the work being art, Wood also wrote, The only works of art America has given are her plumbing, Duchamp described his intent with the piece was to shift the focus of art from physical craft to intellectual interpretation. Menno Hubregtse argues that Duchamp may have chosen Fountain as a readymade because it parodied Robert J. Coadys exaltation of industrial machines as pure forms of American art. Coady, who championed his call for American art in his publication The Soil, Hubregtse notes that Duchamps urinal may have been a clever response to Coadys comparison of Crottis sculpture with the absolute expression of a—plumber. Shortly after its exhibition, Fountain was lost. According to Duchamp biographer Calvin Tomkins, the best guess is that it was out as rubbish by Stieglitz. The edition of eight was manufactured from glazed earthenware painted to resemble the original porcelain, the artwork is not a special object—it was mass-produced in a factory. The experience of art is not exciting and ennobling—at best it is puzzling, but over and above that, Duchamp did not select just any ready-made object to display. In selecting the urinal, his message was clear, Art is something you piss on, since the photograph taken by Stieglitz is the only image of the original sculpture, there are some interpretations of Fountain by looking not only at reproductions but this particular photograph. The use of the word Dada for the art movement, the meaning and it is not clear whether Duchamp or Freytag-Lorinhoven had in mind the German Armut, or possibly Urmutter

19.
Alfred Stieglitz
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Alfred Stieglitz was an American photographer and modern art promoter who was instrumental over his fifty-year career in making photography an accepted art form. In addition to his photography, Stieglitz was known for the New York art galleries that he ran in the part of the 20th century. He was married to painter Georgia OKeeffe, Stieglitz was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the first son of German-Jewish immigrants Edward Stieglitz and Hedwig Ann Werner. His father was a lieutenant in the Union Army and he had five siblings, Flora, twins Julius and Leopold, Agnes and Selma. Alfred Stieglitz, seeing the relationship of the twins, wished he had a soul mate of his own during his childhood. Stieglitz attended Charlier Institute, a Christian school and the best private school in New York, the following year, his family began spending the summers at Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains, a tradition that continued into Stieglitzs adulthood. So that he would qualify for admission to the City College of New York, Stieglitz was enrolled in a school for his senior year of high school. In 1881, Edward Stieglitz sold his company for US$400,000, Alfred Stieglitz enrolled in the Realgymnasium in Karlsruhe. The next year, Stieglitz studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin and he enrolled in a chemistry class taught by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, a scientist and researcher, who worked on the chemical processes for developing photographs. In Vogel, Stieglitz found both the challenge he needed and an outlet for his growing artistic and cultural interests. He received an allowance of $1,200 a month, German artists Adolf von Menzel and Wilhelm Hasemann were his friends. He bought his first camera and traveled through the European countryside, taking photographs of landscapes and peasants in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1884, his parents returned to America, but 20-year-old Stieglitz remained in Germany and collected books on photography and photographers in Europe, through his self-study, he saw photography as an art form. In 1887, he wrote his very first article, A Word or Two about Amateur Photography in Germany and he then wrote articles on the technical and aesthetic aspects of photography for magazines in England and Germany. He won first place for his photography, The Last Joke, Bellagio, the next year he won both first and second prizes in the same competition, and his reputation began to spread as several German and British photographic magazines published his work. In 1890, his sister Flora died while giving birth, Stieglitz considered himself an artist, but he refused to sell his photographs. His father purchased a small business for him so that he could earn a living in his chosen profession. Because he demanded high quality images and paid his employee high wages and he regularly wrote for The American Amateur Photographer magazine

20.
Readymade
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Pablo Picasso first publicly utilized the idea when he pasted a printed image of chair caning onto his painting titled Still Life with Chair Caning. The most famous example is Fountain, a standard urinal purchased from a store and displayed on a pedestal. Found objects derive their identity as art from the designation placed upon them by the artist and this may be indicated by either its anonymous wear and tear or by its recognizability as a consumer icon. The context into which it is placed is also a relevant factor. The idea of dignifying commonplace objects in this way was originally a challenge to the accepted distinction between what was considered art as opposed to not art. In this sense the artist gives the time and a stage to contemplate an object. Appreciation of found objects in this way can prompt philosophical reflection in the observer, there is usually some degree of modification of the found object, although not always to the extent that it cannot be recognized, as is the case with ready-mades. Marcel Duchamp coined the term ready-made in 1915 to describe an object that had been selected. Duchamp assembled Bicycle Wheel in 1913 by attaching a common front wheel and this was not long after his Nude Descending a Staircase was attracting the attention of critics at the International Exhibition of Modern Art. In 1917, Fountain, a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, in the same year, Duchamp indicated in a letter to his sister, Suzanne Duchamp, that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work. As he writes, One of my friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture. Irene Gammel argues that the piece is more in line with the aesthetics of Duchamps friend. Research by Rhonda Roland Shearer indicates that Duchamp may have fabricated his found objects, exhaustive research of mundane items like snow shovels and bottle racks in use at the time failed to reveal identical matches. The urinal, upon inspection, is non-functional. However, there are accounts of Walter Arensberg and Joseph Stella being with Duchamp when he purchased the original Fountain at J. L. Mott Iron Works. The use of objects was quickly taken up by the Dada movement, being used by Man Ray. A well-known work by Man Ray is Gift, which is an iron with nails sticking out from its flat underside, jose De Creeft began making large-scale assemblages in Paris, such as Picador, made of scrap metal, rubber and other materials. The combination of found objects is a type of ready-made sometimes known as an assemblage

21.
Isidore Isou
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Isidore Isou, born Isidor Goldstein, was a Romanian-born French poet, film critic and visual artist. He was the founder of Lettrism, an art and literary movement which owed inspiration to Dada, born into a Jewish family in Botoşani, Isou started his career as an avant-garde art journalist during World War II, shortly after the 23 August coup saw Romania joining the Allies. With the future social psychologist Serge Moscovici, he founded the magazine Da and he moved to Paris, having developed many concepts that intended a total artistic renewal starting from the most basic elements of writing and visual communication. He adopted then the French first name Jean and the pseudonym Isidore Isou and he called himself a Lettriste, a movement of which he was initially the only member and published a system of Lettrist hypergraphics. Others soon joined him, and the movement continues to grow, in 1951 the young Isou released his experimental and revolutionary film Traité de bave et déternité, work deemed revolting by many critics present at the premiere. Including a reflexive discourse on the making of a new cinema, the sound track of Treatise on Venom and Eternity begins with jarring and unpleasant human noises, which continue in low volume throughout the spoken dialogue. In addition, the celluloid on which the film was recorded was attacked with destructive techniques such as scratches, the film caused a scandal at the 1951 Cannes Film Festival, and was later introduced into the United States, where it influenced avant-garde film makers such as Stan Brakhage. In the early fifties one segment of Orson Welles film journal, in the 1960s Lettrist, Lettrist-influenced works and Isidore Isou gained a great deal of respect in France. The influential writer Guy Debord the artist Gil J. Wolman, Isous final public appearance was at the University of Paris on 21 October 2000, aged 82. Crippled by ill health, he remained house-bound until his death in 2007, in July 2007, Kino International released a DVD collection Avant-garde |Avant-Garde 2, Experimental Films 1928-1954, which included Isous film Traité de Bave et dÈternité. Je préfère mon nouveau dégoût à lancien goût dégoûtant Contre linternationale situationniste, essai, Contre le cinema situationniste, neo-nazi, Librairie la Guide, Paris,1979. Isou, ou la mécanique des femmes, Aux Escaliers de Lausanne, Lausanne,1949, les Champs de Force de la Peinture Lettriste, Avant-Garde, Paris,1964. Introduction à une Nouvelle Poésie et une Nouvelle Musique, Paris, la Créatique ou la Novatique, Éditions Al Dante,2003. Manifesto of Lettrist Poetry, A Commonplaces about Words, Traité de bave et déternité, Éd. Cabañas, Kaira M. Off-Screen Cinema, Isidore Isou and the Lettrist Avant-Garde, University of Chicago Press, acquaviva, Frédéric & Buzatu, Simona, Isidore Isou, Hypergraphic Novels – 1950-1984, Romanian Cultural Institute, Stockholm,2012. Fabrice Flahutez, Camille Morando, Isidore Isous Library

Isidore Isou
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Isou in his film Traité de bave et d'éternité (1951)

22.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
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Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction

23.
Henry Flynt
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Henry Flynt is a philosopher, avant-garde musician, anti-art activist and exhibited artist often associated with Conceptual Art, Fluxus and Nihilism. Henry Flynt’s work devolves from what he calls cognitive nihilism, a concept he developed, the 1961 draft was published in Milan with other early work in his book Blueprint for a Higher Civilization in 1975. Flynt refined these dispensations in the essay Is there language and that was published as Primary Study in 1964. In 1961 Flynt coined the concept art in the Neo-Dada. An Anthology of Chance Operations contained seminal works by Fluxus artists such as George Brecht, Flynts concept art, he maintained, devolved from cognitive nihilism, from insights about the vulnerabilities of logic and mathematics. Drawing on an exclusively syntactical paradigm of logic and mathematics, concept art was meant jointly to supersede mathematics, therefore, Flynt maintained, to merit the label concept art, a work had to be an object-critique of logic or mathematics or objective structure. In 1962 Flynt began to campaign for an anti-art position, thus he demonstrated against cultural institutions in New York City with Tony Conrad and Jack Smith in 1963 and against the composer Karlheinz Stockhausen twice in 1964. Flynt wanted avant-garde art to become superseded by the terms of veramusement, Flynt read publicly from his text From Culture to Veramusment at Walter De Marias loft on February 28, 1963—an act which can be considered performance art. From about 1980, Flynt has given a deal of time to two endeavors which did not achieve the notoriety of the early actions, his concepts of meta-technology. In 1987 he revived his concept art for tactical reasons, following that period, Flynt began to publish recorded but unreleased musical compositions. Over 10 audio CDs have appeared as of 2007, in 1966, he recorded several rehearsal demo tapes with Henry Flynt & The Insurrections, a garage rock and folk rock band, which were later compiled and released in 2004 on Locust Music. Much of Henry Flynts subsequent recorded output has been release on the Recorded and his first CD release was You Are My Everlovin/Celestial Power on Recorded, quickly followed by Spindizzy and Hillbilly Tape Music also on Recorded. Later Recorded released NAEM4, Ascent to The Sun, recently, Flynts Glissando No.1 was published by Recorded. The Locust Music releases showcase the range of his musical interestes from minimalism, hillbilly country. C Tune documents a 1980 live improvisation with Catherine Christer Hennix on tamboura, Raga Electric, Experimental Music 1963-1971 is the seminal anthology of Flynts most challenging avant-garde work that includes Raga Electric and Free Alto. I Dont Wanna documents a band, the Insurrections, that Flynt led in 1966 with Walter De Maria. Purified by the Fire, recorded in December 1981, repeats the format of C Tune, Catherine Christer Hennix on tamboura, the 41-minute raga is dominated by the languid phrases of the violin that tests the border between melodic fragments and distorted tones. Dharma Warriors showcases another meeting between Catherine Christer Hennix & Flynt recorded in 1980 in Woodstock, New York, online reading, Henry Flynts text The Meaning of My Avant-Garde Hillbilly and Blues Music

24.
Fluxus
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Fluxus is an international and interdisciplinary group of artists, composers, designers and poets that took shape in the 1960s and 1970s. Dutch gallerist and art critic Harry Ruhé describes Fluxus as the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties, Fluxus is known for experimental contributions to different artistic media and disciplines. Fluxus is also known for generating art forms that were new when Fluxus artists created them, Fluxus participants included artists, composers, designers, and architects, as well as economists, mathematicians, ballet dancers, chefs, and even a would-be theologian. Equally significant, they represented nations on three continents – Asia, Europe, and North America, many Fluxus artists share an anti-commercial and anti-art sensibility. Fluxus is sometimes described as intermedia, the process of creating was privileged over the finished product. Another influence was the readymades of Marcel Duchamp, a French artist who was active in Dada, George Maciunas, a co-founder of this fluid movement, coined the name Fluxus in 1961 to title a proposed magazine. The broad and varied nature of the involved in Fluxus involved a community of friends who worked together. They had different ideas about art and the role of art in society, the overlapping communities within Fluxus and the way that Fluxus developed in overlapping stages meant that participants had very different ideas about what Fluxus was. One Fluxus co-founder – George Maciunas – proposed a well known manifesto, but none of the artists agreed with it. Instead, a series of festivals in Wiesbaden, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Amsterdam, and New York, gave rise to a loose but robust community. In keeping with the reputation Fluxus earned as a forum of experimentation, Fluxus played an important role in the opening up of definitions of art. The origins of Fluxus lie in many of the concepts explored by composer John Cage in his music of the 1930s through the 1960s. After attending courses on Zen Buddhism taught by D. T, a major influence is found in the work of Marcel Duchamp. Also of importance was Dada Poets and Painters, edited by Robert Motherwell, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Duchamp around 1913, when he created his first readymades from found objects. Indifferently chosen, readymades and altered readymades challenged the notion of art as an inherently optical experience, the most famous example is Duchamps infamous altered readymade Fountain, a work which he signed R. Mutt. While taking refuge from WWI in New York, in 1915 Duchamp formed a Dada group with Francis Picabia, Other key members included Arthur Craven, Florine Stettheimer, and the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, credited by some with proposing the idea for Fountain to Duchamp. By 1916 these artists, especially Duchamp, Man Ray, and their artworks would inform Fluxus and conceptual art in general. A number of contemporary events are credited as either anticipating Fluxus

Fluxus
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Fluxus Manifesto, 1963, by George Maciunas.
Fluxus
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Flux Year Box 2, c.1967, a Flux box edited and produced by George Maciunas, containing works by many early Fluxus artists.
Fluxus
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Piano Activities, by Philip Corner, as performed in Wiesbaden, 1962, by (l-r) Emmett Williams, Wolf Vostell, Nam June Paik, Dick Higgins, Benjamin Patterson and George Maciunas
Fluxus
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Willem de Ridder's Mail Order FluxShop, Amsterdam, with Dorothea Meijer, winter 1964–65. Photo by Willem de Ridder

25.
An Anthology of Chance Operations
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An Anthology of Chance Operations was an artists book publication from the early 1960s of experimental neodada art and music composition that used John Cage inspired indeterminacy. It was edited by La Monte Young and DIY co-published in 1963 by Young, the project became the manifestation of the original impetus for establishing Fluxus. Given free rein to include whoever and whatever he wanted, Young collected a body of new and experimental music, anti art, poetry, essays and performance scores from America, Europe. The magazine, however, folded after one issue. Although it can be argued that An Anthology is not strictly a Fluxus publication, its development and it was the first collaborative publication project between people who were to become part of Fluxus, Young, Mac Low and Maciunas. The art dealer Heiner Friedrich issued an edition in 1970. Malka Safro Simone Forti Nam June Paik Terry Riley Dieter Roth James Waring Emmett Williams Christian Wolff La Monte Young Notes An Anthology of Chance Operations PDF

An Anthology of Chance Operations
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Book cover.

26.
Art and Language
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Art & Language is a conceptual artists collaboration that has undergone many changes since its creation at the end of the 1960s. The group was founded by artists on the desire to combine intellecutal focuses. The first issue of the groups journal Art-Language was published in November 1969 in England, the Art & Language group was founded in either 1967 or 1968 in the United Kingdom by Terry Atkinson, David Bainbridge, Michael Baldwin and Harold Hurrell. These four artists began to collaborate around 1966 while they were art teachers in Coventry, the name of the group was derived from their journal Art-Language, which was originally created as a work conversation in 1966. The group was crticial of what was considered mainstream modern art practices at the time, between 1968 and 1982, the number grew from the original four people to nearly fifty people associated with the collaborative group. Among the first to join in 1970 were critic and art historian Charles Harrison and artist Mel Ramsden. Then, starting at the beginning of the 1970s, individuals such as Ian Burn, Michael Corris, Preston Heller, Graham Howard, Joseph Kosuth, Andrew Menard, two collaborators from Coventry, Philip Pilkington and David Rushton, then joined Art & Lanuage. The relative degree of anonymity the group held since the beginning continues to have a significance on the art community. Due to uncertainity of the member lists, it is hard to know with certainty not only who all of the contributors were. The first issue of Art-Language is named The Journal of Conceptual Art, by the second issue it became clear that there were Conceptual Art pieces and Conceptual artists for whom and to whom the journal did not speak. In order to encompass the purpose of the journal, the title was then abandoned. Art-Language had, however, brought to light the beginning of a new art movement and it was the first imprint to identify a public entity called Conceptual Art. The journal was the first of its kind to serve the theoretical and conversational interests of a community of artists and critics, who were also its producers and users. While that community was far from unanimous on the nature of Conceptual Art, Conceptual Art was critical of Modernism for its bureaucracy and its historicism, and of Minimalism for its philosophical conservatism. The practice of Conceptual Art, especially in its years of origin, was primarily based on theory. As the distribution of the journal and the practices of the editors and others contributors expanded. In England, by 1971 artists and critics such as Charles Harrison, Philip Pilkington, David Rushton, Lynn Lemaster, Sandra Harrison, Graham Howard and Paul Wood joined. Around the same time in New York, Michael Corris joined followed by Paula Ramsden, Mayo Thompson, Christine Kozlov, Preston Heller, Andrew Menard and Kathryn Bigelow

27.
New York Cultural Center
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2 Columbus Circle is a 12-story building located on a small, trapezoidal lot on the south side of Columbus Circle on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City. Bordered by 58th Street, 59th Street, Broadway, and Eighth Avenue, the seven-story Grand Circle Hotel, designed by William H. Cauvet, stood at this address from 1874, later called the Boulevard Hotel, it was demolished in 1960. In 1964, A&P heir Huntington Hartford hired architect Edward Durell Stone to build a museum for him at 2 Columbus Circle, at the time, Hartford had one of the worlds greatest art collections with a Rembrandt, Claude Monets, Manet, Turner, Salvador Dalí. Hartford commissioned Salvador Dalí to paint a painting called The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus for the opening, the opening attracted many celebrities, such as the Duke of Windsor. 2 Columbus Circle opened as the Gallery of Modern Art, displaying Hartfords collection, until 2005, the building was a 12-story modernist structure, designed by Stone for Hartford, to display his art collection. As Stone designed it, the building was marble-clad with Venetian motifs and it had filigree-like portholes and windows that ran along an upper loggia at its top stories. With architect Philip L. Goodwin, Stone had previously designed the Rockefeller familys Museum of Modern Art in the International style, Hartford wanted his Gallery of Modern Art to represent an alternative view of modernism. The building was often called The Lollipop Building in reference to a review by architecture critic Ada Louise Huxtable in which she called it a die-cut Venetian palazzo on lollipops. However, three decades later she admitted that she got a lift, a sense of pleasure when she walked past it. By 1969, the Gallery of Modern Art closed, fairleigh Dickinson University received 2 Columbus Circle as a gift from Hartford and operated it as the New York Cultural Center, where art exhibitions were sometimes hosted. Six years later, Gulf and Western Industries purchased 2 Columbus Circle, in exchange for tax breaks, Sumner Redstone got a clause that Hartford had, which said that the building could never be renovated or destroyed. The building went unused until 1980, when Gulf and Western presented 2 Columbus Circle to the City of New York as a gift, the City of New York accepted 2 Columbus Circle and installed the headquarters for the Department of Cultural Affairs. The New York Convention and Visitors Bureau also started being housed in 2 Columbus Circle, the Museum of Arts and Design, now at 2 Columbus Circle, was founded in 1956 by the American Craft Council together with philanthropist Aileen Osborn Webb, as the Museum of Contemporary Crafts. In 1986, it relocated to 40 West 53rd Street and was renamed the American Craft Museum, in 2002 it changed its name again to the Museum of Arts and Design. Concurrently, interest in landmarking this building had begun in 1996, soon after the building turned thirty years old, in this year, Robert A. M. Stern included it in his article A Preservationists List of 35 Modern Landmarks-in-Waiting written for the New York Times. Stones design at 2 Columbus Circle was listed as one of the World Monuments Funds 100 Most Endangered Sites for 2006, MAD was designated as the site developer of 2 Columbus Circle by the New York City Economic Development Corporation in June 2002. In 2004, the National Trust for Historic Preservation called it one of Americas 11 Most Endangered Historic Places, despite a serious preservation effort, the New York City Department of Buildings approved the permit for MAD to begin removing 2 Columbus Circles facade. The museums plans to alter the buildings original design touched off a preservation battle involving many notable people

New York Cultural Center
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The original design of the Edward Durell Stone building named 2 Columbus Circle.
New York Cultural Center
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2 Columbus Circle with its new facade, February 2011
New York Cultural Center
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During facade reconstruction

28.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

29.
Art critic
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An art critic is a person who is specialized in analyzing, interpreting and evaluating art. Their written critiques or reviews contribute to art criticism and they are published in newspapers, magazines, books, exhibition brochures and catalogues, some of todays art critics use art blogs and other online platforms in order to connect with a wider audience and expand debate about art. Differently from art history, there is not a training for art critics, art critics come from different backgrounds. Professional art critics are expected to have an eye for art. Typically the art critic views art at exhibitions, galleries, museums or artists studios, very rarely art critics earn their living from writing criticism. The opinions of art critics have the potential to stir debate on art related topics, due to this the viewpoints of art critics writing for art publications and newspapers adds to public discourse concerning art and culture. Art collectors and patrons often rely on the advice of such critics as a way to enhance their appreciation of the art they are viewing. Many now famous and celebrated artists were not recognized by the art critics of their time, an experience-related article is Agnieszka Gratza. Always according to James Elkins in smaller and developing countries, newspaper art criticism normally serves as art history, Art criticism List of art critics History of art criticism Good audio version of symposium on contemporary art criticism entitled Empathy and Criticality, sponsored by the Frieze Foundation

30.
Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine

31.
Figurative art
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However, abstract is sometimes used as a synonym for non-representational art and non-objective art, i. e. art which has no derivation from figures or objects. Figurative art is not synonymous with figure painting, although human, the difference is that in figurative art these elements are deployed to create an impression or illusion of form and space, and, usually, to create emphasis in the narrative portrayed. Figurative art is based upon a tacit understanding of abstracted shapes. Eventually idealization gave way to observation, and an art which balanced ideal geometry with greater realism was seen in Classical sculpture by 480 B. C. The Greeks referred to the reliance on visual observation as mimesis, until the time of the Impressionists, figurative art was characterized by attempts to reconcile these opposing principles. From the early Renaissance, Mannerism and the Baroque through 18th-, 19th- and he was a major inspiration for such classically oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne. Abstract art Illustration Narrative art Neofigurative Art Realism Stuckism

32.
Perspective (graphical)
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Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer, an object is often not scaled evenly, a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening, Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewers eye, represents objects infinitely far away and they have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to the Earths horizon, any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a vanishing point, usually directly opposite the viewers eye. All lines parallel with the line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard receding railroad tracks phenomenon, a two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing. Perspectives consisting of parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture. In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines, the only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles. Chinese artists made use of perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique, some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga. This was detailed within Aristotles Poetics as skenographia, using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage, Euclids Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclids perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition

33.
Yoko Ono
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Yoko Ono is a Japanese multimedia artist, singer, songwriter, and peace activist who is also known for her work in performance art and filmmaking. She is the wife and widow of singer-songwriter John Lennon of the Beatles. Ono grew up in Tokyo, and studied at Gakushuin and she withdrew from her course after two years and rejoined her family in New York in 1953. She spent some time at Sarah Lawrence College, and then involved in New York Citys downtown artists scene. She first met Lennon in 1966 at her own art exhibition in London and she brought feminism to the forefront in her music, influencing artists as diverse as the B-52s and Meredith Monk. Ono achieved commercial and critical acclaim in 1980 with the chart-topping album Double Fantasy, public appreciation of Onos work has shifted over time, helped by a retrospective at a Whitney Museum branch in 1989 and the 1992 release of the six-disc box set Onobox. She received a Golden Lion Award for lifetime achievement from the Venice Biennale in 2009, as Lennons widow, Ono works to preserve his legacy. She funded Strawberry Fields in New York City, the Imagine Peace Tower in Iceland, and she has made significant philanthropic contributions to the arts, peace, Philippine and Japan disaster relief, and other causes. In 2012 Yoko Ono received the Dr. Rainer Hildebrandt Human Rights Award endowed by Alexandra Hildebrandt, the award is given annually in recognition of extraordinary, non-violent commitment to human rights. Ono continues her activism, inaugurating a biennial $50,000 LennonOno Grant for Peace in 2002. She has a daughter, Kyoko Chan Cox, from her marriage to Anthony Cox, Ono was born on February 18,1933, in Tokyo, to Isoko Ono and Eisuke Ono, a banker and former classical pianist. Isokos father was ennobled in 1915, isokos maternal grandfather Zenjiro Yasuda was an affiliate of the Yasuda clan and zaibatsu. Eisuke came from a line of samurai warrior-scholars. The kanji translation of Yokos first name Yoko means ocean child, Two weeks before Yokos birth, Eisuke was transferred to San Francisco by his employer, the Yokohama Specie Bank. The rest of the family followed soon after, with Yoko meeting Eisuke when she was two and her younger brother Keisuke was born in December 1936. Yoko was enrolled in piano lessons from the age of 4, in 1937, the family was transferred back to Japan and Ono enrolled at Tokyos Gakushuin, one of the most exclusive schools in Japan. In 1940, the moved to New York City. The next year, Eisuke was transferred from New York City to Hanoi, Ono was enrolled in Keimei Gakuen, an exclusive Christian primary school run by the Mitsui family

34.
Craft
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A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan, the beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers and began to represent what we think of a craftsman today, historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work, once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could call himself a master of his craft. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution, thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science, roughly determinated, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge. Handicraft is the main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods, the individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods, handicraft goods are made with craft production processes. Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of working, glass blowing. A craft fair is an event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, a tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, media related to Crafts at Wikimedia Commons

Craft
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Woodworking being done in a workshop
Craft
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Shoes are repaired by a skilled shoemaker, here he evaluates a pair of shoes with a customer watching
Craft
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Street handicraft: here a skilled metalsmith in Agra, India sits between scooters in a commercial area making careful observations in the practice of his trade
Craft
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Mexican craft.

35.
Edward Ruscha
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Edward Joseph Ruscha IV is an American artist associated with the pop art movement. He has worked in the media of painting, printmaking, drawing, photography, Ruscha lives and works in Culver City, California. Ruscha was born into a Roman Catholic family in Omaha, Nebraska, with a sister, Shelby. Edward Ruscha, Sr. was an auditor for Hartford Insurance Company, Ruscha’s mother was supportive of her son’s early signs of artistic skill and interests. Young Ruscha was attracted to cartooning and would sustain this interest throughout his adolescent years, while at Chouinard, Ruscha edited and produced the journal Orb together with Joe Goode, Emerson Woelffer, Stephan von Huene, Jerry McMillan, and others. Ruscha spent much of the summer of 1961 traveling through Europe, after graduation, Ruscha took a job as a layout artist for the Carson-Roberts Advertising Agency in Los Angeles. He worked as designer for Artforum magazine under the pseudonym “Eddie Russia” from 1965 to 1969. He is also a friend of guitarist Mason Williams. Ruscha achieved recognition for paintings incorporating words and phrases and for his photographic books. His textual, flat paintings have been linked both the Pop Art movement and the beat generation. While in school in 1957, Ruscha chanced upon then unknown Jasper Johns’ Target with Four Faces in the magazine Print and was greatly moved, Ruscha has credited these artists’ work as sources of inspiration for his change of interest from graphic arts to painting. He was also impacted by John McLaughlins paintings, the work of H. C, westermann, Arthur Dove’s 1925 painting Goin’ Fishin’, Alvin Lustigs cover illustrations for New Directions Press, and much of Marcel Duchamp’s work. In a 1961 tour of Europe, Ruscha came upon more works by Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, R. A. Bertelli’s Head of Mussolini, Some critics are quick to see the influence of Edward Hoppers Gas in Ruschas 1963 oil painting, Standard Station, Amarillo, Texas. In any case, Art has to be something that makes you scratch your head, examples of this include the publication Every Building on the Sunset Strip, a book of continuous photographs of a two and one half mile stretch of the 24 mile boulevard. In 1973, following the model of Every Building on the Sunset Strip, also, paintings like Standard Station, Large Trademark, and Hollywood exemplify Ruscha’s kinship with the Southern California visual language. Two of these paintings, Standard and Large Trademark were emulated out of car parts in 2008 by Brazilian photographer Vik Muniz as a commentary on Los Angeles, also, the proportions of the Hollywood print seems to mimic the Cinemascope screen. Ruscha completed Large Trademark with Eight Spotlights in 1961, one year after graduating from college, Large Trademark was quickly followed by Standard Station and Wonder Bread. In Norm’s, La Cienega, on Fire, Burning Gas Station, in 1985, Ruscha begins a series of City Lights paintings, where grids of bright spots on dark grounds suggest aerial views of the city at night

36.
Composition (visual arts)
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In the visual arts, composition is the placement or arrangement of visual elements or ingredients in a work of art, as distinct from the subject. It can also be thought of as the organization of the elements of art according to the principles of art, the composition of a picture is different from its subject, which what is shown, whether a moment from a story, a person or a place. Many subjects, for example Saint George and the Dragon, are shown in art. The term composition means putting together and can apply to any work of art, from music to writing to photography, that is arranged using conscious thought. In the visual arts, composition is used interchangeably with various terms such as design, form, visual ordering, or formal structure. In graphic design for press and desktop publishing, composition is referred to as page layout. The various visual elements, known as elements of design, formal elements and these elements in the overall design usually relate to each other and to the whole art work. The optical illusion of lines do exist in nature and visual elements can be arranged to create this illusion. The viewer unconsciously reads near continuous arrangement of different elements and subjects at varying distances, such elements can be of dramatic use in the composition of the image. These could be literal lines such as telephone and power cables or rigging on boats, lines can derive also from the borders of areas of differing color or contrast, or sequences of discrete elements. Movement is also a source of line, and blur can also create a reaction, subject lines contribute to both mood and linear perspective, giving the viewer the illusion of depth. Oblique lines convey a sense of movement and angular lines generally convey a sense of dynamism, lines can also direct attention towards the main subject of picture, or contribute to organization by dividing it into compartments. The artist may exaggerate or create lines perhaps as part of their message to the viewer, many lines without a clear subject point suggest chaos in the image and may conflict with the mood the artist is trying to evoke. Straight left lines create different moods and add affection to visual arts, a lines angle and its relationship to the size of the frame influence the mood of the image. Horizontal lines, commonly found in landscape photography, can give the impression of calm, tranquility, an image filled with strong vertical lines tends to have the impression of height and grandeur. Tightly angled convergent lines give a dynamic, lively, and active effect to the image, strongly angled, almost diagonal lines produce tension in the image. The viewpoint of visual art is important because every different perspective views different angled lines. This change of perspective elicits a different response to the image, by changing the perspective only by some degrees or some centimetres lines in images can change tremendously and a totally different feeling can be transported

Composition (visual arts)
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The Art of Painting by Jan Vermeer, noted for his subtle compositions
Composition (visual arts)
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Rule of thirds: Note how the horizon falls close to the bottom grid line, and how the dark areas are in the left third, the overexposed in the right third.
Composition (visual arts)
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The blurred background focuses the eye on the flowers.
Composition (visual arts)
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A simple composition with cloud and rooftop that creates asymmetry.

37.
Synthetic Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon

38.
Peter Osborne (writer and academic)
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Peter Osborne is Professor of Modern European Philosophy and Director of the Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophy, Kingston University, London. He is also an editor of the British journal Radical Philosophy, Osborne returned to the University of Bristol in 1988 to become a lecturer in the philosophy department. Osborne has subsequently served as a supervisor for PhD candidates, including Mark Neocleous, Bob Cannon, Stewart Martin, Andrew McGettigan, Alastair Morgan, Nina Power, Katie Lloyd Thomas. Osborne’s books include, Anywhere or Not at All, Philosophy of Contemporary Art, The Politics of Time, Modernity and Avant-Garde, Marx, Conceptual Art and he also edited the three-volume Walter Benjamin, Critical Evaluations in Cultural Theory. Osborne teaches and publishes on Modern European Philosophy and the philosophy of modern, Osborne also served as editorial consultant for a series of publication for OCA, and currently serves as a member of the advisory board for Pavilion. Hi is the Director of the Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophy at Kingston University, in April 2010, Middlesex University decided to close down Philosophy, its highest research-rated subject. Middlesex students and staff, and thousands of their supporters in the UK and around the world, the website set up as part of the effort to do so is still running today and is continually updated vis-à-vis related campaigns and issues. Broadly speaking, Osbornes project has followed the conception and function of philosophy as ‘its own time comprehended in thought’, Osborne completed his doctoral thesis at the University of Sussex in England in 1988. The late work of Adorno anticipates the breakdown of the difference between the arts that Osborne is interested in coming to terms with, Conceptual Art, constituted an authoritative survey of the art of the late Sixties and early Seventies. Conceptual art challenged the definition of the work of art. However secretly it triumphed, by rendering explicit to subsequent generations of artists the conceptual aspect of all art, for Osborne, a crucial juncture in the transformation of the ontology of the work of art is marked by the work of American artist Robert Smithson. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art and he subsequently published an essay in issue 15 of the Pavilion Journal for Politics and Culture, entitled, Imaginary Radicalisms, Notes on the Libertarianism of Contemporary Art. In 2013, Osborne published Anywhere or Not at All, Philosophy of Contemporary Art, Osborne, Peter, Marx and the philosophy of time. Osborne, Peter, Anywhere Or Not At All, Philosophy of Contemporary Art, Verso Books, London Osborne, Peter, ensayos filosóficos sobre arte contemporáneo, trans. ISBN0415238013 Osborne, Peter, The Politics of Time, Modernity and Avant-garde, London, U. K. Verso Books

39.
Analytic philosophy
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Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in historical development are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, Gottlob Frege. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism, which considers philosophy to be a science that investigates the fundamental reasons. Consequently, many philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to. This is an attitude that begins with John Locke, who described his work as that of an underlabourer to the achievements of scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Quine, the principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it, to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, however, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously and it is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. Its methods, in respect, resemble those of science. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology. British idealism, as taught by such as F. H. Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. With reference to this basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Inspired by developments in logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism, Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics, later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic

40.
Structuralism
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It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface there are constant laws of abstract culture. Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, in the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism, the structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, as an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, in the 1970s, structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and ahistoricism. The term structuralism is a term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or moment. The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague, in brief, de Saussures structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue and parole and he argued that the sign was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a signifier, the perceived sound/visual image. Because different languages have different words to describe the objects or concepts. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs, as he wrote, in language, there are only differences without positive terms. Blending Freud and de Saussure, the French structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, in this foreword Althusser states the following, Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the structuralist ideology. Despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to structuralism, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the structuralist terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. Our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion and we believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the structuralist ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas that she says are common to the forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole, second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change, fourth, structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning

41.
Post-structuralism
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Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos

42.
Continental philosophy
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Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. It is difficult to identify non-trivial claims that would be common to all the preceding philosophical movements, the term continental philosophy, like analytic philosophy, lacks clear definition and may mark merely a family resemblance across disparate philosophical views. Simon Glendinning has suggested that the term was originally more pejorative than descriptive, nonetheless, Michael E. Rosen has ventured to identify common themes that typically characterize continental philosophy. First, continental philosophers generally reject the view that the sciences are the only or most accurate way of understanding natural phenomena. This contrasts with many analytic philosophers who consider their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to, thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism. This tendency is very clear in the Marxist tradition, but is central in existentialism and post-structuralism. A final characteristic trait of continental philosophy is an emphasis on metaphilosophy, in the wake of the development and success of the natural sciences, continental philosophers have often sought to redefine the method and nature of philosophy. In some cases, this manifests as a renovation of the view that philosophy is the first, foundational. In other cases, it is held that philosophy investigates a domain that is irreducibly cultural or practical, and some continental philosophers doubt whether any conception of philosophy can coherently achieve its stated goals. This tradition, which has come to be known broadly as analytic philosophy, became dominant in Britain, russell and Moore made a dismissal of Hegelianism and its philosophical relatives a distinctive part of their new movement. Self-described analytic philosophy flourishes in France, including such as Jules Vuillemin, Vincent Descombes, Gilles Gaston Granger, François Recanati. Continental philosophy is defined in terms of a family of philosophical traditions. The history of philosophy is usually thought to begin with German idealism. As the institutional roots of continental philosophy in many cases directly descend from those of phenomenology, nonetheless, Husserl is also a respected subject of study in the analytic tradition. J. G. Merquior wrote, the most prestigious philosophizing in France took a very dissimilar path, one might say it all began with Henri Bergson. Carnaps paper argues that Heideggers lecture What Is Metaphysics, violates logical syntax to create nonsensical pseudo-statements. Moreover, Carnap claimed that many German metaphysicians of the era were similar to Heidegger in writing statements that were not merely false, but devoid of any meaning

43.
Linguistic turn
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According to Rorty, who later dissociated himself from linguistic philosophy and analytic philosophy generally, the phrase the linguistic turn originated with philosopher Gustav Bergmann. Ludwig Wittgenstein, an associate of Russell, was one of the progenitors of the linguistic turn and his later work significantly departs from the common tenets of analytic philosophy and might be viewed as having some resonance in the poststructuralist tradition. In analytic philosophy, one of the results of the turn was an increasing focus on philosophy of language. Later in the century, philosophers like Saul Kripke in Naming. Decisive for the turn in the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault, the power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. These various movements often lead to the notion that language constitutes reality, the traditional view saw words as functioning labels attached to concepts. Thus differences between meanings structure our perception, there is no real chair except insofar as we are manipulating symbolic systems, thus, a large part of what we think of as reality is really a convention of naming and characterising, a convention which is itself called language. Aretaic turn Cultural turn Semiotics Neil Gross, Richard Rorty, The Making of an American Philosopher, the University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. The Linguistic Turn, Recent Essays in Philosophical Method, the University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Wittgenstein, Heidegger, and the Reification of Language, clark, Elizabeth A. History, Theory, Text, Historians and the Linguistic Turn, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Toews, John E. Intellectual History after the Linguistic Turn, The Autonomy of Meaning, White, Hayden, Metahistory, The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. Cornforth, Maurice, Marxism and the Linguistic Philosophy, Lawrence & Wishart, the classical critique from the left-wing standpoint

Linguistic turn
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Wittgenstein (second from right), Summer 1920

44.
Como
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Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Como. With 215,320 overnight guests, in 2013 Como was the fourth most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo, the hills surrounding the current location of Como have been inhabited, since at least the Bronze Age, by a Celtic tribe known as the Orobii. Remains of settlements are still present on the wood covered hills to the South West of town, around the 1st century BC, the territory became subject to the Romans. The newly founded town was named Novum Comum and had the status of municipium, in 774, the town surrendered to invading Franks led by Charlemagne, and became a center of commercial exchange. In 1127, Como lost a war with the nearby town of Milan. A few decades later, with the help of Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick promoted the construction of several defensive towers around the city limits, of which only one, the Baradello, remains. Subsequently, the history of Como followed that of the Ducato di Milano, through the French invasion and the Spanish domination, until 1714, Napoleon descended into Lombardy in 1796 and ruled it until 1815, when the Austrian rule was resumed after the Congress of Vienna. Finally in 1859, with the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town was freed from the Austrians, as a curiosity, the Rockefeller fountain that today stands in the Bronx Zoo in New York City was once in the main square by the lakeside. It was bought by William Rockefeller in 1902 for 3,500 lire, nearby major cities are Varese, Lecco and Lugano. Wind is quite rare, only sudden bursts of foehn or thunderstorms manage to sweep the air clean, pollution levels rise significantly in winter when cold air clings to the soil. Rain is more frequent during spring, summer is subject to thunderstorms and, occasionally, Como Cathedral, construction began in 1396 on the site of the previous Romanesque church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The façade was built in 1457, with the rose window. The construction was finished in 1740, the interior is on the Latin cross plan, with Gothic nave and two aisles divided by piers, while the transept wing and the relative apses are from the Renaissance age. It includes a carved 16th century choir and tapestries on cartoons by Giuseppe Arcimboldi, the dome is a rococo structure by Filippo Juvarra. Other artworks include 16th–17th century tapestries and 16th century paintings by Bernardino Luini, San Fedele, a Romanesque church erected around 1120 over a pre-existing central plan edifice. The original bell tower was rebuilt in modern times, the main feature is the famous Door of St. Fedele, carved with medieval decorations. SantAgostino, built by the Cistercians in the early 14th century, the interior and adjoining cloister have 15th–17th century frescoes, but most of the decoration is Baroque

45.
Ontology
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Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Although ontology as an enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in information science and technology. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Principal questions of ontology include, What can be said to exist, into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things. What are the meanings of being, what are the various modes of being of entities. Various philosophers have provided different answers to these questions, one common approach involves dividing the extant subjects and predicates into groups called categories. Such an understanding of ontological categories, however, is merely taxonomic, what does it mean for a being to be. Is existence a genus or general class that is divided up by specific differences. Which entities, if any, are fundamental, how do the properties of an object relate to the object itself. What features are the essential, as opposed to merely accidental attributes of a given object, how many levels of existence or ontological levels are there. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an object exists. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an entity exists. What constitutes the identity of an object, when does an object go out of existence, as opposed to merely changing. Do beings exist other than in the modes of objectivity and subjectivity, i. e. is the subject/object split of modern philosophy inevitable. e. Being, that which is, which is the present participle of the verb εἰμί, eimí, i. e. to be, I am, and -λογία, -logia, i. e. logical discourse. The first occurrence in English of ontology as recorded by the OED came in a work by Gideon Harvey, Archelogia philosophica nova, or, New principles of Philosophy

Ontology
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Parmenides was among the first to propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of reality.

46.
Edward A. Shanken
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Edward A. Shanken is an American art historian, whose work focuses on the entwinement of art, science and technology, with a focus on experimental new media art and visual culture. His scholarship has appeared in journals and anthologies and has been translated into six languages. Shanken is the author of Art and Electronic Media, Edward A. Shanken graduated from Haverford College and then obtained an MA and Ph. D. in Art History from Duke University after receiving an MBA from Yale University in 1990. He was the Executive Director of the Information Science Information Studies program at Duke University from 2001 to 2004. He joined the Department of Media Studies, University of Amsterdam in 2008, in 2010, he was the inaugural Louis D. Beaumont Scholar at Washington University in St. Louis. Since 2007 he has served on the faculty of the Media Art Histories MA program at Donau University, Krems, in 2013 he joined the faculty at the Center for Digital Arts and Experimental Media at University of Washington. Shanken has been awarded fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts and he has conducted extensive research on the theorist and art critic Jack Burnham and into cybernetics as applied to systems art in the 1960s. Shanken’s current research examines art-science collaboration and the relationship between the discourses of mainstream contemporary art and new media art. More recently he guest-edited a special series of essays, “The Reception and Rejection of Art and Technology, Exclusions and Revulsions, ” which appeared in the journals a minima and Leonardo 42,2. A further research area is the use of media to expand. This is exemplified by the Art and Electronic Media Online Companion, dr. Shanken is the editor of Telematic Embrace, Visionary Theories of Art, Technology and Consciousness, the collected writings of Roy Ascott. His essay, Art in the Information Age, Technology and Conceptual Art received honorable mention in the Leonardo Award for Excellence in 2004 and his book Inventing the Future, Art, Electricity, New Media was published in Spanish in 2013. Telematic Embrace, Visionary Theories of Art, Technology, and Consciousness, edited and with an essay by Edward A. Shanken. Berkeley, University of California Press,2003,11 essays from CAA conference panel in English & Spanish

47.
Cybernetic
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Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary approach for exploring regulatory systems—their structures, constraints, and possibilities. Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as the study of control and communication in the animal. In the 21st century, the term is used in a rather loose way to imply control of any system using technology. Cybernetics is relevant to, for example, mechanical, physical, biological, cognitive and its focus is how anything processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks. Cybernetics includes the study of feedback, black boxes and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations including self-organization. Concepts studied by cyberneticists include, but are not limited to, learning, cognition, adaptation, social control, emergence, convergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy, in cybernetics these concepts are abstracted from the context of the specific organism or device. During the second half of the 20th century cybernetics evolved in ways that distinguish first-order cybernetics from second-order cybernetics, more recently there is talk about a third-order cybernetics. System dynamics, originated with applications of electrical engineering control theory to other kinds of models by Jay Forrester at MIT in the 1950s, is a related field. Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, by a variety of people, as with the ancient Greek pilot, independence of thought is important in cybernetics. French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère first coined the word cybernetique in his 1834 essay Essai sur la philosophie des sciences to describe the science of civil government. The term was borrowed by Norbert Wiener, in his book Cybernetics, to define the study of control and communication in the animal, the word cybernetics was first used in the context of the study of self-governance by Plato in The Alcibiades to signify the governance of people. The word cybernétique was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère to denote the sciences of government in his system of human knowledge. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they considered part of engineering, Ktesibios and others such as Heron. Alfred Russel Wallace identified this as the principle of evolution in his famous 1858 paper, in 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküll applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle in order to explain animal behaviour, electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to control amplifiers. Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts, W. Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist P. K. Anokhin published a book in which the concept of feedback was studied, in 1936, Ștefan Odobleja publishes Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics

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John Baldessari
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John Anthony Baldessari is an American conceptual artist known for his work featuring found photography and appropriated images. He lives and works in Santa Monica and Venice, California, initially a painter, Baldessari began to incorporate texts and photography into his canvases in the mid-1960s. In 1970 he began working in printmaking, film, video, installation, sculpture and he has created thousands of works that demonstrate—and, in many cases, combine—the narrative potential of images and the associative power of language within the boundaries of the work of art. His art has been featured in more than 200 solo exhibitions in the U. S. and his work influenced Cindy Sherman, David Salle, Annette Lemieux, and Barbara Kruger among others. 1955 University of California, Los Angeles, 1957-59 Otis Art Institute, Los Angeles. Baldessari was born in National City, California to Hedvig Jensen, a Danish nurse, and Antonio Baldessari, Baldessari and his elder sister were raised in Southern California. He attended Sweetwater High School and San Diego State College, between 1960 and 1984, he was married to Montessorian teacher Carol Ann Wixom, they have two children. In 1959, Baldessari began teaching art in the San Diego school system and he kept teaching for nearly three decades, in schools and junior colleges and community colleges, and eventually at the university level. When the University of California decided to open up a campus in San Diego, at UCSD he shared an office with David Antin. In 1970, Baldessari moved to Santa Monica, where he met artists and writers. His first classes included David Salle, Jack Goldstein, Mike Kelley, Ken Feingold, Tony Oursler, James Welling, Barbara Bloom, Matt Mullican, the class, which operated outside of medium-specificity, was influential in informing the context for addressing a students art practice at CalArts. He quit teaching at CalArts in 1986, moving on to teach at UCLA, at UCLA, his students included Elliott Hundley and Analia Saban. By 1966, Baldessari was using photographs and text, or simply text and his early major works were canvas paintings that were empty but for painted statements derived from contemporary art theory. An early attempt of Baldessaris included the hand-painted phrase Suppose it is true after all, WHAT THEN. on a heavily worked painted surface. However, this proved personally disappointing because the form and method conflicted with the use of language that he preferred to employ. Baldessari decided the solution was to remove his own hand from the construction of the image and to employ a commercial, the words were then physically lettered by sign painters, in an unornamented black font. The first of this presented the ironic statement A TWO-DIMENSIONAL SURFACE WITHOUT ANY ARTICULATION IS A DEAD EXPERIENCE. Another work, Painting for Kubler presented the viewer theoretical instructions on how to view it and on the importance of context and this work referenced art historian George Kublers seminal book, The Shape of Time, Remarks on the History of Things