Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river

West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separa

4.
The Volkswagen Beetle – for many years the most successful car in the world – on the assembly line in Wolfsburg factory, 1973.

Munich University of Applied Sciences
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The Munich University of Applied Sciences, was founded in 1971 and is the largest University of Applied Sciences in Bavaria with about 17,500 students. The Munich University of Applied Sciences was founded in 1971 by the amalgamation of seven colleges of technology and higher education, today it is the largest university of its kind in Bavaria and

1.
FachHochschule München

University of Bonn
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The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 54

British Museum
–
The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally

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British Museum

2.
The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the Great Court, surrounding the original Reading Room.

Neil MacGregor
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Robert Neil MacGregor, OM, AO, FSA is a British art historian and former museum director. He was the editor of the Burlington Magazine from 1981 to 1987, then Director of the National Gallery, London, from 1987 to 2002, Neil MacGregor was born in Glasgow to two doctors, Alexander and Anna MacGregor. MacGregor was educated at Glasgow Academy and the

1.
MacGregor at the British Museum in 2009

Art historian
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The history of art is the history of any activity or product made by humans in a visual form for aesthetical or communicative purposes, expressing ideas, emotions or, in general, a worldview. The subsequent expansion of the list of arts in the 20th century reached to nine, architecture, dance, sculpture, music, painting, poetry, film, photography.

Museum director
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A curator is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a heritage institution is a content specialist charged with an institutions collections. A traditional curators concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort—artwork, collectibles, historic items, more recently, new kinds of curators have started to emerge, curat

List of directors of the British Museum
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The Director of the British Museum is the head of the British Museum in London, a post currently held by Hartwig Fischer. He is responsible for that institutions general administration and reports its accounts to the British Government, the actual governance of the British Museum, however, is delegated to its Board of Trustees. At the Museums incep

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Building

Dresden State Art Collections
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Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden is a cultural institution in Dresden, Germany, owned by the State of Saxony. It is one of the most renowned and oldest museum institutions in the world, today, the Dresden State Art Collections consists of twelve museums. Most of them are located in the Dresden Castle, the Zwinger, the museums belonging to the Sta

1.
Dresden Castle

Mecklenburg
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Mecklenburg is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar, the name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named Mikilenburg, located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language

Galerie Neue Meister
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The Galerie Neue Meister in Dresden, Germany, displays around 300 paintings from the 19th century until today, including works from Otto Dix, Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet. The gallery also exhibits a number of sculptures from the Dresden Sculpture Collection from the same period, the museums collection grew out of the Old Masters

Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural

Die Wende
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It encompasses several processes and events which later have become synonymous with the overall process. The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 following a conference held by the Politbüro during which Günter Schabowski announced the opening of the border checkpoints. The transition to democracy in East Germany following the Peaceful Revolu

Inner German border
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The inner German border was the border between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to 1990. Not including the similar and physically separate Berlin Wall, the border was 1,393 kilometres long and it was formally established on 1 July 1945 as the boundary between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of for

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The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of Nazi Germany, before the present Länder (federal states) were established.

East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies c

Hermann Prell
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Hermann Prell was a German history painter and sculptor. Prell was a teacher at the Prussian Academy of Art from 1886 to 1892 and he remained there until hi retirement in 1914. He ranks as one of the foremost German historical painters of his time and he is especially known for his successful use of casein colors in fresco. In later life, he execut

Doctorate
–
There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its

Kunstmuseum Basel
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The Kunstmuseum Basel houses the largest and most significant public art collection in Switzerland, and is listed as a heritage site of national significance. Its collection is distinguished by a wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the mo

Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand,

Basel
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Basel is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerlands third-most-populous city with about 175,000 inhabitants, located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74

2.
Map of Basel in 1642, engraved by Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom.

3.
A panoramic view of Basel, looking North from the Münster tower over Kleinbasel (Small Basel). The blue tower in the centre, the Messeturm, was Switzerland's tallest building 2003-10; the bridge on the extreme right is the Wettsteinbrücke, Basel's second oldest bridge, but recently replaced by a new structure. The first bridge on the left is the Mittlere Brücke (Middle or Central Bridge), the oldest bridge in Basel.

Curator
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A curator is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a heritage institution is a content specialist charged with an institutions collections. A traditional curators concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort—artwork, collectibles, historic items, more recently, new kinds of curators have started to emerge, curat

Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of

Museum Folkwang
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Museum Folkwang is a major collection of 19th- and 20th-century art in Essen, Germany. The term Folkwang derives from the name of the meadow of the dead, Fólkvangr. Museum Folkwang incorporates the Deutsche Plakat Museum, comprising circa 340,000 posters from politics, economy, during a visit in Essen in 1932, Paul J. Sachs called the Folkwang the

Essen
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Essen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Its population of approximately 589,000 makes it the ninth-largest city in Germany and it is the central city of the northern part of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area and seat to several of the regions authorities. Founded around 845, Essen remained a town within the sphere of influence of an impo

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Skyline of Essen

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Despite its industrial history, Essen is generally regarded as one of Germany's greenest cities. The picture shows the borough of Kettwig, annexed in 1975.

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Essen Minster

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Alte Kirche (Old Church, built 1887), Altenessen

Martin Roth (museum director)
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Martin Roth is a German museum director. Since 2011, he has been Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, martin Roth was born on 16 January 1955 in Stuttgart, Germany. Roth became a researcher at the Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, subsequently, in 1992, he became a visiting scholar at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles. He was

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Martin Roth in June 2014 at the opening of the Kunstfestspiele Herrenhausen in Hanover

Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public bod

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Frieze detail from internal courtyard showing Queen Victoria in front of the 1851 Great Exhibition.

London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city

Anthony Panizzi
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Sir Antonio Genesio Maria Panizzi, better known as Anthony Panizzi, was a naturalised British librarian of Italian birth and an Italian patriot. He was the Principal Librarian of the British Museum from 1856 to 1866, Panizzi was born at Brescello in the Duchy of Modena, Italy, on 16 September 1797. He studied at the Lyceum of Reggio, then obtained

International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Deutsche Presse-Agentur
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Deutsche Presse-Agentur GmbH is a German news agency founded in 1949. Based in Hamburg, it has grown to be a worldwide operation serving print media, radio, television, online, mobile phones. News is available in German, English, Spanish, and Arabic, the DPA is the largest press agency in Germany. Along with the office in Hamburg, there is a centra

The Economist
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The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London. Continuous publication began under its founder, James Wilson, in September 1843, in 2015 its average weekly circulation was a little over 1.5 million, about half of which were sold in the United States. The publication

Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transition

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Screenshot 2012

Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library netw

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GND screenshot

LIST OF IMAGES

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Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast

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West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany

West Germany
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Konrad Adenauer in parliament, 1955
West Germany
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Flag
West Germany
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Rudi Dutschke, student leader.
West Germany
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The Volkswagen Beetle – for many years the most successful car in the world – on the assembly line in Wolfsburg factory, 1973.

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Munich University of Applied Sciences
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The Munich University of Applied Sciences, was founded in 1971 and is the largest University of Applied Sciences in Bavaria with about 17,500 students. The Munich University of Applied Sciences was founded in 1971 by the amalgamation of seven colleges of technology and higher education, today it is the largest university of its kind in Bavaria and one of the largest in Germany. Students can choose from 2 diploma,31 bachelor and 26 masters degree programmes in 14 departments, faculty members cultivate close contacts to industry and commerce which take shape in a multitude of projects. Most of the final projects are undertaken in a practical field in cooperation with national and international companies. MUAS collaborates with more than 200 partner universities in Europe, North and South America, international students currently make up 11% of the student body. HM has 475 professors,750 part-time lecturers, non-academic staff is 745

Munich University of Applied Sciences
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FachHochschule München

4.
University of Bonn
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The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 544 professors and 32,500 students. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016 and the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015 ranked the University of Bonn as one of the 100 best universities in the world. The universitys forerunner was the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn which was founded in 1777 by Maximilian Frederick of Königsegg-Rothenfels, in the spirit of the Enlightenment the new academy was nonsectarian. The academy had schools for theology, law, pharmacy and general studies, in 1784 Emperor Joseph II granted the academy the right to award academic degrees, turning the academy into a university. The academy was closed in 1798 after the bank of the Rhine was occupied by France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Rhineland became a part of Prussia in 1815 as a result of the Congress of Vienna, shortly after the seizure of the Rhineland, on 5 April 1815, King Frederick William III of Prussia promised the establishment of a new university in the new Rhine province. At this time there was no university in the Rhineland, as all three universities that existed until the end of the 18th century were closed as a result of the French occupation, the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn was one of these three universities. The other two were the Roman Catholic University of Cologne and the Protestant University of Duisburg, the new Rhein University was then founded on 18 October 1818 by Frederick William III. It was the sixth Prussian University, founded after the universities in Greifswald, Berlin, Königsberg, Halle, the new university was equally shared between the two Christian denominations. This was one of the reasons why Bonn, with its tradition of a university, was chosen over Cologne. Apart from a school of Roman Catholic theology and a school of Protestant theology, inititally 35 professors and eight adjunct professors were teaching in Bonn. The university constitution was adopted in 1827, in the spirit of Wilhelm von Humboldt the constitution emphasized the autonomy of the university and the unity of teaching and research. Similar to the University of Berlin, which was founded in 1810, only one year after the inception of the Rhein University the dramatist August von Kotzebue was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, a student at the University of Jena. The Carlsbad Decrees, introduced on 20 September 1819 led to a crackdown on universities, the dissolution of the Burschenschaften. One victim was the author and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, who, only after the death of Frederick William III in 1840 was he reinstated in his professorship

5.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose

British Museum
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British Museum
British Museum
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The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the Great Court, surrounding the original Reading Room.
British Museum
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Sir Hans Sloane
British Museum
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Montagu House, c. 1715

6.
Neil MacGregor
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Robert Neil MacGregor, OM, AO, FSA is a British art historian and former museum director. He was the editor of the Burlington Magazine from 1981 to 1987, then Director of the National Gallery, London, from 1987 to 2002, Neil MacGregor was born in Glasgow to two doctors, Alexander and Anna MacGregor. MacGregor was educated at Glasgow Academy and then read modern languages at New College, Oxford, the period that followed was spent studying philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, and as a law student at Edinburgh University, where he received the Green Prize. Despite being called to the bar in 1972, MacGregor next decided to take an art history degree, the following year, on a Courtauld Institute summer school in Bavaria, the Courtaulds director Anthony Blunt spotted MacGregor and persuaded him to take a masters degree under his supervision. Blunt later considered MacGregor the most brilliant pupil he ever taught, from 1975 to 1981, MacGregor taught History of Art and Architecture at the University of Reading. He left to assume the editorship of The Burlington Magazine and he oversaw the transfer of the magazine from the Thomson Corporation to an independent and charitable status. In 1987 MacGregor became a successful director of the National Gallery in London. There he was dubbed Saint Neil, partly because of his popularity at that institution and he declined the offer of a knighthood in 1999, the first director of the National Gallery to do so. MacGregor was made director of the British Museum in August 2002, holding his office during a period which has seen the Acropolis Museum constructed in Athens, he has consistently argued against returning the British Museums sculptures from the Parthenon to Greece. In January 2008, MacGregor was appointed chairman of the World Collections programme, the exhibition The First Emperor, focussing on Qin Shi Huang and including a small number of his Terracotta Warriors, was mounted in 2008 in the British Museum Reading Room. That year MacGregor was invited to succeed Philippe de Montebello as the Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and he declined the offer as the Metropolitan charges its visitors for entry and is thus not a public institution. He similarly made comments that sparked debate, such as his claim that the ancient Persian empire was greater than Ancient Greece. In 2010, MacGregor presented a series on BBC Radio 4, from September 2010 to January 2011 the British Museum lent the ancient Persian Cyrus Cylinder to an exhibition in Tehran. This was seen by at least a million visitors by the Museums estimation, more than any loan exhibition to the United Kingdom had attracted since the Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibition in 1972. As of 2015, MacGregor was paid a salary of between £190,000 and £194,999 by the British Museum, making him one of the 328 most highly paid people in the British public sector at that time. MacGregor retired from the post in December 2015 and was succeeded in Spring 2016 by Hartwig Fischer, MacGregor has made many programmes for British television and radio. In the year 2000, he presented on television Seeing Salvation, at the end of September 2014 UK domestic transmission started of his similarly formatted Talk Radio series Germany, Memories of a Nation. On 8 April 2015, MacGregor announced his resignation as Director of the British Museum, MacGregor will be joined on the committee by archaeologist Hermann Parzinger and art historian Horst Bredekamp

Neil MacGregor
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MacGregor at the British Museum in 2009

7.
Art historian
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The history of art is the history of any activity or product made by humans in a visual form for aesthetical or communicative purposes, expressing ideas, emotions or, in general, a worldview. The subsequent expansion of the list of arts in the 20th century reached to nine, architecture, dance, sculpture, music, painting, poetry, film, photography. The study of the history of art was developed during the Renaissance. Today, art enjoys a network of study, dissemination and preservation of all the artistic legacy of mankind throughout history. The rise of media has been crucial in improving the study, international events and exhibitions like the Whitney Biennial and biennales of Venice and São Paulo or the Documenta of Kassel have helped the development of new styles and trends. Institutions like UNESCO, with the establishment of the World Heritage Site lists, the field of art history was developed in the West, and originally dealt exclusively with European art history, with the High Renaissance as the defining standard. Gradually, over the course of the 20th century, a vision of art history has developed. This expanded version includes societies from across the globe, and it attempts to analyze artifacts in terms of the cultural values in which they were created. Thus, art history is now seen to all visual art. The history of art is often told as a chronology of masterpieces created in each civilization and it can thus be framed as a story of high culture, epitomized by the Wonders of the World. On the other hand, vernacular art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, in the latter cases art objects may be referred to as archeological artifacts. One way to examine how art history is organized is by examining the major survey textbooks, information on canonical art history is also found in the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, which is sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The first tangible artifacts of human art that have found are from the Stone Age. During the Paleolithic, humans practiced hunting and gathering and lived in caves, in the Bronze Age, the first protohistoric civilizations arose. The Paleolithic had its first artistic manifestation in 25,000 BCE, the first traces of human-made objects appeared in southern Africa, the Western Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe, Siberia, India and Australia. These first traces are generally worked stone, wood or bone tools, to paint in red, iron oxide was used, in black, manganese oxide and in ochre, clay. Surviving art from this period includes small carvings in stone or bone, cave paintings have been found in the Franco-Cantabrian region. There are pictures with magical-religious character and also pictures with a naturalistic sense, sculpture is represented by the so-called Venus figurines, feminine figures which were probably used in fertility cults, such as the Venus of Willendorf

8.
Museum director
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A curator is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a heritage institution is a content specialist charged with an institutions collections. A traditional curators concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort—artwork, collectibles, historic items, more recently, new kinds of curators have started to emerge, curators of digital data objects and biocurators. In smaller organizations, a curator may have responsibility for acquisitions. In very small, volunteer-based museums such as historical societies. Such institutions can have multiple curators, each assigned to a collecting area. In the museum setting, a curator in the United Kingdom may also be called a keeper, in Scotland, the term curator is also used to mean the guardian of a child. In the United States, this job is multifaceted and dependent on the particular institution, however, in recent years, the role of a curator has evolved alongside the changing role of museums. As museums in the United States have become increasingly more digitized, curators find themselves constructing narratives in both the material and digital worlds. Historian Elaine Gurian has called for museums in which “visitors could comfortably search for answers to their own regardless of the importance placed on such questions by others. ”This would change the role of curator from teacher to “facilitator and assistor. ”In this sense, the role of curator in the United States is precarious, as digital and interactive exhibits often allow the public to become their own curator. Citizens are then able to educate themselves on the subject they are interested in. More recently, advances in new technologies have led to a widening of the role of curator. This has been a focus in major art institutions internationally and has become an object of academic study, in contemporary art, the title curator is given to a person who selects and often interprets works of art. In addition to selecting works, the curator often is responsible for writing labels, catalog essays, such curators may be permanent staff members, guest curators from an affiliated organization or university, or freelance curators working on a consultant basis. The late twentieth century saw an explosion of artists organizing exhibitions, the artist-curator has a long tradition of influence. Notable among these was Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the Royal Academy of Arts, in some US organizations, the term curator is also used to designate the head of any given division of a cultural organization. This has led to the proliferation of such as Curator of Education. The term literary curator has been used to persons who work in the field of poetry

Museum director

9.
List of directors of the British Museum
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The Director of the British Museum is the head of the British Museum in London, a post currently held by Hartwig Fischer. He is responsible for that institutions general administration and reports its accounts to the British Government, the actual governance of the British Museum, however, is delegated to its Board of Trustees. At the Museums inception its most senior member of staff was called Principal Librarian, the job title became Director and Principal Librarian in 1898, and Director in 1973, on the separation of the British Library from the museum. Wilson 1992–2002, Robert Anderson 2002–2015, Neil MacGregor, OM AO FSA 2016–present, Hartwig Fischer List of Trustees of the British Museum

List of directors of the British Museum
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Building

10.
Dresden State Art Collections
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Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden is a cultural institution in Dresden, Germany, owned by the State of Saxony. It is one of the most renowned and oldest museum institutions in the world, today, the Dresden State Art Collections consists of twelve museums. Most of them are located in the Dresden Castle, the Zwinger, the museums belonging to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden originated from the collections of the Saxon electors, several of whom were also Kings of Poland. Historical sources show that August I, Elector of Saxony, founded the electoral Kunstkammer in 1560, August the Strong and his son, August III, Kings of Poland, were important patrons and remarkable connoisseurs of the arts. The Staatliche Kunstsammlungen has been a state-owned enterprise since January 1,2009, the association includes twelve museums which operate independently within the context of their own collection, but all share various institutions and facilities as well as a central administration. Twelve museums belong to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, the museums of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen are housed in six buildings. With the exception of Pillnitz Castle, they are all located in the center of Dresden. Dresden Castle houses the Historic Green Vault and the New Green Vault, the Numismatic Cabinet, the Collection of Prints, Drawings and Photographs, the Zwinger palace contains the Old Masters Picture Gallery, the Porcelain Collection, and the Royal Cabinet of Mathematical and Physical Instruments. The Albertinum hosts the New Masters Gallery and the Sculpture Collection, Pillnitz Castle houses the Arts and Crafts Museum and the Japanisches Palais the Ethnographical Museum Dresden. The Saxon Folk Art Museum and Puppet Theatre Collection can be found in the Jägerhof in Dresden-Neustadt, the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden is owned by the State of Saxony. It is a member of the Konferenz Nationaler Kultureinrichtungen, a union of more than twenty institutions in the former East Germany

Dresden State Art Collections
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Dresden Castle

11.
Mecklenburg
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Mecklenburg is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar, the name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named Mikilenburg, located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic language it was known as Veligrad which also means big castle and it was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg and for a time divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty. Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use features of Low German vocabulary or phonology. The adjective for the region is Mecklenburgian, inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians, Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the forms a morass, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea, under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing purposes, Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins, by no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples. The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the steers head, with an attached hide. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i. e. a steerss head as a hat, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy. From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites, the 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites. In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, from 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area, importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence, an example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called Zuarin in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word grad. Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours, during the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty, in 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh

12.
Galerie Neue Meister
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The Galerie Neue Meister in Dresden, Germany, displays around 300 paintings from the 19th century until today, including works from Otto Dix, Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet. The gallery also exhibits a number of sculptures from the Dresden Sculpture Collection from the same period, the museums collection grew out of the Old Masters Gallery, for which contemporary works were increasingly purchased after 1843. The New Masters Gallery is part of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen of Dresden and it is located in the Albertinum. The collection began as part of the Dresden Painting Gallery, the Academic Council, responsible for the gallery and the Academy of Fine Arts, also contributed 50 percent of the proceeds from its exhibitions towards new purchases. However, these funds were enough for limited acquisitions, mostly restricted to German works. Until 1882 the collection contained only four major German Romanticism works and it was subsequently expanded under director Karl Woermann. The gallery first started to buy foreign contemporary works following an art exhibition in Dresden in 1897. Under Hans Posse, director from 1910, the gallery enlarged its collections of German Romanticism, Impressionism, and late 19th century Civic Realism, the gallery was financially strengthened by the founding of the Dresden Museums Association in 1911 and the Patrons Association in 1917. The Nazi campaign against degenerate art resulted in the confiscation and sale of 56 paintings, including works by Edvard Munch, Max Beckmann, in the 1945 bombing of Dresden,196 paintings were destroyed by fire while on a truck. The present-day New Masters Gallery was founded in 1959, and has housed in the upper rooms of the Albertinum since 1965. Subsequently, the gallery was able to retrieve a number of works that had been lost during, the floods of 2002 made it necessary to renovate the Albertinum and build a new flood-proof depot. The Albertinum reopened in June 2010 with an enlargement to the Salzgasse Wing and its rooms were once occupied by the Green Vault that was moved to the renovated Dresden Castle at that time. Special exhibitions of art are now held there. Some 300 paintings out of a collection of about 3,000 works are exhibited in the gallery and they date from the 19th century until today. Also shown are works from the Sculpture Collection belonging to the same period, there are also works by Beckmann, Gauguin, Kirchner, Klee, Modersohn-Becker, Monet, Munch, and one painting by Van Gogh. Rooms are devoted to Georg Baselitz, A. R, contemporary artists include Neo Rauch and Luc Tuymans. The Society of Modern Art in Dresden, founded in 1994, raises funds for the purchase of new works, through its support, more than 30 works have been acquired and several exhibitions funded

13.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built

14.
Die Wende
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It encompasses several processes and events which later have become synonymous with the overall process. The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 following a conference held by the Politbüro during which Günter Schabowski announced the opening of the border checkpoints. The transition to democracy in East Germany following the Peaceful Revolution, in hindsight, the German word Wende then took on a new meaning, the phrase seit der Wende, literally since the change, means since reunification or since the Wall fell. This period is marked by West German aid to East Germany, to some extent, Germany is still in the midst of the Nachwendezeit, differences between East and West still exist, and a process of inner reunification is not yet finished. This fundamental change has marked the reunification of Germany, the term was first used publicly in East Germany on 18 October 1989 in a speech by interim GDR leader Egon Krenz. Films and photos from private collections

15.
Inner German border
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The inner German border was the border between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to 1990. Not including the similar and physically separate Berlin Wall, the border was 1,393 kilometres long and it was formally established on 1 July 1945 as the boundary between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of former Nazi Germany. It was patrolled by 50,000 armed East German guards who faced tens of thousands of West German, British and US guards, in the hinterlands behind the border were more than a million North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and Warsaw Pact troops. The border was a manifestation of Winston Churchills metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet. It marked the boundary between two ideological systems – capitalism and communism and it caused widespread economic and social disruption on both sides, East Germans living in the region suffered especially draconian restrictions. The better-known Berlin Wall was a separate, less elaborate. On 9 November 1989, the East German government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall, over the following days, millions of East Germans poured into the West to visit. Little remains of the inner German borders fortifications and its route has been declared part of a European Green Belt linking national parks and nature reserves along the course of the old Iron Curtain from the Arctic Circle to the Black Sea. Museums and memorials along the old border commemorate the division and reunification of Germany and, in some places, the inner German border originated from the Second World War Allies plans to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones. The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the boundaries of 19th-century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the unification of Germany in 1871. Three zones were agreed on, each covering roughly a third of Germanys territories, a British zone in the north-west, an American zone in the south, france was later given a zone in the far west of Germany, carved out of the British and American zones. The division of Germany was put into effect on 1 July 1945, the redeployment of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee to the West to escape the Soviet takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone. The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the Allied Control Council for Germany, cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germanys political and economic future. In May 1949, the three occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany with a freely elected government. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, under communist rule, from the outset, West Germany and the Allies rejected East Germanys legitimacy. The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist/Soviet fait accompli, West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens. East Germans thus had an incentive to move to the West. In the early days of the occupation, the Allies controlled traffic between the zones to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former Nazi officials and intelligence officers

Inner German border
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Border installations at Schlagsdorf
Inner German border
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The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of Nazi Germany, before the present Länder (federal states) were established.
Inner German border
Inner German border

16.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt

17.
Hermann Prell
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Hermann Prell was a German history painter and sculptor. Prell was a teacher at the Prussian Academy of Art from 1886 to 1892 and he remained there until hi retirement in 1914. He ranks as one of the foremost German historical painters of his time and he is especially known for his successful use of casein colors in fresco. In later life, he executed sculptures and he maintained a studio in a villa on the banks of Elbe from 1897 until his death in Loschwitz in 1922. Many of his works, especially his easel paintings, were destroyed during the fire-bombing of Dresden in 1945 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, hartwig Fischer, Ein Wilhelminisches Gesamtkunstwerk auf dem Kapitol. Hermann Prell und die Einrichtung des Thronsaals in der Deutschen Botschaft zu Rom 1894–1899, in, Die Kunst hat nie ein Mensch allein besessen. Dreihundert Jahre Akademie der Künste und Hochschule der Künste Berlin, catalog of the Berlin Art Academy,1996, S. 317–319. Bielefeld 1901 Galland, Georg, Hermann Prell, fresken, skulpturen und tafelbilder des meisters, Charlottenburg, Amelang’sche kunsthandlung 1904

18.
Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902

19.
Kunstmuseum Basel
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The Kunstmuseum Basel houses the largest and most significant public art collection in Switzerland, and is listed as a heritage site of national significance. Its collection is distinguished by a wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind and these encompass, paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries. The Kunstmuseum possesses the largest collection of works by the Holbein family, further examples of Renaissance art include important pieces by such masters as Konrad Witz, Hans Baldung, Martin Schongauer, Lucas Cranach the Elder and Mathias Grünewald. The main features of the 17th and 18th centuries are the Flemish and Dutch schools, German, in the 20th century, the focus is on works of Cubism with Picasso, Braque and Juan Gris. Expressionism is represented by figures as Edvard Munch, Franz Marc, Oskar Kokoschka. The collection also includes works from Constructivism, Dadaism and Surrealism, further highlights are the unique compilations of works from Pablo Picasso, Fernand Léger, Paul Klee, Alberto Giacometti and Marc Chagall. R. Penck, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Jonathan Borofsky, Roni Horn, Francesco Clemente, Mimmo Paladino, Enzo Cucchi, Martin Disler, Leiko Ikemura, Markus Raetz, Rosemarie Trockel, the Kunstmuseum’s main building dates from 1936. In 2008, the acquired land on the other side of Dufourstrasse. With international stars — Zaha Hadid, Rafael Moneo, Tadao Ando and Jean Nouvel — all pitching, eventually a local firm, Christ & Gantenbein. The final design is a building, faced with concrete bricks. Building work for the $112 million project began in 2013 and was inaugurated in April 2016, the project was funded by the Canton of Basel-Stadt and the Laurenz Foundation, set up by Maja Oeri. The extension adds 2,750 square meters of galleries, to a total of nearly 10,000 square meters, the original museum now houses art from the 15th century to 1950, with later works in the extension. The upper floor of the new building houses temporary exhibitions and the middle floor, in 2013, the Kunstmuseum had 238,000 visitors. Kunstmuseum Basel website Basel museums website

20.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside

21.
Basel
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Basel is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerlands third-most-populous city with about 175,000 inhabitants, located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland, the official language of Basel is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Basel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, the city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century. It hosts the oldest university of the Swiss Confederation, There are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period. The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an Oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul. In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the administrative centre. The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle, the name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym Basilia, first recorded in the 3rd century. It is presumably derived from the personal name Basilius, the Old French form Basle was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French Bâle. The Icelandic name Buslaraborg goes back to the 12th century Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan, Basel was incorporated into Germania Superior in AD83. Roman control over the area deteriorated in 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian, the Alamanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled. In a great invasion of AD406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace, from this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement. The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription Basilia fit, Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century. Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, at the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870. The city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917, the rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. Since the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, in 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor Heinrich II. In 1225–1226, the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun, the bridge was largely funded by Basels Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river between Lake Constance and the sea, the Bishop also allowed the furriers to found a guild in 1226

Basel
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Basel, as seen from the Elisabethenkirche
Basel
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Map of Basel in 1642, engraved by Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom.
Basel
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A panoramic view of Basel, looking North from the Münster tower over Kleinbasel (Small Basel). The blue tower in the centre, the Messeturm, was Switzerland's tallest building 2003-10; the bridge on the extreme right is the Wettsteinbrücke, Basel's second oldest bridge, but recently replaced by a new structure. The first bridge on the left is the Mittlere Brücke (Middle or Central Bridge), the oldest bridge in Basel.
Basel
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The synagogue of Basel

22.
Curator
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A curator is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a heritage institution is a content specialist charged with an institutions collections. A traditional curators concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort—artwork, collectibles, historic items, more recently, new kinds of curators have started to emerge, curators of digital data objects and biocurators. In smaller organizations, a curator may have responsibility for acquisitions. In very small, volunteer-based museums such as historical societies. Such institutions can have multiple curators, each assigned to a collecting area. In the museum setting, a curator in the United Kingdom may also be called a keeper, in Scotland, the term curator is also used to mean the guardian of a child. In the United States, this job is multifaceted and dependent on the particular institution, however, in recent years, the role of a curator has evolved alongside the changing role of museums. As museums in the United States have become increasingly more digitized, curators find themselves constructing narratives in both the material and digital worlds. Historian Elaine Gurian has called for museums in which “visitors could comfortably search for answers to their own regardless of the importance placed on such questions by others. ”This would change the role of curator from teacher to “facilitator and assistor. ”In this sense, the role of curator in the United States is precarious, as digital and interactive exhibits often allow the public to become their own curator. Citizens are then able to educate themselves on the subject they are interested in. More recently, advances in new technologies have led to a widening of the role of curator. This has been a focus in major art institutions internationally and has become an object of academic study, in contemporary art, the title curator is given to a person who selects and often interprets works of art. In addition to selecting works, the curator often is responsible for writing labels, catalog essays, such curators may be permanent staff members, guest curators from an affiliated organization or university, or freelance curators working on a consultant basis. The late twentieth century saw an explosion of artists organizing exhibitions, the artist-curator has a long tradition of influence. Notable among these was Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the Royal Academy of Arts, in some US organizations, the term curator is also used to designate the head of any given division of a cultural organization. This has led to the proliferation of such as Curator of Education. The term literary curator has been used to persons who work in the field of poetry

Curator

23.
Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine

24.
Museum Folkwang
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Museum Folkwang is a major collection of 19th- and 20th-century art in Essen, Germany. The term Folkwang derives from the name of the meadow of the dead, Fólkvangr. Museum Folkwang incorporates the Deutsche Plakat Museum, comprising circa 340,000 posters from politics, economy, during a visit in Essen in 1932, Paul J. Sachs called the Folkwang the most beautiful museum in the world. In 2007, David Chipperfield designed an extension, which was built onto the older building. Ernst Gosebruch, director of the museum in the 1920s and 1930s, in 1937, Joseph Goebbels created a commission headed by Adolf Ziegler whose mission was to purge all German government-owned museums of such degenerate works. The Museum Folkwang fell into the category of government-controlled institutions and was part of the purge. Over 1 200 works of art were removed from the museum, part of over 17 000 works of art removed from museums throughout Germany. The Nazi government first organized an exhibition of this degenerate art—which, ironically. Many works of art came into the possession of American and other collectors, in the end, approximately 5 000 works of art deemed unsaleable were burned. The Museum Folkwang and the other museums affected have generally not tried to reclaim these works because at the time, the works of art were ultimately the property of the German government, which had the legal right to dispose of them as it saw fit. A €55m reconstruction was possible by Berthold Beitz, a philanthropist. An international architectural competition organized by the City of Essen was won by David Chipperfield in March 2007, the new building, adding 16,000 m2 to the existing museum, opened in January 2010, when Essen and the Ruhr Area became European Capital of Culture. Official website Museum Folkwang bei Google Cultural Institute

25.
Essen
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Essen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Its population of approximately 589,000 makes it the ninth-largest city in Germany and it is the central city of the northern part of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area and seat to several of the regions authorities. Founded around 845, Essen remained a town within the sphere of influence of an important ecclesiastical principality until the onset of industrialization. The city then — especially through the Krupp family iron works — became one of Germanys most important coal and steel centers. Essen, until the 1970s, attracted workers from all over the country, following the region-wide decline of heavy industries in the last decades of the 20th century, the city has seen the development of a strong tertiary sector of the economy. Although it is the most indebted city in Germany, Essen continues to pursue its redevelopment plans, notable accomplishments in recent years include the title of European Capital of Culture on behalf of the whole Ruhr area in 2010 and the selection as the European Green Capital for 2017. In 1958, Essen was chosen to serve as the seat to a Roman Catholic diocese, in early 2003, the universities of Essen and the nearby city of Duisburg were merged into the University of Duisburg-Essen with campuses in both cities and a university hospital in Essen. Essen is located in the centre of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe, comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3 million inhabitants. The city limits of Essen itself are 87 km long and border ten cities, five independent and five kreisangehörig, the city extends over 21 km from north to south and 17 km from west to east, mainly north of the River Ruhr. The Ruhr forms the Lake Baldeney reservoir in the boroughs of Fischlaken, Kupferdreh, the lake, a popular recreational area, dates from 1931 to 1933, when some thousands of unemployed coal miners dredged it with primitive tools. Generally, large areas south of the River Ruhr are quite green and are quoted as examples of rural structures in the otherwise relatively densely populated central Ruhr area. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, Essen with 9. 2% of its covered by recreational green is the greenest city in North Rhine-Westphalia. The city has been shortlisted for the title of European Green Capital two consecutive times, for 2016 and 2017, winning for 2017, the city was singled out for its exemplary practices in protecting and enhancing nature and biodiversity and efforts to reduce water consumption. Essen participates in a variety of networks and initiatives to reduce gas emissions. The lowest point can be found in the borough of Karnap at 26.5 m. The average elevation is 116 m, Essen comprises fifty boroughs which in turn are grouped into nine suburban districts often named after the most important boroughs. Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were annexed from 1901 to 1975

26.
Martin Roth (museum director)
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Martin Roth is a German museum director. Since 2011, he has been Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, martin Roth was born on 16 January 1955 in Stuttgart, Germany. Roth became a researcher at the Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, subsequently, in 1992, he became a visiting scholar at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles. He was the Curator at the Deutsches Historisches Museum from 1989 to 2001, and the Director of the German Hygiene Museum in Dresden, the first German science museum, from 1991 to 2000. He was President of the German Museums Association from 1995 to 2003, from 1996 to 2001, Roth was a member of the senior management of the Expo 2000 in Hanover and Director of Thematic Exhibitions. Roth was Director General of the Dresden State Art Collections, overseeing 12 museums and he became Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in September 2011. Roth is a Trustee of the British Council and a member of both the Council of the Royal College of Art and the Court of Imperial College London. In 2007, Roth was appointed to the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in the rank of Chevalier, Roth announced his intention to stand down as director of the V&A on 6 September 2016. Whilst Roth had planned on leaving the museum by 2017, he brought forward his departure following despair at the UKs vote to Leave the European Union, Roth will be replaced by the historian, journalist and former Labour MP Tristram Hunt

Martin Roth (museum director)
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Martin Roth in June 2014 at the opening of the Kunstfestspiele Herrenhausen in Hanover

27.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999

Victoria and Albert Museum
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Entrance to the Victoria and Albert Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum
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In 2000, an 11 metre high, blown glass chandelier by Dale Chihuly was installed as a focal point in the rotunda at the V&A's main entrance.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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Henry Cole, the museum's first director
Victoria and Albert Museum
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Frieze detail from internal courtyard showing Queen Victoria in front of the 1851 Great Exhibition.

28.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area

29.
Anthony Panizzi
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Sir Antonio Genesio Maria Panizzi, better known as Anthony Panizzi, was a naturalised British librarian of Italian birth and an Italian patriot. He was the Principal Librarian of the British Museum from 1856 to 1866, Panizzi was born at Brescello in the Duchy of Modena, Italy, on 16 September 1797. He studied at the Lyceum of Reggio, then obtained a degree in law from the University of Parma in 1818 and he was appointed as Inspector of Public Schools at Brescello. It was during this time that a charge was brought against Panizzi that he was a Carbonaro, that is, the evidence would suggest that the accusation was true. In October 1822, amid political upheaval in Italy, Panizzi was slated for arrest and he was tipped off that he faced arrest and trial as a subversive, and made his way across Italy, eventually arriving in Switzerland. Following the books publication, he was indicted, tried, and condemned to death in absentia in Modena, in May 1823, Panizzi moved to England, becoming a British subject in 1832. For his extraordinary services as a librarian, in 1869 he was knighted by Queen Victoria, the British Museum library was the national library of the United Kingdom in all but name. During Panizzis tenure as Keeper of Printed Books its holdings increased from 235,000 to 540,000 volumes and its famous circular Reading Room was designed and built by architect Sydney Smirke from a sketch drawn by Panizzi. The new reading room opened in 1857, the British Museum library formed the bulk of what became the British Library in 1973 and the Round Reading Room was in use until 1997 when the Library moved to its current site at St. Pancras. During his tenure at the library, Panizzi was embroiled in many controversies and his appointment as Keeper of Printed Books was met with criticism due to Panizzis Italian origin, some felt an Englishman should be in charge of the national institution. Other sources state it was because he had seen in the streets of London selling white mice. Panizzi also had a dispute with historian Thomas Carlyle. Panizzi never forgot the slight and when Carlyle, now working on the biography of Cromwell, requested the use of a room at the library for his researches. Despite high-level complaints, Carlyle lost the argument, and he and his supporters opened their own independent subscription library, while at the library, Panizzi undertook the creation of a new catalogue, based on the Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules which he devised with his assistants. These rules served as the basis for all subsequent catalogue rules of the 19th and 20th centuries, Panizzi had to give up his concept of corporate main entry to have his 91 Rules code approved. Panizzis idea of corporate authorship later came to attention through Charles C. Jewetts code for the catalog of the Smithsonian Institution in 1850, Panizzi was also influential in enforcing the Copyright Act of 1842, which required British publishers to deposit with the library a copy of every book printed in Britain. Panizzi is credited with the invention of the Panizzi pin, a pin which prevents wooden shelves from wobbling

30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

31.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur
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Deutsche Presse-Agentur GmbH is a German news agency founded in 1949. Based in Hamburg, it has grown to be a worldwide operation serving print media, radio, television, online, mobile phones. News is available in German, English, Spanish, and Arabic, the DPA is the largest press agency in Germany. Along with the office in Hamburg, there is a central news office in Berlin. The DPA has offices in some 100 countries, including 12 regional German bureaus along with 50 additional offices in Germany, the DPA began in 1949, succeeding the Deutsche Nachrichtenagentur and the Süddeutsche News Agency. It was founded as a co-operative in Goslar on 18 August 1949, fritz Singer was the first editor-in-chief and managing director. He served as managing director until 1955 and as managing editor until 1959, the first transmission was at 6 a. m. on 1 September 1949. In 1986, the DPA Global Media Services and this bought in 1988 their competitors Cartography Service GmbH. In 2010, the headquarters of the DPA editors at the Markgrafenstraße moved into the newspaper district of Berlin, location of the former newsroom for Hamburg, Frankfurt. The objective of the DPA is the collection, processing, and circulation of news, archives, the main statute of the DPA is impartiality from influence and interference from the parties, world organizations, business and finance groups and governments. The DPA Basic Service is the most important service that the DPA produces, the services produces over 800 daily reports from the entire world, on the subjects of politics, business, culture, sports, and other miscellaneous news stories. Along with the offices the twelve regional offices produce reports dealing with German politics, business, culture. The DPA Photo Service provides customers about 350 photos daily, DPA customers are provided the service for a monthly fee, additional fees are required for organizations that do not provide content to DPA. The DPA Basic Service is the most significant German news service, with that the DPA has an important role in agenda setting for German media. For decades the DPA has been featured in almost every German newspaper, the DPA World News Service gives German news stories in English, Spanish, and Arabic. The English service is produced in Berlin, the Spanish services in Buenos Aires and Madrid, in 2008 it was announced that starting in spring 2009 the DPA would be providing a dual-language service in Turkish and German. The service was started so that the German media can provide information for Turkish speaking citizens living in Germany, the service was abandoned after only nine months. The DPA works with collection and circulation of news from other news agencies

32.
The Economist
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The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London. Continuous publication began under its founder, James Wilson, in September 1843, in 2015 its average weekly circulation was a little over 1.5 million, about half of which were sold in the United States. The publication belongs to the Economist Group and it is 50% owned by the English branch of the Rothschild family and by the Agnelli family through its holding company Exor. The remaining 50% is held by investors including the editors. The Rothschilds and the Agnellis are represented on the board of directors, a board of trustees formally appoints the editor, who cannot be removed without its permission. Although The Economist has an emphasis and scope, about two-thirds of the 75 staff journalists are based in the London borough of Westminster. For the year to March 2016 the Economist Group declared operating profit of £61m, previous major shareholders include Pearson PLC. The Economist takes a stance of classical and economic liberalism which is supportive of free trade, globalisation, free immigration. The publication has described itself as a product of the Caledonian liberalism of Adam Smith and it targets highly educated readers and claims an audience containing many influential executives and policy-makers. The publications CEO described this recent global change, which was first noticed in the 1990s and accelerated in the beginning of the 21st century, on the contents page of each issue, The Economists mission statement is written in italics. The Economist was founded by the British businessman and banker James Wilson in 1843, to advance the repeal of the Corn Laws, articles relating to some practical, commercial, agricultural, or foreign topic of passing interest, such as foreign treaties. An article on the principles of political economy, applied to practical experience, covering the laws related to prices, wages, rent, exchange, revenue. Parliamentary reports, with focus on commerce, agriculture and free trade. Reports and accounts of popular movements advocating free trade, general news from the Court of St. Jamess, the Metropolis, the Provinces, Scotland, and Ireland. Law reports, confined chiefly to areas important to commerce, manufacturing, books, confined chiefly, but not so exclusively, to commerce, manufacturing, and agriculture, and including all treatises on political economy, finance, or taxation. A commercial gazette, with prices and statistics of the week, correspondence and inquiries from the news magazines readers. It has long respected as one of the most competent. Its logo was designed in 1959 by Reynolds Stone, in January 2012 The Economist launched a new weekly section devoted exclusively to China, the first new country section since the introduction of a section about the United States in 1942

The Economist
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Walter Bagehot, one of the early Editors of The Economist
The Economist
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Front page of The Economist, on 16 May 1846
The Economist
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The Economist Building, St James's Street, by Alison and Peter Smithson

33.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

34.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format