A member of the Democratic Party's relatively conservative Blue Dog faction while in the House, Gillibrand has been seen as moving her political positions and ideology increasingly leftward toward that of a more liberalprogressive since her appointment to the Senate. In both cases, her views were significantly defined by the respective constituency she served at the time[1]—a conservative congressional district versus the generally liberal state of New York, especially as defined by New York City. For example, although she had been quiet on the U.S. military's "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy when she was in the House, during her first 18 months in the Senate, Gillibrand was an important part of the successful campaign to repeal it.[2]

Kirsten Elizabeth Rutnik was born in Albany, New York, on December 9, 1966, the daughter of Douglas Paul Rutnik and Polly Edwina Noonan. Both her parents are attorneys, and her father has also worked as a lobbyist.[3] Her parents divorced in the late 1980s.[4] Gillibrand has an older brother, Douglas Rutnik, and a younger sister, Erin Rutnik Tschantret.[5][6] Her maternal grandmother is Dorothea "Polly" Noonan, a founder of the Albany Democratic Women's Club, as well as a leader in Albany MayorErastus Corning's powerful political machine, which lasted for more than 40 years.[3][5][Note 1] She has English, Austrian, Scottish, German, and Irish ancestry.[7]

Gillibrand's tenure at Davis Polk is best known for her work as a defense attorney for Philip Morris during major litigation, including both civil lawsuits and U.S. Justice Department criminal and civil racketeering probes.[15] She became a senior associate while working on Philip Morris litigation.[16] While this time in her career has proven controversial, Gillibrand indicates her work for Philip Morris allowed her to take on multiple pro bono cases defending abused women and their children, as well as other cases defending tenants seeking safe housing after lead paint and unsafe conditions were found in their homes.[6]

“

I was just a young lawyer thinking, What am I doing with my life? What am I doing with my career? As I watched her on that stage I thought, Why aren't I there? It was so poignant for me. And that's what made me figure out how to get involved in politics.

While working at Davis Polk, Gillibrand became involved in—and later the leader of—the Women's Leadership Forum, a program of the Democratic National Committee. Gillibrand states that a speech to the group by First LadyHillary Clinton inspired her: "[Clinton] was trying to encourage us to become more active in politics and she said, 'If you leave all the decision-making to others, you might not like what they do, and you will have no one but yourself to blame.' It was such a challenge to the women in the room. And it really hit me: She's talking to me."[4]

In 1999, Gillibrand began working on Hillary Clinton's 2000 U.S. Senate campaign, focusing on campaigning to young women and encouraging them to join the effort. Many of those women later worked on Gillibrand's campaigns.[3] Gillibrand and Clinton became close during the election, with Clinton becoming something of a mentor to the young attorney.[6] Gillibrand donated more than $12,000 to Clinton's senate campaigns.[18]

In 2001, Gillibrand became a partner in the Manhattan office of Boies, Schiller & Flexner, where a client was the Philip Morris parent company Altria Group. In 2002 she informed Boies of interest in running for office and was allowed to transfer to the firm's Albany office. She left Boies in 2005 to begin her 2006 campaign for Congress.[6][15]

Gillibrand considered running for office in 2004, in New York's 20th congressional district, against the three-term Republican incumbent John E. Sweeney. However, Hillary Clinton believed circumstances would be more favorable in 2006 and advised her to wait until then.[6] Traditionally conservative, the district and its electoral offices had been in Republican hands for all but four years since 1913, and as of November 2006, 197,473 voters in the district were registered Republicans while 82,737 were registered Democrats.[19] Sweeney said in 2006 that no Republican could ever lose [the district].[20] Using New York's electoral fusion election laws, Gillibrand ran on both the Democratic and Working Families lines; in addition to having the Republican nomination, Sweeney was endorsed by the Conservative and Independence parties.[21]

During the campaign, Gillibrand got support from other Democratic Party politicians. Mike McNulty, a Democratic Congressman from the neighboring 21st congressional district, campaigned for her, as did both Hillary and Bill Clinton; the former president appeared twice at campaign events.[22] Both parties poured millions of dollars into the respective campaigns.[23]

Many saw Gillibrand as moderate or conservative. The American Conservative stated after her eventual victory, "Gillibrand won her upstate New York district by running to the right: she campaigned against amnesty for illegal immigrants, promised to restore fiscal responsibility to Washington, and pledged to protect gun rights."[24]

Gillibrand's legal representation of Philip Morris was an issue during the campaign. Her campaign finance records showed that she received $23,200 in contributions from the company's employees during her 2006 campaign for Congress.[25]

The probable turning point in the election was the November 1 release of a December 2005 police report detailing a 9-1-1 call by Sweeney's wife, in which she claimed Sweeney was "knocking her around the house." The Sweeney campaign claimed the police report was false and promised to have the official report released by State Police, but did not do so.[22] The Sweeney campaign did release an ad in which Sweeney's wife described Gillibrand's campaign as "a disgrace."[26]

By November 5, a Siena poll showed Gillibrand ahead of Sweeney 46% to 43%.[27] She won with 53% of the vote.[21]

Following Gillibrand's win, Republicans quickly began speculating about possible 2008 candidates. Len Cutler, director of the Center for the Study of Government and Politics at Siena College, said that the seat would be difficult for Gillibrand to hold in 2008, noting Republicans substantially outnumbered Democrats in the district.[22]

Gillibrand won her bid for re-election in 2008 over former New York Secretary of StateSandy Treadwell, by a 62% to 38% margin.[28] Treadwell lost by that margin despite significantly outspending Gillibrand and promising never to vote to raise taxes, not to accept a federal salary, and to limit himself to three terms in office.[29] Campaign expenditures were the second highest in the nation for a House race.[30] Democrats generally saw major successes during the 2008 congressional elections, credited in part to a coattail effect from Barack Obama's presidential campaign.[31]

Gillibrand's legal representation of Philip Morris was again an issue. Her campaign finance records showed that she received $18,200 from Philip Morris employees for her 2008 campaign, putting her among the top dozen Democrats in such contributions.[32] Questioned during the campaign about her work on behalf of Philip Morris, Gillibrand stated that she had voted in favor of all three anti-tobacco bills in that session of Congress. She said that she never hid her work for Philip Morris, and she added that as an associate at her law firm, she had had no control over which clients she worked for.[25]The New York Times, reporting on this issue, said that Davis Polk's official policy was that associates were allowed to withdraw from representing clients about whom they had moral qualms.[32]

After taking office, Gillibrand became the first member of Congress to publish her official schedule, listing everyone she met with on a given day. She also published earmark requests she received and her personal financial statement. This "Sunlight Report", as her office termed it, was praised by a New York Times editorial in December 2006 as being a "quiet touch of revolution" in a non-transparent system.[36][37] Regarding the earmarking process, Gillibrand stated she wanted what was best for her district and would require every project to pass a "greatest-need, greatest-good" test.[38]

On December 1, 2008, President-electBarack Obama announced his choice of Hillary Clinton, the junior U.S. Senator from New York, as Secretary of State. Clinton was confirmed by a vote of 94-2 on January 21, 2009. Just hours before being sworn in as Secretary of State, Clinton resigned her senate seat, effective immediately. This began a two-month search process to fill her vacant Senate seat.[40] Under New York law, the governor appoints a replacement. A special election would then be held in November 2010 for the remainder of the full term, which ended in January 2013.[41]

Gillibrand campaigning for her Democratic House successor Scott Murphy (2009)

Governor David Paterson's selection process began with a number of prominent names and high-ranking New York Democrats, including Andrew Cuomo, Fran Drescher and Caroline Kennedy, vying for the spot. Gillibrand quietly campaigned for the position, meeting secretly with Paterson on at least one occasion. She said that she made an effort to underscore her successful House elections in a largely conservative district, adding that she could be a good complement to Chuck Schumer.[5] Gillibrand was presumed a likely choice in the days before the official announcement.[42] On January 23, 2009, Paterson held a press conference to announce Gillibrand as his choice.[43]

The response within New York to the appointment was mixed. The upstate New York media was generally optimistic about appointment of an upstate Senator,[44] as one had not been elected since Charles Goodell left office in 1971.[45] Many downstaters were disappointed with the selection, with some media outlets stating that Paterson had ignored the electoral influence of populous New York City and downstate on state politics. One questioned whether Paterson's administration was aware of "[where] statewide elections are won and lost".[44] Gillibrand was relatively unknown statewide, and many voters found the choice surprising.[8] One source stated, "With every Democrat in New York ... angling for the appointment, there was a sense of bafflement, belittlement, and bruised egos when Paterson tapped the junior legislator unknown outside of Albany."[5]

Gillibrand was sworn in on January 26, 2009; at 42, she entered the chamber as the youngest senator in the 111th Congress.[5] In February she endorsed Scott Murphy, who had been chosen by the New York Democrats as their nominee for her now vacant seat in the House of Representatives.[46] In April, Murphy won the seat against Republican Jim Tedisco by 399 votes and succeeded Gillibrand in the House until 2011.[47]

Gillibrand had numerous potential challengers in the September 14, 2010, Democratic primary election. Some were obvious at the time of her appointment. Most notably, Long Island Congresswoman Carolyn McCarthy was unhappy with Gillibrand's stance on gun control,[48][Note 2] but McCarthy ultimately decided not to run.[49]Harold Ford, Jr., a former Congressman from Tennessee, considered a run but ultimately decided against it in March 2009.[50] Congressman Steve Israel was also a potential contender but was talked out of it by President Obama.

Concerned about a possible schism in the party that could lead to a heated primary, split electorate, and weakened stance, high-ranking members of the party backed Gillibrand and requested major opponents not to run.[50] In the end, Gillibrand faced Gail Goode, a lawyer from New York City,[51] and won the primary with 76% of the vote.[52]

Despite what was initially expected to be a heated race, Gillibrand easily prevailed against former Republican congressman Joseph DioGuardi in her first statewide election.[53] By the end of October, a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll showed Gillibrand winning 57-34%.[54] Gillibrand won the November election 63–35%, carrying 54 of New York's 62 counties; the counties that supported DioGuardi did so by a margin no greater than 10%.[53]

Gillibrand's special election victory in 2010 gave her the right to serve the rest of Clinton's second term, which ended in January 2013. Gillibrand ran for a full six-year term in November 2012. In the general election, Gillibrand faced challenger Wendy E. Long, an attorney running on both the Republican Party and Conservative Party lines.[55][56] Gillibrand was endorsed by The New York Times[57] and the Democrat and Chronicle.[58] She won the election with 72.2% of the vote,[59] the largest victory margin for a statewide candidate in New York history, better than Schumer's 71.2% victory in 2004. She carried all counties except for two in western New York.[60]

On April 9, 2009, a combined Schumer–Gillibrand press release said that the two strongly supported a Latino being nominated to the Supreme Court at the time of the next vacancy. Their first choice was Sonia Sotomayor.[61] The two introduced her at Sotomayor's Senate confirmation hearing in July 2009.[62]

In March 2011, Gillibrand co-sponsored the PROTECT IP Act, which would restrict access to web sites judged to be infringing copyrights,[66] but ultimately announced she would not support the bill as-is due to wide critical public response.[67]

In 2012, Gillibrand authored a portion of the STOCK Act, which extended limitations on insider trading by members of Congress. A version of the bill, merged by Senator Joe Lieberman with content from another bill authored by Senator Scott Brown,[68] was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Obama in April.[69]

In 2013, Gillibrand proposed legislation that would remove sexual assault cases from the military chain of command; the bill was cosponsored by Republican senators Rand Paul and Ted Cruz.[70] Gillibrand's bill failed to gain enough votes to break a filibuster in March 2014; however, her efforts likely improved her standing as a lawmaker in the Senate.[71]

Gillibrand speaking at a White House summit (2014)

In 2014, Gillibrand was included in the annual Time 100, Time magazine's list of the 100 most influential people.[72]

In 2015, Gillibrand invited campus activist Emma Sulkowicz to attend the State of the Union Address. Her invitation was intended to promote the Campus Accountability and Safety Act, a bill Gillibrand co-sponsored.[73] However, Families Advocating for Campus Equality and others have criticized this decision, and Gillibrand's public description of Sulkowicz's accused assailant as "her rapist," pointing out that both a university hearing and a police investigation had cleared the man of the allegations; critics of Gillibrand's decision have accused her of disregarding due process and maligning a man's reputation in order to gain support for a political objective.[74][75]

Gillibrand has been less deferential to Senate seniority protocols and more uncompromising in her positions – such as repeal of "don't ask, don't tell" and combating sexual assault in the military – than most freshman senators, traits which have sometimes caused friction with her Democratic colleagues. Republican Charles Grassley of Iowa has contrasted her approach with other New Yorkers of both parties, saying she is distinguished by "her determination and knowledge and willingness to sit down one on one with senators and explain what she is up to". Her fund-raising ability – almost $30 million from 2009 through 2013 – helped her become a mentor for female candidates nationwide during that period.[76]

In 2017, Gillibrand said that she would be running for re-election to the Senate in 2018.[80] She had been mentioned as a possible Democratic nominee for President in 2020, but, when asked about the race, she said she was "ruling it out."[80]

In the Senate, she is known more as a populist-leaning liberal, representing a heavily Democratic state centered around the heavily liberal and Democratic metropolitan area of New York City. At the time of her appointment to the Senate, a Salon.com editorial said that Gillibrand's reputation in the House was as "a hybrid politician who has remained conservative enough to keep her seat while appearing progressive enough to raise money downstate."[1]

On social issues, Gillibrand is generally liberal, supporting abortion rights,[83] legalization of same-sex marriage.[84] In 2017, she came out in favor of single-payer healthcare, and cosponsored a bill introduced by Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, which would gradually expand the existing Medicare program to cover all Americans. She is a strong advocate for government transparency, being one of a few members of Congress who release much personal and scheduling information.[85] She is also a strong supporter of female equality and involvement, having begun the website offthesidelines.org in 2011. Although a supporter of gun rights while in the House, Gillibrand has since moved in the direction of gun control.[86]

The Gillibrands had their first child, Theodore, in 2003,[6] and their second son, Henry, in 2008. She continued to work until the day of Henry's delivery, for which she received a standing ovation from her colleagues in the House the next day.[6]

Gillibrand lives in the town of Brunswick with her husband and their two sons. Because of the requirements of her office, the family spends most of its time in Washington, D.C.[6] In 2011, the Gillibrands sold their house in Hudson and purchased their home in Brunswick to be closer to Kirsten's family in Albany.[91]

In 2014, Gillibrand published her first book, Off the Sidelines: Raise Your Voice, Change the World.[92] The candid memoir was notable in the media upon release due to whisperings of a future presidential run[93] as well as revealing a culture of sexism in the Senate,[94] including specific comments made to her by other members of Congress about her weight and appearance.[95]Off the Sidelines debuted at number 8 on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover nonfiction.[96]

^Gillibrand, Treadwell spending millions, The Daily Gazette (Schenectady, NY) October 28, 2006. Quote: "The amount Kirsten Gillibrand and Sandy Treadwell are spending on their campaign for the 20th Congressional District seat so far this year is the second highest in the nation for a House race, according to both the Federal Election Commission and a campaign watchdog Web site."

1.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

3.
Chuck Schumer
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Charles Ellis Chuck Schumer is an American politician, the senior United States senator from New York and a member of the Democratic Party. First elected in 1998, he defeated three-term Republican incumbent Al DAmato by a margin of 55%–44%, Schumer was re-elected in 2004 by a margin of 71%–24%, in 2010 by a margin of 66%–33% and in 2016 by a margin of 70%-27%. A native of Brooklyn and graduate of Harvard College and Harvard Law School, he was a member of the New York State Assembly. Schumer was chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee from 2005 to 2009 and he was the third-ranking Democrat in the Senate, behind Senate minority leader Harry Reid and Senate minority whip Dick Durbin, elected vice chairman of the Democratic Caucus in the Senate in 2006. In November 2010, he was chosen to hold the additional role of chairman of the Senate Democratic Policy Committee starting at the opening of the 112th Congress. On November 8,2016, Schumer was reelected to his term in the United States Senate. Subsequently, on November 16,2016, he was unanimously elected Senate minority leader to succeed the retiring Reid, Schumer was born in Brooklyn, the son of Selma and Abraham Schumer. His father ran a business, and his mother was a homemaker. His family is Jewish, and he is a cousin, once removed, of comedian. His ancestors originated from the town of Chortkiv, Galicia, in what is now western Ukraine and he attended public schools in Brooklyn, scoring a perfect 1600 on the SAT, and graduated as class valedictorian from James Madison High School, in 1967. Schumer competed for Madison High on the Its Academic television quiz show and he attended Harvard College, where he became interested in politics and campaigned for Eugene McCarthy, in 1968. After completing his degree, he continued to Harvard Law School, earning his Juris Doctor with honors. Schumer passed the New York state bar, in early 1975, however, he never practiced law, choosing instead a career in politics. In 1974, Schumer ran for and was elected to the New York State Assembly, Schumer served three terms, from 1975 to 1981, sitting in the 181st, 182nd and 183rd New York State Legislatures. He has never lost an election, in 1980, 16th District Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman won the Democratic nomination for the Senate seat of Republican Jacob Javits. Schumer ran for Holtzmans vacated House seat and won and he was re-elected eight times from the Brooklyn and Queens-based district, which changed numbers twice in his tenure. In 1982, as a result of redistricting, Schumer faced a potential matchup with veteran Brooklyn congressman Steve Solarz, in preparation, Schumer set about making friends on Wall Street, tapping the citys top law firms and securities houses for campaign donations. I told them I looked like I had a very difficult reapportionment fight, if I were to stand a chance of being re-elected, I needed some help, he would later tell the Associated Press

4.
David Paterson
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David Alexander Paterson is an American politician who served as the 55th Governor of New York, in office from 2008 to 2010. He was the first African American governor of New York and also the second legally blind governor of any U. S. state after Bob C, riley, who was Acting Governor of Arkansas for 11 days in January 1975. After graduating from Hofstra Law School, Paterson worked in the District Attorneys office of Queens County, New York, and on the staff of Manhattan Borough President David Dinkins. In 1985, he was elected to the New York State Senate to a seat that was held by his father, former New York Secretary of State Basil Paterson. In 2003, he rose to the position of Senate Minority Leader, Paterson was selected as running mate by then-New York Attorney General and Democratic Party gubernatorial nominee Eliot Spitzer in the 2006 New York gubernatorial election. Spitzer and Paterson were elected in November 2006 with 69 percent of the vote, when Spitzer resigned in the wake of a prostitution scandal, Paterson was sworn in as governor of New York on March 17,2008. Paterson launched a campaign for a full term as governor in the 2010 gubernatorial election, but announced on February 26,2010. David Paterson was born in Brooklyn to Portia Paterson, a homemaker, Basil Paterson was later a New York state senator and secretary of state, and served as deputy mayor of New York City. According to a New York Now interview, Paterson traces his roots on his mothers side of the family to pre-Civil War African American slaves in the states of North Carolina and his paternal grandmother, a Jamaican, Evangeline Rondon Paterson was secretary to Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. His paternal grandfather was Leonard James Paterson, a native of Carriacou who arrived in the United States aboard the S. S. Vestris on May 16,1917 and it was reported by The Genetic Genealogist in March 2008 that Paterson had recently undergone genetic genealogy testing. At the age of three months, Paterson contracted an ear infection which spread to his optic nerve, leaving him with no sight in his left eye, Paterson was the first disabled student in the Hempstead public schools, graduating from Hempstead High School in 1971. Paterson received a B. A. in History from Columbia College of Columbia University in 1977, after law school, he went to work for the Queens District Attorneys Office, but did not pass the New York bar examination, thus not becoming an Attorney at law. He claimed that his failing the New York bar was partially the result of insufficient accommodation for his visual impairment, while he was governor, Patersons staff read documents to him over voice mail. Paterson was the first governor of New York to be partly blind, Paterson and his wife, Michelle Paige Paterson, separated after 19 years of marriage in September 2012. In 1985, Paterson resigned from the Queens District Attorneys office so he could join the campaign of city clerk David Dinkins to win the Democratic nomination for Manhattan Borough President. That summer, on August 6, state senator Leon Bogues died, in mid-September, a meeting of 648 Democratic committee members on the first ballot gave Paterson 58% of the vote, giving him the party nomination. That October, Paterson won the virtually uncontested special State Senate election, at the time, the 29th Senate district covered the Manhattan neighborhoods of Harlem, Manhattan Valley and the Upper West Side, the same district that Patersons father had represented. Upon his election, Paterson became the youngest State Senator in Albany

5.
Hillary Clinton
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Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton is an American politician who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013, U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001, and the Democratic Partys nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election. Born in Chicago, Illinois, and raised in the Chicago suburb of Park Ridge, Clinton graduated from Wellesley College in 1969, after serving as a congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas and married Bill Clinton in 1975. In 1977, she co-founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families and she was appointed the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978 and became the first female partner at Rose Law Firm the following year. As First Lady of Arkansas, she led a force whose recommendations helped reform Arkansass public schools. As First Lady of the United States, Clinton fought for gender equality, because her marriage survived the Lewinsky scandal, her role as first lady drew a polarized response from the public. Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from New York and she was re-elected to the Senate in 2006. Running for president in 2008, she won far more delegates than any previous female candidate, as Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013, Clinton responded to the Arab Spring, during which she advocated the U. S. military intervention in Libya. Leaving office after Obamas first term, she wrote her book and undertook speaking engagements. Clinton made a presidential run in 2016. She became the first female candidate to be nominated for president by a major U. S. political party, despite winning a plurality of the national popular vote, Clinton lost the Electoral College and the presidency to her Republican rival Donald Trump. Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26,1947, at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. In 1995, Clinton claimed that her mother had named her after Sir Edmund Hillary, co-first mountaineer to scale Mount Everest, however, the Everest climb did not take place until 1953, more than five years after Clinton was born. Clinton was raised in a United Methodist family, living first in Chicago and her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham, was of English and Welsh descent, and managed a small but successful textile business. Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell, was a homemaker of Dutch, English, French Canadian, Scottish, Clinton has two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony. As a child, Rodham was a student of her teachers at the public schools that she attended in Park Ridge. She participated in such as swimming and baseball, and earned numerous badges as a Brownie. She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in the student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for the National Honor Society

6.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House

7.
New York's 20th congressional district
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The 20th Congressional District of New York is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives in New Yorks Capital District. It includes all of Albany and Schenectady counties, and portions of Montgomery, Rensselaer, from 2003 to 2013, the 20th district surrounded the Capital District, which had been part of the 21st district. This district included all or parts of Columbia, Dutchess, Delaware, Essex, Greene, Otsego, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Warren and it included the cities of Glens Falls and Saratoga Springs. This largely rural district stretched to include parts of the Adirondacks, Catskills, on Nov 2,2010, Republican Chris Gibson defeated first term incumbent Democrat Scott Murphy, and took office on January 3,2011. In 2013, Gibson was redistricted to the 19th, paul Tonko now represents the district after redistricting. From the creation of the district in 1813 to 1833, two seats were apportioned, elected at-large on a general ticket, note that in New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes. List of United States congressional districts New Yorks congressional districts United States congressional delegations from New York Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts

8.
John E. Sweeney
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John E. Sweeney is a politician from the U. S. state of New York. A Republican, he represented New Yorks 20th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from January 1999 to January 2007 and he was dubbed Congressman Kick-Ass by President George W. Bush for his take-no-prisoners style. Before being defeated for reelection in November 2006 by Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand, Sweeney was born in Troy, New York and graduated from Lansingburgh High School in 1973. He received a degree from Hudson Valley Community College in 1978. In 1991, he received a J. D. from Western New England College School of Law, after the Bush-Gore 2000 re-count in Florida, in which Sweeney played a legendary role, Toby Eglund wrote, Sweeney. Embodies that embarrassment of the Left, the drift of Americas white working class males. The son of a factory worker active in the Amalgamated Shirt Cutters Union. Sweeney was Rensselaer Countys one-time STOP-DWI coordinator and he was the Executive Director & Chief Counsel of the New York Republican Party from 1992 to 1995, a period of tremendous success for the state GOP. As Governor George Patakis Secretary of Labor, Sweeney was the point-man on successful efforts to reform the Empire States Workers Compensation laws. Prior to the 1998 election, Sweeney moved from Cohoes to Speigletown, Sweeney was born, raised and lived most of his life in Solomons Congressional District. Solomon endorsed and campaigned for Sweeney, as did every Republican elected official, Sweeney was elected to the US House in 1998, winning with 55 percent of the vote over Democrat challenger Jean Bordewich, despite the fact that President Bill Clinton carried the district over U. S. Senator Bob Dole in 1996 by a 46 percent to 41 percent margin, in 2000, Sweeney defeated Democrat Kenneth McCallion, receiving 68 percent of the vote. In 2002, he defeated Frank Stoppenbach, getting 73 percent of the vote, in 2004, he defeated Doris F. Kelly, receiving 66 percent of the vote. After the September 11,2001 terrorist attack, Sweeney and U. S. Rep, is it moving along as expeditiously as we hoped. No, Sweeney told the New York Times on December 30,2002, I think the pressure needs to be constant from Congress. Im not ready to say that I am absolutely frustrated, but I think the next six months are going to be rather critical, Sweeney never lost touch with his labor heritage. He opposed NAFTA and enjoyed support from organized labor. The Civil Service Employees Union, always powerful in the suburbs surrounding Albany, the Empire States capital, endorsed him, in 2006, Sweeney was classified as a libertarian conservative by the non-partisan group ontheissues. org

9.
Scott Murphy
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Matthew Scott Murphy is an entrepreneur and a former U. S. Representative for New Yorks 20th congressional district, having served a portion of one term from April 2009 until January 2011 and he is a member of the Democratic Party. He was defeated in his attempt to attain election to a term on November 2,2010. Prior to re-districting after the 2010 census, the 20th district centered on much of the portion of New Yorks Capital District. The son of a teacher and mail carrier, Murphy graduated from the David H. Hickman High School in Columbia, Missouri, in 1988, Murphy worked for Bankers Trust for two and a half years in the early 1990s before becoming an entrepreneur. In 1994, he co-founded an interactive media company, Small World Software, in 1998 the company, which had grown to 25 employees, was purchased by the internet-consulting company iXL. He then served as one of the heads of the purchased entity, IXL later went bankrupt in 2002 during the end of the dot-com bubble. In 2001 Murphy joined Advantage Capital Partners, a venture capital partnership and he currently serves as President of the Board of Directors of Upstate Venture Association of New York, Inc. He worked as an aide, Deputy Chief of Staff, and fundraiser for former Governors of Missouri Mel Carnahan, on November 7,2009, Murphy voted against the Affordable Care Act. Murphy opposed the Stupak Amendment which proposed to restrict federal funding, in March 2010, Murphy supported the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. On February 1,2009, Murphy was chosen by a vote of ten Democratic county chairs to be their partys nominee for 2009 special election to fill Gillibrands seat in the House. Murphy ran against Republican nominee Jim Tedisco from Schenectady, who, Murphy was endorsed by President Barack Obama and Senator Gillibrand. The initial count from the election had Murphy leading by approximately 60 votes out of more than 150,000 cast, however, by April 24, after re-tallies and absentee ballot counting, Murphy was ahead by 399 votes, and Tedisco conceded the election. Murphy was sworn in on April 29, in 2010, Murphy ran for a full two-year term representing the 20th district. He lost the election to the Republican nominee, Chris Gibson, Murphy is married to Jennifer Hogan, a native of Washington County

10.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw

11.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president

12.
Dartmouth College
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Dartmouth College is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, with a total student enrollment of about 6,400, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League. Undergraduate admissions is highly competitive, with a rate of 10. 4% for the Class of 2021. Dartmouths 269-acre campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England, the university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its focus, strong Greek culture. Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I, Dartmouth is consistently included among the highest-ranked universities in the United States by several institutional rankings. According to a Forbes study, despite its small size. In a New York Times corporate study, Dartmouths graduates were shown to be among the most sought-after and valued in the world. Dartmouth has produced prominent alumni, including 170 members of the U. S. Senate. Cabinet officials,3 Nobel Prize laureates,2 U. S. Supreme Court justices, diplomats, scholars in academia, literary and media figures, professional athletes, and Olympic medalists. Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregational minister from Columbia, Connecticut, wheelocks ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became a minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747. Wheelock founded Moors Indian Charity School in 1755, the Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue schools operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches, with these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge, in seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the Province of New Hampshire. The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources, the reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable use of the Charity Schools unspent trust funds. The College granted its first degrees in 1771, given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817

13.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme

14.
University of California, Los Angeles
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The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 and it offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,000 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students, and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016, including transfer applicants, the university is organized into six undergraduate colleges, seven professional schools, and four professional health science schools. Fourteen Nobel laureates, three Fields Medalists, two Chief Scientists of the U. S. Air Force and three Turing Award winners have been faculty, researchers, or alumni, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015–2016 ranked UCLA 16th in the world for academics, in 2015-2016, UCLA ranked 12th in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 31st in the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings. UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference, the Bruins won 126 national championships, including 113 NCAA team championships, more than any other university. UCLA student-athletes, coaches and staff won 251 Olympic medals,126 gold,65 silver and 60 bronze, UCLA student-athletes competed in every Olympics since 1920 with one exception, and won a gold medal in every Olympics that the United States participated in since 1932. The State Normal School at Los Angeles opened on August 29,1882, the facility included an elementary school where teachers-in-training could practice their technique with children. That elementary school is related to the present day version, UCLA Lab School, in 1887, the school became known as the Los Angeles State Normal School. In 1914, the moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue in East Hollywood. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California, the same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the College of Letters and Science. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname Bruins, in 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles. In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, the campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929. The original four buildings were the College Library, Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building, the first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. A timeline of the history can be found on its website, during its first 32 years, UCLA was treated as an off-site department of UC. As such, its presiding officer was called a provost, in 1951, UCLA was formally elevated to co-equal status with UC Berkeley, and its presiding officer Raymond B. Allen was the first chief executive to be granted the title of chancellor. The appointment of Franklin David Murphy to the position of Chancellor in 1960 helped spark an era of growth of facilities. By the end of the decade, UCLA had achieved distinction in a range of subjects

15.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades

16.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning

17.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed many landmark bills. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year

18.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S

19.
List of United States Senators from New York
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This is a list of the United States Senators who have represented the State of New York. The date of the start of the tenure is either the first day of the legislative term, New Yorks current Senators are Democrats Kirsten Gillibrand and Democratic Leader of the United States Senate Chuck Schumer. As of October 2016, three former U. S, Senators from New York are alive, two from Class 1 and one from Class 3. The most recent senator to die was Daniel Patrick Moynihan of Class 1 on March 26,2003, the most recent Class 3 senator to die was Jacob K. Javits on March 7,1986. List of United States Representatives from New York United States congressional delegations from New York Elections in New York Byrd, the Senate, 1789-1989, Historical Statistics, 1789-1992

20.
United States Senate election in New York, 2012
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Senator Kirsten Gillibrand won re-election to her first full term. Gillibrand was opposed in the election by Wendy Long and by three minor party candidates. Gillibrand was re-elected with 72% of the vote, by a margin of 46%, Gillibrand performed 9 points better than President Barack Obama did in the presidential race in New York. She carried 60 out of 62 counties statewide, there was one debate held between Senator Gillibrand and Ms Long in October 2012 where they debated various issues such as the economy, abortion rights, the debt and deficit, foreign policy and jobs. Gillibrands vote total was the highest since President Lyndon B, representative Kirsten Gillibrand to serve as U. S. Senator from New York until the 2010 special election, succeeding former U. S, Senator Hillary Clinton, who resigned to serve as U. S. Secretary of State in the Obama administration. Gillibrand won the election in 2010 with 62. 95% of the vote over former U. S. Senator Gillibrand has also endorsed by the Independence Party of New York and the Working Families Party. Long prevailed by a margin in the June 26 Republican primary, receiving 50. 9% of the vote, Turner received 35. 6%. Long was designated as the nominee for the Conservative Party of New York State, joe Carvin, Rye Town Supervisor, withdrew March 16,2012 to run for the House of Representatives against Nita Lowey. Source, Update for US Senate Election NY2012, http, //www. elections. ny. gov/NYSBOE/elections/2012/General/USSenator_07292013. pdf Kirsten Gillibrand, incumbent U. S

21.
United States Senate election in New York, 2004
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Senator Chuck Schumer won re-election to a second term with 71. 2% of the vote, a then-record margin of victory for any statewide candidate in New Yorks history. The record was surpassed by Kirsten Gillibrand when she won re-election to a first full term in 2012 with 72% of the vote. Perennial candidate Abraham Hirschfeld, then 84 years old, ran for the office on a party line, it was the last campaign of his life. Source, New York State Board of Elections General Election Results, Certified December 14,2006 Source, presidential Elections Per New York State law, Schumers totals include minor party line votes, Independence Party and Working Families Party for Schumer. Schumers 71. 2% of the vote is the second-highest total in New York election history and he won a majority of the vote in every county in the state besides Hamilton County

22.
Blue Dog Coalition
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It was formed in 1995 during the 104th Congress to give more conservative members from the Democratic party a unified voice after the Democrats loss of Congress in the U. S. Blue Dog Coalition membership experienced a decline in the 2010s. The 115th Congress has seen the Coalition grow to 18 members. Brewster of Oklahoma, John S. Tanner of Tennessee, Ralph Hall, Charles Stenholm, Pete Geren and Greg Laughlin of Texas, Bill Orton of Utah, browder headed the groups budget task force. The term Blue Dog Democrat is credited to Texas Democratic Rep. Pete Geren, Geren opined that the members had been choked blue by Democrats on the Left. It is related to the political term Yellow Dog Democrat, a reference to southern Democrats said to be so loyal they would vote for a yellow dog if it were labeled Democrat. The Boll Weevils, in turn, may be considered the descendants of the Dixiecrats and the states rights Democrats of the 1940s through the 1960s, the coalition was notably successful in a special election of February 2004 in Kentucky to fill a vacant seat in the House of Representatives. They were also successful in the November 2004 elections, when three of the five races in which a Democrat won a formerly Republican House seat were won by Blue Dogs. In 2005, the members of the Blue Dog Coalition voted 32 to 4 in favor of the bill to limit access to bankruptcy protection, recent such Senators include Ben Nelson and Joe Manchin. In 2006, Blue Dog candidates such as Jason Altmire, Heath Shuler and Brad Ellsworth were elected in conservative-leaning districts, in 2007,15 Blue Dog Coalition Members in safe seats refused to contribute party dues to the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee. An additional 16 Blue Dogs have not paid any money to the DCCC but were exempt from party-mandated contributions because they were top GOP targets for defeat in 2008, woolsey later stated that she was misunderstood, but the Blue Dogs have continued with the boycott. Donations to party Congressional Committees are an important source of funding for the party committees, in the summer of 2009, The Economist newspaper said he debate over health care. The Blue Dog Coalition suffered serious losses in the 2010 midterm elections and its members, who were roughly one quarter of the Democratic Partys caucus in the 111th Congress, accounted for half of the partys midterm election losses. Including retirements, Blue Dog numbers in the House were reduced from 54 members in 2008 to 26 members in 2010, following the 2012 House of Representatives elections, the Blue Dog Coalition went from 27 members to 14 members. Speculation ensued that the centrist New Democrat Coalition would fill the vacuum created by the Blue Dog Coalitions decline. Four members of the Blue Dog coalition were defeated by Republicans in the 2014 House elections, the Blue Dog Coalition experienced a net loss of 5 members and its membership totaled 14 when the 114th Congress took office on January 3,2015. The 2016 election brought 7 Freshman Members of Congress into the Coalition, four of these members come from red-to-blue districts. The Coalition experienced a net gain of 4 members and its membership currently totals 18, the Blue Dog Coalition is often involved in searching for a compromise between liberal and conservative positions

23.
Modern liberalism in the United States
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Modern American liberalism is the dominant version of liberalism in the United States. It is characterized by social liberalism, and combines ideas of liberty and equality with support for social justice. The term modern liberalism in this article refers only to the United States, in a global context, this philosophy is usually referred to as social liberalism. The American modern liberal philosophy strongly endorses public spending on such as education, health care. Important social issues today include addressing inequality, voting rights for minorities, affirmative action, reproductive and other rights, support for LGBT rights. American liberals oppose conservatives on most issues, but not all, Modern liberalism is historically related to social liberalism and progressivism, though the current relationship between liberal and progressive viewpoints is debated. John F. Kennedy defined a liberal as follows, keynesian economic theory has played an important role in the economic philosophy of modern American liberals. Modern American liberals generally believe that national prosperity requires government management of the macroeconomy, in order to keep unemployment low, inflation in check and they also value institutions that defend against economic inequality. In The Conscience of a Liberal Paul Krugman writes, I believe in an equal society, supported by institutions that limit extremes of wealth. I believe in democracy, civil liberties, and the rule of law and that makes me a liberal, and Im proud of it. Liberals often point to the prosperity enjoyed under a mixed economy in the years since World War II. They believe liberty exists when access to necessities like health care and economic opportunity are available to all, Modern American liberalism is typically associated with the Democratic Party, as modern American conservatism is typically associated with the Republican Party. Today the word liberalism is used differently in different countries, one of the greatest contrasts is between the usage in the United States and usage in Europe. According to Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. Liberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European country, save possibly Britain. In Europe, liberalism, usually means what is called classical liberalism, a commitment to limited government, laissez-faire economics. This classical liberalism sometimes more closely corresponds to the American definition of libertarianism, in the United States, the general term liberalism will almost always refer to modern liberalism, a more social variant of classical liberalism. A2015 Gallup poll found that liberal views have consistently been on the rise in America since 1999. As of 2015, there is an equal number of socially liberal Americans and socially conservative Americans

24.
Mayor of Albany, New York
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From 1779 until 1839, mayors were chosen by the New York States Council of Appointment, typically for a one-year term that began in September. From 1840 on, Albanys mayors were elected by the citys residents. Beginning in 1886, mayoral terms began on January 1 of the year after the mayor was elected, a total of 74 men and one woman have served as mayor since the Citys inception, eighteen of them served multiple terms that were not consecutive. Erastus Corning 2nd served for over 40 years, longer any other mayor of any other major United States city. Kathy Sheehan is the current mayor, she was first elected in 2013, began service on January 1,2014, since Thomas M. Whalen IIIs death in 2002, Gerald Jennings and Kathy Sheehan are the only living mayors of Albany. Albany mayoral election,2009 Source for the names and years, Mayors of Albany, 1686-1997, Biographical Sketches, Albany, Capital City on the Hudson, An Illustrated History. Sun Valley, California, American Historical Press, mayor Erastus Corning, Albany Icon, Albany Enigma, Paul Grondahl

25.
Erastus Corning 2nd
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Erastus Corning 2nd was an American politician. He was Mayor of Albany, New York for more than 40 years, from 1942 to 1983, Albanys longest-serving mayor, the Democrat died in office in 1983. His great-grandfather, Erastus Corning, was an industrialist who founded the New York Central Railroad and his father, Edwin Corning, was Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1927 to 1928. Corning referred to himself as Erastus Corning 2nd, preferring that moniker to Erastus Corning II, Corning was born in Albany, New York, the son of Louise and Edwin Corning. His mother was born in Cawnpore, India, where her father was serving as a missionary and he was educated at The Albany Academy and Groton School before attending Yale University. After earning his degree, Corning started an insurance company. He was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1936 and he resigned his seat on August 1,1941, to seek the Democratic nomination for Mayor of Albany. Corning won the first of his 11 terms as mayor in November 1941 – easily defeating the Republican candidate, Benjamin R. Hoff, Corning took office on January 1,1942, and was re-elected in landslides for most of his career. The most notable exception was 1973 when a prominent businessman and reform candidate, Carl Touhey, ran a well-financed campaign, in 1977 Corning weathered a primary election challenge from State Senator Howard C. Nolan, Jr. Touheys campaign was not the first major challenge to Cornings administration, shortly after his first term began, the newly elected Governor Thomas E. Dewey had the powerful Albany Democratic political machine, run by Boss Daniel P. OConnell, investigated. The investigations proved largely unsuccessful and left Corning and OConnell unscathed and this political machine proved to be one of the most durable in American history, even outlasting the Daley family machine in Chicago. During his absence, Frank Harris, a councilman, served as acting mayor, appointed to this post by Corning. At the New York state election,1946, Corning ran for Lieutenant Governor of New York with James M. Mead for governor, Corning served ten full consecutive terms after his return from the war. His insurance firm profited from being the sole bidder on Albany County insurance contracts for many years, Corning defended this apparent conflict of interest by noting that he himself was not a county official. His last mayoral re-election came in 1981, during his last term he began to show health problems and, on May 28,1983, he died of heart failure at University Hospital in Boston. He is interred in Albany Rural Cemetery, the tower is part of the Empire State Plaza, a 98-acre, 11-building state government office and cultural complex. Some believe that the building was named after Corning because it has 42 floors, completed in 1973, the skyscraper was dedicated to Corning upon his death in 1983. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands named Corning an officer of the Order of Orange-Nassau, the countrys highest citizen honor, in gratitude for his aid to Nijmegen following World War II

26.
English Americans
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In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west

27.
Austrian Americans
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Austrian Americans are European Americans of Austrian descent. According to the 2000 U. S. census, there were 735,128 Americans of full or partial Austrian descent, the states with the largest Austrian American populations were New York, California, Pennsylvania, Florida, New Jersey, and Ohio. Before World War II, Austrian migration to United States was difficult to determine, because Austria as an independent country was established in 1918, however, after the initial wave of settlers, Austrian immigration was low during the first half of the nineteenth century. During this period, fewer than 1,000 Austrians emigrated to the United States, most of the emigrated were Tyroleans in search of land, people who fled the oppressive Metternich regime. These political refugees were mostly anticlerical and against slavery and they were liberals and adapted quickly to their new country. The immigration of Austrians increased during the half of 19th century. Many Austrians worked in the United States as miners, servants, many Austrians settled in New York City, Pittsburgh, and Chicago. Many of these came from Burgenland. During the years 1901-1910 alone, Austrians were one of the ten most significant immigrant groups in the United States, most of these newly immigrated Austrians were cosmopolitan and followed a left-wing ideology. They found employment in Chicago stockyards and Pennsylvania cement and steel factories, many of them, more than 35 percent, returned to Austria with the savings they had made by their employment. Since the First World War and until the end of the Great Depression, during the postwar period of 1919 to 1924, fewer than 20,000 Austrians arrived in the United States, most of them from Burgenland. Also, laws restricting immigration to the U. S. imposed by the Austrian government limited Austrian emigration, however, in the late 1930s, a new Austrian wave of immigrants began arriving in the United States. Most of them were Jews fleeing the Nazi persecution which started with the Annexation of Austria in 1938, in 1941, some 29,000 Jewish Austrians had emigrated to the United States. Most of them were doctors, lawyers, architects and artists, much later, between 1945–1960, some 40,000 Austrians entered the United States. Since the 1960s, however, Austrian immigration has been negligible, mostly because Austria is nowadays a developed nation where poverty and political oppression is scarce. According to the 1990 U. S. census,948,558 people claimed be of Austrian descent, when in the 19th century, Austrian immigrants adapted quickly to American society because the Austrian Empire had also been a melting pot of many cultures and languages. Most Austrian Americans speak American English and German, however, most Austrians are Roman Catholic. The Austrian contribution in the 19th century regarding the missionization of Native Americans is remarkable, however, in the nineteenth century, Austrians also had to work with Irish Catholic priests, who could not speak the German language, to baptize the natives and convert them to Catholicism

28.
Scottish Americans
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Scottish Americans or Scots Americans are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Scotland. Scottish Americans are closely related to Scotch-Irish Americans, descendants of Ulster Scots, in the 2013 American Community Survey 5,310,285 were identified as Scottish and 2,976,878 of Scotch-Irish descent. Large scale emigration from Scotland to America began in the 1700s after the Battle of Culloden where the Clan structures were broken up, the Scots went in search of a better life and settled in the thirteen colonies, mainly around South Carolina and Virginia. The table shows the ethnic Scottish population in the United States from 1700 to 2013, in 1700 the total population of the American colonies was 250,888, of whom 223,071 were white and 3. 0% were ethnically Scottish. In the 2000 census,4.8 million Americans self-reported Scottish ancestry,1. 7% of the total US population, another 4.3 million self-reported Scotch-Irish ancestry, for a total of 9.2 million Americans self-reporting some kind of Scottish descent. Americans of Scottish descent outnumber the population of Scotland, where 4,459,071 or 88. 09% of people identified as ethnic Scottish in the 2001 Census. A Christian bard from the Hebrides accompanied Bjarni Herjolfsson on his voyage around Greenland in 985/6 which sighted the mainland to the west. The first Scots recorded as having set foot in the New World were a man named Haki, the Scottish couple were runners who scouted for Thorfinn Karlsefnis expedition in c. 1010, gathering wheat and the grapes for which Vinland was named, the controversial Zeno letters have been cited in support of a claim that Henry Sinclair, earl of Orkney, visited Nova Scotia in 1398. In the early years of Spanish colonization of the Americas, a Scot named Tam Blake spent 20 years in Colombia and he took part in the conquest of New Granada in 1532 with Alonso de Heredia. He arrived in Mexico in 1534-5, and joined Coronados 1540 expedition to the American Southwest, Scottish-American naturalist John Muir is perhaps best known for his exploration of Californias Sierra Nevada mountains during the 19th century. After the Union of the Crowns of Scotland and England in 1603, King James VI, a Scot, promoted joint expeditions overseas, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas, Jamestown, was thus named for a Scot. The earliest Scottish communities in America were formed by traders and planters rather than farmer settlers, the hub of Scottish commercial activity in the colonial period was Virginia. Regular contacts began with the transportation of indentured servants to the colony from Scotland, trade between Scotland and the American colonies was finally regularized by the parliamentary Act of Union of Scotland and England in 1707. Scots arriving in Florida and the Gulf Coast traded extensively with Native Americans, American bluegrass and folk music styles have roots in the Appalachian ballad culture of Scottish and the Scotch-Irish Americans. There has also been a tradition of influences between Scottish American and African American communities. Psalm-singing and gospel music are a mainstay of African American churchgoers, the great influx of Scots Presbyterians into the Carolinas introduced African slaves to this form of worship. The style of gospel-singing was also influenced by Scottish Gaelic-speaking settlers from the Western Isles, the first foreign tongue spoken by some slaves in America was Scottish Gaelic picked up from Gaelic-speakers from the Western Isles

29.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity

30.
Irish Americans
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Irish Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33.3 million Americans—10. 5% of the total population—reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau and this compares with a population of 6.4 million on the island of Ireland. Three million people identified as Scots-Irish, whose ancestors were Ulster Scots who emigrated from Ireland to the United States. An estimated 250,000 migrated to the United States during the colonial era, only 20,000 immigrants of these immigrants from Ireland were Catholics—English, Irish or a few Germans. Catholics numbered 40,000 or 1. 6% of the population of 2.5 million in 1775. The Scots-Irish settled mainly in the back country of the Appalachian Mountain region. Irish Americans signed the documents of the United States—the Declaration of Independence. The early Ulster immigrants and their descendants at first usually referred to simply as Irish. However, most descendants of the Scots-Irish continued to consider themselves Irish or American rather than Scots-Irish, however, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads. During the colonial period, Scots-Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry, by the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots-Irish lost their identification with Ireland. This generation of pioneers. was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots-Irish, in 1820 Irish-born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and 30s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices, in 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835, England led Charlestons Irish Volunteers to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for blacks were closed in Charleston. The Irish Catholics concentrated in a few medium-sized cities, where they were visible, especially in Charleston, Savannah. After secession in 1861, the Irish Catholic community supported the Confederacy and 20,000 served in the Confederate Army, civilian leaders of the Irish and the South did embrace the Confederate national project and most became advocates of a hard-war policy. Although most began as unskilled laborers, Irish Catholics in the South achieved average or above average economic status by 1900, the large Erie Canal project was one such example where Irishmen were many of the laborers. Small but tight communities developed in growing such as Philadelphia, Boston, New York

31.
Emma Willard School
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The first womens higher education institution in the United States, it was founded by womens rights advocate Emma Willard in 1821, and has an endowment of $83 million. Emma Willard is an independent college-preparatory day and boarding school enrolling students in grades 9–12, class sizes are kept at a 16-student maximum, the typical student to teacher ratio is 6 to 1. Advanced Placement preparation is offered in all disciplines, students also may enroll in courses at neighboring Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Most students take five courses each semester, classes meet four or five times each week for fifty minutes, though lab sciences, seminars, and AP sections meet for varying lengths of time. An ESL program offers intermediate and advanced-level curriculum for international students, all students must fulfill a community service requirement and take physical education or its equivalent each semester in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh grades. Seniors must take at least ten weeks, Emma Willard offers inquiry-based classes across all disciplines. In keeping with philosophy of personal development providing its own benchmarks. The grading system uses letter and number grades and it goes as follows, A, A−, B+, B, B−, C+, C, C−, etc. accompanied usually by a number indicating where on the spectrum the individual student falls. Over one-third of the students participate in Practicum each year, Emma Willard students worked to make Emma Willard School the first fair trade high school in the United States in 2010. In 1821, Emma Hart Willard opened the Troy Female Seminary in Troy, having taught for several years, Emma Willard perceived the egregious disparity in what girls learned compared to boys. In 1819, Willard promoted a comprehensive secondary and postsecondary female educational institution and her address to the office of New York’s “innovative” governor DeWitt Clinton met with initial success. However, the New State legislature at Albany, on hearing her request, responded with mixed sentiment, many of the wives of prominent men steadfastly supported and promoted her educational agenda to their friends and associates. Thereafter, the City of Troys Common Council eventually raised $4,000 that would facilitate Willard’s purchase of a flagship building for her proposed seminary for young women. She had already obtained inexpensive accommodation in a nearby historic Waterford, there, she had come to rent two nondescript long and narrow stone structures, former pre-Colonial Dutch estates outbuildings in a picturesque setting along the mighty Mohawk River. The propertys border still abuts the Erie Canal’s first but long-defunct stone lock, however, in early 1821, a critical funds shortage from to a brief economic downturn that had impacted the region made her be compelled to close her Waterford Academy. Toward the close of 1821, she secured $4,000 in funding and relocated to Troy, the Albany Academy for Boys had been established in March 1813, just downstream from Waterford and her temporary school, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute opened in 1824. She was able to found the Troy Female Seminary for young ladies of means. From its establishment in 1821 until 1872, the seminary admitted 12,000 students. The Troy Female Seminary promoted the education of girls as well as women teachers in training

32.
Troy, New York
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Troy is a city in the U. S. State of New York and the seat of Rensselaer County. The city is located on the edge of Rensselaer County. Troy has close ties to the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The city is one of the three centers for the Albany Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 1,170,483. At the 2010 census, the population of Troy was 50,129, troja est, which means Ilium was, Troy is. Before European arrival, the area was settled by the Mahican Indian tribe, the Dutch began settling in the mid 17th century, the patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer called the area Pafraets Dael, after his mother. Control of New York passed to the English in 1664 and in 1707 Derick Van der Heyden purchased a farm near todays downtown area, in 1771, Abraham Lansing had his farm in todays Lansingburgh laid out into lots. Responding to Lansings success to the north, in 1787, Van der Heydens grandson Jacob had his extensive holdings surveyed and laid out into lots as well, in 1789, Troy got its current name after a vote of the people. In 1791, Troy was incorporated as a town and extended east across the county to the Vermont line, in 1796, Troy became a village and in 1816 it became a city. Lansingburgh, to the north, became part of Troy in 1900, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Mohican Indians had a number of settlements along the Hudson River near the confluence with the Mohawk River. The land comprising the Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill areas were owned by two Mohican groups, the land around the Poesten Kill was owned by Skiwias and was called Panhooseck. The area around the Wynants Kill, was known as Paanpack, was owned by Peyhaunet, the land between the creeks, which makes up most of downtown and South Troy, was owned by Annape. South of the Wynants Kill and into present-day North Greenbush, the land was owned by Pachquolapiet and these parcels of land were sold to the Dutch between 1630 and 1657 and each purchase was overseen and signed by Skiwias, the sachem at the time. In total, more than 75 individual Mohicans were involved in deed signings in the 17th century, the site of the city was a part of Rensselaerswyck, a patroonship created by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Dirck Van der Heyden was one of the first settlers, in 1707, he purchased a farm of 65 acres which in 1787 was laid out as a village. One skeleton was female and Caucasian with an iron ring, the other was Native-American and male. The name Troy was adopted in 1789 before which it had known as Ashleys Ferry. The township included Brunswick and Grafton, Troy became a village in 1801 and was chartered as a city in 1816

33.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government

34.
Connie Britton
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Constance Elaine Connie Britton is an American actress, singer and producer. Britton made her film debut in the independent comedy-drama film The Brothers McMullen. Britton received positive reviews from critics for her performance as Tami Taylor on the NBC/DirecTV drama series Friday Night Lights from 2006 to 2011, for this role she was nominated for two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. In 2014, Britton was named UNDP Goodwill Ambassador, Britton next starred in the comedy-drama film This Is Where I Leave You, the drama film Me and Earl and the Dying Girl and the action comedy American Ultra. In 2016, Britton had a role as socialite Faye Resnick in the first season of FX true crime anthology series American Crime Story. Britton was born Constance Elaine Womack in Boston, Massachusetts, to Linda Jane and Edgar Allen Womack, Jr. who was a physicist and she spent her early years in Rockville, Maryland. When she was seven years old, she moved with her parents and her twin sister, Cynthia, to Lynchburg, Virginia. After graduating in 1989, she moved to New York City, while studying at the Neighborhood Playhouse, Britton made her New York theatrical debut in Caroline Kavas The Early Girl at The Courtyard Playhouse. Britton played seasoned prostitute Laurel opposite Cooper Lawrence, who played Joan, brittons performance, while well received, nearly got her ousted from the Neighborhood Playhouse program, which prohibited students from taking professional employment during their course of study. After graduating, Britton spent two years working in off-Broadway theatre productions. In 1995, Britton made her film debut in Edward Burns critically acclaimed comedy-drama The Brothers McMullen. She moved to Los Angeles after the films success, after The Brothers McMullen, Britton was cast as Heather in a recurring role in the ABC sitcom Ellen, and starred as Cammie Barbash in the unsold Fox pilot Pins and Needles. In 1996, she began co-starring as Nikki Faber in the ABC sitcom Spin City opposite Michael J. Fox and her character was written out of the show when Charlie Sheen replaced Fox. She also appeared in the romantic comedy-drama No Looking Back and the mystery comedy-drama Looking for Kitty, in 2001, she co-starred opposite Chris Eigeman and Jamie Harris in the romantic comedy The Next Big Thing. She later co-starred in the independent films The Life Coach, Special Ed, The Lather Effect, after leaving Spin City, Britton had a recurring role as Maggie Kimble Hume in the short-lived ABC crime drama The Fugitive. In 2001, she played Gertrude Temple, Shirley Temples bad mother in the ABC television film Child Star, The Shirley Temple Story, in the same year, she starred as Sophie in the short-lived NBC sitcom The Fighting Fitzgeralds. In 2002, she returned to ABC and starred as Rachel Davis in the short-lived sitcom Lost at Home, in 2006, she had a recurring role in the Fox espionage thriller 24 during the fifth season as Diane Huxley, the landlady and girlfriend of protagonist Jack Bauer. The show ran for five seasons from October 3,2006 to February 9,2011, during that time, Britton developed a devoted following for her performance – described by The New York Times as something of an icon, a 40-something sex symbol and role model

35.
Kappa Kappa Gamma
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Kappa Kappa Gamma is a collegiate sorority, founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois, United States. This makes Kappa Kappa Gamma one of the oldest extant womens Greek-letter societies, Kappa has a total membership of more than 260,000 women, with 140 collegiate chapters in the United States and Canada and 307 alumnae associations worldwide. Kappa Kappa Gamma is a fraternity, because it was founded before the term sorority came into use. Because men were able to create fraternity groups, Kappas founders thought they should be able to do the same, however, since it admits only women, it is referred to as a sorority. Kappa Kappa Gamma is also referred to as KKG and Kappa, Bennett and Boyd began to seek the choicest spirits among the girls, not only for literary work, but also for social development, beginning with their friend Mary Moore Stewart. Stewart, Boyd, and Bennett met around 1869 in the Amateurs des Belles Lettres Hall, soon after, they recruited three additional women, Anna Elizabeth Willits, Martha Louisa Stevenson, and Susan Burley Walker, to join in founding the fraternity. The six founders met at the home of Anna Willits to lay the groundwork for the formation of the first chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma, later known as the Alpha Chapter. It was there that they chose the golden key as their badge, a formal charter was also drawn up by Minnie Stewarts father, who was an attorney in the state of Illinois. This day is recognized by the fraternity as Founders Day. In 1871, the fraternity expanded by chartering their Beta Chapter at nearby St. Marys Seminary. The next year, the fraternity expanded again to Gamma Chapter at Smithson College, since 1870, Kappa has continued to expand and has chartered 160 chapters,138 of which are active today. The womens fraternity Pi Beta Phi was founded as I. C, sorosis at Monmouth College in 1867. Kappa Kappa Gamma was founded at the college in 1870, sorosis adopted Greek letters and changed its named to Pi Beta Phi. Because both fraternities have their origins at the college within three years of one another, they are often called The Monmouth Duo. On campuses with Pi Beta Phi and Kappa Kappa Gamma chapters, Kappa Kappa Gamma recognizes the following official fraternity symbols, The badge of membership is the golden key. The standard badge is one inch in length and is sometimes jeweled with sapphires, on the front of the key are the Greek letters ΚΚΓ and ΑΩΟ. Often the initials and initiation date of the member to whom the badge belongs are inscribed on the back of the badge, the original keys were larger and were not standardized, many were specially made to the members specifications, sometimes including stones such as opals. They were also worn on members lapels, foreheads or hair, whereas today, the badge is worn strictly as an emblem of membership and only by initiated members

36.
Alfonse D'Amato
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Alfonse Marcello Al DAmato is an American lawyer and former New York politician. A Republican, he served as United States Senator from New York from 1981 to 1999 and he subsequently founded a lobbying firm, Park Strategies. Since he left office in 1999, no other Republican from New York has served in the U. S. Senate, DAmato, of Italian heritage, was born in Brooklyn and raised on Long Island, in the small village of Island Park. He is the son of Antoinette and Armand DAmato, an insurance broker and he is a graduate of Chaminade High School, Syracuse University, and Syracuse University College of Law. At Syracuse University, he was a brother at Alpha Chi Rho fraternity, DAmato married his first wife, Penelope, with whom he has four children, in 1960. Al and Penelope DAmato separated in 1982 after 22 years of marriage, after a 13-year separation, their divorce became final in 1995. On July 18,2004, he married Katuria Elizabeth Smith and they have one son, Alfonso Marcello DAmato, born in 2008, and a daughter, Luciana Cioffari DAmato, born in 2009. He was first appointed and then elected Receiver of Taxes of Hempstead and he left this office to become a town supervisor in Hempstead and in 1977 he was elected presiding supervisor. He was also chairman of the Nassau County Board of Supervisors from 1977 to 1980. DAmato drew the nickname Senator Pothole for his delivery of constituent services, while some New Yorkers meant the nickname as a pejorative, many others saw it as a positive affirmation of his attention to getting things done. He also holds the record for the second and eighth longest filibusters ever recorded in the United States Senate and he is remembered for his unique and rather comical filibusters. In 1986, in a filibuster against a military bill lasted 23 h 30 min, in 1992, DAmato filibustered a bill that would have caused the loss of 750 jobs in upstate New York by singing South of the Border. He is also remembered for presenting a poster of a Taxasaurus Rex, while he was in office, he was chair of the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, and was a member of the Senate Finance Committee. As a member of the latter, he championed the cause of Holocaust survivors trying to recover funds from accounts in Swiss banks. DAmato was very influential in New York Republican politics, and he was considered the boss of the state party during his Senate years. For example, he played a role in recruiting George Pataki. DAmato was known for being conservative, a reflection of then-strongly conservative Nassau County. He strongly supported the positions of his party on law and order issues such as capital punishment

37.
UCLA School of Law
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Founded in 1949, UCLA School of Law was the first public law school in Southern California and the youngest top-ranked law school in the nation. In 2017, U. S. News & World Report ranked UCLA Law tied at No,15, and the school has consistently ranked between 15th and 17th since 2009. Its Class of 2013 had a bar passage rate of 88 percent, the student to faculty ratio is 10.4 to 1. Founded in 1949, UCLA School of Law is one of five law schools within the University of California system, L. Dale Coffman became the schools first dean and recruited Harvard dean Roscoe Pound to become one of its first professors. The school was forced to operate in a Quonset hut for its first two years until a building was constructed. In September 1949, Pound insisted on delivering the schools first keynote address in the Latin language at the Quonset hut, the UCLA Law Review, the law schools flagship scholarly journal, was first published in 1953. From 1971 to 1983, UCLA School of Law published the Alaska Law Review, additionally, the first scholarly journal in the nation focused on issues affecting Latinos, the Chicana/o Latina/o Law Review, was first published in 1972 as the Chicano Law Review. The school offers standard Juris Doctor degrees in addition to programs of specialization within the schools. Students can elect to specialize in Business Law and Policy, Entertainment Law, Public Interest Law, Critical Race Studies, the roughly 300 students who begin Law School at UCLA every year are divided into sections to encourage a sense of community. Students take all of their first year courses with their sections, the Socratic method is widely used by most professors, though some faculty allow for more relaxed classroom atmospheres than at similar top-tiered law schools. The school has offered a strong clinical program, which is housed in a wing of its building at a cost of $9 million. The school also offers a Master of Laws law program, which one year of post-law-graduate studies. This program is popular among foreign students intending to take the California bar exam, the school additionally offers a Doctor of Juridical Science degree, designed for students who already have a J. D. and hope to become law professors. UCLA School of Law has a faculty of over 100 members with expertise in all disciplines of law. For the class entering in the fall of 2013,1,567 out of 5,563 applicants were offered admission, the 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2013 entering class were 162 and 169, respectively, with a median of 167. The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.51 and 3.88, respectively, UCLA School of Law is located on the northeastern edge of the UCLA campus in the Westwood area of Los Angeles. The school is approximately five miles from the Pacific Ocean, the school proper is housed in a five-story brick building known simply as the Law Building. A few offices, like the Office of Career Services, are housed in an adjacent building, the campus sits on the sloping foothills of the Santa Monica Mountains, between the communities of Brentwood to the west and Holmby Hills to the east

38.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city

39.
Law clerk (United States)
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Judicial clerks often play significant roles in the formation of case law through their influence upon judges decisions. Judicial clerks should not be confused with legal clerks, court clerks, or courtroom deputies who only provide secretarial, Judicial clerks are generally recent law school graduates who performed at or near the top of their class. In some countries, judicial clerks are known as Judicial Associates or Judicial Assistants, in many nations, clerk duties are performed by permanent staff attorneys or junior apprentice-like judges, such as those that sit on Frances Conseil dÉtat. In English courts, they are known as Judicial Assistants, the European Court of Justice uses permanent staff attorneys and the Stagiaires. Australia, Canada, Sweden, and Brazil have notable clerk systems, most Canadian courts accept applications for judicial clerkships from graduating law students or experienced lawyers who have already been called to the Bar in Canada or abroad. Most provincial superior and appellate courts hire at least one clerk for each judge, typically students in their last two years of law school are eligible to apply for these positions, but increasingly, experienced practicing lawyers are also considered for these positions. The term typically lasts a year and generally fulfills the requirement for provincial law societies. The most prestigious clerkship available is with the countrys highest court, each Justice of the Supreme Court hires three clerks for a one-year period. The Federal Court of Appeal, which is based in Ottawa but hears cases across the country, selects 12 law clerks each year, the Federal Court also hires only one clerk per judge, or about 30 per year in total. The Court of Appeal for Ontario selects 17 law clerks, who serve one or two of the 24 Justices. The Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan hires 3 clerks, each of whom are assigned to 2 to 3 judges, successful candidates for all clerkships are usually selected based on a distinguished academic record, academic recommendations, strong research and writing skills and interviews with judges. For both the Supreme Court of Canada and the Quebec Court of Appeal, being able to work in both English and French is strongly preferred, the Tax Court of Canada hires 12 clerks annually. Many law clerks have gone on to become leaders of the profession, mr. Justice Jean Cote of the Alberta Court of Appeal was one of the very first Supreme Court law clerks, serving as a clerk in the programs inaugural year. In England and Wales, law clerks are called Judicial Assistants and it is possible to be a Judicial Assistant at the Court of Appeal and at the UK Supreme Court. Only Supreme Court Judicial Assistants are appointed for a full-time, one fixed term appointment. Since 2006 they have taken part in a long exchange in Washington DC at the U. S. Supreme Court due to a friendship between Justice Antonin Scalia and Lord Rodger of Earlsferry. Sally Kenneys article on clerks, or Référendaires, on the European Court of Justice provides one detailed point of comparison, there are some major differences between ECJ clerks and their American counterparts, largely because of the way the ECJ is structured. One key difference is that ECJ clerks, while hired by individual judges and this gives ECJ clerks considerable expertise and power

40.
Philip Morris USA
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Philip Morris USA is the United States tobacco division of Altria Group. The companys namesake Philip Morris was born in Whitechapel, United Kingdom in 1835, in 1847, the family opened a shop in London. Philip Morris was a British tobacconist and cigarette importer whose name was used for Philip Morris Inc. Ltd. established in New York City in 1902. In 1902, Philip Morris & Co. Ltd. was incorporated in New York City, george J. Whelan bought the American division of the company in 1919 and created Philip Morris & Company Ltd. along with fellow shareholders Reuben M. Ellis and Leonard B. In 1929, the company made its first cigarettes in Richmond, in 1933, this factory was racially integrated more than 30 years before the law required it. In 1938, the company offered preferred stock to ordinary buyers, an advertisement displaying a Philip Morris brand of cigarettes. In 1924, Philip Morris began advertising Marlboros specifically to women, the cigarettes had new cork-tip filters housed in a flip-top box with a red roof design. In 1970, Philip Morris made the first of several acquisitions with the purchase of Miller Brewing Company, in 1985, Philip Morris Cos. became a holding company and the parent of Philip Morris Inc. and bought General Foods. The acquisition of Kraft Foods came in 1988, after which Kraft, in the 1970s, in response to smokers’ health concerns, Philip Morris introduced the “Light” cigarette - which was later found to be no safer than any others. In 1976, Marlboro became the brand in the U. S. Morris operated as the largest seller of tobacco in the U. S. In 2001, Kraft Foods launched a public offering for 11. 1% of the company that took in $8.7 billion. In 2002, Miller Brewing and South African Breweries became SABMiller, on January 27,2003, Philip Morris Companies Inc. changed its name to Altria Group, Inc. Even under this new name, Altria continues to own 100% of Philip Morris USA, some view this name change as an effort by Altria to de-emphasize its historical association with tobacco products. In the fall of 2003, Philip Morris USA moved its headquarters from New York City to Richmond, on March 30,2007, the remaining 88. 9% stake in Kraft Foods was spun off to shareholders. Philip Morris International was split from Philip Morris USA in March 2008 and this has caused a drop in the needed cigarette production due to no need for export product. In 2009, Philip Morris dropped the use of “Light” after many felt the word misrepresented the products as a healthier cigarette, Altria Philip Morris International Marlboro Tobacco industry Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement Marlboro Friday Johnny Roventini Racketeering

United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by t

1.
United States Senate

2.
Seal of the U.S. Senate

3.
The Senate side of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.

4.
A typical Senate desk

New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is

1.
British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga in 1777.

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Flag

3.
1800 map of New York from Low's Encyclopaedia

4.
The Erie Canal at Lockport, New York in 1839

Chuck Schumer
–
Charles Ellis Chuck Schumer is an American politician, the senior United States senator from New York and a member of the Democratic Party. First elected in 1998, he defeated three-term Republican incumbent Al DAmato by a margin of 55%–44%, Schumer was re-elected in 2004 by a margin of 71%–24%, in 2010 by a margin of 66%–33% and in 2016 by a margin

1.
Chuck Schumer

2.
Chuck Schumer's Official Congressional Portrait, 1987.

3.
Schumer's district from 1993 to 1999

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Schumer at New York City's gay pride parade in 2007.

David Paterson
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David Alexander Paterson is an American politician who served as the 55th Governor of New York, in office from 2008 to 2010. He was the first African American governor of New York and also the second legally blind governor of any U. S. state after Bob C, riley, who was Acting Governor of Arkansas for 11 days in January 1975. After graduating from H

1.
David Paterson

2.
Signature

3.
Paterson speaks during the 2008 Democratic National Convention.

Hillary Clinton
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Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton is an American politician who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013, U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001, and the Democratic Partys nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election. Born in Chicago, Illinois, and raised

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Clinton as Secretary of State in 2009

2.
Mementos of Hillary Rodham's early life are shown at the William J. Clinton Presidential Center.

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Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton lived in this 980 square foot (91 m 2) house in the Hillcrest neighborhood of Little Rock from 1977 to 1979 while he was Arkansas Attorney General.

United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. T

1.
United States House of Representatives

2.
Seal of the House

3.
Republican Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.

4.
House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman George Miller confer with President Barack Obama at the Oval Office in 2009.

New York's 20th congressional district
–
The 20th Congressional District of New York is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives in New Yorks Capital District. It includes all of Albany and Schenectady counties, and portions of Montgomery, Rensselaer, from 2003 to 2013, the 20th district surrounded the Capital District, which had been part of the 21st distri

1.
Oliver C. Comstock

2.
Enos T. Throop

3.
David Woodcock

John E. Sweeney
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John E. Sweeney is a politician from the U. S. state of New York. A Republican, he represented New Yorks 20th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from January 1999 to January 2007 and he was dubbed Congressman Kick-Ass by President George W. Bush for his take-no-prisoners style. Before being defeated for reelection

1.
John Sweeney

Scott Murphy
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Matthew Scott Murphy is an entrepreneur and a former U. S. Representative for New Yorks 20th congressional district, having served a portion of one term from April 2009 until January 2011 and he is a member of the Democratic Party. He was defeated in his attempt to attain election to a term on November 2,2010. Prior to re-districting after the 2010

1.
Scott Murphy

2.
Scott Murphy and Senator Kirsten Gillibrand at a campaign stop on March 29, 2009.

Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most po

1.
Clockwise from top: Albany skyline from Rensselaer; middle-class housing in the Helderberg neighborhood; Palace Theatre; Empire State Plaza from the Cultural Education Center; North Pearl Street at Columbia Street; and the State Quad at SUNY Albany.

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This 1895 map of Albany shows the gridded block system as it expanded around the former turnpikes.

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The steamer Albany departs for New York City; at the height of steam travel in 1884, more than 1.5 million passengers took the trip.

4.
The Albany Institute of History & Art

Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democrati

1.
Andrew Jackson was the first Democratic President of the United States

3.
The three leaders of the Democratic party during the first half of the 20th century: President Woodrow Wilson (nominated in 1912 and '16) Sec. of State William J. Bryan (nominated in 1896, 1900 and 1908), Josephus Daniels, Breckinridge Long, William Phillips, and Franklin D. Roosevelt (nominated for VP in 1920 and for president in 1932, 36,'40 and 44)

4.
John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States (1961–1963)

Dartmouth College
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Dartmouth College is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, with a total student enrollment of about 6,400, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League. Undergraduat

1.
The Charter of Dartmouth College on display in Baker Memorial Library. The Charter was signed on December 13, 1769, on behalf of King George III of Great Britain.

3.
The earliest known image of Dartmouth appeared in the February 1793 issue of Massachusetts Magazine. The engraving may also be the first visual proof of cricket being played in the United States.

Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confus

1.
A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree

University of California, Los Angeles
–
The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 and it offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,000 undergraduate and 1

1.
The Los Angeles branch of California State Normal School, 1881.

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UCLA official seal

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University of California, Southern Branch's Vermont Campus, 1922.

4.
The Bruin statue, designed by Billy Fitzgerald, in Bruin Plaza.

Juris Doctor
–
The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a master

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Example of a diploma from Suffolk University Law School conferring the Juris Doctor degree.

2.
The Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England

3.
Tapping Reeve, founder of the first law school in North America, the Litchfield Law School, in 1773

4.
Joseph Story, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the scientific study of law

Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the

1.
Most popular US baby names in 1880–2012

Barack Obama
–
Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu,

3.
Obama and others celebrate the naming of a street in Chicago after ShoreBank co-founder Milton Davis in 1998

4.
Obama in his official portrait as a member of the United States Senate

United States Secretary of State
–
Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of

1.
Incumbent John Kerry since February 1, 2013

2.
Seal of the Department of State

List of United States Senators from New York
–
This is a list of the United States Senators who have represented the State of New York. The date of the start of the tenure is either the first day of the legislative term, New Yorks current Senators are Democrats Kirsten Gillibrand and Democratic Leader of the United States Senate Chuck Schumer. As of October 2016, three former U. S, Senators fro

1.
Philip Schuyler

2.
Rufus King

3.
Aaron Burr

4.
John Laurance

United States Senate election in New York, 2012
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Senator Kirsten Gillibrand won re-election to her first full term. Gillibrand was opposed in the election by Wendy Long and by three minor party candidates. Gillibrand was re-elected with 72% of the vote, by a margin of 46%, Gillibrand performed 9 points better than President Barack Obama did in the presidential race in New York. She carried 60 out

1.
Turnout

United States Senate election in New York, 2004
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Senator Chuck Schumer won re-election to a second term with 71. 2% of the vote, a then-record margin of victory for any statewide candidate in New Yorks history. The record was surpassed by Kirsten Gillibrand when she won re-election to a first full term in 2012 with 72% of the vote. Perennial candidate Abraham Hirschfeld, then 84 years old, ran fo

1.
Nominee

Blue Dog Coalition
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It was formed in 1995 during the 104th Congress to give more conservative members from the Democratic party a unified voice after the Democrats loss of Congress in the U. S. Blue Dog Coalition membership experienced a decline in the 2010s. The 115th Congress has seen the Coalition grow to 18 members. Brewster of Oklahoma, John S. Tanner of Tennesse

1.
Blue Dog Coalition

2.
Barack Obama meets with Blue Dog Democrats on February 10, 2009

Modern liberalism in the United States
–
Modern American liberalism is the dominant version of liberalism in the United States. It is characterized by social liberalism, and combines ideas of liberty and equality with support for social justice. The term modern liberalism in this article refers only to the United States, in a global context, this philosophy is usually referred to as socia

1.
Bill Clinton and Tony Blair, adherents of the Third Way

2.
Gallup Poll trends in ideological self-identification.

Mayor of Albany, New York
–
From 1779 until 1839, mayors were chosen by the New York States Council of Appointment, typically for a one-year term that began in September. From 1840 on, Albanys mayors were elected by the citys residents. Beginning in 1886, mayoral terms began on January 1 of the year after the mayor was elected, a total of 74 men and one woman have served as m

1.
Albany City Hall houses the mayor's office

Erastus Corning 2nd
–
Erastus Corning 2nd was an American politician. He was Mayor of Albany, New York for more than 40 years, from 1942 to 1983, Albanys longest-serving mayor, the Democrat died in office in 1983. His great-grandfather, Erastus Corning, was an industrialist who founded the New York Central Railroad and his father, Edwin Corning, was Lieutenant Governor

1.
Erastus Corning Tower

2.
Mayor Corning in 1964

English Americans
–
In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland duri

1.
Hildale, Utah has 66.9% of its population of English descent.

2.
Map with England and the United States highlighted. Shows the first permanent English settlement of Jamestown in 1607.

3.
Statue of John Smith for the first English settlement in Historic Jamestowne, Virginia.

4.
John Trumbull 's famous painting, Declaration of Independence. Two Red Ensigns, one British flag, and one English flag can be seen upon the wall.

Austrian Americans
–
Austrian Americans are European Americans of Austrian descent. According to the 2000 U. S. census, there were 735,128 Americans of full or partial Austrian descent, the states with the largest Austrian American populations were New York, California, Pennsylvania, Florida, New Jersey, and Ohio. Before World War II, Austrian migration to United State

1.
Fred Astaire

2.
Ludwig von Mises

3.
Georg von Trapp

4.
Alma Mahler

Scottish Americans
–
Scottish Americans or Scots Americans are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Scotland. Scottish Americans are closely related to Scotch-Irish Americans, descendants of Ulster Scots, in the 2013 American Community Survey 5,310,285 were identified as Scottish and 2,976,878 of Scotch-Irish descent. Large scale emigration from Scot

Germans
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse

4.
18 January 1871: The proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later Friedrich III, stands on his father's right.

Irish Americans
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Irish Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33.3 million Americans—10. 5% of the total population—reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census

1.
Charles Carroll, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, was the descendant of Irish nobility in County Tipperary. Signers Matthew Thornton, George Taylor and James Smith were all born in Ireland.

3.
Gravestone in Boston Catholic cemetery erected in memory of County Roscommon native born shortly before the Great Famine

4.
The Orange riot of 1871 as depicted in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper. The view is at 25th Street in Manhattan looking south down Eighth Avenue.

Emma Willard School
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The first womens higher education institution in the United States, it was founded by womens rights advocate Emma Willard in 1821, and has an endowment of $83 million. Emma Willard is an independent college-preparatory day and boarding school enrolling students in grades 9–12, class sizes are kept at a 16-student maximum, the typical student to tea

1.
Gaudet Patientia Duris Patience Rejoices in Adversity

Troy, New York
–
Troy is a city in the U. S. State of New York and the seat of Rensselaer County. The city is located on the edge of Rensselaer County. Troy has close ties to the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The city is one of the three centers for the Albany Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 1,170,483. At the 2010 census, the population

1.
The Troy waterfront along the Hudson River, 2009

2.
Illustration for Arrow Collar, 1907. J.C. Leyendecker.

3.
Troy's Union Depot ca.1900

4.
Troy, as viewed from across the Hudson River looking east, circa 1909

Taiwan
–
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th centur

1.
A young Tsou man

2.
Flag

3.
Overview of Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635

4.
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the Tapani Incident from the Tainan jail to court, 1915.

Connie Britton
–
Constance Elaine Connie Britton is an American actress, singer and producer. Britton made her film debut in the independent comedy-drama film The Brothers McMullen. Britton received positive reviews from critics for her performance as Tami Taylor on the NBC/DirecTV drama series Friday Night Lights from 2006 to 2011, for this role she was nominated

1.
Britton at the 2013 Golden Globe Awards

2.
Britton at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival

3.
Britton and Kyle Chandler in 2008

4.
Britton at the premiere of This Is Where I Leave You in September 2014

Kappa Kappa Gamma
–
Kappa Kappa Gamma is a collegiate sorority, founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois, United States. This makes Kappa Kappa Gamma one of the oldest extant womens Greek-letter societies, Kappa has a total membership of more than 260,000 women, with 140 collegiate chapters in the United States and Canada and 307 alumnae associations worldwid

1.
The Minnie Stewart House in Monmouth, where the sorority was founded

2.
Kappa Kappa Gamma

3.
University of Illinois chapter house, listed in the National Register of Historic Places

Alfonse D'Amato
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Alfonse Marcello Al DAmato is an American lawyer and former New York politician. A Republican, he served as United States Senator from New York from 1981 to 1999 and he subsequently founded a lobbying firm, Park Strategies. Since he left office in 1999, no other Republican from New York has served in the U. S. Senate, DAmato, of Italian heritage, w

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Al D'Amato

UCLA School of Law
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Founded in 1949, UCLA School of Law was the first public law school in Southern California and the youngest top-ranked law school in the nation. In 2017, U. S. News & World Report ranked UCLA Law tied at No,15, and the school has consistently ranked between 15th and 17th since 2009. Its Class of 2013 had a bar passage rate of 88 percent, the studen

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The Hugh and Hazel Darling Law Library, UCLA School of Law

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The School of Law's south entrance facing Charles E. Young Drive East

Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many mu

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View from Midtown Manhattan, facing south toward Lower Manhattan

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Peter Minuit, early 1600s.

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The Castello Plan showing the Dutch colonial city of New Amsterdam in 1660 – then confined to the southern tip of Manhattan Island.

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J.Q.A. Ward 's statue of George Washington in front of Federal Hall (on Wall Street) where he was inaugurated as the first U.S. President in 1789.

Law clerk (United States)
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Judicial clerks often play significant roles in the formation of case law through their influence upon judges decisions. Judicial clerks should not be confused with legal clerks, court clerks, or courtroom deputies who only provide secretarial, Judicial clerks are generally recent law school graduates who performed at or near the top of their class

Philip Morris USA
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Philip Morris USA is the United States tobacco division of Altria Group. The companys namesake Philip Morris was born in Whitechapel, United Kingdom in 1835, in 1847, the family opened a shop in London. Philip Morris was a British tobacconist and cigarette importer whose name was used for Philip Morris Inc. Ltd. established in New York City in 1902

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Dolley Madison was said to be the first President's wife to be referred to as "First Lady" at her funeral in 1849.

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First Ladies (from left to right) Michelle Obama, Laura Bush, former Secretary of State and presidential candidate Hillary Clinton, Barbara Bush, and Rosalynn Carter during the dedication of the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum in 2013.