~Sources (unreliable) and explanations (imperfect) are two
important factors that constrain gathering data as commonsense psychologists.

B. Nonscientific sources of data

~the sources (friends, relatives, media, books, etc we use
as gather common sense psychologists seem credible, but in reality are not
reliable sources for valid info about behavior. We rarely test this data
gathered because it comes from a seemingly trustworthy source, instead we seek
confirmatory instances of behavior.

~we are more likely to believe info that comes from certain
types of people- popular, attractive, high status, experts, confident.

~we use our own observations and interactions with others as
other sources of data, not just other people.

~we are often unaware of factors that influence our
attitudes and behaviors

C. Nonscientific Inference

~we assign traits to others as we interact with others. When
we understand others behaviors, there is a strong bias to overlook situational
data in favor of data that substantiate trait explanations (example- a girl is
wearing another expensive dress, therefore she is vain about her appearance,
fail to consider her mother is a dress designer). Making trait predictions about
a person becomes more accurate the longer you know the person.

~perceiving others by their traits can be useful in
predicting their behavior, but can lead to over estimation in cross situational
behavior

~Stereotyping- problem with predicting behavior (non
scientific inference), additional problemsà people cant use data
to estimate the true probabilities of events. Over confidence bias-
predictions, guesses, and explanations tend to feel much more correct than they
really are, the more data we have available the more confidence we have.

~inferential biases possibly brains way of coping with
immense volume of info (shortcuts)

~Research psychologists share the belief that there are
specifiable causes for the way people behave and that these causes can be
discovered thru research- this belief = determinism.

B.Gathering
Empirical Data

~empirical data- data that are observable or experienced

~gathering empirical data in a systematic and orderly way is
preferable to commonsense data but it can not guarantee the correct
conclusions.

C.Seeking
General Principles

~observations, data, etc. would be useless with out general
principles to structure them. When these principles have generality to apply to
all situations = law.

~Theory- devising and testing an interim explanation (the
explanation itself). Theories unify diverse scientific facts into schemas that
can be used to predict new examples of behavior. Theories can explain many but
not all instances of behavior. New theories that replace older theories have
greater explanatory power. Behavior sciences explained more by better and
better theories, rather than laws.

D.Good
thinking

~a predisposition to find only what we are looking for. An
approach to collection and interpretation should be systematic, objective and
rational, scientists avoid letting beliefs or explanations influence. Good
thinking means you have to be open to new ideas even when they contradict our
beliefs and attitudes.

~follows the rules of logic

~parsimony- (aka Occams razor) simplicity precision and
clarity of thought (entities should not be multiplied with out necessity. Avoid
making unnecessaryassumptions to
support an argument. When 2 arguments are equally defensible the simplest
explanation is preferred until it is ruled out by conflicting data.

E.Self
Correction

~the more evidence we have to support a particular
explanation or theory, the more confidence we have in that theory.

~cognitive priming theory- has replaced social learning
theory because it can explain more varied behaviors.

~Falsification- (Popper) scientists challenge existing
explanations and theories by testing predictions for behavior that follow
logically from them (if a test showed that a prediction-aka hypothesis- is
false them the original theory should be modified or abandoned for one that
explains the new findings.

~Modus tollens- procedure of falsification. Statements can
be proven false by one contrary observation

F.Publicizing
Results

~scientific journals and papers, conferences,

E.
Replication

~we should be able to repeat our procedures with the same
results (if data was gathered objectively and good thinking was followed). More
common in physical than behavioral sciences.

III. The Objectives of Psychological Science

~four major objectives of research conducted in psychology:
description, prediction, explanation, and control.

~Prediction-refers
to the capability of knowing in advance when certain behaviors would be
expected to occur- to be able to predict tem ahead of time- because we have
identified other conditions they are associated with.

~Explanation- when we have explained a behavior we also
understand what causes it to occur. Knowledge of conditions.

~Control- refers to the application of what has been learned
about the behavior. You can use what you have learned about a behavior to
change or improve that same behavior.

~Applied research- research designed to solve real world
problems. VS basic research- designed to test theories or explain psychological
phenomena in humans and animals.

~the systematic noting and recording of events (only events
that are observable can be studied scientifically).

~observations must be made systematically- once the
researcher has devised a system for observing, the same system must be applied
consistently to each observation.

B.Measurement

~the assignment of numerical values to objectives or events
or their characteristics according to conventional rules. (assigning numbers in
research- quantitative research). ~Same unit of measurement needs to be used
each time we measure. Use same instruments and same procedure as well.

C.Experimentation

~process undertaken to test a prediction called a hypothesis
that particular events will occur reliably in certain specifiable situations.

~predictions must be testable- must have procedures for
manipulating the setting and predicted outcome must be observable.

~must be objective (no bias)

~must be done in an ethical way.

V. Scientific Explanation in Psychological Science

A.
Identifying treatment conditions

~antecedent conditions- aka antecedents, circumstances that
come before the event or behavior that we want to explain. If we can indentify
these then we can explain behavior in the following way; when XYZ is the set of
antecedent conditions, the outcome is a particular behavior.

B.
Comparing treatments conditions

~research participants aka subjects

~only focus on antecedents that have effect on the behavior

~in a psych experiment we create a specific set of
antecedent conditions that are called treatments. Compare diff treatment
conditions so we can test explanations systematically and scientifically. When
we can specify antecedents or treatment conditions that lead to behavior we
have explained that behavior.

D.The
Psychology Experiment

~a controlled procedure in which at least two diff treatment
conditions are applied to subjects. Have to have 2 diff treatment conditions to
compare behavior under varied conditions and to observe the way behavior
changes as a result of a change in treatment conditions.

E.Establishing
cause and effect

~greatest value to psychological experiment

~if a set of antecedents always leads to a particular
behavior, we can infer that that set of antecedents causes that particular
behavior.

~Temporal relationship- time difference between cause and
effect. Treatment conditions always come before the behavior, look for
differences in behavior after being exposed to the treatment.

~spatial relationship- physical distance between cause and
effect is factor in determining whether the cause was the actual cause. (useful
but not always correct)

~logical relationship- what seems most likely to have caused
the effect/behavior.

~David Hume- argued we can never establish causality from
temporal relationships. Just because one event precedes another does not mean
the first caused the second.

F.Necessary
VS sufficient conditions

~necessary- has to be present for the effect/behavior to
happen

~sufficient- can be a factor in causing the effect/behavior
but does not always have to be present for the effect to occur.

Chapter 1 Study Questions

A
psychology experiment shows that if the set of antecedents always leads to
a certain behavior (and other different antecedents do not), we can only
take away that that particular set of antecedents CAUSES that particular
behavior (the effect).

Attending
class is a necessary condition to receiving a passing grade in the course
because the professor stated two conditions to passing the course as
requirements(hence the word “and”).

Treatment
conditions are the conditions that precede a particular event or behavior
that we want to explain. You need two treatment conditions so that you can
compare behavior under diverse conditions and so that you can observe the
waybehavior changes as a result of
the change in treatment conditions.

a).
Experimentation was definitely violated in this experiment because she
would have had to have made sure that she took the exact same routes the
second time she filled up her car; and also the amount of gas used changes
depending on how many times you had to stop and go, how many times you had
to push the accelerator and how hard you did, etc; not just how many miles
you drive.

d). There is no way to observe this
logically, so therefore this would be violating observations. The experimenter
would have to be assuming that the reason the plant moves is because it is
“afraid” of being cut, and this would mean that plants have feelings. But there
is no way to prove that the plant moved because of its feeling or because the
wind blew or because its weight distribution changed, etc.

11. Introduction, Method,
Results, and Discussion. Introduction- gives overall orientation to the field of
research methods. Method- includes all of the basic procedures used in
conducting simple experiments, selecting subjects, and collecting data.
Results- reviews the common statistical procedures used to analyze data.
Discussion- looks at major issues involved in drawing conclusions from data.

Class Notes 1/8/10

TOK

~Empiricism- requires data

~Rationalism- does not require data, it requires logic, it’s
theoretical

~Authority- you know something to be true because you were
told it was by an authoritative figure

~Intuition/inspiration/revelation- sometimes things just
come to us (example discovering you can measure mass by displacement)

Domains of knowledge-

`Unknowable- phenomena that occur
that we just don’t know about, and there is no possibility for us to ever know
about it

`Unknown- things that we don’t
currently know, but we could possibly figure out in the future

`Known- what you know

`Belief- believe things to be true
confidently (never 100% certain) but you still believe it to be true

`Inference- making a step/jump/leap
to something that can be assumed from the results, make generalizations and
predictions of events or behaviors that should happen, taking results from
experiment of a sample of a group of people and make an inference from sample
to the general population