Micronutrient Information Center

Zinc

Zinc is a nutritionally essential mineral needed for catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions in the body. (More information)

Severe zinc deficiency is a rare, genetic or acquired condition. Dietary zinc deficiency, often called marginal zinc deficiency, is quite common in the developing world, affecting an estimated 2 billion people. (More information)

The RDA for adult men and women is 11 mg/day and 8 mg/day of zinc, respectively. (More information)

Zinc deficiency can cause impaired growth and development in children, pregnancy complications, and immune dysfunction and increased susceptibility to infections. (More information)

Zinc supplementation has been studied as a possible treatment for the common cold, age-related macular degeneration, diabetes mellitus, and HIV/AIDS. (More information)

Zinc bioavailability is relatively high in meat, eggs, and seafood; zinc is less bioavailable from whole grains and legumes due to the inhibitory effects of phytic acid on absorption of the mineral. (More information)

Long-term consumption of zinc in excess of the tolerable upper intake level (40 mg/day for adults) can result in copper deficiency. (More information)

Zinc is an essential trace element for all forms of life.
The significance of zinc in human nutrition and public health was recognized
relatively recently. Clinical zinc deficiency in humans was first described
in 1961, when the consumption of diets with low zinc bioavailability due
to high phytic acid content (see Food sources)
was associated with "adolescent nutritional dwarfism" in the
Middle East (1). Since then, zinc
insufficiency has been recognized by a number of experts as an important
public health issue, especially in developing countries (2).

Function

Numerous aspects of cellular metabolism are zinc-dependent.
Zinc plays important roles in growth and development, the immune response,
neurological function, and reproduction. On the cellular level, the function
of zinc can be divided into three categories: 1) catalytic, 2) structural,
and 3) regulatory (3).

Catalytic role

Over 300 different
enzymes depend on zinc for their ability to
catalyze vital chemical reactions. Zinc-dependent enzymes can be found
in all known classes of enzymes (4).

Structural role

Zinc plays an important role in the structure of
proteins and cell membranes.
A finger-like structure, known as a zinc finger motif, stabilizes the
structure of a number of proteins. For example, copper provides the catalytic
activity for the antioxidant
enzyme copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD), while zinc plays a
critical structural role (5, 6). The
structure and function of cell membranes are also affected by zinc. Loss
of zinc from biological membranes increases their susceptibility to oxidative
damage and impairs their function (7).

Regulatory role

Zinc finger proteins have been found to regulate
gene expression by acting as
transcription factors (binding to
DNA and influencing the transcription of specific genes). Zinc also
plays a role in cell signaling
and has been found to influence
hormone release and nerve impulse transmission. Zinc has
been found to play a role in
apoptosis (gene-directed cell death), a critical cellular regulatory
process with implications for growth and development, as well as a number
of chronic diseases (8).

Nutrient interactions

Copper

Taking large quantities of zinc (50 mg/day or more) over
a period of weeks can interfere with copper bioavailability.
High intake of zinc induces the intestinal synthesis of a copper-binding
protein called metallothionein. Metallothionein traps copper within intestinal
cells and prevents its systemic absorption (see Copper).
More typical intakes of zinc do not affect copper absorption and high
copper intakes do not affect zinc absorption (6).

Iron

Supplemental (38-65 mg/day of elemental iron) but not dietary
levels of iron may decrease zinc absorption (9). This interaction is of concern
in the management of iron supplementation during pregnancy and lactation
and has led some experts to recommend zinc supplementation for pregnant
and lactating women taking more than 60 mg/day of elemental iron (10, 11).

Calcium

High levels of dietary calcium impair zinc absorption in
animals, but it is uncertain whether this occurs in humans. One study showed that increasing
the calcium intake of postmenopausal women by 890 mg/day in the form of
milk or calcium phosphate (total calcium intake, 1,360 mg/day) reduced
zinc absorption and zinc balance in postmenopausal women (12),
However, another study found that increasing the calcium intake of adolescent girls by 1,000 mg/day
in the form of calcium citrate malate (total calcium intake, 1,667 mg/day)
did not affect zinc absorption or balance (13).
Calcium in combination with phytic acid or phytate might affect zinc absorption, which would be particularly relevant to individuals who very frequently consume tortillas made with lime (i.e., calcium oxide). A study in 10 healthy women (age range, 21-47 years) found that high intake of dietary calcium (~1,800 mg/day) did not further impair zinc absorption of a high-phytate diet (14). For more information on phytic acid, see Food sources below.

Folic acid

The bioavailability
of dietary folate is increased by the action of a zinc-dependent enzyme,
suggesting a possible interaction between zinc and folic acid. In the
past, some studies found low zinc intake decreased folate absorption,
while other studies found folic acid supplementation impaired zinc utilization
in individuals with marginal zinc status(5, 6). However, a more recent study reported
that supplementation with a relatively high dose of folic acid (800 mcg/day)
for 25 days did not alter zinc status in a group of students being fed
low-zinc diets (3.5 mg/day); level of zinc intake did not impair folate utilization in this study
(15).

Vitamin A

Zinc and vitamin A interact in several ways. Zinc is a component of retinol-binding protein, a protein necessary for transporting vitamin A in the blood. Zinc is also required for the enzyme that converts retinol (vitamin A) to retinal. This latter form of vitamin A is necessary for the synthesis of rhodopsin, a protein in the eye that absorbs light and thus is involved in dark adaptation. Zinc deficiency is associated with decreased release of vitamin A from the liver, which may contribute to symptoms of night blindness that are seen with zinc deficiency (16, 17).

Deficiency

Severe zinc deficiency

Much of what is known about severe zinc deficiency was derived
from the study of individuals born with acrodermatitis enteropathica,
a genetic disorder resulting from the impaired uptake and transport of
zinc. The symptoms of severe zinc deficiency include the slowing or cessation
of growth and development, delayed sexual maturation, characteristic skin
rashes, chronic and severe diarrhea, immune system deficiencies, impaired
wound healing, diminished appetite, impaired taste sensation, night blindness,
swelling and clouding of the corneas,
and behavioral disturbances. Before the cause of acrodermatitis enteropathica
was known, patients typically died in infancy. Oral zinc therapy results
in the complete remission of symptoms, though it must be maintained indefinitely
in individuals with the genetic disorder (6, 18). Although
dietary zinc deficiency is unlikely to cause severe zinc deficiency in
individuals without a genetic disorder, zinc malabsorption or conditions
of increased zinc loss, such as severe burns or prolonged diarrhea, may
also result in severe zinc deficiency. Severe zinc deficiency has also been reported in individuals undergoing total parenteral nutrition without zinc, in those who abuse alcohol, and in those who are taking certain medications like penicillamine (see Drug interactions below) (19).

Marginal zinc deficiency

It is now recognized that milder zinc deficiency
contributes to a number of health problems, especially common in children
who live in developing countries. An estimated 2 billion people worldwide are affected by dietary zinc deficiency (20). The lack of a sensitive and specific indicator of
marginal zinc deficiency hinders the scientific study of its health implications (21).
However, controlled trials of moderate zinc supplementation have demonstrated
that marginal zinc deficiency contributes to impaired physical and neuropsychological
development and increased susceptibility to life-threatening infections
in young children (18). In fact, zinc deficiency has been estimated to cause more than 450,000 deaths in children under the age of 5 annually, comprising 4.4% of global childhood deaths (22). For a more detailed
discussion of the relationship of zinc deficiency to health problems,
see Disease Prevention.

Strict vegetarians: The requirement for dietary zinc may be as much
as 50% greater for strict vegetarians whose major food staples
are grains and legumes, because high levels of phytic acid in these foods
reduce zinc absorption (5)
(see Food sources).

Biomarkers of zinc status

Currently, there is not a sensitive and specific biomarker to detect zinc deficiency in humans. Low plasma or serum zinc levels are typically used as a biomarker of zinc status in populations and in intervention studies, but measuring plasma or zinc status has a number of limitations, including lack of sensitivity to detect marginal zinc deficiency, depression in response to inflammation, and diurnal variation (24, 25).

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)

The U.S. recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
for zinc is listed by gender and age group in the table below. Infants, children, adolescents, and
pregnant and lactating women are at increased risk of zinc deficiency.
Since a sensitive indicator of zinc nutritional status is not readily
available, the RDA for zinc is based on a number of different indicators
of zinc nutritional status and represents the daily intake likely to prevent
deficiency in nearly all individuals in a specific age and gender group
(5).

Significant delays in linear growth and weight gain, known
as growth retardation or failure to thrive, are common features of mild
zinc deficiency in children. In the 1970s and 1980s, several randomized, placebo-controlled studies of zinc supplementation in young children with
significant growth delays were conducted in Denver, Colorado. Modest zinc
supplementation (5.7 mg/day) resulted in increased growth rates compared
to placebo (26). More recently, a number
of larger studies in developing countries observed similar results with
modest zinc supplementation.
Meta-analyses of growth data from zinc intervention trials have
confirmed the widespread occurrence of growth-limiting zinc deficiency
in young children, especially in developing countries (27-29).
Although the exact mechanism for the growth-limiting effects of zinc deficiency
are not known, research indicates that zinc availability affects
cell-signaling systems
that coordinate the response to the growth-regulating hormone,
insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) (30).

Delayed neurological and behavioral development in
young children

Low maternal zinc nutritional status has been associated
with diminished attention in newborn infants and poorer motor function
at six months of age. Maternal zinc supplementation has been associated with
improved motor development in very low-birth-weight infants, more vigorous
activity in Indian infants and toddlers, and more functional activity
in Guatemalan infants and toddlers (31).
Additionally, zinc supplementation in children was associated with better neuropsychological functioning (e.g., attention) in Chinese first grade students, but this was observed only
when zinc was provided with other micronutrients (32).
Two other studies failed to find an association between zinc supplementation
and measures of attention in children diagnosed with growth retardation (33). Although some initial studies suggested that zinc deficiency may depress
cognitive development in young children, a 2012 Cochrane review of 13 clinical trials of zinc supplementation in infants and children found no evidence that zinc supplementation improves mental or motor development (34).

Impaired immune system function

Adequate zinc intake is essential in maintaining the integrity
of the immune system (35), specifically for normal development and function of cells that mediate both innate (neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells) and adaptive (B-cells and T-cells) immune responses (36, 37). Moreover, zinc plays a structural role in the antioxidant enzyme, CuZnSOD (see above). Zinc deficiency adversely affects a number of immune functions, resulting in decreased production of certain cytokines; reduced activation of zinc-dependent enzymes and transcription factors; and decreased activity of thymulin, a zinc-dependent thymic hormone important for T-cell function (38). Consequently, zinc-deficient individuals are known to experience increased susceptibility
to a variety of infectious agents (39).

Increased susceptibility to infectious disease in
children

Diarrhea: It is estimated that diarrheal diseases
result in the deaths of over 1.8 million children under five years of age in developing countries
annually (40). The adverse effects of zinc deficiency on immune system function
are likely to increase the susceptibility of children to infectious diarrhea,
and persistent diarrhea contributes to zinc deficiency and malnutrition.
Research indicates that zinc deficiency may also potentiate the
effects of toxins produced by diarrhea-causing bacteria like E. coli(41). Zinc supplementation in combination with oral rehydration therapy has
been shown to significantly reduce the duration and severity of acute
and persistent childhood diarrhea and to increase survival in a number
of randomized controlled trials(42, 43). A 2007 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials concluded that zinc supplementation reduces the frequency, severity, and duration of diarrheal episodes in children under five years of age (44). More recent meta-analyses have found beneficial effects of zinc supplementation were limited to children older than 6 (45) or 12 months (28). The World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund currently recommend zinc supplementation as part of the treatment for diarrheal diseases in young children (46).

Pneumonia: Zinc supplementation may also reduce the
incidence of lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia.
A pooled analysis of a number of studies in developing countries demonstrated
a substantial reduction in the
prevalence of pneumonia in children supplemented with zinc (47). Two meta-analyses have found that zinc supplementation reduces the incidence of pneumonia or respiratory tract illnesses in children under five years of age (44,48). However, it is not clear whether supplemental zinc, in conjunction with antibiotic therapy, is beneficial in the treatment of pneumonia (49, 50).

Malaria: Some studies have indicated that zinc
supplementation may reduce the incidence of clinical attacks of
malaria in children (33). A placebo-controlled
trial in preschool-aged children in Papua New Guinea found that zinc supplementation
reduced the frequency of health center attendance due to Plasmodium
falciparum malaria by 38% (51).
Additionally, the number of malaria episodes accompanied by high blood
levels of this malaria-causing parasite was reduced by 68%, suggesting
that zinc supplementation may be of benefit in preventing more severe
episodes of malaria. However, a six-month trial in more than 700 West African
children did not find the frequency or severity of malaria episodes caused
by P. falciparum to be different in children supplemented with
zinc compared to those given a placebo (52). Additionally, a randomized controlled trial reported that zinc supplementation did not benefit preschool-aged children with acute, uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria (53). Further, a randomized controlled trial in over 42,000 children aged one to 48 months found that zinc supplementation did not significantly reduce mortality associated with malaria and other infections (54). Due to conflicting reports, it is not yet clear whether zinc supplementation has utility in preventing or treating childhood malaria (28).

Immune response in the elderly

Age-related declines in immune function are similar to those
associated with zinc deficiency, and the elderly are vulnerable to mild zinc deficiency (55). However, the results of zinc supplementation
trials on immune function in the elderly have been mixed. Certain aspects
of immune function in the elderly have been found to improve with zinc
supplementation (56). For example, a
randomized
placebo-controlled study in men and women over 65 years of age found that
a zinc supplement of 25 mg/day for three months increased levels of some circulating
immune cells (i.e., CD4 T-cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes) compared to placebo
(57). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 49 older adults (aged 55-87 years), 35% of which were considered zinc deficient, found that zinc supplementation of 45 mg/day for 12 months reduced the incidence of infection and ex vivo markers of inflammation (TNF-α) and oxidative stress (MDA + HAE, 8-OHdG) (58). However, other studies have reported zinc supplementation does not improve parameters of immune function (56), indicating
that more research is required before any recommendations can be made regarding zinc
and immune system response in the elderly.

Pregnancy complications

It has been estimated that 82% of pregnant women worldwide
are likely to have inadequate zinc intakes. Poor maternal zinc nutritional
status has been associated with a number of adverse outcomes of pregnancy,
including low birth weight, premature delivery, labor and delivery
complications, and congenital anomalies (59). However, results of maternal zinc supplementation trials
in the U.S. and developing countries have been mixed (31).
Although some studies have found maternal zinc supplementation increases
birth weight and decreases the likelihood of premature delivery, two placebo-controlled studies in Peruvian and Bangladeshi women found that zinc supplementation did not affect the incidence of low birth weight
or premature delivery (60, 61). Supplementation
studies designed to examine the effect of zinc supplementation on labor
and delivery complications have also generated mixed results, though few
have been conducted in zinc-deficient populations (31). A recent systematic review of 20 randomized controlled trials found that zinc supplementation during pregnancy was associated with a 14% reduction in premature deliveries; the lower incidence of preterm births was observed mainly in low-income women (62). This analysis, however, did not find zinc supplementation to benefit other indicators of maternal or infant health (62).

Disease Treatment

Common cold

Zinc lozenges

The use of zinc lozenges within 24 hours of the onset of
cold symptoms, and continued every two to three hours while awake until symptoms
resolve, has been advocated for reducing the duration of the common cold.
At least 10 controlled trials of zinc gluconate lozenges for the treatment
of common colds in adults have been published. Five studies found that
zinc lozenges reduced the duration of cold symptoms, whereas five studies
found no difference between zinc lozenges and placebo lozenges with respect
to the duration or severity of cold symptoms. A
meta-analysis of published
randomized controlled trials on the use of zinc gluconate lozenges
in colds found that evidence for their effectiveness in reducing the duration
of common colds was still lacking (63).
Two clinical trials examined the effect of zinc acetate lozenges on cold
symptoms. While one of the trials found that zinc acetate lozenges (12.8 mg of
zinc per lozenge) taken every 2-3 hours while awake reduced the duration
of overall cold symptoms (4.5 vs. 8.1 days) compared to placebo (64),
the other study found that zinc acetate lozenges were no different from placebo in
reducing the duration or severity of cold symptoms (65).

Despite numerous well-controlled trials, the efficacy of zinc
lozenges in treating common cold symptoms remains questionable, although a recent Cochrane review of 13 therapeutic trials found that, when taken within 24 hours of the onset of cold symptoms, zinc supplementation in the form of lozenges or syrup, reduced the severity and duration of cold symptoms (66). A systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 trials reported similar findings (67), but there was significant heterogeneity (inconsistent effects across the included studies) for the primary outcomes in both analyses. Moreover, another review found that beneficial effects on cold duration were seen in trials that provided more than 75 mg/day of zinc but not in trials that employed lower doses (68). In trials that used high-dose (>75 mg/day) zinc acetate, a 42% reduction in cold duration was observed (68). Inconsistent findings among trials may in part be due to different amounts of zinc released from various forms used in the lozenges (e.g., zinc acetate, zinc gluconate) (68, 69).

The physiological basis for a beneficial effect of high-dose zinc supplementation on cold
symptoms is not well understood. Taking zinc lozenges every two to three hours while awake
often results in daily zinc intakes well above the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 40 mg/day (see
Safety). Short-term use of zinc lozenges (e.g., less than five days) has not resulted in serious side effects; bad taste and nausea were the most frequent adverse effects in therapeutic trials (66). Use of zinc lozenges for prolonged
periods (e.g., 6-8 weeks) is likely to result in copper deficiency. For
this reason, some experts have recommended that a person who does not
show clear evidence of improvement of cold symptoms after three to five days of
zinc lozenge use seek medical evaluation (64).

Intranasal zinc (zinc nasal gels and nasal sprays)

Intranasal zinc preparations, designed to be applied directly to the nasal
epithelium (cells lining the nasal passages), are also marketed as over-the-counter
cold remedies. While two placebo-controlled trials found that intranasal
zinc gluconate modestly shortened the duration of cold symptoms (70,
71), three other placebo-controlled studies found intranasal zinc to
be of no benefit (72-74). In the most
rigorously controlled of these studies, intranasal zinc gluconate did
not affect the severity or duration of cold symptoms in volunteers inoculated
with rhinovirus, a common cause of colds
(72). Of serious concern are several case reports of individuals experiencing
loss of the sense of smell (anosmia) after using intranasal zinc as a
cold remedy (75). Since zinc-associated
anosmia may be irreversible, intranasal zinc preparations should be avoided.

Age-related macular degeneration

A leading cause of blindness in people over the age of 65
in the U.S. is a degenerative disease of the macula,
known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The macula is the portion of the
retina in the back of the eye involved with central vision. Zinc is hypothesized to play
a role in the development of AMD for several reasons: (1) zinc is found
at high concentrations in the part of the retina affected by AMD, (2) retinal
zinc content has been shown to decline with age, and (3) the activities of
some zinc-dependent retinal enzymes have been shown to decline with age.
However, scientific evidence that zinc intake is associated with the development
or progression of AMD is limited.
Observational studies have not demonstrated clear associations between
dietary zinc intake and the incidence of AMD (76-80).
A randomized
controlled trial provoked interest when it found that 200 mg/day of
zinc sulfate (81 mg/day of elemental zinc) over two years reduced the loss
of vision in patients with AMD (81).
However, a later trial using the same dose and duration found no beneficial
effect in patients with a more advanced form of AMD in one eye (82).
A large randomized controlled trial of daily supplementation with antioxidants (500 mg of vitamin
C, 400 IU of vitamin E, and 15 mg of beta carotene) and high-dose zinc
(80 mg of zinc and 2 mg of copper), the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS), found that the antioxidant
combination plus high-dose zinc, and high-dose zinc alone, both significantly
reduced the risk of advanced macular degeneration compared to placebo
in individuals with signs of moderate to severe macular degeneration in
at least one eye (83). AREDS2, a five-year trial, recently found that lowering the dose of zinc (25 mg vs 80 mg) in the formulation had no effect on AMD progression (84). Data from smaller trials have generally not observed a protective effect of vitamin and mineral supplementation on AMD (85, 86). Recently, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 74 AMD patients reported that supplementation with 50 mg/day of zinc monocysteine for six months improved measures of macular function, including visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and photorecovery (87). The AREDS formulation containing antioxidants, zinc, and copper (83) is currently the standard of care for AMD patients (88); further randomized controlled trials are needed to investigate the effects of single-nutrient zinc supplementation in the treatment of AMD.

Diabetes mellitus

Moderate zinc deficiency may be relatively common in individuals
with diabetes mellitus(34). Increased loss of zinc by frequent urination appears to contribute to the marginal zinc nutritional
status that has been observed in diabetics (89).
Although supplementation with zinc reportedly improves immune function
in diabetics, zinc supplementation of 50 mg/day adversely affected control
of blood glucose in insulin-dependent (type 1) diabetics in one study (90).
In another study, supplementation of type 2 diabetics with 30 mg/day of zinc
for six months reduced a non-specific measure of oxidative stress (plasma
TBARS) without significantly affecting blood glucose control (91). More recently, a placebo-controlled study in 40 men with type 2 diabetes found that high-dose zinc supplementation (240 mg/day) for three months did not improve measures of oxidative stress or vascular function, but the men in this study had normal zinc levels (92). Presently, the influence of zinc on glucose metabolism requires further
study before high-dose zinc supplementation can be advocated for diabetics
(6). It seems prudent for diabetic patients to meet the RDA for zinc (see RDA above).

HIV/AIDS

Sufficient zinc is essential in maintaining immune system
function, and HIV-infected individuals
are particularly susceptible to zinc deficiency. In HIV-infected patients, low serum levels of zinc have been associated with a more advanced stage of the disease and also with increased mortality (93, 94). In one of
the few zinc supplementation studies conducted in
AIDS patients, 45 mg/day of zinc for one month resulted in a decreased
incidence in opportunistic infections compared to placebo (95). A placebo-controlled trial in 231 HIV-positive adults with low plasma levels of zinc (<0.75 mg/l) found that zinc supplementation (15 mg/day for men and 12 mg/day for women) for 18 months reduced the incidence of immunological failure (defined by a CD4+ count <200 cells/mm3) by 76% and the rate of diarrhea by 60% (96).

However, the HIV virus also requires zinc, and excessive zinc intake may
stimulate the progression of HIV infection. For example, one observational study
of HIV-infected men reported increased dietary zinc intake to be associated with more rapid
disease progression; any intake of zinc supplements in this observational study was associated with poorer survival (97). A recent systematic review of six randomized controlled trials, including 1,009 participants, concluded that zinc supplementation was safe and efficacious in reducing opportunistic infections in adults and that more research is needed to evaluate the effects of zinc supplementation in pregnant women and children (98).

Sources

Food sources

Shellfish, beef, and other red meats are rich sources of
zinc; nuts and legumes are relatively good plant sources of zinc. Zinc bioavailability
(the fraction of zinc retained and used by the body) is relatively high
in meat, eggs, and seafood because of the relative absence of compounds
that inhibit zinc absorption and the presence of sulfur-containing
amino acids (cysteine and methionine) that improve zinc absorption.
The zinc in whole-grain products and plant proteins is less
bioavailable due to their relatively high content of phytic acid,
a compound that inhibits zinc absorption (6).
The enzymatic action of yeast reduces the level of phytic acid in foods; therefore, leavened whole-grain breads have more bioavailable zinc than
unleavened whole-grain breads. National dietary surveys in the
U.S. estimate that average dietary zinc intake is 9 mg/day for adult
women and 13 mg/day for adult men (5).
The zinc content of some relatively zinc-rich foods is listed in milligrams
(mg) in the table below. For more information on the nutrient content
of specific foods, search the
USDA food composition database(99).

Food

Serving

Zinc (mg)

Oysters

6 medium (cooked)

27-50

Beef

3 ounces* (cooked)

3.7-5.8

Crab, Dungeness

3 ounces (cooked)

4.7

Pork

3 ounces (cooked)

1.9-3.5

Turkey (dark meat)

3 ounces (cooked)

3.0

Beans, baked

1/2 cup

0.9-2.9

Chicken (dark meat)

3 ounces (cooked)

1.6-2.7

Yogurt, fruit, nonfat

1 cup (8 fl. oz.)

1.8

Cashews

1 ounce

1.6

Chickpeas (garbanzo beans)

1/2 cup

0.5-1.3

Milk

1 cup (8 fl. oz.)

1.0

Almonds

1 ounce

0.9

Peanuts

1 ounce

0.9

Cheese, cheddar

1 ounce

0.9

*A three-ounce serving of meat is about the size of a
deck of cards.

Supplements

A number of zinc supplements are commercially available, including zinc
acetate, zinc gluconate, zinc picolinate, and zinc sulfate. Zinc picolinate
has been promoted as a more absorbable form of zinc, but there are few
data to support this idea in humans. Limited work in animals suggests
that increased intestinal absorption of zinc picolinate may be offset
by increased elimination (5).

Safety

Toxicity

Acute toxicity

Isolated outbreaks of acute zinc toxicity have occurred
as a result of the consumption of food or beverages contaminated with
zinc released from galvanized containers. Signs of acute zinc toxicity
are abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Single doses of 225
to 450 mg of zinc usually induce vomiting. Milder
gastrointestinal distress has been reported at doses of 50 to 150
mg/day of supplemental zinc. Metal fume fever has been reported after
the inhalation of zinc oxide fumes. Specifically, profuse sweating, weakness, and rapid
breathing may develop within eight hours of zinc oxide inhalation and persist
12-24 hours after exposure is terminated (5,
6).

Adverse effects

The major consequence of long-term consumption of excessive
zinc is copper deficiency. Total zinc intakes of 60 mg/day (50 mg supplemental
and 10 mg dietary zinc) have been found to result in signs of copper deficiency. Copper deficiency has also been reported following chronic use of excessive amounts of zinc-containing denture creams (>2 tubes per week containing 17-34 mg/g of zinc; (100)). In order to prevent copper deficiency, the U.S. Food and Nutrition Board
set the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults at 40 mg/day,
including dietary and supplemental zinc (5).

Tolerable Upper
Intake Level (UL) for Zinc

Age Group

UL (mg/day)

Infants 0-6 months

4

Infants 7-12 months

5

Children 1-3 years

7

Children 4-8 years

12

Children 9-13 years

23

Adolescents 14-18 years

34

Adults 19 years and older

40

Intranasal zinc

Intranasal zinc is known to cause a loss of the sense of
smell (anosmia) in laboratory animals (101),
and there have been several case reports of individuals who developed
anosmia after using intranasal zinc gluconate (75).
Since zinc-associated anosmia may be irreversible, zinc nasal gels and
sprays should be avoided.

Drug interactions

Concomitant administration of zinc supplements and certain
medications, including tetracycline and quinolone antibiotics as well as bisphosphonates, may decrease absorption
of both zinc and the medication, potentially reducing drug efficacy (102). Taking zinc
supplements and these antibiotics at least two hours apart should prevent
this interaction (103). Additionally, the therapeutic
use of metal-chelating (binding) agents, such as penicillamine (used to treat
copper overload in Wilson's disease) and diethylenetriamine pentaacetate
or DTPA (used to treat iron overload), has resulted in severe zinc deficiency.
Anticonvulsant drugs,
especially sodium valproate, may also precipitate zinc deficiency. Prolonged
use of diuretics may increase
urinary zinc excretion, resulting in increased loss of zinc. Further, the tuberculosis
medication, ethambutol, has metal-chelating properties and has been shown
to increase zinc loss in rats (6).

Linus Pauling Institute
Recommendation

The RDA for zinc (8 mg/day for adult
women and 11 mg/day for adult men) appears sufficient to prevent deficiency
in most individuals, but the lack of sensitive indicators of zinc nutritional
status in humans makes it difficult to determine the level of zinc intake
most likely to promote optimum health. Following the Linus Pauling Institute
recommendation to take a multivitamin/mineral supplement containing
100% of the daily values (DV) of most nutrients will generally provide 15
mg/day of zinc.

Older adults (> 50 years)

Although the requirement for zinc is not known to be higher
for older adults, their average zinc intake tends to be considerably less
than the RDA. A reduced capacity to absorb zinc, increased
likelihood of disease states that alter zinc utilization, and increased
use of drugs that increase zinc excretion may all contribute to an increased
risk of mild zinc deficiency in older adults. Because the consequences
of mild zinc deficiency, such as impaired immune system function, are
particularly relevant to the health of older adults, they should pay particular
attention to maintaining adequate zinc intake.

The 2013 update of this article was underwritten, in part, by a grant from
Bayer Consumer Care AG, Basel, Switzerland.

Copyright 2001-2015 Linus Pauling Institute

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