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Introduction

Knowledge and understanding of the physical world depend on the ability to perform accurate measurements. On a large scale distance measurements are needed to construct maps and charts, while on a small scale lengths must be measured accurately for the manufacture of machinery components. Temperature measurements are used for many purposes: room temperatures for human comfort, steam temperatures in boilers for the generation of power, and furnace temperatures for the smelting of ores. Similarly the speed of an automobile and electric power consumption in the home must be measured with appropriate instruments.

Most modern technological and scientific advances depend on proper instrumentation. This includes the instruments that allow physicians to arrive at correct diagnoses, chemists to determine the constituents of compounds, and engineers to control automatic assembly operations.

Characteristics

Specialized instruments—such as the computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanners used by physicians to detect tumors with multiple X rays—can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars and involve complex computer systems. Those used for simpler tasks, such as pressure gauges or thermometers, may cost only a few dollars and allow for direct readouts. Yet in spite of this wide range of instruments, there are some principles that apply to all.

The first such principle deals with the scale of the observed quantity. A yardstick would obviously not be suitable to measure the distance from New York to San Francisco. It would be equally unsuitable for measuring the thickness of a human hair or the distance between components on a small computer chip. Every instrument must be appropriate for the range for which it is intended.

In general it is much simpler to measure properties that are steady or that vary only slowly over time. Electrical measurements of currents or voltages that may change millions of times per second require instruments that can respond to this high frequency. The more rapid the change, the smaller the “sensing” element of the instrument must be to respond to the rapid variations to be measured. In practice this usually requires a component that can sense a high-speed physical phenomenon and translate the measurement into an electric signal.

The signals emanating from small probes may be very weak (thousandths or millionths of a volt) and must be amplified into the range of about 1 to 50 volts before they can be read on an instrument dial, recorded, or fed into a computer. Complex instruments, therefore, usually have a sensor that responds to the characteristics to be measured, a transducer that translates the measurement into an electrical signal, an amplifier that increases its magnitude to a range where it can be displayed or recorded, and, finally, an output device that may be visual, graphical, or even an “on-line” computer to process the raw data into a useful form. Electrical instruments also allow for remote sensing; that is, the readout location need not be close to the sensor.

Instruments must be small enough that the sensing element itself does not adversely affect the quantity that is to be measured. If, for instance, a small current in an electronic circuit is to be measured, one cannot use a device that itself requires a significant amount of current to operate, because the instrument current affects the measurement and distorts the desired reading.

An instrument sensor actually can measure only its own state. Thus the instrument’s state must correspond to the state of the object to be observed. For example, to measure the temperature of the human body accurately with a mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer, the instrument must be inserted deeply enough into the body so that the mercury bulb temperature corresponds to the body temperature. It also must remain there long enough to allow the initially cold mercury to assume the relative warmth of the body temperature.

All instruments must be calibrated and should retain their calibrations over time. For example, the downward force on a bathroom scale deflects a spring, which in turn moves the dial. Unless the spring deflections are observed and “calibrated” against known weights and the dial is marked accordingly, the scale is not very useful. A good scale also does not change its calibration, thus assuring comparable readings over long periods of time.

The complexity and cost of an instrument usually increases with its accuracy. To measure the time of day within an hour while the sun is shining requires only a sundial. If, on the other hand, one needs to know the time within a second over a period of a day, a chronometer, or accurate clock, is required. This should have an error of less than one part in 86,400, the number of seconds in a day.

Separate from accuracy is sensitivity. For example, small changes in the surface temperature of plants may be a warning that they are infected with disease. An infrared sensor aboard a satellite observing forests or farm crops must be sensitive enough to indicate these small differences if it is to serve as an aerial surveillance warning system.

The design of proper and accurate instrumentation is a task that involves complex and ingenious engineering and talented people. These may include electrical and electronic engineers, mechanical engineers, computer scientists, physicists, and chemists. Depending on the application of the instrument, the design may also require information from the user. This may involve a physician for medical instrumentation, a meteorologist for atmospheric studies, and a geologist for the seismic analysis of earthquakes or for petroleum prospecting.

Instrumentation and Control

A principal use of instrumentation is the control of devices and machines. A simple example is the home thermostat, which contains a thermometer, a pointer for indicating the desired room temperature, and a sensing element for controlling the source of heat. If the room temperature falls below the desired value, the thermostat automatically turns on the furnace; if the temperature climbs above the setting, it automatically turns the furnace off.

In an oil refinery, control of the final products is assured by steadily monitoring the flow rate of the incoming material and the temperature and pressures within the refinery units. Deviations from the desired values must be corrected accurately and continuously. Even more demanding are the controls of a spacecraft where the data telemetered to the ground are fed into a computer to determine and make needed corrections. It is apparent that process control and automation are not possible unless all required measurements can first be taken accurately by appropriate instruments.

Mechanical Measurements

Lengths up to a few inches can be measured with micrometers, or vernier calipers (see Micrometer), to an accuracy of about one ten-thousandth of an inch (0.00025 centimeter). Longer distances are determined with accurately calibrated steel tapes that are made in lengths up to 100 feet (about 30 meters). The odometer in an automobile measures distance by counting the number of revolutions of the car wheel, which is of a known diameter.

NASA

Lasers (see Laser and Maser) utilize controlled pulses to measure very long distances. A light beam is emitted from a pulsed laser and is reflected back to the beam source. The total travel time of the beam is then carefully measured. Because the velocity of light is known (186,000 miles [300,000 kilometers] per second), the distance can be found. When the first astronauts landed on the moon, they left on its surface a laser-reflecting prism. Lasers now permit distances to the moon to be measured to within an accuracy of about one foot (30 centimeters).

Forces can be measured by recording the deflection of a calibrated spring whose length changes in proportion to the force applied. Springs of fine wire can be used for forces of fractions of an ounce up to about one pound, while heavier springs permit measurements up to about one ton with reasonable accuracy. Weight, a result of the force of gravity exerted on the mass of a body, can also be measured by spring scales or by the raising of a counterweight at the end of an arm in which the upward movement of the counterweight increases with the force applied. Finally, two weights, or masses, can be compared on a beam balance, which matches the unknown weight with known weights until the balance is exactly level.

More accurate measurements are possible by electrical means. It has been discovered that piezoelectric materials, including quartz crystals and Rochelle salt, among others, generate a small electric charge when they are strained mechanically. This charge is proportional to the applied force. Strain gauges consist of very fine electrical wires that are attached to an elastic part. When these elastic parts are stretched, the electrical resistance in the wires changes proportionally to the applied force.

Pressure, which is force per unit of area, often needs to be measured in gases and liquids. Barometers (see Barometer) and manometers measure the height of a liquid column that is directly proportional to the pressure on the instrument. Mercury is the liquid most often used. Piezoelectric or strain gauge systems can also be used for the measurement of pressure if the area of the sensor in contact with the gas or liquid is accurately known.

Accurate measurements of time are made possible by electrical instruments. They have replaced the spring wound watch or clock in high-quality instrumentation. The common household clock is driven by a motor at a known constant speed, and the hands rotate at different speeds through an assembly of gears to denote hours, minutes, and seconds. Greater accuracy is possible with quartz crystal clocks, which work on the piezoelectric principle. An alternating voltage provides a force that sets the crystals vibrating at an exact rate. The vibrations are then counted to determine intervals of time.

Speed, which is distance traveled per unit of time, can be deduced if both distance and time are measured separately. The automobile speedometer consists of a small electric generator that has a voltage output proportional to the rotational speed of the wheels of the automobile. Rotational speed is determined by dividing the number of turns of a shaft by the time interval. A small electric generator having an output voltage that increases with the number of revolutions per minute can serve as a simple tachometer to measure rotational speed.

A stroboscope blinks a light on and off to illuminate intermittently a vibrating or rotating object. If the blinking rate is adjusted so that the moving object appears to be motionless, the speed of the object can be determined from the known blinking rate. A simple stroboscope linked to a control device can be used on a record player turntable to adjust its speed.

Flow measurements register not only the amount of gasoline pumped at a service station and the amount of natural gas used in a home but also can be used in the control of huge chemical plants. In turbine meters the flow drives a rotating element shaped like a propeller. Its speed varies with the amount of fluid passed and is recorded electrically.

Measurement of Temperature

Temperature can be measured by a thermometer (see Thermometer). In the simplest type a column of liquid, frequently mercury, rises from a bulb through a calibrated fine glass tube as the fluid expands with increasing temperature. Bimetallic thermometers are made by brazing two metal strips of different materials together at the ends. The two strips expand differently when heated, and the difference is used to indicate temperature change.

Thermocouples are made of wires of two different metals (commonly iron and constantan, copper and constantan, or chromel and alumel) joined together at both ends. If one end is heated while the other is maintained at a known constant temperature, a small electric voltage differential arises that is proportional to the temperature difference. Since thermocouples can be made very small with wires only about 0.001 inch (0.0025 centimeter) thick, they can respond rapidly to fluctuating temperatures.

A resistance thermometer is able to register changes in temperature because its electrical resistance varies in precise, measurable amounts as its temperature changes. Such thermometers are made of alloys, or mixtures of metals, frequently containing nickel or platinum.

At very high temperatures some materials change their color. If the color is compared with that of a calibrated filament, as in an optical pyrometer, the temperature can be deduced. The temperature of very hot metals or of combustion gases can be measured by this means.

Electrical Measurements

Electrical and electronic quantities need to be measured for many reasons. The electrical energy consumed in a home is measured by a watt-hour meter for billing purposes. Voltages and currents are measured in electrical power systems to assure proper functioning of the power network. Engineers may require many measurements to perfect the design of a radio or television set. Voltages, currents, resistances, power, and the frequency of electrical waves are determined by instrumentation that is either electromechanical or completely electronic in nature.

One of the fundamental electromechanical measuring devices is the D’Arsonval-type meter movement (see Galvanometer). It consists of a stationary permanent magnet and a spring-loaded moving coil of fine wires with a pointer attached. A calibrated scale allows the readout of voltage or current. When coupled with an appropriate sensing and transducing circuit, the meter can be used to measure resistance, power, charge, and other quantities. General-purpose voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters used for electronic trouble shooting are based on this principle.

Modern instruments generally are digital with no moving parts. Digital voltmeters, ammeters, and other such devices contain sensitive sensors and amplifying circuits to achieve measurements of much higher precision than is possible with an electromechanical meter. They may contain a digital readout, or they may be connected to a computer.

When electrical quantities change rapidly, a meter-type device may not be suitable. In radio and television circuits, for example, the rapid, precise variations of voltage and current contain the information characteristics of differing sounds or pictures and occur at frequencies up to millions of cycles per second. These rapidly changing quantities can be observed with a cathode-ray oscilloscope. In this instrument a thin electronic beam is deflected between two metal plates across which the voltage signal to be measured is applied. The beam is focused on a fluorescent screen that leaves a visual trace. A timing circuit sweeps the beam from side to side, resulting in a visual “graph” of the signal with time.

The watt-hour meter, or “electric meter,” used in the home, is an electromechanical device that adds up electric energy consumption. It consists basically of an electric motor with appropriate coil windings to turn the motor. The motion is retarded by currents induced in a metal disk operating between permanent magnets. The higher the power consumption, the faster the disk will rotate. A series of gears connected to the disk drives a dial gauge that measures the cumulative energy use.

Most high-precision electrical instruments depend on currents or voltages that are weak and demand high amplification. Signals such as electrocardiograms (which monitor the beating heart) or radio waves are examples. Frequently the desired signal is difficult to determine because of interference by undesirable signals, or “noise”. Noise may be caused by electric motors, fluorescent lights, or nearby automobile ignition systems. Special circuits are then needed to filter out the noise so that the desired true reading can be obtained.

Other Instrumentation

The few simple sensing and measuring instruments described in this article do not include the variety of optical, chemical, X-ray, and other instrumentation that are the keystone of modern technology. The complexity of instrumentation can perhaps be best imagined by considering what is required to operate and control an unmanned space vehicle. All needed data must be accumulated and put into high-frequency digital form for processing by on-board computers, or for telemetering to the Earth, or both. Television cameras, infrared sensors, navigation systems, guidance and rocket control systems—all are extensions of instruments that can serve as “eyes” to measure and control the operation of spacecraft.

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