Carl Emil Seashore, a Pioneer on Two Frontiers

THE MAN AND THE MIND:
C A R L E M I L SEASHORE, A PIONEER O N TWO FRONTIERS
S. J . L I N T O N
It was not enough for Carl Emil Sjöstrand (Seashore) to be
challenged by the physical frontier; he challenged the academic
frontier as well. With his optimism, productivity, high self-esteem,
and enthusiasm, Carl Emil was a leader in founding an
Iowa frontier community and in founding the science of psychol­ogy.
Both wetted his insatiable appetite for a challenge. Both
impressed him with their grandeur, and " the joy of conquest."1
This is a sketch of the life of a most successful Swedish-Amer­ican
pioneer.
In 1863 Carl Gustav and Emily Charlotte Sjöstrand lived in
a farming community in southern Sweden. Carl Gustav, who
was born in Molilla, Småland, had moved seven kilometers to
Mörlunda, the home of his wife, Emily Charlotte, and birthplace
in 1866 of Carl Emil, their first child.2 The district produced
meager but adequate crops. It was self-sustaining and devout,
with strict religious sanctions.3 Farm lands were passed down
by each family to the oldest most deserving son. This tended
to limit the size of the community, for the other children in a
family had to marry into a farm or migrate. It also created a
basically conservative mentality in the community. Sensing that
a Swedish farm was not to be his destiny, Carl Gustav Sjöstrand
chose to emigrate to America. This was more adventuresome,
and the chance to become an i n d e p e n d e n t farmer was more
appealing.
In early 1869, the Sjöstrands stepped aboard the steerage deck
to begin their long voyage to America. The six-week ocean trip
was marked by Carl and his one-year-old sister Emma suffering
from the measles.* After crossing the Atlantic, the Sjöstrands
continued travelling until they reached Rockford, Illinois, where
they stopped to recuperate with relatives. It was here that
America made one of her first great changes on the family. A
relative in Illinois had had trouble with the family name, Sjö­strand.
It was difficult for Americans to spell and pronounce.
This prompted a school teacher to ask what the name meant.
122
Consequently, "Seashore," the literal translation, had been taken
as their surname by the Illinois relatives. The new arrivals fol­lowed
suit.5 With their new name, the Carl Gustav Seashore
family moved farther west.
The next stop was to be their home. Alfred Seashore, who
had proceeded them, met the family on the central Iowa prairie
in Boone County. Alfred, with an ox-team, accompanied the
family eighteen miles to an eighty acre homestead which he
had selected for them. "There the pioneer life immediately be­gan
with plans for the cultivation of the soil and the building
of a house," Carl Emil later wrote." For the next fourteen years
he helped to carve a farm and a community out of the Iowa
frontier.
The hub of the Boone County settlement was West Dayton.
The area had only one industry: farming. The "prairie chick­ens,"
as the early farmers were called, spread into the country­side
in every direction, turning prairie into crop.7 The town
was merely a small center for trade. Many Scandinavians settled
in central Iowa, but the Dayton community was almost totally
Swedish. "Here was a group from the southern provinces of
Sweden which came over with similar hopes and aspirations,
similar backgrounds: a healthy, honest, industrious stock. . . ."8
The community was Swedish indeed. Almost everyone was L u ­theran
and Republican. Swedish holidays were celebrated and
Swedish was the language of the community. (However, great
effort was made to make it bilingual.) Religion and faith were
strong, as were cooperation and hospitality. No one suffered
from want, even i n the darkest days of pioneering. Respect for
the law was a way of life; police and jails were unheard of for
years after the founding of the community. Finally, the com­munity
was self-contained: farm life was simple and farmers
helped farmers."
In this community Carl Emil Seashore grew and contributed
to society and his family. It was a happy childhood—a chal­lenge
and an education. Seashore later described it as " a simple
life, close to nature i n all her wealth, hardships, and economies."10
The Iowa prairie nursed the inquisitiveness that was to mark
Seashore as a giant in psychology.
Carl's father was a carpenter, in addition to being greatly i n ­volved
i n the school and the church. (He built both the first
3.23
school and the first church.) This left Carl with the major re­sponsibility
for a pioneer farm. It was a tremendous education
for him. He learned to help himself and to be self-supporting.
Further, the farm work allowed time for thinking. A l l in all,
the farm provided experience in nearly every field from car­pentry
to husbandry, from marketing to handicrafts. For Carl
Seashore, " L i f e on the farm was the most vital part of my edu­cation
in boyhood."1 1 The entire Seashore family, including Carl,
were deeply involved in the social, educational, and religious de­velopment
of the community. The close community life of the
prairie was a warm experience.
The work was hard and danger was always at hand. If there
was not plowing there were grasshoppers. Yet Seashore looked
back on the pioneer life with warm appreciation. He disagreed
with those who characterized it as cruel and frustrating. "The
vigorous pioneer and his children were in their element. We
liked to do things and there were things to do. Resistance to
the cold, struggle against the elements in every way was an op­portunity
for overcoming difficulty and feeling success. This
kept our blood red, our muscles firm and our appetites good."12
This reflection demonstrates Seashore's optimism and enthusi­asm;
he viewed pioneering as a challenge, a chance to succeed.
This was an attitude he maintained throughout his life.
Pioneer farm life ended for Carl Emil in 1883, when he de­parted
for college in St. Peter, Minnesota.
The choice of a college was easy. Since only one other per­son
from the area had attended college, Carl Emil decided he
should attend the same one.1 3 Thus he went to St. Peter, M i n ­nesota,
for six years to attend the Swedish college, Gustavus
Adolphus. While the school was small and had inadequate fa­cilities,
Carl was fortunate to gain self-confidence and a mastery
of the basics. For graduate study, Seashore followed a Gustavus
Adolphus classmate to Yale to study philosophy. Psychology,
still in its infancy, had not yet separated from its mother, philoso­phy.
In fact, when Seashore entered Yale in the fall of 1892, he
did not even have a clear idea of what psychology was.14
Psychology was not yet at all well formulated. The crucial
step in its development was its adoption of scientific method,
after which its proponents argued that it was no longer a sub­division
of philosophy. The world's first formal psychological
124
CARL EMIL SEASHORE
laboratory was founded i n 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt i n Leipzig.1 6
Germany was a center for psychology and students from a l l over
the world flocked there to study. One of Wundt's first students,
Edward Scripture, came to Yale in 1892, and on the very day
^Carl Emil Seashore entered the university, Scripture opened a
psychology laboratory there.1 6 Under the direction of another
leader in American psychology, George L a d d , " Carl entered the
the first psychology laboratory course offered at Y a l e . 1 8 Seashore
worked under the influence of both these scholars during his
years at Yale. In May, 1895, he completed his graduate work
and received his doctorate. Seashore remained at Yale for two
125
years of postdoctorate work. In 1897 he was offered an appoint­ment
as lecturer i n the Department of Educational Psychology
at Yale—a position he was not to accept.19
Instead, Seashore returned that year to his home state of Iowa
as an assistant professor of philosophy.-0 The psychology labora­tory
at the University of Iowa, which had been officially founded
i n 1887, immediately came under his direction.2 1 This was not,
however, as prestigious or glamorous as it may sound. Seashore,
on a limited salary and budget, had literally to build from scratch
both his laboratory and a set of psychology courses. Commercial
psychological instruments were scarce or in most cases not even
available. Further, there were few textbooks or curricula for
psychology classes and they were often inadequate.
My office for the first four years was in the workshop.
This was very appropriate as I was my own mechanician,
secretary, textbook writer, instrument builder, and general
flunky i n charge of the rooms of the department, including
the library.22
The work was so demanding that Seashore usually came to his
apartment after all the other tenants were asleep and left in the
morning before they awoke. A l l of the work i n the lab was done
in the late 1890s on a budget of $500—which was considered to
be generous.23
It was not long before Seashore developed a course in psychol­ogy,
for which he wrote the books, and a laboratory, for which
he built the equipment. His first published studies based on his
work i n Iowa appeared in 1899. His career flourished from that
time on. In 1905 he became chairman of the Department and
in 1908 dean of the Graduate School. He was elected president
of the American Psychological Association in 1911—one of the
highest honors a psychologist can receive.
Prolific achievement was the hallmark of Seashore's career.24
He published a large number of articles in a wide range of gen­eral
and technical journals, as well as several books. Many
honors were bestowed upon him for his work in instrumentation,
psychology, and education. He is probably most famous for his
work in the psychology of music, where he developed the audio­meter
(an instrument for measuring the sharpness and range of
hearing), and a test of musical abilities. In education he de­veloped
methods for individualized teaching, programs for gifted
students, and a battery of placement tests which allowed classes
126
to be sectioned on the basis of ability. His innovations are far
too numerous to list completely.
Seashore was truly a pioneer i n psychology. Milton Metfessel
has written, "He more than carried his share of the weight in
the formative period of psychology at the turn of the present
century. Then, as in his later adventures, he was on the front
line."2 5 According to John Tiffin, Seashore's "influence upon
psychology and graduate study i n America has been profound
and extensive."20
There is no question that C a r l Seashore was a pioneer i n de­veloping
psychology and the university system in Iowa. He was
guided by compassion and the need to meet a challenge, whether
it was to build a psychology laboratory or a child welfare re­search
station i n Iowa. If there was a problem, Seashore was
likely to find an answer.
His foresight and ingenuity can be seen by the large number of
his innovations and ideas which are still in use. Entrance and
placement exams are as commonplace as is the audiometer. His
concept of education has had such wide influence that it is i m ­possible
to assess. Ironically, for all his accomplishment, Sea­shore's
name is now only vaguely familiar to the younger genera­tion
of psychologists.
Carl Emil Seashore lived at a time when America was expand­ing,
and when psychology was expanding i n America. He not
only grew with America, he was a leader pushing into new fron­tiers.
The success Seashore experienced was the result of great
ability and unfloundering perseverance, as well as a measure
of luck:
Luck is living on a rising scale. That is American. Be
it bane or blessing, it is the gift of pioneer life. In a small
way I have had the luck of pioneering. I grew up in the
Central West. The Iowa farm boys will, perhaps, never again
live on such a rising scale as we of my generation did. . . .
This luck raises me to the level of a pioneer in psychology
also.2 7
There were a great many challenges between Mörlunda, Swe­den,
in the 1800s and the University of Iowa i n the 1940s. In
every way, Carl Emil Seashore met those challenges on two
frontiers.
127
N O T E S
' C . E. Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," T h e P a l i m p s e s t , 22, (1941), 179.
' C. E . Seashore, "Autobiography," in Carl Murchison (ed.), T h e H i s t o ry
of P s y c h o l o g y i n A u t o b i o g r a p h y , I (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961),
220.
' Ibid., 229-231.
* Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 170.
"Seashore, "Autobiography," 229.
"Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 180.
' C. E . Seashore, "The Dayton Swedish Settlement," T h e P a l i m p s e s t , 22
(1941), 347-348.
•Ibid., 348.
"Ibid., 347-356.
" Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 180.
"Seashore, "Autobiography," 237.
a I b i d . , 239.
" I b i d , 240.
" I b i d . , 247.
1 6 E . G. Boring, A H i s t o r y of E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y (2nd ed., New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1950), 323.
1 6 Seashore, "Autobiography," 247; Boring, 527.
" Boring, 524.
1 8 Seashore, "Autobiography," 24T.
" I b i d . , 269.
M C . E. Seashore, P i o n e e r i n g i n P s y c h o l o g y , (Iowa City: University of
Iowa Press, 1942), 9. It was not until 1900 that the department name was
changed to philosophy and psychology, and this double title remained until
1927.
1 1 Seashore, "Autobiography," 260.
" Seashore, P i o n e e r i n g i n P s y c h o l o g y , 9.
"Ibid., 26.
* Walter Miles, "Carl E. Seashore," in The National Academy of Sciences,
Biographical M e m o i r s , XXIX, (New York: Columbia University Press,
1956.)
* Milton Metfessel, "Carl Emil Seashore, 1868-1949," Science, HI (1950),
713.
M Joseph Tiffin, "Carl Emil Seashore: 1866-1949," The P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e ­v
i e w , 57 (1950), 2.
* Seashore, "Autobiography," 227.
128

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THE MAN AND THE MIND:
C A R L E M I L SEASHORE, A PIONEER O N TWO FRONTIERS
S. J . L I N T O N
It was not enough for Carl Emil Sjöstrand (Seashore) to be
challenged by the physical frontier; he challenged the academic
frontier as well. With his optimism, productivity, high self-esteem,
and enthusiasm, Carl Emil was a leader in founding an
Iowa frontier community and in founding the science of psychol­ogy.
Both wetted his insatiable appetite for a challenge. Both
impressed him with their grandeur, and " the joy of conquest."1
This is a sketch of the life of a most successful Swedish-Amer­ican
pioneer.
In 1863 Carl Gustav and Emily Charlotte Sjöstrand lived in
a farming community in southern Sweden. Carl Gustav, who
was born in Molilla, Småland, had moved seven kilometers to
Mörlunda, the home of his wife, Emily Charlotte, and birthplace
in 1866 of Carl Emil, their first child.2 The district produced
meager but adequate crops. It was self-sustaining and devout,
with strict religious sanctions.3 Farm lands were passed down
by each family to the oldest most deserving son. This tended
to limit the size of the community, for the other children in a
family had to marry into a farm or migrate. It also created a
basically conservative mentality in the community. Sensing that
a Swedish farm was not to be his destiny, Carl Gustav Sjöstrand
chose to emigrate to America. This was more adventuresome,
and the chance to become an i n d e p e n d e n t farmer was more
appealing.
In early 1869, the Sjöstrands stepped aboard the steerage deck
to begin their long voyage to America. The six-week ocean trip
was marked by Carl and his one-year-old sister Emma suffering
from the measles.* After crossing the Atlantic, the Sjöstrands
continued travelling until they reached Rockford, Illinois, where
they stopped to recuperate with relatives. It was here that
America made one of her first great changes on the family. A
relative in Illinois had had trouble with the family name, Sjö­strand.
It was difficult for Americans to spell and pronounce.
This prompted a school teacher to ask what the name meant.
122
Consequently, "Seashore," the literal translation, had been taken
as their surname by the Illinois relatives. The new arrivals fol­lowed
suit.5 With their new name, the Carl Gustav Seashore
family moved farther west.
The next stop was to be their home. Alfred Seashore, who
had proceeded them, met the family on the central Iowa prairie
in Boone County. Alfred, with an ox-team, accompanied the
family eighteen miles to an eighty acre homestead which he
had selected for them. "There the pioneer life immediately be­gan
with plans for the cultivation of the soil and the building
of a house," Carl Emil later wrote." For the next fourteen years
he helped to carve a farm and a community out of the Iowa
frontier.
The hub of the Boone County settlement was West Dayton.
The area had only one industry: farming. The "prairie chick­ens,"
as the early farmers were called, spread into the country­side
in every direction, turning prairie into crop.7 The town
was merely a small center for trade. Many Scandinavians settled
in central Iowa, but the Dayton community was almost totally
Swedish. "Here was a group from the southern provinces of
Sweden which came over with similar hopes and aspirations,
similar backgrounds: a healthy, honest, industrious stock. . . ."8
The community was Swedish indeed. Almost everyone was L u ­theran
and Republican. Swedish holidays were celebrated and
Swedish was the language of the community. (However, great
effort was made to make it bilingual.) Religion and faith were
strong, as were cooperation and hospitality. No one suffered
from want, even i n the darkest days of pioneering. Respect for
the law was a way of life; police and jails were unheard of for
years after the founding of the community. Finally, the com­munity
was self-contained: farm life was simple and farmers
helped farmers."
In this community Carl Emil Seashore grew and contributed
to society and his family. It was a happy childhood—a chal­lenge
and an education. Seashore later described it as " a simple
life, close to nature i n all her wealth, hardships, and economies."10
The Iowa prairie nursed the inquisitiveness that was to mark
Seashore as a giant in psychology.
Carl's father was a carpenter, in addition to being greatly i n ­volved
i n the school and the church. (He built both the first
3.23
school and the first church.) This left Carl with the major re­sponsibility
for a pioneer farm. It was a tremendous education
for him. He learned to help himself and to be self-supporting.
Further, the farm work allowed time for thinking. A l l in all,
the farm provided experience in nearly every field from car­pentry
to husbandry, from marketing to handicrafts. For Carl
Seashore, " L i f e on the farm was the most vital part of my edu­cation
in boyhood."1 1 The entire Seashore family, including Carl,
were deeply involved in the social, educational, and religious de­velopment
of the community. The close community life of the
prairie was a warm experience.
The work was hard and danger was always at hand. If there
was not plowing there were grasshoppers. Yet Seashore looked
back on the pioneer life with warm appreciation. He disagreed
with those who characterized it as cruel and frustrating. "The
vigorous pioneer and his children were in their element. We
liked to do things and there were things to do. Resistance to
the cold, struggle against the elements in every way was an op­portunity
for overcoming difficulty and feeling success. This
kept our blood red, our muscles firm and our appetites good."12
This reflection demonstrates Seashore's optimism and enthusi­asm;
he viewed pioneering as a challenge, a chance to succeed.
This was an attitude he maintained throughout his life.
Pioneer farm life ended for Carl Emil in 1883, when he de­parted
for college in St. Peter, Minnesota.
The choice of a college was easy. Since only one other per­son
from the area had attended college, Carl Emil decided he
should attend the same one.1 3 Thus he went to St. Peter, M i n ­nesota,
for six years to attend the Swedish college, Gustavus
Adolphus. While the school was small and had inadequate fa­cilities,
Carl was fortunate to gain self-confidence and a mastery
of the basics. For graduate study, Seashore followed a Gustavus
Adolphus classmate to Yale to study philosophy. Psychology,
still in its infancy, had not yet separated from its mother, philoso­phy.
In fact, when Seashore entered Yale in the fall of 1892, he
did not even have a clear idea of what psychology was.14
Psychology was not yet at all well formulated. The crucial
step in its development was its adoption of scientific method,
after which its proponents argued that it was no longer a sub­division
of philosophy. The world's first formal psychological
124
CARL EMIL SEASHORE
laboratory was founded i n 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt i n Leipzig.1 6
Germany was a center for psychology and students from a l l over
the world flocked there to study. One of Wundt's first students,
Edward Scripture, came to Yale in 1892, and on the very day
^Carl Emil Seashore entered the university, Scripture opened a
psychology laboratory there.1 6 Under the direction of another
leader in American psychology, George L a d d , " Carl entered the
the first psychology laboratory course offered at Y a l e . 1 8 Seashore
worked under the influence of both these scholars during his
years at Yale. In May, 1895, he completed his graduate work
and received his doctorate. Seashore remained at Yale for two
125
years of postdoctorate work. In 1897 he was offered an appoint­ment
as lecturer i n the Department of Educational Psychology
at Yale—a position he was not to accept.19
Instead, Seashore returned that year to his home state of Iowa
as an assistant professor of philosophy.-0 The psychology labora­tory
at the University of Iowa, which had been officially founded
i n 1887, immediately came under his direction.2 1 This was not,
however, as prestigious or glamorous as it may sound. Seashore,
on a limited salary and budget, had literally to build from scratch
both his laboratory and a set of psychology courses. Commercial
psychological instruments were scarce or in most cases not even
available. Further, there were few textbooks or curricula for
psychology classes and they were often inadequate.
My office for the first four years was in the workshop.
This was very appropriate as I was my own mechanician,
secretary, textbook writer, instrument builder, and general
flunky i n charge of the rooms of the department, including
the library.22
The work was so demanding that Seashore usually came to his
apartment after all the other tenants were asleep and left in the
morning before they awoke. A l l of the work i n the lab was done
in the late 1890s on a budget of $500—which was considered to
be generous.23
It was not long before Seashore developed a course in psychol­ogy,
for which he wrote the books, and a laboratory, for which
he built the equipment. His first published studies based on his
work i n Iowa appeared in 1899. His career flourished from that
time on. In 1905 he became chairman of the Department and
in 1908 dean of the Graduate School. He was elected president
of the American Psychological Association in 1911—one of the
highest honors a psychologist can receive.
Prolific achievement was the hallmark of Seashore's career.24
He published a large number of articles in a wide range of gen­eral
and technical journals, as well as several books. Many
honors were bestowed upon him for his work in instrumentation,
psychology, and education. He is probably most famous for his
work in the psychology of music, where he developed the audio­meter
(an instrument for measuring the sharpness and range of
hearing), and a test of musical abilities. In education he de­veloped
methods for individualized teaching, programs for gifted
students, and a battery of placement tests which allowed classes
126
to be sectioned on the basis of ability. His innovations are far
too numerous to list completely.
Seashore was truly a pioneer i n psychology. Milton Metfessel
has written, "He more than carried his share of the weight in
the formative period of psychology at the turn of the present
century. Then, as in his later adventures, he was on the front
line."2 5 According to John Tiffin, Seashore's "influence upon
psychology and graduate study i n America has been profound
and extensive."20
There is no question that C a r l Seashore was a pioneer i n de­veloping
psychology and the university system in Iowa. He was
guided by compassion and the need to meet a challenge, whether
it was to build a psychology laboratory or a child welfare re­search
station i n Iowa. If there was a problem, Seashore was
likely to find an answer.
His foresight and ingenuity can be seen by the large number of
his innovations and ideas which are still in use. Entrance and
placement exams are as commonplace as is the audiometer. His
concept of education has had such wide influence that it is i m ­possible
to assess. Ironically, for all his accomplishment, Sea­shore's
name is now only vaguely familiar to the younger genera­tion
of psychologists.
Carl Emil Seashore lived at a time when America was expand­ing,
and when psychology was expanding i n America. He not
only grew with America, he was a leader pushing into new fron­tiers.
The success Seashore experienced was the result of great
ability and unfloundering perseverance, as well as a measure
of luck:
Luck is living on a rising scale. That is American. Be
it bane or blessing, it is the gift of pioneer life. In a small
way I have had the luck of pioneering. I grew up in the
Central West. The Iowa farm boys will, perhaps, never again
live on such a rising scale as we of my generation did. . . .
This luck raises me to the level of a pioneer in psychology
also.2 7
There were a great many challenges between Mörlunda, Swe­den,
in the 1800s and the University of Iowa i n the 1940s. In
every way, Carl Emil Seashore met those challenges on two
frontiers.
127
N O T E S
' C . E. Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," T h e P a l i m p s e s t , 22, (1941), 179.
' C. E . Seashore, "Autobiography," in Carl Murchison (ed.), T h e H i s t o ry
of P s y c h o l o g y i n A u t o b i o g r a p h y , I (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961),
220.
' Ibid., 229-231.
* Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 170.
"Seashore, "Autobiography," 229.
"Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 180.
' C. E . Seashore, "The Dayton Swedish Settlement," T h e P a l i m p s e s t , 22
(1941), 347-348.
•Ibid., 348.
"Ibid., 347-356.
" Seashore, "Pioneering in Iowa," 180.
"Seashore, "Autobiography," 237.
a I b i d . , 239.
" I b i d , 240.
" I b i d . , 247.
1 6 E . G. Boring, A H i s t o r y of E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y (2nd ed., New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1950), 323.
1 6 Seashore, "Autobiography," 247; Boring, 527.
" Boring, 524.
1 8 Seashore, "Autobiography," 24T.
" I b i d . , 269.
M C . E. Seashore, P i o n e e r i n g i n P s y c h o l o g y , (Iowa City: University of
Iowa Press, 1942), 9. It was not until 1900 that the department name was
changed to philosophy and psychology, and this double title remained until
1927.
1 1 Seashore, "Autobiography," 260.
" Seashore, P i o n e e r i n g i n P s y c h o l o g y , 9.
"Ibid., 26.
* Walter Miles, "Carl E. Seashore," in The National Academy of Sciences,
Biographical M e m o i r s , XXIX, (New York: Columbia University Press,
1956.)
* Milton Metfessel, "Carl Emil Seashore, 1868-1949," Science, HI (1950),
713.
M Joseph Tiffin, "Carl Emil Seashore: 1866-1949," The P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e ­v
i e w , 57 (1950), 2.
* Seashore, "Autobiography," 227.
128