In countries with "parliamentary systems, the head of state is typically a ceremonial figurehead that does not actually guide day-to-day government activities and may not be empowered to exercise any kind of secular political authority (e.g., Queen "Margrethe II of "Denmark).[2] In countries where the head of state is also the head of government, the head of state serves as both a public figurehead and the actual highest-ranking political leader who oversees the executive branch (e.g., the "President of the United States).[1]

An independent "nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.[8] In "protocolary terms, the head of a "sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning "monarch, in the case of a "monarchy, or the president, in the case of a "republic.

Among the different state "constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:

The same role in a federal constituent and a dependent territory is fulfilled by the corresponding office equivalent to that of a head of state. For example, in each "Canadian province the role is fulfilled by the "Lieutenant Governor, whereas in most "British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the "Governor. The same applies to "Australian states, "Indian states, etc. Hong Kong's constitutional document, the "Basic Law, for example, specifies the "Chief Executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to his role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned.

World's parliamentary states, as of 2017, coloured by form of government
Green = republics with an executive president elected by a parliament
Orange = parliamentary republics
Red = parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch does not personally exercise power

In "parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal "chief executive officer, heading the "executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a "cabinet, presided over by a "head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the "legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of "government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The "executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional "advice to the head of state.

In parliamentary "constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the "Glorious Revolution, the "English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs "Mary II and "William III); likewise, "Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the "Constitution of Spain).

In republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel) the head of state is usually titled "president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.

For example, under the 1848 constitution of the "Kingdom of Italy, the "Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure "presidential" system.

Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King "Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After "World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the "head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours.[9][10]

These officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state "styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.

The "Constitution of Japan(日本国憲法,Nihonkoku-Kenpō) was drawn up under the "Allied occupation that followed "World War II and was intended to replace the previous "militaristic and quasi-"absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy "parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the "Cabinet, who is chaired by the "prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the "Diet (articles 67 and 69). The "emperor is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognized throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally "appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial "figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.[11][12][13]

Since the passage in "Sweden of the "1974 Instrument of Government, the "Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding "1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the "Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the "Riksdag) the "prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a "vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is the "high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the "letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.[14][15]

In contrast, the only contact the "President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the "taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the "Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited "reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the "supreme court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.[16]

The most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the "President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsoever. The least ceremonial powers held by the President are to appoint the "Prime Minister, to approve the dissolution of the "Knesset made by the Prime Minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.

Some parliamentary republics (like "South Africa, "Botswana and "Suriname) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister, since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer "question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.

Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The "constitution of the "Fifth French Republic provides for a "prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the "National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as "Cohabitation. President "François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the "neo-Gaullist (right wing) "Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. "Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the "Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, "Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a "chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint "Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold the title of ""president" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the "legislature to remain in office.

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called the "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the "United States of America). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.

In the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the "impeachment of President "Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the "Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the "real center of government as a quasi-prime minister.["citation needed] This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations ("Lincoln, "Garfield and "McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as "Theodore Roosevelt and "Woodrow Wilson.

This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in "North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader "Kim Il-Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of ""Eternal President" (while all substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son "Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the "Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as "Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike "Deng Xiaoping earlier in the "People's Republic of China.

While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.

Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the "inauguration of a president of a republic, or the "coronation of a monarch.

In many countries, official "portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a "personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the "flag.

Other common representations are on "coins, "postage and other stamps and "banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.

At home, heads of state are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honor box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, "national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as "cutting a ribbon, "groundbreaking, "ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.

As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part "delegated to such persons as a spouse, a "head of government or a "cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offense) just a military officer or civil servant.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the "head of government), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the "Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.

Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.

The "King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.[25]

The "President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.[28]

2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms. In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[32]

In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, "executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, "de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include "Australia, "Austria, "Canada, "Denmark, "Germany, "India, "Italy, "Norway, "Spain and the "United Kingdom.

Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the "King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the "Ministers.[34]

The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the "Queen and is exercisable by the "Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[35]

The executive power of the union shall be vested in the "President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[37]

The "President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.[32]

The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the "Czech Republic, "Ireland, "Israel, "Japan and "Sweden.[12][14]

The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the "head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the "civil service, "foreign service and "commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the "Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.[39]

The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the "president on the advice of the "taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[16] In "France, while the "president cannot force the "prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority.[40] In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the "heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.

The "King appoints and dismisses his ministers.
The "Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the "House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the "prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[41]

The "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. "ambassador or "nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.[42][43] The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's "ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as "high commissioner or "papal nuncio) through sending formal a "Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.[44] Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states has "ratified.[43][45]

The head of state is often designated the "high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent "ratification, when necessary, may rest with the "legislature. The treaties constituting the "European Union and the "European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.[46][47][48] However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.[46]

1) The "Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible "Government.

2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of "Parliament to attain legal force.[18]

The "Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..[49]

In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may "de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the "de facto ultimate decision making on military maneuvers is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a "royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the "primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.

In "military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from "coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King "Albert I of Belgium did during "World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often "executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.

The "King is Commander-in-Chief of the "land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the "Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting.

The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[57]

The "President is the commander-in-chief of the "armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy.

The "Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the "armed forces. He shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.[58]

Some countries with a "parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.

It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, "e.g. the annual "State Opening of Parliament with the "Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, "e.g. the "State of the Union address in the United States of America.

Most countries require that all "bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as "promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure "royal assent.

The formal opening of a "Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the "Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the "Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.[60]

1. Any draft law passed by the "Council shall be referred to the "Emir for ratification.

2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.

3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[58]

In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with "royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a "referendum.

If he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's "legislature. In most "parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the "head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of the "U.S. Constitution[39]). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.

The "King may bestow "orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honorably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the "Council of State or the State Secretaries.
No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.[57]

(1) "President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict.

(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the "Constitutional Court based on the "Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.

(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.[62]

2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the "Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.

3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.

4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.[29]

Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the "President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the "Prime Minister, the "Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the "Constitutional Council.
He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.
The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties. The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.
Parliament shall sit as of right.
The "National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.
After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the "President of the National Assembly, the "President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty "Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[40]

The "Emir may, be a decree, declare "Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. "Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.

Article 70

The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.[58]

In the "Commonwealth realms, other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the relevant prime minister, as a representative and to exercise almost all the "Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her "representatives".[63] However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally "been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed "in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand,[26] "Papua New Guinea,[64] and "Tuvalu[65] explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that "references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the Governor-General"[66]). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the "United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.[11]

An example of a governor-general departing from "constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when "Canada's governor general "refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: "I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision."

Another example occurred when, in the "1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General unexpectedly dismissed the Prime Minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The Governor-General issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general.[67] A letter from the "Australian monarch's "Private Secretary at the time, "Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.[68]

Although many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognized as such by other countries.[11][43] In a monarchy, the "monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.[11][69][70] In a "republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of "President, but some have or had had other titles.[11][69]

In medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the "Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the "Holy Roman Emperor.[71] The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.[71][72] This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, "Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the "Congress of Westphalia.[71] Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the "Quadruple Alliance in 1718.[71][note 1] However, it was not until the "1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the "Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.[74] On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although "French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the "lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.[74] Contemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).[75]

There are also several methods of "head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.

Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a "vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a "regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the Vice-President acts when the President is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the Queen's powers may be delegated to "Counselors of State when she is abroad or unavailable.

In some countries where there is no resident head of state, such as "Andorra, a local representative is appointed. In the case of "Andorra, two "co-princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the "President of France, residing in France, and the other is the "Bishop of Urgell, residing in "Spain. Each co-prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.

In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a "coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman "Dictator) or eliminated by a new "provisionary" regime, such as a collective of the "junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a "military governor (an early example being the "Spartan "Harmost).["citation needed]

In "Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as "servant" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a "viceroy under an absentee "god-king, ruling "in the name of" the patron god(ess), such as "Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the "Maharaja of "Travancore.

The "polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the "Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in "Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the "Maya civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see "Chief magistrate.

"Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but "reigned" as sovereign dukes.

The paradoxical term "crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine "republican" and "monarchic" characteristics.

A collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity), e.g., nominal "triumvirates, the "Directoire, the seven-member "Swiss Federal Council (where each member acts in turn as president for one year), "Bosnia and Herzegovina with a three-member presidium from three different nations, "San Marino with two "Captains-regent" which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics that had always had an even number of consuls.

In "condominiums, sovereignty is shared between two external powers, e.g., "Andorra (president of "France and bishop of "Urgell, "Spain, co-princes), and the former Anglo-French "New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).

Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g., "Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite "King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).

The "National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the "Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.

Though "president and various monarchichal titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning "leader" in the national language, e.g., Germany's single "national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, "Adolf Hitler, as the "Führer between 1934 and 1945.

In 1959, when former "British crown colony "Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style "Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means "head of state" in "Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, "Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to "Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign "Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.

In 1959 after the resignation of "Vice President of Indonesia "Mohammad Hatta, "President "Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself "president for life ("Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; "panglima" meaning "commander or martial figurehead", "tertinggi" meaning "highest"; roughly translated to English as "Supreme Commander of the Revolution"). He was praised as "Paduka Yang Mulia", a "Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.

In North Korea, the late "Kim Il-sung was named ""Eternal President" 4 years after his death and the "presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the President are constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Presidium of the "Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by "Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.

There is debate as to whether "Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title "O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.

In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel "Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.

Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic "Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, "Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In "Uganda, "Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.

Power can come from force, but formal "legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous "dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by "orders of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with "self-determination granted after "nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last "Attalid king of Hellenistic "Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.

Under a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under "divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a "priesthood. In this way, the "Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh "Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and "Holy Roman Emperor in the "investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitimacy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of "unction during "coronation.

Individual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a "constitution. An example includes SFR "Yugoslavia whose Constitution from "1974, article 333, stated that Federal Assembly can appoint namely "Josip Broz Tito as the President of Republic without time limitation.[78]

The position of a monarch is usually "hereditary, but in "constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary "order of succession, usually within one "royal family tracing its origin through a historical "dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to "wars of succession.

"Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or "head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and "male-line males inheriting before females of the male line.[79] This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from "dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the "Salic law (see "Terra salica).

Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in "coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include "Henry the Young King of England and the early "Direct Capetians in France.

Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, "Sweden, by rewriting its "1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[80] Other European monarchies (such as the "Netherlands in 1983, "Norway in 1990 and "Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms "were proposed in 2011 for the "United Kingdom and the other "Commonwealth realms, which came into effect in 2015 after having been approved by all of the affected nations. Sometimes "religion is affected; under the "Act of Settlement 1701 all "Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the "British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.

In some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the "ruling house, often limited to "legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by "state religion, residency, "equal marriage or even permission from the "legislature.

Other hereditary systems of succession included "tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and "Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as "Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).

Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of "electors (such as the "Electoral College in the "United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the "United Arab Emirates and "Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed "cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a "papal conclave.

Apart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, "abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King "Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.

Heads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow "impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.

Former Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers "per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.

A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King "Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. "Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of "Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his "Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the "Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in "exile on barren "Saint Helena.

However, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's "diplomatic passport.

In the Italian constitution provides that after the period sent the President of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.

^On the occasion of a royal marriage in 1760, the "premier of Portugal, the "Marquis of Pombal, tried to maintain that the host, the "King of Portugal, should as a crowned head have the sovereign right to determine the precedence of how ambassadors (apart from the papal nuncio and the imperial ambassador) would rank, based on the date of their credentials. The pragmatic suggestions of Pombal was not successful, and as the pretensions among the great powers were so deep-rooted, it would take the "Napoleonic Wars for the great powers to have a fresh look at the issue.[73]

^Art. 93. "Should the King find himself unable to reign, the ministers, having observed this inability, immediately summon the Chambers. Regency and guardianship are to be provided by the united Chambers." The Constitution of Belgium, Coordinated text of 14 February 1994 (last updated 8 May 2007)[1]