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1 Historic Structures Report Logistical and Quartermaster Operations at Fortress West Point, Prepared for West Point Museum by Douglas R. Cubbison Directorate of Public Works U.S. Military Academy West Point, New York GIS Analysis by Kris Brown and Matthew Fletcher DPW, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York 22 February 2006

3 Figures 3.0 Analysis of 1801 Charles Wilson Peale Sketches 4.0 Conclusions Bibliography West Point in the War for American Independence Primary Sources Archaeological Reports and Studies Secondary Sources Front Cover Visit to a Military Encampment, Seven Years War [Detail from Miniature, c ] by Louis Nicolas Van Blarenberghe One Redoubt No. 3 Encampment Area Two Representative Continental Army Encampment, Portrait of Pennsylvania Colonel Walter Stewart, Spring 1781, by Charles Wilson Peale Three Execution Hollow during early construction of Mortar Battery Byrne Four Colonnade Erected on The Plain to Celebrate Birth of Dauphin of France, May 31, 1782 Five Old Gridley s Tavern, West Point, 1871 Six Thompson s House or Washington s Cottage, West Point, November 1870 Seven View of West Point from the Side of the Mountain by Charles Wilson Peale, 1801 Eight View of West Point from the Side of the Mountain by Charles Wilson Peale, 1801 Nine View of West Point from the Side of the Mountain With Legend Ten View of West Point from the Side of the Mountain With Legend Photographs One Two Three Graves of Ensign Dominick Trant, 9 th Massachusetts and Presumed Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier, West Point Cemetery Tombstone of Unknown Soldier from West Point Library Vicinity. New Windsor State Historic Site, New Windsor, New York Commemorative Plaque to Moore House, Target Hill Field, West Point Maps One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Revolutionary War Hospital, West Point, 1780 by a French Officer. Revolutionary War Burying Ground, West Point, 1820 by Cadet G. Bruffs Row Galley (Gunboat) Guarding Chain across Hudson River, West Point, 1779 by Captain Moses Greenleaf, 11 th Massachusetts Regiment Revolutionary War Dock, West Point, 1820 by Cadet G. Bruffs \ Revolutionary War Blacksmith, West Point, 1780 by Engineer Villefranche Sketch of Storehouses and Landing, Fortress West Point, August 11, 1779 by Cornelius Ten Broeck Revolutionary War Wagon Yard, Forage Yard and Commissary, West Point, 1780 by Engineer Villefranche Revolutionary War Logistical and Supply Buildings, West Point, 1779 by Captain Moses Greenleaf Redoubt No. 4 Encampment, West Point, 1779 by Captain Moses Greenleaf, 11 th Massachusetts Regiment 3

5 Acknowledgements I particularly wish to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Deborah DeSilvo, Ms. Heather Bischoff, Ms. Sharon Gillespie, and the other members of the Inter-Library Loan Department of the U.S. Military Academy Library, who located numerous references and sources for me that would have otherwise been unobtainable. This study could not have been performed without their generous and always uncomplaining assistance. Mr. Alan Aimone, Research Librarian also with the USMA Library, provided considerable research assistance on numerous occasions. Additional research assistance was provided by Ms. Katherine Ludwig, Associate Librarian and Mr. Greg Johnson, Research Assistant with the David Library of the American Revolution, Washington s Crossing, Pennsylvania who generously provided recurring access to that institution s superb microfilm collection. Mr. Travis Beckwith, West Point Architectural Historian, provided frequent assistance, particularly with the graphics research and preparation for this study. Travis and Mr. Paul Ackerman, Conservator at the West Point Museum, both reviewed advanced drafts of this report and provided invaluable comments and recommendations to improve it. 5

6 Historic Structures Report Logistical and Quartermaster Operations at Fortress West Point, Introduction and Study Objectives This study was prepared at the request of Mr. Paul Ackermann, Conservator at the West Point Museum, to assist the West Point Museum with planned interpretation on the appearance of Revolutionary War West Point, to include the location of structures and activities other than the relatively well-documented redoubts and river batteries. Considerable research has been performed on the military fortifications of Fortress West Point. However, West Point was much more than simply a fortified military position astride the Hudson River. It was also a major supply depot and logistical center for the main American army within the Hudson Highlands. The Continental Army is known to have operated a wide range of logistical and supply operations at West Point, which this report will attempt to document as comprehensively as possible: Hospitals and Burial Ground; Docks and Hudson River Operations, including ferries and boats; Bake Ovens; Artificers, including forges and blacksmith shops; Wagon Yard, Forage Yard, Animal Pens and Storehouses; Wood Yard (storage for both firewood and construction materials); Sutlers and Civilian Activities (Laundresses, Markets); Chapels and Religious Facilities; Encampments; Barracks; 6

7 Fire Engine and Station; Jail and Military Discipline; Artillery Park; The Plain; Ammunition Magazines; and Officers Housing and Headquarters Buildings. It should be noted that this study is intended to be a companion piece to the Historic Structures Report on the Redoubts of West Point, and the Historic Structures Report on River Defenses at Fortress West Point, previously prepared by the author. 1 One of the objectives of this study was to locate as many primary sources as possible, particularly those accounts by private soldiers and officers who were stationed at West Point. Although a large number of primary sources were compiled for this study, which are fully documented in the bibliography, many of these were unfortunately found to be of limited utility. Typical of the less useful sources is that of Private Samuel Vaughan of the 5 th Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Line. Private Vaughan was engaged in the initial construction of Fort Putnam, and subsequently served as an artificer at West Point. Unfortunately, his succinct journal entries provided little information regarding the construction of Fortress West Point, or military activities there. One of Vaughan s typical, and highly picturesque, journal entries was recorded on April 7, 1778: Tusday Now in Camped tents piched at West Pint one top of ae high hill [Tuesday Now encamped in tents pitched at West Point on top of a high hill]. 2 Since the Hudson Highlands consists of nothing but high hills rising from the Hudson River for nearly twenty miles to the west, the rather vague military encampment location on top of a high hill is of absolutely no value to historians. Similarly, although these primary sources provided considerable information on activities and events at West Point, detailed locations of structures or facilities, and precise information on their appearance and construction, were generally not described. A focused effort was made to locate primary source maps of West Point that provided locations of logistical and support facilities. Numerous maps of Revolutionary War West Point were located, but the overwhelming majority was focused upon the military fortifications and fields of fire, rather than support or logistical facilities. However, three maps were located that do document such features. The first such map was prepared by Major Chevalier de Villefranche, a French Engineer who served with the Continental Army at West Point. Villefranche prepared this map in 1780, and it has been widely reproduced. A facsimile from an 1863 history of West Point was utilized for this study, because of a higher quality of reproduction. 3 Another valuable map was prepared by an anonymous French Officer, also in Again, a facsimile from the Centennial history of West Point was utilized for this study, because of a higher quality of reproduction. 4 Finally, the Massachusetts Historical Society has a copy of a colored map of West Point prepared by Captain Moses Greenleaf in Copies of all of these maps are provided. 1 Douglas R. Cubbison, Historic Structures Report, The Redoubts of West Point (West Point, New York: Directorate of Housing and Public Works, U.S. Military Academy, January 2004); and Historic Structures Report, River Defenses of Fortress West Point, (West Point, New York: Directorate of Housing and Public Works, U.S. Military Academy, January 2005). 2 Virginia Steele Wood, Editor, The Journal of Private Zebulon Vaughan, Revolutionary Soldier, Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine 113 (February 1979), Captain Edward C. Boynton, History of West Point (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1863), Association of Graduates, U.S. Military Academy, The Centennial of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), I:

8 2.0 Resource Types, Descriptions and Known Locations 2.1 Hospitals and Burial Ground Careful attention to the health of the officers and soldiers of the Continental Army was a crucial factor in maintaining the readiness of the Continental Army and the West Point fortress to meet the enemy. In fact, throughout the 18 th century, illness and disease killed and crippled far more soldiers than hostile fire. 5 Accordingly, establishment of an effective hospital to serve the West Point garrison was considered a critical component of the West Point fortress. The initial West Point hospital was established at the Robinson House, on the east side of the Hudson River. For at least the first several years of Fortress West Point, sick and injured soldiers were initially treated by the regimental surgeons assigned to their individual regiments at West Point, and those soldiers requiring more advanced treatment would then have been transported across the Hudson River to the Hospital at the Robinson House. An Orderly Book for a Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Line dated April 12, 1779 notes: Doctor Bartlet, the surgeon of the field hospital, has removed to the quarters of the commanding officer, where the sick will be sent for examination. 6 Orderly Book entries from the summer of 1779 specifically addressed the transfer of sick and injured soldiers across the Hudson River to the Robinson House hospital: Head Quarters West Point 9 th July 79, As the sick are too much exposed in sending them to the Hospital in open boats, sloops will be provided on Monday and Thursday. The Surgeons will on these days apply to Captain Buckhanan for a proper vessel. 7 Eventually, and certainly not later than the spring of 1781, actions were initiated to establish a permanent hospital at West Point proper. The first documented mention of a hospital being located at West Point was recorded by Dr. John Cochran, Surgeon General of the Continental Army, in a letter dated July 10, 1781: The Military Hospitals for the present are established at Robison s House, the Barracks at West Point and the Artillery Huts near this place. It is impossible to ascertain the number of sick and wounded to be provided for but there is room at the above places for between 6 or Initially, it appeared that one of the existing barracks buildings at West Point were used as an informal West Point Garrison Hospital. Two Doctors are noted by name as being present at hospitals at West Point on July 23, Dr. Samuel Edmiston at the Garrison- West Point Hospital, Dr. John Duffield at Small Pox Hospital Near West Point. 9 In December 1781 construction of a permanent hospital was initiated at West Point, when Captain D. Niven of the Engineers submitted an estimate of construction materials: Boards 1 ½ thick 14 long 1,845 Boards 1 thick 14 long 3,270 10, 12 and 20 penny nails- 1,130 weight 5 James E. Gibson, The Role of Disease in the 70,000 Casualties in the American Revolutionary Army. Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 17 (1949), Samuel P. Fowler, Editor, Journal of Captain Samuel Page in the Campaign of 1779, with Notes Historical Collections of the Essex InstituteI V, no. 6 (December 1862), Adjutant Caleb Clap, The Orderly Book of Adjutant Caleb Clap, , 9 th Massachusetts Regiment (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Microfilm Copy at David Library of the American Revolution, Washington s Crossing, Pennsylvania). 8 Dr. John Cochran to Udney Hay, New Windsor, July 10, 1781 In Morris H. Saffron, Surgeon to Washington, Dr. John Cochran, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), Saffron, Surgeon to Washington,

9 8 penny nails- 1,000 weight Glass, 8x 10 1,345 pains. Timber, Shingles, Brick and Lime may be had for little more expence than the price of the timber standing, and the cost of transporting same to the river. The timber for the fraim may be cut Back of Newburg within 4 miles from the river. 50,000 shingles shall be wanting. 10 Further descriptions of this proposed hospital were: The dimensions of the rooms in the hospital to be erected at West Point, January 13, The lower rooms to be 18 in length is in the longitudinal range of the building. Twenty feet will be a sufficient depth, it will be ample; but if there are any special reasons in the breast of the Engineers, 22 feet will not be objected to by the Surgeons. The lower rooms to have 12 altitude the second story nine. In the situation of the door the surgeons are not agreed. 11 It is interesting that these dimensions are smaller in length, but similar in width and height, to a British Army hospital erected at Fort Oswego in American Provincial soldiers were members of this garrison, and presumably were familiar with this hospital. Typically during the 18 th Century hospitals were placed in existing buildings, and there are few accounts of constructed hospitals available. Accordingly, the Fort Oswego account is relevant: Two buildings for an hospital, each of the following dimensions, to be immediately erected of logs, in the front of where the artillery park now stands. Breadth of the house..18 feet Length of the house 40 feet Height of Side Walls..8 feet A Chimney in Each End. Door Fronting the Street A Shed to Cover the Door. To be under the care of Collo Peter Schuyler who is desired to take charge of it. /signed/ W Shirley, Oswego, August 26: It is believed that these two hospitals were roofed with bark. 12 The location of this hospital was in close proximity to the main encampment on the Plain, apparently northwest of the existing Ordnance Compound from the 1830s. The hospital was apparently completed not later than December 15, 1782 for on that date Surgeon James Thacher with the Continental Army recorded: Dined with my friends Drs. Townsend, Eustis, and Adams, at the hospital, in company with Generals Gates and Howe, and their aids, Dr. Cochran our Surgeon General, and several other officers. An elegant meal. 13 The only history of hospitals at West Point notes: The hospital itself was probably the yellow frame building mentioned in numerous reminiscences of later times. 14 A 1780 French Map for West Point provides a location 10 Lt. Colonel Jane G. Brister, Draft of History of Army Medical Service at West Point (Unpublished mss., Archives and Special Collections, USMA Library, West Point, New York), Brister, Army Medical Services, Dr. George A. Snook, An Eighteenth Century Hospital at Oswego Military Collector & Historian, Journal of the Company of Military Historians XXXVIII, no. 2 (Summer 1986), Dr. James Thacher, Military Journal of the American Revolution (Hartford, Connecticut: Hurlbut, Williams & Company, 1862), Brister, Army Medical Services, 29. The yellow color of the hospital and presumably other buildings at West Point is documented in the Knox Papers, as a return of stores at West Point dated August 31, 1782 includes eighteen pounds of yellow ochre paint, dry (the dry ochre would be mixed with white lead to make 9

10 for the main garrison hospital, which is in proximity to the current Directorate of Public Works (Building 667). Although this area has been heavily disturbed by the construction of a large number of support buildings throughout the 19 th and 20 th centuries, culminating in the construction of Eisenhower Hall in the early 1970s, it is possible that some archaeological evidence of the hospital could still exist in the vicinity. This hospital appeared to be a fairly substantial operation. Although hospital reports were supposed to be submitted on a monthly basis, only a few of such reports have been located for the West Point hospital, and unfortunately these not in a consistent format. Returns of the Military Hospitals & Sick in the Army for September 1781 Garrison of West Point 135 patients remaining in hospital. Returns of the Military Hospitals & Sick in the Army January 1782 West Point- 54 admitted, 16 discharged, 7 dead, 9 remaining in hospital. Returns of the Military Hospitals & Sick in the Army February 1782 Army at West Point 1,143 admitted; 851 discharged, 39 dead, 245 remaining in hospital (1,002 smallpox) Returns of the Military Hospitals & Sick in the Army March 1782 Army at West Point 8 dead, 345 total remaining in hospital. 15 Following the return of the Continental Army from the Yorktown Campaign, it was feared that a smallpox outbreak that had occurred in Virginia in 1781 may have infected the army with this extremely infectious and devastating disease. Accordingly, Washington ordered a program of inoculation at West Point. 16 This program of inoculation was previously documented in the relatively large number of sick with the hospital in February This was not the first such inoculation program performed at West Point, for Washington had ordered Major General Heath at West Point on March 26, 1781: In answer to your letter of the 25 th respecting inoculation, you will be pleased to observe, it was under the idea of the New Hampshire Troops being continued at West Point, that I consented to have the Huts of that Line made use of as Hospitals; I was unwilling to have any other troops mix with those under inoculation. 17 Surgeon James Thacher also recorded the January 1782 program of smallpox inoculation: January, Orders having been received for all the troops that have not gone through the small-pox to be inoculated, I commenced this business a few weeks since, and inoculated about two hundred, including women and children. Their accommodations were not such as their circumstances required; we were unprovided with proper articles a wet paint). Major General Henry Knox, Papers, (Boston, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Historical Society. Microfilm Copy at Moore Wing, USMA Library, West Point, New York), Reel 9: Saffron, Surgeon to Washington, Michelle P. Figliomeni, The Flickering Flame, Treachery and Loyalty in the Mid-Hudson During the American Revolution (Washingtonville, New York: Spear Printing, 1976), 84. An interesting but succinct account of a soldier inoculated for smallpox at West Point in March 1781 is provided by the Diary of Ebenezer Parkman, Private in Baldwin s Regiment of Artillery Artificers (Worcester, Massachusetts: American Antiquarian Society). 17 General George Washington to Major General William Heath, March 26, 1781 In George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Accessed on-line at 10

11 of diet; and a considerable number were seized with putrid fever, which proved fatal in several instances. 18 In all cases, Washington and Cochran wished to insure that the soldiers inoculated with small pox remained separate from the rest of the garrison. Accordingly, a separate smallpox hospital was established for this purpose, apparently a hut encampment that was relatively isolated from the main encampment. Presumably, common practices to prevent the spread of smallpox were followed, and at the conclusion of the inoculation period the huts used for that purpose were burned, and it is doubtful that any archaeological trace of the West Point smallpox hospital would survive today. The soldiers who died of illness or wounds (such as from the Battle of Stony Point) were buried at West Point. Little documentary evidence of this burial ground is available. The Memoirs of West Point graduate Albert E. Church, written in 1878, made reference to the occasional discovery of human bones during the course of the work, at the grove of trees on the southern part of the Plain located in the vicinity of the modern Library. Well do I remember the corps often rushing out, he wrote, when it was announced that the bones of some revolutionary soldier or some other relic, were thrown out by the planters of these trees, wondering and speculating as crowds of grown men will, on scenes like these, the frequency of which demonstrated that this ground had been a well-filled cemetery 19 Captain Horace M. Reeve in The West Point Centennial History (1904) stated: Excavations made near the academic building, gymnasium or mess hall not infrequently uncover the remains of Revolutionary soldiers. 20 Although re-internments are not documented, a number of unknown soldiers are buried in Area XXX of the West Point Cemetery, along with one recorded burial. The one marked internment is that of Ensign Dominick Trant, 9 th Massachusetts Continental Regiment, who died on November 7, 1782 [Photograph One]. It is believed that these unknown soldiers are bodies recovered during the 19 th Century from the Revolutionary War Cemetery and moved to the West Point Cemetery. During the construction of the Modern West Point Library in the early 1960s, the remains of a Revolutionary War soldier were discovered. Although only a few bones and pewter buttons remained, the fact that this was a Revolutionary War soldier could be determined through the buttons. This soldier was subsequently re-buried with full military honors at New Windsor Cantonment [Photograph Two]. 21 The skeleton of this soldier was utilized in a study of the stature of Americans by Anthropologist J. Lawrence Angel with the Smithsonian Institution. 22 An 1820 map of West Point by Cadet Joseph Bruffs clearly depicts a burying ground at this location [Map One], but subsequent maps fail to make this distinction. 23 Archaeological surveys for Jefferson Hall (New Cadet Library and Learning Center) performed in 2004 and 2005 failed 18 Thacher, Military Journal, Albert E. Church, Personal Reminiscences of West Point from 1824 to 1831: A Paper Read to the U.S. Military Service Institute (West Point, New York: USMA Press, 1879), Captain Horace M. Reeve, West Point in the Revolution In The Centennial of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), I: The author has made extensive efforts to locate any further documentation regarding this exhumation, without success. West Point, New Windsor Cantonment, and the Smithsonian Institution have no additional records on these human remains; and Dr. Angel is now deceased. 22 J. Lawrence Angel, Colonial to Modern Skeletal Change in the U.S.A. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 45 (1976), Map, West Point, 1820 by Cadet G. Bruffs, (Archives and Special Collections, USMA Library, West Point, New York). 11

12 to locate any evidence of this burial ground. 24 It is believed to have been entirely destroyed by previous West Point construction including Thayer Hall, Cullum Road, and the 1960s West Point Library. Photograph One Graves of Ensign Dominick Trant, 9 th Massachusetts and Presumed Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier, West Point Cemetery (D. Cubbison, February 2006) 24 PanAmerican Consultants, Intensive Cultural Resources Investigations for Jefferson Hall (New Cadet Library and Learning Center), Jefferson Place, U.S. Military Academy, Orange County, West Point, New York (West Point, New York: U.S. Military Academy, December 2005), 1-3,

13 Map One Revolutionary War Hospital West Point, 1780 by a French Officer (Centennial of the United States Military Academy, 204) 13

14 Photograph Two Tombstone of Unknown Soldier from West Point Library Vicinity New Windsor State Historic Site, New Windsor, New York (D. Cubbison, June 2004) 14

15 Map Two Revolutionary War Burying Ground, West Point, 1820 by Cadet G. Bruffs (Archives and Special Collections, USMA Library, West Point, New York) 2.2 Docks and Hudson River Operations Although the Continental Army is usually considered to be an organization that operated exclusively on land, military transportation during the American Revolution was in large part dependent upon waterways and boats. Roads were few and far between. In fact, there was no road connecting West Point through the Hudson Highlands until the occupation by the Continental Army in Upon its arrival the Continental Army constructed a dirt road between the Hudson River batteries, and connecting the river batteries and Fort Clinton across Butter Mountain (now known as Storm King Mountain) to New Windsor. This road still survives in sections as Flirtation Walk at West Point, and as an unimproved road and hiking trail known as Continental Road through West Point and Black Rock Forest. Being constructed by soldiers, this road was probably relatively crude, and it can be surmised that fords across streams and boggy areas were preferred to bridges. No primary source descriptions of the Continental Road have been discovered to date. However, these roads were apparently in notoriously poor condition, and the Hudson River was the only viable supply route for the Continental Army to utilize. The Continental Army utilized 15

16 boats to move supplies, men and equipment across the Hudson River between West Point and Constitution Island; from north to south on the Hudson River; and to emplace and maintain the iron chain and log boom that interdicted the Hudson River at West Point. The Continental Army also operated a ferry between West Point and Constitution Island/Beverly s Landing, and a dock at West Point. The Orderly Book of the 9 th Massachusetts Regiment noted the following orders on 26 th June 1779: It has been made a practice of taking the boats, which is absolutely necessary for the transportation of troops, and provisions, at this point. In future, no person will presume on any pretence whatever, to take a boat from this side the river without an order from Head Quarters, or leave, from Capt Buckhannon. 25 The Continental Army certainly used bateaux (flat bottomed boats) at West Point, as a General Order issued from Moore s House on August 15, 1779 documents: The Quarter Master General or his Deputy will appoint one flat Bottom Boat for the use of each Brigade, which is to be kept in constant redyness [readiness] for their use for Mr. Buchanan, and in futor [future] the Commanding officers of Brigades will give their orders for the use of the boat assigned them; and Mr. Buchanan is to deliver a bot [boat] to no other person s order in the Brigade; and that the whole business of the Brigade may be done at the same time, they are to be previously notified when and where the boat will go. Such boats as may be wanted for other Business besides those of Brigade or Garrison Duty the number and uses they are wanted for, orders are to be obtained from the Quarter Master General office, as in former orders. Who ever gives a boat will be held responsible for her return. 26 Apparently, at least several skows were also operated. Similar to a bateau, a skow is a flat bottomed boat. However, while a bateau has a traditional pointed bow and stern, a skow has a flat bow and stern. General Orders issued November 1, 1780: When the wood is within such distance of the garrison as will admit of it being safely brought in the larger scows- they are to be continually employed in good weather. 27 Additionally, a barge is recorded to have been operated for Major General Benedict Arnold during his tenure as Commander at West Point. 28 When Arnold defected to the British after the discovery of his treason, he surrendered this barge to the Royal Navy. The Continental Army also operated gunboats from West Point, which were used to control river traffic, and protect the chain across the Hudson River. An Orderly Book entry for October 11, 1780 specifically addressed the operation of these boats: The Gun Boat is to be Posted arm d with 1 Sub 1 Sargjeant 1 Corporal and 24 Privates in the River Opposite Fort Montgomery this Guard is intended to examine all boats coming up or going down as well as such are a drift and upon discovering the enemy are 25 Orderly Book of Adjutant Caleb Clap. 26 The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel James Chambers, May August In Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series, Vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896), 515; and Sergeant John O Neill, The Orderly Book of the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiment, August 1, 1779 to September In Pennsylvania Archives Second Series, Vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896), Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, Continental Army, 1780 In Isaac W. Hammond, Editor, Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society (Concord, New Hamsphire: Ira C. Evans, 1889), 9:237; and Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, 1780 In Pennsylvania Archives (Harrisburg: Harrisburg Publishing Company, 1907) Six Series, XIV: Carl Van Doren, Secret History of the American Revolution (Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Company, 1941), ; 313, , 327,

17 to give the alarm by firing the gun a Matross [artillerymen] is to be assigned the Boat for this Service. 29 This reference is important, for it provides a general size of the boat (sufficient to hold 28 officers and soldiers), and that it carried an artillery piece large enough in size to require the services of an artilleryman to fire it. Presumably, this was some type of substantial bateau or gondola that carried a single cannon in the bow, similar to other documented artillery gunboats from the Revolutionary War period. That at least one gunboat was regularly employed on the Hudson River is confirmed by a letter from Washington to Major General Heath at West Point, March 24, 1781: I recollect that there was a Gun Boat employed on the River, which was withdrawn at the setting in of winter, and which is again necessary for the same service, I wish therefore you would have it refitted, and stationed as formerly for the same purposes. 30 Interestingly enough, the 1779 Greenleaf Map also depicts what appears to be a row galley guarding the chain. The presence of a dock is confirmed through the same Orderly Book, as it notes that sloops were being loaded with sick and injured from the hospital at West Point: Head Quarters West Point 9 th July 79, As the sick are too much exposed in sending them to the Hospital in open boats, sloops will be provided on Monday and Thursday. The Surgeons will on these days apply to Captain Buckhanan for a proper vessel. 31 Additionally, Orderly Book entries also referred to the West Point harbor as this entry for November 28, 1780 attests: The baggage of the N. Jersey Brigade is to imbarked [be embarked] on Board Vessels in the harbour this evening or early tomorrow morning and conveyed down the river to King s Farry [Ferry]. 32 A more involved order dated July 28, 1779 also noted: General Orders, Moore s House. The Quarter Master Gen l having accation [occasion] for the water men ingaged By him for the use of Ferreys, and who are now Imployed at this Place, they are to be Relieved by a equall number.he will cause an axact Return to be rendered as soon as Possabel, of all the Boats at this Place and in the vicinity of it: will see that such and so many as are Indispenceable [indispensably] Necessary for Ordinary Purposes to be Alotted to them, and the rest, such as want repair, being got in order, left in the care of a proper person with competent guards, who is not to suffer any of them to be used without his order. 33 On October 26, 1780 General Orders were issued, A Captain daily is to superintend the Fatigue men unloading Vassals at the Dock. 34 A later General Order also recorded one of the most important military uses of the boats at West Point, November 13, It is probably that all or nearly all the boats will be wanted one or more days in taking up the chain The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment Washington to Heath, March 26, 1781, George Washington Papers,. 31 Orderly Book of Adjutant Caleb Clap. 32 The Orderly Book of the New Jersey Brigade (Maxwell s), November 13, 1780 December 9, 1780 In Pennsylvania Archives Sixth Series (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: State Printer, ). XIV: The Orderly Book of the Seventh Penn a Regiment Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9: The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment

19 The operation of a ferry is also noted. The West Point Garrison Orderly Book for July 26, 1779 ordered: a [subaltern officer] to superintend the ferry from Bradforts Regt. 36 Supporting that this was a rotated duty, another Orderly Book entry from the 3 rd New Hampshire Regiment on October 12, 1780 ordered, Officers to superintend the Ferry from Hazens [Brigade]- and on November 3, 1780: Detail- 1 Sub[altern] from the 3 rd Reg t to relieve the sub now on fatigue at the ferry. 37 A New Jersey Orderly Book dated November 17, 1780 similarly notes: The Officers who superintend the Ferry are to allow no horses to be Ferry d on the Point [West Point] except Express horses or those belonging to the officers there with a Special Permit from Head Quarters; 38 and on November 23, 1780: Some Vessels of late have presumed to pass down the River without written permission from the General. In future no Vessels is to pass the Fort downward without a written permission from the General. Which is to be shown to the Officer at the Ferry. 39 Also, on October 7, 1780: Lt. Col o Huntington is to Superintend and facilitate the embarkation of the Baggage at the Ferry. 40 That the Ferry Landing was considered an important function at West Point is verified by the assignment of a 6-pounder brass (actually bronze) cannon with the Ferry Guard as noted on a Report of Ordnance with the Park of Artillery at West Point, December 13, This ferry operated between West Point and Constitution Island, and between West Point and Beverly s Landing (modern day Garrison). An inventory of boats present at West Point on August 31, 1782 included the following: - 1 bad sloop; - 2 good skows; - 1 bad flat-bottomed boat; - 8 good bateaux; - 4 good framed boats; - 0 barges; and Oars. 42 The 1820 map of West Point clearly depicts a large dock at the current location of North Dock. No construction projects are documented to have occurred at North Dock and vicinity between the end of the American Revolution and 1820, and it is believed that this is the Revolutionary War dock. Subsequently, construction of the Seacoast Battery in this vicinity in the early 19 th century is believed to have removed all vestiges of the Revolutionary War dock. 36 West Point Garrison Orderly Book (Special Collections and Archives, U.S. Military Academy Library, West Point, New York), Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company 9:214, The Orderly Book of the New Jersey Brigade (Maxwell s) 195; and The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment The Orderly Book of the New Jersey Brigade (Maxwell s) 201; and The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment Henry Knox Papers, Microfilm, Reel 10, Henry Knox Papers, Microfilm, Reel 9,

20 2.3 Bake Ovens Map Four Revolutionary War Dock, West Point, 1820 by Cadet G. Bruffs (Archives and Special Collections, USMA Library, West Point, New York) Among the food rations issued to the Continental Army was either fresh bread for garrison duty, or hard bread (hard bread was also known as ship s bread and was essentially a hard baked biscuit similar to the more familiar Civil War era hardtack) for field service, baked by the military from a daily allocation of flour. On December 22, 1781 the Continental Army ration for West Point was established as follows: 1 Pound of Bread 1 Pound of Beef, or 3-4 Pound of Pork 1 Gill of West India Rum for Commissioned Officers 1 Gill of Country Rum, or Whiskey, for Non Commissioned Officers and Privates 1 Quart of Salt, and a Quart Vinegar, to 100 Rations, 8 Pounds of Hard Soap, and 3 Pounds of Candles, for 700 Rations. 43 This ration is typical of a Continental Army soldier s daily allotment of provisions throughout the Revolutionary War history of West Point. 43 Broadside, Comfort Sands and Company, Contract Regarding Continental Army Supplies and Stores, Fishkill, New York, December 22, 1781 at American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts. 20

21 In order to bake this flour, large beehive shaped ovens had to be constructed from masonry. General George Washington wrote Lieutenant Colonel Udny Hay with the Quartermaster s Department at the Continental Army Depot at Fishkill on June 30, 1780 regarding such ovens: There is so great a saving by delivering out bread instead of flour, that I have sent up Mr. Ludwick to have ovens erected at West Point. You will be pleased therefore to furnish him with the necessary materials and proper workmen to build one or two as he may think proper. 44 Mr. Ludwick was Christopher Ludwick, who was the Baker General for the Continental Army. In this capacity Ludwick was both Superintendent of Bakers and Director of Baking for the Continental Army. A German immigrant who had established a thriving baking business in Philadelphia that he began by selling gingerbread baked in ornamental designs, Ludwick had been an ardent patriot who had initially worked to convince German soldiers with the British army to desert, but had resumed his former avocation for the Continental Army when he became appalled at improprieties in the Continental Army s operation of their bakeries. Ludwick had served through the hard winter at Valley Forge, and would remain the Continental Army s Baker General throughout the war. 45 Ludwick may have constructed bake ovens at West Point as early as General George Washington wrote then Quartermaster General Nathaniel Green on October 11, 1780 regarding the erection of bake ovens at West Point: This will be delivered to you by Mr. Ludwick Baker General, who is instructed by Colonel Stewart Commissary General of [illegible] to repair to West Point, and erect as many Ovens at that Post, as are equal to a daily supply of six or eight thousand pounds of Bread, exclusive of one to be appropriated solely to the purpose of baking Biscuit. I fully approved Colonel Stewart s Instructions on this head; and earnestly entreat your attention to the immediate construction of them. 47 The location of these bake ovens has not been determined, and there is no direct information available on the size of the ovens. For the purpose of this study, it is assumed that a typical loaf of bread weighed six pounds apiece (a typical weight for British army bread loaves), thus the West Point ovens had to have been capable of baking 1,000 to 1,335 loaves of bread daily. In 1999 the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation performed archaeological excavations at the ruins of 18 th Century bake ovens at Fort St. Frederick, Crown Point, New York. 48 As a component of this study they performed extensive archival research on the design and construction of bake ovens. Although there has been other research done on bake ovens (also known as beehive ovens) of residential size, this is the most comprehensive research performed to date on military or commercial bake ovens. 44 G. Washington to Udny Hay, June 30, 1780, George Washington Papers. 45 For information on Ludwick refer to William W. Condit, Christopher Ludwick: Patriotic Gingerbread Baker The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography LXXXI (October 1957), ; Benjamin Rush, An Account of the Life and Character of Christopher Ludwick (Philadelphia: Garden and Thompson, 1831); Edward Hocker, Ludwick, Baker General of the Continental Army The Picket Post,, Valley Forge Historical Society Newsletter 14 (July 1946), 55-57; and Peggy Robbins, Washington s Baker General Early American Life (October 1977). 46 Condit, Christopher Ludwick: Patriotic Gingerbread Baker G. Washington to Nathaniel Greene, October 11, 1780, George Washington Papers. 48 Lois M. Feister, Archaeological Excavations at the Oven Ruins in the French Fort at Crown Point State Historic Site, Essex County, New York (Peebles Island, New York: New York Bureau of Historic Sites, December 1999). 21

22 An 18 th century brick bake oven was found during the excavation of Fort Stanwix, New York. This bake oven was 12 feet long x 10 feet wide, constructed of brick, attached to a bake house approximately 20 feet x 18 ½ feet, and with a hard packed earth floor and brick foundation. The entrance to the oven was estimated at 2.3 feet wide, but was damaged and may have been narrower. Archaeologists recovered clapboards 1.1 feet wide and 1 inch thick which were believed to have been the siding of the bake house, which is interpreted as being constructed of heavy timber framing. 49 Archaeologists estimated the brick oven to be capable of baking twenty 6-pound loaves of bread at one time, or approximately 200 loaves of bread per day. West Point would have required five to seven ovens of this size to produce the specified amount of bread. It is not known if this bake oven was built by the British Army during the Seven Years War or by the American Army during the War for American Independence. Most likely, it was constructed by the Americans, and was certainly in use by A stone bake house with two ovens constructed by the British Army in 1768 still survives at Fort Niagara. These bake ovens are 5 ½ feet and 7 ½ feet wide, and 12 ½ and 11 feet long, with a 21 wide opening, roughly similar in size to the Fort Stanwix bake oven. The bake house itself was 38 feet long by 28 feet wide. These bake ovens are still in use, and are capable of producing forty to fifty loaves 6-pound loaves at one time, and could produce 600 to 1,000 loaves daily. West Point would have required three ovens of this size. The Crown Point archaeology determined that the actual ovens no longer remain, although the foundations of the actual bake house do remain. These were permanent brick ovens with stone foundations, and are believed to have been similar in design, size and scope to the British Army ovens at Fort Niagara. The Continental Army is known to have copied many elements from the British Army, and it is conceivable that the West Point bake ovens may have been based upon a standard British Army pattern. However, it is more likely that West Point bake ovens would have resembled the wooden bake oven built at Fort Stanwix, as permanent masonry structures were not constructed at West Point during the War for American Independence (except for the fortifications themselves). The use of brick foundations with heavy timber construction would be more typical for West Point, and would resemble known construction techniques at Fort Montgomery and Constitution Island. 50 Additionally, what (if any) modifications or alterations Ludwick might have made to the ovens operated at West Point is unknown. Ludwick did not have previous experience with the British Army (although some of his bakers might conceivably have had such experience), but he did possess considerable experience as a commercial baker and was intimately familiar with the baking process. It is entirely possible that Ludwick constructed ovens to a commercial pattern that he was comfortable with, rather than the British Army pattern that was apparently constructed at Crown Point and Niagara. No cartographic or archival evidence regarding the location of these bake ovens at West Point has been located to date. 49 Lee Hanson and Dick Ping Hsu, Casemates and Cannonballs, Archaeological Investigations at Fort Stanwix, Rome, New York (Washington, DC: National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1975), It should be noted that a bake oven was constructed at Fort Montgomery in Although the site of this oven has been confirmed through archaeological investigations, no substantive structural remains were ascertained, except that brick was confirmed in its construction. Charles L. Fisher, Editor, The Most Advantageous Situation in the Highlands, An Archaeological Study of Fort Montgomery Historic Site (Albany, New York: New York State Museum, 2004),

23 2.4 Artificers (Including Forges and Blacksmith Shops) Artificers referred to skilled craftsmen such as carpenters, coopers, tinsmiths, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, harness makers, masons, etc. who had been detailed from their regiments to practice their trades for the Continental Army. In some cases, entire companies of artificers had been raised. These artificers operated workshops that manufactured or repaired the full range of equipment that an Army would require. Orders were regularly issued to identify soldiers with these skills, and accordingly detailing them: Head Quarters Moor s House August 2d 79 Each Massichusets Regiment is to make out a List of the men of the new Leveys, or nine month men, who are Carpinters, Black Smiths, Armiors [armorers], hous or whellwrights [house carpenters or wheel wrights], or sailors, and so fort: or of any other Trade and Deliver the List to Gen. McDougall. 51 When detailed for this duty, they received extra pay: Division Orders, August the 1 st Masons and Carpinters [carpenters] are immediately wanting for the works from the Pennsylvania Line They will receive half a Dollar Pr Day Additional Pay. 52 Similar orders were issued on October 11, 1780, as the West Point garrison prepared to move into winter quarters: The quarter masters will immediately repair the barracks for reception of the troops. A return to be geven in this afternoon of all the Carpenters Masons and Smiths and Miners in the Sevral Brigades they are to parade tomorrow morning, at the Quarter Masters Quarters they will have the addichonal allowance of pay and Rations heretofore geven to the Artificers. 53 Orders regarding the activities of artificers were frequent and recurring. Some typical orders included: June 9, The Genl finding the necessity of the works requires it, therefore orders that all the Mechanics and other workmen that were formerly annexed to Capt. Clow should immediately join him again til further orders, also if there are any more masons they are ordered to be furnished to that Company for the present as the work greatly requires it. July 1, All those Soldiers who are Masons by trade in the line are immediately to be drawn out and sent to the Fort[Arnold] for a special and temporary service; they are to take their orders from Colonel Kosciuzko. 54 July 29, fatigue men detailed to attend masons at Fort Putnam The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel James Chambers, 505; and Sergeant John O Neill, The Orderly Book of the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiment, August 1, 1779 to September In Pennsylvania Archives Second Series, Vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896), The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel James Chambers, 504; and O Neill, The Orderly Book of the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiment, Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9: Orderly Book of Adjutant Caleb Clap. 55 Orderly Book of 7 th Pennsylvania Regiment, Smith s Clove, Orange County, New York, May- August 1779, WPA Transcription, Special Collections and Archives, U.S. Military Academy Library, West Point, New York; and Orderly Book, West Point Garrison, July- August 1779 and August-December 1779, WPA Transcription, Special Collections and Archives, U.S. Military Academy Library, West Point, New York,

24 October 24, The provision and water cags [kegs] in the magazines requiring immediate attention and coopering all the coopers and such others as are ingenious in setting hoops and dressing cags are to be sent tomorrow morning to Mr. Commissary Martials from whom they will receive further directions. October 29, In some of the works there is a deficiency of water casks especially in Fort Putnam, a proper number is to be sent all the casks whether of provisions or water be cooper d without delay- November 25, An attentive Serjeant and 10 men from Colonel Michael Jackson s Detachment of Massachusetts Troops are to be employed in making shingles in the rear of the garrison. 56 The Carpenters were also occupied on at least one occasion with building boats at the West Point harbor, Reverend Enos Hitchcock with the 10 th Massachusetts recorded on October 1, 1779 that: The carpenters taken from the works to build boats. 57 One particularly interesting request was made to the blacksmiths by Dr. John Cochran, who was Medical Director of the Continental Army: West Point October 15 th I will consider it as a particular favour if you will order the Artifices [artificers] to make a small bedstead, such a one as was made for General Gates. I am obliged to lie very uncomfortable on three very small stools and in consequence of catching a cold have gotten a return of fever. 58 Cochran had served as a Surgeon with the Virginia Provincial forces in the Seven Years War, and was over fifty years old when he wrote this letter. One certainly hopes that the blacksmiths expeditiously manufactured his bed! Each Brigade apparently maintained an Armorer, responsible for the maintenance of the brigade s weapons. The Armorer had to operate a forge. This was a critical role within the Continental Army, for standardized parts were not yet in operation. Even though military weapons were manufactured to common patterns and specifications, each weapon was still hand-made, and had to be individually repaired by a gunsmith. Brigade Orders, the first Aug st 79. Morning Orders. Each Regt. Will furnish the Conductor with an Armor[er]. The Brigade Quarter Master will find Coles [coal] and so fort, and assist the forge to be kept in order and Condition for a Mediate Servis [immediate service]. He will, also, keep axzact [exact] accounts of the Number of Days each man works. Officer Commanding Regiments will see that their arms are Repaired with all Possible Expadition [Expedition]. 59 Such forges were operated at various locations at West Point. The famous 1780 map of West Point prepared by French Engineer Villefranche serving with the Continental Army showed a 56 The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, 157, 162, William B., Weeden, Editor, Diary of the Reverend Enos Hitchock, 10 th Massachusetts Regiment. In Rhode Island Historical Society Proceedings. New Series, VII (1899), Saffron, Surgeon to Washington, The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel James Chambers, May August In Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series, Vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896), 503; and Sergeant John O Neill, The Orderly Book of the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiment, August 1, 1779 to September In Pennsylvania Archives Second Series, Vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Clarence M. Busch, State Printer of Pennsylvania, 1896),

25 blacksmith shop located on the edge of the Plain, approximately where Professors Row is now located. Eighteenth century artifacts are intermittently exposed in this area due to erosion and heavy rainfall, and the forge is recorded and protected as a West Point archeological site. In addition to this single documented shop, the artificers would have operated a number of other forges, blacksmith shops, and workshops at West Point. The location of these other facilities are not documented. Map Five Revolutionary War Blacksmith, West Point, 1780 by Engineer Villefranche (Boynton, History of West Point, 86) 25

26 2.5 Wagon Yard, Forage Yard, Animal Pens and Storehouses The operation of wheeled vehicles was every bit as important to an 18 th century army as it is to a modern army, and the Continental Army was no exception. Ammunition, rations, clothing, equipment, and artillery could not be moved without a panalopy of wheeled conveyances of every different size and shape. The Continental Army s General Orders of September 30, 1780 at Tappan, New York stipulated: As the Directions of the Waggon Department is of great Important in foreign Armys Generally Intrusted to a Field Officer in the Line and it is thought the Service will be benefited by a similar practice Major Coggswell of the 1 st Massachusetts Brigade is appointed Waggon Master to the Main Army and to be obey d as such. 60 Similar orders followed from Haverstraw on October 7, 1780: The Cover d Waggons with the Bagage are to go to West Point and as soon as they arrive there the whole of the Horses are to be sent to Fish Kill & Deliver d also to Col o Hughs. 61 This order is interesting as it notes that the horses are to be sent to the Continental Army Depot at Fishkill, New York, but not the wagons. The inference is that the wagons remained at West Point, presumably in proximity to the military organizations that they supported. A Return of Quartermaster General s Stores on Hand at West Point, 31 August 1782 reported the following wheeled vehicles at West Point: 62 [Vehicle] Good Bad Covered Wagons 1 2 Road Wagons 6 4 Hand Carts 3 - Ox Carts 4 2 Although orders were regularly issued restricting the number of horses at West Point, clearly some horses and other livestock had to be retained at the post. Horses were used by senior officers, cavalry scouts, and by express riders who carried official correspondence and orders. Some horses and oxen would have been necessary for wagons to move supplies, firewood, rations and ammunition; or to support construction projects by moving heavy timber and similar construction materials. A typical General Order regarding the use of teams for this type of purpose was issued on November 13, 1780: during which time if the Regts. Have not a sufficiency of fuel on hand it must be procured from the nearest wood in the rear of the Garrison. The A. Q. Mr. [Assistant Quartermaster] of the Garrison will lend such aid of Teams as he may be able to afford. 63 Other livestock would have been retained until it was ready to be butchered for food. An Orderly Book entry for July 18, 1780 noted: One Serg t One Corp l and 12 Privates to be sent this afternoon to take charge of the Cattle and Drive them to Fort Montgomery where they will watch and secure them Day and Night. The Guard to be Relieved every four days and supplied with 60 Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, Knox Papers, Reel 9, The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, 1780,

27 salted provisions two tents and two camp kittles. 64 General Orders issued November 4, 1780 noted: The Garrison Q r M r will immediately order an exact return to be taken and sent to Head Quarters of all the Horses and Oxen kept in the garrison both public and private. 65 As this order suggests, because of the shortage of fodder at West Point, General Orders consistently attempted to limit the number of horses at the garrison: March 29, A horse, in the care of Ensign Smith, will be sold at public vendue [sic.] tomorrow morning. April 5, A return will be made tomorrow morning of all impressed and public horses now on service at the lines. The following number of horses will be allowed forage in the future: one to each Capt., one to the doctor, one to the commissary, and one to each horseman [i.e. cavalryman], and no other horse will be allowed forage, except it be by a special order from the commanding officer The horse, in the possession of Lieut. Peterson, will be sold at public vendue this afternoon. 66 Head Quarters 7 th June 79. The great scarcity of forage necessitates the General to request the gentlemen who have a right to keep horses at public expence, to remove them from the Point, and none are to be detained, excepting two for the commanding officers of Brigades, and Major of Brigades, two for the Engineers, and one of the commanding officer of Light Infantry, and the public horses necessary in the Quarter Master s Department. Provision is made for keeping the horses sent out, at Mr. Nichol s, near Murderer s Creek. The General desires an immediate compliance of these orders. 67 And this in turn necessitated the establishment of a forage yard to store feed and forage for these horses and livestock. The earliest mention of this forage yard is contained in a letter from Washington to Quartermaster Nathaniel Greene on September 15, 1778: I have directed General Putnam to have Magazines of forage for a winter stock laid up in the vicinity of West Point. 68 This yard is also mentioned in various general orders, as on November 1, 1780: Great attention is to be paid to the preservation of the forage which at this time will be much exposed to waste, racks are to be immediately put up in the public yards. No forage or wood are to be issued to any person whatever but upon the order of the Deputy General [Quarter Master] in writing. 69 This order suggests that the forage yard and wood yard were located in close proximity to each other. In addition to the bake ovens themselves, their operation required that a storehouse be established at West Point to store the flour. An August 27, 1780 circular letter from Washington to a number of states mentioned: We have not yet been absolutely without flour, but we have this day but one day s supply in camp and I am not certain that there is a single barrel between this place and Trenton. I shall be obliged therefore to draw down one or two hundred barrels, from a small 64 Almon W., Lauber, Editor, Orderly Books of the Fourth New York Regiment, , The Second New York Regiment, , With Diaries of Samuel Tallmadge, and John Barr, (Albany: University of the State of New York: 1932), Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, 1780, Samuel P. Fowler, Editor, Journal of Captain Samuel Page in the Campaign of 1779, with Notes Historical Collections of the Essex Institute IV, no. 6 (December 1862), Samuel P. Fowler, Editor, Journal of Captain Samuel Page in the Campaign of 1779, with Notes Historical Collections of the Essex Institute V, no. 1 (February 1863), Washington Papers, Series 3b, Letterbook 6, Image Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9:

28 Magazine which I had endeavored to establish at West Point for the security of the garrison in case of sudden investiture. 70 Given their necessary relationship to each other, the flour storehouse and bake ovens would have been located in relatively close proximity to each other. Most likely the, flour storehouse would have been located near to the Dock and Hudson River in the current location of North Dock, to simplify unloading and reduce the transportation requirements for the bulky barrels of flour, and the necessary firewood. West Point served as a major storehouse for the Continental Army, and was also intended to store enough provisions to enable it to survive a prolonged British siege. To hold these supplies, and protect them adverse weather, a number of storehouses or warehouses were constructed at West Point. Samuel DeWees, a young Pennsylvania Fifer, described several of these quartermaster buildings: The Quarter Master s Sergeant at a proper hour would take Sergeants and as many men as might be necessary, and repaired to the store-house and slaughter-house, which were built at the edge of the North River and extending some distance into the river. These buildings were very large. These men always took poles with them that were kept for the purpose- that of carrying meat upon them to camp. They took also camp kettles with them for to carry Vinegar, Whiskey, &c. in to the camp. 71 Another young soldier, Cornelius Ten Broeck serving with the New Jersey Line, visited West Point and prepared a simple sketch of the post for this father Washington to Meshech Weare, et. al., August 27, 1780, George Washington Papers. 71 John Smith, Hanna Editor, A History of the Life and Services of Captain Samel DeWees, A Native of Pennsylvania and Soldier of the Revolutionary and Last Wars (Baltimore: Robert Neilson, 1844), George C. Beekman, Editor. Letters Received by Cornelius Ten Broeck of Rocky Hill, New Jersey from his Sons Cornelius and Peter Serving in the Continental Army, Magazine of American History II (1887),

29 Map Six Sketch of Storehouses and Landing, Fortress West Point, August 11, 1779 by Cornelius Ten Broeck This sketch is interesting in that it depicts store houses and landing to the north of Fort Arnold, and across the North River [Hudson River] from the northern end of Constitution Island, in the present location of North Dock. Villefranche s 1780 map confirms that from north to south the Wagon Yard, Commissary and Forage Yard were located immediately north of the modern North Dock, generally from North Dock to the vicinity of the modern Garrison Commander s Building (Building 681). The Forage Yard is specifically indicated as being located in the vicinity of the modern Directorate of Public Works (DPW, Building 667), between DPW and the Eisenhower Hall/DPW Parking Lot. This small undisturbed area occasionally yields 18 th century artifacts during periods of heavy rainfall or erosion. Finally, the 1779 Greenleaf map also depicts a number of buildings in the same general location, although they are not individually identified on the map. The location of another 18 th century structure has been confirmed through pedestrian surveys and amateur archaeology, this being the presumed foundation of a small building located immediately west of modern Pitcher Road, topographically upslope from North Dock. This small disturbed area occasionally yields 18 th century artifacts during periods of heavy rainfall or erosion. Both of these archaeological sites are recorded as West Point historic properties and are accordingly protected. 29

31 Map Eight Revolutionary War Logistical and Supply Buildings, West Point, 1779 by Captain Moses Greenleaf (Massachusetts Historical Society) 2.6 Wood Yard Firewood was absolutely critical to the survival of the Continental Army garrison at Fortress West Point. In addition to heating the soldiers huts and barracks, firewood was required for all laundry, washing and cooking. The operation of Baker General Ludwick s Bake Ovens required a continuous source of fuel. To facilitate this, a dedicated wood lot was established at West Point. 31

32 This wood lot provided the Continental Army with a central location at which firewood would be stored and issued. Given the extensive occupation of West Point and the large number of fortifications and other buildings whose construction required a considerable quantity of lumber and other wood, firewood soon became a valuable and scarce commodity. In fact, during the fall of 1780 it has been represented that the troops are burning the fascines and abattis about the fort area. 73 Establishment of a wood lot provided a location where the firewood could be guarded from pilferage. By 1780, all of the firewood in the vicinity of the garrison had been expended, and new firewood had to be cut up and down the river and transported to West Point for use. Orders issued October 18, 1780 and November 1, 1780 addressed this operation: As it is of the greatest importance that a proper supply of fuel should be secured before the navigation of the river is obstructed and the severe season sets in, no wood is to be delivered from the yard until further orders Each Regiment must for the present collect their fuel- one Boat is to be assigned to each Regiment for that purpose. A subaltern and twenty men acquainted with cutting wood to be appointed to attend at the wood yard to assist in unloading the vessels and cording the wood properly- The boats that are improved by the respective regiments for the purpose of bringing wood are either to be carefully secured at the place of landing or returned every night to Mr. Buckannon and the receipts taken up that the boat may not be damaged or lost. The severe storm admonishes to exation for the procuring of fuel & preparation for winter the A.D. Q Master [General] of the garrison will employ as many vessels up and down the river as are necessary and apply for such partys are wanted to load them. 74 In addition to firewood, this wood lot also provided a location where lumber dedicated to construction of buildings and fortifications could be stockpiled, and similarly protected. Washington wrote Lieutenant Colonel Udny Hay, Deputy Quartermaster General, on May 17, 1780: Be pleased to make immediate inquiry what number of the [artillery] platform Plank, which were cut last fall and brought down the River, still remain at Fish Kill or West Point, and give direction to Colonel Lewis to have the number made up to 1000 of the proper length and thickness. 75 General Orders for October 24 th and 26 th, 1780 noted: The great scarcity of Boards points out the most frugal use for them. The Brigades who Hutt are to be allowed no more than what is necessary for making Doors, windows & Bunks. No Boards to be issued from the Yard but by Express Orders from Head Quarters. 76 Further orders on October 26, 1780 noted: The D Q M Genl [Deputy Quartermaster General] will place to order all the Boards up and down the River Not wanted for immediate use to be collected and have them secured in some safe and proper place reported. 77 This wooden yard was a relatively large operation, as the following return of Planks & Boards on hand West Point 12 November 1782 indicates: - Two Inch Plank 42; - Inch & Half Boards 2, Inch Boards- 6, Benjamin Peabody Orderly Book WPA Transcription, Special Collections and Archives, U.S. Military Academy Library, West Point, New York, Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, Continental Army, 1780 In Isaac W. Hammond, Editor, Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society (Concord, New Hampshire: Ira C. Evans, 1889), 9:237; and Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, 151, Washington to Udny Hay, May 17, 1780 in Washington Papers. 76 German Regiment Orderly Book, Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9: Knox Papers, Reel 10,

33 The location of the wood lot is not documented on any historic maps; however the use of boats to transport firewood strongly suggests that the wood lot was located near the docks, presumably in the North Dock vicinity. 2.7 Sutlers and Civilian Activities There were relatively few civilians living within the immediate West Point vicinity when it was occupied by the Continental Army. The Charles Moore family had established a small farm complex at West Point, but this was occupied by the Continental Army upon its arrival, and Moore and his family would be forced to depart from his properties at West Point. 79 One scarce mention of civilians living in proximity to the Continental Army is provided by Brigade Quartermaster Abraham Tuckerman of the 1 st Massachusetts Brigade: Gave the Indian woman to wash 1 plain shirt, 1 ruff shirt, 2 stocks, 1 pr breeches, September 20, 1781." 80 His regiment was across the Hudson River from West Point in the vicinity of what is now Garrison during this timeframe. But although civilians from the Hudson Highlands were relatively few, the Continental Army did bring its own contingent of women and children with it. During the 18 th century, it was common practice for women and children to receive rations and pay from the army. Women were expected to perform laundry, tailoring, cooking, and assist in the hospital. Each unit was permitted to be accompanied by a certain number of women. An Orderly Book entry for November 17, 1780 addressed women and children with the West Point garrison: A return of the number of women and children who draw rations in their respective Brigades is to be given in immediately and specifying whether the former are married or unmarried. The Barrack Master will furnish a list of the names of the men and women with the number of children residing within the limits of the garrison not belonging to the army what occupation or employment they follow and whether they have in possession any public tents or other property. 81 These women and children would have shared the barracks and encampments of the Continental Army, and designated family housing or women s housing was not used at West Point during this timeframe. Attempting to discriminate between archaeological sites utilized by women and children, and traditional military use sites, is extremely difficult. 82 Sewing equipment such as pins and thimbles could just as easily have been used by male tailors as by women. Male hairstyles of the time used clay hair rollers and combs just as frequently as did women s hairstyles. Toys such as marbles and lead whizzers could just as easily have been used by bored young soldiers as by children. 83 The chance archaeological discovery of purely female items such as bone stays would be necessary to definitively identify a distaff site from the Continental Army s occupation of West Point. 79 Charles Moore Petitions Regarding His Property at West Point, March 22, 1782 and April 1, 1781, New York Legislative Papers, Albany, New York. 80 Receipt Book of Brigade Quartermaster Abraham Tuckerman, 1 st Massachusetts Brigade, April 26- November 26, American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts. 81 The Orderly Book of the New Jersey Brigade (Maxwell s), XIV: David R. Starbuck, The Identification of Gender at Northern Military Sites of the Late 18th Century In Elizabeth Scott, Editor, Those of Little Note: Gender, Race and Class in Historical Archaeology (Tucson and London: University of Arizona Press: 1994), William L. Calver and Reginald P. Bolton, History Written With Pick and Shovel (New York: New York Historical Society, 1950), 78-80; and Michael Cohn, Evidence of Children at Revolutionary War Sites Northeast Historical Archaeology 12 (1983),

34 Selling alcoholic beverages to the soldiers was strictly forbidden, but apparently entrepreneurs routinely found ways around these prohibitions. Some enterprising individuals established taverns aboard boats in the Hudson River: Head Quarters Moor s House 12 th August 79. It has been reported to the Commander-in-Chief that persons not properly licensed are selling liquor in the garrison and in the beats [boats] on the River. 84 Sutlers, private businessmen who were properly licensed to sell food and supplies to the soldiers, and liquors to the officers, operated in large numbers around West Point. Sutlers accompanied the army, and made their profit by selling to the officers and soldiers. Their presence frequently appeared in General Orders: May 13, No sutler at or near this post, shall sell any liquor to any Non Commissioned Officers, or Soldier, without an order from his Officer in writing, on penalty of having their liquor taken from them, for the Publick Use. July 7, No sutler in the garrison or it vicinity will presume to sell spirituous liquor to Non Commissioned Officers or Soldier, without a written order from their Officers under pain of military punishment, also all Sutlers at or near to West Point report their names at Head Quarters immediately, and the prices they sell liquors at. 85 October 29, It appears by the returns that great numbers of persons are suttling at this post, none are to presume to do after publication of this order but such as are licensed or those who former licenses are approv d and confirmed at Head Quarters. 86 November 23, It is observed that there are a number of huts erecting for sutlers in the vicinity of camp, some of whom by improper conduct have already been driven from the Post of West Point- The Gen l requests Major Gen l Gates will be pleased to call upon the Commanding Officers of Brigades who are previously to consult the Commanding Officers of Regiments and fix with them upon the number and names of those who are to be allowed [to] suttle, that they may be reported at the Q r Master Gen ls Office and regularly licensed any person presuming to retail liquors to the soldiers without such license will have them seized and confiscated for public use, and their houses if they have any instantly pulled down. 87 Contained within the Knox Papers are two returns of civilians and sutlers recorded by the Continental Army to be living in proximity to either Butter Milk Falls (current Highland Falls) or West Point. 84 The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel James Chambers, 512; and O Neill, The Orderly Book of the Seventh Pennsylvania Regiment, Orderly Book of Adjutant Caleb Clap. 86 The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, XIV: Lauber, Editor, Orderly Books of New York Regiments,

36 January 15, Names of Persons What Occupation How Long the Present Hath Been Their Place of Abode Remarks on the Distance from the Garrison Gabriel Furman None Particularly 2 Years At the Red House Henry Cronk Farmer 4 Years At a Place by the Name of West Grove 4 Miles from Garrison John Cronk Farmer 4 Years At the Same Place Hugh McLairnan [blank entry] 8 Years David Froat Farmer 4 Years Near the York Huts William Cronk Farmer 4 years Michael O Kelly Carrier 3 Years At the Foot of the Mountains 1 ½ Mile from Garrison Myal Fanet [Name Partially Illegible] Farmer 4 Years On the Road Towards the York Huts Eroch Carter Shoemaker 1 Year On the Road Towards the York Huts Mr. Eaton Sutler to the 1 st Massachusetts Brigade William Williams Farmer At Butter Milk Falls James Duncan Farmer 5 Years Betwixt Butter Milk Falls & the Garrison Aaron Thompson Sutler 2 Years In the Garrison Robert Dunlap Sutler 4 Years In the Garrison Able Buyenton Sutler 6 Months In the Garrison Joel Abbot Sutler 6 Months In the Garrison Robert Brandon Sutler 2 years In the Garrison Samuel Warrin Sutler 2 Years In the Garrison Joseph Mills Sutler 2 Years In the Garrison John Piercy Sutler 1 Year In the Garrison James Watson Sutler 4 Months In the Garrison Roger McGroth Sutler 2 Years In the Garrison John Clyan Sutler 8 Months In the Garrison James McMaster Sutler 4 Years In the Garrison John Millar Baker 2 Years In the Garrison Blandon Layness Baker 3 years In the Garrison Peter Futter Baker 3 Years In the Garrison Bates Sutler 2 years In the Garrison William Adams Formerly Barracks Master 1 ½ years In the Garrison John Elderken Sutler 2 Years In the Garrison John Bull Sutler 1 years In the Garrison Luther Bull Sutler 2 years In the Garrison 89 Knox Papers, Reel 8,

37 John Williams A Young Man Who Lives with Mr. Dunkin In addition to the established sutlers, the Continental Army also established a market at West Point for the few local residents to sell produce and other foodstuffs to the soldiers and officers of the garrison. Again, General Orders regulated the operation of the market: October 29, As the comfort and convenience of the garrison will be much promoted by a plentiful supply of provisions, poultry, cider, beer, &c. the neighboring inhabitants are invited to furnish this garrison with those articles they are to have free access to any of the landing or shores of the garrison (not interrupting the public business or going into any of the Forts) and will be protected from any insult or abuse- The interest of the garrison is so much involved in [this] matter that the Gen l assures himself that every one will exert himself to give it every encouragement. 90 The location of this market is not further identified; presumably it would have been placed on The Plain near Fort Clinton, or near North Dock. Being a transitory operation, archaeological evidence of such a market would be extremely limited. 2.8 Chapels and Religious Facilities It is not known that any chapels or religious facilities were constructed at West Point during the War for American Independence, although it is documented that religious services were regularly conducted by military chaplains with the Continental Army at the Fortress. 91 The Reverend Enos Hitchock with the Rhode Island Line of the Continental Army performed weekly divine services at West Point throughout a good portion of On May 1, 1781 Josiah Atkins of the 5 th Connecticut Regiment recorded: May the 1 st Continental Fast. It was observed & I heard a sermon, preach d by Mr Baldwin our chaplin, from 2 Chron 20 th. Latter clause of the 15 th and 17 th verses. It appear d the most exccellen [excellent] sermon I ever heard on that subject. 93 Mr. Baldwin was probably Abraham Baldwin, Brigade Chaplain. On April 19, 1778 Benjamin Gilbert with a Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Line at West Point recorded, In the after [noon] wee went Down the Hill to Exercise, and at four OClock we had a Sermon Preacht to us. 94 Gilbert s Regiment had been involved building Fort Putnam, and down the hill almost certainly refers to marching down from the Fort Putnam hill to a parade ground near Fort Clinton, now The Plain of West Point. On June 12, 1779 General Orders specified: No fatigue tomorrow, and the troops will clean and rest themselves, until 4 o clock in the afternoon, when the whole, not on duty, will attend Divine Service, in the front of Fort Arnold. 95 An entry in another Orderly Book dated July 3, 1780 similarly instructed: 90 The Orderly Book of the Lieutenant Colonel s Company, German Regiment, XIV: Private Zebulon Vaughan with the 5 th Massachusetts Infantry recorded regular sermons at West Point. Virginia Steele Wood, Editor, The Journal of Private Zebulon Vaughan, Revolutionary Soldier, Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine 113 (1979), 107, Weeden,, Diary of the Reverend Enos Hitchock, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 175, 182, 183, 193, 194, 207, 210, 211, 212, 213, Steven E. Kagle, Editor, The Diary of Josiah Atkins (New York: Arno Press, 1975), Rebecca D. Symmes, Editor, A Citizen-Soldier in the American Revolution: The Diary of Benjamin Gilbert in Massachusetts and New York (Cooperstown, New York: The New York State Historical Association, 1980), Fowler, Editor, Journal of Captain Samuel Page in the Campaign of 1779, Historical Collections of the Essex Institute V, no. 1 (February 1863), 5. 37

38 Garrison Orders July 3 rd. Tomorrow Field Officer Lt. Colonel Fernald [?] Adjutant Hawskell. Clinton s Brigade & the troops in the huts near that corps will attend prayer at retreating beating. General Clinton will appoint the place. General Poor s will do the like for that part of Brigade quartering in Fort Arnold & the train will attend [illegible] at same time. The Corps quartered in the Long Barracks & the old one opposite it will attend upon the parade between those buildings at the above hour. The commandant flatters himself that no arguments are necessary to induce the officers to duty so solitary in its consequence whether it be confided in a religious or political light & to show the troops by their example our adoration & gratitude to that God who has delivered the Army of American in various instances of impending ruin. 96 Most likely, as is documented to have occurred in June 1779 and July 1780, religious services were simply performed within the established Continental Army camps or parade grounds, as no references to the construction of chapels, churches, or any facility for religious worship at West Point has been located. 2.9 Encampments Throughout the Revolution a large number of permanent barracks, hut encampments, and tent encampments were constructed at West Point. The location of most of these encampments is no longer extant, as 225 years of military occupation and construction at West Point has taken over their sites. Some details on camp sites at West Point are provided by Benjamin Gilbert, who served with the Continental Army at the fortress. Aprill the 6 th [1778] We Landed and Pitched our Tents. The 7 th. We built a Chimney to our tent and raised it with Boards. The 9 th. I went over the River to Fort Constitution and got some Nails and made a Slow Bonk [probably meaning a slab bunk ]. The 17 th. A very windy Day. We puld Down the Chimney to our tent & built it a new. June the 16 th. I histed [hoisted or raised] our tent with Brush and Moved down into it. 97 A Company Orderly Book from the 3 rd New Hampshire Regiment also mentioned on October 10, 1780: Chimneys are not to be built to the officers and solders tents until an order from the Commanding officer of the Post may be obtained for that Purpose which was by Col o Hazen Verbally Communicated to the Brigade Major yesterday at the time the Troops Marched on the ground Such officers and solders of Col o Hazen and the 3 N: Hampshire Regiment as have built chimneys or prepared stones for that purpose are to remove them off the incamping ground without delay- Kitchens are to be made for the officers and men. 98 A similar, although later, also address the use of chimneys in tents: October 29, The troops are allowed to put Chimneys to their tents and can make themselves comfortable in them until their huts can be built. And November 2, The Commander in Chief requests the Officers to be very attentive in seeing that the tops of the Chimneys are carried above the tents to prevent their being scorched by the heat or fired by the sparks Eleazor Everett Orderly Book, 1780, Orderly Book, 3d Massachusetts Brigade (Paterson), West Point, July August , William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 97 Rebecca D. Symmes, Editor, A Citizen-Soldier in the American Revolution: The Diary of Benjamin Gilbert in Massachusetts and New York (Cooperstown, New York: The New York State Historical Association, 1980), 29, 30, Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9: Lauber, Editor, Orderly Books, New York Regiments, 694,

39 And on October 24, 1780 instructions were issued regarding the construction of winter huts: The great scarcity of boards points out the most single use of them the Brigades who hut are to be allowed no more than are necessary for making doors windows and bonks [bunks]. 100 A previous Orderly Book entry also noted the use of boards for bunks: March 22, 1779 as the barracks Col. Wessons Regt. now occupies are much out of repair they are to be excused from duty at present, for the purpose of repairing them. The chimney to be made immediately, and boards to make bunks will be had very soon. 101 Although shingles are not specified as a standard construction material for soldier s huts, this apparently did not deter the soldiers, for on January 14, 1782 in the West Point Garrison Orderly Book it was noted that: the shingles intended for hospital reported stolen by some soldiers of the 1 st Brigade. 102 These huts provided reasonably comfortable lodgings for the soldiers. Doctor James Thacher, a Regimental Surgeon with a Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Line, record: January, The huts which we now occupy were erected the last winter by some of the Massachusetts troops, a short distance from the banks of the Hudson, and called New Boston; they afforded us a very convenient and comfortable accommodation. 103 Fortunately, three campgrounds remain intact at West Point. The first of these actually contains two components and is located in proximity to Redoubt No. 4. A small hut encampment, most likely associated with the permanent garrison of Redoubt No. 4, is located immediately to the west of the redoubt. A small number of prominent hut sites are located in this vicinity. A larger regimental camp, probably occupied during construction of the redoubt in 1779, or possibly a summer encampment, is located to the southwest of the redoubt. This camp was marked on a 1779 West Point map by Captain Moses Greenleaf of the 11 th Massachusetts Regiment [Maps Nine and Ten]. The location of this camp was confirmed by a limited archaeological investigation in 2004, which confirmed the presence of one hut site. 104 Additional archaeological investigations have been tentatively scheduled for this campground in 2006, to attempt to ascertain the precise encampment boundaries, and the locations of specific activities such as kitchens, parade fields, sinks (necessaries or latrines), etc. The second encampment site is located immediately to the north of Redoubt No. 3. In August 2005 an archaeological survey that emphasized the use of metal detectors was performed by a volunteer organization, Battlefield Restoration and Archaeological Volunteer Organization (BRAVO) which has a well established record of performing similar archaeological investigations at Monmouth Battlefield, New Jersey; Cooch s Bridge Battlefield, Delaware; and other battlefield locations from the American War for Independence. The results of this investigation revealed a nicely defined camp site, most certainly occupied by the New York Brigade during the winter of , as General Orders issued during that timeframe 100 Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9: Orderly Book, Continental Army, February 12, 1779 July 8, WPA Transcription, Special Collections and Archives, U.S. Military Academy Library, West Point, New York, 10; and Orderly Book of Caleb Clap. 102 Brister, Army Medical Services, Thacher, Military Journal, Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Cultural Resources Investigation of a Possible Tent Encampment Area Associated with Redoubt 4, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, Orange County, New York (West Point, New York: Directorate of Public Works, U.S. Military Academy, December 2005). 39

40 instructed that: the New York Brigade to Hut in the woods as near Redoubt No. 3 as the ground will admit. 105 This survey revealed the boundaries of the camp and the presence of a parade ground/drill field to its rear. Based upon the presence of numerous nails and spikes, a rough approximation of the camp layout was ascertained by the West Point GIS Department. When combined with previous pedestrian surveys of the redoubt site, a well defined redoubt complex can be ascertained. This complex includes a camp site, parade ground, dedicated cooking/kitchen area, storehouse, guard house, powder magazine, unloading place for wagons and carriages, redoubt and detached battery, and access road [Figure One]. Similar activities would have been present at every redoubt at West Point. In particular, the alignment of the encampment with the main regimental camp clustered in company alignments of huts, with individual officers huts on higher ground over looking the camp, and the kitchen located off to the side and rear, is similar to the well documented Continental Army encampments at Valley Forge, Morristown and New Windsor. It is also in conformance with a painting of an American Continental Army encampment portrayed by American Artist Charles Wilson Peale in a portrait of Pennsylvania Colonel Walter Stewart [Figure Two]. Stewart s painting is believed to have been sketched in the spring of 1781, which is consistent with the encampment of the New York Brigade at Redoubt No Finally, a third small encampment is located in the vicinity of Round Pond, guarding the Continental Army Road from West Point across Storm King Mountain. This encampment is a small collection of hut sites, confirmed through pedestrian surveys and amateur archaeology. This encampment site has never been the site of a professional archaeological investigation, but is believed to be nearly entirely intact. It is recorded as a West Point historic property, is protected by appropriate signage, and is regularly patrolled by Military Police Game Wardens to ensure that it is not disturbed by relic hunters or pot hunters. 105 Orderly Book of Captain Daniel Livermore s Company, 9:220; and West Point Garrison Orderly Book, John U. Rees, As Many Fireplaces as you have tents Earthen Camp Kitchens. Accessed on-line at on February 21, 2006; and Edward W. Richardson, Standards and Colors of the American Revolution (Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982),

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Hopewell Archeology: The Newsletter of Hopewell Archeology in the Ohio River Valley Volume 6, Number 1, September 2004 5. New Discoveries Right in Our Own Front Yard: Preliminary Results of Recent Research

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Green River The first known settlement at the site of present-day Green River came in 1878 when a mail route was established between Salina and Ouray, Colorado by way of Moab. The first mail station was