China in 2007

Originally published in the Britannica Book of the Year. Presented as archival content. Learn more.

This article was originally published in the Britannica Book of the Year, an annual print publication that
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In China the notable political events of 2007 were the holding of the Fifth Plenary Session of the 10th National People’s Congress in March and the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in October. The former was the scene of some breaks with convention and a shift toward populist politics, while the October congress was widely seen as having failed to achieve the complete consolidation of power by Pres. Hu Jintao that most Chinese and foreign observers had expected.

The March National People’s Congress was attended by representatives from China’s provinces and municipalities. In a first, foreign journalists were given unrestricted access to People’s Congress members. Premier Wen Jiabao’s government report for 2006 was seen as a departure from the norm insofar as it addressed populist issues. Heading the bill were pressing domestic issues such as health care, education, and rural poverty, but the report also dwelled at some length on more-sensitive issues such as the environment and corruption, particularly in relationship to real estate—an area that had seen large-scale collusion between business and local political interests. (SeeSpecial Report.)

Wen paid particular attention in his report to the Three Rural Issues, or san nong, which referred to agriculture, rural communities, and peasants. He made a commitment to provide funding for infrastructure and new technologies to aid China’s more than 800 million rural dwellers, whose living standards and incomes dragged significantly behind China’s increasingly affluent urban population. Other issues addressed by Wen included the virtual absence of rural insurance and a new plan to provide basic rural health care. In terms of education, Wen made a commitment to abolish all tuition fees for rural children. In a rare hint at possible future political reform, Wen also spoke briefly of the need for “government transparency” and “public participation” in politics.

Perhaps of most significance at the Fifth Plenary Session, however, was the passing of the Property Law of the People’s Republic of China, which had failed to pass in seven readings since 2002 owing to content disputes. The law covered the creation, transfer, and ownership of property and was widely seen as an important development in the creation of a market economy and a civil code. Falling short of abolishing the constitutional right of the government to own all land, the law nevertheless provided new protections for owners of private homes, for businesses, and for farmers with long-term leases on land. The law, which covered both state and private ownership, had long been mired in controversy; more-conservative party members were critical of the legislation because it seemed to erode the fundamental principle that state ownership came first.

Hints at the need for political reform in the National People’s Congress came amid some unusually public debate on the subject in 2007. In a widely publicized speech in June, President Hu followed up on Wen’s March comments by acknowledging growing public demand for a say in political decisions. Although the president did not set an agenda for changes leading to increased participatory politics, he did say that changes should be expanded in an “orderly way.” In late September, in the Beijing magazine China Across the Ages, Li Rui, a 90-year-old former secretary to Mao Zedong, called for expanded citizens’ rights and limits to party power. Li argued that democratization needed to keep apace of market reforms if China was to maintain stability. His comments appeared on the eve of the CPC National Congress.

In the months ahead of the party congress, in which the CPC set government agenda for the next five years, an Internet crackdown was carried out. Across the country, police shut down IDCs (Internet data centres), the computers that Web sites rent to host their content. Meanwhile, ISPs (Internet service providers) voluntarily disabled forums and chat rooms that were possibly unacceptable to authorities. These moves came amid international criticism that Beijing was violating a commitment to the International Olympics Committee that it was prepared to make substantial improvements in human rights ahead of the 2008 Olympics.

The CPC National Congress began on October 15 in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. It voted in a new Central Committee, which endorsed a new Political Bureau and Political Bureau Standing Committee, the innermost circle of power in China. The Central Committee elevated four new members to the Political Bureau Standing Committee, but only one of them, Li Keqiang, party secretary of Liaoning province, owed his promotion to Hu’s patronage. Shanghai party boss Xi Jinping also joined the Political Bureau Standing Committee. Outranking Li, he was considered more likely to succeed Hu in 2012 as chief of state. Hu’s retired predecessor, Jiang Zemin, was said to have had broad influence ahead of the National Congress in the negotiations on the new leadership lineup.

A reshuffle of the People’s Liberation Army top brass, with older officers retiring in favour of a younger lineup, reflected Hu’s dominance as chairman of the Central Military Commission. Of particular note was that Hu promoted a number of generals with Taiwan-affairs experience—most prominently a new chief of general staff, Gen. Chen Bingde, who had previously served as head of the Nanjing Military Region, which had direct responsibility for the Taiwan Strait.

The promotions were a sign of increasingly icy relations with Taiwan ahead of a Taipei referendum to enlist support for a UN membership bid under the name Taiwan rather than the Republic of China. Under the leadership of Taiwanese Pres. Chen Shui-bian, the self-ruled island in 2007 continued to make no concessions to China’s claims of sovereignty, failing to open up Taiwan to Chinese tourism and refusing to allow the Olympic torch to pass through Taiwan on its way to Beijing.

In 2007 China’s economy continued its meteoric rise. GDP grew at around 11%; the trade surplus approached $260 billion at year’s end; foreign exchange reserves were up a spectacular $135.7 billion in the first quarter of 2007 from year’s end 2006; and the Chinese renminbi continued to appreciate against the U.S. dollar at an annual rate of about 5%. In late September the Chinese government launched Asia’s biggest state-owned investment company—a $200 billion sovereign wealth fund—after massive trade surpluses boosted the country’s currency reserves to a record $1.33 trillion. Such good news came, however, amid a rising tide of voices warning of risks and challenges. The main areas of concern were surging inflation—which reached a 10-year high in 2007—an emerging stock-market bubble, the environmental fallout from China’s fast-growing economy, and corruption.

In August consumer-price inflation surged to 6.5%, while fixed-asset investment in urban areas jumped 26.7% in the first half of 2007 year on year, prompting China’s highest leadership to call on officials at all levels to take steps to stop the economy from overheating. The call followed a warning in May by the National Bureau of Statistics that the economy was “at risk of going from rapid growth to overheating.” Beijing responded at midyear by raising benchmark interest rates for the fourth time since April 2006 and raising banks’ reserve ration requirement for the eighth time since July 2006. Meanwhile, China’s benchmark Shanghai Composite index continued to reach record highs throughout 2007, having surged more than 400% in the past two years despite government attempts to cool the market by imposing transaction taxes and higher interest rates.

Chinese exporters struggled to redeem their image after a succession of product recalls of tainted goods. Safety scares emerged over Chinese shipments of dangerous and toxic lead-tainted toys as well as toxic toothpaste, seafood, and automotive tires, among other goods. Early in the year, more than 100 pet-food products were pulled from American shelves, and toy manufacturer Mattel, Inc., recalled nearly 20 million Chinese-made products, most of which contained lead-tainted paint. In July the former head of China’s State Food and Drug Administration was executed for having taken $850,000 in bribes from eight pharmaceutical companies and for having approved fake drugs during his tenure (1998–2005). In September the government appointed Vice-Premier Wu Yi to head a panel tasked with overseeing a four-month war on tainted food, drugs, and exports.

Workers make dolls at a toy factory in Guangdong province, China. Safety scares emerged during the …

Imaginechina/AP

Corruption hit the headlines with the prosecution in late July of former Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu. Chen had been the subject of a high-profile one-year investigation after some $390 million was found to be missing from Shanghai’s pension fund. Another 20 local officials were implicated. For some observers the prosecution was evidence that China was doing more to combat what was seen as an endemic problem, but for others the Chen case was simply the tip of the iceberg, and his prosecution was seen, at least in some quarters, as being politically motivated by his association with the so-called Shanghai clique, political rivals to President Hu and Premier Wen.

The environmental consequences of China’s economic boom came under increased government scrutiny. Reports emerged showing that just 1% of China’s approximately 560 million urban residents were breathing air considered safe by the European Union, and some 500 million people lacked access to clean drinking water. A 2007 World Bank report said that some 500,000 Chinese died annually as a result of pollution. Meanwhile, China was expected to become the global leader in terms of greenhouse emissions by the end of 2007. This toxic side effect of China’s economic success story was thought to be behind thousands of incidents of social unrest across the country, and in July the head of China’s environmental agency, Zhou Shengxian, called for a “struggle” against polluters. Most such incidents passed unreported, owing to a muzzled media, but in May thousands of people in Xiamen, Fujian province, took to the streets to protest a dirty petrochemical plant. Another sign of China’s growing environmental crisis was an outbreak of toxic cyanobacteria in Lake Tai in the Yangtze River delta; water supplies for nearly two million people were poisoned.

Foreign Relations

There were signs in 2007 that China was moderating its foreign policy—possibly ahead of the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008—so as to be more of a global “team player,” particularly in its most contentious foreign policy alignments: North Korea, Myanmar (Burma), and The Sudan.

China had long been North Korea’s most important ally, but after a test explosion of a nuclear device by North Korea in October 2006, China worked hard to bring North Korea to the negotiating table. Six-country negotiations early in 2007 succeeded in achieving a solution that saw North Korea agree to dismantle its nuclear program in return for compensation. China’s foreign policy came under intense pressure when monk-led protests erupted in Myanmar in September. Although China helped arrange for a UN envoy to visit Myanmar during the crisis and called on the government and demonstrators to show restraint, Beijing resisted calls for sanctions in keeping with its policy of noninterference in the internal affairs of other countries. Despite Beijing’s opposition, additional sanctions were imposed by the U.S. and the EU independently of the UN as the crisis continued into October, and China increasingly came to be seen as Myanmar’s major backer despite the fact that India, Russia, and Thailand also had important relationships with the ruling junta in Yangon. For China, the long-term significance of the crisis was that its support for the Myanmar government was seen as support for other countries with controversial human rights records.

China also continued to oppose international sanctions against the Sudanese government but allowed UN Security Council Resolution 1769, authorizing the deployment of peacekeepers to The Sudan, and helped persuade the Sudanese government to accept them. Like Myanmar, The Sudan was an important source of natural resources, and China imported 7% of its oil supplies from there. In a sign of the close relations between the Sudanese government and China, President Hu visited The Sudan in February. China also committed to investing $20 billion in Africa in 2007. This commitment brought China closer to Zimbabwean Pres. Robert Mugabe, whose regime was increasingly dependent on Chinese aid.

Relations with the U.S. got off to a rocky start after China shot down a weather satellite during an unannounced test, demonstrating the country’s military-space capabilities. Continuing trade tensions led U.S. lawmakers to introduce legislation intended to force China to revalue its currency. While attending the annual Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit in September, U.S. Pres. George W. Bush accepted an invitation by Hu to attend the 2008 Olympics, but in October Bush angered Beijing by appearing in public with the Dalai Lama as the exiled Tibetan spiritual leader received a Congressional Gold Medal at a ceremony in Washington, D.C. Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi condemned the appearance, stating that it “seriously wounded the feelings of the Chinese people and interfered with China’s internal affairs.”

Relations between Germany and China were also strained over the Dalai Lama after German Chancellor Angela Merkel met the spiritual leader in Berlin. In response to the meeting, China canceled human rights talks with Germany scheduled for December.

Sino-Japanese relations thawed as Premier Wen visited Japan in April and agreed to hold talks on disputes over territorial waters. The sudden resignation of Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in September elevated Yasuo Fukuda, who succeeded Abe. Fukuda’s moderate views on China promised to help improve relations between the two economic giants. Fukuda also indicated that as prime minister he would not visit the Yasukuni Shrine (where Japan’s war dead, notably those of World War II, are enshrined); trips by Japanese leaders to the memorial had proved a perennial irritant in Sino-Japanese relations.