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It might be because the Written Torah doesn't really go much into the topic. (Why that is so is a whole other question.) So people may have incorrectly concluded that these ideas weren't originally part of Judaism.
Another possibility is that they mean that we don't believe in the popular conception of Heaven (angels with harps) or of Hell (fiery lakes, ...

The idea that most talk about is that Judaism's gehinom is not a place for the damned as the christian hell is. It's spiritual rehabilitation. Although not everyone is zoche to this- I'm not privy to their fate. Suggested reading with a Rebbi: Derech Hashem. "Gan Eden" and "Gehinom" are our labels for a spiritual phase, not the actual Gan Eden/Gehinom ...

The general consensus is that Sheol/Gehinom/Hell is a place the soul is sent to post-mortem for a Purgatory-like cleansing for up to 12 months. According to Nachmanides in Sha'ar HaGemul quoting Pirkei D'Rabbi Eliezer, She'ol is the lowest level of Hell, also known as Gehinom. He also has the best description of what it is and is cited by pretty much ...

You wrote:
I understand that mainstream Judaism says that all sinners can do teshuva and will be forgiven their sins.
It's not only mainstream Judaism that belives in the concept of Teshuva!
Teshuva is explicitly mentioned in the Torah - see the Rambam on Teshuva who documents various mentions of Teshuva in the Torah.
In Chapter 4 the Rambam also ...

Hashem is the Ribon Kol HaOlamim, the Master of all Worlds.
While in other religions the "netherworld" etc. is seen as under the control of malevolent forces, Judaism doesn't believe that there is a power/force which serves as an opponent of G-d. Evil is necessary for free will and when that need has run its course it will no longer exist. HaSatan (The ...

Geheinom is the place where (after death) God punishes a person for violating mitzvot lo ta'aseh (prohibitions phrased in the Torah in the form of "Don't do such and such") in the world to come. The Zohar tells us that the maximum time one's soul will spend there is one year. After that, God brings one's soul to the Gan Eden (the garden of Eden), where God ...

It's explained that even after passing away, he doesn't lose his "worldly" desires (or his thought, speech, or action in this world). Therefore, when he goes to Shamayim, those improper "clothes" remain attached to the soul, and the soul can't remove them.
Therefore, to break that klipa, the soul is thrown down into a world of imagination, where he imagines ...

Sh'ol is a word common in T'hilim (Psalms) and is most easily translated (e.g., Radak 6:6) as "grave".
But it's sometimes (e.g., Radak 30:4) translated as "Hell". I'm sure another answer will address this possibility more fully, but those who did bad go there and it's unpleasant.

The Chid"a, in his Sefer Midbar Kedemot (Letter Gimmel, Section 12), brings R' Eliezer Nachman Pu'ah (also brought by the Chid"a in his Birchei Yosef O"C 419) who says that Gehenom does not rule on Shabbat, and Rosh Chodesh, but does rule on Yom Tov.
The Chid"a then says the he found a Mordechai on Tractate Pesachim who says the same thing.
The Chid"a ...

(This answer is given without any references to actual sources -- just the colloquial understanding. The actual picture differs somewhat, for example, in Derech Hashem.)
Christians believe hell is eternal. Jews believe that gehinnom is not (at least for the most part) -- one spends a maximum of 12 months in gehinnom being purified of his sins, and then ...

While I don't claim to know much Tanya (and indeed, the only reason I know what you're referring to is because it's in the first chapter, which is about as far as I got), the way I understood that exchange was if someone viewed themselves as a Rasha, then other issues could arise from that (i.e. depression), but not that a person couldn't do Teshuva. It ...

@Gershon's answer is spot on. But just in case not everyone agrees, I will offer another. You state in your comment that there are many ma'amarei chazal which state that Avraham was the first person to circumcise himself. This leads you to the presumption that Terach did not have a bris at all.
However see Rashi on 15:15 from Bereshis Rabbah 30:4 that ...

Gehennam is derived from gei Ben Hinnom, the valley of the son of Hinnom. Thus:
...are terms derived from a place outside ancient Jerusalem known in the Hebrew Bible as the Valley of the Son of Hinnom (Hebrew: גֵיא בֶן־הִנֹּם or גיא בן-הינום); one of the two principal valleys surrounding the Old City.
I suppose Mr. Ben Hinnom might have some claim to ...

Based on the Rekantti commentary, Breshit 19:27, towards the end.
We say during the weekdays at night "Vehu rachum..." because at that time of day the Din starts at the Gehenom. He then says that for that reason we don't say it in Erev Shabat.
Can we assume that whenever we don't say it, it means that there is no Din?

Supplementing, not supplanting, others' answers, may be the fact that our idea of what sends one to hell/paradise is different from Christians', who believe (as I understand it) in a default of going to hell. Perhaps that's why they think of us as not believing in hell.

Perceptions of Judaism in popular culture are not often based on scrupulous study of Jewish sources. The reason for the perception is because a vast majority of Jews belong to liberal denominations that do not want to talk about hell. In fact, the "Pittsburgh Platform" of Reform Judaism rejected belief in hell as foreign to Judaism:
We reassert the ...

Duma is a separate one as you suspected. My medrash puts a comma between them and sources 'gei' as geihinom mentioned in Yirmia 7, and Dumah is the place mentioned in psalm 115 17 'and not all those who go down to duma'.
In fact Duma is also the name of the malach associated with the dead in many agadata and medrashim, see for instance maseches Brachos 18b.
...

Why is it called "Gehinom" (lit. valley of screams)? Because the screams "hinom" roar out from one end of the world to the other. - meseches Gehinom quoted from Reishis Chachma - Shaar Yira Ch.13
found here
http://dafyomireview.com/gehinom.php footnote 1

here is a quote on the nature of olam haba from the classic work chovos halevavos (gate 4 ch.4)
Another reason (olam haba is not mentioned in the torah) is that the purpose of reward in Olam Haba is
essentially clinging to G-d, and drawing near to His supernal light,
as written "your righteousness will go before you, the glory of G-d
will gather ...

Sorry I don't have time to put together all the sources involved, but in general the basic confusion will come from the fact that there are two general views on the nature of Jewish eschatology, and you can read someone saying something about it and not quite know which model they are working with.
One is generally attributed to the Rambam. Call it the ...

There is a lot to untangle in your question, but to answer just one point:
So all humans die before Moshiach comes?
According to the Zohar (Mishpatim 108b. Also in Midrash Ne'elam Parshas Vayeirah 113-114), yes - well almost. It isn't before Moshiach comes, but before the time of resurrection, everyone alive will die, and those deserving resurrection ...

Gehinom is usually meant in Hazal to be what Yirmiyahu said, I just want to add that occasionally Hazal will speak about an extremely infamous and wicked person who is "there" forever. "Gan Eden" is used to refer to the "place" in the spiritual dimension that one either goes to after Gehinom to enjoy "proximity" with Hashem, or if one is exceptionally ...

I don't have any sources at the moment but the general impression is that Gehenom is not punishment per se, but the difficult process of the neshama divesting itself of the gashmius/physicality it indulged in in a prohibited manner throughout life and being cleansed for transgressions which one did not do proper teshuvah (repentance) for. Only the most ...