Lithuania's defence system is based on the concept of "total and unconditional defence" mandated by Lithuania's National Security Strategy. The goal of Lithuania's defence policy is to prepare their society for general defence and to integrate Lithuania into Western security and defence structures, the defence ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, and intelligence operations.[12]

The Lithuanian Land forces are undertaking a major modernization. New weapons and heavier armour are going to be acquired; in 2007 the Land forces bought the German Heckler & Koch G36 rifle to replace the older Swedish Ak-4 as main weapon. There are plans to buy new Infantry fighting vehicles. Lithuania is determined to restructure the armed forces so that from the end of 2014, one tenth of the Land Forces could at any given time be deployed for international operations, while half of the Land Forces would be prepared to be deployed outside Lithuania's borders.

The volunteers have already successfully participated in international operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. The NDVF consists of six territorial units.

The Lithuanian Air Force (LAF) is an integral part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces, the LAF is formed from professional military servicemen and non-military personnel. Units are located at various bases across Lithuania:

The initial formation of the LAF was the 2nd transport squadron with the transfer of 20 An-2 aircraft from civilian to military use, with initial basing at the Barushai air base on 27 April 1992, these were joined by four L-39C Albatros aircraft purchased from Kazakhstan as part of the intended 16 to be used by the 1st fighter (training) squadron.

The Navy has over 600 personnel, the Navy consists of the Warship Flotilla, the Sea Coastal Surveillance System, the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Divers Team, the Naval Logistic Service, Training Center and Maritime Rescue Coordination Center. The flotilla is the core component of the Navy, and consists of the Mine Countermeasures Squadron, the Patrol Ships Squadron, and the Harbour Boats Group,[14] the current Commander in Chief of the Lithuanian Navy is Rear Admiral Kęstutis Macijauskas. The Naval base and Headquarters are located in the city of Klaipėda,[15] the Navy uses patrol ships for coastal surveillance.

Lithuanian Special Operations Force (SOF) of Lithuanian Armed Forces has been in operation de facto since 2002 and it was established de jure on 3 April 2008, when amendments of National Defence System organisation and military service law came into force.[16] SOF is formed from the Special Operations Unit.[17]

SOF are responsible for the following tasks: special reconnaissance, direct actions, and military support, it is also in charge of other tasks, e.g., protection of VIP in peacetime. The core of the SOF is based on the Special Purpose Service, Vytautas the Great Jaeger Battalion and Combat Divers Service (CDS). Lithuanian Air Force Special Operations Element is subordinate to the Unit at the level of operations management.Structure of the SOF is flexible which makes it easy to form squadrons intended for concrete operations and missions from its elements, the SOF can be called upon inside the territory of Lithuania when law enforcement agencies lack or do not have necessary capabilities to react to terrorist attacks. Capabilities of special forces makes them the main national response force responsible for counter-terrorism operations and operations to prevent violations of sovereignty.[17]

Soon after restoration of independence, Lithuania applied for NATO membership in January 1994. Together with another six Central and Eastern European countries, Lithuania was invited to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in the 2002 Prague summit and became a member of the Alliance in March 2004. Lithuania entered NATO on full-fledged rights immediately after the procedures of joining the North Atlantic Treaty were completed and acquired rights to participate in the political decision-making process of the Alliance. Integration into the military structures of NATO became a long-term task of Lithuanian Armed Forces. Mechanised Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf" was affiliated to the Danish Division on the basis of agreements signed by Denmark and Lithuania in August 2006. Lithuanian Armed Forces started to boost ability of the Brigade to cooperate with the forces of other NATO members, as Lithuania and the other Baltic states do not have capabilities to secure their airspace, fighter jets of NATO members were deployed in Zokniai airport near the city Šiauliai to provide cover for the Baltic states airspace as soon as Lithuania acquired membership in the Alliance.[18]

Lithuania also cooperates with the two other Baltic states – Latvia and Estonia in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:

In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join NORDEFCO, the defence framework of the Nordic countries;[20] in November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.[21] Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.[22]

1.
Lithuanian Land Force
–
The Lithuanian Land Forces form the backbone of the countrys defence force, capable of acting as an integral part of NATO forces. Lithuanian Land Forces consist of three brigades, the Engineer Battalion, and the National Defence Volunteers Division, the main element of the Land Forces is a single mechanised infantry brigade, the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade. This is formed around three mechanized infantry battalions and a battalion, all named after Lithuanian grand dukes as the tradition of the Lithuanian Armed Forces goes. The Explosive Ordnance Disposal Platoon is ready to participate in international operations, as an integral part of the Land Forces, the National Defence Volunteers have been developing since the beginning of the national movement for independence. To bring them up to NATO standards, current efforts focus on upgrading equipment and armaments, enhancing their operational effectiveness, the standard service assault rifle of the Lithuanian Armed Forces is the Heckler & Koch G36 and the standard pistol is the Glock 17. The Lithuanian Land Forces are also equipped with guns, including the GPMG MG-3, the FN MAG. The army also uses high-technology Lithuanian-made tactical automated commanding and controlling informational systems, Lithuanian Land Forces are formed from professional military servicemen and volunteers. In 2008 the minister of defence of Lithuania signed a law that ceased conscription in an effort to develop Lithuanias professional army. National defence is based on forces and mobilisation forces. The new minister plans to increase national defence capabilities by making all males from 18 to 24 take 7 week military basic training, after that the person will be added to the military reserves. The military conscription has been renewed in 2015 with a first draft of approx,3000 draftees including volunteers, who will be assigned to military units starting from August 2015 and will complete a 9-month basic training. The updated law specifies that a draft of 3000 soldiers annually will continue at least until 2020, Lithuania has participated in international missions in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Bosnia. The main force is currently in Afghanistan.0 Unported License, all relevant terms must be followed. Lithuanian Ministry of Defence site Stefan Marx, Lithuanias Defence Structure, Janes Intelligence Review, September 1993, p. 407–409

2.
Lithuanian Special Operations Force
–
The Lithuanian Special Operations Force is a special operation unit of the Lithuanian Armed Forces, formed exclusively of carefully selected, motivated and specially trained professionals. The main tasks of the Special Operations Force are counter terrorism, special reconnaissance, SOF is formed from the Special Operations Unit. The structure of the Lithuanian Special Operations Force is flexible which makes it easy to form squadrons intended for operations and missions from its elements. The core of the Lithuanian SOF is, Special Purpose Service, Vytautas the Great Jaeger Battalion, Combat Divers Service, one of the main missions of the Lithuanian Special Operations Force is counter-terrorism operations beyond the territory of Lithuania. The SOF also carries out special missions, direct action, special reconnaissance, rescue of hostages. The SOF can be called upon inside the territory of Lithuania when law enforcement agencies lack necessary capabilities to react to terrorist attacks, soon after Lithuania re-established its independence from the Soviet Union on March 11,1990, the need arose to form armed units. One of the first such units was Aukščiausiosios Tarybos Apsaugos Skyrius, one of the main tasks of this unit was to protect the Lithuanian Parliament. In the following years, the Lithuanian army underwent various restructuring processes, unofficial formation of the Special Purpose Service was started in 1995, after two more years the Service was officially established. After the 9/11 terror attacks, the tasks of the Special Purpose Service became counter-terrorism, terrorist liquidation. Members of the Special Purpose Service are called Žaliukai, meaning green-men and were named after the Forest Brothers, after a 2007 reorganization, the Combat Divers Service was established, whose main task became special underwater and surface operations. Among the most secretive Lithuanian Special Operations Force units are referred to by the codename Aitvaras. The first public acknowledgment of the existence of Specialiųjų Operacijų Junginys Aitvaras was in 2000, the Lithuanian Special Operations Force units have participated in a number of missions. From 2002 to 2004 squadrons of the Aitvaras were deployed to the Enduring Freedom operation in Afghanistan, preparedness and execution of tasks by the SOF squadrons have been especially noted by the coalition partners. From 2005 to 2006, the Lithuanian Special Operations Force was on the operational half-year stand-by period in the NATO Response Force, since the autumn 2007, SOF have taken part in the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force mission in southern Afghanistan. In 2008 soldiers of the SOF continued their service in the NATO Response Force

Lithuanian Special Operations Force
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SOF insignia

3.
Vilnius
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Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 542,664 as of 2015. Vilnius is located in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states, Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania as well as of the Vilnius District Municipality. Vilnius is classified as a Gamma global city according to GaWC studies and its Jewish influence until the 20th century has led to it being described as the Jerusalem of Lithuania and Napoleon named it the Jerusalem of the North as he was passing through in 1812. In 2009, Vilnius was the European Capital of Culture, together with the Austrian city of Linz, the name of the city originates from the Vilnia River. The city has also known by many derivate spellings in various languages throughout its history. The most notable names for the city include, Polish, Wilno, Belarusian, Вiльня, German, Wilna, Latvian, Viļņa, Russian, Вильнюс, Yiddish, ווילנע ‎, Czech. A Russian name from the time of the Russian Empire was Вильна/Вильно, the name Vilna is still used in Finnish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Hebrew. Wilna is still used in German, along with Vilnius, the neighborhoods of Vilnius also have names in other languages, which represent the languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the area. Historian Romas Batūra identifies the city with Voruta, one of the castles of Mindaugas, during the reign of Vytenis a city started to emerge from a trading settlement and the first Franciscan Catholic church was built. These letters contain the first unambiguous reference to Vilnius as the capital, According to legend, Gediminas dreamt of an iron wolf howling on a hilltop and consulted a pagan priest for its interpretation. He was told, What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus, the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, the location offered practical advantages, it lay within the Lithuanian heartland at the confluence of two navigable rivers, surrounded by forests and wetlands that were difficult to penetrate. The duchy had been subject to intrusions by the Teutonic Knights, Vilnius was the flourishing capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the residence of the Grand Duke. Gediminas expanded the Grand Duchy through warfare along with strategic alliances and marriages, at its height it covered the territory of modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of modern-day Poland and Russia. His grandchildren Vytautas the Great and Jogaila, however, fought civil wars, during the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392, Vytautas besieged and razed the city in an attempt to wrest control from Jogaila. The two later settled their differences, after a series of treaties culminating in the 1569 Union of Lublin, the rulers of this federation held either or both of two titles, Grand Duke of Lithuania or King of Poland. In 1387, Jogaila acting as a Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło, the city underwent a period of expansion. The Vilnius city walls were built for protection between 1503 and 1522, comprising nine city gates and three towers, and Sigismund August moved his court there in 1544

4.
Mali
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Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of just over 1,240,000 square kilometres, the population of Mali is 14.5 million. The countrys economy centers on agriculture and fishing, some of Malis prominent natural resources include gold, being the third largest producer of gold in the African continent, and salt. About half the population lives below the poverty line of $1.25 a day. A majority of the population are Muslims, present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade, the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. During its golden age, there was a flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, literature, at its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire covered an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of Africa. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, French Sudan joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegals withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, a conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of by April and declared the secession of a new state. The conflict was complicated by a coup that took place in March. In response to Islamist territorial gains, the French military launched Opération Serval in January 2013, a month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second round held on 11 August. The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire, the name was originally derived from the Mandinka or Bambara word mali, meaning “hippopotamus”, but it eventually came to mean the place where the king lives. The word carries the connotation of strength, D. Niane suggests in Sundiata, An Epic of Old Mali that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors. 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was indeed called Mali and this name could have formerly been that of a city. In old Mali there is one village called Malikoma which means “New Mali. ”Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples. It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/, Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities

Mali
–
The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone.
Mali
Mali
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Griots of Sambala, king of Médina (Fula people, Mali), 1890.
Mali
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Cotton being processed in Niono into 180 kg (400 lb) bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France, c. 1950.

5.
Denmark
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Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth

6.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

7.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

8.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

9.
Lithuanian-Soviet War
–
The Lithuanian–Soviet War or Lithuanian–Bolshevik War was fought between newly independent Lithuania and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in the aftermath of World War I. It was part of the larger Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919, the offensive followed retreating German troops with intentions to establish Soviet republics in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland and link up with the German Revolution. By the end of December 1918 Soviet forces reached Lithuanian borders, largely unopposed, they took one town after another and by the end of January 1919 controlled about ⅔ of the Lithuanian territory. In February the Soviet advance was stopped by Lithuanian and German volunteers, who prevented the Soviets from capturing Kaunas, from April 1919 the Lithuanian war went parallel with the Polish–Soviet War. Poland had territorial claims over Lithuania, especially the Vilnius Region, in mid-May the Lithuanian army, now commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas, began an offensive against the Soviets in northeastern Lithuania. By mid-June the Lithuanians reached the Latvian border and cornered the Soviets among lakes and hills near Zarasai, the Soviets and Lithuanians, separated by the Daugava River, maintained their fronts until the Battle of Daugavpils in January 1920. As early as September 1919 the Soviets offered to negotiate a peace treaty, the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty was signed on July 12,1920. Soviet Russia fully recognized independent Lithuania, Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire after the final partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. During World War I Lithuania was occupied by Germany and made part of Ober Ost, on February 16,1918 the Council of Lithuania declared independence from both Germany and Russia. Three weeks later, the Bolsheviks, encumbered with the Russian Civil War, sued for peace with the Central Powers and they renounced Russian claims to Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. However, the Lithuanians were only allowed minimal autonomy and could not establish de facto independence and that changed when Germany lost the war and signed the Compiègne Armistice on November 11,1918. Lithuania soon began organizing basic institutions, and established their first government led by Augustinas Voldemaras, on November 13,1918, the Soviet Russian government renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had assured Lithuanias independence. The Bolshevik Western Army followed retreating German troops maintaining a distance of about 10–15 kilometres between the two armies, demoralized Germans often left valuable armaments and other equipment to the Soviets. The Soviets attempted to spread the global revolution and sought to establish Soviet republics in the region. They saw Baltic states as a barrier or a bridge into Western Europe, where they could join the German, by the end of December 1918, Bolshevik forces reached eastern Lithuania. Augustinas Voldemaras, the first Prime Minister of Lithuania, did not believe that forming the military was a priority and he trusted that German mercenaries would protect Lithuania until the upcoming Paris Peace Conference could establish peace. Residents organized local self-defense units to themselves from retreating Germans. The first laws regarding the army were not issued until November 23, some Lithuanians, who had served in the Russian army during the World War, returned to Lithuania and started organizing battalions in Kaunas, Hrodna, Alytus

Lithuanian-Soviet War
–
Soviet prisoners of war in a Lithuanian camp. As of December 1, 1919 Lithuanians held 1,773 Soviet soldiers.

10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

11.
Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina

12.
Kosovo Force
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The Kosovo Force is a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation-led international peacekeeping force which was responsible for establishing a secure environment in Kosovo. KFOR entered Kosovo on 12 June 1999, two days after the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1244, at the time, Kosovo was facing a grave humanitarian crisis, with military forces from the FRY and the KLA in daily engagement. According to NATO, Serb forces had committed ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians, nearly one million people had fled Kosovo as refugees. KFOR has gradually transferred responsibilities to the Kosovo Police and other local authorities, as of 23 May 2016, KFOR consisted of 4,600 troops. The Contact Group countries have said publicly that KFOR will remain in Kosovo to provide the security necessary to support the provisions of a settlement of Kosovos status. KFOR contingents were originally grouped into 4 regionally based multinational brigades, the brigades were responsible for a specific area of operations, but under a single chain of command under the authority of Commander KFOR. At its height, KFOR troops numbered 50,000 and came from 39 different NATO and non-NATO nations, the official KFOR website indicated that in 2008 a total 14,000 soldiers from 34 countries were participating in KFOR. The following is a list of the number of troops which have participated in the KFOR mission. According to Amnesty International, most women trafficked into Kosovo from abroad are from Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, since the KFOR entered Kosovo in June 1999,168 NATO soldiers have been killed, mostly in accidents. On 19 October 2004, it was confirmed that 115 NATO soldiers had killed during the operation. After that 50 more NATO soldiers were confirmed to have died, eight UNMIK police officers have been killed in Kosovo since 1999, in addition to the KFOR fatalities. The fatalities by country are,3 American,1 Indian,1 Jordanian,1 Nigerian,1 Ghanaian and 1 Ukrainian police officer, in July 2011, following the Kosovo Polices attempts to seize two border outposts and consequent clashes that followed, KFOR troops intervened. In 2013, KFOR was involved in an operation of the last restaurant bears in Kosovo. The bears are now kept at the Bear Sanctuary Prishtina, KFOR Placemap KFOR official site K-For, The task ahead First deaths in K-For operation Memorial honors soldiers sacrifices June 2002,68 soldiers have died since KFOR entered Kosovo. Nato force feeds Kosovo sex trade Radio KFOR

13.
Alytus
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Alytus is a city with municipal rights in southern Lithuania. It is the capital of Alytus County and its population in 2013 was 57,281. Alytus is the centre of the Dzūkija region. The city lies on the banks of the Nemunas River, the major roads linking Vilnius, Kaunas, Lazdijai, and Hrodna in Belarus pass through Alytus. The name is derived from the Lithuanian hydronym Alytupis, in other languages the names of the town include German, Aliten, Olita, Polish, Olita, Russian, Олита Olita, Belarusian, Аліта Alita, Yiddish, אליטע Alite. The first historical record of Alytus dates back to 1377, when it was mentioned in the Chronicles of Wigand of Marburg under the name of Aliten, according to the chronicle the spot was occupied by a small, wooden fortress guarding the Lithuanian frontier with the Teutonic Order. The fort and the village gradually grew, despite being frequently a target of raids of both the Lithuanians and the Teutons. The Treaty of Lake Melno left the town on the Teutonic side of the border, on 15 June 1581 Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Stefan Batory granted the town the city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The event is celebrated as the Alytus Day, the town was also important as the place where one of the royal economic offices was located. In the third partition of Poland and Lithuania, in 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, following the Treaty of Tilsit, the western part was ceded to the Duchy of Warsaw. After the Congress of Vienna it became part of the successor state. Although the state was tied with a union with Russia. After that date the autonomy of Poland was liquidated, but both parts of the town remained governed separately, in the late 19th century the town was incorporated into a chain of Russian fortified garrisons along the border with East Prussia. It was tied with the rest of the world by a railway, in addition, the tsarist authorities constructed several barracks and an Orthodox church. However, despite the effort by the Russians, during World War I the Central Powers managed to capture the town intact. In 1915 the town was incorporated into the so-called Ober-Ost and both parts were again united into a single administrative entity - for the first time since 1795. Following the end of World War I the area remained contested by newly independent Poland and Lithuania, when the Germans withdrew in early 1919, the town was seized by the Red Army. On 12 February 1919 the town became a battlefield for the first skirmish between the Russians and the Lithuanian forces, which took control over it

14.
Kaunas
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Kaunas is the second-largest city in Lithuania and has historically been a leading centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaunas was the biggest city and the centre of a county in Trakai Municipality of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1413, in the Russian Empire it was the capital of the Kaunas Governorate from 1843 to 1915. It became the temporary capital city in Europe during the interwar period. Now it is the capital of Kaunas County, the seat of the Kaunas city municipality and it is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kaunas. Kaunas is located at the confluence of the two largest Lithuanian rivers, the Nemunas and the Neris, and near the Kaunas Reservoir, the citys name is of Lithuanian origins and most likely derives from a personal name. Before Lithuania regained independence, the city was known in English as Kovno, the traditional Slavicized form of its name, the Polish name is Kowno. An earlier Russian name was Ковно Kovno, although Каунас Kaunas has been used since 1940, the Yiddish name is Kovne, while its names in German include Kaunas and Kauen. The city and its elderates also have names in other languages, an old legend claims that Kaunas was established by the Romans in ancient times. These Romans were supposedly led by a patrician named Palemon, who had three sons, Barcus, Kunas and Sperus, Palemon fled from Rome because he feared the mad Emperor Nero. Palemon, his sons and other relatives travelled all the way to Lithuania, after Palemons death, his sons divided his land. Kunas got the land where Kaunas now stands and he built a fortress near the confluence of the Nemunas and Neris rivers, and the city that grew up there was named after him. There is also a region in the vicinity named Palemonas. On 30 June 1993, the coat of arms of Kaunas city was established by a special presidential decree. The coat of arms features a white aurochs with a cross between his horns, set against a deep red background. The aurochs is the heraldic symbol of the city since 1400. The heraldic seal of Kaunas, introduced in the early 15th century during the reign of Grand Duke Vytautas, is the oldest city heraldic seal known in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The current emblem was the result of study and discussion on the part of the Lithuanian Heraldry Commission. An aurochs has replaced a wisent, depicted in the Soviet era emblem, blazon, Gules, an aurochs passant guardant argent ensigned with a cross Or between his horns

15.
Conscription
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Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme

Conscription
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Ottoman janissaries
Conscription
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Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863.
Conscription
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Young men registering for conscription during World War I, New York City, June 5, 1917.
Conscription
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Soviet conscripts. Moscow, 1941.

16.
Cold War II
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Cold War II, also called the New Cold War, Second Cold War and Cold War 2. This is akin to the original Cold War that saw a confrontation between the Western Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union. American political scientist Robert Legvold posits that the ″new Cold War began the moment we went over the cliff, kuchins in 2016, believe that the term is ″unsuited to the present conflict, ″ but the situation is arguably more dangerous than during the original Cold War. Past sources, such as academics Fred Halliday and David S. Painter used the terms to refer to the 1979–1985. Michael Klare, a RealClearPolitics writer and an academic, in June 2013 compared tensions between Russia and the West to the ongoing conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran. The term Cold War II has therefore been described as a misnomer, tensions escalated in 2014 after Russias annexation of Crimea, and military intervention in Ukraine. Some observers − including Syrian President Bashar al-Assad − judged the Syrian Civil War to be a war between Russia and the US, and even a proto-world war. In January 2016, senior UK government officials were reported to have registered their growing fears that a new war was now unfolding in Europe. Right across the EU we are seeing alarming evidence of Russian efforts to unpick the fabric of European unity on a range of vital strategic issues. ”In an interview with TIME in December 2014. In April 2015, CNN reported that hackers had penetrated sensitive parts of the White House computers in recent months. It was said that the FBI, the Secret Service, and other U. S. intelligence agencies categorized the attacks among the most sophisticated attacks ever launched against U. S. government systems. ”Similarly, Igor Zevelev, CNN opined, Its not a new Cold War. Its not even a deep chill, meanwhile, the United States government accused the Russian government of interfering in the 2016 United States elections. The US intelligence community stated that Putin and the Russian Government developed a preference for President-elect Trump. Their assessment was made with high confidence, Russia said it had no involvement. Wikileaks founder Julian Assange said that Russia was not involved in the leaks, director of National Intelligence James R. President Barack Obama used the red line to directly contact Vladimir Putin. On December 29,2016, the U. S, in January 2017, a former government adviser Molly K. McKew said at Politico that the US would win the new Cold War if the War happens. Heer also criticized McKew for supporting the possibility, josh Keefe of International Business Times wrote that an increasing military presence in Eastern Europe led multiple US and Russian experts to fret about a new Cold War

Cold War II
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Vladimir Putin (pictured aboard battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy), leader of Russia since 2000, famously described the collapse of the Soviet Union in 2005 as "the greatest geopolitical catastrophe" of the 20th century, which left tens of millions of Russians beyond the borders of Russia.
Cold War II
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Top ten military expenditures in billions of US dollars in 2013
Cold War II
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The Russian Air Forcestrategic bomberTu-160, pictured being intercepted by an RAFTornado F3 (below), is to carry up to 12 new long-range Raduga Kh-101 (X-101) cruise missiles
Cold War II
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Warships of the Russian Black Sea Fleet (including the flagship Moskva), based in Sebastopol since 1783

17.
Search and rescue
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Search and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations. The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS, there are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved. Canadian Forces, Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger. United States Coast Guard, The use of resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress. One of the worlds earliest well-documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the west coast of Australia, survivors sought help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success. All 5 crew members of an oil barge, which had run aground on Penfield Reef, were saved before the barge sank, in 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 with 269 occupants was shot down by a Soviet aircraft near Sakhalin. The Soviets sent SAR helicopters and boats to Soviet waters, while a search, South Korean, and Japanese ships and aircraft in international waters, but no survivors were found. In July 2009, Air France Flight 447 was lost in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, an international SAR effort was launched, to no avail. A third effort nearly two years later discovered the site and recovered the black boxes. In early 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 crashed under mysterious circumstances, many nations contributed to the initial SAR effort, which was fruitless. 3mn to date on fuel and food in its own effort. The search for Flight 370 has become the largest SAR so far with the largest budget, mountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain. Ground search and rescue is the search for persons who are lost or in distress on land or inland waterways, some ground search teams also employ search and rescue dogs. Urban search and rescue, also referred to as Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, is the location and rescue of persons from collapsed buildings or other urban and industrial entrapments. Due to the nature of the work, most teams are multi-disciplinary and include personnel from police, fire. While earthquakes have traditionally been the cause of US&R operations, terrorist attacks, combat search and rescue is search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones. Air-sea rescue refers to the use of aircraft and surface vessels, to search for. This treaty contains the definition of high seas, at Article 1, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations

18.
State Border Guard Service (Lithuania)
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Since December 21,2007, Lithuania is part of the Schengen Area and SBGS, partner of Frontex, controls about 1,070 kilometres of Areas external land border with Kaliningrad Oblast and Belarus. Following the declaration of independence on February 16,1918, Lithuania had to ensure its border protection and this was a difficult task to fulfill, because the borders were changing, and the bodies protecting the border were changing as well. The formation of the first border regiment was started on 1 February 1920, on 26 January 1922, the Lithuanian defence minister, Jonas Šimkus, issued an order designating 29 June as Border Regiment Day. At that time, border regiments protected the border, and the State Border Police was formed in the Klaipėda Region on 18 June 1923. Later, border regiments, units of the Ministry of Defence, were disbanded, before the first Soviet occupation, the number of Lithuanian border police was not large,1,656 policemen in 1931 and 1,934 in 1933. This strength was maintained until June 1940 when the Soviet Union occupied Lithuania, after that, some border guards were subject to political persecution, the border police was disbanded, and the Red Army took control of the Lithuanian border with Nazi Germany. Near the end of World War II, the Soviets occupied Lithuania for the second time, throughout their rule, they protected only the Lithuanian border with the Peoples Republic of Poland. After Lithuania restored its independence on March 11,1990, it had to ensure the protection, by a resolution of 3 April 1990, the Supreme Council assigned the Council of Ministers the task of establishing the Department of Defence thus initiating the formation of new state border guards. On 10 September 1990, the Government adopted a resolution with a view to forming services at the Ministry of Defence that were to ensure the protection of the Lithuanian borders. On 10 October 1990, the Government adopted a resolution to establish 61 border posts and these posts were to begin operation by 19 November, but due to lack of resources and personnel not all of them operated as intended. On 19 May 1991, Gintaras Žagunis, an officer at the Krakūnai border crossing point at the Lithuania–Belarus border, was dead while on duty. On 31 July 1991, seven Lithuanian officers were killed in Medininkai border point, the only survivor, Tomas Šernas, became disabled. The attacks on Lithuanian border posts continued until the attempted August Coup in Moscow on 23 August 1991, the Ministry of Defence issued an order by which the Frontier Guard Service was renamed as the State Border Guard Service, starting 6 August 1992. When the last Soviet soldier left Lithuania on 31 August 1993, on 18 July 1994, the Government adopted a resolution that restructured the State Border Guard Service at the Ministry of Defence into the Border Police Department at the Ministry of the Interior. As during the period, guarding of the Lithuanian borders became the duty of a border police. After the system of border guarding was restored, the status of the state border had to be defined. The Treaty on Restoration of the State Border between Lithuania and Latvia was signed on 29 June 1993 and it required a considerable diplomatic effort to conclude and sign a treaty on the state border with Belarus on 6 February 1995. A similar treaty was signed with Poland the same year, the treaty on delimitation of the state border between Lithuania and the Russian Federation was signed during a summit in Moscow on 24 October 1997

State Border Guard Service (Lithuania)
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Insignia of State Border Guard Service of Lithuania
State Border Guard Service (Lithuania)
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A Eurocopter EC 145 of the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service Aviation Unit

19.
Smuggling
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There are various motivations to smuggle. Examples of non-financial motivations include bringing banned items past a security checkpoint or the removal of classified documents from a government or corporate office, Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizets opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books Diamonds are Forever and Goldfinger. The verb smuggle, from Low German schmuggeln or Dutch smokkelen, apparently a frequentative formation of a meaning to sneak. Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, in England smuggling first became a recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national customs collection system by Edward I in 1275. Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of highly taxed export goods — notably wool, merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, according to Dr Evan Jones, the trouble with these is that they only detail the activities of those dumb enough to get caught. This has led him and others, such as Prof Huw Bowen to use records to reconstruct smuggling businesses. Grain smuggling by members of the elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century. In England wool was smuggled to the continent in the 17th century, the principal reason for the high duty was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely expensive wars with France and the United States. The thievery was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed a kind of heroism and it did not have any taint of criminality and the whole of the south coast had pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers were the darkest or most daring. The Smugglers Inn was one of the commonest names for a bar on the coast, in Henley Road, smuggling in colonial times was a reaction to the heavy taxes and regulations imposed by mercantilist trade policies. After American independence in 1783, smuggling developed at the edges of the United States at places like Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Marys in Georgia, Lake Champlain, and Louisiana. During Thomas Jeffersons embargo of 1807-1809, these places became the primary places where goods were smuggled out of the nation in defiance of the law. Like Britain, a gradual liberalization of laws as part of the free trade movement meant less smuggling. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt tried to cut down on smuggling by establishing the Roosevelt Reservation along the United States-Mexico Border, Smuggling revived in the 1920s during Prohibition, and drug smuggling became a major problem after 1970. In the 1990s, when sanctions were imposed on Serbia. The state unofficially allowed this to continue or otherwise the entire economy would have collapsed, much smuggling occurs when enterprising merchants attempt to supply demand for a good or service that is illegal or heavily taxed. As a result, illegal trafficking, and the smuggling of weapons, as well as the historical staples of smuggling, alcohol

Smuggling
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A skirmish with smugglers from Finland at the Russian border, 1853. A painting by Vasily Hudiakov.
Smuggling
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The International Anti-Opium Association, Peking "The War Against Opium
Smuggling
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A poster warning the German women and girls about the danger of human traffic in the USA (ca 1900)
Smuggling
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Actress and UNICEF AmbassadorLucy Liu spoke out against human trafficking and lauded USAID efforts to increase awareness

20.
Special Operations Forces
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Special forces and special operations forces are military or police units trained to conduct special operations. The term special forces in the United States refers to the U. S. Armys forces, in Russian-speaking countries special forces are typically called spetsnaz, an acronym for special purpose. Likewise, Russian speakers refer to special forces of nations as spetsnaz, for example. Special Forces would be referred to as amerikanski spetsnaz in Russian, other significant roles lay in reconnaissance, providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities. Hamilcar Barca in Sicily had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day, in the late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In Japan, ninjas were used for reconnaissance, espionage and as assassins, bodyguards or fortress guards, during the Napoleonic wars, rifle and sapper units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines. The British Indian Army deployed two special forces during their wars, the Corps of Guides formed in 1846 and the Gurkha Scouts. During the Second Boer War the British Army felt the need for specialised units became most apparent. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, after the war, Lovats Scouts went on to formally become the British Armys first sniper unit. Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers, formed in 1901, can be seen as an unconventional warfare unit. Modern special forces emerged during the Second World War, in 1940, the British Commandos were formed following Winston Churchills call for specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast. A staff officer, Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke, had already submitted such a proposal to General Sir John Dill, Dill, aware of Churchills intentions, approved Clarkes proposal and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place. The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos, each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men. In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre, in February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units, the training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot, exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness, speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip-line over Loch Arkaig, all while carrying arms and full equipment

Special Operations Forces
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Polish GROM special forces troops at Umm Qasr during the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Special Operations Forces
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Japanese drawing of the archetypical ninja, from a series of sketches (Hokusai manga) by Hokusai.
Special Operations Forces
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British Army scouts in South Africa (1893): Frederick Russell Burnham (middle); Hon. Maurice Gifford (right)
Special Operations Forces
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The British Commandos were the prototype for the modern special forces. Volunteers had to undergo an arduous training course.

21.
Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces
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The National Defence Volunteer Forces or NDVF is an important part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces. This decision made legal already existing volunteer formations that began appearing as early as 1990, Voluntary National Defence Service was reorganised into the National Defence Volunteer Force. In 2003 Volunteer Force was integrated into the Lithuanian Land Force, there are around 5000 volunteers and around 800 professional soldiers in the force. By the end of 1991 all units of the National Defence System were formed on a voluntary basis, in March 1991 the VNDS staff, an operational platoon, the VNDS Training Centre were formed as well as 200 company size units were organised into eight territorial defence regions. In accordance with an issued by Director General of Department of National Defence. During the 1991 Soviet coup détat attempt, volunteer serviceman Artūras Sakalauskas lost his life in the line of duty when defending the Lithuanian Supreme Council on 21 August. Once the coup détat was defeated, NDVS units received an order to block the Soviet forces in order to prevent them from bringing replacement troops from Russia into Lithuania, at that time forty-four guard posts were installed where 201 NDVS members would simultaneously stand on duty. At the end of 1991, the Volunteer Forces embarked upon the protection of strategic assets. Volunteer units provided support to authorities in the event of natural or industrial disasters. They also took part in activities during the flood of the Nemunas Delta in the Western part of Lithuania. In 1993, during a visit of Pope John Paul II to Lithuania, as of 1994 members of the Volunteer Forces have been participating international peacekeeping missions. In 1998 the Voluntary National Defence Service was reorganised as the National Defence Volunteer Forces, KASP – in Lithuanian), since 2004 the Lithuanian Grand Duke Butigeidis Dragoon Battalion has been assigned to the Volunteer Forces. On 1 July 2005 the 9th Territorial Unit of the Kęstutis Military District of the Volunteer Force was restructured. The force units and members have placed under the control of the 3rd Territorial Unit of the Žemaičiai military District. On 1 September 2005 the 4th Territorial Unit of Tauras Military District was restructured, all relevant terms must be followed.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.0 Unported License, all relevant terms must be followed. Ministry of National Defence Republic of Lithuania Military of Lithuania

22.
Mechanized infantry
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Mechanized infantry is infantry equipped with armored personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles for transport and combat. Mechanized infantry is distinguished from motorized infantry in that its vehicles provide a degree of protection from hostile fire, most APCs and IFVs are fully tracked or are all-wheel drive vehicles, for mobility across rough ground. Some nations distinguish between mechanized and armored infantry, designating troops carried by APCs as mechanized and those in IFVs as armored. The support weapons for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, compared with light truck-mobile infantry, mechanized infantry can maintain rapid tactical movement and, if mounted in IFVs, has more integral firepower. It requires more combat supplies and ordnance supplies, and a larger proportion of manpower is required to crew. For example, most APCs mount a section of seven or eight infantrymen but have a crew of two, most IFVs carry only six or seven infantry but require a crew of three. To be effective in the field, mechanized units also require many mechanics, with specialized maintenance and recovery vehicles, arguably, the first mechanized infantry were assault teams mounted on A7V tanks. The vehicles were extra-large to let them carry sizeable assault teams, all-machine gun armed A7V tanks carried two small flame throwers for their dismounts to use. A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team, during the Battle of St. Quentin, A7Vs were accompanied by 20 stormtroopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they were acting as dismounts or were accompanying the tanks on foot. During the battle, tank crews were reported to dismount and attack enemy positions with grenades, towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack. Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense and it was widely acknowledged that cavalry was too vulnerable to be used on most European battlefields, but many armies continued to deploy them. Motorized infantry could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a road network or firm open terrain. They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution. Following the war, development of mechanized forces was largely theoretical for some time, although some proponents of mobile warfare, such as J. F. C. Fuller, advocated building tank fleets, other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, as the Germans rearmed in the 1930s, they equipped some infantry units in their new Panzer divisions with the half-track Sd. Kfz. 251, which could keep up with tanks on most terrain, the French Army also created Light Mechanized divisions in which some of the infantry units possessed small tracked carriers. Together with the motorization of the infantry and support units. The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in Blitzkrieg offensives, as World War II progressed, most major armies integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry, as well as other supporting arms, such as artillery and engineers, as combined arms units

23.
Infantry fighting vehicle
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An infantry fighting vehicle, or mechanized infantry combat vehicle, is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. Infantry fighting vehicles are distinct from armoured personnel carriers, which are transport vehicles armed only for self-defense, consequently, IFVs possess heavier armament than an APC, and the attached rifle squad fights from within the vehicle more often than in an APC. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have ports which allow the infantry to fire personal weapons while on board and they are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes anti-tank guided missiles. IFVs are usually tracked, but there are some wheeled vehicles too, IFVs are much less heavily armed and protected than main battle tanks, but when equipped with larger cannon or ATGMs may pose a significant threat to all but the heaviest armoured fighting vehicles. The first mass-produced IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s, the SPz 12-3 mounted a 20 mm autocannon in a small turret and carried a half-squad of five armoured infantrymen. Western powers were surprised when the Soviet Union paraded the BMP-1, Soviet infantrymen could thus enter a hypothetical engagement in a vehicle that possessed formidable fighting capability in its own right. This brought combined arms integration to the lowest tactical level, in 1971, the Ratel was designed to a South African specification for a wheeled combat vehicle suited to the demands of a high-speed offensive that combined maximum mobility and firepower. The emphasis was on mobility in particular, as it had to keep pace with a rapid mechanised advance, South Africas motorised units had carried out prior deployments on unprotected Bedford MK and Unimog trucks, but these were deemed unsuitable for the harsh African terrain. They also offered few advantages in mine protection, while the Ratels blastproof hull was developed to even the most catastrophic anti-tank mine explosions. During the South African Border War, Ratels equipped with a 90 mm gun adopted from the Eland-90 were utilised as improvised tank destroyers to varying degrees of success. In most Western IFVs, the large guns on the BMP. While the former enjoyed a tank-killing capability that most autocannon lack, combat applications in close-combat environments are likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitating the same protection level required by most tanks. In times of warfare, local crises, and urban combat. The IFV offers a compromise between mobility, protection, and firepower. They can be used in high and low intensity conflicts as well as peacekeeping operations, the latest vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to be repaired in the field. Infantry fighting vehicles are typically well armoured, although usually with less protection than main battle tanks, typical armament is an autocannon and machine guns. IFVs have a door for dismounts, most IFVs are resistant against heavy machine guns, artillery fragments, and small arms. The IFVs mission does not include anti-tank duties except in support of units or in emergencies, therefore

24.
Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania

Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, as defined by the Danube - Sava - Kupa line
Balkans
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The Peninsula's most extensive definition, bordered by water on three sides and connected with a line on the fourth
Balkans
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Panorama of Stara Planina. Its highest peak is Botev at a height of 2,376 m.
Balkans
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View toward Rila, the highest mountain in the Balkans which reaches 2925 m

25.
Air defence battalion (Lithuania)
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The Air Defence Battalion is the main air defence unit of the Lithuanian Air Force. It was created as part of efforts to strengthen and organise the air defence capabilities of the Lithuanian Air Force, in 2000. The present Air Defence Battalion is considered to be a revival of a unit in the air force of independent Republic of Lithuania between the World Wars, active from 1935 to 1940. In 1998, efforts to develop and strengthen the LTAF defence capabilities began under supervision of Col. Česlovas Braziulis and that same year, Swedish Defence officials offered to donate weaponry, technical documentation and training programmes to for a battalion. At this time, the idea of establishing the battalion started to become a reality, in July 2000, the LTAF established the Air Defence Battalion. Lt. Col. Remigijus Daujotis was appointed as Commander of the Battalion, in September 2000, the Battalion received the first consignment of combat equipment from Sweden. Another shipment of equipment and ammunition arrived at the end of 2000. According to the agreement with Sweden, Swedish advisers who help Lithuanians adapt to the battalion’s equipment presently work in the Air Defence Battalion. Development of infrastructure is one key missions of the Air Defence Battalion currently in the stage of development.0 Unported License, all relevant terms must be followed

26.
An-2
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The Antonov An-2 is a Soviet mass-produced single-engine biplane utility/agricultural aircraft designed and manufactured by the Antonov Design Bureau beginning in 1946. Its remarkable durability, high lifting power, and ability to take off, the An-2 is still produced and remains in service with military and civilian operators around the world. In certain wind conditions it can hover or even fly backwards, the An-2 is used as a light utility transport, parachute drop aircraft, agricultural work and many other tasks suited to this large slow-flying biplane. Its slow flight and good field performance make it suited for short, unimproved fields. Antonov designed a single bay biplane of all-metal construction, with an enclosed cockpit. The first prototype, designated SKh-1 and powered by a Shvetsov ASh-21 radial engine, initial Soviet production was at State Factory 473 in Kiev, Ukrainian SSR where the bulk of up to 5,000 units had been produced by 1960. Later Soviet production was at State Factory 464 at Dolgoprudniy, Russian SFSR, after 1960, however, most An-2s were built at Polands WSK factory in Mielec, with over 13,000 made there before full production ended in 1991. Limited production from parts stocks, as well as spares and maintenance coverage continued until 2001, China also builds the An-2 under licence as the Shijiazhuang Y-5. It has been occasionally and erroneously reported that there was East German production of the An-2, while An-2s were extensively refurbished in East Germany, there were no new aircraft built there. The An-2 was designed as a utility aircraft for use in forestry, however, the basic airframe is highly adaptable and numerous variants have been developed. The most common version is the An-2T 12-seater passenger aircraft, all versions are powered by a 750 kW nine-cylinder Shvetsov ASh-62 radial engine, which was developed from the Wright R-1820. It uses 43 gallons of avgas per hour, the An-2 has design features which make it suitable for operation in remote areas with unsurfaced airstrips, It has a pneumatic brake system to stop on short runways. It has an air line fitted to the compressor, so the pressure in the tires, the batteries are large and easy to remove, so the aircraft does not need a ground power unit to supply power. There is no need for a fuel pump to refuel the aircraft. It has a minimum of complex systems, the crucial wing leading edge slats that give the aircraft its slow flight ability are fully automatic, being held closed by the airflow over the wings. Once the airspeed drops below 64 km/h, the slats will extend because they are on elastic rubber springs, take-off run,170 m, landing run,215 m. A note from the pilots handbook reads, If the engine quits in instrument conditions or at night, the An-2 indeed has no stall speed quoted in the operating handbook. Pilots of the An-2 say one can fly the aircraft in control at 48 km/h

27.
Kaliningrad
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Kaliningrad is a seaport city and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea. In the Middle Ages, the locality was the site of the ancient Old Prussian settlement, the town was successively part of the monastic State of the Teutonic Order, enfeoffed to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, then part of Prussia and Germany. The city was damaged during World War II. Its ruins were occupied by the Red Army on 9 April 1945 and it was renamed Kaliningrad on July 4,1946, in honor of Soviet luminary Mikhail Kalinin, who died in the previous month. In 2005 the city marked 750 years of existence as Königsberg/Kaliningrad, according to the 2010 Census, its population was 431,902 – an increase from 430,003 recorded in the 2002 Census. Kaliningrad is at the mouth of the navigable Pregolya River, which empties into the Vistula Lagoon, Sea vessels can access Gdańsk Bay/Bay of Danzig and the Baltic Sea by way of the Vistula Lagoon and the Strait of Baltiysk. Until around 1900, ships drawing more than 2 meters of water could not pass the bar and come into town, larger vessels had to anchor at Pillau, where cargo was transferred to smaller vessels. In 1901 a ship canal between Königsberg and Pillau, completed at a cost of 13 million German marks, enabled vessels of a 6.5 meters draught to moor alongside the town. Khrabrovo Airport,24 kilometers north of Kaliningrad, has a few scheduled, there is the smaller Kaliningrad Devau Airport for general aviation. Kaliningrad is also home to Kaliningrad Chkalovsk naval air base, Königsberg was preceded by a Sambian fort called Twangste, meaning Oak Forest. During the conquest of the Sambians by the Teutonic Knights in 1255, the declining Old Prussian culture finally became extinct around the 17th century, after the surviving Old Prussians were integrated through assimilation and Germanization. Kaliningrad was the East Prussian provincial capital Königsberg, founded in 1255 by the Teutonic Knights, the city was named in honor of the Bohemian King Ottokar II. Through immigration and development over the seven centuries, the area became predominantly German, though having Polish. During World War II the city of Königsberg was heavily damaged by a British bombing attack in 1944, the President of the United States and the British Prime Minister have declared that they will support the proposal of the Conference at the forthcoming peace settlement. Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946 after the death of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Mikhail Kalinin, the survivors of the German population were forcibly expelled in 1946-1949, and the city was repopulated with Soviet citizens. The German language was replaced by the Russian language, the city was rebuilt, and, as the westernmost territory of the USSR, the Kaliningrad Oblast became a strategically important area during the Cold War. The Soviet Baltic Fleet was headquartered in the city in the 1950s, because of its strategic importance, Kaliningrad was closed to foreign visitors. In 1957 an agreement was signed and later came into force which delimited the border between Poland and the Soviet Union, due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Kaliningrad Oblast became an exclave, geographically separated from the rest of Russia

Kaliningrad
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"Fishing village" neighborhood in German style; Königsberg Cathedral; Victory Square; Monument to Baltic Seamen; Church of Christ the Savior; Seamen's Palace of Culture
Kaliningrad
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Location of Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia
Kaliningrad
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The Pregolya River in Kaliningrad.
Kaliningrad
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The historic city center of Kaliningrad.

28.
Commander in Chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence

29.
Storm class patrol boat
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The Storm class fast patrol boats were a class of 20 vessels built for the Royal Norwegian Navy. In Norwegian these boats were called missilkanonbåter meaning boats with missiles and they were operated by the Coastal Combat Flotilla together with the MTBs, or Missile Torpedo Boats. None of the boats are currently in service with the Royal Norwegian Navy, the design was Norwegian and all of the boats were built by Norwegian ship yards from 1965 to 1967. The Storm class was designed by Lieutenant-Commander Harald Henriksen, the same man was also involved in the design of the Rapp-class MTBs - the first Norwegian-built MTBs. Later, he designed the Snøgg- and Hauk-class MTBs. Henriksens wife, Margot Henriksen, was godmother of the first KNM Skjold, Norway donated a Storm class each to Estonia and Lithuania and three to Latvia in 1995. In the Lithuanian Navy, the class are designated the DZUKAS class, and in the Latvia Navy. Since the 1999 edition of The World Defence Almanac the Storm class has not been listed for the Estonian Navy, at the end of the 1990s, two vessels were sold to Lithuania and three were sold to Latvia. A further three hulls may have donated to each of the Baltic countries as spare parts. The prototype Storm, completed May 31,1963, was scrapped and replaced by a second boat taking the same name and pennant number P960. After 1970 Penguin missiles were fitted to boats in addition to the original armament. Currently the Lithuanian Navy operates two Storm class boats, P32 Sėlis and P33 Skalvis, the vessels are listed with their pennant numbers in RNoN service, Arg P968 Donated to Estonia. Served with the Estonian Border Guard as Torm, now part of the Estonian Maritime Museum, blink P961 Is on display, fully equipped at the Royal Norwegian Navy Museum in Horten, Norway. Brann P970 Brask P977 Is on display on land at Haakonsvern Naval Base in Bergen, brott P974 Djerv P966 Sold to the Latvian Navy and renamed LVNS Zibens. Glimt P962 Gnist P979 Sold to the Latvian Navy and renamed LVNS Linga, hvass P972 Sold to the Latvian Navy and renamed LVNS Lode. Kjekk P965 Donated to the Lithuanian Navy and renamed LNS P31 Dzūkas, odd P975 Pil P976 Previously used as a damage control and fire fighting training vessel. Placed on land at Haakonsvern Naval base, rokk P978 Skjold P963 Skudd P967 Sold to the Lithuanian Navy and renamed LNS Sėlis. Steil P969 Sold to the Lithuanian Navy and renamed LNS Skalvis, Storm P960 Traust P973 Donated to the Latvian Navy and renamed LVNS Bulta

30.
Grisha class corvette
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The Albatros class was a series of anti-submarine corvettes built by the Soviet Union between 1970 and 1990. These ships had a range and were used only in coastal waters. They were equipped with a variety of ASW weapons and an SA-N-4 surface-to-air missile launcher, all were fitted with retractable fin stabilizers. Russian type designation was Malyy Protivolodochnyy Korabl,17 ships were built in the 1970s. Two were transferred to the Ukrainian Navy and around seven are in service with the Russian Maritime Border Guard, the Grisha III class were built in the late 1970s to early 1980s. These ships incorporated several small scale modifications, including a 30 mm gun, about 20 remain in Russian service. Two ships were in service with the Lithuanian Navy until 2009, a single Grisha IV class ship was built. This ship was a ship for the SA-N-9 missile system and has been decommissioned. The Grisha V class ships were built between 1985 and 1994 and this incorporated further modifications with the twin 57 mm guns being replaced by a single 76 mm gun. About 28 ships remain in the Russian Navy, ternopil entered service in 2006 with the Ukrainian Navy. List of ships of the Soviet Navy List of ships of Russia by project number Gardiner, conways all the Worlds Fighting Ships 1947-1995. Also published as Gardiner, Robert, Chumbley, Stephen, Budzbon, conways all the Worlds Fighting Ships 1947-1995. All Grisha Class Corvettes - Complete Ship List

31.
Special reconnaissance
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This article is a subset article under Human Intelligence. For a complete hierarchical list of articles, see the intelligence cycle management hierarchy, as a role, SR is distinct from commando operations, but both are often carried out by the same units. The SR role frequently includes covert direction of air and missile attacks, in areas deep behind enemy lines, placement of remotely monitored sensors, like other special forces, SR units may also carry out direct action and unconventional warfare, including guerrilla operations. In intelligence terms, SR is an intelligence collection discipline. Its operational control is likely to be inside a cell of the HUMINT, or possibly the operations. They operate significantly farther than the most forward friendly scouting and surveillance units, while SR has been a function of armies since ancient times, specialized units with this task date from the lead-up to World War II. In 1938, the British Secret Intelligence Service and the War Office both set up special reconnaissance departments and these later formed the basis of the Special Operations Executive, which conducted operations in occupied Europe. During the Winter War and the Continuation War, Finland employed several kaukopartio units, from 1941, volunteers from various countries formed, under the auspices of the British Army, the Long Range Desert Group and Special Air Service, initially for service in the North African Campaign. In 1942, following the onset of the Pacific War, the Allied Intelligence Bureau, was set up in Australia, drawing on personnel from Australian, British, New Zealand and other Allied forces, it included Coastwatchers and special units that undertook reconnaissance behind enemy lines. The US Government established the Office of Strategic Services, modelled on the British SOE, following the end of the war OSS became the basis for the CIA. During the Vietnam War, respective division and brigades in-country trained their Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members, conventional military forces, at battalion level, will often have scout platoons that can perform limited reconnaissance beyond the main line of troops. For example, reorganized US Army brigade combat teams, the new US Army Unit of Action, are gaining reconnaissance squadrons, US Army Battlefield Surveillance Brigades have specialized Long Range Surveillance companies. Long Range Surveillance 6-man teams operate behind enemy lines, deep within enemy territory, forward of battalion reconnaissance teams, the duration of an LRS mission depends on equipment and supplies the team must carry, movement distance to the objective area, and resupply availability. LRS teams normally operate up to seven days without depending on terrain. SR units are armed, since they may have to defend themselves if they are detected as their exfiltration support needs time to get to them. When air support was delayed, however, the patrols might attack key SCUD system elements with their organic weapons, while there are obvious risks to doing so, SR-trained units can operate out of uniform. They may use motorcycles, four-wheel-drive vehicles, or multiple helicopter lifts in their area of operations, most SR units are trained in advanced helicopter movement and at least basic parachuting, some SR will have HAHO and HALO advanced parachute capability. See Special Reconnaissance organizations for national units, all these organizations have special operations roles, with SR often by specialists within them

Special reconnaissance
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US Navy SEALs conducting special reconnaissance on suspected Al-Qaida and Taliban locations in Afghanistan, 2002.
Special reconnaissance
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US Marines from 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion practicing Special Purpose Insert and Extraction (SPIE), 2006.

32.
Direct actions
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Direct action occurs when a group takes an action which is intended to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue. This can include nonviolent and less often violent activities which target persons, groups, examples of non-violent direct action can include sit-ins, strikes, workplace occupations, blockades, or hacktivism, while violent direct action may include political violence or assaults. Tactics such as sabotage and property destruction may be considered violent if people are hurt in the action, by contrast, electoral politics, diplomacy, negotiation, and arbitration are not usually described as direct action, as they are politically mediated. Direct action tactics have been around for as long as conflicts have existed, the radical union the Industrial Workers of the World first mentioned the term direct action in a publication in reference to a Chicago strike conducted in 1910. American anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre wrote an essay called Direct Action in 1912 which is widely cited today. In his 1920 book, Direct Action, William Mellor placed direct action firmly in the struggle between worker and employer for control over the life of society. Mellor defined direct action as the use of form of economic power for securing of ends desired by those who possess that power. Mellor considered direct action a tool of both owners and workers and for this reason he included within his definition lockouts and cartels, as well as strikes, over and over they were arrested, fined, and imprisoned. Till they finally compelled their persecutors to let them alone, —de Cleyre, undated Martin Luther King felt that non-violent direct actions goal was to create such a crisis and foster such a tension as to demand a response. The rhetoric of Martin Luther King, James Bevel, and Mohandas Gandhi promoted non-violent revolutionary direct action as a means to social change. Noteworthy, Gandhi and Bevel had been influenced by Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God Is Within You. By the middle of the 20th century, the sphere of action had undoubtedly expanded. Some sections of the movement used direct action, particularly during the 1980s. In the US, mass protests opposed nuclear energy, weapons, many groups also set up semi-permanent peace camps outside air bases such as Molesworth and Greenham Common, and at the Nevada Test Site. Environmental movement organizations such as Greenpeace have used direct action to pressure governments, on April 28,2009, Greenpeace activists, including Phil Radford, scaled a crane across the street from the Department of State, calling on world leaders to address climate change. Soon thereafter, Greenpeace activists dropped a banner off of Mt. Rushmore, placing President Obamas face next to other historic presidents, overall, more than 2,600 people were arrested while protesting energy policy and associated health issues under the Barack Obama Administration. In 2009, hundreds blocked the gates of the coal fired power plant that powers the US Congress building, following the Power Shift conference in Washington, D. C. Anti-globalization activists made headlines around the world in 1999, when they forced the Seattle WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 to end early with direct action tactics

33.
Operations management
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Operations management is an area of management concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as needed and it is concerned with managing the process that converts inputs into outputs. Operations management is concerned with managing the operations function in an organization, Operations is one of the major functions in an organization along with marketing, finance and human resources. The operations function requires management of both the strategic and day-to-day production of goods and services, each of these requires an ability to analyze the current situation and find better solutions to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manufacturing or service operations. The history of production and operation began around 5000 B. C. when Sumerian priests developed the ancient system of recording inventories, loans, taxes. The next major application of operation systems occurred in 4000 B. C. It was during this time that the Egyptians started using planning, organization, by 1100 B. C. labor was being specialized in China, by about 370 B. C. Xenophon described the advantages of dividing the various operations necessary for the production of shoes among different individuals in ancient Greece. It follows, therefore, as a matter of course, that he who devotes himself to a highly specialized line of work is bound to do it in the best possible manner. In the Middle Ages, kings and queens ruled over areas of land. Loyal noblemen maintained large sections of the monarch’s territory and this hierarchical organization in which people were divided into classes based on social position and wealth became known as the feudal system. In the feudal system, vassals and serfs produced for themselves and people of higher classes by using the ruler’s land, although a large part of labor was employed in agriculture, artisans contributed to economic output and formed guilds. The guild system, operating mainly between 1100 and 1500, consisted of two types, merchant guilds, who bought and sold goods, and craft guilds, which made goods. Although guilds were regulated as to the quality of work performed, Services were also performed in the middle ages by servants. They provided service to the nobility for cooking, cleaning and entertainment, the medieval army could also be considered a service since they defended the nobility. The industrial revolution was facilitated by two elements, interchangeability of parts and division of labor, division of labor has always been a feature from the beginning of civilization, the extent to which the division is carried out varied considerably depending on period and location. Compared to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery were characterized by a specialization in labor, one of the characteristics of growing European cities. It was in the eighteenth century that Eli Whitney popularized the concept of interchangeability of parts when he manufactured 10,000 muskets

Operations management
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Ford Motor car assembly line: the classical example of a manufacturing production system.
Operations management
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Post office queue. Operations management studies both manufacturing and services.
Operations management
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Marshall's flax mill in Holbeck. The textile industry is the prototypical example of the English industrial revolution.
Operations management
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In a job shop machines are grouped by technological similarities regarding transformation processes, therefore a single shop can work very different products (in this picture four colors). Also notice that in this drawing each shop contains a single machine.

34.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities

Law enforcement agency
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A police officer and a police car are traditional identifiers of a locally based law enforcement agency.
Law enforcement agency
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Two military police officers and a police car from the Żandarmeria Wojskowa (Poland)

35.
Enduring Freedom
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Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S

36.
NATO Response Force
–
The NATO Response Force is a high readiness force comprising land, air, sea and special forces units capable of being deployed quickly on operations wherever needed. The purpose of the NRF is to provide a reaction force of high quality to support NATO missions as required. The concept of NRF was first endorsed with a declaration of NATOs Heads of State at the Prague Summit on 22 November 2002 and its rotation replacement was designated NRF2 at the same time. Rotating forces through the NRF requires nations to meet the standards needed for collective defence. As the standards are high, participation in the NRF is preceded by a six-month NATO exercise program in order to integrate. Generally, nations carry out a period in preparation for the NATO exercises of between 6-18 months. Once activated Reconnaissance Teams deploy within 5 days and this is the first of a number of deployment phases that lead to the deployment of the entire HQ Joint Task Force and Immediate Reaction Forces within 30 days. The NRF has three elements, Command and Control element, Immediate Response Force, Response forces Pool, Command & Control element, This is based on a deployable Joint Force Headquarters. Supreme Allied Commander Europe has overall strategic command of the NRF, nATO’s two Joint Force Commands, based in Brunssum, Netherlands and Naples, Italy take one-year turns to command the NRF. Immediate Response Force, The IRF element is designed to provide the initial response to a crisis and is not scaled to be a force for all. If further land, maritime or air capabilities are required, they will be drawn from the Response Forces Pool, Response Forces Pool, The RFP consists of a broad spectrum of military capabilities encompassing command and control, combat and support units. There is no fixed size to the RFP, the forces contributed to the RFP are drawn from the much wider pool of Allied or Partners National deployable forces. During the 2014 Wales summit NATO leaders agreed to establish a Very High Readiness Joint Task Force, the VJTF will be a high-readiness Spearhead Force able to deploy at short notice to threats against NATO sovereignty. It will consist of a brigade numbering around 5,000 troops, supported by air, sea. The VJTF would be supported by two more land brigades as a rapid reinforcement capability in case of a major crisis, altogether, the enhanced NATO Response Force will amount to around 30,000 troops. Of NATOs non-member partners, Finland and Sweden joined the Response Force in 2008 and 2013, ukraine and Georgia began contributions, respectively, in 2014 and 2015

NATO Response Force
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Emblem

37.
North Atlantic Treaty
–
The North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D. C. on 4 April 1949, is the treaty establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The treaty was signed in Washington on 4 April 1949 by a committee which was chaired by US diplomat Theodore Achilles and it was never shown to anyone except Jack. I wish I had kept it, but when I left the Department in 1950, I dutifully left it in the safe and I have never been able to trace it in the archives. It drew heavily on the Rio Treaty, and a bit of the Brussels Treaty, which had not yet been signed, but of which we were being kept heavily supplied with drafts. The eventual North Atlantic Treaty had the form, and a good bit of the language of my first draft. The treaty was created with an attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind. Rather, it was invoked for the first time in 2001 in response to the 11 September 2001 attacks against the World Trade Center, the following twelve nations signed the treaty and thus became the founding members of NATO. The following leaders signed the agreement as plenipotentiaries of their countries in Washington D. C, belgium – Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak and Ambassador Baron Robert Silvercruys Canada – Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester B. Pearson and Ambassador H. H. An Article 4 meeting was also convoked by Latvia, Lithuania, long-range artillery could be used across the border. The US said that Turkey has a right to action against the PKK. A news report also disclosed prior to the 28 July meeting that Turkey had violated Iraqi airspace in its pursuit of the PKK, the key section of the treaty is Article 5. Its commitment clause defines the casus foederis and it commits each member state to consider an armed attack against one member state, in Europe or North America, to be an armed attack against them all. It has been invoked only once in NATO history, by the United States after the September 11 attacks in 2001, the invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001, when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. Active Endeavour began on 4 October 2001, in April 2012, Turkish PM Erdogan considered invoking Article 5 of the NATO treaty to protect Turkish national security in a dispute over the Syrian Civil War. The alliance responded quickly and a spokesperson said the alliance was monitoring the situation closely and will continue to do so and takes it very seriously protecting its members. ”On April 17. On April 29, the Syrian foreign ministry wrote that it had received Erdogans message, on 5 August, Erdoğan stated that The tomb of Suleyman Shah and the land surrounding it is our territory. We cannot ignore any unfavorable act against that monument, as it would be an attack on our territory, everyone knows his duty, and will continue to do what is necessary. We have no intention to interfere militarily, the recording has been reported as being probably recorded at Davutoğlus office at the Foreign Ministry on 13 March

North Atlantic Treaty
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North Atlantic Treaty authentication page

38.
Zokniai airport
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Šiauliai International Airport is located 7 kilometres southeast of the city of Šiauliai, in northern Lithuania. It covers an area of 471 hectares, the airport was one of the largest military airports in the former Soviet Union. In 1955 it was one of six Soviet bases capable of handling the new Myasishchev M-4 bomber. The Tupolev Tu-126 was based here between the 1960s and 1970s and it was home to the 53 APIB flying MiG-23 aircraft with the ML, MLD, and UB variants and the MiG-27. It was also home to the 18th Guards Military Transport Aviation Division, and it was a base of the 117 OAP flying An-12PPS aircraft. The last Soviet troops based here left in 1993, Šiauliai is home to the NATO Baltic Air Policing forward deployment, providing airspace security for the three Baltic members of NATO. Media related to Šiauliai Airport at Wikimedia Commons Official website Accident history for SQQ at Aviation Safety Network

39.
Estonia
–
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water

40.
Riga
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Riga is the capital and the largest city of Latvia. With 696,593 inhabitants, Riga is the largest city in the Baltic states, the city lies on the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the Daugava. Rigas territory covers 307.17 square kilometres and lies one and ten metres above sea level, on a flat and sandy plain. Riga was founded in 1201 and is a former Hanseatic League member, Rigas historical centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, noted for its Art Nouveau/Jugendstil architecture and 19th century wooden architecture. Riga was the European Capital of Culture during 2014, along with Umeå in Sweden, Riga hosted the 2006 NATO Summit, the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, and the 2006 IIHF Mens World Ice Hockey Championships. It is home to the European Unions office of European Regulators for Electronic Communications, Riga is served by Riga International Airport, the largest airport in the Baltic states. Riga is a member of Eurocities, the Union of the Baltic Cities, another theory could be that Riga was named after Riege, the German name for the River Rīdzene, a tributary of the Daugava. The river Daugava has been a trade route since antiquity, part of the Vikings Dvina-Dnieper navigation route to Byzantium. A sheltered natural harbour 15 km upriver from the mouth of the Daugava — the site of todays Riga — has been recorded, as Duna Urbs and it was settled by the Livs, an ancient Finnic tribe. Riga began to develop as a centre of Viking trade during the early Middle Ages, Rigas inhabitants occupied themselves mainly with fishing, animal husbandry, and trading, later developing crafts. German traders began visiting Riga, establishing a nearby outpost in 1158, along with German traders also arrived the monk Meinhard of Segeberg to convert the Livonian pagans to Christianity. Catholic and Orthodox Christianity had already arrived in Latvia more than a century earlier, Meinhard settled among the Livs, building a castle and church at Ikšķile, upstream from Riga, and established his bishopric there. The Livs, however, continued to practice paganism and Meinhard died in Ikšķile in 1196, in 1198, the Bishop Berthold arrived with a contingent of crusaders and commenced a campaign of forced Christianization. Berthold was killed soon afterwards and his forces defeated, pope Innocent III issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians. Bishop Albert was proclaimed Bishop of Livonia by his uncle Hartwig of Uthlede, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, Albert landed in Riga in 1200 with 23 ships and 500 Westphalian crusaders. In 1201, he transferred the seat of the Livonian bishopric from Ikšķile to Riga, the year 1201 also marked the first arrival of German merchants in Novgorod, via the Dvina. To defend territory and trade, Albert established the Order of Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202, open to nobles, in 1207, Albert started on fortification of the town. Emperor Philip invested Albert with Livonia as a fief and principality of the Holy Roman Empire, until then, it had been customary for crusaders to serve for a year and then return home

41.
Tallinn
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Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland,80 km south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm, from the 13th century until 1918, the city was known as Reval. Tallinn occupies an area of 159.2 km2 and has a population of 444,591, approximately 33% of Estonias total population lives in Tallinn. Tallinn was founded in 1248, but the earliest human settlements date back 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest capital cities of Northern Europe. The initial claim over the land was laid by the Danes in 1219 after a raid of Lyndanisse led by Valdemar II of Denmark. Due to its location, the city became a major trade hub, especially from the 14th to the 16th century. Tallinns Old Town is one of the best preserved cities in Europe and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Tallinn is the political, financial, cultural and educational center of Estonia. Often dubbed the Silicon Valley of Europe, it has the highest number of startups per person in Europe and is a birthplace of international companies. The city is to house the headquarters of the European Unions IT agency, providing to the global cybersecurity it is the home to the NATO Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence. It is ranked as a city and has been listed among the top 10 digital cities in the world. The city was a European Capital of Culture for 2011, along with Turku in Finland and it has been suggested that Quwri may have denoted a predecessor of the modern city. The earliest names of Tallinn include Kolyvan, which is known from East Slavic chronicles, up to the 13th century, the Scandinavians and Henry of Livonia in his chronicle called the town Lindanisa (or Lyndanisse in Danish, Lindanäs in Swedish and Ledenets in Old East Slavic. It has been suggested that the archaic Estonian word linda is similar to the Votic word lidna. According to this suggestion, nisa would have the meaning niemi, producing Kesoniemi, another ancient historical name for Tallinn in Finnish is Rääveli. The Icelandic Njals saga mentions Tallinn and calls it Rafala, which is a variant of the name Raphael, after the Danish conquest in 1219, the town became known in the German, Swedish and Danish languages as Reval. The name originated from Revelia Revala or Rävala, the adjacent ancient name of the surrounding area and it is usually thought to be derived from Taani-linn, after the Danes built the castle in place of the Estonian stronghold at Lindanisse. However, it could also have come from tali-linna, or talu-linna, the element -linna, like Germanic -burg and Slavic -grad / -gorod, originally meant fortress, but is used as a suffix in the formation of town names

42.
NORDEFCO
–
NORDEFCO is a collaboration among the Nordic countries in the area of defence. Its five members are Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the aim of the organization is to strengthen the member countries defence capabilities by identifying areas for cooperation and to promote effective solutions. The memorandum of understanding was signed in Helsinki on November 4,2009, succeeding NORDSUP, NORDAC, participation in the NORDEFCO is voluntary and states can choose which areas they want to collaborate within and to what extent. This means that cooperation can occur bilaterally as well as all five members. It is also considered within the scope to work with non-Nordic countries in fields where there is an added value to doing so. According to the webpage, the cooperation is based on the conviction that there is much to be gained through cost sharing, joint solutions. However, it underlines the fact that NORDEFCO is not a military alliance. On the contrary, closer practical cooperation in capability development would constitute a supplemental approach in providing the capabilities and forces required by these organisations. The official presidency of the organisation rotates among the member states and they preside over the Nordic Defence Policy Steering Committee, composed of senior departmental officers from the member countries. Underneath this committee is the Nordic Military Coordination Committee, composed of officers who represent the member countries Chiefs of Defence. The recommendations reported back from the COPAs also form the basis for the decisions made by the Nordic Defence Policy Steering Committee, in addition to the Cooperation Areas, Acquisition & Life Cycle Support is tasked with coordinating and facilitating armaments relating cooperation issues. This is performed through a screening process, where all participating nations provide input from their procurement plans. The plans are compared, screened, and cooperation possibilities, vetted by ALCS, are identified, if considered suitable for further cooperation, established formally as a Subgroup. Historically, such cooperation has enabled the Nordic nations to take advantage of upwards of €60 million in cost savings

NORDEFCO
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NORDEFCO

43.
Nordic countries
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The Nordic countries or Nordics are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic, where they are most commonly known as Norden. They consist of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, the population of the Nordic countries are mainly Scandinavian or Finnish, with Greenlandic Inuit and the Sami people as minorities. Of todays native languages, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, the non-Germanic languages spoken are Finnish, Greenlandic and several Sami languages. The main religion is Lutheran Christianity, the Nordic countries have much in common in their way of life, history, their use of Scandinavian languages and social structure. Politically, Nordic countries do not form an entity. Especially in English, Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for the Nordic countries, Scandinavian Peninsula on the other hand covers mainland Norway and Sweden as well as the northernmost part of Finland. At 3,425,804 square kilometers, the area of the Nordic countries would form the 7th-largest country in the world. Uninhabitable icecaps and glaciers comprise about half of area, mostly in Greenland. In January 2013, the region had a population of around 26 million people, the Nordic countries cluster near the top in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, and human development. Although the area is linguistically heterogeneous, with three unrelated groups, the common linguistic heritage is one of the factors making up the Nordic identity. The North Germanic languages Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are considered mutually intelligible and these languages are taught in school throughout the Nordic countries. Swedish, for example, is a subject in Finnish schools. Danish is mandatory in Faroese and Greenlandic schools, as these states are a part of the Danish Realm. Iceland also teaches Danish, since Iceland too was a part of the Danish Realm until 1918, there is a high degree of income redistribution and little social unrest. The Nordic countries consists of historical territories of the Scandinavian countries, areas that share a common history and it is meant unambiguously to refer to this larger group, since the term Scandinavia is narrower and sometimes ambiguous. The Nordic countries are considered to unambiguously refer to Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The term is derived indirectly from the local term Norden, used in the Scandinavian languages, unlike the Nordic countries, the term Norden is in the singular. The demonym is nordbo, literally meaning northern dweller, especially outside of the Nordic region the term Scandinavia is often used incorrectly as a synonym for the Nordic countries

44.
International Security Assistance Force
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From 2006 to 2011, ISAF had become increasingly involved in more intensive combat operations in southern and eastern Afghanistan. Troop contributors included the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, other NATO member states, the intensity of the combat faced by contributing nations varied greatly, with the United States sustaining the most casualties overall. In early 2010, there were at least 700 military bases inside Afghanistan, about 400 of these were used by American‑led NATO forces and 300 by ANSF. ISAF ceased combat operations and was disbanded in December 2014, with some troops remaining behind in a role as part of ISAFs successor organization. For almost two years, the ISAF mandate did not go beyond the boundaries of Kabul, according to General Norbert Van Heyst, such a deployment would require at least ten thousand additional soldiers. The responsibility for security throughout the whole of Afghanistan was to be given to the newly reconstituted Afghan National Army, however, on October 13,2003, the Security Council voted unanimously to expand the ISAF mission beyond Kabul with Resolution 1510. Shortly thereafter, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said that Canadian soldiers would not deploy outside Kabul, on October 24,2003, the German Bundestag voted to send German troops to the region of Kunduz. Approximately 230 additional soldiers were deployed to that region, marking the first time that ISAF soldiers operated outside of Kabul. On July 31,2006, the NATO‑led International Security Assistance Force assumed command of the south of the country, ISAF Stage 3, and by October 5, also of the east of Afghanistan, ISAF Stage 4. ISAF was mandated by UN Security Council Resolutions 1386,1413,1444,1510,1563,1623,1659,1707,1776, the last of these extended the mandate of ISAF to March 23,2011. The mandates given by the different governments to their forces varied from country to country and this meant that ISAF suffered from a lack of united aims. The initial ISAF headquarters was based on 3rd UK Mechanised Division and this force arrived in December,2001. Until ISAF expanded beyond Kabul, the force consisted of a roughly division-level headquarters and one covering the capital. The brigade was composed of three groups, and was in charge of the tactical command of deployed troops. ISAF headquarters served as the control center of the mission. Eighteen countries were contributors to the force in February,2002, Turkey assumed command of ISAF in June,2002. During this period, the number of Turkish troops increased from about 100 to 1,300, in November,2002, ISAF consisted of 4,650 troops from over 20 countries. Around 1,200 German troops served in the force alongside 250 Dutch soldiers operating as part of a German-led battalion, Turkey relinquished command in February,2003, and assumed command for a second time in February,2005

International Security Assistance Force
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ISAF's military terminal at Kabul International Airport in September 2010.
International Security Assistance Force
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Official logo of ISAF
International Security Assistance Force
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Geographic depiction of the four ISAF stages (January 2009).
International Security Assistance Force
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Anaconda Strategy vs the insurgents as of 2010-10-20.

45.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese

46.
Bosnia
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them

47.
Lithuania proper
–
Lithuania proper refers to a region which existed within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and where the Lithuanian language was spoken. The primary meaning is identical to the Duchy of Lithuania, a land around which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania evolved, the territory can be traced by Catholic Christian parishes established in pagan Baltic lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania subsequent to the Christianization of Lithuania in 1387. They were quite distinguishable, since Ruthenian parts of the Duchy were already baptised in an orthodox manner, the term in Latin was widely used during the Middle Ages and can be found in numerous historical maps until World War I. Lithuania proper sometimes is also called Lithuania Major, particularly in contrast with Lithuania Minor, historians designate Lithuania Proper as a Lithuanian land that existed prior to Grand Duchy of Lithuania, near other lands, Land of Nalšia, Land of Deltuva, Land of Upytė. According to Henryk Łowmiański Lithuania Proper was in nucleus of future Trakai Voivodeship between rivers, Nemunas, Neris and Merkys, tomas Baranauskas suggests that Lithuania Proper was around Ashmyany area, then ethnic Lithuanian lands now in Belarus. According to Mikola Yermalovich Lithuania was in the upper Neman region, already during the Grand Duchy times, Lithuania Proper was a term designated to land where Lithuanians live. Administratively it consisted of Vilnius Voivodeship and Trakai Voivodeship, such division existed even after Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned. Thus Grand Duchy of Lithuania was divided into such historical regions, Samogitia, Lithuania Proper, only the northern border of Lithuania proper can be determined indefinitely. Eastern parts of Lithuania Propria suffered heavy losses during the Deluge. Subsequent immigration of Ruthenians and Poles into these territories accelerated the process, the process continued at the time of Polish rule, as Lithuanian language schools and libraries were closed, and later under Soviet rule, as no Lithuanian schools were in these territories at all. Nowadays significant islands of Lithuanian-speaking people remain in what is now Western Belarus, many people of these territories now speaking Belarusian still refer to themselves as Lithuanians. At the end of World War I, the Council of Lithuania declared that an independent Lithuanian state is re-established in the ethnic Lithuanian lands. After negotiations with Bolshevik Russia a large part of Lithuania Proper was acknowledged by Soviets as part of Lithuanian Republic by signing the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, some of these territories were also claimed by Second Republic of Poland. This led to series of conflicts and eventually to war. In 1943, Antanas Smetona began working on a study Lithuania Propria and his work was left unfinished, and for a long time was available only as a manuscript and was virtually unknown. Currently the Republic of Lithuania has no territorial claims

Lithuania proper
–
Map showing changes in the territory of Lithuania from the 13th century to the present day

48.
Christianization of Lithuania
–
The Christianization of Lithuania occurred in 1387, initiated by King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Władysław II Jagiełło and his cousin Vytautas. It signified the official adoption of Christianity by Lithuanians, the last pagan nation in Europe and this event ended one of the most complicated and lengthiest processes of Christianization in European history. Lithuanians contacts with the Christian religion predated the establishment of the Duchy of Lithuania in the 12th century, as the dukes of Lithuania extended their dominion eastwards, the influence of the Slavic states on their culture increased. Their subordinates and the people followed their example, borrowing, for instance and this borrowing became increasingly widespread among the pagan population in Aukštaitija, though much less so in Samogitia. In addition, the Lithuanian words for church, baptism and fast are classed as loanwords from Russian rather than Polish, the emergence of a monastic state of the Livonian Order around the Lithuanian borders made it rather urgent to choose a state religion. The first Lithuanian Grand Duke to adopt Western Christianity was Mindaugas, although his nephew and rival Tautvilas had done that earlier, the first translations of Catholic prayers from German were made during his reign and have been known since. In 1250 or 1251, Mindaugas agreed to baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania. Mindaugas and his family were baptised in the Catholic rite in 1250 or 1251, on July 17,1251 Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull proclaiming Lithuania as Kingdom and the state was placed under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome. Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned at some time during the summer of 1253, even after becoming a Catholic, King Mindaugas did not cease sacrificing to his own gods. After Mindaugas repudiated Christianity and expelled all the Christians from Lithuania in 1261, Mindaugas successors did not express enough interest in following in his footsteps. There were decades of vacillation between the Latin and the Orthodox options, for Gediminas and Algirdas, retention of paganism provided a useful diplomatic tool and weapon. That allowed them to use promises of conversion as a means of preserving their power, Grand Duke Algirdas had pursued an option of dynamic balance. Throughout his reign he teased both Avignon and Constantinople with the prospects of a conversion, several attempts were made to negotiate the conversion of Lithuania. Algirdas willingly remained aside of the business and dealt with the order in the Ruthenian part of the state, the intermediary in the negotiations, Polish King Casimir III, made an unexpected assault on Volhynia and Brest in October 1349 that ruined Kęstutis plan. Kęstutis confirmed the agreement by performing a ritual to convince the other side. In fact, Kęstutis had no intentions to abide the agreement, by the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had emerged as a successor to Kievan Rus in the western part of its dominions. Although its sovereign was pagan, the majority of the population was Slavic, to legitimize their rule in these areas, the Lithuanian royalty frequently married into the Orthodox Rurikid aristocracy of Eastern Europe. As a result, some Lithuanian rulers were baptised into Eastern Orthodoxy either as children or adults, the first one was Vaišelga, son and heir of Mindaugas, who took monastic vows at an Orthodox monastery in Lavrashev near Novgorodok and later established a convent there

Christianization of Lithuania
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The fresco in the Vilnius Cathedral, dating to the Christianization of Lithuania
Christianization of Lithuania
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Romuva sanctuary in Prussia
Christianization of Lithuania
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The Pope Innocent IV bull regarding Lithuania's placement under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, Mindaugas' baptism and coronation
Christianization of Lithuania
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Medieval fresco from the Saint-Pierre-le-Jeune Church in Strasbourg, portraying 15 European nations' path towards Christianity. Lithuania presented as the last figure.

49.
Lithuanian Wars of Independence
–
The wars delayed international recognition of independent Lithuania and the formation of civil institutions. After the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was annexed by the Russian Empire, the Lithuanian National Revival emerged during the 19th century and the movement to establish an independent nation-state intensified during the early 20th century. During World War I, Lithuanian territory was occupied by Germany from 1915 until the war ended in November 1918, on February 16,1918, the Council of Lithuania declared the re-establishment of independence from all previous legal bonds with other states. The declaration asserted the right to self-determination, meaning the creation of a state within ethnic Lithuanian territories, however, Germany did not allow the Council to establish a Lithuanian military force, police force, or civic institutions. On November 11,1918 Germany signed an armistice on the Western Front and officially lost the war, the first national government, led by Augustinas Voldemaras, was formed. Voldemaras issued a declaration that Lithuania did not need a force, as it was not planning to engage in warfare. This view was unrealistic, since military conflicts soon erupted, the first legislative act creating an army was passed on November 23,1918. Its development and organization moved slowly due to lack of funding, arms, ammunition, on December 20 Antanas Smetona and Augustinas Voldemaras went to Germany to request assistance. However, the departure of both leaders created a domestic situation. The Council of Lithuania released Voldemaras cabinet, Mykolas Sleževičius became Prime Minister of Lithuania, perceiving an imminent threat to the state, he issued a proclamation several days later. Directed at Lithuanian men, the proclamation invited volunteers to join a force to defend the country, Lithuanian volunteers who agreed to join the military force were promised free land. Fulfilling its Armistice obligation to support Lithuanian independence, Germany initially tried to organize a force from units remaining in Lithuanian territory. Crimps were sent to Germany to recruit volunteers, a division of volunteers was soon formed, who were paid 5 marks per day plus 30 marks per month. The first units arriving in Lithuania during January 1919, although some of them were sent away because they were in a poor condition. By the end of January,400 volunteers were stationed in Alytus, Jonava, Kėdainiai and they formed the basis for the 46th Saxonian division, renamed in March to the Southern Lithuanian Saxonian Volunteer Brigade. The brigade consisted of the 18th, 19th, and 20th regiments, the last of these German troops, also known as Freikorps, would leave Lithuania during July 1919. After successful attempts at mustering a voluntary force to defend Lithuanian territories and it applied to men born between 1897 and 1899. At the end of summer 1919, the Lithuanian army numbered about 8,000 men, during the battles that followed,1,700 Lithuanian volunteers died, more than 2,600 were injured, and 800 were missing in action

Lithuanian Wars of Independence
–
War memorial in Alytus to Lithuanians who died in the Lithuanian Wars of Independences

50.
Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)
–
The Soviet occupation of the Baltic states covers the period from the Soviet–Baltic mutual assistance pacts in 1939, to their invasion and annexation in 1940, to the mass deportations of 1941. In September and October 1939 the Soviet government compelled the much smaller Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance pacts which gave the Soviets the right to military bases there. Following invasion by the Red Army in the summer of 1940, the presidents of Estonia and Latvia were imprisoned and later died in Siberia. Under Soviet supervision, new puppet communist governments and fellow travelers arranged rigged elections with falsified results, shortly thereafter, the newly elected peoples assemblies passed resolutions requesting admission into the Soviet Union. In June 1941 the new Soviet governments carried out mass deportations of enemies of the people, consequently, at first many Balts greeted the Germans as liberators when they occupied the area a week later. The Soviets pressured Finland and the Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance treaties, the Soviets questioned the neutrality of Estonia following the escape of a Polish submarine from Tallinn on 18 September. A week later, on 24 September 1939, the Estonian foreign minister was given an ultimatum in Moscow, the Soviets demanded the conclusion of a treaty of mutual assistance to establish military bases in Estonia. The Estonians had no choice but to allow the establishment of Soviet naval, air, the corresponding agreement was signed on 28 September 1939. Latvia followed on 5 October 1939 and Lithuania shortly thereafter, on 10 October 1939, in 1939 Finland had rejected similar Soviet demands for Finland ceding or leasing parts of its territory. Consequently, the Soviet Union attacked Finland, starting the Winter War in November, the war ended in March 1940 with Finnish territorial losses exceeding the pre-war Soviet demands, but Finland kept its sovereignty. The Baltic states were neutral in the Winter War and the Soviets praised their relations with the USSR as exemplary. The Soviet troops allocated for military actions against the Baltic states numbered 435,000 troops, around 8,000 guns and mortars, over 3,000 tanks. On 3 June 1940 all Soviet military forces based in Baltic states were concentrated under the command of Aleksandr Loktionov, on 14 June 1940 the Soviets issued an ultimatum to Lithuania. The Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect while the attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany. Two Soviet bombers downed the Finnish passenger airplane Kaleva flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U. S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki, the US Foreign Service employee Henry W. Antheil Jr. was killed in the crash. Molotov had accused the Baltic states of conspiracy against the Soviet Union, the occupation of the Baltic states coincided with a communist coup détat in each country, supported by the Soviet troops. On 15 June the USSR invaded Lithuania, the Soviet troops attacked the Latvian border guards at Masļenki. On 16 June 1940 the USSR invaded Estonia and Latvia, Soviet troops in the hundreds of thousands entered Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania

Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)
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Schematics of the Soviet military blockade and invasion of Estonia and Latvia in 1940 (Russian State Naval Archives)
Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)
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Plaque on the building of Government of Estonia, Toompea, commemorating government members killed by communist terror

51.
German occupation of Lithuania during World War II
–
The occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany lasted from the German invasion of Soviet Union on June 22,1941 to the end of the Battle of Memel on January 28,1945. At first the Germans were welcomed as liberators from the repressive Soviet regime which occupied Lithuania prior to the German arrival, in hopes of re-establishing independence or regaining some autonomy, Lithuanians organized their Provisional Government. Soon the Lithuanian attitudes towards the Germans changed into passive resistance, in August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and its Secret Additional Protocol, dividing Central and Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. Lithuania was initially assigned to the German sphere, likely due to its dependence on German trade. After the March 1939 ultimatum regarding the Klaipėda Region, Germany accounted for 75% of Lithuanian exports, to solidify its influence, Germany suggested a German–Lithuanian military alliance against Poland and promised to return the Vilnius Region, but Lithuania held to its policy of strict neutrality. When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the Wehrmacht took control of the Lublin Voivodeship and eastern Warsaw Voivodeship, almost immediately after the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, Soviets pressured Lithuanians into signing the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty. According to this treaty, Lithuania gained about 6,880 square kilometres of territory in the Vilnius Region in return for five Soviet military bases in Lithuania, the Soviet–Lithuanian Treaty was described by The New York Times as virtual sacrifice of independence. Similar pacts were proposed to Latvia, Estonia, and Finland, Finland was the only state to refuse such a treaty and that sparked the Winter War. This war delayed the occupation of Lithuania, the Soviets did not interfere with Lithuanias domestic affairs, despite Lithuanian attempts to negotiate and resolve the issues, Soviet Union issued an ultimatum on June 14,1940. Lithuanians accepted the ultimatum and Soviet military took control of cities by June 15. The following day identical ultimatums were issued to Latvia and Estonia, to legitimize the occupation, the Soviets staged elections to the so-called Peoples Seimas, which then proclaimed establishment of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. This allowed Soviet propaganda to claim that Lithuania voluntarily joined the Soviet Union, soon after the occupation started, Sovietization policies were implemented. On July 1, all political, cultural, and religious organizations were closed, with only the Communist Party of Lithuania and its youth branch allowed to exist. All banks, real estate larger than 170 square metres, private enterprises with more than 20 workers or more than 150,000 litas of gross receipts were nationalized and this disruption in management and operations created a sharp drop in production. Russian soldiers and officials were eager to spend their appreciated rubles, to turn small peasants against large landowners, collectivization was not introduced in Lithuania. All land was nationalized, farms were reduced to 30 hectares, in preparation for eventual collectivization, new taxes between 30% and 50% of farm production were enacted. The Lithuanian litas was artificially depreciated 3–4 times its actual value, before the elections to the Peoples Parliament, Soviets arrested some 2,000 of most prominent political activists. These arrests paralyzed any attempts to create anti-Soviet groups, an estimated 12,000 were imprisoned as enemies of the people

52.
Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)
–
The Soviet Union occupied most of the territory of the Baltic states in its 1944 Baltic Offensive during World War II. The German forces were deported and the Latvian forces were executed as traitors, after the war, the Soviet Union reestablished control over the Baltic territories in line with its forcible annexations as communist republics in 1940. By 2 February 1944 the siege of Leningrad was over and the Soviet troops were on the border with Estonia, having failed to break through, the Soviets launched the Tartu Offensive on 10 August, and the Baltic Offensive on 14 September with forces totalling 1.5 million. The High Command of the German Army issued Operation Aster on 16 September, the NKVD also targeted members of the National Committee of the Republic of Estonia. The Estonian Forest Brothers initially maintained a low profile during the Soviet reoccupation, the 1945 VE Day did not bring a restoration of independence to Estonia, and the Forest Brothers then renewed their campaign of killing Soviet senior armed forces and NKVD officers. In Latvia, NKVD units were the main force fighting against 10,000 active members of the resistance forces. The Soviets introduced conscription immediately after their occupation of Vilnius in July 1944, only 14 percent of those eligible responded to the summons. The Soviets tracked down draft dodgers and killed over 400 people, during 1944 and 1945 the Soviets conscripted 82,000 Lithuanians. In Northern Europe, the fate of small countries during World War II varied considerably, Denmark and Norway were occupied by Germany, Sweden had to make some concessions but with skillful foreign policy and a credible military it was able to stay out of the war. Both Denmark and Norway restored their sovereignty after the German capitulation, finland, which geographically was in a less advantageous position than Sweden, had to endure two wars – the Winter War and the Continuation War – with territorial losses. There were efforts to restore independence during the German occupation, in 1941, the Lithuanians had overthrown Soviet rule two days before the Germans arrived in Kaunas. The Germans allowed the Provisional Government to function for over a month, towards the end of the war, once it became clear that Germany would be defeated, many Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians joined the Germans once again. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war the Baltic countries would be able to attract Western support for the cause of independence from the USSR, in Latvia an underground nationalist Central Council of Latvia was formed on August 13,1943. An analogous body, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, on March 23,1944, the underground National Committee of the Estonian Republic was founded. Thousands of Estonians not willing to side with the Nazis joined the Finnish Defence Forces to fight against the Soviet Union, the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 was formed out of the volunteers known colloquially as the Finnish Boys. On 2 February 1944, the front reached the former Estonian border, the call drew support from across the country,38,000 conscripts jammed registration centers. In 1943 and 1944, two divisions of Waffen SS were formed from Latvians, predominantly conscripts, to fight against the Red Army, the battles of Narva were perceived by Estonian people as the fight for their country, a consolation for the humiliation of 1940. Over the radio, in English, the Estonian government declared its neutrality in the war, the government issued two editions of the State Gazette

53.
Resistance in Lithuania during World War II
–
During World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union again in 1944. Resistance during this period took many forms, significant parts of the resistance were formed by Polish and Soviet forces, some of which fought with Lithuanian collaborators. This article presents a summary of the organizations, persons and actions involved, in 1940, President Antanas Smetona fled to Germany, not wanting his government to become a puppet of the Soviet occupation. Soviet attempts to him were unsuccessful, and he was able to settle in the United States. In 1940, Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Kaunas, in 1941, the Lithuanian Activist Front formed an underground government, and following the June uprising, the Provisional Government of Lithuania maintained sovereignty for a brief period. Soviet partisans began sabotage and guerrilla operations against German forces immediately after the Nazi invasion of 1941, the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force was eventually formed in 1944 under Lithuanian command, but was liquidated by the Nazis only a few months later for refusing to subordinate to their command. There was no significant violent resistance directed against the Nazis, some Lithuanians, encouraged by Germanys vague promises of autonomy, cooperated with the Nazis. Pre-war tensions over the Vilnius Region resulted in a civil war between Poles and Lithuanians. Nazi-sponsored Lithuanian units, primarily the Lithuanian Secret Police, were active in the region, the conflict culminated in the massacres of Polish and Lithuanian civilians in June 1944 in the Glitiškės and Dubingiai villages. See also Polish-Lithuanian relations during World War II, also in 1943, several underground political groups united under the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania. The committee issued a declaration of independence that went largely unnoticed and it became active mostly outside Lithuania among emigrants and deportees, and was able to establish contacts in Western countries and get support for resistance operations inside Lithuania. It would persist abroad for years as one of the groups representing Lithuania in exile. Jewish partisans also fought against the Nazi occupation, in July 1944, as part of its Operation Tempest, the Polish Home Army launched Operation Ostra Brama, an attempt to recapture that city. See also Polish–Lithuanian relations during World War II, as of January 2008,723 Lithuanians were recognized by Israel as Righteous among the Nations for their efforts in saving Lithuanias Jews from the Holocaust. The total number of people who helped the Jews may be much higher, Lithuanian partisans, known as the Forest Brothers, began guerrilla warfare against the Soviet forces as soon as the front passed over them in 1944, and continued an armed struggle until 1953. The core of this movement was made up of soldiers from the Territorial Defense Force who had disbanded with their weapons and uniforms and members of the Lithuanian Freedom Army, the underground had extensive clandestine radio and press. Thousands of people engaged in active and passive resistance against the Soviet authorities, the most famous of these partisans is probably Juozas Lukša, author of several books during the resistance and the subject of a recent film. While armed resistance ended in the 1950s, nonviolent resistance continued in various forms, February 16, the date that Lithuania first declared its independence in 1918, played an important symbolic role during this period

Resistance in Lithuania during World War II
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Eastern Front, June 1941-December 1941

54.
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, also known as Soviet Lithuania or Lithuania was a republic of the Soviet Union. It existed from 1940 to 1990, between 1941 and 1944, the German invasion of the Soviet Union caused its de facto dissolution. However, with the retreat of the Germans in 1944–1945, Soviet hegemony was re-established, on 18 May 1989, the Lithuanian SSR declared state sovereignty within its borders during perestroika. On 11 March 1990, the Republic of Lithuania was declared to be re-established as an independent state, Soviet Union itself recognized Lithuanian independence on 6 September 1991. There had been an attempt to establish a Soviet government in Lithuania by the Bolshevik Red Army in 1918–1919. The Lithuanian SSR was first proclaimed on 16 December 1918, by the revolutionary government of Lithuania. The Lithuanian SSR was supported by the Red Army, but it failed to create a de facto government with any support as the Council of Lithuania had successfully done earlier. It has been suggested that the failure to conquer Poland in the Polish–Soviet War prevented the Soviets from invading Lithuania, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, stated that Lithuania was to be included into the German sphere of influence. However soon after World War II began in September 1939, and this was granted in exchange for Lublin and parts of the Warsaw province of Poland, originally ascribed to the Soviet Union, but by that time already occupied by German forces. Following the 1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania and subsequent invasion of 15 June 1940, before doing so, in accordance with the Lithuanian constitution, he turned over his duties on a provisional basis to Prime Minister Antanas Merkys. The day after Smetonas departure, Merkys announced he had deposed Smetona and had taken over the presidency in his own right, on 17 June, at the behest of the Soviets, Merkys appointed a left-wing journalist, Justas Paleckis, as prime minister. Merkys then himself resigned, making Paleckis acting president as well, for all intents and purposes, Lithuania had lost its independence. Paleckis appointed a Communist-dominated peoples government with Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius as prime minister and this government dissolved the Fourth Seimas and announced elections for a Peoples Seimas on 14 July. Voters were selected with a single list provided by the Union of the Working People of Lithuania, on 3 August, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR accepted the petition and admitted the Lithuanian SSR as the 14th republic of the Soviet Union. Lithuania now maintains that since Smetona never resigned, Merkys takeover of the presidency was illegal, Lithuania was subsequently invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany in June 1941. With the 1944 Soviet Baltic offensive, Soviet rule was re-established in July 1944, after both Soviet occupations, mass deportation of the Lithuanians into gulags and other forced settlements ensued. The United States refused to recognize the annexation of Lithuania or the other Baltic States, by the Soviet Union, all legal ties of the Soviet Unions sovereignty over the republic were cut as Lithuania declared the restitution of its independence. The Soviet Union claimed that this declaration was illegal, as Lithuania had to follow the process of secession mandated in the Soviet Constitution if it wanted to leave

55.
Baltic Way
–
The Baltic Way or Baltic Chain was a peaceful political demonstration that occurred on 23 August 1989. The demonstration originated in Black Ribbon Day protests held in the cities in the 1980s. It marked the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, the pact and its secret protocols divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence and led to the occupation of the Baltic states in 1940. The event was organised by Baltic pro-independence movements, Rahvarinne of Estonia, the Tautas fronte of Latvia, the protest was designed to draw global attention by demonstrating a popular desire for independence for each of the entities. It also illustrated solidarity among the three nations and it has been described as an effective publicity campaign, and an emotionally captivating and visually stunning scene. Within seven months of the protest, Lithuania became the first of the Soviet republics to declare independence, the Soviet Union denied the existence of the secret protocols to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, even though they were widely published by western scholars after surfacing during the Nuremberg Trials. The Baltic states claimed that they were forcefully and illegally incorporated into the Soviet Union, Popular opinion was that the secret protocols proved that the occupation was illegal. Such an interpretation of the Pact had major implications in the Baltic public policy, if Baltic diplomats could link the Pact and the occupation, they could claim that the Soviet rule in the republics had no legal basis and therefore all Soviet laws were null and void since 1940. This would open the possibility of restoring legal continuity of the independent states existed in the interwar period. Claiming all Soviet laws had no power in the Baltics would also cancel the need to follow the Constitution of the Soviet Union. In anticipation of the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, tensions were rising between the Baltics and Moscow, lithuanian Romualdas Ozolas initiated a collection of 2 million signatures demanding withdrawal of the Red Army from Lithuania. The Communist Party of Lithuania was deliberating the possibility of splitting off from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, on 8 August,1989, Estonians attempted to amend election laws to limit voting rights of new immigrants. This provoked mass strikes and protests of Russian workers, Moscow gained an opportunity to present the events as an inter-ethnic conflict – it could then position itself as peacemaker restoring order in a troubled republic. The rising tensions in anticipation of the protest spurred hopes that Moscow would react by announcing constructive reforms to address the demands of the Baltic people, at the same time fears grew of violent clampdown. Erich Honecker from East Germany and Nicolae Ceauşescu from Romania offered the Soviet Union military assistance in case it decided to use force, on 17 August, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union published a project of new policy regarding the union republics in Pravda. However, this project offered few new ideas, it preserved Moscows leadership not only in foreign policy and defense, but also in economy, science, during the interview, Yakovlev admitted that the secret protocols were genuine. He condemned the protocols, but maintained that they had no impact on the incorporation of the Baltic states, thus Moscow reversed its long-standing position that the secret protocols did not exist or were forgeries, but did not concede that events of 1940 constituted an occupation. It was the first time that an official Soviet body challenged the legitimacy of the Soviet rule, in the light of glasnost and perestroika, street demonstrations had been increasingly growing in popularity and support

Baltic Way
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The human chain connecting the three Baltic capitals – Tallinn, Riga and Vilnius.
Baltic Way
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Human chain formed in Lithuania.
Baltic Way
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People carried portable radios with them to be able to tell the exact time when to form the human chain from Tallinn through Riga to Vilnius. They also carried badges to show the unity of the three states in the struggle for independence from the Soviet Union
Baltic Way
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Demonstration in Šiauliai. The coffins are decorated with national flags of the three Baltic states and are placed under Soviet and Nazi flags.

56.
January Events (Lithuania)
–
The January Events took place in Lithuania between 11 and 13 January 1991 in the aftermath of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. As a result of Soviet military actions,14 civilians were killed and 702 were injured, the events were centered in its capital, Vilnius, along with related actions in its suburbs and in the cities of Alytus, Šiauliai, Varėna, and Kaunas. After Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August 1939, the German-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation followed. In June 1940, the Red Army invaded Lithuania, establishing the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, between the years of 1941 and 1944 Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Subsequently, the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was dissolved de facto, however, following the Baltic Offensive, Soviet rule was re-established in July 1944. The Lithuanian Republic declared independence from the Soviet Union on 11 March 1990, the Soviet Union imposed an economic blockade between April and late June. Economic and energy shortages undermined public faith in the restored state. The inflation rate reached 100% and continued to increase rapidly, in January 1991 the Lithuanian government was forced to raise prices several times and was used for organization of mass protests of the so-called Russophone population. During the five days preceding the events, Russian, Polish, in protection of the rallied Russophone population, the Soviet Union sent elite armed forces and special service units. On 8 January the conflict between Chairman of the Parliament Vytautas Landsbergis and the more pragmatic Prime Minister Kazimira Prunskienė culminated in her resignation, Prunskienė met with Soviet Union president Mikhail Gorbachev on that day. He refused her request for assurances that military action would not be taken, on the same day the Yedinstvo movement organized a rally in front of the Supreme Council of Lithuania. Protesters tried to storm the parliament building, but were driven away by unarmed security forces using water cannons, despite a Supreme Council vote the same day to halt price increases, the scale of protests and provocations backed by Yedinstvo and the Communist Party increased. During a radio and television address, Landsbergis called upon supporters to gather around. From 8–9 January several special Soviet military units were flown to Lithuania, the official explanation was that this was needed to ensure constitutional order and the effectiveness of laws of the Lithuanian SSR and the Soviet Union. On 10 January Gorbachev addressed the Supreme Council, demanding restoration of the constitution of the USSR in Lithuania and he mentioned that military intervention could be possible within days. When Lithuanian officials asked for Moscows guarantee not to send armed troops,11,50 – Soviet military units seize the National Defence Department building in Vilnius. 12,00 – Soviet military units surround and seize the Press House building in Vilnius, soldiers use live ammunition against civilians. Several people are hospitalized, some with bullet wounds,12,15 – Soviet paratroopers seize the regional building of the National Defence Department in Alytus

January Events (Lithuania)
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A man with a Lithuanian flag in front of a Soviet tank, January 13, 1991
January Events (Lithuania)
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Vilnius TV tower, the main site of January's events
January Events (Lithuania)
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A sketch of the Soviet plan to attack the tower
January Events (Lithuania)
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Seimas Palace during the January 13 events in Vilnius, Lithuania

57.
Geography of Lithuania
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Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, most populous of the Baltic states, Lithuania has 262 kilometres of coastline consisting of the continental coast and the Curonian Spit coast. The Neman River and some of its tributaries are used for internal shipping. Situated between 56.27 and 53.53 latitude and 20.56 and 26.50 longitude, Lithuania is glacially flat, except for morainic hills in the western uplands and eastern highlands no higher than 300 metres. The terrain is marked by small lakes and swamps. The growing season lasts 169 days in the east and 202 days in the west, according to some geographers, the geographical midpoint of Europe is just north of Lithuanias capital, Vilnius. Geographic coordinates, 54°54′24″N 25°19′12″E Lithuania is situated on the shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuanias boundaries have changed several times since 1918, but they have been stable since 1945, currently, Lithuania covers an area of about 65,200 square kilometres. About the size of West Virginia, it is larger than Belgium, Denmark, Latvia, the Netherlands, or Switzerland. Lithuania is situated on the shore of the Baltic Sea and borders Latvia on the north, Belarus on the east and south, and Poland. It is a country of gently rolling hills, many forests, rivers and streams and its principal natural resource is agricultural land. The two countries share a border that extends 453 kilometres, Lithuanias eastern border with Belarus is longer, stretching 502 kilometers. The border with Poland on the south is relatively short, only ninety-one kilometres, Lithuania also has a 227-kilometre border with Russia. Russian territory adjacent to Lithuania is Kaliningrad Oblast, which is the part of the former German East Prussia. Finally, Lithuania has 108 kilometres of Baltic seashore with a harbor at Klaipėda. The Baltic coast offers sandy beaches and pine forests and attracts thousands of vacationers, Lithuania lies at the edge of the North European Plain. Its landscape was shaped by the glaciers of the last Ice Age, Lithuanias terrain is an alternation of moderate lowlands and highlands. The landscape is punctuated by 2,833 lakes larger than 10,000 m² and 1,600 smaller ponds, the majority of the lakes are found in the eastern part of the country. Lithuania also has 758 rivers longer than ten kilometres, the largest river is the Nemunas, which originates in Belarus

58.
List of cities in Lithuania
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In Lithuania, there are 103 cities. The term city is defined by the Parliament of Lithuania as compact areas populated by more than 3,000 people of whom at least two work in the industry or service sector. Those settlements which have a population of less than 3,000, smaller settlements are called miestelis which is translated as towns. Even smaller settlements are called kaimas, often the official status is not clear and people refer to both towns and villages as gyvenvietė which in essence means settlement. The cities started to form in the 13th-14th century together with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first city to receive city rights was Klaipėda. According to medieval law, a city could have its own fairs, taverns, guilds, courts, some former cities lost their status are now just towns or villages, for example Kernavė or Merkinė. Most of the cities in Lithuania are old, established before the 18th century and their location is mostly determined by trade and transportation routes. Some of the cities grew because of railroad construction, for example Kaišiadorys, Vievis, Radviliškis. In the last century cities grew new to big industry centers, for example Visaginas, five cities – Birštonas, Druskininkai, Neringa, Palanga and Anykščiai – have a special resort status. Most of the cities are small, there are only 19 cities with population of more than 20,000. Cities are quite spread out through the territory of Lithuania. This forms a network to support economic development throughout the country. At the 2001 census 66. 7% of the lived in cities. Map showing all cities marked with red dots, bigger cities are written in larger letters. Click on the map for better resolution, List of towns in Lithuania List of Lithuanian cities in other languages Administrative divisions of Lithuania Counties Municipalities Elderships. Seniūnaitija Population sizes are given according to Department of Statistics to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania data for 2008, the cities are sorted according to 2001 census data because it is more reliable. City rights means rights to self-governing, for older cities usually it is the date when Magdeburg rights were granted. Most dates are obtained from Lithuanian Wikipedia which assembled the information from different sources

59.
List of lakes of Lithuania
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There are about 6,000 lakes in Lithuania, covering 950 km², or 1. 5% of the territory of Lithuania. The lakes are not evenly distributed, most are situated in the Baltic Highlands, about 1,200 are supported only by groundwater and neither receive nor distribute any surface water. However, many of the lakes are interconnected by complex passages. These lake systems are major tourist attractions in Aukštaitija National Park and are popular with kayakers, the lakes in and near the Molėtai district municipality are a weekend destination for many residents of Vilnius, who have built summer houses and villas in the area. The great majority of Lithuanias lakes formed after the Wisconsin glacier retreated, the oldest date from about 13,000 years before the present. The varieties of glacial lakes include, Moraine-dammed lakes formed when glacial moraines blocked glacier meltwater drainage and these lakes include Dysnai, Plateliai, and Vištytis. Kettle lakes formed when a piece of ice broke away from the edge of a retreating glacier. After the piece melted, a depression was left in the landscape that filled with water. These lakes tend to be small, round, and quite deep, due to their small size most of them are unnamed. The best-known of these is Lake Druskonis, formed much like kettle lakes, but are much larger. The pieces of ice were not buried under sediment and these lakes are often irregularly shaped, with uneven bottoms. Examples include Dusia, Metelys, Obelija, and Kretuonas, formed when meltwater washed steep, narrow, and deep valleys. When the valleys filled with water afterwards, lakes such as Asveja, Tauragnas, Sartai, residual lakes are the remains of large lakes that formed immediately adjacent to melting ice caps. These lakes are large, shallow, and surrounded by wetlands, examples include Rėkyva, Žuvintas, and Amalvas. Some lakes are of mixed origins, created when a dam was constructed, examples include Drūkšiai, Didžiulis or Daugai, and Galvė. The lakes of non-glacial origins include, Oxbow lakes are abundant, there are over 1,300 of them. The largest are located in the Neman River delta, sinkhole lakes are prevalent in the Biržai district municipality. There are about 300 such lakes, although their surface area covers only 10 hectares and it has been suggested that most of them are interconnected

List of lakes of Lithuania
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Lakes in Aukštaitija National Park, seen from Ladakalnis Hill
List of lakes of Lithuania
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Detailed physical map of Lithuania
List of lakes of Lithuania
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Lūšiai Lake near Palūšė
List of lakes of Lithuania
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Asveja Lake near Dubingiai

60.
Politics of Lithuania
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Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government, which is headed by the Prime Minister. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the unicameral Seimas, judicial power is vested in judges appointed by the President of Lithuania and is independent of executive and legislature power. The judiciary consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania established these powers upon its approval on 25 October 1992. Since Lithuania declared independence on 11 March 1990, it has kept strong democratic traditions, through compromise, a semi-presidential system was settled. In a referendum on 25 October 1992, the first general vote of the people since their independence,56. 75% of the total number of voters supported the new constitution. All major political parties declared their support for Lithuanias membership in NATO, Lithuania joined NATO on 29 March 2004, and joined the EU on 1 May 2004. During this period, the minister was Gediminas Vagnorius. Valdas Adamkus has been the president for most of the time since 1998 and his prime minister was Rolandas Paksas, whose government got off to a rocky start and collapsed within seven months. President Adamkus played a key role in bringing the new centrist parties together, Artūras Paulauskas, the leader of the centre-left New Union, became the Chairman of the Seimas. In July 2001, the centre-left New Union party forged an alliance with the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, on 11 April 2006, Artūras Paulauskas was removed from his position and Viktoras Muntianas was elected Chairman of the Seimas. Brazauskas decided not to remain in office as acting Prime Minister, even so, he led the ruling Social Democratic Party of Lithuania for one more year, until 19 May 2007, when he passed the reins to Gediminas Kirkilas. On 27 November 2008, Andrius Kubilius was appointed as a Prime Minister, in 2012, Algirdas Butkevičius became the new Prime Minister and still holds that position. Government in Lithuania is made up of three branches originally envisioned by enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, executive, legislative, and judicial, each branch is separate and is set up to do checks and balances on each other branch. The executive branch of the Lithuanian government consists of a President, a Prime Minister, and it is in charge of running the government. The President of Lithuania is the head of state of the country, elected directly for a five-year term, the President, with the approval of the Seimas, is first responsible of appointing the Prime Minister. Dalia Grybauskaitė has served as the president of Lithuania since July 2009, Grybauskaitė succeeded Valdas Adamkus who had served a total of two non-consecutive terms. Former President Rolandas Paksas, who had defeated Adamkus in 2003, was impeached in April 2004 for leaking classified information, the Prime Minister of Lithuania is the head of government of the country, appointed by the President and approved by the Seimas. The Prime Minister, within 15 days of being appointed, is responsible for choosing Ministers for the President to approve to each of the 13 Ministries

61.
Counties of Lithuania
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The territory of Lithuania is divided into 10 counties, all named after their capitals. The counties are divided into 60 municipalities,9 city municipalities,43 district municipalities and 8 municipalities, each municipality is then divided into elderates. This division was created in 1994 and slightly modified in 2000, on 1 July 2010, the county administrations were abolished, and since that date, counties remains as the territorial and statistical units. Until 2010 counties were administered by county governors appointed by the government in Vilnius. Their primary duty was to ensure that the municipalities obey the laws and they did not have great powers vested in them, and so it was suggested that 10 counties are too much for Lithuania as the two smallest counties administer only four municipalities. Modern apskritys should not be confused with apskritys that existed in the independent Lithuania during the interwar period, at that time Lithuania had a two-step administrative division, apskritys that were subdivided into valsčius. Lithuania now has a division, counties, municipalities. See subdivisions of Lithuania for details and this map shows counties as well as municipalities. Eight city municipalities and two municipalities are marked by numbers, Administrative divisions of Lithuania Municipalities Elderships

62.
Elderships of Lithuania
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A seniūnija is the smallest administrative division of Lithuania. An eldership could either be a small region consisting of few villages, one single town. Elderships vary in size and population depending on their place and nature, a few elderships make up a municipality. Šilainiai and Dainava are the most populous elderates, with population counts over 70,000, elderships manage small scale local matters, such as repairing pavements, dirt roads, keeping records on all families living in the eldership. Its premise is that unlike with higher administrative divisions, an elder could have time to talk to every person in the eldership who wants to, modern Lithuania is divided into 10 counties,60 municipalities, and 546 elderships. In cities, an elder is elected to each eldership district, note, historically the term was used for significantly bigger administrative units, e. g. Eldership of Samogitia. Terms Ward Parish Subdistrict Lithuania Administrative divisions of Lithuania Counties Municipalities Seniūnaitija Cities Towns A GUIDE TO THE LITHUANIAN LEGAL SYSTEM AND RESEARCH

Elderships of Lithuania
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Seniunijos of Lithuania

63.
Constitution of Lithuania
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The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania defines the legal foundation for all laws passed in the Republic of Lithuania. It was approved in a referendum on 25 October 1992, the first attempt to codify the laws of Grand Duchy of Lithuania took the form of Statutes of Lithuania, with the First Statute in power in 1529. The document, written in Ruthenian language, fulfilled the role of the law of the land. In a belated attempt to rectify the situation, a constitution was adopted on May 3,1791 – one of the oldest codified national constitutions in the world, the new constitution abolished the liberum veto and banned the szlachtas confederations, features that had crippled decision making the state. The peasantry saw their rights increased but it fell short of abolishing serfdom, religious tolerance was preserved, although the status of the Catholic faith was recognized. The 1791 document remained in force for less than 19 months, after a war with Russia. By 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned between Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, with most of the lands of the Grand Duchy under the Russian rule, during the closing stages of World War I, Lithuania declared independence on February 16,1918. Three separate temporary constitutions were enacted on November 2,1918, April 4,1919, on November 2,1918, the State Council adopted a constitutional act. At the time, it was constrained by the decision of July 11,1918, declaring Lithuania a constitutional monarchy. In a changing environment, the council chose to adopt the act without specifying the form of government or the head of state. On April 4,1919, the State Council adopted modified Fundamental Principles of Temporary Constitution, the modifications were mainly notable for the introduction of the office of the President, in place of the Presidium of the Council. The Constituent Assembly did not adopt a constitution until August 1,1922, the constitution envisioned a strong parliament and a politically weakened President as the head of state. A coup on December 17,1926 started the process of transforming the Republic of Lithuania into an authoritarian state headed by Antanas Smetona as the President. The constitution of 1922 was disregarded as early as April 12,1927, a constitutional reform was proposed, strengthening the authority of the President and weakening the parliament. A new constitution was proclaimed by Smetona in May 1928 without any attempt to follow the procedure for changing the Constitution established in the 1922 document. Instead, the constitution was presented as a proposal to the nation, to be approved within 10 years, the Seimas would not reconvene until 1936. The constitution of 1928 was never submitted for approval to the nation, instead, the government started working on a new constitution, approved by the newly assembled Seimas in 1938. The constitution reversed the liberal ideas of the constitution of 1922, introducing the notion that the state was the foundation of existence of its citizens and not the other way round

64.
Constitutional Court of Lithuania
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Since its inception, the Court has been located in the city of Vilnius, Gediminas Avenue. The main task of the court is judicial review and it may therefore declare the acts of the Seimas unconstitutional and thus render them ineffective. As such, it is similar to the Supreme Court of the United States. However, it differs from it and other courts in that it is not part of the regular judicial system. Most importantly, it does not serve as a court of appeals from lower courts or as a sort of “superappellate court” on any violation of national laws. Its jurisdiction is focused on issues, the integrity of the Constitution. The Court has played a role in the development of the Lithuanian legal system. On March 31,2004, it issued a ruling acknowledging the breach of the oath of office by the President Rolandas Paksas. He was removed from office by Seimas following the impeachment on April 6,2004, the ruling interpreted the Constitution as precluding a person, who was pleaded guilty for the breach of oath, from assuming any future position in public service, which requires taking an oath. The Court comprises nine justices, elected by the Seimas, for a nine-year non-renewable term of office, usually, notable legal scholars and highly experienced judges qualify for the position. The candidates are nominated by the Chairman of the Seimas, the President of Lithuania, the Seimas appoints the President of the Court from among the justices upon the nomination by the President of the state. Justices in the 2014-2017 term are, Dainius Žalimas, Vytas Milius, Vytautas Greičius, Danutė Jočienė, Pranas Kuconis, Gediminas Mesonis, Elvyra Baltutytė, Egidijus Šileikis, Algirdas Taminskas. 1993–1996 1996–1999 1999–2002 2002–2005 2005-2008 2008-2011 2011-2014 2014-2017 Judiciary Rule of law Rule According to Higher Law The official website of the Constitutional Court of Lithuania

65.
Elections in Lithuania
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Elections in Lithuania gives information on elections and election results in Lithuania. Voters in Lithuania elect members of the parliament, the president, members of the councils and mayors. Lithuanian citizens can vote in mandatory or consultative referendums. 71 of the members in the 141-seat parliament, elected to a term, are elected in single-seat constituencies. The remaining 70 members are elected in an election based on proportional representation. The structure of the means that a large number of parties is represented in the parliament. The head of the state - the president - is elected to a term in a majority vote. The Lithuanian representatives in the European Parliament, currently numbering 11, are elected using proportional representation every five years,12 referendums have been organized in Lithuania, initiated by either citizens or the parliament. Of these, only four have seen the referendum question approved in a deemed to have taken place. Voting in elections is open to all citizens of Lithuania who are at least 18 years of age. Citizens of other European Union countries that permanently reside in Lithuania can vote in the Lithuanian elections to the European Parliament, voting in municipal elections is open to all residents of Lithuania, regardless of their citizenship. Voting process is organized by the Central Electoral Commission and subordinate electoral bodies and is monitored by local and international observers, the voters vote in a secret ballot and the elections have generally been assessed as free and fair, although allegations of irregularities have been common. The parliament has 141 members, elected to a four-year term, Lithuania exhibits a fragmented multi-party system, with a number of small parties in which coalition governments are common. Ordinary elections to the Seimas take place on the second Sunday of October, to be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 25 years old on the election day, not under allegiance to a foreign state and permanently reside in Lithuania. Persons serving or due to serve a sentence imposed by the court 65 days before the election are not eligible, also, judges, citizens performing military service, and servicemen of professional military service and officials of statutory institutions and establishments may not stand for election. This provision of the constitution had been ruled to be in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights, Parliament members in the 71 single-seat constituencies are elected in a majority vote if the voter turnout in the constituency is at least 40%. If the voter turnout is less than 40%, the candidate with the most votes is declared a winner, if there are more than two candidates and no candidate wins in the first round, a second round of voting is held within 15 days. The two leading candidates from the first round are eligible for the round of voting

Elections in Lithuania
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Seimas building in Vilnius
Elections in Lithuania
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Lithuania
Elections in Lithuania
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Dalia Grybauskaitė casting a vote in the 2009 presidential election
Elections in Lithuania
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Posters urging to vote in the 2014 Election to the European Parliament

66.
Military of Lithuania
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The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of 20565 active personnel. Conscription was ended in September 2008 but was reintroduced in 2015 because of concerns about the environment in light of Russias military intervention in Ukraine. Lithuanias defence system is based on the concept of total and unconditional defence mandated by Lithuanias National Security Strategy, the goal of Lithuanias defence policy is to prepare their society for general defence and to integrate Lithuania into Western security and defence structures. The defence ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, a special security department handles VIP protection and communications security. Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Forces, the Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces. The core of the Lithuanian Land Force structure is the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade consisting of three mechanized infantry battalions and artillery battalion, the Lithuanian Land forces are undertaking a major modernization. New weapons and heavier armour are going to be acquired, in 2007 the Land forces bought the German Heckler & Koch G36 rifle to replace the older Swedish Ak-4 as main weapon. There are plans to buy new Infantry fighting vehicles, the volunteers have already successfully participated in international operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. The NDVF consists of six territorial units, the Lithuanian Air Force is an integral part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The LAF is formed from professional military servicemen and non-military personnel, units are located at various bases across Lithuania, Kaunas, Karmėlava, Nemirseta, Šiauliai, Radviliškis. The initial formation of the LAF was the 2nd transport squadron with the transfer of 20 An-2 aircraft from civilian to military use and these were joined by four L-39C Albatros aircraft purchased from Kazakhstan as part of the intended 16 to be used by the 1st fighter squadron. Mil Mi-8 helicopters were modernised by LAF, in 20082 medium-range radars were acquired for the Air Forces Airspace Surveillance and Control Command. Air space is patrolled by jet fighters from other NATO members, the European Unions External border is patrolled by Aviation Unit of the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service which received new helicopters EC-120, EC-135 and EC-145. The Navy has over 600 personnel, the flotilla is the core component of the Navy, and consists of the Mine Countermeasures Squadron, the Patrol Ships Squadron, and the Harbour Boats Group. The current Commander in Chief of the Lithuanian Navy is Rear Admiral Kęstutis Macijauskas, the Naval base and Headquarters are located in the city of Klaipėda. The Navy uses patrol ships for coastal surveillance, the four newly acquired Flyvefisken class patrol vessels replaced the older Storm class patrol boats and Grisha class corvettes. SOF is formed from the Special Operations Unit, SOF are responsible for the following tasks, special reconnaissance, direct actions, and military support. It is also in charge of tasks, e. g. protection of VIP in peacetime

Military of Lithuania
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Flag and insignia of the Lithuanian Armed Forces
Military of Lithuania
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Insignia of the Ministry of National Defence
Military of Lithuania
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Soldiers from MIB "Iron Wolf" during training.
Military of Lithuania
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Lithuanian Air Force jet trainer Aero L-39ZA

67.
Economy of Lithuania
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Lithuania is a member of the European Union and the largest economy among the three Baltic states. Lithuania belongs to the group of high human development countries. Lithuania was the first country to independence from Soviet Union in 1990 and rapidly moved from centrally planned to a market economy. It enjoyed high growth rates after joining the European Union along with the other Baltic states, GDP growth reached its peak in 2007, increasing by 11. 1%, and still growing slightly in 2008. Similar to the other Baltic States, the Lithuanian economy suffered a recession in 2009. GDP growth has resumed in 2010, albeit at a slower pace than before the crisis, GDP per capita in Lithuania is 70% above the worlds average of $10,500. The history of Lithuania can be divided into seven major periods, all the periods have some interesting and important facts that affected the economic situation of the country in those times. Lithuanian tribes maintained close contacts with the Roman Empire. Amber was the main good provided to the Roman Empire from Baltic Sea coast, consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 12th century. Andreas Stirland crowned Mindaugas, the first pan-Lithuanian ruler, as the Catholic King of Lithuania in 1253, the Grand Duchy was open to everyone. Grand Duke Gediminas issued letters to the Hanseatic league, offering access to his domains for men of every order and profession from nobles. Economic immigrants improved the level of handicrafts, in 1569 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth formed through the union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture based on the exploitation of the agricultural workforce, poland-Lithuania played a significant role in supplying 16th-century Western Europe with exports of three sorts of goods, grain, cattle and fur. These three articles amounted to nearly 90% of the exports to western markets by overland and maritime trade. The Commonwealth was famous for Europes first and the second modern codified national constitution. Economic and commercial reforms, previously shunned as unimportant by the Szlachta, were introduced, following the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772,1793 and 1795, the Russian Empire controlled the majority of Lithuania. The reform amounted to the liquidation of serf dependence previously suffered by peasants, on 16 February 1918, the Council of Lithuania passed a resolution for the re-establishment of the Independent State of Lithuania. Soon, many reforms for sustainable economic growth were implemented

Economy of Lithuania
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Gediminas Avenue in autumn
Economy of Lithuania
Economy of Lithuania
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Vilnius Business Harbor
Economy of Lithuania
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The modern skyline of Vilnius' Financial Centre at night

68.
Lithuania and the euro
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Lithuania is an EU member state which joined the Eurozone by adopting the euro on 1 January 2015. This made it the last of the three Baltic states to adopt the euro, after Estonia and Latvia, before then, its currency, the litas, was pegged to the euro at 3.4528 litas to 1 euro. All members of the European Union, except Denmark and the UK, are required by treaty to join the euro once certain criteria have been met. The Lithuanian litas participated in ERM II since 28 June 2004, the Commissions report found that while Lithuania met four of the five criteria, their average annual inflation was 2. 7%, exceeding the limit of 2. 6%. As a result, the Commission concluded that there should be no change at present to Lithuanias status as a Member State with a derogation, Lithuania is the only country initially to have been denied approval to adopt the euro after requesting a convergence check. In December 2006 the government approved a new plan, which pushed the expected adoption date to post-2010 due to inflation. In 2007, Prime Minister Gediminas Kirkilas stated that he hoped for adoption around 2010–11, generally high inflation, which reached a peak of 12. 7% in June 2008, delayed Lithuanias adoption of the euro. By the time of the 2010 European debt crisis, the switch over date had been put further back to 2014. During the 2012 Lithuanian parliamentary election campaign, the Social Democrats were reported to prefer delaying the euro adoption, when Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevičius presented his new government in December, eurozone accession as soon as possible was mentioned as one of the key priorities for the government. The Prime Minister said, January 2015 is a feasible date, but things can also turn out, that we may try to adopt the euro together with Latvia in January 2014. Let the first quarter pass, and well give it a thought, however, in January 2013 the Prime Minister announced that the government and the Bank of Lithuania had agreed on a target date of 2015. In February 2013, the government of Lithuania approved a plan for adoption in 2015. According to figures from the Bank of Lithuania, Lithuania had met 4 out of the 5 criteria by October 2013, the Lithuanian government expected this to decline to 2. 9% by the first quarter of 2014. Lithuanias parliament approved a euro changeover law in April 2014, the European Central Bank does not conclude on whether the country is ready to join the euro area. On 16 July the European Parliament voted in favour of Lithuania adopting the euro, on 23 July the EU Council of Ministers approved the decision, clearing the way for Lithuania to adopt the euro on 1 January 2015. Notes A poll by Eurobarometer in April 2013 found that 41% of Lithuanians supported switching to the euro and this was a decrease in support of 3% from a year earlier. A September 2014 Eurobarometer poll found that 49% of Lithuanians were opposed to the introduction of the euro, opinion polling in the run-up to the adoption of the euro produced a mixed set of results. 57% of respondents said the Government acted wrongly by introducing the euro without a referendum on the issue

69.
Transport in Lithuania
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This article provides an overview of the transport infrastructure of Lithuania. For transport in the Soviet Union, see Transport in the Soviet Union.09 kilometres paved,12,912.22 km unpaved,8,415, now - road completely reconstructed to motorway from Kaunas to Ariogala. From Ariogala to Klaipeda, it serves as alternative road for a motorway A1 and connects local towns, like Ariogala, Raseiniai, aukštaitian Highway - old highway built in the interbellum years connecting Kaunas, Kėdainiai, Panevėžys and Biržai. Currently road is a part of land road 229, Via Baltica, in 1992, there were 105 km of crude oil pipelines, and 760 km of natural gas pipelines. Būtingė, Klaipėda, Šventoji Kaunas Rumšiškės Nida Juodkrantė The merchant marine consists of 47 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, together totaling 279,743 GRT/304,156 tonnes deadweight. Ships by type, Cargo 25, Combination bulk 8, Petroleum tanker 2, Railcar carrier 1, Refrigerated cargo 6, Roll on/roll off 2, Short-sea passenger 3

70.
Tourism in Lithuania
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Lithuania attracts many tourists from neighbouring countries and all over the world. In 2013,2.2 million tourists, of whom 1.2 million were from other countries, Lithuania experiences a constant increase of foreign visitors. As of the first half of 2006 the number of visitors has risen 11.1 percent compared to 2005, Lithuania attracts foreign visitors mostly from Russia, Germany, Poland, Latvia, Belarus, the United Kingdom, Estonia and Finland. Druskininkai and Birštonas resorts experienced around 50 percent increase of occupiers in 2005 compared to 2004, the majority of visitors staying in hotels and lodging houses come from Germany, Poland, Latvia, the United Kingdom, Russia, and Finland. From January to September 2006, Lithuanian hotels have experienced a 13.7 percent increase of occupiers compared to 2005,51 percent of them being foreign visitors. Among them, a number of occupiers in Druskininkai has increased 25.7 percent and 27.5 percent in Palanga. Almost a half of the visitors were staying in the capital, Vilnius. More than twice as many foreigners had stayed in Birštonas sanatories, in 2013,2.2 million tourists, of whom 1.2 million were from other countries, stayed at various accommodations in Lithuania. This represented an increase of 10.5 percent from 2012, agrotourism has also gained extreme popularity in the country among the locals as well as foreigners. Lithuania is a spot for people who are looking for some spiritual energy. It has many sites, especially in Samogitia, which are worth a visit. Major pilgrimage sites, Gate of Dawn, Hill of Crosses, Žemaičių Kalvarija, due to former Soviet occupation of Lithuania, the country has many military sites left and may be very interesting place as a place of Militarism heritage tourism. It might be interesting for everyone to see, who is interested in history of the warfare or the Cold War

Tourism in Lithuania
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Polish tourist buses in Vilnius Old Town.
Tourism in Lithuania
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The new Vilnius City Center
Tourism in Lithuania
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View from Ladakalnis Hill
Tourism in Lithuania
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Curonian Lagoon in Nida

71.
Demographics of Lithuania
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This article is about the demographic features of the population of Lithuania, including population density, ethnicity, level of education, health, economic status, and religious affiliations. The earliest evidence of inhabitants in present-day Lithuania dates back to 10,000 BC, see also, Demographics and Languages of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Demographics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The name of Lithuania – Lithuanians – was first mentioned in 1009. Among its etymologies there are a derivation from the word Lietava, for a river, a possible derivation from a word leičiai. The primary Lithuanian state, the Duchy of Lithuania, emerged in the territory of Lietuva, at the birth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ethnic Lithuanians made up about 70% of the population. With the acquisition of new Ruthenian territories, this decreased to 50%. In addition to the Ruthenians and Lithuanians, other significant ethnic groups throughout GDL were Jews and Tatars. The combined population of Poland and GDL in 1493 is estimated as 7.5 million, with the Union of Lublin Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the Polish Crown. An ethnic Lithuanian proportion being about 1/4 in GDL after the Union of Lublin was held till the partitions, there was much devastation and population loss throughout the GDL in the mid and late 17th century, including the ethnic Lithuanian population in Vilnius voivodeship. Besides devastation, the Ruthenian population declined proportionally after the losses to the Russian Empire. In 1770 there were about 4.84 million inhabitants in GDL, of which the largest ethnic group were Ruthenians, the voivodeships with a majority ethnic Lithuanian population were Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships, and these three voivodeships comprised the political center of the state. In the southern angle of Trakai voivodeship and south-eastern part of Vilnius voivodeship there were also many Belarusians, the Ruthenian language, corresponding to todays Belarusian and Ukrainian, was then called Russian, and was used as one of the chancellery languages by Lithuanian monarchs. However, there are fewer extant documents written in this language than those written in Latin, later, Ruthenian became the main language of documentation and writing. The Lithuanian language was used orally in Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships, at the court of Zygmunt August, the last king of the Duchy, both Polish and Lithuanian were spoken. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the use of the Polish language noticeably increased in eastern Lithuania, there were population losses due to several border changes, Soviet deportations, the Holocaust of the Lithuanian Jews, and German and Polish repatriations during and after World War II. After World War II, the ethnic Lithuanian population remained stable,79. 3% in 1959 to 83. 5% in 2002, lithuanias citizenship law and the Constitution meet international and OSCE standards, guaranteeing universal human and civil rights. Lithuanians are neither Slavic nor Germanic, although the union with Poland, German and Russian colonization and settlement left cultural, among the Baltic states, Lithuania has the most homogeneous population. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region, the controlled by Poland in the interwar period. There are especially large Polish communities in Vilnius district municipality and Šalčininkai district municipality, the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania, an ethnic minority political party, has strong influence in these areas and has representation in the Seimas

Demographics of Lithuania
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St. Anne's Church, Vilnius
Demographics of Lithuania
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Population of Lithuania (in millions) from 1950–2010.

72.
Ethnic minorities in Lithuania
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The government of Lithuania has made provision for ethnic minorities since 1918. A substantial Jewish group that existed up to World War II was almost eliminated in the Holocaust, other minorities include the Samogitians - not classified in the Census - and the historically important Latvian-speaking Kursenieki. From 1918 to 1924 two ministries were specifically dedicated to minorities, the Ministry for Belarusian Affairs and the Ministry for Jewish Affairs. On May 12,1922 a Declaration concerning the protection of minorities in Lithuania was signed at Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations. There was a significant Jewish community in Lithuania prior to World War II, however, by 1944, the vast majority of this population had been murdered, deported, or sent to concentration camps. In 1989, a Law on National Minorities was voted and a Committee of Nationalities for the Government of the Republic of Lithuania was established, since 1999, it has been renamed Department of National Minorities and Émigrés. The Council of Europes Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities was signed on February 1,1995 and it came into force on July 1,2000. Several other national laws have a direct or indirect link to minorities, e. g. the State Language Law, according to the 2001 census, in Šalčininkai district municipalities as well as in the town of Visaginas ethnic Lithuanians are in minority. The respondents in the censuses do not have the option to choose for the Samogitian ethnicity. While today the Kursenieki, also known as Kuršininkai are a nearly extinct Baltic ethnic group living along the Curonian Spit, the Kuršininkai were eventually assimilated by the Germans, except along the Curonian Spit where some still live. The Kuršininkai were considered Latvians until after World War I when Latvia gained independence from the Russian Empire and this was the rationale for Latvian claims over the Curonian Spit, Memel, and other territories of East Prussia which would be later dropped

73.
Regions of Lithuania
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Lithuania can be divided into historical and cultural regions. The exact borders are not fully clear, as the regions are not official political or administrative units and they are delimited by culture, such as country traditions, traditional lifestyle, songs, tales, etc. To some extent regions correspond to the zones of Lithuanian language dialects and this correspondence, however, is by no means strict. For example, although the Dzūkian dialect is called South Aukštaitian, in certain parts of some regions, dialects of other regions are spoken, while for example in Samogitia, there are three indigenous dialects, some of which are subdivided into subdialects. No region, except for Samogitia, has ever been a political or an administrative entity and this project is also supported by the fact that with the limited functions of counties,10 of them are not needed for Lithuania. Another supporting argument is that in other historical territories are being revived. The project was supported by the former president Rolandas Paksas, yet now it is not clear when or if the project will be completed at all. However, Dzūkija quite recently adopted the coat of arms and emblem which would be used in case the reform were to be implemented, Alytus County, which lies almost entirely within Dzūkija, adopted soon thereafter a coat of arms that is based on the Dzūkija coat of arms. Samogitia has a flag and a coat of arms dating from the time of the Duchy of Samogitia, Lithuania Minor has a flag used since the 17th century, and an anthem originating from the 19th century. The relatively small remaining part is also populated mostly by relative newcomers, therefore, Lithuania minor would probably be attached to Samogitia. Despite the fact that the regions are not political/administrative entities, most regions have their capitals and these cities are not necessarily the largest in the region. Region in northeastern Lithuania, also some historical Lithuanian territories of southwestern Latvia. Capital Panevėžys, it is also largest city of region, capital is Telšiai, largest city is Šiauliai. Region in the southeast of Lithuania, also includes vast historically Lithuanian territories of Belarus, capital is Alytus, largest city is Vilnius. Region in the southwest of Lithuania, the smallest ethnographic region, capital is Marijampolė, largest city - Kaunas. Region at the Baltic sea coast, also includes territories with large historical Lithuanian population of what is now Kaliningrad Oblast, counties of Lithuania Ethnographic Lithuania Geography of Lithuania Historical regions of Central Europe

Regions of Lithuania
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Historical ethnographic regions

74.
Lithuanian language
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Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania, Lithuanian is a Baltic language, related to Latvian. It is written in a Latin alphabet, Lithuanian is often said to be the most conservative living Indo-European language, retaining many features of Proto-Indo-European now lost in other Indo-European languages. Anyone wishing to hear how Indo-Europeans spoke should come and listen to a Lithuanian peasant, among Indo-European languages, Lithuanian is extraordinarily conservative, retaining many archaic features otherwise found only in ancient languages such as Sanskrit or Ancient Greek. For this reason, it is one of the most important sources in the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language despite its late attestation, the Proto-Balto-Slavic languages branched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, then branched into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. Proto-Baltic branched off into Proto-West Baltic and Proto-East Baltic, according to some glottochronological speculations, the Eastern Baltic languages split from the Western Baltic ones between AD400 and AD600. The Greek geographer Ptolemy had already written of two Baltic tribe/nations by name, the Galindai and Sudinoi in the 2nd century AD, the differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after AD800, for a long period, they could be considered dialects of a single language. At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th or 15th century, also, the 13th- and 14th-century occupation of the western part of the Daugava basin by the German Sword Brethren had a significant influence on the languages independent development. The earliest surviving written Lithuanian text is a translation dating from about 1503–1525 of the Lords Prayer, the Hail Mary, printed books existed after 1547, but the level of literacy among Lithuanians was low through the 18th century, and books were not commonly available. Brought into the country by book smugglers despite the threat of prison sentences. Jonas Jablonskis made significant contributions to the formation of the standard Lithuanian language and his proposal for Standard Lithuanian was based on his native Western Aukštaitijan dialect with some features of the eastern Prussian Lithuanians dialect spoken in Lithuania Minor. These dialects had preserved archaic phonetics mostly intact due to the influence of the neighbouring Old Prussian language, Lithuanian has been the official language of Lithuania since 1918. During the Soviet era, it was used in official discourse along with Russian, Lithuanian is one of two living Baltic languages, along with Latvian. An earlier Baltic language, Old Prussian, was extinct by the 18th century, such an opinion was first represented by the likes of August Schleicher, and to a certain extent, Antoine Meillet. Endzelīns thought that the similarity between Baltic and Slavic was explicable through language contact while Schleicher, Meillet and others argued for a kinship between the two families. An attempt to reconcile the opposing stances was made by Jan Michał Rozwadowski and he proposed that the two language groups were indeed a unity after the division of Indo-European, but also suggested that after the two had divided into separate entities, they had posterior contact. The genetic kinship view is augmented by the fact that Proto-Balto-Slavic is easily reconstructible with important proofs in historic prosody, vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov believed in the unity of Balto-Slavic, but not in the unity of Baltic. In the 1960s, they proposed a new division, that into East-Baltic, West-Baltic, the Ivanov–Toporov theory is gaining ground among students of comparative-historic grammar of Indo-European language, and seems to be replacing the previous two stances in most PIE textbooks

Lithuanian language
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The oldest surviving manuscript in Lithuanian (around 1503), rewritten from 15th century original text
Lithuanian language
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Lithuanian
Lithuanian language
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A map of European languages (1741) with the first verse of the Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian
Lithuanian language
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The Grand Dictionary of the Lithuanian language consists of 20 volumes and contains more than half a million headwords

75.
Lithuanians
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Lithuanians are a Baltic ethnic group, native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,561,300 people. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in such as the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Russia, United Kingdom. Their native language is Lithuanian, one of two surviving members of the Baltic language family. Most Lithuanians belong to the Roman Catholic Church, while the Lietuvininkai who lived in the part of East Prussia prior to World War II, were mostly Evangelical Lutherans. The territory of the Balts, including modern Lithuania, was inhabited by several Baltic tribal entities, as attested by ancient sources. The last Pagan peoples in Europe, they were converted to Christianity in 1387. The subsequent imperial Russian occupation accelerated this process, it pursued a policy of Russification and it was believed by some at the time that the nation as such, along with its language, would become extinct within a few generations. At the end of the 19th century a Lithuanian cultural and linguistic revival occurred, Lithuania declared independence after World War I, which helped its national consolidation. A standardised Lithuanian language was approved, however, the eastern parts of Lithuania, including the Vilnius Region, were annexed by Poland, while the Klaipėda Region was taken over by Nazi Germany in 1939. In 1940, Lithuania was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union, the Germans and their allies attacked the USSR in June 1941, and from 1941—1944, Lithuania was occupied by Germany. The Germans retreated in 1944, and Lithuania fell under Soviet rule once again, the long-standing communities of Lithuanians in the Kaliningrad Oblast were almost destroyed as a result. The Lithuanian nation as such remained primarily in Lithuania, few villages in northeastern Poland, southern Latvia, some indigenous Lithuanians still remain in Belarus and the Kaliningrad Oblast, but their number is small compared to what they used to be. Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, and was recognized by most countries in 1991 and it became a member of the European Union on May 1,2004. Among the Baltic states, Lithuania has the most homogeneous population, Poles are mostly concentrated in the Vilnius Region. Especially large Polish communities are located in the Vilnius District Municipality and this concentration allows Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania, an ethnic minority-based political party, to exert political influence. Due to the excessive pro-Pole political agenda, the party is known to cause friction between Lithuanians and Poles, however, it has only held 1 or 2 seats in the parliament of Lithuania for the past decade. Thus, it is active in local politics by having a majority in a few minor municipality councils. Russians, even though they are almost as numerous as Poles, are more evenly scattered

76.
Lithuanian calendar
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The Lithuanian calendar is unusual among Western countries in that neither the names of the months nor the names of the weekdays are derived from Greek or Norse mythology. The days of the week are simply ordinal numbers, ancient Baltic cosmological schemes have been found on burial urns dated from 600-200 BC. A modern interpretation of the ancient solar calendar was created in 2002 at the Kretinga Museum, Lithuanian calendar shows some similarities with Slavic calendar, and so may have roots in Proto-Balto-Slavic era. The Gediminas Sceptre, discovered in 1680, indicates that during his reign the year started in April and was divided into 12 months, varying in length from 29 to 31 days. Each month began with a new moon, the weeks were nine days long The month names on this artifact are expressed in symbols, based on natural phenomena and agricultural cycles. In 1800, following Lithuanias annexation by the Russian Empire, the Julian calendar again became the norm, the Russian Revolution of 1917 re-instated the Gregorian calendar, which had been the Western European standard for over a century, in January 1918. These changes caused some confusion before their usage became familiar, the standardization of month names was made difficult by the fact that publication in the Lithuanian language was illegal from 1864 to 1904 and some drift in the usages occurred. Month names are not customarily capitalized in the Lithuanian language, reflecting their secular origins, sausis derives from the adjective sausas, dry. At this point in Lithuanias winter, precipitation is usually in the form of fine, dry snowflakes and its historic names included ragas, didysis ragutis, siekis, sausinis, and pusčius. Vasaris derives from the noun vasara, summer, at this point, the days have begun to lengthen, there are occasional thaws, and thoughts and plans of summer reawaken. Its historic names were ragutis, kovinis, and pridėtinis, kovas may derive from either the noun kovas, the rook, or the noun kova, meaning battle. Rooks increase their activity at time, building their nests. The alternate derivation refers to the struggle between winter and spring and it was formerly known as morčius and karvelinis. Balandis is derived from balandis, the dove, which at this point has begun to coo, nest, earlier names included žiedų, sultekis, gegužinis, karvelinis, biržėtas, and Velykų. Gegužė is derived from gegužė, the cuckoo and its call is felt to herald the final arrival of spring. Several folk beliefs are associated with this event and it was earlier known as gegužinis, sėtinis, sėmenis, žiedžius, žiedų, berželis, sultekis, milčius, and mildinis. Birželis is derived from beržas, the birch, which flowers during this month, birch branches are used as decorations during Pentecost. Its earlier names were visjavis, jaunius, žienpjovys, sėmenis, kirmėlių, biržis, mėšlinis, liepa is derived from liepa, the linden tree, which flowers during this month, the flowers pleasantly scent the air, are used to make herbal teas, and attract honeybees

Lithuanian calendar
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The Gediminas Sceptre, a medieval Lithuanian calendar
Lithuanian calendar
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19th century Lithuanian calendars; the left in Russian, the right in Polish
Lithuanian calendar
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A Lithuanian language calendar by Laurynas Ivinskis

77.
Lithuanian cuisine
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Since it shares its climate and agricultural practices with Northern Europe, Lithuanian cuisine has much in common with its Baltic neighbors and, in general, northern countries. It also shares some traditions with Polish and Ukrainian that date back to the grand duchy times, also, Hungarian, German, and Georgian cuisines as well as Ashkenazi cuisine. Nevertheless, it has its own distinguishing features, which were formed by a variety of influences during the long, difficult. Because of their heritage, Lithuanians, Poles, and Ashkenazi Jews also share some dishes and beverages. Thus there are similar Lithuanian, Lithuanian Jewish, and Polish versions of dumplings, doughnuts spurgos or, the most exotic of all the influences is Eastern cuisine, and the dishes kibinai and čeburekai are popular in Lithuania. Torte Napoleon was introduced during Napoleons passage through Lithuania in the 19th century, despite the apparent richness of the cuisine, Lithuania has a very low prevalence of obesity. Traditionally, the centerpiece of Lithuanian cuisine is dark rye bread which is used more often than light wheat breads, the dough is usually based on a sourdough starter, and includes some wheat flour to lighten the finished product. Rye bread is eaten as an open-faced sandwich, buttered or spread with cheese. It is sometimes flavored with caraway, or with some onion, some varieties of Lithuanian bread contain whole seeds of rye and wheat, this type of bread is referred to as grūdėtoji, i. e. seeded bread. Two types of bagel, Riestainis, and Džiuvėsis, are produced here, potatoes were introduced into Lithuania in the late 18th century, were found to prosper in its climate, and soon became indispensable. Cucumbers, dill pickles, radishes and greens are quite popular, beets are grown more widely than in other areas of the world, and are often used for making borscht and side dishes. Cabbage is another popular vegetable, used as a basis for soups, Tomatoes are now available year-round in stores, but those home-grown in family greenhouses are still considered superior. Lithuanian herbs and seasonings include mustard seed, dill, caraway seed, garlic, bay leaf, juniper berries, vanilla and pepper were scarce during the Soviet era, but were welcomed back after independence. One of the prides of Lithuanian cuisine is its use of wild berries. Mushrooming is a popular pastime from mid-summer to autumn, despite its status as a delicacy, mushrooms are thought of by many Lithuanians as hard to digest. A number of species are harvested from the wild, including, Baravykas – king bolete, Voveraitė, lepeška – chanterelle, Gudukas, vokietukas, kalpokas. Baravykas is the most valued and sought-after species, the primary usages are drying and marinating, dried baravykas has a strong pleasant scent and is used as seasoning in soups and sauces. Voveraitė is often used fresh as a seasoning in soups or sauteed, most common dish of this mushroom is voveraitė sauteed with chopped bulb onions and potatoes

78.
Ethnographic Lithuania
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The concept was in contrast to those of historic Lithuania – the territories of the Duchy – and the linguistic Lithuania, the area where Lithuanian language was overwhelmingly spoken. They argued that an individual cannot decide on his ethnicity and nationality, in 1920 Lithuanian politician Mykolas Biržiška wrote about nationality, One cannot define it according to the opinion of every individual. It is too complex, too tied with ancient history, too related with the history of a given nation, demands of this early program would only slightly be modified in the coming decades. That territory was inhabited in the early 20th century by 5,850,000 people, out of those, according to the official Russian Empire statistics, Lithuanians formed 1,659,000 - i. e. less than 30%. Out of the mentioned in the 1905 declaration, only the Kovno Governorate. Currently the Republic of Lithuania has no territorial claims, P. STUDYA NAD STOSUNKAMI NARODOWOŚCIOWEMI NA LITWIE PRZED UNIĄ LUBELSKĄ, Warszawa, Prace t-wa naukowego warszawskiego,1912, str

Ethnographic Lithuania
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Major Lithuanian linguistic areal in 1876. See Eastern Lithuanian linguistic areal around 1900-1910 for a detailed view of the eastern part.
Ethnographic Lithuania
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Map showing changes in the territory of Lithuania from the 13th century to the present day

79.
Lithuanian literature
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Lithuanian literature concerns the art of written works compiled by Lithuanians throughout their history. A wealth of Lithuanian literature was written in Latin, the scholarly language in the Middle Ages. Lithuanian literary works in the Lithuanian language were first published in the 16th century, in 1547, Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book, The Simple Words of Catechism, which marks the beginning of printed Lithuanian literature. He was followed by Mikalojus Daukša in Lithuania Propria with his Catechism, in the 16th and 17th centuries, Lithuanian literature was primarily religious. The 18th century witnessed a modest increase in secular publications, including dictionaries, kristijonas Donelaitis wrote the first Lithuanian poem Metai, thus laying the foundations for Lithuanian poetry. The University of Vilnius promoted the usage of the language and the creation of works in the first half of the 19th century. However, Russia announced a 40-year ban on the printing of Lithuanian language, as a result, publishing was transferred to East Prussia and Lithuanian books were delivered to Lithuania by book smugglers. The first period of Lithuanian independence gave them the opportunity to look into themselves and their characters more deeply, an outstanding figure of the early 20th century was Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius, a novelist and dramatist. His many works include Dainavos šalies senų žmonių padavimai and the historical dramas Šarūnas, Skirgaila, petras Vaičiūnas was another popular playwright, producing one play each year during the 1920s and 1930s. Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas wrote lyric poetry, plays, and novels, including the novel Altorių šešėly, the Keturi vėjai movement began with the publication of Prophet of the Four Winds by the talented poet Kazys Binkis. It was a rebellion against traditional poetry, the theoretical basis of Keturi vėjai initially was futurism which arrived through Russia from the West, later influences were cubism, dadaism, surrealism, unanimism, and German expressionism. The most influential futurist in Lithuania was the Russian poet Vladimir Mayakovsky, oskaras Milašius was born and spent his childhood in Cereja and graduated from Lycée Janson de Sailly in Paris. In 1920, when France recognized the independence of Lithuania, he was appointed Chargé d’Affairs for Lithuania and his publications included a 1928 collection of 26 Lithuanian songs, Lithuanian Tales and Stories in 1930, Lithuanian Tales in 1933, and The origin of the Lithuanian Nation in 1937. Vytautė Žilinskaitė received two prizes for her childrens books, a 1972 state prize for works described as humorous or satiric, in 1961 she published Don’t Stop, Little Hour, a collection of poetry. Tomas Venclova, born in Klaipėda, is a poet, essayist, literary critic and his involvement led to conflicts with the government, but in 1977 he gained permission to emigrate to the US and became a professor at Yale University. The Sign of Speech, a volume of poetry, published in Lithuania before his departure, was followed by volumes of poetry, essays. Several compilations of works were published in Lithuania after it achieved independence. His literary criticism includes a study of Aleksander Wat, jurgis Kunčinas, Ričardas Gavelis, and Jurga Ivanauskaitė wrote novels exploring the Lithuanian condition during the late 20th century

80.
Music of Lithuania
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Music of Lithuania refers to all forms of music associated with Lithuania, which has a long history of the folk, popular and classical musical development. Lithuanian folk music belongs to Baltic music branch which is connected with neolithic corded ware culture, in Lithuanian territory meets two musical cultures, stringed and wind instrument cultures. These instrumental cultures probably formed vocal traditions, Lithuanian folk music is archaic, mostly used for ritual purposes, containing elements of paganism faith. There are three ancient styles of singing in Lithuania connected with ethnographical regions, monophony, multi-voiced homophony, heterophony and polyphony, monophony mostly occurs in southern, southwest and eastern parts of Lithuania. Multi-voiced homophony, widespread in entire Lithuania, is the most archaic in Samogitia, sutartinės are highly unique examples of folk music. They are an ancient form of two and three voiced polyphony, based on the oldest principles of multivoiced vocal music, heterophony, parallelism, canon and free imitation. Most of the repertoire was recorded in the 19th and 20th centuries. At present the sutartinės have almost become extinct as a genre among the population, the topics and functions of sutartinės encompass all major Lithuanian folk song genres. Melodies of sutartinės are not complex, containing two to five pitches, the melodies are symmetrical, consisting of two equal-length parts, rhythms are typically syncopated, and the distinctly articulated refrains give them a driving quality. Sutartinės can be classed into three groups according to practices and function, Dvejinės are sung by two singers or two groups of singers. Trejinės are performed by three singers in strict canon, keturinės are sung by two pairs of singers. Sutartinės are a phenomenon, found in the northwestern part of Lithuania. They were sung by women, but men performed instrumental versions on the kanklės, on horns, the rich and thematically varied poetry of the sutartinės attests to their importance in the social fabric. Sutartinės were sung at festivals, gatherings, weddings, and while performing various chores, the poetic language while not being complex is very visual, expressive and sonorous. The rhythms are clear and accented, dance sutartinės are humorous and spirited, despite the fact that the movements of the dance are quite reserved and slow. One of the most important characteristics of the sutartinės is the variety of vocables used in the refrains. Different vocal and instrumental forms developed, such as lyrical, satirical, drinking and banqueting songs, musical dialogues, wedding laments, from an artistic standpoint the lyric songs are the most interesting. Chronicles and historical documents of the 13th through 16th centuries contain the first sources about songs relating the heroics of those fallen in battle against the Teutonic Knights

Music of Lithuania
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A Lithuanian folklore band Kūlgrinda dancing to a folk song in Vilnius
Music of Lithuania
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Vaiguva, a Lithuanian folklore band
Music of Lithuania
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Dancers in national costumes
Music of Lithuania
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Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis

81.
Lithuanian mythology
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Lithuanian mythology is a type of Baltic mythology, developed by Lithuanians throughout the centuries. Surviving information about Baltic paganism in general is incomplete, most of the early written accounts are very brief and made by foreigners, usually Christians, who disapproved of pagan traditions. Some academics regard some texts as inaccurate misunderstandings or even fabrications, in addition many sources list many different names and different spellings, thus sometimes it is not clear if they are referring to the same thing. The Evangelical religion, established in Prussia by Albert of Brandenburg-Prussia, promised to preach to people in their own language, duke Albert established the Albertina University in Königsberg, where languages of the neighboring countries were taught and the first books in those languages were printed. The last conceptions of the old religion survived approximately until the beginning of the 19th century, however, as it was the tradition, they were never documented by followers of the religions themselves, and all known facts are from documents left by outsiders. Although the pre-Christian religions in Lithuania died out later than in any other European country, actual information on Lithuanian mythology is scattered. Interest in it has increased since the beginning of the 19th century, the relics of the old religions were interwoven with other stories of folkloric mythology, and were subsequently documented quite well, including many testimonies written by storytellers themselves. However, the more syncretic character of this mythology raised some uncertainties and, subsequently, hypotheses and discussions, because of this view, many scholars preferred to write their own reconstructions of Lithuanian mythology, based also on historical, archaeological, and ethnographic data. The first such reconstruction was written by the Polish-speaking Lithuanian historian Theodor Narbutt at the beginning of the 19th century, two well-known attempts at reconstruction have been attempted more recently by Marija Gimbutas and Algirdas Julien Greimas. This method of reconstruction is thorny, and none of the attempts has been satisfactory, the most modern academics exploring Lithuanian mythology in the second half of the 20th century were Norbertas Vėlius and Gintaras Beresnevičius. Their works are considered as the most objective and they are very critical and careful about mythological sources. On the other hand, individual elements have much in common with other mythological systems, there is a Finnic Mordvin/Erza thunder god named Pur’ginepaz which in folklore has themes resembling Lithuanian Perkunas. Sparks fly from the cartwheels and the hooves of fiery-red horses of Pur’ginepaz, the Erza thunder god, in several mythical songs the thunder god Pur’ginepaz marries an earthly girl Litova These also closely resemble the Vedic Parjanya. It is reflected in folk tales, such as Jūratė and Kastytis, the next period of Lithuanian mythology started in the 15th century, and lasted till approximately the middle of the 17th century. The myths of this period are mostly heroic, concerning the founding of the state of Lithuania, many stories of this kind reflect actual historical events. In general, these myths are coloured by patriotism, the third period began with the growing influence of Christianity and the activity of the Jesuits, roughly since the end of the 16th century. The earlier confrontational approach to the pre-Christian Lithuanian heritage among common people was abandoned and this also led to the inclusion of Christian elements in mythic stories. The last period of Lithuanian mythology began in the 19th century, when the importance of the old cultural heritage was admitted, not only by the upper classes, but by the nation more widely

82.
Name of Lithuania
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The first known record of the name of Lithuania is in a 9 March 1009 story of Saint Bruno recorded in the Quedlinburg Chronicle. The Chronicle recorded a Latinized form of the name Lietuva, Litua, although it is clear the name originated from a Baltic language, scholars still debate the meaning of the word. During the 13th century the Duchy of Lithuania was bordered by Slavic lands, the Slavs did not create the name, they used the existing Lithuanian ethnonym. The Lithuanian diphthong -ie- has, in Slavic languages, shifted to the vowel -i- and this is evidence that the Slavs borrowed this ethnonym from Lithuanians a long time ago. During the next century, Lithuanias name was recorded in languages, including German. In early German chronicles Lithuanias name was spelled as Lettowen, in this form the German letter -e- is used to denote the Lithuanian diphthong -ie-, while -owen denotes the Lithuanian hydronymic suffix -uva. The traditional Lithuanian root -liet- is encountered in various German usages of the era, such as Lettowen, in Rus chronicles Lithuanias name was written as Литъва, alongside a shortened version, Литва, where -i- was already used instead of the diphthong -ie. All of these names clearly originated from *Lētuvā > Lietuva, forms used by Lithuanians to identify their lands, despite ample historic and linguistic evidence with regard to the names usage in different languages, there is a certain degree of debate about the etymology of the name. There have been attempts to associate Lietuva with Celtic toponyms, and with Latin or Italian words. According to a popular belief, the word Lietuva originated from the Lithuanian words lyti. However, there is no scientific support for this theory. Since the word Lietuva has a suffix, the word should have no suffix. Because many Baltic ethnonyms originated from hydronyms, linguists have searched for its origin among local hydronyms, usually such names evolved through the following process, hydronym → toponym → ethnonym. A small river not far from Kernavė, the area of the early Lithuanian state. This rivers original name is Lietava, as time passed, the suffix -ava could have changed into -uva, as the two are from the same suffix branch. However, the river is small and some find it improbable that such a small. On the other hand, such a fact is not unprecedented in world history and it is very unlikely for the name to have derived from a Slavic language, since the Slavic -i- could never be transliterated into the Lithuanian diphthong -ie-. Among other etymologies of the name of Lithuania there is A. Dubonis hypothesis, that Lietuva relates to the word *leičiai

Name of Lithuania
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Lithuania's name in writing 1009

83.
Sport in Lithuania
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Sport in Lithuania is governed by the Physical Education and Sports Department following the countrys independence from the Soviet Union in 1990. The Lithuanian government established the department to manage physical education in the schools, over the next few years, Lithuanian sports organizations established membership in international governing bodies. Lithuania participated in the Winter Olympics in Albertville and has participated in every Winter and Summer Olympics since, there are nearly 80 Olympic and non-Olympic sports federations in Lithuania, and the Lithuanian Union of Sports Federations was founded in 1993 to unite them. An organization, Sports for All, was established to promote physical education, among the most popular sports in Lithuania are basketball, football, athletics and cycling. Professional athletes and trainers are educated at the Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education, basketball is the most popular and successful team sport in Lithuania. The Lithuanian national basketball team won the European basketball Championship in 1937,1939 and 2003 and they won silver medals in 1995,2013 and 2015, bronze in 2007, and again hosted EuroBasket 2011. They were the bronze medal winners in the 2010 FIBA World Championship, in Olympic competition, Lithuania was the bronze medalist at the 1992,1996, and 2000 Summer Olympics. The team finished fourth in 2004 and 2008, Lithuanias under-19 junior basketball team won the European Championship in 2003 and took second place at the World Championship that year. Its under-21 junior team won the 2005 World Championship in Argentina, BC Žalgiris, based in Kaunas, is the most successful basketball club in Lithuania. The team won the Intercontinental Cup in 1986, EuroCup in 1998, Lietuvos rytas, in Vilnius, won the ULEB Cup in 2005 and 2009, and was runner-up in 2007. In the Euroleague, Šarūnas Jasikevičius was a four-time Euroleague winner, the Lithuanian national Football team reached its highest rating to date in October 2008. From the beginning of the independent Lithuanian state, sport was equivalent to Football, Football players were the first athletes to participate in international competitions (notably, the 1924 Olympic Games in Paris and 1938 World Cup qualifying matches. During the period of Soviet occupation, Football remained popular, an ongoing problem in Lithuanian Football, however, is a lack of stadiums and playing fields. S. Livorno Calcio The A Lyga is the top division in Lithuanian professional Football, as in the rest of Europe, Lithuanians enjoy following the UEFA Champions League, the FIFA World Cup and other world-class Football tournaments. Rugby union was introduced in Lithuania during the 1960s, with teams in Kaunas, the start player for the country has always done his team proud, Arunas has been a shining light but doesnt come near Luke. During last 20 years, the city of Šiauliai has become the capital of Lithuanian rugby. The Šiauliai Vairas-Jupoja team are national champions, and the Šiauliai BaltRex have been runners-up for the last 10 years, the Lithuanian national team competes in European rugby division 2A. World rugby star Laurynas Tipelis also plays for the Lithuanian national team, the streak began in 2006 and ended in 2010, when Lithuania lost its World Cup qualifier to higher-ranked Ukraine

84.
Symbols of Lithuania
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The national symbols of Lithuania are used in Lithuania and abroad to represent the country and its people, history, culture, and nature. These symbols are seen in official capacities, such as flags, coats of arms, postage stamps, and currency, and in URLs. They appear less formally as recurring themes in literature, art and folk art, heraldry, monuments, clothing, personal decoration, and as the names of parks, bridges, streets, the less formal manifestations may be classified as national emblems. Some of the symbols are more heavily weighted with meaning than others, for instance, during the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, the Lithuanian flag and the national anthem were replaced, the Lithuanian Coat of Arms was not shown in official capacities. Lithuania was occupied by Soviet Union in 1940-1941, later it was controlled Nazi government during World War II and was a Soviet Socialist Republic from 1944 until 1990, the latter situation is generally seen by Lithuanians as an occupation. Public displays of both the Nazi swastika and the hammer and sickle were banned in 2008, the flag was officially designated in 1918, and was re-instituted in 1988. Yellow represents the sun, light, and goodness, green symbolizes the beauty of nature, freedom, and hope, and red stands for the land, courage, the colors of the flag also appear in clothing, URLs, and team uniforms. The state emblem of the Republic of Lithuania is Vytis, the heraldic shield features a red field with an armoured knight on a white horse holding a silver sword aloft in his right hand. The charging knight is known to have been first used as the emblem in 1366 on the seal of Algirdas. The earliest coins featuring Vytis date from the half of the 14th century. Vytis is engraved on all current Lithuanian coins, is displayed on many Lithuanian postage stamps and official documents, the US NFL player Joe Jurevicius bears a Vytis prominently tattooed on his arm as a symbol of his Lithuanian ancestry. Tautiška giesmė is the anthem of Lithuania. The music and lyrics were written in 1898 by Vincas Kudirka, the song was first publicly performed in Vilnius in 1905, and became the official national anthem in 1919. It was replaced by another national anthem during the Soviet era, lietuva brangi, written by the poet Maironis, is another important song sometimes called the unofficial national anthem. Gediminas and Mindaugas are generally regarded as the fathers of Lithuania. Gediminas was said to have had a dream which led to the founding of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, in this dream, a seer interpreted this as meaning that a great city should be built there. What is destined for the ruler and the state of Lithuania, let it be, the iron wolf means a castle, the town will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of rulers and the glory of their deeds shall echo throughout the world. Mindaugas was the first king of Lithuania, crowned in 1253, the Columns of Gediminas have been dated to the 14th century

85.
North Atlantic Council
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The North Atlantic Council is the principal political decision-making body of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, consisting of Permanent Representatives from its member countries. It was established by Article 9 of the North Atlantic Treaty, the North Atlantic Treaty gave the NAC the power to set up subsidiary bodies for various policy functions, including a defense committee to implement other parts of the treaty. Since 1952, the NAC has been in permanent session, the NAC can be held at the Permanent Representative Level, or can be composed of member states Ministers of State, Defense, or Heads of Government. The NAC has the same regardless of the formation it meets under. The NAC meets twice a week, every Tuesday, for an informal lunch discussion, usually, meetings occur amongst the Permanent Representatives who are the senior permanent member of each delegation and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador. The list of Permanent Representatives may be found on the NATO website, the 28 members of NATO have diplomatic missions to the organization through embassies in Belgium. The meetings of the NAC are chaired by the Secretary General and, there is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the NAC table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions

North Atlantic Council
North Atlantic Council
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North Atlantic Council Conseil de l'Atlantique Nord

86.
Allied Land Command
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Allied Land Command is the standing headquarters for NATO land forces which may be assigned as necessary. The Commander LANDCOM is the land warfare advisor to the Alliance. When directed by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, it provides the core of the responsible for the conduct of land operations. The command is based at Şirinyer, İzmir in Turkey, NATO has had a headquarters at Izmir for decades. Initially the organization there was Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe, responsible to Allied Forces Southern Europe at Naples. Under this command, with its headquarters in Izmir assisted by the subordinate Thessaloniki Advanced Command Post, were to be most of the Greek and Turkish armies in case of war. LANDSOUTHEAST was commanded by a United States Army lieutenant general, Lieutenant General Willard G. Wyman Lieutenant General Paul W. Kendall Lieutenant General George Windle Read, Jr. Lieutenant General Paul D. Harkins In 1966 the first major change occurred when French military personnel were withdrawn from LANDSOUTHEAST, on 30 December 1977, SHAPE and Turkish military authorities announced another change in the command structure of LANDSOUTHEAST, to be effective 1 July 1978. The command billet was to be filled by a Turkish Army four star general with a U. S. Major General as his deputy. General Sam S. Walker took command in 1977, and On 30 June 1978, General Walker handed over the command to General tr, Vecihi Akın, General Akın held command until 30 August 1979. Construction of a new facility in Sirinyer, Izmir was completed in March 1994. In July 1994, two German Army officers were assigned to the command for the first time, the headquarters garrison at Sirinyer was named General Vecihi Akin Garrison in March 1996, after the first Turkish LANDSOUTHEAST Commander. Turkish Land Forces General Hüseyin Kıvrıkoğlu commanded LANDSOUTHEAST from c. 1993-1996, after the end of the Cold War, for a period the NATO command in Izmir became Joint Command Southeast. Between 11 August 2004 and 1 June 2013 the headquarters of NATOs Allied Air Component Command in the south and it is responsible for providing a deployable land command for a joint operation. LANDCOM will also carry out the planning, conduct and direction of land operations. What this means is that if a single corps land operation is underway, if multiple corps are being directed, LANDCOM will direct them for either JFC Brunssum or Naples. On October 23,2014, Lt. Gen. Nicholson has assumed command of NATOs Allied Land Command and he succeeds Lt. Gen. Frederick Ben Hodges. Romania is leading the process of creating Multinational Division South-East, which will be established in Bucharest, Romania, the division in Bucharest will be subordinate to the NATO Force Integration Unit also to be established there

87.
Allied Command Transformation
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Allied Command Transformation is a NATO military command, which was formed in 2003 after North Atlantic Treaty Organisation restructuring. Since France rejoined the NATO Military Command Structure in mid-2009, a significant change took place where the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation is now a French officer, the first French Officer to serve as SACT was French Air Force General, Stephane Abrial. Allied Command Transformation was preceded by Allied Command Atlantic established in 1952 under the command of Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic, with its headquarters at Norfolk. Following the end of the Cold War, the Command was reduced, with many of its subordinate headquarters spread across the Atlantic area losing their NATO status, however, the basic structure remained in place until the Prague Summit in the Czech Republic in 2002. This led to ACLANT being decommissioned effective 19 June 2003, US Navy became the last SACLANT on 2 October 2002. He served as ACLANT commander until 19 Jun 2003 and he then served as Supreme Allied Commander, Transformation, until 1 Aug 2005. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope RN, the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander, thus NATO’s military command structure was reorganized. One strategic command, Allied Command Transformation, was focused on transforming NATO, while the strategic command focused on NATO’s operations. Initial reports about a NATO transformation command began to appear in July 2002, ACT was formally established on June 19,2003. A suite of Baseline for Rapid Iterative Transformational Experimentation software was designed in response to the Maritime Situational Awareness request, since Allied Command Atlantic became Allied Command Transformation, commanders have included non-naval officers. Gen. Lance L. Smith USAF commanded ACT from 10 Nov 2005 until 9 Nov 2007 and he was succeeded by Gen. James N. Mattis USMC, who served from 9 Nov 2007 -08 Sep 2009. A significant change was the assumption of command by a French officer, after France rejoined the NATO Command Structure in mid-2009, General Stéphane Abrial, former chief of the French Air Force assumed command in 2009. French Air Force General Jean-Paul Paloméros replaced fellow Frenchman General Stéphane Abrial at the end of September 2012, on 30 Sep 2015 French Air Force General Denis Mercier succeeded General Paloméros. The Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Transformation position is filled by General Mirco Zuliani of the Italian Air Force. He succeeded General Mieczysław Bieniek of the Polish Land Forces, who had himself succeeded Admiral Luciano Zappata, for several years, in a carryover from SACLANT, the Deputys position was filled by a Royal Navy admiral. Stanhopes succession by Zappata meant an end to this practice, a large number of conferences and seminars have been organised by the command in fulfilment of its conceptual development mission. These have included CD&E, a national Chiefs of Transformation conference, an examination of the Global Commons, Law of Armed Conflict, the commands headquarters is located in Norfolk, Virginia, in the United States. This division probably serves as NATOs linkpoint to the annual U. S. -led Coalition Warrior Interoperability Demonstration, reflecting NATO as a whole, ACT has a presence on both sides of the Atlantic

88.
NATO Parliamentary Assembly
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Founded in 1955, the NATO Parliamentary Assembly serves as the consultative interparliamentary organisation for the North Atlantic Alliance. Its current President is Paolo Alli from Italy and its current Secretary General is David Hobbs from the United Kingdom, he has been in this position since January 2008. These measures included the Secretary General providing a response to all Assembly recommendations and resolutions adopted in its Plenary Sessions. In response to the fall of the Berlin wall at the end of the 1980s and those ties, in turn, greatly facilitated the dialogue that NATO itself embarked upon with the regions governments. Bringing together legislators from all the states of the Atlantic Alliance. At the same time, it facilitates parliamentary awareness and understanding of key security issues and contributes to a transparency of NATO policies. Crucially, it helps maintain and strengthen the relationship, which underpins the Atlantic Alliance. It played the role with respect to the ratification process leading to the accession of Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia in March 2004. The NATO PA consists of 257 delegates from the 28 NATO member countries, delegates to the Assembly are nominated by their parliaments according to their national procedures, on the basis of party representation in the parliaments. The Assembly therefore represents a spectrum of political opinion. The Assembly’s governing body is the Standing Committee, which is composed of the Head of each delegation, the President, the Vice-Presidents, the Treasurer. The headquarters of the Assembly’s 28-strong International Secretariat is located in central Brussels, the Assembly is directly funded by member parliaments and governments, and is financially and administratively separate from NATO itself. Each country’s contribution is based on the NATO Civil Budget formula, the five Committees are, Civil Dimension of Security, Defence and Security, Economics and Security, Political, Science and Technology. They are charged with examining all major issues in their fields. The Committees and Sub-Committees produce reports, which are discussed in draft form at the Assembly’s Spring Session, the reports are then revised and up-dated for discussion, amendment and adoption at the Assembly’s Annual Session in the Autumn. The NATO Secretary General responds in writing to the Assemblys recommendations, NATO-PA Delegations also undertake visits to NATO mission areas such as Afghanistan and the Balkans. The NATO-Russia Parliamentary Committee was discontinued in April 2014 following Russias military intervention in Ukraine, the Rose-Roth Programme of partnership and co-operation is designed to extend assistance to countries undergoing transition through difficult political and economic reforms. The program was designed to support Central and Eastern European countries but has subsequently focused mainly on the Balkans

NATO Parliamentary Assembly
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The Parliamentary Assembly meeting in London prior to the start of the 2014 Newport summit

89.
Secretary General of NATO
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The Secretary General of NATO is an international diplomat who serves as the chief civil servant of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, the Secretary General does not have any command role. Together with the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee and the Supreme Allied Commander the Secretary General is one of the foremost officials of NATO, the current Secretary General is Jens Stoltenberg, the former Prime Minister of Norway, who took office on 1 October 2014. Article 9 of the North Atlantic Treaty requires NATO members to establish a Council, accordingly, the North Atlantic Council was formed. Initially the Council consisted of NATO members foreign ministers and met annually, in May 1950, the desire for closer coordination on a day-to-day basis led to the appointment of Council deputies, permanently based in London and overseeing the workings of the organization. Deputies were given full decision-making authority within the North Atlantic Council, the Chairman of the deputies was given responsibility for directing the organization and its work, including all of its civilian agencies. The Council deputies met for the first time on July 25,1950, and selected Charles Spofford, several important organisational changes quickly followed the establishment of Council deputies, most notably the establishment of a unified military command under a single Supreme Allied Commander. This unification and the challenges facing NATO led to rapid growth in the institutions of the organisation and in 1951, NATO was reorganized to streamline. As the authority of the increased, and the size of the organization grew, NATO established the Temporary Council Committee. This group established an official secretariat in Paris to command NATOs bureaucracy, after the Lisbon Conference, the NATO states began looking for a person who could fill the role of Secretary General. The position was first offered to Oliver Franks, the British Ambassador to the United States, unlike later Secretaries General who served as Chairman of the North Atlantic Council, Ismay was made the Vice Chairman of the Council, with Spofford continuing to serve as chairman. Ismay was selected because of his rank in the war. As both a soldier and a diplomat, he was considered qualified for the position. Several months later, after Spofford retired from the NATO, the structure of the North Atlantic Council was changed slightly, Ismay served as Secretary General until retiring in May,1957. After Ismay, Paul-Henri Spaak, a diplomat and former Prime Minister of Belgium was selected as the second Secretary General. Unlike Ismay, Spaak had no experience, so his appointment represented a deemphasis of the strictly military side of the Atlantic Alliance. When confirming Spaaks appointment in December 1956 during a session of the NATO foreign ministers, the NATO Secretary General chairs several of the senior decision-making bodies of NATO. In addition to the North Atlantic Council, he chairs the Defence Planning Committee, in a second role, the Secretary General leads the staff of NATO

Secretary General of NATO
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Incumbent Jens Stoltenberg since 1 October 2014
Secretary General of NATO
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Hastings Ismay, the first Secretary General of NATO

90.
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
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The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is the head of the NATO Military Committee, which advises the North Atlantic Council on military policy and strategy. The Chairman is one of the foremost officials of NATO, next to the Secretary General, the current Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Petr Pavel, former Chief of the General Staff of the Army of the Czech Republic, who took office on June 26,2015. The Military Committee was directly subordinate to the Defence Committee, iceland, which had no military forces, was represented by a civilian. Each member state in turn held the Chair of the Military Committee for one year, the principal military member of each NATO countrys delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each countrys armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy, like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nations armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that countrys 1966 decision to itself from NATOs integrated military structure. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom. The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff, the Chairman of the Military Committee chairs all meetings and acts in an international capacity. In his absence, the Deputy Chairman of the Military Committee takes the chair, the current Chairman is Czech General Petr Pavel. Since the formation of NATO, its Military Chairmen have been, Douglas S. Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance, A Study of Structure and Strategy, New York, Praeger,1991

Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
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Incumbent General Petr Pavel since 26 June 2015
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee

91.
Albanian Armed Forces
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The Albanian Armed Forces are the military of Albania and were formed after the declaration of independence in 1912. Today, it consists of, the General Staff, the Albanian Land Force, Albanian Air Force, the President of Albania is the Commander-in-Chief of the nations military. In times of peace, the Presidents powers as Commander-in-Chief are executed through the Prime Minister, on 4 December 1912, the Albanian Prime Minister, Ismail Qemali and his government, formed the Albanian National Army. Its first Chief in Command was Lieutenant Colonel Ali Shefqet Shkupi By 1923, at that time, Albania did not have a navy. In 1927, the Albanian Armed Forces numbered approximately 8.000 and these troops were organized into three groups, based in Tirana, Shkodër to the north and Berat to the south. Each group was organized into three battalions of 500, a guards battalion of 350 was organized in Tirana. Four frontier battalions of mountaineers were held on reserve, as well as tanks, additionally, a cadet school, a machine-gun school, and a bombing school were housed in the capital. In 1927 alone, the Albanian military ordered 20,000 rifles,40 mountain guns,120 machine guns, the Royal Albanian Army was the army of King Zogu from 1928 until 1939. Its commander-in-chief was himself, its commander General Xhemal Aranitasi, its Chief of Staff was General Gustav von Myrdacz, the army was mainly financed by Italy. On 7 April 1939, Italian troops invaded the country, after the Second World War, Albania became a Soviet-aligned country. The ranks and the structure of the Albanian Armed Forces were organized based on the Soviet concepts, like all other branches of the state, the military was subjugated to Communist Party control. All high-ranking military officers and most of the lower and middle ranks were members of the Communist Party—and had loyalties to it, the system was re-enforced by the establishment of Party cells within the military and extensive communist political education alongside soldiers’ military training, by the political commissars. In 1991 the rank system was reestablished under President Ramiz Alia, initially the communist purge concentrated on the military personnel graduated by the Western Military Academies, extended later on to the officers graduated in Soviet Union. As the communist regime collapsed in Albania during 1990, there was a fear that the armed forces might intervene to halt the collapse of communism by force. In the event, the armed forces stood by as the regime of which they had been a part disintegrated, during the 1980s, Albania had reduced the number of infantry brigades from eight to four. It had shifted to fully manned units from its reliance on the mobilisation of reserve soldiers to flesh out a larger number of units manned at a lower level. Each brigade had three battalions and one lightly equipped artillery battalion. Armoured forces consisted of one tank brigade, artillery forces were increased from one to three regiments during the 1980s, and six battalions of coastal artillery were maintained at strategic points along the Adriatic Sea littoral

Albanian Armed Forces
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An Albanian T-59 tank during the Albania-Yugoslav border incident in May 1999.
Albanian Armed Forces
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Emblem of Albanian Armed Forces
Albanian Armed Forces
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Albanian soldiers conduct a joint patrol with U.S. soldiers in Iraq on 13 January 2005
Albanian Armed Forces
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The full set of commissioned officers ranks in the Albanian Army

92.
Bulgarian Armed Forces
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The Bulgarian Army represents the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria. The Commander-in-Chief is the President of Bulgaria, the Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership while overall military command remains in the hands of the Defence Staff, headed by the Chief of the Defence. There are three branches, named literally the Land Forces, the Air Forces and the Naval Forces. Throughout history, the Army has played a role in defending the countrys sovereignty. During the Cold War the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria maintained one of the largest militaries in the Warsaw Pact, since the Fall of Communism, the political leadership decided to pursue a pro-NATO policy, thus reducing military personnel and weaponry. Bulgaria joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 29 March 2004, the patron saint of the Bulgarian Army is St. George. The Armed Forces Day or St. Georges Day is a holiday in Bulgaria. The modern Bulgarian military dates back to 1878, on 22 July 1878 a total of 12 battalions of opalchentsi who participated in the Liberation war, formed the Bulgarian armed forces. According to the Tarnovo Constitution, all men between 21 and 40 years of age were eligible for military service, in 1883 the military was reorganized in four infantry brigades and one cavalry brigade. The Serbo-Bulgarian War was the first armed conflict after Bulgarias liberation and it was a result of the unification with Eastern Rumelia, which happened on 6 September 1885. The unification was not completely recognized, however, and one of the countries that refused to recognize the act was the Kingdom of Serbia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had been expanding its influence in the Balkans and was particularly opposed. Serbia also feared this would diminish its dominance in the region, in addition, Serbian ruler Milan Obrenović IV was annoyed that Serbian opposition leaders like Nikola Pašić, who had escaped persecution after the Timok Rebellion, had found asylum in Bulgaria. Lured by Austria-Hungarys promises of territorial gains from Bulgaria, Milan IV declared war on Bulgaria on 14 November 1885, Military strategy relied largely on surprise, as Bulgaria had moved most of its troops near the border with the Ottoman Empire, in the southeast. As it happened, the Ottomans did not intervene and the Serbian armys advance was stopped after the Battle of Slivnitsa, the main body of the Bulgarian army traveled from the Ottoman border in the southeast to the Serbian border in the northwest to defend the capital, Sofia. After the defensive battles at Slivnitsa and Vidin, Bulgaria began an offensive that took the city of Pirot, at this point the Austro-Hungarian Empire stepped in, threatening to join the war on Serbias side if Bulgarian troops did not retreat. Fighting lasted for only 14 days, from 14-28 November, a peace treaty was signed in Bucharest on 19 February 1886. No territorial changes were made to either country, but Bulgarian unification was recognized by the Great Powers, however, the relationship of trust and friendship between Serbia and Bulgaria, built during their long common fight against Ottoman rule, suffered irreparable damage. Instability in the Balkan region in the early 1900s quickly became a precondition for a new war, Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of its independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion

93.
Republic of Croatia Armed Forces
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The total number of active military personnel in the Croatian Armed Forces stands at 14,506 and 6,000 reserves working in various service branches of the armed forces. In May 2016, Armed Forces had 16,019 members, of the 14,506 active military personnel,3,183 were officers,5,389 non-commissioned officers,5,393 soldiers,520 military specialists,337 civil servants and 1,176 other employees. Total available male manpower aged 16–49 number 1,035,712, male citizens are now no longer subject to compulsory military service since January 1,2008. However, the last generation of 2007 servicemen was also absolved of compulsory service by an act from then Minister of Defence Berislav Rončević. For example,1995 Croatian defense budget stood at 12.4 billion Croatian Kuna or just over 12% of GDP, a long term modernization plan, 2015-2024 has been published outlining overall goals and is available for download at the Ministry of Defence of Croatia website. At the moment the Croatian Air Force will keep 12 MiG-21bis fighter aircraft, the Dr. Franjo Tuđman Military Academy acts as a school of higher learning responsible for training and educating future generations of military personnel. The academy consists of schools including Ban Josip Jelačić, Blago Zadro, Katarina Zrinska, the Officers Academy. The academy has 300 full-time staff and is the military academy in Croatia. Each year also 100-120 foreign nationals attend the academy, the Commander-in-Chief of all Croatian armed forces in peace and war is the President of the Republic. The Commander-in-Chief prescribes the organization of the Croatian Armed Forces at the proposal of the Chief of General Staff, the Armed Forces consist of peacetime and wartime components. The wartime component of the Armed Forces includes all other reservists, the General Staff is part of the Ministry of Defense in charge of commanding, training and use of the Armed Forces. It also has a number of units under its command, including the Special Operations Battalion, Honor Guard Battalion. In peace, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defence, in war and in cases where the Minister of Defence is not fulfilling his orders, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command directly through the General Staff Commander. The Croatian Parliament exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces by adopting defence strategy, defence budget, the command staff is composed of the members who served in the special units, guards brigades and reconnaissance units of the Croatian Armed Forces. Colonel Perica Turalija is the current commanding officer of the command, also, this means that members of all three branches of the Croatian armed forces can apply for selection. Other special operations units are the Military Intelligence Battalion and Special Military Police Company, the duties of an Honour Guard are performed by the Počasno zaštitna bojna, located at Zagreb in the Tuškanac military base. A $3-Billion modernization plan was proposed by the then Prime Minister Ivica Racan of the SDP led Government in 2003, with planned modernization starting in 2006 and ending in 2015. However it has been delayed in part due to the subsequent economic recession, a New Plan under the current Prime Minister Zoran Milanović should define exactly how and what the Croatian armed forces should look like by 2023

94.
Army of the Czech Republic
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The Army of the Czech Republic comprise the Czech Land Forces, the Czech Air Force and support units. From the late 1940s to 1989, the extensive Czechoslovak Peoples Army formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance, as defined by the Czech Law No. 219/1999 Coll. the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic are the forces of the Czech Republic. They consist of the Army of the Czech Republic, the Military Office of President of the Republic, the Czechoslovak Armed Forces were originally formed on 30 June 1918 when 6. On the other side of the conflict, a number of Czechoslovak units and formations served with the Polish Army, the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army, four Czech and Slovak-manned RAF squadrons were transferred to Czechoslovak control in late 1945. From 1954 until 1990, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak Peoples Army. Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent. About 100,000 of these were conscripts, there were two military districts, Western and Eastern. In the Eastern Military District, there were two divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country. 58 assault rifle or the Uk vz.59 machine gun were of Czechoslovak design, the Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 1 January 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993 and they were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999, and to 35,000 in 2005. At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture, in 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Army maintains an active reserve, the Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. At the 1999 Washington summit, the Czech Republic joined NATO, the unit is stationed in the outskirts of the city of Olomouc, in place of the canceled 156th Rescue Battalion. Active Reserve is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic and this service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military. A volunteer needs either to have completed the military service or to attend 8 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to two weeks during a non-military crisis. They are not intended to serve abroad, the Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show

Army of the Czech Republic
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Croatian Army Master Sgt.(right) discusses patrol routes with a Czech Army Sgt. (left) in Germany to prepare for Afghanistan, 2012
Army of the Czech Republic
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The coat of arms and roundel
Army of the Czech Republic
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Czech BVP2 firing in Afghanistan
Army of the Czech Republic
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Czech Army Soldiers to participate in exercise Combined Resolve at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany

95.
Estonia Defence Forces
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The Estonian Defence Forces is the name of the unified armed forces of the Republic of Estonia. The Estonian military is a force consisting of Land Forces, Navy, Air Force. A few days later Estonia was invaded by the forces of Bolshevist Russia. The small, poorly armed Estonian military, also known as the Peoples Force, was pushed back by the Red Army into the vicinity of the capital city of Estonia - Tallinn. A mere 34 kilometers separated Tallinn and the front line, partly due to the timely arrival of a shipment of arms brought by a British naval squadron the Bolsheviks were stopped. In January 1919, the Estonian armed forces launched a counteroffensive, the Ground Forces were supported by the Royal Navy as well as Finnish, Swedish and Danish volunteers. By the end of February 1919, the Red Army had been expelled from all of the territory of Estonia, on 2 February 1920, the Peace Treaty of Tartu was signed by the Republic of Estonia and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. After winning the Estonian Liberation War against Soviet Russia and German Freikorps volunteers, according to this treaty Estonia was to be occupied by the Soviet Union. The Estonian government was forced to give their assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases, on 12 June 1940, the order for a total military blockade of Estonia was given to the Soviet Baltic Fleet. Given the overwhelming Soviet force, in order to avoid bloodshed, the military occupation of Estonia was complete by 21 June 1940. The armed forces of Estonia were disarmed in July 1940 by the Red Army according to Soviet orders, only the Estonian Independent Signal Battalion stationed in Tallinn at Raua Street, in front of the Tallinn School No.21 continued to resist. As the Red Army brought in additional reinforcements supported by armoured fighting vehicles, there was one dead, several wounded on the Estonian side and about 10 killed and more wounded on the Soviet side. Military resistance ended with negotiations and the Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed, the Eesti Kaitsevägi was restored on 3 September 1991 by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia. Since 1991, the forces of Estonia have re-opened and restored more than 30 old and new units. In peacetime the Estonian Defence Forces and the national defence organisations, in wartime all these components are commanded by the commander-in-chief of the defence forces. The chief of the forces and the commander-in-chief of the defence forces are appointed and released from office by the Riigikogu on the proposal of the President of the Republic of Estonia. Starting from 5 December 2011 the Chief of the Defence is Lieutenant-General Riho Terras, the Kaitseväe Peastaap is the headquarters of the military of Estonia and the working body of the Kaitseväe Juhataja of the defence forces. The General Staff is a joint staff engaged with operational leadership, training, Operational leadership is implemented by the Operational Staff, which plans and controls operations and ensures defence readiness and mobilisation

96.
Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure

97.
Military of Iceland
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Icelands defences consist of the Icelandic Coast Guard, which patrols Icelandic waters and airspace, and other services such as the National Commissioners National Security and Special Forces Units. The Coast Guard consists of three ships and four aircraft and armed with small arms, naval artillery, and Air Defence weaponry, the Coast Guard also maintains the Iceland Air Defence System, formerly part of the disestablished Defence Agency, which conducts ground surveillance of Icelands air space. Units subordinated to the National Commissioner also take part in Icelands defences, additionally there is a Crisis Response Unit, operated by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, which is a small peacekeeping force that has been deployed internationally, since 2008. This unit also has an unarmed component, furthermore, there is a treaty with the United States regarding the defense of Iceland, the former maintained a military base known as Naval Air Station Keflavik before it was disestablished in 2006. There are also agreements about military and other security operations with Norway, Denmark, Iceland holds the annual NATO exercises entitled Northern Viking. The most recent exercises were held in 2011, as well as the EOD exercise Northern Challenge, in 1997 Iceland hosted its first Partnership for Peace exercise, Cooperative Safeguard, which is the only multilateral PfP exercise so far in which Russia has participated. Another major PfP exercise was hosted in 2000, Iceland has also contributed ICRU peacekeepers to SFOR, KFOR and ISAF. The government of Iceland contributes financially to NATOs international overhead costs and recently has taken an active role in NATO deliberations. Iceland hosted the NATO Foreign Ministers Meeting in Reykjavík in June 1987 and these armies were divided into units according to the quality of the warriors and by birth. At the end of this period the number of chieftains had diminished and their power had grown and this resulted in a long and bloody civil war known as Age of the Sturlungs. A typical battle involved fewer than 1000 men, amphibious operations were an important part of warfare in Iceland in this period, especially in the Westfjords, but large naval engagements were rare. The largest such engagement, known as Flóabardagi, involved a few ships in Húnaflói. In 1855, the Icelandic Army was re-established by Andreas August von Kohl, in 1856, the king provided 180 rixdollars to buy guns, and a further 200 rixdollars the following year. The sheriff became the Captain of the new army, which known as Herfylkingin. In 1860 von Kohl died, and Pétur Bjarnasen took over command, nine years later Bjarnasen died without appointing a successor, and the army fell into disarray. In 1918, Iceland regained sovereignty as a kingdom under the Danish king. Iceland established a Coast Guard shortly afterwards, but it was impossible to establish a standing army. The government hoped that a permanent neutrality would shield the country from invasion, but at the onset of Second World War, the government was concerned about a possible invasion, and decided to expand the Icelandic National Police and its reserves into a military unit

98.
Italian Armed Forces
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The Italian Armed Forces encompass the Italian Army, the Italian Navy and the Italian Air Force. A fourth branch of the forces, known as the Carabinieri. These five forces have military status and are all organized along military lines, the President of the Italian Republic heads the armed forces as the President of the High Council of Defence established by article 87 of the Constitution of Italy. According to article 78, the Parliament has the authority to declare a state of war, the ground force of Italy, the Regio Esercito dates back to the unification of Italy in the 1850s and 1860s. During the Cold War the Army prepared itself to defend against a Warsaw Pact invasion from the east, since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it has seen extensive peacekeeping service in Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Iraq. On 29 July 2004 it became a professional all-volunteer force when conscription was finally ended, the navy of Italy was created in 1861, following the proclamation of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, as the Regia Marina. The new navys baptism of fire came during the Third Italian War of Independence against the Austrian Empire, during the First World War, it spent its major efforts in the Adriatic Sea, fighting the Austro-Hungarian Navy. In the Second World War, it engaged the Royal Navy in a struggle for the control of the Mediterranean Sea. After the war, the new Marina Militare, being a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, has part in many coalition peacekeeping operations. The Guardia Costiera is a component of the navy, the air force of Italy was founded as an independent service arm on 28 March 1923, by King Vittorio Emanuele III as the Regia Aeronautica. During the 1930s, it was involved in its first military operations in Ethiopia in 1935, eventually, Italy entered World War II alongside Germany. After the armistice of 8 September 1943, Italy was divided two sides, and the same fate befell the Regia Aeronautica. The Air Force was split into the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force in the south aligned with the Allies, when Italy was made a republic by referendum, the air force was given its current name Aeronautica Militare. The Arma dei Carabinieri is the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, the corps was instituted in 1814 by King Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy with the aim of providing the Kingdom of Sardinia with a police corps, it is therefore older than Italy itself. The new force was divided into divisions on the scale of one division for each province of Italy, the Italian unification saw the number of divisions increased, and in 1861 the Carabinieri were appointed the First Force of the new national military organization. In recent years Carabinieri units have been dispatched on peacekeeping missions, including Kosovo, Afghanistan, Italy did take part in the 1982 Multinational Force in Lebanon along with US, French and British troops. As part of Operation Enduring Freedom, Italy contributed to the operation in Afghanistan. Italian forces have contributed to ISAF, the NATO force in Afghanistan, Italian forces also command a multinational engineer task force and have deployed a platoon of Carabinieri military police

99.
Latvian National Armed Forces
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The Latvian National Armed Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of Latvia. The National Armed Forces consists of Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Latvia has switched to a professional army, the last draft was in 2005. From January 1,2007, the Latvian army is fully contract-based, the mission of the National Armed Forces is to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the nation and to defend its population against foreign or domestic armed aggression. Ensure modernization and enhancement of professional training, The Latvian armed forces were first formed after the new state was created after World War I. At the end of the Latvian War of Independence, the Latvian Army consisted of 69,232 men, after the Soviet occupation of Latvia in June 1940 the annihilation of the Latvian army began. The army was renamed the People’s Army and in September–November 1940- the Red Army’s 24th Territorial Rifle Corps, the corps comprised the 181st and 183rd Rifle Divisions. In September the corps contained 24,416 men but in more than 800 officers. The arrests of soldiers continued in the following months, in June 1940, the entire Territorial Corps was sent to Litene camp. Before leaving the camp, Latvians drafted in 1939 were demobilised, on June 10, the corps senior officers were sent to Russia where they were arrested and most of them shot. On June 14 at least 430 officers were arrested and sent to Gulag camps, simultaneously, many soldiers and officers deserted and when the corps crossed the Latvian border only about 3,000 Latvian soldiers remained. There are 4,763 active duty personnel in the NAF, there are 971 soldiers in the Latvian Land Forces,552 in the Latvian Naval Forces,251 in the Latvian Air Force with the balance in the other commands. There are 10,642 voluntary national guardsmen with 1,284 officers and 1,945 non-commissioned officers in the Latvian National Guard, there are 1,288 civil employees serving in the NAF. Along with providing for defence, the NAF will also react immediately to threats to other allies. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT, currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian military does not have the means to do so. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fighters, which comes from different nations, after joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Latvia has undertaken obligations to strengthen common defence within the scope of its capabilities. For this purpose, every NATO member state delegates its military formations — fast response, after joining NATO, the foundation of the Latvian defence system has shifted from total territorial defence to collective defence. Latvia has acquired small but highly professional troop units that have fully integrated into NATO structures. NAF soldiers have participated in operations since 1996

100.
Luxembourg Army
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The Luxembourg Army is the national military of Luxembourg. The army has been a force since 1967. It has a current strength of approximately 450 professional soldiers—340 enlisted recruits and 100 civilians—with a total budget of $369 million, the army is under civilian control, with the Grand Duke as Commander-in-Chief. The Minister for Defence, currently Etienne Schneider, oversees army operations, the professional head of the army is the Chief of Defence, who answers to the minister. Luxembourg troops have deployed to Afghanistan, to support ISAF. The army has also participated in relief missions such as setting up refugee camps for Kurds. The law fixed the militias strength at 3,000 men, until 1840, Luxembourg’s militiamen served in units of the Royal Netherlands Army. Enlisted men served for five years, the first year consisted of active service, in 1839, William I became a party to the Treaty of London by which the Grand-Duchy lost its western, francophone territories to the Belgian province of Luxembourg. Due to the population having been halved, with the loss of 160,000 inhabitants. In 1846, the cavalry and artillery units were disbanded and the Luxembourg contingent was separated from that of Limburg, the Luxembourg contingent now consisted of two light infantry battalions, one in Echternach and the second in Diekirch, two reserve companies, and a depot company. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian war resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Luxembourg was declared neutral in perpetuity by the 1867 Treaty of London, and in accordance its fortress was demolished in the following years. In 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, and the two battalions of Luxembourgish light infantry entered the city of Luxembourg that September. A new military organization was established in 1867, consisting of two battalions, known as the Corps des Chasseurs Luxembourgeois, having a strength of 1,568 officers. In 1868, the contingent came to consist of one infantry battalion of four companies. On 16 February 1881, the infantry battalion was disbanded with the abolition of the militia-based system. On 16 February 1881, the Corps des Gendarmes et Volontaires was established and it was composed of two companies, a company of gendarmes and one of volunteers. In 1939, a corps of volunteers was established and attached to the company of volunteers. This contingent was named the Luxembourg Battery, initially, it was under Belgian officers

Luxembourg Army
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Cap Badge of the Luxembourg Army
Luxembourg Army
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Soldiers of the Corps des Gendarmes et Volontaires pose for a photograph, 1910.
Luxembourg Army
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Luxembourg troops training in an English seaside town in 1943.
Luxembourg Army
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A Luxembourg soldier in Korea, 1953.

101.
Military of Montenegro
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The Military of Montenegro consists of an army, navy and air force. There has been no conscription in Montenegro, the military is a professional standing army. The military currently maintains a force of 1,950 active duty members, Montenegro is a member of NATOs Partnership for Peace program and is an official candidate for full membership in the alliance. Montenegro applied for a Membership Action Plan on 5 November 2008, in 2015, it was reported that international support for Montenegros NATO membership was growing. In December 2015, North Atlantic Council, invited Montenegro to join NATO as 29th member, Montenegro participates in peace operations under the NATO and UN auspices as military troops and observers. Minister of Defense said that 85 soldiers are trained for international missions, Montenegrin soldiers are trained by the German Bundeswehr. Montenegro sent 45 troops and medical personnel to the ISAF mission in Afghanistan, Montenegro also participates in UN peacekeeping missions in Liberia, UNMIL, Cyprus, UNFICYP as military observers and Somalia, EU-NAVFOR. Each kapetanija formed its reserve battalion, there were 42 battalions in total. Since 1881, regular military exercises were conducted, supreme Commander of the Montenegrin army was the monarch, Prince / King Nikola I. Operational command, organization and financial support of the Montenegrin army was entrusted to the Ministry of Defence, General Staff of the Montenegrin army was part of the Ministry of Defence. In 1882 first 14 Montenegrins were sent to schools abroad, particularly in Italy. In 1886,10 of them completed their education and they become first trained officers in Montenegrin warrior history and these Montenegrin officers held courses in Podgorica, Nikšić and Cetinje. In September 1895, the first permanent Infantry NCO school in Podgorica was opened, at the end of 1896, artillery officer school in Cetinje was established - the first Montenegrin officer school. In 1906 Montenegrin army received the first systematized regulations, and the Law on Organization of the Army was adopted in 1910, Infantry and artillery, were established, followed by two specialized branches, and additional branches. In 1913 the Montenegrin gendarmerie become a special Military Police unit, since the establishment of the internal Montenegrin telecommunications system in 1869, vital for the flow of military-defense information, it was under the jurisdiction of Ministry of the military. Divisions were composed of 2-3 Infantry Brigade, each divisional command had three artillery batteries. On the eve of the First Balkan War Kingdom of Montenegro lined up 55,000 soldiers, all Montenegrins between 18 and 62 years were conscripts. Recruitment was done three times a year, and the recruits are in peacetime had to have at least 25 years, the Military of Montenegro before 1918, was much larger than todays military

Military of Montenegro
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Kotor class Frigate
Military of Montenegro
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Montenegrin troops in Afghanistan
Military of Montenegro
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Members of Special Forces Brigade
Military of Montenegro
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Members of Marine Platoon

102.
Armed forces of the Netherlands
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The Armed forces of the Netherlands consist of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The service branches consist of, Koninklijke Landmacht, Royal Netherlands Army, Koninklijke Marine, Royal Netherlands Navy and Korps Mariniers, Marine Corps. Koninklijke Luchtmacht, Royal Netherlands Air Force, in addition, within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, there are small local conscript forces on the islands of Aruba and Curaçao. These operate under the auspices of the Royal Netherlands Navy and Marines, the military ranks of the Dutch armed forces have similarities with British and U. S. military ranks. The highest-ranking officer in the Dutch military is the Chief of the Netherlands Defence Staff, the Dutch armed forces exist by declaration in the constitution of the Netherlands. Interestingly, this means that the role and responsibility of the Dutch military in international stability, the same article of the constitution determines that supreme command of the Dutch military resides with the Government of the Netherlands. This has been the case since the constitution was changed in 1983, before then, in addition, a second major change in military affairs was made in 2003. Before then, all citizens of the Netherlands were tasked with the defense of the kingdom, in keeping with the move to a professional military, this article was dropped. The Netherlands military is currently a professional military. Conscription in the Netherlands was suspended in 1996 with the exception of Aruba, all military branches and specialties, except for the submarine service and the Marine Corps, are open to female recruits. The Dutch military is part of the NATO militaries and therefore conforms to the structure of a NATO military and it also uses conforming rank structures. All Dutch military personnel, officers and enlisted personnel, are required to take an oath of allegiance and this oath is recorded in the law on General Military Personnel Regulations in Article 126a. Unlike many military organizations, Dutch military members are allowed to form, there are four of these unions, Algemene Federatie van Militair Personeel, which was recognized by the Dutch government in 1966. The AFMP is a member of the Dutch Federation of Trade Unions, the ACOM is a member of the Dutch Christian National Trade Union. Gezamenlijke Officieren Verenigingen en Middelbaar en Hoger Burgerpersoneel bij Defensie, which was recognized by the Dutch government in 2004, the GOV/MHB is a member of the Dutch confederation of groups of middle and senior staffmembers. All unions represent both current and retired military personnel and/or civilian personnel, the Netherlands deployed further troops and helicopters to Afghanistan in 2006 as part of a new security operation in the south of the country. Dutch ground and air forces totalled almost 2,000 personnel during 2006, taking part in combat operations alongside British, the Netherlands announced in December 2007 that it would begin withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan, which were mainly in Uruzgan Province, in July 2010. I do not have assurances that other countries will be ready to replace Netherlands troops, to the NATO secretary general, who has confirmed it

103.
Norwegian Armed Forces
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The Norwegian Armed Forces is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Norway. It consists of four branches, the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, which includes the Coast Guard, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the armed forces number 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees, and have a full-mobilisation combat strength of 83,000. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, led by Ine Marie Eriksen Søreide, the formal commander-in-chief is King Harald V, however, the de facto commander-in-chief is Chief of Defence Haakon Bruun-Hanssen. His staff is located at Akershus Fortress in Oslo, while the Norwegian Joint Headquarters, the main naval base is Haakonsvern in Bergen, the main army camps are in Bardu, Målselv and Rena, and the main air station is Ørland. An organised military was first assembled in Norway in the 9th century and was focused around naval warfare. The army was created in 1628 as part of Denmark–Norway, followed by two centuries of regular wars, a Norwegian military was established in 1814, but the military did not see combat until the German occupation of Norway in 1940. Norway abandoned its position as a country in 1949 to become a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. The Cold War saw a large build-up of air stations and military bases, since the 2000s, the military has transformed from a focus on defence from an invasion to a mobile force for international missions. Among European NATO members, the expenditure of US$7.2 billion is the highest per capita. The Chief of Defence heads the armed forces, and is the military adviser to the Minister of Defence. It is headed by a general or admiral. DEFSTNOR assigns priorities, manages resources, provides force generation and support activities, each of the four branches of defence is headed by a two-star general/admiral who are subordinate to DEFSTNOR. National Joint Headquarters located at Reitan, close to Bodø has operational control of Norwegian armed forces worldwide 24/7 and it is headed by the Supreme Commander Norwegian Forces - a three-star general or admiral. Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation at Kolsås outside Oslo is responsible for engineering, procurement, investment, supply, information and it is also responsible for maintenance, repair and storage of material. Norway employs a form of mandatory military service for men and women. While 63,841 men and women were called in for the examination of persons liable for service in 2012,9265 were conscripted. In 2015 conscription was extended to women making Norway the first NATO member, there is a right of conscientious objection. The press statements read, that serves as a means to “fight climate change”

104.
Polish Armed Forces
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Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland are the national armed forces of the Republic of Poland. The name has been used since the early 19th century, from 2002 until 2014, Polish military forces were part of the Coalition Forces that participated in the ISAF mission in Afghanistan led by NATO. Polands contribution to ISAF was the countrys largest, since its entrance into NATO, Polish forces also took part in the Iraq War. From 2003 to 2008, Polish military forces commanded the Multinational Division located in the South-Central Zone of Iraq, the division was made up of troops from 23 nations and totaled as many as 8,500 soldiers. It is regarded as one of the most professional military in Europe, the List of Polish wars chronicles Polish military involvements since the year 972. The present armed forces trace their roots to the early 20th century, large numbers of Poles also served in the armies of the partitioning powers, Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary and Germany. However, these powers took care to spread Polish soldiers all over their armies, during World War I, the Polish Legions were set up in Galicia, the southern part of Poland under Austrian occupation. They were both disbanded after the Central Powers failed to provide guarantees of Polish independence after the war. General Józef Haller, the commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, switched sides in late 1917, and via Murmansk took part of his troops to France and it was joined by several thousand Polish volunteers from the United States. It fought on the French front in 1917 and 1918, the Polish Army was recreated in 1918 from elements of the three separate Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Prussian armies, and armed with equipment left following World War I. The force expanded during the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1922 to nearly 800,000 men, the Polish Armed Forces in the West comprised army, navy, and air force units, and were loyal to the Polish government-in-exile. Army formations and units included the Polish Army in France, the Polish I Corps in the West, the Polish II Corps, and the rump Command in the Middle East that was briefly designated the III Corps. The Polish Air Force fought in the Battle of France as one squadron, several small units detached to French squadrons. These vessels included the cruisers ORP Dragon and Conrad, seven destroyers, what later became the communist LWP was formed during the Second World War as the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division, also unofficially known as the Berling Army. The majority of officers were Polish, the first Polish force formed in the USSR, the Anders Army, had by that time moved to Iran. Polish forces soon grew beyond the 1st Division into two major commands—the First Polish Army and the Polish Second Army, the Polish First Army participated in the Vistula–Oder Offensive and the Battle of Kolberg before participating in its final offensive with the Battle of Berlin. The Polish Second Army served under command of the Soviet 1st Ukrainian Front in 1945, in the east these two armies were supported at times by Polish air units, part of the Air Force of the Polish Army. The communist-aligned Polish military formation was the Peoples Army of Poland, formed in the Soviet Union and it became the core of the armed forces of post-war Poland

105.
Portuguese Armed Forces
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The Portuguese Armed Forces are the military of Portugal. They include the General Staff of the Armed Forces, the unified bodies. The President of the Republic is the head of the Portuguese military, the management of the Armed Forces and the execution of the national defense policy is however done by the government via its Minister of National Defense. Portugal was ranked the 5th most peaceful country in the World in the Global Peace Index 2016, the Portuguese Armed Forces have been thus focused in non military public service activities and in external military operations. Military units and other bodies are stationed throughout all the Portuguese territory, including Continental Portugal, Madeira, the national defense also assures the fulfillment of the international military agreements of the State, accordingly with the national interest. The Portuguese Armed Forces are responsible for the defense, which is the military component of the national defense. The Portuguese Armed Forces are an essential pillar of the defense and are the structure of the State that has as its main mission the military defense of the Republic. They obey to the competent bodies of sovereignty, accordingly with the Constitution, the system of forces defines the set of capacities that should exist for the fulfillment of the missions of the Armed Forces. It encompasses the set of systems of forces of all branches of the Armed Forces, the system of forces includes two components, Operational component - includes the set of assets and forces to be employed operationally. It is the part of the system of forces, including mainly deployable elements as frigates, infantry battalions. The operational component includes also some non-deployable operational command bodies, fix component - is the set of commands, units, establishments, bodies and services that are essential to the organization and general support of the Armed Forces and their branches. It is the part of the system of forces, including only non-deployable elements as naval bases, regiments. The LDN is regularly updated, with the present version being the Law 21-A/2006, the Strategic Concept of National Defense is the component of the national defense policy which defines the States priorities in terms of defense, accordingly with the national interest. The present version of the CEDN was approved by the Council of Ministers through its Resolution 19/2013, the Organic Basic Law of the Organization of the Armed Forces defines the organization of the Armed Forces. The present version of the LOBOFA is the Organic Law 1-A/2009 and it is elaborated by the Council of Chiefs of Staff, approved by the Minister of National Defense and confirmed by the Superior Council of National Defense. The present CEM in force is the CEM2014, the present version of the LPM is the Organic Law 7/2015. The national deployed forces are units or teams deployed by the Portuguese Armed Forces in foreign missions, mostly in the scope of NATO, since the early beginning, the Kingdom had naval and ground forces. The Portuguese Navy exists as a permanent force since 1317, however non-permanent naval forces existed already before, the Portuguese ground forces were established as a standing army in 1570, however they had existed since the 12th century, as the non-permanent hoste

106.
Slovenian Armed Forces
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The Slovenian Armed Forces or Slovenian Army are the armed forces of Slovenia. Since 2003, it is organized as a professional standing army. The military history of Slovenia spans less than a hundred years, rudolf Maister, a Slovene major of the former Austro-Hungarian Army, occupied the town of Maribor in November 1918 and claimed it to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. After a short fight with German Austrian provisional units, the current border was established and it was of negligible importance prior to 1990, with antiquated weapons and few members. The Slovenian Armed Forces were formally established in 1993 as a reorganization of the Slovenia Territorial Defence, after 1993, the Slovenian Armed Forces had relied on mandatory military service, with conscripts receiving 6–7 months of training. In 2003, the Slovenian Government abolished conscription and as of July 2004, currently there are approximately 7,300 active troops and approximately 1,500 in reserve, reduced from 55,000 personnel during conscription. A major reorganization of the Slovenian Armed Forces is currently underway with a making them more effective. More than half of all commands have been disbanded which has made commanding the subordinated units easier and faster, soldiers are to be located nearer to their homes in order to minimize travel costs. Reorganization also transformed 72nd Brigade from a unit to a combat unit. Both brigades were added elements, such as Air Defense, Artillery, Intelligence. The operational units now consist of Special Operations Unit, Naval Division, as part of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Slovenia was never a member of the Warsaw Pact. Today, the foreign policy priority of NATO membership drives Slovenias defense reorganization, active in the SFOR deployment in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia is also a charter member of Partnership for Peace and a regular participant in PfP exercises. Slovenia formally joined NATO in March 2004, implementation of interoperability objectives as determined by the Planning and Review Process and the Individual Partnership Program as part of Slovenias PfP participation proceeds. Slovenias elite units already train with and are integrated into international units including NATO members—for example as part of SFOR and its elite mountain troops will be assigned to the Multinational Land Force peacekeeping battalion with Italy, Hungary, and Croatia. Slovenian soldiers are a part of international forces serving in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Chad and they have also served in Cyprus and the Golan Heights as a part of UNFICYP and UNDOF respectively. Slovenia hosts Multinational Centre of Excellence for Mountain Warfare, one of NATO Centres of Excellence, located in Bohinjska Bela and it is responsible for training individuals and units for operation in the mountains and other terrains difficult to pass. The Slovenian Armed Forces are organized as single-branch armed forces with the army as their primary component, the airports official name is Cerklje ob Krki Airbase. The others that are partially military are, Ljubljana Airbase shares the airport with Ljubljana International Airport, one helicopter Bell 412 is stationed there for mountain rescue

107.
Spanish Armed Forces
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The Spanish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Kingdom of Spain. The Spanish Armed Forces are a military force charged with defending the Kingdoms integrity and sovereignty. They consist of the Army, Navy and Air Force, the King is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, with the title Capitán General de las Fuerzas Armadas. The current Chief of the Defence Staff is General Fernando Alejandre Martínez, the Spanish Armed Forces are active members of NATO, the Eurocorps, the European Union Battlegroups, and also provide peace keeping troops to the United Nations. During the 15th and 16th century, Spain evolved into Europes foremost power with the voyages of Christopher Columbus leading to Spain acquiring vast lands in the Americas. During the reign of Charles V and Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power with the Spanish Empire spanning 19.4 million square km of the earths surface, a total of 13%. By the mid 17th century this power had weakened by the Thirty Years War along with financial problems. Thanks to these reforms, Spain performed well in the French Revolutionary Wars, the war of Jenkins Ear, the war of Austrian Succession and several other engagements. Following the war, the Spanish military was in condition and political instability resulted in the loss of most of Spains former colonies, except Cuba, Puerto Rico. These too would be lost later in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2012 of 123,300 active personnel and 16,400 reserve personnel. The country also has the 80,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the control of the Ministry of Defence in times of a national emergency, the Spanish defence budget is 5.71 billion euros a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country, the Spanish army consists of 15 active brigades and 6 military regions. Modern infantry have diverse capabilities and this is reflected in the roles assigned to them. There are four operational roles that infantry battalions can fulfil, air assault, armoured infantry, mechanised infantry, the Spanish army has the latest technology at its disposal to preserve the territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Spain. The current flagship of the Spanish Navy is the assault ship Juan Carlos 1 which is also used as an aircraft carrier. In addition, the fleet consists of,2 amphibious transport docks,11 frigates,3 submarines,6 mine countermeasure vessels,23 patrol vessels, the total displacement of the Spanish Navy is approximately 220,000 tonnes. As of 2012, the Armada has a strength of 20,800 personnel, the Infanteria de Marina are the marine infantry of the Spanish Navy, the oldest in the world. It has a strength of 5,000 troops divided into base defense forces, one of the three base defense battalions is stationed with each of the Navy headquarters

Spanish Armed Forces
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Tri-service badge

108.
Turkish Armed Forces
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The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. They consist of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, in wartime, they are subordinate to the Army and Navy. The President of Turkey is the overall head. The current Chief of the General staff is General Hulusi Akar, the Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, he acts as the Commander in Chief on behalf of the President of Turkey, furthermore, the General Staff coordinates the military relations of the TAF with NATO member states and other friendly nations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish military perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalist ideology, the official state ideology, especially of the secular aspects of Kemalism. After becoming a member of NATO on 18 February 1952, Turkey initiated a comprehensive program for its armed forces. The Turkish Army sent troops to fight in Korea, where they played pivotal roles at some points, towards the end of the 1980s, a second restructuring process was initiated. The Turkish Armed Forces participate in European Union battlegroups under the control of the European Council, the TAF also contributes operational staff to the Eurocorps multinational army corps initiative of the EU and NATO. The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second largest standing military force in NATO, Armed Forces, with an estimated strength in 2015 of 639,551 military, civilian and paramilitary personnel. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy. After the end of World War I, many Ottoman military personnel escaped from Rumelia to Anatolia in order to part in the national movement. Turkey won the War of Independence in 1922, Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of World War II. In the initial stage of World War II, Turkey signed a treaty of assistance with Great Britain. But after the fall of France, the Turkish government tried to maintain a distance with both the Allies and the Axis. After the German-Soviet War broke out, the Turkish government sent a delegation of observers under Lieutenant General Ali Fuat Erden to the German Eastern Front. Turkey participated in the Korean War as a state of the United Nations and sent the Turkish Brigade to South Korea. On 18 February 1952, Turkey became a member of NATO, the Korean government donated a war memorial for the Turkish soldiers who fought and died in Korea

109.
British Armed Forces
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They also promote Britains wider interests, support international peacekeeping efforts, and provide humanitarian aid. Repeatedly emerging victorious from conflicts has allowed Britain to establish itself as one of the leading military. The Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces is the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the armed forces by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, as required by the Bill of Rights 1689. The armed forces are managed by the Defence Council of the Ministry of Defence, with the Acts of Union 1707, the armed forces of England and Scotland were merged into the armed forces of the Kingdom of Great Britain. Britain feared that Russian expansionism in the region would eventually threaten the Empire in India and this ultimately led to British involvement in the Crimean War against the Russian Empire. The beginning of the twentieth century served to reduce tensions between Britain and the Russian Empire, partly due to the emergence of a unified German Empire. Allied victory resulted in the defeat of the Central Powers, the end of the German Empire, the Treaty of Versailles, once again tensions accumulated in European relations, and following Germanys invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Second World War began. The conflict was the most widespread in British history, with British Empire and Commonwealth troops fighting in campaigns from Europe and North Africa, to the Middle East, approximately 390,000 British Empire and Commonwealth troops lost their lives. Allied victory resulted in the defeat of the Axis powers and the establishment of the United Nations, reflecting Britains new role in the world and the escalation of the Cold War, the country became a founding member of the NATO military alliance in 1949. By the mid-1970s, the forces had reconfigured to focus on the responsibilities allocated to them by NATO. While NATO obligations took increased prominence, Britain nonetheless found itself engaged in a number of low-intensity conflicts, however the Dhofar Rebellion and The Troubles emerged as the primary operational concerns of the armed forces. Perhaps the most important conflict during the Cold War, at least in the context of British defence policy, was the Falklands War. Since the end of the Cold War, an international role for the armed forces has been pursued, with re-structuring to deliver a greater focus on expeditionary warfare. In addition to the campaign, the British Army has trained and supplied allies on the ground. Figures released by the Ministry of Defence on 31 March 2016 show that 7,185 British Armed Forces personnel have lost their lives in medal earning theatres since the end of the Second World War. As Sovereign and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is Head of the Armed Forces, the Queen, however, remains the ultimate authority of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance to the monarch. It has been claimed that this includes the power to prevent unconstitutional use of the armed forces, responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees, the Defence Council, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Defence Management Board and three single-service boards. The Defence Council, composed of representatives of the services

British Armed Forces
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The Vulcan Bomber was the backbone of the United Kingdom’s airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War.
British Armed Forces
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Her Majesty's Armed Forces
British Armed Forces
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David Cameron greets Nicolas Sarkozy at Lancaster House, London, before signing the Defence and Security Co-operation Treaty.
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Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007

110.
Foreign relations of NATO
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NATO maintains foreign relations with many non-member countries across the globe. NATO runs a number of programs which provide a framework for the partnerships between itself and these nations, typically based on that countrys location. These include the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and the Partnership for Peace, five EU member states, all who have declared their non-alignment with military alliances, are not NATO members, Austria, Finland, Ireland, Malta, and Sweden. Switzerland, which is surrounded by the EU, has maintained their neutrality by staying out of the bloc. All these countries, however, have joined the Partnership for Peace programme, armenia has maintained positive relations with NATO members and has signed up for the Partnership for Peace programme and the Individual Partnership Action Plan. According to a NATO diplomatic source in August 2009 some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom, while President Ilham Aliyev has generally supported non-belligerency since his rise to power in 2003, Azerbaijan has hosted NATO military exercises and high-profile meetings in 2009. The unresolved conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh would present a major roadblock to membership, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011. Cyprus is the only EU member state that is neither a NATO member state nor a member of the PfP program, turkey, a full member of NATO, is likely to veto any attempt by Cyprus to engage with NATO until the dispute is resolved. The winner of Cyprus presidential election in February 2013, Nicos Anastasiades, has stated that he intends to apply for membership in the PfP program soon after taking over. Finland participates in nearly all sub-areas of the Partnership for Peace programme, however, a 2005 poll indicated that the public was strongly against NATO membership. The possibility of Finlands membership in NATO was one of the most important issues debated in relation to the Finnish presidential election of 2006, the main opposition candidate in the 2006 election, Sauli Niinistö of the National Coalition Party, supported Finland joining a more European NATO. Fellow right-winger Henrik Lax of the Swedish Peoples Party likewise supported the concept, on the other side, president Tarja Halonen of the Social Democratic Party opposed changing the status quo, as did most other candidates in the election. Her victory and re-election to the post of president has put the issue of a NATO membership for Finland on hold for at least the duration of her term. Currently no political party explicitly supports NATO membership, another ex-president, Mauno Koivisto, opposes the idea, arguing that NATO membership would ruin Finlands relations with Russia. As such, Finland participated in the 2015 NATO-led Arctic Challenge Exercise, irish government policy for the deployment of troops to NATO-led missions requires that the missions be mandated by the United Nations, cabinet-backed and approved by Dáil Éireann. This is known as Irelands triple lock, public opinion in Ireland continues to favour a policy of neutrality in armed conflicts, and currently no major political party fully supports ascension into NATO. There has been, and continues to be, a number of politicians who support Ireland joining NATO, mainly within the centre-right Fine Gael party and it is widely understood that a referendum would have to be held before any changes could be made to neutrality or to joining NATO

111.
Mediterranean Dialogue
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The Mediterranean Dialogue, first launched in 1994, is a forum of cooperation between NATO and seven countries of the Mediterranean. Its stated aim is to good relations and better mutual understanding and confidence throughout the region, promoting regional security and stability and explaining NATOs policies. The Dialogue reflects NATOs view that security in Europe is tied to the security and stability in the Mediterranean and it also reinforces and complements the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europes Mediterranean Initiative. The Mediterranean Dialogue initially started with five countries but has added two more over time, the ICP covers many areas of common interest, such as the fight against terrorism and joint military exercises in the Mediterranean Sea. More ICP agreements were signed with Egypt and Jordan, and NATO expects further agreements to be signed with additional Mediterranean Dialogue member states in the future, istanbul Cooperation Initiative North Atlantic Council Partnership for Peace Union for the Mediterranean Mediterranean Dialogue website

Mediterranean Dialogue
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NATO member states

112.
Military of Greece
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The Hellenic Armed Forces are combined military forces of Greece. They consist of the Hellenic National Defense General Staff, the Hellenic Army, the Hellenic Navy, the civilian authority for the Greek military is the Ministry of National Defense. Greece currently has universal compulsory military service for males, under which all men above 18 years of age serve for 9 months, women may serve in the Greek military, but cannot be conscripted. According to NATO, in 2008, Greece spent 2.8 percent of G. D. P. on its military, or about €6.9 billion, or around $9.3 billion. Greece is the largest importer of weapons in Europe and its military spending is the highest in the European Union. Greece is an EU and NATO member country and participates in peacekeeping operations such as ISAF in Afghanistan, EUFOR in Bosnia and Chad, the basic components of the Hellenic Army are Arms and Corps, the first responsible for combat missions and the latter for logistical support. It is organized in Commands, formations, and units with the basic being brigade, division and its main mission is to guarantee the territorial integrity and independence of the state. Hellenic Navy possesses a powerful fleet, consisted of strike units, Hellenic Air Force incorporates a modern air fleet, the congruent structure, as well as a modern system of air control, which cooperates with a widespread net of anti aircraft defense. The structure of its forces includes the General Staff of Air Force, the Command Post of Regular Army, the Air Support Command, the Air Training Command and a number of units and services

Military of Greece
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Hellenic Armed Forces Eλληνικές Ένοπλες Δυνάμεις

113.
Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the official military force of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Ministry of Defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina, founded in 2004, is in charge of the Armed Forces of Bosnia, the collective Presidency directs the Ministry of defense BiH and the Armed Forces. Former Bosnia and Herzegovina ministers of defense include H. E, the current Minister of defense BiH is H. E. Former Chiefs of Joint Staff AF BiH include LGEN Sifet Podžić, the current BiH Chief of Joint Staff is Lieutenant General Anto Jeleč. Conscription was completely abolished in Bosnia and Herzegovina effective on and from 1 January 2006. The AFBiH was formed three armies of the Bosnian War period, the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska. The Army of the Republic of Bosnia And Herzegovina was created on 15 April 1992 during the days of the Bosnian War. The army was formed under poor circumstances, with a low number of tanks, APCs. The army was divided into Corps, each Corp was stationed in a territory, the first commander was Sefer Halilović. The Army of Republika Srpska was created on 12 May 1992, before the VRS was formally created, there were a number of paramilitary groups such as the Srpska Dobrovoljačka Garda, Beli Orlovi, as well as some Russian, Greek and other volunteers. The army was equipped with ex-JNA inventory and it had about 200 tanks, mostly T-55s and 85 M-84s, and 150 APCs with several heavy artillery pieces. The Air Defense of VRS has shot down aircraft, like F-16, Mirage 2000, F-18. The VRS received support from the Yugoslav Army and FRY, the Croatian Defence Council was the main military formation of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War. It was first organized force to with the aim to control the Croat populated areas. They ranged from men armed with shotguns assigned to village defense tasks to organized, uniformed, IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or SFOR. The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000, SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, European Union-led European Union Force, EUFOR Althea. As of 2004, EUFOR Althea numbered around 7,000 troops, the restructuring of the three armies into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina represents part of a wider process of thickening the central state institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In order to some of the potential controversy around restructuring

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Coat of Arms of the Armed Forces of BIH
Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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ISAF Bosnian troops display their national flag.
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ISAF Bosnian troops line up, awaiting for the general march of the Lt. Anto Jeleč.
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A soldier, observes an enemy position during exercise Immediate Response 2012 in Slunj.

114.
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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The Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan, is the name of the unified armed forces of Kazakhstan. It consists of the Ground Forces, Air and Air Defence Forces, Naval Forces, the national defence policy aims are based on the Constitution of Kazakhstan. They guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the armed forces of Kazakhstan act under the authority of the Kazakhstan Ministry of Defence. The Military Balance 2013 reported the armed forces strength as, Army,20,000, Navy,3,000, Air Force,12,000 and it also reported 31,000 paramilitary personnel. Kazakhstan, alongside Uzbekistan, has a decent and well-equipped military for the region, on May 7,1992, the President of Kazakhstan took a number of actions regarding defence. Mukhtar Altynbayev served as the Minister of Defence twice, most recently from December 2001 to 10 January 2007, on June 30,1992, the Soviet Armed Forces Turkestan Military District disbanded, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The most powerful grouping of forces from the Turkestan Military District then became the core of Kazakhstans new military. On July 6,2000, a Presidential Decree On the structure of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan changed the structure, the Airmobile Forces were created, the transition to the new military-territorial structure, established military districts, harmonized structure and deployment of troops. On August 7, Lieutenant-General A. B, Dzharbulov was appointed commander of the Southern Military District and Lieutenant-General E. Ertaev became commander of the Eastern Military District. In February 2001 a Presidential Decree divided the functions of the Ministry of Defence, on March 30, Major General M. K. Sihimov was appointed commander of the Western Military Region. On October 12, M. Saparov was appointed to Chief of the General Staff, Elamanov became commander of the Airmobile Forces. On December 8, a new Defense Minister was appointed, General K. Altynbayev, and on December 27, Major General K. K. Akhmadiev was appointed commander of the Air Defense Forces. Key defense posts announced early in 2002 included, Major-General Tasbulatov appointed Deputy of the Defense Minister, Maj. Gen. Elamanov commander of the Southern Military District, Maj. Gen. N. А. Kazakhstan had its first military parade in its history at Otar military base on May 7,2013, during the ceremony, the first woman was promoted to the rank of General. Kazakhstan is a member of CSTO and SCO. Kazakhstan also has an Individual Partnership Action Plan with NATO & strategic cooperation with the Turkish Armed Forces, the 32nd Army had been serving in Kazakhstan for many years. The 32nd Army had been redesignated initially the 1st Army Corps and it came under Kazakh control in May 1992. On November 1,1992, on the basis of units of the former Soviet 40th Army of the Turkestan Military District, later, at its base was established the Eastern Military District, retitled on 13 November 2003 as Regional Command East

Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Kazakh Airmobile Forces Shoulder Sleeve Insignia
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Coat of Arms of the Kazakh Armed Forces
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Kazakh paratrooper in 2000
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Kazakh paratroopers in combat gear

115.
Military of Monaco
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All together there are 255 soldiers serving in Monacos military, making its military the third smallest in the world. The Minister of the Department of the Interior is appointed by the Prince for one five-year term, patrol boats, which currently number four, are also operated by both the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers and the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince. Two full-time militarized armed forces exist under the control of the Department of the Interior, one is the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers de Monaco, and the other is the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince. Both units are key to the ORMOS Red Plan which makes provision for the evacuation of Monaco in case of disaster or civil emergency. The officers ranks are, colonel, lieutenant colonel, commandant, captain, lieutenant, there are a further nine ranks of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel. Officers generally have served in the French militarys fire service, beyond fire-fighting duties, the Corps has an extensive civil defence brief. They are also equipped with ambulances and personnel have paramedic training, of a similar size to the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers, the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince has a total force of 116, consisting of three officers,15 non-commissioned officers and 98 enlisted men. The officers have trained and served with the French military. Its primary duty is the defence of the Prince and the Princes Palace in the Monaco-Ville quartier of Monaco, by extension, it also has a role in guarding members of the judiciary, who administer justice in the name of the Prince. The ceremonial changing of the guard at 11.55 AM each day attracts large numbers of tourists, the ceremony is more than just tourist spectacle, as this small military force is the front line of defence of the Monegasque princely family. The rank structure of the forces of Monaco is based largely upon the rank structure of the French army. As can be seen, in the French/Monegasque system the title Commandant replaces the title Major as used in the British/Commonwealth/American system, also, there is no rank higher than Colonel in either branch of the Monegasque military

Military of Monaco
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A member of the armed forces of Monaco on guard duty at the Prince's Palace.
Military of Monaco
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Insignia as used in the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers

116.
Serbian Armed Forces
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The Serbian Armed Forces are the armed forces of Serbia. The armed forces consist of the Serbian Army and the Serbian Air Force, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces is the President of the Republic. The Serbian Armed Forces are a professional and volunteer based military, Serbia exercises civilian control of the military through the Ministry of Defence. The 1804 Serbian Revolution, started with the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman occupation of Serbia, the victories in the battles of Ivankovac, Mišar, Deligrad and Belgrade, led to the establishment of the Principality of Serbia in 1817. The subsequent Second Serbian Uprising led to independence and recognition of the Kingdom of Serbia. In 1885, the Serbo-Bulgarian War broke out following the Bulgarian unification, in 1912, the First Balkan War erupted between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League. The victories in the Battle of Kumanovo, Battle of Prilep, Battle of Monastir, Battle of Adrianople, Siege of Scutari resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and its expulsion from the Balkans. Shortly after, the Second Balkan War broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the division of territory, declared war against its allies, Serbia. Following a string of defeats, Bulgaria requested an armistice and signed the Treaty of Bucharest, serbias independence and growing influence threatened neighboring Austria-Hungary which led to the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09. Consequently, since 1901, all Serbian males between the ages of 21 to 46 were liable for general mobilization, the Serbian Armed Forces are commanded by the General Staff corp of senior officers. The general staff is led by the Chief of the General Staff, the chief of the general staff is appointed by the President who is the Commander-in-Chief. The current Chief of the General Staff is General Ljubiša Diković, the armed forces are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence. The current Minister of Defence is Zoran Đorđević, the Serbian Air Force and Air Defence is the aviation and anti-aircraft defence based component of the armed forces consisting of, aviation, anti-aircraft, surveillance and reconnaissance units. The reserve force is composed of a reserve and passive reserve. The active reserve force numbers 2,000 members, while the passive reserve totals about 1.7 million citizens with past military training or experience, the Serbian Armed Forces actively take part in several multinational peacekeeping missions

Serbian Armed Forces
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Emblem of the Serbian Armed Forces

117.
Kosovo Security Force
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The Kosovo Security Force or Kosovo Armed Force, is an Army response force charged with conducting crisis response operations in Kosovo and abroad and civil protection operations in Kosovo. Its main tasks are operations in the areas of Search and Rescue, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Firefighting, however, it is also equipped with light weaponry, and the Kosovo government plans to transform it into an army. The Commander of the KSF is Lieutenant General Rrahman Rama, in March 2008, the NATO-led Kosovo Force and the Kosovo Protection Corps started preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. KFOR entered Kosovo on June 12,1999 under a United Nations mandate, Kosovo declared independence in February 2008. On 19 March 2008, United States President George W. Bush authorised military aid to Kosovo Security Force in another step to establish relations with Kosovo. On 4 January 2009, the names of those who were to be selected for the KSF from the KPC were announced. After being vetted by NATO, roughly 1,400 former members of the KPC were selected to serve as officers and rank, on 21 January 2009, the Kosovo Security Force was officially launched. The KSF did not replace the Kosovo Protection Corps which was disbanded several months later, KFOR was charged with mentoring the KSF and bringing the force to Full Operational Capability. Mentoring efforts were meant to develop the KSF in line with NATO standards, additionally Italy, Portugal and other NATO members are to help the KSF by donations and training. Slovenia donated €30,000 towards the establishment of the KSF, in 2010, the KSF deployed to northern Albania on two separate occasions to perform flood relief operations in support of the Albanian domestic response. President Jahjaga also promoted Kastrati to the rank of Lieutenant General, on 9 July 2013 the Kosovo Security Forces reached Full Operational Capability as determined by NATO. The declaration of full operational capability on 9 July 2013 by the North Atlantic Council means that the KSF is fully capable of performing the assigned to it within its mandate. The KSF will conduct non-military security functions that are not appropriate for the police, recruitment for the Kosovo Security Force started early 2009, once NATO had agreed to implement new tasks in addition to those agreed under UNSCR1244. These new tasks included the standing down of the Kosovo Protection Corps, one of the principal aims was to encourage all minorities to enroll, so special attention was given to carrying out the recruitment process in two languages – Albanian and Serbian. The result has been a professional, multi-ethnic, all-volunteer force, which should continue to remain a source of regional stability. The new Army will have a €98 Million annual budget and will be 5,000 strong with another 3,000 reservists, which will be composed of land forces, a national guard, logistics and training commands. Kosovos ambassador to Turkey, Avni Spahiu, stated that the decision to establish an army has taken in consultation with NATO. The army will have a character as Kosovo has no territorial aspirations

118.
Security Forces Command
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It is a 9,000 strong force primarily made up of conscripted Turkish Cypriot males between the ages of 18 and 40. It is a combined force, with land, air. This force is supplemented by the 17,500 -30,000 strong Turkish Military Forces in Northern Cyprus stationed on the island, even before independence, the Turkish Cypriot community maintained its own paramilitary force, trained and equipped by the Turkish Army. In 1967 this force was renamed the Mücahit, and in 1975 the Mücahit was renamed the Turkish Cypriot Security Force. In 1974, Turkey led an invasion of Northern Cyprus with the aim of protecting the Turkish minority population after a Greek-inspired coup brought a threat of union of the island with Greece. Since then there have no major fight for Cyprus and the nation continues to be an independent country. The Turkish Cypriot Security Force is under the command of an officer of the Turkish Army. The officer is appointed by the Turkish Armed Forces and holds the rank of major general, according to observers a large part of its budget was covered by the Turkish army, upon which it depended for training and equipment. As of 2009, the strength of force was believed to be about 9,000. It was organized into fifteen battalions in two brigades, infantry armed with light weapons plus some artillery units equipped with mortars. Northern Cyprus Coast Guard has 18 vessels. loc. gov/frd/cs/

119.
Military of South Ossetia
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The force numbers about 2,500 men, or 16,000, including reservists. The South Ossetian military fought against the Georgian forces in the 2008 South Ossetia war, at the time of the major Georgian offensive, the bulk of the Ossetian force was concentrated in the settlement of Java to the north of Tskhinvali. According one estimate, the losses of the South Ossetian military forces, militia, the South Ossetian units are to be incorporated into the Russian military but remain separate units. The South Ossetian military has a total of 16,000 soldiers,2,500 soldiers are on active duty and 13,500 are reservists. South Ossetian Army South Ossetian Air Corps Photogallery of the 20 September 2008 military parade in Tskhinvali Armed Forces the Caucasian countries

Military of South Ossetia
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Members of the South Ossetian armed forces during a parade in Tskhinvali in May, 2009
Military of South Ossetia
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Contents
Military of South Ossetia
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Armoured vehicles during the September, 2009 parade in commemoration of the declaration of independence in Tskhinvali