Pseudohermaphroditism

Pseudohermaphroditism, a condition in which the individual has a single chromosomal and gonadal sex but combines features of both sexes in the external genitalia, causing doubt as to the true sex. Female pseudohermaphroditism refers to an individual with ovaries but with secondary sexual characteristics or external genitalia resembling those of a male. Male pseudohermaphroditism refers to individuals whose gonads are testes but whose secondary sexual characteristics or external genitalia resemble those of a female.

Female pseudohermaphroditism

If during the first trimester of pregnancy a woman carrying a female fetus is given an androgen, an anabolic steroid, or a progestin (a substance with effects similar to those of progesterone), her fetus may be masculinized. Androgen-producing tumours of either adrenal or ovarian origin may also lead to masculinization of a female fetus.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, also known as adrenogenital syndrome, is a common cause of female pseudohermaphroditism. This disorder arises from an inherited defect in one of the enzymes needed for the production of cortisol, a hormone that plays a major role in the physiological response to stress. Excessive amounts of adrenal androgens must be produced to overcome the decrease in cortisol production. In female infants this results in masculinization with anomalous development of the genital organs, whereas in male infants it results in premature sexual development (precocious puberty).

Male pseudohermaphroditism

Male pseudohermaphrodites are genetic males (45,XY) who develop female configurations and identities. These individuals have testes, but their genital ducts and external genitalia are female. Secondary sex characteristics may never appear in some, whereas others may achieve a fully feminized appearance. Male pseudohermaphroditism is rare and almost always results from autosomal recessive genetic defects (defects that must be inherited from both parents in order to be expressed). Several specific defects lead to feminization in genetic males. Each of these defects, by one mechanism or another, results in a loss of androgenic effects on body tissues. In rare instances, Leydig cells (the interstitial cells of the testes) are absent or greatly reduced in number, presumably because the receptors for luteinizing hormone (LH) are defective. Without Leydig cells, only small amounts of testosterone are produced. In other individuals there are enzyme deficiencies analogous to those that occur in female pseudohermaphrodites, although the enzyme deficiencies in males result in fetal androgen deficiency.

In some persons, tissue receptors for androgens are absent or reduced, forming a spectrum of syndromes of partial to complete resistance to androgens. The most striking example of resistance to androgens is complete testicular feminization. Affected individuals are born with female genitalia and a vagina that ends blindly (no cervix or uterus is present). Despite having testes located either in the labia or within the abdomen, these persons grow into well-proportioned females with normal breasts and scant or absent axillary and pubic hair. They have a strong female orientation, but they do not menstruate. Their hormonal aberrations are dramatic and predictable. With a loss of hypothalamic and pituitary androgen receptors, there is no inhibition of LH secretion. Serum LH concentrations are high, leading to stimulation of the Leydig cells and to high serum testosterone concentrations. The conversion of the increased amounts of testosterone to estrogen in peripheral tissues increases serum estrogen concentrations in males.

In another extraordinary variant, the lesion lies not in the loss of androgen receptors but rather in the loss of 5-alpha-reductase, an enzyme necessary for the conversion of testosterone to the more potent hormone dihydrotestosterone. In this syndrome, because of a lack of testosterone directing fetal development toward a normal male configuration, genetic males are born with what appears to be female genitalia with an enlarged clitoris. These persons are often raised as females, but at puberty an increase in testosterone secretion leads to masculinization. There then ensues a transition from the psychosocial behaviour of a prepubertal female to that of an adult male.

In some fetuses there occurs, for unknown reasons, regression and disappearance of the testes, known as the “vanishing testes syndrome.” When this occurs early in pregnancy, before androgen-induced differentiation toward male genitalia, the child is born with female genitalia. If the testes disappear during the crucial period between 8 and 10 weeks of gestation, the child is born with ambiguous genitalia, whereas if the disappearance occurs after this key period the individual is born a male but without any testes (anorchia).

Treatment must be highly individualized. In many instances, gender identity has been established by the age of 18 to 24 months, and changes in sexual identity thereafter should be attempted only after careful consideration. Intra-abdominal testes should be removed because of an increased risk of tumour formation. The patient can be treated at the appropriate time with sex hormones.