Description: It's not every day that Euclid appears in public with "Alice and Bob," but in a lecture spanning a few thousand years, Ronald Rivest summons these and other notables in his history of cryptography. While citing milestones of code"making and breaking, Rivest also brings his audience up to date on the latest systems for securing information and communication networks, which owe much to his own research.

Rivest makes quick work of the period before mid" 20th century, but credits the ancient Greeks for prime number factorization -- essential to cryptography -- and elementary ciphers. In the 18th and 19th century, mathematicians delved into number theory and extended techniques of factoring. The twentieth century, with its two world wars and technological advances, established the significance of cryptography on and off the battlefield. Alan Turing's Enigma machine not only helped the allies win World War II, but catalyzed development of the first generation of computers. MIT professor Claude Shannon, who worked with Turing and other cryptanalysts, went on to father the field of information science, leading to the digital age.

In the 1970s came development of public data encryption methods. Academics prevailed against U.S. government efforts to conceal means for encrypting data. In 1977, Rivest's group at MIT, which included Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, came up with RSA, an elegant algorithm for public"key cryptography that "relies on the difficulty of factoring" primes and which is still widely used. The group was so confident of its encryption method that they offered $100 for breaking a cipher"text based on a 129"digit product of primes. Rivest thought it would take "40 quadrillion years" to solve the challenge. "It was a bad estimate," he admits.

In fact, a combination of new algorithms and brute computing power cracked the text in 1994 ("The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage"). Technological and theoretical advances have made possible improved encryption methods, and ways of authenticating and securing data. Faster computers may someday "make factoring a million"digit number easy," says Rivest. Work is even progressing on a quantum computer (it can only factor the number 15 so far). But code"breaking is also increasingly sophisticated, Rivest warns, as the internet opens up vast new areas of data to cyber"attack.

Rivest sees cryptography blossoming into applications for anonymity, password"based keys, and crypto for smart cards. He has been looking into probabilistic micropayment systems, and techniques to enhance the security and transparency of voting. "Maybe large prime numbers have a role to play in our democracy down the road," he says.

About the Speaker(s): Ronald L. Rivest is a member of MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), a member of the lab's Theory of Computation Group and is a leader of its Cryptography and Information Security Group. He is also a founder of RSA Data Security, now known as RSA Security. Rivest is also a co"founder of Verisign and of Peppercoin.

Rivest, whose research interests include cryptography, computer and network security, voting systems, and algorithms, is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences, and is a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, the International Association for Cryptographic Research, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among other honors, Rivest, with Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, has been awarded the 2000 IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computers and Communications Award and the Secure Computing Lifetime Achievement Award.

Rivest is an inventor of the RSA public"key cryptosystem. He has extensive experience in cryptographic design and cryptanalysis, and has published numerous papers in these areas. He has served as a Director of the International Association for Cryptologic Research, the organizing body for the Eurocrypt and Crypto conferences, and as a Director of the Financial Cryptography Association.

He received a B.A. in Mathematics from Yale University in 1969, and a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Stanford University in 1974.

Description: Given its contributions to policy and practice in such key sectors as healthcare, industrial organization and technological innovation, and energy and the environment, microeconomics may not be getting the kind of respect, or at least attention, it deserves, these panelists suggest.

The field helped "produce a revolution in antitrust thinking" in the U.S., says Dennis Carlton. Since the 1960s, the Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission have tapped the talent of dozens of PhD economists, who came up with notions like offering incentives (by way of lower fines and leniency) to those who admit participating in corporate cartels. This "simple idea" led to regulatory policy "with large payoffs," says Carlton. Simulations and modeling help determine whether the government will approve a merger, or step in when corporations become too big. "Emerging hot topics" in antitrust and industrial organization include the use of product bundling; patent law, especially in high tech; control and use of information over the internet; and privacy issues.

Richard Schmalensee calls attention to microeconomics' generally unrecognized impact on energy and environmental regulations. For instance, cost benefit analysis was applied to the process of making federal environmental rules, and is now "a bipartisan thing a part of good government." And much of the country moved away from a traditional model of regulating electric utilities, giving greater scope to competition, after some deep economic thinking about incentives. That's the good news. Schmalensee finds it "frankly amazing" and occasionally infuriating how economic thinking has not been applied to energy and environmental policy: the idea of drilling our way to energy independence; and the pursuit of renewable energy as a way of tackling climate change while side"stepping market mechanisms to achieve environmental goals. Schmalensee says he loves "the sun and the wind, but let's get serious."

"We live in a time of combinatorial innovation," says Hal Varian, where digital age inventors can combine components in novel ways, across great distances, in real time. Even small companies "can be born global," says Varian, becoming in effect "micro multinationals." Varian sees a transformation of business processes, a "nanoeconomics of the firm," where the highly networked, computerized organization "makes life more efficient." There are hundreds of billions in savings when knowledge workers can instantly track information on the web, he says, and host master copies of work "in the cloud" rather than on paper. Another hallmark of the new organization, exemplified by his company Google, is "experimentation and continuous improvement," accomplished by such technologies as search engines and voice recognition software that learn on the go. Varian sees econometrics as particularly useful in modeling new ventures, and believes that the increasing amount of data generated by the private sector could soon prove useful to the federal government, "enabling a better handle on what's going on in the economy."

Economic modeling had a tremendous impact on healthcare reform legislation, and as public debate rages, economic analysis remains essential in determining which policies will prove practicable, says Mark McClellan. Some key questions awaiting evidence and investigation: On the supply side, can changing the way providers get paid (traditionally fee for service) stem rising health care costs? On the demand side, will consumers accept health insurance plans designed around payment tiers intended to reduce use, with greater out of pocket costs for beneficiaries?

An instructive model for setting up a system offering choice and cost efficiencies may be the 2006 Medicare prescription drug benefit, which McClellan himself implemented. Seniors overwhelmingly switched to cheaper generic and preferred drugs offered by their plans. While government subsidized, the program "is currently running 40% below actuarial and CBO projections."

About the Speaker(s): Nancy Lin Rose is also Director of the National Bureau of Economic Research program in Industrial Organization. Rose's research focuses on the empirical analysis of firm behavior and the economics of regulation.

Rose was a faculty member of the MIT Sloan School of Management from 1985"1997, and has been a member of MIT's Department of Economics faculty since 1994. She received the MIT Undergraduate Economics Association Teaching Award in 2000 and 2004.

Rose was a Guggenheim Fellow in 2004"2005, a George and Karen McCown Distinguished Visiting Scholar at the Hoover Institution in 2000" 2001, and fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences in 1993"94. She is the recipient of a Faculty Award for Women Scientists and Engineers from the National Science Foundation as well as faculty fellowships from the John M. Olin Foundation and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. She has served on the Board of Editors of the American Economic Review and the Journal of Industrial Economics and as associate editor for several journals. Rose has been on the American Economic Association Executive Committee, the Board of the AEA's Committee on the Status of Women in the Economics Profession, and on program committees for the AEA and the Econometric Society annual meetings. She serves as an independent director for CRA International and Sentinel Investments Funds.

Description: While these panelists diverge on the precise metaphor -- 'picking through a minefield,' 'hacking through the underbrush,' 'navigating uncharted waters' -- they all agree that the web poses novel dilemmas and hazards for truth"seeking and speaking citizens.

First the good news: "There was a conscious decision by Congress to give online space some breathing room," says David Ardia, shielding website operators "who allow others to use their site to speak out" from liability for some published content. This has permitted the explosive rise of YouTube and blogging services that serve as platforms for the masses. On the other hand, copyright and other legal claims are being successfully prosecuted against website hosts and posters.

Ardia worries about the underreported phenomenon of citizen journalists who post on the web and find themselves "fighting an authority." There is "an extensive chilling effect," says Ardia "If you discover information that shows government corruption or puts powerful institutions on the defensive, you run the real risk of having them lawyer up, come after you, or put you in a position where you can't afford to stand up for your rights."

Another emerging issue: When web content is construed as invading privacy, legal suits arise that lead to a delicate dance between free speech and privacy. "Horrible things are said and done through the internet," says Ardia, "but overall the impact is far more beneficial than harmful. As we start to fix instances of bad conduct, we run a great riskof correcting one thing, but at the cost ofspeech that should be protected."

While the Obama Administration has pledged to make government more transparent, there is wild inconsistency in how federal, state and local governments make their work available. Daniel Schuman describes how some public authorities offer "giant data sets" lacking the kind of sophisticated formats that enable fruitful vetting. Congress members must post an earmarks request online, but Schuman says, "If you want to find it, good luck." And in certain areas, there is no web data at all: For access to congressional ethics information, someone must visit Capitol Hill in person at the right time, and copy pertinent pages. Schuman researched a "fantastic, sortable, downloadable" database describing the disbursement of Wall Street bailout money. The drawback: license provisions that permit the database owner "to pull back" the information, posing a major "impediment to people who want to use this information to talk about what's going on."

Another problem involves credentialing of online journalists. "Members of the civic media simply can't get in the door" of press galleries in some House and Committee meetings, and forget recording Supreme Court justices by cellphone or other electronic devices. "As a private citizen, it's hard and expensive to push back," says Schuman.
The Wikileaks disclosures are shaking up discussions of government transparency as well as those about online freedoms. Says Schuman, "It makes the political climate more difficult. Irresponsible journalism will need to be protected, and condemned when done in this kind of way." Moderator Micah Sifry sees an overreaction: "Leaks happen every day in Washington; secret information is out there all the timeNo one is prosecuted. It's the currency of information there." Ultimately, says Ardia, we want to "bring information together in a way that moves us from a glut of data to real knowledge, and hopefully to wisdom, to make better decisions as a society. We are moving in that direction. I'm optimistic."

About the Speaker(s): Micah L. Sifry launched Personal Democracy Forum, a daily website and annual conference on how technology is changing politics. He is also the editor of the group blog TechPresident, which focuses on how campaigns use the web.

Sifry also consults on how political organizations, campaigns, non"profits and media entities can adapt to and thrive in a networked world. Current clients include the Sunlight Foundation, the Campaign for America's Future, and Air America.

From 1997 to 2006, he worked closely with Public Campaign, a non"profit, non"partisan organization focused on comprehensive campaign finance reform, as its senior analyst. Prior to that, Sifry was an editor and writer with The Nation magazine for 13 years.

He is the author or editor of four books, including Is That a Politician in Your Pocket? (John Wiley & Sons, 2004), written with Nancy Watzman. He is also an adjunct professor of political science at City University of New York/Graduate Center.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Communications Forum

Description: While Alice Cahn cites evidence that traditional TV viewing is alive and well, her panelists line up to describe a TV industry under siege by digital competitors, and in the throes of major change. In the course of this session, which focuses on how television engages a young(er) audience, a generational divide springs up that highlights the dramatic shift in cultural and consumer expectations as we move from broadcast to digital media.

WGBH has long produced television shows for children, says Brigid Sullivan but is less known as "an interactive media pioneer for 25 years." What began as 'talk back' opportunities for young Zoom viewers has now grown into a full"bore exploration of interactive audience engagement, especially involving education. Technology "allows us to reach and interact with kids wherever they are," says Sullivan. Clips from kids programs show up on interactive games formatted for PCs, Wiis, whiteboards and handheld devices. WGBH is producing multimedia resources for teachers as well. The goal is to "exploit opportunities of rapidly changing technology while continuing to deliver content and educational experience of enduring value."

Another stalwart in children's TV production, Sesame Workshop, is also attempting to exploit digital media, but finds the financial equation "challenging," according to Terry Fitzpatrick. The Workshop recognizes that much of its demographic -- preschoolers' parents -- is going online to find TV content. Yet it is not a simple matter "to monetize and deliver" its programs across the new platforms, says Fitzpatrick. The Workshop envisions delivering content designed for a typical toddler's day: from morning TV viewing to preschool educational activities; mobile devices for the car, and interactive online games and books at home. Through a combination of subscriptions, license fees, microtransactions, e"commerce and philanthropy, the Workshop hopes to find a successful business model for its programs.

Representing a new generation of user"producers, Justin Johnson describes his work helping media makers package their work for YouTube and other video"centered sites on the Internet. While it appears easy to post videos, says Johnson, the real trick is figuring out how to exploit websites that are simultaneously video and social platforms. He is impatient with old media, which "tells you lots of things." New media is about "asking people who they are, and what they think."

Nick Gnat strikes a defiant tone against a TV industry Goliath: "When my generation becomes the one with money in its pockets, the current business model for TV will fail unless it makes critical adjustments and concessions." He has very little use for broadcast video, getting his news from blogs, RSS feeds, streams, podcasts, and entertainment from online sources, some more legitimate than others. Gnat says his "generation is different," seeking not just multiple, alternative avenues for information and entertainment, but conversation among viewers as well. He won't abide broadcasters setting his entertainment schedule, nor will he accept "being nickeled and dimed" to enjoy programs in different formats. Gnat wants free content distribution, and claims that digital rights management will simply drive him and his peers to take what they can't afford, ultimately starving mainstream TV of profits: "Almost all teenagers including myself get movies and TV shows from file sharing, and we won't stop anytime soon."

About the Speaker(s): At the Cartoon Network, Alice Cahn is responsible for directing content and implementing outreach and pro"social initiatives across. Prior to joining Cartoon Network, she served as Managing Director of the Markle Foundation's Interactive Media for Children Program. Cahn came to Markle from Sesame Workshop where she served as President of the Television, Film and Video group. From 1993"1998 she was head of children's programming for PBS.

Kahn did her mMaster's work in Educational Technology at San Francisco State University and holds a Bachelor of Science in Education from New York University.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, The MIT Education Arcade

Description: Few better personify the vitality and ambition fueling China's economic surge than Charles C"Y Zhang. In this energetic and revelatory talk, Zhang relates his personal evolution from MIT physicist to leading Chinese entrepreneur.

An industrious student from a poor family, Zhang was one of the fortunate few in his university to qualify for an education in the U.S. "In terms of IQ, I'm OK. Everywhere, smart kids were studying physics and math," he says. While completing a Ph.D. at MIT in the early '90s, Zhang discovered "the wonderland of computers." During post"doctoral research, he became involved in a program fostering MIT/China cooperation, and decided to make a career of the "two big trends of the time": an emerging China and the internet.

"For a Chinese student in 1995, returning to China was considered crazy," says Zhang. He joined an internet company opening offices in emerging markets, and set off for China on his 31st birthday, committed to making "major changes in my life." With his MIT background, Zhang found he was well situated to "crack open the wall" in Chinese society and forge a path for this new company. But Zhang soon became restless, convinced that the internet could be more than just a means of communicating financial information. He set about raising money for his own startup, leveraging investment and help from such MIT friends as Ed Roberts and Nick Negroponte. In 1996, Zhang's new company, Internet Technologies China, went online, using China's first internet backbone (a $1000 PC running Linux).

Zhang's directory of links as well as navigation assistance to sites on China's early internet, became SOHU.com in 1998 -- a company, Zhang proudly recounts, of many "firsts." It was China's first free and open website; the first Chinese company to use venture capital, and professional marketing. Says Zhang, "The first few years, I ran SOHU like a presidential campaign operation, and I became the digital power boy and messenger of China."

Many internet entrepreneurs followed hard on Zhang's heels, and a group of companies now jockey for dominance in China. So Zhang is intent on recreating his company in the next two years, to establish unassailable market share in online video content, microblogs, and gaming among China's 400 million+ internet users. To achieve this, Zhang says he must inject "more technology genes" into the company, broaden management talent, and continue pushing China for judicial relief from intellectual property "piracy." Says Zhang, "We either become an internet giantor we will shrink into history. There is no middle position -- winner takes all."

About the Speaker(s): Prior to founding SOHU.com, Charles Zhang worked for Internet Securities Inc. (ISI) and helped establish its China operations. Before that, he worked as MIT's liaison officer with China. Zhang has a Ph.D degree in experimental physics from MIT and a B.S. from Qinghua University in Beijing.

In October 1998, Zhang was named by Time Digital as one of the world's top 50 digital elite. He has been recognized by the World Economic Forum as a Global Leader of Tomorrow. Zhang regularly participates in leading international conferences, including the Fortune Global 500 Forum, Fortune Magazine roundtables, and World Economic Forum meetings.

In May 2003, Zhang joined the SOHU"sponsored China Mount Everest team to a height of 6,666 meters in an expedition celebrating the 50th anniversary of the tallest mountain's human conquest.

Host(s): School of Science, School of Science

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Fri, 16 Dec 2011 16:45:47 -0500http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16687-from-experimental-physics-to-internet-entrepreneurship-one-scientist-s-journey
http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16687-from-experimental-physics-to-internet-entrepreneurship-one-scientist-s-journey
From Experimental Physics to Internet Entrepreneurship: One Scientist's Journey
MIT School of Science: Dean's Colloquium Series Toying with Transmedia: The Future of Entertainment is Child's Play
Henry Jenkins, Provost's Professor of Communication, Journalism, and Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California;

Description: In what could be the ultimate twist on Toy Story, Henry Jenkins suggests that action figures -- those Star Wars and Masters of the Universe dolls from a few decades ago -- had the power to spark human creativity and transcend their original function. Jenkins argues such toys served children and young adults as "authoring tools" in stories that grew increasingly elaborate and technologically sophisticated over the years, spawning new kinds of play in our own time.

In a lecture spiced with stills and video, Jenkins demonstrates that early generations of action figures, such as movie, cartoon, and cereal box characters, inspired a cohort of player "creators," and helped shape the emergent phenomenon of transmedia. This, describes Jenkins, is a storytelling process "where integral elements of a fiction are dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience."

Transmedia is not about "dumbing down popular culture," Jenkins says. It involves complex mythologies that kids and adults can throw themselves into, with large casts of vivid characters in complex plots rivaling those in Russian novels. Transmedia storytelling also encourages children to "play out different fantasies," try out roles, and begin to construct their own identities. Storm trooper marshmallows in Star Wars cereal do not qualify, he warns, since branding alone does not unleash storytelling juices or encourage user immersion.

Jenkins claims that contemporary transmedia are "produced by the generation that grew up playing He"Man for the generation that is growing up playing Pok_mon." But this popular culture phenomenon owes much to a rich history of children's literature with offshoots, he notes. Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland triggered a series of book variations soon after its publication. L. Frank Baum wrote not one but many books about Oz, produced stage plays and movies, and lectured widely as "the royal geographer of Oz," says Jenkins. J.R.R. Tolkien devised an encyclopedically detailed mythical world for which he wrote songs. More recently, Walt Disney, "the father of modern mass media," says Jenkins, figured out how to bring great children's stories -- and such characters as Alice, assorted princesses, Mickey -- into the common playspaces of his amusement parks, films, TV and ice shows.

Just as Masters of the Universe and Star Wars toys, comic books and TV franchises helped shape the imaginations and culture of the generation that generated Game Boy (with its video games, anime, manga and trading cards), so, we may assume, will Pok_mon Pikachu figures and their fictional worlds inspire the next generation of transmedia producers. Expect these stories to show up on mobile phones and iPads, predicts Jenkins, where there is the most "potential for a multimedia experience." And don't be surprised to see "less geeky genres like sci fi and fantasy," and more adult genres such as historical fiction and comedy."

About the Speaker(s): Henry Jenkins joined USC from MIT, where he was Peter de Florez Professor in the Humanities. He directed MIT's Comparative Media Studies graduate degree program from 1993"2009, setting an innovative research agenda during a time of fundamental change in communication, journalism and entertainment.

As one of the first media scholars to chart the changing role of the audience in an environment of increasingly pervasive digital content, Jenkins has been at the forefront of understanding the effects of participatory media on society, politics and culture. His research gives key insights to the success of social"networking Web sites, networked computer games, online fan communities and other advocacy organizations, and emerging news media outlets.

Jenkins is recognized as a leading thinker in the effort to redefine the role of journalism in the digital age. Through parallels drawn between the consumption of pop culture and the processing of news information, he and his fellow researchers have identified new methods to encourage citizen engagement. Jenkins launched the Center for Future Civic Media at MIT to further explore these parallels.

He is the author and/or editor of twelve books on various aspects of media and popular culture. His most recent book is Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide.

Jenkins has a B.A. in Political Science and Journalism from Georgia State University, a M.A. in Communication Studies from the University of Iowa and a PhD in Communication Arts from the University of Wisconsin"Madison.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, The MIT Education Arcade

Description: Beyond guts, a great business plan, and friends with deep pockets, clean energy entrepreneurs will need patience and perhaps most of all, a favorable policy environment to succeed. Fortune magazine editor Brian Dumaine leads a discussion with panelists from the worlds of venture capital, academia and industry on "how to build a winning green tech company."

Nancy Floyd sees talented and practical entrepreneurs "solving problems we see in front of us." Some of these may be "game changers," although they are "certainly not science experiments." Her firm insists that investment"worthy renewable energy ventures must not pose an additional cost premium, which means that projects must be "at grid parity or below." She also dismisses the notion that a great idea will be totally disruptive, completely upending or bypassing current powers in the energy and utility industries. "I think that's a stupid strategyYou need to engage those incumbents in a smart way. That's the only way to get companies launched here." The good news is that there are "many, many companies requiring less than $50 million that may have a huge impact on core technologies."

Kevin Surace's company replaced 6,500 windows on the Empire State Building with new energy efficient glass, saving the owner $410 thousand per year. Green tech, he passionately believes, "has to pay back, and pay back fast, or cost less up front." Government subsidies for energy conservation, and public incentives for consumers to buy green don't last forever, so entrepreneurs need to create a cost"saving product that will sell itself. Surace sees market"friendly green tech as vital to turning around the U.S. economy, bringing manufacturing back home, and reducing the nation's $16 trillion debt. But while he believes that "the best business plans don't require government intervention," Surace acknowledges not only the necessity of government backing in such giant energy startups as solar installations, but a wholesale shift in the regulatory environment. "The solution to all of this nobody wants to talk about is a carbon tax."

"We need an ecosystem for energy that is more developed," agrees Scott Stern, who worries that the U.S. has squandered its global leadership role in addressing climate change, and is currently in political gridlock around comprehensive energy and climate change legislation. In spite of this paralysis, Stern recommends that entrepreneurs look ahead and invent for the future. "Right now, we have bad prices for carbon We must think down the road: How will the institutional environment for paying for energy change over time, and how will the institutional environment for supporting energy infrastructure change?" Stern suggests that eventually, society will recognize that the cost of emitting carbon will be more expensive than a carbon tax. This is a long"term challenge that poses an opportunity to entrepreneurs to develop "a range of technical options." Stern hopes that some of these new energy products might eventually diffuse through the market and become universally adopted, as did semiconductors and the Internet.

About the Speaker(s): Brian Dumaine, Sr. oversees Fortune magazine's international coverage and its European and Asian editions. He also directs Fortune's green technology and environmental policy stories. He is the author of the The Plot To Save The Planet: How Visionary Entrepreneurs and Corporate Titans Are Creating Real Solutions To Global Warming.

Dumaine has worked at Fortune for 28 years in various writing and editing positions including assistant managing editor. He has won numerous journalism awards and written more than 100 feature stories for the magazine, including covers such as "America's Toughest Bosses," "The Innovation Gap," and "America's Smartest Young Entrepreneurs." Throughout his career, he has produced investigative pieces as well as articles on marketing, investing, technology, and corporate crime.

Description: The digital revolution that brought us Facebook, Twitter and YouTube could help revive participatory democracy in the U.S., says Eugene J. Huang. He unveils the FCC's plan for providing broadband access to every American, and describes how its recommendations could spur more open government and greater civic engagement.

Huang is leading an FCC taskforce developing a plan to provide every American with high quality broadband internet capability. Mandated by the Recovery Act, $7.6 billion will soon flow to deploy infrastructure throughout the U.S., by cable, wireless, or satellite; to ensure affordable access for all; and to address a group of national priorities. Huang describes the process of fact"gathering, analysis and recommendation development as the "most open and transparent" in the FCC's history, involving public workshops, and the use of social media and blogs to encourage citizen input.

This process in many ways has come to shape the larger goals of the broadband plan. As Huang says, at the end of months of data collection and public discussion, "we came to an obvious conclusionthat civic engagement is the lifeblood of our democracy," and that the broadband plan should play a major role in creating a more informed and engaged citizenry.

Vast numbers of Americans are already online, talking, debating and viewing -- an astonishing 120 million people watch more than 10 billion videos monthly. So Huang, his taskforce, and citizen participants began envisioning ways that universal, high"speed digital communication and interactivity could work for the public sector.

They ended up with five recommendations: building a more open and transparent government, by making all government and judicial records freely available online, and streaming government meetings and hearings; helping public media such as PBS and NPR expand beyond their broadcast models in providing news content, and removing copyright obstacles to sharing historic materials, ultimately leading to a national digital archive; deploying social media in all government agencies; recruiting technological innovators into government, engaging citizen experts from the private sector and starting an innovation corps; and bringing the election process into the digital age, eliminating mistakes in voter registration, standardizing the process across states, and enabling military personnel overseas to cast ballots electronically.

While these measures will require a commitment across all levels of government, Huang feels sure they will lead to a transformation that can "renew democracy in a broadband enabled 21st century."

About the Speaker(s): Eugene J. Huang is helping to craft the "national purposes" section of the National Broadband Plan, with a specific focus on the topics of government operations and civic engagement.

From 2006 to 2009, Huang served at the US Department of the Treasury. He covered a wide range of international economic and finance issues with a special responsibility for U.S. bilateral relations with China.

Previously, Huang was a Visiting Scholar at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research at Stanford University. From 2002 to 2006, he served the Commonwealth of Virginia as the Secretary of Technology and previously as the Deputy Secretary of Technology. Huang was responsible for managing the state's award winning information technology reform initiative, fostered the development of advanced broadband communications, and facilitated the growth of emerging technology industries throughout Virginia.

Huang graduated magna cum laude from the University of Pennsylvania, with a B.S. in Economics from the Wharton School, a B.S. in Electrical Engineering, and a M.S. in Telecommunications Engineering. He received a Thouron Award from the University of Pennsylvania and studied at St. John's College, Oxford University, where he received a M.Phil., with distinction, in Economic History. Huang is a term member of the Council on Foreign Relations and a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Center for Future Civic Media

Description: Stay calm, stick with your vision and business fundamentals, and you'll survive and perhaps even thrive in rough economic times, counsel these entrepreneurial aces. In a conversation with the Kauffman Foundation's Bo Fishback, panelists reflect on their experiences bringing novel tech products to market and new companies to fruition, in good times and bad.

Daphne Zohar attributes much of her company's success to its unusual approach: PureTech Ventures is an institutional entrepreneur that "starts companies from scratch, backwards, looking for an unmet need." Her team investigates thousands of technologies brewing in academic labs, then, says Zohar, "we brainstorm and come up with ideas ourselves, forming a company in a proactive way." Zohar's group seeks out the very best researchers from the start -- the first step in building what she calls an "entrepreneurial trinity: people, money, technology." Zohar has been starting companies since she was a teenager, and is relatively unfazed by the current crisis. PureTech is bullish enough to have started a hair follicle company for such disorders as baldness and acne. It's "an area where there are no solutions, but it's clear that if there were something, a lot of people would be happy."

As a veteran of a half dozen startups, Eugene Fitzgerald has developed a healthy respect for macroeconomic cycles. The contraction of funding opportunities in the current climate may not be such a bad thing. "When you're in a phase with cheap capital around, you could form an idea incomplete on the technological level, and run with itCheap capital biases people toward selling their vision alone." With investors hard to come by, entrepreneurs will have to ratchet down their expectations, and "build companies the old fashioned way, over a longer period of time." A recession focuses people on researching and developing an idea so it "will sell tomorrow." Fitzgerald also sees "lots of opportunity during a time of gigantic changes," if entrepreneurs can remain fixed on an idea, settle for growing slowly, and reach that "magic point" when the economy starts to leap back.

As an 11"year"old Star Wars fan, Helen Greiner was "enthralled by robots." When she started her first company right out of MIT in 1990, she had high ambitions but little commercial know"how -- Greiner lacked even a business plan -- and she saw almost a decade of hard knocks before securing venture capital for iRobot. During this period, which taught Greiner "the value of cash," she partnered with Fortune 500 companies, and found work with DARPA and military contractors as well. All of these proved invaluable opportunities to learn about manufacturing and customers. When Greiner finally introduced her mainstream product, the Roomba vacuum, in the midst of recession, she encountered widespread skepticism. Says Greiner, "If you look at the market opportunity for robots when we started, you would have said zero." But she notes that with disruptive technologies, you "have to use a little bit more imagination" and "do a lot of evangelizing rather than just selling."

About the Speaker(s): At the Kauffman Foundation, Bo Fishback's responsibilities include developing and advancing transformative programs that strengthen entrepreneurial engagement in the economy and help entrepreneurs succeed.

Fishback joined the Kauffman Foundation in 2006 as a director in the advancing innovation area, where he studied the country's best business accelerators and university"based commercialization programs. In 2007, he joined Kansas City, Mo."based BioMed Valley Discoveries, a translational research and development organization affiliated with the Stowers Institute whose mission is to translate basic biomedical research into applications that improve human health.
Fishback has been involved in a range of entrepreneurial initiatives. He is a founding team member of Orbis Biosciences, a drug delivery and particle fabrication company. Fishback is also a co"founder of Lightspeed Genomics, a next"generation genome sequencing company that was spun out of a research program at MIT. In addition, Fishback developed the Equity Simulation Tool, OwnYourVenture.com, an educational tool aimed at helping people understand the impact of raising equity financing.

Fishback received his B.S. in Biomedical Engineering from Southern Methodist University and earned an M.B.A. from the Harvard Business School.

Host(s): Alumni Association, MIT Enterprise Forum

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Fri, 16 Dec 2011 14:28:48 -0500http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16606-the-tough-get-growing-how-to-succeed-in-a-down-economy
http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16606-the-tough-get-growing-how-to-succeed-in-a-down-economy
The Tough Get Growing: How to Succeed in a Down Economy
MIT World — special events and lectures Liberty by Design
Alan Davidson, '89, SM '93, Director of Government Relations and Public Policy, Google

Description: Recalling a lecture he gave at MIT in 2005, Alan Davidson returns to the questions of the impact of public policy on the way technology is evolving in the Internet space.

Instead of viewing it as a lawyer for a public policy interest group-his previous role-he now approaches it from his new perspective as a public policy advisor to Google's engineering design group, counseling them on how to build products and run a business. He encourages his fellow engineers "to think broadly [] about their role in the world [], to be more than bench"tied engineers and more involved in the deep social debates of the time."

These questions remain: What are the big issues facing the Internet and, specifically, Google; and what are the lessons that have been learned? The old Conventional Wisdom said censorship could not be stopped, only contained. But Davidson believes that in the last 10"15 years there has been a backlash from governments, large institutions, and influential economic actors. The new Conventional Wisdom is: "You don't think we can regulate the Internet? Watch us!"

As the Internet revolution advances in processing and storage power, in the ability to network with anyone anywhere in the world, and with device mobility-PCs vs. remote devices, Davidson uses a half a dozen real"life examples from his experience at Google to illustrate their win"win solutions. Using screenshots, he describes the products and shows how the engineers and policy makers worked together to create solutions dealing with privacy, copyright/intellectual property, and censorship issues.

While the solutions lie in building products that address these issues, the challenges lie in raising the issues proactively in the engineering process or by being able to influence regulation and business decisions. The engineers build the product, the public policy experts advise, but they work as partners. By balancing matters of individual freedoms against government and economic interests, Davidson is certain that choices made today will define the kind of Internet we will have in 10 years.

About the Speaker(s): Alan Davidsonis currently Director of U.S. Public Policy and Government Affairs for Google having opened Google's Washington D.C. office in 2005. He has written and spoken widely on Internet policy issues including privacy, free speech, encryption, network neutrality, and copyright and intellectual property rights.

Davidson started his professional life as a computer scientist working as a Senior Consultant at Booz"Allen & Hamilton where he helped design information systems for NASA's Space Station Freedom.

Prior to joining Google, Davidson was Associate Director of the Center for Democracy and Technology, a public interest group promoting Internet civil liberties. Starting in 2000, he served as an Adjunct Professor at Georgetown University's program in Communications, Culture, and Technology. In 2004, he was a Visiting Scholar in MIT's Program on Science, Technology, and Society.

Davidson has an S.B. in Mathematics and Computer Science and an S.M. in Technology and Policy from MIT, and a J.D. from Yale Law School where he was Symposium Editor of the Yale Law Journal.

Description: Nostalgia, anxiety and optimism mix in this panel devoted to imagining what lies ahead for the book, as publishing professionals and others discuss the impact of digital technology on the business.

Small Beer Press, Gavin Grant's boutique Massachusetts publishing company, "is still in the business of producing paper objects." But new technologies are transforming his work in several ways: He licenses some books via Creative Commons; releases others as downloads in a variety of ebook formats (generating these can be an expensive "hassle"); and deploys social media, in the form of blogs and Facebook"enabled communication, to publicize and attract passionate readers to the firm's website. Grant sees Amazon and its Kindle as a bully driving readers toward best sellers, and is interested in the "hyperlocal" possibilities of the web for publishing: finding readers for his one"of"a"kind publications, and inviting them to peruse his non"mainstream book lists.

Agent Jennifer Jackson describes some intriguing direct marketing activities made possible by the web, including author"produced book trailers on YouTube, and an online media project undertaken by clients and other authors: a website consisting of episodes for a fictional TV show. Jackson also maintains blogs that she hopes provide "transparency" about her end of the business, a way to bridge "the great divide" between agents and authors. Her authors are concerned with digital piracy but Jackson feels wide distribution of an author's work ends up generating more sales over time.

Robert Miller's frustration with the trade publishing model-- in particular, astronomical advances to authors, and book return rates of 40% -- led to HarperStudio (a Harper Collins offshoot). His notion of "starting something from scratch" involves making digital and physical books available simultaneously to the reader. His first offering is a collection of previously unpublished pieces by Mark Twain that are available as individual books, or in discounted bundles with audio books and downloadable books. He celebrates the reduction in production costs in moving to digital, but he's wary of the small but rapidly expanding ebook market, which he anticipates will impose a "downward pressure on prices," a loss of revenue that will negatively impact his business.

Bob Stein envisions a wholesale evolution of the essence of books, from objects to "a place where readers and sometimes authors congregate." His Institute on the Future of the Book hosts experiments in publishing, such as one where an author essentially blogs and moderates responses around a particular subject. Readers could someday collaborate with dead authors, adding chapters to finished books, for instance. He sees ebooks as transitional: "The experiments which have to do with increasing sales of book are interesting, and will prolong publishing but won't invent the future of how humans work together to increase our knowledge, which is what publishing used to do." These new expressive forms won't emerge quickly. It took 300 years after the invention of the printing before the first novel was written, he notes, but inexorably, "we're shifting the ways humans communicate with each other."

About the Speaker(s): Geoffrey Long is also a writer, designer, musician, artist, filmmaker, and shameless media addict. His professional career includes a decade"long run as the editor"in"chief of the literature, culture and technology magazine Inkblots and co"founding the software collective Untyped, the film troupe Tohubohu Productions, and the creative consulting company Dreamsbay. Long earned his B.A. in English and Philosophy with concentrations in Creative Writing and IPHS from Kenyon College in 2000 and his Master's in Comparative Media Studies from MIT in 2007. He is a frequent lecturer on narratives in different media, including transmedia storytelling, and his own storytelling has appeared in Polaris, Gothik, Hika, {fray}, and the iTunes store.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Communications Forum

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Fri, 16 Dec 2011 13:15:16 -0500http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16564-media-in-transition-6-the-future-of-publishing-mit-communications-forum
http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16564-media-in-transition-6-the-future-of-publishing-mit-communications-forum
Media in Transition 6: The Future of Publishing (MIT Communications Forum)
MIT Communications Forum The Power of Competition: How to Focus the World's Brains on your Innovation Challenges
Fiona Murray, Sarofim Family Career Development Professor

Description: Cooperation may be making us "a little bit too nice" when it comes to innovation, suggests Fiona Murray. She believes there's nothing like competition for injecting energy into the process of solving key innovation problems, whether in business or society.

Murray is convinced competition make ventures "more effective, more global, more inclusive and more democratic," all important dimensions for business in a flattening world. She describes the rapidly expanding R&D expenditures of India and China, including the vast numbers of Ph.D.s these nations are producing in science and engineering. The corporate sector has found building global R&D organizations and collaborations difficult. In this challenging environment, where the advantage goes to those firms snagging the best scientists, Murray believes "prizes are complementary mechanisms" for attracting global talent. Just like historic rivalries among great artists (Nb., Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese), or the race to discover the structure of DNA, "fierce competition" can yield "dramatic productivity" and innovation, especially when the right rewards are at stake.

Murray cites the 18th century competition to invent a mechanism for determining a ship's longitude, which offered a 20 thousand"pound prize. She jumps to the present, with the X Prize Foundation and its various competitions to solve engineering challenges and societal problems, such as the three"person reusable spaceship, and a 100"mpg car -- each with a $10 million prize purse. But it's not just the money. Recent studies show that prizes prove alluring when they focus efforts and resources on a problem that people are already studying, offering fame and "putting fun back into innovation." The fascination skews rational calculations, with competitors often spending well beyond the amount offered to the winner.

Corporations should adopt the prize mechanism, believes Murray, to help generate new ideas (such as new applications for Google's phone); or to help solve very specific problems. Campus competitions are up markedly, she notes, which might be a distraction for students at places like MIT. Start small and inside the organization first, creating a shared bulletin board and offering small prizes, she advises, which will "generate energy." Then take competition beyond the company. And don't forget, "the work must be fun" in order to "get a richer set of people to participate."

About the Speaker(s): Fiona Murray studies and teaches innovation and entrepreneurship with an emphasis on the life science sector. Her research examines how growing economic incentives, particularly intellectual property, influence the rate and direction of scientific progress among academic scientists. She also has a large project that uses modern bioinformatics methods to examine the patent landscape of the human genome and its implications for commercialization of genetics research. This research was recently published in Science.

Murray attended the University of Oxford, where she received both a B.A. and M.A. in Chemistry. At Harvard University, she earned her M.S. in Engineering Sciences in 1992, and a Ph.D. in Applied Sciences in 1996.

Host(s): Sloan School of Management, MIT Sloan School of Management

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Fri, 16 Dec 2011 12:41:19 -0500http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16543-the-power-of-competition-how-to-focus-the-world-s-brains-on-your-innovation-challenges
http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/16543-the-power-of-competition-how-to-focus-the-world-s-brains-on-your-innovation-challenges
The Power of Competition: How to Focus the World's Brains on your Innovation Challenges
MIT World — special events and lectures A Reverse Notice and Takedown Regime to Enable Public Interest Uses of Technically Protected Copyrighted Works
Pamela Samuelson, Chancellor's Professor of Information Management and of Law at the University of California at Berkeley

Description: Pamela Samuelson walks her audience through dense and murky regulations and case law surrounding digital rights management, glimpsing a somewhat brighter way ahead for advocates of fair use.

As Samuelson recounts, representatives of the music, film, and publishing industries successfully pressed politicians in the mid"1990s for legislation to outlaw new technologies that could circumvent technical protection measures (TPMs) that these industries sought to safeguard their copyrighted material. The resulting laws have stirred up controversy and resentment among many factions, from music fans to academics. But according to Samuelson, digital information copyright owners have been, and should continue to be, challenged.

Samuelson contends that the regulations' structure is full of holes intentionally left by lawmakers. Industries' starting contention was that "you don't have a right to make a fair use of something you don't have lawful access to." So they outlawed the tools for circumventing technical protections. But while breaking a DVD's code is a violation of the law, Samuelson believes "you have lawful access to a DVD you bought, and you ought to be able to bypass it to make fair use." So it should be OK to bypass TPMs to gain fair use, she says, and that's what the debate is about.

Through recent court cases, fair use claims are nibbling away at prohibited circumventions. And a group led by Samuelson has come up with a remedy she calls "reverse notice and take down." Through this, someone seeking fair use gives notice to a copyright holder that uses a TPM, and asks to make fair use of desired material. The copyright holder then has an obligation to either take down the TPM or explain why not. If the owner doesn't respond at all, "the fair user can go ahead and hack as they want." If the copyright owner objects, the fair user can seek declaratory judgment to enable fair use.

This puts a burden on the prospective fair user, acknowledges Samuelson, but over time, case by case adjudication "could establish principles to establish balance in anticircumvention rules."

About the Speaker(s): Pamela Samuelson is also Director of the Berkeley Center for Law & Technology. She teaches courses on intellectual property, cyberlaw and information policy. She has written and spoken extensively about the challenges that new information technologies pose for traditional legal regimes, especially for intellectual property law.

She is a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), a Contributing Editor of Communications of the ACM, a past Fellow of the John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and an Honorary Professor of the University of Amsterdam. She is a member of the Board of Directors of the Electronic Frontier Foundation and of the Open Source Application Foundation, as well as a member of the Advisory Board for the Electronic Privacy Information Center.

A 1971 graduate of the University of Hawaii and a 1976 graduate of Yale Law School, Samuelson practiced law as a litigation associate with the New York law firm Willkie Farr & Gallagher before turning to academic pursuits. From 1981 through June 1996 she was a member of the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh Law School, from which she visited at Columbia, Cornell, and Emory Law Schools. She has been a member of the Berkeley faculty since 1996.

Host(s): School of Engineering, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory

Description: Scientists and educational institutions in a digital age must push back forcefully against the old paradigms for scholarly communications, or risk imperiling the course of scientific research. These speakers describe how traditional modes of publication have constricted public sharing of ideas on which scientific progress is based, and propose approaches more appropriate for a web"based world.

John Wilbanks believes "This thinking about knowledge as a product you sell and lock up, versus something you integrate is basically causing systemic failure." Even while we're witnessing "all science moving from individuals doing work to machines generating and transmitting data at levels never seen before," says Wilbanks, publishers are restricting access online to this information, preventing reuse by machines or software. Massive amounts of network"generated "stuff," he says, is leading to "cognitive overload" and discard of data; poorly annotated and linked information; and unavailability of research materials and tools. Scientists must be able to use the net "to build on and validate research,' and the only barriers are legal and social, believes Wilbanks.

He proposes "reformatting what we already know into a design that works better, with the infrastructure it takes to get there." So there must be open access to content that grants "users' affirmative rights to scholarly literature" including the right to spider, web crawl, make copies, distribute, even mash up -- with a new kind of license. There must also be a new legal framework for accessing research tools (such as plasmids, data sets, synthetic chemicals), with the same kind of one"click contracts adopted by successful web vendors like Amazon. And scientists must develop an open source system for managing knowledge, rather than clinging to the "one database per child" model. Wilbanks says, "If we want science to move quickly, these are no"brainer ways to make it go faster It takes the will of institutions and funding agencies to decide this is how they'll practice scientific culture."

As one of MIT's top librarians, Anna Gold knows the harmful impact of exorbitant fees for science journal subscriptions, and the loss to research when scientists can't access and build on their colleagues' work. She envisions "new ways of using the record of science" that will enable sophisticated new forms of text mining; take advantage of semantically rich XML documents; and offer a cyber infrastructure containing "rich, flexible units of scholarly communication such as data visualizations.

To achieve these goals, researchers must demand open access publishing channels for their work, such as creative commons licenses, rather than sign over all rights to publishers. Gold also recommends that research libraries support archival arrangements that ensure "tomorrow's science will have a scientific record to work with." She cites MIT's D"Space as one example. And finally, Gold advocates partnerships among publishers, research libraries and funders to pay for the collection and maintenance of a long"term digital record, "an insurance policy against disaster."

About the Speaker(s): Harold (Hal) Abelson is Class of 1922 Professor Of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT and a Fellow of the IEEE. He holds an A.B. degree from Princeton University and a Ph.D. degree in mathematics from MIT. In 1992, Abelson was designated as one of MIT's six inaugural MacVicar Faculty Fellows, in recognition of his significant and sustained contributions to teaching and undergraduate education. Abelson was recipient in 1992 of the Bose Award (MIT's School of Engineering teaching award). Abelson is also the winner of the 1995 Taylor L. Booth Education Award given by IEEE Computer Society, cited for his continued contributions to the pedagogy and teaching of introductory computer science.

He was also a founding director of the Free Software Foundation, and he serves as consultant to Hewlett"Packard Laboratories. He is co"director of the MIT"Microsoft Research Alliance in educational technology.

John Wilbanks comes to Creative Commons from a Fellowship at the World Wide Web Consortium in Semantic Web for Life Sciences. Previously, he founded and led to acquisition Incellico, a bioinformatics company that built semantic graph networks for use in pharmaceutical research & development.

Before founding Incellico, John was the first Assistant Director at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School. His first technology work was at Fonix, where he researched human"computer interface and pattern recognition. He also worked as a legislative aide to U.S. Representative Fortney (Pete) Stark and a grassroots coordinator and fundraiser for the American Physical Therapy Association. John holds a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy from Tulane University and studied modern letters at the Universite de Paris IV (La Sorbonne).

He is a research affiliate at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and can be found in the project MAC group space. He serves on the Advisory Board of the U.S. National Library of Medicine's PubMed Central and the International Advisory Board of the Prix Ars Electronica's Digital Communities awards.

Before joining Cal. Polytechnic in 2008, Anna Gold served as Head of the Engineering and Science Libraries at MIT since 2003. Prior to that, she was Director of the Science and Engineering Library at the University of California, San Diego, where she was an active participant in the development of their digital library program.

Gold has also held positions at the National Science Foundation and the Library of Congress. She has an M.S. in Science and Technology Studies from Virginia Tech, an M.L.S. from Catholic University, and a B.A. from the University of California, Santa Cruz.

Description: In the final session of the 2007 conference, panelists distill their experiences and impressions from the preceding days and offer suggestions for future events.
Suzanne de Castell describes witnessing examples of remixing "where you wouldn't need more intelligence than a monkey to generate music, images and various forms of written expression, and seen other examples where people delve deeply into media forms and become transformed by studious engagement." Only these more rigorous efforts achieve serious educational value, she says, encouraging remix producers and especially teachers to "work far beyond cut and pasteto help us form better and more intelligent and more humane selves. De Castell also pleas for colleagues to "hold firm to contexts and communities" while they remix in the present, and to respect and reach out to indigenous and first nation colleagues "who help us see limitations in our own ways of thinking and working."
An encounter with a Cambridge cab driver holding down two jobs to pay for his son's Xbox reminded Jose van Dijck that "people need a first life to afford a Second Life." As much as conference attendees celebrate Generation C -- for its creativity, collectivity, collaboration and courage _ van Dijck cautions "not to forget about the other C: consumption, commoditization and control." While the excitement of these times may remind participants of the '60s, van Dijck sharply recalls that in the 1970s, "co"creation and collaboration were quickly appropriated by commercialism and consumption." Future conferences should take up the blurring of the public and commercial sphere, and between public and private life," she recommends.
Beyond the stated themes of the conference, Fred Turner found "four other trajectories hovering around," including a focus on the history of corporate transformation, such as distributed labor in game worlds; military culture, especially as it pervades games; the increasingly complex mediation of political life, as the web meets mass media; and the question of race, where "racialized self presentation" is potentially "hardening race distinctions." Turner suggests developing "theories of how networks connect to institutions like the government." As the 1960s revealed, "performance of new styles doesn't necessarily mean social change." He also recommends serious study of which parts of the past matter, especially when it comes to the history of machines and collaborative styles. "We may see some of our world owes less to hip hop than to research labs at MIT and World War 2, which were enormously collaborative, enormously playful and enormously technocentric."
During the conference Siva Vaidhyanathan saw fellow participants discussing the ways regulatory structures govern "how we share, distribute and chop up culture," and the changes in political economy brought about by conflicting corporate and public ownership and control -- including new methods of surveillance. "We're not charged for using Gmail, or Myspace or YouTube. But is free speech and free beer the sum total of freedom?" asks Vaidhyanathan. His colleagues are searching for new modes of searching and indexing information, through better processes of tagging and web categorization. He witnessed "deep concern out there about norms and ethics," and debates about whether we are indeed entering a new age. Vaidhyanathan asks, "Are we actually waking up from the era that stands as an historical anomaly? Was the era of corporate proprietary culture with one"to"many distribution an historical blip we dealt with for an 80"year period and we're now getting back with how people have always dealt with each other? Isn't remix culture just culture?"

About the Speaker(s): Nick Montfort's digital media projects include the blog "Grand Text Auto," where he and five others write about computer narrative, poetry, games, and art; "Ream," a 500"page poem written on one day; "Mystery House Taken Over," a collaborative "occupation" of a classic game; Implementation, a novel on stickers written with Scott Rettberg; The Ed Report, a serialized novel written with William Gillespie; and the interactive fiction pieces Book and Volume, Ad Verbum, and Winchester's Nightmare.

Montfort edited The Electronic Literature Collection Volume 1(with N. Katherine Hayles, Stephanie Strickland, and Scott Rettberg, ELO, 2006) and The New Media Reader (with Noah Wardrip"Fruin, The MIT Press, 2003). He wrote Twisty Little Passages: An Approach to Interactive Fiction (The MIT Press, 2003), and, with William Gillespie, 2002: A Palindrome Story (Spineless Books, 2002), which was acknowledged by the Oulipo as the world's longest literary palindrome.

Montfort received a Ph.D. in Computer and Information Science from the University of Pennsylvania. He earned masters degrees at MIT (at the Media Lab) and Boston University (in creative writing - poetry).

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Communications Forum

Description: This panel demonstrates provocatively how literary criticism and cultural history have come to accommodate and embrace contemporary media. Says David Thorburn, the session's moderator, -The founding texts of Western civilization belong to a textual category or engage in textual behavior that make it resemble something much closer to an ongoing, unfinished TV series..." Indeed, says Thorburn, -In his own day, Shakespeare was the equivalent of what TV is in our society, or what the movies had been in the studio era." A new idea of the text is emerging, one that undergoes constant revision, in diverse media, and which never achieves a finished state. Consequently, notions of authorship, and ownership, are under siege.
Thomas Pettitt offers the Gutenberg parenthesis, brackets around historical periods of artistic achievement. Before the parenthesis lie such glories as Elizabethan theatre and traveling players, where -the distinction between author and performer is problematic." The text is neither fixed, nor authoritative, says Pettitt. Within the center of his parenthesis sit -original compositions, to passive reproductions." As the digital age proceeds, Pettit observes culture -paradoxically advancing into the past," our own a mirror age of Elizabethan times, with rock, rap, reggae and other vernacular traditions that emphasize performance coming to the fore.
In Lewis Hyde's telling, Benjamin Franklin operated as -the first intellectual property pirate in this country," perhaps a hero to the open access movement. Franklin was instrumental in spiriting out of England printing technology that was in the 18th century subject to laws forbidding the export of skilled labor and machinery. -Franklin is essentially supporting free movement of labor and ideas," says Hyde, opposing tyrannical law and -underwriting the liberty of ideas and citizens." Behind his actions lay the belief that the -true and good were best discovered collectively," and that sacrifice of individual interest was essential in a republic concerned with the progress of knowledge and -public virtue in politics."
A dialogue with the past and communal ownership of art (the latter vilified by corporate interests), serve as the foundations of African American cultural practice, says Craig Watkins. He traces the origins of rap music to slave songs and narratives, and black preachers and protest politics. This -oral culture created a space in which people could engage in dialog with each other that allowed them to survive horrific conditions." The idea of sampling in music is consistent with African-America oral tradition and participatory culture, says Watkins. It's central to art creation, building new kinds of musical experiences and -paying homage to the past -- an act of respect, inserting the past into present."

About the Speaker(s): David Thorburn has published widely on literary and cultural subjects and is currently completing a cultural history of American television, called Story Machine. He received his A.B. degree from Princeton, his M.A. and Ph.D. from Stanford and taught at Yale for 10 years before joining MIT in 1976. He has edited collections of essays on romanticism, and on John Updike, as well as a widely used anthology of fiction, Initiation. He is a former Director of the Film and Media Studies Program and of the Cultural Studies Project.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Communications Forum

Description: Ann Wolpert's panel should set off alarm bells among academics who imagine they may enter blithely into a publishing agreement in the digital age.
Claude Canizares sets the stage, describing the transformative changes in academic publishing: the disappearance of a paper"driven industry (with limited and controlled copies of authors' works) and the emergence of internet publishing, "where anything goes." The inexorable consolidation of academic publishers has allowed "relatively small numbers to exert significant control." This leads to conflict with institutions like MIT, whose mission is research and the untrammeled dissemination of knowledge. Canizares himself has been subject to copyright agreements that limit his ability to use his own work. "We'd like to make it much easier for authors," says Canizares.
The archives of Britain's Royal Society going back 350 years are available online today, says Thinh Nguyen, "but the catch is, you have to be a current subscriber to download" this content. Newton's article on the invention of the telescope costs $9. "This is the essence of the current model: a gated community of information." Nguyen's open access movement attempts to smooth the way for academics to be published and for others to see and use their work. His Science Commons enterprise attempts to reduce legal barriers to scientific research. For instance, he hopes to allow internet users to conduct software searches of online journals-currently prohibited by many publishers. Nguyen encourages scientists who publish to consider alternatives to signing over copyright to publishers without first attempting to negotiate the terms of ownership.
In her job as intellectual property overseer for MIT, Ann Hammersla works to retain as many rights for authors as she can. She's engaged in the challenging job of working out arrangements with publishers that enable authors to use their own materials in future work, in their classrooms, and to publish on the internet after first publishing in print. She sees an increasing demand by private and government funders for public posting of authors' works, a demand that runs directly counter to the copyright agreements publishers insist on. Hammersla also counsels the audience to "be careful in what you use, whether text, images, sound or video. You can't just download from the web. Someone may get grumpy if you use someone else's material."
The best way forward for individual scientific authors, declares Ellen Finnie Duranceau, is through "collective and institutional action." Together, authors must demand in their publisher agreements the right to "share work as widely as possible," which will increase their readership and citation rate; and the right to reuse their work flexibly, and to authorize others to use their work. Duranceau discusses "chilling stories," including an MIT faculty member who gave a publisher copyright to his own hand"drawn maps, and then could not use them on his MIT OpenCourseWare site. She worries about scholarly societies that impose "digital rights management technology on consumers of technical papers," permitting only single printouts of a paper or viewing only onscreen. Duranceau recommends an MIT amendment to copyright transfer agreements that entitles authors more access to their own work, and more access by others through public repositories.
Brian Evans sees an imbalance, where researchers and universities "are being preyed on by large companies." Researchers lose rights to their own work, and libraries pay excessively for journals: Says Evans, for "every $10 thousand we pay to a publishing company, it's $10 thousand we can't do something else with at the Institute." He exhorts his colleagues "to consider publishing in public access journals or starting one in your own field," and to reduce copyright restrictions through individual negotiations. Most of all, faculty should come together to work toward uniform standards.

About the Speaker(s): Ann Wolpert also oversees the MIT Press. The MIT Libraries include five major collections, a number of smaller branch libraries in specialized subject areas, a fee"for"services group, and the Institute Archives. The MIT Press publishes about 200 new books and more than 40 journals per year in fields related to or reliant upon science and technology.

Wolpert is a member of the Committee on Copyright and Patents, the Council on Educational Technology, the Dean's Committee, and the President's Academic Council. She is a member of the editorial board of the MIT Press, and chairs its Management Board.

Prior to joining MIT, Ann was Executive Director of Library and Information Services at the Harvard Business School. Her experience previous to Harvard included management of the Information Center of Arthur D. Little, Inc.

Her educational background includes a B.A. from Boston University and the M.L.S. from Simmons College. In 1998 she was nominated for and accepted into the National Network for Women Leaders in Higher Education of the American Council on Education.

Description: James Duderstadt believes recent efforts to digitize scholarly journals, along with Google's massive digital library enterprise, "could be as important as the Internet in changing the scaffolding for learning and scholarship in the world." In this final panel of the iCampus series, Duderstadt asks his colleagues to take up the question of how to propagate or scale up successful initiatives in educational technology, so that they have a transformative impact on higher education.

Andrew Chien points to the evolution of retail e"commerce, with many merchants following trailblazers like Amazon, and some ultimately serving as "portals to enable small players to accelerate their reach and innovation." Chien suggests that over time, "collaboration and competition will allow us to choose from a variety of interesting things."

The Mellon Foundation believes that for technology to succeed, it must be developed collaboratively in the first place, says Chris Mackie. In an effort to "reduce the predilections of institutions to build silos and a balkanized world," Mellon is talking to different institutions "about the concept of building an academic services bus environment to match enterprise services bus environments."

Technology can be counted successful only if it "resonates in the marketplace," says Irving Wladawsky"Berger. "What's an example of exciting technology that people like?" he asks. "Highly visual interfaces-there are millions of people playing games." Wladawsky"Berger says he's "convinced that embracing highly interactive approaches in cyberinfrastructure and the Internet will revolutionize the way people interact with machines at all levels." He also endorses engaging learners and teaching problem"solving skills through story"telling techniques.

In India and other developing nations, says Ashok S. Kolaskar, there are "many people living in the 17th century, with infrastructure very behind." For large numbers of Indians who have no access to a decent education, technology is critical. Building an extensive broadband network, and providing something like Open Course Ware could "bring up the bar," and make the difference between a community college education and advanced higher education. Kolaskar also emphasizes teacher training, since the new "plug and play generation" knows more about technology than their elders.

Initiating a freewheeling exchange between panelists and such distinguished audience members as Chuck Vest and John Seely Brown, Duderstadt discusses lifelong secondary learning opportunities for all adults (assuming that increasing life spans will mean people lead productive careers into their 80s and 90s). Vest urges that with an aging workforce, "Somehow we must find ways of intelligently mixing generations on a large scale, so we're learning from each other in a new and different way." Chris Mackie says technologies could play a crucial role in establishing "cross generational models" of higher ed, supporting students from the earliest age, and helping mentor them via alumni networks when out of college.

About the Speaker(s): James J. Duderstadt received his baccalaureate degree in Electrical Engineering from Yale University in 1964 and his doctorate in Engineering Science and Physics from the California Institute of Technology in 1967. After a year as an Atomic Energy Commission Postdoctoral Fellow at Caltech, he joined the faculty of the University of Michigan in 1968 in the Department of Nuclear Engineering. Duderstadt became Dean of the College of Engineering in 1981 and Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs in 1986. He was appointed as President of the University of Michigan in 1988, and served in this role until July, 1996.

Duderstadt has received numerous national awards for his research, teaching, and service activities, including the E. O. Lawrence Award for excellence in nuclear research, the Arthur Holly Compton Prize for outstanding teaching, the Reginald Wilson Award for national leadership in achieving diversity, and the National Medal of Technology for exemplary service to the nation. He has been elected to numerous honorific societies including the National Academy of Engineering, the American Academy of Arts and Science.

Duderstadt has served on and/or chaired numerous public and private boards. These include the National Science Board; the Executive Council of the National Academy of Engineering, the Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy of the National Academy of Sciences; and the Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee of the Department of Energy.

Description: Google Google's Alan Davidson and you won't locate him readily in his current post as the search giant's recently installed point man in Washington. Davidson keeps a low profile, at least online, but he is a presence in those circles shaping internet policy.

With a background in computer science, Davidson is an unabashed enthusiast of Google's core mission: search. -A complex algorithm is our secret sauce,” says Davidson, for producing answers in 1/5th of a second. -As an engineer who's fallen from grace, I marvel at it,” he says. He's protective of the world's largest information index --tens of billions of web pages -- and in particular, the -long tail” of a search index: the many individual, quirky sites that draw interest from relatively few users. -20% of searches that we see in a given month are those we've never seen before,” he says. -I find this heartwarming. People are weird and want to see strange stuff.”

Embracing the long tail figures large in Google's -policy space.” Helping people access information and innovate requires vigilance, believes Davidson. Politicians around the world are pushing for internet regulations to control content. Davidson approves removal of certain kinds of -vile, evil” content from search indexes, like child pornography sites. But pressure on internet services like Google to act as policemen must be resisted. He describes the -hard case” of China,” which demands Google provide a filter for queries the government deems threatening. -We angst about it, but executives feel being there is better for openness than not being there.”

Other pressing issues for Davidson include net neutrality, the attempt to retain uniform fees for data transmission in the face of demands by broadband and DSL line owners to be paid more for higher speed lines. Davidson sees this demand leading to a two-tier internet, one that discriminates economically against the next MySpace or YouTube. Admits Davidson, -As a lobbyist, we're getting our butts kicked in Washington.”

There's also the thorny problem of intellectual property raised by Google's book search: a -modest project.to digitize all books in all languages and create a virtual card catalog.” Davidson is convinced that Google is not violating copyright law, and is actually helping authors and publishers sell more books.

About the Speaker(s): Prior to joining Google, Alan Davidson was Associate Director of the Center for Democracy and Technology, a public interest group promoting civil liberties and human rights online. He has written and spoken widely on privacy, free speech, encryption, and copyright online. Davidson is also an Adjunct Professor at Georgetown University's program in Communications, Culture, and Technology, teaching a graduate seminar on Internet architecture and public policy. In 2004 he was a Visiting Scholar in MIT's Program on Science, Technology, and Society.
Davidson is a graduate of the Yale Law School, where he was Symposium Editor of the Yale Law Journal. He received an S.B. in Mathematics and Computer Science and an S.M. in Technology and Policy from MIT.

Description: The best way to find your angel within the pool of an estimated 8.5 million U.S. millionaires, says John May, is through networking. Search your community for -cashed-out entrepreneurs and high net-worth individuals” using lawyers, accountants, tech councils and regional business incubators.

But, warns David Friend, -the worst time to meet them is when you're trying to get money out of them.” Establish a friendly relationship with your potential angel, -talk about windsurfing or technology first, then come back and ask for advice.” Says Friend, -Most people like me who started their own business love to give advice -- it's in the blood.”

The one area where seeking angel investors may prove fruitless is biotech, suggests Cynthia Fisher, who acted as her own angel when launching her first company. -Biotech is hot but there's a long lead time: eight to 10 years of drug discovery and tens of millions of dollars, or north of that, with private equity.” Think venture capital and government funding, she recommends.

Pitch an angel -on nonfinancial areas,” suggests May: Say -I want your Rolodex and a shoulder to cry on, access to people to form a team, help with intellectual property.” This can lead to a -bond that lasts longer than a pure bank or VC relationship.”

But be careful what you wish for. Once on board, an angel investor may wish to offer guidance in an intrusive way. Fisher says, -It can be life or death based on do you have a shared vision for the long and short term goals of the company. It is a marriage.” Greene says, -You might meet a great billionaire angel who offers you a million dollars to start and you're totally beholden to him or her. And then they control the cards. It's good to diversify.” Ultimately, prepare to give up some control. Says Fisher, -He who has the gold, rules.” But responds, Green, -If managers are doing a decent job, the last thing a VC or angel wants is for you to toss the keys to them.”

Description: It's a good thing that a decade ago, some engineers at Sun Microsystems became dissatisfied with the limitations of the desktop PC and with kludgy TV remote controls. Their frustrations, according to Bill Joy, led to technology breakthroughs we count on today and will likely in years to come. Joy and his colleagues grasped early on the impact the Internet would have on both computing and entertainment. Back in the 90s, they decided to play out how technologies imbedded in daily life would evolve under the influence of the internet. They envisioned the "far" web, as defined by the typical TV viewer experience; the "near" web, or desktop computing; the "here" web, or mobile devices with personal information one carried all the time; the "weird" web, characterized by voice recognition systems; the "B2B" web of business computers dealing exclusively with each other; and the "D2D" web, of intelligent buildings and cities. (Sun's programming language Java was a deliberate attempt at a platform for all six webs.)

Joy sees the six webs as a great organizing principle for understanding how the internet will continue to change. He believes the "here" web will figure most prominently in our lives, with its "nomadic idea that instead of being tethered to an office, we carry around things of most interest to us." He notes the increasing "cleavage between entertainment authored for the 'here' and 'far' webs." The latter is dominated by such corporate interests as game companies intent on copy protection and rights management, while the "more anarchic world" of the internet leads to more interesting content, such as personal publishing, housed best on the "here" web. Says Joy, "Doing things with people you know through a small screen makes enormous sense."

About the Speaker(s): Bill Joy led Sun's technical strategy from the founding of the company in 1982 until September 2003. While at Sun, he was a key designer of Sun technologies including Solaris, SPARC, chip architectures and pipelines, and Java. In 1995 he installed the first city-wide WiFi network. Joy has more than 40 patents issued or in progress.
Before co-founding Sun, Joy designed and wrote Berkeley UNIX - the first open source operating system with built-in TCP/IP, making it the backbone of the Internet. Fortune magazine dubbed him the "Edison of the Internet."
Joy has a B.S. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Michigan, an M.S. in Computer Science from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in Engineering, honoris causa, from the University of Michigan. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and is a trustee of the Aspen Institute.

Description: Nancy Kranich says the debate boils down to this: "Is information a public good or a commodity?" The more profit to be made, the higher the tension. Kranich envisions an "information society of the 21st century," where the ruling metaphor is the commons: information is neither public nor private but something shared. Intellectual assets are not given away but managed "to sustain communities of interest," and to foster free expression, creativity, innovation and democracy.

Ideas, unlike popsicles, do not disappear once they are consumed, Ann Wolpert notes. And the resources of the academic world are intended to be used repeatedly -- exchanged and enhanced. Wolpert finds particularly threatening the notion of extending copyright law to the work of academics. Ideas should not "be stuffed in the same box as Mickey Mouse," she says. The internet has fundamentally changed the flow of information, and while it has encouraged a greater degree of "social sharing," it is now threatened by market forces, which insist on controlling and realizing profit from ideas. Asserts Wolpert, "Neither the academy nor society can tolerate tight control over movement of information. For knowledge to advance, production and distribution systems can and should occur outside the tightly controlled, capital intensive publishing system."

Steven Pinker admits that "as both a consumer and producer of information," he has not resolved the conflicting demands of distributing his research freely, and making a living from it. "There is the question of how many ' books would I write if I didn't get a check in the mail from the publisher every once in while." He warns against designing and promoting an information commons that relies exclusively on generosity, openness and inclusiveness -- human nature being what it is. However, Pinker finds hope in such models as Apple's iTunes, with its micropayments to download music, and Wikipedia the online, participatory encyclopedia where people engage in uncompensated activity for the prestige of making "accurate and useful entries" in a shared online resource.

Host(s): School of Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences, Communications Forum

Description: "To me, systems biology is the religion you switch to when target-based drug discovery doesn't work," Noubar Afeyan states boldly. He claims that after losing billions of dollars, the pharmaceutical industry and academia are beginning to see the value in testing drugs by measuring outcomes in biological networks. He calls this systems pharmacology, where you "measure in living systems multiple analytes in the same organism, perturbing the state and taking thousands of measurements per sample." Researchers use computer images to visualize the differences and similarities in drug response across many networks, and then try to correlate these responses statistically.

The inability to predict toxicity early in drug development cost the pharmaceutical industry an astonishing $8 billion in 2003, says Joseph Bonventre, approximately one-third the cost of all drug failures. "We generally can't pick up toxicity until it's too late," he says, so key challenges are developing better preclinical studies with useful biomarkers, improved animal models, and high throughput techniques; and on the clinical side, coming up with a "safe harbor approach to amass kidney and other toxicity data," developing consortia to validate biomarkers, dealing with IP issues and building "an improved bedside to bench flow of information."

Linda Griffith's vision is "building a human body on a chip." She's not talking about an individual's genome or health history, but "a living, 3D interconnected set of tissues on a chip. If you perturb it, you make it develop a disease." Such a device would enable researchers to predict negative drug interactions and even to build models of disease. Griffiths' version of liver tissue, built on a silicon scaffold, may prove especially useful for drug toxicity tests.

At Biogen, "the holy grail for any justification of a new approach or technology is that we're going to chop a significant amount off the time it takes to move a new product from bench to bedside," says James Green. He believes that "drugs and paradigms are orders of magnitude more complicated than 24 years ago." He hopes that new techniques "that take us into the genome, interpreting data as patterns" offer some promise.

Host(s): Sloan School of Management, MIT Center for Biomedical Innovation

Description: If you have ever come up with a work-around or improvement for a balky product only to find that it performs better than the original, you are not alone. Eric von Hippel proffers multiple examples where an ordinary user, frustrated or even desperate, solves a problem through innovation. His research found innovative users playing with all manner of product: mountain bikes, library IT systems, agricultural irrigation, and scientific instruments. Often, manufacturers keep at arm's length from these inventions. He describes the Lego company "standing like a deer in headlights" when technologically adept adults discovered they could design their own sophisticated Lego robots. User communities arise, freely communicate with each other, advance ideas and sometimes even "drive the manufacturer out of product design," according to von Hippel. This widely distributed inventing bug is a good trend, believes von Hippel, because users "tend to make things that are functionally novel." Not only is it "freeing for individuals" but it also creates a "free commons" of product ideas, parallel to the more restrictive world of intellectual property governed by less creative manufacturers.

About the Speaker(s): von Hippel researches the nature and economics of distributed and open innovation. Prior to his professorship at Sloan, he was the Sir Walter Scott Distinguished Professor at the Australian Graduate School of Management, and a Fellow at the Canadian Institute of Advanced Research. He was a co-founder of the MIT Entrepreneurship Program, and served as a consultant for McKinsey and Company. He was also a co-founder and manager of R&D for Graphic Sciences, Inc.
von Hippel received his B.A. from Harvard College, his S.M. from MIT, and Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University.

Description: In many ways, MIT's Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) sits at the center of the university. Soon after the department was founded in 1903, more than 25% of all undergraduates chose to major in electrical engineering‹a number that has remained much the same. Paul L. Penfield describes how EECS fostered many of the key technological innovations of the last century, from telephones and light bulbs to semiconductors and networks. He also discusses how rapid changes in technology led to the transformation of the department's curriculum. For instance, the emergence of computer technology in the 1970s led to an identity crisis for the Electrical Engineering department, which was resolved by adding computer science requirements to the program, and to the department's title. Penfield says engineering students will increasingly need to help ease tensions between civil society and chaotic institutions like the Internet, by addressing such issues as privacy, intellectual property and email spam.

About the Speaker(s): Professor Penfield received his B.A. in physics from Amherst College in 1955, and the Sc.D. degree in electrical engineering from MIT in 1960. He has been in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science since 1960. He served as Associate Head of the Department from 1974 to 1978, and as Director of the Microsystems Research Center from 1985 to 1989. From 1989 to 1999 he served as Head of the Department. Professor Penfield is a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Physical Society. He is the author of five books and dozens of articles in his various fields of interest, which include solid-state microwave devices and circuits, noise and thermodynamics, electrodynamics of moving media, circuit theory, computer-aided design, APL language extensions, integrated-circuit design automation, and computer-aided fabrication of integrated circuits.

Host(s): School of Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

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Mon, 12 Dec 2011 17:51:50 -0500http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/15878-the-electron-and-the-bit-100-years-of-eecs-at-mit
http://ttv.mit.edu/videos/15878-the-electron-and-the-bit-100-years-of-eecs-at-mit
The Electron and the Bit: 100 Years of EECS at MIT
MIT World — special events and lectures Scholarly Communication in a Digital World: A Thought Provoking Symposium To Celebrate the World-Wide Launch of DSpace
James Boyle, Professor, Duke University School of Law; Clifford Lynch, Director, Coalition for Networked Information

Description: In James Boyle's lively presentation on the new "intellectual property economy", he asks the question, "If we cannot protect speech in a university environment, where can we protect it?"

Clifford Lynch reflects on the beginnings of a repository movement, and talks about the need for leadership during this time of significant change in scholarly communication.

Description: MIT Libraries Director Ann Wolpert defines Dspace and explains that "solving the digital problem" is central to the mission of libraries and librarians. She also announces plans for a federation with other research based universities, and explains the critical role of the H-P MIT Alliance.

Hal Abelson discusses the dangers of massive "propertization" in academic environments. He offers some chilling, real-world examples of what can happen if all content in academic discourse is seen as "property", and how a student's class notes can become a derivative work, with restrictions on sharing. He argues that universities need a "seat at the table" as new models for scientific publishing take shape.