Hector-Martin Lefuel (Versailles, 14 November 1810 – Paris, 31 December 1880) was a French architect, best known for the completion of the Palais du Louvre, including the reconstruction of the Pavillon de Flore after a disastrous fire.

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He was the son of Alexandre Henry Lefuel (1782-1850), an entrepreneurial speculative builder established in the town of Versailles, who was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts in 1829; there he studied with Jean-Nicolas Huyot and in 1833 he received second place in the Prix de Rome competition.

A winner of the Prix de Rome in 1839, he spent the years 1840 to 1844 as a pensionary of the French Academy in Rome at the Villa Medici, on his return to France he opened his own practice and was appointed an inspector for the Chambre des députés.

At the same time Lefuel was placed in charge of the ambitious project of completing the Louvre, following the death of the architect Louis-Tullius-Joachim Visconti in 1853. Adjusting and enriching Visconti's project he completed the project, one of the showpieces of the Second Empire. Lefuel produced the Salle des États in the extended northern wing facing the Place du Palais-Royal (containing the Ministry of Finance and the library, opened in 1857, the southern extension of the Galerie du Bord de l'Eau, with the Pavillon Lesdiguères and the Pavillon Trémoille.)

Aiding Lefuel was the young American architect Richard Morris Hunt, who had studied under Lefuel at the École des Beaux-Arts. Following Hunt's graduation, Lefuel made Hunt inspector of the Louvre work and allowed him to design the facade of the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque.[1]

Lefuel's work at the Pavillon de Flore which had been begun under Visconti was to the order of Napoléon III, who in 1861 authorized its remodeling, the renovation, performed between 1864 and 1868, added significant detail and sculpture to the work, which is thus noted as an example of Second EmpireNeo-Baroque architecture as much as it is of the late sixteenth century.[2][3] After the Tuileries Palace was destroyed by fire in 1871, Lefuel added a north facade, similar in design to his south facade, in 1874–1879.[4]

For the Empress Eugénie, Lefuel created sumptuous apartments in the Palais des Tuileries, lost when that palace burned in the Paris Commune of 1871.

^Imitating Jacques Lemercier's Renaissance-style Pavillon de l'Horloge of 1624 (the eastern face of the same pavilion, on the Cour Carrée), Lefuel refaced the western side in 1856 and transformed Visconti's understated original by adding a profusion of elaborate sculptural detail and a narrow second storey. Criticized by Vitet in 1866, Lefuel's treatment became popular and initiated the widely imitated Second Empire style. (Mead 1996, p. 69)

^Decorated by Lefuel with paintings by Maréchal, the Napoleon III Apartments, originally the apartments of the Minister of State, were created for Achille Fould, but inaugurated by his successor, Count Walewski, natural son of Napoleon I and Maria Walewska. The apartments were occupied by the Finance Ministry from 1872 to 1989. (Bautier 1995, pp. 144, 170)

^The Assembly of the Gods on the vault was painted by Matout (1865). This room should not be confused with the Salle des Empereurs Romains of the 1790s in the former Summer Apartment of Anne of Austria. (Bautier 1995, pp. 144)

^The decoration, conceived by Lefuel and executed in 1861 by Frémiet, Rouillard, Jacquemart, Demay, and Houguenade, includes capitals with heads of horses and other animals evoking the hunt. (Bautier 1995, pp. 144, 154)

^A statue of Napoleon III under the pediment was replaced during the Third Republic with The Genius of the Arts by Mercié. (Bautier 1995, pp. 137, 144)

^Carpeaux's Imperial France Enlightens the World, flanked by the allegorical male figures Science and Agriculture, surmounts the pediment, and below, his frieze of Flora leaning over a group of children, is "unquestionably the most famous work of sculpture on the whole exterior of the Louvre." (Bautier 1995, p. 129)

1.
Versailles (city)
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According to the 2008 census, the population of the city is 88,641 inhabitants, down from a peak of 94,145 in 1975. A new town, founded by the will of King Louis XIV, it was the de facto capital of the Kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789, before becoming the cradle of the French Revolution. After having lost its status of city, it became the préfecture of Seine-et-Oise département in 1790, then of Yvelines in 1968. Versailles is historically known for numerous treaties such as the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War and this word formation is similar to Latin seminare which gave French semailles. From May 1682, when Louis XIV moved the court and government permanently to Versailles, until his death in September 1715, during the various periods when government affairs were conducted from Versailles, Paris remained the official capital of France. Versailles was made the préfecture of the Seine-et-Oise département at its inception in March 1790, Versailles was made the préfecture of the Yvelines département, the largest chunk of the former Seine-et-Oise. At the 2006 census the Yvelines had 1,395,804 inhabitants, Versailles is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese which was created in 1790. The diocese of Versailles is subordinate to the archdiocese of Paris, in 1975, Versailles was made the seat of a Court of Appeal whose jurisdiction covers the western suburbs of Paris. Since 1972, Versailles has been the seat of one of Frances 30 nationwide académies of the Ministry of National Education. Versailles is also an important node for the French army, a tradition going back to the monarchy with, for instance, the palace of Versailles is in the out-skirts of the city. Versailles is located 17.1 km west-southwest from the centre of Paris, the city of Versailles has an area of 26.18 km2, which is a quarter of the area of the city of Paris. In 1989, Versailles had a density of 3, 344/km2, whereas Paris had a density of 20. Born out of the will of a king, the city has a rational and symmetrical grid of streets, by the standards of the 18th century, Versailles was a very modern European city. Versailles was used as a model for the building of Washington, the name of Versailles appears for the first time in a medieval document dated 1038. In the end of the 11th century, the village curled around a medieval castle, the 14th century brought the Black Death and the Hundred Years War, and with it death and destruction. At the end of the Hundred Years War in the 15th century, in 1561, Martial de Loménie, secretary of state for finances under King Charles IX, became lord of Versailles. He obtained permission to four annual fairs and a weekly market on Thursdays. The population of Versailles was 500 inhabitants, Martial de Loménie was murdered during the St. Bartholomews Day massacre

Versailles (city)
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Louis XIII built the original hunting lodge that will become the Palace of Versailles under his son and successor Louis XIV
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Versailles in 1789.

2.
Palais du Louvre
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The Louvre Palace is a former royal palace located on the Right Bank of the Seine in Paris, between the Tuileries Gardens and the church of Saint-Germain lAuxerrois. Its present structure has evolved in stages since the 16th century, in 1793 part of the Louvre became a public museum, now the Musée du Louvre, which has expanded to occupy most of the building. The Palace is situated in the right-bank of the River Seine between Rue de Rivoli to the north and the Quai François Mitterrand to the south. To the west is the Jardin des Tuileries and, to the east, the Rue de lAmiral de Coligny, where its most architecturally famous façade, the Louvre Colonnade, the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel are separated by the street known as the Place du Carrousel. Some 51,615 sq m in the complex are devoted to public exhibition floor space. The Old Louvre occupies the site of the 12th-century fortress of King Philip Augustus and its foundations are viewable in the basement level as the Medieval Louvre department. This structure was razed in 1546 by King Francis I in favour of a royal residence which was added to by almost every subsequent French monarch. King Louis XIV, who resided at the Louvre until his departure for Versailles in 1678, completed the Cour Carrée, the Old Louvre is a quadrilateral approximately 160 m on a side consisting of 8 ailes which are articulated by 8 pavillons. With it, the last external vestiges of the medieval Louvre were demolished, the New Louvre is the name often given to the wings and pavilions extending the Palace for about 500 m westwards on the north and on the south sides of the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel. This consummation only lasted a few years, however, as the Tuileries was burned in 1871, the northern limb of the new Louvre consists of three great pavilions along the Rue de Rivoli, the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque, Pavillon de Rohan and Pavillon de Marsan. As on the side, three inside pavilions and their wings define three more subsidiary Courts, Cour du Sphinx, Cour Viconti and Cour Lefuel. The Chinese American architect I. M. Pei was selected in 1983 to design François Mitterrands Grand Louvre Project. The ground-level entrance to this complex was situated in the centre of the Cour Napoléon and is crowned by the prominent steel-and-glass pyramid, in a proposal by Kenneth Carbone, the nomenclature of the wings of the Louvre was simplified in 1987 to reflect the Grand Louvres organization. This allows the visitor to avoid becoming totally mystified at the bewildering array of named wings. The origin of the name Louvre is unclear, the French historian Henri Sauval, probably writing in the 1660s, stated that he had seen in an old Latin-Saxon glossary, Leouar is translated castle and thus took Leouar to be the origin of Louvre. According to Keith Briggs, Sauvals theory is often repeated, even in recent books, but this glossary has never seen again. Briggs suggests that H. J. Wolfs proposal in 1969 that Louvre derives instead from Latin Rubras, david Hanser, on the other hand, reports that the word may come from French louveterie, a place where dogs were trained to chase wolves. In 1190 King Philip II Augustus, who was about to leave on the Third Crusade, completed in 1202, the new fortress was situated in what is now the southwest quadrant of the Cour Carrée

3.
Pavillon de Flore
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The Pavillon de Flore, part of the Palais du Louvre in Paris, France, stands at the southwest end of the Louvre, near the Pont Royal. It was originally constructed in 1607–1610, during the reign of Henry IV, the pavilion was entirely redesigned and rebuilt by Hector Lefuel in 1864–1868 in a highly decorated Second Empire Neo-Baroque style. The most famous sculpture on the exterior of the Louvre, Jean-Baptiste Carpeauxs The Triumph of Flora, was added below the pediment of the south facade at this time. The Tuileries Palace was destroyed by fire in 1871, and a north facade, currently, the Pavillon de Flore is part of the Musée du Louvre. The Pavillon de Flore is in central Paris, on the Right Bank and is connected to the Louvre and it is directly adjacent to the Pont Royal on the Quai François Mitterrand, which is between the Passerelle Léopold-Sédar Senghor and the Pont du Carrousel. Its geographic coordinates are 48°51′40″N 2°19′50″E, the Pavillon de Flore was part of a larger plan, devised during the reign of King Henry IV, to connect the Palais du Louvre and Palais des Tuileries via two long wings at their north and south ends. First, the Petite Galerie, running south from the Palais du Louvre to the River Seine, was connected to the Grande Galerie. The latter was constructed east to west along the Seine until it reached the Tuileries, the cornerstone of the pavilion was laid in 1607. Its design has traditionally been assigned to Jacques Androuet II du Cerceau, the Palais des Tuileries was extended south from the Pavillon Bullant to the Pavillon de Flore via the Petite Galerie des Tuileries. Work on the Grand Design was abandoned following the assassination of Henry IV in 1610, however, by this time, the building of the Grande Galerie, the Petite Galerie des Tuileries, and the Gros Pavillon de la Rivière had been completed. King Louis XIV danced in Isaac de Benserades Ballet royal de Flore in February 1669 at the Tuileries and it has been suggested that this is when the name Pavillon de Flore came into use, although the earliest known written mention is in 1726. Pavillon de Flore is the name used today, although other names have been used in between, for several years, the apartments of Marie Antoinette were located within the structure. During the French Revolution, the Pavillon de Flore was renamed Pavillon de lÉgalité, under its new name, it became the meeting point for several of the Committees of the period. Many other committees of the Revolutionary Government occupied the Palais des Tuileries during the time of the National Convention, notable occupiers included the Monetary Committee, the Account and Liquidation Examination Committee. However, the most famous was the Committee of Public Safety, the Committee of Public Safety was the principal and most renowned body of the Revolutionary Government, forming the de facto executive branch of France during the Reign of Terror. Run by the Jacobins under Robespierre, the group of twelve centralized denunciations, trials, the committee was responsible for the deaths of thousands, mostly by guillotine. The executive body was installed in the apartments of Marie-Antoinette, situated on the first floor. The governing body met twice a day and the executions themselves were carried out across the gardens

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Jacques Androuet II du Cerceau's Pavillon de Flore (1607) as it stands today. Carpeaux's sculpture Flore is inset in the middle of the south face, on the right in this picture.
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The Pavillon de Flore – lithograph by Thomas Shotter Boys (1830–1840)
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The Pavillon de Flore – drawing in brown ink (1814)
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Le Triomphe de Flore (The Triumph of Flora). South façade of the Pavillon de Flore, Louvre Palace, Paris

4.
Prix de Rome
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The Prix de Rome was a French scholarship for arts students, initially for painters and sculptors, that was established in 1663 during the reign of Louis XIV of France. Winners were awarded a bursary that allowed them to stay in Rome for three to five years at the expense of the state, the prize was extended to architecture in 1720, music in 1803, and engraving in 1804. The prestigious award was abolished in 1968 by André Malraux, the Minister of Culture, the Prix de Rome was initially created for painters and sculptors in 1663 in France during the reign of Louis XIV. It was an annual bursary for promising artists having proved their talents by completing a very difficult elimination contest, the prize, organised by the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, was open to their students. From 1666, the winner could win a stay of three to five years at the Palazzo Mancini in Rome at the expense of the King of France. In 1720, the Académie Royale d’Architecture began a prize in architecture, six painters, four sculptors, and two architects would be sent to the French Academy in Rome founded by Jean-Baptiste Colbert from 1666. Expanded after 140 years into five categories, the contest started in 1663 as two categories, painting and sculpture, in 1803, music was added, and after 1804 there was a prix for engraving as well. The primary winner took the First Grand Prize and the Second Prizes were awarded to the runners-up, in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte moved the French Academy in Rome to the Villa Medici with the intention of preserving an institution once threatened by the French Revolution. At first, the villa and its gardens were in a sad state, in this way, he hoped to retain for young French artists the opportunity to see and copy the masterpieces of antiquity and the Renaissance. Jacques-Louis David, having failed to win the three years in a row, considered suicide. Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Ernest Chausson and Maurice Ravel attempted the Prix de Rome, but did not gain recognition. Ravel tried a total of five times to win the prize, during World War II the prize winners were accommodated in the Villa Paradiso in Nice. The Prix de Rome was abolished in 1968 by André Malraux, since then, a number of contests have been created, and the academies, together with the Institut de France, were merged by the State and the Minister of Culture. Selected residents now have an opportunity for study during an 18-month stay at The Academy of France in Rome, the heyday of the Prix de Rome was during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The Prix de Rome for Architecture was created in 1720, the engraving prize was created in 1804. A Prix de Rome was also established in the Kingdom of Holland by Lodewijk Napoleon to award young artists and architects, during the years 1807–1810 prize winners were sent to Paris and onwards to Rome for study. Suspended in 1851 it was reinstated in 1870 by William III of the Netherlands, since then the winners have been selected by the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam under the main headings of architecture and the visual arts. The Belgian Prix de Rome is an award for artists, created in 1832

5.
French Academy in Rome
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The French Academy in Rome is an Academy located in the Villa Medici, within the Villa Borghese, on the Pincio in Rome, Italy. The Academy was founded at the Palazzo Capranica in 1666 by Louis XIV under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Charles Le Brun, such scholars were and are known as pensionnaires de lAcadémie. One recipient of the scholarship in the 17th century was Pierre Le Gros the Younger, the Academy was housed in the Palazzo Capranica until 1737, and then in the Palazzo Mancini from 1737 to 1793. These envois were annual works, sent to Paris to be judged, at first, the villa and its gardens were in a sad state and had to be renovated to house the winners of the Prix de Rome. The competition was interrupted during the first World War, and Mussolini confiscated the villa in 1941, the competition and Prix de Rome were eliminated in 1968 by André Malraux. The Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and the Institut de France then lost their guardianship of the Villa Medici to the Ministry of the Culture, from that time on, the boarders no longer belonged solely to the traditional disciplines but also to new or previously neglected artistic fields. These artists-in-residence are known as pensionnaires, the French word ‘pension’ refers to the room & board these, generally young and promising, artists receive. The artists are no longer recruited by a competition but by application, between 1961 and 1967, the artist Balthus, then at the head of the Academy, carried out a vast restoration campaign of the palace and its gardens, providing them with modern equipment. Balthus participated “hands on” in all the phases of the construction, where the historic décor had disappeared, Balthus proposed personal alternatives. Work continued under the direction of director, Richard Peduzzi, under director Frédéric Mitterrand the Academy opened up its guest rooms to the general public at times when they are not used by pensionnaires or other official guests. k. a. Carolus-Duran 1913-1921, Albert Besnard 1921-1933, Denys Puech 1933-1937, Paul-Maximilien Landowski 1937-1960, Jacques Ibert 1961-1977, Comte Balthazar Klossowski de Rola, a. k. a. Balthus 1979-1985, Jean Leymarie 1985-1994, Jean-Marie Drot 1994-1997, Pierre-Jean Angremy, a. k. a. villamedici. it/ Official site Google Map

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Villa Medici
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Portrait of Prix de Rome winner and fellow student Merry-Joseph Blondel in front of the Villa Medici in 1809, by Ingres
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Villa Medici painted by Velázquez

6.
Villa Medici
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The Villa Medici is a mannerist villa and an architectural complex with a garden contiguous with the larger Borghese gardens, on the Pincian Hill next to Trinità dei Monti in Rome, Italy. The Villa Medici, founded by Ferdinando I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, a musical evocation of its garden fountains features in Ottorino Respighis Fontane di Roma. In ancient times, the site of the Villa Medici was part of the gardens of Lucullus, which passed into the hands of the Imperial family with Messalina, who was murdered in the villa. In 1564, when the nephews of Cardinal Giovanni Ricci of Montepulciano acquired the property, the new proprietors commissioned Annibale Lippi, the late architects son, to continue work. Interventions by Michelangelo are a tradition, in 1576, the property was acquired by Cardinal Ferdinando de Medici, who finished the structure to designs by Bartolomeo Ammanati. A series of grand gardens recalled the botanical gardens created at Pisa and at Florence by the Cardinals father Cosimo I de Medici, sheltered in plantations of pines, cypresses and oaks. Ferdinando de Medici had a studiolo, a retreat for study and contemplation, now these rooms look onto Borghese gardens but would then have had views over the Roman countryside. An engraving detailing the arrangement of statues prior to 1562 was documented by Galassi Alghisi, then the antiquities from the Villa Medici formed the nucleus of the collection of antiquities in the Uffizi, and Florence began to figure on the European Grand Tour. The fountain in the front of the Villa Medici is formed from a red granite vase from ancient Rome and it was designed by Annibale Lippi in 1589. The view from the Villa looking over the fountain towards St Peters in the distance has been much painted, like the Villa Borghese that adjoins them, the villas gardens were far more accessible than the formal palaces such as Palazzo Farnese in the heart of the city. For a century and a half the Villa Medici was one of the most elegant and worldly settings in Rome, the seat of the Grand Dukes embassy to the Holy See. When the male line of the Medici died out in 1737, in this manner Napoleon Bonaparte came into possession of the Villa Medici, which he transferred to the French Academy at Rome. Subsequently it housed the winners of the prestigious Prix de Rome, under distinguished directors including Ingres and Balthus, in 1656, Christina, Queen of Sweden was said to have fired one of the cannon on top of the Castel SantAngelo without aiming it first. The wayward ball hit the villa, destroying one of the Florentine lilies that decorated the facade, in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte moved the French Academy in Rome to the Villa Medici with the intention of preserving an institution once threatened by the French Revolution. At first, the villa and its gardens were in a sad state, in this way, he hoped to retain for young French artists the opportunity to see and copy the masterpieces of antiquity and the Renaissance. The young architect Auguste-Henri-Victor Grandjean de Montigny undertook the renovation, the competition was interrupted during the first World War, and Benito Mussolini confiscated the villa in 1941, forcing the Academy of France in Rome to withdraw until 1945. The competition and the Prix de Rome were eliminated in 1968 by André Malraux, the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and the Institut de France then lost their guardianship of the Villa Medici to the Ministry of Culture and the French State. Between 1961 and 1967, the artist Balthus, then at the head of the Academy, carried out a vast restoration campaign of the palace and its gardens, Balthus participated “hands on” in all the phases of the construction

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Villa Medici in Rome
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The villa's Loggia dei leoni, including copies of the original Medici lions
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The fountain in the 19th century
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The fountain in 2002

7.
Napoleon III
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods

Napoleon III
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Napoleon III
Napoleon III
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Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), the younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, the King of Holland, and father of Napoleon III.
Napoleon III
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Hortense de Beauharnais (1783–1837), the mother of Napoleon III, in 1808, the year Napoleon III was born.
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The lakeside house at Arenenberg, Switzerland, where Napoleon III spent much of his youth and exile.

8.
Second French Empire
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The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government. He had so often, while in prison or in exile and his answer was to organize a system of government based on the principles of the Napoleonic Idea. This meant that the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great Napoleon I of France, the anti-parliamentary French Constitution of 1852 instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852, was largely a repetition of that of 1848. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by universal suffrage and this new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of Brumaire. The press was subjected to a system of cautionnements and avertissements, in order to counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the lycées, for seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites, up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist, from then till 1860 it was reduced to five members, Darimon, Émile Ollivier, Hénon, Jules Favre and Ernest Picard. On 2 December 1851 Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic and he thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions and the extension of his mandate for 10 years were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted an implausible 92 percent support. A new constitution was enacted in January 1852 which made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, however, he was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as soon as he signed the new document into law, in response to officially-inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a second referendum in November, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the yes votes were manufactured out of thin air, the empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. The constitution concentrated so much power in his hands that the only changes were to replace the word president with the word emperor

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Napoléon III
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The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris, on December 2, 1852.

9.
Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time

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Order's streamer
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A depiction of Napoleon making some of the first awards of the Légion d'honneur, at a camp near Boulogne on 16 August 1804
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First Légion d'Honneur investiture, 15 July 1804, at Saint-Louis des Invalides by Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812)

10.
Louis-Tullius-Joachim Visconti
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Louis Tullius Joachim Visconti was an Italian-born French architect and designer. He is probably most famed for designing the 1842 tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides and his students include Joseph Poelaert, designer of the Palais de justice de Bruxelles. Louis Visconti came from a family of archaeologists - his grandfather Giambattista Antonio Visconti had founded the Vatican Museums and his father. Ennio and his moved to Paris in 1798 and were naturalised as French citizens in 1799, with Ennio becoming a curator of antiquities. Between 1808 and 1817 Louis studied at Pariss École des Beaux-Arts under Charles Percier and he also studied under the painter François-André Vincent. In the meantime, in 1840, he designed Pariss decorations for the return of Napoleons remains and Napoleons tomb at the Invalides. Collaborating with Émile Trélat in the works to rebuild the Bibliothèque royale du Louvre in May 1848 and he was also made president of the Société Centrale des Architectes in 1852. Visconti died of an attack in 1853, the year of his election to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Hôtel de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, also known as Mle Mars,1 rue de la Tour-des-Dames,1821, aménagements de lhôtel de Charost,39 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré,1825. Fontaine Gaillon, place Gaillon, Paris, 1824-1828, agrandissement du Palais du Luxembourg,1834. Immeuble Farine,104 rue de Richelieu,1834, Hôtel de Pontalba,41 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré,1839. Hôtel Collot,25 quai Anatole-France, Paris,1840, neoclassical style Hôtel Visconti,3 rue Fortin,1840, fontaine Molière,37 rue de Richelieu, Paris, 1841-1843. Fontaine de la place Saint-Sulpice, Paris, 1842-1848, Hôtel de La Tour du Pin,25 rue Barbet-de-Jouy,1844. Hôtel Rigaud,10 rue Mogador,1845, agrandissement du ministère de lIntérieur, rue de Grenelle, with Moreau,1846. Extension du ministère des Finances,1846, 1791-1853, Paris, Délégation à lAction Artistique de la Ville de Paris,1991 – ISBN 2-905118-38-5. Page on base Structurae Article on Visconti on a site about rue Visconti, Paris

11.
Richard Morris Hunt
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Richard Morris Hunt was an American architect of the nineteenth century and a preeminent figure in the history of American architecture. Design critic Paul Goldberger wrote in The New York Times that Hunt was American architectures first, Hunt also founded both the American Institute of Architects and the Municipal Art Society. Born at Brattleboro, Vermont, Hunt was a son of Jane Maria Leavitt, born to a family of Suffield, Connecticut. Jonathan Hunt, a U. S. congressman whose own father was the lieutenant governor of Vermont, Richard Morris Hunt was the brother of the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, and the photographer and lawyer Leavitt Hunt. Following the early death of his father, Hunts mother took the family to Europe, Hunt began his education at the Boston Latin School. Hunt later entered the Paris atelier of Hector Lefuel in 1846, the aspiring architect Hunt became the first American to attend the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Hunt would later regale aspiring young architect Louis Sullivan with stories of his work on the New Louvre in Lefuels atelier libre and his philosophy of architectural work may be summed up in his quote The first thing youve got to remember is that its your clients money youre spending. Your goal is to achieve the best results by following their wishes, if they want you to build a house upside down standing on its chimney, its up to you to do it. Hunts greatest influence was his insistence that architects be treated, and paid, as legitimate and he sued one of his early clients for non-payment of his five percent fee, which established an important legal precedent. Hunt married Catherine Clinton Howland on April 2,1861 and she was the daughter of Samuel S. Howland. His extensive social connections in Newport among the richest Americans of his generation, were informed by his energy, legend has it that while on a final walk-through of one of his Vanderbilt mansions, Hunt discovered a mysterious tent-like object in one of the ballrooms. Investigating, he found it was covering a life-sized statue of himself, dressed in stonecutters clothes. Vanderbilt permitted the statue to be placed on the roof of the mansion, most who came into contact with Hunt came away struck by the man. On their first meeting in 1869 Ralph Waldo Emerson spoke of one remarkable person new to me, Hunt designed New Yorks Tribune Building, one of the earliest with an elevator, in 1873. Other buildings of note that Hunt designed include the Theological Library and Marquand Chapel in Princeton, the Scroll and Key building at Yale, until the Lenox Library, none of Hunts American works were in the Beaux-Arts style with which he is associated. Late in his life he became involved in the Chicagos Worlds Columbian Exposition in 1893, in New York City, Hunts handiwork can be seen on the austere pedestal of the Statue of Liberty and on the elegant 5th Avenue facade of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hunt often employed sculptor Karl Bitter to enrich his designs, according to Central Park historian Sarah Cedar Miller, Central Park Commissioner and influential New Yorker Andrew Haswell Green, was a major supporter of Hunt. When the park commissioners adopted Hunts design, Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux protested and resigned their positions with the Central Park project, Hunts plan for Scholars Gate was never built and Olmsted and Vaux subsequently rejoined the project

12.
Second Empire (architecture)
–
Second Empire is an architectural style, most popular in the latter half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century. It was so named for the elements in vogue during the era of the Second French Empire. The style quickly spread and evolved as Baroque Revival architecture throughout Europe and its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the United States, where one of the architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the found in Europe

Second Empire (architecture)
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Mairie de Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées, France, An example of French Second Empire architecture
Second Empire (architecture)
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Élysée Palace garden façade.
Second Empire (architecture)
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Alfred B. Mullett 's former State, War and Navy Building, Washington, D.C., begun during the Grant administration and built between 1871 and 1888.
Second Empire (architecture)
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Old City Hall, Boston, Massachusetts

13.
Baroque Revival architecture
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The Baroque Revival, also known as Neo-Baroque, was an architectural style of the late 19th century. The term is used to describe architecture which displays important aspects of Baroque style, barbaras Church, Brooklyn, New York, United States St. John Cantius Church, Chicago, United States Church of St. A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Oxford University Press

14.
Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King

Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace and the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel circa 1860. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile can be seen in the background.
Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace in the 1600s
Tuileries Palace
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The old medieval Louvre (background) and the Tuileries (foreground) linked by the Grande Galerie along the River Seine, in 1615
Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace and the Louvre on the 1739 Turgot map of Paris, during the reign of Louis XV

15.
Paris Commune of 1871
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The Paris Commune was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. Following the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III in September 1870, the French Second Empire swiftly collapsed, in its stead rose a Third Republic at war with Prussia, which laid siege to Paris for four months. A hotbed of radicalism, Frances capital was primarily defended during this time by the often politicized. In February 1871 Adolphe Thiers, the new executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia that disarmed the Army. Soldiers of the Communes National Guard killed two French army generals, and the Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government, the regular French Army suppressed the Commune during La semaine sanglante beginning on 21 May 1871. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, on 2 September 1870, after Frances unexpected defeat at the Battle of Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War, Emperor Napoleon III surrendered to the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. When the news reached Paris the next day, shocked and angry crowds came out into the streets, Empress Eugénie de Montijo, the Emperors regent, fled the city, and the Government of the Second Empire swiftly collapsed. Republican and radical deputies of the National Assembly went to the Hôtel de Ville, proclaimed the new French Republic, though the Emperor and the French Army had been defeated at Sedan, the war continued. The German army marched swiftly toward Paris, in Paris, however, the republican candidates dominated, winning 234,000 votes against 77,000 for the Bonapartists. Only about 40,000 were employed in factories and large enterprises, most were employed in industries in textiles, furniture. There were also 115,000 servants and 45,000 concierges, in addition to the native French population, there were about 100,000 immigrant workers and political refugees, the largest number being from Italy and Poland. The working class and immigrants suffered the most from the lack of activity due to the war. The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers and this discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut Revolts, in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s. Many Parisians, especially workers and the classes, supported a democratic republic. They also wanted a more just way of managing the economy, if not necessarily socialist, socialist movements, such as the First International, had been growing in influence with hundreds of societies affiliated to it across France. In early 1867, Parisian employers of bronze-workers attempted to de-unionize their workers and this was defeated by a strike organized by the International. Later in 1867, a public demonstration in Paris was answered by the legal dissolution of its executive committee. The International had considerable influence even among unaffiliated French workers, particularly in Paris, the killing of journalist Victor Noir incensed Parisians, and the arrests of journalists critical of the Emperor did nothing to quiet the city

Paris Commune of 1871
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A barricade on Rue Voltaire, after its capture by the regular army during the Bloody Week
Paris Commune of 1871
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Louis Auguste Blanqui, leader of the Commune's far-left faction, was imprisoned for the entire time of the Commune.
Paris Commune of 1871
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Eugène Varlin led several thousand National Guard soldiers to march to the Hotel de Ville chanting 'Long Live the Commune!".
Paris Commune of 1871
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Revolutionary units of the National Guard briefly seized the Hotel de Ville on 31 October 1870, but the uprising failed.

16.
Achille Fould
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Achille Fould was a French financier and politician. Achille Fould was born on 17 November 1800 in Paris and his father, Beer Léon Fould, was a Jewish banker. Fould began his career as a banker for the family bank, as early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. From that time to his death he busied himself with the affairs of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution of February 1848, and is said to have exercised an influence in financial matters on the provisional government then formed. He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use of money, entitled, Pas dAssignats I and Observations sur la question financière. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon he was four times minister of finance and his strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine of free trade, and disposed him to hail the coup détat and the new empire. In this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855, during his last tenure of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican War had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan of 300 million francs. Fould, besides uncommon financial abilities, had a taste for the arts, which he developed and refined during his youth by visiting Italy. In 1857 he was made a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts, Fould converted to Protestantism in 1858. Fould died in Tarbes in 1867, Fould family Works by or about Achille Fould at Internet Archive

17.
Parc Monceau
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Parc Monceau is a public park situated in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France, at the junction of Boulevard de Courcelles, Rue de Prony and Rue Georges Berger. At the main entrance is a rotunda, the park covers an area of 8.2 hectares. The park was established by Phillippe dOrléans, Duke of Chartres, a cousin of King Louis XVI, fabulously wealthy, in 1769 he had begun purchasing the land where the park is located. In 1778, he decided to create a park. The Duke was a friend of the Prince of Wales, later George IV. Carmontelle employed a German landscape architect named Etickhausen and the architect of the Duke, Bernard Poyet, the intention of the garden was to surprise and amaze visitors. This goal was stated by Carmontelle, It is not necessary for gardens or nature to be presented in the most agreeable forms. The true art is to know how to keep the visitors there, through a variety of objects, otherwise they go to the real countryside to find what should be found in this garden. The garden designed by Carmontelle was finished in 1779, in addition to the follies, the garden featured servants dressed in oriental and other exotic costumes, and unusual animals, such as camels. Though the Folly was frequently described as an Anglo-Chinese or English garden, its architect, as garden fashions changed, in 1781 parts of the park were remodeled into a more traditional English landscape style by the Scottish landscape gardener Thomas Blaikie. The ground floor of the temple was used as a customs house, while the upper floor was an apartment with a view of the garden reserved for the Duke. While The Duke was a supporter of the ideas of the French Revolution and he was guillotined during the Reign of Terror in 1793, and the park was nationalized. In 1797, Parc Monceau was the site of the first silk parachute jump, after the monarchy was restored, the park was returned to the family of the Duke. During the Second Empire, the family sold lots within the park to real estate developers, the remaining part of the park was purchased by the city of Paris in 1860. All that remained of the folly was the water lily pond, the stream. Two main alleys were laid out from east to west and north to south, meeting in the center of the park, and the alleys within the park were widened and paved, so carriages could drive the park. An ornamental gate 8.3 m high was installed along a newly created avenue, boulevard Malesherbes, the pavillon de Chartres was also modified by the architect, Gabriel Davioud, who had a graceful classical dome added to the structure. He also built bridge modeled after the Rialto bridge in Venice over the stream to replace the Chinese bridge that Carmontelle had once been there and he preserved the other follies remaining from the original garden

Parc Monceau
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Rotunda, in Parc Monceau, (1787) built as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General
Parc Monceau
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Carmontelle giving keys to Parc Monceau to the Duke of Chartres (painting by Carmontelle (1779)
Parc Monceau
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The classical colonnade in Parc Monceau (1778)

18.
Passy Cemetery
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Passy Cemetery is a cemetery in Passy, in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. The current cemetery replaced the old cemetery, which was closed in 1802, in the early 19th century, on the orders of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, all the cemeteries in Paris were replaced by several large new ones outside the precincts of the capital. Montmartre Cemetery was built in the north, Père Lachaise Cemetery in the east, Passy Cemetery was a later addition, but has its origins in the same edict. The current entrance was built in 1934, the retaining wall of the cemetery is adorned with a bas relief commemorating the soldiers who fell in World War I. Opened in 1820 in the residential and commercial districts of the Right Bank near the Champs-Élysées. It is the cemetery in Paris to have a heated waiting-room. Sheltered by a bower of trees, the cemetery is in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower. The cemetery was once the home of a statue by Dunikowski titled The Soul Escaping the Body and it was on top of the ceremonial grave of Antoni Cierplikowski. The statue was known by many but was removed when the grave was cleared in 2004 and it is known as a small but well visited cemetery. Natalie Clifford Barney, Notable author, salonist and lesbian socialite of the Belle Époque, the entrance of the cemetery is located at 2, Rue du Commandant Schlœsing. The street in which it is situated is named for a Free French pilot, Squadron Leader Jacques-Henri Schlœsing, who flew with the wartime RAF until killed in action, the cemetery is behind the Trocadéro. Passy Cemetery on the Mairie de Paris website Passy Cemetery on the Cimetiéres de France et dAilleurs website Information, photographs of Passy cemetery Documenting funerary statuary in Paris cemeteries, on pariscemeteries. com

19.
Pavillon Sully
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The Pavillon de l’Horloge, also known as the Pavillon Sully, is a prominent pavilion located in the center of the west wing of the Cour Carrée of the Palais du Louvre in Paris. The two names Pavillon de lHorloge and Pavillon Sully are now reserved for the central pavilions eastern and western faces. The pavilion was built just north of the older Lescot Wing between 1624 and about 1645, the famous structure, with its square-domed roof, was designed by architect Jacques Lemercier. The name comes from a clock later incorporated into its elevation, the structure become known as the Pavillon Sully early in the 19th century. Its western facade was remodeled by Hector Lefuel in the 1850s during the Second Empire. Two Unpublished Drawings by Lemercier for the Pavillon de lHorloge, The Burlington Magazine, JSTOR873224 Blunt, Anthony, Beresford, Richard. Art and architecture in France, 1500-1700, new Haven Connecticut, Yale University Press. Jacques Lemercier, architecte et ingénieur du Roi, Paris, Maison des sciences de lhomme. Media related to Pavillon de lHorloge at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Pavillon Sully at Wikimedia Commons Structurae. de page on the Palais du Louvres building history

Pavillon Sully
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The east (Cour Carrée) facade of the Pavillon de l'Horloge, designed by Jacques Lemercier
Pavillon Sully
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Lemercier's western facade from the former rue Fromenteau, late 18th century
Pavillon Sully
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Western facade of the Pavillon Sully, designed by Hector Lefuel

20.
Jacques Lemercier
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Lemercier was born in Pontoise, the son of a master mason, one of a large interrelated tribe of professionals. As early as 1618 he appears as architecte du roy, with a salary of 1200 livres, in this manner Lemercier built the northern half of the west side and the famous Pavillon de lHorloge at the center of the west wing. Its high squared dome breaks the roofline and three arched openings provide access to the enclosed court. Two superposed orders of columns and rich sculptural decor in pediments and niches, on piers, the Hôtel de Liancourt stands out among Lemerciers Paris hôtels particuliers for aristocratic patrons. Lemercier built Richelieus Paris residence, the Palais-Cardinal, todays Palais Royal, Richelieus palace was destroyed by fire in 1763. Only one remnant survives, a fragment with a relief of ship anchors and prows, signs of the Cardinals role as Superintendent of the Navy. This remnant is located in the Galerie des Proues, on the east side of the second court, the lost château itself was an improvisation on the theme set by Brosses Luxembourg. Also for the Cardinal Lemercier rebuilt the Château de Rueil, not so far from Paris, the Château of Thouars, with its majestic long façade, is his also, and survives. Less known, because gardens are less permanent, are parterre gardens laid out to Lemerciers designs, at Montjeu, at Richelieu, at the Sorbonne, the college has been rebuilt, but its domed church is the acknowledged surviving masterpiece of Lemercier. The interior was intended to be frescoed, the square intersection is surrounded by cylindrical vaults and a semicircular choir apse. The north side consists of a portico, in the church Richelieu was interred in 1642. At the royal church of Val-de-Grâce Lemercier succeeded the elder Mansart who completed the structure to the cornice line. Lemercier completed it with a dome, one of his last commissions was the design of the Church of Saint-Roch, where the cornerstone was laid by Louis XIV in 1653. With a length of m. it is one of the largest churches of Paris, the deep choir emphasizes the extent of the interior, scarcely interrupted by the discreet low dome over the crossing, which is hidden on the exterior beneath the transept roof. Lemercier completed the choir and crossing and the rest of the interior was carried out to his plan, work was interrupted 1701–1740 save for a chapel inserted 1705–1710 designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The present façade is an 18th-century composition by Robert de Cotte, in a long career, the scrupulous Lemercier amassed no fortune. Other French architects of the first half of the 17th century, Salomon de Brosse Liberal Bruant Pierre Le Muet Louis Le Vau François Mansart Clément Métezeau Ballon, the Architecture of Cardinal Richelieu, pp. 246–259, in Richelieu, Art and Power, edited by Hilliard Todd Goldfarb. The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Jacques Lemercier, architecte et ingénieur du roi ISBN 2-7351-1042-7 Review by Thierry Sarment

21.
Second Empire architecture
–
Second Empire is an architectural style, most popular in the latter half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century. It was so named for the elements in vogue during the era of the Second French Empire. The style quickly spread and evolved as Baroque Revival architecture throughout Europe and its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the United States, where one of the architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the found in Europe

Second Empire architecture
–
Mairie de Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées, France, An example of French Second Empire architecture
Second Empire architecture
–
Élysée Palace garden façade.
Second Empire architecture
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Alfred B. Mullett 's former State, War and Navy Building, Washington, D.C., begun during the Grant administration and built between 1871 and 1888.
Second Empire architecture
–
Old City Hall, Boston, Massachusetts

22.
Alexandre Colonna-Walewski
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Alexandre Florian Joseph, Count Colonna-Walewski, was a Polish and French politician and diplomat. Walewski was widely rumoured to be the son of Napoleon I by his mistress, Countess Marie Walewska. Walewski was born at Walewice, near Warsaw in Poland, after the Fall of Warsaw, he took out letters of French naturalization and joined the French army, seeing action in Algeria as a captain in the Chasseurs dAfrique of the French Foreign Legion. In 1837 he resigned his commission to begin writing plays and for the press and he is said to have collaborated with the elder Dumas on Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle and a comedy of his, LEcole du monde, was produced at the Theâtre Français in 1840. Later that year Thiers, also a man of letters, became patron to one of Walewskis papers, Le Messager des Chambres, under Guizots government Walewski was posted to Buenos Aires to liaise with the British ambassador, John Cradock, 1st Baron Howden. In 1855, Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as Minister of Foreign Affairs, as foreign minister, Walewski advocated entente with Russia, opposing his emperors adventurous strategy in Italy which led to war with Austria in 1859. After leaving the Foreign Ministry in 1860 he became Frances Minister of State, alexandre Walewski died of a stroke at Strasbourg on 27 September 1868 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. He married on 1 December 1831 Lady Catherine Montagu, daughter of George, following her death, he married secondly, on 4 June 1846 in Florence, Maria Anna, daughter of the Papal Count Zanobi di Ricci by his wife Princess Isabella Poniatowski. He also fathered a son by the actress Rachel Felix in 1844 and he had seven children, two from his first marriage, four from his second marriage, and one illegitimate. By Lady Catherine Montagu, Louise-Marie Colonna-Walewska, by Maria Anna di Ricci, Isabel Colonna-Walewski. Comte Charles Walewski, married Félice Douay, no children, elise Colonna-Walewski married Félix, Comte de Bourqueney, leaving issue. Eugénie Colonna-Walewski, married Comte Frédéric Mathéus, leaving issue

23.
Napoleon I
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51

24.
Maria Walewska
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Maria Countess Walewska was a Polish noblewoman and a mistress of Emperor Napoleon I. In her later years she married count Philippe Antoine dOrnano, an influential Napoleonic officer, Maria was born into a wealthy noble family in Kiernozia. Her father, who died before she was born, was a landowner and starosta of Gostyń, Maria had six siblings, Benedykt Jozef, Hieronim, Teodor, Honorata, Katarzyna and Urszula-Teresa. She grew up in her home, Kiernozia, where she also received her education. Nicholas Chopin, Frédéric Chopins father, was one of her tutors, in 1805 she married Athenasius count Colonna-Walewski, starosta of Warka district and a once-chamberlain to the last Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski. Walewski was a landowner, but was four times older than his young bride. Maria and Athenasius had one son, Antoni Rudolf Bazyli Colonna-Walewski, although it is believed by historians that he was an illegitimate child. Maria met Napoleon for the first time in 1806 in Błonie, according to Marias own memoirs, she spoke briefly with the French emperor, but the meeting was inconclusive. However, Napoleon remembered her for her beauty and requested to see her in Warsaw. They met again at a ball hosted by count Stanislaw Potocki in his Warsaw residence, in her memoirs, Maria maintained that she forced herself to get involved with Napoleon for purely patriotic reasons, The sacrifice was complete. It was all about harvesting fruit now, achieving this one single equivalence and this was the thought that possessed me. Ruling over my will it did not allow me to fall under the weight of my bad consciousness and sadness, the affair was initially kept secret, even though unofficially it was one of the most widely commented news in Warsaws higher circles. Walewska visited Napoleon, residing in the capitals Royal Castle, only at nights, the relationship progressed when Napoleon moved to his field headquarters in Finckenstein Palace in East Prussia, Maria followed him there and they moved into neighbouring apartments. In 1809 Maria followed Napoleon during his journey to Vienna, where she lived in a house near Schönbrunn Palace, during her sojourn in Vienna she became pregnant and returned to Walewice in order to give birth to her second son, Alexandre Joseph. Although Alexandre was unquestionably a product of Marias affair with the Emperor, in 1810 Napoleon returned to Paris, where he was soon joined by Maria. The Emperor planned to divorce Josephine and instead marry Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma and her and her sons future were nevertheless assured by the grant of large land estates in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1812 Maria divorced count Colonna-Walewski, to facilitate it, her brother, Benedykt Jozef, admitted to forcing the marriage upon her. It remains unclear whether this was the truth, as in her memoirs Maria stated that her mother influenced her choice to marry Athenasius, as a settlement, she and her oldest son received half of count Walewskis estates, which even though heavily indebted, represented considerable wealth

25.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria was queen consort of France and Navarre, regent for her son, Louis XIV of France, and a Spanish and Portuguese Infanta by birth. During her regency, Cardinal Mazarin served as Frances chief minister, born at Benavente Palace in Valladolid, Spain, and baptised Ana María Mauricia, she was the eldest daughter of King Philip III of Spain and his wife Margaret of Austria. She held the titles of Infanta of Spain and of Portugal, in spite of her birth in Spain, she was referred to as Anne of Austria because the rulers of Spain belonged to the House of Austria. Anne was raised mainly at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid, exceptionally for a royal princess, Anne grew up close to her parents, who were very religious. She was raised to be too, and was often taken to visit monasteries during her childhood. In 1611, she lost her mother, who died in childbirth, despite her grief, Anne did her best to take care of her younger siblings, who referred to her with affection as their mother. Anne was betrothed at age eleven to King Louis XIII of France and her father gave her a dowry of 500,000 crowns and many beautiful jewels. For fear that Louis XIII would die early, the Spanish court stipulated that she would return to Spain with her dowry, jewels, and wardrobe if he did die. On 24 November 1615, Louis and Anne were married by proxy in Burgos while Louiss sister, Elisabeth of France, Anne and Elisabeth were exchanged on the Isle of Pheasants between Hendaye and Fuenterrabía. She was lively and beautiful during her youth and she was also a noted equestrian, a taste her son, Louis, would inherit. At the time, Anne had many admirers, including the handsome Duke of Buckingham, Anne and Louis, both fourteen years old, were pressured to consummate their marriage in order to forestall any possibility of future annulment, but Louis ignored his bride. Louiss mother, Marie de Medici, continued to conduct herself as queen of France, Anne, surrounded by her entourage of high-born Spanish ladies-in-waiting, continued to live according to Spanish etiquette and failed to improve her French. During the years he was in the ascendancy, the Duke of Luynes attempted to remedy the formal distance between Louis and his queen, Anne began to dress in the French manner, and in 1619 Luynes pressed the king to bed his queen. Some affection developed, to the point where it was noted that Louis was distracted during an illness of the queen. A series of stillbirths disenchanted the king and served to chill their relations, on 14 March 1622, while playing with her ladies, Anne fell on a staircase and suffered her second stillbirth. Louis blamed her for the incident and was angry with the Duchess of Luynes for having encouraged the queen in what was seen as negligence. Henceforth, the king had less tolerance for the influence that the duchess had over Anne, Louis turned now to Cardinal Richelieu as his advisor. Under the influence of Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, the queen let herself be drawn into political opposition to Richelieu, in 1635, France declared war on Spain, placing the queen in an untenable position

Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Anne at the age of six, 1607. The pleated ruff that surrounds her neck and frames her face was made of yards and yards of expensive lace stiffened with starch. It was probably held in position by a wire frame attached to the collar of her dress.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria, coronation costume, by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Louis XIII, Anne, and their son Louis XIV, flanked by Cardinal Richelieu and the Duchesse de Chevreuse.

26.
Third French Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again

Third French Republic
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The Sacré-Cœur Basilica was built as a symbol of the Ordre Moral.
Third French Republic
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Flag
Third French Republic
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In France, children were taught in school not to forget the lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which were coloured in black on maps.
Third French Republic
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Georges Ernest Boulanger, nicknamed Général Revanche

27.
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux
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Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux was a French sculptor and painter during the Second Empire under Napoleon III. Born in Valenciennes, Nord, son of a mason, his studies were under François Rude. Carpeaux entered the École des Beaux-Arts in 1844 and won the Prix de Rome in 1854, staying in Rome from 1854 to 1861, he obtained a taste for movement and spontaneity, which he joined with the great principles of baroque art. Carpeaux sought real life subjects in the streets and broke with the classical tradition, Carpeaux debuted at the Salon in 1853 exhibiting La Soumission dAbd-el-Kader alEmperuer, a bas-relief in plaster that did not attract much attention. Carpeaux was an admirer of Napoléon III and followed him from city to city during Napoléons official trip through the north of France, Carpeaux soon grew tired of academicism and became a wanderer on the streets of Rome. He spent free time admiring the frescoes of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel, Carpeaux said, When an artist feels pale and cold, he runs to Michelangelo in order to warm himself, as with the rays of the sun. While a student in Rome, Carpeaux submitted a version of Pêcheur napolitain à la coquille. He carved the marble version several years later, showing it in the Salon exhibition of 1863 and it was purchased for Napoleon IIIs empress, Eugénie. The statue of the smiling boy was very popular, and Carpeaux created a number of reproductions and variations in marble. There is a copy, for instance, in the Samuel H. Kress Collection in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, some years later, he carved the Girl with a Shell, a very similar study. In 1861, he made a bust of Princess Mathilde, then in 1866, he established his own atelier in order to reproduce and make work on a grander scale. In 1866, he was awarded the chevalier of the Legion of Honour and he employed his brother as the sales manager and made a calculated effort to produce work that would appeal to a larger audience. On 12 October 1875, he died at the Chateau de Bécon, among his students were Jules Dalou, Jean-Louis Forain and the American sculptor Olin Levi Warner. Carpeaux died at age 48 in Courbevoie, ugolin et ses fils with versions in other museums including the Musée dOrsay, Paris. Partly complete at his death, Carpeaux finished the terrestrial globe with the points represented by the four figures of Asia, Europe. LAmour à la folie, part of a group La danse for the facade of the Opera Garnier A page from insecula

Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux
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The Seasons turning the celestial Sphere for the Fountain of the Observatory, Jardin du Luxembourg
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux
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Illustration of Carpeaux by Étienne Bocourt in the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, after his death. His Flore is below him, and other work above
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux
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Patinated plaster model for Valenciennes defending the arts of peace with the arts of war
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux
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La Danse (The Dance), for the Opera Garnier, heavily criticized as being indecent

28.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding

29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

30.
The Dictionary of Art
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A new edition was published in 2003 by Oxford University Press. Written by 6,700 experts from around the world, its 32, 600-pages cover over 45,000 topics about art, artists, art critics, art collectors, or anything else connected to the world of art. According to The New York Times Book Review it is the most ambitious art-publishing venture of the late 20th century, almost half the content covers non-Western subjects, and contributors hail from 120 countries. Topics range from Julia Margaret Cameron to Shoji Hamada, Korea to Timbuktu, the Enlightenment to Marxism, entries include bibliographies and a vast number of images. The dictionary is available in a standard hardcover edition, though the leather-bound version appears to be out of print. The Grove Dictionary of Art is published by Oxford University Press, the online version, which is updated three times a year, is available by subscription and includes some extra content. In the UK, many libraries offer it free to their online users using their library membership number. The Grove Dictionary of Art was first offered online through the Grove Art Online web site in 1998. The site was expanded and renamed as Oxford Art Online, including works, The Oxford Companion to Western Art, Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. In 2011, the Benezit Dictionary of Artists was added to the database, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians References Sources Jane Turner

The Dictionary of Art
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The Dictionary of Art

31.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions

32.
Louvre-Lens
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The Louvre-Lens is an art museum located in Lens, Pas-de-Calais, Northern France, approximately 200 kilometers north of Paris. It displays objects from the collections of the Musée du Louvre that are lent to the gallery on a medium- or long-term basis, the Louvre-Lens annex is part of an effort to provide access to French cultural institutions for people who live outside of Paris. Though the museum maintains close links with the Louvre, it is primarily funded by the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. Only the Nord pas de Calais applied for the museum and proposed six cities, Lille, Lens, Valenciennes, Calais, Béthune, in 2004, Jean-Pierre Raffarin, then French Prime Minister, announced Lens as the recipient city. The last mine in Lens closed in 1986, which caused the unemployment rate to well above the French national average. France abandoned us when the coal stopped, and we became a ghost town, other critics pointed out that the museum makes no attempt to address Lens turbulent history or its current economic difficulties. The construction company Eiffage was chosen to construct the Lens-based Louvre branch, the Louvre-Lens Museum, SANAA + Imrey Culberts first building in France, was awarded the Prix darchitecture de lEquerre dArgent for 2013. The French government hopes that the location near the border of France will be a draw for English, Belgian. In addition, the Louvre-Lens is near several World War memorials, including the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in Vimy, the museum is built on a 20-hectare mining site that closed in the 1960s. The area is elevated due to filling in of the mine. Altogether, the museum is 360 m long and contains 28,000 m2 of exhibition space, the design of a central building flanked by two wings mimics the Paris Louvre. The square, central building is the reception area. It contains several curved glass rooms that contain a cafeteria, bookstore, to the east of the entry hall is the 3,000 m2 Galerie du Temps which houses approximately 200 items from the Paris Louvre collection. The items in the large, open hall are arranged chronologically, from 3,500 BC to mid-19th century, beyond the Galerie du Temps is the Pavillon de Verre which exhibits works from neighboring museums. The building to the west of the hall is a gallery for temporary exhibits and, beyond that. The Exhibitions Temporaires is dedicated to exhibits which last 3 months, the first exhibition, titled Renaissance, included Leonardo da Vincis recently-restored The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. The second exhibit was dedicated to Rubens and included 170 of his works, the following weekend, the museum welcomed its first visitors, three weeks after the opening, the museum welcomed its 100, 000th visitor. On May 2013, during Long Night of Museums 2013,500,000 visitors viewed the masterpieces displayed in the Louvre-Lens Museum, while 700,000 visitors were anticipated for the first year, the years final tally was approximately 900,000

33.
Louvre Abu Dhabi
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The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a planned museum, to be located in Abu Dhabi, UAE. On Tuesday 7 March 2007, the Louvre in Paris announced that a new Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi, the opening has been repeatedly delayed, first to late 2016 and most recently to 2017. This is part of an agreement between the city of Abu Dhabi and the French government. The museum is to be located on the Saadiyat Island Cultural District, the final cost of the construction is expected to be between €83 million and €108 million. Artwork from around the world will be showcased at the museum, however, the construction of the museum has caused much controversy in the art world, as many objections have been raised as to the motives of the Louvre in this deal. The establishment of this museum was approved by the French Parliament on 9 October 2007, the architect for the building will be Jean Nouvel and the engineers are Buro Happold. Jean Nouvel also designed the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris and it will be chaired by French financier and member of the countrys Académie des Beaux-Arts, Marc Ladreit de Lacharrière, publisher of the periodical Revue des Deux Mondes. Bruno Maquart, the former Executive Director of Centre Georges Pompidou, Saadiyat Islands Cultural District plans to house the largest single cluster of world-class cultural assets. The museum will be designed as a seemingly floating dome structure, the overall effect is meant to represent rays of sunlight passing through date palm fronds in an oasis. The total area of the museum will be approximately 24,000 square metres, piling works In Louvre were to be completed by August 2010, with the piling and enabling works package awarded to the German specialized company. The total of 4536 piles consisted of RC Piles and H-Piles and was completed on 3 August 2010, on 29 October 2011, Tourism Development & Investment Company, the project manager owned by the government of Abu Dhabi, announced it would delay establishing the museum. The company gave no new date, according to the UAE newspapers Gulf News and The National, the delay could be explained by a review of the emirates economic strategy. In January 2012 it was confirmed that the Louvre Abu Dhabis new opening date would be 2015, construction on the main phase of the museum began in early 2013 by a consortium headed by Arabtec, Constructora San José and Oger Abu Dhabi. This stage includes waterproofing and the two basement levels, along with four pillars that will support the 7,000 tonne dome. Work on the construction of the spaces and initial preparation for the dome began in the fourth quarter of 2013. On 5 December 2013, the first element of the canopy was lifted into place. On 17 March 2014 TDIC announced the completion of the first permanent gallery structure to mark the first anniversary of the start of construction. At this time, it was claimed that a total of ten million man hours had been worked and 120,538 cubic meters of concrete used

34.
Louvre Palace
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The Louvre Palace is a former royal palace located on the Right Bank of the Seine in Paris, between the Tuileries Gardens and the church of Saint-Germain lAuxerrois. Its present structure has evolved in stages since the 16th century, in 1793 part of the Louvre became a public museum, now the Musée du Louvre, which has expanded to occupy most of the building. The Palace is situated in the right-bank of the River Seine between Rue de Rivoli to the north and the Quai François Mitterrand to the south. To the west is the Jardin des Tuileries and, to the east, the Rue de lAmiral de Coligny, where its most architecturally famous façade, the Louvre Colonnade, the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel are separated by the street known as the Place du Carrousel. Some 51,615 sq m in the complex are devoted to public exhibition floor space. The Old Louvre occupies the site of the 12th-century fortress of King Philip Augustus and its foundations are viewable in the basement level as the Medieval Louvre department. This structure was razed in 1546 by King Francis I in favour of a royal residence which was added to by almost every subsequent French monarch. King Louis XIV, who resided at the Louvre until his departure for Versailles in 1678, completed the Cour Carrée, the Old Louvre is a quadrilateral approximately 160 m on a side consisting of 8 ailes which are articulated by 8 pavillons. With it, the last external vestiges of the medieval Louvre were demolished, the New Louvre is the name often given to the wings and pavilions extending the Palace for about 500 m westwards on the north and on the south sides of the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel. This consummation only lasted a few years, however, as the Tuileries was burned in 1871, the northern limb of the new Louvre consists of three great pavilions along the Rue de Rivoli, the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque, Pavillon de Rohan and Pavillon de Marsan. As on the side, three inside pavilions and their wings define three more subsidiary Courts, Cour du Sphinx, Cour Viconti and Cour Lefuel. The Chinese American architect I. M. Pei was selected in 1983 to design François Mitterrands Grand Louvre Project. The ground-level entrance to this complex was situated in the centre of the Cour Napoléon and is crowned by the prominent steel-and-glass pyramid, in a proposal by Kenneth Carbone, the nomenclature of the wings of the Louvre was simplified in 1987 to reflect the Grand Louvres organization. This allows the visitor to avoid becoming totally mystified at the bewildering array of named wings. The origin of the name Louvre is unclear, the French historian Henri Sauval, probably writing in the 1660s, stated that he had seen in an old Latin-Saxon glossary, Leouar is translated castle and thus took Leouar to be the origin of Louvre. According to Keith Briggs, Sauvals theory is often repeated, even in recent books, but this glossary has never seen again. Briggs suggests that H. J. Wolfs proposal in 1969 that Louvre derives instead from Latin Rubras, david Hanser, on the other hand, reports that the word may come from French louveterie, a place where dogs were trained to chase wolves. In 1190 King Philip II Augustus, who was about to leave on the Third Crusade, completed in 1202, the new fortress was situated in what is now the southwest quadrant of the Cour Carrée

35.
Lescot Wing
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The Lescot Wing is the oldest portion above ground of the Louvre Palace, in Paris, France. It was executed to the designs of the architect Pierre Lescot between 1546 and 1551, strongly tinged with Italian Mannerism, it became the Parisian Renaissance style, thus setting the mold for all later French architectural classicism. The Lescot Wing is situated between the Pavillon du Roi and the Pavillon de lHorloge, and overlooks the inner Cour Carrée of the Louvre, the court facade consists of two main stories plus an attic richly embellished with Jean Goujons panels of bas-reliefs. It is crowned by a roof, a traditional feature of French architecture. The deeply recessed arch-headed windows of the ground story give the impression of an arcade, in the second storey slender fluted pilasters separate the windows, which alternate delicate triangular and arched pediments. King Francis I appointed architect Pierre Lescot to take charge of the projects at the Palais du Louvre. This was confirmed after Francois’ death by his heir Henry II, only the Lescot Wing, the Pavillon du Roi, and part of the south wing of the Square Court were completed. Of Lescots interior designs in the Lescot Wing, there only the Salle des Gardes. Just to the north of the Lescot Wing are the Pavillon de lHorloge, the Lemercier Wing, and the Pavillon de Beauvais. This northern extension was begun in 1624 under Louis XIII and Richelieu, the Lemercier Wing is a symmetrical extension of Lescots Wing in exactly the same Renaissance style. With the addition of the Lemercier Wing, the last external vestiges of the medieval Louvre were demolished, façade of the Cour Carrée at the Web Gallery of Art. Lescot Wing webpage at Louvre Website

36.
Louvre Pyramid
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The Louvre Pyramid is a large glass and metal pyramid designed by Chinese-American architect I. M. Pei, surrounded by three smaller pyramids, in the main courtyard of the Louvre Palace in Paris. The large pyramid serves as the entrance to the Louvre Museum. Completed in 1989, it has become a landmark of the city of Paris, commissioned by the President of France, François Mitterrand, in 1984, it was designed by the architect I. M. Pei. The structure, which was constructed entirely with glass segments and metal poles, reaches a height of 21.6 metres and its square base has sides of 34 metres and a base surface area of 1,000 square metres. It consists of 603 rhombus-shaped and 70 triangular glass segments, the pyramid structure was engineered by Nicolet Chartrand Knoll Ltd. of Montreal and Rice Francis Ritchie of Paris. Visitors entering through the pyramid descend into the spacious lobby then re-ascend into the main Louvre buildings, for design historian Mark Pimlott, I. M. Pei’s plan distributes people effectively from the central concourse to myriad destinations within its vast subterranean network. Several other museums have duplicated this concept, most notably the Museum of Science, the Dolphin Centre, featuring a similar pyramid, was opened in April 1982, by Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester. The construction work on the base and underground lobby was carried out by the Vinci construction company. In 1839, according to one account, in ceremonies commemorating the glorious revolution of 1830, The tombs of the Louvre were covered with black hangings. In front and in the middle was erected a monument of a pyramidical shape. The construction of the pyramid triggered many years of strong and lively aesthetic, Pei being insufficiently French to be entrusted with the task of updating the treasured Parisian landmark. Meanwhile, Political critics referred to the structure as Pharaoh Francois Pyramid, while some continue to feel the harsh modernism of the edifice is out of place, others consider the juxtaposition of contrasting architectural styles a successful merger of the old and the new. During the design phase, there was a proposal that the design include a spire on the pyramid to simplify window washing, Pei objected, however, and this proposal was eliminated. It has been claimed by some that the glass panes in the Louvre Pyramid number exactly 666, the story of the 666 panes originated in the 1980s, when the official brochure published during construction did indeed cite this number. The number 666 was also mentioned in various newspapers, the Louvre museum, however, states that the finished pyramid contains 673 glass panes. A higher figure was obtained by David A. Shugarts, who reports that the pyramid contains 689 pieces of glass, Shugarts obtained the figure from the Peis offices. The side with the entrance, however, has 11 panes fewer, however, David A. Shugarts reports that according to a spokeswoman of the offices of Pei, the French President never specified the number of panes to be used in the pyramid. La Pyramide Inversée is a skylight in the Carrousel du Louvre shopping mall in front of the Louvre Museum and it looks like an upside-down and smaller version of the Louvre Pyramid

Louvre Pyramid
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Inside the Pyramid: the view of the Louvre Museum in Paris from the underground lobby of the Pyramid.
Louvre Pyramid
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The large glass pyramid seen at night
Louvre Pyramid
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The large glass pyramid seen by day

37.
Pierre Lescot
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Pierre Lescot was a French architect active during the French Renaissance, the man who was first responsible for the implantation of pure and correct classical architecture in France. Lescot was born in Paris, France, festive corner pavilions of commanding height and adorned by pillars and statues were to replace the medieval towers. Elsewhere in the Louvre, little was actually achieved beyond razing some of the old feudal structure, the deeply recessed arch-headed windows of the ground story give the impression of an arcade, while the projecting central and end pavilions bear small round oeil de boeuf windows above them. In the second storey slender fluted pilasters separate the windows, which alternate delicate triangular, of Lescots constructions at the Louvre there also remain the Salle des Gardes and the Henry II staircase. His first achievements were the rood-screen in Saint-Germain lAuxerrois, of only some sculptures by Goujon have been saved. Here and especially in the design of the Fountain of Nymphs and he was also responsible for the Château de Vallery. All of Lescots known works have sculptural decoration by Trebatti and by Jean Goujon, unlike the other architects of the French Flamboyant Gothic and Renaissance, Pierre Lescot was not from a line of masons, with practical experience, but the son of a seigneur. His father, also Pierre Lescot, was sieur of Lissy-en-Brie and Clagny, at his death, Lescot was succeeded at the Louvre by Jean Baptiste Androuet du Cerceau

38.
Louis Le Vau
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Louis Le Vau was a French Classical architect who worked for Louis XIV of France. He was born and died in Paris and he was responsible, with André Le Nôtre and Charles Le Brun, for the redesign of the château of Vaux-le-Vicomte. His later works included the Palace of Versailles and his collaboration with Claude Perrault on the Palais du Louvre, sulpice, and Hôtel Lambert, on the Île Saint-Louis, Paris. La peinture à Versailles, XVIIe siècle, Louis Le Vau, Mazarins Collège, Colberts Revenge. La Collection de portraits de lAcadémie royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, Peintures entrées sous le règne de Louis XIV (1648–1715, université de Paris IV,1994, pp. 164–166. Portraits des premiers architectes de Versailles, Revue des Arts, March 1955, françois dOrbay, Architecte de Louis XIV. Media related to Louis Le Vau at Wikimedia Commons

39.
Claude Perrault
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Claude Perrault was a French architect, best known for his participation in the design of the east façade of the Louvre in Paris. He also achieved success as a physician and anatomist, and as an author, Perrault was born and died in Paris. His treatise on the five orders of architecture followed in 1683. As physician and natural philosopher with a degree from the University of Paris. A committee commissioned by Louis XIV, the Petit Conseil, comprising Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun and it was begun in 1668 and was almost completed in 1680, by which time Louis XIV had abandoned the Louvre and focused his attention on the Palace of Versailles. The wing behind the east façade was not finished until the 19th century with the advent of Napoleon, the definitive design of the east façade is attributed to Perrault, who made the final alterations needed to accommodate a decision to double the width of the south wing. The east façade, divided in five parts, is a solution of the French classicism. The simple character of the ground floor basement sets off the paired Corinthian columns, modeled according to Vitruvius, against a shadowed void. Little that could be called Baroque can be identified in its cool classicism that looks back to the 16th century, perraults participation in its design established his reputation as an architect. Perrault also built an Observatory, the church of St-Benoît-le-Bétourné, designed a new church of Ste-Geneviève, perraults design for a triumphal arch on Rue St-Antoine was preferred to competing designs of Le Brun and Le Vau, but was only partly executed in stone. When the arch was taken down in the 19th century, it was found that the master had devised a means of so interlocking the stones, without mortar. In addition, he made a contribution in acoustics. His treatise on sound was a part of the book Oeuvres diverses de Physique et de Mecanique, in his later book, he treats such subjects as sound media, sources of sound and sound receivers. In musical acoustics, he noted the importance of vibration on consonance and dissonance and his study De la Musique des Anciens in the Oeuvres diverses discussed how combinations of notes yields harmony. It also contains critical examinations of old manuscripts on European music and his brother, Charles Perrault, is remembered as the classic reteller of the old story of Cinderella among other fables. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire N=naturelle des animaux, introduction by Alberto Pérez-Gómez to Indra Kagis McEwens translation of Perrault’s Ordonnance for the five kinds of columns after the method of the Ancients. Santa Monica, CA, Getty Center for the History of Art, media related to Claude Perrault at Wikimedia Commons Works by Claude Perrault at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Claude Perrault at Internet Archive

Claude Perrault
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Claude Perrault

40.
Ange-Jacques Gabriel
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Ange-Jacques Gabriel was the most prominent French architect of his generation. Ange-Jacques Gabriel was born on October 23,1698 to a Parisian family of architects and he was initially trained by the royal architect Robert de Cotte and his father Jacques Gabriel, whom he assisted in the creation of the Place Royale in Bordeaux. He was made a member of the Académie royale darchitecture in 1728, gabriels symmetrical palace-like façades for the hôtels particuliers that enclose the north side of the Place Louis XV, Paris, were begun in 1754 and completed in 1763. That on the right housed the storerooms for the furnishings, with luxurious apartments for the intendant. His sober rationality in planning and detail promoted the transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism, for forty years, Gabriel supplied all designs not only for exterior construction and also for the constant remodeling of interiors at Versailles. His Petit Trianon at Versailles is one of the gems of French Classicism and he died in Paris in 1782. Extension and transformations at the Château de Choisy, 1740–1777 Château de Compiègne,1750 onwards The Pavillon du Butard,1750 at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, the Architecture of the French Enlightenment, pp. 38–44. Les architectes parisiens du XVIIIe siècle, dictionnaire biographique et critique, Architecture in France in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 145–160. 2, pp. 133–144, in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects,4 volumes,11, pp. 882–884, in The Dictionary of Art,34 volumes, edited by Jane Turner. Ange-Jacques Gabriel at Great Buildings Online

41.
Jacques-Germain Soufflot
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Jacques-Germain Soufflot was a French architect in the international circle that introduced neoclassicism. His most famous work is the Panthéon in Paris, built from 1755 onwards, Soufflot was born in Irancy, near Auxerre. In the 1730s he attended the French Academy in Rome, where young French students in the 1750s would later produce the first full-blown generation of Neoclassical designers. Soufflots models were less the picturesque Baroque being built in modern Rome, with the Temple du Change, he was entrusted with completely recasting a 16th-century market exchange building housing a meeting space housed above a loggia. Soufflots newly made loggia is an unusually severe arcading tightly bound between flat Doric pilasters, with horizontal lines. He was accepted into the Lyon Academy, on this trip Soufflot made a special study of theaters. In 1755 Marigny, the new Director General of Royal Buildings, in the same year, he was admitted to the Royal Academy of Architecture. In 1756 his opera house opened in Lyon, the Panthéon is his most famous work, but the Hôtel Marigny built for his young patron across from the Élysée Palace, is a better definition of Soufflots personal taste. Soufflot died in Paris in 1780, like all the architects of his day, Soufflot considered the classical idiom essential. Jacques-Gabriel Soufflot information at Structurae Jacques-Germain Soufflot at Find a Grave

42.
Charles Percier
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Charles Percier was a neoclassical French architect, interior decorator and designer, who worked in a close partnership with Pierre François Léonard Fontaine, originally his friend from student days. For work undertaken from 1794 onward, trying to ascribe conceptions or details to one or other of them is fruitless, together, Percier and Fontaine were inventors and major proponents of the rich, grand, consciously-archaeological versions of neoclassicism we recognise as Directoire style and Empire style. Following Charles Perciers death in 1838, Fontaine designed a tomb in their style in the Pere Lachaise Cemetery. Percier and Fontaine had lived together as well as being colleagues, Fontaine married late in life and after his death in 1853 his body was placed in the same tomb according to his wishes. Percier was born at Paris in 1764, in 1784, at age nineteen, he won the Prix de Rome, a government-funded fellowship for study in Rome. One early product of their collaboarion was Palais, maisons et autres édifices modernes dessinés à Rome, which attracted the attention of prospective clients when they returned to Paris. At the end of 1792, near the end of the first phase of the French Revolution, Percier was appointed to supervise the scenery at the Paris Opéra, a post at the center of innovative design. Fontaine returned from the security of London, where he had been exiled, claude-Louis Bernier was a third member of their team. He appointed them his personal architects and never wavered in his decision, the relationship only dissolved when Napoleon retired to Elba. After the restoration of the House of Bourbon in 1814, they found themselves associated too intimately with the Empire ever to earn a commission again. From that time forward, Percier conducted a student atelier, a studio or workshop. One of Perciers pupils, Auguste de Montferrand, designed Saint Isaacs Cathedral in St Petersburg for Tsar Alexander I and they worked for ten years on the Louvre. The old palace had not been a residence for generations. It stood in the heart of Paris, so that the vain Emperor could be coming and going, unlike Versailles. They worked on the Tuileries Palace that faced the Louvre across the Place du Carrousel, Percier and Fontaine published several later books, notably Recueil de décoration intérieure concernant tout ce qui rapporte à lameublement with its engravings in a spare outline technique. These engravings spread their style beyond the Empire, they helped put a French stamp on the English Regency style and influenced the Dutch-British connoisseur-designer, at the end of 1804, Charles Percier officially retired and devoted himself to teaching

43.
Louis Visconti
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Louis Tullius Joachim Visconti was an Italian-born French architect and designer. He is probably most famed for designing the 1842 tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides and his students include Joseph Poelaert, designer of the Palais de justice de Bruxelles. Louis Visconti came from a family of archaeologists - his grandfather Giambattista Antonio Visconti had founded the Vatican Museums and his father. Ennio and his moved to Paris in 1798 and were naturalised as French citizens in 1799, with Ennio becoming a curator of antiquities. Between 1808 and 1817 Louis studied at Pariss École des Beaux-Arts under Charles Percier and he also studied under the painter François-André Vincent. In the meantime, in 1840, he designed Pariss decorations for the return of Napoleons remains and Napoleons tomb at the Invalides. Collaborating with Émile Trélat in the works to rebuild the Bibliothèque royale du Louvre in May 1848 and he was also made president of the Société Centrale des Architectes in 1852. Visconti died of an attack in 1853, the year of his election to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Hôtel de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, also known as Mle Mars,1 rue de la Tour-des-Dames,1821, aménagements de lhôtel de Charost,39 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré,1825. Fontaine Gaillon, place Gaillon, Paris, 1824-1828, agrandissement du Palais du Luxembourg,1834. Immeuble Farine,104 rue de Richelieu,1834, Hôtel de Pontalba,41 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré,1839. Hôtel Collot,25 quai Anatole-France, Paris,1840, neoclassical style Hôtel Visconti,3 rue Fortin,1840, fontaine Molière,37 rue de Richelieu, Paris, 1841-1843. Fontaine de la place Saint-Sulpice, Paris, 1842-1848, Hôtel de La Tour du Pin,25 rue Barbet-de-Jouy,1844. Hôtel Rigaud,10 rue Mogador,1845, agrandissement du ministère de lIntérieur, rue de Grenelle, with Moreau,1846. Extension du ministère des Finances,1846, 1791-1853, Paris, Délégation à lAction Artistique de la Ville de Paris,1991 – ISBN 2-905118-38-5. Page on base Structurae Article on Visconti on a site about rue Visconti, Paris

44.
Gaston Redon
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Gaston Redon was a French architect, teacher, and graphic artist. Redon was born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine to a prosperous family, gaston attended the École des Beaux-Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André, and took the Prix de Rome for architecture in 1883. This entitled him to three years at the Villa Medici from 1884 to 1887, where he met and became friends with the composer Claude Debussy, after his return to Paris, Redon was made the official architect of the Louvre. The rebuilding and expansion of the Pavilion de Marsan between 1900 and 1905 to accommodate the Museum of Decorative Arts amounts to his major built work. Redon was elected to the Académie des Beaux-Arts in May 1914 and his students included French architects Henri Marchal, Roger-Henri Expert, and Louis-Hippolyte Boileau among others. His work includes, the tomb of César Franck, Montparnasse Cemetery,1894 the casino at Royan,1895 Museum of Decorative Arts, Pavillon de Marsan, Louvre, 1900–1905 online biography

45.
I. M. Pei
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Ieoh Ming Pei, FAIA, RIBA, commonly known as I. M. Pei, is a Chinese-American architect. In 1948, Pei was recruited by New York City real estate magnate William Zeckendorf, Pei retired from full-time practice in 1990. Since then, he has taken on work as an architectural consultant primarily from his sons architectural firm Pei Partnership Architects and he went on to design Dallas City Hall and the East Building of the National Gallery of Art. He returned to China for the first time in 1975 to design a hotel at Fragrant Hills, and designed Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, a skyscraper in Hong Kong for the Bank of China fifteen years later. In the early 1980s, Pei was the focus of controversy when he designed a glass-and-steel pyramid for the Musée du Louvre in Paris. He later returned to the world of the arts by designing the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center in Dallas, the Miho Museum in Japan, the Suzhou Museum in Suzhou, in 1983, he won the Pritzker Prize, sometimes called the Nobel Prize of architecture. Peis ancestry traces back to the Ming Dynasty, when his family moved from Anhui province to Suzhou, finding wealth in the sale of medicinal herbs, the family stressed the importance of helping the less fortunate. Ieoh Ming Pei was born on April 26,1917 to Tsuyee Pei and Lien Kwun, the family eventually included five children. As a boy, Pei was very close to his mother and she invited him, his brothers, and his sisters to join her on meditation retreats. His relationship with his father was less intimate and their interactions were respectful but distant. Peis ancestors success meant that the family lived in the echelons of society. The younger Pei, drawn more to music and other forms than to his fathers domain of banking. I have cultivated myself, he said later, at the age of ten, Pei moved with his family to Shanghai after his father was promoted. Pei attended Saint Johns Middle School, run by Protestant missionaries, academic discipline was rigorous, students were allowed only one half-day each month for leisure. Pei enjoyed playing billiards and watching Hollywood movies, especially those of Buster Keaton and he also learned rudimentary English skills by reading the Bible and novels by Charles Dickens. Shanghais many international elements gave it the name Paris of the East, the citys global architectural flavors had a profound influence on Pei, from the Bund waterfront area to the Park Hotel, built in 1934. He was also impressed by the gardens of Suzhou, where he spent the summers with extended family and regularly visited a nearby ancestral shrine. The Shizilin Garden, built in the 14th century by a Buddhist monk, was especially influential and its unusual rock formations, stone bridges, and waterfalls remained etched in Peis memory for decades

I. M. Pei
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in Luxembourg, 2006
I. M. Pei
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As a child, Pei found the Shizilin Garden in Suzhou to be "an ideal playground".
I. M. Pei
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Pei describes the architecture of Shanghai's Bund waterfront area (seen here in a 2006 photo) as "very much a colonial past".
I. M. Pei
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Pei said that " Bing Crosby 's films in particular had a tremendous influence on my choosing the United States instead of England to pursue my education."

46.
Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume
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The Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume is an arts centre for modern and postmodern photography and media. It is located in the corner of the Tuileries Gardens next to the Place de la Concorde in Paris. In 2004, Galerie Nationale du Jeu de Paume, Centre National de la Photographie, the rectangular building was constructed in 1861 during the reign of Napoleon III. It originally housed real tennis courts, the name of this game in French is jeu de paume, Jeu de Paume was used from 1940 to 1944 to store Nazi plunder looted by the regimes Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce in France. Hermann Göring commanded that the loot would first be divided between Adolf Hitler and himself, for this reason, from the end of 1940 to the end of 1942 he traveled twenty times to Paris. So called degenerate art was banned from entering Germany. Much of Paul Rosenbergs professional dealership and personal collection were subsequently so designated by the Nazis, with much of the looted degenerate art sold onwards via Switzerland, Rosenbergs collection was scattered across Europe. Unsold art was destroyed on a bonfire in the grounds of the Jeu de Paume on the night of 27 July 1942, however, the Nazis had burned nearly 4000 works of German degenerate art in Berlin in 1939. Between 1947 and 1986, it contained the Musée du Jeu de Paume, widely considered as the most famous museum of impressionist painting in the world, the rooms bore names such as Salle Degas, Salle Cézanne, or Salle Monet. The top floor features a series of skylighted galleries, in 1991, the Jeu de Paume reopened as Frances first national gallery of contemporary art, with an exhibition devoted to Jean Dubuffet. Subsequent retrospectives were dedicated to artists such as Marcel Broodthaers, Robert Gober, Ellsworth Kelly, Helio Oiticica. In 1999, the museum chose American architect Richard Meier as the subject of its first-ever architectural exhibition, in 2004, Galerie Nationale du Jeu de Paume, Centre National de la Photographie and Patrimoine Photographique merged to form the Association de Préfiguration for the Etablissement Public Jeu de Paume. It has since developed into a centre for modern and postmodern photography and media, mounting survey exhibitions on Ed Ruscha, Cindy Sherman, Martin Parr, in 2016 it will receive the anthological solo exhibition of contemporary photograph Helena Almeida. On April 27,2005, a plaque honoring the work of Rose Valland to catalogue looted art during the Nazi occupation was placed on the wall of the Jeu de Paume. Today the Jeu de Paume is subsidised by the French Ministry of Culture, attendance increased from 200,000 visitors in 2006 to over 320,000 visitors in 2008. The museums wartime history has been depicted, heavily fictionalized, several times on film, in John Frankenheimers 1964 film The Train, starring Burt Lancaster and Jeanne Moreau, Rose Valland is represented as Mademoiselle Villard, played by Suzanne Flon. In George Clooneys 2014 film The Monuments Men, Valland is represented as Claire Simone, list of museums in Paris Jeu de Paume The Jeu de Paume and the Looting of France – website of the Cultural Property Research Foundation, Inc

Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume
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Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume

47.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

48.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format

Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot

49.
Union List of Artist Names
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The Union List of Artist Names is an online database using a controlled vocabulary currently containing around 293,000 names and other information about artists. Names in ULAN may include names, pseudonyms, variant spellings, names in multiple languages. Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name, the focus of each ULAN record is an artist. Currently there are around 120,000 artists in the ULAN, in the database, each artist record is identified by a unique numeric ID. Linked to each artist record are names, related artists, sources for the data, the temporal coverage of the ULAN ranges from Antiquity to the present and the scope is global. The ULAN includes proper names and associated information about artists, artists may be either individuals or groups of individuals working together. Artists in the ULAN generally represent creators involved in the conception or production of visual arts, repositories and some donors are included as well. Work on the ULAN began in 1984, when the Getty decided to merge, in 1987 the Getty created a department dedicated to compiling and distributing terminology. The ULAN grows and changes via contributions from the user community, although originally intended only for use by Getty projects, the broader art information community outside the Getty expressed a need to use ULAN for cataloging and retrieval. Its scope was broadened to include corporate bodies such as firms and repositories of art. The ULAN was founded under the management of Eleanor Fink, the ULAN has been constructed over the years by numerous members of the user community and an army of dedicated editors, under the supervision of several managers. The ULAN was published in 1994 in hardcopy and machine-readable files, given the growing size and frequency of changes and additions to the ULAN, by 1997 it had become evident that hard-copy publication was impractical. It is now published in automated formats only, in both a searchable online Web interface and in data files available for licensing, final editorial control of the ULAN is maintained by the Getty Vocabulary Program, using well-established editorial rules. The current managers of the ULAN are Patricia Harpring, Managing Editor, entities in the Person facet typically have no children. Entities in the Corporate Body facet may branch into trees, there may be multiple broader contexts, making the ULAN structure polyhierarchical. In addition to the relationships, the ULAN also has equivalent. Contributors to the Getty Vocabularies and implementers of the licensed vocabulary data may consult these guidelines as well

Union List of Artist Names
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Contents

50.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
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The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus