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1 CENTER ON SENTENCING AND CORRECTIONS Relief in Sight? States Rethink the Collateral Consequences of Criminal Conviction, DECEMBER 2014 Ram Subramanian, Rebecka Moreno, and Sophia Gebreselassie

2 FROM THE CENTER DIRECTOR As this report makes clear, the legal and life-restricting consequences of having a criminal conviction are many, varied, and often bewildering. They can impact the most fundamental necessities of life like a job, a place to live, and education and affect not just the individuals with convictions but also their families. In some jurisdictions, they are onerous and numerous; you have to wonder what their creators thought they would accomplish in terms of enhancing public safety. The breadth and reach of collateral consequences are indeed wide when one considers the range of behaviors that are considered felonies in most states: from possession of drugs found to indicate an intent to distribute or stealing $500 worth of goods from a garage to more clearly serious offenses, such as stalking, armed robbery, and home invasion. Yet they are all treated the same in terms of consequences long after sentence completion. No one would argue against banning those convicted of identity theft or fraud from working in a bank, but there are many other kinds of employment opportunities for which they may be suited and should be permitted to pursue. This report documents the efforts in many states to revaluate some of these consequences, while making clear that many of the recently enacted reforms are easily undermined, worked around, or ignored. Even more frequently, the fixes are relatively insignificant or apply to such small group that they don t begin to address the problem. Collateral consequences are, of course, just one piece of the problem. The existing system of proliferating criminal penalties and attendant collateral consequences not only remains in place, it continues to grow for example, with hundreds of new federal offenses created over the last several years. Too often we criminalize behavior that decades ago would not have been. We add on specific category or penalty enhancements for everything from where a crime was committed to the status of the victim or intended victim. Intent is equated with commission. Too many of our criminal laws are written to respond to behavior that should be dealt with (and would more effectively be dealt with) outside the criminal justice system. And evidence on the impact of public safety is mixed or limited at best. Other laws are written in ways that do not distinguish between truly harmful acts and those that only approximate those acts as exemplified by the overly broad definition of violent, ensnaring people who may only possess a weapon in commission of an offense, even when it was not used, or never intended to be used. And finally, too often we respond to many members of our communities who are primarily sick, poor, homeless, or unable to care for themselves or their families with the hammer of the criminal justice system. And then we continue to hammer them long after they have satisfied our need for retribution. Peggy McGarry Director, Center on Sentencing and Corrections 2 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

4 About this report From 2009 through 2014, forty-one states and the District of Columbia enacted 155 pieces of legislation to mitigate the burden of collateral consequences for people with certain criminal convictions. In reviewing this legislative activity, the Vera Institute of Justice s Center on Sentencing and Corrections found that states have pursed one or a combination of seven broad approaches to reform. They created or expanded expungement and sealing remedies; issued certificates of recovery; allowed for defense downgrades; built relief into the criminal justice process; ameliorated employment-related collateral consequences; improved access to information; and addressed discrete collateral consequences. By providing (1) concise summaries of representative legislation in each area, (2) an analysis of the their limitations, and (3) recommendations for making future efforts sustainable and comprehensive, this report aims to be a practical guide for states and localities looking to enact similar reforms. Introduction Most people believe conviction and sentencing are the culmination of the criminal justice process. When convicted of a criminal offense, an individual will be made to pay their debt to society through a court-ordered sentence, whether by paying a fine, complying with a community service order or conditions of probation, or serving a custodial sentence either in jail or prison. However, unbeknownst to most including those convicted a court-sanctioned sentence does not define the whole punishment that convicted individuals must submit to in practice. 1 Due to a vast array of post-sentence civil penalties, disqualifications, or disabilities that flow from state or federal convictions termed collateral consequences of criminal convictions or simply collateral consequences punishment does not necessarily end with the expiration of a prison, jail, or community sentence. It can continue well beyond sentence completion, sometimes with lifetime impact, and often has adverse effects that can be transmitted to the individual s family and community. 2 Consider a low-income person with a felony drug conviction in New York as a case in point. 3 That person will be presumptively ineligible for public housing, with obvious impacts on his or her family and household, for two to six years after sentence completion depending on the offense and type of conviction. 4 That same person possibly with limited education and access to career opportunities will also be barred from employment or licensing in a wide variety of occupations including, dockworker, real estate agent, and even bingo operator and could be disqualified from receiving much-needed educational assistance. 5 New York is one of a number of states that have opted out of a federal rule banning drug felons from receiving federal cash assistance or food stamps for life. 6 Thus, unlike drug felons in other states whose families can receive only a reduced amount of assistance or who face a temporary or conditional 4 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

5 ban on receiving any assistance this person s family will at least be able to provide for some basic needs. However, the many adverse housing and employment consequences of conviction put into real question where this person will live and how this person will be able to support his or her family. Despite the profound impact collateral consequences can have on individuals and families, these consequences legally considered civil penalties remain formally excluded from the criminal justice process, with no mechanism to address them. 7 For example, a formal discussion of collateral consequences does not typically occur during plea negotiation because as indirect ramifications of a guilty plea, neither the trial judge nor defense counsel is affirmatively required to inform defendants of the collateral consequences attached to a particular offense. As a result, they are largely invisible to convicted individuals and criminal justice practitioners alike. 8 Since collateral consequences are scattered throughout different statutes, cut across distinctive areas of law, and operate through diverse actors across several systems, it can be challenging for criminal attorneys, prosecu- ARREST RECORDS Arrests including those that do not result in a conviction or a formal charge can still trigger devastating collateral consequences. Records of an arrest that result in a not-guilty adjudication, dismissal, or no charge often remain in publically accessible criminal record databases. a Additionally, commercial data harvesters collect records immediately or shortly after an arrest is made, undermining state efforts to make inaccessible arrest records that did not result in a conviction. b Moreover, these arrest records often do not include information on how the case was ultimately adjudicated that is, whether a case was ultimately dismissed, or that the individual was never charged. c Arrest records are used in employment, housing, credit, and other important decisions with very damaging consequences. d African Americans, with much higher arrest rates, are particularly affected by the collateral consequences of an arrest record. e In October 2014, the New York Times presented the story of Anthony Welfare, whose case exemplifies the consequences that may arise from an arrest. f Welfare was arrested after a pipe containing marijuana residue was found in the console of the car in which he was a passenger. Welfare, who had no knowledge of the paraphernalia in the car, was not a marijuana user, and had no prior criminal record, was issued a desk appearance ticket and charged with a misdemeanor. Welfare worked for seven years as a school bus driver, but upon being notified of the arrest, his employer fired him. He was told he could be reinstated after he proved his innocence. Welfare waited two months for his first court date, losing nearly $7,000 in wages, and was granted a dismissal after an additional 90 days of staying out of trouble resulting in an additional 90 days out of work. In a follow-up in November, the Times reported that while Welfare s charges have since been dismissed, he has still not been reinstated at his former job. g a For information regarding the collateral effects of arrest records, see Shawn D. Stuckey, Collateral Effects of Arrests in Minnesota, University of St. Thomas Law Journal 5, no. 1 (2008): 335; H. Lane Dennard, Jr. and Patrick C. DiCarlo, Collateral Consequences of Arrests and Convictions: Policy and Law in Georgia (Macon, GA: Mercer Law School, 2009); and Gary Fields and John R. Emshwiller, As Arrest Records Rise, Americans Find Consequences Can Last a Lifetime, Wall Street Journal, August 18, b Stuckey, 2008, pp c For example, the Georgia Crime Information Center, which is responsible for a statewide centralized database of criminal history records, has reported that 25 percent of felony arrest records reported during a five-year period did not also report corresponding final dispositions. See H. Lane Dennard, Jr. and Patrick C. DiCarlo, Collateral Consequences of Arrests and Convictions: Policy and Law in Georgia (Macon, GA: Mercer Law School, 2009), 16. The report also notes the significant time lapse 152 days on average between when a disposition decision is rendered and when the database is updated to reflect the disposition. The national average is reported to be 50.2 days. d Gary Fields and John R. Emshwiller, As Arrest Records Rise, Americans Find Consequences Can Last a Lifetime, Wall Street Journal, August 18, e Stuckey, (2008), pp f Jim Dwyer, Despite Blasio s Promise, Marijuana Arrests Persist in New York, The New York Times, October 21, g Jim Dwyer, Shift on Marijuana Policy Was a Long Time Coming, and Too Late for One Man, The New York Times, November 13, 2014 VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 5

6 tors, or judges to know and understand how and when they apply, or be familiar with how other actors in different systems will employ them. 9 Accordingly, many criminal justice actors remain unfamiliar with the full gamut of collateral consequences triggered by a specific offense. 10 Apart from immigration consequences, neither the trial judge, nor the prosecutor, nor the defense attorney is required to be aware that any exist. 11 Thus, in many cases, individuals complete their sentences and then find themselves burdened with unanticipated, long-lasting, and onerous post-punishment restrictions and penalties that can affect nearly every aspect of their lives and from which they may have little prospect of relief. In recent years, however, the veil of invisibility has slowly lifted. 12 With rising awareness of the increasing number of people under correctional supervision and, therefore, an ever-increasing number reentering society, state policymakers, legal practitioners, advocates and the American public have become more concerned about the issue of offender reentry and more supportive of rehabilitative and reentry services, particularly those which prevent recidivism. 13 This concern has brought into sharp focus the impact of collateral consequences on the employment, education, health, and housing outcomes for people already disadvantaged in these areas, along with the harmful public safety repercussions that these can engender. 14 Reflecting this concern, Attorney General Eric Holder, for example, directed the U.S. Department of Justice in 2011 to consider whether any proposed rule, regulation, or guidance may present unnecessary barriers to successful reentry. In a speech in February 2014, Holder specifically called on states to mitigate or eliminate unwise collateral consequences that prevent individuals with past convictions from fully reintegrating into society. 15 Holder has also made a strong case against felon disenfranchisement laws, in particular, by characterizing them as unnecessary, unjust, and counterproductive, and which perpetuat[e] the stigma and isolation imposed on formerly incarcerated individuals, [and] increase the likelihood they will commit future crimes. 16 As jurisdictions direct attention to the significant barriers that collateral consequences impose on successful reentry, they have enacted measures that allow certain individuals to move beyond their convictions in order to help increase their chances for successful lives in the community. This report summarizes the approaches states have taken since It also discusses the limitations of these approaches and offers recommendations to jurisdictions considering similar efforts. Background As the 1970 s ended, with crime rates on the rise, the American public became more concerned about public disorder and public safety, and as a result politicians of all stripes responded by jettisoning the rehabilitative principals that had, until then, characterized much of the criminal justice system s approach towards law-breakers. 17 Narrowing the system s focus to retribution and deterrence, policymakers adopted harsher policies, including the dramatic expansion of the penal code, in which state legislatures and Congress expanded existing 6 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

7 VOTING RIGHTS Disenfranchisement revocation of the right to vote for criminal offenders in the United States dates back more than two hundred years. a Premised on a principle that individuals who violate social norms by committing criminal offenses are not fit to participate in the democratic political process, disenfranchisement is a tool used to marginalize law-breakers in America. b Disenfranchisement of convicted individuals as practiced in the United States is quite rare among democracies elsewhere in the world. c Besides running afoul of Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, disenfranchisement laws have been struck down in countries such as South Africa, Austria, the United Kingdom, and Canada. d One particularly troubling aspect of this marginalization in the United States is its disparate racial impact. e In the late nineteenth century, disenfranchisement was broadened and focused on crimes disproportionately committed by African Americans, in an attempt to bypass the new voting rights granted by the Fifteenth Amendment. f Today, one out of every 13 African Americans (7.7 percent) is disenfranchised, compared to 1.8 percent of non-african Americans. At least 20 percent of African Americans have lost the right to vote in three separate states (Florida, Kentucky, Virginia). g Today, disenfranchisement laws differ significantly state to state. Three states permanently disenfranchise all people with a felony conviction; seven states permanently disenfranchise some felony offenders; 21 states reinstate voting rights upon sentence completion; four states disenfranchise those in prison or on parole, but allow those on probation to vote; thirteen states disenfranchise those in prison but allow individuals or probation or parole to vote; and finally, just two states Maine and Vermont grant everyone the right to vote, even those who are incarcerated, or on community supervision. h Although, the rate of voting rights loss has increased approximately 400 percent since 1980, in recent years, there has been a relaxation of voting bans in part due to research that suggests that the engagement of individuals with a criminal record in the political process leads to a decrease in subsequent criminal activity. i At least 23 states have expanded voter eligibility since j Most recently, Delaware HB 10 (2013) eliminated the five-year waiting period after sentence completion before voting rights restoration for most offenders. New York SB 3553 (2014) provided for absentee voting for incarcerated non-felons. Virginia issued a directive to automatically restore voting rights to nonviolent felons after sentence completion. k In 2010, South Dakota restored some voting rights as a result of a settlement in a court case brought by the ACLU. l a See The Sentencing Project, Felony Disenfranchisement: A Primer (Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project, 2013), 2-3. b For an overview of the premises that undergird arguments for felony disenfranchisement, see Roger Clegg, George T. Conway III, and Kenneth K. Lee, The Case Against Felon Voting, University of St. Thomas Journal of Law & Public Policy 2, No.1 (2008): Also see Matthew E. Feinberg, Esq., Suffering Without Suffrage: Why Felon Disenfranchisement Constitutes Vote Denial Under Section Two for the Voting Rights Act, Hastings Race and Poverty Law Journal 8 no. 61 (2011); For a discussion of the marginalizing effects of criminal disenfranchisement, see Ann Cammett, Shadow Citizens: Felony Disenfranchisement and the Criminalization of Debt, Penn State Law Review 117, no. 349 (2012): c See ACLU et al., Democracy Imprisoned: A Review of the Prevalence and Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States (Shadow Report Submitted to the United Nations Human Rights Committee, 2013) 3-4, d UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171, available at: See note c for more information on other nations rejections of criminal disenfranchisement laws. e See United States Constitution, Amendment 15, Section 1 ( The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude ). For a comprehensive overview of the historical and present disparate impact of felony disenfranchisement laws, see Daniel S. Goldman, The Modern-Day Literacy Test?: Felon Disenfranchisement and Race Discrimination, Stanford Law Review 57, no. 611 (2004); f Ibid., p g See note c, at p. 2. h ACLU, Map of State Criminal Disenfranchisement Laws, available at https://www.aclu.org/maps/map-state-criminal-disfranchisement-laws i For information regarding the change in the disenfranchisement rate, see Christopher Uggen, Sarah Shannon, and Jeff Manza, State-Level Estimates of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States, 2010 (Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project, 2012), 9. For information regarding research on criminal activity and engagement in the political process, see Reuven Ziegler, Legal Outlier, Again? U.S. Felon Suffrage: Comparative and International Human Rights Perspectives, Boston University International Law Journal 29 (2011): 208. j For a list of states that have expanded voter eligibility and descriptions of these reforms, see Nicole D. Porter, Expanding the Vote: State Felony Disenfranchisement Reform, (Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project, 2010). k See Letter from Governor Robert F. McDonnell to Secretary of the Commonwealth Janet V. Kelly, May 29, 2013, available at https://commonwealth.virginia.gov/media/2107/ pdf. l See Settlement Agreement, Janis v. Nelson, Civ (D.S.D. 2010) available at: https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/ janisvnelson-settlementagmt.pdf. See also Nicole D. Porter, Expanding the Vote: State Felony Disenfranchisement Reform, (Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project, 2010), 23. VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 7

8 criminal statutes or churned out new ones; the adoption of zero-tolerance policing tactics focusing on the zealous enforcement of minor street-level drug and quality-of-life offenses and the roll out of stiffer penalties, exemplified by the proliferation of new statutes aimed at keeping people sentenced to prison in there for longer periods of time (e.g., mandatory minimum sentences, truth-in-sentencing statutes, and habitual offender laws). 18 With more conduct subject to criminal regulation, coupled with increased enforcement measures, ever-more people found themselves ensnared in the criminal justice system. In 2012, an estimated 70.3 million adults in the U.S. had a criminal record. The number of individuals under correctional supervision rose from 2,869,836 in 1985 to nearly 7 million people in 2012, 2.2 million of whom were incarcerated in jail or prison. 19 A recent study indicates that approximately one in three adults have been arrested by age 23; and the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimates that law enforcement has made more than one-quarter billion arrests in the past twenty years. 20 During this same time, policymakers also sought to widen the system s punitive reach beyond the boundaries of formal criminal sanctions. 21 Coinciding with the growing severity of criminal penalties was the expansion, both in number and scope, of a vast network of post-punishment penalties and restrictions (or collateral consequences ) aimed at excluding individuals with criminal histories from many aspects of mainstream life. 22 While many of these consequences were rationalized as steps to protect the public, they also aimed to attach further opprobrium by enacting a system that would continue to stigmatize and marginalize individuals with a criminal record well beyond their sentences. 23 What has resulted is a system to delineate a person s status as either a law-abiding member of the community at large or as one of those who must forever sit outside it. 24 THE SCOPE OF COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES The collateral consequences enacted over recent decades are wide-reaching, long-lasting, and encompass two distinct types of sanctions: legal penalties that are imposed automatically by operation of law upon conviction and disqualifications that an administrative agency, civil court, or official are authorized but not required to impose on a convicted person. 25 These include temporary or permanent loss of certain civil rights (such as the right to vote, serve on a jury, or hold public office); temporary or permanent ineligibility for social benefits, such as public housing, food stamps, or rights to pensions, disability, veteran s benefits or federally-funded student aid; employment or occupational licensing restrictions; restrictions on certain aspects of family life (such as the ability to adopt or retain custody of one s own children); and for non-citizens, deportation. 26 All of this does not account for the many difficult-to-regulate informal disqualifications imposed by private actors (i.e., landlords, employers, university admission officers) which stem not from the express operation of the law, but from the social stigma suffered by individuals with a criminal record. 27 Indeed, 8 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

9 a criminal record even a mere arrest record can cast a long shadow on individuals and their families and still serve as a de facto basis for job, credit, or housing denial even absent formal disqualification a situation made particularly worse by the fact that public access to criminal records are now more readily available in the internet era. 28 RESPONDING TO THE PRISONER REENTRY CRISIS With services like in-custody therapeutic, vocational, and educational programs removed from corrections budgets and community supervision more focused on surveillance than rehabilitation, few of the more than 637,000 men and women released from state and federal prisons, the nearly 2.6 million released from community supervision, and the more than 11 million released from jail in 2012 were left with any assistance to deal with the problems that got them involved in the criminal justice system in the first place such as mental illness, substance abuse, or lack of vocational skills or education. 29 These issues, when left unaddressed, increase the risk of recidivism, and many of these people are returning to communities lacking the resources or services necessary to cope with these pressing needs. 30 Indeed, these communities are often poor, urban, minority neighborhoods marked by endemic poverty and unemployment, family dislocation, high residential turnover, and a breakdown of community social processes and controls. 31 In response to stubbornly high recidivism rates and with a growing acknowledgment that certain collateral consequences (particularly those impacting employment, housing, and health) prevent people with criminal records from appropriately addressing proven risk factors for reoffending, government agencies and community-based service providers are directing more resources and efforts towards assisting individuals and their families in navigating the reentry process. 32 Public defender organizations are adopting integrated criminal and civil defense strategies designed, in the words of the Bronx Defender s Civil Practice mission statement to minimize the severe and often unforeseen fallout from criminal proceedings and [to] facilitate the reentry of [clients] into the community. 33 Corrections departments, too, are making changes implementing programs and practices that tie programming to post-release risks and needs, including services that help prisoners nearing release to connect with much-needed housing, treatment, or other services and resources in the community. 34 Policymakers are also addressing the impact and scope of post-punishment penalties. For one, to better understand their reach, educate defendants and system actors, and identify ways to narrow their range, many states and the American Bar Association have begun to inventory the vast array of collateral consequences at the federal, state, and local level. 35 There are approximately 45,000 laws and rules that restrict the opportunities and benefits available to individuals with criminal histories. 36 As these sanctions and disabilities have come to light, in part through this process, states are passing legislation aimed at easing their burden for individuals, their families, and communities. VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 9

10 CLEMENCY Though a person s conviction and sentence are final, the president, a state governor, or a special state board can grant clemency to ameliorate the harsh effects of a criminal conviction. a There are two forms of clemency pardon and commutation which operate in distinct ways. A commutation is a reduction in the length of a sentence and is used to correct an overly harsh sentencing decision. A pardon, on the other hand, relieves the offender of the collateral consequences of a conviction and may, in some states, forgive the conviction altogether. b In the federal system, presidential pardon power is granted by the Constitution, and presidents are free to determine the parameters of how to exercise it. According to rules set by the current Office of the Pardon Attorney at the U.S. Department of Justice, the president may issue a commutation to shorten a person s sentence at any time after conviction. c President Obama has recently announced his intention to commute the sentences of hundreds of nonviolent drug offenders who were sentenced under federal mandatory minimums. The current policies of the Obama administration dictate that a pardon can only be granted five years after sentence completion. A federal pardon relieves collateral consequences but does not erase or expunge the conviction. On the state level, governors or pardon boards may grant clemency to persons convicted under the laws of their respective states. d State offenders may also have their sentences reduced or their convictions nullified. State rules and definitions vary from the federal system and from one another. On the federal and state levels, grants of clemency have declined dramatically in recent decades. e Originally intended as an important check on injustice and a safety valve for individuals subjected to unduly harsh sentences, today the pardon power has largely fallen victim to political expediency. f Some states, however, are issuing an increasing number of pardons and commutations. Illinois former Governor Pat Quinn granted more than 1,100 clemency petitions since taking office, and outgoing Texas Governor Rick Perry has granted hundreds of commutations and pardons. In the last five years, four states have passed laws strengthening the pardon relief available to convicted individuals. Colorado SB 123 (2013) clarifies that a pardon from the governor waives all collateral consequences of the conviction. Utah HB 33 (2013) expands the impact of a pardon so that it exempts the person from punishment as well as restores any rights or privileges that were forfeited due to the criminal conviction. Louisiana HB 8 (2014) reduces the length of time that certain applicants who have been denied pardon are required to wait before filing a subsequent application with the Board of Pardons. Washington HB 1793 (2011) provides that the criminal records of juveniles who have been pardoned shall be sealed and the proceedings will be treated as having never occurred. a Clemency is justified on the grounds that it is important for merciful or humanitarian grounds, that is can ensure justice in instances where the system cannot ensure a just result (such as cases of doubts of guilt), or when it is seen as serving public welfare aims. See Molly Clayton, Forgiving the Unforgivable: Reinvigorating the Use of Executive Clemency in Capital Cases, 54 B.C. L. Rev. 751, (2013). b For example, in Minnesota, the Board of Pardons can grant a pardon extraordinary, which nullifies the conviction and cleanses the associated criminal record. See M.S.A (2). c Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Chapter 1, Part 1, Section 1.3. President Clinton exercised these powers differently and pardoned wealthy fugitives Marc Rich and Pincus Green after their indictments but before their trials began. d Nine states have Boards of Pardons and Paroles that exclusively grant all pardons and commutations. e Margaret Colgate Love, The Twilight of the Pardon Power, Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 100, no. 3 (2010): , f For a discus sion on the pardon power s original functions and how the pardon power has fallen victim to political pressure, see Paul Rosenzweig, Reflections on the Atrophying of the Pardon Power, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 102(3): , (2012). 10 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

11 New approaches to collateral consequences All told, 41 states and the District of Columbia enacted 155 pieces of legislation between 2009 and 2014 to mitigate the burden of collateral consequences for individuals with certain criminal convictions. (Comprehensive listings of the state-level legislation passed since 2009 can be found in the appendices.) States have pursued seven broad approaches to achieve this goal. They have: > > Created or expanded expungement and sealing remedies. To shield eligible individuals from the adverse impact of a criminal conviction record, many states created new or expanded existing remedies aimed at sealing or expunging criminal records. > > Issued certificates of recovery. To assist qualified individuals in moving beyond their criminal records, some states issue certificates of recovery to people who have met certain rehabilitative standards. These certificates are meant to help third parties, such as employers and landlords, make better-informed decisions about individuals with criminal records. > > Allowed for offense downgrades. States have also adopted laws that offer an offense downgrade (for example, from a felony to a misdemeanor conviction) to eligible individuals who comply with conditions of supervision. These laws ensure that compliant individuals avoid certain collateral consequences that attach to felony convictions. > > Built relief into the criminal justice process. To minimize certain individuals contact with the criminal justice system, some states sought to build a relief mechanism such as deferred prosecution or adjudication programs into the front end of the criminal justice system instead of trying to control collateral consequences later in the process. > > Ameliorated employment-related collateral consequences. Many states enacted laws to ease specific collateral consequences pertaining to employment, by, for example, instituting ban the box policies which prohibit inquiries into a prospective employee s criminal history upon initial application or removing licensing restrictions. > > Improved access to information. States also enacted laws that aim to provide convicted individuals many of whom remain ignorant of both the impacts of their criminal record and relief for which they may be eligible better access to pertinent information related to collateral consequences. Some of these laws also sought to better regulate how third parties use criminal history information by requiring them to institute more transparent policies and procedures in order to increase procedural fairness. > > Mitigated specific collateral consequences. Many states passed laws that address specific collateral consequences, such as restrictions on housing or public benefits, or those that related to certain family matters, such as adoption or child support. VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 11

13 EXPUNGEMENT AND SEALING REMEDIES Recent advances in information technology together with the growth in the number of criminal records databases at the federal, state, and local levels has made it increasingly easy to find a person s criminal history online. 37 Moreover, the pervasiveness of criminal background checks mean that past criminal history, including youthful indiscretions, can have negative consequences throughout a person s life. 38 Indeed, with thousands of state and federal laws mandating FBI background checks for a broad spectrum of occupations, many individuals with a criminal history can be excluded from a number of professions simply because they possess a conviction record. In 2012, approximately 17 million background checks using the FBI database were conducted for employment or licensing purposes. 39 Cleansing a criminal record can be a useful tool to shield individuals from the continuing negative effects of a conviction. Typically, the criminal record is destroyed or made inaccessible to the public. From 2009 to 2014, at least 31 states and the District of Columbia have taken steps to broaden the scope and impact of expungement and sealing remedies. These states have primarily focused on (1) extending eligibility for expungement or sealing mechanisms to additional classes of offenses or offenders; (2) reducing the requisite waiting periods before an offender may apply for expungement or sealing, as well as making sealing or expungement automatic or presumptive following successful completion of sentence or other programs; (3) clarifying the effect of expungement or sealing; (4) providing remedies for sealing or expunging juvenile records; and (5) making it easier for individuals to prevail on an expungement request by altering the burden of proof. Extending eligibility for expungement and sealing At least 23 states and the District of Columbia have enacted 37 laws that increase the scope of expungement and sealing remedies. Some accomplished this by extending these remedies to those with prior convictions (as distinct from first-time offenders) or who received certain types of sentences. Other states kept their expungement and sealing remedies available only to those with limited criminal histories, but changed the way limited criminal history is calculated. Additionally, some states extended expungement and sealing remedies of arrest or trial records to individuals whose charges were dropped, who were found innocent, or who otherwise avoided conviction. 40 In some states, mechanisms were added which made expungement or sealing remedies automatically or presumptively available. Five of those states are: > > Mississippi HB 160 (2010) expands expungement eligibility to certain firsttime felony offenders, such as those convicted of drug possession, shoplifting, writing bad checks, and certain larceny, false pretenses, and malicious mischief offenses. After a waiting period of five years, a judge has discretion to grant a petition for expungement based on whether the individual is rehabilitated. If granted, the conviction is removed from all public records. VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 13

14 Previously, expungement was only available for first-time misdemeanor offenders. > > California AB 1384 (2011) expands eligibility for expungement to those convicted of a misdemeanor and sentenced to incarceration. These individuals are now treated the same as those sentenced to probation for a misdemeanor conviction and are immediately eligible for expungement at the court s discretion. Previously, individuals incarcerated for misdemeanor convictions could seek expungement only after completing their sentence and remaining crime-free for one year. > > Wyoming SF 88 (2011) expands eligibility for expungement to those convicted of certain first-time nonviolent felonies. Previously, expungement was available only for certain first-time misdemeanor convictions. > > Ohio SB 337 (2012) expands eligibility for record sealing to those with certain prior convictions. Previously, only first-time offenders could petition to have their records sealed. Now, individuals with the following types of prior convictions may petition for record sealing: (1) one felony conviction, (2) two misdemeanor convictions if they are not for the same offense, or (3) one felony conviction and one misdemeanor conviction. Convictions for offenses involving child victims remain ineligible, except those for failure to pay child support. > > Illinois HB 3061 (2013) expands eligibility for record sealing to 10 additional Class 3 and 4 felonies. Previously, the only felony offenses eligible for record sealing were Class 4 felony drug possession and Class 4 felony prostitution. In deciding whether to seal records, judges may consider specific collateral consequences the individual is facing, the person s age and employment history, and the strength of the evidence supporting the conviction. Reducing waiting periods States typically institute a waiting period following the completion of the individual s sentence (including any time spent on probation or parole) before an individual may apply to seal or expunge his or her criminal record. The rationale for the waiting period is to allow those with a criminal conviction to demonstrate that it was an aberration in an otherwise law-abiding life. When individuals remain crime-free during the specified period, they are then rewarded with the opportunity to seal or expunge their criminal records. If not crime-free, sealing or expungement remedies will be unavailable, as a matter of public safety. Many states have recognized that overly long waiting periods place a burden on those simply trying to move on with their lives. 41 From , eight states and the District of Columbia enacted at least 11 laws that eliminated, lowered, or changed the calculation for the waiting period before certain offenders are eligible for expungement or sealing, including: 14 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

15 > > Delaware HB 169 (2010) eliminates the waiting period before certain firsttime offenders are eligible to obtain expungement of arrest and conviction records. The waiting period was previously five years for those who completed a deferred judgment program, and two years for those who completed a drug court diversion program. Now, individuals who complete either of these programs are eligible for expungement immediately upon completion. > > Colorado HB 1167 (2011) reduces the waiting period for infractions, misdemeanors, and low-level felonies involving drug use or possession from 10 years from the conviction date or completion of sentence, whichever occurred later, to three to seven years. Additionally, the law places increasing limits on the influence of district attorneys in the expungement process as the seriousness of the offense drops. For example, petty offenses must be expunged with no notice given to the district attorney; for low-level felonies, district attorneys must be given notice and the opportunity to object. > > Indiana HB 1155 (2014) changes the way that waiting periods for most felonies are calculated. Previously, the waiting period began at completion of sentence, and was eight years for nonviolent felonies and 10 years for felonies involving bodily injury. Now, the waiting period is eight or 10 years from the date of conviction or three or five years from completion of sentence, respectively, whichever occurs later. For example, under the previous law an individual convicted of a violent injury and sentenced to 10 years of incarceration would complete his or her waiting period ten years after release, which is 20 years from the date of conviction. Under the new law, this individual s waiting period would instead finish five years after release from incarceration, which is 15 years from conviction. Clarifying the effect of expungement and sealing Even when a state has an expungement or sealing remedy in place, its legal effect can remain unclear or ambiguous to individuals with criminal histories. For example, individuals may be unaware of a right to deny the existence of a sealed or expunged record on a job application; others who are aware of the right may not exercise it out of fear of discriminatory treatment by employers who may later learn of their sealed or expunged criminal record. 42 From 2009 to 2014, eight states enacted at least 13 laws to clarify and make explicit the effects that sealing or expunging a criminal record has, particularly with regard to specific collateral consequences and available relief mechanisms. Some of these laws resolve ambiguity about the status of arrest and trial records after a conviction or acquittal record is sealed or expunged. Others specify that a person whose records are sealed or expunged may state without committing perjury that the records do not exist and the activity in the records never occurred. Still other laws clarify the restoration of certain civil rights that accompany the sealing or expungement of records, while others impose liability for unlawful discrimination on those who make adverse employment VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 15

16 or licensing decisions on the basis of sealed or expunged criminal records. Three of those states are: > > South Dakota HB 1105 (2010) clarifies an already existing expungement remedy for individuals who were arrested, but not found guilty. If the petition to expunge is granted, all official records shall be sealed, including those related to arrest, detention, indictment, trial, and disposition. Following expungement, individuals do not have to acknowledge or provide information contained in the records for any reason. > > California AB 2371 (2012) clarifies that a dismissal in a specialized veterans court program releases the defendant of the penalties and disabilities which usually result from the underlying offense. For example, a person whose records are sealed as a result of involvement in a veterans court program may indicate that the records do not exist and is not required to acknowledge the proceeding, even under oath, except on an application for a law enforcement position. > > Indiana HB 1482 (2013) makes it unlawful to expel, suspend, or refuse to employ or grant a license on the basis of an expunged conviction or arrest record. The law specifies that an employer may only ask if an applicant has any convictions or arrests that have not been expunged. Finally, the new law makes clear that a person s civil rights are restored after expungement, including the rights to vote, hold public office, serve as a juror, and own a firearm. Expanding access to expungement and sealing of juvenile records Prompted by research indicating that juvenile brain chemistry is distinct from that of adults, criminal justice actors and policymakers are beginning to acknowledge that juveniles may be less culpable than adults and that it may be inappropriate for long-lasting collateral consequences to attach to crimes committed by juveniles. 43 Accordingly, states are introducing procedures to seal or expunge juvenile convictions, often making these remedies available to individuals well into adulthood. All told, 11 states have enacted at least 14 laws that increase access or eliminate barriers to expungement or sealing of juvenile records, including: > > North Carolina SB 397 (2011) introduces expungement of juvenile records for nonviolent felonies committed by first-time offenders under age 18. The ex-offender must wait four years, have no other felony or misdemeanor convictions (except for traffic violations), perform a minimum of 100 hours of community service and complete high school or earn a GED. The petition for expungement must also include affidavits of good moral character. If the court grants the expungement petition, the individual is not required to acknowledge the criminal records on any application, except for certain state certifications. 44 > > Maryland HB 708 (2012) expands eligibility for mandatory expungement 16 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

17 of juvenile records. Previously, the court was required to grant only those petitions that were handled exclusively in the juvenile court. Now, records of cases that were handled in adult court but transferred to juvenile court for sentencing are also eligible for mandatory expungement upon petition. > > Ohio SB 337 (2012) provides that juvenile records for sexual battery and gross sexual imposition may be expunged. Ineligible offenses are now limited to aggravated murder, murder, and rape. The law also specifies that a fee is no longer required to file a juvenile expungement petition, and reduces the waiting period from two years to six months. Additionally, SB 337 now excludes most juvenile records from criminal records background checks. Exceptions are records involving aggravated murder, murder, or a serious sex offense requiring registration Altering the burden of proof When a state allows for expungement or sealing of certain criminal records, an individual is generally required to file a petition in court requesting expungement or sealing. The petition must typically demonstrate that any applicable requirements have been met, including a requisite degree of rehabilitation. For example, an ex-offender may be required to establish that he or she is leading a law-abiding life, has no subsequent arrests or convictions, is not abusing any substances, and is gainfully employed. However, given the vast array of employment-related collateral consequences, for example, simply possessing a criminal record may prevent many individuals from achieving certain milestones necessary to succeed in their petition. To counteract this, at least three states have altered the burden of proof required to seal or expunge criminal records, either by lowering the burden of proof or reversing it altogether. For instance, instead of requiring individuals to show that they are fit for expungement or sealing, states are passing laws that make expungement or sealing automatic unless the prosecutor shows that an offender is not fit for expungement or sealing. Alternatively, states are lowering the level of proof required from clear and convincing evidence to a balance of probabilities to demonstrate fitness for sealing or expungement. 45 Two of those states are: > > Arkansas HB 1608 (2011) introduces presumptive expunction of misdemeanor offenses for eligible individuals. The law calls for all misdemeanor expungement petitions to be approved unless the court is presented with clear and convincing evidence that a misdemeanor conviction should not be expunged. Misdemeanor convictions for some offenses such as third-degree battery, fourth-degree sexual assault, and indecent exposure are subject to a five-year waiting period. > > Indiana HB 1155 (2014) lowers the burden of proof required in petitions to expunge all levels of offenses from clear and convincing evidence to a preponderance of the evidence. Accordingly, a person now only has to show that it is more likely than not that he or she has no pending charges, VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 17

18 no subsequent convictions within the relevant time frame, let the requisite waiting period pass, paid all fees and restitution, and, in some cases, obtained the prosecutor s consent. CLEANSING A CRIMINAL RECORD Terminology can be confusing when discussing state remedies to cleanse an individual of a criminal record. Some states, such as New York, have remedies which authorize certain adult criminal records to be sealed from the public record, while others, such as Utah, use the term expunge. Some states, such as Indiana, use the terms expunge and seal interchangeably, and others use slightly different terms such as expunction. This leads to confusion, since for instance sealing and expunging a criminal record often have distinct meanings. a The effect of an expungement or sealing order varies widely from state to state. Generally, when a criminal record is sealed, the public cannot access the record and individuals with a sealed record are usually permitted to deny the record s existence or the events that led to the criminal record. For example, potential employers conducting a background check will not be able to see a sealed criminal record and a person may be able to legally answer no if asked on a job application whether he or she was ever arrested, charged, or convicted of a criminal offense. Still, a sealed criminal record will physically exist and some entities such as law enforcement agencies or courts may be able to uncover its contents, particularly in a subsequent criminal proceeding; however this is usually only possible through a court order made for the public interest. In addition, some states require that sealed convictions be reported in connection with certain job or license applications (for example, a job application as a weapons-carrying law enforcement officer). On the other hand, the expungement of a criminal record, while similar to sealing, goes further in that it wipes the slate clean: a criminal record is typically removed or destroyed, and is not available for anyone to access, even by court order. a In fact, other jurisdictions may also use entirely different terms, such as annulling or vacating a conviction which may or may not have a similar legal effect as expungement or sealing. CERTIFICATES OF RECOVERY Certificates of recovery sometimes called certificates of reentry, relief, achievement or employability are awarded to individuals who meet certain criteria or otherwise show that they can be productive members of society. These certificates help third parties, such as prospective landlords and employers, make more informed decisions about applicants with criminal records. While the cer- 18 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

19 tificates do not expunge or clear a person s record, they do act as evidence that the individual is rehabilitated and can shield against the imposition of some collateral consequences. Often, holding a certificate means that an employer must assume the certificate holder is suitable for employment and, in the absence of countervailing evidence, may not choose to withhold employment solely on the basis of a conviction. From 2009 through 2014, at least 9 states and the District of Columbia began issuing such certificates including: > > North Carolina HB 641 (2011) allows persons with no prior record who are convicted of up to two low-level felonies or misdemeanors in the same court session to petition the court for a Certificate of Relief. The certificate relieves the individual from most collateral sanctions (penalties affirmatively imposed) flowing from the state but excludes those such as prohibitions on firearm possession, driver s license revocations and suspensions, and sex offender registration. The certificate does not automatically relieve the individual of collateral disqualifications (i.e., the denial of access on the basis of a criminal conviction to certain activities or privileges, such as public employment or a professional license), but an administrative agency may view the certificate favorably when deciding on a disqualification due to conviction. A judge may grant a certificate if an eligible individual has complied with the terms of the sentence and at least 12 months have passed since completing the sentence, has no pending criminal charges, is employed, or is undertaking efforts to become employed, such as participating in an educational program, and granting the certificate would not pose an unreasonable risk to public safety. If a judge denies the Certificate of Relief, the individual may reapply after 12 months. The certificate may be revoked upon any subsequent felony or misdemeanor conviction, other than a traffic violation. > > Ohio HB 86 (2011) creates a Certificate of Achievement and Employability aimed at relieving collateral consequences that effect job eligibility in a field for which the offender trained while incarcerated. An offender can apply to the Department of Rehabilitation and Correction for the certificate up to one year prior to release rather than applying to the court post-release. To obtain a certificate, an offender must complete at least one vocational program, at least one cognitive or behavioral program, and community service hours. The certificate testifies that the individual is fit and directs an employer or licensing authority to give individualized consideration to the certificate holder unless the employer or licensing authority has information that proves otherwise. The certificate will be revoked upon any subsequent conviction other than for a minor misdemeanor, but cannot be revoked for a violation of a condition of release unless the violation is itself a criminal offense. > > Illinois HB 5771 (2012) expands eligibility to receive a Certificate for Relief from Disabilities. This law lifts the limit on felony convictions so that individuals with more than two prior felonies are now eligible. Individuals are VERA INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE 19

20 ineligible for the certificate if any of their convictions require registration as a sex offender, arsonist, or a murderer or violent offender against youth. Those convicted of a Class X felony, any forcible felony, or driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs are also ineligible. > > Ohio SB 337 (2012) creates a Certificate of Qualification for Employment (CQE). Whereas the certificate created by a previous law, HB 86 (2011), relieved employment and licensing-related collateral consequences for vocational training completed in prison, the CQE applies to a much broader array of employment and licensing sanctions. Granted by the court, the CQE relieves the certificate holder from the automatic ban on certain employment and licensing opportunities, such as construction and security guard licenses, and entitles him or her to individualized consideration. > > Rhode Island SB 358 (2013) empowers the parole board to grant Certificates of Recovery and Reentry to individuals who have met specified standards (to be determined by the parole board). An individual convicted of a crime of violence or who has a prior felony conviction is not eligible to receive a certificate. OFFENSE DOWNGRADES As the advantages of a clean or diminished criminal record become clear, some states are introducing mechanisms through which felony records may be reduced to misdemeanor records. This will minimize exposure to collateral consequences that specifically attach to felonies and provide eligible individuals with an opportunity to escape the stigma of a felony conviction. 46 At least five states have enacted laws of this type to encourage individuals with felony convictions to comply with conditions of supervision and lead law-abiding lives after serving their sentences. 47 In at least some of these states, the resulting misdemeanor records would be eligible for sealing or expungement. Three of those states are: > > Indiana HB 1033 (2012) allows a sentencing court to convert a Class D felony to Class A misdemeanor. The court must notify the prosecutor and hold a hearing finding that the individual is a nonviolent, non-sex offender convicted of an offense that did not result in bodily injury. Additionally, the person must wait three years from sentence completion and have no subsequent convictions or pending charges. Individuals whose convictions involved perjury or official misconduct are not eligible. In the event an individual is convicted of another felony within five years of the conversion, the prosecutor may file a motion to convert the misdemeanor back to a felony. > > Colorado SB 250 (2013) requires that a felony conviction for certain low-level drug offenses (particularly possession) be vacated in favor of a misdemeanor conviction if an offender successfully completes probation or another community-based sentence. The measure is designed as an incentive for individuals to remain compliant and to reduce the negative consequences of a felony conviction. The provision does not apply to persons who 20 RELIEF IN SIGHT? STATES RETHINK THE COLLATERAL CONSEQUENCES OF CRIMINAL CONVICTION,

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