If you are around any livestock operation, regardless of species,
and you smell manure--you are smelling mismangement.--Joel Salatin

Repugnance for what comes out the far end of an animal is not
merely cultural conditioning--our senses are warning us of potential
danger: Feces can be a vector for disease. Joel's quote at left
implicitly advises us to trust that repugnance: If it smells bad, it
could be dangerous. But it also implies that there are ways to manage
manure so it doesn't stink, giving us our most important hint that
its threat has been neutralized. Properly handled manure, in other
words, is not a danger,

How compost works

Many folks have already experienced the transformation of things
yucky into not only something pleasant, but a valuable resource: the
alchemy of the compost heap, which starts with manures and rotting
vegetation and ends with compost, smelling as sweet as good earth, ready
to fertilize the garden. The compost heap is our model for making the
same transformation in the henhouse.

You assemble a compost heap from nitrogenous materials such as
manures and spent crop plants, mixed with carbonaceous ones such as
leaves and straw. Coarse materials will eventually compost, but if you
make the effort to shred them more finely, the composting process speeds
up considerably. Inconceivable numbers of microbes multiply in the pile,
using the nitrogen in the manures and fresh green matter as a source of
energy to break down the tough, fibrous high-carbon materials into
simpler components. The ideal balance of carbon to nitrogen in the mix
is 25 or 30 to 1. Too much nitrogen is signaled by the smell of ammonia,
meaning that some of the nitrogen--a potential source of soil
fertility--is being lost to the atmosphere. (Ammonia is a gas of
nitrogen and hydrogen, NH3.)

Moisture in the heap is essential to the microbes driving
decomposition, though it must not be soaking wet--a condition that would
inhibit decomposers while favoring pathogens. Oxygen also is essential
for the decomposers, so you turn the heap over completely at least twice
during decomposition, maybe more. Heat is a byproduct of the composting
process--a well-made compost heap becomes amazingly hot. The end result
of this devoted effort is compost, one of the best possible fertility
amendments a gardener can find.

It is possible to make the chicken coop in effect a slow-burn
compost heap if you leave the earth itself as the floor, and keep it
covered deeply with high-carbon organic litter. The sorts of decomposer
microbes at work in the compost heap--and in the soil food web--migrate
out of an earth floor into the deep litter; the slight wicking of
moisture out of the earth helps them proliferate and thrive. If you have
an existing building with a wood or concrete floor to use for poultry
housing, by all means avoid the effort and expense of building new. You
can still use deep litter to keep the henhouse sweet with a couple of
tweaks discussed below, including the use of straw as litter and the
additional decomposition time of constructed-floor litter in a compost
heap before use in the garden.

Oh, and all that laborious shredding and turning of the compost to
assist its breakdown? Just leave that to the chooks.

Materials for deep litter

The droppings laid down by the birds are rich in nitrogen, so
naturally--as in the compost heap--we want a lot of carbonaceous
material in the litter to balance it. In contrast to the ideal C:N ratio
for a compost heap, however, the higher the carbon content of the deep
litter, the better. That is, the more carbon in the mix, the more manure
the litter can absorb before its nitrogen drives the C:N ratio out of
balance, resulting in production of ammonia.

The high-carbon material chosen for the deep litter depends on what
is cheapest and most readily available to you. It should ideally be
somewhat coarse, so the scratching of the chickens fluffs it up and
incorporates plenty of oxygen, assisting its breakdown by microbes and
discouraging growth of pathogens. I prefer oak leaves, but that's
mostly because a close neighbor, who has half a dozen mature white oaks
on her place, prefers to get rid of the accumulating leaves in the fall.
She even hauls them over and dumps them in a big pile at my place. I say
"God bless 'er!"

Kiln-dried wood shavings are excellent, with their extremely high
carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (500:1), but are an additional expense if you
have to purchase them. I recently bought some shavings for $5 per 2
1/2-cubic-foot bale (expands to 8 cubic feet) to use as brooder bedding.
Buying enough to deep-bed the entire henhouse would be expensive indeed.

Wood chips might serve--they too are extremely high in carbon and
last a long time before they have to be replaced. Joel Salatin uses them
as the litter in his Raken House--he cleans out only once a year, when
even this coarse woody material has been reduced to compost by the
microbes and the constant working of the chickens. Sawdust is
satisfactory, though it doesn't fluff up as much as other
materials.

Whether using sawdust, wood shavings or wood chips, be sure to use
either kiln-dried or aged material--"green" woody materials
may support the growth of molds, whose spores could be bad for your
birds' respiratory systems, and yours.

Note that old hay and certain crop residues, such as soybean vines,
are not appropriate as litter materials --with a significant nitrogen
content of their own, they do not effectively balance the nitrogen in
the poultry droppings and quickly heat up.

What about straw? Many flocksters avoid the use of straw because,
especially in the presence of the slight dampness of an earth floor, it
can support the growth of Aspergillus molds, whose spores can cause
serious respiratory problems. I have corresponded with flocksters,
however, who report that they use straw over an earth floor without
problems. Though I have in the past avoided straw litter, I am now
experimenting with it as an addition to litter with a much higher
proportion of oak leaves--so far with no mold problems. Note that there
is no problem using straw as the litter over a wooden floor--the drier
conditions in such a litter prevent growth of Aspergillus.

Nearby processing of agricultural crops may furnish other litter
materials. Milling of corn, cane, buckwheat or peanuts, for example, may
generate corncobs, chopped corn or cane stalks, or hulls that are
available cheaply enough to be used as deep litter.

Alchemy magic

Over many years showing countless visitors through my poultry
house, I've found that--if my visitor has ever been in a chicken
house--at some point she will sniff the air with a puzzled look and ask,
"Why doesn't it stink in here?" When that happens, I know
I'm on the right track with manure management.

But the transformation of "nasty" to "pleasant"
is just part of the magic. Remember the comparison of the deep litter to
an active compost heap--the process in deep litter is driven by the same
busy, happy gang of microbes. And among the metabolites of the
microbes--byproducts of their life processes are vitamins K and B12, in
addition to other immune-enhancing compounds. The chickens actually
ingest these beneficial substances as they find interesting things to
eat in the litter. Don't ask me what they're eating, but
chickens on a mature deep litter do little other than scratch and peck.
This is alchemy indeed: What started as repugnant and a potential vector
for disease has been transformed into a substrate for health.

Should you think I'm spinning fairy tales, know that
scientific experiments have borne out the benefits of a bioactive deep
litter. In 1949, a couple of researchers at the Ohio Experiment Station
published research on deep litter. I urge you to read the full report,
but to summarize: One experiment compared two groups of growing pullets,
both on old built-up deep litter, one group receiving a complete ration,
the other fed a severely deficient diet. Mortality and weight gain in
the two groups were virtually identical. In another experiment comparing
pullets fed a severely deficient diet, groups on old, thoroughly
bioactive litter suffered far lower mortality (7 as opposed to 23
percent) and achieved much higher weight gain (at 12 weeks, 2.34
compared with 1.64 pounds) than those on fresh litter. Both these and
further experiments demonstrated: "Obviously, the old built-up
litter adequately supplemented the incomplete ration."

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
confirms these observations: "Microorganisms thrive on the manure
in the litter and break it down. This microflora produces growth
factors, notably vitamin B12, and antibiotic substances, which help
control the level of pathogenic bacteria. Consequently, the growth rate
and health are often superior in poultry raised on deep litter."

Deep-litter management

Factor in the use of deep litter when designing housing for your
flock--deeper litter absorbs more manure and supports more microbes, so
allow plenty of space for it. Aim for a depth of 12 inches if possible.
Happily, in winter you can factor in as well the role of that thick
layer of organic duff in insulating the coop from the frozen ground
outside--and the heat generated in an active deep litter. The
temperature is nothing like that of a well-constructed compost heap, but
the warmth rising out of the pack moderates air temperature in the
winter house.

The great thing about deep litter is that the birds do most of the
work. But there are a few things requiring input and monitoring on your
part as well.

Stocking density

Salatin makes this observation about stocking density on a deep
litter: If you allow 5 square feet per adult chicken, the birds'
constant scratching will turn into the litter all the manure laid down,
even in high-dropping areas such as those under the roosts. At 4 square
feet, there will be some capping of manure under the roosts--formation
of a crusty layer impervious to the hens' scratching. At 3 square
feet, there will be extensive capping. If there is capping of the manure
in your coop, turn it over with a spading fork from time to time, and
the chickens will break it up from the cap's underside.

Let it mellow

You will see advice that the coop should periodically be thoroughly
cleaned out. But as the Ohio experiments demonstrated, it is not fresh
new litter that supports the health of the flock, but "old
built-up" --that is, highly biologically active--litter. Thus an
important implication: Never clean out the litter completely. Once
beneficial levels of microbial activity are established, don't get
rid of them by a de rigueur "thorough clean-out." Over time,
the buildup of the litter--or the need for compost for the
garden--requires removing part of the litter. Leave as much as you can
in place, however, to retain the benefits of the already active microbes
and to "inoculate" the fresh material you add.

The whiff test

The caveat to the above rule against cleaning out too much of the
litter is that inevitably the addition of nitrogen by the incoming
manure will overwhelm the carbon in the mix--resulting in the generation
of ammonia. Be alert to that first characteristic whiff: It is telling
you that an imbalance must be corrected--both because nitrogen for soil
fertility is being lost to the atmosphere, and because ammonia damages
the chickens' delicate respiratory tissues. Re-establishing the
necessary balance is simply a matter of generously topping off with your
high-carbon litter material of choice.

Do note that ammonia's deleterious effects begin below the
concentration our nose can detect (25 to 30 parts per million). With
experience, you will learn to read the developing condition of the
litter, so you can add fresh carbonaceous material before it starts
generating ammonia.

Avoid wet litter

If you water inside, avoid wet litter. A soaked litter is
anaerobic--deprived of oxygen--and more likely to support growth of
pathogens. Wet litter also generates ammonia far more readily than drier
litter. Remember also that a lot of airflow through the coop helps keep
the litter from becoming too damp. Wet litter is more likely around the
waterer, so check conditions there often; scatter any wet litter out
over the total litter surface, where the chickens' scratching will
help dry it. Waterfowl are especially likely to wet the litter.

Remember as well, however, that the busy critters in the litter
need water for their work--monitor the litter to ensure that it is not
powder-dry. Caroline Cooper reports that the winter air in British
Columbia is extremely dry, so from time to time her husband, Shaen,
carefully adds water to the litter to keep it active. If I have a
waterer inside the chicken house, I frequently empty the small amount of
water in its lip directly into the litter when rinsing it out.

Using the compost

The deep-litter approach to manure management enlists the flock in
the great work of soil fertility. Over time--figure at least a year--the
litter will be reduced by the action of chicken and microbe to a
finished compost. Sniff a handful: Like any fine compost, it will smell
of earth with not the slightest hint of raw manure. In my experience,
litter at this stage of decomposition is ready to use directly in the
garden--it will not burn plants, it will not inhibit seed germination,
and it visibly boosts the growth of crops.

I have found litter from a coop with a wooden floor too raw to
apply directly in the garden. Such litter should be further broken down
in a conventional compost heap before using in the garden.

Disadvantages of deep litter

In close to three decades of relying on deep litter for best manure
management, I have encountered only two potential disadvantages. The
slight wicking of moisture from the earth into the litter is, as said,
actually a benefit. However, we once had a summer of record-breaking
rains, resulting in increased moisture in the soil under the deep litter
(remember, we use an earthen floor). The litter was not actually wet as
a result, but was considerably damper than usual--damp enough to
encourage the growth of molds. We had a number of eye infections that
season, and lost an entire batch of 19 guinea keets. Once I recognized
the problem, I helped decrease the moisture content of the litter by
adding a lot of thoroughly dry leaves and kiln-dried shavings.

The other potential disadvantage of deep litter over an earth
floor--assuming the henhouse is not on a block perimeter foundation--is
the absence of a wood or concrete floor as a barrier against digging
predators such as foxes, coyotes and dogs. My solution was to dig a
barrier about 18 inches into the earth--using metal roof flashing, but
half-inch hardware cloth would work as well--around the entire perimeter
of the poultry house. That's a lot of digging (oh, my aching
back!), but it prevents a lot of digging--by four-legged neighbors
intent on dinner in your chicken house.

A win-win solution

I cannot overemphasize the importance of deep litter in the
henhouse for the most natural and therefore the most rational manure
management. A deep-litter house is more pleasant for both owner and
fowl, with the birds doing most of the necessary work for us. Microbial
action in the litter turns what is potentially disease-causing into a
substrate for health--indeed, ripe litter as demonstrated in the Ohio
studies has positive feeding benefits. Deep litter provides mental
health as well--the entertainment of happily scratching an endlessly
interesting deep litter, in lieu of the stress of boredom. A deep
organic duff insulates the floor of the winter poultry house, while the
warmth of its decomposition moderates the chill. Finally, this magic
process captures the fertility in the manure for soil building, the key
to food self-sufficiency. What better illustration of the integrating
strategies useful on the homestead?

BIOACTIVE LITTER FOR A MICRO-FLOCK: A TIP FROM MY FRIEND KATE
HUNTER

I'm on my second year of housing my tiny flock of layers in my
shed over the winter. I build a temporary 5-foot-by-6-foot enclosure
with garden caging, which gives them exactly the same space in the shed
as they get in their mobile pen (7 1/2 square feet per bird), The
shed's wood floor is protected from any possible moisture damage,
first by a sheet of tar paper, and then a tarp, which I pin up along the
inside of the caging. The tarp holds a 2-inch layer of garden soil as
inoculant--that is, introduction into the litter of the same beneficial
microbes in soil and in a compost heap--and then I fill with several
inches of mulch. I continue adding mulch for several weeks after the
girls have gone in, to an eventual depth of 12 inches. It absorbs the
manure the hens produce without ever turning foul.

The litter makes for great wintertime activity - my girls love
scratching in it. When it's frozen, they can't scratch it, so
I go in there with a pitchfork every once in a while and turn things
over for them. Then they get to scratching again. I also throw some of
their feed directly on the mulch from time to time so that they have
additional motivation to scratch through it and keep the mulch aerated
and loose.

I emptied the tarp as soon as the housing was dismantled, and the
girls were back outside last spring. I spread the litter as a fertility
mulch under the apple tree. It smelled fine. There was no damage to the
wood floor either.

--Kate Hunter. homesteader, LivingTheFrugalLife.blogspot.com

This excerpt was taken with permission from The Small-Scale Poultry
Flock, by Harvey Ussery, who has been working on his practical,
natural-systems model for working with chicken and other domestic fowl
for almost three decades.

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