APPEARANCE
AND REALITY

From The Problems of Philosophy

by Bertrand Russell

PART I

Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable
man could doubt it? This question, which at first sight might not seem difficult,
is really one of the most difficult that can be asked. When we have realized
the obstacles in the way of a straightforward and confident answer, we shall
be well launched on the study of philosophy -- for philosophy is merely the
attempt to answer such ultimate questions, not carelessly and dogmatically,
as we do in ordinary life and even in the sciences, but critically after exploring
all that makes such questions puzzling, and after realizing all the vagueness
and confusion that underlie our ordinary ideas.

In daily life, we assume as certain many things which, on a closer scrutiny,
are found to be so full of apparent contradictions that only a great amount
of thought enables us to know what it is that we really may believe. In the
search for certainty, it is natural to begin with our present experiences, and
in some sense, no doubt, knowledge is to be derived from them. But any statement
as to what it is that our immediate experiences make us know is very likely
to be wrong. It seems to me that I am now sitting in a chair, at a table of
a certain shape, on which I see sheets of paper with writing or print. By turning
my head I see out of the window buildings and clouds and the sun. I believe
that the sun is about ninety-three million miles from the earth; that it is
a hot globe many times bigger than the earth; that, owing to the earth's rotation,
it rises every morning, and will continue to do so for an indefinite time in
the future. I believe that, if any other normal person comes into my room, he
will see the same chairs and tables and books and papers as I see, and that
the table which I see is the same as the table which I feel pressing against
my arm. All this seems to be so evident as to be hardly worth stating, except
in answer to a man who doubts whether I know anything. Yet all this may be reasonably
doubted, and all of it requires much careful discussion before we can be sure
that we have stated it in a form that is wholly true.

Reflection

Russell closes this section saying; "all
this may be reasonably doubted, and all of it requires much careful discussion
before we can be sure that we have stated it in a form that is wholly
true." What kinds of things is Russell saying here that we can reasonably
doubt? Do you think he is right about that?