Misty Poets

The Misty Poets (Chinese: 朦胧诗人; pinyin: Ménglóng Shīrén) are a group of 20th century Chinese poets who reacted against the restrictions on art during the Cultural Revolution.[1][2] They are so named because their work has been officially denounced as "obscure", "misty", or "hazy" poetry (menglong shi).[3] But according to Gu Cheng, "the defining characteristic of this new type of poetry is its realism—it begins with objective realism but veers towards a subjective realism; it moves from a passive reaction toward active creation."[4] The movement was initially centered on the magazine Jintian (Chinese: 今天; pinyin: Jīntiān; literally: "Today"), which was founded by Bei Dao and Mang Ke and published from 1978 until 1980, when it was banned.[5]

Contents

During the Cultural Revolution, Mao Zedong decreed certain cultural requirements for literature and art in China. According to these ideas, writers and artists were encouraged to form a "cultural army" to educate the masses and provide them with revolutionary values. All art would therefore be political and there was no art for art's sake. According to these requirements, the poetry was relatively compliant and realistic, as the following example shows:

In the civil war-like state at the end of the Cultural Revolution, many Chinese were sent to the country under the slogan "Up to the mountains and down to the countryside" ( Chinese: 上山下乡 shàngshānxiàxiāng) The discontent of the deportees was great and many felt disillusioned after the Cultural Revolution, which was described as the "Ten Lost Years" afterwards across the country. Although it was banned during the Cultural Revolution to publish literature and art[citation needed], an extensive underground poetry circulated, which was written under extreme conditions:

Gu Cheng (Chinese: 顾城 Gu Cheng) says that he started his poems in a pigsty, Bei Dao (Chinese: 北岛) wrote his first plays in the evening after work. Only with the death of Mao Zedong, the arrest of the Gang of Four, as well as an opening to the west, the laws became looser around the "cultural requirements". The unofficial magazine "Today" (Chinese: 今天 Jintian) offered a platform for these feelings and poems. The first issue was published with the seminal poem "The Answer" (Chinese: 回答 Huida), which can be regarded as a paradigm for the obscure nature of misty poetry. The line "I do not believe" (Chinese: 我不相信 wǒ bù Xiangxin) here almost became a buzzword at the time. The publication of further Menglong poems immediately initiated a year-long debate on the freedom of the individual and the author and his commitment to society, the state, and the party.

1.
Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time

2.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks

3.
Chinese poetry
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Chinese poetry is poetry written, spoken, or chanted in the Chinese language. Poetry has consistently been held in high regard in China. Westerners also have found in it an interesting and pleasurable field of study, Classical Chinese poetry includes, perhaps first and foremost shi, and also other major types such as ci and qu. There is also a traditional Chinese literary form called fu, which defies categorization into English more than the other terms, during the modern period, there also has developed free verse in Western style. For example, lines from I Ching are often rhymed, but may not be considered to be poetry, a cross-cultural comparison to this might be the Pre-Socratic philosophical works in ancient Greece which were often written in verse versus free verse. The earliest extant anthologies are the Shi Jing, both of these have had a great impact on the subsequent poetic tradition. The elder of two works, the Shijing is a preserved collection of Classical Chinese poetry from over two millennia ago. The collection contains both aristocratic poems regarding life at the court and also more rustic poetry and images of natural settings. The Shijing poems are composed of four-character lines, rather than the five. The main techniques of espression are fu，bi and xing, during the Han Dynasty, the Chu Ci style of poetry contributed to the evolution of the fu style, typified by a mixture of verse and prose passages. The fu form remained popular during the subsequent Six Dynasties period, although it became shorter, the fu form of poetry remains as one of the generic pillars of Chinese poetry, although, in the Tang Dynasty, five-character and seven-character shi poetry begins to dominate. Many yuefu poems are composed of five-character or seven-character lines, in contrast to the lines of earlier times. A characteristic form of Han Dynasty literature is the fu, the poetic period of the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Six Dynasties era is known as Jianan poetry. An important collection of Han poetry is the Nineteen Old Poems, between and over-lapping the poetry of the latter days of the Han and the beginning period of the Six Dynasties was Jianan poetry. Examples of surviving poetry from this include the works of the Three Caos, Cao Cao, Cao Pi. The general and poet Lu Ji used Neo-Taoist cosmology to take literary theory in a new direction with his Wen fu, a high point of classical Chinese poetry occurred during the Tang period, not only was this period prolific in poets, but, also in poems. By this point, poetry was being composed according to regulated tone patterns, regulated and unregulated poetry were distinguished as ancient-style gushi poetry and regulated, recent-style jintishi poetry. Good examples of the gushi and jintishi forms can be found in, respectively, good examples of the jueju verse form can be found in the poems of Li Bai and Wang Wei

4.
Cultural Revolution
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The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in China from 1966 until 1976. The Revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward, the movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the countrys economy and society to a significant degree. The Revolution was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society at large, to eliminate his rivals within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these revisionists be removed through violent class struggle. Chinas youth responded to Maos appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country, the movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi. During the same period Maos personality cult grew to immense proportions, a large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed, Cultural and religious sites were ransacked. Mao officially declared the Cultural Revolution to have ended in 1969, after Maos death and the arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976, reformers led by Deng Xiaoping gradually began to dismantle the Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In 1958, after Chinas first Five-Year Plan, Mao called for grassroots socialism in order to accelerate his plans for turning China into an industrialized state. In this spirit, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, established Peoples Communes in the countryside, many communities were assigned production of a single commodity—steel. Mao vowed to increase production to twice 1957 levels. The Great Leap was an economic failure, uneducated farmers attempted to produce steel on a massive scale, partially relying on backyard furnaces to achieve the production targets set by local cadres. The steel produced was low quality and largely useless, the Great Leap reduced harvest sizes and led to a decline in the production of most goods except substandard pig iron and steel. Furthermore, local authorities frequently exaggerated production numbers, hiding and intensifying the problem for several years, in the meantime, chaos in the collectives, bad weather, and exports of food necessary to secure hard currency resulted in the Great Chinese Famine. Food was in shortage, and production fell dramatically. The famine caused the deaths of millions of people, particularly in poorer inland regions, the Great Leaps failure reduced Maos prestige within the Party. Forced to take responsibility, in 1959, Mao resigned as the President of the Peoples Republic of China, Chinas de jure head of state

5.
Gu Cheng
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Gu Cheng was a famous Chinese modern poet, essayist and novelist. He was a prominent member of the Misty Poets, a group of Chinese modernist poets, Gu Cheng was born in Beijing on 24 September 1956. He was the son of a prominent party member and the army poet Gu Gong, at the age of twelve, his family was sent to rural Shandong because of the Cultural Revolution where they bred pigs. There, he claimed to have learned poetry directly from nature, in the late 1970s, Cheng became associated with the journal Today which began a movement in poetry known as menglong meaning hazy, obscure. He became a celebrity and travelled around the world accompanied by his wife. The two settled in Rocky Bay, a village on Waiheke Island, Auckland, New Zealand in 1987. Cheng taught Chinese at the University of Auckland in the City of Auckland, in October 1993, Gu Cheng attacked his wife with an axe before hanging himself. She died later on the way to a hospital, the story of his death was widely covered in the Chinese media. The two-line poem titled A Generation was perhaps Gu Chengs most famous contribution to contemporary Chinese literature and it had been considered an accurate representation of the younger generation during the Chinese Cultural Revolution seeking knowledge and future. Chinese Writers on Writing featuring Gu Cheng, sea of Dreams, Selected Writings of Gu Cheng translated and edited by Joseph Allen. Poemas oscuros, Antología de Gu Cheng, traducido del chino por Javier Martín Ríos, dead in Exile, The Life and Death of Gu Cheng and Xie Ye by Anne-Marie Brady. A personal account and review of books about Gu Cheng. Gu Chengs Fortress official website by a group of people who studied Gu Chengs work. Prólogo al libro Cuatro Poetas Suicidas Chinos Crítica de Leonardo Sanhueza al libro Cuatro Poetas Suicidas Chinos Crítica de Alberto Hernández al libro Cuatro Poetas Suicidas Chinos en Letralia

6.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty

7.
Bei Dao
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Bei Dao is another name for Zhifu Island. Bei Dao is the pen name of Chinese poet Zhao Zhenkai and he chose the pen name because he came from the north and because of his preference for solitude. Bei Dao is the most notable representative of the Misty Poets, as a teenager, Bei Dao was a member of the Red Guards, the enthusiastic followers of Mao Zedong who enforced the dictates of the Cultural Revolution, often through violent means. He had misgivings about the Revolution and was re-educated as a construction worker, Bei Dao and Mang Ke founded the magazine Jintian, the central publication of the Misty Poets, which was published from 1978 until 1980, when it was banned. The work of the Misty Poets and Bei Dao in particular were an inspiration to pro-democracy movements in China, most notable was his poem Huida which was written during the 1976 Tiananmen demonstrations in which he participated. The poem was taken up as a defiant anthem of the pro-democracy movement, during the 1989 protests and subsequent shootings, Bei Dao was at a literary conference in Berlin and was not allowed to return to China until 2006. His then wife, Shao Fei, and their daughter were not allowed to leave China to join him for six years. Since 1987, Bei Dao has lived and taught in England, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, and the United States. His work has translated into twenty-five languages, including five poetry volumes in English along with the story collection Waves. Bei Dao continued his work in exile and his work has been included in anthologies such as The Red Azalea, Chinese Poetry Since the Cultural Revolution and Out of the Howling Storm, The New Chinese poetry. And the PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award and he is an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Jintian was resurrected in Stockholm in 1990 as a forum for expatriate Chinese writers and he has been repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Translators Bonnie S. McDougall & Susette Ternent Cooke, Bei Dao is the series editor of the “For Children” series, published by China CITIC Press. Blue House translated by Ted Huters & Feng-ying Ming, Profile at Poets. org Profile at Poetry Foundation Travel by Bei Dao at Guernica Magazine

8.
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
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The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in China as the June Fourth Incident, were student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period. The protests were suppressed after the government declared martial law. The number of deaths has been estimated at anywhere between the hundreds to the thousands. The reforms of the 1980s had led a nascent market economy which benefited some groups but seriously disaffected others, common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, at the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square. As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership, by May, a student-led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, Chinas paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and other party elders believed the protests to be a political threat, Party authorities declared martial law on May 20, and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. The Chinese government was condemned internationally for the use of force. Western countries imposed sanctions and arms embargoes. The Chinese government initially condemned the protests as a counter-revolutionary riot, the police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged, more broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization in the 1980s. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century. Its memory is associated with questioning the legitimacy of Communist Party rule. In the Chinese language, the incident is most commonly known as the June Fourth Incident, June Fourth refers to the day on which the Peoples Liberation Army cleared Tiananmen Square of protesters, although actual operations began on the evening of June 3. Some use the June Fourth designation solely to refer to the carried out by the Army. Names such as June Fourth Movement and 89 Democracy Movement are used to describe the event in its entirety, outside mainland China, and among circles critical of the crackdown within mainland China, it is commonly referred to in Chinese as June Fourth Massacre and June Fourth Crackdown. The government of the Peoples Republic of China have used numerous names for the event since 1989, in English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events

9.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe

10.
Rock music
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It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis

11.
Cui Jian
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Cui Jian is a Beijing-based Chinese singer-songwriter, trumpeter and guitarist. Affectionately called Mr. Cui, he is considered to be a pioneer in Chinese rock music, for this distinction Cui Jian is often labeled The Father of Chinese Rock. Cui Jian grew up in a family in Beijing—his father was ethnic Korean. Cui Jian followed his father to start playing the trumpet at the age of fourteen and joined the Beijing Symphony Orchestra in 1981 and he was first introduced to rock during this period when friends smuggled in illicit recordings from Hong Kong and Bangkok. Inspired by the likes of Simon and Garfunkel and John Denver, in 1984 he formed his first band, Qi He Ban with six other classically trained musicians, including the saxophonist/suona player Liu Yuan. The seminal band was influenced by The Beatles, The Rolling Stones. They performed their own works—mostly soft rock and love songs—in local hotels, with his band, Cui released his first cassette Vagabonds Return that same year. The album contained mellow, pop-oriented love songs, but also showcased songs with progressive and folk rock influences, in 1985, the band released another album, titled Cui Jian with Seven-Player band. The album featured a combination of Western pop rock, as well as new originals and it also featured more prominent use of the electric guitar, which was seldom used in Chinese popular music. Cuis departure from the band and subsequent solo career led him to become the most successful, Cui Jian first shot to stardom in 1986, when he performed Nothing to My Name on the 100-Singer Concert of Year of International Peace at Beijing Workers Stadium. The next year he left his permanent job with the orchestra and his band, now renamed ADO, included two foreign embassy employees, Hungarian bassist Kassai Balazs and Madagascan guitarist Eddie Randriamampionona. His first real album, Rock and Roll on the New Long March, was released in 1989, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Cui created a hybrid and experimental music mix that cut across divisions between pop music genres. Cuis songs drew on folk and traditional music types, such as the Northwest Wind peasant songs of the Loess Plateau of Shaanxi, at times they knowingly parodied old Communist Party sayings and proverbs. In 1991, for example, he set the old revolutionary song Nanniwan to rock music, in 1988 he performed at a concert broadcast worldwide in conjunction with the Seoul Summer Olympic Games. His earliest works had influence from Western popular music styles, such as punk, dance and jazz, with tensions rising among the students of China and the government, Cuis work was very influential among the youth. Cui Jian reached the apex of his popularity during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the following government crackdown forced many rock musicians, Cui Jian included, into hiding in the other provinces. Sanctions proved relatively temporary and Cui was able to return to Beijing shortly afterward, in early 1990, he began his first rock tour entitled the New Long March, with ten concerts scheduled in Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Xian, Chengdu and others. After the tour,1 million yuan was donated to help pay for the 1990 Asian Games, elsewhere in China he was permitted to play to sell-out crowds in both large and small venues, only on occasion facing government interference

12.
Gang of Four
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The Gang of Four was a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution and were charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The gangs leading figure was Mao Zedongs last wife Jiang Qing, the other members were Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Their downfall on October 6,1976, a month after Maos death, brought about major celebrations on the streets of Beijing. The group was led by Jiang Qing, and consisted of three of her associates, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Two other men who were dead in 1976, Kang Sheng. Chen Boda and Mao Yuanxin, the latter being Maos nephew, were considered some of the Gangs closer associates. Most Western accounts consider that the leadership of the Cultural Revolution consisted of a wider group. Most prominent was Lin Biao, until his flight from China. Chen Boda is often classed as a member of Lins faction rather than Jiang Qings, the writing argues that portraying Peng Dehuais position sympathetically was an attack on Chairman Maos Great Leap Forward which led Mao to purge Peng. This article is cited as launching the Cultural Revolution, Jiang Qing staged revolutionary operas during the Cultural Revolution and met with the Red Guards. Mao placed his wife Jiang Qing, a film actress who before 1966 had not taken a public political role. Zhang, Yao and Wang were party leaders in Shanghai who had played leading roles in securing that city for Mao during the Cultural Revolution, around the time of the death of Lin Biao, the Cultural Revolution began to lose momentum. The new commanders of the Peoples Liberation Army demanded that order be restored in light of the situation along the border with the Soviet Union. Liu Shaoqi had meanwhile died in prison in 1969, near the end of Maos life, a power struggle occurred between the Gang of Four and the alliance of Deng Xiaoping, Zhou Enlai, and Ye Jianying. Even decades later, it is impossible to know the truth of these events. However, Zhous successor as Premier was not one of the radicals, upon Maos death, Hua was named Communist Party chairman as well. The radicals hoped that the key military leaders Wang Dongxing and Chen Xilian would support them, on 6 October 1976, Hua had the four leading radicals and a number of their lesser associates arrested

13.
Bei Ling
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Bei Ling is a Chinese poet, and journal editor. He is usually associated with the Chinese misty poets and he came to the United States on an exchange, he was a fellow at Brown University. After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, in 1992, he founded the literary journal 傾向, in 2000, he opened an office in Beijing. He launched a magazine named Tendency in 1993 as a platform for young underground writers talents. On August 13,2000, he was detained for 14 days at the Qinghe Detention Center, after an international protest, he was fined $24,000, and deported. He lived in Boston, and New York City and he is Executive Director of the Independent Chinese PEN Center. In 2009, he sought dialogue with Chinese officials at the Frankfurt Book Fair, in 2010, he wrote about Liu Xiaobo in The Wall Street Journal. In 2011, he organized a letter in support of Ai Weiwei, in 2016, he was prominent in the campaign to preserve freedom of expression in Hong Kong after the Causeway Bay Books disappearances, one of whom was Gui Minhai, his friend since the 1980s. He claimed to have houses in Germany, Taiwan, Thailand

14.
Ha Jin
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Xuefei Jin is a contemporary Chinese-American poet and novelist using the pen name Ha Jin. Ha comes from his city, Harbin. His poetry is associated with the Misty Poetry movement, Ha Jin was born in Liaoning, China. His father was an officer, at thirteen, Jin joined the Peoples Liberation Army during the Cultural Revolution. Jin began to educate himself in Chinese literature and high school curriculum at sixteen and he left the army when he was nineteen, as he entered Heilongjiang University and earned a bachelors degree in English studies. This was followed by a degree in Anglo-American literature at Shandong University. Jin grew up in the chaos of early communist China and he was on a scholarship at Brandeis University when the 1989 Tiananmen incident occurred. The Chinese governments forcible put-down hastened his decision to emigrate to the United States, Jin sets many of his stories and novels in China, in the fictional Muji City. He has won the National Book Award for Fiction and the PEN/Faulkner Award for his novel and he has received three Pushcart Prizes for fiction and a Kenyon Review Prize. Many of his stories have appeared in The Best American Short Stories anthologies. His collection Under The Red Flag won the Flannery OConnor Award for Short Fiction, war Trash was also a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. Jin currently teaches at Boston University in Boston, Massachusetts and he formerly taught at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Jin was a Mary Ellen von der Heyden Fellow for Fiction at the American Academy in Berlin, Germany, Jin was inducted to American Academy of Arts and Letters in 2014. Ha Jin, Waiting Neil J Diamant, Revolutionizing the Family, Politics, Love and Divorce in Urban and Rural China, 1949-1968, p.59. Ha Jin, The bridegroom Yuejin Wang, Chinese Literature, Essays, Articles, Reviews 13 Ha Jin, Exiled to English Ha Jin, Ha Jin at Library of Congress Authorities — with 20 catalog records

15.
Wesleyan University
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Wesleyan University is a private liberal arts college in Middletown, Connecticut, founded in 1831. About 20 unrelated colleges and universities were named after Wesley. Wesleyan, along with Amherst College and Williams College, is a member of the Little Three colleges, Three histories of Wesleyan have been published, Wesleyans First Century by Carl F. Potts. Wesleyan was founded as an all-male Methodist college in 1831, the University, established as an independent institution under the auspices of the Methodist conference, was led by Willbur Fisk, its first President. Despite its name, Wesleyan was never a denominational seminary and it also has maintained a larger library collection than institutions comparable in size. The Wesleyan student body numbered about 300 in 1910 and had grown to 800 in 1960, the latter being a figure that Time described as small. In 1872, the University became one of the first U. S. colleges to attempt coeducation by allowing a number of female students to attend. Given that concern, Wesleyan ceased to admit women, and from 1912 to 1970 Wesleyan operated again as an all-male college, Wesleyan became independent of the Methodist church in 1937, although in 2000, the university was designated as an historic Methodist site. The building program begun under this system created three residential colleges on Foss Hill and then three more residential colleges. Although the facilities were created, only four of the academic programs were begun. Fund raising proved highly effective and by 1960 Wesleyan had the largest endowment, per student, of any college or university in America, and a student-faculty ratio of 7,1. The University and several of its admissions deans were featured in Jacques Steinbergs 2002 book The Gatekeepers, Inside The Admissions Process of a Premier College. In the fall 2007 semester, Michael S. Roth, a 1978 graduate of Wesleyan, when Wesleyan University was founded in 1831, it took over a campus on which two buildings, North College and South College, had already been built in 1825. They were originally constructed by the City of Middletown for use by Captain Partridge’s American Literary, Scientific, in 1829, after the Connecticut legislature declined it a charter to grant college degrees, Capt. Alden Partridge moved his Academy to Northfield, Vermont. The Academy later became Norwich University and the Middletown buildings were acquired by Wesleyan, the book, Norwich University, 1819-1911, Vol. I, provides the following description of South College and North College. These buildings were constructed of sandstone from the quarries in Portland. The Barracks was four stories high,150 feet long and 52 feet wide, with a large attic, halls extended the full length of the building. The Lyceum was located 20 feet south of the Barracks, was three high, with a basement partly above the ground

16.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

17.
Angry Penguins
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Angry Penguins was an Australian literary and artistic avant-garde movement of the 1940s. The movement was stimulated by a modernist magazine of the same name published by the surrealist poet Max Harris, Angry Penguins was first published in the South Australian capital of Adelaide. The title is derived from a phrase in Harris poem Mithridatum of Despair, as drunks, the penguins of the night. The magazines main Adelaide rivals were the Jindyworobaks, a nationalist and anti-modernist literary movement inspired by Indigenous Australian culture, according to Angry Penguins poet Geoffrey Dutton, we stayed with Yeats, Eliot and Auden. and left Lawson and Paterson to the Jindys. In 1942, Harris gained the patronage of John and Sunday Reed in Melbourne, the Angry Penguins were early Australian exponents of surrealism and expressionism. Members of the group included John Perceval, Arthur Boyd, Sidney Nolan, Danila Vassilieff, Albert Tucker. The Angry Penguins movement was surveyed in the 1988 exhibition Angry Penguins and Realist Painting in Melbourne in the 1940s, the Ern Malley hoax is the publication’s most famous event. These poems were actually constructed as a pastiche of fragments pasted together nonsensically, McAuley and Stewart were critical of Modernism, the poems were received and published with great enthusiasm of the creators and patrons of the magazine. When it was revealed to be a hoax, the publication received negative backlash, in Richard Flanagans Booker Prize-winning novel The Narrow Road to the Deep North, the main character, Dorrigo Evans, meets the love of his life at the launch of Angry Penguins. Ern Malley Alfred Tipper cultureandrecreation. gov. au Ernmalley The Angry Penguins

18.
Beat Generation
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The Beat Generation is a literary movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-World War II era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized throughout the 1950s, Allen Ginsbergs Howl, William S. Burroughss Naked Lunch and Jack Kerouacs On the Road are among the best known examples of Beat literature. Both Howl and Naked Lunch were the focus of obscenity trials that helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, later, in the mid-1950s, the central figures ended up together in San Francisco where they met and became friends of figures associated with the San Francisco Renaissance. In the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into the hippie, Neal Cassady, the driver for Ken Keseys bus Further, was the primary bridge between these two generations. Allen Ginsbergs work also became an element of early 1960s hippie culture. Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase Beat Generation in 1948 to characterize a perceived underground, the name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes. Kerouac allows that it was street hustler Herbert Huncke who originally used the phrase beat, the origins of the Beat Generation can be traced to Columbia University and the meeting of Kerouac, Ginsberg, Lucien Carr, Hal Chase and others. Jack Kerouac attended Columbia on a football scholarship, though the beats are usually regarded as anti-academic, many of their ideas were formed in response to professors like Lionel Trilling and Mark Van Doren. Classmates Carr and Ginsberg discussed the need for a New Vision, to counteract what they perceived as their teachers conservative, Burroughs had an interest in criminal behavior and got involved in dealing stolen goods and narcotics. He was soon addicted to opiates, Burroughs guide to the criminal underworld was small-time criminal and drug-addict Herbert Huncke. The Beats were drawn to Huncke, who started to write himself. The police attempted to pull Ginsberg over while he was driving with Huncke, Ginsberg crashed the car while trying to flee and escaped on foot, but left incriminating notebooks behind. He was given the option to plead insanity to avoid a term, and was committed for 90 days to Bellevue Hospital. Carl Solomon was arguably more eccentric than psychotic, a fan of Antonin Artaud, he indulged in self-consciously crazy behavior, like throwing potato salad at a college lecturer on Dadaism. Solomon was given shock treatments at Bellevue, this one of the main themes of Ginsbergs Howl. Solomon later became the contact who agreed to publish Burroughs first novel Junky in 1953. Beat writers and artists flocked to Greenwich Village in New York City in the late 1950s because of low rent, folksongs, readings and discussions often took place in Washington Square Park

19.
Castalian Band
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Its name is derived from the classical term Castalian Spring, a symbol for poetic inspiration. It was H. However, apart from this verse, no scholar has produced any evidence for any such self-aware grouping. Nevertheless, other writers have seized on the concept, in a celebrated article from 2001, the reputed literary scholar Priscilla Bawcutt examined the claims closely, and - in the opinion of most modern authorities - demolished them. However, the persistence of the idea of the Castalian Band has its own interest - as Bawcutt noted, whether or not there ever was such a Court grouping as the Castalian Band, it seems likely that there were cultivated circles of educated gentlemen in Scotland at the time. The King wrote a detailed treatise intended to establish a standard of practice in Scots poetry - his Reulis and Cautelis -, activities of some the poets recognized to be working in Scotland at the time is known to a limited extent. The principal literary figure to be associated with the court was Alexander Montgomerie. Music may also played an important part in performances, some of the poems of Montgomerie, french influences were particularly important for the King. James himself made translations of work by the Gascon soldier-poet du Bartas, du Bartas himself visited the Scottish Court on a diplomatic mission in 1587 during which time James unsuccessfully attempted to persuade him to stay. Other Castalian makars produced translation as well as original works, many Scots translations predated first translations of the same works in England. Chief among the circle was arguably the soldier, courtier and makar Alexander Montgomerie and he had achieved celebrity after victory over Patrick Hume in The Flyting Betwixt Montgomerie and Polwart. Sonnets on various themes include a sequence that deftly charts frustration with the laws delay. Even when Montgomerie came to be excluded from the court sometime in the mid 1590s as a result of his Catholic sympathies. The court also attracted figures from furth of Scotland, thomas produced translations as well as original work. Under James patronage he was translator of du Bartas. Names on the fringes of court literary circles include, William Alexander, Earl of Stirling Robert Aytoun Alexander and they came to prominence more properly after the Union of the Crowns. Its well-developed structure and language as theatre may suggest that our picture of activity in the Scottish court of James is not complete. The exact identity of the dramatist is open to speculation and it is arguable that the existence of the Castalians was passed over in general literary histories. Scottish Jacobean writers have largely overshadowed by the contemporaneous literary scene in London in the age of Shakespeare

20.
Cavalier poet
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Cavalier Poets is a broad description of a school of English poets of the 17th century, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War. Charles, a connoisseur of the arts, supported poets who created the art he craved. These poets in turn grouped themselves with the King and his service, a cavalier was traditionally a mounted soldier or knight, but when the term was applied to those who supported Charles it was meant to portray them as roistering gallants. The term was meant to belittle and insult. However, it became the term applied to those who supported Charles and they were separate in their lifestyle and divided on religion from the Roundheads, who supported Parliament, consisting often of Puritans. The best known of the Cavalier poets are Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, most of the Cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet, Cavalier poetry is different from traditional poetry in its subject matter. The intent of their works was often to promote the crown, most Cavalier works had allegorical and/or classical references. They drew upon the knowledge of Horace, Cicero, and Ovid, by using these resources they were able to produce poetry that impressed King Charles I. The Cavalier Poets strove to create poetry where both pleasure and virtue thrived and they were rich in reference to the ancients as well as pleasing. Commonly held traits certainly exist in Cavalier poetry in that most poems “celebrate beauty, love, nature, sensuality, drinking, good fellowship, honor, and social life. ”In many ways, this poetry embodies an attitude that mirrors “carpe diem. ”Cavalier poets certainly wrote to promote Loyalist principles in favor of the crown, but their themes ran deeper than that. Cavalier poets wrote in a way that promoted seizing the day and they wanted to revel in society and come to be the best that they possibly could within the bounds of that society. This endorsement of living life to the fullest, for Cavalier writers, often included gaining material wealth and these themes contributed to the triumphant and boisterous tone and attitude of the poetry. Platonic Love was also characteristic of Cavalier poetry, where the man would show his divine love to a woman. As such it was common to hear praise of womanly virtues as though they were divine, Cavalier poetry is closely linked to the Royalist cause in that the main intent of their poetry was to glorify the crown. In this way, Cavalier poetry is often grouped in a category of poetry. Cavalier poetry began to be recognized as its own genre with the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642 when men began to write in defense of the crown. However, authors like Thomas Carew and Sir John Suckling died years before the war began, once the conflict began between the monarchy and the rebellious parliament, the content of the poetry became much more specifically aimed at upholding Royalist ideals

21.
Graveyard poets
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Moving beyond the elegy lamenting a single death, their purpose was rarely sensationalist. As the century progressed, graveyard poetry increasingly expressed a feeling for the sublime and uncanny, the graveyard poets are often recognized as precursors of the Gothic literary genre, as well as the Romantic movement. The Graveyard School is an indefinite literary grouping that binds together a variety of authors. At its broadest it can describe a host of poetry and prose works popular in the early, the term itself was not used as a brand for the poets and their poetry until William Macneile Dixon did so in 1898. Some literary critics have emphasized Miltons minor poetry as the influence of the meditative verse written by the Graveyard Poets. These subjects were, however, interesting to earlier poets as well, the characteristics and style of Graveyard poetry is not unique to them, and the same themes and tone are found in ballads and odes. Many of the Graveyard School poets were, like Thomas Parnell, Christian clergymen and they were also inclined toward contemplating subjects related to life after death, which is reflected in how their writings focus on human mortality and man’s relation to the divine. The religious culture of the century included an emphasis on private devotion. Each of these conditions demanded a new kind of text with which people could meditate on life, the Graveyard School met that need, and the poems were thus quite popular, especially with the middle class. For instance Elizabeth Rowes Friendship in Death, In Twenty Letters from the Dead to the Living and this popularity, as Parisot says, confirms the fashionable mid-century taste for mournful piety. They are also considered pre-Romanticists, ushering in the Romantic literary movement by their reflection on emotional states and this emotional reflection is seen in Coleridge’s “Dejection, An Ode” and Keats’ “Ode on Melancholy. Many critics of Graveyard poetry had very positive feedback for the poets. Critic Amy Louise Reed called Graveyard poetry a disease, while other critics called many poems unoriginal, and said that the poets were better than their poetry. Although the majority of criticism about Graveyard poetry is negative, other critics thought differently, especially about poet Edward Young. Critic Isabell St. John Bliss also celebrates Edward Young’s ability to write his poetry in the style of the Graveyard School and at the time include Christian themes. Wicker called Young a forerunner in the Romantic movement and called his work original, however a more contemplative and mellow mood is achieved in the celebrated opening verse of Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard in which The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The lowing herd winds slowly oer the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me

22.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition

23.
Della Cruscans
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The Della Cruscans were a circle of European late-18th-century sentimental poets founded by Robert Merry. Robert Merry travelled to Florence where he edited two volumes, The Arno Miscellany and The Florence Miscellany, the latter of which could be said to have started the Della Cruscan phenomena. It was a collaboration between English and Italian poets and contained poems in English, Italian, and French, the name is taken from the Florentine Accademia della Crusca, an organization founded in 1583 to purify the Italian language. Bertie Greatheeds The Dream opens the collection with an indictment of the current deplorable state of poetry, the call to the past was made even more clear by the inclusion of translations of poems by Dante and Petrarch. William Parsons, a travelling Briton, was also of the circle, Merry returned to the UK in 1787 and published Adieu and Recall to Love in The World under the name of Della Crusca. The highly successful The Poetry of the World, a collection of the dialogue between Anna Matilda and Della Crusca, followed shortly and went through several editions. Other members of the English Della Cruscan circle were Laura Maria, Benedict, Reuben, Frederick Pilon, the previous generation was even more unforgiving, his epidemic of Della Cruscanism spread for a term from fool to fool. The school was indeed short-lived, and survived until recently as an emblem of exaggerated sensibility, some contemporary critics, however, have reevaluated these poets and present a more forgiving view. Further, While the Della Cruscans did not invent the newspaper conversation in verse, they exerted a potent influence over contributors to British, Contributors, Robert Merry, Bertie Greatheed, Hester Thrale Piozzi The Florence Miscellany. Contributors, William Parsons, Robert Merry, Hester Thrale Piozzi, Bertie Greatheed, Ippolito Pindemonte, Lorenzo Pignotti, Angelo dElci, Giuseppe Parini, Marco Lastri, Gabriel Mario Piozzi. The fourth edition was retitled The British Album Contributors, Robert Merry, Hannah Cowley Anna Matilda, To Della Crusca, lord Byron and the Della Cruscans, The Della Cruscans Anglo-Italian Poetics. The Centre for Study of Byron and Romanticism,2006, drabble, Margaret, ed. Della Cruscans, Gifford, William. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. The English Della Cruscans and Their Time, 1783-1828, international Archives of the History of Ideas #22. Labbe, Jacqueline M. Anthologised Romance of Della Crusca and Anna Matilda, the Della Cruscans and William Gifford, The History of a Minor Movement in an Age of Literary Transition. The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English, English Poetry 1579-1830, Spenser and the Tradition

24.
Ecopoetry
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Ecopoetry is poetry with a strong ecological emphasis or message. Many poets, poems and books of poems have expressed ecological concerns, there is now, in English-speaking poetry, a recognisable subgenre of ecopoetry. Prior to the term, a number of poems had ecological messages, although these poets did not mention the word, they were clearly Ecopoetic in stance and exerted an influence on the subsequent subgenre. Examples include, The White Poem by Jay Ramsay & Carole Bruce, Bosco and Heavy Water, one of a number of seminal texts helping to introduce the term into wider, critical use was Ecopoetry, a Critical Introduction edited by J. Scott Bryson. Another example of the use of the term at the millennial turn was the journal Ecopoetics. Since then, a spate of poetry anthologies and books has appeared, one of the chief characteristics of ecopoetry, as defined by James Engelhardt, is that it is connected to the world in a way that implies responsibility. As with other models that explore and assume engagement, Ecopoetry is surrounded by questions of ethics, planting Roots, A Survey of Introductions to Ecopoetry and Ecocriticism by Caitlin Maling, Cordite Poetry Review Ecopoems, term used in title of Earth Shattering, Ecopoems ISBN 1-85224-774-6. Redstart, An Ecological Poetics by Forrest Gander and John Kinsella ISBN 978-1-60938-119-6 Ecopoetry, the Future of the Past, Ecopoetics by Forrest Gander at The Free Library The White Poem by Jay Ramsay and Carole Bruce ISBN 978-0-947612-29-0. Bosco by Mario Petrucci ISBN 1-870841-77-8, Heavy Water, a poem for Chernobyl ISBN 1-900564-34-3. The Thunder Mutters,101 Poems About the Planet ISBN 978-0-571-21857-8, the Language Habitat, an Ecopoetry Manifesto by James Engelhardt

25.
Flarf poetry
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Flarf poetry was an avant-garde poetry movement of the early 21st century. The term Flarf was coined by the poet Gary Sullivan, who also wrote, further discussion has taken place on dozens of blogs and listservs across the United States, and in Australia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Holland, Mexico, and elsewhere. Silem Mohammad, Rod Smith, & Gary Sullivan Poetry Magazine feature Flarf is Dionysus, an introduction to the 21st Centurys most controversial poetry movements. Deer Head Nation by K. Silem Mohammad, & PPL in a Depot by Gary Sullivan On Flarf by Rachel Hyman You Call That a Poem, understanding the Flarf Movement by Jack Chelgren Generals and Globetrotters by Joshua Clover Flarf Orchestra CD Music and poetry conducted by Drew Gardner. Flarf Orchestra live video The Flarf Orchestra performing live at Le Poisson Rouge in New York City, features Katie Degentesh, Nada Gordon and Sharon Mesmer. Flarf vs. Silem Mohammad has called this piece Drew Gardners answer to Vanessa Place conceptual or literal, american poet-critic Alan Gilbert weighs in on the controversy

26.
Consistori del Gay Saber
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The Consistori del Gay Saber was a poetic academy founded at Toulouse in 1323 to revive and perpetuate the lyric poetry of the troubadours. Also known as the Acadèmia dels Jòcs Florals, it is the most ancient literary institution of the western world and it was founded in 1323 in Toulouse and later restored by Clémence Isaure as the Consistori del Gay Saber with the goal of encouraging Occitan poetry. The best verses were given prizes at the games in the form of different flowers, made of gold or silver, such as violets, rose hips, calendula officinalis. It was renewed by Louis XIV in 1694 and still exists today, the Académie des Jeux Floraux has had such prestigious members as Ronsard, Marmontel, Chateaubriand, Voltaire, Alfred de Vigny, Victor Hugo and Frédéric Mistral. The academy was called the Consistori dels Sept Trobadors or Sobregaya Companhia dels Set Trobadors de Tolosa. Chaytor believed that the Consistori arose out of meetings of poets held in earlier years. The Consistori was governed by a chancellor and seven judges or mantenedors, in 1390 John I of Aragon, one of the earliest Renaissance humanists to sit on a European throne, established the Consistori de Barcelona in imitation of the Toulousain academy. The Consistori held a poetry contest at which one contestant. The other prizes, awarded for particular forms, were similarly floral. The best dança earned its creator a flor de gaug dargen fi, the first prize was rewarded on 3 May 1324 to Arnaut Vidal de Castelnou dAri for a sirventes in praise of the Virgin Mary. The contests were held intermittently until 1484, when the last prize was awarded to Arnaut Bernart de Tarascon, from this period of 160 years survive the record of around a hundred prizes. During that century and a half, the Consistori saw participants from both south of the Pyrenees and north of Occitania, both men and women, in an unknown year, possibly 1385, an anonymous Catalan woman submitted a planh to the seven maintainers for judgement. The planh is that of a woman for her lover. It was in order to judge these contests that the Consistori first commissioned an Occitan grammar, including the laws of poetry, the first compiler was Guilhem Molinier, whose Leys damor was completed between 1328 and 1337. It went through two subsequent redactions, several other grammatical treatises and glosses were produced by poets associated with the Consistori. By 1471 the Consistori was losing its Occitan character, in 1513 the Consistori was transformed into the Collège de rhétorique et de poésie françaises, the College of French Rhetoric and Poetry. In 1554 the College awarded a silver rose to none other than Pierre de Ronsard. During the Enlightenment, Fabre dÉglantine received his name from the dog rose the academy bestowed on him at the jeux floraux, in 1694 the Consistori was reborn as the Académie des Jeux Floraux, founded by Louix XIV

Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has

3.
The first batch of Simplified Characters introduced in 1935 consisted of 324 characters.

Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languag

1.
A school slogan asking elementary students to speak Putonghua is annotated with pinyin, but without tonal marks.

2.
In Yiling, Yichang, Hubei, text on road signs appears both in Chinese characters and in Hanyu Pinyin

Chinese poetry
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Chinese poetry is poetry written, spoken, or chanted in the Chinese language. Poetry has consistently been held in high regard in China. Westerners also have found in it an interesting and pleasurable field of study, Classical Chinese poetry includes, perhaps first and foremost shi, and also other major types such as ci and qu. There is also a trad

1.
"Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain" by Emperor Gaozong

2.
Hand-painted Chinese New Year 's duilian (对联 "couplet"), a by-product of Chinese poetry, pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, at Lijiang City, Yunnan.

Cultural Revolution
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The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in China from 1966 until 1976. The Revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward, the movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the countrys economy and societ

1.
Cultural Revolution propaganda poster. It depicts Mao Zedong, above a group of soldiers from the People's Liberation Army. The caption says, "The Chinese People's Liberation Army is the great school of Mao Zedong Thought."

2.
The purge of General Luo Ruiqing solidified the Army's loyalty to Mao

3.
Red Guards on the cover of an elementary school textbook from Guangxi

Gu Cheng
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Gu Cheng was a famous Chinese modern poet, essayist and novelist. He was a prominent member of the Misty Poets, a group of Chinese modernist poets, Gu Cheng was born in Beijing on 24 September 1956. He was the son of a prominent party member and the army poet Gu Gong, at the age of twelve, his family was sent to rural Shandong because of the Cultur

1.
Plaque in New York

Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by nat

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The Tripitaka Koreana, a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canon

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" Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion " by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive style

Bei Dao
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Bei Dao is another name for Zhifu Island. Bei Dao is the pen name of Chinese poet Zhao Zhenkai and he chose the pen name because he came from the north and because of his preference for solitude. Bei Dao is the most notable representative of the Misty Poets, as a teenager, Bei Dao was a member of the Red Guards, the enthusiastic followers of Mao Ze

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Bei Dao in Tallinn, 2010

Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
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The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in China as the June Fourth Incident, were student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period. The protests were suppressed after the government declared martial law. The number of deaths has been es

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Premier Li Peng, who declared martial law and backed military action.

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A photo of Pu Zhiqiang, a student protester at Tiananmen, taken on 10 May 1989.

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Wen Jiabao, then chief of the Party's General Office, accompanied Zhao Ziyang to meet with students in the Square. Wen survived the political purge of the Party's liberals and later served as Premier from 2003 to 2013.

Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square ki

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A Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.

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Flag

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A romantic nationalist interpretation of Valdemar IV taking control over Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.

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Stockholm in mid-17th century

Rock music
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It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usu

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Red Hot Chili Peppers in 2006, showing a quartet lineup for a rock band (from left to right: bassist, lead vocalist, drummer, and guitarist).

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Elvis Presley in a promotion shot for Jailhouse Rock in 1957

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Chubby Checker in 2005

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The Beach Boys performing in 1964

Cui Jian
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Cui Jian is a Beijing-based Chinese singer-songwriter, trumpeter and guitarist. Affectionately called Mr. Cui, he is considered to be a pioneer in Chinese rock music, for this distinction Cui Jian is often labeled The Father of Chinese Rock. Cui Jian grew up in a family in Beijing—his father was ethnic Korean. Cui Jian followed his father to start

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Hohaiyan Rock Festival, Taiwan, 2007

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Album artwork showing Cui wearing a red blindfold

Gang of Four
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The Gang of Four was a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution and were charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The gangs leading figure was Mao Zedongs last wife Jiang Qing, the other members were Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Their downfall o

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"Decisively Throw Out the Wang-Zhang-Jiang-Yao Anti-Party Clique!"

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The Gang of Four at their trial in 1981

Bei Ling
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Bei Ling is a Chinese poet, and journal editor. He is usually associated with the Chinese misty poets and he came to the United States on an exchange, he was a fellow at Brown University. After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, in 1992, he founded the literary journal 傾向, in 2000, he opened an office in Beijing. He launched a magazine named Te

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Bei Ling

Ha Jin
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Xuefei Jin is a contemporary Chinese-American poet and novelist using the pen name Ha Jin. Ha comes from his city, Harbin. His poetry is associated with the Misty Poetry movement, Ha Jin was born in Liaoning, China. His father was an officer, at thirteen, Jin joined the Peoples Liberation Army during the Cultural Revolution. Jin began to educate hi

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Ha Jin 哈金

Wesleyan University
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Wesleyan University is a private liberal arts college in Middletown, Connecticut, founded in 1831. About 20 unrelated colleges and universities were named after Wesley. Wesleyan, along with Amherst College and Williams College, is a member of the Little Three colleges, Three histories of Wesleyan have been published, Wesleyans First Century by Carl

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The Samuel Wadsworth Russell House, home to the Philosophy department. The building was designated a national Historic Landmark in 2001 and is considered one of the finest examples of domestic Greek Revival architecture.

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The Wesleyan University Coat of Arms

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The rear of 'College Row'. From left to right: North College, South College, Memorial Chapel, Patricelli '92 Theater (Not pictured: Judd Hall)

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The view from Foss Hill. From left to right: Judd Hall, Harriman Hall (which houses the Public Affairs Center and the College of Social Studies), and Olin memorial library.

International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Angry Penguins
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Angry Penguins was an Australian literary and artistic avant-garde movement of the 1940s. The movement was stimulated by a modernist magazine of the same name published by the surrealist poet Max Harris, Angry Penguins was first published in the South Australian capital of Adelaide. The title is derived from a phrase in Harris poem Mithridatum of D

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Cover of the December 1945 issue of Angry Penguins, designed by Albert Tucker

Beat Generation
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The Beat Generation is a literary movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-World War II era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized throughout the 1950s, Allen Ginsbergs Howl, William S. Burroughss Naked Lunch and Jack Kerouacs On the Road are among the best kn

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Lawrence Ferlinghetti

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A section devoted to the beat generation at a bookstore in Stockholm, Sweden

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Carl Solomon, Patti Smith, Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs at the Gotham Book Mart, New York City, 1977

Castalian Band
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Its name is derived from the classical term Castalian Spring, a symbol for poetic inspiration. It was H. However, apart from this verse, no scholar has produced any evidence for any such self-aware grouping. Nevertheless, other writers have seized on the concept, in a celebrated article from 2001, the reputed literary scholar Priscilla Bawcutt exam

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Contents

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James VI in 1585, aged 19. The " Danish portrait".

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16th century Lute player. James VI saw music and court poetry as connected art-forms, employing minstrels from France, England and Italy.

Cavalier poet
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Cavalier Poets is a broad description of a school of English poets of the 17th century, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War. Charles, a connoisseur of the arts, supported poets who created the art he craved. These poets in turn grouped themselves with the King and his service, a cavalier was traditio

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Charles I of England

Graveyard poets
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Moving beyond the elegy lamenting a single death, their purpose was rarely sensationalist. As the century progressed, graveyard poetry increasingly expressed a feeling for the sublime and uncanny, the graveyard poets are often recognized as precursors of the Gothic literary genre, as well as the Romantic movement. The Graveyard School is an indefin

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Edward Young

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An illustration for Young's Night Thoughts by William Blake.

Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their disco

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Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by Tristan Tzara; Zürich, 1917

Della Cruscans
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The Della Cruscans were a circle of European late-18th-century sentimental poets founded by Robert Merry. Robert Merry travelled to Florence where he edited two volumes, The Arno Miscellany and The Florence Miscellany, the latter of which could be said to have started the Della Cruscan phenomena. It was a collaboration between English and Italian p

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Porta a' Pinti English Cemetery, Florence, before 1827

Ecopoetry
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Ecopoetry is poetry with a strong ecological emphasis or message. Many poets, poems and books of poems have expressed ecological concerns, there is now, in English-speaking poetry, a recognisable subgenre of ecopoetry. Prior to the term, a number of poems had ecological messages, although these poets did not mention the word, they were clearly Ecop

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Art

Flarf poetry
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Flarf poetry was an avant-garde poetry movement of the early 21st century. The term Flarf was coined by the poet Gary Sullivan, who also wrote, further discussion has taken place on dozens of blogs and listservs across the United States, and in Australia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Holland, Mexico, and elsewhere. Silem Mohammad, Rod Smith, & Gary S

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Flarf Noise Putty

Consistori del Gay Saber
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The Consistori del Gay Saber was a poetic academy founded at Toulouse in 1323 to revive and perpetuate the lyric poetry of the troubadours. Also known as the Acadèmia dels Jòcs Florals, it is the most ancient literary institution of the western world and it was founded in 1323 in Toulouse and later restored by Clémence Isaure as the Consistori del