4.The
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages about the tasked-based syllabus:

5.The practical implication about the practice of
the tasked-based syllabus and the envisage about the development of the
tasked-based syllabus in future

1.The
theoretical background:

Task-based
syllabus design has interested some researchers and curriculum developers in
TEFL since the mid-1980s, as a result of widespread interest in the functional
views of language and communicative language teaching.

2.Description
of the task as well as task-based syllabus :

In line with this perspective, we have seen the rise of the ‘task’ as
a fundamental concept in L2 teaching methodology and course design. At a more
fundamental level, the term “task” itself is a complex concept,
there are many
different sayings of ‘task’ in applied linguistics, for example, two are
provided below:

…a
piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward.
This, examples of tasks include painting a fence ,dressing a child, filling out
a form ,buying a pair of shoes, making an airline ofreservation… In other words, by “task” is meant the hundred and one
things people do in everyday life. (Long1985: 89)

…an
activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or
understanding language …A task usually requires the teachers to specify what
will be regarded as successful completion of the task.
(Richards, platt, and Weber 1985:289.cited in Nunan 1988:45)

While in the discussion in Nunan (1989: 5), we
have a definition of “task” adopted in this article follows Willis:

…by
a task I mean an activity which involves the use of language but in which the
focus is on the outcome of the activity rather than on the language used to
achieve that outcome. (Willis 1990: 127)

Candlin presents a pedagogic task accurately: “one of a set of
differentiated, sequenceable, problem-posing activities involving learners and
teachers in some joint selection from a range of varied cognitive and
communicative procedures applied to existing and new knowledge in the collective
exploration and pursuance of foreseen or emergent goals within a social
milieu”(cited in Long and
Crookes 1992:38).

On the bases of the previous expound about the term “task”, a further
discussion goes to “task-based syllabus.” In ERIC Digests, we could find the
proposal like “The content of the teaching is a
series of complex and purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform
with the language they are learning. The tasks are defined as activities with a
purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus, the
performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to develop
second language ability. Language learning is subordinate to task performance,
and language teaching occurs only as the need arises during the performance of a
given task. Tasks integrate language (and other) skills in specific settings of
language use” (Reilly 1988).

Moreover, one thing needs further explanation that task-based teaching
has a goal of teaching students to draw on resources to complete some piece of
work. The students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and skills to
complete the tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally,
tasks that the learners actually have to perform in any case. For example:
applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information
over the telephone and so on.

3.The
different points of view about the task-based syllabus design:

Quite a few proposals could have been concerned representatively in
task-based syllabus development since over 20 years ago, Doyle was one of the
first to put that the curriculum could be viewed as a collection of academic
tasks. He proposes such following items:

1.The product students are to formulate

2.The operations that are required to generate the products

3.The resources available to the students to generate the product

(Doyle
1983:161)

Shavelson
and Stern put forward a list that needs to be considered in planning
instructionaltasks:

1.The
subject matter to be taught

2.Materials
the learner will observe or manipulate3.The activities the teacher and learners
will be carrying out

4.The
goals for the task

5.The
abilities, needs and interests of the students

6.The
social and cultural context of instruction

Long argues that analysis be the starting point in curriculum development
and offers the following procedures for developing the task-based syllabus:

1.Conduct a needs analysis to obtain an inventory of the target tasks

2.Classify the target tasks into task types

3.Derives pedagogical tasks from the task types

4.Select and sequence the pedagogical tasks to form a task syllabus

(Long 1985: 91)

4.The
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages as well about the tasked-based
syllabus:

However,
task-based approaches are generally characterized a more flexible approach for
(1) content and tasks are developed concurrently. And (2) the notion of task
serves as a starting point in syllabus design, determining needs assessments,
content selection, learning experiences, and evaluation.
it still serves the crucial point in task-based approaches in second
language teaching. (3) In addition, the most important factor in task-based
syllabus is producing criteria for selection, grading and sequencing, so it is
assumed that task difficulty is the key factor in determining the ordering of
the items in a syllabus.

Here follows some ideas about the advantages and
disadvantages in practical implementation of the task-based syllabus design:

1.Currently second language teaching methods aim at developing students’
communicative competence that will enable them to communicate effectively in
“real communicating world”

2.Task based learning (TBL) requires students to engage in interaction in
order to fulfill a task. So in this way the underlying language systems will be
developed while students focus on the process of performing the task.

3.The most active element in the process of the task-based teaching is the
learner’s creativity. By exploiting this kind of creativity, we make learning
significantly more efficient and more interesting.

4.It is believed that the task-based syllabus has a richer potential for
promoting successful second language learning than do other syllabus types

The
disadvantages:

1.The
tasks must be suitable for the language learners –not too difficult and not
too simple, so in this case how to make a balance about these two tendencies
comes ambiguously.

2.
Aspects of task difficulty should be considered so that task implementation can
have a positive effect on learning and teaching. But it is too difficult to
cover all aspects thoroughly.

5.Conclusion:

In making practical decisions about task-based
syllabus design, one mustconsider
all the possible factors that might affect the teachability of the syllabus.
Adjusting the choice and integrating the different types according to
learners’ needs, one may find a useful and practical solution to the problem
of appropriateness and effectiveness in syllabus design.

To conclude, the task-based approach to syllabus
design has much potential, but it has a long way to go before it can claim
empirical success in the field of TEFL.

Reference:

Long,
M. 1985. A role for instruction in second language acquisition. In K.
Hyltenstam and M. Pienemann (Eds.) Modelling and assessing second language
acquisition. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. 77-100.

Brief
Comments on the Task-based Syllabuses

Abstract:

In
this article, special attention is focused on the elements of the Task-based
syllabuses, analyzing the fundamental components of the construction and the
practicality of the syllabuses. Having read some literatures on the topic, I
will consider the following questions according to the EFL teaching and learning
environment in China. 1) What are the basic elements consisting of the syllabus?
2) What are the merits and disadvantages of the syllabuses if they are used in
an EFL classroom in China? 3) How to remedy the disadvantages of the syllabus,
if any? Finally a summary is given of the article.

Introduction:

With
the development of the Psychology and the researches into Second Language
Acquisition, varieties of syllabuses have been proposed during the past decades
of years. In 1980s, as a student, I experienced the learning process under the
dominant Grammatical-based syllabuses, forming the habit of attaining the
language knowledge item by item. This results in my poor language proficiency,
in particular the absence of the communicative language skills. After
graduation, I became an English teacher in middle schools. Although
Communicative Language Teaching methods, which I thought are more appropriate if
used in language teaching, were introduced into the middle school classroom
then, yet the textbooks were still dominated by Grammatical-based syllabuses.
The goal of schools is to provide learners with necessary knowledge of the
language so that they can pass the examinations without any difficulty.

In
1990s, the English-course syllabus was modified depending on the current
theories and the English teaching situations in China. More attentions were
focused on the communicative language skills, for example, listening, speaking,
reading and writing. But because of lacking of training courses providing the
teachers with the proper theories and methodology of the relevant syllabus, few
of the teachers knew about the knowledge of the communicative language teaching
in details. After entering Beijing Normal University, particularly the course
“TEFL Materials” is delivered to us, we are getting to know more about the
theories and the relevant definitions, within which Task-based syllabuses arouse
my interests. So, in this article, I’m making my best endeavors to interpret
the syllabuses within my knowledge.

What
is Task-based syllabus?

In
order to interpret this definition, two items should be made clear, “Task”
and “Syllabus”. The following definition of tasks is made by David Nunan:

A
task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language which their
attention is particularly focuses on meaning rather than form (1989. 10).

From
this one we can draw on the following features: it is a piece of meaning-focused
work, a piece of work involving learners and communicative language skills, and
a series of interactions which are needed to meet the learners’ ends. In other
words, a task is a piece of work which is done by learners in everyday life,
involving learners in processing information and using target language, then a
final product is completed.

The
other definition is Syllabus: refers to the selecting and grading of content
(Nunan.1989. 14). So we can conclude that Task-based syllabuses are constructed
with varieties of tasks as the basic blocks, focusing on using the target
language in real world rather than drilling on the isolate grammatical items.

The
merits of the Task-based syllabuses

Task-based
syllabuses are prevailing in current English teaching in China now. The reason
why they are so popular is that there must be some advantages in this kind of
syllabuses. Now I will analyze the syllabuses in details.

Firstly,
I will look at the components of a task illustrated in the figure below ( Nunan.
1989. 11 )

A
framework for analyzing communicative tasks

Illustrated
by this diagram, we can see that a task is consisted of six fundamental
components, each of which has its own advantages. Discrete items will be
considered according to these factors here.

“Goals”
is the first factor taken account of tasks. As we know, the general goal of
tasks is to attain communicative language skills, which is a most important
aspect in the nature of language learning. Let’s think about this matter: what
do we attain our native language for? No matter who they are, their purpose is
to get information from others, expressing their own feelings, communicating
with the others in the society and so on. So one of the most important aspects
of language using is communication. It is the goal that task-based syllabuses
are based on. Personally this kind of syllabuses is more suitable for our needs.

The
second factor is “input”, which refers to the verbal and non-verbal data
such as a dialogue, a reading passage, a picture or a chart etc. Apparently
these materials are objective and can be used in everyday life. And this can
result in a short-term achievement, leaving the learners the sense of success,
which will surely enhance the learners’ interests and motivation. It is this
feature that other syllabuses are short of, for example, Grammatical-based ones,
because they are consisted of discrete structural items, demanding learners to
drill these dull items one by one repeatedly. After some time, the learners will
lose their interest in learning and even give up.

The
third one is “activities”. Task-based syllabuses involve learners’
participation, including series of activities, which lead to learners’ higher
interest and motivation. So the traditional classroom settings are changed
because of using the syllabuses. In the activities every learner is a player.
They augment their amount of knowledge and language skills by involving in
different kinds of activities. It is said that learning is living and it is also
playing and growing. Children begin to know this world by touching and doing. So
do language learners.

“Teacher
role and learner role” may be the most controvertible issues in the
educational field in China these years. Which one should be paid more attention,
teacher-centered or learner-centered? Now we are sure to choose the
learner-centered one, because we know it is the scientific way to learn
language. Teacher, as we know, is a monitor or a server in language teaching,
because learning is the learner’s own developmental process, just like a baby
growing up gradually by contacting the world s/he is living in. In Task-based
syllabuses learner role is emphasized and the main body in learning comes out.

The
disadvantages in Task-based syllabuses

Someone
think that if we find a “best” syllabus, we can solve all of the problems in
language learning and teaching. It is impossible for us to invent a perfect one
like this, because every syllabus has its disadvantages in it, including
Task-bases one. What we should do is how to use one syllabus’ merits, and at
the same time, avoid the disadvantages.

The
most apparent disadvantage in Task-based syllabuses is how to combine the
grammatical items with the communicative skills. As David Nunan pointed out:

It
now seems to be widely accepted that there is value in classroom tasks, which
require learners to focus on form. It is also accepted that grammar is an
essential resource in using language communicatively (1989. 13).

However,
Task-based syllabuses focus on the communicative language use, which will lead
to ignore the grammar learning and teaching. In my opinion both of language
using and language rules are important. We should consider the two factors
simultaneously. How to design a syllabus containing the two items remains
problematic.

A
second disadvantage is that Task-based syllabuses are lack of considering the
factor that if it can be used widely. In China it is very different in economic
and most of the areas are undeveloped. It is impossible to use the same syllabus
efficiently as it is used in developed areas. To provide plenty of materials for
choosing is a better way.

Another
aspect also should be taken into consideration, teacher-training courses. I
think it is a very crucial phase in designing the syllabuses, because it is
related to the efficient results. Task-based syllabuses require more skillful
instructors. If an instructor lacks of the communicative language skills, how
s/he can direct learners to attain these skills.

Summary

So
far I have talked a lot about Task-based syllabuses above. In all, it is a very
good and useful one. I hope that in the near future learners can use it
efficiently with the help from skillful instructors and can really enjoy
learning English as a foreign language.

Syllabus
types can be divided into two superordinate classes product-oriented syllabus
and process-oriented syllabus. Task-based syllabus is a sub-category of the
process-oriented syllabus. Nowadays task-based English learningis a hot topic and is advocated by the new English National curriculum .

Three new task-based syllabus types
appeared in the 1980s:(a)the procedural syllabus, (b) the process syllabus, and
(c) the task syllabus. They are different fromearly syllabuses, which stress the importance of analysis of language or
language use while task-based syllabus derives its rationale from human learning
and second language learning in particular. Task-based syllabus object to the
syllabus formulation which uses analysis of the linguistic elements ,such as
word structure, notion, or function as one unit. It takes one task as one unit
of analysis.

What is a task? Task is “ an activity
or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding
language (i.e. as a response).For example , drawing a map while listening to an
instruction and performing a command …A task usually requiresthe teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of
the task.(Richards ,Platt and Weber1985:289 )

Shortly
speaking, task is an action, in the process of doing something ,learners are
always in the active psychological state .It is a process of interaction. In
order to complete the task ,learnersregard
‘meaning’ as the center , drawing upon verbal and non-verbal resources to
construct meanings in order to solve a certain communicative problem. In the
process of completing tasks, learners actively participate in the task and
interact with both teachers and classmates, building a supportive environment
for language acquisition and internalization.

Though
there are many definitions about the task, however ,a classroom task should
consists the following aspects: (1) meaning-centered .A task is not designed to
practice some less meaningful or meaningless language forms; (2) the focus of
task is to solve certain communicative problem, which must have some connections
with the real world. The task must be close to students real life, learning
experiences and social reality ,and could arouse students interests and
encourage students’ participation in the task;(3) the design of the task must
emphasize the importance of task completion , that is, the settlement of the
communicative problem. The result of the task is the criteria of assessing the
success of the task.

Long
,who uses needs analysis as his point of departure, offers the following steps
for developing a task-based syllabus:

1.Conduct a needs analysis to obtain an inventory of target tasks.

2.Classify the target tasks into task types.

3.From the task types, derive pedagogical tasks.

4.Select and sequence the pedagogical tasks to form a task syllabus.( Long
1985: 91 )

Though
task-based syllabus has been introduced for about twenty years, a few programs
have been reported that reflect some principles of it. Teachers are required to
correlate theory with teaching practice and make our English teaching more
efficiently.

Recently,the
departure point of syllabus design has shifted from product or outcomes of
learning to learning process because the nature of language is further explored
with the development of applied linguistics ,psycholinguistics and
sociolinguistics. More attention is concentrated on the learning experiences
themselves. Procedural syllabuses, task-based syllabuses and content syllabuses
are constructed on the basis of the theoretical view that language proficiency
including communicative competence will be achieved in the process of using
language.

Since
the mid of 1970s,the task –based approach becomes the study focus. What is the
task? It is definited in a variety of ways by linguists. Compared the
definitions given by Long (1985 ) and Richards et al.(1986),distinction may
exist in the terms of real-world tasks and pedagogic tasks. When real-world
tasks are introduced into the classroom, they provide the learners with
opportunities to rehearse the behaviours in the real world while pedagogic tasks
are selected for learners to practise the skills which are needed in real
communication. They both form a continuum .Breen (1987)views the task as a range
of workplans facilitating language learning from the simple and brief exercise
type to more complex and lengthy activities. Nunan emphasizes that “the task
is a piece of meaning focused work involving learners in comprehending,
producing and/or interacting in the target language, and that tasks are analysed
or categorised according to their goal, input data, activities, settings and
roles.”(1989).

Within
the varying definitions of task in the literature, three features are obvious:
task consists specific goals or outcomes, some input data and one or more
related activities or procedures.

Candlin(1987)’s
long list of pedagogic criteria for task selection is too vague .Doyle
(1979,1983)and some other linguists suggest a comprehensive curriculum model
with a little rearrangement and no assessment and evaluation components. Long
(1985) raises the issue of grading or sequencing the pedagogical tasks to
develop a task syllabus in the way of needs analysis. Brown and Yule (1983)
suggest that listening tasks can be graded with reference to speaker, intended
listener and content.

Nunan
argues that factors of input ,activities and learners are main three ones which
are significant in determining task difficulty and these should be considered
holistically not separately. Activity with authentic materials can be at
different levels of difficulty according to cognitive and performance demands
the tasks make upon the learners .The learners can undertake activities moving
from data comprehension to productive practice and finally interactive
communication. In addition of cognitive demands ,complexity of input data and
learners knowledge and affect will also influence difficulty of the task.

In
addition to the tasks themselves,the order or sequence in which
they are operated is more important .Systematic
use of tasks should be stressed.In
a number of different ways , chains of activities form a sequence in which the
successful completion of prior activities can lead learners to the next.Nunan
states that Activities are sequenced not only according to their complexity as
determined by input, learners and activity factors ,but also by the logic of
themes and learning pathways.

The
task –based syllabuses contain the merits as follows:

①.Compared to grammatical
syllabuses and functional-notional syllabuses, it is not the language but the
tasks which are selected and graded.

②.The tasks which are
designed according to input data, lesarners’current level with precise goals
can be rearranged and graded in various ways.

③.Task–based approach
promotes naturalistic learning and acquisitional processes, particularly when
combined with group work, they provide a close fit with communicative language
teaching.

The
problems in task design are following:

①.It is hard to find clear
criteria for the selection and grading of tasks. Just as Nunan states
“determining task complexity is made difficult ,not only by the range of
factors involved, but also by the interaction of these factors with each
other”.

②.It is obvious the task
difficulty is affected by complexity of input data. However task can be designed
easy or difficult by setting activities which require different learner
responses.So in designing the tasks, can we completely ignore the materials? Are
authentic materials better than elaborated written texts? How can learners be
exposed to the language as a system?There are no precise answers in it.

③.In task-based teaching,
how can we deal with language knowledge? Should grammar be taught in it? If so,
how can it be delt with by the teacher and students? The status of grammar is
not clear.

As
we mention task—based syllabus the first thing we need to do is decide just
what we mean by the term “task”.

The
term ‘task’ has been defined in a variety of ways. Both in general education
including the Second Language Teaching and in other fields such as psychology
there are many different definitions of tasks. “A task is a piece of work
under taken for oneself or others, freely or for some reward.In other words, by
‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at
work, at play, and in between.”(Long 1985:89) The first definition is a
non—technical and non—linguistic one. Now here is another definition from
dictionary applied linguistics, “an activity or action which is carried out as
the result of processing or understanding language”. (Richards, Platt and
Weber 1986:289) Tasks are defined in tern of what the learner will do in the
classroom rather than in the outside world. The final definition is from
Breen”……any structured language learningendeavor which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a
specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the
task .’Task’ is therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which
have the overall purpose of facilitating language learning—from the simple and
brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group
problem-solving or simulations and decision making. (Breen 1987: 23) The
definitions share one thing in common: the user’s attention is focused on
meaning rather than linguistic structure. I prefer Breen’s definition because
of the term ‘task’ concerning about problem solving and decision making.
According to Nunan the task is a piece of meaning-focused work involving
learners in comprehending, producing and/or interacting in the target language.

Task
contains goal which is intended outcomes, input that’s data that forms the
point of departure of the task, activity specifies what the learners are asked
to do with the input, roles both teacher and learner refer to the parts played
in carrying out the task, setting that is the social arrangements in which the
task is carried out. The diagrammatic representation of the task is just like
the following.

We look at the central characteristics of tasks and a scheme is presented
for analyzing tasks and designing tasks.

Task grading and sequencing are the two important factors concerning with
designing tasks. The issue of grading is an extremely complex one and there are
many factors at work, all of which have a bearing on task complexity, but that
most of these can be categorized according to whether they relate to inputs,
learners and activities. Determining task complexity is made difficult, not only
by the range of factors involved, but also by the interaction of these factors
with each other. In addition to the factors which we looked at, there are many
factors, such as maturational level, background knowledge learning pace observed
ability in language skills, linguistic knowledge, motivation and confidence,
which are difficult to discuss without reference to particular learner group. It
is generally assumed that difficulty is the key factor in determining the
ordering of items in a syllabus. All things being equal items are presented to
learners according to their degree of difficulty. Like task grading task
sequencing is hard to find a certain criteria for task-based syllabus designing.

The task seeks to identity and explores the features of a good language
task. It also seeks objective ways of measuring classroom tasks in order to
evaluate their effectiveness as materials. The syllabus designer will consider
how the tasks were introduced, what instructions were given, what monitoring
took place and what round-off, report-back or resolution was involved. A good
task enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of the
language, to provide an opportunity for learners to rehearse communicative
skills they’ll need in the real world, to involve learners in risk-taking, to
involve learners in problem-solving or resolution and offer learners’ choice.

Task based syllabus focus on communicative language teaching and
authentic materials are provided for the real world communicative needs.
Opposite to traditional syllabus, this one stresses learning process rather than
outcomes. Thus learner-centered class will be formed in which learners have more
authorities attend activities. When fully communicative behavior is being
encourage isolating individual skills and abilities. I think this is the one of
our purposes to spread the task-based syllabus. In my opinion, grammatical
consciousness-raising activities should be incorporated into task design.
Absolute grammatical syllabus or task-based syllabus tends to departure of our
language educational subject.

Bibliography

David
Nunan.1989. Designing Tasks for the
Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

A Brief
Introduction of Task-based Syllabus

Task-based
syllabus which appeared in the 1980s, is distinguishable from most earlier
syllabuses by the fact that part of its rational derives from what is known
about human learning in general and/or second language learning in particular
rather than, as is the case with structural, notional, functional syllabuses,
primarily from analysis of language or language use.

Theoretically,
it is based on the development of cognitive psychology and applied linguistics,
which have a significant effect on language teaching. But what is a task?
Different researchers have given different definitions from different point of
views. The definitions used by Long and Crookes(1986) always focus on something
that is done, not something that is said. Long defines tasks using its everyday,
non-technical and non-linguistic meaning; Richards, Platt and Weber (1986)taking
a pedagological perspective, defined tasks in term of what the learner will do
in the classroom rather than in the outside world, as an activity or action
which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e.
as a response). Breen(1987) regards it as: “any structured language learning
endeavor which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified
working task…” ;David Nunan defined it like this "… the task is a
piece ofmeaning-focused work
involving learners in comprehending, producing and/or interactingin the target language, and that tasks are analyzed or categorized
according to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles.”
Although the definitions are divergent, they all share one thing incommon, implying that tasks involved communicative language use in which
all the users’ attention is focused on meaning rather than on linguistic
structure. Frankly speaking, a task is a kind of process of doing or completing
something. The learners are active and positive while trying to complete a task
and the communicative process is an interactional one. In order to complete a
task the learners have to center meaning and make as much use of different kinds
of linguistic and nonlinguistic resources as possible to carry out a meaningful
construction and solve a communicative problem successfully. The process of
completing a task stimulates learners to use the target language meaningfully
and naturally and creates a beneficial environment to promote the learners’
acquisition and internalization of the target language.

Practically
the task-based syllabus is meaning-centered, opposing the mechanical pattern
drills of linguistic form and advocating the task should focus on a
communicative problem which is related with and close to the learners’ real
life and learning experience so that it will interest and motivate them to
participate actively and be involved in class. On the other hand , any syllabus
cannot work alone. In a similar situation but different culture, the happenings
and conversation will not be the same. A task which is available in one
country/culture may not necessarily be work in another country/culture. For
example, the Chinese always greet each other saying “Have you had your
breakfast?” when they meet on their way to work or school in the morning,
while the Westerners always say “Good morning”.

Abstract:
This article will introduce the definitions, merits, and problems with
task-based syllabus.

Key words:
task, syllabus.

Until
fairly recently task has more appeared in language learning process. With the
change of people’s views on language, teaching methodology, and learner
contributions, task-based syllabus is to be the new focus.

Opposed
with the conventional paradigm of prepositional plans, Breen (1987) proposes an
alternative paradigm of process plans----task-based and process syllabuses,
which move the emphasis from the language system to the learner’s cognitive
processes. He stresses that the most important new insight in syllabus design
relates to how we may plan for teaching and learning, especially as
classroom-oriented research has shown how little direct effect teaching has.
Despite some differences in practice, the principles underlying the task-based
syllabus developed at Lancaster by Breen and his colleagues and the proceduraltype of syllabus developed by Prabhu in southern India are very similar.
Both types are process plans and share a focus on the learning process, on how
something is done and a consequent emphasis on task-based learning. The focus is
clearly on broad pedagogical development, rather than on narrow linguistic
training, and the assumption is that learning are both communicative and
metacommunicative.

In
Longman
Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics,
task-based syllabus, along with procedural syllabus, is defined as follows:

…a SYLLABUS
which is organized around TASK, rather than in terms of grammar or vocabulary.
For example the syllabus may suggest a variety of different kinds of tasks which
the learners are expected to obtain information; drawing maps based on oral
instructions; performing actions based on commands given in the target language;
giving orders and instructions to others, etc. It has been argued that this is a
more effective way of learning a language since it provides a purpose for the
use and learning of a language other than simply learning language items for
their own sake.

David
Nunan (1988), also, describes them both as synonymous, “both tasked-based and
procedural syllabuses share a concern with the classroom processes which
stimulate learning. … In both approaches, the syllabus consists…of the
specification of the tasks and activities that learners will engage in in
class.”

Long
and Crookes(1992) conducted their research from another aspect----the choice of
the unit of analysis in syllabus design. They claim that:

Task
has more recently appeared as the unit of analysis in three analytic,
(primarily) alternatives: procedural,
process and task syllabus. Each of these has certain limitations, too, but when
the task syllabus is combined with a focus
on form in task-based language teaching, the task receives more support in
second language acquisition (SLA) research as a viable unit around which to
organize language teaching and learning opportunities.

(Long
and Crookes 1992)

From the above
proposals, we can see that although there are some differences in the ways they
define task-based syllabus, the effects and merits of it are agreeable and
obvious. Consequently, all proposals share certain questions as: What is a task?
Which one should be proposed before another? What is a good task and task
performance? As we all know, the central issues for the syllabus designer
concern the selection of items for the syllabus and the grading and sequencing
of these items.The first question relates to
the difficulty of differentiating tasks, especially tasks and subtasks nested
within them, which in turn raises questions as to the finiteness of tasks (or
task types) or their generative capacity (e.g. the
criticism to the Bangalore Project for the selection of problems and tasks). The
second question concentrates on the issue of task difficulty, that is, of
determining the relevant grading and sequencing criteria. These are problems
never resolved for other syllabuses either, of course, despite periodic
discussion of such criteria as frequency, valency, and “difficulty”, but
that does not absolve users of tasks from doing better. For
example, it is generally assumed that difficulty is the key factor in
determining the ordering of items in a syllabus. All things being equal, items
are presented to learners according to their degree of difficulty. The problem
of the task-based syllabus designer is that a variety of factors will interact
to determine task difficulty. In addition, as some of these factors will be
dependent on characteristics of the learner, what is difficult for Learner A may
not necessarily be difficult for Learner B. The final question may be concern
the evaluation of language teaching materials, which is still another difficult
problem to resolve.

References:

Clarke,
D. F. (1991). The negotiated syllabus: What is it and how is it likely to work? Applied
Linguistics, 12(1) 13-28.

Gray,
Katie(1990). Syllabus design for the general class: what happens to theory when
you apply it. ELT Journal, 44(4)
261-9.

Speaking of task-based
syllabus, we must first make it clear what tasks are, what syllabuses are and
what task-based syllabuses are. What are tasks ? By “task” is meant “the
hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in
between. “Tasks” are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them
and they are not applied linguistics”(Long1985: 89) ...An activity or action
which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e.
as a response). For example, drawing a map while listening to an instruction and
specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. (Richards,
Platt, and Weger1985: 289) From the above we can see that Long’s tasks are
real-world tasks. While Richards, Platt, and Weber’s tasks are pedagogic
tasks. In addition, Doyle (1979; 1983) suggests academic tasks and Shavelson and
Stern (1981) give instructional tasks. My opinion is we should choose tasks from
real life, so that the students can learn authentic language, In a second
thought, however, we must just or revise the tasks to make them easy to be
performed, especially in classroom. After all our students will learn English in
classrooms most of the time. What are syllabuses? “The syllabus is now seen as
an instrument by which the teacher, with the help of the syllabus designer, can
achieve a certain coincidence between the needs and aims of the learner, and the
activities that will take place in the classroom. It is thus a necessity in
terms of providing educational services to the community to which the teacher is
responsible. (Yalden1987: 86).Richards,
Platt and Platt said “a description of a course of instruction and the order
in which they are to be taught. Language-teaching syllabuses may be based on (a)
grammatical items and vocabulary (see STRUCTURAL SULLAGUS) (b) the language
needs for different types of situations (see SITUATIONAL METHOD) (c) the
meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the
TARGET LAQNGUAGE (see NOTIONAL SYLLABUS). (Richards, Platt and Platt1992:
461-462). Comparing the two definitions, we can see Yalden’s definition is
more reasonable. It emphasizes not only “needs and aims”, but
also“ activities”. But it didn’t mention grading and sequencing materials.What are task-based syllabuses? “(in language teaching ) a SYLLABUS
which is organized around TASKS, rather than in terms of grammar or vocabulary.
For example the syllabus may suggest a variety of different kids of tasks which
the learners are expected to carry out in the language, such as using the
telephone to obtain information; drawing maps based on oral instructions;
performing actions based on commands given in the target language; giving orders
and instructions to others, etc. It has been argued that this is a more
effective way of learning a language since it provides a purpose for the use and
`learning of a language other than simply learning language items for their own
sake “ (Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985:289). There is another name for
task-based syllabus called procedural syllabus, despite some differences in
practice, the principles underlying them are very similar. Both of them consider
the classroom processes that stimulate learning. They therefore differ from
syllabuses on which the focus is on the linguistic items that students will
learn of instruction. They also differ from the communicative skills that they
will be able to display as a result of instruction. They don’t emphasize
linguistic analysis and the product. What they enforce is “the specification
of the tasks and activities that learners will engage in class” (Nunan 1988).
So the following content will only use task-based syllabuses. How to make a good
task-based syllabus? After needs analysis, Long offers the following procedure
for developing a task-based syllabus:

In
recent 20 years the field of language teaching and learning has witnessed a
profusion of evaluation of syllabuses. Probhu’s Procedural or Task-based
syllabus , which is totally shifting away from and different from the
traditional syllabuses is attracting many language teachers’ attention.
However, can task-based syllabus be readily admitted to a wide range of language
learning situations and can it be put into practice of second language teaching
and learning? In order to answer this question, the paper will deal with three
issues: ①.
the definition and content of the task-based syllabuses, ②.
the merits of the task-based syllabuses, and ③.
the weaknesses ofthe task-based
syllabuses.

Task-based syllabuses consist of a list of specification of the tasks and
activities that the learners will engage it in class. However, task-based
syllabus covers several divergent approaches. Applied linguists have not come
into an agreement about the task-based syllabuses.Michael H. Long and Graham Crookes divided the task-based
syllabus types into three ones: ①.
the procedural syllabus,②.the
process syllabus, and ③.the
task syllabus. But in Longman Dictionary of Teaching and Applied Linguistics,
task syllabus, task-based syllabus and procedural syllabus are dealt with the
same concept. In turning to the concept of the “task”, it also has been
defined in a variety of ways. In the field of the second language teaching, as
the following definitions show, “[a task is] a piece of work undertaken for
oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks
include painting a fence, dressing a child…. In other words, by ‘task’ is
meant the hundred and one things people do it everyday life, at work, at play,
and in between.” ( Long 1985:89)The
second definition from a dictionary of applied linguistics is “ an activity or
action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding
language tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task
usually requires the teachers to specify what will be regarded as successful
completion of the task. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in
language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative….” (
Richards, Platt and Weber 1986:289 )The
third definition is from Breen: “ ‘task’ is therefore assumed to refer to
a range of workplans which have the overall purpose of facilitating language
learning from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy
activities, such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision
making.”( Breen 1987:23 )The fourth definition, according to David Nunan’s opinion,
“the task is a piece of meaning-focused work involving learners in
comprehending, producing and /or interacting in the target language, and that
tasks are analysed or categorised according to their goals, input data,
activities settings and roles.”

Generally speaking, applied linguists conceive task-based syllabusesfrom three points of views: first, from a linguistic perspective, that
is, what linguistic elements should be taught, second, from a learner’s
perspective, that is, what the learner wants to dowith language, and third, form a learning perspective, that is, what
activities will stimulate and promote language acquisition.

The task-based syllabus is a term, which is not very familiar to language
teachers, but the amazing case in point is that teachers do indeed use these
tasks in their everyday teaching activities. The characteristics and merits of a
task as an activity in language teaching and learning are :

①.It centers
in the principles of how language is to be used rather than taught or learned.
The focus of a task is on solving a communicative problem, which has some
connections with a real world of learners’ life and learning experience, and
which can arouse learners’ interests and participation.

②.The
completion of a task must be taken into consideration when designing and
performing a task and the evaluation of a task is a significant sign of the
result of completion of a task.

③.In
task-based syllabus, the emphasis is on the learning process and the way in
which it automatically defines the methodology is new and attractive to language
teachers.

④.Task-based
syllabus is more effective way of learning a language since it provides a
purpose for the use and learning of a language other than simply learning
language items for their own sake.

⑤.Whentask-based syllabus is combined with a focus on language in language
teaching, the task receives more support in second languageacquisition research.

⑥.During doing
the tasks planned by teachers, the generative educationalaim is to make learners understand and maximize, and control their
cognitive powers and cognitive weaknesses.

⑦.During doing
the tasks planned by teachers, learners’ differences canbe easily found by teachers and teachers can be always getting
readyto offer help to learners who
need a hand at different settings.

⑧.There is a
new and important tendency in the program of teacher development
that teachers are not passive receivers, but activeresearchers and designers and practitioners of their own language
teaching. It is high time that teachers changed their roles of providing
learners with forms of language into ones of designing tasks that can stimulate
their learners to response just like in a realworld.
It is the task-based syllabus that can loosen the bind that is tied to the
language teachers.

As we know, every coin has two sides. Even though there are a lot of
merits in task-based syllabus, there seems to us to be at least some problems
with it.

①.The research
base of task-based syllabus is, as yet, limited, and some of the second language
acquisition and classroom research finally referred to may bear alternative
interpretations.

②.Sometimes,
it is difficult to judge whether an activity which requires learners to arrive
at an outcome from given information through some process is successful or not.
Sometimes the tasks are not consistent or systematic and the process of doing
tasks is hard for teachers to control.

③.It is quite
difficult for teachers to differentiate tasks, especially tasks and subtasks
nested with them, which in turn raises questions as to the finiteness of tasks.

The idea of task-based syllabus is both fascinating and stimulating in
terms of what, potentially, it can contribute to language teaching and learning.
Since there is more and more substantial and empirical evidence that task-based
syllabus can produce better results. Language teachers are more likely to keep
pace with the development of task-based syllabus in pedagogical reform in
language teaching and learning.

A
BRIEF INTRODUCTIION ON TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

Abstract:In the article the author will mainly take into consideration the
definition of task-based syllabus
and its merits and drawbacks from different perspectives.

Key words: task, syllabus

Based
on the development of cognitive psychology and applied linguistics, the
task-based syllabus emerged in the 1980s and has been prevailing for nearly
twenty years.. Unlike the traditional syllabuses whose focuses are on the
language forms, the task-based syllabus focuses on the process of learning and
the problem solving. And it is always organized around a variety of different
kinds of tasks which are related to the real life and composed of chains of
activities psychologically selected, graded and sequenced . Task has been
defined and described in a variety of ways from different perspectives. The most
recent definition comes from David Nunan: " …… the task is a piece of
meaning-focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and/or
interacting in the target language, and that tasks are analyzed or categorized
according to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles."
Generally speaking, task is a kind of process of interaction between learners
and teachers or between the learners' mental abilities and the linguistic
environment. During the process, learners, focusing on constructing the language
meaning, participate the tasks actively to solve the "real-world
problems" or the " pedagogic problems" with the help of
linguistic or non-linguistic background resources. In this way, learners can be
engaged in using the target language meaningfully and unconsciously, which can
facilitate or enhance the internalization of the target language that learners
are exposed to.

The merits of the task-based syllabus come from the comparison with the
traditional syllabuses. It is well known that the traditional syllabuses, based
on the hypotheses that there is an equation between what is taught and what is
learned, always focus on the end products or results of the teaching
process/learning process. So, it is always teacher-centered. And the language
teaching aims to engage the learners in mastering the knowledge about the target
language rather than the language itself. And the traditional syllabuses lay the
emphasis on the forms of the language, so the grading and sequencing of the
syllabus items are usually carried out according to grammatical (linguistic)
principles. Otherwise, the task-based syllabus focuses on the process of
learning and the experience in itself and is centered in the constructing and
communicating of meanings rather than the forms. In addition, the tasks are
always selected, graded and sequenced according to the cognitive and performance
demands made upon the learners. Therefore, the language teaching of the
task-based syllabus always focuses on the solving of problems connected with the
learners’ real life, learning experience and society. Thus, learners are
always the dominants of the language classroom. Meanwhile, some other merits can
be perceived based on different language teaching or learning theories. From the
psychological perspective, it can be concluded that involving learners in the
problem-solving activities can stimulate, promote language learning and enhance
the internalization of the target language. In some sense, learning is
involving. According to the pragmatic theory, the motivation and needs the
learners have for learning a foreign language shouldn’t be only to achieve
language knowledge but to achieve communication. The goals to solve the problems
and the strong relation with the real world owned by the task-based syllabus can
highly motivate the learners to achieve their different goals. According the
second language acquisition theory, linguistic knowledge can be classified into
two types: learnt knowledge and acquired knowledge. ‘Acquiredknowledge ‘consists of subconscious L2 rules which the learner can call
upon automatically; ‘learnt knowledge’ consists of metalingual knowledge
which can only be used to monitor output generated by means of ‘acquired’
knowledge. And acquisition occurs automatically when the learner engages in
natural communication where the focus is on meaning and where there is
comprehensible input. Learningoccurs
where the learner is focused on the formal properties of the target language. By
carrying out enough practice, learnt knowledge can be changed into acquired
knowledge automatically. It is obvious that when learners are engaged in solving
the problems designed according to the task-based syllabus approach, they can go
beyond the text and language knowledge to concentrate on the meaning or usage of
the target language. In this way, acquisition can be fostered unconsciously. At
last, because the tasks are designed with a close connection to the society and
the real life, learners’ own experiences and background knowledge can be
easily recalled to facilitate their learning.

Despite
its merits, the task-based syllabus has got a number of problems. First of all
it is very difficult for the designers to select, grade and sequence the tasksscientifically. Secondly, it neglects the importance of the knowledge of
the target language. In some sense, the language knowledge is the basis for a
further learning of the target language. A second language learner outside the
linguistic environment which a native speaker enjoys can speak the target
language fluently but can’t accurately without enough linguistic knowledge. It
can be said that fluency will be meaningless and valueless without accuracy.
Thirdly, the teacher’s syllabus is only a teaching syllabus but the learners
have their own in-built syllabuses for learning or acquiring based on their own
motivations, interests, needs, experiences, background knowledge, aptitudes,
cognitive styles, and so on. Sometimes, there is a mismatch between these two
syllabuses. Fourthly, it neglects the differences between different cultures.
So, learners from different cultural backgrounds can have different
understandings and responses in the same task.

The teacher-centered and form-focused syllabuses have been dominatingthe foreign language teaching in China for a long time. It is agreed that
language teachers should have a thorough reflection of the language teaching at
both a theoretical and practical level. It is hoped that the theory about the
task-based syllabus can show them the direction to improve their teaching
methods