Contents

The dough for white dumplings is made of boiled[1] and then mashed potatoes (moderately cooled, but still warm), potato flour and a little bit of salt. The ratio of potatoes and flour is about 3:1 or 4:1. In some recipes, a whole egg may be added to the dough[1][3] (this helps shaping if the mashed potatoes cooled too much and the shaping becomes problematic).

There are two methods of forming the dumplings. The first one is by slicing them up with a knife from the dough rolls.[4] The other way is to just hand roll them from the dough and flatten. Finally, a depression for gravy is made with a thumb.[1] The dumplings are then boiled in salted water until they float to the surface.

The dish consisting of the dumplings, fried beef rouladen with rich gravy, and boiled red cabbage is (or used to be) an invariable component of the Sunday dinner in many traditional Silesian families. Left-over dumplings can be reheated or fried (like potatoes) for supper and eaten with left-over gravy or butter.

^Rose Petal Jam - Recipes and Stories from a Summer in Poland by Beata Zatorska and Simon Target, published by Tabula Books April 2011 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2011-08-22.

1.
Rouladen
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Rouladen or Rinderrouladen is a German meat dish. Usually consisting of bacon, onions, mustard and pickles wrapped in thinly sliced beef which is then cooked, beef or veal is used though some food scholars tend to believe that the original version was probably venison or pork, and pork is still popular in some areas. The beef rouladen as we know them today have become popular over the last century, the cut is usually topside beef or silverside since this is the cheaper cut. The more expensive version would be the round steak, also known as rump steak, the meat is cut into large, thin slices. The filling is a mixture of smoked and cooked pork belly, chopped onions, the mixture varies from region to region. Rouladen are traditionally served for dinner, red wine is often used for the gravy. Rouladen are usually served with potato dumplings or mashed potatoes. Roasted winter vegetables are common side dish. The gravy is a requirement to round off the dish and is usually poured over the meat. Spätzle are a complement to the dish since they soak up the gravy well. This dish was considered a dish for common people and it is nowadays enjoyed by many as a festive dish. Roulade - filled rolled meat or pastry in general Zrazy List of stuffed dishes

2.
Dumpling
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Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of small pieces of dough, often wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes and they may be cooked by boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming. Dumplings can be savoury or sweet and can be eaten by themselves, with gravy or sauce, banku and kenkey fit the definition of a dumpling in that they are starchy balls of dough that are steamed. They are formed from fermented cornmeal dough, banku are boiled while kenkey are partly boiled then finished by steaming in banana leaves. Fufu may be described as a dumpling although in actual sense, fufu is made by pounding boiled cassava or yam in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle. Plantain or cocoyam may be added, there are several other versions of fufu in Africa and the Caribbean. There have been versions of fufu which will fit better into the definition of dumplings. These are mostly common outside Africa where they originate and it is made by steaming cassava and plantain/cocoyam flour into thick starchy balls. Tihlo—prepared from roasted barley flour—originated in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and is now popular in Amhara as well. Souskluitjies are dumplings found in South Africa and they are a steamed sweet dumpling, sometimes made with plain flour and sometimes with the addition of dried fruits or other flavors. They are often served with a syrup flavored with cinnamon or a custard sauce, South Africa has another kind of dumpling known as melkkos. These dumplings are formed by putting milk, one teaspoon at a time, the flour clings to the milk and forms dumplings, which are then boiled in a mixture of milk and butter. They are served hot and sprinkled with cinnamon sugar, several types of dumplings are popular in the United States. Dumplings can be made with eggs, milk, baking powder or even yeast, or just from flour, rolled dumplings are rolled thin and cut into small pieces for cooking, while dropped dumplings are formed into small balls. Chicken and dumplings is a comfort food in the Midwestern and Southern U. S. where dumplings are often used as part of the regionally popular Burgoo stew. The baked dumpling is popular in American cuisine and these sweet dumplings are made by wrapping fruit, frequently a whole tart apple, in pastry, then baking until the pastry is browned and the filling is tender. As an alternative to simply baking them, these dumplings are surrounded by a sauce in the baking dish. Popular flavours for apple dumplings include brown sugar, caramel, or cinnamon sauces, boiled dumplings are made from flour to form a dough

3.
Silesia
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Silesia is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is about 40,000 km2, and its population about 8,000,000, Silesia is located along the Oder River. It consists of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia, the region is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesias largest city and historical capital is Wrocław, the biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia, Silesias borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, in the 14th century, it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Lands under the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1742, later becoming part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, the varied history with changing aristocratic possessions resulted in an abundance of castles in Silesia, especially in the Jelenia Góra valley. The remaining former Austrian parts of Silesia were partitioned to Czechoslovakia, in 1945, after World War II, the bulk of Silesia was transferred to Polish jurisdiction by the Potsdam Agreement of the victorious Allied Powers and became part of Poland. The small Lusatian strip west of the Oder-Neisse line, which had belonged to Silesia since 1815 and its centres are Görlitz and Bautzen. Most inhabitants of Silesia today speak the languages of their respective countries. The population of Upper Silesia is native, while Lower Silesia was settled by a German-speaking population before 1945, an ongoing debate exists whether Silesian speech should be considered a dialect of Polish or a separate language. Also, a Lower Silesian German dialect is used, although today it is almost extinct and it is used by expellees within Germany, as well as Germans who were left behind. The names all relate to the name of a river and mountain in mid-southern Silesia, the mountain served as a cultic place. Ślęża is listed as one of the numerous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region, according to some Polish Slavists, the name Ślęża or Ślęż is directly related to the Old Slavic words ślęg or śląg, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity. They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name Śląsk from the name of the Silings tribe, in the fourth century BC, Celts entered Silesia, settling around Mount Ślęża near modern Wrocław, Oława, and Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes were first recorded within Silesia in the 1st century, Slavic peoples arrived in the region around the 7th century, and by the early ninth century, their settlements had stabilized. Local Slavs started to erect boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka, the eastern border of Silesian settlement was situated to the west of the Bytom, and east from Racibórz and Cieszyn

4.
Mashed potato
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Mashed potato or mashed potatoes, is a dish prepared by mashing boiled potatoes. Recipes started appearing in 1747 with an entry in The Art of Cookery by Hannah Glasse, dehydrated and frozen mashed potatoes are available in many supermarkets. The use of types of potato is recommended, although waxy potatoes are sometimes used for a different texture. Butter, vegetable oil, milk and/or cream are added to improve flavor and texture, and the potatoes are seasoned with salt, pepper. One French variation adds egg yolk for pommes duchesse or Duchess potatoes, piped through a tube into wavy ribbons and rosettes, brushed with butter. Pomme purée uses considerably more butter than normal mashed potato - up to two parts potato for one part butter, in low-calorie or non-dairy variations, milk, cream and butter may be replaced by soup stock or broth. Aloo Bharta, an Indian sub-continent variation, uses chopped onions, mustard, chili pepper, coriander leaves, mashed potato can be served as a side dish, and is often served with sausages in the British Isles, where they are known as bangers and mash. Mashed potato can be an ingredient of other dishes, including shepherds and cottage pie, pierogi, colcannon, dumplings, potato croquettes. In the United Kingdom, cold mashed potato is mixed with fresh eggs and this dish is thought to have originated in Cornwall and is a popular breakfast item. When instead combined with meat and other vegetables, the fried dish is known as bubble. A potato masher is a utensil which can be used to prepare the potatoes, the ultimate chip and perfect mash -- Heston Blumenthal recipes

5.
Polish language
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Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations

6.
Silesian language
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Silesian or Upper Silesian is a West Slavic lect, part of its Lechitic group. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Central German due to the existence of numerous Silesian German speakers in the area prior to World War II and after. There is no consensus on whether Silesian is a language or a somewhat divergent dialect of Polish. Silesian speakers currently live in the region of Upper Silesia, which is split between southwestern Poland and the northeastern Czech Republic. At present Silesian is commonly spoken in the area between the border of Silesia on the east and a line from Syców to Prudnik on the west as well as in the Rawicz area. Until 1945 Silesian was also spoken in enclaves in Lower Silesia, in 2003, the National Publishing Company of Silesia commenced operations. This publisher was founded by the Alliance of the People of the Silesian Nation and it prints books about Silesia, in July 2007, the Slavic Silesian language was given the ISO 639-3 code szl. On 6 September 2007,23 politicians of the Polish parliament made a statement about a new law to give Silesian the official status of a regional language, the first official National Dictation Contest of the Silesian language took place in August 2007. In dictation as many as 10 forms of writing systems and orthography have been accepted, on 30 January 2008 and in June 2008, two organizations promoting Silesian language were established, Pro Loquela Silesiana and Tôwarzistwo Piastowaniô Ślónskij Môwy Danga. On 26 May 2008, the Silesian Wikipedia was founded, on 30 June 2008 in the edifice of the Silesian Parliament in Katowice, a conference took place on the status of the Silesian language. This conference was a forum for politicians, linguists, representatives of interested organizations and persons who deal with the Silesian language, the conference was titled Silesian — Still a Dialect or Already a Language. Ślabikŏrzowy szrajbōnek is the new alphabet created by the Pro Loquela Silesiana organization to reflect the sounds of all Silesian dialects. It was approved by Silesian organizations affiliated in Rada Górnośląska, ubuntu translation is in this alphabet as is the Silesian Wikipedia. It is used in a few books, including the Silesian alphabet book. Letters, A, Ã, B, C, Ć, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, Ł, M, N, Ń, O, Ŏ, Ō, Ô, Õ, P, R, S, Ś, T, U, W, Y, Z, Ź, Ż. One of the first alphabets created specifically for Silesian was Steuers Silesian alphabet, created in the Interwar period, Silesians phonetic alphabet replaces the digraphs with single letters and does not include the letter Ł, whose sound can be represented phonetically with U. It is therefore the alphabet contains the fewest letters. Large parts of the Silesian Wikipedia, however, are written in Silesians phonetic alphabet, although the morphological differences between Silesian and Polish have been researched extensively, other grammatical differences have not been studied in depth

7.
Silesian German
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Silesian German or Lower Silesian is a nearly extinct German dialect spoken in Silesia. It is part of the East Central German language area with some West Slavic influences, variations of the dialect until 1945 were spoken by about seven million people. Most descendents of the Silesian Germans expelled to West and East Germany no longer learned the dialect, in origin, Silesian German appears to derive from 12th-century dialects of Middle High German, including medieval forms of Upper Saxon German, East Franconian German and Thuringian. The inhabitants of Silesia are thought to be descendants of settlers from Upper Lusatia, Saxony, after World War II, local communist authorities forbade the use of the language. After the expulsion of the Germans from Silesia, German Silesian culture, polish authorities banned the use of the German language. Today, Silesian German is a dialect spoken in Upper Lusatia and it can be divided into Gebirgsschlesische Dialektgruppe, Südostschlesische Dialektgruppe, mittelschlesische Dialektgruppe, westschlesische Dialektgruppe and niederländische Dialektgruppe. The nordostböhmische Dialektgruppe belongs to Silesian, too, Silesian German was the language in which the poetry of Karl von Holtei and Gerhart Hauptmann was written, during the 19th century

8.
Upper Silesia
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Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. In 1742 the bulk of Upper Silesia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, after the Second World War it became part of the Republic of Poland, in 1945. Upper Silesia is situated on the upper Oder River, north of the Eastern Sudetes mountain range and the Moravian Gate, within the adjacent Silesian Beskids to the east, the Vistula River rises and turns eastwards, the Biała and Przemsza tributaries mark the eastern border with Lesser Poland. In the north, Upper Silesia borders on Greater Poland, and it is currently split into a larger Polish and the smaller Czech Silesian part, which is located within the Czech regions of Moravia-Silesia and Olomouc. The Polish Upper Silesian territory covers most of the Opole Voivodeship, except for the Lower Silesian counties of Brzeg and Namysłów, divided Cieszyn Silesia as well as former Austrian Silesia are historical parts of Upper Silesia. According to the 9th century Bavarian Geographer, the West Slavic Opolanie tribe had settled on the upper Oder River since the days of the Migration Period, at the time of Prince Svatopluk I, all Silesia was a part of his Great Moravian realm. By 990 the newly installed Piast duke Mieszko I of the Polans had conquered parts of Silesia. Finally in 1137, the Polish prince Bolesław III Wrymouth came to terms with Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia, however, this arrangement fell apart when upon the death of Bolesław III and his testament the fragmentation of Poland began, which decisively enfeebled its central authority. When in 1202 Mieszko Tanglefoot had annexed the Duchy of Opole of his deceased nephew Jarosław, he ruled over all Upper Silesia as Duke of Opole and Racibórz. In the early 13th century the ties of the Silesian Piasts with the neighbouring Holy Roman Empire grew stronger as several dukes married scions of German nobility. The plans to re-unifiy Silesia shattered upon the Mongol invasion of Poland, Upper Silesia further fragmented upon the death of Duke Władysław Opolski in 1281 into the duchies of Bytom, Opole, Racibórz and Cieszyn. About 1269 the Duchy of Opava was established on adjacent Moravian territory, ruled by the Přemyslid duke Nicholas I, as they ruled both duchies in personal union, Opava grew into the Upper Silesian territory. In 1327 the Upper Silesian dukes, like most of their Lower Silesian cousins, had sworn allegiance to King John of Bohemia, by the mid-14th century, the influx of German settlers into Upper Silesia was stopped by the Black Death pandemic. Unlike in Lower Silesia, the Germanization process was halted, still a majority of the population spoke Polish and Silesian as their native language, in the southernmost areas, also Lach dialects were spoken. While Latin, Czech and German language were used as languages in towns and cities. Upper Silesia was hit by the Hussite Wars and in 1469 was conquered by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, while the Duchies of Oświęcim, upon the death of the Jagiellonian king Louis II in 1526, the Bohemian crown lands were inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg. In the 16th century, large parts of Silesia had turned Protestant, after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, the Catholic Emperors of the Habsburg dynasty forcibly re-introduced Catholicism, led by the Jesuits. Lower Silesia and most of Upper Silesia were occupied by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 during the First Silesian War, a small part south of the Opava River remained within the Habsburg-ruled Bohemian Crown as the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia, colloquially called Austrian Silesia

9.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour

10.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County

11.
Red cabbage
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The red cabbage is a kind of cabbage, also known as purple cabbage, red kraut, or blue kraut after preparation. Its leaves are coloured dark red/purple, however, the plant changes its colour according to the pH value of the soil, due to a pigment belonging to anthocyanins. In acidic soils, the leaves grow more reddish, in neutral soils they will grow more purple, while an alkaline soil will produce rather greenish-yellow coloured cabbages and this explains the fact that the same plant is known by different colours in various regions. Furthermore, the juice of red cabbage can be used as a home-made pH indicator, turning red in acid and it can be found in Northern Europe, throughout the Americas, and in China. On cooking, red cabbage will normally turn blue, to retain the red colour it is necessary to add vinegar or acidic fruit to the pot. Red cabbage needs well fertilized soil and sufficient humidity to grow and it is a seasonal plant which is seeded in spring and harvested in late fall. Red cabbage is a better keeper than its relatives and does not need to be converted to sauerkraut to last the winter. Red cabbage is used raw for salads and coleslaw. This vegetable can be eaten cooked and it is the traditional accompanying side dish paired with many German meals—most notably, Sauerbraten. At Christmas it can be spiced and served as an accompaniment to seasonal roast goose and it is recommended to start red cabbage seeds indoors 4 weeks before the last frost. Sow in containers that allow for movement of water through the bottom of a cell, popular seedling starting containers are peat pots, egg cartons, plug trays or milk cartons. Once the seedlings grow to about 2 inches tall, and have developed their first leaves, they can be hardened off and moved outside for transplanting. Red cabbage prefers climates that remain moist and cool for most of its growth stage, so they can be placed in the ground shortly after the last frost. The cabbage plants can be spaced about 12–26 in from one another and they will need watering often but are otherwise low maintenance plants. Red cabbage contains a dye that can be used as a pH indicator. It is red, pink, or magenta in acids, purple in neutral solutions, Red cabbage has ten times more vitamin A and twice as much iron as green cabbage. Cultural information on cabbage How to Make Red Cabbage pH Indicator How to extract the dye

12.
Raspeball
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Raspeball, also known in some areas as klubb, kumle, komle, kompe or potetball is a potato dumpling, a traditional Norwegian or German dish. It consists of grated potatoes, where typically half is pre-cooked and half is raw, salt, there are a great variety of regional variations to the dish, and in many areas the raspeball is filled with bits of salted lamb or pork. The dish is common in the southern, western and middle parts of Norway than elsewhere. The condiments vary greatly, and locally, throughout the Norwegian regions, a variety of raspeballer is the fiskeball, where minced fish, fresh or salted, is added to the potato dough. The raspeball is quite closely related to the Lithuanian cepelinai, the Acadian poutine râpée and the potato dumplings known as Klöße in Austria and Germany

13.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

14.
History of Silesia
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In the second half of the 2nd millennium B. C. Silesia belonged to the Lusatian culture, about 500 BC Scyths arrived, later Celts in the South and Southwest. During the 1st century BC Silingi and other Germanic people settled in Silesia, for this period we have written reports of antique authors who included the area. Slavs arrived in this territory around the 6th century, the first known states in Silesia were those of Greater Moravia and Bohemia. In the 10th century, Mieszko I incorporated Silesia into the Polish state and it remained part of Poland until the Fragmentation of Poland. Afterwards it was divided between Piast dukes, descendants of Władysław II the Exile, High Duke of Poland, in the Middle Ages, Silesia was divided among many duchies ruled by various dukes of the Piast dynasty. During this time, cultural and ethnic German influence increased due to immigrants from the German-speaking components of the Holy Roman Empire, between the years 1289–1292 Bohemian king Wenceslaus II became suzerain of some Upper Silesian duchies. Silesia subsequently became a possession of the Crown of Bohemia under the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th century, and passed with that Crown to the Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. The Duchy of Crossen was inherited by Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1476 and, with the renunciation by King Ferdinand I and estates of Bohemia in 1538, it became an integral part of Brandenburg. In 1742, most of Silesia was seized by King Frederick the Great of Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession, after World War I, Lower Silesia remained with Germany while Upper Silesia, after a series of insurrections by the Polish inhabitants, was split. Part joined the Second Polish Republic and was administered as the Silesian Voivodeship, the Prussian Province of Silesia within Germany was divided into the Provinces of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia. Austrian Silesia, the portion of Silesia retained by Austria after the Silesian Wars. During the Second World War Nazi Germany invaded Polish parts of Upper Silesia, viewing Poles and Jews as subhumans they engaged in a program of systemic extermination through mass murder and ethnic cleansing. In 1945 both provinces were occupied by the Soviet Union, according to the Potsdam agreement most of this territory was afterwards transferred to Poland. The vast majority of the native ethnic German population was expelled by force, the first signs of humans in Silesia date to between 230,000 and 100,000 years ago. The Silesian region between the upper Vistula and upper Oder was the extreme of the human penetration at the time of the last glaciation. The anatomically-modern human is estimated to have arrived in Silesia about 35,000 years ago, subsequently, Silesia was inhabited by people who belonged to changing archaeological cultures in the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. The civilization of Old Europe included Silesia, in the late Bronze Age, the Lusatian culture covered Silesia

15.
Silesian Offensives
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The Silesian Offensives were two 1945 offensives conducted by the Soviet Red Army against the Nazi German Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front in World War II. The Lower Silesian Offensive ran from 8–24 February 1945, and the Upper Silesian Offensive from 15–31 March, designed to flank the Soviet main advance on Berlin, the two operations pushed the Wehrmacht out of Silesia. According to Soviet information, the Germans lost in the Upper Silesian Offensive 40,000 dead soldiers and 14,000 captured, similarly, the East Pomeranian Offensive of the 2nd Belorussian Front in the north was tasked with protecting the 1st Belorussian Fronts right flank. The need to secure the flanks delayed till April the Soviets final push toward Berlin, by mid-April, the East Pomeranian Offensive—carried out by the 2nd, and elements of the 1st, Belorussian Fronts—had succeeded in its objectives, reaching the important German port city of Stettin. Stalins aim in delaying the advance on Berlin had likely been political, sandomierz–Silesian Offensive, Andrzej Wanderer, Piekło na Śląsku, Tygodnik Prudnicki nr 24, 2006-06-14 Beevor, Antony. Berlin, The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books,2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5 Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich, The Soviet March on Germany,1945, Routledge,1991, ISBN 0-415-22829-8 Dubiel, P. Wyzwolenie Śląska w 1945 r. The Soviet‐German War 1941–45, Myths and Realities, A Survey Essay

16.
Silesian Uprisings
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In the latter-day history of Poland after World War II, the insurrections were celebrated as centrepieces of national pride. Much of Silesia had belonged to the Polish Crown in medieval times, frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia from Maria Theresa of Austria in 1742 in the War of Austrian Succession, after which it became a part of Prussia and in 1871 the German Empire. Although the province had by now become overwhelmingly German speaking, a large Polish minority remained in Upper Silesia, Upper Silesia was bountiful in mineral resources and heavy industry, with mines and iron and steel mills. The Silesian mines were responsible for almost a quarter of Germanys annual output of coal,81 percent of its zinc and 34 percent of its lead, the area in Upper Silesia east of the Oder was dominated by ethnic Poles, most of whom were working class. Most spoke a dialect of Polish, but many felt they were a Slavic group of their own called Silesians. In contrast, most of the middle and upper classes – the landowners, businessmen, factory owners, local government, police. There was a division along religious lines. The German Silesians were almost all Protestant, while the Polish Silesians were invariably Roman Catholic, in the German census of 1900, 65% of the population of the eastern part of Silesia was recorded as Polish speaking, which decreased to 57% in 1910. This was partly a result of forced Germanization, but was due to the creation of a bilingual category. The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be a part of Germany or Poland. Thus the plebiscite took place in all of Upper Silesia, including the predominantly Polish-speaking areas in the east, the Upper Silesian plebiscite was to be conducted on March 20,1921. In the meantime, the German administration and police remained in place, meanwhile, propaganda and strong arm tactics by both sides led to increasing unrest. The German authorities warned that those voting for Poland might forfeit their jobs, pro-Polish activists argued that, under Polish rule, Silesian Poles would no longer be discriminated against. Poland also promised to honour their German state social benefits, such as the old age pensions, however, many German Army veterans joined the Freikorps, a paramilitary organization whose troops fought any pro-Polish activists. The pro-Poland side employed the Polish Military Organisation – a secret military organisation, eventually, the deteriorating situation resulted in Upper Silesian Uprisings conducted by Poles in 1919 and 1920. The right to vote was granted to all aged 20 and older who either had been born in or lived in the plebiscite area, a result was the mass migration of both Germans and Poles. The German newcomers accounted for 179,910, the Polish newcomers numbering over 10,000, without these new voters, the pro-German vote would have had a majority of 58,336 instead of the final 228,246. The plebiscite took place as arranged on March 20, two days after the signing of the Treaty of Riga, which ended the Polish–Soviet War of 1919/1920, a total of 707,605 votes were cast for Germany and 479,359 for Poland

17.
Silesian Wars
–
Silesia was strategically important to Prussia because it significantly blunted the capacity of Prussias two chief foes—Austria and Russia—to meddle in Prussian affairs. Prussian victory foreshadowed a wider struggle for control over the German-speaking peoples that would culminate in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the First Silesian War inaugurated, and is generally seen in the context of, the wider ranging War of the Austrian Succession. While Charles launched a claim to the throne and the Habsburg territories, King Frederick II aimed at the annexation of Silesia. Furious Frederick III in turn insisted on the centuries-old Brandenburg claims to the Silesian Piast heritage. Forty-five years on, an alliance formed in support of Prussia’s newly asserted claims on Silesia. King Frederick II was supported by the electorates of Bavaria, Saxony and Cologne, as well as by the kingdoms of France, Spain, Sweden and Naples along with various smaller European powers. The shared objective within the alliance was the destruction or at least the diminution of the Habsburg Monarchy, Britain and Austria were bound by the Anglo-Austrian Alliance which had existed since 1731. On 8 November 1740, King Frederick II ordered the mobilization of the Prussian Army, according to his plan of attack, two corps would defeat a small Austrian infantry regiment and occupy the whole Silesian lands. On December 11 he issued an ultimatum to Austria demanding the surrender of Silesia, in turn, he promised to acknowledge the Pragmatic Sanction and to give his vote as Brandenburg prince-elector in the Imperial election to Maria Theresas husband Duke Francis of Lorraine. Instead of awaiting the Austrian response, he marched against Silesia with an army of about 27,000 men five days later, hailed by the Protestant population. After a two-month campaign, Prussian forces had occupied all of Silesia, with only small Austrian garrisons entrenched in the fortresses of Głogów, Brzeg, and Nysa. Having abandoned winter quarters in 1741, the Prussian forces started their spring campaign, the Silesian capital Wrocław was occupied by August 10, a first armistice was concluded on October 9. The Prussian victory in the Battle of Chotusitz on May 17,1742, only the southern portion of Upper Silesia remained under Habsburg control, later called Austrian Silesia. The Second Silesian War took place from 1744 to 1745, the Austrians had lost Silesia to Prussia in the Battle of Mollwitz. This was the time when the Austrians, under the command of Field Marshal Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, the Prussians were again led by King Frederick the Great. The Battle of Hohenfriedberg on June 4,1745, was fought through a series of separate actions, after the Prussian victory, Frederick did not pursue the opposing armies. In the Battle of Soor on September 29,1745, Fredericks Prussians faced an Austrian army led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine with 39,000 men, Frederick tried to obtain Graner-Koppe from Prince Charles where the Prussians met with cannon fire. The Prussians won after a closely fought battle consisting of a series of attacks, whilst Frederick was sure the war was over, Empress Maria Theresa had not given up her claims to Silesia

18.
First Silesian War
–
Silesia was strategically important to Prussia because it significantly blunted the capacity of Prussias two chief foes—Austria and Russia—to meddle in Prussian affairs. Prussian victory foreshadowed a wider struggle for control over the German-speaking peoples that would culminate in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the First Silesian War inaugurated, and is generally seen in the context of, the wider ranging War of the Austrian Succession. While Charles launched a claim to the throne and the Habsburg territories, King Frederick II aimed at the annexation of Silesia. Furious Frederick III in turn insisted on the centuries-old Brandenburg claims to the Silesian Piast heritage. Forty-five years on, an alliance formed in support of Prussia’s newly asserted claims on Silesia. King Frederick II was supported by the electorates of Bavaria, Saxony and Cologne, as well as by the kingdoms of France, Spain, Sweden and Naples along with various smaller European powers. The shared objective within the alliance was the destruction or at least the diminution of the Habsburg Monarchy, Britain and Austria were bound by the Anglo-Austrian Alliance which had existed since 1731. On 8 November 1740, King Frederick II ordered the mobilization of the Prussian Army, according to his plan of attack, two corps would defeat a small Austrian infantry regiment and occupy the whole Silesian lands. On December 11 he issued an ultimatum to Austria demanding the surrender of Silesia, in turn, he promised to acknowledge the Pragmatic Sanction and to give his vote as Brandenburg prince-elector in the Imperial election to Maria Theresas husband Duke Francis of Lorraine. Instead of awaiting the Austrian response, he marched against Silesia with an army of about 27,000 men five days later, hailed by the Protestant population. After a two-month campaign, Prussian forces had occupied all of Silesia, with only small Austrian garrisons entrenched in the fortresses of Głogów, Brzeg, and Nysa. Having abandoned winter quarters in 1741, the Prussian forces started their spring campaign, the Silesian capital Wrocław was occupied by August 10, a first armistice was concluded on October 9. The Prussian victory in the Battle of Chotusitz on May 17,1742, only the southern portion of Upper Silesia remained under Habsburg control, later called Austrian Silesia. The Second Silesian War took place from 1744 to 1745, the Austrians had lost Silesia to Prussia in the Battle of Mollwitz. This was the time when the Austrians, under the command of Field Marshal Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, the Prussians were again led by King Frederick the Great. The Battle of Hohenfriedberg on June 4,1745, was fought through a series of separate actions, after the Prussian victory, Frederick did not pursue the opposing armies. In the Battle of Soor on September 29,1745, Fredericks Prussians faced an Austrian army led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine with 39,000 men, Frederick tried to obtain Graner-Koppe from Prince Charles where the Prussians met with cannon fire. The Prussians won after a closely fought battle consisting of a series of attacks, whilst Frederick was sure the war was over, Empress Maria Theresa had not given up her claims to Silesia

19.
Third Silesian War
–
Silesia was strategically important to Prussia because it significantly blunted the capacity of Prussias two chief foes—Austria and Russia—to meddle in Prussian affairs. Prussian victory foreshadowed a wider struggle for control over the German-speaking peoples that would culminate in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the First Silesian War inaugurated, and is generally seen in the context of, the wider ranging War of the Austrian Succession. While Charles launched a claim to the throne and the Habsburg territories, King Frederick II aimed at the annexation of Silesia. Furious Frederick III in turn insisted on the centuries-old Brandenburg claims to the Silesian Piast heritage. Forty-five years on, an alliance formed in support of Prussia’s newly asserted claims on Silesia. King Frederick II was supported by the electorates of Bavaria, Saxony and Cologne, as well as by the kingdoms of France, Spain, Sweden and Naples along with various smaller European powers. The shared objective within the alliance was the destruction or at least the diminution of the Habsburg Monarchy, Britain and Austria were bound by the Anglo-Austrian Alliance which had existed since 1731. On 8 November 1740, King Frederick II ordered the mobilization of the Prussian Army, according to his plan of attack, two corps would defeat a small Austrian infantry regiment and occupy the whole Silesian lands. On December 11 he issued an ultimatum to Austria demanding the surrender of Silesia, in turn, he promised to acknowledge the Pragmatic Sanction and to give his vote as Brandenburg prince-elector in the Imperial election to Maria Theresas husband Duke Francis of Lorraine. Instead of awaiting the Austrian response, he marched against Silesia with an army of about 27,000 men five days later, hailed by the Protestant population. After a two-month campaign, Prussian forces had occupied all of Silesia, with only small Austrian garrisons entrenched in the fortresses of Głogów, Brzeg, and Nysa. Having abandoned winter quarters in 1741, the Prussian forces started their spring campaign, the Silesian capital Wrocław was occupied by August 10, a first armistice was concluded on October 9. The Prussian victory in the Battle of Chotusitz on May 17,1742, only the southern portion of Upper Silesia remained under Habsburg control, later called Austrian Silesia. The Second Silesian War took place from 1744 to 1745, the Austrians had lost Silesia to Prussia in the Battle of Mollwitz. This was the time when the Austrians, under the command of Field Marshal Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, the Prussians were again led by King Frederick the Great. The Battle of Hohenfriedberg on June 4,1745, was fought through a series of separate actions, after the Prussian victory, Frederick did not pursue the opposing armies. In the Battle of Soor on September 29,1745, Fredericks Prussians faced an Austrian army led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine with 39,000 men, Frederick tried to obtain Graner-Koppe from Prince Charles where the Prussians met with cannon fire. The Prussians won after a closely fought battle consisting of a series of attacks, whilst Frederick was sure the war was over, Empress Maria Theresa had not given up her claims to Silesia

20.
Upper Silesia plebiscite
–
The Upper Silesia plebiscite was a plebiscite mandated by the Versailles Treaty and carried out on 20 March 1921 to determine a section of the border between Weimar Germany and Poland. The region was mixed with both Germans and Poles, according to prewar statistics, ethnic Poles formed 60 percent of the population. Under the previous rule by the German Empire, the Poles had faced discrimination and racism, the period of the plebiscite campaign and interallied occupation was marked by violence. There were two Polish uprisings, and German volunteer paramilitary units came to the region as well, the area was policed by French, British, and Italian troops, and overseen by an Interallied Commission. The Allies planned on a partition the region, but a Polish uprising took control of half the area. The Germans responded with volunteer paramilitary units from all over Germany, in the end, after renewed Allied military intervention, the final position of the opposing forces became, roughly, the new border. The earliest exact census figures on ethnolinguistic or national structure of the Prussian part of Upper Silesia, the last pre-World War I general census figures available, are from 1910. Also the total area in which Polish language was spoken, as well as the land area in which it was spoken by the majority. The Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I placed some formerly German territory in neighboring countries, in the case of the new Polish state, the Treaty of Versailles established some 54,000 square kilometers of formerly German territory as part of newly independent Poland. Many of these areas were ethnically mixed, in three of these ethnically mixed areas on the new German-Polish border, however, the Allied leaders provided for border plebiscites or referenda. The areas would be occupied by Allied forces and governed in some degree by Allied commissions, the most significant of these plebiscites was the one in Upper Silesia, since the region was a principal industrial center. The most important economic asset was the enormous coal-mining industry and its businesses, but the area yielded iron, zinc. The Industrial Triangle on the side of the plebiscite zone—between the cities of Beuthen, Kattowitz. The Upper Silesia plebiscite was therefore a plebiscite for self-determination of Upper Silesia required by the Treaty of Versailles, both Germany and Poland valued this region not only for reasons of national feeling, but for its economic importance as well. The area was occupied by British, French, and Italian forces, the plebiscite was set for 20 March 1921. Both Poles and Germans were allowed to organize campaigns, each side developed secret paramilitary forces—both financed from the opposing capitals, Warsaw and Berlin. The major figure of the campaign was Wojciech Korfanty, a pro-Polish politician, the Poles carried out two uprisings during the campaign, in August 1919 and August 1920. The Allies restored order in case, but the Polish insurrectionists clashed with German volunteers

21.
Treaty of Dresden
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The Treaty of Dresden was signed on 25 December 1745 at the Saxon capital of Dresden between Austria, Saxony and Prussia, ending the Second Silesian War. By the end of May 1745 Austrian and Saxon troops invaded Prussian Silesia, the Prussian king however had to cope with a rising number of enemy powers and expiring resources, all the more because he had failed to obtain support from Empress Elizabeth of Russia. Facing the situation, both agreed on a status quo. Based on the terms of the agreement, King Frederick II acknowledged Francis I as Holy Roman Emperor, in return, he maintained control over Silesia. The actually disadvantaged side was Saxony, who had to pay Prussia one million rixdollars in reparations, overall, the accord ratified and confirmed the tenets of both the Treaty of Breslau and the Treaty of Berlin. This accord brought the Second Silesian War to an official end, War of the Austrian Succession List of treaties Encyclopædia Britannica Concise - Dresden The Encyclopedia of World History - December 25

22.
Treaty of Teschen
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Maximilians direct heir was his cousin Count Palatine and Prince-Elector Charles Theodore, by prior succession agreements between the Bavarian and Palatinate branches of the Wittelsbach dynasty. Charles Theodore was amenable to an agreement with Emperor Joseph II that would allow him to parts of the Austrian Netherlands in exchange for parts of his Bavarian inheritance. From 16 January 1778 Austrian troops moved into the Lower Bavarian lands of Straubing, ultimately, both parties envisioned a wholesale exchange of the Bavarian lands for the Austrian Netherlands, but the final details were never concluded by treaty due to outside intervention. Because Charles Theodore too had no heirs so his successor would be his Palatine cousin. Charles August objected to the agreement depriving him of the Bavarian inheritance, the War of the Bavarian Succession broke out with the invasion of the Prussian Army into Bohemia on 5 July 1778, after Austria and Prussia could not negotiate their differences. Due to a lack of supply, the war was a stalemate as the Prussians were not able to advance far into the Bohemian lands. She dispatched peace initiatives to King Frederick II of Prussia and forced her son to accept mediation by France, the peace came at the initiative of Empress Catherine the Great and was guaranteed by both Russia and France. Prussia finally purchased both margraviates in 1791, the Electorate of Saxony received a sum of six million guilders from Bavaria in exchange of its inheritance claims. With the accession of Elector Charles Theodore, the electorates of Bavaria and their electoral votes were combined into one per a provision in the earlier Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, thereby reducing the number of electorates in the Holy Roman Empire to eight. The Innviertel, except for a time during the Napoleonic Wars, has remained with Upper Austria up to today. However, Joseph II again did not agree to an exchange of all provinces within the Austrian Netherlands. These plans were once again frustrated by King Frederick II of Prussia, who raised the opposition by the Fürstenbund. After the War of the Austrian Succession, Austria and Prussia had a rivalry for supremacy in Central Europe until 1866

23.
Battle of Legnica
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The battle came two days before the Mongol victory over the Hungarians at the much larger Battle of Mohi. As with many battles, the exact details of force composition, tactics. The general historical view is that it was a defeat for the European forces where they suffered heavy casualties. It is known that the Mongols had no intentions at the time of extending the campaign westward, because they went to the Kingdom of Hungary to help the main Mongol army in the conquest of the country. One of the Mongol leaders, Kadan, was confused with Ögedeis grandson Kaidu by medieval chroniclers. The Mongols considered the Cumans to have submitted to their authority, after King Béla IV of Hungary rejected Batu Khans ultimatum to surrender the Cumans, Subutai began planning the Mongol invasion of Europe. Ordas forces devastated northern Poland and the border of Lithuania. While deciding whether or not to besiege Wrocław, Baidar and Kadan received reports that King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia was two days away with an army twice the size of Henrys. The Mongols turned from Wrocław to intercept Henrys forces before the European armies could meet, the Mongols caught up with Henry near Legnica at Legnickie Pole, also known as Wahlstatt. The Mongol diversionary force, a detachment from the army of Subutai, demonstrated the advantages of the tactical mobility and speed of horseback archers. These were standard Mongol tactics used in all of their major battles, they were made possible by continual training and superb battlefield communication. The Mongol commander found the highest ground at the site, seized it and used it to communicate to his noyans. The Mongol system was a stark contrast to the European systems, the numbers involved are difficult to judge. European accounts vary as to Mongol numbers—some suggest more than 100,000 at Legnica alone, current estimates suggest the Mongol force numbered, at most,25,000 cavalry. The Historia Tatarorum by the Franciscan C, a contemporary European account, the Ystoria Mongalorum, supports these numbers, placing the Mongol force that invaded Poland at 10,000 horsemen. Henrys better trained troops were his own gathered from Silesian Piast duchies, mercenaries, historian Marek Cetwiński estimates the allied force to have been 2,000 strong, while Gerard Labuda estimates 7, 000–8,000 soldiers in the Christian army. A contingent of Teutonic Knights of indeterminate number is believed to have joined the allied army. However, recent analysis of the 15th-century Annals of Jan Długosz by Labuda suggests that the German crusaders may have added to the text after chronicler Długosz had completed the work

24.
Battle of Leuthen
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The battle was fought at the Silesian town of Leuthen,10 kilometers northwest of Breslau. Within seven hours, the Prussians destroyed the Austrian force, erasing any advantage the Austrians had gained throughout the summer, within 48 hours, Frederick had laid siege to Breslau, which resulted in that citys surrender on 19–20 December. Leuthen was the last battle at which Prince Charles commanded the Austrian Army, subsequently, his sister-in-law, Empress Maria Theresa, the battle also established beyond doubt Fredericks military reputation in European circles. After Rossbach, the French refused to further in Austrias war with Prussia, after Leuthen. Although the Seven Years War was a conflict, it took a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession. The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the war with Austria. Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, acquired the prosperous province of Silesia, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances, she was intent upon regaining ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost territories, similarly, France sought to break the British dominance of Atlantic trade. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own and this series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution. After over-running Saxony, Frederick campaigned in Bohemia and defeated the Austrians on 6 May 1757 at the Battle of Prague, learning that French forces had invaded his allys territory of Duchy of Hanover, Frederick moved west. On 5 November 1757, he defeated the combined French and Austrian force at the Battle of Rossbach, in his absence, the Austrians had managed to slowly retake Silesia, Prince Charles had taken the city of Schweidnitz and moved on Breslau in lower Silesia. While heading back to Silesia, Frederick learned of the fall of Breslau and he and his 22,000 men covered 274 km in 12 days and, at Liegnitz, joined up with the Prussian troops who had survived the fighting at Breslau. The augmented army of about 33,000 troops arrived near Leuthen,27 km west of Breslau, Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe, his troops—any company—could fire at least four volleys a minute, and some of them could fire five. Most of Lower Silesia is a plain of fertile land. It includes black and alluvial soils near Breslau and in river valleys and its mild climate, dense, water-rich river network, and fertile soils distributed between the Oder river and the foot of the Sudeten Mountains made it a coveted agricultural resource. In military terms, the area northwest of Breslau was predominantly flat, while the absence of steep hills made observation of an approaching enemy easy, the flatness precluded hiding maneuvers from ones enemies. The presence of alluvial soils guaranteed relatively soft ground, not as soft as Frederick faced outside Kunersdorf in 1758, a roadway connected the villages of Borna, Leuthen, Lissa with, across the Oder river and its tributaries, Breslau. Frederick had learned the countryside by heart on previous maneuvers, on 4 December 1757, astride his horse on the Schoen-Berg, a knoll about 1.5 km west of Borna, he surveyed the familiar landscape with his generals

25.
Geography of Silesia
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Silesia is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is about 40,000 km2, and its population about 8,000,000, Silesia is located along the Oder River. It consists of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia, the region is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesias largest city and historical capital is Wrocław, the biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia, Silesias borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, in the 14th century, it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Lands under the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1742, later becoming part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, the varied history with changing aristocratic possessions resulted in an abundance of castles in Silesia, especially in the Jelenia Góra valley. The remaining former Austrian parts of Silesia were partitioned to Czechoslovakia, in 1945, after World War II, the bulk of Silesia was transferred to Polish jurisdiction by the Potsdam Agreement of the victorious Allied Powers and became part of Poland. The small Lusatian strip west of the Oder-Neisse line, which had belonged to Silesia since 1815 and its centres are Görlitz and Bautzen. Most inhabitants of Silesia today speak the languages of their respective countries. The population of Upper Silesia is native, while Lower Silesia was settled by a German-speaking population before 1945, an ongoing debate exists whether Silesian speech should be considered a dialect of Polish or a separate language. Also, a Lower Silesian German dialect is used, although today it is almost extinct and it is used by expellees within Germany, as well as Germans who were left behind. The names all relate to the name of a river and mountain in mid-southern Silesia, the mountain served as a cultic place. Ślęża is listed as one of the numerous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region, according to some Polish Slavists, the name Ślęża or Ślęż is directly related to the Old Slavic words ślęg or śląg, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity. They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name Śląsk from the name of the Silings tribe, in the fourth century BC, Celts entered Silesia, settling around Mount Ślęża near modern Wrocław, Oława, and Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes were first recorded within Silesia in the 1st century, Slavic peoples arrived in the region around the 7th century, and by the early ninth century, their settlements had stabilized. Local Slavs started to erect boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka, the eastern border of Silesian settlement was situated to the west of the Bytom, and east from Racibórz and Cieszyn

26.
Lower Silesian Wilderness
–
Lower Silesian Wilderness is the largest continuous forest of Poland, with total area of 1650 square kilometers. It is located in southwestern Poland, in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, western boundary of the wilderness is made by the Nysa Łużycka, behind which spreads a German forest, Muskauer Heide. It is mostly covered by pine trees, the area of the Lower Silesian Wilderness is predominantly flat, with the biggest point, the hill called Dębniak measuring only 238 meters above sea level. The wilderness is subdivided into several smaller forests, and it is crossed by a number of rivers, including the Kwisa, the Bóbr, and the Szprotawa. Among most important municipal centers of the area of the wilderness, there are Bolesławiec, Węgliniec, Żagań, Żary, Szprotawa, and Pieńsk. The Lower Silesian Wilderness is very popular among hunters, as it is rich in such animals as deer, wild pigs, hares, foxes, and wolves

27.
Silesian Foothills
–
Silesian Foothills are foothills located in Silesian Voivodeship, Poland. It has an area of 545 km² and its western border is Olza river, eastern Skawa. Other main rivers that cut the foothills are from west to east, Vistula, to the south are Silesian Beskids and Little Beskids, in north it converts into Ostrava Basin and Oświęcim Basin. The towns located on the foothills are, Cieszyn, Skoczów, Bielsko-Biała, Kęty, Andrychów, Silesian Highlands Silesian Lowlands Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands Silesian-Moravian Foothills

28.
Silesian Lowlands
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Silesian Lowlands are lowlands located in Silesia, Poland and the Czech Republic. It is part of the North European Plain, Silesian Lowlands is a physical-geographical macroregion. It is the warmest region in Poland, oleśnica Plain Racibórz Basin Głubczyce Plateau / Opava Hilly Land Opole Plain Niemodlin Plain Silesian Highlands Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands Silesian Foothills Silesian-Moravian Foothills

29.
Silesian Przesieka
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Originally, the Silesian Cutting was a boundary, separating territories of two Western Slavic tribes, the Slezanie and the Opolanie. In the 12th century, along the Cutting a border of Lower Silesia, for a long time, the Silesian Cutting was used as a natural military obstacle, protecting the area of Opole from raids of the Moravian and Czech tribes. However, it did not prevent the Hussites from invading Silesia in 1420, gates, which could be closed in dangerous times, controlled all roads leading outwards. The Przesieka was maintained by local Polish peasants and used in their self-defence, if a settlement expanded in size the fortifications were moved outwards. Placenames like Osiek, Ossig, Hag, Hänchen Przesieka, Lower Silesian Voivodeship or Przesieka, the fortification continued on the other side of the Oder at the Niemodlin woodland, incorporated the woods to the right of the Nysa Kłodzka and the Golden and Owl Mountains. From there the cutting turned northeast and incorporated the Sudetes, which separated Silesia and Bohemia, the Przesieka continued up to the Lower Silesian heathland, the border to Lusatia, a region which was especially well fortified by three trenches and a passage to the west of Szprotawa. From the Bóbr knee the Cutting incorporated the woodlands of Zielona Góra, at the river Barycz the Cutting turned south to close the circle around Lower Silesia. The distribution of the Upper Silesian border forests is relatively unknown, only the western Preseka at Hrubý Jeseník and its foothills, the woodlands of the northern Carpathian Mountains and the Moravian Gate as well as at the woodlands of the Polish Jura are established. This enclosed area was divided into two chambers by a border zone and this inner Przesieka is in parts preserved until today, visible at the upper Malapane and between Rybnik and Pszczyna. Equally unknown in detail is the division of the Lower Silesian region, town-like settlements already existed before the Ostsiedlung, as craftsmen and merchants formed suburbs of fortified strongholds. Usually, Slavic marketplaces were set at a range with few or no permanently inhabited buildings and, after Christianization. Market fields were in proximity to fortified strongholds. This system was borrowed from 10th century East Francia and persisted in the Slavic regions until the Ostsiedlung, as the Silesian dukes initiated the German Ostsiedlung the border forests offered the chance to plan irrespective of older settlements. This approach was started by Henry I in the late 12th century, the German settlers cleared the forests and thus destroyed the protective effect of the Preseka. To defend their now unprotected soil the Silesian dukes replaced the dissolving Preseka by a strip of villages, fortified towns, the area became the center of the evolving society of the German Silesians

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Nyskie Lake
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Nyskie Lake is a reservoir constructed on the Nysa Kłodzka river in Poland in 1971. Its name comes from the town of Nysa. The dam that was used to create the reservoir is 2 kilometers long, the total area of the lake is 2000 hectares, with 124 million cubic meters of water. Before creation of the reservoir, several villages had been resettled, by the lake, a hydroelectric power plant is located. Together with adjacent Otmuchów Lake, both make the Otmuchow-Nysa Area of Protected Landscape, with several species of birds living in the region. The reservoir is located near the national road number 46

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Carpathian Mountains
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The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a mountain range system forming an arc roughly 1,500 km long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe. The Carpathians and their foothills also have many thermal and mineral waters, the Carpathians consist of a chain of mountain ranges that stretch in an arc from the Czech Republic in the northwest through Slovakia, Poland, Hungary and Ukraine to Romania and Serbia. The highest range within the Carpathians is the Tatras, on the border of Slovakia and Poland, the second-highest range is the Southern Carpathians in Romania, where the highest peaks exceed 2,500 m. The divisions of the Carpathians are usually in three sections, Western Carpathians — Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia. Eastern Carpathians — southeastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, the term Outer Carpathians is frequently used to describe the northern rim of the Western and Eastern Carpathians. The most important cities in or near the Carpathians are, Bratislava and Košice in Slovakia, Kraków in Poland, Cluj-Napoca, Sibiu and Braşov in Romania, and Uzhhorod in Ukraine. In modern times, the range is called Karpaty in Czech, Polish, Slovak and Карпати in Ukrainian, Carpați in Romanian, Karpaten in German, Kárpátok in Hungarian and Karpati or Карпати in Serbian. Although the toponym was recorded already by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE, for instance, Havasok was its medieval Hungarian name, Rus and Romanian chronicles referred to it as Hungarian Mountains. The archaic Polish word karpa meant rugged irregularities, underwater obstacles/rocks, the more common word skarpa means a sharp cliff or other vertical terrain. In late Roman documents, the Eastern Carpathian Mountains were referred to as Montes Sarmatici, the Western Carpathians were called Carpates, a name that is first recorded in Ptolemys Geographia. In the Scandinavian Hervarar saga, which relates ancient Germanic legends about battles between Goths and Huns, the name Karpates appears in the predictable Germanic form as Harvaða fjöllum, inter Alpes Huniae et Oceanum est Polonia by Gervase of Tilbury, has described in his Otia Imperialia in 1211. Thirteenth- to fifteenth-century Hungarian documents named the mountains Thorchal, Tarczal or less frequently Montes Nivium, the northwestern Carpathians begin in Slovakia and southern Poland. They surround Transcarpathia and Transylvania in a semicircle, sweeping towards the southeast. The total length of the Carpathians is over 1,500 km, the highest altitudes of the Carpathians occur where they are widest. The Carpathians cover an area of 190,000 km2 and, after the Alps, although commonly referred to as a mountain chain, the Carpathians do not actually form an uninterrupted chain of mountains. Rather, they consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive groups, the Carpathians at their highest altitude are only as high as the middle region of the Alps, with which they share a common appearance, climate, and flora. The Carpathians are separated from the Alps by the Danube, the two ranges meet at only one point, the Leitha Mountains at Bratislava. The river also separates them from the Balkan Mountains at Orşova in Romania, the valley of the March and Oder separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the middle wing of the great Central Mountain System of Europe

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Silesian Beskids
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Silesian Beskids is one of the Beskids mountain ranges in Outer Western Carpathians in southern Silesian Voivodeship, Poland and the eastern Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic. Most of the lies in Poland. It is separated from the Moravian-Silesian Beskids by the Jablunkov Pass, the Polish part of the range includes the protected area called Silesian Beskids Landscape Park. Silesian Beskids have 20 mountains with a highest point above 1000 m, beskidzkie gronie nad Olzą i Wisłą

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Moravian-Silesian Beskids
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The Moravian–Silesian Beskids is a mountain range in the Czech Republic with a small part reaching to Slovakia. It lies on the division between Moravia and Silesia, hence the name. It is part of the Western Beskids, which is in part of the Outer Western Carpathians. The mountains were created during the Alpine Orogeny in the Cenozoic, geologically, they consist mainly of flysch deposits. In the north, they steeply rise nearly 1,000 m over a flat landscape, in the south. In the south-west, they are separated from the Vsetínské vrchy by the Rožnovská Bečva valley, in the north-east, the Jablunkov Pass separates them from the Silesian Beskids. The highest point is Lysá hora mountain at 1,323 m, many legends are bound to Radhošť Mountain,1,129 m, which is one of the most visited places in the mountains together with the nearby Pustevny resort. Smrk, with a height of 1,276 m, is the second highest summit of the range, the Moravian-Silesian Beskids create the largest part of the Beskydy Landscape Protected Area. The mountains are 80% forested, though mainly by plantations of spruce which were in some parts severely damaged by emissions from the Ostrava industrial region, originally, the mountains were covered by mixed forest with dominant beech which are preserved in many places. Recently, permanent occurrence of all three large Central European carnivores – lynx, bear and wolf – have been confirmed in the area, parts of two euroregions, the Beskydy/Beskidy and Těšínské Slezsko/Śląsk Cieszyński, reach into the Moravian-Silesian Beskids. Moravskoslezské Beskydy, Soubor turistických map 1,50000

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Sudetes
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The Sudetes /suːˈdiːtiːz/ are a mountain range in Central Europe, also known in English as the Sudeten or Sudety mountains. The range stretches from eastern Germany along the border of the Czech Republic to south-western Poland. The highest peak of the range is Sněžka in the Krkonoše mountains on the Czech Republic–Poland border, the current geomorphological unit in the Czech part of the mountain range is Krkonošsko-jesenická subprovincie. It is separated from the Carpathian Mountains by the Moravian Gate, the Krkonoše Mountains have experienced growing tourism for winter sports during the past ten years. Their skiing resorts are becoming an alternative to the Alps. The name Sudetes is derived from Sudeti montes, a Latinization of the name Soudeta ore used in the Geographia by the Greco-Roman writer Ptolemy c, AD150 for a range of mountains in Germania in the general region of the modern Czech republic. The modern Sudetes are probably Ptolemys Askiburgion mountains, Ptolemy wrote Σούδητα in Greek, which is a neuter plural. Latin mons, however, is a masculine, hence Sudeti, the Latin version, and the modern geographical identification, is likely to be a scholastic innovation, as it is not attested in classical Latin literature. The meaning of the name is not known, in one hypothetical derivation, it means Mountains of Wild Boars, relying on Indo-European *su-, pig. A better etymology perhaps is from Latin sudis, plural sudes, spines, the Sudetes also comprise larger basins like the Jelenia Góra and the Kłodzko Valley. The exact location of the Sudetes has varied over the centuries, the ancient Sudeti meant at least the northwest frontier of todays Czech Republic, probably extending to the north. By implication, it was part of the vast Hercynian Forest belt mentioned by authors of the antiquity. After World War I the name Sudetenland came into use to areas of the First Czechoslovak Republic with large ethnic German populations. In 1918 the short-lived rump state of German-Austria proclaimed a Province of the Sudetenland in northern Moravia, in total the German minority population of pre-World War II Czechoslovakia numbered around 20% of the total national population. After being annexed by Nazi Germany, much of the region was redesignated as the Reichsgau Sudetenland, after World War II, most of the German population within the Polish and Czechoslovak Sudetes was forcibly expelled on the basis of the Potsdam Agreement and the Beneš decrees. A considerable proportion of the Czechoslovak populace thereafter strongly objected to the use of the term Sudety, the nearest international airport is in Wrocław - Copernicus Airport Wrocław

At the Battle of Rossbach, a portion of Frederick's army destroyed the united French and Imperial armies in a 90-minute battle.

Within a few weeks of the Battle of Rossbach, the Prussian army crossed Silesia and decisively defeated the Austrians at Leuthen, outside of Breslau. In this 19th-century painting, Prussian grenadiers storm the parish church during the Battle of Leuthen.

In the Battle of Leuthen, fought on 5 December 1757, Frederick the Great's Prussian army used maneuver and terrain to …

Leuthen stands in rolling grasslands and Charles distributed his troops in a long line across fields, to the village, visible in the distance. Charles directed his operations from the tower of one of the churches.

Prussians advance at Leuthen – as imagined and illustrated by Carl Röchling (c.1890)

Richard Knötel's depiction of Frederick's arrival at the Schloss von Lissa after the Battle of Leuthen; he was greeted by astonished Austrian officers (the men wearing the white jackets).