1. Epictetus (50 A.D. - 125 A.D.) was a freed Roman slave.
According to the Stoics, one can be enslaved on the outside, "externally"
(have one's body in chains) and be free "internally" (be at peace
with oneself in aloofness from all pleasure and pain). Dualism
of mind (soul) and body: the inner realm is a realm of freedom
(unless we let externals affect us or let events disturb our thoughts);
the outer realm is a realm of determinism (things outside of our
mind, including our own bodies, are determined by factors beyond
our control). We have control over our thoughts and our will,
but we do not have control over external fortune. Thus virtue
does not consist in external performance, but in inner attitude.
Not what we do or what happens to us, but how we judge or think
about those things is the essence of good or evil. No external
event is good or evil. Only the attitude or will of a man is good
or evil.

Question: The Stoics
had high regard for Socrates. In the light of what you know about
Socrates, explain how the "inner" and the "outer" were distinguished
by Socrates.

2. The private is better than the public; the inner self is better
than the outer self; the hidden character (steadfast and detached)
is superior to the manifest deed (changing and subject to circumstances
beyond our control). The inner self can be free; the outer self
(or body) is determined by events. Enemies can harm the body, but
not the soul. A man can be peaceful and self-composed even while
being tortured or in great illness; the mind can detach itself or
"shut off" external events. Our duty is to make our minds master
over desires and needs. We should depend not on external events
for our happiness, but upon reason (inner continuity and stability).
Our duty is to order our thoughts logically and to steady our will
in accordance with the reason and order and stability (and lawfulness)
we find in Nature. God is reason or soul or principle within Nature.
Human beings ought to imitate the reasonableness of God and leave
external fate up to providence (acceptance or resignation). God
is the detached calm of reason within ever-changing nature; the
human soul should remain calm in the midst of active ethical and
political involvement.

Question: Explain how
the "individualism" of the Stoics goes beyond what Socrates might
have intended. Remember that for Socrates the polis or the city
or one's immediate social context (and nomoi) were very important.
Keep in mind that for the Stoics the Roman Empire, not individual
Greek city-states, was the backdrop for moral and political action.

3. Stoicism is based on a Heraclitean-like (following the
philosopher Heraclitus) interpretation of Nature, for whom the
logos (reason) is the stable ordering principle within the flux
of a constantly changing and moving universe. God (reason) in
nature is like the calm eye of a hurricane. The Stoic resolves,
in his life, to be calm in the midst of activity, to cultivate
an attitude which is free, detached, and dispassionate. The happy
life is a life free of desires (cravings) and attachments. Such
happiness (peace) is possible because external events need not
affect one's internal mind. One's mind should give orders, not
take them. Stoicism is a dualism (view that radically separates
mind and body, freedom and determinism into two compartments).
We are affected by the external only if we foolishly choose to
be so affected. The door between the mind and the body (as well
as outward events) can be opened or closed only from the inside
(from the mind's side). One becomes disturbed if he opens the
door and lets the storm of external suffering and events rage
inside.

4. Thus, the Stoic does not have to seek refuge in a safe
haven apart from political affairs. His "garden" is his mind.
He can immerse himself in practical affairs and still remain mentally
calm, as God involves himself in Nature but remains aloof and
detached. One can be mentally withdrawn and politically active
at the same time (though Epictetus chose to avoid politics). Disturbance
is due, not to external events, but to our judgment with regard
to (attitude toward) external events.

Question: Explain the difference between the "garden"
of the Stoics and the "Garden" of the Epicureans. What is the
basis of their difference?

5. Stoicism calls for a universal benevolence towards all
humans. It is our duty to help our fellows. This duty is cosmopolitan,
or goes beyond particular cities (the earth is our city). On the
other hand, our duty to others should be free of emotional entanglements.
It is dangerous to become dependent on anything or anyone outside
of ourselves; we should avoid attachments. The lives of others,
even our "loved ones" (wife and children), are beyond our control.
If we love them too much, we will suffer and lose composure when
they are taken away from us (in death). The key to peace is detachment.
Let our outer actions be as benevolent as possible, but let our
inner attitude remain free, calm, detached, and self-sufficient
(autarchia) and independent of external "goods." Mind and body
are separate compartments. See Manual of Epictetus, XVI.

6. Mental disturbance is caused by wanting and craving what
is beyond our power. Bring an end to such wanting and craving,
and you bring an end to suffering; you will be happy. (Compare
this to Buddhism that teaches that the cause of human suffering
is craving or grasping. In Buddhism, to eliminate suffering, one
must eliminate craving, desiring.) External attachments cause
both pleasure and pain. Virtue or peace is detachment from external
attachments, even from attachment to one's own body (the well
being of which is not entirely in our control). The harmony of
the soul is above the flux of pleasure and pain, as the harmony
of nature is above all the opposites found in nature. Stoicism
is the dualism of internal stability and external flux. Inside
the mind, there can be calm; outside the mind there is constant
movement -- coming to be and passing away. Dependence on what
comes to be and passes away brings disappointment and pain. Dependence
on reason or natural order (which is constant) brings peace and
freedom. See Seneca, "On the Happy Life."

Questions for Review: Epicurus and Stoicism

1. Criticize this statement from an Epicurean point of view:
"We can never have too much of a good thing."

2. State and explain briefly the three classes of desires
discussed by Epicurus.

3. How does a Stoic protect himself against adverse circumstances?
What distinction must he keep in mind?

4. In what three ways are Epicureans able to secure themselves
against unfriendly humans?

5. Explain the "dualism" that is the basis of Stoicism.

6. According to Epicurus, there are two bad ideas that cause
mental anxiety and there are two good (Epicurean) opinions that
spell relief. State the two bad and the two good opinions.

Please note: These philosophical
commentaries, though still in process, are the intellectual
property of Gordon L. Ziniewicz. They may be downloaded and
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