2 The purpose of this presentation is for use in training clinicians working with inpatients who smoke, in the context of the NSW Health Smoke Free Workplace Policy (1999)(please note: all references for the content of this presentation are included in the ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’ (page 19) except for lozenge study)

3 In this presentation we will cover:Tobacco use in the communityHealth policyAssessment of nicotine dependenceNicotine withdrawalNicotine replacement therapy (NRT)Frequently asked questionsBrief interventionDischarge & referral

5 epidemic The World Health Organisation describes smoking as an:that will cause 1/3 of all adult deaths world-wide by 2020(WHO 1999)

6 Prevalence of smoking in Australian populationOverall in 2001 – daily smoking prevalence was 19.5%males – 21%females - 18%Prevalence was higher among younger people, daily smoking rates peaked in the year age groupThe mean number of cigarettes smoked per week increased with age peaking at 140 cigarettes by age 50-59SPEAKERS NOTES:The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2002) National Drug Strategy Household Survey: First results. AIHW cat. no. PHE 35. Canberra: AIHW (Drug Statistics Series No. 9) was published after the Guide was printed and the more recent figures in this slide reflect this report.(Figures in the Guide) In 1997/98 smoking prevalence for persons aged 18 years and over was 27% for males and 21% for females. Prevalence for secondary school students aged years in 1996 was 19% for males and 21% for females (NSW Report of Chief Health Officer 2000).Reported current smoking rates vary widely among Health Areas. These variations reflect the distribution of underlying social determinants of health with smoking more prevalent among NSW adults who are single, unemployed, have not finished high school, live in economically disadvantaged areas, and among men from non-English speaking backgrounds (Harris et al 1999).(See Page 4 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

7 Prevalence of smoking in Australian population in 2001% of age groupGraph based on tables from:Reference:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2002) National Drug Strategy Household Survey: First results. AIHW cat. no. PHE 35. Canberra: AIHW (Drug Statistics Series No. 9)Age groups(Adapted from AIHW 2002 report)

8 Prevalence of inpatient smoking in NSWBetween 18% - 23% of patients admitted to NSW hospitals are current smokers (self-reported)The actual figure may be higher than this……….In one study, a further 18% self-reported ‘non-smokers’ tested positive for salivary cotinine, suggests they’re current smokersA Central Sydney study found that 1 in 5 inpatients were highly dependent on nicotine (using Fagerstrom Test)SPEAKERS NOTES:A recent study, over a six month period, in a pre-admission clinic of a major Sydney teaching hospital within Central Sydney Area Health Service identified an age-standardised smoking prevalence of 19% with a further 3% of patients identified as ‘recent quitters’.When including recent quitters, this study found that smoking prevalence was similar to the rates for the NSW adult population, but noted that there is likely to be some under-reporting of smoking in the clinical setting. Using the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence, one in five (18%) were identified as highly nicotine dependent (Rissel et al 1999).An earlier study in the Hunter region of New South Wales found smoking prevalence of 16% with a further 8% identified as ‘recent quitters’. Salivary cotinine assay found that 18% of the self reported non smokers tested positive. Of those patients who reported smoking in the 3 months preceding admission, 56% reported abstaining from smoking during their hospital stay, yet 9 months post discharge 3% remained abstinent. (Nagle et al 1996)A more recent unpublished study in the Hunter region which surveyed all eligible consenting adult inpatients at admission in a large tertiary teaching hospital found self reported smoking rates (in the last week) of 23%, with a further 7% reporting smoking during the last year (Nagle et al unpublished).(See Page 4 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

9 Burden of disease caused by tobacco - NSWTobacco is the major cause of drug-related death & the single greatest preventable cause of premature death & diseaseIn 2000, smoking caused 4,316 male deaths & 2,255 female deaths (18.5% & 10.3% of all male & female deaths respectively)In 1998/99 smoking caused 50,023 hospitalisations among males and 30,045 hospitalisations among females (5.7% & 3% of all male & female hospitalisations respectively).SPEAKERS NOTES:Tobacco is the risk factor associated with the greatest burden of disease in Australia. In 1996, it was responsible for about 9.7% (227,000) of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) – about 12% of the total burden of disease and injury in males and 7% in females. Most of the burden of tobacco is found in lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and ischaemic heart disease. Together they comprise almost 72% of the attributable burden of tobacco smoking and account for almost 7% of DALYs (Mathers et al 1999).Across Australia in 1998, 142,525 hospital separations were attributable to tobacco (as against 43,033 to alcohol and 14,471 to illicit drugs). The largest specific cause of hospitalisation attributable to tobacco for males is ischaemic heart disease (29%), cancer (21%) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (19%). The cancer category is dominated by lung cancer (50%), bladder cancer (23%). The largest specific cause of hospitalisation attributable to tobacco for females is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (22%), ischaemic heart disease (19%) and cancer (14%). The cancer category is dominated by lung cancer (59%) and bladder cancer (17%) (Ridolfo & Stevenson 2001).NOTE: FIGURES IN THE SLIDE ABOVE ARE FROM THE 2002 CHIEF HEALTH OFFICERS REPORT (UNPUBLISHED) AND DIFFER FROM THE FIGURES IN THE ‘GUIDE’(See Page 3 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

11 The World Health OrganisationRecommends that: - all health care facilities and their immediate surroundings should be smoke free. - and that hospital staff should: - ask about smoking status prior to or on admission; - offer brief advice & pharmacotherapy to those who need it; and: - provide assistance to those interested in stopping.WHO (2001)

12 NSW Health Smoke Free Workplace Policy 1999Goal: To prohibit smoking throughout all buildings, vehicles and property controlled by NSW HealthRationale:To reduce the harm associated with smoking among staff, patients, visitors, especially exposure to passive smokingTo provide a clear message to staff, patients, visitors, community about the health risks of smokingTo provide leadership in the community about reducing harm associated with smokingSPEAKERS NOTES:The NSW Department of Health is committed to ensuring the health, safety and welfare of all persons utilising its facilities and services. The Department has had a policy to reduce exposure to passive smoking on department property since In 1988 this policy was amended to reflect concerns about the health effects of passive smoking and to incorporate the requirements of the NSW Occupational Health and Safety Act The 1988 policy focused on the obligations of the Department to provide a smoke free working environment following common law cases concerning the effects of passive smoking. The 1988 policy also acknowledged the Department's role in the promotion of healthy lifestyles and practices. In addition, the Area Health Services Act 1986 states a primary objective of an Area Health Service is (s.19) "to promote, protect and maintain public health". The promotion of smoke free policies and other related health improvement strategies in health care facilities is an essential component in protecting the health of those who come into contact with these institutions. The 1999 Smoke Free Workplace Policy builds on the 1988 policy (which prohibited smoking in all buildings and vehicles) and has the goal of prohibiting smoking throughout all property controlled by NSW Health. There is the possibility of limited exempted outdoor areas during its staged implementation to meet the needs of specific patients and/or staff. The rationale for updating of the Department's Smoke Free Workplace Policy was to:Reduce the risks to health associated with tobacco use amongst staff, patients, visitors and the community, especially exposure to passive smoking;· Provide a clear and consistent message to staff, patients, visitors and the community about the health risks of smoking;Provide leadership in the community about reducing the harm associated with smoking. A key component of the policy is the recommendation for provision of support to those patients who smoke by the use of brief intervention and nicotine replacement therapies as appropriate8.(See Page 2 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

13 The guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatientsDeveloped within the context of the NSW Health Smoke Free Workplace Policy (1999)Aim: to assist clinicians in the management of nicotine dependence in inpatients confined to smoke-free environmentTwo parts:a laminated flowchart for use on the warda booklet summarising the international evidenceIs not about smoking cessation, although some patients may use the opportunity of hospitalisation to attempt to quit smoking

14 Managing nicotine dependenceThe NSW Health Smoke Free Workplace Policy provides a supportive environment for abstinence during hospitalisationThe guide proposes that hospital staff:identify nicotine dependent patientsgive patients information about the smoke free policyprovide prompt and appropriate treatment to patients experiencing nicotine withdrawalprovide brief intervention for smoking cessationadvise patients at discharge on options for permanent cessationSPEAKERS NOTES:The NSW Health Smoke Free Workplace Policy 1999 (NSW Health 1999) provides a supportive environment for abstinence during hospitalisation and opportunities for brief intervention to increase a smoker’s motivation to quit. This protocol proposes that hospital staff: · identify nicotine dependent patients,· give patients information about the smoke free policy,· provide prompt and appropriate treatment to patients experiencing nicotine withdrawal,· provide brief intervention for smoking cessation, and· advise patients at discharge on options for permanent cessation Incorporating these steps into routine patient care will significantly contribute to the health and well-being of our patient population, the provision of effective smoke free environments at health facilities and deliver a clear message to the public of the health consequences of smoking (lethal for one in every two users). It is therefore recommended that Area Health Services incorporate this model for the treatment of nicotine withdrawal into their local Smoke Free Workplace Policy implementation plans and develop specific protocols for delivery that are appropriate for their local settings. (See Page 2 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

15 Managing nicotine dependenceEarly identification of smoking status and swift provision of an adequate level of NRT may reduce the potential for a highly dependent smoker to become irritable or aggressive due to nicotine withdrawalReduction of withdrawal symptoms may in turn reduce the amount of work and time required to manage the patientNSW Health recommends that AHSs develop specific protocols appropriate for local settings to clarify role delineation & ensure prompt delivery of treatment to patientsSPEAKERS NOTES:Frequently asked question – who does what?It is recommended that Area Health Services develop specific protocols (based on the guide) that are appropriate for their local settings to clarify role delineation to ensure prompt delivery of treatment to patients.Other questions regarding the Smoke Free Workplace Policy should be referred to the local AHS Implementation committee as the issues and the appropriate responses vary from Area to Area and from hospital to hospital within an Area

18 Fiore et al, U.S. Dept of Health and“Indeed, it is difficult to identify any other condition that presents such a mix of lethality, prevalence, and neglect, despite effective and readily available interventions”Fiore et al, U.S. Dept of Health andHuman Services, June 2000

19 Identification of smoking statusSwift identification of smokers on admission increases rates of intervention and guides appropriate treatmentThe Alcohol and Other Drugs Policy for Nursing Practice in NSW: Clinical Guidelines recommends recording a patient’s substance use history (including tobacco) upon admissionModerate to heavily dependent smokers should also be screened for depressionPatients with depressed mood and a history of problem drinking are more likely to be nicotine dependent and may have greater difficulty in abstaining during hospitalisationSPEAKERS NOTES:The first step in managing nicotine withdrawal is to identify smokers as this increases rates of intervention and guides appropriate treatments (Fiore et al 1995).The Alcohol and Other Drugs Policy for Nursing Practice in NSW: Clinical Guidelines (NSW Health Dept 2000) recommends the recording of a patient’s substance use history (including tobacco) upon admission. In view of the relationship between tobacco use and substance-use disorders this is strongly recommended to guide appropriate clinical treatments, especially for highly dependent smokers.It is also recommended that moderate to heavily nicotine dependent patients be screened and/or monitored for depression. Patients with depressed mood and a history of problematic drinking have been reported as more likely to be nicotine dependent and have an anticipated greater difficulty in refraining from smoking while hospitalised (Cargill et al 2001). (See Page 6 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

20 Nicotine A psychoactive drug affecting mood and performanceThe source of addiction to tobaccoMore addictive than heroin or cocaine (WHO)Binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors found on cell bodies and at nerve terminals in the brain and autonomic gangliaActivation (smoking) facilitates release of neurotransmitters- acetylcholine, norephinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, B- endorphin and glutamateSPEAKERS NOTES:Nicotine is a psychoactive drug affecting mood and performance and is the source of addiction to tobacco. Nicotine, found in tobacco, binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors found on cell bodies and at nerve terminals in the brain and autonomic ganglia. Activation facilitates the release of neurotransmitters including acetylcholine, norephinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, B-endorphin and glutamate. Behavioural rewards from nicotine, and perhaps nicotine dependence as well, are linked to dopamine release.It takes seconds for nicotine, administered through the pulmonary circulation, to pass from the lung through the brain.Nicotine levels in the brain decline between cigarettes providing an opportunity for resensitization of receptors so that positive reinforcement can occur with successive cigarettes. Nicotine is rapidly and extensively metabolised primarily in the liver. Its half-life averages 2 hours, therefore regular smokers begin to go into withdrawal and feel the need to ‘top up’ their nicotine levels every hour or so. Consistent with a 2 hour half-life, nicotine levels in the body rise during the first 6-8 hours, plateau for the remainder of the day during regular smoking and fall overnight.Primary metabolites are cotinine and nicotine-N-oxide. Because of its long half-life (16-20 hours) cotinine is commonly used as a marker of nicotine intake.Nicotine crosses the placenta freely and has been found in amniotic fluid and in the umbilical cord blood of neonates. It is found in breast milk but concentration is so low that the dose of nicotine consumed by an infant is unlikely to be of physiological consequence.(See Page 8 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

21 Manipulation of doseArterial blood nicotine concentrations may be up to 100ng/mL - venous concentrations typically 20%-30% of thisConcentrations in the heart and brain may be up to ng/mL immediately after a cigaretteRegular cigarette smoking plateaus at daily plasma concentrations of ng/mL (& 5 -10% carboxyhemoglobin)Smoker can titrate the dose of nicotine to regulate a particular levelIntake of nicotine from a given product depends on puff volume, depth of inhalation, rate and intensity of puffingSmokers titrate higher levels of nicotine from ‘light’ cigarettes or reduced number by breathing in deeper & holding smoke in lungs longerSPEAKERS NOTES:Cigarette smoking produces rapid dosing of nicotine. Benowitz advises that arterial blood nicotine concentrations may be as high as 100ng/ml and concentrations in the heart and brain may be as high as ng/ml immediately after a cigarette. Venus blood nicotine concentrations are typically 20%-30% of those of arterial concentrations.A smoker can manipulate (titrate) the dose of nicotine from a cigarette to regulate a particular level of nicotine in the body. Intake of nicotine from a given product depends on factors such as puff volume, depth of inhalation, rate and intensity of puffing. Smokers tend to titrate higher levels of nicotine from ‘light’ cigarettes by breathing in deeper and holding the smoke in the lungs longer.Similarly, smokers who reduce the number of cigarettes smoked per day will often increase their average intake of nicotine from each cigarette.There is considerable peak-to-trough oscillation in blood levels from cigarette to cigarette. Regular cigarette smoking plateaus at daily plasma concentrations of 20 to 35 ng/mL (and 5% to 10% carboxyhemoglobin). (Benowitz 1998)(See Page 8 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)(Ng/mL = nannograms per millilitre)

22 Nicotine dependenceTobacco use produces tolerance to nicotine, withdrawal symptoms and difficulty in controlling future useThe bolus of nicotine to the brain achieved by smoking is one of the key reinforcers of dependenceNicotine in blood in 4 seconds, in brain in 7 secondsNicotine dependence and withdrawal can develop with use of all forms of tobaccoNeuro-adaptation (tolerance) can occur within a few doses of the drug, depending on rate and route of dosingSPEAKERS NOTES:Tobacco use produces tolerance to nicotine, withdrawal symptoms and difficulty in controlling future use (US Dept of Health and Human Services 2000). The bolus of nicotine to the brain achieved by smoking is one of the key reinforcers of dependence (Benowitz 1998).Human use of nicotine from tobacco meets the criteria for drug dependence as presented by the US Surgeon General and nicotine and smoking also meet the World Health Organisation’s International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) (WHO1992) criteria for substance dependence. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Assoc 1995) states that nicotine dependence and withdrawal can develop with use of all forms of tobacco. Features of nicotine dependence include: smoking soon after waking, smoking when ill, difficulty refraining from smoking, reporting the first cigarette of the day to be the one most difficult to give up, and smoking more in the morning than in the afternoon.Smokers appear to be motivated by both positive reinforcement (including reported relaxation, reduced stress, alertness, improved concentration, mood regulation and lower body weight) and negative reinforcement (relief of nicotine withdrawal symptoms in the context of physical dependence). However, it is difficult to separate reported positive reinforcement from relief of withdrawal symptoms in smokers (Benowitz 1998).(See Page 9 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

23 Nicotine dependence (DSM-IV)Features of nicotine dependence include:smoking soon after wakingsmoking when illdifficulty refraining from smokingreporting the first cigarette of the day to be the one most difficult to give upsmoking more in the morning than in the afternoon

24 Assessment of nicotine dependenceThe Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) is based on criteria in DSM-IV (6 questions)(for questions &scoring see page 9 of Guide)2 questions consistently match valid biochemical indicators of dependence:how soon after waking up do you smoke?how many cigarettes per day do you smoke?(for scoring see page 10 of Guide)SPEAKERS NOTES:Assessment of nicotine dependenceDependence on nicotine may be assessed using the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) which is based on criteria listed in the DSM-IV. (Fagerstrom et al 1990)How soon after waking up do you smoke Within 5 minutes 3your first cigarette? minutes 231-60 minutes 1Do you find it difficult to abstain from smoking in Yes 1places where it is forbidden No 0Which cigarette would you hate to give up? The first one in the morning 1Any other 0How many cigarettes a day do you smoke? 10 or less 011 – 20 121 – 30 231 or more 3Do you smoke more frequently in the morning Yes 1than in the rest of the day? No 0Do you smoke even though you are sick Yes 1In bed for most of the day? No 0TOTAL:Score:0-2 very low dependence; 3-4 low dependence; 5 medium dependence; 6-7 high dependence; very high dependenceWhen time and resources are limited, nicotine dependence can be assessed using the following two questions as these consistently return higher biochemical indicators of smoking (Heatherton et al 1989; Fagerstrom et al 1990).

25 Time to first cigarette (TTFC)Due to widespread smoking restrictions, many highly dependent smokers may not be able to smoke as many cigarettes per day as they need to get adequate nicotineSmoke fewer cigarettes – but smoke them more ‘thoroughly’ ie: suck harder, deeper, down to filter etc.Wake up extremely nicotine deprived1 question may suffice to determine level of dependence:how soon after waking up do you smoke?First cigarette within or =30 minutes after waking – high dependenceMore than 30 minutes after waking – low dependence

26 Time to first cigarette (TTFC)Wake upTTFCLess than or equal to30 minutes after waking= HIGHDEPENDENCETTFCMore than30 minutes after waking= LOWDEPENDENCE30 minutes(Adapted from presentation by Saul Shiffman)

27 Nicotine WithdrawalUsually worst in the first hours, then decline in intensity gradually over next 2 weeks.Symptoms may include four (or more) of the following within 24 hours of cessation, often causing significant distress :DizzinessCoughingTingling sensations in extremitiesAppetite changesConstipationDecreased heart rateInsomniaCraving for tobaccoDepressed moodIncreased appetite or weight gainIrritability, frustration or angerAnxietyDifficulty in concentratingRestlessnessSPEAKERS NOTES:In addition to craving for tobacco, the DSM-IV states that symptoms of nicotine withdrawal include four (or more) of the following within 24 hours of cessation or reduction of nicotine intake:-depressed mood,insomnia,irritability frustration or anger,anxiety,difficulty in concentrating,restlessness,decreased heart rate,increased appetite or weight gain.(PLEASE NOTE; OTHER COMMON WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS ARE ADDED INTO THE SLIDE ABOVE)These symptoms cause clinically significant distress, are not due to a general medical condition and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder.Some smokers report that smoking helps relieve depression and conversely some smokers become severely depressed after stopping smoking. Neurochemical effects of nicotine, including release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin resemble effects of some antidepressent medications (Degenhardt & Hall 2001).(See Page 10 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

29 Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT)Available in gum, lozenge, patch and inhalerAims to replace the nicotine obtained from cigarettes, reducing withdrawal symptoms when stopping smokingUse of NRT is preferable to smoking, because it does not:contain non-nicotine toxic substances such as carbon monoxide and 'tar'produce dramatic surges in blood nicotine levelsproduce strong dependenceSPEAKERS NOTES:This treatment aims to replace the nicotine obtained from cigarettes, thus reducing withdrawal symptoms when stopping smoking. The principle is similar to the detoxification and treatment of heroin dependence using methadone.Use of NRT (and other approved pharmacotherapy) is preferable to smoking with respect to health consequences because unlike smoking, these medications do not (a) contain non-nicotine toxic substances such as carbon monoxide and 'tar', (b) produce dramatic surges in blood nicotine levels (c) produce strong dependence (Fiore et al 2000).(See Page 11 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

30 Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) (cont.)Odds ratio for abstinence with NRT compared to control is (patch 1.76, gum 1.66, inhaler 2.08)† (4mg lozenge 3.69)*Odds are independent of intensity of additional support provided to smoker or setting in which NRT offeredIn highly dependent smokers there is significant benefit of 4mg gum over 2mg gum (odds ratio 2.67) (NB:lozenge also)Increases quit rates fold, regardless of settingNRT is safe, should be routinely recommended to smokers, product choice depends on practical & personal considerations(†Cochrane review)( * large RCT)SPEAKERS NOTES:NRT is available in Australia as gum, patch and inhaler and lozenge.The Cochrane Review (Silagy et al 2001) states that:· Odds ratio for abstinence with NRT compared to control was 1.73 (patch 1.76, gum 1.66, inhaler 2.08)· These odds were largely independent of the intensity of additional support provided to the smoker or the setting in which the NRT was offered· In highly dependent smokers there is significant benefit of 4mg gum over 2mg gum (odds ration 2.67)· NRT increases quit rates approximately 1.5 to 2 fold regardless of setting.NRT is safe and should be routinely recommended to smokers, the choice of product depending on practical and personal considerations (Raw et al 1999).(PLEASE NOTE EXTRA INFO ADDED INTO SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10)(See Page 11 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

31 Level of nicotine dependence and NRT dosageAs a general rule, smokers who are nicotine dependent will have less intense withdrawal symptoms if provided with an adequate dosage of NRTFor example:The trial for the nicotine lozenge used the ‘TTFC’ (time to first cigarette) measure of dependence to allocate dosage:those who smoke within 30 mins of waking - 4mg lozengethose who wait longer than 30 mins - 2mg lozenge(Note: the lozenge provides 25% more nicotine than the gum as it dissolves completely)(PLEASE NOTE: INFO IN SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10)

32 Nicotine ToxicityRecent quitters using NRT often confuse withdrawal with nicotine toxicityNicotine withdrawal symptoms similar to toxic effects of nicotineExtremely rare in smokers – more likely not enough nicotineRapid tolerance to nicotine (within several cigarettes or few days of smoking) toxicity symptoms would not occur in smokerNRT only provides the body with nicotine levels close to the low ‘trough’ level reached between cigarettes when smokingSPEAKERS NOTES:Nicotine toxicity in smokers is extremely rare. A child first attempting to smoke may experience nausea, dizziness and sweating. Due to rapid tolerance to nicotine (within several cigarettes or a few days of smoking) these symptoms would not occur in a smoker (Benowitz 1998).When using nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), some lay people confuse nicotine withdrawal with nicotine toxicity. Interpretation of symptoms in people who have recently stopped smoking and who are using NRT can be complicated by the emergence of nicotine withdrawal symptoms which can be similar to some of the toxic effects of nicotine.Given that nicotine replacement therapy provides the body with plasma nicotine levels approximating the ‘trough’ achieved by smoking, toxicity from NRT is highly unlikely.(See Page 10 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

34 NRT DosagePlasma nicotine levels significantly lower from NRT than smokingMIMS recommended dosages:Gum: maximum 40 per dayLozenge: maximum 15 per dayPatch: healthy people > 10 cigs/day >45 kgs: one patch daily mg/24 hr or 15mg/16hr cardiovascular disease <10 cigs/day, <45 kgs: one patch daily 14mg/24hr or 10mg/16hrInhaler: Self-titrate dose, according to withdrawal symptoms cartridges/day.SPEAKERS NOTES:Gum (S2) - maximum 40 per dayPatch (S2) - healthy people, > 10 cigs/day, >45 kgs:one patch daily 21mg/24 hr or 15mg/16hr- cardiovascular disease, <10 cigs/day, <45 kgs:one patch daily 14mg/24hr or 10mg/16hrInhaler (S3) - inhale air through cartridge for 20 minutes. Self titrate doseAccording to withdrawal symptoms cartridges/day. (MIMS 2001) A study by Hurt et al found that plasma nicotine levels were significantly lower in subjects using NRT than when they were smoking. This study on serum nicotine and cotinine levels in subjects with severe nicotine dependency during 22mg transdermal nicotine-patch therapy, found that both nicotine and cotinine levels reached steady state on about day 3. Median levels were significantly below that at entry and for day 3 and beyond, the median percentage of entry-level value ranged from 41% to 53% for nicotine and from 46% to 53% for cotinine. No subject had toxic levels or showed signs of nicotine toxicity. The steady-state levels of nicotine and cotinine achieved with a 22mg transdermal patch were much lower than the levels observed when the subjects were smoking prior to initiation of therapy. The study concluded that a fixed dose of transdermal nicotine will not be efficacious for all patients and may lead to underdosing in highly nicotine dependent patients. Underdosing is likely to result in persistent withdrawal symptoms that may make relapse to smoking more likely (Hurt et al 1993).Regular cigarette smoking plateaus at levels of 20 to 35 ng/mL (and 5% to 10% carboxyhemoglobin) (Benowitz 1991). Peak plasma concentrations of nicotine achieved with the transdermal patch typically range from ng/mL. Thus, the daily dose of nicotine and peak blood levels of nicotine are lower than those of a one-pack-per-day smoker. Ad libitum use of nicotine 2mg and 4mg gum results in mean plasma nicotine levels of 11.8 ng/mL and 23.2 ng/mL respectively (McKendree et al 1982). Ad libitum use of the 'Nicorette' Inhaler typically produces nicotine plasma concentrations of 8-10 ng/mL (Pharmacia Aust 2001). The gum and inhaler permit more control over the dose and how quickly it is obtained.The inhaler delivers a quick bolus of nicotine and resembles a cigarette. It may be useful for people who want a substitute for the act of smoking and have particular relevance for mental health/dementia patients.(PLEASE NOTE EXTRA INFO ADDED INTO SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10)(See Page 10 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

35 Directions for use of NRT productsGum: nicotine absorbed through oral mucosa, chew till a peppery/tingling feeling, flatten gum and ‘park’ between gum & cheek, or under tongueLozenge: nicotine absorbed through oral mucosa, move around mouth from time to time and suck until dissolved (takes minutes)Patch: nicotine absorbed through skin, place on clean, non-hairy site on chest or upper arm on waking, place new patch on new site each day to prevent skin reactionInhaler: nicotine absorbed through oral mucosa, inhale air through cartridge for 20 minutesSPEAKERS NOTES:Gum -The gum is effectively a mouth patch and nicotine is absorbed through theoral mucosa. Chew till a peppery/tingling feeling, flatten gum and ‘park’ between the gum and cheek, or under tongue. Chewing the gumcontinuously like ordinary chewing gum will inhibit uptake of nicotine. Thenicotine will flow into the stomach with saliva and lead to feelings of nausea.Patch - Place on clean, non-hairy site on chest or upper arm upon waking. Rotating the patch to a new site each day will prevent skin reaction.Inhaler -Inhale air through cartridge for 20 minutes. Self titrate dose according towithdrawal symptoms cartridges/day.(PLEASE NOTE EXTRA INFO ADDED INTO SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10)(See Page 12 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

36 Bupropion (Zyban)First non-nicotine medication shown effective for cessationBlocks neural re-uptake of dopamine and/or noradrenalineStart one week prior to quit day, limited application for inpatientsAn option for patients after discharge and patients can be referred to their GP to discuss their optionsThe only pharmacotherapy available on PBSContraindications include patients with seizure disorder, current or prior bulimia or anorexia nervosa, use of a MAO inhibitor within the previous 14 daysSPEAKERS NOTES:Bupropion is the first non-nicotine medication shown to be effective for smoking cessation and its mechanism of action is presumed to be mediated by its capacity to block neural re-uptake of dopamine and/or noradrenaline (Fiore 2000).Because Bupropion is initiated approximately one week prior to the quit day, it will have limited practical application for inpatient settings. Patients being admitted for elective surgery and who wish to use hospitalisation as an opportunity to quit may be suitable to have Zyban prescribed at pre-anaesthetic check to start prior to admission.Bupropion may be an option for patients after discharge and patients can be referred to their GP to discuss their options. To date, it is the only pharmacotherapy available on Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme.It is contraindicated in patients with a seizure disorder, a current or prior diagnosis of bulimia or anorexia nervosa, current or use of a MAO inhibitor within the previous 14 days. Precautions include lowered seizure threshold; renal hepatic impairment, bipolar disorder, latent psychosis, concomitant transdermal nicotine, elderly, pregnancy, lactation, children.(See Page 13 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

37 Combination therapyHighly dependent smokers may benefit from combining patch with self- administered form of NRT (lozenge/gum/inhaler)More effective than single form of NRTUse combined treatments if unable to remain abstinent or if still experiencing withdrawal symptoms using single therapyIncreased success depends on the use of two distinct delivery systems: one passive (ie: patch) + one active or ‘at liberty’ (ie: gum/lozenge/inhaler)SPEAKERS NOTES:Combining the nicotine patch with a self-administered form of nicotine replacement therapy (gum/inhaler) may be more efficacious than a single form of nicotine replacement and patients should be encouraged to use combined treatments if they are unable to remain abstinent, or if they are still experiencing withdrawal symptoms using a single type of pharmacotherapy. It appears that the increased success depends on the use of two distinct delivery systems: one passive and one ad libitum (Fiore 2000).(PLEASE NOTE EXTRA INFO ADDED INTO SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10) (See Page 12 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

40 Is NRT suitable for cardiovascular patients?No evidence of increased cardiovascular risk with NRTNRT delivers plasma nicotine concentrations below those produced by smoking and does not expose the smoker to carbon monoxide or other harmful substancesClinical trials of NRT in patients with underlying, stable coronary disease suggest that nicotine does not increase cardiovascular riskThe health risks of using NRT to assist such patients to stop, or significantly reduce, smoking far outweigh any treatment-related risksSPEAKERS NOTES:Despite early concerns regarding the safety of nicotine replacement therapy in smokers with heart disease, it is now clear that the health risks of using NRT to assist such patients to stop, or significantly reduce, smoking far outweigh any treatment-related risks (Balfour et al 2000). NRT is contraindicated in patients with acute MI, unstable angina, severe arrhythmias and recent CVA (MIMS 2001). There has been debate about the adverse affects of NRT on cardiac patients. Several studies have shown good tolerance to NRT (patches and gum) in patients with CAD. Trials have shown no change in angina frequency, overall cardiac symptoms, nocturnal cardiac events or ECG, despite some patients continuing to smoke (Working Group for the study of transdermal nicotine in patients with coronary artery disease 1994). In a randomised controlled double blind placebo trial (n=584 outpatients with at least one cardiac diagnosis), it was found that at least one primary end point (ie death, MI, cardiac arrest, admission to hospital with increased angina symptoms, arrhy7thmia or congestive heart failure) was reached by 5.4% of the active patch group compared to 7.9% in the placebo group (not significant, P=0.37). After 14 weeks of treatment, abstinence was 21% in the active patch group compared to 9% in the placebo group (p=0.001). They concluded that transdermal nicotine does not cause a significant increase in cardiovascular events in high risk outpatient cardiac patients (Joseph et al 1996).(See Page 15 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

41 Is NRT safe for pregnant or lactating women?NRT should be considered when a pregnant woman is otherwise unable to quitPotential benefits of quitting outweigh the risks of the NRT & potential continued smokingNRT less harmful than smoking during pregnancy - lower total nicotine dose and no exposure to carbon monoxide & other toxic substancesNRT clearly beneficial to highly dependent smokers, more at risk of adverse reproductive outcome & less likely to quit when pregnantSPEAKERS NOTES:Pharmacotherapy should be considered when a pregnant woman is otherwise unable to quit, and when the likelihood of quitting, with its potential benefits, outweighs the risks of the pharmacotherapy and potential continued smoking (Fiore et al 2000). Benowitz states that NRT is likely to be less harmful than smoking during pregnancy because of a lower total nicotine dose and absence of exposure to carbon monoxide and other toxic substances. He concluded that the benefits of NRT substantially outweigh the risks of smoking or the risks of nicotine replacement per se, for pregnant smokers, but suggests that NRT only be offered to pregnant smokers if they cannot stop without it.NRT is clearly beneficial to more highly dependent smokers as it is these who are more at risk for adverse reproductive outcome and who are less likely to stop smoking when becoming pregnant. (Benowitz 1991).(See Page 16 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

42 Is NRT safe for pregnant or lactating women? (cont.)A maternal 10% blood carboxyhemoglobin level (40 cigs per day) can cause % higher carboxyhemoglobin level in the foetus than in the mother (= 60% reduction in foetal blood flow)If clinician and patient decide to use NRT, consider forms that yield intermittent nicotine (lozenge/inhaler/gum) rather than continuous drug exposure (patch) due to potential neurotoxicity in the foetus of continuous exposure to nicotine A pregnant smoker should receive encouragement and assistance in quitting throughout her pregnancySPEAKERS NOTES: If the clinician and pregnant or lactating patient decide to use NRT, clinicians should consider choosing delivery systems that yield intermittent, rather than continuous drug exposure (ie inhaler/gum) due to potential neurotoxicity in the foetus of continuous exposure to nicotine (Fiore et al 2000, Benowitz 1991). “A maternal 10% blood carboxyhemoglobin level, which can be observed in a two-pack-per-day cigarette smoker, can be associated with a 10% to 15% higher carboxyhemoglobin level in the foetus than in the mother. This has been equated to a 60% reduction in foetal blood flow” (Benowitz 1991). A pregnant smoker should receive encouragement and assistance in quitting throughout her pregnancy. The high rate of post-partum relapse may be decreased by continued emphasis on the relationship between maternal smoking and poor health outcomes in infants and children. The nicotine inhaler is not contraindicated for lactating women.(See Page 16 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

43 Is pharmacotherapy safe for patients with psychiatric comorbidity?Always in patients’ best interests to quit smokingTobacco use is associated with affective disorders and depressive symptomsDepression decreases likelihood that abstinence will be successful and depressed mood is a common symptom of nicotine withdrawalAntidepressants may aid abstinence in those with symptoms of depressionPossible that smoking increases risk of depression perhaps by affecting neuro-transmitter systemsSPEAKERS NOTES: The finding that tobacco use is associated with affective disorders and depressive symptoms has potentially important clinical implications. Depression decreases the likelihood that attempts at abstinence will be successful and depressed mood is a common symptom of nicotine withdrawal. Antidepressants may therefore aid abstinence in persons who have symptoms of depression (Degenhardt & Hall 2001). It is also possible that smoking increases the risk of depression perhaps by affecting neurontransmitter systems (Jorm 1999).PLEASE NOTE: Important to remember that this evidence only applies to affective disorders and depression, not necessarily to other psychiatric conditions(See Pages 5 & 16 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

44 Is pharmacotherapy safe for patients with psychiatric comorbidityIs pharmacotherapy safe for patients with psychiatric comorbidity? (cont)Patients with a history of major depression who quit may be 7 times more likely to have a recurrence of major depression than people who continue to smoke Current smokers have higher rates of anxiety disorders & may find it more difficult to remain abstinent. Evidence suggests that anxiolytics are not effective smoking cessation aids Quitting may affect the pharmacokinetics of psychiatric medications (eg anti-psychotic medications)Monitor actions or side effects of psychiatric medications in smokers attempting abstinenceMental health patients demonstrate a preference for nicotine inhaler over the transdermal patchSPEAKERS NOTES: A recent follow-up study of 76 participants with a history of major depression (excluding bipolar disorders) who stopped smoking found they were seven times more likely to have a recurrence of major depression than people who continued to smoke. Risk of depression did not generally arise immediately after cessation but was distributed across the entire study period of six months (Glassman et al 2001). The National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing found that current smokers also have higher rates of anxiety disorders and, as with depression, anxious persons may find it more difficult to remain abstinent. Evidence suggests that anxiolytics are not effective smoking cessation aids (Degenhardt & Hall 2001). Current smokers were significantly more likely to screen positively for psychosis and this finding is in accord with the high rates of tobacco smoking observed in clinical samples of persons with psychotic illness, particularly schizophrenia. Studies indicate that 70% or more of schizophrenia patients smoke (Jorm 1999). It has been suggested that nicotine may be used to self-medicate some psychotic symptoms and evidence suggests that persons with psychosis smoke more heavily and use higher tar cigarettes. Although psychiatric comorbidity places smokers at increased risk for relapse, such smokers can be helped by smoking cessation treatments. Stopping smoking may affect the pharmacokinetics of certain psychiatric medications (e.g. anti-psychotic medications), therefore clinicians may wish to monitor closely the actions or side effects of psychiatric medications in smokers attempting abstinence (Fiore et al 2000). A recent study of 55 patients hospitalised in a smoke-free ward demonstrated a definite preference for the nicotine inhaler over the transdermal patch (D’Mello et al 2001).(See Page 16 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

45 Is NRT safe for adolescents?Young people can become addicted to tobacco very quicklyNRT provides lower dose of nicotine than smoking, no carbon monoxide and other toxinsWhile there are no LEGAL restrictions, the info on the NRT pack states: ‘Do not use if you are under 18 years of age’ – a condition of registration of product by Commonwealth When treating adolescents, clinicians may consider pharmacotherapy when there is evidence of nicotine dependenceFactors such as: degree of dependence, number of cigarettes per day and body weight should be considered Prescription guidelines from pharmaceutical companies recommend 21 mg patch if >45 kilos, 14 mg patch if <45 kilosSPEAKERS NOTES: Young people can become addicted to tobacco very quickly.When treating adolescents, clinicians may consider pharmacotherapy when there is evidence of nicotine dependence. Factors such as degree of dependence, number of cigarettes per day and body weight should be considered (Fiore et al 2000).Prescription guidelines from pharmaceutical companies recommend 21 mg patch if >45 kilos, 14 mg patch if < 45 kilos.(See Page 17 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

46 How long should NRT be used for?Clinicians advising clients in smoking cessation should tailor the dosage and duration of therapy to fit the needs of patientsPatch - 8 weeks of continuous use has been shown to be as effective as longer treatment periods (no need to taper)**Gum – generally should be used for up to 12 weeks**Inhaler – up to 6 months, tapering off during final 3 months**Lozenge –trial suggests 24 weeks of treatment using same product in diminishing doses (however, similar period of use to gum likely to be effective due to similar absorption method)(**Fiore et al, 2000)

47 What is best to prevent weight gain?Smokers weigh on average 4 kg less than non-smokers**When smoker stops, gains average of 2.3kg in next year***Brings quitters up to similar weights to sex & age matched never- smokersOf great concern to some smokers, especially women and adolescents, can act as motivator to start or continue smoking NRT (particularly gum & lozenge) & bupropion delay, but don't prevent post-cessation weight gainAdvise that health risks of moderate weight gain are small compared to risks of continued smoking - concentrate on cessation till confident will not return to smokingRecommend regular exercise program & healthy eating to control weightSPEAKERS NOTES: The body weight of smokers is on average 4 kg lower than that of nonsmokers (Benowitz 1998). When a smoker stops, s/he typically gains weight (gaining an average of 2.3kg) in the subsequent year to approximately the level of those who have never smoked. This is of great concern to some smokers, especially women and adolescents, and can act as a motivator to start or continue smoking. NRT (in particular gum) and bupropion delay, but don't prevent post-cessation weight gain (Fiore et al 2000). · Advise that the health risks of moderate weight gain are small compared to the risks of continued smoking;· Advise patients to concentrate on cessation until they are confident they will not return to smoking· Recommend a regular exercise program and healthy eating to control weight. **reference for differential weight of smokers and non-smokers: Benowitz, NL. Nicotine Safety and Toxicity. Oxford University Press*** reference for average weight gained by quitters: US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation. A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Maryland: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. DHHS Publication No (CDC) , 1990.(PLEASE NOTE EXTRA INFO ADDED INTO SLIDE ABOVE RE LOZENGE FROM: Shiffman et al (2002) Efficacy of Nicotine Lozenge for Smoking Cessation. Arch Intern Med Vol 162, June 10)(See Page 17 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

49 Brief InterventionThe World Health Organisation encourages provision of brief opportunistic interventions delivered by all health professionals in the course of their routine workThe purpose of brief intervention for smoking cessation is to increase motivation to quitSame technique can be used during provision of information for management of dependence while hospitalisedHospitalisation is a time when the adverse consequences of smoking are highlighted for the individual – a window of opportunity for a ‘teachable moment’SPEAKERS NOTES: The purpose of brief intervention for smoking cessation is to increase motivation to quit (US Dept of Health and Human Services 2000). The World Health Organisation encourages provision of brief opportunistic interventions delivered by all health professionals in the course of their routine work and proposes that involvement in offering smokers help be based on factors such as access to smokers rather than professional discipline (World Health Organisation 2001). Hospitalisation is a time when the adverse consequences of smoking may be especially highlighted for the individual (Emmons 1992) and it can provide the window of opportunity for a ‘teachable moment’ (Lewis 1998).(See Page 7 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

50 Brief Intervention (cont.)Brief advice (approx 3 minutes) by doctors, nurses and other health care workers is effectiveMore intensive interventions only marginally increase the efficacy of brief advicePersonalised, non-critical feedback that helps them understand the impact of smoking on their healthMotivational interventions most likely to succeed when clinician is empathetic, promotes patient autonomy, encourages self- efficacy & identifies previous successes in behaviour change effortsSPEAKERS NOTES:The Cochrane Review (Silagy 2001) concludes that brief advice by doctors, nurses and other health care workers is effective and that more intensive interventions only marginally increase the efficacy of brief advice. Overall the efficacy is low (2.5%), but because of wide reach this approach has the potential to influence smoking prevalence in whole populations. Patients will respond most favourably to personalised, non-critical information and feedback that help them understand the impact of smoking on their health. Motivational interventions are most likely to succeed when the clinician is empathetic, promotes patient autonomy (e.g. supports patient’s choices), avoids arguments and encourages patient self-efficacy by identifying previous successes in behaviour change efforts (Fiore et al 2000).(See Page 7 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

52 Discharge and referralEvery patient identified as a smoker should be assessed prior to discharge to determine their interest in quitting80% of smokers have made past attempts to quit, 50% of male & female current smokers plan to quit in next 6 months (NSW Health Surveys)Patients planning to quit should receive:at least 3 days’ supply of NRTtreatment summary in discharge plana ‘Quit Kit’advice to seek support from GP/pharmacist/QuitlinePatients not planning to quit should be encouraged to make a future quit attemptSPEAKERS NOTES:Every patient identified as a smoker should be assessed prior to discharge to determine interest in quitting.In Australia around 80% of smokers have made attempts to quit (Borland & Hill 1990). The 1994 Health Promotion Survey found that 43% of smokers had made at least one quit attempt in the previous twelve months and figures from the 1998 NSW Health Survey indicated that around 50% of male and female current smokers were planning on quitting in the next six months (NSW Health 1999).(See Page 14 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

53 Quit planFor those patients ready to quit, a few key points can increase their chance of success: Set a date to stop and stop completely on that dayUse pharmacotherapy (whichever product suits best)Review past periods of abstinence (what helped -what hindered?)Identify future problems and make a plan to deal with them (problem-solving)Enlist support (family, friends, colleagues) Avoid alcohol for first 2 weeksReduce caffeine consumption by half (more caffeine is absorbed)SPEAKERS NOTES:For those patients ready to quit, a few key points can increase their chance of success. · set a date to stop and stop completely on that day;· use pharmacotherapy (whichever product suits best);· review past periods of abstinence to determine what helped and what hindered;· identify future problems and make a plan to deal with them (problem- solving);· enlist support (family, friends, colleagues) (Fiore et al 2000).· avoid alcohol· reduce caffeine consumptionPatients with depressed mood and a history of problem drinking are more likely to be nicotine dependent. Assessment of treatment alcohol dependence may be necessary prior to a quit attempt.Because of the high correlation between use of alcohol and relapse to smoking (Garvey 1992), it is recommended that alcohol be avoided, especially for the first two weeks of a cessation attempt. Continuous caffeine consumption with smoking cessation has been associated with more than doubled caffeine plasma levels (Swanson 1997). It is therefore recommended that caffeine consumption be reduced during a cessation attempt. An antidepressant used in the presence of a depression history may need to be continued for at least three months and suitable follow up with General Practitioner organised. (See Page 14 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

54 RelapseAny smoking within the first 2 weeks is a reliable predictor of failure in the quit attempt (95% probability of returning to smoking)Other predictors include:short periods of abstinence in previous quit attemptslow motivation to quitlow confidence in ability to quitsmokers in subject's environmenthigh pre-cessation alcohol consumptionCommon triggers for relapse include:other people smokingalcoholstressful or negative eventsdepressionSPEAKERS NOTES:In Garvey's study of relapse across one year of follow-up of 235 adults attempting to quit unaided, approximately 62% had returned to smoking within 2 weeks and almost 80% had relapsed at 3 months. Those who smoked any cigarettes at all in the post-cessation period had a 95% probability of resuming their regular pattern of smoking. Predictors of relapse include: short periods of abstinence in previous quit attempts, low motivation to quit, low confidence in ability to quit, greater proportion of smokers in subject's environment and higher pre-cessation alcohol consumption. Common triggers for relapse include other people smoking, alcohol, stressful or negative events and depression (Garvey 1992).Cannabis use would also predict relapse given the common practice of mixing marijuana with tobacco (Burns et al 2000).(See Page 14 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)

55 Prevention of relapse Relapse prevention should include:discussion of high-risk situationsdeveloping coping strategies (e.g. using pharmacotherapy, reducing alcohol consumption)reinforcing total abstinence (but relapse is not failure, continue quit attempt)most people make several quit attempts before successMany smokers cannot stop without more intensive help – (often heavier smokers more at risk of smoking related disease)refer to specialist treatment service, such as AHS D&A Services, their GP or the Quitline for telephone counsellingoutpatient clinics should be advised of hospital treatmentSPEAKERS NOTES:Relapse prevention should include discussion of high-risk situations and developing coping strategies (e.g. using pharmacotherapy, reducing alcohol consumption) and reinforcing total abstinence. Any smoking within the first 2 weeks is a reliable predictor of failure in the quit attemptTotal abstinence during a quit attempt is a must - ie: not even a ‘puff’Most relapse occurs within the first 3 months after quittingAnticipate your own ‘triggers’ ahead of timethere is no such thing as a ‘failed’ quit attempteach time you quit, you learn more about yourself and what quitting is like for youyou can use this experience and put it to good use the next time you trymost people have several quit attempts before they are eventually successful and become long-term non-smokersmost importantly - Never stop trying to stop!Many smokers cannot stop without more intensive help and these will usually be heavier smokers who are more at risk of smoking related disease. These people should be referred to a specialist treatment service, such as Area Health Drug and Alcohol Services, their General Practitioner or the Quitline for telephone counselling. Outpatient clinics also need to be advised of hospital treatment.(See Page 14 of ‘Guide for the management of nicotine dependent inpatients’)