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2 Credits and permissions appear on page 421, which is a continuation of this copyright page. Front Cover: John Constable s design (painting) for his view of Salisbury Cathedral, the design of Elias de Dereham and Nicholas of Ely. Geoffrey Clements/ CORBIS. All rights reserved. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. The publisher offers excellent discounts on this book when ordered in quantity for bulk purchases or special sales, which may include electronic versions and/or custom covers and content particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, and branding interests. For more information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales (800) For sales outside the United States, please contact: International Sales Visit us on the Web: informit.com/aw Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brooks, Frederick P. (Frederick Phillips) The design of design : essays from a computer scientist / Frederick P. Brooks, Jr. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Engineering design. 2. Software engineering. 3. Design Case studies. I. Title. TA174.B '.0042 dc Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, write to: Pearson Education, Inc. Rights and Contracts Department 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900 Boston, MA Fax: (617) ISBN-13: ISBN-10: Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at Courier in Stoughton, Massachusetts. First printing, March 2010

3 Preface I write to prod designers and design project managers into thinking hard about the process of designing things, especially complex systems. The viewpoint is that of an engineer, focused on utility and effectiveness but also on efficiency and elegance. 1 Who Should Read This Book? In The Mythical Man-Month I aimed at professional programmers, professional managers, and especially professional managers of programmers. I argued the necessity, difficulty, and methods of achieving conceptual integrity when software is built by teams. This book widens the scope considerably and adds lessons from 35 more years. Design experiences convince me that there are constants across design processes in a diverse range of design domains. Hence the target readers are: 1. Designers of many kinds. Systematic design excluding intuition yields pedestrian follow-ons and knock-offs; intuitive design without system yields flawed fancies. How to weld intuition and systematic approach? How to grow as a designer? How to function in a design team? Whereas I aim for relevance to many domains, I expect an audience weighted toward computer software and hardware designers to whom I am best positioned to speak concretely. Thus some of my examples in these areas will involve technical detail. Others should feel comfortable skipping them. 2. Design project managers. To avoid disaster, the project manager must blend both theory and lessons from hands-on experience as he designs his design process, rather than just replicating ix

4 x Preface some oversimplified academic model, or jury-rigging a process without reference to either theory or the experience of others. 3. Design researchers. The study of design processes has matured; good, but not all good. Published studies increasingly address narrower and narrower topics, and the large issues are less often discussed. The desire for rigor and for a science of design perhaps discourages publication of anything other than scientific studies. I challenge design thinkers and researchers to address again the larger questions, even when social science methodology is of little help. I trust they will also challenge the generality of my observations and the validity of my opinions. I hope to serve their discipline by bringing some of their results to practitioners. Why Another Book on Design? Making things is a joy immensely satisfying. J. R. R. Tolkien suggests that God gave us the gift of subcreation, as a gift, just for our joy. 2 After all, The cattle on a thousand hills are mine. If I were hungry, I would not tell you. 3 Designing per se is fun. The design process is not well understood either psychologically or practically. This is not for lack of study. Many designers have reflected on their own processes. One motivation for study is the wide gaps, in every design discipline, between best practice and average practice, and between average practice and semi-competent practice. Much of design cost, often as much as a third, is rework, the correction of mistakes. Mediocre design provably wastes the world s resources, corrupts the environment, affects international competitiveness. Design is important; teaching design is important. So, it was reasoned, systematizing the design process would raise the level of average practice, and it has. German mechanical engineering designers were apparently the first to undertake this program. 4 The study of the design process was immensely stimulated by the coming of computers and then of artificial intelligence. The initial hope, long delayed in realization and I think impossible,

5 What Kind of Book? xi was that AI techniques could not only take over much of the drudgery of routine design but even produce brilliant designs lying outside the domains usually explored by humans. 5 A discipline of design studies arose, with dedicated conferences, journals, and many studies. With so much careful study and systematic treatment already done, why another book? First, the design process has evolved very rapidly since World War II, and the set of changes has rarely been discussed. Team design is increasingly the norm for complex artifacts. Teams are often geographically dispersed. Designers are increasingly divorced from both use and implementation typically they no longer can build with their own hands the things they design. All kinds of designs are now captured in computer models instead of drawings. Formal design processes are increasingly taught, and they are often mandated by employers. Second, much mystery remains. The gaps in our understanding become evident when we try to teach students how to design well. Nigel Cross, a pioneer in design research, traces four stages in the evolution of design process studies: 1. Prescription of an ideal design process 2. Description of the intrinsic nature of design problems 3. Observation of the reality of design activity 4. Reflection on the fundamental concepts of design 6 I have designed in five media across six decades: computer architecture, software, houses, books, and organizations. In each I have had some roles as principal designer and some roles as collaborator in a team. 7 I have long been interested in the design process; my 1956 dissertation was The analytic design of automatic data processing systems. 8 Perhaps now is the time for mature reflection. What Kind of Book? I am struck by how alike these processes have been! The mental processes, the human interactions, the iterations, the constraints,

6 xii Preface the labor all have a great similarity. These essays reflect on what seems to be the underlying invariant process. Whereas computer architecture and software architecture each have short histories and modest reflections about their design processes, building architecture and mechanical design have long and honorable traditions. In these fields design theories and design theorists abound. I am a professional designer in those fields that have had only modest reflection, and an amateur designer in some long and deep fields. So I shall attempt to extract some lessons from the older design theories and to apply them to computers and software. I believe a science of design to be an impossible and indeed misleading goal. This liberating skepticism gives license to speak from intuition and experience including the experience of other designers who have graciously shared their insights with me. 9 Thus I offer neither a text nor a monograph with a coherent argument, but a few opinionated essays. Even though I have tried to furnish helpful references and notes that explore intriguing side alleys, I recommend that one read each essay through, ignoring the notes and references, and then perhaps go back and explore the byways. So I have sequestered them at the end of each chapter. Some case studies provide concrete examples to which the essays can refer. These are chosen not because of their importance, but because they sketch some of the experience base from which I conclude and opine. I have favored especially those about the functional design of houses designers in any medium can relate to them. I have done functional (detailed floor plan, lighting, electrical, and plumbing) design for three house projects as principal architect. Comparing and contrasting that process with the process of designing complex computer hardware and software has helped me postulate essentials of the design process, so I use these as some of my cases, describing those processes in some detail. In retrospect, many of the case studies have a striking common attribute: the boldest design decisions, whoever made them, have accounted for a high fraction of the goodness of the outcome. These bold decisions were made due sometimes to vision, sometimes to

7 Acknowledgments xiii desperation. They were always gambles, requiring extra investment in hopes of getting a much better result. Acknowledgments I have borrowed my title from a work of a generation ago by Gordon Glegg, an ingenious mechanical designer, a charming person, and a spellbinding Cambridge lecturer. It was my privilege to lunch with him in 1975 and to catch some of his passion for design. His title perfectly captures what I am attempting, so I reuse it with gratitude and respect. 10 I appreciate the encouragement of Ivan Sutherland, who in 1997 suggested that I grow a lecture into a book and who more than a decade later sharply critiqued the draft, to its great improvement. My resulting intellectual journey has been very rewarding. This work has been possible only because of three research leaves granted by UNC-Chapel Hill and my department chairmen, Stephen Weiss and Jan Prins. I was most graciously welcomed by Peter Robinson at Cambridge, Mel Slater at University College London, their department chairmen, and their colleagues. The NSF Computer and Information Science and Engineering Directorate s Science of Design program, initiated by Assistant Director Peter A. Freeman, provided a most helpful grant for the completion of this book and the preparation of the associated Web site. That funding has enabled me to interview many designers and to concentrate my principal efforts for the past few years on these essays. I am deeply indebted to the many real designers who have shared their insights with me. An acknowledgments table listing interviewees and referees is an end piece. Several books have been especially informative and influential; I list them in Chapter 28, Recommended Reading. My wife, Nancy, co-designer of some of the work herein, has been a constant source of support and encouragement, as have my children, Kenneth P. Brooks, Roger E. Brooks, and Barbara B. La Dine. Roger did an exceptional review of the manuscript, providing dozens of suggestions per chapter, from concepts to commas.

8 xiv Preface I ve been blessed by strong administrative support at UNC from Timothy Quigg, Whitney Vaughan, Darlene Freedman, Audrey Rabelais, and David Lines. Peter Gordon, Publishing Partner at Addison-Wesley, has provided unusual encouragement. Julie Nahil, Full-Service Production Manager at Addison-Wesley, and Barbara Wood, Copy Editor, have provided exceptional professional skills and patience. John H. Van Vleck, Nobel-laureate physicist, was Dean of Harvard s Division of Engineering and Applied Science when I was a graduate student there, in Aiken s lab. Van Vleck was very concerned that the practice of engineering be put on a firmer scientific basis. He led a vigorous shift of American engineering education away from design toward applied science. The pendulum swung too far; reaction set in; and the teaching of design has been contentious ever since. I am grateful that three of my Harvard teachers never lost sight of the importance of design and taught it: Philippe E. Le Corbeiller, Harry R. Mimno, and Howard H. Aiken, my adviser. Thanks and praise to The Great Designer, who graciously grants us the means, the daily sustaining, and the joys of subcreation. Chapel Hill, NC November 2009 Endnotes 1. The caption for the book cover is based on Smethurst [1967], The Pictorial History of Salisbury Cathedral, who adds, Salisbury is thus the only English cathedral, except St. Paul s, of which the whole interior structure was built to the design of one man [or one two-person team] and completed without a break. 2. Tolkien [1964], On Fairy Stories, in Tree and Leaf, Psalm 50:10,12. Emphasis added. 4. Pahl and Beitz [1984], in Section 1.2.2, trace this history, starting in Their own book, Konstructionslehre, through seven editions, is perhaps the most important systematization. I distinguish study of the design process from rules for design in any particular medium. These are millennia older.

9 Acknowledgments xv 5. The major monograph, tremendously influential, was Herbert Simon s The Sciences of the Artificial [1969, 1981, 1996]. 6. Cross [1983], Developments in Design Methodology, x. 7. A table of the specific design experiences is included in the appendix materials on the Web site: 8. Brooks [1956], The analytic design of automatic data processing systems, PhD dissertation, Harvard University. 9. I thus do not contribute to the design methodologists goal as stated in (accessed on January 5, 2010): The challenge is to transform individual experiences, frameworks and perspectives into a shared, understandable, and, most importantly, a transmittable area of knowledge. Victor Margolin states three reasons why this will prove difficult, [one of which is]: Individual explorations of design discourse focus too much on individual narratives, leading to personal point-of-view rather than a critical mass of shared values. To this I must plead, Guilty as charged. 10. Glegg [1969], The Design of Design.

10 6 Collaboration in Design A meeting is a refuge from the dreariness of labor and the loneliness of thought. Bernard Baruch, in Risen [1970], A theory on meetings Menn s Sunniberg Bridge, 1998 Christian Menn, ETH Zürich, ChristianMennPartners AG 63

11 64 6. Collaboration in Design Is Collaboration Good Per Se? Two big changes in design have taken place since 1900: Design is now done mostly by teams, rather than individuals. Design teams now often collaborate by using telecommunications, rather than by being collocated. As a consequence of these big shifts, the design community is abuzz with hot topics: Telecollaboration Virtual teams of designers Virtual design studios All of these are enabled by telephony, networking, computers, graphic displays, and videoconferencing. If we are to understand telecollaboration, we must first understand the role of collaboration in modern professional design. It is generally assumed that collaboration is, in and of itself, a good thing. Plays well with others is high praise from kindergarten onward. All of us are smarter than any of us. The more participation in design, the better. Now, these attractive propositions are far from self-evident. I will argue that they surely are not universally true. Most great works of the human mind have been made by one mind, or two working closely. This is true of most of the great engineering feats of the 19th and early 20th centuries. But now, team design has become the modern standard, for good reasons. The danger is the loss of conceptual integrity in the product, a very grave loss indeed. So the challenge is how to achieve conceptual integrity while doing team design, and at the same time to achieve the very real benefits of collaboration. Team Design as the Modern Standard Team design is standard for modern products, both those massproduced and one-offs such as buildings or software. This is indeed a big change since the nineteenth century. We know the

12 Team Design as the Modern Standard 65 names of the leading 18th- and 19th-century engineering designers: Cartwright, Watt, Stephenson, Brunel, Edison, Ford, the Wright Brothers. Consider, on the other hand, the Nautilus nuclear submarine (Figure 6-1). We know Rickover as the champion, the Will who made it happen, but which of us can name the chief designer? It is the product of a skilled team. Consider great designers, and think of their works: Homer, Dante, Shakespeare Bach, Mozart, Gilbert and Sullivan Brunelleschi, Michelangelo Leonardo, Rembrandt, Velázquez Phidias, Rodin Most great works have been made by one mind. The exceptions have been made by two minds. And two is indeed a magic number for collaborations; marriage was a brilliant invention and has a lot to be said for it. Figure 6-1 The Nautilus nuclear submarine U.S. Navy Arctic Submarine Laboratory/Wikimedia Commons

13 66 6. Collaboration in Design Why Has Engineering Design Shifted from Solo to Teams? Technological Sophistication. The most obvious driver toward team design is the increasing sophistication of every aspect of engineering. Contrast the first iron bridge (Figure 6-2) with its splendid descendant (chapter frontispiece). The first had to be wrought very conservatively, that is, heavily and wastefully, even though elegantly. Both the properties of the iron and the distribution of static and dynamic stresses were understood imperfectly (though remarkably well!). Menn s bridge, on the other hand, soars incredibly but confidently, the fruit of years of analysis and modeling. I am impressed that there are no naive technologies left in modern practice. It was my privilege to tour Unilever s research laboratory at Port Sunlight, Merseyside, UK. I was astonished to find a PhD applied mathematician doing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) on a supercomputer, so as to get the mixing of shampoo right! He explained that the shampoo is a three-layer emulsion of aqueous and oily components, and mixing without tearing is crucial. Figure 6-2 Pritchard and Darby s Iron Bridge, 1779 (Shropshire, UK) istockphoto

14 Team Design as the Modern Standard 67 The designers of a John Deere cotton-picking machine used CFD to structure the airflow carrying the cotton bolls. A modern farmer spends not only hours on the tractor, but also hours on the computer, matching fertilizer, protective chemicals, seed variety, soil analysis, and crop rotation history. 2 The master cook at Sara Lee adjusts the cake recipe continually to match the chemical properties of the flour coming in; the boss in the paper mill similarly adjusts for the varying pulpwood properties. Mastering explosive sophistication in any branch of engineering forces specialization. When I went to graduate school in 1953, one could keep up with all of computer science. There were two annual conferences and two quarterly journals. My whole intellectual life has been one of throwing passionate subfield interests overboard as they have exploded beyond my ability to follow them: mathematical linguistics, databases, operating systems, scientific computing, software engineering, even computer architecture my first love. This sort of splintering has happened in all the creative sciences, so the designer of today s state-of-the-art artifact needs help from masters of various crafts. The explosion in the need for detailed know-how of many technologies has been partially offset by the stunning explosion in the ready availability of such detailed know-how in documents, in skilled people, in analysis software, and in search engines that find the documents and plausible candidates for collaborators. Hurry to Market. A second major force driving design to teams is hurry to get a new design, a new product, to market. A rule of thumb is that the first to market a new kind of product can reasonably expect a long-run market share of 40 percent, with the remainder split among multiple smaller competitors. Moreover, the pioneer can harvest a profit bubble while the competition builds up. In the biggest wins, the pioneer continues to dominate. These realities press design schedules hard. Team design becomes a necessity when it can accelerate delivery of a new product in a competitive environment. 3 Why is this competitive time pressure more intense than before? Global communications and global markets mean that any great idea anywhere propagates more quickly now.

15 68 6. Collaboration in Design Costs of Collaboration Many hands make light work Often But many hands make more work Always We all know the first adage. And it is true for tasks that are partitionable. The burden on each worker is lighter, hence the time to completion is shorter. But no design tasks are perfectly partitionable, and few are highly partitionable. 4 So collaboration brings extra costs. Partitioning Cost. Partitioning a design task is itself an added task. The crisp and precise definition of the interfaces between subtasks is a lot of work, slighted at peril. As the design proceeds, the interfaces will need continually to be interpreted, no matter how precisely delineated. There will be gaps. There will be inconsistencies in definition and conflicts in interpretation; these must be reconciled. To simplify manufacture, there must be standardization of common elements across all the components; some commonality of design style must be established. And then the separate pieces must be integrated the ultimate test of interface consistency. It is not just in shipyards where the reality of integration is Cut to plan; bang to fit. 5 Learning/Teaching Cost. If n people collaborate on a design, each must come up to speed on the goals, desiderata, constraints, utility function. The group must share a common vision of all of these things of what is to be designed. To a first approximation, if a one-person design job consists of two parts learning l and designing d the total work when the job is shared out n ways is no longer work= l + d but now at least work= n l + d Moreover, someone with the vision and knowledge must do the teaching, hence will not be designing. One hopes that the efficiencies of specialization will buy back some of these costs. Communication Cost during Design. During the design process, the collaborating designers must be sure their pieces will fit together. This requires structured communication among them.

16 The Challenge Is Conceptual Integrity! 69 Change Control. A mechanism for change control must be put into place so that each designer makes only those changes that (1) affect only his part or (2) have been negotiated with the designers of the affected parts. Since much of the cost of design is indeed change and rework, the cost of change control is substantial. The cost of not having formal change control is much greater. 6 The Challenge Is Conceptual Integrity! Much of what we consider elegance in a design is the integrity, the consistency of its concepts. Consider Wren s masterpiece, St. Paul s Cathedral (Figure 6-3). Figure 6-3 Wren s St. Paul s Cathedral istockphoto

17 70 6. Collaboration in Design Such design coherence in a tool not only delights, it also yields ease of learning and ease of use. The tool does what one expects it to do. I argued in The Mythical Man-Month that conceptual integrity is the most important consideration in system design. 7 Sometimes this virtue is called coherence, sometimes consistency, sometimes uniformity of style. Blaauw and I have elsewhere discussed conceptual integrity at some length, identifying as component principles orthogonality, propriety, and generality. 8 The solo designer or artist usually produces works with this integrity subconsciously; he tends to make each microdecision the same way each time he encounters it (barring strong reasons). If he fails to produce such integrity, we consider the work flawed, not great. Many great engineering designs are still today principally the work of one mind, or two. Consider Menn s bridges. 9 Consider the computers of Seymour Cray. The genius of his designs flowed from his total personal mastery over the whole design, ranging from architecture to circuits, packaging, and cooling, and his consequent freedom in making trades across all design domains. 10 He took the time to do designs he could master, even though he used and supervised a team. Cray exerted a powerful counterforce against those corporate and external pressures that would have steered his own attention away from design to other matters. He repeatedly took his design team away from the laboratories created by his earlier successes, considering solitude more valuable than interaction. He was proud of having developed the CDC 6600 with a team of 35, including the janitor. 11 One sees this pattern physical isolation, small teams, intense concentration, and leadership by one mind repeated again and again in the design of truly innovative, as opposed to follow-on, products: for example, the Spitfire team under Joe Mitchell, off at Hursley House, a stately home in Hampshire, UK; Lockheed s Skunk Works under Kelly Johnson, from which the U-2 spy plane and F-117 stealth fighter came; IBM s closed laboratory in Boca Raton, Florida, home of IBM s successful effort to catch up with Apple on the PC. Dissent Not everyone agrees with the thesis I have been arguing. Some argue the social justice of participatory design that it is right

18 How to Get Conceptual Integrity with Team Design? 71 for users to have a significant role in the design of objects for their use. 12 Whereas this participation is feasible (and prudent as well as fair) for buildings, user participation in the design of mass-market products is inherently limited to a small sample of prospective users. Such a voice must be conditioned by the representativeness of the sampling, and the vision of the designer. Others argue that my facts are wrong, that team design has in fact always been the norm. 13 The reader will have to judge for himself. How to Get Conceptual Integrity with Team Design? Any product so big, so technically complex, or so urgent as to require the design effort of many minds must nevertheless be conceptually coherent to the single mind of the user. 14 Whereas such coherence is usually a natural consequence of solo design, achieving it in collaborative design is a management feat, requiring a great deal of attention. So, how does one organize design efforts to achieve conceptual integrity? Modern Design as an Interdisciplinary Negotiation? Many (mostly academic) writers conclude from the high degree of today s specialization that the nature of design has changed: design today must be done as an interdisciplinary negotiation (among the team). The clear implication, though not explicit, is that the team members are peers, and each must be satisfied. NO! If conceptual integrity is the final goal, negotiation among peers is the classic recipe for bloated products! The result is design by committee, where none dare say No to another s suggestion. 15 A System Architect The most important single way to ensure conceptual integrity in a team design is to empower a single system architect. This person must be competent in the relevant technologies, of course. He must be experienced in the sort of system being designed. Most of all, he must have a clear vision of and for the system and must really care about its conceptual integrity.

19 72 6. Collaboration in Design The architect serves during the entire design process as the agent, approver, and advocate for the user, as well as for all the other stakeholders. The real user is often not the purchaser. This is evidently true with military acquisitions, where the purchaser (and even the specifier) is far removed from the user. Indeed, the same system may have multiple users, wielding it at strategic, battalion, and personal levels. The purchaser is represented at the design table by marketers. The engineers are represented. The manufacturers are represented. Only the architect represents the users. And, for complex systems as well as for simple residences, it is the architect who must bring professional technology mastery to bear for the users overall, long-run interest. The role is challenging. 16 I have discussed it in considerable detail in Chapters 4 7 of The Mythical Man-Month. One User-Interface Designer A major system will require not only a chief architect, but indeed an architectural team. So the conceptual-integrity challenge recurses. Even architecture work must be partitioned, controlled, and hence reintegrated. Here again, conceptual integrity requires special effort. The user interface, the user s crucial system component, must be tightly controlled by one mind. In some teams, the chief architect can do this detailed work. Consider MacDraw and MacPaint, early Mac tools that were in fact built by their designers. In large architecture teams, the chief architect s scope is too large for him to do the interface himself. Nevertheless, one person must do it. If one architect can t master it, one user can t either. At Google, for example, one vice president, Marissa Mayer, maintains personal control over the page format and the home page. 17 Such an interface designer not only needs lots of using experience and listening skills, he above all needs taste. I once asked Kenneth Iverson, Turing Award winner and inventor of the APL programming language, Why is APL so easy to use? His answer spoke volumes: It does what you expect it to do. APL epitomizes consistency, illustrating in detail orthogonality, propriety, and generality. It also epitomizes parsimony, providing many functions with few concepts.

20 When Collaboration Helps 73 I once was engaged to review the architecture of a very ambitious new computer family, the Future Series (FS) intended by IBM s developers to be a successor to the S/360 family. The architectural team was brilliant, experienced, and inventive. I listened with delight as the grand vision unfolded. So many fine ideas! For an hour, one of the architects explained the powerful addressing and indexing facilities. Another hour, another architect set forth the instruction sequencing, looping, branching capabilities. Another described the rich operations set, including powerful new operators for data structures. Another told of the comprehensive I/O system. Finally, swamped, I asked, Can you please let me talk to the architect who understands it all, so I can get an overview? There isn t one. No one person understands it all. I knew then that the project was doomed the system would collapse of its own weight. Being handed the 800-page user manual confirmed in my mind the system s fate. How could any user master such a programming interface? 18 When Collaboration Helps In some aspects of design the very plurality of designers per se adds value. Determining Needs and Desiderata from Stakeholders If deciding what to design is the hardest part of the design task, is this a part where collaboration helps? Indeed so! A small team is much better than an individual at studying either an unmet need or an existing system to be replaced. Typically, several minds think of many different questions and kinds of questions. Many questions mean many unexpected answers. The collaborating team must ensure that each member gets full opportunity to explore his trains of inquisitiveness. Establishing Objectives. Under any design process, the designer begins by conversing with the several stakeholders. These conversations are about the objectives and constraints for the design. The hard task is to flush out the implicit objectives and constraints, the ones the stakeholders don t even recognize

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