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How to Systematically Measure and Monitor
Violence Against Women (VAW)
Background Paper
Expert Workshop on VAW вЂ“ Disabling Development
25-26 March 2010
Domaine de Penthes
Geneva, Switzerland
Acknowledgements
This paper was prepared by Elisabeth Gilgen and Jasna Lazarevic from the Geneva
Declaration (GD) Secretariat. Ms. Gilgen and Ms. Lazarevic work as associate
researchers at the Small Arms Survey, a Geneva-based research institute that
hosts the GD Secretariat. This paper is based on technical notes written by Henrica
A.F.M. (Henriette) Jansen (Independent consultant on Violence against Women
research) and Claudia Garcia Moreno (WHO). Substantive inputs were provided by
Tiina Luige (UNECE).
Introduction
The Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development (GD) represents a
high-level diplomatic initiative designed to support states and civil society actors to
achieve measurable reductions in the global burden of armed violence and
improvements in human security by 2015 (and beyond). The GD was signed in June
2006 and is now supported by 108 states1. The signatory states highlight that the
changing nature of armed violence over recent decades has blurred the line
between armed conflict and crime, and between politically and economically
motivated violence. As such, the concept of armed violence encompasses a wide
spectrum of conflict, post-conflict, crime-related, and interpersonal forms of
violence.
In its 2008 Global Burden of Armed Violence (GBAV)2 report, the GD Secretariat
estimates that more than 740,000 men, women, and children die each year as a
result of armed violence. The majority of these violent deathsвЂ”an estimated
490,000вЂ”occur in non conflict settings. For every person killed, there are many
more non-fatal injuries due to armed violence, with significant long-term costs,
which increase the global burden of armed violence.
In order to design effective prevention and reduction strategies against all forms of
armed violence, the GD calls upon states to invest in gathering clear evidence of
armed violence and its underlying risk factors. Moreover, the GD notes that by
setting clear and unambiguous benchmarks and targets, the outcomes of specific
initiatives can be compared across countries, cities and communities. The need for
clear evidence has been repeated by the UN Secretary-General in his recent report
on the relationship between armed violence and development where he calls for the
вЂ�improvement of the effectiveness of armed violence prevention and reduction
policies and programmes through investments in the production, analysis and use
of evidence.вЂ™3
Today, the problem of armed violence is recognized as a serious obstacle to
development and to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Armed violence can trigger forced displacement, erode social capital, and destroy
infrastructure. It can impede investment in reconstruction and reconciliation and
can undermine public institutions, facilitate corruption, and foster a climate of
impunity. Armed violence contributes to and is sustained by transnational crime,
including the trafficking of persons, drugs, and arms. When associated with
interpersonal and gender-based violence it unravels the fabric of families and
1
2
3
See http://www.genevadeclaration.org/the-geneva-declaration/who-signed-it.html
GD Secretariat (2008).
UNSG (2009).
1
communities and leaves lasting psychological and physical scars on survivors.
Violence against women (VAW), and in particular sexual and intimate-partner
violence, does not necessarily involve the use of weapons. However, even when
weapons are not used directly, VAW is often linkedвЂ”either psychologically or socioeconomicallyвЂ”to the indirect effects of armed violence.4
Armed violence is highly gendered in both its causes and consequences. Across all
affected societies, young males are the most common perpetrators, as well as
immediate victims, of armed attacks. Women, on the other hand, suffer
disproportionally from sexual and intimate-partner violence. The potential risk of
sexual violence, abuse and exploitation of women increases dramatically during
armed conflicts.5
The human suffering of women affected by VAW is tremendous and the socioeconomic impacts vast and far-reaching. In addition to being a serious human
rights issue, VAW affects womenвЂ™s sexual and reproductive health and the health of
their children and families, and exerts a considerable economic burden on families
and often already stressed state systems and social spending.6 VAW undermines
development and if violence against women is not comprehensively addressed the
achievement of several of the MDGsвЂ”not only MDG 3 on gender equalityвЂ”will be
jeopardized.7
Gathering and monitoring indicators of armed violence is politically sensitive and
institutionally and practically challenging. Attempts to track global and regional
trends of armed violence are routinely hampered by a lack of vital registration data,
but also under-reporting and under-recording. In December 2009, the GD
Secretariat and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) launched an
initiative that addresses those challenges and sets out a roadmap to establishing a
cross-national monitoring system on armed violence based on a core set of goals,
targets and indicators on armed violence reduction.8 The development of
appropriate indicators and the establishment of cross-national data on VAW is an
even more challenging task.
As part of its mandate to support the achievement of measurable reduction of the
global burden of armed violence in conflict and non-conflict settings, the GD
Secretariat invites a group of experts to a workshop on VAW to discuss how to
4
GD Secretariat (2008).
The International Rescue Committee and its partners have registered 40,000 cases of
gender-based violence between 2003 and 2006 in DRC, which they say is just the tip of the
iceberg. See Bastick, Grimm and Kunz (2007, p.41).
6
Day, McKenna and Bowlus (2005).
7
See WHO (2005) and Ellsberg (2006)
8
http://www.genevadeclaration.org/measurability/indicators-of-armed-violence.html
5
2
develop a research agenda that contributes to systematically measuring and
monitoring VAW cross-nationally and that supports programming efforts that
prevent and reduce VAW. This paper sets out the framework of the workshop. The
first section focuses on existing initiatives to develop indicators on VAW вЂ“ including
the description of a set of nine core indicators proposed by the UN Statistical
Commission Friends of the Chair (FoC) group on Statistical Indicators on Violence
against Women. It then looks at existing data-gathering systems and describes a
survey module that has been developed to address the above-mentioned core
indicators. In the concluding section, the paper addresses the challenges of
gathering data on VAW and formulates questions to be be discussed during the
workshop.
Indicators of VAW
Indicators summarize complex data into a form that is meaningful for policymakers
and the public. In general, indicators need to be reliable (easy to measure and
interpret), representative, comparable, and based on easily available data. They
should enable comparison of trends over time, both within and between countries.
Benchmarks attributed to indicators help organize data into a form that contributes
to the evaluation of policies and monitoring of progress in achieving goals. Ideally
indicators are collected at regular intervals (5 вЂ“ 10 years, for example) and provide
information on whether a situation has improved, worsened or remained constant.
Indicators to measure VAW could be used to create awareness, guide legislative
and policy reforms, ensure adequate provision of targeted and effective services,
monitor trends and progress in addressing and eliminating VAW, and assess the
impact of measures taken. The literature provides a number of different ways to
classify indicators in general, including those on VAW. A commonly used
classification, also used in monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of VAW programme
implementation9, is the division of outcome, process and impact indicators:
1) Outcome indicators: In programme M&E they would show whether or not a
programme target has been reached. Indicators to measure the scope,
incidence and prevalence on VAW are outcome indicators. Examples of these
are: the incidence of rape of women aged 15-49 in the past year by people
other than intimate partners; the proportion of women aged 15 years and
older who experienced physical abuse by an intimate partner at any time in
their life; the proportion of women aged 18-24 who were married before age
18.
9
Bloom (2008).
3
2) Process indicators: indicators to measure the effectiveness of steps taken to
address VAW. In programme M&E they would demonstrate how well a
programme has been implemented, with a focus on implementation and
coverage. Examples of these are: the proportion of health units that
adopted a protocol for clinical management of rape survivors; the number of
service providers trained in counseling and referring rape survivors; the
proportion of prosecuted VAW cases that resulted in a conviction.
3) Impact indicators: in the context of programme M&E they attempt to
measure how much of the observed change in outcome indicators can be
attributed to the programme. These have to be measured through
evaluations that are complex and have specialist design requirements.
The 2007 report of the UN Special Rapporteur on VAW, its causes and
consequences10 proposes additional вЂ�structuralвЂ™ (or institutional) indicators covering
State responses. Structural indicators address measures of state response, in
particular those reflecting the ratification/adoption of legal instruments.
Outcome indicators dominate when analyzing VAW, particularly studies on the
prevalence of different forms of VAW. Little attention has been paid to monitor
trends in intimate partner femicide and the indicators for reducing risk factors for
violence. The analysis of attitudes towards VAW on the other hand, has been
included in many questionnaires.
In October 2007, a UN Expert Group Meeting (EGM) on Indicators to Measure
Violence against Women was organized by the Division for the Advancement of
Women (UNDAW), the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the United
Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). The meeting report provided a detailed overview
of current initiatives and indicators used by various states, the options and
recommendations for developing indicators to measure VAW.11
In February 2008, the Friends of the Chair (FoC)12 group was established by the
Statistical Commission at its thirty-ninth session (decision 39/116) to develop the
indicators and other methodological standards for implementation in national
10
UN Human Rights Council (2008)
UNDAW, UNECE, UNSD (2007).
12
The FoC consists of representatives of the following member States: Botswana, Bulgaria,
Canada, Chile, Ghana, Italy, Mexico (the Chair) and Thailand, with the United Nations
Statistics Division acting as secretariat of the group. In addition, the following international
bodies agreed to act as observers: the Division for the Advancement of Women, the
Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the Secretariat, the Special Rapporteur on
violence against women, its causes and consequences, the United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime, the Economic Commission for Europe, the Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and
the World Health Organization.
11
4
statistical systems. The FoC based their deliberations on the 2007 EGM as well as
the February 2008 report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its
causes and consequences.13 In February 2009 the FoC submitted a report to the UN
Statistical Commission at its 40th session that proposed an interim set of six
statistical indicators as a вЂ�starting point for initiating further work on identifying the
most appropriate measurements.вЂ™14 During a December 2009 meeting, the FoC
expanded the list of indicators and included psychological and economic violence by
intimate partners and female genital mutilation. The current core set of nine
indicators is as follows:
1) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to physical violence in the
last 12 months by severity of violence, relationship to the perpetrator(s) and
frequency.
2) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to physical violence during
lifetime by severity of violence, relationship to the perpetrator(s) and
frequency.
3) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to sexual violence in the last
12 months by severity of violence, relationship to the perpetrator(s) and
frequency.
4) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to sexual violence during
lifetime by severity of violence, relationship to the perpetrator(s) and
frequency.
5) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to sexual or physical
violence by current or former intimate partner in the last 12 months by
frequency.
6) Total and age-specific rate of women subjected to sexual or physical
violence by current or former intimate partner during lifetime by frequency.
7) Total and age specific rate of women subjected to psychological violence in
the past 12 months by the intimate partner.
8) Total and age specific rate of women subjected to economic violence in the
past 12 months by the intimate partner.
9) Total and age specific rate of women subjected to female genital mutilation.
At this stage, all the indicators proposed are outcome indicators and no consensus
about an indicator on early marriage has yet been found.15 The FoC continues to
discuss a set of core and additional statistical indicators on VAW and are working on
developing international guidelines for conducting statistical surveys on violence
against women. The first phase is expected to be finalized by submitting the final
draft of the Guidelines for Producing Statistics on Violence against Women, together
13
UNGA (2008).
UN Statistical Commission (2008)
15
UN Statistical Commission (2009).
14
5
with the report from the December 2009 meeting,16 which presents the required
sets of indicators, to the United Nations Statistical Commission in February 2011.
There are plans to extend the work beyond the first phase, ultimately until 2015, to
undertake work related to collecting data on VAW from administrative and civil
society records, and possibly including some indicators based on data from these
sources in the core set (e.g. femicide).
Parallel to the work conducted by the FoC, there are a number of initiatives that
specifically develop indicators or data collection methodologies on VAW.
The UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict (UN Action)17 aims to end sexual
violence in conflict settings. It is a concerted effort by the UN System to improve
coordination and accountability, amplify programming and advocacy, and support
national efforts to prevent sexual violence and respond effectively to the needs of
survivors. While the importance of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict
settings is recognised as a serious security, health and social problem, so is the
research and data gathering in such a context difficult given security and logistics
concerns. The UN Action is working to respond to these difficulties through a variety
of channels. First, on 18 вЂ“ 19 December 2008, WHO organized a meeting on behalf
of UN Action in collaboration with UNICEF and UNFPA on вЂ�Sexual Violence in
Conflict: Data and Data Collection MethodologiesвЂ™. Second, UNICEF is leading a
group to develop proposals to better monitor and report the UNвЂ™s response. Finally,
UNHCR, UNFPA and IRC have developed the Gender-based violence information
management system (GBVIMS) for improving the collection and analysis of servicebased data on reported cases.
The Sexual Violence Research Initiative (SVRI), an initiative of the Global Forum for
Health Research, together with WHO, are developing a research agenda which
builds on the issues identified at the 2009 SVRI Forum held in Johannesburg, South
Africa, in July 2009.18
On 26 June 2008, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) organized a conference on Identifying Research Priorities to Inform
More Effective Interventions against sexual violence in armed conflict.19
16
UN Statistical Commission (2009).
17
UN Action consists of 12 UN entities (DPA, DPKO, OCHA, OHCHR, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA,
UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WFP, and WHO). For more information see:
http://stoprapenow.org
18
See http://svriforum2009.svri.org/
19
It focused on understanding the motivations behind sexual violence in armed conflict,
including the nature, scope and motivation for sexual violence against men and boys:
http://ochaonline.un.org/AboutOCHA/GenderEquality/tabid/1188/Default.aspx
6
Finally, in September 2009, the UN Security Council unanimously adopted
Resolution 1888 on Women, Peace and Security, which recognizes the links
between sexual violence and sustainable peace and security, and recommends to
the Secretary-General to ensure systematic reporting on trends, emerging patterns
of attack and early warning indicators of violence against women in conflict
settings.20
Challenges to capturing and interpreting indicators are manifold. Armed conflict
settings and other humanitarian situations complicate data collection because of
insecurity, lack of services and marginalization of the victims.
Data on VAW
Over the last decade there has been an enormous increase in the interest in VAW
and its measurementвЂ”an area that traditionally was the domain of researchers and
activists working on VAWвЂ”by donors, UN agencies and governments around the
world;.
The increased recognition of the problem, the interest and political pressure for
(periodic) measurement of VAW indicators at national and regional levels, and the
easy availability of existing instruments to measure violence are positive advances,
but also pose some challenges.
Initiatives to collect data on VAW must be accompanied with relevant capacity
building,21 including ethical and safety standards for collecting, measuring or
researching VAW. The safety of the interviewee as much as of the interviewers
should not be jeopardized at any moment. Ethical and safety standards and
challenges are a non-negotiable element of any data collection effort and therefore
represent an important challenge. If data collection is not done properly and ethical
and safety standards are not respected, women can be put at risk and the reliability
of the data gathered compromised.22
20
See UNSC (2009)
Jansen et al. (2004).
22
Measuring VAW through surveys raises important ethical challenges. The WHO has
developed guidelines that lay out some of the key principles that should guide research on
domestic violence, such as ensuring absolute privacy when doing the interview and
maintaining absolute confidentiality of information provided by respondents. It gives
examples of safe ways to name the survey and to explain the content to the community
without revealing the topic of interest (which will only be explained when the interviewer is
alone with the respondent). It also describes how a high refusal rate and consequently a low
21
7
International data collection initiatives on VAW include the WHO multi-country
study on womenвЂ™s health and domestic violence, and the international violence
against women Survey (IVAWS). These are both multi-country studies that have
been ongoing for at least a decade and have advanced methodologies for
comparative, cross-country measuring of VAW.
Several surveys assessing the status of women have developed special modules on
sexual and intimate-partner violence and there is increasing political will to monitor
more systematically incidences of sexual and intimate-partner violence
systematically. The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS)23 conducted by
UNICEF assumes a high correlation between attitudes and incidents and asks about
attitudes to domestic violence. The Demographic and Health Survey (DHS)24
questions the incidence of domestic violence and attitudes towards it, and also
includes a Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) module for countries that want to
measure this. Currently, in both surveys these are optional modules not asked in all
countries. The International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS)25 also includes questions
on sexual incidents, such as rape, threats, and other sexual assaults.
Following the adoption of the six interim indicators, the UNSDвЂ”acting as the
Secretariat of the FoCвЂ”undertook a methodological overview of surveys on violence
against women conducted in recent years. This was designed to evaluate whether
these surveys were able to provide statistics as requested by the interim set of
indicators and to guide the further work of the FoC in developing more specific
recommendations. The inventory of 59 surveys by the FoC showed that most
surveys collected and estimated only a subset of the interim indicators, and to date
no existing survey was fully measuring or calculating the estimates according to the
entire interim set of the 6 core indicators. Statistics for only one indicatorвЂ”
prevalence of physical violence during lifetime, by relationship to the perpetratorвЂ”
were generated by over 80% of the total number of surveys, and in most cases this
was only for partners, not for non-partners. Data for all other indicators were
generated by a fewer number of surveys. Only few surveys generated information
on the frequency of all types of VAW.26
At the December 2009 meeting, the FoC stressed the need to ensure that statistical
data collection for which administrative and civil society records (such as crime
prevalence estimate could potentially be used to question the importance of VAW as a
legitimate area of concern. WHO (2001)
23
http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24302.html
24
http://www.measuredhs.com/
25
http://rechten.uvt.nl/ICVS/
26
For the full overview of these surveys on violence against women see UN Statistical
Commission (2009)
8
statistics) are a source are adjusted to provide source data for gender statistics in
general and violence against women in particular.27
The United Nations General Assembly has also urged States to ensure the
systematic collection and analysis of data to monitor all forms of VAW.28
Additionally, one of the five key outcomes of the United Nations SecretaryGeneralвЂ™s Campaign вЂњUNiTE to End Violence against WomenвЂќ is the establishment of
a data collection system for data on VAW in all countries by 2015.29
UNECE was assigned by the UNSD to develop a survey module to collect data on
the six above mentioned core indicators.30 The module fully addresses the six
interim indicators, but also collects data on psychological abuse and вЂ“ to a more
limited extent вЂ“ on economic violence by partner on the understanding that more
methodological work is needed on these indicators and that they may not be used
in the same way in all countries. The UNECE survey module has been conceived to
enable countries to collect a minimum set of information to measure the VAW
indicators through other appropriate surveys such as the one described above. It
can be used as a part of another appropriate survey, or as a core module of a
dedicated survey on VAW.
As the next step, UNECE envisages testing the survey module in ten countries,
preferably involving all five UN geographical regions. The focus of testing will be on
the effectiveness of a module for collecting data on VAW and on the associated
procedures, such as interviewer training. Depending on the sample size used in the
test setting, some countries might attempt to generate statistics for the core
indicators.
Conclusion
The establishment of the MDGs has boosted the support to build up cross-national
databases that systematically measure and monitor trends in social, economic,
humanitarian or development policies. The statistical offices in many countries
make publicly available and national statistical information often includes
information on armed violence on a local and national level. Still, national
surveillance and data gathering capacity on VAW remains rare. In addition to
enormous social, cultural and economic pressures not to report sexual or intimate
27
UN Statistical Commission (2009)
UNGA (2009)
See UNSG (2008).
28
29
30
The UNECE module and accompanying materials are downloadable from:
http://www1.unece.org/stat/platform/display/VAW/Measuring+violence+against+women
9
partner violence, VAW is often not considered as a crime. Victims are often
discouraged to report domestic and intimate partner violence when there are
weaknesses in the state judicial system and a general feeling exists of impunity of
perpetrators.
Local officials often do not have sufficient information about the scale of VAW in
their communities. In such circumstances, it is difficult to design effective evidencebased programmes and policies to prevent VAW and improve the safety of women.
Additional work needs to support the development of unified methods and
standards for data collection on all forms of VAW that are under documented. More
methodological work is needed to establish content, boundaries and
operationalization of the core indicators identified by FoC on VAW, as well as future
additional indicators on all forms of VAW, to make them applicable cross-nationally
and cross-culturally.
In order to promote evidence-based programming, efforts must also be undertaken
to develop and improve data on the type of lethal or non-lethal instruments that
are used, on the perpetrators involved, and on the underlying risk factors that
shape VAW. Last but not least, questions need to be asked about expanding the
focus in the future to include gender-based violence against men.
The Expert Workshop on VAW aims to address those challenges. It will bring
together over 30 participants from governments, academia, international agencies
and NGOs with expertise in statistics, quantitative and qualitative research and
concrete programming. The participants will look at ways to use research and
evidence for programming purposes. The aim of the workshop will be to discuss
how to foster a systematic global, regional and national measuring and monitoring
system on VAW that supports programming efforts to prevent and reduce VAW and
to enhance development perspectives.
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