Deborah Salonhttp://www.c2es.org/_taxonomy/term/225/0
enTransportation in Developing Countries: An Overview of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategieshttp://www.c2es.org/publications/transportation-developing-countries-overview-greenhouse-gas-reduction-strategies
<p><strong><img alt="Download Report" border="1" height="193" src="/docUploads/images/transportation_overview_cov.gif" width="150" /></strong></p><p><strong>Transportation in Developing Countries: An Overview of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies</strong><br /><br />Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change<br />May 2002<br /><br /><em>By:<br />Daniel Sperling and&nbsp;Deborah Salon,</em> University of California, Davis</p><p><a href="/press-center/press-releases/two-new-pew-center-reports-focus-transportation-sector-solutions">Press Release</a></p><p><a href="/docUploads/transportation_overview.pdf">Download Entire Report (pdf)</a></p><h2>Foreword</h2><p><em><strong>Eileen Claussen, President, Pew Center on Global Climate Change</strong></em><br /><br />This report focuses on transportation in developing countries, where economic and social development not climate change mitigation are the top priorities. Yet decisions on infrastructure, vehicle and fuel technologies, and transportation mode mix are being made now that will significantly affect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for decades. The key is to identify strategies that address high-priority local issues while also reducing GHGs. There are many such options but no one-size-fits-all approach. Thus building the capacity of local institutions is especially critical.<br /><br />Vehicle ownership rates in developing nations are low compared to wealthy ones, but lead to far worse traffic congestion and air pollution. Motorization is skyrocketing and populations increasing, stretching limited infrastructure and institutional capacity. Despite these challenges, there are many opportunities for improvement. Some have worked in the past; others could leapfrog over some of the costly and environmentally damaging paths taken by developed countries.<br /><br />This overview is part of a five-report series on transportation in developing countries and draws on the four other reports on specific cities and countries. The case studies were researched and co-authored with experts from Chile, China, India, and South Africa, and estimated high and low projections of transportation emissions in 2020 compared to 2000. The case studies key findings include:</p><ul><li>Rapid growth in transportation GHG emissions is unavoidable in most developing countries. The 2020 low emission scenarios in the four case studies showed only one decrease 12 percent in South Africa&nbsp;and up to a quadrupling in Shanghai, China. The high scenarios ranged from an 82 percent increase in South Africa to a sevenfold increase in Shanghai.<br />&nbsp;</li><li><strong>Delhi, India.</strong>&nbsp;Delhi demonstrates that personal mobility can be achieved at relatively low incomes but at a high economic, environmental, and social cost. With an average income of $800 per capita, Delhi has 200 motor vehicles (mostly motorbikes) per thousand people while Chile has an average income of $5,000 and only 100 motor vehicles per thousand (mostly cars). Delhis promotion of more efficient vehicle engines will go a long way in restraining emissions.<br />&nbsp;</li><li><strong>Shanghai, China.</strong>&nbsp;After years of deferred investment, Shanghai invested billions in its transportation infrastructure in the 1990s, balancing investments in roads and transit, integrating transportation and land use planning, and restraining vehicle ownership. But rapid economic growth, planned decentralization of this very dense city, and auto industry promotion will accelerate increases in motorization, energy use, and GHGs. Intelligent transportation systems and leapfrog technologies such as roads built for minicars are among Shanghai's options to restrain its emissions.<br />&nbsp;</li><li><strong>Chile.</strong>&nbsp;Chile is one of the world's most sophisticated at transferring transportation infrastructure and services provision to the private sector and could pioneer market-based approaches to transportation and environmental challenges. Examples include the sale of operating concessions, implementing vehicle fees during rush hour travel, and adjusting parking fees according to trip purpose and length of stay.<br />&nbsp;</li><li><strong>South Africa.</strong>&nbsp;South Africa has very high per capita vehicle ownership and GHG emissions for its income due to reliance on carbon-intensive synthetic fuels, protected vehicle manufacturing, subsidies for company cars, and land use patterns that are a legacy of the country's past apartheid policies.<br />&nbsp;</li></ul><p>The Clean Development Mechanism could be used to finance climate-friendly improvements such as switching to less carbon-intensive feedstock in synthetic fuel production. The Pew Center gratefully acknowledges Ralph Gakenheimer of MIT and Michael Walsh, an independent transportation expert, for their reviews of earlier drafts.</p><h2>Executive Summary</h2><p>Worldwide, greenhouse gas emissions are rising faster in transportation than in any other sector. Rapid motorization&nbsp;- more cars and trucks&nbsp;- is the principal cause. This report focuses on the challenges faced by developing countries in accommodating and managing motorization and the demand for improved transportation.<br /><br />Enhanced mobility has many positive effects on economic development and social welfare, including more efficient movement of goods and improved access to jobs, health services, and education. However, if enhanced mobility is achieved primarily through increased reliance on conventional private cars, it can mean diverting substantial financial resources to roads and suffering worse air pollution and traffic congestion. The benefits are enormous, but the costs can also be substantial. These positives and negatives are accentuated in the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Most are experiencing rapid population growth and urbanization, and many have fast-growing economies. The number of private vehicles is increasing in almost all developing countries.<br /><br />The challenges posed by motorization are unprecedented for these countries. When the more developed countries were building their transportation infrastructure, their populations were small compared to those in much of today's developing world, and the cost of motorized vehicles was relatively high. Today's megacities of the developing world are already huge and still expanding. There is little time or money to build public transportation systems or to expand roads to handle the new traffic. They are already experiencing serious congestion, economic and environmental damage, and major safety problems. Yet the problems are not uniform; each city and country faces different circumstances.<br /><br />This report provides a broad characterization of transportation in developing countries, identifying common challenges and opportunities for policymakers, and suggesting policy options that aim to slow the growth of greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector. The most important observations of this report are the following:</p><ul><li>Rapid motorization&nbsp;- and rapid growth in transportation-related greenhouse gas emissions&nbsp;- are unavoidable in most developing nations. Most developing countries today have low per capita transportation emissions, largely because few people have access to personal transportation. Rapid motorization is transforming transportation and accelerating increases in greenhouse gas emissions.<br />&nbsp;</li><li>The relationship between car ownership and income is not fixed. While it is true that income is the primary force of motorization&nbsp;- explaining perhaps half the growth in vehicle ownership&nbsp;- there is much variation in vehicle ownership among cities and countries at similar income levels.<br />&nbsp;</li><li>Once people have personal vehicles, they use them even if alternative transportation modes are available. This is because the variable cost of operating a vehicle is relatively low compared to the fixed cost of purchasing one.<br />&nbsp;</li><li>There are many sensible policies and strategies that would slow the growth of transportation sector greenhouse gas emissions. Key strategies include increasing the relative cost of using conventional private cars and enhancing the quality and choices of alternative transportation modes.<br />&nbsp;</li><li>Many of the strategies for slowing and eventually reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation have local as well as global benefits. Local benefits include reduced air pollution, less traffic congestion, and lower expenditures for road infrastructure.<br />&nbsp;</li></ul><p>This report explores strategic paths and alternative futures that could break the link between economic and greenhouse gas emission growth in developing countries. Successful efforts underway in some developing countries&nbsp;- examples of which are highlighted in some of the case study reports that contributed to this overview&nbsp;- demonstrate that developing countries can forge a more sustainable transportation future. Is there a single city that can be looked to as a model for others? This report suggests that the answer is no. There are cities and countries that have embraced innovative and effective strategies, but none represents a universally applicable model or pathway.<br /><br />Energy use and carbon emissions around the globe are increasing faster in transportation than in any other sector, and transportation emissions are increasing fastest of all in developing countries. This report does not suggest that developing nations should adopt entirely different transportation systems than currently operate in more developed countries. There is no perfect solution or leapfrog technology at hand. The reality is that most transportation modes and technologies are already being used internationally. The fundamental desire for personal transportation, and for greater mobility at lower cost, is universal. It is neither realistic nor fair to ask those in the developing world to deprive themselves of the things they need and want, from meeting their basic transportation needs to having access to cars.<br /><br />Instead, this report suggests that developing countries can choose a more sustainable growth path. They can learn from the experiences of industrialized countries in crafting integrated land use and transportation plans, encouraging more efficient forms of vehicle ownership and use, and accelerating the introduction of environmentally sensible vehicle technologies and fuels. Indeed, as a 1996 U.S. National Academy of Sciences report concluded, greater reliance on nonpolluting modes of transportation in developing-country cities, coupled with the strong integration of residential and economic activities, suggests those cities may be in a position to avoid some of the most costly mistakes of transportation investment in the industrialized countries.1<br /><br />However, the economies and populations of many of these cities are growing at unprecedented rates and personal vehicles are often available to people with very low incomes. Policy and investment decisions with far-reaching implications must be made quickly, or the consequences could be catastrophic economically, environmentally, and socially. But even with the greatest sophistication and best managers, the choices are not obvious. Simply replicating the choices of other cities in most cases would be ineffective. The elements of a successful transportation strategy are likely to vary greatly depending on local circumstances and institutional strengths and weaknesses.<br /><br />Without new measures, greenhouse gas emissions from transportation in the developing world will exceed those in the industrialized world sometime after 2010. While the need to limit greenhouse gas emissions may not be a driving force for developing countries in the foreseeable future, many of the strategies that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions would also address the more immediate problems of local air pollution, access to basic transportation, and infrastructure financing pressures. This report focuses on strategies and policies that not only slow the growth of greenhouse gas emissions, but also help achieve local priorities. &nbsp;</p><div><h2>About the Author</h2><p><strong>Dr. Daniel Sperling</strong><br /><br />Daniel Sperling is Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and Policy, founding Director of the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS-Davis) at the University of California, Davis, and co-director of UC Davis's Fuel Cell Vehicle Center and New Mobility Center.<br /><br />Dr. Sperling is Associate Editor of Transportation Research D (Environment), founding chair of the Alternative Transportation Fuels Committee (1989-96) of the U.S. Transportation Research Board, a recent member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences committees on Personal Transport in China (2000-02), and serves on other advisory committees and Boards of Directors for similar organizations. Recognized as a leading international expert on transportation technology assessment, energy and environmental aspects of transportation, and transportation policy, he consults for international automotive and energy companies, major environmental groups, and several national governments. He has testified numerous times to the U.S. Congress and various government agencies.<br /><br />Dr. Sperling earned his Ph.D. in Transportation Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley (with minors in Economics and Energy Resources). During 1999-2000, he was a visiting scholar at the OECD (European Conference of Ministers of Transport). He has won numerous awards, and worked as an urban planner in the Peace Corps in Honduras.</p></div><p>&nbsp;</p><div class="og_rss_groups"></div>Energy & TechnologyInternationalDaniel SperlingDeborah SalonSat, 11 May 2002 16:26:41 +0000965 at http://www.c2es.orgTransportation in Developing Countries: Greenhouse Gas Scenarios for Shanghai, Chinahttp://www.c2es.org/publications/transportation-developing-countries-greenhouse-gas-scenarios-shanghai-china
<p><strong><img alt="Download Report" border="1" height="194" src="/docUploads/images/transportation_shanghai_cover.gif" width="150" /></strong></p><p><strong><em>Transportation in Developing Countries: Greenhouse Gas Scenarios for Shanghai, China</em></strong><br /><br />Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change<br />July 2001<br /><br />By:<br /><em>Hongchang Zhou, Tongji University, Shanghai<br />Daniel Sperling, Mark Delucchi, and Deborah Salon, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis</em></p><p><a href="/press-center/press-releases/reports-highlight-opportunities-curb-growth-transport-sector-emissions">Press Release</a></p><p><a href="/docUploads/transportation_shanghai.pdf">Download Entire Report (pdf)</a></p><h2>Foreword</h2><p><em><strong>Eileen Claussen, President, Pew Center on Global Climate Change</strong></em></p><p>The transportation sector is a leading source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide, and one of the most difficult to control. In developing countries, where vehicle ownership rates are considerably below the OECD average, transport sector emissions are poised to soar as income levels rise. This is especially true for China, whose imminent accession to the World Trade Organization will contribute to economic growth and could make consumer credit widely available for the first time. These factors are likely to accelerate automobile purchases, and GHG emissions.<br /><br />Shanghai is one of China's most dynamic cities. Extremely densely populated, with very low personal vehicle ownership rates for its income level, Shanghai is also home to a nascent Chinese automotive industry. Transportation plans and policies there are designed to achieve broader urban objectives of population decentralization, with an eye to controlling increases in traffic congestion and improving environmental quality. Because Shanghai's transportation system and planning process are so sophisticated, Shanghai may be a 'best case' for controlling transportation sector GHG emissions in the absence of climate change mitigation goals.<br /><br />This report creates two scenarios of GHG emissions from Shanghais transportation sector in 2020. It finds:</p><ul><li>Greenhouse gas emissions quadruple in the low-GHG scenario; they increase sevenfold in the high scenario. On a passenger-kilometer basis, the estimated increase ranges from 10 to 100 percent.</li><li>Providing an array of high-quality options to travelers can help meet the demand for transportation services while keeping traffic congestion in check and meeting other urban objectives.</li><li>Special lanes and other infrastructure to accommodate vehicles such as buses, minicars, and bicycles can save money and improve traffic circulation.</li><li>Using clean technology and fuels in motorized vehicles lowers the environmental impact of various transportation modes.</li><li>Perfecting the use of 'intelligent' traffic control systems through improved coordination will yield higher returns on capital investments.</li></ul><p><em>Transportation in Developing Countries: Greenhouse Gas Scenarios for Shanghai, China</em>&nbsp;is the second report in a series examining transportation sector GHG emissions in developing countries. The report's findings are based on a Lifecycle Energy Use and Emissions Model developed by the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California at Davis, which estimates GHG emissions from the transportation sector.<br /><br />The Pew Center would like to thank Kebin He of Tsinghua University, Feng An of Argonne National Laboratory, Ralph Gakenheimer of MIT, and Michael Walsh, an independent transportation consultant, for their review of earlier drafts.&nbsp;</p><h2>Executive Summary</h2><p>Shanghai is experiencing rapid economic growth. Affluence is motivating dramatic and far-ranging changes in urban structure, transportation, and energy use. This report examines two transportation trajectories that Shanghai might follow and how they would affect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Shanghai’s metropolitan population of over 13 million people continues to grow relatively slowly, but its economy is growing rapidly. The average annual per capita income is $4,000, three times higher than the rest of China, and the Shanghai economy is expected to grow at more than 7 percent per year through 2020.</p><p>Massive new transport system investments planned for the next two decades are aimed at lowering Shanghai’s extremely high population density, supporting economic growth, and enhancing the quality of life. The list of new investments is impressive: expansion of the new airport, construction of a deep-water harbor, three new bridges and tunnel river crossings, completion of a 200-kilometer modern rapid transit rail system, expansion of suburban highways, and construction of 2,000 kilometers of new and upgraded urban roads. These investments will improve the city's transportation system, but are costly and threaten greater energy use and air pollution.</p><p>A central issue in Shanghai’s development is the role of personal vehicles, especially cars. The city currently devotes little land to roads and has only 650,000 cars and trucks — very few of which are privately owned — placing vehicle ownership levels well below virtually all cities of similar income. Even with this small number of vehicles, Shanghai already suffers from serious transport-induced air pollution and traffic congestion.</p><p>Shanghai city planners project a quadrupling of cars and trucks in the city by 2020. This projected increase is premised principally on two factors. First is rapid income growth, which will make car ownership possible for a much larger segment of the population. And second is vehicle prices, which are likely to plummet due to China’s imminent accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). Lower prices will result from increased competition, compulsory reductions in vehicle tariffs, and easier access to consumer credit.</p><p>These projected increases in vehicle use are not certain.&nbsp; Even apart from the WTO membership, vehicle ownership and use--and GHG emissions--will be strongly influenced by three interrelated policy debates: industrial policy toward the automotive industry, air quality policy, and transportation and urban growth policy.</p><p>The city's decision about vehicle use will be critical in shaping Taiwan's future.<br />This report addresses the forces about to transform the transportation system of Shanghai, and examines policies and strategies that that direct it toward greater economic, social and environmental sustainability.</p><p>The two transportation scenarios draw upon extensive interviews with decision-makers and experts in Shanghai and Beijing.&nbsp; One scenario is premised on rapid motorization, the other on dramatic interventions to restrain car use and energy consumption, resulting in lower GHG emissions.&nbsp; Neither is the "business-as-usual" scenario, since this characterization is meaningless in a time of massive investments and policy shifts.&nbsp; Instead, these scenarios are meant to estimate likely upper and lower bounds of greenhouse gas emissions from Shanghai transport in 2020, taking as given the projected strong economic growth.&nbsp; If the economy grows more slowly, emissions will likely be lower than the scenarios indicate.</p><p>The rapid motorization scenario is based on the projected quadrupling of cars by 2020, coupled with a substantial increase in population.&nbsp; It results in a seven-fold increase in GHG emissions.&nbsp; The restrained scenario results in a four fold increase in GHG emissions.&nbsp; In this restrained scenario, almost all emissions growth is due to increase in travel, not increases in energy intensity or GHG intensity of the travel.&nbsp; Emissions per passenger-kilometer increase only about 10 percent the restrained scenario compared to a doubling in the rapid motorization scenario.</p><p>Caution is urged in generalizing the findings of this report to other cities in developing nations.&nbsp; Shanghai is not a typical Asian city, given its surging economy and its world-class planning capabilities.&nbsp; However, the conditions for alternative transportation options are more propitious here than perhaps any other megacity in the world.&nbsp; If the city is effective at restraining growth in vehicle use (and GHG emissions), Shanghai may serve as a model for other cities in the developing world.&nbsp;</p><div class="og_rss_groups"></div>Energy & TechnologyInternationaldeveloping countriesDeveloping WorldDaniel SperlingDeborah SalonHongchang ZhouMark DelucchiWed, 11 Jul 2001 16:24:49 +0000961 at http://www.c2es.org