Document

COMPUTER SIMULATION OF THE
HEAD-RELATED TRANSFER
FUNCTION
COMP 768 Class Presentation
Alok Meshram
OVERVIEW
Overview of a 3d Sound System
 Head Related Transfer Functions
 The Acoustic Wave Equation
 Numerical Methods for Acoustic Simulation
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Finite Element Method
Boundary Element Method
Finite Difference Time Domain Method
HRTF Calculation using Numerical Methods
3D SOUND SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW
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3d Sound Systems simulate auditory images
This imagery must be 3-dimensional in order to
accurately simulate real world environments
This is because human listeners can perceive
spatial information such as location and size
Also, the shape and size of the listener’s
surroundings also affects the sound they receive
A representation of an auditory scene with relevant
parameters labeled
3D SOUND SYSTEMS
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From the listener’s perspective, the important
attributes of an auditory scene are:
Sound source positions (Azimuth, Elevation)
 Sound source size and distance
 The environmental context (Reverberation)
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In order to simplify things, we begin with sound
sources in free space (no environmental context)
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Also, we will focus only on azimuth and elevation
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Environment and distance can be added later
3D SOUND: AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION
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The sounds received at the ears change as the
azimuth and the elevation of the source change
The difference between the signals received at
the two ears are characterized by:
The Interaural Time Difference (ITD)
 The Interaural Intensity Difference (IID)
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Lord Rayleigh calculated these for a spherical
head in his “Duplex Theory” (1907)
3D SOUND: AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION
Left: Sound reaches the two ears at different times (ITD)
Right: The Head’s “shadow” causes the intensity of the sound
at one ear to be lower than the other (IID)
3D SOUND: AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION
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However, ITD and IID values cannot be used to
uniquely determine a source’s location
For a spherical head, points lying on the “Cone of Confusion”
have the same ITD and IID values
HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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ITDs and IIDs don’t account for an important
part of the human auditory system: outer ears
The outer ears (pinnae) change incoming sound
depending on the source’s azimuth and elevation
Like the ITD and the IID, this filtering is a cue
that our auditory system uses for localization
The Head Related Transfer Function (HRTF)
encodes all of these changes
HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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The Head Related Transfer Function for each ear
can be defined as:
Where:
ω represents frequency and θ,φ represent elevation
and azimuth respectively
 HL(ω,θ,φ) and HR(ω,θ,φ) are the left and right HRTFs
 XL(ω) and XR(ω) are the Fourier Transforms of the
signals received by the Left and the Right ears
 X(ω) is the Fourier Transform of the source signal
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HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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HRTFs are key components of 3d Sound Systems
This is because HRTFs can be used to obtain the
signals received at the listener’s ears given a
sound source and its location (using convolution)
This is simple to implement and is fast as it
involves simple operations (convolution)
Thus, without much cost, an HRTF based system
adds location information to sound
HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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HRTFs are complicated functions that depend
strongly on head and ear geometry, differing
from person to person
HRTF data for 3 different people for the same source location
HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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Researchers obtain HRTFs through physical
measurements. This is slow and expensive.
On the other hand, commercial 3d Sound systems
use simple HRTF models or measurements made
on dummy heads
However, best results are obtained when the
listener’s own HRTF is used. Hence there has
been some focus on using computational methods
to simulate HRTFs
HEAD RELATED TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
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Computer simulation of HRTFs use head
geometry and material parameters as input
They simulate the propagation of sound around
and through the head from the source (an
impulse) located at various positions
The signals at the ears are Impulse Responses
(HRIRs) through which we obtain the HRTFs
We’ll review some sound simulation methods to
understand this better
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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We will begin with the 1D case and extend it.
Newton’s Second Law is:
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Dividing both sides by Volume, we get :
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We can rewrite it in terms of Pressure Gradient:
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The negative sign accounts for the fact that Force
due to a Pressure Gradient is in the direction of
decreasing Pressure.
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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Next, consider a small section (length Δx) of a
tube (cross section A). This tube is filled with a
material that has Bulk Modulus B defined as:
The Volume of the small section is:
Due to a disturbance the particles of the material
move from their original position by a position
dependent amount s(x). The change in Volume is:
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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Substituting this in the Bulk Modulus equation:
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Differentiating with respect to time, we get:
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This is known as the continuity equation, and
besides Newton’s law it establishes another
relation between Pressure and particle velocity
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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Differentiating Newton’s Law w.r.t position:
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Differentiating Continuity Equation w.r.t time:
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Combining, we get the Acoustic Wave Equation:
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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Extension to 3d is simple. We use gradients and
divergence instead of spatial derivatives:
Note that v is a vector here (it’s in bold). As
before, we get the Acoustic Wave Equation by
combining these two equations:
Where
is the Laplacian
THE ACOUSTIC WAVE EQUATION
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Among the solutions to the Acoustic Wave
Equation, of particular interest are those with
sinusoidal time dependence:
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Substituting this in the Acoustic Wave Equation:
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This is also known as the Helmholtz equation.
NUMERICAL METHODS FOR ACOUSTIC
SIMULATION
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We’ve studied Numerical Methods used for
integrating Ordinary Differential Equations
However, the Wave Equation is a Partial
Differential Equation in space and time
Here we’ll review some numerical methods used
to obtain solutions for PDEs like the Wave
Equation:
Here f(x,t) represents sound sources
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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The general Finite Element Method(FEM) is
quite complicated and involves concepts such as
Hilbert and Solobev Spaces
Here, we’ll develop a simpler version from basics
The method we’ll develop will be specifically for
the acoustic wave equation
We’ll begin by looking at an overview of the
general strategy of the method
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: OVERVIEW
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An important point: the Acoustic Wave Equation
is a PDE in space and time
This means that its solution must be calculated
for spatially as well as across time
The FEM’s strategy is to use basis functions
distributed spatially over the region of interest
Each of these basis functions is associated with a
time-dependent coefficient
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: OVERVIEW
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The overall solution is the sum of the basis
functions weighted by their time dependent
coefficients
The advantage of using this strategy is that we
can use mathematical manipulation to reduce the
time-and-space dependent PDE to a set of timedependent ODEs
These ODEs can be solved using conventional
integrators such as RK4 or the Implicit methods
to get the full solution
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: OVERVIEW
Top: “Hat” basis functions in [0,1] used to divide 1-dimensional space.
Notice their overlap and their sum for some coefficients (in red).
Left: Pyramidal basis
functions over a
triangulation of a 2D region
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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We now discuss the actual formulation of the
FEM for the acoustic equation. We start with the
following representation of the solution:
Next, we consider the Acoustic Wave Equation:
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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Let V be the set of bounded, continuous functions
defined on Ω having piecewise continuous first
derivatives and fulfilling the spatial boundary
conditions of the problem, and let v be its element
Then using the fundamental theorem of calculus
of variations and the wave equation, we have:
Using Gauss’ Divergence Theorem:
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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Substituting our approximation of P(t,x) into this
equation, we get (after much mathematical
manipulation):
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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We can represent the previous equation as a
Matrix equation solving N simultaneous
equations (one for each basis function):
Where,
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
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As mentioned earlier, we have now reduced the
Wave Equation to a system of N simultaneous
time-dependent ODEs that can be solved by
using regular integration methods
This will give us the individual (t) that we need
along with the basis functions to represent the
full solution
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD OVERVIEW
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Instead of discretizing all space (as in FEM), the
Boundary Element Method (BEM) works on the
discretization of a boundary (surface) in space
To be able to apply BEM, one must reformulate
the problem as a Boundary Integral equation
Often, this requires some analytical calculation
Hence BEM can be said to be halfway between
analytical methods and numerical methods
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD OVERVIEW
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We’ll assume sinusoidal time dependence for our
solution of the wave equation
We get the Helmholtz equation as a result
It is converted into boundary integrals using
either the “direct” or the “indirect” method
To get the solution on the boundary, we use FEM
on the boundary mesh. The boundary solution
can then be used to get the full solution.
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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We start with the wave equation:
As mentioned earlier, when we assume
sinusoidal time dependence, we get:
Where u(x) is a complex valued function called
the complex acoustic pressure
It’s magnitude and argument determines the
magnitude and phase of the pressure wave at x
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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With sinusoidal time dependence, the wave
equation reduces to the Helmholtz equation:
We can convert this PDE into a boundary
integral equation using the impedance boundary
condition:
Here, g is 0 for a scattering problem (which we
are interested in) and β(x) is the material
dependent relative surface admittance of the
scattering surface (usually constant)
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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We convert the Helmholtz equation into an
integral equation by using its analytical solution
for a point source in free space
For a point source at x0, the solution at x is given
by the free-field Green function:
We also use Green’s Second Theorem:
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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We treat x and x0 as constants and use y as the
variable in our integral equations. We choose:
Note that u(y) is the unknown solution we’re
looking for and G(y,x) is the acoustic pressure at
y due to a point in x. Since both of these satisfy
the Helmholtz equation, we use Green’s Second
Theorem to get:
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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Note that u(y) and G(y,x) are singular at x0 and
x respectively. Also, we’re trying to solve the
problem within a bounded region D.
Using these considerations, we get (in the limit of
almost including x and x0 in D) :
Now we make use of the impedance boundary
condition that we had:
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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After substituting the boundary condition we get
our first boundary integral equation that relates
the solution to its values on the boundary (this
equation is not valid on the boundary):
When x is on the boundary, we get a second
boundary integral equation (if the boundary is
smooth, i.e, without corners):
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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We use the BEM to solve the second equation,
giving us values for u(x) on the boundary
This can be used with the first equation to obtain
values for all space inside the bounded region D
This was the formulation of the “interior
problem” where the boundary scatters sound due
to sources inside it
It can be extended for the “exterior problem”
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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In BEM we solve the boundary integral
formulation of the problem using FEM
We subdivide the boundary into N smooth pieces,
γ1,….,γN
On each of these pieces, we assume a
representation for u(x) (usually polynomial)
As an example, we’ll assume that u(x) has a
constant value uj on the jth piece
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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With this approximation, the first boundary
integral equation (points not on the boundary) is:
And the second boundary integral equation (for
points on the boundary) is:
To solve for the uj’s, we use the collocation
method: we assume that the second equation
holds exactly for the centroid xi of each piece
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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With this approximation, the second equation is:
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Or, equivalently:
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Where:
u is a column vector consisting of uj’s
 b is a column vector with ith entry = G(x0,xi)
 And B is a matrix with:
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BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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By solving this equation for u, we get uj for each
of the pieces on the boundary
This could be used to solve the first boundary
integral equation to get the values of u(x) for all
space
Note that the integrals over γj could also be
approximated. This would make the solution
simpler and faster, but less accurate
BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD
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We changed the Helmholtz equation to Boundary
Integral Equations using the “direct method”
The “indirect method” uses functions called the
single-layer and double layer potentials. These
and their normal derivatives have “jumps” on
and across the boundary
These are expressed in boundary integral form
and are automatically solutions of the Helmholtz
equation. We then try to express the problem
and its boundary condition in their terms
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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The Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD)
method was originally developed for
Electromagnetic problems, but is also applicable
to Acoustic problems
It represents relevant differentials in the PDE as
Finite Differences
Unlike the BEM that we considered, FDTD is a
Time Domain method, meaning that it iterates
over time
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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FDTD approximates both spatial and temporal
derivatives by finite differences. Consider the
Taylor series expansion of a function f(x) about
the point x0 with an offset of ±δ/2 :
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Subtracting:
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Dividing by δ and rearranging, we get:
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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Ignoring the O(δ2) term, this is a finite difference
approximation of the derivate
We’ll begin with the 1-d FDTD for simplicity.
Consider the equations that resulted in the wave
equation:
We’ll replace the derivatives in this equation
with finite differences
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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In order to use finite differences, we’ll need to
discretize time and space in the following way:
We’ll represent space by points spread Δx apart
 We’ll represent time by points spread Δt apart
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We’ll use a staggered grid over space and time
This allows us to alternate iterations over P and
v and hence calculate both over space and time
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
The staggered grid over space and time used in the FDTD method
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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With this staggered grid, at ((i+1/2)Δx, nΔ t), using
finite differences we get our first update equation
This essentially updates the value of v at a future
time based on its current value and the current
value of P at two neighbouring spatial positions
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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After applying the first update equation to all
points in space at time n, we shift to another
point (iΔx, (n +1/2) Δt) to get our second update
equation :
This updates the value of P in the future based
on its past value and neighbouring values of v.
We apply this to all points in space
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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Alternating between these two equations allows
us to calculate the values of v and P over space
and time
We need to start with some initial values over
space and the initial instant in order to start
Also, sources can be represented by overriding
the update equations and setting values of
pressure and/or velocity at certain points in space
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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When implemented this way, boundaries in space
are rigid and waves are reflected back from them
This is a problem when calculating in free field or
in a small space which is not a rigid wall
In that case, it would be helpful to have a
boundary condition that does not reflect waves
The Perfectly Matched Layer is such a boundary
condition: it absorbs incident waves
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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The Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) acts like a
lossy medium which absorbs waves incident on it,
reflecting only part of it
We can implement a PML for acoustics (in 1D) by
using the following PDEs:
Where α is the attenuation factor. Low values
give higher reflection.
FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN
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Extension of the basic method to 3D is simple.
We resolve the velocity vector into its components
and apply different update equations to them
The staggered grid is a bit different, but
essentially am extension of the 1D case
PML implementation for 3D is a bit more
complicated than in the 1D case
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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We have reviewed some numerical methods for
solving the acoustic wave equation
As mentioned earlier, researchers have used
these methods to calculate HRTFs using head
geometry and material parameters
Essentially, an impulse source is placed at
various locations around the head and the
response is calculated at the two ears
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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Early work by Brian Katz focused on BEM
Head geometry used by Katz. Notice that the pinna geometry is at
a higher resolution than the rest of the head
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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Katz’s work used the indirect BEM approach as it
was found to be more computationally efficient
For BEM the highest frequency at which the
solution can be considered valid is determined by
the length of the largest element in the mesh
Another limitation of BEM is that it is a
frequency domain method, so to get the whole
HRTF, the solution must be calculated
repeatedly over a range of frequencies
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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For Katz’s work, higher frequency limits meant
smaller elements and more boundary elements,
resulting in very large computation times
This along with the fact that the solution had to
be calculated over multiple frequencies made him
choose a frequency limitation of 5.4 kHz (we’re
interested in values upto 20kHz)
He could provide limited comparisons with
measured HRTF data only up to that frequency
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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More recent work by Mokhtari et al. used FDTD
to calculate HRTF
The primary advantage of using FDTD over BEM
is that it is a Time Domain method and hence
does not require repeated calculations over the
frequency domain
Another advantage is that volumetric data could
be directly used instead of having to discretize
the surface
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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Their work used a scanned 3D model of a
KEMAR dummy head and used water as the
material inside it. It was surrounded by a PML
boundary to simulate free field.
KEMAR head geometry used by Mokhtari et al.
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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The results were compared with real world
measurements on the same dummy head and
found to match quite well
They used a measure called the Spectral
Difference (SD), which is the mean absolute
difference (in dB) between two HRTFs over a
range of frequency values
They found that the overall mean SD was 2.3 dB
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
Spectral Difference between calculated and measured HRTF
over multiple source locations
HRTF CALCULATION USING NUMERICAL
METHODS
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Even with high precision geometry (within 2mm)
their results showed some differences with
measured values especially at low elevations
There were also some high error “zones” (such as
the one for azimuth +53ᵒ and elevation +23ᵒ) that
they could not explain
SUMMARY
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HRTFs are important tools in 3D Sound, usually
modeled or measured
Acoustic simulations can be done through
methods like FEM, BEM and FDTD
These methods can be used to obtain HRTF
values
Recent work with FDTD has shown good results,
but there are some unexplained inaccuracies
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3D Sound for Virtual Reality and Multimedia,
D.R. Begault
Derivation of the Acoustic Wave equation, J.
Claerbout
Time-domain Numerical Solution of the Wave
Equation, J. Lehtinen
Boundary Element Methods for Acoustics, S.
Chandler-Wilde and S. Langdon
The Boundary Element Method in Acoustics, S.
Kirkup
Understanding the Finite-Difference TimeDomain Method, Chapter 12, John B. Schneider
REFERENCES
7.
8.
9.
10.
Finite Difference Time Domain Tutorial, I.
Drumm
The perfectly matched layer for acoustic waves
in absorptive media, Q. Liu and J. Tao
Boundary Element Method Calculation of
Individual Head-Related Transfer Function. I.
Rigid Model Calculation, Brian F. G. Katz
Boundary element method calculation of
individual head-related transfer function. II.
Impedance effects and comparisons to real
measurements, Brian F.G. Katz
REFERENCES
11.
Computer Simulation of KEMAR's Head-related
Transfer Functions: Verification With
Measurements and Acoustic Effects of Modifying
Head Shape and Pinna Concavity, in Principles
and Applications of Spatial Hearing,
P.Mokhtari, H.Takemoto, R.Nishimura and
H.Kato
THANK YOU!