Posts Tagged ‘Thailand company’

19th August
2018

Posted by : admin

It recently came to this blogger’s attention that the Department of Special Investigations in Thailand have undertaken a raid on various offices of those reportedly engaged in the maintenance of corporate structures utilized for the sole purpose of allowing foreigners to enjoy use of Thai real estate. The text of the announcement from DSI was originally published in Thai. We have undertaken a translation of the announcement in order to provide clarity for what could be considered an important issue for expats in Thailand. The translation is below:

DSI in collaboration with the Institute of Communication Science and the Board of Investment are currently investigating a group of Law Offices in the Phuket, Suratthani and Bangkok area that seem engaged in ‘camouflaged’ corporate structures acting as nominees on behalf of foreign shareholders.

As per government policy to actively pursue foreign investors using Thai nominee companies to own land in order to protect the nation’s interests. On the 15th of August 2018, Police Colonel Paisit Wongsmuang, the head of DSI; and Police Major Suriya Singhokmol, his second in command; in collaboration with The Institute of Communication Science and the Board of Investment obtained a warrant to search 4 offices as follows:

The first team led by Piya Watnawarangul (special agent investigating civil embezzlement) searched the premises of the Office’s Phuket Branch located at 393/4-5 Moo 1 Soi Bantao 1 Srisuntorn Rd., Chengtalay Subdistrict Thalang District, Phuket. The premises appeared to be the work place of the Thai Nominees and a suspected location for falsifying documents for the purpose of camouflaging nominee activities.

The second team led by Worapoj Maihom, searched the premises of the Office’s accounting branch located at 123/9 Moo 5 Chengtalay Subdistrict Thlang District, Phuket. The office appeared to provide accounting services for the Nominee companies.

The third team led by Jakrapop Klinhom searched the premises of the firm’s Samui branch office located at 17/10 Moo 1 Taweeratpakdee Borpud Sub district, Koh Samu District, Suratthani . The premises were apparently the work place of the Thai Nominees and a suspected location for falsifying documents for the purpose of camouflaging nominee activities.

The fourth team led by Mr. Taweewat Surasit, searched the premises of the Bangkok Branch located at Rajanakarn Building, 3 Floor AA Sathorn Rd, Yannawa Subdistrict, Sathorn District Bangkok, and the work place of the Foreign Managing Directors.

The search yielded copies of documentation, computer data and hardware that will be used as evidence in court proceedings.

Additional information found at each premises showed that the foreign investors seemingly purchased over 80 plots of real estate, consisting of land, vacation homes and houses.

Sources also reveal that the firms seem engaged in nominee activities that allow a large number of foreign investors to buy and sell land in Southern Thailand such as Surat Thani, Pangna, Phuket and Krabi with such activities grossing over 2 billion baht per year.

The investigation has found that the group has used Thai employees to incorporate Thai companies. These Thai Corporate Entities in turn are used to hold shares in other companies for the purpose of allowing foreign investors to buy land. These activities are in violation of the foreign business act (1999). Using Nominees to hold land on behalf of foreign persons or entities has a negative impact on national interests and the real estate industry. DSI will continue to actively pursue and shutdown such activities.

Please note that the above translation should not be viewed as a definitive interpretation of the underlying announcement and is solely for informational purposes. It should also be noted that the matter has yet to be fully settled via adjudication and the final outcome of the case remains to be seen.

The reader of this posting should note that Thai authorities are becoming increasingly efficient and sophisticated in their law enforcement endeavors. This is clear from the increasing number of immigration raids and the heightened scrutiny of officers throughout the Thai civil bureaucracy on issues ranging from revenue assessment to traffic ordinances. Clearly, it is a time to be mindful not only of the formalities inherent in the letter of relevant laws, but the policy considerations which embody the spirit of those laws as well.

6th November
2017

Posted by : admin

In a recent announcement in the Royal Thai Gazette, it came to this blogger’s attention that new regulatory protocols are likely to soon take effect with respect to foreign labor in Thailand. Below is an English translation of the announcement, for the full un-translated announcement please see the aforementioned link:

Dated November 2,

Order of the Security Council

On Proving the Identity of foreign labour

As the system which is presently used for screening some category of people who enter the Kingdom cannot provide enough proof of identity which is needed to protect the stability of the country. Presently, many people are coming into the country to work as labour, both legally and illegally and it is not easy to confirm the identity of the labour force. The collection of the data which is needed to confirm the identity is presently confusing because the responsibility for the information is scattered between various departments depending on the duty and authority of the person involved. Also, different methods are used creating confusion and delays in accessing the data if needed. Therefore, a committee will be set up to oversee the collection and storage of data from the workers and set up a date base with all the history clearly shown. A system will be set up which will be legal and also maintain the confidentiality of the information and also prevent the information from being used against the wishes of each person. This is to prevent any destruction of the peace and also to ensure the safety of the country, in labor, economy and society.

The order following Matra 265 of the Constitution of Thailand and section 44 of the Constitution of Thailand (temporary) is as follows:

1. Committee refers to the Committee who will study how the data should be kept.

2. The member of the Committee are comprised of …………[list of committee members]

3. Duties and Authority of the Committee

(1) Consider a method to set up a system to prove the identity of the immigrant laborers by collecting and keeping the data of the laborers in the fishing sector which the Harbor Department and the Labour Department are both handling at the moment. (2) Appoint a department which will have the duty and authority to collect the data which contains the relevant information on the identities including setting the criteria and method to be used and also linking the various agencies involved in collecting, maintaining, and proving the identities of the immigrant laborer so the data can be accessed conveniently and efficiently.

(3). Appoint a department which will have the duty and authority of saving the data under no (1) and (2) so it is safe and trustworthy enough to use in proving the identity of the laborers.

(4) Carry out duties delegated by the Prime Minister

4. The method of saving the data referred to in 3 (1) should commence with data of immigrant laborers in the fishing industry and sea food factories in the 22 coastal provinces. This must be completed by 31 March, 2018.

The committee may expand the area to include additional provinces as instructed by the Cabinet.

5. With regards to labor in other sectors, the committee should advise the Cabinet as to which department is responsible for the collection and saving of data and the time frame required to complete data base.

6. The data on immigrant laborers already collected by the Labor Department prior to this new announcement should continue to be used until instructed otherwise by the Committee.

7. The Department of Budget should consider how much budget the Committee and departments authorized by the Committee will require to carry out the instruction.

8. If the Prime Minister or Cabinet member deems it necessary, the Council for Peace (not sure of the name) are allowed to change these instructions.

9. This instruction comes into force on the day of announcement.

The above translation should not be construed as a definitive interpretation of the material in Thai, but is simply provided for informational purposes of a general nature.

Although it appears that this announcement pertains specifically to migrant labor in the fishing sector it remains to be seen whether or not this announcement could have an impact upon labor matters in Thailand more generally. Meanwhile, as has been pointed out in prior postings on this blog regarding Thai work permit protocols: Thai labor regulation, and the enforcement thereof, has become increasingly strict in recent months. A previously proposed overhaul of the labor regulations and fines has been put on hold until the beginning of 2018 in order to allow employers and migrant labor time to adjust to the new regulations. How the enforcement mechanism will operate from January 2018 onward remains to be seen, but if the above announcement is any indication, the Labor authorities in Thailand appear committed to tracking and monitoring foreign workers in Thailand.

26th June
2017

Posted by : admin

It recently came to this blogger’s attention that there are new penalties associated with violation of the laws and rules regarding foreign nationals working in Thailand as set forth by the Thai Ministry of Labor. Specifically on June 22 of 2017 an Emergency Decree was promulgated stipulating some new rules and new penalties associated with both new and old regulations. Please see below for a distilled translated summary of the important points noted in this recent decree:

Should an employer employ a foreign national to work in a position specifically restricted to Thai nationals, such employer shall be fined between 400,000 and 800,000 Baht per employed foreign national.

Should an employer allow a foreign national to work outside the scope of the employment specifically noted in the work permit they shall be fined no more than 400,000 Baht for each employed foreign national.

Should a foreign national work without first obtaining a work permit or work in a position specifically restricted to Thai nationals, they may be subject to imprisonment of no more than five years and/or fined between 2,000-100,000 Baht, or both.

Should a foreign national work on a matter which is deemed immediate and important and do so without acknowledgment of a Labour Ministry officer by receiving form WP-10, they may be fined not more than 100,000 Baht.

Should a foreign national work outside the scope of the job description set forth in the work permit, they may imprisoned not more than 6 months and/or fined not more than 100,000 Baht, or both.

If an individual, through deceptive means, explicitly or implicitly advertises that they are able to bring a foreign national to work in Thailand in a dmestic capacity without a work permit, they may be imprisoned 3-10 years and/or fined 600,000-1,000,000 Baht, or both.

Anyone found operating as a foreign job placement agency without a proper license shall be subject to possible imprisonment for 1-3 years and/or fines ebtween 200,000-600,000 Baht, or both.

There appears to be a deposit/pre-authorization requirement being imposed by this decree, but the implications of this section are somewhat unclear. We will update this posting or post again to provide clarification on this point if necessary.

It should be noted that the above summary and translation is for informational purposes only and should be viewed as neither exhaustive nor as a substitute for fully analyzed legal research and translation. Those interested in delving further into this topic are urged to view the full decree in its entirety by following this link provided by the official wesbite of the Royal Thai Gazette.

As has been noted, in recent weeks and months there has been increased scrutiny from the Royal Thai Immigration Police with respect to Thai business visa applicants in the form of surprise inspections. This recent announcement regarding heightened penalties associated with imporperly obtained Thai work permits leads this blogger to infer that heightened scrutiny and possible inspections could be imposed upon foreign nationals working in Thailand in the relatively near future.

20th September
2015

Posted by : admin

In a recent article in the Bangkok Post it was reported that the current government in Thailand is taking measures to foster growth for small to medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in Thailand. It would appear that the present government is eager to provide encouragement for small and medium sized businesses in Thailand. Furthermore it seems as though Thai officials are attempting to position the country as a location of choice for small business start-ups within the greater framework of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). However, of particular interest to this blogger was the mention of possible rule changes with regard to Thai corporate regulations pertaining to Thai Company registration and the shareholdings thereof. To quote the aforementioned article directly:

Mr Pongpun said the authorities were improving regulations on the incorporation of private companies to allow the incorporation of a juristic person registered by only one person.

At present, corporations (also referred to as juristic persons) in Thailand must have a minimum of three (3) shareholders in order to incorporate under Thai law. It should be noted that prior to an amendment to Thai corporate law at approximately the turn of the century it was required that all companies registered in Thailand have a minimum of 7 shareholders in order to incorporate pursuant to Thai law. Many at the time felt that the 7 shareholders requirement was too cumbersome and for that reason the statutorily required number of shareholders was reduced to 3. Since then, there have been those who have noted their belief that allowing Thai corporate structures with only one shareholder would bring Thai corporate law more in line with similar bodies of law globally. For example, in many American jurisdictions Limited Liability Companies or LLCs are only required to have one member/shareholder, while similar Limited Company (Ltd.) structures are allowed in Britain and the Commonwealth nations and many European jurisdictions allow for similar corporate structures as well.

It remains to be seen whether Thai corporate law will be amended to allow for single shareholder corporations in Thailand. It is a good sign that such structures are being considered by Thai officials especially since such structures would be especially beneficial to small business owners in Thailand. Of special note to American readers, pursuant to the provisions of the US-Thai Treaty of Amity it is possible for American Citizens to own 100% of an Amity company registered in Thailand. Should the aforementioned changes take place it could result in Americans being able to own their small business singularly without any Thai shareholders.

12th November
2014

Posted by : admin

For many the idea of setting up a business in Thailand is desirable if for no other reason than the thought of waking up and going to work every morning in one of the most idyllic countries in the world. In the past, many foreign owned businesses in Thailand were structured in such a way that they avoided some of the more stringent provisions of the Thai Foreign Business Act. In most cases Thai nominee shareholders were used to own the majority of a Thai company thereby ensuring that the company was considered “Thai” for purposes of the Act. However, this practice became illegal pursuant to section 36 of the currently enforced version of the Foreign Business Act as quoted below:

“A Thai national or a juristic person, not being a foreigner under this Act, who assists in or aids and abets or participates in the operation of a foreigner’s business specified in the Lists annexed hereto where such foreigner is not permitted to operate that business or who operates the business jointly with a foreigner in the manner holding it out as the former’s sole business or who acts as a foreigner’s nominee in holding shares in a partnership or a limited company or any juristic person with a view to enabling the foreigner to operate the business in circumvention or violation of the provisions of this Act, or a foreigner who allows such act to be committed by a Thai national or a juristic person that is not a foreigner under this Act, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or to a fine of one hundred thousand Baht to one million Baht or to both, and the Court shall order the cessation of the assistance or the aiding and abetting or order the cessation of the joint operation of the business or order the cessation of shareholding or partnership, as the case maybe. In the case of violation of the order of the Court, the violator shall be liable to a fine at the daily rate of ten thousand Baht to fifty thousand Baht throughout the period of the violation.”

Notwithstanding the fact that the use of Thai nominees is illegal, the practice persists. This fact was recently noted in a Bangkok Post article on the topic. However, in some cases discerning whether a company is utilizing nominees or simply structuring itself in such a way so as to provide security to foreign shareholders can be difficult. Therefore, when structuring a company in Thailand it is often prudent to seek the advice of competent legal advisers to in order to ensure that one’s business practices comport with relevant laws and regulations.

1st September
2013

Posted by : admin

Many people living in Thailand establish corporate entities in order to conduct business in the Kingdom. This is no different for foreign nationals wishing to do business in Thailand. In the past, it was relatively easy for foreign nationals to set-up a Thai company. However, over the years the rules regarding corporate formation have grown increasingly complex as the business environment has evolved. At the same time, Thai officials have implemented policies which foster foreign investment (most notably recent regulations which have decreased the Thai corporate tax rate from 23% to 20%). All of these issues gain a new complexion when one considers the fact that as Thai laws regarding corporations have developed so too have the agreements creating the infrastructure which underlies the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

In the past, Thai authorities did not, in general, heavily scrutinize Thai companies with all Thai shareholders, even such entities having a foreign director. In fact, there was a time when simply maintaining a majority of Thai shareholders provided a degree of protection against substantial official examination. Thai partnerships (both limited and ordinary) were also somewhat immune from significant governmental oversight even where a foreign partner controlled a stake the firm. However, it should be noted that pursuant to the provisions of the Thai Foreign Business Act virtually all Thai business entities with a foreign majority ownership structure have been required to obtain either a Foreign Business License, a Treaty Certificate pursuant to the provisions of the US-Thai Treaty of Amity, or some other form of documentation showing either licensure from the Ministry of Commerce pursuant to Thai law or exemption based upon a Free Trade Agreement.

As of January 2013, a new policy regarding newly established Thai companies came into effect. Thai companies with any foreign directors must now prove that the registered capital has been paid into the company by the relevant shareholders. This is even the case where the company is wholly owned by Thai nationals. Furthermore, where a foreign national maintains 50% (or more) interest in a Thai partnership evidence must be provided showing paid up capital in the enterprise. Registered capital has always been an issue for Thai authorities, but it would now appear that the rules regarding registered capital will be applied more stringently especially where there is a foreign director or partner involved in the Thai company or partnership.

As the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is set to come into existence in 2015 and based upon the fact that Thailand has signed various international agreements pertaining to international trade and foreign direct investment there are some who argue that the time is quickly coming when Thai regulation of foreign run businesses will be liberalized. Until that time comes, the rules imposed upon foreigners setting up businesses in Thailand are likely to be more strictly enforced compared to times past.

16th August
2013

Posted by : admin

Recently, the Foreign Minister of the Kingdom of Thailand visited the United States of America and was welcomed by the American Secretary of State. Some of the remarks made in a press conference may be notable to those interested in American foreign policy and the relationship between the United States and Thailand. To quote directly from remarks made by Secretary of State John Kerry in a recent State Department press release:

I want to thank our friends in Thailand, who represent the longest security relationship, the longest partner that we have in Asia – 180 years of a treaty relationship with Thailand. They are our partner in the largest multinational field exercise that takes place in the region.

The Treaty noted above is the Treaty of Amity and Economic Relations Between the Kingdom of Thailand and the United States of America (sometimes colloquially referred to as the US-Thai Treaty of Amity). This Treaty could be viewed as an update of previous Treaty agreements made prior to the Amity Treaty’s ratification in 1966. The Treaty of Amity represents one of the best sources of legal protection for American Citizens and American Companies conducting business in Thailand as it provides “National Treatment” to American companies in Thailand. So long as American companies (or American owned Thai Companies) receive certification from the Thai Ministry of Commerce, they arre permitted to legally operate in Thailand notwithstanding the provisions of the Thai Foreign Business Act. There are some restrictions on the business activities which an Amity Company may undertake, but overall the Treaty is a significant boon to American businesses operating in Thailand.

The Treaty not only symbolizes strong Thai-American relations in the commercial sphere, it also is seen as a symbol of America’s long standing diplomatic and security relationship with the Kingdom of Thailand, as Secretary Kerry noted in the aforementioned quote. Thai Foreign Minister Dr. Surapong Tovichakchaikul also commented upon the close relationship between Thailand and the United States, citing a relatively recent visit to the Kingdom of Thailand by President Obama:

Last November, President Obama visited Thailand as his first stop in Southeast Asia after his reelection. His visit served to strengthen our strong partnership. My meeting with Secretary Kerry today will be a good chance to continue dialogue on our future partnership, especially as we mark 180 years of Thai-U.S. diplomatic relations this year.

Those wishing to read this press release in detail are encouraged to click HERE.

As the prospect of an integrated ASEAN Economic Community draws near, it stands to reason that the United States and Thailand will continue to maintain their close relations as Thailand will likely prove to be a significant participant in the pan-ASEAN economic bloc. This important role for Thailand within the ASEAN framework could also prove beneficial to American business in Thailand. Only time will tell.

1st August
2013

Posted by : admin

In the Kingdom of Thailand there are many different types of business structures which can be utilized in order to legally operate pursuant to Thai law. In previous postings on this blog Thai limited partnerships as well as Thai ordinary partnerships and registered ordinary partnerships were discussed. Another type of business structure which is similar to a Thai partnership is known as a Joint Venture.

In the eyes of Thai jurisprudence the term “joint venture” has two meanings. The first definition of a joint venture is similar to an ordinary partnership (also sometimes referred to as an unregistered ordinary partnership). However, a joint venture of this type must include at least one juristic person although the type of juristic person included in a joint venture may differ depending upon the unique circumstances of a given situation. Therefore, a joint venture could be the combination of a limited company and a natural person, a natural person and a limited partnership, two limited companies, or a limited partnership and a limited company. However, the aforementioned combinations are not an exhaustive list of all the combinations which could be devised to create a joint venture. Aside from requiring that this type of joint venture include a juristic person, the joint venture should also keep joint accounts and share profits (the division of profits is generally dictated in the terms of the jont venture agreement). Management responsibilities within a Thai joint venture are generally dictated by the terms of the joint venture agreement. The type of joint venture described above is taxed at the same rate as a juristic person, meaning that as of 2013 a Thai joint venture would be taxed at a rate of 20%. However, the profits gained from a joint venture by a juristic person domiciled in Thailand are not subject to further taxation. Those participants in a joint venture which are not domiciled in Thailand and therefore receive their profits outside of the country are subject to a 10% witholding tax on their portion of the profits.

The other type of joint venture which may be utilized by those wishing to jointly undertake business in the Kingdom of Thailand looks more like a Thai Limited Company. Essentially, this type of joint venture is created when two (or more) companies decide to create a third Thai company which would act as the vehicle for the joint venture in Thailand. These types of structures may vary widely in terms of management, percentage of ownership, and taxation depending upon the unique circumstances of the parties involved and the agreements made with regard to the aforementioned issues. Therefore, those seeking further information on this type of structure are well advised to contact a legal professional in Thailand in order to ascertain details about a prospective joint venture.

28th June
2013

Posted by : admin

Limited Companies in the Kingdom of Thailand

Thai Limited Companies are somewhat similar to limited liability companies in jurisdictions such as the United States, the United Kingdom, or the European Union. However, there are certain formalities which must be adhered to in order to be certain that a Thai company is properly registered. First, a name for the company must be reserved and approved by the Thai Ministry of Commerce and then three shareholders must be utilized in order to meet the requirements for Thai company registration. Meanwhile, depending upon the type of business or the presence of possible future foreign employees certain capital requirements must be met (those wishing to register a Thai Limited Company are encouraged to ascertain the exact amount of capital necessary for a certain type of business before taking steps toward registration). Foreign nationals wishing to register a company in Thailand should note that some types of business are restricted under the provisions of the Foreign Business Act. It should be noted that usage of Thai nominee shareholders to hold shares of a Thai limited company on a foreign national’s behalf solely for the purpose of avoiding conflict with the provisions of the Foreign Business Act is strictly prohibited. American Citizens wishing to register a Thai company or American Companies wishing to set-up corporate offices in Thailand may be eligible to receive certification under the provisions of the US-Thai Treaty of Amity and therefore be in compliance with the Foreign Business Act and other applicable Thai law as companies with Treaty of Amity certification are accorded “National Treatment”.

An issue that may be of interest to those weighing the option of registering a company in Thailand: the corporate tax rate for small companies making over one million baht per year has been reduced from 23% to 20% as of 2013, according to the official wesite of the Revenue Department in Thailand.

Sole Proprietorships in the Kingdom of Thailand

A sole proprietorship is defined as a business enterprise in which one natural person is the owner. It should be noted that sole proprietorships, unlike Thai limited companies or Thai limited partnerships, provide no limited liability to the owner and therefore the owner’s liability with respect to those conducting business with the sole proprietorship is unlimited. There are some possible tax benefits arising from operating a sole proprietorship since the sole proprietor may be taxed progressively in much the same way as a natural person. In certain cases, a sole proprietor could opt to be taxed based upon gross receipts, minus a standardized deduction. However, those interested in this type of structure are well advised to contact professionals in order to ascertain further information about whether this type of structure can be utilized for one’s proposed business and the possible tax liabilities of such a proposition.

It should be noted that a sole proprietorship may not be feasible for most foreign nationals wishing to conduct business in Thailand pursuant to the provisions of the Foreign Business Act. It may be possible to obtain a foreign business license for a sole proprietorship in Thailand and thereby maintain compliance with the Foreign Business Act, but such licenses are examined on a case by case basis based upon the type of activity the sole proprietor wishes to conduct. For American Citizens it may be possible to obtain certification for a Thai sole proprietorship pursuant to the provisions of the US-Thai Treaty of Amity.

2nd July
2011

Posted by : admin

It recently came to this blogger’s attention that media outlets around the globe are discussing the pending elections in the Kingdom of Thailand. In order to provide more insight into these developments it may be best to quote directly from the official website of Channel News Asia, ChannelNewsAsia.com

BANGKOK – Thailand votes on Sunday in a closely fought election seen as pivotal to the future of the deeply divided kingdom, after years of political deadlock and often bloody street protests. The poll is the first major electoral test for the government since mass opposition rallies paralysed Bangkok last year, scaring away foreign tourists and sparking a military crackdown that left about 90 people dead. Now the tense vote could herald a comeback for fugitive former premier Thaksin Shinawatra and his political allies…

This blogger encourages readers to click upon the hyperlinks noted above to learn more on this story.

Politics in Thailand can have ramifications for the economy and the business community. Meanwhile, developments in Thailand can have reverberations throughout the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). This regional grouping is currently having a substantial regional and global impact upon geopolitics. Also, this organization’s ascendancy comes at the same time as international commentators discuss the increasing significance of the so-called BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). China has also received a great deal of international coverage recently as that nation’s Communist Party celebrated the 90 year anniversary of the Party’s founding. To quote directly from the official website of the Hindustan Times, HindustanTimes.com:

The world’s largest political party, in charge of the world’s fastest-growing economy, marked its 90th anniversary with a prolonged campaign of revolutionary Mao-era lyrics sung in schools, universities and parks. Television stations pulled out soaps and crime shows to air red propaganda. Employees of state-owned companies were told to troop into cinema halls to ensure that the film Founding of the Party, made with 108 actors, could claim blockbuster status…

This blogger asks readers to click upon the hyperlinks noted above to read this insightful article written by Reshma Patil.

As noted previously on this web log, China is becoming an ever more important player in the international economic arena as that nation’s Premier was recently noted for making a trip to Europe and the United Kingdom. In related news it was noted that China has previously announced plans to construct a high speed rail system to connect Southern China with the Thai city of Bangkok. It would appear that a plan is also in place to construct a large Chinese Trading Complex in the Bangkok metropolitan area. How such developments will play out in the future remains to be seen.

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