The State of Eritrea is located between latitudes 12°
42' N to 18° 2'
N and longitudes 36° 30'
E to 43° 20'
E, in the north-eastern part of Africa, serving as a cross-roads and a
bridge between the rest of Africa and the Middle East. Eritrea, one of
the countries in the Horn of Africa, is bordered by the Red Sea to the
east with about 1,000 km of coastline, by Sudan on the north-west, by
Ethiopia to the south and west, and by Djibouti on its south-eastern extreme
(Figure 1). The country has an area of about 124,000 km2 ;
the population was estimated between 3,0000,000 to 3,500,000 in 2002,
with an additional 750,000 refugees. The annual rate of population increase
was estimated at 2.8 to 3.3 percent (According to the World
Factbook the estimated population in July 2006 was 4,786,994 with
a growth rate of 2.47%). About 65 percent of the population live in the
highlands, which accounts for only 16 percent of the land area; this population
concentration in the highlands is largely due to the mild temperatures
and the freedom from malaria.

Figure 1. The State of Eritrea - Administrative
Zobas

The boundaries shown in the map do not express the opinion of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the
legal status of any country, or area, or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.

Eritrea was the last African country to gain independence. It was under
Italian occupation from the 1880s, between 1941 and 1952 it came under
British administration, and in 1952 the newly-formed UN agreed to federation
between Eritrea and Ethiopia. However, by 1962 Eritreas status had
been reduced to that of an Ethiopian province. Eritrea gained independence
in 1991 after thirty years of conflict with Ethiopia, and was formally
recognized as a Sovereign Nation by the international community in May
1993. The major language groups are Tigre, Tigrinya, Arabic, Afar, Bilien,
Hedareb, Kunama, Nara, Rashaida, and Saho. English is rapidly becoming
the language of business and is the medium of instructions in secondary
schools and at university. The population is fairly evenly divided between
Tigrinya-speaking Christians (mainly Orthodox), the traditional inhabitants
of the highlands, and the Muslim communities of the Western lowlands,
northern highlands and east coast. The capital is Asmara.

Eritrea's economy in general, and the agricultural sector in particular,
were seriously affected by the combination of the prolonged war and recurrent
droughts and degraded lands. The military conflict displaced farmers,
reduced the availability of agricultural inputs and destroyed government
support services. The GDP in Eritrea at the end of 1999 was estimated
at US$ 677,000,000; GDP per capita was some US$ 200-220. The sectorial
shares average 12 percent for agriculture, 27 percent for industry and
the balance in the services. Nearly all crop and livestock production
is based on smallholder traditional agriculture characterized by subsistence
farming and low productivity, with the farming system and land tenure
varying according to agro-ecological zones. The local currency is the
Nakfa ( 1 Dollar U$ = 14 Nakfas in December 2001, but it was 9 Nakfas
on October 2000).

The present social structure of the country indicates that its population
is mainly rural and that a large part of the economically active Eritreans
(78 percent according to FAO, 1998a) are associated with "agricultural"
business. The active rural population has grown from approximately 1.59
million in 1995 to 1.79 million in 1998 (Table 1)

Table 1. Eritrea - Human resources: population (in
thousands)

1995

1998

"000s

percent

"000s

percent

Total pop.

3 187

100

3 577

100

Agri. pop

2 519

79

2 796

78

Total active

1 592

100

1 786

100

Agri. active

1 259

79

1 393

78

1.2 Land Use and Crop Production

Land use categories (FAO, 2000) indicate that livestock-related activities
make use of 56 percent of the 12,200,000 hectares available in Eritrea
(browsing and grazing land: 6,820,000). Cultivated rainfed land accounts
for 4.62 percent (0.56 m/ha) and irrigated land amounts to 22,000 ha (Table
2). Overall forest land represents 0.51 percent of the total land, or
63,000 ha. The main productive activities in the agricultural sector make
a traditional use of crop-livestock associations in mixed farming and
in extensive grazing; these traditional production and farming systems
are characterised by low input-low output features that aim at subsistence
levels.

Table 2. Land Use Categories

Hectares

Percent

Cultivated Rainfed Land

562, 680

4,62

Irrigated Land

22,000

0.18

Disturbed Forest

53,000

0.43

Forest Plantations

10,000

0.08

Woodland and Shrub Land

673,000

5.52

Browsing and Grazing Land

6,821,320

55.96

Barren Land

4,047,000

33.21

Potential Irrigable Land

(600,000)

(4.92)

Potential Rainfed Land

(904,320)

(7.42)

Total

12,189,000

100.00

The area under cultivation and the production levels for major crops,
based on government estimates, have shown steady increases since independence
(Table3). Nevertheless, production remains below consumption needs;
in 1998 the gap was estimated at 590,000 tonnes, partly reflecting the
recent border conflict with Ethiopia.

Table 3. Estimates of Cultivated Area and Production
(1996-1998)

1996

1997

1998

Crop Category

Area (ha)

Production

(tonnes)

Area (ha)

Production

(tonnes)

Area (ha)

Production

(tonnes)

Cereals

322,000

86,000

375,000

99,100

477,000

458,000

Pulses

14,000

6,400

5,800

1,200

7,000

3,300

Oil crops

35,000

5,200

13,400

2,600

16,200

11,100

Total

371,000

97,600

394,200

102,900

500,200

472,400

Source: Government of Eritrea,
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Land Resources and Crop Production

Land ownership comes mainly through inheritance. Within some ethnic groups,
land inheritance is matrilineal (from a man to his sisters son),
whereas in other groups it passes from father to son. In villages that
have been established for 50 years, newcomers to the community are allocated
land by village elders. In villages established during the previous 25
years, the older generation acquired its land rights through clearing
of virgin land.

1. 3 Livestock Population

Ruminant rearing, which includes cattle (beef, dairy and draught), small
ruminants and camels, plays a significant role in the Eritrean economy
and is essential for the food security of the rural population. It is
basically closely integrated with crop production; it is estimated that
over 20 percent of cattle (oxen) are kept for traction, mainly for
crop cultivation. Eritreas population is mainly rural (78 percent;
FAO, 1998a) living from integrated crop-livestock farming systems. Land
use categories ( FAO, 2000) indicate that livestock related activities
make use of 56 percent of the total 12,200,000 hectares available in Eritrea.
According to Government estimates the livestock sub-sector accounts for
about 25 percent of Agricultural GDP and a significant part of the countrys
export earnings. Livestock is closely integrated with crop production
and has a significant role in the socio-economical life of rural population
in Eritrea for:

1) Draft power, food security, manure & on-farm savings bank;

2) Livestock are nearly the only activity for the pastoralist and agro-pastoralist
in Eritrea;

3) Livestock offers one of the most promising opportunities for foreign
exchange earnings (export to Middle East Countries), and

4) There is an incipient growing urban market demand for milk, meat and
eggs which is presently partly supplied by many small-scale commercial
livestock producers.

The livestock population in 1998 is summarized in Table 4. The MOA (GOSE,
1998b) figures suggest that the population has increased substantially
since 1995 (e.g. 54 percent increase in cattle and 24 percent for sheep
and goats). Livestock data for the period 1996-2005 are given in Table
5 (from FAO statistical databases).

The lowlands are the livestock reservoirs of Eritrea. About 60 percent
of cattle and goats and some 40 percent of the sheep and camels, or 48
percent of the tropical livestock units (TLU), are found in the two provinces
of the western lowlands, Gash Setit and Barka. The TLU of the three central
highland provinces, Hamassien, Seraye and Akele Gluzai, amount to only
23 percent. Oxen constitute over 50 percent of cattle in the three provinces
of the central highlands, but only 12 percent in Gash Setit and Barka
provinces, which are the main breeding areas. The estimated off-take of
each species ranges from 15 percent in cattle to 32 percent in goats -
values that seem overestimated, however many farmers returned from Sudan
after Eritreas independence bringing their animals with them.

Broad breed types can be identified based on their phenotypic characteristics;
broadly divided into those adapted to the highlands or to the lowlands.
The two major cattle breeds are the Barka in the western lowlands, and
Arado, predominantly in the highlands and eastern lowlands. The Barka
is known for its high milk production. It yields an average of 6 litres
of milk per day and gives 9 to 10 litres of milk a day at the height of
lactation (Sherman, 1980). The Arado is a small animal well suited to
the rugged highlands. It produces hard-working oxen used as draught animals.
Some European dairy cattle have been introduced since the nineteenth century
by Italian settlers; some 6,000 to 8,000 cows, basically composed of pure
exotic Friesian and some cross breeds, owned by 800 to 1,000 commercial
farmers are concentrated in urban and peri-urban zones of Asmara.

Small ruminants are attractive to farmers because of a low initial investment
relative to cattle. Goats are kept more than sheep in most parts of Eritrea,
with goat production dominant in Barka, Denkal, Semhar, Senhit, Gash Setit
and eastern Akele Guzai. On the borders with Sudan, there is another breed
known as Shukria which is a good milker. Both fat-tailed and thin-tailed
sheep are found. The thin-tailed are generally in the lowlands while fat-tailed
are dominant in the highlands. The major breed of the western lowlands,
known locally as Barka, is a cross between the Hamele, or thin tailed
desert sheep, and the fat tailed highland sheep. The Hamale is found near
the borders of Sudan and is the largest (50-70 kg liveweight).

Pack animals, mainly donkeys and some mules, with very few horses, are
primarily used on farms for transportation and traction. Camels play a
very important part in the agriculture of the lowlands where grazing and
water supplies are inadequate for other livestock. Camels are an important
source of food, both milk and meat, and provide transport for the produce
and household goods of the nomads in the desert.

2.
SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Eritrea consists of a central highland mass which divides the country
between its eastern and western lowlands. Altitudes vary from over 3,000
m above sea level in the highlands to below sea level in the Danakil depressions.
The highlands have a very rugged topography, and suitable land for crops
is limited to some valley bottoms. The lowlands are generally flat plains,
often interspersed with hills. Most of the population in the highlands
live at altitudes of about 1,500-2,000 m above sea level.

Soils are complex, varying from region to region in terms of texture,
fertility, and other natural characteristics (Figure 2). The great majority
are residual soils, that is, those developed directly from weathered bedrock.
Soils that developed on the extensive basalt formations are the most fertile,
those developed on the basement complex are of low to moderate fertility,
and those on rocks are of low fertility (FAO, 1998b). In general, the
soils are stony loams, sandy loams, or loamy sands. The rich dark clay
and clay loams are commonly found in the south-west part of Eritrea, extending
to the area surrounding Asmara where the densely populated villages are
located. The clay and clay loam soil also extends to areas in the western
and eastern lowlands. The pH range is from slightly acid to moderately
alkaline.

Figure 2. The State of Eritrea - Soil Classification

The principal needs are organic matter in order to maintain fertility.
Given the great relief of much of the landscape and generally arid or
semi-arid conditions, many soils are shallow with bedrock near the surface.
The shallowness of the soils reduces their ability to hold moisture for
crops or natural vegetation production. Soils in the western plains include
vertisols and fluvisols which, with adequate rains or under irrigation,
are highly suitable for agricultural development. Soil erosion, particularly
in the highlands, is very serious and losses are estimated at about 15
tons/ha/year (Firebrace and Holland, 1985).

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

3.1 Climate

The climate in Eritrea ranges from hot arid in the coastal plain areas
to temperate sub-humid in isolated micro-catchments in the eastern highland
escarpment. Altitude is the major factor determining temperature and rainfall.
Total annual rainfall tends to increase from north to south, from less
than 200 mm at the northern border with Sudan to over 800 mm in a restricted
area on the southern border with Ethiopia (Figure 3). Mean temperatures
range from 16° C in the highlands to extreme highs of about 30° C along
the Red Sea coast in Massawa. The Danakil depression in the south-east,
which is more than 130 m below sea-level in places, experiences some of
the highest temperatures recorded, frequently exceeding 50° C. The central
highlands get a single rainy season from the end of June to late September.
The western lowlands are subject to typical tropical summer rains between
June and September. The north-eastern lowlands are exposed in winter to
the humid winds off the Red Sea, which result in small rains which last
for two to three months from November to March. The narrow strip between
the highlands and the eastern escarpment (Green Belt) enjoys two rainy
seasons per year.

The climate of about 70 percent of the country is arid with a mean annual
rainfall below 400 mm and a mean annual temperature greater than 26° C
(Nastasi, 1993). About 22 percent of the country enjoys a cool semi-arid
climate. The area encompasses the high southern areas of the central highlands
as well as the north. The mean annual temperature is less than 19° C,
and the mean annual rainfall is between 400 and 600 mm. This climatic
zone offers the best potential for expansion of rain-fed crop production.
Over 65 percent of Eritreas population lives in this area. Unfortunately,
increased population pressures combined with a lack of appropriate land
management has resulted in serious land degradation through soil erosion.
A small but important climatic area, about 0.5 percent of the country,
occurs on the eastern embankment of the central highlands, commonly called
the "Green belt". This warm to cool sub-humid climatic zone
benefits from both summer and winter rains, it has the highest and most
reliable rainfall in the country, up to an average of 1,200 mm annually
with some rain falling in every month of the year.

Figure 3. The State of Eritrea - Mean Annual Precipitation

Legend: Rainfall in Millimetres

3.2 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Eritrea has a number of different agro-ecological zones (Figure
4) which are the following:

Figure 4. The State of Eritrea - Agro-ecological Zones

The boundaries shown in the map do not express the opinion of the
Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations concerning the
legal status of any country, or area, or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.

The central highlands (CHZ), at altitudes of over 1,500 m,
with over 500 mm of rainfall.

The western escarpment (WEZ), at altitudes between 750 m and
1,500 m, with an average rainfall of up to 500 mm. The western escarpment
is a transitional zone between the CHZ and south-western lowland zones,
the SWLZ.

The south-western lowland (SWLZ), at altitudes between 600
and 750 m with annual rainfall of between 500 and 700 mm.

The small "green belt" (GBZ) which differs from other
zones in that the climate and rainfall (over 1,000 mm) permit horticulture
and permanent tree crops without irrigation.

The coastal plains (CPZ), up to 600 m of altitude and only
200 mm of rainfall; and

The north-western lowland (NWLZ) between 400 to 1,500 m of
altitude and less than 300 mm of rainfall.

Most agricultural production is from three zones: the Central Highlands,
the South-western Lowlands and parts of the Coastal zone. Some characteristics
of production in these areas are briefly discussed below and summarized
in Table 6.

In the Central Highlands, the great majority of producers have
small land holdings (average 1 ha or less), and produce mainly wheat,
barley, sorghum, teff (Eragrostis tef), peas, beans, chickpeas
and linseed. They depend largely on animal power for ploughing and threshing
while small ruminants are reared for meat and milk and as a source of
cash. There are communal grazing areas and seasonal migration of herds
to the lowlands, especially of cattle, takes place because of lack of
grazing in the highlands. A minority of producers have been able to
invest in irrigation (using shallow wells and motor pumps) and produce
vegetables (mainly potatoes, tomatoes, pepper and onions) on part of
their land. Two to three crops are possible per year under irrigation.
Productivity is good and the product is marketed locally. The standard
of living of these farmers is better than those relying solely on rainfed
cereals.

In the South Western Lowland Zone, a large proportion of the
population are agro-pastoralists, with various degrees of transhumance
of people and livestock. There are nomadic pastoralist tribes whose
main activity is livestock rearing (primarily camels, cattle and small
ruminants). There are also semi-sedentary agro-pastoralists whose main
activity remains livestock rearing, but where the cultivation of sorghum,
pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum) and sesame is significant.
There are also sedentary producers practising mixed crop/livestock production
where crops are more important and the family lives in one village all
year round. Recently, medium and large-scale commercial farmers, favoured
by distribution of land concessions by the Government and the availability
of capital, have entered production. There is also mechanised large-scale
rainfed cultivation of sorghum and sesame and/or medium scale irrigated
plantations of bananas and citrus supplying Asmara and export markets.
Most of the irrigation water is from wells.

Some parts of the Coastal Plainshave a potential for crop production.
These are in the Eastern Lowlands where spate irrigation exists and
has the potential for further development. The main activity remains
rearing of mixed herds of camels, cattle and small ruminants with seasonal
migrations towards the highland areas in the hot dry season. However,
an important activity is sorghum growing using short duration spate
flood flows diverted into fields. Growing sorghum or maize on residual
moisture is possible in years where moisture retention is good, and
there is the potential to introduce new crops (such as vegetables and
forage for intensive production mainly of small ruminants) into the
system.

Table 6. Summary of the main production system in the
different agro-ecological Zones of Eritrea

Agro-ecological Zones

Production Systems

I. Central Highland
Zones (CHZ)

1. Rainfed cereal/pulse
based system
2. Irrigated horticultural based system
3.Semi-commercial peri-urban livestock (dairy/poultry) based system

II. Western Escarpment
Zone (WEZ)

1. Agro-pastoralism

III. South Western
Lowland Zone

(SWLZ)

1. Nomadic
pastoralism

2. Semi-sedentary agro-pastoralism

3. Small-scale
irrigated horticultural based system

4. Commercial farming

IV. North Western Lowland
Zone

(NWLZ)

1. Nomadic pastoralist
system

2. Irrigated commercial fruit/vegetable based system

V. Coastal Plain Zone
(CPZ)

1. Nomadic pastoralist
system

2. Agro-pastoralist/spate irrigation based system

VI. Green Belt Zone
(GBZ)

1. Mixed production system

In the CPZ and NWLZ, crop production is only possible with irrigation,
and livestock production is predominant. Although pasture resources
are poor to moderate, the economy of these zones is largely based on
extensive transhumant pastoral systems.

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Livestock management practices vary considerably in different agro-ecological
zones. In the highlands, cereals and livestock are managed in closely
integrated systems where animals (mainly oxen and small ruminants ) graze
hillsides and stubble left on fields after harvest; and crop residues
are also stored and used as supplementary feed during critical periods.
Livestock numbers are given in Table 5. The majority of the livestock
are in the lowlands, of which 71 percent of the cattle, 50 percent of
the sheep and goats and 60 percent of camels are in the western lowlands.
In low rainfall areas agro-pastoralists complement their grazing livestock
with crop residues while the pastoralists migrate long distances in search
of grazing (semi-sedentary systems) and are adapted to the arid conditions
of the marginal zones. Except for some peri-urban commercial production
, livestock production is primarily carried out by the traditional sector
under natural conditions. Traditional production systems vary within the
different ecological zones:

a) Central Highlands: Rainfed farming being the main agricultural
activity, annual crop production is the major objective. Population pressure
is forcing people to convert grazing land into crop land, thus relegating
livestock to rocky and steep hills with low grazing potential. The increased
agricultural area, in turn, results in a higher demand for oxen in a situation
where the grazing area has already declined. Hence, more draught oxen
have to be retained at the expense of milk cows and other animals. That
is why over 50 percent of the cattle in the Highlands are oxen. The major
feed sources in the highlands are communal grazing and scrub lands and
crop residues, including the grazing of crop stubble.

b) Western Lowlands: Most of the livestock in the Western Lowlands
are raised on natural grazing under pastoralist and agro-pastoralist systems.
In this area the traditional practice is to use wet and dry season camps.
The former relate to the pastures near the permanent homes, north of the
Gash river, and the latter to pastures south of the Gash up to Tigray
province in Ethiopia (see Figure 1). Livestock graze up to November in
the wet season camps because of the availability of green pasture and
water. In December or January, as the pastures become depleted and water
scarce, the pastoralists start to trek their animals to the dry season
camps, between the Gash and Setit rivers, and into Ethiopia (see Figure
1). With the onset of rains, the pastoralists trek back to their wet season
camps to join their families, and to avoid the blood-sucking insects which
breed in the wet season. Their objective is to produce milk for themselves,
ghee for sale, and to increase the number of their animals. Hence, offtakes
are low - below 10 percent. The reasons for increasing the numbers as
much as possible are for prestige and as a guarantee against drought.
There is now some conflict between pastoralists and farmers (concessions
and settlements) because farming is blocking some of the traditional livestock
routes and animals are damaging crops.

c) Eastern Lowlands: With the exception of a few areas of spate irrigation,
where agro-pastoralism is practised, livestock production in this area
is based on pastoralism. The distances covered are, however, much shorter
than those in the Western Lowlands. Livestock are grazed on natural pasture
for a few months in the rainy season (December to March), depending on
the duration of the rains and then moved to the eastern escarpment slopes.
The dominant animals are goats which are kept for some milk, but mainly
for meat sales. In areas of spate irrigation livestock are fed with crop
residues, sorghum rations and sown forage is grown. Dairy animals are
stall-fed.

d) Peri-urban Livestock Production: Dairy production has been carried
out since the nineteenth century by the Italian settlers. The commercial
dairy industry had much suffered during the long war, however, after independence
dairy activities have restarted with the support of the Asmara Dairy Farmers
Co-operative Association (ADFA), which owned a milk processing plant and
a feed mixing plant, and organized milk collection and feed distribution.
Nowadays, dairy production is basically concentrated in urban and peri-urban
zones of Asmara.

The situation of the peri-urban dairy producers is extremely precarious.
Most producers have lost their forage producing farms and retreated to
the urban area. The farms now have no forage producing capacity, and operate
through the purchase of hay and straw from farmers and some industrial
by-products. The nutritional condition of the animals is poor and milk
yields low. During a survey on the peri-urban dairy sector (Kayouli and
Assefaw, 1999), it was pointed out that poor and inadequate nutrition
is the basic cause of low milk production and poor reproduction. Although
there is no dairy record keeping on individual milk production, it is
obvious that the milk yield per lactation from Holstein Friesian cows
is still far below their genetic potential. The total daily milk production
from 130 milking cows visited in 7 dairy farms in and nearby Asmara was
only 1,173 litres or 9 litres/milking cow/ day.

Among the major constraints limiting the potential development of livestock
production, inadequate feed has been identified as the crucial bottleneck.
The bulk of livestock feed in Eritrea comes from grazing on pastures,
stubble and residues which are often of poor quality. In most areas, especially
during the dry period, common daily rations cannot even meet maintenance
requirements during several (at least six) months. Most ruminants are
consequently submitted to chronic under nutrition: they lose weight in
the dry season and early wet season, and this makes them more vulnerable
to disease. Poor nutrition affects work oxen performance, showing lower
efficiency in ploughing. Some other constraints include:

shortage of know-how among trained technical personnel and limited
practical skills of smallholders,

the livestock sub-sector as well as the cropping system are primarily
smallholder based, where management practices are very traditional using
no external inputs or technical advice, and

the extension service is very weak and there is a serious shortage
of qualified extension people.

5.
THE PASTURE RESOURCE

In terms of the forage and pasture resources not much research has been
done, most of the information that is therefore documented is really not
derived from research activity, but is based on general descriptions from
survey type work and some development projects. However, it should be
borne in mind that the initial potential for increasing the total feed
resource is by optimising the natural production of the specific ecological
zones.

The bulk of livestock feed (estimated to be about 90 percent) comes from
grazing on pastures and stubble, conserved crop residues (straw and stover
from sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, teff, maize, industrial crops) and
agro-industrial by-products that include linseed and sesame cake, cotton
seed and cotton seed cake and wheat bran. In general, forage supply shortages
are amplified by their poor quality. In addition agro-industrial by-products
are often inefficiently used and likewise crop residues are fed without
treatment or supplementation. The limited locally grown forages for livestock
production is not the only main problem, but management practices of forage
production and its inefficient utilization is the one that causes under
nutrition as a major factor in low productivity of livestock. The overall
feed balance in Eritrea indicates that feed is in short supply by 20 percent
in terms of energy and 30 percent in terms of protein requirements (FAO,
1994). The main feed resources are the following:

5.1 The Natural Pastures

Livestock are sustained by grazing the natural pasture comprising mostly
fast maturing species, and various shrubs and trees like Acacia albida,
Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia senegal, Terminalia brownii,
Acacia mellifera, Capparis decidua, Acacia tortilis, Acacia asak, Diospyros
abyssinica, Acacia nilotica, Ziziphus spina-christi andAlbizia
lebbeck are also available during and shortly after the rainy season.
Annual rainfall is the main factor influencing the availability of feed
on the pastures. According to FAO (1995) the production of feed, in dry
matter (DM) terms (kg/ha), under different rainfall regimes (mm/year)
and the relative animal carrying capacity (ha/Tropical Livestock Unit),
have been estimated as follows (Table 7):

Table 7. Estimated DM Production and Carrying Capacity

Rainfall (mm)

Total Above Ground DM Production
(kg/ha)

Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)

100

n.a.

over 20

200

450

17

300

675

10

400

900

7

500

1,125

6

600

1,130

4

The amount and quality of native pasture available to livestock varies
with altitude, rainfall, soil and cropping intensity. Depending on the
climate, different types of pasture grow in different agro-ecological
zones of Eritrea. A close relationship exists between pasture and climate
as a consequent of plant evolvement and adaptation over long periods of
time. Because of this interaction dominant natural pasture groups have
become associated with a particular climate. The status of the different
rangelands is discussed below.

Central highlands: The pastures in the highlands are infertile and
steep, hence fragile under continuous uncontrolled grazing regimes. The
grazing area has been shrinking over the years because of over-grazing,
extensive cultivation, improper utilization of water resources and deforestation.
The removal of forest cover and constant grazing have depleted the resources
of the browse layer. The pastures have no opportunity to recover because
hungry animals are continuously searching for any edible plant that sprouts.
Attempts to allow regeneration by closing land to grazing have shown promising
results and are becoming models for recovery. However, generally because
of the above-mentioned reasons the most palatable species of herbage and
browse are decreasing in quantity and leaving space for less palatable
species. If the present trend of deterioration persists for much longer,
it may not only destroy the palatable species completely but it could
also change the land to bare soil and initiate the process of desertification.
Natural grasses of the central highlands include species of Pennisetum
clandestinum , Chloris gayana, Digitaria abyssinica, Digitaria scalarum,
Setaria sphacelata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus mitis, Eragrostis cilianensis,
Eragrostis superba, Andropogon spp., Bromus pectinatus, Dactyloctenium
aegypticum, Hyparrhenia hirta, Brachiaria semiundulata, Heteropogon contortus,
Melinis repens, Avena fatua,Eleusine indica, Cynodon dactylon,
Denebra retroflexa, Echinochloa colona, Themeda triandra and Sporobolus
natalensis (GOSE, 1998a).

Western lowlands. In the wetter southern part of the western lowlands,
there appears to be no damage to the rangelands, except in those areas
adjacent to population centres. The intensity of grazing increases in
the drier northern part of the lowlands, where the grass becomes relatively
more scarce. The extensive and migratory system of animal husbandry allows
the rangelands to recover, unlike in the highlands. However, if the present
system of uncontrolled grazing continues with a larger animal population,
the fate of the rangelands will be similar to that of the highlands. The
vegetation of this agro-climatic zone presents a picture of great complexity,
comprising a wide variety of vegetation types, which may be called semi-arid
tropical. The dominant grasses observed are species such as Andropogon
dummeri, Digitaria diagonalis, Setaria sphacelata, Chloris virigata, Eragrostis
cylindriflora, Eragrostis cilianensis, Eragrostis superba, Cyndon nlemfuensis,
Aristida adscensionis, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Elytrophorus spicatus,
Aristida funiculata, Eragrostis macilenta, Eragrostis tremula, Cenchrus
biflorus, Enteropogon macrostachyus Cyperus rotundus and Aristida
mutabilis.

Eastern lowlands. This region is arid, having annual temperatures
varying from 28-38 0Cwith little seasonal variation.
Pastures are of low productivity and not in good condition in terms of
ground cover, as grasslands and browse are limited within a vast desert.
Grasses, which occur naturally, include species of Cynodon spp.,
Cenchrus prieuri, Eragrostis cilianesis, Aristida mutabilis, Eragrostis
cylindriflora, Eragrostis superba, Elytrophorus spicatus, Panicum triticeum,
Paspalidium gemminatum, Sporobolus spicatus, Cyperus rotundus, and
Aristida adscensionis

The pastures are overstocked mainly in the dry season. In many places
the soils are severely degraded and have lost much of their water-holding
capacity. The pastures are subject to sheet and gully erosion with the
onset of and for the duration of the rains. Erosion has resulted in several
areas in a significant shallowing of the topsoil generally, and poor seed
set in the heavily grazed areas. This is a significant constraint to productivity
in pasturelands, which consist almost entirely of annuals.

5.2 Other Feed Resources

After natural grazing, crop residues are the most important feed sources,
particularly in the highlands. Almost every farmer stores straw, mainly
barley, wheat and teff straws (in the highlands) and sorghum and pearl
millet stover in the lowlands. The animals would not survive until the
next rainy season if they did not have straw. Even with this supplement
they barely survive and are weakened. Stubble grazing of harvested fields
also gives the animals a chance to supplement their browse, or to enable
the grazing land to rest for some weeks. The villagisation of former pastoralists
in the lowlands and their transfer from pure pastoralism to livestock
raising and cropping has increased the demand for crop residues, which
are highly valued and commonly traded. However crops are reported to fail
five years in ten in the low rainfall belt and three years in ten in higher
rainfall areas in the lowlands. The supply of crop by-products, which
might otherwise be available for supplementation, is reduced or fails
entirely in these years.

Available high value feeds include industrial by-products such as brans,
oilseed cakes and brewers grains. The output of bran from the main large-scale
government processing plants is some 15,000 tons per year, and this is
sold to small-scale commercial livestock producers. The amount of bran
produced by the widely scattered small mills is not known. Oilseed cake
(cotton and sesame) production is about 5,000 to 6,000 tons per year.
About 10,000 tons of wet brewers grain are also produced by the Asmara
brewery (FAO, 1995). In the past, fish meal was an important source of
feed as Eritrea used to export some 5,000 tons per year in the early seventies.
This resource is now unused following the collapse of the fish industry,
but fisheries development is again emerging.

All these feed sources do not suffice to meet the requirements of the
producers, and there is a need to create conditions for the commercial
farmers to produce their own fodder, as in the past. At present, a few
producers who have land and irrigation facilities grow green fodder, mainly
lucerne (Medicago sativa). Some farmers feed prickly pear (Opuntia
ficus-indica), it is de-thorned and chopped before feeding [for details of cactus pear as forage and
a recent FAO publication entitled Opuntia
as forage]. However, cactus cladodes should be used with other feeds
to avoid the severe laxative effect which occurs when used as the sole
diet ingredient. During the dry season farmers usually run out of conserved
straw, which results in them feeding cactus in unlimited amount without
mixing with straws, which has resulted in considerable livestock deaths
particularly in the highlands.

5.3 Pasture conservation in reference to the Eco-zones

Lack of feed is a major constraint to livestock production and productivity
in Eritrea. This is mainly due to continuous drought, overgrazing and
acute shortage of grazing land in the highlands which exacerbates the
problem and limits livestock numbers. In order to feed livestock all the
year round, excess feed produced during the rainy season must be conserved
for the coming long dry season. The materials conserved for livestock
feed in each eco-zone differ in type and quality. However cereal straws
are commonly conserved in the highlands and stovers of sorghum and pearl
millet are conserved in the western lowlands.

In most eco-climatic zones the community owned enclosures for grazing
are taken to be a conservation system in which grazing is mainly for oxen
and the injured animals until they are cured, or for newly calved cows
for short periods. In the central highlands and the western lowlands grazing
in the community owned enclosed land is for all animals, and community
doesnt specify any class of animal. These enclosed lands are operational
only for a maximum of two to three months. Unlike in the western lowlands,
in the highlands oxen are allowed to graze daily, whether they plough
or not ,whereas for other animals they are excluded until the onset of
the main rain in June. The enclosures become free for all types of animals
from the end of June to early August, after which they are enclosed again.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER
RESOURCES

As indicated earlier, Eritrea is a relatively young independent nation
that is only now organizing its incipient livestock research agenda. In
terms of the forage and pasture resources little research has been carried
out; most of the information that is therefore documented is really not
derived from research activity, but is based on general description from
survey type work and some development projects. However, it should be
borne in mind that the initial potential for increasing the total feed
resource is by optimising the natural production of the specific ecological
zones. Under the current systems of constant and complete utilization
of the ground layer of natural forage, the total production of edible
grasses and herbs does not reach the maximum yield potential as determined
by the specific rainfall regime.

6.1 Cultivation and use of high quality legumes and grasses

Many farmers produce high value crops such as fruit and vegetables under
small-scale irrigation. There are opportunities to complement the cropping
system with the production of high quality, high value fodder. Production
of legumes such as lucerne, cowpeas and vetch would provide an extra source
of income while maintaining soil fertility. This has been carried out
in the Ministry of Agriculture regional offices and under the supervision
of the Animal Resource Department. Spate irrigation which it is often
done in the Sheab areas in the eastern escarpment zone provides an opportunity
for large-scale production of high quality fodder of sorghum and pearl
millet stover. This is a cost-effective approach as the water and fertile,
alluvial soil is delivered naturally. Renovation and expansion of spate
irrigation systems will increase their capacity to supply fodder, for
harvest and sale or use in animal production on site. Also, the integration
of forage with crops would optimise both its short-term financial returns
and long-term sustainability. Forage production fills a number of roles:
strips of sown, perennial pasture between crops prevents erosion and provides
high quality feed to supplement diets of crop straws; and leguminous forage
contributes to the nitrogen budget of the system, assisting in maintaining
soil fertility.

A number of exotic annual and perennial high potential grasses such as
oats (Avena sativa) Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese) Rhodes
grass (Chloris gayana) and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
as well as legumes have only been introduced quite recently to Eritrea
and are now being evaluated in adaptation studies. Preliminary trial results
on several of these forages at Halhale Research Station (Highlands) are
very promising. As an example, elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
yielded 25 ± 6 tons dry matter/ha/year in ten cuttings.

6.1.1 Under rainfed conditions

Cultivation of forages would increase the output from cut-and-carry feeding
systems and thus improve livestock performance, mainly in dairy and fattening
operations. Action should be taken on oat, vetch and sorghum-sudanese
for the Central Highlands Zones. Mixed cropping of vetch-oat should be
tried to produce good energy-protein balanced forage, from this mixture.
Some highly productive, perennial grasses could be also tried such as:
Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant grass), and Chloris gayana
(Rhodes grass). Similarly, establishment of mixed grass legume pastures
(Rhodes grass, Setaria and Desmodium) could be tried on
enclosed land On the other hand, feed crops for use in integrated livestock/crop
production system such as sorghum:Lablab and sorghum:cowpea should be
tested in the Highlands as well as in the Western Lowlands Zones. Lablab
purpureus is particularly interesting as a drought tolerant fodder.

6.1.2 Under traditional irrigation system

Areas under irrigation, both in the Central Highlands Zone and the Western
Lowlands, would focus their efforts mainly on high production forage legumes,
such as lucerne, cultivated for intensive cut-and carry feeding of dairy
animals. This would include peri-urban dairy producers. Some experience
is available in operating these systems but improved management and feed
utilization of irrigated pasture is still required. When the supply of
irrigation water is sufficient, trials could also include dryland species
and rainfed species; growing elephant grass on the boundary of irrigated
plots could be considered.

6.1.3 Under spate/flood irrigation

Spate irrigation provides an opportunity for large-scale production of
high quality fodder. This is a cost-effective approach as the water and
fertile, alluvial soils are delivered naturally. Renovation and expansion
of spate irrigation systems will increase their capacity to supply fodder,
either for harvest and sale or for use in animal production on site.

6.2 Pasture reseeding

The natural grasses of Eritrea are the best-adapted ones for each ecological
situation. This is indicated by the fact that varieties of such genera
as Andropogon,Cenchrus, Chloris and Digitaria are
now sown in many countries as improved pastures. However, some reseeding
may be desirable in areas where the grasses have been completely destroyed.
A higher priority is to introduce leguminous forage into natural grazing
as there are few high quality herbaceous legumes. Introduced forage species
(both woody and herbaceous) can be established by broadcasting them on
untreated rangeland. However, cultivating the site, creating micro-water
pondage and removing animals during plant development significantly increases
their chances of success. The chances of success with over-sowing programmes
is high in areas receiving at least 500 mm of rainfall annually with species
selected for their productivity and tolerance to drought. Anticipated
increases in dry matter yields are a minimum of 50%. Avoidance of constant
complete removal by livestock is required in order to obtain significant
benefit from such rangeland reinforcement. It is necessary, of course,
to correct the management faults which caused the deterioration.

6.3 Establishment of fodder trees and the use of foliage to supplement
animal diets

Browsing and grazing provide about 90 percent of feed consumed by ruminants
in Eritrea; their supply declines rapidly in quality during the long dry
season. Planting fodder trees is gaining popularity in many tropical countries
and particularly in the semi-arid zone where they have been developed
for multipurpose productive use. In Eritrea legume fodder trees/shrubs
have great potential as a source of protein and minor nutriments, to supplement
diets of large and small ruminants normally fed nutritionally unbalanced
and low digestibility roughage such as natural pasture, stubble and untreated
crop residues.

There are hundreds of fodder tree species in the world which belong to
more than 40 botanical families and a wide range of productive features
is also found within species. In Eritrea development efforts on fodder
trees would be carried out according to agro-ecological zones.

6.3.1 Highlands

Tree legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban
and the shrub Cajanus cajan have a very great potential for use
in both the Central Highlands Zones (CHZ) and in valley beds of the Western
Lowlands, in areas with 600 mm and over of rainfall. Cactus pear (Opuntia
spp.) is another forage found widespread in Eritrea particularly in the
highlands; which has not been suitably tested to date as a potentially
valuable feed. Spiny cactus is currently widely used for fruit in the
Highlands. Opuntia spp. are well known as an emergency drought
feed for cattle when, although grasses have become dry and over- grazed,
the cactus remains succulent and green.

6.3.2 Lowlands

Fodder tree research in Western and Eastern Lowland Zones must enjoy
the highest priority on account of the high density of the animal population
and frequently recorded feed shortages (drought, low rainfall) mainly
with settled people. The fodder tree development research programme for
the lowlands should be stratified to address specific features encountered
in each sub-ecological zone met in those areas. Special emphasis should
be given to studies related to the best adapted shrubs to arid and semi-arid
conditions, to species which are tolerant to poor soil fertility and low
rainfall and are drought resistant (species with deep-root systems that
have easier access to water and nutrients). The main fodder trees to be
examined would be the following:

Leucaena leucocephala and the shrub Cajanus cajan (Pigeon
pea) would be the main ones to be tested in zones where rainfall is in
excess of 400 mm, especially in the Western Escarpment Zone. Many natural
shrubs are well adapted to marginal and dry areas found in Lowland zones
and species such as Acacia albida, Acacia tortilis and Prosopis
juliflora are very resistant to drought; their foliage and pods are
often a valuable resource where plant cover is very poor.

Extensive pastoralism is practised in many parts of the Coastal Plains
Zones under hot desert climate and a very low rainfall of less than 200
mm. It is recommended that introduction trials of Atriplex nummularia
be done in these areas; it is one of the best-adapted shrubs in term of
forage. It makes a very significant contribution to the diet of camels
and small ruminants, especially during the dry seasons and droughts that
are common in this region.

6.4 Improvement of nutritive value of poor quality forage and grazing
land

The grazing of poor quality pasture and crop residues are the traditional
resources used in ruminant feeding . Two appropriate feeding technologies
based on better utilization of locally available feed resources have been
successfully tested and are now well established at Halhale Research Station
in the highlands: urea treated straw and the manufacture and utilization
of feed-blocks. Their effects on consumption and improvement of the nutritional
quality of the straws is substantial and their effects on animal growth
have also been positive. As a part of livestock research activities of
the Project "Strengthening the Agricultural Research and Extension
Division" (FAO-GCP/ERI/001/ITA), a three-month sheep trial cycle
was carried out (April-May-June 2000) aiming to investigate the effect
of urea treated straw and feed blocks on intake and liveweight of sheep
during the critical dry season (Kayouli and Asssefaw, 2000). Straw intake
was substantially increased (15 percent) when animals were supplemented
with feed blocks; urea treatment has notably increased straw intake (35
percent) and urea treatment and/or feed blocks have significantly improved
sheep liveweight during the critical dry season.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS
AND PERSONNEL

Department of Research and Human Resources Development, Livestock
Research Unit (Ministry of Agriculture-Eritrea).

Dr. Tzeggai Tesfai, Head Livestock Research Unit. Dr. Tseggai is a
Veterinarian by training and as such he was Head of the Central Diagnostic
Laboratory and currently he is conducting research in the use of locally
available genetic resources (animal and plant, including forage resources)
looking at strategies of matching nutritional management systems to
those of the rangelands as well as animal biotypes. At present his responsibilities
include the leadership of the livestock research in Eritrea that gives
him the responsibility of supervising several research staff and international
consultants in his area.

Tecle Abraham, is working with breeding and nutrition of sheep.

Kahsai Andegaorgis, is working with dairy cattle management.

Mihreteab Yemane, is working on range management and livestock production
systems.