autism

autism, also called classic autism or autistic disorder,
Communities for autistic adults, such as Cascina Rossago in Italy, create a living environment that caters to the unique needs of these individuals.Silvia Morana/Corbisdevelopmental disorder affecting physical, social, and language skills, with an onset of symptoms typically before age three. The term autism (from the Greek autos, meaning “self”) was coined in 1911 by Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler, who used it to describe withdrawal into one’s inner world, a phenomenon he observed in individuals with schizophrenia. The use of the word autism to describe the condition as it is known today originated in 1943, when Austrian-born American psychiatrist Leo Kanner distinguished the disorder from schizophrenia.

Classification and incidence

In programs such as PEERS (Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills), at the University of California, Los Angeles, autistic teens develop important social skills through activities such as playing games with others.Kim Johnson Flodin/APClassic autism, Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) are all included within an umbrella of disorders commonly referred to as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In contrast to classic autism, individuals with Asperger syndrome usually do not possess major cognitive difficulties, and their IQ is in the normal or even high range. In addition, they do not exhibit a delay in language acquisition. Individuals with PDD-NOS exhibit some but not all of the same symptoms as classic autism.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that ASDs affect 1 in every 88 children in the United States. In the United Kingdom, a school-based population study published in 2009 estimated prevalence at about 1 in every 100 children. In both countries, the disorders predominate in males, who are affected four to five times more often than females.

While best estimates have been determined, the incidence of autism varies significantly between and within countries, which is due in part to differences in the clinical definitions used for diagnosis. For example, in one region of the United Kingdom roughly one in every 185 individuals was found to be affected by an ASD. However, in the same region of the country classic autism was found to range in incidence between one in 250 and one in 400 individuals. In addition, there appears to have been a dramatic increase in the global incidence of autism between the mid-1900s and the early 2000s. However, it is not known whether there has been a true increase in the incidence of the disorder, since the increase could be due to the use of broader diagnostic criteria or other factors.

Possible causes and risk factors

The cause of autism remains unclear. However, it appears that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the disorder. A study published in 2011 that assessed pairs of twins in which at least one twin was affected by an ASD suggested that, while genetic factors contribute moderately to susceptibility, environmental factors contribute to a greater degree. Other research has indicated that genetic vulnerability to autism differs between males and females, with more mutations being needed to produce the condition in females compared with males. Increased genetic resiliency to autism in females lends support to the so-called female protective model, which attempts to explain the increased prevalence of autism in males. Interactions between genes and the environment likely play an important role in influencing susceptibility to autism.

An environmental risk factor that has been proposed for autism and other ASDs is maternal infection during pregnancy. Indeed, certain maternal infections have been associated with an increased incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia and autism) in offspring. Infection with agents such as the rubella virus activate the mother’s immune system, and such immunological activity in the early stages of pregnancy has been linked with damage to the developing brain of the embryo or fetus.

Other environmental factors associated with increased risk of autism include maternal use of certain antidepressants (namely SSRIs, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) during pregnancy and maternal and paternal age at the time of conception. A study of more than 4.9 million births that took place in the U.S. state of California between 1990 and 1999 revealed that about 5 percent of the nearly 12,160 children who later developed autism were born to older mothers. Mothers 40 years or older had the highest risk of giving birth to a child who would later develop autism. In contrast, older paternal age was a risk factor only when maternal age was 30 or younger. The underlying reasons for those associations, however, were unclear.

Sibling studies have revealed valuable information about the heritable nature of autism. For example, scientists found that a region on chromosome 15 is deleted or duplicated in some children with autism; defects in and near this region have been implicated in other disorders associated with neurobiological development, including Angelman syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and epilepsy.

Another proposed cause of autism emerged in 1998, when a paper published in the scientific journal The Lancet suggested an association between childhood vaccination and autism. This suggestion quickly developed into a controversial issue between parents and the scientific community. However, scientific evidence collected from extensive studies investigating the proposed association did not support a causal relationship. Further investigations revealed that the 1998 paper had violated research ethics and contained false claims, and thus in 2010 it was retracted by the journal.

Symptoms

The symptoms of autism are variable, ranging from mild to moderate to severe in nature. There are three major categories of symptoms: (1) abnormalities in social interaction; (2) abnormalities in communication; and (3) abnormalities in behaviours, interests, and activities, which are usually restricted and repetitive. Social communication problems include a narrow range of facial expressions, poor eye contact during interactions, and difficulty establishing relationships with peers. This may result in a decreased quality of their relationships and can lead to social avoidance when severely affected. Communication problems include delayed or lack of spoken language, poor conversation skills, lack of appropriate developmental play, and diminished gestures. Repetitive behaviour problems include stereotyped motor mannerisms, such as hand flapping, restricted interests, inflexible adherence to routines, and a preoccupation for parts of objects. For example, a child with autism may play with the wheels of a toy car instead of using the car in the proper manner as a vehicle. Some children become obsessed with specific objects such as buttons and sometimes form deep attachments to these objects. In addition, disruption of routines and schedules or familiar surroundings may cause agitation and tantrums.

An autistic child viewing a movie during a demonstration of magnetoencephalography (MEG). This technique can be combined with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to obtain information about abnormalities in brain function in individuals with autism.Joseph Kaczmarek/APOne striking feature of many young children with autism is an enlargement of head size. In the 1980s information gathered from autopsies of individuals with autism indicated that the brains of people affected by the disorder weighed more than normal. Later research comparing the rate of brain growth between individuals with an ASD and healthy individuals revealed that much of the brain enlargement associated with autism and other ASDs appears to occur prior to age two. This early period of overgrowth is followed by a period of slowed or average growth, resulting in a normal or slightly larger brain volume in older children with autism. In some cases, overgrowth is present as early as one to two months following birth. The unusual overgrowth pattern could be due to an enlargement of the brain white matter—the nerve fibres that connect one brain area to another. One region of the brain in which disproportionate enlargement of white matter has been observed is the temporal lobe. The temporal lobe specializes in the processing of auditory stimuli and houses the Wernicke area, a region of motor neurons involved in speech comprehension.

Other studies of the neuropathology of brain structures in autistic individuals have investigated the hippocampus, an area that is important for learning and memory; the amygdala, an area important for fear and emotion; the cerebellum, a motor and cognitive brain region; and the anterior cingulate cortex, a part of the cerebral cortex that is important for social and emotional behaviour. In children affected by autism these brain structures often exhibit increased cell density, with reduced cell size. In addition, the cerebellum typically has a reduction in Purkinje cells, which receive and integrate information from sensory and motor neurons.

A large amount of research has focused on the neurotransmitter systems in autism, and many studies have reported involvement of the serotonin (5-HT) and the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) systems. Early findings of elevated serotonin in the peripheral blood (hyperserotonemia) in many autistic individuals have led scientists to investigate whether similar abnormalities are found in the brain. However, the mechanisms by which the serotonin neurotransmitter system may contribute to symptoms of autism remain unclear. Some insight has been gained from investigation of an apparently rare mutation in humans involving a gene known as CELF6. Loss of function of this gene in mice has been linked to sharp declines in serotonin levels and autism-like behaviours, including deficits in communication and learning.

Much evidence has emerged demonstrating that levels of GABA and GABA receptors are altered in many parts of the autistic human brain. Key GABA-synthesizing enzymes known as GAD67 and GAD65 (glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 and 65, respectively) have been shown to be altered in specific cerebellar neurons in autism brains. Studies also have shown that between one-quarter and one-third of adolescents with autism have some type of seizure abnormality; this is suspected to be related to abnormalities in the GABA system.

Other studies of brain structure have revealed that, relative to healthy individuals, some people with autism have fewer neuronal connections extending from the frontal lobe to other brain regions. Deficits in neuronal communication and in the strength of neuronal connections between the frontal lobe and other areas of the brain were detected with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Structural and functional abnormalities in the frontal lobe of autistic persons have been linked to variations in a gene known as contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CNTNAP2), which normally is expressed in the frontal lobe during development and facilitates neuronal connectivity. Because the frontal lobe is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as reasoning and processing of emotions, CNTNAP2 variants resulting in a lack of neuronal connectivity may explain some of the behavioral symptoms evident in young children with autism.

Diagnosis and treatment

Autistic children gathering around a computer to watch a movie made with LEGO toys. LEGO therapy has been shown to help children with autistic disorders develop their social communication and turn-taking skills.Ron Tarver—MCT/LandovDiagnosis of autism is based on information derived from the patient’s medical history, from observations of his or her behaviour, and from screening. Classic autism can be diagnosed reliably after 16 months of age; refinements in screening methods have indicated that the condition may be detected as early as 12 months. Diagnosis is performed through screening for developmental delays and disabilities during regular medical check-ups and through screening for the absence of behaviours such as eye contact, pointing, and pretend play. The latter typically is performed with a parent-completed questionnaire, involving simple “yes” and “no” responses. A specific number of “no” responses to critical questions marks the threshold for identifying children at risk for ASDs. Children who are determined to be at risk for autism or other ASDs undergo thorough medical evaluation, which includes examination of hearing and vision, testing for genetic defects, and neurological and psychological evaluation. Once a preliminary diagnosis of autism has been made, a treatment program can be developed.

A therapist working in a one-on-one session with a five-year-old boy with autism to improve his cognitive skills. During their sessions the therapist subtly switches between play and learning.Drew Perine—The News Tribune/APThere is no cure for autism, and, in fact, effecting a cure for the condition is controversial ethically, because, although mental health problems and the development of language, empathy, and other skills and behaviours require intervention, talents such as systematization or memorization may not require help. Thus, intervention for autism is directed mainly toward modifying problematic behavioral symptoms. Effective interventions range from general special education to individually tailored methods that apply the person’s strengths and interests to the process of skill building. Examples of the latter include educational software and animation technologies that harness the individual’s natural interests, thereby holding his or her attention and facilitating learning. LEGO therapy is an example of an intervention that leverages an individual’s strengths in systematization to build social skills, such as turn taking and communication. Early intervention, including promoting language, developing social skills, and regulating behaviour, allow for significant improvement in many children.

Pharmacological treatments are used generally as a last resort for controlling autism symptoms, and they often are directed toward secondary symptoms, such as behavioral problems, anxiety, depression, aggression, and seizures. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft), have proved successful in helping some individuals overcome secondary symptoms. Clinical trials are being conducted on other drugs that may be useful in the treatment of autism.

Many individuals with autism also experience gastrointestinal problems. Thus, certain therapies are directed toward calming the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to an improvement in attention and learning in some autistic individuals.