Definitions of Religion:1) Substantive: Focus of the content or substance of religious belief as a belief in God or thesupernatural. Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above natureand cannot be explained scientifically.2) Functional: Social or psychological functions that religion may perform for individuals or society.Durkheim defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than aspecific belief in the supernatural. Often seen as inclusive, thus allowing us to include a wide range ofbeliefs and practices that perform functions such as integration.3) Social Constructionist: Takes an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of societythemselves define religion. They argue that it is not possible to produce a single universaldefinition of religion to cover all cases, since in reality different individuals and groups mean verydifferent things by religion.FunctionalismDurkheim: Believed religion binds people together. Religion created collective conscience: sharedbeliefs and values which direct and control behaviour and contribute to social solidarity. Placingthese values in the context of the sacred makes it likely that we will abide by the related socialnorms. Religion is therefore a key instrument of secondary socialisation.Durkheim studied the Australian Aboriginal tribes. He established how social order was created andmaintained in society, and found that religion was the source of all harmonious social life. Hebelieved that religious symbols like totems arose from within society, not outside it. The totemsymbolised both supernatural (being or beings, power or force beyond the laws of nature) powers andthe social life of the clan. He established totenism: the worship of an object (plan/animal) that hasa divine significance. The totemic rituals reinforced the group's solidarity and sense of belonging. Hebelieved that worshipping these totems they were worshipping society itself. He also argued that allsocieties are divided into sacred (symbols and ceremonies that have a holy meaning) and profane(everything that makes up our ordinary everyday lives). He also sees religion as the source of ourintellectual/cognitive abilities. Religion is the origin of the concepts and categories we need forreasoning, communicating and understanding the world.Criticisms: Ignored the importance of individual religious experience he had a static view (noexplanation of new religions/religious leaders). His work was based on a smallscale preliteratesociety workings do not explain how it works for complex, religiously diverse modern society thusmaking it hard to generalise.Malinowski: Emphasised more on psychological functions for the individual. He accepted thatreligion played a central role in promoting social solidarity but developed as a response to theneeds of the individual, in situations which evoke anxiety, uncertainty and tension that threatensocial life. He identified two events where religion is involved Life crises (births, deaths, puberty,marriage) that are potentially disruptive and involve a religious ritual. Situations where the outcomeis uncertain and uncontrollable creating anxiety and stress, e.g. Trobriand Islanders (found ritualsassociated with fishing in open sea but not when sailing in the lagoon (safer). Tension generated byfishing was threat to community stability).Criticism: Work was done in a preindustrial society (these rituals are now seen as odd).Parsons: He saw religion as the primary source of meaning for members of a society. It alsoprovides and legitimises the core values of a culture and thereby promotes social solidarity andstability. Religion provides meaning by furnishing answers to the eternal questions about humanityand the world such as those concerning suffering, justice and death. Often there appears no naturaljustice in such happenings and they threaten to undermine people's sense that life has meaning. Yetreligion offers answers. Suffering test people's faith punishes them for their sins and gives dignityfor those who struggle in the face of adversity villains receive their comeuppance in theafterlife. By providing explanations of events, particularly those which threaten our sense of meaning,religion makes sense of the apparently meaningless, helps people adjust to their situation.

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Religion also provides core values and norms, which it sacralises and legitimises. Parsons arguesthat values derived from and sacralised by, Protestantism in USA, such as democracy,selfdiscipline and upward mobility. Religion also sacralises and supports the norms like universalaccess to legal rights and life changes and the formal separation of the state and religion. Hence, byestablishing and legitimising values and social norms, religion further promotes social consensuswhich Parsons argues as a pre requisite for order and stability in society.…read more

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Criticisms: Ignores aspects of religion (like meanings of suffering, life and death) to oversimplify acomplex phenomenon. Ideological manipulation can only explain why it takes certain emphasisand interpretations. It isn't a comprehensive analysis of religion.FeminismTend to agree with Marxists that religion is a force preventing change and maintaining the powerof the most powerful group in society (but men not ruling class). See religion as patriarchal, maledominated and serving the interests of men.…read more

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He was aware that churches were supporting ruling class interests but didn't believe itwas inevitable. He saw religious beliefs/practices could develop that would guide challenges tothe ruling class as the church is not being directly under their control. The working class couldchallenge the dominant class through radical ideas. He argued that at different historical times,popular forms of religion had emerged which expressed and supported the interests of oppressedclasses.…read more

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FundamentalismPattern of religious militancy by which selfstyled true believers attempt to arrest the erosion ofreligious identity and create viable alternatives to secular institutions and behaviour.Fundamentalists often return to the beliefs of an original text which their religion is based on,claiming that other followers have strayed away from the original teachings. It is often seen as aresponse to a secularisation. Also can be seen as a response by religious individuals and groupsto the uncertainties of the postmodern world.…read more

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Liberation Description of religion being used as a The movement since then lost influence Theology revolutionary force. Catholic priests' since 1980's. Casanova: liberation theology stood up against ruling class to help played an important role in resting terror the poor in countries and bringing about democracy in Latin Growth of rural poverty, abuse of human American countries. Maduro: believes rights and growing commitments religion can be a revolutionary force for among catholic priests to an ideology change (religiously inspired social change).…read more

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SecularisationSecularisation: Process of becoming less religious. Secularisation thesis: claim that social change(industrialisation/scientific knowledge) would lead to the weakening/disappearance of religion.Comte 3 stages of human history, each characterised by intellectual beliefs: 1) Theological religiousbeliefs were dominant in society 2) Metaphysical emphasis on the importance of philosophy 3)Positive characterised by the dominance of science and rational thought resulting in the eventualdisappearance of religion.Woodhead and Heelas >Disappearance thesis: Claim that religion will decline on a societal andindividual level.…read more

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But religious enthusiasm is a blip in the overall events. trend to secularisation. Secularisation theorists tend to focus on Changes in Society: In the last decade we are mainstream religion (churches and able to buy things like alcohol on Sunday was denominations). They ignore newer religions inconceivable in the 19th century. that have been gaining for followers in recent decades. Based on teleological assumption and the product of Marxist/rationalist ideology.…read more

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Criticisms: Voas and Crockett: surveys from 19832000 show both church attendance/belief in God aredeclining, it should have shown high levels of belief. Bruce: if people don't invest time in churchthen this reflects their declining strength in beliefs.Spiritual Shopping: HervieuLegar> cultural amnesia (loss of collective memory) children used to betaught religion and parish church but now few parents teach their kids about religion and let themdecide what to believe.…read more

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Europe and America.Norris and Inglehart found high levels of participation in catholic countries but low in countries ofreligious pluralism. Beckford sees this theory as unsociological as it assumes people are`naturally' religious and fails to explain the reasons why the make such choices.Existential Security TheoryNorris and Inglehart: reject religious market theory as it fails to explain the variations in religiosityin different societies.…read more