﻿ABOUT PLANTS﻿

﻿Plants also called Green plants are living multicellular organisms of the Kingdom Plantae.﻿﻿﻿Edited by Ho Dinh HaiLong An - Vietnam﻿Updated: 13-3-2014﻿

﻿1- Definitions and Terms of Plants﻿

Rainforest plants

High levels of plants in Rain Forest

1.1- Definition of Plant in Oxford DictionaryPLANT: A living organism of the kind exemplified by trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, ferns, and mosses, typically growing in a permanent site, absorbing water and inorganic substances through its roots, and synthesizing nutrients in its leaves by photosynthesis using the green pigment chlorophyll.- More example sentence synonyms: A small plant, as distinct from a shrub or tree: garden plants Plants differ from animals in lacking specialized sense organs, having no capacity for voluntary movement, having cell walls, and growing to suit their surroundings rather than having a fixed body plan.- Origin:Old English plante'seedling', plantian(verb), from Latin planta 'sprout, cutting' (later influenced by French plante) and plantare'plant, fix in a place'. - More definitions of plant in: The US English dictionary The English Synonyms The US English SynonymsSource:Definition of plant in Oxford dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/plant1.2- Definition and terms of plant from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia1.2.1- Plants general﻿PLANTS, also called green plants (Viridiplantae in Latin), are livingmulticellular organisms of the KingdomPlantae. They form a clade that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts and mosses, as well as, depending on definition, the green algae. Plants exclude the red and brownalgae, and some seaweeds such as kelp, the fungi, archaea and bacteria. Green plants have cell walls with cellulose and characteristically obtain most of their energy from sunlightvia photosynthesisusing chlorophyll contained in chloroplasts, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are also characterized by sexual reproduction, modular and indeterminate growth, and an alternation of generations, although asexual reproduction is common.PLANTSare one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided; the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) who distinguished between plants which generally do not move, and animals which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus (1707-1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, these two groups became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. Outside of formal scientific contexts, the term " plant " implies an association with certain traits, such as being multicellular, possessing cellulose, and having the ability to carry out photosynthesis. Precise numbers are difficult to determine, but as of 2010, there are thought to be 300-315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, some 260-290 thousand, are seed plants. Green plants provide most of the world's molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of the earth's ecologies, especially on land. Plants described as grains, fruits and vegetables form mankind's basic foodstuffs, and have been domesticated for millennia. Plants serve as ornaments and, until recently and in great variety, they have served as the source of most medicines and drugs. Their scientific study is known as botany, a branch of biology. The way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors.﻿

1.2.2- Current definitions of PlantaeWhen the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxon, it usually refers to one of four concepts. From least to most inclusive, these four groupings are:

﻿This group includes the land plants plus various groups of green algae, including stoneworts. The names given to these groups vary considerably as of July 2011. Viridiplantae encompass a group of organisms that possess chlorophylla and b, have plastids that are bound by only two membranes, are capable of storing starch, and have cellulose in their cell walls. It is this clade which is mainly the subject of this article.﻿

﻿Another way of looking at the relationships between the different groups which have been called "plants" is through a cladogram, which shows their evolutionary relationships. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet completely settled, but one accepted relationship between the three groups described above is shown below. Those which have been called "plants" are in bold. Source: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant﻿

2- Different Types of Plants

There are many ways to divide plants into some different groups depending on the aims for using. In that we have the normal way (using in life) and scientific way (using in science).2.1- Different Kinds of Plants In normal way we can divide Plants into many groups as:

a- Plants without flowers (Lower grade plants)a.1- Algae: green, brown and red- Green Algae This is a very varied group of plants with many thousands of individual species. Most green algae live in water. Some live where it is very damp all the time. They hate being dried out.- Brown Algae Brown algae is more common in the ocean than in freshwater. Some of the tallest plants in the world are brown algae. Giant kelp, for example, is common in shallow oceans- especially off the coast of California. It can be as tall as 250 feet!- Red Algae The red algae or Rhodophyta are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae, and also one of the largest, with about 5,000-6,000 species of mostly multicellular, marinealgae, including many notable seaweeds. Other references indicate as many as 10,000 species; more detailed counts indicate about 4,000 in about 600 genera (3,738 marine species in 546 genera and 10 orders (plus the unclassifiable); 164 freshwater species in 30 genera in eight orders).

A single-celled algae viewed through a very powerful electron microscope. This one is a sea dweller but many similar kinds live in freshwater ponds and lakes.﻿﻿ Source﻿﻿: Photo by NEON ja, colored by Richard Bartz

Green algae organisms

Green, Brown and Red Algae

a.2- Mosses Mosses are a botanical division (phylum) of small, soft plants that are typically 1-10 cm (0.4-3.9 in) tall, though some species are much larger, like Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world which can grow to 50 cm (20 in) in height. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems. At certain times mosses produce spore capsules which may appear as beak-like capsules borne aloft on thin stalks. There are approximately 12,000 species of moss classified in the Bryophyta. The division Bryophyta formerly included not only mosses, but also liverworts and hornworts. These other two groups of bryophytes are now placed in their own divisions.

Mosses on stones

Mountain mosses

a.3- LiverwortsLiverworts or Marchantiophyta or Hepaticsare a division of non-vascularbryophyteland plants. Like other bryophytes, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic information. It is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts. Some of the more familiar species grow as a flattened leafless thallus, but most species are leafy with a form very much like a flattened moss. Leafy species can be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses on the basis of a number of features, including their single-celled rhizoids. Leafy liverworts also differ from most (but not all) mosses in that their leaves never have a costa (present in many mosses) and may bear marginal cilia (very rare in mosses). Other differences are not universal for all mosses and liverworts, but the occurrence of leaves arranged in three ranks, the presence of deep lobes or segmented leaves, or a lack of clearly differentiated stem and leaves all point to the plant being a liverwort. Liverworts are typically small, usually from 2-20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long, and are therefore often overlooked. However, certain species may cover large patches of ground, rocks, trees or any other reasonably firm substrate on which they occur. They are distributed globally in almost every available habitat, most often in humid locations although there are desert and arctic species as well. Some species can be a nuisance in shady green-houses or a weed in gardens.

Some forms of Liverworts

Liverwort Life Cycle

﻿a.4- Ferns A fernis any one or more of a group of roughly 12,000species of plants belonging to the botanical group known as Pteridophyta. Unlike mosses, they have xylem and phloem making them vascular plants). They have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants. Ferns reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. Most ferns have what are called fiddleheads. The fiddleheads expand into what are called fronds, which are each delicately divided. By far the largest group of ferns is the leptosporangiate ferns, but ferns as defined here (also called monilophytes) include horsetails, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns. The term pteridophyte traditionally refers to ferns and a few other seedless vascular plants (see classification section below), although some recent authors have used the term to refer strictly to the monilophytes. Ferns first appear in the fossil record 360 million years ago in the Devonian Era but many of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, after flowering plants came to dominate many environments. Ferns are not of major economic importance, but some are grown or gathered for food, as ornamental plants, for remediating contaminated soils, and have been the subject of research for their ability to remove some chemical pollutants from the air. Some are significant weeds. They also play a role in mythology, medicine, and art.﻿

Fern plants in Australia

A fern unrolling a young frond

Fern stems used as vegetable

﻿a.5- HorsetailsThe horsetails are a class in the Pteridophyta (ferns). They were one of the most important plant groups in the Palaeozoicera. They are seen in the coal measures of the Carboniferous period, and some were trees reaching up 30 metres. The group is now almost extinct, but one genus survives. They are vascular plants that reproduce by spores and not by seeds. The name horsetail arose because the branched species somewhat resemble a horse's tail. Equisetum is the only living genus of horsetails. The name Equisetum comes from the Latin (equus = horse; and seta = bristle). The genus includes 15species. Horsetails are native on all continents except Australasia and Antarctica. They are perennial plants, either herbaceous, they back in winter (most temperate species) or they are evergreen (some tropical species, and the temperate species Equisetum hyemale, E. scirpoides, E. variegatum and E. ramosissimum). They mostly grow 0.2-1.5 m tall, though E. telmateia can exceptionally reach 2.5 m, and the tropical American species E. giganteum 5 m, and E. myriochaetum 8 m. In these plants the leaves are very small, in whorls joined together to make sheaths around the stem. The stems are green and photosynthetic, also distinctive in being hollow, jointed and ridged, usually with 6-40 ridges). There may or may not be whorls of branches at the nodes; when present, these branches are identical to the main stem except smaller. A superficially similar flowering plant (Hippuris, "mare's tail"), unrelated to the genus Equisetum, is occasionally misidentified as a horsetail.﻿

Horsetail plant

Horsetail (Equisetum telmateia)

The flowering plant genus Hippurus looks similar as horsetail

a.6- Fungi Fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) A fungus is any member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeastsand molds(British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the Plant Kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil, and in the case of mushrooms form conspicuous fruiting bodies, which sometimes bear resemblance to plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Nowadays these organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, protists, and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants and some protists, which contain cellulose, and unlike the cell walls of bacteria. These and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (is a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης, mukēs, meaning "fungus"). Mycology has often been regarded as a branch of botany, even though it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy. Genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.

Micro fungi

Edible fungi

b- Plants with flowers (High grade plants)

b.1- GrassesGrasses are in a sense herbaceous plants; however, they cannot be classified as herbs. The main difference between herbs and grasses is that herbs have some kind of stem (though it is not stiff, sturdy or woody); however grasses completely lack stems. They might have a rhizome or bulb-like structure, but a true stem is absent. Grasses have adapted to almost all kinds of habitats - from marshes to deserts. They are also widespread, in that they are found in almost every part of the world. Grasses can be very short (as in case of turfs) or very tall (as in case of food crops). Grasses are hence very versatile forms of vegetation. Grasses form primary food of many herbivores, including insects, rodents, deers, kangaroos, rabbits, cattle, sheep, horses, etc. Grasses, or more technically graminoids, are monocotyledonous, usually herbaceousplants with narrow leaves growing from the base. They include the "true grasses", of the family Poaceae (also called Gramineae), as well as the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Sedges include many wildmarsh and grassland plants, and some cultivated ones such as water chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) and papyrus sedge (Cyperus papyrus). Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, sprouted grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky, vodka), pasture for livestock, thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, sports turf, basket weaving and many others.

Grass fields

Rice is one kind of grasses

Structure of grass

b.2- Vines A vine (Latinvīnea "grapevine", "vineyard", from vīnum "wine") in the narrowest sense is the grapevine (Vitis), but more generally it can refer to any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent, that is to say climbing, stems or runners. The word also can refer to such stems or runners themselves, for instance when used in wicker work. In the United Kingdom, the term "vine" applies almost exclusively to the grapevine. The term "climber" is used for all climbing plants. Vines, or creepers, are those plants that need a solid support for their growth. They are adapted to a crawling kind of growth habit. They lack a strong, stiff stem that will bear the weight of the plant. Majority of the creepers show adaptations that enable them to gain support by anchoring to a solid surface. For example, many vines grow tendrils; these are curled structures that twirl around and firmly hold on to a solid vertical support and help the plant to grow. Some vines develop thorns on their ventral side; these cling onto rocks or walls and other similar textured or uneven surfaces.

A tendril of vine

Vine grapes

b.3- Herbs The word "herb" is pronounced /ˈɜrb/ by most U.S. and Canadian speakers and some dialects in the UK, or /ˈhɜrb/ by other U.S. speakers and all other English-speaking countries. Herbs are non-woody flowering plants. In general use, herbs are any plants used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume. Commonly, a herb is a plant that is usually cultivated for economical gains by means of selling its parts (particularly flowers, leaves, seeds, and sometimes stem). Herbs are quite small in size (usually not more than several feet off the ground). Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs as referring to the leafy green parts of a plant (either fresh or dried), from a "spice", a product from another part of the plant (usually dried), including seeds, berries, bark, roots and fruits. In botanical English the word "herb" is also used as a synonym of " herbaceous plant ". Herbs have been largely cultivated by humans for their culinary, medicinal and / or cosmetic value and importance. Herbs can be commonly cultivated in small pots, as well as in the ground. Many people prefer growing herbs for the use in different human aspects, and also because they do not require much space. Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary, medicinal, and in some cases spiritual usage. General usage of the term "herb" differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs. In medicinal or spiritual use any of the parts of the plant might be considered "herbs", including leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, resin, root bark, inner bark (and cambium), berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions of the plant.

Some Culinary Herbs

Basil and green onions, common culinary herbs

b.4- Shrubs﻿ A shrub (low tree) is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 6 m (20 ft) tall. Plants of many species may grow either into shrubs or trees, depending on their growing conditions. Small, low shrubs, generally less than 2 m (6.6 ft) tall, such as lavender, periwinkle and most small garden varieties of roses, are often termed subshrubs or bushes. Unlike a tree, a shrub is much shorter (never more than 8 m tall) and lacks a primary stem or trunk. Shrubs are usually quite messy, with many secondary branches. However, a well-trimmed shrub is a pleasing sight. Shrubs are intermediate between herbs and trees, and can be cultured to develop into herbs or trees, depending on the cultivation conditions. Hardened shrubs may evolve into tree-like plants. However, they can still be identified as shrubs. Shrubs may be evergreen or may shed their leaves at maturity (deciduous). An area of cultivated shrubs in a park or garden is known as a shrubbery. When clipped as topiary, suitable species or varieties of shrubs develop dense foliage and many small leafy branches growing close together. Many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning, in which hard cutting back to a 'stool' results in long new stems known as "canes". Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure and character. Shrubs in common garden practice are generally considered broad-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as Mountain Pine and Common Juniper are also shrubby in structure. Species that grow into a shrubby habit may be either deciduous or evergreen.

Many kinds of Shrubs

Shrubs under Trees

b.5- Tree A tree in botany is a perennialplant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting leaves or branches. A tree, botanically, is defined as a woody plant with numerous secondary branches supported clearly off the ground on a main stem (called trunk) and with conspicuous apical dominance. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants, only plants that are usable as lumber or only plants above a specified height. At its broadest, trees include the taller palms, the tree ferns, bananas and bamboo. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk. This trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier. Below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely; they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the branches divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy by photosynthesis, providing the food needed by the tree for its growth and development. Trees are not a taxonomic group but are a number of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants and make full use of the sunlight. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, for example, the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine is the oldest tree in the world, and is 4,844 years old! The tallest known specimen on Earth is 115.6 m (379 ft) and they have a theoretical maximum height of 130 m (426 ft). Trees have been in existence on the Earth for 370 million years. Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues. Trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rain forests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world. Trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. Most of the fruits we eat are borne on trees. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of land available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always been revered and they play a role in many of the world's mythologies.

Example of tree

Forest trees

b.6- Unusual Plants - Desert Plants: These plants are adapted to the arid and hostile environment of a desert. These plants have the capability to store water. They also have the ability to use water efficiently. They usually have few or no leaves, which greatly reduces transpiration. Plant species like cacti and succulents, have dense flesh which is capable of storing large amounts of water. Several plants have developed the typical spikes and spines to prevent them from being eaten by animals.

Desert plants

Some kinds of desert plants

- Epiphytes: They depend on other plants for support growing on trunks and branches. They are also dubbed 'air plants'. Mosses and orchids are instances of epiphytic plants. Though they are not parasitic, they can be deleterious to their hosts. They have an advantage over plants growing on the ground as they have a relatively better access to sunlight. They obtain nutrients from the air or water around them. They use photosynthesis for the process of nutrition.

Epiphytic orchids

Tank bromeliad

- Carnivorous Plants: Carnivorous plants normally grow in marshlands, bogs and areas of waterlogged, acidic and nitrogen poor soil (as in case of Pitcher plant); however, they may be found on grasslands as well (as in case of Purple Pitcher plant). carnivorous plants get their nitrogen intake by eating insects. The insect traps of a carnivorous plants use different attractants to invite prey. Other examples of carnivorous plants include Venus Flytrap, Utricularia, etc.

carnivorous plant

Dionaea Muscipula known as Venus Flytrap

- Aquatic Plants: These plants grow in presence of abundant water. Aquatic plants have a lot of adaptations that enable the to survive the persistent wet conditions that they grow in. For example, the stems are unusually supple and bend easily with the flow of water, or the water current. The leaves have a thick waxy coating to prevent water from collecting. The plant is also quite buoyant (especially floating plants). Example of aquatic plants are hydra, water hyacinth, water lily, etc.

Water Hyacinth

Lotus Flowers

﻿- And more...﻿

Special plant 1

Special plant 2

Special plant 3

2.2- Different Types of Plants in Sciences2.2.1- Plant taxonomy and plant systematicsa- IntroductionPlant taxonomy is the science that finds, identifies, describes, classifies, and namesplants. Thus making it one of the main branches of taxonomy(the science that finds, describes, classifies, and names living things). Plant taxonomy is closely allied to plant systematics, and there is no sharp boundary between the two. In practice, "Plant systematics" involves relationships between plants and their evolution, especially at the higher levels, whereas "plant taxonomy" deals with the actual handling of plant specimens. The precise relationship between taxonomy and systematics, however, has changed along with the goals and methods employed. Plant taxonomy is well known for being turbulent, and traditionally not having any close agreement on circumscription and placement of taxa. b- Identification, classification and descriptionThree goals of plant taxonomy are the identification, classification and description of plants. The distinction between these three goals is important and often overlooked. - Plant identification is the determination of the identity of an unknown plant by comparison with previously collected specimens or with the aid of books or identification manuals. The process of identification connects the specimen with a published name. Once a plant specimen has been identified, its name and properties are known. - Plant classification is the placing of known plants into groups or categories to show some relationship. Scientific classification follows a system of rules that standardizes the results, and groups successive categories into a hierarchy. For example, the family to which the lilies belong is classified as follows:Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida Order: Liliales Family: Liliaceae Genus: ... Species: ... The classification of plants results in an organized system for the naming and cataloging of future specimens, and ideally reflects scientific ideas about inter-relationships between plants. - Plant description is a formal description of a newly discovered species, usually in the form of a scientific paper.c- List of systems of plant taxonomy﻿ SeeList of systems of plant taxonomy﻿ This list of systems of plant taxonomy presents “taxonomic systems” used in plant classification. A taxonomic system is a coherent whole of taxonomic judgments on circumscription and placement of the considered taxa. It is only a “system” if it is applied to a large group of such taxa (for example, all the flowering plants). There are two main criteria for this list: - A system must be taxonomic, that is deal with a large number of plants, by their botanical names. - Secondly it must be a system, i.e. deal with the relationships of plants. Although thinking about relationships of plants had started much earlier (see history of plant systematics), such systems really only came into being in the 19th century, as a result of an ever increasing influx from all over the world of newly discovered plant species. The 18th century saw some early systems, which are perhaps precursors rather than full taxonomic systems. A milestone event was the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus which serves as the starting point of binomial nomenclature for plants. By its size this would qualify to be on this list, but it does not deal with relationships, beyond assigning plants into genera.Note that a system is not necessarily monolithic and often goes through several stages of development, resulting in several versions of the same system. When a system is widely adopted, many authors will adopt their own particular version of the system. The Cronquist system is well known for existing in many versions. 1- Linnaeus systems (1735-1751) - Systema Naturae, 1st edition, 1735 - Systema Naturae, 10th edition, 1758 (vol. 1), 1759 (vol. 2) - Species Plantarum, 1753 - Genera Plantarum, 1737 (1st ed.), 1753 (5th ed.) - Philosophia Botanica, 1751 2- Adanson system (1763) - Familles naturelles des plantes, 1763.3- De Jussieu system (1789) - A.L. de Jussieu (1789). Genera Plantarum, secundum ordines naturales disposita juxta methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi exaratam. (available online at Gallica) 4- De Candolle system (1819-1873) - A. P. de Candolle (1819). Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, ou exposition des principes de la classification naturelle et de l’art de décrire et d’etudier les végétaux (2nd ed.). - A. P. de Candolle et al. (1824-1873). Prodromus systemati naturalis regni vegetabilis sive enumeratio contracta ordinum, generum specierumque plantarum huc usque cognitarum, juxta methodi naturalis normas digesta. (available online at Gallica) 5- Lindley system (1830-1845) - Lindley (1830). An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. (available online at BHL) - Lindley (1845). The Vegetable Kingdom. (available online at BHL)6- Bentham & Hooker system (1862-1833) - G. Bentham & J.D. Hooker (three volumes, 1862-1883). Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita. (available online at Gallica) 7- Baillon system (1867-1894) - H. Baillon (thirteen volumes, 1867-1894). Histoire des plantes. 8- Eichler system (1883) - Eichler (1883; 3rd edition). Syllabus der Vorlesungen über Phanerogamenkunde. 9- Engler system (also see Phylogenetic System) (1887-1924) - A. Engler & K. Prantl (1887-1915; 2nd edition, 1924-). Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. 10- Dalla Torre & Harms system (1900-1907) - K.W. von Dalla Torre & H. Harms (1900-1907). Genera Siphonogamarum, ad systema Englerianum conscripta. 11- Bessey system (1915) - Charles E. Bessey (1915). "The phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden(Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 2 (1/2): 109-164. doi: 10.2307 /2990030. JSTOR2990030.12- Wettstein system (1901-1935) - R. Wettstein (in two volumes, 1901-1908; 2nd edition, 1911; 3rd edition, 1923-24; 4th edition, 1933-35). Handbuch der systematischen Botanik. 13- Rendlesystem (1904-1925) - Alfred Barton Rendle. The Classification of Flowering Plants 1904, 1925 14- Lotsy system (1907-1911) - Johannes Paulus Lotsy. Vorträge über botanische Stammesgeschichte, gehalten an der Reichsuniversität zu Leiden. Ein Lehrbuch der Pflanzensystematik. 1907-1911 15- Benson system (1957) - Lyman David Benson. Plant Classification 195716- Hutchinson system (1926-1973) - J. Hutchinson (two volumes, 1926-1934; 2nd edition 1959; 3rd edition, 1973). The families of flowering plants, arranged according to a new system based on their probable phylogeny. 17- Melchior system (1964) - H. Melchior (1964). Adolf Engler, ed. Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (12th edition, II. Band ed.). (also known as modified Engler system, in Angiospermae) 18- Takhtajan system (1966-1997) - A. Takhtajan (in Russian, 1966). A system and phylogeny of the flowering plants. - A. Takhtajan (1969, transl. from Russian by C. Jeffrey). Flowering plants: origin and dispersal. ISBN0-05-001715-2. - A. Takhtajan (1980). "Outline of the classification of flowering plants (Magnoliophya)". Botanical Review46 (3): 225–359.doi:10.1007/BF02861558. - A. Takhtajan (1997). Diversity and classification of flowering plants. ISBN0-231-10098-1. 19- Cronquist system (1968-1988) - A. Cronquist (1968; 2nd edition 1988). The evolution and classification of flowering plants. ISBN0-89327-332-5. - A. Cronquist (1981). An integrated system of classification of flowering plants. ISBN0-231-03880-1.20- Goldberg system (1986-1989) - Aaron Goldberg (1986). "Classification, Evolution and Phylogeny of the Families of Dicotyledons". Smithsonian Contributions to Botany58: 1-314. (available online: Full text (PDF) here) [there is also a comparison among 11 Dicotyledons systems since 1960 until 1985]. - Aaron Goldberg (1989). "Classification, Evolution and Phylogeny of the Families of Monocotyledons". Smithsonian Contributions to Botany71: 1–73. (available online: Full text (PDF) here). 21- Dahlgren system (1975-2000) - R.M.T. Dahlgren (1975). "A system of classification of angiosperms to be used to demonstrate the distribution of characters". Bot. Notiser128: 119-147. - R.M.T. Dahlgren (1980). "A revised system of classification of angiosperms". Bot. J. Linn. Soc.80 (2): 91–124.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x. - R.M.T. Dahlgren (1983). "General Aspects of Angiosperm Evolution and Macrosystematics". Nordic Journal of Botany3: 119–149. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x. - R.M.T. Dahlgren & al. (1985). The families of the monocotyledons: structure, evolution, and taxonomy. ISBN0-387-13655-X.- G. Dahlgren (1989). "An updated Angiosperm Classification". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society100 (3): 197-203. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01717.x. 22- Thorne system (1992) (also see, Thorne system, 2000) - R.F. Thorne (1968). "Synopsis of a putative phylogenetic classification of flowering plants". Aliso6 (4): 57-66. - R.F. Thorne (1983). "Proposed new alignments in the angiosperms". Nordic J. Bot.3: 85-117. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01447.x. - R.F. Thorne (1992). "Classification and geography of flowering plants". Botanical Review58 (3): 225-348. doi:10.1007/BF02858611. - R.F. Thorne (1992). "An updated phylogenetic classification of the flowering plants". Aliso13: 365-389. - R.F. Thorne (2000). "The classification and geography of the flowering plants: dicotyledons of the class Angiospermae".Botanical Review66 (4): 441-647. doi:10.1007/BF02869011.23- Kubitzki system(1990- ) - K. Kubitzki & al. (1990 ongoing). The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. 24- Reveal system (1999) - Reveal System of Classification 1999 25- Judd system (1998-2008) (Modified APG) - Judd, Walter S. (2008). Plant systematics: a phylogenetic approach. 3rd ed.. Sinauer Associates. ISBN0-87893-407-3. Retrieved 29 January 2014. 26- APGsystem (1998-2009)+ APG I (1998) - APG (1998). "An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden(Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 85 (4): 531-553. doi: 10.2307 /2992015. JSTOR2992015. - W.S. Judd & al. (1999; 2nd edition, 2002). Plant systematics: a phylogenetic approach. ISBN0-87893-403-0.+ APG II (2003) - APG (2003). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society141 (4): 399-436. doi: 10.1046 /j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x. (Available online: Abstract | Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF)) + APG III (2009) - APG (2009). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III.". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society161 (2): 399-436. doi: 10.1111 /j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x. (Available online: [APG III])27- Shipunov system (1991-) (Available online: Full text PDF ) 28- Other systems - Endlicher system [See here] - Skottsberg system - Gundersen system - Hallier system - Van Tieghem system - Mez system - Tippo system- Pulle system - Soó system - Novák system - Deyl system - Stebbins system - Rouleau system - Rafinesque system [See here] - Smith system (cryptogams) - Hoek, Mann and Jahns system (algae)29- Common used systems - Bessey system - Cronquist system - Melchior system - APG system- APG II system - APG III system Source: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy. 2.2.2- Scientific classification of plants. a- IntroductionPlants have been in existence since a very long time. Did you know there are more than 350,000 known species of plants? Plants are the only organisms that exhibit apical dominance; they can be considered practically immortal, for the vast majority of them keep on growing through their lifetime. Plants are also the only organisms that can carry out photosynthesis - the process by which environmental carbon dioxide. Early classification started by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus who classified all plants into annuals, biennials, and perennials according to life spans, and into herbs, shrubs, and trees according to their growth habits. The modern taxonomy for plant classification is based on Linnaeus (a 18th century Swedish physician, now considered "father of taxonomy") who revolutionized the fields of plant and animal classification. Botanists group plants into families according to their characteristics of flowers, leaves, stems, fruit and roots, nowadays supplemented by advanced techniques such as studies of gene sequences. This grouping process is known as classification and it allows botanists to organise their knowledge of the plant kingdom.b- The modern Scientific classification of plantsb.1- Scientific classificationsystem of plants- Domain: Eukaryota - Subdomain: Archaeplastida - Kingdom: PlantaeHaeckel, 1866 - Phylum: Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981 (literally "green plants") - Divisions: 1- Green algae 1.1- Chlorophyta 1.2- Charophyta2- Land plants(embryophytes) 2.1- Non-vascular land plants (bryophytes) + Marchantiophyta -liverworts + Anthocerotophyta- hornworts + Bryophyta - mosses+ †Horneophytopsida2.2- Vascular plants(tracheophytes) + †Rhyniophyta - rhyniophytes + †Zosterophyllophyta - zosterophylls + Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses + †Trimerophytophyta - trimerophytes + Pteridophyta - ferns and horsetails + †Progymnospermophyta3- Seed plants(spermatophytes) 3.1- †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns 3.2- Pinophyta - conifers 3.3- Cycadophyta - cycads 3.4- Ginkgophyta - ginkgo 3.5- Gnetophyta - gnetae 3.6- Magnoliophyta - flowering plants 4- †Nematophytes

Kingdom Plantae

﻿b.2-Example Diversity of living green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions﻿﻿Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") are a clade comprising the embryophytes (land plants), and the related green algae which are primarily aquatic. In some classification systems, they have been treated as a kingdom, under various names, e.g. Viridiplantae, Chlorobionta, or simply Plantae, the latter expanding the traditional plant kingdom to include the green algae. Adl et al., who produced a classification for all eukaryotes in 2005, introduced the name Chloroplastida for this group, reflecting the group having primary chloroplasts with green chlorophyll. They rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that some of the species are not plants, as understood traditionally.Together with Rhodophyta and glaucophytes, Viridaeplantae are thought to belong to a larger clade called Archaeplastida or Primoplantae. The monophyleticChlorophyta and Streptophyta are classified under Viridiplantae. More than 350,000 species of Viridiplantae exist. The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (see cultivated plant taxonomy).The table below shows some species count estimates of different green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions. It suggests there are about 300,000 species of living Viridiplantae, of which 85-90% are flowering plants. (Note: as these are from different sources and different dates, they are not necessarily comparable, and like all species counts, are subject to a degree of uncertainty in some cases.).