Contents

Early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In 1756 Charles de Brosses theorized that there was an 'old black race' in the Pacific who were conquered or defeated by the peoples of what is now called Polynesia, whom he distinguished as having lighter skin.[4]:189–190 By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate, 15-race model of human diversity.[5] He described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens, a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian (i.e. Polynesian) races surrounding them.[4]:178

In 1832 Dumont D'Urville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work. He classified the peoples of Oceania into four racial groups: Malayans, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians.[6]:165 D'Urville's model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to 'Melanesians' rather than 'Mélaniens.'

Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from the indigenous Australians. Dumont D'Urville combined the two peoples into one group. Based on his research, Jonathan Friedlaender states, "The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago, when Neanderthals still roamed Europe."[7] The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.[8]

Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago,[7] came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.[9] Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of the Polynesian people.[10]

This Polynesian theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. The study was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines.[7] It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the ancestors of the Polynesians migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.[7]

The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, and geography among the islands. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands. For instance, populations developed differently along the coasts than in more isolated valleys.[7][11]

Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4%–6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.[12] The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals. Both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.[12]

Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair. The blonde trait developed via the TYRP1 gene, and is not found in European blonds.[13]

Austronesian languages and cultural traits were introduced along the north and south-east coasts of New Guinea and in some of the islands north and east of New Guinea by migrating Austronesians, probably starting over 9,000 years ago.[citation needed] This was followed by long periods of interaction that resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture.[15]

It was once postulated that from this area a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language) departed to the east and became the forebears of the Polynesian people.[16] This theory was, however, contradicted by a study published by Temple University finding that Polynesians and Micronesians have little genetic relation to Melanesians; instead, they found significant distinctions between groups living within the Melanesian islands.[17] Genome scans show Polynesians have little genetic relationship to Melanesians.[11]

A genetic link has been identified as Polynesians are dominated by a type of macro-haplogroup C y-DNA, which is a minority lineage in Melanesia and have a very low frequency of the dominant Melanesian y-DNA which is K2b1, which complicates matters.[18]

Some recent studies suggest that all humans outside of Africa have inherited some genes from Neanderthals, and that Melanesians are the only known modern humans whose prehistoric ancestors interbred with the Denisova hominin, sharing 4%–6% of their genome with this ancient cousin of the Neanderthal.[12]

Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. (2000) also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture.[18] A follow-up study by Kayser et al. (2008) discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin, with the rest (79%) being of East Asian origin.[22] A study by Friedlaender et al. (2008) confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, and East Asians, than to Melanesians. The study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians.[23] Thus, the high frequencies of B4a1a1 are the result of drift and represent the descendants of a very few successful East Asian females.[24]

Blond hair is rare in native populations outside of Europe. It evolved independently in Melanesia,[25] where Melanesians of some islands (along with some Australian aborigines) are one of a few groups of non-Caucasian people who have blonde hair. This has been traced to an allele of TYRP1 unique to these people, and is not the same gene that causes blond hair in Caucasians. As with blonde hair that arose in Europe, incidence of blondness is more common in children than in adults, with hair tending to darken as the individual matures.

1.
Vanuatu
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Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu, is a Pacific island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Vanuatu was first inhabited by Melanesian people, the first Europeans to visit the islands were a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator Fernandes de Queirós, who arrived on the largest island in 1606. An independence movement arose in the 1970s, and the Republic of Vanuatu was founded in 1980, Vanuatus name is derived from the word vanua, which occurs in several Austronesian languages, and the word tu. Together the two indicated the independent status of the new country. The prehistory of Vanuatu is obscure, archaeological evidence supports the theory that people speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands about 3,300 years ago, pottery fragments have been found dating to 1300–1100 BC. The Spanish established a settlement at Big Bay on the north side of the island. The name Espiritu Santo remains to this day, Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands. In 1774, Captain Cook named the islands the New Hebrides, during the 1860s, planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of labourers, encouraged a long-term indentured labour trade called blackbirding. At the height of the trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad. Fragmentary evidence indicates that the current population of Vanuatu is greatly reduced compared to pre-contact times, in the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries from Europe and North America went to the islands to work with the people. John Gibson Paton was a Scottish missionary who devoted his life to the region, settlers came looking for land on which to establish cotton plantations. When international cotton prices collapsed, planters switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, initially, British subjects from Australia made up the majority of settlers, but the establishment of the Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides in 1882 attracted more French subjects. By the start of the 20th century, the French outnumbered the British two to one, the jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory. In 1906, France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly, called the Anglo-French Condominium, it was a unique form of government. The separate governmental systems came together only in a joint court, melanesians were barred from acquiring the citizenship of either power. Challenges to this form of government began in the early 1940s, the arrival of Americans during the Second World War, with their informal habits and relative wealth, contributed to the rise of nationalism in the islands. The belief in a messianic figure named John Frum was the basis for an indigenous cargo cult promising Melanesian deliverance. Today, John Frum is both a religion and a party with a member in Parliament

2.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde

3.
New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site

4.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia

5.
Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased

6.
Fiji
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Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fijis principal cruise port, about three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levus coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi or Lautoka. Viti Levus interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain, Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry. The countrys currency is the Fijian dollar, Fijis local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development. The majority of Fijis islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago, today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm, a republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups détat. In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power, later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, an election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimaramas FijiFirst party won with 59. 2% of the vote, Fijis main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name Fiji is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows, Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. Feejee, the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, the first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago

7.
New Caledonia
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New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean,1,210 km east of Australia and 16,136 km east of Metropolitan France. The Chesterfield Islands are in the Coral Sea, locals refer to Grande Terre as Le Caillou. New Caledonia has an area of 18,576 km2. Its population of 268,767 consists of a mix of Kanak people, people of European descent, Polynesian people, the capital of the territory is Nouméa. The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia date back to the Lapita period, the Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. British explorer Captain James Cook was the first European to sight New Caledonia, on 4 September 1774 and he named it New Caledonia, as the northeast of the island reminded him of Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse in 1788, shortly before his disappearance, from then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago were recorded. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia, the trade ceased at the start of the 20th century. The victims of this trade were called Kanakas, like all the Oceanian people, the first missionaries from the London Missionary Society and the Marist Brothers arrived in the 1840s. In 1849, the crew of the American ship Cutter was killed, cannibalism was widespread throughout New Caledonia. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia, a few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years. New Caledonia became a colony, and from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals. Among the convicts were many Communards arrested after the failed Paris Commune, including Henri de Rochefort, between 1873 and 1876,4,200 political prisoners were relegated in New Caledonia. Only 40 of them settled in the colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880. In 1864, nickel was discovered on the banks of the Diahot River and with the establishment of the Société Le Nickel in 1876, mining began in earnest. The French imported labourers to work in the mines, first from neighbouring islands, then from Japan, the Dutch East Indies, the French government also attempted to encourage European immigration, without much success. The indigenous population was excluded from the French economy, even as workers in the mines, and they were ultimately confined to reservations. This sparked a violent reaction in 1878 as High Chief Atal of La Foa managed to unite many of the central tribes, the Europeans brought new diseases such as smallpox and measles

8.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin

9.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service

10.
Moluccans
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Moluccans refer to the original, indigenous inhabitants of the Maluku Islands, also called the Moluccas, which have been part of Indonesia since 1950. Moluccans are a term for many ethnic and linguistic groups inhabiting the island groups. Moluccans were originally Melanesian in origin, however, a long history of trade and seafaring has resulted in a high degree of mixed blood ancestry among Moluccans. Austronesian peoples added to the native Melanesian population around 2000 BCE, Melanesian features are strongest in the islands of Kei and Aru and amongst the interior people of Seram and Buru islands. Small number of German descendants added to Moluccan population especially in Ambon along with arrival of Protestant Missionaries since 15th century, a small population of Moluccans live in the Netherlands. This group mainly consists of the descendants of KNIL soldiers who had planned to come the Netherlands only temporarily. The remainder consists of Moluccans serving in the Dutch navy and their descendants, however, the vast majority of Moluccans still live in the Moluccas and the other surrounding region such as Papua, West Timor, North Sulawesi, Bali and Java. After the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during World War II, the indigenous Indonesians were against it. However, led by rebels and Soekarno, a struggle for independence broke out between 1945 and 1949, the reconstituted Royal Netherlands East Indies Army was commissioned by the Dutch government to maintain order and to disarm the rebels. Moluccan professional soldiers formed an important part of this army, the Moluccan community was thus regarded by the Dutch as allies and vice versa. The government of the Netherlands had promised them that they would get their own state in return for assisting the Netherlands. After international efforts could not support the Netherlands to maintain its colony, the Moluccans, who were seen by the Indonesians as collaborators, had to go to the Netherlands. Moluccans who served in the command of KNIL would reside temporarily in the Netherlands, the Moluccans were then housed in camps in the Netherlands, including the former Westerbork transit camp. The Dutch Moluccans had repeatedly drawn the attention of the Dutch government to their claim for a free Republic of South Maluku state of which the Dutch government had promised earlier, in the seventies this escalated more and more. The Moluccans speak over a hundred different languages, with a majority of them belonging to the Central Malayo-Polynesian languages, an important exception is the island of Halmahera and its surrounding islands, where the majority of the population speak West Papuan languages. Another exception is the Ambonese Malay or Ambonese language, one of the Malay-based creole languages, spoken mainly on Ambon, the Moluccans in the northern Moluccas are mainly Muslim and the Moluccans in the central and southern Moluccas are mainly Christians. The religions that are most often espoused by Moluccans in the Netherlands are the Protestant faith and, to a lesser extent, there are significant number of native Hindu followers in Kei Islands although the region is predominately Catholic

11.
Papuans
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Papuan is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, speakers of the Papuan languages. They are often distinguished ethnically and linguistically from Austronesians, speakers of a family introduced into New Guinea about three thousand years ago. Frans Kaisiepo, the 4th Governor of Papua and a National Hero of Indonesia, freddy Numberi, politician and former Indonesian minister. Heather Watson, an English female tennis player, michael Somare, former Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea. Oktovianus Maniani, an Indonesian professional footballer, peter ONeill, the 9th Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea. Nitya Krishinda Maheswari, an Indonesian badminton player and 2014 Asian Games womens doubles gold medalist, raema Lisa Rumbewas, an Indonesian weightlifter and silver medalist at 2000 Summer Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics. People of New Guinea Proto-Australoids Papua conflict Stéphane Breton W. G. Lawes, New Guinea And Its People, Popular Science Monthly

12.
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon
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The first part of Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon für die gebildeten Stände appeared in October 1839. In contrast to its contemporaries, it contained maps and illustrations with the text, there is no indication of the planned number of volumes or a time limit for this project, but little headway had been made by the otherwise dynamic Meyer. After six years,14 volumes had appeared, covering only one fifth of the alphabet, another six years passed before the last volume was published. Six supplementary volumes finally finished the work in 1855, ultimately numbering 52 volumes, Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon für die gebildeten Stände was the most comprehensive completed German encyclopedia of the 19th century, also called der Wunder-Meyer. The complete set was reprinted 1858-59, the son of Joseph Meyer, Hermann Julius, published the next edition, entitled Neues Conversations-Lexikon für alle Stände, 1857–60, that would only count 15 volumes. To avoid a long-time project, subscribers were promised it would be completed three years, and all volumes appearing later would be given free. Of course, it was finished right on time, the 2nd edition, Neues Konversations-Lexikon, ein Wörterbuch des allgemeinen Wissens, appeared 1861-67, the 3rd edition, now from Leipzig, was issued as Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. Eine Encyklopädie des allgemeinen Wissens 1874-78, both had 15 volumes, the 4th edition, consisting of 16 volumes, appeared in 1885-90, with 2 supplements of update pages, vol.17 and vol. The 5th edition had 17 volumes, Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, ein Nachschlagewerk des allgemeinen Wissens,1893 to 1897. This edition sold no less than 233,000 sets, the 6th edition, entitled Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, was published 1902-08. It had 20 volumes, and the largest sale of all Meyer editions, the First World War prevented an even bigger success. There was also the small 1908 edition, Meyers Kleines Konversations-Lexikon, the 7th and 8th editions were both briefly named Meyers Lexikon. The 7th edition counted only 12 volumes, due to the depression of the twenties. It came with a condensed single-volume version known as the Blitz-Lexikon, the 8th edition remained incomplete due to wartime circumstances, out of 12 planned volumes only volumes number 1 through 9 plus the atlas volume number 12 could be issued. The buildings of the company were destroyed by the bombing raids on Leipzig in 1943/44. In 1953 the place of business was moved to Mannheim in West Germany, the 9th edition, now from Mannheim, entitled Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon in 25 Bänden, appeared in 1971-79. Just like the very first, this final Mannheim edition was the most comprehensive German encyclopaedia of the century, from Leipzig came Meyers Neues Lexikon, embedded in the Marxist ideology. In 1984, the Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim amalgamated with its biggest competitor in field of reference books F. A. Brockhaus of Wiesbaden, in a so-called Elefantenhochzeit

13.
Melanesia
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Melanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from the western end of the Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Fiji. The region includes the four countries of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, the concept among Europeans of Melanesia as a distinct region evolved gradually over time as their expeditions mapped and explored the Pacific. Early European explorers noted the differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In the first half of the nineteenth century Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent, over time, however, Europeans increasingly viewed Melanesia as a distinct cultural, rather than racial, area. Scholars and other commentators disagreed on its boundaries, which were fluid, in the nineteenth century Robert Codrington, a British missionary, produced a series of monographs on the Melanesians based on his long-time residence in the region. He did not include the islands of New Guinea because only some of its people were Melanesians, like Bory de Saint-Vincent, he excluded Australia from Melanesia. It was in works that Codrington introduced the cultural concept of mana to the West. Uncertainty about the delineation and definition of the region continues, the scholarly consensus now includes New Guinea within Melanesia. Ann Chowning wrote in her 1977 textbook on Melanesia that there is no agreement even among anthropologists about the geographical boundaries of Melanesia. In 1998 Paul Sillitoe wrote of Melanesia, it is not easy to define precisely, on geographical, cultural, biological, or any other grounds, where Melanesia ends and the neighbouring regions. It covers populations that have a linguistic, biological and cultural affinity – a certain ill-defined sameness. Both Sillitoe and Chowning include the island of New Guinea in the definition of Melanesia, most of the peoples in Melanesia have established independent countries, are admistered by France or have active independence movements. Many have recently taken up the term Melanesia as a source of identity, stephanie Lawson writes that the term moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation. For instance, the author Bernard Narokobi wrote about the Melanesian Way as a form of culture that could empower the people of this region. The concept is used in geopolitics. For instance, the Melanesian Spearhead Group preferential trade agreement is a trade treaty among Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. The people of Melanesia have a distinctive ancestry, the limit of this ancient migration was Sahul, the continent formed when Australia and New Guinea were united by a land bridge as a result of low sea levels. The first migration into Sahul came over 40,000 years ago, a further expansion into the eastern islands of Melanesia came much later, probably between 4000 B. C. and 3000 B. C

14.
Papuan languages
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The Papuan languages are a subset of Languages of Papua New Guinea of the western Pacific island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands, that are neither Austronesian nor Australian. The term does not presuppose a genetic relationship, the concept of Papuan peoples as distinct from Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892. New Guinea is one of the most linguistically diverse regions in the world, the westernmost language, Tambora in Sumbawa, is extinct. One Papuan language, Meriam Mir, is spoken within the borders of Australia. The only Papuan languages with official recognition are those of East Timor, most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people, the most populous are found in the New Guinea highlands, where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include Western Dani and Ekari in the highlands, and Enga, Huli. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are Makasai in East Timor, to the east, Terei and Naasioi are spoken on Bougainville. The largest family posited for the Papuan region is the Trans–New Guinea phylum, consisting of the majority of Papuan languages, the various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west. Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, the Great Andamanese languages may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by the term Papuan. Joseph Greenberg proposed an Indo-Pacific phylum containing the Andamanese languages, all Papuan languages, and the Tasmanian languages, very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of the classifications below, the most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of Wurm, listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the used by Ethnologue prior to Rosss classification. It is based on preliminary work, much of it typological. Other linguists, including William A. Foley divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, however, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurms classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurms Trans–New Guinea phylum. According to Ross, the problem with Wurms classification is that he did not take contact-induced change into account. However, there are also many Austronesian languages that are similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to the influence of contact. Similarly, several groups that do have basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically. Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurms proposal on purely lexical grounds and that is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English I and me vs. German ich and mich

15.
Motuan people
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The Motu are native inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, living along the southern coastal area of the country. Their indigenous language is known as Motu, and like several other languages of the region is an Austronesian language. They and the Koitabu people are the inhabitants and owners of the land on which Port Moresby — the national capital city — stands. The largest Motu village is Hanuabada, northwest of Port Moresby, friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported in 1896 on tattooing in Melanesia. Among the relatively light-skinned Motu he found tattooing in patterns similar to those of Micronesia and he also reported, among the old women, blackening the body with a kind of earth which gives a lustre like black lead. This was said to be a sign of mourning, charles Gabriel Seligman came into contact with the Motu, in 1904. He noted that, unlike many of their neighbors in the region, every year, they practiced the hiri, when community members made trading voyages through the Gulf of Papua. Women made pottery for sale through the hiri, Motu Hiri Motu language Hiri trade cycle The Races of Man in the Malay Archipelago New Guinea and Its Inhabitants

16.
Fijians
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Fijians, officially known since 2010 as iTaukei, are the major indigenous people of the Fiji Islands, and live in an area informally called Melanesia. Indigenous Fijians are believed to have arrived in Fiji from western Melanesia approximately 3,500 years ago, later they would move onward to other surrounding islands, including Rotuma, as well as blending with other settlers on Tonga and Samoa. They are indigenous to all parts of Fiji except the island of Rotuma, the original settlers are now called Lapita people after a distinctive pottery produced locally. Lapita pottery was found in the area from 800 BCE onward, as of 2005, indigenous Fijians constituted slightly more than half of the total Fijian population. Indigenous Fijians are predominantly of Melanesian extraction, with some Polynesian admixture, the estimated Pacific Islander population size is 231,800 in 2001 Fijians comprising about 7,000 of that. Outside of the Oceania, substantial Fijian diaspora is found in anglophone countries namely Canada, United States. The Bose Levu Vakaturaga once passed laws and regulations governing the indigenous Fijian people, until its disbanding by the Military of Fiji following the 2006 coup, the Great Council of Chiefs met yearly to discuss native Fijian concerns. The council, which was responsible for appointing Fijis president, was composed of 55 Fijian chiefs selected from the 14 provinces. Included in the council were three appointees from the island of Rotuma and six appointed by the Minister of Fijian Affairs, the Minister of Fijian Affairs consulted with the President as part of the selection process. Former Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka was given an appointment on the council. The Tabua is a much revered whales tooth which is used in public and private occasions or ceremonies. Yaqona, otherwise known as kava – another important traditional custom – is an infusion prepared from the root of Piper methysticum, the plant itself is also often referred to as yaqona or the kava plant. Yaqona is extremely important in indigenous Fijian culture – in the time of the old religion it was used ceremonially by chiefs, today, yaqona is part of daily life, both in villages and in urban areas and across all classes and walks of life. Having a grog or drinking grog, as drinking kava is sometimes known, is used for welcoming and bonding with visitors, the native Fijian language belongs to the Central Pacific – Fijian – Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family. About 86 percent of the land in Fiji is owned by indigenous Fijian people, in 1876, Sir Arthur Hamilton-Gordon, the British colonial Governor, prohibited the sale of Fijian land to non-ethnic Fijians. This controversial policy continues to this day, the Governor also banned the employment of native Fijians as labourers, and in 1878, began importing indentured labourers from India to work in the sugarcane fields. The effects of this created an ethnic polarisation, which has proven to be politically challenging to Fijian race relations. Indigenous Fijians overwhelmingly report as being Christian, with the Methodist Church of Fiji, other significant denominations include the Roman Catholic Church, the Assemblies of God and the Seventh-day Adventists

17.
Austronesian languages
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex

18.
Charles de Brosses
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Charles de Brosses, comte de Tournay, baron de Montfalcon, seigneur de Vezins et de Prevessin, was a French writer of the 18th century. Because he opposed the power of the king, he was exiled twice. He wrote numerous papers on topics concerning ancient history, philology and linguistics, some of which were used by Denis Diderot. De Brosses published five books, Lettres sur létat actuel de la ville souterraine dHerculée et sur les causes de son ensevelissement sous les ruines du Vésuve and this contains a list of archeological discoveries from the excavation of Herculaneum, including some ancient inscriptions in the Oscan language. Histoire des navigations aux terres australes, contenant ce que lon sait des moeurs et des productions des contrées découvertes jusquà ce jour. It proved extremely useful to James Cook with respect to the discovery of Australia in 1770, and contains what may be the first occurrence of the words Polynésie and Australasie. It has been written that it is this book which convinced the French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, then a soldier in Canada, to become a sailor and, in his own terms, do something great. Du culte des dieux fétiches ou Parallèle de lancienne religion de lEgypte avec la religion actuelle de Nigritie and this provides a materialistic theory of the origin of religion, and represents one of the first theoretical works in the discipline of ethno-anthropology. Notably it contains the first historical occurrence of the word fétichisme, later borrowed by Karl Marx in 1842, traité de la formation méchanique des langues et des principes physiques de létymologie. This provides a theory of the origin and the evolution of language. It had an influence on Condillacs Grammaire and an important role in the birth of a scientific conception of language. This is a French translation of Sallust’s Historia, partially restored with the help of ancient fragments, De Brosses is also remembered for his posthumously published letters, LItalie il y a cent ans, ou Lettres écrites dItalie à quelques amis en 1739 et 1740. This book is a collection of cultured, witty, open-minded letters and it was loved by Alexander Pushkin and Stendhal. The first English translation of Du culte des dieux fétiches will be published in The Returns of Fetishism, Charles De Brosses and the Afterlives of an Idea in June 2017. Works by or about Charles de Brosses at Internet Archive Charles de Brosses, Du culte des Dieux Fétiches, traité de la formation méchanique des langues, in CTLF Corpus des Textes Linguistiques Fondamentaux, Paris-Lyon,2006

19.
Polynesia
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Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars to navigate at night, the term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont dUrville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. Polynesia is characterized by an amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate, the Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec. Out of approximately 300,000 or 310,000 square kilometres of land, over 270,000 km2 are within New Zealand, the Zealandia continent has approximately 3,600,000 km2 of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old, the oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, there are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this triangle is Rotuma. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language, some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia is a term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the triangle that geographically defines the region. The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, there are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia

20.
Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent
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Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent was a French naturalist. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battle of Ulm and battle of Austerlitz, in 1815, he supported Napoleon and opposed the Bourbons. Consequently, he was proscribed after the Bourbon restoration, but after several years of exile, he was allowed to return quietly to Paris in 1820. In 1829 he headed an expedition to the Peloponnese. He was editor of the Dictionnaire classique dhistoire naturelle. and Resume de la de la Peninsule. He was a proponent of transmutation of species and a supporter of Lamarckian evolution, according to historian Adrian Desmond Bory was a leading anti-Cuvierian materialist who blended the best of Lamarcks philosophy with Geoffroys higher anatomy. From 1822, Bory edited the Dictionnaire classique dhistoire naturelle and this volume contained information about Lamarck and the species debate and is notable for having traveled with Charles Darwin on the Beagle. European and American voyages of scientific exploration Mamelon Baynes, T. S. ed, jean Baptiste George Marie Bory de Saint-Vincent. Jean Baptiste George Marie Bory de Saint-Vincent

21.
Dumont D'Urville
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Jules Sébastien César Dumont dUrville was a French explorer, naval officer and rear admiral, who explored the south and western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. As a botanist and cartographer he left his mark, giving his name to several seaweeds, plants and shrubs, Dumont was born at Condé-sur-Noireau in Lower Normandy. His father, Gabriel Charles François Dumont, sieur d’Urville, Bailiff of Condé-sur-Noireau, was, like his ancestors and his mother Jeanne Françoise Victoire Julie came from Croisilles, Calvados and was a rigid and formal woman from an ancient family of the rural nobility of Lower Normandy. The child was weak and often sickly, after the death of his father when he was six, his mother’s brother, the Abbot of Croisilles, played the part of his father and from 1798 took charge of his education. The Abbot taught him Latin, Greek, rhetoric and philosophy, from 1804 Dumont studied at the lycée Impérial in Caen. In Caen’s library he began to read the encyclopédists and the reports of travel of Bougainville, Cook and Anson, at the age of 17 years he failed the physical tests of the entrance exam to the École Polytechnique and he therefore decided to enlist in the navy. In 1808, he obtained the grade of first class candidate, at the time the neglected French navy was of a much lower quality than Napoleons Grande Armée, and its ships were blockaded in their ports by the absolute domination of the British Royal Navy. Dumont was confined to land like his colleagues and spent the first years in the navy studying foreign languages, in this period Dumont built on his already substantial cultural knowledge. He already spoke, in addition to Latin and Greek, English, German, Italian, Russian, Chinese, during his later travels in the Pacific, thanks to his prodigious memory, he would acquire some knowledge of an immense number of dialects of Polynesia and Melanesia. Meanwhile, ashore at Toulon, he learnt about botany and entomology in long excursions in the hills of Provence, finally in 1814, when Napoleon had been exiled to Elba, Dumont undertook his first short navigation of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1819 Dumont dUrville sailed on board Chevrette, under the command of Captain Gauttier-Duparc, during a pause near the island of Milos, the local French representative brought to Dumonts attention the rediscovery of a marble statue a few days before by a local peasant. The statue, now known as the Venus de Milo dates from around the year 130 BC, Dumont recognised its value and would have acquired it immediately, but the ship’s commander pointed out that there was not enough space on board for an object of its size. Moreover, the expedition was likely to proceed through stormy seas that could damage it, Dumont then wrote to the French ambassador to Constantinople about its discovery. Chevrette arrived in Constantinople on 22 April and Dumont succeeded in convincing the ambassador to acquire the statue, meanwhile, the peasant had sold the statue to a priest, Macario Verghis, who wished to present it as a gift to an interpreter for the Sultan in Constantinople. The two began to plan an expedition of exploration in the Pacific, an area from which France had been forced during the Napoleonic Wars, France considered it might be able to regain some of its losses by taking over part of New South Wales. On 11 August 1822 the ship La Coquille sailed from Toulon with the objective of collecting as much scientific and strategic information as possible on the area to which it was dispatched, Duperrey was named Commander of the expedition because he was four years older than Dumont. Dumont discovered the Adélie penguin, which is named after his wife, rené-Primevère Lesson also travelled on La Coquille as a naval doctor and naturalist. Dumont was now 35 and in poor health, on the return to France, Duperrey was promoted to commander, while Dumont was demoted to a lower rank, even after having been on his best behaviour

22.
Oceania
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Oceania, also known as Oceanica, is a region centred on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. The term is used more specifically to denote a continent comprising Australia. The term was coined as Océanie circa 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, the word Océanie is a French word derived from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός, ocean. Natives and inhabitants of this region are called Oceanians or Oceanicans, as an ecozone, Oceania includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, along with New Guinea and nearby islands, part of the Philippine islands, Australia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, in geopolitical terms, however, New Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia are almost always considered part of Oceania. Australia and Papua New Guinea are usually considered part of Oceania along with the Maluku Islands, puncak Jaya in Papua is often considered the highest peak in Oceania. Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean and it comprised four regions, Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, and Melanesia. The area extends to Sumatra in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Rapa Nui and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Not included are the Pacific islands of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and the Japanese archipelago, all on the margins of Asia, and the Aleutian Islands of North America. The islands at the extremes of Oceania are Bonin, a politically integral part of Japan, Hawaii, a state of the United States. There is also a geographic definition that excludes land on the Sunda Plate. Biogeographically, Oceania is used as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone or the Pacific ecozone, Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. The Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand, New Zealand, New Guinea, Melanesia apart from Fiji, and Australia constitute the separate Australasian ecozone. The Malay Archipelago is part of the Indomalaya ecozone, related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. The term is used to denote a continent comprising Australia. New Zealand forms the corner of the Polynesian Triangle. Its indigenous Māori constitute one of the cultures of Polynesia. It is also, however, considered part of Australasia, the history of Oceania in the medieval period was synonymous with the history of the indigenous peoples of Australasia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia

23.
Aboriginal Australians
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Aboriginal Australians are legally defined as people who are members of the Aboriginal race of Australia. Until the 1980s, the legal and administrative criterion for inclusion in this category was race. In the era of colonial and post-colonial government, access to human rights depended upon your race. If you were a full blooded Aboriginal native, the Constitution of Australia, in its original form as of 1901, referred to Aboriginals twice, but without definition. Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament power to legislate with respect to the people of any throughout the Commonwealth. The purpose of this provision was to give the Commonwealth power to regulate non-white immigrant workers, the only other reference, Section 127, provided simply that aboriginal natives shall not be counted in reckoning the size of the population of the Commonwealth or any part of it. The purpose of section 127 was to prevent the inclusion of Aboriginal people in section 24 determinations of the distribution of House of Representatives seats amongst the states and territories, after both of these references were removed by the 1967 referendum, the Australian Constitution had no references to Aboriginals. Since that time, there have been a number of proposals to amend the constitution to specifically mention Indigenous Australians, the change to Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament the power to make laws specifically with respect to Aboriginal peoples as a race. The case concerned an application of legislation that would preserve cultural heritage of Aboriginal Tasmanians and it was held that Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, together or separately, and any part of either, could be regarded as a race for this purpose. As to the criteria for identifying a person as a member of such a race, Deane said, It is unnecessary, for the purposes of the present case, to consider the meaning to be given to the phrase people of any race in s.51. Plainly, the words have a wide and non-technical meaning, the phrase is, in my view, apposite to refer to all Australian Aboriginals collectively. Any doubt, which might otherwise exist in regard, is removed by reference to the wording of par. The phrase is also apposite to refer to any identifiable racial sub-group among Australian Aboriginals, while Deanes three-part definition reaches beyond the biological criterion to individuals self-identification, it has been criticised as continuing to accept the biological criterion as primary. It has been difficult to apply, both in each of its parts and as to the relations among the parts, biological descent has been a fall-back criterion. If it is to be used to refer to us as a group of people. This has just really crept up on us and we are very happy with our involvement with indigenous people around the world, on the international forum because theyre our brothers and sisters. But we do object to it being used here in Australia and her lecture offered a new perspective on the terms urban, traditional and of Indigenous descent as used to define and categorise Aboriginal Australians. She said, Not only are these categories inappropriate, they serve to divide us, governments insistence on categorising us with modern words like urban, traditional and of Aboriginal descent are really only replacing old terms half-caste and full-blood – based on our colouring

24.
Neanderthals
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Neanderthals, or more rarely Neandertals, were a species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo that went extinct about 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans share 99. 7% of their DNA and are closely related. Neanderthals left bones and stone tools in Eurasia, from Western Europe to Central, from the 1950s to the early 1980s, however, Neanderthals were widely considered a subspecies of Homo sapiens and a minority of scholars still hold this view. Several cultural assemblages have been linked to the Neanderthals in Europe, the earliest, the Mousterian stone tool culture, dates to about 160,000 years ago. Late Mousterian artifacts were found in Gorhams Cave on the south-facing coast of Gibraltar, male Neanderthals had cranial capacities averaging 1600 cm3, females 1300 cm3, extending to 1736 cm3 in Amud 1. This is notably larger than the 1250–1400 cm3 typical of modern humans, males stood 164–168 cm and females 152–156 cm tall. Recent studies also show that a few Neanderthals began mating with ancestors of modern humans long before the out of Africa migration of present day non-Africans. Claims that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead, and if they did, the debate on deliberate Neanderthal burials has been active since the 1908 discovery of the well-preserved Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 skeleton in a small hole in a cave in southwestern France. In 2013, scientists sequenced the genome of a Neanderthal for the first time. The genome was extracted from the bone of a 50. In 2016, elaborate constructions of rings of broken stalagmites made by early Neanderthals around 176,000 years ago were discovered 336 m inside Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France and this would have required a more advanced social structure than previously known for Neanderthals. Thal is a spelling of the German word Tal, which means valley. Nevertheless, Kings name had priority over the proposal put forward in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, the practice of referring to the Neanderthals and a Neanderthal emerged in the popular literature of the 1920s. The German pronunciation of Neanderthaler or Neandertaler is in the International Phonetic Alphabet, in British English, Neanderthal is pronounced with the /t/ as in German, but different vowels. In laymans American English, Neanderthal is pronounced with a /θ/ and /ɔ/ instead of the longer British /aː/, during the early 20th century the prevailing view was heavily influenced by Arthur Keith and Marcellin Boule, who wrote the first scientific description of a nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton. During the 1930s scholars Ernst Mayr, George Gaylord Simpson and Theodosius Dobzhansky reinterpreted the existing fossil record, Neanderthal man was classified as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis - an early subspecies contrasted with what was now called Homo sapiens sapiens. The obviously unbroken succession of fossil sites of both subspecies in Europe was considered evidence that there was a slow and gradual evolutionary transition from Neanderthals to modern humans, contextual interpretations of similar excavation sites in Asia lead to the hypothesis of multiregional origin of modern man in the 1980s. Current scientific ideas hold that both evolved from a common African ancestor, Homo erectus

25.
Makira
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The island of Makira is the largest island of Makira-Ulawa Province in the Solomon Islands. The island is located east of Guadalcanal and south of Malaita, the largest and capital city is Kirakira. The first recorded sighting by Europeans of Makira was by the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña in June 1568 and they charted it as San Cristóbal

26.
Austronesian people
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose

27.
Austronesian language
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex

28.
Polynesian peoples
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand

29.
Francis Herbert Dufty
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Francis Herbert Dufty, II, who was also known as Frank Dufty, was an English-born Australian photographer, known for his photographs of Fiji. Duftys contribution to Fiji was of importance in the 1870s and was one of Fijis most significant early photographers. Francis Herbert Dufty, was born in Kennington, Surrey, England circa 1846 to Francis Herbert, in 1865, Dufty and his brother Edward migrated to Australia. Their father Francis and younger brother Alfred arrived in Melbourne, Australia aboard SS Great Britain in September 1868, while their mother Martha, in 1883 he was married to Louisa Palmer, eldest daughter of James Palmer, of Vagadace, Levuka, Fiji. Their son Colin Dufty was an Australian rules footballer who played with Collingwood in the Victorian Football League, Dufty died in Melbourne in 1910 at the age of 64. A professional photographer, Dufty with his brother Edward traveled the Victorian goldfields with a portable studio. His images were said to be the sweetest Australian scenes photographed, in the Kyneton Directory for 1866, Dufty was listed as a photographic artist’ of Piper Street, Kyneton, Victoria where he had a studio with John P. Carolin. In June 1866, in partnership with Carolin, he produced views of Kyneton to be forwarded to the 1866 Melbourne Intercolonial Exhibition. The Kyneton Guardian considered a photograph of Mr Dutton’s property one of the sweetest Australian scenes we have ever seen photographed’, three views of Victorian scenery’ by Dufty and Carolin were selected to be sent on from Melbourne to the 1867 Paris Universal Exhibition. Around 1865 Dufty had set up the No.3 Branch Expedition Portrait Company in Victoria with his brother Edward, F. H. Dufty alone was listed in the Melbourne Directory for 1869, at 108 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, while Edward presumably remained in the country. At the age of 25 Dufty arrived in Levuka from Victoria in the SS Egmont in June 1871 and he set up a new studio next door to the Fiji Times newspaper office on 24 May 1871. He also had a business on the same premises. His brother Alfred William Buchanan Dufty who was 16 at the time, Alfred was out of Fiji in Australia and New Caledonia for extended periods of time, that most of the photographs of Fiji are attributed to Francis Dufty. The Dufty studio produced portraits, street scenes landscape photographs and a large body of cartes de visite. They photographed missionaries, European settlers, the Fijian hierarchy and commoners, portraits were often staged, a process which facilitated the creation of Fijian stereotypes. A dealer in Fijian handicrafts, Dufty acquired a range of props which were used repeatedly, in 1880, Duftys landscape photograph of Fiji was exhibited at the Melbourne International Exhibition. Alfred transferred to Suva, Fiji in 1884 or 1885 and opened a studio there, Dufty remained in Levuka until 1886 when he moved to Suva to join Alfred. In June 1887 Alfred and his left to return to Australia

30.
Genetic study
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Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance, patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance and this term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism, genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life, including bacteria, plants, animals, genetic processes work in combination with an organisms environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off, a classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning genitive/generative, the observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word genetics. He described several rules of inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature. His second law is the same as what Mendel published, in his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. Other theories of inheritance preceded his work, a popular theory during Mendels time was the concept of blending inheritance, the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendels work provided examples where traits were not blended after hybridization. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics, other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin and Francis Galtons reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants, the importance of Mendels work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendels work, coined the word genetics in 1905, Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendels work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance, in 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies

31.
Temple University
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Temple University is a state-related-public doctoral university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. It was founded in 1884 by Baptist Minister Russell Conwell, in 1882, Conwell came to Pennsylvania to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. These students, later dubbed night owls, were taught in the basement of Conwells Baptist Temple, hence the origin of the universitys name, by 1907, the institution revised its institutional status and incorporated as a university. In 2015, Temple received $227.5 million in funding, ranking it 93rd out of 905 institutions in the NSF’s Higher Education Research. Temple is among the nations largest providers of education, preparing the largest body of professional practitioners in Pennsylvania. Conwell came to Pennsylvania in 1882 to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. These students, later dubbed night owls, were taught in the basement of Conwells Baptist Temple, hence the origin of the universitys name, the Grace Baptist Church quickly grew popular within the North Philadelphia area. A temporary board of trustees was created to handle the rapidly growing formalities associated with the churchs programs, when the board conducted its first meeting they named Russell H. Conwell president of The Temple College. Within the following months, Grace Baptist Church appointed a new board of trustees, printed official admissions files, regardless of whether they had the resources to support the school, Conwell’s desire was “to give education to those who were unable to get it through the usual channels”. Philadelphia granted a charter in 1888 to establish “The Temple College of Philadelphia”, by 1888, the enrollment of the college was nearly 600. It was in 1907 that Temple College revised its institutional status, Legal recognition as a university enhanced Temple in noticeable ways including its reputation, professional and graduate programs, overall enrollment, and financial support. Over time, Temple expanded, Samaritan Hospital was founded, a Medical School was added, after the merger, Temple officially reincorporated as Temple University on December 12,1907. Today, Temple is a Pennsylvania state-related university, meaning the university receives state funds, subject to state appropriations, but is independently operated. In U. S. News & World Reports 2017 rankings, Temple is tied for 56th among U. S. public universities, tied for 118th among all national universities, Temple undergraduate college is among the top colleges profiled in The Princeton Reviews The Best 379 colleges. Temples Social Science faculty is also ranked 76-100 in the world in 2015 by ARWU, Temple is ranked 94th out of 643 US institutions in National Science Foundations 2013 Higher education Research and Development Survey. Tylers graduate programs are highly selective, maintaining their reputation for providing one of the finest programs in the nation, as of 2015, Tyler’s overall ranking is 13th in the nation. Tyler’s individual graduate programs, as of 2015, ranked highly in their fields, painting and drawing, sculpture, printmaking, ceramics. Temples Fox School of Business, founded in 1918, is one of the largest business schools in the country, the Fox School offers 13 undergraduate majors,10 professional masters programs, two PhD programs, and the school has a variety of international partnerships

32.
East Asian people
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The East Asian people are indigenous to East Asia, which consists of China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Mongolia, and for some authors, Vietnam. Major ethnic groups of East Asia are, Han, Japanese, other ethnic groups of East Asia include, Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Manchu, Mongol, and Ryukyuan. However, Uyghur, Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples who live in East Asia are not considered East Asians but Central Asian and are of mixed Mongoloid and Caucasoid origin. Evidence of this can be seen in the cuisine, architecture, major characteristics of this region include shared Chinese-derived language characteristics, as well as similar social and moral philosophies derived from Confucianism. The script of the Han Chinese has long been a feature in East Asia as the vehicle for Chinese culture. It was passed on first to Korea, Vietnam in the 1st century, then to Japan, in Korea, however, Sejong the Great invented the hangul alphabet based on the Chinese characters, which has since been used as the main orthographic system for the Korean language. In Japan, much of the Japanese language is written in hiragana, katakana in addition to Chinese characters, the vast majority of East Asian people – about 1.6 billion – live in East Asia. Of about 40 million overseas Chinese worldwide, nearly 30 million live in Southeast Asia and they are collectively called Nanyang Chinese. According to a genetic study, Singapore is the country with the biggest proportion of Hans in Southeast Asia. Up until the past few decades, overseas Han communities originated predominantly from areas in southern China, christmas Island also has a Chinese majority at 70%. Large Chinese populations also live in Malaysia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore used to have the largest overseas Chinese population in the world before the country split up in 1965. This rank has been replaced by Thailand, Mongoloid Asian people Ethnic groups in Asia East Asian cultural sphere Yellow people

33.
Taiwanese aborigines
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Taiwanese aborigines is the term commonly applied to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, who number more than 530,000 and constitute nearly 2. 3% of the islands population. Recent research suggests their ancestors may have been living on Taiwan for approximately 8,000 years in isolation before a major Han immigration began in the 17th century. Taiwanese aborigines are Austronesian peoples, with linguistic and genetic ties to other Austronesian ethnic groups, the issue of an ethnic identity unconnected to the Asian mainland has become one thread in the discourse regarding the political status of Taiwan. For centuries, Taiwans aboriginal inhabitants experienced economic competition and military conflict with a series of colonizing newcomers, for example, of the approximately 26 known languages of the Taiwanese aborigines, at least ten are now extinct, five are moribund, and several are to some degree endangered. These languages are of historical significance, since most historical linguists consider Taiwan to be the original homeland of the Austronesian language family. Taiwans Austronesian speakers were distributed over much of the islands rugged central mountain range and were concentrated in villages along the alluvial plains. The bulk of contemporary Taiwanese aborigines now live in the mountains, the indigenous peoples of Taiwan face economic and social barriers, including a high unemployment rate and substandard education. Since the early 1980s, many groups have been actively seeking a higher degree of political self-determination. The revival of pride is expressed in many ways by aborigines. Efforts are under way in indigenous communities to revive traditional cultural practices, the Austronesian Cultural Festival in Taitung City is one means by which tribe members promote aboriginal culture. For most of their history, Taiwanese aborigines have been defined by the agents of different Confucian, Christian. Taxonomies imposed by colonizing forces divided the aborigines into named subgroups and these divisions did not always correspond to distinctions drawn by the aborigines themselves. This designation reflected the idea that anyone could be civilized/tamed by adopting Confucian social norms. During Japanese rule, anthropologists from Japan maintained the binary classification, the Musha incident of 1930 led to many changes in aboriginal policy, and the Japanese government began referring to them as Takasago-zoku. The latter group included the Atayal, Bunun, Tsou, Saisiat, Paiwan, Puyuma, the Yami and Rukai were added later, for a total of nine recognized tribes. The KMT later adopted the use of all the earlier Japanese groupings except Peipo, the current recognized aborigines are all regarded as Gaoshan, though the divisions are not and have never been based strictly on geographical location. The Amis, Saisiat, Tao and Kavalan are all traditionally Eastern Plains cultures, the distinction between Pingpu and Gaoshan people continues to affect Taiwans policies regarding indigenous peoples, and their ability to participate effectively in government. The earliest detailed records, dating from the Dutch arrival in 1624, between these villages there was frequent trade, intermarriage, warfare and alliances against common enemies

34.
Denisova hominin
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The Denisovan or Denisova hominin is an extinct species or subspecies of human in the genus Homo. Pending its status as species or subspecies it currently carries the temporary name Homo sp. Two teeth belonging to different members of the population have since been reported. In November 2015, a fossil containing DNA was reported to have been found. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of the finger bone showed it to be distinct from the mtDNAs of Neanderthals. The Denisova Cave is located in south-western Siberia, in the Altai Mountains near the border with China and it is named after Denis, a Russian hermit who lived there in the 18th century. The cave was explored in the 1970s by Russian paleontologist Nikolai Ovodov. In 2008, Michael Shunkov from the Russian Academy of Sciences and they found the finger bone of a juvenile hominin, known as both the X woman, and the Denisova hominin. Artifacts excavated in the cave at the level were dated using radiocarbon. Excavations have since revealed human artifacts showing an intermittent presence going back 125,000 years, a team of scientists led by Johannes Krause and Svante Pääbo from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, sequenced mtDNA extracted from the fragment. The cool climate of the Denisova Cave preserved the DNA, the average annual temperature of the cave is 0 °C, which has contributed to the preservation of archaic DNA among the remains discovered. The analysis indicated that humans, Neanderthals, and the Denisova hominin last shared a common ancestor around 1 million years ago. Pääbo noted that the existence of this distant branch creates a more complex picture of humankind during the Late Pleistocene. Later in 2010, a paper from the Svante Pääbo group reported the prior discovery, in 2000, of a third upper molar from a young adult. The tooth differed in several aspects from those of Neanderthals, while having archaic characteristics similar to the teeth of Homo erectus, so far, the fossils of three distinct Denisovans from Denisova Cave have been identified through their DNA, Denisova 3, Denisova 4, and Denisova 8. Denisova 3 is a girl, while Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 are adult males. During DNA sequencing, Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 yielded low-coverage genomes, the single finger bone is unusually broad and robust, well outside the variation seen in modern people. Surprisingly, it belonged to a female, indicating that the Denisovans were extremely robust, the tooth that has been characterized shares no derived morphological features with Neanderthal or modern humans

35.
Archaic human admixture with modern humans
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Neanderthal-derived DNA accounts for an estimated 1–4% of the Eurasian genome, but it is significantly absent or uncommon in the genome of most Sub-Saharan African people. In Oceanian and Southeast Asian populations, there is a increase of Denisovan-derived DNA. An estimated 4–6% of the Melanesian genome is derived from Denisovans, Recent noncomparative DNA analyses—as no specimens have been discovered—suggest that African populations have a genetic contribution from a now-extinct archaic African hominin population. Some researchers have expressed doubts about the recent admixture events, through whole-genome sequencing, a 2010 draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome revealed that Neanderthals shared more alleles with Eurasian populations than with Sub-Saharan African populations. According to the study, the excess of genetic similarity is best explained by recent gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans after the migration out of Africa. The proportion of Neanderthal-derived ancestry was estimated to be 1–4% of the Eurasian genome, in 2013, the same team of researchers revised the proportion to an estimated 1. 5–2. 1%. They also found that the Neanderthal component in modern humans was more related to the Mezmaiskaya Neanderthal than to the Altai Neanderthal or the Vindija Neanderthals. Analyzing the genomes of Europeans and East Asians, it has found that about 20% of the Neanderthal genome is still present in the modern human population. A recent admixture event is confirmed by data on the basis of linkage disequilibrium. Through the extent of linkage disequilibrium, it was estimated that the last Neanderthal gene flow into early ancestors of Europeans occurred 47, in conjunction with archaeological and fossil evidence, the gene flow is thought likely to have occurred somewhere in Western Eurasia, possibly the Middle East. It has been shown that theres a higher Neanderthal admixture in East Asians than in Europeans and this is estimated to have been an additional 20. 2% of Neanderthal admixture in a second gene flow to East Asians. It is also possible, but less likely, that the difference was caused by dilution in Europeans by later migrations out of Africa and it may also be due to a lower negative selection in East Asians compared to Europeans. It has also observed that theres a small but significant variation of Neanderthal admixture rates within European populations. It has been found that North Africans have a Neanderthal admixture rate lying between that of Eurasians and Sub-Saharan Africans and it has also shown a great variation within North Africans themselves, depending primarily on the amount of Eurasian versus sub-Saharan African ancestry. However, there are indications that their Neanderthal admixture is not solely contributed by Eurasian introgression, Neanderthal contribution has been very scarcely but significantly found in the Maasai, an East African people. No evidence of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been found in modern humans and this would suggest that successful admixture with Neanderthals happened paternally rather than maternally on the side of Neanderthals. The model estimated in only 7% the probability that humans could have either mtDNA or Y chromosome of a Neanderthal origin, whereas there was a 93% probability for the lack of Neanderthal mtDNA in modern humans. It has been found that theres a presence of genomic regions with strongly reduced Neanderthal contribution in modern humans due to negative selection

36.
Siberia
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Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century

37.
TYRP1
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Tyrosinase-related protein 1, also known as TYRP1, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the TYRP1 gene. Tyrp1 is a gene product involved in melanin synthesis. While mouse Tyrp1 possesses dihydroxyindole carboxylic acid oxidase activity, the function in human melanocytes is less clear, in addition to its role in melanin synthesis, Tyrp1 is involved in stabilizing of tyrosinase protein and modulating its catalytic activity. Tyrp1 is also involved in maintenance of melanosome structure and affects melanocyte proliferation, mutations in the mouse Tyrp1 gene are associated with brown pelage and in the human TYRP1 gene with oculocutaneous albinism type 3. An allele of TYRP1 common in Solomon Islanders results in blond hair, although the phenotype is similar to Northern European blond hair, this allele is not found in Europeans. The expression of TYRP1 is regulated by the transcription factor. TYRP1 has been shown to interact with GIPC1

38.
Christians
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations

39.
Lamaholot people
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The Lamahalot or Solor people are an indigenous tribe located on Flores Island, Indonesia, and some smaller islands around it. Lamaholot people speak the Lamaholot language with different dialects, the number of speakers counts between 150,000 and 200,000 and those who live on mainland Flores can speak Bahasa Nagi as well. Most Lamaholot people are Roman Catholics, some of them are Muslims or devotees of a traditional monotheistic religion who believe in a god whom they call Lera Wulan Tanah Ekan. Lamaholots famous traditional dance is a war known as Hedung

40.
Flores
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Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia. The population was 1,831,000 in the 2010 census, the name Flores is derived from the Portuguese for flowers. Flores is located east of Sumbawa and Komodo and west of Lembata, to the south, across the Sumba Strait, is Sumba island and to the north, beyond the Flores Sea, is Sulawesi. Unlike most islands in the Indonesian archipelago, the name Flores was given by the Portuguese, from Cabo de Flores and this part of the island, originally called Kopondai, was so named by the Portuguese because of the flowering Delonix regia trees found there. The original name of Flores was Nipa, referring to the serpent, Portuguese traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to Larantuka and Sikka. Their influence is still discernible in Sikkas language, culture and religion, the first Portuguese visit took place in 1511, through the expedition of António de Abreu and his vice-captain Francisco Serrão, en route through the Sunda islands. The Dominican order was important in this island, as well as in the neighbouring islands of Timor and Solor. When in 1613 the Dutch attacked the Fortress of Solor, the population of this fort, led by the Dominicans, moved to the town of Larantuka. This population was mixed, of Portuguese and local islanders descent and Larantuqueiros, Topasses or, as Dutch knew them, the Larantuqueiros or Topasses became the dominant sandalwood trading people of the region for the next 200 years. This group used Portuguese as the language for worship, Malay as the language of trade and their Language is Portuguese, and the religion they have, is Romish. They seem in Words to acknowledge the King of Portugal for their Sovereign and they speak indifferently the Malayan and their own native Languages, as well as Portuguese. In 1846, Dutch and Portuguese initiated negotiations towards delimiting the territories, lima Lopes did so without the consent of Lisbon and was dismissed in disgrace, but his agreement was not rescinded and in 1854 Portugal ceded all its historical claims on Flores. After this, Flores became part of the territory of Dutch East Indies, during World War II a Japanese invasion force landed at Reo on 14 May 1942 and occupied Flores. After the war Flores became part of independent Indonesia, on 12 December 1992, an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale occurred, killing 2,500 people in and around Maumere, including islands off the North coast. Flores is part of the East Nusa Tenggara province, Flores has 39. 1% of the East Nusa Tenggara provincial population as of 2010, and the most Indonesians of all islands in the province. Kelimutu National Park is the national park designated on Flores to protect endangered species. The Flores giant rat is endemic to the island. These giant rodents are considered examples of island gigantism, Flores was also the habitat of several extinct dwarf forms of the proboscidean Stegodon, the most recent disappearing approximately 12,000 years ago and the diminutive Homo floresiensis

41.
Southern Mongoloid
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Individuals within these populations often share certain associated phenotypic traits, such as epicanthic folds, sinodonty and neoteny. The term is a term that referred to a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological taxon. Epicanthic folds and oblique palpebral fissures are common among Mongoloid individuals, most exhibit the Mongolian spot from birth to about age four. Mongoloid individuals have straight, black hair and dark brown almond-shaped eyes, traits more controversially ascribed to Mongoloids include high intelligence and a stoic, taciturn, unaggressive demeanor. The extent to which individual psychological makeup is a construct, rather than a matter of biology. Mongoloid or Asiatic peoples are the most spread out all human populations since they have stretched almost completely around the earths surface. In 1856, the Mongolian race, using a definition which did not include either the Malay or the American races, was the second most populous race in the world behind the Caucasian race. The first use of the term Mongolian race was by Christoph Meiners in 1785, in 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the Australian as a secondary race of the principal race of Mongolian. In the nineteenth century Georges Cuvier used the term Mongolian again as a racial classification, Arthur de Gobineau defined the extent of the Mongolian race, by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches. Later, Thomas Huxley used the term Mongoloid and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans, other terms were proposed, such as Mesochroi, but Mongoloid was widely adopted. In 1940, anthropologist Franz Boas included the American race as part of the Mongoloid race of which he mentioned the Aztecs of Mexico, Boas also said that, out of the races of the Old World, the American native had features most similar to the east Asiatic. She said that even the people who consider American Indians to be a separate race acknowledge that they are genetically closest to Asians, in 1984, Roger J. we recognize several races, Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid. In 1995, Dr. Finns were previously considered by scholars to be partly Mongoloid. Finns are now considered typically European, less than 10% of Finnish genes are shared with Siberian populations. Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Akazawa said Neo-Mongoloids have extreme Mongoloid, cold-adapted features and they include the Chinese, Buryats, Eskimo and Chukchi. In contrast, Akazawa said Paleo-Mongoloids are less cold-adapted and he said Burmese, Filipinos, Polynesians, Jōmon and the indigenous peoples of the Americas were Paleo-Mongoloid. Human skeletal remains in Southeast Asia show the gradual replacement of the indigenous Australo-Melanesians by Southern Mongoloids from Southern China, skeletal remains in Southeast Asia dated to the Pleistocene epoch with Mongoloid traits indicate that Mongoloid admixture from areas north of Southeast Asia was already taking place at this time. The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in De generis humani varietate nativa, Blumenbach included East and South East Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories

42.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra

43.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations

44.
Australoid
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The Australoid race is a broad racial classification used to refer to people indigenous to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia and historically parts of East Asia. The concept originated with a method of racial classification. In the Out of Africa theory, the ancestors of the Australoids and this migration is hypothesized to have taken place along the now submerged continental shelf of the northern shore of the Indian Ocean, reaching Australia about 50,000 BCE. However, the suggested Proto-Australoid–Proto-Capoid link has been contested, huxley also concluded that the Melanochroi are of a mixture of the Xanthochroi and Australioids. Later writers dropped the first i in Australioid, establishing Australoid as the standard spelling, according to the Archaeologist Peter Bellwood, many of the present Southern Mongoloid populations of Indonesia and Malaysia also have a high degree of Australo-Melanesian genetic heritage. Huxleys original model included the native inhabitants of South Asia under the Australoid category, the American Journal of Physical Anthropology by American Association of Physical Anthropologists. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza in their text, The History, balgir designates tribes as Australoid or Proto-Australoid according to language family. Forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkenson wrote in 2004 that Australoids have the second largest brow ridges with moderate to large supraorbital arches, caucasoids have the largest brow ridges similar in size with moderate to large supraorbital ridges. Negroids have the third largest brow ridges with an undulating supraorbital ridge, mongoloids are absent browridges, so they have the smallest brow ridges. In 2015, two studies of the DNA of living and ancient people detect in modern Native Americans a trace of DNA related to that of native people from Australia and Melanesia. Australo-Melanesian DNA in some living Native Americans, including those of the Aleutian Islands, christy Turner notes that cranial analyses of some South American crania have suggested that there might have been some early migration of Australoids. However, Turner argues that cranial morphology suggests sinodonty in all the populations he has studied, one of the earliest skulls discovered in the Americas by archaeologists is an Upper Paleolithic specimen named the Luzia Woman. Some anthropologists have hypothesized that Paleo-Indians migrated along the coast of East Asia and Beringia in small watercraft, early human migrations Two Layer hypothesis Proto-Australoid Melanesians Dravidians

45.
Melanesian
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Melanesians are the dominant inhabitants of Melanesia. Most speak one of the many Papuan languages, though a few such as Moluccans. Melanesians occupy islands from Eastern Indonesia to as far east as the islands of Vanuatu, early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate and he described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens, a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian races surrounding them. In 1832 Dumont DUrville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work and he classified the peoples of Oceania into four racial groups, Malaysians, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. DUrvilles model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to Melanesians rather than Mélaniens, Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from the indigenous Australians. Dumont DUrville combined the two peoples into one group, the original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in complex changes in genetics, languages. Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area and this Polynesian theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. The study was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians, both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines. They left little evidence in Melanesia. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands, for instance, populations developed differently along the coasts than in more isolated valleys. Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more species have been discovered since the late 20th century. He has found people of New Guinea share 4%–6% of their genome with the Denisovans. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals, both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair

46.
Holocene
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The Holocene is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present. The term Recent has often used as an exact synonym of Holocene. The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period and its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος and καινός, meaning entirely recent. It has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS1, given these, a new term, Anthropocene, is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact. It is accepted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy that the Holocene started approximately 11,700 years ago, the epoch follows the Pleistocene and the last glacial period. The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones, based on climatic fluctuations, Preboreal, Boreal, Atlantic, Subboreal and they find a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America, though the method was once thought to be of no interest. The scheme was defined for Northern Europe, but the changes were claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of the last glacial period. Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene, if subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world, climatically, the Holocene may be divided evenly into the Hypsithermal and Neoglacial periods, the boundary coincides with the start of the Bronze Age in Europe. According to some scholars, a division, the Anthropocene, has now begun. Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years, however, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m in the early part of the Holocene. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea, Holocene marine fossils are known, for example, from Vermont and Michigan. Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin, post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in the formation of the Baltic Sea. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe, the equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries. Climate has been stable over the Holocene. It appears that this was influenced by the glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date

47.
Sundaland
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It includes the Malay Peninsula Malaysia on the Asian mainland, as well as the large islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra and their surrounding islands. The islands east of the Wallace line are known as Wallacea, the South China Sea and adjoining landmasses had been investigated by scientists such as Molengraaff and Umbgrove, who had postulated ancient, now submerged, drainage systems. These were mapped by Tjia in 1980 and described in detail by Emmel and Curray in 1982 complete with river deltas, floodplains. The ecology of the exposed Sunda shelf has been investigated by analyzing cores drilled into the ocean bed, the pollens found in the cores have revealed a complex ecosystem that changed over time. The fish is now found in the Kapuas River on the island of Borneo, an alternative theory points to the now-submerged Sundaland as the possible cradle of Asian population, thus the Out of Sundaland theory. However, this view is a minority view among professional archaeologists, linguists. The Out of Taiwan model is accepted by the vast majority of professional researchers, the population migrations were most likely to have been driven by climate change — the effects of the drowning of an ancient continent. The changing sea levels would have caused these humans to move away from their homes and culture. A2009 genetic study published by the 2009 Human Genome Organization Pan-Asian SNP Consortium found that Asia was originally settled by humans via a southern route. The migration came from Africa via India, into Southeast Asia and what are now islands in the Pacific, genetic similarities were found between populations throughout Asia and an increase in genetic diversity from northern to southern latitudes. Oppenheimer locates the origin of the Austronesians in Sundaland and its upper regions, the islands of Sundaland rest on an extension of Asias shallow continental shelf, called the Sunda shelf. During the ice ages, sea levels were lower and all of Sundaland was an extension of the Asian continent, as a result, the islands of Sundaland are home to many Asian mammals including elephants, monkeys, apes, tigers, tapirs, and rhinoceros. The Wallace Line, which includes the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok, and the Makassar Strait between Borneo and Sulawesi, marks the end of the Asian continental shelf, the islands of Wallacea are separated from Asia and from Australia and New Guinea by deep ocean. Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis in Southeast Asia, the University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia. The mammals of the Indomalayan region, a systematic review, hall LS, Gordon G. Grigg, Craig Moritz, Besar Ketol, Isa Sait, Wahab Marni, Abdullah MT.2004. Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia, Sarawak Museum Journal Special Issue No.6. Azlan J. Ibnu Maryanto, Agus P. Kartono, Abdullah MT.2003 Diversity, Relative Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, hall LS, Richards GC, Abdullah MT.2002. The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak, Eden in the East,1999, Phoenix ISBN 0-7538-0679-7 Animation of Sundaland submersion Conservation International, Sundaland Review of Oppenheimers Eden in the East, about Sundaland

48.
Mitochondrial DNA
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Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate. Mitochondrial DNA is only a portion of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA can be found in the cell nucleus and, in plants and algae. In humans, the 16,569 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA encode for only 37 genes, human mitochondrial DNA was the first significant part of the human genome to be sequenced. In most species, including humans, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother, since animal mtDNA evolves faster than nuclear genetic markers, it represents a mainstay of phylogenetics and evolutionary biology. It also permits an examination of the relatedness of populations, and so has become important in anthropology and this theory is called the endosymbiotic theory. Each mitochondrion is estimated to contain 2–10 mtDNA copies, the reasons why mitochondria have retained some genes are debated. Recent analysis of a range of mtDNA genomes suggests that both these features may dictate mitochondrial gene retention. In most multicellular organisms, mtDNA is inherited from the mother, mechanisms for this include simple dilution, degradation of sperm mtDNA in the male genital tract, in the fertilized egg, and, at least in a few organisms, failure of sperm mtDNA to enter the egg. Whatever the mechanism, this single parent pattern of inheritance is found in most animals, most plants. In sexual reproduction, mitochondria are inherited exclusively from the mother. Also, most mitochondria are present at the base of the sperms tail, in 1999 it was reported that paternal sperm mitochondria are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo. Some in vitro techniques, particularly injecting a sperm into an oocyte. The fact that mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited enables researchers to trace maternal lineage far back in time. This is usually accomplished on human mitochondrial DNA by sequencing the hypervariable control regions, hVR1, for example, consists of about 440 base pairs. These 440 base pairs are then compared to the regions of other individuals to determine maternal lineage. Most often, the comparison is made to the revised Cambridge Reference Sequence, vilà et al. have published studies tracing the matrilineal descent of domestic dogs to wolves. The concept of the Mitochondrial Eve is based on the type of analysis. MtDNA is highly conserved, and its relatively slow mutation rates make it useful for studying the evolutionary relationships—phylogeny—of organisms, biologists can determine and then compare mtDNA sequences among different species and use the comparisons to build an evolutionary tree for the species examined

Vanuatu
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Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu, is a Pacific island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Vanuatu was first inhabited by Melanesian people, the first Europeans to visit the islands were a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator Fernandes de Queirós, who arrived on the largest island in 1606. An independence movement arose i

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James Cook landing at Tanna island, c. 1774

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Flag

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US Navy Hellcats on Espiritu Santo island in February 1944

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Cinder plain of Mount Yasur on Tanna island.

Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is

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A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.

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Flag

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The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands.

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Tan Malaka, Indonesian philosopher, guerilla, and national hero.

New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the is

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Mount Bosavi

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New Guinea (Papua Island)

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Dani tribesman in the Baliem Valley

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Kurulu Village War Chief at Baliem Valley

Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to t

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Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia

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Portrait of Captain James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770

4.
Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.

Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War I

4.
The aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) under aerial attack during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons.

Fiji
–
Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 8

New Caledonia
–
New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean,1,210 km east of Australia and 16,136 km east of Metropolitan France. The Chesterfield Islands are in the Coral Sea, locals refer to Grande Terre as Le Caillou. New Caledonia has an area of 18,576 km2. Its population of 268,767 consists of a mix of Kanak people

1.
Flags of New Caledonia

2.
Chief "King Jacques" and his Queen

3.
Jean Lèques during a ceremony honoring U.S. service members who helped ensure the freedom of New Caledonia during World War II

Christianity
–
Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah

1.
An Eastern Christian icon depicting Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

2.
Various depictions of Jesus

3.
Crucifixion, representing the death of Jesus on the Cross, painting by Diego Velázquez, 17th century

Sunni Islam
–
Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him.

3.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) was, in particular during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries, an important center of Islamic learning with an emphasis on the Maliki Madh'hab. It is located in the city of Kairouan in Tunisia

Moluccans
–
Moluccans refer to the original, indigenous inhabitants of the Maluku Islands, also called the Moluccas, which have been part of Indonesia since 1950. Moluccans are a term for many ethnic and linguistic groups inhabiting the island groups. Moluccans were originally Melanesian in origin, however, a long history of trade and seafaring has resulted in

1.
Pattimura

2.
Glenn Fredly

3.
Giovanni van Bronckhorst

4.
Vengaboys

Papuans
–
Papuan is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, speakers of the Papuan languages. They are often distinguished ethnically and linguistically from Austronesians, speakers of a family introduced into New Guinea about three thousand years ago. Frans Kaisiepo, the 4th Governor of Papua and a Nationa

1.
Frans Kaisiepo

2.
Michael Somare

3.
Freddy Numberi

4.
Heather Watson

Meyers Konversations-Lexikon
–
The first part of Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon für die gebildeten Stände appeared in October 1839. In contrast to its contemporaries, it contained maps and illustrations with the text, there is no indication of the planned number of volumes or a time limit for this project, but little headway had been made by the otherwise dynamic Meyer. After

1.
Volumes of the 4th Edition (1885).

2.
Global population from the 4th edition.

Melanesia
–
Melanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from the western end of the Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Fiji. The region includes the four countries of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, the concept among Europeans of Melanesia as a distinct region evolved gradually over time as their expeditions mapped and explored the Pacific

1.
Melanesia is one of three major cultural areas in the Pacific Ocean.

2.
Ethno-cultural definition of Melanesia.

Papuan languages
–
The Papuan languages are a subset of Languages of Papua New Guinea of the western Pacific island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands, that are neither Austronesian nor Australian. The term does not presuppose a genetic relationship, the concept of Papuan peoples as distinct from Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in

1.
The distribution of the Papuan languages, in red. Tan is Austronesian, and grey the historical range of Australian.

Motuan people
–
The Motu are native inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, living along the southern coastal area of the country. Their indigenous language is known as Motu, and like several other languages of the region is an Austronesian language. They and the Koitabu people are the inhabitants and owners of the land on which Port Moresby — the national capital city —

1.
Tattooing among females of the Koitabu people of Papua New Guinea traditionally began at age five and was added to each year, with the V-shaped tattoo on the chest indicating that she had reached marriageable age, 1912.

Fijians
–
Fijians, officially known since 2010 as iTaukei, are the major indigenous people of the Fiji Islands, and live in an area informally called Melanesia. Indigenous Fijians are believed to have arrived in Fiji from western Melanesia approximately 3,500 years ago, later they would move onward to other surrounding islands, including Rotuma, as well as b

1.
Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara

2.
19th century Fijian couple in traditional dress.

3.
Native Fijians in Raviravi

4.
Fijian policemen in Suva, 1967

Austronesian languages
–
The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of

1.
Distribution of Austronesian languages

2.
Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization of Taiwan, per Blust (1999).

Charles de Brosses
–
Charles de Brosses, comte de Tournay, baron de Montfalcon, seigneur de Vezins et de Prevessin, was a French writer of the 18th century. Because he opposed the power of the king, he was exiled twice. He wrote numerous papers on topics concerning ancient history, philology and linguistics, some of which were used by Denis Diderot. De Brosses publishe

1.
Engraved portrait of de Brosses

Polynesia
–
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars

1.
Polynesia is the largest of three major cultural areas in the Pacific Ocean. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian triangle.

2.
Mokoliʻi Isle near Oahu, Hawaii

3.
Cook's Bay on Moorea, French Polynesia

4.
Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui

Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent
–
Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent was a French naturalist. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battle of Ulm and battle of Austerlitz, in 1815, he supported Napoleon and opposed the Bourbons. Consequently, he was proscribed after the Bourbon restoration, but after several years of exile, he was allowed to return quietly to Paris

1.
Jean-Baptiste Geneviève Marcellin Bory de Saint-Vincent.

Dumont D'Urville
–
Jules Sébastien César Dumont dUrville was a French explorer, naval officer and rear admiral, who explored the south and western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. As a botanist and cartographer he left his mark, giving his name to several seaweeds, plants and shrubs, Dumont was born at Condé-sur-Noireau in Lower Normandy. His father, G

1.
Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville

2.
Māori men and women on board the Astrolabe performing a dance, with a French officer at right.

3.
L'Astrolabe making water on a floe 6 February 1838

4.
Frontispiece to: Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Oceanie

Oceania
–
Oceania, also known as Oceanica, is a region centred on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. The term is used more specifically to denote a continent comprising Australia. The term was coined as Océanie circa 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, the word Océanie is a French word derived from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek wo

1.
A map of Oceania from the CIA World Factbook

2.
Geopolitical Oceania

3.
Aoraki / Mount Cook, located on the South Island of New Zealand

4.
Satellite image of Oceania

Aboriginal Australians
–
Aboriginal Australians are legally defined as people who are members of the Aboriginal race of Australia. Until the 1980s, the legal and administrative criterion for inclusion in this category was race. In the era of colonial and post-colonial government, access to human rights depended upon your race. If you were a full blooded Aboriginal native,

Neanderthals
–
Neanderthals, or more rarely Neandertals, were a species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo that went extinct about 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans share 99. 7% of their DNA and are closely related. Neanderthals left bones and stone tools in Eurasia, from Western Europe to Central, from the 1950s to the early 1980s,

3.
The site of Kleine Feldhofer Grotte where the type specimen was unearthed by miners in the 19th century

4.
Skull, found in 1886 in Spy, Belgium

Makira
–
The island of Makira is the largest island of Makira-Ulawa Province in the Solomon Islands. The island is located east of Guadalcanal and south of Malaita, the largest and capital city is Kirakira. The first recorded sighting by Europeans of Makira was by the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Mendaña in June 1568 and they charted it as San Cristóbal

1.
Pole for a ceremonial house (detail). Wood, Magura village (Makira, Solomon Islands), 17th century

2.
Makira and nearby islands

Austronesian people
–
Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin wit

1.
An Atayal tribal woman from Taiwan with tattoo on her face as a symbol of maturity, which was a tradition for both males and females

2.
A Rukai village chief visiting the Department of Anthropology in the Tokyo Imperial University during Japanese rule

3.
A Tagalog couple of the Maginoo (nobility) caste depicted in the 16th century Boxer Codex

4.
Left: Petroglyph on the western coast of Hawaii. Petroglyphs were symbolic, but could not encode language. Right: An Austronesian abugida known as Baybayin from the Philippines.

Austronesian language
–
The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of

1.
Distribution of Austronesian languages

Polynesian peoples
–
The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli,

Francis Herbert Dufty
–
Francis Herbert Dufty, II, who was also known as Frank Dufty, was an English-born Australian photographer, known for his photographs of Fiji. Duftys contribution to Fiji was of importance in the 1870s and was one of Fijis most significant early photographers. Francis Herbert Dufty, was born in Kennington, Surrey, England circa 1846 to Francis Herbe

1.
Contents

Genetic study
–
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance,

1.
Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.

Temple University
–
Temple University is a state-related-public doctoral university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. It was founded in 1884 by Baptist Minister Russell Conwell, in 1882, Conwell came to Pennsylvania to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. The

1.
Postcard depicting the original Baptist Temple and Russell Conwell

2.
Seal of Temple University

3.
President Harry S. Truman visits Temple University

4.
Martin Luther King, Jr. lecturing at Temple University

East Asian people
–
The East Asian people are indigenous to East Asia, which consists of China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Mongolia, and for some authors, Vietnam. Major ethnic groups of East Asia are, Han, Japanese, other ethnic groups of East Asia include, Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Manchu, Mongol, and Ryukyuan. However, Uygh

1.
Language families in South Asia

2.
Ethnological map of the Pamirs

3.
Traditional Rajasthani garments from Jaipur, Rajasthan

Taiwanese aborigines
–
Taiwanese aborigines is the term commonly applied to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, who number more than 530,000 and constitute nearly 2. 3% of the islands population. Recent research suggests their ancestors may have been living on Taiwan for approximately 8,000 years in isolation before a major Han immigration began in the 17th century. Taiwan

4.
The depiction of the Gaoshan people as one of China's ethnic groups, pictured here between the Hani people and the Ewenki

Denisova hominin
–
The Denisovan or Denisova hominin is an extinct species or subspecies of human in the genus Homo. Pending its status as species or subspecies it currently carries the temporary name Homo sp. Two teeth belonging to different members of the population have since been reported. In November 2015, a fossil containing DNA was reported to have been found.

1.
Tourists in front of the Denisova Cave, where "X woman" was found

2.
Denisova hominin X Woman Denisova 3

3.
Molar of the Denisova hominin Denisova 4

Archaic human admixture with modern humans
–
Neanderthal-derived DNA accounts for an estimated 1–4% of the Eurasian genome, but it is significantly absent or uncommon in the genome of most Sub-Saharan African people. In Oceanian and Southeast Asian populations, there is a increase of Denisovan-derived DNA. An estimated 4–6% of the Melanesian genome is derived from Denisovans, Recent noncompar

Siberia
–
Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Oc

1.
Painting of Chukchi by Louis Choris, 1816

2.
Siberian Federal District Geographic Russian Siberia Siberia in its widest definition and historical use

3.
The tower of a 17th-century ostrog fort in Yakutsk

4.
Siberian Cossack family in Novosibirsk

TYRP1
–
Tyrosinase-related protein 1, also known as TYRP1, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the TYRP1 gene. Tyrp1 is a gene product involved in melanin synthesis. While mouse Tyrp1 possesses dihydroxyindole carboxylic acid oxidase activity, the function in human melanocytes is less clear, in addition to its role in melanin synthesis, Tyrp1 is inv

1.
Tyrosinase-related protein 1

Christians
–
A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are unit

1.
Set of pictures for a number of famous Christians from various fields.

2.
The Church of St Peter near Antakya, Turkey, in Antioch the disciples were called Christians.

3.
Nazareth the city is described as the childhood home of Jesus, in many languages employ the word Nazarene as a general designation for those of the Christian faith.

Lamaholot people
–
The Lamahalot or Solor people are an indigenous tribe located on Flores Island, Indonesia, and some smaller islands around it. Lamaholot people speak the Lamaholot language with different dialects, the number of speakers counts between 150,000 and 200,000 and those who live on mainland Flores can speak Bahasa Nagi as well. Most Lamaholot people are

1.
Young men of Solor in military costume, East Flores.

Flores
–
Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia. The population was 1,831,000 in the 2010 census, the name Flores is derived from the Portuguese for flowers. Flores is located east of Sumbawa and Komodo and west of Lembata, to the south, across the Sumba Strait, is Sumba island and to the north, beyond

1.
Indigenous warrior from Ende, Flores.

2.
Topography of Flores

3.
Saint Angela Church in Labuan Bajo

4.
Some fishing boats on Flores

Southern Mongoloid
–
Individuals within these populations often share certain associated phenotypic traits, such as epicanthic folds, sinodonty and neoteny. The term is a term that referred to a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological taxon. Epicanthic folds and oblique palpebral fissures are common among Mongoloid individuals, most exhibit the M

1.
Mongoloids

2.
Chinese mandarins from the city of Canton (1902).

3.
Aryan

4.
Yanomami woman and child

Malaysia
–
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur,

1.
"Malaysia" used as a label for the Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas

2.
Flag

3.
The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of Malacca.

4.
Statue of Francis Light in the Fort Cornwallis of Penang, marking the first step of British expansion in the 18th century over the Malay Archipelago.

Singapore
–
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation

1.
Raffles Square around 1900.

2.
Flag

3.
Victorious Japanese troops marching through Singapore City after the British capitulation at the Battle of Singapore in 1942.

4.
A cheering crowd welcome the return of British forces, 1945

Australoid
–
The Australoid race is a broad racial classification used to refer to people indigenous to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia and historically parts of East Asia. The concept originated with a method of racial classification. In the Out of Africa theory, the ancestors of the Australoids and this migration is hyp

1.
The Veddah from Sri Lanka were categorised as having Australoid physical traits.

2.
Workii Australoid man from Gilbert River, South Australia.

3.
Australoid distribution according to the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885-90).

4.
A cast of the Luzia Woman 's skull.

Melanesian
–
Melanesians are the dominant inhabitants of Melanesia. Most speak one of the many Papuan languages, though a few such as Moluccans. Melanesians occupy islands from Eastern Indonesia to as far east as the islands of Vanuatu, early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint

1.
Girls from Vanuatu.

2.
Distribution of Melanesians according to Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.

Holocene
–
The Holocene is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present. The term Recent has often used as an exact synonym of Holocene. The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period and its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος and καινός, meaning entirely recent. It has been identified with the cu

1.
Holocene cinder cone volcano on State Highway 18 near Veyo, Utah

2.
Bronze bead necklace, Muséum de Toulouse

Sundaland
–
It includes the Malay Peninsula Malaysia on the Asian mainland, as well as the large islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra and their surrounding islands. The islands east of the Wallace line are known as Wallacea, the South China Sea and adjoining landmasses had been investigated by scientists such as Molengraaff and Umbgrove, who had postulated anc

1.
The Sahul Shelf and the Sunda Shelf today. The area in between is called " Wallacea ".

Mitochondrial DNA
–
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate. Mitochondrial DNA is only a portion of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA can be found in the cell nucleus and, in plants and algae. In humans, th

3.
Lime container, late 19th or early 20th century. The container is decorated with wood carving of crocodile and bird. Punctuation is emphasised with a white paint. The central portion, hollow to hold the lime, is made of bamboo. The joints are covered with basketry work.

4.
Australian forces attack Japanese positions during the Battle of Buna–Gona. 7 January 1943.