International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management

After going through this unit, you should be able to: differenciate between domestic working capital management and multinational working capital management; describe concept and mechanism of intra corporate transfer of funds; explain upon the concept, utility and methods of transfer pricing; describe how blocked funds can be prudently managed by an MNC; discuss how cash, receivables and inventories are managed in an MNC Structure 14.1 142 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.0 14.9 14.10 14.11 Introduction Working Capital Management in Domestic and Multinational Enterprises Intra Corporate Transfer of Funds Transfer Pricing Management of Blocked Funds Multinational Cash Management Multinational Receivables Management Multinational Inventory Management Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
A multinational enterprise to survive and succeed in a fiercely competitive environment must manage its working capital prudently. Working capital management in an MNC requires managing its current assets and current liabilities in such a way as to reduce funds tied in working capital while simultaneously providing adequate funding and liquidity for the conduct of its global businesses so as to enhance value to the equity shareholders and so also to the firm. While the basics of managing working capital are, by and large, the same both in a domestic or multinational organization, risks and options involved in working capital management in MNCs are much greater than their domestic counterparts. Further, working capital management in a multinational firm focuses on inter subsidiary transfer of funds as well as transfers from the affiliates to the parent firm. Besides, there are specific approaches to manage cash, receivables and inventories in MNCs. All these aspects are dealt with in this unit in this unit.

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leading to fuller utilization of the resources. usually under a licensing arrangement. This problem can be minimized if scale of fees is specifically stated in a formal agreement between the parent and the affiliate at the outset. dividends and repatriation of the original investments.
14. such as the exchange rate risk and the political risk. It represents a payment usually by an affiliate to the parent for getting the right to use the company's name or special processes.2 WORKING CAPITAL MANAGEMENT IN DOMESTIC AND MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES
Although the fundamental principles governing the managing of working capital such as optimization and suitability are almost the same in both domestic and multinational enterprises. payment for acquisition of inputs and equipments. etc. the two differ in respect of the following: • MNCs. This problem is generally noticeable in the case of US MNCs who charge significantly higher compensation for their services as compared to other countries. MNCs enjoy greater latitude than the domestic firms in regard to their capability to move their funds between different subsidiaries. borrowings from local sources including banks and funds from Eurocurrency markets.
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. the problems of working capital management in MNCs are more complicated than those in domestic firms mainly because of additional risks in the form of the currency exposure and political risks as also due to differential tax codes and taxation rates. License fees are usually based on a percentage of the value of the product or on the volume of production. MNCs have wider options of procuring funds for satisfying their requirements or the requirements of their subsidiaries such as financing of subsidiaries by the parent. encounter with a number of risks peculiar to sourcing and investing of funds. repayment of loans. Fees are paid in lieu of professional services and expertise. Royalties are usually stated as percentage of sales revenue so that the owner is compensated in proportion to the volume of sales. technology or a trade name.3 INTRA CORPORATE TRANSFER OF FUNDS
Intra corporate transfer of funds comprises transfer of funds from affiliates/ subsidiaries to the parent company and also transfer of funds as among affiliates.14. the task of decision making in the case of MNCs' subsidiaries is complex. in managing their working capital. Finance managers of MNCs face problems in taking financing decision because of different taxation systems and tax rates.
Working Capital Management for MNCs
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In sum. fees. usually provided by the parent to the affiliates. interest on loans. Royalty is paid to the owner in return for the use of patents. Unlike domestic firms. through MNCs have some advantages in terms of lattitude and options in financing. Such transfers may be in the form of royalties. MNCs face a number of problems in managing working capital of their subsidiaries because they are widely separated geographically and the management is not very well acquainted with the actual financial state of affairs of the affiliates and working of the local financial markets. Host countries are generally found to object to the payment of fees for the services of visiting executives or maintenance personnel on the ground of higher scale of compensation. As such.

liquidity factor and joint venture consideration. MNCs may decide to speed up the transfer of funds through dividend if exchange rate risk is perceived: This perception is usually part of a larger strategy of funnelling funds from weak currency to strong currencies. Intra-corporate transfer of funds has a number of constraints with which a finance. decisions to accelerate dividend payments ahead of the event should take into consideration interest rate differences and the likely impact on host country relations. political risk. affiliates having large amount of cash collected from past receivables may decide to pay higher dividend so as to transfer funds to the parent. by taking loans from an international banking institution. foreign exchange risk. However. Problem generally arises in most of the developing countries in respect of remittance of dividends by the affiliates to their parent. manager of an MNC must be familiar. A fast expanding affiliate may not have adequate cash to remit a dividend equal to its earnings because profits of such firms are often tied up in ever-increasing receivables and inventories. Magnitude of the problem can. Parent countries generally levy a tax on foreign dividends received but allow tax credit for foreign taxes already paid on that income. Speeding up or slowing down payments is termed as "Lead and Lags".
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. However. Pursuance of stable dividend payout policy by the affiliate may be a good idea. Remittance of dividends is a classical method by which firms transfer profits back to owners-individual shareholders and parent firms. Conversely. This also creates problem of servicing of loans. parent firm may require affiliates to remit the entire locally generated funds not needed to finance their expansion programmes. and dividend transfer policy of the affiliates. Most countries levy tax on retained earnings and distributed earnings at different rates. however. Dividend transfer policy of an affiliate is impacted by tax laws of host country. This is for the fact that these host countries prefer retention of larger proportion of the affiliates' earnings and their investment within the country. Sometimes due to foreign exchange problems being faced by host country. This will avoid the possibility of the company being perceived as using dividend payment for transferring funds to parent company. They may object to reduction of dividends on the fall of earnings or rise in dividend on the surge of earnings and prefer to go for stable dividend policy: This is why many MNCs prefer 100% ownership of affiliates so as to avoid possible conflicts of interests with outside shareholders. be reduced if dividend transfer policy is spelt out at the outset and communicated to the host country's authorities. foreign exchange controls are clamped resulting in barrier to transfer of funds. Liquidity position of the affiliate also influences the dividend transfer policy of the parent. The greatest problem in this respect is political in nature which may range from limits to transfer of certain types of funds to outright blockage of funds and inconvertibility of currency. Policy regarding dividend payment is basically influenced by tax factor. the problem of loan service can be eased because the host country may not take penal action against such an arrangement for fear of damage to their international credit standing. In case of political uncertainty. An MNC desirous to position funds internationally may not be liked by independent partners or local shareholders because the latter perceive their benefits from the success of the particular Joint Venture rather than from the global success of the MNC.International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
Transfer of funds by way of dividend payments from the affiliates to the parent company is dependent upon host country's policy of dividend payment. Conflicts of interest of joint venture partners may also affect dividend transfer policy of an MNC parent.

It is through transfer pricing mechanism that an MNC finance manager can maximize their worldwide corporate profits by setting transfer prices to minimize taxable income in a country with a high tax rate and maximize income in a country with a low income tax rate.4 TRANSFER PRICING
Transfer prices are the prices set on Kea company exchange of goods and sales. Income tax consideration is an important factor which an MNC has to reckon with while setting a transfer price. (b) Resale Price Method. 14. The pricing of goods and services traded internally is one of the most critical issues and assumes still greater importance in respect of intra corporate exchange of goods and services as among affiliates and the parent firm because it provides an effective weapon in the hands of an MNC to maximize its value. a differential taxation system and different tax rates between the two countries.14. thereby reducing taxable income. there are practical problems involved in using this
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. (a) Comparable Uncontrolled Price Method:. However. To maximize transfer of funds from affiliates to the firm.4. To window-dress operations so as to improve financial health of an affiliate and establish its high credibility in the financial markets.1 Methods of Determining Transfer Prices The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Committee has recommended three methods: (a) Comparable Uncontrolled Price Method. A higher transfer price facilitates accumulation of funds in the parent's country. To reduce tariffs and avoid quantitative and administrative restrictions on imports. To position funds in locations that will suit the management's working capital policies. the decision is further compounded by exchange restrictions on the part of the host country where the receiving affiliate is located. and (c) Cost-Pitts Method for use by member countries. To avoid exchange control.S.A. if a foreign affiliate is to be financed. U. An MNC finance manager has to strike satisfactory trade off between conflicting considerations of fund positioning and income tax. the reverse technique of charging lower prices can be used. Transfer pricing also permits transfer of funds as among sister affiliates. A parent desiring to reduce the taxable profits of a subsidiary in a high tax country will set transfer price at a higher rate to increase the costs of the subsidiary. Even purely domestic firms do not find it easy to reach agreements on the best method for setting prices on transactions between related tots. A parent company in its effort to funnel funds out of a particular country will charge higher prices on goods sold to its affiliate to the extent the host country government permits. Most countries have transfer pricing guidelines similar to those in the U. Internal Revenue code in its attempt to circumscribe freedom to set transfer prices has also provided for setting transfer price by these methods.
Working Capital Management for MNCs
Transfer pricing is a very difficult decision to make. and import duties and quotas imposed by the host country. In contrast.This method of setting transfer price is based on market forces and hence considered as the best evidence of aim's length pricing. The most important uses of transfer pricing are: • • • • • • To minimize the total tax liability.S. Multiple sourcing of component parts on a global basis allows switching between suppliers within the corporate family as a device to transfer funds. In case of an MNC.

In
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. enabling the distribution subsidiaries to make firm bids to unrelated final customers. The re-invoicing center takes title to all goods sold by one corporate unit to another affiliate or to a third-party customer. an MNC faces problem of repatriation restriction by host country government which places embargo on transfer of the earnings of the overseas subsidiary. As such. However. timing of sales and proprietary trade marks (b) Resale Price Method. the re-invoicing center can set firm local currency cost in advance. (c) Cost-Plus Method: The transfer price under cost-plus method is determined by adding suitable profit markup to the seller's full cost comprising direct cost and overhead cost.4. The center needs only hedge residual foreign exchange rate changes. the re-invoicing center can manage intra-subsidiary cash flows. With a re-invoicing center. This markup represents the subsidiary's costs and profits. funds which are not allowed to be repatriated permanently or temporarily are called "blocked funds". The principal objective of these re-invoicing centers is to funnel the profits arising from these transactions to lower tax affiliates and away from the higher-taxed parent or affiliate. and to protect against the exposure created by a backlog of unfilled orders. Thus.2 Re. but the physical movement of goods is direct from the manufacturing plant to the purchaser. The center pays the seller and. As such.International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
method because of differences in quality. The price so set is then employed as the intra-company transfer price for similar items. in turn. benefitcost analysis should be made while deciding about establishment of a re-invoicing center.S. setting and operating re-invoicing center involves cost. first of all final selling price to an independent buyer is set and then an appropriate markup for the distribution subsidiary is subtracted. Allocation of overhead cost in computing full cost poses problem and involves subjectivity. this method provides enough scope for negotiation. 14. However. These centers also often manage the MNC's currency risk exposures. all subsidiaries settle intra-company accounts in their local currencies. Re-invoicing center personnel can develop a specialized expertise in choosing which hedging technique is best at any moment. considered as a second-best approach to arm's length pricing. is paid by the purchasing unit. Finally. especially when joint products are involved. tax system is a larger part of the reason that U. One such reason is the grim foreign exchange crisis engulfing the host country.Invoicing Centers A re-invoicing center is a separate corporate subsidiary that acts like a middle man between the parent and related unit in one location and all foreign subsidiaries in a geographic region. In the resale price method. quantity. There are various reasons for the host government for blocking the repatriable funds. MNCs tend to conduct their currency risk management offshore. and they are likely to obtain more competitive foreign exchange quotations from banks because they are dealing in larger transactions. These funds represent cash flows generated by a foreign project that cannot be repatriated to the parent firm because of capital flow restrictions by the host government. including leads and lags of payments. The U. it is not easy to determine an appropriate markup.
14. By guaranteeing the exchange rate for future order. particularly when the distribution affiliate adds value to the item through subsequent processing or packaging or both.S.5 MANAGEMENT OF BLOCKED ITUNDIS
At times.

the government may block repatriable Ends of overseas subsidiaries and limits foreign exchange to financing essential imports on other payments. One way to enhance an affiliate's capital is to buy used equipment at artificially inflated value. The parent firm may pursue strategy of transfer pricing in a manner that will increase the expenses incurred by the affiliate. Another strategic move could be the directive to the affiliate by the parent to borrow from a local bank rather than from the former and repay the interest and the principal out of As local earnings. can he other direct measure which an MNC can take to repatriate blocked funds.such cases. this occurs with change in national government which. A host country government is likely to be more lenient on money being used to meet local expenses than on earnings remitted to the parent. The other way is for an affiliate to acquire a bankrupt firm at a large discount from book value. broadly.6 MULTINATIONAL CASH MANAGEMENT
The basic principle to guide the management of cash balance holdings in international working capital management is. Frequently. a combination of restrictions on the proportion of funds to be repatriated and the time constraints and absolute ceilings on the total of funds that can be repatriated over a certain period of time. thereby raising the affiliate's equity base. out of political animosity. vacations and so on
Working Capital Management for MNCs
Two more methods which have been gaining popularity in recent years are increasing the value of the local investment base because the level of profit remittance often depends on the amount of a company's capital. similar to the one applicable to domestic
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14. Tactics for transferring funds indirectly include: • • • • • Parallel or back-to back loans Purchase of commodities for transfer abroad ` Purchase of capital goods for corporate wide use Purchase of local services for worldwide use Hosting corporate conventions. overturns the previous government's policies and places restrictions on the movement of the funds of the overseas units. the subsidiary may he directed by the MNC to set up a research and development division which incurs costs and possibly generates revenues for other subsidiaries. Charging fees and royalties at higher rate. blockage of funds may involve repatriation of only a portion of the funds. A firm may also face the ire of blockage of repatriable profits earned by its offshore subsidiary if it has been found flouting local laws and regulations and/or operating to the detriment of local interests. The acquisition is then merged with the affiliate on the basis of the failed firm's original book value. repatriation only after a certain time lag. In between the two. Prudent management of financial resources of multinational firms calls for effective utilization of funds blocked across the home turf A parent firm can make use of certain strategic arrangements for using these funds properly. Sometimes political factor is responsible for the blocking of funds repatriable by the foreign entities. The MNC can also instruct its affiliate to reinvest the blocked funds in the host country in a manner that avoids deterioration in their real value because of inflation or exchange depreciation. Blocking of funds can take several forms ranging from non-convertibility of the host currency to prior permission for repatriation of earnings. leads and lags in making payments abroad and payment of dividends at higher rate to local stockholders. For example.

However. 14. Uncertainty arises with regard to cash collections from receivables because it is the quality of credit standards that will decide the value of goods sold to be received back in cash. the ideal cash balance holding should be zero (0). therefore. This problem arises because of foreign exchange fluctuations. A subsidiary. However. For instance. This is as a result of problems in human perception which continue to hunt modern managers in their role as financial planners. The sales volume of exports is also susceptible to business cycles of the importing countries. Another major problem which an MNC faces in managing cash is with respect to estimation of cash flows emanating out of operations of its affiliates. for example.
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. upon liquidity management of its affiliates. these objectives are in conflict with each other leading to increased complexity of the cash management. after carefully covering all the contingencies under contemplation.International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
situation. the management may be constrained to carry larger amount of cash balances so as to protect the firm against any crisis. an international finance manager must exercise great prudence in forecasting cash flows of the affiliates.6. down in cash inflows from sales which could offset the benefits of augmented sales. That is. inter alia. Holding of such balances in excess of immediate requirements may ostensibly impringe on the objective to benefit from economies of scale in earning the highest possible rate of return from investing these resources.1 Problem of Managing Cash in MNCs Cash Management in an MNC is primarily aimed at minimizing the overall cash requirements of the firm as a whole without adversely affecting the smooth functioning of the company and each affiliate. This may. regular requirements. Loose credit standards may cause a slow. such an ideal situation rarely exists even in case of domestic enterprise. Cash management in an MNC is further complicated by the absence of effective tools to expedite transfers and by the great variations in the practices of financial institutions. This. In another respect too. Further. Cash Flow Analysis: Subsidiary Perspective Prudent working capital management of an MNC is dependent. minimization of the political risk involves conversion of all receipts in foreign currencies in the currency of the home country. may need to carry minimum cash balances in anticipation of future payments due to the time required to channelize funds to such a country. minimization of transaction costs involved in currency conversions calls for holding cash balances in the currency in which they are received. besides. In view of the above problems leading to increased uncertainty in estimating cash flows. Similar problem arises in estimating cash inflows stemming out of future sales because actual volume of sales to overseas buyers depends on foreign exchange fluctuations. minimizing the currency exposure risk. minimizing the transaction costs and taking full advantage of the economies of scale and also to avail of the benefit of superior knowledge of market forces. calls for estimating cash outflows and inflows periodically to ascertain excess or deficient cash for a period of time. even the most perfect system of planning has some lacuna to warrant the retention of residual cash reserve. minimizing political risk. in spite of massive application of computers and operations research techniques. primary objectives are antagonistic to each other. That is. go against the interest of the affiliates who need minimum working capital to be kept in the local currencies to meet their operational requirements. As such. however.

6. both inter-affiliate and between the MNC and other corporations so as to minimize transaction costs and currency exposure and enables the centre to employ optimally the various hedging strategies available to the firm so as to ensure enforcement of the MNC's foreign exchange exposure policies. The level of dividends paid by subsidiaries to the parent is dependent on liquidity needs. the centralized system permits the centre to make full utilization of a multilateral netting system. there is a strong need to monitor and manage the cash flows between the parent and the subsidiaries and also between the individual subsidiaries.As noted earlier. Once estimates of cash outflows and inflows are made. the decision-making process as to cash mobilization. 14. information and most importantly. it must decide how the surplus cash will be used. may maintain liquidity without substantial cash balances. It may not be always possible for the centralized cash management division of an MNC to accurately forecast events that affect parent subsidiary or inter subsidiary cash flows. Cash is also needed to meet the costs incurred in manufacturing goods. 14. it must be noted. an MNC and its subsidiaries carry minimum amount of cash balances to meet transactional and precautionary demands. A firm. expected movements in the currencies of subsidiaries.2 Centralized Cash Management So as to maintain adequate liquidity without jeopardizing profitability. an MNC can take maximum advantage of the transfer pricing mechanism within the legal and administrative mechanism and thereby improve the profitability of the corporation. If cash deficiency is expected. and host-country government regulations. In most of the cases the affiliates are better equipped to make a decision as to what constitutes adequate balance in view of their intimate knowledge of their circumstances. While each subsidiary manages its working capital and reaches its own decision as to the appropriate level. It should have sources of funds (credit lines) available to meet the cash needs and it must have suitable strategies to deploy the excess funds in the system. the subsidiary will be in a position to know there is cash surplus or deficit for a particular period. Cash outflow by subsidiary also comprises dividend payments and other fees to be made periodically to the parent. movement and investment outlets. therefore. Besides. This task of international cash management should. enabling the MNC to make fuller utilization of the idle cash and maximize earnings without risking liquidity throughout the system. However. cash outflow by the subsidiary occurs when the latter buys raw materials. in this context. short-term financing is necessary. although some degree of pooling would take place. Centralization. Above all. It should. however. be adequately equipped to respond quickly to any event by considering any potential adverse impact on cash flows and take measures to avoid such an adverse impact. does not necessarily entail the pooling of overall liquid resources.3 Techniques to optimize Cash Flows Cash flows can be optimized through: • Accelerating cash inflows
Working Capital Management for MNCs
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. An effectively designed and managed centralized system has the major advantage of holding of overall cash balances to the minimum. but rather the centralization of reports. be delegated to a centralized cash management group. In case of excess cash. potential uses of funds at various subsidiary locations. Cash inflow to the subsidiary takes place when sales proceeds are received in cash and receivables for the goods sold on credit are collected after sometime. with centralized system of cash management.6.

funds that are in the process of being transferred among affiliates instead of being invested by the centre. In addition. This problem can be overcome by the centralized approach that monitors all inter-subsidiary payments. Cash flow optimisation policy is also disrupted by government restrictions. For example. the latter may have no option but to borrow until the payments are received. An MNC can also utilize multilateral netting with outside firms and agencies. Managing Inter-subsidiary Cash Transfers Through techniques of leading and lagging.4 Complications in optimization of Cash Flow
The process of optimalization of cash flows in an MNC is complicated because of unique features of the company. There are two kinds of netting.International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
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Minimizing currency conversion costs Managing inter-subsidiary cash transfers
Accelerating Cash Inflows Cash inflows can be prompted through quick deposit of customer's cheques. Minimizing currency conversion costs Cash flow can also be optimized through Netting. With the help of the consolidated cash flow information net cash positions for each pair of units (subsidiaries or parent) can be determined and the actual reconciliation at the end of each period can be done. Optimisation of cash flow can be impeded because of the specific situations existing among subsidiaries of an MNC. Alternatively. lock-box method and other devices. Some host governments prohibit this practice by requiring that a payment between subsidiaries occurs at the time at which goods are transferred. Multilateral netting system is most useful to MNCs in reducing administrative and currency conversion costs. The leading or lagging strategy can help in improving efficiency of cash utilization and thereby reducing debt. This technique optimizes cash flow by reducing the administrative and transaction costs arising out of currency conversion. cash flows can be managed to the advantage of a subsidiary. some
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. The process of netting forces tight control over information on transaction between subsidiaries leading to greater coordination among all subsidiaries to accurately report and settle their various accounts. This technique is called leading. A bilateral netting system involves transactions between two units: between the parent and a subsidiary or between two subsidiaries. Such a system is highly centralized so that all necessary information is consolidated. therefore. Netting involves offsetting receivables against payables of the various entities so that only the net amounts are eventually transferred among affiliates. It also reduces unnecessary float. 14. If A purchases supplies from B and pays for its supplies earlier than necessary. some governments ban the use of a netting system. For example. rather than individual cash transfers throughout the period. if one of the subsidiaries delays payments to other subsidiaries. MNC management must.6. government restrictions and characteristics of banking system. A multilateral netting system usually involves a more complex interchange among the parent and several subsidiaries. Netting also makes cash flows forecasting easier since only net cash transfers are made at the end of each period. be aware of existence of such prohibitory laws. establishing collection centers. it could provide financing by allowing A to lag its payments. if B sells supplies to A.

Some of these issues are: • • • • Should the excess cash of all subsidiaries be pooled together or remain separated? How can the effective yield expected from each possible alternative be determined? What does interest rate parity suggest about short-term financing? Will it be useful to diversify investment among currencies?
Working Capital Management for MNCs
These issues are discussed in the following paragraphs. which is important because the effective yield. This strategy will save transaction costs of the MNC. foreign treasury bills and commercial paper. therefore. The remaining cash. While making decision in this regard. MNCs want some form of zero-balance account system which allows the customer to use excess cash funds to make payments but earn interest until they are used. be very different from the quoted interest rate on a deposit denominated in a foreign currency. an MNC has to decide if individual subsidiaries will make separate investments on their own or a centralized approach will be followed to pool the excess cash from each subsidiary which will then be converted into a single currency for investment purposes. Problem in efficient utilization of cash also arises due to insufficient banking services in a country. may be invested in domestic or foreign short-term securities keeping in view potential yield of the securities and possible exchange rate movements. Separate or Centralized approach: While handling the issue regarding deployment of surplus cash. preventing net payments from being made. This kind of facility is not available in most countries. not the interest rate. thereby. for example. As a result. However.5 Investing Excess Cash Investing surplus cash in liquid assets such as Euro currency deposits. say of a bank deposit. In many developing countries MNCs do not even get updated detailed position of their account. the advantage of pooling may be offset by the transaction costs involved in conversion in a single currency. the short-term cash available in each currency could be pooled together so that there would be a separate pool for each currency. the management may find it too difficult to utilize the cash resources efficiently. Determining the Effective Yield: For an international finance manager it is effective yield.governments prohibit transfer of cash from the country. More often than not.6. Some countries may lack in lock box facility. are advanced in cash transfers but other countries' banks do not offer such services to MNCs. Alternatively. If an MNC is left with excess cash and expects future cash outflows in foreign currencies which are to gain in value it may decide to cover such positions by making short-term deposits in those currencies. 14. Banks in the USA. dovetailing the maturity of a deposit to the date of payment. The effective yield on the foreign deposit can be determined by using the following formula:
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. many crucial issues merit thorough consideration. if any. etc is one of the key functions of international finance manager. Even then aiso centralized cash management could be useful. considers both the interest rate and the rate of appreciation (or depreciation) of the currency denominating the deposit and can. The excess cash of subsidiaries in a particular can still be used to satisfy other subsidiary having deficiency in that currency.

or 4.88%). Thus. their movements tend to be highly correlated.308. The U.
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. it is believed that a foreign currency with a high interest rate would be an ideal short-term investment outlet for covered interest arbitrage.176 and then deposited in a bank.0441)] -1 =. The funds will convert to $2. X receives Aus $3.International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
r= (1+if) (1+ef)-1 where r represents the effective yield on the foreign deposit.S.205. Suppose that an MNC X of the US has surplus cash of $2. converted to Aus $2. dollars. i f represents the quoted interest rate on foreign currency. Due to higher interest rate X decided to invest in Australia. shortterm foreign investing may be more profitable than domestic investing but it cannot be guaranteed.0419. dollars are. the currencies represented within the portfolio will show low or negative correlations with each other.236. and diversification among these types of currencies does not substantially minimize exchange rate risk. X then converts it into U.882 (equivalent to initial deposit plus 9percent interest on the deposit). In other words.41 % Now assume that the Australian dollar depreciates from $. However. e f is the percentage change (appreciation or depreciation) in the value of the currency representing the foreign deposit from the date of deposit to the date of withdrawal. Diversifying Cash across Currencies: In order to avoid the possibility of incurring substantial losses arising out of depreciation of a foreign currency.65 or by 4.41 %.000. This relationship is based on the theory of interest rate parity.68 to $. the effective yield will be: r = (1 + .09) [1 + (. The company finds that one-year deposit in Australian bank would fetch 9 percent. the yield on this investment to X is: r = (1 + .000. Ideally. Investors will not lock in higher return when attempting covered interest arbitrage if interest rate parity exists.19% The effective yield could be negative if the currency denominating the deposit depreciates to an extent that more than offsets the higher interest accrued from the deposit. The exchange rate of the Australian dollar at the time of investment is $0. or 15. Short-term investment may be feasible if interest rate parity exists but this has to be on an uncovered basis (without use of the forward market).09) [1 +(-.0588)] -1 =1541.941. To what extent a portfolio of investments denominated in various currencies will reduce risk would depend on the currency correlations. therefore. Assume that the exchange rate at this time is $72 (an appreciation 5. such a currency will normally exhibit a forward discount that reflects the differential between its interest rate and the investor's home interest rate. an MNC prefers to diversify its investible funds among various foreign currencies. After one year. It can invest it] a one-year domestic bank deposit @ 6 percent. When currencies are likely to be affected by the same underlying event.68. Implications of Interest Rate Parity: Generally.S.

local sales on credit by subsidiary units gives rise to receivables for the selling units. etc have also to be reckoned with by an MNC while managing receivables. Receivables mainly arise when goods are shipped on open account.7 MULTINATIONAL RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT
Basic considerations influencing credit and collection policies of MNCs are the same as those of domestic firms. political crisis or other
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. The factoring agency is better equipped to assess these risks and can manage credit analysis and collection more efficiently and at lower costs.
Working Capital Management for MNCs
14. currency fluctuation risk complicates the task of inventory management in an international firm. For example. In an MNC.8 MULTINATIONAL INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
Fundamental decision rules determining the optimal level of stock of raw materials and components. and the annual turnover of the underlying receivables. work-in-process and finished goods are the same for both MNCs and domestic firms. safety stocks are also the same in both the cases. factoring permits the exporter to quote more competitive terms or to ship goods on open account rather than insisting on cash terms or shipment against letter of credit. receivables arise for a short period when goods are sold on cash against documents or sight draft and are in transit or for the time which lapses between the drawing of the draft and its payment by the importing firm or banker. It relieves the exporting firm from the costs of credit investigation. They may even decide to stockpile certain materials when their supplies are likely to be disrupted due to expected strikes. which is the function of an optimum solution equalizing stockout costs and the cost of carrying the safety stock. assessing the political risk and collection. an MNC has to compare incremental benefits with incremental costs. Firms having occasional export sales to a few geographically dispersed countries can also hire the services of factoring agency. Another issue related to receivables management in an international firm relates to factoring of receivables. These problems are the diverse inventories maintained in several widely separated locations. Above all. At times. The magnitude of safety stock. However. differential inflation rates. foreign exchange loss on sales on credit made by one of its subsidiaries has to be reckoned with. and supply disruptions due to strikes and political turmoil. international factoring is still an expensive process. MNCs are constrained to source their raw materials and components on a worldwide basis. an additional factor. However. as in the case of a domestic firm. MNCs have to face certain additional problems in managing inventories which a domestic firm does not experience.14. viz. In view of the above. consignment shipments and shipments of goods and services between parent and affiliates.. it is advisable to small firms who cannot afford the cost of credit investigation and risk evaluation to factor their receivables. Likewise. certain additional variables such as currency fluctuations. quality. exchange restrictions. lead time in case of an MNC has to be longer to guard against a. While deciding about sales on credit to a particular firm. However. Besides. In addition. Even the techniques employed to determine the level of required. Decision on factoring should take into account its benefits and costs. as well as among the latter. Factoring fees differ depending on the size. as well as for the MNC as a whole. has to be revised upward in case of an MNC due to the higher frequency of estimated stockouts. higher probability of unexpected delays in transit or delays in clearance from customs. frequently changing import controls and tariffs.

................................................................................................ ................................ Such transfers are in the form of royalties............................................................................................... ..... etc............................................................. foreign exchange risk............................................. ................................................................................................................................. However... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .. Policy regarding intra company transfer of funds needs to be meticulously laid down keeping in view tax factor........................................................................................................................................... .............9 SUMMARY
Basic rules the governing the working capital management are the same in both domestic and foreign firms............................ the policy of stockpiling should keep in view the following variables: • • • • Expected rate of depreciation of the local currency against the parent currency Expected rise in the price of imported parts and components in terms of the suppliers' currencies Holding cost of inventories Opportunity cost of local lands
Activity I a) Identify the problems which an MNC faces in managing its Working Capital.......................... ........................................................................ However.................................. ........ ..............
14................................ Discuss the various sources of intra corporate transfer of funds............................................................................................. In the same way..... b) List out three major sources of cash inflow and cash outflow of an MNC..................................International Investment Decisions and Working Capital Management
destabilizing factors....... ................ political risk...................................................... this task is further complicated by exchange restrictions on the
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..................................................................... MNCs have to consider certain specific variables such as exchange rate risk and the political risk............................... ~ ........ fees...................................................................................................................................................................................... interest on loans.......................................... In an MNC............... . The pricing of goods and services traded internally is one of the most critical issues in working capital management because it provides an effective weapon i the bands of an MNC to maximize its value........................... ....... .................................... ................................ and liquidity factor....... In MNCs there is periodic transfer of funds from affiliates to the parent as also transfer of funds among affiliates.................................................. Spell out the primary reasons for blocking of funds......................... an affiliate may engage in anticipatory purchases of imports and components to guard against transfers or likely depreciation of domestic currency......................................................................... dividends.................. tax systems and transfer pricing........ ........................................ It is generally a difficult task to decide on the transfer price.. ...

Thomson SouthWestern”. Generally.11 FURTHER READINGS
1. 4.USA. 9. Arthur I. the variables that influence intra-corporate transfer. highlighting the transfer pricing mechanism. multinational receivables and inventory management is complex because of currency fluctuations. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 6. 5.
Working Capital Management for MNCs
14. 3. 2. 6. exchange restrictions.3 (Fall l993) Jeff Madura. 11. Adrea S. He has to assess periodically the firm's cash position so as to determine if it has excess cash to invest or a cash deficiency. differential inflation rates. In what respects does domestic working capital management differ from multinational working capital management? What are the specific considerations that an MNC must consider while formulating its working capital management policy? What are the transactions incorporated under intra-corporate transfer ? Bring out. What are the specific problems which an MNC finance manager faces in managing receivables and inventories?
14. in brief. managing blocked funds and implementing inter-subsidiary cash transfers. Alan C. What is re-invoicing center? Discuss its utility in optimalization of funds by an MNC? Discuss the general functions involved in international cash management. Abdullah. New York. 7. Prentice-Hall International.
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. Kramer and J. 2. David K.Singapore (20O3) “Multinational Financial Management”.Primary responsibility of an MNC finance manager is to optimize the use of available cash. “International Financial Management”. Fuad A. Evaluate different methods of transfer pricing. various techniques to optimize cash flows. and greater risk of disruption of supplies. Clark Heston.
10.
3. John Wiley & Sons Inc. The techniques employed to optimize cash flows are: accelerating cash inflows. "Transfer Pricing is a potent and flexible weapon available in the hands of an MNC to circumvent transfer restrictions imposed by host governments". Stonehill and Michael H. an MNC prefers a centralized perspective.. Eiteman. (2006). Singapore. 8.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Singapore. No. MNCs' efforts to optimize cash are compounded by comp any-related characteristics of banking systems. This facilitates transfer of funds among subsidiaries to accommodate cash deficiencies of particular subsidiaries. (1987) "Financial Management for the Multinational Firms ". "An overview of Current Tax Impediments To Risk Management". Although fundamentals of managing receivables and inventories are the same in both domestic and foreign firms. in which the cash flow positions of all subsidiaries are consolidated. What are the complexities in optimization of cash flow? How can a centralized cash management be beneficial to the MNC?
5. minimizing currency conversion costs. Discuss. 4. longer delivery and lead times. Moffett.(1985) “Multinational Business Finance” John Wiley & Sons. Comment upon this statement. in brief.