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Why We Need Answers

The human mind is incredibly averse to uncertainty and ambiguity; from an early age. we respond to uncertainty or lack of clarity by spontaneously generating plausible explanations. What s more, we hold on to these invented explanations as having intrinsic value of their own. Once we have them, we don t like to let them go.

In 1972, the psychologist Jerome Kagan posited that uncertainty resolution was one of the foremost determinants of our behavior. When we can t immediately gratify our desire to know, we become highly motivated to reach a concrete explanation. That motivation, in Kagan s conception, lies at the heart of most other common motives: achievement, affiliation, power, and the like. We want to eliminate the distress of the unknown. We want, in other words, to achieve cognitive closure. This term was coined by the social psychologist Arie Kruglanski, who eventually defined it as individuals desire for a firm answer to a question and an aversion toward ambiguity, a drive for certainty in the face of a less than certain world. When faced with heightened ambiguity and a lack of clear-cut answers, we need to know and as quickly as possible.

In 1994, Kruglanski and Donna Webster introduced a standard way to measure the need for closure, or N.F.C. a forty-two-item scale that looked at the five separate motivational facets that comprised our underlying tendency for clarity and resolution namely, the preference for order, predictability, and decisiveness, discomfort with ambiguity, and closed-mindedness. Taken together, these elements tell us how high our need for closure is at any given point. Heightened need for cognitive closure can bias our choices, change our preferences, and influence our mood. In our rush for definition, we tend to produce fewer hypotheses and search less thoroughly for information. We become more likely to form judgments based on early cues (something known as impressional primacy), and as a result become more prone to anchoring and correspondence biases (using first impressions as anchors for our decisions and not accounting enough for situational variables). And, perversely, we may not even realize how much we are biasing our own judgments.

While the need for closure does vary from person to person some people are higher in baseline N.F.C. than others it is, to a large extent, situationally determined: the more in flux and indeterminate our environment, the more we want to reach some sort of resolution. N.F.C. is heightened under time pressure, with fatigue, with excess environmental noise when a lot of information that is difficult to make sense of is coming at us at the same time and when we feel that we need to give an opinion. It s also directly related to stress. In short, its influence peaks under the circumstances of emergency or crisis.

In 2010, Kruglanski and colleagues looked specifically at the need for cognitive closure as part of the response to terrorism. In a series of five studies, they found that reminders of terrorist attacks elevate N.F.C. increasing the need to develop strong beliefs, form clear-cut impressions, and classify objects and events into sharply defined categories in order to experience certainty and avoid ambiguity. In the central study, American students were shown a seven-minute slide show that either discussed the 9/11 attacks or talked about the advantages of working at Google. They then completed a filler task and had their N.F.C. measured. Participants shown the 9/11 video scored significantly higher on the N.F.C. scale; in short, simply seeing the terrorist film not even being in an actual crisis environment was enough to trigger a heightened need to attain cognitive certainty and resolution.

The researchers also had an opportunity to test their findings in a natural setting. In the two weeks that immediately followed the July, 2005, London-transit bombing, when four explosions killed fifty-six people and injured more than seven hundred, they recruited two groups of just over a hundred participants and had them complete a series of questionnaires. Not only did they find elevated N.F.C. levels, but that need in turn predicted support for counterterrorism policies. The relationship makes a lot of sense. Kruglanski conceptualizes our need for cognitive closure as consisting of two major stages, seizing and freezing. In the first stage, we are driven by urgency, or the need to reach closure quickly: we seize whatever information we can, without necessarily taking the time to verify it as we otherwise would. In the second stage, we are driven by permanence, or the need to preserve that closure for as long as possible: we freeze our knowledge and do what we can to safeguard it. (So, for instance, we support policies or arguments that validate our initial view). And once we ve frozen? Our confidence increases apace.

It s a self-reinforcing loop: we search energetically, but once we ve seized onto an idea we remain crystallized at that point. And if we ve externally committed ourselves to our position by tweeting or posting or speaking? We crystallize our judgment all the more, so as not to appear inconsistent. It s why false rumors start and why they die such hard deaths. It s a dynamic that can have consequences far nastier than a minor media snafu. Kruglanski and the political scientist Uri Bar-Joseph hypothesize that heightened N.F.C. and its concomitant cognitive freezing were in large part responsible for the start of the Yom Kippur War, the October 6, 1973, Israeli intelligence failure where Israel was caught unprepared for a surprise attack from Egypt and Syria. The warning signs were great, they argue, and the evidence ample. But high-placed Israeli intelligence officials exhibited heightened N.F.C. and they froze on the early conventional wisdom that the chances of an attack were quite low and failed to adequately incorporate new signals, blocking off conflicting information as to the attack s imminence.

So are we all doomed to make uncomfortable errors in reporting or fatal errors in intelligence analysis when the stakes are high? Not necessarily. A number of interventions have been shown to lower the N.F.C. imperative, even at those moments when it should be at its highest. Central among them is the fear of invalidity that is, the fear that a mistake will prove personally costly. If we are afraid that what we say or think will come with a severe penalty, we suddenly become much more cautious in our judgments. The more salient that possibility, the more circumspect our thinking.

The reporting that followed the Boston Marathon bombings was rife with error and rumors run amok. For each story (they robbed a 7-Eleven!), a counter-story followed close on its heels (they weren t even in the 7-Eleven). The misinformation plagued professional news outlets just as much as it did the amateur reporting efforts of Reddit and Twitter understandable, if you consider that the circumstances were ideal for heightened need for cognitive closure to kick in. But in the midst of it all, a few calm voices managed to maintain their cool. On NBC, Pete Williams maintained his usual measured composure, ensuring that his stories were verified many times over before they ever appeared on air. On Twitter, Seth Mnookin meticulously reported developments and corrected misinformation.

Maintaining of cool and levelheadedness is not an easy feat, especially in the face of circumstances that urge us all toward some any resolution just to regain a measure of sanity in the middle of ever-increasing uncertainty. But it s not impossible, either. The next time we want to run the race toward closure, to be the first to tweet or post or report, to follow the first thing we hear because it seems so believable, we d do well to consider the lessons of Boston not just the moments when the media world fell to its lowest points but those rare instances when it was able to show what the value of measured reporting really is. The need for cognitive closure is a powerful force. But a need is neither a mandate nor an excuse.

Maria Konnikova is the author of the New York Times best-seller How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes , and she just received her PhD in Psychology from Columbia University.

Photograph by Eric Thayer/The New York Times/Redux.

Maria Konnikova is a contributing writer for newyorker.com, where she writes regularly on psychology and science.

Blogs Answer, Question Crossword Puzzles

A crossword puzzle fan’s biggest dilemma used to be simple: pencil or ink? Now that Web logs post the answers to multiple puzzles every day, a puzzler has a new choice to make: sneak a look or tough it out?

Every day, just hours after The New York Sun and other newspapers post their puzzles online, Web sites such as Diary of a Cross-word Fiend (crosswordfiend.blogspot.com), Rex Parker Does the New York Times Crossword (rexwordpuzzle.blogspot.com), and Green Genius (norrin2.blogspot.com) publish the finished puzzles.

How do they get the answers? By doing the puzzles themselves, often with astonishing speed. They also write commentary on the puzzles, and invite discussion in the form of postings from others. The commentary generally starts with the quality of the puzzle, including how well the puzzle-maker has realized his theme through the relationship of the 10 or so longer answers on the grid. The riffs might include the thought process that led to a solution, illustrations of the people or events clued, and personal associations to any and all of the above. One blog, Crossword Bebop (crosswordbebop.blogspot.com), makes such improvisational associations its entire focus.

A puzzle solver such as Green Genius � aka Robert Loy, a writer who blogs the Sun’s crossword from his home in Charleston, S.C. � uses the puzzle as a mental pencil sharpener each morning before going to work. Michael Sharp, an English professor at the State University of New York’s Binghamton campus, also devotes serious time to his blog, Rex Parker Does the New York Times Crossword. (Rex Parker is his nome de crossword.) Since he started posting the answers to the Times puzzle last September, traffic on his site has increased to 4,000 unique hits a day. His blog is the one most often mentioned by puzzle professionals.

“My way of blogging is idiosyncratic and personal. It creates a conversation about the puzzle,” Mr. Sharp said. “The good part of criticism about puzzles is not saying whether they’re good or bad, but the way it creates talk around something that had been a silent experience.”

Donald Brooks, a New York theater designer who runs the site the New York Times Crossword in Gothic, also finds an element of personal expression in his hobby. He illustrated yesterday’s post with images of the ancient Egyptian god Set because “S-E-T” was a key to the puzzle’s theme. “I try to make it come alive a bit with the pictures,” he said.

Initially, some puzzlers were nervous about the copyright implications of posting the answers. Blank crossword grids and clues are protected by copyright, but those filled in with whatever letters one chooses and discussing how the clues relate to one’s answers are not. It’s as much a matter of free speech as any other kind of writing.

Because he comments on every clue, Mr. Sharp has found that most of his new user traffic comes from solvers using Google to research clues on the Internet. “All of a sudden, particularly after I’d been going six weeks, which is the lag time before the puzzles appear in syndication, I had this completely unexpected audience for my posts,” he said.

Mr. Sharp credits the proprietor of the group blog Diary of a Crossword Fiend, Amy Reynaldo, with helping to popularize Rex Parker. “She was one of the first to come to the site and only one to write about it in a systematic way,” he said.

Ms. Reynaldo’s approbation gave the Rex Parker site a seal of approval from a pioneer in the field of crossword blogs. It also helped increase Mr. Sharp’s traffic by providing an alternative to her own site, where the postings are written at an expert level that tends to focus technical aspect of the puzzle. “Her site is oriented toward top solvers and mine more toward the everyday schmoe who just does the puzzle,” Mr. Sharp, a top solver himself (ranked 166th in the last American Crossword Tournament), said.

Editors of the newspaper puzzles, including Peter Gordon of the Sun and Will Shortz of the Times, see the blogs as a welcome addition to the crossword community.

“I read them every day, and it’s great to get their feedback,” Mr. Gordon said. He pays particular attention to the commentary about his puzzles on Green Genius and Crossword Fiend. “You put the puzzles out there and people go into such detail for every puzzle, with pictures and everything,” he said.

“I find it flattering that there are at least four daily blogs,” Mr. Shortz said. “I don’t always agree, but it’s interesting and significant that someone would spend that much time every day to discuss the puzzle.”

Mr. Shortz noted that until the blogs started, the only way to discuss the crossword with a larger audience than one’s friends was through the New York Times online forum, which has been running since 1995. It is a bulletin board-style site moderated by Will Johnston, who also runs the Puzzles Pointers crossword reference Web pages (www.fleetingimage.com/wij/xyzzy/nyt-links.html).

As a result, he said, “I feel that my work as editor is under much greater scrutiny than any previous editor, which makes me work harder. Now, if you don’t like the puzzle or think something’s wrong with it, you can post your comments for everyone to see.” Still, Mr. Shortz said, “I don’t think the bloggers are representative of solvers as a whole: They are better than most, and they are younger. Most of the New York Times solvers are over 50.”

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4 Steps for Answering What Are You Looking for in a New Position?

Whenever you get asked this question during an interview, it’s impossible to not feel like it’s a trap. What other answer can you possibly give for, “What are you looking for in a new position?” other than, “Everything this one offers?”

Well, it depends on the humor of the hiring manager, but in general, that’s probably not your best option. To play it a little safer and to be thorough, follow these four steps. Remember, you want to be honest, but diplomatic.

1. Start With Your Skills

The question is about you, but you need to think about it from the hiring manager’s perspective. Sure, you’d love for your new position to pay extremely well, have an effortless commute, and ensure access to nap rooms during all work hours, but that’s not going to impress anyone. Instead, dive into your skills—an area the hiring manager is sure to care about—and talk about how you’re looking for a place where you can use them.

I’ve been honing my data analysis skills for a few years now and, first and foremost, I’m looking for a position where I can continue to exercise those skills.

2. Explain Your Motivation

Most hiring managers hope that the person he or she hires will be motivated by more than just a paycheck. Assuage this concern by addressing it openly. Describe what motivates you and how you can see that playing out in this position or company.

Another thing that’s important to me is that the position allows me to not only play with data, but also present my findings and suggestions directly to clients. That would be really refreshing! I’m always very motivated by being able to see the impact of my work on other people.

3. Connect With Your Long-Term Goals

Hiring people means investing in them, and no one likes to see his or her investment walk out the door. If it works with the flow of your answer, it might be good to mention how you see growing or building your career at a company that’s the right fit. Anything that signals you’re in it for the long haul is a good thing (unless, of course, you’re specifically applying to a short-term position).

And, I’m definitely looking for a position where I can grow—professional development is something that’s really important to me since I hope to take on managerial responsibilities in the future.

4. Wrap Up With Something About the Company

Bring the focus back to the company as you’re wrapping up your response. Depending on how long your answer is, it may make sense to sum up everything you’ve talked about, and then end on how excited you are about the company and why.

To sum it up, I’d love a position where I can use my skills to make an impact that I can see with my own eyes. Of course, the position is only part of the equation. Being at a company where I can grow and work toward something I care about matters, too. DNF’s goal of being the intersection between data and education inspires me, and I’m really excited about this opportunity.

Your answer will change depending on the position. You might emphasize more than one skill or skip over the part where you talk about your long-term goals, but the overall structure will probably remain the same. The key thing to remember with this question is to, of course, answer honestly, but with the hiring manager’s perspective in mind.

Photo of woman thinking courtesy of Shutterstock

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Hmmm, seems you ve already signed up for this class. While you re here, you may as well check out all the amazing companies that are hiring like crazy right now.

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The quaint towns, magnificent cities, and breathtaking natural beauty of Canada and New England are the perfect setting for a cruise focused on the saga of the Church in North America. And what a saga-the heroism of Jesuit martyrs, the violent clash of French Catholicism and British Protestantism, Puritan New England’s declaration of the Catholic Church as “intolerable,” the unique American heresies of Mormonism and the Jehovah’s Witnesses-these are just a few of the topics we will explore. By better understanding the Church’s past in the U.S. and Canada, we will be better equipped to fulfill our role as Catholics in the transformation of America in Christ.

If we want to save America, we need to bring the hearts and minds of her citizens into harmony with the heart and mind of the Church, and this cruise will be the perfect blend of historical background and apologetic training.

I am very happy to offer you a special, early-bird discount of $100 off per person if you sign up before October 31st. To receive your discount, enter promotion code “EARLY BIRD” on your application here at CatholicAnswersCruise.com.

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With every good wish, I am Faithfully yours in Christ,

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10 Common Questions New Parents Ask

Do you feel uncomfortable trusting your own parental instincts? And does reading that pile of parenting and child development books on your bedroom nightstand add to your feeling of confusion—especially when the information is conflicting? You are not alone. Most people, whether they are first-timers or old hands at parenting, have some concerns or fears that they re not doing the best for their children.

As a result of these worries, many parents consider their pediatrician the ultimate authority. But overcrowded pediatric offices and shortened office visit times can prevent parents — who sometimes feel rushed, forget their questions, or are just too embarrassed to ask — from getting the answers they need. (The National Center for Health Statistics stated the average office visit in 1998 as only 18.3 minutes.) But, now s your chance to get all the baby facts and answers to your top ten common questions.

How should I care for my newborn s umbilical cord? How should I clean it? And when will it fall off?

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends keeping the umbilical cord clean and dry, responds Dr. Eve R. Colson, MD, assistant professor of pediatrics at Yale University School of Medicine and director of the Well Newborn Nursery at Yale-New Haven Hospital. As it starts to crust and/or fall off, and you want to clean it, use a small amount of rubbing alcohol a couple of times a day. If you notice a lot of redness or foul odor, have your baby seen by the pediatrician. The cord should fall off in one to two weeks. (Read more about caring for your baby s umbilical cord, here .)

When is a baby s fever high enough for me to call the doctor?

Dr. Colson recommends that for infants less than three months of age, you should contact your pediatrician any time your child s temperature is greater than 100. She adds, In general, if your baby is not acting well, call your pediatrician whether there s a fever or not. For more fever facts, read on.

When can my baby take a pain reliever without a call to the doctor first?

Irritability and fever before three months of age should be evaluated by a physician, responds Dr. Robert M. Jacobson, MD, chair and professor of pediatrics at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. Between three and six months, for mild illness with or without fever, a parent may administer acetaminophen for a few days. But parents should seek medical attention for fever if it is high (104 or more), unexplained, or lasts more than three days.

Dr. Jacobson also suggests seeking medical attention when a baby is experiencing irritability which prevents sleeping or eating, and/or lasts more than three days, and adds, After six months of age, with the same guidelines, parents may use ibuprofen.

How long is it OK for a baby to cry?

Generally speaking, you don t need to let your newborn infant cry, says Dr. Colson. But it s OK to put a crying baby in a safe place if you need to go do something, like answer the telephone or help an older child. It also depends on the age of the baby and the exact issue you re dealing with, says Dr. Colson. If you re having trouble getting your baby to sleep, for example, contact your pediatrician for advice. (And learn more about soothing your wailing baby in our Crying Comfort Guide .)

Should I wake a sleeping baby to feed him?

In newborns who are small (especially less than six pounds at birth), you really need to consider waking the baby every three hours, Dr. Colson points out. It is not true that every baby will let you know when he or she is hungry, especially during the first weeks of life. Larger babies, who have many feedings during the day, may be able to sleep longer stretches at night without waking for feedings and still have plenty to eat. It really should be evaluated on an individual basis depending on your baby.

The best way to tell if an exclusively breastfed baby is getting enough food is to closely monitor her diapers. By four days of age, the newborn should have at least four stools and they should be changing from dark meconium to light brown, and then yellow, says Dr. Colson. If your exclusively breastfed baby is not stooling much during his or her first month, you should bring him or her to the pediatrician to be weighed.

Does my breastfed baby need vitamin supplements?

The answer is yes, says Dr. Colson. The AAP recommends Vitamin D for all breastfed babies from birth and some source of iron when the baby reaches six months of age.

I know babies are supposed to sleep on their backs, but mine keeps turning over on his tummy. What should I do?

I feel particularly passionate about this topic, says Dr. Colson. We recommend that all healthy newborns be placed on the back to sleep .

She also suggests only putting babies to sleep in a safe environment and on a firm mattress, with no stuffed animal, heavy blankets, or pillows. At about five months of age, the baby may learn to roll over, Dr. Colson adds. At this point, parents no longer have to flip their baby onto his or her back in the middle of the night. However, SIDS precautions should still be taken.

When should my baby sleep through the night without a feeding?

No baby really sleeps through the night, explains Dr. Jacobson. Even the ones that quietly proceed through the night without waking their parents are waking about every hour and a half. I think that babies can get through the night without a feeding as soon as [they ve] regained [their] birth weight, are feeding frequently during the day and evening, and are continuing to gain weight normally.

When can my baby sleep without a hat or without being swaddled?

I don t recommend that babies sleep with hats at home unless they are small for gestational age, premature, or are struggling with weight gain, Dr. Jacobson says in response to the first part of this common question. Regarding the second part, he adds, Swaddling means different things to different people. In general, babies should wear one more layer of clothing than their parents. If, by swaddling, you mean wrapping tight, then think of swaddling as a comfort measure for the newborn and young infant. Parents should abandon it when it no longer comforts the infant.

Dr. Jacobson also suggests, In the first few weeks of life with a full-term child, the parents might swaddle the baby below the arms leaving the arms and hands free. Some babies like that as they get older.

When can I take my new baby out in public? I m afraid she ll catch a cold—but I need to run errands. What should I do?

Dr. Colson recommends avoiding crowds until your infant is at least three months of age. If an infant under three months of age gets a fever (greater than 100), it s hard for clinicians to tell if the infection is serious because babies don t localize infections like adults, so they often have to admit the infant to the hospital for tests, she explains. Also, you should request that people wishing to hold your baby first wash their hands, and anyone with an active illness should not be around your little one.

Your pediatrician isn t a mind reader and can t possibly know every question you have, so be sure to write them down before you visiting her office so you don t forget. And after asking your questions, if you don t understand your pediatrician s answer—speak up! Ask your doctor to explain her response again, maybe in a different way. If she isn t willing to answer your questions, don t be afraid to consider seeking out a more communicative doctor. The answers are indeed out there; all you have to do is ask.

Sadlier oxford vocabulary workshop level g (new edition) answer key?

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Sadlier oxford vocabulary workshop level g (new edition) answer key?

I need a website or an answer key to check my work with in the unit of sadlier oxford vocabulary workshop level g (new edition) book. I have been browsing for a while and every website I visit is dead, I just need someone to give me a website link, or maybe a pdf, or website with a download or whatever, that gives me the answers. Please, I am not someone who likes to get wrong answers so I need to check my work to study for the tests.

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J-Term Spring Summer

Visiting students and non-majors are invited to take classes during January Term, Spring at Tisch, and Summer. Earn credits towards your major or minor, build your résumé with an internship, or take classes to change careers. Come be inspired by New York City and our international sites.

Tisch offers Professional Courses year round. Come take a class in an area of the media industry to get ahead in your career or to learn more about a topic you have always found interesting.

Study Abroad

Experience the world in a whole new way. Our short-term and semester-long study abroad programs are specially designed to draw on the artistic strengths of our global partners and incorporate the rich history, techniques and traditions of each country.

Special Programs

The Office of Special Programs at Tisch School of the Arts provides access to the arts. Whether you’re an NYU or visiting college student, high school student or working professional, we provide you with the introductory exposure to the performing or cinematic arts and the advanced-level training to grow your craft.

Student Affairs

The Office of Student Affairs comprises 19 professionals with one mission: To help you get the most out of your Tisch education with the least amount of wear and tear along the way.