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Introduction

Indigenous Australians—the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples—have an intimate connection to the land, waters, and living things. Their values, identity, spirituality, and lifestyles have all been strongly influenced by the environment in which they live. This relationship with the natural world comes from their belief that all the elements of the universe, including humans, plants, animals, landforms, and waterways as well as the Sun, Moon, and stars, were all created by ancestral (spirit) beings. After the creation of the world, these spirits became part of the landscape, and they live on in mountains, rivers, and other natural features today.

Because the environment is essential to their well-being, Indigenous Australians have a deep respect for nature. They have always felt a responsibility to care for and protect the land and waters. Over tens of thousands of years of living close to nature, they learned how to use the environment to meet their needs while also ensuring that natural resources would continue to be available for future generations. Some of their methods, such as firestick farming, continue to be models for sustainable environmental practices today.

Caring for Country

Within traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies, each clan has a defined area of land, or Country, to which they are connected or belong. Indigenous peoples identify themselves through their specific territory. Each clan has built a unique body of knowledge based on its Country that is handed down through generations by the elders. Clan members learn where to find sources of water and how to identify edible plants. They also learn the effects of seasons on plants and animals as well as how to track animals for hunting.

Knowledge about Country also includes practices for managing the land and its resources, which are known as “caring for Country.” Although these practices vary according to location, Indigenous Australians share the belief that conserving resources is essential. Traditionally, Indigenous groups would stay in an area only for a certain period of time to prevent excessive hunting, fishing, or harvesting, thereby maintaining a steady food supply. They also moved from place to place to adapt to changes of the seasons, which affected the availability of food sources.

Natural Resources and Their Uses

Traditionally, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples depended on natural resources for nearly all of their everyday needs. Plants, animals, and waterways provided food, medicine, shelter, and tools and weapons.

Food

Traditional Indigenous Australian peoples were hunters and gatherers. Men hunted mainly for larger animals, such as kangaroos, emus, birds, reptiles, and fish. Women and children hunted small animals and collected fruits, honey, insects, eggs, and plants. They took only the animals and plants that were needed, and nothing was wasted. Traditional Indigenous food was rich in nutrients and varied according to the seasons and location.

Medicine

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples used traditional medicines to treat such ailments as burns, snake bites, jellyfish stings, headaches, and eye infections. These treatments were referred to as “bush” medicine because all the ingredients used to make the ointments or remedies were gathered from the natural resources in the bush. Each clan used different medicines, depending on which plants and animals were available in their environment and in different seasons. Remedies included the use of wild herbs, bark and sap from trees, soil, animal products, and leaves. Knowledge of which plants or products treated particular conditions and how to prepare those remedies was part of the body of knowledge passed down through the oral tradition.

Shelter

Indigenous peoples traditionally lived in simple shelters made of materials that were available in a clan’s Country. The types of shelters used depended on many factors, including climate and the size and needs of a family. Typically, a shelter was made from a frame of branches and covered with leafy branches or sheets of bark. In areas where the environment was rich with resources, more complex and permanent shelters were built because a family group would live off the local resources for longer. These dwellings were built with the strongest materials available, such as hardwood, bark, and woven strings and twine.

Tools and Weapons

Traditional Indigenous societies also used natural materials to make a variety of tools and weapons. All clans had implements such as knives; spears for hunting, fishing, and fighting; boomerangs for hunting, warfare, and ceremonies; bowls for gathering, eating, and drinking; and clubs for ceremonies, fighting, and digging. The materials used to make tools and weapons depended on the resources available in each environment. In areas near the coast, for example, fishbone was used to make tips on spears, but in desert areas stone tips were used.

Wooden tools and weapons, such as spears, boomerangs, and clubs, were made from local hardwood trees. In central Australia wood from wattle (or acacia) trees was a common material. In southeast Australia she-oak was used. The wood used to make tools and weapons also varied according to the purpose of the implement. For example, people in desert areas used heavy wood to make boomerangs for hunting large animals, such as kangaroos. People who lived along the coasts made lighter boomerangs for duck hunting. Spears made for fishing were also made from lighter materials.

Firestick Farming

Aboriginal peoples have traditionally used fire as a way to manage the land. In the practice called firestick farming, they strategically burned parts of the bush. Controlled burning served several purposes. It reduced the risk of destructive bushfires by clearing vegetation that could have served as fuel. It also increased the amount and diversity of food available by encouraging the growth of different kinds of plants in different areas throughout the year. The heat from fire triggered the germination of seeds, leading to the growth of food plants, and the ash served as a fertilizer to encourage growth. The abundance of fresh vegetation attracted animals that Aboriginal peoples hunted, such as kangaroos, wallabies, and bilbies. Thinning the vegetation also flushed these animals out into the open to make hunting easier.

One example of the benefits of firestick farming was in desert areas that were usually covered with spinifex grass. Aboriginal peoples burned the spinifex, clearing the land for growth of edible plants. Among them were wild tomatoes and wild bananas, which were staple foods for people of the desert.

Cultural and Economic Value of Water

Indigenous Australians, like all people, need water to survive. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, however, water is more than a physical resource. It has always held great cultural, spiritual, and economic value for Indigenous communities.

Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth. Half of the continent receives less than 12 inches (30 centimeters) of rainfall per year, and about three-quarters of the land is classified as arid or semiarid. Aboriginal peoples had to learn how to live in remote areas where water was often in very short supply. Over many generations they developed a deep understanding of the availability, movement, and properties of water—where to find it, how to conserve it, and how to use it to acquire food.

Many Aboriginal groups settled near the coast or along rivers or lakes. The Murray River, the longest river in Australia, has supported Aboriginal communities for many thousands of years. Traditionally, fish, crayfish, and mussels were caught using nets and spears made from reeds, rushes, and branches found around the river and creeks. Waterbirds such as ducks, pelicans, and black swans were also trapped in nets and cooked over a fire. Plants and trees along the river provided food as well as materials for making tools and medicine. Canoes were built from the bark of the river red gum, the most common eucalyptus tree along the Murray. Aboriginal peoples used the canoes for fishing, setting out nets, and crossing the creeks when they flooded at certain times of the year.

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Water has always been vitally important to Torres Strait Islander culture. Traditionally, Torres Strait Islander peoples relied on the sea for survival. They got much of their food by fishing, collecting shellfish, and hunting sea animals such as turtles and dugongs in the surrounding waters of the Torres Strait, which lies between the Australian mainland at Cape York and Papua New Guinea. They also collected sea resources from the Great Barrier Reef, which begins in the Torres Strait and runs south off the Queensland coastline. Today, fishing remains an important part of the economy, and seafood is still a staple of the diet. Another key economic activity of Torres Strait Islander peoples was sea-based trade. They exchanged pearl shells, turtle shells, feathers, and other items with each other and mainland Aboriginal communities as well as peoples of Papua New Guinea. Their long voyages along the Great Barrier Reef and to neighboring islands were made possible by sturdy canoes they fitted with floats called outriggers.

The significance of water to Indigenous Australians is reflected in their spiritual beliefs. There are many stories about water in the Dreaming, or Dreamtime, the body of Aboriginal beliefs about the formation of the world. One well-known spirit being that is strongly linked with rain and rivers in Aboriginal beliefs is the Rainbow Serpent. Although stories of the Rainbow Serpent vary from one region to another, all of them depict the snake as the creator of watercourses and the source of all life. The most common story tells that the world was a flat, cold, empty landscape during the Dreaming. The Rainbow Serpent pushed up from beneath the ground and moved across the land creating mountains, valleys, and hills and spilling out water, forming rivers, lakes, and water holes. When a rainbow is seen, it is believed to be the Rainbow Serpent traveling from one water hole to another. Among the Torres Strait Islander peoples, spirituality centers on the stories of Tagai, a great fisherman and spirit being who is believed to have created the world. The Tagai stories depict the Torres Strait Islander peoples’ intimate connection to the sea.

Spiritual Significance of Landforms

The creation stories of Indigenous Australians do not only describe how spirit beings created the world long ago. They also explain that the spirit beings live on in rocks, trees, mountains, rivers, lakes, and reefs. Some of these natural features have particular spiritual significance for Indigenous Australians and are considered sacred sites. These sites are scattered across the continent. Some are known only to local Aboriginal peoples, but others are part of Australia’s most prominent landforms. The Indigenous views of three famous places—Uluru/Ayers Rock, the Great Barrier Reef, and the Snowy Mountains—show the deep spiritual connections tying Indigenous Australians to the land.

Uluru/Ayers Rock is a giant sandstone rock that rises 1,142 feet (348 meters) above the desert landscape of southwestern Northern Territory in central Australia. It is a sacred site for the Aboriginal people of the region, the Anangu. The Anangu believe the rock was created by their ancestors during the Dreaming on what had until then been a flat, featureless plain. Dreaming stories tell of the formation of the many features of the rock, including caves, cliffs, boulders, and cracks that the Anangu attribute to the activities of their ancestors. Carvings and paintings on the walls of caves at the base of the rock depict the creation of sacred features.

The traditional Aboriginal name for the rock is Uluru. The first European to see the rock, in 1873, called it Ayers Rock. In 1985 the Australian government recognized the importance of the rock to the Anangu by giving them official ownership. The rock’s name was officially changed to Ayers Rock/Uluru in 1993 and to Uluru/Ayers Rock in 2002. The rock is part of Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park, which was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.

The Great Barrier Reef is another World Heritage site of great importance to Indigenous Australians. More than 70 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups have a strong spiritual and cultural connection with this natural phenomenon off the Queensland coast. They are considered the traditional owners of the reef. Aboriginal peoples have Dreaming stories that tell how their ancestors lived on land in the Great Barrier Reef region before a rise in sea level flooded the area more than 10,000 years ago. The flooding created the islands of the region. Scientists attribute the sea level rise to the melting of glaciers at the end of the latest Ice Age. Dreaming stories, however, describe how ancestral spirits created the islands. The Aboriginal Dingaal people of northern Queensland, for example, have a story relating how the Lizard Island group was formed in the shape of a stingray, with the main island (Jiigurru) as the body and the other islands as the tail. The Dingaal consider Lizard Island to be a sacred site and have performed male initiation ceremonies there.

Creation stories also depict sea animals that have special significance for Indigenous peoples. For example, a story from Murray Island in the Torres Strait tells how Nageg and Geigi, a mother and son, became the fish now known as the triggerfish and the great trevally. Many Indigenous groups in the reef region have adopted a marine animal, such as a shark, turtle, crocodile, or sea bird, as a family or clan emblem. These animals, known as totems, play a special role in the groups’ songs and dances.

The Snowy Mountains, the highest mountain range in the Australian Alps, are located in southeastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria. The traditional owners of most of the Snowy Mountains region are the Aboriginal Ngarigo people. Neighboring Aboriginal groups include the Wiradjuri, Walgalu, and Southern Ngunnawal. All of these peoples have strong cultural and spiritual connections to the mountains.

The archaeological and sacred sites of the region include stone arrangements, burial sites, and rock shelters. Stone arrangements, typically found at the top of the highest mountains, were used for initiation ceremonies. Carved trees mark the burial sites of prominent clan members. Rock shelters show evidence of occupation from more than 20,000 years ago. The oldest known Aboriginal site in the area is Birrigai Rock Shelter in the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, on the northern fringes of the Alps. Tidbinbilla is part of the traditional Country of the Ngunnawal. Its name comes from a Ngunnawal word meaning “where boys become men,” reflecting the initiation ceremonies performed on the mountaintops. The shelter is still highly valued by the Ngunnawal and other Aboriginal peoples today.

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