The term universe is used to denote whatever body of people is being studied. Any segment of society, so long as it can be replicated, can represent a universe: elderly people, teenagers, institutional investors, editors, politicians, and so on. Effort must be made to identify the universe that is most relevant to the issue at hand. If, for example, one wishes to study the opinions of college students, it is necessary to decide whether the universe should be limited to full-time students, or whether it should also include nondegree and part-time students. The way in which these decisions are made will have an important bearing on the outcome of the survey and possibly on its usefulness.

Once the universe has been defined, a sample of the universe must be chosen. The most reliable method of probability sampling, known as random sampling, requires that each member of the universe have an equal chance of being selected. This could be accomplished by assigning a number to each person in the universe or writing each person’s name on a slip of paper, placing all the numbered or named slips in a container, mixing thoroughly, and then picking a sample without looking at the names or numbers. In this way, each slip would have the same probability of being chosen. If each person is numbered, the same effect can be achieved by using tables of random numbers, which can be generated on any computer. The random numbers are matched with the numbered members of the universe until a sample of the desired size is drawn. Although the numbering procedure is often not practicable, a few universes are already assigned numbers—such as all the workers on the payroll in a given factory, for instance, or all members of the armed forces.

Another probability method, systematic sampling, includes every nth member of the universe in the sample. Thus, if one wishes to study the attitudes of the subscribers to a certain magazine and the magazine has 10,000 subscribers, one could derive a sample of 1,000 subscribers from a list of subscriber names by randomly choosing a number between 1 and 10, selecting the name on the list corresponding to that number, and then selecting every 10th name after it. Systematic sampling is not as statistically reliable as random sampling.

Nonprobability sampling

Probability sampling techniques are less likely to be useful when the universe consists of a large population that is not homogeneous. This was the challenge faced by market and opinion researchers when they first started to conduct large-scale surveys. Their solution was the quota sample, which attempts to match the characteristics of the sample with those of the universe, thereby achieving a small replica of the universe. For example, if one knows, possibly on the basis of a recent census, that there are 51 women to every 49 men in the universe, then the sample should reflect these proportions. The same principle should be applied with respect to age, income, education, occupation, religion, national origin, area of residence, and indeed any characteristic that might be relevant to the range of opinions being studied. Each interviewer is instructed to locate and interview people who fulfill the characteristics targeted for the quota sample.

In the first half of the 20th century, most survey organizations used quota samples, and many still do, though the shift to telephone surveys made random sampling much more common through the use of random-digit dialing, in which a computer is programmed to dial randomly selected numbers (every nth from the available universe of telephone numbers). In Great Britain, where election campaigns last only a few weeks, quota samples have proven more accurate than probability samples in nearly all elections since World War II.

The quota sampling technique has drawbacks, however. In many countries, census data are poor or nonexistent. Even the most reliable census information cannot reveal all the characteristics that may affect the opinions being studied. For most populations, for example, it is not known how many people are vegetarians or how many are extraverts or introverts. Yet these characteristics may be related to opinions on certain subjects. Statisticians point out that in a quota sample it is impossible to give each member of the universe a known chance of being selected, and one cannot therefore calculate the range of error in the results that could be due to chance. Furthermore, in this type of sample, interviewers have to use their judgment in selecting respondents. Because their standards in choosing respondents may vary, it is possible for the outcomes to be biased; it is often the case that interviewers will choose to work with respondents who are most like them.

The great advantage of a quota sampling is that it is relatively easy to design and prosecute once the target universe is defined. Quota sampling also takes less time in the field, as callbacks are not necessary (as they are in probability sampling, where participation by the chosen sample members must be confirmed). In contrast, defining a universe and then randomly selecting and interviewing a probability sample from a large population can be time-consuming and expensive (often disproportionately so). Even in cases in which telephone interviewing would be appropriate, as for a population with a high incidence of telephone ownership, its effectiveness can be hindered by unlisted numbers or by telephone screening devices that filter out unwanted callers. In such cases, researchers usually employ weighting procedures to adjust for these types of errors. This has been a common practice in Web-based surveys, which have tended to be skewed toward more-affluent, better-educated, and middle-aged households.

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