Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible
beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their
efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their
own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a
difficult decision.

Communication Accommodation TheoryThis theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of
what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication
Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or
adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and
convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight
group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval,
frequently from powerless individuals.

Coordinated Management of MeaningTheorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people
co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when
stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the
relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical
structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages
received throughout a day.

Cultivation AnalysisThis theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role
in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most
people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct
experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape peoples sense of reality. This is
especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis
posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent
and scarier than is actually warranted.

Cultural Approach to Organizations The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs
that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organizations culture
is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories,
rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an
organization.

Cultural StudiesTheorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the
dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information
presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural
Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit
in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how
power plays a role in the interpretation of culture.

DramatismThis theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life
requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a
purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speakers motives by analyzing these
elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors
can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt
and a sense of identification with the rhetor.

Expectancy Violations TheoryExpectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory
advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either
favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the
violator. Violating anothers expectations may be a strategy used over that of
conforming to anothers expectations.

Face-Negotiation TheoryFace-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and
collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face
management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation
in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict
negotiation between people from various cultures.

GroupthinkThe groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider
alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend
that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or
dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of
which can have lasting consequences.

Muted Group TheoryMuted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps
European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case
because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language,
whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with
language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar
experiences, this situation should change.

The Narrative ParadigmThis theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm
proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic,
or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by
whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true
(fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no
one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and
fidelity.

Organizational Information Theory This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making
sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making
process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are
successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.

Relational Dialectics TheoryRelational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in
relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people
wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and
predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these
conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.

The RhetoricRhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker
who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical
proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as
well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are
also used in persuasion.

Social Exchange TheoryThis theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships
is the satisfaction of both peoples self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange
posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance
relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that
self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance
relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to
economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their
expenditures.

Social Penetration TheoryThis theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and
predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way
that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although
self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more
persons vulnerable.

Spiral of Silence TheoryTheorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous
power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that
mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on
cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the
beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to
what they perceive to be a majority view.

Standpoint TheoryThis theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy
different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social
situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a
partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the
hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of
the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top.
Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its
application to how womens and mens standpoint differ.

Structuration TheoryTheorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and
organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organizations rules
and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization.
Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own
because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the
decision making taking place in groups and organizations.

Symbolic Interaction TheoryThis theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they
assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that
people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a
sense of self and to interact with others in community.

Uncertainly Reduction TheoryUncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is
on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are
located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to
behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think
of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, peoples uncertainty
is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use
communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory.

Uses and Gratifications TheoryUses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media
forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe
effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media.
Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with
the media?