The mature C-GTOS will require numerous steps to provide
products from observations. These steps will include identifying issues of
concern, their context and their associated variables and indicators, which make
up the database. These data will be incorporated and harmonized into a
management system based on TEMS that will require significant enhancement.
Derived metadata and information products will be communicated to users, again
through TEMS, GeoNetwork and other platforms. Finally, all of these steps
require significant increased capacity. This section summarises these
steps.

3.1 The context of
issues

An important goal of C-GTOS is to ensure that land-based,
wetland and freshwater conditions of the complex and important coastal region
are adequately represented within the global observation system. As such, the
key issues within observation systems can be divided into five categories
(Christian, 2003):

those whose effects contribute to global change;

those whose effects contribute to large-scale regional change;

those for which global change produces significant local response;

those for which large-scale regional change produces significant local response,
and

those that occur so ubiquitously that the result is of global importance.

C-GTOS focuses on environmental issues most directly linking
terrestrial, freshwater and wetland ecosystems determined within the context of
integrating frameworks (see section 2.2). These key issues are represented
herein by critical, linked systems and associated measures of change. An initial
list of issues (related to states in the DPSIR framework) has been developed to
include (i) human dimensions, land cover, land use and habitat alteration; (ii)
sediment loss and delivery; (iii) water cycle and water quality, and (iv)
effects of sea level change, storms and flooding. The human dimension is so
important to the condition of the coast that additional effort is being made on
the socio-economic condition of coastal populations in coordination with
C-GOOS.

Addressing these issues is foreseen as occurring in two
phases. First, a small and select group of priority topics will be addressed to
establish proof of concept. Then a fully mature observing system will be
developed to provide the ability not only to detect change associated with the
key issues, but also to predict it and provide essential reporting products to
assist in management and mitigation.

All of ecology operates at the interface between organisms and
their environments, and hence, ecological processes begin at the fine scale.
Some of these processes, such as denitrification (conversion of nitrate to
gaseous nitrogen) or respiration, can have a global influence (Seitzinger and
Kroeze, 1998) despite functioning at the local level (Smith et al., 1991;
Jenkins and Kemp, 1984). Certain processes operate at landscape scales, and they
are not simple aggregations of finer-scale ecology (e.g. energy flow through a
food web), nor are they simply parts of a global pattern. Ecosystems, or
landscape units, can be seen as living units with their own ecological
interactions. Table 6 below illustrates how certain processes can be aggregated
within a range of scales, but there can also be major distinctions between
scales where ecological processes take on a whole aspect. Interactions between
these major scale divisions must be understood by linking models, and not just
aggregating data, as can be done within a scale range.

TABLE 6Example of major scale divisions (expressed as
hypothetical resolution of data)

MODELS

1 mm - 10 m

«

10 m - 100 km

«

100 km -1000 km

«

1000 km - globe

Plotpatchorganism

Landscapecommunityecotype

Regioncountrycontinent

Continentworld

It is likely, then, that some observations may need to be made
at each of these scales, even if the ultimate goal is to develop a regional to
global synthesis. The spectrum of spatial scales of variables is coupled with
temporal scales of variation, with small-scale variables tending to change more
rapidly. The Global Hierarchical Observing Strategy (GHOST) used by GTOS
recognizes these scale differences and addresses how sampling can accommodate
them (GTOS, 1997b). GHOST includes an array of sampling plans, from intermittent
and continuous in situ sampling at discrete points in the landscape to
satellite measures of large areas. Moreover, some phenomena cannot be scaled up
except by coupling models.

Issues (changes in state) can be assessed by a large number of
conservative and non-conservative physico-chemical, biological and
socio-economic indicators and variables. The C-GTOS Panel identified variables
that can either indicate the status of each issue (an indicator) or help
quantify an important aspect of the issue (an environmental variable). The
collection of data on these indicators or variables is not done directly by
C-GTOS. Rather C-GTOS assimilates data from various sources to address these
issues. Many of these sources are listed in TEMS, but not all. Sources have been
identified in general, but specific ability to provide the appropriate data
requires further evaluation. The purpose of this section is to describe the
nature of these key issues for which observations will be made and data
collected.

3.2 Human dimension, land cover/land
use and critical habitat alteration

Recent assessments estimate that roughly 3.2 billion people,
or more than half the current global population, live on or within 200 km of a
coastline. By 2025 that number is expected to increase to 6.3 billion or 75
percent of the then global population (UNESCO, 2003b). Changing population is
reflected in changing land-use patterns derived from land-cover data, including
an apparent increase in urbanization and alteration to critical habitats. Once
the initial state of the dynamic population is understood, key variables, which
are indicators of the response of the coastal ecosystem to a wide range of
human-related activities, can be recognized, and observing systems can be
optimized. The impact of population growth on coastal ecosystems will be a major
issue this century (Cohen et al., 1997; Nicholls and Small, 2002; Wickham
et al., 2002).

The rate of change in land use and land cover in the coastal
environment will significantly outpace the steady increase in population in the
coastal region. Land-use and land-cover change are significant to a range of
themes and issues central to the study of the coastal environment. Habitat
modification is important and occurs through effects on both the quality of soil
and water and changes to the biota. Alterations in the earth's surface
contribute to changes in biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrological
cycles and ecological balances and complexity (Jackson, Kurtz and Fisher, 2000;
Seitzinger and Kroeze, 1998; Vitousek et al., 1997). Through these
environmental impacts at local, regional and global levels, land-use and
land-cover changes driven by human activity have profound regional environmental
implications, such as alterations in surface runoff dynamics, lowering of
groundwater tables, impacts on rates and types of land degradation, and reduced
biodiversity.

Table 7 provides a list of indicators and variables to assess
the status of, and change in, coastal human populations, land use, land cover
(including important components such as impervious surfaces), and habitat
quality. Some, but not all, of these variables are currently measured at sites
in the TEMS network, but no concerted effort exists within GTOS to incorporate
these variables into an operational observation network. In addition, there may
be further issues of scale and data availability that will require further
evaluation. The categorization of issues of concern throughout this chapter does
not create a listing of mutually exclusive variables. Thus, tables in the
following subsections provide variables and indicators that are germane to these
topics.

Human dynamics in, and anthropogenic forcing upon, coastal
areas constitute themes central to the implementation of both GTOS and GOOS.
However, the myriad environmental variables and indicators of the influence of
humans are not easily parsed between the two observing systems. Given the
evolving nature of programmatic implementation in both efforts, it is suggested
that a shared system of programme responsibility should be built. This system
could be driven by the needs for indicator identification and ranking at both
the global and regional level.

Two approaches are taken with respect to socio-economic
variables. First, several variables have been listed within TEMS, but they are
largely inactive, with many not yet applied to any aspect of GTOS. C-GTOS is
taking the lead on socio-economic observations by including these variables in
the C-GTOS observing system. Table 7 summarizes some of the important
socio-economic variables listed within TEMS and identifies the need for their
application to the coastal zone.

TABLE 7Socio-economic variables and indicators included
in TEMS and evaluation of stated resolutions in TEMS and resolution needs for
application to coastal issues

Second, C-GOOS has produced a strategic design plan and is
currently developing an implementation plan taking account of both global and
regional programme efforts (UNESCO, 2003c). As part of the implementation
effort, a draft protocol for ranking priority socio-economic indicators has been
prepared and will be extended and refined during the plan development process.
This protocol is linked to that developed within the strategic design plan to
rank common variables to detect and predict change in coastal environmental
conditions (UNESCO, 2003c). This exercise is viewed as holding equal value for
both GOOS and GTOS in identifying and ranking common and critical socioeconomic
indicators. It is expected that all environmental variables will, in the future,
also be assessed to determine links with the IGOS Coastal Theme. Thus, this
protocol is seen as the means for incorporating socio-economics into the
observing systems.

3.3 Sediment loss and
delivery

Human activities within watersheds have dramatically altered
the delivery of sediments to the coast, with significant ecological and economic
consequences. These activities have altered the amount, timing, quality and
composition of transported sediments. A variety of land-use changes have
contributed to increased sediment delivery to coastal ecosystems through
enhanced erosion. These land uses include agriculture, silviculture, dredging,
and urban development. In contrast, construction of dams and levees has
decreased sediment delivery. Sediment contamination may result from the
nutrients and chemicals used in agriculture and the myriad activities of modern
society. While most research and policy initiatives addressing alterations to
sediment loss and delivery from human activities focus on upstream sources,
seaward sources may also be important. Sediments, some contaminated, accumulate
in coastal beaches, wetlands and lands as a result of normal tidal delivery and
storm events. Dredging and structural changes to shorelines affect this source
of sediment supply. The ubiquity of these alterations makes this issue a global
one, as the IGOS Coastal Theme recognizes (IGOS, 2003).

Alterations in the quantity and quality of sediment loss and
delivery have numerous impacts. The geomorphology of shorelines, and indeed
whole coastal regions, may depend on the amount and timing of delivery. This
geomorphology is closely linked to human use of these regions, from habitation
on deltas to recreational use of beaches. Considerable economic investment
depends on a predictable, and often stable, shoreline. Silting of ports and
waterways can threaten the safe operation of shipping. Whereas dredging
operations have direct economic consequences, the dumping of dredge spoils has
indirect consequences, for instance, on environmental quality. The productivity
of coastal ecosystems is also affected by increased sediment loss and delivery
through enhanced turbidity, associated nutrient loading and the toxic effects of
contaminants.

A number of indicators and variables of sediment loss and
delivery are already measured by TEMS sites, while others will need to be added
through C-GTOS, complementing the needs of other observing systems and
assessments (see Table 8). However, many of these measurements cover a limited
geographic area. Table 8 focuses on aspects of water flows to the coast (e.g.
water discharge) and delivery of particulate matter carried within water
bodies.

3.4 Water cycle and water
quality

Human activities within watersheds have directly altered
hydrology and hydrochemistry of both superficial water bodies and groundwater
aquifers (Alexander et al., 2000; Howarth et al., 1996; Nixon,
1981; Smith et al., 2003). The hydrological cycle is forced by both
upstream and seaward phenomena. Furthermore, climate changes have induced
modification in the permanent ice cover, as well as in frequency and quantity of
wet deposition. A variety of land-use changes have contributed to increased
modifications in the watershed structure. Construction of dams and levees,
variations in the hydraulic regime, wetland reclamation, agriculture and urban
development are responsible for changes in the hydrographic networks and
delivery of pollutants to coastal ecosystems. The urban development of coastal
areas is also responsible for direct contamination of the near-shore system.
Reclamation of coastal wetlands and mangroves and exploitation of inshore and
near-shore waters for tourism, shipping, aquaculture, etc. also cause relevant
losses of ecosystem functions, such as the retention of or buffering against
pollutants (De Wit et al., 2001; Valiela and Cole, 2002) and loss of fish
nursery habitats affecting associated productivity of off-shore commercial
fisheries and coral reef biomass and resilience (Mumby et al., 2004).
From the seaward side, two major phenomena are of growing interest: the
ingression of saline water into the coastal groundwater reservoirs and the rise
in sea level. The increased salinity of waters in the coastal areas is
detrimental for human uses (agriculture, industry and drinking purposes) (King,
2004; Pilkey and Cooper, 2004). The sea level increase is expected to have
direct effects mostly in the reclaimed and subsiding lands (Zhang, Douglas and
Leatherman, 2004), but it can also affect coastal waters - for example, by
limiting light penetration in the benthic system, by changing vegetal
communities and by affecting oxygen distribution in the water column. The
ubiquity of these alterations makes this a global issue. The impacts of altered
quantity and quality of water delivery are numerous. Changes in the
freshwater-to-saline water ratio can not only have the above-mentioned impacts,
but also affect the aquatic biota and ecosystem productivity. The increased
concentration of phosphorus and nitrogen is responsible for eutrophication and
dystrophy of coastal waters. Persistent pollutants can accumulate in sediments
and aquatic food webs. These quality changes are closely linked to human use of
these regions (urban areas, fishery, aquaculture, recreation and tourism).
Productivity effects can be witnessed through symptoms of eutrophication,
dystrophy and fishery losses. Economic consequences of these changes can be
directly monitored through fishery catch, aquaculture production, tourist
numbers and related revenue. Scientists believe these changes may significantly
threaten coastal productivity and critical resources or cause irreversible
alterations, the effects of which cannot be predicted.

TEMS provides information on water cycle processes and on some
indicators of water quality (see Table 9).

However, the resolution of information and its specificity to
the coastal zone requires further evaluation. Some of the identified indicators
and variables are not currently found within TEMS, and will need to be added
through the implementation of C-GTOS.

3.5 Effects of sea level, storms and
flooding

The state of sea level is perhaps more dependent on global
climate than any other issue highlighted by the Coastal GTOS Panel. It has been
the focus of an international assessment of global change under the auspices of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which recently predicted
an adiabatic global sea level rise (SLR) of an average of 50 cm by 2100, with a
range of 20 to 90 cm (McCarthy et al., 2001). It has also been the source
of intense controversy concerning the causes, rates and methods of observation
(Antonov, Levitus and Boyer, 2002; Cabanes, Cazenave and LeProvost, 2001; Miller
and Douglas, 2004). The largest contribution to the observed rise in global SLR
is the thermal expansion of warming oceans associated with global warming
(McCarthy et al., 2001). SLR is assessed as part of the coastal
components of GOOS and GCOS (UNESCO, 2003c). In addition to the melting of
land-fast sea ice, causes of SLR that originate in terrestrial environments are
also significant and GTOS-relevant. These include the melting of glaciers and
mountain ice caps and changes in human storage and connectivity of terrestrial
water (King, 2004; Miller and Douglas, 2004). These estimates could change
dramatically upon consideration of significant ice melt or shifts in ocean
circulation. Regionally and locally, relative sea level can differ markedly from
global estimates (Church, 2001; Kerr, 2001). Sea level may decrease in areas of
postglacial rebound or tectonic activity, and sea level rise may be greater in
areas of subsidence.

The impacts of SLR, storms and flooding may be substantial on
both natural and human-dominated ecosystems (King, 2004; Pilkey and Cooper,
2004; Zhang, Douglas and Leatherman, 2004). Increased sea level may cause the
following situations:

loss of property due to flooding;

increased costs of maintenance of shorelines;

wetland movement and loss, and

decreases in water availability for human use.

These impacts come from both the long-term propensity for
intrusion of seawater into the terrestrial environment and the increased
frequency of storm water flooding. The measurements of sea level and sea state
are a commitment of C-GOOS, but the effects of SLR, terrestrial-derived sources
of freshwater influx and the indirect influence of land-use change on SLR by
global warming are all quite appropriate to C-GTOS, and identified variables are
included in this section, as well as those for the water cycle (see section 3.4)
and human dimensions (see section 3.2) issues. A limited number of variables
have been identified, and most are either listed within TEMS or LOICZ, but these
generally relate to sea state and land conditions (see Table 10). Variables
measuring the effects of seawater on terrestrial ecosystems, including
human-dominated ecosystems, are found in the other sections of this chapter -
for example, habitat alteration, land-use and land-cover change.

TABLE 10Drivers, related variables and indicators of
sea level, storms and flooding.Many variables related to resulting
effects are associated with other identified issues within this chapter, and are
tabled within the corresponding sections

3.6 Context for changes in
state

The issues of concern described above will be foci for C-GTOS.
The number of issues addressed and the depth and breadth of their assessment
will increase as C-GTOS develops and matures. The issues are placed into the
observation system context in Table 11. One can consider that each issue
represents an environmental state or condition, and the observing system goals
are to assess changes in these states and conditions. As can be seen, all of the
issues within coastal ecosystems relate to more than one category of context of
observation systems. Some are involved in feedback loops in which global or
regional changes effect change within the coastal zone, and the resultant
changes affect global or regional conditions.

TABLE 11Relationships between changes in states of
interest to C-GTOS and scale

CHANGES IN STATES

Effects are global

Effects are regional

Response to global change

Response to regional change

Ubiquitous

Human dimension, land use/land cover and critical habitat alteration

·

·

·

·

·

Sea level, storms and flooding

_

_

·

·

·

Sediment loss and delivery

_

_

_

·

·

Water cycle and quality

·

·

·

·

·

Interactions may be complex and encompass multiple issues, as
well as scales. For example, global phenomena (e.g. atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration changes and climate) may affect the coastal states with respect to
land use, land cover, habitat integrity, water cycle and sea level. All states
are considered affected by regional forcing, and all are considered local.
However, the local changes are ubiquitous (Bijlsma et al., 1996, Marsh,
1999). Conversely, local but ubiquitous and regional changes may affect
larger-scale phenomena. For example, widespread changes in sediment loss and
delivery or land use may in turn affect the availability and quality of habitat
for waterfowl whose migrations are trans- or intercontinental (Michener et
al., 1997; Thompson and Patterson, 2000) and local wetland sustainability
(Christian et al., 2000). The state changes that directly affect global
processes are seen only as human activities and alterations to the water
cycle.

3.7 Data and information
management

With the identification of critical indicators comes the need
for data acquisition, data management and the integration and analysis
capabilities to interpret indicators and develop useful information products for
science and decision-making. GTOS has developed an operational system in TEMS
that could be extended and refined as part of a distributed network of databases
and web portals for related metadata and data. Other information management
infrastructures (such as readily accessible data archives) are necessary parts
of a mature observing system and are detailed in the GTOS Data and Information
Management Plan (GTOS, 1998b).

A draft framework specific to C-GTOS data and information
needs is summarized below as a first step towards the development of a complete
document. It is based on the GTOS Data and Information Management Plan (GTOS,
1998b), updated to include recommendations in preparations by the Committee on
Data for Science and Technology in the Priority Assessment on Scientific Data
and Information (ICSU, in preparation). It is divided into a number of basic
elements, not totally independent, but intended to provide a convenient
structure for presentation and discussion.

3.7.1 User requirements

C-GTOS aims to supply data and information products to address
both science and policy needs in each user community. The importance of
identifying the needs of the different types of users for each of these issues
has been already emphasised and will be a continuing process as C-GTOS develops.
There will be new users and new issues, and experience shows that users'
requirements will change with time. The definition of user needs must drive data
collection and information production.

Policy and actions

C-GTOS datasets should be collected, developed and managed to meet the known,
inferred and predicted needs of the user communities.

A user needs analysis should precede any major programme of data collection
to clearly identify data and information requirements and the core dataset
requirements.

3.7.2 Custodianship and quality control

A custodian is the body responsible for the development,
maintenance and quality of a dataset, and for arranging access to it while
reducing redundancy of data collection and maintenance. Most important, a
custodian should have the scientific and technical knowledge and expertise to be
in the best position to assess and ensure data quality and to indicate the
appropriate uses and limitations of the data. C-GTOS will ensure that there is
sufficient documentation associated with any data and information to allow the
user community to make a quality assessment; a dataset judged to be of
acceptable quality for one user group may be unacceptable for another.

Policy and actions

As part of the end-to-end information management framework, all C-GTOS datasets
will have a designated data custodian.

Detailed minimum requirements for a GTOS dataset custodian in the form of
a pro forma custodianship agreement will be developed.

Procedures will be established for assigning, managing and reviewing custodians.

All C-GTOS datasets will be provided with adequate metadata, enabling potential
users to assess to judge if the data or information is of acceptable quality.

Registration procedures will be established for datasets and information
products.

3.7.3 Metadata

Metadata are "data about data", describing such things as the
general content, intellectual property, geographic nature and quality of the
data. They constitute documentation covering all aspects of the end-to-end data
management process. Metadatabase systems are systems specifically designed to
manage metadata, i.e. to provide facilities for discovery, exploration and
exploitation. Such systems may be used within a single institution to organize
and maintain its own data holdings. They are also used on a broader level and
can then provide a mechanism through which data producers can ensure that
potential users are made aware of existing data, their nature and how they might
be obtained.

Metadata is an integral component of the desired high-quality
data and information products C-GTOS plans to deliver to users. Metadata will
facilitate data distribution and access, enable quality assessments to be made
and allow for archiving. To assess the metadatabase system needs, the relatively
new science of informatics and its appropriate technologies must be
applied.

Policy and actions

All C-GTOS data and information must have metadata in accordance with GeoNetwork
and ISO guidelines (ISO, 2003).

Metadata requirements must be identified at the directory level and guidelines
produced.

Metadata harmonization methods will be built.

Minimum generic metadata requirements at the dataset level for different
data types will be identified.

Appropriate informatics techniques will be applied, and new approaches
developed.

3.7.4 Equitable, free and open access

Existing organizations and institutions that enter into
partnership with C-GTOS can be regarded as a loosely coupled distribution system
through which data and information can be made available to the user community.
At the first level, users must be able to find out what data are available
through metadatabases or data catalogues, e.g. TEMS, Global Change Master
Directory, and GeoNetwork. The next level involves finding out more detail about
potentially useful datasets by examining the associated metadata. Finally, if a
dataset appears to be suitable for the intended use, then a simple
order-and-delivery process should be available. Ideally, C-GTOS aims to provide
data and information in an unrestricted fashion and free of charge while
acknowledging situations when a data provider may restrict access to respect
individual and national privacy, security and confidentiality.

Policy and actions

C-GTOS data and information should be made available in a timely and unrestricted
fashion at zero (or minimum) cost.

C-GTOS data and information should be easily accessible in a variety of
forms to meet the requirements of the user community.

Pro forma agreements are needed as a starting point for any necessary bilateral
negotiations.

Guidelines for metadata requirements will be developed to enable user browsing
and ordering.

3.7.5 Interoperability

The ability to use data and information collected over long
time periods and to integrate data from disparate sources to create new datasets
is dependent upon the interoperability of data, software and hardware. By
promoting data harmonization and commonly accepted international standards,
C-GTOS will seek to bring together various types, levels and sources of data in
such a way that they can be made compatible and comparable.

Policy and actions

C-GTOS datasets should be harmonized, to the extent possible, to allow integration
of national and regional datasets into a usable global information resource.

An inventory will be developed and maintained of all of the principal international
standards, organizations and international scientific bodies active in harmonizing
environmental data relevant to the scope of C-GTOS.

Priority areas will be identified where lack of harmonization is hindering
the potential usefulness of C-GTOS data.

International expert meetings will be facilitated and sponsored to develop
harmonization techniques in key sectors relevant to C-GTOS.

3.7.6 Archiving

The preservation of data and information to enable use over
the long term is intrinsic to the concept of C-GTOS. Archiving is also an
essential element of the end-to-end data management framework, and custodians
will be expected to have archival procedures in place. C-GTOS could designate
specific custodians as "archive facilities" and ensure that every data holder is
associated with one such facility to which copies of all material to be archived
should be forwarded. Even if it is possible to archive all data and information,
it might be neither practical nor economically feasible. Again, informatics
approaches are needed to aid decision-making. Thus C-GTOS should consider the
cost of archiving, which includes the preservation of data integrity and the
upgrading of databases as the software and hardware technologies
advance.

Policy and actions

All C-GTOS data and information must be securely archived, along with all
relevant metadata.

An appropriate number of custodians will be designated C-GTOS data archive
facilities.

Guidelines will be developed for archival requirements for C-GTOS products.

All data holders will have archival procedures in place that are consistent
with GTOS guidelines.

3.8 Capacity building

Challenges exist for C-GTOS. The challenge faced by much of
the terrestrial ecosystem monitoring community, and C-GTOS in particular, is at
least partly due to the following factors:

The community is very diverse and fragmented in terms of disciplines and
research priorities. (in some ways this contrasts with C-GOOS, where many
researchers and management programmes are devoted specifically to coastal
waters).

Inadequate national resources and political commitment are available for
long-term research, especially in developing countries.

Most regional and international collaboration experience is limited (this
is contrary to the atmospheric and ocean communities, where such collaboration
is longstanding and reasonably effective).

These challenges must be faced by the terrestrial ecosystem
monitoring community and TEMS before data starts being more freely exchanged,
assembled and assimilated in large-scale datasets. Even so, these are only the
initial challenges. Integration and analysis of data to generate useful products
for decision-makers presents an even greater challenge. All of these challenges
can be met through the building of capacity in one form or another.

This plan does not outline a definitive capacity-building
plan. The principles for capacity building for observing systems have been
discussed elsewhere (GTOS, 1998a; UNESCO, 2003c), as have details. We identify
here issues that are considered of special importance to C-GTOS, recognizing
that considerable effort is needed to ensure successful maturation and
sustainability of the observing system. The mechanisms for this effort require
future consideration.

First, there is a need to intensify the harmonization,
standardization, and quality of long-term coastal data by developing and
disseminating methodologies and supporting education and training efforts. These
efforts must be sustained and reinforced, especially in developing
countries.

Second, it is important to increase the visibility of
terrestrial ecosystem research in the context of the coastal zone by
underscoring the central tie between socio-economic factors and ecological
changes. Most efforts in coastal observations have been from the oceanographic
and marine science community. This is because a significant portion of this
community identifies itself with coastal and estuarine waters. Coastal wetland
scientists and managers often have a history in marine science. The
oceanographic community has provided a political constituency to advance C-GOOS.
No comparable community exists for terrestrial science. The terrestrial and
freshwater coastal zone is not perceived as unique from other terrestrial and
freshwater environments. This cultural difference needs to be addressed, and
special effort is needed to develop a labour force and intellectual base for the
non-marine environments of the coastal zone.

Finally, there is a need to foster more cooperation between
national and international ecosystem monitoring networks and stations through
concrete activities such as C-GTOS. This cooperation can be achieved through
greater recognition of the relevant transboundary (nutrient discharges, bird
migration and mangroves as well as fish nurseries) and global issues (carbon
flux, coastal erosion). An opportunity to promote this cooperation is presented
through the implementation of C-GTOS as described here.