1 PLANE DIP and STRIKE, LINEATION PLUNGE and TREND, STRUCTURAL MEASURMENT CONVENTIONS, THE BRUNTON COMPASS, FIELD BOOK, and NJGS FMSThe word azimuth stems from an Arabic word meaning "direction“, and means an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. In structural geology, we primarily deal with land navigation and directional readings on two-dimensional maps of the Earth surface, and azimuth commonly refers to incremental measures in a circular (0- 360°) and horizontal reference frame relative to land surface.Sources:Lisle, R. J., 2004, Geological Structures and Maps, A Practical Guide, Third editionFLASH DRIVE/Rider/PDFs/Holcombe_conv_and_meas.pdfBrunton Pocket TransitRider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

2 Plane Dip and Linear PlungedoDip = dohorizontalBedding and other geological layers and planes that are not horizontal are said to dip. The dip is the slope of a geological surface. There are two aspects to the dip of a plane:(a) the direction of dip, which is the compass direction towards which the plane slopes; and(b) the angle of dip, which is the angle that the plane makes with a horizontal plane (Fig. 2.3).The direction of dip can be visualized as the direction in which water would flow if poured onto the plane. The angle of dip is an angle between 0° (for horizontal planes) and 90° (for vertical planes). To record the dip of a plane all that is needed are two numbers; the angle of dip followed by the direction (or azimuth) of dip, e.g. 74/138 is a plane which dips 74° in the direction 138°.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

3 Linear Plunge and TrendAny dipping plane can be thought of as containing a large number of lines of varying plunge (Fig. 2.4). The strike line is a non-plunging or horizontal line within a dipping plane. The line numbered 5 in is an example of a strike line; it is not the only one but the other strike lines are all parallel to it. If we think of the sloping roof of a house as a dipping plane, the lines of the ridge and the eaves are equivalent to strike lines.Plunge is used to describe the tilt of lines, the word dip being reserved for planes. The plunge fully expresses the three-dimensional orientation of a line and has two parts:(a) the angle of plunge, and (b) the plunge direction or trend.Consider the plunging line on the dipping plane to the right and an imaginary vertical plane containing the plunging line.TrendThe plunge direction is the direction in which this vertical plane runs, and is the direction towards which the line is tilted. The angle of plunge is the amount of tilt; it is the angle, measured in the vertical plane, that the plunging line makes with the horizontal. The angle of plunge of a horizontal line is 0° and the angle of plunge of a vertical line is 90°.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

4 Plane Strike and Dip, and Recording ConventionsWithin a dipping plane the line at right angles to the strike line is the line with the steepest plunge. The angle of plunge of the steepest plunging line in a plane is equal to the angle of dip of that plane. A strike line is not a polar line (with a unique azimuth), but can be recorded using supplementary angles. For example, the plane to the right is striking E and/or W.Strike and dip angles are measured using a few different techniques. We will focus on two:SWE1. Dip and dip azimuth (0-90°/(0-359°), and2. Strike (0-179°), Dip, and Dip Direction (N,E,S,W)The plane in the example is dipping due south, thatis recorded either as 45/180 (using method 1 or 090/45 S for method 2. The dip azimuth and strike are always complimentary.Two other recording conventions for plane strike and dip that you may encounter include the quadrant, and the right-hand rule. For the planes sketched above, strike and dip using the quadrant method would be recorded as N90E/45 S. The quadrant system is popular in the US and primarily uses a primary north (N) or south (S) reference, with a secondary direction (E or W). Appended after the bearing. The right-hand rule method requires a unique strike direction (or a polar line), one that has the dip direction lying to the right (clockwise). So for a plane dipping 45° South, the plane recorded using the right-hand rule is 090/45 S. A plane dipping 45° North would be 270/45 N using the same rule.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

5 Recording Conventions and Notebook/Computer NotationWhen using the Strike, Dip, and Dip Direction convention for recording planes, only measure and record strike azimuth in the 0-179° range, writing strike 1rst, dip 2nd, and dip direction 3rd , in sequence. This helps keep planar readings separate from lineation readings in your field book, and minimizes confusion over what type of feature was recorded that may arise later upon revisiting your notes. Here is a example of some structural measurements:TYPE OF FEATURE ABBREVIATION FOLLOWED BY STRUCTURAL READINGB 123/45 S J 090/23 N SP 123/66 N SL 66/ FA 13/ J 040/88 NPlanes: B - bedding, J - joint, SP – shear plane Lineation: SL - slip lineation, FA – fold axis4 planes and 2 lineation are recorded above. Notice how the planes have a three-digit/two-digit format and the lineation have a two-digit/three-digit format. Also, planes have the alphabet modifier whereas a lineation doesn’t.Measuring strike in the field with a pocket compass is easier than measuring dip azimuth. But the dip azimuth convention is needed when manipulating and using your data with computers. You choose what system you prefer to record your measurements. Ultimately, the system should be easiest for you to remember and use. However, it is expected of you to be able to convert all different methods to one another.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

6 The Brunton CompassWe will be using a Brunton compass to collect field measurements. A Brunton compass, properly known as the Brunton Pocket Transit, is a precision compass made by Brunton, Inc. of Riverton, Wyoming. It was patented in 1894 by David W. Brunton, a Canadian-born Colorado geologist. The Brunton (for short) utilizes magnetic induction damping rather than fluid to damp needle oscillation. The Brunton Pocket Transit is a specialized instrument used widely by geologists, archaeologists, environmental engineers, and surveyors to make accurate degree and angle measurements in the field. The United States Army has adopted the Pocket Transit as the M2 Compass for use by crew-served artillery.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

7 The Brunton CompassThe Earth is completely surrounded by a magnetic field, and an unobstructed magnetized object will orient itself with the planets magnetic north and south poles. Magnetic declination (variation) is the difference between true geographic north (north pole) and magnetic north (in northern Canada), with respect to your position. It is important to note magnetic declination at your position, because magnetic declination varies and fluctuate slowly at different rates, around the world.An example of a map legend showing the declination of Magnetic North from True North, and the manual procedure for adjusting the compass for magnetic declinationRider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

8 Lineation rakes 45o E on fault plane 125/60NRider Structural Geology GCHERMANLine Rake (or Pitch) on a PlaneSometimes, it is more convenient to use a different method when measuring the orientation of a line on a plane rather than the trend and plunge. Occasions arise on the outcrop where accessibility factors make it difficult to position oneself properly in order to take a trend reading, or the dip of the plane is to steep and makes trend measurement impractical.The orientation of the line on a dipping plane can also be defined by the pitch of the line. Pitch is synonymous with the US term rake. The pitch(rake) of a line is the angle measured in the plane between the strike line and the line of interest. A strike sense direction must also be given to indicate which of the two possible strike senses was used. The orientation of the plane also must be given in order to uniquely orient the line. Pitch angles are in the range 0-90o, with a pitch of 0o being a line parallel to the strike, and a pitch of 90o being a line parallel to the dip line.Lineation rakes 45o E on fault plane 125/60NDiagrams illustrating strike, dip, trend, plunge, and the angle of rake that a line makes on a dipping plane. Figure modified from Principles of Structural Geology by John Suppe, 1985.Slip directionThe Colorado School of Mine provides a free Excel application for converting pitch on a plane to linear plunge/trend. See FLASH DRIVE/EXCEL/rake_plunge_calculator.xls. FMS automatically converts values upon data entry in the program.

9 Using a Field Book for Geological MappingYou will be recording your field observations, notes and structural readings in a field book that is supplied at the beginning of class. This will be your ledger of activity in the field and laboratory. It will be reviewed but not graded. What you transpose from it will be graded, so it is vital that you keep your observations, notes, thoughts, and readings organized and legible for later reference.It is advisable to use an indelible marker to personalize you book inside the font hard cover in case it is ever misplaced or forgotten. Provide enough information that you can be contacted for its return. Securing a business card inside, or something similar works too.I recommend starting a new day’s entry on a new page, with a heading stating the date and location. It is always good practice to take your time at a location and describe the location and the type of outcrop or station, in addition to the stratigraphic description and the type of structures that you measure. If you use abbreviations, etc., you should have list of them somewhere in the book, preferably in the front pages, so that your notes become legible by others upon scrutiny.I prefer to use a mechanical pencil for recording my notes. Others prefer to use ball-point pens. Whatever you use, it should not bleed when wetted. Mistakes will happen, and it is helpful if you can erase a mistake and fix it.Field-station identification is key. You may use different schemes throughout the semester, but you will need to become familiar with that used by the NJGS as part of cataloguing data throughout northern New Jersey using the Field data Management System (FMS - see FLASH DRIVE/GCH_310_Lab_Supplement_2012.doc).There will be assignments and examples used throughout the semester of data that are archived in the NJGS FMS. Their station numbering scheme uses a five-digit integer. The first two numbers refer to the USGS quadrangle number (0-99) awhile the remaining 3 digits correlate to field station (1-999 or less). For example field station refers to the 456th station in quadrangle No. 17 (Newfoundland 7-1/2’ Topographic quadrangle).Rider Structural Geology GCHERMAN

10 Using a Field Book and Topographic Map for Geological MappingIf you use a GPS receiver to locate yourself in the field, recording the location coordinates in the book at a station is also helpful, especially because batteries die, and digital data can be easily lost, overwritten, or inadvertently deleted. It’s also a good idea to mark your position on a hard copy map in the field. USGS 1:24,000 scale topographic quadrangles provide a standard base that can be used for this task. Custom base maps are also popular, such as Google Earth printouts, or local surveys.Rider Structural Geology GCHERMANScanned field book page and correlative field map (Lambertville, NJ-Pa 7-1/2’quadrangle). Red-pencil lines are faults mapped at the 1:100K scale. The names of local roads were written on the map. Station numbers reflect two different excursions.

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