THE WAY FORWARD. A Practical Approach to Reducing Canada s Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Transcription

1 THE WAY FORWARD A Practical Approach to Reducing Canada s Greenhouse Gas Emissions April 2015

2 CANADA S ECOFISCAL COMMISSION WHO WE ARE A group of independent, policy-minded Canadian economists working together to align Canada s economic and environmental aspirations. We believe this is both possible and critical for our country s continuing prosperity. Our Advisory Board comprises prominent Canadian leaders from across the political spectrum. We represent different regions, philosophies, and perspectives from across the country. But on this we agree: ecofiscal solutions are essential to Canada s future. OUR VISION A thriving economy underpinned by clean air, land, and water for the benefit of all Canadians, now and in the future. OUR MISSION To identify and promote practical fiscal solutions for Canada that spark the innovation required for increased economic and environmental prosperity. For more information about the Commission, visit Ecofiscal.ca THE WAY FORWARD I

3 A REPORT AUTHORED BY CANADA S ECOFISCAL COMMISSION Chris Ragan, Chair McGill University Elizabeth Beale Atlantic Provinces Economic Council Paul Boothe Western University Mel Cappe University of Toronto Bev Dahlby University of Calgary Don Drummond Queen s University Stewart Elgie University of Ottawa Glen Hodgson Conference Board of Canada Paul Lanoie HEC Montréal Richard Lipsey Simon Fraser University Nancy Olewiler Simon Fraser University France St-Hilaire Institute for Research on Public Policy This report is a consensus document representing the views of the Ecofiscal Commissioners. It does not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations with which they are affiliated. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dominic Barton Jim Dinning Janice MacKinnon Jack Mintz Annette Verschuren Jean Charest Peter Gilgan Preston Manning Peter Robinson Sheila Watt-Cloutier Karen Clarke-Whistler Michael Harcourt Paul Martin Bob Rae Steve Williams Bruce Lourie Lorne Trottier We also acknowledge the support and contributions of the Commission s staff: Adam Baylin-Stern, Dale Beugin, Annette Dubreuil, Linda Montreuil, Jessie Sitnick, Vincent Thivierge, and Jennifer Wesanko, as well as Hidemichi Yonezawa for his modelling work. Finally, we extend our gratitude to McGill University and the University of Ottawa for their continued support of the Commission. Canada s Ecofiscal Commission recognizes the generous contributions of the following funders and supporters: Fondation familiale familiale Fondation Trottier Family Foundation II

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For most Canadians, doing nothing in response to climate change is simply not an option. Canadians already bear significant economic costs associated with the climate impacts from rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; almost all regions and economic sectors are vulnerable. However, most provinces and the country as a whole are not on track to achieving existing emissions-reductions targets for 2020, let alone the deeper reductions required over the longer term. Achieving meaningful reductions will require the design and implementation of more-stringent policies. Delaying such policy actions will mean higher future costs for Canadians. Getting moving now allows policy to begin reducing GHG emissions and then ramping up to yield more significant reductions over time. In this way, households will have the ability to adapt their behaviour, and businesses will have the flexibility to adopt and develop technologies required to transform our energy system. Falling behind the rest of the world can lead to competitiveness challenges in a global economy that increasingly recognizes the economic value of low-carbon activities. The question we now face in Canada is how to move ahead in the most practical and cost-effective way. This report offers a clear way forward through provincial carbon pricing. The report explores two central issues. First, why provincial carbon pricing is the most practical way to move forward on achieving meaningful, low-cost reductions in GHG emissions. Second, which details and fundamentals of policy design need to be considered as provinces take their next steps. These ideas are explored by drawing on analysis and evidence from economic theory, from policy experience both internationally and in Canada, and from new economic modelling. Three key policy criteria are emphasized throughout the report: (1) policies are effective if they achieve the required level of emissions reductions; (2) policies are practical if their designs reflect local economic contexts and priorities; and (3) policies are cost-effective if emissions reductions are achieved at least cost. The report concludes with four recommendations for Canadian policymakers. Recommendation 1: All provincial governments should move forward by implementing carbon-pricing policies. Making national progress on reducing GHG emissions is necessary, and the longer progress is delayed, the more it will cost Canadians. Provinces have the jurisdictional authority and policy momentum to make important headway on this issue now by adopting carbon-pricing policies, which achieve emissions reductions at the lowest cost. Carbon pricing is increasingly emerging as a central policy instrument for reducing GHG emissions, with support from a broad range of influential entities, such as the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the Canadian Council of Chief Executives. The THE WAY FORWARD III

5 Executive Summary continued analysis presented in this report demonstrates the considerable economic benefits of carbon pricing relative to other policies in every Canadian province. Carbon pricing provides emitters with the flexibility to identify least-cost ways to reduce emissions. It also generates revenue that governments can use to drive additional environmental or economic benefits. And, over time, carbon pricing will also drive more innovation, further reducing costs. Independent provincial carbon-pricing policies offer a practical way forward. Coordination of these policies may be desirable down the road, and different paths to that coordination, including a role for the federal government, are possible. However, it makes good sense to lead action from the provinces. These policies already exist in some provinces and there is momentum building in other provinces to follow suit. The Council of the Federation has now signalled that provincial carbon pricing has a role to play in a provincially led national energy strategy. Furthermore, provinces have unique economic structures, emissions profiles, and political contexts, to which carbon-pricing policies can be customized. Using provincial policies can ensure that carbon-pricing revenues remain within the province in which they are generated, avoiding both real and perceived challenges of a centralized system. Moving forward with provincial policies now allows Canada to make crucial progress on the necessary and inevitable transition toward a cleaner, loweremissions economy. Recommendation 2: Provincial carbon-pricing policies existing and new should increase in stringency over time. Carbon-pricing policies are not automatically environmentally effective; stringency is essential. A more stringent policy has a higher carbon price. A carbon tax with a very low price is weak policy, as is a cap-and-trade system with a very high cap. Similarly, a policy with a high carbon price that covers only a small fraction of emissions is weak policy. To achieve the required economy-wide emissions reductions at least cost, and to produce the necessary incentives for innovation, any carbon-pricing policy needs to be stringent. What is the right level of stringency? Our modelling analysis uses the provinces current 2020 targets as a convenient, though arbitrary, benchmark. With the exceptions of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador, no Canadian province is projected to meet its emissions-reductions targets for 2020; in this sense, current policies are insufficiently stringent. These targets, in any event, are only relevant for the short term. Much deeper reductions will be required over the next few decades. Even those provinces now pricing carbon lack policies stringent enough to achieve their stated targets. The dynamics of stringency are also important. Ramping up the stringency of policies over time will avoid unnecessary shocks to the economy, but will nonetheless encourage households and businesses to change their behaviours. The sooner policies are put in place, the more time is available for the carbon price to increase smoothly, rather than abruptly. An economic environment with a predictable escalation in price is conducive to long-range planning. Existing provincial policies vary in terms of stringency. British Columbia s carbon tax is the most stringent, and appears to have driven notable emissions reductions. The price of carbon in B.C. is now static at $30 per tonne, however, with no increases since Quebec s comparatively new cap-and-trade system has a lower carbon price, but its cap on emissions is scheduled to decrease steadily each year. Alberta s system with flexible regulations has led to minimal emissions reductions, partly due to its limited stringency. Recommendation 3: Provincial carbon-pricing policies should be designed to broaden coverage to the extent practically possible. Broad coverage creates incentives for emissions reductions throughout the economy. Coverage also matters for minimizing the costs of any given amount of emissions reduction. The more emitters (and emissions) are covered by the policy, the more incentives exist to realize all available low-cost reductions. Carbonpricing policies should thus be as broad as possible. The most costeffective policy would impose a uniform price on all GHG emissions, irrespective of their source. Specific sectoral exemptions not only introduce inequities, but also raise the overall cost of the policy. The British Columbia carbon tax and the Quebec cap-and-trade system both have reasonably broad coverage. Alberta s flexible regulation, however, creates no incentives for emissions reductions from small emitters, including buildings, vehicles, and small industrial sources. And only a very small fraction of emitters actually pays the price on carbon. This narrow coverage contributes to the limited effectiveness of Alberta s existing policy. Recommendation 4: Provinces should customize details of policy design based on their unique economic contexts and priorities; they should also plan for longer-term coordination. While consistency of provincial carbon prices is a desirable goal, other dimensions of policy design can remain customized to provincial contexts. IV

6 Executive Summary continued Revenue recycling, in particular, provides an opportunity for diverse provincial policy choices. Some provinces may choose to reduce existing business or personal income taxes, as in British Columbia. Others may prefer to use the revenue to invest in the development of new technology, as in Quebec and, to some extent, Alberta. Carbonpricing revenue could also be used to finance investments in critical public infrastructure, to address competitiveness risks for exposed industrial sectors or to ensure fairness for low-income households. Different provinces with different contexts and priorities are likely to make different choices. This flexibility is a key strength of the provincial approach to carbon pricing. Over the longer term, consistency of the carbon price across provinces is desirable for two reasons. First, such consistency improves overall cost-effectiveness by ensuring incentives exist for realizing all potential low-cost emissions reductions, whatever their location. Second, a common price avoids policy-induced challenges of interprovincial competitiveness. When policy is equally stringent across provinces, all firms face a level playing field. While a consistent carbon price across Canada is eventually desirable, it is not critical in the short term. Nor should the pursuit of such a common price be an obstacle to effective and timely provincial action. Canadian provinces have a long history of differential policies. By developing effective provincial policies now, and thereby beginning to mobilize markets toward low-carbon innovation, provinces can make crucial headway on an important challenge. THE WAY FORWARD V

7 CONTENTS Table of contents 1 Introduction The Need for New Carbon Policies Climate change is real and costly Canadian opportunities from policy action Canadian governments are unlikely to achieve their GHG objectives Governments can use different policy approaches The Practicality of Provincial Carbon Pricing Provinces can take the initiative and already are Provinces have unique economic and emissions profiles Provincial carbon pricing offers a practical way forward Policy can become more coordinated and comprehensive over time The Cost-Effectiveness of Carbon Pricing Economic modelling of GHG emissions reductions Benefits of policy flexibility Benefits of revenue recycling Benefits of interprovincial linkage Important limitations of the model Policy lessons from the modelling exercise A Framework for Policy Design Carbon-pricing instruments constrain prices, quantities, or both More-stringent policy drives greater emissions reductions Coverage determines which GHG emissions are priced Choices for revenue recycling depend on priorities Policy design can address risks to competitiveness Summary: How do existing Canadian policies compare? Recommendations: The Way Forward Next Steps References VI

8 1 INTRODUCTION Climate change presents an urgent policy challenge for Canadians, as it does for people all over the globe. Economic costs associated with the gradual but inexorable rise in Earth s average temperature are occurring now, and they will escalate unless significant actions are taken to reduce our greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While there is no longer any serious debate about the science of climate change, there is continuing debate about which policies can most effectively address the problem. Further delays in effective policy action will increase the costs of achieving meaningful emissions reductions. Canadians and their governments need to build on existing momentum by implementing smart climate policies. At the meeting of the Council of the Federation in August 2014, Canada s provincial premiers explicitly recognized the importance of using carbon-pricing policies to help drive a transition to a low-carbon economy. Their conclusion makes sense. Though British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec have already begun to address GHG emissions by putting a price on carbon, other provinces could follow suit. This report explores the opportunity for building on these early provincial policies. It has two main objectives: First, it makes the case that Canada needs to reduce its aggregate GHG emissions, and that a practical method for doing so are for provincially designed and implemented carbon-pricing policies that reflect the essential economic contexts within the respective province. Second, it provides an overview and preliminary guide to key issues of policy design, and sets the stage for a deeper discussion on design details that will appear in future reports from Canada s Ecofiscal Commission. The central case for implementing well-designed provincial carbon pricing is threefold. First, carbon-pricing policies are effective in driving the needed reductions in GHG emissions. Evidence both here at home and internationally strongly supports the effectiveness of carbon pricing. Canada needs more stringent carbon policy to drive reductions both in the short and longer term. As the world moves toward a new global agreement in 2015, insufficient policy action at home will cost Canada in terms of international reputation and may result in our products being denied the market access we desire. As Canada s trading partners move forward with their own policies, Canada risks putting its industries at a competitive disadvantage in a global economy that values emissions reductions. Second, provincial carbon pricing offers a practical path forward for Canadian policy. Canada s existing federal structure is not a barrier; it is an opportunity for smart and effective policy. Building on existing momentum, provincial governments can design ecofiscal carbon policies based on their own economic and policy contexts. Governments can move forward with policies now, beginning the THE WAY FORWARD 1

9 Introduction continued needed transition and avoiding the costs of delay. Any revenues generated by the policies would be retained within the province, available for provincial priorities. This approach does not preclude a future role for the federal government, but instead provides a practical path forward for crucial new policies. Third, well-designed carbon-pricing policies are cost-effective. They help achieve emissions reductions at the lowest possible costs because they allow emitters to find the most efficient methods to reduce emissions. Other policies such as building and vehicle regulations, subsidies, and investment in research and development may also be useful components of a comprehensive policy package, but their effectiveness is significantly diminished in the absence of a carbon price. Given the benefits of carbon pricing in terms of policy flexibility, the economic gains from revenue recycling, and the incentives for clean innovation, carbon pricing is an essential foundation of any cost-effective approach to reducing GHG emissions. For an effective, practical, and cost-effective policy, smart design is essential. This report provides a starting point for a more comprehensive discussion of the details of policy design. It lays out a framework based around five central issues: What policy instruments can be used to price carbon? How stringent is policy in terms of the price of carbon? How broad is the coverage of the policy? What is done with the revenues obtained? How can competitiveness risks be addressed? The stringency and coverage of a policy matter a great deal. A carbon-pricing policy that applies a low carbon price to a small share of overall emissions is neither effective nor cost-effective and not much better than no policy at all. Other design choices have more complex trade-offs. The unique characteristics of each province may lead to different design choices; but all can achieve the desired goals of efficient and effective emissions reductions. This is the first of several reports on carbon pricing from Canada s Ecofiscal Commission. The analysis presented here will be a starting point for the Commission s regional engagement on carbon-pricing policy through 2015, which will in turn inform the Commission s future research and policy recommendations on these critical design issues. The remainder of this report is structured as follows. Section 2 reviews the need for new policies in Canada to reduce GHG emissions. It lays out the fundamentals of Canada s emissions challenges and the rationale underpinning a need for policy action. Section 3 considers the economic and policy contexts of the different provinces, making the case that the provinces offer a practical path forward for new carbonpricing policies. Section 4 uses economic modelling to illustrate how ecofiscal carbon pricing is the most cost-effective approach to achieving each province s existing GHG emissions-reductions targets. Section 5 provides a framework for comparing provincial policies. Finally, Section 6 makes clear policy recommendations based on the analysis and findings from this report. Note two important things this report does not attempt to do. It does not lay out a comprehensive climate policy for Canada. Without dismissing the need for selected regulations, subsidies, or clean-tech investments, the focus here is to explore the important role that can be played by carbon-pricing policies. Nor does this report provide detailed design recommendations for carbon-pricing policies within each province. Instead, it creates a framework for analysis of the various objectives and constraints that could inform policy design in each region. These design details will be considered extensively in future Commission reports. 2

10 2 THE NEED FOR NEW CARBON POLICIES Why are new climate policies needed in Canada? This section summarizes the broad global consensus around climate science, and surveys some of the economic costs of climate change for Canada. It then assesses the progress of Canadian governments in implementing policies to reduce GHG emissions, and reviews the main options for further policy actions. 2.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IS REAL AND COSTLY The science is clear: GHG emissions are inexorably changing Earth s climate. It is also becoming increasingly clear that these changes pose significant economic risks for Canada and for the world. The growing atmospheric concentration of GHGs contributes to climate change A clear consensus has emerged regarding the core science of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2013, 2014a; Wolff et al., 2014). A survey of climate science research finds that 97% of scientific studies supports the hypothesis that climate change is driven by human actions (Cook et al., 2013, 2014). The members of Canada s Ecofiscal Commission are not climate scientists, but we defer to the best available evidence from the scientific community. The most recent report from the International Panel on Climate Change which brings together diverse scientific research on climate change indicates there is more than a 95% probability that human activity is responsible for climate change (IPCC, 2014a). Global and comprehensive action is required to reduce the annual flow of GHG emissions so as to stabilize their accumulated atmospheric concentrations (e.g., Hoffert et al., 1998; Peters et al., 2013). Stabilizing atmospheric GHG concentrations at levels sufficient to slow current warming trends requires a fundamental shift in the way the world s economies produce and use energy. Since climate change is a global phenomenon, policies in any one country are insufficient for addressing the challenge (Auditor General of Canada, 2014). As part of the international Copenhagen Accord, however, the Government of Canada adopted a target for emissions reductions by 2020, and has committed to achieving this target (Canada, 2013). As discussed below, all Canadian provinces have adopted similar emissions-reductions targets. The full range of GHGs matters for policymakers. The release of carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is the largest source of GHG emissions 76% of total human-related GHGs, accounting for both volume and global warming potential and is rightfully a priority for policy (Global Carbon Project, 2014). Sensible policy, however, must be comprehensive and focus on all types of GHGs, including methane, nitrous oxide, and sulphur hexafluoride, and all sources of these emissions. In the rest of this report, we refer to GHGs more generally, measured in terms of equivalent tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO 2 e). Climate change is costly for Canada The economic costs of not reducing GHG emissions are potentially very large, though notoriously difficult to estimate with precision. Nordhaus (2010) estimates annual global damages by 2095 at $12 trillion, and den Elzen et al. (2014) estimate potential annual damages of approximately 4% of global GDP by A recent commentary in Nature notes that the impacts of methane released THE WAY FORWARD 3

11 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued from thawing Arctic permafrost could have global costs of $60 trillion in net present value a value almost as large as today s entire global GDP (Whiteman et al., 2013). While these estimates are large, they likely understate the economic risks of climate change for two main reasons. First, the models used to generate the estimates tend to have limited representation of catastrophic events. Weitzman (2009) argues that better incorporating low probability but catastrophic outcomes into estimates would substantially raise the projected economic costs of climate change. The standard models tend to ignore, for example, impacts of climate change from increased conflicts and illnesses from mass migration, impacts on ocean ecosystems, food security, or energy supply disruptions (Pindyck, 2013; Howard, 2014). Second, many potential impacts are not easily quantified in terms of GDP. How should mass extinctions or catastrophic impact on ecosystems be valued? Both factors suggest that estimates of the GDP costs of climate change should be seen as illustrative, and probably as lower bounds of the full costs. Canada s economy is not immune to these global costs. Rising sea levels and extreme weather events can threaten coastal cities and infrastructure. Industrial sectors such as forestry, mining, and energy face risks from permafrost degradation and the migration of plant species. Invasive species and diseases threaten food production in some Canadian regions (Warren & Lemmen, 2014). The National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (2011) estimates that the economic costs of climate change in Canada (in 2006 dollars) would rise from around $5 billion annually in 2020 to between $21 billion and $43 billion annually by The scale of potential threats is very large, though often expressed only in abstract, statistical terms. At a more local scale, however, the impacts become much more concrete. Almost all regions and economic sectors of Canada are vulnerable. Extreme Weather. The increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, such as wildfires and storms, are leading to large financial losses for Canadian insurers. Kovacs and Thistlethwaite (2014) note that the Canadian insurance industry paid out a record $1.7 billion in 2011 for property damage from extreme weather events. This record was broken in 2013, however, which saw major flooding in Calgary and a particularly costly storm in Toronto. The southern Alberta floods in 2013 alone are estimated to have led to $4.7 billion in damages, including large-scale damage to Calgary s electrical network, the shuttering of many businesses, and the associated losses in income and production (Swiss Re, 2014). Forestry Products. Climate change has already had major impacts on Canada s forest-products sector, an industry critical for the prosperity of over 190 Canadian communities (Forest Product Association of Canada, 2014). Warmer winter temperatures driven by climate change is the major factor contributing to the outbreak of the mountain pine beetle in Western Canada, which has reduced the economic value of over 18 million hectares of Canadian forest (Warren & Lemmen, 2014). These impacts contributed to mill closures and lost jobs. Similarly, climate change has altered the frequency and distribution of fire cycles, in some cases bringing new threats to communities that previously never experienced the risk of wildfires. The most common deciduous tree in our boreal forests the trembling aspen, which has high ecological and commercial value has been experiencing more severe dieback in recent years (Warren & Lemmen, 2014). Freshwater Levels. A warmer climate brings with it the risk of reduced water levels in Canada s lakes and rivers, which could have major implications for a range of sectors. One estimate suggests that moderate climate change could increase annual shipping costs in the Great Lakes St. Lawrence system by 13%, while more extreme changes could increase costs by 29% (Millerd, 2005). Lower water levels due to climate change could also lead to reduced tourism, lower hydroelectric capacity, and decreased property values (Shlozberg et al., 2014). The North. The Canadian Arctic faces both more severe threats and greater likelihood of further impacts. The most recent report from Working Group II of the IPCC identifies the dire impacts of such changes on Arctic communities (many of which are highly reliant on their surrounding ecosystem) as one of the key climate-change risks to humans (IPCC, 2014b). Arctic First Nations and Inuit people, for example, face major disruptions to their way of life with loss of ice cover and threats to Arctic fisheries. Sea Level. The melting of glaciers and ice sheets from warming in both the Arctic and Antarctic, along with thermal expansion from warming ocean water, contributes to global sea-level rise and poses huge threats to urban residents and infrastructure on both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Canada (IPCC, 2013). Sea-level rise leads to greater risks of coastal erosion, flooding from storm surges, and submergence (Andrey et al., 2014). Coastal British Columbia is particularly threatened, where sea-level rise could flood airports, roads, homes, and more; one analysis indicates that approximately $25 billion of Vancouver s real estate could be heavily impacted by unmitigated sea-level rise (Keenan & Yan, 2011). Agriculture. A warming climate can have both positive and negative economic effects on Canadian agriculture. On the positive side, for example, climate change may increase income from the production of winter wheat (Environment Canada, 2014c). Yet the increased frequency of droughts and pest infestations due to climate change is expected to increase the vulnerability of Canada s 4

12 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued overall agricultural sector (Environment Canada, 2014c; Warren & Lemmen, 2014). Stewart et al, (2011) note that the prairie drought of 2001 the driest year in the region in hundreds of years led to an estimated $5.8 billion in financial losses, largely due to the reduction in agricultural production. Fisheries. Another impact of global climate change falls on Canada s fisheries. The rising atmospheric concentration of GHGs is leading to rising ocean acidification, which is expected to have farreaching effects on marine ecosystems along all three of Canada s coastlines (Nantel et al., 2014). An estimate prepared for Fisheries and Oceans Canada puts the value of the threatened fish harvest in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut at $3.4 million annually (G.S. Gislason & Associates Ltd. and Outcrop Ltd., 2002). Similar threats exist for elements of Canada s Pacific fisheries. Mining and Exploration. Even Canadian mining, exploration, and oil sands operations bear economic costs associated with the changing climate especially in the North, where operations often rely on ice roads for the transportation of both inputs and outputs. With recent changes in climate, there is a smaller window of time in which the ground remains frozen and road transport is possible. For example, in 2006, the shortened winter season forced the Diavik diamond mine in the Northwest Territories to incur extra airtransport costs of over $11 million (Ford et al., 2010). 2.2 CANADIAN OPPORTUNITIES FROM POLICY ACTION As other countries adopt and expand their efforts to reduce GHG emissions, Canada can seize economic opportunities by being at the leading edge of these policy initiatives. Canadian opportunities come in four forms. First, there are significant costs associated with delayed policy action. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimates that for every $1 of clean energy investment not made in the electricity sector before 2020, expenditures of $4.3 would be required between 2021 and 2035 to make up for increased emissions (OECD, 2011). In the United States, each decade of climate policy delay is estimated to increase the costs of the eventual policy actions by 40% (Council of Economic Advisers, 2014). In Canada, the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (2012a) suggests that waiting until 2020 to implement policies sufficient to achieve deep emissions reductions by 2050 (65% below 2005 levels) would cost Canadians $87 billion more than taking equivalent action now. In short, delay is very costly. Second, implementing effective Canadian policies to reduce GHG emissions can create social licence and help secure global market access for Canadian natural resources. Some suggest that had more effective Canadian policies been in place over the past few years, we might not have witnessed the extensive international and American criticism regarding the oil sands, with the associated obstacles to the approval of the Keystone XL pipeline (e.g., Panetta, 2014; Cleland, 2014). We can only speculate as to what would have occurred had a more stringent policy been in place, yet clearly environmental performance matters. Alberta Premier Jim Prentice recently said that the solution to the province s biggest challenge of finding new markets for its oil is to redefine Alberta as an environmental leader (Globe and Mail, 2014). Indeed, as our trading partners implement their own climate policies, Canadian firms could even face more explicit threats to competitiveness in the form of trade measures such as border carbon adjustments or lowcarbon fuel standards. Third, actions to reduce GHG emissions also reduce air pollutants such as particulate, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide that threaten our health and raise our health-care costs. A recent study from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) shows that Canada could see net benefits from carbon pricing, especially given the significant benefits from reducing air pollutants and avoiding costly health impacts (Parry et al., 2014). Fourth, Canadian businesses and workers can benefit from actively participating in the global shift toward a cleaner economy. As major economies such as China, India, and the United States implement more thorough carbon-reduction policies, global demand for cleaner technologies will naturally increase. McKinsey & Company (2012) suggests that under the right policy conditions, Canada could have comparative advantages in sustainable resource development, carbon capture and storage, uranium mining, and hydroelectricity expertise. Canada could be a leader in nascent markets such as off-grid solar photovoltaic power, biomass energy, conventional hydro and marine power, and energy-efficient buildings. In short, Canada can benefit by supplying the world s increasing demands for cleaner technologies and the associated expertise. 2.3 CANADIAN GOVERNMENTS ARE UNLIKELY TO ACHIEVE THEIR GHG OBJECTIVES Canadian federal and provincial governments have established formal targets for reducing GHG emissions. This report does not assess their appropriateness in terms of stringency (see Box 1 on page 6). In Canada and elsewhere, such targets are often set for political and diplomatic reasons, rather than as the result of a coherent weighing of costs and benefits. In addition, targets of any stringency will not achieve emissions reductions unless they are coupled with effective policies. THE WAY FORWARD 5

13 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued Box 1: On Targets and Stringency How can policymakers know the appropriate stringency of any given carbon-pricing policy? The answer is not necessarily clear-cut. Three different approaches for defining stringency are discussed below. A cost-based approach. One approach to defining stringency is to align the price of carbon embodied in the policy with the social cost of carbon (SCC). The SCC is an estimate of the damages from emitting an extra tonne of CO 2 e today. Aligning carbon prices with the SCC is economically efficient, because it fully internalizes the external costs associated with GHG emissions. The key challenge, however, is to estimate the SCC. Updated estimates based on the analysis from the well-known Stern review, for example, place the SCC at roughly $100 per tonne of CO 2 e. But other credible estimates place the number much lower, while still others estimate the number to be much higher (Nordhaus, 2011; Ackerman & Stanton, 2012; Hope, 2013). A recurring theme in these studies is that the inclusion of uncertainty increases the estimated SCC; analyses that do not consider low probability but catastrophic events of climate change tend to produce estimates of the SCC that are biased downward (Heyes et al., 2013). A quantity-based approach. An alternative approach to defining policy stringency starts from an estimate of the necessary long-run global emissions reductions. To reduce the likelihood of dangerous and irreversible climate change, for example, the IPCC estimates that global GHG emissions must fall to the level necessary to stabilize the global atmospheric concentration of CO 2 e at 450 parts per million. An economic model can then be used to estimate the carbon price required to generate this reduced level of GHG emissions. The most recent estimates by the IPCC suggest that such a global carbon price would start below $100 per tonne and ramp up to about $200 per tonne by A target-based approach. Finally, any individual jurisdiction could measure the stringency of its policy in terms of the policy s ability to achieve a stated target for GHG emissions. However, since the target may itself be chosen arbitrarily, with little regard for the details of climate science, this approach is more about the effectiveness of a policy in achieving its stated goals, rather than about whether the stated goals are themselves appropriate. Canadian policy stringency? In the case of existing Canadian policies designed to reduce GHG emissions, any of these approaches would conclude that our current policies are insufficiently stringent. Existing Canadian policies do not price carbon as highly as the lower estimates of the SCC; they are certainly insufficient to achieve the much deeper reductions necessary over the longer term; and they are even unlikely to achieve the provinces stated emissions targets for The need to ascertain the right stringency of policy is not a task that should distract Canadian policymakers today. The practical path forward is to put smart policies in place as soon as possible, and then gradually increase their stringency to levels that can better be determined with further study. 6

14 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued FIGURE 1: Current, Projected, and Targeted GHG Emissions for Canadian Provinces Provincial GHG emissions relative to 2012 levels (2012 emissions = 1) emissions Projected emissions in 2020 Targeted emissions in BC AB SK MB ON QC NB NS PE NL The figure shows actual GHG emissions in 2012, projected emissions in 2020, and targeted emissions in 2020 in each province, normalized by 2012 emissions to allow for comparisons between provinces. The gaps between the 2020 targets (blue bars) and the projected 2020 emissions (green bars) show the need for new emissions-reductions policies. Note that given a lack of data on projections for the individual territories, we cannot project their emissions gap. However, their relatively low emissions do not significantly impact countrywide measures. Sources: Auditor General of Canada (2014); Environment Canada (2014a); Environment Canada (2014b); and Alberta Environment (2014). Whatever the underlying logic of any individual emissionsreduction target, the data show that most of Canada s provinces are unlikely to achieve them. Figure 1 shows that the provincial targets 1.2 for 2020 vary considerably in their ambition, ranging from 4% above current emissions in Alberta to 34% below current emissions in British Columbia. Achieving the targeted reductions is made more difficult by ongoing economic growth and the associated rise in emissions; for many provinces, such growth makes the business as usual projected emissions for 2020 even higher than current emissions. The gaps between projected and targeted emissions clearly show that current policies are insufficient to achieve stated goals. This conclusion is consistent with the findings of other analyses (Environment Canada, 2014c; Auditor General of Alberta, 2014; Auditor General of Canada, 2014; Environmental Commission of Ontario, 2013; NRTEE, 2011). Only Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador are on track to achieve their emissions-reductions targets for British Columbia has established a relatively aggressive target, but is still projected to have emissions in 2020 well above that level. How deep are the various provincial targets? To put them in context, Figure 2 shows both current per capita GHG emissions and the projected per capita emissions in 2020, based on each province s stated target and Statistics Canada s population projections. The figure illustrates that Alberta s and Saskatchewan s targets could result in the largest absolute improvements in terms of per capita emissions. Yet it also shows that even if they achieved their targets, they would continue to produce far more emissions per capita than the other provinces. THE WAY FORWARD 7

15 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued FIGURE 2: Provincial GHG Emissions Per Capita (2012 and targeted for 2020) Provincial GHG emissions per capita (t CO2e) emissions 2020 emissions (targeted) 0 BC AB SK MB ON QC NB NS PE NL The figure shows provincial GHG emissions per capita for each province based on actual emissions and population in 2012 and projected emissions and population in 2020, assuming that each province achieves its own stated target. Sources: Environment Canada (2014a); and Statistics Canada (2014c, 2014d). The sum of the provincial targets is very close to the federal government s national target. If all provinces were to achieve their individual targets, total Canadian GHG emissions would fall from their 2012 level of 699 Mt to 632 Mt by The federal government s national target is slightly more ambitious, requiring total emissions to fall to 626 Mt by 2020, 19 Mt of which are projected to come from credits due to land use, land-use change, and forestry (Environment Canada, 2014a). In either case, however, deeper reductions in Canadian emissions will be needed over the longer term, assuming the world as a whole strives to reduce annual GHG emissions to stabilize the global climate by In 2008, for example, Canada specified a non-binding target of 60-70% below 2006 levels by 2050 (Environment Canada, 2008). Whether we consider provincial or federal targets, or the 2020 targets, or probable ones for 2050, it is clear that a policy of business as usual will not be sufficient to achieve them. Getting new policies firmly in place, and then ramping up their stringency over time, can position Canadian provinces to contribute meaningfully to required long-run global reductions. 8

16 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued 2.4 GOVERNMENTS CAN USE DIFFERENT POLICY APPROACHES Achieving both the necessary short-term and long-term emissions reductions requires that broad actions be taken throughout the economy. Government policy can create the incentives needed to drive these actions. Government policy is needed to align economic and environmental objectives Climate solutions should not be expected from the market alone. In the absence of government policy, households and businesses do not bear the costs they impose on others through their own emissions of GHGs. Producing GHGs is free for the individual emitters, even though climate change imposes broad, wide-ranging costs on the economy. This market failure underpins the challenge of GHG emissions. As a result, it will fall on our governments to implement policies to ensure that private incentives are aligned with society s environmental objectives. A variety of policies can correct this misalignment. Whichever policy is used, the nature of the problem suggests that Canadian policies should be comprehensive, aimed at all major types of GHG emissions, and thus all major emitters. Policy aimed too narrowly at specific technologies and/or sectors can delay the pace of emissions reductions, increase the costs of achieving them, and permit free riding by some while others face a greater adjustment burden. Various policy instruments can drive emissions reductions Three major types of policy instruments are available: regulations, subsidies, and ecofiscal policies. Each type can play a useful role in an overall comprehensive approach to reducing GHG emissions, but some important trade-offs exist. Regulations typically set mandatory limits on GHG emissions, define standards for emissions performance, or mandate the use of low-carbon technologies. Designing regulations requires detailed information on the firms being regulated as well as their production processes. Since different companies often face different costs in meeting the regulatory requirements, the regulatory approach often leads to a higher overall cost for a given amount of emissions reductions. The prescriptive nature of regulations can also reduce the incentive to innovate beyond the regulation s specific requirements. Regulations can nonetheless be quite effective in certain circumstances (Moxnes, 2004; Murphy et al., 2007). Regulations requiring more fuel-efficient vehicles to be produced by automotive manufacturers, for example, can ensure that drivers have the option to purchase lower-emission vehicles. Given the relatively small number of vehicle manufacturers, these regulations can be applied relatively cost-effectively, and can help to drive the decarbonization of the transportation sector. Federal fuel-efficiency standards for light- and heavy-duty vehicles are forecast to drive emissions reductions of approximately 14 Mt in 2020 (NRTEE, 2012). Regulations can improve their cost-effectiveness by being specifically designed for flexibility. Renewable electricity standards, for example, such as the one implemented in Nova Scotia, require utilities to use a given level of renewable or low-carbon energy, but are not prescriptive as to the specific technologies to be used. If such smart regulations also allow energy providers to trade compliance permits, the overall costs can be further reduced (Murphy et al., 2007). For the economy as whole, however, cost-effectiveness requires that sector-specific regulations be carefully aligned. This design process requires detailed information about the firms abatement costs, which government generally does not have and the private sector is averse to providing. The ensuing negotiations with industry are often quite complex, time-consuming, and costly. Moreover, as technology changes at different rates in different sectors, regulations must continually be adapted to remain cost-effective. Even smart regulations designed today are likely to lose their intelligence over time (Popp, 2003). Subsidies use public funds to support technologies or behaviours that reduce GHG emissions. Many subsidy programs are plagued by free-ridership challenges; if subsidized activities would occur even in the absence of the subsidy, the policy is not cost-effective in terms of reducing emissions, and may even be ineffective at generating any emissions reductions. Subsidies can make sense in some contexts, however. Public financing may be required for public-transit infrastructure, for example, and this could help achieve reductions in GHG emissions. Public funds are also usually required to support basic research, which for well-established reasons tends to be underprovided by the private sector (Jaffe et al., 2005). The third major policy approach is to use ecofiscal policies, which establish a price on carbon emissions and generate revenues that can be returned back to the economy. The main advantage of carbon pricing is its cost-effectiveness. Carbon pricing can drive emissions reductions at lowest cost. Three main factors underpin this advantage. Because carbon pricing relies on the market, emitters have flexibility in how they reduce emissions, based on their unique costs of abatement. Carbon-pricing policies also generate revenue that can be used to achieve other economic and environmental objectives. Finally, carbon-pricing policies create stronger incentives for innovation than do regulatory approaches; THE WAY FORWARD 9

17 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued when carbon has a price, there is always value to be gained through innovations that reduce emissions. A carbon price can be established in two different ways: capand-trade systems and carbon taxes. Cap-and-trade systems set a limit on the total allowable level of emissions, allocating permits equal to this level, and then creating an active market in which firms can trade the permits at a market-determined price. Carbon taxes directly establish a price that must be paid by emitters of GHGs. Both approaches create incentives for firms and households to reduce their emissions, and both systems create incentives to adopt and develop cleaner technologies. We return to policy instruments and design details for carbon-pricing policies in Section 5. Experience suggests that carbon pricing is an essential policy tool The focus of this report is on carbon pricing. Such ecofiscal policies are unlikely to be the only element in a comprehensive policy package that is effective at achieving emissions reductions while doing so in a cost-minimizing manner. In some situations, regulations and subsidies may play an important complementary role (Bramley et al., 2009; NRTEE, 2009). But carbon pricing is an essential element, and one that is currently underused in Canada. Across the world, governments are increasingly implementing carbon pricing (World Bank, 2014a). In its report State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2014, the World Bank notes that 39 national and 23 sub-national jurisdictions have put a price on GHG emissions or have stated their intention to do so in the near future. In addition, 74 countries and more than 1,000 companies and major investors have expressed support for a carbon price (World Bank, 2014b). See Box 2 for additional details. The growing prominence of these policies reflects a practicality that is well known in the economics literature. Economists have long recognized that market-based policies can be used successfully to reduce pollution including the emission of GHGs at the lowest possible cost. Putting a price on emissions creates market incentives for innovation and for emitters to identify and implement the lowest-cost reductions. The possibility of generating revenue that can be used to advance economic and environmental goals is an important part of ecofiscal policies. Such revenue recycling can add further economic benefits to carbon pricing (e.g., Jorgensen et al., 2013; Carbone et al., 2013). Revenues raised through carbon pricing can be used to finance reductions in existing taxes on labour and capital. Alternatively, governments can use the revenues to support the development of environmental technologies, invest in critical public infrastructure, protect vulnerable segments of the population, or reduce existing budget deficits. Real-world policy experience also suggests that carbon pricing is quite effective at reducing GHG emissions without negatively affecting the economy. Based on data from the first six years of British Columbia s carbon tax, per capita use of fuels subject to the tax decreased by 16%, but increased by 3% over the same period in the rest of Canada, while B.C. slightly outperformed the rest of the country in terms of GDP growth (Elgie, 2014). An assessment of carbon-pricing policies in six European nations finds that emissions were reduced and that GDP slightly increased (Barker et al., 2009). Murray et al. (2014) also find that the U.S. states that are part of the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) achieved proportionally greater emissions reductions compared with the rest of the United States. Similarly, the price incentive created by the UK carbon levy reduced energy intensity by 18.1% and electricity use by 22.6%, with no evidence of negative effects on employment or plant closures (Martin et al., 2014). 10

18 The Need for New Carbon Policies continued Box 2: From Economics 101 to Mainstream Policy Increasingly, carbon-pricing policies are widely accepted by governments and businesses as an essential policy tool. National and sub-national governments all over the world have implemented or are planning to implement carbon pricing. And a wide chorus of mainstream economic voices including world leaders, international institutions, investors, and businesses are promoting the use of carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems. As the figure below illustrates, the World Bank counts 39 countries and 23 sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are considering implementing carbon-pricing policies. The cumulative GHG emissions of these jurisdictions accounts for about a quarter of global emissions. The World Bank notes that 2013 saw the addition of 10 carbon-pricing initiatives and one in early The beginning of 2015 marked the opening of South Korea s cap-andtrade system also known as an emissions trading sytem or ETS, the world s second-largest carbon market after Europe s. BRITISH COLUMBIA WASHINGTON OREGON CALIFORNIA ALBERTA MANITOBA ONTARIO RGGI QUÉBEC NORWAY ICELAND EU UK IRELAND FRANCE SWITZERLAND FINLAND SWEDEN DENMARK UKRAINE TURKEY KAZAKHSTAN CHINA REBUBLIC OF KOREA JAPAN MEXICO THAILAND BRAZIL CHILE RIO DE ANEIRO SÃO PAULO SOUTH AFRICA AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND ETS implemented or scheduled for implementation Carbon tax implemented or scheduled for implementation ETS or carbon tax under consideration Carbon tax implemented or scheduled, ETS under consideration ETS and carbon tax implemented or scheduled NOTE: Australia repealed its carbon pricing policy in Source: World Bank (2014a). This growth in carbon pricing coincides with a growing support base of important political and economic actors, which includes the following: The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) identifies carbon pricing as being a must-have for a sustainable future (WBCSD, 2011). Here in Canada, the Canadian Council of Chief Executives (CCCE) supports putting a price on GHG emissions and says carbon pricing can lead to innovation and new technologies that have positive outcomes for consumers and improve the competitive position of Canadian firms (CCCE, 2010). The former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury recently stated, [W]e must not lose sight of the profound economic risks of doing nothing. The solution can be a fundamentally conservative one that will empower the marketplace to find the most efficient response. We can do this by putting a price on emissions of carbon dioxide (Paulson, 2014). The OECD calls carbon pricing a key element of fiscal policy and calls for faster progress (OECD, 2014). 16 The IMF suggests that all countries should implement carbon pricing and urges them not to wait for a formal international agreement (CBC News, 2014). THE WAY FORWARD 11

19 3 THE PRACTICALITY OF PROVINCIAL CARBON PRICING As discussed in the previous section, Canada needs new, more stringent, cost-effective climate policies in order to achieve stated objectives. And there is a strong argument for filling the current policy gap with pan-canadian carbon pricing. The broader and more consistent the price across Canada, the more emissions will be reduced in a cost-effective way. Moreover, the costs of delay underline the urgency of policy action. While all levels of government can play a useful role in climate policies, provincial action on carbon pricing is a practical path forward for reducing Canadian GHG emissions. This section briefly reviews the new initiative of Canada s provincial premiers and the specific progress already made by some provinces. It explores key differences between provinces in terms of their emissions and economic structures. It recognizes the practicality of continuing this provincial momentum, but also the desirability of longer-term coordination in order to produce an efficient system across the country. 3.1 PROVINCES CAN TAKE THE INITIATIVE AND ALREADY ARE Canadian provincial premiers have clearly expressed their support for carbon pricing. Since August of 2014, all provinces and territories are now participating in the development of a national energy strategy, and addressing climate change is a key part of this strategy. Critically, the premiers explicitly recognize carbon pricing as a valuable policy instrument for transitioning to a lower-carbon economy (Council of the Federation, 2014). This momentum shows that the provinces are moving on carbon pricing, and that such actions offer a practical path forward politically, legally, and economically toward a pan- Canadian approach. Some provinces are already pricing carbon, in different ways Three provinces have already implemented policies that put a price on GHG emissions. While the design and stringency of these policies vary widely, these policies highlight the potential for implementing ecofiscal policies at a provincial level. Section 5 revisits the design of these policies in detail. British Columbia implemented its carbon tax in The tax applies to GHG emissions associated with the combustion of fossil fuels; it was introduced at a rate of $10 per tonne CO 2 e and has gradually increased to its current level of $30 per tonne. The tax applies to approximately 70% of B.C. s GHG emissions. In 2007, Quebec applied a small carbon tax on fossil fuels equivalent to about $3.50 per tonne CO 2 e. It then moved forward with a cap-and-trade system in 2013, which superseded the tax. The policy sets a limit on emissions from regulated sectors, but allows emitters to trade emissions permits. Quebec s cap-and-trade system is linking with a similar system in California, under the Western Climate Initiative. As of February 2015, the cap-and-trade system has a minimum permit price of $15 per tonne CO 2 e. 12

20 The Practicality of Provincial Carbon Pricing continued The Alberta Specified Gas Emitters Regulation (SGER), implemented in 2007, is a regulation with elements of carbon pricing. It requires regulated emitters to reduce their emissions intensity (emissions per unit of output) relative to a stated benchmark by 12%, but allows them to comply with the policy by trading permits with other regulated emitters, purchasing credits for other emissions reductions within Alberta, or contributing to a technology fund at a cost of $15 per tonne CO 2 e. Other provinces have implemented policies to reduce GHG emissions, although generally not based on carbon pricing. Ontario, for example, has entirely phased out its use of coal-fired electricity plants. Nova Scotia has implemented a renewable energy standard. Manitoba has implemented a narrow emissions tax, applied only to coal. Overall, provincial policies are a key driver of emissions reductions. Analysis from the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (2012b) finds that provincial policies were projected to drive more than two-thirds of Canada s total expected emissions reductions in Provinces share constitutional authority to price carbon with the federal government While Canada s Constitution is not explicit and the courts have not ruled on the issue, British Columbia and Quebec have demonstrated that provinces can use either carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems to price GHG emissions. The federal government also has a clear legal ability to price carbon, although exclusive provincial jurisdiction over natural resources and electricity generation likely puts the provinces at the centre of any carbon-pricing policy. Provincial authority may nonetheless have limits, particularly in terms of interprovincial trading, trade measures such as border carbon adjustments, and compliance with international treaties, all of which may require some involvement of the federal government (Courchene & Allan, 2008; Elgie, 2008). In the short term, however, the provinces clearly have considerable room to manoeuvre. A province-driven approach is practical Many people argue that a global problem requires a global solution. GHG emissions from any individual location in the world contribute to global climate change. A uniform carbon price, applied equally in all countries, would create equivalent incentives for all emissions reductions and ensure that no one jurisdiction was competitively disadvantaged. Not surprisingly, however, the multilateral approach to climate policy has proved to be very challenging. A top-down agreement that sets binding national targets has not yet emerged, even after many years of international discussion and negotiation. Perhaps in response to these difficulties, as negotiators move toward a potential new global agreement in Paris at the end of 2015, focus has shifted toward a more practical bottom-up approach, with nations taking on voluntary commitments (Flannery, 2014). How the recent bilateral agreements involving China, India, and the United States alter this dynamic remains to be seen. The emergence of different provincial policies in Canada parallels developments in international climate policy. Previous research highlighted uniform, Canada-wide carbon pricing as economically ideal in principle (NRTEE, 2009). Yet important differences across the provinces which are often underappreciated and even ignored present challenges for any federal carbon-pricing policy. In particular, the perceived risks of financial redistributions among provinces can be politically divisive (Gibbons, 2009). Inside Canada, as with the multilateral efforts, a bottom-up approach driven by the provinces offers a practical path forward. 3.2 PROVINCES HAVE UNIQUE ECONOMIC AND EMISSIONS PROFILES Provincial differences pose a challenge for many pan-canadian policy discussions, and climate policy is no exception. A range of local factors can drive regional climate policy choices (Harrison, 2013). Given different emissions profiles and economic structures, the nature of the emissions-reduction challenge varies widely from province to province. Practical and successful policy must take into account these important differences, no matter which level of government is implementing the policy. How then, are the provinces different? To set the stage, we explore provincial contexts through emissions and economic data. Provinces have different emissions profiles Reducing GHG emissions is already a stated objective for each province. Yet the nature of this challenge is unique to the circumstances of each province, in terms of the levels of provincial GHG emissions, the rate at which emissions are changing over time, and the costs of abatement. Figure 3 draws on Environment Canada (2014a, 2014b, 2014c) data and analyses to show actual and projected emissions trends from 1990 to Emissions are attributed to the province in which they are created based on well-established accounting rules. Alberta s emissions, for example, include those associated with the production of oil and gas, but not the emissions associated with the consumption of its fossil-fuel exports to other jurisdictions. Similarly, Prince Edward Island consumes emissions-intensive electricity generated outside the province; yet these emissions are attributed to the site of generation, not to P.E.I. THE WAY FORWARD 13

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