Immigration to Mexico

Over the centuries, Mexico has received immigrants from Europe, the Americas (e.g., the United States, Colombia, Guatemala, Argentina, Honduras, Cuba, Brazil and Canada), and sometimes from Asia. Today, millions of their descendants still live in Mexico and can be found working in different industries.

Mexico is a country of immigration, refuge, transit, and return migration. According to the 2010 National Census, there are 961,121 immigrants registered with the government as living in Mexico, the majority of whom are US citizens.[1] This is almost double the 492,617 foreign-born residents counted in the 2000 Census.[1] According to the intercensal estimate conducted in 2015, the foreign-born population was 1,007,063.[2] Unofficial estimates put the total number of foreigners in Mexico closer to four million.[3]

Orphaned Polish children in Guanajuato that arrived with a larger group of refugees during the Second World War.

Prior to May 2011, Mexico's immigration flows were regulated by the highly restrictive 1974 General Law of Population. However, on May 24, 2011, President Felipe Calderón signed into law a new and much more liberal Migration Law.[4] The Mexican Senate and subsequently the House had unanimously approved the migration bill that led to this new law on February 24 and April 29, respectively. Some of the most significant principles of this new law deal with the rights of migrants. The new law guarantees that foreigners statelessness and Mexican nationals will receive equal treatment under Mexican law. Under this principle all immigrants, regardless of status are granted the right to access education employment and health services. Mechanisms aimed at promoting family unity are now in place. Moreover, before the government takes action (e.g. deportation) with respect to migrant children and other vulnerable individuals (women, seniors, the handicapped and victims of crime) their specific needs must be prioritized and adequate services must be provided. Migrants are also granted judicial rights that they previously lacked, such as the right to due process. The law also calls for establishing a Center for Trust Evaluation and Control which will be charged with the task of training and certifying immigration personnel in hopes of curtailing corrupt practices. All Institute of Migration officials are to meet the same standards as the rest of the country's security agencies. Government officials found to be in violation of this law are now subject to penalties including fines and prison sentences.

With the Mexican government’s intent to control migration flows and attract foreigners who can contribute to economic development, the new migration law simplifies foreigners’ entrance and residence requirements. It replaces the two large immigration categories—immigrant and nonimmigrant—with the categories of “visitor” and “temporary resident”, while keeping the status of “permanent resident”. In the General Law of Population the two categories incorporate over 30 different types of foreigners—i.e. distinguished visitor, religious minister, etc.—each with its own stipulations and requirements to qualify for entry and stay. Under the new law the requirements are simplified, basically differentiating those foreigners who are allowed to work and those who are not. The law also expedites the permanent resident application process for retirees and other foreigners. For granting permanent residency, the law proposes using a point system based on factors such as level of education, employment experience, and scientific and technological knowledge.[5]

According to Article 81 of the Law and Article 70 of the regulations to the law—published on 28 September 2012— immigration officials are the only ones that can conduct immigration procedures although the Federal Police may assist but only under the request and guidance of the Institute of Migration. Verification procedures cannot be conducted in migrant shelters run by civil society organizations or by individuals that engage in providing humanitarian assistance to immigrants.

Undocumented immigration has been a problem for Mexico, especially since the 1970s. Although the number of deportations is declining with 61,034 registered cases in 2011, the Mexican government documented over 200,000 unauthorized border crossings in 2004 and 2005.[6] In 2011, 93% of undocumented immigrants in Mexico came from three countries -Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador- however, there is an increasing number of immigrants from Asia and Africa.[7]

Japanese immigrant workers at the mine of Cananea, Sonora in the 1910s. The Japanese, unlike other Asian immigrants, came from a politically strong nation and were seen as industrious, so they were exempt from the discriminatory immigration policies.

Overview of Mexican immigration policy in regards to ethnicity or nationality:

1937 - Quotas establishes unlimited immigration from the Americas and Spain; 5,000 annual slots for each of thirteen Western European nationalities and the Japanese; and 100 slots for nationals of each other country of the world.[8]

The Programa Temporal de Regularización Migratoria (PTRM) published on 12 January 2015 in the Diario Oficial de la Federación, is directed at those foreigners who have made their permanent residence in Mexico but due to 'diverse circumstances' did not regularize their stay in the country and find themselves turning to 'third parties' to perform various procedures, including finding employment.[9]

The program is aimed at foreign nationals who entered the country before 9 November 2012.[9] Approved foreigners received through the PTRM the status of 'temporary resident', document valid for four years,[9] and are eligible afterwords for permanent residency.[10] The temporary program ran from 13 January to 18 December 2015.[9]

In accordance with the provisions of Articles: 1, 2, 10, 18, 77, 126 and 133 of the Ley de Migración; 1 and 143 of the Reglamento de la Ley de Migración, any foreign national wishing to regularize their immigration status within Mexican territory, under the PTRM will complete the payment of fees for the following:

I. Proof of payment for receiving and examining the application of the procedure... ... MXN 1124.00 (USD 77.14 as of 12 January 2015)

II. For the issuance of the certificate giving them the status of temporary stay for four years ...... MXN 7914.00 (USD 514.17)

Through Article 16 of the Ley Federal de Derechos, foreign national are exempt them from payment if it can be proven that they earn a wage at or below minimum wage.[9] During the period that the PTRM is in effect, no fine is applied (as is the practice otherwise).[9]

The PTRM was reenacted on 11 October 2016; eligibility was extended to undocumented migrants that entered the country before 9 January 2015.[10] Migrants are assured that they will not be detained nor deported when inquirying information or submitting their application at an INM office.[10] Identification and proof of residency/entry date (such as bus or airplane tickets, utility bills, school records or expired visas) should be presented. If these proofs can not be provided, the legal testimony of two Mexicans/resident foreigners may also be accepted. The program runs until 19 December 2017.[10]

Immigrants arrive in Mexico for many reasons, most of the documented immigrants have arrived for economic and/or work-related reasons. Many, such as executives, professionals, scientists, artists, or athletes working for either Mexican or foreign companies, arrive with secure jobs. Retirement is the main motivation for immigrants who tend to be more permanent. Aside from dual national descendants of Mexicans, naturalized Mexicans, or the undocumented, 262,672 foreign residents live on its soil. The majority of its foreign residents are from the U.S. followed by Spain and Guatemala.

The largest number of Americans outside the United States live in Mexico. According to Mexico 2010 Census, there are 738,103 Americans living in the Mexican Republic,[1] while the US Embassy in Mexico City has at times given an estimate closer to 1 million (the disparity is due to non-permanent residents, notably the "snowbirds") . Mostly, people who come from the USA are students, retirees, religious workers (missionaries, pastors, etc.), Mexican-Americans, and spouses of Mexican citizens. A few are professors who come employed by Mexican companies to teach English, other English teachers, and corporate employees and executives.

While significant numbers live in Mexico year round, it is probable that a majority of these residents do not stay the whole year. Retirees may live half a year in the U.S. to keep retiree benefits. Those called "snowbirds" come in fall and leave in spring. The American community in Mexico is found throughout the country, but there are significant concentrations of U.S. citizens in all the north of Mexico, especially in Tijuana, Mexicali, Los Cabos, San Carlos, Mazatlán, Saltillo, Monterrey and Nuevo Laredo. Also in the central parts of the country such as San Miguel de Allende, Ajijic, Chapala, Mexico City and Cuernavaca, and along the Pacific coast, most especially in the greater Puerto Vallarta area. In the past few years, a growing American community has developed in Mérida, Yucatán.

Transient migrants from Central America making their way to the U.S.-Mexico border. These migrants use a rail network known as La Bestia to traverse Mexican territory.

The largest recent immigrant flows to Mexico are from Central America, with a total of 66,868 immigrants from Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua living in Mexico in 2010.[11]

Recently, Mexico has also become a transit route for Central Americans and others (from the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe)[12] into the United States. 2014 was the first year since records began when more non-Mexicans than Mexicans were apprehended trying to enter the United States illegally through the U.S.-Mexico border.[13] Non-Mexicans (vast majority of whom are Central American) were up from about 68,000 in 2007 to 257,000 in 2014; Mexicans dropped from 809,000 to 229,000 during the same period.[13]

In 2014, Mexico began to more heavily crackdown on these transient migrants.[14] According to Mexican officials, the Plan Frontera Sur (Southern Border Plan) is designed to retake control of the historically porous southern border and protect migrants from transnational crime groups.[14] However the measures have been widely attributed to pressure from the United States, who does not want a repeat of 2014, when a surge of tens of thousands of women and children clogged up American immigration courts and resulted in a severe lack of space in detention centers at the US-Mexico border.[14]

Cuban immigration to Mexico has been on the rise in recent years. A large number of them use Mexico as a route to the U.S., and Mexico has been deporting a large number of Cubans who attempt to. About 63,000 Cubans live in Mexico[15]

Argentine immigration to Mexico started in small waves during the 1970s, when they started escaping dictatorship and war in Argentina.

Currently, the Argentine community is one of the largest in Mexico, with about 13,000 documented residents living in Mexico. However, extra-official estimates range the number from 40,000 to 150,000[16][17]

In Quintana Roo, the number of Argentines doubled between 2011 and 2015, and now make a total of 10,000, making up the largest number of foreigners in the state[18]

Immigrant registration form of a Jewish Lithuanian woman that emigrated to Mexico in 1934. The restrictions applied to Eastern Europeans did not completely eliminate migration of affected groups.

Although Mexico never received massive European immigration after its independence, over 1 million Europeans immigrated to Spanish America during the colonial period, which relative to the population of the time, could be said to have been massive European immigration. Although they were in their majority from Spain, other Europeans immigrated illegally. They migrated to Mexico for the most part, and to a lesser extent, Peru. They were called "inmigrantes clandestinos", of which 100,000 were Spanish.[citation needed]

Towards the end of the Porfiriato, there were an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 foreigners in the country.[20] The three largest groups were the Spanish, Americans and Chinese.

From 1911 to 1931, 226,000 immigrants arrived in Mexico,[21] the majority of which were from Europe.

There are many Mexicans of English, Welsh and Scottish descent. According to Mexico's Migration Institute in 2009 there were 3,761 British expatriates living in Mexico.[22]

Cornish culture still survives in local architecture and food in the state of Hidalgo. The Scottish and Welsh have also made their mark in Mexico, especially in the states of Hidalgo, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Veracruz. British immigrants formed the first football teams in Mexico in the late 19th century. Northern Spaniards of Celtic ancestry like the Asturians, Galicians, and Cantabrians, have also left an imprint in Mexican culture and their languages formed many distinct accents in various regions in Mexico, especially in the central and northern states.

Mexico received immigration from France in waves in the 19th and 20th centuries. According to the 2010 census, there were 7,163 French nationals living in Mexico. According to the French consulate general, there are 30,000 French citizens in Mexico as of 2015.[23]

The French language is often taught and studied in secondary public education and in universities throughout the country. French may also be heard occasionally in the state of Veracruz in the cities of Jicaltepec, San Rafael, Mentideros, and Los Altos, where the architecture and food is also very French. These immigrants came from Haute-Saône département in France, especially from Champlitte and Bourgogne.

An important French village in Mexico is Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur, where the French culture/architecture are still found. Other French cultural traits are in a number of regional cultures such as the states of Jalisco and Sinaloa.

The national folk music mariachi is thought to have been named after the French word for "marriage" when the music developed in wedding parties held by French landowning families. It is the legacy of settlers brought in during the Napoleonic-era French occupation is found in Guadalajara, Jalisco. The Second Mexican Empire, created another trend of refuge for French settlers.

During World War II, tens of thousands of French expatriates from Mexico participated in the Free French Forces and the French Resistance, including Mexican-born Lieutenant Rene Luis Campeon of French parentage, was thought to be the first in command to enter Paris during the Liberation of Paris from the retreating Nazis in August 1944.

Other Francophone peoples include those from Belgium such as the Walloons and Franco-Swiss from Switzerland. The Belgians, started by the veteran Ch. Loomans, tried to establish a Belgian colony in the state of Chihuahua called Nueva Bélgica, and hundreds of Belgian settlers established it, but many moved to the capital of the state and other towns around the area, where the Walloon and French could be heard.

The Occitan language can be heard in the state of Guanajuato, it is also known as Langue D'oc is a language originally spoken in Southern France. Also to note is the city Guanajuato has a sizable French expatriate community.

Of special interest is the settlement Villa Carlota: that was the name under which two German farming settlements, in the villages of Santa Elena and Pustunich in Yucatán, were founded during the Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867).[25] Villa Carlota attracted a total of 443 German-speaking immigrants, most of them were farmers and artisans who emigrated with their families: the majority came from Prussia and many among them were Protestants.[26] Although in general these immigrants were well received by the hosting society, and the Imperial government honored to the extent of its capabilities the contract it offered to these farmers, the colonies collapsed in 1867.[27] After the disintegration of Villa Carlota as such, some families migrated to other parts of the peninsular, into the United States and back to Germany. Many stayed in Yucatán, where we can find descendents of these pioneers with last names such as Worbis, Dietrich and Sols, among others.[28]

Included in the ethnic German immigration to Mexico are from Austria, Switzerland and the French region of Alsace which was part of France since 1919, as well those from Bavaria and High German regions of Germany.[citation needed]. There are about 2,000,000 Mexicans with some partial German ancestry, without counting the ones with total German ancestry, making Mexico 3rd country with the largest German community in Latin America, behind Brazil and Argentina.[29]

There is also an Irish-Mexican population in Hidalgo and the northern states. According to INM, in 2009 there were 289 Irish expatriates living in Mexico.[30]

Many Mexican Irish communities existed in Mexican Texas until the revolution. Many Irish then sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-US elements. The Batallón de San Patricio, a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the Mexican Army against the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48). In some cases, Irish immigrants or Americans left from California (the Irish Confederate army of Fort Yuma, Arizona during the U.S. Civil War (1861–65). Álvaro Obregón (O'Brien) was president of Mexico during 1920-24 and Ciudad Obregón and its airport are named in his honor. Actor Anthony Quinn is another famous Mexican of Irish descent. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 19th century.

There has not been a huge influx of Italians to Mexico, as there has been to other countries in America such as Argentina, Brazil, and the United States. However, there was an important number of arrivals from northern Italy and Veneto in the late 19th century who are today well assimilated in Mexican society. The exact number of Italian descendants is not known, but it is estimated that there around 85,000 Italian Mexicans in the eight original communities. As of 2012, 20,000 Italians reside in Mexico[24]

According to INM in 2009 1,396 Russians are living documented in Mexico.[22] According to the Russian embassy, 25,000 reside in Mexico.[31]

Most left Russia during its communist regime (Soviet Union), taking advantage of the Mexican law allowing migrants from communist countries refuge if they touch Mexican soil, and the ability to become legal residents of Mexico.[citation needed] The Molokans were a small early 20th century immigrant group to Valle de Guadalupe, Baja California.

The first Spaniards who arrived in Mexico, were soldiers and sailors of Extremadura, Andalucia and La Mancha who discovered the Yucatán Peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and then made the conquest of what they call the New Spain. Among the soldiers sent by the Spanish crown to the colonial territory were Muslims converts from Córdoba and Granada. At the end of the 16th century, both common and aristocrat people migrated to Mexico and disseminated by its territory.

Most recent immigrants came during the Spanish Civil War. Some of the migrants returned to Spain after the civil war, but some of them remained in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 18,873 Spaniards living in Mexico.[1]

Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities.[32] For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.[33]

The article on Basque Mexicans covers the large segment of Spaniards and some French immigrants of the Basque ethnic group.

Mexico has seen immigration from different parts of Asia throughout its history. The first known Asians arrived during the Colonial era as slaves, labourers and adventurers from the Philippines, southern China and India. Smaller numbers of immigrants came from Korea, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Cambodia, Japan and the Malay peninsula. This group of immigrants were collectively described as "Chino" meaning Chinese despite coming from many diverse origins.[34][35][36] During the early 20th century, a significant number of Asians, primarily Chinese and Korean, were imported as labourers. These immigrants were known as Henequen and Chinetescos and were heavily concentrated in agricultural plantations in the Pacific states (e.g. Sinaloa) and the Yucatán Peninsula.

A more recent wave (late 20th and early 21st century) of Korean immigrants have arrived as merchants and skilled labourers.[37] Modern immigrants can be found in large cities (especially Mexico City and Monterrey), while Korean descendants are most numerous in the coastal regions like Baja California, Sonora, Guerrero, Veracruz, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. According to INM, in 2009 there were 5,518 South Koreans and 481 North Koreans living in México[30] There is an estimated 40,000 descendents of Korean henequen workers.

The story of Chinese immigration to Mexico extends from the late 19th century to the 1930s. By the 1920s, there was a significant population of Chinese nationals, with Mexican wives and Chinese-Mexican children. Most of these were deported in the 1930s to the United States and China with a number being repatriated in the late 1930s and in 1960. Smaller groups returned from the 1930s to the 1980s. The two main Chinese-Mexican communities are in Mexicali and Mexico City but few are of pure Chinese blood.[38]

The city of Mexicali in Baja California has the largest Chinese population in Mexico and the largest Chinatown called La Chinesca. The culture and language from the mainly Cantonese and Mandarin-speaking peoples are evident in the food, architecture, and everyday life in Mexico City. The Chinese entered the nation in the 19th century to build railroads, and many xenophobic acts were taken against them because Mexico preferred European immigrants.
According to the 2010 Census there are 6,655 Chinese immigrants living in Mexico.[1]

Other Asian communities in Mexico are the Japanese, followed by Indians and Pakistanis, and there are Filipinos from the Philippines when the country was under Spanish colonial (1540's-1898) and U.S. American territorial rule (1899–1946). These ethnic groups arrived in the northern states of Mexico as contract farm laborers in the 20th century. And a small Vietnamese community that has close connections with the Vietnamese American community in the United States. The majority of Asian Mexicans live in urban areas or along the US-Mexican border.

The Japanese community is also important in Mexico, and they reside mainly in Mexico City, Morelia, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, Guadalajara, and Aguascalientes, and the immigrant colony in the state of Chiapas known as Colonia Enomoto. The Japanese language is important in their cultural life in Mexico and many institutions for nikkei exist and those wishing to learn the language and their ways of life can attend these lyceums. According to INM, in 2009 there were 4,485 Japanese immigrants residing in Mexico.[22]

There are approximately 200,000 (0.2%) Mexican people who can partly claim Filipino ancestry stemming from colonial times. The Philippines had a connection to Mexico through Spain, as it was administrated from New Spain for over 300 years. According to INM, in 2009 there were 823 immigrants from the Philippines residing in Mexico.[22]

The Arab Mexican population consists of Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians, whose families arrived in Mexico after the fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The majority of them are Christian but some are Muslims.

Business tycoon and billionaire Carlos Slim Helú is the best-known Mexican of this immigrant group, as he is currently ranked by Forbes as the richest man in the world. His parents, Maronite Christians, immigrated to Mexico from Lebanon.

Most foreigners in Mexico counted in the Census come from the United States or other Hispanophone countries, with smaller numbers from Europe, East Asia, and the non-Hispanophone Americas. Their numbers have been rising as the country's economy develops, but still comprise less than 1% of the population.

^A full list with the more than 120 names of the families who colonized "Villa Carlota" as well as the names of the officers and organizers of these colonization program, can be found in: Alma Durán-Merk (2009). Villa Carlota. Colonias alemanas en Yucatán. Mérida: CEPSA/Instituto de Cultura de Yucatán/ CONACULTA, ISBN978-607-7824-02-2.

Portal1 Jews and Romani originate in the Middle East and South Asia respectively, with most arriving to Mexico via Europe · 2 Primarily arrived via Canada · 3 Originated in what is now the United States

1.
Naturalization
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Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application, an oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed, since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. The Peoples Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries, the country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China. In practice, only few people gain Chinese citizenship, as of 2010, the naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must also submit original copies of a passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit. The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for the entire country, the provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship Act 1986, the Citizenship Act 1992, the Citizenship Act 2003, and the Citizenship Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship Act 2003 received the assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004, the Citizenship Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis as opposed to the jus soli, Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli, the Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for persons under the age of 18. After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship, Israels Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization, the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law, the Law of Return, enacted on July 15,1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship, in fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14,1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine, the inhabitants of Israel on July 15,1952, because of Israels relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, there is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants

2.
Los Pinos
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Los Pinos is the official residence and office of the President of Mexico. Located in the Bosque de Chapultepec in central Mexico City, it became the seat in 1934. The term Los Pinos has become a metonym for the Presidency of Mexico, after the Spanish Conquest, around 1550 a trapiche was built in Chapultepec, where wheat and maize were processed into flour. This mill became so important that it was called el Molino del Rey. In 1853, the Molino del Rey was sold to Dr. José Pablo Martinez del Rio, in 1865 the whole property was sold to Emperor Maximilian for a total of 25,000 Mexican pesos. Following the 1867 overthrow and execution of Maximilian, the property was, in 1872, because of this, the first inhabitant of the residence was Álvaro Obregón while he held the post of Navy and War Secretary. After his tenure the residence was unused, in 1934, President Lázaro Cárdenas took office but refused to use the Castle of Chapultepec as his official residence as he thought it too ostentatious. He was offered use of Rancho la Hormiga, which he accepted, Los Pinos has been home to fourteen presidents and their families. In the year 2000, President Vicente Fox chose one of the cottages as his home

3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan

4.
Mexican nationality law
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This law was last modified in 2005. In general terms, Mexican nationality is based on both the principle of jus soli and the principle of jus sanguinis, the Mexican constitution also makes a distinction between nationals of Mexico and citizens of Mexico. According to the 30th article of the Constitution of Mexico, there are two ways in which a person can acquire Mexican citizenship, by birth and by naturalization, as in most other Central and South American countries, Mexican law differentiates between nationality and citizenship. The 34th article of the Mexican constitution establishes that Mexican citizens are those Mexican who are 18 years of age or older, Mexican law also distinguishes between naturalized citizens and natural-born citizens in many ways. Under the Mexican constitution, naturalized citizens are prohibited from serving in an array of positions. The Mexican nationality law acknowledges that a Mexican by birth may possess another nationality, if that is the case, however, such an individual must always enter and leave the country as a Mexican. If in such a case, she or he can request a Certificate of Nationality from the government, visa requirements for Mexican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Mexico

5.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

6.
Statelessness
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In international law, statelessness is the lack of citizenship. A stateless person is someone who is not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law, some stateless persons are also refugees. However, not all refugees are stateless, and many persons who are stateless have never crossed an international border. Most people belonging to a nation, despite lacking their own nation state, nonetheless hold citizenship in one or more countries. Conflicting nationality laws are one of causes of statelessness. Nationality is usually acquired through one of two modes, Jus soli denotes a regime by which nationality is acquired through birth on the territory of the state and this is common in the Americas. Jus sanguinis is a regime by which nationality is acquired through descent, today, many nations apply a combination of the two systems. Although many states allow the acquisition of nationality through parental descent irrespective of where the child is born, there are 27 countries in the world that do not grant equal rights to women in passing on their nationality. This can result in statelessness when the father is stateless, unknown, there have, however, been recent changes in favor of gender neutrality in nationality laws, including successful reform processes in Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal that may inform change elsewhere. Moreover, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women prohibits sex-based discrimination in the conferral of nationality, an important measure to prevent statelessness at birth provides nationality to children born in a territory who would otherwise be stateless. In most large-scale statelessness situations, statelessness is a result of discrimination, many states define their body of citizens based on ethnicity, leading to the exclusion of large groups. This violates international laws against discrimination, in some cases, statelessness is a consequence of state succession. Some people become stateless when their state of nationality ceases to exist and this was the case when the Soviet Union disintegrated, and also in the cases of Yugoslavia and Ethiopia. People may also become stateless as a result of administrative and practical problems, individuals might be entitled to citizenship but unable to undertake the necessary procedural steps. In disruptive conflict or post-conflict situations, many find that difficulties in completing simple administrative procedures are exacerbated. Such obstacles may affect the ability of individuals to complete such as birth registration. The United Nations Children’s Fund estimated in 2013 that 230 million children under the age of 5 have not been registered, not holding proof of nationality—being undocumented—is not the same as being stateless, but the lack of identity documents such as a birth certificate can lead to statelessness. Many millions of people live their lives without documents, without their nationality ever being questioned

7.
Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya

8.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals

9.
El Salvador
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El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. El Salvadors capital and largest city is San Salvador, as of 2015, the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million, consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent. El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations, especially the Cuzcatlecs, as well as the Lenca, in the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. In 1821, the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. The conflict ended with a settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links, the colón, the official currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the U. S. dollar in 2001. As of 2010, El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index, however, the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty, inequality, and crime. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado named the new province for Jesus Christ – El Salvador, the full name was Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo, which was subsequently abbreviated to El Salvador. Tomayate is a site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa. The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene epoch, at the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate paleontological site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas. Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people, theirs was the first, the Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, the Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Pipil word meaning The Place of Precious Jewels, backformed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, the people of El Salvador today are referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage. In pre-Columbian times, the country was inhabited by various other indigenous peoples, including the Lenca. Cuzcatlan was the domain until the Spanish conquest. Since El Salvador resided on the edge of the Maya Civilization. However, it is agreed that Mayas likely occupied the areas around Lago de Guija. Other ruins such as Tazumal, Joya de Cerén and San Andrés may have built by the Pipil or the Maya or possibly both

10.
Japanese Mexicans
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Japanese immigration to Mexico began in the late 19th century, to found coffee growing plantations in the state of Chiapas. After the war, immigration began again, mostly due to Japanese companies investing in Mexico and it is the fourth largest Japanese community in Latin America. Japanese were among the Asian slaves who were shipped from the Spanish Philippines in the Manila-Acapulco galleons to Acapulco, Filipinos made up most of their population. The people in community of diverse Asians in Mexico was called los indios chinos by the Spanish. Spain received some of these Chino slaves from Mexico, where owning a Chino slave showed high status. Some of these Asian slaves were brought to Lima in Peru, where there was a small community of Asians made out of Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Malays. The history of modern Japanese migration begins near the end of the 19th century, in 1868, Japanese isolation from the world was broken which prompted large scale social and economic upheaval, with the Japanese government encouraging emigration. These emigrants included those from Okinawa, who fled oppression by the Japanese government after the island was taken over in 1878 and these first Japanese communities mostly consisted of farm workers and other laborers. Japanese authorities were interested in creating a plantation in Chiapas. They established the Sociedad Colonizadora Japón-México to recruit Japanese farmers to migrate with government support to obtain land, others went without government assistance and were called “free emigrants” able to buy land without obligation to the Japanese government. The very first settlement was based on production but failed for various reasons including the fact that not all of the colonists were farmers. Many from this colony dispersed but there remains a small Japanese community in Acacoyagua, however, its establishment marks the first Japanese immigration to Latin America. Most of the immigration to Mexico occurred from 1900 to the beginning of World War II, many of the immigrants in the first half of the 20th century were skilled laborers or illegal immigrants. Mexico Japan relations were superficial in the latter 19th to mid 20th century but immigrants to Mexico had favorable treatment, in the first decade of the 20th century, a large number of Japanese immigrants came as workers contracted to companies doing business in the country which needed skilled labor. This was first in the mining and sugar industries and later in construction. The main Japanese companies involved in this were Kumamoto, Toyo and Tairiku Shokumin Kaisha which did business in mining, the three companies sent a total of 530 people to Mexico between 1904 and 1907. However, many of the immigrants could not do the labor of the mines and sugar cane fields, prompting them to abandon their contracts. During this time period, the number of people of Japanese background went down in Mexico, in 1908, Japan and Mexico informally agreed to end immigration by contract, but “free” immigrants continued to come

11.
Cananea
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Cananea is a city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, on the U. S−Mexico border, the population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The population of the municipality, which rural areas, was 32,936. The total area of the municipality is approximately 4,100 square kilometres, the first non-indigenous inhabitants of the present day Cananea, arrived in 1760 from other parts of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain. Jesuit priests discovered gold and silver, and opened mines using the indigenous peoples for labor, in the 19th century General Ignacio Pesqueira, from nearby Arizpe, retired to Cananea. He fought against the Apache who raided the area, one time, while following them into the mountains, he discovered the abandoned Spanish mines and by 1868 he had renewed the extraction of minerals in the Cananea mines. General Pesqueiras wife, Elena Pesqueira Pesqueira, discovered a mountain range. The other peak is named La Mariquita, in 1889 William Cornell Greene purchased the mine from General Pesqueira and founded the Nogales, Sonora-based company, The Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, S. A. A corrido titled La cárcel de Cananea written in 1917 and commemorating the incident has become famous. At the time of the strike the population of 23,000 included 7,000 Americans and 5,000 Chinese, on October 31,1901, the area became a municipality with Cananea town as its seat. On July 11,1957, Cananea town became a city, the Cananea jail was built in 1903 and is located in downtown Cananea. It was the first public jail of the city and is currently a museum Museo de la Lucha Obrera with exhibitions of photographs, La carcel de Cananea or The Cananea Jail song is a corrido that has become part of the culture of Cananea and the state of Sonora. It describes the experiences of a man accused of murdering Chinese immigrants while at this jail, according to historian Rodolfo Rascón, a man called Francisco, nicknamed El Cucharón de Batuc, wrote the song in 1917. Through winter the rains are intense, but of longer duration. Called “equipatas”, they can fall in the form of snow, in the months of February, March, and April there are frequent frosts, hailstorms, and occasional snowstorms. Precipitation averages at 511 millimetres annually, Mining is the main source of revenue for Cananea and will be for the foreseeable future. Eighty percent of the population is directly or indirectly supported by mining companies in Cananea. The first and most important mining company is Buenavista del Cobre, S. A. de C. V. owned by the Southern Copper Corporation, the Mining Operations Director assigned to Cananea is Isaac López Arzola

12.
Porfirian
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The history of Mexico, a country in the southern portion of North America, covers a period of more than three millennia. First populated more than 13,000 years ago, the territory had complex indigenous civilizations before being conquered and colonized by the Spanish in the 16th century and this era before the arrival of Europeans is called variously the prehispanic era or the precolumbian era. The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan became the Spanish capital Mexico City, from 1521, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire incorporated the region into the Spanish Empire, with New Spain its colonial era name and Mexico City the center of colonial rule. It was built on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, during the colonial era, Mexicos long-established Mesoamerican civilizations mixed with European culture. For three centuries Mexico was part of the Spanish Empire, whose legacy is a country with a Spanish-speaking, Catholic, after a protracted struggle for independence, New Spain became the sovereign nation of Mexico, with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba. A brief period of monarchy, called the First Mexican Empire, was followed by the founding of the Republic of Mexico, legal racial categories were eliminated, abolishing the system of castas. Slavery was not abolished at independence in 1821 or with the constitution in 1824, Mexico continues to be constituted as a federated republic, under the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The Age of Santa Anna is the period of the late 1820s to the early 1850s that was dominated by criollo military-man-turned-president Antonio López de Santa Anna. In 1846, the Mexican–American War was provoked by the United States, even though Santa Anna bore significant responsibility for the disastrous defeat, he returned to office. The Liberal Reform began with the overthrow of Santa Anna by Mexican liberals, the Reform sparked a civil war between liberals defending the constitution and conservatives, who opposed it. The US was engaged in its own Civil War, so did not attempt to block the foreign intervention, abraham Lincoln consistently supported the Mexican liberals. At the end of the war in the US and the triumph of the Union forces. France withdrew its support of Maximilian in 1867 and his monarchist rule collapsed in 1867, with the end of the Second Mexican Empire, the period often called the Restored Republic brought back Benito Juárez as president. Following his death from an attack, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada succeed him. He was overthrown by liberal military man Porfirio Diaz, who after consolidating power ushered in a period of stability, the half-century of economic stagnation and political chaos following independence ended. The Porfiriate is the era when army hero Porfirio Díaz held power as president of Mexico almost continuously from 1876-1911 and he promoted order and progress that saw the modernization of the economy and the flow of foreign investment to the country. The period is called the Porfiriato, which ended with the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Under Díaz, Mexicos industry and infrastructure were modernized by a strong, stable, increased tax revenues and better administration brought dramatic improvements in public safety, public health, railways, mining, industry, foreign trade, and national finances

13.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862

14.
Chinese immigration to Mexico
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Chinese immigration to Mexico began during the colonial era and has continued to the present day. When the government could not attract enough European immigrants, it was decided to allow Chinese migrant workers into the country, by the 1920s, the number of Chinese in the country was about 26,000. Today, there are two principal Chinese communities in Mexico, one in Mexicali and the other in Mexico City, after decades of low numbers migrating, the number of Chinese migrants is once again growing rapidly. In 2009, the Instituto Nacional de Migración granted 2,661 migratory requests from individuals from China, while in 2010 it was 3,620, meaning growth for one year of 36%. Of the 54,440 migrants granted permanent residency in 2013,4,743 were Chinese, Mexico had its highest percentage of foreign immigrants in 1930. One reason for this is that from the 1820s to the 1920s, Mexico was mired in political instability, another reason is that it did not have the vast areas of open land that attracted farmers to places like the United States and Argentina. Despite the small numbers, those immigrants who did come had an effect on their host country economically. European and U. S. investors came to dominate mining, oil, European and Chinese immigrants took over banking and wholesale commerce as well as pioneering the industrialization of Mexico. Most Europeans who came to Mexico in the 19th century were young bachelors whose aim was to make their fortune then return to their country to marry. Most of these never considered more than temporary residents and never integrated into Mexican society. Many Americans came to settle Texas in the 19th century but this led to its secession. This soured many in Mexico to the idea of mass immigration, despite this, there was a concerted effort from 1876 to 1910 to encourage European immigration to “whiten” the population as well as bring capital into the country. The push here was to populate and develop the empty northern states as well as to promote European education and it was thought that this would modernize the country and globalize its economy. However, the government could not entice enough Europeans to settle in the northern states due to the climate. Most of the white Europeans and Americans who did arrive during the late 19th and early 20th century were associated with companies interested in railroads and these companies brought in Chinese and other coolie labor. Asians, predominantly Chinese, became Mexico’s fastest-growing immigrant group from the 1880s to the 1920s, despite being the force behind the last major wave of immigration to Mexico, Porfirio Díaz himself became leery of foreign presence. He nationalized the railroads and signed the first restrictive immigration legislation in the last years before the Mexican Revolution. The earliest known arrival of Chinese to Mexico was in 1635, the Spanish barbers protested to the Governor that they could not compete and asked that the Chinese be expelled

15.
Indian immigration to Mexico
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Indian Mexicans are Mexican citizens who are descendants of migrants from the nation of India. According to the Indian Ministry of External Affairs, there are about 2,000 Indians living in Mexico as of March 2011, in 1923, immigration of ethnic Indians was secretly prohibited. The ban was kept confidential in order to avoid problems with the British Empire. This ban, along with similar bans based on ethnicity, was eliminated by a 1947 law that prohibited racial discrimination, most of the Indians in Mexico are recent arrivals in the country and almost all of them have settled in Mexico City. Mexico has a policy with regard to the grant of its citizenship. The spouse of a Mexican national would not face any problem in acquiring local citizenship. Although a few of the NRIs have married Mexicans, they have retained their Indian citizenship, the Indians in this country are mainly businessmen or professionals. Many of them work with one or other organization or a multinational corporation. There are also some academicians and scientists among them and they have helped to bring about greater mutual understanding between India and their host country. Some of the Indians work for ISPAT Mexicana which is part of the Laxmi Mittal group, the Indian presence in Mexico has been greatly appreciated as fifty other business ventures have invested around US$1.58 billion in the country around 1994 to 2000. The Indian community in Mexico has no divisive factions in it, the main Indian community organisation is the Indian Womens Association of Mexico in Mexico City. It celebrates important festivals and organises cultural programmes, a Sai Baba temple, a Vaishnav temple, and a Gurudwara have also been constructed by Sangam Organisation in Mexico City

16.
Afro-Mexicans
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Afro-Mexicans are Mexicans who have a heritage from Sub-Saharan Africa. According to The Atlantic Slave Trade an estimated 200,000 enslaved Africans disembarked in New Spain, from the beginning, the slaves, who were mostly male, intermarried with indigenous women. In some cases Spanish colonists had unions with female slaves, Spanish colonists created an elaborate racial caste system, classifying people by racial mixture. This system broke down in the late colonial period, after Independence. Evidence of this history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in the fact that in the 2015 census,64. 9% of Afro-Mexicans also identified as indigenous. It was also reported that 9. 3% of Afro-Mexicans speak an indigenous language, about 1. 2% of Mexicos population has significant African ancestry, with 1.38 million recognized during the 2015 Intercensus Estimate. Numerous Afro-Mexicans in the 21st century are naturalized black immigrants from Africa, the 2015 Intercensus Estimate was the first time in which Afro-Mexicans could identify themselves as such and was a preliminary effort to include the identity before the 2020 census. Although the vast majority had their roots in Africa, not all made the trip directly to America. Those from Africa belonged mainly to groups coming from Western Sudan, the origin of the slaves is known through various documents such as transcripts of sales. Originally the slaves came from Cape Verde and Guinea, later slaves were also taken from Angola and the Canary Islands. To decide the sex of the slaves that would be sent to the New World, calculations that included physical performance, later on, only one third of the total slaves were women. From the African continent dark skinned slaves were taken, the first true blacks were extracted from Arguin, later in the sixteenth century, black slaves came from Bran, biafadas and Gelofe. Black slaves were classified into types, depending on their ethnic group and origin. The first, called Retintos, also called swarthy, came from Sudan, the second type were amulatados or amembrillados of lighter skin color, when compared with other blacks and were distinguishable by their yellow skin tones. Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán estimated that there were six blacks who took part in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, notable among them was Juan Garrido, a black soldier born in Africa, Christianized in Portugal and who participated in the conquest of Tenochtitlan and Western Mexico. Another conquistador, Pánfilo de Narváez, brought an African slave who has blamed for the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Early slaves were likely personal servants or concubines of their Spanish masters, Mexico never became a society based on slavery, as happened in the U. S. south or Caribbean islands, but its economy did use slaves for many years during the colonial period. While a number of people were enslaved during the conquest period

17.
Romani Mexicans
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There is a significant Roma population in Mexico, most being the descendants of past migrants. According to data collected by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, they numbered 15,850, however, in Mexico, they are commonly known as gitanos or rom. The first gypsy group in Mexico were the Spanish gitanos that arrived during the Colonial era, some of the mid-19th century migrants may have arrived to Mexico via Argentina. In the late 19th and early 20th century migrants from Hungary, Poland, in 1931, after a substantial colony of these latter gypsies had settled, and following complaints of delinquency, the law was changed to prohibit further settlement in Mexico. According to the Joshua Project, there are 51,000 Romani/Vlax in Mexico, in the mid 1900s, Romani caravans were known for showing movies in rural towns. Today, their economic activities revolve around the sale of textiles, cars, trucks and jewelry. Alfonso Mejia-Arias - musician, writer and politician La Lagunilla Market - popular with Romani merchants D. W. Pickett, The Gypsies of Mexico, Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society,1966

18.
Arab Mexicans
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Arab Mexicans are Mexican citizens of Arab ethnic, cultural and linguistic heritage or identity, who identify themselves as Arab. The vast majority of Mexicos 1,100,000 Arabs are from either Lebanese, Saudi Arabian, Syrian, Iraqi, Moroccan, Yemeni or Palestinian background. The inter-ethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of affiliation, is very high. As a result of this, the Arab community in Mexico shows marked language shift away from only Arabic, only a few speak any mainly Arabic, and such knowledge is often limited to a few basic words. Instead the majority, especially those of generations, speak Spanish as a first language. Throughout the Arab slave trade Arabic and Spanish have collided in Mexico as a mixture of languages, Arab immigration to Mexico started in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Roughly 100,000 Arabic-speakers settled in Mexico during this time period and they also came for slave trade in the 18th century. The term Arab Mexican may include groups that do not in fact identify as Arab. During the Israel-Lebanon war in 1948 and during the Six-Day War, thousands of Lebanese left Lebanon, although Arabs made up less than 5% of the total immigrant population in Mexico during the 1930s, they constituted half of the immigrant economic activity. Immigration of Arabs in Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in particular food, by 1765, Dates, which originated from the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. The fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced Yucatecan cuisine, 45% of Arab Mexicans are of Lebanese descent. The majority of Arab-Mexicans are Christians who belong to the Maronite Church, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, a scant number are Muslims of Middle Eastern origins. Carlos Slim, business magnate, investor, and philanthropist, slims parents are both Mexicans of Lebanese Maronite Catholic descent. Emeraude Toubia, actress and model raised in Brownsville, Texas, half Lebanese via her father, josé Antonio Meade Kuribreña, economist, lawyer and diplomat and current Mexican Secretariat of Foreign Affairs of Lebanese and British descent. Pedro Joaquín Coldwell, politician affiliated to the Institutional Revolutionary Party of Lebanese, emilio Chuayffet, lawyer and politician, the incumbent Secretary of Public Education of Mexico of Lebanese descent. Alfredo Harp Helú, Mexican businessman of Lebanese origin, salma Hayek, actress, she is half Lebanese via her father. Pépé Abed, Lebanese-born Mexican jeweler returned to Lebanon after 40 years, victor Nacif, Vice President of Design Business Aspects for Nissan Design America, of Iraqi descent. Mauricio Féres Yázbek, actor of Lebanese descent from Tampico, Tamaulipas Alfonso Petersen Farah, Carlos Kuri Slim, former entrepreneur of textil branch specialized on narrow fabrics

19.
Lebanese Mexicans
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Lebanese Mexicans refers to Mexican citizens of Lebanese origin. Although Lebanese Mexicans made up less than 5% of the immigrant population in Mexico during the 1930s. Lebanese influence in Mexican culture can be seen most particularly in food, interethnic marriage in the Lebanese community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high, most community members have only one parent who has Lebanese ethnicity. As a result of this, the Lebanese community in Mexico shows marked language shift away from Arabic, only a few speak any Arabic, and such knowledge is often limited to a few basic words. Instead the majority, especially those of generations, speak Spanish as first language. Carlos Slim, formerly the richest man in the world, is an example of Lebanese Mexican success in Mexican society, Lebanese immigration to Mexico started in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1892, the first Lebanese arrived in Mexico from Beirut in French ships to Mexican ports such as Puerto Progreso, Veracruz, at that time, Lebanon was not an independent nation, the territory was held by the Ottoman Empire and later became a French protectorate. Roughly 100,000 Arabic-speakers settled in Mexico during this time period and they settled in significant numbers in Nayarit, Puebla, Mexico City and the northern part of the country. During the 1948 Israel-Lebanon war and the Six-Day War, thousands of Lebanese left Lebanon and went to Mexico, although Lebanese people made up less than 5% of the total immigrant population in Mexico during the 1930s, they constituted half of the immigrant economic activity. One Lebanese cultural tradition in Mexico itself is to place colored ribbons to the image of St. Charbel to ask some favor or some miracle, the tradition arose in the Candelaria Church in Merced in the historic center of Mexico City. The immigration of Lebanese to Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in food, including introducing Kibbeh and Tabbouleh. By 1765, dates, which originated in North Africa and the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards, the fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced the Yucatecan cuisine. The majority of Lebanese-Mexicans are Christians who belong to the Maronite, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, the Lebanese initially practiced Catholicism independently from other Mexicans, but the Lebanese learned to speak Spanish, Lebanese-Mexican children quickly joined the countrys religious activities. A few Lebanese Muslims settled in Mexico and they were responsible for the opening of the first mosque in Mexico, built in the city of Torreon, in Coahuila, and named Suraya. Immigration to Mexico Lebanon–Mexico relations Lebanese Colombians Lebanese Brazilians Lebanese Argentines Los que llegaron - Libaneses from Canal Once

20.
Armenian Mexicans
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The Armenian diaspora population in Mexico is very small in comparison with other immigrant groups. The majority of the arrived in Mexico between 1910–1928, most of them arriving after the Armenian Genocide of 1915. The earliest known record, from 1632, recorded the arrival to Mexico of an Armenian national by the name of Francisco Martín, in 1723, Armenian national Don Pedro de Zárate arrived to Mexico on a Spanish galleon from China to Acapulco. In 1897, Mexican President Porfirio Díaz planned a project to establish a community with Armenian settlers in Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. Soon after the Armenian Genocide, committed by Ottoman forces in April 1915, from 1921-1928, Mexico had an open immigration policy for most foreigners. During that time, close to 300 Armenians immigrated to Mexico, once in Mexico, most of the Armenian community decided to head north to the United States. The majority of those who stayed in the country, settled in La Merced neighborhood of Mexico City, the Armenian community of Mexico today retains a number of approximately 400–500 people and an unknown number of descendants. Many members of the community have entered politics and are known artists and actors. Mauricio Ochmann Berge Bulbulian Rosa Gloria Chagoyán Jacobo Harrotian Siouzana Melikián Armen Ohanian Jacobo Harrotian Paris Pişmiş Arturo Sarukhán Armenia–Mexico relations Ayvazyan, Hovhannes

21.
Turks in Mexico
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Turks in Mexico comprise Turkish people living in Mexico and their Mexican-born descendants. According to census records, Turks have been present in Mexico since at least 1895, however, almost none of the immigrants from the Ottoman Empire that identified as Turks with Mexican immigration officials were ethnically Turkish. Instead being primarily Lebanese, Syrians and Jews, Casa Turca Ciudad de México and Casa Turca Guadalajara Mexico–Turkey relations

22.
Polish Mexicans
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There is a small Polish diaspora in Mexico. According to the 2005 intercensal estimate, there were 971 Polish citizens living in Mexico, furthermore, by the estimate of the Jewish community, there may be as many as 15,000 descendants of Jewish migrants from Poland living in Mexico. The first Poles arrived in Mexico during the French intervention in Mexico, in May 1942, Mexico declared war on Germany. To show solidarity with the Polish people, Mexico accepted in 1943 over 2,000 Polish refugees including 1,400 Polish orphans to settle in the state of Guanajuato in central Mexico, after the war, many of the refugees remained to live in Mexico. Two of the best known Polish-Mexicans are the journalist Jacobo Zabludovsky, and his brother, mexico–Poland relations Mexico and Poland, Centuries of Cultural Relations

23.
Greek Mexicans
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Greek Mexicans are Mexican residents of either full or partial Greek descent. The largest Greek communities are in Mexico City, Guadalajara, smaller numbers of Greeks can be found in Aguascalientes, Acaponeta, Tepic, and Pachuca. Greeks have immigrated to Mexico since the 18th century, with the largest influx arriving in the century and settling in Mexico City, Sinaloa state. While many had left Greece due to war and political instability in Greece, during the 1940s, the Mexican government invited a large number of Greeks to Sinaloa to improve harvest of tomatoes. Soon the Greek community became so large that the area around the Tamazula, Humaya, today, Sinaloa has a heavy Greek presence, and Greek surnames are very common in the state. Greek Mexican families can also be found in major cities around the republic, such as Mexico City. Statistics regarding exact number of Greek people in Mexico vary greatly, especially due to the different numbers for native-born Greeks, the only official number is of native-born Greeks, which stood at 298 at the time the Mexican national census of 2000. When including descendants of Greeks, published estimates range from 1,000 to 4,000 individuals, the General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad estimates that only 1,000 Greeks live in Mexico. On the other hand, according to the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stamatiadou stated that most families were made up of second and third-generation Greeks from Euboea, Greeces second largest island. A lower estimate of 300 families was published in Greece Now magazine in 2004, other sources report significant numbers of immigrants from Cyprus and mainland Greece. The state of Sinaloa arguably has the largest Greek community in all of Mexico, Greeks can also be found in the cities of Mazatlán, Guamúchil, Guasave, and Los Mochis. Culiacán is home to the Comunidad Helénica of Culiacán, around 250 Greek Mexican families, or 1,500 individuals, live in and around Mexico City. A major centerpiece of the Greek community of the Greater Mexico City area is the Greek Orthodox Church of Santa Sofia in Naucalpan, the church also serves as the home for the Comunidad Helenica de Mexico, or Hellenic Community of Mexico. Guadalajara is home to around 230 Greeks and it is also the home of the Casa Helenica de Guadalajara and the Amigos de Grecia, which organize community events and offers Greek classes to the public. Elsewhere in the state of Jalisco, the municipality of Colotlán also boasts its own Greek community

24.
Judaism in Mexico
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Judaism in Mexico began in 1519 with the arrival of “Marranos” or “Crypto-Jews, ” those forcibly converted to Catholicism due to the Spanish Inquisition. Over the colonial period, a number came to Mexico despite Mexican Inquisition persecutions in the late 16th, however, most Conversos eventually assimilated into Mexican society with no immigration of practicing Jews allowed into the country until the 19th century. Today, most Jews in Mexico are descendants of this immigration and still divided by diasporic origin, principally Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim and it is an insular community with its own religious, social and cultural institutions, mostly in Guadalajara and Mexico City. However, since the 1880s, there have been efforts to identify descendants of colonial era Conversos both in Mexico and the Southwestern United States, generally to return them to Judaism. The first Jewish presence in Mexico, was the arrival of the Conversos which accompanied Hernán Cortés in 1519 and these were members of Jewish families which had been forcibly converted to Christianity in order to avoid expulsion from Spain after the Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. The reconquest was followed by the Spanish Inquisition which made the Conversos one of their targets, Converso migration to the new Spanish colony began in 1530 after most of the violence from the conquest of the Aztec Empire had subsided and the Spanish Inquisition continued. For several decades these families were able to live peacefully, integrating into Mexico’s elite, with some become prominent Catholic clergy, the persecution of Jews came to New Spain along with the conquistadors. However, the Mexican Inquisition was not fully established until 1571 to become a threat to Converso, in 1606 Mexico received an order by the King of Spain to free Conversos in Inquisition prisons. This relaxing of the Inquisition in Mexico, which was never as severe as in Spain, New Conversos settled in Mexico City, Acapulco, Veracruz and Campeche as they provided the most opportunities for mercantile activity. Some did move to the outlying areas such as Zacatecas. There was a second Inquisition persecution of Conversos/Crypto-Jews from 1642 to 1649, after that, the focus shifted to matters such as blasphemy and moral infractions. However, during the colonial period, practicing Jews in Spain or elsewhere could not enter Spanish colonial territory. One notable episode during the period was the establishment of the New Kingdom of León. In 1567 the Carvajal family arrived to New Spain under nobleman Luis de Carvajal, with the exception of him and a cousin, this family was Crypto-Jewish. In 1579 Carvajal was granted land in what is now northeastern Mexico and this area welcomed both Conversos and practicing Jews, with about seventy five percent of the initial settlers being secretly Jewish. Some theories state that Monterrey developed as a commercial center despite its colonial era remoteness because of Crypto-Jewish influence, however, Luis de Carvajal and members of his family were persecuted in 1589 for practicing Judaism. The auto-de-fe of Mariana Carvajal has become part of Mexican art, by 1641 this colony had grown, and some of the settlers would later move to establish new settlements in Coahuila, Texas, and New Santander. After Mexico gained its Independence, it abolished the Inquisition but Catholic religion was declared official, remaining Crypto-Jews still did not openly admit to such but did begin to observe various Jewish rituals and from 1825 to 1860 and a few European Jews from Germany and Eastern Europe arrived

25.
Spaniards in Mexico
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Spanish Mexicans are citizens or residents of Mexico who identify as Spanish as a result of nationality or ancestry. Spanish immigration to Mexico began in the early 1500s and spans to the present day, the discovery of new deposits of various minerals in the central and northern areas allowed New Spain to gradually occupy a privileged position, especially in the extraction of silver. In the 16th century, following the military conquest of most of the new continent and they were joined by 450,000 in the next century. Since the conquest of Mexico, this became the principal destination of Spanish colonial settlers in the 16th century. The first Spaniards who arrived in Mexico were soldiers and sailors from Extremadura, Andalucía, at the end of the 16th century both commoner and aristocrat from Spain were migrating to Mexico. In December 20,1827, was repealed the law Spanish expulsion by state deputies, many Creole families who were in misery, some returned to their farms and ranches protected by state congress deputies. En 1910, there were 30,000 Spaniards in Mexico, they participated in activities as agricultural labors and trade in urban areas. Most recent migrants came during the Spanish Civil War, more than 25,000 Spanish refugees settled in Mexico between 1939 and 1942, largely during the administration of President Lazaro Cardenas del Río. Some of the returned to Spain after the civil war. This children were received by Mexican President Lázaro Cardenas del Río, of these refugees is named as soon as intellectual immigration or elite was made up of approximately 25% of the total. Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the economic decline and high unemployment in Spain. For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards, the word gachupín is used for Spaniards who live in Mexico and Guatemala as a slur, referring to conquistadors and people from Spain. Official history says Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla mentioned in the Grito de Dolores, the stereotypes about Spaniards in Mexico are men with barb and boina, people smoking habanos and drinking wine, many newspapers cartoons describes this images for gachupines or Spanish people. In Mexico remain important Spanish schools such as Colegio Madrid of Mexico City and this is a private school for elementary education. The Colegio de México was an organization of Spanish civil war exiles called firstly Casa de España en México, in 1939, Alfonso Reyes would be president of the Colegio until his death. Historian Daniel Cosío Villegas played an important role in its institutionalization, now is important Mexican institute by the scientific research. Spanish was brought to Mexico around 500 years ago, as a result of Mexico Citys central role in the colonial administration of New Spain, the population of the city included relatively large numbers of speakers from Spain. During the Spanish Exile, the Catalan language was expressed by writers and poets in Mexico, charreria, a word encompassing all aspects of the art, evolved from the traditions that came to Mexico from Salamanca, Spain in the 16th century

26.
Portuguese Mexican
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The Portuguese arrived in Mexico around the time of the Spanish colonial period. Many of them were sailors, conquistadors, clergy, and members of the military, later Portuguese arrivals included pirates in conflict with Spanish leadership. Today, the countrys largest Portuguese community is concentrated in Mexico City, especially in the Colonia Condesa, according to the 2000 census, there were 288 Portuguese living in Mexico. The first Portuguese to arrive in New Spain was Sebastián Rodriguez de Oliveira, the Portuguese eventually made up a large presence in New Spain. A few such immigrants were Sephardi Jews fleeing the Spanish Inquisition, Portuguese immigrants had no difficulty adapting into New Spanish society because they were Catholics and accountable to the Spanish Crown for taxation. During the Mexican War of Independence, Mexicans did not distinguish between Spanish, Portuguese colonists and Indians who were on the side of the Spanish Crown, Portuguese immigrants were granted preferential naturalization times in 1993. The preferential naturalization time was granted due to historical and cultural connections and was given to Latin Americans. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, explorer Gaspar Fernandes, composer and organist Lydia Cacho, activist Humberto Moreira, madero, politician Mexico–Portugal relations Portuguese Americans Presencia portuguesa en México colonial

27.
MXN
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The Mexican peso is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a origin in the 15th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign. The Mexican peso is the 8th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency originating from the Americas, the current ISO4217 code for the peso is MXN, prior to the 1993 revaluation, the code MXP was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 centavos, represented by ¢, as of March 31,2017, the pesos exchange rate was $19.94 per Euro and $18.71 per U. S. dollar. The name was used in reference to pesos oro or pesos plata. The Spanish word peso means weight, the peso was originally the name of the eight-real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so-called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas, in 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated one peso, coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the content of the peso was reduced by 49. 3%. However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the coins declined, until 1977. On January 1,1993 the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, one new peso, or N$1.00, was equal to 1000 of the obsolete MXP pesos. The ISO4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN, thanks to the stability of the Mexican economy and the growth in foreign investment, the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units in recent years. The first coins of the currency were 1 centavo pieces minted in 1863. Emperor Maximilian, ruler of the Second Mexican Empire from 1864–1867 and his portrait was on the obverse, with the legend Maximiliano Emperador, the reverse shows the imperial arms and the legends Imperio Mexicano and 1 Peso and the date. They were struck from 1866 to 1867, the New Mexican republic continued to strike the 8 reales piece, but also began minting coins denominated in centavos and pesos. In addition to copper 1 centavo coins, silver coins of 5,10,25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso were introduced between 1867 and 1869, gold 1, 2½,5,10 and 20-peso coins were introduced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican eagle and the legend Republica Mexicana, the reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales, those of the smaller coins, the denomination. One-peso coins were made from 1865 to 1873, when 8 reales coins resumed production, in 1882, cupro-nickel 1,2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years

28.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common

29.
Minimum wage
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A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers. Equivalently, it is the floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits, supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, boosts morale and forces businesses to be more efficient. Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers, King Edward III, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land. In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England, the severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling. Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers, while the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage. An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food, as time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages. The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry. By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as increasingly capitalistic England embraced laissez-faire policies which disfavored regulations of wages, the subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations. As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made, however, this meant that a uniform minimum wage was not possible. It was not until the 1890s that the first modern attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand. The movement for a wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor. The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages, the sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly. Over time, the changed to helping people, especially families. The first modern national minimum wage law was enacted by the government of New Zealand in 1894, followed by Australia in 1896, in the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938, and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998. There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries, in the European Union,22 member states out of 28 currently have national minimum wages. Currently the American federal minimum wage rests at seven dollars, twenty-five cents per hour, however, some states do not recognize the minimum wage law such as Louisiana and Tennessee. Other states operate below the minimum wage such as Georgia

30.
American immigration to Mexico
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American Mexicans are Mexican citizens who are either born in, or descended from migrants from the United States and its territories. This can include people of non-Hispanic European, African American, Native American, Asian American, Americans are a significant demographic in Mexico. Over 75% of immigrants to Mexico are estimated to come from the United States, the first American settlement in Mexico was the entry of Americans, mostly of European descent, as traders into the country. Including the northern territories of Alta California, Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the first empresarial grant in Texas had been made under Spanish control to Stephen F. Austin, whose settlers, known as the Old Three Hundred, settled along the Brazos River in 1822. The grant was ratified by the Mexican government. Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority from the United States of America, in 1824, Mexico enacted the General Colonization Law, which enabled all heads of household, regardless of race or immigrant status, to claim land in Mexico. Due to the amount of American settlers, in 1830 President Bustamante outlawed the immigration of United States citizens to Texas. Mexico once recognized citizens born in the territory lost in the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo to protect their property, farms, however, they had to adopt a new nationality and very few descendants had ever decided to regain their Mexican nationality. There is a band of the Kickapoo tribe present in northern Mexico as result of 19th-century migration, there is also a Cherokee Nation of Mexico that claims to be the descendents of 19th-century Cherokee migrants. However, they are not officially recognized by the Federal government, a few of the routes of the Underground Railroad led to Mexico. In 1865 a substantial number of former Confederates fled to Mexico from the defeated Confederate States of America and they set up the New Virginia Colony. However, many of the left the country once Emperor Maxmilian I was overthrown. One known Mexican of U. S. ancestry is former president Vicente Fox, whose great-grandfather, reportedly of German American ancestry, during the Porfiriato, foreign businessmen were welcomed into the country in order to help with Mexicos modernization through enterprises such as railroad construction and mineral exploitation. American capitalists included the likes of Edward L. Doheny and William Cornell Greene, also notable among these early entrepreneurs were the Californian immigrants Walter and Frank Sanborn, who opened Mexicos first soda fountain. Their business would go on to become the Grupo Sanborns, founded in 1888, the American School Foundation in Mexico City was created to cater to American immigrants. For decades, Mexico has also drawn numerous artists, including Pablo OHiggins, William Spratling, during the Cold War, Mexico was a country of refuge for political leftists, and received various American exiles, especially from the film industry. Notable among these individuals was Elizabeth Catlett, prominent African-American artist who was declared an alien by the U. S. government as a result of suspected Communist affiliations. Recent migrants can be categorized into three categories, retired expatriates, professionals working in Mexico and the American children of Mexican nationals

31.
Mexican Americans
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Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior

32.
Tijuana
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Tijuana is the largest city in Baja California and on the Baja California Peninsula and center of the Tijuana metropolitan area, part of the international San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. As an industrial and financial center of Mexico, Tijuana exerts an influence on economics, education, culture, art. As the city has become a center in the country, so has the surrounding metropolitan area. Currently one of the fastest growing areas in Mexico, Tijuana maintains global city status. As of 2015, the city of Tijuana had a population of 1,696,923, Tijuana is located on the Gold Coast of Baja California, and is the municipal seat and cultural and commercial center of Tijuana Municipality. Tijuana covers 70% of the municipality but contains over 80% of its population, a dominant manufacturing center of the North American continent, the city maintains facilities of many multinational conglomerate companies. In the early 21st century, Tijuana became the medical-device manufacturing capital of North America, Tijuana is also a growing cultural center and has been recognized as an important new cultural mecca. The city is the most visited city in the globe. More than fifty million people cross the border between two cities every year. This metropolitan crossing makes the San Ysidro Port of Entry the busiest land-border crossing in the world and it is estimated that the two border crossing stations between the cities proper of San Diego and Tijuana account for 300,000 daily border crossings alone. Tijuana is the 40th largest city in the Americas and is the westernmost city in Mexico, Tijuana traces its modern history to the arrival of Spanish explorers in the 16th century who were mapping the coast of the Californias. As the American conquest of northern Mexico ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Tijuanas new international position on the border gave rise to a new economic, the city was founded in July 11,1889 as urban development began. Often known by its initials, T. J. and nicknamed Gateway to Mexico, Tijuana derives from the Kumeyaay word Tiwan, meaning by-the-sea. Common in regional folklore, a myth exists purporting that the name is a conjunction of Tia Juana, Tia Juana would provide food and a resting place to travelers on their journeys. The story has become a myth with residents of the city and has particular resonance among those who like to imagine the city as a place of hospitality. In Spanish, the name is pronounced /tiˈxwana/ – with three syllables, and a fricative as represented by the sound written as j. In California, and particularly in Southern California, it is referred to as T. J. Baja Californians have adopted this pronunciation as Tiyei, in Spanish the demonym for someone from Tijuana is Tijuanense, while in English the demonym is Tijuanan

33.
Mexicali
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Mexicali is the capital city of the Mexican state of Baja California and seat of the Municipality of Mexicali. The city maintains a highly educated and skilled population, as it has modernized, mexicalis economy has been historically based on agricultural products, and to this day it remains a large sector of the economy. As time has progressed, however, its economy has gone from being agricultural to include industry. Mexicali became the center for the aerospace industry in Mexico when Rockwell Collins established an operation there in 1966. Rockwell Collins is the oldest company under the program nationwide. The Spaniards arrived in the area crossing the Sonoran Deserts Camino del Diablo or Devils Road. This led to the evangelization of the area by Catholic missionaries, nowadays, indigenous Cocopah people still inhabit a small government-protected corner of the Colorado River delta near the junction of the Hardy and the Colorado. The Cocopah mostly work on agricultural ejidos or fishing, the early European presence in this area was limited to Anzas and subsequent Spanish expeditions across the Colorado Desert and subsequent travelers on the Sonora Road opened by them. Also the presence of the Jesuits who attempted to establish a mission in what is now Fort Yuma and they left after a revolt by the Yuma in 1781. After this, the Spanish had little to do with the corner of the Baja California Peninsula, perceiving it as an untamable. Later in the 1820s, the Mexican authorities reopened the Sonoran Road, the Sonoran Road provided a route for American fur trappers, and later American troops of Kearny and Cooke passing through the area during the Mexican–American War. Herds of cattle and sheep were driven into California across this desert trail also and this route became a U. S. This mail route remained in use until 1877 when the Southern Pacific Railroad came to Yuma making it obsolete and these sediments extended far to the west of the river itself, accumulating in a shallow basin below the Sierra de Cucapá. However, from time period until the 1880s, the area was almost completely unpopulated. However, around 1900, the area with any real population, aside from the Cocopah, were concentrated in Los Algodones. In 1900, the U. S. -based California Development Company received permission from the government of Díaz to cut a canal through the deltas Arroyo Alamo, to attract farmers to the area, the developers named it the Imperial Valley. In 1903, the first 500 farmers arrived, by late 1904,405 km² of valley were irrigated, with 10,000 people settled on the land harvesting cotton, fruits, and vegetables. The concentration of housing units that straddled the border was called Calexico on the U. S. side

34.
Los Cabos Municipality
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Los Cabos is a municipality located at the southern tip of Mexicos Baja California Peninsula, in the state of Baja California Sur. It encompasses the towns of Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo, the area was remote and rural until the latter 20th century, when the Mexican government began to develop Cabo San Lucas for tourism, which then spread east to the municipal seat. The main draw is the climate and geography, where meets the sea, along with sport fishing, resorts. This tourism is by far the main economic activity with two million visitors per year. The town of San José del Cabo is located at the foot of the Sierra de la Laguna,130 km SSW of La Paz, although it is the seat of government for the municipality of Los Cabos, it is smaller than the other city of Cabo San Lucas. However, because of federal and private investments in tourism, its growth is now rivaling that of the famous resort area. This growth has been regulated to outside of the center, especially to the south where the beaches are, leaving the historic town center quiet. There are still cobblestone streets, adobe houses, jacaranda trees and a square in front of a church that dates from the 1700s. The art scene in the town is well-developed because of tourism and these shops carry high end paintings, sculptures in from traditional Mexican, Mexican contemporary and international artisans and artists. During the high season from October to May, these galleries stay open late into the night, the town has resisted the addition of large shopping malls and chain stores. There is also some colonial era architecture as well, but this style has more in common with towns to the north into the United States rather than the center. The main example of colonial architecture here is the parish church. It was part of the Estero de las Palmas de San José del Cabo Mission, the facade is marked with a tile mural depicting the martyrdom of founder Nicolás Tamaral, killed by the local Pericu people. The patron saint of the town is Saint Joseph, whose feast day is celebrated here on March 19, another important occasion is the feast of the Our Lady of the Pillar on October 12. Occasions like these are marked with traditional dance in dress styles known as “Flor de Pitaya” and the “La Cuera. ”Other important landmarks in the include the municipal hall, which dates from 1981. The tourist area of the town is the area between the proper and the shoreline. This area has a golf course and a line of hotels and resorts facing the ocean. San Jose del Cabo is the seat and the government for the found in a 3,451. 51km2 area

35.
San Carlos Nuevo Guaymas
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San Carlos is a beachfront subdivision within the port city of Guaymas, in the northern state of Sonora in Mexico. It is noted for the clarity and warmth of the ocean water in its shallow bays. It lies on the body of known as the Gulf of California. Given the size of the city, with nearly 7,000 inhabitants, there is a number of RV parks, resorts. There is also a large and active diving community. There are also many Americans and Canadians who live in San Carlos during the winter as the months are very hot and humid. There are many opportunities to fish, scuba dive, and relax on the beach, San Carlos is about a six-hour drive from the United States along Mexican interstate Highway 15. The trip from the United States requires that foreigners obtain a tourist card known as an FMM and you can get a 7 days or less, FMM. If staying for more than 7 days you will need to get a Visa for 6 months, the cost of that is less than 25.00 US. This is also obtained at El 21 and you will fill out a form and then take to the bank, located in same area, then return receipt back to Immigration office. You are still required to get a FMM/visa if you are visiting San Carlos Guaymas, visitors are no longer required to get a car permit if they are traveling by private automobile. This is required if they travel a little south of Empalme. The area where these car permits and visas are obtained is referred to as El 21 as it is 21 kilometers from the border at Nogales or at the border itself. They are also available just south of Empalme, but they can only be surrendered at El 21 or at the border itself, there are Three toll booths along highway 15 to San Carlos Guaymas, Nogales, Magdelina, Hermosillo. The total cost for them is less than 15.00 US, the community of San Carlos was founded on lands that previously were a large cattle ranch known as the Baviso de Navarro. This was later subdivided in four great estates known as Rancho Los Algodones, Rancho San Carlos, Rancho El Baviso and Rancho El Represo. In the mid-1950s, Mr. Rafael T.746 square kilometres of privately owned located in the Southern portion of the estate Ranch El Baviso.04 km². 23, on the 21 of March,1973, a total of 49.79 km² of privately owned lands constitute the territorial reserves of this development

36.
Saltillo
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Saltillo is the capital and largest city of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila and the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name. The city is located about 258 kilometres west of the Texas border, as of the 2005 census, Saltillo had a population of 725,095 people. 823,098 people reside within the area, making it the 19th biggest metro area in the country. The metro area comprises the municipalities of Saltillo, Ramos Arizpe, founded in 1577 by Conquistador Alberto del Canto and Spanish colonists, Saltillo is the oldest post-conquest settlement in northern Mexico. Saltillo was a commercial center on the northern frontier which served as a bridge from central Mexico to regions farther northeast, Nuevo León, Nuevo Santander, Coahuila. Saltillo supplied the mines of Zacatecas with wheat. It never rose to prominence, but it did develop a commercial core. Saltillo became administratively more important at the end of the eighteenth century, merchants, most of whom were Iberian-born peninsular Spaniards, constituted the most important economic group, handling a wide variety of goods and sold in shops. They were the branch of the transatlantic merchant sector, with ties to Mexico City merchants. Peninsular merchants in Saltillo married into local society, acquired rural properties. In the late century, an annual trade fair was established, with goods from as far away as China and Europe. Saltillo could produce wheat commercially so long as enterprises had access to water, in the eighteenth century, there was a demand for draft animals, which Saltillo could supply. The city of Saltillo is the seat of the municipality of Saltillo. The current Mayor is Isidro Lopez Villareal from the Partido Accion Nacional, el Cerro del Pueblo and its 4-metre cross overlook the city. The citys elevation, at 1,600 metres, makes it cooler and windier than the city of Monterrey. Saltillo lies near the city of Arteaga and in the Chihuahuan Desert, the city is flanked by the Zapalinamé mountains, which are part of the Sierra Madre Oriental. By looking at the relief of the mountains, one can see, according to local legend, Saltillo is located in the Chihuahuan Desert but temperatures are cooler than other desert cities in Mexico because it is located in an altitude of 1,600 meters. Summers are slightly hot with cool nights, and winters are sunny, rainfall is scarce but more prominent in summer

37.
Monterrey
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Monterrey, is the capital and largest city of the northeastern state of Nuevo León, in Mexico. The city is anchor to the third-largest metropolitan area in Mexico and is ranked as the ninth-largest city in the nation, Monterrey serves as a commercial center in the north of the country and is the base of many significant international corporations. It is one of the wealthiest cities in Mexico with a GDP PPP of 130.7 billion dollars in 2012, Monterreys GDP PPP per capita is of approximately 32,000 dollars. It is considered a Beta World City, cosmopolitan and competitive, rich in history and culture, Monterrey is considered one of the most developed cities in the entire country and often regarded as the most americanized in Mexico. A. Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery and Heineken, which features Norteño capital and Grupo ALFA, Monterrey is located in northeast Mexico, at the foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The uninterrupted settlement of Monterrey starts in 1596, with its founding by Diego de Montemayor, in the years after the Mexican War of Independence, Monterrey became an important business center. With the establishment of Fundidora Monterrey, the city experienced a great industrial growth, prior to the European foundation of the city, there was no established nation state, and the population instead consisted of some indigenous semi-nomad groups. Carved stone and cave painting in surrounding mountains and caves have allowed historians to identify four major groups in present-day Monterrey, Azalapas, Huachichiles, Coahuiltecos and Borrados. In the 16th century, the valley in which Monterrey is located was known as the Extremadura Valley, in 1580 he arrived in the newly granted lands but it was not until 1582 that he established a settlement called San Luis Rey de Francia within present-day Monterrey. The New Kingdom of León extended westwards from the port of Tampico to the limits of Nueva Vizcaya, Monterrey was also the point of emigration from Europe, people from Portugal, Spain, France, Russia went to Monterrey seeing it as a good place to live in. Most of the Monterrey people descent from a creole Spanish heritage, during the years of Spanish rule, Monterrey remained a small city, and its population varied from a few hundred to only dozens. The city was a place that facilitated trade between San Antonio, Tampico and from Saltillo to the center of the country, tampicos port brought many products from Europe, while Saltillo concentrated the Northern Territories trade with the capital, Mexico City. San Antonio was the key trade point with the foreign colonies. In 1824, the New Kingdom of León became the State of Nuevo León, in 1846, the earliest large-scale engagement of the Mexican-American War took place in the city, known as the Battle of Monterrey. Mexican forces were forced to surrender but only after successfully repelling U. S. forces during the first few advances on the city, the battle inflicted high casualties on both sides, much of them resulting from hand-to-hand combat within the walls of the city center. Many of the generals in the Mexican War against France were natives of the city, including Mariano Escobedo, Juan Zuazua, during the last decade of the 19th century, the city of Monterrey was linked by railroad, which benefitted industry. In 1986, several games of the 1986 FIFA World Cup were hosted. In 1988, Hurricane Gilbert caused great damage to the city, the conference resulted in the adoption of the Monterrey Consensus, which has become one relevant reference point for international development and cooperation

38.
Nuevo Laredo
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Nuevo Laredo is a city located in the Municipality of Nuevo Laredo in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. The city lies on the banks of the Rio Grande, across from the U. S. city of Laredo, the 2010 census population of the city was 373,725. Nuevo Laredo is part of the Laredo-Nuevo Laredo Metropolitan Area with a population of 636,516. The municipality has an area of 1,334.02 km², both the city and the municipality rank as the third largest in the state. The city is connected to Laredo, Texas by three bridges and a rail bridge. The city is larger and younger than its U. S. counterpart and it is the largest inland port in Mexico, just as its counterpart across the border is the busiest inland port in the United States. As an indication of its importance, one of Mexicos banderas monumentales is located in the city. Nuevo Laredo was part of the territory of the settlement of Laredo which was founded in 1755 by the Spaniard Don Tomás Sánchez in the northern part of the Rio Grande. Early in 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo divided the territory attached to Laredo between the United States and Mexico. Nuevo Laredo was founded on May 15,1848, by seventeen Laredo families who wished to remain Mexican and they identified with Mexico, its history, and its cultural customs, and decided to keep their Mexican citizenship. The founders of Nuevo Laredo even took them the bones of their ancestors so they would continue to rest in Mexican ground. As a border town, Nuevo Laredo is known for its war in which drug cartels compete for control of the drug trade into the United States. Nuevo Laredo is a lucrative drug corridor because of the volume of trucks that pass through the area. As of 2012, Los Zetas are thought to be Mexicos largest criminal organization, drug violence involving the Sinaloa and Gulf Cartels escalated in 2003, when the city was controlled by the Gulf Cartel. 2012 has seen a series of mass murder attacks in the city between the Sinaloa Cartel and Gulf Cartel on one side and Los Zetas on the other. Nuevo Laredo is located in the tip of Tamaulipas on the west end of the Rio Grande Plains. Rio Grande is the source that supplies its citizens with water. El Coyote Creek supplies Nuevo Laredos only natural lake El Laguito, the area consists of a few hills and flat land covered with grass, oak, and mesquite

Japanese immigration to Mexico began in the late 19th century, to found coffee growing plantations in the state of …

Japanese Mexican youths in Monterrey

Enomoto Takeaki, founder of the Japanese colony in Chiapas

Japanese immigrant workers at the mine of Cananea, Sonora in the 1910s.

Kingo Nonaka was a combat medic during the Mexican Revolution and later a documentary photographer of Tijuana. Nonaka along with other Japanese living in the Northwest were forced to move to the center of the country during WWII.

There is a significant Roma population in Mexico, most being the descendants of past migrants. According to data …

"La Gitana" on the obverse of the five peso note in circulation between 1937 and 1970. On the reverse was the Monumento a la Independencia. There was speculation over the woman's identity, however the image is based on a stock engraving titled The Ideal Head of an Algerian Girl.