one of the most important national holidays in Kenya, observed on December 12. The holiday formally marks the date of the country’s admittance in 1964 into the Commonwealth as a republic and takes its name from the Swahili word jamhuri (“republic”); December 12 is also the date when Kenya obtained its independence from Gre...

country in East Africa famed for its scenic landscapes and vast wildlife preserves. Its Indian Ocean coast provided historically important ports by which goods from Arabian and Asian traders have entered the continent for many centuries. Along that coast, which holds some of the finest beaches in Africa, are predominantly Muslim Swahili cities such as Mombasa,...

East African country situated just south of the Equator. Tanzania was formed as a sovereign state in 1964 through the union of the theretofore separate states of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Mainland Tanganyika covers more than 99 percent of the combined territories’ total area. Mafia Island is administered from the mainland, while Zanz...

country in east-central Africa. About the size of Great Britain, Uganda is populated by dozens of ethnic groups. The English language and Christianity help unite these diverse peoples, who come together in the cosmopolitan capital of Kampala, a verdant city whose plan includes dozens of small parks and public gardens and a scenic promenade along the shore of Lake Victor...

easternmost country of Africa, on the Horn of Africa. It extends from just south of the Equator northward to the Gulf of Aden and occupies an important geopolitical position between sub-Saharan Africa and the countries of Arabia and southwestern Asia. The capital, Mogadishu, is located...

any house or open area of prayer in Islam. The Arabic word masjid means “a place of prostration” to God, and the same word is used in Persian, Urdu, and Turkish. Two main types of mosques can be distinguished: the masjid jāmiʿ, or “collective mosque,” a large state-controlled mosque that is the centre of community worship and the site of Friday prayer services; and smaller mosques op...

...ibn ʿAbd al-Malik (reigned 715–717), who made it the administrative capital of Palestine, replacing nearby Lod (Lydda). He built marketplaces, fortifications, and, above all, the White Mosque (Al-Jāmiʿ al-Abyaḍ). Only ruins of these remain, but the minaret of the White Mosque, the so-called White Tower, 89 feet (27 m) tall, added by the Mamlūk sultan......

...It is a valuable record of the scenes and events that he witnessed. He also wrote more than a dozen treatises expounding the doctrines of the Ismāʿīlīs, among them the Jāmiʿ al-ḥikmatayn (“Union of the Two Wisdoms”), in which he attempted to harmonize Ismāʿīlī theology and Greek philosophy.......

Mosul contains many ancient buildings, some dating from the 13th century. Those include the Great Mosque, with its leaning minaret, the Red Mosque, the mosque of Nabī Jarjīs (St. George), several Christian churches, and various Muslim shrines and mausoleums. Since World War II (1939–45) the city has been enlarged in area several times by new construction. Most striking has......

His canonical collection Al-Jāmiʿ al-ṣaḥīḥ (“The Sound Collections”) includes every spoken tradition that had ever been used to support a legal decision, as well as material relating to theological questions, to religious practice, and to popular belief and custom. Of special interest in this work are the author’s critical remarks on......

The most authentic reports were gathered into collections of Ḥadīth, accounts of the Prophet’s sayings and actions. The best-authenticated reports became part of two collections, both called the Ṣaḥīḥ, compiled by al-Bukhārī and Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, which together are the second most important source......

...in order to build mosques. This gave many of Ahmadabad’s mosques and tombs a Hindu flavour in their form and decoration. The dense “forest” of 260 richly carved columns within the Jāmiʿ Masjid (Great Mosque), which was completed in 1423, recalls the hall of a Hindu temple. At the mosque’s entrance is the domed tomb of Aḥmad Shah (1441), and on the road......

...of dwellings as well as lakes, marble palaces, mosques, gold-topped temples, and other buildings; however, few of those remain. Among the extant structures are the marble-domed tomb and the nearby Great Mosque (Jāmiʿ Masjid; completed 1454) of Hoshang Shah, both notable examples of Pashtun architecture. Another group of buildings just to the north includes the Jahaz Mahal. The glory......

mosque in Old Delhi, India, constructed in 1650–56 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān, a noted patron of Islamic architecture whose most famous work is the Taj Mahal, in Agra. Jama Masjid, now the second largest mosque on the Indian subcontinent, is also an impressive ...

The city is crossed by numerous ravines, one of which separates the old city (south) from the new city (north); bridges and embankments connect the two. Etawah contains the 16th-century Jāmiʿ Masjid (Great Mosque), built on high ground from the ruins of old Hindu buildings. There is also a ruined 15th-century fort, surrounded by Hindu temples. The city has important cotton- and......

The most imposing of the buildings at Fatehpur Sikri is the Great Mosque, the Jāmiʿ Masjid, which served as a model for later congregational mosques built by the Mughals. The mosque’s southern entrance, a massive gateway called the Buland Darwaza (Victory Gate), gives a feeling of immense strength and height, an impression emphasized by the steepness of the flight of steps by which it......

The town caters to tourists who visit its 17th-century Hindu monuments as well as a large mosque (Jāmiʿ Masjid) built by Tippu Sultan. Daria Daulat Bagh (1784)—Tippu’s elaborate summer palace, with murals of processions and battle scenes—is just east of the town centre. Nearby Lal Bagh (“Red Garden”) contains the mausoleum where two sultans are interred.......

...of dwellings as well as lakes, marble palaces, mosques, gold-topped temples, and other buildings; however, few of those remain. Among the extant structures are the marble-domed tomb and the nearby Great Mosque (Jāmiʿ Masjid; completed 1454) of Hoshang Shah, both notable examples of Pashtun architecture. Another group of buildings just to the north includes the Jahaz Mahal. The glory......

regional organization of Arab states in the Middle East, formed in Cairo on March 22, 1945. The founding member states were Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. Other members are Libya (1953); Sudan (1956); Tunisia and Morocco (1958); Kuwait (1961); Algeria (1962); Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (1971); Mauritania (1973); Somalia (1974...

regional organization of Arab states in the Middle East, formed in Cairo on March 22, 1945. The founding member states were Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. Other members are Libya (1953); Sudan (1956); Tunisia and Morocco (1958); Kuwait (1961); Algeria (1962); Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (1971); Mauritania (1973); Somalia (1974...

Indian physician and nationalist who was a member of the Foundation Committee of Jamia Millia Islamia, a prominent Islamic university established in 1920 in Delhi. The institution’s formation, in which Ansari was heavily involved, was based on nationalist rejection of British colonial rule....

residential and affiliating university located in Lahore, Pakistan. Originally Indian, Punjab was founded in 1882 to take on some of the colleges then affiliated with the University of Calcutta, whose jurisdiction included most of northern India and parts of Burma (Myanmar). After the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the university in Lahore relinquished its colleges on Indian territory, which then b...

chief centre of Islamic and Arabic learning in the world, centred on the mosque of that name in the medieval quarter of Cairo, Egypt. It was founded by the Shīʿite (specifically, the Ismāʿīlī sect) Fāṭimids in 970 ce and was formally organized by 988. Its name may allude ...

...al-Aʿlā Mawdūdī (Maududi), commands a great deal of support among the urban lower-middle classes (as well as having great influence abroad). Two other religious parties, the Assembly of Islamic Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Islām) and the Assembly of Pakistani Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Pakistan), have strong......

...urban lower-middle classes (as well as having great influence abroad). Two other religious parties, the Assembly of Islamic Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Islām) and the Assembly of Pakistani Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Pakistan), have strong centres of support, the former in Karachi and the latter in the rural areas of the Khyber......

...meal. In 2007 Oliver began hosting Jamie at Home, a show that focused on urban gardening and the preparation of homegrown produce. Three years later Jamie Oliver’s Food Revolution aired in the United States. The six-episode program, which chronicled his efforts to improve the eating habits of people in Huntington, West Virginia, won an......

Among British scholars the historical outlook took an important step forward in 1808 in the work of John Jamieson on the language of Scotland. Because he did not need to consider the “classical purity” of the language, he included quotations of humble origin; in his Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, his use of “mean” sources marked a turning......

...also established missions in New Zealand, the Anglican church remained the largest church. It consists of one province divided into several dioceses. In June 1990 in Dunedin, New Zealand, Penelope Jamieson became the first female Anglican bishop to head a diocese. The seat of the primate is in Christchurch....

In Medina, on the other hand, idealized love poetry was the vogue; its invention is attributed to Jamīl (died 701), of the tribe ʿUdhrah, “whose members die when they love.” The names of some of these “martyrs of love,” together with the names of their beloveds, were preserved and eventually became proverbial expressions of the tremendous force of true love.......

...or “gentle song.” Her house was the most brilliant literary salon of Medina, and most of the famous musicians of the town came under her tutelage. Also famed were the female musician Jamīla, around whom clustered musicians, poets, and dignitaries; the male musician Ṭuways, who, attracted by the melodies sung by Persian slaves, imitated their style; and......

...is characterized by extreme swings of mood, from exhilaration to depression, and has been particularly associated with artists, writers, musicians, and entrepreneurs. The American psychiatrist Kay Jamison suggested that, although most people who have this disorder are debilitated by it, there may be ways in which the extreme energy and expansiveness of a moderate manic state may contribute......

Arab economic organization established in June 1957 by a resolution of the Arab Economic Council of the Arab League. Its first meeting was held in 1964. Members include Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Mauritania, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Somalia, Sudan, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen....

...in the country. Founded in 1965, the party soon split into two factions, known as the People’s (Khalq) and Banner (Parcham) parties. Another was a conservative religious organization known as the Islamic Society (Jamʿiyyat-e Eslāmī), which was founded by a number of religiously minded individuals, including members of the University of Kabul faculty of religion, in 1971. The......

in electronics, broadcasting a strong signal that overrides or obscures a target signal. Jamming of radio and television stations broadcasting from beyond borders may be carried out by a country that does not wish its citizens to receive programs from abroad. In military activities, jamming is frequently employed to confuse enemy radar or communications. The techniques of jammi...

city, winter capital of Jammu and Kashmir state, northern India. It lies in the southwestern part of the state along the Tawi River, south of Srinagar (the state’s summer capital), and to the north is the Siwalik Range....

state of India, located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the vicinity of the Karakoram and westernmost Himalayan mountain ranges. The state is part of the larger region of Kashmir, which has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since the part...

regional political party in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, northwestern India. In October 1932 the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference, the precursor of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (JKNC), was founded at Srinagar by Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah. It was rechristened as the JKNC on June 11, 1939....

ancient city of Palestine (now Israel) lying about 15 miles (24 km) south of Tel Aviv–Yafo and 4 miles (6 km) from the Mediterranean Sea. Settled by Philistines, Jabneh came into Jewish hands in the time of Uzziah in the 8th century bc. Judas Maccabeus (d. 161 bc) attacked the harbour of Jabneh in his anger at the inhabitants’ hostility. On the destru...

...such sacred writings are studied to find the revealed word of God, a settled delimiting of the writings—i.e., a canon—must be selected. In the last decade of the 1st century, the Synod of Jamnia (Jabneh), in Palestine, fixed the canon of the Bible for Judaism, which, following a long period of flux and fluidity and controversy about certain of its books, Christians came to......

...at age five. After briefly studying painting in Madrid, he concentrated on an acting career. In 1992 he received much attention—especially from women—for his work in Jamón, jamón, in which he played an underwear model hired to romance a factory worker. Three years later he proved he was more than a sex symbol by winning a Goya Award (Spain’s......

...On the 10th day of the Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the month of the hajj, they each throw seven small stones at Jamrat al-ʿAqabah—one of three stone towers (jamrahs) located in the valley of Minā—which is identified by tradition as the site where the patriarch Abraham stoned Satan. On the 11th, 12th, and 13th of the month, the......

...the Eastern Plains). Each successive ridge of hills to the east rises higher than the one before; the low Deotamura Range is followed by the Artharamura, Langtarai, and Sakhan Tlang ranges. The Jamrai Tlang Mountains, 46 miles (74 km) in length, have the highest peak, Betling Sib (3,280 feet [1,000 metres])....

...Most Muslims, however, attempt to imitate the pilgrimage as completed by Muhammad. On the 10th day of the Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the month of the hajj, they each throw seven small stones at Jamrat al-ʿAqabah—one of three stone towers (jamrahs) located in the valley of Minā—which is identified by tradition as the site where the......

town in the Khyber Agency of Peshawar Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan, lying 1,512 feet (461 metres) above sea level at the entrance to the Khyber Pass. It is connected by road and rail with Peshawar and with Landi Kotal through the pass by the Afghan border. Noted for its fort, built with 10-foot- (3-metre-) thick walls c. 1836 by the Sikh Hari Singh Nalwa, one of Ranjit Si...

län (county) of western Sweden, on the Norwegian border. It takes in the traditional landskap (provinces) of Jämtland and Härjedalen. The land rises in the west to 5,780 feet (1,762 metres) but falls to below 1,500 feet in the east. It is drained by the rivers Ljungan, Indalsälven, Ångermanälven, and Ljusnan; Storsjön is the largest of its many lakes. The region ar...

...to have had nothing else to offer; yet, in exchange, Toghril promised to reunite Temüjin’s scattered people, and he is said to have redeemed his promise by furnishing 20,000 men and persuading Jamuka, a boyhood friend of Temüjin’s, to supply an army as well. The contrast between Temüjin’s destitution and the huge army furnished by his allies is hard to explain, and no authority......

major river of Central and South Asia. It flows some 1,800 miles (2,900 km) from its source in the Himalayas to its confluence with the Ganges (Ganga) River, after which the mingled waters of the two rivers empty into the Bay of Bengal....

...law, long called for by activists, that would establish a national citizen’s ombudsman to investigate corruption. Hazare and his associates, however, believed that the legislation, called the Jan Lokpal Bill (or Citizen’s Ombudsman Bill), did not give the ombudsman enough powers to make it effective. Activists wanted the ombudsman to be able to investigate corruption at all levels. In......

island, part of the Kingdom of Norway, in the Greenland Sea of the Arctic Ocean, about 300 mi (500 km) east of Greenland. It is approximately 35 mi long and 9 mi across at its widest point, with an area of 144 sq mi (373 sq km). It is the peak of a submarine volcanic ridge, and Beerenberg volcano (7,470 ft [2,277 m]), the last major eruption of which was in 1732, forms the Nord-Jan, the northeast...

...and skill in arranging compromise, and in less than a decade the delicate balance between the throne, the nobility, and the church hierarchy was upset. In a conflict with the church, represented by Jan of Jenštein, archbishop of Prague, the king achieved temporary success; the archbishop resigned and died in Rome (1400). The nobility’s dissatisfaction with Wenceslas’s regime was serious;......

...during that period or he did not accept such commissions for the decade. At the same time, he embarked on a number of extremely ambitious etchings, such as the portrait (1647) of his friend Jan Six (1618–1700) and especially the Hundred Guilder Print, a large (unfinished) print with episodes from chapter 19 of The Gospel According to Matthew....

count of Hainaut (1280–1304) and of the Dutch provinces of Holland and Zeeland (1299–1304), who united the counties and prevented the northward expansion of the house of Dampierre, the counts of Flanders....

...as John Dryden, John Milton, Alexander Pope, and Samuel Johnson during a period of imprisonment in 1794–96. Further, he introduced the historical novel to Poland with his three-volume Jan z Tęczyna (1825; “Jan of Tęczyn”), which was influenced by the Scottish novelist Sir Walter Scott....

April 17, 1918Dibrugarh, Assam, British IndiaJune 21, 2012Berkeley, Calif.Indian photographer who documented the Bengal famine of 1943 and other significant events in Indian history, in addition to photographing Indian political leaders and tribal peoples. Janah studied at St. Xavier’s Coll...

Contemporary literature is represented by T. Janakiraman, who writes novels, short stories, and plays with themes from urban Tamil middle-class family life; Jayakanthan, a sharp and passionate writer, with a tendency to shock his readers; and L.S. Ramatirthan, probably the finest stylist at work in Tamil today, who started by writing in English....

...writings, such as those of the first Sikh Gurū, Nānak (late 15th and early 16th centuries), are in Old Hindi rather than true Punjabi. The first work identifiable as Punjabi is the Janam-sākhī, a 16th-century biography of Gurū Nānak by Bala. In 1604, Arjun, the fifth Gurū of the Sikhs, collected the poems of Nānak and others into what is......

...made the party even more vulnerable to opposition parties, including the right-wing Bharatiya Janata (“Indian People’s”) Party (BJP), headed by Lal Krishna Advani, and V.P. Singh’s new Janata Dal (JD; “People’s Party”) coalition. In the general elections held in November, Gandhi barely managed to retain his own Lok Sabha seat, as the Congress (I) Party, winning only 193......

...the largest single block of party faithful in the Lok Sabha; however, Advani’s BJP support also lined up against Singh. The smallest new party bloc in the Lok Sabha belonged to Shekhar, whose Janata Dal (S)—the S stood for Socialist—gained the support of Gandhi and thus came to be invited by President Ramaswamy Venkataraman to serve as prime minister before the end of 1990.......

...1967 the BJS gained a substantial foothold in the Hindi-speaking regions of northern India. Ten years later the party, led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, joined three other political parties to form the Janata Party and took over the reins of government. Plagued by factionalism and internal disputes, however, the government collapsed in July 1979. The BJP was formally established in 1980, following.....

...1967 the BJS gained a substantial foothold in the Hindi-speaking regions of northern India. Ten years later the party, led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, joined three other political parties to form the Janata Party and took over the reins of government. Plagued by factionalism and internal disputes, however, the government collapsed in July 1979. The BJP was formally established in 1980, following.....

...shared power in Sri Lanka’s complex political system until April, continued to dominate national politics. In January, Kumaratunga’s People’s Alliance (PA) struck an accord with the left-wing People’s Liberation Front (JVP), and on February 7 Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for an election on April 2. The LTTE expressed dismay, and the Colombo stock exchange fell 10.5%,......

...near Aden in the south. In the past, coal and iron deposits supported a small-scale steel industry (primarily for the manufacture of swords and daggers, particularly the janbiyyah, a symbolic, largely ornamental dagger worn by many Yemeni men). There are deposits of copper, as well as some evidence of sulfur, lead, zinc, nickel, silver, and gold, and......

...at Hugo Ball’s Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, during one of the meetings held in 1916 by a group of young artists and war resisters that included Jean Arp, Richard Hülsenbeck, Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Emmy Hennings. When a paper knife inserted into a French-German dictionary pointed to the French word dada (“hobby-horse”), it was......

Sept. 27, 1921Vac, near Budapest, Hung.Jan. 31, 2014BudapestHungarian filmmaker who won international acclaim and a nomination for the Palme d’Or at the 1966 Cannes film festival for Szegenylegenyek (1965; The Round-Up), an examination of political authoritarianism set in mid-...

The Jandial temple, set up on an artificial mound, closely resembles the Classical temples of Greece. Its Ionic columns and pilasters are composed of massive blocks of sandstone. Built in the Scythio-Parthian period, it is probably the temple described by Philostratus in his Life of Apollonius of Tyana. Though the Jandial temple is not Buddhist, the Jaulian remains are.......

...Roman Pontiff can and should reconcile himself to and agree with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization,” sought its authority in the pope’s refusal, in Jamdudum Cernimus, to have any dealings with the new Italian kingdom. On both scores, the Syllabus undermined the liberal Catholics’ position, for it destroyed their following......

...with its work-shy title character, surprisingly also ran in the Russian daily newspaper Izvestiya. A notably original strip was Norman Pett’s Jane (1932–59), published in the Daily Mirror. It used an artful striptease theme and had great popularity with servicemen during World War II. The mildly......

Chicago-based women’s collective that provided more than 11,000 safe albeit illegal abortions between 1969 and 1973. The underground clinic, a small branch of the Chicago Women’s Liberation Union, strove to strengthen the pro-choice movement and abolish expensive, unsafe, and callously performed abortion services. They did so by providing medically sound, low-cost abortions at $...

One of the most innovative posters of the Art Nouveau movement was artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec’s 1893 poster of the dancer Jane Avril, who was then performing at the Jardin de Paris. In this poster and others like it, Toulouse-Lautrec captured the lively atmosphere by reducing imagery to simple flat shapes that convey an expression of the performance and environment. Although......

...Forever and a Day (1943). The intergenerational family saga featured an all-star cast of British performers. The well-mounted adaptation (1943) of Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre starred Joan Fontaine, Orson Welles (whose hand hovers over this atmospheric production), and Margaret O’Brien; Elizabeth Taylor appeared in an uncredited role. In......

Lollapalooza was begun in 1991 by Jane’s Addiction leader Perry Farrell as a multicity venue for his band’s farewell tour. Farrell claimed that he chose the festival’s name—an archaic word meaning “extraordinarily impressive”—after he heard the word used in a Three Stooges film. Acts that played in that tour, which reached 20 cities across the United States and Canada,......

city, seat (1839) of Rock county, southern Wisconsin, U.S. It lies on the Rock River, about 15 miles (25 km) north of Beloit and 40 miles (65 km) southeast of Madison. Settled in 1835 and named for a pioneer, Henry F. Janes, it developed as a trading centre for the surrounding agricultural region and as a manufacturing (agricultural equipmen...