5 NATIONAL SECURITY Air and Missile Defence of the Republic of Poland Maj. Gen. Bogusław PACEK, Assoc. Prof, Poland Czechoslovak and Czech Republic Weapon Production and Economic Security in Historic Perspective Prof. MA., Miroslav KRČ, CSc., Dipl.Eng. Aleš OLEJNÍČEK, Ph.D. Czech Republic SECURITY AND DEFENCE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The Canon Provider starts his career General Józef Dwernicki and the Cavalry Battle at Stoczek (14 February 1831) Sebastian BARTOS, Ph.D., Assistant Professor Dr. John P. DUNN, Professor, Valdosta State University, USA The Luftwaffe s Campaigns in Poland and the West : A Case Study of Handling Innovation in Wartime James S. CORUM, Ph.D., Baltic Defence College TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT History of the Air Forces of the Czech Republic and its status in the 21 st century Dipl.Eng. Lenka BECHOVÁ, Czech Republic Possibilities of Maintenance in Field Conditions Design J. FURCH, J. GLOS, Czech Republic The analysis of the acoustic wave velocity on the target localization accuracy Dip.Eng. Pavel MELŠA, Dipl.Eng. Lenka BECHOVÁ, Czech Republic REPORTS AND REVIEWS Nations at War; Why do Nations Participate in War and Why Not? - a report Col. Assoc. Prof. Dariusz KOZERAWSKI, Poland

6 INTRODUCTION

7

8 I am delighted to introduce the inaugural issue of Security and Defence Quarterly a new scientific journal, which opens another series of the National Defence University publications. Security and Defence Quarterly was formed on the initiative of the National Defence University in Poland, so as to create opportunities to intensify the exchange of scientific ideas between the universities affiliated to the Central European Forum on Military Education (CEFME). The Scientific Committee of the magazine consists of the Heads of the partner universities. It is the committee s intention to focus on the defence and security issues of Central Europe, both from the perspective of particular countries in the region, as well as the European and international perspectives. Although Security and Defence Quarterly is dedicated predominantly to the scientists who represent CEFME universities, the journal publishes scientific articles whose contents can be of interest to a wide range of scientists, scholars, researchers and policy makers; thus, to develop and enhance the flow of information between both academic and non-academic institutions, we also encourage the publication of scientific articles by specialists from other countries and institutions on the issues of security and defence on a state, regional and global scale. Therefore, I would like to welcome local and international researchers and universities to contribute to the future publications of this journal. I would also like to thank everybody who took an active part in the creation process of the project - all the contributors for their articles in this inaugural volume, as well as the editors for their dedication to making the first issue of Security and Defence Quarterly a success. Hoping that the ideas shared in the journal will contribute to the raising awareness of security and defence as well as to promoting peace and stability, I wish you a pleasant read. Rector-Commandant National Defence University Warsaw, Poland Maj. Gen. Bogusław PACEK, Assoc. Prof

18 Theoretical and Methodological ViewS of definition of Conflicts Radoslav IVANČÍK General Staff of the Slovak Armed Forces, Bratislava, Slovakia Pavel NEČAS Armed Forces Academy of Gen. M. R. Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia Abstract Of all the other terms, conflict is a basic concept that appears most frequently in this article. The term has a Latin origin and is derived from the word of conflictus. It covers a range of meanings, including a fight, collision, clash, dispute, rift, misunderstanding, contradiction, or a tendency to run into each other or collide with each other. In essence, it is an activity, undertaken by individuals or groups, aimed or directed against another individual or group owing to inconsistencies in their needs, differences in their interests, and tendencies of discord in their relationships, whether for political, religious, ethnic, racial or any other reasons. The concept of conflict has accompanied the existence of mankind and society from its inception and has been observable in the entire course of human history. Key words: Conflict, security, research, definition, classification. Introduction The profound changes unfolding in the world after the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s have since then been accompanied, mainly under the influence of globalization in the early 21st century, by an unprecedented acceleration in the development of human society. Unlike in the past, today s profound qualitative changes in all walks of life manifest themselves already over the lifetime of a single 17

19 generation. With the increasing dynamics of the economic, social, scientific, technical and technological development, the potential for changes is so great that not only every nation state but also the entire international community must now pay continuous attention to analysing such developmental tendencies, and this is particularly true in the sphere of national and international security. Unfortunately, the fundamental changes in the global security environment, emerging after the fall of bipolarity, have brought, besides their uncontested positives, also numerous negatives. While the positive side of this process has become manifested mainly in and through the removal of the threat of war between two antagonistic military-political groupings the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Warsaw Pact, as well as the threat of a possible nuclear missile apocalypse, the negative side has increasingly manifested itself through diverse forms of terrorism, asymmetric security threats and an increased prevalence of crises and conflicts throughout the world. The tremendous changes in the global security environment, combined with massive transformations in the political, economic, social, environmental and technological fields, have provoked in the world not only integrating but also disintegrating tendencies and efforts, spearheaded by a number of countries and groups. Despite this, a classic conventional conflict between two states has become extremely rare in recent years. After the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Iron Curtain, war has turned out to be an outdated phenomenon especially in the Euro-Atlantic region. Besides political, economic, social and other factors, one of the main drivers behind this is the fact that the new line-up of sophisticated weapons, weapon systems and military technologies is so overwhelmingly powerful and destructive that the weapons are rendered almost impossible to use in warfare. This mostly relates to weapons of mass destruction and conventional high precision weapons of enormous destructive power, the use of which by the belligerent parties would result in far-reaching consequences. Indeed, this is one reason why such military tools are no longer exploited in pursuit of national interests and as solutions to potential conflicts. Nevertheless, conflicts continue to be waged outside the Euro-Atlantic area, whereas most of them have taken place or are still taking place in a region referred to by Francis Fukuyama as historical. This is a region where the fundamental questions pertaining to the existence and functioning of individual countries have 18

20 not been resolved yet, and where the willingness to wield swords and to sacrifice human lives in pursuit of one s goals still prevails. Therefore, the primary goal of the authors of the article, grounded on publicly accessible information, data and facts whilst using standard methods of scientific research, is to provide readers with a view of the definition of conflicts. Research on Conflicts The initial research in the field of conflicts was mainly geared towards the interrelations between peace and war and the rifts and contradictions of class struggle, etc. Today research done on conflicts combines the research results of peace and war studies with international relations, political science, sociology, economics, defence and security, and international law. Each of these disciplines approaches the field of conflicts from its specific theoretical insight and, therefore, there exist numerous different definitions of conflict as well as methods of analysis. While some analyses deal more with the military aspects of conflict, and some with political and economic ones, others are more concerned with the sociological and geographical aspects. In their research studies and publications, individual researchers and authors also deal with different facets of conflicts and treat them from different angles, placing emphasis on a variety of conflict-related factors and elements. Despite this, it may be generally stated that conflict is conceived as a phenomenon composed of mutually interconnected elements actors, issues, dynamics and contexts. It follows from the above that the definition and categorization of conflict is a very demanding and complex process. To delineate the empirical field of research, it is necessary to establish criteria for defining conflict, so that we can distinguish which phenomenon should be included or excluded. This must also be done to ensure consistency in the use of terms. The definition of conflict should be wide enough to not only apply to a particular historical period or type of conflict but also to include all conflicts. At the same time, it should be accurate for the purpose of data collection and the possibility of delineating a specific conflict in time and space by different researchers. In examining conflicts, it is imperative to adopt an impartial approach towards 19

21 the actual definition of conflict. Wasmuth summarizes four conditions for an impartial investigation of conflicts, as follows: a) conflict should be viewed as a social fact and should not be confused with its form, b) the definition of conflict should not contain any limiting assessment so as not to pre-determine the conflict s analysis, c) in defining conflict, it is essential to avoid unnecessarily narrowing down the definition by contextual characteristics, so as not to reduce the complexity of the entire concept, d) the definition of conflict should not confuse cause with effect. Definitions of Conflicts According to Wallensteen, conflict is more than a particular conduct or action and, therefore, must contain a certain element of incompatibility, i.e. serious disagreement between a minimum of two parties whose needs cannot be met at the same time. The incompatibility of their positions lies in the lack of limited resources. Hence, it is a condition in which adversaries perceive conflict as a zerosum game. The basic elements of conflict entail actors, activity, and incompatibility of interests. These determine Wallensteen s definition of conflict as being a social situation in which a minimum of two parties strive to acquire at the same moment in time an available set of scarce resources, whereby the parties efforts encompass a wide range of actions from making threats to waging war. Resources are not conceived as mere economic wealth but rather all that which an actor is interested in, for instance, justice, observance of moral principles, wielding of political power, territorial control, etc. A similar definition was formulated by Bartos and Wehr, who define conflict as a situation in which actors use conflict behaviour against each other to attain incompatible goals and/or to express their hostility. Their military analysis is more concentrated on analysing the incompatibility of objectives, development of conflict behaviour and hostility as the underlying causes of conflict. The supplied definitions of conflict are seen from different perspectives and emphasise different elements. Nevertheless, each of them is based on the existence of at least two 20

22 actors, among whom there is a certain incompatibility of interests and who are actively committed to actions furthering their goals. According to Weber, society is made up of groups that differentiate themselves from others in their status. Given the different status, they also have different interests that cause conflicts. Consequently, any hope of eliminating conflicts from human society with regard to the existence of different status groups is illusionary and, therefore, we need to become reconciled with the eternal struggle of one group fighting against another. In this context, however, it should be noted that the interests of groups and individuals are not only contradictory but also identical, insofar as they serve as a basis for attainment of balance and consensus. Simmel bases his examination of conflicts on the postulate that egoistic groups that exist in society are not isolated from each other; on the contrary, they are interwoven by a myriad of invisible threads. In his opinion, it is the pursuance of group interests that mitigates conflicts and fosters the common grounds that can ensure societal stability. Despite this, conflicts are inseparably interwoven into the fabric of everyday life of society. The ideas of Simmel were further developed by Coser, who, in his work, focused on the analysis of the conflict s positive functions. According to him, conflict may contribute to either sustainability or adaptation of existing social relations or structures. It is right in Coser s work that we observe one of the central themes of conflict theory, whereby socially dangerous are not the conflicts themselves but rather the absence of rules to contain them. The presence of conflicts is a natural state of society. Not the presence but the absence of conflicts in society was, in his opinion, an abnormal phenomenon. Coser asserts that conflict is a struggle over values or claims to specific status, or struggle over power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure, or eliminate one s rivals. He maintains that the essence of conflict consists in the clash of values and interests of different social groups. Waissová defines conflict as a social reality, where two parties stand against each other (individuals, groups or states) with a different view of a particular fact or with divergent (opposing) interests. According to Krejčí, conflict represents a situation, whereby a specific group (tribe, ethnicity, political party, a coalition of parties, an alliance of states) or an individual is in deliberate conflict with one 21

23 or more groups or individuals. According to him, conflict is a struggle over values pertaining to status or an attempt to preserve or enhance one s power, in which the aims of the parties to the conflict are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their opponents. The theory of conflict is also elaborated on by Dahrendorf, who focuses on clarifying the sources of conflict. He claims that the principal source of conflict is not a clash of economic nature but rather the political rivalry among social groups in an attempt to gain a share of power and the chance to make decisions about those who have been excluded from sharing power. For international relations, a conflict that enfolds in the sphere of politics becomes the centre of attention a political conflict, which is, according to Pfetsch and Rohloff, conceived as a clash of overlapping interests, built around national values and themes (such as independence, right to self-determination, border and territory, distribution of domestic and international power, access to power, etc.). It must last for a certain period of time, have a specific extent, and involve at least two parties (states, groups of states, organized groups or organizations) determined to further their own interests and achieve victory, whereas one of the parties must be an organized state. Tools possibly employed in the course of conflict resolution entail negotiation, threat, pressure, passive and active termination of conflict, use of physical force and war. In spite of the fact that it is a relatively complex definition of conflict, it fails to include conflicts enfolding in the political sphere, for example, conflicts between two non-state actors, nor does it take account of economic interests such as motivation for instigating a conflict. A broader definition of conflict is offered by the Heidelberger Institut für Internationale Konfliktforschung. It views political conflict as a clash of interests (different positions) in relation to national values. Such conflict has a particular time interval and seriousness (extent), and involves at least two parties (organized groups, states, groups of states, organizations) determined to pursue their intentions and achieve their goals. Political conflicts may assume violent or nonviolent forms. According to the Peace Research Institute Oslo, the criterion being applied in this case presupposes the use of armed violence, aimed at furthering the actor s position in the conflict, with an inevitable consequence of the emergence of victims. The Uppsala Conflict Data Program views an armed conflict as an 22

24 incompatibility related to a government/territory, while the use of armed force between two actors, of which at least one is a government actor, results in a 25 battle-related death threshold. The most extreme form of armed conflict is war. To avoid any confusion between these concepts, it is necessary to determine the difference between armed conflict and war, because every war is an armed conflict but not every conflict will result in war. In this case, Vasquez adopts Bull s definition. Accordingly, war represents organized violence carried out by political units against each other just because it may be simple yet broad enough to encompass different types of actors and the subject of the conflict, whilst at the same time including an element of organized violence, not a random activity, but rather a premeditated and collective action. Conclusions For the purpose of accomplishing the objectives of this article, conflict is conceived as a situation in which at least one party systematically uses armed violence, with the aim of furthering its political and/or other interests. This definition incorporates the aspect of systematicity, i.e. organized, purposeful and continuous use of armed force, which distinguishes armed conflict from organized crime, or coincidental pathological phenomena. At the same time, it includes an element of violence in achieving one s goals. References [1] Jurčák, V., Budveselová, A Asymetric Threats in Operation of International Crisis Management. In Wspólczesne problemy zarzaddzania bezpieczeństwem w aspekcie zagroźeń w Polsce, na Slowacji i Ukrainie. Katowice: Wyźsa Szkola Zarzadzania Marketingowego i Jezyków Obcych, pp ISBN [2] Kazanský, R Security policy Theory of Conflicts. Banská Bystrica: Faculty of Political Sciences and International Relations of MBU, p. ISBN [3] Hofreiter, L., Šimko, J Sources and Areas of Conflict in Today s World. Liptovský Mikuláš: Armed Forces Academy, p. ISBN

26 SEEKING PEACE AND DEVELOPMENT: CHINA GOES HAND IN HAND WITH THE WORLD Xu Jian Ambassador of the Republic of China I was asked by Mr. Rector NDU Warsaw to talk about China s perspective on contemporary security challenges. It is certain that different countries have different understanding on that issue. Here I am going to share some of my views. Peace and development are the two themes of the world. That was a statement in 1985 by Mr. Deng Xiaoping, chief architect of China s opening up and reform as well as the modernization drive. Even though the world is undergoing profound and complex changes, the theme of the times remain unchanged, i.e. peace and development. Today the trend towards a multi-polar world and economic globalization has gathered momentum. There has been greater cultural diversity and an information society is fast emerging. New breakthroughs are in the making in the scientific and technological revolution. Global cooperation is expanding at multiple levels and on all fronts. Emerging market economies and developing countries are gaining in overall strength, balancing the international forces in favor of the maintenance of world peace. We are pleased to see that more favorable conditions for the maintenance of overall stability in the world are on the increase. Yet at the same time, the world is still far from being peaceful and is facing many challenges. 25

27 We still face a tough situation regarding traditional security challenges. Disputes over territories, ethnic strife and religion have led to numerous regional conflicts. Some hot-spot issues are still unsolved. In countries like Iraq, Afghanistan, and others, there are civilian losses almost everyday. Palestine-Israel peace talks still have a long way to go. The situation in West Asia and North Africa is still volatile. As for non-traditional security challenges, economic crisis, natural disasters, climate change, cyber security, energy security, and some others are also on the rise. The European debt crisis led to the rising unemployment rate, intensified social conflicts and the weary recovery of the economy. In 2012, a total economic loss of US$160 billion and a loss of more than 10,000 human lives in the world were caused by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, etc. More incidents of cyber security were reported on the front pages of newspapers and hacker attacks are increased. Numerous greenhouse gas emission leads to global warming and some low-lying coastal areas or island countries are facing the danger of being submerged. Phenomenon like terrorism, weapon proliferation, spread of diseases, transnational crimes, drug smuggling, and illegal immigration are increasingly affecting the world peace and stability. For the causes of the above-mentioned critical problems, the reasons are as follows. Firstly, it is because of the old international political and economic order, which is unequal, unfair and unreasonable. Since modern times, the oppression and exploitation of developing countries by imperialism and colonialism have left behind many historical issues, which caused some regional conflicts long unsolved and provided a breeding ground for terrorism. Secondly, it is because of the outdated cold war mentality. Regardless of other countries security needs, some countries only focus in pursuing their own maximized interests, imagining threats and provoking confrontation. And thirdly, it is because of the economic development model built at the price of environment. In the economic development, the short-term interest overrode the long-term interests of mankind. Human development is thus greatly endangered by the severe environmental problems such as serious air pollution, water crisis, forest damage, less biodiversity, global warming, and so on. 26

28 As globalization deepens, countries are interdependent with their interests more closely entwined than ever before. Global challenges become the main threats, and common security issues get more prominent. We are living in a world that all countries are interconnected in times of both peace and danger. No single country can face all the challenges alone. We have to join our efforts in pursuing a peaceful route of development for the whole mankind. To achieve peaceful development, it is a prerequisite that we build up equality and mutual trust as the first thing. Countries, big or small, strong or weak, rich or poor, are all equal members of the international community. Only by treating each other equally and enhance mutual trust steadily can we overcome differences, resolve the contradiction and estrangement, achieve mutual understanding and live together peacefully and amiably among nations and peoples. Only by doing so, a more solid basis for world peace and stability can be secured. Take the China-US relation as an example. Being the largest developing country and the largest developed one respectively, China and the United States have different social systems. But since its founding, China has been advocating the five principles of peaceful coexistence with equality and mutual trust as the core. We have been all the time seeking the deepening of the mutual trust based on mutual respect in handling the bilateral relation with the US, which is developing steadily from confrontation to dialogue and cooperation. We then reached consensus on co-building a new type of relationship between major countries that features mutual respect and mutual benefit. At this point, I would like to mention the contribution of Poland. Between 1958 and 1970, China and the United States, without diplomatic relations then, held dozens of ambassadorial talks in Lazienki Park. The talks served as the chief means of communication between China and US at that time and played an important role in building mutual trust between the two countries. Last year, the unveiling ceremony for a plaque commemorating the historic China-US talks at Myslewicki Palace was held in Lazienki Park and his Excellency Mr.Komorowski, President of Poland, attended the event. The Myslewicki Palace thus became the symbol and embodiment of friendship among China, US and Poland. Another example is the China-Russia relation. Being the largest neighboring countries, China and Russia had gone through twists and turns in the bilateral ties. Thanks to joint efforts from both countries, a comprehensive strategic 27

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