Sample records for photon energy spectrum

Two methods for identifying the flux of high-energyphotons as emitted by ball lightning are proposed. It is assumed that ball lightning has a core consisting of oscillating clouds of electrons and totally ionized ions. A search for tooth enamel changes due to the influence of high-energyphotons from ball lightning to reveal the influence of such photons on human beings is also proposed. This diagnostic measure should be taken if after observation of ball lightning symptoms similar to those of radiation sickness arise or ball lightning causes heavy burns.

Tritium is a radioactive hydrogen isotope that is typically produced via neutron interaction with heavy water (D2O), producing tritiated water (DTO). As a result of this, tritium accounts for roughly a third of all occupational exposures at a CANDU type nuclear power plant. This identifies a need to study the biological effects associated with tritium (and low energy electrons in general). However, there are complications regarding the dosimetry of tritium, as well as difficulties in handling and using tritium for the purposes of biophysics experiments. To avoid these difficulties, an experiment has been proposed using photons to mimic the beta decay energyspectrum of tritium. This would allow simulation of the radiation properties of tritium, so that a surrogate photon source can be used for biophysics experiments. Through experimental and computational means, this work has explored the use of characteristic x-rays of various materials to modify the output spectrum of an x-ray source, such that it mimics the tritium beta decay spectrum. Additionally, the resultant primary electron spectrum generated in water from an x-ray source was simulated. The results from this research have indicated that the use of characteristic x-rays is not a viable method for simulating a tritium source. Also, the primary electron spectrum generated in water shows some promise for simulating tritium exposure, however further work must be done to investigate the slowing down electron spectrum. Keywords: Tritium, MCNP, low energy electrons, biophysics, characteristic x-rays.

Abstract Aim The aim of this study is to quantify the influence of the photonenergyspectrum of brachytherapy sources on task group No. 43 (TG-43) dosimetric parameters. Background Different photon spectra are used for a specific radionuclide in Monte Carlo simulations of brachytherapy sources. Materials and methods MCNPX code was used to simulate 125I, 103Pd, 169Yb, and 192Ir brachytherapy sources. Air kerma strength per activity, dose rate constant, radial dose function, and two dimensional (2D) anisotropy functions were calculated and isodose curves were plotted for three different photonenergy spectra. The references for photonenergy spectra were: published papers, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), and National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC). The data calculated by these photonenergy spectra were compared. Results Dose rate constant values showed a maximum difference of 24.07% for 103Pd source with different photonenergy spectra. Radial dose function values based on different spectra were relatively the same. 2D anisotropy function values showed minor differences in most of distances and angles. There was not any detectable difference between the isodose contours. Conclusions Dosimetric parameters obtained with different photon spectra were relatively the same, however it is suggested that more accurate and updated photonenergy spectra be used in Monte Carlo simulations. This would allow for calculation of reliable dosimetric data for source modeling and calculation in brachytherapy treatment planning systems. PMID:27247558

In this paper, we model the production and acceleration of thermal runaway electrons during negative corona flash stages of stepping lightning leaders and the corresponding terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) or negative cloud-to-ground (-CG) lightning-produced X-ray bursts in a unified fashion. We show how the source photonspectrum and fluence depend on the potential drop formed in the lightning leader tip region during corona flash and how the X-ray burst spectrum progressively converges toward typical TGF spectrum as the potential drop increases. Additionally, we show that the number of streamers produced in a negative corona flash, the source electron energy distribution function, the corresponding number of photons, and the photonenergy distribution and transport through the atmosphere up to low-orbit satellite altitudes exhibit a very strong dependence on this potential drop. This leads to a threshold effect causing X-rays produced by leaders with potentials lower than those producing typical TGFs extremely unlikely to be detected by low-orbit satellites. Moreover, from the number of photons in X-ray bursts produced by -CGs estimated from ground observations, we show that the proportionality between the number of thermal runaway electrons and the square of the potential drop in the leader tip region during negative corona flash proposed earlier leads to typical photon fluences on the order of 1 ph/cm2 at an altitude of 500 km and a radial distance of 200 km for intracloud lightning discharges producing 300 MV potential drops, which is consistent with observations of TGF fluences and spectra from satellites.

We use 429 fb{sup -1} of e{sup +}e{sup -} collision data collected at the {Upsilon}(4S) resonance with the BABAR detector to measure the radiative transition rate of b {yields} s{gamma} with a sum of 38 exclusive final states. The inclusive branching fraction with a minimum photonenergy of 1.9 GeV is found to be {Beta}({bar B} {yields} Xs{gamma}) = (3.29 {+-} 0.19 {+-} 0.48) x 10{sup -4} where the first uncertainty is statistical and the second is systematic. We also measure the first and second moments of the photonenergyspectrum and extract the best fit values for the heavy-quark parameters, m{sub b} and {mu}{sub {pi}}{sup 2}, in the kinetic and shape function models.

We present a measurement of the branching fraction and photon-energyspectrum for the decay B→Xsγ using data from the BABAR experiment. The data sample corresponds to an integrated luminosity of 210fb-1, from which approximately 680 000 B Bmacr events are tagged by a fully reconstructed hadronic decay of one of the B mesons. In the decay of the second B meson, an isolated high-energyphoton is identified. We measure B(B→Xsγ)=(3.66±0.85stat±0.60syst)×10-4 for photonenergies Eγ above 1.9 GeV in the B rest frame. From the measured spectrum we calculate the first and second moments for different minimum photonenergies, which are used to extract the heavy-quark parameters mb and μπ2. In addition, measurements of the direct CP asymmetry and isospin asymmetry are presented.

We present a measurement of the branching fraction and photonenergyspectrum for the decay B {yields} X{sub s}{gamma} using data from the BABAR experiment. The data sample corresponds to an integrated luminosity of 210 fb{sup -1}, from which approximately 680,000 B{bar B} events are tagged by a fully reconstructed hadronic decay of one of the B mesons. In the decay of the second B meson, an isolated high-energyphoton is identified. We measure {Beta}(B {yields} X{sub s}{gamma}) = (3.66 {+-} 0.85{sub stat} {+-} 0.60{sub syst}) x 10{sup -4} for photonenergies E{sub {gamma}} above 1.9 GeV in the B rest frame. From the measured spectrum we calculate the first and second moments for different minimum photonenergies, which are used to extract the heavy-quark parameters m{sub b} and {mu}{sub {pi}}{sup 2}. In addition, measurements of the direct CP asymmetry and isospin asymmetry are presented.

Zero kinetic energy photoelectron spectra from the electronic ground state of hydrogen sulfide are obtained via nonresonant two-photon ionization with complete rotational resolution in the ion. The two-photon spectra are compared with those recently obtained via one-photon VUV photoionization. The spectra show a close similarity, but type a transitions in the two-photon spectra are twice as intense.

Recently, digital mammography with a photon counting silicon detector has been developed. With the aim of reducing the exposure dose, we have proposed a new mammography system that uses a cadmium telluride series photon counting detector. In addition, we also propose to use a high energy X-ray spectrum with a tungsten anode. The purpose of this study was assessed that the effectiveness of the high X-ray energyspectrum in terms of image quality using a Monte Carlo simulation. The proposed photon counting system with the high energy X-ray is compared to a conventional flat panel detector system with a Mo/Rh spectrum. The contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) is calculated from simulation images with the use of breast phantoms. The breast model phantoms differed by glandularity and thickness, which were determined from Japanese clinical mammograms. We found that the CNR values were higher in the proposed system than in the conventional system. The number of photons incident on the detector was larger in the proposed system, so that the noise values was lower in comparison with the conventional system. Therefore, the high energyspectrum yielded the same CNR as using the conventional spectrum while allowing a considerable dose reduction to the breast.

The internal bremsstrahlung (IB) spectral photon distribution, produced by soft beta particles of (35)S (Wmax=164keV), in the photonenergy region of 1-100keV, is measured by using a Si(Li) detector, having high energy resolution and efficiency at low energy region. The measured spectral IB photon distribution is compared with KUB theory and Coulomb corrected IB theories given by Nilsson, and Lewis and Ford. After applying the necessary corrections, the experimental and theoretical IB spectral photon distributions are compared in terms of the number of IB photon of energy k per moc(2) per unit photon yield. In the low energy region (below 10keV), the experimental results are in agreement with all the theories. However, in photonenergy region of 10-50keV, experimental results are in agreement with Coulomb corrected Nilsson theory only, within the experimental errors. Further, beyond 50keV, the Nilsson theory is more close to the experimental results than the KUB, and the Lewis and Ford theories. Hence, the Nilsson theory is more accurate than the other theories given by KUB and Lewis and Ford, particularly at a high energy end. The experimental results reported here with Si(Li) detector are free from number of ambiguities in earlier measurements reported with NaI(Tl) and HPGe detectors. The present results are indicating a relook into the theoretical considerations, given by different theories, while taking into account the Coulomb corrections for predicting the IB spectrum, particularly at high photonenergy region. PMID:25103247

The effective dose of combined spectrumenergy neutrons and high energyspectrum gamma-rays in A-bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki has long been a matter of discussion. The reason is largely due to the paucity of biological data for high energyphotons, particularly for those with an energy of tens of MeV. To circumvent this problem, a mathematical formalism was developed for the photonenergy dependency of chromosomal effectiveness by reviewing a large number of data sets published in the literature on dicentric chromosome formation in human lymphocytes. The chromosomal effectiveness was expressed by a simple multiparametric function of photonenergy, which made it possible to estimate the effective dose of spectrumenergyphotons and differential evaluation in the field of mixed neutron and gamma-ray exposure with an internal reference radiation. The effective dose of reactor-produced spectrumenergy neutrons was insensitive to the fine structure of the energy distribution and was accessible by a generalized formula applicable to the A-bomb neutrons. Energy spectra of all sources of A-bomb gamma-rays at different tissue depths were simulated by a Monte Carlo calculation applied on an ICRU sphere. Using kerma-weighted chromosomal effectiveness of A-bomb spectrumenergyphotons, the effective dose of A-bomb neutrons was determined, where the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of neutrons was expressed by a dose-dependent variable RBE, RBE(gamma, D (n)), against A-bomb gamma-rays as an internal reference radiation. When the newly estimated variable RBE(gamma, D (n)) was applied to the chromosome data of A-bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the city difference was completely eliminated. The revised effective dose was about 35% larger in Hiroshima, 19% larger in Nagasaki and 26% larger for the combined cohort compared with that based on a constant RBE of 10. Since the differences are significantly large, the proposed effective dose might have an

A RF spectrum analyzer with high performance and unique capabilities that traditional all-electronic spectrum analyzers do not exhibit is demonstrated. The system is based on photonic signal processing techniques that have enabled us to demonstrate the spectral analysis of a 1.5 GHz bandwidth with a 1.4 ms update time and a resolution bandwidth of 31 kHz. We observed a 100% probability of intercept for all signals, including short pulses, during the measurement window. The spectrum analyzer operated over the 0.5 to 2.0 GHz range and exhibited a spur-free dynamic range of 42 dB. The potential applications of such a system are extensive and include: detection and location of transient electromagnetic signals, spectrum monitoring for adaptive communications such as spectrum-sensing cognitive radio, and battlefield spectrum management.

The photonspectrum in B→Xsγ decay, where Xs is any strange hadronic state, is studied using a data sample of (382.8±4.2)×106 e+e-→Υ(4S)→BB¯ events collected by the BABAR experiment at the PEP-II collider. The spectrum is used to measure the branching fraction B(B→Xsγ)=(3.21±0.15±0.29±0.08)×10-4 and the first, second, and third moments ⟨Eγ⟩=2.267±0.019±0.032±0.003GeV, ⟨(Eγ-⟨Eγ⟩)2⟩=0.0484±0.0053±0.0077±0.0005GeV2, and ⟨(Eγ-⟨Eγ⟩)3⟩=-0.0048±0.0011±0.0011±0.0004GeV3, for the range Eγ>1.8GeV, where Eγ is the photonenergy in the B-meson rest frame. Results are also presented for narrower Eγ ranges. In addition, the direct CP asymmetry ACP(B→Xs+dγ) is measured to be 0.057±0.063. The spectrum itself is also unfolded to the B-meson rest frame; that is the frame in which theoretical predictions for its shape are made.

I review the physic prospects for high energyphotonphoton colliders, emphasizing results presented at the LBL Gamma Gamma Collider Workshop. Advantages and difficulties are reported for studies of QCD, the electroweak gauge sector, supersymmetry, and electroweak symmetry breaking.

Two independent groups have published intrinsic dosimetry parameters for the recently introduced OptiSeed{sup 103} interstitial brachytherapy source which contains {sup 103}Pd encapsulated by a novel polymer shell. The dose rate constant ({lambda}) reported by the two groups, however, differed by more than 6% and there is currently no AAPM recommended consensus value for this source in clinical dosimetry. The aim of this work was to perform an independent determination of {lambda} for the OptiSeed{sup 103} source using a recently developed photon spectrometry technique. Three OptiSeed{sup 103} sources (model 1032P) with known air-kerma strength were used in this study. The photonenergyspectrum emitted along the radial direction on the source's bisector was measured in air using a high-resolution intrinsic germanium spectrometer designed and established for low-energy brachytherapy source spectrometry. The dose rate constant of each source was determined from its emitted energyspectrum and the spatial distribution of radioactivity in the source. Unlike other sources made with traditional titanium encapsulation, the photons emitted by the OptiSeed{sup 103} sources exhibited only slight spectral hardening, yielding a relative energyspectrum closer to that emitted by bare {sup 103}Pd. The dose rate constant determined by the photon spectrometry technique for water was 0.664{+-}0.025 cGy h{sup -1} U{sup -1}. This value agreed, within experimental uncertainties, with the Monte Carlo-calculated value ({sub MC}{lambda}) of 0.665{+-}0.014 cGy h{sup -1} U{sup -1} and the TLD-measured value (with a Monte Carlo-calculated solid-phantom-to-water conversion factor) of 0.675{+-}0.051 cGy h{sup -1} U{sup -1} reported by Wang and Hertel [Appl. Radiat. Isot. 63, 311-321 (2005)]. However, it differed by -6.7% from the {sub MC}{lambda} of 0.712{+-}0.043 cGy h{sup -1} U{sup -1} reported by Bernard and Vynckier [Phys. Med. Biol. 50, 1493-1504 (2005)]. The results obtained in this

The collisions of high energyphotons produced at a electron-positron collider provide a comprehensive laboratory for testing QCD, electroweak interactions and extensions of the standard model. The luminosity and energy of the colliding photons produced by back-scattering laser beams is expected to be comparable to that of the primary e{sup +}e{sup {minus}} collisions. In this overview, we shall focus on tests of electroweak theory in photon-photon annihilation, particularly {gamma}{gamma} {yields} W{sup +}W{sup {minus}}, {gamma}{gamma} {yields} Higgs bosons, and higher-order loop processes, such as {gamma}{gamma} {yields} {gamma}{gamma}, Z{gamma} and ZZ. Since each photon can be resolved into a W{sup +}W{sup minus} pair, high energyphoton-photon collisions can also provide a remarkably background-free laboratory for studying WW collisions and annihilation. We also review high energy {gamma}{gamma} tests of quantum chromodynamics, such as the scaling of the photon structure function, t{bar t} production, mini-jet processes, and diffractive reactions.

Spontaneous parametric down conversion is an important process in quantum optics, in which blue photons of a high-intensity laser beam are converted into pairs of lower energy infrared photons inside a non-linear optical crystal. Our goal is to measure the wavelength spectrum of these photons using a single photon counting module and a high resolution optical emission spectrometer. A preliminary step towards merging these two systems is to find out the minimum photon flux required to achieve an adequate signal to noise ratio with the spectrometer. Additionally, we need to determine how much signal is lost in the proposed connector between the two setups. We will present our findings from the characterization of the spectrometer, as well as dark counts from the single photon detector and measurements of the polarization properties of the down-converted photons. We will discuss how we plan to determine the wavelength spectrum of the down-converted photons.

Highly beamed relativistic e ±-pair energy distributions result in double photon collisions of the beamed gamma rays from TeV blazars at cosmological distances with the isotropically distributed extragalactic background light (EBL) in the intergalactic medium. The typical energies k 0 ~= 10-7 in units of mec 2 of the EBL are more than 10 orders of magnitude smaller than the observed gamma-ray energies k 1 >= 107. Using the limit k 0 Lt k 1, we demonstrate that the angular distribution of the generated pairs in the lab frame is highly beamed in the direction of the initial gamma-ray photons. For the astrophysically important case of power-law distributions of the emitted gamma-ray beam up to the maximum energy M interacting with Wien-type N(k 0)vpropkq 0exp (- k 0/Θ) soft photon distributions with total number density N 0, we calculate analytical approximations for the electron production spectrum. For distant objects with luminosity distances dL Gt r 0 = (σ T N 0)-1 = 0.49N -1 0 Mpc (with Thomson cross section σ T ), the implied large values of the optical depth τ0 = dL /r 0 indicate that the electron production spectra differ at energies inside and outside the interval [(Θln τ0)-1, τ0/Θ], given the maximum gamma-ray energy M Gt Θ-1. In the case M Gt Θ-1, the production spectrum is strongly peaked near E ~= Θ-1, being exponentially reduced at small energies and decreasing with the steep power law vpropE -1 - p up to the maximum energy E = M - (1/2).

A large optical Stark effect has been observed in the two-photonspectrum X(2)Pi yields A(2)Sigma(+)_ in NO. It is explained as a near-resonant process in which the upper state of the two-photon transition is perturbed by interactions with higher-lying electronic states coupled by the laser field. A theoretical analysis is presented along with coupling parameters determined from ab initio wave functions. The synthetic spectrum reproduces the major experimental features.

A spectrum sliced microwave photonic signal processor structure, which is all-fiber based and features simplicity, together with the ability to realize tunability, reconfigurability, bipolar taps, and multiple-tap rf filtering, is presented. It is based on thermally controlled optical slicing filters induced into two linearly chirped fiber Bragg gratings. Experimental results demonstrate the realization of versatile microwave photonic filters with frequency tunable, reconfiguration, and bipolar-tap generation capabilities. PMID:21124570

The suggestion is made that the energyspectrum from point sources such as galactic black hole candidates (GBHC) and active galactic nuclei (AGN) is universal on the average, irrespective of the species of the emitted particles, photons, nucleons, or others. The similarity between the observed energy spectra of cosmic rays, gamma-rays, and X-rays is discussed. In other words, the existing data for gamma-rays and X-rays seem to support the prediction. The expected data from the Gamma Ray Observatory are to provide a further test.

The energyspectrum of a H{sup +} beam generated within the HERMES III accelerator is calculated from dosimetry data to refine future experiments. Multiple layers of radiochromic film are exposed to the beam. A graphic user interface was written in MATLAB to align the film images and calculate the beam's dose depth profile. Singular value regularization is used to stabilize the unfolding and provide the H{sup +} beam's energyspectrum. The beam was found to have major contributions from 1 MeV and 8.5 MeV protons. The HERMES III accelerator is typically used as a pulsed photon source to experimentally obtain photon impulse response of systems due to high energyphotons. A series of experiments were performed to explore the use of Hermes III to generate an intense pulsed proton beam. Knowing the beam energyspectrum allows for greater precision in experiment predictions and beam model verification.

We calculate the electron energyspectrum of ionization by a high-energyphoton, accompanied by creation of an e{sup -}e{sup +} pair. The total cross section of the process is also obtained. The asymptotics of the cross section does not depend on the photonenergy. At the photonenergies exceeding a certain value {omega}{sub 0} this appears to be the dominant mechanism of formation of the ions. The dependence of {omega}{sub 0} on the value of nuclear charge is obtained. Our results are consistent with experimental data.

We investigate the cosmology of massive electrodynamics and explore the possibility whether the massive photon could provide an explanation of dark energy. The action is given by the scalar-vector-tensor theory of gravity, which is obtained by nonminimal coupling of the massive Stueckelberg QED with gravity; its cosmological consequences are studied by paying particular attention to the role of photon mass. We find that the theory allows for cosmological evolution where the radiation- and matter-dominated epochs are followed by a long period of virtually constant dark energy that closely mimics a Λ CDM model. We also find that the main source of the current acceleration is provided by the nonvanishing photon mass governed by the relation Λ ˜m2 . A detailed numerical analysis shows that the nonvanishing photon mass on the order of ˜1 0-34 eV is consistent with current observations. This magnitude is far less than the most stringent limit on the photon mass available so far, which is on the order of m ≤1 0-27 eV .

The paper is devoted to the theoretical investigation of two-photon excitation of atom in a discrete energyspectrum by ultrashort electromagnetic pulses of femto- and subfemtosecond ranges of durations. An analytical expression for the total probability of the process is derived. Numerical simulations are made for hydrogen and sodium atoms. It is shown that the total probability of the process is nonlinear function of pulse duration and character of this function depends strongly on the frequency detuning of pulse carrier frequency from two-photon resonance.

Recent claims of a low energy enhancement in the photon strength function of {sup 96}Mo are investigated. Using the DANCE detector the gamma-ray spectra following resonance neutron capture was measured. The spectrum fitting method was used to indirectly extract a photon strength function from the gamma-ray spectra. No strong low energy enhancement in the photon strength function was found.

The spectrum of gamma energy absorption in the NaI crystal (scintillation detector) is the interaction result of gamma photon with NaI crystal, and it’s associated with the photon gamma energy incoming to the detector. Through a simulation approach, we can perform an early observation of gamma energy absorption spectrum in a scintillator crystal detector (NaI) before the experiment conducted. In this paper, we present a simulation model result of gamma energy absorption spectrum for energy 100-700 keV (i.e. 297 keV, 400 keV and 662 keV). This simulation developed based on the concept of photon beam point source distribution and photon cross section interaction with the Monte Carlo method. Our computational code has been successfully predicting the multiple energy peaks absorption spectrum, which derived from multiple photonenergy sources.

The physics program at TJNAF includes fundamental experiments with polarized photon beam in few GeV energy range. Development of the Polarimeter for use in Hall B experiments is the subject of present abstract. We have proposed to take advantage of the recent progress in silicon micro strip detectors for measurement of the geometry and angle correlation in electron positron pair production from an amorphous converter. A detailed analysis of the setup including MC simulation shows an experimental asymmetry σ_allel/σ_⊥ ~ 1.7 in a wide range of the photonenergies. This asymmetry value is confirmed by our experimental results obtained using 100 percent polarized 40 MeV γ rays at Duke FEL.

At a fixed storage ring energy, the energy of the harmonics of an undulator can be shifted or ''tuned'' by changing the magnet gap of the device. The possible photonenergy interval spanned in this way depends on the undulator period, minimum closed gap, minimum acceptable photon intensity and storage ring energy. The minimum magnet gap depends directly on the stay clear particle beam aperture required for storage ring operation. The tunability of undulators planned for the Advanced Photon Source with first harmonic photonenergies in the range of 5 to 20 keV are discussed. The results of an analysis used to optimize the APS ring energy is presented and tunability contours and intensity parameters are presented for two typical classes of devices.

The spectrum of diffuse extragalactic background radiation (DEBRA) at wavelengths from 10(exp 5) to 10(exp -24) cm is presented in a coherent fashion. Each wavelength region, from the radio to ultra-high energyphotons and cosmic rays, is treated both separately and as part of the grand unified photonspectrum (GUPS). A discussion of, and references to, the relevant literature for each wavelength region is included. This review should provide a useful tool for those interested in diffuse backgrounds, the epoch of galaxy formation, astrophysical/cosmological constraints to particle properties, exotic early Universe processes, and many other astrophysical and cosmological enterprises. As a worked example, researchers derive the cosmological constraints to an unstable-neutrino spies (with arbitrary branching ratio to a radiative decay mode) that follow from the GUPS.

Absorption of photons in a metal is varied up to the photonenergyspectrum. For example, larger wavelength photons generally can be more easily absorbed when they pass through an absorber while shorter ones tend to penetrate. This spectral variation of photonenergy absorption takes place angularly due to the angular variation of the synchrotron radiation power. In this note, the effects of photonspectrum have been investigated for the thermal analysis of crotch absorbers. In addition, the effects of variable thermal conductivity have also been investigated. The heat generation due to the photonenergy deposition diffuses throughout the metal with the thermal conductivity k which is dependent on the temperature field. This temperature dependence of the conductivity results in a non-linear heat conduction equation. This note presents both effects of the photonspectrum and the variable thermal conductivity on the temperature distribution for inclined crotch absorbers. A finite difference program was written and the calculation results were compared with the previous analytical solution which assumed constant conductivity and absorption coefficient.

At first this paper summarizes the current situation and historical development of the spectrum research, the difficulties and demand background. Then it introduces the research status of quantum spectrum and research ideas of energy distribution in quantum spectrum. We explain the concept of quantum spectrum, the difference between quantum spectrum and spectrum. We elaborate energy distribution in quantum spectrum from three aspects, which are representation, feature and mechanism of quantum spectrumenergy distribution. Finally we describe the application of monochrome quantum spectrum about imaging and detection aspects and give an overview of the quantum spectrum. Based on above research results we continue to study and achieve the detection of multi-spectral imaging, which provide the technical basis for the application. We try access to an advanced stage of quantum spectrum study as soon as possible.

The standard theory of electromagnetic cascades onto a photon background predicts a quasiuniversal shape for the resulting nonthermal photonspectrum. This has been applied to very disparate fields, including nonthermal big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN). However, once the energy of the injected photons falls below the pair-production threshold the spectral shape is much harder, a fact that has been overlooked in past literature. This loophole may have important phenomenological consequences, since it generically alters the BBN bounds on nonthermal relics; for instance, it allows us to reopen the possibility of purely electromagnetic solutions to the so-called "cosmological lithium problem," which were thought to be excluded by other cosmological constraints. We show this with a proof-of-principle example and a simple particle physics model, compared with previous literature. PMID:25793793

The fission track technique for detecting uranium 235 was used in conjunction with a mechanical time-of-flight spectrometer to measure the energyspectrum in the region 1 eV to 1 keV of material sputtered from a 93% enriched U-235 foil by 80 keV Ar-40(+) ions. The spectrum was found to exhibit a peak in the region 2-4 eV and to decrease approximately as E to the -1.77 power for E is approximately greater than 100 eV. The design, construction and resolution of the mechanical spectrometer are discussed and comparisons are made between the data and the predictions of the ramdom collision cascade model of sputtering.

A new photon tagging spectrometer was built at the superconducting Darmstadt electron linear accelerator (S-DALINAC). The system is designed for tagging photons in an energy range from 6 to 20 MeV with the emphasis on best possible energy resolution and intensity. The absolute energy resolution of photons at 10 MeV is expected to be about 20 keV. With scintillating fibres as focal-plane detectors a maximum rate of tagged photons of 104 keV -1s -1 will be achieved. Detailed design studies including Monte Carlo simulations are presented, as well as results for the measured tagged photonenergy profile of the system realized so far. This photon-tagging facility will allow to determine the photon absorption cross-sections as a function of excitation energy and to study the decay patterns of nuclear photo-excitations in great detail.

Our current fossil-fuel-based system is causing potentially catastrophic changes to our planet. The quest for renewable, nonpolluting sources of energy requires us to understand, predict, and ultimately control matter and energy at the electronic, atomic, and molecular levels. Light-source facilities - the synchrotrons of today and the next-generation light sources of tomorrow - are the scientific tools of choice for exploring the electronic and atomic structure of matter. As such, these photon-science facilities are uniquely positioned to jump-start a global revolution in renewable and carbonneutral energy technologies. In these pages, we outline and illustrate through examples from our nation's light sources possible scientific directions for addressing these profound yet urgent challenges.

The physics program at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility includes fundamental experiments with polarized photon beams in the GeV energy range. To measure the degree of photon polarization, a photon polarimeter based on the detection of e^+e^- pairs has been developed for use in Hall B experiments. Recent progress in silicon micro-strip detectors allows for the measurement of the angle correlation in electron-positron pair production by high energyphotons incident on an amorphous converter. Theoretical calculations of the pair production process show an asymmetry σ_allel/σ_⊥ ~ 1.7 in a wide range of photonenergies. Experimental results obtained from 40 MeV photons at the Duke-FEL and 300 MeV photons from the Brookhaven-LEGS facility using prototype polarimeters will be presented.

Still of current interest is the important role of single ionization with excitation compared to single ionization alone. The coupling between the electrons and the incoming photon is a single-particle operator. Thus, an excitation in addition to an ionization, leading to a so-called satellite line in a photoelectron spectrum, is entirely due to electron-electron interaction and probes the electron correlation in the ground and final state. Therefore the authors have undertaken the study of the intensity of helium satellites He{sup +}nl (n = 2 - 6) relative to the main photoline (n = 1) as a function of photonenergy at photonenergies well above threshold up to 900 eV. From these results they could calculate the partial cross-sections of the helium satellites. In order to test the consistency of their satellite-to-1s ratios with published double-to-single photoionization ratios, the authors calculated the double-to-single photoionization ratio from their measured ratios using the theoretical energy-distribution curves of Chang and Poe and Le Rouzo and Dal Cappello which proved to be valid for photonenergies below 120 eV. These calculated double-to-single ionization ratios agree fairly well with recent ion measurements. In the lower photonenergy range the authors ratios agree better with the ratios of Doerner et al. while for higher photonenergies the agreement is better with the values of Levin et al.

We show that it is possible to have a topological phase in two-dimensional quasicrystals without any magnetic field applied, but instead introducing an artificial gauge field via dynamic modulation. This topological quasicrystal exhibits scatter-free unidirectional edge states that are extended along the system's perimeter, contrary to the states of an ordinary quasicrystal system, which are characterized by power-law decay. We find that the spectrum of this Floquet topological quasicrystal exhibits a rich fractal (self-similar) structure of topological "minigaps," manifesting an entirely new phenomenon: fractal topological systems. These topological minigaps form only when the system size is sufficiently large because their gapless edge states penetrate deep into the bulk. Hence, the topological structure emerges as a function of the system size, contrary to periodic systems where the topological phase can be completely characterized by the unit cell. We demonstrate the existence of this topological phase both by using a topological index (Bott index) and by studying the unidirectional transport of the gapless edge states and its robustness in the presence of defects. Our specific model is a Penrose lattice of helical optical waveguides—a photonic Floquet quasicrystal; however, we expect this new topological quasicrystal phase to be universal.

The physics program at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility includes fundamental experiments with polarized photon beams in the GeV energy range. To measure the degree of photon polarization, a photon polarimeter based on the detection of e^+e^- pairs has been developed for use in Hall B and was recently tested at the LEPS facility at SPring-8 in Japan. The use of silicon micro-strip detectors allows for the first time the measurement of the angle correlation in electron-positron pair production by high energyphotons incident on an amorphous converter. Theoretical calculations of the pair production process show an asymmetry σ_allel/σ_⊥ ~ 1.7 in a wide range of photonenergies. Experimental results from the measurement of the pair asymmetry using 2 GeV photons from the SPring-8 facility will be presented.

VIM solves the three-dimensional steady-state multiplication eigenvalue or fixed source neutron or photon (VIM3.0) transport problem using continuous energy-dependent nuclear data. It was designed for the analysis of fast critical experiments. In VIM3.0, the photon interactions i.e., pair production, coherent and incoherent scattering, and photoelectric events, and photon heating are tallied by group, region, and isotope.

This work was undertaken to provide basic physical data for use in both microdosimetry and dosimetry of high energyphotons and also in the neutron radiation field. Described is the formalism to determine the initial electron energy spectra in water irradiated by photons with energies up to 1 GeV. Calculations were performed with a Monte Carlo computer code, PHOEL-3, which is also described. The code treats explicitly the production of electron-positron pairs, Compton scattering, photoelectric absorption, and the emission of Auger electrons following the occurrence of K-shell vacancies in oxygen. The tables give directly the information needed to specify the absolute single-collision kerma in water, which approximates tissue, at each photonenergy. Results for continuous photonenergy spectra can be obtained by using linear interpolation with the tables. The conditions under which first-collision kerma approximate absorbed dose are discussed. A formula is given for estimating bremsstrahlung energy loss, one of the principal differences between kerma and absorbed dose in practical cases. A study has been carried out, on the use of cylindrical, energy-proportional pulse-height detector for determining microdosimetric quantities, as neutron fractional dose spectra, D (L), in the function of linear energy transfer (LET). In the present study the Hurst detector was used; this device satisfies the requirement of the Bragg-Gray principle. A Monte Carlo Method was developed to obtain the D(L) spectrum from a measured pulse-height spectrum H(h), and the knowledge of the distribution of recoil-particle track lenght, P(T) in the sensitive volume of the detector. These developed programs to find P(T) and D(L) are presented. The distribution of D(L) in LET were obtained using a known distribution of P(T) and the measured H(h) spectrum fromthe Cf-2 52 neutron source. All the results are discussed and the conclusions are presented.

Solar power production and solar energy storage are important research areas for development of technologies that can facilitate a transition to a future society independent of fossil fuel based energy sources. Devices for direct conversion of solar photons suffer from poor efficiencies due to spectrum losses, which are caused by energy mismatch between the optical absorption of the devices and the broadband irradiation provided by the sun. In this context, photon-upconversion technologies are becoming increasingly interesting since they might offer an efficient way of converting low energy solar energyphotons into higher energyphotons, ideal for solar power production and solar energy storage. This perspective discusses recent progress in triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) photon-upconversion systems and devices for solar energy applications. Furthermore, challenges with evaluation of the efficiency of TTA-photon-upconversion systems are discussed and a general approach for evaluation and comparison of existing systems is suggested. PMID:24733519

Recent claims of a low-energy enhancement in the photon strength function of {sup 96}Mo are investigated. Using the DANCE detector the gamma-ray spectra following resonance neutron capture was measured. The spectrum fitting method was used to indirectly extract a photon strength function from the gamma-ray spectra. No strong low energy enhancement in the photon strength function was found.

We review recent work on photonic-crystal fabrication using soft-lithography techniques. We consider applications of the resulting structures in energy-related areas such as lighting and solar-energy harvesting. In general, our aim is to introduce the reader to the concepts of photonic crystals, describe their history, development, and fabrication techniques and discuss a selection of energy-related applications.

The production of ultrahigh energyphotons, electrons and neutrinos as the decay products of pions produced in photomeson interactions between cosmic ray nucleons and the blackbody microwave background is discussed in terms of the resultant energy spectra of these particles. Simple asymptotic formulas are given for calculating the ultrahigh energyphotonspectrum predicted for the universal cosmic ray hypothesis and the resulting spectra are compared with those obtained previously by numerical means using a different propagation equation for the photons. Approximate analytic solutions for the photon spectra are given in terms of simple power-law energy functions and slowly varying logarithmic functions.

This brochure describes the NREL Spectrum of Clean Energy Innovation, which includes analysis and decision support, fundamental science, market relevant research, systems integration, testing and validation, commercialization and deployment. Through deep technical expertise and an unmatched breadth of capabilities, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) leads an integrated approach across the spectrum of renewable energy innovation. From scientific discovery to accelerating market deployment, NREL works in partnership with private industry to drive the transformation of our nation's energy systems. NREL integrates the entire spectrum of innovation, including fundamental science, market relevant research, systems integration, testing and validation, commercialization, and deployment. Our world-class analysis and decision support informs every point on the spectrum. The innovation process at NREL is inter-dependent and iterative. Many scientific breakthroughs begin in our own laboratories, but new ideas and technologies may come to NREL at any point along the innovation spectrum to be validated and refined for commercial use.

The varying low-energy contribution to the photon spectra at points within and around radiotherapy photon fields is associated with variations in the responses of non-water equivalent dosimeters and in the water-to-material dose conversion factors for tissues such as the red bone marrow. In addition, the presence of low-energyphotons in the photonspectrum enhances the RBE in general and in particular for the induction of second malignancies. The present study discusses the general rules valid for the low-energy spectral component of radiotherapeutic photon beams at points within and in the periphery of the treatment field, taking as an example the Siemens Primus linear accelerator at 6 MV and 15 MV. The photon spectra at these points and their typical variations due to the target system, attenuation, single and multiple Compton scattering, are described by the Monte Carlo method, using the code BEAMnrc/EGSnrc. A survey of the role of low energyphotons in the spectra within and around radiotherapy fields is presented. In addition to the spectra, some data compression has proven useful to support the overview of the behaviour of the low-energy component. A characteristic indicator of the presence of low-energyphotons is the dose fraction attributable to photons with energies not exceeding 200 keV, termed P(D)(200 keV). Its values are calculated for different depths and lateral positions within a water phantom. For a pencil beam of 6 or 15 MV primary photons in water, the radial distribution of P(D)(200 keV) is bellshaped, with a wide-ranging exponential tail of half value 6 to 7 cm. The P(D)(200 keV) value obtained on the central axis of a photon field shows an approximately proportional increase with field size. Out-of-field P(D)(200 keV) values are up to an order of magnitude higher than on the central axis for the same irradiation depth. The 2D pattern of P(D)(200 keV) for a radiotherapy field visualizes the regions, e.g. at the field margin, where changes of

Photon induced L3 X-ray measurements for Lα/Lℓ cross-section ratios in elements, 66 ⩽ Z ⩽ 83, at tuned photonenergies on synchrotron Beamline-16 at Indus-2, India have been used to study the effect of Coster-Kronig (CK) transitions and photonenergies on alignment of L3 vacancies. Certainty and reliability of the measurements were checked from comparison of measured Lα and Lℓ fluorescence cross-sections at E1 excitation with available theoretical/empirical/experimental values that required additional measurements for source, geometry and efficiency factor S0GɛLα/ℓ in the used set-up. Fall/rise trend of the ratios with energy for different Z's was found to resemble the off/on-set pattern of CK transitions as pointed out by Bambynek et al. and Campbell. Evaluated alignment parameter A2 values are very much within the limits, 0.05 energy for Dy, W, Pt, Hg and Bi resembles our previously reported theoretical patterns that lends mutual support for both current measurements and earlier theoretical results.

The energyspectrum of the C60 fullerene has been calculated in terms of the Shubin-Vonsovskii-Hubbard model using an approximation of static fluctuations. Based on the spectrum, the optical absorption bands at 4.84, 5.88, and 6.30 eV observed experimentally have been successfully explained. It has been concluded that the model used is applicable for the calculation of the energyspectrum and the energy properties of other nanosystems, such as fullerenes of higher orders, carbon nanotubes, and grafen planes.

Two-photon absorption induced polymerization provides a powerful method for the fabrication of intricate three-dimensional microstructures. Recently, Lucirin TPO-L was shown to be a photoinitiator with several advantageous properties for two-photon induced polymerization. Here we measure the two-photon absorption cross-section spectrum of Lucirin TPO-L, which presents a maximum of 1.2 GM at 610 nm. Despite its small two-photon absorption cross-section, it is possible to fabricate excellent microstructures by two-photon polymerization due to the high polymerization quantum yield of Lucirin TPO-L. These results indicate that optimization of the two-photon absorption cross-section is not the only material parameter to be considered when searching for new photoinitiators for microfabrication via two-photon absorption.

This dissertation is a detailed investigation of the fabrication, design, characterization, and understanding of physical principles of energy transduction in surface photonic crystals which are engineered for various applications. One-dimensional photonic crystals are engineered as optically tunable reflectance filters for lambda = 632.8 nm wavelength light by incorporating azobenzene liquid crystal dye molecules into the photonic crystal structure. Optical energy is transduced to accomplish mechanical work by exciting the dye molecules into different physical configurations, leading to changes in the optical properties of the dye molecules, namely their refractive index. This mechanism is used to tune the reflection resonance of the photonic crystal filter. The spectral and temporal optical tuning response of the photonic crystal filter due to excitation light at lambda = 532 nm is characterized. Modulation of the transmitted and reflected lambda = 632.8 nm light is achieved at microsecond time response. Two-dimensional photonic crystals are also investigated as reflectance filters for lambda = 532 nm wavelength light. Both optically tunable and static reflectance filters are studied. Again, azobenzene liquid crystal molecules are incorporated into the photonic crystal to achieve optical tuning of the reflectance wavelength. In this case, the lambda = 532 nm wavelength light is used for self-modulation. That is, the light serves both to optically tune the photonic crystal filter as well as to modulate its own reflection efficiency through the photonic crystal filter. Moreover, stacking of multiple photonic crystals into a single filter is studied for both static and optically tunable photonic crystal filters. It is shown that this approach improves the performance of the photonic crystal reflectance filter by increasing its optical density and its angular tolerance at the reflection wavelength of lambda = 532 nm. Additionally, surface photonic crystals are

The high-energy behavior of the total cross section for highly virtual photons, as predicted by the BFKL equation at next-to-leading order (NLO) in QCD, is discussed. The NLO BFKL predictions, improved by the BLM optimal scale setting, are in good agreement with recent OPAL and L3 data at CERN LEP2. NLO BFKL predictions for future linear colliders are presented.

The near-threshold photoelectron spectrum in a resonant two-photon ionization process is investigated using a nonperturbative method. The hydrogen atom is represented by a realistic model including an infinite number of Rydberg states converging at the threshold. When the threshold is crossed a typical two-peak structure of the spectrum is modified by cutting off part of the spectrum which may include one or even two peaks.

In a forced-dissipative barotropic model of the atmosphere on a spherical planet, by following mathematical techniques in (Thompson, P. D.: The equilibrium energyspectrum of randomly forced two-dimensional turbulence, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 30, 1593-1598, 1973) but applying them in a novel context of the discrete spectrum on a rotating sphere, the "minus 2" energyspectrum for wavenumbers much greater than a characteristic wavenumber of the baroclinic forcing has been obtained if the forcing is taken in the simplest and most fundamental form. Some observation-based atmospheric kinetic energy spectra, with their slopes lying between "minus 2" and "minus 3" laws, are discussed from the perspective of the deduced "minus 2" energyspectrum.

Using 88.9 million B Bmacr events collected by the BABAR detector at the Υ(4S), we measure the branching fraction for the radiative penguin process B→Xsγ from the sum of 38 exclusive final states. The inclusive branching fraction above a minimum photonenergy Eγ>1.9GeV is B(b→sγ)=(3.27±0.18(stat)-0.40+0.55(syst)-0.09+0.04(theory))×10-4. We also measure the isospin asymmetry between B-→Xs umacr γ and Bmacr 0→Xs dmacr γ to be Δ0-=-0.006±0.058(stat)±0.009(syst)±0.024( Bmacr 0/B-). The photonenergyspectrum is measured in the B rest frame, from which moments are derived for different values of the minimum photonenergy. We present fits to the photonspectrum and moments which give the heavy-quark parameters mb and μπ2. The fitted parameters are consistent with those obtained from semileptonic B→Xcℓν decays, and are useful inputs for the extraction of |Vub| from measurements of semileptonic B→Xuℓν decays.

The LHC opens a new kinematical regime at high energy, where several questions related to the description of the high-energy regime of the Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) remain without satisfactory answers. Some open questions are the search for non-q-bar q resonances, the determination of the spectrum of q-bar q states and the identification of states with anomalous {gamma}{gamma} couplings. A possible way to study these problems is the study of meson production in two-photon interactions. In this contribution we calculate the meson production in two-photon interactions at LHC energies considering proton - proton collisions and estimate the total cross section for the production of the mesons {pi}, a, f, {eta} and {chi}.

We extract the electrical conductivity σ0 of the quark gluon plasma (QGP) and study the effects of magnetic field and chiral anomaly on soft photon azimuthal anisotropy, v₂, based on the thermal photonspectrum at 0.4GeV < p⊥< 0.6GeV at the RHIC energy. As a basis for my analysis, we derive the behavior of retarded photon self-energy of a strongly interacting neutral plasma in hydrodynamic regime in the presence of magnetic field and chiral anomaly. By evolving the resulting soft thermal photon production rate over the realistic hydrodynamic background and comparing the results with the data from the PHENIX Collaboration, I found that the electrical conductivity at QGP temperature is in the range: 0.4 < σ₀/(e²T) < 1.1, which is comparable with recent studies on lattice. I also compare the contribution from the magnetic field and chiral anomaly to soft thermal photon v₂ with the data. I argue that at the CERN Large Hadron Collider, the chiral magnetic wave would give negative contribution to photon v₂.

We extract the electrical conductivity σ0 of the quark gluon plasma (QGP) and study the effects of magnetic field and chiral anomaly on soft photon azimuthal anisotropy, v₂, based on the thermal photonspectrum at 0.4GeV < p⊥< 0.6GeV at the RHIC energy. As a basis for my analysis, we derive the behavior of retarded photon self-energy of a strongly interacting neutral plasma in hydrodynamic regime in the presence of magnetic field and chiral anomaly. By evolving the resulting soft thermal photon production rate over the realistic hydrodynamic background and comparing the results with the data from the PHENIX Collaboration,more » I found that the electrical conductivity at QGP temperature is in the range: 0.4 < σ₀/(e²T) < 1.1, which is comparable with recent studies on lattice. I also compare the contribution from the magnetic field and chiral anomaly to soft thermal photon v₂ with the data. I argue that at the CERN Large Hadron Collider, the chiral magnetic wave would give negative contribution to photon v₂.« less

This paper is concerned with the rigorous analytical determination of the spectrum of the two-photon and the two-mode quantum Rabi models. To reach this goal, we exploit the hidden symmetries in these models by means of the unitary and similarity transformations in addition to the Bargmann-Fock space description. In each case, the purely quantum mechanical problem of the Rabi model studied is reduced to solutions for differential equations. This eventually gives a third-order differential equation for each of these models, which is reduced to a second-order differential equation by additional transformations. The analytical expressions of the wave functions describing the energy levels are obtained in terms of the confluent hypergeometric functions.

High energyphoton backscatter uses pair production to probe deep beneath surfaces with single side accessibility or to image thick, radiographically opaque objects. At the higher photonenergies needed to penetrate thick and/or highly attenuating objects, Compton backscatter becomes strongly forward peaked with relatively little backscatter flux. Furthermore, the downward energy shift of the backscattered photon makes it more susceptible to attenuation on its outbound path. Above 1.022 MeV, pair production is possible; at about 10 MeV, pari production crosses over Compton scatter as the dominant x-ray interaction mechanism. The backscattered photons can be hard x rays from the bremsstrahlung of the electrons and positrons or 0.511 MeV photons from the annihilation of the positron. Monte Carlo computer simulations of such a backscatter system were done to characterize the output signals and to optimize a high energy detector design. This paper touches on the physics of high energy backscatter imaging and describes at some length the detector design for tomographic and radiographic imaging.

Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) are bursts of high-energyphotons originating from the Earth's atmosphere in association with thunderstorm activity [e.g., Briggs et al., JGR, 118, 3805, 2013]. Additionally, X-ray bursts observed from the ground have been discovered to be produced by negative cloud-to-ground (-CG) lightning leaders in association with stepping processes [Dwyer et al., GRL, 32, L01803, 2005]. Using numerical modeling, it has been shown that the production of thermal runaway electrons by stepping lightning leaders and their further acceleration could explain the TGF spectrum for intracloud (IC) lightning potentials above ~100 MV [Xu et al., GRL, 39, L08801, 2012] and X-ray burst spectrum for -CG lightning potentials of ~5 MV [Xu et al., GRL, 41, 7406, 2014]. In this work, we address the physical processes leading to X-ray bursts from -CG discharges and TGFs produced by IC discharges in a unified fashion. We show how the leader-produced photonspectrum becomes harder with increasing lightning leader potential and how it progressively converges to typical photonspectrum associated with relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREAs) in large-scale ambient electric fields for potentials greater than ~150 MV. We also demonstrate that the photon fluence in a burst is a very sharp function of the potential. This implies that only lightning leaders forming the strongest potentials can lead to the production of observable TGFs from space. We specifically study the effects of source altitudes on the results and the production of the required high potentials in lightning leaders in realistic thunderstorm charge configurations.

We investigate the stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) in a long tapered birefringent solid-core photonic crystal fiber (PCF) and compare our results with a similar but untapered PCF. It is shown that the taper generates a broadband and multipeaked Brillouin spectrum, while significantly increasing the threshold power. Furthermore, we observe that the strong fiber birefringence gives rise to a frequency shift of the Brillouin spectrum which increases along the fiber. Numerical simulations are also presented to account for the taper effect and the birefringence. Our findings open a new means to control or inhibit the SBS by tapering photonic crystal fibers. PMID:26371916

Both the maximum size N sub m and the sea level muon size N sub mu have been used separately to find the all-particle energyspectrum in the air shower domain. However the conversion required, whether from N sub m to E or from N sub mu to E, has customarily been carried out by means of calculations based on an assumed cascase model. It is shown here that by combining present data on N sub m and N sub mu spectra with data on: (1); the energyspectrum of air shower muons and (2) the average width of the electron profile, one can obtain empirical values of the N sub m to E and N sub mu to E conversion factors, and an empirical calorimetric all-particle spectrum, in the energy range 2 x 10 to the 6th power E 2 x 10 to the 9th power GeV.

In proton therapy delivered with range modulated beams, the energyspectrum of protons entering the delivery nozzle can affect the dose uniformity within the target region and the dose gradient around its periphery. For a cyclotron with a fixed extraction energy, a rangeshifter is used to change the energy but this produces increasing energy spreads for decreasing energies. This study investigated the magnitude of the effects of different energy spreads on dose uniformity and distal edge dose gradient and determined the limits for controlling the incident spectrum. A multilayer Faraday cup (MLFC) was calibrated against depth dose curves measured in water for nonmodulated beams with various incident spectra. Depth dose curves were measured in a water phantom and in a multilayer ionization chamber detector for modulated beams using different incident energy spreads. Some nozzle entrance energy spectra can produce unacceptable dose nonuniformities of up to {+-}21% over the modulated region. For modulated beams and small beam ranges, the width of the distal penumbra can vary by a factor of 2.5. When the energy spread was controlled within the defined limits, the dose nonuniformity was less than {+-}3%. To facilitate understanding of the results, the data were compared to the measured and Monte Carlo calculated data from a variable extraction energy synchrotron which has a narrow spectrum for all energies. Dose uniformity is only maintained within prescription limits when the energy spread is controlled. At low energies, a large spread can be beneficial for extending the energy range at which a single range modulator device can be used. An MLFC can be used as part of a feedback to provide specified energy spreads for different energies.

In proton therapy delivered with range modulated beams, the energyspectrum of protons entering the delivery nozzle can affect the dose uniformity within the target region and the dose gradient around its periphery. For a cyclotron with a fixed extraction energy, a rangeshifter is used to change the energy but this produces increasing energy spreads for decreasing energies. This study investigated the magnitude of the effects of different energy spreads on dose uniformity and distal edge dose gradient and determined the limits for controlling the incident spectrum. A multilayer Faraday cup (MLFC) was calibrated against depth dose curves measured in water for nonmodulated beams with various incident spectra. Depth dose curves were measured in a water phantom and in a multilayer ionization chamber detector for modulated beams using different incident energy spreads. Some nozzle entrance energy spectra can produce unacceptable dose nonuniformities of up to +/-21% over the modulated region. For modulated beams and small beam ranges, the width of the distal penumbra can vary by a factor of 2.5. When the energy spread was controlled within the defined limits, the dose nonuniformity was less than +/-3%. To facilitate understanding of the results, the data were compared to the measured and Monte Carlo calculated data from a variable extraction energy synchrotron which has a narrow spectrum for all energies. Dose uniformity is only maintained within prescription limits when the energy spread is controlled. At low energies, a large spread can be beneficial for extending the energy range at which a single range modulator device can be used. An MLFC can be used as part of a feedback to provide specified energy spreads for different energies. PMID:19610318

Ultra-high energy proton primaries interacting with the 3/sup 0/K photon background are treated as a transport phenomenon. Baryon number is explicitly conserved and the evolved spectrum develops a bump at a scale of order 5x10/sup 19/ eV, below the cutoff, due to the pile-up of energy degraded protons. This may correspond in part to the observed ankle structure in the CR spectrum.

Using high-resolution direct numerical simulation and arguments based on the kinetic energy flux Π(u), we demonstrate that, for stably stratified flows, the kinetic energyspectrum E(u)(k)∼k(-11/5), the potential energyspectrum E(θ)(k)∼k(-7/5), and Π(u)(k)∼k(-4/5) are consistent with the Bolgiano-Obukhov scaling. This scaling arises due to the conversion of kinetic energy to the potential energy by buoyancy. For weaker buoyancy, this conversion is weak, hence E(u)(k) follows Kolmogorov's spectrum with a constant energy flux. For Rayleigh-Bénard convection, we show that the energy supply rate by buoyancy is positive, which leads to an increasing Π(u)(k) with k, thus ruling out Bolgiano-Obukhov scaling for the convective turbulence. Our numerical results show that convective turbulence for unit Prandt number exhibits a constant Π(u)(k) and E(u)(k)∼k(-5/3) for a narrow band of wave numbers. PMID:25215829

Using high-resolution direct numerical simulation and arguments based on the kinetic energy flux Πu, we demonstrate that, for stably stratified flows, the kinetic energyspectrum Eu(k)˜k-11/5, the potential energyspectrum Eθ(k)˜k-7/5, and Πu(k)˜k-4/5 are consistent with the Bolgiano-Obukhov scaling. This scaling arises due to the conversion of kinetic energy to the potential energy by buoyancy. For weaker buoyancy, this conversion is weak, hence Eu(k) follows Kolmogorov's spectrum with a constant energy flux. For Rayleigh-Bénard convection, we show that the energy supply rate by buoyancy is positive, which leads to an increasing Πu(k) with k, thus ruling out Bolgiano-Obukhov scaling for the convective turbulence. Our numerical results show that convective turbulence for unit Prandt number exhibits a constant Πu(k) and Eu(k)˜k-5/3 for a narrow band of wave numbers.

An adaptive full spectrum solar energy system having at least one hybrid solar concentrator, at least one hybrid luminaire, at least one hybrid photobioreactor, and a light distribution system operably connected to each hybrid solar concentrator, each hybrid luminaire, and each hybrid photobioreactor. A lighting control system operates each component.

We propose a quantum teleportation scheme for the angular spectrum of a single-photon field, which allows for the transmission of a large amount of information. Our proposal also provides a method to tune the frequencies of spatially entangled fields, which is useful for interactions with stationary qubits.

A kernel-based dose computation method with finite-size pencil beams (FSPBs) requires knowledge of the photonspectrum. Published methods of indirect spectral measurements using transmission measurements through beam attenuators use mathematical fits with a large number of parameters and constraints. In this study, we examine a simple strategy for fitting transmission data that models important physical characteristics of photon beams produced in clinical linear accelerators. The shape of an unattenuated bremsstrahlung spectrum is known, varying linearly from a maximum at zero energy to a value of zero at a maximum energy. This unattenuated spectrum is altered primarily by absorption of low energyphotons by the flattening filter, causing the true spectrum to roll off to zero at low photonenergies. A fitting equation models this behavior and has these advantages over previous methods: (1) the equation describes the shape of a bremsstrahlung spectrum based on physical expectations; and (2) only three fit parameters are required with a single constraint. Results for 4 MV and 6 MV accelerators for central axis and off-axis beams show good agreement with the maximum, average and modal energies for known spectra. Previously published models, representations of beam fluence (energy fluence, dN/dE), experimental methods, and the fitting process are discussed. PMID:12201426

A novel chirped microwave photonic filter (MPF) capable of achieving a large radio frequency (RF) group delay slope and a single passband response free from high frequency fading is presented. The design is based upon a Fourier domain optical processor (FD-OP) and a single sideband modulator. The FD-OP is utilized to generate both constant time delay to tune the filter and first order dispersion to induce the RF chirp, enabling full software control of the MPF without the need for manual adjustment. An optimized optical parameter region based on a large optical bandwidth >750 GHz and low slicing dispersion < ± 1 ps/nm is introduced, with this technique greatly improving the RF properties including the group delay slope magnitude and passband noise. Experimental results confirm that the structure simultaneously achieves a large in-band RF chirp of -4.2 ns/GHz, centre frequency invariant tuning and independent reconfiguration of the RF amplitude and phase response. Finally, a stochastic study of the device passband noise performance under tuning and reconfiguration is presented, indicating a low passband noise

The two-photon excitation (TPE) spectrum of light-harvesting complex II (LHC II) has been measured in the spectral region of 1,000--1,600 nm, corresponding to one-photon wavelengths of 500--800 nm. The authors observed a band with an origin at {approximately}2 x 660 nm (ca. 15,100 {+-} 300 cm{sup {minus}1}) and a maximum at {approximately}2 x 600 nm. The line shape and origin of this band strongly suggest that the observed signal is due to the two-photon-allowed S{sub 1} state of the energy-transferring carotenoids (Car ) in LHC II. The authors also report the time dependence of the upconverted chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence after TPE at the maximum of the observed band. Surprisingly, a fast rise of 250 {+-} 50 fs followed by a multiexponential decay on the picosecond time scale was observed. This result provides strong indication that there is a fast energy transfer even from the dipole-forbidden Car S{sub 1} state to the Chl's. The sub picosecond energy transfer from the Car S{sub 1} state is likely a consequence of the large number of energy-accepting Chls in van der Waals contact with the central Car's in LHC II. They also present upconversion data of the Car S{sub 2}, Chl a, and Chl b fluorescence observed after one-photon excitation into the dipole-allowed Car S{sub 2} state. The lifetime of the Car S{sub 2} state is {approximately}120 {+-} 30 fs. With the observed time constants they are able to calculate quantum yields for the different possible pathways contributing to the overall Car to Chl energy transfer in LHC II.

In the past two years, several new manufacturers have begun to market low-energy interstitial brachytherapy seeds containing 125I and 103Pd. Parallel to this development, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has implemented a modification to the air-kerma strength (S(K)) standard for 125I seeds and has also established an S(K) standard for 103Pd seeds. These events have generated a considerable number of investigations on the determination of the dose rate constants (inverted V) of interstitial brachytherapy seeds. The aim of this work is to study the general properties underlying the determination of dose rate constant and to develop a simple method for a quick and accurate estimation of dose rate constant. As the dose rate constant of clinical seeds is defined at a fixed reference point, we postulated that dose rate constant may be calculated by treating the seed as an effective point source when the seed's source strength is specified in S(K) and its source characteristics are specified by the photonenergyspectrum measured in air at the reference point. Using a semi-analytic approach, an analytic expression for dose rate constant was derived for point sources with known photonenergy spectra. This approach enabled a systematic study of dose rate constant as a function of energy. Using the measured energy spectra, the calculated dose rate constant for 125I model 6711 and 6702 seeds and for 192Ir seed agreed with the AAPM recommended values within +/-1%. For the 103Pd model 200 seed, the agreement was 5% with a recently measured value (within the +/-7% experimental uncertainty) and was within 1% with the Monte Carlo simulations. The analytic expression for dose rate constant proposed here can be evaluated using a programmable calculator or a simple spreadsheet and it provides an efficient method for checking the measured dose rate constant for any interstitial brachytherapy seed once the energyspectrum of the seed is known. PMID:11213926

A new switchable microwave photonic filter based on a novel spectrum slicing technique is presented. The processor enables programmable multi-tap generation with general transfer function characteristics and offers tunability, reconfigurabiliy, and switchability. It is based on connecting a dispersion controlled spectrum slicing filter after the modulated bipolar broadband light source, which consequently generates multiple spectrum slices with bipolarity, and compensates dispersion induced RF degradation simultaneously within a single device. A detailed theoretical model for this microwave photonic filter design is presented. Experimental results are presented which verify the model, and demonstrate a 33 bipolar-tap microwave filter with significant reduction of passband attenuations at high frequencies. The RF response improvement of the new microwave photonic filter is investigated, for both an ideal linear group delay line and for the experimental fiber delay line that has second order group delay and the results show that this new structure is effective for RF filters with various free spectral range values and spectrum slice bandwidths. Finally, a switchable bipolar filter that has a square-top bandpass filter response with more than 30 dB stopband attenuation that can be switched on/off via software control is demonstrated. PMID:22565771

Recently, the master equations for the interaction of two-mode photons with a three-level Λ-type atom are exactly solved for the coherence terms. In this paper the exact absorption spectrum is applied for the presentation of a non-demolition photon counting method, for a few number of coupling photons, and its benefits are discussed. The exact scheme is also applied where the coupling photons are squeezed and the photon counting method is also developed for the measurement of the squeezing parameter of the coupling photons. PMID:27610321

To improve the quality of single-photon emission computed tomographic (SPECT) images, a restoration filter has been developed. This filter was designed according to practical "least squares filter" theory. It is necessary to know the object power spectrum and the noise power spectrum. The power spectrum is estimated from the power spectrum of a projection, when the high-frequency power spectrum of a projection is adequately approximated as a polynomial exponential expression. A study of the restoration with the filter based on a projection power spectrum was conducted, and compared with that of the "Butterworth" filtering method (cut-off frequency of 0.15 cycles/pixel), and "Wiener" filtering (signal-to-noise power spectrum ratio was a constant). Normalized mean-squared errors (NMSE) of the phantom, two line sources located in a 99mTc filled cylinder, were used. NMSE of the "Butterworth" filter, "Wiener" filter, and filtering based on a power spectrum were 0.77, 0.83, and 0.76 respectively. Clinically, brain SPECT images utilizing this new restoration filter improved the contrast. Thus, this filter may be useful in diagnosis of SPECT images. PMID:7776546

The quantum effect of anomalous inelastic scattering of an X-ray photon by an ɛ p-electron of the 1 s → ɛ p continuous spectrum of the state of atom photoionization is predicted theoretically. It is established that, in the region of elastic photon scattering by an electron of the continuous spectrum, together with the known contribution of the Thomson component ( l = 0), there appears a contribution of the infinite (and countable) number of scattering harmonics l ∈ [1;∞]. As an object of the investigation, the Be atom is taken. The absolute values and shape of the triple differential cross section of the elastic, normal, and anomalous Compton scattering have been obtained.

Purpose: To determine the x-ray photonenergy dependence of the anatomic power spectrum of the breast when imaged with dedicated breast computed tomography (CT). Methods: A theoretical framework for scaling the empirically determined anatomic power spectrum at one x-ray photonenergy to that at any given x-ray photonenergy when imaged with dedicated breast CT was developed. Theory predicted that when the anatomic power spectrum is fitted with a power curve of the form k f{sup -{beta}}, where k and {beta} are fit coefficients and f is spatial frequency, the exponent {beta} would be independent of x-ray photonenergy (E), and the amplitude k scales with the square of the difference in energy-dependent linear attenuation coefficients of fibroglandular and adipose tissues. Twenty mastectomy specimens based numerical phantoms that were previously imaged with a benchtop flat-panel cone-beam CT system were converted to 3D distribution of glandular weight fraction (f{sub g}) and were used to verify the theoretical findings. The 3D power spectrum was computed in terms of f{sub g} and after converting to linear attenuation coefficients at monoenergetic x-ray photonenergies of 20-80 keV in 5 keV intervals. The 1D power spectra along the axes were extracted and fitted with a power curve of the form k f{sup -{beta}}. The energy dependence of k and {beta} were analyzed. Results: For the 20 mastectomy specimen based numerical phantoms used in the study, the exponent {beta} was found to be in the range of 2.34-2.42, depending on the axis of measurement. Numerical simulations agreed with the theoretical predictions that for a power-law anatomic spectrum of the form k f{sup -{beta}}, {beta} was independent of E and k(E) =k{sub 1}[{mu}{sub g}(E) -{mu}{sub a}(E)]{sup 2}, where k{sub 1} is a constant, and {mu}{sub g}(E) and {mu}{sub a}(E) represent the energy-dependent linear attenuation coefficients of fibroglandular and adipose tissues, respectively. Conclusions: Numerical

The job of energy calibration was broken into three parts: gain normalization of all equivalent elements; determination of the functions for conversion of pulse height to energy; and gain stabilization. It is found that calorimeter experiments are no better than their calibration systems - calibration errors will be the major source of error at high energies. Redundance is found to be necessary - the system should be designed such that every element could be replaced during the life of the experiment. It is found to be important to have enough data taken during calibration runs and during the experiment to be able to sort out where the calibration problems were after the experiment is over. Each layer was normalized independently with electrons, and then the pulse height to energy conversion was determined with photons. The primary method of gain stabilization used the light flasher system. (LEW)

It has long been known that the energy in velocity and magnetic field fluctuations in the solar wind is not in equipartition. In this paper, we present an analysis of 5 yr of Wind data at 1 AU to investigate the reason for this. The residual energy (difference between energy in velocity and magnetic field fluctuations) was calculated using both the standard magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) normalization for the magnetic field and a kinetic version, which includes temperature anisotropies and drifts between particle species. It was found that with the kinetic normalization, the fluctuations are closer to equipartition, with a mean normalized residual energy of {sigma}{sub r} = -0.19 and mean Alfven ratio of r{sub A} = 0.71. The spectrum of residual energy, in the kinetic normalization, was found to be steeper than both the velocity and magnetic field spectra, consistent with some recent MHD turbulence predictions and numerical simulations, having a spectral index close to -1.9. The local properties of residual energy and cross helicity were also investigated, showing that globally balanced intervals with small residual energy contain local patches of larger imbalance and larger residual energy at all scales, as expected for nonlinear turbulent interactions.

This work presents a methodology to reconstruct a Linac high energyphotonspectrum beam. The method is based on EPID scatter images generated when the incident photon beam impinges onto a plastic block. The distribution of scatter radiation produced by this scattering object placed on the external EPID surface and centered at the beam field size was measured. The scatter distribution was also simulated for a series of monoenergetic identical geometry photon beams. Monte Carlo simulations were used to predict the scattered photons for monoenergetic photon beams at 92 different locations, with 0.5 cm increments and at 8.5 cm from the centre of the scattering material. Measurements were performed with the same geometry using a 6 MeV photon beam produced by the linear accelerator. A system of linear equations was generated to combine the polyenergetic EPID measurements with the monoenergetic simulation results. Regularization techniques were applied to solve the system for the incident photonspectrum. A linear matrix system, A×S=E, was developed to describe the scattering interactions and their relationship to the primary spectrum (S). A is the monoenergetic scatter matrix determined from the Monte Carlo simulations, S is the incident photonspectrum, and E represents the scatter distribution characterized by EPID measurement. Direct matrix inversion methods produce results that are not physically consistent due to errors inherent in the system, therefore Tikhonov regularization methods were applied to address the effects of these errors and to solve the system for obtaining a consistent bremsstrahlung spectrum.

A Cerenkov signal is generated when energetic charged particles enter the core of an optical fiber. The Cerenkov intensity can be large enough to interfere with signals transmitted through the fiber. We determine the spectrum of the Cerenkov background signal generated in a poly(methyl methacrylate) optical fiber exposed to photon and electron therapeutic beams from a linear accelerator. This spectral measurement is relevant to discrimination of the signal from the background, as in scintillation dosimetry using optical fiber readouts. We find that the spectrum is approximated by the theoretical curve after correction for the wavelength dependent attenuation of the fiber. The spectrum does not depend significantly on the angle between the radiation beam and the axis of the fiber optic but is dependent on the depth in water at which the fiber is exposed to the beam.

The singularity exponent (SE) is the characteristic parameter of fractal and multifractal signals. Based on SE, the fractal dimension reflecting the global self-similar character, the instantaneous SE reflecting the local self-similar character, the multifractal spectrum (MFS) reflecting the distribution of SE, and the time-varying MFS reflecting pointwise multifractal spectrum were proposed. However, all the studies were based on the depiction of spatial or differentiability characters of fractal signals. Taking the SE as the independent dimension, this paper investigates the fractal energy measurement (FEM) and the singularity energyspectrum (SES) theory. Firstly, we study the energy measurement and the energyspectrum of a fractal signal in the singularity domain, propose the conception of FEM and SES of multifractal signals, and investigate the Hausdorff measure and the local direction angle of the fractal energy element. Then, we prove the compatibility between FEM and traditional energy, and point out that SES can be measured in the fractal space. Finally, we study the algorithm of SES under the condition of a continuous signal and a discrete signal, and give the approximation algorithm of the latter, and the estimations of FEM and SES of the Gaussian white noise, Fractal Brownian motion and the multifractal Brownian motion show the theoretical significance and application value of FEM and SES.

This RD&D project is a three year team effort to develop a hybrid solar lighting (HSL) system that transports solar light from a paraboloidal dish concentrator to a luminaire via a large core polymer fiber optic. The luminaire can be a device to distribute sunlight into a space for the production of algae or it can be a device that is a combination of solar lighting and electric lighting. A benchmark prototype system has been developed to evaluate the HSL system. Sunlight is collected using a one-meter paraboloidal concentrator dish with two-axis tracking. A secondary mirror consisting of eight planar-segmented mirrors directs the visible part of the spectrum to eight fibers (receiver) and subsequently to eight luminaires. This results in about 8,200 lumens incident at each fiber tip. Each fiber can illuminate about 16.7 m{sup 2} (180 ft{sup 2}) of office space. The IR spectrum is directed to a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) array to produce electricity. During this reporting period, the project team made advancements in the design of the second generation (Alpha) system. For the Alpha system, the eight individual 12 mm fibers have been replaced with a centralized bundle of 3 mm fibers. The TRNSYS Full-Spectrum Solar Energy System model has been updated and new components have been added. The TPV array and nonimaging device have been tested and progress has been made in the fiber transmission models. A test plan was developed for both the high-lumen tests and the study to determine the non-energy benefits of daylighting. The photobioreactor team also made major advancements in the testing of model scale and bench top lab-scale systems.

The SLAC Linac is being upgraded for the use in the SLAC Linear Collider (SLC). The improved Linac must accelerate electron and positron bunches from 1.2 GeV to 50 GeV while producing output energy spectra of about 0.2%. The energy spectra must be maintained during operation to provide for good beam transmission and to minimize chromatic effects in the SLC ARCs and Final Focus. the energy spectra of these beams are determined by the bunch length and intensity, the RF phase and waveform and the intra-bunch longitudinal wakefields. A non-destructive energyspectrum monitor has been designed using a vertical wiggler magnet located downstream of the horizontal beam splitter at the end of the SLC Linac. It produces synchrotron radiation which is viewed in an off-axis x-ray position sensitive detector. The expected resolution is 0.08%. The design considerations of this monitor are presented in this paper. A pair of these monitors is under construction with an installation date set for late summer 1986. 5 refs., 6 figs.

In the present paper, the four-wave mixing principle of fiber was analyzed, and the high-gain phase-matching conditions were shown. The nonlinear coefficient and dispersion characteristics of photonic crystal fibers were calculated by multipole method. The phase mismatch characteristics of fibers with multiple zero-dispersion wavelengths were analyzed for the first time. The changing rules of phase matching wavelength with the pump wavelength and the pump power were obtained, and the phase matching curves were shown. The characteristics of phase matching wavelengths for different dispersion curves were analyzed. There are four new excitation wavelengths of four-wave mixing spectrum in two zero-dispersion wavelength photonic crystal fiers. Four-wave mixing spectroscopy of photonic crystal fibers with two zero-dispersion wavelengths was obtained in the experi-ent, which is consistent with the theoretical analysis, and verified the reliability of the phase matching theory. The fiber with multiple zero-dispersion wavelengths can create a ricbhphase-matching topology, excite more four-wave mixing wavelengths, ena-ling enhanced control over the spectral locations of the four-wave mixing and resonant-radiation bands emitted by solitons and short pulses. These provide theoretical guidance for photonic crystal fiber wavelength conversion and supercontinoum generation based on four-wave mixing. PMID:25358145

Particle colliders operating at high luminosities present challenging environments for high energy physics event reconstruction and analysis. We discuss how timing information, with a precision on the order of 10 ps, can aid in the reconstruction of physics events under such conditions. We present calorimeter based timing measurements from test beam experiments in which we explore the ultimate timing precision achievable for high energyphotons or electrons of 10 GeV and above. Using a prototype calorimeter consisting of a 1.7×1.7×1.7 cm3 lutetium-yttrium oxyortho-silicate (LYSO) crystal cube, read out by micro-channel plate photomultipliers, we demonstrate a time resolution of 33.5±2.1 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV. In a second measurement, using a 2.5×2.5×20 cm3 LYSO crystal placed perpendicularly to the electron beam, we achieve a time resolution of 59±11 ps using a beam energy of 4 GeV. We also present timing measurements made using a shashlik-style calorimeter cell made of LYSO and tungsten plates, and demonstrate that the apparatus achieves a time resolution of 54±5 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV.

Particle colliders operating at high luminosities present challenging environments for high energy physics event reconstruction and analysis. We discuss how timing information, with a precision on the order of 10 ps, can aid in the reconstruction of physics events under such conditions. We present calorimeter based timing measurements from test beam experiments in which we explore the ultimate timing precision achievable for high energyphotons or electrons of 10 GeV and above. Using a prototype calorimeter consisting of a 1.7×1.7×1.7 cm3 lutetium–yttrium oxyortho-silicate (LYSO) crystal cube, read out by micro-channel plate photomultipliers, we demonstrate a time resolution of 33.5±2.1 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV. In a second measurement, using a 2.5×2.5×20 cm3 LYSO crystal placed perpendicularly to the electron beam, we achieve a time resolution of 59±11 ps using a beam energy of 4 GeV. We also present timing measurements made using a shashlik-style calorimeter cell made of LYSO and tungsten plates, and demonstrate that the apparatus achieves a time resolution of 54±5 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV.

A study has been made of X- and gamma-ray emission from 237Np in equilibrium with 233Pa using the full response function method. This analysis process is characterised by photon spectrometry in which the entire spectrum is modelled in a pseudo-empirical way by means of elementary functions describing the total absorption and escape peaks, the Compton diffusion internal and external to the detector and the peaks resulting from detection of internal conversion electrons. This method has been applied to determine the L X-, K X- and gamma-rays emission probabilities in 237Np and 233Pa decay studies. PMID:14987650

We present the results of wide spectral range Z-scan measurements of the two-photon absorption (2PA) spectrum of the Hoechst 33342 dye. The strongest 2PA of the dye in aqueous solution is found at 575 nm, and the associated two-photon absorption cross section is 245 GM. A weak but clearly visible 2PA band at ∼850 nm is also observed, a feature that could not be anticipated from the one-photon absorption spectrum. On the basis of the results of hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations, we put forward a notion that the long-wavelength feature observed in the two-photon absorption spectrum of Hoechst 33342 is due to the formation of dye aggregates. PMID:24016295

Fundamental limits for photon counting and photonenergy measurement are reviewed for CCD and CMOS imagers. The challenges to extend photon counting into the visible/nIR wavelengths and achieve energy measurement in the UV with specific read noise requirements are discussed. Pixel flicker and random telegraph noise sources are highlighted along with various methods used in reducing their contribution on the sensor's read noise floor. Practical requirements for quantum efficiency, charge collection efficiency, and charge transfer efficiency that interfere with photon counting performance are discussed. Lastly we will review current efforts in reducing flicker noise head-on, in hopes to drive read noise substantially below 1 carrier rms. PMID:27187398

During the last few years, active personal dosimeters have been developed and have replaced passive personal dosimeters in some external monitoring systems, frequently using silicon diode detectors. Incident photons interact with the constituents of the diode detector and produce electrons. These photon-induced electrons deposit energy in the detector's sensitive region and contribute to the response of diode detectors. To achieve an appropriate photon dosimetry response, the detectors are usually covered by a metallic layer with an optimum thickness. The metallic cover acts as an energy compensating shield. In this paper, a software process is performed for energy compensation. Selective data sampling based on pulse height is used to determine the photon dose equivalent. This method is applied to improve the energy response in photon dosimetry. The detector design is optimized for the response function and determination of the photon dose equivalent. Photon personal dose equivalent is determined in the energy range of 0.3-6 MeV. The error values of the calculated data for this wide energy range and measured data for 133Ba, 137Cs, 60Co and 241Am-Be sources respectively are up to 20% and 15%. Fairly good agreement is seen between simulation and dose values obtained from our process and specifications from several photon sources.

X-ray energyspectrum plays an essential role in imaging and related tasks. Due to the high photon flux of clinical CT scanners, most of the spectrum estimation methods are indirect and are usually suffered from various limitations. The recently proposed indirect transmission measurement-based method requires at least the segmentation of one material, which is insufficient for CT images of highly noisy and with artifacts. To combat for the bottleneck of spectrum estimation using segmented CT images, in this study, we develop a segmentation-free indirect transmission measurement based energyspectrum estimation method using dual-energy material decomposition. The general principle of the method is to compare polychromatic forward projection with raw projection to calibrate a set of unknown weights which are used to express the unknown spectrum together with a set of model spectra. After applying dual-energy material decomposition using high-and low-energy raw projection data, polychromatic forward projection is conducted on material-specific images. The unknown weights are then iteratively updated to minimize the difference between the raw projection and estimated projection. Both numerical simulations and experimental head phantom are used to evaluate the proposed method. The results indicate that the method provides accurate estimate of the spectrum and it may be attractive for dose calculations, artifacts correction and other clinical applications.

Discusses the derivation of the integral spectrum of muons produced from the interactions of energetic Crab emitted gamma ray induced EAS. The conventional analytical procedure of Drees et al. (1988) has been adopted for muon number calculation. The FNAL data on πp→π+-X inclusive reactions and HERA ep collider results have been used for the evaluation of the hadronic energy moments and the photonuclear cross sections. The derived integral number of muons as a function of muon energy for Zππ = 0.1967, αγN = 0.332 mb and απA = 293 mb has been found comparable with the expected results of Drees et al. for Zππ = 0.3, αγN = 0.1 mb and απA = 198 mb. The present photo induced muon spectrum is found much lower than that obtained from the proton producing EAS muon spectrum obtained by Gaisser (1990).

A method for thermophotovoltaic generation of electricity comprises heating a metallic photonic crystal to provide selective emission of radiation that is matched to the peak spectral response of a photovoltaic cell that converts the radiation to electricity. The use of a refractory metal, such as tungsten, for the photonic crystal enables high temperature operation for high radiant flux and high dielectric contrast for a full 3D photonic bandgap, preferable for efficient thermophotovoltaic energy conversion.

This paper describes a numerical calculation which follows the evolution of an initial photon and particle spectrum in an expanding, relativistic wind or jet, describes in particular the quasi-equilibrium distribution found for initial optical depths above 100 or so, and points out that this calculation may be relevant for the situation in luminous, compact nuclear sources.

In the range of electron energies available at Fermilab, 100 GeV less than or equal to E less than or equal to 500 GeV, coherent Bremsstrahlung in crystals, particularly diamond, gives a huge enhancement to the equivalent photonspectrum at large values of x where x = k/E. The photons in this enhancement are polarized. Requirements on electron beam energy spread, angular divergence and spot size imposed by the use of a diamond as a radiator are discussed. The physics program emphasizes hard processes and tests of QCD using polarization.

An angular spectrum analysis system was demonstrated to monitor the optical resonant mode of a photonic crystal (PC) sensor comprised of a one-dimensional grating structure. Exposed to solutions with different refractive indices or adsorbed with biomaterials, the PC sensor exhibited changes of the optical resonant modes. The developed detection system utilized a focused laser beam to detect shifts of the resonant angle, and thereby allowed a kinetic analysis of chemical absorption. Such a detection apparatus offers an adjustable angular resolution and a tunable detection range for a wide variety of refractometric sensing applications. A limit of detection of 6.57×10(-5) refractive index unit has been observed. The instrument also offers an imaging capability of rapidly characterizing low-contrast samples deposited on the PC surface with a spatial resolution of 10 μm. PMID:24784094

Direct photons have always been considered a promising probe for the very early phases of high-energy nuclear collisions. Prompt photons reveal information about the initial state and its possible modifications in nuclei. In this context they should be one of the best probes for effects of gluon saturation. Thermal photons emitted from the produced matter in nuclear collisions carry information on the temperature of the very early phase. In particular a simultaneous measurement of yield and elliptic flow of thermal photons can put strong constraints on the early time dynamics of the system. I review the status of results on direct photon measurements at RHIC and LHC and their interpretation. Prompt photons at high pT are consistent with expectations from NLO pQCD in pp and show no strong nuclear modifications in A-A collisions. Recent analysis at RHIC has shown very intriguing results for lower pT, with high thermal photon yield and strong elliptic flow of direct photons, which are not fully understood theoretically. Also the ALICE experiment at the LHC has measured a high yield of thermal photons. Furthermore I discuss prospects for future measurements of forward direct photons at the LHC.

The high precision two-photon excitation measurements for 5S1/2 (Fg = 2) to 5D5/2 (Fe = 4 to 1) of 87Rb are performed by using an optical frequency comb. The two counter-propagating femtosecond pulses (5S1/2 → 5P3/2 at 780 nm, and 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 at 776 nm) act on 87Rb vapor, and the Doppler broadened background signal is effectively eliminated. The temperature and power dependences of the two-photonspectrum are studied in this paper. Project supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2012CB921603), the Program for Changjiang Scholars and Innovative Research Team in University (Grant No. IRT13076), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 61378049 and 10934004), the International Science and Technology Cooperation Program of China (Grant No. 2011DFA12490), and the Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi Province, China (Grant No. 2011011004).

We provide an efficient and accurate numerical method to deduce the recoil-ion-momentum spectrum of He from the two-electron momentum distribution, which is obtained by solving the full-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation. We apply this method to study the ion spectra of one-photon double ionization and two-photon sequential and nonsequential double ionization of He. The present calculations agree rather well with the absolute magnitude of the recoil-ion triply differential cross sections published recently [S. A. Abdel-Naby, M. S. Pindzola, and J. Colgan, Phys. Rev. A 86, 013424 (2012), 10.1103/PhysRevA.86.013424; S. A. Abdel-Naby et al., Phys. Rev. A 87, 063425 (2013), 10.1103/PhysRevA.87.063425]. Nevertheless, significant differences are also found in several detailed features of the spectra and straightforward physical analysis indicates that the present results appear more reasonable, which should be confirmed by future experiments or additional independent calculations.

Two-photon-absorption (TPA) spectra of poly(di-{ital n}-hexylsilane) (PDHS) films are obtained from 605 to 410 nm at 295 and 11 K, where the intensity is an order of magnitude higher. A strong TPA band is found above 5 eV and interpreted in terms of interacting {sigma} electrons in a Pariser-Parr-Pople (PPP) model. PPP models for (Si){sub {ital n}} chains relate the excitonic (one-photon) absorption at {ital E}{sub {ital g}}=3.4 in PDHS to the 4.2-eV TPA at the alternation gap and the high-energy TPA derived from two-electron excitations at {ital E}{sub {ital g}}. The smaller alternation gap in {pi}-conjugated polymers and their intense TPA above {ital E}{sub {ital g}} also indicate correlated states and differ qualitatively from single-particle descriptions.

A strategy of interfacial energy transfer upconversion is demonstrated through the use of a terbium (Tb(3+) ) dopant as energy donor or energy migrator in core-shell-structured nanocrystals. This mechanistic investigation presents a new pathway for photon upconversion, and, more importantly, contributes to the better control of energy transfer at the nanometer length scale. PMID:26378771

One of the major loss mechanisms leading to low energy conversion efficiencies of solar cells is the thermalization of charge carriers generated by the absorption of high-energyphotons. These losses can largely be reduced in a solar cell if more than one electron-hole pair can be generated per incident photon. A method to realize multiple electron-hole pair generation per incident photon is proposed in this article. Incident photons with energies larger than twice the band gap of the solar cell are absorbed by a luminescence converter, which transforms them into two or more lower energyphotons. The theoretical efficiency limit of this system for nonconcentrated sunlight is determined as a function of the solar cell's band gap using detailed balance calculations. It is shown that a maximum conversion efficiency of 39.63% can be achieved for a 6000 K blackbody spectrum and for a luminescence converter with one intermediate level. This is a substantial improvement over the limiting efficiency of 30.9%, which a solar cell exposed directly to nonconcentrated radiation may have under the same assumption of radiative recombination only.

A method is described which was used to measure muon energyspectrum characteristics in muon groups underground using mu-e decays recording. The Baksan Telescope's experimental data on mu-e decays intensity in muon groups of various multiplicities are analyzed. The experimental data indicating very flat spectrum does not however represent the total spectrum in muon groups. Obviously the muon energyspectrum depends strongly on a distance from the group axis. The core attraction effect makes a significant distortion, making the spectrum flatter. After taking this into account and making corrections for this effect the integral total spectrum index in groups has a very small depencence on muon multiplicity and agrees well with expected one: beta=beta (sub expected) = 1.75.

Our current theory believes that planets were formed from aggregation of galactic gas. Our work in 2011 suggested there could be an alternative explanation on planet formation based on a reinterpretation of quantum physics, which suggested that planet formed at early stage through aggregation, then it grows through a different process other than aggregation. Using low energyphoton-photon collision we have successfully observed this process. This result also cast doubt on the Big Bang theory.

In the inertial range of fluid turbulence, the energy flux is constant, while the energyspectrum scales as k - 5 / 3 (k=wavenumber). The buoyancy however could change the phenomenology dramatically. Bolgiano and Obukhov (1959) had conjectured that stably stratified flows (as in atmosphere) exhibits a decrease in the energy flux as k - 4 / 5 due to the conversion of kinetic energy to the potential energy, consequently, the energyspectrum scales as k - 11 / 5. We show using detailed numerical analysis that the stably stratified flows indeed exhibit k - 11 / 5 energyspectrum for Froude numbers Fr near unity. The flow becomes anisotropic for small Froude numbers. For weaker buoyancy (large Fr), the kinetic energy follows Kolmogorov's spectrum with a constant energy flux. However, in convective turbulence, the energy flux is a nondecreasing function of wavenumber since the buoyancy feeds positively into the kinetic energy. Hence, the kinetic energyspectrum is Kolmogorov-like (k - 5 / 3) or shallower. We also demonstrate the above scaling using a shell model of buoyancy-driven turbulence.

The Dosepix detector is a hybrid photon-counting pixel detector based on ideas of the Medipix and Timepix detector family. 1 mm thick cadmium telluride and 300 μm thick silicon were used as sensor material. The pixel matrix of the Dosepix consists of 16 x 16 square pixels with 12 rows of (200 μm)2 and 4 rows of (55 μm)2 sensitive area for the silicon sensor layer and 16 rows of pixels with 220 μm pixel pitch for CdTe. Besides digital energy integration and photon-counting mode, a novel concept of energy binning is included in the pixel electronics, allowing energy-resolved measurements in 16 energy bins within one acquisition. The possibilities of this detector concept range from applications in personal dosimetry and energy-resolved imaging to quality assurance of medical X-ray sources by analysis of the emitted photonspectrum. In this contribution the Dosepix detector, its response to X-rays as well as spectrum measurements with Si and CdTe sensor layer are presented. Furthermore, a first evaluation was carried out to use the Dosepix detector as a kVp-meter, that means to determine the applied acceleration voltage from measured X-ray tubes spectra.

The phase transition for turbulent diffusion, reported by Avellaneda and Majda [Avellaneda, M. & Majda, A. J. (1994) Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A 346, 205-233, and several earlier papers], is traced to a modeling assumption in which the energyspectrum of the turbulent fluid is singularly dependent on the viscosity in the inertial range. Phenomenological models of turbulence and intermittency, by contrast, require that the energyspectrum be independent of the viscosity in the inertial range. When the energyspectrum is assumed to be consistent with the phenomenological models, there is no phase transition for turbulent diffusion. Images Fig. 2 PMID:11607590

In this work we discuss the problems of the energy-angular spectrum of backscattered and true secondary electrons simulation using the discrete (DLA) and the continuous (CLA) loss approximations. The presence of an angular spectrum artefact - the deviation from the sinusoidal distribution over the range of 177-18O° from the beam direction is shown.

Ultra high energyphotons and neutrinos are carriers of very important astrophysical information. They may be produced at the sites of cosmic ray acceleration or during the propagation of the cosmic rays in the intergalactic medium. In contrast to charged cosmic rays, photon and neutrino arrival directions point to the production site because they are not deflected by the magnetic fields of the Galaxy or the intergalactic medium. In this work we study the characteristics of the longitudinal development of showers initiated by photons and neutrinos at the highest energies. These studies are relevant for development of techniques for neutrino and photon identification by the JEM-EUSO telescope. In particular, we study the possibility of observing the multi-peak structure of very deep horizontal neutrino showers with JEM-EUSO. We also discuss the possibility to determine the flavor content of the incident neutrino flux by taking advantage of the different characteristics of the longitudinal profiles generated by different type of neutrinos. This is of grate importance for the study of the fundamental properties of neutrinos at the highest energies. Regarding photons, we discuss the detectability of the cosmogenic component by JEM-EUSO and also estimate the expected upper limits on the photon fraction which can be obtained from the future JEM-EUSO data for the case in which there are no photons in the samples.

In a Kerr nonlinear blackbody, bare photons with opposite wave vectors and helicities are bound into pairs and unpaired photons are transformed into a different kind of quasiparticle, the nonpolariton. The present paper investigates the influence of a single frequency electromagnetic wave on the energyspectrum of the nonpolariton system. We find that the wave can lead to an energy shift of nonpolaritons. Moreover, we calculate the first-order energy shift on certain conditions.

The spectrum, energy transfer, and spectral interactions in steady Burgers turbulence are studied using numerically generated data. The velocity field is initially random and the turbulence is maintained steady by forcing the amplitude of a band of low wavenumbers to be invariant in time, while permitting the phase to change as dictated by the equation. The spectrum, as expected, is very different from that of Navier-Stokes turbulence. It is demonstrated that the far range of the spectrum scales as predicted by Burgers. Despite the difference in their spectra, in matters of the spectral energy transfer and triadic interactions Burgers turbulence is similar to Navier-Stokes turbulence.

Fundamental limits for photon counting and photonenergy measurement are reviewed for CCD and CMOS imagers. The challenges to extend photon counting into the visible/nIR wavelengths and achieve energy measurement in the UV with specific read noise requirements are discussed. Pixel flicker and random telegraph noise sources are highlighted along with various methods used in reducing their contribution on the sensor’s read noise floor. Practical requirements for quantum efficiency, charge collection efficiency, and charge transfer efficiency that interfere with photon counting performance are discussed. Lastly we will review current efforts in reducing flicker noise head-on, in hopes to drive read noise substantially below 1 carrier rms. PMID:27187398

A new setup for the characterization of γ-ray detectors has been installed at the NEPTUN photon tagger facility of TU Darmstadt. The tagging technique used at NEPTUN provides a quasi monoenergetic photon source up to about 20 MeV by selecting single γ-ray energies within a bremsstrahlung spectrum. The energy is freely selectable by changing the tagging condition. The detector response function (DRF) of γ-ray detectors for quasi monoenergetic incident photons can be measured. This allows to investigate DRFs of various photon detectors as a function of the incident γ-ray energy. Simulations of DRFs that are intensively used in the analysis of nuclear physics experiments can be tested and compared to experimental data. The experimental setup is presented and the measurement of the DRF of a large volume high-purity Germanium detector is described as an example.

A photon detector for biological samples includes a block of NaI(T1) having a hole containing a thin walled cylinder of CsI(T1). At least three photo multiplier tubes are evenly spaced around the parameter of the block. Biological samples are placed within the hole, and emissions which are sensed by at least two of the photo multipliers from only the NaI(T1) detector are counted.

Previous representations of pion-pair production amplitudes by two real photons at low energy, which combine dispersion theoretical constraints with elastic unitarity, chiral symmetry and soft-photon constraints are generalised to the case where one photon is virtual. The constructed amplitudes display explicitly the dependence on the ππ phase-shifts, on pion form factors and on pion polarisabilities. They apply both for space-like and time-like virtualities despite the apparent overlap of the left- and right-hand cuts, by implementing a definition of resonance exchange amplitudes complying with analyticity and consistent limiting prescriptions for the energy variables. Applications are made to the pion generalised polarisabilies, to vector-meson radiative decays, and to the σγ electromagnetic form factor. Finally, an evaluation of the contribution of γππ states in the hadronic vacuum polarisation to the muon g-2 is given, which should be less model dependent than previous estimates.

We present first INTEGRAL observations of the type 1.5 Seyfert galaxy NGC 4151. Combining several INTEGRAL observations performed during 2003, totaling approximately 400 ksec of exposure time, allow us to study the spectrum in the 3 - 300 keV range. The measurements presented here reveal an overall spectrum from X-rays up to the soft gamma-rays that can be described by an absorbed (N(sub H) approximately equal to 5 x 10(exp 22) per square centimeter) and non-variable thermal component, plus a Fe Kalpha line, and an exponential cutoff occurs at 110 keV, consistent with earlier claims. The Galactic hydrogen column density in the line of sight is N(sub H), Gal approximately equal to 2.1 x 10 (exp 20) per square centimeter. The time resolved analysis shows little variation of the spectral parameters. The comparison with CGRO/OSSE data shows that the same spectral model can be applied over a time span of 15 years, while the flux varied by a factor of 2. Applying a Compton reflection component improves the model fit to the INTEGRAL data. Nonetheless the data available to date cannot significantly confirm or exclude the existence of reflection, nor is a high iron overabundance in the absorber, as had been previously suggested, clearly detectable.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the difference between a 6 MV linear accelerator x-ray energyspectrum outside the field edge near a phantom surface, and the corresponding spectrum on the central axis. The Monte Carlo code MCNP-4A was used to calculate the spectra on the central axis and at 1, 2, 5 and 10 cm from the edge of a 4 × 4 cm2, 10 × 10 cm2 and 15 × 15 cm2 field. Compared to the spectrum on the central axis, the spectra outside the field edge showed two distinct regions: a broad peak below about 0.5 MeV, and a lower amplitude, less rapidly changing region at higher energies from 0.5 to 6 MeV. The lower energy peak was due to scattered photons, and the higher energy component was due mainly to primary photons transmitted through the jaws of the secondary collimator. The potential impact of these spectral differences on critical organ photon dosimetry was determined by calculating the ratio of the sensitivity of a Scanditronix EDD-5 diode and of a LiF:Mg:Ti thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) outside the field edge to their respective sensitivity at the calibration position on the central axis. The lower energy peak combined with the non-uniform energy sensitivity of each detector produced up to a two-thirds overestimate of x-ray dose outside the field by the diode, whereas the response ratio of the TLD was about unity. These results indicated that a similar evaluation was required for profile measurements of a dynamic wedged field and measurements in an intensity modulated beam with either type of detector.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the difference between a 6 MV linear accelerator x-ray energyspectrum outside the field edge near a phantom surface, and the corresponding spectrum on the central axis. The Monte Carlo code MCNP-4A was used to calculate the spectra on the central axis and at 1, 2, 5 and 10 cm from the edge of a 4 x 4 cm2, 10 x 10 cm2 and 15 x 15 cm2 field. Compared to the spectrum on the central axis, the spectra outside the field edge showed two distinct regions: a broad peak below about 0.5 MeV, and a lower amplitude, less rapidly changing region at higher energies from 0.5 to 6 MeV. The lower energy peak was due to scattered photons, and the higher energy component was due mainly to primary photons transmitted through the jaws of the secondary collimator. The potential impact of these spectral differences on critical organ photon dosimetry was determined by calculating the ratio of the sensitivity of a Scanditronix EDD-5 diode and of a LiF:Mg:Ti thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) outside the field edge to their respective sensitivity at the calibration position on the central axis. The lower energy peak combined with the non-uniform energy sensitivity of each detector produced up to a two-thirds overestimate of x-ray dose outside the field by the diode, whereas the response ratio of the TLD was about unity. These results indicated that a similar evaluation was required for profile measurements of a dynamic wedged field and measurements in an intensity modulated beam with either type of detector. PMID:15509076

We have searched for solar hidden photons in the eV energy range using a dedicated hidden photon detector. The detector consisted of a parabolic mirror with a diameter of 500 mm and a focal length of 1007 mm installed in a vacuum chamber, and a photomultiplier tube at its focal point. The detector was attached to the Tokyo axion helioscope, Sumico which has a mechanism to track the sun. From the result of the measurement, we found no evidence for the existence of hidden photons and set a limit on the photon-hidden photon mixing parameter χ depending on the hidden photon mass m{sub γ'}.

In Compton scattering experiments employing thick targets one observes that the numbers of multiply backscattered photons increases with increase in target thickness and then saturate at a particular target thickness called the saturation thickness. The energy of each of gamma ray photons continues to decrease as the number of scatterings, the photon undergoes, increases in the sample having finite dimensions. The present experiment is an independent study of energy and intensity distributions of 279-, 320-, 511-, 662 keV, and 1.12 MeV gamma rays multiply backscattered from targets of different atomic numbers and alloys of various thicknesses, and are carried out in a backscattering geometry. The backscattered photons are detected by a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector. The detector response unscrambling, converting the observed pulse-height distribution to a true photonenergyspectrum, is obtained with the help of a 12×12 inverse response matrix. The present experimental results confirm that for thick targets, there is significant contribution of multiply backscattered radiations emerging from the targets, having energy equal to that of singly scattered Compton process. The measured saturation thickness (in units of mean free path) for multiply backscattering of gamma photons is found to be decreasing with increase in energy of incident gamma photons.

It is well known that the earth's atmospheric motion can generally be characterized by the two dimensional quasi-geostrophic approximation, in which the constraints on global integrals of kinetic energy, entrophy and potential vorticity play very important roles in redistributing the wave energy among different scales of motion. Assuming the hypothesis of Kolmogrov's local isotropy, derived a -3 power law of the equilibrium two-dimensional kinetic energyspectrum that entails constant vorticity and zero energy flows from the energy-containing wave number up to the viscous cutoff. In his three dimensional quasi-geostrophic theory, showed that the spectrum function of the vertical scale turbulence - expressible in terms of the available potential energy - possesses the same power law as the two dimensional kinetic energyspectrum. As the slope of kinetic energyspectrum in the inertial range is theoretically related to the predictability of the synoptic scales (Lorenz, 1969), many general circulation models includes a horizontal diffusion to provide reasonable kinetic energy spectra, although the actual power law exhibited in the atmospheric general circulation is controversial. Note that in either the atmospheric modeling or the observational analyses, the proper choice of wave number Index to represent the turbulence scale Is the degree of the Legendre polynomial.

Photon-counting detectors in medical x-ray imaging provide a higher dose efficiency than integrating detectors. Even further possibilities for imaging applications arise, if the energy of each photon counted is measured, as for example K-edge-imaging or optimizing image quality by applying energy weighting factors. In this contribution, we show results of the characterization of the Dosepix detector. This hybrid photon- counting pixel detector allows energy resolved measurements with a novel concept of energy binning included in the pixel electronics. Based on ideas of the Medipix detector family, it provides three different modes of operation: An integration mode, a photon-counting mode, and an energy-binning mode. In energy-binning mode, it is possible to set 16 energy thresholds in each pixel individually to derive a binned energyspectrum in every pixel in one acquisition. The hybrid setup allows using different sensor materials. For the measurements 300 μm Si and 1 mm CdTe were used. The detector matrix consists of 16 x 16 square pixels for CdTe (16 x 12 for Si) with a pixel pitch of 220 μm. The Dosepix was originally intended for applications in the field of radiation measurement. Therefore it is not optimized towards medical imaging. The detector concept itself still promises potential as an imaging detector. We present spectra measured in one single pixel as well as in the whole pixel matrix in energy-binning mode with a conventional x-ray tube. In addition, results concerning the count rate linearity for the different sensor materials are shown as well as measurements regarding energy resolution.

We computationally investigate supercontinuum generation in an As ₂ S₃ solid core photonic crystal fiber (PCF) with a hexagonal cladding of air holes. With a goal of obtaining a supercontinuum output spectrum that can predict what might be seen in an experiment, we investigate the spectral and statistical behavior of a mid-infrared supercontinuum source using a large ensemble average of 10⁶ realizations, in which the input pulse duration and energy vary. The output spectrum is sensitive to small changes (0.1%) in these pulse parameters. We show that the spectrum can be divided into three regions with distinct characteristics: a short-wavelength region with high correlation, a middle-wavelength region with minimal correlation, and a long-wavelength region where the behavior is dominated by a few rare large-bandwidth events. We show that statistically significant fluctuations exist in the experimentally expected output spectrum and that we can reproduce an excellent match to that spectrum with a converged shape and bandwidth using 5000 realizations. PMID:25321598

This dissertation aims at measuring the photonenergy scale combining specialized Monte Carlo simulation with data taken during the combined ATLAS test beam in 2004. This work explains the steps taken to arrive at the photonenergy scale, starting from the knowledge acquired for electrons. The chapters are structured as follows: Chapters 1 and 2 briefly introduce this work and the motivation behind it. Chapter 3 gives an overview of the LHC experiment and the ATLAS detector as a whole. Chapters 4 and 5 address in detail the ATLAS electromagnetic calorimeter and signal reconstruction at the cell level. Chapter 6 concentrates on the setup for the combined test beam with emphasis on the photon run. Chapter 7 details the event selection strategy used for the photon run analysis. Chapter 8 describes the generation and tuning of the special Monte Carlo for the photon run. Chapter 9 focuses on the highly specialized Monte Carlo studies that employed special calibration objects known as calibration hits. Chapter 10 details the methodology behind the measurement of the photon scale and evaluates it in terms of the electromagnetic calorimeter resolution. Chapters 11 and 12 present a summary of the results and the conclusions, respectively.

The difficulty of description of the radiative transfer in disordered photonic crystals arises from the necessity to consider on an equal footing the wave scattering by periodic modulations of the dielectric function and by its random inhomogeneities. We resolve this difficulty by approaching this problem from the standpoint of the general multiple scattering theory in media with an arbitrary regular profile of the dielectric function. We use the general asymptotic solution of the Bethe-Salpeter equation in order to show that for a sufficiently weak disorder the diffusion limit in disordered photonic crystals is presented by incoherent superpositions of the modes of the ideal structure with weights inversely proportional to the respective group velocities. The radiative transfer and the diffusion equations are derived as a relaxation of long scale deviations from this limiting distribution. In particular, it is shown that in general the diffusion is anisotropic unless the crystal has sufficiently rich symmetry, say, the square lattice in 2D or the cubic lattice in 3D. In this case, the diffusion is isotropic and only in this case can the effect of the disorder be characterized by a single mean free path depending on frequency. PMID:21825416

The LVR-15 reactor is a light water research reactor situated at the Research Centre Rez, near Prague. It operates as a multipurpose facility with a maximum thermal power of 10 MW. The reactor core usually contains from 28 to 32 fuel assemblies with a total mass of {sup 235}U of about 5 kg. Emitted radiation from the fuel caused by fission is shielded by moderating water, a steel reactor vessel, and heavy concrete. This paper deals with measurement and analysis of the gamma spectrum near the outer surface of the concrete wall, behind biological shielding, mainly in the 3- to 10-MeV energy range. A portable HPGe detector with a portable multichannel analyzer was used to measure gamma spectra. The origin of energy lines in gamma detector spectra was identified. (authors)

Recently, photon-counting detectors capable of resolving incident x-ray photonenergies have been considered for use in spectral x-ray imaging applications. For reliable use of energy-resolved photon-counting detectors (ERPCDs), energy calibration is an essential procedure prior to their use because variations in responses from each pixel of the ERPCD for incident photons, even at the same energy, are inevitable. Energy calibration can be performed using a variety of methods. In all of these methods, the photon spectra with well-defined peak energies are recorded. Every pixel should be calibrated on its own. In this study, we suggest the use of a conventional polychromatic x-ray source (that is typically used in laboratories) for energy calibration. The energy calibration procedure mainly includes the determination of the peak energies in the spectra, flood-field irradiation, determination of peak channels, and determination of calibration curves (i.e., the slopes and intercepts of linear polynomials). We applied a calibration algorithm to a CdTe ERPCD comprised of 128×128 pixels with a pitch of 0.35 mm using highly attenuated polychromatic x-ray beams to reduce the pulse pile-up effect, and to obtain a narrow-shaped spectrum due to beam hardening. The averaged relative error in calibration curves obtained from 16,384 pixels was about 0.56% for 59.6 keV photons from an Americium radioisotope. This pixel-by-pixel energy calibration enhanced the signal- and contrast-to-noise ratios in images, respectively, by a factor of ~5 and 3 due to improvement in image homogeneity, compared to those obtained without energy calibration. One secondary finding of this study was that the x-ray photon spectra obtained using a common algorithm for computing x-ray spectra reasonably described the peaks in the measured spectra, which implies easier peak detection without the direct measurement of spectra using a separate spectrometer. The proposed method will be a useful alternative to

This quarterly magazine is dedicated to stepping beyond the technical journals to reveal NREL's vital work in a real-world context for our stakeholders. Continuum provides insights into the latest and most impactful clean energy innovations, while spotlighting those talented researchers and unique facilities that make it all happen. This edition focuses on the NREL Spectrum of Clean Energy Innovation.

The flux value of hadrons with E (sup gamma) h or = 5 TeV, where E (sup gamma) h or = is the energy transferred into electromagnetic component is presented. It is shown that the energyspectrum slope beta of hadrons with E h or = 20 TeV is equal to 1.9.

There is an immediate need for technologies that can successfully address homeland security challenges related to the inspection of commercial rail, air and maritime-cargo container inspections for nuclear and radiological devices. The pulsed photonuclear assessment (PPA) technology, developed through collaboration between Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and the Idaho Accelerator Center (IAC) has demonstrated the ability to detect shielded/unshielded nuclear material primarily through the analysis of delayed neutrons and gamma-rays produced via photonuclear reactions. Because of current food irradiation limitations, however, most active photon (i.e. bremsstrahlung) interrogation studies have been performed with electron beam energies at or below 10 MeV. While this energy limit currently applies to cargo inspections, the World Health Organization has indicated that higher energy electron beam operations could be considered for future operations. Clinical applications using photonenergies well in excess of 10 MeV are already well established. Notwithstanding the current limitation of 10 MeV, there is a definite advantage in using higher photonenergies for cargo inspections. At higher energies, several phenomena contribute to increased sensitivity in regards to detecting shielded nuclear material. Two of the most important are: (1) increased ability for source photons to penetrate shielding; and (2) enhanced signature production via increased (γ,n) and (γ,f) cross-sections in materials such as 235U and 239Pu directly leading to faster inspection throughput. Experimental assessments have been conducted for various electron beam energies from 8 to 25 MeV. Increases of up to three orders of magnitude in delayed signatures have been measured over these energy ranges. Through the continued investigation into PPA-based inspection applications using photonenergies greater than 10 MeV, higher detection sensitivities with potentially

High-energy, high fluence rate photon sources are used in radiation oncology for the treatment of a variety of disease sites. Common dosimetry methods for characterizing these sources use energy-integrating devices; however, the most descriptive characterization of these sources are performed with devices that preserve the energy-specific information in the source output. This work used Monte-Carlo- (MC-) and measurement-based spectroscopic methods to characterize two therapeutic-level megavoltage photon sources. MC simulations were performed using the MCNP5 transport code and measurements were performed with a Compton-scattering (CS) technique. Because MC was used extensively in this work, some general MCNP5 investigations were performed to benchmark the techniques used. Limitations in the advanced variance reduction techniques, Doppler-broadening model, and use of phase space files were investigated. Based on the results of these investigations, recommendations were made for using each technique. The validity of the CS technique for use with megavoltage systems was demonstrated using MC simulations of a 6 MV linear accelerator field and measurements of a high dose rate 192Ir source. Following these initial demonstrations, the spectrum of a 60Co teletherapy unit was characterized. Simulations were performed to determine the spectrum's sensitivity to the source model. Multiple measurements were completed using a reverse-electrode germanium (REGe) detector with the CS spectrometry technique. The CS spectra were corrected for detector response and the CS geometry using a novel detector response function that was calculated using MCNP5. The detector response was unfolded using the Gold deconvolution method. Comparisons of the simulated and measured spectra showed agreement in terms of the peak positions, mean spectrumenergy, and relative fluences under specific portions of the spectra. The spectrum of a 6 MV photon field from a Varian Clinac iX linear accelerator was

This study presents the light-spectrum modification of warm white-light-emitting diodes (w-WLEDs) with 3D colloidal photonic crystals (3D CPhCs) to approximate candlelight. The study measures the angular-resolved transmission properties of the w-WLEDs with CPhCs, which exhibit photonic stop bands based on the CPhC photonic band structures. The w-WLEDs with 3D CPhCs produce a low correlated color temperature of 1963 K, a high color-rendering index of 85, and a luminous flux of 22.8 lm (four times that of a candle). This study presents the successful development of a novel low-cost technique to produce candlelight w-WLEDs for use as an indoor light source. PMID:24104827

A novel treatment modality termed energy modulated photon radiotherapy (EMXRT) was investigated. The first step of EMXRT was to determine beam energy for each gantry angle/anatomy configuration from a pool of photonenergy beams (2 to 10 MV) with a newly developed energy selector. An inverse planning system using gradient search algorithm was then employed to optimize photon beam intensity of various beam energies based on presimulated Monte Carlo pencil beam dose distributions in patient anatomy. Finally, 3D dose distributions in six patients of different tumor sites were simulated with Monte Carlo method and compared between EMXRT plans and clinical IMRT plans. Compared to current IMRT technique, the proposed EMXRT method could offer a better paradigm for the radiotherapy of lung cancers and pediatric brain tumors in terms of normal tissue sparing and integral dose. For prostate, head and neck, spine, and thyroid lesions, the EMXRT plans were generally comparable to the IMRT plans. Our feasibility study indicated that lower energy (<6 MV) photon beams could be considered in modern radiotherapy treatment planning to achieve a more personalized care for individual patient with dosimetric gains. PMID:26977413

A novel treatment modality termed energy modulated photon radiotherapy (EMXRT) was investigated. The first step of EMXRT was to determine beam energy for each gantry angle/anatomy configuration from a pool of photonenergy beams (2 to 10 MV) with a newly developed energy selector. An inverse planning system using gradient search algorithm was then employed to optimize photon beam intensity of various beam energies based on presimulated Monte Carlo pencil beam dose distributions in patient anatomy. Finally, 3D dose distributions in six patients of different tumor sites were simulated with Monte Carlo method and compared between EMXRT plans and clinical IMRT plans. Compared to current IMRT technique, the proposed EMXRT method could offer a better paradigm for the radiotherapy of lung cancers and pediatric brain tumors in terms of normal tissue sparing and integral dose. For prostate, head and neck, spine, and thyroid lesions, the EMXRT plans were generally comparable to the IMRT plans. Our feasibility study indicated that lower energy (<6 MV) photon beams could be considered in modern radiotherapy treatment planning to achieve a more personalized care for individual patient with dosimetric gains. PMID:26977413

There has been much interest in possible violations of Lorentz invariance, particularly motivated by quantum gravity theories. It has been suggested that a small amount of Lorentz invariance violation (LIV) could turn of photomeson interactions of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) with photons of the cosmic background radiation and thereby eliminate the resulting sharp steepening in the spectrum of the highest energy CRs predicted by Greisen Zatsepin and Kuzmin (GZK). Recent measurements of the UHECR spectrum reported by the HiRes and Auger collaborations, however, indicate the presence of the GZK effect. We present the results of a detailed calculation of the modification of the UHECR spectrum caused by LIV using the formalism of Coleman and Glashow. We then compare these results with the experimental UHECR data from Auger and HiRes. Based on these data, we find a best fit amount of LIV of 4.5+1:5 ..4:5 x 10(exp -23),consistent with an upper limit of 6 x 10(exp -23). This possible amount of LIV can lead to a recovery of the cosmic ray spectrum at higher energies than presently observed. Such an LIV recovery effect can be tested observationally using future detectors.

We design, fabricate, and experimentally demonstrate a compact thermo-optic gate switch comprising a 3.78 μm-long coupled L0-type photonic crystal microcavities on a silicon-on-insulator substrate. A nanohole is inserted in the center of each individual L0 photonic crystal microcavity. Coupling between identical microcavities gives rise to bonding and anti-bonding states of the coupled photonic molecules. The coupled photonic crystal microcavities are numerically simulated and experimentally verified with a 6 nm-wide flat-bottom resonance in its transmission spectrum, which enables wider operational spectrum range than microring resonators. An integrated micro-heater is in direct contact with the silicon core to efficiently drive the device. The thermo-optic switch is measured with an optical extinction ratio of 20 dB, an on-off switching power of 18.2 mW, a thermo-optic tuning efficiency of 0.63 nm/mW, a rise time of 14.8 μs, and a fall time of 18.5 μs. The measured on-chip loss on the transmission band is as low as 1 dB.

The "perfect" vortex is a new class of optical vortex beam having ring radius independent of its topological charge (order). One of the simplest techniques to generate such beams is the Fourier transformation of the Bessel-Gauss beams. The variation in ring radius of such vortices require Fourier lenses of different focal lengths and or complicated imaging setup. Here we report a novel experimental scheme to generate perfect vortex of any ring radius using a convex lens and an axicon. As a proof of principle, using a lens of focal length f = 200 mm, we have varied the radius of the vortex beam across 0.3-1.18 mm simply by adjusting the separation between the lens and axicon. This is also a simple scheme to measure the apex angle of an axicon with ease. Using such vortices we have studied non-collinear interaction of photons having orbital angular momentum (OAM) in spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) process and observed that the angular spectrum of the SPDC photons are independent of OAM of the pump photons rather depends on spatial profile of the pump beam. In the presence of spatial walk-off effect in nonlinear crystals, the SPDC photons have asymmetric angular spectrum with reducing asymmetry at increasing vortex radius. PMID:26912184

Modern treatment planning systems based on Monte Carlo technique require, in order to calculate the dose, knowledge of the photon spectra produced by medical linear accelerators. The accuracy of the dose determination will increase when the spectra are better known. In the present work the 6 MV photonspectrum of a Varian 2100C linear accelerator was determined from attenuation measurements performed in large fields. The iterative algorithm written in MathematicaRTM used as input data Monte Carlo-predetermined pencil beam monoenergetic scatter kernels for various water phantom thicknesses, open beam fluences and beam fluences measured in air with phantoms of different thicknesses placed in the beam. The experimental data was measured using an ionization chamber and two types of film, GAFCHROMICRTMEBT film and KODAK EDR2 film. The iteration started with a flat spectrum used to calculate the polyenergetic kernels for each water thickness. The spectrum-dependent scatter for different thicknesses of water was calculated convolving the corresponding polyenergetic kernel with the signal obtained with the water phantom removed from the beam. For each thickness of water, transmissions on the central axis were given by the ratios of central axis primary fluences to the open beam fluence. The reconstructed energyspectrum was determined from the transmission values using the simulated annealing technique. Simulated annealing was preferred because it reaches the true global minimum better than other optimization techniques. The spectrum determined at the end of the simulated annealing loop was compared to the input spectrum of the general algorithm. If they matched within acceptable errors this was the final primary spectrum. If not, the spectrum was fed as input for a new iteration. Monte Carlo monoenergetic scatter kernels were derived for six water thicknesses. The amplitude of the monoenergetic scatter kernels increases with energy and water phantom thickness. For thin

For the purpose of measuring plutonium mass in spent fuel, a delayed neutron instrument is of particular interest since, if properly designed, the delayed neutron signal from {sup 235}U is significantly stronger than the signature from {sup 239}Pu or {sup 241}Pu. A key factor in properly designing a delayed neutron instrument is to minimize the fission of {sup 238}U. This minimization is achieved by keeping the interrogating neutron spectrum below {approx} 1 MeV. In the context of spent fuel measurements it is desirable to use a 14 MeV (deuterium and tritium) neutron generator for economic reasons. Spectrum tailoring is the term used to describe the inclusion of material between the 14 MeV neutrons and the interrogated object that lower the neutron energy through nuclear reactions and moderation. This report quantifies the utility of different material combination for spectrum tailoring.

The mass attenuation coefficients (μs) for five different soil samples were measured at 661.6, 1173.2 and 1332.5 keV photonenergies. The soil samples were separately irradiated with (137)Cs and (60)Co (370 kBq) radioactive point gamma sources. The measurements were made by performing transmission experiments with a 2″ × 2″ NaI(Tl) scintillation detector, which had an energy resolution of 7% at 0.662 MeV for the gamma-rays from the decay of (137)Cs. The effective atomic numbers (Zeff) and the effective electron densities (Neff) were determined experimentally and theoretically using the obtained μs values for the soil samples. Furthermore, the Zeff and Neff values of the soil samples were computed for the total photon interaction cross-sections using theoretical data over a wide energy region ranging from 1 keV to 15 MeV. The experimental values of the soils were found to be in good agreement with the theoretical values. Sandy loam and sandy clay loam soils demonstrated poor photonenergy absorption characteristics. However, clay loam and clay soils had good photonenergy absorption characteristics. PMID:23179375

The mass attenuation coefficients (μs) for five different soil samples were measured at 661.6, 1173.2 and 1332.5 keV photonenergies. The soil samples were separately irradiated with 137Cs and 60Co (370 kBq) radioactive point gamma sources. The measurements were made by performing transmission experiments with a 2″ × 2″ NaI(Tl) scintillation detector, which had an energy resolution of 7% at 0.662 MeV for the gamma-rays from the decay of 137Cs. The effective atomic numbers (Zeff) and the effective electron densities (Neff) were determined experimentally and theoretically using the obtained μs values for the soil samples. Furthermore, the Zeff and Neff values of the soil samples were computed for the total photon interaction cross-sections using theoretical data over a wide energy region ranging from 1 keV to 15 MeV. The experimental values of the soils were found to be in good agreement with the theoretical values. Sandy loam and sandy clay loam soils demonstrated poor photonenergy absorption characteristics. However, clay loam and clay soils had good photonenergy absorption characteristics. PMID:23179375

The effects of pion (PI) production are expected to play an important role in radiation exposures in the upper atmosphere or on the Martian surface. Nuclear databases for describing pion production are developed for radiation transport codes to support these studies. We analyze the secondary energyspectrum of pions produced in nucleon-nucleon (NN) collisions in the relativistic one-pion exchange model. Parametric formulas of the isospin cross sections for one-pion production channels are discussed and are used to renormalize the model spectrum. Energy spectra for the deuteron related channels (NN yields dPi) are also described.

High resolution, direct numerical simulations of the three-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations are carried out to study the energyspectrum in the dissipation range. An energyspectrum of the form A(k/k( sub d))(sup alpha) exp[- betak/k(sub d) is confirmed. The possible values of the parameters alpha and beta, as well as their dependence on Revnolds numbers and length scales, are investigated, showing good agreement with recent theoretical predictions. A "bottleneck'-type effect is reported at k/k(sub d) approximately 4, exhibiting a possible transition from near-dissipation to far- dissipation.

Bandgap engineering of a photonic crystal is highly desirable for photon management in photonic sensors and devices. Aperiodic photonic crystals (APCs) can provide unprecedented opportunities for much more versatile photon management, due to increased degrees of freedom in the design and the unique properties brought about by the aperiodic structures as compared to their periodic counterparts. However, many efforts still remain on conceptual approaches, practical achievements in APCs are rarely reported due to the difficulties in fabrication. Here, we report a simple but highly controllable current-pulse anodization process to design and fabricate TiO2 nanotube APCs. By coupling an APC into the photoanode of a dye-sensitized solar cell, we demonstrate the concept of using APC to achieve nearly full-visible-spectrum light harvesting, as evidenced by both experimental and simulated results. It is anticipated that this work will lead to more fruitful practical applications of APCs in high-efficiency photovoltaics, sensors and optoelectronic devices. PMID:25245854

The recent results on direct photons and dileptons in high energy heavy ion collisions, obtained particularly at RHIC and LHC are reviewed. The results are new not only in terms of the probes, but also in terms of the precision. We shall discuss the physics learned from the results.

Calibrating the absolute energy scale of air showers initiated by ultrahigh energy (UHE) cosmic rays is an important experimental issue. Currently, the corresponding systematic uncertainty amounts to 14%-21% using the fluorescence technique. Here, we describe a new, independent method which can be applied if ultrahigh energyphotons are observed. While such photon-initiated showers have not yet been identified, the capabilities of present and future cosmic-ray detectors may allow their discovery. The method makes use of the geomagnetic conversion of UHE photons (preshower effect), which significantly affects the subsequent longitudinal shower development. The conversion probability depends on photonenergy and can be calculated accurately by QED. The comparison of the observed fraction of converted photon events to the expected one allows the determination of the absolute energy scale of the observed photon air showers and, thus, an energy calibration of the air shower experiment. We provide details of the method and estimate the accuracy that can be reached as a function of the number of observed photon showers. Already a very small number of UHE photons may help to test and fix the absolute energy scale. PMID:24785024

Atmospheric neutrino fluxes depend on the energyspectrum of primary nucleons entering the top of the atmosphere. Before the advent of AMANDA and the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, measurements of the neutrino fluxes were generally below ~ 1TeV , a regime in which a simple energy power law sufficed to describe the primary spectrum. Now, IceCube's muon neutrino data extends beyond 1PeV , including a combination of neutrinos from astrophysical sources with background from atmospheric neutrinos. At such high energies, the steepening at the knee of the primary spectrum must be accounted for. Here, we describe a semi-analytical approach for calculating the atmospheric differential neutrino fluxes at high energies. The input is a realistic primary spectrum consisting of 4 populations with distinct energy cutoffs, each with up to 7 representative nuclei, where the parameters were extracted from a global fit. We show the effect of each component on the atmospheric neutrino spectra, above 10TeV . The resulting features follow directly from recent air shower measurements included in the fit. Felipe Campos Penha gratefully acknowledges financial support from CAPES (Processo BEX 5348/14-5), CNPq (Processo 142180/2012-2), and the Bartol Research Institute.

In this paper we report on a new study of prompt γ -rays from the spontaneous fission of 252Cf . Photons were measured in coincidence with fission fragments by employing four different lanthanide halide scintillation detectors. Together with results from a previous work of ours, we determined characteristic parameters with high precision, such as the average γ -ray multiplicity ν¯γ=(8.29 ±0.13 ), the average energy per photon ɛγ=(0.80 ±0.02 ) MeV, and the total γ -ray energy release per fission Eγ ,tot=(6.65 ±0.10 ) MeV. The excellent agreement between the individual results obtained in all six measurements proves the good repeatability of the applied experimental technique. The impact of low-energyphotons, i.e., below 500 keV, on prompt fission γ -ray spectra characteristics has been investigated as well by comparing our results with those taken with the DANCE detector system, which appears to suffer from absorption effects in the low-energy region. Correction factors for this effect were estimated, giving results comparable to ours as well as to historical ones. From this we demonstrate that the different techniques of determining the average γ -ray multiplicity, either from a properly measured and normalized spectrum or a measured multiplicity distribution, give equivalent and consistent results.

High energyphoton interrogation of waste containers, with the aim of producing photo nuclear reactions, in specific materials, holds the potential of good penetration and rapid analysis. Compact high energy ({le} 10 MeV) photon sources in the form of electron linacs producing bremstrahlung radiation are readily available. Work with the Varitron variable energy accelerator at ISU will be described. Advantages and limitations of the technique will be discussed. Using positive ion induced neutron producing reactions, it is possible to generate neutrons in a specific energy range. By this means, variable penetration and specific reactions can be excited in the assayed material. Examples using the {sup 3}H(p,n) and {sup 7}Li(p,n) reactions as neutron sources will be discussed. 4 refs., 7 figs.

The mean path length of photons undergoing repeated scatterings in media of large optical thickness is calculated from accurate numerical solutions of the transfer equation including the effect of frequency redistribution characteristic of combined Doppler and natural broadening. Energy loss by continuous absorption processes, such as ionization or dust absorption, is discussed, and asymptotic scaling laws for the energy loss, the mean path length, and the mean number of scatterings are inferred from the numerical data.

Understanding the space radiation environment is critical to future manned lunar missions, and this includes photons. In this paper, the attenuation properties of gamma rays in 20 lunar soil and rocks, found at landing site during the Apollo 17, are investigated. Effective atomic numbers Zeff for photon interaction and photonenergy absorption for a wide range of photonenergies are determined. The results indicate that within the wide compositional range of the Apollo 17 samples, three categories, each one have broadly similar attenuation properties. As well as the results showed that the Zeff has been successfully characterize and correlate the different soil samples with mixing of prevalent local rocks.

Techniques for in vivo tissue characterization based on scattered photons have usually been confined to evaluating coherent and Compton peaks. However, information can also be obtained from the energy analysis of the Compton scattered distribution. This paper looks at the extension of a technique validated by the authors for characterizing tissues composed of low-atomic-number elements. To this end, an EDXRS (energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry) computer simulation procedure was performed and applied to test the validity of a figure of merit able to characterize binary compounds. This figure of merit is based on the photon fluence values in a restricted energy interval of the measured distribution of incoherently scattered photons. After careful experimental tests with 59.54 keV incident photons at scattering angles down to 60degrees, the simulation procedure was applied to quasi-monochromatic and polychromatic high-radiance sources. The results show that the characterization by the figure of merit, which operates satisfactorily with monochromatic sources, is unsatisfactory in the latter cases, which seem to favour a different parameter for compound characterization. PMID:15552121

A detector of the emulsion chamber type is used to measure the energyspectrum of cosmic-ray electrons. Two large emulsion chambers, each having an area of 40 by 50 sq cm, are exposed for about 25.5 hr at an average pressure altitude of 3.9 mbar. About 500 high-energy cascades (no less than about 600 GeV) are detected by searching for dark spots on the X-ray films. A power-law energy dependence formula is derived for the spectrum of primary cosmic-ray electrons in the energy region over 100 GeV. The results are in good agreement with the transition curves obtained previously by theoretical and Monte Carlo calculations.

The condition for magnetospheric wave growth in the presence of anisotropic charged particle distributions is used to extend the Kennel-Petschek theory that traditionally imposes an upper bound on the integral flux of charged particles at energies above a certain threshold to provide a limit on the differential flux at any energy above this threshold. A closed-form expression is derived for the limiting energyspectrum consistent with marginal occurrence of a magnetospheric maser at all wave frequencies below a certain fraction of the electron or proton gyrofrequency. The bounded integral can be recast in such a way that repeated differentiations with respect to v(parallel) actually generate a closed expression for the limiting form of the velocity space distribution, and thus for the limiting energyspectrum of the corresponding particles, whenever the anisotropy parameter is an integer.

A new Cerenkov photon density spectrum measurement is reported. The derivation of the primary cosmic ray energyspectrum for energies from 3x10 to the 15th power eV to 3x10 to the 16th power eV are presented.

There has been much interest in possible violations of Lorentz invariance, particularly motivated by quantum gravity theories. It has been suggested that a small amount of Lorentz invariance violation (LIV) could turn off photomeson interactions of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) with photons of the cosmic background radiation and thereby eliminate the resulting sharp steepening in the spectrum of the highest energy CRs predicted by Greisen Zatsepin and Kuzmin (GZK). Recent measurements of the UHECR spectrum reported by the HiRes and Auger collaborations, however, indicate the presence of the GZK effect. We present the results of a detailed calculation of the modification of the UHECR spectrum caused by LIV using the formalism of Coleman and Glashow. We then use a chi-squared analysis to compare our results with the experimental UHECR data and thereby place limits on the amount of LIV. We also discuss how a small amount of LIV that is consistent with the experimental data can still lead to a recovery of the cosmic ray flux at higher energies than presently observed.

Any injection of electromagnetically interacting particles during the cosmic dark ages will lead to increased ionization, heating, production of Lyman-α photons and distortions to the energyspectrum of the cosmic microwave background, with potentially observable consequences. In this paper we describe numerical results for the low-energy electrons and photons produced by the cooling of particles injected at energies from keV to multi-TeV scales, at arbitrary injection redshifts (but focusing on the post-recombination epoch). We use these data, combined with existing calculations modeling the cooling of these low-energy particles, to estimate the resulting contributions to ionization, excitation and heating of the gas, and production of low-energyphotons below the threshold for excitation and ionization. We compute corrected deposition-efficiency curves for annihilating dark matter, and demonstrate how to compute equivalent curves for arbitrary energy-injection histories. These calculations provide the necessary inputs for the limits on dark matter annihilation presented in the accompanying paper I, but also have potential applications in the context of dark matter decay or deexcitation, decay of other metastable species, or similar energy injections from new physics. We make our full results publicly available at http://nebel.rc.fas.harvard.edu/epsilon, to facilitate further independent studies. In particular, we provide the full low-energy electron and photon spectra, to allow matching onto more detailed codes that describe the cooling of such particles at low energies.

It has been suggested that hypernova remnants, with a substantial amount of energy in semi-relativistic ejecta, can accelerate intermediate mass or heavy nuclei to ultrahigh energies and provide a sufficient amount of energy in cosmic rays to account for the observed flux. We here calculate the expected energyspectrum and chemical composition of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays from such semi-relativistic hypernovae. With a chemical composition equal to that of the hypernova ejecta and a flat or hard spectrum for cosmic rays at the sources, the spectrum and composition of the propagated cosmic rays observed at the Earth can be compatible with the measurements by the Pierre Auger Observatory.

The linear energy transfer (LET) is the energy deposited per unit path length of charged particle traversing matter. For estimating the rate of damage from single-hit phenomena, the quantity that best combines the radiation environment, orbital situation, and spacecraft shielding is the linear energy transfer (LET) spectrum at the device location. This experiment will measure the LET spectrum behind different shielding configurations for approxmately 1 year. The shielding will be increased in increments of approximately 1 G/sq cm up to a maximum shieldng of 16 G/sq cm. In addition to providing critical information to future spacecraft designers, these measurements will also provide data that will be extremely valuable to other experiments on LDEF.

The linear energy transfer (LET) is the energy deposited per unit path length of charged particle traversing matter. For estimating the rate of damage from single-hit phenomena, the quantity that best combines the radiation environment, orbital situation, and spacecraft shielding is the linear energy transfer (LET) spectrum at the device location. This experiment will measure the LET spectrum behind different shielding configurations for approximately 1 year. The shielding will be increased in increments of approximately 1 G/sq cm up to a maximum shieldng of 16 G/sq cm. In addition to providing critical information to future spacecraft designers, these measurements will also provide data that will be extremely valuable to other experiments on LDEF.

Experimental evidence has accumulated to indicate that wakefield acceleration (WFA) accompanies intense and sometimes coherent emission of radiation such as from betatron radiation. The investigation of this issue has additional impetus nowadays because we are learning (1) there is an additional acceleration process of the ponderomotive acceleration; (2) WFA may become relevant in much higher density regimes; (3) WFA has been proposed as the mechanism for extreme high energy cosmic ray acceleration and gamma ray bursts for active galactic nuclei. These require us to closely examine the radiative mechanisms in WFA anew. We report studies of radiation from wakefield (self-injected betatron) and ponderomotive (laser field) mechanisms in scalings of the frequency and intensity of the driver, as well as the plasma density.

Purpose: Since the first publications on intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) in the early 1980s almost all efforts have been focused on fairly time consuming dynamic or segmental multileaf collimation. With narrow fast scanned photon beams, the flexibility and accuracy in beam shaping increases, not least in combination with fast penumbra trimming multileaf collimators. Previously, experiments have been performed with full range targets, generating a broad bremsstrahlung beam, in combination with multileaf collimators or material compensators. In the present publication, the first measurements with fast narrow high energy (50 MV) scanned photon beams are presented indicating an interesting performance increase even though some of the hardware used were suboptimal. Methods: Inverse therapy planning was used to calculate optimal scanning patterns to generate dose distributions with interesting properties for fast IMRT. To fully utilize the dose distributional advantages with scanned beams, it is necessary to use narrow high energy beams from a thin bremsstrahlung target and a powerful purging magnet capable of deflecting the transmitted electron beam away from the generated photons onto a dedicated electron collector. During the present measurements the scanning system, purging magnet, and electron collimator in the treatment head of the MM50 racetrack accelerator was used with 3-6 mm thick bremsstrahlung targets of beryllium. The dose distributions were measured with diodes in water and with EDR2 film in PMMA. Monte Carlo simulations with geant4 were used to study the influence of the electrons transmitted through the target on the photon pencil beam kernel. Results: The full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the scanned photon beam was 34 mm measured at isocenter, below 9.5 cm of water, 1 m from the 3 mm Be bremsstrahlung target. To generate a homogeneous dose distribution in a 10 x 10 cm{sup 2} field, the authors used a spot matrix of 100 equal intensity

Diagnostic radiology typically uses x-ray beams between 25 and 150 kVp. Plastic scintillation detectors (PSDs) are potentially successful candidates as field dosimeters but careful selection of the scintillator is crucial. It has been demonstrated that they can suffer from energy dependence in the low-energy region, an undesirable dosimeter characteristic. This dependence is partially due to the nonlinear light yield of the scintillator to the low-energy electrons set in motion by the photon beam. In this work, PSDs made of PMMA, PVT or polystyrene were studied for the x-ray beam range 25 to 100 kVp. For each kVp data has been acquired for additional aluminium filtrations of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 mm. Absolute dose in the point of measurement was obtained with an ionization chamber calibrated to dose in water. From the collected data, detector sensitivities were obtained as function of the beam kVp and additional filtration. Using Monte Carlo simulations relative scintillator sensitivities were computed. For some of the scintillators these sensitivities show strong energy-dependence for beam average energy below 35 keV for each additional filtration but fair constancy above. One of the scintillators (BC-404) has smaller energy-dependence at low photon average energy and could be considered a candidate for applications (like mammography) where beam energy has small span.

The measured cosmic ray energyspectrum exhibits clear structure (the knee) at approx 3 x 10 to the 15th power eV (sea level shower size approx 3 x 10 to the 5th power particles). Additionally, at energies in this general region, there occur apparent changes in shower development such that the observed characteristics of showers at this energy appear different to those characteristics observed at somewhat higher energies. At energies just below this region, the cosmic ray anisotropy amplitude apparently begins a progressive increase with energy. The latter effect does not clearly fit with the first two since there appears to be no significant change exactly at the knee. However, the phase of the first harmonic of the anisotropy appears to show a substantial change just where the energyspectrum shows structure and in the middle of the shower development changes. The first harmonic phase appears to change from approx. 18 hours R.A. to approx. 5 hours R.A. as the energy of observation moves through the knee. In this paper the latter change is examined in some detail by taking into account information contained in the second harmonic of the anisotropy.

The energyspectrum of electrons with energies approximately 10 to approximately 180 MeV measured with the electron telescope on the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft in interplanetary space from 1978 to 1983 is reported. The kinetic energy of electrons is determined by double dE/dx measurements from the first two detectors (D1,D2) of a stack of eight solid state detectors and by the range of particle penetration into the remaining six detectors (D3 to D8) which are interleaved with tungsten absorbers.

We have proposed that a new type of microwave resonator, based on Photonic Band Gap (PBG) structures, may be particularly useful for high energy accelerators. We provide an explanation of the PBG concept and present data which illustrate some of the special properties associated with such structures. Further evaluation of the utility of PBG resonators requires laboratory testing of model structures at cryogenic temperatures, and at high fields. We provide a brief discussion of our test program, which is currently in progress.

Recent studies of the CMS collaboration are presented on the sensitivity to searches for large (ADD) extra dimensions in channels with missing transverse energy (MET), i.e. the channels jets plus MET and photon plus MET. These studies are based on detailed detector simulation, including all Standard Model backgrounds. Particular emphasis is given to possible early discoveries, i.e. with 100 pb{sup -1} or less. Projected 95% CL exclusion limits as function of luminosity are presented as well.

A low-energy {gamma}{gamma} collider has been discussed in the context of a testbed for a {gamma}{gamma} interaction region at the Next Linear Collider(NLC). We consider the production of heavy mesons at such a testbed using Compton-backscattered photons and demonstrate that their production rivals or exceeds those by BELLE, BABAR or LEP where they are produced indirectly via virtual {gamma}{gamma} luminosities.

Recent studies of the CMS collaboration are presented on the sensitivity to searches for large (ADD) extra dimensions in channels with missing transverse energy (MET), i.e. the channels jets plus MET and photon plus MET. These studies are based on detailed detector simulation, including all Standard Model backgrounds. Particular emphasis is given to possible early discoveries, i.e. with 100 pb-1 or less. Projected 95% CL exclusion limits as function of luminosity are presented as well.

Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CdZnTe or CZT) is a polycrystalline radiation detector that has been investigated over the years for a variety of applications including Constellation X-ray space mission [1] and direct-conversion medical imaging such as digital mammography [2]. Due to its high conversion gain and low electron-hole pair creation energy (~4.43 eV) [3], it has found use in high end, photon counting medical imaging applications including positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). However, its potential in low photonenergy applications has not been fully explored. In this work, we explore the capacity of the CZT material to count low photonenergies (6 keV - 20 keV). These energies are of direct relevance to applications in gamma ray breast brachytheraphy and mammography, X-ray protein crystallography, X-ray mammography and mammography tomosynthesis. We also present a design that integrates the CZT direct conversion detector with an inhouse fabricated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) thin film transistor (TFT) passive pixel sensor (PPS) array. A CZT photoconductor (2 cm x 2 cm size, 5-mm-thick) prepared by the traveling heat method (THM) from RedlenTM is characterized. The current-voltage characteristics reveal a resistivity of 3.3 x 1011 Ω•cm and a steady state dark current in the range of nA. Photocurrent transients under different biases and illumination pulses are studied to investigate photogeneration and the charge trapping process. It is found that charge trapping plays a more significant role in transient behavior at low biases and low frequency.

The energyspectrum of electrons with energies approx 10 to approx 180 MeV measured with the electron telescope on the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft in interplanetary space from 1978 to 1983 is studied. The kinetic energy of electrons is determined by double dE/dx measurements from the first two detectors (D1, D2) of a stack of eight solid state detectors and by the range of particle penetration into the remaining six detectors (D3 to D8) which are interleaved with tungsten absorbers. From 1978 to 1983 (radial range approx 2 to approx 12 AU) electrons of Jovian origin were clearly observable for electrons stopping in D3(e or MeV) and in D4 (E or = 8 MeV). . For electrons stopping in D5 (E or = 12 MeV), the jovian flux dominated the galactic electron flux for a period of approximately one year near the encounter with Jupiter. Jovian electrons were also observed in D6(E or = 21 Mev) 1 MeV but not in D7(E 28 MeV). A detailed interpretation of the electron variations in all energy channels depends on an accurate subtraction of background induced by energetic protons of a few 100 MeV. This substraction is facilitated by laboratory calibration results at several energies. Further results on the differential energyspectrum of Jovian electrons and limits on the maximum detected energies will be reported.

Measurement of the emission wavelength and the spectral content of the photon radiation is essential information for both machine and experimental physicists at a free-electron laser (FEL) user facility. Knowledge of the photon beam spectral properties is needed during the machine optimization and for performing machine studies (i.e. monitoring the change of the FEL output as a function of the machine parameters). The experimentalists, on the other hand, need to know the photon beam spectral distribution of the source, shot to shot, to discriminate the acquired data. Consequently, the main requirement for the instrument, supposed to obtain this information, is the capability of working on-line and shot-to-shot, with minimal perturbation of the beam delivered to the experimental stations. Starting from the grating fundamental equations, the conceptual design of the FERMI Pulse-Resolved Energy Spectrometer: Transparent and On-line (PRESTO) is presented, explaining the optical design in detail. The performance of PRESTO, in terms of resolving power, efficiency and spectral response, is also discussed. Finally, some useful features beyond the usual measurement of the energyspectrum are reported, as they have been routinely used by both machine and experimental physicists. PMID:26698043

The very large collection area of ground-based {gamma}-ray telescopes gives them a substantial advantage over balloon or satellite based instruments in the detection of very-high-energy (>600 GeV) cosmic-ray electrons. Here we present the electron spectrum derived from data taken with the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) of imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. In this measurement, the first of this type, we are able to extend the measurement of the electron spectrum beyond the range accessible to direct measurements. We find evidence for a substantial steepening in the energyspectrum above 600 GeV compared to lower energies.

Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) compares the severity of damage induced by a radiation under test at a dose D relative to the reference radiation Dx for the same biological endpoint. RBE is an important parameter in estimation of risk from exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). The present work provides a review of the recently published data and the knowledge of the RBE of low energy electrons and photons. The review presents RBE values derived from experimental data and model calculations including cell inactivation, chromosome aberration, cell transformation, micronuclei formation and induction of double-strand breaks. Biophysical models, including physical features of radiation track, and microdosimetry parameters are presented, analysed and compared with experimental data. The biological effects of low energy electrons and photons are of particular interest in radiation biology as these are strongly absorbed in micrometer and sub-micrometer layers of tissue. RBE values not only depend on the electron and photonenergies but also on the irradiation condition, cell type and experimental conditions.

We present theoretical expectations for non-thermal emission due to the bulk Comptonization at the ultra-relativistic shock breakout. We calculate the transfer of photons emitted from the shocked matter with a Monte Carlo code fully taking into account special relativity. As a hydrodynamical model, we use the self-similar solution of Nakayama and Shigeyama. Our calculations reveal that the spectral shape exhibits a double peak or a single peak depending on the shock temperature at breakout; if it is significantly smaller than the rest energy of an electron, the spectrum has a double peak. We also include a few sample light curves, and estimate the total radiation energy. In comparison with observations of γ-ray bursts, a part of the higher energy component in the spectra and the total energy can be reproduced by some parameter sets. Meanwhile, the lower energy counterpart in the Band function is not reproduced by our results and the duration seems too short to represent an entire γ-ray burst. Therefore the subsequent phase will constitute the lower energy part of the spectrum.

Traditional photonic sensing based on the change of balanced reflection of photonic structures can hardly distinguish chemical species with similar refractive indices. Here a sensing method based on the dynamic reflection spectra (DRS) of photonic crystal gel has been developed to distinguish even homologues, isomers and solvents with similar structures and physical properties. There are inherent relationships between solvent properties, diffusion behaviour and evolution of reflection signals, so that the geometric characteristics of DRS pattern including ascending/descending, colour changes, splitting/merging and curvature of reflection band can be utilized to recognize different organic solvents. With adequate solvents being tested, a database of DRS patterns can be established, which provide a standard to identify an unknown solvent. PMID:26082186

The energies and energy spectra of the positron and electron beams emerging from the SLC Linac must be carefully maintained so that the beams can be transported through the Arcs to the Final Focus without phase space dilution and also to specify the collision energy. A fastback system has been designed and constructed to control these parameters. The energies and energy spectra are measured nondestructively using position monitors and synchrotron radiation width monitors. The controls consist of rf phases in the Damping Rings, SLED timing, and rf amplitude. Theoretical aspects of the feedback process, algorithms, and operational experience are discussed.

We present first results of a systematic study of the structure of the low-energy limit of the one-loop photon-graviton amplitudes induced by massive scalars and spinors. Our main objective is the search of KLT-type relations where effectively two photons merge into a graviton. We find such a relation at the graviton-photon-photon level. We also derive the diffeomorphism Ward identity for the 1PI one-graviton-N-photon amplitudes.

The increasing interest of the medical community to radioinduced second malignancies due to photoneutrons in patients undergoing high-energy radiotherapy, has stimulated in recent years the study of peripheral doses, including the development of some dedicated active detectors. Although these devices are designed to respond to neutrons only, their parasitic photon response is usually not identically zero and anisotropic. The impact of these facts on measurement accuracy can be important, especially in points close to the photon field-edge. A simple method to estimate the photon contribution to detector readings is to cover it with a thermal neutron absorber with reduced secondary photon emission, such as a borated rubber. This technique was applied to the TNRD (Thermal Neutron Rate Detector), recently validated for thermal neutron measurements in high-energyphoton radiotherapy. The positive results, together with the accessibility of the method, encourage its application to other detectors and different clinical scenarios. PMID:27337649

We reanalyze the Fermi spectra of the Geminga and Vela pulsars. We find that the spectrum of Geminga above the break is well approximated by a simple power law without the exponential cutoff, making Geminga's spectrum similar to that of Crab. Vela's broadband {gamma}-ray spectrum is equally well fit with both the exponential cutoff and the double power-law shapes. In the broadband double power-law fits, for a typical Fermi spectrum of a bright {gamma}-ray pulsar, most of the errors accumulate due to the arbitrary parameterization of the spectral roll-off. In addition, a power law with an exponential cutoff gives an acceptable fit for the underlying double power-law spectrum for a very broad range of parameters, making such fitting procedures insensitive to the underlying Fermi photonspectrum. Our results have important implications for the mechanism of pulsar high-energy emission. A number of observed properties of {gamma}-ray pulsars-i.e., the broken power-law spectra without exponential cutoffs and stretching in the case of Crab beyond the maximal curvature limit, spectral breaks close to or exceeding the maximal breaks due to curvature emission, patterns of the relative intensities of the leading and trailing pulses in the Crab repeated in the X-ray and {gamma}-ray regions, presence of profile peaks at lower energies aligned with {gamma}-ray peaks-all point to the inverse Compton origin of the high-energy emission from majority of pulsars.

The status of the High Energy Diffraction Microscopy (HEDM) program at the 1-ID beam line of the Advanced Photon Source is reported. HEDM applies high energy synchrotron radiation for the grain and sub-grain scale structural and mechanical characterization of polycrystalline bulk materials in situ during thermomechanical loading. Case studies demonstrate the mapping of grain boundary topology, the evaluation of stress tensors of individual grains during tensile deformation and comparison to a finite element modeling simulation, and the characterization of evolving dislocation structure. Complementary information is obtained by post mortem electron microscopy on the same sample volume previously investigated by HEDM.

At sufficiently high energies, the wavelengths of electrons and photons are short enough to only interact with one atom at time, leading to the popular %E2%80%9Cindependent-atom approximation%E2%80%9D. We attempted to incorporate atomic structure in the generation of cross sections (which embody the modeled physics) to improve transport at lower energies. We document our successes and failures. This was a three-year LDRD project. The core team consisted of a radiation-transport expert, a solid-state physicist, and two DFT experts.

We describe a non-perturbative method for computing the energy band structures of one-dimensional models with general point potentials sitting at equally spaced sites. This is done thanks to a Bethe ansatz approach and the method is applicable even when periodicity is broken, that is when Bloch's theorem is not valid any more. We derive the general equation governing the energyspectrum and illustrate its use in various situations. In particular, we get exact results for boundary effects. We also study non-perturbatively the effects of impurities in such systems. Finally, we discuss the possibility of including interactions between the particles of these systems.

Directly modulated semiconductor lasers are widely used, compact light sources in optical communications. Semiconductors can also be used to generate nonclassical light; in fact, CMOS-compatible silicon chips can be used to generate pairs of single photons at room temperature. Unlike the classical laser, the photon-pair source requires control over a two-dimensional joint spectral intensity (JSI) and it is not possible to process the photons separately, as this could destroy the entanglement. Here we design a photon-pair source, consisting of planar lightwave components fabricated using CMOS-compatible lithography in silicon, which has the capability to vary the JSI. By controlling either the optical pump wavelength, or the temperature of the chip, we demonstrate the ability to select different JSIs, with a large variation in the Schmidt number. Such control can benefit high-dimensional communications where detector-timing constraints can be relaxed by realizing a large Schmidt number in a small frequency range. PMID:25410792

We investigate the dispersion relations of two-dimensional photonic crystals made of cylindrical rods of uniaxial polar materials that exhibit transverse phonon-polariton excitations. The rods are considered to be embedded in a dielectric background. The photonic properties are obtained with the use of the finite-difference time domain (FDTD) method and the auxiliary differential equation (ADE) technique. The anisotropy of the dielectric function is explicitly considered using an empirical approach that assigns different weights to contributions of the parallel (z) and transversal (t) polaritonic relations. The effective dielectric function is then expressed as a weighted combination of the longitudinal and transversal components: ε (ω) =αzεz (ω) +αtεt (ω) . Different sets of values of the coefficients αz and αt have been considered. The frequencies of the allowed electromagnetic modes are determined as the local maxima of the spectral analysis using a fast Fourier transform (FFT). The particular case of a square photonic crystal superlattice geometry is analyzed, and input data corresponding to phonon frequencies of wurtzite nitride semiconductors is used. It is shown that larger values of the quantity |νz,T -νt,T | are desirable if the associated dielectric anisotropy is used as a tool for tuning photonic properties in the system.

Anticommutator Green’s functions and the energyspectrum of C{sub 60} fullerene are calculated in the approximation of static fluctuations within the Hubbard model. On the basis of this spectrum, an interpretation is proposed for the experimentally observed optical absorption bands of C{sub 60} fullerene. The parameters of C{sub 60} fullerene that characterize it within the Hubbard model are calculated by the optical absorption spectrum.

The mixed neutron-photon beam of FiR 1 reactor is used for boron-neutron capture therapy (BNCT) in Finland. A beam model has been defined for patient treatment planning and dosimetric calculations. The neutron beam model has been validated with an activation foil measurements. The photon beam model has not been thoroughly validated against measurements, due to the fact that the beam photon dose rate is low, at most only 2% of the total weighted patient dose at FiR 1. However, improvement of the photon dose detection accuracy is worthwhile, since the beam photon dose is of concern in the beam dosimetry. In this study, we have performed ionization chamber measurements with multiple build-up caps of different thickness to adjust the calculated photonspectrum of a FiR 1 beam model. PMID:24588987

Several measurements in medium mass nuclei have reported a low-energy enhancement in the photon strength function. Although, much effort has been invested in unraveling the mysteries of this effect, its physical origin is still not conclusively understood. Here, a completely model-independent experimental approach to investigate the existence of this enhancement is presented. The experiment was designed to study statistical feeding from the quasi-continuum (below the neutron separation energy) to individual low-lying discrete levels in {sup 95}Mo produced in the (d, p) reaction. A key aspect to successfully study gamma decay from the region of high-level density is the detection and extraction of correlated particle-gamma-gamma events which was accomplished using an array of Clover HPGe detectors and large area annular silicon detectors. The entrance channel excitation energy into the residual nucleus produced in the reaction was inferred from the detected proton energies in the silicon detectors. Gating on gamma-transitions originating from low-lying discrete levels specifies the state fed by statistical gamma-rays. Any particle-gamma-gamma event in combination with specific energy sum requirements ensures a clean and unambiguous determination of the initial and final state of the observed gamma rays. With these requirements the statistical feeding to individual discrete levels is extracted on an event-by-event basis. The results are presented and compared to {sup 95}Mo photon strength function data measured at the University of Oslo.

Several measurements in medium mass nuclei have reported a low-energy enhancement in the photon strength function. Although, much effort has been invested in unraveling the mysteries of this effect, its physical origin is still not conclusively understood. Here, a completely model-independent experimental approach to investigate the existence of this enhancement is presented. The experiment was designed to study statistical feeding from the quasi-continuum (below the neutron separation energy) to individual low-lying discrete levels in 95Mo produced in the (d, p) reaction. A key aspect to successfully study gamma decay from the region of high-level density is the detection and extraction of correlated particle-gamma-gamma events which was accomplished using an array of Clover HPGe detectors and large area annular silicon detectors. The entrance channel excitation energy into the residual nucleus produced in the reaction was inferred from the detected proton energies in the silicon detectors. Gating on gamma-transitions originating from low-lying discrete levels specifies the state fed by statistical gamma-rays. Any particle-gamma-gamma event in combination with specific energy sum requirements ensures a clean and unambiguous determination of the initial and final state of the observed gamma rays. With these requirements the statistical feeding to individual discrete levels is extracted on an event-by-event basis. The results are presented and compared to 95Mo photon strength function data measured at the University of Oslo.

We observed the jet-producing compact binary system SS 433 with RXTE during three multiwavelength campaigns, the first in conjunction with ASCA observations, the second simultaneous with a VLA-VLBA-MERLIN campaign, and the third associated with a Nobeyama millimeter-band campaign. All these campaigns included optical observations. Occurring at different jet precession and binary phases, the observations also monitored the system during a radio flare. The data provide SS 433's X-ray spectrum over more than an energy decade, and track the spectral variations as the X-ray source was partially eclipsed. The continuum can be modeled as a power law with an exponential cutoff, which can be detected to approximately 50 keV. Strong line emission is evident in the 5-10 keV range which can be modeled as a broad line whose energy is precession independent and a narrow line whose energy does vary with jet precession phase; this line model is clearly an over simplification since the PCA does not have sufficient energy resolution to detect the lines ASCA observed. The eclipses are deeper at high energy and at jet precession phases when the jets are more inclined towards and away from us. A large radio flare occurred between two sets of X-ray monitoring observations; an X-ray observation at the peak of the flare found a softer spectrum with a flux approximately 1/3 that of the quiescent level.

Pure methanol ices have been irradiated with monochromatic soft X-rays of 300 and 550 eV close to the 1s resonance edges of C and O, respectively, and with a broadband spectrum (250-1200 eV). The infrared (IR) spectra of the irradiated ices show several new products of astrophysical interest such as CH2OH, H2CO, CH4, HCOOH, HCOCH2OH, CH3COOH, CH3OCH3, HCOOCH3, and (CH2OH)2, as well as HCO, CO, and CO2. The effect of X-rays is the result of the combined interactions of photons and electrons with the ice. A significant contribution to the formation and growth of new species in the CH3OH ice irradiated with X-rays is given by secondary electrons, whose energy distribution depends on the energy of X-ray photons. Within a single experiment, the abundances of the new products increase with the absorbed energy. Monochromatic experiments show that product abundances also increase with the photonenergy. However, the abundances per unit energy of newly formed species show a marked decrease in the broadband experiment as compared to irradiations with monochromatic photons, suggesting a possible regulatory role of the energy deposition rate. The number of new molecules produced per absorbed eV in the X-ray experiments has been compared to those obtained with electron and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation experiments.

The fission track technique for detecting U-235 has been used in conjunction with a mechanical time-of-flight spectrometer in order to measure the energyspectrum in the region 1 eV to 1 keV of material sputtered from a 93% enriched U-235 foil by 80 keV Ar-40(+) ions. The spectrum was found to exhibit a peak in the region 2-4 eV and to decrease approximately as E exp -1.77 for E not less than 100 eV. The design, construction and resolution of the mechanical spectrometer are discussed and comparisons are made between the data and the predictions of the random collision cascade model of sputtering.

We report the total integrated cross section (TICS) of two-photon double ionization of helium in the photonenergy range from 42 to 50 eV. Our computational procedure relies on a numerical solution of the time-dependent Schroedinger equation on a square-integrable basis and subsequent projection of this solution on a set of final field-free states describing correlation in the two-electron continuum. Our results suggest that the TICS grows monotonically as a function of photonenergy in the region of 42-50 eV, possibly reaching a maximum in the vicinity of 50 eV. We also present fully resolved triple-differential cross sections for selected photonenergies.

We report the total integrated cross section (TICS) of two-photon double ionization of helium in the photonenergy range from 42to50eV . Our computational procedure relies on a numerical solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation on a square-integrable basis and subsequent projection of this solution on a set of final field-free states describing correlation in the two-electron continuum. Our results suggest that the TICS grows monotonically as a function of photonenergy in the region of 42-50eV , possibly reaching a maximum in the vicinity of 50eV . We also present fully resolved triple-differential cross sections for selected photonenergies.

We report on our efforts toward the development of silicon (Si) strip detectors for energy-resolved clinical breast imaging. Typically, x-ray integrating detectors based on scintillating cesium iodide CsI(Tl) or amorphous selenium (a- Se) are used in most commercial systems. Recently, mammography instrumentation has been introduced based on photon counting silicon Si strip detectors. Mammography requires high flux from the x-ray generator, therefore, in order to achieve energy resolved single photon counting, a high output count rate (OCR) for the detector must be achieved at the required spatial resolution and across the required dynamic range for the application. The required performance in terms of the OCR, spatial resolution, and dynamic range must be obtained with sufficient field of view (FOV) for the application thus requiring the tiling of pixel arrays and scanning techniques. Room temperature semiconductors, operating as direct conversion x-ray sensors, can provide the required speed when connected to application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) operating at fast peaking times with multiple fixed thresholds per pixel, provided that the sensors are designed for rapid signal formation across the x-ray energy ranges of the application at the required energy and spatial resolutions. We present our methods and results from the optimization of prototype detectors based on Si strip structures. We describe the detector optimization and the development of ASIC readout electronics that provide the required spatial resolution, low noise, high count rate capabilities and minimal power consumption.

The ability of atomic nuclei to emit and absorb photons with energy E{sub {gamma}} is known as the photon strength function f(E{sub {gamma}}). It has direct relevance to astrophysical element formation via neutron capture processes due to its central role in nuclear reactions. Studies of f(E{sub {gamma}}) have benefited from a wealth of data collected in neutron capture and direct reactions but also from newly commissioned inelastic photon scattering facilities. The majority of these experimental methods, however, rely on the use of models because measured {gamma}-ray spectra are simultaneously sensitive to both the nuclear level density and f(E{sub {gamma}}). As excitation energy increases towards the particle separation energies, the level density increases rapidly, creating the quasi-continuum. Nuclear properties in this excitation energy region are best characterized using statistical quantities, such as f(E{sub {gamma}}). A point of contention in studies of the quasi-continuum has been an unexpected and unexplained increase in f(E{sub {gamma}}) at low {gamma}-ray energies (i.e. below E{sub {gamma}} {approx}3 MeV) in a subset of light-to-medium mass nuclei. Ideally, a new model-independent experimental technique is required to address questions regarding the existence and origin of this low-energy enhancement in f(E{sub {gamma}}). Here such a model-independent approach is presented for determining the shape of f(E{sub {gamma}}) over a wide range of energies. The method involves the use of coupled high-resolution particle and {gamma}-ray spectroscopy to determine the emission of {gamma} rays from the quasi-continuum in a nucleus with defined excitation energy to individual discrete levels of known spins and parities. This method shares characteristics of two neutron capture-based techniques: the Average Resonance Capture (ARC) and the Two-Step Cascade analysis (TSC). The power of the new technique lies in the additional ability to positively identify primary

Purpose: In a recent computational study, an improved physics-based approach was proposed for unfolding linac photon spectra and incident electron energies from transmission data. In this approach, energy differentiation is improved by simultaneously using transmission data for multiple attenuators and detectors, and the unfolding robustness is improved by using a four-parameter functional form to describe the photonspectrum. The purpose of the current study is to validate this approach experimentally, and to demonstrate its application on a typical clinical linac. Methods: The validation makes use of the recent transmission measurements performed on the Vickers research linac of National Research Council Canada. For this linac, the photon spectra were previously measured using a NaI detector, and the incident electron parameters are independently known. The transmission data are for eight beams in the range 10-30 MV using thick Be, Al and Pb bremsstrahlung targets. To demonstrate the approach on a typical clinical linac, new measurements are performed on an Elekta Precise linac for 6, 10 and 25 MV beams. The different experimental setups are modeled using EGSnrc, with the newly added photonuclear attenuation included. Results: For the validation on the research linac, the 95% confidence bounds of the unfolded spectra fall within the noise of the NaI data. The unfolded spectra agree with the EGSnrc spectra (calculated using independently known electron parameters) with RMS energy fluence deviations of 4.5%. The accuracy of unfolding the incident electron energy is shown to be {approx}3%. A transmission cutoff of only 10% is suitable for accurate unfolding, provided that the other components of the proposed approach are implemented. For the demonstration on a clinical linac, the unfolded incident electron energies and their 68% confidence bounds for the 6, 10 and 25 MV beams are 6.1 {+-} 0.1, 9.3 {+-} 0.1, and 19.3 {+-} 0.2 MeV, respectively. The unfolded spectra

The goal of the research program that we describe is to break the emerging performance wall in microprocessor development arising from limited bandwidth and density of on-chip interconnects and chip-to-chip (processor-to-memory) electrical interfaces. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor compatible photonic devices provide an infrastructure for deployment of a range of integrated photonic networks, which will replace state-of-the-art electrical interconnects, providing significant gains at the system level. Scaling of wavelength-division-multiplexing (WDM) architectures using high-index-contrast (HIC) waveguides offers one path to realizing the energy efficiency and density requirements of high data rate links. HIC microring-resonator filters are well suited to support add-drop nodes in dense WDM photonic networks with high aggregate data rates because they support high Q's and, due to their traveling-wave character, naturally support physically separated input and drop ports. A novel reconfigurable, 'hitless' switch is presented that does not perturb the express channels either before, during, or after reconfiguration. In addition, multigigahertz operation of low-power, Mach-Zehnder silicon modulators as well as germanium-on-silicon photodiodes are presented.

Photon-counting detectors are promising candidates for use in the next generation of x-ray computed tomography (CT) scanners. Among the foreseen benefits are higher spatial resolution, better trade-off between noise and dose and energy discriminating capabilities. Silicon is an attractive detector material because of its low cost, mature manufacturing process and high hole mobility. However, it is sometimes overlooked for CT applications because of its low absorption efficiency and high fraction of Compton scatter. The purpose of this work is to demonstrate that silicon is a feasible material for CT detectors by showing energy-resolved CT images acquired with an 80 kVp x-ray tube spectrum using a photon-counting silicon-strip detector with eight energy thresholds developed in our group. We use a single detector module, consisting of a linear array of 50 0.5 × 0.4 mm detector elements, to image a phantom in a table-top lab setup. The phantom consists of a plastic cylinder with circular inserts containing water, fat and aqueous solutions of calcium, iodine and gadolinium, in different concentrations. By using basis material decomposition we obtain water, calcium, iodine and gadolinium basis images and demonstrate that these basis images can be used to separate the different materials in the inserts. We also show results showing that the detector has potential for quantitative measurements of substance concentrations.

We consider the first-order finite-difference expression of the commutator between d / dx and x. This is the appropriate setting in which to propose commutators and time operators for a quantum system with an arbitrary potential function and a discrete energyspectrum. The resulting commutators are identified as universal lowering and raising operators. We also find time operators which are finite-difference derivations with respect to the energy. The matrix elements of the commutator in the energy representation are analyzed, and we find consistency with the equality [hat{T},hat{H}]=ihbar . We apply the theory to the particle in an infinite well and for the Harmonic oscillator as examples.

We consider the first-order finite-difference expression of the commutator between d / dx and x. This is the appropriate setting in which to propose commutators and time operators for a quantum system with an arbitrary potential function and a discrete energyspectrum. The resulting commutators are identified as universal lowering and raising operators. We also find time operators which are finite-difference derivations with respect to the energy. The matrix elements of the commutator in the energy representation are analyzed, and we find consistency with the equality [hat{T},hat{H}]=ihbar . We apply the theory to the particle in an infinite well and for the Harmonic oscillator as examples.

The x-ray spectrum between 18 and 88 keV generated by a petawatt laser driven x-ray backlighter target was measured using a 12-channel differential filter pair spectrometer. The spectrometer consists of a series of filter pairs on a Ta mask coupled with an x-ray sensitive image plate. A calibration of Fuji{trademark} MS and SR image plates was conducted using a tungsten anode x-ray source and the resulting calibration applied to the design of the Ross pair spectrometer. Additionally, the fade rate and resolution of the image plate system were measured for quantitative radiographic applications. The conversion efficiency of laser energy into silver K{alpha} x rays from a petawatt laser target was measured using the differential filter pair spectrometer and compared to measurements using a single photon counting charge coupled device.

In proton therapy, the prompt-γ (PG) radiation produced by the interactions between protons and matter is related to the range of the beam in the patient. Tomographic Compton imaging is currently studied to establish a PG image and verify the treatment. However the quality of the reconstructed images depends on a number of factors such as the volume attenuation, the spatial and energy resolutions of the detectors, incomplete absorptions of high energyphotons and noise from other particles reaching the camera. The impact of all these factors was not assessed in details. In this paper we investigate the influence of the PG energyspectrum on the reconstructed images. To this aim, we describe the process from the Monte Carlo simulation of the proton irradiation, through the Compton imaging of the PG distribution, up to the image reconstruction with a statistical MLEM method. We identify specific PG energy windows that are more relevant to detect discrepancies with the treatment plan. We find that for the simulated Compton device, the incomplete absorption of the photons with energy above about 2 MeV prevents the observation of the PG distributions at specific energies. It also leads to blurred images and smooths the distal slope of the 1D PG profiles obtained as projections on the central beam axis. We show that a selection of the events produced by γ photons having deposited almost all their energy in the camera allows to largely improve the images, a result that emphasizes the importance of the choice of the detector. However, this initial-energy-based selection is not accessible in practice. We then propose a method to estimate the range of the PG profile both for specific deposited-energy windows and for the full spectrum emission. The method relies on two parameters. We use a learning approach for their estimation and we show that it allows to detect few millimeter shifts of the PG profiles. PMID:27008459

In proton therapy, the prompt-γ (PG) radiation produced by the interactions between protons and matter is related to the range of the beam in the patient. Tomographic Compton imaging is currently studied to establish a PG image and verify the treatment. However the quality of the reconstructed images depends on a number of factors such as the volume attenuation, the spatial and energy resolutions of the detectors, incomplete absorptions of high energyphotons and noise from other particles reaching the camera. The impact of all these factors was not assessed in details. In this paper we investigate the influence of the PG energyspectrum on the reconstructed images. To this aim, we describe the process from the Monte Carlo simulation of the proton irradiation, through the Compton imaging of the PG distribution, up to the image reconstruction with a statistical MLEM method. We identify specific PG energy windows that are more relevant to detect discrepancies with the treatment plan. We find that for the simulated Compton device, the incomplete absorption of the photons with energy above about 2 MeV prevents the observation of the PG distributions at specific energies. It also leads to blurred images and smooths the distal slope of the 1D PG profiles obtained as projections on the central beam axis. We show that a selection of the events produced by γ photons having deposited almost all their energy in the camera allows to largely improve the images, a result that emphasizes the importance of the choice of the detector. However, this initial-energy-based selection is not accessible in practice. We then propose a method to estimate the range of the PG profile both for specific deposited-energy windows and for the full spectrum emission. The method relies on two parameters. We use a learning approach for their estimation and we show that it allows to detect few millimeter shifts of the PG profiles.

The spectrum of five-times ionized niobium, Nb, VI, was observed from 238 to 2700 {angstrom} with sliding spark discharges on 10.7-m normal- and grazing-incidence spectrographs. Experimental energies were determined for all levels of the 4s{sup 2}4p{sup 6}, 4s{sup 2}4p{sup 6}, 4s{sup 2}4p{sup 5}4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5g, 6s, and 4s4p{sup 6}4d configurations as well as some levels of 4p{sup 5}6g. A total of 291 lines were classified as transitions between 88 observed levels. A previous analysis of this spectrum was found to be totally erroneous. Large hyperfine splittings were found for several levels of the 4p{sup 5}5s and 5p configurations. The observed configurations were theoretically interpreted by means of Hartree-Fock calculations and least squares fits of the energy parameters to the observed levels. A revised value of the ionization energy was obtained from the 4p{sup 5}5g and 6g configurations.

Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) are bursts of high-energyphotons originating from the Earth's atmosphere in association with thunderstorm activity. They have been discovered by Fishman et al. [Science, 264, 1313, 1994] using BATSE detectors aboard the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory originally launched to perform observations of celestial gamma-ray sources. These events have also been detected by the RHESSI [Smith et al., Science, 307, 1085, 2005], AGILE [Marisaldi et al., JGR, 115, A00E13, 2010], and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope [Briggs et al., JGR, 115, A07323, 2010]. Moreover, measurements have correlated TGFs with initial development stages of normal polarity intra-cloud lightning that transports negative charge upward (+IC) [e.g, Lu et al., JGR, 116, A03316, 2011]. Photon spectra corresponding to relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREAs) in large-scale thunderstorm electric fields usually provide a very good agreement with satellite observations [Dwyer and Smith, GRL, 32, L22804, 2005]. However, it has been suggested that high-potential +IC lightning leaders could produce a sufficient number of energetic electrons to explain TGFs [Celestin and Pasko, JGR, 116, A03315, 2011], and Xu et al. [GRL, 39, L08801, 2012] have shown that this mechanism could explain the TGF spectrum for lightning potentials higher than 100 MV. In addition to TGFs, X-ray bursts are produced by negative cloud-to-ground (-CGs) lightning leaders in association with stepping processes and are observed from the ground [Dwyer et al., GRL, 32, L01803, 2005]. In this work, we will investigate the variation of photon spectra and photon fluences with respect to the electrical properties of the causative lightning discharge in a unified fashion for TGFs and CG-lightning-produced X-ray bursts. We will show how the lightning-produced X-ray spectrum converges toward the RREA spectrum for very high potential drops in the vicinity of the lightning leader tip, and demonstrate why only

The title I was asked to speak about expresses an idea that occurred rather recently in the history of cosmic ray studies. I argue that the idea of a possible end of the cosmic ray energyspectrum came into being after a sequence of three rapid advances in knowledge which I describe, calling them 'breakthroughs'. I suggest that the present workshop be regarded as a step toward a fourth breakthrough. I argue that this may occur through application of the Space Airwatch concept--the earth atmosphere as target and signal generator--as embodied in the NASA OWL project.

Although the production of X-rays from natural and rocket-triggered lightning leaders have been studied in detail over the last 10 years, the energyspectrum of the X-rays has never been well measured because the X-rays are emitted in very short but intense bursts that result in pulse pileup in the detectors. The energyspectrum is important because it provides information about the source mechanism for producing the energetic runaway electrons and about the electric fields that they traverse. We have recently developed and operated the first spectrometer for the energetic radiation from lightning. The instrument is part of the Atmospheric Radiation Imagery and Spectroscopy (ARIS) project and will be referred to as ARIS-S (ARIS Spectrometer). It consists of seven 3'' NaI(Tl)/photomultiplier tube scintillation detectors with different thicknesses of attenuators, ranging from no attenuator to more than 1'' of lead placed over the detector (all the detectors are in a 1/8'' thick aluminum box). Using X-ray pulses preceding 48 return strokes in 8 rocket-triggered lightnings, we found that the spectrum of X-rays from leaders is too soft to be consistent with Relativistic Runaway Electron Avalanche. It has a power law dependence on the energies of the photons, and the power index, λ, is between 2.5 and 3.5. We present the details of the design of the instrument and the results of the analysis of the lightning data acquired during the summer of 2012.

Molecular photonic wires, which absorb light and undergo excited-state energy transfer, are of interest as biomimetic models for photosynthetic light-harvesting systems and as molecular devices with potential applications in materials chemistry. We describe the stepwise synthesis of four molecular photonic wires. Each wire consists of an input unit, transmission element, and output unit. The input unit consists of a boron-dipyrrin dye or a perylene-monoimide dye (linked either at the N-imide or the C9 position); the transmission element consists of one or three zinc porphyrins affording short or long wires, respectively; and the output unit consists of a free base (Fb) porphyrin. The components in the arrays are joined in a linear architecture via diarylethyne linkers (an ethynylphenyl linker is attached to the C9-linked perylene). The wires have been examined by static absorption, static fluorescence, and time-resolved absorption spectroscopy. Each wire (with the exception of the C9-linked perylene wire) exhibits a visible absorption spectrum that is the sum of the spectra of the component parts, indicating the relatively weak electronic coupling between the components. Excitation of each wire at the wavelength where the input unit absorbs preferentially (typically 480-520 nm) results in emission almost exclusively from the Fb porphyrin. The static emission and time-resolved data indicate that the overall rate constants and quantum efficiencies for end-to-end (i.e., input to output) energy transfer are as follows: perylene-(N-imide)-linked short wire, (33 ps)(-1) and >99%; perylene-(C9)-linked short wire, (26 ps)(-1) and >99%; boron-dipyrrin-based long wire, (190 ps)(-1) and 81%; perylene-(N-imide)-linked long wire, (175 ps)(-1) and 86%. Collectively, the studies provide valuable insight into the singlet-singlet excited-state energy-transfer properties in weakly coupled molecular photonic wires. PMID:12027698

The first run of the CDMSlite experiment demonstrated the use of Neganov-Luke phonon amplification in a single SuperCDMS detector to achieve lower energy thresholds for the direct detection of dark matter. A longer physics run with improved noise rejection has been recorded with a larger voltage bias of -70 V applied across the same detector, yielding an amplification factor of 15 (for electron recoils) and reducing the statistical uncertainty of the measured background rate. In order to extract optimal dark-matter sensitivity with these data it is important to understand the shape and composition of the background spectrum at the lowest energies. The dominant backgrounds in this high-voltage mode are from Compton scatters, internal activation lines (primarily from 71 Ge decays), and microphonic noise. This presentation will consider the contributions from these sources and how the electric field geometry in the detector can distort the spectra. Prospects for new results will also be discussed.

The Pierre Auger Observatory, located in Argentina, provides an unprecedented integrated aperture in the search for primary photons with energy above 1017 eV over a large portion of the southern sky. Such photons can be detected in principle via the air showers they initiate at such energies, using the complement of Auger Observatory detectors. We discuss the results obtained in diffuse and directional searches for primary photons in the EeV energy range.

In the following discussion we are concerned with the standard Fröhlich model for an optical polaron. We clarify the qualitative properties of the energyspectrum for arbitrary total momentum Q. Concerning the ground-state energy, we establish an effective lower bound. Until now, we have to assume that the electron-phonon coupling parameter α does not exceed a specified positive value. Using this bound, we demonstrate that the ground-state energy coincides with the continuum edge for \\|Q\\|>=\\|QC\\|, QC being finite. Consequently, it is only for \\|Q\\|energy as a function of Q and α, we find an increase (strict decrease) with increasing \\|Q\\|(α). In addition, we present an approach to the excited states. Interestingly enough, this can be based entirely on the knowledge of the ground-state energy and ground-state wave function.

The concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) system is unique and different from the common flat-plate PV system. It uses a multi-junction solar cell and a Fresnel lens to concentrate direct solar radiation onto the cell while tracking the sun throughout the day. The cell efficiency could reach over 40% under high concentration ratio. In this study, we analyzed a one year set of environmental condition data of the University of Miyazaki, Japan, where the CPV system was installed. Performance ratio (PR) was discussed to describe the system’s performance. Meanwhile, the average photonenergy (APE) was used to describe the spectrum distribution at the site where the CPV system was installed. A circuit simulator network was used to simulate the CPV system electrical characteristics under various environmental conditions. As for the result, we found that the PR of the CPV systems depends on the APE level rather than the cell temperature.

Here we discuss evolution and broad-band emission of compact (< kpc) lobes in young radio sources. We propose a simple dynamical description for these objects, consisting of a relativistic jet propagating into a uniform gaseous medium in the central parts of an elliptical host. In the framework of the proposed model, we follow the evolution of ultrarelativistic electrons injected from a terminal hotspot of a jet to expanding lobes, taking into account their adiabatic energy losses as well as radiative cooling. This allows us to discuss the broad-band lobe emission of young radio sources. In particular, we argue that the observed spectral turnover in the radio synchrotron spectra of these objects cannot originate from the synchrotron self-absorption process but is most likely due to free-free absorption effects connected with neutral clouds of interstellar medium engulfed by the expanding lobes and photoionized by active centers. We also find a relatively strong and complex high-energy emission component produced by inverse-Compton up-scattering of various surrounding photon fields by the lobes electrons. We argue that such high energy radiation is strong enough to account for several observed properties of GHz-peaked-spectrum (GPS) radio galaxies at UV and X-ray frequencies. In addition, this emission is expected to extend up to GeV (or possibly even TeV) photonenergies and can thus be probed by several modern {gamma}-ray instruments. In particular, we suggest that GPS radio galaxies should constitute a relatively numerous class of extragalactic sources detected by GLAST.

Ab initio calculations of two-photon double ionization of helium with photonenergies varying from the nonsequential regime to well above the double-ionization threshold are presented. A systematic study of the joint angular distributions of the two ionized electrons at different energy sharing shows that the role of electron correlations is imprinted in the joint angular distribution. In particular, a rather general pattern is identified in the nonsequential regime that is independent of photonenergy, pulse length, and energy sharing between the two electrons. Interestingly, the same distribution pattern is found for the equal-energy-sharing case, even when the photonenergy is well above the double-ionization threshold. In the case of an extremely uneven energy sharing, the distribution pattern changes drastically as the photonenergy is increased. In particular, when the photonenergy is greater than the second-ionization threshold, the dominant emission mode of the two electrons switches gradually from ''back to back'' to ''side by side.'' Finally, the joint angular distribution is found to provide clear evidence of the role of electron correlations in the initial state.

Using 605 fb(-1) of data collected at the Upsilon(4S) resonance we present a measurement of the inclusive radiative B-meson decay channel, B-->X(s)gamma. For the lower photonenergy thresholds of 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0 GeV, as defined in the rest frame of the B meson, we measure the partial branching fraction and the mean and variance of the photonenergyspectrum. At the 1.7 GeV threshold we obtain the partial branching fraction BF(B-->X(s)}gamma)=(3.45+/-0.15+/-0.40)x10(-4), where the errors are statistical and systematic. PMID:20366195

Purpose: Finding the optimal energy threshold setting for an energy-resolved photon-counting detector has an important impact on the maximization of contrast-to-noise-ratio (CNR). We introduce a noise reduction method to enhance CNR by reducing the noise in each energy bin without altering the average gray levels in the projection and image domains. Methods: We simulated a four bin energy-resolved photon-counting detector based on Si with a 10 mm depth of interaction. TASMIP algorithm was used to simulate a spectrum of 65 kVp with 2.7 mm Al filter. A 13 mm PMMA phantom with hydroxyapatite and iodine at different concentrations (100, 200 and 300 mg/ml for HA, and 2, 4, and 8 mg/ml for Iodine) was used. Projection-based and Image-based energy weighting methods were used to generate weighted images. A reference low noise image was used for noise reduction purposes. A Gaussian-like weighting function which computes the similarity between pixels of interest was calculated from the reference image and implemented on a pixel by pixel basis for the noisy images. Results: CNR improvement compared to different methods (Charge-Integrated, Photon-Counting and Energy-Weighting) and after noise reduction was highly task-dependent. The CNR improvement with respect to the Charge-Integrated CNR for hydroxyapatite and iodine were 1.8 and 1.5, respectively. In each of the energy bins, the noise was reduced by approximately factor of two without altering their respective average gray levels. Conclusion: The proposed noise reduction technique for energy-resolved photon-counting detectors can significantly reduce image noise. This technique can be used as a compliment to the current energy-weighting methods in CNR optimization.

Photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE) converts sunlight to electricity with the combined photonic and thermal excitation of charge carriers in a semiconductor, leading to electron emission over a vacuum gap. Theoretical analyses predict conversion efficiency that can match, or even exceed, the efficiency of traditional solar thermal and photovoltaic converters. Several materials have been examined as candidates for radiation absorbers and electron emitters, with no conclusion yet on the best set of materials to achieve high efficiency. Analyses have shown the complexity of the energy conversion and transport processes, and the significance of several loss mechanisms, requiring careful control of material properties and optimization of the device structure. Here we survey current research on PETE modeling, materials, and device configurations, outline the advances made, and stress the open issues and future research needed. Based on the substantial progress already made in this young topic, and the potential of high conversion efficiency based on theoretical performance limits, continued research in this direction is very promising and may yield a competitive technology for solar electricity generation.

Ionization energies and cationic structures of pyridine were intensively investigated utilizing one-photon mass-analyzed threshold ionization (MATI) spectroscopy with vacuum ultraviolet radiation generated by four-wave difference frequency mixing in Kr. The present one-photon high-resolution MATI spectrum of pyridine demonstrated a much finer and richer vibrational structure than that of the previously reported two-photon MATI spectrum. From the MATI spectrum and photoionization efficiency curve, the accurate ionization energy of the ionic ground state of pyridine was confidently determined to be 73 570 ± 6 cm{sup −1} (9.1215 ± 0.0007 eV). The observed spectrum was almost completely assigned by utilizing Franck-Condon factors and vibrational frequencies calculated through adjustments of the geometrical parameters of cationic pyridine at the B3LYP/cc-pVTZ level. A unique feature unveiled through rigorous analysis was the prominent progression of the 10 vibrational mode, which corresponds to in-plane ring bending, and the combination of other totally symmetric fundamentals with the ring bending overtones, which contribute to the geometrical change upon ionization. Notably, the remaining peaks originate from the upper electronic state ({sup 2}A{sub 2}), as predicted by high-resolution photoelectron spectroscopy studies and symmetry-adapted cluster configuration interaction calculations. Based on the quantitatively good agreement between the experimental and calculated results, it was concluded that upon ionization the pyridine cation in the ground electronic state should have a planar structure of C{sub 2v} symmetry through the C-N axis.

Purpose: Breast CT is an emerging imaging technique that can portray the breast in 3D and improve visualization of important diagnostic features. Early clinical studies have suggested that breast CT has sufficient spatial and contrast resolution for accurate detection of masses and microcalcifications in the breast, reducing structural overlap that is often a limiting factor in reading mammographic images. For a number of reasons, image quality in breast CT may be improved by use of an energy resolving photon counting detector. In this study, the authors investigate the improvements in image quality obtained when using energy weighting with an energy resolving photon counting detector as compared to that with a conventional energy integrating detector. Methods: Using computer simulation, realistic CT images of multiple breast phantoms were generated. The simulation modeled a prototype breast CT system using an amorphous silicon (a-Si), CsI based energy integrating detector with different x-ray spectra, and a hypothetical, ideal CZT based photon counting detector with capability of energy discrimination. Three biological signals of interest were modeled as spherical lesions and inserted into breast phantoms; hydroxyapatite (HA) to represent microcalcification, infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC), and iodine enhanced infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IIDC). Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of these three lesions was measured from the CT reconstructions. In addition, a psychophysical study was conducted to evaluate observer performance in detecting microcalcifications embedded into a realistic anthropomorphic breast phantom. Results: In the energy range tested, improvements in SNR with a photon counting detector using energy weighting was higher (than the energy integrating detector method) by 30%–63% and 4%–34%, for HA and IDC lesions and 12%–30% (with Al filtration) and 32%–38% (with Ce filtration) for the IIDC lesion, respectively. The average area under the

Purpose: Breast CT is an emerging imaging technique that can portray the breast in 3D and improve visualization of important diagnostic features. Early clinical studies have suggested that breast CT has sufficient spatial and contrast resolution for accurate detection of masses and microcalcifications in the breast, reducing structural overlap that is often a limiting factor in reading mammographic images. For a number of reasons, image quality in breast CT may be improved by use of an energy resolving photon counting detector. In this study, the authors investigate the improvements in image quality obtained when using energy weighting with an energy resolving photon counting detector as compared to that with a conventional energy integrating detector.Methods: Using computer simulation, realistic CT images of multiple breast phantoms were generated. The simulation modeled a prototype breast CT system using an amorphous silicon (a-Si), CsI based energy integrating detector with different x-ray spectra, and a hypothetical, ideal CZT based photon counting detector with capability of energy discrimination. Three biological signals of interest were modeled as spherical lesions and inserted into breast phantoms; hydroxyapatite (HA) to represent microcalcification, infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC), and iodine enhanced infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IIDC). Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of these three lesions was measured from the CT reconstructions. In addition, a psychophysical study was conducted to evaluate observer performance in detecting microcalcifications embedded into a realistic anthropomorphic breast phantom.Results: In the energy range tested, improvements in SNR with a photon counting detector using energy weighting was higher (than the energy integrating detector method) by 30%–63% and 4%–34%, for HA and IDC lesions and 12%–30% (with Al filtration) and 32%–38% (with Ce filtration) for the IIDC lesion, respectively. The average area under the receiver

Primary hyperparathyroidism results from excessive parathyroid hormone secretion. Approximately 85% of all cases of primary hyperparathyroidism are caused by a single parathyroid adenoma; 10–15% of the cases are caused by parathyroid hyperplasia. Parathyroid carcinoma accounts for approximately 3–4% of cases of primary disease. Technetium-99m-sestamibi (MIBI), the current scintigraphic procedure of choice for preoperative parathyroid localization, can be performed in various ways. The “single-isotope, double-phase technique” is based on the fact that MIBI washes out more rapidly from the thyroid than from abnormal parathyroid tissue. However, not all parathyroid lesions retain MIBI and not all thyroid tissue washes out quickly, and subtraction imaging is helpful. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) provides information for localizing parathyroid lesions, differentiating thyroid from parathyroid lesions, and detecting and localizing ectopic parathyroid lesions. Addition of CT with SPECT improves the sensitivity. This pictorial assay demonstrates various SPECT/CT patterns observed in parathyroid scintigraphy. PMID:21969785

Optical-fiber-based supercontinuum (SC) light sources have attracted much research attention in recent years. High-quality nonlinear optical fibers allow us to readily implement stable and practical SC sources. In this work, we present a highly nonlinear photonic crystal fiber (HN-PCF) in optical coherence tomography (OCT) and telecommunication windows that can generate SC spectra. The finite difference method with an anisotropic perfectly matched layer boundary condition is used to calculate different properties of the proposed HN-PCF. From numerical simulation results, it is found that the HN-PCF nonlinear coefficients are more than 108.0, 74.0, and 53.0 (W·km)-1 at 1.06, 1.31, and 1.55 µm, respectively. The flattened chromatic dispersion is 0 to -4.0 ps/(nm·km) in the wavelength range of 1.06 to 1.7 µm (640 nm bandwidth), and the confinement loss is lower than 10-2 dB/km in the entire wavelength range. The generated supercontinuum bandwidths are 295.0, 408.0, and 590.0 nm at 1.06, 1.31, and 1.55 µm, respectively. The calculated longitudinal resolutions for biomedical imaging are 1.2, 1.2, and 1.1 µm at 1.06, 1.31, and 1.55 µm, respectively.

Effective atomic numbers for photonenergy absorption, ZPEA,eff have been calculated for photon from 1 keV to 20 MeV for selected oxides of lanthanides, such as Lanthanum oxide, Cerium oxide, Samarium oxide, Europium oxide, Dysprosium oxide, Thulium oxide, Ytterbium oxide. The ZPEA,eff values then compared with ZPI,eff for photon interaction. The ZPEA,eff values have been found to change with energy and composition of selected lanthanides. Oxides of lanthanides are considered as better shielding materials to the exposure of gamma radiation. The values of effective atomic number for photonenergy absorption help in the calculation of absorbed dose.

Resonant photonuclear isotope detection (RPID) is a nondestructive detection/assay of nuclear isotopes by measuring γ rays following photonuclear reaction products. Medium-energy wideband photons of Eγ=12-16MeV are used for the photonuclear (γ,n) reactions and γ rays characteristic of the reaction products are measured by means of high-sensitivity Ge detectors. Impurities of stable and radioactive isotopes of the orders of μgr—ngr and ppm—ppb are investigated. RPID is used to study nuclear isotopes of astronuclear and particle physics interests and those of geological and historical interests. It is used to identify radioactive isotopes of fission products as well.

In this work, we performed a numerical analysis of the supercontinuum spectrum generation in a couple of photonic crystal fibers with different structure. The proposed configuration initially has an input pulse with hyperbolic secant profile to generate noise-like pulses as output signal, by the Runge-Kutta method (RK4IP). By using the same configuration, now these noise-like pulses are used as pump for supercontinuum generation obtaining a broad and good flatness spectrum. The numerical analysis presented here demonstrates the potential of noise-like pulses from a passively mode-locked fiber laser for broadband spectrum generation combining two different photonic crystal fibers. Besides this paper helps to understand the phenomena of supercontinuum generation which is mainly related to Raman self-frequency shift.

We considered a quantum system of simple pendulum whose length of string is increasing at a steady rate. Since the string length is represented as a time function, this system is described by a time-dependent Hamiltonian. The invariant operator method is very useful in solving the quantum solutions of time-dependent Hamiltonian systems like this. The invariant operator of the system is represented in terms of the lowering operator a(t) and the raising operator a{sup {dagger}}(t). The Schroedinger solutions {psi}{sub n}({theta}, t) whose spectrum is discrete are obtained by means of the invariant operator. The expectation value of the Hamiltonian in the {psi}{sub n}({theta}, t) state is the same as the quantum energy. At first, we considered only {theta}{sup 2} term in the Hamiltonian in order to evaluate the quantized energy. The numerical study for quantum energy correction is also made by considering the angle variable not only up to {theta}{sup 4} term but also up to {theta}{sup 6} term in the Hamiltonian, using the perturbation theory.

Astrophysical sources of relativistic particles radiate gamma rays to such high energies that they can be detected from the ground. The existence of high energy gamma rays implies that even higher energy particles are being accelerated placing strong constraints on these non-thermal accelerators. Within our galaxy, TeV gamma rays have been detected from supernova remnants, pulsar wind nebula, x-ray binaries and some yet to be identified sources in the Galactic plane. In addition, these gamma rays have sufficient energy to be attenuated by the interaction with infrared photons producing an electron-positron pair. Thus the spectrum of gamma rays can also constrain the infrared photon density, which for distant extragalactic sources is a direct probe of cosmology. The known extragalactic TeV sources are primarily the blazer class of active galactic nuclei. And TeV gamma rays might even be produced by annihilating dark matter.The US currently supports two ground-based gamma-ray observatories—HAWC and VERITAS—and NSF is developing a prototype for the international Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) observatory. The HAWC (High Altitude Water Cherenkov) observatory just began operation of the full detector in March 2015 and with its wide field of view scans ~2/3 of the sky each day for TeV sources. VERITAS (Very EneRgetic Imaging Telescope Array System) is an array of four imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes that follows individual sources to produce lightcurves and spectra from 85 GeV to > 30 TeV. The combination of both a survey and pointed observatory is very complementary with a broad scientific reach that includes the study of extragalactic and Galactic objects as well as the search for astrophysical signatures of dark matter and the measurement of cosmic rays. I will present the current view of the TeV sky and the latest results from HAWC and VERITAS as well as plans for CTA.

Two-photon excited fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between CdTe quantum dots with different emission peaks and Rhodamine B in aqueous solution are investigated both experimentally and theoretically. The photoluminescence and lifetime are measured using a time-resolved fluorescence test system. The two-photon excited FRET efficiency is found to increase as the degree of spectral overlap of the emission spectrum of CdTe and the absorption spectrum of Rhodamine B increases, which is due to the increase of Forster radius of the sample. Moreover, FRET efficiency increases when the ratio of acceptor/donor concentration increases. The two-photon excited FRET efficiency was found to reach 40%.

A dose and spectrum monitoring system applicable to neutrons, photons and muons over wide ranges of energy, designated as DARWIN, has been developed for radiological protection in high-energy accelerator facilities. DARWIN consists of a phoswitch-type scintillation detector, a data-acquisition (DAQ) module for digital waveform analysis, and a personal computer equipped with a graphical-user-interface (GUI) program for controlling the system. The system was recently upgraded by introducing an original DAQ module based on a field programmable gate array, FPGA, and also by adding a function for estimating neutron and photon spectra based on an unfolding technique without requiring any specific scientific background of the user. The performance of the upgraded DARWIN was examined in various radiation fields, including an operational field in J-PARC. The experiments revealed that the dose rates and spectra measured by the upgraded DARWIN are quite reasonable, even in radiation fields with peak structures in terms of both spectrum and time variation. These results clearly demonstrate the usefulness of DARWIN for improving radiation safety in high-energy accelerator facilities.

We search for ultra-high energyphotons by analyzing geometrical properties of shower fronts of events registered by the Telescope Array surface detector. By making use of an event-by-event statistical method, we derive an upper limit on the absolute flux of primary photons with energies above 10{sup 19} eV.

The neutron spectrum at KAMINI reactor south beam tube end has been determined using multifoil activation method. This beam tube is being used for characterizing neutron attenuation of novel shield materials. Starting from a computed guess spectrum, the spectrum adjustment/unfolding procedure makes use of minimization of a modified constraint function representing (a) least squared deviations between the measured and calculated reaction rates, (b) a measure of sharp fluctuations in the adjusted spectrum and (c) the square of the deviation of adjusted spectrum from the guess spectrum. The adjusted/unfolded spectrum predicts the reaction rates accurately. The results of this new procedure are compared with those of widely used SAND-II code. PMID:27389881

A new method to derive an upper limit on photon primaries from small data sets of air showers is developed which accounts for shower properties varying with the primary energy and arrival direction. Applying this method to the highest-energy showers recorded by the AGASA experiment, an upper limit on the photon fraction of 51% (67%) at a confidence level of 90% (95%) for primary energies above 1.25 x 10(20) eV is set. This new limit on the photon fraction above the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cutoff energy constrains the -burst model of the origin of highest-energy cosmic rays. PMID:16383814

In photon counting computed tomography (CT), it is vital to know the energy response functions of the detector for noise estimation and system optimization. Empirical methods lack flexibility and Monte Carlo simulations require too much knowledge of the detector. In this paper, we proposed a hybrid Monte Carlo model for the energy response functions of photon counting detectors in X-ray medical applications. GEANT4 was used to model the energy deposition of X-rays in the detector. Then numerical models were used to describe the process of charge sharing, anti-charge sharing and spectral broadening, which were too complicated to be included in the Monte Carlo model. Several free parameters were introduced in the numerical models, and they could be calibrated from experimental measurements such as X-ray fluorescence from metal elements. The method was used to model the energy response function of an XCounter Flite X1 photon counting detector. The parameters of the model were calibrated with fluorescence measurements. The model was further tested against measured spectrums of a VJ X-ray source to validate its feasibility and accuracy.

Cross sections for heavy flavor production through photon gluon fusion in electron proton collisions are presented. The electron photon vertex is taken into account explicitly, and the Q sq of the exchanged photon ranges from nearly zero (almost real photon) to the kinematically allowed maximum. The QCD scale is set by the mass of the produced quarks. The formalism is also applicable to the production of light quarks as long as the invariant mass of the pair is sufficiently high, so cross sections for u anti-u, d anti-d, and s anti-s production are also given.

We have developed a prototype spectrometer for space applications requiring long term absolute EUV photon flux measurements. In this recently developed spectrometer, the energyspectrum of the incoming photons is transformed directly into an electron energyspectrum by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect in one of several rare gases at low pressures. Using an electron energy spectrometer, followed by an electron multiplier detector, pulses due to individual electrons are counted. The overall efficiency of this process can be made essentially independent of gain drifts in the signal path, and the secular degradation of optical components which is often a problem in other techniques is avoided. A very important feature of this approach is its freedom from the problem of overlapping spectral orders that plagues grating EUV spectrometers. An instrument with these features has not been flown before, but is essential to further advances in our understanding of solar EUV flux dynamics, and the coupled dynamics of terrestrial and planetary atmospheres. The detailed characteristics of this optics-free spectrometer are presented in the publications section.

Three intense bunches (two electron and one positron) are accelerated on each rf pulse in the SLC Linac. Careful control of the energy and energyspectrum of each bunch is needed to provide acceptable beams at the collision point and the positron productive target. The required rf amplitude, timing, and phase adjustments can be calculated and adjusted in real time to correct for changing conditions. BNS damping and energy feedback systems reduce the available reserve energy, which is limited. Observations and stability of actual beams are reviewed. Implications for a future collider are discussed. 10 refs., 3 figs., 1 tab.

This article provides an in-depth look at hadron high-energy scattering by using gravity dual descriptions of strongly coupled gauge theories. Just like deeply inelastic scattering (DIS) and deeply virtual Compton scattering (DVCS) serve as clean experimental probes into nonperturbative internal structure of hadrons, elastic scattering amplitude of a hadron and a (virtual) photon in gravity dual can be exploited as a theoretical probe. Since the scattering amplitude at sufficiently high energy (small Bjorken x) is dominated by parton contributions (=Pomeron contributions) even in strong coupling regime, there is a chance to learn a lesson for generalized parton distribution (GPD) by using gravity dual models. We begin with refining derivation of the Brower-Polchinski-Strassler-Tan (BPST) Pomeron kernel in gravity dual, paying particular attention to the role played by the complex spin variable j. The BPST Pomeron on warped spacetime consists of a Kaluza-Klein tower of 4D Pomerons with nonlinear trajectories, and we clarify the relation between Pomeron couplings and the Pomeron form factor. We emphasize that the saddle-point value j* of the scattering amplitude in the complex j-plane representation is a very important concept in understanding qualitative behavior of the scattering amplitude. The total Pomeron contribution to the scattering is decomposed into the saddle-point contribution and at most a finite number of pole contributions, and when the pole contributions are absent (which we call saddle-point phase), kinematical variable (q,x,t)-dependence of ln(1/q) evolution and ln(1/x) evolution parameters {gamma}{sub eff} and {lambda}{sub eff} in DIS and t-slope parameter B of DVCS in HERA experiment are all reproduced qualitatively in gravity dual. All of these observations shed a new light on modeling of GPD. Straightforward application of those results to other hadron high-energy scattering is also discussed.

Previous studies have found that the width of the gamma-ray burst (GRB) pulse is energy dependent and that it decreases as a power-law function with increasing photonenergy. In this work we have investigated the relation between the energy dependence of the pulse and the so-called Band spectrum by using a sample including 51 well-separated fast rise and exponential decay long-duration GRB pulses observed by BATSE (Burst and Transient Source Experiment on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory). We first decompose these pulses into rise and decay phases and find that the rise widths and the decay widths also behave as a power-law function with photonenergy. Then we investigate statistically the relations between the three power-law indices of the rise, decay, and total width of the pulse (denoted as {delta}{sub r}, {delta}{sub d}, and {delta}{sub w}, respectively) and the three Band spectral parameters, high-energy index ({alpha}), low-energy index ({beta}), and peak energy (E{sub p} ). It is found that (1) {alpha} is strongly correlated with {delta}{sub w} and {delta}{sub d} but seems uncorrelated with {delta}{sub r}; (2) {beta} is weakly correlated with the three power-law indices, and (3) E{sub p} does not show evident correlations with the three power-law indices. We further investigate the origin of {delta}{sub d}-{alpha} and {delta}{sub w}-{alpha}. We show that the curvature effect and the intrinsic Band spectrum could naturally lead to the energy dependence of the GRB pulse width and also the {delta}{sub d}-{alpha} and {delta}{sub w}-{alpha} correlations. Our results hold so long as the shell emitting gamma rays has a curved surface and the intrinsic spectrum is a Band spectrum or broken power law. The strong {delta}{sub d}-{alpha} correlation and inapparent correlations between {delta}{sub r} and the three Band spectral parameters also suggest that the rise and decay phases of the GRB pulses have different origins.

In this study, we report on the influence of solvent on the two-photon absorption (2PA) spectra of Reichardt's dye (RD). The measurement of 2PA cross-sections is performed for three solvents (chloroform, dimethyl formamide, and dimethyl sulfoxide) using the Z-scan technique. The key finding of this study is the observation that the cross-section, corresponding to the 2PA of the intramolecular charge-transfer state, diminishes substantially upon increasing the solvent polarity. To unravel the solvent dependence of the 2PA cross-section, the electronic structure of RD is determined using a hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) approach, in which polarization between the solute and solvent is taken into account by using a self-consistent scheme in the solvent polarization. The two-state approximation proves to be adequate for the studied system, and allowed the observed solvent-polarity-induced decrease of the 2PA cross-section to be related to the decrease of the transition moment and the increase in the excitation energy. PMID:24106066

We study the photon-triggered light and heavy meson production in both p+p and A+A collisions. We find that a parton energy loss approach that successfully describes inclusive hadron attenuation in nucleus-nucleus reactions at RHIC can simultaneously describe well the experimentally determined photon-triggered light hadron fragmentation functions. Using the same framework, we generalize our formalism to study photon-triggered heavy meson production. We find that the nuclear modification of photon-tagged heavy meson fragmentation functions in A+A collision is very different from that of the photon-tagged light hadron case. While photon-triggered light hadron fragmentation functions in A+A collisions are suppressed relative to p+p, photon-triggered heavy meson fragmentation functions can be either enhanced or suppressed, depending on the specific kinematic region. The anticipated smaller energy loss for b-quarks manifests itself as a flatter photon-triggered B-meson fragmentation function compared to that for the D-meson case. We make detailed predictions for both RHIC and LHC energies. We conclude that a comprehensive comparative study of both photon-tagged light and heavy meson production can provide new insights in the details of the jet quenching mechanism.

In digital subtraction mammography where subtracts the one image (with contrast medium) from the other (anatomical background) for observing the tumor structure, tumors which include more blood vessels than normal tissue could be distinguished through the enhancement of contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). In order to improve CNR, we adopted projection-based energy weighting for iodine solutions with four different concentrations embedded in a breast phantom (50% adipose and 50% glandular tissues). In this study, a Monte Carlo simulation was used to simulate a 40 mm thickness breast phantom, which has 15 and 30 mg/cm3 iodine solutions with two different thicknesses, and an energy resolving photon-counting system. The input energyspectrum was simulated in a range of 20 to 45 keV in order to reject electronic noise and include k-edge energy of iodine (33.2 keV). The results showed that the projection-based energy weighting improved the CNR by factors of 1.05-1.86 compared to the conventional integrating images. Consequently, the CNR of images from the digital subtraction mammography could be improved by the projection-based energy weighting with photon-counting detectors.

The compilation of ultra high energy jets suggests at present the existence of a bump in primary energyspectrum (with the standard concept of high energy collisions). The pseudo-rapidity distribution exhibits some typical anomalies, more than the (P sub t) behavior, which are (may be) the fingerprints of quark gluon plasma transition. The next results of Emulsion Chamber on Supersonic (ECHOS) will be in both cases determinant to confirm those tendancies, as well as an important effort of the cosmic ray community to develop in that sense a flying emulsion chamber experiment.

The “perfect” vortex is a new class of optical vortex beam having ring radius independent of its topological charge (order). One of the simplest techniques to generate such beams is the Fourier transformation of the Bessel-Gauss beams. The variation in ring radius of such vortices require Fourier lenses of different focal lengths and or complicated imaging setup. Here we report a novel experimental scheme to generate perfect vortex of any ring radius using a convex lens and an axicon. As a proof of principle, using a lens of focal length f = 200 mm, we have varied the radius of the vortex beam across 0.3–1.18 mm simply by adjusting the separation between the lens and axicon. This is also a simple scheme to measure the apex angle of an axicon with ease. Using such vortices we have studied non-collinear interaction of photons having orbital angular momentum (OAM) in spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) process and observed that the angular spectrum of the SPDC photons are independent of OAM of the pump photons rather depends on spatial profile of the pump beam. In the presence of spatial walk-off effect in nonlinear crystals, the SPDC photons have asymmetric angular spectrum with reducing asymmetry at increasing vortex radius. PMID:26912184

The “perfect” vortex is a new class of optical vortex beam having ring radius independent of its topological charge (order). One of the simplest techniques to generate such beams is the Fourier transformation of the Bessel-Gauss beams. The variation in ring radius of such vortices require Fourier lenses of different focal lengths and or complicated imaging setup. Here we report a novel experimental scheme to generate perfect vortex of any ring radius using a convex lens and an axicon. As a proof of principle, using a lens of focal length f = 200 mm, we have varied the radius of the vortex beam across 0.3-1.18 mm simply by adjusting the separation between the lens and axicon. This is also a simple scheme to measure the apex angle of an axicon with ease. Using such vortices we have studied non-collinear interaction of photons having orbital angular momentum (OAM) in spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) process and observed that the angular spectrum of the SPDC photons are independent of OAM of the pump photons rather depends on spatial profile of the pump beam. In the presence of spatial walk-off effect in nonlinear crystals, the SPDC photons have asymmetric angular spectrum with reducing asymmetry at increasing vortex radius.

In this work, we established a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) system between ZnSe:Mn/ZnS quantum dots and Hypocrellin A (HA, a photosensitizer used for photodynamic therapy of cancer) in aqueous solution, excited by four-photon. Here, the QDs are the donors and the HA are the acceptors. The four-photon-excited fluorescence resonance energy transfer spectrum was obtained under 1300nm femtosecond laser pluses. The experimental results indicated that the highest efficiency of FRET can reach up to 61.3%. Furthermore, the viability test in cancer cells was further demonstrated for biological applications of FRET system. When FRET occurs the cell killing rate of the cancer cells will reach to 84.8% with the 1mM concentration of HA. Our work demonstrates that while the four-photon excited FRET system is promising in both optics and biological applications, is also needs further investigation. PMID:27557241

Low dose and low dose rate fields constitute the majority of radiation exposure scenarios in radiation protection. Conversely, very little epidemiological or physical data are available at these levels. This situation exists because the parameters characterizing low dose and low dose rate environments are difficult to assess at cellular levels where the fundamental biological effects from radiation insults occur. The quantities required for a complete biological assessment are the distribution of energy deposition in biological targets and the cellular response to such insults. A new detector to measure physical energy depositions on nanometer scales was developed in this thesis. A computational tool was also developed to calculate clustered distributions of energy deposition from electrons and photons. A dosimeter has been developed which characterizes energy depositions from charged particles in nanometer dimensions. The dosimeter is a threshold-type detector based on the temperature response of the superheated liquid droplet detector (SLDD). SLDDs based on Freon-115 have been designed and tested. A data acquisition system that measures the acoustic signals from bubble nucleation events has been developed. An original electron track code, ESLOW3.1, has been developed. The code simulates electron tracks on an event-by-event basis down to an absolute minimum of 20 eV. The transport medium is water vapor. The cross sections have been compared with published data and theoretical models where available. Trial calculations of pertinent quantities are in good agreement with published results. A new operational quantity, the cluster spectrum, given the symbol c(/varepsilon), has been defined. This quantity is measured by the SLDD operated in nanodosimetry mode. The performance of the SLDD has been tested with a 60Co point source. The effective measurement range of the nanodosimeter is between 60 and 500 eV of energy deposition. Measured values of c(/varepsilon) are

The attenuation of high-energy gamma-ray spectrum due to the electron-positron pair production against the extragalactic background light (EBL) provides an indirect method to measure the EBL of the universe. We use the measurements of the absorption features of the gamma-rays from blazars as seen by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to explore the EBL flux density and constrain the EBL spectrum, star formation rate density (SFRD), and photon escape fraction from galaxies out to z = 6. Our results are basically consistent with the existing determinations of the quantities. We find a larger photon escape fraction at high redshifts, especially at z = 3, compared to the result from recent Ly{alpha} measurements. Our SFRD result is consistent with the data from both gamma-ray burst and ultraviolet (UV) observations in the 1{sigma} level. However, the average SFRD we obtain at z {approx}> 3 matches the gamma-ray data better than the UV data. Thus our SFRD result at z {approx}> 6 favors the fact that star formation alone is sufficiently high enough to reionize the universe.

We have studied the K-2V process corresponding to simultaneous K -shell ionization and K -shell excitation in the C O2 molecule. We define these K-2V states as super shake-up, at variance with the "conventional" K-1v-1V shake-up states. While the nature and evolution with photonenergy of the conventional shake-up satellites has been the object of many studies, no such data on a large photon-energy range were previously reported on super shake-up. The C O2 molecule is a textbook example because it exhibits two well-isolated K-2V resonances (with V being 2 πu* and 5 σg* ) with different symmetries resulting from shake-up processes of different origin populated in comparable proportions. The variation of the excitation cross section of these two resonances with photonenergy is reported, using two different experimental approaches, which sheds light on the excitation mechanisms. Furthermore, double-core-hole spectroscopy is shown to be able to integrate and even expand information provided by conventional single-core-hole X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Near-Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS) techniques, revealing, for instance, g -g dipole forbidden transitions which are only excited in NEXAFS spectra through vibronic coupling.

Purpose: Recently, photon counting x-ray detectors (PCXDs) with energy discrimination capabilities have been developed for potential use in clinical computed tomography (CT) scanners. These PCXDs have great potential to improve the quality of CT images due to the absence of electronic noise and weights applied to the counts and the additional spectral information. With high count rates encountered in clinical CT, however, coincident photons are recorded as one event with a higher or lower energy due to the finite speed of the PCXD. This phenomenon is called a ''pulse pileup event'' and results in both a loss of counts (called ''deadtime losses'') and distortion of the recorded energyspectrum. Even though the performance of PCXDs is being improved, it is essential to develop algorithmic methods based on accurate models of the properties of detectors to compensate for these effects. To date, only one PCXD (model DXMCT-1, DxRay, Inc., Northridge, CA) has been used for clinical CT studies. The aim of that study was to evaluate the agreement between data measured by DXMCT-1 and those predicted by analytical models for the energy response, the deadtime losses, and the distorted recorded spectrum caused by pulse pileup effects. Methods: An energy calibration was performed using {sup 99m}Tc (140 keV), {sup 57}Co (122 keV), and an x-ray beam obtained with four x-ray tube voltages (35, 50, 65, and 80 kVp). The DXMCT-1 was placed 150 mm from the x-ray focal spot; the count rates and the spectra were recorded at various tube current values from 10 to 500 {mu}A for a tube voltage of 80 kVp. Using these measurements, for each pulse height comparator we estimated three parameters describing the photonenergy-pulse height curve, the detector deadtime {tau}, a coefficient k that relates the x-ray tube current I to an incident count rate a by a=kxI, and the incident spectrum. The mean pulse shape of all comparators was acquired in a separate study and was used in the model to

A Monte Carlo based method for the conversion of an in-situ gamma-ray spectrum obtained with a portable Ge detector to photon flux energy distribution is proposed. The spectrum is first stripped of the partial absorption and cosmic-ray events leaving only the events corresponding to the full absorption of a gamma ray. Applying to the resulting spectrum the full absorption efficiency curve of the detector determined by calibrated point sources and Monte Carlo simulations, the photon flux energy distribution is deduced. The events corresponding to partial absorption in the detector are determined by Monte Carlo simulations for different incident photonenergies and angles using the CERN's GEANT library. Using the detector's characteristics given by the manufacturer as input it is impossible to reproduce experimental spectra obtained with point sources. A transition zone of increasing charge collection efficiency has to be introduced in the simulation geometry, after the inactive Ge layer, in order to obtain good agreement between the simulated and experimental spectra. The functional form of the charge collection efficiency is deduced from a diffusion model. PMID:9450590

We reconstruct the energy distribution of electrons accelerated in the April 15, 2002 solar flare on the basis of the data from the IRIS X-ray spectrometer onboard the CORONAS-F satellite. We obtain the solution to the integral equations describing the transformation of the spectrum of X-ray photons during the recording and reconstruction of the spectrum of accelerated electrons in the bremsstrahlung source using the random search method and the Tikhonov regularization method. In this event, we detected a singularity in the electron spectrum associated with the existence of a local minimum in the energy range 40-60 keV, which cannot be detected by a direct method.

We have investigated the evaporation of close-in exoplanets irradiated by ionizing photons. We find that the properties of the flow are controlled by the ratio of the recombination time to the flow timescale. When the recombination timescale is short compared to the flow timescale, the flow is in approximate local ionization equilibrium with a thin ionization front where the photon mean free path is short compared to the flow scale. In this "recombination-limited" flow the mass-loss scales roughly with the square root of the incident flux. When the recombination time is long compared to the flow timescale the ionization front becomes thick and encompasses the entire flow with the mass-loss rate scaling linearly with flux. If the planet's potential is deep, then the flow is approximately "energy-limited" however, if the planet's potential is shallow, then we identify a new limiting mass-loss regime, which we term "photon-limited." In this scenario, the mass-loss rate is purely limited by the incoming flux of ionizing photons. We have developed a new numerical approach that takes into account the frequency dependence of the incoming ionizing spectrum and performed a large suite of 1D simulations to characterize UV driven mass-loss around low-mass planets. We find that the flow is "recombination-limited" at high fluxes but becomes "energy-limited" at low fluxes; however, the transition is broad occurring over several orders of magnitude in flux. Finally, we point out that the transitions between the different flow types do not occur at a single flux value but depend on the planet's properties, with higher-mass planets becoming "energy-limited" at lower fluxes.

For radiation-instrument calibration to be generally acceptable throughout the US, direct or indirect traceability to a primary standard is required. In most instances, one of the primary standards established at NIST is employed for this purpose. The Department of Energy Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP) is an example of a program employing dosimetry based on the NIST primary photon-, beta particle- and neutron-dosimetry standards. The NIST primary dosimetry standards for bremsstrahlung were first established in the 1950s. They have been updated since then on several occasions. In the 1970s, Technical Committee 85 of the International Standards Organization (ISO) started its work on establishing sets of internationally acceptable, well-characterized photon beams for the calibration of radiation-protection instruments. It is the intent of this paper to make a detailed comparison between the current NIST and the most up-to-date ISO techniques. At present, 41 bremsstrahlung techniques are specified in ISO 4037 while NIST supports a total of 32 techniques. Given the existing equivalences, it makes sense to try to extend the NIST techniques to cover more of the ISO Narrow Spectrum and High Air-Kerma Rate Series. These extensions will also allow the possibility for use of ISO beam techniques in future revisions of the DOELAP standard, which has been suggested by DOE. To this end, NIST was funded by DOE to procure material and make adaptations to the existing NIST x-ray calibration ranges to allow NIST to have the capability of producing all the ISO bremsstrahlung techniques. The following sections describe the steps that were taken to achieve this.

Kerma, collision kerma and absorbed dose in media irradiated by megavoltage photons are analysed with respect to energy conservation. The user-code DOSRZnrc was employed to compute absorbed dose D, kerma K and a special form of kerma, K ncpt, obtained by setting the charged-particle transport energy cut-off very high, thereby preventing the generation of ‘secondary bremsstrahlung’ along the charged-particle paths. The user-code FLURZnrc was employed to compute photon fluence, differential in energy, from which collision kerma, K col and K were derived. The ratios K/D, K ncpt/D and K col/D have thereby been determined over a very large volumes of water, aluminium and copper irradiated by broad, parallel beams of 0.1 to 25 MeV monoenergetic photons, and 6, 10 and 15 MV ‘clinical’ radiotherapy qualities. Concerning depth-dependence, the ‘area under the kerma, K, curve’ exceeded that under the dose curve, demonstrating that kerma does not conserve energy when computed over a large volume. This is due to the ‘double counting’ of the energy of the secondary bremsstrahlung photons, this energy being (implicitly) included in the kerma ‘liberated’ in the irradiated medium, at the same time as this secondary bremsstrahlung is included in the photon fluence which gives rise to kerma elsewhere in the medium. For 25 MeV photons this ‘violation’ amounts to 8.6%, 14.2% and 25.5% in large volumes of water, aluminium and copper respectively but only 0.6% for a ‘clinical’ 6 MV beam in water. By contrast, K col/D and K ncpt/D, also computed over very large phantoms of the same three media, for the same beam qualities, are equal to unity within (very low) statistical uncertainties, demonstrating that collision kerma and the special type of kerma, K ncpt, do conserve energy over a large volume. A comparison of photon fluence spectra for the 25 MeV beam at a depth of ≈51 g cm-2 for both very high and very low charged-particle transport cut

Recommended criteria are given for the performance of Advanced Photon Source (APS), taking into consideration undulator tunability criteria and their relationship to the storage ring energy and undulator gap, length of straight sections.

In radiation therapy with high-energyphoton beams (E > 10 MeV) neutrons are generated mainly in linacs head thorough (γ,n) interactions of photons with nuclei of high atomic number materials that constitute the linac head and the beam collimation system. These neutrons affect the shielding requirements in radiation therapy rooms and also increase the out-of-field radiation dose of patients undergoing radiation therapy with high-energyphoton beams. In the current review, the authors describe the factors influencing the neutron production for different medical linacs based on the performed measurements and Monte Carlo studies in the literature. PMID:24376940

The interaction of high-energy electrons, positrons, and photons with intense laser pulses is studied in head-on collision geometry. It is shown that electrons and/or positrons undergo a cascade-type process involving multiple emissions of photons. These photons can consequently convert into electron-positron pairs. As a result charged particles quickly lose their energy developing an exponentially decaying energy distribution, which suppresses the emission of high-energyphotons, thus reducing the number of electron-positron pairs being generated. Therefore, this type of interaction suppresses the development of the electromagnetic avalanche-type discharge, i.e., the exponential growth of the number of electrons, positrons, and photons does not occur in the course of interaction. The suppression will occur when three-dimensional effects can be neglected in the transverse particle orbits, i.e., for sufficiently broad laser pulses with intensities that are not too extreme. The final distributions of electrons, positrons, and photons are calculated for the case of a high-energy e-beam interacting with a counterstreaming, short intense laser pulse. The energy loss of the e-beam, which requires a self-consistent quantum description, plays an important role in this process, as well as provides a clear experimental observable for the transition from the classical to quantum regime of interaction.

Spectrum of cascades generated by cosmic ray muons underground is presented. The mean zenith angle of the muon arrival is theta=35 deg the depth approx. 1000 hg/sq cm. In cascades energy range 700 GeV the measured spectrum is in agreement with the sea-level integral muon spectrum index gamma=3.0. Some decrease of this exponent has been found in the range 4000 Gev.

With the pressure range accessible to laser driven compression experiments on solid material rising rapidly, new challenges in the diagnosis of samples in harsh laser environments are emerging. When driving to TPa pressures (conditions highly relevant to planetary interiors), traditional x-ray diffraction techniques are plagued by increased sources of background and noise, as well as a potential reduction in signal. In this paper we present a new diffraction diagnostic designed to record x-ray diffraction in low signal-to-noise environments. By utilising single photon counting techniques we demonstrate the ability to record diffraction patterns on nanosecond timescales, and subsequently separate, photon-by-photon, signal from background. In doing this, we mitigate many of the issues surrounding the use of high intensity lasers to drive samples to extremes of pressure, allowing for structural information to be obtained in a regime which is currently largely unexplored.

Photonic crystals can effectively suppress spontaneous emission of embedded emitter in the direction were photonic stop band overlaps emission band of emitter. This property of PhC has been successfully exploited to enhance energy transfer from a donor Rhodamine-B dye to an acceptor Oxazine-170 dye by inhibiting the fluorescence emission of donor in a controlled manner. Self-assembled PhC were synthesized using RhB dye doped polystyrene microspheres subsequently infiltrated with O-170 dye molecules dissolved in ethanol. An angle dependent enhancement of emission intensity of acceptor via energy transfer in photonic crystal environment was observed. These results were compared with observations made on a dye mixture solution of the same two dyes. Restricted number of available modes in photonic crystal inhibited de-excitation of donor thereby enabling efficient transfer of energy from excited donor to acceptor dye molecules.

Eighteen selected two-photon absorption (TPA) transition line strengths with polarization angles theta = 0° and 45°, spanning several orders of magnitude, have been calculated for the Tb3+ ion in the cubic host Cs2NaTbCl6. The results are in reasonable agreement with experimental results in the literature. The calculation utilized the crystal field (CF) wavefunctions for the initial and final states of the 4f8 configuration, and utilized free ion or CF wavefunctions (with the corresponding energies) for 4f7 core states of the whole intermediate 4f7 5d configuration comprising 34 320 states. The intensities of certain transitions were found to be very sensitive to the inclusion of the CF interaction within the 4f7 core. In contrast to previous fourth- or third-order calculations of the TPA transition line strength of the strong transition (7F 6)A1g rightarrow (5D 4)A1g using pure Russell-Saunders (RS) wavefunctions for the |7F 6 rangle initial and langle5D 4 | final states, our second-order direct calculation shows that the admixed RS wavefunctions |[7F 6 ]rangle and langle[5D 4 ]| must be used to account for its high intensity. The effects of CF interactions within the 4f7 core, i.e. J-mixing and CF energy level splitting, upon the (7F 6)A1g rightarrow (5D 4)Eg TPA transition line strength have been separated, and the latter effect is shown to be more important for the transition investigated.

The X-ray spectrum of the Crab Nebula was measured with the scintillation spectrometer on board the OSO-8 satellite. The total emission of the X-ray source shows no long term variability. The spectrum itself can be described by a single power law out to energies of at least 500 keV.

High energyphotons are measured for the first time in wire-array Z-pinch experiments on the Primary Test Stand (PTS) which delivers a current up to 8 MA with a rise time of 70 ns. A special designed detecting system composed of three types of detectors is used to measure the average energy, intensity, and pulse waveform of high energyphotons. Results from Pb-TLD (thermoluminescence dosimeter) detector indicate that the average energy is 480 keV (±15%). Pulse shape of high energyphotons is measured by the photodiode detector consisted of scintillator coupled with a photodiode, and it is correlated with soft x-ray power by the same timing signal. Intensity is measured by both TLD and the photodiode detector, showing good accordance with each other, and it is 1010 cm-2 (±20%) at 2 m in the horizontal direction. Measurement results show that high energyphotons are mainly produced in pinch regions due to accelerated electrons. PTS itself also produces high energyphotons due to power flow electrons, which is one order smaller in amplitude than those from pinch region.

High energyphotons are measured for the first time in wire-array Z-pinch experiments on the Primary Test Stand (PTS) which delivers a current up to 8 MA with a rise time of 70 ns. A special designed detecting system composed of three types of detectors is used to measure the average energy, intensity, and pulse waveform of high energyphotons. Results from Pb-TLD (thermoluminescence dosimeter) detector indicate that the average energy is 480 keV (±15%). Pulse shape of high energyphotons is measured by the photodiode detector consisted of scintillator coupled with a photodiode, and it is correlated with soft x-ray power by the same timing signal. Intensity is measured by both TLD and the photodiode detector, showing good accordance with each other, and it is 10{sup 10} cm{sup −2} (±20%) at 2 m in the horizontal direction. Measurement results show that high energyphotons are mainly produced in pinch regions due to accelerated electrons. PTS itself also produces high energyphotons due to power flow electrons, which is one order smaller in amplitude than those from pinch region.

High energyphotons are measured for the first time in wire-array Z-pinch experiments on the Primary Test Stand (PTS) which delivers a current up to 8 MA with a rise time of 70 ns. A special designed detecting system composed of three types of detectors is used to measure the average energy, intensity, and pulse waveform of high energyphotons. Results from Pb-TLD (thermoluminescence dosimeter) detector indicate that the average energy is 480 keV (±15%). Pulse shape of high energyphotons is measured by the photodiode detector consisted of scintillator coupled with a photodiode, and it is correlated with soft x-ray power by the same timing signal. Intensity is measured by both TLD and the photodiode detector, showing good accordance with each other, and it is 10(10) cm(-2) (±20%) at 2 m in the horizontal direction. Measurement results show that high energyphotons are mainly produced in pinch regions due to accelerated electrons. PTS itself also produces high energyphotons due to power flow electrons, which is one order smaller in amplitude than those from pinch region. PMID:26329192

We present the photocurrent spectrum study of a quantum dot (QD) single-photon detector using a reset technique which eliminates the QD's “memory effect.” By applying a proper reset frequency and keeping the detector in linear-response region, the detector's responses to different monochromatic light are resolved which reflects different detection efficiencies. We find the reset photocurrent tails up to 1.3 μm wavelength and near-infrared (∼1100 nm) single-photon sensitivity is demonstrated due to interband transition of electrons in QDs, indicating the device a promising candidate both in quantum information applications and highly sensitive imaging applications operating in relative high temperatures (>80 K).

We study temporal changes of the power-law energy/ rigidity spectrum of the first three harmonics of the recurrent variation of the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) intensity during the unusual solar minimum 23/24 and compare with four previous minima. We show that the energyspectrum of the amplitudes of the recurrent variation is soft in the minimum 23/24. Moreover, while the energyspectrum of the amplitudes of the first harmonic of the recurrent variation of the GCR intensity practically behaves as during earlier four minima, the energyspectrum of the amplitudes of the second and the third harmonics demonstrate a valuable softening. We attribute this phenomenon to the decrease of an extension of heliosphere caused by the drop of the solar wind dynamic pressure during the solar minimum 23/24.

Using the improved Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT), this paper investigates the problems of analysis and interpretation of the energyspectrum of a blast wave. It has been previously established that the energyspectrum is an effective feature by which to characterize a blast wave. In fact, the higher the energy spectra in a frequency band of a blast wave, the greater the damage to a target in the same frequency band. However, most current research focuses on analyzing wave signals in the time domain or frequency domain rather than considering the energyspectrum. We propose here an improved HHT method combined with a wavelet packet to extract the energyspectrum feature of a blast wave. When applying the HHT, the signal is first roughly decomposed into a series of intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) by empirical mode decomposition. The wavelet packet method is then performed on each IMF to eliminate noise on the energyspectrum. Second, a coefficient is introduced to remove unrelated IMFs. The energy of each instantaneous frequency can be derived through the Hilbert transform. The energyspectrum can then be obtained by adding up all the components after the wavelet packet filters and screens them through a coefficient to obtain the effective IMFs. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated by 12 groups of experimental data, and an energy attenuation model is established based on the experimental data. The improved HHT is a precise method for blast wave signal analysis. For other shock wave signals from blasting experiments, an energy frequency time distribution and energyspectrum can also be obtained through this method, allowing for more practical applications.

Measurements of cosmic rays by experiments such as ATIC, CREAM and PAMELA indicate a hardening of the cosmic ray energyspectrum at TeV energies. In our recent work, we showed that the hardening can be due to the effect of nearby supernova remnants. We showed it for the case of protons and helium nuclei. In this paper, we present an improved and more detailed version of our previous work, and extend our study to heavier cosmic ray species such as boron, carbon, oxygen and iron nuclei. Unlike our previous study, the present work involves a detailed calculation of the background cosmic rays and follows a consistent treatment of cosmic ray source parameters between the background and the nearby components. Moreover, we also present a detailed comparison of our results on the secondary-to-primary ratios, secondary spectra and the diffuse gamma-ray spectrum with the results expected from other existing models, which can be checked by future measurements at high energies.

The energyspectrum of an electron on the surface of a cylinder is calculated using the Pauli equation with an additional term that takes into account the spin-orbit interaction. This term is taken in the approximation of a phenomenological Rashba model, which provides exact expressions for the wave functions and the electron energyspectrum on the cylinder surface in a static magnetic field.

The effect of extragalactic microwave and submillimeter-radiation fields on the ultrahigh-energy cosmic-ray spectrum is reexamined. It is found that the general characteristics of the spectrum can be derived from fairly simple analytical arguments. It is shown that the various spectral features obtained by numerical calculations can be explored by simpler and more general means. This approach is illustrated using a newly derived lifetime-energy relation based on the new submillimeter observations.

The cosmic-ray spectrum has an intensity enhancement in the energy range 10 to the 14th to 10 to the 16th eV per nucleus. Recent observations of heavy cosmic rays in this energy range indicate that the Ca/Fe ratio may be as large as 10 times the solar value. It is suggested that pulsars in type-II supernova remnants are the origin of this component of the cosmic-ray spectrum.

The results of an experimental study of the transport phenomena and the hole energyspectrum of two-dimensional systems in the quantum well of HgTe zero-gap semiconductor with normal arrangement of quantum-confinement subbands are presented. An analysis of the experimental data allows us to reconstruct the carrier energyspectrum near the hole subband extrema. The results are interpreted using the standard kP model.

Purpose: Energy-resolved x-ray imaging has the potential to improve contrast-to-noise ratio by measuring the energy of each interacting photon and applying optimal weighting factors. The success of energy-resolving photon-counting (EPC) detectors relies on the ability of an x-ray detector to accurately measure the energy of each interacting photon. However, the escape of characteristic emissions and Compton scatter degrades spectral information. This article makes the theoretical connection between accuracy and imprecision in energy measurements with the x-ray Swank factor for a-Se, Si, CdZnTe, and HgI{sub 2}-based detectors. Methods: For a detector that implements adaptive binning to sum all elements in which x-ray energy is deposited for a single interaction, energy imprecision is shown to depend on the Swank factor for a large element with x rays incident at the center. The response function for each converter material is determined using Monte Carlo methods and used to determine energy accuracy, Swank factor, and relative energy imprecision in photon-energy measurements. Results: For each material, at energies below the respective K edges, accuracy is close to unity and imprecision is only a few percent. Above the K-edge energies, characteristic emission results in a drop in accuracy and precision that depends on escape probability. In Si, and to some extent a-Se, Compton-scatter escape also degrades energy precision with increasing energy. The influence of converter thickness on energy accuracy and imprecision is modest for low-Z materials but becomes important when using high-Z materials at energies greater than the K-edge energies. Conclusions: Accuracy and precision in energy measurements by EPC detectors are determined largely by the energy-dependent x-ray Swank factor. Modest decreases in the Swank factor (5%-15%) result in large increases in relative imprecision (30%-40%).

Experimental studies of meson production through two-photon fusion in inelastic electron-nucleus scattering are now under way. A high-energyphoton radiated by the incident electron is fused with a soft photon radiated by the nucleus to create the meson. The process takes place in the small-angle Coulomb region of nuclear scattering. We expound the theory for this production process as well as its interference with coherent-radiative-meson production. In particular, we investigate the distortion of the electron wave function due to multiple-Coulomb scattering.

Supernova remnants are likely to be the accelerators of the galactic cosmic rays. Assuming the correctness of this hypothesis, we develop a method to extract the parent cosmic ray spectrum from the very high energy gamma-ray flux emitted by supernova remnants (and other gamma transparent sources). Namely, we calculate semianalytically the (inverse) operator which relates an arbitrary gamma-ray flux to the parent cosmic ray spectrum, without relying on any theoretical assumption about the shape of the cosmic ray and/or photonspectrum. We illustrate the use of this technique by applying it to the young SNR RX J1713.7-3946 which has been observed by the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) experiment during the last three years. Specific implementations of the method permit using as an input either the parametrized very high energy gamma-ray flux or directly the raw data. The possibility to detect features in the cosmic rays spectrum and the error in the determination of the parent cosmic ray spectrum are also discussed.

In the early universe, energy stored in small-scale density perturbations is quickly dissipated by Silk damping, a process that inevitably generates {mu}- and y-type spectral distortions of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). These spectral distortions depend on the shape and amplitude of the primordial power spectrum at wavenumbers k {approx}< 10{sup 4} Mpc{sup -1}. Here, we study constraints on the primordial power spectrum derived from COBE/FIRAS and forecasted for PIXIE. We show that measurements of {mu} and y impose strong bounds on the integrated small-scale power, and we demonstrate how to compute these constraints using k-space window functions that account for the effects of thermalization and dissipation physics. We show that COBE/FIRAS places a robust upper limit on the amplitude of the small-scale power spectrum. This limit is about three orders of magnitude stronger than the one derived from primordial black holes in the same scale range. Furthermore, this limit could be improved by another three orders of magnitude with PIXIE, potentially opening up a new window to early universe physics. To illustrate the power of these constraints, we consider several generic models for the small-scale power spectrum predicted by different inflation scenarios, including running-mass inflation models and inflation scenarios with episodes of particle production. PIXIE could place very tight constraints on these scenarios, potentially even ruling out running-mass inflation models if no distortion is detected. We also show that inflation models with sub-Planckian field excursion that generate detectable tensor perturbations should simultaneously produce a large CMB spectral distortion, a link that could potentially be established with PIXIE.

Available from UMI in association with The British Library. Requires signed TDF. Relative partial photoionisation cross section (RPPICS) data have been obtained for a variety of transition metal compounds using synchrotron radiation in the incident photonenergy range 17-115 eV. Cross section features such as p to d giant resonances, delayed maxima, Cooper minima and molecular shape resonances have been identified and interpreted in terms of the localisation properties of the ionising electrons. The RPPICS behaviour of the photoelectron (PE) band corresponding to ionisation of the 1a_ {rm 1g} highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of (rm Mo(eta -rm C_6H_5Me)_2) indicates that it is essentially metal-localised. The p to d giant resonant absorption enhancement of the cross section is found to be almost coincident in photonenergy with a molecular shape resonance. Similar features in the 1e_{rm 2g} ^{-1} and 1e_{ rm 1g}^{-1} bands provide strong evidence for metal-ligand covalency in the associated MOs. In contrast, the monotonic fall off with increasing photonenergy of the RPPICS of the 1e_{ rm 1u}^{-1} band is typical of ligand-localised MOs. Studies of the closely related (rm M(eta- rm C_7H_7)(eta- rm C_5H_4R)) (M = Ti, Nb, Mo; R = H: M = Ta; R = Me) reveal a significant degree of both metal and ligand character to the 1e_2 MOs, suggesting that neither the +1 nor the -3 formalism for the charge on the cycloheptatrienyl ring in its complexes is a good one, as they imply a metal- and ligand-localised 1e_2<=vel respectively. The 5e MOs of PF_3, traditionally regarded as fluorine 2p lone pair MOs, have been shown to possess significant phosphorus 3p atomic orbital (AO) character. Comparison of the data obtained on PF _3 with those of (Ni(PF_3 )_4) indicates that the pi back donation from the nickel 3d orbitals to the 7e lowest unoccupied MO of PF_3 also affects the composition of the 5e derived orbitals. A combined experimental and theoretical study has resulted in

Here we investigate evolution of a magnetized system, in which continuously produced high energy emission undergoes annihilation on a soft photon field, such that the synchrotron radiation of the created electron-positron pairs increases number density of the soft photons. This situation is important in high energy astrophysics, because, for an extremely wide range of magnetic field strengths (nano to mega Gauss), it involves {gamma}-ray photons with energies between 0.3GeV and 30TeV. We derive and analyze the conditions for which the system is unstable to runaway production of soft photons and ultrarelativistic electrons, and for which it can reach a steady state with an optical depth to photon-photon annihilation larger than unity, as well those for which efficient pair loading of the emitting volume takes place. We also discuss the application of our analysis to a realistic situation involving astrophysical sources of a broad-band {gamma}-ray emission and briefly consider the particular case of sources close to active supermassive black holes.

After almost four years of operation, the two instruments on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope have shown that the number of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) with high-energyphoton emission above 100 MeV cannot exceed roughly 9% of the total number of all such events, at least at the present detection limits. In a recent paper, we found that GRBs with photons detected in the Large Area Telescope have a surprisingly broad distribution with respect to the observed event photon number. Extrapolation of our empirical fit to numbers of photons below our previous detection limit suggests that the overall rate of such low flux events could be estimated by standard image co-adding techniques. In this case, we have taken advantage of the excellent angular resolution of the Swift mission to provide accurate reference points for 79 GRB events which have eluded any previous correlations with high-energyphotons. We find a small but significant signal in the co-added field. Guided by the extrapolated power-law fit previously obtained for the number distribution of GRBs with higher fluxes, the data suggest that only a small fraction of GRBs are sources of high-energyphotons.

Cherenkov detectors can offer a significant advantage in spatial imaging applications when excellent timing response, low noise and cross talk, large area coverage, and the ability to operate in magnetic fields are required. We show that an array of Cherenkov detectors with crude energy resolution coupled with monochromatic photons resulting from a low-energy nuclear reaction can be used to produce a sharp image of material while providing large and inexpensive detector coverage. The analysis of the detector response to relative transmission of photons with various energies allows for reconstruction of material's effective atomic number further aiding in high-Z material identification.

A double crystal monochromator at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory is used to study the Si/SiO2 interface, using photonenergies of hv = 1950-3700 eV. This photonenergy range allows interfaces to be observed through oxide layers 50 A thick or more. Variations in electron escape depth and/or oxide density as a function of distance from the interface are observed over the entire kinetic energy range (100-3600 eV). These differences are attributed to a strained oxide layer near the interface.

The recent studies of transfer equations for solar wind magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence are reviewed with emphasis on the comparison with the statistical observational results. Helios and Voyager missions provide an opportunity to study the the radial evolution of the power spectrum. the cross-helicity the Alfven ratio and the minimum variance direction. Spectrum transfer equations are considered as a tool to explore the nature of this radial evolution of the fluctuations. The transfer equations are derived from incompressible MHD equations. Generally one needs to make assumptions about the nature of the fluctuations and the nature of the turbulent non-linear interactions to obtain numerical results which can be compared with the observations. Some special model results for several simple cases SUCH as for structures or strong mixing. for Alfven waves with weak turbulent interactions. and for a superposition of structures and Alfven waves. are discussed. The difference between the various approaches to derive and handle the transfer equations are also addressed. Finally some theoretical description of the compressible fluctuations are also briefly reviewed.

Model-based dose calculation algorithms (MBDCAs) for low-energy, photon-emitting brachytherapy sources have advanced to the point where the algorithms may be used in clinical practice. Before these algorithms can be used, a methodology must be established to verify the accuracy of the source models used by the algorithms. Additionally, the source strength metric for these algorithms must be established. This work explored the feasibility of verifying the source models used by MBDCAs by measuring the differential photon fluence emitted from the encapsulation of the source. The measured fluence could be compared to that modeled by the algorithm to validate the source model. This work examined how the differential photon fluence varied with position and angle of emission from the source, and the resolution that these measurements would require for dose computations to be accurate to within 1.5%. Both the spatial and angular resolution requirements were determined. The techniques used to determine the resolution required for measurements of the differential photon fluence were applied to determine why dose-rate constants determined using a spectroscopic technique disagreed with those computed using Monte Carlo techniques. The discrepancy between the two techniques had been previously published, but the cause of the discrepancy was not known. This work determined the impact that some of the assumptions used by the spectroscopic technique had on the accuracy of the calculation. The assumption of isotropic emission was found to cause the largest discrepancy in the spectroscopic dose-rate constant. Finally, this work improved the instrumentation used to measure the rate at which energy leaves the encapsulation of a brachytherapy source. This quantity is called emitted power (EP), and is presented as a possible source strength metric for MBDCAs. A calorimeter that measured EP was designed and built. The theoretical framework that the calorimeter relied upon to measure EP

We study cosmological models involving scalar fields coupled to radiation and discuss their effect on the redshift evolution of the cosmic microwave background temperature, focusing on links with varying fundamental constants and dynamical dark energy. We quantify how allowing for the coupling of scalar fields to photons, and its important effect on luminosity distances, weakens current and future constraints on cosmological parameters. In particular, for evolving dark energy models, joint constraints on the dark energy equation of state combining BAO radial distance and SN luminosity distance determinations, will be strongly dominated by BAO. Thus, to fully exploit future SN data one must also independently constrain photon number non-conservation arising from the possible coupling of SN photons to the dark energy scalar field. We discuss how observational determinations of the background temperature at different redshifts can, in combination with distance measures data, set tight constraints on interactions between scalar fields and photons, thus breaking this degeneracy. We also discuss prospects for future improvements, particularly in the context of Euclid and the E-ELT and show that Euclid can, even on its own, provide useful dark energy constraints while allowing for photon number non-conservation.

This paper deals with the application of high-energy resolution EFTEM image series and the corrections needed for reliable data interpretation. The detail of spectral information gained from an image series is largely determined by the intrinsic energy resolution. In this work we show that energy resolution values of as low as 0.8 eV in spectra extracted from EFTEM image series can be obtained with a small energy-selecting slit. At this resolution level aberrations of the energy filter, in particular the non-isochromaticity, can no longer be neglected. We show that the four most prominent factors for EFTEM image series data correction--spatial drift, non-isochromaticity, energy drift and image distortion--must not be treated independently but have to be corrected in unison. We present an efficient algorithm for this correction, and demonstrate the applied correction for the case of a GaN/AlN multilayer sample. PMID:16872748

The fluctuating kinetic energyspectrum in the region near the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability (RMI) is experimentally investigated using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The velocity field is measured at a high spatial resolution in the light gas to observe the effects of turbulence production and dissipation. It is found that the RMI acts as a source of turbulence production near the unstable interface, where energy is transferred from the scales of the perturbation to smaller scales until dissipation. The interface also has an effect on the kinetic energyspectrum farther away by means of the distorted reflected shock wave. The energyspectrum far from the interface initially has a higher energy content than that of similar experiments with a flat interface. These differences are quick to disappear as dissipation dominates the flow far from the interface.

Accurate energy calibration is critical for the application of energy-resolved photon-counting detectors in spectral imaging. The aim of this study is to investigate the feasibility of energy response calibration and characterization of a photon-counting detector using X-ray fluorescence. A comprehensive Monte Carlo simulation study was performed using Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) to investigate the optimal technique for X-ray fluorescence calibration. Simulations were conducted using a 100 kVp tungsten-anode spectra with 2.7 mm Al filter for a single pixel cadmium telluride (CdTe) detector with 3 × 3 mm2 in detection area. The angular dependence of X-ray fluorescence and scatter background was investigated by varying the detection angle from 20° to 170° with respect to the beam direction. The effects of the detector material, shape, and size on the recorded X-ray fluorescence were investigated. The fluorescent material size effect was considered with and without the container for the fluorescent material. In order to provide validation for the simulation result, the angular dependence of X-ray fluorescence from five fluorescent materials was experimentally measured using a spectrometer. Finally, eleven of the fluorescent materials were used for energy calibration of a CZT-based photon-counting detector. The optimal detection angle was determined to be approximately at 120° with respect to the beam direction, which showed the highest fluorescence to scatter ratio (FSR) with a weak dependence on the fluorescent material size. The feasibility of X-ray fluorescence for energy calibration of photon-counting detectors in the diagnostic X-ray energy range was verified by successfully calibrating the energy response of a CZT-based photon-counting detector. The results of this study can be used as a guideline to implement the X-ray fluorescence calibration method for photon-counting detectors in a typical imaging laboratory. PMID:25369288

A graphite calorimeter has been developed as a Japanese primary standard of absorbed dose to water in the high-energyphoton beams from a clinical linac. To obtain conversion factors for the graphite calorimeter, the beam characteristics of the high-energyphoton beams from the clinical linac at National Metrology Institute of Japan were calculated with the EGS5 Monte Carlo simulation code. To run the EGS5 code on High Performance Computing machines that have more than 1000 CPU cores, we developed the EGS5 parallelisation package "EGS5-MPI" by implementing a message-passing interface. We calculated the photonenergy spectra, which are in good agreement with those previously calculated by D. Sheikh-Bagheri and D. W. O. Rogers (Med. Phys. 29 3). We also estimated the percentage-depth-dose distributions of photon beams from the linac using the calculated photonenergy spectra. These calculated percentage-depth-dose distributions were compared with our measured distributions and were found they are in good agreement as well. We will calculate conversion factors for the graphite calorimeter using our results.

Measurements of multiplicity and pseudorapidity distributions of particles produced in pp collisions are important for the study of particle production mechanisms and to obtain baseline distributions to be compared with those from heavy-ion collisions. The inclusive photon measurements (dominated by π0 decays) are complementary to the charged particle measurements. The present work focuses on the forward rapidity region with comparisons to different models such as PYTHIA and PHOJET. We report the measurements of multiplicity and pseudorapidity distributions of inclusive photons using the ALICE Photon Multiplicity Detector (PMD) at forward rapidities (2.3 < η < 3.9) in pp collisions at = 0.9, 2.76 and 7 TeV. It is observed that the photon multiplicity distributions are well described by negative binomial distributions (NBD). Multiplicity distributions are studied in terms of KNO variables for each energy. It is shown that the increase in the average photon multiplicity as a function of beam energy is compatible with both a logarithmic and power law dependence. The results are compared to different model predictions. These models reproduce experimental results at lower energy while they are not accurate at higher energies.

We have studied the wavelength dependence of the two-photon excitation efficiency for a number of common UV excitable fluorescent dyes; the nuclear stains DAPI, Hoechst and SYTOX Green, chitin- and cellulose-staining dye Calcofluor White and Alexa Fluor 350, in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range (540-800 nm). For several of the dyes, we observe a substantial increase in the fluorescence emission intensity for shorter excitation wavelengths than the 680 nm which is the shortest wavelength usually available for two-photon microscopy. We also find that although the rate of photo-bleaching increases at shorter wavelengths, it is still possible to acquire many images with higher fluorescence intensity. This is particularly useful for applications where the aim is to image the structure, rather than monitoring changes in emission intensity over extended periods of time. We measure the excitation spectrum when the dyes are used to stain biological specimens to get a more accurate representation of the spectrum of the dye in a cell environment as compared to solution-based measurements. PMID:25946127

The creation of high energy pairs and photons in the conversion of gravitational to thermal energy is a process common to most accretion models for active galactic nuclei. These are two observational methods designed to explore this process: direct observations of the hot photons, through hard X-ray and gamma-ray data, and indirect observations of the energetic pairs, through their polarized, nonthermal low frequency radiation. However, interpretation of these observations in terms of the conditions in the inner accretion flow requires understanding of the various processes which modify the pair and photon distributions within the hot, dense core. These processes include opacity effects within the pair/photon plasma, Compton losses on external photons, further acceleration of the pairs and further radiation by the pairs, and the dynamic interaction of the pair/photon plasma with the surrounding gas. Current observational and theoretical work is reviewed and new directions are considered in a search for constraints on or tests of accretion models of active nuclei.

Recent studies have demonstrated that dual-energy computed tomography (CT) can provide useful information in several chest-related clinical indications. Compared with single-energy CT, dual-energy CT of the chest is feasible with the use of a radiation-dose-neutral scanning protocol. This article highlights the different types of images that can be generated by using dual-energy CT protocols such as virtual monochromatic, virtual unenhanced (ie, water), and pulmonary blood volume (ie, iodine) images. The physical basis of dual-energy CT and material decomposition are explained. The advantages of the use of virtual low-monochromatic images include reduced volume of intravenous contrast material and improved contrast resolution of images. The use of virtual high-monochromatic images can reduce beam hardening and contrast streak artifacts. The pulmonary blood volume images can help differentiate various parenchymal abnormalities, such as infarcts, atelectasis, and pneumonias, as well as airway abnormalities. The pulmonary blood volume images allow quantitative and qualitative assessment of iodine distribution. The estimation of iodine concentration (quantitative assessment) provides objective analysis of enhancement. The advantages of virtual unenhanced images include differentiation of calcifications, talc, and enhanced thoracic structures. Dual-energy CT has applications in oncologic imaging, including diagnosis of thoracic masses, treatment planning, and assessment of response to treatment. Understanding the concept of dual-energy CT and its clinical application in the chest are the goals of this article. PMID:26761530

A new method is introduced in which the total photon interaction cross sections per electron of human tissues are used to define effective atomic numbers for blood, bone, brain, fat, heart, kidney, liver, lung, muscle, ovary, pancreas, spleen, and water. These effective atomic numbers are equal within 4% from 10 to 200 keV in each soft tissue, whereas for bones of different chemical compositions the variation ranges from 2.86% to 5.03%. This effective atomic number definition is less energy dependent than a previous definition based on the total photon interaction cross section per atom averaged over all elements in the tissue, from which the computed effective atomic numbers varied by as much as 50% (in bone) as a function of photonenergy over the energy range from 10 to 200 keV. PMID:3683305

We investigate the influence of uncertainties in the shape of the energyspectrum over the Smagorinsky ["General circulation experiments with the primitive equations. I: The basic experiment," Mon. Weather Rev. 91(3), 99 (1963)] subgrid scale model constant CS: the analysis is carried out by a stochastic approach based on generalized polynomial chaos. The free parameters in the considered energyspectrum functional forms are modeled as random variables over bounded supports: two models of the energyspectrum are investigated, namely, the functional form proposed by Pope [Turbulent Flows (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000)] and by Meyers and Meneveau ["A functional form for the energyspectrum parametrizing bottleneck and intermittency effects," Phys. Fluids 20(6), 065109 (2008)]. The Smagorinsky model coefficient, computed from the algebraic relation presented in a recent work by Meyers and Sagaut ["On the model coefficients for the standard and the variational multi-scale Smagorinsky model," J. Fluid Mech. 569, 287 (2006)], is considered as a stochastic process and is described by numerical tools streaming from the probability theory. The uncertainties are introduced in the free parameters shaping the energyspectrum in correspondence to the large and the small scales, respectively. The predicted model constant is weakly sensitive to the shape of the energyspectrum when large scales uncertainty is considered: if the large-eddy simulation (LES) filter cut is performed in the inertial range, a significant probability to recover values lower in magnitude than the asymptotic Lilly-Smagorinsky model constant is recovered. Furthermore, the predicted model constant occurrences cluster in a compact range of values: the correspondent probability density function rapidly drops to zero approaching the extremes values of the range, which show a significant sensitivity to the LES filter width. The sensitivity of the model constant to uncertainties propagated in the

Photonic simulations of quantum Hall edge states and topological insulators have inspired considerable interest in recent years. Interestingly, there are theoretical predictions for another type of topological states in topological superconductors, but debates over their experimental observations still remain. Here we investigate the photonic analogue of the px + ipy model of topological superconductor. Two essential characteristics of topological superconductor, particle-hole symmetry and px + ipy pairing potentials, are well emulated in photonic systems. Its topological features are presented by chiral edge state and zero-energy mode at a vortex. This work may fertilize the study of photonic topological states, and open up the possibility for emulating wave behaviors in superconductors. PMID:25488408

In nuclear science, gamma and neutron spectra are counted energy by energy, and then particle by particle. Until recently, few studies have been performed on how exactly those energy spectra are counted, or how those counts are correlated. Because of lack of investigation, cross section covariance and correlation matrices are usually estimated using perturbation method. We will discuss a statistical counting scheme that shall mimic the gamma and neutron counting process used in nuclear science. From this counting scheme, the cross section covariance and correlation can be statistically derived.

Massive stars in binary systems have long been regarded as potential sources of high-energy γ rays. The emission is principally thought to arise in the region where the stellar winds collide and accelerate relativistic particles which subsequently emit γ rays. On the basis of a three-dimensional distribution function of high-energy particles in the wind collision region—as obtained by a numerical hydrodynamics and particle transport model—we present the computation of the three-dimensional nonthermal photon emission for a given line of sight. Anisotropic inverse Compton emission is modeled using the target radiation field of both stars. Photons from relativistic bremsstrahlung and neutral pion decay are computed on the basis of local wind plasma densities. We also consider photon-photon opacity effects due to the dense radiation fields of the stars. Results are shown for different stellar separations of a given binary system comprising of a B star and a Wolf-Rayet star. The influence of orbital orientation with respect to the line of sight is also studied by using different orbital viewing angles. For the chosen electron-proton injection ratio of 10{sup –2}, we present the ensuing photon emission in terms of two-dimensional projections maps, spectral energy distributions, and integrated photon flux values in various energy bands. Here, we find a transition from hadron-dominated to lepton-dominated high-energy emission with increasing stellar separations. In addition, we confirm findings from previous analytic modeling that the spectral energy distribution varies significantly with orbital orientation.

Raman investigation of MoSe2 was carried out with eight different excitation energies. Seven peaks, including E1g, A1g, E2g1, and A2u2 peaks are observed in the range of 100–400 cm−1. The phonon modes are assigned by comparing the peak positions with theoretical calculations. The intensities of the peaks are enhanced at different excitation energies through resonance with different optical transitions. The A1g mode is enhanced at 1.58 and 3.82 eV, which are near the A exciton energy and the band-to-band transition between higher energy bands, respectively. The E2g1 mode is strongly enhanced with respect to the A1g mode for the 2.71- and 2.81-eV excitations, which are close to the C exciton energy. The different enhancements of the A1g and E2g1 modes are explained in terms of the symmetries of the exciton states and the exciton-phonon coupling. Other smaller peaks including E1g and A2u2 are forbidden but appear due to the resonance effect near optical transition energies. PMID:26601614

We present the first signature-based search for delayed photons using an exclusive photon plus missing transverse energy final state. Events are reconstructed in a data sample from the CDF II detector corresponding to 6.3fb-1 of integrated luminosity from s=1.96TeV proton-antiproton collisions. Candidate events are selected if they contain a photon with an arrival time in the detector larger than expected from a promptly produced photon. The mean number of events from standard model sources predicted by the data-driven background model based on the photon timing distribution is 286±24. A total of 322 events are observed. A p value of 12% is obtained, showing consistency of the data with standard model predictions.

Electron-phonon coupling in semiconductor quantum dots plays a significant role in determining the optical properties of excited excitons, especially the spectral nature of emitted photons. This paper presents a comprehensive theory and analysis of emission spectra from artificial atoms or quantum dots coupled to structured photon reservoirs and acoustic phonons, when excited with incoherent pump fields. As specific examples of structured reservoirs, we chose a Lorentzian cavity and a slow-light coupled-cavity waveguide, which have both been explored experimentally. For the case of optical cavities, we directly compare and contrast the spectra from three well-known and distinct theoretical approaches to treat electron-phonon coupling, including a Markovian polaron master equation, a non-Markovian phonon correlation expansion technique, and a semiclassical linear susceptibility approach, and we point out the limitations of these models. For the cavity-QED polaron master equation, which treats the cavity-mode operator at the level of a system operator, we give closed form analytical solutions to the phonon-assisted scattering rates in the weak excitation approximation, fully accounting for temperature, cavity-exciton detuning, and cavity-dot coupling. We also show explicitly why the semiclassical linear susceptibility approach fails to correctly account for phonon-mediated cavity feeding. For weakly coupled cavities, we calculate the optical spectra using a more general photon reservoir polaron master-equation approach, and explain its differences from the above approaches in the low-Q limit of a Lorentzian cavity. We subsequently use this general reservoir approach to calculate the emission spectra from quantum dots coupled to slow-light photonic crystal waveguides, which demonstrate a number of striking photon-phonon coupling effects.

The goal of this paper was to investigate the benefits that could be realistically achieved on a microCT imaging system with an energy-resolved photon-counting x-ray detector. To this end, we built and evaluated a prototype microCT system based on such a detector. The detector is based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) radiation sensors and application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) readouts. Each detector pixel can simultaneously count x-ray photons above six energy thresholds, providing the capability for energy-selective x-ray imaging. We tested the spectroscopic performance of the system using polychromatic x-ray radiation and various filtering materials with K-absorption edges. Tomographic images were then acquired of a cylindrical PMMA phantom containing holes filled with various materials. Results were also compared with those acquired using an intensity-integrating x-ray detector and single-energy (i.e. non-energy-selective) CT. This paper describes the functionality and performance of the system, and presents preliminary spectroscopic and tomographic results. The spectroscopic experiments showed that the energy-resolved photon-counting detector was capable of measuring energy spectra from polychromatic sources like a standard x-ray tube, and resolving absorption edges present in the energy range used for imaging. However, the spectral quality was degraded by spectral distortions resulting from degrading factors, including finite energy resolution and charge sharing. We developed a simple charge-sharing model to reproduce these distortions. The tomographic experiments showed that the availability of multiple energy thresholds in the photon-counting detector allowed us to simultaneously measure target-to-background contrasts in different energy ranges. Compared with single-energy CT with an integrating detector, this feature was especially useful to improve differentiation of materials with different attenuation coefficient energy dependences.

The goal of this paper was to investigate the benefits that could be realistically achieved on a microCT imaging system with an energy-resolved photon-counting x-ray detector. To this end, we built and evaluated a prototype microCT system based on such a detector. The detector is based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) radiation sensors and application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) readouts. Each detector pixel can simultaneously count x-ray photons above six energy thresholds, providing the capability for energy-selective x-ray imaging. We tested the spectroscopic performance of the system using polychromatic x-ray radiation and various filtering materials with K-absorption edges. Tomographic images were then acquired of a cylindrical PMMA phantom containing holes filled with various materials. Results were also compared with those acquired using an intensity-integrating x-ray detector and single-energy (i.e. non-energy-selective) CT. This paper describes the functionality and performance of the system, and presents preliminary spectroscopic and tomographic results. The spectroscopic experiments showed that the energy-resolved photon-counting detector was capable of measuring energy spectra from polychromatic sources like a standard x-ray tube, and resolving absorption edges present in the energy range used for imaging. However, the spectral quality was degraded by spectral distortions resulting from degrading factors, including finite energy resolution and charge sharing. We developed a simple charge-sharing model to reproduce these distortions. The tomographic experiments showed that the availability of multiple energy thresholds in the photon-counting detector allowed us to simultaneously measure target-to-background contrasts in different energy ranges. Compared with single-energy CT with an integrating detector, this feature was especially useful to improve differentiation of materials with different attenuation coefficient energy dependences. PMID:21464527

The preliminary results are presented of the measurement of the energyspectrum of low energy (5-24 MeV) albedo electrons, moving upward as well as downwards, at about 37 km (-4 mb) altitude, over Hyderabad, India, in low latitude region. The flux and energyspectrum was observed by a bi-directional, multidetector charged particle telescope which was flown in a high altitude balloon on 8th December 1984. Results based on a quick look data acquisition and analysis system are presented here.

A grain size characterization method based on energy attenuation coefficient spectrum and support vector regression (SVR) is proposed. First, the spectra of the first and second back-wall echoes are cut into several frequency bands to calculate the energy attenuation coefficient spectrum. Second, the frequency band that is sensitive to grain size variation is determined. Finally, a statistical model between the energy attenuation coefficient in the sensitive frequency band and average grain size is established through SVR. Experimental verification is conducted on austenitic stainless steel. The average relative error of the predicted grain size is 5.65%, which is better than that of conventional methods. PMID:26995732

The cross section for double-electron ionization of two-electron atoms and ions in Compton scattering of high energyphotons is calculated. It is demonstrated that its dependence on the incoming photon frequency is the same as that for single-electron ionization. The ratio of {open_quotes}double-to-single{close_quotes} ionization in Compton scattering was found to be energy independent and almost identical with the corresponding value for photoionization. For the He atom it is 1.68%. This surprising result deserves experimental verification.

Cross two photon absorption in silicon is characterized using a tapered fiber photonic crystal silicon waveguide coupler. There is a physical junction between the tapered fiber and the waveguide constituting a stand-alone device. This device is used to obtain the spectrum for cross two photon absorption coefficient per unit volume of interaction between photons of nondegenerate energy. The corresponding Kerr coefficient per unit volume of interaction is also experimentally extracted. The thermal resistance of the device is also experimentally determined and the response time of the device is estimated for on-chip all-optical signal processing and data transfer between optical signals of different photonenergies.

We analyze the effect of the Hall term in the magnetohydrodynamic turbulence under a strong externally supported magnetic field, seeing how this changes the energy cascade, the characteristic scales of the flow, and the dynamics of global magnitudes, with particular interest in the dissipation. Numerical simulations of freely evolving three-dimensional reduced magnetohydrodynamics are performed, for different values of the Hall parameter (the ratio of the ion skin depth to the macroscopic scale of the turbulence) controlling the impact of the Hall term. The Hall effect modifies the transfer of energy across scales, slowing down the transfer of energy from the large scales up to the Hall scale (ion skin depth) and carrying faster the energy from the Hall scale to smaller scales. The final outcome is an effective shift of the dissipation scale to larger scales but also a development of smaller scales. Current sheets (fundamental structures for energy dissipation) are affected in two ways by increasing the Hall effect, with a widening but at the same time generating an internal structure within them. In the case where the Hall term is sufficiently intense, the current sheet is fully delocalized. The effect appears to reduce impulsive effects in the flow, making it less intermittent.

,m)} over D{sub 90(m,m)} for clinical implants matches D{sub w,m}/D{sub m,m} at 1 cm from the single point sources. Conclusions: Given the small variation with distance, using conversion factors based on the emitted photonspectrum (or its mean energy) of a given source introduces minimal error. The large differences observed between scoring schemes underline the need for guidelines on choice of media for dose reporting. Providing such guidelines is beyond the scope of this work.

The Cherenkov light array for the registration of extensive air showers (EAS) Tunka-133 collected data during 5 winter seasons from 2009 to 2014.-The differential energyspectrum of all particles and the dependence of the average maximum depth on the energy in the range of 6 ṡ 1015-1018 eV measured for 1540 hours of observation are presented.

Axionlike particles (ALPs) are hypothetical light (sub-eV) bosons predicted in some extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics. In astrophysical environments comprising high-energy gamma rays and turbulent magnetic fields, the existence of ALPs can modify the energyspectrum of the gamma rays for a sufficiently large coupling between ALPs and photons. This modification would take the form of an irregular behavior of the energyspectrum in a limited energy range. Data from the H.E.S.S. observations of the distant BL Lac object PKS 2155-304 (z=0.116) are used to derive upper limits at the 95% C.L. on the strength of the ALP coupling to photons, gγa<2.1×10-11GeV-1 for an ALP mass between 15 and 60 neV. The results depend on assumptions on the magnetic field around the source, which are chosen conservatively. The derived constraints apply to both light pseudoscalar and scalar bosons that couple to the electromagnetic field.

The tentative experiment for producing low-photon-energy quasi-x-ray laser using a capillary is described. This flash x-ray generator was improved in order to increase the x-ray intensity and to produce high-intensity characteristic x-rays by forming the linear plasma x-ray source. The generator consists of a high-voltage power supply, a polarity-inversion ignitron pulse generator, a turbo-molecular pump, and a radiation tube with a capillary. A high-voltage condenser of 0.2 (mu) F in the pulse generator is charged up to 20 kV by the power supply, and the electric charges in the condenser are discharged to the capillary in the tube after closing the ignitron. In the present work, the chamber is evacuated by the pump with a pressure of about 1 mPa, and the carbon anode and cathode electrodes are employed to produce K(alpha) characteristic x-rays. The diameter and the length of the ferrite capillary are 2.0 and 29 mm, respectively, and both the cathode voltage and the discharge current displayed damped oscillations. The peak values of the voltage and current increased when the charging voltage was increased, and their maximum values were -9.9 kV and 4.4 kA, respectively. The pulse durations of the x-rays were nearly equivalent to those of the damped oscillations in the voltage and current, and their values were less than 20 microseconds. In the spectrum measurement, we observed the carbon K(alpha) line.

We investigate the γ-ray and X-ray properties of the flat spectrum radio quasar PKS 2149-306 at redshift z = 2.345. A strong γ-ray flare from this source was detected by the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite in 2013 January, reaching on January 20 a daily peak flux of (301 ± 36) × 10-8 ph cm-2 s-1 in the 0.1-100 GeV energy range. This flux corresponds to an apparent isotropic luminosity of (1.5 ± 0.2) × 1050 erg s-1, comparable to the highest values observed by a blazar so far. During the flare the increase of flux was accompanied by a significant change of the spectral properties. Moreover significant flux variations on a 6-h time-scale were observed, compatible with the light crossing time of the event horizon of the central black hole. The broad-band X-ray spectra of PKS 2149-306 observed by Swift-XRT and NuSTAR are well described by a broken power-law model, with a very hard spectrum (Γ1 ˜ 1) below the break energy, at E break = 2.5-3.0 keV, and Γ2 ˜ 1.4-1.5 above the break energy. The steepening of the spectrum below ˜3 keV may indicate that the soft X-ray emission is produced by the low-energy relativistic electrons. This is in agreement with the small variability amplitude and the lack of spectral changes in that part of the X-ray spectrum observed between the two NuSTAR and Swift joint observations. As for the other high-redshift FSRQ detected by both Fermi-LAT and Swift-BAT, the photon index of PKS 2149-306 in hard X-ray is 1.6 or lower and the average γ-ray luminosity higher than 2 × 1048 erg s-1.

This work presents an estimate of the energy distribution of the neutrals formed in the ion beam accelerator. However it does not determine the fraction of those neutrals which leave the neutral beam injector and go on into the reactor. To do that, more details of the beam line performance are needed.

Recent experiments have fabricated structured arrays. We study hybrid nanowires, in which normal and superconducting regions are in close proximity, by using the Bogoliubov-de Gennes equations for superconductivity in a cylindrical nanowire. We succeed to obtain the quantum energy levels and wavefunctions of a superconducting nanowire. The obtained spectra of electrons remind Hofstadter’s butterfly.

A circularly polarized laser normally impinged on an overdense plasma thin foil target is shown to accelerate the electrons in the skin layer towards the rear, converting the quiver energy into streaming energy exactly if one ignores the space charge field. The energy distribution of electrons is close to Maxwellian with an upper cutoff ε{sub max}=mc{sup 2}[(1+a{sub 0}{sup 2}){sup 1/2}−1], where a{sub 0}{sup 2}=(1+(2ω{sup 2}/ω{sub p}{sup 2})|a{sub in}|{sup 2}){sup 2}−1, |a{sub in}| is the normalized amplitude of the incident laser of frequency ω, and ω{sub p} is the plasma frequency. The energetic electrons create an electrostatic sheath at the rear and cause target normal sheath acceleration of protons. The energy gain by the accelerated ions is of the order of ε{sub max}.

A method of uncollimated single photon emission computed tomography includes administering a radioisotope to a patient for producing gamma ray photons from a source inside the patient. Emissivity of the photons is measured externally of the patient with an uncollimated gamma camera at a plurality of measurement positions surrounding the patient for obtaining corresponding energyspectrums thereat. Photon emissivity at the plurality of measurement positions is predicted using an initial prediction of an image of the source. The predicted and measured photon emissivities are compared to obtain differences therebetween. Prediction and comparison is iterated by updating the image prediction until the differences are below a threshold for obtaining a final prediction of the source image. 6 figs.

A method of uncollimated single photon emission computed tomography includes administering a radioisotope to a patient for producing gamma ray photons from a source inside the patient. Emissivity of the photons is measured externally of the patient with an uncollimated gamma camera at a plurality of measurement positions surrounding the patient for obtaining corresponding energyspectrums thereat. Photon emissivity at the plurality of measurement positions is predicted using an initial prediction of an image of the source. The predicted and measured photon emissivities are compared to obtain differences therebetween. Prediction and comparison is iterated by updating the image prediction until the differences are below a threshold for obtaining a final prediction of the source image.

Tandem mass spectrometry and wavelength selective infrared photodissociation was used to generate an infrared spectrum of gas-phase triethylphosphate cationized by attachment of K+. Prominent absorptions were observed in the region of 900 to 1300 cm-1 that are characteristic of phosphate P=O and P-O-R stretches. The relative positions and intensities of the IR absorptions were reproduced well by density functional theory (DFT) calculations performed using the B3LYP functional and the 6-31+g(d), 6-311+g(d,p) and 6-311++G(3df,2pd) basis sets. Because of good correspondence between experiment and theory for the cation, DFT was then used to generate a theoretical spectrum for neutral triethylphosphate, which in turn accurately reproduces the IR spectrum of the neat liquid when solvent effects are included in the calculations.

A preliminary experiment for producing narrow-photon-energy cone-beam x-rays using a silicon single crystal is described. In order to produce low-photon-energy x-rays, a 100-Âµm-focus x-ray generator in conjunction with a (111) plane silicon crystal is employed. The x-ray beams from the source are confined by an x-y diaphragm, and monochromatic cone beams are formed by the crystal and three lead plates. The x-ray generator consists of a main controller and a unit with a high-voltage circuit and a 100-Âµm-focus x-ray tube. In this experiment, the maximum tube voltage and current were 35 kV and 0.50 mA, respectively, and the x-ray intensity of the microfocus generator was 343 μGy/s at 1.0 m from the source with a tube voltage of 30 kV and a current of 0.50 mA. The effective photonenergy is determined by Bragg's angle, and the photon-energy width is regulated by the angle delta. Using this generator in conjunction with a computed radiography system, quasi-monochromatic radiography was performed using a cone beam with an effective energy of approximately 15.5 keV.

A preliminary experiment for producing narrow-photon-energy cone-beam X-rays using a silicon single crystal is described. In order to produce low-photon-energy X-rays, a 100-μm-focus X-ray generator in conjunction with a (1 1 1) plane silicon crystal is employed. The X-ray generator consists of a main controller and a unit with a high-voltage circuit and a microfocus X-ray tube. The maximum tube voltage and current were 35 kV and 0.50 mA, respectively, and the X-ray intensity of the microfocus generator was 48.3 μGy/s at 1.0 m from the source with a tube voltage of 30 kV and a current of 0.50 mA. The effective photonenergy is determined by Bragg's angle, and the photon-energy width is regulated by the angle delta. Using this generator in conjunction with a computed radiography system, quasi-monochromatic radiography was performed using a cone beam with an effective energy of approximately 17 keV.

The object of the study was to measure the linear attenuation coefficients of hydrophilic materials with the aim of investigating their suitability as tissue equivalent materials. Hydrophilic materials are used in the ophthalmic industry for the manufacture of soft contact lenses. Hydrophilic materials have the trade name "Biogel" and are commonly known as hydrogels. Two types of hydrophilic material were tested, ED4C (72% water uptake by weight) and EDIS (60% water uptake by weight). The measurements were obtained using gamma-ray photons of energy 59.5 keV, and x-ray photons of energies 44.23 and 17.44 keV. Measurements were made for material types ED4C and EDIS in both the dry and fully hydrated state. Measurements were also made on powdered samples of ED4C at different hydration levels using a photonenergy of 17.44 keV and powdered samples of EDIS at different hydration levels using a photonenergy of 59.5 keV. The precision of the measurements was approx. 1%. It was found that material ED4C has linear attenuation coefficients that closely match those of the calculated values for soft tissue across the range of energies used. PMID:7633393

An emerging field of triplet energy migration-based photon upconversion (TEM-UC) is reviewed. Highly efficient photon upconversion has been realized in a wide range of chromophore assemblies, such as non-solvent liquids, ionic liquids, amorphous solids, gels, supramolecular assemblies, molecular crystals, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The control over their assembly structures allows for unexpected air-stability and maximum upconversion quantum yield at weak solar irradiance that has never been achieved by the conventional molecular diffusion-based mechanism. The introduction of the "self-assembly" concept offers a new perspective in photon upconversion research and triplet exciton science, which show promise for numerous applications ranging from solar energy conversion to chemical biology. PMID:26947379

The modeling of high energyphotons production in collisions of antiproton beam having E beam = 15 GeV with the proton target pp→ γ + {ptX} is done using the event sample simulated by PYTHIA6 generator. Such energy is high enough to consider this collision as a relativistic one and being caused by parton-parton scattering. The distribution of the set of kinematic variables and cuts which can be useful for getting the information about proton structure in the available kinematic region is obtained. The contributions of fake photons which can appear from the hadron decays as well as of the background caused by the minimum bias events and other QCD processes are estimated. The set of cuts which can be useful for separation of signal events containing the direct photons from background events is proposed.

In the present paper, we construct a self-consistent theory interpreting the observations from the MAGIC Cherenkov Telescope of the very high energy (VHE) pulsed emission from the Crab pulsar. In particular, on the basis of Vlasov's kinetic equation, we study the process of quasi-linear diffusion (QLD) developed by means of the cyclotron instability. This mechanism provides simultaneous generation of low (radio) and VHE (0.01-25 GeV) emission on light cylinder scales in one location of the pulsar magnetosphere. A different approach to the synchrotron emission is considered, giving the spectral index of the VHE emission ({beta} = 2) and the exponential cutoff energy (23 GeV) in good agreement with the observational data.

The propagation of UHECR nuclei for A = 1(protons) to A = 56(iron) from cosmological sources through extragalactic space is discussed in the first lecture. This is followed in the second and third lectures by a consideration of the generation and propagation of secondary particles produced via the UHECR loss interactions. In the second lecture we focus on the generation of the diffuse cosmogenic UHE-neutrino flux. In the third lecture we investigate the arriving flux of UHE-photon flux at Earth. In the final lecture the results of the previous lectures are put together in order to provide new insights into UHECR sources. The first of these providing a means with which to investigate the local population of UHECR sources through the measurement of the UHECR spectrum and their photon fraction at Earth. The second of these providing contraints on the UHECR source radiation fields through the possible observation at Earth of UHECR nuclei.

The prompt neutron emission in spontaneous fission of 252Cf has been investigated applying digital signal electronics along with associated digital signal processing algorithms. The goal was to find out the reasons of a long time existing discrepancy between theoretical calculations and the measurements of prompt fission neutron (PFN) emission dependence on the total kinetic energy (TKE) of fission fragments (FF). On the one hand the 252Cf (sf) reaction is one of the main references for nuclear data, on the other hand the understanding of PFN emission mechanism is very important for nuclear fission theory. Using a twin Frisch-grid ionization chamber for fission fragment (FF) detection and a NE213-equivalent neutron detector in total about 107 fission fragment-neutron coincidences have been registered. Fission fragment kinetic energy, mass and angular distribution, neutron time-of-flight and pulse shape have been investigated using a 12 bit waveform digitizer. The signal waveforms have been analyzed using digital signal processing algorithms. For the first time the dependence of the number of emitted neutrons as a function of total kinetic energy (TKE) of the fragments is in very good agreement with theoretical calculations in the range of TKE from 140-220 MeV.

By using analytical results for the constrained minimum energy of magnetic knots we determine the influence of internal twist on the minimum magnetic energy levels of knots and links, and by using ropelength data from the RIDGERUNNER tightening algorithm (Ashton et al 2011 Exp. Math. 20 57-90) we obtain the groundstate energy spectra of the first 250 prime knots and 130 prime links. The two spectra are found to follow an almost identical logarithmic law. By assuming that the number of knot types grows exponentially with the topological crossing number, we show that this generic behavior can be justified by a general relationship between ropelength and crossing number, which is in good agreement with former analytical estimates (Buck and Simon 1999 Topol. Appl. 91 245-57, Diao 2003 J. Knot Theory Ramifications 12 1-16). Moreover, by considering the ropelength averaged over a given knot family, we establish a new connection between the averaged ropelength and the topological crossing number of magnetic knots.

The prompt neutron emission in spontaneous fission of {sup 252}Cf has been investigated applying digital signal electronics along with associated digital signal processing algorithms. The goal was to find out the reasons of a long time existing discrepancy between theoretical calculations and the measurements of prompt fission neutron (PFN) emission dependence on the total kinetic energy (TKE) of fission fragments (FF). On the one hand the {sup 252}Cf(sf) reaction is one of the main references for nuclear data, on the other hand the understanding of PFN emission mechanism is very important for nuclear fission theory. Using a twin Frisch-grid ionization chamber for fission fragment (FF) detection and a NE213-equivalent neutron detector in total about 10{sup 7} fission fragment-neutron coincidences have been registered. Fission fragment kinetic energy, mass and angular distribution, neutron time-of-flight and pulse shape have been investigated using a 12 bit waveform digitizer. The signal waveforms have been analyzed using digital signal processing algorithms. For the first time the dependence of the number of emitted neutrons as a function of total kinetic energy (TKE) of the fragments is in very good agreement with theoretical calculations in the range of TKE from 140-220 MeV.

Molecular charge separation has important potential for photochemical energy storage. Its efficiency can be enhanced by principals which maximize the rates of the electron transfer steps which separate charge and minimize those which recombine high-energy charge pairs to lose stored energy. Dramatic scientific progress in understanding these principals has occurred since the founding of DOE and its predecessor agency ERDA. While additional knowledge in needed in broad areas of molecular electron transfer, some key areas of knowledge hold particular promise for the possibility of moving this area from science toward technology capable of contributing to the nation`s energy economy.

Quantum Entanglement Molecular Absorption Spectrum Simulator (QE-MASS) is a computer program for simulating two photon molecular-absorption spectroscopy using quantum-entangled photons. More specifically, QE-MASS simulates the molecular absorption of two quantum-entangled photons generated by the spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) of a fixed-frequency photon from a laser. The two-photon absorption process is modeled via a combination of rovibrational and electronic single-photon transitions, using a wave-function formalism. A two-photon absorption cross section as a function of the entanglement delay time between the two photons is computed, then subjected to a fast Fourier transform to produce an energyspectrum. The program then detects peaks in the Fourier spectrum and displays the energy levels of very short-lived intermediate quantum states (or virtual states) of the molecule. Such virtual states were only previously accessible using ultra-fast (femtosecond) laser systems. However, with the use of a single-frequency continuous wave laser to produce SPDC photons, and QEMASS program, these short-lived molecular states can now be studied using much simpler laser systems. QE-MASS can also show the dependence of the Fourier spectrum on the tuning range of the entanglement time of any externally introduced optical-path delay time. QE-MASS can be extended to any molecule for which an appropriate spectroscopic database is available. It is a means of performing an a priori parametric analysis of entangled photon spectroscopy for development and implementation of emerging quantum-spectroscopic sensing techniques. QE-MASS is currently implemented using the Mathcad software package.

We measure the spectrum of cosmic rays with energies greater than 1018.2 eV with the fluorescence detectors (FDs) and the surface detectors (SDs) of the Telescope Array Experiment using the data taken in our first 2.3-year observation from May 27, 2008 to September 7, 2010. A hybrid air shower reconstruction technique is employed to improve accuracies in determination of arrival directions and primary energies of cosmic rays using both FD and SD data. The energyspectrum presented here is in agreement with our previously published spectra and the HiRes results.

An analysis is presented of the spectra of flare protons in the 0.08-150 MeV energy range, measured at about 1 AE on the Prognoz-6 satellite. The spectral data are compared with the energy dependence of the observation time of the maximum flux of flare protons. It is shown that changes in the slope in the spectrum and in the energy dependence of maximum times occur at approximately the same energy. Energy losses of protons in the interplanetary medium due to adiabatic cooling are determined. This effect is significant for protons with energies less than 1 MeV, and, in the case of flares of low importance, plays a decisive role in the formation of the spectrum of the observed flare protons.

The energy and flux of the argon ions produced in Sahand plasma focus have been measured by employing a well-designed Faraday cup. The secondary electron emission effects on the ion signals are simulated and the dimensions of Faraday cup are optimized to minimize these effects. The measured ion energyspectrum is corrected for the ion energy loss and charge exchange in the background gas. The effects of the capacitor bank voltage and working gas pressure on the ion energyspectrum are also investigated. It has been shown that the emitted ion number per energy increases as the capacitor bank voltage increases. Decreasing the working gas pressure leads to the increase in the number of emitted ion per energy.

The focus of this article was on the experimental estimation of the neutron energyspectrum in the inner irradiation site of the miniature neutron source reactor (MNSR), using, for the first time, a selected set of deposited metal films on Teflon (DMFTs) neutron detectors. Gold, copper, zinc, titanium, aluminum, nickel, silver, and chromium were selected because of the dependence of their neutron cross-sections on neutron energy. Emphasis was placed on the usability of this new type of neutron detectors in the total neutron energyspectrum adjustment. The measured saturation activities per target nucleus values of the DMFTs, and the calculated neutron spectrum in the inner irradiation site using the MCNP-4C code were used as an input for the STAY'SL computer code during the adjustment procedure. The agreement between the numerically calculated and experimentally adjusted spectra results was discussed. PMID:26562448

According to the Harrison-Zel'dovich prescription, the amplitude of matter density perturbations at horizon crossing is the same at all scales. Based on this prescription, we show how to construct the matter power spectrum of generic dark energy models from the power spectrum of a ΛCDM model without the need of solving in full the dynamical equations describing the evolution of all energy density perturbations. Our approach allows to make model predictions of observables that can be expressed in terms of the matter power spectrum alone, such as the amplitude of matter fluctuations, peculiar velocities, cosmic microwave background temperature anisotropies on large angular scales or the weak lensing convergence spectrum. Then, models that have been tested only at the background level using the rate of the expansion of the Universe can now be tested using data on gravitational clustering and on large scale structure. This method can save a lot of effort in checking the validity of dark energy models. As an example of the accurateness of the approximation used, we compute the power spectrum of different dark energy models with constant equation of state parameter (w{sub DE} = −0.1, -0.5 and -0.8, ruled out by observations but easy to compare to numerical solutions) using our methodology and discuss the constraints imposed by the low multipoles of the cosmic microwave background.

Gravitation waves and gravitational-photon interaction with high energyphotons emission is found experimentally. Super-compressibility phenomenon was studied. Spectral investigations of supersonic jets and incandescent nichrome thread and wolfram spiral were studied. The shifting of the emission spectrum was detected depending on vector of gravity. The increasing frequency of light emitted against gravity vector is measured. Uneven along the spectrum character of intensity increasing is found. Generation of short-wavelength component of the spectrum is observed in case of more power of heating. The measurements show that presented interactions have resonance nature. Our experiments demonstrate the existence resonance nature. Our experiments demonstrate the gravitation wave and generation and existence of gravitational-photon interactions. From left to right: Fig. 1-2. Visualization of the gravitation wave. Fig. 3-5. Gravitational-photon interaction in HF field.

We calculate the intergalactic photon density as a function of both energy and redshift for 0photon energies from.003 eV to the Lyman limit cutoff at 13.6 eV in a (Omega)CDM universe with (Omega)(Lambda)=0.7 and (Omega)m=0.3. The basic features of our backward-evolution model for galaxies were developed in earlier papers by Malkan & Stecker. With a few improvements, we find that this evolutionary model gives predictions of new deep number counts from Spitzer, as well as a calculation of the spectral energy distribution of the diffuse infrared background, which are in good agreement with the data. We then use our calculated intergalactic photon densities to extend previous work on the absorption of high-energy Gamma-rays in intergalactic space owing to interactions with low-energyphotons and the 2.7 K cosmic microwave background radiation. We calculate the optical depth of the universe, Tau , for Gamma-rays having energies from 4 GeV to 100 TeV emitted by sources at redshifts from 0 to 5. We also give an analytic fit with numerical coefficients for approximating (E(Gamma), z). As an example of the application of our results, we calculate the absorbed spectrum of the blazar PKS 2155-304 at z=0.117 and compare it with the spectrum observed by the HESS air Cerenkov Gamma-ray telescope array.

This paper presents some aspects of interaction of superstrong high-frequency electromagnetic waves with strongly magnetized plasmas. The case in which the photon-photon interaction dominates the photon-plasma particle interaction is considered. Strictly speaking, the photon and photon bunch interaction leads to the self-modulation of the photon gas. Assuming that the density of the plasma does not change, the dispersion relation, which includes relativistic self-modulation, is investigated. The existence of longitudinal photons in a strong magnetic field has the well-known Bogoliubov-type energyspectrum. The stability of the photon flow is investigated and an expression for Landau damping of the photons is obtained. Finally, it has been shown that the interaction of even a very strong electromagnetic radiation with a plasma does not always lead to instability, but causes only a change in plasma properties, whereby the plasma remains stable.

It is demonstrated, using a Liouville formalism, that the relative motion of two atoms can result in the emission of photons and conversely that photons can be absorbed to excite the relative translational motion. The mechanism responsible for the energy transfer between the radiation field and the translational motion of the atoms is a dynamic version of the long-range Casimir-Polder interaction between two fixed atoms. The phenomenon is analogous to the dynamic Casimir effect discussed for moving macro- (or meso)scopic objects and we term it the dynamic Casimir-Polder effect. The absorption or emission is a two-photon process and we find that the transition probability is proportional to the spectral density of a correlation function involving the relative translational motion of two atoms. An energy transfer only occurs for photons with energies smaller than or of the same magnitude as the thermal energy. The effect provides a microscopic mechanism for establishing thermal equilibrium between the radiation field and a gas. A sufficiently large volume of gas would be perceived as a black-body radiator. Applications of the dynamic Casimir-Polder effect might be found in the microscopic description of the cosmic low-temperature black-body radiation.

This publication reviews the measured efficiency and variability over time of a high purity planar germanium in vivo lung count system for multiple photonenergies using increasingly thick overlays with the Lawrence Livermore Torso Phantom. Furthermore, the measured variations in efficiency are compared with the current requirement for in vivo bioassay performance as defined by the American National Standards Institute Standard.

Energyspectrum of cosmic-ray Fe-nucleus has been measured from 4 GeV per nucleon to beyond 100 GeV per nucleon. The data were obtained using emulsion chambers on a balloon from Sanriku, Japan. The energies were estimated by the opening angle method after calibrated using 1.88 GeV per nucleon Fe collisions. The spectrum of Fe is approximately E-2.5 in the range from 10 to 200 GeV per nucleon. This result is in good agreement with those of other experiments.

Purpose: The objective of the study was to demonstrate that, in x-ray computed tomography (CT), more than two types of materials can be effectively separated with the use of an energy resolved photon-counting detector and classification methodology. Specifically, this applies to the case when contrast agents that contain K-absorption edges in the energy range of interest are present in the object. This separation is enabled via the use of recently developed energy resolved photon-counting detectors with multiple thresholds, which allow simultaneous measurements of the x-ray attenuation at multiple energies. Methods: To demonstrate this capability, we performed simulations and physical experiments using a six-threshold energy resolved photon-counting detector. We imaged mouse-sized cylindrical phantoms filled with several soft-tissue-like and bone-like materials and with iodine-based and gadolinium-based contrast agents. The linear attenuation coefficients were reconstructed for each material in each energy window and were visualized as scatter plots between pairs of energy windows. For comparison, a dual-kVp CT was also simulated using the same phantom materials. In this case, the linear attenuation coefficients at the lower kVp were plotted against those at the higher kVp. Results: In both the simulations and the physical experiments, the contrast agents were easily separable from other soft-tissue-like and bone-like materials, thanks to the availability of the attenuation coefficient measurements at more than two energies provided by the energy resolved photon-counting detector. In the simulations, the amount of separation was observed to be proportional to the concentration of the contrast agents; however, this was not observed in the physical experiments due to limitations of the real detector system. We used the angle between pairs of attenuation coefficient vectors in either the 5-D space (for non-contrast-agent materials using energy resolved photon

Purpose: To investigate experimentally the energy dependence of the detector response of lithium formate EPR dosimeters for photonenergies below 1 MeV relative to that at {sup 60}Co energies. High energyphoton beams are used in calibrating dosimeters for use in brachytherapy since the absorbed dose to water can be determined with high accuracy in such beams using calibrated ion chambers and standard dosimetry protocols. In addition to any differences in mass-energy absorption properties between water and detector, variations in radiation yield (detector response) with radiation quality, caused by differences in the density of ionization in the energy imparted (LET), may exist. Knowledge of an eventual deviation in detector response with photonenergy is important for attaining high accuracy in measured brachytherapy dose distributions. Methods: Lithium formate EPR dosimeters were irradiated to known levels of air kerma in 25-250 kV x-ray beams and in {sup 137}Cs and {sup 60}Co beams at the Swedish Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory. Conversions from air kerma free in air into values of mean absorbed dose to the detectors were made using EGSnrc MC simulations and x-ray energy spectra measured or calculated for the actual beams. The signals from the detectors were measured using EPR spectrometry. Detector response (the EPR signal per mean absorbed dose to the detector) relative to that for {sup 60}Co was determined for each beam quality. Results: Significant decreases in the relative response ranging from 5% to 6% were seen for x-ray beams at tube voltages {<=}180 kV. No significant reduction in the relative response was seen for {sup 137}Cs and 250 kV x rays. Conclusions: When calibrated in {sup 60}Co or MV photon beams, corrections for the photonenergy dependence of detector response are needed to achieve the highest accuracy when using lithium formate EPR dosimeters for measuring absorbed doses around brachytherapy sources emitting photons in the energy

A 1000-line/mm quasi-sinusoidal transmission grating (QSTG) without membrane substrate has been designed and fabricated, which is utilized to eliminate the higher order diffraction for soft X-ray spectrum measurement in the experiments of inertial confinement fusion. The grating was calibrated using an X-ray beam on synchrotron radiation facility. It shows that the QSTG has the desired diffraction property and the higher order diffraction components are efficiently suppressed in the photonenergy ranges from 200 to 1500 eV.

The properties of the optical-phonon-associated polaritonic modes that appear under oblique light incidence in 1D superlattices made of photonic materials are studied. The investigated systems result from the periodic repetition of quasiregular Rudin-Shapiro (RS) multilayer units. It is assume that the structure consists of both passive non-dispersive layers of constant refraction index and active layers of uniaxial polar materials. In particular, we consider III-V wurtzite nitrides. The optical axis of these polaritonic materials is taken along the growth direction. Maxwell equations are solved using the transfer matrix technique for all admissible values of the incidence angle.

We report current progress on a project to develop an all-optically-driven x-ray photon source. A laser pulse with 40-50 TW of peak power is focused on a supersonic helium nozzle to drive a relativistic plasma wave. Electron beams with energies of 320 MeV (+/-28 MeV) are accelerated by means of laser wakefield acceleration. Remarkably, the acceleration region is only 3 mm in length. This accelerator is currently being employed to demonstrate the generation of MeV-energy x-ray by means of all-optical Thomson scattering. By this mechanism, a lower power, laser pulse (from the same laser system) is focused onto the above laser-driven electron beam, 1-eV energyphotons are Doppler-shifted in energy to >1 MeV.

Concentrating and spectrum splitting photovoltaic (PV) modules have a limited acceptance angle and thus suffer from optical loss under off-axis illumination. This loss manifests itself as a substantial reduction in energy yield in locations where a significant portion of insulation is diffuse. In this work, a spectrum splitting PV system is designed to efficiently collect and convert light in a range of illumination conditions. The system uses a holographic lens to concentrate shortwavelength light onto a smaller, more expensive indium gallium phosphide (InGaP) PV cell. The high efficiency PV cell near the axis is surrounded with silicon (Si), a less expensive material that collects a broader portion of the solar spectrum. Under direct illumination, the device achieves increased conversion efficiency from spectrum splitting. Under diffuse illumination, the device collects light with efficiency comparable to a flat-panel Si module. Design of the holographic lens is discussed. Optical efficiency and power output of the module under a range of illumination conditions from direct to diffuse are simulated with non-sequential raytracing software. Using direct and diffuse Typical Metrological Year (TMY3) irradiance measurements, annual energy yield of the module is calculated for several installation sites. Energy yield of the spectrum splitting module is compared to that of a full flat-panel Si reference module.

The standard method for experimentally determining the probability distribution of an observable in quantum mechanics is the measurement of the observable spectrum. However, for infinite-dimensional degrees of freedom, this approach would require ideally infinite or, more realistically, a very large number of measurements. Here we consider an alternative method which can yield the mean and variance of an observable of an infinite-dimensional system by measuring only a two-dimensional pointer weakly coupled with the system. In our demonstrative implementation, we determine both the mean and the variance of the orbital angular momentum of a light beam without acquiring the entire spectrum, but measuring the Stokes parameters of the optical polarization (acting as pointer), after the beam has suffered a suitable spin–orbit weak interaction. This example can provide a paradigm for a new class of useful weak quantum measurements. PMID:26477715

The standard method for experimentally determining the probability distribution of an observable in quantum mechanics is the measurement of the observable spectrum. However, for infinite-dimensional degrees of freedom, this approach would require ideally infinite or, more realistically, a very large number of measurements. Here we consider an alternative method which can yield the mean and variance of an observable of an infinite-dimensional system by measuring only a two-dimensional pointer weakly coupled with the system. In our demonstrative implementation, we determine both the mean and the variance of the orbital angular momentum of a light beam without acquiring the entire spectrum, but measuring the Stokes parameters of the optical polarization (acting as pointer), after the beam has suffered a suitable spin-orbit weak interaction. This example can provide a paradigm for a new class of useful weak quantum measurements. PMID:26477715

The standard method for experimentally determining the probability distribution of an observable in quantum mechanics is the measurement of the observable spectrum. However, for infinite-dimensional degrees of freedom, this approach would require ideally infinite or, more realistically, a very large number of measurements. Here we consider an alternative method which can yield the mean and variance of an observable of an infinite-dimensional system by measuring only a two-dimensional pointer weakly coupled with the system. In our demonstrative implementation, we determine both the mean and the variance of the orbital angular momentum of a light beam without acquiring the entire spectrum, but measuring the Stokes parameters of the optical polarization (acting as pointer), after the beam has suffered a suitable spin-orbit weak interaction. This example can provide a paradigm for a new class of useful weak quantum measurements.

Various photon interaction parameters (mass attenuation coefficients, effective atomic numbers and effective electron numbers) have been computed for different compositions of Cu-Pb alloys in the wide energy regime of 1 keV to 100 GeV. The mass attenuation coefficients have been computed using mixture rule with the help of WinXCom (mass attenuation coefficient database for elements). The variation of mass attenuation coefficients, effective atomic numbers and electron density has been analysed and discussed in terms of dominance of different photon interaction processes viz. Compton scattering, photoelectric effect and pair production.

Various photon interaction parameters (mass attenuation coefficients, effective atomic numbers and effective electron numbers) have been computed for different compositions of Cu-Pb alloys in the wide energy regime of 1 keV to 100 GeV. The mass attenuation coefficients have been computed using mixture rule with the help of WinXCom (mass attenuation coefficient database for elements). The variation of mass attenuation coefficients, effective atomic numbers and electron density has been analysed and discussed in terms of dominance of different photon interaction processes viz. Compton scattering, photoelectric effect and pair production.

We report on a measurement of the cosmic ray energyspectrum with the IceTop air shower array, thesurface component of the IceCube Neutrino Observatory at the South Pole. The data used in this analysiswere taken between June and October, 2007, with 26 surface stations operational at that time, corresponding to about one third of the final array. The fiducial area used in this analysis was 0.122 square kilometers.The analysis investigated the energyspectrum from 1 to 100 PeV measured for three different zenithangle ranges between 0 and 46. Because of the isotropy of cosmic rays in this energy range the spectrafrom all zenith angle intervals have to agree. The cosmic-ray energyspectrum was determined under differentassumptions on the primary mass composition. Good agreement of spectra in the three zenithangle ranges was found for the assumption of pure proton and a simple two-component model. Forzenith angles theta less than 30 deg., where the mass dependence is smallest, the knee in the cosmic ray energy spectrumwas observed at about 4 PeV, with a spectral index above the knee of about -3.1. Moreover, an indicationof a flattening of the spectrum above 22 PeV was observed.

Nature's solar energy harvesting system, photosynthesis, serves as a model for photon absorption, spectra broadening, and energy transfer. Photosynthesis harvests light far differently than photovoltaic cells. These differences offer both engineering opportunity and scientific challenges since not all of the natural photon absorption mechanisms have been understood. In return, solar cells can be a very sensitive probe for the absorption characteristics of molecules capable of transferring charge to a conductive interface. The objective of this scientific work is the advancement of next generation photovoltaics through the development and application of natural photo-energy transfer processes. Two scientific methods were used in the development and application of enhancing photon absorption and transfer. First, a detailed analysis of photovoltaic front surface fluorescent spectral modification and light scattering by hetero-structure was conducted. Phosphor based spectral down-conversion is a well-known laser technology. The theoretical calculations presented here indicate that parasitic losses and light scattering within the spectral range are large enough to offset any expected gains. The second approach for enhancing photon absorption is based on bio-inspired mechanisms. Key to the utilization of these natural processes is the development of a detailed scientific understanding and the application of these processes to cost effective systems and devices. In this work both aspects are investigated. Dye type solar cells were prepared and tested as a function of Chlorophyll (or Sodium-Copper Chlorophyllin) and accessory dyes. Forster has shown that the fluorescence ratio of Chlorophyll is modified and broadened by separate photon absorption (sensitized absorption) through interaction with nearby accessory pigments. This work used the dye type solar cell as a diagnostic tool by which to investigate photon absorption and photonenergy transfer. These experiments shed

Using the Wigner function approach for electromagnetic radiation fields, we investigate the behavior of low energyphotons radiated by the deceleration processes of two colliding nuclei in relativistic heavy ion collisions. The angular distribution reveals information of the initial geometric configurations, which is reflected in the anisotropic parameter v 2, with an increasing v 2 as energy decreases. This behavior is qualitatively different to the v 2 from the hadrons produced in the collisions.

Purpose: To study the potential applications of the lower energy (< 6MV) photon beams in the radiotherapeutic management of pediatric cancer and lung cancer patients. Methods: Photon beams of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6MV were first simulated with EGS4/BEAM and then used for Monte-Carlo dose calculations. For four pediatric patients with abdominal and brain lesions, six 3D-conformal radiotherapy (3DCRT) plans were generated using single photonenergy (2 to 6MV) or mixed energies (3 and 6MV). Furthermore, a virtual machine of 3 and 6MV was commissioned in a treatment planning system (TPS) based on Monte-Carlo simulated data. Three IMRT plans of a lung cancer patient were generated on this virtual machine. All plans were normalized to D95% of target dose for 6MV plan and then compared in terms of integral dose and OAR sparing. Results: For the four pediatric patients, the integral dose for the 2, 3, 4 and 5MV plans increased by 9%, 5%, 3.5%, 1.7%, respectively as compared to 6MV. Almost all OARs in the 2MV plan received more than 10% more doses than 6MV. Mixed energy 3DCRT plans were of the same quality as 6MV plans. For the lung IMRT plans, both the 3MV plan and the mixed beam plan showed better OAR sparing in comparison to 6MV plan. Specifically, the maximum and mean doses to the spinal cord in the mixed energy plan were lower by 21% and 16%, respectively. Conclusion: Single lower energyphoton beam was found to be inferior to 6MV in the radiotherapy of pediatric patients and lung cancer patients when the integral doses and the doses to the OARs were considered. However, mixed energy plans combining low with high energy beams showed significant OAR sparing while maintaining the same PTV coverage. Investigation with more patient data is ongoing for further confirmation.

We explore the scenarios where the only accessible new states at the electroweak scale consist of a pair of color-singlet electroweak particles, the masses of which are degenerate at the tree level and split only by electroweak symmetry breaking at the loop level. For the sake of illustration, we consider a supersymmetric model and study the following three representative cases with the lower-lying states as (a) two spin-1 /2 Higgsino SU(2 ) L doublets, (b) a spin-1 /2 wino SU(2 ) L triplet and (c) a spin-0 left-handed slepton SU(2 ) L doublet. Due to the mass degeneracy, those lower-lying electroweak states are difficult to observe at the LHC and rather challenging to detect at the e+e- collider as well. We exploit the pair production in association with a hard photon radiation in high energy e+e- collisions. If kinematically accessible, such single-photon processes at e+e- colliders with polarized beams enable us to characterize each scenario by measuring the energy of the associated hard photon and to determine the spin of the nearly invisible particles unambiguously through the threshold behavior in the photonenergy distribution.

A cognitive radio sensor network (CRSN) is a wireless sensor network in which sensor nodes are equipped with cognitive radio. In this paper, we propose an energy-efficient game-theory-based spectrum decision (EGSD) scheme for CRSNs to prolong the network lifetime. Note that energy efficiency is the most important design consideration in CRSNs because it determines the network lifetime. The central part of the EGSD scheme consists of two spectrum selection algorithms: random selection and game-theory-based selection. The EGSD scheme also includes a clustering algorithm, spectrum characterization with a Markov chain, and cluster member coordination. Our performance study shows that EGSD outperforms the existing popular framework in terms of network lifetime and coordination overhead. PMID:27376290

A cognitive radio sensor network (CRSN) is a wireless sensor network in which sensor nodes are equipped with cognitive radio. In this paper, we propose an energy-efficient game-theory-based spectrum decision (EGSD) scheme for CRSNs to prolong the network lifetime. Note that energy efficiency is the most important design consideration in CRSNs because it determines the network lifetime. The central part of the EGSD scheme consists of two spectrum selection algorithms: random selection and game-theory-based selection. The EGSD scheme also includes a clustering algorithm, spectrum characterization with a Markov chain, and cluster member coordination. Our performance study shows that EGSD outperforms the existing popular framework in terms of network lifetime and coordination overhead. PMID:27376290

A new neutron spectrum unfolding code TGASU (Two-steps Genetic Algorithm Spectrum Unfolding) has been developed to unfold the neutron spectrum from a pulse height distribution which was calculated using the MCNPX-ESUT computational Monte Carlo code. To perform the unfolding process, the response matrices were generated using the MCNPX-ESUT computational code. Both one step (common GA) and two steps GAs have been implemented to unfold the neutron spectra. According to the obtained results, the new two steps GA code results has shown closer match in all energy regions and particularly in the high energy regions. The results of the TGASU code have been compared with those of the standard spectra, LSQR method and GAMCD code. The results of the TGASU code have been demonstrated to be more accurate than that of the existing computational codes for both under-determined and over-determined problems.

The energyspectrum of the Neutron Radiation Effects Program (NREP) beam line, Target-Moderator-Reflector-1 (TMR-1), at Indiana University has not been previously characterized. The facility has a unique proton source with variable pulse length (15-600 ms) and energy (13 MeV). Thus, it can produce a unique and tailored neutron beam when incident on a beryllium target. Through a combination of MCNP-X particle simulations, neutron activation experiments, and application of a spectrum unfolding code (SAND-II), the neutron source is characterized. Eight activation foils and wires were irradiated in the target area and the gamma activity measured. This information was used in an unfolding code, SAND-II, to deconvolve the spectrum, using the MCNP simulations as a basis for the spectral fitting.

A long-term solar-flare differential energyspectrum for iron-group nuclei from approximately 0.1 to approximately 600 MeV/amu is derived from track density profile measurements in sample 64455 and sample 68815. Measurements from uneroded surfaces were obtained from quench crystals of plagioclase in 64455, and a Kr-81/Kr method indicates that the exposure age of this sample is 2,010,000 yrs. The power laws which best fit the normalized track density data are reported; the energyspectrum consists of two power law curves smoothly joined together which in turn are smoothly connected to a modulated galactic cosmic-ray spectrum. Standard track production versus depth profiles can be used to determine solar-flare track exposure ages and erosion rates for lunar samples.

The efficiency of many solar energy conversion technologies is limited by their poor response to low-energy solar photons. One way for overcoming this limitation is to develop materials and methods that can efficiently convert low-energyphotons into high-energy ones. Here we show that thermal radiation is an attractive route for photonenergy upconversion, with efficiencies higher than those of state-of-the-art energy transfer upconversion under continuous wave laser excitation. A maximal power upconversion efficiency of 16% is achieved on Yb(3+)-doped ZrO2. By examining various oxide samples doped with lanthanide or transition metal ions, we draw guidelines that materials with high melting points, low thermal conductivities and strong absorption to infrared light deliver high upconversion efficiencies. The feasibility of our upconversion approach is further demonstrated under concentrated sunlight excitation and continuous wave 976-nm laser excitation, where the upconverted white light is absorbed by Si solar cells to generate electricity and drive optical and electrical devices. PMID:25430519

This report summarizes our study of Neutral Current (NC)-induced photon production in MiniBooNE, as motivated by the low energy excess in this experiment [A.A. Aquilar-Arevalo et al., MiniBooNE Collaboration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98 (2007) 231801; A.A. Aquilar-Arevalo et al., MiniBooNE Collaboration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 103 (2009) 111801]. It was proposed that NC photon production with two anomalous photon-Z boson-vector meson couplings might explain the excess. However, our computed event numbers in both neutrino and antineutrino runs are consistent with the previous MiniBooNE estimate that is based on their pion production measurement. Various nuclear effects discussed in our previous works, including nucleon Fermi motion, Pauli blocking, and the Δ resonance broadening in the nucleus, are taken into account. Uncertainty due to the two anomalous terms and nuclear effects are studied in a conservative way.

The physical origin of the optical response observed in three-dimensional photonic crystals when the photon wavelength is equal or lower than the lattice parameter still remains unsatisfactorily explained and is the subject of an intense and interesting debate. Herein we demonstrate for the first time that all optical spectra features in this high energy region of photonic crystals arise from electromagnetic resonances within the ordered array, modified by the interplay between these resonances with the opening of diffraction channels, the presence of imperfections and finite size effects. All these four phenomena are taken into account in our theoretical approach to the problem, which allows us to provide a full description of the observed optical response based on fundamental phenomena as well as to attain fair fittings of experimental results. PMID:19551072

for most energies in brachytherapy, while LCT-D(w,m) should only be considered for source spectra well below 50 keV, since contributions to the absorbed dose inside the nucleus to a large degree stem from electrons released in the surrounding medium. MC-D(m,m) is not an appropriate substitute for MC-D(n,m) for the lowest photonenergies for adipose and breast tissues. The ratio of MC-D(m,m) to MC-D(n,m) for adipose and breast tissue deviates from unity by 34% and 15% respectively for the lowest photonenergy (20 keV), whereas the ratio is close to unity for higher energies. For prostate and muscle tissue MC-D(m,m) is a good substitute for MC-D(n,m). However, for all photonenergies and tissue types the nucleus composition with the highest hydrogen content behaves differently than other compositions. Elemental compositions of the tissue and nuclei affect considerably the absorbed dose to the cell nuclei for brachytherapy sources, in particular those at the low-energy end of the spectrum. Thus, there is a need for more accurate data for the elemental compositions of tumours and healthy cells. For the nucleus compositions and tissue types investigated, MC-D(w,m) is a good substitute to MC-D(n,m) for all simulated photonenergies. Whether other studied surrogates are good approximations to MC-D(n,m) depends on the target size, target composition, composition of the surrounding tissue and photonenergy. PMID:22722477

Prompt photons at hadron colliders are useful probes of perturbative quantum chromodynamics (pQCD), and are also found in signatures of new physics. A precise measurement of prompt photon production is both a useful test of theoretical models as well as an important step towards understanding final states that contain energetic photons. This thesis presents a measurement of the inclusive isolated prompt photon production cross section in proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of s = 7 TeV. The data are collected with the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Collider, and correspond to 35 pb-1 of integrated luminosity. The measurement is made in four photon pseudorapidity (etagamma) regions: 0 ≤ |etagamma| < 0.6; 0.6 ≤ |etagamma| < 1.37; 1.52 ≤ |eta gamma| < 1.81; and 1.81 ≤ |etagamma| < 2.37; and covers photon transverse energies ( EgT ) in the range 15 GeV ≤ EgT < 400 GeV. Photon candidates are reconstructed and identified through the use of the ATLAS calorimeter and tracking systems. The residual background, primarily from neutral meson decays, is estimated using in-situ techniques based on observed distributions of the total transverse energy in a narrow cone around the photon candidate. The measurements are compared to predictions from next-to-leading order pQCD calculations, with good agreement for photon transverse energies greater than 25 GeV.

The 4.4 MeV photon reference field described in ISO 4037 is produced by the (12)C(p,p')(12)C (E(x) = 4.4389 MeV) reaction using a thick elemental carbon target and a proton beam with an energy of 5.7 MeV. The relative abundance of the isotope (13)C in elemental carbon is 1.10%. Therefore, the 4.4 MeV photon field is contaminated by neutrons produced by the (13)C(p,n) (13)N reaction (Q = -3.003 MeV). The ambient dose equivalent H*(10) produced by these neutrons is of the same order of magnitude as the ambient dose equivalent produced by the 4.4 MeV photons. For the calibration of dosemeters, especially those also sensitive to neutrons, the spectral fluence distribution of these neutrons has to be known in detail. On the other hand, a mixed photon/neutron field is very useful for the calibration of tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPC), if this field combines a high-linear energy transfer (LET) component produced by low-energy neutrons and a low-LET component resulting from photons with about the same ambient dose equivalent and energies up to 7 MeV. Such a mixed field was produced at the PTB accelerator facility using a thin CaF(2) + (nat)C target and a 5.7 MeV proton beam. PMID:17675300

A prototype spectrometer has been developed for space applications requiring long term absolute EUV photon flux measurements. The energyspectrum of the incoming photons is transformed directly into an electron energyspectrum by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect in one of several rare gases at low pressures. Using an electron energy spectrometer, followed by an electron multiplier detector, pulses due to individual electrons are counted. The overall efficiency of this process can be made essentially independent of gain drifts in the signal path, and the secular degradation of optical components which is often a problem in other techniques is avoided. A very important feature of this approach is its freedom from the problem of overlapping spectral orders that plagues grating EUV spectrometers. An instrument with these features has not been flown before, but is essential to further advances in our understanding of solar EUV flux dynamics, and the coupled dynamics of terrestrial and planetary atmospheres. The detailed characteristics of this optics-free spectrometer are presented in the publications section.

Wideband spectrum sensing has drawn much attention in recent years since it provides more opportunities to the secondary users. However, wideband spectrum sensing requires a long time and a complex mechanism at the sensing terminal. A two-stage wideband spectrum sensing scheme is considered to proceed spectrum sensing with low time consumption and high performance to tackle this predicament. In this scheme, a novel multitaper spectrum sensing (MSS) method is proposed to mitigate the poor performance of energy detection (ED) in the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) region. The closed-form expression of the decision threshold is derived based on the Neyman-Pearson criterion and the probability of detection in the Rayleigh fading channel is analyzed. An optimization problem is formulated to maximize the probability of detection of the proposed two-stage scheme and the average sensing time of the two-stage scheme is analyzed. Numerical results validate the efficiency of MSS and show that the two-stage spectrum sensing scheme enjoys higher performance in the low SNR region and lower time cost in the high SNR region than the single-stage scheme. Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 61301179), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2014M550479), and the Doctorial Programs Foundation of the Ministry of Education, China (Grant No. 20110203110011).

In this study, relativistic configuration interaction (RCI) is employed to investigate the electron affinity and binding energies of the negative ion of lanthanum, by reinterpreting an earlier experimental photoelectron kinetic energyspectrum of La-. For the electron affinity of lanthanum, our study revises the original experimental interpretation of 0.47 +/- 0.02 eV and agrees well with the earlier RCI value of 0.545 eV. The calculation yields also the binding energies for thirteen excited states of La-. These energies are compared to results of recent experimental studies on La-. The details of the calculation, identities of main features in the experimental spectrum will be presented in our poster. National Science Foundation, Grant No. PHY-0968205

We demonstrate that the (s-wave) geometric spectrum of the Efimov energy levels in the unitary limit is generated by the radial motion of a primitive periodic orbit (and its harmonics) of the corresponding classical system. The action of the primitive orbit depends logarithmically on the energy. It is shown to be consistent with an inverse-squared radial potential with a lower cutoff radius. The lowest-order WKB quantization, including the Langer correction, is shown to reproduce the geometric scaling of the energyspectrum. The (WKB) mean-squared radii of the Efimov states scale geometrically like the inverse of their energies. The WKB wave functions, regularized near the classical turning point by Langer's generalized connection formula, are practically indistinguishable from the exact wave functions even for the lowest (n=0) state, apart from a tiny shift of its zeros that remains constant for large n.

Measurements of the cosmic ray flux and electron energyspectrum from 5 GeV to 300 GeV, with an absolute uncertainty in the flux level of + or - 10 percent at low energies and + or - 30 percent at 100 GeV, are described. The measured spectrum appears to represent the competing processes of radiative energy loss in the interstellar medium and leakage out of the Galaxy. In the framework of the leaky box model and diffusion models, the result is most consistent with the picture of cosmic ray electrons spending an average of 10 million years in the Galaxy independent of electron energy, probably propagating in a halo as well as in the galactic disk.

We demonstrate that the (s-wave) geometric spectrum of the Efimov energy levels in the unitary limit is generated by the radial motion of a primitive periodic orbit (and its harmonics) of the corresponding classical system. The action of the primitive orbit depends logarithmically on the energy. It is shown to be consistent with an inverse-squared radial potential with a lower cutoff radius. The lowest-order WKB quantization, including the Langer correction, is shown to reproduce the geometric scaling of the energyspectrum. The (WKB) mean-squared radii of the Efimov states scale geometrically like the inverse of their energies. The WKB wave functions, regularized near the classical turning point by Langer’s generalized connection formula, are practically indistinguishable from the exact wave functions even for the lowest (n=0) state, apart from a tiny shift of its zeros that remains constant for large n.

During three balloon flights made in 1966 and 1967, cosmic electrons were investigated with the aid of a hodoscope detector that provided extensive and detailed information on each cosmic-ray event triggering the apparatus. Similar information obtained during calibration exposures to protons and pions as well as to electrons was used to provide identification of cosmic electrons and to determine their energies. Differential primary electron intensities measured in the range from 1 to 25 GeV were substantially larger than some earlier measurements. In conjunction with existing measurements at energies above 100 GeV, this finding indicates that the energyspectrum of cosmic electrons is steeper than that of cosmic-ray nuclei and consequently suggests that Compton/synchrotron energy loss plays a significant role in shaping the electron spectrum.

The penumbra has a major impact on obtaining uniformity of isodose distributions in radiation therapy. The penumbra phenomena of intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) techniques using multi-leaf collimators (MLCs) has an impact on the dose distributions in the border of the target volumes and the MLC. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of high photonenergy (6 MV, 10 MV) on the penumbra for various depths and field sizes by using the Pencil Beam Convolution algorithms (eclipse 8.6) and self-developing Gafchromic™ EBT2 film. For dose calculations and EBT2 measurements, we used an acryl phantom with dimensions 20 × 20 × 20 cm3. The 200 cGy dose was delivered to the central depth (10 cm) of the acryl phantom. The result of this study was that increased energy, field size and depth are rise to an increased penumbra (20% ˜ 80%) width. For a 6 MV photonenergy, the penumbra widths (20%-80%) at 1.5 cm, 5 cm, and 10 cm depths were 4.2 mm, 4.4 mm, and 5.7 mm for the eclipse calculations and 2.9 mm, 4.1 mm, and 4.2 mm for the EBT2 film measurements for 10 × 10 cm2 field sizes, respectively. For a 10 MV photonenergy, the penumbra widths were 4.5 mm, 4.7 mm, and 6.2 mm for eclipse calculations and 4.1 mm, 4.6 mm, and 4.9 mm for EBT2 film measurements, respectively. As the field size was changed to 3 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm, 10 cm, and 15 cm, the penumbra widths changed to 5.1 mm, 5.3 mm, 5.6 mm, 5.9 mm, and 6.1 mm for eclipse calculations and 2.9 mm, 3.3 mm, 3.6 mm, 4.2 mm, and 5.1 mm for EBT2 measurements, respectively, for 10 cm depths for 6 MV photonenergies. In this study, compared to the 10 MV photonenergy, the 6 MV photonenergy was preferred in treatments such as the 3D conformal radiation therapy and the IMRT for critical organs near the target volume.

Energy harvester based cognitive radio is a promising solution to address the shortage of both spectrum and energy. Since the spectrum access and power consumption patterns are interdependent, and the power value harvested from certain environmental sources are spatially correlated, the new power dimension could provide additional information to enhance the spectrum sensing accuracy. In this paper, the Markovian behavior of the primary users is considered, based on which we adopt a hidden input Markov model to specify the primary vs. secondary dynamics in the system. Accordingly, we propose a 2-D spectrum and power (harvested) sensing scheme to improve the primary user detection performance, which is also capable of estimating the primary transmit power level. Theoretical and simulated results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme, in term of the performance gain achieved by considering the new power dimension. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to jointly consider the spectrum and power dimensions for the cognitive primary user detection problem.

Commissioning beam data are treated as a reference and ultimately used by treatment planning systems, therefore, it is vitally important that the collected data are of the highest quality, in order to avoid dosimetric and patient treatment errors that may subsequently lead to a poor radiation outcome. High-energyphoton and electron beams from different accelerators of the same nominal energy may have different dosimetric characteristics due to differences in target and flattening filter materials, accelerator guide and collimator designs. In the present study, clinically pertinent data for the available photonenergy were investigated. For making measurements in water, first time in India, a three dimensional radiation field analyzer RFA (CRS- Scan -O-Plan) was used. For absolute dosimetry and other measurements like relative output factors, wedge factors etc., a DOSE1 electrometer (Scanditronix Wellhofer) in a white polystyrene was employed. All the measured data were utilized as an input to the ECLIPSE treatment planning system for further clinical use.

A correlation between the spectral and temporal structure in gamma ray bursts was presented elsewhere, where it was discovered that the duration of the constituent subpulses of the time profile of a given gamma ray burst have a well-defined power law dependence, of approximately index 0.45, on the energy of the observed photons. Two models are presented which account for the observed correlation. These models involve: the impulsive injection of a population of relativistic electrons; their subsequent cooling by synchrotron radiation; the impulsive injection of mono-energetic high energyphotons in a medium of a Thomson depth of approximately 5, and their subsequent downgrading in energy due to electron scattering. Arguments are presented for distinguishing between these two models from the existing data.

Elastic scattering of photons from C12 has been investigated using quasimonoenergetic tagged photons with energies in the range 65-115 MeV at laboratory angles of 60∘, 120∘, and 150∘ at the Tagged-Photon Facility at the MAX IV Laboratory in Lund, Sweden. A phenomenological model was employed to provide an estimate of the sensitivity of the 12C(γ ,γ)12C cross section to the bound-nucleon polarizabilities.

Three reference radiation fields for the purpose of radiation protection were characterised: (1) radiation field R-F, consisting of photons in the energy range of about 6 and 7 MeV and a small neutron contamination; (2) radiation field R-C, consisting of photons with energies of about 4.4 MeV and neutrons with energies up to 2.65 MeV; (3) radiation field R-CF, consisting of photons in the energy range of about 1 and 7 MeV and neutrons with energies about 1.5 MeV. The radiation fields R-F and R-C have previously been defined in the ISO standard 4037. Their neutron components, however, have never been described accurately in the past. The new radiation field R-CF is proposed for the first time. This radiation field can, e.g., be used to calibrate tissue-equivalent proportional counters instruments for measurements at flight altitudes. PMID:19131379

A clear understanding of energy transfer and energy absorption in photon interactions with matter is essential for the understanding of radiation dosimetry and development of new dosimetry techniques. The concepts behind the two quantities have been enunciated many years ago and described in many scientific papers, review articles, and textbooks. Data dealing with energy transfer and energy absorption as well as the associated mass energy transfer coefficient and the mass energy absorption coefficient are readily available in web-based tabular forms. However, tables, even when available in detailed and easy to access form, do not lend themselves to serve as visual aid to promote better understanding of the dosimetric quantities related to energy transfer and energy absorption as well as their relationship to the photonenergy and absorber atomic number. This paper uses graphs and illustrations, in addition to well-known mathematical relationships, to guide the reader in a systematic manner through the various stages involved in the derivation of energy absorbed in medium and its associated quantity, the mass energy absorption coefficient, from the mass attenuation coefficient.

The effective atomic numbers and electron densities of human teeth have been calculated for total photon interaction (Z, Ne) and photonenergy absorption (Z, Z Ne) in the energy region 1 keV-20 MeV. Besides, the energy absorption (EABF) and exposure (EBF) buildup factors have been calculated for these samples by using the geometric progression fitting approximation in the energy region 0.015-15 MeV up to 40 mfp (mean free path). Wherever possible the results were compared with experiment. Effective atomic numbers ( Z) of human teeth were calculated using different methods. Discrepancies were noted in Z between the direct and interpolation methods in the low and high energy regions where absorption processes dominate while good agreement was observed in intermediate energy region where Compton scattering dominates. Significant variations up to 22% were observed between Z and Z in the energy region 30-150 keV which is the used energy range in dental cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) X-ray machines. The Zeff values of human teeth were found to relatively vary within 1% if different laser treatments are applied. In this variation, the Er:YAG laser treated samples were found to be less effected than Nd:YAG laser treated ones when compared with control group. Relative differences between EABF and EBF were found to be significantly high in the energy region 60 keV-1 MeV even though they have similar variations with respect to the different parameters viz. photonenergy, penetration depth.

The dynamic control for the spectra of the Ultra-wideband (UWB) signals, which is the key for implementing the dynamic spectrum access in the cognitive radio, is still a challenge due to the limited processing speed of the electronic devices. In this paper, we have summarized our recent work about controlling the spectrum shape of the UWB signals in optical domain, in addition to reviewing the other groups' related research work. The experiment setups and results based on nonlinear dynamics of the optoelectronic oscillator and transfer response of the phase or polarization-to-intensity convertor will be described in detail respectively, in which the controllable frequency suppress for the optical UWB signals at specific frequency positions were implemented. Particularly, the UWB pulse with the special shape, which corresponds to the 5-GHz band-rejection in frequency domain, was generated in order to avoid the interference between UWB and Wireless Fidelity system in practice. In addition, the UWB signals whose center frequency could be continuously tuned and converted up to the frequency range of millimeter wave were generated by utilizing the polarization modulator based optical switch. The areas for future development and the challenge of implementing these techniques for the applications in practice will also be discussed.

The energy spectra of particles in gradual solar energetic particle (SEP) events do not always have a power-law form attributed to the diffusive shock acceleration mechanism. In particular, the observed spectra in major SEP events can take the form of a broken (double) power law. In this paper, we study the effect of a process that can modify the power-law spectral form produced by the diffusive shock acceleration: the stochastic re-acceleration of energetic protons by enhanced Alfvénic turbulence in the downstream region of a shock wave. There are arguments suggesting that this process can be important when the shock propagates in the corona. We consider a coronal magnetic loop traversed by a shock and perform Monte Carlo simulations of interactions of shock-accelerated protons with Alfvén waves in the loop. The wave-particle interactions are treated self-consistently, so the finiteness of the available turbulent energy is taken into account. The initial energyspectrum of particles is taken to be a power law. The simulations reveal that the stochastic re-acceleration leads either to the formation of a spectrum that is described in a wide energy range by a power law (although the resulting power-law index is different from the initial one) or to a broken power-law spectrum. The resulting spectral form is determined by the ratio of the energy density of shock-accelerated protons to the wave energy density in the shock's downstream region.

In modern radiotherapy the verification of complex treatments plans is often performed in inhomogeneous or even anthropomorphic phantoms. For dose verification small detectors are necessary and therefore alanine detectors are most suitable. Though the response of alanine for a wide range of clinical photonenergies in water is well know, the knowledge about the influence of the surrounding phantom material on the response of alanine is sparse. Therefore we investigated the influence of twenty different surrounding/phantom materials for alanine dosimeters in clinical photon fields via Monte Carlo simulations. The relative electron density of the used materials was in the range {{n}e}/{{n}e,\\text{w}}=0.20 up to 1.69, covering almost all materials appearing in inhomogeneous or anthropomorphic phantoms used in radiotherapy. The investigations were performed for three different clinical photon spectra ranging from 6 to 25 MV-X and Co-60 and as a result a perturbation correction {{k}\\text{env}} depending on the environmental material was established. The Monte Carlo simulation show, that there is only a small dependence of {{k}\\text{env}} on the phantom material and the photonenergy, which is below ±0.6%. The results confirm the good suitability of alanine detectors for in-vivo dosimetry.

In modern radiotherapy the verification of complex treatments plans is often performed in inhomogeneous or even anthropomorphic phantoms. For dose verification small detectors are necessary and therefore alanine detectors are most suitable. Though the response of alanine for a wide range of clinical photonenergies in water is well know, the knowledge about the influence of the surrounding phantom material on the response of alanine is sparse. Therefore we investigated the influence of twenty different surrounding/phantom materials for alanine dosimeters in clinical photon fields via Monte Carlo simulations. The relative electron density of the used materials was in the range [Formula: see text] up to 1.69, covering almost all materials appearing in inhomogeneous or anthropomorphic phantoms used in radiotherapy. The investigations were performed for three different clinical photon spectra ranging from 6 to 25 MV-X and Co-60 and as a result a perturbation correction [Formula: see text] depending on the environmental material was established. The Monte Carlo simulation show, that there is only a small dependence of [Formula: see text] on the phantom material and the photonenergy, which is below ±0.6%. The results confirm the good suitability of alanine detectors for in-vivo dosimetry. PMID:26758810

Stick-spectrum expressions for electronic two-dimensional (2D) photon-echo (PE) signal of a generic multi-level system are presented and employed to interrelate oscillations in individual peaks of 2D PE signal and the underlying properties (eigenstates and coherent dynamics) of excitonic or vibronic systems. When focusing on the identification of the origin of oscillations in the rephasing part of 2D PE it is found, in particular, that multiple frequencies in the evolution of the individual peaks do not necessarily directly reflect the underlying system dynamics. They may originate from the excited-state absorption contribution to the signal, or arise due to multi-level vibrational structure of the electronic ground state, and represent a superposition of system frequencies, while the latter may evolve independently. The analytical stick-spectrum predictions are verified and illustrated by numerical calculations of 2D PE signals of an excitonic trimer and of a displaced harmonic oscillator with unequal vibrational frequencies in the two electronic states. The excitonic trimer is the smallest excitonic oligomer where excited-state absorption may represent a superposition of excited-state coherences and significantly influence the phase of the observed oscillations. The displaced oscillator is used to distinguish between the frequencies of the ground-state and of the excited-state manifolds, and to demonstrate how the location of a cross peak in 2D pattern of the PE signal "predetermines" its oscillatory behavior. Although the considered models are kept as simple as possible for clarity, the stick-spectrum analysis provides a solid general basis for interpretation of oscillatory signatures in electronic 2D PE signals of much more complex systems with multi-level character of the electronic states.

In this paper we revisit the issue of determining the oscillating primordial scalar power spectrum and oscillating equation of state of dark energy from the astronomical observations. By performing a global analysis with the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method, we find that the current observations from five-year WMAP and SDSS-LRG matter power spectrum, as well as the ''union'' supernovae sample, constrain the oscillating index of primordial spectrum and oscillating equation of state of dark energy with the amplitude less than |n{sub amp}| < 0.116 and |w{sub amp}| < 0.232 at 95% confidence level, respectively. This result shows that the oscillatory structures on the primordial scalar spectrum and the equation of state of dark energy are still allowed by the current data. Furthermore, we point out that these kinds of modulation effects will be detectable (or gotten a stronger constraint) in the near future astronomical observations, such as the PLANCK satellite, LAMOST telescope and the currently ongoing supernovae projects SNLS.

The cross section for emitting high energy gamma rays in heavy-ion collisions is calculated in a model based on the Boltzmann-Uehling-Uhlenbeck equation. The elementary production cross section is assumed to be neutron-proton bremsstrahlung. Comparison is made with experimental data at bombarding energies from 20 to 84 MeV/nucleon. The calculations are found to roughly reproduce the energyspectrum, bombarding energy dependence, and angular distribution. From the numerical analysis we conclude that the production of high-energy ..gamma.. rays is limited to the very early stage of the collision.

Absorbed dose rate to water at 0.2 cm and 1 cm due to a point isotropic photon source as a function of photonenergy is calculated using the EDKnrc user-code of the EGSnrc Monte Carlo system. This code system utilized widely used XCOM photon cross-section dataset for the calculation of absorbed dose to water. Using the above dose rates, dose rate constants are calculated. Air-kerma strength Sk needed for deriving dose rate constant is based on the mass-energy absorption coefficient compilations of Hubbell and Seltzer published in the year 1995. A comparison of absorbed dose rates in water at the above distances to the published values reflects the differences in photon cross-section dataset in the low-energy region (difference is up to 2% in dose rate values at 1 cm in the energy range 30–50 keV and up to 4% at 0.2 cm at 30 keV). A maximum difference of about 8% is observed in the dose rate value at 0.2 cm at 1.75 MeV when compared to the published value. Sk calculations based on the compilation of Hubbell and Seltzer show a difference of up to 2.5% in the low-energy region (20–50 keV) when compared to the published values. The deviations observed in the values of dose rate and Sk affect the values of dose rate constants up to 3%. PMID:24600166

Self-trapping profiles of laser beams in one space dimension and in cylindrical geometry are obtained for saturating-type nonlinearities computationally. The relavant nonlinear Shrodinger equations are solved adjusting for the nonlinear wavenumber shifts till self-trapping is achieved.Note that in one space dimension case the self-trapping condition is the same as for soliton formation. The modelling of the self-trapped beams is done using an approximate gaussian ansatz. Self-consistency then demands that the refractive index profile be approximated by a suitable parabolic profile in space corresponding to two nearby turning points being present simultaneously. The estimation of the location of the turning points is accomplished by using the scheme of approximation on the refractive index in momentum space as suggested by Subbarao et.al.(Phys.Plasmas vol.5, pp.3440-3450 (1998)). This scheme automatically also suggests the method to estimate the per photon binding energy in the self-trapped beam that indicates the strength of self-trapping.The photon binding energy vs. the laser beam intensity is the required photon binding energy curve.Being so similar to the nuclear binding energy curve in shape, it also goes on to suggest how to accomplish more stable self-trapped structures by the fusion or fission of self-trapped filaments thereby giving rise to a new form of self-organisation.

A huge energy gain is predicted theoretically in a pulsed chemical laser-amplifier based on a photon-branched chain reaction initiated in a gaseous dispersed medium composed of H2-F2-O2-He and Al particles by focused external infrared radiation. It is shown that this effect is due to the possibility of ignition of the laser-chemical reaction in an initial small focal volume of the active medium. It then spreads out of this minimal volume spontaneously in the auto-wave regime without external power sources and subsequently fills the entire volume of the laser cavity with a high intensive electromagnetic field as self-supporting cylindrical photon-branching zones formed by the paths of the rays inside the unstable telescopic cavity. Calculations show that the ignition of an auto-wave photon-branched chain reaction under the condition of external signal focusing reduces strongly the input pulse energy necessary for initiation up to ~ 10-8 J, and thereby allows a huge value of the energy gain of ~ 1011. The predicted effect of this huge laser energy gain should make it possible to construct a self-contained laser, which can be initiated by a very weak source signal.

In this article, we discuss some well-known theoretical models where an observer-independent energy scale or a length scale is present. The presence of this invariant scale necessarily deforms the Lorentz symmetry. We study different aspects and features of such theories about how modifications arise due to this cutoff scale. First we study the formulation of energy-momentum tensor for a perfect fluid in doubly special relativity (DSR), where an energy scale is present. Then we go on to study modifications in thermodynamic properties of photon gas in DSR. Finally we discuss some models with generalized uncertainty principle (GUP).

Introduction The energyspectrum (ES) analysis is a renowned tool for understanding the driving mechanisms behind atmospheric turbulence (Lindborg, 1998). We aim to investigate whether energy and enstrophy inertial ranges exist in the kinetic energyspectrum (KES), and to quantify the corresponding cascades (with their ranges), and relationship with the atmospheric forcing and energy dissipation scales. The calculation of the ES from observational data is known to be highly non-trivial due to the lack of global coverage in space and time. Gage and Nastrom (1984) were the first to overcome this problem for Earth but this has not so far been attempted for Mars. Our approach is to take the sparse observational data and assimilate it using a global numerical model. We present preliminary results using the Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) retrievals and the LMD-UK Mars GCM (MGCM). This was pioneered by Lewis and Read (1999). Methodology The equations we used to calculate the Eddy and Zonal Mean kinetic energies are derived from total KES formula presented in Lindborg and Augier (2013). Hence, adding the two spectra together, we obtain the full KES spectrum as presented in their paper. For the Available Potential EnergySpectrum (APES), we have used a preliminary simplified version of the approach presented in Lindborg and Augier (2013). The Energy Spectra To date we have assimilated the MCS data at the resolution of T31 (triangular truncation), hence the ES only spans up to total wavenumber 31. This encompasses a portion of the energy inertial range, which might be expected to manifest the -3 exponential law by analogy with the Earth (Gage & Nastrom, 1984). Features: - velocities and corresponding KEs are higher with increasing height compared to Earth, - "-3" slope is restricted to ~30 km altitude, suggesting an early departure from the enstrophy inertial range, - boundary layer velocities are similar to Earth References 1. Gage and Nastrom, A Climatology of Atmospheric

The results of experiments designed to test the theory of X-ray transition radiation and to verify the predicted dependence of the characteristic features of the radiation on the radiator dimensions are presented. The X-ray frequency spectrum produced by 5- to 9-GeV electrons over the range 4 to 30 keV was measured with a calibrated single-crystal Bragg spectrometer, and at frequencies up to 100 keV with an NaI scintillator. The interference pattern in the spectrum and the hardening of the radiation with increasing foil thickness are clearly observed. The energy dependence of the total transition-radiation intensity was studied using a radiator with large dimensions designed to yield energy-dependent signals at very high particle energies, up to E/mc-squared approximately equal to 100,000. The results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions.

The full harvest of solar energy by semiconductors requires a material that simultaneously absorbs across the whole solar spectrum and collects photogenerated electrons and holes separately. The stepwise integration of three semiconducting sulfides, namely ZnS, CdS, and Cu2-x S, into a single nanocrystal, led to a unique ternary multi-node sheath ZnS-CdS-Cu2-x S heteronanorod for full-spectrum solar energy absorption. Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) in the nonstoichiometric copper sulfide nanostructures enables effective NIR absorption. More significantly, the construction of pn heterojunctions between Cu2-x S and CdS leads to staggered gaps, as confirmed by first-principles simulations. This band alignment causes effective electron-hole separation in the ternary system and hence enables efficient solar energy conversion. PMID:27062543

We are developing a detector capable of measuring the neutron energyspectrum from a laser fusion target containing DT fuel. From such a spectrum the compressed areal density of the DT can be inferred by observing the fraction of 14.1 MeV neutrons down-shifted in energy by elastic scattering. The detector consists of a 0.1 cm thick Ta x-ray and debris shield backed by a 50 to 200 ..mu..m polyethylene radiator followed by layers of CR-39. The energy of each neutron producing a knock-on proton in the radiatior, that in turn creates a damage track in the CR-39, can be derived from the resultant track diameter, location, and orientation. We have analyzed the proton sensitivity and sample readability of 5 types of CR-39 in the energy range 3 to 11 MeV and have found a type fabricated by American Acrylics from a monomer made by a French company, Allymer, to be the most acceptable. Calibration curves were obtained for this plastic at energies of 3 to 15 MeV and dip angles ranging from 75 to 90/sup 0/. These curves were subsequently used to unfold a 14.7 MeV spectrum generated at the Livermore Rotating Target Neutron Source.

We carried out a new analysis of the spectrum of five-times-ionized zirconium Zr VI. For this we used sliding-spark discharges together with normal- and grazing-incidence spectrographs to observe the spectrum from 160 to 2000 Å. These observations showed that the analysis of this spectrum by Khan et al (1985 Phys. Scr. 31 837) contained a significant number of incorrect energy levels. We have now classified ˜420 lines as transitions between 23 even-parity levels 73 odd-parity levels. The 4s24p5, 4s4p6, 4s24p44d, 5s, 5d, 6s configurations are now complete, although a few levels of 4s24p45d are tentative. We determined Ritz-type wavelengths for ˜135 lines from the optimized energy levels. The uncertainties range from 0.0003 to 0.0020 Å. Hartree-Fock calculations and least-squares fits of the energy parameters to the observed levels were used to interpret the observed configurations. Oscillator strengths for all classified lines were calculated with the fitted parameters. The results are compared with values for the level energies, percentage compositions, and transition probabilities from recent ab initio theoretical calculations. The ionization energy was revised to 777 380 ± 300 cm-1 (96.38 ± 0.04 eV).

In this study, continuous wavelet transforms and spatial correlation techniques are employed to determine the space-localized wavenumber energyspectrum of the velocity signals in turbulent channel flow. The flow conditions correspond to single phase flow and micro-bubbles injected two phase flow. The wavelet energyspectrums demonstrate that the wavenumber (eddy size) content of the velocity signals is not only space-dependent but also micro-bubbles can impact the eddy size content. Visual observations of the wavelet energyspectrum spatial distribution was realized by using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurement technique. The two phase flow condition corresponds to a drag reduction of 38.4% with void fraction of 4.9%. The present results provide evidence that micro-bubbles in the boundary layer of a turbulent channel flow can help adjust the eddy size distributions near the wall. This can assist in explaining that micro-bubbles are performing as buffers to keep the energy of fluid particles going in stream-wise direction and reducing the energy of fluid particles going in normal direction. (authors)

X and gamma rays continue to remain the main contributors to the dose to humans. As these photons of varying energies are encountered in various applications, the study of photonenergy response of a dosemeter is an important aspect to ensure the accuracy in dose measurement. Responses of dosemeters have to be experimentally established because for luminescence dosemeters, they depend not only on the effective atomic number (ratio of mass energy absorption coefficients of dosemeter and tissue) of the detector, but also considerably on the luminescence efficiency and the material surrounding the dosemeters. Metal filters are generally used for the compensation of energy dependence below 200 keV and/or to provide photonenergy discrimination. It is noted that the contribution to Hp(0.07) could be measured more accurately than Hp(10). For the dosemeters exhibiting high photonenergy-dependent response, estimation of the beta component of Hp(0.07) becomes very difficult in the mixed field of beta radiation and photons of energy less than 100 keV. Recent studies have shown that the thickness and the atomic number of metal filters not only affect the response below 200 keV but also cause a significant over-response for high energy (>6 MeV) photons often encountered in the environments of pressurised heavy water reactors and accelerators. PMID:12382729

We present the multiplicity and pseudorapidity distributions of photons produced in Au+Au and Cu+Cu collisions at {radical}s{sub NN} = 62.4 and 200 GeV. The photons are measured in the region -3.7 < {eta} < -2.3 using the photon multiplicity detector in the STAR experiment at RHIC. The number of photons produced per average number of participating nucleon pairs increases with the beam energy and is independent of the collision centrality. For collisions with similar average numbers of participating nucleons the photon multiplicities are observed to be similar for Au+Au and Cu+Cu collisions at a given beam energy. The ratios of the number of charged particles to photons in the measured pseudorapidity range are found to be 1.4 {+-} 0.1 and 1.2 {+-} 0.1 for {radical}s{sub NN} = 62.4 GeV and 200 GeV, respectively. The energy dependence of this ratio could reflect varying contributions from baryons to charged particles, while mesons are the dominant contributors to photon production in the given kinematic region. The photon pseudorapidity distributions normalized by average number of participating nucleon pairs, when plotted as a function of {eta} - ybeam, are found to follow a longitudinal scaling independent of centrality and colliding ion species at both beam energies.

The sharp change in slope of the ultra-high energy cosmic ray spectrum around 10^18.6 eV (the ankle), combined with evidence of a light but extragalactic component near and below the ankle and intermediate composition above, has proved exceedingly challenging to understand theoretically. In this talk I discuss two possible solutions to the puzzle and how they can be (in)validated.First, I present a new mechanism whereby photo-disintegration of ultra-high energy nuclei in the region surrounding a UHECR accelerator naturally accounts for the observed spectrum and inferred composition (using LHC-tuned models extrapolated to UHE) at Earth. We discuss the conditions required to reproduce the spectrum above 10^17.5 eV and the composition, which -- in our model -- consists below the ankle of extragalactic protons and the high energy tail of Galactic Cosmic Rays, and above the ankle of surviving nuclei from the extended source. Predictions for the spectrum and flavors of neutrinos resulting from this process will be presented, and also implications for candidate sources.The other possible explanation is that in actuality UHECRs are entirely or almost entirely protons, and the cross-section for p-Air scattering increases more rapidly above center-of-mass energy of 70 TeV (10 times the current LHC cm energy) than predicted in conventional models. This gives an equally good fit to the depth-of-shower maximum behavior obverved by Auger, while being an intriguing sign of new state in QCD at extremely high energy density.

Gold nanoparticles have been shown to enhance radiation doses delivered to biological targets due to the high absorption coefficient of gold atoms, stemming from their high atomic number (Z) and physical density. These properties significantly increase the likelihood of photoelectric effects and Compton scattering interactions. Gold nanoparticles are a novel radiosensitizing agent that can potentially be used to increase the effectiveness of current radiation therapy techniques and improve the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. However, the optimum radiosensitization effect of gold nanoparticles is strongly dependent on photonenergy, which theoretically is predicted to occur in the kilovoltage range of energy. In this research, synchrotron-generated monoenergetic X-rays in the 30–100 keV range were used to investigate the energy dependence of radiosensitization by gold nanoparticles and also to determine the photonenergy that produces optimum effects. This investigation was conducted using cells in culture to measure dose enhancement. Bovine aortic endothelial cells with and without gold nanoparticles were irradiated with X-rays at energies of 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 81, and 100 keV. Trypan blue exclusion assays were performed after irradiation to determine cell viability. Cell radiosensitivity enhancement was indicated by the dose enhancement factor which was found to be maximum at 40 keV with a value of 3.47. The dose enhancement factor obtained at other energy levels followed the same direction as the theoretical calculations based on the ratio of the mass energy absorption coefficients of gold and water. This experimental evidence shows that the radiosensitization effect of gold nanoparticles varies with photonenergy as predicted from theoretical calculations. However, prediction based on theoretical assumptions is sometimes difficult due to the complexity of biological systems, so further study at the cellular level is required to fully characterize the

Gold nanoparticles have been shown to enhance radiation doses delivered to biological targets due to the high absorption coefficient of gold atoms, stemming from their high atomic number (Z) and physical density. These properties significantly increase the likelihood of photoelectric effects and Compton scattering interactions. Gold nanoparticles are a novel radiosensitizing agent that can potentially be used to increase the effectiveness of current radiation therapy techniques and improve the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. However, the optimum radiosensitization effect of gold nanoparticles is strongly dependent on photonenergy, which theoretically is predicted to occur in the kilovoltage range of energy. In this research, synchrotron-generated monoenergetic X-rays in the 30-100 keV range were used to investigate the energy dependence of radiosensitization by gold nanoparticles and also to determine the photonenergy that produces optimum effects. This investigation was conducted using cells in culture to measure dose enhancement. Bovine aortic endothelial cells with and without gold nanoparticles were irradiated with X-rays at energies of 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 81, and 100 keV. Trypan blue exclusion assays were performed after irradiation to determine cell viability. Cell radiosensitivity enhancement was indicated by the dose enhancement factor which was found to be maximum at 40 keV with a value of 3.47. The dose enhancement factor obtained at other energy levels followed the same direction as the theoretical calculations based on the ratio of the mass energy absorption coefficients of gold and water. This experimental evidence shows that the radiosensitization effect of gold nanoparticles varies with photonenergy as predicted from theoretical calculations. However, prediction based on theoretical assumptions is sometimes difficult due to the complexity of biological systems, so further study at the cellular level is required to fully characterize the effects

Dual-energyphoton counting was performed using an energy-selecting device (ESD) and a detector, consisting of a Lu2(SiO4)O [LSO)] crystal and a multipixel photon counter (MPPC). The ESD is used to determine a low-energychannel range for CT and consists of two comparators and a microcomputer (MC). The two threshold channels in proportion to energies are determined using low and high-energy comparators, respectively. The MC in the ESD produces a single logical pulse when only a logical pulse from the low-energy comparator is input to the MC. To determine the high-energy-channel range for CT, logical pulses from the high-energy comparator are input to the MC outside the ESD. Logical pulses from the two MCs are input to frequency-voltage converters (FVCs) to convert count rates into voltages. The output voltages from the two FVCs are sent to a personal computer through an analog-digital converter to reconstruct tomograms. Dual-energy computed tomography was accomplished at a tube voltage of 70 kV and a maximum count rate of 14.3 kilocounts per second, and two-different-energy tomograms were obtained simultaneously.

Spin effects at high energies and momentum transfers {vert_bar}t{vert_bar} > 1 GeV{sup 2} are analyzed for elastic quark-photon scattering. The ratio of the spin-flip and non-spin-flip amplitudes in the same order of perturbative QCD is found to be independent of energy. It is shown that the contribution of the spin-dependent quark-pomeron vertex to the photon spin-flip amplitude is enhanced by off-mass-shell effects in the quark loop. As a result, this amplitude can become as large as 20-30% of the non-spin-flip amplitude. The cross section is found to depend on the form factor and on contributions of order {alpha}{sub s}{sup 3} the non-spin-flip amplitude. 12 refs., 4 figs.

The observables provided by linearly-polarized photons are of interest in delineating the contributions of the various hadronic processes giving rise to vector meson photoproduction. In particular, we describe how Φ-meson production affords an incisive tool for exploring the nature of the parity exchange at threshold energies, the strangeness content of proton, as well as extracting signatures for the violation of Okubo-Zweig-Iizuka observation (OZI rule). Our goal is to study the γp → Φp reaction, with Φ → K+K-, in the photonenergy range of 1.7 to 2.1 GeV by using the Coherent Linear Bremsstrahlung Facility in Hall B of Jefferson Laboratory, Newport News, VA. The data were collected during the g8b run in the summer of 2005.

The observables provided by linearly-polarized photons are of interest in delineating the contributions of the various hadronic processes giving rise to vector meson photoproduction. In particular, we describe how {phi}-meson production affords an incisive tool for exploring the nature of the parity exchange at threshold energies, the strangeness content of proton, as well as extracting signatures for the violation of Okubo-Zweig-Iizuka observation (OZI rule). Our goal is to study the {gamma}-vectorp{yields}{phi}p reaction, with {phi}{yields}K{sup +}K{sup -}, in the photonenergy range of 1.7 to 2.1 GeV by using the Coherent Linear Bremsstrahlung Facility in Hall B of Jefferson Laboratory, Newport News, VA. The data were collected during the g8b run in the summer of 2005.

We describe a tunable low-energyphoton source consisting of a laser-driven xenon plasma lamp coupled to a Czerny-Turner monochromator. The combined tunability, brightness, and narrow spectral bandwidth make this light source useful in laboratory-based high-resolution photoemission spectroscopy experiments. The source supplies photons with energies up to {approx}7 eV, delivering under typical conditions >10{sup 12} ph/s within a 10 meV spectral bandwidth, which is comparable to helium plasma lamps and many synchrotron beamlines. We first describe the lamp and monochromator system and then characterize its output, with attention to those parameters which are of interest for photoemission experiments. Finally, we present angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy data using the light source and compare its performance to a conventional helium plasma lamp.

Recent data from the Fermi Large Area Telescope have revealed about a dozen distant hard-spectrum blazars that have very-high-energy (VHE; {approx}> 100 GeV) photons associated with them, but most of them have not yet been detected by imaging atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes. Most of these high-energy gamma-ray spectra, like those of other extreme high-frequency peaked BL Lac objects, can be well explained either by gamma rays emitted at the source or by cascades induced by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays, as we show specifically for KUV 00311-1938. We consider the prospects for detection of the VHE sources by the planned Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) and show how it can distinguish the two scenarios by measuring the integrated flux above {approx}500 GeV (depending on source redshift) for several luminous sources with z {approx}< 1 in the sample. Strong evidence for the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays could be obtained from VHE observations with CTA. Depending on redshift, if the often quoted redshift of KUV 00311-1938 (z = 0.61) is believed, then preliminary H.E.S.S. data favor cascades induced by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. Accurate redshift measurements of hard-spectrum blazars are essential for this study.

We measured the angular dependence of the three recoil-proton polarization components in two-body photodisintegration of the deuteron at a photonenergy of 2 GeV. These new data provide a benchmark for calculations based on quantum chromodynamics. Two of the five existing models have made predictions of polarization observables. Both explain the longitudinal polarization transfer satisfactorily. Transverse polarizations are not well described, but suggest isovector dominance.

We measured the angular dependence of the three recoil-proton polarization components in two-body photodisintegration of the deuteron at a photonenergy of 2 GeV. These new data provide a benchmark for calculations based on quantum chromodynamics. Two of the five existing models have made predictions of polarization observables. Both explain the longitudinal polarization transfer satisfactorily. Transverse polarizations are not well described, but suggest isovector dominance.

We measured the angular dependence of the three recoil-proton polarization components in two-body photodisintegration of the deuteron at a photonenergy of 2 GeV. These new data provide a benchmark for calculations based on quantum chromodynamics. Two of the five existing models have made predictions of polarization observables. Both explain the longitudinal polarization transfer satisfactorily. Transverse polarizations are not well described, but suggest isovector dominance.

These are presentations to be presented at the 31st International Cosmic Ray Conference, in Lodz, Poland during July 2009. It consists of the following presentations: (1) Measurement of the cosmic ray energyspectrum above 10{sup 18} eV with the Pierre Auger Observatory; (2) The cosmic ray flux observed at zenith angles larger than 60 degrees with the Pierre Auger Observatory; (3) Energy calibration of data recorded with the surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory; (4) Exposure of the Hybrid Detector of The Pierre Auger Observatory; and (5) Energy scale derived from Fluorescence Telescopes using Cherenkov Light and Shower Universality.

Shielding characteristics of iron, lead, ordinary concrete, heavy concrete, graphite, marble, water, and paraffin were calculated for monoenergetic source neutrons with energies < 400 MeV. The depth dependence of neutron and secondary photon transmitted dose equivalents at the exit surfaces of shields of varying thickness is exhibited for some monoenergetic source neutrons and for each material. Their shielding characteristics are compared and discussed in terms of the degradation process of neutron energy and the change of neutron spectrum in typical shielding materials. Calculations were carried out by using the one-dimensional discrete ordinates code ANISN-JR and the cross-section library DLC-87/HILO. Systematic knowledge concerning the shielding of neutrons with energies < 400 MeV was successfully obtained.

In this work we examine with the help of Monte Carlo simulation whether a consistent primary energyspectrum of cosmic rays emerges from both the experimentally observed total charged particles and muon size spectra of cosmic ray extensive air showers considering primary composition may or may not change beyond the knee of the energyspectrum. It is found that EAS-TOP observations consistently infer a knee in the primary energyspectrum provided the primary is pure unchanging iron whereas no consistent primary spectrum emerges from simultaneous use of the KASCADE observed total charged particle and muon spectra. However, it is also found that when primary composition changes across the knee the estimation of spectral index of total charged particle spectrum is quite tricky, depends on the choice of selection of points near the knee in the size spectrum.

The vision of intelligent and large-area fabrics capable of signal processing, sensing and energy harvesting has made incorporating electronic devices into flexible fibers an active area of research. Fiber-integrated rectifying junctions in the form of photovoltaic cells and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been fabricated on optical fiber substrates. However, the length of these fiber devices has been limited by the processing methods and the lack of a sufficiently conductive and transparent electrode. Their cylindrical device geometry is ideal for single device architectures, like photovoltaics and LEDs, but not amenable to building multiple devices into a single fiber. In contrast, the composite preform-to-fiber approach pioneered in our group addresses the key challenges of device density and fiber length simultaneously. It allows one to construct structured fibers composed of metals, insulators and semiconductors and enables the incorporation of many devices into a single fiber capable of performing complex tasks such as of angle of incidence and color detection. However, until now, devices built by the preform-to-fiber approach have demonstrated only ohmic behavior due to the chalcogenide semiconductor's amorphous nature and defect density. From a processing standpoint, non-crystallinity is necessary to ensure that the preform viscosity during thermal drawing is large enough to extend the time-scale of breakup driven by surface tension effects in the fluids to times much longer than that of the actual drawing. The structured preform cross-section is maintained into the microscopic fiber only when this requirement is met. Unfortunately, the same disorder that is integral to the fabrication process is detrimental to the semiconductors' electronic properties, imparting large resistivities and effectively pinning the Fermi level near mid-gap. Indeed, the defect density within the mobility gap of many chalcogenides has been found to be 1018-1019 cm-3 eV-1

Purpose: To investigate the feasibility of characterizing a Si strip photon-counting detector using x-ray fluorescence. Methods: X-ray fluorescence was generated by using a pencil beam from a tungsten anode x-ray tube with 2 mm Al filtration. Spectra were acquired at 90° from the primary beam direction with an energy-resolved photon-counting detector based on an edge illuminated Si strip detector. The distances from the source to target and the target to detector were approximately 19 and 11 cm, respectively. Four different materials, containing silver (Ag), iodine (I), barium (Ba), and gadolinium (Gd), were placed in small plastic containers with a diameter of approximately 0.7 cm for x-ray fluorescence measurements. Linear regression analysis was performed to derive the gain and offset values for the correlation between the measured fluorescence peak center and the known fluorescence energies. The energy resolutions and charge-sharing fractions were also obtained from analytical fittings of the recorded fluorescence spectra. An analytical model, which employed four parameters that can be determined from the fluorescence calibration, was used to estimate the detector response function. Results: Strong fluorescence signals of all four target materials were recorded with the investigated geometry for the Si strip detector. The average gain and offset of all pixels for detector energy calibration were determined to be 6.95 mV/keV and −66.33 mV, respectively. The detector’s energy resolution remained at approximately 2.7 keV for low energies, and increased slightly at 45 keV. The average charge-sharing fraction was estimated to be 36% within the investigated energy range of 20–45 keV. The simulated detector output based on the proposed response function agreed well with the experimental measurement. Conclusions: The performance of a spectral imaging system using energy-resolved photon-counting detectors is very dependent on the energy calibration of the

Purpose: To investigate the feasibility of characterizing a Si strip photon-counting detector using x-ray fluorescence. Methods: X-ray fluorescence was generated by using a pencil beam from a tungsten anode x-ray tube with 2 mm Al filtration. Spectra were acquired at 90° from the primary beam direction with an energy-resolved photon-counting detector based on an edge illuminated Si strip detector. The distances from the source to target and the target to detector were approximately 19 and 11 cm, respectively. Four different materials, containing silver (Ag), iodine (I), barium (Ba), and gadolinium (Gd), were placed in small plastic containers with a diameter of approximately 0.7 cm for x-ray fluorescence measurements. Linear regression analysis was performed to derive the gain and offset values for the correlation between the measured fluorescence peak center and the known fluorescence energies. The energy resolutions and charge-sharing fractions were also obtained from analytical fittings of the recorded fluorescence spectra. An analytical model, which employed four parameters that can be determined from the fluorescence calibration, was used to estimate the detector response function. Results: Strong fluorescence signals of all four target materials were recorded with the investigated geometry for the Si strip detector. The average gain and offset of all pixels for detector energy calibration were determined to be 6.95 mV/keV and −66.33 mV, respectively. The detector’s energy resolution remained at approximately 2.7 keV for low energies, and increased slightly at 45 keV. The average charge-sharing fraction was estimated to be 36% within the investigated energy range of 20–45 keV. The simulated detector output based on the proposed response function agreed well with the experimental measurement. Conclusions: The performance of a spectral imaging system using energy-resolved photon-counting detectors is very dependent on the energy calibration of the

We performed a neutron irradiation to single crystal pure tungsten in the mixed spectrum High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). In order to investigate the influences of neutron energyspectrum, the microstructure and irradiation hardening were compared with previous data obtained from the irradiation campaigns in the mixed spectrum Japan Material Testing Reactor (JMTR) and the sodium-cooled fast reactor Joyo. The irradiation temperatures were in the range of ~90–~800 °C and fast neutron fluences were 0.02–9.00 × 1025 n/m2 (E > 0.1 MeV). Post irradiation evaluation included Vickers hardness measurements and transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, the hardness and microstructure changes exhibitedmore » a clear dependence on the neutron energyspectrum. The hardness appeared to increase with increasing thermal neutron flux when fast fluence exceeds 1 × 1025 n/m2 (E > 0.1 MeV). Finally, irradiation induced precipitates considered to be χ- and σ-phases were observed in samples irradiated to >1 × 1025 n/m2 (E > 0.1 MeV), which were pronounced at high dose and due to the very high thermal neutron flux of HFIR. Although the irradiation hardening mainly caused by defects clusters in a low dose regime, the transmutation-induced precipitation appeared to impose additional significant hardening of the tungsten.« less

Specific absorbed fraction (PHI's) in various organs of the body (target organs) from sources of monoenergetic photons in various other organs (source organs) are tabulated. In this volume PHI-values are tabulated for a newborn or 3.4-kg person. These PHI-values can be used in calculating the photon component of the dose-equivalent rate in a given target from a given radionuclide that is present in a given source organ. The International Commission on Radiological Protection recognizes that the endosteal, or bone surface, cells are the tissue at risk for bone cancer. We have applied the dosimetry methods that Spiers and co-workers developed for beta-emitting radionuclides deposited in bone to follow the transport of secondary electrons that were freed by photon interactions through the microscopic structure of the skeleton. With these methods we can estimate PHI in the endosteal cells and can better estimate PHI in the active marrow; the latter is overestimated with other methods at photonenergies below 200 keV. 12 refs., 2 tabs.

Results are reported for an investigation of the intensity, energyspectrum, and spatial distribution of the diffuse gamma radiation detected by SAS 2 away from the galactic plane in the energy range above 35 MeV. The gamma-ray data are compared with relevant data obtained at other wavelengths, including 21-cm emission, radio continuum radiation, and the limited UV and radio information on local molecular hydrogen. It is found that there are two quite distinct components to the diffuse radiation, one of which shows a good correlation with the galactic matter distribution and continuum radiation, while the other has a much steeper energyspectrum and appears to be isotropic at least on a coarse scale. The galactic component is interpreted in terms of its implications for both local and more distant regions of the Galaxy. The apparently isotropic radiation is discussed partly with regard to the constraints placed on possible models by the steep energyspectrum, the observed intensity, and an upper limit on the anisotropy.

The two-photon excitation spectrum in polycrystalline α-sexithienyl (T6) thin films has been investigated at 4.2 K in the spectral range between 910 and 1180 nm of the fundamental laser radiation. The intense two-photon absorption band at 18 350 cm-1 is assigned to the 21Ag exciton band origin. The comparison of the one-photon and two-photon excitation spectra shows that the lowest ``gerade'' exciton level lies at 898 cm-1 above the lowest one-photon-allowed 1 2Bu exciton level.

Electronic and photonic information technology and renewable energy alternatives, such as solar energy, fuel cells and batteries, have now reached an advanced stage in their development. Cost-effective improvements to current technological approaches have made great progress, but certain challenges remain. As feature sizes of the latest generations of electronic devices are approaching atomic dimensions, circuit speeds are now being limited by interconnect bottlenecks. This has prompted innovations such as the introduction of new materials into microelectronics manufacturing at an unprecedented rate and alternative technologies to silicon CMOS architectures. Despite the environmental impact of conventional fossil fuel consumption, the low cost of these energy sources has been a long-standing economic barrier to the development of alternative and more efficient renewable energy sources, fuel cells and batteries. In the face of mounting environmental concerns, interest in such alternative energy sources has grown. It is now widely accepted that nanotechnology offers potential solutions for securing future progress in information and energy technologies. The Canadian Semiconductor Technology Conference (CSTC) forum was established 25 years ago in Ottawa as an important symbol of the intrinsic strength of the Canadian semiconductor research and development community, and the Canadian semiconductor industry as a whole. In 2007, the 13th CSTC was held in Montreal, moving for the first time outside the national capital region. The first three meetings in the series of 'Nano and Giga Challenges in Electronics and Photonics'— NGCM2002 in Moscow, NGCM2004 in Krakow, and NGC2007 in Phoenix— were focused on interdisciplinary research from the fundamentals of materials science to the development of new system architectures. In 2009 NGC2009 and the 14th Canadian Semiconductor Technology Conference (CSTC2009) were held as a joint event, hosted by McMaster University (10

In the last few years, very important data on high-energy cosmic-ray electrons and positrons from high-precision space-born and ground-based experiments have attracted a great deal of interest. These particles represent a unique probe for studying local comic-ray accelerators because they lose energy very rapidly. These energy losses reduce the lifetime so drastically that high-energy cosmic-ray electrons can attain the Earth only from rather local astrophysical sources. This work aims at calculating, by means of Monte Carlo simulation, the contribution from some known nearby astrophysical sources to the cosmic-ray electron/positron spectra at high energy (≥ 10 GeV). The background to the electron energyspectrum from distant sources is determined with the help of the GALPROP code. The obtained numerical results are compared with a set of experimental data.

The ART-XC instrument is an X-ray grazing-incidence telescope system in an ABRIXAS-type optical configuration optimized for the survey observational mode of the Spectrum-RG astrophysical mission which is scheduled to be launched in 2011. ART-XC has two units, each equipped with four identical X-ray multi-shell mirror modules. The optical axes of the individual mirror modules are not parallel but are separated by several degrees to permit the four modules to share a single CCD focal plane detector, 1/4 of the area each. The 450-micron-thick pnCCD (similar to the adjacent eROSITA telescope detector) will allow detection of X-ray photons up to 15 keV. The field of view of the individual mirror module is about 18 x 18 arcminutes(exp 2) and the sensitivity of the ART-XC system for 4 years of survey will be better than 10(exp -12) erg s(exp -1) cm(exp -2) over the 4-12 keV energy band. This will allow the ART-XC instrument to discover several thousand new AGNs.

We report the results of a new 60 ks Chandra X-ray Observatory Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer S-array (ACIS-S) observation of the reddened, radio-selected, highly polarized `FeLoBAL' quasar FIRST J1556+3517. We investigated a number of models of varied sophistication to fit the 531-photonspectrum. These models ranged from simple power laws to power laws absorbed by hydrogen gas in differing ionization states and degrees of partial covering. Preferred fits indicate that the intrinsic X-ray flux is consistent with that expected for quasars of similarly high luminosity, i.e. an intrinsic, dereddened and unabsorbed optical to X-ray spectral index of -1.7. We cannot tightly constrain the intrinsic X-ray power-law slope, but find indications that it is flat (photon index Γ = 1.7 or flatter at a >99 per cent confidence for a neutral hydrogen absorber model). Absorption is present, with a column density a few times 1023 cm-2, with both partially ionized models and partially covering neutral hydrogen models providing good fits. We present several lines of argument that suggest the fraction of X-ray emissions associated with the radio jet is not large. We combine our Chandra data with observations from the literature to construct the spectral energy distribution of FIRST J1556+3517 from radio to X-ray energies. We make corrections for Doppler beaming for the pole-on radio jet, optical dust reddening and X-ray absorption, in order to recover a probable intrinsic spectrum. The quasar FIRST J1556+3517 seems to be an intrinsically normal radio-quiet quasar with a reddened optical/UV spectrum, a Doppler-boosted but intrinsically weak radio jet and an X-ray absorber not dissimilar from that of other broad absorption line quasars.

The study of photon-photon collisions has progressed enormously, stimulated by new data and new calculational tools for QCD. In the future we can expect precise determinations of ..cap alpha../sub s/ and ..lambda../sup ms/ from the ..gamma..*..gamma.. ..-->.. ..pi../sup 0/ form factor and the photon structure function, as well as detailed checks of QCD, determination of the shape of the hadron distribution amplitudes from ..gamma gamma.. ..-->.. H anti H, reconstruction of sigma/sub ..gamma gamma../ from exclusive channels at low W/sub ..gamma gamma../, definitive studies of high p/sub T/ hadron and jet production, and studies of threshold production of charmed systems. Photon-photon collisions, along with radiative decays of the psi and UPSILON, are ideal for the study of multiquark and gluonic resonances. We have emphasized the potential for resonance formation near threshold in virtually every hadronic exclusive channel, including heavy quark states c anti c c anti c, c anti c u anti u, etc. At higher energies SLC, LEP, ...) parity-violating electroweak effects and Higgs production due to equivalent Z/sup 0/ and W/sup + -/ beams from e ..-->.. eZ/sup 0/ and e ..-->.. nu W will become important. 44 references.

The measurement of the energyspectrum and the chemical composition of cosmic rays at the 'Knee' energy region have been made in the Tibet-AS experiment since 1990. The 1st phase of the Tibet hybrid experiment(1996-1999) consisted of Tibet II air-shower array(AS), Emulsion Chamber(EC) and burst detector(BD). The EC was used to detect high energy-gamma-families of the energy greater than 20 TeV at the core of ASs of which more than 80% are induced by light nuclei like protons or helium. Due to the high spatial resolution of the EC, proton and helium events were separated from others and we obtained the energyspectrum of each of them using 177 family events. We also obtained all-particle energyspectrum of primary cosmic rays in a wide range from 1014 eV to 1017 eV by the Tibet-III air-shower array. The size spectrum exhibits a sharp knee at a corresponding primary energy around 4 PeV. These results strongly indicated that the fraction of the light component to the all particle spectrum is decreasing around the knee.The observation of the AS core has been continued with upgraded Tibet III array and burst detectors without using X-ray films, which still works as the selector for the air showers induced by light component (pHe). This second phase experiment shows that the dominance of the heavy elements at the knee reported by the first phase experiment is confirmed with higher statistics by one order.Our results suggest that the main component at the knee is heavy elements (heavier than helium) because of the low intensities of observed proton and helium fluxes, whose summed flux are less than 30% of all particles. A new air-shower-core detector(YAC) will be added to the Tibet AS array to explicitly measure the heavy elements around the knee and beyond. In this paper, the results of composition study with the Tibet experiment are summarized and the prospects for the next phase experiment are described.

A counter telescope has been exposed in three balloon flights in 1970 to measure the flux and energyspectrum of cosmic ray electrons between 10 and 1000 GeV. This instrument has been modified by incorporating a large area CsI crystal as well as highly efficient time of flight circuitry, and was flown again twice during 1972. The methods of data analysis are based on extensive accelerator calibrations at SLAC. The resulting electron spectrum fits well to a single power law with an index (gamma) equal to 2.66 over the whole energy region. No obvious steepening can be observed, although statistical uncertainties prohibit definite claims beyond 250 GeV.

The energyspectrum and geometrical structure of the turbulent magnetic field can offer a solid test of different theoretical models on the generation and evolution of Galactic magnetic fields. They are also pivotal to understanding the propagation of cosmic-ray particles. However, the energyspectrum has been difficult to determine and the geometrical structure has never been obtained so far, due to lack of proper methods and observations. We aim to infer these quantities by applying our newly developed techniques to polarisation images. These images are required to be observed with high angular resolution and broadband multi-channel polarimetry, which is possible only recently using the ATCA. As a pilot study, we plan to map the 2X2 degree high-latitude field centred at l=255.5 degree and b=-38 degree at 1.1-3.1 GHz in total intensity and polarisation.

The energyspectrum and geometrical structure of the turbulent magnetic field can offer a solid test of different theoretical models on the generation and evolution of Galactic magnetic fields. They are also pivotal to understanding the propagation of cosmic-ray particles. However, the energyspectrum has been difficult to determine and the geometrical structure has never been obtained so far, due to lack of proper methods and observations. We aim to infer these quantities by applying our newly developed techniques to polarisation images. These images are required to be observed with high angular resolution and broadband multi-channel polarimetry, which is possible only recently using the ATCA. As a pilot study, we plan to map the 2X2 degree high-latitude field centred at l=255.5 degree and b=-38 degree at 1.1-3.1 GHz in total intensity and polarisation.

A simple analytical method for electron energyspectrum calculations of cylindrical quantum dots (QDs) and quantum rods (QRs) is presented. The method is based on a replacement of an actual QD or QR hamiltonian with an approximate one, which allows for a separation of variables. Though this approach is known in the literature, it is essentially expanded in the present paper by taking into account a discontinuity of the effective mass, which is of importance in actual semiconductor heterostructures, e.g., InGaAs QDs or QRs embedded in GaAs matrix. Several examples of InGaAs QDs and QRs are considered—their energyspectrum calculations show that the suggested method yields reliable results both for the ground and excited states. The proposed analytical model is verified by numerical calculations, results of which coincide with an accuracy of ∼1 meV.

X rays were used for low energyphoton therapy (LEPT) efficacy assessment for cervical lordosis restoration and radial head spur healing. Two cases, their evaluation, and treatment are discussed along with the follow-up results.

A diamond detector type 60003 (PTW Freiburg) was examined for the purpose of dosimetry with 4-20 MeV electron beams and 4-25 MV photon beams. Results were compared with those obtained by using a Markus chamber for electron beams and an ionization chamber for photon beams. Dose distributions were measured in a water phantom with the detector connected to a Unidos electrometer (PTW Freiburg). After a pre-irradiation of about 5 Gy the diamond detector shows a stability in response which is better than that of an ionization chamber. The current of the diamond detector was measured under variation of photon beam dose rate between 0.1 and 7 Gy min-1. Different FSDs were chosen. Furthermore the pulse repetition frequency and the depth of the detector were changed. The electron beam dose rate was varied between 0.23 and 4.6 Gy min-1 by changing the pulse-repetition frequency. The response shows no energy dependence within the covered photon-beam energy range. Between 4 MeV and 18 MeV electron beam energy it shows only a small energy dependence of about 2%, as expected from theory. For smaller electron energies the response increases significantly and an influence of the contact material used for the diamond detector can be surmised. A slight sublinearity of the current and dose rate was found. Detector current and dose rate are related by the expression i, where i is the detector current, is the dose rate and is a correction factor of approximately 0.963. Depth-dose curves of photon beams, measured with the diamond detector, show a slight overestimation compared

The detector response functions included in the Gamma Detector Response and Analysis Software (GADRAS) are a valuable resource for simulating radioactive source emission spectra. Application of these response functions to the results of three-dimensional transport calculations is a useful modeling capability. Using a 26.2 kg shell of depleted uranium (DU) as a simple test problem, this work illustrates a method for manipulating current tally results from MCNP into the GAM file format necessary for a practical link to GADRAS detector response functions. MISC (MCNP Intrinsic Source Constructor) and SOURCES 4C were used to develop photon and neutron source terms for subsequent MCNP transport, and the resultant spectrum is shown to be in good agreement with that from GADRAS. A 1 kg DU sphere was also modeled with the method described here and showed similarly encouraging results.

Low energyphoton production is an important background to many current and future precision neutrino experiments. We present a phenomenological study of t-channel radiative corrections to neutral current neutrino nucleus scattering. After introducing the relevant processes and phenomenological coupling constants, we will explore the derived energy and angular distributions as well as total cross-section predictions along with their estimated uncertainties. This is supplemented throughout with comments on possible experimental signatures and implications. We conclude with a general discussion of the analysis in the context of complimentary methodologies. This is based on a talk presented at the DPF 2009 meeting in Detroit MI.

The photofission cross section of Au was determined in the energy range 100--300 MeV by means of a quasimonochromatic photon beam. The nuclear fissility P/sub f/ was calculated using the recently measured total photoabsorption cross sections. The nuclear excitation energy E/sup */, charge and mass of compound nucleus were obtained by means of an intranuclear cascade Monte Carlo calculation. The fissility values determined for Au, Bi, and U were compared with the predictions of the cascade-evaporation model and remarkably fitted by the calculation.

The Telescope Array experiment studies ultra high energy cosmic rays using a hybrid detector. Fluorescence telescopes measure the longitudinal development of the extensive air shower generated when a primary cosmic ray particle interacts with the atmosphere. Meanwhile, scintillator detectors measure the lateral distribution of secondary shower particles that hit the ground. The Middle Drum (MD) fluorescence telescope station consists of 14 telescopes from the High Resolution Fly's Eye (HiRes) experiment, providing a direct link back to the HiRes measurements. Using the scintillator detector data in conjunction with the telescope data improves the geometrical reconstruction of the showers significantly, and hence, provides a more accurate reconstruction of the energy of the primary particle. The Middle Drum hybrid spectrum is presented and compared to that measured by the Middle Drum station in monocular mode. Further, the hybrid data establishes a link between the Middle Drum data and the surface array. A comparison between the Middle Drum hybrid energyspectrum and scintillator Surface Detector (SD) spectrum is also shown.

We consider the peculiarities of the electron energyspectrum in the Coulomb field of a superheavy nucleus and discuss the long history of an incorrect interpretation of this problem in the case of a pointlike nucleus and its current correct solution. We consider the spectral problem in the case of a regularized Coulomb potential. For some special regularizations, we derive an exact equation for the point spectrum in the energy interval (-m,m) and find some of its solutions numerically. We also derive an exact equation for charges yielding bound states with the energy E = -m; some call them supercritical charges. We show the existence of an infinite number of such charges. Their existence does not mean that the oneparticle relativistic quantum mechanics based on the Dirac Hamiltonian with the Coulomb field of such charges is mathematically inconsistent, although it is physically unacceptable because the spectrum of the Hamiltonian is unbounded from below. The question of constructing a consistent nonperturbative second-quantized theory remains open, and the consequences of the existence of supercritical charges from the standpoint of the possibility of constructing such a theory also remain unclear.

We present results of a search for the anomalous production of events containing a high-transverse momentum charged lepton ({ell}, either e or {mu}) and photon ({gamma}), accompanied by missing transverse energy (E{sub T}), and/or additional leptons and photons, and jets (X). We use the same kinematic selection criteria as in a previous CDF search, but with a substantially larger data set, 305 pb{sup -1}, a p{bar p} collision energy of 1.96 TeV, and the upgraded CDF II detector. We find 42 {ell}{gamma}E{sub T} events versus a standard model expectation of 37.3 {+-} 5.4 events. The level of excess observed in Run I, 16 events with an expectation of 7.6 {+-} 0.7 events (corresponding to a 2.7 {sigma} effect), is not supported by the new data. In the signature of {ell}{ell}{gamma} + X we observe 31 events versus an expectation of 23.0 {+-} 2.7 events. In this sample we find no events with an extra photon or E{sub T} and so find no events like the one ee{gamma}{gamma} E{sub T} event observed in Run I.

The effective atomic number, Zeff, the effective electron density, Ne,eff, and the energy dependence, ED, have been calculated at photonenergies from 1 keV to 1 GeV for CaO-SrO-B 2O 3, PbO-B 2O 3, Bi 2O 3-B 2O 3, and PbO-Bi 2O 3-B 2O 3 glasses with potential applications as gamma ray shielding materials. For medium- Z glasses, Zeff is about constant and equal to the mean atomic number in a wide energy range, typically 0.3 < E < 4 MeV, where Compton scattering is the main photon interaction process. In contrast, for high- Z glasses there is no energy region where Compton scattering is truly dominating. Heavy-metal oxide glasses containing PbO and/or Bi 2O 3 are promising gamma ray shielding materials due to their high effective atomic number and strong absorption of gamma rays. They compare well with concrete and other standard shielding materials and have the additional advantage of being transparent to visible light. The single-valued effective atomic number calculated by XMuDat is approximately valid at low energies where photoelectric absorption is dominating.

A new generation of storage ring-based light sources, called diffraction-limited storage rings (DLSRs), with emittance approaching the diffraction limit for multi-keV photons by means of multi-bend achromat lattices, has attracted extensive studies worldwide. Among various DLSR proposals, the hybrid multi-bend achromat concept developed at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) predicts an effective way of minimizing the emittance while keeping the required chromatic sextupole strengths to an achievable level. For the High EnergyPhoton Source planned to be built in Beijing, an ESRF-type lattice design consisting of 48 hybrid seven-bend achromats is proposed to reach emittance as low as 60 pm·rad with a circumference of about 1296 m. Sufficient dynamic aperture, allowing vertical on-axis injection, and moderate momentum acceptance are achieved simultaneously for a promising ring performance. Supported by NSFC (11475202, 11405187) and Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS (2015009)

This experiment was carried out during three balloon flights which provided a total exposure of 3500 + or - 60 sq m sec sterad at an average depth of 4.8 g/sq cm The detector, in which the development of cascade showers in a 33.7 rl absorber was sampled by 10 scintillation counters and 216 Geiger-Muller tubes, was calibrated at the Cornell Electron Synchrotron, the separation of cosmic electrons from the nuclear background was confirmed by extensive analysis of data from the flights, from the calibration and from ground level exposure. The spectral intensity of primary cosmic ray electrons were found in particles/sq m sec sterad GeV. Similarly, the ground level spectrum of secondary cosmic ray electrons was also found. The steepness of the spectrum of cosmic electrons relative to that of nuclei implies one of the following conclusions: either the injection spectrum of electrons is steeper than that of nuclei, or the electron spectrum has been steepened by Compton/synchrotron losses in the energy range covered by the experiment.

During the initial period of the Samarkand EAS array operations the showers were selected on the basis of charged-particle flux density, and during the subsequent periods the showers were selected on the basis of Cerenkov light flux density. This procedure made it possible to measure the shower energy, to estimate the EAS size fluctuations at a fixed primary energy, and to experimentally obtain the scaling factor K(Ne, Eo) from the EAS size spectrum to the primary energyspectrum. Six scintillators of area S = 2 sq m each were added to the array. The fluctuations of EAS sizes in the showers of fixed primary energies and the scaling factors K(Ne, Eo) were inferred from the data obtained. The showers with zenith angles 30 deg were selected. The EAS axis positions were inferred from the amplitude data of the scintillators. The primary energy Eo was determined by the method of least squares for the known EAS axis position using the data of the Cerenkov detector located at 80 to 150 m EAS axis. It is shown that the Cerenkov light flux fluctuations at 100 m from EAS axis, q sub 100, do not exceed 10% at a fixed EAS energy, so the parameter q sub 100 may be used to estimate the EAS-generating primary particle-energy.

Transferrin, radiolabeled with In-111, can be coinjected into glioblastoma multiforme lesions, and subsequent scintigraphic imaging can demonstrate the biokinetics of the cytotoxic transferrin. The administration of [sup 111]In transferrin into a brain tumor results in distribution of radioactivity in the brain, brain tumor, and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Information about absorbed radiation doses to these regions, as well as other nearby tissues and organs, is important for evaluating radiation-related risks from this procedure. The radiation dose is usually estimated for a mathematical representation of the human body. We have included source/target regions for the eye, lens of the eye, spinal column, spinal CSF, cranial CSF, and a 100-g tumor within the brain of an adult male phantom developed by Cristy and Eckerman. The spinal column, spinal CSF, and the eyes have not been routinely included in photon transport simulations. Specific absorbed fractions (SAFs) as a function of photonenergy were calculated using the ALGAMP computer code, which utilizes Monte Carlo techniques for simulating photon transport. The ALGAMP code was run three times, with the source activity distributed uniformly within the tumor, cranial CSF, and the spinal CSF volumes. These SAFs, which were generated for 12 discrete photonenergies ranging from 0.01 to 4.0 MeV, were used with decay scheme data to calculate [ital S]-values needed for estimating absorbed doses. [ital S]-values for [sup 111]In are given for three source regions (brain tumor, cranial CSF, and spinal CSF) and all standard target regions/organs, the eye and lens, as well as to tissues within these source regions. [ital S]-values for the skeletal regions containing active marrow are estimated. These results are useful in evaluating the radiation doses from intracranial administration of [sup 111]In transferrin.

The identification of primary photons or specifying stringent limits on the photon flux is of major importance for understanding the origin of ultra-high energy (UHE) cosmic rays. UHE photons can initiate particle cascades in the geomagnetic field, which leads to significant changes in the subsequent atmospheric shower development. We present a Monte Carlo program allowing detailed studies of conversion and cascading of UHE photons in the geomagnetic field. The program named PRESHOWER can be used both as an independent tool or together with a shower simulation code. With the stand-alone version of the code it is possible to investigate various properties of the particle cascade induced by UHE photons interacting in the Earth's magnetic field before entering the Earth's atmosphere. Combining this program with an extensive air shower simulation code such as CORSIKA offers the possibility of investigating signatures of photon-initiated showers. In particular, features can be studied that help to discern such showers from the ones induced by hadrons. As an illustration, calculations for the conditions of the southern part of the Pierre Auger Observatory are presented. Catalogue identifier:ADWG Program summary URL:http://cpc.cs.qub.ac.uk/summaries/ADWG Program obtainable: CPC Program Library, Quen's University of Belfast, N. Ireland Computer on which the program has been thoroughly tested:Intel-Pentium based PC Operating system:Linux, DEC-Unix Programming language used:C, FORTRAN 77 Memory required to execute with typical data:<100 kB No. of bits in a word:32 Has the code been vectorized?:no Number of lines in distributed program, including test data, etc.:2567 Number of bytes in distributed program, including test data, etc.:25 690 Distribution format:tar.gz Other procedures used in PRESHOWER:IGRF [N.A. Tsyganenko, National Space Science Data Center, NASA GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA, http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/space/model/magnetos/data-based/geopack.html], bessik

High energyphoton colliders ( γγ, γe) based on backward Compton scattering of laser light is a very natural addition to e +e - linear colliders. In this report, we consider this option for the TESLA project. Recent study has shown that the horizontal emittance in the TESLA damping ring can be further decreased by a factor of four. In this case, the γγ luminosity in the high energy part of spectrum can reach about (1/3) Le +e -. Typical cross-sections of interesting processes in γγ collisions are higher than those in e +e - collisions by about one order of magnitude, so the number of events in γγ collisions will be more than that in e +e - collisions. Photon colliders can, certainly, give additional information and they are the best for the study of many phenomena. The main question is now the technical feasibility. The key new element in photon colliders is a very powerful laser system. An external optical cavity is a promising approach for the TESLA project. A free electron laser is another option. However, a more straightforward solution is "an optical storage ring (optical trap)" with a diode pumped solid state laser injector which is today technically feasible. This paper briefly reviews the status of a photon collider based on the linear collider TESLA, its possible parameters and existing problems.

Determination and understanding of out-of-field neutron and photon doses in accelerator-based radiotherapy is an important issue since linear accelerators operating at high energies (>10 MV) produce secondary radiations that irradiate parts of the patient's anatomy distal to the target region, potentially resulting in detrimental health effects. This paper provides a compilation of data (technical and clinical) reported in the literature on the measurement and Monte Carlo simulations of peripheral neutron and photon doses produced from high-energy medical linear accelerators and the reported risk and/or incidence of second primary cancer of tissues distal to the target volume. Information in the tables facilitates easier identification of (1) the various methods and measurement techniques used to determine the out-of-field neutron and photon radiations, (2) reported linac-dependent out-of-field doses, and (3) the risk/incidence of second cancers after radiotherapy due to classic and modern treatment methods. Regardless of the measurement technique and type of accelerator, the neutron dose equivalent per unit photon dose ranges from as low as 0.1 mSv/Gy to as high as 20.4 mSv/Gy. This radiation dose potentially contributes to the induction of second primary cancer in normal tissues outside the treated area. PMID:21756083

The Telescope Array (TA) collaboration has measured the energyspectrum of ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) with primary energies above 1.6 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 18} eV. This measurement is based upon four years of observation by the surface detector component of TA. The spectrum shows a dip at an energy of 4.6 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 18} eV and a steepening at 5.4 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 19} eV which is consistent with the expectation from the GZK cutoff. We present the results of a technique, new to the analysis of UHECR surface detector data, that involves generating a complete simulation of UHECRs striking the TA surface detector. The procedure starts with shower simulations using the CORSIKA Monte Carlo program where we have solved the problems caused by use of the ''thinning'' approximation. This simulation method allows us to make an accurate calculation of the acceptance of the detector for the energies concerned.

We present a theoretical study of the band structure and Landau levels in bilayer graphene at low energies in the presence of a transverse magnetic field and Rashba spin-orbit interaction in the regime of negligible trigonal distortion. Within an effective low-energy approach the (Löwdin partitioning theory), we derive an effective Hamiltonian for bilayer graphene that incorporates the influence of the Zeeman effect, the Rashba spin-orbit interaction and, inclusively, the role of the intrinsic spin-orbit interaction on the same footing. Particular attention is paid to the energyspectrum and Landau levels. Our modeling unveils the strong influence of the Rashba coupling λR in the spin splitting of the electron and hole bands. Graphene bilayers with weak Rashba spin-orbit interaction show a spin splitting linear in momentum and proportional to λR, but scaling inversely proportional to the interlayer hopping energy γ1. However, at robust spin-orbit coupling λR, the energyspectrum shows a strong warping behavior near the Dirac points. We find that the bias-induced gap in bilayer graphene decreases with increasing Rashba coupling, a behavior resembling a topological insulator transition. We further predict an unexpected asymmetric spin splitting and crossings of the Landau levels due to the interplay between the Rashba interaction and the external bias voltage. Our results are of relevance for interpreting magnetotransport and infrared cyclotron resonance measurements, including situations of comparatively weak spin-orbit coupling.

In this work, we present the results of experiments observing the properties of the electron stream generated laterally when a laser irradiates a metal. We find that the directionality of the electrons is dependent upon their energies, with the higher-energy tail of the spectrum (∼1 MeV and higher) being more narrowly focused. This behavior is likely due to the coupling of the electrons to the electric field of the laser. The experiments are performed by using the Titan laser to irradiate a metal wire, creating the electron stream of interest. These electrons propagate to nearby spectator wires of differing metals, causing them to fluoresce at their characteristic K-shell energies. This fluorescence is recorded by a crystal spectrometer. By varying the distances between the wires, we are able to probe the divergence of the electron stream, while by varying the medium through which the electrons propagate (and hence the energy-dependence of electron attenuation), we are able to probe the energyspectrum of the stream.

It has been experimentally found that the carbon surface contamination influences strongly the spectrum signals in reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS) especially at low primary electron energy. However, there is still little theoretical work dealing with the carbon contamination effect in REELS. Such a work is required to predict REELS spectrum for layered structural sample, providing an understanding of the experimental phenomena observed. In this study, we present a numerical calculation result on the spatially varying differential inelastic mean free path for a sample made of a carbon contamination layer of varied thickness on a SrTiO{sub 3} substrate. A Monte Carlo simulation model for electron interaction with a layered structural sample is built by combining this inelastic scattering cross-section with the Mott's cross-section for electron elastic scattering. The simulation results have clearly shown that the contribution of the electron energy loss from carbon surface contamination increases with decreasing primary energy due to increased individual scattering processes along trajectory parts carbon contamination layer. Comparison of the simulated spectra for different thicknesses of the carbon contamination layer and for different primary electron energies with experimental spectra clearly identifies that the carbon contamination in the measured sample was in the form of discontinuous islands other than the uniform film.

We investigate the two-electron capture with emission of a single photon to the ground state in the Coulomb field of a heavy nucleus in its collision with a light atom. Describing electron-electron interactions in the bound state perturbatively, we obtained an analytical formula for the high-energy limit of the cross section. In combination with previous results obtained in the same approach we calculated the cross section in a broad interval of energies of the collision. We show that the amplitude of the process at high energy depends on the behavior of the bound state wave function near the triple coalescence point. We analyze the properties of the approximate wave functions which are necessary for the description of the high-energy limit.

We report on the implementation and characterization of grating interferometry operating at an x-ray energy of 183 keV. With the possibility to use this technique at high x-ray energies, bigger specimens could be studied in a quantitative way. Also, imaging strongly absorbing specimens will benefit from the advantages of the phase and dark-field signals provided by grating interferometry. However, especially at these high photonenergies the performance of the absorption grating becomes a key point on the quality of the system, because the grating lines need to keep their small width of a couple of micrometers and exhibit a greater height of hundreds of micrometers. The performance of high aspect ratio absorption gratings fabricated with different techniques is discussed. Further, a dark-field image of an alkaline multicell battery highlights the potential of high energy x-ray grating based imaging.

We report on the implementation and characterization of grating interferometry operating at an x-ray energy of 183 keV. With the possibility to use this technique at high x-ray energies, bigger specimens could be studied in a quantitative way. Also, imaging strongly absorbing specimens will benefit from the advantages of the phase and dark-field signals provided by grating interferometry. However, especially at these high photonenergies the performance of the absorption grating becomes a key point on the quality of the system, because the grating lines need to keep their small width of a couple of micrometers and exhibit a greater height of hundreds of micrometers. The performance of high aspect ratio absorption gratings fabricated with different techniques is discussed. Further, a dark-field image of an alkaline multicell battery highlights the potential of high energy x-ray grating based imaging.

Photon-photon interactions have been an important probe into fundamental particle physics. Until recently, the only way to produce photon-photon collisions was parasitically in the collision of charged particles. Recent advances in short-pulse laser technology have made it possible to consider producing high intensity, tightly focused beams of real photons through Compton scattering. A linear e{sup +}e{sup -} collider could thus be transformed into a photon-photon collider with the addition of high power lasers. In this paper they show that it is possible to make a competitive photon-photon collider experiment using the currently mothballed Stanford Linear Collider. This would produce photon-photon collisions in the GeV energy range which would allow the discovery and study of exotic heavy mesons with spin states of zero and two.

Using X-ray photons at the X24A, X23B and X23A2 beam lines at NSLS, we measured the total photo-attenuation cross section of helium for photons in the energy range of 3 to 14 keV. In this range the photoionization cross section decreases rapidly with energy, so that Compton scattering is significant at 4 keV and dominates at the highest energies. The apparatus consisted of a 1.4-m long helium-absorption tube, 5 cm in diameter, with 75-{mu} thick, 7-mm diameter, kapton end windows. The tube could be filled with helium up to a pressure of 10{sup 6} Pa. We attained a precision of 1-2% in the attenuation cross section. The measurements verify the dominance of Compton scattering in this energy range and its importance in recent measurements of the ratio of double-to-single photoionization of helium. The measured cross sections are close to the combined calculated cross sections for Compton scattering and photoionization, and we are able to distinguish the contributions of the two effects.

Monte Carlo calculations are frequently used to analyse a variety of radiological science applications using low-energy (10-1000 keV) photon sources. This study seeks to create a low-energy benchmark for the MCNP Monte Carlo code by simulating the absolute dose rate in water and the air-kerma rate for monoenergetic point sources with energies between 10 keV and 1 MeV. The analysis compares four cross-section datasets as well as the tally method for collision kerma versus absorbed dose. The total photon attenuation coefficient cross-section for low atomic number elements has changed significantly as cross-section data have changed between 1967 and 1989. Differences of up to 10% are observed in the photoelectric cross-section for water at 30 keV between the standard MCNP cross-section dataset (DLC-200) and the most recent XCOM/NIST tabulation. At 30 keV, the absolute dose rate in water at 1.0 cm from the source increases by 7.8% after replacing the DLC-200 photoelectric cross-sections for water with those from the XCOM/NIST tabulation. The differences in the absolute dose rate are analysed when calculated with either the MCNP absorbed dose tally or the collision kerma tally. Significant differences between the collision kerma tally and the absorbed dose tally can occur when using the DLC-200 attenuation coefficients in conjunction with a modern tabulation of mass energy-absorption coefficients.

The excitation-related problems in photodynamic therapy of cancer might be solved by combining two-photon (TP) irradiation and quantum dots (QDs) as effective energy donors for conventional photosensitizers (PS). Here, it is demonstrated for the first time that QD-chlorin e6 (Ce6) complex formed due to the hydrophobic interaction between Ce6 molecules and lipid coating of QDs can be effectively excited via TP irradiation at 1030 nm, which spectrally coincides with the biological tissue optical window. TP absorption cross-section for free QDs and Ce6 at 1030 nm was 3325 and 13 Goeppert-Mayer, respectively. Upon TP excitation of QD-Ce6 solution, the fluorescence band of bound Ce6 molecules was observed via energy transfer from excited QDs. Increasing concentration of Ce6 resulted in quenching of the photoluminescence of QDs and an increase in the fluorescence intensity of bound Ce6 molecules. These intensity changes coincided well with those observed upon single-photon excitation of QD-Ce6 solution when QDs alone are excited. The efficiency of energy transfer in QD-Ce6 complex upon TP excitation was about 80% (QD∶Ce61∶5). These results indicate that the effective excitation of PS with a low TP absorption cross-section is possible in such type noncovalent complexes via energy transfer from TP excited QDs. PMID:23864017

Spectral X-ray imaging is a promising technique to drastically improve the diagnostic quality of radiography and computed tomography (CT), since it enables material decomposition and/or identification based on the energy dependency of material-specific X-ray attenuation. Unlike the charge-integration based X-ray detectors, photon counting X-ray detectors (PCXDs) can discriminate the energies of incident X-ray photons and thereby multi-energy images can be obtained in single exposure. However, the measured data are not accurate since the spectra of incident X-rays are distorted according to the energy response function (ERF) of a PCXD. Thus ERF should be properly estimated in advance for accurate spectral imaging. This paper presents a simple method for ERF estimation based on a polychromatic X-ray source that is widely used for medical imaging. The method consists of three steps: source spectra measurement, detector spectra reconstruction, and ERF inverse estimation. Real spectra of an X-ray tube are first measured at all kVs by using an X-ray spectrometer. The corresponding detector spectra are obtained by threshold scans. The ERF is then estimated by solving the inverse problem. Simulations are conducted to demonstrate the concept of the proposed method.

Typically, particles are injected into the ring at low energy levels and then "ramped up" to higher levels. During ramping, it is important that the horizontal and vertical tune frequencies do not shift, lest they hit upon a resonant combination that causes beam instability or sudden total loss of ring beam current (beam blow up). Beam instabilities can be caused by a number of factors. Non-linearities and/or different response times of independent controls such as beam position monitor (BPM) cables and circuits, magnets for guidance and focusing of the beam, Klystrons or Tetrodes (which provide power to RF cavities that transmit energy to the beam), and vacuum pumps and monitors can all cause beam instabilities. Vibrations and lack of proper shielding are other factors. The challenge for operators and researchers is to correctly identify the factors causing beam instabilities and blow up so that costly accelerator time is not interrupted and experimental results are not compromised. The instrument often used to identify problems in particle accelerator applications is the spectrum analyzer. This paper will discuss the advantages of real time spectrum analyzers (RSA) versus swept frequency spectrum analyzers in HEP applications. The main focus will be on monitoring beam position and stability, especially during ramp-up. Also covered will be use of RSA for chromaticity measurements, Phase Locked Loop (PLL) diagnostics, and vibration analysis.

Typically, particles are injected into the ring at low energy levels and then 'ramped up' to higher levels. During ramping, it is important that the horizontal and vertical tune frequencies do not shift, lest they hit upon a resonant combination that causes beam instability or sudden total loss of ring beam current (beam blow up). Beam instabilities can be caused by a number of factors. Non-linearities and/or different response times of independent controls such as beam position monitor (BPM) cables and circuits, magnets for guidance and focusing of the beam, Klystrons or Tetrodes (which provide power to RF cavities that transmit energy to the beam), and vacuum pumps and monitors can all cause beam instabilities. Vibrations and lack of proper shielding are other factors. The challenge for operators and researchers is to correctly identify the factors causing beam instabilities and blow up so that costly accelerator time is not interrupted and experimental results are not compromised. The instrument often used to identify problems in particle accelerator applications is the spectrum analyzer. This paper will discuss the advantages of real time spectrum analyzers (RSA) versus swept frequency spectrum analyzers in HEP applications. The main focus will be on monitoring beam position and stability, especially during ramp-up. Also covered will be use of RSA for chromaticity measurements, Phase Locked Loop (PLL) diagnostics, and vibration analysis.

A multiple-time-scale turbulence model of a single point closure and a simplified split-spectrum method is presented. In the model, the effect of the ratio of the production rate to the dissipation rate on eddy viscosity is modeled by use of the multiple-time-scales and a variable partitioning of the turbulent kinetic energyspectrum. The concept of a variable partitioning of the turbulent kinetic energyspectrum and the rest of the model details are based on the previously reported algebraic stress turbulence model. Example problems considered include: a fully developed channel flow, a plane jet exhausting into a moving stream, a wall jet flow, and a weakly coupled wake-boundary layer interaction flow. The computational results compared favorably with those obtained by using the algebraic stress turbulence model as well as experimental data. The present turbulence model, as well as the algebraic stress turbulence model, yielded significantly improved computational results for the complex turbulent boundary layer flows, such as the wall jet flow and the wake boundary layer interaction flow, compared with available computational results obtained by using the standard kappa-epsilon turbulence model.

Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs), subatomic charged particles of extraterrestrial origin and with kinetic energies near or exceeding 10^18 eV, are very rare. The Telescope Array (TA) experiment in western Utah is the northern hemisphere's largest UHECR detector, and consists of three atmospheric fluorescence detectors (FDs) and a ground array of 507 scintillator detectors. In stand-alone ``monocular'' operation, the FDs can observe the widest range in primary UHECR energies. One FD employs refurbished hardware from the High-Resolution Fly's Eye experiment; the remaining two FDs were designed for TA and employ new hardware and analysis. We will present the UHECR energyspectrum measured by the FDs in monocular mode using data collected during the first four years of operation.

Dual-energy computed tomography (CT) techniques have been used to decompose materials and characterize tissues according to their physical and chemical compositions. However, these techniques are hampered by the limitations of conventional x-ray detectors operated in charge integrating mode. Energy-resolved photon-counting detectors provide spectral information from polychromatic x-rays using multiple energy thresholds. These detectors allow simultaneous acquisition of data in different energy ranges without spectral overlap, resulting in more efficient material decomposition and quantification for dual-energy CT. In this study, a pre-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique based on volume conservation was proposed for three-material decomposition. The technique was combined with iterative reconstruction algorithms by using a ray-driven projector in order to improve the quality of decomposition images and reduce radiation dose. A spectral CT system equipped with a CZT-based photon-counting detector was used to implement the proposed dual-energy CT technique. We obtained dual-energy images of calibration and three-material phantoms consisting of low atomic number materials from the optimal energy bins determined by Monte Carlo simulations. The material decomposition process was accomplished by both the proposed and post-reconstruction dual-energy CT techniques. Linear regression and normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE) analyses were performed to evaluate the quantitative accuracy of decomposition images. The calibration accuracy of the proposed dual-energy CT technique was higher than that of the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique, with fitted slopes of 0.97-1.01 and NRMSEs of 0.20-4.50% for all basis materials. In the three-material phantom study, the proposed dual-energy CT technique decreased the NRMSEs of measured volume fractions by factors of 0.17-0.28 compared to the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique. It was concluded that the

Dual-energy computed tomography (CT) techniques have been used to decompose materials and characterize tissues according to their physical and chemical compositions. However, these techniques are hampered by the limitations of conventional x-ray detectors operated in charge integrating mode. Energy-resolved photon-counting detectors provide spectral information from polychromatic x-rays using multiple energy thresholds. These detectors allow simultaneous acquisition of data in different energy ranges without spectral overlap, resulting in more efficient material decomposition and quantification for dual-energy CT. In this study, a pre-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique based on volume conservation was proposed for three-material decomposition. The technique was combined with iterative reconstruction algorithms by using a ray-driven projector in order to improve the quality of decomposition images and reduce radiation dose. A spectral CT system equipped with a CZT-based photon-counting detector was used to implement the proposed dual-energy CT technique. We obtained dual-energy images of calibration and three-material phantoms consisting of low atomic number materials from the optimal energy bins determined by Monte Carlo simulations. The material decomposition process was accomplished by both the proposed and post-reconstruction dual-energy CT techniques. Linear regression and normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE) analyses were performed to evaluate the quantitative accuracy of decomposition images. The calibration accuracy of the proposed dual-energy CT technique was higher than that of the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique, with fitted slopes of 0.97-1.01 and NRMSEs of 0.20-4.50% for all basis materials. In the three-material phantom study, the proposed dual-energy CT technique decreased the NRMSEs of measured volume fractions by factors of 0.17-0.28 compared to the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique. It was concluded that the

In cosmic ray investigations by observations of extensive air showers (EAS) the general question arises how to relate the registered EAS observables to the energy of the primary particle from the cosmos entering into the atmosphere. We present results on the reconstruction of the primary energyspectrum of cosmic rays from the experimentally recorded S(500) observable using the KASCADE-Grande detector array. The KASCADE-Grande experiment is installed in Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany, and driven by an international collaboration. Previous EAS investigations have shown that for a fixed energy the charged particle density becomes independent of the primary mass at certain distances from the shower core. This feature can be used as an estimator for the primary energy. The particular radial distance from the shower core where this effect shows up is a characteristic of the detector. For the KASCADE-Grande experiment it was shown to be around 500 m, hence a notation S(500). Extensive simulation studies have shown that S(500) is mapping the primary energy. The constant intensity cut (CIC) method is applied to evaluate the attenuation of the S(500) observable with the zenith angle. An attenuation correction is applied and all recorded S(500) values are corrected for attenuation. A calibration of S(500) values with the primary energy has been worked out by simulations and was used for conversion providing the possibility to obtain the primary energyspectrum (in the energy range accessible to KASCADE-Grande 1010-1018 eV). The systematic uncertainties induced by different factors are considered.

Cavity ionization chambers are one of the most popular and widely used devices for quantifying ionizing photon beams. This popularity originates from the precision of these devices and the relative ease with which ionization measurements are converted to quantities of interest in therapeutic radiology or radiation protection, collectively referred to as radiation dosimetry. The formalisms used for these conversions, known as cavity theory, make several assumptions about the electron spectrum in the low-energy range resulting from the incident photon beam. These electrons often account for a significant fraction of the ion chamber response. An inadequate treatment of low-energy electrons can therefore significantly effect calculated quantities of interest. This thesis sets out to investigate the effect of low-energy electrons on (1) the use of Spencer-Attix cavity theory with 60Co beams; and (2) the standard temperature-pressure correction factor, P TP, used to relate the measured ionization to a set of reference temperature and pressure conditions for vented ion chambers. Problems with the PTP correction are shown to arise when used with kilovoltage x rays, where ionization measurements are due primarily to electrons that do not have enough energy to cross the cavity. A combination of measurements and Monte Carlo calculations using the EGSnrc Monte Carlo code demonstrate the breakdown of PTP in these situations when used with non-air-equivalent chambers. The extent of the breakdown is shown to depend on cavity size, energy of the incident photons, and the composition of the chamber. In the worst case, the standard P TP factor overcorrects the response of an aluminum chamber by ≈12% at an air density typical of Mexico City. The response of a more common graphite-walled chamber with similar dimensions at the same air density is undercorrected by ≈ 2%. The EGSnrc Monte Carlo code is also used to investigate Spencer-Attix cavity theory as it is used in the

The fully differential cross section for photon-electron pair production is integrated numerically over phase space. Results are obtained for the astrophysically interesting case in which the interaction between an ultrarelativistic electron and a soft photon results in electron-positron pair production. The positron spectrum is a function of the energies of both the photon and the electron, as well as the angle of interaction. It is found that the energy at which the positron distribution peaks is inversely proportional to the photonenergy and independent of the electron energy. The positron spectrum is integrated once more over initial electron energies for a power-law energy distribution of primary electrons. The same procedure is repeated for the recoil particle; it is shown that the peak of the recoil energy distribution depends linearly on the energy of the primary electron. Finally, semianalytical expressions are obtained for the energy losses of the primary electrons.

Purpose: To compare and evaluate the dosimetric water equivalence of several commonly used solid phantoms for low energyphoton beams. Methods: A total of ten different solid phantom materials was used in the study. The PENELOPE Monte Carlo code was used to calculate depth doses and beam profiles in all the phantom materials as well as the dose to a small water voxel at the surface of the solid phantom. These doses were compared to the corresponding doses calculated in a water phantom. The primary photon beams used ranged in energy from 50 to 280 kVp. Results: A number of phantom materials had excellent agreement in dose compared to water for all the x-ray beam energies studied. RMI457 Solid Water, Virtual Water, PAGAT, A150, and Plastic Water DT all had depth doses that agreed with those in water to within 2%. For these same phantom materials, the dose changes in the water voxel at the surface of the solid phantom were within 2%, except for A150, which agreed to within 2.7%. By comparison, the largest differences in depth doses occurred for Plastic Water (-21.7%) and polystyrene (17.6%) for the 50 kVp energyphoton beam and 8 cm diameter field size. Plastic Water gave the largest difference in the normalized beam profiles with differences of up to 3.5% as compared to water. Surface dose changes, due to the presence of the solid phantom acting as the backscatter material, were found to be up to 9.1% for polystyrene with significant differences also found for Plastic Water, PMMA, and RW3 phantoms. Conclusions: The following solid phantoms can be considered water equivalent and are recommended for relative dosimetry of low energyphoton beams: A150, PAGAT, Plastic Water DT, RMI457 Solid Water, and Virtual Water. However, the following solid phantoms give significant differences, compared to water, in depth doses, profiles, and/or in surface doses due to backscatter changes: Plastic Water, PMMA, polystyrene, PRESAGE, and RW3.

This paper presents a microsystem for remote sensing of high energy radiation in extremely low flux density conditions. With wide deployment in mind, potential applications range from nuclear non-proliferation, to hospital radiation-safety. The daunting challenge is the low level of photon flux densities - emerging from a Scintillation Crystal (SC) on to a ~1 mm-square detector, which are a factor of 10000 or so lower than those acceptable to recently reported photonic chips (including `single-photon detection' chips), due to a combination of low Lux, small detector size, and short duration SC output pulses - on the order of 1 μs. These challenges are attempted to be overcome by the design of an innovative `System on a Chip' type microchip, with high detector sensitivity, and effective coupling from the SC to the photodetector. The microchip houses a tiny n+ diff p-epi photodiode (PD) as well as the associated analog amplification and other related circuitry, all fabricated in 0.5micron, 3-metal 2-poly CMOS technology. The amplification, together with pulse-shaping of the photocurrent-induced voltage signal, is achieved through a tandem of two capacitively coupled, double-cascode amplifiers. Included in the paper are theoretical estimates and experimental results.

The Telescope Array Project was designed to observe cosmic rays with energies greater than 1018 eV. Its goals are to study the physics of cosmic rays by measuring their anisotropy, composition, and energyspectrum. This work makes a monocular measurement of the ultra high energy cosmic ray spectrum and analyzes the physics produced from that spectrum. The flux of cosmic rays observed on Earth follows a power law over 12 decades in energy and 32 decades in flux. At the highest energies, the spectrum has detailed structure. Studying these features can tell us about the astrophysics of the production and propagation of cosmic rays. First, it can tell us about the sources of cosmic rays such as they capable of producing a power law spectrum and the maximum energy of cosmic rays that they can produce. Second, the acceleration mechanisms that can boost cosmic rays to ultra high energies can be studied. Third, the spectral features themselves can tell us about their possible cause for formation. For example, the ankle feature in the ultra high energy regime can tell us if it is the galactic-extragalactic transition or if it is due to e+e- pair production. Fourth, the energy losses that cosmic rays incur can tell us about their physical interactions during propagation. Studying the physics of the cosmic ray spectrum in the ultra high energy regime with data from the Telescope Array Project is the goal of this analysis. The Telescope Array Project consists of three fluorescence detectors overlooking an array of 507 scintillation surface detectors. Due to their extremely low flux at these energies, cosmic rays can only be observed indirectly via an extensive air shower produced when they collide with the nucleus of an atom in the Earth's atmosphere. These charged secondary particles produce fluorescence light. The array of surface detectors observes the lateral footprint of the extensive air shower when it reaches the ground. The fluorescence detectors observe the

The goal of this study is to evaluate the theoretically achievable accuracy in estimating photon cross sections at low energies (20-1000 keV) from idealized dual-energy x-ray computed tomography (CT) images. Cross-section estimation from dual-energy measurements requires a model that can accurately represent photon cross sections of any biological material as a function of energy by specifying only two characteristic parameters of the underlying material, e.g., effective atomic number and density. This paper evaluates the accuracy of two commonly used two-parameter cross-section models for postprocessing idealized measurements derived from dual-energy CT images. The parametric fit model (PFM) accounts for electron-binding effects and photoelectric absorption by power functions in atomic number and energy and scattering by the Klein-Nishina cross section. The basis-vector model (BVM) assumes that attenuation coefficients of any biological substance can be approximated by a linear combination of mass attenuation coefficients of two dissimilar basis substances. Both PFM and BVM were fit to a modern cross-section library for a range of elements and mixtures representative of naturally occurring biological materials (Z=2-20). The PFM model, in conjunction with the effective atomic number approximation, yields estimated the total linear cross-section estimates with mean absolute and maximum error ranges of 0.6%-2.2% and 1%-6%, respectively. The corresponding error ranges for BVM estimates were 0.02%-0.15% and 0.1%-0.5%. However, for photoelectric absorption frequency, the PFM absolute mean and maximum errors were 10.8%-22.4% and 29%-50%, compared with corresponding BVM errors of 0.4%-11.3% and 0.5%-17.0%, respectively. Both models were found to exhibit similar sensitivities to image-intensity measurement uncertainties. Of the two models, BVM is the most promising approach for realizing dual-energy CT cross-section measurement.

A recently developed source of ultraviolet radiation, based on optical soliton propagation in a gas-filled hollow-core photonic crystal fiber, is applied here to angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). Near-infrared femtosecond pulses of only few μJ energy generate vacuum ultraviolet radiation between 5.5 and 9 eV inside the gas-filled fiber. These pulses are used to measure the band structure of the topological insulator Bi{sub 2}Se{sub 3} with a signal to noise ratio comparable to that obtained with high order harmonics from a gas jet. The two-order-of-magnitude gain in efficiency promises time-resolved ARPES measurements at repetition rates of hundreds of kHz or even MHz, with photonenergies that cover the first Brillouin zone of most materials.

A recently developed source of ultraviolet radiation, based on optical soliton propagation in a gas-filled hollow-core photonic crystal fiber, is applied here to angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). Near-infrared femtosecond pulses of only few μJ energy generate vacuum ultraviolet radiation between 5.5 and 9 eV inside the gas-filled fiber. These pulses are used to measure the band structure of the topological insulator Bi2Se3 with a signal to noise ratio comparable to that obtained with high order harmonics from a gas jet. The two-order-of-magnitude gain in efficiency promises time-resolved ARPES measurements at repetition rates of hundreds of kHz or even MHz, with photonenergies that cover the first Brillouin zone of most materials.

High-energyphotons propagating in the magnetized medium with large velocity gradients can mediate energy and momentum exchange. Conversion of these photons into electron-positron pairs in the field of soft photons with the consequent isotropization and emission of new high-energyphotons by Compton scattering can lead to the runaway cascade of the high-energyphotons and electron-positron pairs fed by the bulk energy of the flow. This is the essence of the photon breeding mechanism. We study the problem of high-energy emission of relativistic jets in blazars via photon breeding mechanism using 2D ballistic model for the jet with the detailed treatment of particle propagation and interactions. Our numerical simulations from first principles demonstrate that a jet propagating in the soft radiation field of broad emission-line region can convert a significant fraction (up to 80 per cent) of its total power into radiation. We show that the gamma-ray background of similar energy density as observed at Earth is sufficient to trigger the photon breeding. The considered mechanism produces a population of high-energy leptons and, therefore, alleviates the need for Fermi-type particle acceleration models in relativistic flows. The mechanism reproduces basic spectral features observed in blazars including the blazar sequence (shift of spectral peaks towards lower energies with increasing luminosity). The significant deceleration of the jet at subparsec scales and the transversal gradient of the Lorentz factor (so-called structured jet) predicted by the model reconcile the discrepancy between the high Doppler factors determined by the fits to the spectra of TeV blazars and the low apparent velocities observed at very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) scales. The mechanism produces significantly broader angular distribution of radiation than that predicted by a simple model assuming the isotropic emission in the jet frame. This helps to reconcile the observed statistics and

The Pierre Auger Observatory is the largest extensive air-shower (EAS) experiment in operation. It is still being constructed, and the final configuration will have detectors at the two sites Argentina and USA observing both celestial hemispheres. The aim of the experiment is to determine the energy, composition and origin of ultra-high energy cosmic-rays (UHECR) using two complementary detection techniques. The detector at the southern site presently contains more than 1400 (Jul. 2007) water-Cherenkov detectors at ground level (870 gcm^-2). Completion of the 3000 km^2 large detector array is expected by the end of 2007 with finally more than 1600 tanks. The atmosphere above the site is observed by 24 fluorescence telescopes located in four buildings at the boundary of the array. During clear moon-less nights, this configuration permits hybrid measurement of both longitudinal development of an EAS and lateral particle density at ground. All fluorescence telescopes are fully operational since February 2007. The aim of this work is to reconstruct the cosmic ray energyspectrum between a few 10^17 eV up to 10^20 eV. This would provide an overlap to spectral results from other experiments at lower energies. The hybrid detection provides an accurate geometry determination and thereby a good energy resolution. However, the energy threshold is limited to the threshold of the surface array: larger than a few 10^18 eV. The advantage of FD-monocular events (FD-mono) is a lower energy threshold in the aimed 10^17 eV regime. In addition, the present FD-mono exposure is about 1.5 times larger than the hybrid one. However, the energy resolution of FD-mono events is worse compared to hybrid, and the detector acceptance is strongly energy dependent. Therefore, the determination of the energyspectrum requires an unfolding procedure, which considers both the limited acceptance and the limited resolution. In this analysis the FD-mono data are reconstructed. The reconstruction

JUNGFRAU (adJUstiNg Gain detector FoR the Aramis User station) is a two-dimensional hybrid pixel detector for photon science applications at free-electron lasers and synchrotron light sources. The JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype presented here is specifically geared towards low-noise performance and hence soft X-ray detection. The design, geometry and readout architecture of JUNGFRAU 0.4 correspond to those of other JUNGFRAU pixel detectors, which are charge-integrating detectors with 75 µm × 75 µm pixels. Main characteristics of JUNGFRAU 0.4 are its fixed gain and r.m.s. noise of as low as 27 e(-) electronic noise charge (<100 eV) with no active cooling. The 48 × 48 pixels JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype can be combined with a charge-sharing suppression mask directly placed on the sensor, which keeps photons from hitting the charge-sharing regions of the pixels. The mask consists of a 150 µm tungsten sheet, in which 28 µm-diameter holes are laser-drilled. The mask is aligned with the pixels. The noise and gain characterization, and single-photon detection as low as 1.2 keV are shown. The performance of JUNGFRAU 0.4 without the mask and also in the charge-sharing suppression configuration (with the mask, with a `software mask' or a `cluster finding' algorithm) is tested, compared and evaluated, in particular with respect to the removal of the charge-sharing contribution in the spectra, the detection efficiency and the photon rate capability. Energy-dispersive and imaging experiments with fluorescence X-ray irradiation from an X-ray tube and a synchrotron light source are successfully demonstrated with an r.m.s. energy resolution of 20% (no mask) and 14% (with the mask) at 1.2 keV and of 5% at 13.3 keV. The performance evaluation of the JUNGFRAU 0.4 prototype suggests that this detection system could be the starting point for a future detector development effort for either applications in the soft X-ray energy regime or for an energy

We consider fundamental structures in x-ray absorption spectra over a wide energy range. We formulate the elastic scattering in addition to the photoelectric absorption in recently reported photon interference x-ray absorption fine structure (πXAFS). The simulations show excellent agreement with experimental x-ray absorption spectra for platinum and tungsten powders far above and below the L absorption edges. πXAFS can be as big as in the order of 10% of XAFS, and cannot be easily neglected in detailed analysis of XAFS and related phenomena.

We report on the experimental demonstration of high energy-time entanglement in two-photon states created in the process of spontaneous parametric down-conversion. We show that the classical variance product, which we violate by three orders of magnitude, actually represents a lower bound estimate of the number of information eigenmodes K. Explicit measurements estimate K to be greater than 100, with theoretical estimates predicting a value of as high as 1x10{sup 6}. These results provide incentive for the practical feasibility of large bandwidth quantum information processing, particularly in cryptography over large distances.

New data are presented with regard to the relative OSL sensitivity of three different emergency dosemeters irradiated to various photonenergies approximately between 48 and 1250 keV using blue excitation light. Investigated components extracted from commonly worn objects include those from USB flash drives (alumina substrate), mobile phones (Ba-rich silicate) and credit cards (chip card module). Several basic properties have been investigated such as the overall radiation sensitivity, the shape of the decay curve and fading of the OSL signal. An increase of the sensitivity for low energies relative to (60)Co gamma rays can be observed for the three dosemeters, the increase being very pronounced for the Ba-rich component (factor of 10) and less pronounced for the chip card module (factor of 2). It is concluded that proper dose correction factors for photonenergy have to be applied in order to accurately determine the absorbed dose to tissue. The OSL sensitivity to neutron irradiation was investigated as well, but this was found to be less than the gamma sensitivity. PMID:20304766

Various types of organic compounds have been detected in Jupiter, Titan, and cometary coma. It is probable that organic compounds were formed in primitive Earth and Mars atmospheres. Cosmic rays and solar UV are believed to be two major energy sources for organic formation in space. We examined energetics of organic formation in simulated planetary atmospheres. Gas mixtures including a C-source (carbon monoxide or methane) and a N-source (nitrogen or ammonia) was irradiated with the followings: High energy protons or electrons from accelerators, gamma-rays from 60Co, UV light from a deuterium lamp, and soft X-rays or UV light from an electron synchrotron. Amino acids were detected in the products of particles, gamma-rays and soft X-rays irradiation from each gas mixture examined. UV light gave, however, no amino acid precursors in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitrogen. It gave only a trace of them in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, ammonia and water or that of methane, nitrogen and water. Yield of amino acid precursors by photons greatly depended on their wavelength. These results suggest that nitrogen-containing organic compounds like amino acid precursors were formed chiefly with high energy particles, not UV photons, in Titan or primitive Earth/Mars atmospheres where ammonia is not available as a predominant N-source. PMID:11605633

Various types of organic compounds have been detected in Jupiter, Titan, and cometary coma. It is probable that organic compounds were formed in primitive Earth and Mars atmospheres. Cosmic rays and solar UV are believed to be two major energy sources for organic formation in space. We examined energetics of organic formation in simulated planetary atmospheres. Gas mixtures including a C-source (carbon monoxide or methane) and a N-source (nitrogen or ammonia) was irradiated with the followings: High energy protons or electrons from accelerators, gamma-rays from 60Co, UV light from a deuterium lamp, and soft X-rays or UV light from an electron synchrotron. Amino acids were detected in the products of particles, gamma-rays and soft X-rays irradiation from each gas mixture examined. UV light gave, however, no amino acid precursors in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitrogen. It gave only a trace of them in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, ammonia and water or that of methane, nitrogen and water. Yield of amino acid precursors by photons greatly depended on their wavelength. These results suggest that nitrogen-containing organic compounds like amino acid precursors were formed chiefly with high energy particles, not UV photons, in Titan or primitive Earth/Mars atmospheres where ammonia is not available as a predominant N-source.

Photon-counting detectors are promising candidates for use in the next generation of x-ray CT scanners. Among the foreseen benefits are higher spatial resolution, better trade-off between noise and dose, and energy discriminating capabilities. Silicon is an attractive detector material because of its low cost, mature manufacturing process and high hole mobility. However, it is sometimes claimed to be unsuitable for use in computed tomography because of its low absorption efficiency and high fraction of Compton scatter. The purpose of this work is to demonstrate that high-quality energy-resolved CT images can nonetheless be acquired with clinically realistic exposure parameters using a photon-counting silicon-strip detector with eight energy thresholds developed in our group. We use a single detector module, consisting of a linear array of 50 0.5 × 0.4 mm detector elements, to image a phantom in a table-top lab setup. The phantom consists of a plastic cylinder with circular inserts containing water, fat and aqueous solutions of calcium, iodine and gadolinium, in different concentrations. We use basis material decomposition to obtain water, calcium, iodine and gadolinium basis images and demonstrate that these basis images can be used to separate the different materials in the inserts. We also show results showing that the detector has potential for quantitative measurements of substance concentrations.