3 Acknowledgements It is for me a great pleasure to express here my gratitude to the people whose help made possible the realization of this work. In the first place I would like to thank my Adviser Professor Doctor Bernardo Brotas de Carvalho for the way that he orientated me through the work, for his availability and patience shown during the making of this thesis. Also for the trust he deposited in me while I was participating on several projects at IPFN or even abroad. I would like to thank the precious help of Doctor António Batista, Engineer João Fortunato and Engineer Rui Dias with important aspects of the developed ADC modules at IPFN and with their technical knowledge and the aid and always helpful suggestions of Engineer Ivo Carvalho and Engineer Pedro Duarte during the acquisitions at tokamak ISTTOK. I would like also to express my gratitude to Doctors Manfred Zilker and Andreas Werner for their help during and after a mission to the IPP at Greifswald, Germany. Thank you all my friends from IST that I made during the course of MEFT, thank you Gonçalo Quintal, Samuel Almeida, António Vito, Pedro Oliveira, Luzia Carias, Tiago Silva, Joana Batista, João Pereira and many others that helped me to cheer difficult times. Finally I would like to leave a special acknowledge to my family that supported me, in particular for the aid and love given through the years by my parents and family members, Catarina Castro, Carolina António, Carlos António and Catarina Laranjeiro. iii

5 Abstract This thesis concerns Data Acquisition and Digital Processing related to magnetic diagnostics currently used in Nuclear Fusion Investigation. The core of this thesis is the description of developed architectures in Verilog, used algorithms, the performed tests and obtained results of acquisitions from ISTTOK s Mirnov coils signals and made test assemblies. The used modules are galvanic isolated digital modules with signal chopper mode and a sampling at 2 MSPS (18-bit full resolution data) developed by IPFN (Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Lisbon). On the first part is described the basic physical principals of nuclear fusion, as the devices that make nuclear fusion on earth possible and the most popular diagnostics used, it is them described in more detail the magnetic diagnostics. The current situation of the research on nuclear fusion and in more detailed the situation on data acquisition and digital processing is briefly described in chapter two. The third chapter shows the used technics, architectures, software support for data acquisition and digital processing during this thesis. The forth chapter and the fifth chapter are related to the tests and obtained results from acquisitions and their analysis. On the final Chapter it is presented the conclusions of this work and it is suggested future works that can be done/continued after this thesis. v

8 Virtual Memory Numerical integrators Data Processing Used Software and Firmware Data Processing on the FPGA Data Processing Algorithm Architectures First Project Firmware Architectures developed to ISTTOK Architecture developed for IPP Experimental Development Introduction Signal Reconstruction Signal Reconstruction of a constant voltage Reconstruction of a pure sine signal Long acquisition of a sine signal and numerical integration Noise acquisition and integration First set of acquisitions: Post Compensated Drift with constant temperature. ADC modules of 100nF capacitor on the input filter Second set of acquisitions: Pre Compensated Drift with constant temperature. Modules of 100nF capacitor on the input filter Third set of acquisitions: Pre Compensated Drift of 100s with temperature variation and maximum temperature of 43ºC. Modules of 100nF capacitor on the input filter Fourth set of acquisitions: Pre Compensated Drift of 60s with temperature variation and maximum temperature of 43ºC. Modules of 100pF capacitor on the input filter Acquisition of signals from ISTTOK s Mirnov coils Pulsed Plasma at ISTTOK AC Plasmas at ISTTOK Acquisition tests at IPP, Greifswald First set of acquisitions: Acquisition of a short-circuited signal Second set of acquisitions: Tests with a made assembly, simple voltage integration Third set of acquisitions: Tests with a made assembly, integration of a capacitor discharge Forth set of acquisitions: Tests with a made assembly, integration of a large number of capacitor discharge (>40), long acquisition of 1000s Fifth set of acquisitions: Test performed in Portugal Sixth set of acquisitions: Test performed remotely in Greifswald Results and Discussion Introduction Noise acquisition and integration viii

10 List of Figures Figure 1 Fusion of Tritium and Deuterium... 1 Figure 2 Nuclear binding energy released Vs Atomic mass... 1 Figure 3 Plasmas characteristics... 2 Figure 4- Charged particle moviment in a magnetic field... 3 Figure 5 - Charged particle movement in a tokamak... 3 Figure 6 Resulting Helical Magnetic field in a tokamak... 4 Figure 7 Scheme of the magnetic coils and the plasma of Wendelstein 7-X... 4 Figure 8 Scheme summarizing the operation conditions of several tokamaks... 5 Figure 9 Diagram of electromagnetic signal passing by the plasma (right) and at left it s possible average plasma density through time (left)... 6 Figure 10 Main circuits used for integration of analog signals [1] Figure 11 - Circuit of an analog integrator with sample Figure 12 - Principle of the chopper integrator [4] Figure 13 - Block diagram of digital analog long-pulse integrator Figure 14 - ADC module used Figure 15 Used ATCA crate with the ADC modules inserted Figure 17 ATCA crate Figure 17 ATCA board scheme Figure 19 Image of a FPGA Figure 20 Simplified diagram of Kernel s interactions Figure 21 Virtual Memory VM combines active RAM and imactive memory to form a large range of contignuous addresses Figure 21 Schematic of the digital chopper integrator and the filters and amplifier system before the ADC Figure 22 - Schematic of the digital chopper integrator and the filters and amplifier system before the ADC Figure 23 - Simplified block diagram of the first used architecture Figure 24 - Schematic of the influence of EO and WO Figure 25- Used Software algorithm to make the acquisition Figure 26 - Simplified block diagram of the first used architecture (the dashed box is to separate the clock domain) Figure 27 Simplified block diagram of the FPGA architecture Figure 28 Photographs token during the tests at IPP, Greifswald. At right is the author programing onsite the parameters for the acquisition and at left is his supervisor Figure 29 - Simplified block diagram of the FPGA architecture developed for the IPP Figure 30- Simplified block diagram of the used connections related to the clock system Figure 31 - Electrical setup for testing the Integrators with a W7-Stelarator magnetic probe Figure 32 - Reconstruction of a constant voltage signal (right) and the reconstruction of a constant voltage signal during a transition of the Chopper in detail (left) x

11 Figure 33 - Reconstruction of a sine shaped signal (top), reconstruction of a sine shaped signal in detailed (below) Figure 34 Detail of Offset of Sine signal Figure 35 Detail of Fixed Compensated Integral of Sine signal Figure 36 Post-Compensated Drift of one module (acquisition with constant temperature) Figure 37 Pre-Compensated long duration Drift of one module (acquisition with constant temperature) Figure 38 - Raw data from a long aquisition of 1000s, it is shown in the image some importante values as the Average value and the RMS Figure 39 - Post compensated Integral from a long aquisition of 1000s, it is shown in the image some importante values as the Average Value and the RMS value Figure 40 Multiplot of all Post-Compensated Drift on acquisition 1a, acquisition done with constant temperature Figure 41 Multiplot of all Post-Compensated Drift on acquisition 1b, acquisition done with constant temperature Figure 42 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 2a, acquisition done with constant temperature Figure 43 Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 2b, acquisition done with constant temperature Figure 44 - Offset of one module (acquisition with temperature variation) Figure 45 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a, (acquisition with module heating) 41 Figure 46 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3b, (acquisition with module heating) 41 Figure 47 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4a (acquisition with module heating). 43 Figure 48 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4b (acquisition with module heating) 43 Figure 49 Pictures from ISTTOK s room, at the left is the plug from the signals coming from the Mirnov coils of the tokamak, at the right in the used ATCA crate Figure 50 Raw signals from all the Mirnov coils Figure 51 - Integral of the signal from one Mirnov coil during the whole ISTTOK operating sequence (top), and from the plasma discharge (bottom) Figure 52 Integral of the signal from all coils during the whole ISTTOK operating sequence Figure 53 - Integral of the signal from all coils in detail, on the beginning this graphic the values of the integral were set to zero and some of the signals were inverted Figure 54 - Integral of the signal from all coils in detail, on the beginning this graphic the values of the integral were set to zero Figure 55 - Intensity of the signal from all coils in detail, on the beginning this graphic the values of the integral were set to zero Figure 56 - Intensity of the signal from all coils, for the full ISTTOK cycle Figure 57 - Intensity of the signal from all coils in detail, on the beginning this graphic the values of the integral were set to zero and the some of the signals were inversed xi

12 Figure 58 Schematic of the first used assembly to test the performance of the module by generating a magnetic field with a DC generator Figure 59 - First used assembly Figure 60 - Pre-Compensated Integral, the acquisition was during 40 seconds and the pre-compensation was done at 10 seconds Figure 61 Second used Assembly Figure 62 Detail of a Pre-Compensated Integral, the acquisition was during 40 seconds and the precompensation was done at 10 seconds Figure 63 Adjustment of an exponential function to the data presented in Figure Figure 64 - Multiplot of Pre-Compensated Integral, the acquisition was during 1000 seconds and the precompensation was done at 100 seconds Figure 65 - Pre-Compensated Integral (detail), the acquisition was during 1000 seconds and the precompensation was done at 100 seconds Figure 66 - Multiplot, detail of the Drift with the Chop signal Figure 67 Multiplot, detail of the Drift with the Chop signal Figure 68 - Comparison between WO (or Before Chop Offset) values from different channels in two post compensated acquisitions with constant temperature Figure 69 - Comparison between Offset s RMS from different channels in two post compensated acquisitions with constant temperature Figure 70 - Final Pre Compensated Drift Values of acquisition 3a and 3b (acquisition with temperature variation) Figure 71 - Final Pre Compensated Drift Values of acquisition 4a and 4b (acquisition with temperature variation) Figure 72 - Values of the voltage RMS through the acquired data during acquisition 3a, (acquisition with temperature variation) Figure 73 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a with the integral of the temperature Figure 74 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a with the integral of the temperature Figure 75 - Plasma current along time from ISTTOK measured by the Mirnov Coils, shot number Figure 76 Plasma current along time from ISTTOK measured by the Rogowski Coil, shot number The offset drift trend is shown in blue Figure 77 - Drift of a channel after the corrections of EO and WO Figure 78 - Integral from a short-circuited signal Figure 79 - Integrated Signal coming from the Mirnov coils, during an AC discharge (detail) Figure 80 Schematic of part of the ADC module developed by IPFN Figure 81 - Schematic of part of the ADC module developed by IPFN Figure 82 - Used ATCA board Figure 83 - Integral of Sine signal xii

13 Figure 84 - Detail of Integral of Sine signal Figure 85 - Offset of one module (acquisition with constant temperature) Figure 86 - Pre-Compensated Integral, the acquisition was during 40 seconds and the pre-compensation was done at 10 seconds. The difference from figure Figure 60 is that the terminals of the coil were switch and the signal is shown inverted Figure 87 - Detail of a Pre-Compensated Integral, the acquisition was during 40 seconds and the precompensation was done at 10 seconds Figure 88 - Values of the voltage RMS through the acquired data during acquisition 3b, (acquisition with temperature variation) Figure 89 Autocorrelation of the compensated integral of noise (the terminals of the module were shortcircuited), the acquisition lasted 10 seconds Figure 90 - Autocorrelation of the compensated integral of noise (the terminals of the module were shortcircuited), the acquisition lasted 100 seconds Figure 91 - Autocorrelation of the compensated integral of noise (the terminals of the module were shortcircuited). The acquisition lasted 100 seconds, it is the same as in Figure 90, but the autocorrelation was limited to the first 10 seconds Figure 92 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 2 integral curve Figure 93 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 1 integral curve Figure 94 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 0 integral curve Figure 95 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 2 integral curve Figure 96 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 1 integral curve Figure 97 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 3b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 0 integral curve Figure 98 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 2 integral curve Figure 99 - Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 1 integral curve Figure Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4a with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 0 integral curve Figure Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 2 integral curve Figure Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 1 integral curve Figure Multiplot of all Pre Compensated Drift on acquisition 4b with the integral of the temperature adjusted to the channel 0 integral curve xiii

17 1 - Introduction Fusion Nuclear fusion powers the sun and the other stars and is a promising source of energy to support the increasing world demand. It consists on the light-z nuclei combination with the mass reduction of the products in comparison with the reagents and the consequent energy release. After a fusion reaction, the total masses are less than before, the missing mass is converted into energy, as quantified by the well-known Einstein equation: = ( ) ( 1 ) Where is the energy resulting from the reaction, is the mass of the nuclei before the reaction, is the mass of the nuclei after the reaction, and is the Figure 1 Fusion of Tritium and Deuterium speed of light. As an example it is schematized the fusion of Tritium and Deuterium in Figure 1 and Equation ( 2 ) ( 2 ) Nuclear fission, regarding fusion, is the separation of a heavy nucleus with energy release. Figure 2 is a simple diagram that shows the nuclear binding energy released in Fusion and in Fission. It is easily verified that the amount of energy that can be obtain in nuclear fusion is much higher than in nuclear fission. Figure 2 Nuclear binding energy released Vs Atomic mass 1

18 In order to induce the fusion of two nuclei it is necessary to overcome the mutual repulsion due to their positive charges (the distances between reagents have to be small enough to have the nuclear force being bigger than the electrostatic forces). The most promising method of supplying the energy is to heat the reagents to a sufficient high temperature so that the thermal velocities of the nuclei are high enough to produce the required reactions. At these temperatures the fusion fuel will ionize and constitute a plasma. In Figure 3 it is shown several types of plasmas and the conditions of temperature and density needed. Because the reaction activation occurs due to a random thermal motion of the reacting Figure 3 Plasmas characteristics nuclei, this process is therefore called thermonuclear fusion. The critical technical requirement is the sustainment of a sufficiently stable high temperature (~10 8 K) plasma in a practical reaction volume and for a sufficiently long period of time to render the entire process energetically viable Types of confinement Methods There are only three studied plasma confinement methods possible to have nuclear fusion, the gravitational confinement, the magnetic confinement and the inertial confinement Gravitational confinement Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the starts by the confinement of the reagents through gravitational forces associated to their immense mass. As we enter the interior of a star the density and the temperature of the reagents is bigger in a way that is possible to have fusion reactions. The generated energy is big enough to compensate the energy losses on the stars surface. Confinement by gravity is not possible on earth due to the dimensions and masses that is necessary Inertial confinement Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a process where nuclear fusion reactions are initiated by heating and compressing a fuel target, typically in the form of a pellet that most often contains a mixture of deuterium and tritium. The energy is delivered to the small fuel pellet by electromagnetic radiation of a very potent laser or due to the action of high power ion beam. 2

19 Magnetic confinement A fusion plasma cannot be maintained at thermonuclear temperatures if it is allowed to come in contact with the walls of the confinement chamber, because material eroded from the walls would quickly cool the plasma. In fusion investigation magnetic fields can be used to confine a plasma within a chamber without contact with the wall. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field will experience a Lorentz force, Equation ( 3 ), which is perpendicular to both the direction of particle motion and to the magnetic field direction. = ( ) ( 3 ) The particle in a magnetic field will move along the field and circle about it; that is, will spiral about the field line. (Figure 4) Tokamak Figure 4- Charged particle moviment in a magnetic field Closed Toroidal Confinement Systems (Tokamak) - The magnetic field lines may be configured to remain completely within a confinement chamber by the proper choice of position and currents in a set of magnetic coils. Particles following along the closed toroidal field lines would remain within the toroidal confinement chamber, as shown in Figure 5. The curvature and nonuniformity of the toroidal field Figure 5 - Charged particle movement in a tokamak produce forces which act upon the charged particles to produce drift motions that are radially outward. A poloidal magnetic field must be superimposed upon the toroidal magnetic field in order to compensate these drifts, resulting in a helical magnetic field, as shown in Figure 6. 3

20 Figure 6 Resulting Helical Magnetic field in a tokamak Stellarators The term stellarator is used to describe that class of toroidal confinement devices that produce closed flux surfaces entirely by means of external magnets (in contrast to the tokamak, in which a current in the plasma produces the poloidal magnetic field). The stellarator confinement concept was one of the first to be investigated. However, the success of the closely related tokamak in the late 1960s drew attention away from stellarator research. More recently, in the 1990s, problems with the tokamak concept have led to renewed interest in the stellarator design, and a number of new devices have been built. Some important modern stellarator experiments are Wendelstein 7-X [4] (Figure 7), in Germany, and the Large Helical Device, in Japan. Figure 7 Scheme of the magnetic coils and the plasma of Wendelstein 7-X 4

21 Comparing the stellarator and the tokamak, the stellarator has the advantage of operating in steady state and the disadvantage of the complexity of the design and construction of its magnetic field. The tokamak has the advantage that the current crosses the plasma be used for heating ohmic (Joule) and the disadvantage of operating in pulsed regime. But there are some tokamaks that are able to work with AC discharges, which allows to work with plasma for larger times, as it will be seen further in this work JET The Joint European Torus, located in Oxfordshire (UK), is the largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment worldwide currently in operation. It has the purpose to open the way to future nuclear fusion experimental reactors such as ITER and DEMO. The objectives of JET are to obtain and study a plasma in conditions and dimensions approaching those needed in a thermonuclear reactor. These studies will be aimed at defining the parameters, the size and the working conditions of a tokamak reactor. JET has the world s record of energy produced by fusion: 16MW. For this it was used a neutral beam heating power of 22MW with an additional 3MW of ion cyclotron heating. The resulting fusion energy gain factor (Q) was equal to 0.6. The energy produced by fusion is calculated by the flux of neutrons that come from the plasma. The earliest plasma fusion experiments were in the pinch devices of the 1950s and the resulting Q value was around ITER The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is an international nuclear fusion research and engineering project, which is currently building the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor. The tokamak will be located at the Cadarache facility in the south of France. It has two fundamental objectives: (i) Prove the scientific and technological viability of nuclear fusion through a gain factor of 10 to 20; (ii) Test the operation in simultaneous of all technologies necessary for a safe and efficient operation of a reactor of nuclear fusion. Figure 8 Scheme summarizing the operation conditions of several tokamaks 5

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