Cervical Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)

What is prevention?

Cancerprevention is action taken to lower the chance of getting
cancer. By preventing cancer, the number of new cases of cancer
in a group or population is lowered. Hopefully, this will lower
the number of deaths caused by cancer.

To prevent new cancers from starting, scientists look at risk factors and protective factors. Anything that increases your
chance of developing cancer is called a cancer risk factor;
anything that decreases your chance of developing cancer is
called a cancer protective factor.

Some risk factors for cancer can be avoided, but many cannot.
For example, both smoking and inheriting certain genes are
risk factors for some types of cancer, but only smoking can be
avoided. Regular exercise and a healthy diet may be protective
factors for some types of cancer. Avoiding risk factors and
increasing protective factors may lower your risk but it does
not mean that you will not get cancer.

Cervical cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells
form in the cervix.

Anatomy of the female reproductive system. The organs in the female reproductive system include the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, and vagina. The uterus has a muscular outer layer called the myometrium and an inner lining called the endometrium.

Cervical cancer usually develops slowly over time. Before cancer appears in the cervix, the cells of the cervix go through a series of changes in which cells that are not normal begin to appear in the cervicaltissue. When cells change from being normal cells to abnormal cells, it is called dysplasia. Depending on the number of abnormal cells, dysplasia may go away without treatment. The more abnormal cells there are, the less likely they are to go away. Dysplasia that is not treated may turn into cancer, over time. The cancer cells grow and spread through the cervix. It can take many years for dysplasia to turn into cancer.

See the following PDQ summaries for more information about cervical cancer:

Avoiding cancerrisk factors may help prevent certain cancers. Risk factors include smoking, being overweight, and not getting enough exercise. Increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking, eating a healthy diet, and exercising may also help prevent some cancers. Talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer.

The following risk factors increase
the risk of cervical cancer:

HPV Infection

The most common cause of cervical cancer is infection of the cervix with human papillomavirus (HPV). There are more than 80 types of human papillomavirus. About 30 types can infect the cervix and about half of them have been linked to cervical cancer. HPV infection is common but only a very small number of women infected with HPV develop cervical cancer.

HPV infections that cause cervical cancer are spread mainly through sexual contact. Women who become sexually active at a young age and who have many sexual partners are at a greater risk of HPV infection and developing cervical cancer.

Smoking

Smoking cigarettes and breathing in secondhand smoke increase the risk of cervical cancer. The risk increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the younger the age when smoking began. Among women infected with HPV, cervical dysplasia and invasive cancer occur 2 to 3 times more often in current and former smokers.

DES Exposure

Being exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES) while in the mother's womb increases the risk of cervical dysplasia and cervical cancer. Between 1940 and 1971, the drug DES was given to some pregnant women in the United States to prevent miscarriage (premature birth of a fetus that cannot survive) and premature labor.

The following risk factors may increase the risk of cervical cancer:

High number of full-term pregnancies

Women who have had 7 or more full-term pregnancies may have an increased risk of cervical cancer.

Long-term use of oral contraceptives

Women who have used oral contraceptives ("the Pill") for 5 years or more have a greater risk of cervical cancer than women who have never used oral contraceptives.
The risk is higher after 10 years of use.

The following protective factors may
decrease the risk of cervical cancer:

Preventing HPV infection

HPV may be prevented by the following:

Avoiding sexual activity: HPV infection of the cervix is the most common cause of cervical cancer. Avoiding sexual activity decreases the risk of HPV infection.

Using barrier protection or spermicidal gels: Some methods used to prevent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) decrease the risk of HPV infection. The use of barrier methods of birth control (such as a condom or gel that kills sperm) help protect against HPV infection.

Getting an HPV Vaccine: Two HPV vaccines have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The HPV vaccines have been shown to prevent infection with the two types of HPV that cause most cervical cancers. The vaccines protect against infection with these types of HPV for 6 to 8 years. It is not known if the protection lasts longer. The vaccines do not protect women who are already infected with HPV.

Screening

Regular pelvic exams and Pap tests help find abnormalcells in the cervix before cancer develops. However, test and procedures that may be used after an abnormal pelvic exam or Pap test result have risks. For example, the treatment of low-gradelesions may affect a woman's ability to become pregnant or carry a baby to full term. In women younger than 25 years, screening with the Pap test has more risks than benefits. Screening with the Pap test is not helpful in women older than 60 years who have had recent negative Pap tests. (See the PDQ summary on Cervical Cancer Screening for more information.)

The effect of diet on cervical cancer risk is not known.

Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways
to prevent cancer.

Cancer preventionclinical trials are used to study ways to
lower the risk of developing certain types of cancer. Some
cancer prevention trials are conducted with healthy people who
have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer.
Other prevention trials are conducted with people who have had
cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type
or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer.
Other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known
to have any risk factors for cancer.

The purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to
find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer. These
may include eating fruits and vegetables, exercising, quitting
smoking, or taking certain medicines, vitamins, minerals, or
food supplements.

New ways to prevent cervical cancer are being studied in clinical
trials.

Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country.
Information about clinical trials can be found in the Clinical
Trials section of the NCI Web
site.
Check NCI's list of cancer clinical trials
for cervical cancer prevention trials
that are now accepting patients.

Changes to This Summary (04/09/2015)

The PDQcancer information summaries are reviewed regularly
and updated as new information becomes available. This
section describes the latest changes made to this summary as
of the date above.

Changes were made to this summary to match those made to the health professional version.

About This PDQ Summary

About PDQ

Physician Data Query (PDQ) is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries come in two versions. The health professional versions have detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions have cancer information that is accurate and up to date and most versions are also available in Spanish.

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Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about cervical cancer prevention. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.

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Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") is the date of the most recent change.

Clinical Trial Information

A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Clinical trials are listed in PDQ and can be found online at NCI's Web site. Many cancer doctors who take part in clinical trials are also listed in PDQ. For more information, call the Cancer Information Service 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).

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Updated: April
9, 2015

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