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ABSTRACT
Issues of new media within art education practices are heightened by the
pervasive and often invisible infusion of digital technologies and reliance on the Internet
in everyday work and leisure spaces. This dissertation is a study of how a cultural
interface approach to digital new media was introduced, implemented, and understood by
teachers, with a range of technology backgrounds, and their students in the real-world
environments of three public high-school art education classes. Participants in this study
examined digital new media artworks (art and technology), culture (values, beliefs, and
assumptions), and everyday experiences (lives of students and teachers) as they converge
in digitally mediated environments. The cultural interface approach through the
convergence of new media art, culture and lived experience with new technologies offers
opportunities for conversations that explore how new media technologies reconfigure
culture as well as how culture creates the environment for the creation of new
technologies. As technological change continues to occur, this approach offers art
education an opportunity to be informed and take action both critically and responsibly in
exploring the reconfiguration of education in empowering ways.
For this research, new media digital art is characterized as a cultural interface
involving technology-experiences situated in communication processes, rather than in
objects. This research [re]positioned new digital media art as a cultural interface. The
term “cultural interface,” described by Lev Manovich (2001a) as “human-computer-
cultural-interface” (p. 70), has implications for how art education can conceptualize

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technology. [Re]framing new media art in art education as a cultural interface facilitates
an approach that considers digital media as a portal to cultural conversations.
A cultural interface approach facilitates the generation and sharing of multiple
perspectives, analyses, and interpretations among artists, teachers, and students as
producers and consumers (prosumers) of digital experiences (e.g., software applications,
Internet interactions, and social and immersive digital environments) that situate
emotions, feelings, memory, and knowledge into our understanding. Ultimately, the
examination of these experiences as artistic praxis where identity, community, and culture
is affected by new media technologies offers insight into how learning is impacted.
This research involves my engagement in an inquiry process with a diverse set of
participants and sites. The research design explores emergent theory instead of predictive
theory and engages in a critical, reflexive analysis involving a cultural perspective of
technology. The analysis is conducted through an Actor-Network Theory (ANT) lens and
examines the interfacing of expressions, experiences, and inscriptions of technology as
empowering translations. Through this lens, translation takes on a specialized meaning
where a relationship provokes entities into coexisting. The analysis is presented in a
narrative fashion, describing the settings, characters, unfolding plots, and analysis of the
data. The multilayered, metastory that I create consists of what I observed and interpreted
from Actor-Network Theory and social theory art education perspectives and grounded in
participants’ expressed perceptions. The narratives consist of orientations, complicating
actions, evaluations, resolutions, and coda.

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This dissertation shows how a cultural interface approach can assist educators and
students in understanding issues related to digital learning environments. The approach
challenges cultural assumptions for understanding technology; engages critical thinking
to expose complicated digital technology practices in culture; interrogates simultaneously
natural, social, and discursive practices; and explores connections to the lived
experiences of students. The field experience suggests that this approach promotes
critical inquiry, self-directed acquisition, and multiple interpretations. The study reveals
several examples of adaptations that art educators made and the subsequent strategies
used to integrate new media art within their environments.
This study shows how Actor-Network Theory (ANT) can be used to recognize
stages (inscription, translation, and framing) in the process of introducing change in
practical educational environments. Further, the study reveals patterns of social
orchestration and resistances that surfaced—unique to each site—and provides key points
in the translation process that shaped the learning/teaching strategies for each site.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to many people for helping me complete this research study. I am
especially grateful to Dr. Karen Keifer-Boyd, my advisor, who guided me through the
process and carefully read the drafts with patience and scholarly rigor. I express my
gratitude to all my committee members, Dr. Patricia Amburgy, Dr. David Ebitz, Dr.
Sarah Rich, and Carlos Rosas. Each member provided a unique perspective and an
insightful voice—enriching the research process.
I express my gratitude to the Pennsylvania State University administrators and
staff for the graduate assistantship and support. Specifically, to my graduate colleagues
and the undergraduate students I had the pleasure of working with and who made my
time at PSU so rewarding. I thank the University of Florida, the Department of Art and
Art History, and my co-worker in Art Education, Dr. Craig Roland, for enabling me to
co-exist in two worlds. I thank Temple West for her creative support and insights on
bridging co-existing worlds of art and writing.
I would like to acknowledge all the participants in this research study. I express
my deepest thanks to the three instructors for their time and experience (i.e., Chris, Betsy,
and Michelle). I thank the three participating school systems, including the administration
and principals for allowing me the opportunity to work within their community.
I also acknowledge my parents, Robert and Elidia for their unwavering support of
my never-ending love for learning. I thank my beloved partner, Dana, who gave me
confidence and support throughout the entire dissertation process. Finally, I dedicate this

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dissertation to Edna Lazaron (1924-2007) who inspires my creative approach to life, and
showed me the great joy in embracing the creative potential in every child.

12.
CHAPTER 1
The increasing availability of digital technology is leading to epochal changes in
education. Education based on an industrial model is giving way as society interfaces
with technology and its expanding forms of digital media (new media). These changes
are becoming evident as U.S. schools are impacted by the changes to the social and
educational infrastructure. Learning has changed as sensory-rich media and distributed
processing have enhanced the infrastructure of connectivity, networking, and dynamic
information. This infrastructure alters the way we connect and interact, how we express
ourselves, and how we collectively engage in intellectual and cultural processes. These
changes due to new digital media are spawning new modes of representation and styles of
discourse as technology interfaces with pedagogical methodology.
Digital technologies are implicitly intrinsic in our everyday activities, and they
move with us as an extension of ourselves. In traditional computing environments, such
as those that emerged in the late 1990s, educators could choose to interact with
computers. Even though the idea of ubiquitous technologies emerged more than a decade
ago, the recent progress in wireless communication, computing power, and portable
devices has accelerated the inclusion of these digital technologies in educational
environments. In the early 1990s, ubiquitous technologies were described as “those that
weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it”
(Weisner, 1991, p. 65). Today, the digital is inherently embedded in our physical
environment, is seamlessly integrated into our everyday tasks, and is increasingly mobile

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and interactive in our culture. Lyytinen and Yoo (2002) look at the shift toward
ubiquitous computing that involves our natural movements and interactions with
environments, which are both physical and social. We can now physically move
technology (the computer) with us, resulting in the technology becoming “ever-present
devices that expand our capabilities to inscribe, remember, communicate, and reason
independently of the device’s location” (Lyytinen & Yoo, 2002, p. 64).
As digital technology continues to permeate our environments, traditional school
systems will have to transform their practices to reflect a society that empowers the
potential of its children engaged in those environments. Contemporary art educators need
approaches to examine and synthesize concepts and processes across the intersecting
spheres of technology, knowledge, and culture. This synthesis includes conversations
about contemporary visual arts and artists, the dynamic role of the visual arts and
contemporary technology, and teachers’ and students’ lived experiences in the
technological environments that surround them.
Teachers using technology in the classroom often have the tendency to reinforce
existing teaching practices (Cuban, Kirkpatrick, & Peck, 2001) by “grafting technologies
into existing teaching methodologies … [to] function as high-tech updates of timeworn
practices” (Anderson & Balsamo, 2008, p. 245). Anderson and Balsamo (2008) advocate
a model that is organic in conception and focuses on the development of pedagogical
strategies inextricably fused with the technologies and social practices familiar to
students of the digital generation. Additionally, students engaging fluidly with new
communication devices rarely consider how these devices and software interfaces
influence their capability to inscribe, remember, and communicate both inside and

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outside of the educational arena. These issues can be explored in the visual arts
curriculum not only through digital imaging tools and digital input and output devices,
but also inspired from explorations of new media art and artists. And most significantly,
new technological and cultural issues can be explored through new media as they relate
to creativity and ways of knowing (e.g., encounters with different kinds of digital
interfaces). In considering the seamless technological environments and their impact on
learning, we need new approaches that critically analyze the current economic, political,
and cultural revolutions taking place within contemporary cultures. I, along with teachers
and students in three high schools, examine new media digital artists (art and
technology), culture (values, beliefs, and assumptions), and everyday experiences (lives
of students and teachers) as they converge in digital environments.
Approaching New Media as a Cultural Interface
The concept of cultural interface―as grappled with by teachers and students in
their art classes at three different high schools participating in this study―emphasizes
that technology is more than a cultural artifact. The concept indicates that teachers’ and
students’ lives are not only mediated by the technology that surrounds them, but their
lived experiences are also part of a networked translation. Mediation implies transfer and
that separate entities are transformed, typically understood as humans rather than objects
being mediated. Cultural interface implies acting together in ways that affect all actors
(human and non-human actors) in a particular network. This in-between point of contact
is the translation that forms the new cultural environment. To approach new media as a
cultural interface is to focus on cultural translations and transformations of a network of
connections between technologies and people.

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This study approaches digital technologies as a cultural interface, a practice
derived from Lev Manovich’s (2001a) theory of “human-computer-cultural-interface” as
the boundary where technology (new digital media) and culture (beliefs, values, and
assumptions) converge (p. 70). That is, new media conceptualized as an interface is a
cultural process bridging human, machine, and hybrid forms—resulting in a combination
of sensory and semiotic relationships.
A visual culture approach is not new to art education as evidenced by several
authors over the past twenty years (Bersson, 1980; Hicks, 1989; Sylva, 1992; Cartwright
& Sturken, 2001; Tavin 2001; Freedman, 2000, 2003; Duncum, 2001, 2006; Knight,
Keifer-Boyd, & Amburgy, 2005; Markello, 2005). Teaching to interpret technology’s
socio-cultural meanings has also been explored by several art educators (Freedman, 1997;
Colman, 2005a). Additionally, recent research on postmodern principles (Gude, 2004,
2007) and alternative approaches to curriculum in art education (Walker, 2001) continue
to expand on visual forms of communication media and the individual and social
formations that they enable. Our experiences of culturally visual content through visual
objects, image-production, and reception embrace a variety of forms where content and
codes migrate from one form to another. With visual culture and technology in mind, I
began this study with a definition of cultural interface from new media literature,
particularly from Lev Manovich (2001a). As Manovich states the “work’s interface
creates its unique materiality and a unique user experience” (pp. 66-67) where interfaces
become integral to the content. As a result, I expanded on Manovich’s idea and
developed it as a curricular and pedagogical approach to the study and creation of new

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media art, which is not developed in Manovich’s (2001a) definition of a cultural interface
approach to new media art.
A cultural interface approach as a curricular and pedagogical approach in art
education offers an interplay of technological cultural discourses, forms, and themes.
This arena offers a site of critical inquiry for substantive pedagogy in art and technology
education. Further, I redefined a cultural interface approach to the study and creation of
new media art from my analysis framed by a process-oriented theory, in which I focused
on translation of a cultural interface approach by the teachers and students in this study.
Manovich’s (2001a) premise of technology as a cultural interface has implications
for how art education can conceptualize new media technology. “In short, we are no
longer interfacing to a computer but to culture encoded in digital form” (p. 70). The
emphasis in art education on interpreting and creating new media art is thus directed to
the interface where different systems of representation interact together such as
virtual/real, code/meaning, and inscription/embodiment. This research expands on
Manovich’s theory by applying this idea as pedagogical strategy for art education.
Specifically, this research challenges the most common ways that technology is currently
approached in art education, which is as simulations of familiar art-making tools such as
paintbrushes. The purpose of the study is to explore pedagogical and artistic approaches
to new media as a cultural interface, as an alternative to the technical training-driven
method of current k-12 use of digital technologies in art education curricula.
In recognizing the challenges of technology’s impact on existing forms and
practices throughout society (including art and art education), I attempt through a cultural
interface approach to use digital new media to start discussions about these impacts. This

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dissertation does not advocate a single model, but recognizes the evolving characteristics
of new media and seeks to open these discussions.
Additionally, by considering how our felt experiences (McCarthy & Wright,
2004) and behaviors are changing with newer media, a cultural interface approach serves
as a critical space for considering and synthesizing innovative activities and strategies for
learning environments important for success in the 21st
century. This is an approach to
thinking about new media that moves creators and consumers of digital information
(research participants) beyond the mechanical and technical use of digital devices to the
processes of adaptation of these digital devices. This approach challenges our notion of
art and communication.
In considering an alternative pedagogical approach, this study explores new
media artworks and students’ lived experiences involving technology, and questions how
a cultural interface approach impacts art educational practice. For this research, new
media artworks are projects that use emerging media technologies and are concerned with
cultural, political, and aesthetic expressions. The emphasis is on communication
structures and information processing in response to changes taking place in society.
Specifically, this research uses new media art, which explores digital interfaces that
exchange information in spatial, temporal, and interactive digital environments.
Although a cultural interface approach can be applied to classical art processes, this
research focuses on new media practices and the issues these practices raise relative to art
education and contemporary life.
The new media artworks chosen during this research were in response to the
educational and contextual environment of each site, and the unique communication

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possibilities of new media. Namely, the selection considers the technologies available at
each of the research sites along with participants’ technology experiences within and
beyond school environments. This study displaces digital artworks and teaching
strategies, which constrain the computer as merely an extension of classical art
techniques. Instead, the study focuses on a selection of artworks and projects which
explores the technology experiences of research participants and the characteristics of
new media, and which facilitates ways to explore communication, knowledge processes,
and cultural conventions.
By observing visual arts students in my high school classes who were engaged
with new media technologies over the past twenty years, I recognized that technology
influences learning in many ways. Digital new media artists, like the students with whom
I have taught, remix critically, playfully, and imaginatively through real, imagined, and
constructed processes of art and technology at the interfaces of digital technology,
communication, and culture. This dissertation argues for exploring the cultural interface
of digital new media, and challenges art education to move beyond the dichotomous
definitions of art and technology. It calls for an art education that focuses on critical
explorations of the cultural contexts of teachers’ and students’ lived experiences. It calls
for a cultural dialogue shifting from how to use digital technology to how digital
technology is used.
Within the tensions of how digital technology is used, art educators can facilitate
multiple perspectives, analyses, and interpretations among artists, teachers, and students
as producers and consumers of digital experiences. Ultimately, the examination of these

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experiences as artistic praxis explores identity, community, and culture as affected by
new media technologies.
Art education is often plagued by an emphasis on process-driven approaches as
content in curriculum. Process-driven approaches to technology used in art making are in
part a result of adopting technology into existing art educational paradigms. The
reduction of art education to skill-driven processes and complex software mastery results
in a deficit of critical and cultural understanding of contemporary artwork. The existing
paradigms do not take advantage of the characteristics of young people as seekers of
information, nor their desire to investigate and innovate with the prevalent media in their
everyday experiences. In this study, I guide students and teachers in three public school
art education classrooms to use an approach that facilitates critical and cultural inquiry of
digital communication technologies. The collaborative process, analysis, and subsequent
development of the findings of this research offer insights into approaches to new media
technologies in art education. The tension and the balance of this research offers
possibilities for a substantive art educational experience, provides a transgressive space
for learning (Akins, Check, & Riley, 2004), challenges the cultural assumptions
embedded in understanding technology (Garoian & Gaudelius, 2004), investigates
strategies for critical thinking about technology processes (Colman, 2004), and exposes
complex technology practices in visual culture (Sweeny, 2004b).
Issues of new media within art education practices are heightened by technology’s
pervasive and often invisible infusion into everyday work and leisure spaces. It
encompasses broad issues, such as digital communication’s effects on perception,
interpretation, interaction, and signification in contemporary society. This research

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positions itself within current art education and digital technology issues regarding
content, aesthetics, classroom practices, and factors influencing use. Additionally, it
considers culture in collaboration with evolving technology and the increasing
importance of digital media in social and educational spheres.
Cultural studies also have political and ethical dimensions. Cultural studies are
needed because of the social struggles of people’s material existence within cultural
practices and social relations (Bérubé, 2004). Thus, cultural studies are political
endeavors, and new media understood from a cultural studies’ perspective with the use of
the concept cultural interface is no exception. Cultural interface has varied meanings,
and there are no easy steps for negotiating a cultural interface approach within a
determined system such as the classroom. A cultural interface approach has ethical
underpinnings and becomes politicized through the negotiation of understandings and
actualized approaches enacted by the research participants.
A cultural practice does not carry its politics with it, as if written upon its brow
for ever a day; rather, its political functioning depends on the network of social
and ideological relations in which it is inscribed as a consequence of the ways in
which, in a particular conjuncture, it is articulated to other practices. (Bennett,
1998, p. 222)
In this way, a cultural interface approach becomes a political activity by using the
analysis and critique of culture as an intellectual strategy when conceived of as texts in
the making, and educational practices responsive to a cultural way of life
Technology’s rapid changes and shifting of knowledge, perception, mediation and
representation of culture through expressive forms demand different educational

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approaches from art educators, and a reorientation of technology within art education. A
critical analysis of new digital media within this context offers alternatives. A cultural
interface approach contrasts with a tool-based approach. The tool-based approach is
restrictive and often ignores socialization when taught without questioning the values and
beliefs embedded in the technological tools and programs. This study investigates
whether a cultural interface approach circumvents technological challenges often
confronting art educators. For example, one challenge is the minimal representation of
new media art in textbooks, art education programs, or art history (Delacruz, 2004; Lu,
2005; Orr, 2003; Tillander, 2004). By engaging a cultural interface approach and
exploring the resulting pedagogical strategies, this research offers insights into using a
cultural interface approach involving technology in art education.
Digital New Media Art: Challenges for Art Education
Through their artworks, artists often challenge existing paradigms and cultural
beliefs that are embedded in their worlds. Contemporary artists through their exploration
of new media devices and processes reveal the changing relationship between technology
and culture. New media art for this research is about the new, i.e., new technologies, new
cultural forms of communication, and new innovative thinking. New media art is not only
characterized by contemporary technologies, but also by the artists creatively and
critically exploring changing cultural issues due to new media devices and processes.
Several cultural issues surface from new media art and present an opportunity to
explore accessibility, alternative conceptions of time and space, and digital concepts and
materiality. These issues confront the boundaries of traditional art categorization, thus
challenging pedagogical models such as Discipline Based Art Education (DBAE) with its

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four categories of production, criticism, aesthetics, and history. Like much contemporary
art, an engagement with newer media art projects questions modernist notions of
aesthetics and art. For example, new media art predominantly exists outside the
ideologies of institutions like museums and schools that typically reinforce and solidify
definitions of art as original, unique, visually provocative, expressive, and of value
beyond a function such as pedagogical or persuasive.
Lovejoy (2004) argues for understanding the field of digital new media because of
the growing impact of digital technologies on the changes occurring in the role of the
artist as social communicator. Her approach explores how digital tools catalyze new
perspectives on art and influence the way artists see, think, and work. During the early
production of the computer, “artists began to challenge the computer to go beyond the
formal tasks it had up to then performed, and found it could be used as both tool and
medium” (p. 79). In considering the use of the computer as a medium, Lovejoy (2004)
then asks us to consider technological processes of “simulacra, simulation, hyperreality,
intertextuality, and interactivity” (p. 3) to probe and explore art and its relationship to
technology. These conditions operate abstractly as if they were “visible, workable things”
(McCullough, 1996, p. 28). Therefore, as new media continues to provide us new worlds
of design and production, we need to explore critically and creatively “individual
outlooks toward a medium, improvisation, and practice” (McCullough, 1996, p. 190).
The exploration and engagement with new media is often difficult for art
educators because many k-12 art education programs center on a material-based
paradigm. High school art curricula often focus on formal and technical skills driven by
explorations of media with titles such as Two-dimensional Media; Three-dimensional

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Media; Visual Elements; Foundations in Art; Drawing; Photography; Printmaking;
PhotoShop; and Digital Imaging. As Freedman (2003) states, “high school art curriculum
often includes learning objectives with a narrow focus on media skills or the elements
and principles of design” (pp. 111-112). Additionally, the National Visual Art Standards
reflect a Discipline-Based Art Education (DBAE) bias that often focuses on an
understanding and application of technique and process, and knowledge of structures and
functions.
Furthermore, art educators’ minimal exposure to newer media art concepts, as
well as art educators’ beliefs, values, and assumptions about technology and art, create
many obstacles for substantive engagement. Further, these artworks and projects exist
outside traditional venues and aesthetic realms. As a result the teaching of new media
continues the use of this framework that promotes the dependence on an artificial
separation of instructional content. This is exasperated by art educators’ inexperience and
access to conversations about new media and new media art. Art educators can
circumvent these issues by exploring cultural concepts within digital new media.
The Horizon Report (2006) is significant to schools and education because it
identifies challenges facing higher education due to emerging technologies, and outlines
several key trends of technology’s impact on teaching and learning. The report describes
areas of emerging technology that will have significant impact in higher education.
Specifically the report is important in that it identifies trends affecting the practice of
teaching, learning, and creativity, and then ranks those trends projected to be most
important for campuses to watch. For example, the academic significance of digital

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works is highlighted for its impact on tenure, promotion, hiring, and other academic
processes.
The key trends identified in the Horizon Report (2006) include processes of
dynamic knowledge, mobile and personal technologies as a delivery platform,
personalized content and services, and collaboration. Reflecting on these trends and
exploring new media art conceptually, socially, and interactively offers an inroad to
considering issues related to social computing, personal broadcasting (creative
expression), mobile devices, educational gaming, augmented reality and enhanced
visualization, and the phenomenon of context-aware environments and devices. These
reflections evoke questions and conversations about cultural issues as related to creative
and critical sensibilities to new media design and production.
Like the key trends being explored by the Horizon Report, new media artists
explore issues of representation that are specific to new media devices and environments.
These artworks are interactive, immersive, convergent, and embedded in new media and
contemporary sociocultural processes. New media digital art represents and re-conceives
art as a cultural interface experience. For this research, new media art is characterized as
art that involves technology-experiences situated in communication processes, rather than
in objects. The interaction with new media artwork has both performative and networking
aspects reflective of technology in the contemporary social/cultural environment.
The exploration of digital new media artworks from a cultural interface approach
reveals multiple ways to consider new media. For example, art educators could engage a
cultural conversation about technology to mobilize ideas through: (a) multimodality
(Kress, 2003), which is the exploration of media forms and relationships different

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modalities for creating meaning expressing media forms and relationships and the
multiple ways we come to know; (b) the concept of remediation (Bolter & Gromala,
2003), which is the relationship between newer and older media; (c) embodiment (Keifer-
Boyd, 2007b), which is the exploration of the social being and new media; and (d)
contextual development (Sandoval & Latorre, 2008), which is the use, concepts, and
interpretation of technology in particular contexts within lived experiences.
Just as new media artists blur the boundaries of art and life, art educators might
consider the characteristics reflective of technology experiences of their students as
possibilities for exploring technology in an art curriculum. Through conceptual, social,
and interactive experiences, new media artists often critically expose a sense of being part
of this digital and Internet life of contemporary times. While there are uses of digital
media that do not overtly challenge our understanding of art, technology, or life, art
educators can learn to guide critique of such work by developing familiarity with Net art
and other new media artworks and by applying a cultural interface approach to the study
and creation of new media art. The next few paragraphs exemplify critical new media
artworks and projects discussed as cultural interfaces, and organized around three
concepts prevalent in contemporary discourse about art: (a) conceptual, (b) social, and (c)
interactive experiences (Grau 2006; Hansen 2004; Paul, 2003).
The conceptual approach of new media artworks dislodges the materiality of art
by evoking a database aesthetics, memory, desire, virtuality, and collective (inter)actions.
As a first example, Connection by artist Mary Flanagan, is a network computer
application. Connection searches your hard drive, collects pieces of digital data, and
places them on a centralized server. The centralized data is collectively translated into an

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animated, three-dimensional map. Mary Flanagan describes this as a “visible, virtual,
networked collective unconscious.” Connection’s use of the Internet as a collective
memory space expands inquiry about the nature of memory in a digital network. A
second example is an artwork entitled 3.8: alpha translocation by the artist collaborative
Tsusnamii.net. This artwork tracks and captures artists’ physical locations using Global
Positioning Systems (GPS), and translates their real locations into virtual locations on the
Internet (i.e., Web sites). This artwork shifts our view, providing an alternative
perspective in terms of virtual spaces.
Margot Lovejoy’s Turns (2002), is a third example of a conceptual experience.
The artwork is an installation in a physical space, as well as an interactive Web site that
collects and shares a participant’s life turning points (e.g., weddings, deaths, etc.) through
social collaboration. The participant’s individual experiences are added to the artwork,
which cause it to evolve. These experiences are seen in different visual relationships
through organizational lenses of the interface such as time and ethnicity. In a similar
example, the artwork Verbarium (1999) by Sommerer and Mignonneau creates a site
where the viewer/user engages in collaborative and distributed multiple knowledges. In
the Verbarium interface, the user/viewer types text into a text box, which is then
translated into a visual representation and combined into a collective of other viewer/user
expressions. These artworks dislodge perceptions of where art is seen, challenge our
notion of art as an object, shift discourses to participant interactions as the process for an
evolving artwork, and engage new media interactions and experiences.
The social experiences of new media are often seen in new media artworks that
incorporate examples of remixing and sampling popular culture. These artworks activate

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and engage social processes of digital practices such as remixing, sampling, surveillance,
data processing, and immersive technologies (Leeson, 1996; Rush, 1999, 2005) and
social networking. For example, Paul Miller (aka DJ Spooky That Subliminal Kid),
exemplifies the remix sensibility in Rebirth of a Nation (2002), a series of performances
in which he reworks D. W. Griffith’s controversial 1915 film Birth of A Nation while
assembling an improvised soundtrack out of layers of sampled sound. New media artists
employ and remix culture through social devices (e.g., games, toys, mobile phones,
personal digital assistants, and global tracking devices) of popular culture. For example
Child as Audience (2001), by Critical Art Ensemble, consists of a CD-ROM with
instructions on how to hack into and alter the popular video games by GameBoy.
Similarly in Velvet Strike (2002), Anne Marie Schleiner, Joan Leandre, and Brody
Condon stage interventions by changing the interface of Counter Strike, a popular
networked urban battle computer game.
As further instances of social experiences in new media art, Deitz (2002) and
Ascott and Shanken (2003) define “telematic iterations” as processes of digital
communication that uniquely alter time, distance, nature, and their respective
relationships. Additionally, Green (2004) and Mayo (2004) describe Net art as artistic
expressions that reorder the economic, political, and social constructions of the Internet.
For example, since 1994 the Internet collective Etoy, has developed online art projects
like the artworks digital hijack (1996), TOYWAR (2000), and etoy.DAYCARE (2002).
Through these online projects, Etoy uses paradoxical actions that generate performative
interventions online to critique corporate culture. Mimicking a business model, Etoy
through the etoy.corporation Web site, raises funds for projects and sells stock to its

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shareholders with the stock certificates serving as art objects. In their mission statement,
Etoy states that it is a “corporate sculpture” that “crosses and blurs the frontiers between
art, identity, nations, fashion, politics, technology, social engineering, music, power and
business to create massive impact on global markets and digital culture”
(etoy.corporation, 2006, ¶ 4). In Telegarden (1995), artist Ken Goldberg uses the Internet
to alter our relationship to distance by extending our reach beyond physical respective
location. Telegarden offers people from around the world the opportunity to view and
interact with a garden filled with living plants by controlling a robotic arm via online
instructions.
The social construction and perception of identity through digital environments is
a reoccurring theme explored by new media artists. Examples include early artworks like
Warhead (1982) by Nancy Burson and contemporary artworks by artist collectives like
Mongrel. In the new media artwork Uncomfortable Proximity (2000), Mongrel altered
images on the Web site of Tate Britain, one of England’s leading art museums. By
combining portraits by British painters, including Thomas Gainsborough, William
Hogarth, and Joshua Reynolds, with images of their friends and family, the collective
created their own version of art history—conjuring an alternative vision of British
identity. In another example, the Internet art project Mouchette creates multiple fictitious
online personas through e-mail accounts, personal Web pages, and social networking
spaces. The art project appears to be the work of a thirteen-year-old girl named
Mouchette. As the site is explored, it becomes clear that Mouchette is a fictional
character—demonstrating the instability of online identity.

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Interactive experience found in new media artworks involve exchanges between
artists who set events and meanings in motion, and an audience, which further shapes the
culturally conditioned experience—something between a hypnotic world and a gaming
world. There are several ways that artists consider the cultural interface of contemporary
digital interfaces. For example, digital interfaces can be created for a specific artwork
such as the Life-Writer (2005). Life Writer, by the collaborative team Sommerer and
Mignonneau, uses an old-style typewriter and digital interface that generates genetic
algorithms. The piece comments on the action of the typewriter and the action of creating
digital life forms. When the user types text, letters are projected onto the paper. The
typewriter roll paper is used as a projection screen. When the participant pushes the
carriage return, the letters on the screen turn into small artificial creatures. These
creatures move fast or slow depending on the code of the genetic algorithm. They eat the
text that is then typed, they reproduce, and the cycle continues until the paper surface
becomes full. The user’s interaction becomes part of the open-ended artwork where user-
creature and creature-creature interaction become essential to the creation of digital life.
The artwork can be constructed around specific pre-existing digital interfaces like
the Internet (e.g., The Dumpster, 2006) or make use of newer technologies (e.g.,
Pedestrian, 2002). The Dumpster, by Golan Levin, Kamal Nigam and Jonathan Feinberg
is a visualization of romantic breakups from teenager blogs. Participating viewers are
invited to “mine” the data. Mining data refers to looking at and organizing information to
reveal patterns.
The basic idea is that the currently selected breakup (the yellow one) acts as a
search into the complete set of 20,000 breakups. All of the other breakups then re-

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color themselves according to their similarity with the selected one. Similarity is
judged according to a weighted combination of a lot of different properties. …
[Properties are color-coded to identify] breakups with inferences about the
emotional state of the author, whether cheating seemed to be involved, etc. (Levin,
2006, ¶ 1)
From millions of online teen blogs, The Dumpster (Levin, et. al., 2006) extracts 20,000
specific romantic relationships in which one person has ‘dumped’ another and
graphically displays their similarities and differences.
Pedestrian (2002), a collaborative project by Shelley Eshkar and Paul Kaiser, is a
twelve-minute video that projects an aerial view of moving pedestrians―represented as
digital avatars (urban archetypes)―that move across the space enacting narratives with
no beginnings or endings. Pedestrian is often projected outdoors into environments that
are similar to those created within the digital space. The artwork uses motion capture
technology to record eight people’s movements as data. The data is then manipulated,
recombined, and mapped onto three-dimensional digital models as human figures the
artists call “bipeds.” These bipeds are covered with digital renditions of skin, hair and
clothing to represent a range of urban types. The software (called Biped) choreographs
the disorganized, unregimented everyday movement of hundreds of moving biped
figures. There is an accompanying soundtrack of urban noises create by musician
Terence Pender. These new media artworks and projects, and their varying use of digital
interfaces, provide an arena for considering and questioning technology use through
spatial, temporal, and interactive digital environments. A cultural exploration extends
mechanical skills-learning by considering and questioning a digital artifact’s

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becoming⎯by representations shaping cultural signs⎯beliefs, and by practices and their
developments as socio-cultural processes in contemporary society. This cultural
exploration of new media art, coupled with students exploring their personal use of new
media, is an example of the cultural interface approach used by teacher and student
participants in this research.
Additionally, interactive experiences of new media artworks shift interaction from
passive audience reception to active participation. In the new media artwork My
Boyfriend Came Back from the War (1996) by Olia Lialina, visitors click through frames
on a Web page to reveal images and fragments of text. Although the original text and
images of the story never change, the way the story unfolds through the texts and images
is altered by each visitor’s own navigational journey through the Web site. In another
example, One Word Movie (Brogle & Zimmermann, 2003), the user supplies words,
which are collected and organized to create an animated movie. The project blurs the
boundaries between traditional cinema and digital database sampling, and remixing, and
hyperlink. One Word Movie also offers a different view of online culture by making
visible patterns of word-image associations. These artworks reflect how properties of new
media dynamically alter the narrative.
Experiences with digital new media artworks projects such as those previously
described, locate critical inquiry and personal actions and emotions as essential and
integrated processes in questioning how we organize knowledge, form cultural practices,
participate in social spaces, and understand corporeality, identity, politics, and power in
the context of contemporary digital new media communication. Critical inquiry, as a type
of interaction, implicates the participant in internal and external systems of epistemology

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experienced through a digital interface. Further, interaction experienced through personal
action and emotion engages an aesthetic realm of the digital interface, and shapes cultural
signs, beliefs, and practices (Cubitt, 1998; Martin, 2005). These interactions translate
aesthetics, content/concepts, and theory through approaches to digital interfaces as
cultural interfaces.
In summary, this section briefly introduced critical digital new media from a
cultural interface perspective as used in this research. The framework by which the works
are presented is reflective of the evolving nature of new media—i.e., in a state of change.
Just as technology’s pervasive infusion is altering our everyday experiences, so too
technology is challenging art categorized according to medium, tools, and techniques, as
is evident in schools of art with courses and areas such as ceramics, painting,
photography, and printmaking. Manovich (2001b) suggests that since the 1960s, the
“rapid development of new artistic forms—assemblage, happening, installation,
performance, action, conceptual art, process art, intermedia, time-based art, etc.” is
replacing the old typology of artistic mediums (material and representational as sign and
referent). He suggests that we need a new aesthetic model that shifts away from a
medium-based paradigm toward a new model that bridges the old and new perspectives
as one continuum. He suggests developing and using a post-media aesthetics that
includes the following concepts: “how a cultural object organizes data and structures
user’s experience of this data,” “what kind of user’s information operations a particular
medium allows for,” and “information behavior,” which describes a particular way or
pattern of “accessing and processing information” (p. 4). Manovich’s suggestions, and
the conversations of critical new media artists, challenge us to question assumptions

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about digital interfaces, and consequently technological artifacts and processes, as part of
the teaching and learning dynamic.
Qualitative Research
This qualitative research study offers naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
in three different educational settings. Qualitative research’s in-depth and “thick
description” provides a “way for us to expose a culture’s normalcy without reducing its
particularity” (Geertz, 1973a, p. 14). This research is situated in three classroom contexts
(Mishler, 1979), and a range of participant expertise and knowledge (Eisner, 1991).
Additionally, this research uses pedagogy derived from expression and elaboration of
personal sensibilities and translations, rather than from an imposed framework (Lather,
1991) and a premise of qualitative methods of emergent, rather than pre-set categories
(Wolcott, 1994, 1999).
Qualitative research is formative and generative in learning from experience—a
dialectical interplay between collaboration, research, practices, reflections, creative
expressions, and insights. For example, the negotiations that emerge through developing
curriculum and team teaching are traceable in email correspondence. In this qualitative
inquiry, participants record their experiences through reflections on changes evidenced in
their practice. Through engagement with new digital media art, this research involves
participants’ reflections on ontology (a theory of being), epistemology (how knowledge is
acquired), and methodology (how we do things). All participants were involved in cycles
of planning, acting, observing, reflecting, critically analyzing, and problematizing to
assist in redefining issues, ideas, and assumptions concerning art education and
technology.

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Action research as qualitative inquiry is not a single methodology. Rather it
includes a range of inquiry approaches, activities, and methods that evolve as part of a
sequential process. The purpose of action research for this study is to connect intellectual
knowledge and moment-to-moment practices, and to consider how reflective and
educational activities (e.g., observations, reflections, and planning) shape art educators’
communities (McTaggart, 1991; Reason & Torbert, 2001).
As a value-laden mode of inquiry, action research is seen as political in nature and
absent of theory (Marshal, 1999):
Research is also “political process” in many ways. Who researches and how; whose
experience is researched and how that is named or categorized; what discourses
gain currency and hold power; what forms of inquiry and writing are favoured by
“mainstream” power-holders; and much more are political issues. “Creating
knowledge” is political business. Living practice is thus politicized. (p. 158)
Action research is also considered problematic in the eyes of positivist ideologies
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005), because action research challenges the objective world of
scientific entities and views knowledge as constructed through beliefs, values,
assumptions, perceptions, and social experiences.
The aim of this study is to consider possibilities and limitations of the following
combinations: (a) art education, technology, and new media, (b) 9th
to 12th
grade art
educators and (c) university researchers. The intention is to use a design that engages a
reflective practice, thus contributing to another understanding of the cultural
environments in which art education exists. The relational character of learning and
knowledge, and the negotiated character of meaning, imply a relationship with culture for

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personal exploration and exploration of ideas. “In all of its nuances, complexities, and
promises, action research coalesces with a variety of new methodological and theoretical
genres giving incentive to ask and act” (Stout, 2006, p. 197). Additionally, in the action
research process, dialogue, observations, passions, successes, and failures all engage one
another.
This dissertation’s research design—a cultural interface approach—attempts to
minimize both reductive determinism and uncritical symptomatic understandings (e.g.,
technology self-generalizing social conditions as the norm). Instead, this research
considers the complexity of the lived world; the researcher as observer; participants
including technology as actors in a complex network; the iterative nature of interpretation
through the cultural interface of the network; and the validity of these interpretations.
Analysis Lens and Ontology Informed by Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
This dissertation uses qualitative analysis with Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
framing the arguments and analysis of data. An important aspect of this combination is
the recognition and analysis of ideas between the nodes in a network. One example is the
analysis of the “negotiations between the material world, historical associations, and
people” (Martin, 2005, p. 284). In studying these negotiations, an action research design
informed by Actor-Network Theory brings about the challenge of balance between
dependence and independence, between inquiry from the inside and inquiry from the
outside, and between knowledge creation and problem solving. One way to analyze these
negotiations is to “identify logic and signification through studying the process of an
object’s becoming⎯the particular things or combination of things depicted by an object
and the logic behind their depiction by the object” (Latour, 1987, p. 21). During analysis

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of such negotiations, we often encounter connections with other objects that tell us the
logic behind their representations. Often one way to understand the reasons for various
representations and their development is to follow the trajectories of particular limitations
and possibilities of what each community within a networked system sees as important.
This can be seen in this research by tracing the discussions between outside researchers
and inside art educators, the lessons and strategies negotiated as part of the research, and
students’ translations as a form of problem solving through their artworks and reflections.
This dissertation examines the interfacing of expressions, experiences, and
inscriptions of technology recognizing the influence of empowering translations. As
Latour (2005) states, “There is no society, no social realm, and no social ties, but there
exist translations between mediator that may generate traceable associations” (p. 109).
ANT offers a means for staying sensitive to the differences in artistic, technological, and
cultural dimensions in a translation of accounts. Through an ANT lens, translation takes
on a specialized meaning where a relation does not transfer causality, but encourages and
provokes two entities into coexisting. In considering ANT, this research design persuades
participants (three art teachers, students in their art classes, and myself) to critically
investigate new media digital artworks and digital media discourses (e.g., Burson, Mori,
and Spooky) in their local sites (e.g., school cultures, technology, and curriculum).
The ontological position that knowledge is a social construction, and that ANT
positions technology as an actor, provides a way of making sense of the world rather than
discoveries about the world. Qualitative action research and ANT include issues of
reciprocity in a heterogeneous network of aligned interests. However, unlike action
research, ANT is not concerned with the emancipation of the researcher or practitioner,

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although it may provide details for understanding the success or failure of particular
innovations. Rather, ANT extends ethnographic analysis of translations between multiple
entities (Tatnall & Gilding, 1999), which include both humans and technology seen
through a single register—avoiding a dichotomy or the tendency to consider one as
context for the other. ANT extends social constructivism because hybrid materials and
social performances, not social factors alone, explain change and stability. ANT wrestles
with socially located, non-innocent political performances that make a difference in
understanding contexts of human and non-human interaction (Law & Singleton, 2000).
ANT analysis traces a generative path; namely it focuses on how entities are
generated, not on what entities are generated. Consequently this study regards the way
new media art is adopted as a translation. These translations can then become part of a
repertoire for consideration in art education. The innovation translation approach of ANT
(Law, 1992) was considered during the analysis of data (i.e., reflections and artifacts):
Every entity, including the self, society, nature, every relation, every action, can
be understood as a “choice” or “selection” of finer and finer embranchments
going from abstract structure–actants–to concrete one–actors. The generative path
that is thus traced gives extraordinary liberty of analysis compared to
impoverished “social vocabulary” that was used earlier—and is now in fashion
again. (Latour, 1996b, p. 373)
Through inscription, translation, and framing, ANT reflects on the processes or “network
tracing activities” (Latour, 1996b, p. 378) significant to new media implementation in art
education. ANT-tracing activities allow for critical reflection and analysis that include (a)
implicating the self in the processes, (b) including new media art as a critical substantive

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content in art education, and (c) observing processes of culture as a pedagogical approach
to new media art education.
Research Questions
The use of a cultural interface approach with digital new media destabilizes tool
training and offers new considerations as translations to expand technology content for
art education. The term cultural interface has implications for how art education can
conceptualize technology. Reframing new media art in art education as a cultural
interface facilitates an approach that considers digital media as a portal to cultural data.
In considering this approach, two main questions emerge for analyzing the data:
1. In what ways have the discourses, activities, and inquiry processes of a
cultural interface approach altered participants’ perceptions, interactions, and
interpretations of art, art education, and new media technology?
2. What processes of patterning, social orchestration, ordering, and resistance are
involved in shifting new media art education to emphasizing cultural
content—such as the cultural interface of new digital media, digital
signification systems, and digital communication?
The first question engages participants in dialogues (discourses), activities
(lessons and artwork), and reflective discussions (inquiry processes) through a
qualitative, naturalistic approach. The results from the cultural interface approach are
examined through the participants’ perspectives on art, pedagogy, and new media. The
second question analyzes the changes to the network when a cultural interface approach
is introduced as an educational alternative. The analysis focuses on the interfaces

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between digital new media and art education, and on the interfaces between technology
and society.
In order to address these questions, I guided participants in selecting and engaging
digital media artworks. Participants explored new digital media artworks along with the
content within these artworks, and developed approaches to new digital media in art
education. These approaches were analyzed to address the research questions. The
analysis consisted of a reflective inquiry-driven approach that considered multiple
participant perspectives, interviews, dialogues, and artifacts.
Researcher and Participants’ Roles in the Study
As the researcher-facilitator, I served as a participant and change agent whose
reflective practice emerged from within this research. I took part in the strategies, actions,
and inquiries of participants, and also deconstructed the analogous strategies, actions, and
links generated by my own account. The participatory process served as a heuristic
device to learn about my methods when studying participants and their methods. Through
the content of new media art and as a facilitator, I guided participants in exploring new
digital media in relation to their situated context. My guidance included building
resources for community, participating collaboratively in all phases of research,
integrating knowledge and actions to benefit all participants, recognizing and operating
with a community’s identity, promoting co-learning, supporting cyclical and iterative
processes throughout the research, and disseminating findings to each participant. Three
art educators, as participants of the research, and their students volunteered in the
exploration of technology as a cultural interface. The art teachers came from a variety of
technology environments, and although versed in the use of technology, they were not all

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teaching the use of technology. Selected teacher participants were interested in
investigating approaches to technology and developing innovative curriculum and
strategies exploring the cultural content of new digital media in art education. Therefore,
one focus of the study was to reflect on the participants’ previous approaches to
technology that would influence their translation of a cultural interface approach. The
research involving participants spanned several months, and included identifying and
exploring content, developing and implementing a plan of action, and reflecting on action
for analysis.
Gathering, Managing, and Analyzing Research Data
The data analyzed from this research consisted of documentation, critical
reflections, and responses to activities and artifacts created by participants. All
participants gathered and managed data, which included interviews, observations, visual
artifacts, and reflective journals. The data were processed and archived in compliance
with The Pennsylvania State University Office for Research Protections (see research
forms in Appendix A). The data were shared among participants to sharpen the analysis
by incorporating their views and engaging them in reflective and analytical processes.
The analysis uses triangulation of the data obtained through naturalistic inquiry,
reflective discourse, observation, and artifact documentation. The analysis presents
emergent, inductive, and iterative connections (Crano, 1981; Green & McClintock,
1985). Triangulation, sorting for themes and patterns, and data coding reveals findings
grounded in the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The analysis was considered complete
when critical categories were revealed, relationships among them established, and then
integrated to inform grounded theory.

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Presentation of the Findings
This research creates a polyvocal (Lal, 1999) text throughout the processes of
gathering and analyzing data. The final research text contains three situated studies
exploring new digital media as a cultural interface in response to questions posed by the
research. The text includes participants’ reflections and insights during the ongoing
process and final body of data. The co-evolutionary process of participatory action
research, ANT, and new media art [re]frames issues, ultimately leading to possibilities
and limitations of pedagogical practices that are conscious of technocultural contexts.
Implications of the Study
This research offers insights expanding the current content of technology in art
education. Specifically, by infusing an awareness of technology and cultural issues into
both the content and practice of art education, students and teachers can expand their
artistic dialogues and practices. This research provides an opportunity for students,
teachers, and researchers to articulate their interpretations as a way to filter the diverse
and contradictory information surrounding us in a contemporary digital society.
Additionally, the use of ANT in the research process offers creative and substantive ways
to analyze data; i.e., it includes the continual permutations of actions, as opposed to the
static “action steps” often cited in policy plans (Paige, Hickok, & Patrick, 2004).
This research positions new digital media art as a valuable component of an art
educational experience, expanding the context of students’ technology use and purpose.
Digital new media blurs the boundary by removing the separation between viewer and
participant. Digital new media is a specific focus of this study because of its innovative
ways of expressiveness, where the content and form are often inseparable, and because of

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its societal pervasiveness, and art educators’ desire to find approaches to guide their
students to create with digital media and to critique new media art. This study initiates
and guides art educators toward developing innovative approaches for content with new
digital media art, art education, and new media cultural processes with implications for
curricular content and pedagogy.
When considering technology innovation and its use, it becomes essential to put
away the safe notion of just a tool. Although there has been research on new media
technologies within art education (Francis, 1993; Johnson, 1997a; Mercedes, 1999; Orr,
2003), the rapid change of digital technology requires a continual study of its evolution.
Sefton-Green (1999, 2000) and Turkle (1995) investigate children’s engagement with
technology outside the context of traditional education. They reposition the research
outside formal educational settings into informal everyday settings. That is, they stage old
dynamics in new settings as a way to move outside of the “black boxes.” Likewise, I
position a cultural interface approach as an opportunity to consider digital new media
(youth culture dynamics) in art education (aged discipline). Technology integration
within this revised approach becomes what Krug (2004) calls a “pressure point.” My
research juxtaposes students and art educators as researchers, and researchers as
facilitators, at a “pressure point” of critical involvement.
Significance, Delimitations, and Limitations
The art educators in this study volunteered to participate and, therefore, were
willing to change their curriculum and pedagogical approach. Their predisposition toward
seeking new approaches to technology is a contextual factor and an important aspect of
the study. The context for each teacher differed, according to how the teachers defined

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their situations, and is presented as part of the thick description of the study. An analysis
of the thick description assists in dissolving the how and why of the distinction between
description and explanation, and considers the possibilities and limitations of a cultural
interface approach. This process was iterative, as the researcher did not know in advance
what patterns would emerge from data analysis.
The small sample of three art educators participating in this study limits the
ability to generalize the research. However, qualitative studies are not intended to
generalize conclusions, but to serve as exploratory studies gaining insight into specific
contextual phenomenon. Qualitative data are difficult to report precisely and require thick
descriptive methods, triangulation of data for analysis, interpretations based on coding,
and justification of analysis through these descriptions (Geertz, 1973b; Wolcott, 1990).
This research assumes that technology should be part of art education and that students
use technology in their everyday lives. ANT provides a seamless network view between
the social, the cultural, and the technological, and assumes that neither social institutions
nor technologies move along inexorable trajectories.
Epilogue
Chapter 1 summarizes the research. Chapter 2 situates my central thesis within a
literature review from 1995 to 2006, and focuses on studies concerning art education and
technology, culture and technology, and digital new media artworks and discourses.
Chapter 3 expands on the qualitative and action-research methodology, and ANT.
Chapter 4, in narrative form, details the three site-specific environments, and includes
observations and analysis. Chapter 5 refines and reflects upon the observations and
interpretations, and provides implications for future research and conclusions.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter focuses on three areas of literature that pertain to my research: art
education and technology research, culture and technology, and new media art resources.
My dissertation research transects each of these areas to provide in-depth and
comprehensive analyses in the discourse of technology in art education.
The purpose of this literature review is to locate in a wider context my central
thesis that considers a cultural interface approach to technology in art education, and to
develop and support the framework for the design, data collection, and analysis. This
review identifies trends and patterns of relevant literature that contribute to understanding
intersections of art education and new media technology as culturally situated.
The first section, Literature on Art Education and Technology, is the primary
focus of this dissertation, and therefore encompasses most of the detail in the literature
review. For clarity, this section is divided into background, search criteria, emerging
themes, and a summary. A recent survey of the literature illustrates and acknowledges a
need for “writings telling us more about how practicing teachers view or learn to apply
electronic media” (Delacruz, 2004, p. 7).
The second section, Literature on Culture and New Media Technology, provides a
contextual understanding and positioning of technology and culture in relation to my
research. This section provides a conceptual argument for considering technology as
neither utopic nor dystopic. My approach to the study and literature review moves
beyond the often media centric approaches focusing on technology objects. More

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specifically, the focus shifts away from new media technology objects and toward the
cultural discourses that surround these technologies.
Finally, the third section, Digital New Media Art―Resources, provides a context
for conversations exploring digital new media art. This section provides a set of resources
that was used in this study concerning new media art creative productions and cultural
conversations. “The relevance of artistic practice for cultures in transition, overwhelmed
by the forces of globalization and grappling with new forms of cultural identity, is
challenged” (Scholder & Crandall, 2001, p. 2). However, at the same time, these
practices provide a space for critical discourse about the changing modes of
representation, perception, and identification, and the tensions and interactions that exist
within these cultural frameworks of new media art and technology.
Literature on Art Education about Technology
This section of the literature review encompasses publications about technology
in the fields of art education and education from 1995 to 2006. This section begins with a
brief background of the literature surrounding the policy rhetoric concerning educational
technology, beginning with the establishment of national technology standards in the
United States. A review of reflective research—questioning technology and its location in
art education by Gregory (1996) and Delacruz (2004)—offers insights to reconsider
perception of new digital technologies. As one example, Gregory asks us to consider art
that challenges thinking, and Delacruz asks us to examine our working conditions. These
perspectives influence the focus of the criteria used in this literature review for searching,
analyzing, and exposing themes and categories that emerged.

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Background of Literature on Art Education and Technology
With the emergence of the Internet in 1995 as a major force driving business, and
to a lesser extent, education, policy reports began to present education technology as a
“tool” of transformation in school reform (Culp, Honey, & Mandinach, 2003). During
this period, policy and the research community shaped technology within education by
the transformative ability of technology and schools. Schools unknowingly became
emissaries for the values of technology, devoid of consideration of the sociocultural
implications.
The tone of these reports also reflected the relationship between educational
systems and practitioners in the field. Beginning with educational reform rhetoric of the
1980s and 1990s such as A Nation at Risk (1983) and Goals 2000: Educate America Act
(1994), and continuing today with No Child Left Behind Act (2001), educational reform
and policy rhetoric began to focus on the development of the information age as an
alignment of education standards. The Report to the President on the Use of Technology
to Strengthen K-12 Education in the United States (1997) was indicative of early reform
and policy toward educational technology in regards to hardware, connectivity, content,
and teacher preparation. The goal was to “transform” education and provide justification
for the “immediate and widespread incorporation of such technologies” (p. 113). Thus,
school conditions were assayed according to their ability to support or impede the
transformative use of technology.
As a result of policy initiatives, many important issues were masked and
overshadowed. These issues included the importance of a technical infrastructure,
sustained leadership supportive of a vision for effective technology use, and the offering

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of opportunities for sustained and in-depth professional development. The economic
aspirations of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994) further fueled the contentious
debate between what constitutes education and what constitutes indoctrinated training.
Gregory (1996) cautioned us to “eradicate the notion that a computer is a vortex
for learning, replacing it with the more compelling vision of a computer as a catalyst for
learning” (p. 51). New Technologies in Art Education (1997) edited by Gregory and
published by the National Art Education Association (NAEA) embodied the complexity
of the philosophy in the late 1990s. The book opens with a summary statement of the
president’s educational technology initiative toward “realizing the promise of educational
technology” (n.p.). The collection of authors presents alternative visions beyond the
purely technical approach. They provide an overview of new electronic technologies in
art education and illustrate how these technologies can encourage “innovation” in art
education (p. 2). Additionally, this book highlights several perspectives, all suggesting a
need for critically questioning the uses and implications of new technology. For example,
Congdon (1997) argued for policies more reflective of technology’s implications; Francis
(1997) raised issues about multiculturalism and interdisciplinary inquiry as it relates to
interactive multimedia; Gigliotti (1997) questioned aesthetics and interactive technology;
and Morbey (1997) raised issues of gender bias within the technological culture.
Similarly, Jackson (1997) and Johnson (1997a) saw a need to move beyond the
purely technical approach. Jackson saw beyond the role of the non-critical, purely
instrumentalist transformative uses in schooling, and called for a critical pedagogy for
new media that promotes a counterbalance to transformative philosophy infusing practice.
Johnson reviewed 80 articles and dissertations that describe aspects of curriculum and

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computer art and graphics representing various assumptions of what curriculum is or
should be, but which provided few rationales. By questioning whether the types of
curriculum orientations that have been used in art education are reflective of the discipline
of digital art, Johnson suggested re-stating the question as: What is in need of
transforming? Thus, art education begins exposing the undercurrents of the impact of
broad treatments of technology in educational reform and policy in regards to hardware,
connectivity, content, and teacher preparation.
Additionally, Gigliotti (1997) saw a problem with those who continually insist on
the importance and autonomy of the individual artist, market-driven factors, computer-
technology production, and the repeated emergence of indoctrinated training. Gigliotti
(1998) further investigated the influence of U.S. Congressional school reform on practice,
and the resulting conflicts for artists, art educators, and students working within the arts.
Gigliotti’s argument questioned the single focus of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act
(1994) as a blueprint for “prosperity” and “world leadership” (p. 89). Because of the
resulting conflicts and singular focus, she offered a rationale for shifting from the tool-
driven production in technology training associated with a market culture, toward a more
culturally integrated model.
Jackson (1997), Johnson (1997a), and Gigliotti (1998) recognized the pervasive
elements of technology and cautioned us to consider the ramifications beyond pure
implementation. These considerations included engaging a critical approach to new
media, recognizing curricular implications, and understanding political and economic
forces. The rapid acceptance of technology infusion, fueled by public and educational

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access to computers and the Internet, overshadowed a critical cultural analysis
influencing the educational arena.
Thus, within the early years of this literature review (1995-1999), the research
community did not make these critical issues a primary focus of study. Instead, there
appeared to be a disconnection between the process of innovation in public schools and
the articulation of technology as a new transformative element in the education process.
Put more bluntly, there was a break between the constructed idea of technology’s promise
and a lack of a critical understanding of how technology actually gains a foothold in the
school environment.
Research in more recent years (2002-2004) acknowledge the need for an
integrated approach to place technology in the context of situated educational challenges
(Partnership for 21st
Century Skills, 2003). The initiative of the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills explores moving education out of the 20th
century model by expanding
core subjects through learning and thinking skills, Information Communication
Technology (ICT) literacy, life skills, and 21st
century assessments. These processes
include critical thinking, communication, creativity and innovation, collaborative and
contextual learning, and information and media literacy. The ICT literacy skills include
the ability to use technology to develop content knowledge and skills as part of the
process of how to learn, think critically, solve problems, use information, communicate,
innovate, and collaborate. This new rhetoric promotes a set of 21st
century skills in the
form of several strategies, including consideration of ongoing professional development,
broad consensus and shared vision, high profile leadership, standards, curriculum and
assessment that are aligned with 21st
century skills, effective communication, and

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aggressive implementation. With an emphasis on aligning standards, jobs selected by
economic planners, and on computer-based programs, pedagogical issues become a
secondary issue for many teachers, furthering an economic and technological means to an
end.
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2005) provides a
set of performance indicators that are aligned with standards categories (e.g., basic
operation, social, ethical and human issues, productivity tools, communication tools,
research tools, and problem solving and decision making tools) to advance the effective
use of technology in education. Their goals are for teachers and students to identify
capabilities and limitations of contemporary and emerging technologies. More directly,
the goals are to make informed choices, to analyze advantages and disadvantages of
wide-spread use, to advocate for legal and ethical behaviors, to understand resource
capabilities, and to evaluate technology-based options. When the focus of technology in
public schools is perceived by educators as technical expectations, much teaching and
learning does not get past the basic skill standards (Sandholtz & Reilly, 2004) to engage
pedagogical issues that connect technology to curriculum.
As technology integration continues to be a “pressure point” (Krug, 2004, p. 4),
art education has begun to question and consider adoption (Rose, 2002) as an integral
part of pedagogical practice. As the processes of adoption and adaptation are more clearly
understood, the seven contextual dimensions Krug (2004) cites, as suggested by the
Milken Exchange on Educational Technology (learners, learning environment,
professional competency, system capacity, community connections, technology capacity,
and accountability), become a complex network for gauging educational technology’s

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impact in educational settings. Curriculum, pedagogy, communications, research,
administration, and policy concerning technology in art education could employ a fluent,
critical position about technology (Krug, 2004). This position could be one that engages
innovative use of the complex network associations of practices and theory beyond the
often-demarcated boundaries of skill-driven approaches.
In addition, more recent research acknowledges the need for understanding and
exploring the adoption and adaptation of technology within the k-12 environment
(Delacruz, 2004; Obiokor, 2002; Orr, 2003, 2004). With this in mind, the next
subsections explain the criteria for searching and exploring the art and technology
literature, revealing emerging patterns and issues through research and scholarship in art
education and technology.
Searching Criteria for Literature on Art Education about Technology
This literature review includes a critical review method that considers several
questions. What categories have emerged from a ten-year survey of this literature? What
issues and questions have art education practitioners and researchers raised? How do
these categories inform our understanding of technology in art education? What
categories are emerging from the literature that might bring a contextual understanding of
art education’s relationship with technology? What shifts from 1995 to 2006 have
emerged for art education research? The review of this literature provides a context for
understanding, for critical evaluation, and for action in relation to art education and
technology.
Delacruz (2004) surveys the literature exemplifying unmet promises of
technology for enriching the practices of teaching art over the past twenty years. Her

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framework for these writings presents the categories of “descriptive,” “prescriptive,” and
“promotional processes,” and explains the “possibilities” and “values” associated with
using technologies within the classroom (p. 6). Delacruz’s university-level art education
courses expose the following two additional issues: the adaptation of technology to
meaningful classroom practice, and suitable staff development. Her analysis of discourses
about technology in art education argues for considering the lived realities of the
classroom environment by providing appropriate technology workshops that meet
teachers’ needs in terms of knowledge and skill level. Most importantly, she sees a need
for pre-service teachers to assess working conditions in their practicum. She proposed
that we assess whether the classrooms in which students are observed or taught have
network access and support personnel, and whether teachers negotiate in the development
of technology policies. Delacruz calls for technology in art education that
“accommodates teachers’ values, working conditions, time constraints, and school
cultures” (p. 17). Many of these issues surface in Delecruz’s research and feasibility
study. Her research challenges the rhetoric of the transformation philosophy prevalent in
the educational policies of the 1990s.
Rather than building upon the descriptive, prescriptive, and promotional lenses
used by Delacruz (2004), this dissertation literature review analyzes search results for
emerging patterns and themes. The use of multiple keyword searches began the
systematic approach for this literature review. For example, the fluid, strategic, and
emergent use of technological terminology in art education over the past ten years
required several keywords to produce a comprehensive search. As terminology is often
culturally located, sometimes exclusive to a subject, it is appropriate as part of the

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cultural interface process to consider terms such as computer, digital, and new media as
interchangeable keywords for literature search parameters. As a result, the search
parameters encompass several keywords emerging from a preliminary investigation of art
education and technology literature.
The literature searches were conducted using the online databases WORLDCAT,
PROQUEST, and JSTOR. Journals, books, and dissertations were included in the search
criteria. First, all journal articles included in the review were selected from peer reviewed
print and online journals. Second, the searches were limited to and focused on technology
within art education from 1995-2006. Third, the review included some early policy issues
as well as more recent initiatives, all of which bring some understanding to the cultural
milieu of the rhetoric. The review excluded literature about non-digital technologies and
research outside the context of secondary and higher art education. Newspapers and book
reviews were not included. Additionally, I limited the search to the English language and
United States school context.
In the United States in the past ten years, 82 articles, 80 books, and 68
dissertations have been written with a focus on technology, computers, digital new
media, and art education. The search results suggested several patterns, from which four
categories emerged to help organize this literature review: (a) explorations of computer-
and Internet-assisted instructional design and learning theory in Art Education, (b)
aesthetics and digital media connections, (c) critical resistances and challenges in art
education and technology, and (d) factors influencing adoption and adaptation of
technology in art education.

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These categories frame the variations in the understanding and use of technology
in art education over the past ten years. The categories are not isolated, but are my
constructed conceptions, assumptions, and structures of integrated technological and
cultural forces within art education. The categories provide a layout for the art education
and technology literature review section of this chapter, and assist in framing the action
research with three 9th
-12th
grade art teachers.
Explorations of Computer- and Internet-Assisted Instructional Design and Learning
Theory in Art Education
This subsection explores emerging discourses of technologies and pedagogy
associated with instructional design and learning theory. Beginning in the mid 1990s,
when the Internet began its infusion into public and educational institutions, researchers
conversations considered students engaged in contemporary digital learning
environments. These included online and Web-based instruction, the Internet as a
resource, distance education, hypertext, and multimedia. However, I saw minimal use of
online environments, hypertext, or multimedia instructional technologies in the three art-
education research sites of this study. The development and use of technology in k-12
school environments, combined with the development of technological communication
processes, has stimulated research in recent years. This stimulation exemplifies the need
for art education, within a contemporary educational visual cultural climate, to explore
research in technology-assisted instructional design and learning theory as they relate to
visual culture.
A comprehensive analysis involves exploring technology within existing art
education curricula and school cultural frameworks (Evans, 1997; Johnson, 1997a,

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1997b; Meyer, 2005; Rogers, 1997). With the pressure to become computer literate and
the promotion of transformational ideology of technology policy, art educators have had
concerns with improving design skill, strengthening aesthetic awareness, reforming
communication processes, and integrating the new languages of visualization offered by
computer-based technologies.
Evans (1997) took a critical look at the relationship of technology and art
education by investigating access, use, and budgetary issues. Rogers (1997) looked at
instructional design and the art educators’ methods for incorporating computer-based
technology into their complex content domains. Johnson’s (1997b) research about
computer art in education looked at the conventions used by computer artists, thus taking
the research outside the domain of the classroom environment and then back in again.
Johnson’s research offered a perspective of how the existing framework of Discipline-
Based Art Education (DBAE) is used, thus revealing that computer art education was
influenced by the same underpinnings that influenced curriculum. Similarly, Meyer
(2005) explored the Documenta 11 exhibition’s accessibility to art education by
processing and rethinking the exhibition within the existing framework of traditional art
education that attempts to neutralize social content in art. This perspective related to
Johnson’s research of understanding technology in the context of the existing frameworks
of situated curricula and new media artists’ practices. Moreover, Johnson’s (1997b) and
Meyer’s (2005) research revealed that art educators in k-12 schools incorporated
technology in ways that were comfortably situated in the cultural practice of their
teaching environments and ideologies.

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Several publications and areas of research in art education over the past ten years
have offered insights into the following questions: Does research recognize the dynamic
nature of the technology processes and concepts, and the intersection of historical and
new paradigms (Boj Tovar, 2004; Orr, 2003)? Does the research inquire into what is
unique about digital new media technologies for art education conversations (Mayo,
2004; Sweeny, 2004a, 2004b)? The National Art Education Association (NAEA)
publication edited by Gregory (1997) began addressing these questions by exploring
programs of promise and the innovative uses, issues, and implications of new
technologies. In considering this research situated within the transformative philosophy,
Gregory selected authors to investigate new options, new explorations, and new visions.
Roland (1997) and Broadus-Garcia (1997) looked at the potential of distance learning and
telecommunications, while Keifer-Boyd (1996), Bickley-Green (1997), Gleeson (1997),
Schwartz (1997), Avila et al. (1997), and Stokrocki (1997) considered instructional
technologies and teacher education. Additionally, Koos and Smith-Shank (1997), Francis
(1997), and Congdon (1997) respectively scrutinized the implications of technological
developments, the rhetorical implications of the electronic superhighway, and
technological interactivity and accessibility. Of particular and unique interest within this
text, Gigliotti critically argued how the “tool” approach misapprehends the pervasiveness
of computer technology and creates assumptions about design and use. Her research and
argument looked at interface design in technology as an “important avenue for artists and
educators to effect changes in levels of accessibility” (p. 124). This questioning began to
expose not only the physical aspects of the interface, but also engaged the more veiled
issues that affect the cultural interface through assumptions, beliefs, and values.

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Contemporary communication technologies offer an arena for research because of
the natural relationship of image, text, and sound. Art education has the opportunity to
engage in a full range of visual technology research discourses from practice exploring
instructional technology design uses and learning theory (Di Marco, 2002; Kwon, 2004;
Yang, 1998; Yeoh, 2003). Within instructional design, these discourses include unique
attributes of systems, such as online (Eber, 1997; Hsu, 2004) and Web-based instruction
(Chou, 2003; Park, 2003), using the Internet as a resource strategy (Choi, 2002; West,
1998), distance education (Lai, 2002), and hypertext and multimedia (Lim, 1996; Philpot,
1996; Taylor, 1999; Taylor & Carpenter, 2002). Developments in digital communication
will necessitate continued research in digitally integrative and assistive processes from
within practice. The challenge will be to include curriculum technology issues regarding
larger cultural systems, such as the social and cultural implications concerning
information and communication technologies.
Hypertext and multimedia technology research offers art educators opportunities
to integrate computer technology into art education, especially as an instructional strategy
for promoting multiple ways of knowing that are directly linked to visual imaging.
Research with interactive computer technology, such as hypertext in art education,
facilitates thinking about technology processes and associations among complex,
abstract, and counterintuitive assumptions. A variety of research initiatives explores
approaches to hypertext technology involvement in the complex process of relationship,
interpretation, application, reflection, and self-knowledge. Several studies have
specifically focused on hypertext and its use in “computer-aided inquiry,” combined with