Universal Product Code

The Universal Product Code (UPC) is a barcode symbology that is widely used in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, in Europe and other countries for tracking trade items in stores.

UPC (technically refers to UPC-A) consists of 12 numeric digits, that are uniquely assigned to each trade item. Along with the related EAN barcode, the UPC is the barcode mainly used for scanning of trade items at the point of sale, per GS1 specifications.[1] UPC data structures are a component of GTINs and follow the global GS1 specification, which is based on international standards. But some retailers (clothing, furniture) do not use the GS1 system (rather other barcode symbologies or article number systems). On the other hand, some retailers use the EAN/UPC barcode symbology, but without using a GTIN (for products sold in their own stores only).

A group of grocery industry trade associations formed the Uniform Grocery Product Code Council which with consultants Larry Russell and Tom Wilson of McKinsey & Company, defined the numerical format of the Uniform Product Code.[5] Technology firms including Charegon, IBM, Litton-Zellweger, Pitney Bowes-Alpex, Plessey-Anker, RCA, Scanner Inc., Singer, and Dymo Industries/Data General proposed alternative symbol representations to the council.[citation needed] In the end the Symbol Selection Committee chose to slightly modify, changing the font in the human readable area, the IBM proposal designed by George J. Laurer.[citation needed]

Around late 1969, IBM at Research Triangle Park (RTP) in North Carolina assigned George Laurer to determine how to make a supermarket scanner and label. In late 1970, Heard Baumeister provided equations to calculate characters per inch achievable by two IBM bar codes, Delta A and Delta B. In February, 1971, Baumeister joined Laurer.

In mid 1971, William "Bill" Crouse invented a new bar code called Delta C.[3] It achieved four times the characters per inch as Delta B. Delta B compared bar widths to space width to code bits. This was extremely sensitive to ink spread where too much ink or pressure would cause both edges of a bar to spread outward and too little to cause them to shrink. To make it worse as bars spread spaces shrink and vice versa. Delta C achieved its higher performance by only using leading to leading or trailing to trailing edges which was unaffected by uniform ink spread. The code provided best performance when it had a defined character set with a fixed reference distance that spanned most or preferably all the character. In August, 1971, Crouse joined the scanner effort. After several months they had made no progress. They were aware of the RCA bull’s eye label that could be scanned with a simple straight line laser scanner, but a readable label was far too large. Although Litton Industries proposed a bull’s eye symbol cut in half to reduce the area, it was still too large and presented the same ink smear printing problems as the RCA symbol. The redundancy and checking ability were removed completely. They were also aware of the many proposals from around the world, none of which were feasible.

The UPC Label showing the general characteristics of Baumeister's proposals

In the spring of 1972, Baumeister announced a breakthrough. He proposed a label with bars that were slightly longer than the distance across all bars that needed to be read in a single pass. This label could be scanned with a simple “X” scanner only slightly more complex than the straight line laser scanner. The next day Baumeister suggested if the label were split into two halves the bar lengths could be cut nearly in half. These two proposals reduced the area from the bull’s eye by one third and then one sixth. The image to the right shows the label proposed by Baumeister. He did not specify any specific bar code as that was well understood. Except for the bar coding and ten digits the UPC label today is his proposal. Shortly after that Baumeister transferred to another area of RTP.

Laurer proceeded to define the details of the label and write a proposal. N.J. Woodland was assigned as planner for the project and aided Laurer with writing his proposal.

Laurer’s first attempt with a bar code used Delta B. The resulting label size was about six inches by three inches which was too large. Crouse suggested that Laurer use his Delta C bar code and provided a copy of his patent that had a sample alphanumeric character set and rules to generate other size alphabets. This reduced the label size to about 1.5” x 0.9”. Later Laurer asked Crouse for assistance in how the scanner could detect a label. Together they defined guard bars and a definition of how to detect the label. The guard bars also provided identification for half label discrimination and training bars for the scanner threshold circuits. Laurer had a complete label definition and proceeded to write his proposal.[9]

Previously Crouse had an idea for a simple wand worn like a ring and bracelet. He decided to develop that wand to provide a demonstration of the label.[citation needed]

On December 1, 1972, IBM presented Laurer's proposal to the Super Market Committee in Rochester, Minnesota, the location where IBM would develop the scanner. During the presentation, Crouse gave a lab demonstration where he read UPC-like labels with his ring wand. In addition to reading regular labels, he read the large two-page centerfold label in the proposal booklet. He then turned to a page showing a photo of labeled items sitting on a table. The labels were small and flawed due to the resolution of the printed photo but the wand read many of them. This demonstration showed the robustness of the pure Delta C code. The proposal was accepted.

One month later, January 1, 1973 Crouse transferred back to IBM's Advanced Technology group, and Laurer remained with the full responsibility for the label.

Dymo Industries, makers of handheld printing devices insisted that the code be character independent,[clarification needed] so that handheld printing devices could produce the bar code in store if the items were not bar-coded by the manufacturers. Dymo's proposal was accepted by IBM and incorporated in IBM's latest proposal.

It was decided that the two halves of the label should have a different set of numeric characters. The character set Laurer derived from the Delta C patent used seven printable increments or units where two bars and two spaces would be printed. This yielded twenty combinations of characters, but there were two pairs that when read by Delta C rules yielded the same code for the pair. Since eighteen characters were not enough Laurer tried adding one unit to the character set. This yielded twenty-six Delta C characters which could provide the two sets of decimal characters but it also added fourteen percent to the width of the label and thereby the height. This would be a thirty percent increase in area or a label of 1.7”x1.03”. Laurer felt this was not acceptable. He returned to the original character set with twenty characters but four of those were two pairs with the same Delta C reading. He decided to use them all. To distinguish between the pairs he would measure one bar width in each of the pairs to distinguish them from each other. For each pair those bars would be one or two units wide. Laurer didn’t apply Baumeister’s equations to this set. He felt just one bar width measurement would not be too serious. As it turned out it would have required over fifty percent increase in width and height for an area increase of more than double. Laurer later admitted these four characters in each set were responsible for most of the scanner read errors.

David Savir, a mathematician, was given the task of proving the symbol could be printed and would meet the reliability requirements, and was most likely unaware of Baumeister’s equations. He and Laurer added two more digits to the ten for error correction and detection. Then they decided to add odd/even parity to the number of units filled with bars in each side. Odd/even parity is a technique used to detect any odd number of bit errors in a bit stream. They decided to use odd on one half and even on the other. This would provide additional indication of which half ticket was being read. This meant that every bar width had to be read accurately to provide a good reading. It also meant every space would also be known. Requiring every bit width to be read precisely basically nullified the Delta C advantage except for the Delta C reference measurement. Only the strange character set and the size of the label remains as a shadow of the Delta C code. The size was still that calculated for pure Delta C. If the label size had been properly recalculated, taking into account the required bar width measurements the label would have been far too large to be acceptable.

Mechanical engineering and electronic circuit design commonly require worst case designs using known tolerances. Many engineers working with bar codes had little experience with such things and used somewhat intuitive methods. This was the cause of the poor performance of the Delta B code and quite likely the failure of RCA’s bull’s eye scanner.

The following table shows the workable labels, available in the early 1970s, with their sizes.

Label type

Label dimensions

Area

Bull’s eye with Morse Code

Large

Large

Bull’s eye with Delta B

12.0" diameter

113.10 sq. in.

Bull’s eye with Delta A

9.0" diameter

63.62 sq. in.

Baumeister 1st w/ Delta B

6.0" × 5.8"

34.80 sq. in.

Baumeister 2 halves w/ Delta B

6.0" × 3.0"

18.00 sq. in.

Baumeister 2 halves w/ Delta A

4.5" × 2.3"

10.35 sq. in.

Baumeister with Delta C

1.5" × 0.9"

1.35 sq. in.

This is assuming a bull’s eye with the same information and reliable readability.

Each UPC-A barcode consists of a scannable strip of black bars and white spaces above a sequence of 12 numerical digits. No letters, characters or other content of any kind may appear on a UPC-A barcode. There is a one-to-one correspondence between 12-digit number and strip of black bars and white spaces, i.e. there is only one way to represent each 12-digit number visually and there is only one way to represent each strip of black bars and white spaces numerically.

The scannable area of every UPC-A barcode follows the pattern SLLLLLLMRRRRRRE, where S (start), M (middle), and E (end) guard patterns are represented the same way on every UPC-A barcode and the L (left) and R (right) sections collectively represent the 12 numerical digits that make each UPC-A unique. The first digit L indicates a particular number system to be used by the following digits. The last digit R is an error detectingcheck digit, that allows some errors to be detected in scanning or manual entry. The guard patterns separate the two groups of six numerical digits and establish the timing.

UPC-A

UPC-E

Note: UPC-A 042100005264 is equivalent to UPC-E 425261 with the "EOEEOO" parity pattern, which is defined by UPC-A number system 0 and UPC-A check digit 4.

UPC-A barcodes can be printed at various densities to accommodate a variety of printing and scanning processes. The significant dimensional parameter is called x-dimension (width of single module element). The width of each bar (space) is determined by multiplying the x-dimension and the module width (1, 2, 3, or 4 units) of each bar (space). Since the guard patterns each include two bars, and each of the 12 digits of the UPC-A barcode consists of two bars and two spaces, all UPC-A barcodes consist of exactly (3 × 2) + (12 × 2) = 30 bars, of which 6 represent guard patterns and 24 represent numerical digits.

The x-dimension for the UPC-A at the nominal size is 0.33 mm (0.013"). Nominal symbol height for UPC-A is 25.9 mm (1.02"). The bars forming the S (start), M (middle), and E (end) guard patterns, are extended downwards by 5 times x-dimension, with a resulting nominal symbol height of 27.55 mm (1.08"). This also applies to the bars of the first and last numerical digit of UPC-A barcode. UPC-A can be reduced or magnified anywhere from 80% to 200%.

A quiet zone, with a width of at least 9 times the x-dimension, must be present on each side of the scannable area of the UPC-A barcode.[10][11] For a GTIN-12 number encoded in a UPC-A barcode, the first and last digits are always placed outside the symbol in order to indicate the quiet zones that are necessary for barcode scanners to work properly.

The UPC-A barcode is visually represented by strips of bars and spaces that encode the UPC-A 12-digit number. Each digit is represented by a unique pattern of 2 bars and 2 spaces. The bars and spaces are variable width, i.e. 1, 2, 3, or 4 modules wide. The total width for a digit is always 7 modules; consequently, UPC-A 12-digit number requires a total of 7×12 = 84 modules.

A complete UPC-A is 95 modules wide: 84 modules for the digits (L and R sections) combined with 11 modules for the S (start), M (middle), and E (end) guard patterns. The S (start) and E (end) guard patterns are 3 modules wide and use the pattern bar-space-bar, where each bar and space is one module wide. The M (middle) guard pattern is 5 modules wide and uses the pattern space-bar-space-bar-space, where each bar and space is also one module wide. In addition, a UPC-A symbol requires a quiet zone (extra space of 9 modules wide) before the S (start) and after the E (end) guard patterns.

Encoding table for UPC-A barcode pattern SLLLLLLMRRRRRRE

Quiet
zone

S
(start)

L
(left numerical digit)

M
(middle)

R
(right numerical digit)

E
(end)

Quiet
zone

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

The UPC-A's left-hand side digits (the digits to the left of the M (middle) guard pattern) have odd parity, which means the total width of the black bars is an odd number of modules. On the contrary, the right-hand side digits have even parity. Consequently, a UPC scanner can determine whether it is scanning a symbol from left-to-right or from right-to-left (the symbol is upside-down). After seeing a S (start) or E (end) guard pattern (they are the same, bar-space-bar, whichever direction they are read), the scanner will first see odd parity digits, if scanning left-to-right, or even parity digits, if scanning right-to-left. With the parity/direction information, an upside-down symbol will not confuse the scanner. When confronted with an upside-down symbol, the scanner may simply ignore it (many scanners alternate left-to-right and right-to-left scans, so they will read the symbol on a subsequent pass) or recognize the digits and put them in the right order. There is another property in the digit encoding. The right-hand side digits are the optical inverse of the left-hand side digits, i.e. black bars are turned into white spaces and vice versa. For example, the left-hand side "4" is space×1 - bar×1 - space×3 - bar×2, meanwhile the right-hand side "4" is bar×1 - space×1 - bar×3 - space×2.

Below is description of all possible number systems with corresponding 12-digit UPC-A numbering schema LLLLLLRRRRRR, where L denotes number system digit and R check digit.

0–1, 6–9

For most products. The LLLLL digits are the manufacturer code (assigned by local GS1 organization), and the RRRRR digits are the product code.

2

Reserved for local use (store/warehouse), for items sold by variable weight. Variable-weight items, such as meats, fresh fruits, or vegetables, are assigned an item number by the store, if they are packaged there. In this case, the LLLLL is the item number, and the RRRRR is either the weight or the price, with the first R determining which (0 for weight).

3

Drugs by National Drug Code (NDC) number. Pharmaceuticals in the U.S. use the middle 10 digits of the UPC as their NDC number. Though usually only over-the-counter drugs are scanned at point of sale, NDC-based UPCs are used on prescription drug packages and surgical products and, in this case, are commonly called UPN Codes.[12]

4

Reserved for local use (store/warehouse), often for loyalty cards or store coupons.

5

Coupons. The LLLLL digits are the manufacturer code, the first three RRR are a family code (set by manufacturer), and the next two RR are a coupon code, which determines the amount of the discount. These coupons can be doubled or tripled.

UPC-C is a 12-digit code with a product code and a check digit; not in common use.[14]

UPC-D is a variable length code (12 digits or more) with the 12th digit being the check digit. These versions are not in common use.

UPC-E is a 6-digit code, that has its equivalent in UPC-A 12-digit code with number system 0 or 1.

UPC-2 is a 2-digit supplement to the UPC used to indicate the edition of a magazine or periodical.

UPC-5 is a 5-digit supplement to the UPC used to indicate suggested retail price for books.

As the UPC becomes technologically obsolete, it is expected[by whom?] that UPC-B and UPC-C will disappear from common use by the 2010s. The UPC-D standard may be modified into EAN 2.0 or be phased out entirely.[citation needed]

To allow the use of UPC barcodes on smaller packages, where a full 12-digit barcode may not fit, a 'zero-suppressed' version of UPC was developed, called UPC-E, in which the number system digit, all trailing zeros in the manufacturer code, and all leading zeros in the product code, are suppressed (omitted).[15] This symbology differs from UPC-A in that it only uses a 6-digit code, does not use M (middle) guard pattern, and the E (end) guard pattern is formed as space-bar-space-bar-space-bar, i.e. UPC-E barcode follows the pattern SDDDDDDE. The way, in which a 6-digit UPC-E relates to a 12-digit UPC-A, is determined by UPC-E numerical pattern and UPC-E parity pattern. It can only correspond to UPC-A number system 0 or 1, the value of which, along with the UPC-A check digit, determines the UPC-E parity pattern of the encoding. With the manufacturer code digits represented by X's, and product code digits by N's, then:

Last UPC-E digit

UPC-E numerical pattern

UPC-A equivalent

0

XXNNN0

0 or 1 + XX000-00NNN + check digit

1

XXNNN1

0 or 1 + XX100-00NNN + check digit

2

XXNNN2

0 or 1 + XX200-00NNN + check digit

3

XXXNN3

0 or 1 + XXX00-000NN + check digit

4

XXXXN4

0 or 1 + XXXX0-0000N + check digit

5

XXXXX5

0 or 1 + XXXXX-00005 + check digit

6

XXXXX6

0 or 1 + XXXXX-00006 + check digit

7

XXXXX7

0 or 1 + XXXXX-00007 + check digit

8

XXXXX8

0 or 1 + XXXXX-00008 + check digit

9

XXXXX9

0 or 1 + XXXXX-00009 + check digit

For example, a UPC-E 654321 may correspond to the UPC-A 065100004327 or 165100004324, depending on the UPC-E parity pattern of the encoded digits, as described next:

UPC-A
check digit

UPC-E parity pattern for UPC-A

number system 0

UPC-E parity pattern for UPC-A

number system 1

0

EEEOOO

OOOEEE

1

EEOEOO

OOEOEE

2

EEOOEO

OOEEOE

3

EEOOOE

OOEEEO

4

EOEEOO

OEOOEE

5

EOOEEO

OEEOOE

6

EOOOEE

OEEEOO

7

EOEOEO

OEOEOE

8

EOEOOE

OEOEEO

9

EOOEOE

OEEOEO

Encoding table for UPC-E barcode pattern SDDDDDDE

S
(start)

O
(odd parity digit)

E
(even parity digit)

E
(end)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3-2-1-1

2-2-2-1

2-1-2-2

1-4-1-1

1-1-3-2

1-2-3-1

1-1-1-4

1-3-1-2

1-2-1-3

3-1-1-2

1-1-2-3

1-2-2-2

2-2-1-2

1-1-4-1

2-3-1-1

1-3-2-1

4-1-1-1

2-1-3-1

3-1-2-1

2-1-1-3

UPC-E 654321 with "EOEOEO" parity pattern (UPC-A 065100004327) would be encoded as

The EAN-13 was developed as a superset of UPC-A, adding an extra digit to the beginning of every UPC-A number. This expanded the number of unique values theoretically possible by ten times to 1 trillion. EAN-13 barcodes also indicate the country in which the company that sells the product is based (which may or may not be the same as the country in which the good is manufactured). The three leading digits of the code determine this, according to the GS1 country codes. Every UPC-A code can be easily converted to the equivalent EAN-13 code by prepending 0 digit to the UPC-A code. This does not change the check digit. All point-of-sale systems can now understand both equally.

^"Alumni Hall Of Fame Members". University of Maryland Alumni Association. The University of Maryland. 2005. Archived from the original on 2007-06-23. Retrieved 2009-06-10. After graduating from Maryland in 1951, George Laurer joined IBM as a junior engineer and worked up the ranks to senior engineer. In 1969, he returned to the technical side of engineering and was later assigned the monumental task of designing a code and symbol for product identification for the Uniform Grocery Product Code Council. His solution—the Universal Product Code—radically changed the retail world. Since then, he has enhanced the code by adding a 13th digit.

1.
Barcode
–
A barcode is an optical, machine-readable, representation of data, the data usually describes something about the object that carries the barcode. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines, later two-dimensional codes were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns in two dimensions, usually called barcodes although they do not use bars as such. Barcodes originally were scanned by special optical scanners called barcode readers, later applications software became available for devices that could read images, such as smartphones with cameras. An early use of one type of barcode in a context was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Two plates were used per car, one on side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment. The plates were read by a scanner, located for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard. The project was abandoned after ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use. Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems and their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture. The very first scanning of the now ubiquitous Universal Product Code barcode was on a pack of Wrigley Company chewing gum in June 1974, silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive, convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his fathers apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach, I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them. To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies and he later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994, in 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. IBM offered to buy the patent, but its offer was not high enough, philco purchased their patent in 1962 and then sold it to RCA sometime later. During his time as an undergraduate, David Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad, immediately after receiving his masters degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a six-digit company identifier, light reflected off the stripes was fed into one of two photomultipliers, filtered for blue or red. The Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads selected it as a standard, Automatic Car Identification, the installations began on 10 October 1967

2.
International Article Number (EAN)
–
EAN barcodes are used worldwide for lookup at retail point of sale, but can also be used as numbers for other purposes such as wholesale ordering or accounting. The most commonly used EAN standard is the thirteen-digit EAN-13, a superset of the original 12-digit Universal Product Code standard developed in 1970 by George J. Laurer, an EAN-13 number includes a 3-digit GS1 prefix. A prefix with a first digit of 0 indicates a 12-digit UPC-A code follows, a prefix with the first two digits of 45 or 49 indicates a Japanese Article Number follows. The less commonly used 8-digit EAN-8 barcode was introduced for use on small packages, 2-digit EAN-2 and 5-digit EAN-5 are supplemental barcodes, placed on the right-hand side of EAN-13 or UPC. These are generally used for periodicals like magazines or books, to indicate the current years issue number, note that EAN-13 codes beginning with 0 are actually 12-digit UPC codes with prepended 0 digit. In the last few years, more products sold by retailers outside United States and Canada have been using EAN-13 codes beginning with 0, the 020-029 GS1 Prefixes are worth a special mention. GS1 defines this as being available for internal use. Some retailers use this for proprietary products, although many retailers obtain their own code for their own brands. Other retailers use at least part of this prefix for products which are packaged in store, for example, in these cases, the barcode may encode a price, quantity or weight along with a product identifier - in a retailer defined way. The product identifier may be one assigned by the Produce Electronic Identification Board or may be retailer assigned, retailers who have historically used UPC barcodes tend to use GS1 prefixes starting with 02 for store-packaged products. This is informally known as Bookland, the prefix 979 with first digit 0 is used for International Standard Music Number and the prefix 977 indicates International Standard Serial Number. The manufacturer code is a code assigned to each manufacturer by the numbering authority indicated by the GS1 Prefix. All products produced by a company will use the same manufacturer code. EAN-13 uses what is called variable-length manufacturer codes, thus if a potential manufacturer knows that it is only going to produce a few products, EAN-13 may issue it a longer manufacturer code, leaving less space for the product code. This results in efficient use of the available manufacturer and product codes. The product code is assigned by the manufacturer, the product code immediately follows manufacturer code. The total length of manufacturer code plus product code should be 9 or 10 digits depending on the length of country code, the check digit is an additional digit, used to verify that a barcode has been scanned correctly. It is computed modulo 10, where the weights in the checksum calculation alternate 3 and 1, in particular, since the weights are relatively prime to 10, the EAN-13 system will detect all single digit errors

3.
Point of sale
–
The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth

4.
GS1
–
GS1 is an international non-profit organization. Until 2004 it was known as European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council and it has headquarters in Brussels and Princeton, New Jersey. GS1 standard barcoding is increasingly used in health systems around the world, a GS1 UK healthcare advisory board has been established. Not only equipment and supplies but also staff and patients are barcoded, the South Australia Department of Health decided to implement a GS1 procurement in 2007 linked to a tender for a master data management solution, which was implemented in 2016. EAN International was the office for the more than 100 Member Organizations around the world. In 2005 the organization changed its name to GS1, the Uniform Code Council was the Numbering Organization in the USA to administer and manage the EAN. UCC System. In 2005, the UCC changed its name to GS1 US, Global Trade Item Number Global EAN Party Information Register Electronic Data Interchange http, //www. gs1. org GS1 US entry on Guidestar. org

5.
Punched card
–
A punched card or punch card is a piece of stiff paper that can be used to contain digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. The information might be data for data processing applications or, in earlier examples, the terms IBM card, or Hollerith card specifically refer to punched cards used in semiautomatic data processing. Many early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, while punched cards are now obsolete as a recording medium, as of 2012, some voting machines still use punched cards to record votes. Basile Bouchon developed the control of a loom by punched holes in paper tape in 1725, in 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard demonstrated a mechanism to automate loom operation. A number of punched cards were linked into a chain of any length, each card held the instructions for shedding and selecting the shuttle for a single pass. It is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware, semen Korsakov was reputedly the first to use the punched cards in informatics for information store and search. Korsakov announced his new method and machines in September 1832, rather than seeking patents, charles Babbage proposed the use of Number Cards, pierced with certain holes and stand opposite levers connected with a set of figure wheels. Advanced they push in those levers opposite to which there are no holes on the card, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media, such as those above, had been for control, after some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards. Developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 US census, other companies entering the punched card business included the Powers Accounting Machine Company, Remington Rand, and Groupe Bull. Both IBM and Remington Rand tied punched card purchases to machine leases, in 1932, the US government took both to court on this issue. IBM viewed its business as providing a service and that the cards were part of the machine, IBM fought all the way to the Supreme Court and lost in 1936, the court ruling that IBM could only set card specifications. According to the IBM Archives, By 1937, IBM had 32 presses at work in Endicott, N. Y. printing, cutting and stacking five to 10 million punched cards every day. Punched cards were used as legal documents, such as U. S. Government checks. Punched card technology developed into a tool for business data-processing. By 1950 punched cards had become ubiquitous in industry and government, do not fold, spindle or mutilate, a generalized version of the warning that appeared on some punched cards, became a motto for the post-World War II era. In 1955 IBM signed a consent decree requiring, amongst other things, tom Watson Jr. s decision to sign this decree, where IBM saw the punched card provisions as the most significant point, completed the transfer of power to him from Thomas Watson, Sr. The UNITYPER introduced magnetic tape for data entry in the 1950s, during the 1960s, the punched card was gradually replaced as the primary means for data storage by magnetic tape, as better, more capable computers became available

6.
Norman Joseph Woodland
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Norman Joseph Woodland, also known as N. Joseph Woodland and N. J. Woodland was an American inventor, best known as one of the inventors of the barcode, for which he received a patent in October 1952. Later, employed by IBM, he developed the format became the ubiquitous Universal Product Code of product labeling. Woodland was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey on September 6,1921 to Jewish parents, after graduating from Atlantic City High School, Woodland did military service in World War II as a technical assistant with the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Woodland went on to earn his Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering from Drexel University in 1947, from 1948-1949, he worked as a lecturer in mechanical engineering at Drexel. The dean turned down the request, but Silver was interested enough to mention the problem to Woodland, after working on some preliminary ideas, Woodland was persuaded that they could create a viable product. Woodland took some stock market earnings, quit his teaching job, while at the beach, Woodland again considered the problem, recalling, from his Boy Scout training, how Morse code dots and dashes are used to send information electronically. He drew dots and dashes in the similar to the shapes used in Morse code. S. Patent 2,612,994 Classifying Apparatus and Method on October 7,1952, RCA went on to attempt to develop commercial applications through the 1960s until the patent expired in 1969. After RCA interested the National Association of Food Chains in 1969 in the idea, the first item scanned was a packet of chewing gum in an Ohio supermarket in 1974. Woodland died from the effects of Alzheimers disease on December 9,2012, in Edgewater, in 1973, IBM presented Woodland with their Outstanding Contribution Award. In 1992, he was awarded the National Medal of Technology from President George H. W. Bush for his contribution to barcode technology, in 1998 Woodland received an honorary degree from his alma mater, Drexel University. In 2011, Woodland was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame

7.
Drexel University
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Drexel University is a private research university with three campuses in Philadelphia. It was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a noted financier, founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming the name Drexel University in 1970. As of 2015, more than 26,000 students are enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 masters, doctoral, Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, by Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Anthony J. Drexel. The original mission of the institution was to provide opportunities in the practical arts. The institution became known as the Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, the central aspect of Drexel Universitys focus on career preparation, in the form of its cooperative education program, was introduced in 1919. The program became integral to the unique educational experience. Participating students alternate periods of classroom-based study with periods of full-time, practical work experience related to their academic major, Papadakis oversaw Drexels largest expansion in its history, with a 471 percent increase in its endowment and a 102 percent increase in student enrollment. His leadership also guided the university toward improved performance in collegiate rankings, a selective approach to admissions. It was during this period of expansion that Drexel acquired and assumed management of the former MCP Hahnemann University, in 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association. Dr. Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the universitys president and his successor, John Anderson Fry, was formerly the president of Franklin & Marshall College and served as the Executive Vice President of the University of Pennsylvania. Under Frys leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences, the College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together. The College of Media Arts and design fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts, media, design, the performing and visual. The college offers sixteen undergraduate programs, and 6 graduate programs, in art and design fields that range from graphic design and dance to fashion design. The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, the LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation. Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the Financial Times, the part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of Business Insiders rankings. Undergraduate and graduate programs are ranked 19th in the country by the Princeton Review. Economics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics, in addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to a recently launched M. S. in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics. Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the American Economic Review, Rand Journal of Economics, the school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade

8.
Railroad
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany

9.
Automatic equipment identification
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Automatic equipment identification is an electronic recognition system in use with the North American railroad industry. Consisting of passive tags mounted on each side of rolling stock and active trackside readers, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. Through the efforts of the Association of American Railroads, a number of companies developed automatic car identification systems, the AAR selected four systems for extensive field tests. General Electric developed an RFID system, ABEX a microwave system, Wabco a black and white barcode system, the RFID system used a tag mounted under the rail car and an interrogator installed between the rails. The other three systems had labels that were mounted on each side of the car and a trackside scanner. After the initial tests, the ABEX, Wabco. The KarTrak system was declared the winner and selected by the AAR as the standard, the KarTrak system was abandoned by the late 1970s. Because of this failure, the industry did not seriously search for another system to identify rail cars until the mid-1980s. Burlington Northern was the first railroad in North America to renew the search for an identification system. BN had been following the efforts of various maritime shipping companies, such as American President Lines. Based on the companies success with RF-based identification systems, Burlington Northern began a testing program in 1986. Burlington Northern initially asked nine vendors to present their identification systems, from this group of nine, Burlington Northern selected two systems for full scale testing. The two vendors selected were General Railway Signal and Union Switch & Signal, the US&S system is manufactured by Amtech Corporation of Dallas, Texas. In January,1988, Burlington Northern equipped 1,500 taconite rail cars in northern Minnesota each with a GRS, each vendor also installed three wayside reader sites. All tags were mounted on the sides of the rail cars, in August,1988, the Burlington Northern Railroad presented a report on the results of their testing at the AAR Communication and Signal Annual Meeting. They stated that the accuracy of both systems over a period was in excess of 99. 99%. A committee was formed by the AAR, charged with the development of an AEI standard, in August,1989, the AAR informed various identification system vendors that Amtechs identification technology had been selected as the AEI standard. By the fall of 1989, the AARs AEI Committee had selected a technology, the only major question still unresolved was whether to place tags on the sides of the rail cars or underneath, each approach having advantages and disadvantages in cost and maintainability

10.
KarTrak
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KarTrak, sometimes KarTrak ACI is a colored bar code system designed to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. KarTrak was made a requirement in North America, but technical problems led to abandonment of the system in the late 1970s, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. Through the efforts of the Association of American Railroads, a number of companies developed Automatic equipment identification systems, the AAR selected four systems for extensive field tests. General Electric developed an RFID system, ABEX a microwave system, Wabco a black and white barcode system, all those systems, except the RFID system, had labels that were mounted on each side of the rail car and a trackside scanner. After the initial tests, the ABEX, Wabco. The KarTrak system was declared the winner and selected by the AAR as the standard, starting in 1967 all railcar owners were required by the AAR to install ACI labels on their cars. This requirement led to implementation of the ACI system in the early 1970s. By 1975 90% of all railcars were labeled, the read rate was about 80%, which means that after seven years of service 10% of the labels had failed for reasons such as physical damage and dirt accumulation. The dirt accumulation was most evident on flatcars that had low-mounted labels, the AAR had recognized from their field tests that periodic inspection and label maintenance would be requirements to maintain a high level of label readability. Regulations were instituted for label inspection and repair whenever a railcar was in the repair shop, unfortunately the maintenance program never gained sufficient compliance. Without maintenance the read rate failed to improve, and the KarTrak system was abandoned by 1977, because of this failure, the railroad industry did not seriously search for another system to identify rail cars until the mid-1980s. KarTrak ACI tags consisted of a plate with 13 horizontal labels, in addition to the labels for numbers 0-9, three special labels existed, start and stop labels to mark the beginning and end of the code, and 10 as a check label. The labels each are 5 3/4 wide and 1 high, and have a 3/8 vertical gap between them, labels could be affixed directly to the car side, but usually were applied to a dark plate which was then riveted to each side of the car. The labels are to be read from top to bottom, Line 13 - check digit, lines 6 to 11 - car number. Lines 2 to 5 - equipment owner code, the first digit of the equipment owner marks the type of equipment,0 for railroad-owned,1 for privately owned or 6 for non-revenue equipment. The car number is padded with zeroes if necessary, for locomotives, line 6 is the type of unit and line seven the suffix number. The parity check digit is calculated as follows, Each number digit is multiplied by two to the power of. Thus the first digit is multiplied by 1, the second by 2, the third by 4, the sum of all these numbers modulo 11 is the check digit

11.
Railroad car
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A railroad car or railcar, railway wagon or railway carriage, also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system. Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units. The term car is used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses bogie in the manner, though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, railcar is a term for a railway vehicle, in other countries railcar refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another, alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front. If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other. In some vehicles intended for services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, if the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened, or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided, other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is converted to one of these for an event. Observation cars were built for the rear of many trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. Sleeping cars outfitted with small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, in the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone. Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars, an example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner. A trainset is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created ad hoc out of cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled on shed, trains are then built of one or more of these sets coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train

12.
GS1 US
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GS1 US is the GS1 Member Organization in the United States of America. It was formerly the Uniform Code Council, Inc, GS1 US is responsible for managing the GS1 System in the USA. GS1 US assigns GS1 Company Prefixes to companies/organizations in the USA, the most common use of a GS1 US assigned GS1 Company Prefix is the creation of Universal Product Codes or UPCs, which contain a 12-digit Global Trade Item Number. GS1 US publishes the following Electronic Data Interchange guidelines based on the ANSI ASC X12 standard, Industrial/Commercial EDI, Uniform Communication Standard, GS1 US is also the code manager for the United Nations Standard Products and Services Code

13.
McKinsey & Company
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McKinsey & Company is a worldwide management consulting firm. It conducts qualitative and quantitative analysis in order to evaluate management decisions across the public, widely considered the most prestigious management consultancy, McKinseys clientele includes 80% of the worlds largest corporations, and an extensive list of governments and non-profit organizations. More current and former Fortune 500 C. E. O. s are alumni of McKinsey than of any other company, James P. Gorman, and many more. McKinsey publishes the McKinsey Quarterly, funds the McKinsey Global Institute research organization, publishes reports on management topics and its practices of confidentiality, influence on business practices, and corporate culture have experienced a polarizing reception. McKinsey was founded in 1926 by James O. McKinsey in order to apply accounting principles to management, McKinsey died in 1937, and the firm was restructured several times, with the modern-day McKinsey & Company emerging in 1939. Marvin Bower is credited with establishing McKinseys culture and practices in the 1930s based on the principles he experienced as a lawyer, the firm developed an up or out policy, where consultants who are not promoted are asked to leave. McKinsey was the first management consultancy to hire recent college graduates, in the 1980s and 1990s, the firm expanded internationally and established new practice areas. It had 88 staff in 1951 and 7,700 by the early 2000s, McKinseys consulting has helped to establish many of the norms in business and contributed to many of the major successes and failures in business in the modern era. McKinsey & Company was founded under the name James O. McKinsey & Company in 1926 by James McKinsey and he conceived the idea after witnessing inefficiencies in military suppliers while working for the U. S. Army Ordnance Department. The firm called itself an accounting and management firm and started out giving consulting on using accounting principles as a management tool, Mr. McKinseys first partners were Tom Kearney, hired in 1929, and Marvin Bower, hired in 1933. In its first few years, the firm grew quickly and began developing rapport among corporations, in 1935, Mr. McKinsey left the firm temporarily to serve as the Chairman and CEO of client Marshall Fields as it implemented the restructuring plan created by his firm. A Wellington project that accounted for 55 percent of McKinsey, Wellington & Companys billings was about to expire and Kearney, Bower wanted to expand nationally and hire young business school graduates, whereas Kearney wanted to stay in Chicago and hire experienced accountants. Additionally, in 1937 James O. McKinsey died after catching pneumonia and this led to the division of McKinsey, Wellington & Company in 1939. The accounting practice returned to Scovell, Wellington & Company, while the management engineering practice was split into McKinsey & Company, the New York office purchased exclusive rights to the McKinsey name in 1946. McKinsey & Company grew quickly in the 1940s and 50s, especially in Europe and it had 88 staff in 1951 and more than 200 by the 1960s, including 37 in London by 1966. In the same year, McKinsey had six offices in major US cities like San Francisco, Los Angeles and these foreign offices were primarily in Europe, such as in London, Paris, Amsterdam, as well as in Melbourne. By this time, one third of the companys revenues originated from its European offices, guy Crockett stepped down as managing director in 1950, and Marvin Bower was elected in his place. McKinseys profit-sharing, executive and planning committees were formed in 1951, the organizations client base expanded especially among governments, defense contractors, bluechip companies and military organizations in the post-World War II era

14.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360

15.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records

16.
DYMO Corporation
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Following is a list of the label sizes popular for their LabelWriter printer series, Dymo Industries, Inc. was founded in 1958 to produce handheld tools that use embossing tape. The company was acquired by Esselte in 1978 and battery-powered printers became a product after 1990. The corporation was sold to Newell Rubbermaid in 2005, DYMO DiscPainter DYMO Homepage DYMO Romanian Branch Homepage

17.
George J. Laurer
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George Joseph Laurer developed the Universal Product Code in 1973. As an engineer at IBM, he was asked to develop the pattern used for the Universal Product Code, a 36-year veteran of the International Business Machines Corporation who retired in June 1987, George Laurer is the holder of 25 patents. He is also the author of 20 published Technical Disclosure Bulletins, during his career, IBM recognized and rewarded him for many technical innovations. He received the prestigious “Raleigh, N. C, inventor of the Year” award in 1976. Before joining IBM, he received the B. S. in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland in 1951 and he came to the University after having served in World War II and attending a technical school to learn radio and TV repair. Upon completion of his first year at the school, his instructor convinced him that he should not continue that course of study. Today, Laurer lives in Wendell, North Carolina, the Universal Product Code has bit patterns at the beginning, middle, and end of the barcode called guard bars. Laurer is often asked about the resemblance of these guard bars to the coding of the numeral 6, some people see the three sets of guard bars as encoding the number 666, which some fundamentalist Christians see as a sign of evil. Laurer addresses this on his website, Answer- Yes, they do RESEMBLE the code for a six and it is simply a coincidence like the fact that my first, middle, and last name all have 6 letters. There is no connection with an international money code either, david Savir, George J. Laurer, The Characteristics and Decodability of the Universal Product Code. IBM Systems Journal 14, 16-34 George J. Laurers personal web site, innovation Hall of Fame Inductees, Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland in 1991. Alumni UMD Hall Of Fame Members in 2000

18.
Marsh Supermarkets
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Marsh Supermarkets is a retail food chain headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, with stores throughout Central Indiana and parts of western Ohio. Its parent company is Sun Capital Partners, headquartered in Boca Raton, founded in 1931 in Muncie, the company went public in 1953 and has since grown to 97 locations. Of the 97 locations,69 are marketed as Marsh Supermarkets, the companys founder, Ermal Marsh, was able to hold together his first store throughout the Great Depression and World War II. After the war ended, Ermal expanded his store into Marsh Foodliners, in 1952, Ermal had built the first warehouse distribution center for Marsh Supermarkets in Yorktown, Indiana. Within that same year, Marsh stores also introduced their own brand of ice cream. In 1953 when the company went public, Ermal had an operation of 16 Marsh Supermarkets, in August 1959 a horrific plane crash near the city of Logansport, Indiana, took the life of Ermal Marsh. Estel Marsh, Ermals brother, was given the title of president of the company. Under Estel Marsh, the name of the company was changed from Marsh Foodliners to Marsh Supermarkets in 1960, adapting to a rising trend, Marsh Supermarkets decided to open a new wave of convenience stores across Indiana. In 1966, the very first Village Pantry store and gas station was opened, in 1968 as Marsh Supermarkets continued to grow, Estel Marsh was promoted to Chairman of the Board. This promotion cleared the way for Don Marsh, the son of Ermal Marsh. As president, Don was able to be a front-runner in Marshs progression and adaptation to new technologies, one of Marshs most distinguishing features has been its innovation and early adoption of retail technology. On June 26,1974, a Marsh location in Troy, Ohio, the first item scanned was a ten piece pack of gum. The first print mention of this program was in the April 1994 issue of the Indianapolis Recorder, in conjunction with this program, Marsh became the first supermarket chain in the region to offer a co-branded Visa card the following year. Also, Marsh Fresh Express gave way to home delivery. Through Marsh Fresh Express, a customer can buy their groceries over the phone or internet, in 1991, major changes came to Marsh Supermarkets. The company headquarters moved to a new location along Interstate 69 in Fishers, Marsh also released a new plan to re-format the stores, known as the Supermarket of the Future campaign. This new format made Marsh Supermarket stores open 24 hours, seven days a week, also, a full-service pharmacy was implemented, along with a help-yourself style food court which contained food items ranging from salads to sushi, as well as a bagel shop and espresso bar. In store banks were installed, as well as Fieldings Playhouse for toddlers, a New York Style Pizzeria

19.
Troy, Ohio
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Troy is a city in and the county seat of Miami County, Ohio, United States. The population was 25,058 at the 2010 census, making it the largest city in the county, Troy is home to an annual Strawberry Festival the first weekend in June. A post office called Troy has been in operation since 1824, Troy was one of the cities impacted by severe flooding in the Great Flood of 1913. Troy is located at 40°2′30″N 84°12′31″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.94 square miles, of which 11.72 square miles is land and 0.22 square miles is water. Income tax,1. 75% City of Troy 1. 50% Troy City School District The D08 parcel code tax district is for a 1. 75% income tax to the City of Troy and a 1. 50% income tax to the Troy City School District. The 1. 50% School District Income Tax was passed in the 2006 General Election by a vote of 52. 28% FOR to 47. 72% AGAINST, all residents and part year residents over the age of 18 must file. All tax filers must declare estimated income tax and pay quarterly payments if tax is due, as of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $39,531, and the median income for a family was $46,889. Males had an income of $35,819 versus $25,536 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,892, about 6. 4% of families and 8. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 8% of those under age 18 and 6. 4% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 25,058 people,10,353 households, the population density was 2,138.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,166 housing units at a density of 952.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 90. 1% White,4. 2% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 4% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 8% of the population. 30. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 36.9 years. 25. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 1% were from 25 to 44,25. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 7% male and 51. 3% female, the City of Troy is a Statutory form of Government, as described in Ohio Revised Code Sections 731 and 733. General statutory law is the form of government of municipalities if the electorate has not adopted, by vote, in addition to a Council, a Mayor, President of Council and three principal administrators are chosen by the electorate. The daily operations of the City are administered by the Mayor, the City of Troy has a Service and Safety Director who reports to and is appointed by the Mayor

20.
Wrigley's
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It is wholly owned by Mars, Incorporated. It is currently the largest manufacturer and marketer of chewing gum in the world, in 1892, Wrigley Jr. began packaging chewing gum with each can of baking powder. The chewing gum eventually became more popular than the baking powder, in 2005, Wrigley purchased Life Savers and Altoids from Kraft Foods for US$1.5 billion. On January 23,2007, Wrigley signed an agreement to acquire an 80% initial interest in A. Korkunov for $300 million with the remaining 20% to be acquired over time. On April 28,2008, Mars announced that it would acquire Wrigley for approximately $23 billion, financing for the transaction was provided by Berkshire Hathaway, Goldman Sachs and JPMorgan, Berkshire Hathaway held a minority equity investment in Wrigley until October 2016. The company headquarted in the GIC in 2012 since, in 1891, 29-year-old William Wrigley Jr. came to Chicago from Philadelphia with $32 and the idea to start a business selling Wrigleys Scouring Soap. Wrigley offered premiums as an incentive to buy his soap, such as baking powder, later in his career, he switched to the baking powder business, in which he began offering two packages of chewing gum for each purchase of a can of baking powder. The popular premium, chewing gum, began to more promising. Wrigley also became the majority owner of the Chicago Cubs in 1921, after the death of William Wrigley Jr. his son Philip K. Wrigley assumed his fathers position as CEO of the Wrigley Company. Wrigley launched the Remember this Wrapper ad campaign to keep the Wrigley brands on the minds of the customers during times of wartime rationing, in 1961, Philip K. Wrigley handed control to his son, William Wrigley III. Wrigley led a global expansion through the establishment of Wrigley facilities in nine new countries. On June 26,1974, a Marsh Supermarket in Troy, the first product to be scanned using a Universal Product Code bar code was a 10-pack of Wrigleys Juicy Fruit gum. William Bill Wrigley IV, following the death of Wrigley III, led the sugar-free gum campaign across Europe, Australia, Spain, India, and China. In 2005, Kraft Foods sold the Life Savers and Altoids businesses to Wrigley in exchange for $1.5 billion as part of a reorganization plan, Wrigley led the establishment of the Wrigley Science Institute in 2006 to study the oral health benefits of gum chewing. The WSI investigates the effects of gum chewing on weight management, stress relief, concentration, on October 23,2006, William D. Perez succeeded Bill Wrigley as CEO. He was the first person outside the Wrigley family to head the company, in 2007, the company debuted 5 Gum in the US. The 5 Gum brand was marketed using cinematic TV commercials portraying What it feels like to chew 5 Gum, Perez led the efforts of improving slimmer packaging with flavor improvements across both Extra and Wrigley brands. Dushan Petrovich succeeded Perez almost immediately after Mars, Incorporateds 2008 purchase of Wrigley, in 2009, Wrigleys Global Innovation Center received the LEED Gold Certification through Wrigleys commitment to global sustainability

21.
Juicy Fruit
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Juicy Fruit is a flavor of chewing gum made by the Wrigley Company, a U. S. company that since 2008 has been a subsidiary of the privately held Mars, Incorporated. It was introduced in 1893, and in the 21st century the name is recognized by 99 percent of Americans. According to two books in the Imponderables series, peach is one crucial flavor among many others and it is likely that the chemical used for flavoring is isoamyl acetate, a carboxylic ester. Each stick of gum weighs 3 grams and contains 10 Calories, the average age of the typical Juicy Fruit consumer is under 20, with 3- to 11-year-olds making up the heart of the business, those 20 years old and over account for 40 percent of the purchases. Sean Payton, head coach of the New Orleans Saints of the NFL is well known for requesting a Juicy Fruit in the middle of games, Juicy Fruit have just released a Sweet Flavors Kiwi-Strawberry flavor. They have also released Juicy Fruit Desserts, there are 4 variations of Desserts, Orange Creme Pop, Strawberry Shortcake, Lemon Square and Apple Pie. Juicy Fruit also has released Juicy Secret and Juicy Riddle which are both sugar free, beginning in 2015, Juicy Fruit released two new flavors based on Starburst candy, Strawberry and Cherry. Juicy Fruit gum consists mostly of sugar contained in a gum base. When the brand first entered the market, it was packaged simply, with a wrapper and JUICY FRUIT in red. In 1914, Wrigley changed it to thin vertical white and green stripes with Wrigleys Juicy Fruit Chewing Gum centered in a stylized Maltese Cross emblem with a black background. Juicy Fruit was taken off of the civilian market temporarily during World War II because of ingredient shortages, the bright yellow background remained into the 21st century, with variations since 2002 turning the arrowhead-like chevrons into the corners of an elongated smile under the brand name. Juicy Fruit is still popular today. In 2003 in the United States, Wrigleys replaced some of the sugar in Juicy Fruit with two artificial sweeteners, aspartame and Ace K, in 2009, Wrigleys started selling a sugar-free version of Juicy Fruit. Grapefruit—Juicy Fruit is a written and performed by American popular music singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett. It was first released on his 1973 album A White Sport Coat, the single reached #23 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart in September 1973. Juicy Fruit is mentioned in the Regina Spektor song Wallet, from her album Far and it is referenced in the film One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Chief Bromden, Mmm, Juicy Fruit. It also features in the 1983 song Juicy Fruit by Mtume, Juicy Fruit, the official website for the brand. Juicy Fruit at the Wrigleys website

22.
NCR Corporation
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They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR had been based in Dayton, Ohio, starting in 1884, NCR was founded in 1884 and acquired by AT&T in 1991. A restructuring of AT&T in 1996 led to NCRs re-establishment January 1,1997 as a separate company, NCR is the only AT&T spin-off company that has retained its original name—all the others have either been purchased or renamed following subsequent mergers. The company began as the National Manufacturing Company of Dayton, Ohio, was established to manufacture, in 1884, the company and patents were bought by John Henry Patterson and his brother Frank Jefferson Patterson, and the firm was renamed the National Cash Register Company. Patterson formed NCR into one of the first modern American companies by introducing new, aggressive sales methods and he established the first sales training school in 1893 and introduced a comprehensive social welfare program for his factory workers. Other significant figures in the history of the company were Charles F. Kettering, Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Deeds and Kettering went on to found Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company which later became Delco Products Division of General Motors, Watson eventually worked his way up to general sales manager. At an uninspiring sales meeting, Watson interrupted, saying The trouble with one of us is that we dont think enough. We dont get paid for working with our feet — we get paid for working with our heads, Watson then wrote THINK on the easel. Signs with this motto were erected in factory buildings, sales offices, THINK later became a widely known symbol of IBM. Kettering designed the first cash register powered by a motor in 1906. Within a few years he developed the Class 1000 register which was in production for 40 years, telephone Credit Authorization system for verifying credit in department stores. When John H. Patterson and his brother took over the company, cash registers were expensive, there was little demand for the expensive device, but Patterson believed the product would sell once shopkeepers understood it would drastically decrease theft by salesclerks. He created a team known as the American Selling Force which worked on commissions and followed a standard sales script. The philosophy was to sell a business rather than just a piece of machinery. Sales demonstrations were set up in hotels depicting a store interior complete with real merchandise, the sale prospect was described as the P. P. or Probable Purchaser. Once initial objections were swept aside and the P. P. admitted to internal theft losses, the deal was sealed with a 25 cent cigar. NCR expanded quickly and became multi-national in 1888, between 1893 and 1906 it acquired a number of smaller cash register companies

23.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

24.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals

25.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

26.
Research Triangle Park
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The Research Triangle Park is one of the largest research parks in the world. It is named for the three hub cities of Durham, Raleigh, and Chapel Hill, or more properly for the three major universities in those three cities. The Research Triangle region of North Carolina received its name as an extension of the name of the park, approximately one fourth of the parks territory lies in Wake County, but the majority of its land is in Durham County. RTP is one of the most prominent high-tech research and development parks in the United States and it was created in 1959 by state and local governments, nearby universities, and local business interests. Karl Robbins bought the land where the park is now built, the park covers 7,000 acres situated in a pine forest with 22,500,000 square feet of built space. The park is traversed by Interstate 40, the Durham Freeway and it is managed by the Research Triangle Foundation, a private non-profit organization. The park hosts one of GlaxoSmithKlines largest R&D centers with approximately 5,000 employees, cisco Systems campus in RTP, with approximately 5,000 employees, is the second highest concentration of its employees outside of its Silicon Valley corporate headquarters. The park is an area, and state law prohibits municipalities from annexing areas within the park. The park has special zoning as a Research Applications District in the Wake County portion, as of October 2012, both zoning areas are in the process of being revised to allow higher density development. The zoning changes are coupled with legislative changes allowing for Urban Research Service Districts within the Park and these newly permitted URSDs could levy taxes at the same rate as a neighboring city. On October 1,2015, President and CEO of the Research Triangle Foundation, Bob Geolas, Park Center is to be over 300,000 square feet of public space at the heart of the Research Triangle Park. This public area will include retail outlets, food and beverage venues, Geolas states that “We want to make all of this as local as possible. I would like to have as few chains, no chains if we could, i’d love for it all to be local. Local coffee, local food, local produce, local products. ”The redevelopment plans also include exploring partnerships with regional transit groups, the hope of the Research Triangle Foundation is to broaden public transportation to and from the area. According to Geolas, “We are currently having discussions about bringing the Regional Transit Center over to Park Center so that we can connect all of our transit links. ”A public commuter rail is also in talks. The Research Triangle Park Foundation operates three buildings within RTP and these three buildings are The Frontier, The Lab, and The Archie K. Davis Conference Center. The Frontier is an innovative collaboration space that was first opened in January 2015, since its inception, over 20,000 visitors have come through The Frontiers doors. The Lab is a lab and office space that houses multiple Research

27.
Rochester, Minnesota
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Rochester is a city in the U. S. State of Minnesota and is the county seat of Olmsted County. Located on the Zumbro Rivers south fork, the city has a population of 106,769 according to the 2010 United States Census, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that the 2015 population was 112,225. It is Minnesotas third-largest city and the largest city located outside of the Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington Metropolitan Statistical Area, as of 2015, the Rochester metropolitan area has a population of 213,873. It is the home of Mayo Clinic and one of IBMs largest facilities, Rochester was founded in 1854, and platted in 1855. Rochester developed as a stop between Saint Paul, Minnesota, and Dubuque, Iowa. When the railroad arrived in the 1860s, it brought new residents, in 1863, Dr. William W. Mayo arrived as the examining surgeon for draftees in the Civil War. The community was named after Rochester, New York, on August 21,1883, the Great Tornado demolished much of Rochester, leaving 37 dead and about 200 injured. As there was no medical facility at the time, Mayo, donations of $60,000 were collected and the Sisters of St. Francis, assisted by Mayo, opened a new facility named St. Marys Hospital in 1889. The Mayo practice grew and is today among the largest and most well-respected medical facilities in the world, Rochester has also been hit by two F4 tornadoes since 1950 Rochester celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2004. Rochester lies alongside the South Fork of the Zumbro River, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 54.75 square miles, of which 54.59 square miles of it is land and 0.16 square miles is water. The city is located 85 miles southeast of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Rochester is in Olmsted County, one of only four counties in Minnesota without a natural lake. Artificial lakes exist in the area, including Silver Lake, a portion of the South Fork Zumbro River just below the convergence with Silver Creek near the city center. Silver Lake was once used as a pond when the coal-burning power plant was operated by Rochester Public Utilities. When operational, the RPU coal plants heated water output prevented the lake from generally freezing over during the winter months, Rochester has many parks, the largest being Silver Lake and Soldiers Field. A major flood in 1978 led the city to embark on an expensive project that involved altering many nearby rivers. Rochester features a continental climate, with hot summers and very cold winters. The city features four distinct seasons, Rochester sees on average 30 inches of rainfall and 48 inches of snowfall per year. Significant snow accumulation is common during the winter months, spring and fall are transitional seasons, with a general warming trend during the spring and a general cooling trend during the fall

28.
Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets

29.
Over-the-counter drug
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In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physicians care. OTC drugs are regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients, not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures. The term over-the-counter may be somewhat counterintuitive, since, in many countries, in contrast, prescription drugs are almost always passed over a counter from the pharmacist to the customer. Some drugs may be classified as over-the-counter, but may only be dispensed by a pharmacist after an assessment of the patients needs or the provision of patient education. In many countries, a number of OTC drugs are available in establishments without a pharmacy, such as stores, supermarkets. Regulations detailing the establishments where drugs may be sold, who is authorized to dispense them, as of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U. S. reportedly use OTC drugs. In Canada, there are four drug schedules, Schedule 1, Schedule 2, Do not require a prescription, but require an assessment by a pharmacist prior to sale. These drugs are kept in an area of the pharmacy where there is no public access, Schedule 3, Do not require a prescription, but must be kept in an area under the supervision of a pharmacist. These drugs are kept in an area of the outlet where self-selection is possible. Unscheduled, Do not require a prescription and may be sold in any retail outlet, all medications outside of Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, due to this, the exact drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product, examples are domperidone,400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. The drugs are usually on the shelves and the store sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential, examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine,400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances is regulated by the Food, the FDA requires that all new drugs obtain a New Drug Application before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective from this requirement. Thus, in the United States an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either pursuant to an FDA monograph, the Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products. This is in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA, the FDA requires that OTC products are labeled with an approved Drug Facts label to educate consumers about their medications

30.
Loyalty card
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Loyalty programs are structured marketing strategies designed by merchants to encourage customers to continue to shop at or use the services of businesses associated with each program. These programs exist covering most types of business, each one having varying features, Loyalty cards relate to the loyalty business model. Cards typically have a barcode, magstripe or RFID chip that can be easily scanned, small keyring cards which serve as key fobs bring convenience in carrying and ease of access. By presenting such a card, purchasers typically earn the right either to a discount on the current purchase, hence the card is the visible means of implementing a type of what economists call a two-part tariff. Application forms for cards usually entail agreements by the store concerning customer privacy, the store uses aggregate data internally as part of its marketing research. Over time the data can reveal, for example, a given customers favorite brand of beer, or whether he or she is a vegetarian. One can regard loyalty programs as a form of centralized virtual currency, one with unidirectional cash flow, since reward points can be exchanged into a good or service, b2B loyalty programs reward businesses for their purchase of goods and services from suppliers. For information on historical loyalty programs, see Loyalty marketing history, in the U. S. several major supermarket and fish market chains, and the three major pharmacy chains, require the cards in order for customers to receive the advertised loyalty price. Many retailers allow accumulation of fuel discounts, some have tie-ins with airline frequent-flyer programs, and some agree to donate a percentage of sales to a designated charity. Most notably, Walmart does not have a loyalty card plan though anyone who purchases a gift card can generally get a 3 cent discount per gallon of gas at the stations located on Walmart premises. The practice is common among book and music retailers, from large chains to independent retailers, Best Buy and Sears offer loyalty programs that offer points redeemable for dollar-amount discounts after accumulating a set number of points along with other discounts from time to time. Independent hardware stores such as Ace Hardware and True Value added customer loyalty programs in order to more effectively against larger chains as well as gather customer data. Customers with an association with a particular brand feel benefits for being part of the program, aces program also offers customers a way at the time of purchase to get items at a price which would normally require completing a mail-in rebate. Almost all major chains have cards that allow guests to earn either points or airline miles. All major U. S. airlines also offer rewards credit cards, other travel related reward programs include SeaMiles, with points that can be redeemed for cruises. Some American retailers have not implemented club cards, including grocery stores Whole Foods, Publix, between 2007 and 2013, Albertsons, Shaws, Acme Markets, and Jewel-Osco eliminated their loyalty cards in favor of discounts for all shoppers. Max & Ermas has a loyalty program called Good Neighbor Rewards, customers are rewarded based on their number of visits by either 5%, 10%, or 15% and are periodically given additional rewards by way of free items added to their loyalty card electronically. Truck stop chain Pilot Travel Centers program Driver Payback Points rewards truck drivers for fueling up by giving them points that can be used for purchase inside the store

31.
Coupon
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In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product. Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of packaged goods or by retailers. They are often distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet, directly from the retailer. In addition, coupons can also be targeted selectively to regional markets in which competition is great. In government, a coupon is a certificate used to administer a benefit or permission. The word is of French origin, pronounced, in Britain, the United States, and Canada it is pronounced /ˈkuːpɒn/ KOO-pon. A common alternate American pronunciation is /ˈkjuːpɑːn/ CUE-pahn, in 1886, The Coca-Cola Company was incorporated in Atlanta, Georgia, with Asa Candler as one of the partners. He transformed Coca-Cola from an insignificant tonic into a business by using advertising techniques. Candlers marketing included having the companys employees and sales representatives distribute complimentary coupons for Coca-Cola, coupons were mailed to potential customers and placed in magazines. The company gave soda fountains free syrup to cover the costs of the free drinks and it is estimated that between 1894 and 1913 one in nine Americans had received a free Coca-Cola, for a total of 8,500,000 free drinks. By 1895 Candler announced to shareholders that Coca-Cola was served in state in the United States. In Australia consumers first came in contact with couponing when a company called Shop A Docket promoted offers, a timeline for the history of coupons,1888 – Asa Candler used paper tickets for free glasses of Coke to help market his new soda 1909 – C. W.8 billion shopping with coupons 2009 – The U. S, coupons can be used to research the price sensitivity of different groups of buyers. In addition, it is assumed that buyers who take the effort to collect. Therefore, the price paid by price-insensitive buyers can be increased. Grocery coupons come in two types, store coupons and manufacturers coupons. Store coupons are coupon-based discounts offered for an item or group of items. The issuing store will accept its own store coupons, but some stores will also accept store coupons that are issued by competitors, coupons issued by the manufacturer of a product may be used at any coupon-accepting store that carries that product

32.
Even and odd numbers
–
Parity is a mathematical term that describes the property of an integers inclusion in one of two categories, even or odd. An integer is even if it is divisible by two and odd if it is not even. For example,6 is even there is no remainder when dividing it by 2. By contrast,3,5,7,21 leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2, examples of even numbers include −4,0,8, and 1738. In particular, zero is an even number, some examples of odd numbers are −5,3,9, and 73. Parity does not apply to non-integer numbers and this classification applies only to integers, i. e. non-integers like 1/2,4.201, or infinity are neither even nor odd. The sets of even and odd numbers can be defined as following and that is, if the last digit is 1,3,5,7, or 9, then it is odd, otherwise it is even. The same idea will work using any even base, in particular, a number expressed in the binary numeral system is odd if its last digit is 1 and even if its last digit is 0. In an odd base, the number is according to the sum of its digits – it is even if. The following laws can be verified using the properties of divisibility and they are a special case of rules in modular arithmetic, and are commonly used to check if an equality is likely to be correct by testing the parity of each side. As with ordinary arithmetic, multiplication and addition are commutative and associative in modulo 2 arithmetic, however, subtraction in modulo 2 is identical to addition, so subtraction also possesses these properties, which is not true for normal integer arithmetic. The structure is in fact a field with just two elements, the division of two whole numbers does not necessarily result in a whole number. For example,1 divided by 4 equals 1/4, which is neither even nor odd, since the concepts even, but when the quotient is an integer, it will be even if and only if the dividend has more factors of two than the divisor. The ancient Greeks considered 1, the monad, to be neither odd nor fully even. It is this, that two relatively different things or ideas there stands always a third, in a sort of balance. Thus, there is here between odd and even numbers one number which is neither of the two, similarly, in form, the right angle stands between the acute and obtuse angles, and in language, the semi-vowels or aspirants between the mutes and vowels. A thoughtful teacher and a pupil taught to think for himself can scarcely help noticing this, integer coordinates of points in Euclidean spaces of two or more dimensions also have a parity, usually defined as the parity of the sum of the coordinates. For instance, the cubic lattice and its higher-dimensional generalizations

33.
Modulo operation
–
In computing, the modulo operation finds the remainder after division of one number by another. Given two positive numbers, a and n, a n is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n. Although typically performed with a and n both being integers, many computing systems allow other types of numeric operands, the range of numbers for an integer modulo of n is 0 to n −1. See modular arithmetic for an older and related convention applied in number theory, when either a or n is negative, the naive definition breaks down and programming languages differ in how these values are defined. In mathematics, the result of the operation is the remainder of the Euclidean division. Computers and calculators have various ways of storing and representing numbers, usually, in number theory, the positive remainder is always chosen, but programming languages choose depending on the language and the signs of a or n. Standard Pascal and ALGOL68 give a positive remainder even for negative divisors, a modulo 0 is undefined in most systems, although some do define it as a. Despite its widespread use, truncated division is shown to be inferior to the other definitions, when the result of a modulo operation has the sign of the dividend, it can lead to surprising mistakes. For special cases, on some hardware, faster alternatives exist, optimizing compilers may recognize expressions of the form expression % constant where constant is a power of two and automatically implement them as expression &. This can allow writing clearer code without compromising performance and this optimization is not possible for languages in which the result of the modulo operation has the sign of the dividend, unless the dividend is of an unsigned integer type. This is because, if the dividend is negative, the modulo will be negative, some modulo operations can be factored or expanded similar to other mathematical operations. This may be useful in cryptography proofs, such as the Diffie–Hellman key exchange, identity, mod n = a mod n. nx mod n =0 for all positive integer values of x. If p is a number which is not a divisor of b, then abp−1 mod p = a mod p. B−1 mod n denotes the multiplicative inverse, which is defined if and only if b and n are relatively prime. Distributive, mod n = mod n. ab mod n = mod n, division, a/b mod n = mod n, when the right hand side is defined. Inverse multiplication, mod n = a mod n, modulo and modulo – many uses of the word modulo, all of which grew out of Carl F. Gausss introduction of modular arithmetic in 1801. Modular exponentiation ^ Perl usually uses arithmetic modulo operator that is machine-independent, for examples and exceptions, see the Perl documentation on multiplicative operators. ^ Mathematically, these two choices are but two of the number of choices available for the inequality satisfied by a remainder

34.
EAN 2
–
The EAN-2 is a supplement to the EAN-13 and UPC-A barcodes. It is often used on magazines and periodicals to indicate an issue number, the encoding of EAN-2 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-2 always begins with 01011. Also, the R-Code is not used, the structure of the barcode is based on the value of the two digit to be encoded. The two digits treated as a single number is reduced modulo 4 and used to find the parity pattern to be used. The parity pattern repeats every 4 values, symbol Specification Manual - Appendix D

35.
EAN 5
–
The EAN-5 is a supplement to the EAN-13 barcode used on books. It is used to give a suggestion for the price of the book, ISBN Encoding – Country and Currency Values Description The Encoding of EAN-5 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-5 always begins with 01011. Also, the R-Code is not used, the structure of the barcode is based on the checksum. In order to compute the checksum, multiply each of the digits by either 3 or 9, then add them and then do a mod 10. Note that the digit is not in the final 5 digits, and is not intended to validate the 5 digit data. NACS Codes Barcode Reference - Section 6.1.46.2 Barcode Writer - The basis for the barcode structure

36.
Subset
–
In mathematics, especially in set theory, a set A is a subset of a set B, or equivalently B is a superset of A, if A is contained inside B, that is, all elements of A are also elements of B. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion or sometimes containment, the subset relation defines a partial order on sets. The algebra of subsets forms a Boolean algebra in which the relation is called inclusion. For any set S, the inclusion relation ⊆ is an order on the set P of all subsets of S defined by A ≤ B ⟺ A ⊆ B. We may also partially order P by reverse set inclusion by defining A ≤ B ⟺ B ⊆ A, when quantified, A ⊆ B is represented as, ∀x. So for example, for authors, it is true of every set A that A ⊂ A. Other authors prefer to use the symbols ⊂ and ⊃ to indicate proper subset and superset, respectively and this usage makes ⊆ and ⊂ analogous to the inequality symbols ≤ and <. For example, if x ≤ y then x may or may not equal y, but if x < y, then x definitely does not equal y, and is less than y. Similarly, using the convention that ⊂ is proper subset, if A ⊆ B, then A may or may not equal B, the set A = is a proper subset of B =, thus both expressions A ⊆ B and A ⊊ B are true. The set D = is a subset of E =, thus D ⊆ E is true, any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset. The empty set, denoted by ∅, is also a subset of any given set X and it is also always a proper subset of any set except itself. These are two examples in both the subset and the whole set are infinite, and the subset has the same cardinality as the whole. The set of numbers is a proper subset of the set of real numbers. In this example, both sets are infinite but the set has a larger cardinality than the former set. Another example in an Euler diagram, Inclusion is the partial order in the sense that every partially ordered set is isomorphic to some collection of sets ordered by inclusion. The ordinal numbers are a simple example—if each ordinal n is identified with the set of all ordinals less than or equal to n, then a ≤ b if and only if ⊆. For the power set P of a set S, the partial order is the Cartesian product of k = |S| copies of the partial order on for which 0 <1. This can be illustrated by enumerating S = and associating with each subset T ⊆ S the k-tuple from k of which the ith coordinate is 1 if and only if si is a member of T

37.
Point-of-sale
–
The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth

38.
EAN-8
–
An EAN-8 is an EAN/UPC symbology barcode and is derived from the longer International Article Number code. It was introduced for use on small packages where an EAN-13 barcode would be too large, for example on cigarettes, pencils and it is encoded identically to the 12 digits of the UPC-A barcode, except that it has 4 digits in each of the left and right halves. EAN-8 barcodes may be used to encode GTIN-8 which are product identifiers from the GS1 System, a GTIN-8 begins with a 2- or 3-digit GS1 prefix followed by a 5- or 4-digit item reference element depending on the length of the GS1 prefix), and a checksum digit. EAN-8 codes are common throughout the world, and companies may use them to encode RCN-8. RCN-8 are a subset of GTIN-8 which begin with a first digit of 0 or 2

39.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

40.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

41.
Code 11
–
Code 11 is a barcode symbology developed by Intermec in 1977. It is used primarily in telecommunications, the symbol can encode any length string consisting of the digits 0-9 and the dash character. One or two modulo-11 check digit can be included and it is a discrete, binary symbology where each digit consists of three bars and two spaces, a single narrow space separates consecutive symbols. The width of a digit is not fixed, three digits have one wide element, while the others have two wide elements, the valid codes have one wide bar, and may have one additional wide element

42.
Code 39
–
Code 39 is a variable length, discrete barcode symbology. The Code 39 specification defines 43 characters, consisting of letters, numeric digits. An additional character is used for both start and stop delimiters, each character is composed of nine elements, five bars and four spaces. Three of the nine elements in each character are wide, the width ratio between narrow and wide is not critical, and may be chosen between 1,2 and 1,3. The barcode itself does not contain a check digit, but it can be considered self-checking on the grounds that a single erroneously interpreted bar cannot generate another valid character. Possibly the most serious drawback of Code 39 is its low density, It requires more space to encode data in Code 39 than, for example. This means that very small goods cannot be labeled with a Code 39 based barcode, however, Code 39 is still used by some postal services, although the Universal Postal Union recommends using Code 128 in all cases and can be decoded with virtually any barcode reader. Code 39 was developed by Dr. David Allais and Ray Stevens of Intermec in 1974 and their original design included two wide bars and one wide space in each character, resulting in 40 possible characters. Setting aside one of characters as a start and stop pattern left 39 characters. Four punctuation characters were added, using no wide bars. Code 39 was later standardised as ANSI MH10.8 M-1983, MIL-STD-1189 has been cancelled and replaced by ANSI/AIM BC1/1995, Uniform Symbology Specification — Code 39. The * character presented below is not a true encodable character, the asymmetry of the symbol allows the reader to determine the direction of the barcode being scanned. This code is mapped to the * character in barcode fonts. For example, the letter P has its bars aligned to represent the number 6, when represented as a digit, the number 10 is used to encode the number zero. Because there are six letters in the Letters group, the other four positions in this group are used to represent three symbols as well as the start/stop character. The two wide bars, out of five positions, encode a number between 1 and 10 using a two-out-of-five code with the following numeric equivalence,1,2,4,7,0. For example, the number 6 is encoded NWWNN, with wide bars occupying the positions for 2 and 4, in the case of NNWWN which is 4+7 =11 it is assigned to 0 for digits, and 10 for the letter columns. When encoding the Letters the equation needs a −1 added so A is WNNNW →1 +10 −1 →10 as shown in the table, the last four characters consist of all narrow bars and three wide spaces

Barcode
–
A barcode is an optical, machine-readable, representation of data, the data usually describes something about the object that carries the barcode. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines, later two-dimensional codes were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric

1.
Example of barcode on a patient identification wristband

2.
A UPC-A barcode symbol

3.
Barcoded parcel

4.
DX film edge barcode

International Article Number (EAN)
–
EAN barcodes are used worldwide for lookup at retail point of sale, but can also be used as numbers for other purposes such as wholesale ordering or accounting. The most commonly used EAN standard is the thirteen-digit EAN-13, a superset of the original 12-digit Universal Product Code standard developed in 1970 by George J. Laurer, an EAN-13 number

1.
GTIN-13 number encoded in EAN-13 barcode. The first digit is always placed outside the symbol; additionally a right ">" indicator is used to indicate a "Quiet Zone" that is necessary for barcode scanners to work properly.

Point of sale
–
The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate th

1.
Points of sale at a Target store

2.
McDonald's POS device by Brobeck

3.
A Syrian woman in Jordan is ready to pay for her groceries.

4.
Reception desk POS

GS1
–
GS1 is an international non-profit organization. Until 2004 it was known as European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council and it has headquarters in Brussels and Princeton, New Jersey. GS1 standard barcoding is increasingly used in health systems around the world, a GS1 UK healthcare advisory board has been established. Not only equipment and sup

1.
GS1 logo

Punched card
–
A punched card or punch card is a piece of stiff paper that can be used to contain digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. The information might be data for data processing applications or, in earlier examples, the terms IBM card, or Hollerith card specifically refer to punched cards used in semi

1.
Paper tape made from punched cards, for a large dance organ

2.
A paper tape, constructed from punched cards, in use in a Jacquard loom. The large holes on each edge are sprocket holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom.

3.
Hollerith card as shown in the Railroad Gazette in 1895.

4.
A general-purpose punched card from late-twentieth century.

Norman Joseph Woodland
–
Norman Joseph Woodland, also known as N. Joseph Woodland and N. J. Woodland was an American inventor, best known as one of the inventors of the barcode, for which he received a patent in October 1952. Later, employed by IBM, he developed the format became the ubiquitous Universal Product Code of product labeling. Woodland was born in Atlantic City,

1.
Norman Joseph Woodland

Drexel University
–
Drexel University is a private research university with three campuses in Philadelphia. It was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a noted financier, founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming the name Drexel University in 1970. As of 2015, more than 26,000 stu

Railroad
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with me

1.
Four BNSF GE C44-9W diesel locomotives hauling a mixed freight train along the banks of the Columbia River, between Kennewick and Wishram, Washington State, United States

2.
Horsecar in Brno, Czech Republic

3.
A British steam locomotive-hauled train

4.
Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in Salta, Argentina

Automatic equipment identification
–
Automatic equipment identification is an electronic recognition system in use with the North American railroad industry. Consisting of passive tags mounted on each side of rolling stock and active trackside readers, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them to automatically identify rail cars a

1.
RFID antenna used by trackside AEI readers

2.
ACI plate 1

3.
AEI tag affixed to the side of a freight car.

KarTrak
–
KarTrak, sometimes KarTrak ACI is a colored bar code system designed to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. KarTrak was made a requirement in North America, but technical problems led to abandonment of the system in the late 1970s, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them

1.
Detail of a KarTrak code.

2.
A hopper with a KarTrak code mounted on its side

Railroad car
–
A railroad car or railcar, railway wagon or railway carriage, also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system. Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either sin

1.
American wooden clerestory cars on display at the Mid-Continent Railway Museum in North Freedom, USA.

2.
British Rail Mark 3 coach, an all-steel car from the 1970s

3.
Inside a modern day car from Finland

4.
American style Hopper Car

GS1 US
–
GS1 US is the GS1 Member Organization in the United States of America. It was formerly the Uniform Code Council, Inc, GS1 US is responsible for managing the GS1 System in the USA. GS1 US assigns GS1 Company Prefixes to companies/organizations in the USA, the most common use of a GS1 US assigned GS1 Company Prefix is the creation of Universal Produc

1.
GS1 US headquarters in Lawrenceville, NJ

McKinsey & Company
–
McKinsey & Company is a worldwide management consulting firm. It conducts qualitative and quantitative analysis in order to evaluate management decisions across the public, widely considered the most prestigious management consultancy, McKinseys clientele includes 80% of the worlds largest corporations, and an extensive list of governments and non-

IBM
–
International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets comput

3.
IBM's Blue Gene supercomputers were awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack Obama on September 18, 2009

4.
IBM showing their various innovations at CeBIT 2010 in Hanover, Germany

RCA
–
RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut

2.
Original RCA logo. A later variation of this logo was revived by BMG after it bought RCA Records from GE, and is still used by Sony Music today.

3.
Ad for the beginning of regularly scheduled television broadcasting in New York City by RCA-NBC in April, 1939 via station W2XBS, the forerunner of today's WNBC

4.
Television test pattern created by RCA in 1939

DYMO Corporation
–
Following is a list of the label sizes popular for their LabelWriter printer series, Dymo Industries, Inc. was founded in 1958 to produce handheld tools that use embossing tape. The company was acquired by Esselte in 1978 and battery-powered printers became a product after 1990. The corporation was sold to Newell Rubbermaid in 2005, DYMO DiscPainte

1.
Dymo LetraTag hand-held labeler

2.
Dymo embossing label maker circa 1967

George J. Laurer
–
George Joseph Laurer developed the Universal Product Code in 1973. As an engineer at IBM, he was asked to develop the pattern used for the Universal Product Code, a 36-year veteran of the International Business Machines Corporation who retired in June 1987, George Laurer is the holder of 25 patents. He is also the author of 20 published Technical D

1.
UPC by George J. Laurer

Marsh Supermarkets
–
Marsh Supermarkets is a retail food chain headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, with stores throughout Central Indiana and parts of western Ohio. Its parent company is Sun Capital Partners, headquartered in Boca Raton, founded in 1931 in Muncie, the company went public in 1953 and has since grown to 97 locations. Of the 97 locations,69 are market

1.
Marsh Supermarkets, Inc.

Troy, Ohio
–
Troy is a city in and the county seat of Miami County, Ohio, United States. The population was 25,058 at the 2010 census, making it the largest city in the county, Troy is home to an annual Strawberry Festival the first weekend in June. A post office called Troy has been in operation since 1824, Troy was one of the cities impacted by severe floodin

1.
Aerial view of Troy

2.
Miami County courthouse

3.
Post office

4.
Troy's downtown includes a traffic circle

Wrigley's
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It is wholly owned by Mars, Incorporated. It is currently the largest manufacturer and marketer of chewing gum in the world, in 1892, Wrigley Jr. began packaging chewing gum with each can of baking powder. The chewing gum eventually became more popular than the baking powder, in 2005, Wrigley purchased Life Savers and Altoids from Kraft Foods for U

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The Wrigley Building, former HQ

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William Wrigley Jr. Company

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A newspaper ad from 1920 for three types of Wrigley's gum

Juicy Fruit
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Juicy Fruit is a flavor of chewing gum made by the Wrigley Company, a U. S. company that since 2008 has been a subsidiary of the privately held Mars, Incorporated. It was introduced in 1893, and in the 21st century the name is recognized by 99 percent of Americans. According to two books in the Imponderables series, peach is one crucial flavor amon

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Metal advertising sign.

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Juicy Fruit

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A Juicy Fruit wrapper from 1946, described on the package as a "fascinating artificial flavor".

NCR Corporation
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They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR had been based in Dayton, Ohio, starting in 1884, NCR was founded in 1884 and acquired by AT&T in 1991. A restructuring of AT&T in 1996 led to NCRs re-establishment January 1,1997 as a separate company, NCR is the only AT&T spin-off company that has retained its original name—all the others hav

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Old National Cash Register on display at the Museo de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público in Mexico City

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Latest variant of the logo designed by Saul Bass in 1996

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WWII NCR poster

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Computer NCR 304

Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizon

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The "Castle" (1847), the Institution's first building and still its headquarters

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Smithsonian Institution Logo of the Smithsonian Institution

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Aircraft on display at the National Air and Space Museum, including a Ford Trimotor and Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top)

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The Smithsonian Castle doorway

National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mea

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National Museum of American History

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The south facade of the museum

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North facade entrance of the museum

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A Southern Railways locomotive displayed in America on the Move, a first-floor exhibit

Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any

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Clockwise from top left: Smithsonian Institution Building, Rock Creek Park, National Mall (including the Lincoln Memorial in the foreground), Howard Theatre and the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site

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Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the retrocession

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Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865 assassination of President Lincoln

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Crowds surrounding the Reflecting Pool during the 1963 March on Washington

Research Triangle Park
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The Research Triangle Park is one of the largest research parks in the world. It is named for the three hub cities of Durham, Raleigh, and Chapel Hill, or more properly for the three major universities in those three cities. The Research Triangle region of North Carolina received its name as an extension of the name of the park, approximately one f

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RTP headquarters at 12 Davis Drive

Rochester, Minnesota
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Rochester is a city in the U. S. State of Minnesota and is the county seat of Olmsted County. Located on the Zumbro Rivers south fork, the city has a population of 106,769 according to the 2010 United States Census, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that the 2015 population was 112,225. It is Minnesotas third-largest city and the largest city locat

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Downtown Rochester reflected in south Silver Lake

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Old City Hall

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Downtown Rochester seen from Quarry Hill Park.

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Downtown Rochester reflected in the Zumbro River

Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the firs

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Edward Bernard 's "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689.

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Writing systems

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A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.

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Codex Zographensis in the Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval Bulgaria

Over-the-counter drug
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In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physicians care. OTC drugs are regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients, not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to f

Loyalty card
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Loyalty programs are structured marketing strategies designed by merchants to encourage customers to continue to shop at or use the services of businesses associated with each program. These programs exist covering most types of business, each one having varying features, Loyalty cards relate to the loyalty business model. Cards typically have a ba

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Various loyalty cards

Coupon
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In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product. Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of packaged goods or by retailers. They are often distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet, directly from the retailer. In addition,

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Believed to be the first coupon ever, this ticket for a free glass of Coca-Cola was first distributed in 1888 to help promote the drink. By 1913, the company had redeemed 8.5 million tickets.

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Food Coupons

Even and odd numbers
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Parity is a mathematical term that describes the property of an integers inclusion in one of two categories, even or odd. An integer is even if it is divisible by two and odd if it is not even. For example,6 is even there is no remainder when dividing it by 2. By contrast,3,5,7,21 leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2, examples of even numbers i

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Rubik's Revenge in solved state

Modulo operation
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In computing, the modulo operation finds the remainder after division of one number by another. Given two positive numbers, a and n, a n is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n. Although typically performed with a and n both being integers, many computing systems allow other types of numeric operands, the range of numbers for an intege

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Quotient (red) and remainder (green) functions using different algorithms

EAN 2
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The EAN-2 is a supplement to the EAN-13 and UPC-A barcodes. It is often used on magazines and periodicals to indicate an issue number, the encoding of EAN-2 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-2 always begins with 01011. Also, the R-Code is not

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ISSN with an EAN-2 addon representing issue number 5.

EAN 5
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The EAN-5 is a supplement to the EAN-13 barcode used on books. It is used to give a suggestion for the price of the book, ISBN Encoding – Country and Currency Values Description The Encoding of EAN-5 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-5 always

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ISBN with an EAN-5 addon (rightmost bars) representing $44.95 USD.

Subset
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In mathematics, especially in set theory, a set A is a subset of a set B, or equivalently B is a superset of A, if A is contained inside B, that is, all elements of A are also elements of B. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion or sometimes containment, the subset relation defines a partial order on sets. The al

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Euler diagram showing A is a proper subset of B and conversely B is a proper superset of A

Point-of-sale
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The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate th

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Points of sale at a Target store

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McDonald's POS device by Brobeck

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A Syrian woman in Jordan is ready to pay for her groceries.

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Reception desk POS

EAN-8
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An EAN-8 is an EAN/UPC symbology barcode and is derived from the longer International Article Number code. It was introduced for use on small packages where an EAN-13 barcode would be too large, for example on cigarettes, pencils and it is encoded identically to the 12 digits of the UPC-A barcode, except that it has 4 digits in each of the left and

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Number encoded in an EAN-8 barcode.

International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving c

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Wayback Machine

Code 11
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Code 11 is a barcode symbology developed by Intermec in 1977. It is used primarily in telecommunications, the symbol can encode any length string consisting of the digits 0-9 and the dash character. One or two modulo-11 check digit can be included and it is a discrete, binary symbology where each digit consists of three bars and two spaces, a singl

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" 0123452 " encoded in Code 11

Code 39
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Code 39 is a variable length, discrete barcode symbology. The Code 39 specification defines 43 characters, consisting of letters, numeric digits. An additional character is used for both start and stop delimiters, each character is composed of nine elements, five bars and four spaces. Three of the nine elements in each character are wide, the width

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Postal wagons at the postal sorting facility in Sion, Switzerland. Mail between regional cities is transported by rail, to be delivered by postal bus, vans and cycles at a local level.

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Many early post systems consisted of fixed courier routes. Here, a post house on a postal route in the 19th century Finland

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The use of the Scinde Dawk adhesive stamps to signify the prepayment of postage began on 1 July 1852 in the Scinde / Sindh district, as part of a comprehensive reform of the district's postal system.