Educational Research: A Guide To the Process

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Educational Research: A Guide to the Processis a different kind of research text. It emphasizes theprocessof research, that is, what researchers actually do as they go about designing and carrying out their research activities. Rather than passively reading about research operations, it promotes content mastery by using a three-step pedagogical model that involves: a manageable chunk of text, a comprehension or application exercise, and author feedback on the exercise. The text contains approximately 150 of these exercise-feedback units. The second edition has been thoroughly updated, expanded from 15 to 20 chapters, and reorganized into two parts. Part I covers basic aspects of the research process, provides an example of a student research proposal, and shows how to evaluate a research report. Part II provides a separate chapter for each research methodology, including two chapters on qualitative research. Other noteworthy changes include more annotated studies and more visual illustrations of statistical and research methods. THIS COPY USED FOR TEXTBOOK MAILER...NOT TO BE USED IN GENERAL CATALOGS Thoroughly class-tested for over 15 years with some 2000 students, this outstanding text features: *numerous thought questions that focus on important ideas, *actual studies, followed by author critiques so students can test their ideas against those of the authors, *activities that allow students to actually experience the research methodologies discussed, and *examples of how the various research methodologies discussed might be applied in real-life settings.

Jack R. Fraenkel is currently Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education and Director of the Research and Development Center, College of Education, San Francisco State University.

Preface

xvii

PART ONE BASIC CONCEPTS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Introduction to Educational Research

3

(7)

Empirical Versus Nonempirical Research

6

(1)

Basic Versus Applied Research

7

(1)

Summary

8

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

9

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

9

(1)

What's Next?

9

(1)

The Research Question

10

(19)

Stating a question

12

(2)

Refining the Question

14

(8)

Feasibility

15

(1)

Clarity

15

(5)

Significance

20

(2)

Ethics and Research

22

(5)

Protecting Participants From Harm

23

(1)

Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data

23

(1)

Should Subjects Be Deceived?

24

(3)

Summary

27

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

27

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

28

(1)

What's Next?

28

(1)

Variables and Hypotheses

29

(19)

Relationships

29

(3)

Variables

32

(7)

Measured and Categorical Variables

32

(5)

Independent and Dependent Variables

37

(1)

Extraneous Variables and Constants

38

(1)

Hypotheses

39

(7)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Stating Questions as Hypotheses

40

(4)

Directional Versus Nondirectional Hypotheses

44

(2)

Summary

46

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

46

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

46

(1)

What's Next?

47

(1)

Reviewing the Literature

48

(33)

Types of References

48

(1)

General References

48

(1)

Secondary Sources

49

(1)

Primary Sources

49

(1)

Steps Involved in a Literature Review

49

(16)

A Computer Search of the Literature

65

(3)

An Example of a Computer Search

68

(4)

Researching the World Wide Web

72

(4)

Meta-Analysis

76

(1)

Try a Literature Review of Your Own

77

(1)

Summary

78

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This

79

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

79

(1)

What's Next?

79

(2)

Instrumentation

81

(25)

The Process of Instrument Development: An Example

81

(3)

The Rating Scale

84

(2)

Reliability and Validity

86

(1)

The Observation Record

87

(1)

More About Reliability and Validity

88

(14)

Validity

88

(9)

Reliability

97

(5)

Checking Reliability and Validity

102

(2)

Summary

104

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This

104

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

105

(1)

What's Next?

105

(1)

More on Instrumentation

106

(19)

The Structured Interview Schedule

106

(3)

Ability Tests

109

(5)

Projective Tests

114

(5)

Locating a Suitable Instrument

119

(3)

Developing Your Own Instrument

122

(1)

Summary

123

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

123

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

123

(1)

What's Next?

124

(1)

Samples and Population

125

(29)

The Process of Selecting a Sample

125

(3)

Samples Versus Populations

128

(3)

Defining the Population

128

(2)

Target Versus Accessible Populations

130

(1)

Random Versus Nonrandom Sampling

131

(10)

Simple Random Sampling

132

(3)

Stratified Random Sampling

135

(1)

Cluster Random Sampling

135

(2)

Two-Stage Random Sampling

137

(1)

Convenience Sampling

137

(2)

Purposive Sampling

139

(2)

Sample Size

141

(1)

A Cautionary Note About Sampling

142

(1)

Generalizing

143

(1)

Population Generalizability

143

(2)

When Random Sampling Is Not Feasible

145

(1)

Ecological Generalizability

145

(2)

Another Example of Sampling

147

(5)

Summary

152

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

152

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

153

(1)

What's Next?

153

(1)

Internal Validity

154

(26)

Planning the Procedures of a Study

154

(1)

The ``Design'' of a Study

155

(2)

The Meaning of Internal Validity

157

(2)

Some General Threats to Internal Validity

159

(15)

Subject Characteristics

159

(1)

Loss of Subjects

160

(2)

Location

162

(1)

Instrument Decay

163

(1)

Data Collector Characteristics

164

(1)

Data Collector Bias

165

(1)

Testing

166

(2)

Extraneous Events

168

(1)

Maturation

169

(1)

Attitude of Subjects

170

(2)

Regression

172

(1)

Implementation

173

(1)

Two Studies to Examine

174

(4)

An Innovative Curriculum

174

(2)

The Open Classroom

176

(2)

Summary

178

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

178

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point

178

(1)

What's Next?

179

(1)

Controlling Threats to Internal Validity

180

(23)

Experimental Research

180

(3)

The Control or Comparison Group

180

(1)

Manipulation of the Independent Variable

181

(1)

Randomization

182

(1)

General Methods of Controlling Threats to Internal Validity

183

(6)

Subject Characteristics

184

(1)

Loss of Subjects

184

(1)

Location

185

(1)

Instrument Decay

186

(1)

Data Collector Characteristics

186

(1)

Data Collector Bias

186

(1)

Testing

187

(1)

Extraneous Events

187

(1)

Maturation

187

(1)

Attitude of Subjects

188

(1)

Regression

188

(1)

Implementation

188

(1)

Two Studies Revisited

189

(4)

An Innovative Curriculum

189

(1)

The Open Classroom

189

(4)

Guidelines for Handling Internal Validity: Comparison-Group Studies

193

(4)

Guidelines for Handling Internal Validity: Correlational Studies

197

(4)

Summary

201

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

201

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

202

(1)

What's Next?

202

(1)

Data Analysis

203

(34)

Scores

203

(1)

Statistics for Comparison-Group Studies

204

(8)

Averages

204

(2)

Frequency Polygons

206

(5)

Quartiles and the Five-Number Summary

211

(1)

Statistics for Correlational Studies

212

(9)

Interpreting Scatterplots

214

(1)

Correlation Coefficients

214

(6)

Other Correlational Techniques

220

(1)

Studies Involving Only Categorical Variables

221

(4)

Assessing the Magnitude of a Relationship

225

(2)

Inferential Statistics

227

(5)

Statistical Matching

232

(2)

Specific Inferential Statistics

234

(1)

Summary

235

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This

236

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

236

(1)

What's Next?

236

(1)

The Research Proposal

237

(21)

An Example of a Student's Research Proposal

238

(10)

A Second Example of a Student's Research Proposal

248

(8)

Summary

256

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

256

(1)

What's Next?

257

(1)

Critiquing Research Reports

258

(21)

Criteria for Evaluating Research Reports

258

(2)

Results and Discussion

259

(1)

A Critique of a Research Report

260

(15)

Summary

275

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

275

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

276

(1)

What's Next?

276

(3)

PART TWO RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Experimental Research

279

(28)

The Nature of Experimental Research

279

(1)

True Experiments

279

(1)

Quasi-Experiments

280

(1)

Types of Experiments

280

(7)

Weak Experimental Designs

280

(2)

True Experimental Designs

282

(1)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

283

(4)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Investigating the Teaching of Science Concepts by Means of an Experiment

287

(2)

An Example of Experimental Research: Effects on High School Students of Conflict-Resolution Training Integrated Into English Literature

289

(14)

Try the Method Yourself: Conduct an Experiment

303

(3)

Summary

306

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

306

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

306

(1)

What's Next?

306

(1)

Single-Subject Research

307

(23)

The Nature of Single-Subject Research

307

(1)

Single-Subject Designs

308

(3)

Other Single-Subject Designs

311

(2)

Graphing Single-Subject Designs

313

(1)

The Importance of Replicating Single-Subject Studies

314

(1)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Studying the Effects of Time-Out on a Student's Disruptive Behavior by Means of a Single-Subject Experiment

314

(1)

An Example of Single-Subject Research: Reducing Indices of Unhappiness Among Individuals with Profound Multiple Disabilities During Therapeutic Exercise Routines

315

(13)

Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Single-Subject Data

328

(1)

Summary

329

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

329

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

329

(1)

What's Next?

329

(1)

Causal-Comparative Research

330

(19)

The Nature of Causal-Comparative Research

330

(5)

Similarities and Differences Between Causal-Comparative and Experimental Research

333

(2)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Comparing Two Different Ways of Teaching Chemistry by Means of a Causal-Comparative Study

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Predicting by Means of a Correlational Study Which Kinds of Students Are Likely to Have Trouble Learning Algebra

361

(1)

An Example of Correlational Research: Help-Seeking Behavior of Native American Indian High School Students

362

(12)

Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Correlational Data

374

(1)

Summary

375

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

375

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

375

(1)

What's Next?

375

(1)

Survey Research

376

(32)

The Nature of Survey Research

376

(1)

Survey or Interview?

377

(1)

Why Conduct Surveys?

377

(1)

Types of Surveys

378

(1)

Cross-Sectional Surveys

378

(1)

Longitudinal Surveys

378

(1)

Survey Research and Correlational Research

379

(1)

Steps in Survey Research

379

(7)

Problem Definition

379

(1)

Identification of the Target Population

380

(1)

Mode of Data Collection

381

(1)

Selection of the Sample

382

(1)

Preparation of the Instrument

383

(1)

Training of Interviewers

384

(1)

Using an Interview to Measure Ability

385

(1)

Nonresponse

386

(3)

Total Nonresponse

386

(2)

Item Nonresponse

388

(1)

Problems in the Instrumentation Process in Survey Research

389

(1)

Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Survey Research

390

(1)

Data Analysis in Survey Research

390

(1)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Determining What Students Like About School by Means of a Survey

391

(1)

An Example of Survey Research: Literature Preferences of Fourth Graders

392

(13)

Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Survey Data

405

(1)

Summary

406

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

406

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

406

(1)

What's Next?

407

(1)

Content Analysis Research

408

(24)

The Nature of Content Analysis

408

(1)

What Does Content Analysis Allow Us to Study?

409

(1)

Some Applications

410

(1)

Steps Involved in Content Analysis

411

(7)

Decide on the Specific Objectives

411

(1)

Define Terms

411

(1)

Specify the Unit of Analysis

411

(1)

Locate Relevant Data

411

(1)

Develop a Rationale

412

(1)

Develop a Sampling Plan

412

(1)

Formulate Coding Categories

412

(5)

Data Analysis

417

(1)

Using the Computer in Content Analysis

418

(1)

Advantages of Content Analysis

418

(1)

Disadvantages of Content Analysis

419

(1)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Checking for Bias in English Anthologies by Means of a Content Analysis

420

(1)

An Example of a Content Analysis: The Portrayal of Older People in Award-Winning Literature for Children

421

(8)

Try the Method Yourself: Do a Content Analysis

429

(1)

Summary

430

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This

431

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

431

(1)

What's Next?

431

(1)

Qualitative Research: I

432

(37)

What is Qualitative Research?

432

(1)

General Characteristics of Qualitative Research

433

(3)

Forms of Qualitative Research

436

(10)

Observation

436

(4)

Interviewing

440

(6)

Generalization in Qualitative Research

446

(1)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Identifying Aggression in Second-Grade Boys by Means of an Observational Study

447

(1)

An Example of a Qualitative Study: Dumping Ground or Effective Alternative? Dropout-Prevention Programs in Urban Schools

448

(17)

Try the Method Yourself: Observe a Classroom Discussion

465

(1)

Summary

466

(1)

Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter

467

(1)

What Should I Understand at This Point?

467

(1)

What's Next?

468

(1)

Qualitative Research: II

469

(1)

The Nature of Ethnographic Research

469

(2)

The Unique Value of Ethnographic Research

471

(1)

Field Notes

472

(3)

Sampling in Ethnographic Research

475

(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

475

(1)

Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

476

(2)

Ethics and Qualitative Research

478

(2)

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered

480

(1)

Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Fending Out How Music Teachers Teach Their Subject by Means of an Ethnographic Study

481

(2)

All Have Value

483

(1)

Another Example of a Qualitative Study: A Portrait of Four Social Studies Teachers and Their Classes: With Special Attention Paid to Identification of Teaching Techniques and Behaviors That Contribute to Student Learning