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Material properties 1
A- Tensile strength and deformation
When materials are exposed to forces, such as tension (stretching forces) and
compression (crushing forces) they deform- that is, they change shape. The type
of deformation depends on the type of force that is applied.
When a material is subjected to tension, its length will increase by a certain
amount. This is called extension or elongation. It is especially important to
understand the performance of materials in tension, as their tensile strength
(ability to resist tension) is usually lower than their compressive strength (ability
to resist compression).
B- Elasticity and plasticity
Some materials can extend significantly, but still return to their original shape. A
material's ability to do this is called elasticity. Rubber is an example of a very
elastic material- it can be elastically deformed to a considerable extent.
If a material has very low elasticity, and is strong, engineers say it is stiff. If a
material has low elasticity and is weak, it is described as brittle- that is, it
fractures (breaks, due to tension) very easily. Glass is an example of a brittle
material.
Some materials can change shape significantly, but do not return to their original
shape. We say these materials are plastic. Often, plasticity is described in specific
terms. A material that can be plastically deformed by hammering or rolling- for
example, lead (Pb)- is malleable. A material that can be drawn out (stretched) into
a long length- for example, copper (Cu)- is ductile.
18.1 Complete the sentences using the words in the box. You will need to use one word twice.
(Look at A above to help you.)
Compression deformation
elongation
extension
tension
1 A stretching force is called ................................ .
2 A crushing force is called ................................ .
3 Extension is also called ................................ .
4 Tension causes .................................................or ................................ .
5 Tension or compression cause ................................ .
18.2 Match the two parts to make correct sentences. Look at B above to help you.
1. If a material is stiff
a it is malleable and/or ductile.
2 If a material is brittle
b it has low elasticity and low tensile strength.
3 If a material is plastic
c it has low elasticity and high tensile strength.
4 If a material yields
d it has been extended to a point before its elastic
5 If a material fractures
limit.
6 If a material is elastically deformed
e it has been loaded beyond its ultimate tensile
strength.
f it has been significantly plastically deformed, but
not broken.
18.3 Complete the magazine article about springs:
How are the springs used in car suspension made springy? It sounds like a silly question, but
think about it for a moment. In order for a spring to compress or extend, then return to its
original shape, it must be (1) ................................ .
But springs are made from wire, and wire is made from very (2) ................................ metal
(often cold drawn carbon steel). When the wire is manufactured, it is not only stretched beyond
its (3) ................................................................ -meaning it will no longer return to its original
length- but also beyond its (4) ................................................................ , where significant,
irreversible (5) ................................ occurs.
The metal from which springs are made has therefore been (6) ................................ deformed
and, consequently, needs to have its springiness put back. To do this, once a spring has been
formed into a coil, it is tempered- a process in which it is heated and kept at a high temperature
for a sustained period. This 'resets' the atomic structure of the metal (partly, at least), so that after
tempering, the spring will behave as it should - it can be (7) ................................ deformed and
will subsequently return to its original shape.
Vocabulary
Strength
Stiff material / stiffness
Tension
Brittle / brittleness
Tensile strength
To fracture / a fracture
Compression
Malleable /malleability
To deform, deformation
Ductile /ductility
Extension
To crush / to be crushed / crushing force
Elongation
To yield / yield (n)
Compressive strength
Yield stress
Elasticity
Tough / toughness
Plasticity
Ultimate
Elastically / plastically deformed material
To temper, to be tempered / tempering
Material properties 2
Hardness
The hardness of a material affects its durability- that is, how long it will last.
Generally, hard materials are more durable than soft materials, because they are
better at resisting wear – progressively worsening damage- to their surfaces.
Hardness can be defined in two main ways:
• Scratch hardness describes a material's ability to resist being scratched.
Materials with a high degree of scratch hardness are said to have good abrasion
resistance- they are good at resisting damage due to abrasion (the action of two
surfaces being rubbed together).
• Indentation hardness describes a material's ability to resist indentations- that
is, compressions in the surface of a material caused by impacts.
- Fatigue, fracture toughness and creep
(The article below is from an aviation magazine.)
In aircraft construction, special attention must be paid to two materials problems that are well
understood by mechanical and structural engineers.
One is fatigue, often called metal fatigue in metals. This problem is caused by cyclic loadsforces that continually vary. In aircraft, the wings are affected by cyclic loading as they
frequently flex, continually bending up and down due to air turbulence. The consequence of
fatigue is micro-cracking – the formation of cracks too small to see with the eye, and which
worsen over time. The speed at which fatigue cracking progresses depends on the material's
fracture toughness. This is a measure of how easily cracks that have already formed continue to
open up and increase in length.
Another problem is creep - where components become permanently deformed (stretched, for
example), due to loads. Creep increases over time. The problem is made worse by heat, so is a
major issue in engines, where both loads and temperatures are high.
Basic thermal properties
Some materials conduct (carry or transmit) heat better than others. Therefore,
thermal conductivity varies, depending on the material. Copper, for example, is
an excellent thermal conductor. Polystyrene, on the other hand, is an excellent
thermal insulator (and so a very poor thermal conductor).
As temperature increases, most materials expand (increase in size due to heating),
and as temperature falls, they contract (decrease in size due to cooling). The
extent to which expansion and contraction occur is measured by a material's
coefficient of thermal expansion - that is, its change in size for a given change in
temperature. The coefficient for aluminium, for example, is 0.000023. This means
that for an increase in temperature of one degree Celsius, a one-metre length of
aluminium will increase in length by 0.000023 metres. This figure can also be
referred to as the coefficient of linear expansion, since it describes change in
length (a linear measurement).
19.1 Complete the design brief for part of a cutting machine using four of the words in the box.
Abrasion
durability
durable
hard indentation
scratch
soft
The cutting wheel will be surrounded by transparent guards. These will allow the operator to see
the cutting wheel at all times, and will shield the operator from flying metal fragments. The
guards must therefore be constructed from material with a high degree of (1)
................................................ hardness, to protect it from impacts. As the guards will require
regular cleaning, the action of wiping away metal fragments will result in (2)
................................................. The guards must, therefore, have sufficient (3)
................................................ hardness in order to retain their transparency and ensure adequate
(4) ................................................ .
19.2 Match the descriptions (1-4) to the technical terms (a-d). Look at B opposite to help you.
1. the cause of fatigue
a creep
2 the consequence of fatigue
b cyclic loads
3 a material property that helps to slow down
c micro-cracking
cracking
d fracture toughness
4 permanent changes in shape due to the
action of loads over time
19.3 Complete the extract from an electrical design handbook:
When comparing copper and aluminium as materials for electrical wires, it is necessary to
consider their thermal properties. For instance, in situations where high temperatures are
involved, it is important to understand how quickly wires (1) ................................ heat along
their length- for example, away from hot parts, such as motors, towards heat-sensitive electrical
components. In this regard, the (2) ................................ of copper is roughly 40% greater than
that of aluminium,
so copper is a much more effective (3) ................................ . In the example above, a designer
might therefore prefer aluminium wiring over copper wiring.
Another issue is thermal movement- the extent to which the metals (4) ............................... when
heated, and (5) ................................ as they cool. In situations where temperature continually
rises and falls, the resulting (6) ................................ and (7) ................................ can be
problematic, as it can cause mechanical electrical connections to loosen over time. In this regard,
copper has a (8) ................................................. approximately 40% lower than that of
aluminium. Copper therefore has the advantage in this respect, as it is less susceptible to
movement.
Vocabulary
Hardness
Durability
Hard material
Durable material
Soft material
Wear, to resist wear
Scratch, to be scratched
Abrasion resistance
Indentation
Scratch hardness
Indentation hardness
Fatigue, metal fatigue
Cyclic loads
Flex, flexibility
Micro-cracking
Fatigue cracking
Fracture
Toughness
Creep