global 2

Terms

(750 - 1258) Ruling family of the Islamic Empire during its golden age. This dynasty is responsible for many achievements

Abraham :

The first patriarch in the Bible. Abraham was asked by God to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and was rewarded for being prepared to do so. He is considered by Jewish people as the father of the Israelites through his son Isaac, and by Muslims as the father of Arab peoples through his son Ishmael.

absolute monarchy :

A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch, who has absolute control.

acupuncture :

Chinese method of treating disorders by inserting needles into the skin. This is to help with the flow of energy that is thought to be blocked.

African National Congress :

A group formed in protest of the policy of Apartheid in South Africa. It was eventually outlawed due to their violent tactics, and Nelson Mandela, one of its leaders, was imprisoned for over thirty years.

African Trading Kingdoms :

Three African kingdoms, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai that were important in the trans-Sahara trade of gold form the west coast of Africa to North Africa and the Middle East. Their trade provided enough wealth to create the conditions necessary for cultural and intellectual achievement.

Afrikaners :

Dutch descended colonist living in South Africa. Also called Boers.

Age of Exploration :

Time period during the 15th and 16th centuries when Europeans searched for new sources of wealth and for easier trade routes to China and India. Resulted in the discovery of North and South America by the Europeans.

Age of Reason :

Term given to describe the Enlightenment.

Age of Transition :

Term given to describe the Renaissance.

Agrarian Revolution :

A change in farming methods that allowed for a greater production of food. This revolution was fueled by the use of new farming technology such as the seed drill and improved fertilizers. The result of this revolution was a population explosion due to the higher availability of food. It was one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution.

agriculture :

The cultivating of land, producing of crops, and raising of livestock for human consumption.

Ahimsa :

In Hinduism, it is the principal of non violence against all living things.

Akbar the Great :

(1542-1605) Emperor of the Mughal Empire in India. He is considered to be their greatest ruler. He is responsible for the expansion of his empire, the stability his administration gave to it, and the increasing of trade and cultural diffusion.

Alexander the Great :

(356 BCE-323 BCE) He conquered most of the ancient world from Asia Minor to Egypt and India, which began the Hellenistic culture which was a blending of Greek, Persian, Indian, and Egyptian influences.

Allied Powers :

Alliance of Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, and France during World War II.

American Revolution :

Political revolution in the British North American Colonies starting in 1776 that removed the colonies from Great Britainâ€™s control, and established an independent nation know as the United States of America.

Amritsar Massacre :

April 3rd of 1919. British soldiers killed close to 400 unarmed Indian men, women, and children, and wounded 1,100 more. People had gathered in the center of town to protest British occupation of their country, and to demand equality. This was a turning point in British domination of India. Independence movements became very popular and eventually forced India's independence.

Analects, The :

Analects, The : Collection of moral and social teachings of Confucius, including the concept of the Five Relationships.

ancestor worship :

Worship given to deceased relatives who are believed to be closer to the Gods, and therefore able to grant favors.

Animism :

The oldest known type of belief system in the world. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in many traditional societies. Animists practice nature worship. They believe that everything in the universe has a spirit. This is exemplified by the practices of the Plains Indians in North America who would praise the spirit of the buffalo that they killed for giving its life to them so that they might survive. Animists also believed that ancestors watch over the living from the spirit world. This belief resulted in ancestor worship as a means of communicating with and showing respect to ancestors.

anti-Semitism :

The hatred of people of Jewish descent.

apartheid :

A political policy in South Africa where black South Africans could only live in certain areas, were required to use separate trains, beaches, restaurants, and schools, and could not enter into an interracial marriage.

appeasement :

The policy of pacifying an aggressive nation in the hopes of avoiding further conflict.

aqueducts :

Above ground structures used to carry water long distances. Built by the ancient Romans.

Archimedes :

(287-212 BCE) Greek mathematician and inventor. He wrote works on plane and solid geometry, arithmetic, and mechanics. He is best known for the lever and pulley.

Aristarchus :

(310?-250? BCE) Greek scientist who first stated that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and rotated on its axis.

Aryans :

Nomadic warriors from Central Asia who migrated into India around 1500 BCE. They are responsible for many aspects of current Indian culture including their language, sacred texts called the Vedas, and a system of government that later evolved into the caste system.

Asoka :

King of the Maurya dynasty. He ruled nearly the entire subcontinent of India. He also was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism after his conversion.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations :

Multinational organization that cooperates economically by lowering trade barriers, such as, tariffs, to encourage commerce between member nations.

Atman

In Hinduism, the human soul.

Augustus :

(63 BCE â€“ 14 CE) First emperor of Rome (27 BCE â€“ 14 CE) He restored order and prosperity to the Empire after nearly a century of turmoil. Grandnephew to Julius Caesar.

Austro-Hungarian Empire :

Also known as Austria-Hungary, or the Hapsburg Empire, as it was ruled by the Habsburg monarchy from 1867 to 1918. Austria-Hungary extended over most of central Europe. It was composed the modern day countries of Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, as well as parts of present-day Poland, Romania, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Axis Powers :

Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II.

Aztecs :

A Mesoamerican civilization of Mexico who created a strong empire that flourished between the 14th and 15th century. The arrival of Hernando Cortez and the Spanish Conquistadores ended their empire.

balance of power :

A political policy in which countries attempt to preserve peace by keeping an equal military and economic status.

Balfour Declaration :

A promise made by British Prime Minister Balfour to create a homeland for the Jewish people

Baron de Montesquieu :

(1689-1755) Enlightenment thinker from France who wrote a book called, The Spirit of the Laws in 1748. In his book, Montesquieu describes what he considers to be the best government. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balance the others, which would help protect the people's liberty.

barter :

The exchange of goods or services for other goods or services.

Batista, Fulgencio :

(1901-1973) Cuban president from 1940 to 1944 and 1952 to 1959. He was responsible for some reforms in the country before leaving office for the first time. Later, he overthrew the legitimate government and ruled as a dictator until he was forced from office by Fidel Castro.

Battle of Britain :

The massive air war against Great Britain by the Nazi war machine in Germany. Nearly nightly bombings occurred between summer of 1940 and summer of 1941 before German withdrew. Great Britain fought alone during this year and never gave up.

Bay of Pigs :

An unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961, which was sponsored by the United States. Its purpose was to overthrow Cuban dictator Fidel Castro.

Berlin Airlift :

A re-supply operation to the city of Berlin that lasted 11 months during 1948-49 when the Soviet Union attempted to close off the city.

Berlin Conference :

(1884-1885) During European Imperialism, various European leaders met in Berlin, Germany to discuss plans for dividing Africa peacefully. These leaders had little regard for African independence, and had no representation for native Africans. This began the process of imperializing Africa.

Berlin Wall :

A wall built in 1961 dividing Soviet controlled East Berlin from the democratic West Berlin. It was destroyed when communism ended in 1990.

Bhagavad Gita :

A Hindu holy book where the god Krishna teaches the importance of selflessness, performing religious duties, and of devotion to God

bill of exchange :

A document purchased from a bank that allowed a person to travel without having to carry large amounts of money. Worked like a modern check.

Black Hand :

Serbian nationalist/terrorist group responsible for the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand which resulted in the start of World War I.

blitzkrieg :

German word meaning lightning war. It was a German army tactic during World War II which called for quick moving, hard hitting drives into enemy territory.

Boer War :

(1899-1902) War between Great Britain and the Boers in South Africa over control of rich mining country. Great Britain won and created the Union of South Africa comprised of all the South African colonies.

Boers :

Dutch descended colonist living in South Africa. Also called Afrikaners.

Bolívar, Simón :

(1783-1830) Latin American revolutionary responsible for the ousting of Spain from much of South America during the 19th century. He is considered to be the most important figure in the fight for Latin American independence.

Bolshevik :

Early name of communists during the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Bonaparte, Napoleon :

(1769-1821) Emperor of the French. Responsible for many French Revolution reforms as well as conquering most of Europe. He was defeated at Waterloo, and died several years later on the island of Saint Helena.

bourgeoisie :

Term given to the middle class people in society.

Boxer Rebellion :

(1900) A rebellion by the people of China to end foreign domination.

Brahma :

Hindu god called the Creator. Brahma is the first member of the triad that includes Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer.

Brahman :

In Hinduism, Brahman is the name given to the oneness of the universe.

Brezhnev, Leonid :

(1906-1982) Leader of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. During his control of the Soviet Union, relations with the West, as well as the Soviet economy, experienced a long period of stagnation.

British East India Company :

A joint stock company that controlled most of India during the period of imperialism. This company controlled the political, social, and economic life in India for more than 200 years.

bubonic plague :

An infectious disease transmitted by fleas. It is characterized by fever, chills, and the formation of swellings. Also known as the Black Plague or Black Death.

Buddhism :

developed in India, and is based on many of the core concepts of Hinduism.. Buddhists believe in an endless cycle of reincarnation, or samsara, which is similar to beliefs of Hinduism. However, Buddhists do not believe that deities are responsible for the phenomenon. In addition, the Caste System is rejected by Buddhists who believe instead that one is reincarnated until they can achieve nirvana, best described as spiritual enlightenment.

bureaucracy :

The administration portion of the government

Bushido :

Code of conduct for Samurai and nobles during Japanese feudalism.

Byzantine Empire :

(330-1453) The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived after the fall of the Western Empire at the end of the 5th century C.E. Its capital was Constantinople, named after the Emperor Constantine.

Cabinet System :

Collection of people who run various departments in government. Usually report to the chief executive, such as the prime Minister, or the President.

Caesar, Julius :

(100-44 BCE), Roman general and statesman. He is responsible for setting up the imperial system in Rome which placed his grandnephew, Augustus, on the throne.

Calvin, John :

(1509-1564) Theologian and church reformer who developed a form of Protestantism during the Reformation. His church is known for the idea of predestination, which states certain people are predestined for heaven.

capitalism :

An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods. Also promotes a free market regulated by supply and demand.

Cardinal Richelieu :

(1585-1642) French Cardinal and politician responsible for instituting absolutist practices in France.

Cash Crop Economy :

An economic system based on the exportation of certain crops such as sugar, cotton, and coffee.

Caste System :

A rigid social class system in Hinduism.

Castro, Fidel :

(1926?- ) Leader of the Cuban Revolution and communist dictator of Cuba. He is responsible for making Cuba a socialist country which has often been at odds with the United States. Notably, the bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Catherine the Great :

An enlightened despot who ruled over Russia. She is responsible for many positive changes in Russia, as well as securing the country a warm water port.

Cavour, Camillo :

(1810-61) Prime Minister of Sardinia, a large Italian State. He formed alliances with other foreign powers to help end Austria's and Spain's control. Instrumental in the unification of Italy.

censorship :

The suppression information considered offensive or a threat to security

centralized government :

A government which controls all aspects of society from a central location or through a central system.

Chamberlain, Neville :

(1869-1940) Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1937 to 1940. He is responsible for the policy of appeasement with Adolf Hitlerâ€™s Nazi Germany

check and balance :

A system in government described by Baron de Montesquieu where legislative, judicial, and executive power is shared among the different branches to provide protection against abuses of power.

Chinese Communist Revolution :

A political revolution in China led by Mao Zedong. After several years of fighting the Kuomintang, the communists won control of the country in 1949.

Chivalry :

Code of conduct for knight and nobles during European feudalism.

Christ, Jesus :

(8-4 BCE- 29? CE) Founder of Christianity. Considered by Christians to be the son of God and the Messiah. He is the central figure in the Christian Religion.

Christianity :

Currently the most popular religion in the world based on the number of worshippers found throughout the world. While this monotheistic religion developed from Judaism, there are several key differences in its teachings. It was founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century CE. The holy book is called the Holy Bible.

Churchill, Sir Winston :

(1874-1965) British politician and Prime Minster of Great Britain from 1940 to 1945, and 1951 to 1955. He is regarded as the finest British leader of the 20th century and was instrumental in leading Britain to victory during World War II.

civil disobedience :

The purposeful breaking of laws to protest actions by the government

civilization :

A society that has a high level of culture and social organization including organized government, job specialization, and a organized belief system.

Clemenceau, Georges :

(1841-1929) French Premier during World War I. He was one of the formulators of the Treaty of Versailles

Cold War :

Non shooting conflict between the Soviet Union and their allies and the United States and their allies. Numerous secondary conflicts arise due to the Cold War.

collective farm :

A government owned farms where peasants work on a quota system

colonialism :

The policy of maintaining colonies as a source of raw materials and new markets. Practiced during old and new imperialism.

colonization :

A group of people moving from their homeland to a new area in large numbers.

Columbian Exchange :

The exchange of goods and other things, such as disease from the Old World (Europe) to the new World (North and South America) and back

Columbus, Christopher :

(1451-1506) Italian explorer working for Spain who, in 1492, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and discovered the Americas for Spain.

Command Economy :

An economic system controlled by strong, centralized government, which usually focuses on industrial goods. With little attention paid to agriculture and consumer goods.

Commercial Revolution :

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

Commonwealth of Independent States :

Nation created after the breakup of the Soviet Union. It includes Russia and several smaller former Soviet republics.

communism :

A system of government in which a single, totalitarian, party holds power. It is characterized by state control of the economy, and restriction on personal freedoms. It was first proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto

Communist Revolution :

A political revolution in Russia beginning in 1917. The Bolsheviks, now known as Communists, overthrew Czar Nicholas II and created a socialist government based upon the writings of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. Also know as the Bolshevik Revolution.

Confucianism :

Confucius lived in China during the Chou Dynasty, when there was mass disorder and confusion and degrading moral standards. Confucius was appalled by what appeared to be the fracturing of Chinese society. He believed that the only cure was to stress a sense of social order and mutual respect, a philosophy that later became known as Confucianism. Confucianism teaches that there is a natural social order to society which can best be explained through the Five Relationships.

Confucius :

(551-479 BCE?) Chinese philosopher and writer of The Analects, a collection of moral and social teachings, including the concept of the Five Relationships. Also known as Kong Fu Zi.

Congress of Vienna :

Meeting of European political leaders to reestablish former territorial borders after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the fall of Napoleon. The Congress was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, and was dominated by Prince Metternich of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Constantine :

(274 CE â€“ 337 CE) Roman Emperor between 306 CE and 337 CE. He issued the Edict of Milan which outlawed the persecution of Christians. He also founded the city of Constantinople, the future capital of the Byzantine Empire.

constitutional monarchy :

A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch who has limited power due to a constitution

containment :

A cold war policy that called for containing communism to areas already under its influence. This policy was proposed by U.S. President Harry Truman.

Copernicus, Nicolaus :

(1473-1543) Polish astronomer who wrote On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. Theorized that the Earth orbited the Sun (heliocentric system) and laid the foundations of modern astronomy.

Cortez, Hernan :

(1485-1547) Spanish conquistador who was responsible for the conquest of the Aztec Empire and the claiming of much of Central America for the Spanish.

Counter-Reformation :

The movement initiated by the Catholic Church to contain the Protestant Reformation and, if possible, end it.

coup d etat :

The acting of overthrowing a government in favor of another, usually through violent means.

Creoles :

In colonial Latin America, American born Spanish gentry, They owned most of the land but were treated like second class citizens, and were denied political rights.

Cromwell, Oliver :

(1599-1658) Leader of the English Revolution that deposed the Stuart monarchs in favor of a short lived Republic. Cromwell acted as Lord Protector until the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660.

Crusades :

European Christian military expeditions made between the 11th and 13th centuries to retake the Middle Eastern Holy Lands occupied by the Muslims.

Cuban Missile Crisis :

(1961) Crises that developed as a result of Cuban dictator Fidel Castroâ€™s decision to allow the Soviet Union to base nuclear missiles in Cuba. Upon discovery, the United States confronted the Soviet Union and demanded the missiles be removed. For nearly two weeks, nuclear war was imminent. Fortunately, diplomacy succeeded and crisis was averted.

Cuban Revolution :

(1958) A political revolution that removed the United States supported Fugencio Batista from power. The revolution was led by Fidel Castro who became the new leader of Cuba as a communist dictator.

Cultural Revolution :

(1966-1976) Political policy in started in China by Mao Zedong to eliminate his rivals and train a new generation in the revolutionary spirit that created communist China. The Cultural Revolution resulted in beatings, terror, mass jailings, and the deaths of thousands.

Czar Nicholas II :

(1868-1918) Czar of Russia (1894-1917). He was overthrown during the Russian Revolution of 1917. Later, he and his family were killed by the revolutionâ€™s leadership.

Da Gama, Vasco :

(1469?-1524) Portuguese explorer who, in 1498, established an all water route to India

Da Vinci, Leonardo :

(1452-1519) An Italian painter, sculptor, engineer, and inventor. Famous works include paintings Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Also left a variety of sketches showing flying machines and underwater boats centuries before the invention of planes and submarines.

de Santa Anna, Antonio López :

(1794-1876) Mexican general and dictator who controlled Mexico for more than 25 years. Lost war against the United States which cost Mexico present day California, Nevada, and New Mexico

Declaration of the Rights of Man :

Revolutionary document of the French Revolution. Written in 1789, it spelled out certain rights believed to be universal to all mankind. Patterned on the American Declaration of Independence.

deforestation :

The widespread destruction of the world's forests. One of the largest areas of destruction are the tropical rainforests. These forest are cut down for the hardwood lumber, to clear space for farming, for building settlements, and for grazing animals. land bridge

democracy :

A system of government in which the citizens hold the legislative, judicial, and executive power, based on majority rule.

Descartes, Rene :

(1596-1650) French intellectual who challenged traditional ideas. He said that human reason was capable of discovering and explaining the laws of nature and man. The idea of human reason being superior to tradition led to the beginning of the Enlightenment, a time of political awakening that became revolution.

dictatorship :

A system of government in which a country is ruled by a single person with absolute power.

Diocletian :

(245-313) Emperor of Rome who was responsible for dividing Rome into different provinces and districts. Eventually, the eastern portions of the Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire.

dynastic cycle :

In China, a dynasty would remain in power only as long as it was providing good government. When a dynasty went into decline, and began to abuse its power, it was said to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. A strong leader would usually emerge to claim the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.

economic rights :

Rights such as owning property, or the choice to be employed.

Eightfold Path :

Code of behavior for followers of Buddhism.

Elizabeth I :

(1533-1603) Queen of England and Ireland between 1558 and 1603. She was an absolute monarch and is considered to be one of the most successful rulers of all time.

empire :

1. A collection of nations or peoples ruled by a single authority, usually a monarch, but can be other systems of government as well. 2. A very large and powerful industrial organization

Enclosure Movement :

During the Industrial Revolution, it was the consolidation of many small farms into one large farm, which created a labor force as many people lost their homes.

encomienda system :

A system of production in Spainâ€™s New World possessions which granted permission to conquistadors to enslave as many people needed to work a plantation.

English Bill of Rights :

(1689) A Bill of Rights written after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 which placed William and Mary on the throne of England. The bill created a limited monarchy and established Parliament as the ruling body of the nation.

enlightened despots :

A monarch who retains absolute control of their country while also enacting reform based on Enlightenment ideas.

Enlightenment :

A movement in the 18th century that stressed the importance of reason and science in philosophy and the study of human society. Occurred in Western Europe.

Estates :

Class system in France before the French Revolution. There were three Estates, First Estate was Clergy, Second was Nobility, and Third was peasants, merchants, and townspeople.

Estates General :

The legislative body of France. Composed of representatives from the three estates which are Clergy in the First Estate, Nobles in the Second Estate, and peasants in the Third Estate. Each Estate is entitled to one vote on legislative matters. The Estates General was never as strong as the British Parliament of the American Congress.

fascism :

A system of government that promotes extreme nationalism, repression, anticommunism, and is ruled by a dictator.

Ferdinand and Isabella :

During the late 15th century, they became King and Queen of a united Spain after centuries of Islamic domination. Together, they made Spain a strong Christian nation and also provided funding to overseas exploration, notably Christopher Columbus.

Ferdinand, Franz :

(1863-1914) Archduke of Austria, nephew to the Emperor. He was assainated by Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, Bosnia in 1914. This resulted in the start of World War I.

Feudalism :

A social, political, and economic system that dominated all aspects of medieval European life.

Five Relationships :

Confucian philosophy about social order where everyone has a place and respect is paid to elders, parents, and the government. The relationships are, ruler to ruled, father to son, older brother to younger brother, husband to wife, friend to friend.

Five Year Plans :

Stalin's economic policy to rebuild the Soviet economy after World War II. Included massive industrialization and farm collectivization, where peasants lived collectively on government owned farms, often resulted in widespread famine as many peasants resisted this policy.

foreign policy :

A nationâ€™s actions regarding how they treat other nations.

Frederick the Great :

(1712-1786), King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. Enlightened despot who enlarged Prussia by gaining land from Austria when Maria Theresa became Empress.

French Revolution :

Political revolution in France starting in 1789 that brought about many changes in France. The revolution ultimately ended with a dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte before his defeat by the combined powers of Europe.

Galilei, Galileo :

(1564-1642) Italian astronomer. One of the founders of Europe's scientific revolution, one of his main contributions is the application of the telescope to astronomy. He was able to prove Copernicusâ€™ heliocentric model correct.

Gandhi, Mohandas :

(1869-1948) Nationalist leader in India, who called for a non violent revolution to gain his countryâ€™s freedom from the British Empire.

Gautama, Siddhartha :

(563?-483?BCE), Indian philosopher and the founder of Buddhism. Siddhartha was born into the Brahmin caste, and by all account led a luxurious lifestyle. However, he was troubled by the human misery that he saw around him everyday. Upon reflection, he deduced that desire was the root caused of all suffering. Also known as the Buddha.

Genghis Khan :

(1167?-1227) One of the Mongolâ€™s greatest leaders and founder of the Mongol Empire

genocide :

The killing of all the people from a ethnic group, religious group, or people from a specific nation.

Ghana :

One of the west African Trading Kingdoms. They were rich in gold and established a vast trading network across the Sahara desert.

Glasnost :

A policy of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev which called for more openness with the nations of West, and a relaxing of restraints on Soviet citizenry.

Glorious Revolution :

Political revolution in Great Britain in 1688 that put William and Mary on the throne, while limiting the power of the monarchy and making Parliament supreme. This event marks the beginning of a constitutional monarchy in England.

Gorbachev, Mikhail :

(1931- ), leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His policies of Perestroika and Glasnost, which aimed at revitalizing the Soviet Union contributed to the downfall of communism.

Great Depression :

(1929-1939) The dramatic decline in the worldâ€™s economy due to the United Stateâ€™s stock market crash of 1929, the overproduction of goods from World War I, and decline in the need for raw materials from non industrialized nations. Results in millions of people losing their jobs as banks and businesses closed around the world. Many people were reduced to homelessness, and had to rely on government sponsored soup kitchens to eat. World trade also declined as many countries imposed protective tariffs in an attempt to restore their economies.

Great Leap Forward :

The economic program designed to increase farm and industrial output though the creation of communes. Communes are similar to Soviet collectives in that groups of people live and work together on government owned farms and in government owned industry.

Great Purge :

The widespread arrests and executions of over a million people by Josef Stalin between 1936 and 1938. Stalin was attempting to eliminate all opposition to his rule of the Soviet Union.

Green Revolution :

Throughout the 20th century, scientists worked on improving agriculture, especially in areas with high populations. Some of the technologies developed included better irrigation systems so farmers could get water to their crops. New machinery was built to handle larger production and to take the burden of agriculture work off of humans. New chemical fertilizers and pesticides were created to increase food production, and new varieties of grains and livestock were developed also for greater production. The Green Revolution has had only limited success. The high costs associated with many of these new technologies have kept the small farmer from taking advantage of them.

Gupta Dynasty :

(320-550 C.E.)Ruling family in India during its golden age. Responsible for many achievements.

Hammurabis Code :

Oldest written system of laws. They were created by King Hammurabi of Babylonia in th mid 18th century BCE and placed on stones tablets for all to see.

Hellenistic :

Time period from the late 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE that was characterized by Greek achievement and a blending of Persian, Egyptian, Greek, and Indian cultures due to the empire of Alexander the Great.

Henry VIII :

(1491-1547) King of England who transformed his country into a Protestant nation during the Reformation.

Hinduism :

A polytheistic religion that was formed from a variety of different religious practices. In Hinduism, salvation is achieved through a spiritual oneness of the soul, atman, with the ultimate reality of the universe, Brahma. To achieve this goal, the soul must obtain moksha, or liberation from the samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. As a result of these basic teachings, Hindus believe in reincarnation, which is influenced by karma (material actions resulting from the consequences of previous actions), and dharma (fulfilling one's duty in life). Because all forms of animal life possess souls, Hindus believe in ahimsa, or that all life is sacred. and should not be harmed. In fact, one animal which Hindus consider to be extremely sacred is the cow. The peaceful and contented existence of cows is considered virtuous by Hindus and would represent a rewarding reincarnation for a soul. For this reason, most Hindus are vegetarians so that they do not harm other living beings. The belief in reincarnation, karma, and dharma also provides the religious justification for the existence of the rigid social structure known as the Caste System.

Hiroshima :

Japanese city devastated during World War II when the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Aug 6th, 1945.

Hitler, Adolf :

(1889-1945) Austrian-born leader of Germany. He co-founded the Nazi Party in Germany, and gained control of the country as chancellor in 1933. Hitler started World War II with the invasion of Poland. He was responsible for the Holocaust

Holocaust :

The attempted genocide of European Jews, Gypsies, mentally retarded, homosexuals, and others by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.

human rights :

The rights that are considered by most societies to belong automatically to all people, including the rights to justice, freedom, and equality.

humanism :

A philosophical movement during the Renaissance that stressed life on Earth, and the quality of being human. Rejected living only for the afterlife of Christianity.

Hussein, Saddam :

(1937- ) President of Iraq since 1979. He has led his control into two devastating wars, one against Iran in 1980 to 1988, and the Persian Gulf War in 1990 â€“ 1991 which started as a result of his invading Kuwait.

ideology :

An organized system of beliefs, values, and ideas. They form the basis of a political, social, and economic philosophy.

Imperialism :

The complete control of a weaker nationâ€™s social, economic, and political life by a stronger nation.

Inca :

A Mesoamerican civilization of South America, centered in Peru. The Inca ruled a large empire and had many cultural and scientific achievements including an elaborate road system, architecture, and terrace farming. The arrival of the Spanish Conquistadores ended their empire in the 15th century.

Indian National Congress :

Nationalistic organization in India with the purpose of ending British control. Prominent members include Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Industrial Revolution :

In the second half of the 19th century, it was the fundamental change in the way goods were produced through the use of machines, capital, and the centralization of work forces in factories. It completely altered the social, economic, and political structure of most of Europe, Japan, and the United States.

Iron Curtain :

A term popularized by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to describe the Soviet Unionâ€™s policy of isolation during the Cold War. The Iron Curtain isolated Eastern Europe from the rest of the world. Its most poignant symbol was the Berlin Wall.

Jiang Jieshi :

(1887-1975) Leader of the Guomindang, or Nationalist Party in China. Fought to keep China from becoming communist, and to resist the Japanese during World War II. He lost control of China in 1949, and fled to Taiwan where he setup a rival government. Also known as Chang Kai Shek.

joint stock company :

A company that sells shares to investors who share in the profits and losses.

Judaism :

is the oldest known monotheistic religion still practiced in the world today. Its fundamental teachings have been influential and are the basis for more recently developed religions such as Christianity and Islam. Judaism teaches that there is one God who is the creator of all things. after the Hebrew exodus from Egypt, many Hebrews began to lose their faith in God. During this time, Moses went atop Mount Sinai and returned with two stone tablets containing laws that all Hebrews needed to follow. These laws, recorded in the Exodus 20:3-17, became known as the Ten Commandments.

karma :

Actions in this life resulting from the consequences of a previous lifeâ€™s actions. Associated with Hinduism and Buddhism.

Kellogg-Briand Pact :

A treaty signed in 1928 renouncing war as a means of solving international disputes.

Khrushchev, Nikita :

(1894-1971) Leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. Khrushchev was critical of Stalinâ€™s policies and attempted to reverse some of them. He is responsible for placing nuclear missiles in Cuba which resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Korean War :

A war between North Korean, which was supported by both the Soviet Union and communist China, and South Korea, which was supported by the United States and the United Nations. The war occurred between 1950 and 1953 and ended in an armistice and original borders.

Kristallnacht :

On November 9th, 1938, Nazis in German looted, and burned Jewish stores and Synagogues, often beating Jews in the street. Over 90 Jews were killed during Kristallnacht. Also called Night of Broken Glass.

Kuomintang :

Nationalist Party in China led by Jiang Jieshi, which began a war against the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. Both fought for control of China, with Mao and the Communists ultimately winning in 1949.

Laissez-Faire Economics :

This was an economic philosophy begun by Adam Smith in his book, Wealth of Nations, that stated that business and the economy would run best with no interference from the government. This economic system dominated most of the Industrial Revolution.

Latin American Revolutions :

Political revolutions in various Latin American countries beginning in the late 18th century. These revolutions were aimed at overthrowing the European powers that controlled these nations. Many were successful, but few achieved the success of the American Revolution.

Laws of the Twelve Tables :

A system of laws. Some of the features of this system include, men being equal under the law, having the right to face their accusers, and being considered innocent until proven guilty.

League of Nations :

A multinational peace keeping organization which began as an idea of United States President Woodrow Wilson following the first World War. The Treaty of Versailles created a League with over 40 different countries joining. The United States was not one of them. The League of Nations was to be an international body that would settle future problems through negotiations instead of warfare. The member nations were to work cooperatively through economic and military means to enforce its decisions. However, since the United States did not join, the League never achieved its intentions. While the League did attempt to halt the aggressiveness of Hitler's Germany, their inherent weakness prevented them from stopping World War II.

Lenin, Vladimir :

(1870-1924) Russian revolutionary leader and political theorist. He was the first leader of the new communist government of Soviet Russia. Later, he was also the first leader of the Soviet Union, which was composed of most of the republics of the former Russian Empire.

Locke, John :

(1632-1704) English philosopher and political theorist. He wrote Two Treaties on Government which explained that all men have Natural Rights, which are Life, Liberty, and Property, and that the purpose of government was to protect these rights.

Long March :

March the Mao Zedong and his Communist Party underwent to avoid being captured and killed by Chinaâ€™s Nationalist Party.

Machiavelli, Niccolo :

(1469-1527) Italian historian, statesman, and political philosopher of the Renaissance. His greatest work is The Prince, a book of political advice to rulers in which he describes the methods that a prince should use to acquire and maintain political power. This book was used to defend policies of despotism and tyranny. Machiavelli wrote that a ruler should take any action to remain in power, or that â€œthe ends justifies the means.â€

Magna Carta :

A document granting rights to both the Church in England and the Nobility signed by King John in 1215. This is considered to be the beginnings of British democracy.

Mali :

One of the west African Trading Kingdoms. They were rich in gold and established a vast trading network across the Sahara desert. Greatest ruler was Mansa Musa, who converted to Islam and made a famous pilgrimage.

manorialism :

Economic portion of feudalism where all aspects of life were centered on the lordâ€™s manor including peasant villages, a church, farm land, a mill, and the lord's castle or manor house.

Mansa Musa :

Emperor of the kingdom of Mali in Africa. He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca and established trade routes to the Middle East.

Mao Zedong :

(1893-1976) Leader of the Communist Party in China that overthrew Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists. Established China as the Peopleâ€™s Republic of China and ruled from 1949 until 1976.

Meiji :

(1852-1912) Emperor of Japan from 1867 to 1912. He was responsible for the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the rapid modernization and industrialization of Japan.

market economy :

An economy based on free trade and supply and demand

Marshall Plan :

Economic aid from the United States used to rebuild Europe after World War II. Named after United States Secretary of State George Marshall.

Marx, Karl :

(1818-1883), German political philosopher and writer. Coauthor with Friedrich Engels of The Communist Manifesto which described the new philosophy of scientific socialism, which is the basis for modern communism.

Meiji Restoration :

The restoration of the Emperor Meiji to power in Japan, overthrowing the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868.

mercantilism :

The policy of building a nation's wealth by exporting more goods than it imports. Colonies are instrumental in this policy as they supply their parent nations with raw materials that are used to produce finished goods, and then exported back to the colonies. Colonies not only served as a source for the raw materials, but also as an exclusive market for the parent country.

Mexican Revolution :

(1910 â€“ 1920) A political revolution that removed dictator Porfirio Diaz, and hoped to institute democratic reforms. While a constitution was written in 1917, it was many more years until true change occurred.

Michelangelo :

(1475-1564) An Italian sculptor, painter, poet, engineer, and architect. Famous works include the mural on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the sculpture of the biblical character David.

Middle Ages :

Time period in European history between the fall of Rome in 476 C.E. and the beginning of the Italian Renaissance in the early 15th century.

middle class :

Social and economic class usually composed of merchants, artisans, and business people. In some societies, the richest class, but without a title of nobility. The middle class is usually the backbone of society as they are generally more moderate in their economic, social, and political habits.

militarism :

Political policy that is dominated by the military and the competitive buildup of arms.

mixed economy :

An economic system which is a combination of Market and Command economic systems where market forces control most consumer goods, but government directs industry in need areas.

Monroe Doctrine :

(1823) A political policy of the United States by President James Monroe that states the Western Hemisphere is closed to European interference.

Moses :

He is considered a founder of Judaism due to his role in the liberation of the Hebrews from Egypt, and his delivery of the Ten Commandments from Mount Sinai sometime around 2000 BCE.

Muslim League :

Nationalist movement in India by the Islamic population who did not feel represented by the Indian National Congress. They initially formed to protexct Muslim rights, but later called for an independent state.

Mussolini, Benito :

(1883-1945) Italian leader. He founded the Italian Fascist Party, and sided with Hitler and Germany in World

Nagasaki :

Japanese city devastated during World War II when the United States dropped the second atomic bomb on Aug 8th, 1945.

NATO :

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international defense alliance between the United States, Great Britain, and others formed in 1949 as a response to the spread of communism.

Nehru, Jawaharlal :

(1889-1964) Indian nationalist leader and the first prime minister of independent India from 1947 to 1964. Along with Mohandas Gandhi, he was instrumental in freeing India from Britainâ€™s control.

Nuremburg Trials :

War crime trials held in Nuremburg after World War II to try the surviving Nazis concerning the Holocaust, aggressive war making, mistreatment of prisoners among other things

Old Imperialism :

A European policy of conquest that occurs in the 15th through 18th centuries in Africa, India, the Americas, and parts of Asia The motives were the same for most areas, the establishment of lucrative trade routes. Various European countries dominated these trades routes and one time or another, and a some countries, such as Great Britain and Spain, came to dominate entire countries.

Open Door Policy :

A policy of the United States that stated China should be open to all nations that which to trade with them. This policy did not include the consent of the Chinese, and was another form of imperialism.

Opium War :

In the early 19th century, Great Britain began importing opium, processed from poppy plants grown in the Crown Colony of India, into China. Chinese officials attempted to ban the importation of the highly addictive opium, but ultimately failed. The British declared war on China in a series of conflicts called the Opium Wars. Superior British military technology allowed them to claim victory and subject the Chinese to a series of unequal treaties.