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The China Review, Vol. 1, No.

1 (Fall 2001), 1–27

Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy*
Tianbiao Zhu

Is China increasingly a threat to the West? How is Chinese nationalism related to China’s international behaviour? This study answers these questions by examining the relationship between Chinese nationalism and foreign policy since 1949. It argues that the influence of Chinese nationalism for the last half century has been consistently determined by an interaction between the need to preserve China’s national independence and various means to serve this goal, in particular, the key means of development through economic openness. When foreign economic links contradicted the goal of national independence, China became isolated and aggressive. However, when openness supported the goal, China moderated its international behaviour. Thus, China’s future foreign policy will depend on how the concern of seeking and preserving national independence is balanced with the concern of economic development through openness in a new international environment.

Introduction: Chinese Nationalism and Foreign Policy
Since 1979 China has experienced rapid economic development. While this economic achievement is well known to the world, an ever-growing

Tianbiao Zhu is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of International Relations, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, at the Australian National University. He received his M.Phil. from the University of Cambridge and Ph.D. from Cornell University. His main research interest is international and comparative political economy, and he is currently doing research on the political economy of development in Taiwan, South Korea, and China.

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China also causes alarm in some Western observers. They believe that China’s economic power will develop into political and military power, which will pose a strong challenge to the post-Cold War international political and economic order, currently dominated by the West in general and the United States (US) in particular. Thus, there is much discussion of “the China threat” and “containing China.”1 It is important to note that the common element of these discussions is the rhetoric that the basis of “the China threat” is Chinese nationalism, which is stimulated by the country’s growing economic strength, and will therefore become increasingly influential on its foreign policy. In particular, it is argued that since the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, communism is no longer sufficiently strong to serve as the sole ideological basis for the Chinese communist rule, or even for holding China together. In its place, nationalism is becoming an increasingly important means of ruling. Because of this, it is argued that China in the early twenty-first century will become more like Germany and Japan in the late nineteenth century. In these cases, the countries became strong economic and military powers after a relatively short period of rapid economic growth under extreme nationalism, and eventually stepped onto the path of foreign expansion and aggression. All those who believe in “the China threat” or “containing China” tend to agree that the influence of Chinese nationalism on China’s foreign policy has been increasing since 1979. I argue two points in this study. First, that nationalism has always been a fundamental force in the making of Chinese foreign policy, not only since 1979, but from 1949. In support of this argument, I suggest that in relation to foreign policy making, there has hardly been any “restoration,” “renewal,” or “revival” of Chinese nationalism since 1979. It is therefore questionable whether “the China threat” is the product of rising Chinese nationalism. Second, that the continuing influence of nationalism on China’s foreign policy does not mean that Chinese foreign policy has remained and will remain the same. I argue that changes in Chinese foreign policy depend on different ways of serving the ultimate goal of Chinese nationalism, which is to seek and preserve China’s national independence. This is also the key for us to understand the future influence of Chinese nationalism on foreign policy. In particular, I argue that economic development through openness has been seen as the key means to serve the goal of Chinese nationalism since 1979, and to date this emphasis has ensured that China’s international behaviour has remained quite moderate. The above arguments will be further explained in the following

I hope this discussion will provide not only a good understanding of the impact of Chinese nationalism on foreign policy since 1979.e.
Chinese Nationalism and Foreign Policy: Concepts and Focus
Nationalism is often closely associated with the nation-state. Rather. It is not the argument of this study that nationalism has always been the most important force determining China’s foreign policy. how the interaction between the goal of Chinese nationalism. culture. nationalism is closely associated to state building. language and territory is persuaded to assert its own affairs.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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section. which gives rise to a so-called “nation-state. and having a sense of coherent. Yongnian Zheng notes. and it has ultimately been defined
. nationalism in general can mean either of the following two things: “the process whereby a group or community that shares — or at least is convinced that it shares — a common history. In his recent book Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China. assertive national self-awareness.”3 Regardless which of the above definitions one uses. but also a framework for understanding the relationship between Chinese nationalism and foreign policy in the last 50 years.” or “the way that the government or other influential agents within a state already in existence. which vary through historical periods. the means to reach it. “[n]ation-state and national identity are two related aspects of nationalism. It should be noted that to focus on the relationship between Chinese nationalism and foreign policy is not to exclude the impact of other forces. usually through the creation of an independent state. and the conduct of China’s foreign policy has initiated foreign policy changes. set about creating a strong. The main aim of this study is to seek to understand the relationship between nationalism and China’s foreign policy. and the third part will present evidence. and in particular.”5 The origin and development of Chinese nationalism is also largely associated with the formation and development of the modern Chinese state. homogeneous identity.”2 According to Peter Harris. By doing this. John Fitzgerald argues that “the Chinese nation has been created and recreated in the struggle for state power. nationalism is the basis of the formation and development of the modern state.4 Some scholars further call this kind of pro-state-building nationalism “state nationalism. this study argues that nationalism has had a consistent impact on foreign policy throughout the 50-year history of the People’s Republic of China (PRC).” i.

Given the history of foreign aggression against China. In his lecture on “the revival of Chinese nationalism. the state has to protect its territorial integrity. patriotism (aiguo zhuyi). These are key state interests. To reach this goal. Among these means. has been the officially preferred word to define people’s national sentiments. such as ethnic nationalism in which a certain existing ethnic group strives to become an independent state.”10 What Wang calls “the most common face” of Chinese nationalism. generations of the Chinese elite came to the belief that only by building a strong China. and national self-respect. to seek and preserve national independence. I will refer to it as “the goal of nationalism”) — that is. He argues that there are other types of nationalism co-existing with state nationalism in China. Townsend agrees that state nationalism has dominated official doctrine and China’s political behaviour since 1949. could they fight against foreign aggression and become independent of foreign control. rather than nationalism (minzu zhuyi). the discussion on Chinese nationalism in this study intends to focus on state nationalism. bringing together state and people.9 Instead of promoting Han nationalism.”6 The key factors that gave rise to Chinese nationalism were the repeated aggression against China by the Western powers. I call the ultimate goal of Chinese nationalism (for simplicity. In fact. This is not to deny other sources and types of Chinese nationalism. and “the most common face concerns questions of polity and stresses the recovery of sovereignty. Prasenjit Duara argues that nationalism in China is not simply a modern phenomenon. Given this history. segments of the scholar class in China had already begun to advocate a notion of the Han community and fatherland (guo). and engage in economic development in order to build a strong national power. and their control over different parts of China since the Opium War of the 1840s. economic development is the most important.” Gungwu Wang argues that Chinese nationalism has many faces. This again links nationalism to nation-state making and building.8 However.7 James Townsend rejects the idea of a complete transformation from Chinese culturalism to nationalism in modern times. promote its good image in the international community. the Chinese government has been constructing the “Chinese nation” (zhonghua minzu). the unification of divided territory. and are the means to reach the goal of nationalism (I will refer to them as the “means of nationalism”).4
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by the state as a reward of victory. For this reason. Under long periods of foreign rule in the twelfth century. the elite realized that a strong
. which includes all ethnic groups in China.

What. On the one hand. The second may end vulnerability to external attack. then.11
This study is on the impact of this contradiction on foreign policy making. and foreign assistance can play a positive role in promoting development. However. but at the risk of becoming vulnerable to more powerful adversaries. foreign policy can also promote a good image of China. The first course promises to uphold a national cultural identity. economic development is the most important means of nationalism. especially the developed countries.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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Chinese economy was central to becoming a strong military and political power in the world. so as to uphold the integrity of China’s cultural identity (whether defined in Confucian or communist terms). Foreign policy should therefore aim to build friendly relations with other countries. one should examine the interaction between the
. This potential contradiction is apparent in modern Chinese history. foreign relations. On the other hand. to know how Chinese nationalism has affected foreign policy and especially whether the idea of “the China threat” is well founded. as Michael Yahuda notes:
A deep division runs through modern Chinese history between the impulse to close the doors that had been forced open by the predatory West. in order to obtain resources and technology for domestic economic development. The continuing influence of Chinese nationalism is reflected by the fact that the goal of nationalism has consistently been one of the major forces determining China’s foreign policy. can also bring inconsistency to the relationship between the means and the goal of nationalism. I argue that there is both continuity and change concerning the influence of nationalism on China’s foreign policy from 1949. especially those with the developed countries. Through the interaction with other countries. is the relationship between Chinese nationalism and foreign policy? In order to serve the goal of nationalism. poor countries such as China can become politically and economically dependent on the rich and powerful countries by receiving assistance from them and making alliances with them. but it risks undermining the cultural identity it was meant to uphold. the means of nationalism need to be incorporated into practical policies. Thus. Thus. and the rational necessity to interact with the outside world in order to acquire the modern technology that alone will ensure defence against being humiliated once again by more modern armies. The changes in Chinese foreign policy have resulted from transformations of the means of nationalism from one historical period to another. there is a danger of the means contradicting the goal of nationalism.

this announcement came as little surprise since the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) shared the same ideology as the Soviet government.12
Differences between Mao and Stalin had existed long before the 1950s. was ideology the main factor bringing China and the Soviet Union together? Based on newly released documents detailing negotiations between Mao and Stalin for the alliance in 1949 and 1950. Mao had quite a different idea about the future direction of the
.”13 As early as the Yan’an period (the mid-1930s to the mid-1940s). Mao Zedong announced the principle of new Chinese foreign policy — “leaning to one side. Mao was a Chinese nationalist first and foremost. and the latter had expressed its moral support. The problem was partly concerned with the application of MarxLeninist theory to China’s particular situation. but it will also deal with other means and their impact on China’s foreign policy. the 1960s–1970s. I will discuss this interaction in three historical periods — the 1950s. At a first look.… Their private communications mostly carried a message of naked military-political interests and a priority for national security. Mao had urged those cadres and students trained in the Soviet Union to have “Chinese style and attitude.”14 Only five years before the “leaning to one side” principle was announced. Chen Jian notes “Mao’s concept of revolution reflected his generation’s emotional commitment to China’s national liberation as well as of its longing for China to take a central position in world politics. a striking feature of Mao and Stalin in camera is that neither was motivated by the ideology that so characterized their public declarations of the period. Sergei Goncharov.
Chinese Nationalism and Foreign Policy: Past and Present
The 1950s: China and the Soviet Union In the summer of 1949. The discussion will give emphasis to economic development as the main means of Chinese nationalism.6
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means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. However. if not direct military support. but it was also because Mao did not want the CCP to be a puppet of the Soviet Union. and the 1980s–1990s.” China would seek an alliance with the Soviet Union and fight against the US and its Western allies. for the CCP since it was founded in 1921. John Lewis and Litai Xue note that:
On balance.

Lewis and Xue note.16 Mao also made efforts to communicate with the US just before the “leaning to one side” policy was announced. This can be done — in China — only by free enterprise and with the aid of foreign capital. “[f]rom Mao’s point of view.21 A Chinese researcher further points out that China’s decision was not only based on a perception of the
. It has been argued that Chinese intervention was not an ideological commitment. Mao told a visiting American official that “China must industrialize. his alliance with the Soviet Union would only be a first step toward establishing China’s rightful position in the world. John Stuart. on 28 June 1949. production. It was a strategic decision based not on shared ideology. To this end they especially want friendly relations with USA.e.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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CCP’s foreign policy. We can and must work together.18
However. For instance. He wrote:
The trip to Shanghai gave me ample evidence local CCP authorities very anxious develop international trade and make utmost use Shanghai for promoting industry. Goncharov. Given the increasingly clear bipolar international system and the urgent need for recovering from the huge destruction caused by the civil war. Chinese and American interests are correlated and similar.19 The outbreak of the Korean War further pushed the US to support the Kuomintang (KMT) government in Taiwan. but on consideration of how to make China economically and politically strong — i. but was determined by national security considerations induced by the rapid advance of American and South Korean troops into North Korea.”20 China’s decision to enter the Korean War was another example of the influence of nationalism on foreign policy. reconstruction.17 Other evidence of the CCP’s efforts can be found in Stuart’s report to the Secretary of State after Stuart’s trip to Shanghai in June 1949. They fit together economically and politically. communications. China ultimately chose the Soviet Union as its ally. In 1944. a consideration of Chinese nationalism. However. which was repeated by Zhou Enlai to an American missionary a year later. the above discussion shows that the “leaning to one side” principle was not a natural outcome of ideological similarity between China and the Soviet Union. the domestic politics and ideological orientation of the US made it impossible to establish a close relationship with Communist China at that time. Mao and Zhou sent a message to the US ambassador. Zhou told the missionary that Mao would prefer Washington to Moscow.”15 In January 1945 Mao even expressed a desire to visit Washington. inviting him to attend the Yenching University reunion in Beijing.

In the eyes of Chinese leaders. China also received a large amount of military aid. Between 1950 and 1960.22 According to him. According to Klaus Knorr. Mao came to the belief that the take-over of North Korea by the US would give the Soviet Union an excuse to send its troops into the northeast in the name of defending China. … [and] establishment of a powerful longwave radio station for naval communication in China under Soviet control…26
. Before the Korean War. about 10. Chinese nationalism played a dominant role in the decision to enter the Korean War. the Soviet military support continued and met most of China’s demands.500 East European technicians went to China to help its economic development.000 Chinese students were sent to the Soviet Union. but also on the expectation of a strong Soviet presence in northeast China.3 billion of Soviet aid in the 1950s. and the contradiction eventually led to the break-up of the Sino-Soviet relationship in the early 1960s. which were required to attack Taiwan in 1951.23 China received over US$1. the alliance between China and the Soviet Union gave rise to a series of “unreasonable demands” which threatened China’s national independence. the Soviet Union had already committed itself to the building up of China’s air and naval capabilities. Those demands included:
The permanent stationing of Soviet forces in Luda (Dairen and Port Arthur) in the northeast (Manchuria). and 8. towards the end of the 1950s it became increasingly contradictory to that goal. and committed itself to 125 more plants for the period 1958–1962. the establishment of a joint Pacific fleet under the Soviet command.24 During and after the war.800 Soviet and 1. Clearly. From 1952 to 1957.8
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security threat from the US.000 Chinese skilled workers and engineers and 7. So the “leaning to one side” principle was the product of practical considerations based on Chinese nationalism. which was important to the realization of the goal of Chinese nationalism. This suggests that Mao’s decision to go into the Korean War was based on a consideration of preserving national independence (which was potentially threatened by both the US and the Soviet Union). and it did bring economic benefits to China in the 1950s. which would seriously compromise China’s sovereignty and its economic development (the northeast region was the largest industrial area in China at that time). towards the end of the 1950s.25 Although the alliance between China and the Soviet Union strengthened China’s national power. the Soviet Union delivered 166 complete industrial plants.

e. relying on domestic resources to promote economic development. China became an ally of the Soviet Union.” there was a deeper concern on the Chinese side about its economic relations with the Soviet Union. there could never be complete national independence.
. the Soviet Union provided strong support for China’s economic development in the 1950s. Mao believed that without economic independence. economic development based on Soviet support was inconsistent with the goal of Chinese nationalism — the goal of promoting and preserving national independence. and eventually led to a great transformation in the making of Chinese domestic and foreign policies. To summarize Sino-Soviet relations in this period. As noted earlier.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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However. The selfreliance strategy was the product of the consideration of protecting China’s national independence. This gave rise to the economic strategy of self-reliance and an anti-Soviet foreign policy. and the latter became the main foreign support for China’s economic development. Thus. Although China’s economy needed more technology transfers and aid from the Soviet Union. China was apparently unwilling to trade its national independence for foreign economic support.e. The Sino-Soviet alliance was the main feature of China’s foreign policy in the 1950s. it was relatively easy for the Soviet model and policies to penetrate China.” i. one cannot ignore the impact of Chinese nationalism on foreign policy. especially when it suffered severe setbacks from 1959 to 1962. the Chinese leaders began to re-consider the applicability of the Soviet development model in China’s context. i. as China’s economy became more influenced by the Soviet development model and economic aid. they later realized that because the two countries shared the same ideology. as a means of nationalism. In addition. beyond those “unreasonable demands. the issue of Chinese nationalism was crucial. Steven Goldstein argues that from the mid-1950s. the Chinese leaders came to believe that. However. However. preserving the goal of Chinese nationalism. this gradually gave rise to anxiety about increasing economic dependence on the Soviet Union. Although the Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s was also caused by their ideological and political differences. Due to the international and domestic situation of the early 1950s.28 Chinese leaders felt that the increasing economic dependence of China on the Soviet Union and the “unreasonable demands” were threatening national independence.27 He therefore began to advocate an economic strategy of “self-reliance. The series of “unreasonable demands” from the Soviets towards the end of the 1950s further deepened the concern of the Chinese leadership.

In 1973. there are also other ways. we are developing countries. From the perspective of Chinese nationalism. For most of the two decades. developing and consolidating its relationship with the Third World was essential to China’s image in the international community and to its efforts to break out of its international isolation. which became the key feature of Chinese foreign policy in the 1960s and 1970s. and also continued its hostility towards Communist China. This served China’s goal of promoting and preserving its national independence. establishing and then consolidating its relations with the Third World in the 1960s and 1970s. China became isolated internationally because of its opposition to US and Soviet hegemony. arguing that the Soviet Union and the US formed the first world. developing relationships with the Third World served the goal of promoting and preserving national independence.10
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Chinese nationalism played a fundamental role in transforming China’s domestic and foreign policies in the early 1960s. The best test case for the impact of Chinese nationalism on foreign policy-
. China provided strong political and economic support to many developing countries. China’s foreign policy changed from pro-Soviet to anti-Soviet in the early 1960s. although economic development is the most important means of obtaining the goal of nationalism. he went further and put forward a theory of Three Worlds. their allies belonged to the second world. The relationships were strengthened by China’s firm identification with the Third World.”29 In 1974. From then on. The 1960s and 1970s: China and the Third World If Chinese foreign policy was pro-Soviet in the 1950s. The beginning of the full effort was the visit of Premier Zhou Enlai to several newly independent African countries in 1963. Mao told the visiting Malian President Moussa Traore “we all belong to the Third World. China’s foreign policy towards the US did not change significantly during the 1960s and 1970s (though the hostility between the two began to decline from the early 1970s. as discussed in the next section). As discussed in the introductory section. This gave rise to a strong effort by China to develop foreign relations with Third World countries. it became antiSoviet and anti-American and pro-Third World in the 1960s and 1970s. the US continued to regard the KMT government in Taiwan as the sole legal representative of the whole of China. Thus. Given China’s opposition to Soviet and US hegemony. Meanwhile. and China and other developing countries were in the Third World.

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making in this period is China’s aid policy.30 In 1972. Its economic growth rate. However. but to provide unselfish support to other developing countries and
. China belonged to the lower one-third of the world’s nations in terms of the usual indicators of economic development.”37 A common belief is that China’s foreign aid in the 1960s and 1970s did not aim to serve its own national interests. This aid totalled US$9 billion — by far the largest amount given by any non-OPEC developing country donor. grants made up between 70% and 80% of total aid from China. The main reason for this argument is the huge gap between the large amount of aid China gave to the Third World and its own underdeveloped economy. matched only by Canada and Sweden.36 No wonder Knorr wrote that “China is becoming an important donor of aid. Its GNP per capita registered only one-fifteenth of that of Japan and one-fortieth of that of the US. By 1980. and none were given at higher than normal interest rates.31 In the same year. with the US next at 69%. China had given aid to more than 70 countries on five continents. This was one of the highest grant ratios among international donors. It is a common belief that China’s aid to the Third World in the 1960s and 1970s was determined by its belief in and practice of internationalism — the unselfish concern for other poor countries. China surpassed the Soviet Union as a donor of economic aid. it was inconceivable that China had such an extensive and generous aid programme without solid economic foundations.33 Moreover. The rest were low interest or noninterest provision loans with long-term repayment conditions. and the Soviet Union at 52%.”35 For many people. Other communist countries followed with significantly lower figures. Up to the mid-1970s. Switzerland and the UK at 60%. China sent over 22. but little is known of her motives for doing so. Very little Chinese aid was comprised of loans at standard interest rates. given that China’s total GNP was only 28% of the Soviet Union’s. was less than the world’s average.000 technicians abroad — more than the Soviet Union and the Eastern European countries combined. on which the rest of this section will concentrate. it is the only poor country in the world that is not receiving aid but rather has an extensive aid program itself. most of the nations which were recipients of Chinese aid had a higher standard of living than the donor nation!34 A commentator wrote that “China is a poor and backward country.32 China also gave aid on generous terms. measured in increases in gross national product. Much of China’s foreign assistance was in the form of gifts. Before 1979.

41 The Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s changed all this. its foreign aid to developing countries declined significantly. While China’s aid increased between 1961 and 1969.42 After the mid-1970s. Between 1970 and 1975. China’s national security concerns can explain a significant part of the aid — military aid was about 27% of the total. the aid nearly matched its total official aid to non-Communist countries up to that time and amounted to nearly 65% of the total communist bloc aid to underdeveloped countries. Second. before 1961 and after 1981 relatively lower amounts of aid were given.38 Although this is a considerably lower proportion compared to military aid given by the Soviet Union or the US. and most aid they received was military.12
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that it reflected the idealism and internationalism of the Chinese leaders at that time. First. Among all China’s aid recipients up to 1975. China further increased its aid. China had to fight on two fronts. and then declined from 1976 to 1980. as China’s geopolitical interests gradually shifted to the formation of an alliance with the West (as detailed in the next section). it was highly concentrated. this reflects China’s responses to the Korean War.
. So between 1961 and 1969. A careful analysis of China’s foreign aid in this period shows that it not only had specific security objectives.39 Clearly. but also largely reflected the interaction between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. anti-US and pro-Third World in the 1960s and 1970s. a year before the UN voted on the issue of China’s membership. North Vietnam and Pakistan were the three largest. its geopolitical interests were closely related to the Soviet Union’s. and the US was their common enemy. the Vietnam War and the threat of India along its south-western border. With a strong country on its side. China increased its foreign aid to developing countries. Given the situation. the Chinese leaders came to the belief that the Third World countries could be regarded as its allies and that this would enhance its strategic position in the world. and this was directly related to China’s efforts to join the United Nations (UN). North Korea. the distribution of China’s foreign aid across time basically fits the change of its foreign policy from pro-Soviet Union in the 1950s to anti-Soviet Union. It reached its peak between 1970 and 1975. China directed most of its aid to communist countries to strengthen bloc unity. China was a member of the Soviet bloc. In this period. In 1970.40 These patterns of change can be explained by changes in China’s foreign policy. From that point on. China’s aid level was generally low. Between 1949 and 1960.

construction projects. railways.45 In the first half of the 1970s. China chose to build the Tanzania-Zambia railway because the Soviet Union and the West had rejected the countries’ request due to practical difficulties. Given China’s isolation in the 1960s and 1970s.43 Clearly. but also the road project in Somalia and the deep-water harbour in Mauritania.44 Up to 1976. it is no surprise that China’s aid programme tended to concentrate on such construction projects. Among the 55 African and Latin American countries that China aided between 1960 and 1979. this image building through aid became a particular means of promoting and preserving China’s national independence. For example. especially construction projects. which five decades previously had kept China in a semi-colonial state. which come quickly into operation. Chinese aid also tended to concentrate on certain projects. roads. this aid tended to be more symbolic — giving aid to a country once or twice could not be of great assistance. the distribution of China’s foreign aid across countries shows that the main aim of the Chinese government was to build a good image in the international community. factories. image building in the international community and selfreliant economic development were the two key means to obtaining the
. and port facilities. conference halls and so on made up 67% of China’s economic aid programmes in terms of the number of contracts. China took on several ambitious prestige projects. including building roads. China tried to maximize the dispersion of its aid in terms of the number of aid recipients. Projects such as factories. are highly visible and can therefore result in a good deal of publicity. In summary. sport stadiums. based on very limited resources. For example. Malta’s need demonstrated a failure of the European countries.47 Similarly. in 1972 China gave US$45 million of aid to Malta. the Tanzania-Zambia railway cost China more than US$455 million.48 This was clearly an opportunity for China to show its ability to do what other advanced countries could not. China’s image building gave particular emphasis to the image of China as a strong power. about 30 were only aided once.46 Since the building of a good image must include publicity. Instead. Apart from the dispersion across countries. which constituted almost one-fifth of China’s economic aid to Africa and more than 10% of China’s total aid to the Third World between 1956 and 1977. ports. and 15 only twice. Wolfgang Bartke argues that from China’s point of view.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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Third. including not only the Tanzania-Zambia railway. in order to build the image of a strong and friendly China.

At the domestic level. Chinese nationalism played a key role in shaping China’s domestic and international strategies in the 1960s and 1970s. The Soviet Union placed a large number of troops along the China-Russia border. At the international level. As argued earlier.14
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goal of Chinese nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. China also actively sought to form strategic alliances with powerful countries. the government actively promoted the so-called “opendoor” policy to promote and strengthen China’s interaction with other countries. its relations with the West in general and with the US in particular were the main feature of China’s foreign policy in this period. It is important to note that China and the US had already established contact in the early 1970s. Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. the Chinese government actively reformed the central planning system. as the product of strategic considerations on both sides. and there were even armed clashes between the two countries. in view of the Soviet threat to China’s national independence. the means of nationalism transformed fundamentally from the early 1960s. through the interaction between the means and the goal of nationalism and the conduct of foreign policy. Domestically. and internationally it relied on a strategy of promoting a powerful and friendly image in the Third World. Although China took steps to develop relations with countries all over the world from the late 1970s. Thus. On the Chinese side. and encouraged the development of a market economy. On the American side. in particular its economic ties to the Western countries. as Western Europe. China experienced a great change in its domestic politics and foreign relations. the consideration was based on an increasing Soviet threat as Sino-Soviet relations worsened towards the late 1960s. China stepped onto the road of economic reform. Japan and the Soviet Union successfully recovered from the devastation of
. China emphasized self-reliant economic development. By establishing special economic zones (SEZs) and promoting trade. All this posed a great threat to China’s security. The goal of Chinese nationalism did not change from the 1950s to the 1960s. The 1980s and 1990s: China and the West Towards the end of the 1970s. apart from domestic mobilization. Chinese nationalism was directly responsible for the rise of its opposition to Soviet and US hegemony and pro-Third World principles in the early 1960s. the Chinese government aimed to attract foreign investment and to obtain advanced technologies from the West. However. So.

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World War II. which could bring stability to East Asia as well as balance the Soviet challenge.49
With the change in the means of nationalism. Nixon’s visit to China was the beginning of a new relationship between China and the West. However. and to developing China’s economy through promoting foreign trade and attracting foreign investment. This self-reliance development model was therefore largely a failure. the General Secretary of the CCP. and extend our view from the domestic arena to the world — i. economic development is the most important and basic means to promote and preserve national independence — the ultimate goal of Chinese nationalism. we should not limit ourselves to a small circle. not only to mobilize what we have domestically. In 1972. As argued earlier. Although this economic strategy was consistent with the goal of nationalism. If the Sino-American contact in the early 1970s was based on strategic considerations. Deng and other secondgeneration Chinese leaders decided to change the development strategy.e. China’s relations with the US and the West since the reform have extended to many levels. said in 1982:
Our modernization process should and can only aim to promote our national power. American power experienced a relative decline towards the end of the 1960s. Although the Sino-American contact of the early 1970s provided a good precondition for the rise of the “open-door” policy at the end of the 1970s. Hu Yaobang. We should keep self-reliance as our basic principle. which means using the strength of the outside world to overcome the weakness of our country. the US hoped to establish a strategic relationship with China. and wrongly interpret self-reliance as isolationism. but also to mobilize what we can get from the outside world. Given the Vietnam War and the Soviet global challenge. the 20-year experience and practice of economic development in China showed that an over-emphasis on selfreliance would lead to isolationism and economic inefficiency. which in the long-run hindered China’s economic development. from the early 1960s China engaged in self-reliant economic development. The economic level
. This gave rise to the economic reform and “open-door” policy. the change in China’s domestic politics and foreign relations can be better understood within the framework of the interaction between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. When China believed that the self-reliance strategy was not up to the task of obtaining the goal of nationalism. As discussed earlier. Chinese foreign policy also began to change.

it received more and more assistance from the developed countries. China has signed 144. China signed 32 international conventions. since the early 1980s the policy of “one country. After 1979. Macau and Taiwan. such as the one with Japan over the Diaoyu (Senkaku in Japanese) Islands. since the early 1980s China has not engaged in direct military action against any country. in terms of the amount of World Bank loans it received. China is just one step away from membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO). For example. China’s foreign policy was adjusted accordingly. China ranked only 70th among 125 member countries in 1981. and softened its attitude towards its former rivals. and the short war against Vietnam in the late 1970s. Second.51 In 1997.50 China also actively promoted trade with various countries. and advocated peaceful negotiations to solve the problems. China’s new development strategy needed the support of a stable geopolitical environment. but six years later it ranked 8th. concerning the issue of border disputes with neighbouring countries. the Sino-Indian conflict and Sino-Soviet conflict in the 1960s. For some serious disputes. concerning the questions of Hong Kong. First.6 billion to US$165.16
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is especially important.
. China has also actively participated in various kinds of international cooperation since 1979. Unlike the extreme policies adopted earlier — the policy of “leaning” towards the Soviet Union in the 1950s or the policy of isolation in the 1960s — from 1979 China developed normal relationships with various countries. Since the mid-1980s. Before 1979. China announced that it would not seek an immediate solution in order to avoid a potential military confrontation. this kind of activity was drastically reduced. China also advocated peaceful solutions. As China’s aid to other developing countries declined greatly after 1979. the government often organized mass rallies against a certain country or groups of countries in order to stimulate people’s patriotism. the value of total imports to China increased from US$20. For example. China did its best to exercise restraint. and at this very moment. China became one of the top 10 trading nations in the world. Between 1979 and 1992. For example. between 1949 and 1978. since 1979.52 Since the mid-1980s.6 billion. In contrast to China’s involvement in the Korean War in the 1950s. and its ranking in terms of import-flows in the world rose from 32nd to 11th. two systems” has been promoted by the Chinese government. China’s new development strategy also needed the support of peaceful diplomacy in general. China has joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

social and cultural rights and on civil and political rights. This led to a strong protest from China.
. China was able to solve the problems in a restrained manner. For example. the Chinese government adjusted the means to pursue the goal of nationalism. and therefore keep economic development at the top of its agenda. After the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the US in 1978. In 1983. Japan increased its defence spending and changed its school textbooks to conceal its aggression against China during World War II. and this change prevented nationalism from having an extreme impact on China’s foreign policy in the 1980s. the Chinese government used this opportunity to strengthen its patriotic education of the people while also forcing Japan to make political and economic concessions. The new relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. formed in the late 1970s.”55 The confidence of the Chinese leaders rested in their belief in strengthening the Chinese economy through the “open-door” policy while maintaining China’s national independence. in the late 1970s. Although there were a few setbacks in the relationship.53 Now we shall take a closer look at how China has tried to balance the means and the goal of nationalism in foreign policy making in the past two decades. a Chinese tennis player. This gave rise to strong nationalist passions among the Chinese people and also led to a serious protest from the Chinese government.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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China has signed a series of agreements and conventions on international security and arms control. was further consolidated during the 1980s. For most of the 1980s. Because of this confidence. Because of this. defected to Taiwan during her visit to the US. it did not affect the participation of the Chinese team in the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984. However. as some scholars have pointed out.54 There were similar situations in Sino-American relations. However. Instead. Thus. China basically maintained a stable relationship with the US and other developed countries. China did not cut off its ties with Japan. in the early 1980s. but Sino-American relations were not interrupted by this incident and continued to grow. China has also signed the UN conventions on economic. the American Congress passed “the Taiwan Relations Act” to maintain its ties with Taiwan. Hu Na. the Chinese government withheld all sports interaction with the US for that year. extreme nationalist tendencies could also be restrained. Michel Oksenberg called Chinese nationalism in this period “confident nationalism. In recent years.

the economic ties between two centrally planned economies (the Sino-Soviet tie in the 1950s) are different from those between two market-based economies (the Sino-American tie in the 1990s). This means it was relatively easy for the Soviet Union to impose an unequal economic relationship on China.18
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However. so it is not hard to use their economies as weapons to extend and protect their national interests. It would therefore be relatively hard for the US to impose a similar unequal economic relationship. the Sino-Soviet relationship was not built on level ground. Second. This gave rise to an increasingly hostile relationship between China and the West. and the US also saw China as a balancing power against the Soviet threat. When this relationship began in the 1970s. states do not have complete control over more marketbased economies. First. the relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy faced a crisis like that of the late 1950s. Given China’s “open-door” policy and the increasingly hostile relationship between China and the US in the post-Cold War period. the real test for the new relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy was the June 4th incident in 1989 and the great transformation of the international political system in the 1990s. The Sino-American relationship is different. However. it may also lead to economic and political dependence on the powerful country. China was very weak in the early 1950s. This was an important reason for the break-up of the Sino-Soviet relationship. most Western countries imposed sanctions against China. the Sino-American relationship was relatively equal. having just emerged from the destruction of the Chinese civil war and facing the challenge of the Korean War. So from the beginning. a strong relationship with a powerful country may help a developing country to grow and therefore strengthen its national independence. the shared SinoAmerican concern about the Soviet threat was no longer meaningful. and it would also be
. After the June 4th incident. China had become a significant force in international politics. the states completely control their own economies. So from the beginning. the Soviet Union alone offered help. In this situation. However. will this relationship deteriorate in the same way? It is important to note that there are some key differences between the two relationships. As discussed earlier. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. At the international level. For the former. and it was also relatively easy for China to break such a relationship.

Now.56 between 1980 and 1995. Both indicators ranked China number one in the world. In fact. In terms of total GDP measured on exchange rates. China’s management of its post-1989 foreign relations seems to suggest that the new relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy did not change in the 1990s. The economy not only became more market-based. the Chinese government continued to put economic development at the top of its agenda. people will raise questions once they make a comparison. If we do not develop or develop.58
While the Chinese government insisted on economic development. the average annual growth of GDP in China was 10.57 Regardless of which side is right. Others argue that its increasing economic strength enhances China’s confidence in its foreign relations. As discussed in the introduction. The key is economic development. Although China encountered both diplomatic isolation and economic sanctions from the West after the June 4th incident. but experienced consistent growth for more than a decade. and if the total GDP is measured on purchasing power parity.
We should seize the opportunity to develop our economy. which should prevent Chinese nationalism from becoming extreme. The economic achievements of China from the early 1980s to the 1990s further strengthened China’s position in its relations with the US. the above discussion shows that the Sino-American relationship in the 1990s is definitely different from the Sino-Soviet relationship in the 1950s. even in the face of the diplomatic
. and actively sought to improve relations with the West. there are some neighbouring countries and areas developing faster than we are. During his tour of Southern China in 1992. China had become one of the top 10 countries in the world by the early 1990s. and the average annual growth of GDP per capita was 8. it continued to carry out its “open-door” policy. too slowly.1%.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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relatively hard for China to break its economic ties with the US and world markets. China ranked third in the world. Deng said. those who believe in “the China threat” and “containing China” argue that its increasing economic strength will give rise to an extreme form of nationalism. and China therefore did not become extremely hostile to the US and the West as its economic strength increased. Third.6%. China was in a completely different economic situation in the 1990s compared to the 1950s. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNPD).

and even made efforts to repair the relationship later. China continued to face strong pressure from the West on issues like human rights and arms sales. a Chinese merchant ship the “Yinhe” was searched by the US navy in the Middle East because it was suspected of carrying illegal arms. China has been able to maintain a balance between its “open-door” policy and its consideration of national independence. Faced with more serious problems. such as the visit to the US by Lee Teng-hui (Taiwan’s president) in 1995 and the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict. China made strong protests. Faced with those problems. pointed out that the main aims of China’s foreign policy “are to fight against hegemonism and to maintain world peace on the one hand. but also maintained lines of communication with the US. the top leaders of the two countries made successful mutual visits in 1997 and 1998. and to enhance international cooperation and promote common economic development on the other. China’s relations with the West have been gradually normalized. and its foreign policy has therefore served the ultimate goal of Chinese nationalism.59 Since the early 1990s. The above discussion shows that from the end of the 1970s to the end of the 1990s. However. the impact of nationalism on China’s foreign policy did not become extreme. and continued to focus on communication with the US. the interaction between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy has been consistently reflected by the practice of promoting economic development through the “open-door” policy. the Chinese government was able to exercise restraint. The US Congress also voted against Beijing’s bid to host the Olympics in 2000 on the grounds of China’s human rights violations. Deng argued that China should not submit to Western pressure and should insist on its own path of development. in view of the new international political situation after the Cold War. This balance suggests that given the rapid growth of the Chinese economy.”60 It was this kind of foreign policy that guaranteed China’s rapid economic development. but he also argued that China should avoid a direct confrontation with the West and its foreign policy should focus on communication. In 1993. Although it has not always been easy for China to establish and consolidate its relationship with the West. and therefore strengthened its national independence. For example. rather than confrontation. the President of China.
. Jiang Zemin.20
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isolation and economic sanctions that the West imposed.

China made a great adjustment to its domestic and foreign policies. At the same time. The interaction between Chinese nationalism and foreign policy since the late 1970s is reflected by the continuing influence of the goal of Chinese nationalism on foreign policy. However. promote its image in the international community and strengthen its economy. even in the area of China’s aid to developing countries. which is commonly regarded as a strong case for illustrating Chinese internationalism. aiming to establish and strengthen China’s economic ties with the West. Among these means of nationalism. China actively engaged in building its relations with developing countries. The Soviet economic model and assistance provided direct support to China’s economic development. Although there have been ups and downs in China’s relations with the West since the end of the 1970s. Foreign Policy. The “open-door” policy. and is therefore the best means to realize the goal of Chinese nationalism. economic development is the most important. China has consistently promoted the “open-door” policy and maintained a good balance between opening to the West and addressing its concern for national independence. In the 1950s. This change did not give rise to an extreme
. Again. China made a great adjustment to its domestic and foreign policies. and Future Challenges
The interaction between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy is the focus of this study. became the main strategy for China’s economic development. China’s experience in the past 20 years shows that the “open-door” strategy strengthened China’s national power.Nationalism and Chinese Foreign Policy
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Conclusion: Chinese Nationalism. This led to the domestic strategy of self-reliance and the international strategy of China’s opposition to Soviet and US hegemony in the 1960s and 1970s. generations of Chinese elite naturally see promoting and preserving national independence as the ultimate goal of Chinese nationalism. enhanced national selfconfidence. Given the modern history of foreign aggression against China. and also by the change in the means of obtaining this goal. when this economic relationship became contradictory to the goal of Chinese nationalism. Towards the end of the 1970s. I argue that nationalism played an important role in this process. China was the ally of the Soviet Union. the Chinese state must be able to protect its territorial integrity. it became obvious that the model of self-reliance could not serve the goal of Chinese nationalism well. To obtain this goal.

they at least suggested a much tougher US policy towards China. adjusting the relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy is still one of the major challenges the third generation of Chinese leaders has to face.62 As China is becoming more open both economically and politically in the new century. it is a real challenge for the government to keep intense popular nationalism under control and therefore maintain a good balance between economic openness and concern for national independence. Internationally. The fact that The China That Says No. genuine resentment against the West does exist among Chinese intellectuals and college students. quickly became a bestseller signalled there were growing anti-West sentiments among the Chinese population. Thus. The “open-door” policy as a key developmental strategy has continued in the beginning of the new century. growing economic power and declining communism do not necessarily lead to “the China threat. it has caused China to maintain a generally good relationship with the West since 1979.61 published in 1996. China’s relations with the West have been facing a new test since the mid-1990s. China so far has not shown any willingness to damage this relationship and therefore to run the risk of harming China’s economic prospects.” Whether there is going be a future “China threat” will again depend on the interaction between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy.22
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form of nationalism in China. Massive protests in Beijing against the US in response to the Embassy bombing incident in 1999 also showed such sentiments. While the Chinese government might have encouraged those actions initially. Domestically. the Chinese leadership are also facing new challenges in the new century. If they gain support from the West. and the US spy plane incident in April 2001 did not signal a new Cold War. If the US missile defence plan in Asia. Although China’s response to the US spy plane incident did not seem different to responses in the past. In fact. what if there are more such incidents? Whether the Chinese leadership can maintain the right balance between economic openness and its concern for national independence under mounting political pressure from the US is an open question. Furthermore. from this perspective. However. they can certainly become a strong
. there is an issue of ethnic nationalism. but ethnic nationalist movements do exist and have support from segments of ethnic groups. State nationalism may be the dominant version of nationalism in China. its arms sales to Taiwan.

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challenge to the balance between economic openness and China’s concern for national independence. Only by doing this will China continue its rapid economic development and become a more stabilizing force in regional and international affairs. and it relates directly to the relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. At the same time. China must continue to adjust and readjust the relationship between the means and the goal of Chinese nationalism and the conduct of China’s foreign policy. arms sales and trade. but can also lead to political and economic dependence on those countries. This involves both Sino-American relations and the goal of Chinese nationalism. as discussed in this study. to stay in the international system. Thus. Finally. The history of China’s foreign relations since 1949 suggests that China should not avoid contact with the existing international political and economic system. The “open-door” policy has made a great contribution to China’s economic development and nation-state building since the end of the 1970s. At the same time. Given the increased economic interdependence and continuing political pressure. With the trend of globalization and technological advances in communication. However. Rather.
. there is the Taiwan question. However. the international political system dominated by the US will continue to put pressure on China concerning issues of human rights. A strong economic tie to powerful countries can bring economic benefits at home. to make the system more equal and fair. in order to match its growing economic and political power. it should use the system to protect and strengthen itself. in order to match the political and economic trends of world development. China should adjust its understanding of the goal of promoting and preserving national independence. the world of the twenty-first century will be one of increased economic interdependence among nations. the “open-door” policy can be inconsistent and even contradictory to the goal of promoting and preserving national independence. Another big challenge to the Chinese leadership in the twenty-first century is globalization. the new Chinese leadership needs to make more effort to adjust the relationship between China’s foreign economic relations and its goal of promoting and preserving national independence. it is not impossible for Chinese nationalism to become radical and extreme. and so is an important challenge to the new Chinese leadership. and as it becomes strong. How to deal with the Taiwan issue therefore directly affects this interrelationship.

1996). 1999). They argue that the modern state originated in Europe. Ibid. Goncharov. See John A. No. Lecture Series 6 (Leiden: International Institute for Asian Studies.” Foreign Affairs. Jian Chen. No. “The Coming Conflict with America. E. James Townsend.” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. p.
1. p. 1993). p. “The Nationless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism. 1989). No. 76. 1994). and Litai Xue. edited by David S. p. 17. 8. John W. Mao.” The China Journal. 10. Vol. Richard Bernstein and Ross H. Vol. Prasenjit Duara. 8. 6. “Chinese Nationalism. Goodman and Gerald Segal (London and New York: Routledge. Yongnian Zheng. edited by Jonathan Unger (Armonk and London: M. 33 (1995). 219. 1997). 9. “Why We Must Contain China?” Time. and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Identity. and the Korean War (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 11. 214. For example. Townsend (Note 5). p. John Fitzgerald. Gregory Noble.” in Chinese Nationalism. 76. “De-Constructing the Chinese Nation. Nicholas D. Munro. compared with ancient states. No. p. 1996).” Foreign Affairs.24
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Notes
* I would like to thank Qingguo Jia. 27 (1992). Peter Harris. 4. 5 (1993). G. No.
12. developing out of long-term military competition.
7. Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization. Seiichiro Takagi. 5 (1995). much stronger state cohesion and a greater capacity for control. 146. Sergei N. Uncertain Partners: Stalin. “The Rise of China.” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. Michael Yahuda.
. 72.
13. During this process. Sharpe. 38 (1997). Lewis. China’s Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (New York: Columbia University Press. modern states have more extensive state organization and structure. No. 124.
2.. I am also grateful to Jessica Ellis for her efforts in editing the paper.
5. John Ikenberry. The Revival of Chinese Nationalism. nationalism gradually became both the motive for and means of centralized control of the modern state. Hall and G. p. The State (Milton Keynes: Open University Press. “Chinese Nationalism: The State of the Nation. and the anonymous referees of China Review for their thoughtful comments. Zhongying Pang. Vol. Gungwu Wang. “How Much Has China Learned about Interdependence?” in China Rising: Nationalism and Interdependence. Charles Krauthammer. According to them. x.
8. Peter Katzenstein. 2 (1997). p. Kristof.