ar:قالب:قانون الحوسبة
In copyright law, the legal status of hyperlinking (also termed “linking”) and that of framing concern how courts address two different but related web technologies. In large part, the legal issues concern use of these technologies to create or facilitate public access to proprietary media content — such as portions of commercial Web sites.
When hyperlinking and framing have the effect of distributing, and creating routes for distribution of, content (information) that does not come from the proprietors of the Web pages affected by these practices, the proprietors often seek the aid of courts to suppress the conduct, particularly when the effect of the conduct is to disrupt or circumvent the proprietors' mechanisms for receiving financial compensation.

The issues about linking and framing have become so intertwined under copyright law that it is impractical to attempt to address them separately. As will appear, some decisions confuse them with one another, while other decisions involve and therefore address both. Framing involves the use of hyperlinking, so that any challenge of framing under copyright law is likely to involve a challenge of hyperlinking as well. (The converse is not true.)

Deep link

Most Web sites are organized hierarchically, with a home page at the top and deeper pages within the site, reached by links on the home page. Businesses usually want users to enter their Web sites from the home pages, so that they are exposed to advertising messages. A third party can thwart this expectation by so-called deep linking. The term refers to using a hyperlink that takes a user directly to a page other than the top or home page. A deep link to a discussion of "What is a copyright?" in the PTO's General Infoirmation page would use the HTML code shown below.

Clicking on What is a Copyright? on the screen causes the user's browser to jump several paragraphs down into the Web page to where a discussion of that issue occurs. Several lawsuits have involved complaints by proprietors of Web pages against the use of such links.

Inline link

Related issues arise from use of inline links (also image-source or img-src links, so called because the HTML code begins with "img src=") on Web pages. An inline link places material — usually an image such as a Jpeg or Gif — from a distant Web site onto the Web page being viewed. For example, the image at the right is the seal of the U.S. Patent Office, as shown on some of its pages at the PTO Web site. The URL of one version of the PTO seal image is http://www.uspto.gov/images/uspto_seal_200.gif. You can see a version of this image in context at http://www.uspto.gov/main/profiles/copyright.htm. The former of these becomes an inline or img-src link if img src= is inserted before the http, angle brackets enclose the whole expression, and the entire code fragment is inserted into the text of a page of HTML code.

When an inline (img-src) link of an image is used on a Web page, it seems to be present as a part of the Web page that you are viewing. The presence of the image is only virtual, however, in the sense that the image file is not physically present at the server for the Web site being viewed. The actual location of the image file, if the image were that of the PTO seal, would be at the PTO server in Virginia. Use of inline linking has led to contentious litigation (discussed below).

Hierarchy of links

Image links can be categorized in a hierarchal series, based on the technological expedient used to effectuate the link. The same series corresponds to successively lower levels of risk of copyright infringement liability. The hierarchy operates as follows, using the PTO seal as an example for discussion purposes (actually, it is not legally protected because it is a government work[1]):

Copy the image file to your own server (as that of the PTO seal has been copied to the Wikipedia server). This will create copyright infringement liability unless a defense, such as fair use or license, applies.

Use an img-src link to the image at the proprietor’s Web page, making the image appear on your page in its visual appearance (to the user) the same as above. But there is no copy of the image file on your server.[2] (This is also true of all links that follow in this list.) (Wikipedia does not support this type of link.)

Use an ordinary link to the image at the remote server, so that users must click on a link on your page to jump to the image. (Wikipedia supports this and the following type of link, as well as authorized uses of the first type.)

Use a deep link on your page to the specific page on the image proprietor’s Web site at which the image is located, thus presenting the image to the user along with the textual material with which the proprietor surrounded it.

Use a link on your page to the home page of the image proprietor’s Web site and explain how to page down through his successive pages and all of his extraneous material in order to find the image. This will not create copyright infringement liability under any theory thus far advanced in US litigation.[3]

Framing

Framing is the juxtaposition of two separate web pages within the same page, usually with a separate frame with navigational elements.
Framing is a method of presentation in a Web page that breaks the screen up into multiple non-overlapping windows. Each window contains a display from a separate HTML file, for example, a Web page from a different Web site that is fetched by automatically hyperlinking to it. While the usage of frames as a common web design element has been deprecated for several years (replaced by the usage of <div> elements), some sites, like Google Images and Google Translate, use frames as a way to help navigate non-Google pages from a framed Google interface.

Incorporating copyrighted web content by usage of framing has led to contentious litigation. Frames can be used for web pages belonging to the original site, or to load pages from other sites into a customized arrangement of frames that provide a generalized interface without actually requiring the viewer to browse the linked site from that site's URLs and interfaces.

Proprietors of copyright in framed pages have at times contended that framing their Web pages constituted copyright infringement of their copyrights. The problem with basing the theory of copyright infringement on a reproduction (17 U.S.C. § 106(1)) or distribution (17 U.S.C. § 106(3)) of copies by the accused infringer is that the latter does not directly reproduce or distribute any copy of the original Web page. Rather, the accused infringer simply establishes a pointer that the user's browser follows to the proprietor's server and Web page.

For a pedagogically exaggerated example of the kind of framing that has incensed proprietors of copyright in Web pages, see Hypothetical Illustration of Irritating Framing, which "frames" a page titled Is Framing Copyright Infringement?. On the theory that a picture is worth 1000 words, the viewer is invited to compare the referenced pages to understand what framing is and why it annoys proprietors of framed pages.[4]

History of copyright litigation in field

In large part, linking and framing are not held to be copyright infringement under US and German copyright law, even though the underlying Web pages are protected under copyright law. Because the copyright-protected content is stored on a server other than that of the linking or framing person (it is stored on the plaintiff's server), there is typically no infringing "copy" made by the defendant linking or framing person (as may be essential), on which to base liability. Some European countries take a more protective view, however, and hold unauthorized framing and so-called deep linking unlawful.

Belgium

Belgian Association of Newspaper Editors v. Google

In September 2006 the Belgian Association of Newspaper Editors sued Google and obtained an injunctive order from the Belgian Court of First Instance that Google must stop deep linking to Belgian newspapers without paying royalties, or else pay a fine of €1 million daily. See Finfacts Ireland, "Belgian newspapers seeking payment for Google links". Many a newspaper columns were critical of the Belgian newspapers' position.[5]

Denmark

Danish Newspaper Publishers Association v. Newsbooster

The Bailiff's Court of Copenhagen ruled in July 2002 against the Danish Website Newsbooster, holding, in a suit brought by the Danish Newspaper Publishers Association (DNPA), that Newsbooster had violated Danish copyright law by deep linking to newspaper articles on Danish newspapers' Internet sites. Newsbooster's service allows users to enter keywords to search for news stories, and then deep links to the stories are provided. The DNPA said that this conduct was "tantamount to theft." The court enjoined Newsbooster's service. See Wired, "Deep Link Foes Get Another Win".

home A/S v. Ofir A-S

The Maritime and Commercial Court in Copenhagen took a somewhat different view in 2005 in a suit that home A/S, a real estate chain, brought against Ofir A-S, an Internet portal (OFiR), which maintains an Internet search engine. home A/S maintains an Internet website that has a searchable database of home's current realty listings. Ofir copied some database information, which the court held unprotected under Danish law, and also Ofir's search engine provided deep links to the advertisements for individual properties that home A/S listed, thus by-passing the home page and search engine of home A/S. The court held that the deep linking did not create infringement liability. The Court found that search engines are desirable, as well as necessary to the function of the Internet; that it is usual that search engines provide deep links; and that businesses that offer their services on the Internet must expect that deep links will be provided to their websites. Ofir's site did not use banner advertising and its search engine allowed users, if they so chose, to go to a home page rather than directly to the advertisement of an individual property. The opinion does not appear to distinguish or explain away the difference in result from that of the Newsbooster case.[6]

Germany

Holtzbrinck v. Paperboy

In July 2003 a German Federal Superior Court held that the Paperboy search engine could lawfully deep link to news stories. See paidContent:UK, "German Court: Deep Linking Is Legal". An appellate court then overturned the ruling, but the German Federal Supreme Court reversed in favor of Paperboy. MIP Week, "German ruling sanctions deep linking". "A sensible use of the immense wealth of information offered by the world wide web is practically impossible without drawing on the search engines and their hyperlink services (especially deep links)," the German court said.

Scotland

Shetland Times Ltd. v. Wills

The first suit of prominence in the field was Shetland Times Ltd. v. Wills, Scot. Ct. of Session (Edinburgh, 24 Oct 1996).[7] The Shetland Times challenged use by Wills of deep linking to pages of the newspaper on which selected articles of interest appeared. The objection was that defendant Wills thus by-passed the front ant intervening pages on which advertsising and other material appeared in which the plaintiff had an interest but defendant did not. The Times obtained an interim interdict (Scottish for preliminary injunction)[8] and the case then settled.[9]

United States

Washington Post v. Total News

In February 1997 the Washington Post, CNN, the Los Angeles Times, Dow Jones (Wall Street Journal), and Reuters sued Total News Inc. for framing their news stories on the Total News Webpage. The complaint was filed in New York federal district court. The case was settled in June 1997, on the basis that linking without framing would be used in the future.[10]

Ticketmaster v. Microsoft

In April 1997 Ticketmaster Corp. sued Microsoft Corp. in Los Angeles federal district court for deep linking.[11] Ticketmaster objected to Microsoft’s bypassing the home and intermediate pages on Ticketmaster’s site, claiming that Microsoft had "pilfered" its content and diluted its value.. Microsoft’s ‘’Answer’’[12] raised a number of defenses explained in detail in its pleadings, including implied license, contributory negligence, and voluntary assumption of the risk. Microsoft also, argued that Ticketmaster had breached an unwritten Internet code, under which any Web site operator has the right to link to anyone else's site. A number of articles in the trade press derided Ticketmaster’s suit.[13] The case was settled in February 1999, on confidential terms. But Microsoft stopped the deep linking and instead used a link to Ticketmaster's home page.
[14]

Kelly v. Arriba Soft

The first important US decision in this field was that of the Ninth Circuit in Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.[15] Kelly complained, among other things, that Arriba’s search engine used thumbnails to deep link to images on his Web page. The court found that Arriba’s use was highly transformative[16], in that it made available to Internet users a functionality not previously available, and that was not otherwise readily provided — an improved way to search for images (by using visual cues instead of verbal cues). This factor, combined with the relatively slight economic harm to Kelly, tipped the fair use balance decisively in Arriba’s favor.

As in other cases, Kelly objected to linking because it caused users to bypass his home page and intervening pages. He was unable, however, to show substantial economic harm. Kelly argued largely that the part of the copyright statute violated was the public display right (17 U.S.C. § 106(5)).[17] He was aware of the difficulties under the reproduction and distribution provisions (17 U.S.C. §§ 106(1) and (3)), which require proof that the accused infringer trafficked in copies of the protected work. The court focused on the fair use defense, however, under which it ruled in Arriba’s favor.

Perfect 10 v. Google

In Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.,[18] the Ninth Circuit again considered whether an image search engine’s use of thumbnail was a fair use. Although the facts were somewhat closer than in the ‘’Arriba Soft’’ case, the court nonetheless found the accused infringer’s use fair because it was “highly transformative.” The court explained:

We conclude that the significantly transformative nature of Google’s search engine, particularly in light of its public benefit, outweighs Google’s superseding and commercial uses of the thumbnails in this case. … We are also mindful of the Supreme Court’s direction that “the more transformative the new work, the less will be the significance of other factors, like commercialism, that may weigh against a finding of fair use.”

In addition, the court specifically addressed the copyright status of linking, in the first US appellate decision to do so:

Google does not…display a copy of full-size infringing photographic images for purposes of the Copyright Act when Google frames in-line linked images that appear on a user’s computer screen. Because Google’s computers do not store the photographic images, Google does not have a copy of the images for purposes of the Copyright Act. In other words, Google does not have any “material objects…in which a work is fixed…and from which the work can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated” and thus cannot communicate a copy. Instead of communicating a copy of the image, Google provides HTML instructions that direct a user’s browser to a website publisher’s computer that stores the full-size photographic image. Providing these HTML instructions is not equivalent to showing a copy. First, the HTML instructions are lines of text, not a photographic image. Second, HTML instructions do not themselves cause infringing images to appear on the user’s computer screen. The HTML merely gives the address of the image to the user’s browser. The browser then interacts with the computer that stores the infringing image. It is this interaction that causes an infringing image to appear on the user’s computer screen. Google may facilitate the user’s access to infringing images. However, such assistance raised only contributory liability issues and does not constitute direct infringement of the copyright owner’s display rights. …While in-line linking and framing may cause some computer users to believe they are viewing a single Google webpage, the Copyright Act, unlike the Trademark Act, does not protect a copyright holder against acts that cause consumer confusion.

State of US law after Arriba Soft and Perfect 10

The Arriba Soft case stood for the proposition that deep linking and actual reproduction in reduced-size copies (or preparation of reduced-size derivative works) were both excusable as fair use because the defendant's use of the work did not actually or potentially divert trade in the marketplace from the first work; and also it provided the public with a previously unavailable, very useful function of the kind that copyright law exists to promote (finding desired information on the Web). The Perfect 10 case involved similar considerations, but more of a balancing of interests was involved. The conduct was excused because the value to the public of the otherwise unavailable, useful function outweighed the impact on Perfect 10 of Google's possibly superseding use.

Moreover, in Perfect 10, the court laid down a far-reaching precedent in favor of linking and framing, which the court gave a complete pass under copyright. It concluded that "in-line linking and framing may cause some computer users to believe they are viewing a single Google webpage, [but] the Copyright Act" simply does not prohibit such conduct.

Pop-up advertising cases

Pop-up advertising involves some use of linking to copyright-protected Web pages, but the linking is incidental to other issues and has not been singled out as a separate wrong. Moreover, given the breadth of the language of the Perfect 10 opinion of the Ninth Circuit (quoted above), it appears that such a claim would be unlikely to prevail.

References

↑ The Ninth Cicuit considered this fact of crucial significance in the Perfect 10 case, discussed subsequently in this Article. The court held that Google did not violate the provisions of the copyright law prohibiting reproduction and distribution of copies of a work: "Because Google’s computers do not store the photographic images, Google does not have a copy of the images for purposes of the Copyright Act."

↑ Kelly's position, as crystallized at the final stages of the appeal, was that an unauthorized public display occurred (or the conduct was not fair use) because Arriba was changing the context of Kelly's art works. Kelly had wanted to present them in a particular format and setting, but Arriba altered that by deep linking (linking well beyond Kelly's home page) directly to the images and presenting them in a different manner than the one that Kelly had chosen for them. (Arriba both in-line linked and deep linked.) The position that changing context = copyright infringement was perhaps best articulated in the brief of Kelly's amicus, the American Society of Media Photographers, Inc.