As was all of Manhattan Island, the area now known as the Lower East Side was occupied by members of the Lenape tribe, who were organized in bands which moved from place to place according to the seasons, fishing on the rivers in the summer, and moving inland in the fall and winter to gather crops and hunt for food. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway. One encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack.[13]

The population of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was located primarily below the current Fulton Street, while north of it were a number of small plantations and large farms called bouwerij (bowery) at the time (equivalent to "boerderij" in present-day Dutch). Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or "half-free" Africans, which served as a buffer between the Dutch and the Native Americans. One of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place.[14] These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area.[15]

Gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East side was then part of the Delancy farm.[15]

James Delancey's pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city (Bowery) survives in the names Delancey Street and Orchard Street. On the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm[16] is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street.[17] In response to the pressures of a growing city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the "West Farm"[18] in the 1760s. A spacious projected Delancey Square—intended to cover the area within today's Eldridge, Essex, Hester and Broome Streets—was eliminated when the loyalist Delancey family's property was confiscated after the American Revolution. The city Commissioners of Forfeiture eliminated the aristocratic planned square for a grid, effacing Delancey's vision of a New York laid out like the West End of London.

Corlears Hook (red arrow) is "Crown Point" in this British map of 1776; "Delaney's [sic] New Square" (blue square northwest of Corlears Hook) was never built

The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this "plantation" that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans[19] or Nechtanc.[20] Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman (1623–1707), founder of the Beekman family of New York; his son Gerardus Beekman was christened at the plantation, on August 17, 1653.

On February 25, 1643, volunteers from the New Amsterdam colony killed thirty[21]Wiechquaesgecks at their encampment at Corlears Hook, as part of Kieft's War, in retaliation for ongoing conflicts between the colonists and the natives of the area, including their unwillingness to pay tribute, and their refusal to turn over the killer of a colonist.[22]

The projection into the East River that retained Corlaer's name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, but since the early 19th century the spelling has been anglicized to Corlears. The rough unplanned settlement that developed at Corlaer's Hook under the British occupation of New York during the Revolution was separated from the densely populated city by rough hills of glacial till: "this region lay beyond the city proper, from which it was separated by high, uncultivated, and rough hills", observers recalled in 1843.[23]

As early as 1816, Corlears Hook was notorious for streetwalkers, "a resort for the lewd and abandoned of both sexes", and in 1821 its "streets abounding every night with preconcerted groups of thieves and prostitutes" were noted by the "Christian Herald".[24] In the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers.[25] In the summer of cholera in New York, 1832, a two-storey wooden workshop was commandeered to serve as a makeshift cholera hospital; between July 18 and September 15 when the hospital was closed, as the cholera wound down, 281 patients were admitted, both black and white, of whom 93 died.[26]

In 1833, Corlear's Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City.[15]

The original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill.[27] It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street. The name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive.[28]

The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there.[29] By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, and a large part of it became known as "Little Germany" or "Kleindeutschland".[15][30] This was followed by groups of Italians and Eastern European Jews, as well as Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Slovaks and Ukrainians, each of whom settled in relatively homogeneous enclaves. By 1920, the Jewish neighborhood was one of the largest of these ethnic groupings, with 400,000 people, pushcart vendors prominent on Orchard and Grand Streets, and numerous Yiddish theatres along Second Avenue between Houston and 14th Streets.[15]

By the 1960s, the influence of the Jewish and eastern European groups declined as many of these residents had left the area, while other ethnic groups had coalesced into separate neighborhood, such as Little Italy. The Lower East Side then experienced a period of "persistent poverty, crime, drugs, and abandoned housing".[15]

The East Village was once considered the Lower East Side's northwest corner. However, in the 1960s, the demographics of the area above Houston Street began to change, as hipsters, musicians, and artists moved in. Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the East Village name, and the term was adopted by the popular media by the mid-1960s. As the East Village developed a culture separate from the rest of the Lower East Side, the two areas came to be seen as two separate neighborhoods rather than the former being part of the latter.[31][32]

In the early 2000s, the gentrification of the East Village spread to the Lower East Side proper, making it one of the trendiest neighborhoods in Manhattan. Orchard Street, despite its "Bargain District" moniker, is now lined with upscale boutiques. Similarly, trendy restaurants, including Clinton St. Baking Company & Restaurant, wd~50, Cube 63, and Falai are found on a stretch of tree-lined Clinton Street that New York Magazine described as the "hippest restaurant row" in the Lower East Side.[33][34]

In November 2007, the Blue Condominium, a 32-unit, 16 story luxury condominium tower was completed at 105 Norfolk Street just north of Delancey Street, the pixellated, faceted blue design of which starkly contrasts with the surrounding neighborhood. Following the construction of the Hotel on Rivington one block away, several luxury condominiums around Houston, and the New Museum on Bowery, this new wave of construction is another sign that the gentrification cycle is entering a high-luxury phase similar to in SoHo and Nolita in the previous decade.

More recently, the gentrification that was previously confined to north of Delancey Street continued south. Several restaurants, bars, and galleries opened below Delancey Street after 2005, especially around the intersection of Broome and Orchard Streets. The neighborhood's second boutique hotel, Blue Moon Hotel, opened on Orchard Street just south of Delancey Street in early 2006. However, unlike The Hotel on Rivington, the Blue Moon used an existing tenement building, and its exterior is almost identical to neighboring buildings. In September 2013, it was announced that the Essex Crossing redevelopment project was to be built in the area, centered around the intersection of Essex and Delancey Streets, but mostly utilizing land south of Delancey Street.[35]

Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Lower East Side was 72,957, an increase of 699 (1.0%) from the 72,258 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 535.91 acres (216.88 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 136.1 inhabitants per acre (87,100/sq mi; 33,600/km2).[36]

One of the oldest neighborhoods of the city, the Lower East Side has long been a lower-class worker neighborhood and often a poor and ethnically diverse section of New York. As well as Irish, Italians, Poles, Ukrainians, and other ethnic groups, it once had a sizeable German population and was known as Little Germany (Kleindeutschland). Today it is a predominantly Puerto Rican and Dominican community, and in the process of gentrification (as documented by the portraits of its residents in the Clinton+Rivington chapter of The Corners Project.)[38]

Since the immigration waves from eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Lower East Side became known as having been a center of Jewish immigrant culture. In her 2000 book Lower East Side Memories: A Jewish Place in America, Hasia Diner explains that the Lower East Side is especially remembered as a place of Jewish beginnings for Ashkenazi American Jewish culture.[39] Vestiges of the area's Jewish heritage exist in shops on Hester and Essex Streets, and on Grand Street near Allen Street. An Orthodox Jewish community is based in the area, operating yeshiva day schools and a mikvah. A few Judaica shops can be found along Essex Street and a few Jewish scribes and variety stores. Some kosher delis and bakeries, as well as a few "kosher style" delis, including the famous Katz's Deli, are located in the neighborhood. Second Avenue in the Lower East Side was home to many Yiddish theatre productions in the Yiddish Theater District during the early part of the 20th century, and Second Avenue came to be known as "Yiddish Broadway," though most of the theaters are gone. Songwriter Irving Berlin, actor John Garfield, and singer Eddie Cantor grew up here.

Since the mid-20th century, the area has been settled primarily by immigrants, primarily from Latin America, especially Central America and Puerto Rico. They have established their own groceries and shops, marketing goods from their culture and cuisine. Bodegas have replaced Jewish shops. They are mostly Roman Catholic.

In what is now the East Village, the earlier populations of Poles and Ukrainians have moved on and been largely supplanted by newer immigrants. The immigration of numerous Japanese people over the last fifteen years or so has led to the proliferation of Japanese restaurants and specialty food markets. There is also a notable population of Bangladeshis and other immigrants from Muslim countries, many of whom are congregants of the small Madina Masjid (Mosque), located on First Avenue and 11th Street.

Chinese residents have also been moving into Lower East Side, and since the late 20th century, they have comprised a large immigrant group in the area. The part of the neighborhood south of Delancey Street and west of Allen Street has, in large measure, become part of Chinatown. Grand Street is one of the major business and shopping streets of Chinatown. Also contained within the neighborhood are strips of lighting and restaurant supply shops on the Bowery.

While the Lower East Side has been a place of successive immigrant populations, many American Jews relate to the neighborhood in a strong manner, much as Chinatown in San Francisco holds a special place in the imagination of Chinese Americans, and Astoria in the hearts of Greek Americans. It was a center for the ancestors of many people in the metropolitan area, and it was written about and portrayed in fiction and films.

In the late twentieth century, Jewish communities have worked to preserve a number of buildings associated with the Jewish immigrant community.[43][44][45]

The neighborhood has become home to numerous contemporary art galleries. One of the very first was ABC No Rio.[51] Begun by a group of Colabno wave artists (some living on Ludlow Street), ABC No Rio opened an outsider gallery space that invited community participation and encouraged the widespread production of art. Taking an activist approach to art that grew out of The Real Estate Show (the take over of an abandoned building by artists to open an outsider gallery only to have it chained closed by the police) ABC No Rio kept its sense of activism, community, and outsiderness. The product of this open, expansive approach to art was a space for creating new works that did not have links to the art market place and that were able to explore new artistic possibilities.

Other outsider galleries sprung up throughout the Lower East Side and East Village—some 200 at the height of the scene in the 1980s, including the 124 Ridge Street Gallery among others. In December 2007, the New Museum relocated to a brand-new, critically acclaimed building on Bowery at Prince. A growing number of galleries are opening in the Bowery neighborhood to be in close proximity to the museum. The Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space, which opened in 2012, exhibits photography featuring the neighborhood in addition to chronicling its history of activism.

As the neighborhood gentrified and has become safer at night, it has become a popular late night destination. Orchard, Ludlow and Essex between Rivington Street and Stanton Street have become especially packed at night, and the resulting noise is a cause of tension between bar owners and longtime residents.[52][53] However, as gentrification continues, many established landmarks and venues have been lost.[54]

The Lower East side is the location of the Slipper Room a burlesque, variety and vaudeville theatre on Orchard and Stanton. Lady Gaga,[8]Leonard Cohen[9] and U2,[10] have all appeared there, while popular downtown performers Dirty Martini, Murray Hill and Matt Fraser often appear. Variety shows are regularly hosted by comedians James Habacker, Bradford Scobie, Matthew Holtzclaw and Matt Roper under the guise of various characters.

The Lower East Side Preparatory High School (LESPH) and Emma Lazarus High School (ELHS) are second-chance schools that enable students, aged 17–21, to obtain their high school diplomas. LESPH is a bilingualChinese-English school with a high proportion of Asian students. ELHS' instructional model is English-immersion with an ethnically diverse student body.

The Seward Park Campus comprises five schools with an average graduation rate of about 80%. The original school in the building was opened 1929 and closed 2006.[57]

There are multiple bike lanes in the area. Bike lanes are present on Allen, Chrystie, Clinton, Delancey, Grand, Houston, Montgomery, Madison, Rivington, Stanton, and Suffolk Streets; Bowery, East Broadway, and FDR Drive; the Williamsburg and Manhattan bridges; and the East River Greenway.[61]

^The division between the "West Farm" and the "East farm" ran approximately along today's Clinton Street, according to Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City: a visual celebration of nearly 400 years 2005:60–61.

^Van Winkle, Edward; Vinckeboons, Joan; van Rensselaer, Kiliaen. Manhattan, 1624–1639 1916:13; Jacob, whose name was anglicised as "van Curler", leased it to William Hendriesen and Gysbert Cornelisson in September 1640; date given as "prior to 1640": "Corlears Park". Nycgovparks.org. November 17, 2001. Retrieved March 16, 2010.

^Nechtanc, in K. Scott and K. Stryker-Rodda, eds. New York Historical Manuscripts: Dutch, vol. 1 (Baltimore) 1974 and R.S. Grumet, Native American Place-Names in New York City (New York) 1981, both noted in Eric W. Sanderson, Mannahatta: A Natural History of New York City 2009:262.

^Bartlett's Dictionary of Americanisms (1859): "hooker": 'A resident of the Hook, i.e. a strumpet, a sailor's trull. So called from the number of houses of ill-fame frequented by sailors at the Hook (i.e. Corlears Hook) in the city of New York" (quoted in the Online Etymology Dictionary); thus the usage precedes the Civil War and any supposed connection to Maj.-Gen. Joseph Hooker.

^About, Henry Street Settlement. Accessed November 30, 2017. "Founded in 1893 by social work and public health pioneer Lillian Wald and based on Manhattan's Lower East Side, Henry Street Settlement delivers a wide range of social service, arts and health care programs to more than 60,000 New Yorkers each year."

^Steinetz, Rebecca. "Reviving the All-of-a-Kind Family books", The Boston Globe, December 13, 2014. Accessed November 30, 2017. "Ella, Henny, Sarah, Charlotte, and Gertie may not have the name recognition of Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy, or Laura and Mary, but that could change, now that Lizzie Skurnick Books has reprinted four of the five All-of-a-Kind Family books, originally published between 1951 and 1978. For publisher Skurnick, whose imprint is devoted to reissuing out-of-print classic young-adult literature, reviving Sydney Taylor’s saga of five Jewish immigrant sisters growing up on New York’s Lower East Side at the beginning of the 20th century was a no-brainer."

^Schoemer, Karen. "Lowlife: It's a Life", The New York Times, February 21, 1993. Accessed November 30, 2017. "Luc Sante reveals the Lower East Side. As he roams the area, one of New York's oldest neighborhoods, buildings, doorways and details that would usually go unnoticed suddenly come into clear focus; a strange and vibrant life shows itself beneath the grime and residue of time.Mr. Sante's two books, Low Life and Evidence, bring this world to the page."

^Kirn, Walter. "Neighborhood Watch", The New York Times, March 16, 2008. Accessed November 30, 2017. "In Lush Life, Richard Price’s eighth novel, the resurfacing project that caps the same old potholes (and threatens to collapse in certain areas, potentially creating immense new craters capable of swallowing small crowds) targets the tangled, once tenement-lined streets of New York City’s Lower East Side. In Realtor-speak, the district is 'in transition,' which means in Police Department terms that its college-educated young renting class and bonus-gorged co-op-owning elite can still score narcotics from the old-guard locals, whose complexions are generally darker than the new folks’, making them easy to spot on party nights but tricky to ID in photo lineups come the red-eyed mornings after."

^Welcome to Arroyo's by Kristoffer Diaz, Samuel French, Inc. Accessed November 30, 2017. "A sweet, loose-limbed shout out to Manhattan's Lower East Side…With a Greek chorus of DJs who 'mix' the play right in front of us, WELCOME shows that hip-hop can still goose mainstream theater instead of merely filling the diversity slot."

^Our History, Bloomingdale's. Accessed September 29, 2016. "A Store Is Born: To think it all started with a 19th century fad - the hoop skirt. That was the first item that Joseph and Lyman Bloomingdale carried in their Ladies' Notions Shop in New York's Lower East Side."

^Groom, Winston. "A Gangster Goes to War", The Wall Street Journal, October 2, 2010. Accessed September 29, 2016. "In New York right after the turn of the 20th century, the baddest man in the whole downtown was a thug named Monk Eastman, who controlled a gang of 2,000 Jewish hoodlums on Manhattan's Lower East Side."

^Acevedo, Carlos. "LIGHTNING EXPRESS: The Quick Rise & Even Quicker Fall of Al Singer", The Cruelest Sport, December 11, 2012. Accessed July 13, 2017. "Born in New York City on September 6, 1909, Al Singer spent his early years on the Lower East Side before his father, a successful businessman, moved the family to Pelham Parkway in the Bronx."

^Gringo, American Film Institute. Accessed November 4, 2017. "In the early 1980s, John Spacely is an unemployed heroin addict living on the streets of New York City’s Lower East Side, where he is known by the nickname, 'Gringo.'"

^Marsh, Julia. "Ousted Birdman producer counter-sues over dismissal", New York Post, October 15, 2014. Accessed July 9, 2017. "'It’s a shame that Worldview’s most successful film to date, Birdman, a legitimate Oscar contender, is being released the same week that we find ourselves engaged in a lawsuit,' said Christopher Woodrow, former CEO of Worldview Entertainment. The Lower East Side resident slapped his ex-business partner, Maria Cestone, and one of the firm’s major investors, Sarah Johnson, daughter of SF Giants owner Charles B. Johnson, with the Manhattan Supreme Court suit on Wednesday."

1.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate

2.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places

3.
Tenement
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The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building, late 19th-century social reformers in the U. S. were hostile to both tenements and apartment houses. The adapted buildings were known as rookeries, and were a particular concern as they were prone to collapse. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear, in both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets were squeezed into what open space there was between buildings. In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards, generally occupied by shops, stables. Prior to the 1867 law, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, yards were a few feet wide and filled with privies where they had not been entirely eliminated. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline. This was amended by the Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. ”The New York City Board of Health, empowered to enforce the regulations, declined to do so. As a compromise, the Old Law tenement became the standard, this had a shape, with air and light shafts on either side in the center. Public concern about New York tenements was stirred by the publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives and it used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs. Together with the publication in 1895 by the U. S and these rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and made single-lot development uneconomical. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum, a brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. Tenements make up a percentage of the housing stock of Edinburgh. Edinburghs tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time. Glasgow tenements were built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located, therefore. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, a large number of the tenements in Edinburgh and Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. The Gorbals is a small area and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. However, the many remaining tenements in areas of both cities have experienced a resurgence in popularity due to their large rooms, high ceilings

4.
Lower Manhattan
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Lower Manhattan is defined most commonly as the area delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and it includes the Financial District and the World Trade Center site. At the islands southern tip is Battery Park, City Hall is just to the north of the Financial District, also south of Chambers Street are the planned community of Battery Park City and the South Street Seaport historic area. The neighborhood of TriBeCa straddles Chambers on the west side, at the streets east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building, North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street lies most of New Yorks oldest Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area. The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal, North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are the neighborhoods of SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, the area that would eventually encompass modern day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami, European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam in 1626. The first fort was built at the Battery to protect New Netherland, soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers, they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English, early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kiefts War against the Native Americans, the Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch, the Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29,1645. On May 27,1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival, the colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. The first mayors of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year, in 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it New York after the Duke of York. At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, during the mid 1600s, farms of free blacks covered 130 acres where Washington Square Park later developed. The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city New Orange, the new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy, by 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, the 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America

5.
Houston Street
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The streets name is pronounced HOW-stən, unlike the city of Houston in Texas, which is pronounced HYOO-stən. This is because the street was named for William Houstoun, whereas the city was named for Sam Houston, at its east end, Houston Street meets FDR Drive in an interchange at East River Park. West of FDR Drive it intersects with Avenue D, further west, other streets, including First Avenue, the Bowery, Lafayette Street and Broadway, intersect Houston Street. The Broadway intersection is the point between East Houston Street and West Houston Street. Sixth Avenue intersects Houston Street at a curve in the road in Greenwich Village, East of Sixth Avenue, Houston street is bidirectional and separated by a median, west of Sixth, the street is narrower and unidirectional westbound. West Houston Street terminates at an intersection with West Street near Pier 40 on the Hudson River, Houston Street is named for William Houstoun, who was a delegate from State of Georgia to the Continental Congress from 1784 through 1786 and to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. The street was christened by Nicholas Bayard III, whose daughter, the couple met while Houstoun, a member of an ancient and aristocratic Scottish family, was serving in the Congress. In those years, the Texas hero Sam Houston, for whom the street is sometimes said to have been named, was an unknown teenager in Tennessee. Also mistaken is the explanation that the name derives from the Dutch words huis for house and it later came to be regarded as the Villages southern boundary. In 1891, Nikola Tesla established his Houston Street laboratory, much of Teslas research was lost in an 1895 fire. The street, originally narrow, was widened from Sixth Avenue to Essex Street in the early 1930s during construction of the Independent Subway Systems Sixth Avenue Line. The street widening involved demolition of buildings on both sides of the street, resulting in small, empty lots. Although some of these lots have been redeveloped, many of them are now used by vendors, a reconstruction project has been rebuilding parts of the street since 2005, it is nearly complete as of 2014. As of 2010, Houston Street is served by the M21 New York City Bus route from the FDR Drive to Washington Street, the bus route itself had replaced an earlier streetcar line, which is now the M9 from Avenues A to C. Additionally, there is a station at Seventh Avenue, for the Houston Street, the Bleecker Street station has station entrances on the north side of Houston Street, due to its connection with the Broadway – Lafayette Street station as part of a larger station complex. Exit 5 on the FDR Drive is on Houston Street, the street also connects directly with West Street and the West Side Highway, however, by then, Houston Street is westbound-only. The New York Times, October 17,2004, forgotten New York - Street Scenes. Media related to Houston Street at Wikimedia Commons

6.
Essex Street
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Essex Street is a north-south street on the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. North of Houston Street, the street becomes Avenue A, which goes north to 14th Street, South of Canal Street it becomes Rutgers Street, the southern end of which is at South Street. Long a part of the Lower East Side Jewish enclave, many Jewish-owned stores still operate on the street, including a pickle shop and it is also home to the Essex Street Market. South of Hester Street, Essex Street is bordered on the east by Seward Park, the IND Sixth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway runs under Essex Street and has stations at Delancey Street and East Broadway. The Essex Street Market is operated and managed by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, the 15, 000-square-foot market is made up of approximately 35 individual stalls that range in size from 90 to 600 square feet. Tenants include Davidovich Bagels, which opened the first of its bakeries in the Essex Street Market on October 10,2013. In September 2013 it was announced that the market would be integrated into the Essex Crossing, beginning in October 2017 for four months, the market will be one of several sites for an art installation called Good Fences Make Good Neighbors, by well-known artist Ai Weiwei. Notes New York Songlines, Avenue A with Essex Street, a walking tour. Essex Street storefronts - photographs of storefronts on Essex St. Essex Street Market

7.
Canal Street (Manhattan)
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It runs through the neighborhood of Chinatown, and forms the southern boundaries of SoHo and Little Italy as well as the northern boundary of Tribeca. The street acts as a connector between Jersey City, New Jersey, via the Holland Tunnel, and Brooklyn, New York City. It is a street for most of its length – from West Street to the Manhattan Bridge – with two unidirectional stretches between Forsyth Street and the Manhattan Bridge. To deal with this, the citys Common Council ordered that the swamps be drained and, in 1803, a drain was built continuing the path of the sluggish stream to the Hudson River, which redirected the underground springs which watered the swamps. The pond was drained by 1813 or 1815. The area was developed, but the springs remained and caused the dry land to be boggy, the Common Council then authorized a canal, in the form of a 40-foot wide, 8-foot deep ditch, which would continue carrying off the excess water. Because it was not efficient, and did not have sufficient flow, it, too, the city covered it over in 1819, but as it had no air traps, the covered canal became a stinking covered sewer. Canal Street was completed in 1820, following the path of the covered canal, early in the 20th century, the jewelry trade centered on the corner of Canal Street and Bowery, but moved mid century to the modern Diamond District on 47th Street. In the 1920s, the Citizens Savings Bank built a notable domed headquarters at the intersections southwest corner which remains a local landmark. The portion of Canal Street around Sixth Avenue was New Yorks principal market for parts for a quarter-century after the closing of Radio Row for the building of the World Trade Center. Canal Street is a commercial district, crowded with comparatively low-rent open storefronts. For a generation after World War II, the segment hosted many stores selling exotic high-tech components to would-be inventors and engineers. Canal Street is also the main Chinese jewelry business district of Chinatown, tourists as well as locals pack its sidewalks every day to frequent the open-air stalls and bare-bones stores selling items such as perfume, purses, hardware, and industrial plastics at low prices. Many of these goods are grey market imports and many notoriously counterfeit, with fake trademarked brand names on electronics, clothing, widespread sale of these counterfeit goods persists along Canal Street and in its hidden back rooms despite frequent police raids. In addition, legislation was proposed in 2013 to try to make purchasing counterfeit items a crime, routes intersecting with the street include M20 at Hudson Street and at Varick Street, M5 at Sixth Avenue and Broadway, M103 at Bowery, M15 at Allen Street, and M9. New York City portal Notes Canal Street Map Canal Street Storefronts – photographs of buildings, Canal Street Panoramic Video Tour – Kogetos Dotspot immersive, panoramic video of a walking tour captured on an iPhone. Canal Street, A New York Songline – a virtual walking tour

8.
Grand Street (Manhattan)
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Grand Street is a street in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It runs west/east parallel to and south of Delancey Street, from SoHo through Chinatown, Little Italy, the Bowery, the streets western terminus is Varick Street, and on the east it ends at the service road for the FDR Drive. In the 19th century, before the construction of the Williamsburg Bridge, cooperative Village, a collection of housing cooperatives, covers several blocks near the eastern portion of Grand Street. Other notable buildings include the old Police Headquarters Building, the Home Savings of America building, the Grand Street subway station serves the street. Grand Street is one-way to motor vehicles west of Chrystie Street, forty-Second Street and Grand Street Ferry Railroad Notes Media related to Grand Street at Wikimedia Commons Grand Street storefronts New York Songlines, Grand Street, a virtual walking tour

9.
Bowery
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The Bowery /ˈbaʊəri/ is a street and neighborhood in the southern portion of the New York City borough of Manhattan. In the 17th century, the road branched off Broadway north of Fort Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan to the homestead of Peter Stuyvesant, the street was known as Bowery Lane prior to 1807. Bowery is an anglicization of the Dutch bouwerij, derived from an antiquated Dutch word for farm, a New York City Subway station named Bowery, serving the BMT Nassau Street Line, is located close to the Bowerys intersection with Delancey and Kenmare Streets. There is a tunnel under the Bowery once intended for use by proposed but never built New York City Subway services, including the Second Avenue Subway. The Bowery is the oldest thoroughfare on Manhattan Island, preceding European intervention as a Lenape footpath, in 1654, the Bowery’s first residents settled in the area of Chatham Square, ten freed slaves and their wives set up cabins and a cattle farm there. Petrus Stuyvesant, the last Dutch Governor of New Amsterdam before the English took control, after his death in 1672, he was buried in his private chapel. His mansion burned down in 1778 and his great-grandson sold the chapel and graveyard. I believe we mett 50 or 60 slays that day—they fly with great swiftness, nor do they spare for any diversion the place affords, and sociable to a degree, theyr Tables being as free to their Naybours as to themselves. James Delanceys grand house, flanked by matching outbuildings, stood behind a forecourt facing Bowery Lane, behind it was his garden, ending in an exedra. The Bulls Head Tavern was noted for George Washingtons having stopped there for refreshment before riding down to the waterfront to witness the departure of British troops in 1783. As the population of New York City continued to grow, its northern boundary continue to move, the Bowery began to rival Fifth Avenue as an address. Across the way the Bowery Amphitheatre was erected in 1833, specializing in the more populist entertainments of equestrian shows, from stylish beginnings, the tone of Bowery Theatres offerings matched the slide in the social scale of the Bowery itself. Theodore Dreiser closed his tragedy Sister Carrie, set in the 1890s, the Bowery, which marked the eastern border of the slum of Five Points, had also become the turf of one of Americas earliest street gangs, the nativist Bowery Boys. The mission has relocated along the Bowery throughout its lifetime, from 1909 to the present, the mission has remained at 227–229 Bowery. One investigator in 1899 found six saloons and dance halls, the resorts of degenerates and fairies, from 1878 to 1955 the Third Avenue El ran above the Bowery, further darkening its streets, populated largely by men. Here, too, by the thousands come sailors on leave, —notice the studios of the tattoo artists, —and here most in evidence are the down. Prohibition eliminated the Bowerys numerous saloons, One Mile House, the old tavern. Restaurant supply stores were among the businesses that had come to the Bowery, pressure for a new name after World War I came to naught and in the 1920s and 1930s, it was an impoverished area

10.
East Broadway (Manhattan)
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East Broadway is a two-way east-west street in the Chinatown, Two Bridges, and Lower East Side neighborhoods of the New York City borough of Manhattan. East Broadway begins at Chatham Square and runs eastward under the Manhattan Bridge, continues past Seward Park and the end of Canal Street. East Broadway was home to a large Jewish community on the Lower East Side and then later on Puerto Ricans began to settle onto this street, during the 1960s, an influx of Hong Kong immigrants were arriving over along with Taiwanese immigrants as well into Manhattans Chinatown. During this time period, Manhattans Chinatown was being referred as a growing Little Hong Kong, vietnamese people also began to settle on this street as well. Very often criminals many of them Hispanics and Blacks targeted Chinese immigrants to harass them, in addition, businesses were often very few and significant numbers of unoccupied properties. Chinese female garment workers heading home were often targets of mugging and rape. The Fuzhou immigrants often speak Mandarin along with their Fuzhou dialect, today, the street within Manhattans Chinatown became a central hub for these recently arrived Fujianese immigrants. However, since the 2000s, there has been steady decline due to the going on. Many of them are relocating to Brooklyns newly emerged Little Fuzhou on 8th Avenue for affordable rent, in the past, East Broadway was very well known to the Chinese population for having two Chinese theaters, as several other Chinese theaters were located in different parts of Chinatown. However, all of the Chinese movie theaters have closed in Chinatown, in 1911, the Florence theater with 980 seats opened under the Manhattan Bridge on 75–85 East Broadway showing Yiddish entertainment. Next to the theater, there was also a shop named Solerwitz & Law. It was then converted as the New Canton Theater in 1942 and it featured Cantonese operas and other types of performances such as Selling Rough, Beauty on the Palm, and The Beautiful Butterflies to name on record. The performances often featured 1, 400-year-old Chinese tradition usually based on folklore, Cantonese opera was very often looked down on by westerners as sounding annoying, inhuman and distasteful. A professional Cantonese opera troupe, Tai Wah Wing came from Hong Kong to New York in 1940 to perform, at one time in 1941 Claude Lévi-Strauss witnessed their performance while he was in New York serving as a cultural adviser for the French Embassy. When the theater was renamed as Sun Sing theater in 1950, in 1972, the theater started to provide diverse entertainments of film and stage performances. Like many movie theaters, the theater also sold snacks with also Chinese snacks such as preserved plum, dried cuttlefish and it was finally closed in 1993 with Robert Tam being the final owner. Paul R. Screvane, president of the City Council at the time was invited as a guest of honor to the ceremony on the opening of the theater, the seating capacities accommodated 492 seats. The theater featured Chinese films with English subtitles, on the weekend mornings, cartoons in English were shown to children

11.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city

12.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

13.
Madison Street (Manhattan)
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Madison Street is a two-way thoroughfare in the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan that begins under the Brooklyn Bridge entrance ramp and ends at Grand Street. It is roughly sixteen large city blocks long, due to security measures implemented after the September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, public access to the part of the street before St. James Place is restricted. The character of Madison Street changes from block to block, there are housing projects east of Pike Street. Between Catherine Street and Pike Street the street is residential, dominated by mostly tenements, the street is considered one of the southern boundaries of Chinatown. The Hamilton-Madison House, at 50 Madison Street, is a provider of child care for the Chinatown, Two Bridges. Madison Street is surrounded by housing projects, tenements and schools, PS1, PS2, and the Corlears Complex schools all have yards facing the street. There is also a facility with clinics and pharmacy facilities at 227 Madison Street. The other major pharmacy in the area is Chatham Chemists at 5 Madison St, the F train stops at the East Broadway station, and there is an exit at Madison Street. The M22 bus runs eastbound on Madison Street from Grand Street to St. James Place, the M15 bus runs on Madison Street from Pike Street to St. James Place. Notes Madison St storefronts Pictures of storefronts along Madison Street

14.
Henry Street (Manhattan)
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Henry Street is a street in the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan that runs one-way eastbound, except for a small two-way segment west of Pike Street. It spans from Oliver Street in the west, passing underneath the Manhattan Bridge, the street is named for Henry Rutgers, a hero of the American Revolutionary War and prominent philanthropist. Rutgers Street, which intersects with Henry Street, is named for him. In recent times, Henry Street continues to be an immigrant neighborhood and has absorbed into an expanding Chinatown. In recognition of Henry Streets multicultural history, the Henry Street School for International Studies opened in 2004 at 220 Henry Street, the Henry Street School lower school welcomes a diverse group of students from the Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn and Queens. The school is one of the New York City Department of Educations small schools and is supported by the Asia Society and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. St. Augustines Church at 290 Henry Street between Montgomery and Grand Streets was built in 1827–29 as the All Saints Free Church, and was constructed out of Manhattan schist, the Georgian-Gothic design is credited to John Heath. It was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, at the northwest corner of Rutgers Street, Henry Street fronts The Roman Catholic Church of St. Theresa, built 1841 for the First Presbyterian Church of New York. Notes Images of Henry Street from the New York Public Library Henry Street Settlement at NYC-Architecture. com

15.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

16.
Neighborhood
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A neighbourhood, or neighborhood, is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural area. Neighbourhoods are often social communities with considerable face-to-face interaction among members, the Old English word for neighbourhood was neahdæl. ”Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods. Historical documents shed light on life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities. Neighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another, in this sense they are local social units larger than households not directly under the control of city or state officials. In addition to social neighbourhoods, most ancient and historical cities also had administrative districts used by officials for taxation, record-keeping, administrative districts are typically larger than neighbourhoods and their boundaries may cut across neighbourhood divisions. In some cases, however, administrative districts coincided with neighbourhoods, for example, in the T’ang period Chinese capital city Chang’an, neighbourhoods were districts and there were state officials who carefully controlled life and activity at the neighbourhood level. Neighbourhoods in preindustrial cities often had some degree of social specialisation or differentiation, ethnic neighbourhoods were important in many past cities and remain common in cities today. One factor contributing to neighbourhood distinctiveness and social cohesion in past cities was the role of rural to urban migration and this was a continual process in preindustrial cities, and migrants tended to move in with relatives and acquaintances from their rural past. Neighbourhoods have been the site of delivery or service interventions in part as efforts to provide local, quality services. Alfred Kahn, as early as the mid-1970s, described the experience, theory and fads of neighbourhood service delivery over the decade, including discussion of income transfers. Neighbourhoods, as an aspect of community, also are the site of services for youth, including children with disabilities. While the term neighbourhood organisation is not as common in 2015, community and economic development activists have pressured for reinvestment in local communities and neighbourhoods. Community and Economic Development may be understood in different ways, and may involve faith-based groups, urban sociology even has a subset termed neighbourhood sociology which supports the study of local communities and the diversity of urban neighbourhoods. Neighbourhoods are also used in studies from postal codes and health disparities. Neighbourhoods are convenient, and always accessible, since you are already in your neighbourhood when you walk out your door, successful neighbourhood action frequently requires little specialised technical skill, and often little or no money. Action may call for an investment of time, but material costs are often low, with neighbourhood action, compared to activity on larger scales, results are more likely to be visible and quickly forthcoming. The streets are cleaner, the crosswalk is painted, the trees are planted, visible and swift results are indicators of success, and since success is reinforcing, the probability of subsequent neighbourhood action is increased. The social support that a neighbourhood may provide can serve as a buffer against various forms of adversity

17.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

18.
Borough (New York City)
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch

19.
East River
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The East River is a salt water tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is not a river despite its name. It separates the borough of Queens on Long Island from the Bronx on the North American mainland, and also divides Manhattan from Queens and Brooklyn, because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound River. The tidal strait changes its direction of flow frequently, and is subject to fluctuations in its current. The waterway is navigable for its length of 16 miles. Technically a drowned valley, like the other waterways around New York City, the distinct change in the shape of the strait between the lower and upper portions is evidence of this glacial activity. The upper portion, running perpendicular to the glacial motion, is wide, meandering. The lower portion runs north-south, parallel to the glacial motion and it is much narrower, with straight banks. The bays that exist, as well as those used to exist before being filled in by human activity, are largely wide. The stretch has since been cleared of rocks and widened, washington Irving wrote of Hell Gate that the current sounded like a bull bellowing for more drink at half tide, whilte at full tide it slept as soundly as an alderman after dinner. He said it was like a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor at all, or when he has a skinful, but who, the river is navigable for its entire length of 16 miles. Why the river turns to the east as it approaches the three lower Manhattan bridges is currently geologically unknown, in the stretch of the river between Manhattan Island and the borough of Queens, lies Roosevelt Island, a narrow 2-mile long island consisting of 147 acres. Politically part of Manhattan, it begins at around the level of East 46th Street of that borough and it is connected to Queens by the Roosevelt Island Bridge, to Manhattan by the Roosevelt Island Tramway, and to both by a subway station. The Queensboro Bridge runs across Roosevelt Island, but no longer has an elevator connection to it. The abrupt termination of the island on its end is due to an extension of the 125th Street Fault. The Bronx River drains into the East River in the section of the strait. North of Randalls Island, it is joined by the Bronx Kill. Along the east of Wards Island, at approximately the midpoint, it narrows into a channel called Hell Gate

20.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories

21.
Gentrification
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Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and in urban planning, conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations associated with the word gentrification. Gentrification is typically the result of increased interest in a certain environment, early gentrifiers may belong to low-income artist or boheme communities, which increase the attractiveness and flair of a certain quarter. In addition to these benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration. The term gentrification has come to refer to a phenomenon that can be defined in different ways. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain, the word gentrification derives from gentry—which comes from the Old French word genterise, of gentle birth and people of gentle birth. In England, Landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen and this change has the potential to cause displacement of long-time residents and businesses. When long-time or original neighborhood residents move from an area because of higher rents, mortgages. Gentrification is a housing, economic, and health issue that affects a communitys history and culture and it often shifts a neighborhoods characteristics, e. g. racial-ethnic composition and household income, by adding new stores and resources in previously run-down neighborhoods. German geographers have a more distanced view on gentrification, actual gentrification is seen as a mere symbolic issue happening in a low amount of places and blocks, the symbolic value and visibility in public discourse being higher than actual migration trends. Gerhard Hard assumes that urban flight is more important than inner city gentrification. Volkskunde scholar Barbara Lang introduced the term symbolic gentrification with regard to the Mythos Kreuzberg in Berlin, Lang assumes that complaints about gentrification often come from those who have been responsible for the process in their youth. When former students and bohemians started raising families and earning money in better paid jobs, especially Berlin is a showcase of intense debates about symbols of gentrification, while the actual processes are much slower than in other cities. The citys Prenzlauer Berg district is, however, a child of the capitals gentrification. This leads to mixed feelings amidst the local population, the neologism Bionade-Biedermeier was coined about Prenzlauer Berg. It describes the milieu of the former quartier of the alternative scene. There are several approaches that attempt to explain the roots and the reasons behind the spread of gentrification, bruce London and J. John Palen compiled a list of five explanations, demographic-ecological, sociocultural, political-economical, community networks, and social movements. The first theory, demographic-ecological, attempts to explain gentrification through the analysis of demographics, population, social organization, environment and this theory frequently refers to the growing number of people between the ages of 25 and 35 in the 1970s, or the baby boom generation

22.
The National Trust for Historic Preservation
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The National Trust for Historic Preservation is a privately funded, nonprofit organization based in Washington, D. C. that works in the field of historic preservation in the United States. The organization is governed by a board of trustees and led by current president, the National Trust presently has around 750,000 members and supporters. The National Trust issues the quarterly Preservation magazine and produces the PreservationNation blog, towards the end of the 19th century, as the United States was rebuilding after the Civil War, the country was beginning to form its sense of national identity and history. The government began to enact legislation for the preservation of sites, in 1872, an Act of Congress established the first National Park, Yellowstone. In 1906, the Antiquities Act enabled the President to declare landmarks or objects as a national monument, then in 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act which outlined programs for research and inventory of historic sites. Meanwhile, historic preservation initiatives existed on local and state levels, in 1931, the first historic district was created in Charleston, South Carolina. However, efforts to save and maintain historic sites were largely limited to private citizens or local groups. In the late 1940s, leaders in American historic preservation saw the need for an organization to support local preservation efforts. In 1946, David E. Finley, Jr. George McAneny, Christopher Crittenden, the meeting’s attendants became the first charter members of the Council. The organization’s first headquarters was in the offices of Ford’s Theatre in downtown Washington, the creation of the National Trust was proposed as a bill to Congress, H. R.5170, introduced by Congressman J. Hardin Peterson of Florida and passed. The National Trust for Historic Preservation was formally established through the Act of Congress when President Harry S. Truman signed the legislation on October 26,1949. The charter provided that the Trust should acquire and preserve historic sites and objects of national significance, Finley served as the National Trusts first chairman of the board, remaining in the position for 12 years. The National Trust and the National Council existed side by side for years until the need to merge resources compelled the Executive Committee to integrate the two entities. In 1952, the boards of organizations approved a merger of the Council into the National Trust. The merger was effective the following year and was completed by 1956, the National Trust became a membership organization and assumed all other functions of the National Council. In 1957, the National Trust officially acquired its first property, over the next decade, the National Trust grew to become the leading national organization in historic preservation. They began working with citizens and city planning officials on matters, including federal, state. National Trust staff also traveled to parts of the country to advise local communities on preservation projects, in 1966, Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act, a significant legislation for the preservation movement

23.
Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive
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The FDR Drive is a 9. 44-mile freeway-standard parkway on the east side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Kennedy Bridge / Willis Avenue Bridge interchange, where it becomes the Harlem River Drive, all of the FDR Drive is designated New York State Route 907L, an unsigned reference route. By law, the current weight limits on the FDR Drive from 23rd Street to the Harlem River Drive in both directions is posted 8,000 pounds, buses are not allowed to use the roadway north of 23rd Street, because of clearance and weight issues. The FDR Drive features a mix of below-grade, at-grade, and elevated sections, the first sections of this roadway, originally named the East River Drive, were constructed in 1934, having been designed by Robert Moses. It was later renamed after Franklin Delano Roosevelt and is called the FDR Drive. Moses faced the difficulties of building a parkway/boulevard combination along the East River while minimizing disruptions to residents, future reconstruction designs from 1948 to 1966 converted the FDR Drive into the full parkway that is in use today. The section of highway from 23rd Street to 34th Street was built on wartime rubble dumped by cargo ships returning from Bristol, England, the German Luftwaffe bombed Bristol heavily. After delivering war supplies to the British, the ships crews loaded rubble onto the ships for ballast, then sailed back to New York, where construction crews made use of it. Exit 6, at 15th Street, is located near a Con Edison substation, which handles most of the electricity for lower Manhattan, and has been closed since the September 11,2001 attacks. City and ConEd officials believed it was too risky to allow easy access to such a critical piece of infrastructure. All signage of exit 6 was removed in early 2016, the East River Greenway runs below, beside or above the motor road from South Street to 34th Street and 60th Street to 124th Street. A plaque dedicating the East River Drive is visible on the roadway before entering the Gracie Mansion tunnel at 90th Street. FDR Drive starts at the tip of Manhattan at South and Whitehall streets. This section is known as the South Street Viaduct. From here, the road is at-grade, except for when it uses an underpass to dive below the Houston Street interchange, the ramp passed through a ConEdison facility that was deemed a potential terrorist target. East 15th and East 14th Streets were also vacated east of Avenue C, allowing only Con Edison, once past the 18th Street curve, it becomes elevated briefly until 25th Street in order to serve the 23rd Street interchange. After passing Waterside Plaza near 30th Street, the roadway again becomes elevated and this section is often referred to as the United Nations Tunnel, even though the northbound roadway is barely under the structure. The United Nations Headquarters was constructed on a platform above the roadway from 42nd to 48th Streets, in this unique tunnel, the southbound roadway is raised and runs over the northbound roadway for northbound access to and from the Queensboro Bridge interchange

24.
Chinatown, Manhattan
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Manhattans Chinatown is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, bordering the Lower East Side to its east, Little Italy to its north, Civic Center to its south, and Tribeca to its west. Chinatown is home to the largest enclave of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with an estimated population of 90,000 to 100,000 people, Manhattans Chinatown is also one of the oldest Chinese ethnic enclaves. Historically it was populated by Cantonese speakers. However, in the 1980s-90s, large numbers of Fuzhounese-speaking immigrants also arrived, a new and rapidly growing Chinese community is now forming in East Harlem, Uptown Manhattan, nearly tripling in population between the years 2000 and 2010, according to U. S. Census figures. After the City of New York itself, the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn encompass the largest Chinese populations, respectively, Ah Ken is claimed to have arrived in the area during the 1840s, he is the first Chinese person credited as having permanently immigrated to Chinatown. As a Cantonese businessman, Ah Ken eventually founded a cigar store on Park Row. It has been speculated that it may have been Ah Ken who kept a boarding house on lower Mott Street. It was with the profits he earned as a landlord, earning an average of $100 a month, faced with increasing racial discrimination and new laws that prevented participation in many occupations on the U. S. West Coast, some Chinese immigrants moved to the East Coast cities in search of employment, early businesses in these cities included hand laundries and restaurants. Chinatown started on Mott, Park, Pell, and Doyers Streets, by 1870, there was a Chinese population of 200. By the time the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed, in 1900, the US Census reported 7,028 Chinese males in residence, but only 142 Chinese women. This significant gender inequality remained present until the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943, wenfei Wang, Shangyi Zhou, and C. Cindy Fan, authors of Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing, wrote that because of immigration restrictions, Chinatown continued to be virtually a bachelor society until 1965. The early days of Chinatown were dominated by Chinese tongs, which were a mixture of clan associations, landsmans associations, political alliances, the associations started to give protection from harassment due to anti-Chinese sentiment. Each of these associations was aligned with a street gang, the associations were a source of assistance to new immigrants, giving out loans, aiding in starting businesses, and so forth. The associations formed a body named the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. Though this body was meant to foster relations between the Tongs, open warfare periodically flared between the On Leong and Hip Sing tongs, much of the Chinese gang warfare took place on Doyers street. Gangs like the Ghost Shadows and Flying Dragons were prevalent until the 1990s, the Chinese gangs controlled certain territories of Manhattans Chinatown

25.
Nolita
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Nolita, sometimes written as NoLIta, and deriving from North of Little Italy is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Nolita is bounded on the north by Houston Street, on the east by the Bowery, on the south roughly by Broome Street and it lies east of SoHo, south of NoHo, west of the Lower East Side, and north of Little Italy and Chinatown. The neighborhood was long regarded as part of Little Italy, but has lost much of its recognizable Italian character in recent decades because of the migration of Italian-Americans out of Manhattan, many elderly descendants of Italian immigrants continue to live in the neighborhood. Moreover, the Feast of San Gennaro, dedicated to Saint Januarius, is held in the every year following Labor Day. The feast, as recreated on Elizabeth Street between Prince and Houston, was featured in the film The Godfather Part III, in the second half of the 1990s, the neighborhood saw an influx of yuppies and an explosion of expensive retail boutiques and trendy restaurants and bars. This name follows the pattern started by SoHo, and TriBeCa. The neighborhood includes St. Patricks Old Cathedral, at the intersection of Mulberry, Mott and Prince Streets, the cornerstone was laid on June 8,1809. This building served as New York Citys Roman Catholic cathedral until the new St. Patricks Cathedral was opened on Fifth Avenue in Midtown in 1879, St. Patricks Old Cathedral is now a parish church. In 2010, St. Patricks Old Cathedral was honored and became The Basilica at St. Patricks Old Cathedral, prior to his death, David Bowie and his wife, Iman, had a home in Nolita. Actor Gabriel Byrne lives in Nolita, singer/songwriter Vanessa Carlton, her song Nolita Fairytale was inspired by the neighborhood. Singer/songwriter John Mayer owns an apartment in Nolita, and it was featured in Elle Decor magazine, martin Scorsese was born in Queens but raised in the neighborhood, on Elizabeth Street between Prince and Houston, where his grandparents also lived. It was part of Little Italy at that time, notes Media related to Nolita at Wikimedia Commons

26.
East Village, Manhattan
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East Village is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its boundary to the north is Gramercy Park and Stuyvesant Town, to the south by the Lower East Side and it has also been the site of protests and riots. The area that is known as the East Village was originally a farm owned by Dutch Governor-General Wouter van Twiller. Wealthy townhouses dotted the dirt roads for a few decades until the great Irish, from roughly the 1850s to first decade of the 20th century, the neighborhood has the third largest urban population of Germans outside of Vienna and Berlin, known as Klein Deutschland. It was Americas first foreign language neighborhood, hundreds of political, social, sports and recreational clubs were set up during this period, and some of these buildings still exist. However, the vitality of the community was sapped by the General Slocum disaster on June 15,1904, later waves of immigration also brought many Poles and, especially, Ukrainians to the area, creating a Ukrainian enclave in the city. Since the 1890s there has been a large concentration roughly from 10th Street to 5th Street, the post-World War II diaspora, consisting primarily of Western Ukrainian intelligentsia, also settled down in the area. Several churches, including St. Roosevelt Drive, until the mid-1960s, the area was simply the northern part of the Lower East Side, with a similar culture of immigrant, working class life. In the 1950s, the migration of Beatniks into the neighborhood later attracted hippies, musicians, the area was dubbed the East Village, to dissociate it from the image of slums evoked by the Lower East Side. Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the new name, and the term was adopted by the media by the mid-1960s. In 1966 a weekly newspaper, The East Village Other, appeared, in 1966, Andy Warhol promoted a series of multimedia shows, entitled The Exploding Plastic Inevitable, and featuring the music of the Velvet Underground, in a Polish ballroom on St. On June 27,1967, the Electric Circus opened in the space with a benefit for the Childrens Recreation Foundation whose chairman was Bobby Kennedy. The Grateful Dead, The Chambers Brothers, Sly and the Family Stone, on March 8,1968, Bill Graham opened the Fillmore East in what had been a Yiddish Theatre on Second Avenue at East 6th Street in the Yiddish Theater District. The venue quickly became known as The Church of Rock and Roll, the Fillmore East closed in 1971. CBGB, the nightclub considered by some to be the birthplace of music, was located in the neighborhood. No Wave and New York hardcore also emerged in the areas clubs, few icons of the punk scene remain in the neighborhood as it changed. Richard Hell lives in the apartment he has lived in since the 1970s. Over the last 100 years, the East Village and the Lower East Side have contributed significantly to American arts and culture in New York

27.
Manhattan Bridge
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The Manhattan Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan at Canal Street with Downtown Brooklyn at the Flatbush Avenue Extension. The main span is 1,470 ft long, with the suspension cables being 3,224 ft long, the bridges total length is 6,855 ft. This is one of four bridges spanning the East River. The bridge opened to traffic on December 31,1909 and it was designed by Leon Moisseiff, and is noted for its innovative design. The Manhattan Bridge was also the first suspension bridge to utilize a Warren truss in its design, the Manhattan Bridge was the last of the three suspension bridges built across the lower East River, following the Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges. It has four lanes on the upper level, split between two roadways. The lower level has three lanes, four tracks, a walkway and a bikeway. The upper level, originally used for streetcars, has two lanes in each direction, and the level is one-way and has three lanes in peak direction. The bridge once carried New York State Route 27 and later was planned to carry Interstate 478, the original pedestrian walkway on the south side of the bridge was reopened after forty years in June 2001. The northern bridge bike path is noted for poor signage that leads to cyclist. To celebrate the centennial anniversary, a series of events and exhibits were organized by the New York City Bridge Centennial Commission in October 2009. These included a parade across the Manhattan Bridge on the morning of October 4. In 2009, the bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Construction began that year, and plans were finalized in 1912, the arch and colonnade were completed in 1915. The decoration includes pylons which were sculpted by Carl Augustus Heber, the arch and colonnade were designated a New York City landmark on November 25,1975. After many years of neglect and several attempts by traffic engineers to remove the structure, four subway tracks are located on the lower deck of the bridge. The two tracks on the side are used by the Q train at all times and the N train at all times except late nights. The tracks on the side are used by the D train at all times

28.
14th Street (Manhattan)
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14th Street is a major crosstown street in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Presently primarily a street, in the earlier history of New York City 14th Street was an upscale location. At Broadway, 14th Street forms the border of Union Square. It is also considered the boundary of Greenwich Village, Alphabet City, and the East Village, and the southern boundary of Chelsea, Flatiron/Lower Midtown. 14th Street marks the terminus of Manhattans grid system. North of 14th Street, the make up a near-perfect grid that runs in numerical order. South of 14th, the grid continues in the East Village almost perfectly, but not so in Greenwich Village, the street was designated by the Commissioners Plan of 1811 as the southernmost of 15 east-west streets that would be 100 feet in width. West 14th Street begins at an interchange with New York State Route 9A northeast of Greenwich Village, at the end of the interchange, it intersects with 10th Avenue. The street continues east, intersecting with Washington Street, Ninth Avenue/Hudson Street, Eighth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, Sixth Avenue, after Fifth Avenue, West 14th Street becomes East 14th Street and goes on to form the southern border of Union Square between University Place and Fourth Avenue. East of Fourth Avenue, 14th Street forms the end of Irving Place. 14th Street then intersects with Third Avenue, which forms the border between the neighborhoods of the East Village to the south and Gramercy to the north. The street goes on to intersect with Second Avenue, the location of the future 14th Street station in the unfunded Phase 3 of the Second Avenue Subway, at First Avenue, 14th Street widens from a four-lane road to a six-lane divided boulevard with a westbound service road. It then intersects with the main thoroughfares of Alphabet City, Avenue A, Avenue B, and Avenue C, 14th Street is well served by the New York City Subway. The BMT Canarsie Line runs underneath 14th Street from Eighth Avenue to the East River, stopping at First Avenue, Third Avenue, Union Square, Sixth Avenue, the line is served at all times by the L train. Two New York City Bus routes serve the street, M14A. From west to east, points of interest include Hudson River Park, High Line, Union Square Park, Manhattan streets, 1-14 Notes New York Songlines, 14th Street, a virtual walking tour

29.
Broadway (Manhattan)
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Broadway /ˈbrɔːdweɪ/ is a road in the U. S. state of New York. It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, the name Broadway is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, Brede weg. Broadway is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants. Wickquasgeck means birch-bark country in the Algonquian language and this trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island. Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail became the main road through the island from Nieuw Amsterdam at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz. de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642, the Dutch named the road Heerestraat. Although current street signs are simply labeled as Broadway, in a 1776 map of New York City, in the mid-eighteenth century, part of Broadway in what is now lower Manhattan was known as Great George Street. An 1897 City Map shows a segment of Broadway as Kingsbridge Road in the vicinity of what is now the George Washington Bridge. In the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town north of Wall Street, where traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road. The western Bloomingdale Road would be widened and paved during the 19th century, on February 14,1899, the name Broadway was extended to the entire Broadway/Bloomingdale/Boulevard road. Broadway once was a street for its entire length. The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle, on 6 June 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway. On 3 June 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place, northbound traffic on Broadway now needs to take Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, make a sharp turn on the very narrow 73rd and then right turn on Broadway. Otherwise, and effectively, the traffic on Broadway has been diverted into Amsterdam Avenue. In August 2008, two lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas. Additionally, bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street down to Union Square, the city decided that the experiment was successful and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010. Additionally, portions of Broadway in the Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, Broadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River, from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island. South of Columbus Circle, it is a southbound street

30.
Alphabet City, Manhattan
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Alphabet City is a neighborhood located within the East Village in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its name comes from Avenues A, B, C, and D and it is bordered by Houston Street to the south and by 14th Street to the north, along the traditional northern border of the East Village and south of Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village. Some famous landmarks include Tompkins Square Park and the Nuyorican Poets Cafe, the neighborhood has a long history, serving as a cultural center and ethnic enclave for Manhattans German, Polish, Hispanic, and Jewish populations. However, there is dispute over the borders of the Lower East Side, Alphabet City. Historically, Manhattans Lower East Side was 14th Street at the end, bound on the east by East River and on the west by First Avenue, today. The areas German presence in the early 20th century, in decline and it is represented by Congresswomen Carolyn Maloney and Nydia Velázquez, State Senator Dan Squadron, Assemblymen Sheldon Silver and Brian Kavanagh, and Councilwoman Rosie Mendez. The neighborhood is regulated by Manhattan Community Board 3, the neighborhood lies within the New York Police Departments 9th precinct, and its schools fall within Manhattans 1st school district. Until the early 19th century, much of what is now Alphabet City was a salt marsh. The wetland was drained, and a patch of the river bed reclaimed, like many other neighborhoods on Manhattan’s Lower East Side, Alphabet City became home to a succession of immigrant groups over the years. Moreover, Kleindeutschland is considered to have been the second substantial non-Anglophone urban ethnic enclave in United States history, by the 1880s, most Germans were moving out of Kleindeutschland and relocating Uptown, to the Yorkville section of the Upper East Side. Eastern Europeans replaced Germans as the dominant ethnic group in Alphabet City during the late 19th, during this time, the area was considered part of the Lower East Side, and it became home to Eastern European Jewish, Irish, and Italian immigrants. During this time, it was also the red light district of Manhattan, by the turn of the 20th century, Alphabet City was among the most densely populated parts of New York City. This density was partially a result of the proximity to the citys garment factories. By the middle of the 20th century, Alphabet City was again in transition, by the 1960s and 1970s, what was once Kleindeutschland and the red light district had evolved into Loisaida. Alphabet City became an important site for the development and strengthening of Puerto Rican cultural identity in New York, a number of important Nuyorican intellectuals, poets and artists called Loisaida home during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, including Miguel Algarín and Miguel Piñero. During the 1980s, Alphabet City was home to a mix of Puerto Rican and African American families living alongside struggling artists, attracted by the Nuyorican movement, low rents, and creative atmosphere, Alphabet City attracted a growing Bohemian population. At one time it was home to many of the first graffiti writers, b-boys, rappers, the area also had high levels of illegal drug activity and violent crime. The Broadway musical Rent portrays some of the positive and negative aspects of this time, in Midtown and north, Avenue A was eventually renamed as Beekman Place, Sutton Place, York Avenue and Pleasant Avenue, Avenue B was renamed East End Avenue

31.
Little Italy, Manhattan
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Little Italy is a neighborhood in lower Manhattan, New York City, once known for its large population of Italian Americans. Today the neighborhood consists of only a few Italian stores and restaurants and it is bounded on the west by Tribeca and Soho, on the south by Chinatown, on the east by the Bowery and Lower East Side, and on the north by Nolita. Little Italy on Mulberry Street used to extend as far south as Worth Street, as far north as Houston Street, as far west as Lafayette Street and it is now only three blocks on Mulberry Street. Little Italy originated as Mulberry Bend, jacob Riis described Mulberry Bend as the foul core of New York’s slums. During this time period Immigrants of the late 19th century usually settled in ethnic neighborhood, therefore, the “mass immigration from italy during the 1880’s” led to the large settlement of Italian immigrants in lower manhattan. The results of migration had created an influx of Italian immigrants which had led to the commercial gathering of their dwelling. Little Italy was not the largest Italian neighborhood in New York City, Tonelli said that Little Italy was perhaps the city’s poorest Italian neighborhood. In 1910 Little Italy had almost 10,000 Italians, that was the peak of the communitys Italian population, at the turn of the 20th century over 90% of the residents of the Fourteenth Ward were of Italian birth or origins. Tonnelli said that it meant that residents began moving out to more spacious digs almost as soon as they arrived, such a vastly gowing community impacted the U. S. labor movement in the 20th century” by making up much of the labor population in the garment industry. After World War II, many residents of the Lower East Side began moving to Brooklyn, Staten Island, eastern Long Island, and New Jersey. Chinese immigrants became a presence after the U. S. Immigration Act of 1965 removed immigration restrictions. In 2004, Tonelli said, You can go back 30 years and find newspaper clips chronicling the expansion of Chinatown, prior to 2004, several upscale businesses entered the northern portion of the area between Houston and Kenmare Street. Tonelli said Real-estate prices zoomed, making it tougher for the old-timers—residents. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, areas below Houston Street were cut off for the rest of the fall of 2001, the San Gennaro feast, scheduled for September 13, was postponed. Business from the Financial District dropped severely, due to the closure of Park Row, which connected Chinatown, Tonelli said the post-9/11 events strangely enough, ended up motivating all these newfangled efforts to save what’s left of the old neighborhood. This sentiment has also echoed by Italian culture and heritage website ItalianAware. The site has called the dominance of Italians in the area and it attributes this to the quick financial prosperity many Italians achieved, which afforded them the opportunity to leave the cramped neighborhood for areas in Brooklyn and Queens. The site also goes on to state that the area is referred to as Little Italy more out of nostalgia than as a reflection of a true ethnic population

32.
NoLIta
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Nolita, sometimes written as NoLIta, and deriving from North of Little Italy is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Nolita is bounded on the north by Houston Street, on the east by the Bowery, on the south roughly by Broome Street and it lies east of SoHo, south of NoHo, west of the Lower East Side, and north of Little Italy and Chinatown. The neighborhood was long regarded as part of Little Italy, but has lost much of its recognizable Italian character in recent decades because of the migration of Italian-Americans out of Manhattan, many elderly descendants of Italian immigrants continue to live in the neighborhood. Moreover, the Feast of San Gennaro, dedicated to Saint Januarius, is held in the every year following Labor Day. The feast, as recreated on Elizabeth Street between Prince and Houston, was featured in the film The Godfather Part III, in the second half of the 1990s, the neighborhood saw an influx of yuppies and an explosion of expensive retail boutiques and trendy restaurants and bars. This name follows the pattern started by SoHo, and TriBeCa. The neighborhood includes St. Patricks Old Cathedral, at the intersection of Mulberry, Mott and Prince Streets, the cornerstone was laid on June 8,1809. This building served as New York Citys Roman Catholic cathedral until the new St. Patricks Cathedral was opened on Fifth Avenue in Midtown in 1879, St. Patricks Old Cathedral is now a parish church. In 2010, St. Patricks Old Cathedral was honored and became The Basilica at St. Patricks Old Cathedral, prior to his death, David Bowie and his wife, Iman, had a home in Nolita. Actor Gabriel Byrne lives in Nolita, singer/songwriter Vanessa Carlton, her song Nolita Fairytale was inspired by the neighborhood. Singer/songwriter John Mayer owns an apartment in Nolita, and it was featured in Elle Decor magazine, martin Scorsese was born in Queens but raised in the neighborhood, on Elizabeth Street between Prince and Houston, where his grandparents also lived. It was part of Little Italy at that time, notes Media related to Nolita at Wikimedia Commons

33.
Loisaida
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Alphabet City is a neighborhood located within the East Village in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its name comes from Avenues A, B, C, and D and it is bordered by Houston Street to the south and by 14th Street to the north, along the traditional northern border of the East Village and south of Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village. Some famous landmarks include Tompkins Square Park and the Nuyorican Poets Cafe, the neighborhood has a long history, serving as a cultural center and ethnic enclave for Manhattans German, Polish, Hispanic, and Jewish populations. However, there is dispute over the borders of the Lower East Side, Alphabet City. Historically, Manhattans Lower East Side was 14th Street at the end, bound on the east by East River and on the west by First Avenue, today. The areas German presence in the early 20th century, in decline and it is represented by Congresswomen Carolyn Maloney and Nydia Velázquez, State Senator Dan Squadron, Assemblymen Sheldon Silver and Brian Kavanagh, and Councilwoman Rosie Mendez. The neighborhood is regulated by Manhattan Community Board 3, the neighborhood lies within the New York Police Departments 9th precinct, and its schools fall within Manhattans 1st school district. Until the early 19th century, much of what is now Alphabet City was a salt marsh. The wetland was drained, and a patch of the river bed reclaimed, like many other neighborhoods on Manhattan’s Lower East Side, Alphabet City became home to a succession of immigrant groups over the years. Moreover, Kleindeutschland is considered to have been the second substantial non-Anglophone urban ethnic enclave in United States history, by the 1880s, most Germans were moving out of Kleindeutschland and relocating Uptown, to the Yorkville section of the Upper East Side. Eastern Europeans replaced Germans as the dominant ethnic group in Alphabet City during the late 19th, during this time, the area was considered part of the Lower East Side, and it became home to Eastern European Jewish, Irish, and Italian immigrants. During this time, it was also the red light district of Manhattan, by the turn of the 20th century, Alphabet City was among the most densely populated parts of New York City. This density was partially a result of the proximity to the citys garment factories. By the middle of the 20th century, Alphabet City was again in transition, by the 1960s and 1970s, what was once Kleindeutschland and the red light district had evolved into Loisaida. Alphabet City became an important site for the development and strengthening of Puerto Rican cultural identity in New York, a number of important Nuyorican intellectuals, poets and artists called Loisaida home during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, including Miguel Algarín and Miguel Piñero. During the 1980s, Alphabet City was home to a mix of Puerto Rican and African American families living alongside struggling artists, attracted by the Nuyorican movement, low rents, and creative atmosphere, Alphabet City attracted a growing Bohemian population. At one time it was home to many of the first graffiti writers, b-boys, rappers, the area also had high levels of illegal drug activity and violent crime. The Broadway musical Rent portrays some of the positive and negative aspects of this time, in Midtown and north, Avenue A was eventually renamed as Beekman Place, Sutton Place, York Avenue and Pleasant Avenue, Avenue B was renamed East End Avenue

34.
Latino
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People who identify their origin as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish may be of any race. Hence the U. S. Census and the OMB are using the terms differently, the U. S. Census and the OMB use the terms in an interchangeable manner, where both terms are synonyms. The AP Stylebooks recommended usage of Latino in Latin America includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, however, in the recent past, the term Latinos was also applied to people from the Caribbean region, including those from former Dutch and British colonies. Latino has been used in the United States since at least 1946 and is the form of the Spanish American word latinoamericano. U. S. official use of the term Hispanic has its origins in the 1970 census, other federal and local government agencies and non-profit organizations include Brazilians and Portuguese in their definition of Hispanic. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference include representatives of Spanish, the Hispanic Society of America is dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. The AP Stylebook also distinguishes between the terms Hispanic and Latino, the Stylebook limits the term Hispanic to persons from - or whose ancestors were from - a Spanish-speaking land or culture. It provides an expansive definition, however, of the term Latino. The Stylebook definition of Latino includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, the Stylebook specifically lists Brazilian as an example of a group which can be considered Latino. In English, Latino is used interchangeably with Latin American, the use of the term Latino, despite its increasing popularity, is still highly debated among those who are called by the name. Since the adoption of the term by the U. S, journalist Rodolfo Acuña writes, When and why the Latino identity came about is a more involved story. Essentially, politicians, the media, and marketers find it convenient to deal with the different U. S. Spanish-speaking people under one umbrella, however, many people with Spanish surnames contest the term Latino. De La Torre, Encyclopedia on Hispanic American Religious Culture, Volume 1 &2, Latino Cultural Heritage Digital Archives Whats in a name. Yale University – Understanding Ethnic Labels and Puerto Rican Identity Chicano/Latino Studies University of California, Irvine Latino news for and about Latinos

35.
New York's 7th congressional district
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New Yorks Seventh Congressional District is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives in New York City. It includes parts of Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan, democrat Nydia Velázquez represents the district in Congress. Until 2012, the 7th consisted of parts of Northern Queens, the Queens portion included the neighborhoods of College Point, East Elmhurst, Jackson Heights and Woodside. The Bronx portion of the district included the neighborhoods of Co-op City, Morris Park, Parkchester, Pelham Bay, while no minority in the district constitutes an absolute majority, the boundaries group together heavily Puerto Rican neighborhoods in three separate New York City boroughs. The 7th District originally was the south Queens seat in the 1960s and 1970s, following the 1992 remap, much of the old 9th District was added. The 2002 remap placed much of the district in the Bronx, note that in New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes. List of United States congressional districts New Yorks congressional districts United States congressional delegations from New York Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts

36.
New York's 12th congressional district
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New Yorks 12th Congressional District is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives located in New York City. It is now represented by Democrat Carolyn Maloney, the district includes several neighborhoods in the East Side of Manhattan, Greenpoint, and western Queens, as well as Roosevelt Island, mostly overlapping the pre-redistricting 14th district. The 12th districts per capita income, in excess of $75,000, is the highest among all districts in the United States. From 2003-2013 it included parts of Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan, the 12th District was historically a Brooklyn district. In the 1960s, it was realigned to include majority African American neighborhoods such as Bedford-Stuyvesant in Central Brooklyn, up to 1992 it was the central Brooklyn district now held by Yvette Clarke, and then remapped to include Hispanic neighborhoods in lower Manhattan and Queens. From 1813 to 1823, two seats were apportioned to the District, elected at-large on a general ticket, in New York, are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes. List of United States congressional districts New Yorks congressional districts United States congressional delegations from New York Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts

37.
New York State Assembly
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The New York State Assembly is the lower house of the New York State Legislature. The Assembly is composed of 150 members representing a number of districts. Assembly members serve two-year terms without term limits, the Assembly convenes at the State Capitol in Albany. The Speaker of the Assembly presides over the Assembly, the Speaker is elected by the Majority Conference followed by confirmation of the full Assembly through the passage of an Assembly Resolution. In addition to presiding over the body, the Speaker also has the leadership position. The minority leader is elected by party caucus, the majority leader of the Assembly is selected by, and serves at the pleasure of, the Speaker. The current Speaker is Democrat Carl Heastie of the 83rd Assembly District, the Majority Leader is Joseph Morelle of the 136th Assembly District. The Minority Leader is Republican Brian Kolb of the 131st Assembly District, the Assembly is dominated by the Democrats, who currently hold a 62-seat supermajority in the chamber. The Democrats have controlled the Assembly since 1975, †Elected in a special election Prominent past Assembly members include U. S. Senator Chuck Schumer, U. S. presidents Millard Fillmore and Theodore Roosevelt, U. S. vice presidents Aaron Burr and George Clinton, and New York governors George Pataki and Al Smith

38.
New York State Senate
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The New York State Senate is considered the upper house in the New York State Legislature. It has 63 members each elected to two-year terms, there are no limits on the number of terms one may serve. The New York Constitution provides for a number of members in the Senate. The current format for apportionment has followed the Supreme Court decision in Baker v. Carr, Democrats won 32 of 62 seats in New Yorks upper chamber in the 2008 General Election on November 4, capturing the majority for the first time in more than four decades. Previously, the Republicans had held the chamber for all but one year from 1939 to 2008, however, a power struggle emerged before the new term began. Four Democratic senators—Rubén Díaz, Sr. Carl Kruger, Pedro Espada, Jr. the self-named Gang of Four refused to back Malcolm Smith as the chambers majority leader and sought concessions. Monserrate soon reached an agreement with Smith that reportedly included the chairmanship of the Consumer Affairs Committee, though there were 32 Democrats and 30 Republicans in the Senate, on June 8,2009, then-Senators Hiram Monserrate and Pedro Espada, Jr. The move came after Republican whip Tom Libous introduced a resolution to vacate the chair and replace Smith as temporary president. In an effort to stop the vote, Democratic whip Jeff Klein unilaterally moved to recess, however, they were unable to stop the session. All 30 Republicans plus two Democrats, Monserrate and Espada, voted in favor of the resolution, in accordance with a prearranged deal, Espada was elected temporary president and acting lieutenant governor while Skelos was elected majority leader. Monserrate had backed out of the Gang at the time, being the first of the four to back Smith, the apparent Republican seizure of power was tenuous in any event. Smith claimed the vote was illegal because of Kleins motion to adjourn, however, Smith, Klein, and most of the Democrats walked out before an actual vote to adjourn could be taken. Smith still asserted he was majority leader and would challenge the vote in court and he locked the doors of the state senate chambers in an effort to prevent any further legislative action. The scheduled session was eventually postponed, both Monserrate and Espada faced accusations of unethical or criminal conduct. Monserrate was indicted for assault in March and would have automatically lost his seat if convicted. New York, like most states, has a provision in its constitution which bars convicted felons from holding office. Espada was the target of an investigation into whether he funded his campaign with money siphoned from a nonprofit health care agency he controls. The Bronx County District Attorneys office was investigating charges that Espada actually resided in Mamaroneck

39.
New York City Council
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The New York City Council is the lawmaking body of the City of New York. It has 51 members from 51 council districts throughout the five boroughs, the Council serves as a check against the mayor in a strong mayor-council government model. The council monitors performance of city agencies and makes land use decisions as well as legislating on a variety of other issues. The City Council also has responsibility for approving the city budget. The head of the City Council is called the Speaker, and is currently Melissa Mark-Viverito, the Speaker sets the agenda and presides at meetings of the City Council. Proposed legislation is submitted through the Speakers Office, there are 47 Democratic council members led by Majority Leader Jimmy Van Bramer. The three Republican council members are led by Minority Leader Steven Matteo, the Council has 35 committees with oversight of various functions of the city government. Each council member sits on at least three standing, select or subcommittees, the standing committees meet at least once per month. The Speaker of the Council, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader are all ex members of every committee. Council members are elected every four years, except for two consecutive two year terms every twenty years to allow for redistricting between the terms due to the national census. Council Members currently receive $148,500 a year in base salary, Members receive no additional compensation for serving as a committee chairperson or other officer under the new salary raise. The New York City Charter is the law of the government of New York City including the Council. The New York City Administrative Code is the codification of the laws promulgated by the Council and is composed of 29 titles, the regulations promulgated by city agencies pursuant to law are contained in the Rules of the City of New York in 71 titles. A local law has an equivalent with a law enacted by the Legislature. Each local government must designate a newspaper of notice to publish or describe its laws, the Secretary of State is responsible for publishing local laws as a supplement to the Laws of New York, but they have not done so in recent years. The history of the New York City Council can be traced to Dutch Colonial times when New York City was known as New Amsterdam. On February 2,1653, the town of New Amsterdam, a Council of Legislators sat as the local lawmaking body and as a court of inferior jurisdiction. During the 18th and 19th centuries the local legislature was called the Common Council, in 1898 the amalgamation charter of the City of Greater New York renamed and revamped the Council and added a New York City Board of Estimate with certain administrative and financial powers

40.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds

41.
New Amsterdam
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New Amsterdam was a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island, which served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland. The factorij became a settlement outside of Fort Amsterdam, situated on the strategic, fortifiable southern tip of the island of Manhattan, the fort was meant to defend the Dutch West India Companys fur trade operations in the North River. In 1624 it became an extension of the Dutch Republic and was designated as the capital of the province in 1625. New Amsterdam was renamed New York on September 8,1664, in honor of the then Duke of York, Hudson named the river the Mauritius River. He was covertly attempting to find the Northwest Passage for the Dutch East India Company, instead, he brought back news about the possibility of exploitation of beaver by the Dutch who sent commercial, private missions to the area the following years. At the time, beaver pelts were prized in Europe. A by-product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum—the secretion of the animals anal glands—which was used for its medicinal properties and for perfumes. The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensen in 1611,1612,1613 and 1614 resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel. On their 1614 map, which gave them a trade monopoly under a patent of the States General. It also showed the first year-round trading presence in New Netherland, Fort Nassau, which would be replaced in 1624 by Fort Orange and he was the first recorded non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City. The territory of New Netherland was originally a private, profit-making commercial enterprise focusing on cementing alliances, surveying and exploration of the region was conducted as a prelude to an anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic, which occurred in 1624. In 1620 the Pilgrims attempted to sail to the Hudson River from England, however, the Mayflower reached Cape Cod on November 9,1620, after a voyage of 64 days. For a variety of reasons, primarily a shortage of supplies, the Mayflower could not proceed to the Hudson River, here American Indian hunters supplied them with pelts in exchange for European-made trade goods and wampum, which was soon being made by the Dutch on Long Island. In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was founded, between 1621 and 1623, orders were given to the private, commercial traders to vacate the territory, thus opening up the territory to Dutch settlers and company traders. It also allowed the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland to apply, previously, during the private, commercial period, only the law of the ship had applied. A fort and sawmill were erected at Nut Island. The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard, and was taken apart for iron in 1648, the threat of attack from other European colonial powers prompted the directors of the Dutch West India Company to formulate a plan to protect the entrance to the Hudson River. By the end of 1625, the site had been staked out directly south of Bowling Green on the site of the present U. S, the Mohawk-Mahican War in the Hudson Valley led the company to relocate even more settlers to the vicinity of the new Fort Amsterdam

42.
Fulton Street (Manhattan)
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Fulton Street is a busy street located in Lower Manhattan in New York City. The easternmost block is a pedestrian street, after the World Trade Center construction is completed, it will extend to West Street. The street has a Beaux-Arts architectural feel with many dating back to the Gilded Age or shortly thereafter. The early 19th-century buildings on the side of the easternmost block are called Schermerhorn Row and are collectively designated as a Registered Historic Place. Regular cricket matches were held near the present Fulton Market in 1780 when the British Army-based itself in Manhattan during the American Revolution, the street itself was originally broken up into two parts, divided at Broadway. The eastern half was Fair Street and the half was Partition Street. In 1816, both streets were named Fulton, in honor of Robert Fulton, an engineer who became famous for his invention of the steamship in 1809. The Fulton Fish Market was located nearby at the South Street Seaport until 2005, Fulton Street is served by the 2345 A C J Z trains at the Fulton Street subway station. The Fulton Center renovation project for the station was completed in November,2014, media related to Fulton Street at Wikimedia Commons

43.
Astor Place
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Astor Place is a short, two-block street in NoHo/East Village, in the lower part of the New York City borough of Manhattan. It runs from Broadway in the west, just below East 8th Street, through Lafayette Street, past Cooper Square and Fourth Avenue, and ends at Third Avenue, continuing as St. It borders two plazas at the intersection with Cooper Square, Lafayette Street, Fourth Avenue, and Eighth Street – Alamo Plaza, Astor Place is also sometimes used for the neighborhood around the street. It was named for John Jacob Astor, soon after his death in 1848, a $16 million reconstruction to implement a redesign of Astor Place began in 2013. Astor Place was once known as Art Street, from 1767 through 1859, Vauxhall Gardens, a country resort, was located on this street. The area belonged to John Jacob Astor, and Astor Place was renamed after him soon after his death, in 1826, he carved out an upper-class neighborhood from the site with Lafayette Street bisecting eastern gardens from western homes. Wealthy New Yorkers, including Astor and other members of the family, Astor built the Astor Library in the eastern portion of the neighborhood as a donation to the city. Architect Seth Geer designed row houses called LaGrange Terrace for the development, and this location made the gardens accessible to the people of both the Broadway and Bowery districts. Astor Place was the site of the Astor Opera House, at the intersection of Astor Place, East 8th Street, built to be the fashionable theater in 1847, it was the site of the Astor Place Riot of May 10,1849. The protest in the streets against Macready became so violent that the police fired into the crowd, at least 18 died, and hundreds were injured. The theater itself never recovered from the association with the riot and was closed shortly afterwards. The interior was demolished, and the building was turned over to the use of the New York Mercantile Library, from 1852 until 1936, Astor Place was the location of Bible House, headquarters of the American Bible Society. In the mid- to late-19th century, the area was home to many of the wealthiest New Yorkers, including members of the Astor, Vanderbilt, editor and poet William Cullen Bryant, and inventor and entrepreneur Isaac Singer lived in the neighborhood in the 1880s. By the turn of the century, however, warehouses and manufacturing firms moved in, the moved to places such as Murray Hill. The neighborhood was revitalized beginning in the late 1960s and 1970s, the New York City Department of Transportations Reconstruction of Astor Place and Cooper Square plan calls for some changes to be made to Astor Place beginning in 2013. The street itself will end at Lafayette Street, and will not continue to Third Avenue, the $16 million project was first proposed in 2008, then abandoned and re-proposed in 2011. The current 299-seat Off-Broadway Astor Place Theatre, has located in the landmark Colonnade Row on Lafayette Street, half a block south. It was known for premiering works by playwrights like Sam Shepard, but since 1991 has been the home of Blue Man Group

44.
Boston Post Road
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The Boston Post Road was a system of mail-delivery routes between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts that evolved into one of the first major highways in the United States. The three major alignments were the Lower Post Road, the Upper Post Road, and the Middle Post Road, the Boston Post Road Historic District, including part of the road in Rye, New York, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The Post Road is also famous for milestones that date from the 18th century, in parts of Connecticut, it is also known as Route 6. The Upper Post Road was originally called the Pequot Path and had been in use by Native Americans long before Europeans arrived, some of these important native trails were in many places as narrow as two feet. The colonists first used this trail to deliver the mail using post riders, the first ride to lay out the Upper Post Road started on January 1,1673. Later, the newly blazed trail was widened and smoothed to the point where horse-drawn wagons or stagecoaches could use the road, the countrys first successful long-distance stagecoach service was launched by Levi Pease along the upper road in October,1783. During the 19th century, turnpike companies took over and improved pieces of the road, large sections of the various routes are still called the Kings Highway and Boston Post Road. Much of the Post Road is now U. S. Route 1, U. S. Route 5, mileposts were measured from the intersection of Broadway and Wall Street in New York and from the old Boston city-line on Washington Street, near the present-day Massachusetts Turnpike. The Metropolitan Railroad Company was chartered in 1853 to run streetcars down the stretch of the road on Washington Street in Roxbury, the Upper and Lower Boston Post Roads were designated U. S. Nicholas Avenue-Broadway, St. Nicholas Avenue, west side, between 115th Street and 116th Street 9 – St. Nicholas Avenue, west side, opposite north line of 133rd Street 10 – southwest corner of St. It passed over the Bronx River on the Williams Bridge, and left The Bronx on Bussing Avenue and it then continued east on Colonial Avenue-Kings Highway, merging with U. S. Route 1. Old Boston Post Road north of downtown New Rochelle, Old Post Road-Orienta Avenue south of downtown Mamaroneck. Mamaroneck Avenue-Prospect Avenue-Tompkins Avenue north of downtown Mamaroneck, Old Post Road at Playland Parkway in Rye. The Upper Post Road was the most traveled of the three routes, being the furthest from the shore and thus having the fewest and shortest river crossings and it was also considered to have the best taverns, which contributed to its popularity. A series of historic milestones erected in the 18th century survive along its route from Springfield to Boston, the Lower Post Road hugged the shoreline of Long Island Sound all the way to Rhode Island and then turned north through Providence to Boston. This is now the best-known of the routes, the Lower Post Road roughly corresponds to the original alignment of U. S. Route 1 in eastern Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. In Massachusetts, the Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike was established in 1803 as a route between Pawtucket, Rhode Island and Roxbury, Massachusetts, mostly west of the Post Road. It is known as Washington Street in many of the towns it passes through, due to its avoidance of built-up areas, the southern half of this road was little-used

45.
Delancey Street
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It is an eight-lane, median-divided street west of Clinton Street, and a service road for the Williamsburg Bridge east of Clinton Street. West of Bowery, Delancey Street becomes Kenmare Street, which continues as a four-lane, Delancey Street is named after James De Lancey, Sr. whose farm was located in what is now the Lower East Side. Businesses range from delis to check-cashing stores to bars, Delancey Street has long been known for its discount and bargain clothing stores. Until the middle 20th century, Delancey Street was a shopping street in the predominantly Jewish Lower East Side. Since the late 2000s, the neighborhood around Delancey is a mix of professionals and artists along with working-class African Americans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans. Gentrification has brought more retail and nightlife establishments. The New York City Subway F train, running on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, the J Z trains also stop at Bowery. The M9, M14, M15, M103, B39 New York City Bus routes stop on Delancey Street, the Williamsburg Bridge Trolley Terminal, beneath Delancey and Essex Streets, was a station and balloon loop for streetcars crossing the Williamsburg Bridge from Brooklyn. Because of the width of Delancey Street, and the high rate of fatalities along it. This includes pedestrian plazas, bans on left turns along the street, Kenmare Street runs westward for a total of five blocks from the Bowery to Lafayette Street. It is a thoroughfare for traffic travelling westbound to the Holland Tunnel. The street was founded in 1911 by Tim Sullivan, the son of immigrants Daniel O’Sullivan and Catherine Connelly, film and TV In the 1932 film Taxi. James Cagney plays an Irish cabdriver who can speak Yiddish, prompting a cop to ask what part of Ireland do your folks come from, Cagney replies, Delancey Street, thank you. A1983 episode of The A-Team, titled The Out-Of-Towners, was centered around an extortion racket operating on Delancey Street. In the 1988 Disney animated film Oliver and Company, the song sung by Dodger, Why Should I Worry, mentions the street, One minute Im in Central Park, then Im down on Delancey Street. The 1988 film Crossing Delancey is a comedy focusing on the different shades of urban life in the area. In the 1992 Disney film Newsies, the song Carry the Banner contains the line, the 1994 film Rhythm Thief opens on Delancey Street and features a foot chase on same. A1974 episode of the TV series McCloud was titled Shivaree on Delancey Street, the 1997 film Mimic directed by Guillermo del Toro is partially set at the Delancey Street – Essex Street subway station

46.
Orchard Street (Manhattan)
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Orchard Street is a street in Manhattan which covers the eight city blocks between Division Street in Chinatown and East Houston Street on the Lower East Side. Vehicular traffic runs north on this one-way street, Orchard Street starts from Division Street in the south and ends at East Houston Street in the north. The orchard in question belonged to James Delancey, who returned to England in 1775, Orchard Street is often considered the center of the Lower East Side and is lined end to end almost entirely with low-rise tenement building with the iconic brick face and fire escapes. First known as Kleindeutschland, or Little Germany, later a Jewish enclave, the streets past as the heart of the immigrant experience is captured at the Lower East Side Tenement Museums centerpiece, the restored 97 Orchard Street tenement. The street is known for its discount shopping - Orchard Street was long the Lower East Sides main marketing thoroughfare, more recently, upscale boutiques and designer shops have begun to line the street. Like the rest of the Lower East Side, Orchard Street has gone through gentrification in the past decade, especially above Rivington Street, meanwhile, several luxury condominiums now stand or are under construction where immigrant families once shared quarters in cramped tenement buildings. Several boutique hotels have sprouted in the area, with two on Orchard St, the Blue Moon Hotel at 100 Orchard St, and Thompson LES on Allen St. A short film, Orchard Street, was made in 1955 by Ken Jacobs, turner Classic Movies has shown it as an avant garde film. Lower East Side resident and filmmaker Courtney Fathom Sell made Down Orchard Street over the course of four years, the documentary depicts the evictions suffered by many of the store-owners due to continuing gentrification of the neighborhood. New York Songlines, Orchard Street, a walking tour Lower East Side Visitor Center,54 Orchard

National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,00

1.
Logo used for the NRHP.

2.
Old Slater Mill, a historic district in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.

3.
The Loren Andrus Octagon House in Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.

4.
Built in 1800 by Samuel McIntire in Salem, the Stephen Phillips House is operated as a historic house museum by Historic New England and open for public tours.

Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the Natio

1.
The federally designated Sycamore Historic District in Illinois

2.
Walker Hall, part of the University of Florida Campus Historic District

3.
Helvenston House, part of the Ocala Historic District, in Ocala, Florida

Tenement
–
The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building, late 19th-century social reformers in the U. S. were hostile to both tenements and apartment houses. The adapted buildings were known as rookeries, and were a particular

1.
Tenements at Park Avenue and 107th Street, New York City, around 1900

2.
Rear view of an early 19th-century Scottish tenement, Edinburgh

3.
Tenements in Soundview, The Bronx

4.
Lower East Side tenement buildings

Lower Manhattan
–
Lower Manhattan is defined most commonly as the area delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and it includes the Financial District and the World Trade Center sit

1.
Lower Manhattan viewed from Brooklyn in September 2014

2.
The Lower Manhattan skyline in December 2011, from Midtown Manhattan. One World Trade Center can be seen, under construction, in the background.

3.
The Lower Manhattan skyline in May 2001, seen from the Empire State Building

4.
View of Lower Manhattan at sunset, from Jersey City, New Jersey. One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere.

Houston Street
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The streets name is pronounced HOW-stən, unlike the city of Houston in Texas, which is pronounced HYOO-stən. This is because the street was named for William Houstoun, whereas the city was named for Sam Houston, at its east end, Houston Street meets FDR Drive in an interchange at East River Park. West of FDR Drive it intersects with Avenue D, furth

1.
Looking east from Orchard Street

2.
Houston Street (1917) by George Luks

3.
East Houston Street between Clinton and Suffolk Streets in the 1920s

4.
Houston Street at Lafayette Street in 1974

Essex Street
–
Essex Street is a north-south street on the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. North of Houston Street, the street becomes Avenue A, which goes north to 14th Street, South of Canal Street it becomes Rutgers Street, the southern end of which is at South Street. Long a part of the Lower East Side Jewish enclave, many Jewish-ow

1.
Tenements on Essex Street between Hester and Grand Streets

2.
Essex Street Market

Canal Street (Manhattan)
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It runs through the neighborhood of Chinatown, and forms the southern boundaries of SoHo and Little Italy as well as the northern boundary of Tribeca. The street acts as a connector between Jersey City, New Jersey, via the Holland Tunnel, and Brooklyn, New York City. It is a street for most of its length – from West Street to the Manhattan Bridge –

4.
The former Loew's Canal Street Theatre at 31 Canal Street, a New York City Landmark

Grand Street (Manhattan)
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Grand Street is a street in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It runs west/east parallel to and south of Delancey Street, from SoHo through Chinatown, Little Italy, the Bowery, the streets western terminus is Varick Street, and on the east it ends at the service road for the FDR Drive. In the 19th century, before the construction of th

1.
Cooperative Village at the eastern end of Grand Street. Amalgamated Dwellings in foreground, one of the oldest housing cooperatives in the United States. East Side Glatt is also shown

2.
Kossar's Bialys

3.
Bowery Savings Bank

Bowery
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The Bowery /ˈbaʊəri/ is a street and neighborhood in the southern portion of the New York City borough of Manhattan. In the 17th century, the road branched off Broadway north of Fort Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan to the homestead of Peter Stuyvesant, the street was known as Bowery Lane prior to 1807. Bowery is an anglicization of the Dutch bouw

1.
Looking north from Houston Street

2.
Looking north from Grand Street, circa 1910

3.
The Bowery (unmarked), leading to the "Road to Kings Bridge, where the Rebels mean to make a Stand" in a British map of 1776

4.
Berenice Abbott photograph of a Bowery restaurant in 1935, when the street was lined with flophouses

East Broadway (Manhattan)
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East Broadway is a two-way east-west street in the Chinatown, Two Bridges, and Lower East Side neighborhoods of the New York City borough of Manhattan. East Broadway begins at Chatham Square and runs eastward under the Manhattan Bridge, continues past Seward Park and the end of Canal Street. East Broadway was home to a large Jewish community on the

1.
East Broadway as seen from the Manhattan Bridge.

2.
Chatham Square and Lin Zexu Statue

3.
Fukien American Association at East Broadway

4.
Bus ticket saleswoman at the corner of East Broadway and Forsyth Street in the Little Fuzhou neighborhood within Manhattan's Chinatown.

Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many mu

1.
View from Midtown Manhattan, facing south toward Lower Manhattan

2.
Peter Minuit, early 1600s.

3.
The Castello Plan showing the Dutch colonial city of New Amsterdam in 1660 – then confined to the southern tip of Manhattan Island.

4.
J.Q.A. Ward 's statue of George Washington in front of Federal Hall (on Wall Street) where he was inaugurated as the first U.S. President in 1789.

New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is

1.
British general John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga in 1777.

2.
Flag

3.
1800 map of New York from Low's Encyclopaedia

4.
The Erie Canal at Lockport, New York in 1839

Madison Street (Manhattan)
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Madison Street is a two-way thoroughfare in the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan that begins under the Brooklyn Bridge entrance ramp and ends at Grand Street. It is roughly sixteen large city blocks long, due to security measures implemented after the September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, public access to the part of the str

1.
Looking south down Madison Street as seen from the Manhattan Bridge.

Henry Street (Manhattan)
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Henry Street is a street in the Lower East Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan that runs one-way eastbound, except for a small two-way segment west of Pike Street. It spans from Oliver Street in the west, passing underneath the Manhattan Bridge, the street is named for Henry Rutgers, a hero of the American Revolutionary War and prominent

1.
The Henry Street Settlement

Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

Neighborhood
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A neighbourhood, or neighborhood, is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural area. Neighbourhoods are often social communities with considerable face-to-face interaction among members, the Old English word for neighbourhood was neahdæl. ”Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeolog

1.
The Meatpacking District neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City

2.
A neighbourhood watch sign in Jefferson County, Colorado

3.
Typical Cypriot neighbourhood in Aglandjia, Nicosia, Cyprus

New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for int

1.
Clockwise, from top: Midtown Manhattan, Times Square, the Unisphere in Queens, the Brooklyn Bridge, Lower Manhattan with One World Trade Center, Central Park, the headquarters of the United Nations, and the Statue of Liberty

2.
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year England took control and renamed it "New York".

3.
The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolution, took place in Brooklyn in 1776.

4.
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.

Borough (New York City)
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough w

1.
The five boroughs of New York City: 1: Manhattan, 2: Brooklyn, 3: Queens, 4: The Bronx, 5: Staten Island

East River
–
The East River is a salt water tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is not a river despite its name. It separates the borough of Queens on Long Island from the Bronx on the North American mainland, and also divides Manhattan from Queens and Brooklyn, because of its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the Sound

1.
East River and the headquarters of the United Nations in Manhattan, as seen from Roosevelt Island.

2.
The East River is shown in red on this satellite photo of New York City.

3.
A map from 1781

4.
Exposition display showing cross-section of East River railroad tunnel to Pennsylvania Station

Working class
–
The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by

1.
Working class life in Victorian Wetherby, West Yorkshire, England.

2.
Striking teamsters battling police on the streets of Minneapolis, June 1934.

3.
Precursors

Gentrification
–
Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and in urban planning, conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations assoc

1.
Buildings on Mainzer Straße in Berlin.

2.
Symbolic gentrification in Prenzlauer Berg, Berlin

3.
Gentrification in the US: The North Loop neighborhood, Minneapolis, Minn., is the "Warehouse District" of condominia for artists and entrepreneurs.

The National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
The National Trust for Historic Preservation is a privately funded, nonprofit organization based in Washington, D. C. that works in the field of historic preservation in the United States. The organization is governed by a board of trustees and led by current president, the National Trust presently has around 750,000 members and supporters. The Nat

1.
The National Trust for Historic Preservation is headquartered in the Watergate complex, Washington, D.C.

2.
The National Trust for Historic Preservation's former headquarters of 35 years, the Andrew Mellon Building, located in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The National Trust moved its headquarters to the Watergate complex in 2013.

3.
Woodlawn Plantation & Pope-Leighey House, Alexandria, Virginia was the first site acquired into the National Trust portfolio.

4.
The portfolio of National Trust sites has expanded to include Phillip Johnson's Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut.

Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive
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The FDR Drive is a 9. 44-mile freeway-standard parkway on the east side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Kennedy Bridge / Willis Avenue Bridge interchange, where it becomes the Harlem River Drive, all of the FDR Drive is designated New York State Route 907L, an unsigned reference route. By law, the current weight limits on the FDR Drive f

1.
FDR Drive approaching Brooklyn Bridge

2.
Map of New York City with Franklin D. Roosevelt East River (FDR) Drive highlighted in red

3.
FDR Drive at night

4.
Looking north from 6th Street overpass

Chinatown, Manhattan
–
Manhattans Chinatown is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, bordering the Lower East Side to its east, Little Italy to its north, Civic Center to its south, and Tribeca to its west. Chinatown is home to the largest enclave of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with an estimated population of 90,000 to 100,000 people, Manhattans

2.
Manhattan's Chinatown, home to the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, is the oldest of at least 9 Chinatowns in the New York metropolitan area.

3.
A Chinese lion during Chinese New Year festivities on Mott Street near Worth Street.

4.
Doyers Street depicted in an 1898 postcard.

Nolita
–
Nolita, sometimes written as NoLIta, and deriving from North of Little Italy is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Nolita is bounded on the north by Houston Street, on the east by the Bowery, on the south roughly by Broome Street and it lies east of SoHo, south of NoHo, west of the Lower East Side, and north of Little Ital

1.
Mott Street between Houston and Prince Streets

2.
The Puck Building

3.
Odd Fellows Hall

4.
St. Patrick's Old Cathedral

East Village, Manhattan
–
East Village is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its boundary to the north is Gramercy Park and Stuyvesant Town, to the south by the Lower East Side and it has also been the site of protests and riots. The area that is known as the East Village was originally a farm owned by Dutch Governor-General Wouter van Twiller. Wealth

1.
1st Avenue, looking north at 10th Street

2.
Former German-American Shooting Society Clubhouse at 12 St Mark's Place (1885). East Village once had a sizable Little Germany, an area within which this building is located.

3.
A wall in the East Village, featuring a mural of two men

4.
Patti Smith, seen here in Copenhagen in 1976, is one of the many poets, musicians and artists who got their start in the East Village

Manhattan Bridge
–
The Manhattan Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan at Canal Street with Downtown Brooklyn at the Flatbush Avenue Extension. The main span is 1,470 ft long, with the suspension cables being 3,224 ft long, the bridges total length is 6,855 ft. This is one of four bridges spanning the E

1.
View from Brooklyn

2.
The triumphal arch and colonnade at the Manhattan entrance

3.
The Manhattan Bridge under construction in March 1909

4.
The Brooklyn Plaza of the bridge c.1917. Nassau Street is across the foreground.

14th Street (Manhattan)
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14th Street is a major crosstown street in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Presently primarily a street, in the earlier history of New York City 14th Street was an upscale location. At Broadway, 14th Street forms the border of Union Square. It is also considered the boundary of Greenwich Village, Alphabet City, and the East Village, and the

1.
14th Street looking west from Fifth Avenue

2.
14th Street – Union Square station

Broadway (Manhattan)
–
Broadway /ˈbrɔːdweɪ/ is a road in the U. S. state of New York. It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, the name Broadway is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, Brede weg. Broadway is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, Broadway was

1.
A daytime scene on Broadway Broadway through Manhattan, the Bronx and lower Westchester County is highlighted in red

2.
Broadway in 1860

3.
In 1885 the Broadway commercial district was overrun with telephone, telegraph, and electrical lines. This view was north from Cortlandt and Maiden Lane.

4.
Plan of 1868 for an "arcade railway"

Alphabet City, Manhattan
–
Alphabet City is a neighborhood located within the East Village in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its name comes from Avenues A, B, C, and D and it is bordered by Houston Street to the south and by 14th Street to the north, along the traditional northern border of the East Village and south of Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village. Some

2.
The dark blue area denotes the neighborhood's location in Lower Manhattan.

3.
Tompkins Square branch of New York Public Library on East 10th Street

4.
Avenue A from East 5th Street

Little Italy, Manhattan
–
Little Italy is a neighborhood in lower Manhattan, New York City, once known for its large population of Italian Americans. Today the neighborhood consists of only a few Italian stores and restaurants and it is bounded on the west by Tribeca and Soho, on the south by Chinatown, on the east by the Bowery and Lower East Side, and on the north by Noli

1.
People in Little Italy celebrating, one hour after the Italian soccer team won the 2006 FIFA World Cup

2.
Ferrara Cafe (est. 1892) In Little Italy

3.
Mulberry Street in Little Italy

4.
Alphabet City

NoLIta
–
Nolita, sometimes written as NoLIta, and deriving from North of Little Italy is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Nolita is bounded on the north by Houston Street, on the east by the Bowery, on the south roughly by Broome Street and it lies east of SoHo, south of NoHo, west of the Lower East Side, and north of Little Ital

1.
Mott Street between Houston and Prince Streets

2.
The Puck Building

3.
Odd Fellows Hall

4.
St. Patrick's Old Cathedral

Loisaida
–
Alphabet City is a neighborhood located within the East Village in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Its name comes from Avenues A, B, C, and D and it is bordered by Houston Street to the south and by 14th Street to the north, along the traditional northern border of the East Village and south of Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village. Some

2.
The dark blue area denotes the neighborhood's location in Lower Manhattan.

3.
Tompkins Square branch of New York Public Library on East 10th Street

4.
Avenue A from East 5th Street

Latino
–
People who identify their origin as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish may be of any race. Hence the U. S. Census and the OMB are using the terms differently, the U. S. Census and the OMB use the terms in an interchangeable manner, where both terms are synonyms. The AP Stylebooks recommended usage of Latino in Latin America includes not only persons of S

1.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 16th century Spanish admiral who founded the first European settlement in North America (Saint Augustine, Florida).

3.
Castillo de San Marcos in Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States.

4.
Miami 's Brickell neighborhood is known for its large concentration of wealthy Hispanics, largely of South American descent.

New York's 7th congressional district
–
New Yorks Seventh Congressional District is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives in New York City. It includes parts of Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan, democrat Nydia Velázquez represents the district in Congress. Until 2012, the 7th consisted of parts of Northern Queens, the Queens portion included the neighborh

1.
Harmanus Bleecker

2.
Abraham J. Hasbrouck

3.
Samuel R. Betts

New York's 12th congressional district
–
New Yorks 12th Congressional District is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives located in New York City. It is now represented by Democrat Carolyn Maloney, the district includes several neighborhoods in the East Side of Manhattan, Greenpoint, and western Queens, as well as Roosevelt Island, mostly overlapping the p

1.
David Thomas

2.
Erastus Root

3.
Reuben H. Walworth

New York State Assembly
–
The New York State Assembly is the lower house of the New York State Legislature. The Assembly is composed of 150 members representing a number of districts. Assembly members serve two-year terms without term limits, the Assembly convenes at the State Capitol in Albany. The Speaker of the Assembly presides over the Assembly, the Speaker is elected

2.
New York State Assembly

New York State Senate
–
The New York State Senate is considered the upper house in the New York State Legislature. It has 63 members each elected to two-year terms, there are no limits on the number of terms one may serve. The New York Constitution provides for a number of members in the Senate. The current format for apportionment has followed the Supreme Court decision

2.
New York State Senate

New York City Council
–
The New York City Council is the lawmaking body of the City of New York. It has 51 members from 51 council districts throughout the five boroughs, the Council serves as a check against the mayor in a strong mayor-council government model. The council monitors performance of city agencies and makes land use decisions as well as legislating on a vari

1.
New York City Council

Lenape
–
The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many s

4.
Benjamin West 's painting (in 1771) of William Penn 's 1682 treaty with the Lenape

New Amsterdam
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New Amsterdam was a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island, which served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland. The factorij became a settlement outside of Fort Amsterdam, situated on the strategic, fortifiable southern tip of the island of Manhattan, the fort was meant to defend the Dut

1.
The original city map of New Amsterdam called Castello Plan from 1660 (the bottom left corner is approximately south, while the top right corner is approximately north)

2.
The Rigging House on 120 William Street, the last remaining Dutch building of New Amsterdam. Built in the 17th century, it became a Methodist church in the 1760s and became a secular building again before its destruction in the mid-19th century.

3.
An 1882 depiction of the Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor

4.
The First Slave Auction at New Amsterdam in 1655, by Howard Pyle

Fulton Street (Manhattan)
–
Fulton Street is a busy street located in Lower Manhattan in New York City. The easternmost block is a pedestrian street, after the World Trade Center construction is completed, it will extend to West Street. The street has a Beaux-Arts architectural feel with many dating back to the Gilded Age or shortly thereafter. The early 19th-century building

1.
Fulton Street on a December afternoon

Astor Place
–
Astor Place is a short, two-block street in NoHo/East Village, in the lower part of the New York City borough of Manhattan. It runs from Broadway in the west, just below East 8th Street, through Lafayette Street, past Cooper Square and Fourth Avenue, and ends at Third Avenue, continuing as St. It borders two plazas at the intersection with Cooper S

1.
Not to be confused with Astor Row.

2.
The Astor Place Theatre

3.
Alamo Cube from Astor Place, looking north

4.
The Astor Library, seen in a 1900 drawing, opened in 1849. It is now the Joseph Papp Public Theater

Boston Post Road
–
The Boston Post Road was a system of mail-delivery routes between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts that evolved into one of the first major highways in the United States. The three major alignments were the Lower Post Road, the Upper Post Road, and the Middle Post Road, the Boston Post Road Historic District, including part of the road in Ry

1.
Boston Post Road

2.
The "Road to Kings Bridge, where the Rebels mean to make a Stand" in a British map of 1776

3.
East and north towards West Farms Square

4.
The Stone Arch Bridge in Uxbridge, Massachusetts

Delancey Street
–
It is an eight-lane, median-divided street west of Clinton Street, and a service road for the Williamsburg Bridge east of Clinton Street. West of Bowery, Delancey Street becomes Kenmare Street, which continues as a four-lane, Delancey Street is named after James De Lancey, Sr. whose farm was located in what is now the Lower East Side. Businesses ra

1.
Delancey Street at Bowery

2.
Nolita Hotel, Kenmare and Elizabeth Streets

Orchard Street (Manhattan)
–
Orchard Street is a street in Manhattan which covers the eight city blocks between Division Street in Chinatown and East Houston Street on the Lower East Side. Vehicular traffic runs north on this one-way street, Orchard Street starts from Division Street in the south and ends at East Houston Street in the north. The orchard in question belonged to

1.
Britannia offers solace and a promise of compensation for her exiled American-born Loyalists. (Reception of the American Loyalists by Great Britain in the Year 1783. Engraving by H. Moses after Benjamin West.)

2.
A jury finding from Kentucky County, Virginia in July 1780, confiscating lands of two men adjudged to be British citizens. Daniel Boone was listed as a member of the jury.

1.
Map showing the aboriginal boundaries of Delaware territories, with Munsee territory and Unami dialectal divisions indicated. The territory of the poorly known Unalachtigo dialect of Unami is not clearly indicated, but is presumed to be approximately in the area of "Sankhikan" on the map.

1.
The former Freie Bibliothek und Lesehalle ("Free Library and Reading Hall", left; now the Ottendorfer Branch of the New York Public Library) and Deutsches Dispensary ("German Dispensary", right; now Stuyvesant Polyclinic Hospital) on Second Avenue in the East Village. Both were designed by William Schickel and built in 1883-1884, and both are NYC Landmarks.

4.
In 1926, developer Louis N. Jaffe had the Yiddish Art Theatre built for actor Maurice Schwartz, "Mr. Second Avenue". The area was known as the "Jewish Rialto" at the time. After four seasons it became the Yiddish Folks Theatre, then a movie theatre, the home of the APA-Phoenix Theatre, the Entermedia Theatre, and now a movie theater again. It was designated a New York City landmark in 1993.

1.
William Godwin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".

2.
A sympathetic engraving by Walter Crane of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the Haymarket affair. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international May Day observances.

3.
Italian-American anarchist Luigi Galleani. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'

1.
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the Battle of the Somme, Mark V tanks cross the Hindenburg Line, HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, a British Vickers machine gun crew wears gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, Albatros D.III fighters of Jagdstaffel 11

2.
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908.

3.
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.

1.
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad

2.
The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930

3.
Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930

4.
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War

1.
Yinxu, ruins of an ancient palace dating from the Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)

2.
Flag

3.
Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE

4.
The Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the Chinese interior from incursions by nomadic pastoralists of the northern steppes.