in classical conditioning the conditioned response is essentially passive with no impact of its own. Conditioning: The animal learns to operate on its world in such a way as to change it to that animal’s advantage.

opponent processes serves to lessen effects of drugs/stimuli and increase tolerance. opponent processes might be triggered through anything related to the stimuli i.e. for drug addicts, needles or their usual spot

Operant conditioning utilizes a system of reinforcements and punishments to aid in the learning of behavior. People are shaped through their environment

Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Term

Who are the main contributors to classic conditioning and what were their contributions?

Definition

Ivan Pavlov and John b. Watson

Pavlov’s ﬁnding showed that conditioning is more than a simple pairing of stimuli; it involves teaching the that one stimulus is a warning or signal of the other

John Watson assumed that the essential activity of life was to learn a vast array of responses to speciﬁc environmental stimuli, an individual’s personality consists of learned stimulus-response (S-R) associations

each person’s patterns will be idiosyncratic

Term

Describe learned helplessness

Definition

Learned helplessness, is a mental state in which an organism forced to bear aversive stimuli, or painful or unpleasant stimuli, becomes unable or unwilling to avoid subsequent encounters because it has learned that it cannot control the situation.

One feels fear when one knows what the danger is, and has a reason to think that danger is impending.

One feels anxiety when the source of danger is unclear, or when one has no idea when the danger might actually arrive

Term

Who were the main contributors to operant conditioning and what were their contributions?

Definition

Thorndike and Skinner

The Law of Effect: (Thorndike) all learnt behavior is moderated by their outcome. (behavior with positive outcomes will be repeated and behaviors with negative outcomes avoided)

Skinner developed techniques of operant conditioning, reinforcements and punishments

If behavior is followed by a good result—reinforcement—the behavior becomes more likely. If the behavior is followed by a punishment, it becomes less likely

Term

Describe punishment, who employs it most and why

Definition

Punishment is an aversive consequence that follows an act in order to stop it and prevent its repetition.

Punishment frequently is used by three kinds of people: parents, teachers, and bosses. This may to Start some behaviors Maintain some behaviors Prevent some behaviors

Term

how can punishment be done effectively?

Definition

five principles of effective punishmentare

Availability of Alternatives,

Behavioral and Situational Speciﬁcity,

Timing and Consistency,

Conditioning Secondary Punishing Stimuli

and Avoiding Mixed Messages:

Availability of Alternatives:

alternative response must not be punished and should be rewarded

Behavioral and Situational Speciﬁcity:

Be clear about exactly what behavior you are punishing and the circumstances under which it will and will not be punished. basis of the common parenting advice never to punish a child for being a “bad

Timing and Consistency:

a punishment needs to be applied immediately after the behavior you wish to prevent, every time that behavior occurs. Otherwise may not understand which behavior is forbidden. result will be general inhibition and fearfulness

Conditioning Secondary Punishing Stimuli:

Avoiding Mixed Messages:

Term

What are the dangers of punishment?

Definition

Punishment arouses emotion,

consistency is difficult,

severity is hard to determine,

punishment teaches misuse of power

and punishment motivates concealment

Punishment Arouses Emotion:

punisher may get carried away

These powerful emotions are not conducive to clear thinking. As a result, the punishee is unlikely to “learn a lesson,”

It Is Difficult to Be Consistent:;

state and emotion effects willingness to be punitive

It Is Difficult to Gauge the Severity of Punishment

in both a physical and emotional sense it is hard to gauge

Punishment Teaches Misuse of Power:

Speciﬁcally, it teaches that big, powerful people get to hurt smaller, less-powerful people.

Punishment Motivates Concealment:

The prospective punishee has good reasons to conceal behavior that might be punished

Term

What are the shortcomings of behaviorism?

Definition

Shortcomings of behaviorism

Behaviorism ignores motivation, thought, and cognition.

Classic behaviorism, to a surprisingly large extent, is based on research using animals.

Behaviorism is that it ignores the social dimension of learning.

it treats the organism as essentially passive

Term

What is Dollard’s and Miller’s key take on social learning?

Definition

key idea of their social learning theory is the concept of the habit hierarchy.

The behavior you are most likely to perform at a given moment resides at the top of your habit hierarchy, while your least likely behavior is at the bottom

1 An increase in drive strength will increase the tendency to approach or avoid a goal.

2. Whenever there are two competing responses, the stronger one will win out.

3. The tendency to approach a positive goal increases the closer one gets to the goal.

4. The tendency to avoid a negative goal also increases the closer one gets to that goal.

5. Tendency to avoid is stronger than tendency to approach

Term

What is Rotter’s social learning theory and what does it consist of?

Definition

theory primarily concerns decision making and the role of expectancies focuses on beliefs about reward and punishment. Contains expectancy value theory and locus of control

Term

What are the two kinds of expectancies people hold? What theory are they associated with?

Definition

have two kinds of expectancies: speciﬁc and general.

A speciﬁc expectancy is the belief that a certain behavior, at a certain time and place, will lead to a speciﬁc outcome. High generalized expectancy. Outcomes are directly a function of what they do;

Generalized expectancies. Are general beliefs about whether anything you do is likely to make a difference. low generalized expectancies. believe that they have very little control over what happens to them; they hav

Associated with expectancy value theory which Assumes that behavioral decisions are determined also by beliefs about the likely results of behavior.

An expectancy for a behavior is an individual’s belief, or subjective probability, about how likely it seems that the behavior will attain its goal

Term

What term did Rotter use to refer to generalized expectancy?

Definition

Rotter sometimes referred to generalized expectancy as locus of control.

People with internal locus of control are those with high generalized expectancies

Those with external locus of control have low generalized expectancies

locus of control (and generalized expectancy) can vary across the domains of one’s life

Term

What was the focus of Bandura’s social learning theory?

Definition

efficacy expectations (self-efficacy) and observational learning

efficacy expectations Refer to the belief that one can accomplish something successfully, but also that one’s interpretation of reality matters more than reality itself.

Efﬁcacy is the perceived probability that you can do something in the ﬁrst place.

emphasized that efﬁcacy expectations should be the key target for therapeutic interventions

Term

What is observational learning?

Definition

observational learning is, learning a behavior vicariously, by seeing someone else do it

demonstration of how this process can work with his “Bobo doll” studies Bandura showed that a child who watches an adult hit the doll is likely to later hit the doll as well, especially if the child sees the adult rewarded for the aggressive behavior

Term

Describe reciprocal determinism

Definition

reciprocal determinism, is an analysis of how people shape their environments

3 important aspects: the environment, the social situations and the "self-system"

the environment

Speciﬁc rules and contingencies that immediately reshape your life.

Social situations

Social situations in your life change, because you are there. You control contingencies that, in turn, inﬂuence your behavior.

Self-system

A “self-system” develops that has its own effects on behavior, independent of the environment

Term

What is cognitive-affective personality? Who founded it?

Definition

the most important aspect of the many systems of personality and cognition is their interaction

Personality, , is “a stable system that mediates how the individual selects, construes, and processes social information and generates social behavior

Proposed by Mischel

Consists of person variables that characterize properties and activities of the cognitive system and if…then contingencies

Term

What was Cognitive-affective personality first proposed as and how was it revised?