Contents

In contrast with his former mentor Edmund Husserl, Heidegger (in his Being and Time) put ontology before epistemology and thought that phenomenology would have to be based on an observation and analysis of Dasein ("being-there"), human being, investigating the fundamental ontology of the Lebenswelt (lifeworld, Husserl's term) underlying all so-called regional ontologies of the special sciences. In Heidegger’s philosophy man is thrown into the world in a given situation, but he is also a project towards the future, possibility, freedom, wait, hope, anguish.[2] In contrast with the philosopher Kierkegaard, Heidegger wanted to explore the problem of Dasein existentially (existenzial), rather than existentielly (existenziell) because Heidegger argued Kierkegaard had already described the latter with "penetrating fashion".[citation needed]

^This is evident in the works of Christian Norberg-Schulz, as for example is the case with his book: Genius Loci, Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture (New York: Rizzoli, 1980), or more recently with the numerous papers of Nader El-Bizri such as his paper: 'On Dwelling: Heideggerian Allusions to Architectural Phenomenology', Studia UBB Philosophia Volume 60 (2015): 5–30. This is also felt with the practices of architects in the Phenomenology (architecture) movement

1.
Martin Heidegger
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Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, for Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think cannot be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. Heideggers later work includes criticisms of technologys instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as enframing, treating all of Nature as a reserve on call for human purposes. Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Germany, the son of Johanna, raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being proficient at skiing. In the two following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent. He served as a soldier during the year of World War I, working behind a desk. During the 1930s, critics of Heideggers espousal of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the unheroic nature of his service in WWI, in 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp, Heideggers students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy, the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther and he also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler. In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit, when Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburgs election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers and his students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers Party on 1 May

2.
Edmund Husserl
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Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality, in his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserls thought profoundly influenced the landscape of twentieth-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond. Husserl studied mathematics under Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy under Franz Brentano, following an illness, he died at Freiburg in 1938. Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz, a town in the Margraviate of Moravia, which was then in the Austrian Empire, and he was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His childhood was spent in Proßnitz, where he attended the elementary school, then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olomouc. At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, at Leipzig he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker, in Berlin he found a mentor in Thomas Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia. There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsens philosophy lectures, in 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger. At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung, evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, he asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserls father Adolf had died in 1884, at times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral renewal. Following his PhD in mathematics, he returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass, yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill, Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy, Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. There, under Stumpfs supervision, he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl in 1887, in 1887 he married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923, Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War. Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of law, teaching in the USA. Following his marriage Husserl began his teaching career in philosophy

3.
Being and Time
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Being and Time is a 1927 book by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, in which Heidegger seeks to analyse the concept of Being. This has fundamental importance for philosophy, he thought, because since the time of the Ancient Greeks, philosophy has avoided this question, Heidegger seeks a more fundamental ontology through understanding being itself. He approaches this through seeking understanding of beings to whom the question of being is important, i. e. Dasein, although written quickly, and though Heidegger did not complete the project outlined in the introduction, Being and Time remains his most important work. Being and Time has profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, particularly existentialism, hermeneutics, deconstruction, the book is dedicated to Edmund Husserl in friendship and admiration. According to Heideggers statement in Being and Time, the work was possible by his study of Husserls Logical Investigations. Heidegger never mentions Lukács in his writing, however, and Laurence Paul Hemming, writing in Heidegger and Marx, being and Time was originally intended to consist of two major parts, each part consisting of three divisions. Heidegger was forced to prepare the book for publication when he had completed only the first two divisions of part one, the remaining divisions planned for Being and Time were never published, although in many respects they were addressed in one form or another in Heideggers other works. Heidegger describes his project in the way, our aim in the following treatise is to work out the question of the sense of being. Heidegger claims that ontology has prejudicially overlooked this question, dismissing it as overly general, undefinable. Instead Heidegger proposes to understand being itself, as distinguished from any specific entities, being is not something like a being. Being, Heidegger claims, is what determines beings as beings, Heidegger is seeking to identify the criteria or conditions by which any specific entity can show up at all. If we grasp Being, we will clarify the meaning of being, or sense of being, where by sense Heidegger means that in terms of which something becomes intelligible as something. According to Heidegger, as this sense of being precedes any notions of how or in what any particular being or beings exist, it is pre-conceptual, non-propositional. At the same time, there is no access to being other than via beings themselves—hence pursuing the question of being inevitably means asking about a being with regard to its being, the methodological sense of phenomenological description is interpretation. Thus the question Heidegger asks in the introduction to Being and Time is, Heideggers answer is that it can only be that being for whom the question of Being is important, the being for whom Being matters. As this answer already indicates, the being for whom Being is a question is not a what, Dasein is not man, but is nothing other than man—it is this distinction that enables Heidegger to claim that Being and Time is something other than philosophical anthropology. Heideggers account of Dasein passes through a dissection of the experiences of Angst and mortality, from there he raises the problem of authenticity, that is, the potentiality or otherwise for mortal Dasein to exist fully enough that it might actually understand being. Heidegger is clear throughout the book that makes certain that Dasein is capable of this understanding

4.
Ontology
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Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Although ontology as an enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in information science and technology. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Principal questions of ontology include, What can be said to exist, into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things. What are the meanings of being, what are the various modes of being of entities. Various philosophers have provided different answers to these questions, one common approach involves dividing the extant subjects and predicates into groups called categories. Such an understanding of ontological categories, however, is merely taxonomic, what does it mean for a being to be. Is existence a genus or general class that is divided up by specific differences. Which entities, if any, are fundamental, how do the properties of an object relate to the object itself. What features are the essential, as opposed to merely accidental attributes of a given object, how many levels of existence or ontological levels are there. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an object exists. Can one give an account of what it means to say that an entity exists. What constitutes the identity of an object, when does an object go out of existence, as opposed to merely changing. Do beings exist other than in the modes of objectivity and subjectivity, i. e. is the subject/object split of modern philosophy inevitable. e. Being, that which is, which is the present participle of the verb εἰμί, eimí, i. e. to be, I am, and -λογία, -logia, i. e. logical discourse. The first occurrence in English of ontology as recorded by the OED came in a work by Gideon Harvey, Archelogia philosophica nova, or, New principles of Philosophy

5.
Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer

6.
Kierkegaard
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Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher. He wrote critical texts on organized religion, Christendom, morality, ethics, psychology, much of his work deals with Christian love. He was extremely critical of the practice of Christianity as a state religion and his psychological work explored the emotions and feelings of individuals when faced with life choices. Kierkegaards early work was written under pseudonyms that he used to present distinctive viewpoints. He explored particularly complex problems from different viewpoints, each under a different pseudonym and he wrote many Upbuilding Discourses under his own name and dedicated them to the single individual who might want to discover the meaning of his works. Notably, he wrote, Science and scholarship want to teach that becoming objective is the way, Christianity teaches that the way is to become subjective, to become a subject. While scientists can learn about the world by observation, Kierkegaard emphatically denied that observation could reveal the workings of the world of the spirit. By the mid-20th century, his thought exerted an influence on philosophy, theology. Kierkegaard was born to an affluent family in Copenhagen and his mother, Ane Sørensdatter Lund Kierkegaard, had served as a maid in the household before marrying his father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard. His father was a stern man, to all appearances dry and prosaic. He read the philosophy of Christian Wolff, Kierkegaard preferred the comedies of Ludvig Holberg, the writings of Georg Johann Hamann, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Edward Young and Plato, especially those referring to Socrates. Copenhagen in the 1830s and 1840s had crooked streets where carriages rarely went and our Ladys Church was at one end of the city, where Bishop Mynster preached the Gospel. At the other end was the Royal Theatre where Fru Heiberg performed and he is said to have believed that his personal sins, perhaps indiscretions such as cursing the name of God in his youth or impregnating Ane out of wedlock, necessitated this punishment. Though five of his seven children died before he did, both Kierkegaard and his brother Peter Christian Kierkegaard outlived him, Peter, who was seven years Kierkegaards elder, later became bishop in Aalborg. Julia Watkin thought Michaels early interest in the Moravian Church could have led him to a sense of the devastating effects of sin. Kierkegaard came to hope that no one would retain their sins even though they have been forgiven, and by the same token that no one who truly believed in the forgiveness of sin would live their own life as an objection against the existence of forgiveness. He made the point that Cato committed suicide before Caesar had a chance to forgive him and this fear of not finding forgiveness is devastating. Edna H. Hong quoted Kierkegaard in her 1984 book, Forgiveness is a Work As Well As a Grace, in 1954, Samuel Barber set to music Kierkegaards prayer, Father in Heaven

7.
Hannah Arendt
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Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden, the daughter of Martha and Paul Arendt. She grew up in Königsberg and Berlin, at the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Arendts family was assimilated and she later remembered, With us from Germany. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it, Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering antisemitism as an adult. Arendt later wrote about Varnhagen that she was my very closest woman friend, during the philosophy course taught by Heidegger, she fell in love with her married professor, and a relationship began. In 1929, when Heidegger failed to recognize her at a station, Arendt was devastated, writing, When I was a small child. I had read the tale about Dwarf Nose, whose nose gets so long nobody recognizes him anymore. My mother pretended that had happened to me, I still vividly recall the blind terror with which I kept crying, but I am your child, I am your Hannah. —That is what it was like today. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, the dissertation was published in 1929. In 1932, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings, Heidegger wrote back to her and in his letter did not seek to deny the rumors, and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. Arendt was prevented from habilitating because she was Jewish and she researched antisemitism for some time before being arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1933. While in France, she worked to support and aid Jewish refugees, in 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship. In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, like many others, Arendt was able to leave Gurs after a few weeks, and left France in 1941 with her husband and her mother, traveling via Portugal to the United States. They relied on visas illegally issued by the American diplomat Hiram Bingham, varian Fry, another American humanitarian, paid for their travel and helped obtain the visas. Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community, from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, during World War II, Arendt worked for Youth Aliyah, a Zionist organization, which saved thousands of children from the Holocaust and settled them in the British Mandate of Palestine

8.
Karl Jaspers
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Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and he was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept this label. Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a farming community. He showed an early interest in philosophy, but his fathers experience with the legal system undoubtedly influenced his decision to study law at University of Heidelberg. It soon became clear that Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, in 1910 he married Gertrud Mayer, the sister of his close friends Gustav Mayer and Ernst Mayer. Jaspers became dissatisfied with the way the community of the time approached the study of mental illness. In 1913 Jaspers habilitated at the faculty of the Heidelberg University. The post later became a permanent philosophical one, and Jaspers never returned to clinical practice, during this time Jaspers was a close friend of the Weber family. In 1921, at the age of 38, Jaspers turned from psychology to philosophy and he became a philosopher, in Germany and Europe. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Jaspers was considered to have a Jewish taint due to his Jewish wife, in 1938 he fell under a publication ban as well. Many of his long-time friends stood by him, however, and he was able to continue his studies, but he and his wife were under constant threat of removal to a concentration camp until 30 March 1945, when Heidelberg was liberated by American troops. In 1948 Jaspers moved to the University of Basel in Switzerland and he remained prominent in the philosophical community and became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland living in Basel until his death on his wifes 90th birthday in 1969. Jaspers dissatisfaction with the understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry. He published a paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. Although it did not broach new ideas, this introduced a rather unusual method of study. Not unlike Freud, Jaspers studied patients in detail, giving information about the patients as well as notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms. This has become known as the method and now forms a mainstay of psychiatric. Jaspers set down his views on mental illness in a book which he published in 1913 and this work has become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas found within it

9.
Emmanuel Levinas
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Emmanuel Levinas was a French philosopher of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry who is known for his work related to Jewish philosophy, existentialism, ethics, and ontology. Emmanuelis Levinas was born in 1906 into a middle-class Litvak family in Kaunas, because of the disruptions of World War I, the family moved to Charkow in Ukraine in 1916, where they stayed during the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917. In 1920 his family returned to Lithuania, Levinass early education was in secular, Russian-language schools in Kaunas and Charkow. Upon his familys return to Lithuania, Levinas spent two years at a Jewish gymnasium before departing for France, where he commenced his university education. Levinas began his studies at the University of Strasbourg in 1924. In 1928, he went to the University of Freiburg for two semesters to study phenomenology under Edmund Husserl, at Freiburg he also met Martin Heidegger. In 1929 he was awarded his doctorate by the University of Strasbourg for his thesis on the meaning of intuition in the philosophy of Husserl, Levinas became a naturalized French citizen in 1931. When France declared war on Germany, he was ordered to report for military duty, during the German invasion of France in 1940, his military unit was quickly surrounded and forced to surrender. Levinas spent the rest of World War II as a prisoner of war in a camp near Hannover in Germany, Levinas was assigned to a special barrack for Jewish prisoners, who were forbidden any form of religious worship. Life in the camp was as difficult as might be expected, with Levinas often forced to chop wood, Other prisoners saw him frequently jotting in a notebook. These jottings were later developed into his book De lExistence à lExistent and his wartime notebooks have now been published in their original form as Œuvres, Tome 1, Carnets de captivité, suivi de Écrits sur la captivité, et, Notes philosophiques diverses. Meanwhile, Maurice Blanchot helped Levinass wife and daughter spend the war in a monastery, Blanchot, at considerable personal risk, also saw to it that Levinas was able to keep in contact with his immediate family through letters and other messages. Other members of Levinass family were not so fortunate, his mother-in-law was deported and never heard again, while his father. After the Second World War, he studied the Talmud under the enigmatic Monsieur Chouchani, Levinass first book-length essay, Totality and Infinity, was written as his Doctorat dÉtat primary thesis. His secondary thesis was titled Études sur la phénoménologie, after earning his habilitation, Levinas taught at a private Jewish High School in Paris, the École normale Israélite orientale, eventually becoming its director. He began teaching at the University of Poitiers in 1961, at the Nanterre campus of the University of Paris in 1967 and he was also a Professor at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland. In 1989 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Philosophy, according to his obituary in The New York Times, Levinas came to regret his enthusiasm for Heidegger, because of the latters affinity for the Nazis. During a lecture on forgiveness, Levinas stated, One can forgive many Germans and it is difficult to forgive Heidegger

10.
Gabriel Marcel
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Gabriel Honoré Marcel was a French philosopher, playwright, music critic and leading Christian existentialist. The author of over a dozen books and at least thirty plays, though often regarded as the first French existentialist, he dissociated himself from figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, preferring the term Philosophy of Existence to define his own thought. The Mystery of Being is a well-known two-volume work authored by Marcel, Marcel was born in and died in Paris. His mother Laure Meyer died when he was young and he was brought up by his aunt and father, when he was eight he moved to Stockholm for a year where his father was Minister Plenipotentiary. Marcel completed his DES thesis and obtained the agrégation in philosophy from the Sorbonne in 1910, during the First World War he worked as head of the Information Service, organised by the Red Cross to convey news of injured soldiers to their families. He taught in schools, was a drama critic for various literary journals, and worked as an editor for Plon. Marcel was the son of an agnostic, and was himself an atheist until his conversion to Catholicism in 1929, Marcel was opposed to anti-Semitism and supported reaching out to non-Catholics. He is often classified as one of the earliest existentialists, although he dreaded being placed in the category as Jean-Paul Sartre. Roger Moirans, the character of the play, is a politician. He has set himself up as the champion of traditional monarchy and has just achieved a success in the city council where he has attacked the secularism of public schools. It is natural enough that he should be opposed to the divorce of his daughter Therese, in this instance he proves himself virtually heartless, all his tenderness goes out to his second daughter, Clarisse, whom he takes to be spiritually very much like himself. But now Clarisse tells him that she has decided to take the veil, Clarisse is deeply shocked, her father now appears to her as an impostor, virtually as a deliberate fraud. In this case, Moirans is unable to either of his daughters as a subject. Marcel notes that such objectification does no less than denude its object of the one thing which he has which is of value, another related major thread in Marcel was the struggle to protect ones subjectivity from annihilation by modern materialism and a technologically-driven society. Marcel argued that scientific egoism replaces the mystery of being with a scenario of human life composed of technical problems. For Marcel, the subject cannot exist in the technological world. Marcel was puzzled and disappointed that his reputation was almost entirely based on his treatises and not on his plays. His major books are the Metaphysical Journal, Being and Having, Homo Viator, Mystery of Being and he gave the William James Lectures at Harvard in 1961–62, which were subsequently published as The Existential Background of Human Dignity

11.
Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre

12.
Simone de Beauvoir
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Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach

13.
Frantz Fanon
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In the course of his work as a physician and psychiatrist, Fanon supported the Algerian War of Independence from France, and was a member of the Algerian National Liberation Front. He wrote numerous books, including, most notably, The Wretched of the Earth and this focuses on the necessary role Fanon thinks violence must play in decolonization struggles. Frantz Fanon was born on the Caribbean island of Martinique, which was then a French colony and is now a French département and his father, Félix Casimir Fanon, was a descendant of enslaved Africans and indentured Indians and worked as a customs agent. His mother, Eléanore Médélice, was of black Martinician and white Alsatian descent, Fanon was the youngest of four sons in a family of eight children, two of whom died in childhood. They could afford the fees for the Lycée Schoelcher, then the most prestigious school in Martinique. After France fell to the Nazis in 1940, Vichy French naval troops were blockaded on Martinique, forced to remain on the island, French sailors took over the government from the Martiniquan people and established a collaborationist Vichy regime. In the face of economic distress and isolation under the blockade, they instituted a regime, Fanon described them as taking off their masks. Residents made many complaints of harassment and sexual misconduct by the sailors, the abuse of the Martiniquan people by the French Navy influenced Fanon, reinforcing his feelings of alienation and his disgust with colonial racism. At the age of seventeen, Fanon fled the island as a dissident and he enlisted in the Free French army and joined an Allied convoy that reached Casablanca. He was later transferred to a base at Béjaïa on the Kabylie coast of Algeria. Fanon left Algeria from Oran and served in France, notably in the battles of Alsace, in 1944 he was wounded at Colmar and received the Croix de guerre. When the Nazis were defeated and Allied forces crossed the Rhine into Germany along with photo journalists, Fanon and his fellow Afro-Caribbean soldiers were sent to Toulon. Later, they were transferred to Normandy to await repatriation, during the war, Fanon was exposed to severe European anti-black racism. For example, white women liberated by black soldiers often preferred to dance with fascist Italian prisoners, in 1945, Fanon returned to Martinique. He lasted a time there. He worked for the campaign of his friend and mentor Aimé Césaire. Césaire ran on the communist ticket as a delegate from Martinique to the first National Assembly of the Fourth Republic. Fanon stayed long enough to complete his baccalaureate and then went to France, Fanon was educated in Lyon, where he also studied literature, drama and philosophy, sometimes attending Merleau-Pontys lectures

14.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
–
Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art and he was on the editorial board of Les Temps modernes, the leftist magazine established by Jean-Paul Sartre in 1945. At the core of Merleau-Pontys philosophy is an argument for the foundational role perception plays in understanding the world as well as engaging with the world. Like the other major phenomenologists, Merleau-Ponty expressed his philosophical insights in writings on art, literature, linguistics and he was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the twentieth century to engage extensively with the sciences and especially with descriptive psychology. Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born in 1908 in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Charente-Maritime, France and his father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was five years old. He attended Edmund Husserls Paris Lectures in February 1929, in 1929, Merleau-Ponty received his DES degree from the University of Paris, on the basis of the thesis La Notion de multiple intelligible chez Plotin, directed by Émile Bréhier. He passed the agrégation in philosophy in 1930, an article published in French newspaper Le Monde in October 2014 makes the case of recent discoveries about Merleau-Pontys likely authorship of the novel Nord. Convergent sources from close friends seem to leave little doubt that Jacques Heller was a pseudonym of the 20-year-old Merleau-Ponty, Merleau-Ponty taught first at the Lycée de Beauvais and then got a fellowship to do research from the Caisse nationale de la recherche scientifique. From 1934–1935 he taught at the Lycée de Chartres, after teaching at the University of Lyon from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on child psychology and education at the Sorbonne from 1949 to 1952. He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France from 1952 until his death in 1961, besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also political editor for Les Temps modernes from the founding of the journal in October 1945 until December 1952. In his youth he had read Karl Marxs writings and Sartre even claimed that Merleau-Ponty converted him to Marxism and their friendship ended over a quarrel as he became disillusioned about communism, while Sartre still endorsed it. Merleau-Ponty died suddenly of a stroke in 1961 at age 53 and he is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. In his Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian cogito and this distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially. Consciousness, the world, and the body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined. The phenomenal thing is not the object of the natural sciences. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the worlds things, the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in an ongoing becoming. The thing transcends our view, but is manifest precisely by presenting itself to a range of possible views, the object of perception is immanently tied to its background—to the nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world. Because the object is inextricably within the world of meaningful relations, each object is a mirror of all others

15.
The Philosophical Brothel
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Les Demoiselles dAvignon is a large oil painting created in 1907 by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The work portrays five nude female prostitutes from a brothel on Carrer dAvinyó in Barcelona, each figure is depicted in a disconcerting confrontational manner and none are conventionally feminine. The women appear as menacing and rendered with angular and disjointed body shapes. Three figures on the left exhibit facial features in the Iberian style of Picassos native Spain, the racial primitivism evoked in these masks, according to Picasso, moved him to liberate an utterly original artistic style of compelling, even savage force. In this adaptation of Primitivism and abandonment of perspective in favor of a flat, two-dimensional picture plane and this proto-Cubist work is widely considered to be seminal in the early development of both Cubism and Modern art. Les Demoiselles was revolutionary and controversial, and led to anger and disagreement, even amongst the painters closest associates. Matisse considered the work something of a bad joke, yet indirectly reacted to it in his 1908 Bathers with a Turtle, Braque too initially disliked the painting, yet perhaps more than anyone else, studied the work in great detail. And effectively, his subsequent friendship and collaboration with Picasso led to the Cubist revolution and its resemblance to Cézannes Les Grandes Baigneuses, Paul Gauguins statue Oviri and El Grecos Opening of the Fifth Seal has been widely discussed by later critics. A photograph of the Les Demoiselles was first published in an article by Gelett Burgess entitled The Wild Men of Paris, Matisse, Picasso and Les Fauves, The Architectural Record, at the time of its first exhibition in 1916, the painting was deemed immoral. The work, painted in the studio of Picasso at Le Bateau-Lavoir, was seen publicly for the first time at the Salon d’Antin in July 1916, an exhibition organized by the poet André Salmon. Picasso, who had referred to it as mon bordel, or Le Bordel dAvignon, never liked Salmons title. Picasso came into his own as an important artist during the first decade of the 20th century and he arrived in Paris from Spain around the turn of the century as a young, ambitious painter out to make a name for himself. Although he eventually left most of his friends, relatives and contacts in Spain, he continued to live, for several years he alternated between living and working in Barcelona, Madrid and the Spanish countryside, and made frequent trips to Paris. By 1904, he was settled in Paris and had established several studios. Between 1901 and 1904, Picasso began to achieve recognition for his Blue period paintings, in the main these were studies of poverty and desperation based on scenes he had seen in Spain and Paris at the turn of the century. Subjects included gaunt families, blind figures, and personal encounters, other paintings depicted his friends and he followed his success by developing into his Rose period from 1904 to 1907, which introduced a strong element of sensuality and sexuality into his work. Picasso became a favorite of the American art collectors Gertrude Stein, the Steins older brother Michael and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted portraits of both Gertrude Stein and her nephew Allan Stein, Gertrude Stein began acquiring Picassos drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informal Salon at her home in Paris

16.
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon
–
Les Demoiselles dAvignon is a large oil painting created in 1907 by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The work portrays five nude female prostitutes from a brothel on Carrer dAvinyó in Barcelona, each figure is depicted in a disconcerting confrontational manner and none are conventionally feminine. The women appear as menacing and rendered with angular and disjointed body shapes. Three figures on the left exhibit facial features in the Iberian style of Picassos native Spain, the racial primitivism evoked in these masks, according to Picasso, moved him to liberate an utterly original artistic style of compelling, even savage force. In this adaptation of Primitivism and abandonment of perspective in favor of a flat, two-dimensional picture plane and this proto-Cubist work is widely considered to be seminal in the early development of both Cubism and Modern art. Les Demoiselles was revolutionary and controversial, and led to anger and disagreement, even amongst the painters closest associates. Matisse considered the work something of a bad joke, yet indirectly reacted to it in his 1908 Bathers with a Turtle, Braque too initially disliked the painting, yet perhaps more than anyone else, studied the work in great detail. And effectively, his subsequent friendship and collaboration with Picasso led to the Cubist revolution and its resemblance to Cézannes Les Grandes Baigneuses, Paul Gauguins statue Oviri and El Grecos Opening of the Fifth Seal has been widely discussed by later critics. A photograph of the Les Demoiselles was first published in an article by Gelett Burgess entitled The Wild Men of Paris, Matisse, Picasso and Les Fauves, The Architectural Record, at the time of its first exhibition in 1916, the painting was deemed immoral. The work, painted in the studio of Picasso at Le Bateau-Lavoir, was seen publicly for the first time at the Salon d’Antin in July 1916, an exhibition organized by the poet André Salmon. Picasso, who had referred to it as mon bordel, or Le Bordel dAvignon, never liked Salmons title. Picasso came into his own as an important artist during the first decade of the 20th century and he arrived in Paris from Spain around the turn of the century as a young, ambitious painter out to make a name for himself. Although he eventually left most of his friends, relatives and contacts in Spain, he continued to live, for several years he alternated between living and working in Barcelona, Madrid and the Spanish countryside, and made frequent trips to Paris. By 1904, he was settled in Paris and had established several studios. Between 1901 and 1904, Picasso began to achieve recognition for his Blue period paintings, in the main these were studies of poverty and desperation based on scenes he had seen in Spain and Paris at the turn of the century. Subjects included gaunt families, blind figures, and personal encounters, other paintings depicted his friends and he followed his success by developing into his Rose period from 1904 to 1907, which introduced a strong element of sensuality and sexuality into his work. Picasso became a favorite of the American art collectors Gertrude Stein, the Steins older brother Michael and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted portraits of both Gertrude Stein and her nephew Allan Stein, Gertrude Stein began acquiring Picassos drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informal Salon at her home in Paris

17.
Architectural theory
–
Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture. Architectural theory is taught in most architecture schools and is practiced by the leading architects. Some forms that architecture theory takes are the lecture or dialogue, the treatise or book, Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. It has existed in form since antiquity, and as publishing became more common. Books, magazines, and journals published a number of works by architects. As a result, styles and movements formed and dissolved much more quickly than the relatively enduring modes in earlier history and it is to be expected that the use of the internet will further the discourse on architecture in the 21st century. There is little information or evidence about major architectural theory in antiquity, until the 1st century BCE and this does not mean, however, that such works did not exist. Vitruvius was a Roman writer, architect, and engineer active in the 1st century BCE, probably written between 27 and 23 BCE, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived. Divided into ten sections or books, it covers almost every aspect of Roman architecture, from town planning, materials, decorations, temples, water supplies and it rigorously defines the classical orders of architecture. The rediscovery of Vitruvius work had a influence on architects of the Renaissance, adding archaeological underpinnings to the rise of the Renaissance style. Renaissance architects, such as Niccoli, Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti, throughout the Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was passed by transcription, word of mouth and technically in master builders lodges. Due to the nature of transcription, few examples of architectural theory were penned in this time period. Most works from this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the bible, the Abbot Sugers Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis, was an architectural document that emerged with gothic architecture. Another was Villard de Honnecourts portfolio of drawings from about the 1230s, in Song Dynasty China, Li Jie published the Yingzao Fashi in 1103, which was an architectural treatise that codified elements of Chinese architecture. From Alberti, good architecture is validated through the Vitruvian triad and this triplet conserved all its validity until the 19th century. The Age of the Enlightenment witnessed considerable development in architectural theory on the European continent, New archeological discoveries drove new interest in Classical art and architecture. These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture, towards the end of the century, there occurred a blossoming of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskins ideals underpinned the emergence of the Arts and Crafts movement exemplified by the writings of William Morris and this in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession

18.
Existentialism
–
While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness

19.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom

Martin Heidegger
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Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century.

Edmund Husserl
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Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality, in his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction.

1.
Husserl c. 1910s

2.
Edmund Husserl c. 1900

3.
The Kiepenheuer Institute for Solar Physics in Freiburg, Husserl's home 1916 -1937

4.
Husserl's gravestone at Freiburg Günterstal

Being and Time
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Being and Time is a 1927 book by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, in which Heidegger seeks to analyse the concept of Being. This has fundamental importance for philosophy, he thought, because since the time of the Ancient Greeks, philosophy has avoided this question, Heidegger seeks a more fundamental ontology through understanding being it

1.
The German edition

Ontology
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Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence or reality as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Although ontology as an enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in information science and technology. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that a

1.
Parmenides was among the first to propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of reality.

Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously person

1.
Plato – Kant – Nietzsche

Kierkegaard
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Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher. He wrote critical texts on organized religion, Christendom, morality, ethics, psychology, much of his work deals with Christian love. He was extremely critical of the practice of

2.
When Michael (Mikael) Kierkegaard died on 9 August 1838 Søren had lost both his parents and all his brothers and sisters except for Peter who later became Bishop of Aalborg in the Danish State Lutheran Church.

3.
Regine Olsen, a muse for Kierkegaard's writings

4.
Friedrich Engels-1840

Hannah Arendt
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Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular fa

1.
Hannah Arendt from a 1988 German stamp among the Women in German history series

Karl Jaspers
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Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and he was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept this label. Jaspe

1.
Karl Jaspers in 1946

2.
Karl Jaspers: Allgemeine Psychopathologie, first print 1913.

Emmanuel Levinas
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Emmanuel Levinas was a French philosopher of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry who is known for his work related to Jewish philosophy, existentialism, ethics, and ontology. Emmanuelis Levinas was born in 1906 into a middle-class Litvak family in Kaunas, because of the disruptions of World War I, the family moved to Charkow in Ukraine in 1916, where they s

1.
Emmanuel Levinas

Gabriel Marcel
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Gabriel Honoré Marcel was a French philosopher, playwright, music critic and leading Christian existentialist. The author of over a dozen books and at least thirty plays, though often regarded as the first French existentialist, he dissociated himself from figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, preferring the term Philosophy of Existence to define his o

1.
Gabriel Marcel

Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence t

1.
Sartre in 1950

2.
French journalists visit General George C. Marshall at his office in the Pentagon building, 1945

Simone de Beauvoir
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Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, auto

1.
De Beauvoir in 1968

2.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the Balzac Memorial

3.
Dunes cottage where Algren and de Beauvoir summered in Miller Beach, Indiana

Frantz Fanon
–
In the course of his work as a physician and psychiatrist, Fanon supported the Algerian War of Independence from France, and was a member of the Algerian National Liberation Front. He wrote numerous books, including, most notably, The Wretched of the Earth and this focuses on the necessary role Fanon thinks violence must play in decolonization stru

1.
Frantz Fanon

Maurice Merleau-Ponty
–
Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art and he was on the editorial board of Les Temps modernes, the leftist magazine established by Jean-Paul Sartre in 1945. At t

1.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty

2.
Merleau-Ponty's grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, where he was buried with his mother Louise and his wife Suzanne

3.
René Descartes

4.
Ferdinand de Saussure

The Philosophical Brothel
–
Les Demoiselles dAvignon is a large oil painting created in 1907 by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The work portrays five nude female prostitutes from a brothel on Carrer dAvinyó in Barcelona, each figure is depicted in a disconcerting confrontational manner and none are conventionally feminine. The women appear as menacing and rendered with ang

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon
–
Les Demoiselles dAvignon is a large oil painting created in 1907 by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. The work portrays five nude female prostitutes from a brothel on Carrer dAvinyó in Barcelona, each figure is depicted in a disconcerting confrontational manner and none are conventionally feminine. The women appear as menacing and rendered with ang

Architectural theory
–
Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture. Architectural theory is taught in most architecture schools and is practiced by the leading architects. Some forms that architecture theory takes are the lecture or dialogue, the treatise or book, Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to st

1.
Architectural discourse from the illustrated French Dictionary of Architecture (1856) by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc

Existentialism
–
While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have

1.
From left to right, top to bottom: Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, Nietzsche, Sartre

2.
French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir

3.
French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, and playwright Albert Camus

Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to