Consumer topics

Consideration

Consideration is the price that is asked by the promisor in exchange for their promise – the price for a promise. In many jurisdictions consideration is not an essential element of a contract – it is sufficient that parties have reached a binding agreement. However, the common law requires that, for an agreement to be binding, the promisee (or promisees) must provide consideration (payment of some kind) for the promise they have received. Thus, gratuitous promises are generally not enforceable, subject to the limited exceptions discussed below.

The requirement and nature of consideration

Price stipulated for the promise

As noted above, consideration is the price stipulated by the promisor for the promise made. Price, in this sense, is used in a broad sense; it need not be monetary or even of monetary value; while it requires some 'detriment' on behalf of the promisee, this detriment can take the form of giving up a freedom otherwise enjoyed (such as promising to stop smoking or to study every Saturday night) and the promisor need not receive any tangible benefit. In Carlill, for example the Court said that it would be sufficient if Mrs Carlill suffered the detriment from using the smoke ball as directed even if the Carbolic Smoke Ball Co received no benefit (this was obiter as the Court did concluded that the company did in fact receive a benefit).

It follows from this that consideration must move from the promisee but need move to the promisor. For example, if promisor (A) asks promisee (B) to pay (C) a sum of money as consideration for A's promise to B, that will be good consideration. However, if promisor (A) asks (C) to provide a payment as consideration for A's promise to B, that will not constitute good consideration (there is no detriment to B in such as case). In the case of joint promisees, it is sufficient if consideration moves from one of the parties.

Can be anything stipulated by Promisor

It is for the promisor to stipulate the consideration for his/her promise (directly or indirectly), not for the promisee to proffer something and call it consideration - however, as indicated above, provided the consideration stipulated it legal, it can take virtually any form and, importantly, need not be of comparable value to the promise for which it is provided.

The most famous case regarding the nature of consideration is Chappell v Nestle in which Lord Somervell of Harrow expressed the view that a 'peppercorn' could constitute valuable consideration (if stipulated by the promisor) even if the promisor was not fond of peppers and would discard the corn (note, however, that adequacy of consideration may be relevant in other respects; in particular, it may be evidence of duress or unconscionable conduct which may render the contract voidable. Other key cases discussing consideration include:

Carlill in which the inconvenience associated with using the smoke ball was held to constitute consideration.

Dunton v Dunton in which giving up a freedom constituted good consideration

Wigan v Edwards in which giving up a legal right was held to be good consideration.

Need not be not adequate as long as it is not illusory

As mentioned above, consideration can be anything stipulated by the promisor provided it is not illegal. The consideration must, however, have 'value' in the eyes of the law - that is to say, it must exist. Consequently, an illusionary undertaking cannot be good consideration.

Past consideration is not good consideration

The consideration must come into existence either with or after the promise. Where the stipulated consideration pre-dates the promise, it will not be considered good consideration (eg, a promise by A to transfer ownership of a car to B in exchange for assistance B provided to A the previous month). This was discussed in, Roscola v Thomas where the promise was not binding because the only “consideration” provided for a promise about the soundness of a horse was entering into the original contract - this had occurred before the promise was made.

Exception - past consideration can be good consideration if (a) provided at the request of the promisor (b) the parties understood that the act would be remunerated and (c) had the promise occurred in advance of the act it would have been enforceable.

Performing existing duty not good consideration

Where the promisee is already contractually bound to the promisor, the general rule is that performance of an existing contractual obligation will not be good consideration unless some additional benefit is conferred. However, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether an additional benefit is conferred; in particular, a benefit may exist if performance of the existing duty avoids problems that are associated with non-performance!

The position is different where the promisee contractually bound to a 3rd party to perform the obligation. In a case where the promisee’s contractual duty is owed to a third party, performing (or promising to perform) that duty is good consideration for the promisor’s promise.

Where a duty is imposed by law to perform a certain task mere performance of that task is not good consideration. This seeks to prevent corruption - public officials extorting money from the public for performing tasks they are already required to perform. However, if the promisor does more than merely perform an existing duty this will be good consideration.

Part payment of a debt - the rule in Pinnel's case

As a general rule part payment of a debt is not good consideration for the creditor’s promise to forgo the balance. In paying part of the debt the promisee is doing no more than performing an existing contractual duty owed to the promisor.

This rule, that payment of a lesser sum on the day cannot be satisfaction for the whole – known as the rule in Pinnels case – was finally established by Foakes v Beer.

There are, however, exceptions; part payment will be good consideration where

(a) Earlier payment is made

Receiving the lesser sum earlier is good consideration.

(b) Payment is made with something else

The additional factor provides consideration. This is one of the sources of criticism of the general rule: payment of $999 out of $1,000 will not be good consideration for a promise to forgo the $1 balance. However, payment of $10 plus book worth $5 will be good consideration (provided stipulated by the promisor) for the promise to forgo the balance of $990)

(c) Where it arises from a composition Agreements

Where a debtor agrees with all his creditors and they agree to accept a dividend, payment will discharge the debtor from further liability to the creditors. This is to prevent fraud between the other debtors.

(d) Where payment is made by a third party

This exception is explained on the basis that it would be a fraud on the 3rd party to allow the creditor’s claim

(e) Where the claim is unqualified

Rule does not apply to unliquidated or disputed claims.

Executed v Executory consideration

Consideration is sometimes classified into 'executed' and 'executory' consideration; either is sufficient. Executed consideration takes the form of performing an act rather than a promise of performance. Executory consideration consists of a promise to do something. Most contracts take the form of executory consideration; thus they comprise of initial promises (eg, promise to buy and sell, even if payment and exchange of property occurs almost immediately).

Consideration v condition

The act requested by the promisor will only be consideration if it was regarded as the price to be paid for the promise. The test is the attitude of the reasonable person. If the act is regarded as a condition then it is something that must be performed before entitlement to the promise arises, but performance (absent separate consideration) does not allow the promisee to enforce the promise.

Exceptions to the requirement of consideration

There are two exceptions to the need for consideration

(a) promises under seal (deeds)

(b) where the doctrine of promissory estoppel operates (this is not strictly speaking an exception; the doctrine is designed to enforce promises in limited circumstances where it would be inequitable not to do so - but it is not a true substitute for consideration. See further below.

Promissory Estoppel

Promissory estoppel is equitable in nature (often called ‘equitable estoppel’) and operates when it would be inequitable for the promisor not to be held to the promise – the modern doctrine developed with the judgment of Denning LJ in.