Titan

LOCKHEED-MARTIN

The Titan family was established in October 1955 when the U.S. Air Force
awarded the then, Martin Company, a contract to build a heavy-duty space
system. It became known as the Titan I, the nation's first two-stage
intercontinental ballistic missile and first underground silo-based ICBM.

The Titan launch vehicle is based on the Titan 2 intercontinental ballistic
missile, which entered service in the early 1960's, as was retired from service in
mid-1987. Thirteen of these ICBM's are being converted into space launch
vehicles, and more of the remaining 43 ICBM's may also be converted. The
Titan 3B, which is no longer operational, is similar to the Titan 2, with the
addition of a small upper stage. There are also a variety of Titan space launch
vehicles that use a liquid propellant core vehicle, based on the Titan 2, with the
addition of strap-on solid rocket motors.

The Titan family of expendable launch vehicles gained a new lease on life in the
wake of the Challenger accident. Previous plans which called for the termination
of launch activity by the early 1988 were revised, and the Titan continued in
operation through the middle of the next decade. The Titan 4 is a new version
of the Titan with a longer liquid propellant tanks in the first stage, and with
larger solid motors.

History

The first significant Air Force step toward creation of a space launching system
suitable for future military requirements occurred on 6 November 1959 with
publication of a plan for a "Military Booster Development Program." The plan
offered a projection of a theoretical launch vehicle system designated, for the
sake of identification, as "Phoenix." This effort was followed, on 4 January 1960,
by another study entitled, "Air Force Space Systems Program," which carried the
Phoenix idea several steps forward by defining potential space systems of
primary interest and projecting the precise techniques and performance
capabilities needed to make these systems possible. The basic thesis of the
Phoenix effort was to devise a space launching system of wide versatility and
low cost. Development of segmented solid motors for first stage application and
continued development of liquid engines for upper stages was the crux of the
Phoenix study.(1)

By mid-July 1961 the Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group, headed by Dr.
N.E. Golovin of NASA, and including representatives from NASA, DoD and the
Air Force was assigned the responsibility for developing a detailed projection of
the total national space program. One of the most popular approaches to emerge
was that "building blocks" might be used in suitable combinations to perform a
wide variety of missions. Applying this concept to the Titan II resulted in
definition of a basic "core" to which component building blocks could be added to
create a high performance vehicle. In November 1961 the Golovin Committee
recommended development of the Titan III for carrying out post-1963 launches
for the Defense Department.(2)

The Titan III launch vehicle was the result of an effort by military planners to
increase low orbit payload weight to 25,000 pounds, establish a high degree of
standardization, and provide significantly greater economies of operation, using a
vehicle assembled from standard building blocks and possessing high reliability
and mission flexibility. The choice for the core was Titan II, most powerful
American ICBM. The concept grew to include a new pressure fed third stage
topped by a control module and a standard payload fairing. This basic "core, "
designated Titan IIIA, would be capable of lofting significant payload
weights-5,800 pounds into a low (100 nautical mile) circular orbit or 3,600
pounds into a 1,000 nautical mile circular orbit. The technically unique element
of the system was the addition of solid propellant motors to vastly augment an
otherwise nominal payload capacity.(3)

The Titan III designation was initially used in mid-1959 for a two stage
160-inch diameter non-cryogenic missile (with a Centaur third stage) as a
successor to Titan II with a capability of fulfilling the Saturn space mission.(4)
Initially there was no specific role for Titan III, apart from the X-20 Dyna Soar.
The Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) became a candidate in December 1963.(5)

Titan III was based on a design concept which called for full exploitation of
existing technology. The first stage of the core was a modified Titan II stage
with simplified propulsion and electrical systems. The Aerojet-General LR-87
first stage engine differed from the Titan II engine in having an altitude start
capability and insulation around the engine compartment to protect against heat
radiated by the solid motors. Like the first stage, the second stage was
essentially a variation on Titan II design, with a reinforced structure and more reliable propulsion.(6)

Motors of Titan III size and thrust had never been manufactured and tested.
The design for each motor was fixed at five interchangeable 121 inch diameter
segments plus forward and aft closures. At the end of World War II solid
propellant rockets, while used in some minor weapons applications, were still in
their development infancy. But during the 1950's solid propellant technology
accumulated gains in metallurgy, chemistry and high temperature materials. By
1957 large solid rocket motors up to 60 inches in diameter, containing as much
as 25,000 pounds of propellant, had been assembled and successfully fired.
Contracts were awarded for an advanced "second generation" intercontinental
ballistic missile, the Minuteman. The Navy was developing the Polaris solid
propellant intermediate range missile at about the same time. Validity of the
concept was demonstrated on 1 September 1959 when the first large size solid
propellant, flight weight motor, over 24 feet long and over five feet in diameter,
weighing over 50,000 pounds, was successfully fired. Despite the engineering
effort involved in the development of Minuteman, the "breakthrough" idea of
segmented motors held the potential to create motors of massive size. A
segmented solid motor was made of huge single-castings (grains) stacked on top
of each other, with the ends knocked out and in a single casing made by bolting
together the several segment walls. In March 1959 Wright Air Development
Center's Solid Rocket Branch (Power Plant Laboratory) at Edwards Air Force
Base invited industry to bid on demonstrating a segmented solid motor, with a
contract awarded on 5 August 1960. Aerojet demonstrated the first such rocket
motor on 3 June 1961 -- a 100 inch diameter single center segment motor which
delivered 450,000 pounds of thrust for 45 seconds. On 29 August a two segment
motor delivered 460,000 pounds of thrust and operated for 67 seconds. These
were the highest thrust performances so far recorded for any solid propellant
motor. United Technology Corporation continued privately funded development
and testing of a single-segment, 256,000 pound thrust motor and a two-segment,
482,000 pound thrust motor. The segmented solid motor concept, new high
performance solid propellants, and lightweight materials promised large gains in
space vehicle performance. Technical evolution merged with military necessity to
create the combined solid-liquid propulsion techniques utilized in the Titan III
launch vehicle.(7)

Like the Delta and Atlas, the Titan has a long history of modification and
change that led to its current configuration. The Titan launch vehicle was
developed under the management of the Air Force Systems Command, Space
Division. The program objective was to design a launch system to cover a
comprehensive spectrum of future missions without the inherent problems of a
tailored launch vehicle. The solution, achieved through optimizing existing
technology, was a set of building blocks that could be combined to produce a
variety of useful launch vehicle configurations.

The basic element in Titan vehicles is the two-stage liquid rocket core (Stages 1
and 2). Additional thrust during the boost phase can be provided by two solid
rocket motors (SRM) attached to the core (Stage 0). Various upper stages (Stage
3 and up) allow for mission and flight plan flexibility to meet specific payload
requirements.

Titan I - Martin Marietta Astronautics Group has actively engaged in missile
and space programs since 1955. The first program was the Titan I
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), a two-stage missile developed and
deployed as a weapon system. Development began in 1955 and the first launch
occurred in February 1959. The last launch was in March 1965.

Titan II was Martin Marietta's second ICBM program. Development began in
1960 with the first launch in March 1962 and the last launch in June 1976.
Titan II was the first strategic missile that used storable hyperbolic propellants
and an inertial guidance system. This weapon system was deployed in 1962 with
deactivation completed in 1987.

Titan/Gemini The Titan II ICBM was converted into the Titan/Gemini space
launch vehicle (SLV) by man-rating critical systems. It served as a significant
stepping stone in the evolution of the US manned spaceflight program using
expendable launch vehicles, culminating in the Apollo program. Twelve
successful Gemini launches occurred between April 1964 and November 1966.

Titan II SLV After the Titan II weapon system was deactivated by the US
government and the Air Force contracted with Martin Marietta to refurbish and
modify the Titan II to serve as an SLV for use with single DOD payloads
launched from the Western Space and Missile Center WSMC. The program goal
was to make maximum use of Titan II weapon system resources and cause
minimum modifications to the launch site, while incurring minimum costs and
maintaining a high level of mission success.

Titan IIIA was a two-stage liquid-propellant vehicle that employed two
solid-propellant motors to augment the thrust capability of the basic vehicle
during lift-off. When a vehicle is launched without the solid-propellant motor,
using only the two liquid stages, it is known as a core-only vehicle. Development
of a third generation Titan began in 1961 when the need for a larger payload
capability became evident. Titan IIIA flew four development missions, then was
integrated into the IIIC configuration.

Titan IIIB used radio guidance with a 5-ft diameter Agena upper stage and
payload fairing (PLF), the Ascent Agena upper stage with strapdown guidance
and a 10-ft PLF, and a stretched core with the same two upper stages and PLFs
for low-Earth orbits (LEO) from WSMC. The last launch of the Titan IIIB
core-only vehicle from the Western Space and Missile Center in the mid-1970s.

Titan IIIC/Transtage, with other various upper stages, achieved greater mission
and flight plan flexibility. It flew from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Some
flights involved four to eight payloads that were integrated from as many as
three different payload sources.

Titan IIID, launched from the Western Space and Missile Center, was similar to
the Titan IIIC. Since it did not use an upper stage, its avionics were transferred
to stage I and 11.

Titan IIIE was adapted for interplanetary non-DOD use at Eastern Space and
Missile Center (ESMC), included a Centaur D-lT upper stage with a 14-ft
diameter PLF. Similar to the Titan IIID, the biggest difference was the inertial
guidance system's replacement of the radio guidance, packaged in the Centaur
D-IT upper stage. It successfully boosted two Viking spacecraft to Mars; two
Voyagers to Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus; and two HELIOS spacecraft to explore
inside Mercury's orbit. The last launch of the Titan IIIE took place at the
Eastern Space and Missile Center in 1977.

Titan IIIM was designed to launch the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) from
the Western Space and Missile Center. Although President Johnson canceled the
MOL program, the design for the IIIM was the forerunner of the fourth
generation Titan, the Titan 34 series.

Titan 34B had an improved guidance system, increased structural capability to
support heavier payloads, a stretched core, and a larger payload fairing system
that allowed more space for larger payloads.

Titan 34D was developed to provide the Air Force with an orderly transition
from expendable launch vehicles to the Space Shuttle and to provide backup to
the Shuttle. Titan 34D used the Inertial Upper Stage in its first launch in 1982,
from the Eastern Space and Missile Center. Since the Titan 34D used larger
solid propellant motors than the Titan IIID, it had a payload capability that
makes it the largest launch vehicle in both size and capability. It weighs
689,300 kilograms at lift-off and generated 12,998 kilonewtons of thrust. (Space
Transportation System). The Titan 34D series stretched-core configurations was
the most advanced of the Titan family. The Titan 34D used the stretched core of
the Titan 34B with 5-1/2 segment SRMs, and has been integrated with several
launch vehicle upper stage, PLF, and guidance configurations. The 34D has
since evolved into the Titan IV, which provided greater DOD lifting capability.

Commercial Titan III launch vehicle was an upgraded version of the Titan 34D.
The enhanced performance upgrades included using the liquid fuel engines used
on the Titan IV; stretching Stage 2 17 in.; and incorporating the dual payload
carrier. The Commercial Titan was deployed for single and dual payload
missions to LEO.

Commercial Titan III-Transtage was a three-stage vehicle using the Transtage,
which was developed for the US Air Force space missions. Stages 0, I, and II
are identical to those on the Commercial Titan except that the Stage II forward
skirt is stretched to accommodate the Transtage propellant tanks and engines,
and the avionics system and attitude control system (ACS) are removed from
Stage II and placed in Transtage. The Transtage ensures engine restart in a
zero-gravity environment. The Commercial Titan m-Transtage was deployed for
single and dual payload missions to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).

Current Capabilities

Titan 2

Martin Marietta is refurbishing and modifying decommissioned Titan 2 ICBMs
for use as space launch vehicles. The company was awarded a contract in
January of 1986 -- that runs through September 1995 -- to refurbish fourteen
vehicles. Tasks involved in converting the Titan Il ICBMs into space launch
vehicles include modifying the forward structure of the second stage to
accommodate a 10-foot-diameter payload fairing with variable lengths;
manufacturing the new fairing plus payload adapters; refurbishing the Titan's
liquid rocket engines; upgrading the inertial guidance system; developing
command, destruct and telemetry systems; modifying Vandenberg Air Force Base
Launch Complex-4 West to conduct the launches; and performing payload
integration.

Deactivation of the Titan II ICBM system began in July 1982 and was
completed in June 1987. Deactivated missiles are in storage at Norton Air Force
Base in San Bernardino, California. Martin Marietta is responsible for
transporting the Titan 11 ICBMs from California to its facilities near Denver,
Colorado, for refurbishment.

The Titan 11 space launch vehicle consists of two stages, a payload adapter, and
a payload fairing. Designed to provide a low-to-medium-weight launch capability
into low-polar orbit, it will be able to lift about 4,800 pounds into a 100 nautical
mile circular orbit. The Air Force successfully launched the first Titan 2 space
launch vehicle from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, on 5 September
1988.

The Titan IV is the newest and largest unmanned space booster used by the Air
Force. The Titan IV is a heavy lift rocket booster that will assure continued
access to space for the nation's highest priority space systems, such as Defense
Support Program and Milstar satellites. It is complementary to the Space
Transportation System in payload volume and performance, and capable of
supporting launches at both WSMC and ESMC.

The Titan IV system evolved from the basic family of Titan systems, namely the
Titan IIIB, C, D, E, and 34D, which have contributed to national space
objectives for more than 25 years. The Titan IV, a derivative of the versatile
Titan III family, is similar to the Titan 34D. Both the first and second stages
have been stretched, and an additional one and a half segments have been
added to each of the strap-on solid rocket motors. The 16.7-foot-wide payload
fairing will enclose both the satellite and upper stage.

The Titan IV consists of a liquid propellant core of two stages with a pair of
large solid rocket motors (SRM) attached to the core to provide the initial stage
of boost from liftoff. Stage 0 currently consists of two solid-rocket motors which
provide 1.5 million pounds (675,000 kilograms) per motor at liftoff. The Titan
IV'S first stage consists of an LR-87 liquid-propellant rocket that features
structurally independent tanks for its fuel (Aerozine 50) and oxidizer (Nitrogen
Tetroxide). This minimizes the hazard of the two mixing if a leak should develop
in either tank. Additionally, the engines' propellant can be stored in a
launch-ready state for extended periods. The use of propellants stored at normal
temperature and pressure eliminates delays and gives the Titan IV the
capability to meet critical launch windows. The Stage 1 LR-87 engines have an
average of 548,000 pounds (246,600 kilograms). Stage 2 uses the LR-91
liquid-propellant engine with an average of 105,000 pounds (47,250 kilograms).

While a variety of upper stages may be compatible with the booster, the two
upper stages baselined for use on the Titan IV are the Boeing Aerospace Inertial
Upper Stage (IUS) and the (formerly General Dynamics) Centaur Titan/Centaur-G.

Titan 401 with the Centaur-G upper stage is launched from Cape
Canaveral Pad 40. Payload fairings can range in length from 66 to
86 feet. When configured with the Centaur, a single stage liquid
propellant restartable upper stage, which provides 33,100 pounds
(14,895 kilograms) of thrust, the Titan IV/Centaur is capable of
placing a 10,000-pound payload into Geosynchronous Earth Orbit
(GEO).

Titan 402 with the IUS upper stage which is launched from Cape
Canaveral can put 38,784 pounds into an 80 X 95 nm low Earth
orbit at a 28.5 degree inclination. The Titan IV/IUS configuration,
which provides up to 41,500 pounds (18,675 kilograms) of thrust, is
capable of placing a 2,360 kilograms (5,250 pounds) payload into
GEO.

Titan 403 is a Titan 4 with no upper stage (NUS) launched from
Vandenberg AFB. It has a 66-foot payload fairing and is be able to
put 32,160 Ib. into a 100-nm circular orbit from Vandenberg. When
configured without an upper stage (NUS), the Titan IV/NUS can
place a 17,550 kilograms (39,000 pounds) into a 144 kilometers (90
miles) orbit when launched from Cape Canaveral; The 403
configuration launched from the West Coast is the same as the 405
version launched from Cape Canaveral.

Titan 404 is a Vandenberg configuration with no upper stage. The
payload fairing size and orbital parameters are secret. Payload
capacity is 29,800 pounds.

Titan 405 is a Titan 4 with no upper stage (NUS) launched from
Vandenberg AFB. It has a 66-foot payload fairing and is be able to
put 32,160 Ib. into a 100-nm circular orbit and up to 13,950
kilograms (31,000 pounds) 160 kilometers polar orbit when launched
from Vandenberg. The 403 configuration launched from the West
Coast is the same as the 405 version launched from Cape
Canaveral.

Overall length is up to 204 feet (61.2 meters), with a maximum takeoff weight
of approximately 1,900,000 pounds (2,855,000 kilograms).

Development of the Titan IV program was in direct response to a National
Security Decision Directive. The initial contract for development, qualification,
and production of 10 Titan IVs with Centaur upper stages was awarded in
February 1985. This contract included the activation and operation of a single
Titan IV/Centaur launch facility at Cape Canaveral AFB, FL (CCAFS).

As a result of the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger accident, the
Department of Defense (DOD) embarked on a recovery plan which included the
acquisition of 13 additional Titan IV boosters, activation and operation of an
existing Titan launch pad at Vandenberg AFB, CA (VAFB), the design and
development of a new Titan/Centaur launch pad at VAFB and Space
Transportation System (STS)/Titan IV dual compatibility for some AF satellites
launched from CCAFS. The resulting 23-vehicle Titan IV program was placed on
contract in December 1987, and was-structured to account for the impacts of the
April 1986 Titan 34D accident and the June 1986 NASA/Centaur cancellation.

Progress made by the core contractor allowed delivery of the first core to CCAFS
ahead of schedule. However, delays in deliveries of the payload fairing and solid
rocket motors caused a delay in delivery of the final vehicle components from
February to April 1988.

The delay in the Titan IV/NUS WTR ILC at VAFB to December 1990 was
caused by the requirement for additional electrical modifications to the Mobile
Service Tower (MST) and the need to complete ground systems tests. The Titan
IV/NUS WTR ILC was subsequently achieved two months early in October 1990.

The initial Centaur ILC structural test (July 1989) was completed in November
1989. Additional Centaur tests were completed in April 1991. The delayed
launch of the first Titan IV caused a slip in the T-IV/Centaur ILC due to
derived scheduling conflicts. A further slip occurred from August 1991 to
November 1991 due to a launch delay of Titan IV-6. The delay impacted facility
modifications necessary for Centaur. An additional slip from August 1991 to
November 1991 due to Centaur separation ring redesign and test in preparation
for the ILC and a May 1991 Atlas Centaur flight failure (AC-70). A further slip
from November 1991 to February 1992 resulted from additional inspections for
contaminations resulting from the Commercial Atlas/Centaur (AC-70) failure
investigation. The next slip from February 1992 to December 1992 was due
to an acceptance test failure of the Digital Computer Unit. The next slip from
December 1992 to June 1993 was due to assessment of the August 1992 AC-71
failure and user direction.

DOD later embarked on an increased capacity plan which included the
modification of an additional launch pad at CCAFS, the acquisition of 18
additional Titan IV boosters and associated facility and plant enhancements. The
current 41-vehicle program was definitized in December 1989.

The first Titan IV was successfully launched in June 1989 from CCAFS. Two
successful launches were conducted during 1990. Two additional successful
launches were conducted during 1991 (including the first VAFB launch), and one
during 1992.

A Titan IV vehicle launched from VAFB on 2 August 1993 experienced a failure.
The subsequent investigation indicated that a burn through on one of the SRMs
caused the failure. Corrective actions were implemented to allow launch
operations to resume in February 1994.

Titan IV/Centaur ILC was successfully achieved during September 1993. This
date had slipped from February 1993 to June 1993 due to implementation of
the AC-71 failure fixes. The August 1992 AC-71 duplicated the April 1991 AC-70 failure, even though the cause had been thought corrected. In both cases the C-1 engine turbopump failed to rotate and allow the engine to bootstrap, though in both cases both engines ignited properly. Titan/Centaur successfully launched the first Milstar satellite from CCAFS on 7 February
1994.

SRMU Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade

The Hercules Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade, a new light-weight graphite-epoxy
solid rocket motor, will add 25 percent additional carrying capability, boosting
Titan IV's lift capacity to LEO from 40,000 pounds to 48,000 pounds. Originally
planned to be operational by 1990, the first SRMU-equipped Titan, the K-24
vehicle, is scheduled for Fiscal 1997.

Titan 402 with the IUS upper stage with SRMU is launched from
Cape Canaveral can put 50,000 pounds into an 80 X 95 nm low
Earth orbit at a 28.5 degree inclination.

Titan 403 is a Titan 4 with no upper stage (NUS) launched from
Vandenberg AFB. It has a 66-foot payload fairing. With the new
Hercules booster, the payload mass goes to 41,400 Ib. into a 100-nm
circular orbit from Vandenberg. The 403 configuration launched
from the West Coast is the same as the 405 version launched from
Cape Canaveral.

Titan 404 is a Vandenberg configuration with no upper stage. The
payload fairing size and orbital parameters are secret. Payload
capacity with SRMU is 36,700 Ib.

Titan 405 is a Titan 4 with no upper stage (NUS) launched from
Vandenberg AFB. It has a 66-foot payload fairing. With the new
Hercules booster, the payload mass goes to 41,400 Ib. into a 100-nm
circular orbit from Vandenberg. The 403 configuration launched
from the West Coast is the same as the 405 version launched from
Cape Canaveral.

The development of a new Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade (SRMU), planned for
completion in 1997, will provide increased reliability, producibility, and
performance, giving the Titan IV 25 percent more carrying capability. The
Centaur structural limit is 11.5 K-lbs. Payload to GEO for Titan IV
Centaur/SRMU could be increased with structural modifications to the Centaur.
No current direction or funding exists to modify the Centaur for increased
capability. Demonstrated performance is based on test and analysis data for
yet-to-be launched vehicle configurations (SRMU).(10)

A crane accident in September 1990 at Edwards AFB damaged the test stand,
delaying the PQM-1 test until April 1991, and delayed the SRMU ILC to May
1992. On 1 April 1991, an explosion occurred during the static firing test of the
SRMU Preliminary Qualification Motor No. 1 (PQM-1). This test accident
caused significant damage to the test facility and required a modification of the
SRMU propellant grain configuration.(11)

After extensive analysis, it was determined that the failure resulted from a
design flaw in the solid propellant grain, causing a critical failure where the
solid rocket motor segments are joined. After extensive modelling, the grain was
redesigned and the problem corrected. A critical design review was completed in
February 1992 and a retest of the first motor was scheduled for April 1992 on
the rebuilt test stand.(12)

The SRMU static firing (PQM-1') slipped from February 1991 to April 1992
because of the SRMU PQM-1 test explosion. The PQM-1 test failure also delayed
the SRMU ILC from May 1992 to August 1993. The SRMU static firing
(PQM-1') slipped from April 1992 to May 1992 due to production schedule delays
for the test "aft skirt" which is the attachment between the SRMU and the test
stand. The SRMU static firing (PQM-1') further slipped from May to June 1992
due to weather conditions (i.e. winds) at the test site. PQM-1' was successfully
tested on 12 June 1992, and was followed by four additional successful
qualification motor firings through September 1993. The fifth and final SRMU
qualification test was conducted in September 1993. SRMU casting began in
November 1993, and the first SRMU flightset was delivered during March 1994.
The SRMU ILC was delayed from August 1993 to July 1994 due to further
delays in the qualification test program. Hercules subcontractor experienced
unexpected problems during the R&D phase of the SRMU Program such as the
determination of higher than expected vibration environments. SRMU ILC has
been delayed from July 1994 to July 1996 due to delays in the development of
the Flight Termination System (FTS).(13)

Hercules Corp., the developer of the SRMU, filed a lawsuit against Martin
Marietta Corp., the prime contractor for the Titan IV. The suit sought $450
million in damages from Martin Marietta for breach of Martin's obligation to
cooperate and not interfere with Hercules' performance of its subcontract.
Further, Hercules contended it should be excused from performance of its
subcontract and that it should be compensated for Martin's failure to
consummate a follow-on buy with the Air Force for 10 ship-sets. Martin
Marietta filed a counter suit for $100 million for failure to perform.(14)

TITAN RETURNS TO FLIGHT - A Titan IVB launches from Cape Canaveral Air Station on Friday, April 9, 1999.

12. Adapted from: Testimony by Lt. Gen. John E. Jaquish, principal deputy, assistant
secretary of the Air Force (acquisition) and Maj. Gen. Donald G. Hard, director of space
programs, assistant secretary of the Air Force (acquisition) to the House Committee on
Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, in Washington, DC, 6 May 1992.

14. Adapted from: Testimony by Lt. Gen. John E. Jaquish, principal deputy, assistant
secretary of the Air Force (acquisition) and Maj. Gen. Donald G. Hard, director of space
programs, assistant secretary of the Air Force (acquisition) to the House Committee on
Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, in Washington, DC, 6 May 1992.