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Introduction

Kami—arabianEye/Redux

Collectively, the many kinds of electrical and electronic communications are called telecommunications. The term first appeared in France in the early 1900s. Telecommunications technologies include both wired and wireless services, among them the telegraph (now obsolete), telephone, radio, television, and the Internet. Some are used as mass media, enabling organizations or individuals to tailor content for many people. Others provide direct, point-to-point communications. The differences between “mass” and “direct” telecommunications are slowly disappearing in an age of convergence created by widespread and growing use of digital technologies. (See alsoTelegraph; Telephone.)

Telecommunications systems transmit information using wire or cable links or by radio. Wire transmission involves sending analog or digital signals over lines such as simple copper wires, coaxial cables, or fiber-optic cables. Modern links can transmit voice signals and computer-processed data and—if there is sufficient bandwidth or carrying capacity—video signals. With fiber-optic cables, electrical signals are converted to light pulses by a laser-driven transmitter to carry digital signals (which may be sound, data, or images) over bundles of tiny, high-quality glass filaments.

Radio systems transmit electronic signals through the air, using relatively narrow spectrum frequency bands. These transmissions may include voice or data, radio navigation, radar, amateur and commercial broadcasting (including AM, FM, and TV signals for general public reception), and other signals. Satellite telecommunication allows exchange of data, sound, or visual signals between widely separated locations by utilizing microwave links. Microwaves are very short radio waves with wavelengths from 4 inches to 0.4 inch (10 centimeters to 1 centimeter), which correspond to spectrum frequencies from 3 to 30 gigahertz (GHz), or 3 to 30 billion cycles per second. Satellite systems do not require construction of intermediate relay or repeater stations, as do ground-based microwave systems. By the early 21st century, most telecommunications traffic consisted of digital data.

In sophisticated computer networks, dedicated computers—those programmed to carry out one or a limited number of functions—are used for switching messages. They allow signals from one computer to be transmitted to many others simultaneously. Such systems also allow data to be stored within the network for forwarding at a later time. Many large businesses and other organizations depend upon such systems. Microwave links, satellite communications, and fiber optics carry such data transfers.

Digital signals generally require higher rates of transmission and broadband or high-capacity links. Changes in a data transmission system often require costly upgrades to expand capacity as well as redesigned equipment, in contrast to the former analog telephone system in which new phone units could be added relatively inexpensively.

Development

Telecommunication has developed through three fundamental technical transformations. The first was the development of the electric telegraph in Britain and the United States in the 1830s and ’40s. For the first time, news and information could be transmitted over great distances faster than a person could travel—indeed, almost instantaneously. By the 1860s, most American telegraph service was provided by Western Union, which offered domestic service and (after 1866) international communication via undersea cables. Telegraph messages, transmitted in Morse code signals, were widely used by governments, businesses, and militaries well into the 20th century. Development of the telephone beginning in 1876 allowed individuals to speak directly to others using wired communication. Over several decades, telephone service provided by the Bell System and a host of small independent carriers expanded and the use of telegraph declined.

The second transformation came with wireless or radio. The first experimental wireless transmitters appeared in the 1890s. Wireless technology provided communication links—for example, between ships and land—that had never been possible before. No longer was telecommunication limited to physical (wire) links between points. Regular point-to-point radio service to ships and among countries began in the early 1900s. Thanks to the development of the vacuum tube, AM radio broadcasting began in the early 1920s, joined by FM radio in 1941. Regular television broadcasting commenced in the 1940s.

The third transformation of telecommunications began with development of electronic computers in both Britain and the United States in the early 1940s, followed by integrated circuits and digital technology after 1960. By the 1970s, telephone network traffic had greatly increased as huge masses of data were exchanged among government and corporate computers tied together into global networks. The first personal computers appeared in the late 1970s. At the same time, military and government personnel as well as academic researchers were beginning to communicate online, using a crude e-mail system over a slowly expanding network of telecommunication lines that connected increasingly capable computers. By the early 1980s, these links included communication satellites and broadband fiber-optic cables. In the mid-1990s, commercial use of the Internet began to rapidly expand and, over the course of the next decade, countless businesses and individual households became part of the interconnected network. Meanwhile, mobile communications became the growth driver in telecommunications as millions of people took up the use of portable phones. (See alsoComputer; Satellite.)

Mobile telephone service, available in limited form in cars by the 1950s, began to expand in the 1980s, though at first the “portable” telephones were the size—and nearly the weight—of bricks. With the inception of digital mobile service in the 1990s, availability and use of mobile phones dramatically increased. Telephones could be easily carried in one’s pocket and, as their capabilities improved, offered users many other services (such as cameras). By the early 21st century, sending text messages was almost as popular as voice connections, and many people could connect with the Internet while on the go. All of these services required use of spectrum frequencies to make connections and switch from one user to another.

Organization

Given the central importance of telecommunication to every aspect of modern life, services have been closely regulated (and in many cases operated) by governments around the world. Until the 1980s, the global telecommunications system had a relatively simple administrative structure. Most U.S. telephone service was supplied by a government-regulated but commercially operated monopoly, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). In virtually all other countries, telephone service was supplied by government agencies known as PTTs (for Post, Telephone, and Telegraph).

Starting in 1984, the situation in the United States became far more complex. As a result of an antitrust suit by the federal government, AT&T agreed in a court settlement to divest its local operating companies that provided about 75 percent of the country’s basic telephone service. These remained local monopolies, grouped into seven regional companies and regulated by the 50 states. AT&T provided research, equipment manufacturing, and long-distance service in competition with a handful of other firms. Within a dozen years, however, thanks to fast-changing technology that increased the number of available competitive options, this neat division of the U.S. telecommunications industry broke down as other firms crowded into different parts of the business.

Introduction of more competition into what had long been highly integrated telecommunications networks proved controversial. Supporters praised competition as a way of liberating the field from monopolistic practices that kept customer rates high, but critics pointed out the potential inefficiencies of competition and the loss of nationwide technical standards. Under the Bell System, system-wide improvements and long-term planning (as well as easier regulation) were possible. With the breakup of AT&T, this unity was lost, replaced by multiple companies jockeying for customers.

At about the same time, Britain’s national telephone system, long run by the Post Office, was sold to private investors, as was Japan’s telephone monopoly, Nippon Telegraph & Telephone (NTT). Slowly, other countries with government-operated systems followed suit. Many multinational companies formed and operated their own telecommunications services. Private companies, such as Comsat in the United States, were organized to provide satellite communications links in cooperation with Intelsat, an international organization (privatized in 2001) that furnished global satellite telecommunications networks. As satellite design and launch costs dropped, many other firms began to compete. Mobile services began to exceed the use of traditional wire telephones, something epitomized by the gradual disappearance of pay telephone booths in many public areas.

Regulation

Only in 1934, with passage of the Communications Act by the U.S. Congress, was the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) formed to license and regulate (in “the public interest, convenience, and necessity”) private wire and wireless carriers, including telephone and broadcast services. The FCC licenses all users of electromagnetic spectrum except federal government agencies.

After years of debate, Congress in early 1996 amended the 1934 law with the landmark Telecommunications Act. The new legislation scrapped many rules limiting competition in telephone and broadcasting services and relaxed restrictions on media ownership, among other things. Marketplace competition was to replace government supervision wherever possible. New provisions allowed long-distance telephone companies to compete in local phone markets then largely controlled by the so-called “baby Bells,” the companies created in the 1984 court-ordered breakup of AT&T’s monopoly. In return, the Bells would be able to offer long-distance service to their customers.

In the following years, the needs of mobile telecommunications began to dominate policy making, as mobile providers sought sufficient spectrum frequencies so that their users could access audio and video services via the Internet. Preparations were made for older services, such as analog broadcast television, to be converted to digital transmission so that spectrum could be reallocated to burgeoning mobile-user demand.

By the early 21st century, the Internet had become such a widely used means of conducting business, government, and personal activity that it increasingly became the subject of policy deliberations. As more users sought broadband interconnections to enable shifting audio and video files, Internet service providers (ISPs) came under pressure to limit network access and transmission speeds so as to help keep communications moving. Users sought access to services based on their own needs and did not relish restrictions placed on them by ISPs. The Internet was generally unregulated and most wanted to keep it that way, but whether the government could or should guarantee such “network neutrality” was a topic of considerable debate in policy circles.

Telecommunications has played a central part in the world trend toward globalization. In 1997 the United States spearheaded an agreement among nearly 70 member states of the World Trade Organization (WTO) that was designed to open telecommunication markets to free competition. It was believed that the agreement would save the countries involved more than $1 trillion by 2010. Critics, however, questioned whether the WTO, which relied primarily on the goodwill of member states and the threat of economic penalties against non-cooperating members, held enough authority to mediate effectively in the event of serious international disputes.

Christopher H. Sterling

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