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Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

Love and death are among the principal themes of pastoral poetry, which deals with an imaginary ideal of country life. The pressures and corruption of the city never enter pastoral literature. Instead, it tells of shepherds and shepherdesses who are always handsome, beautiful, and never get dirty and live in a green countryside where they tend obedient flocks of healthy sheep. The classical poets Theocritus and Virgil used the pastoral convention with striking success and vitality, as did the English poets Edmund Spenser, Robert Herrick, John Milton, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Matthew Arnold.

The Bucolics by Sicilian-born Greek poet Theocritus were written in the 3rd century bc and are the first pastoral poems. In his poems, called idylls, he introduced pastoral themes and traditions such as singing contests between shepherds, and he presents himself, his friends, and his rivals, thinly disguised as rustic folk. His Thyrsis is a lament for the shepherd Daphnis, who dies of unrequited love. The Roman poet Virgil set his poems in Arcadia, which became the symbol of a pastoral paradise. He used the device of indirectly mentioning contemporary political and personal problems in his imaginary countryside. Virgil’s Eclogues were a powerful influence on Renaissance poets such as Dante and Petrarch in Italy, Pierre de Ronsard in France, and Garcilaso de la Vega in Spain. In the 16th and 17th centuries pastoral dramas by Italian poets Torquato Tasso and Battista Guarini appeared, as did pastoral romance novels by Miguel de Cervantes and others.

In English poetry, Spenser’s Shepheardes Calendar (1579) imitated not only classical models but also Renaissance poets of France and Italy. Spenser’s work created a fashion for the pastoral. Sir Philip Sidney, Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Christopher Marlowe, Michael Drayton, Thomas Dekker, John Donne, Sir Walter Raleigh, Thomas Heywood, Thomas Campion, William Browne, William Drummond, and Phineas Fletcher all wrote pastoral poetry. William Shakespeare’s As You Like It was a pastoral play. The pastoral poems of Robert Herrick and Andrew Marvell were notable for their unique blend of freshness and imitation. John Milton created valuable poetry in Lycidas (1637), but other 17th-century pastoral poets were stiff and formal.

The pastoral mode was revived in the 18th century in France. There René Rapin created “ancient” pastoral poetry—simple scenes with shepherds who were figures of simple virtue. By contrast, the “modern” pastoral, which derived from Bernard de Fontenelle, presented the innocence (but not the miseries) of modern peasants. In England, John Gay created lively pastoral burlesques and ironically subtitled his famous play The Beggar’s Opera “A Newgate Pastoral”—Newgate was a notorious London prison.

Later poets reacted against the artificialities and utopian ideals of the pastoral idiom. Robert Burns, George Crabbe, William Wordsworth, Thomas Hardy, and others brought reality, sometimes bitterness, into rustic scenes. Only the pastoral elegy survived, in poems such as Shelley’s Adonais and Arnold’s Thyrsis. Some more modern poets have returned to the pastoral mode, usually for a special purpose—often ironic, as in the eclogues of Louis MacNeice, or obscure, as when W.H. Auden called his long poem The Age of Anxiety “a baroque eclogue.”

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